af-wikipedia-org-9512	----	Horatius - Wikipedia Horatius in Wikipedia, die vrye ensiklopedie Jump to navigation Jump to search Horatius Horatuis, deur Anton von Werner Gebore Quintus Horatius Flaccus 8 Desember 65 v.C. Venusia, Italië, Romeinse Republiek Sterf 27 November 8 v.C. (op 56) Rome, Romeinse Republiek Nasionaliteit Romeinse Republiek Beroep soldaat, scriba quaestorius, digter Bekend vir Ode, Satire, Ars Poetica Quintus Horatius Flaccus (8 Desember 65 v.C. — 27 November 8 v.C.) was 'n Romeinse digter in die era van keiser Augustus. Lewe[wysig | wysig bron] Horatius is gebore in Venusia, 'n klein dorpie tussen Apulia en Lucania. Horatius was die seun van 'n vrygestelde slaaf. Sy pa het 'n plaas gehad in Venusia, maar het later verhuis na Rome waar hy 'n middelman was by 'n afslaer. Horatius se vader het baie geld op Horatius se opvoeding gespandeer waar Horatius in Rome sowel as Athene gestudeer het. Nadat Julius Caesar vermoor is, het Horatius by die Romeinse legioene aangesluit onder die generaalskap van Brutus. Hy het by die slag van Philippi geveg en nadat Augustus 'n amnestie uitgereik het, het Horatius na Rome teruggekeer. Horatius word as een van die grootste Romeinse digters beskou. Werke en opsteldatums[wysig | wysig bron] Sermonum liber primus of Satirae I (35 v.C.) Epodes (30 v.C.) Sermonum liber secundus of Satirae II (30 v.C.) Carminum liber primus of die Odes I (30 v.C.) Carminum liber secundus of die Odes II (23 v.C.) Carminum liber tertius of die Odes III (23 v.C.) Epistularum liber primus (20 v.C.) Ars Poetica, of die Episte van die Pisone (18 v.C.) Carmen Saeculare of die lied van die eue (17 v.C.) Epistularum liber secundus (14 v.C.) Carminum liber quartus of die Odes IV (13 v.C.) Normdata BIBSYS: 90055203 BNC: 000035928 BNE: XX891549 BNF: cb11886570b (data) CANTIC: a10101214 CiNii: DA00782980 GND: 118553569 ISNI: 0000 0001 2145 2178 LCCN: n79081354 LNB: 000000375 MusicBrainz: af616f1f-6242-4802-a1bf-8d3f0647083c NDL: 00540086 NKC: jn20000603003 NLA: 35206138 NLG: 62641 NLI: 000064806 NLK: KAC199612791 NLP: A11793144 NSK: 000013522 NTA: 068304579 RERO: 02-A000081296 RSL: 000083136 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\000246 SELIBR: 189659 SNAC: w6pk0m9c SUDOC: 026659166 Trove: 864697 ULAN: 500404135 VIAF: 100227522 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79081354 Ontsluit van "https://af.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horatius&oldid=1784954" Kategorieë: Geboortes in 65 v.C. Mense in die 1ste eeu v.C. Romeinse digters Sterftes in 8 v.C. 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Die teks is beskikbaar onder die lisensie Creative Commons Erkenning-Insgelyks Deel. Aanvullende voorwaardes kan moontlik ook van toepassing wees. Sien die Algemene Voorwaardes vir meer inligting. Privaatheidsbeleid Inligting oor Wikipedia Vrywaring Selfoonweergawe Ontwikkelaars Statistieke Koekieverklaring 
aleph-nkp-cz-1770	----	AUT - Full View of Record   Databases of the National Library CR Base:  AUT   Logout | Login | Databases | Preferences | Feedback | Help Search / Browse | Results list | Previous searches | My e-Shelf | History |     Add to Basket  |  Save / Mail   AUT - Full View of Record Choose format:   Standard  --  MARC Record 1 out of 1 Control no. jn20000603003 Heading Horatius, Quintus Flaccus, 65 př. Kr.-8 př. Kr. Seen from Horace, 65 př. Kr.-8 př. Kr. Horacius, 65 př. Kr.-8 př. Kr. Orazio, 65 př. Kr.-8 př. Kr. Horatius Flaccus, Quintus, 65 př. Kr.-8 př. Kr. Kwintus Horacjusz Flakkus, 65 př. Kr.-8 př. Kr. Biogr./Hist. data Římský básník, autor satirické i reflexivní a filozofující lyriky. Source MZK(OPAC) - forma jména NKC Všeobecná encyklopedie Diderot 3. - biografická poznámka Ódy a epódy Jeho: Dzieła wszystkie - odkaz viz More info Wikipedie (Quintus Horatius Flaccus)  Permalink http://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000059701&local_base=AUT System no. 000059701 More info: © 2014 Ex Libris, NL CR 
aleph-rsl-ru-1656	----	Инд. авторы - Search Results Directory of names of persons End Session | Preferences | Databases | Feedback | Help Browse | Search | Results List | Previous Searches | Basket |       Selected records:     |     |     |     |     |      Whole set:     |     |     |     |    Results for System Number= 000083136; sorted by : Heading Discending Sort options : Heading Asc Heading Disc Records 1 - 1 of 1       # Heading PublicNote 1 Гораций Флакк, Квинт (65-8 до н. э.)   © 2002 Ex Libris 
am-wikipedia-org-6397	----	ውክፔዲያ - ሆራቲዩስ ሆራቲዩስ ከውክፔዲያ Jump to navigation Jump to search Horace (ሮማይስጥ፦ Quintus Horatius Flaccus //) ከ65 ዓክልበ. እስከ 8 ዓክልበ. ድረስ የኖረ የጥንቱ ሮሜ ባለቅኔና ደራሲ ነበር። በ"Wikimedia Commons" (የጋራ ፎቶዎች ምንጭ) ስለ Quintus Horatius Flaccus የሚገኛኙ ተጨማሪ ፋይሎች አሉ። ከ «https://am.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ሆራቲዩስ&oldid=342254» የተወሰደ መደቦች: ጸሓፊዎች የሮሜ ሰዎች Navigation menu የኔ መሣርያዎች አልገቡም ውይይት ለዚሁ ቁ. አድራሻ Contributions የብዕር ስም ለማውጣት ለመግባት ክፍለ-ዊኪዎች መጣጥፍ ውይይት Variants ዕይታዎች ለማንበብ አርም ማዘጋጀት ታሪኩን አሳይ More ፍለጋ የማውጫ ቁልፎች ዋና ገጽ የተመደበ ማውጫ በቅርብ ጊዜ የተለወጡ ማናቸውንም ለማየት እርዳታ ምንጭጌ ወቅታዊ ጉዳዮች (ዜና) መዋጮ ለመስጠት ጠቃሚ መሣሪያዎች ወዲህ የሚያያዝ የተዛመዱ ለውጦች ልዩ ገጾች የዕትሙ ቋሚ URL የዚህ ገጽ መረጃ መጥቀሻ ለዚህ መጣጥፍ የውሂብ ንጥል ነገር Print/export Create a book Download as PDF ለማተሚያዎ እንዲስማማ In other projects Wikimedia Commons በሌሎች ቋንቋዎች Afrikaans Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Edit links ይህ ገጽ መጨረሻ የተቀየረው እ.ኣ.አ በ13:30፣ 10 ሴፕቴምበር 2017 ዓ.ም. ነበር። የዚህ መዝገበ ዕውቀት ጽሁፍ በክሪኤቲቭ ኮመንስ ፈቃድ (Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License) ስር ነው የተለቀቀው፣ ተጨማሪ ደንቦች ሊኖሩ ይችላሉ። ለበለጠ መረጃ የአጠቃቀም ደንቦችን ይዩ። የግልነት ድንጋጌ ስለ ውክፐድያ መርሃግብር የኃላፊነት ማስታወቂያ የሞባይል ዕይታ ለገንቢዎች Statistics Cookie statement 
an-wikipedia-org-3670	----	Horacio - Biquipedia, a enciclopedia libre Horacio De Biquipedia Ir a la navegación Ir a la búsqueda Horacio Horacio Información personal Calendata de naixencia 8 d'aviento de 65 aC Puesto de naixencia Venosa (Imperio Román) Calendata de muerte 27 de noviembre de 8 aC Puesto de muerte Roma (Imperio Román) Ocupación Escritor y poeta Horacio (Quintus Horatius Flaccus en latín), naixito de Venosa (Imperio Román) o 8 d'aviento de 65 aC y muerto en Roma o 27 de noviembre de 8 aC, estió un escritor y poeta román en luenga latina. Horacio vivió en o periodo de transformación d'o paso dende l'Antiga Roma republicana enta o Imperio Román, en vida de Chulio César y Augusto. Vinclos externos[editar | editar código] Se veigan as imáchens de Commons sobre Horacio. Obtenito de "https://an.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horacio&oldid=1503786" Categorías: Escritors de Roma Antiga Poetas latinos Escritors en latín 65 aC (naixencias) 8 aC (muertes) Menú de navegación Ferramientas personals No ha dentrato en o sistema Pachina de descusión d'ista IP Contribuciones Creyar cuenta Dentrar-ie Espacios de nombres Pachina Discusión Variants Visualizacions Leyer Editar Editar código Amostrar l'historial Más Mirar Navego Portalada A tabierna Actualidat Zaguers cambeos Una pachina a l'azar Aduya Donativos Ferramientas Pachinas que enlazan con ista Cambios relacionatos Cargar fichero Pachinas especials Vinclo permanent Información d'a pachina Citar ista pachina Elemento de Wikidata Imprentar/exportar Creyar un libro Descargar como PDF Versión ta imprentar En otros proyectos Wikimedia Commons En atras luengas Afrikaans አማርኛ العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Editar enlaces Zaguera edición d'ista pachina o 11 mar 2013 a las 07:46. O texto ye disponible baixo a Licencia Creative Commons Atribución/Compartir-Igual; talment sigan d'aplicación clausulas adicionals. Mire-se os termins d'uso ta conoixer más detalles. Politica de privacidat Sobre Biquipedia Alvertencias chenerals Versión ta mobils Desarrolladores Estadísticas Declaración de cookies 
archive-org-4456	----	Horace : a portrait : Noyes, Alfred, 1880-1958 : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive Skip to main content See what's new with book lending at the Internet Archive Can You Chip In? In 2020 the Internet Archive has seen unprecedented use—and we need your help. When the COVID-19 pandemic hit, our bandwidth demand skyrocketed. Right now we’re getting over 1.5 million daily unique visitors and storing more than 70 petabytes of data. We build and maintain all our own systems, but we don’t charge for access, sell user information, or run ads. Instead, we rely on individual generosity to fund our infrastructure; we're powered by donations averaging $32. Unfortunately, fewer than 1 in 1000 of our patrons donate. We don't ask often, but right now, we have a 2-to-1 Matching Gift Campaign, tripling the impact of every donation. If each of our users gave just $5, we could end this fundraiser today—so if you find all these bits and bytes useful, please pitch in. We know it's been a difficult year, and we understand if you can't afford to contribute. But if you can afford to lend a hand, I promise it will be money well spent. Thank you for your support. —Brewster Kahle, Founder, Internet Archive Continue Maybe later Send me an email reminder Email address (required) Please enter a valid email address. First name Last name Submit By submitting, you agree to receive donor-related emails from the Internet Archive. Your privacy is important to us. We do not sell or trade your information with anyone. A line drawing of the Internet Archive headquarters building façade. An illustration of a magnifying glass. An illustration of a magnifying glass. An illustration of a horizontal line over an up pointing arrow. Upload An illustration of a person's head and chest. Sign up | Log in An illustration of a computer application window Wayback Machine An illustration of an open book. Books An illustration of two cells of a film strip. Video An illustration of an audio speaker. Audio An illustration of a 3.5" floppy disk. Software An illustration of two photographs. Images An illustration of a heart shape Donate An illustration of text ellipses. More An icon used to represent a menu that can be toggled by interacting with this icon. About Blog Projects Help Donate An illustration of a heart shape Contact Jobs Volunteer People Search Metadata Search text contents Search TV news captions Search archived websites Advanced Search Sign up for free Log in Horace : a portrait Item Preview remove-circle Share or Embed This Item EMBED EMBED (for wordpress.com hosted blogs and archive.org item <description> tags) [archiveorg horaceportrait0000noye width=560 height=384 frameborder=0 webkitallowfullscreen=true mozallowfullscreen=true] Want more? Advanced embedding details, examples, and help! No_Favorite share flag Flag this item for Graphic Violence Graphic Sexual Content texts Horace : a portrait by Noyes, Alfred, 1880-1958 Publication date 1947 Topics Horace -- Criticism and interpretation, Laudatory poetry, Latin -- History and criticism, Epistolary poetry, Latin -- History and criticism, Verse satire, Latin -- History and criticism, Rome -- In literature Publisher New York : Sheed & Ward Collection inlibrary; printdisabled; oliverwendellholmeslibrary; phillipsacademy; americana Digitizing sponsor Kahle/Austin Foundation Contributor Phillips Academy, Oliver Wendell Holmes Library Language English xiii, 292 p. ; 22 cm London ed. (Sheed & Ward) has title: Portrait of Horace Access-restricted-item true Addeddate 2019-10-08 04:12:44 Boxid IA1671003 Camera Sony Alpha-A6300 (Control) Collection_set phillipsacademy External-identifier urn:oclc:record:609201527 Foldoutcount 0 Identifier horaceportrait0000noye Identifier-ark ark:/13960/t4wj0j891 Invoice 11 Lccn 47005233 Ocr ABBYY FineReader 11.0 (Extended OCR) Old_pallet IA16710 Openlibrary_edition OL6513173M Openlibrary_work OL4794294W Pages 322 Ppi 300 Republisher_date 20191014100211 Republisher_operator associate-mavanessa-cando@archive.org Republisher_time 425 Scandate 20191008051229 Scanner station03.cebu.archive.org Scanningcenter cebu Scribe3_search_catalog phillips Scribe3_search_id 31867000730296 Tts_version 3.1-initial-268-ge641e8b Show More Show Less Full catalog record MARCXML plus-circle Add Review comment Reviews There are no reviews yet. Be the first one to write a review. 24 Previews 1 Favorite DOWNLOAD OPTIONS download 1 file ENCRYPTED DAISY download For print-disabled users 14 day loan required to access EPUB and PDF files. IN COLLECTIONS Books to Borrow Books for People with Print Disabilities Oliver Wendell Holmes Library Phillips Academy American Libraries Uploaded by station03.cebu on October 8, 2019 SIMILAR ITEMS (based on metadata) Terms of Service (last updated 12/31/2014) 
archive-org-5197	----	Selected prose : Arnold, Matthew, 1822-1888 : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive Skip to main content See what's new with book lending at the Internet Archive Can You Chip In? In 2020 the Internet Archive has seen unprecedented use—and we need your help. When the COVID-19 pandemic hit, our bandwidth demand skyrocketed. Right now we’re getting over 1.5 million daily unique visitors and storing more than 70 petabytes of data. We build and maintain all our own systems, but we don’t charge for access, sell user information, or run ads. Instead, we rely on individual generosity to fund our infrastructure; we're powered by donations averaging $32. Unfortunately, fewer than 1 in 1000 of our patrons donate. We don't ask often, but right now, we have a 2-to-1 Matching Gift Campaign, tripling the impact of every donation. If each of our users gave just $5, we could end this fundraiser today—so if you find all these bits and bytes useful, please pitch in. We know it's been a difficult year, and we understand if you can't afford to contribute. But if you can afford to lend a hand, I promise it will be money well spent. Thank you for your support. —Brewster Kahle, Founder, Internet Archive Continue Maybe later Send me an email reminder Email address (required) Please enter a valid email address. First name Last name Submit By submitting, you agree to receive donor-related emails from the Internet Archive. Your privacy is important to us. We do not sell or trade your information with anyone. A line drawing of the Internet Archive headquarters building façade. An illustration of a magnifying glass. An illustration of a magnifying glass. An illustration of a horizontal line over an up pointing arrow. Upload An illustration of a person's head and chest. Sign up | Log in An illustration of a computer application window Wayback Machine An illustration of an open book. Books An illustration of two cells of a film strip. Video An illustration of an audio speaker. Audio An illustration of a 3.5" floppy disk. Software An illustration of two photographs. Images An illustration of a heart shape Donate An illustration of text ellipses. More An icon used to represent a menu that can be toggled by interacting with this icon. About Blog Projects Help Donate An illustration of a heart shape Contact Jobs Volunteer People Search Metadata Search text contents Search TV news captions Search archived websites Advanced Search Sign up for free Log in Selected prose Item Preview remove-circle Share or Embed This Item EMBED EMBED (for wordpress.com hosted blogs and archive.org item <description> tags) [archiveorg selectedprose00arno width=560 height=384 frameborder=0 webkitallowfullscreen=true mozallowfullscreen=true] Want more? Advanced embedding details, examples, and help! No_Favorite share flag Flag this item for Graphic Violence Graphic Sexual Content texts Selected prose by Arnold, Matthew, 1822-1888; Keating, P. J., ed Publication date 1970 Publisher [Harmondsworth, Eng.] Penguin Books Collection inlibrary; printdisabled; internetarchivebooks; china Digitizing sponsor Internet Archive Contributor Internet Archive Language English Bibliography: p. [37] Access-restricted-item true Addeddate 2011-11-03 20:13:09 Boxid IA173801 Camera Canon EOS 5D Mark II City [Harmondsworth, Eng.] Donor friendsofthesanfranciscopubliclibrary Edition Repr. External-identifier urn:oclc:record:1036917576 Extramarc OhioLINK Library Catalog Foldoutcount 0 Identifier selectedprose00arno Identifier-ark ark:/13960/t27958470 Isbn 9780140430585 014043058X Lccn 76026048 Ocr ABBYY FineReader 8.0 Openlibrary OL4893142M Openlibrary_edition OL7354688M Openlibrary_work OL16500816W Page-progression lr Pages 486 Ppi 514 Republisher_date 20120321054750 Republisher_operator scanner-shenzhen-david@archive.org;scanner-shenzhen-leo@archive.org Scandate 20120317104534 Scanner scribe20.shenzhen.archive.org Scanningcenter shenzhen Worldcat (source edition) 150451 Show More Show Less Full catalog record MARCXML plus-circle Add Review comment Reviews There are no reviews yet. Be the first one to write a review. 51 Previews 2 Favorites Purchase options Better World Books DOWNLOAD OPTIONS download 1 file ENCRYPTED DAISY download For print-disabled users 14 day loan required to access EPUB and PDF files. IN COLLECTIONS Books to Borrow Books for People with Print Disabilities Internet Archive Books Scanned in China Uploaded by lotu.t on November 3, 2011 SIMILAR ITEMS (based on metadata) Terms of Service (last updated 12/31/2014) 
archive-org-5218	----	Artifices of eternity : Horace's fourth book of Odes : Putnam, Michael C. J : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive Skip to main content See what's new with book lending at the Internet Archive Can You Chip In? In 2020 the Internet Archive has seen unprecedented use—and we need your help. When the COVID-19 pandemic hit, our bandwidth demand skyrocketed. Right now we’re getting over 1.5 million daily unique visitors and storing more than 70 petabytes of data. We build and maintain all our own systems, but we don’t charge for access, sell user information, or run ads. Instead, we rely on individual generosity to fund our infrastructure; we're powered by donations averaging $32. Unfortunately, fewer than 1 in 1000 of our patrons donate. We don't ask often, but right now, we have a 2-to-1 Matching Gift Campaign, tripling the impact of every donation. If each of our users gave just $5, we could end this fundraiser today—so if you find all these bits and bytes useful, please pitch in. We know it's been a difficult year, and we understand if you can't afford to contribute. But if you can afford to lend a hand, I promise it will be money well spent. Thank you for your support. —Brewster Kahle, Founder, Internet Archive Continue Maybe later Send me an email reminder Email address (required) Please enter a valid email address. First name Last name Submit By submitting, you agree to receive donor-related emails from the Internet Archive. Your privacy is important to us. We do not sell or trade your information with anyone. A line drawing of the Internet Archive headquarters building façade. An illustration of a magnifying glass. An illustration of a magnifying glass. An illustration of a horizontal line over an up pointing arrow. Upload An illustration of a person's head and chest. Sign up | Log in An illustration of a computer application window Wayback Machine An illustration of an open book. Books An illustration of two cells of a film strip. Video An illustration of an audio speaker. Audio An illustration of a 3.5" floppy disk. Software An illustration of two photographs. Images An illustration of a heart shape Donate An illustration of text ellipses. More An icon used to represent a menu that can be toggled by interacting with this icon. About Blog Projects Help Donate An illustration of a heart shape Contact Jobs Volunteer People Search Metadata Search text contents Search TV news captions Search archived websites Advanced Search Sign up for free Log in Artifices of eternity : Horace's fourth book of Odes Item Preview remove-circle Share or Embed This Item EMBED EMBED (for wordpress.com hosted blogs and archive.org item <description> tags) [archiveorg artificesofetern00putn width=560 height=384 frameborder=0 webkitallowfullscreen=true mozallowfullscreen=true] Want more? Advanced embedding details, examples, and help! No_Favorite share flag Flag this item for Graphic Violence Graphic Sexual Content texts Artifices of eternity : Horace's fourth book of Odes by Putnam, Michael C. J Publication date 1986 Topics Horace. Carmina. Liber IV, Odes -- History and criticism Publisher Ithaca : Cornell University Press Collection inlibrary; printdisabled; cornelluniversitypress; americana Digitizing sponsor The Arcadia Fund Contributor Cornell University Press Language English 352 p. -- Includes index Bibliography: p. 341-348 commitment to retain 20151208 Access-restricted-item true Addeddate 2019-01-24 21:03:19 Bookplateleaf 0010 Camera Sony Alpha-A6300 (Control) External-identifier urn:oclc:record:1148022179 Foldoutcount 0 Identifier artificesofetern00putn Identifier-ark ark:/13960/t4tj60j66 Invoice 1605 Isbn 0801418526 Lccn 85025542 Neverindex TRUE Ocr ABBYY FineReader 11.0 (Extended OCR) Openlibrary_edition OL2543792M Openlibrary_work OL2736123W Page-progression lr Pages 362 Ppi 300 Republisher_date 20190130111121 Republisher_operator associate-amy-alexander@archive.org Republisher_time 343 Scandate 20190128191019 Scanner scribe1.toronto.archive.org Scanningcenter uoft Tts_version 1.63-final-2-gf73c3fa Show More Show Less Full catalog record MARCXML plus-circle Add Review comment Reviews There are no reviews yet. Be the first one to write a review. 40 Previews Purchase options Better World Books DOWNLOAD OPTIONS download 1 file ENCRYPTED DAISY download For print-disabled users 14 day loan required to access EPUB and PDF files. IN COLLECTIONS Books to Borrow Books for People with Print Disabilities Cornell University Press American Libraries Uploaded by LexW on January 24, 2019 SIMILAR ITEMS (based on metadata) Terms of Service (last updated 12/31/2014) 
archive-org-6534	----	Unity and design in Horace's Odes : Santirocco, Matthew S., 1950- : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive Skip to main content See what's new with book lending at the Internet Archive Can You Chip In? In 2020 the Internet Archive has seen unprecedented use—and we need your help. When the COVID-19 pandemic hit, our bandwidth demand skyrocketed. Right now we’re getting over 1.5 million daily unique visitors and storing more than 70 petabytes of data. We build and maintain all our own systems, but we don’t charge for access, sell user information, or run ads. Instead, we rely on individual generosity to fund our infrastructure; we're powered by donations averaging $32. Unfortunately, fewer than 1 in 1000 of our patrons donate. We don't ask often, but right now, we have a 2-to-1 Matching Gift Campaign, tripling the impact of every donation. If each of our users gave just $5, we could end this fundraiser today—so if you find all these bits and bytes useful, please pitch in. We know it's been a difficult year, and we understand if you can't afford to contribute. But if you can afford to lend a hand, I promise it will be money well spent. Thank you for your support. —Brewster Kahle, Founder, Internet Archive Continue Maybe later Send me an email reminder Email address (required) Please enter a valid email address. First name Last name Submit By submitting, you agree to receive donor-related emails from the Internet Archive. Your privacy is important to us. We do not sell or trade your information with anyone. A line drawing of the Internet Archive headquarters building façade. An illustration of a magnifying glass. An illustration of a magnifying glass. An illustration of a horizontal line over an up pointing arrow. Upload An illustration of a person's head and chest. Sign up | Log in An illustration of a computer application window Wayback Machine An illustration of an open book. Books An illustration of two cells of a film strip. Video An illustration of an audio speaker. Audio An illustration of a 3.5" floppy disk. Software An illustration of two photographs. Images An illustration of a heart shape Donate An illustration of text ellipses. More An icon used to represent a menu that can be toggled by interacting with this icon. About Blog Projects Help Donate An illustration of a heart shape Contact Jobs Volunteer People Search Metadata Search text contents Search TV news captions Search archived websites Advanced Search Sign up for free Log in Unity and design in Horace's Odes Item Preview remove-circle Share or Embed This Item EMBED EMBED (for wordpress.com hosted blogs and archive.org item <description> tags) [archiveorg unitydesigninhor00sant width=560 height=384 frameborder=0 webkitallowfullscreen=true mozallowfullscreen=true] Want more? Advanced embedding details, examples, and help! No_Favorite share flag Flag this item for Graphic Violence Graphic Sexual Content texts Unity and design in Horace's Odes by Santirocco, Matthew S., 1950- Publication date 1986 Topics Horace, Laudatory poetry, Latin, Odes, Latin, Rhetoric, Ancient Publisher Chapel Hill : University of North Carolina Press Collection inlibrary; printdisabled; internetarchivebooks; china Digitizing sponsor Kahle/Austin Foundation Contributor Internet Archive Language English Bibliography: p. [215]-233 Includes indexes Access-restricted-item true Addeddate 2014-02-27 18:03:11.103279 Bookplateleaf 0006 Boxid IA1113701 Boxid_2 CH1154213 City Chapel Hill Donor bostonpubliclibrary External-identifier urn:oclc:record:1036886117 Extramarc Brown University Library Foldoutcount 0 Identifier unitydesigninhor00sant Identifier-ark ark:/13960/t4pk4j14g Invoice 1213 Isbn 0807816914 9780807816912 Lccn 85020964 Ocr ABBYY FineReader 11.0 Openlibrary OL2539946M Openlibrary_edition OL2539946M Openlibrary_work OL5104397W Page-progression lr Pages 274 Ppi 300 Republisher_date 20170717142058 Republisher_operator republisher5.shenzhen@archive.org Republisher_time 430 Scandate 20170716063825 Scanner ttscribe15.hongkong.archive.org Scanningcenter hongkong Top_six true Worldcat (source edition) 12693723 Show More Show Less Full catalog record MARCXML plus-circle Add Review comment Reviews There are no reviews yet. Be the first one to write a review. 78 Previews 6 Favorites DOWNLOAD OPTIONS download 1 file ENCRYPTED DAISY download For print-disabled users 14 day loan required to access EPUB and PDF files. IN COLLECTIONS Books to Borrow Books for People with Print Disabilities Internet Archive Books Scanned in China Uploaded by Lotu Tii on February 27, 2014 SIMILAR ITEMS (based on metadata) Terms of Service (last updated 12/31/2014) 
archive-org-6090	----	Internet Archive Search: ((subject:"Horace" OR creator:"Horace" OR description:"Horace" OR title:"Horace") OR ("65-8" AND Horace)) AND (-mediatype:software) Skip to main content See what's new with book lending at the Internet Archive Can You Chip In? In 2020 the Internet Archive has seen unprecedented use—and we need your help. When the COVID-19 pandemic hit, our bandwidth demand skyrocketed. Right now we’re getting over 1.5 million daily unique visitors and storing more than 70 petabytes of data. We build and maintain all our own systems, but we don’t charge for access, sell user information, or run ads. Instead, we rely on individual generosity to fund our infrastructure; we're powered by donations averaging $32. Unfortunately, fewer than 1 in 1000 of our patrons donate. We don't ask often, but right now, we have a 2-to-1 Matching Gift Campaign, tripling the impact of every donation. If each of our users gave just $5, we could end this fundraiser today—so if you find all these bits and bytes useful, please pitch in. We know it's been a difficult year, and we understand if you can't afford to contribute. But if you can afford to lend a hand, I promise it will be money well spent. Thank you for your support. —Brewster Kahle, Founder, Internet Archive Continue Maybe later Send me an email reminder Email address (required) Please enter a valid email address. First name Last name Submit By submitting, you agree to receive donor-related emails from the Internet Archive. Your privacy is important to us. We do not sell or trade your information with anyone. A line drawing of the Internet Archive headquarters building façade. An illustration of a magnifying glass. An illustration of a magnifying glass. An illustration of a horizontal line over an up pointing arrow. Upload An illustration of a person's head and chest. Sign up | Log in An illustration of a computer application window Wayback Machine An illustration of an open book. Books An illustration of two cells of a film strip. Video An illustration of an audio speaker. Audio An illustration of a 3.5" floppy disk. Software An illustration of two photographs. Images An illustration of a heart shape Donate An illustration of text ellipses. More An icon used to represent a menu that can be toggled by interacting with this icon. About Blog Projects Help Donate An illustration of a heart shape Contact Jobs Volunteer People Search Metadata Search text contents Search TV news captions Search archived websites Advanced Search Sign up for free Log in Search search Search metadata Search text contents Search TV news captions Search radio transcripts Search archived web sites Advanced Search GO share Share No_Favorite Favorite From Wikipedia: Horace Quintus Horatius Flaccus, known in the English-speaking world as Horace, was the leading Roman lyric poet during the time of Augustus. The rhetorician Quintilian regarded his Odes as just about the only Latin lyrics worth reading: "He can be lofty sometimes, yet he is also full of charm and grace, versatile in his figures, and felicitously daring in his choice of words.".. Read More Born Quintus Horatius Flaccus 8 December 65 BC Venusia, Italy, Roman Republic Died 27 November 8 BC (age 56) Rome Occupation Soldier, scriba quaestorius, poet, senator Language Latin Nationality Roman Filters 19,135 RESULTS Media TypeMedia Type YearYear Topics & SubjectsTopics & Subjects CollectionCollection CreatorCreator LanguageLanguage SHOW DETAILS up-solid down-solid RELEVANCE VIEWS TITLE DATE ARCHIVED DATE PUBLISHED DATE REVIEWED DATE ADDED CREATOR SORT BY RELEVANCE VIEWS TITLE DATE ARCHIVED DATE PUBLISHED DATE REVIEWED DATE ADDED CREATOR eye Title Date Archived Creator Project Gutenberg 633 633 The Works of Horace Dec 7, 2006 12/06 by Horace, 65 BC-8 BC texts eye 633 favorite 0 comment 0 Book from Project Gutenberg: The Works of Horace Project Gutenberg 746 746 The Odes and Carmen Saeculare of Horace Jun 22, 2015 06/15 by Horace, 65 BC-8 BC texts eye 746 favorite 0 comment 0 Book from Project Gutenberg: The Odes and Carmen Saeculare of Horace Library of Congress Classification: PA American Libraries 146 146 Horace in New York Mar 27, 2008 03/08 by Isaac Starr] [Clason texts eye 146 favorite 0 comment 0 Book digitized by Google from the library of the New York Public Library and uploaded to the Internet Archive by user tpb. Source: http://books.google.com/books?id=6RETAAAAIAAJ&oe=UTF-8 Project Gutenberg 494 494 The Satires, Epistles, and Art of Poetry May 1, 2016 05/16 by Horace, 65 BC-8 BC texts eye 494 favorite 0 comment 0 Book from Project Gutenberg: The Satires, Epistles, and Art of Poetry Library of Congress Classification: PA Project Gutenberg 2,006 2.0K The Art of Poetry an Epistle to the Pisos: Q. Horatii Flacci Epistola Ad Pisones, De Arte Poetica. Jun 15, 2015 06/15 by Horace, 65 BC-8 BC texts eye 2,006 favorite 1 comment 0 Book from Project Gutenberg: The Art of Poetry an Epistle to the Pisos: Q. Horatii Flacci Epistola Ad Pisones, De Arte Poetica. Project Gutenberg 1,079 1.1K Odes and Epodes Apr 2, 2016 04/16 by Horace, 65 BC-8 BC texts eye 1,079 favorite 1 comment 0 Book from Project Gutenberg: Odes and Epodes Picfixer Feature Film Collection 5,938 5.9K HORACE TAKES OVER a.k.a. One Thrilling Night. Dec 12, 2013 12/13 by W A Hackel movies eye 5,938 favorite 8 comment 1 This 790 MB file has the same video and audio qualities as the 3.8 GB file found elsewhere at IA. A screwball comedy of errors in which newlyweds' first night is constantly interrupted by a wandering corpse, dumb crooks and frustrated cops. It received the best press reviews of any Monogram release. Stars John Beal and Wanda McKay, supported by Warren Hymer, J Farrel MacDonald and Tom Neal. Directed by William Baudine Released in 1942 Complete print IMDB page:... favoritefavoritefavoritefavoritefavorite ( 1 reviews ) Topics: screwball comedies, comedies, wedding night, John Beal, Wanda McKay Cleveland Museum of Art 19 19 Self-Portrait in Rome Jan 15, 2019 01/19 by Horace Vernet (French, 1789-1863) image eye 19 favorite 0 comment 0 Self-Portrait in Rome, 1832. Horace Vernet (French, 1789-1863). Oil on fabric; framed: 78.5 x 67 x 8 cm (30 7/8 x 26 3/8 x 3 1/8 in.); unframed: 65 x 54.2 cm (25 9/16 x 21 5/16 in.). The Cleveland Museum of Art, Mr. and Mrs. William H. Marlatt Fund 1977.171 Topic: Modern European Painting and Sculpture The Lincoln Financial Foundation Collection 176 176 New-York weekly tribune May 16, 2013 05/13 by Greeley, Horace, 1811-1872 texts eye 176 favorite 0 comment 0 "Weekly" sometimes appears within title ornament Topic: Lincoln, Abraham, 1809-1865 Source: folio Audiophile CD Collection 15 15 Alkan: Concerto For Solo Piano - Troisième recueil de chants Jan 13, 2020 01/20 by Charles-Valentin Alkan; Marc-André Hamelin audio eye 15 favorite 0 comment 0 Tracklist: 1. Concerto for Solo Piano, op. 39 no. 8: Allegro assai 2. Concerto for Solo Piano, op. 39 no. 9: Adagio 3. Concerto for Solo Piano, op. 39 no. 10: Allegretto alla barbaresca 4. Troisième recueil de chants, op. 65: Vivante 5. Troisième recueil de chants, op. 65: Esprits follets: Prestissimo 6. Troisième recueil de chants, op. 65: Canon: Assez vimement 7. Troisième recueil de chants, op. 65: Tempo giusto 8. Troisième recueil de chants, op. 65: Horace et Lydie: Vivacissimo 9.... Source: CD American Libraries 500 500 Scientific management; a history and criticism Sep 21, 2008 09/08 by Drury, Horace B. (Horace Bookwalter), b. 1888 texts eye 500 favorite 0 comment 0 Book digitized by Google from the library of the University of California and uploaded to the Internet Archive by user tpb. Topics: Industrial efficiency, Factory management, Industrial management Source: http://books.google.com/books?id=BvFCAAAAIAAJ&oe=UTF-8 Cornell University Library 447 447 Scientific management; a history and criticism Oct 19, 2009 10/09 by Drury, Horace Bookwalter, 1888- texts eye 447 favorite 1 comment 0 The metadata below describe the original scanning. Follow the "All Files: HTTP" link in the "View the book" box to the left to find XML files that contain more metadata about the original images and the derived formats (OCR results, PDF etc.). See also the What is the directory structure for the texts? FAQ for information about file content and naming conventions. Topics: Industrial efficiency, Factory management American Libraries 288 288 Eulogy on John Marshall ... Mar 2, 2009 03/09 by Horace Binney texts eye 288 favorite 0 comment 0 Book digitized by Google from the library of the University of Michigan and uploaded to the Internet Archive by user tpb. Source: http://books.google.com/books?id=gHEsAAAAMAAJ&oe=UTF-8 Arxiv.org 36 36 Variable Stars in Large Magellanic Cloud Globular Clusters II: NGC 1786 Sep 22, 2013 09/13 by Charles A. Kuehn; Horace A. Smith; Marcio Catelan; Barton J. Pritzl; Nathan De Lee; Jura Borissova texts eye 36 favorite 0 comment 0 This is the second in a series of papers studying the variable stars in Large Magellanic Cloud globular clusters. The primary goal of this series is to study how RR Lyrae stars in Oosterhoff-intermediate systems compare to their counterparts in Oosterhoff I/II systems. In this paper, we present the results of our new time-series BV photometeric study of the globular cluster NGC 1786. A total of 65 variable stars were identified in our field of view. These variables include 53 RR Lyraes (27... Source: http://arxiv.org/abs/1210.5815v1 JSTOR Early Journal Content, The American Political Science Review 100 100 Workmen's Compensation Mar 18, 2013 03/13 by Flack, Horace E. texts eye 100 favorite 0 comment 0 "Workmen's Compensation" is an article from The American Political Science Review, Volume 8 . View more articles from The American Political Science Review . View this article on JSTOR . View this article's JSTOR metadata . You may also retrieve all of this items metadata in JSON at the following URL: https://archive.org/metadata/jstor-1945391 Source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/1945391 American Libraries 826 826 The American Conflict: A History of the Great Rebellion in the United States ... Jul 7, 2008 07/08 by Horace Greeley texts eye 826 favorite 0 comment 0 Book digitized by Google from the library of Harvard University and uploaded to the Internet Archive by user tpb. Topics: erm, enemy, army, bebel, force, corps, fort, rebel, loss, total loss, three miles, pushed forward,... Source: http://books.google.com/books?id=rVEMAAAAYAAJ&oe=UTF-8 Books to Borrow 2 2.0 Makers of Europe : being the James Henry Morgan lectures in Dickinson college for 1930 Jan 21, 2020 01/20 by Conway, Robert Seymour, 1864-1933 texts eye 2 favorite 0 comment 0 89 pages ; 24 cm Topics: Caesar, Julius, Cicero, Marcus Tullius, Horace -- Political and social views, Virgil -- Political... American Libraries 893 893 The American Conflict: Its Causes, Incidents, and Results: Intended to Exhibit Expecially Its ... Feb 20, 2009 02/09 by Horace Greeley texts eye 893 favorite 0 comment 0 Book digitized by Google from the library of the University of Michigan and uploaded to the Internet Archive by user tpb. Topics: tlie, rebel, stsd, enemy, army, corps, force, fort, total loss, three miles, rebel force, rebel... Source: http://books.google.com/books?id=jTSNPCYZbFcC&oe=UTF-8 American Libraries 656 656 The American Conflict: A History of the Great Rebellion in the United States of America, 1860 ... Jul 7, 2008 07/08 by Horace Greeley texts eye 656 favorite 0 comment 0 Book digitized by Google from the library of the University of Michigan and uploaded to the Internet Archive by user tpb. Topics: tlie, slavery, slave, tion, united, federal, convention, going, south carolina, supreme court, fort... Source: http://books.google.com/books?id=_3_S5phvNv0C&oe=UTF-8 Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory Technical Reports 15 15 Sound speeds and temperatures of Bermuda waters in autumn and winter : October 1964-March 1966 Feb 4, 2020 02/20 by Piip, Ants T., author texts eye 15 favorite 0 comment 0 19, v leaves, 73 unnumbered leaves of plates (some folded) : 28 cm Topics: Sir Horace Lamb (Ship). Cruise (1964), Sir Horace Lamb (Ship). Cruise (1965), Sir Horace Lamb... The LibriVox Free Audiobook Collection 9,452 9.5K Briefe (Epistulae) Nov 18, 2009 11/09 by Horatius Flaccus, Quintus (Horaz) audio eye 9,452 favorite 0 comment 0 LibriVox recording of Briefe (Epistulae), by Quintus Horatius Flaccus (Horaz). Read by redaer. Briefe (Epistulae) von Horaz (65 - 8 v. Chr.) Übersetzt von Johann Heinrich Voß (1751-1826), Veröffentlichung dieser Ausgabe 1893 Horaz, eigentlich Quintus Horatius Flaccus, ist neben Vergil einer der bedeutendsten römischen Dichter der „Augusteischen Zeit. Da die Oden nicht den erhofften Erfolg brachten, ließ Horaz ab 20 v. Chr. von der Lyrik ab und widmete sich dem ersten Buch der Epistulae... Topics: LibriVox, audio book, Hörbuch, Literature, Literatur, Poetry, Gedichte, German, Deutsch, Briefe,... Source: Librivox recording of a public-domain text Books to Borrow 17 17 Classical and medieval literature criticism. [electronic resource] Aug 12, 2014 08/14 by Krstovic, Jelena O., editor texts eye 17 favorite 0 comment 0 Print version record Topics: English literature, English literature, Literature, Poetry, Ancient, Poetry, Medieval, Drama,... Source: removedNEL American Libraries 185 185 The Cataloguing of Mss. in the Bodleian Library: A Letter Addressed to Members of Congregation May 18, 2008 05/08 by Andrew Clark texts eye 185 favorite 0 comment 0 Book digitized by Google from the library of Harvard University and uploaded to the Internet Archive by user tpb. Source: http://books.google.com/books?id=BVdm_RTEfw8C&oe=UTF-8 American Libraries 489 489 The sacra Idulia in Ovid's Fasti; a study of Ovid's credibility in regard to the place and the victim of this sacrifice Oct 27, 2008 10/08 by Wright, Horace Wetherill, 1884- texts eye 489 favorite 0 comment 0 Book digitized by Google from the library of the University of California and uploaded to the Internet Archive by user tpb. Topics: Ovid, 43 B.C.-17 or 18 A.D, Didactic poetry, Latin, Fasts and feasts in literature, Sacrifice in... Source: http://books.google.com/books?id=FPlBAAAAIAAJ&oe=UTF-8 The LibriVox Free Audiobook Collection 6,103 6.1K Epoden und Oden Nov 12, 2009 11/09 by Horatius Flaccus, Quintus (Horaz) audio eye 6,103 favorite 0 comment 0 LibriVox recording of Epoden und Oden, by Quintus Horatius Flaccus (Horaz). Read by redaer. Epoden (Iambi) und Oden (Carmina) von Horaz (65 - 8 v. Chr.) Übersetzt von Johann Heinrich Voß (1751-1826), Veröffentlichung dieser Ausgabe 1893 Horaz, eigentlich Quintus Horatius Flaccus, ist neben Vergil einer der bedeutendsten römischen Dichter der „Augusteischen Zeit. Epoden Als Epoden werden die 17 Gedichte eines schmalen Buches bezeichnet. Epoden deshalb, weil jeweils ein Langvers mit einem... Topics: LibriVox, audio book, Hörbuch, Literature, Literatur, Poetry, Gedichte, German, Deutsch, Epoden... Source: Librivox recording of a public-domain text American Libraries 994 994 The American conflict: a history of great rebellion in the United States of America, 1860-['65] Feb 20, 2009 02/09 by Greeley, Horace, 1811-1872. [from old catalog] texts eye 994 favorite 0 comment 0 Book digitized by Google from the library of the University of Michigan and uploaded to the Internet Archive by user tpb. Topic: Slavery Source: http://books.google.com/books?id=FgttgXDW6SMC&oe=UTF-8 American Libraries 826 826 The American conflict: a history of great rebellion in the United States of America, 1860-['65] Jul 14, 2009 07/09 by Greeley, Horace, 1811-1872. [from old catalog] texts eye 826 favorite 0 comment 0 Book digitized by Google from the library of Harvard University and uploaded to the Internet Archive by user tpb. Topic: Slavery Source: http://books.google.com/books?id=ZlIMAAAAYAAJ&oe=UTF-8 The LibriVox Free Audiobook Collection 12,679 13K Satiren Nov 5, 2009 11/09 by Quintus Horatius Flaccus audio eye 12,679 favorite 0 comment 1 LibriVox recording of Satiren, by Quintus Horatius Flaccus. Translated by Johann Heinrich Voss. Read by redaer. Satiren (Sermones) von Horaz (65 - 8 v. Chr.) Übersetzt von Johann Heinrich Voß (1751-1826), Veröffentlichung dieser Ausgabe 1893 Horaz, eigentlich Quintus Horatius Flaccus, ist neben Vergil einer der bedeutendsten römischen Dichter der „Augusteischen Zeit“, das heißt der Zeit zwischen 43 v. Chr. und 14 n. Chr., also vom Tod Ciceros bis zum Tod des Augustus. Die zwei Bücher... ( 1 reviews ) Topics: LibriVox, audio book, Hörbuch, Literature, Literatur, Poetry, Gedichte, Satire, German, Deutsch,... Source: Librivox recording of a public-domain text American Libraries 160 160 Ready Reference Guide to the Ordinances of the North-West Territories: Including the Revised ... May 10, 2009 05/09 by Harvey, Horace , Charles Coursolles McCaul texts eye 160 favorite 0 comment 0 Book digitized by Google and uploaded to the Internet Archive by user tpb. Source: http://books.google.com/books?id=n2AvAAAAIAAJ&oe=UTF-8 Books to Borrow 113 113 The Norton book of classical literature Feb 20, 2020 02/20 texts eye 113 favorite 7 comment 0 866 pages ; 24 cm Topics: Classical literature -- Translations into English, Classical literature, Littérature antique --... 44 44 Librivox Multilingual Short Works Collection 006 by VARIOUS collection 19 ITEMS 44 VIEWS Jul 9, 2018 07/18 collection eye 44 This is a collection of short pieces, poetry or prose, fiction and non-fiction, in several different languages. All chosen and recorded by Librivox volunteers. Brief description of the contributions: 01 Tagalog - ¡Ang Reyna Elena.....! by Pascual de Leon (1893-1958) [1915] - Key words: poetry, The Queen Elena 02 Polish - Pieśń o mowie naszej by Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński (1874-1941) [1913] - Key words: poetry, poezja, język, pruderia 03 Japanese - Tebukuro wo kaini by Niimi Nankichi (1913-1943)... Topics: podcasts, Librivox Multilingual Short Works Collection 006 by VARIOUS The LibriVox Free Audiobook Collection 11,549 12K Librivox Multilingual Short Works Collection 006 Mar 4, 2013 03/13 by Various audio eye 11,549 favorite 4 comment 0 This is a collection of short pieces, poetry or prose, fiction and non-fiction, in several different languages. All chosen and recorded by Librivox volunteers. Brief description of the contributions: 01 Tagalog - ¡Ang Reyna Elena.....! by Pascual de Leon (1893-1958) [1915] - Key words: poetry, The Queen Elena 02 Polish - Pieśń o mowie naszej by Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński (1874-1941) [1913] - Key words: poetry, poezja, język, pruderia 03 Japanese - Tebukuro wo kaini by Niimi Nankichi (1913-1943)... Topics: Librivox, audiobook, multilingual, poetry, prose Source: Librivox recording of a public-domain text Perkins School for the Blind Archives 108 108 Perkins School for the Blind Correspondence, Volume 21, Received 1873-1874 Dec 1, 2015 12/15 by See index in description field below texts eye 108 favorite 0 comment 0 Andrew, E S: 18 Adams, Edwin G: 19 Atwater, J M & Bro: 55 Aldrich, Clara B: 63, 144 Andrew, C N: 79 Aspinwall, William H: 136 Austin, Charles: 146 Awl, William M: 148 Butler, John N: 11, 15, 22, 24, 36, 168 Brown, Francis H: 22 Babcock, John H: 31, 58, 165 Bursor, D S: 59, 69 Babcock, Stephen: 79 Brown, J B: 84 Bolles, L S: 91, 101, 137, 140 Beers, Nellie: 119 Burnham, Albert W: 136 Buckle, A: 140 Bacon, Samuel: 153 Bureau of Ed, : 159 Brewer, Cyrus: 170 Burnham, Lizzie: 174 Carter, Charles... Podcasts 207 207 REGGAE REVOLUTION RADIO SHOW 6-22-10 Jun 23, 2010 06/10 by Selector Jonathon audio eye 207 favorite 0 comment 0 REGGAE REVOLUTION RADIO SHOW EACH & EVERY TUESDAY NIGHT 10PM - MIDNIGHT (EST) W/ SELECTOR JONATHON 89.1 WIDR FM KALAMAZOO MICHIGAN 6-22-10 LOVERS ROCK JUGGLING http://cluster1.reggaedubwise.com/REGGAE_REVOLUTION_RADIO_SHOW http://dreadisound.com 1 HORACE ANDY - LOVE OF A WOMAN DUB (JAMAICA) 2 DENNIS BROWN - LOVE GOT A HOLD ON ME (JAMAICA) 3 ROBERT FRENCH - MEET ME BY THE RIVER (JAMAICA) 4 TRISTAN PALMER - ENTERTAINMENT (JAMAICA) 5 DENNIS BROWN - COLD HEARTED FOOLS (JAMAICA) 6 GREGORY ISAACS... Topics: REGGAE, DUB, RADIO RESTRICTED-ZONE 3 3.0 Blackclassical-v-Restrictedzone Feb 18, 2020 02/20 by restricted-zone.com audio eye 3 favorite 0 comment 0 Tracklist : 1. Intro – Wesley Snipes from Passenger 57 2. Eugene Wilde – Gotta get you home with me 3. Dennis Edwards – Don’t look any further 4. Cool Notes – Never too young 5. Kleer – Intimate Connection 6. Kleer – Tonight 7. Original Concept – Can you feel it? 8. Doug Fresh – The Show 9. Bad Boys / K LOVE – Bad Boys 10. Marley Marl – Marley Scratch 11. MC Shan – MC Space 12. Mantronix – Get stupid fresh pt 1 13. Mantronix – In Full Effect Megamix 88 14. King Tee... Books to Borrow 165 165 Off the map : tales of endurance and exploration Dec 19, 2012 12/12 by Fleming, Fergus, 1959- texts eye 165 favorite 5 comment 0 Originally published: London : Weidenfeld & Nicholson, 2004 Topics: History - General History, Explorers, Biography/Autobiography, Biography & Autobiography,... Perkins School for the Blind Archives 193 193 Perkins School for the Blind Correspondence, Volume 8, Received 1848-1849 Sep 30, 2013 09/13 by See index in description field below texts eye 193 favorite 0 comment 0 Abbott, S L: 116 Adams, George M: 273 Aerly, Mary: 189 Alden, Elihu: 49, 245, 265 Allen, J D: 87 Allen, Nathan: 73 Allen, Stephen N: 212, 219 Andrews, William T: 129 Armsby, L: 298 Atwood, John: 270 Austin, S: 173 Axtell, J T: 249 Ball, John: 46, 54, 63, 72, 172 Baldwin, J D: 168 Bates, Joseph: 48 Berry, Charles T: 33 Beers, C L: 240 Benson, Cyrus Jr: 263 Berenberg, John: 113 Barnard, Henry: 216 Barnard, James M: 110 Bartol, C A: 11 Bigelow, A: 300 Begelow, Eliza: 93 Blaisdell, Sarah: 147... Perkins School for the Blind Archives 165 165 Perkins School for the Blind Correspondence, Volume 3, Received 1838-1839 Sep 30, 2013 09/13 by See index in description field below texts eye 165 favorite 0 comment 0 Alston, John: 32, 84, 150, 194, 203 Anderson, R.: 137, 205, Appleton, Samuel: 12, 223 Ball, John: 71, 133 Baker, George T.: 165, 208 Bartlett, Thomas S: 145, Bartol, C. A.: 183 Blake, Joseph M.: 147 Bills, Memorandum of, : 123 Booth, Rufus: 201, 207, 217 Bowen, B. B.: 41, 46, 62, 99 Bowen, Benjamim: 65 Brigham, A: 90 Brooks, E: 68 Brown, I I: 176 Bullock, N.: 140 Cahoon, J. B.: 11 Carton, Monsieur: 58 Cheverus, Charles A: 173 Chick, William: 198 Chamberlayne, Lewis W.: 4 Clifford, L. W.: 76... Folkscanomy Religion: Books on Faith, Spirituality and Worship 1,083 1.1K "Saying Grace" historically considered, and numerous forms of Grace taken from ancient and modern sources; with appendices Nov 17, 2014 11/14 by Dixon, Henry Lancelot texts eye 1,083 favorite 2 comment 0 TABLE OF CONTENTS. Part I. Introduction on 'Saying Grace' Custom general as shewn from Pagan, Hebrew and Christian Literature In Pagan Literature evidence from Homer, Hesiod, Plato, Athenoeus, Epictetus, Virgil, Horace and Livy 3 The Ainu of Japan 7 In Hebrew Literature the evidence from the Old Testament and the Apocrypha 8 From the Mishna and other Jewish writings 12 In Christian Literature, the evidence from the New Testament : — (1) From the example of our Lord Himself 14 (2) From the... Topic: Grace At Meals Microfilm 83 83 Compiled military service records of volunteer Union soldiers who served with the United States Colored Troops [microform] : 1st through 5th United States Colored Cavalry, 5th Massachusettts Cavalry (Colored), 6th United States Colored Cavalry Jul 12, 2010 07/10 by United States. National Archives and Records Administration; United States. National Archives and Records Administration texts eye 83 favorite 0 comment 0 1st United States Colored Cavalry. reel 1. Akess, Alexander-Bom, John H. -- reel 2. Bomer, James-Cartwright, John -- reel 3. Casey, Thomas-Davenport, John J. -- reel 4. Davis, Augustus-Floyd, George -- reel 5. Fly, Benjamin-Griffin, Oliver -- reel 6. Griffin, Quinton-Holstead, Peter -- reel 7. Holt, George-Jones, Herbert -- reel 8. Jones, Howell-Macoy, Peter -- reel 9. Madry, Andrew-Mosley, Jacob -- reel 10. Moss, James-Polk, James -- reel 11. Pollard, Sipio-Sales, William -- reel 12. Sample,... Topics: United States. Colored Troops, African American soldiers Microfilm 100 100 Compiled military service records of volunteer Union soldiers who served with the United States Colored Troops [microform] : 1st through 5th United States Colored Cavalry, 5th Massachusettts Cavalry (Colored), 6th United States Colored Cavalry Jul 12, 2010 07/10 by United States. National Archives and Records Administration; United States. National Archives and Records Administration texts eye 100 favorite 0 comment 0 1st United States Colored Cavalry. reel 1. Akess, Alexander-Bom, John H. -- reel 2. Bomer, James-Cartwright, John -- reel 3. Casey, Thomas-Davenport, John J. -- reel 4. Davis, Augustus-Floyd, George -- reel 5. Fly, Benjamin-Griffin, Oliver -- reel 6. Griffin, Quinton-Holstead, Peter -- reel 7. Holt, George-Jones, Herbert -- reel 8. Jones, Howell-Macoy, Peter -- reel 9. Madry, Andrew-Mosley, Jacob -- reel 10. Moss, James-Polk, James -- reel 11. Pollard, Sipio-Sales, William -- reel 12. Sample,... Topics: United States. Colored Troops, African American soldiers Microfilm 82 82 Compiled military service records of volunteer Union soldiers who served with the United States Colored Troops [microform] : 1st through 5th United States Colored Cavalry, 5th Massachusettts Cavalry (Colored), 6th United States Colored Cavalry Jul 12, 2010 07/10 by United States. National Archives and Records Administration; United States. National Archives and Records Administration texts eye 82 favorite 0 comment 0 1st United States Colored Cavalry. reel 1. Akess, Alexander-Bom, John H. -- reel 2. Bomer, James-Cartwright, John -- reel 3. Casey, Thomas-Davenport, John J. -- reel 4. Davis, Augustus-Floyd, George -- reel 5. Fly, Benjamin-Griffin, Oliver -- reel 6. Griffin, Quinton-Holstead, Peter -- reel 7. Holt, George-Jones, Herbert -- reel 8. Jones, Howell-Macoy, Peter -- reel 9. Madry, Andrew-Mosley, Jacob -- reel 10. Moss, James-Polk, James -- reel 11. Pollard, Sipio-Sales, William -- reel 12. Sample,... Topics: United States. Colored Troops, African American soldiers Microfilm 93 93 Compiled military service records of volunteer Union soldiers who served with the United States Colored Troops [microform] : 1st through 5th United States Colored Cavalry, 5th Massachusettts Cavalry (Colored), 6th United States Colored Cavalry Jul 12, 2010 07/10 by United States. National Archives and Records Administration; United States. National Archives and Records Administration texts eye 93 favorite 0 comment 0 1st United States Colored Cavalry. reel 1. Akess, Alexander-Bom, John H. -- reel 2. Bomer, James-Cartwright, John -- reel 3. Casey, Thomas-Davenport, John J. -- reel 4. Davis, Augustus-Floyd, George -- reel 5. Fly, Benjamin-Griffin, Oliver -- reel 6. Griffin, Quinton-Holstead, Peter -- reel 7. Holt, George-Jones, Herbert -- reel 8. Jones, Howell-Macoy, Peter -- reel 9. Madry, Andrew-Mosley, Jacob -- reel 10. Moss, James-Polk, James -- reel 11. Pollard, Sipio-Sales, William -- reel 12. Sample,... Topics: United States. Colored Troops, African American soldiers Microfilm 82 82 Compiled military service records of volunteer Union soldiers who served with the United States Colored Troops [microform] : 1st through 5th United States Colored Cavalry, 5th Massachusettts Cavalry (Colored), 6th United States Colored Cavalry Jul 12, 2010 07/10 by United States. National Archives and Records Administration; United States. National Archives and Records Administration texts eye 82 favorite 0 comment 0 1st United States Colored Cavalry. reel 1. Akess, Alexander-Bom, John H. -- reel 2. Bomer, James-Cartwright, John -- reel 3. Casey, Thomas-Davenport, John J. -- reel 4. Davis, Augustus-Floyd, George -- reel 5. Fly, Benjamin-Griffin, Oliver -- reel 6. Griffin, Quinton-Holstead, Peter -- reel 7. Holt, George-Jones, Herbert -- reel 8. Jones, Howell-Macoy, Peter -- reel 9. Madry, Andrew-Mosley, Jacob -- reel 10. Moss, James-Polk, James -- reel 11. Pollard, Sipio-Sales, William -- reel 12. Sample,... Topics: United States. Colored Troops, African American soldiers Microfilm 95 95 Compiled military service records of volunteer Union soldiers who served with the United States Colored Troops [microform] : 1st through 5th United States Colored Cavalry, 5th Massachusettts Cavalry (Colored), 6th United States Colored Cavalry Jul 12, 2010 07/10 by United States. National Archives and Records Administration; United States. National Archives and Records Administration texts eye 95 favorite 0 comment 0 1st United States Colored Cavalry. reel 1. Akess, Alexander-Bom, John H. -- reel 2. Bomer, James-Cartwright, John -- reel 3. Casey, Thomas-Davenport, John J. -- reel 4. Davis, Augustus-Floyd, George -- reel 5. Fly, Benjamin-Griffin, Oliver -- reel 6. Griffin, Quinton-Holstead, Peter -- reel 7. Holt, George-Jones, Herbert -- reel 8. Jones, Howell-Macoy, Peter -- reel 9. Madry, Andrew-Mosley, Jacob -- reel 10. Moss, James-Polk, James -- reel 11. Pollard, Sipio-Sales, William -- reel 12. Sample,... Topics: United States. Colored Troops, African American soldiers Microfilm 63 63 Compiled military service records of volunteer Union soldiers who served with the United States Colored Troops [microform] : 1st through 5th United States Colored Cavalry, 5th Massachusettts Cavalry (Colored), 6th United States Colored Cavalry Jul 12, 2010 07/10 by United States. National Archives and Records Administration; United States. National Archives and Records Administration texts eye 63 favorite 0 comment 0 1st United States Colored Cavalry. reel 1. Akess, Alexander-Bom, John H. -- reel 2. Bomer, James-Cartwright, John -- reel 3. Casey, Thomas-Davenport, John J. -- reel 4. Davis, Augustus-Floyd, George -- reel 5. Fly, Benjamin-Griffin, Oliver -- reel 6. Griffin, Quinton-Holstead, Peter -- reel 7. Holt, George-Jones, Herbert -- reel 8. Jones, Howell-Macoy, Peter -- reel 9. Madry, Andrew-Mosley, Jacob -- reel 10. Moss, James-Polk, James -- reel 11. Pollard, Sipio-Sales, William -- reel 12. Sample,... Topics: United States. Colored Troops, African American soldiers Microfilm 76 76 Compiled military service records of volunteer Union soldiers who served with the United States Colored Troops [microform] : 1st through 5th United States Colored Cavalry, 5th Massachusettts Cavalry (Colored), 6th United States Colored Cavalry Jul 12, 2010 07/10 by United States. National Archives and Records Administration; United States. National Archives and Records Administration texts eye 76 favorite 0 comment 0 1st United States Colored Cavalry. reel 1. Akess, Alexander-Bom, John H. -- reel 2. Bomer, James-Cartwright, John -- reel 3. Casey, Thomas-Davenport, John J. -- reel 4. Davis, Augustus-Floyd, George -- reel 5. Fly, Benjamin-Griffin, Oliver -- reel 6. Griffin, Quinton-Holstead, Peter -- reel 7. Holt, George-Jones, Herbert -- reel 8. Jones, Howell-Macoy, Peter -- reel 9. Madry, Andrew-Mosley, Jacob -- reel 10. Moss, James-Polk, James -- reel 11. Pollard, Sipio-Sales, William -- reel 12. Sample,... Topics: United States. Colored Troops, African American soldiers Microfilm 101 101 Compiled military service records of volunteer Union soldiers who served with the United States Colored Troops [microform] : 1st through 5th United States Colored Cavalry, 5th Massachusettts Cavalry (Colored), 6th United States Colored Cavalry Jul 12, 2010 07/10 by United States. National Archives and Records Administration; United States. National Archives and Records Administration texts eye 101 favorite 0 comment 0 1st United States Colored Cavalry. reel 1. Akess, Alexander-Bom, John H. -- reel 2. Bomer, James-Cartwright, John -- reel 3. Casey, Thomas-Davenport, John J. -- reel 4. Davis, Augustus-Floyd, George -- reel 5. Fly, Benjamin-Griffin, Oliver -- reel 6. Griffin, Quinton-Holstead, Peter -- reel 7. Holt, George-Jones, Herbert -- reel 8. Jones, Howell-Macoy, Peter -- reel 9. Madry, Andrew-Mosley, Jacob -- reel 10. Moss, James-Polk, James -- reel 11. Pollard, Sipio-Sales, William -- reel 12. Sample,... Topics: United States. Colored Troops, African American soldiers Microfilm 66 66 Compiled military service records of volunteer Union soldiers who served with the United States Colored Troops [microform] : 1st through 5th United States Colored Cavalry, 5th Massachusettts Cavalry (Colored), 6th United States Colored Cavalry Jul 13, 2010 07/10 by United States. National Archives and Records Administration; United States. National Archives and Records Administration texts eye 66 favorite 0 comment 0 1st United States Colored Cavalry. reel 1. Akess, Alexander-Bom, John H. -- reel 2. Bomer, James-Cartwright, John -- reel 3. Casey, Thomas-Davenport, John J. -- reel 4. Davis, Augustus-Floyd, George -- reel 5. Fly, Benjamin-Griffin, Oliver -- reel 6. Griffin, Quinton-Holstead, Peter -- reel 7. Holt, George-Jones, Herbert -- reel 8. Jones, Howell-Macoy, Peter -- reel 9. Madry, Andrew-Mosley, Jacob -- reel 10. Moss, James-Polk, James -- reel 11. Pollard, Sipio-Sales, William -- reel 12. Sample,... Topics: United States. Colored Troops, African American soldiers Microfilm 80 80 Compiled military service records of volunteer Union soldiers who served with the United States Colored Troops [microform] : 1st through 5th United States Colored Cavalry, 5th Massachusettts Cavalry (Colored), 6th United States Colored Cavalry Jul 13, 2010 07/10 by United States. National Archives and Records Administration; United States. National Archives and Records Administration texts eye 80 favorite 0 comment 0 1st United States Colored Cavalry. reel 1. Akess, Alexander-Bom, John H. -- reel 2. Bomer, James-Cartwright, John -- reel 3. Casey, Thomas-Davenport, John J. -- reel 4. Davis, Augustus-Floyd, George -- reel 5. Fly, Benjamin-Griffin, Oliver -- reel 6. Griffin, Quinton-Holstead, Peter -- reel 7. Holt, George-Jones, Herbert -- reel 8. Jones, Howell-Macoy, Peter -- reel 9. Madry, Andrew-Mosley, Jacob -- reel 10. Moss, James-Polk, James -- reel 11. Pollard, Sipio-Sales, William -- reel 12. Sample,... Topics: United States. Colored Troops, African American soldiers MORE RESULTS Fetching more results Next Page 
archive-org-8657	----	Q. Horati Flacci opera, recens. O. Keller et A. Holder : Quintus Horatius Flaccus : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive Skip to main content See what's new with book lending at the Internet Archive Can You Chip In? In 2020 the Internet Archive has seen unprecedented use—and we need your help. When the COVID-19 pandemic hit, our bandwidth demand skyrocketed. Right now we’re getting over 1.5 million daily unique visitors and storing more than 70 petabytes of data. We build and maintain all our own systems, but we don’t charge for access, sell user information, or run ads. Instead, we rely on individual generosity to fund our infrastructure; we're powered by donations averaging $32. Unfortunately, fewer than 1 in 1000 of our patrons donate. We don't ask often, but right now, we have a 2-to-1 Matching Gift Campaign, tripling the impact of every donation. If each of our users gave just $5, we could end this fundraiser today—so if you find all these bits and bytes useful, please pitch in. We know it's been a difficult year, and we understand if you can't afford to contribute. But if you can afford to lend a hand, I promise it will be money well spent. Thank you for your support. —Brewster Kahle, Founder, Internet Archive Continue Maybe later Send me an email reminder Email address (required) Please enter a valid email address. First name Last name Submit By submitting, you agree to receive donor-related emails from the Internet Archive. Your privacy is important to us. We do not sell or trade your information with anyone. A line drawing of the Internet Archive headquarters building façade. An illustration of a magnifying glass. An illustration of a magnifying glass. An illustration of a horizontal line over an up pointing arrow. Upload An illustration of a person's head and chest. Sign up | Log in An illustration of a computer application window Wayback Machine An illustration of an open book. Books An illustration of two cells of a film strip. Video An illustration of an audio speaker. Audio An illustration of a 3.5" floppy disk. Software An illustration of two photographs. Images An illustration of a heart shape Donate An illustration of text ellipses. More An icon used to represent a menu that can be toggled by interacting with this icon. About Blog Projects Help Donate An illustration of a heart shape Contact Jobs Volunteer People Search Metadata Search text contents Search TV news captions Search archived websites Advanced Search Sign up for free Log in Q. Horati Flacci opera, recens. O. Keller et A. Holder Item Preview remove-circle Share or Embed This Item EMBED EMBED (for wordpress.com hosted blogs and archive.org item <description> tags) [archiveorg qhoratiflacciop00flacgoog width=560 height=384 frameborder=0 webkitallowfullscreen=true mozallowfullscreen=true] Want more? Advanced embedding details, examples, and help! No_Favorite share flag Flag this item for Graphic Violence Graphic Sexual Content texts Q. Horati Flacci opera, recens. O. Keller et A. Holder by Quintus Horatius Flaccus Publication date 1864 Collection europeanlibraries Digitizing sponsor Google Book from the collections of Oxford University Language English Book digitized by Google from the library of Oxford University and uploaded to the Internet Archive by user tpb. Addeddate 2009-05-10 09:25:53 Copyright-region US Identifier qhoratiflacciop00flacgoog Identifier-ark ark:/13960/t3bz6kc13 Ocr ABBYY FineReader 8.0 Pages 849 Possible copyright status NOT_IN_COPYRIGHT Ppi 600 Scandate 20060804 Scanner google Source http://books.google.com/books?id=hFsCAAAAQAAJ&oe=UTF-8 Year 1864 plus-circle Add Review comment Reviews There are no reviews yet. Be the first one to write a review. 2,200 Views DOWNLOAD OPTIONS download 1 file ABBYY GZ download download 1 file DAISY download For print-disabled users download 1 file EPUB download download 1 file FULL TEXT download download 1 file ITEM TILE download download 1 file KINDLE download download 1 file PDF download download 1 file SINGLE PAGE PROCESSED JP2 ZIP download download 1 file TORRENT download download 13 Files download 6 Original SHOW ALL IN COLLECTIONS European Libraries Uploaded by Unknown on May 10, 2009 SIMILAR ITEMS (based on metadata) Terms of Service (last updated 12/31/2014) 
archive-org-9876	----	Horace and the dialectic of freedom : readings in Epistles 1 : Johnson, W. R. (Walter Ralph), 1933- : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive Skip to main content See what's new with book lending at the Internet Archive Can You Chip In? In 2020 the Internet Archive has seen unprecedented use—and we need your help. When the COVID-19 pandemic hit, our bandwidth demand skyrocketed. Right now we’re getting over 1.5 million daily unique visitors and storing more than 70 petabytes of data. We build and maintain all our own systems, but we don’t charge for access, sell user information, or run ads. Instead, we rely on individual generosity to fund our infrastructure; we're powered by donations averaging $32. Unfortunately, fewer than 1 in 1000 of our patrons donate. We don't ask often, but right now, we have a 2-to-1 Matching Gift Campaign, tripling the impact of every donation. If each of our users gave just $5, we could end this fundraiser today—so if you find all these bits and bytes useful, please pitch in. We know it's been a difficult year, and we understand if you can't afford to contribute. But if you can afford to lend a hand, I promise it will be money well spent. Thank you for your support. —Brewster Kahle, Founder, Internet Archive Continue Maybe later Send me an email reminder Email address (required) Please enter a valid email address. First name Last name Submit By submitting, you agree to receive donor-related emails from the Internet Archive. Your privacy is important to us. We do not sell or trade your information with anyone. A line drawing of the Internet Archive headquarters building façade. An illustration of a magnifying glass. An illustration of a magnifying glass. An illustration of a horizontal line over an up pointing arrow. Upload An illustration of a person's head and chest. Sign up | Log in An illustration of a computer application window Wayback Machine An illustration of an open book. Books An illustration of two cells of a film strip. Video An illustration of an audio speaker. Audio An illustration of a 3.5" floppy disk. Software An illustration of two photographs. Images An illustration of a heart shape Donate An illustration of text ellipses. More An icon used to represent a menu that can be toggled by interacting with this icon. About Blog Projects Help Donate An illustration of a heart shape Contact Jobs Volunteer People Search Metadata Search text contents Search TV news captions Search archived websites Advanced Search Sign up for free Log in Horace and the dialectic of freedom : readings in Epistles 1 Item Preview remove-circle Share or Embed This Item EMBED EMBED (for wordpress.com hosted blogs and archive.org item <description> tags) [archiveorg horacedialectico00john width=560 height=384 frameborder=0 webkitallowfullscreen=true mozallowfullscreen=true] Want more? Advanced embedding details, examples, and help! No_Favorite share flag Flag this item for Graphic Violence Graphic Sexual Content texts Horace and the dialectic of freedom : readings in Epistles 1 by Johnson, W. R. (Walter Ralph), 1933- Publication date 1993 Topics Horace. Epistulae, Horace -- Political and social views, Epistolary poetry, Latin -- History and criticism, Political poetry, Latin -- History and criticism, Liberty in literature, Dialectic, Rome -- In literature Publisher Ithaca, N.Y. : Cornell University Press Collection inlibrary; printdisabled; cornelluniversitypress; americana Digitizing sponsor The Arcadia Fund Contributor Cornell University Press Language English xi, 172 p Includes bibliographical references and index Access-restricted-item true Addeddate 2018-08-07 20:46:29 Bookplateleaf 0006 External-identifier urn:oclc:record:861792600 Foldoutcount 0 Identifier horacedialectico00john Identifier-ark ark:/13960/t17m7dn7z Invoice 1605 Isbn 0801428688 Lccn 93017894 Ocr ABBYY FineReader 11.0 (Extended OCR) Openlibrary_edition OL1409268M Openlibrary_work OL2904469W Page-progression lr Pages 202 Ppi 300 Republisher_date 20180814102927 Republisher_operator associate-joseph-ondreicka@archive.org Republisher_time 167 Scandate 20180814132839 Scanner scribe1.nj.archive.org Scanningcenter nj Tts_version v1.58-final-25-g44facaa Show More Show Less Full catalog record MARCXML plus-circle Add Review comment Reviews There are no reviews yet. Be the first one to write a review. 32 Previews 3 Favorites DOWNLOAD OPTIONS download 1 file ENCRYPTED DAISY download For print-disabled users 14 day loan required to access EPUB and PDF files. IN COLLECTIONS Books to Borrow Books for People with Print Disabilities Cornell University Press American Libraries Uploaded by associate-cheri-destefano on August 7, 2018 SIMILAR ITEMS (based on metadata) Terms of Service (last updated 12/31/2014) 
ar-wikipedia-org-9664	----	هوراس - ويكيبيديا هوراس من ويكيبيديا، الموسوعة الحرة اذهب إلى التنقل اذهب إلى البحث لمعانٍ أخرى، انظر هوراس (توضيح). هوراس (باللاتينية: Q. Horatius Flaccus)‏    هوراس كما تخيله الرسام أنتون ألكساندر فون فرن    معلومات شخصية الميلاد 8 ديسمبر 65 ق م[1][2][3]  فينوسا[4][5]  الوفاة 27 نوفمبر 8 (-58 سنة) [1][6]  روما  مكان الدفن روما  مواطنة روما القديمة  الحياة العملية تعلم لدى أقراطيبوس[7]  المهنة شاعر[5][8]،  وكاتب[9]،  وفيلسوف  اللغات اللاتينية[9]  بوابة الأدب تعديل مصدري - تعديل   كوينتس هوراتيوس فلاكس أو هوراس (باللاتينية: Qvintvs Horativs Flaccvs؛ 8 ديسمبر 65 ق.م. في فينوسا - 27 نوفمبر 8 ق.م. في روما) كان شاعراً غنائياً وناقداً أدبياً لاتينياً من رومانيا القديمة في زمن أغسطس قيصر، قيل بأن له تأثير على الشعر الإنجليزي. أصر هوراس على أن الشعر يجب أن يقدم السعادة والإرشاد. عُرف الشاعر بالقصائد الغنائية والمقطوعات الهجائية. نشأته[عدل] ولد هوراس في 8 ديسمبر من العام 65 قبل الميلاد، في فينوسيا (تقع الآن في إيطاليا)، وكان ابناً لعبد محرر، ولكنه ولد حراً. أهدر والده الكثير من ماله حتى يتلقى هوراس تعليمه في روما ثم بعثه إلى أثينا ليدرس الإغريقية والفلسفة. قاتل هوراس إلى جانب جيش بروتوس الثائر بسبب اغتيال يوليوس قيصر. تضمنت أعماله الأولى كتب من المقطوعات الهجائية والإبود، ولكن أعماله حول القصائد الغنائية جعلته يشتهر بشكل كبير، ومن بينها بحث "أرس بويتيكا" (Ars poetica) الذي احتوى على قواعد لتركيب الشعر. كتبه تتحدث غالباً عن الحب والصداقة والفلسفة، وأثرت أعماله على الغرب منذ عصر النهضة حتى القرن 19. نجح هوراس نجاحاً باهراً في حياته. ففي حوالي الثالثة والعشرين كان قائداً لكتيبة في جيش بروتوس وكاسيوس اللذين انتصر عليهما أنطونيوس في فيليبي سنة 42 قبل الميلاد، وعلى الرغم من ذلك، استقبل لدى عودته إلى روما استقبالاً حسناً، حيث نعم برعاية ميسيناس، وقدم إلى اغسطس في وقت لاحق، وكان الإمبراطور يستمتع بأشعاره، وكان معظمها ساخراً وهجاء، يبعث على السرور والمرح .[10][11] روابط خارجية[عدل] هوراس على موقع Encyclopædia Britannica Online (الإنجليزية) هوراس على موقع MusicBrainz (الإنجليزية) هوراس على موقع NNDB people (الإنجليزية) هوراس على موقع المكتبة المفتوحة (الإنجليزية) مراجع[عدل] ↑ أ ب http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/quinto-orazio-flacco_(Enciclopedia-Italiana)/ ^ http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/quinto-orazio-flacco_(Enciclopedia-Italiana)/ — العنوان : Horatii — نشر في: القاموس الحقيقي للآثار الكلاسيكية للوبكر — إقتباس: ... родился в 689 г. от основания города, т. е. в 65 г. до Р. Х. 8 декабря в Венузии ... ^ http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/quinto-orazio-flacco_(Enciclopedia-Italiana)/ — المؤلف: William Young Sellar و James Gow — العنوان : Horace — نشر في: الموسوعة البريطانية نسخة سنة 1911 — إقتباس: ... was born on the 8th of December 65 B.C. at Venusia ... ^ العنوان : Horatii — نشر في: القاموس الحقيقي للآثار الكلاسيكية للوبكر ↑ أ ب المؤلف: William Young Sellar و James Gow — العنوان : Horace — نشر في: الموسوعة البريطانية نسخة سنة 1911 ^ http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/quinto-orazio-flacco_(Enciclopedia-Italiana)/ — العنوان : Horatii — نشر في: القاموس الحقيقي للآثار الكلاسيكية للوبكر — إقتباس: Поэт, согласно предсказанию, которое он дал Меценату, умер вскоре после смерти последнего, когда ему было почти 57 лет, 27 ноября в 8 г. до Р. Х. ^ الصفحة: 502 — نشر في: Dictionnaire des philosophes antiques ^ BeWeb person ID: https://www.beweb.chiesacattolica.it/persone/persona/518/ — تاريخ الاطلاع: 4 أغسطس 2020 ↑ أ ب BeWeb person ID: https://www.beweb.chiesacattolica.it/persone/persona/518/ — الناشر: SISMEL – Edizioni del Galluzzo وسم <ref> غير صالح؛ الاسم "7866baa1d2a4db2b7f60b6a8170ce8b8f1a580e9" معرف أكثر من مرة بمحتويات مختلفة. ^ صانعو التاريخ - سمير شيخاني . ^ 1000 شخصية عظيمة - ترجمة د.مازن طليمات . هوراس على مواقع التواصل الاجتماعي هوراس  على جود ريدز. هوراس  على كورا. ع ن ت مواضيع روما القديمة العصور التأسيس المملكة الرومانية الثورة الجمهورية الرومانية الإمبراطورية الرومانية ( الجدول الزمني السلام الروماني عهد الزعامة عهد السيادة انهيار الإمبراطورية الرومانية) الإمبراطورية الرومانية الغربية (السقوط) الإمبراطورية البيزنطية الدستور مجلس الشيوخ الروماني المجالس التشريعية الكيوريت Century Tribal عامة الشعب الحكومة Curia منتدى (روماني) هرم المناصب Collegiality الإمبراطور ليغاتوس دوكس أوفيسيوم البريفيكتوس الفيقار إمبراتور الأغسطس القيصر الحكم الرباعي أوبتيميتس ببيولاريس القُضاة عادي أطربون كويستور بريتور قنصل رقيب حاكم بديل استثنائي دكتاتور ركس إنتركس قائد الفرسان عشرة رجال القانون اللوائح الاثنا عشر موس مايوروم روم (شعب) أوكتوريتاس العسكرية حدود التأسيس التاريخ البنائي لقوة الرومان العسكرية الحملات السيطرة السياسية كاسترا الجيش الروماني فيلق روماني تكتيكات المشاة Siege engines التقنية Abacus أرقام رومانية هندسة رومانية خرسانة رومانية طوب روماني الهندسة العسكرية مجرى مائي مرفوع الجسور سيرك منتدى (روماني) التعدين طرق رومانية ثرمي الحضارة العمارة الفن قصات الشعر مؤسسة إديوكيت ناو الأدب الموسيقى الميثولوجيا الدين الثقافة المجتمع العشائر الجمعية القبلية نساء الحضارة الرومانية الزواج التبني العبودية لغة لاتينية التاريخ ألفبائية لاتينية لغات رومنسية الإصدارات القديمة العصور الوسطى النهضة الجديدة الحديثة الكٌتّاب لوكيوس أبوليوس يوليوس قيصر شيشرون هوراس تيتوس ليفيوس لوكريتيوس أوفيد بلينيوس الأكبر بلينيوس الأصغر كينتيليان سالوست سنكا تاسيتس ترنتيوس فيرجيل فيتروفيو كتولوس إينيوس جوفينال لوكان مارتياليس بترونيوس بلاتوس بروبرتيوس كينتيليان ستاتيوس سويتونيوس تيبولوس فارو القوائم الحروب قائمة الأباطرة الرومان المؤسسات مدن رئيسية الإسكندرية أنطاكية (مدينة تاريخية) أكويليا (مدينة) بولونيا قرطاج القسطنطينية لبدة الكبرى بلاد الغال لاندنوم (مدينة) مدينوليوم (مدينة) بومبي رافينا روما سميرنا ضبط استنادي WorldCat BIBSYS: 90055203 BNC: 000035928 BNE: XX891549 BNF: cb11886570b (data) CANTIC: a10101214 CiNii: DA00782980 EGAXA: vtls000023274 GND: 118553569 ISNI: 0000 0001 2145 2178 LCCN: n79081354 LNB: 000000375 MusicBrainz: af616f1f-6242-4802-a1bf-8d3f0647083c NDL: 00540086 NKC: jn20000603003 NLA: 35206138 NLG: 62641 NLI: 000064806 NLK: KAC199612791 NLP: A11793144 NSK: 000013522 NTA: 068304579 RERO: 02-A000081296 RLS: 000083136 RSL: 000083136 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\000246 SELIBR: 189659 SNAC: w6pk0m9c SUDOC: 026659166 Trove: 864697 ULAN: 500404135 VIAF: 100227522 J9U: 987007262986605171 بوابة فلسفة بوابة أعلام بوابة أدب بوابة شعر بوابة حضارات قديمة بوابة روما القديمة هذه بذرة مقالة عن شاعر روماني قديم بحاجة للتوسيع. شارك في تحريرها. هوراس في المشاريع الشقيقة صور وملفات صوتية من كومنز مجلوبة من "https://ar.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=هوراس&oldid=49580689" تصنيفات: مواليد 65 ق م مواليد في فينوسا وفيات 8 وفيات بعمر -58 مواليد 65 وفيات في روما هوراس أشخاص من فينوسا جنود رومان قدماء رومان في القرن 1 ق م شعراء العصر الروماني شعراء القرن 1 ق م كتاب القرن 1 ق م كتاب باللغة اللاتينية نقاد أدبيون قدماء وفيات 8 ق م هوراتي وكورياتي تصنيفات مخفية: صفحات تستعمل قالبا ببيانات مكررة صفحات بأخطاء في المراجع صفحات بها بيانات ويكي بيانات صفحات ويكي بيانات بحاجة لتسمية عربية مقالات تحتوي نصا باللاتينية صفحات تستخدم خاصية P1559 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P18 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P2096 مواليد 8 ديسمبر صفحات بها مراجع ويكي بيانات صفحات تستخدم خاصية P569 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P19 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P570 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P20 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P119 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P27 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P1066 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P106 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P1412 مقالات تستعمل روابط فنية ببيانات من ويكي داتا صفحات تستخدم خاصية P1417 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P434 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P1263 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P648 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P2963 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P3417 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P1015 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P1890 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P268 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P1273 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P1309 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P227 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P213 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P244 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P1368 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P349 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P691 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P409 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P3348 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P949 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P5034 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P1695 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P1375 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P1006 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P3065 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P396 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P906 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P3430 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P1315 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P245 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P214 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P8189 بوابة فلسفة/مقالات متعلقة بوابة أعلام/مقالات متعلقة بوابة أدب/مقالات متعلقة بوابة شعر/مقالات متعلقة بوابة حضارات قديمة/مقالات متعلقة بوابة روما القديمة/مقالات متعلقة جميع المقالات التي تستخدم شريط بوابات جميع مقالات البذور بذرة شاعر روماني قديم قائمة التصفح أدوات شخصية غير مسجل للدخول نقاش مساهمات إنشاء حساب دخول نطاقات مقالة نقاش المتغيرات معاينة اقرأ عدل تاريخ المزيد بحث الموسوعة الصفحة الرئيسية الأحداث الجارية أحدث التغييرات أحدث التغييرات الأساسية تصفح المواضيع أبجدي بوابات مقالة عشوائية تصفح بدون إنترنت مشاركة تواصل مع ويكيبيديا مساعدة الميدان تبرع أدوات ماذا يصل هنا تغييرات ذات علاقة رفع ملف الصفحات الخاصة وصلة دائمة معلومات الصفحة استشهد بهذه الصفحة عنصر ويكي بيانات طباعة/تصدير إنشاء كتاب تحميل PDF نسخة للطباعة في مشاريع أخرى ويكيميديا كومنز لغات Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 عدل الوصلات آخر تعديل لهذه الصفحة كان يوم 8 أغسطس 2020، الساعة 05:07. النصوص منشورة برخصة المشاع الإبداعي. طالع شروط الاستخدام للتفاصيل. سياسة الخصوصية حول ويكيبيديا إخلاء مسؤولية نسخة المحمول المطورون إحصائيات بيان تعريف الارتباطات 
arz-wikipedia-org-4843	----	هوراتيوس - ويكيبيديا هوراتيوس من ويكيبيديا، الموسوعه الحره اذهب إلى التنقل اذهب إلى البحث هوراتيوس (باللاتينى: Q. Horatius Flaccus)    هوراس كما تخيله الرسام أنتون ألكساندر فون فرن    معلومات شخصيه الميلاد 8 ديسمبر 65 ق م[1][2][3]  فينوسا[4][5]  الوفاة 27 نوفمبر 8 ق م[1][6]  روما  مكان الدفن روما  مواطنه روما القديمة  الحياه العمليه اتعلم عند أقراطيبوس[7]  المهنه شاعر[5][8]،  وكاتب[9]،  وفيلسوف  اللغات المحكيه او المكتوبه لاتينى[9]  تعديل  هوراتيوس كوينتوس هوراتيوس فلاكوس(Quintus Horatius Flaccus) (اتولد فينوزا ، 8 ديسمبر 65 ق م – مات روما ، 27 نوفمبر 8 ق م)كان شاعر رومانى قديم مشهور ايام اوجوستوس. مصادر[تعديل] ↑ أ ب http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/quinto-orazio-flacco_(Enciclopedia-Italiana)/ ↑ http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/quinto-orazio-flacco_(Enciclopedia-Italiana)/ — العنوان : Horatii — نشر في: القاموس الحقيقي للآثار الكلاسيكية للوبكر — إقتباس: ... родился в 689 г. от основания города, т. е. в 65 г. до Р. Х. 8 декабря в Венузии ... ↑ http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/quinto-orazio-flacco_(Enciclopedia-Italiana)/ — المؤلف: William Young Sellar و James Gow — العنوان : Horace — نشر في: الموسوعة البريطانية نسخة سنة 1911 — إقتباس: ... was born on the 8th of December 65 B.C. at Venusia ... ↑ العنوان : Horatii — نشر في: القاموس الحقيقي للآثار الكلاسيكية للوبكر ↑ أ ب المؤلف: William Young Sellar و James Gow — العنوان : Horace — نشر في: الموسوعة البريطانية نسخة سنة 1911 ↑ http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/quinto-orazio-flacco_(Enciclopedia-Italiana)/ — العنوان : Horatii — نشر في: القاموس الحقيقي للآثار الكلاسيكية للوبكر — إقتباس: Поэт, согласно предсказанию, которое он дал Меценату, умер вскоре после смерти последнего, когда ему было почти 57 лет, 27 ноября в 8 г. до Р. Х. ↑ الصفحة: 502 — نشر في: Dictionnaire des philosophes antiques ↑ BeWeb person ID: https://www.beweb.chiesacattolica.it/persone/persona/518/ — تاريخ الاطلاع: 4 اغسطس 2020 ↑ أ ب BeWeb person ID: https://www.beweb.chiesacattolica.it/persone/persona/518/ — الناشر: SISMEL – Edizioni del Galluzzo المرجع غلط: وسم <ref> غير صالح؛ الاسم "7866baa1d2a4db2b7f60b6a8170ce8b8f1a580e9" معرف أكثر من مرة بمحتويات مختلفة. فيه فايلات فى تصانيف ويكيميديا كومونز عن: هوراتيوس اتجابت من "https://arz.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=هوراتيوس&oldid=979550" تصانيف: مواليد 65 ق م مواليد 8 ديسمبر مواليد في فينوسا وفيات 8 ق م وفيات في روما شعرا طليان تصنيفات مستخبية: صفحات بأخطاء في المراجع مقالات تحتوي نصا باللاتينى صفحات بها بيانات ويكي بيانات مقالات تحتوي نصا بالروسى صفحات ويكي بيانات بحاجة لتسمية عربية مقالات تحتوي نصا بالانجليزى صفحات تستخدم خاصية P1559 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P18 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P2096 صفحات بها مراجع ويكي بيانات صفحات تستخدم خاصية P569 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P19 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P570 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P20 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P119 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P27 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P1066 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P106 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P1412 لستة التصفح ادوات شخصيه انت مش مسجل دخولك المناقشة مع عنوان الأيبى دا مساهمات افتح حساب دخول النطاقات صفحه مناقشه المتغيرات مناظر قرايه تعديل استعراض التاريخ اكتر تدوير استكشاف الصفحه الرئيسيه بوابات ويكيبيديا مصرى اخر التعديلات صفحة عشوائيه مساعده تواصل صالون المناقشه طريقة الكتابه احداث دلوقتى التبرعات علبة العده ايه بيوصل هنا تعديلات ليها علاقه ارفع فايل (upload file) صفح مخصوصه لينك دايم معلومات عن الصفحه استشهد بالصفحة دى عنصر ويكي بيانات اطبع/صدّر إعمل كتاب تنزيل PDF نسخه للطبع مشاريع تانيه ويكيميديا كومنز بلغات تانيه Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 عدل الوصلات الصفحه دى اتعدلت اخر مره فى 5 يناير 2020,‏ 09:36. النصوص متوفرة تحت رخصة التشارك الإبداع العزو/المشاركة بالمثل; ممكن تطبيق شروط إضافية. بص على شروط الاستخدام للتفاصيل. بوليسة الخصوصيه عن ويكيبيديا تنازل عن مسئوليه نسخة المحمول مطورين إحصائيات بيان تعريف الارتباطات 
ast-wikipedia-org-3537	----	Horaciu - Wikipedia Horaciu De Wikipedia Saltar a navegación Saltar a la gueta Horaciu Vida Nacimientu Venosa (es) [2], 8  d'avientuedC [2] Nacionalidá Antigua Roma Grupu étnicu antiguos romanos (es) Muerte Roma, 27  de payaresedC [1] (56 años) Sepultura Roma Familia Padre valor desconocíu Madre valor desconocíu Estudios Llingües llatín Alumnu de Cratipo de Pérgamo (es) Aristos of Ascalon (en) Oficiu Oficiu poeta, escritor, filósofu Llugares de trabayu Roma Trabayos destacaos Epístola a los Pisones (es) Quintu Horaciu Flaccu, en llatín Quintus Horatius Flaccus, conocíu tradicionalmente como Horaciu, (Venosa, 8 d'avientu de 65 e.C. - Brindisi, 27 de payares de 8 e.C.), ta consideráu como unu de los más grandes poetes romanos. Obres[editar | editar la fonte] Epodi Saturae Carmina Epístoles Carmen saeculare ↑ 1,0 1,1 1,2 «Q45181613» (en rusu). Real'nyj slovar' klassicheskih drevnostej po Ljubkeru.  ↑ 2,0 2,1 William Young Sellar. «EB-11 / Horace» (n'inglés). Encyclopædia Britannica de 1911.  ↑ URL de la referencia: http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/quinto-orazio-flacco_(Enciclopedia-Italiana)/. ↑ URL de la referencia: http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/quinto-orazio-flacco_(Enciclopedia-Italiana)/. Sacáu de «https://ast.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horaciu&oldid=3049465» Categoríes: Homes Escritores de la Roma antigua Categoría anubrida: Wikipedia:Páxines con etiquetes de Wikidata ensin traducir Menú de navegación Ferramientes personales Nun aniciasti sesión Alderique Contribuciones Crear una cuenta Entrar Espacios de nome Páxina Alderique Variantes Vistes Lleer Editar Editar la fonte Ver historial Más Buscar Navegación Portada Portal de la comunidá Fechos actuales Cambeos recientes Páxina al debalu Ayuda Ferramientes Lo qu'enllaza equí Cambios rellacionaos Xubir ficheru Páxines especiales Enllaz permanente Información de la páxina Citar esta páxina Elementu de Wikidata Imprentar/esportar Crear un llibru Descargar como PDF Versión pa imprentar N'otros proyeutos Wikimedia Commons N'otres llingües Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Editar los enllaces La última edición d'esta páxina foi el 26 set 2020, a les 08:51. El testu ta disponible baxo la Llicencia Creative Commons Reconocimientu/CompartirIgual 3.0; puen aplicase otres cláusules más. Llei les condiciones d'usu pa más detalles. Política d'intimidá Tocante a Wikipedia Avisu llegal Vista pa móvil Desendolcadores Estadístiques Declaración de cookies 
authority-bibsys-no-6258	----	Field Value System control number 90055203 autid x90055203 handle http://hdl.handle.net/11250/355163 scn 90055203 isni 0000000121452178 viaf http://viaf.org/viaf/100227522 bibbi 17146 Status kat3 Authority type PERSON Created date Tue Sep 21 00:00:00 CEST 2010 Last update date Wed Feb 19 17:36:06 CET 2020 Deleted false Personal name Horatius Flaccus, Quintus 386$a rom. 386$m Nasjonalitet/regional gruppe 386$2 bs-nasj Personal name (See From Tracing) Horats Personal name (See From Tracing) Flaccus, Quintus Horatius Personal name (See From Tracing) Horatz Personal name (See From Tracing) Horace Personal name (See From Tracing) Horaz Personal name (See From Tracing) Orazio Nonpublic general note Navneform hentet fra 'Greske og latinske navneformer innti Heading or subdivision term Poeta (65-8 f.Kr.) Latin. Carmen saeculare er del av verke 
azb-wikipedia-org-1928	----	هوراس - ویکی‌پدیا هوراس ویکی‌پدیا، آچیق بیلیک‌لیک‌دن پرش به ناوبری پرش به جستجو هوراس Horace, as imagined by Anton von Werner دؤغوم‌تاریخی December 8, 65 BC Venusia, Italy, روم جومهوریتی اؤلوم‌تاریخی November 27, 8 BC (age 56) روم یاشایش یئری Rome ایش Soldier, scriba quaestorius, شاعیر دیل Latin میللیت روم جومهوریتی دیرلی‌ایشلری Odes هوراس (اینگیلیسجه: Horace) شاعیر و یازیچی - ایچینده‌کیلر ۱ بیرده باخ ۲ قایناق‌لار ۳ ائشیک باغلانتی‌لار ۴ گؤرونتولر بیرده باخ[دَییشدیر] ادبی تنقیدچی ادبیات تاریخی ادبیات آخیملاری قایناق‌لار[دَییشدیر] اینگیلیسجه ویکی‌پدیاسی‌نین ایشلدنلری طرفیندن یارانمیش«Horace»، مقاله‌سیندن گؤتورولوبدور. (۲۲ آقوست ۲۰۱۷ تاریخینده یوْخلانیلیبدیر). ائشیک باغلانتی‌لار[دَییشدیر] قارداش پروژه‌لرده هوراس گؤره داها آرتیق بیلگی‌لر تاپابیلرسینیز. فایل‌لار ویکی‌آمباردا ب دان دییش ادبیات نؤعلری نثر آنی (خاطره) دوزیازی (نثر) ده‌نه‌مه الشتیری گزی گونلوک مقاله اؤیکو (حیکایه، داستان) رومان رومانس قیسا اؤیکو قیسا رومان حماسه اسطوره‌آفرینی طنز تراژدی نمایش‌نامه نوشتار بیوگرافی (شرح حال) پاورقی حکایت روایت تراژدی مثل مکتوب اوتوبیوگرافی رپورتاژ (گزارش) نظم پوئما داستان شعر غنایی مثنوی غزل قصیده قطعه رباعی مربع تویوق بایاتی گرایلی قوشما (تجنیس * دوداق‌ده‌یمز * قیفیل‌بند مخمس مسدس مسبع مثمن معشر مستزاد ترکیب‌بند ترجیع‌بند درام تراژدی (فاجعه) کومدی درام گؤرونتولر[دَییشدیر] «https://azb.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=هوراس&oldid=663985»-دن آلینمیش‌دیر بؤلمه: یازیچیلار گیزلی بؤلمه: اینگیلیس دیلی سؤزجوک‌لو مقاله‌لر دوْلانماق مِنوسو شخصی آراجلار گیرمه‌میسینیز دانیشیق چالیشمالار حساب آچ گیریش ائت آد فضالاری صفحه دانیشیق دئییش‌لر گؤرونوشلر اوْخو دَییشدیر گئچمیشه باخ بیشتر آختار دوْلانماق آنا صفحه کند مئیدانی ایندیکی حادیثه‌لر سوْن دَییشیکلیکلر تصادوفی صفحه کؤمک باغیشلا آلتلر بۇ صفحه‌‌يه باغلانتیلار باغلی دَییشیکلیک‌لر فایل یۆکله‌ اؤزل صفحه‌لر ثابیت لینک صفحه ایطلاعاتی بو صفحه‌دن آلینتی گؤتور ویکی‌دئیتا آیتمی چاپ ائت/ائشیگه چیخارت کیتاب یارات PDF کیمی ائندیر چاپ اۆچون نۆسخه آیری پروژه‌لرده ویکی‌انبار آیری دیل‌لرده Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 باغلانتیلاری دَییشدیر بۇ صفحه‌‌ سوْن دفعه ‏۵ دسامبر ۲۰۱۸، ‏۱۷:۱۰ تاریخینده دَییشدیریلمیشدیر. یازی Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License;آلتیندا‌دیر آرتیق شرطلر آرتیریلا بیلر. آرتیق ایطلاعات اوچون ایشلتمه شرطلرینه باخین. گیزلیلیک سیاستی ویکی‌پدیا-ه گؤره یالانلامالار موبایل نوسخه‌سی‌ گئنیشلدنلر آمار کوکی ایظهارنامه‌سی‌ 
bat-smg-wikipedia-org-5836	----	Huoracėjos - Wikipedia Huoracėjos Straipsnis ėš Vikipedėjės, encikluopedėjės žemaitėškā. Jump to navigation Jump to search Huoracėjos Huoracėjos (Quintus Horatius Flaccus, 65 m. pr. Kr. groudė 8 – 8 m. lapkristė 27 d.) – vėins žīmiausiu luotīnu kalba rašiosiu puetu. Gautė ėš „https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huoracėjos&oldid=304850“ Kateguorėjės: Antėkas puoetā Senuobės Ruomas rašītuojē Naršīma pasirinkėmā Asabėnē rakondā Neprėsėjongis Aptarėms Kūriejē Pasėdėrbtė paskīra Prėsėjongtė Vardū srėtis Poslapis Aptarėms Atmainā Parveizė̄jėmā Skaitītė Taisītė Taisītė straipsnė wiki teksta Istuorėjė Daugiau Ėiškuotė Naršīms Pėrms poslapis Kuolektīvs Vielībė̄jė pakeitėmā Bikuoks poslapis Pagelba Puoslaugis Rakondā Sosėjė̄ straipsnē Sosėjė̄ pakeitėmā Ožkrautė abruozdieli Specēlė̄jė poslapē Nūlatėnė nūruoda Poslapė infuormacėjė Cėtoutė ton poslapi Vikiduomenys īrašos Ėšgoldītė/Eksportoutė Dėrbtė kninga Siōstėis PDF skvarmuo Atmains spausdėnėmou Kėtūs tinklapiūs Vikiteka Kėtuom kalbuom Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Keistė nūruodas Tas poslapis paskotėni sīki parkeists 8 kuova 2013, 17:13. Vėskos īr pateikama vagol Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; gal būtė da ė papėlduomu ėšlīgu. Veiziekat nauduojėma sālīgas, ka būtō aiškiau. Privatoma puolitėka Aple Wikipedia Atsakuomībės aprėbuojims Parveiza so mobėlio telepuono Dėrbiejē Statistika Slapukų politika 
ba-wikipedia-org-8930	----	Гораций — Башҡорт Википедияһы Гораций Википедия — ирекле энциклопедия мәғлүмәте Перейти к навигации Перейти к поиску Saturae, 1577 Гора́ций, тулы исеме Квинт Гораций Флакк (лат. Quintus Horatius Flaccus) (б. э. т. 65, Венузия ҡ. (хәҙерге Италиялағы Базиликата регионында урынлашҡан) — б. э. т. 8, Рим) — Рим әҙәбиәтенең «алтын быуаттарындағы» шағир. Шиғриәте ваҡытындағы ваҡиғалар: Рим Республикаһы бөтөрөлөүе, Римдағы граждандар һуғышы. Был Боронғо Греция тураһында тамамланмаған мәҡәлә. Һеҙ мәҡәләне төҙәтеп һәм тулыландырып проектҡа ярҙам итә алаһығыҙ. https://ba.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Гораций&oldid=758819 ҡабул ителгән Категориялар: Римда вафат булғандар Боронғо Рим шағирҙары Б. э. т. I быуат шағирҙары Латин шағирҙары «Илаһи комедия» персонаждары Эстетиктар Йәшерен категория: Боронғо Греция тураһында тамамланмаған мәҡәләләр Навигация Шәхси ҡоралдар Танылмағанһығыҙ Әңгәмә Башҡарған эштәр Яңы ҡатнашыусыны теркәү Танылыу Исем арауыҡтары Мәҡәлә Фекер алышыу Варианттар Ҡарауҙар Уҡыу Үҙгәртергә Вики-тексты үҙгәртергә Тарихты ҡарау Тағы Эҙләү Төп йүнәлештәр Баш бит Алфавитлы күрһәткес Ағымдағы ваҡиғалар Мәҡәләләр Һайланған Яҡшы Сифатлы 1 000 мотлаҡ 10 000 әһәмиәтле Башҡортнамә Яңы мәҡәләләр Осраҡлы мәҡәлә Ҡатнашыу Берләшмә Ҡоролтай Һуңғы үҙгәртеүҙәр Белешмә Иғәнә Матди ярҙам Ҡоралдар Бында һылтанмалар Бәйле үҙгәртеүҙәр Махсус биттәр Даими һылтанма Бит мәғлүмәттәре Мәҡәләгә һылтанма яһа Викидата элементы Баҫтырырға/сығарырға Китап төҙөргә PDF форматында күсереп алырға Баҫтырыу өлгөһө Башҡа проекттарҙа Викимилек Башҡа телдәрҙә Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Һылтанмаларҙы төҙәт Был бит һуңғы тапҡыр 17:33 13 ноябрь 2017 үҙгәртелгән. Текст Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike лицензияһы шарттары буйынса асыҡ, айырым осраҡтарҙа өҫтәмә шарттар ғәмәлдә булырға мөмкин. Тулы мәғлүмәт өсөн ҡарағыҙ: Ҡулланыу шарттары. Сер һаҡлау сәйәсәте Википедия тураһында Яуаплылыҡтан баш тартыу Мобиль нөсхә Яһаусылар Статистика Cookie тураһында килешеү 
be-tarask-wikipedia-org-5496	----	Гарацыюс — Вікіпэдыя Гарацыюс Зьвесткі зь Вікіпэдыі — вольнай энцыкляпэдыі Перайсьці да навігацыі Перайсьці да пошуку Гарацыюс Асабістыя зьвесткі Нарадзіўся 8 сьнежня 65 да н. э.[1][2][3] Вэноза, Патэнца, Базыліката, Італія[2][3] Памёр 27 лістапада 8 да н. э.[1][2] (56 гадоў) Рым, Старажытны Рым Пахаваны Рым Бацькі невядома невядома Літаратурная дзейнасьць Род дзейнасьці паэт, пісьменьнік і філёзаф Мова лацінская мова[4] Гарацыюс у Вікісховішчы Квінт Гара́цыюс Флак (па-лацінску: Quintus Horatius Flaccus; 65 да н. э., Вэнузія, сёньня ў рэгіёне Базыліката, Італія — 8 да н. э., Рым) — рымскі паэт «залатога стагодзьдзя» рымскай літаратуры. Яго творчасьць прыпадае на эпоху грамадзянскіх войн канца рэспублікі і першыя дзесяцігодзьдзі новага рэжыма Актавіяна Аўгуста. Аўтар шматлікіх сатырычных і лірічных твораў, паэтычных пасланьняў (у тым ліку «Навука паэзіі» або «Пасланьне да Пізонаў»). Беларускія пераклады[рэдагаваць | рэдагаваць крыніцу] На беларускую мову яго творы перакладалі Максім Багдановіч (ода «Помнік»), Алесь Жлутка, Антон Францішак Брыль. Да Мецэната; Да Ліцынія Мурэны; Да Леўканоі // «Тутэйшыя». Мн., 1989; Крыніцы[рэдагаваць | рэдагаваць крыніцу] ^ а б http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/quinto-orazio-flacco_(Enciclopedia-Italiana)/ ^ а б в Любкер Ф. Horatii // Реальный словарь классических древностей по Любкеру / под ред. Ф. Ф. Зелинский, А. И. Георгиевский, М. С. Куторга и др. — СПб.: Общество классической филологии и педагогики, 1885. — С. 641–643.<a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q101490"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q45181613"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q694826"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q4135787"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q24933120"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q30059240"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q1459210"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q4249594"></a> ^ а б W. Y. S., J. G. Horace // Encyclopædia Britannica — 11 — NYC: 1911. — Vol. 13. — P. 687–691.<a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q60"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q50841769"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q867541"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q18511751"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q2581148"></a> ^ Mirabile: Digital Archives for Medieval Culture — SISMEL – Edizioni del Galluzzo.<a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q85138432"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q85135665"></a> Вонкавыя спасылкі[рэдагаваць | рэдагаваць крыніцу] Легкадумны заўсёды я. Выбраныя оды Нарматыўны кантроль BIBSYS: 90055203 BNC: 000035928 BNE: XX891549 BNF: cb11886570b (data) CANTIC: a10101214 CiNii: DA00782980 GND: 118553569 ISNI: 0000 0001 2145 2178 LCCN: n79081354 LNB: 000000375 MusicBrainz: af616f1f-6242-4802-a1bf-8d3f0647083c NDL: 00540086 NKČ: jn20000603003 NLA: 35206138 NLG: 62641 NLI: 000064806 NLK: KAC199612791 NLP: A11793144 NSK: 000013522 NTA: 068304579 RERO: 02-A000081296 RSL: 000083136 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\000246 SELIBR: 189659 SNAC: w6pk0m9c SUDOC: 026659166 Trove: 864697 ULAN: 500404135 VIAF: 100227522 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79081354 Гэта — накід артыкула пра пісьменьніка альбо пісьменьніцу. Вы можаце дапамагчы Вікіпэдыі, пашырыўшы яго. Атрымана з «https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Гарацыюс&oldid=2171521» Катэгорыі: Нарадзіліся 8 сьнежня Нарадзіліся ў 65 годзе да н. э. Нарадзіліся ў Італіі Памерлі 27 лістапада Памерлі ў 8 годзе да н. э. Памерлі ў Рыме Старажытнарымскія паэты Гарацыюс Схаваная катэгорыя: Вікіпэдыя:Накіды:Пісьменьнікі і пісьменьніцы Навігацыйнае мэню Асабістыя прылады Вы не ўвайшлі ў сыстэму Гутаркі Унёсак Стварыць рахунак Увайсьці Прасторы назваў Артыкул Абмеркаваньне Варыянты Рэжымы Чытаць Рэдагаваць Рэдагаваць крыніцу Паказаць гісторыю Болей Пошук Навігацыя Галоўная старонка Выпадковы артыкул Рубрыкацыя Абраныя артыкулы Удзел Паведаміць пра памылку Паведаміць пра памылку Форум Апошнія зьмены Новыя старонкі Дапамога Ахвяраваньні Інструмэнты Спасылкі на старонку Зьвязаныя рэдагаваньні Спэцыяльныя старонкі Сталая спасылка Зьвесткі пра старонку Цытаваць старонку Аб’ект Вікізьвестак Друк/экспарт Стварыць кнігу Загрузіць як PDF Вэрсія для друку У іншых праектах Вікісховішча На іншых мовах Afrikaans አማርኛ العربية Aragonés Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Беларуская Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά English Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Монгол Nāhuatl Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Sardu Seeltersk Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Tarandíne Татарча/tatarça Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon Winaray 吴语 粵語 Zazaki Žemaitėška 中文 Правіць спасылкі Гэтая старонка апошні раз рэдагавалася 26 сьнежня 2020 году ў 00:05. Гэты тэкст даступны на ўмовах ліцэнзіі Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike 3.0; у асобных выпадках могуць ужывацца дадатковыя ўмовы. Глядзіце падрабязнасьці ва Ўмовах выкарыстаньня. Wikipedia® — зарэгістраваны гандлёвы знак Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., некамэрцыйнай арганізацыі. Палітыка прыватнасьці Пра Вікіпэдыю Адмова ад адказнасьці Мабільная вэрсія Распрацоўнікі Statistics Дамова пра файлы-кукі 
be-wikipedia-org-3485	----	Гарацый — Вікіпедыя Гарацый З пляцоўкі Вікіпедыя Jump to navigation Jump to search Гарацый лац.: Q. Horatius Flaccus Гарацый (Карціна Антона фон Вернера) Асабістыя звесткі Дата нараджэння 8 снежня 65 да н.э.[1][2][3] Месца нараджэння Веноза[d], правінцыя Патэнца[d], Базіліката, Італія[2][3] Дата смерці 27 лістапада 8 да н.э.[1][2] (56 гадоў) Месца смерці Рым, Рымская імперыя, Старажытны Рым Пахаванне Рым Грамадзянства Старажытны Рым Бацька невядома Маці невядома Прафесійная дзейнасць Род дзейнасці паэт, пісьменнік, філосаф Мова твораў лацінская мова Творы ў Вікікрыніцах  Выявы на Вікісховішчы Цытаты ў Вікіцытатніку Гарацый, Квінт Гарацый Флакк (лац.: Quintus Horatius Flaccus; 8 снежня 65 да н.э., Венузія, сёння ў рэгіёне Базіліката, Італія — 27 лістапада 8 да н.э., Рым) — рымскі паэт «залатога стагоддзя» рымскай літаратуры. Яго творчасць прыпадае на эпоху грамадзянскіх войн канца рэспублікі і першыя дзесяцігоддзі новага рэжыма Актавіяна Аўгуста. Аўтар шматлікіх сатырычных і лірічных твораў, паэтычных пасланняў (у тым ліку "Навука паэзіі" або "Пасланне да Пізонаў"). Змест 1 Жыццё 2 Творчасць 3 Беларускія пераклады 4 Зноскі 5 Літаратура 6 Спасылкі Жыццё[правіць | правіць зыходнік] Гарацый нарадзіўся ў Венузіі ў сям'і вольнаадпушчаніка. Праз пэўны час бацька паэта перабраўся ў Рым, дзе працаваў пасярэднікам пры куплях. Дзякуючы гэтаму, ён змог даць сыну бліскучую адукацыю: той навучаўся спачатку ў Рыме, а пасля ў Афінах. Пасля гібелі Цэзара малады Гарацый далучыўся да войска Марка Юнія Брута, і ў якасці афіцэра ўдзельнічаў у бітве пры Філіпах; войска было разбітае, Брут учыніў самагубства, а Гарацый здолеў уратаваць жыццё ўцёкамі. Пасля абвяшчэння амністыі для ворагаў пераможнага Аўгуста Гарацый вярнуўся ў Італію. Ягоная маёмасць была канфіскаваная, аднак ён здолеў атрымаць чыноўніцкую пасаду, якая давала яму дастаткова сродкаў для жыцця і творчасці. Праз знаёмства з Вергіліем Гарацый увайшоў у кола сяброў Мецэната, які ўзяў на сябе клопат пра матэрыяльнае ўладкаванне паэта, падарыўшы таму маёнтак каля Тыбура. Паступова перайшоў на пазіцыі цэзарызму. Памёр Гарацый у Рыме ва ўзросце 56 год. Творчасць[правіць | правіць зыходнік] «Эподы» Гарацыя — ямбічныя вершы разнастайнага зместу, лепшыя з якіх заклікалі да згоды і міру, і 2 кнігі «Сатыр» («Гутарак») на філасофска-этычныя тэмы створаны паміж 41 і 30 да н.э. Грамадзянскім, філасофскім, велічальным (усхвалялі Мецэната і імператара Аўгуста), любоўным, сяброўскім і застольным одам Гарацыя («Песні», кн. 1—3, 23 да н.э., кн. 4, 17—13 да н.э.) уласцівы яскравая вобразнасць, тонкі гумар, вьгганчанасць мовы і кампазіцыі, рытмічнае багацце. Для твораў Гарацыя характэрны культ суладдзя, мудрай разважлівасці («залатой сярэдзіны») і прыгажосці. У «Пасланні да Пізонаў» («Навука паэзіі», увайшло ў «Пасланні», кн. 1—2, 20—13 да н.э.) выклаў свае эстэтычныя прынцыпы, якія былі ўзяты за аснову тэарэтычнай праграмы еўрапейскага класіцызму. На беларускую мову яго творы перакладалі М. Багдановіч (ода «Помнік»), А. Жлутка, А. Ф. Брыль. Беларускія пераклады[правіць | правіць зыходнік] Да Мецэната; Да Ліцынія Мурэны; Да Леўканоі // «Тутэйшыя». Мн., 1989; Зноскі ↑ 1,0 1,1 http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/quinto-orazio-flacco_(Enciclopedia-Italiana)/ ↑ 2,0 2,1 2,2 Любкер Ф. Horatii // Реальный словарь классических древностей по Любкеру / под ред. Ф. Ф. Зелинский, А. И. Георгиевский, М. С. Куторга и др. — СПб.: Общество классической филологии и педагогики, 1885. — С. 641–643.<a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q101490"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q45181613"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q694826"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q4135787"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q24933120"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q30059240"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q1459210"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q4249594"></a> ↑ 3,0 3,1 W. Y. S., J. G. Horace // Encyclopædia Britannica — 11 — NYC: 1911. — Vol. 13. — P. 687–691.<a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q60"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q50841769"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q867541"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q18511751"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q2581148"></a> Літаратура[правіць | правіць зыходнік] Малюковіч С. Гарацый // БелЭн у 18 т. Т. 5. Мн., 1997. Спасылкі[правіць | правіць зыходнік] На Вікісховішчы ёсць медыяфайлы па тэме Гарацый Біяграфія і вершы Гарацыя на сайце часопіса «ПрайдзіСвет»     Тэматычныя сайты Discogs · International Music Score Library Project · MusicBrainz · Project Gutenberg · Project Gutenberg Слоўнікі і энцыклапедыі Вялікая каталанская · Вялікая нарвежская · Вялікая расійская · Вялікая савецкая (1 выд.) · Бракгаўза і Ефрона · Малы Бракгаўза і Ефрона · Рэальны слоўнік класічных старажытнасцяў · Britannica (11-th) · Britannica (онлайн) · Brockhaus · Notable Names Database · Treccani · Universalis · Universalis Нарматыўны кантроль BAV: ADV12139878, ADV11561527, ADV11452220 · BIBSYS: 90055203 · BNC: a10101214 · BNE: XX891549 · BNF: 11886570b · CiNii: DA00782980 · CONOR: 8323171 · EGAXA: vtls000023274 · GND: 118553569 · ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\000246 · ISNI: 0000 0001 2145 2178 · LCCN: n79081354, no92010069 · LNB: 000000375 · NDL: 00540086 · NKC: jn20000603003 · NLA: 35206138 · NLG: 62641 · NLP: A11793144 · NSK: 000013522 · NTA: 068304579 · NUKAT: n96210540 · PTBNP: 19592 · РДБ: 000083136, 000039740 · LIBRIS: 189659 · SUDOC: 026659166 · VIAF: 100227522, 2130151778256418130004 · ULAN: 500404135 · WorldCat VIAF: 100227522, 2130151778256418130004 Узята з "https://be.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Гарацый&oldid=3759177" Катэгорыі: Нарадзіліся 8 снежня Нарадзіліся ў 65 годзе да н.э. Нарадзіліся ў правінцыі Патэнца Памерлі 27 лістапада Памерлі ў 8 годзе да н.э. Памерлі ў Рыме Пахаваныя ў Рыме Асобы Пісьменнікі паводле алфавіта Гарацый Лацінамоўныя паэты Паэты Старажытнага Рыма Паэты I стагоддзя да н.э. Паэтыка Персанажы «Боскай камедыі» Асобы на марках Эстэтыкі Схаваная катэгорыя: Вікіпедыя:Артыкулы з крыніцамі з Вікідадзеных Навігацыя Асабістыя прылады Не ўвайшоў Размовы Уклад Стварыць уліковы запіс Увайсці Прасторы назваў Артыкул Размовы Варыянты Віды Чытаць Правіць Правіць зыходнік Паказаць гісторыю More Знайсці Навігацыя Галоўная старонка Супольнасць Апошнія змены Новыя старонкі Форум Выпадковая старонка Даведка Ахвяраванні Паведаміць пра памылку Прылады Сюды спасылаюцца Звязаныя праўкі Адмысловыя старонкі Нязменная спасылка Звесткі пра старонку Цытаваць гэту старонку Элемент Вікідадзеных Друк/экспарт Стварыць кнігу Загрузіць як PDF Для друку У іншых праектах Вікісховішча Вікіцытатнік Вікікрыніцы На іншых мовах Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Правіць спасылкі Апошняе змяненне старонкі адбылося 16:14, 20 снежня 2020. Тэкст даступны на ўмовах ліцэнзіі Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike, у асобных выпадках могуць дзейнічаць дадатковыя ўмовы. Падрабязней гл. Умовы выкарыстання. Палітыка прыватнасці Пра Вікіпедыю Адмова ад адказнасці Мабільная версія Распрацоўшчыкі Statistics Cookie statement 
bg-wikipedia-org-4315	----	Хораций – Уикипедия Хораций от Уикипедия, свободната енциклопедия Направо към навигацията Направо към търсенето ХорацийQ. Horatius Flaccus древноримски писател Роден 8 декември 65 г. пр.н.е. Венусия, дн.Италия Починал 27 ноември 8 г. пр.н.е. (58 г.) Рим, Италия Погребан Рим, Италия Семейство Баща неизвестна Майка неизвестна Хораций в Общомедия Квинт Хораций Флак (на лат. Quintus Horatius Flaccus) или Хораций е римски поет от Златния век на римската литература. Неговото творчество обхваща революционната епоха на Древен Рим – края на републиката и първото десетилетие на новия режим на Октавиан Август. Бащата на Хораций е бил земевладелец, освободен роб. Съумял да даде на сина си солидно образование в училищата в Рим, откъдето бъдещия поет тръгнал към Атина, за да се усъвършенства. Там Хораций попаднал сред средите на републикански настроени аристократични младежи. През 42 г. пр.н.е. той взема участие в решителната битка при Филипи (в Македония) (между силите на Марк Антоний и Октавиан Август срещу тези на Марк Юний Брут и Касий) След поражението на републиканците и дадената амнистия за билите се на страната на загубилия, Хораций се връща в Италия, където разбира, че баща му е мъртъв, а имотите им са конфискувани. За да се издържа, става писар. Вергилий го въвежда в кръга на Меценат, който става негов приятел и покровител и го представя на Октавиан. От републиканец Хораций става поддръжник на монархията. На Хораций принадлежи репликата Carpe diem (Наслаждавай се на момента). Изследвания[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Костова, Мария. Правото в поезията на Хораций. С., 2010. Костова, Мария. Правният език и правните ситуации като стилистично средство в поезията на Хораций. – В: Езици и култури в диалог: Традиции, приемственост, новаторство. Конференция, посветена на 120-годишната история на преподаването на класически и нови филологии в Софийския университет „Св. Климент Охридски“. С., УИ, 2010, Външни препратки[редактиране | редактиране на кода] ((la)) Произведения на Хораций Уикицитат съдържа колекция от цитати от/за Хораций. Тази статия, свързана с Древен Рим, все още е мъниче. Помогнете на Уикипедия, като я редактирате и разширите. Тази статия за писател все още е мъниче. Помогнете на Уикипедия, като я редактирате и разширите. Взето от „https://bg.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Хораций&oldid=10308455“. Категория: Древноримски поети Скрити категории: Родени през 65 година пр.н.е. Родени на 8 декември Починали през 8 година пр.н.е. Починали на 27 ноември Мъничета за Древен Рим Мъничета за писатели Навигация Лични инструменти Не сте влезли в системата Беседа Приноси Създаване на сметка Влизане Именни пространства Статия Беседа Варианти Прегледи Преглед Редактиране Редактиране на кода История Още Търсене Навигация Начална страница Случайна статия За Уикипедия Блог на общността Страница за контакт Направете дарение Участвайте Защо? Помощ Изпробване Последни промени Нова статия GitHub Общувайте Общи разговори Обсъждани статии Фейсбук група Дискорд IRC Инструменти Какво сочи насам Свързани промени Качване на файл Специални страници Постоянна препратка Информация за страницата Цитиране на статията Обект в Уикиданни Отпечатване/изнасяне Създаване на книга Изтегляне като PDF Версия за печат В други проекти Общомедия Уикицитат На други езици Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Редактиране Последната промяна на страницата е извършена на 25 май 2020 г. в 05:44 ч. Текстът е достъпен под лиценза Creative Commons Признание-Споделяне на споделеното; може да са приложени допълнителни условия. За подробности вижте Условия за ползване. Поверителност За контакт с Уикипедия Предупреждение Мобилен изглед За разработчици Статистика Използване на „бисквитки“ 
books-google-com-3633	----	Brill's Companion to Horace - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Get print book No eBook available Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound Find in a library All sellers » 0 ReviewsWrite review Brill's Companion to Horace edited by Hans-Christian Günther   About this book Get Textbooks on Google Play Rent and save from the world's largest eBookstore. Read, highlight, and take notes, across web, tablet, and phone. Go to Google Play Now » Pages displayed by permission of BRILL. Copyright.  Page 7      Restricted Page You have reached your viewing limit for this book (why?). 
br-wikipedia-org-45	----	Quintus Horatius Flaccus - Wikipedia Quintus Horatius Flaccus Eus Wikipedia Sauter à la navigation Sauter à la recherche Horace, hervez Anton von Werner Quintus Horatius Flaccus (Horas a-wechoù e brezhoneg), ganet d'an 8 a viz Kerzu, 65 kent J-K ha marvet d'ar 27 a viz Du eus ar bloavezh 8 kent J-K) a oa ar barzh latin pennañ en amzer Aogust. Ganet e oa bet e Venosia, ur gêr vihan war an harz etre Apulia ha Lukania. Mab ur sklav frankizet e oa hag un deskadurezh vat a voe roet dezhañ. Goude muntr Caius Julius Caesar e soudardas Horace e lu Brutus ha stourm a reas en Emgann Philippi gant ar renk a d-tribunus militum. Pa embannas Aogust un distaol evit ar re o doa brezelet outañ e tistroas da Italia met lamet e oa bet e zouareier digantañ gant ar Stad. Daoust ma lavare e oa aet da baour e voe barrek Horatius da brenañ ur post scriba quaestorius a roas tro dezhañ da vevañ en un doare klet. Gant Maecenas e voe gwarezet. Mervel a reas en 8 kent J-K, un nebeud mizioù hepken goude marv e warezer. Anavezet eo buhez Horas dre e oberenn, leun a zitour diwar e benn. Re all a lenner en De viris illustribus gant Suetonius. Oberennoù[kemmañ | kemmañ ar vammenn] Sermonum liber primus [1] (35 Kt J-K) Epodes [2] (30 Kt J-K) Sermonum liber secundus [3] (30 Kt J-K) Carminum liber primus [4] (23 Kt J-K) Carminum liber secundus [5] (23 Kt J-K) Carminum liber tertius [6] (23 Kt J-K) Epistularum liber primus [7] (20 Kt J-K) Ars Poetica' [8] (18 Kt J-K) Carmen Saeculare [9] (17 Kt J-K) Epistularum liber secundus [10] (14 Kt J-K) Carminum liber quartus [11] (13 Kt J-K) Liammoù diavaez[kemmañ | kemmañ ar vammenn] Oberennoù Horace e latin hag e saozneg Adtapet diwar « https://br.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quintus_Horatius_Flaccus&oldid=1620280 » Rummadoù : Skrivagnerien latin Skrivagnerien Henroma Ganedigezhioù -65 Marvioù -8 Lañser merdeiñ Ostilhoù personel Digevreet Kaozeal Ma degasadennoù Krouiñ ur gont Kevreañ Esaouennoù anv Pajenn Kaozeadenn Adstummoù Gweladennoù Lenn Kemmañ Kemmañ ar vammenn Gwelet an istor Muioc'h Klask Merdeiñ Degemer Kemmoù diwezhañ Ur bajenn dre zegouezh Meneger hollek Kemer perzh Skoazell Porched ar gumuniezh Tavarn Reiñ Ostilhoù Pajennoù liammet Heuliañ ar pajennoù liammet Kargañ war ar servijer Pajennoù dibar Chomlec'h ar stumm-mañ Titouroù ar bajenn Menegiñ ar pennad-mañ Elfenn Wikidata Moullañ/ezporzhiañ Sevel ul levr Pellgargañ evel PDF Stumm da voullañ E raktresoù all Wikimedia Commons Wikiarroud Yezhoù all Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Kemmañ al liammoù Kemmoù diwezhañ degaset d'ar bajenn-mañ d'an 13 C'hwe 2015, da 17:26. Gallout a reer implijout an testennoù zo dindan an Aotre-Implijout Creative Commons Dereiñ/Kenrannañ diouzh an hevelep divizoù; divizoù ouzhpenn a c'hall bezañ ivez. Gwelet an Doareoù Implijout evit gouzout hiroc'h. Reolennoù prevezded Diwar-benn Wikipedia Kemennoù Gwel evit an hezoug Diorroerien Statistiques Diskrêriadur war an toupinoù 
bs-wikipedia-org-5045	----	Horacije - Wikipedia Horacije S Wikipedije, slobodne enciklopedije Idi na navigaciju Idi na pretragu Ovaj članak ili neki od njegovih odlomaka nije dovoljno potkrijepljen izvorima (literatura, veb-sajtovi ili drugi izvori). Ako se pravilno ne potkrijepe pouzdanim izvorima, sporne rečenice i navodi mogli bi biti izbrisani. Pomozite Wikipediji tako što ćete navesti validne izvore putem referenci te nakon toga možete ukloniti ovaj šablon. Horacije Kvint Horacije Flak - (Quintus Horatius Flaccus, decembar, 65. p. n. e. - 27. novembar 8 p. n. e.), rimski pjesnik. Biografija[uredi | uredi izvor] Horacije je rođen u decembru 65. p. n. e. u Venusiji, Italija, umro je 27. novembra 8. p. n. e. u Rimu. Njegov otac je bio rob koji je stekao slobodu prije Horacijevog rođenja. Moglo bi se pretpostaviti da je u ropstvo pao za vrijeme Pompeja, odnosno nakon Spartakovog ustanka. Svog sina je odveo u jednu od najpoznatijih škola poznatog Sabelijanca po imenu Orbilus (koji je po Horaciju bio pristalica tjelesnog kažnjavanja). 46. g. p. n. e. Horacije posjećuje predavanja na Atinskoj Akademiji gdje prve stihove počinje pisati na grčkom. Kad je Brut u Ateni prikupljao vojsku protiv Oktavijana i Antonija, zajedno sa sinovima Cicerona i Katona, u nju stupa i Horacije. Međutim u bitki kod Filipa poražena je republika, a i tribunus militium Horacije. Nakon toga se Horacije vraća u Rim i posvećuje pjesništvu. 38. g. p. n. e. je doveden kod Mecene, učenog čovjeka iz Etrurije iz središnje Italije, koji je bio glavni politički savjetnik Augusta. Mecena je Horacija uveo u pjesnički književni krug, a uz to mu poklonio i luksuznu vilu. Po izgledu Horacije je bio nizak i debeo, posjedio prije vremena, lahko bi se iznervirao ali brzo i smirio. Commons ima datoteke na temu: Horacije Preuzeto iz "https://bs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horacije&oldid=3067432" Kategorije: Rimska imperija Rimska književnost Sakrivena kategorija: Članci koji trebaju izvor Navigacija Lični alati Niste prijavljeni Razgovor Doprinosi Napravi korisnički račun Prijavi me Imenski prostori Stranica Razgovor Varijante Pregledi Čitaj Uredi Uredi izvor Historija Više Pretraga Navigacija Početna strana Odabrani članci Portali Kategorije Nedavne izmjene Nasumična stranica Interakcija Pomoć Igralište Vrata zajednice Čaršija Novosti Donacije Alati Šta vodi ovamo Srodne izmjene Postavi datoteku Posebne stranice Trajni link Informacije o stranici Citiraj ovu stranicu Na Wikipodacima Štampanje / izvoz Napravi knjigu Preuzmi kao PDF Za štampanje Na drugim projektima Wikimedia Commons Wikicitat Drugi jezici Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Uredi veze Ova stranica je posljednji put izmijenjena na datum 14 novembar 2019 u 22:23. Tekst je dostupan pod slobodnom licencom Autorstvo-Dijeliti pod istim uvjetima; mogu se primijeniti i dodatni uvjeti. Korištenjem ovog sajta slažete se s uvjetima korištenja i pravilima o privatnosti. Wikipedia® je zaštitni znak neprofitne organizacije Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Politika privatnosti O Wikipediji Odricanje odgovornosti Mobilni prikaz Razvojni programeri Statistika Izjava o kolačićima 
catalogo-bne-es-9923	----	Autoridades de la B.N.: Búsqueda Nueva búsqueda Cambiar Formato Etiquetado MARC21 GARR/Tesauro Formato: Etiquetado Horacio Flaco, Quinto Lugar de nacimiento: Venosa, Basilicata, Italia Lugar de fallecimiento: Roma (Ciudad), Italia Otros lugares asociados: Roma Categoría profesional: Poetas Lengua: Latín Usado por: Horace Horacio Horacy Horaci Horatius Flaccus, Q. Horaci Flac, Q. Horacio Flaco, Q. Horatius Flaccus, Quintus Horaz Orazio Fuentes: Obras completas, 1986; port. (Horacio) R.C. Ap. IV; (Horacio Flaco, Quinto) Sàtires, 2008; port. (Horaci) Odes i Epodes, 2009; (Q. Horaci Flac) Odes i Epodes, 2009; port. (Q. Horaci Flac) Dic. de escritores célebres, 1995; (Horacio (Quintus Horatius Flaccus); poeta latino (Venusia, 65-Roma, 8 a.C.)) Otro identificador normalizado: http://viaf.org/viaf/100227522 viaf http://www.isni.org/isni/0000000121452178 isni https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6197 wikidata Registro en datos.bne.es: http://datos.bne.es/resource/XX891549 Nº Registro: XX891549 Obras Marcar/Desmarcar todos los de esta páginaAñadir marcados a la lista de registros    Borrar toda la lista de registros Añadir este registro a su lista    Borrar toda la lista de registros Exportar registros En Formato Por qué medio marcados en esta página guardados en la lista ( 0) EtiquetadoGARR/Tesauro MARC21ISO2709  Por pantalla  Por fichero Buzón de sugerencias Página principal | Inicio página 
catalogue-bnf-fr-8781	----	Notice de personne "Horace (0065-0008 av. J.-C.)" | BnF Catalogue général - Bibliothèque nationale de France Aller au contenu Espace personnel Utilisez votre espace personnel pour :   Réserver vos places et documents sur   le site François-Mitterrand.   Réserver vos documents sur les sites  Richelieu-Louvois (y compris les Cartes et plans), Opéra, Arsenal.   Ajouter vos notices et les classer.   Voir vos achats de reproductions. Se connecter Aide Aide à la consultation du catalogue Une question ? Historique Mon panier Tout Gallica Haut-de-jardin Lancer la recherche    Recherche avancée Recherches ciblées Autres recherches Recherches ciblées Auteurs A-Z SUJETS A-Z PÉRIODIQUES COTE  Notices d'autorité dans univers Dans les univers jeunesse images et cartes musique Accueil Nom de personne Notice de personne Notice Au format public Au format Intermarc Au format Unimarc Horace (0065-0008 av. J.-C.) forme courante français Horatius Flaccus, Quintus (0065-0008 av. J.-C.) forme internationale latin Langue(s) :  latin Sexe :  Masculin Responsabilité(s) exercée(s) sur les documents :  Auteur Naissance :  -0065 Mort :  -0008 Forme(s) rejetée(s) :  < Flaccus, Quintus Horatius (0065-0008 av. J.-C.) < Horatius (0065-0008 av. J.-C.) < Orazio (0065-0008 av. J.-C.) italien Forme(s) associée(s) :  >> << British library -- Manuscrit. Harley 2724 >> << Horace, Villa d' (Italie) Source(s) :  Odes ; Épodes ; Chant séculaire / Horace ; traduction du latin, introduction et notes par Jean Mayer, 2006 GDEL . - Buchwald : Horace (Q. Horatius Flaccus) . - Kleine Pauly BN Cat. gén. : Horace (Quintus Horatius Flaccus) Domaine(s) :  800 Identifiant international :  ISNI 0000 0001 2145 2178 , cf. http://isni.org/isni/0000000121452178 Notice n° :  FRBNF11886570 Création :  84/07/31 Mise à jour :  19/07/25 Fermer ce volet Ouvrir ce volet Outils Citer la notice : Voir la notice dans le catalogue actuel Télécharger/Imprimer Envoyer par courriel Ajouter à mes notices Information Afin de voir une sélection de notices, veuillez sélectionner au moins une notice dans la liste de résultats. Notices bibliographiques liées Voir les notices liées en tant que : auteur (1632) sujet (178) Voir toutes les notices liées (1806) Œuvres liées Œuvres de l'auteur (6) Œuvres de l'auteur (Liste A-Z) Ajouter à mes notices Les notices sélectionnées ont bien été ajoutées dans votre espace personnel. > Voir mes notices dans mon espace personnel Haut de page Conditions d'utilisation | À propos | Écrire à la BnF | V 12.1.5 
ca-wikipedia-org-7101	----	Horaci - Viquipèdia, l'enciclopèdia lliure Horaci De Viquipèdia Salta a la navegació Salta a la cerca Per a altres significats sobre el nom "Horaci", vegeu «Gens Horàcia». Quint Horaci Flac Retrat imaginari d'Horaci per Anton von Werner. L'Epístola als Pisons o Art poètica d'Horaci és un dels textos cabdals sobre literatura de la tradició occidental. Nom original (la) Q. Horatius Flaccus Biografia Naixement 8 desembre 65 aC Venosa (Itàlia) Mort 27 novembre 8 aC (56 anys) Roma Sepultura Roma Dades personals Nacionalitat Imperi Romà Grup ètnic Antics romans Activitat Ocupació Poeta líric i satíric Període República Romana Activitat 41 aC - 13 aC Moviment Epicureisme Tema Reflexió moral i estètica literària Professors Cràtip de Mitilene i Arist Influències (llatines): Gai Valeri Catul (gregues): Arquíloc de Paros; Hiponacte d'Efes; Alceu Influències en Autors de Renaixement, Generació del 27 Obra Primeres obres Les Sàtires Obres destacables Ars Poetica o Epístola als Pisons Família Pares valor desconegut  i valor desconegut Quint Horaci Flac (llatí: Quintus Horatius Flaccus), conegut simplement com a Horaci (Venosa, a la regió de la Basilicata (antiga Lucània), a l'actual Itàlia, 8 de desembre del 65 aC - Roma, 27 de novembre del 8 aC), fou un poeta líric i satíric llatí. Fill d'un esclau alliberat, va tenir l'oportunitat de seguir estudis a Roma, i posteriorment a Atenes, on es va traslladar per estudiar filosofia. Una vegada allà, va ser acollit per Brutus, l'assassí de Cèsar, que li va donar un alt càrrec al seu exèrcit. No obstant això, en la Batalla de Filipos (42 aC) es va evidenciar la seva falta d'aptitud per a l'art militar i va decidir tornar a Roma. Va començar a treballar com a escriba, càrrec que li deixava temps lliure per dedicar-se a escriure versos. En aquells dies va conèixer Virgili, que el va introduir en el cercle de Mecenes, en què a poc a poc va guanyar rellevància i va afermar l'amistat amb aquest, que el va presentar a August. Va aconseguir també la protecció de l'emperador, que fins i tot li va oferir el càrrec de secretari personal seu, que va rebutjar per no adequar-se als principis de la seva moral epicúria. Fou molt respectat en els alts cercles romans, tant literaris com polítics; es va mantenir sempre sota la protecció de Mecenes, juntament amb qui està enterrat. La poesia horaciana, amb la seva varietat de temes nacionals i, sobretot, la seva perfecció formal, signe d'equilibri i serenitat, va ser identificada en el Renaixement com la màxima i més excelsa expressió literària de les virtuts clàssiques. Contingut 1 Biografia 1.1 Cronologia 2 La crisi del paganisme 3 L'existencialisme d'Horaci 4 Influència en la literatura posterior 5 Obres 5.1 Sàtires 5.2 Epodes 5.3 Carmina 5.4 Epístoles 5.5 Cant secular 5.5.1 Antecedents 5.5.2 Objectius del cant d'encàrrec d'August 5.5.3 Edicions 5.5.4 Transmissió manuscrita 5.5.5 Traduccions al català i castellà 6 Traductors 7 Referències 8 Bibliografia 8.1 Vida i obra d'Horaci 8.2 Traduccions en català 8.3 Edicions bilingües 8.4 Edicions crítiques 9 Vegeu també 10 Enllaços externs 10.1 En anglès 10.2 En francès Biografia[modifica] Retrat d'Horaci a la seva casa de Venosa Quint Horaci Flac (llatí: Quintus Horatius Flaccus) va néixer el 65 aC[1] a Venosa (llatí: Venusa), una ciutat situada entre els límits de la Lucània i l'Apúlia;[2] la ciutat era un pas de comerciants entre les dues regions i aquest fet, juntament amb el fet que diverses famílies romanes, normalment les famílies dels militars que van participar en la guerra civil del 91-99 aC, es van assentar en aquelles terres com a pagament, explica que Horaci creixés en un entorn en el qual es va familiaritzar amb diversos dialectes llatins. Era fill d'un llibert que va exercir com a coactor, és a dir, una mena de cobrador de subhastes[3] i, tot i la seva modesta fortuna, va fer un esforç per poder-li donar una bona educació i el va acompanyar a Roma perquè assistís a les classes del rètor Orbilius, de qui no guarda pas gaires bons records pels seus mètodes.[4] El 45 aC es va traslladar a Atenes, on entrà en contacte amb els corrents filosòfics de l'epicureisme i l'estoïcisme. Allà va fer amistat amb Marc Valeri Messal·la Corví i Luci Calpurni Bíbul.[5] L'any 44 aC, l'any de l'assassinat de Juli Cèsar, Horaci encara era a Atenes i va coincidir amb Brutus i Cassi, que havien viatjat fins allà per trobar suport a la seva causa. Va ser nomenat tribunus militum, un dels sis oficials de les legions, cosa que va despertar enveges entre els seus companys nascuts en classes més benestants.[6] El 42 aC, en la Batalla de Filipos,[7][8] Octavi i Marc Antoni van vèncer l'armada republicana de Brutus. Horaci descriu aquest dia com un dels més vergonyosos de la seva vida, ja que va lluitar contra Octavi i és una manera de redimir-se;[9] per altra banda, també és un recurs poètic freqüent en els poetes grecs que més el van influenciar: Arquíloc de Paros i Hipònax d'Efes;[10] i, com ells, també va abandonar el seu escut. Octavi August va oferir una amnistia per a aquells que van donar suport a la causa de Brutus, i Horaci la va acceptar, però, en tornar a Itàlia, es va trobar que li havien confiscat tots els béns per pagar els soldats veterans que havien participat en la campanya contra Brutus i Cassi. Per poder viure, es va veure obligat a treballar i es va llogar com a escriba quaestorius.[11] També és en aquesta època que va començar a escriure poesia i freqüentar cercles literaris. El 39 aC, va ser presentat a Mecenes per part de Virgili i Luci Vari Rufus, però va tardar nou mesos a rebre la invitació formal per formar part del cercle de Mecenes.[12] Amb ell, va establir una profunda amistat, que queda demostrada en les seves obres de tal manera que gairebé en tots els llibres dedica el primer poema al seu protector. Mecenes també l'arribà a apreciar molt, fins al punt que li va regalar una finca al camp sabí l'any 32 aC.[13][14][15] Va participar en el tractat de Tàrent, un tractat que marcava una nova pau entre Octavi August i Marc Antoni i l'allargament del triumvirat vigent fins al moment, tot i que es va trencar aviat, car Marc Antoni va buscar el suport de Cleòpatra i es va enfrontar a Octavi.[16] El 19 aC mor el seu amic Virgili[17] i, dos anys després, el 17 aC, August li encomana la composició del Cant secular, en commemoració dels jocs seculars celebrats per festejar l'entrada a una nova època de pau, una pau que va arribar amb la derrota de Marc Antoni. Va morir el 8 aC, dos mesos després de la mort de Mecenes, a qui dedica la seva Carmina 8[17] que, a més a més, és una oda premonitòria de la seva pròpia mort. Cronologia[modifica] Any 65 aC neix Horaci, el mateix any que el que va ser el seu patró Pol·lió. 63. Neix Octavi. Conjuració de Catilina. 60. Constitució del primer triumvirat (Juli Cèsar, Pompeu i Cras). 53. Derrota de Cras a Carras pels parts. 49. Juli Cèsar passa el Rubicó. Guerra civil entre Juli Cèsar i Pompeu. 48. Victòria de Juli Cèsar a Farsàlia. 45. Arriba Horaci a Atenes. 44. Assassinat de Juli Cèsar. 43. Guerra de Mòdena. Constitució del Segon triumvirat (Octavi, Marc Antoni i Lèpid). Proscripcions i mort de Ciceró. Naixement d'Ovidi. 42. Victòria dels cesarians a Filipos. Horaci entre els derrotats. 39. Presentació d'Horaci a Mecenes. Casa d'Horaci a Venosa 37. Viatge a Bríndisi amb ocasió de la conferència de Tàrent. 36. Derrota de Sext Pompeu Pius en la Batalla de Nauloc. 35. Publicació del primer llibre de Sàtires. 32. Mecenes regala una masia a Horaci.[18] 31. Victòria d'Octavi en la Batalla d'Àccium sobre Marc Antoni i Cleòpatra. 30. Publicació del llibre II de Sàtires i el llibre dels Epodes. 30. Mecenes cau molt malalt. A la seva recuperació, és rebut per gran part del poble romà amb una gran ovació al teatre de Pompeu.[19] 29. Victoria final en la Batalla d'Àccium.[20] 29. Triple triomf en la Guerra de Dalmàcia, la Batalla d'Àccium i la Guerra d'Egipte.[21] 28. Ludi Actiati (jocs commemoratius per la victòria en la Batalla d'Àccium). 27. Expedició als pobles bàrbars.[22] 27. Final de la il·legalitat revolucionària. Octavi rep el títol d'August. 26. Expedició a Britannia.[23] 25. Expedició a Aràbia.[23] 25. Guerres càntabres. Viatge amb August a Hispània.[24] 25. Matrimoni Marc Marcel-Júlia (filla d'August).[25] 24. Mort de Quintili Varus.[26] 24. Mort de Marc Marcel.[25] 23. Licini Murena conspira contra August, però és descobert i condemnat a mort.[27] 23. Publicació dels tres primers llibres d'Odes. El compositor Benedictus Ducis publicà cants fúnebres sobre aquestes, a tres i quatre veus el 1539.[28] 20. Publicació del primer llibre d'Epístoles. 19. Viatge de Virgili a Grècia.[29] 19. Moren Virgili i Tibul. 17. Celebració dels Jocs Seculars. Cant Secular. 15. Publicació del llibre II de les Epístoles. 13. Publicació del llibre IV de les Odes. El compositor Benedictus Ducis publicà cants fúnebres sobre aquestes, a tres i quatre veus el 1539.[28] 8 aC. Mor Mecenàs. Mor Horaci. La crisi del paganisme[modifica] A partir del segle I aC, els romans van començar a perdre la fe en el sistema religiós del paganisme, aquelles creences ja no eren aptes per a proporcionar respostes adequades a les grans preguntes existencials del món romà. El paganisme es redueix cada vegada més a la pràctica d'un conjunt de rituals i litúrgies que no condueixen a un coneixement més profund del significat esotèric de les tradicions espirituals i religioses, sinó perquè estan relacionats amb els mos maiorum (el costum dels ancestres), la identitat cultural i, sobretot, amb el calendari romà. Darrere de la façana de la religió pagana, no hi ha certeses, però sí que hi ha el buit deixat per la falta de resposta a les grans qüestions existencials, en una societat imperial cada vegada més cosmopolita. L'individu romà, o almenys tots els que gaudeixen d'una certa cultura, perceben aquest buit, l'angoixa, la inseguretat, la certesa de sentir-se privats, a causa de la desaparició d'un estat de valors ben definits com va passar en l'era republicana, i busquen les respostes en una altra part: la filosofia hel·lenística. Aquest sentit espiritual d'inseguretat, que la major part de la classe literària del segle, des de Catul a Lucreci, Horaci i fins a arribar a Sèneca, està molt estès. Per tant, és en relació amb la crisi del paganisme, la raó que es doni àmplia difusió, en el segle I aC, de l'epicureisme en els cercles intel·lectuals de Roma. En aquest període, en els principals cercles epicuris romans com el de la ciutat de Nàpols, és on probablement Horaci va conèixer Virgili i Vari, que posteriorment va presentar-lo a Mecenes. L'epicureisme volia resoldre qualsevol dubte i l'angoixa existencial de la mort, veient la cancel·lació definitiva de la percepció sensorial com el final d'alguns dels sofriments i preocupacions de la Terra. La mort és, per tant, considerada com una zona tranquil·la però infeliç, l'alliberament de la vida, com succeeix en la mort del cos i de l'ànima (per ser ambdues substàncies materials). Epicur va tenir una reacció optimista davant d'aquestes al·legacions. Aquest sentiment es troba en altres intel·lectuals que es van sumar als romans abans de la filosofia de la buidor eterna de la mort. Buit amb una sensació d'horror, també presents en el mateix Lucreci que, mentre que la descripció s'estén al gairebé mític Epicur, rerum inventor, no passa així amb el missatge alliberador d'aquesta filosofia. L'epicureisme no va ser capaç de curar, a la fi, el mal del segle dins la vida romana. No serà capaç d'omplir el buit deixat per la crisi no sols del sistema religiós, sinó també de la de les institucions republicanes, una crisi que acabaria destruint la seguretat de les bases culturals i socials de l'Imperi Romà. L'existencialisme d'Horaci[modifica] Horaci s'uneix a l'epicureisme parcialment, així com a la recerca de respostes sobre les grans qüestions de la vida, respostes que no troba mai: el poeta sembla que mai ha escapat de l'angoixa de la mort, que sempre la percep com a imminent. És interessant analitzar l'opinió que el poeta llatí va tenir del més enllà, ja que és, sens dubte, molt sincer: encara que vetllat per una certa seguretat, pròpia de l'aurea mediocritas de què Horaci volia ser un exemple, en diverses ocasions brilla amb una vena de malenconia acompanyada de notes de fosc lirisme i elegància, que traeix el seu veritable estat interior. A vegades Horaci apareix com el que probablement era realment: un home que va trobar refugi en la vida de la mort, però en realitat mai no va aconseguir curar-se completament la por a la mort, ja que preferia fugir en lloc de lluitar estoicament. La seva personalitat pot semblar, a primera vista, ambigua. Aquesta ambigüitat es deriva de la diferència que a vegades es crea entre la imatge que Horaci va voler donar de si mateix, i la veritable personalitat del poeta que traspassa de les línies no coincideix, com sosté Ugo Enrico Paoli, "res [...] sembla tan difícil com entrar en l'ànima d'Horaci. La representació del més enllà horacià, tanmateix amb una forta empremta de motlle epicureista, ve segellada de la millor manera en l'afirmació, no sense una nota de malenconia, expressada en l'Oda 7 del Llibre IV: « Pulvis et umbra sumus » Influència en la literatura posterior[modifica] Article principal: Tòpics horacians Carpe diem Els temes i tòpics creats per Horaci tindran un suport universal al llarg de la literatura posterior a la seva mort. Essencialment a partir del Renaixement, és difícil de trobar una sola composició no influïda pels tòpics o les formes horacianes. Així, destaquen poetes com Ronsard, Petrarca o Garcilaso, que escriuen envoltats per la dolçor i les reflexions horacianes. A Espanya, podem trobar grans influències horacianes en José Cadalso o Moratín i fins i tot altres autors que seguiran el camí preparat pel poeta romà. Horaci també influí en poetes anglesos com John Keats o John Milton. Més endavant, en la generació del 27, també trobarem influències horacianes en poetes com en el val·lisoletà Jorge Guillén. En Vicent Andrés Estellés amb el seu poemari Horacianes. No obstant això, amb el pas del temps, l'admiració a aquest gran poeta es convertirà en un apogeu dels seus tòpics en detriment del mateix autor. Aquest serà engolit pels seus propis temes i pel desfasament de la cultura a finals del segle xx i començaments del XXI. El seu Carpe diem (Carpe diem quam minimum credula postero "Aprofita el dia, no confiïs en el demà") de l'Oda 1,11 acaba per convertir-se pràcticament en una dita universal en la qual la identitat de l'autor queda relegada gairebé a l'oblit. Així, Horaci, s'anirà oblidant i aquest oblit reforçarà la importància de la vulgarització dels seus tòpics. Realment, l'escriptor llatí ha rebut poques crítiques que es fonamentin en el buit existencial de les seves reflexions o de les seves formes poètiques; no obstant això, és cert que va rebre crítiques del sector literari més suspicaç, per exemple els seus contemporanis Quadrat i especialment d'Hermògenes, l'adversari i detractor d'Horaci, inicialment ben disposat envers aquest (l'anomena optimus cantor et modulator) i després enemistat per causes que, segons Horaci, es devien a l'enveja: Hermògenes s'oposava a les sàtires, però tampoc tenia talent per fer grans obres i es dedicava a l'ensenyament mentre Horaci adquiria gran fama. Sembla que quan Horaci parla de Pantolabus es refereix a aquest Hermògenes. A mesura que avancen els segles, les crítiques a aquesta figura de la poesia universal acaben per apagar-se, deixant el camí lliure cap a la llista interminable d'adulacions que des del Renaixement se li han prodigat. En el segle xxi, es fa gairebé impossible trobar una sola crítica a una figura tan rellevant com Horaci, però d'aquesta mateixa manera és difícil trobar un càntic a la seva persona i a la seva tasca. L'única crítica coneguda fins ara amb certa rellevància és el "A tu, Horaci", del ceutí Hugo de Lara López, obra en la qual s'ataca Horaci per la seva presumpta doble moral (acusació que en l'antiguitat mai no se li va fer), i en la qual es dóna una importància desmesurada al fet de no respectar les seves verdaderes creences i per ofendre i condemnar, de manera metafòrica, el poble pla, que sempre va defugir. Curiosament, l'objectiu de la crítica, estesa en dos sonets, fa referència al famós Aurea mediocritas ('punt mitjà daurat') del poeta llatí, al·ludeix a l'intent d'assolir un punt desitjat mitjà entre els extrems o un estat ideal en el qual no afectin en excés ni les alegries ni les penes; està relacionat amb l'hedonisme epicureista, basat a conformar-se amb el que es té i no deixar-se portar per les emocions desproporcionades. És un dels tòpics que van fer gran Horaci, per a la posteritat, al costat del Carpe diem en el Beatus Ille. Obres[modifica] La seva poesia es divideix en quatre gèneres que donen nom a les seves obres: Sàtires, retrats irònics del seu temps, dividits en dos llibres i escrits en hexàmetres; Epodes, disset poemes iàmbics de temàtica variada i influència hel·lenística; Carmina (Odes), també en hexàmetres; Epístoles, la seva última obra, en la qual, coincidint amb una actitud vital i literària més calmada i més propícia a la reflexió moral que a la invectiva i la sàtira que van caracteritzar les seves obres primeres, va optar per la ficció epistolar sense abandonar l'escriptura en hexàmetres. Entre les Epístoles, es troba la cèlebre Art poètica, que va marcar les pautes de l'estètica literària llatina. Sàtires[modifica] Saturae, 1577 Les Sàtires d'Horaci, publicades entre el 35 aC i el 28 aC, s'agrupen en dos reculls, l'un de deu peces i l'altre de vuit (en hexàmetres). Aquest gènere és típicament romà, creat per Gai Lucili al segle ii aC, i particularment propici a l'autoretrat: és sens dubte amb les sàtires que Horaci s'hi descriu millor. Es tracta de «xerrades» (sermons) en què es reivindica la llibertat d'expressió i la polèmica, sigui a propòsit de qüestions socials, ètiques, literàries, o fins polítiques. Però allò que era permès a Lucili sota la República no ho és, evidentment, en temps d'Horaci sota un règim despòtic. Epodes[modifica] Interior de la casa d'Horaci, Venosa Publicats en 29 aC, els Epodes són disset poemes, amb un total 625 versos, dels quals quatre són probablement apòcrifs (I, 5-6 i XVI, 15-16). Horaci no els anomenava epodes, sinó iàmbics, sent fidel a l'escola de Gai Valeri Catul, cosa que es guarda prou bé de proclamar, ja que Catul era maleït per Cèsar i els seus seguidors. Prefereix, de forma menys arriscada, reivindicar-se seguidor d'Arquíloc, inventor del gènere a Grècia -i que se n'havia servit com d'una arma temible contra els seus enemics, tant privats com públics. El to és el de la invectiva, l'estil és aspre i tens, i l'erotisme més cru pot acompanyar els accents més patriòtics. Com el seu nom indica (almenys en un dels seus sentits), els Epodes són escrits en dístics (un vers llarg + un vers curt) de tipus de versos iàmbics. Carmina[modifica] Carmina, publicades el 22 aC per als tres primers llibres; el 7 aC per al quart: encara que les dates tradicionalment més admeses oscil·len entre el 23 i el 12 aC, les Odes d'Horaci o Carmina són quatre llibres que contenen 38, 20, 30 i 15 peces, respectivament, és a dir, un total de 3.038 versos, dels quals n'hi ha sis que sens dubte són apòcrifs (IV, 6, 21-24 i IV, 8, 15-16). Horaci els comparava orgullosament a les piràmides d'Egipte, i és en efecte l'obra mestra absoluta de la lírica romana. Aquest monument reuneix tots els superlatius, combina totes les meravelles. D'entrada, constitueixen una proesa mètrica, amb la utilització de quatre tipus d'estrofes diferents, sis varietats de dístics, i tres espècies de versos utilitzats sols (kata stikhon). Miracle d'equilibri espontani, en una harmoniosa arquitectura que es desplega segons proporcions numèriques tan complexes com impecables. Prodigi de circulació també, d'interconnexions, de xarxes, de correspondències, combinacions i simetries diverses, del qual el conjunt constitueix una d'immensa i ultrasensible cambra de ressonància. Quant a la increïble virtuositat verbal que tria i emplaça cada paraula amb el màxim d'energia possible, n'hi ha prou amb dir que va impressionar Nietzsche en el grau més alt per allò que anomenava la seva «noblesa». Però on Horaci se supera, allà on es mereix el millor «llorer dèlfic» (Odes, III, 30), és en el domini del contingut. En aparença, res més heteròclit que les Odes, en què semblen interferir de manera aleatòria l'esfera privada i l'esfera pública, els amors i la política, el món grec i el món llatí, la mitologia més nuvolosa i l'actualitat més ardent, l'epicureisme empès fins al sibaritisme, i un estoïcisme esmolat fins a l'ascetisme i a un renunciament gairebé monacal avançat a l'època. I tanmateix, hi ha un director d'orquestra que domina tots aquests timbres i tots aquests instruments amb una batuta sobirana. Subterrània també, ja que la partició en aquesta enlluernadora simfonia, composta en honor de la llibertat humana de cara a la tirania política, no es desxifra més que a condició d'accedir al segon nivell de l'escriptura, fonamentat principalment en el control secret de la situació d'enunciació. El primer llibre (Carminum liber I) correspon a la joventut, de fantasia i d'inspiracions variades: composicions severes, èpiques o literàries es barregen amb unes altres de més joioses o d'invocació a Venus. En el segon llibre (Carminum liber II) hi ha una pausa per a la meditació, s'esmorteix l'impuls líric. S'hi tracta allò que ell demana a la vida pròpia. S'hi exposa el concepte d'aurea mediocritas; també es parla dels anys que passen (anni labuntur) i de l'otium (l'oci). Al tercer llibre (Carminum liber III) ens trobem amb un Horaci ja madur. Tanmateix, torna als vells temes. Epístoles[modifica] L'estàtua d'Horaci a Venosa (Publicades el 19 aC o 18 aC, més probablement que en la data més admesa (20 aC), i probablement després del 13 aC per al segon recull.) El primer recull de les Epístoles conté 20 peces (és a dir, 1.006 versos, dels quals set de la primera peça són probablement apòcrifs); i el segon recull consta de només dues peces, però molt llargues (270 i 216 versos). S'hi afegeix l'Epístola als pisons, més coneguda sota el nom d'Art poètica (476 versos). Són escrites en hexàmetres, com les Sàtires i, com aquestes, són converses d'aspecte lliure. Però sent les Epístoles cartes fictícies adreçades a persones ben precises, el to hi és menys viu i l'estil més distès. Sota aquesta tranquil·litzadora superfície, Horaci persegueix amb perseverança el seu combat, un combat en el qual l'amplitud i les peripècies, així com en les Odes, no es revelaran més que al lector atent en l'enunciació de la situació: s'ha tenir molt en compte no sols el destinatari (amic o enemic?), sinó també el locutor, que no és automàticament l'autor de l'escrit... La primera epístola del segon recull s'adreça així directament a August: o com agafar la cua del lleó sense que et mossegui. Juli Flor és el destinatari de la segona, en què Horaci diposita el seu testament espiritual i la quinta essència de la seva saviesa. Cant secular[modifica] Antecedents[modifica] El Cant secular està compost en un ritme eòlic: l'estrofa sàfica. Té una estructura pindàrica. Es tracta d'un cant per encàrrec, pràctica que ja trobem en els autors lírics grecs com ara el mateix Píndar, que en els seus Epinicis escrivia cants per encàrrec dedicats al vencedors dels jocs esportius. Objectius del cant d'encàrrec d'August[modifica] L'any 17 aC August va encarregar a Horaci la composició del Cant secular amb motiu de la celebració dels Ludi Tarentini, també anomenats jocs Seculars, que es van dur a terme durant el mes de maig del mateix any. August va decidir que fos Horaci qui compongués aquest cant pels elogis que el poeta havia fet a les intencions morals i religioses de l'emperador en el darrer llibre de les Odes. Tot i que Horaci no estava gaire d'acord a exaltar la figura d'August, va acceptar l'encàrrec en honor del seu company Virgili, el qual havia mort l'any 19 aC. Així, en el cant s'entreveu l'homenatge que fa a la figura de Virgili tot incloent la llegenda de Troia i Eneas. L'objectiu del cant era principalment recuperar les antigues tradicions alhora que s'exaltava el principat d'August. D'aquesta manera, el missatge del cant era d'agraïment als déus per la Pax Augusta i una severa exhortació a fomentar la veneració i devoció cap als déus a més d'establir una relació fluida entre l'estat i els déus. En aquesta obra, queda ben reflectida la filosofia que trobem en l'obra d'Horaci, així com podem entreveure la ideologia del principat d'August. El cant és un himne a Apol·lo i Diana, a més dels déus tutelars de Roma. Va ser compost amb la idea que fos cantat durant el tercer dia dels jocs per un cor de vint-i-set nois i el mateix nombre de noies, procedents de les millors famílies de Roma, els quals havien de ser verges i tenir el dos progenitors vius. A l'hora d'entonar-lo, un dels cors es va situar al cim del mont Palatí i l'altre al cim del mont Capitoli. Aquesta composició li va atorgar el títol de poeta llorejat. Edicions[modifica] Les edicions que tenim del text ens han arribat sempre compilades juntament amb les Odes. Actualment, trobem el Cant secular en les edicions següents: Bibliotheca scriptorum Graecorum et Romanorum Teubneriana editat per Fridericus Klingner Collection des Universités de France editat per F. Villeneuve. Loeb Classical Library editat per C. E. Bennett Scriptorum Classicorum Bibliotheca Oxoniensis editat per Eduardus C. Wickham Per altra banda, actualment hi ha dues edicions en línia, corresponents a The Latin Library[30] i Perseus.[31] Transmissió manuscrita[modifica] Tal com ja s'ha mencionat, la compilació del Cant secular ha anat lligada a la de les Odes. Per aquest motiu, per a la transmissió manuscrita, vegeu les Odes. Traduccions al català i castellà[modifica] Les traduccions del Cant secular es troben normalment editades juntament amb els quatre llibres d'Odes d'Horaci. En català, tan sols està traduïda per l'editorial Fundació Bernat Metge, a càrrec de Josep Vergès. En llengua castellana tenim dues edicions: Gredos, traduïda per José Luis Moralejo Universitat Autònoma Nacional de Mèxic, traduïda per Rubén Bonifaz Nuño. Traductors[modifica] Josep Vergés i Fàbregas Joan Sardà i Lloret Joaquim Garcia Girona Miguel Parera Cort Aquilino Iglesia Alvariño José Luis Moralejo Referències[modifica] ↑ Carm. II.4 ↑ Sat. II. 1, 35 ↑ Sat. I. 6, vv. 45-100 ↑ Ep. II. 1, 70 ↑ Ep. II. 7 ↑ Sat. I. 6, 48 ↑ Ep. XIII, 12-18 ↑ Carm. II. 6 ↑ Carm. I. 7, 10 ↑ Ep. VI, 13-14; VIII; X; XI ↑ Ep. II. 2, 51 ↑ Sat. I. 6 ↑ Carm. I. 17, 22 ↑ Carm.II. 6, 13, 16, 18 ↑ Carm.III. 1, 47-48 ↑ Carm. I, 14 ↑ 17,0 17,1 Carm.I. 8 ↑ Odes I, 17, 22; II, 6, 13, 16, 18 ↑ Oda I, 20 ↑ Oda I, 6 ↑ Odes I, 2; II, 12 ↑ Oda II, 1 ↑ 23,0 23,1 Oda I, 35 ↑ Oda I, 36; II, 11 ↑ 25,0 25,1 Oda I, 12 ↑ Oda I, 24, 28 ↑ Oda II, 10 ↑ 28,0 28,1 Enciclopèdia Espasa Volum núm. 18, 2a part, pàg. 2331 (ISBN 84-239-4581-2) ↑ Oda I, 3 ↑ «The Latin Library (Horaci)» (en anglès). [Consulta: 31 maig 2014]. ↑ «Perseus Collection (Greek and Roman Materials)» (en anglès). [Consulta: 31 maig 2014]. Bibliografia[modifica] Vida i obra d'Horaci[modifica] Alberte González, Antonio & Codoñer Merino, Carmen. Historia de la Literatura Latina. Càtedra, Madrid, 1997 Albrecht, Michael Von. Historia de la Literatura Romana: Desde Andronico Hasta Boecio. Herder, 1997 Bayet, Jean. Literatura Latina. Ariel, Barcelona 1966 CITRONI, M - CONSOLINO, F. E., LABATE, M., NARDUCCI, E., Letteratura di Roma Antica, Laterza, Roma-Bari 1997. Conte, Gian Biagio. Latin Literature: A History. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999 Harrison, S. J. A Companion to Latin Literature. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub. 2005 Traduccions en català[modifica] Joan Carbonell i Manils. Horaci: Epodes (en català). Barcelona: La Magrana, març de 2004. ISBN 84-8264-526-9 Edicions bilingües[modifica] Horacio (2008). Sátiras. Epístolas. Arte poética. Madrid: Editorial Gredos ISBN 978-84-249-3577-1 Horacio (2007). Odas. Canto Secular. Epodos. Madrid: Editorial Gredos ISBN 978-84-249-2879-7 Vergés, Josep. Q. Horaci Flac: Odes i Epodes. Fundació Bernat Metge: Barcelona, 1978-1981. Llorenç Riber. 'Q. Horaci Flac: Sàtires i Epístoles.' Fundació Bernat Metge: Barcelona, 1927. Edicions crítiques[modifica] D. R. Shackleton Bailey. Q. Horativs Flaccvs: Opera (en llatí). Monachii [etc.]: Saur, 2001. ISBN 3598712340 Vegeu també[modifica] Col·lecció Fundació Bernat Metge. Tòpics horacians. Gens Horàcia. Enllaços externs[modifica] En altres projectes de Wikimedia: Commons (Galeria) Commons (Categoria) Viquidites Viquitexts En anglès[modifica] Biography and chronology. Horace's works: text, concordances and frequency list. HORATIUS.NET Litweb. Poetry in Translation (Horace). Projecte Gutenberg (Horace & Horatio). Selected Poems of Horace. SORGLL: Horace, Odes I.22, read by Robert Sonkow. The Perseus Project — Latin and Greek authors (with English translations), including Horace. The works of Horace The Latin Library.com En francès[modifica] Espace Horace. Registres d'autoritat WorldCat CANTIC: a10101214 BNE: XX891549 BNF: cb11886570b GND: 118553569 LCCN: n79081354 VIAF: 100227522 ISNI: 0000 0001 2145 2178 SELIBR: 189659 SUDOC: 026659166 BIBSYS: 90055203 ULAN: 500404135 NLA: 35206138 NDL: 00540086 NKC: jn20000603003 RLS: 000083136 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\000246 Bases d'informació GEC: 0032926 Europeana: 60033 Viccionari Obtingut de «https://ca.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horaci&oldid=25506396» Categories: Poetes satírics romans Persones de la província de Potenza Persones de la Basilicata Gens Horàcia Categories ocultes: Pàgines amb enllaç commonscat des de Wikidata Articles amb identificador CANTIC Articles amb identificador Europeana Control d'autoritats Menú de navegació Eines personals Sense sessió iniciada Discussió per aquest IP Contribucions Crea un compte Inicia la sessió Espais de noms Pàgina Discussió Variants Vistes Mostra Modifica Mostra l'historial Més Cerca Navegació Portada Article a l'atzar Articles de qualitat Comunitat Portal viquipedista Actes presencials Canvis recents La taverna Contacte Xat Donatius Ajuda Eines Què hi enllaça Canvis relacionats Pàgines especials Enllaç permanent Informació de la pàgina Citau aquest article Element a Wikidata Imprimeix/exporta Crear un llibre Baixa com a PDF Versió per a impressora En altres projectes Commons Viquidites Viquitexts En altres idiomes Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Modifica els enllaços La pàgina va ser modificada per darrera vegada el 25 nov 2020 a les 11:07. 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ci-nii-ac-jp-6717	----	CiNii Books Author - Horace CiNii menu search Articles Books Dissertations Sign Up Login Japanese Book & Journal Author Content Search Books and Journals Books Journals Advanced Search Title Exact Title Match Include Uniform Titles Author Include Alias Names Author ID Uniform Title ID Publisher ISBN ISSN NCID Subject Classification Note Format Any Formats Book and Journal Cartographic Material Braill Printed Music Manuscript Text Manuscript Map Manuscript Music Projected Graphic Microform Non-projected Graphic Motion Picture Musical Sound Recording Non-musical Sound Recording Videorecording Computer File 3D Artcraft or Naturally Occurring Object Kit Language Any Languages Japanese English German French Chinese Russian Spanish Italian Korean Arabic Year from to Library ID Organization ID Area Any Areas Hokkaido Tohoku Region Aomori Iwate Miyagi Akita Yamagata Fukushima Kanto Region Ibaraki Tochigi Gunma Saitama Chiba Tokyo Kanagawa Hokuriku/Koshinetsu Region Niigata Toyama Ishikawa Fukui Yamanashi Nagano Tokai Region Gifu Shizuoka Aichi Mie Kansai Region Shiga Kyoto Osaka Hyogo Nara Wakayama Chugoku/Shikoku Region Tottori Shimane Okayama Hiroshima Yamaguchi Tokushima Kagawa Ehime Kochi Kyushu/Okinawa Region Fukuoka Saga Nagasaki Kumamoto Oita Miyazaki Kagoshima Okinawa Asia Region Korea China Thailand Europe Region United Kingdom Germany Switzerland France Belgium Netherlands Sweden Norway North America Region United States of America Other Foreign Region Remember Lib. ID / Org. ID / Area Search Close Search Search Horace ID:DA00782980 Alias Name Horatius Flaccus, Quintus. 65-8 B.C. Horaz Orazio Gorat︠s︡iĭ Flakk, Kvint Horacjusz Horacy Flacco, Q. Orazio Flacco, Quinto Orazio Orazio Flacco, Q. Horats Horaṭiyos Horatiyus Flaccus, Quintus Horatius Gorat︠s︡īǐ ホラティウス（ホラティウス） ホラ-ティウス（ホラ-ティウス） 贺拉斯（ホラティウス） Horacio Search authors sharing the same name Search Results1-20 of 575 1 2 3 4 5 6 ... 29 1 / 29 Select all： Open in New Windows Export to RefWorks Export to EndNote Show Refer/BiblX Show RIS Show BibTeX Show TSV Show 20 results Show 50 results Show 100 results Show 200 results Date (newest) Date (oldest) Number of Libraries (descending) Number of Libraries (ascending) Title (A-Z) Title (Z-A) Relevance 1 Das vierte Odenbuch des Horaz : Text und Übersetzung mit Einleitung und erklärenden Anmerkungen von Hans-Christian Günther Traugott Bautz 2019 Studia classica et mediaevalia Bd. 25 Available at 1 libraries 2 Canidia, Rome's first witch Maxwell Teitel Paule Bloomsbury Academic 2017 Bloomsbury classical studies monographs : hb Available at 1 libraries 3 書簡詩 ホラーティウス [著] ; 高橋宏幸訳 講談社 2017.11 講談社学術文庫 [2458] Available at 156 libraries 4 Odes book II Horace ; edited by Stephen Harrison Cambridge University Press 2017 Cambridge Greek and Latin classics : hardback , : pbk Available at 11 libraries 5 The William Morris manuscript of the Odes of Horace introduction, Clive Wilmer ; translation, W.E. Gladstone Bodleian Library 2016 : [set] , translation , facsimile Available at 2 libraries 6 Satiren und Briefe : Lateinisch und Deutsch Horaz ; Nach der Übersetzung von Otto Schönberger ; überarbeitet und mit Anmerkungen versehen von Friedemann Weitz WBG c2015 Edition Antike / herausgegeben von Thomas Baier, Kai Brodersen und Martin Hose Available at 1 libraries 7 The William Morris manuscript of the Odes of Horace commentary by Clive Wilmer ; translation by W.E. Gladstone Folio Society 2014 [Facsim.] , Commentary and translation Available at 2 libraries 8 Horace: the odes : Latin text, facing verse translation, and notes Colin Sydenham Bristol Classical Press 2012 : pbk. Available at 1 libraries 9 詩学 . 詩論 アリストテレース [著] ; 松本仁助, 岡道男訳 . ホラーティウス [著] ; 岡道男訳 岩波書店 2012.6 ワイド版岩波文庫 351 Available at 25 libraries 10 Odes, book I Horace ; edited by Roland Mayer Cambridge University Press 2012 Cambridge Greek and Latin classics : hbk , : pbk Available at 15 libraries 11 Satires, book I Horace ; edited by Emily Gowers Cambridge University Press 2012 Cambridge Greek and Latin classics : hardback , : pbk Available at 14 libraries 12 The "Ars poetica" C.O. Brink Cambridge University Press 2011 Horace on poetry / by C.O. Brink 2 : pbk Available at 3 libraries 13 Epistles book II : the letters to Augustus and Florus C.O. Brink Cambridge University Press 2011 Horace on poetry / by C.O. Brink 3 : pbk Available at 3 libraries 14 Prolegomena to the literary epistles C.O. Brink Cambridge University Press 2011 Horace on poetry / by C.O. Brink [1] : pbk Available at 2 libraries 15 Satires and epistles Horace ; translated by John Davie ; with an introduction and notes by Robert Cowan Oxford University Press 2011 Oxford world's classics Available at 2 libraries 16 Odes, book IV ; and Carmen saecvlare Horace ; edited by Richard F. Thomas Cambridge University Press 2011 Cambridge Greek and Latin classics : hbk , : pbk Available at 15 libraries 17 Oden und Epoden : Lateinisch und Deutsch Horaz ; Nach der Übersetzung von Will Richter ; überarbeitet und mit Anmerkungen vesehen von Friedemann Weitz WBG c2010 Edition Antike / herausgegeben von Thomas Baier, Kai Brodersen und Martin Hose Available at 1 libraries 18 美学三论 光明日报出版社 2009.7 西风译丛 第6辑 Available at 1 libraries 19 Tutte le poesie Orazio ; a cura di Paolo Fedeli ; traduzione di Carlo Carena G. Einaudi c2009 I millenni Available at 1 libraries 20 Opera Q. Horativs Flaccvs ; edidit D. R. Shackleton Bailey Walter de Gruyter 2008 Editio stereotypa, editionis qvartae (MMI) Bibliotheca scriptorum Graecorum et Romanorum Teubneriana 1234 : [pbk] Available at 1 libraries 1 2 3 4 5 6 ... 29 1 / 29 Search this author VIAF KAKEN — Researchers J-GLOBAL researchmap Google Scholar Google Yahoo! JAPAN Related Authors Brink, C. O. Morris, William Wilmer, Clive Gladstone, W. E. (William Ewart) Aristotle Günther, Hans Christian Paule, Maxwell Teitel 高橋, 宏幸 Harrison, S. J. Schönberger, Otto Sydenham, Colin 松本, 仁助 岡, 道男 Mayer, R. (Roland) Gowers, Emily Davie, John N. Thomas, Richard F. Richter, Will Longinus, Cassius, ca. Fedeli, Paolo Carena, Carlo Bailey, D. R. Shackleton (David Roy Shackleton) Page Top Smart Phone | PC About CiNii About CiNii CiNii Incorporated Databases Terms of Use Contact NII Home Help CiNii Articles CiNii Books CiNii Dissertations Metadata and API News Updates RSS Twitter NII Scholarly Services KAKEN IRDB NII-REO 
commons-wikimedia-org-2856	----	Category:Quintus Horatius Flaccus - Wikimedia Commons Help Category:Quintus Horatius Flaccus From Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository Jump to navigation Jump to search English: Horace, (8 December 65 BC - 27 November 8 BC), was the leading lyric poet in Latin, the son of a freedman, but himself born free. Latina: Quintus Horatius Flaccus Horacio (es); Quintus Horatius Flaccus (nah); Horatius (ms); Horace (en-gb); Horace (kw); Хораций (bg); Quintus Horatius Flaccus (ro); Horace (mg); Horatius (sk); Horace (oc); 贺拉斯 (zh-hant); Horatius (io); Quinto Orazio Flacco (sc); Goratsiy (uz); Гораций (kk); Horacio (eo); Quintus Horatius Flaccus (cs); Horacije (bs); Horacio (an); Horace (fr); Horacije (hr); होरेस (mr); Horace (vi); Horācijs (lv); Huoracėjos (sgs); Хорације (sr); Horácio (pt-br); Horace (sco); Гораций (mn); Horats (nn); Quintus Horatius Flaccus (nb); Horatsi (az); Horace (hif); Horatius (vro); Horace (en-ca); Οράτιος (el); Horace (en); هوراس (ar); Quintus Horatius Flaccus (br); Гораций (ru); Горацій (uk); 賀拉斯 (yue); Quintus Horatius Flaccus (hu); Horace (am); Horaci (sq); Horazio (eu); Хорациј (mk); Horacio (ast); هوراس (azb); Гораций (ba); Horaz (de); هوراس (fa); Гарацый (be); Հորացիուս (hy); 贺拉斯 (zh); Horats (da); ჰორაციუსი (ka); ホラティウス (ja); Quinto Horatio Flacco (ia); Horatius (sv); هوراتيوس (arz); Horatius (nl); הורטיוס (he); Quintus Horatius Flaccus (la); Quinde Orazio Flacco (roa-tara); होरेस (hi); 贺拉斯 (wuu); ਹੋਰੇਸ (pa); Horace (wa); Horatio (lfn); Horacy (pl); ஓராசு (ta); Quinto Orazio Flacco (it); Horatius (id); Horas (cy); Horatius (diq); Гарацыюс (be-tarask); Horaci (ca); 贺拉斯 (zh-cn); Horacio (war); Horaz (de-ch); Hóratíus (is); Quintu Orazziu Flaccu (scn); Horácio (pt); Horatius (vo); Гораций (tt); Horatius (tr); Horacijus (lt); Horacij (sl); Horace (tl); Horatius (et); Horatius (ga); Orazi (fur); Horatius (sw); ഹൊറസ് (ml); Kvint Horacije Flak (sh); Orassi (pms); Horatius (fi); Quintus Horatius Flaccus (ku); Quintus Horatius Flaccus (stq); Horacio (gl); 호라티우스 (ko); 贺拉斯 (zh-hans); Horatius (af) poeta romano (it); poète lyrique latin (fr); Erromatar poeta (eu); римский поэт (ru); poeta lírico e satírico en lingua latina (gl); römischer Dichter (de); Ρωμαίος λυρικός ποιητής (el); старажытнарымскі пісьменнік (be); شاعر و نویسنده در روم باستان (fa); poeta lyric de Roma antique (ia); romersk skribent og poet (da); Roman şair. (tr); romersk skribent og poet (nn); poeta lírico e satírico em língua latina (pt-br); romersk skribent og poet (nb); romersk författare och poet (sv); rzymski poeta liryczny (pl); римський поет (uk); dichter uit Oude Rome (65v Chr-8v Chr) (nl); poeta lírico y satírico en lengua latina (es); משורר רומי (he); poeta líric i satíric llatí (ca); antiikin roomalainen runoilija (fi); Roman lyric poet (en); شاعر غنائي و ناقد أدبي لاتيني روماني. (ar); římský básník (cs); poet roman din „perioada de aur” a literaturii romane (ro) Quinto Horacio Flaco (es); Квінт Горацій Флакк (uk); Horatius, Horatius Poeta (la); Quintus Horatius Flaccus (diq); Квинт Гораций Флакк (ru); Horatius, Quintus Horatius Flaccus (de); Quintus Horatius Flaccus, Q. Horatius Flaccus, Horatius (en); Quintus Horatius Flaccus (gl); Quintus Horatius Flaccus, Quint Horaci Flac (ca); Kwintus Horacjusz Flakkus, Orazio, Horace, Horacius (cs); Orazio (it) Horace  Roman lyric poet هوراس كما تخيله الرسام أنتون ألكساندر فون فرن Upload media   Wikipedia   Wikiquote   Wikisource Name in native language Q. Horatius Flaccus Date of birth 8 December 65 BC Venosa Date of death 27 November 8 BC Rome Place of burial Rome Country of citizenship Ancient Rome Occupation poet writer philosopher Father Unknown Mother Unknown Work location Rome Notable work Ars Poetica Present in work The Divine Comedy (4) Authority control  Q6197 ISNI: 0000 0001 2145 2178 VIAF ID: 100227522 GND ID: 118553569 Library of Congress authority ID: n79081354 Union List of Artist Names ID: 500404135 Bibliothèque nationale de France ID: 11886570b IdRef ID: 026659166 CiNii author ID (books): DA00782980 National Diet Library ID: 00540086 SBN author ID: IT\ICCU\CFIV\000246 Libraries Australia ID: 35206138 MusicBrainz artist ID: af616f1f-6242-4802-a1bf-8d3f0647083c Open Library ID: OL20088A NKCR AUT ID: jn20000603003 SELIBR ID: 189659 RSL ID (person): 000083136 National Library of Israel ID: 000064806 Biblioteca Nacional de España ID: XX891549 Nationale Thesaurus voor Auteurs ID: 068304579 BIBSYS ID: 90055203 NLP ID (unique): A11793144 National Library of Korea ID: KAC199612791 Europeana entity: agent/base/60033 Reasonator PetScan Scholia Statistics OpenStreetMap Locator tool Search depicted Subcategories This category has the following 15 subcategories, out of 15 total. B ► Books about Quintus Horatius Flaccus‎ (6 C, 6 F) ► Books by Quintus Horatius Flaccus‎ (3 C, 21 F) C ► Carpe diem‎ (8 C, 38 F) E ► Exegi monumentum‎ (1 F) H ► Horace's home in Venosa‎ (14 F) ► Horace portrait medallion, Leeds Central Library‎ (4 F) I ► Ille terrarum mihi praeter omnes angulus ridet‎ (7 F) J ► Les Jardins d'Horace, cliché-verre by Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot‎ (11 F) N ► Nescit vox missa reverti‎ (2 F) ► Non omnis moriar‎ (9 F) O ► Odes and Carmen saeculare of Horace - Conington (1872)‎ (20 F) P ► Pulvis et umbra sumus‎ (7 F) S ► Wieland, Horazens Satyren (1786)‎ (4 F) ► Satires, Epistles and Art of Poetry of Horace - Conington (1874)‎ (52 F) ► Quintus Horatius Flaccus on stamps‎ (7 F) Pages in category "Quintus Horatius Flaccus" The following 3 pages are in this category, out of 3 total. Quintus Horatius Flaccus H Creator:Horace Q Creator:Quintus Horatius Flaccus Media in category "Quintus Horatius Flaccus" The following 135 files are in this category, out of 135 total. 345Horace and Lydia by Albert Edelfelt (1854-1905).jpg 512 × 506; 60 KB A day in ancient Rome; being a revision of Lohr's "Aus dem alten Rom", with numerous illustrations, by Edgar S. Shumway (1885) (14591826269).jpg 1,102 × 1,882; 557 KB Adalbert von Rössler Horaz.jpg 604 × 1,000; 441 KB Bodleian Libraries, Ticket for Carmen Seculare (Friday 5th March 1779).jpg 770 × 1,000; 163 KB Busto di Orazio, Potenza.jpg 1,200 × 1,600; 177 KB Cincinnati Convention Mountain of Horace.png 405 × 599; 185 KB Classical writers windows, Hill Bark.jpg 4,220 × 2,228; 6.49 MB Como - Collegio Gallio 0965.JPG 6,000 × 4,000; 10.98 MB Como - Collegio Gallio 0986.JPG 6,000 × 4,000; 10.59 MB Epigrafe riapertura del Liceo Flacco.jpg 1,200 × 1,600; 111 KB Epístola als Pisons (page 30 crop).jpg 484 × 512; 48 KB Fedor Bronnikov 014.jpg 1,000 × 569; 135 KB Fons bandusiae.JPG 960 × 1,436; 294 KB General biography; or, Lives, critical and historical, of the most eminent persons of all ages, countries, conditions, and professions, arranged according to alphabetical order (1818) (14598071047).jpg 1,744 × 2,066; 743 KB Horace 1517 title page.jpg 1,666 × 2,431; 949 KB Horace and Susan Henry home, Seattle, circa 1900 (MOHAI 9648).jpg 700 × 446; 66 KB Horace Odes etc tr Conington (1872) - Capital I type 2.jpg 144 × 145; 6 KB Horace Odes etc tr Conington (1872) - Capital M.jpg 175 × 174; 8 KB Horace Odes etc tr Conington (1872) - Capital T type 2.jpg 150 × 150; 6 KB Horace Odes etc tr Conington (1872) - Capital Y.jpg 150 × 148; 6 KB Horace Odes etc tr Conington (1872) - endpiece from half title.jpg 157 × 59; 3 KB Horace Odes etc tr Conington (1872) - endpiece page 103.jpg 296 × 293; 18 KB Horace Odes etc tr Conington (1872) - endpiece page 127.jpg 257 × 211; 8 KB Horace Odes etc tr Conington (1872) - endpiece page xxxvi.jpg 271 × 320; 24 KB Horace Odes etc tr Conington (1872) - endpiece page xxxvii.jpg 151 × 142; 4 KB Horace Odes etc tr Conington (1872) - headpiece from half title-2.jpg 461 × 63; 8 KB Horace Odes etc tr Conington (1872) - headpiece from half title.jpg 388 × 66; 7 KB Horace Odes etc tr Conington (1872) - headpiece from page 1.jpg 705 × 185; 36 KB Horace Odes etc tr Conington (1872) - headpiece from page 104.jpg 722 × 160; 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Bartolomé Mitre).pdf 601 × 882, 216 pages; 86.26 MB Horacio (detalle) - Rebeca Matte.jpg 332 × 500; 53 KB HORACIO MBA.jpg 2,430 × 3,240; 717 KB Horacy - domniemany portret.jpg 727 × 914; 527 KB Horatius - Boek I Ode XIV - Cleveringaplaats 1, Leiden.JPG 1,952 × 2,576; 1.09 MB Horatius - Opera.jpg 3,264 × 4,912; 4 MB Horatius Flaccus.jpg 956 × 1,680; 1.13 MB Horaz beim Studium.jpg 2,707 × 1,885; 3.36 MB Horaz, Karl Georg Neumann Ode II 6.jpg 954 × 613; 242 KB Monte Vulture near Venosa.jpg 2,592 × 1,944; 1.11 MB Odes and Carmen Saeculare.djvu 912 × 1,500, 192 pages; 20.9 MB Opera (IA oper00hor).pdf 864 × 1,162, 360 pages; 20.29 MB Opera (IA oper00hora).pdf 604 × 904, 336 pages; 17.53 MB Opera MET DP254717.jpg 2,550 × 3,881; 1.24 MB Opera MET DP254718.jpg 2,713 × 3,881; 1.44 MB Opera ad examplar recensionis Bentleianæ plerumque emendata et brevibus notis instructa (IA operaadexamplarr00hora).pdf 602 × 947, 546 pages; 35.74 MB Opera. Ad optima exemplaria recognovit et in usum scholarum edidit Georg Ænotheus Koch (IA operaadoptimaexe00hora).pdf 687 × 1,254, 262 pages; 17.6 MB Opera cum notis gallicis.. (IA operacumnotisgal00hora).pdf 581 × 962, 292 pages; 18.67 MB Opera omnia, ex recensione A. J. Macleane (IA operaomniaexrece00hora).pdf 600 × 945, 252 pages; 14.85 MB Oppineimpain tutkittaa.png 1,650 × 640; 7 KB Orazio (xilografia).jpg 1,235 × 2,523; 1.45 MB Orazio, opera, francia xi secolo (pluteo 34.1).jpg 2,802 × 2,166; 3.69 MB Piazza con statua di Orazio.jpg 1,162 × 1,333; 713 KB Poets; twenty portraits. Engraving by J.W. Cook, 1825. Wellcome V0006822.jpg 2,397 × 3,240; 3.46 MB Poëmata .. (IA pomata00hora).pdf 762 × 1,333, 1,098 pages; 104.62 MB Q. Horatius Flaccus, denuo recognovit et praefatus est Augustus Meineke (IA qhoratiusflaccus00hor).pdf 689 × 1,100, 284 pages; 12.11 MB Quinti Horatii Flacci opera (IA quintihoratiifla02hora).pdf 850 × 1,404, 250 pages; 13.47 MB Quinto Orazio Flacco.jpg 454 × 600; 43 KB Quintus Horatius Flaccus.jpg 412 × 821; 316 KB QuintusHoratiusFlaccusLeidenWallPoem.jpg 2,464 × 3,696; 2.03 MB Richard Bentley, Horace 1711.jpg 960 × 246; 38 KB Ritratto di Orazio Flacco crop.png 1,185 × 1,485; 3.5 MB Ritratto di Orazio Flacco.jpg 1,944 × 2,592; 1.21 MB Statua di Orazio.jpg 1,944 × 2,592; 2.52 MB Statue d'Horace.jpg 203 × 332; 14 KB Venosa Città di Orazio.jpg 2,533 × 1,901; 416 KB Venosa Piazza di Orazio.jpg 2,119 × 1,415; 1.57 MB Venosa Piazza Orazio - statua.jpg 1,415 × 2,119; 1.96 MB Venosa Quote by Horace.jpg 2,536 × 1,902; 725 KB Venosa Statua di Orazio.jpg 1,415 × 2,119; 1.3 MB Volvic.Horace1.JPG 4,000 × 3,000; 2.11 MB Volvic.Horace2.JPG 4,000 × 3,000; 3.37 MB Wenceslas Hollar - Moderation (State 1).jpg 1,665 × 2,382; 1.36 MB Wybf3r poezji-2.png 1,069 × 1,558; 2.6 MB Wybf3r poezji-7.png 703 × 694; 796 KB Горацій.Вікіджерела.png 500 × 500; 440 KB Retrieved from "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Quintus_Horatius_Flaccus&oldid=351980138" Categories: 65 BC births 8 BC deaths Ancient Roman poets Gens Horatia People of Venosa Non-topical/index: Uses of Wikidata Infobox Uses of Wikidata Infobox providing interwiki links Deceased people by name Uses of Wikidata Infobox with no family name Uses of Wikidata Infobox with no given name Men by name People by name Navigation menu Personal tools English Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Discussion Variants Views View Edit History More Search Navigate Main page Welcome Community portal Village pump Help center Participate Upload file Recent changes Latest files Random file Contact us Tools What links here Related changes Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikipedia In Wikipedia Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Edit links This page was last edited on 26 May 2019, at 23:15. 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cs-wikipedia-org-5161	----	Quintus Horatius Flaccus – Wikipedie Quintus Horatius Flaccus Z Wikipedie, otevřené encyklopedie Skočit na navigaci Skočit na vyhledávání Quintus Horatius Flaccus Narození 8. prosince 65 př. n. l. Venosa Úmrtí 27. listopadu 8 př. n. l. (ve věku 56 let) Řím Místo pohřbení Řím Povolání básník, spisovatel a filozof Národnost Římané Významná díla Ars Poetica Rodiče a multimediální obsah na Commons galerie na Commons původní texty na Wikizdrojích citáty na Wikicitátech Seznam děl v Souborném katalogu ČR Některá data mohou pocházet z datové položky. Quintus Horatius Flaccus, často zvaný jen Horatius (8. prosince 65 př. n. l. Venusia – 27. listopadu 8 př. n. l. Řím) byl římský básník tzv. zlatého věku římské poezie.[1] Působil za vlády císaře Octaviana Augusta a patřil k družině básníků Gaia Cilnia Maecenata. Obsah 1 Život 2 Dílo 2.1 Osudy Horatiova díla 3 České překlady 4 Odkazy 4.1 Reference 4.2 Literatura 4.3 Související články 4.4 Externí odkazy Život[editovat | editovat zdroj] Horatius byl synem propuštěnce (zřejmě bývalého státního otroka) z Venusie na jihu Itálie (dnešní Venosa). Ačkoli byl jeho otec nízkého původu, byl natolik majetný, že byl schopen synovi zajistit nejlepší vzdělání, nejprve ve Venusii, později v Římě. Roku 45 př. n. l. odešel Horatius studovat filosofii do Athén, jak bylo zvykem u mladíků z dobrých rodin, aby se ve studiu zdokonalil.[2] Jeho studentská kariéra byla ale narušena, když v roce 44 př. n. l. vstoupil do Brutovy republikánské armády, kde se stal vojenským tribunem. Roku 42 př. n. l. se účastnil bitvy u Filipp, kde byl Brutus poražen vojsky druhého triumvirátu. Horatius se zachránil útěkem a později o sobě řekl, že v bitvě zanechal svůj štít, což bylo častým motivem u básníků řecké mélické poezie (např. u Archilocha). Po amnestii, jejíž podmínkou byla konfiskace majetku, se vrátil do Itálie a byl nucen živit se jako písař. V této době vznikly jeho první básně. Dostal se do kontaktu s básníky a literáty (spřátelil se například s Vergiliem a Variem) a roku 38 př. n. l. se jejich prostřednictvím seznámil s Gaiem Cilniem Maecenatem, který mu pomohl s vydáním prvních knih a později mu daroval statek. Ten ho ekonomicky zajistil a mohl se tak věnovat už pouze psaní. Maecenas ho představil také císaři Augustovi, s nímž měl Horatius dosti úzké vztahy, přestože se v mládí účastnil bojů proti němu. Tyto vztahy byly založeny na upřímné oddanosti, ne však podlézavosti nebo osobních ambicích básníka. Například když ho císař požádal, aby se stal jeho osobním tajemníkem, Horatius nabídku zdvořile, ale rozhodně odmítl. Celý život si zachoval relativní svobodu a nezávislost a oslava Augusta v některých jeho básních neplynula z poddanosti, ale upřímného souhlasu s císařovou politikou. Horatius zemřel necelé dva měsíce po Maecenatovi a byl vedle něj pohřben na Esquilinu. Dílo[editovat | editovat zdroj] Saturae (Satiry, I. kniha 34 př. n. l., II. 33 př. n. l.): 2 knihy (o 10 a 8 skladbách) v daktylském hexametru. Ačkoli zde Horatius navázal na Lucilia, jeho satiry nemají útočný charakter, jedná se spíše o moralizující kritiky soudobé společnosti a lidských vlastností (například cizoložství, lakomství, nenasytnosti, chamtivosti, obžerství). Epodae (Epódy nebo též Jamby, 30 př. n. l.): 17 básnických skladeb, které sám Horatius nazýval Iambi s ohledem na metrum, jež v díle převažuje, a zároveň vzhledem k jejich útočnému tónu, který byl spojován s řeckou jambickou poezií. Sbírka je charakteristická námětovou pestrostí, obsahuje básně útočné, erotické i občanské. Carmina (Ódy, 3 knihy, 23 př. n. l., IV. kniha 13 př. n. l.): přes 100 básní různých námětů, délky a meter. Horatius zde představuje množství řeckých lyrických meter do té doby v latinské poezie neužívaných, básně jsou seřazeny podle vzoru alexandrijské neoterické poezie a vyznačují se vysokou učeností a propracovaností. Carmen saeculare (Píseň stoletní, 17 př. n. l.): báseň složená na Augustův podnět ku příležitosti oslavy století. Jedná se o hymnus pro 27 dívek a 27 hochů. Je to prosba k bohům, aby zajistili Římu a Augustově vládě prosperitu. Epistulae (Listy) (20 př. n. l.): 22 skladeb v hexametrech. Každý list je adresován konkrétní osobě a neomezuje se na jeden námět a téma, podle vzoru neoterické poezie se snaží o námětovou pestrost.. De arte poetica (O umění básnickém, po roce 13 př. n. l.): skladba (jinak také nazývána Epistula ad Pisones nebo jen Ad Pisones) podává základy teorií o poezii, především o tvorbě dramatické. Zabývá se postupně uměním a jeho tvůrci. Jedná se zřejmě o Horativo nejznámější dílo. Osudy Horatiova díla[editovat | editovat zdroj] Nedlouho po své smrti se Horatius stal římským školním autorem. Ve středověku byl dobře znám především jako básník moralizující, z jehož díla bylo možné čerpat mnohá ponaučení. Četly se především Listy a Satiry. Na jeho proslulost a postavení ve školní tradici ukazuje i Božská komedie, kde se Horatius nachází mezi básníky v předpeklí. Jako lyrik byl oslavován a imitován už od renesance (počínaje Petrarcou) zejména u francouzských básníků. Nepostradatelným vzorem klasicistní literatury byla skladba De arte poetica, na níž se odkazovalo v poetice a literatuře. Největší oblibě se Horatius těšil zřejmě v 18. století. Vliv měl nepochybně také na českou poezii, v období národního obrození ho například jako jeden z antických vzorů použil Antonín Jaroslav Puchmajer. České překlady[editovat | editovat zdroj] HORATIUS, Quintus Flaccus. Ódy a epódy. Překlad Otakar Jiráni. Královské Vinohrady: Ludvík Bradáč, 1923. 276 s. Dostupné online.  HORATIUS, Quintus Flaccus. Satiry. [Kniha I a II]. Překlad Otakar Jiráni. V Praze: Alois Srdce, 1929. 118 s. HORATIUS, Quintus Flaccus. Listy. Překlad Otakar Jiráni. V Praze: Alois Srdce, 1929. 121 s. HORATIUS, Quintus Flaccus. Vavřín a réva: ódy, epódy, satiry, listy. Překlad Jindřich Pokorný a Rudolf Mertlík. Odeon, Praha 1972. 365 s. Odkazy[editovat | editovat zdroj] Reference[editovat | editovat zdroj] ↑ Zlatý věk římské poezie. www.fhs.cuni.cz [online]. [cit. 2020-06-29]. Dostupné online.  ↑ Horace | Roman poet. Encyclopedia Britannica [online]. [cit. 2020-06-29]. Dostupné online. (anglicky)  Literatura[editovat | editovat zdroj] CONTE, G. B. Dějiny římské literatury. KLP, Praha 2008, s. 278-301 Slovník latinských spisovatelů, LEDA, Praha 2004, s. 297-300 STIEBITZ, Ferdinand. Stručné dějiny římské literatury. Pedagogické nakladatelství, Praha 1967, s. 229-238 Související články[editovat | editovat zdroj] Carpe diem Odi profanum vulgus, et arceo Sapere aude Externí odkazy[editovat | editovat zdroj] Obrázky, zvuky či videa k tématu Quintus Horatius Flaccus ve Wikimedia Commons Osoba Quintus Horatius Flaccus ve Wikicitátech Seznam děl v Souborném katalogu ČR, jejichž autorem nebo tématem je Quintus Horatius Flaccus Digitalizovaná díla Quinta Horatia Flacca v digitální knihovně Kramerius NK ČR. Horatius, Quintus Flaccus: Epistola ad Pisones De arte poetica ad plures editiones collata, atque in partes et capita divisa, cum praecipuis lectionis varietatibus Dostupné online Autoritní data: AUT: jn20000603003 | GND: 118553569 | ISNI: 0000 0001 2145 2178 | LCCN: n79081354 | ULAN: 500404135 | VIAF: 100227522 | WorldcatID: lccn-n79081354 Portály: Antika | Lidé | Literatura Citováno z „https://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quintus_Horatius_Flaccus&oldid=19002440“ Kategorie: Starověcí římští básníci Básníci tvořící latinsky Spisovatelé píšící latinsky Narození 65 př. n. l. Narození 8. prosince Úmrtí 8 př. n. l. 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cy-wikipedia-org-2693	----	Horas - Wicipedia Horas Oddi ar Wicipedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Horas Ganwyd 8 Rhagfyr 0065 CC  Venosa  Bu farw Rhufain  Dinasyddiaeth Rhufain hynafol  Galwedigaeth bardd, ysgrifennwr, athronydd  Adnabyddus am Ars Poetica  Tad Unknown  Mam Unknown  Bardd yn yr iaith Lladin oedd Quintus Horatius Flaccus neu Horas, hefyd Horace (8 Rhagfyr, 65 CC - 27 Tachwedd 8 CC). Gyda Cicero, Ofydd ac eraill, roedd yn un o lenorion mawr yr Oes Awgwstaidd. Cynnwys 1 Ei waith 2 Llyfryddiaeth 2.1 Gwaith Horas 2.2 Cyfieithiadau ac astudiaethau 3 Cyfeiriadau Ei waith[golygu | golygu cod y dudalen] Un o'i gerddi enwocaf yw ei gerdd ar Fyrhoedledd Dyn, sy'n dechrau gyda'r bennill adnabyddus, Eheu fugaces, Postume, Postume, labuntur anni nec pietas moram rugis et instanti senectae afferet indominataeque morti. (Ebrwydd, O Postumus, ebrwydd y derfydd Blwyddi ein heinioes : nid etyl dy grefydd Ddynesiad henaint hagr ei rychau, Nac anorchfygol rymuster angau.)[1] Llyfryddiaeth[golygu | golygu cod y dudalen] Saturae, 1577 Gwaith Horas[golygu | golygu cod y dudalen] Ars Poetica Carmen Saeculare Carminum llyfr #1 [1] Carminum llyfr #2 [2] Carminum llyfr #3 [3] Carminum llyfr #4 [4] Epistularum llyfr #1 [5] Epistularum llyfr #2 [6] Epodes [7] Sermonum llyfr #1 [8] Sermonum llyfr #2 [9] Cyfieithiadau ac astudiaethau[golygu | golygu cod y dudalen] J. Gwyn Griffiths (gol.), Cerddi o'r Lladin (Gwasg Prifysgol Cymru, 1962). Yn cynnwys detholiad o gerddi Horas. Cyfeiriadau[golygu | golygu cod y dudalen] ↑ Cyfieithiad H. Parry Jones yn Cerddi o'r Lladin (Caerdydd, 1962). Awdurdod WorldCat VIAF: 100227522 LCCN: n79081354 ISNI: 0000 0001 2145 2178 GND: 118553569 SELIBR: 189659 SUDOC: 026659166 BNF: cb11886570b (data) BIBSYS: 90055203 ULAN: 500404135 NLA: 35206138 NDL: 00540086 NKC: jn20000603003 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\000246 RLS: 000083136 BNE: XX891549 CiNii: DA00782980 Wedi dod o "https://cy.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horas&oldid=9887952" Categorïau: Genedigaethau 65 CC Marwolaethau 8 CC Pobl o Basilicata Beirdd Lladin Llenorion Eidalaidd Llenyddiaeth Ladin Glasurol Categorïau cuddiedig: Articles with hCards Erthyglau sy'n defnyddio Nodyn Gwybodlen person Wicidata AC with 16 elements Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Llywio Offer personol Heb fewngofnodi Sgwrs Cyfraniadau Crëwch gyfrif Mewngofnodi Parthau Erthygl Sgwrs Amrywiolion Golygon Darllen Golygu Golygu cod y dudalen Gweld yr hanes More Chwilio Panel llywio Hafan Porth y Gymuned Y Caffi Materion cyfoes Newidiadau diweddar Erthygl ar hap Cymorth Rhoi Blwch offer Beth sy'n cysylltu yma Newidiadau perthnasol Tudalennau arbennig Dolen barhaol Gwybodaeth am y dudalen Cyfeiriwch at yr erthygl hon Eitem Wikidata Argraffu/allforio Llunio llyfr Lawrlwytho ar ffurf PDF Fersiwn argraffu Mewn prosiectau eraill Wikimedia Commons Ieithoedd eraill Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Golygu cysylltau Newidiwyd y dudalen hon ddiwethaf ar 14 Mawrth 2020, am 21:37. Mae testun y dudalen ar gael dan drwydded Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike; gall fod telerau ychwanegol perthnasol. Gweler Telerau Defnyddio'r Drwydded am fanylion pellach. Polisi preifatrwydd Ynglŷn â Wicipedia Gwadiadau Golwg symudol Datblygwyr Statistics Cookie statement 
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data-bnf-fr-6864	----	Horace (0065-0008 av. J.-C.) Data Télécharger les données Le modèle de données SPARQL Endpoint Contact français english deutsch Œuvres Documents sur Autour de Voir aussi Horace (0065-0008 av. J.-C.) Langue : latin Sexe : masculin Naissance : - 65 Mort : - 8 Domaines : Littératures Autres formes du nom : Quintus Horatius Flaccus (0065-0008 av. J.-C.) (latin) Quintus Horatius Flaccus (0065-0008 av. J.-C.) Horatius (0065-0008 av. J.-C.) Orazio (0065-0008 av. J.-C.) (italien) ISNI : ISNI 0000 0001 2145 2178 Horace (0065-0008 av. J.-C.) : œuvres (1 385 ressources dans data.bnf.fr) Œuvres textuelles (1 209) Chant séculaire Art poétique Épodes Epîtres Satires Odes Voir plus de documents de ce genre Œuvres musicales (155) Oderunt hilarem tristes (1970) avec Horace (0065-0008 av. J.-C.) comme Auteur du texte Poscimur, si quid vacui (1968) avec Horace (0065-0008 av. J.-C.) comme Auteur du texte Carmen saeculare (1788) avec Horace (0065-0008 av. J.-C.) comme Auteur du texte Miserarum est (1552) avec Horace (0065-0008 av. J.-C.) comme Auteur du texte Voir plus de documents de ce genre Manuscrits et archives (6) Quintus Horatius Flaccus, Epistulae (Latin 10401) avec Horace (0065-0008 av. J.-C.) comme Auteur du texte Comoediae sex (Latin 7900A) avec Horace (0065-0008 av. J.-C.) comme Auteur du texte Extraits divers de Ménandre et Térence, Théocrite et Virgile, Horace et Boileau, Euripide et Racine, Plaute et Molière. (Français 15228) avec Horace (0065-0008 av. J.-C.) comme Auteur du texte Claudien (0370?-0404?) Rapt de Proserpine (Latin 11324) avec Horace (0065-0008 av. J.-C.) comme Auteur du texte Quintus Horatius Flaccus, Epistolae (Latin 10401) avec Horace (0065-0008 av. J.-C.) comme Auteur du texte Quintus Horatius Flaccus, Odes - Epodes - Carmen saeculare - Ars poetica - Satyrae (fragmenta) (Latin 10401) avec Horace (0065-0008 av. J.-C.) comme Auteur du texte Documents sur Horace (0065-0008 av. J.-C.) (174 ressources dans data.bnf.fr) Livres (167) Frammenti di storia (2019) "tali dignus amico" (2019) La morale de l'amour dans les "Odes" d'Horace (2019) Chacun son Horace (2019) Reading Horace's lyric (2019) Horace (2019) Orazio (2018) Victorian Horace (2018) Horace and Seneca (2018) Leggere Orazio nella scuola tardo-antica (2017) Canidia, Rome's first witch (2017) L'invention de la vie privée et le modèle d'Horace (2017) L'invention de la vie privée et le modèle d'Horace (2017) Gespräche mit Göttern (2017) Quinto Orazio Flaco (2017) La prima linea della poesia lirica di età augustea (2016) The Medieval Horace (2015) Roman satire and the old comic tradition (2015) Horace between freedom and slavery (2015) Horace (2014) Brill's companion to Horace (2013) Augustan poetry and the Roman Republic (2013) Percorsi testuali oraziani (2013) Plenus litteris Lucanus (2013) Horacio lírico (2012) Roman lyric (2012) Horacio (2012) Horace's iambic criticism (2012) Horace as outsider (2011) Horace in dialogue (2010) Du latin au français d'Afrique noire (2010) A companion to Horace (2010) Lucretian receptions (2009) Horace (2009) Horaz (2009) Perceptions of Horace (2009) Horácio e a sua perenidade (2009) Sermo Iuris (2009) Ditirambo lucano (2008) The Cambridge companion to Horace (2007) Generic enrichment in Vergil and Horace (2007) La rappresentazione del tempo nell'opera di Orazio (2007) Der Horazkommentar des Pomponius Porphyrio (2007) Vasilij Vasil'evič Kapnist und seine Übertragungen von Gedichten des Horaz ins Russische (2007) Poetic interplay (2006) Horace (2005) Orazio nella letteratura italiana (2004) Régnier and Horace (2004) Horace à la campagne (2003) Boileau imitateur d'Horace et de Juvénal (2003) Melodien aus mittelalterlichen Horaz-Handschriften (2002) Christianorum Maro et Flaccus (2002) Horace and Greek lyric poetry (2002) Horace's well-trained reader (2002) Balde und Horaz (2002) Traditions and contexts in the poetry of Horace (2002) Zeit und Form (2002) Horaz (2001) Allan Ramsay and the search for Horace's villa (2001) La satira e il poeta (2001) Horace (2001) Horace and the gift economy of patronage (2001) The influence of Callimachean Aesthetics on the satires and odes of Horace (2001) Satires of Rome (2001) Studi oraziani (2000) Studi oraziani (2000) Horaz und Celtis (2000) Euphonia (2000) Ingenuitas (2000) Atoms, ataraxy, and allusion (2000) Vergil og Horats (2000) Der Horazkommentar des Porphyrio im Rahmen der kaiserzeitlichen Schul- und Bildungstradition (1999) La mort de Virgile d'après Horace et Ovide (1999) Horace à la campagne (1999) The English Horace (1998) Horace and the rhetoric of authority (1998) Horace's Narrative "Odes" (1997) Horace (1997) Der Wortakzent in den lyrischen Versen des Horaz (1997) Sabinum (1997) Riedel Horatiana (1996) The Roman satirists and their masks (1996) Da Orazio lirico a Leopardi (1996) Studies of classical influence on Boileau and La Fontaine (1996) Sul limitare (1996) Horace's epistles, Wieland and the reader (1995) Homage to Horace (1995) Musis amicus (1995) Horace (1995) Vita di Q. Orazio Flacco (1995) Horazische Denkfiguren (1995) Sport bei Horaz (1994) Orazio e la letteratura italiana (1994) Orazio (1994) La lingua parlata in Orazio (1994) Bimilenario de Horacio (1994) Orazio (1994) Repertorium locorum horatianorum in Patrum Ecclesiae scriptis (1994) Horaz-Studien (1994) Sprachliche Ambiguität bei Horaz (1994) Horacio, el poeta y el hombre (1994) Horats-studier (1994) Atti dei convegni di Venosa, Napoli, Roma (1994) Horace made new (1993) Letture oraziane (1993) Un angolo di mondo (1993) Autoritratto di un poeta (1993) Horace, l'oeuvre et les imitations (1993) Orazio (1993) Horace 2000 (1993) La mort de Virgile d'après Horace et Ovide (1993) Atti del convegno di Venosa (1993) La villa sabina di Orazio (1993) The walking muse (1993) Orazio (1993) "Postera crescam laude" (1993) Horaz (1993) Saggi e studi su Orazio (1993) Horaz in der Forschung nach 1957 (1992) Autobiographische Tierbilder bei Horaz (1992) Codices horatiani in Bibliotheca Apostolica Vaticana (1992) Vergiliana, Horatiana, Ovidiana, varia ad Thraciam pertinentia (1991) Orazio Flacco (1991) Ricordi lucani in Orazio (1991) Polyhymnia (1991) Orazio (1990) Concordantia Horatiana (1990) Saggio sopra Orazio (1990) L' Edera di Orazio (1990) The Poetry of criticism (1990) Présence d'Horace (1989) Orazio in colloquio (1989) Untersuchungen zur mittelalterlichen Horaz-Rezeption (1988) The English and Latin texts of Pope's "Imitations of Horace" (1988) Friedrich von Hagedorn und Horaz (1988) Orazio (1988) Agonistic poetry (1987) Studi su Orazio (1986) Die Althochdeutsche Horazglossierung (1986) Übersetzung des Horaz (1986) “O laborum dulce lenimen” (1986) Unity and design in Horace's "Odes" (1986) Horacjanizm w liryce polsko-łacińskiej renesansu i baroku (1985) Literary satire and theory (1985) Horaz-Vertonungen von Mittelalter bis zur Gegenwart, eine Anthologie (1985) Horaz und Actium (1984) Hwraʾṭyws (1984) Influences latines en Europe (1983) Profile of Horace (1982) Essays on Roman satire (1982) Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II. - Einunddreisigster Band. - 3. Teilband (1981) Die Bilder der horazischen Lyrik (1981) Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt 2. 31, 3 (1981) Geschichte des Textverständnisses am Beispiel von Pindar und Horaz (1981) A Kettős kötésű dativus Horatiusnál (1981) Words in a corner (1981) Studi su Orazio satiro (1979) Horace and his lyric poetry (1968) Pseudacronis scholia in Horatium vetustiora (1967) La survie d'Horace à l'époque romantique (1965) Lexicon Horatianum (1965) Horace (1962) Horacio y los poetras de su tiempo (1960) The Odes and Epodes of Horace (1960) Le lyrisme des Odes d'Horace (1926) [Recueil. Dossiers biographiques Boutillier du Retail. Documentation sur Horace] (1926) Sebastyana Petrycego Horatius Flaccus w trudach wie̡zienia moskiewskiego 1609 (1914) Études sur Horace appliquées au droit civil romain (1845) Images (5) Horace (1794) Horace (1794) Horace (1794) [Horatius Coclès] (1506) [Horatius Coclès] (1506) Documents d'archives et manuscrits (catalogue général) (1) Dissertation adressée au Père // Sanadon ; où // L'on examine la Traduction et les // Remarques de M. Dacier sur un endroit D'horace ; et où l'on // explique par occasion, ce qui regarde le Tétracorde des Grecs (1751) Cartes et plans (1) Topographie des vallées de Licenza et de Tivoli pour les recherches sur l'emplacement des villa d'Horace Autour de Horace (0065-0008 av. J.-C.) (239 ressources dans data.bnf.fr) Œuvres reliées (10) À Lydie (1869) Voir plus d’œuvres reliées de Horace (0065-0008 av. J.-C.) Thèmes liés (52) Actes de congrès Allemand (langue) -- 750-1050 (vieux haut-allemand) Basilicate (Italie) Bibliographie Biographies British library -- Manuscrit. Harley 2724 Canidie (personnage fictif) Catalogues Catalogues d'exposition Cheval Citations Comique (littérature) Concordances Glossaires et lexiques Guerriers Histoire -- Dans la littérature Horace, Villa d' (Italie) Imitation (littérature) Inspiration Intertextualité Littérature anglaise Littérature antique Littérature chrétienne primitive Littérature comparée -- Grecque et latine Littérature latine Métaphore Moi -- Dans la littérature Murs de villes Musique -- Antiquité Neumes Odes Ouvrages avant 1800 Pères de l'Église Persona (littérature) Phonostylistique Poésie anglaise Poésie française -- 19e siècle Poésie iambique Poésie latine Poésie latine médiévale et moderne Poésie lyrique latine Poésie politique latine Poésie satirique latine Politique et gouvernement -- Rome -- 1er siècle av. J.-C. Politique et littérature Registres Rhétorique antique Riedel, Hendrick (1796-1871) -- Bibliothèque Sabres Satire Satire latine Thèses et écrits académiques Auteurs liés en tant que auteur du texte (97) Nicolas Adam (1717-1792) Adam de Saint-Victor (10..-114.?) Alain de Lille (11..-1202?) Anacréon (0560?-0478? av. J-C.) Aristote (0384-0322 av. J.-C.) Aulu-Gelle (0123?-0180?) Ausone (0310?-0395?) Josse Bade (1461?-1535) Honoré de Balzac (1799-1850) Jules-Claude Barbier (1815-1901) Charles Baudelaire (1821-1867) Bartolomeo Benincasa (1746-1816) Émile Bergerat (1845-1923) Jean-François Bergier (1817-18..) Charles de Beys (1610-1659) Nicolas Boileau (1636-1711) Stanislas-Jean de Boufflers (1738-1815) Gerbrandus Adrianus Bredero (1585-1618) David-Augustin de Brueys (1640-1723) Dionysius Cato (02..?-02..?) Catulle (0087?-0052? av. J.-C.) Jules César (0100-0044 av. J.-C.) André Chénier (1762-1794) Columelle Amédée. Dethou (1811-1877) Charles Doyen (1797-1866) Pierre Antoine Romain Dubos (1766-1810) Jean-Antoine Du Cerceau (1670-1730) Émile Egger (1813-1885) Anatole France (1844-1924) Johann Thomas Freige (1543-1583) Caius Cornelius Gallus (0069-0026 av. J.C.) Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim (1719-1803) Grattius Faliscus Pierre Grimal (1912-1996) Théodore Guiard (1814-1855) Hans-Christian Günther Ludwig Friedrich Heindorf (1774-1816) José Maria de Heredia (1842-1905) Helius Eobanus Hessus (1488-1540) Victor Hugo (1802-1885) Jules Janin (1804-1874) Juvénal (0060?-0130?) Alphonse de Lamartine (1790-1869) Denis Lambin (1516-1572) André Hippolyte Lemonnier (1794-1871) Giacomo Leopardi (1798-1837) Lucas Lossius (1508-1582) Lucain (0039-0065) Francesco Luisini (1524-1568) Macrobe (0370?-043.?) Johann Otto Maianus Aldo Manuzio (1547-1597) Clément Marot (1496-1544) Martial (0040?-0104?) Jacques Daniel Martine (1762-1846) Maximien (poète, 05..-05..) Pierre-Auguste-Marie Miger (1771-1837) Simon-Charles Miger (1736-1820) Frédéric Mistral (1830-1914) Charles-Louis Mollevaut (1776-1844) Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) Cornelius Nepos (0100?-0025? av. J.-C.) Claude Nicole (1611-1685) Ovide (0043 av. J.-C.-0017) Niccolò Perotti (1429-1480) Perse (0034-0062) Pétrone (00..?-0066) Phèdre (0015? av. J.-C.-0054) François-André Philidor (1726-1795) Johannes Piscator (1546-1625) Alexander Pope (1688-1744) Properce (0050?-0015? av. J.-C.) Karl Wilhelm Ramler (1725-1798) Géraud Valet de Reganhac (1719-1787) Jean Richepin (1849-1926) Pierre de Ronsard (1524-1585) Enrico Rostagno (1860-1942) Johannes Rutgers (1589-1625) Salluste (0086-0035 av. J.-C.) Jean Salmon (1490-1557) Sénèque (0004 av. J.-C.-0065) Sidoine Apollinaire (saint, 0431?-0487?) Tiberius Catius Silius Italicus (0025?-0101) Édouard Sommer (1822-1866) Battista Spagnoli (1447-1516) Stace (0040?-0096) Marco Fidel Suárez (1855-1927) Sully Prudhomme (1839-1907) Johannes Sulpitius Verulanus (1430?-149.?) Tibulle (0050?-0018? av. J.-C.) Joost Van den Vondel (1587-1679) Otto Van Veen (1556-1629) Marco Girolamo Vida (1485-1566) François Villeneuve (18..-1956) Virgile (0070-0019 av. J.-C.) Erik Wistrand (1907-1998) Auteurs liés en tant que compositeur (61) Johann Anton André (1775-1842) Jacques Arcadelt (1507?-1568) Daniel-François-Esprit Auber (1782-1871) Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) Friedrich Burchard Beneken (1760-1818) John Blow (1648?-1708) Johann Heinrich Karl Bornhardt (1774-1840) Sethus Calvisius (1556-1615) Henry Carey (1687-1743) Karl Ditters von Dittersdorf (1739-1799) Gaetano Donizetti (1797-1848) Bruno Ducol Alfonso Ferrabosco (1575?-1628) Jacobus Gallus (1550-1591) Paul-César Gibert (1717-1787) Christoph Willibald von Gluck (1714-1787) Carl Heinrich Graun (1703?-1759) Reynaldo Hahn (1874-1947) Georg Friedrich Händel (1685-1759) Hans Leo Hassler (1564-1612) Joseph Haydn (1732-1809) Friedrich Heinrich Himmel (1765-1814) Paul Hofhaimer (1459-1537) A. Z. Holmès (1847-1903) Friedrich Ludwig Aemilius Kunzen (1761-1817) Roland de Lassus (1532-1594) Giovanni de Macque (1548?-1614) Joseph Mainzer (1801-1851) Luca Marenzio (1553?-1599) Étienne-Nicolas Méhul (1763-1817) Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy (1809-1847) Albert Gottlieb Methfessel (1785-1869) Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791) Alonso Mudarra (1510?-1580) Hans Georg Nägeli (1773-1836) Johann Gottlieb Naumann (1741-1801) Sigismund Neukomm (1778-1858) Georg Neumark (1621-1681) Giuseppe Antonio Paganelli (1710-1763) Michele Pesenti (1470?-1528) François-André Philidor (1726-1795) Henry Purcell (1659-1695) Johann Friedrich Reichardt (1752-1814) Vincenzo Righini (1756-1812) Wolfgang Rihm Johann Heinrich Rolle (1716-1785) Cipriano de Rore (1516?-1565) Johann Rosenmüller (1619?-1684) Johann Hermann Schein (1586-1630) Ludwig Senfl (1486?-1543?) Karl Spazier (1761-1805) Georg Philipp Telemann (1681-1767) Marcel Trémois (1891-1974) Petrus Tritonius (1465?-1525?) Melchior Vulpius (1570?-1615) Paul de Wailly (1854-1933) Johann Walter (1496-1570) Carl Maria von Weber (1786-1826) Peter von Winter (1754-1825) Carl Friedrich Zelter (1758-1832) Johann Rudolf Zumsteeg (1760-1802) Auteurs liés en tant que auteur ou responsable intellectuel (16) Johann Rudolph Ahle (1625-1673) Sethus Calvisius (1556-1615) Karl Ditters von Dittersdorf (1739-1799) Carl Heinrich Graun (1703?-1759) Georg Friedrich Händel (1685-1759) Friedrich Franz Hurka (1762-1805) Heinrich Isaac (1450?-1517) Ferdinand Kauer (1751-1831) Adam Krieger (1634-1666) Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy (1809-1847) Hans Georg Nägeli (1773-1836) Johann Christian Heinrich Rinck (1770-1846) Johann Abraham Peter Schulz (1747-1800) Karl Spazier (1761-1805) Louis Spohr (1784-1859) Carl Friedrich Zelter (1758-1832) Auteurs liés en tant que parolier (2) Charles-Marie Leconte de Lisle (1818-1894) José Juan Tablada (1871-1945) Auteurs liés en tant que auteur de l'argument (1) Fernando Navarro Antolín Voir aussi À la BnF (2) Notice correspondante dans Catalogue général Notice correspondante dans BP16 Sur le Web (7) Notice correspondante dans Dbpedia Notice correspondante dans IdRef Notice correspondante dans ISNI Notice correspondante dans MusicBrainz Notice correspondante dans VIAF Notice correspondante dans Wikidata Notice correspondante dans Wikipedia Francophone Services BnF Poser une question à un bibliothécaire Venir à la BnF Reproduire un document Autres bases documentaires Recherche dans Gallica Retronews Catalogue général BnF archives et manuscrits BnF Image Catalogue collectif de France Europeana OCLC WorldCat Sudoc Outils Imprimer la page Exporter la page en PDF Signaler un problème sur la page Citer la page Permalien : Télécharger les données Télécharger en RDF ( xml | nt | n3 ) Télécharger en JSON-LD Télécharger en JSON Le Web sémantique dans data.bnf.fr informations mises à jour le 2020-09-22 |  À propos | Informations légales | Avertissements | Posez votre question | version 2.9.8 
da-wikipedia-org-586	----	Horats - Wikipedia, den frie encyklopædi Horats Fra Wikipedia, den frie encyklopædi Spring til navigation Spring til søgning Horats Romerske republik Horats malet af Anton von Werner Personlig information Født 8. december 65 f.v.t. Venosa Død 27. november 8 f.v.t. (56 år) Rom Gravsted Rom Uddannelse og virke Elev af Aristos fra Askalon, Kratippos fra Pergamon Beskæftigelse Skribent, filosof, digter Arbejdssted Rom Kendte værker Arc poetica Information med symbolet hentes fra Wikidata. Kildehenvisninger foreligger sammesteds.  [ redigér på Wikidata ] Quintus Horatius Flaccus (født 65 f.Kr., død 8 f.Kr.), ofte bare Horats, var en af de ypperste romerske digtere. Han stammede fra den syditalienske by Venusia, i den nuværende region Basilicata. Hans far var en frigiven slave, som skabte sig en pæn formue som inkassator og ved landbrug. Horats er citeret for at have sagt jeg hader den gemene pøbel, og holder afstand til dem (latin: odi profanum vulgus et arceo). Se også[redigér | redigér wikikode] Wikimedia Commons har flere filer relateret til Horats v d r Antikken (ca. 800 f.Kr. til 500 e.Kr.) Oldtidens Grækenland Det Deliske Søforbund Det athenske demokrati Dorer Græske kolonier Joner Makedonien Milet Mykene Olympia Oraklet i Delfi Peloponnes Peloponnesiske Krig Perikles Perserkrigene Polis Slaget ved Marathon Sokrates Solon Sparta Themistokles Troja Æoler Hellenismen Alexander den Store Athens historie Diadokerne Græsk mytologi Makedonerne Theben Thrakien Græsk litteratur Aischylos Aristofanes Aristoteles Demosthenes Euripides Herodot Hesiod Homer Iliaden Menander Ni lyrikere Odysseen Platon Sofokles Thukydid Xenofon Den romerske republik Det romerske Senat Etruskere Forbundsfællekrigen Gaius Julius Caesar Gallerkrigene Latium Puniske krige Romersk borger Romersk arkitektur Romersk religion SPQR Triumvirat Det romerske kejserrige Armenien Augustus Germanien Hadrian Hadrians mur Julisk-Claudiske dynasti Kejserkult Konstantin den Store Limes Mysteriereligion Pannonien Pax romana Prætorianergarden Trajan Urkristendom Det østromerske rige (Byzans) Belisar Byzans Cæsareopapisme Katafrakt Hagia Sophia Justinian 1. Økumeniske Konciler Ravenna Tetrarkiet Theodora Varægergarden Romersk litteratur Augustin Aulus Gellius Cicero Horats Livius Lukrets Martial Ovid Petronius Plautus Plinius den Ældre Plinius den Yngre Properts Quintilian Sallust Seneca Sveton Tacitus Vergil Æneiden Persien Achæmenide-dynastiet Dareios den Store Kyros 2. Mederne Partherriget Perserkrigene Sasaniderne Seleukiderne Xerxes 1. Zarathustra Zarathustrianisme Se også: Andre indgange til historien Autoritetsdata WorldCat VIAF: 100227522 LCCN: n79081354 ISNI: 0000 0001 2145 2178 GND: 118553569 SELIBR: 189659 SUDOC: 026659166 BNF: cb11886570b (data) BIBSYS: 90055203 ULAN: 500404135 MusicBrainz: af616f1f-6242-4802-a1bf-8d3f0647083c NLA: 35206138 NDL: 00540086 NKC: jn20000603003 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\000246 RLS: 000083136 BNE: XX891549 CiNii: DA00782980 Stub Denne forfatterbiografi er kun påbegyndt. Du kan hjælpe Wikipedia ved at tilføje mere. 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de-wikipedia-org-965	----	Horaz – Wikipedia Horaz aus Wikipedia, der freien Enzyklopädie Zur Navigation springen Zur Suche springen Horaz (Aussprache: [hoˈraːt͡s], * 8. Dezember 65 v. Chr. in Venusia; † 27. November 8 v. Chr.), eigentlich Quintus Horatius Flaccus, ist neben Vergil, Properz, Tibull und Ovid einer der bedeutendsten römischen Dichter der Augusteischen Zeit. Seine philosophischen Ansichten und dicta gehörten bis in die Neuzeit zu den bekanntesten des Altertums und erfuhren reichhaltige Rezeption in Humanismus und Klassizismus. Horaz trieb die klassische Literatur eigener Zeit auf neue Höhen und war besonders für den englischen Klassizismus bedeutendstes antikes Vorbild. Horaz-Denkmal (1898) in Venosa Inhaltsverzeichnis 1 Leben 1.1 Jugend 1.2 Dichter im Maecenaskreis 1.3 Spätwerk und Alter 2 Werk 2.1 Satiren 2.2 Epoden 2.2.1 Gestaltungskriterien und Inhalte 2.2.2 Weiterentwicklung zu den Oden 2.2.3 Chronologie und Aufbau 2.3 Oden 2.3.1 Datierung und produktive Bedingungen 2.3.2 Themen 2.4 Episteln 3 Philosophie 4 Wirkungsgeschichte 5 Textausgaben 5.1 Editionen 5.2 Übersetzungen 6 Literatur 7 Weblinks 8 Anmerkungen Leben[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Über das Leben des Dichters Horaz ist relativ viel bekannt. Dies liegt nicht in erster Linie an sekundärer biographischer Tradition, die mit Beschreibungen in der Vita Suetons im zweiten Jahrhundert einsetzte. Hauptquelle für die Biographie des Dichters bilden vielmehr Selbstaussagen. Sie dienten Horaz in zahlreichen Kontexten als Folien für seine Philosophie und metapoetischen Überlegungen. Diese Selbstaussagen wurden zwar nicht in der Absicht getätigt, Horaz’ Vita rekonstruieren zu helfen, verweisen jedoch auf zeitgenössische Ereignisse und Zustände, auf die der Dichter Bezug nimmt, und helfen so, ihn in einen Kontext einzuordnen.[1] Einen dritten Hinweis auf sein Leben bietet seine literarische Arbeitsweise, wozu die Auswahl seiner Motive und Verarbeitung seiner Stoffe gehört. Horaz zeigt sich selbst agierend im Alltagsgeschehen, welches Leser der Folgezeit auf Ereignisse seiner Zeit verweist, und bietet besonders in den Satiren Abbildung zeitgenössischer Beziehungen und Alltäglichkeiten, wozu ihm – nach Eigenaussagen – programmatisch der Satirendichter Lucilius als Vorbild diente.[2] Jugend[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Geboren wurde Horaz am 8. Dezember[3] 65 v. Chr. in Venusia, einer Stadt an der Grenze der italischen Provinzen Lukanien und Apulien.[4] Sein Vater – Horaz bezeichnet ihn als Freigelassenen (libertinus)[5] – arbeitete als coactor exactionum (Versteigerungsagent)[6] und besaß ein kleines Landgut,[7] das er sich selbst erarbeitet hatte.[8] Ob die Herkunft aus dem Sklavenstand auf Wahrheit beruht, wird unterschiedlich gesehen. Gordon Williams nahm an, es handle sich um allzu stilisierte Darstellung, durch die Horaz als Aufsteiger aus niedrigem Stand dargestellt werden sollte. Der Vater sei in Wirklichkeit italischer Herkunft gewesen und im Bürgerkrieg mit Sulla, wie viele Samniten auch, in Gefangenschaft geraten.[9] In aktuelleren Darstellungen mehren sich Gegenstimmen, die Williams' Aussage zu relativieren versuchen.[10] Außerdem ist strittig, ob Horaz' Vater mit diesem gutbezahlten Beruf zu Wohlstand gelangt ist. Horaz selbst verneint dies[11] und stilisiert das Leben seines Vaters als pauper, besonders, nachdem ihm im Zuge von Landverteilungen nach dem Römischen Bürgerkrieg das Gut seines Vaters konfisziert wurde.[12] Allerdings meint paupertas nicht eigentliche Armut (egestas), sondern genügsames und autarkes Landleben nach den Sitten römischer Frühzeit. Zudem muss er wenigstens so viel Geld besessen haben, seinem Sohn eine literarische und philosophische Ausbildung finanzieren zu können. Gordon Williams begriff Horaz' Stilisierung als eine Form des Understatements, die Kritikern des Vaters zeigen sollte, dass dieser als Sohn eines Freigelassenen zu großen Ehren gekommen war und sie ihn zu Unrecht mit seinem Stand verspottet haben.[13] Die Mutter hat Horaz in seinen Gedichten nie erwähnt.[14] Der Berg Voltur (Vulture) nahe dem Dorf Acerenza in Horaz' Heimat, den der Dichter in der Römerode 3, 4 im Stile des Helikon besingt Viele Erzählungen, die in Horaz' späterer Dichtung auftauchen, waren beeinflusst von seinen Jugenderfahrungen. Neben reichhaltiger Verwendung poetischer Stilisierungen der Natur, die häufig auf seine Heimatprovinz Bezug nehmen,[15] liefert Horaz Gründe für Moralvorstellungen und spätere Betonung zurückgezogenen und genügsamen Landlebens in der Ofellusgeschichte. Diesen Ofellus beschreibt er in den Satiren als Unterweiser in Jugendjahren, der ihm Sitten und Moralvorstellungen des Landmanns wie Einfachheit, Sparsamkeit und Naturbezogenheit mit dem Verweis auf seine Wurzeln näherbrachte. Wie Horaz selbst verlor dieser sein Gut durch Konfiskation.[16] Vermutlich von 53 bis 49 v. Chr. schickte Horaz' Vater ihn zum Literatur- und Grammatikstudium nach Rom.[17] Dort erhielt Horaz eine Ausbildung in der angesehenen Rednerschule des Grammatikers Orbilius, den er jedoch als plagosus (schlagfreudig) und später sogar als saevus magister (wütenden Lehrmeister) kennenlernte.[18] Neben diesen schlechten Erfahrungen in Rom und im dortigen Unterricht, die sich in Horaz’ starker Aversion gegen die Stadt bemerkbar machten, lernte er die archaischen Vorbilder lateinischer und griechischer Dichtung kennen, sowohl Livius Andronicus als auch die homerischen Epen Ilias und Odyssee und ihre moralisierenden Interpretationen.[19] Nach seinem Studium in Rom schickte ihn der Vater nach Athen, wo er griechische Philosophie und Literatur studierte.[20] In Athen beschäftigte sich Horaz mit altgriechischer Lyrik und versuchte sich in griechischen Versen, wenn auch nicht mit dem Ziel, Dichtung zu schreiben.[21] Außerdem hörte er Vorträge von Epikureern, Peripatetikern und Stoikern. Im Jahre 44 v. Chr., nach der Ermordung Caesars, warb Marcus Iunius Brutus in Athen römische Studenten als Rekruten für die republikanische Armee an, zu denen auch Horaz gehörte.[22] Unter Brutus' Kommando machte er schnell Karriere und stieg zum tribunus militum (Militärtribun) einer Legion auf.[23] Das jähe Ende seiner Militärzeit kam im Herbst 42, als die Armee des Brutus in der Schlacht bei Philippi der Caesarpartei Octavians unterlag. In kurzer Zeit verlor Horaz als Parteigänger von Brutus und Cassius das väterliche Landgut nach den Konfiskationen in Venusia und musste nach seiner Rückkehr nach Rom sämtliche Karrierehoffnungen aufgeben.[24] Er sah sich in die paupertas getrieben,[25] wobei sich diese Aussage bei ihm auf den Verlust seiner Ambitionen bezog, die er hinsichtlich einer zentralen Rolle im öffentlichen Leben hatte,[26] und auf die Erschütterung seiner Überzeugungen als freier Bürger Roms. Die Erfahrung des Verlusts einer öffentlichen Position in der Römischen Republik trieb ihn zu dem Entschluss, sich der Dichtkunst zuzuwenden. Nach den Altphilologen Robin G. M. Nisbet und Margaret Hubbard behandelte Horaz diese Hinwendung zur Dichtung in der Ode 2, 7, um sich in die Nachfolge der griechischen Dichtervorbilder Alkaios und Archilochos zu stellen.[27] Für diese Ode hat er den Vorwurf erhalten, er habe seine damalige Beteiligung an der Schlacht im Nachhinein zynisch oder gleichmütig gesehen, unter anderem, weil er schrieb, dass er (anders als Pompeius) seinen Schild in der Schlacht weggeworfen habe und nur noch Merkur gefolgt sei.[28] Tatsächlich scheint er jedoch die Schlacht als einschneidendes Ereignis für seinen Lebenswandel und seine politische virtus begriffen zu haben.[29] Mit seinem intellektuellen Lebenswandel ging die stärkere Zuwendung zum Epikureismus einher.[30] Die Vita Suetons erwähnt, dass er nach 43 in Rom von der Partei Octavians rehabilitiert wurde,[31] eventuell nach dem Vertrag von Brindisi 40 v. Chr.[32] Horaz selbst erkannte in der Retrospektive Augustus als universalen Regenten auch für diejenigen an, die durch den Bürgerkrieg in ihren Idealen und Erwartungen an die Republik enttäuscht worden waren.[33] Im Gegensatz zum Verlust seiner ideellen Ziele und politischen Ambitionen war Horaz' materielle Situation keinesfalls pauper oder unglücklich. Bereits in Athen hatte er mit dem Geld aus seiner Ausbildung ein gutes Leben geführt, Kontakte zur Oberschicht geknüpft und an Festlichkeiten und Gastmählern teilgenommen. Im Heer des Brutus konnte er als Militärtribun den Stand eines eques beanspruchen, wenn er sich nicht schon während eines ersten Romaufenthalts dort eingekauft hatte.[34] In den Satiren erweckte er den Eindruck, dass er sich sogar in den Stand eines Prätors oder Senators hätte einkaufen können, wenn er gewollt hätte.[35] In Rom hatte er gute Beziehungen zu angesehenen Rechtsbeiständen und prahlte unter anderem mit Kontakten zu Gaius Trebatius Testa und Lucius Manlius Torquatus.[36] Selbst nach der Niederlage von Philippi schaffte es Horaz, seine Verdienste erfolgreich einzusetzen und zu organisieren.[37] Nach der Rehabilitation durch Octavian kaufte er sich in das Amt eines Quästurschreibers ein, eine hochbezahlte Stellung, auf die er nach dem Verlust der väterlichen Güter vorerst sein Vermögen stützte.[38] Dichter im Maecenaskreis[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Die Dichter Vergil und Varius, die zu dieser Zeit in Rom große Erfolge feierten, wurden im Jahr 38 auf den jungen Horaz aufmerksam und stellten ihn dem adligen Gönner und Kunstliebhaber Maecenas vor.[39] Dieser wählte Dichter auf Grund ihres außergewöhnlichen Talents aus, unterstützte sie finanziell und sorgte mit regelmäßigen Rezitationen neuester Werke und poetologischen Diskussionen für den künstlerischen Austausch im privaten Kreis. Horaz hatte sich bis dahin weder als besonderer Dichter hervorgetan noch an irgendeiner Strömung römischer Dichtung besonderes Interesse gefunden.[40] Er präsentierte sich dem Gönner daher von der Seite seines niedrigen Standes und betonte seine einfachen Verhältnisse und seine Betroffenheit von den Landenteignungen.[41] Maecenas ließ ihn neun Monate auf eine Antwort warten, bevor er Horaz in seinen Dichterkreis aufnahm.[42] Hans-Christian Günther vermutete, dass hinter Horaz‘ Schilderungen die Stilisierung der Maecenasfigur als Verkörperung seiner früheren politischen Ambitionen stand. Horaz stellte sich wieder mit den Wurzeln eines einfachen Landmannes aus der Provinz vor, und ihm zum Gegenbild stand der politisch erfolgreiche und einflussreiche Machtmensch Maecenas, der tugendhaftes Handeln und weise politische Überlegungen verkörperte. Nur durch ihn gelang dem Dichter der parallele Aufstieg zu intellektueller Größe und Verdienst.[43] Charles François Jalabert (ca. 1846), Der Maecenaskreis mit dem rezitierenden Vergil, Horaz (Mitte) und dem hörenden Maecenas (rechts), sowie Varius im Hintergrund Nach seiner Aufnahme in den Maecenaskreis begleitete Horaz seinen Gönner auf politischen und diplomatischen Reisen, so 37 v. Chr. nach Brindisi (zusammen mit Vergil)[44] und 36 v. Chr. im Sizilienkrieg, wobei er bei einem Schiffbruch am Kap Palinurus fast ums Leben gekommen wäre.[45] Nach 35 brachte Horaz seine ersten Gedichte heraus. Dazu gehörte das erste Satirenbuch, in dem hauptsächlich die privaten Probleme des Dichters anklingen, sich im Kreis des Maecenas zurechtzufinden.[46] Danach folgten erste Adaptionen der altgriechischen Versmaße in den Iamben (Epoden), deren Herausgabe erst nach der Schlacht bei Actium 31 v. Chr. erfolgt sein kann.[47] Wie auch das zweite Satirenbuch, das nach den Iamben erschien, zeigten diese deutliche politische Parteinahme für die Seite Octavians und Vorbehalte gegen politisch-kulturelle Gegner wie etwa Kleopatra, die Horaz später in den Oden als fatale monstrum (todbringendes Wunderzeichen) betitelte.[48] Sieben Jahre nach den Epoden legte Horaz ein Kernstück seiner Poesie vor mit der geschlossenen Herausgabe von drei Odenbüchern, in denen er lyrische Versmaße der äolischen Dichter auf Latein verarbeitete. In der Zeit der neugeschaffenen Pax Augusta kamen Horaz' politische Stellungnahmen für den Herrscher immer deutlicher zum Ausdruck. Trotz der üblichen Motive augusteischer Dichtung, wie der recusatio (Zurückweisung eines Wunsches auf Herrscherlob mit dem Verweis des Dichters, dass er und seine Dichtung dafür nicht gut genug seien)[49] komponierte Horaz vor 23 v. Chr. auch Panegyrik auf Augustus, wie das carmen 1, 2 und 1, 12. Bereits Mitte der 30er Jahre schenkte Maecenas Horaz ein Landgut in den Sabinerbergen am Fuße des Bergs Lucretilis (Gennaro) im heutigen Tal von Licenza.[50] Dieses Sabinum, wie es Horaz nannte, war mit fünf coloni, einem vilicus und acht Sklaven zwar kein kleines, aber für die Verhältnisse in der römischen Oberschicht ein sparsames Haus.[51] Das Sabinum wurde für ihn schnell zum Inbegriff einer Rückzugsmöglichkeit in literarisches und philosophisches otium („Muße“). Im Gegensatz dazu wuchs seine Verachtung für die Hektik und die Gerüchte der Stadt Rom, deren Gegenstand als Bekannter in den höchsten Kreisen er war. Neben der Lästigkeit weniger Geschäfte in der Stadt legte Horaz in der bekannten Fabel von der Landmaus und der Stadtmaus dar, wie sehr das Leben des Maecenas in Rom den philosophischen Ansichten des Dichters entgegengesetzt war.[52] Später kamen weitere Güter in Horaz' Besitz, wie eine Villa in Tivoli[53] und eventuell ein Gut in Tarentum.[54] Die Ruhe, Zurückgezogenheit und Genügsamkeit des Sabinums besang Horaz in der Folge seiner Gedichte immer wieder. Ihnen widmete er große Teile seiner Satire 2, 7 und dem Tarentinum sowie Teile seines Briefes 1, 16. Spätwerk und Alter[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Als Horaz etwa 23 v. Chr. seine Oden fertiggestellt hatte, dachte er in seinem neuen Werk, den Versepisteln, ab 20 v. Chr. darüber nach, sich zur Ruhe zu setzen und das innovative Dichten von Lyrik aufzugeben.[55] Der große Erfolg seiner Oden und Horaz' gesicherter sozialer Status bewogen ihn dazu, die Notwendigkeit zu vermeiden, sich mit einer weiteren Neuerung abermals in den Mittelpunkt der Aufmerksamkeit von Kollegen und augusteischen Eliten zu stellen. Offenbar fanden sich neben den Lesern, die Horaz begehrte, viele Neider und Imitatoren.[56] Besonders das Alter, das Horaz für seine Entscheidung anführt, hielt der Philologe Hans-Christian Günther für einen plausiblen Grund, weil Horaz durch sein bewegtes Leben mit vielen Wendungen und Rückschlägen bereits in jungen Jahren die Fähigkeit zur reiferen Reflexion erhalten hatte, die ihn geistig vorzeitig habe altern lassen.[57] Nichtsdestoweniger stellte der Übergang in Horaz' dichterisches Spätwerk und seine Ankündigung, Abstand von der innovativen Dichtung zu nehmen, für die breite Öffentlichkeit der Leser ironischerweise gerade etwas Innovatives dar. Das erste Briefkorpus bestand nicht aus tatsächlichen oder fingierten Korrespondenzen, sondern dichterischen und sogar poetologischen Versepisteln, die nicht nur kunstvoll komponiert waren, sondern auch eine neue literarische Gattung darstellten.[58] Ernst Fries, Blick in die Sabinerberge östlich von Licenza, Öl auf Mahagoni, 1827 Ab etwa 20 v. Chr. verlor der Maecenaskreis für die Dichter immer mehr an Bedeutung. Vergil starb 19 v. Chr.[59] Varius 15 v. Chr., und Properz erwähnte Maecenas in seinem vierten Elegienbuch nicht einmal mehr. Genauso widmete Horaz dem Gönner kein weiteres Werk. Ob mit diesem Bedeutungsverlust ein politischer Bedeutungsverlust des Maecenas bei Augustus einherging, ist in den letzten Jahrzehnten in Zweifel gezogen worden. Der Auslöser für diese Vermutung war eine Passage bei Sueton, der behauptete, Maecenas habe Augustus’ Politik gegenüber das Interesse verloren. Er habe seinem Schwager Murena verraten, dass gegen ihn die Order vorliege, ihn zu beseitigen.[60] Diese Passage sah der Historiker Ronald Syme noch als plausibel an und schloss aus ihr, dass Maecenas durch seinen Verrat bei Augustus in Ungnade gefallen sei,[61] Williams dagegen analysierte sie in den 90er Jahren kritisch und kam zu dem Schluss, dass keine Belege Suetons Behauptung stützen konnten, sondern Augustus Maecenas unumschränkt vertraute.[62] Mit der Zeit ging das Patronageverhältnis von Maecenas, dem Verwalter augusteischer Kulturpolitik, auf Augustus als dessen Initiator über. Der Kaiser selbst nahm sich des Dichters an, und seine Wünsche als Princeps hatten Beachtung zu finden. Damit änderten sich Motive und Rhetorik von Horaz’ Werken. Eine einfache recusatio konnte politisch eine größere Bedeutung haben, wenn sie direkt gegenüber dem Kaiser geäußert würde, als gegenüber einem seiner Offiziere.[63] Außerdem hielt Augustus Horaz politisch-pragmatisch für wichtig: Er plante, ihn nach seiner Rückkehr von den Parthern zum Privatsekretär für das Entwerfen seiner Briefe zu machen.[64] Weil er wusste, dass der Dichter ein weiteres Briefbuch plante, wies er ihn darauf hin, dass eine Widmung dieser Werke in seinem Interesse liege. Horaz widmete Augustus folglich das zweite Briefbuch und auch den so genannten Pisonenbrief, die „Ars poetica“. Die Einbindung seiner Dichtung in die augusteische Kulturpolitik ging schließlich so weit, dass Augustus ihn 17 v. Chr. beauftragte, für einen Chor aus Jungen und Mädchen ein Festlied für die ludi saeculares zu schreiben.[65] Noch in seinem letzten oder vorletzten Werk, dem vierten Buch der Oden, brüstete sich Horaz mit der Bedeutung, die er mit diesem carmen saeculare in der römischen Gesellschaft erlangt hatte.[66] Er sah sich vom vulgären Satirendichter, der in unteren poetischen Genres und Rängen begann, zu einem bedeutenden Staatsdichter aufgestiegen.[67] Das letzte Buch der Oden kann als verschiedenfache Widmung gegenüber bedeutenden Personen der augusteischen Familie angesehen werden. Horaz schien es im Einvernehmen mit dem Princeps verfasst zu haben, angetrieben durch das carmen saeculare und eventuell bestrebt, seine enge Beziehung zu Augustus dichterisch festzuhalten.[68] Strittig bleibt bisher, wie sehr Horaz in seinem Spätwerk politisches Sprachrohr für die Ideen der Herrschenden war. Niall Rudd stellte zum Beispiel die Frage, wie Horaz’ Lebenssituation als ehemals republikanisch gesinnter Junggeselle und Lebemann auf politische Anklänge in seinen Gedichten Einfluss nehmen konnte, die auch die augusteischen Ehegesetze zum Thema hatten.[69] Sicherlich ist es schwierig, eine politische Position des Dichters Horaz hinter politischen Gedichten und Panegyrik wie der Ode 1, 12 oder 3, 14 zu suchen. Dies wurde zumeist im Kontext der eigenen Zeit und politisch-nationalen Überzeugungen der Betrachter getan.[70] Hans-Christian Günther warnte jedoch auch davor, Horaz als unpolitischen Hedonisten überzubetonen und ihn allein im Kontext der modernen „Spaßgesellschaft“ zu werten.[71] Zu einem erheblichen Teil prägte Horaz selbst das Bild von sich, doch lassen sich über die Jahre auch Änderungen in den sozialen und mentalen Lebensumständen des Dichters hinter dem Werk erkennen. Horaz sprach zum Beispiel in den Satiren den Dank an seinen Vater aus, der ein Symbol seines schnellen sozialen Aufstiegs war. Er stellte sich bewusst als Emporkömmling dar und betrachtete seinen jeweiligen sozialen Status als ständigen Ansporn und Streben nach Höherem. Dies ist als Selbstverteidigung vor dem Hintergrund der ständigen Angriffe von Neidern und Spöttern zu sehen.[72] Die Stilisierung des Vaters transformierte Horaz’ Vorstellungen von seinem Dichter-Ich in sein Werk, während er selbst durch seine Stellung in Rom und seine Dichtung großen finanziellen und persönlichen Erfolg hatte. Diese überkompensierte Betonung einer niedrigen Herkunft deutet auf die Unsicherheit des Dichters hin, der als ehemaliger Octaviangegner von niedrigem Stand plötzlich als Außenseiter in die höchsten Kreise der Augusteischen Kultur eintauchte.[73] Später beherrschte er ebenfalls die Kunst, sich als etablierter Dichter mit eigenen Überzeugungen den Herrschern gegenüber bescheiden zu geben und die leichteren Klänge von Wein, Liebe und Tanz zu besingen, wie er es in der Ode 2,1 von sich behauptete.[74] Die Beziehung zu Maecenas, auch wenn sie nun weniger wichtig für Horaz war, blieb bis zu dessen Tod freundschaftlich. In der Ode 4, 11 besingt Horaz die Iden des April, Maecenas' Geburtstag als außerordentliches Jubelfest, das ihm wertvoller als sein eigener Geburtstag gewesen sei.[75] 8 v. Chr. starb Maecenas und noch im selben Jahr, am 27. November, auch Horaz. Beider Gebeine wurden zum Esquilin gebracht.[76] Wie sehr die Freundschaft der beiden ungleichen Männer auf Gegenseitigkeit beruhte, zeigte Maecenas in seinem Epigramm:[77] „Ni te visceribus meis, Horati, Plus iam diligo, tu tuum sodalem Ninnio videas strigosiorem“ „Wenn ich dich nicht mehr liebe, Horaz, als mein eigen Fleisch und Blut, könntest du deinen Freund magerer sehen als Ninnius.“ Über Horaz' Liebesleben ist wenig bekannt; autobiographische Aussagen können hier nicht sicher von literarisch vorgeformten Motiven getrennt werden. In den Episteln sprach er vom Mädchen Cinara, die die einzig nachweisbare Frau in seiner Dichtung war und die er als junger Mann in Athen traf.[78] Ansonsten blieb Horaz Junggeselle. In den Epoden 8, 11 und 12 sinniert er über sexuelle Vorlieben und eine gewisse Antipathie gegen alternde Frauen. Oftmals sah er sich selbst bereits in mittleren Jahren als alter Lüstling, und seine Gedichte entbehren einer gewissen Romantik, wenn er zum Beispiel in der Satire 2, 3 schreibt, er sei in unzählige Mädchen und Jungen vernarrt gewesen.[79] Trotz zahlreicher Gerüchte in der biographischen Tradition und Vermutungen in der Forschung über eine mögliche Bisexualität[80] bleiben die Motive der horazischen Liebesdichtung eher unbestimmt, weder misogyn zwischen den Extremen schwankend, wie in der Liebeselegie, noch besonders sexistisch. Über sein Aussehen hat Horaz ausführlich selbst gesprochen. Er beschrieb sich als dick, wohlgenährt und von glänzender, gepflegter Haut.[81] Außerdem sei er von kurzer Statur, frühzeitig ergraut und schnell zu erzürnen, genauso leicht jedoch wieder zu beruhigen gewesen.[82] Horaz' cognomen Flaccus bedeutet so viel wie ‚Schlappohr‘. Werk[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Die künstlerische Entwicklung des Horaz kann in drei Stufen unterteilt werden: das temperamentvolle und angriffslustige Frühwerk, mit den Satiren und Epoden (42 bis ca. 30 v. Chr.) die klassische Reife, mit den Oden I-III und den Episteln I (ca. 31 v. Chr. bis Ende der 20er Jahre) die Abgeklärtheit des späten Werkes, mit dem Carmen saeculare, den Oden IV und den Episteln II, darunter die Ars Poetica, (18 bis 13 oder 10 v. Chr.) Besonders in den Anfangsjahren des Dichters überlagern sich die Entstehungszeiten der einzelnen Werke bis zur Herausgabe vollständiger Bücher. Die Darstellung von Eduard Fraenkel zum Werk der Epoden und Satiren hat versucht, die Satiren in der eigentlichen chronologischen Reihenfolge zu analysieren. Als ältestes Gedicht gilt dort wie allgemein die Satire 1, 2,[83] die Fränkel mit der unselbständigen Themenwahl begründete. Die Themenwahl der Gedichte brachte ebenfalls den Altphilologen Eckard Lefèvre zu der Annahme, dass zeitgleich mit der Satire 1, 2 früh zu datierende Epoden, unter anderem die Gedichte 7, 10 und 16, vorgelegen haben müssen, von denen Horaz für seine Aufnahme bei Maecenas diejenigen mit brisanten politischen Inhalten benutzte.[84] Auch im Spätwerk des Dichters überlappen sich immer wieder produktive Phasen, wie der Beginn des ersten Epistelbuchs nach den Oden oder die Frage, ob sein letztes Werk die Ars Poetica oder das vierte Odenbuch war.[85] Zudem sollten die Charakterisierungen als Orientierung dienen. Horaz sprach zwar in seinen Oden selbst davon, dass sein Frühwerk schneller und angriffslustiger war,[86] doch bewahrte er sich auch im Brief mit Augustus eine Vertrautheit, die sich im zynischen Umgang miteinander äußerte, der an seine frühen Werke für Maecenas erinnert. In seinem Brief fragte ihn der Kaiser scherzhaft, ob es Horaz’ späteres Bild beeinträchtigen würde, wenn er zugäbe, den Kaiser gekannt zu haben.[87] Außerdem nimmt er Bezug zu seinem Frühwerk, wenn er im vierten Odenbuch die Einfachheit seiner Dichtung betont. Gleich im ersten Gedicht lässt er die frühere Moralkritik der Römeroden und den Anspruch aus der 16. Epode, ein vates zu sein, beiseite und wird zu den leichten lyrischen Inhalten der ersten drei Odenbücher zurückgedrängt.[88] Satiren[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Saturae, 1577 Die zwei Bücher der Satiren bestehen aus zehn beziehungsweise acht teilweise recht umfangreichen Einzelgedichten in Hexametern. Horaz selbst nannte sie Sermones („Gespräche“). Er spricht darin mit Maecenas, mit dem Leser, mit sich selbst und führt die Personen im Dialog vor. Ziel dieser nicht unbedingt harmlosen Plaudereien ist, dem Leser mit Humor unangenehme Wahrheiten zu sagen. Vorbild war ihm der römische Satiriker Lucilius. Horaz war stets um das Wesentliche und Straffheit bemüht. So lautete sein Kunstprinzip: Vielfalt in der Beschränktheit. Zentrales Thema ist die rechte Lebensgestaltung. Die meisten Gedichte geißeln Laster, die sozialen Unfrieden stiften oder zumindest die menschlichen Beziehungen beeinträchtigen, wie zum Beispiel Habgier, Ehebruch, Aberglaube, Schlemmerei, … Im Gegensatz zu Lucilius, der hochgestellte Zeitgenossen schonungslos anprangerte, musste sich Horaz in dieser Beziehung zurückhalten. Seine Ausfälle beschränkten sich auf verstorbene Personen, einflusslose Leute und stadtbekannte Außenseiter. Nicht selten stellte er stellvertretend für den Normalbürger auch sich selbst und seine Schwächen dar. Epoden[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Gestaltungskriterien und Inhalte[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Als Epoden (griechisch ἐπῳδός „epodós“, Nachgesang, Refrain) werden die 17 Gedichte eines schmalen Buches bezeichnet, das um etwa 30 v. Chr. von Horaz herausgegeben wurde; Epoden deshalb, weil sich bei den einzelnen Versen der Gedichte jeweils ein jambischer Langvers (Trimeter) mit einem refrainartigen Kurzvers (Dimeter) abwechselt. Das Versmaß entsprach mehr den Regeln der griechischen Lyrik und stellte damit eine metrische Neuerung gegenüber dem Sprechvers der römischen Komödie, dem Senar, dar. Pionier in der Anwendung war vor Horaz der Dichter Catull. Horaz nannte sein Buch „Iambi“, obwohl nur elf Gedichte ausschließlich im Jambischen und die übrigen sechs in Kombinationen von jambischem und daktylischem Versmaß, dem Versfuß des Hexameters, geschrieben sind. Griechischer Urheber der Epodendichtung und Vorbild des Horaz war der Ionier Archilochos von Paros. Von ihm ist nicht mehr bekannt, als dass er während einer Sonnenfinsternis des Jahres 648 v. Chr. lebte[84] und sein Werk zwei bemerkenswerte Kennzeichen aufwies. Einmal galt er als Pionier und Meister jambischer Strophenformen, andererseits verwendete er die Form des Verses für extrem angriffslustige, persönlich verletzende und teils hetzerische Gedichte ohne Rücksicht auf den Stand der angegriffenen Personen. Im augusteischen Rom war eine Dichtung gleicher Prägung nicht denkbar. Horaz dichtete einerseits für seinen Gönner Maecenas sowie andererseits für einen unbekannten Leserkreis. Deshalb waren wie schon bei den „Satiren“ auch hier Vorsicht und Rücksicht geboten. Selten nannte er Namen, und wenn, dann meist Decknamen. So führt er in der wohl bekanntesten Epode Beatus ille den Geldverleiher Alfius vor, der ausführlich das idyllische Landleben lobt, dann jedoch trotzdem bei seinen städtischen Finanzgeschäften bleibt (ep. 2). Weiterhin verspottet er einen schmähsüchtigen Dichter unter dem Namen Maevius, einen Emporkömmling im Militär (ep. 4), zwei gealterte Hetären, deren körperlicher Verfall mit derb-obszönen Vergleichen geschildert wird, die jedoch ohne Namen bleiben (ep. 8 und 12), und eine Hexe namens Canidia (ep. 5 und ep. 17), die bereits in seinen Satiren auftauchte und die Fantasie nachfolgender Generationen immer wieder anregte. Dass Horaz in den Epoden keine konkreten Namen nannte, heißt zwar, dass er die inhaltlichen Gestaltungsmaßstäbe seines Vorbilds Archilochos änderte. Es heißt jedoch nicht, dass keine konkreten Persönlichkeiten hinter den Angriffen gegen bestimmte Typen gestanden haben. Die Identifikation des Dichters Maevius aus der zehnten Epode mit dem Mevius, dessen schlechte Verse Vergil in seiner dritten Ekloge beklagt,[89] ist von Altphilologen häufig hervorgehoben worden. Maevius’ Bezeichnung als eindeutig sexuell konnotierter geiler Bock (libidinosus caper),[90] den Horaz verdientermaßen opfern wollte, kann durchaus auf die Schmähung des Dichters Bezug nehmen, denn bereits bei Catull findet sich ein ähnlich gelagerter Fall, wo mit der Bezeichnung „Bock“ die Strafwürdigkeit einer bekannten Person codiert wird.[91] Weiterhin versuchte der spätantike Horazkommentator Porphyrio Personen der Epoden zu identifizieren, wie den Militärtribun der vierten Epode mit Menas, dem freigelassenen Flottenführer des Sextus Pompeius. Solche Identifizierungen sind wenig klar und oft angezweifelt worden, zeigen jedoch, dass früh über einen Wirkungskontext der Epoden spekuliert wurde. Dieser Wirkungskontext schien zunächst von einem kleinen Hörerkreis abzuhängen, der mit den gezielten, aber verdeckten Angriffen etwas anzufangen wusste. Der Freiburger Altphilologe Eckard Lefèvre sah einen wichtigen Hinweis für die Zielgerichtetheit der Epoden in der häufigen Pointiertheit. So lobt Horaz in der zweiten Epode über 66 Verse hinweg das sittsame Landleben, und erst in den letzten zwei Strophen löst er auf, dass ein Wucherer dieses Lob ausspricht, der sich im Auge des Landmannes unsittlich verhält. Ähnliches findet sich in der vierten Epode, in der Horaz seine Verachtung für einen Neureichen kundtut, von dem er erst in der letzten Zeile berichtet, ihm obliege die Verantwortung eines Militärtribuns. Derartig gezielte Pointen wären kaum von einem gewöhnlichen Spottdichter gesetzt worden.[92] Weiterentwicklung zu den Oden[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Horaz nutzte die archilochische Dichtung formal, trotzdem war auch hier seine Bereitschaft nicht hoch, seine Nachfolge in der Iambendichtung in den Vordergrund zu stellen. Dies lässt sich am Eröffnungsgedicht Ibis Liburnis ablesen, das von der Sorge um Horaz' Schicksal nach der bevorstehenden Schlacht bei Actium geprägt ist (ep. 1). Ähnlich gelagert ist das Jubellied über den Sieg bei Actium (Quando repostum, ep. 9). Beide Gedichte entstanden vor dem politischen Hintergrund des Siegs der Bürgerkriegspartei Octavians, der jedoch nur als Vorlage dient, um Feiern und die Freundschaft und den Dank zum Gönner Maecenas auszudrücken. Die zwei Gedichte, die das römische Volk zum Adressaten haben (Quo, quo scelesti und Altera iam teritur, ep. 7 und 16), hatten hingegen noch das Elend der Bürgerkriege beklagt, aus dem nur noch eine Auswanderung nach den Inseln der Seligen Rettung gewähre. In den Programmgedichten 1 und 9 treten Kritik an Zeitzuständen oder Schmähungen von Kriegertugenden nun völlig zurück. Die direkte Verbindung besteht bereits zum Jubellied auf den Tod der Kleopatra im carmen 37 des ersten Odenbuchs (Nunc est bibendum), das die Züge eines Alkäischen Trinkliedes aufweist und wohl zur selben Zeit wie die beiden Epoden entstanden sein muss. Motive der Iamben werden nur noch am Rande genannt, zum Beispiel die Aussage des Dichters, nicht wie Chremes werden zu wollen, der Topos des Geizhalses der plautinischen Komödie.[93] Horaz war also spätestens seit 31 v. Chr. auf dem Weg zur Lyrik der Oden. Untypisch für griechische Iamben war überdies die Selbstironie des Dichters in den Invektiven. Dies war Horaz’ persönliche Note für die Iambendichtung, ebenso wie seine Zustimmung und Fürsprache für den Freund Vergil in der Epode 10. Der von ihm geschmähte Neureiche in Epode 4 hatte als Militärtribun keine andere politische Laufbahn genommen als Horaz selbst. Die komische Klage Parentis siquis über Bauchschmerzen, die dem Dichter ein ländliches Gericht mit zu viel Knoblauch eingetragen habe (ep. 3), ist gleichzeitig ein Seitenhieb auf den schadenfrohen Maecenas, der sich darüber lustig macht, dass Horaz das gelobte einfache Essen vom Lande nicht bekommt. Daneben existieren eine Reihe von Themen, die sich iambenuntypisch durch das Buch ziehen und die Entwicklung des Dichters zur Odendichtung erkennen lassen. Mollis inertia, eine Entschuldigung für eine Pause im Dichten, die Horaz mit akutem Liebeskummer erklärt (ep. 14), der Trost im Wein (ep. 13) und die Liebe (ep. 11 und 15) sind Themen, die der Archilochischen Dichtung bereits völlig entgegenstanden. Teilweise setzte Horaz diese Antithetik von Form und Inhalt auch als komischen Effekt ein, zum Beispiel, wenn dem gelehrten Leser der Epode 2 klar wird, dass das langgezogene Loblied auf das Landleben in einer Gedichtform für Beleidigungen und Schmähungen steht. Mit der Entwicklung der Epoden- hin zur Odendichtung entwickelte Horaz seine politisch-philosophischen Einstellung als Dichter zum Staat. Eduard Fränkel wies darauf hin, dass es eine moderne Geisteshaltung sei, dem Dichter zu unterstellen, er hätte über die Wiederbelebung griechischer Kampflieder auf Leben und Gemeinwesen eine politische Geisteshaltung transportiert. Vielmehr entwickelte das Dichten selbst die Geisteshaltung des Dichters. Fränkel begriff daher Horaz' frühe Epode 16 auf den Bürgerkrieg als misslungenen Anfang, weil sie im Ton des freien griechischen Dichters nicht für die politische Situation des römischen Dichters niedrigen Standes taugten. Horaz’ Form der Anrede passte nicht in die Verfassungswirklichkeit römischer Redner. Der Vorschlag aus dem Iambenvorbild des Archilochos, dass die sittlich Guten des Volkes auf eine Insel auswandern sollten, war bei Horaz lediglich eine literarische Anspielung. Dass er sich vor diesem Hintergrund noch als vates gab,[94] hielt Fränkel für eine "kühne Konzeption".[95] Neuere Darstellungen neigen dazu, Horaz’ Ansprache an das römische Volk in Bezug auf das literarische Umfeld genauer zu deuten. Lefèvre schlussfolgerte entgegen Fränkel, dass Horaz nicht für einen großen politischen Zuschauerkreis dichtete, und hob das provokative Element der Aussagen und die literarischen Beziehungen zur vierten Ekloge Vergils hervor. Horaz bezog seine Berechtigung als vates durch den Bezug auf Vergil, der das goldene Zeitalter nach den Bürgerkriegen prophezeite. Ganz im Stile seiner Dichtung war Horaz’ Sicht auf die Zukunft jedoch keine idealisierte, sondern eine realistische, die den klaren Bruch und die völlige Abkapselung von der Vergangenheit forderte, gleichwie dem Auswandern auf eine Insel.[96] Chronologie und Aufbau[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Die pointierte Form der Epoden war ursprünglich für eine mündliche Rede ausgelegt. Dies lässt sich daran erkennen, dass manche Epoden zwischen Beschreibungen und Sprechparts wechseln oder wie die Epode 17 in der Dialogform Stoff für einen volkstümlichen Mimus bilden konnten. Weiterer Hinweis neben der Form ist die Verteidigung der Freunde, die ebenfalls auf die Wirkung in einem Rezitationskontext schließen lässt. Vor dem Hintergrund einer langen mündlichen Vorgeschichte der Epoden lassen sich auch die Abweichungen zwischen Entstehungszeit bzw. Datierung der einzelnen Gedichte und ihrer Zusammenstellung als Buch erkennen. Dahinter lief bereits die künstlerische Weiterentwicklung des Dichters zu den Alkäischen Oden und Trinkliedern ab. Es lässt sich daher eine grobe Chronologie des Epodenbuchs ausmachen. Epoden 16 und 7, beide ca. 38. v. Chr. (die frühesten, politischen Gedichte mit unterschiedlich gedeutetem Bezug von ep. 16 auf Vergils vierte Ekloge) Epode 10 (Maeviusepode), um 35 v. Chr. (wegen des Bezugs zu Vergils dritter Ekloge) Epoden 2–8 sowie die 12 und 17 (erster Invektivenzyklus, der vor den 'Liebesepoden' zwischen 38 und 30 v. Chr. entstanden sein muss, kleinere Gedichte wie 3 und 6 könnten frühe Übungsformen des Versmaßes darstellen)[97] Epoden 11 und 13–15 über Trinken, Liebe und Gesang, nach den Invektiven (wobei nach Fränkel die Epode 14 als letzte die Schwierigkeiten darstellt, das Buch fertigzustellen)[98] Epoden 1 und 9 als Programmgedichte, ca. 30/31 v. Chr. nach der Schlacht bei Actium Der Aufbau des Epodenbuchs folgt nicht dieser Chronologie. Wie bei vielen Gedichtsbüchern der Augusteischen Zeit stand eine Architektur hinter der Anordnung, die eine Entwicklung markiert, wie sich unschwer am ersten Wort der Sammlung Ibis (Du wirst gehen) und dem letzten Satz (ep. 17,81) plorem artis in te nil agentis exitus ? (soll ich etwa das Ende meiner Kunst beweinen [nur], weil die nichts an dir bewirkt?) zeigt. Ein herausragendes Organisationsprinzip für das Buch ist die metrische Anordnung der Gedichte, wobei die ersten 10 Epoden der distichischen jambischen Strophe folgen, die weiteren sechs die daktylische Variation derselben darstellen, und ein Gedicht in stichischen Trimetern die Sammlung beendet. Der erste Teil aus zehn Gedichten hat Vorbilder in der Literatur, wie die Eklogen Vergils.[99] Neben der metrischen lässt sich eine paarische Anordnung von inhaltlich ähnlichen Epoden erkennen, so z. B. die Epoden 3 und 14, die mit Widmung Horaz’ Beziehungen zu Maecenas thematisieren. Hans Christian Günther verwies auf ein literarisches Vorbild in den Iambi des Hellenistischen Dichters Kallimachos.[100] Dieser schrieb 13 Gedichte, und ausgerechnet die 13. Epode hat keinen inhaltlichen Zwilling.[101] Horaz hätte mit der Anordnung der restlichen Gedichte sein Möglichstes getan, die über Jahre versprengten Gedichte so in eine formal annehmbare Gestalt zu bringen. Eine weitere These ist die nach der Einheit des gesamten Epodenbuchs. So las Porter von der ersten bis zur letzten Epode ein Diminuendo von einer überschwänglichen Stimmung der ersten zu einer düsteren in der letzten Epode.[102] Diese Ansichten haben sich nicht durchgesetzt, und es gibt keine Hinweise, dass es Horaz’ Intention war, eine das Werk verbindende Gesamtstimmung zu kreieren. Die größte Einheit der Epoden bildet die Erkenntnis, dass sich der Dichter kontinuierlich zu den Oden weiterentwickelte, wie dies der Forscher Stephen Heyworth feststellte.[103] In diesem Zusammenhang ist noch der von Kathryn Gutzwiller herausgearbeitete Begriff des "associative bridging" zu nennen, also des Springens der Motive von einem Gedicht zum nächsten, sodass das Buch seine Motive wie eine Girlande aufzieht und schließlich am Ende generisch weiterzieht.[104] Oden[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Oden (Carmina 1,12) in einem Codex aus dem Besitz von Francesco Petrarca. Florenz, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Plut. 34.1, fol. 9r (10. Jahrhundert) Horaz an Septimius, Zitat aus Oden 2,6 auf einer Gedenkplatte in Tarent Nach seinem Erfolg mit den „Satiren“ und „Epoden“ widmete sich Horaz der frühgriechischen Lieddichtung, deren Blütezeit etwa von 670 bis 450 v. Chr. dauerte. Während sich die griechischen Lieddichter selbst Sänger oder Musendiener nannten, bürgerte sich später der Begriff Lyriker nach ihrem Hauptinstrument, der siebensaitigen Lyra, ein. Horaz schrieb vier Lyrikbücher, die „Carmina“, die insgesamt 104 Gedichte enthalten. Die ersten drei publizierte er in einem Corpus um 23 v. Chr. und das vierte um 13 v. Chr. Im Gegensatz zu den nicht immer ganz ausgereiften „Epoden“ stellen die „Oden“ (Odé, Gesang) eine vollendete Meisterleistung dar. Datierung und produktive Bedingungen[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Obwohl die ersten drei Odenbücher als volumina (Buchrollen) herausgegeben wurden,[105] schrieb Horaz seine Gedichte nicht in der Reihenfolge der Komposition, die in den späteren Ausgaben und heutigen Texteditionen Standard geworden sind. Das Werk entstand über lange Zeit aus Stücken, die der Dichter nach und nach komponierte und die zunächst zur Rezitation auf Gastmählern gedient haben könnten. Eine der ältesten möglichen datierbaren Oden, das carmen 1,35, liegt in der Entstehungszeit noch vor der Schlacht bei Actium, etwa um 35 v. Chr.[106] Da der terminus post quem keiner Ode auszumachen ist, die jünger als 23 v. Chr. wäre, kann eine Veröffentlichung der Bücher zu diesem Zeitpunkt oder danach erfolgt sein. Im carmen 1,4 richtet Horaz die Rede an Lucius Sestius Quirinus, den Konsul des Jahres 23 v. Chr., von dem er unter anderem dessen Leidenschaft zum Würfelspiel und seine Zuneigung zum Knaben Lycidas thematisiert.[107] Dass die Oden nach 23 v. Chr. für eine Herausgabe als Ganzes von Horaz noch einmal überarbeitet, teilweise chronologisch geordnet und neu zusammengestellt wurden, zeigen einzelne chronologische Verläufe innerhalb des Werkes und die beiden parallelen Programmgedichte 1,1 und 3,30, deren beider Versmaß ein sich eingängig wiederholender, stichischer Asclepiadeus minor ist, das heißt, dasselbe Versmaß wird Zeile für Zeile wiederholt. Themen[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Themen sind wie schon bei den Griechen vor allem Liebe und Politik, aber auch Freundschaft, Alltäglichkeiten des Lebens und Fragen der Philosophie. Vorbild war unter anderem Alkaios von Lesbos, von dem er teilweise auch die Strophenform übernahm. Im großen Unterschied zu seinen griechischen Vorgängern war Horaz nur Dichter und nicht Musiker. Deshalb waren seine „Oden“ nicht vertont. Eine Ausnahme bildete nur das 17 v. Chr. für die Jahrhundertfeier, die den Beginn einer Friedensära einleiten sollte, verfasste „Carmen saeculare“. Wie auch schon die Chorlyriker liebte es Horaz, in einem Gedicht die verschiedensten Themen zusammenzufügen. Oft verwendete er verhaltene, hintergründige Aussagen. Mittel dazu waren treffende Bilder, Aussparungen, Offenlassungen und leise Untertöne. Viele seiner Gedichte beginnen wuchtig und klingen leicht und heiter aus. Beispiel: 1, 9. Obwohl Horaz kurze Gedichte bevorzugte, sind auch zahlreiche längere Gedichte erhalten. Wichtig sind hier vor allem das „Carmen saeculare“ und die sechs „Römeroden“. Letztere mahnten das römische Volk an die alten mores maiorum: Genügsamkeit, Tapferkeit, Treue, Standhaftigkeit, Gerechtigkeit und Ehrfurcht. Episteln[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Da die Oden nicht den erhofften Erfolg brachten, ließ Horaz ab 20 v. Chr. von der Lyrik ab und widmete sich dem ersten Buch der Epistulae („Episteln“). Horaz stellt in diesem Buch, das aus 20 Briefgedichten in Hexametern besteht, seine Lebensphilosophie dar. Diese Lebensphilosophie geht nicht von abstrakten Begriffen aus, sondern vom einzelnen Menschen mit seinen Fehlern, Schwächen und Eigenheiten. Sie fordert nicht auf, über den eigenen Schatten zu springen, wohl aber, sich in der eigenen Art um ein rechtes Maß zu bemühen, damit das Zusammenleben der Menschen erträglich bleibt. Vorbild für die „Epistulae“ waren ihm wahrscheinlich die Briefe des attischen Philosophen Epikur. Im zweiten Buch der „Epistulae“ ab 13 v. Chr. betätigte sich Horaz als Literaturkritiker. Drei große Briefgedichte widmete er am Ende seiner Schaffenszeit diesem Thema. Zwei davon bilden das zweite Buch der „Epistulae“. Im ersten Brief an Augustus kritisiert der Dichter die gedankenlose Überbewertung der altrömischen Dichtung, vor allem des Dramas, und weist auf den Wert der neuen Klassik, mit den Werken von Vergil und Varius, hin. Im zweiten Brief (an Florus) entsagt er scheinbar der Dichtung zugunsten der Philosophie, nur um in Wahrheit auf die erdrückenden Anforderungen an einen Dichter hinzuweisen. Im dritten und längsten Literaturbrief (an die Pisonen), der als gesondertes Buch unter dem Titel De arte poetica überliefert ist, will Horaz als Dichter Rechenschaft ablegen und den Geschmack verständiger Leser bilden. Er will Dilettanten, Nachahmern und Modepoeten das Handwerk erschweren, aber echte Begabung auf ihrem harten Weg ermuntern. Horaz hat in seiner Epistula ad Pisones auch eine Gliederung des Dramas in fünf Akte gefordert (Ars Poetica, V. 189) (siehe Regeldrama), die Nützlichkeit des literarischen Werkes mit dem Aspekt der Freude und der Unterhaltung verknüpft (Ars Poetica, V. 333 f.: „Aut prodesse volunt aut delectare poetae“) und den Mimesischarakter literarischer Werke (Ars Poetica, V. 361) betont. Philosophie[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Horaz bezeichnete sich selbst als einen Schüler Epikurs (Epicuri de grege porcum – „ein Schweinchen aus der Herde des Epikur“).[108] Dabei hängt er der epikureischen Lehre nicht auf orthodoxe Weise an, sondern hat für sich einige Grundprinzipien übernommen. Lust ist das höchste Gut und Schmerz das größte Übel. Dabei ist die wahre Lust die Ataraxia, der Zustand vollkommener Ruhe und Ungestörtheit, das stille Glück im Garten (bzw. auf dem Lande), das sich aus dem Getriebe der Welt heraushält. Λάθε βιώσας (Lebe im Verborgenen) war einer der Leitsätze des Kepos der Epikureer. Götter existieren, doch sie leben glückselig und abgesondert von der Welt und üben keinen Einfluss auf sie aus. Trotzdem muss man das Zitat aus Epistel 1, 1, Vers 14 mitlesen, um Horazens Lebenshaltung zu verstehen: Nullius addictus iurare in verba magistri („nicht verpflichtet, auf die Worte eines Meisters zu schwören“). Er mag zwar in vielerlei Hinsicht Epikureer sein, aber er möchte sich trotzdem als Freidenker verstehen. Horaz urteilt also nicht immer als Epikureer, sondern zum Beispiel auch als Anhänger der aristotelischen Philosophie (aurea mediocritas, Carminum liber II 10, Rectius vives, Licini,…). Wirkungsgeschichte[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Ausschnitt aus dem Fresko Der Parnass von Raffael, ca. 1508–1511 gemalt. Die vorne stehende männliche Figur wird als Horaz gedeutet. Horaz wurde bald Schulautor, erhielt aber nicht die Breitenwirkung wie Vergil oder Ovid. Dennoch war er besonders für den Gelehrtenkreis um Karl den Großen und später für die Humanisten wichtig. Von größter Bedeutung war Horaz aber für die französischen Klassiker des 16. und 17. Jahrhunderts. Insbesondere versuchten Dichter und Kritiker wie Nicolas Boileau oder Martin Opitz, aus dem Brief De arte poetica eine programmatische Poetik zu (re)konstruieren, wie sie in dieser Systematik von Horaz kaum beabsichtigt war. Textausgaben[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Editionen[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Quintus Horatius Flaccus: Opera. hrsg. v. Friedrich Klingner, (=BT), Dritte Auflage (zuerst 1939), Leipzig 1959 (und Nachdrucke) (gewöhnlich zitierte Standardausgabe, auf der viele spätere Editionen aufbauen) Quintus Horatius Flaccus: Opera. hrsg. v. D. R. Shackleton Bailey, (=BT), Vierte Auflage (zuerst 1985), Stuttgart 2001 (und Nachdrucke) (konjekturfreudiger Umgang mit dem überlieferten Text). Quintus Horatius Flaccus: Opera. hrsg .v. S.(tefan = István) Borzsák. (=BT), Leipzig 1984 (textkritisch behutsam und konservativ). Friedemann Weitz: "Lectiones Teubnerianae. Textkritische Ausgaben als Problemanzeige (am Beispiele Horazens)" http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/propylaeumdok/volltexte/2013/1881 (Übersicht der unterschiedlichen Lesungen der obigen drei Ausgaben in der Bibliotheca Teubneriana; mit einem Vortrag von Hermann Tränkle als Anhang: "Von Keller-Holder zu Shackleton-Bailey. Prinzipien und Probleme der Horaz-Edition"). Quintus Horatius Flaccus: Opera. hrsg. v. Edward C.(harles) Wickham, Oxford 1901; Zweite Auflage. hg. von Heathcote W.(illiam) Garrod, Oxford 1912 (und Nachdrucke). Übersetzungen[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Deutsch Christian Morgenstern: Horatius travestitus: Ein Studentenscherz, mit einem Anhang: Aus dem Nachlass des Horaz, Piper Verlag, München 1919, 4., vermehrte Auflage.[109] Horaz: Oden und Epoden. hrsg. v. W. Killy, Ernst A. Schmidt und übers. v. Ch. F. K. Herzlieb und J. P. Uz, Zürich/München 2000, ISBN 3-8289-4850-2. Horaz: Sämtliche Gedichte mit den Holzschnitten der Straßburger Ausgabe von 1498. lat./dt., hrsg. v. Bernhard Kytzler. Reclam, Stuttgart 1992, ISBN 3-15-028753-7. Horaz: Sämtliche Werke. hrsg. v. Hans Färber, Artemis & Winkler (Sammlung Tusculum), München 1993, zehnte Auflage. (in Versübersetzung) ISBN 3-7608-1544-8. Christoph Martin Wieland: Übersetzung des Horaz. hrsg. v. Manfred Fuhrmann, (= Bibliothek Deutscher Klassiker, Band 10), Dt. Klassiker-Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1986 (einsprachig, Briefe und Satiren übers. mit Einl. u. Erkl., rezeptionsgeschichtlich relevant) ISBN 3-618-61690-2. Englisch Horace: Satires, Epistles and Ars poetica. hrsg. v. Henry Rushton Fairclough (= Loeb Classical Library, Band 194), Cambridge, Mass/ Harvard University Press u. a., Cambridge 1978 (ND, ältere Ausgabe, schwierig zu lesen) ISBN 0-674-99214-8. Horace: Odes and epodes. hrsg. v. Niall Rudd, (= Loeb Classical Library, Band 33), Cambridge, Mass. / Harvard University Press u. a., Cambridge 2004, ISBN 0-674-99609-7. Horace: Epodes. engl./lat., hrsg. v. David Mankin, Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge 1995, ISBN 0-521-39469-4. Horace: The complete works of Horace. hrsg. v. Charles E. Passage, Ungar New York 1983, ISBN 0-8044-2404-7. Horatius Flaccus: The works of Horace, translated into verse. engl./lat., hrsg. v. Karina Williamson/Christopher Smart(= The poetical works of Christopher Smart, Band 5), Oxford 1996, ISBN 0-19-812772-3. Italienisch Quinto Orazio Flacco: Le opere Band I.1-II.4, hrsg. v. Paolo Fedeli/Carlo Carena (= Antiquitas perennis), Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato, Rom 1991–1997, ISBN 88-240-3770-4. Orazio: Tutte le poesie ital./lat., hg. v. Paolo Fedeli/Carlo Carena, (= I millenni), Einaudi, Turin 2009, ISBN 978-88-06-19287-7. Quinto Orazio Flacco: Le opere ital./lat., hrsg. v. Mario Ramous (= I libri della spiga), Garzanti, Mailand 1988, ISBN 88-11-58670-4. Französisch Horace: Q. Horati Flacci opera avec un commentaire critique et explicatif des introd. et des tables. Hrsg. v. Frédéric Plessis, Paul Lejay. Hachette, Paris 1911 (enth. Satiren). Literatur[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Übersichtsdarstellung Michael von Albrecht: Geschichte der römischen Literatur von Andronicus bis Boethius und ihr Fortwirken. Band 1. 3., verbesserte und erweiterte Auflage. De Gruyter, Berlin 2012, ISBN 978-3-11-026525-5, S. 599–624 Einführungen und Gesamtdarstellungen Eduard Fraenkel: Horaz. 6. Auflage. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1983 (klassische Gesamtdarstellung der Dichtung des Horaz) Niklas Holzberg: Horaz. Dichter und Werk. C. H. Beck Verlag, München 2009, ISBN 978-3-406-57962-2. Bernhard Kytzler: Horaz. Eine Einführung. Reclam, Stuttgart 1996, 2000, ISBN 978-3-15-009603-1 (übersichtliche und gut verständliche Einführung) Eckard Lefèvre: Horaz. Dichter im augusteischen Rom. C. H. Beck, München 1993, ISBN 3-406-37336-4. Kommentare Q. Horatius Flaccus: Werke. Band 1/2, hg.v. und erkl. v. Adolf Kiessling/Richard Heinze, Dublin/Zürich 1966, Zwölfte Auflage. Lindsay C. Watson: A commentary on Horace’s Epodes. Oxford 2003. Robin G. M. Nisbet, Margaret Hubbard: A commentary on Horace. Odes Book I/II. Oxford 1970/1978. Robin G. M. Nisbet, Niall Rudd: A commentary on Horace. Odes Book III. Oxford 2004. Paolo Fideli, Irma Ciccarelli: Quintii Horatii Flacci Carmina Liber IV. Florenz 2008. Karl Numberger: Horaz, Lyrische Gedichte, Kommentar für Lehrer der Gymnasien und für Studierende. 3. Auflage. Aschendorff, Münster 1993. Untersuchungen zu einzelnen Themen Paul Barié: Horaz „Carpe diem. Pflücke den Tag“. Lebensweisheit in der Lyrik des Horaz (= Reihe: Exemplarische Reihe Literatur und Philosophie. 25). Sonnenberg, Annweiler 2008, ISBN 978-3-933264-52-7 Hans Oppermann (Hrsg.): Wege zu Horaz. Darmstadt 1980. Nina Mindt: Die meta-sympotischen Oden und Epoden des Horaz (= Vertumnus. Berliner Beiträge zur Klassischen Philologie und zu ihren Nachbargebieten. Band 3). Edition Ruprecht, Göttingen 2008, ISBN 978-3-89744-257-3. Michael C. J. Putnam: Artifices of Eternity. Horace’s Fourth Book of Odes. Cornell University Press, Ithaca/ London 1986 (glänzende ‚Rehabilitation‘ des lange als zweitrangig betrachteten vierten Odenbuches) Rezeption Gianluigi Baldo: Horaz (Quintus Horatius Flaccus). Carmina. In: Christine Walde (Hrsg.): Die Rezeption der antiken Literatur. Kulturhistorisches Werklexikon (= Der Neue Pauly. Supplemente. Band 7). Metzler, Stuttgart/Weimar 2010, ISBN 978-3-476-02034-5, Sp. 373–396. Tino Licht: Horazüberlieferung im Frühmittelalter. In: Ex Praeteritis Praesentia. Heidelberg 2006, S. 109–134.. Lexika Dominicus Bo: Lexicon Horatianum Bände I und II, Olms, Hildesheim 1965 und 1966. Enciclopedia Oraziana. Band I-III, Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana, Rom 1996–1998. Weblinks[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Wikisource: Quintus Horatius Flaccus – Quellen und Volltexte (Latein) Wikisource: Horaz – Quellen und Volltexte Wikiquote: Horaz – Zitate Commons: Horaz – Album mit Bildern, Videos und Audiodateien Literatur von und über Horaz im Katalog der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek Werke von und über Horaz in der Deutschen Digitalen Bibliothek Werke von Horaz im Projekt Gutenberg-DE Das Gesamtwerk des Horaz im lateinischen Originaltext, Bibliotheca Augustana Das 4. Buch der Oden – mit Kommentaren und Hilfen Briefe (Epistolae) Epoden (Iambi) und Oden (Carmina) Satiren (Sermones) gemeinfreie Hörbücher von Horaz bei LibriVox Kurzbiographie Leben, Werk, Textauswahl, Zitate, Literatur auf gottwein.de Horati opera, Acronis et Porphyrionis commentarii, varia lectio etc. (latine) Carmina Horatiana Alle Carmina des Horaz auf lateinisch deklamiert von Thomas Bervoets. Jutta Duhm-Heitzmann: 27.11.8 v. Chr. - Todestag des Dichters Horaz WDR ZeitZeichen vom 27. November 2013. (Podcast) Anmerkungen[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] ↑ Eduard Fraenkel: Horace. Oxford 1957, S. 368–369. ↑ Vgl. Hor. serm. 2,1, 30-35. quot capitum vivunt, totidem studiorum milia: me pedibus delectat claudere verba Lucili ritu, nostrum melioris utroque. ille velut fidis arcana sodalibus olim credebat libris neque, si male cesserat, usquam decurrens alio neque, si bene. quo fit ut omnis votiva pateat veluti descripta tabella vita senis. sequor hunc […] (wie viele tausend Leben sind, so viele Bestrebungen gibt es auch. Mich freut es, in Lucilischer Art mit Versfüßen die Worte einzuschließen, eines Mannes, besser als jeder von uns. Jener vertraute einst seine Geheimnisse seinen Bücher wie guten Freunden an. Egal, ob Dinge schlecht oder gut eingetreten waren, wendete er sich nicht auf anderes. Daher kommt es, dass das Leben der Alten offen vor uns liegt, beschrieben wie ein Wunschtäfelchen. Diesem folge ich […]) ↑ Vgl. Suet. vita Hor. 7; Vgl. Hor. epist. 1,20,27. ↑ Vgl. Hor. serm. 2, 1, 34 und epod. 13, 6. ↑ Hor. Serm. 1, 6, 46.nunc ad me redeo libertino patre natum (Nun komme ich zu mir zurück, dem Sohn eines Freigelassenen) ↑ Suet. vita Hor. 1. Nach Sueton wurde auch angenommen, dass der Vater ein salsamentarius (Salzfischhändler) gewesen sei, weil jemand Horaz in einer Unterredung einst gesagt habe, er sehe ihn sich oft mit dem Arm die Nase schnäuzen ↑ Hor. serm. 1, 6, 71. ↑ Hor. serm. 1, 4, 108. ↑ Gordon Williams: Libertino patre natus: True or False? In: S. J. Harrison (Hrsg.): Homage to Horace. A bimillenary Celebration. Clarendon Press, Oxford 1995, S. 296 ff. ↑ John Kevin Newman: Horace as Outsider, (= Spudasmata 136), Georg Olms, Hildesheim/Zürich/New York 2011, S. 25; Edward Courtney: The two books of Satires. In: Hans-Christian Günther (Hrsg.): Brill’s Companion to Horace, Leiden und Boston 2013, S. 103 ff. ↑ Hor. serm. 1, 6, 87. ↑ Vgl. Hor. epist. 2, 2, 50–51. ↑ Gordon Williams: Libertino patre natus: True or False? In: S. J. Harrison (Hrsg.): Homage to Horace. A bimillenary Celebration. Clarendon Press, Oxford 1995, S. 299. ↑ Bernhard Kytzler: Horaz. Eine Einführung. Reclam, Stuttgart 1996, S. 15. ↑ Zum Beispiel Hor. carm. 3, 4, 9–28. ↑ Hor. serm. 2, 2, 112–114/129–130. ↑ Hor. serm. 1, 6, 76. ↑ Hor. epist. 2, 1, 70/1, 18, 13. ↑ Hans-Christian Günther: Horace’s life and work. In: derselbe (Hrsg.): Brill’s Companion to Horace. Leiden und Boston 2013, S. 16. ↑ Hor. epist. 2, 2, 44. ↑ Hor. serm. 1, 10, 31 ff. ↑ Plut. Brut. 24. ↑ Hor. serm. 1, 6, 46–47. ↑ Hor. epist. 2, 2, 46–47. ↑ Hor. epist. 2, 2, 51. ↑ Kenneth J. Reckford: Horace. (=World Authors, Band 73). Twayne Publishers, New York 1969, S. 23. ↑ Robin Nisbet, Margaret Hubbard: A Commentary on Horace. Band 2, Oxford 1978, S. 113–114. ↑ Hor. carm. 2, 7, 9–10. ↑ Hor. carm. 2, 9, 11. fracta virtus spielt auf die 'letzten Worte' des sterbenden Brutus an, die Cassius Dio 47, 49, 2 später überlieferte. ↑ Hans-Christian Günther: Horace’s life and work. In: derselbe (Hrsg.): Brill’s Companion to Horace. Leiden und Boston 2013, S. 30 ff. ↑ Suet. vita Hor. 7 ↑ François Hinard: Les Proscriptions de la Rome républicaine (= Collection de l’École française, Band 83), Rome 1985, S. 264 ff. ↑ Hor. carm. 4, 15, vgl. Michèle Lowrie: Horace, Odes 4. In: Gregson Davis (Hrsg.): A Companion to Horace. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester/Malden 2010, S. 229. ↑ Hor. serm. 2, 7, 53–54. Der Sklave Davus kritisiert hier den Rollenwechsel des Dichters, der durch verschiedene Äußerlichkeiten wie seinen Ring, immer mehr zu einem Richter der Dama werde. Die Satire nimmt Bezug auf die Satire 1,4,123, wo Horaz beschreibt, dass er schon zu seines Vaters Zeiten von ausgewählten Männern als Richter lernte. Davus beschrieb also offenbar ein Amt des Horaz, das mit der Zeit durch die Einstellung des Dichters korrumpiert wurde. ↑ Hor. serm. 1, 6, 107 ff.; vgl. David Armstrong: The Biographical and Social Foundations of Horace Poetic Voice. In: Gregson Davis (Hrsg.): A Companion to Horace. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester/Malden 2010, S. 18–19. ↑ Hor. serm. 1,5 / 2,1, epist. 1,5, carm. 4,7. ↑ Hans-Christian Günther: Horace’s life and work. In: derselbe (Hrsg.): Brill’s Companion to Horace. Leiden und Boston 2013, S. 26. ↑ Suet. vita Hor. 8. […] victisque partibus venia impetrata scriptum quaestorium comparavit. ↑ Hor. serm. 1, 6, 54 ff. ↑ Robin Nisbet: Collected Papers in Latin Literature, Oxford 1995, S. 391 ff. ↑ Hor. serm. 1, 6, 58 ff., vgl. David Armstrong: The Biographical and Social Foundations of Horace Poetic Voice. In: Hans-Christian Günther (Hrsg.): Brill’s Companion to Horace. Leiden und Boston 2013, S. 20. ↑ Hor. serm. 1, 6, 62. ↑ Hans-Christian Günther: Horace’s life and work. In: derselbe (Hrsg.): Brill’s Companion to Horace. Leiden und Boston 2013, S. 25. ↑ Hor. serm. 1, 5. ↑ Hor. carm. 3, 4, 28. ↑ Hans-Christian Günther: Horace’s life and work. In: derselbe (Hrsg.): Brill’s Companion to Horace. Leiden und Boston 2013, S. 34–35. ↑ Hans-Christian Günther: Horace’s life and work. In: derselbe (Hrsg.): Brill’s Companion to Horace. Leiden und Boston 2013, S. 34. ↑ Hor. carm 1, 36, 21, vgl. auch epod. 3, 9. ↑ Hor. carm. 2, 1. Horaz warnte mehrfach Asinius Pollio, der zu dieser Zeit sein Geschichtswerk über den Bürgerkrieg herausgeben wollte, wieder zur Tragödie und zu leichteren Klängen zurückzukehren. ↑ Suet. vita Hor. 65. ↑ Ernst A. Schmidt: Sabinum. Horaz und sein Landgut im Licenzatal. (= Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften, Schriften der Philosophisch-historischen Klasse 1997, Band 1), Heidelberg 1997, S. 20 ff. ↑ Hor. serm 2, 6, 79–105. ↑ Hor. carm. 4, 2, 30 ff. ↑ R. O. A. M. Lyne: 'Horace. Behind the Public Poetry', New Haven 1995, S. 10. ↑ Hor. epist. 1, 1, 7–11. ↑ Hor. epist. 1, 19, 19–23. O imitatores, servum pecus, ut mihi saepe bilem, saepe iocum vestri movere tumultus! (O Imitatoren, Sklavenvieh, wie euer Zetern mir oft die Galle, oft beißenden Witz hervortrieb. ↑ Hans-Christian Günther: Die Ästhetik der augusteischen Dichtung: Eine Ästhetik des Verzichts. Überlegungen zum Spätwerk des Horaz. Leiden/London 2010, S. 68. ↑ Eduard Fraenkel: Horace. Oxford 1957, S. 308 ff.; vgl. Richard Heinze: Die Augusteische Kultur. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1960 (ND), S. 295–304. Heinze verwies auf die Rückkehr zum Lucilianischen Dichtermotiv, (siehe Anm. 3) ↑ Vgl. Suet. Vit. Verg. 35–36. ↑ Vgl. Suet. Aug. 66,3. ↑ Vgl. Ronald Syme, The Roman Revolution, Oxford 1939, S. 343. ↑ Vgl. Gordon Williams: Did Maecenas “Fall from Favor”? Augustan Literary Patronage. In: Kurt A. Raaflaub, Mark Toher, G. W. Bowersock (Hrsg.): Between republic and empire: interpretations of Augustus and his principate. Oxford 1990, S. 261–262. Williams' Behauptung des gegenseitigen Vertrauensverhältnisses der beiden Männer stützt eine Passage bei Seneca dem Jüngeren, vgl. Sen. de brev. 6, 32, 4. ↑ Vgl. Gordon Williams, Did Maecenas „Fall from Favor? Augustan Literary Patronage“. In: Kurt A. Raaflaub, Mark Toher und G. W. Bowersock (Hrsg.): "Between Republic and Empire. Interpretations of Augustus and his Principate". Oxford 1990, S. 270. ↑ Suet. vita Hor. 16–17. ↑ CIL 6, 32323, 149. ↑ Hor. carm. 4, 6. ↑ Kenneth J. Reckford: Horace. (= World Authors, Band 73), Twayne Publishers, New York 1969, S. 143. ↑ Eduard Fraenkel: Horace. Oxford 1957, S. 18; Hans-Christian Günther: Horace’s life and work. In: derselbe (Hrsg.): Brill’s Companion to Horace. Leiden und Boston 2013, S. 47. ↑ Hans-Christian Günther: Horace’s life and work. In: derselbe (Hrsg.): Brill’s Companion to Horace. Leiden und Boston 2013, S. 60. ↑ Siehe zum Beispiel Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff: Sappho und Simonides. Untersuchungen über griechische Lyriker., Berlin 1913, S. 323 „[…] der rechte Vermittler zwischen uns und den Griechen, denen gegenüber er am Ende jene Freiheit gewann, die auch wir behaupten wollen.“; vgl. Ronald Syme: The Roman Aristocracy, Oxford 1986, S. 454. ↑ Hans-Christian Günther: Horace’s life and work. In: derselbe (Hrsg.): Brill’s Companion to Horace. Leiden und Boston 2013, S. 57. ↑ Vgl. Hans-Christian Günther: Horace’s life and work. In: Brill’s Companion to Horace. hrsg. v. Hans-Christian Günther, Leiden/Boston 2013, S. 49. ↑ Vgl. John Kevin Newman: Horace as Outsider. (= Spudasmata 136), 2011, S. 20 ff. ↑ Vgl. Hor. carm. 2, 1, 39 ff. ↑ Hor. carm. 4, 11, 16 ff. ↑ Vgl. Suet. vita Hor. 78 ff. ↑ Suet. vita Hor. 16 ff. ↑ Hor. epist. 1, 2, 27. ↑ Hor. serm. 2, 3, 325. mille puellarum, puerorum mille furores ↑ Saara Lilja: Homosexuality in Republican and Augustan Rome (= Commentationes Humanarum Litterarum, Band 74), Helsinki 1983, S. 70 ff. ↑ Hor. epist. 1, 4, 15. ↑ Hor. epist. 1, 20, 24-25. ↑ Vgl. Eduard Fraenkel, Horace, Oxford 1957, S. 76. ↑ a b Eckard Lefèvre, Horaz, München 1993, S. 61. ↑ Vgl. Niall Rudd, Horace. Epistles Book II and the Epistle to the Pisones, Cambridge 1989, S. 19ff. ↑ Vgl. Hor. Oden 1, 16, 24–29. ↑ Vgl. Suet. vita Horatii, 45. ↑ Vgl. Hor. Oden 4, 1, 28–40. ↑ Vgl. Verg. Ecl. 3, 90. ↑ Epoden 10,23 ↑ Vgl. S. J. Harrison, Two Notes on Horace, Epodes (10, 16), in: The Classical Quarterly, Band 39 (1989), Nr. 01, S. 272 ff. ↑ Eckard Lefèvre, Horaz, München 1993, S. 75. ↑ Vgl. Hor. epod 1,33. ↑ Vgl. Hor. epod. 16, 66. ↑ Vgl. Eduard Fraenkel: Horace. Oxford 1957, S. 48. ↑ Eckard Lefèvre, Horaz, München 1993, S. 66. ↑ Hans-Christian Günther: The Book of Iambi. In: derselbe (Hrsg.): Brill’s Companion to Horace, Leiden und Boston 2013, S. 170. ↑ Vgl. Eduard Fraenkel: Horace. Oxford 1957, S. 69. ↑ Vgl. Lindsay Watson, A Commentary on Horace's Epodes, Oxford 2003, S. 20. ↑ Vgl. Hans-Christian Günther, The Two Books of Iambi, in: Brill’s Companion to Horace, hrsg. v. Hans-Christian Günther, Leiden/Boston 2013, S. 172., alternativ diskutieren Nisbet/Hubbard, A commentary on Horace, Band I, Oxford 1970, S. 28 f. eine spätere Datierung der Ode. ↑ David H. Porter, "Quo, Quo Scelesti Ruitis": The Downward Momentum of Horace's "Epodes", in: Illinois Classical Studies, Band 20 (1995), S. 129. ↑ David H. Porter, "Quo, Quo Scelesti Ruitis": The Downward Momentum of Horace's "Epodes", in: Illinois Classical Studies, Band 20 (1995), S. 112. ↑ Stephen J. Heyworth: Horace's Ibis: on the titles, unity and contents of the Epodes, in: Papers of the Leeds International Latin Seminar, Band 7 (1993), S. 93. ↑ Kathryn J. Gutzwiller, Poetic Garlands. Hellenistic Epigrams in Context. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998. ↑ Vgl. Hor. epist. 1,13,1 ff. ↑ Vgl. Hans-Christian Günther, The first collection of Odes, in: Brill’s Companion to Horace, hrsg. v. Hans-Christian Günther, Leiden/Boston 2013, S. 213., alternativ diskutieren Nisbet/Hubbard, A commentary on Horace, Band I, Oxford 1970, S. 28 f. eine spätere Datierung der Ode. ↑ Vgl. Hor. carm. 1,4,14 ff. ↑ Hor. epist. 1,4,16 ↑ [1] DNB-Link Normdaten (Person): GND: 118553569 (OGND, AKS) | LCCN: n79081354 | NDL: 00540086 | VIAF: 100227522 | Wikipedia-Personensuche Personendaten NAME Horaz ALTERNATIVNAMEN Horatius Flaccus, Quintus KURZBESCHREIBUNG römischer Dichter und Satiriker GEBURTSDATUM 65 v. Chr. GEBURTSORT Stadt Venusia (Venosa, Apulien) STERBEDATUM 27. November 8 v. Chr. 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diq-wikipedia-org-9211	----	Horatius - Wikipedia Horatius Wikipediya, ensiklopediya xosere ra Xıl de be pusula Xıl de cıgeyrayışi Horatius Melumato şexsi Dewlete Roma Antike Cınsiyet Camêrd Cay biyayışi Venosa Biyayış 8 Kanun 65 İR Merdış 27 Tışrino Peyên 8 İR (Roma de merdo) Cay merdışi Roma Gırwe Şair, nuştekar u Filozof Zıwani Latinki Şariye Ancient Romans Quintus Horatius Flaccus (b. Venosa, 8 Kanun 65 V.İ. - m. Roma, 27 Tışrino Peyên 8 V.İ. yew nuştekar u şairê İmperatoriya Roma biyo. Horatius nuştekarê Carminayo. Tedeestey 1 Qısey 2 Bibliyografiye (Vergilius) 3 Bibliyografiye 4 Çımey Qısey[bıvurne | çımeyi bıvurne] Dum loquimur fugerit invida aetas: carpe diem, quam minimum credula postero. Bibliyografiye (Vergilius)[bıvurne | çımeyi bıvurne] Horatius, Giacomo di Chirico Saturae, 41 V.İ.-30 V.İ. Epodon libri, 30 V.İ. Epistulae, 23V.İ.-20V.İ. Carmina 23V.İ.-19V.İ. Ars poetica, 19 V.İ. Carmen saeculare, 17 V.İ. Bibliyografiye[bıvurne | çımeyi bıvurne] Hutchinson, G (2002). 00The publication and individuality of Horace's Odes 1–3. Kiernan, Victor (1999). Horace: Poetics and Politics. Mankin, David (1995). Horace: Epodes. Cambridge university Press. McNeill, Randall (2010). Horace. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-980511-2. Campbell, A (1924). Horace: A New Interpretation. Conway, R (1921). New Studies of a Great Inheritance.. Barrow, R (1949). The Romans. Bischoff, B (1971). Living with the satirists". Classical Influences on European Culture AD 500–1500. Rossetti, Christina (2001). The Complete Poems. Rudd, Niall (1973). The Satires of Horace and Persius. Syme, R (1986). The Augustan Aristocracy. Çımey[bıvurne | çımeyi bıvurne] Arşivê Embarê Wikimediya de heqa Horatius de vêşêri multimedya esta. Biobliografiye Opera Omnia Retrieved from "https://diq.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horatius&oldid=407548" Kategoriy: Camêrd Merdumê ke Venosa de biyê Merdumê merdey Merdumê ke Roma de merdê Nuştekarê İmperatoriya Roma Kategoriya nımıte: Pelê ke gıreyê efsunê ISBNi gurenenê Menuyê navigasyoni Hacetê şexsi Şıma nêkewtê hesabê xo Perra werênayışê nê IPy İştıraki Hesab vıraze Cı kewe Heruna nameyan Meqale Werênayış Varyanti Asayışi Bıwane Bıvurne Çımeyi bıvurne Verêni bıvêne Zêde Cıgeyrayış Navigasyon Pela seri Portalê cemati Vurnayışê peyêni Rapori Zazakipediya Portali Pela raştameyiye İştıraki Meydanê dewe Textey cerrebi Waştışi Peştdariye Bêc Piya guriyayış Xeberi Haceti Gırey be pele Vurnayışê eleqeyıni Dosya bar kerê Pelê xısusiyi Gırey be halê peyêni Melumatê pele Na pele çıme bımocne Unsurê Wikidata Çap/teber kerê Yew kıtab vırazê Warardışê PDF Versiyonê çapkerdışi Proceyanê binan de Embarê Wikimedya Zıwanê bini Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Gıreyan bıvurne Ena pele tewr peyên roca 10:36 de, saeta 11 Şıbat 2020 de vurriya Nuşte Creative Commons Atıf-Zey Pê vılakerdış'i de yo; şertê bini tetbiq benê. Detayan rê Şertanê karkerdışi bıvênên. Madeyê nımıtışi Heqa Wikipediya de Redê mesulêti Asayışo mobil Raverberdoği İstatistiki Çerezê pêhesnayışi 
d-nb-info-4715	----	DNB, Katalog der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek Kontakt A-Z Träger / Förderer Datenschutz Impressum Hilfe Mein Konto English Katalog Einfache Suche Erweiterte Suche Browsen (DDC) Suchverlauf Meine Auswahl Hilfe Datenshop Mein Konto Ablieferung von Netzpublikationen Informationsvermittlung Über die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek Katalog der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek Gesamter Bestand Musikarchiv Exilsammlungen Buchmuseum Suchformular zurücksetzen     Expertensuche ?   Die Benutzungsbereiche der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek sind vom 16.12.2020 bis 10.01.2021 geschlossen. Bestellungen von Medien werden in dieser Zeit nicht bearbeitet. Alle Informationen dazu finden Sie auf unserer Homepage.   Die mehr als 1,3 Millionen frei zugänglichen Online-Publikationen können in der Trefferliste über "Alle Standorte - Online (frei zugänglich)" gefiltert werden. Zugang erhalten Sie in der Datensatzansicht über den Link "Archivobjekt öffnen" oder über die URN im Label "Persistent Identifier".   Aufgrund eines technischen Problems sind einige Online-Ressourcen (PDFs) nicht verfügbar, stattdessen wird die Meldung "Fehler: Kein Objekt vorhanden" angezeigt. Das Problem wird schnellstmöglich behoben. Wir bitten um Ihr Verständnis.     Ergebnis der Suche nach: nid=118553569 Treffer 1 von 1  Link zu diesem Datensatz http://d-nb.info/gnd/118553569 Person Horatius Flaccus, Quintus Geschlecht männlich Andere Namen Horacyusz Gorat͡sĭ̄ (AACR) Khorat͡siĭ (AACR) Quintus Horacius Flakus Horatz Oracio Oratio Ho-la-tz'ŭ Khorat͡siĭ Flak, Kvint (AACR) Horacio Flaco, Quinto Horacius Flakus, Quintus Horazius Flakkus, Quintus Horatius F., Q. Horatius Flaccus, Quinctus Horazius Flakus, Quintus Goraz Flakk, Kvint Orazjus Flaccus, Quintus Flaccus, Qu. Horatius Flaccus, Horatius Horatius, Flaccus Horatius, Poeta Horace, Flacce Orazio, Flacco Horace, de Venouse Oracius Flaccus Horacij Flaccus, Quintus H. Horatius Flaccus Horatius, Quintus Horatius Flaccus, Q. Horatio Flacco, Quinto Horazius Flaccus, Quintus Orazio Flacco, Quinto Horacjusz Flakkus, Kwintus Gorat̸s̶ĭ̄ (AACR) Khorat̸s̶iĭ Flak, Kvint (AACR) Khorat̸s̶iĭ (AACR) Horacy Flaccus, Quintus Horatius Horatius Orazio Horace Horaz Horacio Quintus Horatius Flaccus Quelle PAN; Thes. ling. Lat. (1990); Lex. alte Welt; LCAuth Zeit Lebensdaten: v65-v8 (Lebensdaten nach Pauly neu) 100 - 1 v. Chr. (UDK-Zeitcode v00) Land Römisches Reich (XT) Sprache(n) Latein (lat) Geografischer Bezug Geburtsort: Venosa Wirkungsort: Rom Sterbeort: Rom Beruf(e) Schriftsteller Philosoph Weitere Angaben Augusteischer Dichter aus dem Kreis des Maecenas Beziehungen zu Personen Servius (VD-16 Mitverf.) Caesarius, Johann (VD-16 Mitverf.) Tritonius, Petrus (VD-16 Mitverf.) Honorius, Johannes (VD-16 Mitverf.) Irenicus, Franciscus (VD-16 Mitverf.) Poelmann, Theodor (VD-16 Mitverf.) Hartung, Johannes (VD-16 Mitverf.) Frischlin, Nicodemus (VD-16 Mitverf.) Ramus, Petrus (VD-16 Mitverf.) Vettori, Pietro (VD-16 Mitverf.) Systematik 12.2p Personen zu Literaturgeschichte (Schriftsteller) ; 16.1p Personen der Geschichtswissenschaft (Historiker, Archäologen) ; 11.2p Personen zu Sprache Typ Person (piz) Autor von 364 Publikationen Sämtliche Werke Horatius Flaccus, Quintus. - Berlin/Boston : De Gruyter, 2018, 1. Auflage [Werke] Sämtliche Werke Horatius Flaccus, Quintus. - Berlin : De Gruyter, [2018] ... Beteiligt an 25 Publikationen Die Spur der Maus Münster : Ed. Depping, 2005 Mondphasen Leipzig : Ed. Erata, 2005, 1. Aufl. ... Thema in 56 Publikationen Non omnis moriar Hildesheim : Georg Olms Verlag, 2020 tali dignus amico Flores Militello, Vicente. - Tübingen : Narr Francke Attempto Verlag, 2019 ... Maschinell verknüpft mit 6 Publikationen Die Oden des Horaz in Reimstrophen Berlin/Boston : De Gruyter, 2018, Reprint 2018 Die "Siebte Epode" von Horaz. Analyse der politischen und gattungshistorischen Aspekte des Gedichtes Möller, Laurenz. - München : GRIN Verlag, 2016, 1. Auflage, digitale Originalausgabe ... Exemplarbezogene Daten stehen derzeit nicht zur Verfügung. Die Online-Bestellung von Medien ist deshalb nicht möglich. Treffer 1 von 1 Aktionen In meine Auswahl übernehmen Druckansicht Versenden MARC21-XML-Repräsentation dieses Datensatzes RDF (Turtle)-Repräsentation dieses Datensatzes Dokumentation RDF (Linked Data Service) Korrekturanfrage Nachweis der Quelle Zugehöriger Artikel in Wikipedia Administration Version 1.7.19.2 / 2020-07-06T12:29:38Seitenanfang 
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el-wikipedia-org-9540	----	Οράτιος - Βικιπαίδεια Οράτιος Από τη Βικιπαίδεια, την ελεύθερη εγκυκλοπαίδεια Μετάβαση στην πλοήγηση Πήδηση στην αναζήτηση Το λήμμα παραθέτει τις πηγές του αόριστα, χωρίς παραπομπές. Βοηθήστε συνδέοντας το κείμενο με τις πηγές χρησιμοποιώντας παραπομπές, ώστε να είναι επαληθεύσιμο. Η σήμανση τοποθετήθηκε στις 18/03/2012. Οράτιος Όνομα Οράτιος Γέννηση 8 Δεκεμβρίου 65 π.Χ. Βενόζα, Ρωμαϊκή Δημοκρατία Θάνατος 27 Νοεμβρίου 8 π.Χ. (57 ετών) Ρώμη Επάγγελμα/ ιδιότητες ποιητής[1][2], συγγραφέας[3] και φιλόσοφος[4] Εθνικότητα Ρωμαίος Υπηκοότητα Αρχαία Ρώμη Είδη Λυρική ποίηση Αξιοσημείωτα έργα Ωδές, Σάτιρες, Ποιητική Τέχνη  Πολυμέσα σχετικά με τoν συγγραφέα δεδομένα (π • σ • ε ) Ο Κουίντος Οράτιος Φλάκκος (Quintus Horatius Flaccus, 8 Δεκεμβρίου 65 π.Χ. - 27 Νοεμβρίου 8 π.Χ.), γνωστότερος απλώς ως Οράτιος, ήταν ο κορυφαίος Ρωμαίος λυρικός ποιητής κατά την εποχή του Οκταβιανού Αύγουστου. Για πολλούς είναι ένας από τους δύο μεγαλύτερους Λατίνους ποιητές όλων των εποχών μαζί με τον Βιργίλιο. Πίνακας περιεχομένων 1 Η ζωή του 2 Το έργο του 2.1 Λυρικά 2.2 Δακτυλικά Η ζωή του[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα] Γεννήθηκε στη Βενόζα, μία κωμόπολη στα σύνορα Απουλίας και Λουκανίας, ως γιος απελεύθερου γεννημένος ο ίδιος ελεύθερος. Ο πατέρας του εργαζόταν ως μεσάζοντας σε δημοπρασίες. Παρότι ο ποιητής παρουσιάζει τον εαυτό του ως «πτωχόν και τίμιον» αγρότη (macro pauper agello, «Σάτιρες» 1.6.71), η ασχολία του πατέρα του ήταν επικερδής για τους πρώην σκλάβους: ο πατέρας του μπόρεσε να ξοδέψει αρκετά χρήματα για την εκπαίδευση του γιου του, συνοδεύοντάς τον αρχικώς στη Ρώμη για τη στοιχειώδη μόρφωση και στέλνοντάς τον κατόπιν στην Αθήνα να μελετήσει Ελληνικά και Φιλοσοφία. Ο Οράτιος αργότερα εξέφρασε την ευγνωμοσύνη του ως εξής: «Αν ο χαρακτήρας μου βαρύνεται με λίγα μικρά ελαττώματα, κατά τα άλλα είναι τίμιος και ηθικός. Αν λίγους μόνο διάσπαρτους λεκέδες μπορείτε να δείξετε σε μια κατά τ´άλλα αγνή επιφάνεια, αν κανείς δε μπορεί να με κατηγορήσει για φιλοχρηματία, ή λαγνεία, ή ασωτίες, αν ζω ζωή ενάρετη, αμόλυντη από ακαθαρσίες (συγχωρείστε μου προς στιγμή τον αυτοέπαινό μου),κι αν είμαι ένας καλός φίλος για τους φίλους μου, στον πατέρα μου οφείλονται όλα αυτά... ... Αξίζει από μένα ευγνωμοσύνη και αίνο. Ποτέ δε θα μπορούσα να ντρέπομαι για ένα τέτοιο πατέρα, ούτε και νιώθω ανάγκη καμιά ν' απολογηθώ, σαν πολλούς άλλους, επειδή είμαι γιος απελεύθερου». («Σάτιρες» 1.6.65-92) Μετά τη δολοφονία του Ιουλίου Καίσαρα, ο Οράτιος πήγε στο στρατό, υπό τις διαταγές του στρατηγού Βρούτου. Πόλεμησε ως αξιωματικός (tribunus militum) στη Μάχη των Φιλίππων. Αργότερα ισχυρίσθηκε ότι σώθηκε πετώντας την ασπίδα του και φεύγοντας. Επειδή κηρύχθηκε αμνηστία για όσους είχαν πολεμήσει κατά του Οκταβιανού Αυγούστου, ο Οράτιος επέστρεψε στην Ιταλία, όπου όμως ανακάλυψε ότι η ακίνητη περιουσία του είχε δημευθεί και (μάλλον) ότι ο πατέρας του είχε πεθάνει. Είχε πάντως τα χρήματα για να αγοράσει μία μόνιμη θέση εργασίας ως scriba quaestorius, ένα αξίωμα του Θησαυροφυλακίου, που του επέτρεψε να ζήσει άνετα και να επιδοθεί στην ποιητική του τέχνη. Αργότερα κατόρθωσε να εισέλθει σε ένα λογοτεχνικό κύκλο που περιελάμβανε τους Βιργίλιο και Ρούφο. Εκείνοι τον γνώρισαν στον Μαικήνα, φίλο και έμπιστο του Αυγούστου, που έγινε ο προστάτης του και δώρισε στον Οράτιο ένα αγρόκτημα με έπαυλη κοντά στο Tibur (το σημερινό Τίβολι). Μη έχοντας κληρονόμους, ο Οράτιος το άφησε πεθαίνοντας στον αυτοκράτορα Αύγουστο. Το αγρόκτημα διατηρείται και σήμερα ως τόπος προσκυνήματος για τους φίλους του έργου του. Το έργο του[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα] Ο Οράτιος έγραψε ποιήματα λυρικά και ποιήματα δαχτυλικά. Λυρικά[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα] 4 βιβλία με τις Ωδές Οι Επωδοί (1 βιβλίο, 17 επωδοί κατα το πρότυπο του Καλλίμαχου) Ο Εκατονταέτηρος Ύμνος (του ανατέθηκε το 17 π.Χ. να συνθέσει έναν ύμνο της Εκατονταετίας και να τον διδάξει σε ένα χορό αγοριών και κοριτσιών) Δακτυλικά[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα] Τα Wikimedia Commons έχουν πολυμέσα σχετικά με το θέμα    Οράτιος 2 βιβλία Σατιρών 2 βιβλία Επιστολών Ποιητική Τέχνη(ARS POETICA) Σύνδεσμοι σε καταλόγους καθιερωμένων όρων WorldCat VIAF: 100227522 Europeana: agent/base/60033 ΕΒΕ: 62641 BiblioNet: 3460 LCCN: n79081354 ISNI: 0000 0001 2145 2178 GND: 118553569 SELIBR: 189659 SUDOC: 026659166 BNF: cb11886570b (data) BIBSYS: 90055203 ULAN: 500404135 MusicBrainz: af616f1f-6242-4802-a1bf-8d3f0647083c NLA: 35206138 NDL: 00540086 NKC: jn20000603003 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\000246 RLS: 000083136 BNE: XX891549 CiNii: DA00782980 Στο λήμμα αυτό έχει ενσωματωθεί κείμενο από το λήμμα Horace της Αγγλικής Βικιπαίδειας, η οποία διανέμεται υπό την GNU FDL και την CC-BY-SA 3.0. (ιστορικό/συντάκτες).  Αυτό το λήμμα που σχετίζεται με τη βιογραφία ενός προσώπου χρειάζεται επέκταση. Βοηθήστε τη Βικιπαίδεια επεκτείνοντάς το!. ↑ William Young Sellar, James Gow: «Horace» (Αγγλικά) ↑ BeWeB. 518. Ανακτήθηκε στις 4  Αυγούστου 2020. ↑ (Ιταλικά) Mirabile: Digital Archives for Medieval Culture. SISMEL – Edizioni del Galluzzo. ↑ Ανακτήθηκε στις 20  Ιουνίου 2019. 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en-m-wikipedia-org-4124	----	Horace - Wikipedia Open main menu Home Random Nearby Log in Settings Donate About Wikipedia Disclaimers Search Horace Language Watch Edit This article is about the Roman poet. For the Egyptian god, see Horus. For other uses, see Horace (disambiguation). Quintus Horatius Flaccus (8 December 65 – 27 November 8 BC), known in the English-speaking world as Horace (/ˈhɒrɪs/), was the leading Roman lyric poet during the time of Augustus (also known as Octavian). The rhetorician Quintilian regarded his Odes as just about the only Latin lyrics worth reading: "He can be lofty sometimes, yet he is also full of charm and grace, versatile in his figures, and felicitously daring in his choice of words."[nb 1] Horace Horace, as imagined by Anton von Werner Born Quintus Horatius Flaccus 8 December 65 BC Venusia, Italy, Roman Republic Died 27 November 8 BC (age 56) Rome Resting place Rome Occupation Soldier, scriba quaestorius, poet, senator Language Latin Nationality Roman Genre Lyric poetry Notable works Odes "The Art of Poetry" Horace also crafted elegant hexameter verses (Satires and Epistles) and caustic iambic poetry (Epodes). The hexameters are amusing yet serious works, friendly in tone, leading the ancient satirist Persius to comment: "as his friend laughs, Horace slyly puts his finger on his every fault; once let in, he plays about the heartstrings".[nb 2] His career coincided with Rome's momentous change from a republic to an empire. An officer in the republican army defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC, he was befriended by Octavian's right-hand man in civil affairs, Maecenas, and became a spokesman for the new regime. For some commentators, his association with the regime was a delicate balance in which he maintained a strong measure of independence (he was "a master of the graceful sidestep")[1] but for others he was, in John Dryden's phrase, "a well-mannered court slave".[2][nb 3] Contents 1 Life 1.1 Childhood 1.2 Adulthood 1.2.1 Poet 1.2.2 Knight 2 Works 2.1 Historical context 2.2 Themes 3 Reception 3.1 Antiquity 3.2 Middle Ages and Renaissance 3.3 Age of Enlightenment 3.4 19th century on 4 Translations 5 In popular culture 6 See also 7 Notes 8 Citations 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links LifeEdit   Horatii Flacci Sermonum (1577) Horace can be regarded as the world's first autobiographer.[3] In his writings, he tells us far more about himself, his character, his development, and his way of life, than any other great poet of antiquity. Some of the biographical material contained in his work can be supplemented from the short but valuable "Life of Horace" by Suetonius (in his Lives of the Poets).[4] ChildhoodEdit He was born on 8 December 65 BC[nb 4] in the Samnite south of Italy.[5] His home town, Venusia, lay on a trade route in the border region between Apulia and Lucania (Basilicata). Various Italic dialects were spoken in the area and this perhaps enriched his feeling for language. He could have been familiar with Greek words even as a young boy and later he poked fun at the jargon of mixed Greek and Oscan spoken in neighbouring Canusium.[6] One of the works he probably studied in school was the Odyssia of Livius Andronicus, taught by teachers like the 'Orbilius' mentioned in one of his poems.[7] Army veterans could have been settled there at the expense of local families uprooted by Rome as punishment for their part in the Social War (91–88 BC).[8] Such state-sponsored migration must have added still more linguistic variety to the area. According to a local tradition reported by Horace,[9] a colony of Romans or Latins had been installed in Venusia after the Samnites had been driven out early in the third century. In that case, young Horace could have felt himself to be a Roman[10][11] though there are also indications that he regarded himself as a Samnite or Sabellus by birth.[12][13] Italians in modern and ancient times have always been devoted to their home towns, even after success in the wider world, and Horace was no different. Images of his childhood setting and references to it are found throughout his poems.[14] Horace's father was probably a Venutian taken captive by Romans in the Social War, or possibly he was descended from a Sabine captured in the Samnite Wars. Either way, he was a slave for at least part of his life. He was evidently a man of strong abilities however and managed to gain his freedom and improve his social position. Thus Horace claimed to be the free-born son of a prosperous 'coactor'.[15] The term 'coactor' could denote various roles, such as tax collector, but its use by Horace[16] was explained by scholia as a reference to 'coactor argentareus' i.e. an auctioneer with some of the functions of a banker, paying the seller out of his own funds and later recovering the sum with interest from the buyer.[17] The father spent a small fortune on his son's education, eventually accompanying him to Rome to oversee his schooling and moral development. The poet later paid tribute to him in a poem[18] that one modern scholar considers the best memorial by any son to his father.[nb 5] The poem includes this passage: If my character is flawed by a few minor faults, but is otherwise decent and moral, if you can point out only a few scattered blemishes on an otherwise immaculate surface, if no one can accuse me of greed, or of prurience, or of profligacy, if I live a virtuous life, free of defilement (pardon, for a moment, my self-praise), and if I am to my friends a good friend, my father deserves all the credit... As it is now, he deserves from me unstinting gratitude and praise. I could never be ashamed of such a father, nor do I feel any need, as many people do, to apologize for being a freedman's son. Satires 1.6.65–92 He never mentioned his mother in his verses and he might not have known much about her. Perhaps she also had been a slave.[15] AdulthoodEdit Horace left Rome, possibly after his father's death, and continued his formal education in Athens, a great centre of learning in the ancient world, where he arrived at nineteen years of age, enrolling in The Academy. Founded by Plato, The Academy was now dominated by Epicureans and Stoics, whose theories and practises made a deep impression on the young man from Venusia.[19] Meanwhile, he mixed and lounged about with the elite of Roman youth, such as Marcus, the idle son of Cicero, and the Pompeius to whom he later addressed a poem.[20] It was in Athens too that he probably acquired deep familiarity with the ancient tradition of Greek lyric poetry, at that time largely the preserve of grammarians and academic specialists (access to such material was easier in Athens than in Rome, where the public libraries had yet to be built by Asinius Pollio and Augustus).[21] Rome's troubles following the assassination of Julius Caesar were soon to catch up with him. Marcus Junius Brutus came to Athens seeking support for the republican cause. Brutus was fêted around town in grand receptions and he made a point of attending academic lectures, all the while recruiting supporters among the young men studying there, including Horace.[22] An educated young Roman could begin military service high in the ranks and Horace was made tribunus militum (one of six senior officers of a typical legion), a post usually reserved for men of senatorial or equestrian rank and which seems to have inspired jealousy among his well-born confederates.[23][24] He learned the basics of military life while on the march, particularly in the wilds of northern Greece, whose rugged scenery became a backdrop to some of his later poems.[25] It was there in 42 BC that Octavian (later Augustus) and his associate Mark Antony crushed the republican forces at the Battle of Philippi. Horace later recorded it as a day of embarrassment for himself, when he fled without his shield,[26] but allowance should be made for his self-deprecating humour. Moreover, the incident allowed him to identify himself with some famous poets who had long ago abandoned their shields in battle, notably his heroes Alcaeus and Archilochus. The comparison with the latter poet is uncanny: Archilochus lost his shield in a part of Thrace near Philippi, and he was deeply involved in the Greek colonization of Thasos, where Horace's die-hard comrades finally surrendered.[24] Octavian offered an early amnesty to his opponents and Horace quickly accepted it. On returning to Italy, he was confronted with yet another loss: his father's estate in Venusia was one of many throughout Italy to be confiscated for the settlement of veterans (Virgil lost his estate in the north about the same time). Horace later claimed that he was reduced to poverty and this led him to try his hand at poetry.[27] In reality, there was no money to be had from versifying. At best, it offered future prospects through contacts with other poets and their patrons among the rich.[28] Meanwhile, he obtained the sinecure of scriba quaestorius, a civil service position at the aerarium or Treasury, profitable enough to be purchased even by members of the ordo equester and not very demanding in its work-load, since tasks could be delegated to scribae or permanent clerks.[29] It was about this time that he began writing his Satires and Epodes. PoetEdit   Horace reads before Maecenas, by Fyodor Bronnikov The Epodes belong to iambic poetry. Iambic poetry features insulting and obscene language;[30][31] sometimes, it is referred to as blame poetry.[32] Blame poetry, or shame poetry, is poetry written to blame and shame fellow citizens into a sense of their social obligations. Horace modelled these poems on the poetry of Archilochus. Social bonds in Rome had been decaying since the destruction of Carthage a little more than a hundred years earlier, due to the vast wealth that could be gained by plunder and corruption.[33] These social ills were magnified by rivalry between Julius Caesar, Mark Antony and confederates like Sextus Pompey, all jockeying for a bigger share of the spoils. One modern scholar has counted a dozen civil wars in the hundred years leading up to 31 BC, including the Spartacus rebellion, eight years before Horace's birth.[34] As the heirs to Hellenistic culture, Horace and his fellow Romans were not well prepared to deal with these problems: At bottom, all the problems that the times were stirring up were of a social nature, which the Hellenistic thinkers were ill qualified to grapple with. Some of them censured oppression of the poor by the rich, but they gave no practical lead, though they may have hoped to see well-meaning rulers doing so. Philosophy was drifting into absorption in self, a quest for private contentedness, to be achieved by self-control and restraint, without much regard for the fate of a disintegrating community. — V. G. Kiernan[35] Horace's Hellenistic background is clear in his Satires, even though the genre was unique to Latin literature. He brought to it a style and outlook suited to the social and ethical issues confronting Rome but he changed its role from public, social engagement to private meditation.[36] Meanwhile, he was beginning to interest Octavian's supporters, a gradual process described by him in one of his satires.[18] The way was opened for him by his friend, the poet Virgil, who had gained admission into the privileged circle around Maecenas, Octavian's lieutenant, following the success of his Eclogues. An introduction soon followed and, after a discreet interval, Horace too was accepted. He depicted the process as an honourable one, based on merit and mutual respect, eventually leading to true friendship, and there is reason to believe that his relationship was genuinely friendly, not just with Maecenas but afterwards with Augustus as well.[37] On the other hand, the poet has been unsympathetically described by one scholar as "a sharp and rising young man, with an eye to the main chance."[38] There were advantages on both sides: Horace gained encouragement and material support, the politicians gained a hold on a potential dissident.[39] His republican sympathies, and his role at Philippi, may have caused him some pangs of remorse over his new status. However most Romans considered the civil wars to be the result of contentio dignitatis, or rivalry between the foremost families of the city, and he too seems to have accepted the principate as Rome's last hope for much needed peace.[40] In 37 BC, Horace accompanied Maecenas on a journey to Brundisium, described in one of his poems[41] as a series of amusing incidents and charming encounters with other friends along the way, such as Virgil. In fact the journey was political in its motivation, with Maecenas en route to negotiatie the Treaty of Tarentum with Antony, a fact Horace artfully keeps from the reader (political issues are largely avoided in the first book of satires).[39] Horace was probably also with Maecenas on one of Octavian's naval expeditions against the piratical Sextus Pompeius, which ended in a disastrous storm off Palinurus in 36 BC, briefly alluded to by Horace in terms of near-drowning.[42][nb 6] There are also some indications in his verses that he was with Maecenas at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, where Octavian defeated his great rival, Antony.[43][nb 7] By then Horace had already received from Maecenas the famous gift of his Sabine farm, probably not long after the publication of the first book of Satires. The gift, which included income from five tenants, may have ended his career at the Treasury, or at least allowed him to give it less time and energy.[44] It signalled his identification with the Octavian regime yet, in the second book of Satires that soon followed, he continued the apolitical stance of the first book. By this time, he had attained the status of eques Romanus,[45] perhaps as a result of his work at the Treasury.[46] KnightEdit Odes 1–3 were the next focus for his artistic creativity. He adapted their forms and themes from Greek lyric poetry of the seventh and sixth centuries BC. The fragmented nature of the Greek world had enabled his literary heroes to express themselves freely and his semi-retirement from the Treasury in Rome to his own estate in the Sabine hills perhaps empowered him to some extent also[47] yet even when his lyrics touched on public affairs they reinforced the importance of private life.[1] Nevertheless, his work in the period 30–27 BC began to show his closeness to the regime and his sensitivity to its developing ideology. In Odes 1.2, for example, he eulogized Octavian in hyperboles that echo Hellenistic court poetry. The name Augustus, which Octavian assumed in January 27 BC, is first attested in Odes 3.3 and 3.5. In the period 27–24 BC, political allusions in the Odes concentrated on foreign wars in Britain (1.35), Arabia (1.29) Spain (3.8) and Parthia (2.2). He greeted Augustus on his return to Rome in 24 BC as a beloved ruler upon whose good health he depended for his own happiness (3.14).[48] The public reception of Odes 1–3 disappointed him, however. He attributed the lack of success to jealousy among imperial courtiers and to his isolation from literary cliques.[49] Perhaps it was disappointment that led him to put aside the genre in favour of verse letters. He addressed his first book of Epistles to a variety of friends and acquaintances in an urbane style reflecting his new social status as a knight. In the opening poem, he professed a deeper interest in moral philosophy than poetry[50] but, though the collection demonstrates a leaning towards stoic theory, it reveals no sustained thinking about ethics.[51] Maecenas was still the dominant confidante but Horace had now begun to assert his own independence, suavely declining constant invitations to attend his patron.[52] In the final poem of the first book of Epistles, he revealed himself to be forty-four years old in the consulship of Lollius and Lepidus i.e. 21 BC, and "of small stature, fond of the sun, prematurely grey, quick-tempered but easily placated".[53][54] According to Suetonius, the second book of Epistles was prompted by Augustus, who desired a verse epistle to be addressed to himself. Augustus was in fact a prolific letter-writer and he once asked Horace to be his personal secretary. Horace refused the secretarial role but complied with the emperor's request for a verse letter.[55] The letter to Augustus may have been slow in coming, being published possibly as late as 11 BC. It celebrated, among other things, the 15 BC military victories of his stepsons, Drusus and Tiberius, yet it and the following letter[56] were largely devoted to literary theory and criticism. The literary theme was explored still further in Ars Poetica, published separately but written in the form of an epistle and sometimes referred to as Epistles 2.3 (possibly the last poem he ever wrote).[57] He was also commissioned to write odes commemorating the victories of Drusus and Tiberius[58] and one to be sung in a temple of Apollo for the Secular Games, a long-abandoned festival that Augustus revived in accordance with his policy of recreating ancient customs (Carmen Saeculare). Suetonius recorded some gossip about Horace's sexual activities late in life, claiming that the walls of his bedchamber were covered with obscene pictures and mirrors, so that he saw erotica wherever he looked.[nb 8] The poet died at 56 years of age, not long after his friend Maecenas, near whose tomb he was laid to rest. Both men bequeathed their property to Augustus, an honour that the emperor expected of his friends.[59] WorksEdit   Odes 1.14 – Wall poem in Leiden The dating of Horace's works isn't known precisely and scholars often debate the exact order in which they were first 'published'. There are persuasive arguments for the following chronology:[60] Satires 1 (c. 35–34 BC) Satires 2 (c. 30 BC) Epodes (30 BC) Odes 1–3 (c. 23 BC)[nb 9] Epistles 1 (c. 21 BC) Carmen Saeculare (17 BC) Epistles 2 (c. 11 BC)[nb 10] Odes 4 (c. 11 BC) Ars Poetica (c. 10–8 BC)[nb 11] Historical contextEdit Horace composed in traditional metres borrowed from Archaic Greece, employing hexameters in his Satires and Epistles, and iambs in his Epodes, all of which were relatively easy to adapt into Latin forms. His Odes featured more complex measures, including alcaics and sapphics, which were sometimes a difficult fit for Latin structure and syntax. Despite these traditional metres, he presented himself as a partisan in the development of a new and sophisticated style. He was influenced in particular by Hellenistic aesthetics of brevity, elegance and polish, as modelled in the work of Callimachus.[61] As soon as Horace, stirred by his own genius and encouraged by the example of Virgil, Varius, and perhaps some other poets of the same generation, had determined to make his fame as a poet, being by temperament a fighter, he wanted to fight against all kinds of prejudice, amateurish slovenliness, philistinism, reactionary tendencies, in short to fight for the new and noble type of poetry which he and his friends were endeavouring to bring about. — Eduard Fraenkel[62] In modern literary theory, a distinction is often made between immediate personal experience (Urerlebnis) and experience mediated by cultural vectors such as literature, philosophy and the visual arts (Bildungserlebnis).[63] The distinction has little relevance for Horace[citation needed] however since his personal and literary experiences are implicated in each other. Satires 1.5, for example, recounts in detail a real trip Horace made with Virgil and some of his other literary friends, and which parallels a Satire by Lucilius, his predecessor.[64] Unlike much Hellenistic-inspired literature, however, his poetry was not composed for a small coterie of admirers and fellow poets, nor does it rely on abstruse allusions for many of its effects. Though elitist in its literary standards, it was written for a wide audience, as a public form of art.[65] Ambivalence also characterizes his literary persona, since his presentation of himself as part of a small community of philosophically aware people, seeking true peace of mind while shunning vices like greed, was well adapted to Augustus's plans to reform public morality, corrupted by greed—his personal plea for moderation was part of the emperor's grand message to the nation.[66] Horace generally followed the examples of poets established as classics in different genres, such as Archilochus in the Epodes, Lucilius in the Satires and Alcaeus in the Odes, later broadening his scope for the sake of variation and because his models weren't actually suited to the realities confronting him. Archilochus and Alcaeus were aristocratic Greeks whose poetry had a social and religious function that was immediately intelligible to their audiences but which became a mere artifice or literary motif when transposed to Rome. However, the artifice of the Odes is also integral to their success, since they could now accommodate a wide range of emotional effects, and the blend of Greek and Roman elements adds a sense of detachment and universality.[67] Horace proudly claimed to introduce into Latin the spirit and iambic poetry of Archilochus but (unlike Archilochus) without persecuting anyone (Epistles 1.19.23–25). It was no idle boast. His Epodes were modelled on the verses of the Greek poet, as 'blame poetry', yet he avoided targeting real scapegoats. Whereas Archilochus presented himself as a serious and vigorous opponent of wrong-doers, Horace aimed for comic effects and adopted the persona of a weak and ineffectual critic of his times (as symbolized for example in his surrender to the witch Canidia in the final epode).[68] He also claimed to be the first to introduce into Latin the lyrical methods of Alcaeus (Epistles 1.19.32–33) and he actually was the first Latin poet to make consistent use of Alcaic meters and themes: love, politics and the symposium. He imitated other Greek lyric poets as well, employing a 'motto' technique, beginning each ode with some reference to a Greek original and then diverging from it.[69] The satirical poet Lucilius was a senator's son who could castigate his peers with impunity. Horace was a mere freedman's son who had to tread carefully.[70] Lucilius was a rugged patriot and a significant voice in Roman self-awareness, endearing himself to his countrymen by his blunt frankness and explicit politics. His work expressed genuine freedom or libertas. His style included 'metrical vandalism' and looseness of structure. Horace instead adopted an oblique and ironic style of satire, ridiculing stock characters and anonymous targets. His libertas was the private freedom of a philosophical outlook, not a political or social privilege.[71] His Satires are relatively easy-going in their use of meter (relative to the tight lyric meters of the Odes)[72] but formal and highly controlled relative to the poems of Lucilius, whom Horace mocked for his sloppy standards (Satires 1.10.56–61)[nb 12] The Epistles may be considered among Horace's most innovative works. There was nothing like it in Greek or Roman literature. Occasionally poems had had some resemblance to letters, including an elegiac poem from Solon to Mimnermus and some lyrical poems from Pindar to Hieron of Syracuse. Lucilius had composed a satire in the form of a letter, and some epistolary poems were composed by Catullus and Propertius. But nobody before Horace had ever composed an entire collection of verse letters,[73] let alone letters with a focus on philosophical problems. The sophisticated and flexible style that he had developed in his Satires was adapted to the more serious needs of this new genre.[74] Such refinement of style was not unusual for Horace. His craftsmanship as a wordsmith is apparent even in his earliest attempts at this or that kind of poetry, but his handling of each genre tended to improve over time as he adapted it to his own needs.[70] Thus for example it is generally agreed that his second book of Satires, where human folly is revealed through dialogue between characters, is superior to the first, where he propounds his ethics in monologues. Nevertheless, the first book includes some of his most popular poems.[75] ThemesEdit Horace developed a number of inter-related themes throughout his poetic career, including politics, love, philosophy and ethics, his own social role, as well as poetry itself. His Epodes and Satires are forms of 'blame poetry' and both have a natural affinity with the moralising and diatribes of Cynicism. This often takes the form of allusions to the work and philosophy of Bion of Borysthenes [nb 13] but it is as much a literary game as a philosophical alignment. By the time he composed his Epistles, he was a critic of Cynicism along with all impractical and "high-falutin" philosophy in general.[nb 14][76] The Satires also include a strong element of Epicureanism, with frequent allusions to the Epicurean poet Lucretius.[nb 15] So for example the Epicurean sentiment carpe diem is the inspiration behind Horace's repeated punning on his own name (Horatius ~ hora) in Satires 2.6.[77] The Satires also feature some Stoic, Peripatetic and Platonic (Dialogues) elements. In short, the Satires present a medley of philosophical programs, dished up in no particular order—a style of argument typical of the genre.[78] The Odes display a wide range of topics. Over time, he becomes more confident about his political voice.[79] Although he is often thought of as an overly intellectual lover, he is ingenious in representing passion.[80] The "Odes" weave various philosophical strands together, with allusions and statements of doctrine present in about a third of the Odes Books 1–3, ranging from the flippant (1.22, 3.28) to the solemn (2.10, 3.2, 3.3). Epicureanism is the dominant influence, characterizing about twice as many of these odes as Stoicism. A group of odes combines these two influences in tense relationships, such as Odes 1.7, praising Stoic virility and devotion to public duty while also advocating private pleasures among friends. While generally favouring the Epicurean lifestyle, the lyric poet is as eclectic as the satiric poet, and in Odes 2.10 even proposes Aristotle's golden mean as a remedy for Rome's political troubles.[81] Many of Horace's poems also contain much reflection on genre, the lyric tradition, and the function of poetry.[82] Odes 4, thought to be composed at the emperor's request, takes the themes of the first three books of "Odes" to a new level. This book shows greater poetic confidence after the public performance of his "Carmen saeculare" or "Century hymn" at a public festival orchestrated by Augustus. In it, Horace addresses the emperor Augustus directly with more confidence and proclaims his power to grant poetic immortality to those he praises. It is the least philosophical collection of his verses, excepting the twelfth ode, addressed to the dead Virgil as if he were living. In that ode, the epic poet and the lyric poet are aligned with Stoicism and Epicureanism respectively, in a mood of bitter-sweet pathos.[83] The first poem of the Epistles sets the philosophical tone for the rest of the collection: "So now I put aside both verses and all those other games: What is true and what befits is my care, this my question, this my whole concern." His poetic renunciation of poetry in favour of philosophy is intended to be ambiguous. Ambiguity is the hallmark of the Epistles. It is uncertain if those being addressed by the self-mocking poet-philosopher are being honoured or criticized. Though he emerges as an Epicurean, it is on the understanding that philosophical preferences, like political and social choices, are a matter of personal taste. Thus he depicts the ups and downs of the philosophical life more realistically than do most philosophers.[84] ReceptionEdit   Horace, portrayed by Giacomo Di Chirico The reception of Horace's work has varied from one epoch to another and varied markedly even in his own lifetime. Odes 1–3 were not well received when first 'published' in Rome, yet Augustus later commissioned a ceremonial ode for the Centennial Games in 17 BC and also encouraged the publication of Odes 4, after which Horace's reputation as Rome's premier lyricist was assured. His Odes were to become the best received of all his poems in ancient times, acquiring a classic status that discouraged imitation: no other poet produced a comparable body of lyrics in the four centuries that followed[85] (though that might also be attributed to social causes, particularly the parasitism that Italy was sinking into).[86] In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, ode-writing became highly fashionable in England and a large number of aspiring poets imitated Horace both in English and in Latin.[87] In a verse epistle to Augustus (Epistle 2.1), in 12 BC, Horace argued for classic status to be awarded to contemporary poets, including Virgil and apparently himself.[88] In the final poem of his third book of Odes he claimed to have created for himself a monument more durable than bronze ("Exegi monumentum aere perennius", Carmina 3.30.1). For one modern scholar, however, Horace's personal qualities are more notable than the monumental quality of his achievement: ... when we hear his name we don't really think of a monument. We think rather of a voice which varies in tone and resonance but is always recognizable, and which by its unsentimental humanity evokes a very special blend of liking and respect. — Niall Rudd[89] Yet for men like Wilfred Owen, scarred by experiences of World War I, his poetry stood for discredited values: My friend, you would not tell with such high zest To children ardent for some desperate glory, The Old Lie: Dulce et decorum est Pro patria mori.[nb 16] The same motto, Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori, had been adapted to the ethos of martyrdom in the lyrics of early Christian poets like Prudentius.[90] These preliminary comments touch on a small sample of developments in the reception of Horace's work. More developments are covered epoch by epoch in the following sections. AntiquityEdit Horace's influence can be observed in the work of his near contemporaries, Ovid and Propertius. Ovid followed his example in creating a completely natural style of expression in hexameter verse, and Propertius cheekily mimicked him in his third book of elegies.[nb 17] His Epistles provided them both with a model for their own verse letters and it also shaped Ovid's exile poetry.[nb 18] His influence had a perverse aspect. As mentioned before, the brilliance of his Odes may have discouraged imitation. Conversely, they may have created a vogue for the lyrics of the archaic Greek poet Pindar, due to the fact that Horace had neglected that style of lyric (see Influence and Legacy of Pindar).[91] The iambic genre seems almost to have disappeared after publication of Horace's Epodes. Ovid's Ibis was a rare attempt at the form but it was inspired mainly by Callimachus, and there are some iambic elements in Martial but the main influence there was Catullus.[92] A revival of popular interest in the satires of Lucilius may have been inspired by Horace's criticism of his unpolished style. Both Horace and Lucilius were considered good role-models by Persius, who critiqued his own satires as lacking both the acerbity of Lucillius and the gentler touch of Horace.[nb 19] Juvenal's caustic satire was influenced mainly by Lucilius but Horace by then was a school classic and Juvenal could refer to him respectfully and in a round-about way as "the Venusine lamp".[nb 20] Statius paid homage to Horace by composing one poem in Sapphic and one in Alcaic meter (the verse forms most often associated with Odes), which he included in his collection of occasional poems, Silvae. Ancient scholars wrote commentaries on the lyric meters of the Odes, including the scholarly poet Caesius Bassus. By a process called derivatio, he varied established meters through the addition or omission of syllables, a technique borrowed by Seneca the Younger when adapting Horatian meters to the stage.[93] Horace's poems continued to be school texts into late antiquity. Works attributed to Helenius Acro and Pomponius Porphyrio are the remnants of a much larger body of Horatian scholarship. Porphyrio arranged the poems in non-chronological order, beginning with the Odes, because of their general popularity and their appeal to scholars (the Odes were to retain this privileged position in the medieval manuscript tradition and thus in modern editions also). Horace was often evoked by poets of the fourth century, such as Ausonius and Claudian. Prudentius presented himself as a Christian Horace, adapting Horatian meters to his own poetry and giving Horatian motifs a Christian tone.[nb 21] On the other hand, St Jerome, modelled an uncompromising response to the pagan Horace, observing: "What harmony can there be between Christ and the Devil? What has Horace to do with the Psalter?"[nb 22] By the early sixth century, Horace and Prudentius were both part of a classical heritage that was struggling to survive the disorder of the times. Boethius, the last major author of classical Latin literature, could still take inspiration from Horace, sometimes mediated by Senecan tragedy.[94] It can be argued that Horace's influence extended beyond poetry to dignify core themes and values of the early Christian era, such as self-sufficiency, inner contentment and courage.[nb 23] Middle Ages and RenaissanceEdit   Horace in his Studium: German print of the fifteenth century, summarizing the final ode 4.15 (in praise of Augustus). Classical texts almost ceased being copied in the period between the mid sixth century and the Carolingian revival. Horace's work probably survived in just two or three books imported into northern Europe from Italy. These became the ancestors of six extant manuscripts dated to the ninth century. Two of those six manuscripts are French in origin, one was produced in Alsace, and the other three show Irish influence but were probably written in continental monasteries (Lombardy for example).[95] By the last half of the ninth century, it was not uncommon for literate people to have direct experience of Horace's poetry. His influence on the Carolingian Renaissance can be found in the poems of Heiric of Auxerre[nb 24] and in some manuscripts marked with neumes, mysterious notations that may have been an aid to the memorization and discussion of his lyric meters. Ode 4.11 is neumed with the melody of a hymn to John the Baptist, Ut queant laxis, composed in Sapphic stanzas. This hymn later became the basis of the solfege system (Do, re, mi...)—an association with western music quite appropriate for a lyric poet like Horace, though the language of the hymn is mainly Prudentian.[96] Lyons[97] argues that the melody in question was linked with Horace's Ode well before Guido d'Arezzo fitted Ut queant laxis to it. However, the melody is unlikely to be a survivor from classical times, although Ovid[98] testifies to Horace's use of the lyre while performing his Odes. The German scholar, Ludwig Traube, once dubbed the tenth and eleventh centuries The age of Horace (aetas Horatiana), and placed it between the aetas Vergiliana of the eighth and ninth centuries, and the aetas Ovidiana of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, a distinction supposed to reflect the dominant classical Latin influences of those times. Such a distinction is over-schematized since Horace was a substantial influence in the ninth century as well. Traube had focused too much on Horace's Satires.[99] Almost all of Horace's work found favour in the Medieval period. In fact medieval scholars were also guilty of over-schematism, associating Horace's different genres with the different ages of man. A twelfth-century scholar encapsulated the theory: "...Horace wrote four different kinds of poems on account of the four ages, the Odes for boys, the Ars Poetica for young men, the Satires for mature men, the Epistles for old and complete men."[100] It was even thought that Horace had composed his works in the order in which they had been placed by ancient scholars.[nb 25] Despite its naivety, the schematism involved an appreciation of Horace's works as a collection, the Ars Poetica, Satires and Epistles appearing to find favour as well as the Odes. The later Middle Ages however gave special significance to Satires and Epistles, being considered Horace's mature works. Dante referred to Horace as Orazio satiro, and he awarded him a privileged position in the first circle of Hell, with Homer, Ovid and Lucan.[101] Horace's popularity is revealed in the large number of quotes from all his works found in almost every genre of medieval literature, and also in the number of poets imitating him in quantitative Latin meter. The most prolific imitator of his Odes was the Bavarian monk, Metellus of Tegernsee, who dedicated his work to the patron saint of Tegernsee Abbey, St Quirinus, around the year 1170. He imitated all Horace's lyrical meters then followed these up with imitations of other meters used by Prudentius and Boethius, indicating that variety, as first modelled by Horace, was considered a fundamental aspect of the lyric genre. The content of his poems however was restricted to simple piety.[102] Among the most successful imitators of Satires and Epistles was another Germanic author, calling himself Sextus Amarcius, around 1100, who composed four books, the first two exemplifying vices, the second pair mainly virtues.[103] Petrarch is a key figure in the imitation of Horace in accentual meters. His verse letters in Latin were modelled on the Epistles and he wrote a letter to Horace in the form of an ode. However he also borrowed from Horace when composing his Italian sonnets. One modern scholar has speculated that authors who imitated Horace in accentual rhythms (including stressed Latin and vernacular languages) may have considered their work a natural sequel to Horace's metrical variety.[104] In France, Horace and Pindar were the poetic models for a group of vernacular authors called the Pléiade, including for example Pierre de Ronsard and Joachim du Bellay. Montaigne made constant and inventive use of Horatian quotes.[105] The vernacular languages were dominant in Spain and Portugal in the sixteenth century, where Horace's influence is notable in the works of such authors as Garcilaso de la Vega, Juan Boscán, Sá de Miranda, Antonio Ferreira and Fray Luis de León, the last writing odes on the Horatian theme beatus ille (happy the man).[106] The sixteenth century in western Europe was also an age of translations (except in Germany, where Horace wasn't translated into the vernacular until well into the seventeenth century). The first English translator was Thomas Drant, who placed translations of Jeremiah and Horace side by side in Medicinable Morall, 1566. That was also the year that the Scot George Buchanan paraphrased the Psalms in a Horatian setting. Ben Jonson put Horace on the stage in 1601 in Poetaster, along with other classical Latin authors, giving them all their own verses to speak in translation. Horace's part evinces the independent spirit, moral earnestness and critical insight that many readers look for in his poems.[107] Age of EnlightenmentEdit During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, or the Age of Enlightenment, neoclassical culture was pervasive. English literature in the middle of that period has been dubbed Augustan. It is not always easy to distinguish Horace's influence during those centuries (the mixing of influences is shown for example in one poet's pseudonym, Horace Juvenal).[nb 26] However a measure of his influence can be found in the diversity of the people interested in his works, both among readers and authors.[108] New editions of his works were published almost yearly. There were three new editions in 1612 (two in Leiden, one in Frankfurt) and again in 1699 (Utrecht, Barcelona, Cambridge). Cheap editions were plentiful and fine editions were also produced, including one whose entire text was engraved by John Pine in copperplate. The poet James Thomson owned five editions of Horace's work and the physician James Douglas had five hundred books with Horace-related titles. Horace was often commended in periodicals such as The Spectator, as a hallmark of good judgement, moderation and manliness, a focus for moralising.[nb 27] His verses offered a fund of mottoes, such as simplex munditiis (elegance in simplicity), splendide mendax (nobly untruthful), sapere aude (dare to know), nunc est bibendum (now is the time to drink), carpe diem (seize the day, perhaps the only one still in common use today).[94] These were quoted even in works as prosaic as Edmund Quincy's A treatise of hemp-husbandry (1765). The fictional hero Tom Jones recited his verses with feeling.[109] His works were also used to justify commonplace themes, such as patriotic obedience, as in James Parry's English lines from an Oxford University collection in 1736:[110] What friendly Muse will teach my Lays To emulate the Roman fire? Justly to sound a Caeser's praise Demands a bold Horatian lyre. Horatian-style lyrics were increasingly typical of Oxford and Cambridge verse collections for this period, most of them in Latin but some like the previous ode in English. John Milton's Lycidas first appeared in such a collection. It has few Horatian echoes[nb 28] yet Milton's associations with Horace were lifelong. He composed a controversial version of Odes 1.5, and Paradise Lost includes references to Horace's 'Roman' Odes 3.1–6 (Book 7 for example begins with echoes of Odes 3.4).[111] Yet Horace's lyrics could offer inspiration to libertines as well as moralists, and neo-Latin sometimes served as a kind of discrete veil for the risqué. Thus for example Benjamin Loveling authored a catalogue of Drury Lane and Covent Garden prostitutes, in Sapphic stanzas, and an encomium for a dying lady "of salacious memory".[112] Some Latin imitations of Horace were politically subversive, such as a marriage ode by Anthony Alsop that included a rallying cry for the Jacobite cause. On the other hand, Andrew Marvell took inspiration from Horace's Odes 1.37 to compose his English masterpiece Horatian Ode upon Cromwell's Return from Ireland, in which subtly nuanced reflections on the execution of Charles I echo Horace's ambiguous response to the death of Cleopatra (Marvell's ode was suppressed in spite of its subtlety and only began to be widely published in 1776). Samuel Johnson took particular pleasure in reading The Odes.[nb 29] Alexander Pope wrote direct Imitations of Horace (published with the original Latin alongside) and also echoed him in Essays and The Rape of the Lock. He even emerged as "a quite Horatian Homer" in his translation of the Iliad.[113] Horace appealed also to female poets, such as Anna Seward (Original sonnets on various subjects, and odes paraphrased from Horace, 1799) and Elizabeth Tollet, who composed a Latin ode in Sapphic meter to celebrate her brother's return from overseas, with tea and coffee substituted for the wine of Horace's sympotic settings: Quos procax nobis numeros, jocosque Musa dictaret? mihi dum tibique Temperent baccis Arabes, vel herbis Pocula Seres[114] What verses and jokes might the bold Muse dictate? while for you and me Arabs flavour our cups with beans Or Chinese with leaves.[115] Horace's Ars Poetica is second only to Aristotle's Poetics in its influence on literary theory and criticism. Milton recommended both works in his treatise of Education.[116] Horace's Satires and Epistles however also had a huge impact, influencing theorists and critics such as John Dryden.[117] There was considerable debate over the value of different lyrical forms for contemporary poets, as represented on one hand by the kind of four-line stanzas made familiar by Horace's Sapphic and Alcaic Odes and, on the other, the loosely structured Pindarics associated with the odes of Pindar. Translations occasionally involved scholars in the dilemmas of censorship. Thus Christopher Smart entirely omitted Odes 4.10 and re-numbered the remaining odes. He also removed the ending of Odes 4.1. Thomas Creech printed Epodes 8 and 12 in the original Latin but left out their English translations. Philip Francis left out both the English and Latin for those same two epodes, a gap in the numbering the only indication that something was amiss. French editions of Horace were influential in England and these too were regularly bowdlerized. Most European nations had their own 'Horaces': thus for example Friedrich von Hagedorn was called The German Horace and Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski The Polish Horace (the latter was much imitated by English poets such as Henry Vaughan and Abraham Cowley). Pope Urban VIII wrote voluminously in Horatian meters, including an ode on gout.[118] 19th century onEdit Horace maintained a central role in the education of English-speaking elites right up until the 1960s.[119] A pedantic emphasis on the formal aspects of language-learning at the expense of literary appreciation may have made him unpopular in some quarters[120] yet it also confirmed his influence—a tension in his reception that underlies Byron's famous lines from Childe Harold (Canto iv, 77):[121] Then farewell, Horace, whom I hated so Not for thy faults, but mine; it is a curse To understand, not feel thy lyric flow, To comprehend, but never love thy verse. William Wordsworth's mature poetry, including the preface to Lyrical Ballads, reveals Horace's influence in its rejection of false ornament[122] and he once expressed "a wish / to meet the shade of Horace...".[nb 30] John Keats echoed the opening of Horace's Epodes 14 in the opening lines of Ode to a Nightingale.[nb 31] The Roman poet was presented in the nineteenth century as an honorary English gentleman. William Thackeray produced a version of Odes 1.38 in which Horace's 'boy' became 'Lucy', and Gerard Manley Hopkins translated the boy innocently as 'child'. Horace was translated by Sir Theodore Martin (biographer of Prince Albert) but minus some ungentlemanly verses, such as the erotic Odes 1.25 and Epodes 8 and 12. Edward Bulwer-Lytton produced a popular translation and William Gladstone also wrote translations during his last days as Prime Minister.[123] Edward FitzGerald's Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, though formally derived from the Persian ruba'i, nevertheless shows a strong Horatian influence, since, as one modern scholar has observed, "...the quatrains inevitably recall the stanzas of the 'Odes', as does the narrating first person of the world-weary, ageing Epicurean Omar himself, mixing sympotic exhortation and 'carpe diem' with splendid moralising and 'memento mori' nihilism."[nb 32] Matthew Arnold advised a friend in verse not to worry about politics, an echo of Odes 2.11, yet later became a critic of Horace's inadequacies relative to Greek poets, as role models of Victorian virtues, observing: "If human life were complete without faith, without enthusiasm, without energy, Horace...would be the perfect interpreter of human life."[124] Christina Rossetti composed a sonnet depicting a woman willing her own death steadily, drawing on Horace's depiction of 'Glycera' in Odes 1.19.5–6 and Cleopatra in Odes 1.37.[nb 33] A. E. Housman considered Odes 4.7, in Archilochian couplets, the most beautiful poem of antiquity[125] and yet he generally shared Horace's penchant for quatrains, being readily adapted to his own elegiac and melancholy strain.[126] The most famous poem of Ernest Dowson took its title and its heroine's name from a line of Odes 4.1, Non sum qualis eram bonae sub regno Cynarae, as well as its motif of nostalgia for a former flame. Kipling wrote a famous parody of the Odes, satirising their stylistic idiosyncrasies and especially the extraordinary syntax, but he also used Horace's Roman patriotism as a focus for British imperialism, as in the story Regulus in the school collection Stalky & Co., which he based on Odes 3.5.[127] Wilfred Owen's famous poem, quoted above, incorporated Horatian text to question patriotism while ignoring the rules of Latin scansion. However, there were few other echoes of Horace in the war period, possibly because war is not actually a major theme of Horace's work.[128]   Bibendum (the symbol of the Michelin tyre company) takes his name from the opening line of Ode 1.37, Nunc est bibendum. Both W.H.Auden and Louis MacNeice began their careers as teachers of classics and both responded as poets to Horace's influence. Auden for example evoked the fragile world of the 1930s in terms echoing Odes 2.11.1–4, where Horace advises a friend not to let worries about frontier wars interfere with current pleasures. And, gentle, do not care to know Where Poland draws her Eastern bow,      What violence is done; Nor ask what doubtful act allows Our freedom in this English house,      Our picnics in the sun.[nb 34] The American poet, Robert Frost, echoed Horace's Satires in the conversational and sententious idiom of some of his longer poems, such as The Lesson for Today (1941), and also in his gentle advocacy of life on the farm, as in Hyla Brook (1916), evoking Horace's fons Bandusiae in Ode 3.13. Now at the start of the third millennium, poets are still absorbing and re-configuring the Horatian influence, sometimes in translation (such as a 2002 English/American edition of the Odes by thirty-six poets)[nb 35] and sometimes as inspiration for their own work (such as a 2003 collection of odes by a New Zealand poet).[nb 36] Horace's Epodes have largely been ignored in the modern era, excepting those with political associations of historical significance. The obscene qualities of some of the poems have repulsed even scholars[nb 37] yet more recently a better understanding of the nature of Iambic poetry has led to a re-evaluation of the whole collection.[129][130] A re-appraisal of the Epodes also appears in creative adaptations by recent poets (such as a 2004 collection of poems that relocates the ancient context to a 1950s industrial town).[nb 38] TranslationsEdit John Dryden successfully adapted three of the Odes (and one Epode) into verse for readers of his own age. Samuel Johnson favored the versions of Philip Francis. Others favor unrhymed translations. In 1964 James Michie published a translation of the Odes—many of them fully rhymed—including a dozen of the poems in the original Sapphic and Alcaic metres. More recent verse translations of the Odes include those by David West (free verse), and Colin Sydenham (rhymed). Ars Poetica was first translated into English by Ben Jonson and later by Lord Byron. Horace's Odes and the Mystery of Do-Re-Mi Stuart Lyons (rhymed) Aris & Phillips ISBN 978-0-85668-790-7 In popular cultureEdit The Oxford Latin Course textbooks use the life of Horace to illustrate an average Roman's life in the late Republic to Early Empire.[131] See alsoEdit  Literature portal  Ancient Rome portal  Biography portal Carpe diem Horatia (gens) List of ancient Romans Otium Prosody (Latin) Translation NotesEdit ^ Quintilian 10.1.96. The only other lyrical poet Quintilian thought comparable with Horace was the now obscure poet/metrical theorist, Caesius Bassus (R. Tarrant, Ancient Receptions of Horace, 280) ^ Translated from Persius' own 'Satires' 1.116–17: "omne vafer vitium ridenti Flaccus amico / tangit et admissus circum praecordia ludit." ^ Quoted by N. Rudd from John Dryden's Discourse Concerning the Original and Progress of Satire, excerpted from W.P.Ker's edition of Dryden's essays, Oxford 1926, vol. 2, pp. 86–87 ^ The year is given in Odes 3.21.1 ("Consule Manlio"), the month in Epistles 1.20.27, the day in Suetonius' biography Vita (R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 7) ^ "No son ever set a finer monument to his father than Horace did in the sixth satire of Book I...Horace's description of his father is warm-hearted but free from sentimentality or exaggeration. We see before us one of the common people, a hard-working, open-minded, and thoroughly honest man of simple habits and strict convictions, representing some of the best qualities that at the end of the Republic could still be found in the unsophisticated society of the Italian municipia" — E. Fraenkel, Horace, 5–6 ^ Odes 3.4.28: "nec (me extinxit) Sicula Palinurus unda"; "nor did Palinurus extinguish me with Sicilian waters". Maecenas' involvement is recorded by Appian Bell. Civ. 5.99 but Horace's ode is the only historical reference to his own presence there, depending however on interpretation. (R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 10) ^ The point is much disputed among scholars and hinges on how the text is interpreted. Epodes 9 for example may offer proof of Horace's presence if 'ad hunc frementis' ('gnashing at this' man i.e. the traitrous Roman ) is a misreading of 'at huc...verterent' (but hither...they fled) in lines describing the defection of the Galatian cavalry, "ad hunc frementis verterunt bis mille equos / Galli canentes Caesarem" (R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 12). ^ Suetonius signals that the report is based on rumours by employing the terms "traditur...dicitur" / "it is reported...it is said" (E. Fraenkel, Horace, 21) ^ According to a recent theory, the three books of Odes were issued separately, possibly in 26, 24 and 23 BC (see G. Hutchinson (2002), Classical Quarterly 52: 517–37) ^ 19 BC is the usual estimate but c. 11 BC has good support too (see R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 18–20 ^ The date however is subject to much controversy with 22–18 BC another option (see for example R. Syme, The Augustan Aristocracy, 379–81 ^ "[Lucilius]...resembles a man whose only concern is to force / something into the framework of six feet, and who gaily produces / two hundred lines before dinner and another two hundred after." – Satire 1.10.59–61 (translated by Niall Rudd, The Satires of Horace and Persius, Penguin Classics 1973, p. 69) ^ There is one reference to Bion by name in Epistles 2.2.60, and the clearest allusion to him is in Satire 1.6, which parallels Bion fragments 1, 2, 16 Kindstrand ^ Epistles 1.17 and 1.18.6–8 are critical of the extreme views of Diogenes and also of social adaptations of Cynic precepts, and yet Epistle 1.2 could be either Cynic or Stoic in its orientation (J. Moles, Philosophy and ethics, p. 177 ^ Satires 1.1.25–26, 74–75, 1.2.111–12, 1.3.76–77, 97–114, 1.5.44, 101–03, 1.6.128–31, 2.2.14–20, 25, 2.6.93–97 ^ Wilfred Owen, Dulce et decorum est (1917), echoes a line from Carmina 3.2.13, "it is sweet and honourable to die for one's country", cited by Stephen Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 340. ^ Propertius published his third book of elegies within a year or two of Horace's Odes 1–3 and mimicked him, for example, in the opening lines, characterizing himself in terms borrowed from Odes 3.1.13 and 3.30.13–14, as a priest of the Muses and as an adaptor of Greek forms of poetry (R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 227) ^ Ovid for example probably borrowed from Horace's Epistle 1.20 the image of a poetry book as a slave boy eager to leave home, adapting it to the opening poems of Tristia 1 and 3 (R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace), and Tristia 2 may be understood as a counterpart to Horace's Epistles 2.1, both being letters addressed to Augustus on literary themes (A. Barchiesi, Speaking Volumes, 79–103) ^ The comment is in Persius 1.114–18, yet that same satire has been found to have nearly 80 reminiscences of Horace; see D. Hooley, The Knotted Thong, 29 ^ The allusion to Venusine comes via Horace's Sermones 2.1.35, while lamp signifies the lucubrations of a conscientious poet. According to Quintilian (93), however, many people in Flavian Rome preferred Lucilius not only to Horace but to all other Latin poets (R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 279) ^ Prudentius sometimes alludesto the Odes in a negative context, as expressions of a secular life he is abandoning. Thus for example male pertinax, employed in Prudentius's Praefatio to describe a willful desire for victory, is lifted from Odes 1.9.24, where it describes a girl's half-hearted resistance to seduction. Elsewhere he borrows dux bone from Odes 4.5.5 and 37, where it refers to Augustus, and applies it to Christ (R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 282 ^ St Jerome, Epistles 22.29, incorporating a quote from 2 'Corinthians 6.14: qui consensus Christo et Belial? quid facit cum psalterio Horatius?(cited by K. Friis-Jensen, Horace in the Middle Ages, 292) ^ Odes 3.3.1–8 was especially influential in promoting the value of heroic calm in the face of danger, describing a man who could bear even the collapse of the world without fear (si fractus illabatur orbis,/impavidum ferient ruinae). Echoes are found in Seneca's Agamemnon 593–603, Prudentius's Peristephanon 4.5–12 and Boethius's Consolatio 1 metrum 4.(R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 283–85) ^ Heiric, like Prudentius, gave Horatian motifs a Christian context. Thus the character Lydia in Odes 3.19.15, who would willingly die for her lover twice, becomes in Heiric's Life of St Germaine of Auxerre a saint ready to die twice for the Lord's commandments (R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 287–88) ^ According to a medieval French commentary on the Satires: "...first he composed his lyrics, and in them, speaking to the young, as it were, he took as subject-matter love affairs and quarrels, banquets and drinking parties. Next he wrote his Epodes, and in them composed invectives against men of a more advanced and more dishonourable age...He next wrote his book about the Ars Poetica, and in that instructed men of his own profession to write well...Later he added his book of Satires, in which he reproved those who had fallen a prey to various kinds of vices. Finally, he finished his oeuvre with the Epistles, and in them, following the method of a good farmer, he sowed the virtues where he had rooted out the vices." (cited by K. Friis-Jensen, Horace in the Middle Ages, 294–302) ^ 'Horace Juvenal' was author of Modern manners: a poem, 1793 ^ see for example Spectator 312, 27 Feb. 1712; 548, 28 Nov. 1712; 618, 10 Nov. 1714 ^ One echo of Horace may be found in line 69: "Were it not better done as others use,/ To sport with Amaryllis in the shade/Or with the tangles of Neaera's hair?", which points to the Neara in Odes 3.14.21 (Douglas Bush, Milton: Poetical Works, 144, note 69) ^ Cfr. James Boswell, "The Life of Samuel Johnson" Aetat. 20, 1729 where Boswell remarked of Johnson that Horace's Odes "were the compositions in which he took most delight." ^ The quote, from Memorials of a Tour of Italy (1837), contains allusions to Odes 3.4 and 3.13 (S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 334–35) ^ "My heart aches, and a drowsy numbness pains / my sense..." echoes Epodes 14.1–4 (S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 335) ^ Comment by S. Harrison, editor and contributor to The Cambridge Companion to Horace (S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 337 ^ Rossetti's sonnet, A Study (a soul), dated 1854, was not published in her own lifetime. Some lines: She stands as pale as Parian marble stands / Like Cleopatra when she turns at bay... (C. Rossetti, Complete Poems, 758 ^ Quoted from Auden's poem Out on the lawn I lie in bed, 1933, and cited by S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 340 ^ Edited by McClatchy, reviewed by S. Harrison, Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2003.03.05 ^ I. Wedde, The Commonplace Odes, Auckland 2003, (cited by S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 345) ^ 'Political' Epodes are 1, 7, 9, 16; notably obscene Epodes are 8 and 12. E. Fraenkel is among the admirers repulsed by these two poems, for another view of which see for example Dee Lesser Clayman, 'Horace's Epodes VIII and XII: More than Clever Obscenity?', The Classical World Vol. 6, No. 1 (September 1975), pp 55–61 JSTOR 4348329 ^ M. Almond, The Works 2004, Washington, cited by S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 346 CitationsEdit ^ a b J. Michie, The Odes of Horace, 14 ^ N. Rudd, The Satires of Horace and Persius, 10 ^ R. Barrow R., The Romans Pelican Books, 119 ^ Fraenkel, Eduard. Horace. Oxford: 1957, p. 1. For the Life of Horace by Suetonius, see: (Vita Horati) ^ Brill's Companion to Horace, edited by Hans-Christian Günther, Brill, 2012, p. 7, Google Book ^ Satires 1.10.30 ^ Epistles 2.1.69 ff. ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 2–3 ^ Satires 2.1.34 ^ T. Frank, Catullus and Horace, 133–34 ^ A. Campbell, Horace: A New Interpretation, 84 ^ Epistles 1.16.49 ^ R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 7 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 3–4 ^ a b V. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and Politics, 24 ^ Satires 1.6.86 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 4–5 ^ a b Satires 1.6 ^ V. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and Politics, 25 ^ Odes 2.7 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 8–9 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 9–10 ^ Satires 1.6.48 ^ a b R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 8 ^ V. Kiernan, Horace, 25 ^ Odes 2.7.10 ^ Epistles 2.2.51–52 ^ V. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and politics ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 14–15 ^ Christopher Brown, in A Companion to the Greek Lyric Poets, D.E. Gerber (ed), Leiden 1997, pages 13–88 ^ Douglas E. Gerber, Greek Iambic Poetry, Loeb Classical Library (1999), Introduction pages i–iv ^ D. Mankin, Horace: Epodes, C.U.P., 8 ^ D. Mankin, Horace: Epodes, 6 ^ R. Conway, New Studies of a Great Inheritance, 49–50 ^ V. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and Politics, 18–19 ^ F. Muecke, The Satires, 109–10 ^ R. Lyne, Augustan Poetry and Society, 599 ^ J. Griffin, Horace in the Thirties, 6 ^ a b R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 10 ^ D. Mankin, Horace: Epodes, 5 ^ Satires 1.5 ^ Odes 3.4.28 ^ Epodes 1 and 9 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 15 ^ Satires 2.7.53 ^ R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 11 ^ V. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and Politics, 61–62 ^ R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 13 ^ Epistles 1.19.35–44 ^ Epistles 1.1.10 ^ V. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and Politics, 149, 153 ^ Epistles 1.7 ^ Epistles 1.20.24–25 ^ R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 14–15 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 17–18 ^ Epistles 2.2 ^ R. Ferri, The Epistles, 121 ^ Odes 4.4 and 4.14 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 23 ^ R Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 17–21 ^ S. Harrison, Style and poetic texture, 262 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 124–25 ^ Gundolf, Friedrich (1916). Goethe. Berlin, Germany: Bondi. ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 106–07 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 74 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 95–96 ^ J. Griffin, Gods and Religion, 182 ^ S. Harrison, Lyric and Iambic, 192 ^ S. Harrison, Lyric and Iambic, 194–96 ^ a b E. Fraenkel, Horace, 32, 80 ^ L. Morgan, Satire, 177–78 ^ S. Harrison, Style and poetic texture, 271 ^ R. Ferri, The Epistles, pp. 121–22 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, p. 309 ^ V. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and Politics, 28 ^ J. Moles, Philosophy and ethics, pp. 165–69, 177 ^ K. J. Reckford, Some studies in Horace's odes on love ^ J. Moles, Philosophy and ethics, p. 168 ^ Santirocco "Unity and Design", Lowrie "Horace's Narrative Odes" ^ Ancona, "Time and the Erotic" ^ J. Moles, Philosophy and ethics, pp. 171–73 ^ Davis "Polyhymnia" and Lowrie "Horace's Narrative Odes" ^ J. Moles, Philosophy and ethics, p. 179 ^ J. Moles, Philosophy and ethics, pp. 174–80 ^ R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 279 ^ V. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and Politics, 176 ^ D. Money, The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 326, 332 ^ R. Lyme, Augustan Poetry and Society, 603 ^ Niall Rudd, The Satires of Horace and Persius, 14 ^ R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 282–83 ^ R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 280 ^ R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 278 ^ R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 280–81 ^ a b R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 283 ^ R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 285–87 ^ R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 288–89 ^ Stuart Lyons, Horace's Odes and the Mystery of Do-Re-Mi ^ Tristia, 4.10.49–50 ^ B. Bischoff, Living with the satirists, 83–95 ^ K. Friis-Jensen,Horace in the Middle Ages, 291 ^ K. Friis-Jensen, Horace in the Middle Ages, 293, 304 ^ K. Friis-Jensen, Horace in the Middle Ages, 296–98 ^ K. Friis-Jensen, Horace in the Middle Ages, 302 ^ K. Friis-Jensen, Horace in the Middle Ages, 299 ^ Michael McGann, Horace in the Renaissance, 306 ^ E. Rivers, Fray Luis de León: The Original Poems ^ M. McGann, Horace in the Renaissance, 306–07, 313–16 ^ D. Money, The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 318, 331, 332 ^ D. Money, The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 322 ^ D. Money, The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 326–27 ^ J. Talbot, A Horatian Pun in Paradise Lost, 21–3 ^ B. Loveling, Latin and English Poems, 49–52, 79–83 ^ D. Money, The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 329–31 ^ E. Tollet, Poems on Several Occasions, 84 ^ Translation adapted from D. Money, The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 329 ^ A. Gilbert, Literary Criticism: Plato to Dryden, 124, 669 ^ W. Kupersmith, Roman Satirists in Seventeenth Century England, 97–101 ^ D. Money, The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 319–25 ^ S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 340 ^ V. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and Politics, x ^ S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 334 ^ D. Money, The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 323 ^ S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 335–37 ^ M. Arnold, Selected Prose, 74 ^ W. Flesch, Companion to British Poetry, 19th Century, 98 ^ S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 339 ^ S. Medcalfe, Kipling's Horace, 217–39 ^ S. Harrison, the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 340 ^ D. Mankin, Horace: Epodes, 6–9 ^ R. McNeill, Horace, 12 ^ Balme, Maurice, Moorwood, James (1996). Oxford Latin Course Part one. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195212037. ReferencesEdit Arnold, Matthew (1970). Selected Prose. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-043058-5. Barrow, R (1949). The Romans. Penguin/Pelican Books. Barchiesi, A (2001). Speaking Volumes: Narrative and Intertext in Ovid and Other Latin Poets. Duckworth. Bischoff, B (1971). "Living with the satirists". Classical Influences on European Culture AD 500–1500. Cambridge University Press. Bush, Douglas (1966). Milton: Poetical Works. Oxford University Press. Campbell, A (1924). Horace: A New Interpretation. London. Conway, R (1921). New Studies of a Great Inheritance. London. Davis, Gregson (1991). Polyhymnia. The Rhetoric to Horatian Lyric Discourse. University of California. Ferri, Rolando (2007). "The Epistles". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-53684-4. Flesch, William (2009). The Facts on File Companion to British Poetry, 19th Century. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-5896-9. Frank, Tenney (1928). Catullus and Horace. New York. Fraenkel, Eduard (1957). Horace. Oxford University Press. Friis-Jensen, Karsten (2007). "Horace in the Middle Ages". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Griffin, Jasper (1993). "Horace in the Thirties". Horace 2000. Ann Arbor. Griffin, Jasper (2007). "Gods and religion". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge university Press. Harrison, Stephen (2005). "Lyric and Iambic". A Companion to Latin Literature. Blackwell Publishing. Harrison, Stephen (2007). "Introduction". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Harrison, Stephen (2007). "Style and poetic texture". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Harrison, Stephen (2007). "The nineteenth and twentieth centuries". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Hooley, D (1997). The Knotted Thong: Structures of Mimesis in Persius. Ann Arbor. Hutchinson, G (2002). "The publication and individuality of Horace's Odes 1–3". Classical Quarterly 52. Kiernan, Victor (1999). Horace: Poetics and Politics. St Martin's Press. Kupersmith, W (1985). Roman Satirists in Seventeenth Century England. Lincoln, Nebraska and London. Loveling, Benjamin (1741). Latin and English Poems, by a Gentleman of Trinity College, Oxford. London. Lowrie, Michèle (1997). Horace's Narrative Odes. Oxford University Press. Lyne, R (1986). "Augustan Poetry and Society". The Oxford History of the Classical World. Oxford University Press. Mankin, David (1995). Horace: Epodes. Cambridge university Press. McNeill, Randall (2010). Horace. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-980511-2. Michie, James (1967). "Horace the Man". The Odes of Horace. Penguin Classics. Moles, John (2007). "Philosophy and ethics". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Money, David (2007). "The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Morgan, Llewelyn (2005). "Satire". A Companion to Latin Literature. Blackwell Publishing. Muecke, Frances (2007). "the Satires". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Nisbet, Robin (2007). "Horace: life and chronology". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Reckford, K. J. (1997). Horatius: the man and the hour. 118. American Journal of Philology. pp. 538–612. Rivers, Elias (1983). Fray Luis de León: The Original Poems. Grant and Cutler. Rossetti, Christina (2001). The Complete Poems. Penguin Books. Rudd, Niall (1973). The Satires of Horace and Persius. Penguin Classics. Santirocco, Matthew (1986). Unity and Design in Horace's Odes. University of North Carolina. Syme, R (1986). The Augustan Aristocracy. Oxford University Press. Talbot, J (2001). "A Horatian Pun in Paradise Lost". Notes and Queries 48 (1). Oxford University Press. Tarrant, Richard (2007). "Ancient receptions of Horace". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Tollet, Elizabeth (1755). Poems on Several Occasions. London. Further readingEdit Davis, Gregson (1991). Polyhymnia the Rhetoric of Horatian Lyric Discourse. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-91030-3. Fraenkel, Eduard (1957). Horace. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Horace (1983). The Complete Works of Horace. Charles E. Passage, trans. New York: Ungar. ISBN 0-8044-2404-7. Johnson, W. R. (1993). Horace and the Dialectic of Freedom: Readings in Epistles 1. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-2868-8. Lyne, R.O.A.M. (1995). Horace: Behind the Public Poetry. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press. ISBN 0-300-06322-9. Lyons, Stuart (1997). Horace's Odes and the Mystery of Do-Re-Mi. Aris & Phillips. Lyons, Stuart (2010). Music in the Odes of Horace. Aris & Phillips. Michie, James (1964). The Odes of Horace. Rupert Hart-Davis. Newman, J.K. (1967). Augustus and the New Poetry. Brussels: Latomus, revue d’études latines. Noyes, Alfred (1947). Horace: A Portrait. New York: Sheed and Ward. Perret, Jacques (1964). Horace. Bertha Humez, trans. New York: New York University Press. Putnam, Michael C.J. (1986). Artifices of Eternity: Horace's Fourth Book of Odes. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-1852-6. Reckford, Kenneth J. (1969). Horace. New York: Twayne. Rudd, Niall, ed. (1993). Horace 2000: A Celebration – Essays for the Bimillennium. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-10490-X. Sydenham, Colin (2005). Horace: The Odes. Duckworth. West, David (1997). Horace The Complete Odes and Epodes. Oxford University Press. Wilkinson, L.P. (1951). Horace and His Lyric Poetry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. External linksEdit Horaceat Wikipedia's sister projects  Definitions from Wiktionary  Media from Wikimedia Commons  Quotations from Wikiquote  Texts from Wikisource  Data from Wikidata Works by Horace at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Horace at Internet Archive Works by Horace at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)   Q. Horati Flacci opera, recensuerunt O. Keller et A. Holder, 2 voll., Lipsiae in aedibus B. G. Teubneri, 1864–9. Common sayings from Horace The works of Horace at The Latin Library Carmina Horatiana All Carmina of Horace in Latin recited by Thomas Bervoets. Selected Poems of Horace Works by Horace at Perseus Digital Library Biography and chronology Horace's works: text, concordances and frequency list SORGLL: Horace, Odes I.22, read by Robert Sonkowsky Translations of several odes in the original meters (with accompaniment). A discussion and comparison of three different contemporary translations of Horace's Odes Some spurious lines in the Ars Poetica? Horati opera, Acronis et Porphyrionis commentarii, varia lectio etc. (latine) Horace MS 1a Ars Poetica and Epistulae at OPenn Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horace&oldid=992281367" Last edited on 4 December 2020, at 13:30 Content is available under CC BY-SA 3.0 unless otherwise noted. This page was last edited on 4 December 2020, at 13:30 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Terms of Use Desktop Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-m-wikipedia-org-75	----	Horace - Wikipedia Open main menu Home Random Nearby Log in Settings Donate About Wikipedia Disclaimers Search Horace Language Watch Edit This article is about the Roman poet. For the Egyptian god, see Horus. For other uses, see Horace (disambiguation). Quintus Horatius Flaccus (8 December 65 – 27 November 8 BC), known in the English-speaking world as Horace (/ˈhɒrɪs/), was the leading Roman lyric poet during the time of Augustus (also known as Octavian). The rhetorician Quintilian regarded his Odes as just about the only Latin lyrics worth reading: "He can be lofty sometimes, yet he is also full of charm and grace, versatile in his figures, and felicitously daring in his choice of words."[nb 1] Horace Horace, as imagined by Anton von Werner Born Quintus Horatius Flaccus 8 December 65 BC Venusia, Italy, Roman Republic Died 27 November 8 BC (age 56) Rome Resting place Rome Occupation Soldier, scriba quaestorius, poet, senator Language Latin Nationality Roman Genre Lyric poetry Notable works Odes "The Art of Poetry" Horace also crafted elegant hexameter verses (Satires and Epistles) and caustic iambic poetry (Epodes). The hexameters are amusing yet serious works, friendly in tone, leading the ancient satirist Persius to comment: "as his friend laughs, Horace slyly puts his finger on his every fault; once let in, he plays about the heartstrings".[nb 2] His career coincided with Rome's momentous change from a republic to an empire. An officer in the republican army defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC, he was befriended by Octavian's right-hand man in civil affairs, Maecenas, and became a spokesman for the new regime. For some commentators, his association with the regime was a delicate balance in which he maintained a strong measure of independence (he was "a master of the graceful sidestep")[1] but for others he was, in John Dryden's phrase, "a well-mannered court slave".[2][nb 3] Contents 1 Life 1.1 Childhood 1.2 Adulthood 1.2.1 Poet 1.2.2 Knight 2 Works 2.1 Historical context 2.2 Themes 3 Reception 3.1 Antiquity 3.2 Middle Ages and Renaissance 3.3 Age of Enlightenment 3.4 19th century on 4 Translations 5 In popular culture 6 See also 7 Notes 8 Citations 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links LifeEdit   Horatii Flacci Sermonum (1577) Horace can be regarded as the world's first autobiographer.[3] In his writings, he tells us far more about himself, his character, his development, and his way of life, than any other great poet of antiquity. Some of the biographical material contained in his work can be supplemented from the short but valuable "Life of Horace" by Suetonius (in his Lives of the Poets).[4] ChildhoodEdit He was born on 8 December 65 BC[nb 4] in the Samnite south of Italy.[5] His home town, Venusia, lay on a trade route in the border region between Apulia and Lucania (Basilicata). Various Italic dialects were spoken in the area and this perhaps enriched his feeling for language. He could have been familiar with Greek words even as a young boy and later he poked fun at the jargon of mixed Greek and Oscan spoken in neighbouring Canusium.[6] One of the works he probably studied in school was the Odyssia of Livius Andronicus, taught by teachers like the 'Orbilius' mentioned in one of his poems.[7] Army veterans could have been settled there at the expense of local families uprooted by Rome as punishment for their part in the Social War (91–88 BC).[8] Such state-sponsored migration must have added still more linguistic variety to the area. According to a local tradition reported by Horace,[9] a colony of Romans or Latins had been installed in Venusia after the Samnites had been driven out early in the third century. In that case, young Horace could have felt himself to be a Roman[10][11] though there are also indications that he regarded himself as a Samnite or Sabellus by birth.[12][13] Italians in modern and ancient times have always been devoted to their home towns, even after success in the wider world, and Horace was no different. Images of his childhood setting and references to it are found throughout his poems.[14] Horace's father was probably a Venutian taken captive by Romans in the Social War, or possibly he was descended from a Sabine captured in the Samnite Wars. Either way, he was a slave for at least part of his life. He was evidently a man of strong abilities however and managed to gain his freedom and improve his social position. Thus Horace claimed to be the free-born son of a prosperous 'coactor'.[15] The term 'coactor' could denote various roles, such as tax collector, but its use by Horace[16] was explained by scholia as a reference to 'coactor argentareus' i.e. an auctioneer with some of the functions of a banker, paying the seller out of his own funds and later recovering the sum with interest from the buyer.[17] The father spent a small fortune on his son's education, eventually accompanying him to Rome to oversee his schooling and moral development. The poet later paid tribute to him in a poem[18] that one modern scholar considers the best memorial by any son to his father.[nb 5] The poem includes this passage: If my character is flawed by a few minor faults, but is otherwise decent and moral, if you can point out only a few scattered blemishes on an otherwise immaculate surface, if no one can accuse me of greed, or of prurience, or of profligacy, if I live a virtuous life, free of defilement (pardon, for a moment, my self-praise), and if I am to my friends a good friend, my father deserves all the credit... As it is now, he deserves from me unstinting gratitude and praise. I could never be ashamed of such a father, nor do I feel any need, as many people do, to apologize for being a freedman's son. Satires 1.6.65–92 He never mentioned his mother in his verses and he might not have known much about her. Perhaps she also had been a slave.[15] AdulthoodEdit Horace left Rome, possibly after his father's death, and continued his formal education in Athens, a great centre of learning in the ancient world, where he arrived at nineteen years of age, enrolling in The Academy. Founded by Plato, The Academy was now dominated by Epicureans and Stoics, whose theories and practises made a deep impression on the young man from Venusia.[19] Meanwhile, he mixed and lounged about with the elite of Roman youth, such as Marcus, the idle son of Cicero, and the Pompeius to whom he later addressed a poem.[20] It was in Athens too that he probably acquired deep familiarity with the ancient tradition of Greek lyric poetry, at that time largely the preserve of grammarians and academic specialists (access to such material was easier in Athens than in Rome, where the public libraries had yet to be built by Asinius Pollio and Augustus).[21] Rome's troubles following the assassination of Julius Caesar were soon to catch up with him. Marcus Junius Brutus came to Athens seeking support for the republican cause. Brutus was fêted around town in grand receptions and he made a point of attending academic lectures, all the while recruiting supporters among the young men studying there, including Horace.[22] An educated young Roman could begin military service high in the ranks and Horace was made tribunus militum (one of six senior officers of a typical legion), a post usually reserved for men of senatorial or equestrian rank and which seems to have inspired jealousy among his well-born confederates.[23][24] He learned the basics of military life while on the march, particularly in the wilds of northern Greece, whose rugged scenery became a backdrop to some of his later poems.[25] It was there in 42 BC that Octavian (later Augustus) and his associate Mark Antony crushed the republican forces at the Battle of Philippi. Horace later recorded it as a day of embarrassment for himself, when he fled without his shield,[26] but allowance should be made for his self-deprecating humour. Moreover, the incident allowed him to identify himself with some famous poets who had long ago abandoned their shields in battle, notably his heroes Alcaeus and Archilochus. The comparison with the latter poet is uncanny: Archilochus lost his shield in a part of Thrace near Philippi, and he was deeply involved in the Greek colonization of Thasos, where Horace's die-hard comrades finally surrendered.[24] Octavian offered an early amnesty to his opponents and Horace quickly accepted it. On returning to Italy, he was confronted with yet another loss: his father's estate in Venusia was one of many throughout Italy to be confiscated for the settlement of veterans (Virgil lost his estate in the north about the same time). Horace later claimed that he was reduced to poverty and this led him to try his hand at poetry.[27] In reality, there was no money to be had from versifying. At best, it offered future prospects through contacts with other poets and their patrons among the rich.[28] Meanwhile, he obtained the sinecure of scriba quaestorius, a civil service position at the aerarium or Treasury, profitable enough to be purchased even by members of the ordo equester and not very demanding in its work-load, since tasks could be delegated to scribae or permanent clerks.[29] It was about this time that he began writing his Satires and Epodes. PoetEdit   Horace reads before Maecenas, by Fyodor Bronnikov The Epodes belong to iambic poetry. Iambic poetry features insulting and obscene language;[30][31] sometimes, it is referred to as blame poetry.[32] Blame poetry, or shame poetry, is poetry written to blame and shame fellow citizens into a sense of their social obligations. Horace modelled these poems on the poetry of Archilochus. Social bonds in Rome had been decaying since the destruction of Carthage a little more than a hundred years earlier, due to the vast wealth that could be gained by plunder and corruption.[33] These social ills were magnified by rivalry between Julius Caesar, Mark Antony and confederates like Sextus Pompey, all jockeying for a bigger share of the spoils. One modern scholar has counted a dozen civil wars in the hundred years leading up to 31 BC, including the Spartacus rebellion, eight years before Horace's birth.[34] As the heirs to Hellenistic culture, Horace and his fellow Romans were not well prepared to deal with these problems: At bottom, all the problems that the times were stirring up were of a social nature, which the Hellenistic thinkers were ill qualified to grapple with. Some of them censured oppression of the poor by the rich, but they gave no practical lead, though they may have hoped to see well-meaning rulers doing so. Philosophy was drifting into absorption in self, a quest for private contentedness, to be achieved by self-control and restraint, without much regard for the fate of a disintegrating community. — V. G. Kiernan[35] Horace's Hellenistic background is clear in his Satires, even though the genre was unique to Latin literature. He brought to it a style and outlook suited to the social and ethical issues confronting Rome but he changed its role from public, social engagement to private meditation.[36] Meanwhile, he was beginning to interest Octavian's supporters, a gradual process described by him in one of his satires.[18] The way was opened for him by his friend, the poet Virgil, who had gained admission into the privileged circle around Maecenas, Octavian's lieutenant, following the success of his Eclogues. An introduction soon followed and, after a discreet interval, Horace too was accepted. He depicted the process as an honourable one, based on merit and mutual respect, eventually leading to true friendship, and there is reason to believe that his relationship was genuinely friendly, not just with Maecenas but afterwards with Augustus as well.[37] On the other hand, the poet has been unsympathetically described by one scholar as "a sharp and rising young man, with an eye to the main chance."[38] There were advantages on both sides: Horace gained encouragement and material support, the politicians gained a hold on a potential dissident.[39] His republican sympathies, and his role at Philippi, may have caused him some pangs of remorse over his new status. However most Romans considered the civil wars to be the result of contentio dignitatis, or rivalry between the foremost families of the city, and he too seems to have accepted the principate as Rome's last hope for much needed peace.[40] In 37 BC, Horace accompanied Maecenas on a journey to Brundisium, described in one of his poems[41] as a series of amusing incidents and charming encounters with other friends along the way, such as Virgil. In fact the journey was political in its motivation, with Maecenas en route to negotiatie the Treaty of Tarentum with Antony, a fact Horace artfully keeps from the reader (political issues are largely avoided in the first book of satires).[39] Horace was probably also with Maecenas on one of Octavian's naval expeditions against the piratical Sextus Pompeius, which ended in a disastrous storm off Palinurus in 36 BC, briefly alluded to by Horace in terms of near-drowning.[42][nb 6] There are also some indications in his verses that he was with Maecenas at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, where Octavian defeated his great rival, Antony.[43][nb 7] By then Horace had already received from Maecenas the famous gift of his Sabine farm, probably not long after the publication of the first book of Satires. The gift, which included income from five tenants, may have ended his career at the Treasury, or at least allowed him to give it less time and energy.[44] It signalled his identification with the Octavian regime yet, in the second book of Satires that soon followed, he continued the apolitical stance of the first book. By this time, he had attained the status of eques Romanus,[45] perhaps as a result of his work at the Treasury.[46] KnightEdit Odes 1–3 were the next focus for his artistic creativity. He adapted their forms and themes from Greek lyric poetry of the seventh and sixth centuries BC. The fragmented nature of the Greek world had enabled his literary heroes to express themselves freely and his semi-retirement from the Treasury in Rome to his own estate in the Sabine hills perhaps empowered him to some extent also[47] yet even when his lyrics touched on public affairs they reinforced the importance of private life.[1] Nevertheless, his work in the period 30–27 BC began to show his closeness to the regime and his sensitivity to its developing ideology. In Odes 1.2, for example, he eulogized Octavian in hyperboles that echo Hellenistic court poetry. The name Augustus, which Octavian assumed in January 27 BC, is first attested in Odes 3.3 and 3.5. In the period 27–24 BC, political allusions in the Odes concentrated on foreign wars in Britain (1.35), Arabia (1.29) Spain (3.8) and Parthia (2.2). He greeted Augustus on his return to Rome in 24 BC as a beloved ruler upon whose good health he depended for his own happiness (3.14).[48] The public reception of Odes 1–3 disappointed him, however. He attributed the lack of success to jealousy among imperial courtiers and to his isolation from literary cliques.[49] Perhaps it was disappointment that led him to put aside the genre in favour of verse letters. He addressed his first book of Epistles to a variety of friends and acquaintances in an urbane style reflecting his new social status as a knight. In the opening poem, he professed a deeper interest in moral philosophy than poetry[50] but, though the collection demonstrates a leaning towards stoic theory, it reveals no sustained thinking about ethics.[51] Maecenas was still the dominant confidante but Horace had now begun to assert his own independence, suavely declining constant invitations to attend his patron.[52] In the final poem of the first book of Epistles, he revealed himself to be forty-four years old in the consulship of Lollius and Lepidus i.e. 21 BC, and "of small stature, fond of the sun, prematurely grey, quick-tempered but easily placated".[53][54] According to Suetonius, the second book of Epistles was prompted by Augustus, who desired a verse epistle to be addressed to himself. Augustus was in fact a prolific letter-writer and he once asked Horace to be his personal secretary. Horace refused the secretarial role but complied with the emperor's request for a verse letter.[55] The letter to Augustus may have been slow in coming, being published possibly as late as 11 BC. It celebrated, among other things, the 15 BC military victories of his stepsons, Drusus and Tiberius, yet it and the following letter[56] were largely devoted to literary theory and criticism. The literary theme was explored still further in Ars Poetica, published separately but written in the form of an epistle and sometimes referred to as Epistles 2.3 (possibly the last poem he ever wrote).[57] He was also commissioned to write odes commemorating the victories of Drusus and Tiberius[58] and one to be sung in a temple of Apollo for the Secular Games, a long-abandoned festival that Augustus revived in accordance with his policy of recreating ancient customs (Carmen Saeculare). Suetonius recorded some gossip about Horace's sexual activities late in life, claiming that the walls of his bedchamber were covered with obscene pictures and mirrors, so that he saw erotica wherever he looked.[nb 8] The poet died at 56 years of age, not long after his friend Maecenas, near whose tomb he was laid to rest. Both men bequeathed their property to Augustus, an honour that the emperor expected of his friends.[59] WorksEdit   Odes 1.14 – Wall poem in Leiden The dating of Horace's works isn't known precisely and scholars often debate the exact order in which they were first 'published'. There are persuasive arguments for the following chronology:[60] Satires 1 (c. 35–34 BC) Satires 2 (c. 30 BC) Epodes (30 BC) Odes 1–3 (c. 23 BC)[nb 9] Epistles 1 (c. 21 BC) Carmen Saeculare (17 BC) Epistles 2 (c. 11 BC)[nb 10] Odes 4 (c. 11 BC) Ars Poetica (c. 10–8 BC)[nb 11] Historical contextEdit Horace composed in traditional metres borrowed from Archaic Greece, employing hexameters in his Satires and Epistles, and iambs in his Epodes, all of which were relatively easy to adapt into Latin forms. His Odes featured more complex measures, including alcaics and sapphics, which were sometimes a difficult fit for Latin structure and syntax. Despite these traditional metres, he presented himself as a partisan in the development of a new and sophisticated style. He was influenced in particular by Hellenistic aesthetics of brevity, elegance and polish, as modelled in the work of Callimachus.[61] As soon as Horace, stirred by his own genius and encouraged by the example of Virgil, Varius, and perhaps some other poets of the same generation, had determined to make his fame as a poet, being by temperament a fighter, he wanted to fight against all kinds of prejudice, amateurish slovenliness, philistinism, reactionary tendencies, in short to fight for the new and noble type of poetry which he and his friends were endeavouring to bring about. — Eduard Fraenkel[62] In modern literary theory, a distinction is often made between immediate personal experience (Urerlebnis) and experience mediated by cultural vectors such as literature, philosophy and the visual arts (Bildungserlebnis).[63] The distinction has little relevance for Horace[citation needed] however since his personal and literary experiences are implicated in each other. Satires 1.5, for example, recounts in detail a real trip Horace made with Virgil and some of his other literary friends, and which parallels a Satire by Lucilius, his predecessor.[64] Unlike much Hellenistic-inspired literature, however, his poetry was not composed for a small coterie of admirers and fellow poets, nor does it rely on abstruse allusions for many of its effects. Though elitist in its literary standards, it was written for a wide audience, as a public form of art.[65] Ambivalence also characterizes his literary persona, since his presentation of himself as part of a small community of philosophically aware people, seeking true peace of mind while shunning vices like greed, was well adapted to Augustus's plans to reform public morality, corrupted by greed—his personal plea for moderation was part of the emperor's grand message to the nation.[66] Horace generally followed the examples of poets established as classics in different genres, such as Archilochus in the Epodes, Lucilius in the Satires and Alcaeus in the Odes, later broadening his scope for the sake of variation and because his models weren't actually suited to the realities confronting him. Archilochus and Alcaeus were aristocratic Greeks whose poetry had a social and religious function that was immediately intelligible to their audiences but which became a mere artifice or literary motif when transposed to Rome. However, the artifice of the Odes is also integral to their success, since they could now accommodate a wide range of emotional effects, and the blend of Greek and Roman elements adds a sense of detachment and universality.[67] Horace proudly claimed to introduce into Latin the spirit and iambic poetry of Archilochus but (unlike Archilochus) without persecuting anyone (Epistles 1.19.23–25). It was no idle boast. His Epodes were modelled on the verses of the Greek poet, as 'blame poetry', yet he avoided targeting real scapegoats. Whereas Archilochus presented himself as a serious and vigorous opponent of wrong-doers, Horace aimed for comic effects and adopted the persona of a weak and ineffectual critic of his times (as symbolized for example in his surrender to the witch Canidia in the final epode).[68] He also claimed to be the first to introduce into Latin the lyrical methods of Alcaeus (Epistles 1.19.32–33) and he actually was the first Latin poet to make consistent use of Alcaic meters and themes: love, politics and the symposium. He imitated other Greek lyric poets as well, employing a 'motto' technique, beginning each ode with some reference to a Greek original and then diverging from it.[69] The satirical poet Lucilius was a senator's son who could castigate his peers with impunity. Horace was a mere freedman's son who had to tread carefully.[70] Lucilius was a rugged patriot and a significant voice in Roman self-awareness, endearing himself to his countrymen by his blunt frankness and explicit politics. His work expressed genuine freedom or libertas. His style included 'metrical vandalism' and looseness of structure. Horace instead adopted an oblique and ironic style of satire, ridiculing stock characters and anonymous targets. His libertas was the private freedom of a philosophical outlook, not a political or social privilege.[71] His Satires are relatively easy-going in their use of meter (relative to the tight lyric meters of the Odes)[72] but formal and highly controlled relative to the poems of Lucilius, whom Horace mocked for his sloppy standards (Satires 1.10.56–61)[nb 12] The Epistles may be considered among Horace's most innovative works. There was nothing like it in Greek or Roman literature. Occasionally poems had had some resemblance to letters, including an elegiac poem from Solon to Mimnermus and some lyrical poems from Pindar to Hieron of Syracuse. Lucilius had composed a satire in the form of a letter, and some epistolary poems were composed by Catullus and Propertius. But nobody before Horace had ever composed an entire collection of verse letters,[73] let alone letters with a focus on philosophical problems. The sophisticated and flexible style that he had developed in his Satires was adapted to the more serious needs of this new genre.[74] Such refinement of style was not unusual for Horace. His craftsmanship as a wordsmith is apparent even in his earliest attempts at this or that kind of poetry, but his handling of each genre tended to improve over time as he adapted it to his own needs.[70] Thus for example it is generally agreed that his second book of Satires, where human folly is revealed through dialogue between characters, is superior to the first, where he propounds his ethics in monologues. Nevertheless, the first book includes some of his most popular poems.[75] ThemesEdit Horace developed a number of inter-related themes throughout his poetic career, including politics, love, philosophy and ethics, his own social role, as well as poetry itself. His Epodes and Satires are forms of 'blame poetry' and both have a natural affinity with the moralising and diatribes of Cynicism. This often takes the form of allusions to the work and philosophy of Bion of Borysthenes [nb 13] but it is as much a literary game as a philosophical alignment. By the time he composed his Epistles, he was a critic of Cynicism along with all impractical and "high-falutin" philosophy in general.[nb 14][76] The Satires also include a strong element of Epicureanism, with frequent allusions to the Epicurean poet Lucretius.[nb 15] So for example the Epicurean sentiment carpe diem is the inspiration behind Horace's repeated punning on his own name (Horatius ~ hora) in Satires 2.6.[77] The Satires also feature some Stoic, Peripatetic and Platonic (Dialogues) elements. In short, the Satires present a medley of philosophical programs, dished up in no particular order—a style of argument typical of the genre.[78] The Odes display a wide range of topics. Over time, he becomes more confident about his political voice.[79] Although he is often thought of as an overly intellectual lover, he is ingenious in representing passion.[80] The "Odes" weave various philosophical strands together, with allusions and statements of doctrine present in about a third of the Odes Books 1–3, ranging from the flippant (1.22, 3.28) to the solemn (2.10, 3.2, 3.3). Epicureanism is the dominant influence, characterizing about twice as many of these odes as Stoicism. A group of odes combines these two influences in tense relationships, such as Odes 1.7, praising Stoic virility and devotion to public duty while also advocating private pleasures among friends. While generally favouring the Epicurean lifestyle, the lyric poet is as eclectic as the satiric poet, and in Odes 2.10 even proposes Aristotle's golden mean as a remedy for Rome's political troubles.[81] Many of Horace's poems also contain much reflection on genre, the lyric tradition, and the function of poetry.[82] Odes 4, thought to be composed at the emperor's request, takes the themes of the first three books of "Odes" to a new level. This book shows greater poetic confidence after the public performance of his "Carmen saeculare" or "Century hymn" at a public festival orchestrated by Augustus. In it, Horace addresses the emperor Augustus directly with more confidence and proclaims his power to grant poetic immortality to those he praises. It is the least philosophical collection of his verses, excepting the twelfth ode, addressed to the dead Virgil as if he were living. In that ode, the epic poet and the lyric poet are aligned with Stoicism and Epicureanism respectively, in a mood of bitter-sweet pathos.[83] The first poem of the Epistles sets the philosophical tone for the rest of the collection: "So now I put aside both verses and all those other games: What is true and what befits is my care, this my question, this my whole concern." His poetic renunciation of poetry in favour of philosophy is intended to be ambiguous. Ambiguity is the hallmark of the Epistles. It is uncertain if those being addressed by the self-mocking poet-philosopher are being honoured or criticized. Though he emerges as an Epicurean, it is on the understanding that philosophical preferences, like political and social choices, are a matter of personal taste. Thus he depicts the ups and downs of the philosophical life more realistically than do most philosophers.[84] ReceptionEdit   Horace, portrayed by Giacomo Di Chirico The reception of Horace's work has varied from one epoch to another and varied markedly even in his own lifetime. Odes 1–3 were not well received when first 'published' in Rome, yet Augustus later commissioned a ceremonial ode for the Centennial Games in 17 BC and also encouraged the publication of Odes 4, after which Horace's reputation as Rome's premier lyricist was assured. His Odes were to become the best received of all his poems in ancient times, acquiring a classic status that discouraged imitation: no other poet produced a comparable body of lyrics in the four centuries that followed[85] (though that might also be attributed to social causes, particularly the parasitism that Italy was sinking into).[86] In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, ode-writing became highly fashionable in England and a large number of aspiring poets imitated Horace both in English and in Latin.[87] In a verse epistle to Augustus (Epistle 2.1), in 12 BC, Horace argued for classic status to be awarded to contemporary poets, including Virgil and apparently himself.[88] In the final poem of his third book of Odes he claimed to have created for himself a monument more durable than bronze ("Exegi monumentum aere perennius", Carmina 3.30.1). For one modern scholar, however, Horace's personal qualities are more notable than the monumental quality of his achievement: ... when we hear his name we don't really think of a monument. We think rather of a voice which varies in tone and resonance but is always recognizable, and which by its unsentimental humanity evokes a very special blend of liking and respect. — Niall Rudd[89] Yet for men like Wilfred Owen, scarred by experiences of World War I, his poetry stood for discredited values: My friend, you would not tell with such high zest To children ardent for some desperate glory, The Old Lie: Dulce et decorum est Pro patria mori.[nb 16] The same motto, Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori, had been adapted to the ethos of martyrdom in the lyrics of early Christian poets like Prudentius.[90] These preliminary comments touch on a small sample of developments in the reception of Horace's work. More developments are covered epoch by epoch in the following sections. AntiquityEdit Horace's influence can be observed in the work of his near contemporaries, Ovid and Propertius. Ovid followed his example in creating a completely natural style of expression in hexameter verse, and Propertius cheekily mimicked him in his third book of elegies.[nb 17] His Epistles provided them both with a model for their own verse letters and it also shaped Ovid's exile poetry.[nb 18] His influence had a perverse aspect. As mentioned before, the brilliance of his Odes may have discouraged imitation. Conversely, they may have created a vogue for the lyrics of the archaic Greek poet Pindar, due to the fact that Horace had neglected that style of lyric (see Influence and Legacy of Pindar).[91] The iambic genre seems almost to have disappeared after publication of Horace's Epodes. Ovid's Ibis was a rare attempt at the form but it was inspired mainly by Callimachus, and there are some iambic elements in Martial but the main influence there was Catullus.[92] A revival of popular interest in the satires of Lucilius may have been inspired by Horace's criticism of his unpolished style. Both Horace and Lucilius were considered good role-models by Persius, who critiqued his own satires as lacking both the acerbity of Lucillius and the gentler touch of Horace.[nb 19] Juvenal's caustic satire was influenced mainly by Lucilius but Horace by then was a school classic and Juvenal could refer to him respectfully and in a round-about way as "the Venusine lamp".[nb 20] Statius paid homage to Horace by composing one poem in Sapphic and one in Alcaic meter (the verse forms most often associated with Odes), which he included in his collection of occasional poems, Silvae. Ancient scholars wrote commentaries on the lyric meters of the Odes, including the scholarly poet Caesius Bassus. By a process called derivatio, he varied established meters through the addition or omission of syllables, a technique borrowed by Seneca the Younger when adapting Horatian meters to the stage.[93] Horace's poems continued to be school texts into late antiquity. Works attributed to Helenius Acro and Pomponius Porphyrio are the remnants of a much larger body of Horatian scholarship. Porphyrio arranged the poems in non-chronological order, beginning with the Odes, because of their general popularity and their appeal to scholars (the Odes were to retain this privileged position in the medieval manuscript tradition and thus in modern editions also). Horace was often evoked by poets of the fourth century, such as Ausonius and Claudian. Prudentius presented himself as a Christian Horace, adapting Horatian meters to his own poetry and giving Horatian motifs a Christian tone.[nb 21] On the other hand, St Jerome, modelled an uncompromising response to the pagan Horace, observing: "What harmony can there be between Christ and the Devil? What has Horace to do with the Psalter?"[nb 22] By the early sixth century, Horace and Prudentius were both part of a classical heritage that was struggling to survive the disorder of the times. Boethius, the last major author of classical Latin literature, could still take inspiration from Horace, sometimes mediated by Senecan tragedy.[94] It can be argued that Horace's influence extended beyond poetry to dignify core themes and values of the early Christian era, such as self-sufficiency, inner contentment and courage.[nb 23] Middle Ages and RenaissanceEdit   Horace in his Studium: German print of the fifteenth century, summarizing the final ode 4.15 (in praise of Augustus). Classical texts almost ceased being copied in the period between the mid sixth century and the Carolingian revival. Horace's work probably survived in just two or three books imported into northern Europe from Italy. These became the ancestors of six extant manuscripts dated to the ninth century. Two of those six manuscripts are French in origin, one was produced in Alsace, and the other three show Irish influence but were probably written in continental monasteries (Lombardy for example).[95] By the last half of the ninth century, it was not uncommon for literate people to have direct experience of Horace's poetry. His influence on the Carolingian Renaissance can be found in the poems of Heiric of Auxerre[nb 24] and in some manuscripts marked with neumes, mysterious notations that may have been an aid to the memorization and discussion of his lyric meters. Ode 4.11 is neumed with the melody of a hymn to John the Baptist, Ut queant laxis, composed in Sapphic stanzas. This hymn later became the basis of the solfege system (Do, re, mi...)—an association with western music quite appropriate for a lyric poet like Horace, though the language of the hymn is mainly Prudentian.[96] Lyons[97] argues that the melody in question was linked with Horace's Ode well before Guido d'Arezzo fitted Ut queant laxis to it. However, the melody is unlikely to be a survivor from classical times, although Ovid[98] testifies to Horace's use of the lyre while performing his Odes. The German scholar, Ludwig Traube, once dubbed the tenth and eleventh centuries The age of Horace (aetas Horatiana), and placed it between the aetas Vergiliana of the eighth and ninth centuries, and the aetas Ovidiana of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, a distinction supposed to reflect the dominant classical Latin influences of those times. Such a distinction is over-schematized since Horace was a substantial influence in the ninth century as well. Traube had focused too much on Horace's Satires.[99] Almost all of Horace's work found favour in the Medieval period. In fact medieval scholars were also guilty of over-schematism, associating Horace's different genres with the different ages of man. A twelfth-century scholar encapsulated the theory: "...Horace wrote four different kinds of poems on account of the four ages, the Odes for boys, the Ars Poetica for young men, the Satires for mature men, the Epistles for old and complete men."[100] It was even thought that Horace had composed his works in the order in which they had been placed by ancient scholars.[nb 25] Despite its naivety, the schematism involved an appreciation of Horace's works as a collection, the Ars Poetica, Satires and Epistles appearing to find favour as well as the Odes. The later Middle Ages however gave special significance to Satires and Epistles, being considered Horace's mature works. Dante referred to Horace as Orazio satiro, and he awarded him a privileged position in the first circle of Hell, with Homer, Ovid and Lucan.[101] Horace's popularity is revealed in the large number of quotes from all his works found in almost every genre of medieval literature, and also in the number of poets imitating him in quantitative Latin meter. The most prolific imitator of his Odes was the Bavarian monk, Metellus of Tegernsee, who dedicated his work to the patron saint of Tegernsee Abbey, St Quirinus, around the year 1170. He imitated all Horace's lyrical meters then followed these up with imitations of other meters used by Prudentius and Boethius, indicating that variety, as first modelled by Horace, was considered a fundamental aspect of the lyric genre. The content of his poems however was restricted to simple piety.[102] Among the most successful imitators of Satires and Epistles was another Germanic author, calling himself Sextus Amarcius, around 1100, who composed four books, the first two exemplifying vices, the second pair mainly virtues.[103] Petrarch is a key figure in the imitation of Horace in accentual meters. His verse letters in Latin were modelled on the Epistles and he wrote a letter to Horace in the form of an ode. However he also borrowed from Horace when composing his Italian sonnets. One modern scholar has speculated that authors who imitated Horace in accentual rhythms (including stressed Latin and vernacular languages) may have considered their work a natural sequel to Horace's metrical variety.[104] In France, Horace and Pindar were the poetic models for a group of vernacular authors called the Pléiade, including for example Pierre de Ronsard and Joachim du Bellay. Montaigne made constant and inventive use of Horatian quotes.[105] The vernacular languages were dominant in Spain and Portugal in the sixteenth century, where Horace's influence is notable in the works of such authors as Garcilaso de la Vega, Juan Boscán, Sá de Miranda, Antonio Ferreira and Fray Luis de León, the last writing odes on the Horatian theme beatus ille (happy the man).[106] The sixteenth century in western Europe was also an age of translations (except in Germany, where Horace wasn't translated into the vernacular until well into the seventeenth century). The first English translator was Thomas Drant, who placed translations of Jeremiah and Horace side by side in Medicinable Morall, 1566. That was also the year that the Scot George Buchanan paraphrased the Psalms in a Horatian setting. Ben Jonson put Horace on the stage in 1601 in Poetaster, along with other classical Latin authors, giving them all their own verses to speak in translation. Horace's part evinces the independent spirit, moral earnestness and critical insight that many readers look for in his poems.[107] Age of EnlightenmentEdit During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, or the Age of Enlightenment, neoclassical culture was pervasive. English literature in the middle of that period has been dubbed Augustan. It is not always easy to distinguish Horace's influence during those centuries (the mixing of influences is shown for example in one poet's pseudonym, Horace Juvenal).[nb 26] However a measure of his influence can be found in the diversity of the people interested in his works, both among readers and authors.[108] New editions of his works were published almost yearly. There were three new editions in 1612 (two in Leiden, one in Frankfurt) and again in 1699 (Utrecht, Barcelona, Cambridge). Cheap editions were plentiful and fine editions were also produced, including one whose entire text was engraved by John Pine in copperplate. The poet James Thomson owned five editions of Horace's work and the physician James Douglas had five hundred books with Horace-related titles. Horace was often commended in periodicals such as The Spectator, as a hallmark of good judgement, moderation and manliness, a focus for moralising.[nb 27] His verses offered a fund of mottoes, such as simplex munditiis (elegance in simplicity), splendide mendax (nobly untruthful), sapere aude (dare to know), nunc est bibendum (now is the time to drink), carpe diem (seize the day, perhaps the only one still in common use today).[94] These were quoted even in works as prosaic as Edmund Quincy's A treatise of hemp-husbandry (1765). The fictional hero Tom Jones recited his verses with feeling.[109] His works were also used to justify commonplace themes, such as patriotic obedience, as in James Parry's English lines from an Oxford University collection in 1736:[110] What friendly Muse will teach my Lays To emulate the Roman fire? Justly to sound a Caeser's praise Demands a bold Horatian lyre. Horatian-style lyrics were increasingly typical of Oxford and Cambridge verse collections for this period, most of them in Latin but some like the previous ode in English. John Milton's Lycidas first appeared in such a collection. It has few Horatian echoes[nb 28] yet Milton's associations with Horace were lifelong. He composed a controversial version of Odes 1.5, and Paradise Lost includes references to Horace's 'Roman' Odes 3.1–6 (Book 7 for example begins with echoes of Odes 3.4).[111] Yet Horace's lyrics could offer inspiration to libertines as well as moralists, and neo-Latin sometimes served as a kind of discrete veil for the risqué. Thus for example Benjamin Loveling authored a catalogue of Drury Lane and Covent Garden prostitutes, in Sapphic stanzas, and an encomium for a dying lady "of salacious memory".[112] Some Latin imitations of Horace were politically subversive, such as a marriage ode by Anthony Alsop that included a rallying cry for the Jacobite cause. On the other hand, Andrew Marvell took inspiration from Horace's Odes 1.37 to compose his English masterpiece Horatian Ode upon Cromwell's Return from Ireland, in which subtly nuanced reflections on the execution of Charles I echo Horace's ambiguous response to the death of Cleopatra (Marvell's ode was suppressed in spite of its subtlety and only began to be widely published in 1776). Samuel Johnson took particular pleasure in reading The Odes.[nb 29] Alexander Pope wrote direct Imitations of Horace (published with the original Latin alongside) and also echoed him in Essays and The Rape of the Lock. He even emerged as "a quite Horatian Homer" in his translation of the Iliad.[113] Horace appealed also to female poets, such as Anna Seward (Original sonnets on various subjects, and odes paraphrased from Horace, 1799) and Elizabeth Tollet, who composed a Latin ode in Sapphic meter to celebrate her brother's return from overseas, with tea and coffee substituted for the wine of Horace's sympotic settings: Quos procax nobis numeros, jocosque Musa dictaret? mihi dum tibique Temperent baccis Arabes, vel herbis Pocula Seres[114] What verses and jokes might the bold Muse dictate? while for you and me Arabs flavour our cups with beans Or Chinese with leaves.[115] Horace's Ars Poetica is second only to Aristotle's Poetics in its influence on literary theory and criticism. Milton recommended both works in his treatise of Education.[116] Horace's Satires and Epistles however also had a huge impact, influencing theorists and critics such as John Dryden.[117] There was considerable debate over the value of different lyrical forms for contemporary poets, as represented on one hand by the kind of four-line stanzas made familiar by Horace's Sapphic and Alcaic Odes and, on the other, the loosely structured Pindarics associated with the odes of Pindar. Translations occasionally involved scholars in the dilemmas of censorship. Thus Christopher Smart entirely omitted Odes 4.10 and re-numbered the remaining odes. He also removed the ending of Odes 4.1. Thomas Creech printed Epodes 8 and 12 in the original Latin but left out their English translations. Philip Francis left out both the English and Latin for those same two epodes, a gap in the numbering the only indication that something was amiss. French editions of Horace were influential in England and these too were regularly bowdlerized. Most European nations had their own 'Horaces': thus for example Friedrich von Hagedorn was called The German Horace and Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski The Polish Horace (the latter was much imitated by English poets such as Henry Vaughan and Abraham Cowley). Pope Urban VIII wrote voluminously in Horatian meters, including an ode on gout.[118] 19th century onEdit Horace maintained a central role in the education of English-speaking elites right up until the 1960s.[119] A pedantic emphasis on the formal aspects of language-learning at the expense of literary appreciation may have made him unpopular in some quarters[120] yet it also confirmed his influence—a tension in his reception that underlies Byron's famous lines from Childe Harold (Canto iv, 77):[121] Then farewell, Horace, whom I hated so Not for thy faults, but mine; it is a curse To understand, not feel thy lyric flow, To comprehend, but never love thy verse. William Wordsworth's mature poetry, including the preface to Lyrical Ballads, reveals Horace's influence in its rejection of false ornament[122] and he once expressed "a wish / to meet the shade of Horace...".[nb 30] John Keats echoed the opening of Horace's Epodes 14 in the opening lines of Ode to a Nightingale.[nb 31] The Roman poet was presented in the nineteenth century as an honorary English gentleman. William Thackeray produced a version of Odes 1.38 in which Horace's 'boy' became 'Lucy', and Gerard Manley Hopkins translated the boy innocently as 'child'. Horace was translated by Sir Theodore Martin (biographer of Prince Albert) but minus some ungentlemanly verses, such as the erotic Odes 1.25 and Epodes 8 and 12. Edward Bulwer-Lytton produced a popular translation and William Gladstone also wrote translations during his last days as Prime Minister.[123] Edward FitzGerald's Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, though formally derived from the Persian ruba'i, nevertheless shows a strong Horatian influence, since, as one modern scholar has observed, "...the quatrains inevitably recall the stanzas of the 'Odes', as does the narrating first person of the world-weary, ageing Epicurean Omar himself, mixing sympotic exhortation and 'carpe diem' with splendid moralising and 'memento mori' nihilism."[nb 32] Matthew Arnold advised a friend in verse not to worry about politics, an echo of Odes 2.11, yet later became a critic of Horace's inadequacies relative to Greek poets, as role models of Victorian virtues, observing: "If human life were complete without faith, without enthusiasm, without energy, Horace...would be the perfect interpreter of human life."[124] Christina Rossetti composed a sonnet depicting a woman willing her own death steadily, drawing on Horace's depiction of 'Glycera' in Odes 1.19.5–6 and Cleopatra in Odes 1.37.[nb 33] A. E. Housman considered Odes 4.7, in Archilochian couplets, the most beautiful poem of antiquity[125] and yet he generally shared Horace's penchant for quatrains, being readily adapted to his own elegiac and melancholy strain.[126] The most famous poem of Ernest Dowson took its title and its heroine's name from a line of Odes 4.1, Non sum qualis eram bonae sub regno Cynarae, as well as its motif of nostalgia for a former flame. Kipling wrote a famous parody of the Odes, satirising their stylistic idiosyncrasies and especially the extraordinary syntax, but he also used Horace's Roman patriotism as a focus for British imperialism, as in the story Regulus in the school collection Stalky & Co., which he based on Odes 3.5.[127] Wilfred Owen's famous poem, quoted above, incorporated Horatian text to question patriotism while ignoring the rules of Latin scansion. However, there were few other echoes of Horace in the war period, possibly because war is not actually a major theme of Horace's work.[128]   Bibendum (the symbol of the Michelin tyre company) takes his name from the opening line of Ode 1.37, Nunc est bibendum. Both W.H.Auden and Louis MacNeice began their careers as teachers of classics and both responded as poets to Horace's influence. Auden for example evoked the fragile world of the 1930s in terms echoing Odes 2.11.1–4, where Horace advises a friend not to let worries about frontier wars interfere with current pleasures. And, gentle, do not care to know Where Poland draws her Eastern bow,      What violence is done; Nor ask what doubtful act allows Our freedom in this English house,      Our picnics in the sun.[nb 34] The American poet, Robert Frost, echoed Horace's Satires in the conversational and sententious idiom of some of his longer poems, such as The Lesson for Today (1941), and also in his gentle advocacy of life on the farm, as in Hyla Brook (1916), evoking Horace's fons Bandusiae in Ode 3.13. Now at the start of the third millennium, poets are still absorbing and re-configuring the Horatian influence, sometimes in translation (such as a 2002 English/American edition of the Odes by thirty-six poets)[nb 35] and sometimes as inspiration for their own work (such as a 2003 collection of odes by a New Zealand poet).[nb 36] Horace's Epodes have largely been ignored in the modern era, excepting those with political associations of historical significance. The obscene qualities of some of the poems have repulsed even scholars[nb 37] yet more recently a better understanding of the nature of Iambic poetry has led to a re-evaluation of the whole collection.[129][130] A re-appraisal of the Epodes also appears in creative adaptations by recent poets (such as a 2004 collection of poems that relocates the ancient context to a 1950s industrial town).[nb 38] TranslationsEdit John Dryden successfully adapted three of the Odes (and one Epode) into verse for readers of his own age. Samuel Johnson favored the versions of Philip Francis. Others favor unrhymed translations. In 1964 James Michie published a translation of the Odes—many of them fully rhymed—including a dozen of the poems in the original Sapphic and Alcaic metres. More recent verse translations of the Odes include those by David West (free verse), and Colin Sydenham (rhymed). Ars Poetica was first translated into English by Ben Jonson and later by Lord Byron. Horace's Odes and the Mystery of Do-Re-Mi Stuart Lyons (rhymed) Aris & Phillips ISBN 978-0-85668-790-7 In popular cultureEdit The Oxford Latin Course textbooks use the life of Horace to illustrate an average Roman's life in the late Republic to Early Empire.[131] See alsoEdit  Literature portal  Ancient Rome portal  Biography portal Carpe diem Horatia (gens) List of ancient Romans Otium Prosody (Latin) Translation NotesEdit ^ Quintilian 10.1.96. The only other lyrical poet Quintilian thought comparable with Horace was the now obscure poet/metrical theorist, Caesius Bassus (R. Tarrant, Ancient Receptions of Horace, 280) ^ Translated from Persius' own 'Satires' 1.116–17: "omne vafer vitium ridenti Flaccus amico / tangit et admissus circum praecordia ludit." ^ Quoted by N. Rudd from John Dryden's Discourse Concerning the Original and Progress of Satire, excerpted from W.P.Ker's edition of Dryden's essays, Oxford 1926, vol. 2, pp. 86–87 ^ The year is given in Odes 3.21.1 ("Consule Manlio"), the month in Epistles 1.20.27, the day in Suetonius' biography Vita (R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 7) ^ "No son ever set a finer monument to his father than Horace did in the sixth satire of Book I...Horace's description of his father is warm-hearted but free from sentimentality or exaggeration. We see before us one of the common people, a hard-working, open-minded, and thoroughly honest man of simple habits and strict convictions, representing some of the best qualities that at the end of the Republic could still be found in the unsophisticated society of the Italian municipia" — E. Fraenkel, Horace, 5–6 ^ Odes 3.4.28: "nec (me extinxit) Sicula Palinurus unda"; "nor did Palinurus extinguish me with Sicilian waters". Maecenas' involvement is recorded by Appian Bell. Civ. 5.99 but Horace's ode is the only historical reference to his own presence there, depending however on interpretation. (R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 10) ^ The point is much disputed among scholars and hinges on how the text is interpreted. Epodes 9 for example may offer proof of Horace's presence if 'ad hunc frementis' ('gnashing at this' man i.e. the traitrous Roman ) is a misreading of 'at huc...verterent' (but hither...they fled) in lines describing the defection of the Galatian cavalry, "ad hunc frementis verterunt bis mille equos / Galli canentes Caesarem" (R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 12). ^ Suetonius signals that the report is based on rumours by employing the terms "traditur...dicitur" / "it is reported...it is said" (E. Fraenkel, Horace, 21) ^ According to a recent theory, the three books of Odes were issued separately, possibly in 26, 24 and 23 BC (see G. Hutchinson (2002), Classical Quarterly 52: 517–37) ^ 19 BC is the usual estimate but c. 11 BC has good support too (see R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 18–20 ^ The date however is subject to much controversy with 22–18 BC another option (see for example R. Syme, The Augustan Aristocracy, 379–81 ^ "[Lucilius]...resembles a man whose only concern is to force / something into the framework of six feet, and who gaily produces / two hundred lines before dinner and another two hundred after." – Satire 1.10.59–61 (translated by Niall Rudd, The Satires of Horace and Persius, Penguin Classics 1973, p. 69) ^ There is one reference to Bion by name in Epistles 2.2.60, and the clearest allusion to him is in Satire 1.6, which parallels Bion fragments 1, 2, 16 Kindstrand ^ Epistles 1.17 and 1.18.6–8 are critical of the extreme views of Diogenes and also of social adaptations of Cynic precepts, and yet Epistle 1.2 could be either Cynic or Stoic in its orientation (J. Moles, Philosophy and ethics, p. 177 ^ Satires 1.1.25–26, 74–75, 1.2.111–12, 1.3.76–77, 97–114, 1.5.44, 101–03, 1.6.128–31, 2.2.14–20, 25, 2.6.93–97 ^ Wilfred Owen, Dulce et decorum est (1917), echoes a line from Carmina 3.2.13, "it is sweet and honourable to die for one's country", cited by Stephen Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 340. ^ Propertius published his third book of elegies within a year or two of Horace's Odes 1–3 and mimicked him, for example, in the opening lines, characterizing himself in terms borrowed from Odes 3.1.13 and 3.30.13–14, as a priest of the Muses and as an adaptor of Greek forms of poetry (R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 227) ^ Ovid for example probably borrowed from Horace's Epistle 1.20 the image of a poetry book as a slave boy eager to leave home, adapting it to the opening poems of Tristia 1 and 3 (R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace), and Tristia 2 may be understood as a counterpart to Horace's Epistles 2.1, both being letters addressed to Augustus on literary themes (A. Barchiesi, Speaking Volumes, 79–103) ^ The comment is in Persius 1.114–18, yet that same satire has been found to have nearly 80 reminiscences of Horace; see D. Hooley, The Knotted Thong, 29 ^ The allusion to Venusine comes via Horace's Sermones 2.1.35, while lamp signifies the lucubrations of a conscientious poet. According to Quintilian (93), however, many people in Flavian Rome preferred Lucilius not only to Horace but to all other Latin poets (R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 279) ^ Prudentius sometimes alludesto the Odes in a negative context, as expressions of a secular life he is abandoning. Thus for example male pertinax, employed in Prudentius's Praefatio to describe a willful desire for victory, is lifted from Odes 1.9.24, where it describes a girl's half-hearted resistance to seduction. Elsewhere he borrows dux bone from Odes 4.5.5 and 37, where it refers to Augustus, and applies it to Christ (R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 282 ^ St Jerome, Epistles 22.29, incorporating a quote from 2 'Corinthians 6.14: qui consensus Christo et Belial? quid facit cum psalterio Horatius?(cited by K. Friis-Jensen, Horace in the Middle Ages, 292) ^ Odes 3.3.1–8 was especially influential in promoting the value of heroic calm in the face of danger, describing a man who could bear even the collapse of the world without fear (si fractus illabatur orbis,/impavidum ferient ruinae). Echoes are found in Seneca's Agamemnon 593–603, Prudentius's Peristephanon 4.5–12 and Boethius's Consolatio 1 metrum 4.(R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 283–85) ^ Heiric, like Prudentius, gave Horatian motifs a Christian context. Thus the character Lydia in Odes 3.19.15, who would willingly die for her lover twice, becomes in Heiric's Life of St Germaine of Auxerre a saint ready to die twice for the Lord's commandments (R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 287–88) ^ According to a medieval French commentary on the Satires: "...first he composed his lyrics, and in them, speaking to the young, as it were, he took as subject-matter love affairs and quarrels, banquets and drinking parties. Next he wrote his Epodes, and in them composed invectives against men of a more advanced and more dishonourable age...He next wrote his book about the Ars Poetica, and in that instructed men of his own profession to write well...Later he added his book of Satires, in which he reproved those who had fallen a prey to various kinds of vices. Finally, he finished his oeuvre with the Epistles, and in them, following the method of a good farmer, he sowed the virtues where he had rooted out the vices." (cited by K. Friis-Jensen, Horace in the Middle Ages, 294–302) ^ 'Horace Juvenal' was author of Modern manners: a poem, 1793 ^ see for example Spectator 312, 27 Feb. 1712; 548, 28 Nov. 1712; 618, 10 Nov. 1714 ^ One echo of Horace may be found in line 69: "Were it not better done as others use,/ To sport with Amaryllis in the shade/Or with the tangles of Neaera's hair?", which points to the Neara in Odes 3.14.21 (Douglas Bush, Milton: Poetical Works, 144, note 69) ^ Cfr. James Boswell, "The Life of Samuel Johnson" Aetat. 20, 1729 where Boswell remarked of Johnson that Horace's Odes "were the compositions in which he took most delight." ^ The quote, from Memorials of a Tour of Italy (1837), contains allusions to Odes 3.4 and 3.13 (S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 334–35) ^ "My heart aches, and a drowsy numbness pains / my sense..." echoes Epodes 14.1–4 (S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 335) ^ Comment by S. Harrison, editor and contributor to The Cambridge Companion to Horace (S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 337 ^ Rossetti's sonnet, A Study (a soul), dated 1854, was not published in her own lifetime. Some lines: She stands as pale as Parian marble stands / Like Cleopatra when she turns at bay... (C. Rossetti, Complete Poems, 758 ^ Quoted from Auden's poem Out on the lawn I lie in bed, 1933, and cited by S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 340 ^ Edited by McClatchy, reviewed by S. Harrison, Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2003.03.05 ^ I. Wedde, The Commonplace Odes, Auckland 2003, (cited by S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 345) ^ 'Political' Epodes are 1, 7, 9, 16; notably obscene Epodes are 8 and 12. E. Fraenkel is among the admirers repulsed by these two poems, for another view of which see for example Dee Lesser Clayman, 'Horace's Epodes VIII and XII: More than Clever Obscenity?', The Classical World Vol. 6, No. 1 (September 1975), pp 55–61 JSTOR 4348329 ^ M. Almond, The Works 2004, Washington, cited by S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 346 CitationsEdit ^ a b J. Michie, The Odes of Horace, 14 ^ N. Rudd, The Satires of Horace and Persius, 10 ^ R. Barrow R., The Romans Pelican Books, 119 ^ Fraenkel, Eduard. Horace. Oxford: 1957, p. 1. For the Life of Horace by Suetonius, see: (Vita Horati) ^ Brill's Companion to Horace, edited by Hans-Christian Günther, Brill, 2012, p. 7, Google Book ^ Satires 1.10.30 ^ Epistles 2.1.69 ff. ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 2–3 ^ Satires 2.1.34 ^ T. Frank, Catullus and Horace, 133–34 ^ A. Campbell, Horace: A New Interpretation, 84 ^ Epistles 1.16.49 ^ R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 7 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 3–4 ^ a b V. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and Politics, 24 ^ Satires 1.6.86 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 4–5 ^ a b Satires 1.6 ^ V. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and Politics, 25 ^ Odes 2.7 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 8–9 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 9–10 ^ Satires 1.6.48 ^ a b R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 8 ^ V. Kiernan, Horace, 25 ^ Odes 2.7.10 ^ Epistles 2.2.51–52 ^ V. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and politics ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 14–15 ^ Christopher Brown, in A Companion to the Greek Lyric Poets, D.E. Gerber (ed), Leiden 1997, pages 13–88 ^ Douglas E. Gerber, Greek Iambic Poetry, Loeb Classical Library (1999), Introduction pages i–iv ^ D. Mankin, Horace: Epodes, C.U.P., 8 ^ D. Mankin, Horace: Epodes, 6 ^ R. Conway, New Studies of a Great Inheritance, 49–50 ^ V. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and Politics, 18–19 ^ F. Muecke, The Satires, 109–10 ^ R. Lyne, Augustan Poetry and Society, 599 ^ J. Griffin, Horace in the Thirties, 6 ^ a b R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 10 ^ D. Mankin, Horace: Epodes, 5 ^ Satires 1.5 ^ Odes 3.4.28 ^ Epodes 1 and 9 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 15 ^ Satires 2.7.53 ^ R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 11 ^ V. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and Politics, 61–62 ^ R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 13 ^ Epistles 1.19.35–44 ^ Epistles 1.1.10 ^ V. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and Politics, 149, 153 ^ Epistles 1.7 ^ Epistles 1.20.24–25 ^ R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 14–15 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 17–18 ^ Epistles 2.2 ^ R. Ferri, The Epistles, 121 ^ Odes 4.4 and 4.14 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 23 ^ R Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 17–21 ^ S. Harrison, Style and poetic texture, 262 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 124–25 ^ Gundolf, Friedrich (1916). Goethe. Berlin, Germany: Bondi. ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 106–07 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 74 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 95–96 ^ J. Griffin, Gods and Religion, 182 ^ S. Harrison, Lyric and Iambic, 192 ^ S. Harrison, Lyric and Iambic, 194–96 ^ a b E. Fraenkel, Horace, 32, 80 ^ L. Morgan, Satire, 177–78 ^ S. Harrison, Style and poetic texture, 271 ^ R. Ferri, The Epistles, pp. 121–22 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, p. 309 ^ V. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and Politics, 28 ^ J. Moles, Philosophy and ethics, pp. 165–69, 177 ^ K. J. Reckford, Some studies in Horace's odes on love ^ J. Moles, Philosophy and ethics, p. 168 ^ Santirocco "Unity and Design", Lowrie "Horace's Narrative Odes" ^ Ancona, "Time and the Erotic" ^ J. Moles, Philosophy and ethics, pp. 171–73 ^ Davis "Polyhymnia" and Lowrie "Horace's Narrative Odes" ^ J. Moles, Philosophy and ethics, p. 179 ^ J. Moles, Philosophy and ethics, pp. 174–80 ^ R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 279 ^ V. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and Politics, 176 ^ D. Money, The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 326, 332 ^ R. Lyme, Augustan Poetry and Society, 603 ^ Niall Rudd, The Satires of Horace and Persius, 14 ^ R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 282–83 ^ R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 280 ^ R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 278 ^ R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 280–81 ^ a b R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 283 ^ R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 285–87 ^ R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 288–89 ^ Stuart Lyons, Horace's Odes and the Mystery of Do-Re-Mi ^ Tristia, 4.10.49–50 ^ B. Bischoff, Living with the satirists, 83–95 ^ K. Friis-Jensen,Horace in the Middle Ages, 291 ^ K. Friis-Jensen, Horace in the Middle Ages, 293, 304 ^ K. Friis-Jensen, Horace in the Middle Ages, 296–98 ^ K. Friis-Jensen, Horace in the Middle Ages, 302 ^ K. Friis-Jensen, Horace in the Middle Ages, 299 ^ Michael McGann, Horace in the Renaissance, 306 ^ E. Rivers, Fray Luis de León: The Original Poems ^ M. McGann, Horace in the Renaissance, 306–07, 313–16 ^ D. Money, The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 318, 331, 332 ^ D. Money, The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 322 ^ D. Money, The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 326–27 ^ J. Talbot, A Horatian Pun in Paradise Lost, 21–3 ^ B. Loveling, Latin and English Poems, 49–52, 79–83 ^ D. Money, The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 329–31 ^ E. Tollet, Poems on Several Occasions, 84 ^ Translation adapted from D. Money, The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 329 ^ A. Gilbert, Literary Criticism: Plato to Dryden, 124, 669 ^ W. Kupersmith, Roman Satirists in Seventeenth Century England, 97–101 ^ D. Money, The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 319–25 ^ S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 340 ^ V. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and Politics, x ^ S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 334 ^ D. Money, The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 323 ^ S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 335–37 ^ M. Arnold, Selected Prose, 74 ^ W. Flesch, Companion to British Poetry, 19th Century, 98 ^ S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 339 ^ S. Medcalfe, Kipling's Horace, 217–39 ^ S. Harrison, the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 340 ^ D. Mankin, Horace: Epodes, 6–9 ^ R. McNeill, Horace, 12 ^ Balme, Maurice, Moorwood, James (1996). Oxford Latin Course Part one. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195212037. ReferencesEdit Arnold, Matthew (1970). Selected Prose. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-043058-5. Barrow, R (1949). The Romans. Penguin/Pelican Books. Barchiesi, A (2001). Speaking Volumes: Narrative and Intertext in Ovid and Other Latin Poets. Duckworth. Bischoff, B (1971). "Living with the satirists". Classical Influences on European Culture AD 500–1500. Cambridge University Press. Bush, Douglas (1966). Milton: Poetical Works. Oxford University Press. Campbell, A (1924). Horace: A New Interpretation. London. Conway, R (1921). New Studies of a Great Inheritance. London. Davis, Gregson (1991). Polyhymnia. The Rhetoric to Horatian Lyric Discourse. University of California. Ferri, Rolando (2007). "The Epistles". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-53684-4. Flesch, William (2009). The Facts on File Companion to British Poetry, 19th Century. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-5896-9. Frank, Tenney (1928). Catullus and Horace. New York. Fraenkel, Eduard (1957). Horace. Oxford University Press. Friis-Jensen, Karsten (2007). "Horace in the Middle Ages". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Griffin, Jasper (1993). "Horace in the Thirties". Horace 2000. Ann Arbor. Griffin, Jasper (2007). "Gods and religion". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge university Press. Harrison, Stephen (2005). "Lyric and Iambic". A Companion to Latin Literature. Blackwell Publishing. Harrison, Stephen (2007). "Introduction". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Harrison, Stephen (2007). "Style and poetic texture". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Harrison, Stephen (2007). "The nineteenth and twentieth centuries". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Hooley, D (1997). The Knotted Thong: Structures of Mimesis in Persius. Ann Arbor. Hutchinson, G (2002). "The publication and individuality of Horace's Odes 1–3". Classical Quarterly 52. Kiernan, Victor (1999). Horace: Poetics and Politics. St Martin's Press. Kupersmith, W (1985). Roman Satirists in Seventeenth Century England. Lincoln, Nebraska and London. Loveling, Benjamin (1741). Latin and English Poems, by a Gentleman of Trinity College, Oxford. London. Lowrie, Michèle (1997). Horace's Narrative Odes. Oxford University Press. Lyne, R (1986). "Augustan Poetry and Society". The Oxford History of the Classical World. Oxford University Press. Mankin, David (1995). Horace: Epodes. Cambridge university Press. McNeill, Randall (2010). Horace. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-980511-2. Michie, James (1967). "Horace the Man". The Odes of Horace. Penguin Classics. Moles, John (2007). "Philosophy and ethics". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Money, David (2007). "The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Morgan, Llewelyn (2005). "Satire". A Companion to Latin Literature. Blackwell Publishing. Muecke, Frances (2007). "the Satires". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Nisbet, Robin (2007). "Horace: life and chronology". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Reckford, K. J. (1997). Horatius: the man and the hour. 118. American Journal of Philology. pp. 538–612. Rivers, Elias (1983). Fray Luis de León: The Original Poems. Grant and Cutler. Rossetti, Christina (2001). The Complete Poems. Penguin Books. Rudd, Niall (1973). The Satires of Horace and Persius. Penguin Classics. Santirocco, Matthew (1986). Unity and Design in Horace's Odes. University of North Carolina. Syme, R (1986). The Augustan Aristocracy. Oxford University Press. Talbot, J (2001). "A Horatian Pun in Paradise Lost". Notes and Queries 48 (1). Oxford University Press. Tarrant, Richard (2007). "Ancient receptions of Horace". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Tollet, Elizabeth (1755). Poems on Several Occasions. London. Further readingEdit Davis, Gregson (1991). Polyhymnia the Rhetoric of Horatian Lyric Discourse. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-91030-3. Fraenkel, Eduard (1957). Horace. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Horace (1983). The Complete Works of Horace. Charles E. Passage, trans. New York: Ungar. ISBN 0-8044-2404-7. Johnson, W. R. (1993). Horace and the Dialectic of Freedom: Readings in Epistles 1. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-2868-8. Lyne, R.O.A.M. (1995). Horace: Behind the Public Poetry. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press. ISBN 0-300-06322-9. Lyons, Stuart (1997). Horace's Odes and the Mystery of Do-Re-Mi. Aris & Phillips. Lyons, Stuart (2010). Music in the Odes of Horace. Aris & Phillips. Michie, James (1964). The Odes of Horace. Rupert Hart-Davis. Newman, J.K. (1967). Augustus and the New Poetry. Brussels: Latomus, revue d’études latines. Noyes, Alfred (1947). Horace: A Portrait. New York: Sheed and Ward. Perret, Jacques (1964). Horace. Bertha Humez, trans. New York: New York University Press. Putnam, Michael C.J. (1986). Artifices of Eternity: Horace's Fourth Book of Odes. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-1852-6. Reckford, Kenneth J. (1969). Horace. New York: Twayne. Rudd, Niall, ed. (1993). Horace 2000: A Celebration – Essays for the Bimillennium. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-10490-X. Sydenham, Colin (2005). Horace: The Odes. Duckworth. West, David (1997). Horace The Complete Odes and Epodes. Oxford University Press. Wilkinson, L.P. (1951). Horace and His Lyric Poetry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. External linksEdit Horaceat Wikipedia's sister projects  Definitions from Wiktionary  Media from Wikimedia Commons  Quotations from Wikiquote  Texts from Wikisource  Data from Wikidata Works by Horace at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Horace at Internet Archive Works by Horace at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)   Q. Horati Flacci opera, recensuerunt O. Keller et A. Holder, 2 voll., Lipsiae in aedibus B. G. Teubneri, 1864–9. Common sayings from Horace The works of Horace at The Latin Library Carmina Horatiana All Carmina of Horace in Latin recited by Thomas Bervoets. Selected Poems of Horace Works by Horace at Perseus Digital Library Biography and chronology Horace's works: text, concordances and frequency list SORGLL: Horace, Odes I.22, read by Robert Sonkowsky Translations of several odes in the original meters (with accompaniment). A discussion and comparison of three different contemporary translations of Horace's Odes Some spurious lines in the Ars Poetica? Horati opera, Acronis et Porphyrionis commentarii, varia lectio etc. (latine) Horace MS 1a Ars Poetica and Epistulae at OPenn Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horace&oldid=992281367" Last edited on 4 December 2020, at 13:30 Content is available under CC BY-SA 3.0 unless otherwise noted. This page was last edited on 4 December 2020, at 13:30 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Terms of Use Desktop Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1021	----	View source for Horace - Wikipedia View source for Horace ← Horace Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 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Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ==References== * {{cite book | last=Arnold | first=Matthew | title=Selected Prose | publisher=Penguin Books | year=1970 | isbn=978-0-14-043058-5 | url=https://archive.org/details/selectedprose00arno }} * {{cite book | last=Barrow |first=R | title=The Romans | publisher=Penguin/Pelican Books | year=1949 }} * {{cite book | last=Barchiesi |first=A | title=Speaking Volumes: Narrative and Intertext in Ovid and Other Latin Poets | publisher=Duckworth| year=2001 }} * {{cite book | last=Bischoff |first=B | title=Classical Influences on European Culture AD 500–1500 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=1971 | chapter=Living with the satirists}} * {{cite book | last=Bush |first=Douglas | title=Milton: Poetical Works | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1966 }} * {{cite book | last=Campbell |first=A | title=Horace: A New Interpretation | publisher=London | year=1924 }} * {{cite book | last=Conway |first=R | title=New Studies of a Great Inheritance | publisher=London | year=1921 }} * {{cite book | last=Davis |first=Gregson | title =Polyhymnia. The Rhetoric to Horatian Lyric Discourse | publisher=University of California | year=1991}} * {{cite book | last=Ferri |first=Rolando | title=The Cambridge Companion to Horace | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2007 | chapter=The Epistles|isbn=978-0-521-53684-4 }} * {{cite book | last=Flesch |first=William | title=The Facts on File Companion to British Poetry, 19th Century | publisher=Infobase Publishing | year=2009 |isbn= 978-0-8160-5896-9}} * {{cite book | last=Frank |first=Tenney | title=Catullus and Horace | publisher=New York | year=1928 }} * {{cite book | last=Fraenkel |first=Eduard | title=Horace | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1957 }} * {{cite book | last=Friis-Jensen |first=Karsten | title=The Cambridge Companion to Horace | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2007 | chapter=Horace in the Middle Ages}} * {{cite book | last=Griffin |first=Jasper | title=Horace 2000 | publisher=Ann Arbor | year=1993 | chapter=Horace in the Thirties}} * {{cite book | last=Griffin |first=Jasper | title=The Cambridge Companion to Horace | publisher=Cambridge university Press | year=2007 | chapter=Gods and religion}} * {{cite book | last=Harrison |first=Stephen | title=A Companion to Latin Literature | publisher=Blackwell Publishing | year=2005 | chapter=Lyric and Iambic}} * {{cite book | last=Harrison |first=Stephen | title=The Cambridge Companion to Horace | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2007 | chapter=Introduction}} * {{cite book | last=Harrison |first=Stephen | title=The Cambridge Companion to Horace | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2007 | chapter=Style and poetic texture}} * {{cite book | last=Harrison |first=Stephen | title=The Cambridge Companion to Horace | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2007 | chapter=The nineteenth and twentieth centuries}} * {{cite book | last=Hooley |first=D | title=The Knotted Thong: Structures of Mimesis in Persius | publisher=Ann Arbor | year=1997 }} * {{cite book | last=Hutchinson |first=G | title=Classical Quarterly 52 | year=2002| chapter=The publication and individuality of Horace's Odes 1–3}} * {{cite book | last=Kiernan |first=Victor | title=Horace: Poetics and Politics| publisher=St Martin's Press | year=1999 }} * {{cite book | last=Kupersmith |first=W | title=Roman Satirists in Seventeenth Century England | publisher=Lincoln, Nebraska and London | year=1985 }} * {{cite book | last=Loveling |first=Benjamin | title=Latin and English Poems, by a Gentleman of Trinity College, Oxford | publisher=London | year=1741 }} * {{cite book | last=Lowrie |first=Michèle | title =Horace's Narrative Odes | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1997}} * {{cite book | last=Lyne |first=R | title=The Oxford History of the Classical World | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1986 | chapter=Augustan Poetry and Society}} * {{cite book | last=Mankin |first=David | title=Horace: Epodes| publisher=Cambridge university Press| year=1995 }} * {{cite book | last=McNeill |first=Randall | title=Horace | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2010 |isbn= 978-0-19-980511-2 }} * {{cite book | last=Michie |first=James | title=The Odes of Horace | publisher=Penguin Classics | year=1967 | chapter=Horace the Man}} * {{cite book|last=Moles|first=John|title=The Cambridge Companion to Horace | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2007 | chapter=Philosophy and ethics}} * {{cite book | last=Money |first=David | title=The Cambridge Companion to Horace | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2007 | chapter=The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries}} * {{cite book | last=Morgan |first=Llewelyn | title=A Companion to Latin Literature | publisher=Blackwell Publishing | year=2005 | chapter=Satire}} * {{cite book | last=Muecke |first=Frances | title=The Cambridge Companion to Horace | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2007 | chapter=the Satires}} * {{cite book | last=Nisbet |first=Robin | title=The Cambridge Companion to Horace | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2007 | chapter=Horace: life and chronology}} * {{cite book|last=Reckford|first=K. J.|title=Horatius: the man and the hour|publisher=American Journal of Philology|volume=118|pages=538–612|year=1997}} * {{cite book | last=Rivers |first=Elias | title=Fray Luis de León: The Original Poems| publisher=Grant and Cutler| year=1983 }} * {{cite book | last=Rossetti |first=Christina | title=The Complete Poems | publisher=Penguin Books | year=2001 }} * {{cite book | last=Rudd |first=Niall | title=The Satires of Horace and Persius| publisher=Penguin Classics | year=1973 }} * {{cite book | last=Santirocco |first=Matthew | title =Unity and Design in Horace's Odes | url=https://archive.org/details/unitydesigninhor00sant | url-access=registration | publisher=University of North Carolina | year=1986}} * {{cite book | last=Syme |first=R | title=The Augustan Aristocracy | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1986 }} * {{cite book | last=Talbot |first=J | title=Notes and Queries 48 (1) | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2001 | chapter=A Horatian Pun in Paradise Lost}} * {{cite book | last=Tarrant |first=Richard | title=The Cambridge Companion to Horace | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2007 | chapter=Ancient receptions of Horace}} * {{cite book | last=Tollet |first=Elizabeth | title=Poems on Several Occasions | publisher=London | year=1755 }} Return to Horace. 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en-wikipedia-org-1033	----	Prudentius - Wikipedia Prudentius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman writer For the ninth-century writer and bishop, see Prudentius of Troyes. Aurelius Prudentius Clemens (/pruːˈdɛnʃiəs, -ʃəs/) was a Roman Christian poet, born in the Roman province of Tarraconensis (now Northern Spain) in 348.[1] He probably died in the Iberian Peninsula some time after 405, possibly around 413. The place of his birth is uncertain, but it may have been Caesaraugusta (Saragossa), Tarraco (Tarragona), or Calagurris (Calahorra). Contents 1 Life 2 Poetry 3 Influence 4 Works 4.1 Editions 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Life[edit] Prudentius practiced law with some success, and was twice provincial governor, perhaps in his native country, before the emperor Theodosius I summoned him to court. Towards the end of his life (possibly around 392) Prudentius retired from public life to become an ascetic, fasting until evening and abstaining entirely from animal food; and writing poems, hymns, and controversial works in defence of Christianity.[2] Prudentius later collected the Christian poems written during this period and added a preface, which he himself dated 405. Poetry[edit] The poetry of Prudentius is influenced by early Christian authors, such as Tertullian and St. Ambrose, as well as the Bible and the acts of the martyrs. His hymn Da, puer, plectrum (including "Corde natus ex parentis": "Of the Father's Love Begotten") and the hymn for Epiphany O sola magnarum urbium ("Earth Has Many A Noble City"), both from the Cathemerinon, are still in use today.[1] The allegorical Psychomachia, however, is his most influential work, incorporating as it did elements of both Hellenic epic and inner psychological conflict.[3] It became the inspiration and wellspring of medieval allegorical literature, its influence (according to C. S. Lewis) exceeding its intrinsic artistic merit.[4] In the battle between virtue and vice, full weight is given to the power of Luxuria, “Flowershod and swaying from the wine cup, Every step a fragrance”.[5] With her attendants Beauty and Pleasure, and her weapons of rose-petals and violets, she succeeds in swaying the army of Virtue “in surrender to love”,[6] before succumbing to ultimate defeat. Influence[edit] With his merger of Christianity with classical culture,[7] Prudentius was one of the most popular medieval authors,[8] being aligned as late as the 13th century alongside such figures as Horace and Statius in Henri d'Andeli's Battle of the Seven Arts between Grammar (poetry) and Logic.[9] Works[edit] The list of Prudentius's works given in the preface to his autobiography mentions the hymns, poems against the Priscillianists and against Symmachus and Peristephanon. The Diptychon is not mentioned. The twelve hymns of the Cathemerinon liber ("Daily Round") consist of six for daily use, five for festivals, and one intended for every hour of the day.[10] The specific works include: Liber Cathemerinon -- ("Book in Accordance with the Hours") comprises 12 lyric poems on various times of the day and on church festivals. Liber Peristephanon -- ("Crowns of Martyrdom") contains 14 lyric poems on Spanish and Roman martyrs. Some were suggested to Prudentius by sacred images in churches or by the inscriptions of Pope Damasus I.[10] Apotheosis -- ("Deification") attacks disclaimers of the Trinity and the divinity of Jesus. Hamartigenia -- ("The Origin of Sin") attacks the Gnostic dualism of Marcion and his followers. In this and the Apotheosis, Tertullian is the source of inspiration.[10] Psychomachia -- ("Battle of Souls") describes the struggle of faith, supported by the cardinal virtues, against idolatry and the corresponding vices. Libri contra Symmachum -- ("Books Against Symmachus") oppose the pagan senator Symmachus's requests that the altar of Victory, which had been removed by Gratian,[11] be restored to the Senate house. Dittochæon -- ("The Double Testament") contains 49 quatrains intended as captions for the murals of a basilica in Rome.[11] Editions[edit] Bergman, J. (ed.). Aurelii Prudenti Clementis carmina. Vienna: Hölder-Pichler-Tempsky, 1926. (Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum, 61). Cunningham, M.P. (ed.). Aurelii Prudentii Clementis Carmina. Turnhout: Brepols, 1966 (Corpus Christianorum. Series Latina, 126). Thomson, H.J. (ed. and trans.). Prudentius. 2 vols. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1949-53 (Loeb Classical Library). Tränkle, H. (ed.). Prudentius, Contra Symmachum - Gegen Symmachus. Turnhout: Brepols, 2008. 284 p. (Fontes Christiani, 85). See also[edit] Allegory in the Middle Ages Ausonius Of the Father's Heart Begotten Paulinus of Nola Sidonius Apollinaris Quicumque Christum Quærtis References[edit] ^ a b H. J. Rose, A Handbook of Classical Literature (1967) p. 508 ^ H. J. Rose, A Handbook of Classical Literature (1967) p. 508-9 ^ Gilbert Highet, Juvenal the Satirist (1960) p. 184 ^ C. S. Lewis, The Allegory of Love (2013) p. 83 ^ Helen Waddell, The Wandering Scholars (1968) p. 48 ^ Quoted in B. Machosky, Structures of Appearing (2012) p. 85 ^ J. M. Wallace-Hadrill, The Barbarian West (1964) p. 12 ^ J. Broussard, The Civilisation of Charlemagne (1968) p. 58 ^ Helen Waddell, The Wandering Scholars (1968) p. 141-2 ^ a b c  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Prudentius, Aurelius Clemens". Encyclopædia Britannica. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 518. ^ a b Chisholm 1911. Further reading[edit] Albrecht, M. von. 1997. "Prudentius." In A History of Roman Literature: From Livius Andronicus to Boethius with Special Regard to its Influence on World Literature. Vol. 2. By M. von Albrecht. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. Cameron, A. 2011. The last Pagans of Rome. New York: Oxford Univ. Press. Conybeare, C. 2007. "Sanctum, Lector, Percense Volumen: Snakes, Readers, and the Whole Text in Prudentius’s Hamartigenia." In The Early Christian Book. Edited by W. E. Klingshirn and L. Safran, 225–240. Washington, DC: Catholic Univ. of America Press. Deferrari, Roy J., and James Marshall Campbell. 1932. A Concordance of Prudentius. Cambridge, Mass.: The Mediaeval Academy of America. Dykes, A. 2011. Reading Sin in the World: The Hamartigenia of Prudentius and the Vocation of the Responsible Reader. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Fux, P.-Y. 2003. Les sept passions de Prudence (Peristephanon 2.5.9. 11–14): Introduction générale et commentaire. Fribourg, Switzerland: Éditions Univ. Fribourg Suisse. Fux, Pierre-Yves. 2013. Prudence et les martyrs: hymnes et tragédie (Peristephanon 1.3-4.6-8.10). Commentaire , Paradosis 55, Fribourg. Krollpfeifer, Lydia 2017. Rom bei Prudentius. Dichtung und Weltanschauung in »Contra orationem Symmachi« (=Vertumnus. Berliner Beiträge zur Klassischen Philologie und zu ihren Nachbargebieten. Vol. 12). Goettingen: Edition Ruprecht. Lease, Emory B. 1895. A Syntactic, Stylistic and Metrical Study of Prudentius. Baltimore: The Friedenwald Company. Malamud, M. 1989. A Poetics of Transformation: Prudentius and Classical Mythology. Ithaca, NY, and London: Cornell Univ. Press. Malamud, M. A. 1990. "Making a Virtue of Perversity: The Poetry of Prudentius." In The Imperial Muse: Ramus Essays on Roman Literature of the Empire. Edited by A. J. Boyle, 64–88. Bendigo, Australia: Aureal. Mastrangelo, M. 2008. The Roman Self in Late Antiquity: Prudentius and the Poetics of the Soul. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press O’Daly, G. 2011. "Choosing to be a Christian poet: Prudentius, Praefatio and Cathemerinon 2.37–56." In Noctes Sinenses: Festschrift für Fritz-Heiner Mutschler zum 65. Geburtstag. Edited by A. Heil, M. Korn, and J. Sauer, 373–378. Heidelberg, Germany: Winter. Palmer, A.M. 1989. Prudentius on the Martyrs. Oxford: Clarendon. Pucci, J. 1991. "Prudentius’ Readings of Horace in the Cathemerinon." Latomus 50:677–690. Roberts, M. 1993. Poetry and the Cult of the Martyrs: The Liber Peristephanon of Prudentius. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press. Roberts, M. 2001. "Rome Personified, Rome Epitomized: Representations of Rome in the Poetry of the Early Fifth Century." American Journal of Philology 122:533–565. Witke, C. 1968. "Prudentius and the Tradition of Latin Poetry." Transactions of the American Philological Association 99:509–525. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Prudentius Library resources about Prudentius Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Prudentius Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Works by Prudentius at Perseus Digital Library Works by Prudentius at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Prudentius at Internet Archive Prudentius, Loeb Classical Library, Volume I - Latin and English, H. J. Thomson, 1949 Prudentius, Loeb Classical Library, Volume II - Latin and English, H. J. Thomson, 1953 Liber peristephanon - Latin text. The Catholic Encyclopedia The Christian Classics Ethereal Library Opera Omnia by Migne's Patrologia Latina with analytical indexes v t e Seven virtues in Christian ethics Four cardinal virtues Prudence (Prudentia) Justice (Iustitia) Fortitude (Fortitudo) Temperance (Temperantia) Sources: Plato Republic, Book IV Cicero Ambrose Augustine of Hippo Thomas Aquinas Three theological virtues Faith (Fides) Hope (Spes) Love (Caritas) Sources: Paul the Apostle 1 Corinthians 13 Seven deadly sins Lust (Luxuria) Gluttony (Gula) Greed (Avaritia) Sloth (Acedia) Wrath (Ira) Envy (Invidia) Pride (Superbia) Source: Prudentius, Psychomachia People: Evagrius Ponticus John Cassian Pope Gregory I Dante Alighieri Peter Binsfeld Related concepts Ten Commandments Great Commandment Eschatology Sin Original sin Old Covenant Hamartiology Christian philosophy Authority control BIBSYS: 90600511 BNE: XX880437 BNF: cb120304005 (data) CANTIC: a10322334 CiNii: DA01427044 GND: 118596829 ISNI: 0000 0001 2117 8930 LCCN: n79063458 LNB: 000291029 MBA: b522375b-a5b5-4d7b-84ee-7e34a4473818 NDL: 00525326 NKC: jn19981002051 NLA: 35844871 NLG: 163831 NLI: 000108081 NLP: A11810087 NSK: 000108068 NTA: 069140588 RERO: 02-A000133637 SELIBR: 196747 SNAC: w6r21m6v SUDOC: 028475933 Trove: 1113002 VcBA: 495/55273 VIAF: 100010336 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79063458 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prudentius&oldid=996457744" Categories: Romans from Hispania Christian writers Christian poets 4th-century Romans 5th-century Romans 4th-century Christians 5th-century Christians 4th-century Latin writers 5th-century Latin writers 4th-century Roman poets 5th-century Roman poets 5th-century deaths Aurelii Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLP identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers AC with 25 elements Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikiquote Wikisource Languages Asturianu Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina Magyar Mirandés Nederlands Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 26 December 2020, at 18:55 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1038	----	Lutetia - Wikipedia Lutetia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman city, predecessor of Paris For other uses, see Lutetia (disambiguation). "Lutecia" redirects here. For a car also known as Lutecia, see Renault Clio. For the municipality in Brazil, see Lutécia. For the compound of the element lutetium sometimes called lutecia, see Lutetium(III) oxide. This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in French. (July 2016) Click [show] for important translation instructions. View a machine-translated version of the French article. Machine translation like DeepL or Google Translate is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Wikipedia. Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article. You must provide copyright attribution in the edit summary accompanying your translation by providing an interlanguage link to the source of your translation. A model attribution edit summary Content in this edit is translated from the existing French Wikipedia article at [[:fr:Lutèce]]; see its history for attribution. You should also add the template {{Translated|fr|Lutèce}} to the talk page. For more guidance, see Wikipedia:Translation. Lutetia Maps of Paris (Paris sous les Romains) from Histoire et Geographie: Atlas General by Paul Vidal de La Blache Location within France Location Paris, France Coordinates 48°51′N 2°21′E / 48.85°N 2.35°E / 48.85; 2.35Coordinates: 48°51′N 2°21′E / 48.85°N 2.35°E / 48.85; 2.35 Type Roman city History Periods Roman Republic to Roman Empire A map of Gaul in the 1st century BC, showing the location of Lutetia and relative positions of the Celtic tribes. The Roman city of Lutetia (also Lutetia Parisiorum in Latin, in French Lutèce) was the predecessor of present-day Paris. Impressive monumental remains of the ancient city are visible in situ. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Gallic origins 3 Roman Lutetia 4 Remains 5 May 2006 findings 6 Legacy 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links Etymology[edit] The term Lutetia [l̪ˠʊˈt̪ɛ.t̪i.a] derives from Latin meaning, "place near a swamp". The name may contain the Celtic root *luco-t-, which means "mouse" and -ek(t)ia, meaning "the mice" and which is contained in the Breton word logod, the Welsh llygod, and the Irish luch.[1] Alternatively, it may derive from another Celtic root, *luto- or *luteuo-, which means "marsh" or "swamp" and which survives today in the Scottish Gaelic lòn ("pool, meadow") and the Breton loudour ("dirty").[2] Gallic origins[edit] Roman city wall of Paris, 4th century Archaeological excavations between 1994 and 2005 show that the location of Gallic Lutetia lay in Nanterre, a large area of proto-urbanisation of several main streets and hundreds of houses over 15 hectares in the suburbs of Paris, not far from the future location of Lutetia.[3] In 52 BC, a year or so before the end of Julius Caesar's Gallic Wars, the Battle of Lutetia was fought with the local Parisii tribe.[4] However the garrison led by Vercingetorix's lieutenant Camulogenus, whose army camped on Mons Lutetius, fell to the Roman military forces led by Titus Labienus, one of Caesar's generals who captured and burned the stronghold. The Romans also crushed the Gauls at nearby Melun and took control of Lutetia. Roman Lutetia[edit] Model of the "pilier des nautes" 1st century AD, Musee Cluny The Roman city[5] was centred on the hill on the south bank of the river (the Montagne Sainte-Geneviève), as the low-lying plain near the river was easily flooded[6] though still initially suitable for farming.[5] The regular Roman street plan of Lutetia was established with the north–south axis, possibly dictated by the need to cross the marshy riverbanks in the shortest possible distance, but also aligning with the standard Roman orientation for a cardo maximus. Two main routes converged at the bridgehead over the Seine: one road coming from Spain (today's Rue Saint-Jacques) via Orléans was used as the main axis (cardo maximus), and the other road from Rome (today's rue Galande and further on rue Mouffetard) via Lyon. Dendrochronological study of wooden pilings beneath the lowest stratum of the Roman north–south axis date the road's construction after 4 AD, more than fifty years after the Roman pacification of the region. On the north bank the Rue St-Martin continues the Roman main axis (cardo maximus). The street plan and the boundaries of the main monuments—the forum at the top of the hill, theatre, baths—show that the Roman city was laid out with blocks or insulae of 300 Roman feet. The development of the city began under Augustus and was well advanced in the early 1st century AD when the elaborate Pilier des Nautes (pillar of the boatmen) was erected by a corporation of local river merchants and sailors (nautes) and dedicated to Tiberius and to several gods, showing that there was an important port on the river. Major public works and monuments were constructed in the 2nd century AD.[7] Lutetia expanded with a population estimated at around 8,000 but did not have a great deal of political importance—the capital of its province, Lugdunensis Senona, was Agedincum (modern Sens, Yonne). An aqueduct 26 km in length, with a flow rate estimated at 2,000 cubic metres a day, provided the city with spring water collected from several points. To bridge the Bièvre valley at Arcueil-Cachan, a bridge was required, whose piers and ruined arches, still discernible, gave rise to the toponym Arcueil. In the 3rd century St Denis became the city's first bishop and in about 250 AD he and two companions were arrested and decapitated on the hill of Mons Mercurius thereafter known as Mons Martyrum (Martyrs' Hill, or Montmartre) where Roman foundations have been found. After a barbarian attack in 275 by the Franks and Alemanni that destroyed much of the south bank portions of the city, the population moved to the island and a surrounding wall was built on the Île de la Cité from large stones taken from damaged structures.[6] The city on the south bank along with the main public buildings including baths, the theatres and the amphitheatre were gradually abandoned. In 357–358 Julian II, as Caesar of the Western empire and general of the Gallic legions, moved the Roman capital of Gaul from Trier to Paris which, after defeating the Franks in a major battle at Strasbourg in 357, he defended against Germanic invaders coming from the north. He was proclaimed emperor by his troops in 360 in Lutetia. Later Valentinian I resided in Lutetia for a brief period (365–366).[8] Lutetia was gradually renamed Paris,[9] taking its name from the Parisii. The name had already been used for centuries as an adjective ("Parisiacus"). The legend of the Breton city of Ys suggests a different, if less likely, origin. Model of forum of Lutetia, Musée Carnavalet Aqueduct in Paris 14e, rue de l'Empereur-Valentinien Remains[edit] Remains of the ancient city are mainly buried below ground although many of these are gradually being discovered. Those visible include: The theatre, Arènes de Lutèce in a small park on high ground in the Latin Quarter of the Left Bank, tucked behind apartment blocks. In the 1st century AD, built into the slope of the hillside outside the Roman city, it was one of the largest such structures in Gaul. It could once seat 15,000 people and was used also as an amphitheatre to show gladiatorial combats. Public thermal baths, Thermes de Cluny. Now the Musée de Cluny, the existing building is only a part of the original covering several hectares that stretched from Boulevard Saint-Germain to Rue des Ecoles and Boulevard Saint-Michel. Built at the end of the 1st/beginning of the 2nd century AD at the corner of the cardo and decumanus. First probable destruction during the invasion by the Franks and Alamans in 275. The frigidarium, with intact vault, and the caldarium are the main remaining rooms which were originally clad internally with mosaics, marble or paintings. The northern side was occupied by two gymnasia and the centre of the facade on this side was occupied by a monumental fountain. Underground is a set of cellars and vaulted galleries where the drain for emptying the frigidarium pool is visible.[10] Water flowed out through a drain that encircled the baths and ran into a main drain located under Boulevard Saint-Michel. The Archaeological Crypt under the Notre-Dame forecourt including a section of the quay wall of the ancient port, a public bath with hypocaust heating, part of the city wall from the beginning of the 4th century. The Aqueduct[11] Wall of the forum Many artifacts from Lutetia have been recovered and are on display at the Musée Carnavalet. The Arènes de Lutèce in the 5th arrondissement of Paris Model of the Arènes de Lutèce Thermes de Cluny – caldarium May 2006 findings[edit] In May 2006, a Roman road was found during expansion of the University of Pierre and Marie Curie campus. Remains of private houses dating from the reign of Augustus (27 BC – 14 AD) and containing heated floors were found. Everyday items like flowerpots, bronze chains, ceramics, and drawer handles were found. The owners were wealthy enough to own baths found in one of the homes, a status symbol among Roman citizens. Legacy[edit] Several scientific discoveries have been named after Lutetia. The element lutetium was named in honor of its discovery in a Paris laboratory, and the characteristic building material of the city of Paris—Lutetian Limestone—derives from the ancient name. The "Lutetian" is, in the geologic timescale, a stage or age in the Eocene Epoch. The asteroid 21 Lutetia, discovered in 1852 by Hermann Goldschmidt, is named after the city. Lutetia is featured in the French comic series The Adventures of Asterix, most notably in Asterix and the Golden Sickle, Asterix and the Banquet and Asterix and the Laurel Wreath. References[edit] ^ La langue gauloise, Pierre-Yves Lambert, éditions errance 1994. ^ Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise, Xavier Delamarre, éditions errance 2003. ^ Nanterre et les Parisii : Une capitale au temps des Gaulois ?, Antide Viand, ISBN 978-2757201626 ^ Julius Caesar: De Bello Gallico, VII 62 ^ a b "Paris, a Roman city". www.paris.culture.fr. ^ a b Fleury, M., "Lutetia Parisiorum", The Princeton encyclopedia of classical sites, (Richard Stillwell, William L.MacDonald, and Marian Holland McAlister,eds.) Princeton, N.J. Princeton University Press. 1976 ^ 2 Roman and Medieval Paris, Clifton Ellis, PhD Architectural History, Texas Tech College of Architecture - TTU College of Architecture ^ Goudineau, Christian, "Lutetia" in Dictionary of Antiquity under the direction of Jean Leclant. PUF. 2005 ^ The City of Antiquity Archived 2008-12-12 at the Wayback Machine, official history of Paris by The Paris Convention and Visitors Bureau ^ Alain Bouet and Florence Saragoza, "Les Thermes de Cluny", the Archeologia files, no. 323, p. 25 ^ "Roman aqueducts: Paris (country)". www.romanaqueducts.info. Further reading[edit] Philippe de Carbonnières, Lutèce: Paris ville romaine, collection Découvertes Gallimard (no. 330), série Archéologie. Éditions Gallimard, 1997, ISBN 2-07-053389-1. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lutetia. "Paris, a Roman city" Arènes de Lutèce - Paris Parks & Gardens v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment 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en-wikipedia-org-104	----	Imperator - Wikipedia Imperator From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Rank in ancient Rome "Imperator Augustus" and "Imperatrix" redirect here. For the first Roman emperor, see Augustus. For the racehorse, see Imperatrix (horse). For the monarchic title of a head of state, see Emperor. For other uses, see Imperator (disambiguation). Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e The Latin word "imperator" derives from the stem of the verb imperare, meaning 'to order, to command'. It was originally employed as a title roughly equivalent to commander under the Roman Republic. Later it became a part of the titulature of the Roman Emperors as part of their cognomen. The English word emperor derives from imperator via Old French: Empereür. The Roman emperors themselves generally based their authority on multiple titles and positions, rather than preferring any single title. Nevertheless, imperator was used relatively consistently as an element of a Roman ruler's title throughout the principate and the dominate. Contents 1 Imperatores in the ancient Roman Kingdom 2 Imperatores in the Roman Republic 3 Imperator as an imperial title 4 Post-Roman use 5 Imperatrix 6 Derivatives 7 References 8 Bibliography Imperatores in the ancient Roman Kingdom[edit] When Rome was ruled by kings,[1] to be able to rule, the king had to be invested with the full regal authority and power. So, after the comitia curiata, held to elect the king, the king also had to be conferred the imperium.[2] Imperatores in the Roman Republic[edit] In Roman Republican literature and epigraphy, an imperator was a magistrate with imperium.[3] But also, mainly in the later Roman Republic and during the late Republican civil wars, imperator was the honorific title assumed by certain military commanders. After an especially great victory, an army's troops in the field would proclaim their commander imperator, an acclamation necessary for a general to apply to the Senate for a triumph. After being acclaimed imperator, the victorious general had a right to use the title after his name until the time of his triumph, where he would relinquish the title as well as his imperium. Since a triumph was the goal of many politically ambitious Roman commanders, Roman Republican history is full of cases where legions were bribed to call their commander imperator. The title of imperator was given in 90 BC to Lucius Julius Caesar, in 84 BC to Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, in 60 BC to Gaius Julius Caesar, relative of the previously mentioned Lucius Julius Caesar, in the 50s to Gaius Julius Caesar (in Gaul), in 45 BC again to Gaius Julius Caesar, in 44 BC to Marcus Iunius Brutus, and in 41 BC to Lucius Antonius (younger brother and ally of the more famous Marcus Antonius). In 15 AD Germanicus was also imperator during the empire (see below) of his adoptive father Tiberius.[4] Imperator as an imperial title[edit] After Augustus established the Roman Empire, the title imperator was generally restricted to the emperor, though in the early years of the empire it would occasionally be granted to a member of his family. As a permanent title, imperator was used as a praenomen by the Roman emperors and was taken on accession. After the reign of Tiberius, the act of being proclaimed imperator was transformed into the act of imperial accession. In fact, if a general was acclaimed by his troops as imperator, it would be tantamount to a declaration of rebellion against the ruling emperor. At first the term continued to be used in the Republican sense as a victory title but attached to the de facto monarch and head of state, rather than the actual military commander. The title followed the emperor's name along with the number of times he was acclaimed as such, for example IMP V ("imperator five times"). In time it became the title of the de facto monarch, pronounced upon (and synonymous with) their assumption. As a title imperator was generally translated into Greek as autokrator ("one who rules himself," also sometimes used as a translation for Roman dictators.) This was necessarily imprecise as it lost the nuances of Latin political thought contrasting imperium with other forms of public authority. Nevertheless, this title (along with sebastos for augustus) was used in Greek-language texts for Roman emperors from the establishment of the empire. In the east, the title continued to be used into the Byzantine period, though to a lesser, and much more ceremonial, extent. In most Byzantine writings, the Greek translation "Autokrator" is preferred, but "Imperator" makes an appearance in Constantine IV's mid 7th century mosaic in the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe, and on various 9th century lead seals. Post-Roman use[edit] After the Roman empire collapsed in the West in the 5th century, Latin continued to be used as the language of learning and diplomacy for some centuries. The Roman emperors of this period (referred to by modern historians as the Byzantine emperors) were referred to as imperatores in Latin texts, while the word basileus (king) was used in Greek. After 800, the imperator was used (in conjunction with augustus) as a formal Latin title in succession by the Carolingian and German Holy Roman Emperors until 1806 and by the Austrian Emperors until 1918. In medieval Spain, the title imperator was used under a variety of circumstances from the ninth century onwards, but its usage peaked, as a formal and practical title, between 1086 and 1157. It was primarily used by the Kings of León and Castile, but it also found currency in the Kingdom of Navarre and was employed by the Counts of Castile and at least one Duke of Galicia. It signalled at various points the king's equality with the Byzantine Emperor and Holy Roman Emperor, his rule by conquest or military superiority, his rule over several people groups ethnic or religious, and his claim to suzerainty over the other kings of the peninsula, both Christian and Muslim. Beginning in 1077 Alfonso instituted the use of the style ego Adefonsus imperator totius Hispaniae ("I, Alfonso, emperor of all Spain") and its use soon became regular.[5] This title was used throughout the period 1079–81, which represents the peak of his imperial pretensions before his capture of the city of Toledo, ancient capital of the Visigoths. In 1080 he introduced the form ego Adefonsus Hispaniarum imperator ("I, Alfonso, emperor of the Spains"), which he used again in 1090. His most elaborate imperial title was ego Adefonsus imperator totius Castelle et Toleto necnon et Nazare seu Alave ("I, Alfonso, emperor of all Castile and of Toledo also and of Nájera, or Álava").[6] After the Ottoman Empire conquered both the Balkan peninsula (Rumeli in Turkish meaning "lands of Rome") and Constantinople, the Turkish ruler acclaimed himself Caesar of Rome (sultan-ı iklim-i Rûm). In the 15th century Bayezid II established diplomatic relations with some Christian European states, and sent a document to the King of Poland in which he used the titles Sultan Dei gratia Asie, Grecie etc. İmperator Maximus ("with help of God, emperor of Asia and Greece"). Like his predecessor, Selim I titled himself imperator in diplomatic correspondence (per la Divina favente clementia Grande Imperator di Constantinopoli, di Asia, Europa, Persia, Soria et Egipto et Arabia et de li mari etc.) due to his military successes.[7] In 1721, as part of his drive to both westernize the Russian Empire and assert the monarchy's claim that it was the successor to the Byzantine emperors, Peter the Great imported the Latin word directly into Russian and styled himself imperator (Императоръ). The style remained the official one for all his successors down to the end of the Russian Empire in 1917, though the Russian rulers continued to be colloquially known as tsar (a word derived from "Caesar"), which they had begun to use c. 1480 to likewise assert their contention to be the heirs to the Byzantine state (see: Third Rome.) Reigning female Russian rulers were styled imperatritsa. Signature of King Edward VIII. The "R" and "I" after his name indicate Rex ("king") and Imperator ("emperor") respectively. German East African Roupie, 1890. Coins of European Colonial Empires were sometimes inscribed in Latin, such as this colonial coin featuring Wilhelm II of Germany. Napoleon famously adopted the title for himself and after the Napoleonic wars, the number of emperors in Europe proliferated, but Latin began to fall out of use for all but the most ceremonial situations. Still, in those rare cases in which a European monarch's Latin titles were used, imperator was used as a translation for emperor. Famously, after assuming the title Emperor of India, British monarchs would follow their signatures with the initials RI, standing for rex imperator ("king-emperor"). George VI of the United Kingdom was the last European ruler to claim an imperial title; when he abdicated as Emperor of India in 1948, the last active use of the title imperator in the West ceased. It was thereafter used only historically, or as a Latin translation for certain continuing titles of non-European cultures, such as Japan. The imperial title was also adopted by Jean-Bédel Bokassa, during his reign as the emperor of the short-lived Central African Empire (1976–79). Imperatrix[edit] The term imperatrix seems not to have been used in Ancient Rome to indicate the consort of an imperator or later of an Emperor. In the early years of the Roman Empire there was no standard title or honorific for the Emperor's wife, even the "Augusta" honorific was rather exceptionally granted, and not exclusively to wives of living emperors. It is not clear when the feminine form of the Latin term imperator originated or was used for the first time. It usually indicates a reigning monarch, and is thus used in the Latin version of titles of modern reigning Empresses. Likewise, when Fortuna is qualified "imperatrix mundi" in the Carmina Burana there's no implication of any type of consort — the term describes (the Goddess or personified) Fortune "ruling the world". In Christian context, Imperatrix became a laudatory address to the Virgin Mary, in diverse forms at least since the Middle Ages — for example, she is sometimes called "Imperatrix angelorum" ("ruler of the angels"). Derivatives[edit] Imperator is the root of most Romance languages' word for emperor. It is the root of the English word "emperor", which entered the language via the French empereur, while related adjectives like "imperial" were imported into English directly from Latin. References[edit] ^ Rex.A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, John Murray, London, 1875. ^ LacusCurtius • Roman Law — Auctor (Smith's Dictionary, 1875) ^ Rivero (2006). ^ Tacitus, The Annals 1.58 ^ Reilly 1988, 137. ^ García Gallo 1945, 214. ^ Kołodziejczyk, Dariusz. "Khan, caliph, tsar and imperator: the multiple identities of the Ottoman sultan". cambridge.org. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 2012. Check date values in: |access-date= (help) Bibliography[edit] Combès, Robert (1966). Imperator : Recherches sur l’emploi et la signification du titre d’Imperator dans la Rome républicaine. Paris: Presses universitaires de France; Publications de la Faculté des Lettres et Sciences humaines de l’Université de Montpellier. Archived from the original on 2010-12-30. 489 p. Rivero, Pilar (2006). Imperator Populi Romani: una aproximación al poder republicano. Zaragoza: Institución Fernando el Católico. 514 p. (Biblioteca virtual at http://ifc.dpz.es). v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns 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Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films v t e Highest military ranks General officer Flag officer Air officer Ancient Autokrator Beylerbey Grand Constable of France Domestic of the Schools Dux bellorum Grand Domestic Imperator Ispahsalar Magister militum Megas doux Polemarch 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en-wikipedia-org-1055	----	File:Horatii Flacci Sermonum.tif - Wikipedia File:Horatii Flacci Sermonum.tif From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata Size of this JPG preview of this TIF file: 412 × 600 pixels. Other resolutions: 165 × 240 pixels | 329 × 480 pixels | 527 × 768 pixels | 703 × 1,024 pixels | 4,152 × 6,046 pixels. Original file ‎(4,152 × 6,046 pixels, file size: 72.03 MB, MIME type: image/tiff) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Summary DescriptionHoratii Flacci Sermonum.tif Latina: Horatii Flacci Sermonum Date 1577 Source Available in the BEIC digital library and uploaded in partnership with BEIC Foundation. Author Horatius Flaccus, Quintus Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse This work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 70 years or fewer. This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published (or registered with the U.S. Copyright Office) before January 1, 1925. This file has been identified as being free of known restrictions under copyright law, including all related and neighboring rights. https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/PDMCreative Commons Public Domain Mark 1.0falsefalse File history Click on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensions User Comment current 11:56, 28 July 2016 4,152 × 6,046 (72.03 MB) Marcella Medici (BEIC) User created page with UploadWizard File usage The following pages on the English Wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Horace Global file usage The following other wikis use this file: Usage on az.wikiquote.org Horatsi Usage on ba.wikipedia.org Гораций Usage on bg.wikiquote.org Хораций Usage on br.wikiquote.org Horatius Usage on ca.wikipedia.org Josep Pla i Casadevall Horaci Usage on cy.wikipedia.org Horas Usage on de.wikipedia.org Horaz Usage on de.wikiquote.org Horaz Usage on el.wikiquote.org Οράτιος Usage on et.wikiquote.org Horatius Usage on eu.wikipedia.org Horazio Usage on fi.wikipedia.org Horatius Usage on fr.wikipedia.org Horace Usage on fr.wikiquote.org Horace Usage on he.wikipedia.org הורטיוס Usage on hi.wikipedia.org होरेस Usage on hu.wikiquote.org Horatius Usage on hy.wikiquote.org Հորացիոս Usage on is.wikipedia.org Hóratíus Usage on is.wikiquote.org Horatius Usage on it.wikipedia.org Quinto Orazio Flacco Usage on ja.wikipedia.org ホラティウス Usage on ja.wikiquote.org ホラティウス Usage on ka.wikipedia.org ჰორაციუსი Usage on kk.wikipedia.org Гораций Usage on la.wikipedia.org Sermones (Horatius) Usage on la.wikiquote.org Quintus Horatius Flaccus Usage on lt.wikiquote.org Horacijus Usage on no.wikipedia.org Horats Usage on no.wikiquote.org Horats Usage on oc.wikipedia.org Oraci Usage on pl.wikiquote.org Horacy Usage on pt.wikipedia.org Horácio Usage on pt.wikiquote.org Horácio Usage on roa-tara.wikipedia.org Quinde Orazio Flacco Usage on ro.wikipedia.org Quintus Horatius Flaccus Usage on ro.wikiquote.org Quintus Horatius Flaccus Usage on ru.wikipedia.org Гораций Usage on sc.wikipedia.org Quinto Orazio Flacco Usage on sh.wikipedia.org Kvint Horacije Flak Usage on sk.wikipedia.org Horatius Usage on sk.wikiquote.org Horatius Usage on sl.wikiquote.org Horacij Usage on stq.wikipedia.org Quintus Horatius Flaccus Usage on sv.wikiquote.org Horatius Usage on wa.wikipedia.org Horace Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. If the file has been modified from its original state, some details may not fully reflect the modified file. Author Zeutschel Omniscan 11 Width 4,152 px Height 6,046 px Bits per component 8 8 8 Compression scheme Uncompressed Pixel composition RGB Image data location 222,860 Orientation Normal Number of components 3 Number of rows per strip 6,046 Bytes per compressed strip 75,308,976 Horizontal resolution 400 dpi Vertical resolution 400 dpi Data arrangement chunky format Software used ImageGear Version: 13.07.000 File change date and time 13:25, 5 April 2013 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horatii_Flacci_Sermonum.tif" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces File Talk Variants Views Read View on Commons More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Upload file Special pages Printable version Page information Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-105	----	W. H. Auden - Wikipedia W. H. Auden From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from W.H.Auden) Jump to navigation Jump to search Anglo-American poet W. H. Auden Auden in 1939 Born Wystan Hugh Auden (1907-02-21)21 February 1907 York, Yorkshire, England Died 29 September 1973(1973-09-29) (aged 66) Vienna, Austria Citizenship British (birth); American (1946) Education M.A. English language and literature Alma mater Christ Church, Oxford Occupation Poet Spouse(s) Erika Mann (unconsummated marriage, 1935, to provide her with a British passport) Relatives George Augustus Auden (father) Constance Rosalie Bicknell Auden (mother) John Bicknell Auden (brother) George Bernard Auden (brother) Wystan Hugh Auden (/ˈwɪstən ˈhjuː ˈɔːdən/; 21 February 1907 – 29 September 1973) was an Anglo-American poet. Auden's poetry was noted for its stylistic and technical achievement, its engagement with politics, morals, love, and religion, and its variety in tone, form, and content. Some of his best known poems are about love, such as "Funeral Blues"; on political and social themes, such as "September 1, 1939" and "The Shield of Achilles"; on cultural and psychological themes, such as The Age of Anxiety; and on religious themes such as "For the Time Being" and "Horae Canonicae".[1][2][3] He was born in York and grew up in and near Birmingham in a professional middle-class family. He attended English independent (or public) schools and studied English at Christ Church, Oxford. After a few months in Berlin in 1928–29, he spent five years (1930–35) teaching in British private preparatory schools, then travelled to Iceland and China in order to write books about his journeys. In 1939 he moved to the United States and became an American citizen in 1946, retaining his British citizenship. He taught from 1941 to 1945 in American universities, followed by occasional visiting professorships in the 1950s. From 1947 to 1957 he wintered in New York and summered in Ischia; from 1958 until the end of his life he wintered in New York (in Oxford in 1972–73) and summered in Kirchstetten, Lower Austria. He came to wide public attention with his first book Poems at the age of twenty-three in 1930; it was followed in 1932 by The Orators. Three plays written in collaboration with Christopher Isherwood between 1935 and 1938 built his reputation as a left-wing political writer. Auden moved to the United States partly to escape this reputation, and his work in the 1940s, including the long poems "For the Time Being" and "The Sea and the Mirror", focused on religious themes. He won the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry for his 1947 long poem The Age of Anxiety, the title of which became a popular phrase describing the modern era.[4] From 1956 to 1961 he was Professor of Poetry at Oxford; his lectures were popular with students and faculty, and served as the basis for his 1962 prose collection The Dyer's Hand. Auden and Isherwood maintained a lasting but intermittent sexual friendship from around 1927 to 1939, while both had briefer but more intense relations with other men.[4] In 1939, Auden fell in love with Chester Kallman and regarded their relationship as a marriage, but this ended in 1941 when Kallman refused to accept the faithful relations that Auden demanded. However, the two maintained their friendship, and from 1947 until Auden's death they lived in the same house or apartment in a non-sexual relationship, often collaborating on opera libretti such as that of The Rake's Progress, to music by Igor Stravinsky. Auden was a prolific writer of prose essays and reviews on literary, political, psychological, and religious subjects, and he worked at various times on documentary films, poetic plays, and other forms of performance. Throughout his career he was both controversial and influential, and critical views on his work ranged from sharply dismissive—treating him as a lesser figure than W. B. Yeats and T. S. Eliot—to strongly affirmative, as in Joseph Brodsky's statement that he had "the greatest mind of the twentieth century". After his death, his poems became known to a much wider public than during his lifetime through films, broadcasts, and popular media. Contents 1 Life 1.1 Childhood 1.2 Education 1.3 Britain and Europe, 1928–1938 1.4 United States and Europe, 1939–1973 2 Work 2.1 Early work, 1922–1939 2.1.1 Up to 1930 2.1.2 1931–35 2.1.3 1936–39 2.2 Middle period, 1940–1957 2.2.1 1940–1946 2.2.2 1947–1957 2.3 Later work, 1958–1973 2.4 Reputation and influence 3 Published works 4 References 5 Further reading 6 External links Life[edit] Childhood[edit] Auden's birthplace in York Auden was born on Bootham in York, Yorkshire, England, to George Augustus Auden (1872–1957), a physician, and Constance Rosalie Auden (née Bicknell; 1869–1941), who had trained (but never served) as a missionary nurse.[5] He was the third of three sons; the eldest, George Bernard Auden (1900–1978), became a farmer, while the second, John Bicknell Auden (1903–1991), became a geologist.[6] The Audens were minor gentry with a strong clerical tradition, originally of Rowley Regis, later of Horninglow, Staffordshire.[7] Auden, whose grandfathers were both Church of England clergymen,[8] grew up in an Anglo-Catholic household that followed a "High" form of Anglicanism, with doctrine and ritual resembling those of Roman Catholicism.[9][4] He traced his love of music and language partly to the church services of his childhood.[10] He believed he was of Icelandic descent, and his lifelong fascination with Icelandic legends and Old Norse sagas is evident in his work.[11] His family moved to Homer Road in Solihull, near Birmingham, in 1908,[10] where his father had been appointed the School Medical Officer and Lecturer (later Professor) of Public Health. Auden's lifelong psychoanalytic interests began in his father's library. From the age of eight he attended boarding schools, returning home for holidays.[12] His visits to the Pennine landscape and its declining lead-mining industry figure in many of his poems; the remote decaying mining village of Rookhope was for him a "sacred landscape", evoked in a late poem, "Amor Loci".[13][14] Until he was fifteen he expected to become a mining engineer, but his passion for words had already begun. He wrote later: "words so excite me that a pornographic story, for example, excites me sexually more than a living person can do."[15][16] Education[edit] Auden's School - Hindhead Auden attended St Edmund's School, Hindhead, Surrey, where he met Christopher Isherwood, later famous in his own right as a novelist.[17] At thirteen he went to Gresham's School in Norfolk; there, in 1922, when his friend Robert Medley asked him if he wrote poetry, Auden first realised his vocation was to be a poet.[9] Soon after, he "discover(ed) that he (had) lost his faith" (through a gradual realisation that he had lost interest in religion, not through any decisive change of views).[18] In school productions of Shakespeare, he played Katherina in The Taming of the Shrew in 1922,[19] and Caliban in The Tempest in 1925, his last year at Gresham's.[20] His first published poems appeared in the school magazine in 1923.[21] Auden later wrote a chapter on Gresham's for Graham Greene's The Old School: Essays by Divers Hands (1934).[22] In 1925 he went up to Christ Church, Oxford, with a scholarship in biology; he switched to English by his second year, and was introduced to Old English poetry through the lectures of J. R. R. Tolkien. Friends he met at Oxford include Cecil Day-Lewis, Louis MacNeice, and Stephen Spender; these four were commonly though misleadingly identified in the 1930s as the "Auden Group" for their shared (but not identical) left-wing views. Auden left Oxford in 1928 with a third-class degree.[9][10] Auden was reintroduced to Christopher Isherwood in 1925 by his fellow student A. S. T. Fisher. For the next few years Auden sent poems to Isherwood for comments and criticism; the two maintained a sexual friendship in intervals between their relations with others. In 1935–39 they collaborated on three plays and a travel book.[23] From his Oxford years onward, Auden's friends uniformly described him as funny, extravagant, sympathetic, generous, and, partly by his own choice, lonely. In groups he was often dogmatic and overbearing in a comic way; in more private settings he was diffident and shy except when certain of his welcome. He was punctual in his habits, and obsessive about meeting deadlines, while choosing to live amidst physical disorder.[4] Britain and Europe, 1928–1938[edit] In late 1928, Auden left Britain for nine months, going to Berlin, partly to rebel against English repressiveness. In Berlin, he first experienced the political and economic unrest that became one of his central subjects.[10] On returning to Britain in 1929, he worked briefly as a tutor. In 1930 his first published book, Poems (1930), was accepted by T. S. Eliot for Faber and Faber, and the same firm remained the British publisher of all the books he published thereafter. In 1930 he began five years as a schoolmaster in boys' schools: two years at the Larchfield Academy in Helensburgh, Scotland, then three years at the Downs School in the Malvern Hills, where he was a much-loved teacher.[9] At the Downs, in June 1933, he experienced what he later described as a "Vision of Agape", while sitting with three fellow-teachers at the school, when he suddenly found that he loved them for themselves, that their existence had infinite value for him; this experience, he said, later influenced his decision to return to the Anglican Church in 1940.[24] During these years, Auden's erotic interests focused, as he later said, on an idealised "Alter Ego"[25] rather than on individual persons. His relationships (and his unsuccessful courtships) tended to be unequal either in age or intelligence; his sexual relations were transient, although some evolved into long friendships. He contrasted these relationships with what he later regarded as the "marriage" (his word) of equals that he began with Chester Kallman in 1939, based on the unique individuality of both partners.[26] From 1935 until he left Britain early in 1939, Auden worked as freelance reviewer, essayist, and lecturer, first with the GPO Film Unit, a documentary film-making branch of the post office, headed by John Grierson. Through his work for the Film Unit in 1935 he met and collaborated with Benjamin Britten, with whom he also worked on plays, song cycles, and a libretto.[27] Auden's plays in the 1930s were performed by the Group Theatre, in productions that he supervised to varying degrees.[10] His work now reflected his belief that any good artist must be "more than a bit of a reporting journalist".[28] In 1936, Auden spent three months in Iceland where he gathered material for a travel book Letters from Iceland (1937), written in collaboration with Louis MacNeice. In 1937 he went to Spain intending to drive an ambulance for the Republic in the Spanish Civil War, but was put to work writing propaganda at the Republican press and propaganda office, where he felt useless and left after a week.[29] He returned to England after a brief visit to the front at Sarineña. His seven-week visit to Spain affected him deeply, and his social views grew more complex as he found political realities to be more ambiguous and troubling than he had imagined.[26][9] Again attempting to combine reportage and art, he and Isherwood spent six months in 1938 visiting China amid the Sino-Japanese War, working on their book Journey to a War (1939). On their way back to England they stayed briefly in New York and decided to move to the United States. Auden spent late 1938 partly in England, partly in Brussels.[9] Many of Auden's poems during the 1930s and after were inspired by unconsummated love, and in the 1950s he summarised his emotional life in a famous couplet: "If equal affection cannot be / Let the more loving one be me" ("The More Loving One"). He had a gift for friendship and, starting in the late 1930s, a strong wish for the stability of marriage; in a letter to his friend James Stern he called marriage "the only subject."[30] Throughout his life, Auden performed charitable acts, sometimes in public (as in his 1935 marriage of convenience to Erika Mann that provided her with a British passport to escape the Nazis),[9] but, especially in later years, more often in private. He was embarrassed if they were publicly revealed, as when his gift to his friend Dorothy Day for the Catholic Worker movement was reported on the front page of The New York Times in 1956.[31] United States and Europe, 1939–1973[edit] Christopher Isherwood (left) and W. H. Auden (right) photographed by Carl Van Vechten, 6 February 1939 Auden and Isherwood sailed to New York City in January 1939, entering on temporary visas. Their departure from Britain was later seen by many as a betrayal, and Auden's reputation suffered.[9] In April 1939, Isherwood moved to California, and he and Auden saw each other only intermittently in later years. Around this time, Auden met the poet Chester Kallman, who became his lover for the next two years (Auden described their relation as a "marriage" that began with a cross-country "honeymoon" journey).[32] In 1941 Kallman ended their sexual relationship because he could not accept Auden's insistence on mutual fidelity,[33] but he and Auden remained companions for the rest of Auden's life, sharing houses and apartments from 1953 until Auden's death.[34] Auden dedicated both editions of his collected poetry (1945/50 and 1966) to Isherwood and Kallman.[35] In 1940–41, Auden lived in a house at 7 Middagh Street in Brooklyn Heights, that he shared with Carson McCullers, Benjamin Britten, and others, which became a famous centre of artistic life, nicknamed "February House".[36] In 1940, Auden joined the Episcopal Church, returning to the Anglican Communion he had abandoned at fifteen. His reconversion was influenced partly by what he called the "sainthood" of Charles Williams,[37] whom he had met in 1937, and partly by reading Søren Kierkegaard and Reinhold Niebuhr; his existential, this-worldly Christianity became a central element in his life.[38] Auden's grave at Kirchstetten (Lower Austria) After Britain declared war on Germany in September 1939, Auden told the British embassy in Washington that he would return to the UK if needed. He was told that, among those his age (32), only qualified personnel were needed. In 1941–42 he taught English at the University of Michigan. He was called for the draft in the United States Army in August 1942, but was rejected on medical grounds. He had been awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship for 1942–43 but did not use it, choosing instead to teach at Swarthmore College in 1942–45.[9] In mid-1945, after the end of World War II in Europe, he was in Germany with the U. S. Strategic Bombing Survey, studying the effects of Allied bombing on German morale, an experience that affected his postwar work as his visit to Spain had affected him earlier.[35] On his return, he settled in Manhattan, working as a freelance writer, a lecturer at The New School for Social Research, and a visiting professor at Bennington, Smith, and other American colleges. In 1946 he became a naturalised citizen of the US.[9][10] In 1948, Auden began spending his summers in Europe, together with Chester Kallman, first in Ischia, Italy, where he rented a house. Then, starting in 1958, he began spending his summers in Kirchstetten, Austria, where he bought a farmhouse from the prize money of the Premio Feltrinelli awarded to him in 1957.[39] He said that he shed tears of joy at owning a home for the first time.[9] In 1956–61, Auden was Professor of Poetry at Oxford University where he was required to give three lectures each year. This fairly light workload allowed him to continue to spend winter in New York, where he lived at 77 St. Mark's Place in Manhattan's East Village, and to spend summer in Europe, spending only three weeks each year lecturing in Oxford. He earned his income mostly from readings and lecture tours, and by writing for The New Yorker, The New York Review of Books, and other magazines.[10] In 1963 Kallman left the apartment he shared in New York with Auden, and lived during the winter in Athens while continuing to spend his summers with Auden in Austria. In 1972, Auden moved his winter home from New York to Oxford, where his old college, Christ Church, offered him a cottage, while he continued to spend summers in Austria. He died in Vienna in 1973, a few hours after giving a reading of his poems at the Austrian Society for Literature; his death occurred at the Hotel Altenburger Hof where he was staying overnight before his intended return to Oxford the next day.[40] He was buried in Kirchstetten.[9] Work[edit] See also: Bibliography of W. H. Auden Auden published about four hundred poems, including seven long poems (two of them book-length). His poetry was encyclopaedic in scope and method, ranging in style from obscure twentieth-century modernism to the lucid traditional forms such as ballads and limericks, from doggerel through haiku and villanelles to a "Christmas Oratorio" and a baroque eclogue in Anglo-Saxon meters.[41] The tone and content of his poems ranged from pop-song clichés to complex philosophical meditations, from the corns on his toes to atoms and stars, from contemporary crises to the evolution of society.[3][26] He also wrote more than four hundred essays and reviews about literature, history, politics, music, religion, and many other subjects. He collaborated on plays with Christopher Isherwood and on opera libretti with Chester Kallman, and worked with a group of artists and filmmakers on documentary films in the 1930s and with the New York Pro Musica early music group in the 1950s and 1960s. About collaboration he wrote in 1964: "collaboration has brought me greater erotic joy . . . than any sexual relations I have had."[42] Auden controversially rewrote or discarded some of his most famous poems when he prepared his later collected editions. He wrote that he rejected poems that he found "boring" or "dishonest" in the sense that they expressed views he had never held but had used only because he felt they would be rhetorically effective.[43] His rejected poems include "Spain" and "September 1, 1939". His literary executor, Edward Mendelson, argues in his introduction to Selected Poems that Auden's practice reflected his sense of the persuasive power of poetry and his reluctance to misuse it.[44] (Selected Poems includes some poems that Auden rejected and early texts of poems that he revised.) Early work, 1922–1939[edit] Up to 1930[edit] Cover of the privately printed Poems (1928) Auden began writing poems in 1922, at fifteen, mostly in the styles of 19th-century romantic poets, especially Wordsworth, and later poets with rural interests, especially Thomas Hardy. At eighteen he discovered T. S. Eliot and adopted an extreme version of Eliot's style. He found his own voice at twenty when he wrote the first poem later included in his collected work, "From the very first coming down".[26] This and other poems of the late 1920s tended to be in a clipped, elusive style that alluded to, but did not directly state, their themes of loneliness and loss. Twenty of these poems appeared in his first book Poems (1928), a pamphlet hand-printed by Stephen Spender.[45] In 1928 he wrote his first dramatic work, Paid on Both Sides, subtitled "A Charade", which combined style and content from the Icelandic sagas with jokes from English school life. This mixture of tragedy and farce, with a dream play-within-a-play, introduced the mixed styles and content of much of his later work.[41] This drama and thirty short poems appeared in his first published book Poems (1930, 2nd edition with seven poems replaced, 1933); the poems in the book were mostly lyrical and gnomic mediations on hoped-for or unconsummated love and on themes of personal, social, and seasonal renewal; among these poems were "It was Easter as I walked," "Doom is dark," "Sir, no man's enemy," and "This lunar beauty."[26] A recurrent theme in these early poems is the effect of "family ghosts", Auden's term for the powerful, unseen psychological effects of preceding generations on any individual life (and the title of a poem). A parallel theme, present throughout his work, is the contrast between biological evolution (unchosen and involuntary) and the psychological evolution of cultures and individuals (voluntary and deliberate even in its subconscious aspects).[41][26] 1931–35[edit] Programme of a Group Theatre production of The Dance of Death, with unsigned synopsis by Auden Auden's next large-scale work was The Orators: An English Study (1932; revised editions, 1934, 1966), in verse and prose, largely about hero-worship in personal and political life. In his shorter poems, his style became more open and accessible, and the exuberant "Six Odes" in The Orators reflect his new interest in Robert Burns.[41] During the next few years, many of his poems took their form and style from traditional ballads and popular songs, and also from expansive classical forms like the Odes of Horace, which he seems to have discovered through the German poet Hölderlin.[26] Around this time his main influences were Dante, William Langland, and Alexander Pope.[46] During these years, much of his work expressed left-wing views, and he became widely known as a political poet although he was privately more ambivalent about revolutionary politics than many reviewers recognised,[47] and Mendelson argues that he expounded political views partly out of a sense of moral duty and partly because it enhanced his reputation, and that he later regretted having done so.[48] He generally wrote about revolutionary change in terms of a "change of heart", a transformation of a society from a closed-off psychology of fear to an open psychology of love.[4] His verse drama The Dance of Death (1933) was a political extravaganza in the style of a theatrical revue, which Auden later called "a nihilistic leg-pull."[49] His next play The Dog Beneath the Skin (1935), written in collaboration with Isherwood, was similarly a quasi-Marxist updating of Gilbert and Sullivan in which the general idea of social transformation was more prominent than any specific political action or structure.[41][26] The Ascent of F6 (1937), another play written with Isherwood, was partly an anti-imperialist satire, partly (in the character of the self-destroying climber Michael Ransom) an examination of Auden's own motives in taking on a public role as a political poet.[26] This play included the first version of "Funeral Blues" ("Stop all the clocks"), written as a satiric eulogy for a politician; Auden later rewrote the poem as a "Cabaret Song" about lost love (written to be sung by the soprano Hedli Anderson, for whom he wrote many lyrics in the 1930s).[50] In 1935, he worked briefly on documentary films with the GPO Film Unit, writing his famous verse commentary for Night Mail and lyrics for other films that were among his attempts in the 1930s to create a widely accessible, socially conscious art.[41][26][50] 1936–39[edit] In 1936 Auden's publisher chose the title Look, Stranger! for a collection of political odes, love poems, comic songs, meditative lyrics, and a variety of intellectually intense but emotionally accessible verse; Auden hated the title and retitled the collection for the 1937 US edition On This Island).[26] Among the poems included in the book are "Hearing of harvests", "Out on the lawn I lie in bed", "O what is that sound", "Look, stranger, on this island now" (later revised versions change "on" to "at"), and "Our hunting fathers".[41][26] Auden was now arguing that an artist should be a kind of journalist, and he put this view into practice in Letters from Iceland (1937) a travel book in prose and verse written with Louis MacNeice, which included his long social, literary, and autobiographical commentary "Letter to Lord Byron".[51] In 1937, after observing the Spanish Civil War he wrote a politically engaged pamphlet poem Spain (1937); he later discarded it from his collected works. Journey to a War (1939) a travel book in prose and verse, was written with Isherwood after their visit to the Sino-Japanese War.[51] Auden's last collaboration with Isherwood was their third play, On the Frontier, an anti-war satire written in Broadway and West End styles.[26][10] Auden's shorter poems now engaged with the fragility and transience of personal love ("Danse Macabre", "The Dream", "Lay your sleeping head"), a subject he treated with ironic wit in his "Four Cabaret Songs for Miss Hedli Anderson" (which included "Tell Me the Truth About Love" and the revised version of "Funeral Blues"), and also the corrupting effect of public and official culture on individual lives ("Casino", "School Children", "Dover").[41][26] In 1938 he wrote a series of dark, ironic ballads about individual failure ("Miss Gee", "James Honeyman", "Victor"). All these appeared in Another Time (1940), together with poems including "Dover", "As He Is", and "Musée des Beaux Arts" (all of which were written before he moved to America in 1939), and "In Memory of W. B. Yeats", "The Unknown Citizen", "Law Like Love", "September 1, 1939", and "In Memory of Sigmund Freud" (all written in America).[41] The elegies for Yeats and Freud are partly anti-heroic statements, in which great deeds are performed, not by unique geniuses whom others cannot hope to imitate, but by otherwise ordinary individuals who were "silly like us" (Yeats) or of whom it could be said "he wasn't clever at all" (Freud), and who became teachers of others, not awe-inspiring heroes.[26] Middle period, 1940–1957[edit] 1940–1946[edit] In 1940 Auden wrote a long philosophical poem "New Year Letter", which appeared with miscellaneous notes and other poems in The Double Man (1941). At the time of his return to the Anglican Communion he began writing abstract verse on theological themes, such as "Canzone" and "Kairos and Logos". Around 1942, as he became more comfortable with religious themes, his verse became more open and relaxed, and he increasingly used the syllabic verse he had learned from the poetry of Marianne Moore.[35] Auden's work in this era addresses the artist's temptation to use other persons as material for his art rather than valuing them for themselves ("Prospero to Ariel") and the corresponding moral obligation to make and keep commitments while recognising the temptation to break them ("In Sickness and Health").[35][41] From 1942 through 1947 he worked mostly on three long poems in dramatic form, each differing from the others in form and content: "For the Time Being: A Christmas Oratorio", "The Sea and the Mirror: A Commentary on Shakespeare's The Tempest" (both published in For the Time Being, 1944), and The Age of Anxiety: A Baroque Eclogue (published separately in 1947).[35] The first two, with Auden's other new poems from 1940 to 1944, were included in his first collected edition, The Collected Poetry of W. H. Auden (1945), with most of his earlier poems, many in revised versions.[41] 1947–1957[edit] After completing The Age of Anxiety in 1946 he focused again on shorter poems, notably "A Walk After Dark", "The Love Feast", and "The Fall of Rome".[35] Many of these evoked the Italian village where he spent his summers between 1948 and 1957, and his next book, Nones (1951), had a Mediterranean atmosphere new to his work.[52] A new theme was the "sacred importance" of the human body[53] in its ordinary aspect (breathing, sleeping, eating) and the continuity with nature that the body made possible (in contrast to the division between humanity and nature that he had emphasised in the 1930s);[52] his poems on these themes included "In Praise of Limestone" (1948) and "Memorial for the City" (1949).[41][35] In 1949 Auden and Kallman wrote the libretto for Igor Stravinsky's opera The Rake's Progress, and later collaborated on two libretti for operas by Hans Werner Henze.[9][54] Auden's first separate prose book was The Enchafèd Flood: The Romantic Iconography of the Sea (1950), based on a series of lectures on the image of the sea in romantic literature.[55] Between 1949 and 1954 he worked on a sequence of seven Good Friday poems, titled "Horae Canonicae", an encyclopaedic survey of geological, biological, cultural, and personal history, focused on the irreversible act of murder; the poem was also a study in cyclical and linear ideas of time. While writing this, he also wrote "Bucolics," a sequence of seven poems about man's relation to nature. Both sequences appeared in his next book, The Shield of Achilles (1955), with other short poems, including the book's title poem, "Fleet Visit", and "Epitaph for the Unknown Soldier".[41][35] In 1955–56 Auden wrote a group of poems about "history", the term he used to mean the set of unique events made by human choices, as opposed to "nature", the set of involuntary events created by natural processes, statistics, and anonymous forces such as crowds. These poems included "T the Great", "The Maker", and the title poem of his next collection Homage to Clio (1960).[41][35] Later work, 1958–1973[edit] Auden in 1970 In the late 1950s Auden's style became less rhetorical while its range of styles increased. In 1958, having moved his summer home from Italy to Austria, he wrote "Good-bye to the Mezzogiorno"; other poems from this period include "Dichtung und Wahrheit: An Unwritten Poem", a prose poem about the relation between love and personal and poetic language, and the contrasting "Dame Kind", about the anonymous impersonal reproductive instinct. These and other poems, including his 1955–66 poems about history, appeared in Homage to Clio (1960).[41][35] His prose book The Dyer's Hand (1962) gathered many of the lectures he gave in Oxford as Professor of Poetry in 1956–61, together with revised versions of essays and notes written since the mid-1940s.[35] Among the new styles and forms in Auden's later work were the haiku and tanka that he began writing after translating the haiku and other verse in Dag Hammarskjöld's Markings.[35] A sequence of fifteen poems about his house in Austria, "Thanksgiving for a Habitat" (written in various styles that included an imitation of William Carlos Williams) appeared in About the House (1965), together with other poems that included his reflection on his lecture tours, "On the Circuit".[41] In the late 1960s he wrote some of his most vigorous poems, including "River Profile" and two poems that looked back over his life, "Prologue at Sixty" and "Forty Years On". All these appeared in City Without Walls (1969). His lifelong passion for Icelandic legend culminated in his verse translation of The Elder Edda (1969).[41][35] Among his later themes was the "religionless Christianity" he learned partly from Dietrich Bonhoeffer, the dedicatee of his poem "Friday's Child."[56] A Certain World: A Commonplace Book (1970) was a kind of self-portrait made up of favourite quotations with commentary, arranged in alphabetical order by subject.[57] His last prose book was a selection of essays and reviews, Forewords and Afterwords (1973).[9] His last books of verse, Epistle to a Godson (1972) and the unfinished Thank You, Fog (published posthumously, 1974) include reflective poems about language ("Natural Linguistics", "Aubade"), philosophy and science ("No, Plato, No", "Unpredictable but Providential"), and his own aging ("A New Year Greeting", "Talking to Myself", "A Lullaby" ["The din of work is subdued"]). His last completed poem was "Archaeology", about ritual and timelessness, two recurring themes in his later years.[35] Reputation and influence[edit] Auden's stature in modern literature has been contested. Probably the most common critical view from the 1930s onward ranked him as the last and least of the three major twentieth-century British and Irish poets—behind Yeats and Eliot—while a minority view, more prominent in recent years, ranks him as the highest of the three.[58] Opinions have ranged from those of Hugh MacDiarmid, who called him "a complete wash-out"; F. R. Leavis, who wrote that Auden's ironic style was "self-defensive, self-indulgent or merely irresponsible";[59] and Harold Bloom, who wrote "Close thy Auden, open thy [Wallace] Stevens,"[60] to the obituarist in The Times, who wrote: "W.H. Auden, for long the enfant terrible of English poetry… emerges as its undisputed master."[61] Joseph Brodsky wrote that Auden had "the greatest mind of the twentieth century".[62] Critical estimates were divided from the start. Reviewing Auden's first book, Poems (1930), Naomi Mitchison wrote "If this is really only the beginning, we have perhaps a master to look forward to."[63] But John Sparrow, recalling Mitchison's comment in 1934, dismissed Auden's early work as "a monument to the misguided aims that prevail among contemporary poets, and the fact that… he is being hailed as 'a master' shows how criticism is helping poetry on the downward path."[64] Auden's clipped, satiric, and ironic style in the 1930s was widely imitated by younger poets such as Charles Madge, who wrote in a poem "there waited for me in the summer morning / Auden fiercely. I read, shuddered, and knew."[65] He was widely described as the leader of an "Auden group" that comprised his friends Stephen Spender, Cecil Day-Lewis, and Louis MacNeice.[66] The four were mocked by the poet Roy Campbell as if they were a single undifferentiated poet named "Macspaunday."[67] Auden's propagandistic poetic plays, including The Dog Beneath the Skin and The Ascent of F6, and his political poems such as "Spain" gave him the reputation as a political poet writing in a progressive and accessible voice, in contrast to Eliot; but this political stance provoked opposing opinions, such as that of Austin Clarke who called Auden's work "liberal, democratic, and humane",[68] and John Drummond, who wrote that Auden misused a "characteristic and popularizing trick, the generalized image", to present ostensibly left-wing views that were in fact "confined to bourgeois experience."[69] Auden's departure for America in 1939 was debated in Britain (once even in Parliament), with some seeing his emigration as a betrayal. Defenders of Auden such as Geoffrey Grigson, in an introduction to a 1949 anthology of modern poetry, wrote that Auden "arches over all". His stature was suggested by book titles such as Auden and After by Francis Scarfe (1942) and The Auden Generation by Samuel Hynes (1977).[3] Commemorative plaque at one of Auden's homes in Brooklyn Heights, New York In the US, starting in the late 1930s, the detached, ironic tone of Auden's regular stanzas became influential; John Ashbery recalled that in the 1940s Auden "was the modern poet".[61] Auden's formal influences were so pervasive in American poetry that the ecstatic style of the Beat Generation was partly a reaction against his influence. From the 1940s through the 1960s, many critics lamented that Auden's work had declined from its earlier promise; Randall Jarrell wrote a series of essays making a case against Auden's later work,[70] and Philip Larkin's "What's Become of Wystan?" (1960) had a wide impact.[61][71] After his death, some of his poems, notably "Funeral Blues", "Musée des Beaux Arts", "Refugee Blues", "The Unknown Citizen", and "September 1, 1939", became known to a much wider public than during his lifetime through films, broadcasts, and popular media.[3] The first full-length study of Auden was Richard Hoggart's Auden: An Introductory Essay (1951), which concluded that "Auden's work, then, is a civilising force."[72] It was followed by Joseph Warren Beach's The Making of the Auden Canon (1957), a disapproving account of Auden's revisions of his earlier work. [73] The first systematic critical account was Monroe K. Spears' The Poetry of W. H. Auden: The Disenchanted Island (1963), "written out of the conviction that Auden's poetry can offer the reader entertainment, instruction, intellectual excitement, and a prodigal variety of aesthetic pleasures, all in a generous abundance that is unique in our time."[74] Auden was one of three candidates recommended by the Nobel Committee to the Swedish Academy for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1963[75] and 1965[76] and six recommended for the 1964 prize.[77] By the time of his death in 1973 he had attained the status of a respected elder statesman, and a memorial stone for him was placed in Poets' Corner in Westminster Abbey in 1974.[78] The Encyclopædia Britannica writes that "by the time of Eliot's death in 1965… a convincing case could be made for the assertion that Auden was indeed Eliot's successor, as Eliot had inherited sole claim to supremacy when Yeats died in 1939."[79] With some exceptions, British critics tended to treat his early work as his best, while American critics tended to favour his middle and later work.[80][81] Another group of critics and poets has maintained that unlike other modern poets, Auden's reputation did not decline after his death, and the influence of his later writing was especially strong on younger American poets including John Ashbery, James Merrill, Anthony Hecht, and Maxine Kumin.[82] Typical later evaluations describe him as "arguably the [20th] century's greatest poet" (Peter Parker and Frank Kermode),[83] who "now clearly seems the greatest poet in English since Tennyson" (Philip Hensher).[84] Public recognition of Auden's work sharply increased after his "Funeral Blues" ("Stop all the clocks") was read aloud in the film Four Weddings and a Funeral (1994); subsequently, a pamphlet edition of ten of his poems, Tell Me the Truth About Love, sold more than 275,000 copies. After 11 September 2001 his 1939 poem "September 1, 1939" was widely circulated and frequently broadcast.[61] Public readings and broadcast tributes in the UK and US in 2007 marked his centenary year.[85] Overall, Auden's poetry was noted for its stylistic and technical achievement, its engagement with politics, morals, love, and religion, and its variety in tone, form and content.[86][62][41][26] Memorial stones and plaques commemorating Auden include those in Westminster Abbey; at his birthplace at 55 Bootham, York;[87] near his home on Lordswood Road, Birmingham;[88] in the chapel of Christ Church, Oxford; on the site of his apartment at 1 Montague Terrace, Brooklyn Heights; at his apartment in 77 St. Marks Place, New York (damaged and now removed);[89] at the site of his death at Walfischgasse 5 in Vienna;[90] and in the Rainbow Honor Walk in San Francisco.[91] In his house in Kirchstetten, his study is open to the public upon request.[92] Published works[edit] The following list includes only the books of poems and essays that Auden prepared during his lifetime; for a more complete list, including other works and posthumous editions, see W. H. Auden bibliography. In the list below, works reprinted in the Complete Works of W. H. Auden are indicated by footnote references. Books Poems (London, 1930; second edn., seven poems substituted, London, 1933; includes poems and Paid on Both Sides: A Charade[50]) (dedicated to Christopher Isherwood). The Orators: An English Study (London, 1932, verse and prose; slightly revised edn., London, 1934; revised edn. with new preface, London, 1966; New York 1967) (dedicated to Stephen Spender). The Dance of Death (London, 1933, play)[50] (dedicated to Robert Medley and Rupert Doone). Poems (New York, 1934; contains Poems [1933 edition], The Orators [1932 edition], and The Dance of Death). The Dog Beneath the Skin (London, New York, 1935; play, with Christopher Isherwood)[50] (dedicated to Robert Moody). The Ascent of F6 (London, 1936; 2nd edn., 1937; New York, 1937; play, with Christopher Isherwood)[50] (dedicated to John Bicknell Auden). Look, Stranger! (London, 1936, poems; US edn., On This Island, New York, 1937) (dedicated to Erika Mann) Letters from Iceland (London, New York, 1937; verse and prose, with Louis MacNeice)[51] (dedicated to George Augustus Auden). On the Frontier (London, 1938; New York 1939; play, with Christopher Isherwood)[50] (dedicated to Benjamin Britten). Journey to a War (London, New York, 1939; verse and prose, with Christopher Isherwood)[51] (dedicated to E. M. Forster). Another Time (London, New York 1940; poetry) (dedicated to Chester Kallman). The Double Man (New York, 1941, poems; UK edn., New Year Letter, London, 1941) (Dedicated to Elizabeth Mayer). For the Time Being (New York, 1944; London, 1945; two long poems: "The Sea and the Mirror: A Commentary on Shakespeare's The Tempest", dedicated to James and Tania Stern, and "For the Time Being: A Christmas Oratorio", in memoriam Constance Rosalie Auden [Auden's mother]). The Collected Poetry of W. H. Auden (New York, 1945; includes new poems) (dedicated to Christopher Isherwood and Chester Kallman). Full text.[93] The Age of Anxiety: A Baroque Eclogue (New York, 1947; London, 1948; verse; won the 1948 Pulitzer Prize for Poetry) (dedicated to John Betjeman). Collected Shorter Poems, 1930–1944 (London, 1950; similar to 1945 Collected Poetry) (dedicated to Christopher Isherwood and Chester Kallman). The Enchafèd Flood (New York, 1950; London, 1951; prose) (dedicated to Alan Ansen).[94] Nones (New York, 1951; London, 1952; poems) (dedicated to Reinhold and Ursula Niebuhr) The Shield of Achilles (New York, London, 1955; poems) (won the 1956 National Book Award for Poetry)[95] (dedicated to Lincoln and Fidelma Kirstein). Homage to Clio (New York, London, 1960; poems) (dedicated to E. R. and A. E. Dodds). The Dyer's Hand (New York, 1962; London, 1963; essays) (dedicated to Nevill Coghill).[96] About the House (New York, London, 1965; poems) (dedicated to Edmund and Elena Wilson). Collected Shorter Poems 1927–1957 (London, 1966; New York, 1967) (dedicated to Christopher Isherwood and Chester Kallman). Collected Longer Poems (London, 1968; New York, 1969). Secondary Worlds (London, New York, 1969; prose) (dedicated to Valerie Eliot).[97] City Without Walls and Other Poems (London, New York, 1969) (dedicated to Peter Heyworth). A Certain World: A Commonplace Book (New York, London, 1970; quotations with commentary) (dedicated to Geoffrey Grigson).[98] Epistle to a Godson and Other Poems (London, New York, 1972) (dedicated to Orlan Fox). Forewords and Afterwords (New York, London, 1973; essays) (dedicated to Hannah Arendt). Thank You, Fog: Last Poems (London, New York, 1974) (dedicated to Michael and Marny Yates). Film scripts and opera libretti Coal Face (1935, closing chorus for GPO Film Unit documentary).[50] Night Mail (1936, narrative for GPO Film Unit documentary, not published separately except as a programme note).[50] Paul Bunyan (1941, libretto for operetta by Benjamin Britten; not published until 1976).[54] The Rake's Progress (1951, with Chester Kallman, libretto for an opera by Igor Stravinsky).[54] Elegy for Young Lovers (1956, with Chester Kallman, libretto for an opera by Hans Werner Henze).[54] The Bassarids (1961, with Chester Kallman, libretto for an opera by Hans Werner Henze based on The Bacchae of Euripides).[54] Runner (1962, documentary film narrative for National Film Board of Canada)[54] Love's Labour's Lost (1973, with Chester Kallman, libretto for an opera by Nicolas Nabokov, based on Shakespeare's play).[54] Musical collaborations Our Hunting Fathers (1936, song cycle written for Benjamin Britten) An Evening of Elizabethan Verse and its Music (1954 recording with the New York Pro Musica Antiqua, director Noah Greenberg; Auden spoke the verse texts) The Play of Daniel (1958, verse narration for a production by the New York Pro Musica Antiqua, director Noah Greenberg)[54] References[edit] ^ Auden, W. H. (2002). Mendelson, Edward (ed.). Prose, Volume II: 1939–1948. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 478. ISBN 978-0-691-08935-5. Auden used the phrase "Anglo-American Poets" in 1943, implicitly referring to himself and T. S. Eliot. ^ The first definition of "Anglo-American" in the OED (2008 revision) is: "Of, belonging to, or involving both England (or Britain) and America.""Oxford English Dictionary (access by subscription)". Retrieved 25 May 2009. See also the definition "English in origin or birth, American by settlement or citizenship" in Chambers 20th Century Dictionary. 1969. p. 45. See also the definition "an American, especially a citizen of the United States, of English origin or descent" in Merriam Webster's New International Dictionary, Second Edition. 1969. p. 103. See also the definition "a native or descendant of a native of England who has settled in or become a citizen of America, esp. of the United States" from The Random House Dictionary, 2009, available online at "Dictionary.com". Retrieved 25 May 2009. ^ a b c d Smith, Stan, ed. (2004). The Cambridge Companion to W. H. Auden. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-82962-5. ^ a b c d e Davenport-Hines, Richard (1995). Auden. London: Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-434-17507-9. ^ Carpenter, W. H. Auden, pp. 1-12. ^ The name Wystan derives from the 9th-century St Wystan, who was murdered by Beorhtfrith, the son of Beorhtwulf, king of Mercia, after Wystan objected to Beorhtfrith's plan to marry Wystan's mother. His remains were reburied at Repton, Derbyshire, where they became the object of a cult; the parish church of Repton is dedicated to St Wystan. Auden's father, George Augustus Auden, was educated at Repton School. ^ Burke's Landed Gentry, 18th edition, vol. I, ed. Peter Townend, 1965, Auden formerly of Horninglow pedigree ^ "Kindred Britain". Retrieved 12 October 2015. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Carpenter, Humphrey (1981). W. H. Auden: A Biography. London: George Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-0-04-928044-1. ^ a b c d e f g h Mendelson, Edward (January 2011). "Auden, Wystan Hugh (1907–1973)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/30775. Retrieved 26 May 2013. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)(subscription may be required or content may be available in libraries) ^ Davidson, Peter (2005). The Idea of North. London: Reaktion. ISBN 978-1861892300. ^ Carpenter, W. H. Auden, pp. 16-20, 23-28. ^ Carpenter, W. H. Auden, pp. 13, 23. ^ Myers, Alan; Forsythe, Robert (1999). W. H. Auden: Pennine Poet. Nenthead: North Pennines Heritage Trust. ISBN 978-0-9513535-7-8. ^ Auden, W. H. (1993). The Prolific and the Devourer. New York: Ecco. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-88001-345-1. ^ Partridge, Frank (23 February 2007). "North Pennines: Poetry in Motion". Independent.co.uk. Retrieved 2 December 2016. ^ Blamires, Harry (1983). A Guide to twentieth century literature in English. p. 130. ^ Auden, W. H. (1973). Forewords and Afterwords. New York: Random House. p. 517. ISBN 978-0-394-48359-7. ^ The Times, 5 July 1922 (Issue 43075), p. 12, col. D ^ Wright, Hugh, "Auden and Gresham's", Conference & Common Room, Vol. 44, No. 2, Summer 2007. ^ Auden, W. H. (1994). Bucknell, Katherine (ed.). Juvenilia: Poems, 1922–1928. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-03415-7. ^ Auden, W. H. (1934). Greene, Graham (ed.). The Old School: Essays by Divers Hands. London: Jonathan Cape. ^ Davenport-Hines, Richard (1995). Auden. London: Heinemann. ch. 3. ISBN 978-0-434-17507-9. ^ Auden, W. H. (1973). Forewords and Afterwords. New York: Random House. p. 69. ISBN 978-0-394-48359-7. ^ Mendelson, Edward (1999). Later Auden. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-374-18408-7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Mendelson, Edward (1981). Early Auden. New York: Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-28712-3. ^ Mitchell, Donald (1981). Britten and Auden in the Thirties: the year 1936. London: Faber and Faber]. ISBN 978-0-571-11715-4. ^ Auden, W. H. (1996). Mendelson, Edward (ed.). Prose and travel books in prose and verse, Volume I: 1926–1938. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 138. ISBN 978-0-691-06803-9. ^ The Good Comrade, Memoirs of Kate Mangan and Jan Kurzke, International Institute of Social History (IISH), Amsterdam. ^ Auden, W. H. (1995). Bucknell, Katherine; Jenkins, Nicholas (eds.). In Solitude, For Company: W. H. Auden after 1940, unpublished prose and recent criticism (Auden Studies 3). Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 88. ISBN 978-0-19-818294-8. ^ Lissner, Will (2 March 1956). "Poet and Judge Assist a Samaritan" (PDF). New York Times. pp. 1, 39. Retrieved 26 May 2013. ^ Mendelson, Edward (1999). Later Auden. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-374-18408-7. ^ Farnan, Dorothy J. (1984). Auden in Love. New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-50418-2. ^ Clark, Thekla (1995). Wystan and Chester. London: Faber & Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-17591-8. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Mendelson, Edward (1999). Later Auden. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 978-0-374-18408-7. ^ Tippins, Sherrill (2005). February House: The Story of W. H. Auden, Carson McCullers, Jane and Paul Bowles, Benjamin Britten, and Gypsy Rose Lee, Under One Roof In Wartime America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-618-41911-1. ^ Pike, James A., ed. (1956). Modern Canterbury Pilgrims. New York: Morehouse-Gorham. p. 42. ^ Kirsch, Arthur (2005). Auden and Christianity. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-10814-9. ^ Nachrichten, Salzburger. "Gedenkstätte für W. H. Auden in Kirchstetten neu gestaltet". www.salzburg.com. Retrieved 30 September 2017. ^ Shrenker, Israel (30 September 1973). "W. H. Auden Dies in Vienna". The New York Times. Retrieved 20 September 2017. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Fuller, John (1998). W. H. Auden: a commentary. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-19268-7. ^ Davenport-Hines, Richard (1995). Auden. London: Heinemann. p. 137. ISBN 978-0-434-17507-9. ^ Auden, W. H. (1966). Collected Shorter Poems, 1927–1957. London: Faber and Faber. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-571-06878-4. ^ Auden, W. H. (1979). Mendelson, Edward (ed.). Selected Poems, new edition. New York: Vintage Books. xix–xx. ISBN 978-0-394-72506-2. ^ Auden, W. H. (1994). Bucknell, Katherine (ed.). Juvenilia: Poems, 1922–1928. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-03415-7. ^ Auden, W. H. (2002). Mendelson, Edward (ed.). Prose, Volume II: 1939–1948. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 92. ISBN 978-0-691-08935-5. ^ Carpenter, pp. 256–257. ^ Mendelson, Early Auden, pp. 257–303. ^ Auden, W. H.; Isherwood, Christopher (1988). Mendelson, Edward (ed.). Plays and other dramatic writings by W. H. Auden, 1928–1938. Princeton: Princeton University Press. xxi. ISBN 978-0-691-06740-7. ^ a b c d e f g h i Auden, W. H.; Isherwood, Christopher (1988). Mendelson, Edward (ed.). Plays and other dramatic writings by W. H. Auden, 1928–1938. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-06740-7. ^ a b c d Auden, W. H. (1996). Mendelson, Edward (ed.). Prose and travel books in prose and verse, Volume I: 1926–1938. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-06803-9. ^ a b Sharpe, Tony (21 January 2013). W. H. Auden in Context. Cambridge University Press. p. 196. ISBN 9781139618922. ^ Auden, W. H. (1973). Forewords and Afterwords. New York: Random House. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-394-48359-7. ^ a b c d e f g h Auden, W. H.; Kallman, Chester (1993). Mendelson, Edward (ed.). Libretti and other dramatic writings by W. H. Auden, 1939–1973. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-03301-3. ^ Auden, W. H. (2002). Mendelson, Edward (ed.). Prose, Volume II: 1939–1948. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-08935-5. ^ Kirsch, Arthur (2005). Auden and Christianity. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-10814-9. ^ David Garrett Izzo (28 February 2004). W.H. Auden Encyclopedia. McFarland. p. 50. ISBN 9780786479993. ^ Smith, Stan (2004). "Introduction". In Stan Smith (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to W. H. Auden. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–14. ISBN 978-0-521-82962-5. ^ Haffenden, p. 222. ^ Bloom, Harold (5 April 1969). "Christianity and Art". The New Republic. 160 (14): 25–28. ^ a b c d Sansom, Ian (2004). "Auden and Influence". In Smith, Stan (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to W.H. Auden. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 226–39. ISBN 978-0-521-82962-5. ^ a b Brodksy, Joseph (1986). Less Than One: selected essays. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. p. 357. ISBN 978-0-374-18503-9. ^ Haffenden, p. 83. ^ Haffenden, pp. 7–8. ^ Smith, Companion, p. 123. ^ Hynes, Samuel (1977). The Auden Generation. New York: Viking. ISBN 978-0-712-65250-6. ^ Haffenden, p. 34. ^ Haffenden, p. 29. ^ Haffenden, p. 31. ^ Jarrell, Randall (2005). Burt, Stephen (ed.). Randall Jarrell on W. H. Auden. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-13078-3. ^ Haffenden, pp. 414–19. ^ Hoggart, Richard (1951). Auden: An Introductory Essay. London: Chatto & Windus. p. 219. ^ Beach, Joseph Warren (1957). The Making of the Auden Canon. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. ^ Spears, Monroe K. (1963). The Poetry of W.H. Auden: The Disenchanted Island. New York: Oxford University Press. p. v. ^ "Candidates for the 1963 Nobel Prize in Literature". Nobel Prize. 2013. Retrieved 3 January 2014. ^ "Candidates for the 1965 Nobel Prize in Literature". Nobel Prize. 2014. Retrieved 4 December 2016. ^ "Candidates for the 1964 Nobel Prize in Literature". Nobel Prize. 2015. Retrieved 25 May 2015. ^ "Famous People & the Abbey: Wystan Hugh Auden". Retrieved 28 July 2018. ^ "W.H. Auden". britannica.com. Retrieved 23 February 2008. ^ Haffenden, p. 54. ^ Aidan Wasley, "Auden and the American Literary World", in Sharpe, W.H. Auden in Context, pp. 118–37. ^ Wasley, Aidan (2011). The Age of Auden: Postwar Poetry and the American Scene. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-40083635-2. ^ Kermode, Frank, ed. (1995). The Reader's Companion to Twentieth-Century Writers. London: Fourth Estate. p. 35. ISBN 978-1-85702332-9. ^ Hensher, Philip (6 November 2009). "Love's a little boy". The Guardian. Retrieved 30 September 2015. ^ The W. H. Auden Society. "The Auden Centenary 2007". Retrieved 20 January 2007. ^ "W.H. Auden". Academy of American Poets. Retrieved 21 January 2007. ^ "Open plaques". Retrieved 22 April 2017. ^ "Open plaques". Retrieved 22 April 2017. ^ "Manhattan Sideways". Retrieved 22 April 2017. ^ "Auden's last night. Vienna museums". 14 June 2008. Retrieved 22 April 2017. ^ Yollin, Patricia (6 August 2019). "Tributes in Bronze: 8 More LGBT Heroes Join S.F.'s Rainbow Honor Walk". KQED: The California Report. Retrieved 16 August 2019. ^ ["Sommer in Kirchstetten - Gedenkstätte für W.H. Auden], NÖN 39/2015. ^ Auden, W. H. (1945). The Collected Poetry of W. H. Auden (6th ed.). New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0394403168. Retrieved 28 May 2017. ^ Auden, W. H. (2008). Mendelson, Edward (ed.). Prose, Volume III: 1949–1955. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13326-3. ^ "National Book Awards – 1956". National Book Foundation. Retrieved 27 February 2012. (With acceptance speech by Auden and essay by Megan Snyder-Camp from the Awards 60-year anniversary blog.) ^ Auden, W. H. (2010). Mendelson, Edward (ed.). Prose, Volume IV: 1956–1962. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-14755-0. ^ Auden, W. H. (2015). Mendelson, Edward (ed.). Prose, Volume V: 1963–1968. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-151717. ^ Auden, W. H. (2015). Mendelson, Edward (ed.). Prose, Volume VI: 1969–1973. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-164588. Sources Auden, W. H.; ed. by Katherine Bucknell and Nicholas Jenkins (1990) "The Map of All My Youth": early works, friends and influences (Auden Studies 1). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-812964-5. Auden, W. H.; ed. by Katherine Bucknell and Nicholas Jenkins (1994). "The Language of Learning and the Language of Love": uncollected writings, new interpretations (Auden Studies 2). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-812257-8. Auden, W. H.; ed. by Katherine Bucknell and Nicholas Jenkins (1995). "In Solitude, For Company": W. H. Auden after 1940: unpublished prose and recent criticism (Auden Studies 3). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-818294-5. Carpenter, Humphrey (1981). W. H. Auden: A Biography. London: George Allen & Unwin. ISBN 0-04-928044-9. Clark, Thekla (1995). Wystan and Chester: A Personal Memoir of W. H. Auden and Chester Kallman. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 0-571-17591-0. Davenport-Hines, Richard (1996). Auden. London: Heinemann. ISBN 0-434-17507-2. Farnan, Dorothy J. (1984). Auden in Love. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-50418-5. Fuller, John (1998). W. H. Auden: A Commentary. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 0-571-19268-8. Haffenden, John, ed. (1983). W. H. Auden: The Critical Heritage. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 0-7100-9350-0. Kirsch, Arthur (2005). Auden and Christianity. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-10814-1. Mendelson, Edward (1981). Early Auden. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-28712-1. Mendelson, Edward (1999). Later Auden. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 0-374-18408-9. Mendelson, Edward (2017). Early Auden, Later Auden: A Critical Biography. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-17249-1. Mitchell, Donald (1981), Britten and Auden in the Thirties: the year 1936. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 0-571-11715-5. Myers, Alan and Forsythe, Robert (1999), W. H. Auden: Pennine Poet . Nenthead: North Pennines Heritage Trust. ISBN 0-9513535-7-8. Pamphlet with map and gazetteer. Sharpe, Tony, ed. (2013). W. H. Auden in Context. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-19657-4. Smith, Stan, ed. (2004). The Cambridge Companion to W. H. Auden. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-53647-2. Spears, Monroe K. (1963). The Poetry of W. H. Auden: The Disenchanted Island. New York: Oxford University Press. Further reading[edit] Costello, Bonnie, and Rachel Galvin, eds. (2015). Auden at Work. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-137-45292-4. Spender, Stephen, ed. (1975). W. H. Auden: A Tribute. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-76884-0. Wright, George T. (1969; rev. ed. 1981). W. H. Auden. Boston: Twayne. ISBN 0-8057-7346-0. External links[edit] Works by or about W. H. Auden in libraries (WorldCat catalog) Works by W. H. Auden at Open Library (book publication records and links to digital talking books editions) "Archival material relating to W. H. Auden". UK National Archives. "The W. H. Auden Society". Retrieved 21 January 2007. "Fourteen poems by Auden (Academy of American Poets site)". Retrieved 20 January 2007. "W. H. Auden at Swarthmore". Retrieved 20 January 2007. W H Auden at the British Library Papers at Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library Finding aid to W.H. Auden papers at Columbia University. Rare Book & Manuscript Library. v t e W. H. Auden Books of poetry Poems (1930) The Orators (1932) On This Island (1936) Another Time (1940) The Double Man (1941) For the Time Being (1944) The Age of Anxiety (1947) Nones (1951) The Shield of Achilles (1955) Homage to Clio (1960) About the House (1966) City Without Walls (1969) Academic Graffiti (1971) Epistle to a Godson (1972) Thank You, Fog (1974) Books containing prose and verse Letters from Iceland (1937, with Louis MacNeice) Journey to a War (1939, with Christopher Isherwood) Prose works and other books The Enchafèd Flood (1950) The Dyer's Hand (1962) Secondary Worlds (1968) A Certain World (1970) Forewords and Afterwords (1973) Individual poems "The Orators" (1932) "Funeral Blues" (1936) "Spain" (1937) "Musée des Beaux Arts" (1938) "Refugee Blues" (1939) "September 1, 1939" (1939) "The Unknown Citizen" (1939) "Hymn to St. Cecilia" (1940) "For the Time Being" (1944) "The Sea and the Mirror" (1944) "The Age of Anxiety" (1947) "In Praise of Limestone" (1948) "The Platonic Blow" "Horae Canonicae" (1949–55) "Bucolics" (1952–53) "The Shield of Achilles" (1955) Plays Paid on Both Sides (1928) The Dance of Death (1933) The Dog Beneath the Skin (1935) The Ascent of F6 (1936) On the Frontier (1938) The Play of Daniel (1958) Libretti Paul Bunyan (1941) The Rake's Progress (1951) Elegy for Young Lovers (1961) The Bassarids (1966) Love's Labour's Lost (1973) Screenwriting Night Mail (1936) Family George Augustus Auden (father) John Bicknell Auden (brother) Chester Kallman (companion) Related W. H. Auden bibliography Links to related articles v t e Pulitzer Prize for Poetry (1922–1950) Edwin Arlington Robinson (1922) Edna St. Vincent Millay (1923) Robert Frost (1924) Edwin Arlington Robinson (1925) Amy Lowell (1926) Leonora Speyer (1927) Edwin Arlington Robinson (1928) Stephen Vincent Benét (1929) Conrad Aiken (1930) Robert Frost (1931) George Dillon (1932) Archibald MacLeish (1933) Robert Hillyer (1934) Audrey Wurdemann (1935) Robert P. T. Coffin (1936) Robert Frost (1937) Marya Zaturenska (1938) John Gould Fletcher (1939) Mark Van Doren (1940) Leonard Bacon (1941) William Rose Benét (1942) Robert Frost (1943) Stephen Vincent Benét (1944) Karl Shapiro (1945) Robert Lowell (1947) W. H. Auden (1948) Peter Viereck (1949) Gwendolyn Brooks (1950) Complete list (1922–1950) (1951–1975) (1976–2000) (2001–2025) v t e Recipients of the Austrian State Prize for European Literature Zbigniew Herbert (1965) W. H. Auden (1966) Vasko Popa (1967) Václav Havel (1968) Not given (1969) Eugène Ionesco (1970) Peter Huchel (1971) Sławomir Mrożek (1972) Harold Pinter (1973) Sándor Weöres (1974) Miroslav Krleža (1975) Italo Calvino (1976) Pavel Kohout (1977) Fulvio Tomizza (1977) Simone de Beauvoir (1978) Fulvio Tomizza (1979) Sarah Kirsch (1980) Doris Lessing (1981) Tadeusz Różewicz (1982) Friedrich Dürrenmatt (1983) Christa Wolf (1984) Stanisław Lem (1985) Giorgio Manganelli (1986) Milan Kundera (1987) Andrzej Szczypiorski (1988) Marguerite Duras (1989) Helmut Heissenbüttel (1990) Péter Nádas (1991) Salman Rushdie (1992) Chinghiz Aitmatov (1993) Inger Christensen (1994) Aleksandar Tišma (1995) Jürg Laederach (1996) Antonio Tabucchi (1997) Dubravka Ugrešić (1998) Péter Esterházy (1999) António Lobo Antunes (2000) Umberto Eco (2001) Christoph Hein (2002) Cees Nooteboom (2003) Julian Barnes (2004) Claudio Magris (2005) Jorge Semprún (2006) A. L. Kennedy (2007) Agota Kristof (2008) Per Olov Enquist (2009) Paul Nizon (2010) Javier Marías (2011) Patrick Modiano (2012) John Banville (2013) Lyudmila Ulitskaya (2014) Mircea Cărtărescu (2015) Andrzej Stasiuk (2016) Karl Ove Knausgård (2017) Zadie Smith (2018) Michel Houellebecq (2019) Drago Jančar (2020) v t e Laureates of the Struga Poetry Evenings Golden Wreath Robert Rozhdestvensky (1966) Bulat Okudzhava (1967) László Nagy (1968) Mak Dizdar (1969) Miodrag Pavlović (1970) W. H. Auden (1971) Pablo Neruda (1972) Eugenio Montale (1973) Fazıl Hüsnü Dağlarca (1974) Léopold Sédar Senghor (1975) Eugène Guillevic (1976) Artur Lundkvist (1977) Rafael Alberti (1978) Miroslav Krleža (1979) Hans Magnus Enzensberger (1980) Blaže Koneski (1981) Nichita Stănescu (1982) Sachchidananda Vatsyayan 'Ajneya' (1983) Andrei Voznesensky (1984) Yiannis Ritsos (1985) Allen Ginsberg (1986) Tadeusz Różewicz (1987) Desanka Maksimović (1988) Thomas Shapcott (1989) Justo Jorge Padrón (1990) Joseph Brodsky (1991) Ferenc Juhász (1992) Gennadiy Aygi (1993) Ted Hughes (1994) Yehuda Amichai (1995) Makoto Ooka (1996) Adunis (1997) Liu Banjiu (1998) Yves Bonnefoy (1999) Edoardo Sanguineti (2000) Seamus Heaney (2001) Slavko Mihalić (2002) Tomas Tranströmer (2003) Vasco Graça Moura (2004) William S. Merwin (2005) Nancy Morejón (2006) Mahmoud Darwish (2007) Fatos Arapi (2008) Tomaž Šalamun (2009) Lyubomir Levchev (2010) Mateja Matevski (2011) Mongane Wally Serote (2012) José Emilio Pacheco (2013) Ko Un (2014) Bei Dao (2015) Margaret Atwood (2016) Charles Simic (2017) Adam Zagajewski (2018) Ana Blandiana (2019) Portals Access related topics Biography portal Poetry portal Find out more on Wikipedia's Sister projects Media from Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Source texts from Wikisource Data from Wikidata Authority control BIBSYS: 90087541 BNE: XX1164379 BNF: cb11889466j (data) CANTIC: a10455024 CiNii: DA00250711 GND: 118650963 ICCU: IT\ICCU\BVEV\002606 ISNI: 0000 0001 2117 7938 LCCN: n79054316 LNB: 000020507 MBA: 5bfc7072-8a01-4364-a436-415fe4aeb830 NARA: 10580978 NDL: 00431892 NKC: jn19990000305 NLA: 36124331 NLG: 105278 NLI: 000013057 NLK: KAC199601173 NSK: 000034071 NTA: 068481896 RSL: 000080286 SELIBR: 231996 SNAC: w6p55kjv SUDOC: 026695502 Trove: 1216158 ULAN: 500372764 VcBA: 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Contents 1 Online text 2 Online databases 3 Subscription eBook databases 4 Libraries 4.1 Worldwide 4.2 Africa 4.2.1 Nigeria 4.2.2 South Africa 4.2.3 Zimbabwe 4.3 Central America and the Caribbean 4.3.1 Barbados 4.3.2 Guatemala 4.3.3 Jamaica 4.3.4 Mexico 4.3.5 Trinidad and Tobago 4.4 Canada 4.4.1 Public libraries 4.4.2 Universities and colleges 4.5 United States 4.5.1 Public libraries by state 4.5.2 Universities and colleges 4.6 South America 4.6.1 Argentina 4.6.2 Brazil 4.6.3 Colombia 4.6.4 Ecuador 4.7 Asia 4.7.1 Bangladesh 4.7.2 China, People's Republic 4.7.3 Hong Kong, S.A.R. of China 4.7.4 India 4.7.5 Indonesia 4.7.6 Iran 4.7.7 Israel 4.7.8 Japan 4.7.9 Korea 4.7.10 Malaysia 4.7.11 Philippines 4.7.11.1 Universities and colleges 4.7.11.2 Other libraries 4.7.12 Singapore 4.7.13 Taiwan, Republic of China 4.7.14 Thailand 4.8 Australasia and Oceania 4.8.1 Australia 4.8.1.1 Public libraries 4.8.1.2 Academic libraries 4.8.2 New Zealand 4.8.2.1 Public libraries 4.8.2.2 Academic libraries 4.9 Europe 4.9.1 Austria 4.9.2 Belgium 4.9.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina 4.9.4 Croatia 4.9.5 Czech Republic 4.9.6 Denmark 4.9.7 Estonia 4.9.8 Finland 4.9.9 France 4.9.10 Germany 4.9.11 Greece 4.9.12 Hungary 4.9.13 Iceland 4.9.14 Ireland 4.9.15 Italy 4.9.16 Luxembourg 4.9.17 Montenegro 4.9.18 Netherlands 4.9.19 Norway 4.9.20 Poland 4.9.21 Portugal 4.9.22 Russia 4.9.23 Serbia 4.9.24 Slovenia 4.9.25 Spain 4.9.26 Sweden 4.9.27 Switzerland 4.9.28 Turkey 4.9.29 United Kingdom 4.9.29.1 Public libraries 4.9.29.2 Universities 5 Bookselling and swapping 5.1 Price comparison sites 5.2 Search many booksellers 5.3 Individual booksellers 5.4 Book-swapping websites 6 Non-English book sources 7 Bibliographical information 8 Find other editions 9 Find on Wikipedia 10 See also Online text Find this book on Google Books Find this book at the Open Library Find this book on Amazon.com (or .au, .br, .ca, .cn, .de, .es, .fr, .in, .it, .jp, .mx, .nl, .uk). Google Books and Amazon.com may be particularly helpful if you want to verify citations in Wikipedia articles, because they often enable you to search an online version of the book for specific words or phrases, or you can browse through the book (although for copyright reasons the entire book is usually not available). Online databases Find this book at Karlsruhe Virtual Catalog, a metasearch engine addressing many of the databases linked here and also some major commercial booksellers. Find this book at WorldCat free online catalog of the world's libraries Find this book at OttoBib.com citation metasearch Find this book at Copyright Clearance Center online rights database Find this book at Goodreads personal library catalog Find this book at LibraryThing personal library catalog Find this book at aNobii personal library catalog Find this book at iDreamBooks book review aggregator Find this book at the Grand Comics Database Find this book at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database Subscription eBook databases Find this book at Alexander Street Press by ProQuest Find this book at eBookCentral by ProQuest Find this book at EBSCO Industries eBooks Find this book at Gale by Cengage Find this book at HathiTrust Find this book at Overdrive by Rakuten Find this book at Project MUSE Find this book at ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Open Find this book at Safari Books Online by O'Reilly Media Find this book at ScienceDirect Libraries Select your region from the map above Worldwide Find this book at your local library through WorldCat Africa Nigeria Find this book on the Ahmadu Bello University Library catalogue Find this book on the University of Ilorin Library catalogue South Africa Find this book on the National Library of South Africa catalogue Find this book on the SEALS Consortium catalogue Find this book on the University of South Africa catalogue Find this book on the University of the Witwatersrand Library catalogue Zimbabwe Find this book on the University of Zimbabwe Library catalogue Central America and the Caribbean Barbados Find this book in the University of the West Indies (Cave Hill campus) Library catalogue Guatemala Find this book in the University of San Carlos of Guatemala Central Library catalogue Jamaica Find this book in the University of the West Indies (Mona campus) Library catalogue Mexico Find this book in the National Autonomous University of Mexico Library System Trinidad and Tobago Find this book in the University of 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en-wikipedia-org-1075	----	Tacitus - Wikipedia Tacitus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman historian and senator (c. 56 - c. 120) For other uses, see Tacitus (disambiguation). Cornelius Tacitus Modern statue representing Tacitus outside the Austrian Parliament Building Born c. 56 AD Died c. 120 AD (aged c. 64) Occupation Historian, politician Genre History, Silver Age of Latin Subject History, biography, oratory Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus[note 1] (/ˈtæsɪtəs/ TASS-it-əs, Latin: [ˈtakɪtʊs]; c. AD 56 – c. 120) was a Roman historian and politician. Tacitus is considered by modern scholars to be one of the greatest Roman historians.[2][3] He lived in what has been called the Silver Age of Latin literature, and has a reputation for the brevity and compactness of his Latin prose, as well as for his penetrating insights into the psychology of power politics. The surviving portions of his two major works—the Annals and the Histories—examine the reigns of the emperors Tiberius, Claudius, Nero, and those who reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors (69 AD). These two works span the history of the Roman Empire from the death of Augustus, in 14 AD, to 70 AD in the First Jewish–Roman War of 66–73. There are substantial lacunae in the surviving texts, including a gap in the Annals that is four books long. Tacitus' other writings discuss oratory (in dialogue format, see Dialogus de oratoribus), Germania (in De origine et situ Germanorum), and the life of his father-in-law, Agricola, the general responsible for much of the Roman conquest of Britain, mainly focusing on his campaign in Britannia (De vita et moribus Iulii Agricolae). Contents 1 Life 1.1 Family and early life 1.2 Public life, marriage, and literary career 2 Works 2.1 History of the Roman Empire from the death of Augustus 2.1.1 The Histories 2.1.2 The Annals 2.2 Monographs 2.2.1 Germania 2.2.2 Agricola (De vita et moribus Iulii Agricolae) 2.2.3 Dialogus 3 Literary style 3.1 Approach to history 3.2 Prose 4 Sources 5 Editions 6 See also 7 References 7.1 Notes 7.2 Citations 8 Bibliography 9 External links Life Details about his personal life are scarce. What little is known comes from scattered hints throughout his work, the letters of his friend and admirer Pliny the Younger, and an inscription found at Mylasa in Caria.[4] Tacitus was born in 56 or 57 to an equestrian family;[5] but the exact place and date of his birth are not known, and his praenomen (first name) is also unknown; in the letters of Sidonius Apollinaris his name is Gaius, but in the major surviving manuscript of his work his name is given as Publius.[6] One scholar's suggestion of Sextus has gained no approval.[7] Family and early life Most of the older aristocratic families failed to survive the proscriptions which took place at the end of the Republic, and Tacitus makes it clear that he owed his rank to the Flavian emperors (Hist. 1.1). The claim that he was descended from a freedman is derived from a speech in his writings which asserts that many senators and knights were descended from freedmen (Ann. 13.27), but this is generally disputed.[8] His father may have been the Cornelius Tacitus who served as procurator of Belgica and Germania; Pliny the Elder mentions that Cornelius had a son who aged rapidly (NH 7.76), which implies an early death. There is no mention of Tacitus suffering such a condition, but it is possible that this refers to a brother—if Cornelius was indeed his father.[9] The friendship between the younger Pliny and Tacitus leads some scholars to conclude that they were both the offspring of wealthy provincial families.[10] The province of his birth remains unknown, though various conjectures suggest Gallia Belgica, Gallia Narbonensis or Northern Italy.[11] His marriage to the daughter of Narbonensian senator Gnaeus Julius Agricola implies that he came from Gallia Narbonensis. Tacitus' dedication to Lucius Fabius Justus in the Dialogus may indicate a connection with Spain, and his friendship with Pliny suggests origins in northern Italy.[12] No evidence exists, however, that Pliny's friends from northern Italy knew Tacitus, nor do Pliny's letters hint that the two men had a common background.[13] Pliny Book 9, Letter 23 reports that, when he was asked if he was Italian or provincial, he gave an unclear answer, and so was asked if he was Tacitus or Pliny. Since Pliny was from Italy, some infer that Tacitus was from the provinces, probably Gallia Narbonensis.[14] His ancestry, his skill in oratory, and his sympathetic depiction of barbarians who resisted Roman rule (e.g., Ann. 2.9) have led some to suggest that he was a Celt. This belief stems from the fact that the Celts who had occupied Gaul prior to the Roman invasion were famous for their skill in oratory, and had been subjugated by Rome.[15] Public life, marriage, and literary career As a young man, Tacitus studied rhetoric in Rome to prepare for a career in law and politics; like Pliny, he may have studied under Quintilian[16] (c. 35 AD – c. 100). In 77 or 78, he married Julia Agricola, daughter of the famous general Agricola.[17] Little is known of their domestic life, save that Tacitus loved hunting and the outdoors.[18] He started his career (probably the latus clavus, mark of the senator)[19] under Vespasian[20] (r. 69–79), but entered political life as a quaestor in 81 or 82 under Titus.[21] He advanced steadily through the cursus honorum, becoming praetor in 88 and a quindecimvir, a member of the priestly college in charge of the Sibylline Books and the Secular games.[22] He gained acclaim as a lawyer and as an orator; his skill in public speaking ironically counterpoints his cognomen Tacitus ("silent"). He served in the provinces from c. 89 to c. 93, either in command of a legion or in a civilian post.[23] He and his property survived Domitian's reign of terror (81–96), but the experience left him jaded and perhaps ashamed at his own complicity, installing in him the hatred of tyranny evident in his works.[24] The Agricola, chs. 44–45, is illustrative: Agricola was spared those later years during which Domitian, leaving now no interval or breathing space of time, but, as it were, with one continuous blow, drained the life-blood of the Commonwealth... It was not long before our hands dragged Helvidius to prison, before we gazed on the dying looks of Mauricus and Rusticus, before we were steeped in Senecio's innocent blood. Even Nero turned his eyes away, and did not gaze upon the atrocities which he ordered; with Domitian it was the chief part of our miseries to see and to be seen, to know that our sighs were being recorded... From his seat in the Senate, he became suffect consul in 97 during the reign of Nerva, being the first of his family to do so. During his tenure, he reached the height of his fame as an orator when he delivered the funeral oration for the famous veteran soldier Lucius Verginius Rufus.[25] In the following year, he wrote and published the Agricola and Germania, foreshadowing the literary endeavors that would occupy him until his death.[26] Afterwards, he absented himself from public life, but returned during Trajan's reign (98–117). In 100, he and his friend Pliny the Younger prosecuted Marius Priscus [la] (proconsul of Africa) for corruption. Priscus was found guilty and sent into exile; Pliny wrote a few days later that Tacitus had spoken "with all the majesty which characterizes his usual style of oratory".[27] A lengthy absence from politics and law followed while he wrote the Histories and the Annals. In 112 to 113, he held the highest civilian governorship, that of the Roman province of Asia in Western Anatolia,[28] recorded in the inscription found at Mylasa mentioned above. A passage in the Annals fixes 116 as the terminus post quem of his death, which may have been as late as 125 or even 130. It seems that he survived both Pliny (died c. 113) and Trajan (died 117).[29] It remains unknown whether Tacitus had any children. The Augustan History reports that Emperor Marcus Claudius Tacitus (r. 275–276) claimed him for an ancestor and provided for the preservation of his works, but this story may be fraudulent, like much of the Augustan History.[30] Works See also: List of people mentioned in the works of Tacitus The title page of Justus Lipsius's 1598 edition of the complete works of Tacitus, bearing the stamps of the Bibliotheca Comunale in Empoli, Italy Five works ascribed to Tacitus have survived (albeit with lacunae), the most substantial of which are the Annals and the Histories. This canon (with approximate dates) consists of: (98) De vita Iulii Agricolae (The Life of Agricola) (98) De origine et situ Germanorum (Germania) (102) Dialogus de oratoribus (Dialogue on Oratory) (105) Historiae (Histories) (117) Ab excessu divi Augusti (Annals) History of the Roman Empire from the death of Augustus The Annals and the Histories, published separately, were meant to form a single edition of thirty books.[31] Although Tacitus wrote the Histories before the Annals, the events in the Annals precede the Histories; together they form a continuous narrative from the death of Augustus (14) to the death of Domitian (96). Though most has been lost, what remains is an invaluable record of the era. The first half of the Annals survived in a single manuscript from Corvey Abbey in Germany, and the second half in a single manuscript from Monte Cassino in Italy, and it is remarkable that they survived at all. The Histories Main article: Histories (Tacitus) In an early chapter of the Agricola, Tacitus asserts that he wishes to speak about the years of Domitian, Nerva and Trajan. In the Histories the scope has changed; Tacitus says that he will deal with the age of Nerva and Trajan at a later time. Instead, he will cover the period from the civil wars of the Year of the Four Emperors and end with the despotism of the Flavians. Only the first four books and twenty-six chapters of the fifth book survive, covering the year 69 and the first part of 70. The work is believed to have continued up to the death of Domitian on September 18, 96. The fifth book contains—as a prelude to the account of Titus's suppression of the First Jewish–Roman War—a short ethnographic survey of the ancient Jews, and it is an invaluable record of Roman attitudes towards them. The Annals Main article: Annals (Tacitus) The Annals, Tacitus' final work, covers the period from the death of Augustus in 14 AD. He wrote at least sixteen books, but books 7–10 and parts of books 5, 6, 11 and 16 are missing. Book 6 ends with the death of Tiberius and books 7 to 12 presumably covered the reigns of Caligula and Claudius. The remaining books cover the reign of Nero, perhaps until his death in June 68 or until the end of that year to connect with the Histories. The second half of book 16 is missing, ending with the events of 66. It is not known whether Tacitus completed the work; he died before he could complete his planned histories of Nerva and Trajan and no record survives of the work on Augustus and the beginnings of the Roman Empire, with which he had planned to finish his work. The Annals is one of the earliest secular historical records to mention Christ, which Tacitus does in connection with Nero's persecution of the Christians. Annals 15.44, in the second Medicean manuscript Monographs Tacitus wrote three works with a more limited scope. Agricola, a biography of his father-in-law Gnaeus Julius Agricola; the Germania, a monograph on the lands and tribes of barbarian Germania; and the Dialogus, a dialogue on the art of rhetoric. Germania Main article: Germania (book) The Germania (Latin title: De Origine et situ Germanorum) is an ethnographic work on the Germanic tribes outside the Roman Empire. The Germania fits within a classical ethnographic tradition which includes authors such as Herodotus and Julius Caesar. The book begins (chapters 1–27) with a description of the lands, laws, and customs of the various tribes. Later chapters focus on descriptions of particular tribes, beginning with those who lived closest to the Roman empire, and ending with a description of those who lived on the shores of the Baltic Sea, such as the Fenni. Tacitus had written a similar, albeit shorter, piece in his Agricola (chapters 10–13). Agricola (De vita et moribus Iulii Agricolae) Main article: Agricola (book) The Agricola (written c. 98) recounts the life of Gnaeus Julius Agricola, an eminent Roman general and Tacitus' father-in-law; it also covers, briefly, the geography and ethnography of ancient Britain. As in the Germania, Tacitus favorably contrasts the liberty of the native Britons with the tyranny and corruption of the Empire; the book also contains eloquent polemics against the greed of Rome, one of which, that Tacitus claims is from a speech by Calgacus, ends by asserting that Auferre trucidare rapere falsis nominibus imperium, atque ubi solitudinem faciunt, pacem appellant. (To ravage, to slaughter, to usurp under false titles, they call empire; and where they make a desert, they call it peace. —Oxford Revised Translation). Dialogus Main article: Dialogus de oratoribus The style of the Dialogus follows Cicero's models for Latin rhetoric. There is uncertainty about when Tacitus wrote Dialogus de oratoribus. Many characteristics set it apart from the other works of Tacitus, so that its authenticity has at various times been questioned. It is likely to be early work, indebted to the author's rhetorical training, since its style imitates that of the foremost Roman orator Cicero. It lacks (for example) the incongruities that are typical of his mature historical works. The Dialogus is dedicated to Fabius Iustus, a consul in 102 AD. Literary style Tacitus's writings are known for their dense prose that seldom glosses the facts, in contrast to the style of some of his contemporaries, such as Plutarch. When he writes about a near-defeat of the Roman army in Ann. I, 63 he does so with brevity of description rather than embellishment. In most of his writings he keeps to a chronological narrative order, only seldom outlining the bigger picture, leaving the readers to construct that picture for themselves. Nonetheless, where he does use broad strokes, for example, in the opening paragraphs of the Annals, he uses a few condensed phrases which take the reader to the heart of the story. Approach to history Tacitus's historical style owes some debt to Sallust. His historiography offers penetrating—often pessimistic—insights into the psychology of power politics, blending straightforward descriptions of events, moral lessons, and tightly focused dramatic accounts. Tacitus's own declaration regarding his approach to history (Annals I,1) is well known: "inde consilium mihi ... tradere ... sine ira et studio, quorum causas procul habeo."   my purpose is to relate ... without either anger or zeal, motives from which I am far removed. There has been much scholarly discussion about Tacitus' "neutrality". Throughout his writing, he is preoccupied with the balance of power between the Senate and the emperors, and the increasing corruption of the governing classes of Rome as they adjusted to the ever-growing wealth and power of the empire. In Tacitus's view, Senators squandered their cultural inheritance—that of free speech—to placate their (rarely benign) emperor. Tacitus noted the increasing dependence of the emperor on the goodwill of his armies. The Julio-Claudians eventually gave way to generals, who followed Julius Caesar (and Sulla and Pompey) in recognizing that military might could secure them the political power in Rome.(Hist.1.4) Welcome as the death of Nero had been in the first burst of joy, yet it had not only roused various emotions in Rome, among the Senators, the people, or the soldiery of the capital, it had also excited all the legions and their generals; for now had been divulged that secret of the empire, that emperors could be made elsewhere than at Rome. Tacitus's political career was largely lived out under the emperor Domitian. His experience of the tyranny, corruption, and decadence of that era (81–96) may explain the bitterness and irony of his political analysis. He draws our attention to the dangers of power without accountability, love of power untempered by principle, and the apathy and corruption engendered by the concentration of wealth generated through trade and conquest by the empire. Nonetheless, the image he builds of Tiberius throughout the first six books of the Annals is neither exclusively bleak nor approving: most scholars view the image of Tiberius as predominantly positive in the first books, and predominantly negative after the intrigues of Sejanus. The entrance of Tiberius in the first chapters of the first book is dominated by the hypocrisy of the new emperor and his courtiers. In the later books, some respect is evident for the cleverness of the old emperor in securing his position. In general, Tacitus does not fear to praise and to criticize the same person, often noting what he takes to be their more-admirable and less-admirable properties. One of Tacitus's hallmarks is refraining from conclusively taking sides for or against persons he describes, which has led some to interpret his works as both supporting and rejecting the imperial system (see Tacitean studies, Black vs. Red Tacitists). Prose His Latin style is highly praised.[32] His style, although it has a grandeur and eloquence (thanks to Tacitus's education in rhetoric), is extremely concise, even epigrammatic—the sentences are rarely flowing or beautiful, but their point is always clear. The style has been both derided as "harsh, unpleasant, and thorny" and praised as "grave, concise, and pithily eloquent". A passage of Annals 1.1, where Tacitus laments the state of the historiography regarding the last four emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, illustrates his style: "The histories of Tiberius, Gaius, Claudius and Nero, while they were in power, were falsified through terror and after their death were written under the irritation of a recent hatred",[33] or in a word-for-word translation: Tiberiī Gāīque et Claudiī ac Nerōnis rēs flōrentibus ipsīs—ob metum—falsae, postquam occiderant—recentibus ōdiīs—compositae sunt.   Tiberius', Gaius' and Claudius' as well as Nero's acts while flourishing themselves—out of fear—counterfeited, after they came to fall—resulting from new-found hate— related are. (interpunction and linebreaks added for clarity) Compared to the Ciceronian period, where sentences were usually the length of a paragraph and artfully constructed with nested pairs of carefully matched sonorous phrases, this is short and to the point. But it is also very individual. Note the three different ways of saying and in the first line (-que, et, ac), and especially the matched second and third lines. They are parallel in sense but not in sound; the pairs of words ending "…-entibus …-is" are crossed over in a way that deliberately breaks the Ciceronian conventions—which one would however need to be acquainted with to see the novelty of Tacitus' style. Some readers, then and now, find this teasing of their expectations merely irritating. Others find the deliberate discord, playing against the evident parallelism of the two lines, stimulating and intriguing.[34] His historical works focus on the motives of the characters, often with penetrating insight—though it is questionable how much of his insight is correct, and how much is convincing only because of his rhetorical skill.[35] He is at his best when exposing hypocrisy and dissimulation; for example, he follows a narrative recounting Tiberius's refusal of the title pater patriae by recalling the institution of a law forbidding any "treasonous" speech or writings—and the frivolous prosecutions which resulted (Annals, 1.72). Elsewhere (Annals 4.64–66) he compares Tiberius's public distribution of fire relief to his failure to stop the perversions and abuses of justice which he had begun. Although this kind of insight has earned him praise, he has also been criticized for ignoring the larger context. Tacitus owes most, both in language and in method, to Sallust, and Ammianus Marcellinus is the later historian whose work most closely approaches him in style. Sources Tacitus makes use of the official sources of the Roman state: the acta senatus (the minutes of the sessions of the Senate) and the acta diurna populi Romani (a collection of the acts of the government and news of the court and capital). He also read collections of emperors' speeches, such as those of Tiberius and Claudius. He is generally seen[by whom?] as a scrupulous historian who paid careful attention to his sources. The minor inaccuracies in the Annals may be due to Tacitus dying before he had finished (and therefore before he had proof-read) his work. Tacitus cites some of his sources directly, among them Cluvius Rufus, Fabius Rusticus and Pliny the Elder, who had written Bella Germaniae and a historical work which was the continuation of that of Aufidius Bassus. Tacitus also uses collections of letters (epistolarium). He also took information from exitus illustrium virorum. These were a collection of books by those who were antithetical to the emperors. They tell of sacrifices by martyrs to freedom, especially the men who committed suicide. While he places no value on the Stoic theory of suicide and views suicides as ostentatious and politically useless, Tacitus often gives prominence to speeches made by those about to commit suicide, for example Cremutius Cordus' speech in Ann. IV, 34–35. Editions Damon, Cynthia (2003) Tacitus: Histories Book I. Cambridge Greek and Latin Classics. Cambridge University Press. Ash, Rhiannon (2007) Tacitus: Histories Book II. Cambridge Greek and Latin Classics.Cambridge University Press. Malloch, S. J. V. (2013) The Annals of Tacitus, book 11. Cambridge Classical Texts and Commentaries. Cambridge University Press. See also The Republic (Plato): Tacitus' critique of "model state" philosophies Tacitus on Christ: a well-known passage from the Annals mentions the death of Jesus of Nazareth (Ann., xv 44) Claude Fauchet: the first person to translate all of Tacitus's works into French Justus Lipsius: produced an extremely influential early modern edition of Tacitus (1574) References Notes ^ His full nomenclature may have been "Publius Cornelius Tacitus Caecina Paetus".[1] Citations ^ Birley 2000, p. 232. ^ Van Voorst, Robert; Evans, Craig A.; Chilton, Bruce (2000). "Tacitus: The Executed Christ". In Evans, Craig A.; Chilton, Bruce (eds.). Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence Studying the Historical Jesus. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 39. ISBN 9780802843685. Retrieved 7 June 2020. Cornelius Tacitus is generally considered the greatest Roman historian [...]. ^ Compare: Ferguson, Everett (1987). "Literature and language". Backgrounds of Early Christianity (3 ed.). Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing (published 2003). p. 116. ISBN 9780802822215. Retrieved 7 June 2020. The Silver Age produced two outstanding historians. Cornelius Tacitus (c. A.D. 55-120), through his Histories and the Annals, is the major source for the history of the empire in the first century. ^ OGIS 487, first brought to light in Bulletin de correspondance hellénique, 1890, pp. 621–623 ^ Since he was appointed to the quaestorship during Titus's short rule (see note below) and twenty-five was the minimum age for the position, the date of his birth can be fixed with some accuracy ^ See Oliver, 1951, for an analysis of the manuscript from which the name Publius is taken; see also Oliver, 1977, which examines the evidence for each suggested praenomen (the well-known Gaius and Publius, the lesser-known suggestions of Sextus and Quintus) before settling on Publius as the most likely. ^ Oliver, 1977, cites an article by Harold Mattingly in Rivista storica dell'Antichità, 2 (1972) 169–185 ^ Syme, 1958, pp. 612–613; Gordon, 1936, pp. 145–146 ^ Syme, 1958, p. 60, 613; Gordon, 1936, p. 149; Martin, 1981, p. 26 ^ Syme, 1958, p. 63 ^ Michael Grant in Introduction to Tacitus, The Annals of Imperial Rome, p. xvii; Herbert W. Benario in Introduction to Tacitus, Germany, p. 1. ^ Syme, 1958, pp. 614–616 ^ Syme, 1958, pp. 616–619 ^ Syme, 1958, p. 619; Gordon, 1936, p. 145 ^ Gordon, 1936, pp. 150–151; Syme, 1958, pp. 621–624 ^ The fact that he studied rhetoric and law is known from the Dialogus, ch. 2; see also Martin, 1981, p. 26; Syme, 1958, pp. 114–115 ^ Agricola, 9 ^ Pliny, Letters 1.6, 9.10; Benario, 1975, pp. 15, 17; Syme, 1958, pp. 541–542 ^ Syme, 1958, p. 63; Martin, 1981, pp. 26–27 ^ (1.1) ^ He states his debt to Titus in his Histories (1.1); since Titus ruled only briefly, these are the only years possible. ^ In the Annals (11.11), he mentions that, as praetor, he assisted in the Secular Games held by Domitian, which can be precisely dated to 88. See Syme, 1958, p. 65; Martin, 1981, p. 27; Benario in his Introduction to Tacitus, Germany, p. 1. ^ The Agricola (45.5) indicates that Tacitus and his wife were absent at the time of Julius Agricola's death in 93. For his occupation during this time see Syme, 1958, p. 68; Benario, 1975, p. 13; Dudley, 1968, pp. 15–16; Martin, 1981, p. 28; Mellor, 1993, p. 8 ^ For the effects on Tacitus of this experience see Dudley, 1968, p. 14; Mellor, 1993, pp. 8–9 ^ Pliny, Letters, 2.1 (English); Benario in his Introduction to Tacitus, Germany, pp. 1–2. ^ In the Agricola (3), he announces what was probably his first major project: the Histories. See Dudley, 1968, p. 16 ^ Pliny, Letters 2.11 ^ Hazel, J. (2002). Who's who in the Roman World. Routledge who's who series. Routledge. p. 297. ISBN 978-0-415-29162-0. Retrieved 28 August 2018. Seniority brought him the governorship of the province of Asia as proconsul in 112–113. ^ Grant in his Introduction to Tacitus, Annals, p. xvii; Benario in his Introduction to Tacitus, Germania, p. 2. Annals, 2.61, says that the Roman Empire "now extends to the Red Sea". If by mare rubrum he means the Persian Gulf, the passage must have been written after Trajan's eastern conquests in 116, but before Hadrian abandoned the new territories in 117. But this may only indicate the date of publication for the first books of the Annals; Tacitus could have lived well into Hadrian's reign, and there is no reason to suppose that he did not. See Dudley, 1968, p. 17; Mellor, 1993, p. 9; Mendell, 1957, p. 7; Syme, 1958, p. 473; against this traditional interpretation, e.g., Goodyear, 1981, pp. 387–393. ^ Augustan History, Tacitus X. Scholarly opinion on this story is that it is either "a confused and worthless rumor" (Mendell, 1957, p. 4) or "pure fiction" (Syme, 1958, p. 796). Sidonius Apollinaris reports (Letters, 4.14; cited in Syme, 1958, p. 796) that Polemius, a 5th-century Gallo-Roman aristocrat, is descended from Tacitus—but this claim, says Syme (ibid.), is of little value. ^ Jerome's commentary on the Book of Zechariah (14.1, 2; quoted in Mendell, 1957, p. 228) says that Tacitus's history was extant triginta voluminibus, "in thirty volumes". ^ Donald R. Dudley. Introduction to: The Annals of Tacitus. NY: Mentor Book, 1966. p. xiv: "No other writer of Latin prose—not even Cicero—deploys so effectively the full resources of the language." ^ The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 1#1 Translation based on Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb (1876). Wikisource, 15 April 2012. ^ Ostler 2007, pp. 98–99 where the quoted example is used; Further quotes from the book: "…some writers—notably the perverse genius Tacitus—delighted in disappointing the expectations raised by periodic theory." – "this monkeying with hard-won stylistic norms…only makes sense if readers knew the rules that Tacitus was breaking." ^ John Taylor. Tacitus and the Boudican Revolt. Dublin: Camvlos, 1998. p. 1 ff Bibliography Benario, Herbert W. An Introduction to Tacitus. (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1975) ISBN 0-8203-0361-5 Birley, Anthony R. (2000). "The Life and Death of Cornelius Tacitus". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 49 (2): 230–247. ISSN 0018-2311. JSTOR 4436577. Burke, P. "Tacitism" in Dorey, T.A., 1969, pp. 149–171 Damon, Cynthia. "Relatio vs. Oratio: Tacitus, Ann. 3.12 and the Senatus Consultum De Cn. Pisone Patre." The Classical Quarterly, vol. 49, no. 1, (1999), pp. 336–338 Damon, Cynthia. "The Trial of Cn. Piso in Tacitus' Annals and the ‘Senatus Consultum De Cn. Pisone Patre’: New Light on Narrative Technique." The American Journal of Philology, vol. 120, no. 1, (1999), pp. 143–162. Damon, Cynthia. Writing with Posterity in Mind: Thucydides and Tacitus on Secession. In The Oxford Handbook of Thucydides. (Oxford University Press, 2017). Dudley, Donald R. The World of Tacitus (London: Secker and Warburg, 1968) ISBN 0-436-13900-6 Goodyear, F.R.D. The Annals of Tacitus, vol. 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981). Commentary on Annals 1.55–81 and Annals 2. Gordon, Mary L. "The Patria of Tacitus". The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 26, Part 2 (1936), pp. 145–151. Martin, Ronald. Tacitus (London: Batsford, 1981) Mellor, Ronald. Tacitus (New York / London: Routledge, 1993) ISBN 0-415-90665-2, 0415910021, 978-0415910026 Mellor, Ronald. Tacitus’ Annals (Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, 2010) (Oxford Approaches to Classical Literature) ISBN 0198034679, 978-0198034674 Mellor, Ronald (ed.). Tacitus: The Classical Heritage (New York: Garland Publishing, 1995) ISBN 0-8153-0933-3, 978-0815309338 Mendell, Clarence. Tacitus: The Man and His Work. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1957) ISBN 0-208-00818-7 Oliver, Revilo P. "The First Medicean MS of Tacitus and the Titulature of Ancient Books". Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Vol. 82 (1951), pp. 232–261. Oliver, Revilo P. "The Praenomen of Tacitus". The American Journal of Philology, Vol. 98, No. 1 (Spring, 1977), pp. 64–70. Ostler, Nicholas. Ad Infinitum: A Biography of Latin. HarperCollins in the UK, and Walker & Co. in the US: London and New York, 2007. ISBN 978-0-00-734306-5; 2009 edition: ISBN 080271840X, 978-0802718402 – 2010 e-book: ISBN 0007364881, 978-0007364886 Syme, Ronald. Tacitus, Volumes 1 and 2. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1958) (reprinted in 1985 by the same publisher, with the ISBN 0-19-814327-3) is the definitive study of his life and works. Tacitus, The Annals of Imperial Rome. Translated by Michael Grant and first published in this form in 1956. (London: The Folio Society, 2006) Tacitus, Germany. Translated by Herbert W. Benario. (Warminster, UK: Aris & Phillips Ltd., 1999. ISBN 0-85668-716-2) Taylor, John W. Tacitus and the Boudican Revolt. (Dublin, Ireland: Camuvlos, 1998) External links Wikiquote has quotations related to: Tacitus Wikisource has original works written by or about: Tacitus Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gaius Cornelius Tacitus. 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en-wikipedia-org-1076	----	Pierre de Ronsard - Wikipedia Pierre de Ronsard From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search French poet For the main-belt asteroid, see 10139 Ronsard. For the rose cultivar, see Pierre de Ronsard (rose). Not to be confused with the painter Hans Zatzka. Born 11 September 1524 Couture-sur-Loir, Kingdom of France Died 27 December 1585(1585-12-27) (aged 61) La Riche, Kingdom of France Occupation Poet Language Middle French Nationality French Education Collège de Navarre Literary movement La Pléiade Notable works Les Odes, Les Amours, Sonnets pour Hélène, Discours French literature by category French literary history Medieval Renaissance 17th 18th 19th 20th century Contemporary French writers Chronological list Writers by category Essayists Novelists Playwrights Poets Short story writers Children's writers Portals France Literature v t e Pierre de Ronsard (11 September 1524 – 27 December 1585) was a French poet or, as his own generation in France called him, a "prince of poets". Contents 1 Early life 2 Studies 3 Fame 4 Final years 5 Works 6 Bibliography 7 Notes 8 References 9 Further reading 9.1 General 9.2 Criticism 10 External links Early life[edit] Manoir de la Possonnière, Ronsard's home Pierre de Ronsard was born at the Manoir de la Possonnière, in the village of Couture-sur-Loir, Vendômois (in present-day Loir-et-Cher). Baudouin de Ronsard or Rossart was the founder of the French branch of the house, and made his mark in the early stages of the Hundred Years' War. The poet's father was Louis de Ronsard, and his mother was Jeanne de Chaudrier, of a family both noble and well connected. Pierre was the youngest son. Louis de Ronsard was maître d'hôtel du roi to Francis I, whose captivity after Pavia had just been softened by treaty, and he had to quit his home shortly after Pierre's birth. The future poet was educated at home in his earliest years and sent to the Collège de Navarre in Paris at the age of nine. When Madeleine of France was married to James V of Scotland, Ronsard was attached as a page in the Scottish court, where he was encouraged in the idea of making French vernacular translations of classical authors.[1] A year after the death of the queen, he returned to France, travelling back through England. Further travel took him to Flanders, Holland, and again, for a short time, Scotland, on diplomatic missions under Claude d'Humières, seigneur de Lassigny,[2] until he was attached as secretary to the suite of Lazare de Baïf, the father of his future colleague in the Pléiade and his companion on this occasion, Antoine de Baïf, at the diet of Speyer. Afterwards he was attached in the same way to the suite of the cardinal du Bellay-Langey, and his mythical quarrel with François Rabelais dates from this period. Studies[edit] His apparently promising diplomatic career was, however, cut short by an attack of deafness following a 1540 visit, as part of legation to Alsace, that no physician could cure; he would subsequently determine to devote himself to study. The institution he chose for the purpose among the numerous schools and colleges of Paris was the Collège Coqueret, the principal of which was Jean Daurat — afterwards the "dark star" (as he has been called from his silence in French) of the Pléiade, and already an acquaintance of Ronsard's from having held the office of tutor in the Baïf household. Antoine de Baïf, Daurat's pupil, accompanied Ronsard; Belleau shortly followed; Joachim du Bellay, the second of the seven, joined not much later. Muretus (Marc Antoine de Muret), a great scholar and by means of his Latin plays a great influence in the creation of French tragedy, was also a student here. Ronsard's period of study occupied seven years, and the first manifesto of the new literary movement, which was to apply to the vernacular the principles of criticism and scholarship learnt from the classics, came not from him but from Du Bellay. The Défense et illustration de la langue française of the latter appeared in 1549, and the Pléiade (or Brigade, as it was first called) may be said to have been then launched. It consisted, as its name implies, of seven writers whose names are sometimes differently enumerated, though the orthodox canon is beyond doubt composed of Ronsard, Du Bellay, Baïf, Remy Belleau, Pontus de Tyard (a man of rank and position who had exemplified the principles of the friends earlier), Jodelle the dramatist, and Daurat. Ronsard's own work came a little later, and a rather idle story is told of a trick of Du Bellay's which at last determined him to publish. Some single and minor pieces, an epithalamium on Antoine de Bourbon and Jeanne de Navarre (1550), a "Hymne de la France" (1549), an "Ode a la Paix," preceded the publication in 1550 of the four first books ("first" is characteristic and noteworthy) of the Odes of Pierre de Ronsard. This was followed in 1552 by the publication of his Amours de Cassandre with the fifth book of Odes, dedicated to the 15-year-old Cassandre Salviati, whom he had met at Blois and followed to her father's Château de Talcy. These books excited a violent literary quarrel. Marot was dead, but he left numerous followers, some of whom saw in the stricter literary critique of the Pléiade, in its outspoken contempt of merely vernacular and medieval forms, in its strenuous advice to French poetry to "follow the ancients," and so forth, an insult to the author of the Adolescence Clémentine and his school.[3] Fame[edit] Pierre de Ronsard His popularity in his own time was overwhelming and immediate, and his prosperity was unbroken. He published his Hymns, dedicated to Margaret de Valois, in 1555; the conclusion of the Amours, addressed to another heroine, in 1556; and then a collection of Œuvres completes, said to be due to the invitation of Mary Stuart, Queen of Francis II, in 1560; with Elégies, mascarades et bergeries in 1565. To this same year belongs his most important and interesting Abrégé de l'art poétique français. The rapid change of sovereigns did Ronsard no harm. Charles IX, King of France, who succeeded his brother after a very short time, was even better inclined to him than Henry and Francis. He gave him rooms in the palace; he bestowed upon him diverse abbacies and priories; and he called him and regarded him constantly as his master in poetry. Neither was Charles IX a bad poet. This royal patronage, however, had its disagreeable side. It excited violent dislike to Ronsard on the part of the Huguenots, who wrote constant pasquinades against him, strove (by a ridiculous exaggeration of the Dionysiac festival at Arcueil, in which the friends had indulged to celebrate the success of the first French tragedy, Jodelle's Cleopatre) to represent him as a libertine and an atheist, and (which seems to have annoyed him more than anything else) set up his follower Du Bartas as his rival. According to some words of his own, they were not contented with this variety of argument, but attempted to have him assassinated. During this period, Ronsard began writing the epic poem the Franciade (1572), a work that was never finished and is generally considered a failure due to its versification—a decasyllabic metre of rimes plates that corresponds poorly with the genre of epic poetry. The metre (the decasyllable) could not but contrast unfavourably with the magnificent alexandrines that Du Bartas and Agrippa d'Aubigné were shortly to produce; the general plan is feebly classical, and the very language has little or nothing of that racy mixture of scholarliness and love of natural beauty which distinguishes the best work of the Pléiade. The poem could never have had an abiding success, but at its appearance it had the singular bad luck almost to coincide with the massacre of St Bartholomew, which had occurred about a fortnight before its publication. One party in the state were certain to look coldly on the work of a minion of the court at such a juncture, the other had something else to think of. The death of Charles made little difference in the court favour which Ronsard enjoyed, but, combined with his increasing infirmities, it seems to have determined him to quit court life. During his last days he lived chiefly at a house which he possessed in Vendôme, the capital of his native province, at his abbey at Croix-Val in the same neighbourhood, or else at Paris, where he was usually the guest of Jean Galland, well known as a scholar, at the College de Boncourt. It seems also that he had a town house of his own in the Fauhourg Saint-Marcel. At any rate his preferments made him in perfectly easy circumstances, and he seems neither to have derived nor wished for any profit from his books. A half-jocular suggestion that his publishers should give him money to buy "du bois pour se chauffer" in return for his last revision of his Œuvres complètes is the only trace of any desire of the kind. On the other hand, he received not merely gifts and endowments from his own sovereign but presents from many others, including Elizabeth I of England. Mary, Queen of Scots addressed him from her prison, and Tasso consulted him on the Gerusalemme. Final years[edit] His last years were saddened not merely by the death of many of his closest friends, but by increasing ill health. This did not interfere with the quality of his literary work; he was rarely idle, and some of his final verse is among his best. But he indulged the temptation to alter his work repeatedly, and many of his later alterations are not improvements. Towards the end of 1585 his health deteriorated, and he seems to have moved restlessly from one of his houses to another for some months. When the end came—which, though in great pain, he met in a resolute and religious manner—he was at his priory of Saint-Cosme in Touraine, and he was buried in the church of that name on Friday, 27 December 1585. Works[edit] A 1571 book of Ronsard's works The character and fortunes of Ronsard's works are among the most remarkable in literary history, and supply in themselves a kind of illustration of the progress of French literature during the last three centuries. It was long his fortune to be almost always extravagantly admired or violently attacked. At first, as has been said, the enmity, not altogether unprovoked, of the friends and followers of Marot fell to his lot, then the still fiercer antagonism of the Huguenot faction, who, happening to possess a poet of great merit in Du Bartas, were able to attack Ronsard at his tenderest point. But fate had by no means done its worst with him in his lifetime. After his death the classical reaction set in under the auspices of Malherbe, who seems to have been animated with a sort of personal hatred of Ronsard, though it is not clear that they ever met. After Malherbe, the rising glory of Corneille and his contemporaries obscured the tentative and unequal work of the Pléiade, which was, moreover, directly attacked by Boileau himself, the dictator of French criticism in the last half of the 17th century. Then Ronsard was, except by a few men of taste, such as Jean de La Bruyère and Fénelon, forgotten when he was not sneered at. In this condition he remained during the whole 18th century and the first quarter of the 19th. The Romantic revival, seeing in him a victim of its special bête noire Boileau, and attracted by his splendid diction, rich metrical faculty, and combination of classical and medieval peculiarities, adopted his name as a kind of battle-cry, and for the moment exaggerated his merits somewhat. The critical work of Sainte-Beuve in his Tableau de la littérature francaise au 16ème siècle, and later of other authors, has established Ronsard's reputation. Ronsard was the acknowledged chief of the Pléiade and its most voluminous poet. He was probably also its best, though a few isolated pieces of Belleau excel him in airy lightness of touch. Several sonnets of Du Bellay exhibit the melancholy of the Renaissance more perfectly than anything of his, and the finest passages of the Tragiques and the Divine Sep'Maine surpass his work in command of the alexandrine and in power of turning it to the purposes of satirical invective and descriptive narration. But that work is very extensive (we possess at a rough guess not much short of a hundred thousand lines of his), and it is extraordinarily varied in form. He did not introduce the sonnet into France, but he practised it soon after its introduction and with skill - the famous "Quand vous serez bien vieille" being one of the acknowledged gems of French literature. Rose cultivar 'Pierre de Ronsard', named in reference to Ronsard's poem Ode à Cassandre (Mignonne, allons voir si la rose...) His many odes are interesting, and at best are fine compositions. He began by imitating the strophic arrangement of the ancients, but very soon had the wisdom to desert this for a kind of adjustment of the Horatian ode to rhyme, instead of exact quantitative metre. In this latter kind he devised some exquisitely melodious rhythms of which, till our own day, the secret died with the 17th century. His more sustained work sometimes displays a bad selection of measure; and his occasional poetry—epistles, eclogues, elegies, etc.--is injured by its vast volume. But the preface to the Franciade is a fine piece of verse, superior (it is in alexandrines) to the poem itself. In general, Ronsard is best in his amatory verse (the long series of sonnets and odes to Cassandre, Pikles, Marie, Genévre, Héléne—Héléne de Surgeres, a later and mainly "literary" love—etc.), and in his descriptions of the country (the famous "Ode à Cassandre[1]," the "Fontaine Bellerie," the "Forêt de Gastine," and so forth), which are graceful and fresh. He used the graceful diminutives which his school set in fashion. He knew well too how to manage the gorgeous adjectives ("marbrine," "cinabrine," "ivoirine" and the like) which were another fancy of the Pléiade. In short, Ronsard shows eminently the two great attractions of French 16th-century poetry as compared with that of the two following ages - magnificence of language and imagery and graceful variety of metre. Bibliography[edit] Bust and inscription of Pierre de Ronsard at the Château de Blois. The chief separately published works of Ronsard are noted above. He produced, however, during his life a vast number of separate publications, some of them mere pamphlets or broadsheets, which from time to time he collected, often striking out others at the same time, in the successive editions of his works. Of these he himself published seven - the first in 1560, the last in 1584. Between his death and the year 1630 ten more complete editions were published, the most famous of which is the folio of 1609. A copy of this presented by Sainte-Beuve to Victor Hugo, and later in the possession of Maxime du Camp, has a place of its own in French literary history. The work of Claude Binet in 1586, Discours de la vie de Pierre de Ronsard, is very important for early information, and the author seems to have revised some of Ronsard's work under the poet's own direction. From 1630 Ronsard was not again reprinted for more than two centuries. Just before the close of the second, however, Sainte-Beuve printed a selection of his poems to accompany the above-mentioned Tableau (1828). There are also selections, Choix de poésies - publiées par A. Noël (in the Collection Didot) and Becq de Fouquières. In 1857 Prosper Blanchemain, who had previously published a volume of Œuvres inédites de Ronsard, undertook a complete edition for the Bibliothèque Elzévirienne, in eight volumes. It is practically complete; a few pieces of a somewhat free character which are ascribed with some certainty to the poet are, however, excluded. A later and better edition still is that of Marty-Laveaux (1887–1893), and another that of Benjamin Pifteau (1891). Notes[edit] ^ This was under the tutelage of a certain "le seigneur Paul" who read passages to Ronsard daily from Homer and Virgil. See Charles Graves, Lyrics of Ronsard, London: Oliver and Boyd, 1967. p. 11. ^ Charles Graves, Lyrics of Ronsard, London: Oliver and Boyd, 1967, p. 12. ^ The French court, and indeed all French society, was just then much interested in literary questions, and a curious story is told of the rivalry that ensued. Mellin de Saint-Gelais, it is said, the chief of the "École Marotique" and a poet of no small merit, took up Ronsard's book and read part of it in a more or less designedly burlesque fashion before the king. It may be observed that if he did so it was a distinctly rash and uncourtier-like act, inasmuch as, from Ronsard's father's position in the royal household, the poet was personally known and liked both by Henry and by his family." At any rate, Marguerite de Valois, the king's sister, afterwards duchess of Savoy, is said to have snatched the book from Saint-Gelais and insisted on reading it herself, with the result of general applause. Henceforward, if not before, his acceptance as a poet was not doubtful, and indeed the tradition of his having to fight his way against cabals is almost entirely unsupported. References[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Ronsard, Pierre de". Encyclopædia Britannica. 23 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 691–693. Further reading[edit] General[edit] Hennigfeld, Ursula: Der ruinierte Körper: Petrarkistische Sonette in transkultureller Perspektive Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann, 2008. Criticism[edit] Sainte-Beuve, articles in the Causeries du lundi. F. L. Lucas, "The Prince of Court-Poets", an essay on Ronsard in Studies French and English (London, 1934), pp. 76–114. (Online. Revised edition 1950; reprinted in The Cassell Miscellany (London, 1958). External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pierre de Ronsard. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Pierre de Ronsard Biography, Bibliography, Analysis (in French) Podcast: Audio reading of the poem «Je n'ai plus que les os» (in French) Background and digital facsimiles of rare editions of Ronsard's works At the University of Virginia's Gordon Collection Works by or about Pierre de Ronsard at Internet Archive Works by Pierre de Ronsard at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Authority control BIBSYS: 90053895 BNE: XX1073992 BNF: cb11922538t (data) CANTIC: a11420492 CiNii: DA01059166 GND: 118602519 ISNI: 0000 0001 2101 7491 LCCN: n79026804 LNB: 000050003 MBA: f14a2821-6bef-41c9-bf8a-d298ce789a3c NDL: 00454592 NKC: jn19990007128 NLA: 35460882 NLG: 119605 NLI: 000613498 NLK: KAC201811426 NSK: 000033209 NTA: 068453671 RERO: 02-A003758771 SELIBR: 207615 SNAC: w66d5txr SUDOC: 027107957 Trove: 960935 ULAN: 500291216 VcBA: 495/22273 VIAF: 61551687 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79026804 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pierre_de_Ronsard&oldid=993295233" Categories: 1524 births 1585 deaths People from Loir-et-Cher University of Paris alumni French poets Prince des poètes French fantasy writers Sonneteers 16th-century male writers 16th-century French poets French male poets Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Commons link is on Wikidata Articles with French-language sources (fr) Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers AC with 26 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages العربية تۆرکجه Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Magyar Македонски مازِرونی Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Walon West-Vlams 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 9 December 2020, at 21:41 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1077	----	Cosmetics in ancient Rome - Wikipedia Cosmetics in ancient Rome From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Cosmetae applying cosmetics to a wealthy Roman woman. Cosmetics, first used in ancient Rome for ritual purposes,[1] were part of daily life for women, especially prostitutes and the wealthy. Some fashionable cosmetics, such as those imported from Germany, Gaul and China, were so expensive that the Lex Oppia tried to limit their use in 189 BCE.[2] These "designer brands" spawned cheap knock-offs that were sold to poorer women.[3] Working-class women could afford the cheaper varieties, but may not have had the time (or slaves) to apply the makeup[4] as the use of makeup was a time-consuming affair because cosmetics needed to be reapplied several times a day due to weather conditions and poor composition.[5] Cosmetics were applied in private, usually in a small room where men did not enter. Cosmetae, female slaves that adorned their mistresses, were especially praised for their skills.[6] They would beautify their mistresses with cultus, the Latin word encompassing makeup, perfume and jewelry.[7] Scent was also an important factor of beauty. Women who smelled good were presumed to be healthy. Due to the stench of many of the ingredients used in cosmetics at the time, women often drenched themselves in copious amounts of perfume.[8] Christian women tended to avoid cosmetics with the belief that they should praise what God gave them.[9] Some men, especially cross-dressers, did use cosmetics, although it was viewed as effeminate and improper.[10] All cosmetic ingredients were also used as medicines to treat various ailments. Lead, although known to be poisonous, was still widely used.[7] Contents 1 Men's attitudes 2 Skincare 3 Rouge 4 Eye makeup 5 Lips, nails and teeth 6 Perfume 7 Containers and mirrors 8 Prostitutes 9 Men's use 10 See also 11 References 12 External links Men's attitudes[edit] Roman attitudes towards cosmetics evolved with the expansion of the empire. The assortment of cosmetics available increased as trade borders expanded and the resulting influx of wealth granted women additional slaves and time to spend on beauty. Ideas of beauty from conquered peoples, especially the Greeks and Egyptians, greatly influenced the Roman paradigm of beauty.[10] Unlike their eastern trading partners however, the Romans felt that only the "preservation of beauty" was acceptable and not "unnatural embellishment". Despite exaggerating their makeup to make it appear in the poor lighting of the time, women still wanted to appear natural as a sign of chastity. Artificiality denoted a desire to be seductive, which made men question for whom exactly a woman was trying to appear attractive. This was why men generally viewed the use of cosmetics as deceitful and manipulative.[11] Vestal Virgins did not don makeup because they were supposed to look holy and chaste. Postumia, one of the Vestal Virgins, defied this convention and consequently, was accused of incestum.[12] Of all the surviving texts mentioning cosmetics (all written by men) Ovid is alone in his approval of their use. The consensus was that women who used cosmetics in excess were immoral and deceptive and were practicing a form of witchcraft. Juvenal wrote that "a woman buys scents and lotions with adultery in mind" and mocked the need for cosmetics, believing that they were ineffective. Use of perfumes was further looked down upon because they were thought to mask the smell of sex and alcohol. Seneca advised virtuous women to avoid cosmetics, as he believed their use to be a part of the decline of morality in Rome. Stoics were also against the use of cosmetics, as they were opposed to the usage of all man-made luxuries. Although there are no surviving texts written by women expounding the attitude of women towards cosmetics, their widespread use indicates that women accepted and enjoyed these products.[2] Skincare[edit] Pure white skin, a demarcation of the leisure class, was the most important feature of Roman beauty.[7] Native Roman women weren’t naturally fair-skinned and spent their time outside with oils on their faces, requiring whitening makeup to fit their model of beauty.[13] Women would often prepare their faces with beauty masks prior to applying makeup. One recipe called for the application of sweat from sheep's wool (lanolin) to the face before bedtime,[14] emitting a stench often criticized by men.[15] Other ingredients included juice, seeds, horns, excrement,[16] honey, plants, placenta, marrow, vinegar, bile, animal urine, sulfur, vinegar,[6] eggs, myrrh, incense, frankincense,[17] ground oyster shells,[18] onions with poultry fat, white lead, and barley with vetch. Bathing in asses’ milk was an expensive treatment that worked like a chemical peel and was used by wealthy women such as Cleopatra VII and Poppaea Sabina.[19] After their baths, they would then apply face whitener, such as chalk powder,[20] white marl, crocodile dung and white lead.[7] The Roman recognition that lead was poisonous underscored their point of view on how important white skin was. Other ingredients used in whiteners included beeswax, olive oil, rosewater, saffron,[3] animal fat, tin oxide, starch,[21] rocket (arugula), cucumber, anise, mushrooms, honey, rose leaves, poppies, myrrh, frankincense,[7] almond oil, rosewater, lily root, water parsnip and eggs.[8] The Romans disliked wrinkles, freckles, sunspots, skin flakes and blemishes.[6] To soften wrinkles, they used swans’ fat, asses’ milk, gum Arabic and bean-meal.[7] Sores and freckles were treated with the ashes of snails.[7] The Romans pasted soft leather patches of alum directly over blemishes to pretend that they were beauty marks. Criminals and freedmen used these leather patches, which came in both round and crescent shapes, to conceal brand marks.[8] With the exception of hair on her head, hair was considered to be unattractive on a Roman woman. Consequently, women removed hair by either shaving, plucking, stripping using a resin paste, or scraping with a pumice stone. Older women faced ridicule for their depilation because it was viewed primarily as preparation for sex.[22] Rouge[edit] Although Romans esteemed pale faces, a light pink on the cheeks was considered to be attractive, signifying good health. Plutarch wrote that too much rouge made a woman look showy, while Martial mocked women, believing that rouge was in danger of melting in the sun.[4] Sources of rouge included Tyrian vermillion,[10] rose and poppy petals, fucus,[23] red chalk, alkanet, and crocodile dung.[24] Red ochre, a more expensive blush, was imported from Belgium and ground against a stone into powder.[17] Despite a widespread knowledge that cinnabar and red lead were poisonous, they were both still used extensively.[7] Cheap alternatives included mulberry juice and wine dregs.[8] Eye makeup[edit] Roman glass perfume flask and two-part eye makeup container. The ideal eyes, from the Roman perspective, were large with long eyelashes. Pliny the Elder wrote that eyelashes fell out from sexual excess, and so it was especially important for women to keep their eyelashes long to prove their chastity.[25] Kohl was the main ingredient in eye makeup, and was composed of ashes or soot and antimony, with saffron usually added to improve the smell. Kohl was applied using a rounded stick, made of ivory, glass, bone, or wood, that would be dipped in either oil or water first, before being used to apply the kohl.[7] The use of kohl as makeup came from the east. In addition to kohl, charred rose petals[26] and date stones could be used to darken the eyes.[8] Colored eyeshadow was also applied by women to accentuate their eyes. Green eyeshadow came from malachite, while blue came from azurite.[3] The Romans preferred dark eyebrows that almost met in the center.[7] This effect was achieved by darkening their eyebrows with antimony or soot and then extending them inward.[3] Plucking began in the 1st century BCE to tidy their overall look.[4] Lips, nails and teeth[edit] Although evidence for the usage of lipstick appears in earlier civilizations, no such evidence has materialized to indicate that the Romans ever colored their lips.[27] The only evidence for painting nails comes from a red dye they imported that was produced from an Indian insect. Generally only the wealthy cut their nails, as they used barbers to clip their nails short, following the contemporary practice for good hygiene.[7] Although oral hygiene was nowhere near today’s standards, white teeth were prized by the Romans, and so false teeth, made from bone, ivory and paste, were popular items. Ovid shed light on the way white teeth were viewed in society when he wrote the statement, "You can do yourself untold damage when you laugh if your teeth are black, too long or irregular."[4] The Romans also sweetened their breath with powder and baking soda.[6] Perfume[edit] Roman perfume bottles (unguentari) on display at Villa Boscoreale Perfumes were very popular in Ancient Rome. In fact, they were so heavily used that Cicero claimed that, "The right scent for a woman is none at all."[4] They came in liquid, solid and sticky forms and were often created in a maceration process with flowers or herbs and oil.[5] Distillation technology, as well as most of the imported ingredients, originated in the east.[6] The most prominent perfume market in Italy was Seplasia in Capua.[15] Perfumes were rubbed on or poured onto the user and were often believed to be helpful against different ailments, such as fever and indigestion. Different scents were appropriate for different occasions,[10] as well as for men and women.[28] Deodorants made from alum, iris and rose petals were common.[29] In addition to personal use, perfumes were used in food and to freshen the household aroma.[5] Containers and mirrors[edit] Makeup usually came in tablet or cake form, sold at marketplaces.[7] Wealthy women bought expensive makeup that came in elaborate containers made from gold, wood, glass or bone.[6] Kohl came in compartmentalized tubes that could store more than one color of eye makeup.[7] Glassblowing, invented in the 1st century CE in Syria, lowered the price of containers. The most common color for glass was teal.[2] Gladiator sweat and fats of the animals fighting in the arena were sold in souvenir pots outside of the games to improve complexion.[3] Mirrors in Ancient Rome were mostly hand mirrors made from polished metal, or mercury behind glass.[4] Spending too much time in front of a mirror was thought to denote that a woman was weak in character.[13] Prostitutes[edit] Further information: Prostitution in ancient Rome Cosmetics, and especially their overuse, were commonly associated with prostitutes, both being regarded as immoral and seductive. The Latin word lenocinium actually meant both "prostitution" and "makeup". Due to their low income, prostitutes tended to use cheaper cosmetics, which emitted rather foul odors.[30] This, combined with the strong, exotic scents used to cover up the stench, made brothels smell especially rank. As prostitutes aged, with their income dependent on their appearance, they opted for more copious amounts of makeup. Courtesans often received cosmetics and perfumes as gifts or partial payment.[27] Men's use[edit] Men are also known to have used cosmetics in Roman times, although it was frowned upon by society. Men seen carrying mirrors were viewed as effeminate, while those using face-whitening makeup were thought to be immoral because they were expected to be tanned from working outside.[31] Two of the more acceptable practices were the light use of certain perfumes and moderate hair removal. A man removing too much hair was viewed as effeminate, while removing too little made him seem unrefined.[13] The Romans found it especially inappropriate for an emperor to be vain, as was apparently the case with the Emperor Otho.[32] The Emperor Elagabalus removed all of his body hair and often donned makeup, which caused the Romans much grief.[33] See also[edit] Medicamina Faciei Femineae, by Ovid, a singular didactic poem for the female face, whose methods are still used in the manufacture of cosmetics and pharmaceuticals today.[34] References[edit] ^ An Ancient Roman Make-up Lesson The History Channel. Retrieved 2009-10-29. ^ a b c Stewart, Susan. Cosmetics & Perfumes in the Roman World. Gloucestershire: Tempus, 2007, pp. 123-136. ^ a b c d e Ancient cosmetics brought to life BBC News. Retrieved 2009-10-29. ^ a b c d e f Cowell, F.R. Everyday Life in Ancient Rome. London: Batsford, 1961, pp. 63-66. ^ a b c Stewart, Susan. Cosmetics & Perfumes in the Roman World. Gloucestershire: Tempus, 2007, pp. 9-13. ^ a b c d e f A Brief History of Cosmetics in Roman Times Archived 2014-02-23 at the Wayback Machine Life in Italy. Retrieved 2009-10-29. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Olson, Kelly. Dress and the Roman Woman. New York: Routledge, 2008, pp. 61-70. ^ a b c d e Stewart, Susan. Cosmetics & Perfumes in the Roman World. Gloucestershire: Tempus, 2007, pp. 32-60. ^ Tertullian, De cultu feminarum, 2.5. ^ a b c d Angeloglou, Maggie. A History of Make-up. London: Studio Vista, 1970, pp. 30-32 ^ Achilles Tatius. Leucippe and Cleitophon. 2.38.2-3. ^ Livy, History of Rome Archived 2009-10-02 at the Wayback Machine, 4.44.11. ^ a b c Stewart, Susan. Cosmetics & Perfumes in the Roman World. Gloucestershire: Tempus, 2007, pp. 82-95. ^ Ovid, The Art of Love. 3.213-14. ^ a b Balsdon, J.P.D.V. "Roman Women: Their History and Habits". London: Bodley Head, 1962, p. 261. ^ Ovid, The Art of Love., 3.270. ^ a b Ovid, The Art of Beauty. ^ Pliny the Elder, Natural History, 32.65. ^ Pliny the Elder, Natural History, 11.238. ^ Horace, Epodes, 12.10. ^ Roman cosmetic secrets revealed BBC News. Retrieved 2009-10-29. ^ Martial. 12.32.21-2, 10.90. ^ Pliny the Elder. Natural History, 26.103. ^ Horace, Epodes, 12.10-11. ^ Pliny the Elder, Natural History, 11.154. ^ Pliny the Elder, Natural History, 21,123, 35.194. ^ a b Stewart, Susan. Cosmetics & Perfumes in the Roman World. Gloucestershire: Tempus, 2007, pp. 111-114. ^ Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae, 15.684. ^ Pliny the Elder, Natural History, 21.142, 35.185, 21.121. ^ Seneca, Controversiae, 2.21. ^ Ovid, The Art of Love. 1.513. ^ Juvenal, Satires, 2.99-101. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History 80.14.4. ^ Peter Green, (Autumn, 1979). "Ars Gratia Cultus: Ovid as Beautician". American Journal of Philology (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press) 100 (3):pp. 390-1. External links[edit] The History Channel: An Ancient Roman Make-up Lesson Video demonstration Ovid's "The Art of Beauty" A Brief History of Cosmetics in Roman Times BBC News: Ancient cosmetics brought to life BBC News: Roman cosmetic secrets revealed v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cosmetics_in_ancient_Rome&oldid=984168191" Categories: History of cosmetics Ancient Roman culture Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Русский Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 18 October 2020, at 16:18 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1103	----	Category:Latin-language writers - Wikipedia Help Category:Latin-language writers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search History portal Wikimedia Commons has media related to Writers in Latin. This category contains people who lived during the period of the Roman Republic and/or the Roman Empire and who wrote in the Latin language. Contents Top 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Subcategories This category has the following 12 subcategories, out of 12 total.   ► Latin-language writers by period‎ (7 C) B ► Roman-era biographers‎ (7 P) D ► Ancient Roman dramatists and playwrights‎ (2 C) G ► Roman-era geographers‎ (1 C, 11 P) H ► Latin historians‎ (2 C, 50 P) L ► Latin commentators on Aristotle‎ (37 P) ► Latin writers by century‎ (19 C) ► Latin writers known only from secondary sources‎ (23 P) ► Latin letter writers‎ (6 C, 62 P) P ► Roman-era poets‎ (6 C, 81 P) R ► Roman military writers‎ (9 P) W ► Works by ancient Latin writers‎ (16 C) Pages in category "Latin-language writers" The following 116 pages are in this category, out of 116 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). A Andrzej Abrek Luc d'Achery Aelius Festus Aphthonius Girolamo Aleandro, the younger Alcimus Alethius Alfenus Varus Alphius Avitus Livius Andronicus Jean-Baptiste-Gaspard d'Ansse de Villoison Marcus Antistius Labeo Quintus Antistius Labeo Arnobius Alfonso Clemente de Aróstegui Giuseppe Simone Assemani B Étienne Baluze Frang Bardhi Caesius Bassus Vitus Bering (1617–1675) Pere Antoni Beuter Hieronymus de Bosch C Aulus Caecina Severus (writer) Eliseo Calenzio Martianus Capella Gaius Cassius Parmensis Aulus Cornelius Celsus Censorinus Elio Lampridio Cerva Émile Chatelain Appius Claudius Caecus Columella Robert Constantin Cornelius Labeo Cornelius Severus Cornificia Aulus Cremutius Cordus D Ferdinand de Meeûs Dezallier d'Argenville Sebastiano Dolci Double Heroides André du Laurens Ignjat Đurđević E Ennius Johann Heinrich Ernesti Eucolpius F Fenestella Nigidius Figulus Siculus Flaccus Frontinus G Aulus Gellius Vlaho Getaldić Conrad Goclenius Grattius Hyginus Gromaticus H Aulus Hirtius Moritz Hohenbaum van der Meer Horace J Julius Caesar Julius Honorius Gaius Julius Hyginus Juvenal L Attius Labeo Decimus Laberius Josse Le Plat Jean Liebault Lucan M Aodh Buidhe Mac an Bhaird Licinius Macer Macrobius Malachy of Ireland Marcus Manilius Claude-Sixte Sautreau de Marsy Manuel Martí Martial Gaius Matius Marcus Minucius Felix Pedro de Morales N Aufidius Namusa Petrus Nannius Cornelius Nepos O Julius Obsequens Ovid P Rutilius Taurus Aemilianus Palladius Matteo Palmieri Master Patrick of Ireland Pelagonius Gabriel Pereira de Castro Persius Phaedrus (fabulist) Plautus Pliny the Younger Pliny the Younger on Christians Pontius of Carthage Michel de Pure Q Quintilian R Jean Racine Remigius of Lyon Publius Rutilius Rufus André du Ryer S Francisco Sánchez Barbero Scribonius Largus Seneca the Younger Statius Sulpicia Sulpicia (satirist) Symphosius Publilius Syrus T Terence Tibullus Titus Quinctius Atta Plotius Tucca U Aggenus Urbicus V Marcus Terentius Varro Gaius Marius Victorinus Joaquín Lorenzo Villanueva Virgil Vitruvius Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Latin-language_writers&oldid=952583522" Categories: Latin-language literature Writers by language Ancient writers Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Template Category TOC via CatAutoTOC on category with 101–200 pages CatAutoTOC generates standard Category TOC Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages العربية Aragonés Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Brezhoneg Буряад Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 Italiano עברית Қазақша Latina Latviešu Magyar Nederlands Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Picard Piemontèis Português Română Русский Sardu Scots Slovenščina کوردی Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Taqbaylit Татарча/tatarça Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt West-Vlams 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 23 April 2020, at 00:38 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1108	----	Tribal Assembly - Wikipedia Tribal Assembly From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e The Tribal Assembly (comitia populi tributa) was an assembly consisting of all Roman citizens convened by tribes (tribus). In the Roman Republic, citizens did not elect legislative representatives. Instead, they voted themselves on legislative matters in the popular assemblies (the comitia centuriata, the tribal assembly and the plebeian council). Bills were proposed by magistrates and the citizens only exercised their right to vote. In the Tribal Assembly, citizens were organized on the basis of 35 tribes: four urban tribes of the citizens in the city of Rome, and 31 rural tribes of citizens outside the city. Each tribe voted separately and one after the other. In each tribe, decisions were made by majority vote and its decision counted as one vote regardless of how many electors each tribe held. Once a majority of tribes voted in the same way on a given measure, the voting ended and the matter was decided.[1] The Tribal Assembly was chaired by a magistrate, usually a consul or a praetor. The presiding magistrate made all decisions on matters of procedure and legality. His power over the assembly could be nearly absolute. One check on his power came in the form of vetoes by other magistrates. Also, any decision made by a presiding magistrate could be vetoed by the plebeian tribunes. The Tribal Assembly elected the quaestors, and the curule aediles.[2] It conducted trials for non-capital punishment cases. However, the Roman Dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla reassigned this to special jury courts (quaestiones perpetuae) in 82 BC.[citation needed] There are disagreements among modern historians regarding the number and nature of the tribal assembly (see below). Contents 1 Definitions of types assemblies 2 Disagreements on the number and nature of tribal assemblies 3 Assembly procedures 4 Decline 5 Tribes 6 See also 7 References 8 Notes 9 Further reading 10 External links Definitions of types assemblies[edit] The Romans distinguished between two types of assemblies, the comitia (or comitatus) and the contio (contracted from conventio). The word comitia (going together), which was the plural of comitium (a purpose-built meeting place), referred to assemblies convened to make decisions on legislative or judicial matters or to hold elections. The word contio (coming together) referred to meetings where 'nothing was legally enacted'. They were convened to hear public announcements and pronouncements, speeches and debates, witness the interrogation of someone accused of in a trial and to watch executions. Opinions expressed in a contio did not have any legal validity.[3] The tribal assembly was a comitia. Private citizens who did not hold political office could make speeches in a contio, but not before a comitia or a concilium.[4] Voters always assembled first in a contio to hear debates or to enable canvassing by electoral candidates before voting. The actual voting took place in a comitia or concilium (for this term, see below).[5] Gellius wrote about a further distinction between comita and concilium, which he based on a quote from a passage written by Laelius Felix, an early second century AD jurist: He who orders not the entire people (populus) but some part thereof to be present ought to proclaim not a comitia, but a concilium. Moreover, the [plebeian] tribunes neither summon patricians nor have the power to propose anything to them. Thus, measures which were accepted on the proposal of the plebeian tribunes are not properly called laws (leges) but plebiscites. Patricians were not bound by these bills until the dictator Quintus Hortensius [287 BC] carried that law whereby all the Quirites (the Roman people) were bound by whatever the plebs had determined.[6] This has been taken as referring to the assembly which was reserved for the plebeians (or plebs, the commoners), thus excluding the patricians (the aristocracy), and which was convened by the tribunes of the plebs (also called by modern historians plebeian tribunes) – see plebeian council. Since the meetings of the plebs excluded the patricians, they were not considered as representing the whole of the Roman people and because of this, according to Laelius Felix, the term concilium applied to them. By contrast, the term comitia applied to assemblies which represented the whole of the Roman people. Measures passed by assemblies of the whole citizen body were called leges (laws), whereas those passed only by the plebeians were called plebiscites (resolutions of the plebs). Until the lex Hortensia passed by Quintus Hortensius in 287 BC, the patricians refused to accept the plebiscites as being binding on them on the ground that, because of their exclusion, did not apply to the whole of the people.[7] Disagreements on the number and nature of tribal assemblies[edit] Chart showing the checks and balances of the constitution of the Roman Republic Andrew Lintott notes that many modern historians follow Theodor Mommsen's view that during the Roman Republic there were two assemblies of the tribes and that the ancient sources used the term comitia tributa with reference both of them. One was the assembly by the tribes which was used for plebeian meetings to which the patricians were excluded and which was convened by the plebeian tribunes. The other assembly based on the tribes was convened by the Roman consuls or the praetors and was an assembly of the whole of the Roman people (both patricians and plebeians). However, the ancient sources did not have a differentiation in terminology for the two of them and used the term comitia tributa for both.[8] Many modern historians use the term comitia tributa or comitia populi tributa (comitia tributa of the people) to indicate meetings by the tribes which involved the whole of the Roman people (populus) and the term concilium plebis or concilium plebis tributum (plebeian council by the tribes) for assemblies based on the tribes which were exclusively for the plebeians. However, they are not found in the ancient Roman literature related to the Roman Republic. Therefore, they denote a distinction which can be disputed. It is based on the text by Gellius quoted above. Lintott notes that some modern historians reject the comitia tributa/concilium plebis distinction and the use of the quote by Gellius as its basis. They argue that this terminology is a convention established by modern historians which ancient writers did not make and that there was no assembly based on tribes other than the one where the plebeians met to vote and which was presided over by the plebeian tribunes, who submitted bills to its vote. References to laws which were submitted to the comitia tributa by the consuls in the ancient literature must have pertained to bills they presented to the comitia centuriata (the assembly of the soldiers, another voting assembly), a deviation from correct procedure found in the late Republic or instances in which these officials got the plebeian tribunes to propose bills for them.[9][10][11] Lintott disagrees with the notion that there was only one assembly based on the tribes, which was the one of the plebeians. He notes that there are examples in which laws were proposed to the comitia tributa by the consuls, who did not preside over the assembly of the plebeians. Examples of such laws are the law which increased the number of quaestors to twenty, which was attributed to Lucius Cornelius Sulla, the lex Gabinia Calpurnia de insula Delo of 58 BC and the lex Quinctia of 9 BC. Moreover, the consuls conducted the elections of the curule aediles, who were not plebeian officials, before the tribes. Therefore, it is likely that the term comitia tributa was used both for the assemblies presided over by the consuls and the praetors and the assemblies presided over by the plebeian tribunes.[12] One could add to this that Livy mentioned a comitia tributa which was convened by the consuls in 446 BC; that is, during the early Republic.[13] Forsythe presents a more recent account of the argument that the comitia tributa/concilium plebis distinction is a misplaced convention established by modern historians. He argues that it is found only in the quote by Gellius which comes from a text which was written in the imperial period; that is, after the fall of the Roman Republic and long after the assemblies of the Republic had ceased to function. This implies that Laelius Felix was not sufficiently familiar with these republican institutions. Forsythe argues that the distinctions between two assemblies based on the tribes "has no support in the extensive writings of Cicero and Livy, who must have been far more knowledgeable in these matters than Laelius Felix." Cicero lived during the late Republic. Livy was born during the late Republic and wrote a detailed history of the republican period. Forsythe also argues that the word comitia was used for formal assemblies convened 'to vote on legislative, electoral and judicial matters', and that concilium was a generic term 'for any kind of public meetings of citizens, including both comitia and contio.' His conclusion is that the mentioned distinction is an artificial modern construction with no authority in ancient texts, that 'the ancients speak only of a comitia tributa' and that it is likely that in Republican times there was a single tribal assembly known as comitia tributa.[14] According to the Roman tradition, in 494 BC, fifteen years after the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the Roman Republic, the Plebeiany temporarily seceded from the city of Rome, which started the two hundred-year Conflict of the Orders between the Patricians (the aristocracy) and the Plebeians (the commoners). During this first secession, the plebeians created their own institutions which were separate from those of the Roman state, which at that time was controlled by the patricians, and were intended to protect the interests of the plebeians. These included the plebeian tribunes, the plebeian aediles and the plebeian assembly. Forsythe takes the revisionist view further. He rejects the idea there was a plebeian assembly and maintains that the comitia tributa was an assembly of the whole of the Roman people and opines that the plebeian secession was a myth created in later times. Roman historians emerged in the late third and early second century BC, some three hundred year after the date attributed to this secession and the events of Rome's early history were poorly documented. Based on T. P. Wiseman's view that many of Rome's early historical traditions 'were created, propagated, accepted and reshaped' from the middle of the fourth century BC onward through dramas played on the stage at religious festivals[15] Forsythe argues that the story of the plebeian secession was invented in one such performances to explain the origin of the temple of Ceres and its plebeian associations. It was inspired by Herodotus' account of how Telines, a ruler of Gela, a Greek town in Sicily, used the rites of Demeter and Persephone to bring back to Gela a group of political exiles. This story of civil discord, reconciliation and integration and the cult of Demeter was used to fabricate the tale of the first plebeian secession where the plebeians seceded from Rome but were then reconciled and returned to the city.[16] The Ludi Ceriales (the games of Ceres) were held annually to celebrate the anniversary of the dedication of the temple of Ceres, which was dated by the tradition two years before the first secession.[17] Assembly procedures[edit] The convening of the assembly was announced three market-days (nundinae) in advance. The viatores (messengers) were sent "to inform those in country districts" about the convening of the assembly.[18] Later, for elections it was established that there should be a trinundinum, an interval of at least three market-days between the announcement of the election and the vote of the assembly, during which no legislation was permitted. The lex Caecilia Didia of 98 BC required a trinundinum interval between the announcement of a law and the vote. In the case of prosecutions before an assembly, the magistrate who presided over it was required to give "notice (diem dicere) to the accused of the first day of the investigation (inquisitio), then at the end of each hearing he announced the adjournment to the next (diem prodicere). After this there was a trinundinum interval before the assembly voted the verdict.[19] There are disagreements among scholars about how many days this interval lasted. Mommsen proposes 24 days, Michels 25 days. Lintott gives a flexible suggestion, 17 days or more.[20][21][22] There could be only one assembly operating at a time. The augur Marcus Valerius Messalla Rufus (who was consul in 53 BC) wrote a rule book (On Auspices). Among other things, it established that lesser magistrates could not call off (avocare, call away) an assembly which had already been convened. Thus, "whoever of them first summons the people to an election has the law on his side, because it is unlawful to take the same action twice with the people nor can one minor magistrate call away an assembly from another." However, a consul could call off a comitia or contio convened by another magistrate and a praetor could call off one summoned by other magistrates except a consul. If an assembly was called "to address a contio without laying any measure before them, it is lawful for any number of magistrates to hold a contio at the same time." [23] Lintott suggests that this rule was intended to prevent rivalry among magistrates.[22] In addition to the presiding magistrate of an assembly there were several other magistrates to act as assistants. They were available to help resolve procedural disputes and to provide a mechanism for electors to appeal the decisions of the presiding magistrate.[24] Since the Romans believed that the gods communicated their approval or disapproval with proposed actions, the presiding magistrate performed augury (the divination of the omens of the gods) the night before a meeting. There were also augurs (priests who performed augury), either in attendance or on-call, who would be available to help interpret the omens of the gods.[25] The meeting could only proceed if the omens were favourable. On several known occasions, presiding magistrates used the claim of unfavourable omens as an excuse to suspend a session that was not going the way they wanted. If after the assembly the augurs decided that some formality had been neglected, its vote became void. In the case of elections, those persons had been elected to an office had to resign.[26] There were several cases in which an assembly could be adjourned. On religious grounds, this could happen, besides when the auspices were found to be unfavourable, when the gods manifested their displeasure by rain, thunder, or lightning or if the sun set before the proceedings were completed – this was because the auspices were considered to be valid only for one day from dawn to sunset. Other reasons were the veto of a plebeian tribune and one of the assembled citizens suffering an epileptic fit (morbus comitialis). In the politically volatile years of the late Republic, at times assemblies were broken up by riots. If an assembly convened as a court, its being broken up was equivalent to an acquittal of the accused.[26] On the day of the vote the tribes convened at dawn. The meeting started with a prayer, unaccompanied by sacrifice.[27] For legislative meetings the presiding magistrate was the one who proposed the bill (rogatio legis) to be voted on and after the prayer he laid his bill before the people. For electoral meetings, he announced the names of the candidates. If the meeting was for a trial, he made the people acquainted with the nature of the offence on which the people had to pass a verdict. He concluded the announcement with the words velitis, jubeatis Quirites (command your wish, citizens). A rogatio was read out by the praeco (the crier or herald). Then the contio begun. The voters were not sorted into their tribes. For legislative matters there was a debate on the rogatio in which private citizens had to ask the presiding magistrate for permission to speak. This debate took place before the bill was either vetoed or put to the vote.[26][28] If the vote was for an election, the candidates used the contio for canvassing and there were no speeches by private citizens.[29] After the above, the voters were told to break up the contio and to arrange themselves by the tribes with the formula discedite, quirites (depart to your separate groups, citizens). The tribes voted one by one. The voters assembled in enclosures called saepta[30] and voted by placing a pebble or written ballot into an appropriate jar. The baskets (cistae) that held the votes were watched by officers (the custodes) who then counted the ballots and reported the results to the presiding magistrate.[31] The majority of votes in each tribe decided how that tribe voted. The presiding magistrate (either a consul or a praetor), always ensured that all tribes had at least five members voting, and if a tribe did not, individuals from other tribes were reassigned to the vacant places in that tribe.[32] The order in which the tribes voted was determined by lot. An urn into which lots were cast was brought in. From then on, the plebeian tribunes were not allowed to exercise their right to veto.[33] The first tribe to vote was called praerogativa or principium and the result of its vote was announced immediately.[34] The tribes which voted next were called jure vocatae.[26] When a majority of tribes had voted the same way, voting ended. The results of votes of each tribe was announced in an order also determined by lot before the announcement of the final result. This announcement was called renuntiatio.[27] The praerogativa or principium was usually the most important tribe, because it often decided the matter through a bandwagon effect. It was believed that the order of the lot was chosen by the gods, and thus, that the position held by the tribes which voted earlier was the position of the gods.[35] If the voting process was not complete by nightfall, the electors were dismissed and the voting had to begin again the next day.[36] Laws passed by the comitia took effect as soon as the results were announced.[27] It has been speculated that the word suffragium (vote) indicates that in the early days the men in the assembly made a crash with their arms to signal approval, rather than vote. Another speculation is that the term rogatores (sing. rogator, a teller, an official who asked the people for their votes or collected votes) indicates that in later times, but before the introduction of the written ballot, the assembled men were asked to express their votes verbally and that this was recorded with marks inscribed in tablets. However, there is no evidence for either of these. The written ballot was introduced by a series of laws, the lex Gabinia tabellaria (139 BC) for elections, the lex Cassia tebellaria (137 BC) for non-capital punishment trials, the lex Papiria (131 BC) for legislation, and the lex Coelia (106 BC) for capital punishment trials (which were conducted before the comitia centuriata). This was an introduction of secret ballots which reduced undue influence or intimidation by the powerful elites, which was at times a problem during votes.[37] Although the order of voting was determined by lot, there was also an official order of the tribes, known as the ordo tribuum. The first four tribes were the urban tribes, in the order: Suburana, Palatina, Esquilina, Collina. The rural tribes followed, concluding with Aniensis. Crawford postulates that the rustic tribes were enumerated along the major roads leading from Rome (the Viae Ostiensis, Appia, Latina, Praenestina, Valeria, Salaria, Flaminia and Clodia), in a counter-clockwise order: Romilia, Voltinia, Voturia, Aemilia, Horatia, Maecia, Scaptia, Pomptina, Falerina, Lemonia, Papiria, Ufentina, Terentina, Pupinia, Menenia, Publilia, Cornelia, Claudia, Camilia, Aniensis, Fabia, Pollia, Sergia, Clustumina, Quirina, Velina, Stellatina, Tromentina, Galeria, Sabatina, Arniensis. This list omits the tribus Popillia, one of the earlier tribes.[38] The location of the meetings of the Tribal Assembly varied. Up to 145 BC were centred on comitium, a templum an open-air space, built for public meetings at the north end of the Roman Forum. The rostra, a speaking platform on its southern side of the comitium, was used for speeches. It was also used as a tribunal; that is, as a platform to deliver the votes. Then this place became too cramped and the steps of the Temple of Castor and Pollux at the forum's south-east end were used as the tribunal. Elevated gangways (pontes) which provided access to it were built by the second century BC. Meetings were also sometimes held in the area Capitolina, an open space in front and around the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, on the southern summit of the Capitoline Hill. In the late Republic the meetings were held outside the city walls, at the Campus Martius (the Field of Mars) a large flat area which could accommodate the simultaneous voting of the tribes and thus speed up the process.[39] Decline[edit] In the politically volatile and highly corrupt final years of the Roman Republic, the popular assemblies were susceptible to corruption and vulnerable to politically motivated violence by contenting political factions. The establishment of the Second Triumvirate in 43 BC effective abolished the functions of the comitia, as the triumvirs were granted authority by the lex Titia to appoint practically all offices without consulting the senate or the people.[40] Some actions were still passed using the assemblies, with certain laws providing for the erection of temples, the remission of rents in 41 BC, and the lex Falcidia governing inheritance in 40 BC;[40] similarly, various laws granting the triumvirs the right to wear the civic crown[40] were passed by plebiscite, as it would have been unseemly for them to simply have granted themselves those honours.[40] With the establishment of absolute rule by emperors after the fall of the Republic, the Republican assemblies were emasculated. Augustus, the first Roman emperor, became the real legislator and the comitia's role in passing laws became only a ceremonial one. He also removed the comitia's judicial functions, though these functions had fallen into disuse long before.[41] This assembly's electoral functions also become only nominal, with the assemblies effectively being dominated by the emperor.[42] Augustus filled half of the magistracies with his own candidates, though the magistracies as a whole had, by this point, so little political importance that imperial control over elections was minimal.[42] His successor, Tiberius transferred the comitia's remaining electoral authority to the senate.[42] Although the emperors received many of their powers from the comitia tributa, this was only a formality. The comitia tributa continued to exist until the third century AD, but its remaining functions were only symbolic. It took auspices and gave prayer. It conferred the emperor's legislative powers and other authority only in a ceremonial manner. It proclaimed the laws presented to it for approval by acclamatio, rather than a real vote.[27] Tribes[edit] Main article: Roman tribe The 35 tribes were not ethnic or kinship groups, but geographic divisions into which Roman citizens were distributed. They were administrative districts which served for the purposes of taxation, the military levy and for the registration of Roman citizens. This registration occurred regularly during the census and the names of citizens and their families were entered in the registers of the tribes. Lintott notes that 'the tribe was the critical indicator of Roman citizenship' for the adult sons of Roman fathers and also for 'those incorporated into the citizen body from the outside'. A man who came of age was enrolled as a new adult in the tribe of his father and could change it only through adoption into another family. Inhabitants of Italic towns who were incorporated into the Roman state by being given Roman citizenship were also registered in tribes. Consequently, "the tribe might therefore, came to bear little relationship to the whereabouts of the citizen's domicile or property." [43] With regard to the tribal assembly, the tribes were its voting districts. Each tribe had further subdivisions, which in the urban tribes were called vici (sing. vicus, in an urban context it meant neighbourhood) and in the rural tribes were called pagi (sing. pagus – which were rural sub-districts with a number of vici (which in a rural context meant villages and hamlets) and had a fortress. Professional guilds (collegia), were organised along tribal lines. The tribes were originally presided over by tribuni aerarii (tribunes of the public treasury) who had the tribal register and collected the property tax and paid the soldiers registered in the tribe.[44] Later this title became obsolete and the heads of the tribes were called curatores tribuum.[45] Besides these curatores there were also the divisores tribuum who were treasurers. These two types of officials probably had their own registers; the curatores were involved in the census.[8] By the late republic, their main task was to distribute bribes. Because tribal membership was re-registered once every five years in each census, it became possible to crudely gerrymander the tribes. While land could never be taken away from a tribe, the "censors" had the power to allocate new lands to existing tribes as a part of the Census. Thus, the censors had the power to apportion tribes in a manner that might be advantageous to them or to their partisans.[32] See also[edit] Roman tribe Pagus Vicus Collegia Roman censor Centuriate Assembly Plebeian Council Curiate Assembly References[edit] Abbott, Frank Frost (1901). A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. Elibron Classics (ISBN 0-543-92749-0). Byrd, Robert (1995). The Senate of the Roman Republic. U.S. Government Printing Office, Senate Document 103-23. Cicero, Marcus Tullius (1841). The Political Works of Marcus Tullius Cicero: Comprising his Treatise on the Commonwealth; and his Treatise on the Laws. Translated from the original, with Dissertations and Notes in Two Volumes. By Francis Barham, Esq. London: Edmund Spettigue. Vol. 1. Harper's Dictionary of Classical Antiquities, Second Edition, Harry Thurston Peck, Editor (1897): Comitia [1] Lintott, Andrew, "The Constitution of the Roman Republic" Oxford University Press, USA; new edition 2003; ISBN 978-0199261086 Taylor, Lily Ross (1966). Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar (Thomas Spencer Jerome Lectures), William Morrow, 1965; new edition by University of Michigan Press, 1991; ISBN 9780472081257 Taylor, L. R., Voting Districts of the Roman Republic: The Thirty-Five, Urban and Rural Tribes (Papers and Monographs of the American Academy in Rome), University of Michigan Press, Revised edition, 2013; ISBN 978-0472118694 Smith, W., Wayte, W., Marindin, G. E., (Eds), A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1890): Tribus [2] Notes[edit] ^ Taylor, L. R., Roman Voting Assemblies, p. 40 ^ Taylor, L. R., Roman Voting Assemblies, p. 7 ^ Lintott, A.,The Constitution of the Roman Republic, p. 42 ^ Abbott, F. F., A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions, p. 252 ^ Taylor,L. R., Roman Voting Assemblies, p. 2 ^ Gellius, Attic Nights, 15.27.4 ^ Botsford, George Willis (1909). The Roman Assembly. New York: Cooper Square Publishers Inc. p. 330. ^ a b Lintott, A., The Constitution of the Roman Republic, p. 53 ^ Botsford, George Willis (1909). The Roman Assemblies. New York: Cooper Square Publishers Inc. p. 119. ^ Develin, E., Comitia Tributa Plebis', Athenaeum (1975) 53, pp. 302–37; "'Comitia Tributa Again', Athenaeum (1977) 55, pp. 425–6 ^ Sandberg, K., The Concilium Plebis as a Legislative Body', in Paanen, U., et al, Senatus Populesque Romanus: Studies in Roman Republican Legislation, (Acta Inst. Rom. Fin 13) (1993), pp. 74–96 ^ Lintott, A., The Constitution of the Roman Republic, pp. 54–55 ^ Livy, The History of Rome, 3.71 ^ Forsythe, G., A critical History of Early Rome, pp. 180–81 ^ Wiseman, T. P., Remus, a Roman Myth (1995), p. 129 ^ Forsythe, G., A Critical History of Early Rome, pp. 172–75 ^ Dionysius of Halicanassus, Roman Antiquities, 6.17.3 ^ Appian, The Civil Wars, 1.29 ^ Lintott, A.,The Constitution of the Roman Republic, pp. 44–45 ^ Mommsen. T., Romische Staadtrecht (1887), I, pp. 375–6 ^ Michels, A. K., The Calendar of the Roman Republic (1967), pp. 88, 191ff. ^ a b Lintott, A.,The Constitution of the Roman Republic, p. 44 ^ Gellius, Attic Nights, 13.16 ^ Taylor, L. R., Roman Voting Assemblies, p. 63 ^ Taylor, L.R., Roman Voting Assemblies, pp. 6, 63 ^ a b c d Smith, W., Wayte, W., Marindin, G. E., (Eds), A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1890): Comitia ^ a b c d Harper's Dictionary of Classical Antiquities, Second Edition, Harry Thurston Peck, Editor (1897): Comitia ^ Lintott, A., The Constitution of the Roman Republic, p. 45 ^ Taylor, L. R., Roman Voting Assemblies. pp. 2, 16 ^ Taylor, L. R., Roman Voting Assemblies, p. 2 ^ Lintott, A., The Constitution of the Roman Republic, pp. 46–47 ^ a b Taylor, L. R., Roman Voting Assemblies, p. 66 ^ Lintott, A.,The Constitution of the Roman Republic, p. 46 ^ Taylor, L. R., Roman Voting Assemblies, p. 77 ^ Taylor, L. R.,Roman Voting Assemblies, p. 76 ^ Lintott, A.,The Constitution of the Roman Republic, p. 48 ^ Lintott, A., The Constitution of the Roman Republic, pp. 46–7 ^ Crawford, M. H., "Tribus, Tesserae, et Regions," in Comptes rendus de l'Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres (2002) vol. 146, pp. 1125–1135 ^ Lintott, A., The Constitution of the Roman Republic, pp. 46, 55 ^ a b c d Botsford, George Willis (1909). The Roman Assemblies. New York: Cooper Square Publishers Inc. p. 459. ^ Taylor, Thomas Marris (1899). A Constitutional and Political History of Rome. London: Methuen & Co. pp. 428. ^ a b c Taylor, Thomas Marris (1899). A Constitutional and Political History of Rome. London: Methuen & Co. pp. 427. ^ Lintott, A., The Constitution of the Roman Republic, p. 51 ^ Oxford Classical Dictionary, 2nd Ed. (1970): "Tribuni Aerarii." ^ Smith, W., Wayte, W., Marindin, G. E., (Eds), A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1890): Tribus Further reading[edit] Cameron, Avril, The Later Roman Empire, (Fontana Press, 1993). Crawford, Michael The Roman Republic (Fontana History of the Ancient World), Fontana Press; New edition, 2011; ISBN 978-0006862505 Crawford, Michael, "Tribus, Tesserae, et Regions," in Comptes rendus de l'Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres (2002) vol. 146, pp. 1125–1135 Gruen, Erich, "The Last Generation of the Roman Republic", University of California Press, new edition, 1995; ISBN 978-0520201538 Ihne, Wilhelm. Researches Into the History of the Roman Constitution: With an Appendix upon the Roman Knights (1853), reproduction by Leopold Classic Library, 2016; ASIN: B01AUO6MHU Millar, Fergus, The Emperor in the Roman World, Bristol Classical Press; new edition, 1992; ISBN 978-0715617229 Mommsen, Theodor. Roman Constitutional Law. 1871–1888 The Roman Constitution to the Time of Cicero Tighe, Ambrose. The Development of the Roman Constitution (1859), reproduction by Wentworth Press, 2016; ISBN 978-1371117351 Whetstone Johnston, Harold Orations and Letters of Cicero: With Historical Introduction, An Outline of the Roman Constitution, Notes, Vocabulary and Index (1891), reproduction by Ulan Press, 2012; ASIN: B009FU4FVQ External links[edit] Library resources about Tribal Assembly Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries v t e Roman Constitution Ancient Rome History Constitution Senate Assemblies Curiate Century Tribal Plebeian Magistrates Roman Kingdom History Constitution Senate Assemblies Magistrates Roman Republic History Constitution (reforms of Sulla • reforms of Caesar • reforms of Augustus) Senate Assemblies Magistrates Roman Empire History (post Diocletian) Constitution (post Diocletian) Senate Assemblies Magistrates Miscellaneous Sulla's Constitutional Reforms Caesar's Constitutional Reforms Conflict of the Orders Roman law v t e Ancient Rome topics 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en-wikipedia-org-1128	----	Aelius Donatus - Wikipedia Aelius Donatus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search from Nuremberg Chronicle Aelius Donatus (English: /doʊˈneɪtəs/; fl. mid-fourth century AD) was a Roman grammarian and teacher of rhetoric. St. Jerome states in Contra Rufinum 1.16 that Donatus was his tutor. Contents 1 Works 2 References 3 Further reading 4 External links Works[edit] He was the author of a number of professional works, of which several are extant: A partly incomplete commentary on the playwright Terence is compiled from other commentaries, but probably not in its original form. His Life of Virgil is thought to be based on a lost Vita by Suetonius, together with the preface and introduction of his commentary on Virgil's works. A greatly expanded version of Servius' commentary exists, however, which is supplemented with frequent and extensive extracts from what is thought to be Donatus' commentary on Virgil. His Ars grammatica, especially the section on the eight parts of speech, though possessing little claim to originality, and evidently based on the same authorities which were used by the grammarians Charisius and Diomedes, attained such popularity as a schoolbook that, in the Middle Ages, he became the eponym for a rudimentary treatise of any sort, called a donet. When books came to be printed in the 15th century, editions of the little book were multiplied to an enormous extent. It is also the only purely textual work to be printed in blockbook form (cut like a woodcut, not using movable type). It is in the form of an Ars Minor, which only treats of the parts of speech, and an Ars Major, which deals with grammar in general at greater length.[1] Donatus was a proponent of an early system of punctuation, consisting of dots placed in three successively higher positions to indicate successively longer pauses, roughly equivalent to the modern comma, colon, and full stop. This system remained current through the seventh century, when a more refined system due to Isidore of Seville gained prominence.[2] Donatus invented the system whereby a play is made up of three separate parts: protasis, epitasis, and catastrophe. Aelius Donatus should not be confused with Tiberius Claudius Donatus, also the author of a commentary (Interpretationes) on the Aeneid, who lived about 50 years later.[1] References[edit] ^ a b Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Donatus, Aelius" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 8 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 411. ^ M. B. Parkes, Pause and effect: punctuation in the west, 1993, ISBN 0-520-07941-8. Further reading[edit] Daintree, David. 1990. "The Virgil Commentary of Aelius Donatus: Black Hole or 'Éminence Grise'?" Greece & Rome 37.1: 65–79. Demetriou, Chrysanthi. 2014. "Aelius Donatus and His Commentary on Terence’s Comedies." In The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Comedy. Edited by Michael Fontaine and Adele C. Scafuro, 782–799. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Dutsch, Dorota M. 2008. Feminine Discourse in Roman Comedy. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Farrell, Joseph. 2016. "Ancient Commentaries on Theocritus’ Idylls and Virgil's Eclogues." In Classical Commentaries: Explorations in a Scholarly Genre. Edited by Christina F. Kraus and Christopher Stray, 397–418. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Ferri, Rolando. 2016. "An Ancient Grammarian's View of How the Spoken Language Works: Pragmalinguistic Observations in Donatus' Commentum Terentii." In The Latin of the Grammarians: Reflections about Language in the Roman World. Edited by Rolando Ferri and Anna Zago. Turnhout: Brepols Publishers. Kragelund, Patrick. 2012. "Evidence for Performances of Republican Comedy in Fourth-century Rome." Classical Quarterly 62.1: 415–422. Maltby, Robert. 2003. "The Role of Etymologies in Servius and Donatus." In Etymologia: Studies in Ancient Etymology. Proceedings of the Cambridge Conference on Ancient Etymology, 25-27 September 2000. Edited by Christos Nifadopoulos, 103–118. Münster, Germany: Nodus Publikationen. McGill, Scott. 2014. "The Plagiarized Virgil in Donatus, Servius, and the Anthologia Latina." Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 107: 365–383. Murgia, Charles E. 2004. "The Truth about Vergil's Commentators." In Romane Memento: Vergil in the Fourth Century. Edited by Roger Rees, 189–200. London: Duckworth. Stok, F. 2012. "Commenting on Virgil, from Aelius Donatus to Servius." Dead Sea Discoveries 19.3: 464–484. External links[edit] Library resources about Aelius Donatus Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Aelius Donatus Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Vita Vergiliana, Aelius Donatus' Life of Virgil in the original Latin. Suetonius: The Life of Virgil, the Loeb English translation (which presumes that Donatus' Life "is almost wholly Suetonius’.") Virgil.org: Aelius Donatus' Life of Virgil translated into English by David Wilson-Okamura includes interpolated text not included in the Loeb translation Latin texts of some of Aelius Donatus, including the Ars Minor and all the parts of the Ars Major The commentary on Terence online Corpus Grammaticorum Latinorum: complete texts and full bibliography Commentum in Terentii Comoedias From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress Authority control BIBSYS: 90202215 BNE: XX1252912 BNF: cb12449870h (data) CANTIC: a10243458 CiNii: DA01014623 GND: 118526715 ISNI: 0000 0001 2128 2471 LCCN: n82032152 NKC: ola2002102099 NLA: 35719108 NSK: 000085103 NTA: 069967652 RERO: 02-A000052502 SELIBR: 183946 SUDOC: 033653836 Trove: 1056742 VcBA: 495/9370 VIAF: 37012417 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n82032152 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aelius_Donatus&oldid=961642114" Categories: Grammarians of Latin Ancient linguists 4th-century Romans 4th-century Latin writers Aelii Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Asturianu Български Català Čeština Deutsch Español Esperanto Français Galego Íslenska Italiano Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 9 June 2020, at 16:43 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1130	----	Strategy of the Roman military - Wikipedia Strategy of the Roman military From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Part of a series on the Military of ancient Rome 753 BC – AD 476 Structural history Army Unit types and ranks Decorations and punishments Legions Auxilia Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Campaign history Wars and battles Technological history Military engineering Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Political history   Strategy and tactics Infantry tactics Frontiers and fortifications Limes Limes Britannicus Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Limes Germanicus Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes Norican Limes Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannonian Limes Limes Alutanus Limes Moesiae Trajan's Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmatiae Limes Arabicus Limes Tripolitanus Limes Mauretaniae  Ancient Rome portal •  War portal v t e The strategy of the Roman military contains its grand strategy (the arrangements made by the state to implement its political goals through a selection of military goals, a process of diplomacy backed by threat of military action, and a dedication to the military of part of its production and resources), operational strategy (the coordination and combination of the military forces and their tactics for the goals of an overarching strategy) and, on a small scale, its military tactics (methods for military engagement in order to defeat the enemy). If a fourth rung of "engagement" is added, then the whole can be seen as a ladder, with each level from the foot upwards representing a decreasing concentration on military engagement. Whereas the purest form of tactics or engagement are those free of political imperative, the purest form of political policy does not involve military engagement. Strategy as a whole is the connection between political policy and the use of force to achieve it. Contents 1 Grand strategy 2 Operational strategy 3 Infantry tactics 3.1 Tactical pre-battle maneuvers 3.2 Tactical deployment 3.3 Tactical engagement 4 References Grand strategy[edit] In its clearest form, strategy deals solely with military issues: either a threat or an opportunity is recognised, an evaluation is made, and a military stratagem for meeting it is devised. However, as Clausewitz stated, a successful military strategy may be a means to an end, but it is not an end in itself. Where a state has a long term political goal to which it applies military methods and the resources of the state, that state can be said to have a grand strategy. To an extent, all states will have a grand strategy to a certain degree even if it is simply determining which forces to raise as a military, or how to arm them. Whilst early Rome did raise and arm troops, they tended to raise them annually in response to the specific demands of the state during that year. Such a reactive policy, whilst possibly more efficient than the maintenance of a standing army, does not indicate the close ties between long-term political goals and military organization demanded by grand strategy. Early indications for a Roman grand strategy emerged during the Punic wars with Carthage, in which Rome was able to influence the course of the war by selecting to ignore the armies of Hannibal threatening its homeland and to invade Africa instead in order to dictate the primary theatre of war. In the Empire, as the need for and size of the professional army grew, the possibility arose for the expansion of the concept of a grand strategy to encompass the management of the resources of the entire Roman state in the conduct of warfare: great consideration was given in the Empire to diplomacy and the use of the military to achieve political goals, both through warfare and also as a deterrent. The contribution of actual (rather than potential) military force to strategy was largely reduced to operational strategy - the planning and control of large military units. Rome's grand strategy incorporated diplomacy through which Rome might forge alliances or pressure another nation into compliance, as well as the management of the post-war peace. Operational strategy[edit] Further information: Campaign history of the Roman military Vegetius wrote that "every plan... is to be considered, every expedient tried and every method taken before matters are brought to this last extremity [general engagements]... Good officers decline general engagements where the odds are too great, and prefer the employment of stratagem and finesse to destroy the enemy as much as possible... without exposing their own forces.".[1] However, Vegetius was writing late in the fourth century AD, in the latter years of the Empire. During this period, and for much of the Empire, it can be argued that the Romans did follow a grand strategy calling for limited direct operational engagement. However, earlier in its history, in the Republic and early Empire Rome showed little reluctance to become engaged in direct military engagement, prosecuting offensive operations against numerous adversaries. When a campaign did go badly wrong, operational strategy varied greatly as the circumstances dictated, from naval actions to sieges, assaults of fortified positions and open battle. However, the preponderance of Roman campaigns exhibit a preference for direct engagement in open battle and, where necessary, the overcoming of fortified positions via military engineering. The Roman army was adept at building fortified camps for protection from enemy attack, but history shows a reluctance to sit in the camp awaiting battle and a history of seeking open battle. Infantry tactics[edit] Main article: Roman infantry tactics Roman armies of the Republic and early empire worked from a set tactical 'handbook', a military tradition of deploying forces that provided for few variations and was ignored or elaborated only on occasion. Tactical pre-battle maneuvers[edit] Once the legion had deployed on an operation, they would generally march to their objective. There were exceptions when the armies were transported by the Roman navy but even then in most instances this was followed by a march of several days or weeks. The approach to the battlefield was made in several columns, enhancing maneuver. Typically a strong vanguard preceded the main body, and included scouts, cavalry and light troops. A tribune or other officer often accompanied the vanguard to survey the terrain for possible camp locations. Flank and recon elements were also deployed to provide the usual covering security. Behind the vanguard came the main body of heavy infantry. Each legion marched as a distinct formation and was accompanied by its own baggage train. At the end of a day's march, the Romans would typically establish a strong field camp called a castra, complete with palisade and a deep ditch, providing a basis for supply storage, troop marshalling and defence. Streets were laid out, units designated to take specific places, and guards posted at carefully designed gates. Construction could take between 2 and 5 hours with part of the army laboring, while the rest stood guard, depending on the tactical situation. No other ancient army persisted over such a long period in systematic camp construction like the Romans, even if the army rested for only a single day. This concentration of conservative security in deployment was mirrored both in the measured tactics of engagement for the infantry and by the largely conservative operational strategies employed. Tactical deployment[edit] The Roman heavy infantry typically was deployed, as the main body, facing the enemy, in three approximately equal lines, with the cavalry or equites on their wings to prevent them being flanked and turned, and light infantry in a screen in front of them to hide maneuvers of the heavy infantry, harass the enemy forces and, in some cases, drive off units such as elephants that would be a great threat to close-order heavy infantry. They were deployed in a quincunx checkered pattern. Alternative tactical formations were adopted occasionally. Tactical engagement[edit] In the same way that Roman tactical maneuver was measured and cautious, so too was their actual engagement of the enemy. The soldiers were long-term service professionals whose interest lay in receiving a large pension and an allocation of land on retirement from the army, rather than in seeking glory on the battlefield as a warrior. The tactics of engagement largely reflected this, concentrating on maintaining formation order and protecting individual troops rather than pushing aggressively to destroy the maximum number of enemy troops in a wild charge. A battle usually opened with light troops skirmishing with the opposition. These light forces then withdrew to the flanks or between the gaps in the central line of heavy infantry. Cavalry might be launched against their opposing numbers or used to screen the central core from envelopment. As the gap between the contenders closed, the heavy infantry typically took the initiative, attacking on the double. The front ranks usually cast their pila, and the following ranks hurled theirs over the heads of the front-line fighters. If a cast pilum did not cause direct death or injury, they were so designed that the hard iron triangular points would stick into enemy shields, bending on their soft metal shafts, weighing down the shields and making them unusable. After the pila were cast, the soldiers then drew their swords and engaged the enemy. However, rather than charging as might be assumed, great emphasis was placed on the protection gained from sheltering behind the scutum and remaining unexposed, stabbing out from behind the protection of the shield whenever an exposed enemy presented himself. Fresh troops were fed in from the rear, through the "checkboard" arrangement, to relieve the injured and exhausted further ahead. Many Roman battles, especially during the late empire, were fought with the preparatory bombardment from ballistas and onagers. These war machines, a form of ancient artillery, launched arrows and large stones towards the enemy, proving most effective against close-order formations and structures. References[edit] ^ Vegetius, The Military Institutions of the Romans, Greenwood, 1985, p. 87 v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Strategy_of_the_Roman_military&oldid=953961634" Categories: Military of ancient Rome Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Italiano עברית Edit links This page was last edited on 29 April 2020, at 23:32 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1143	----	Spartacus - Wikipedia Spartacus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Spartacus (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Spartocus or Sportacus. Spartacus The Death of Spartacus by Hermann Vogel (1882) Born c. 111 BC Near the Strymon river in present-day Bulgaria Died 71 BC (aged 39–40) Near Sele River in Lucania, Italy[1] Years of service 73–71 BC Commands held Rebel slave army Battles/wars Third Servile War Spartacus (Greek: Σπάρτακος Spártakos; Latin: Spartacus; c. 111–71 BC) was a Thracian gladiator who, along with Crixus, Gannicus, Castus, and Oenomaus, was one of the escaped slave leaders in the Third Servile War, a major slave uprising against the Roman Republic. Little is known about him beyond the events of the war, and surviving historical accounts are sometimes contradictory. However, all sources agree that he was a former gladiator and an accomplished military leader. This rebellion, interpreted by some as an example of oppressed people fighting for their freedom against a slave-owning oligarchy, has provided inspiration for many political thinkers, and has been featured in literature, television, and film.[2] Although this interpretation is not specifically contradicted by classical historians, no historical account mentions that the goal was to end slavery in the Republic.[3] Contents 1 Early life 2 Enslavement and escape 3 Third Servile War 4 Objectives 5 Legacy and recognition 5.1 In communism 5.2 In sports 5.3 In Russia 5.4 In Ukraine 5.5 In Bulgaria 5.6 In Serbia 5.7 In Slovakia 5.8 In other countries 6 In popular culture 6.1 Film 6.2 Television 6.3 Literature 6.4 Music 6.5 Video games 6.6 Places 7 See also 8 References 9 Bibliography 9.1 Classical authors 9.2 Modern historiography 10 External links Early life Balkan tribes, including the Maedi ("Maidoi", on map). The Greek essayist Plutarch describes Spartacus as "a Thracian of Nomadic stock",[4] in a possible reference to the Maedi tribe.[5] Appian says he was "a Thracian by birth, who had once served as a soldier with the Romans, but had since been a prisoner and sold for a gladiator".[6] Florus described him as one "who, from a Thracian mercenary, had become a Roman soldier, that had deserted and became enslaved, and afterward, from consideration of his strength, a gladiator".[7] The authors refer to the Thracian tribe of the Maedi,[8][9][10] which occupied the area on the southwestern fringes of Thrace, along its border with the Roman province of Macedonia – present day south-western Bulgaria.[11] Plutarch also writes that Spartacus' wife, a prophetess of the Maedi tribe, was enslaved with him. The name Spartacus is otherwise manifested in the Black Sea region. Five out of twenty Kings of the Thracian Spartocid dynasty of the Cimmerian Bosporus[12] and Pontus[13] are known to have borne it, and a Thracian "Sparta" "Spardacus"[14] or "Sparadokos",[15] father of Seuthes I of the Odrysae, is also known. Enslavement and escape The extent of the Roman Republic at 100 BC. According to the differing sources and their interpretation, Spartacus was a captive taken by the legions.[16] Spartacus was trained at the gladiatorial school (ludus) near Capua belonging to Lentulus Batiatus. He was a heavyweight gladiator called a murmillo. These fighters carried a large oblong shield (scutum), and used a sword with a broad, straight blade (gladius), about 18 inches long.[17] In 73 BC, Spartacus was among a group of gladiators plotting an escape.[18] About 70[19] slaves were part of the plot. Though few in number, they seized kitchen utensils, fought their way free from the school, and seized several wagons of gladiatorial weapons and armour.[18] The escaped slaves defeated soldiers sent after them, plundered the region surrounding Capua, recruited many other slaves into their ranks, and eventually retired to a more defensible position on Mount Vesuvius.[20][21] Once free, the escaped gladiators chose Spartacus and two Gallic slaves—Crixus and Oenomaus—as their leaders. Although Roman authors assumed that the escaped slaves were a homogeneous group with Spartacus as their leader, they may have projected their own hierarchical view of military leadership onto the spontaneous organization, reducing other slave leaders to subordinate positions in their accounts. Third Servile War Further information: Third Servile War The response of the Romans was hampered by the absence of the Roman legions, which were already engaged in fighting a revolt in Spain and the Third Mithridatic War. Furthermore, the Romans considered the rebellion more of a policing matter than a war. Rome dispatched militia under the command of praetor Gaius Claudius Glaber, who besieged Spartacus and his camp on Mount Vesuvius, hoping that starvation would force Spartacus to surrender. They were surprised when Spartacus, who had made ropes from vines, climbed down the cliff side of the volcano with his men and attacked the unfortified Roman camp in the rear, killing most of them.[22] The rebels also defeated a second expedition, nearly capturing the praetor commander, killing his lieutenants and seizing the military equipment.[23] With these successes, more and more slaves flocked to the Spartacan forces, as did "many of the herdsmen and shepherds of the region", swelling their ranks to some 70,000.[24] At its height Spartacus led an army derived of many different people, Celts, Gauls, and more. Also due to Social War, some of Spartacus' ranks were legion veterans.[25] Of the slaves that joined Spartacus ranks, they were from the countryside. The rural slave lived a life in the frontier thus better equipping themselves to march with Spartacus' army. In contrast, urban slaves were more suited for city life, being considered "privileged" and "lazy."[26] Of the people who fought in Spartacus' army, it shows that the revolt did not have the goal of freeing all slaves. In these altercations Spartacus proved to be an excellent tactician, suggesting that he may have had previous military experience. Though the rebels lacked military training, they displayed a skilful use of available local materials and unusual tactics when facing the disciplined Roman armies.[27] They spent the winter of 73–72 BC training, arming and equipping their new recruits, and expanding their raiding territory to include the towns of Nola, Nuceria, Thurii and Metapontum.[28] The distance between these locations and the subsequent events indicate that the slaves operated in two groups commanded by the remaining leaders Spartacus and Crixus.[citation needed] In the spring of 72 BC, the rebels left their winter encampments and began to move northward. At the same time, the Roman Senate, alarmed by the defeat of the praetorian forces, dispatched a pair of consular legions under the command of Lucius Gellius and Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus.[29] The two legions were initially successful—defeating a group of 30,000 rebels commanded by Crixus near Mount Garganus[30]—but then were defeated by Spartacus. These defeats are depicted in divergent ways by the two most comprehensive (extant) histories of the war by Appian and Plutarch.[31][32][33][34] Alarmed at the continued threat posed by the slaves, the Senate charged Marcus Licinius Crassus, the wealthiest man in Rome and the only volunteer for the position,[35] with ending the rebellion. Crassus was put in charge of eight legions, approximately 40,000 trained Roman soldiers,[36][failed verification][37] which he treated with harsh, even brutal discipline, reviving the punishment "decimation" on units.[35] When Spartacus and his followers, who for unclear reasons had retreated to the south of Italy, moved northward again in early 71 BC, Crassus deployed six of his legions on the borders of the region and detached his legate Mummius with two legions to maneuver behind Spartacus. Though ordered not to engage the rebels, Mummius attacked at a seemingly opportune moment but was routed.[38] After this, Crassus's legions were victorious in several engagements, forcing Spartacus farther south through Lucania as Crassus gained the upper hand. By the end of 71 BC, Spartacus was encamped in Rhegium (Reggio Calabria), near the Strait of Messina. A 19th-century depiction of the fall of Spartacus by the Italian Nicola Sanesi (1818–1889) According to Plutarch, Spartacus made a bargain with Cilician pirates to transport him and some 2,000 of his men to Sicily, where he intended to incite a slave revolt and gather reinforcements. However, he was betrayed by the pirates, who took payment and then abandoned the rebels.[38] Minor sources mention that there were some attempts at raft and shipbuilding by the rebels as a means to escape, but that Crassus took unspecified measures to ensure the rebels could not cross to Sicily, and their efforts were abandoned.[39] Spartacus's forces then retreated toward Rhegium. Crassus's legions followed and upon arrival built fortifications across the isthmus at Rhegium,[citation needed] despite harassing raids from the rebels. The rebels were now under siege and cut off from their supplies.[40] At this time, the legions of Pompey returned from Hispania and were ordered by the Senate to head south to aid Crassus.[41] While Crassus feared that Pompey's arrival would cost him the credit, Spartacus unsuccessfully tried to reach an agreement with Crassus.[42] When Crassus refused, Spartacus and his army broke through the Roman fortifications and headed up the Bruttium peninsula with Crassus's legions in pursuit.[43] When the legions managed to catch a portion of the rebels separated from the main army,[44] discipline among Spartacus's forces broke down as small groups independently attacked the oncoming legions.[45] Spartacus now turned his forces around and brought his entire strength to bear on the legions in a last stand, in which the rebels were routed completely, with the vast majority of them being killed on the battlefield.[46] The final battle that saw the assumed defeat of Spartacus in 71 BC took place on the present territory of Senerchia on the right bank of the river Sele in the area that includes the border with Oliveto Citra up to those of Calabritto, near the village of Quaglietta, in the High Sele Valley, which at that time was part of Lucania. In this area, since 1899, there have been finds of armour and swords of the Roman era. Plutarch, Appian and Florus all claim that Spartacus died during the battle, but Appian also reports that his body was never found.[47] Six thousand survivors of the revolt captured by the legions of Crassus were crucified, lining the Appian Way from Rome to Capua.[48] Objectives Classical historians were divided as to the motives of Spartacus. None of Spartacus's actions overtly suggest that he aimed at reforming Roman society or abolishing slavery. Plutarch writes that Spartacus wished to escape north into Cisalpine Gaul and disperse his men back to their homes.[49] If escaping the Italian peninsula was indeed his goal, it is not clear why Spartacus turned south after defeating the legions commanded by the consuls Lucius Publicola and Gnaeus Clodianus, which left his force a clear passage over the Alps. Appian and Florus write that he intended to march on Rome itself.[50] Appian also states that he later abandoned that goal, which might have been no more than a reflection of Roman fears. Based on the events in late 73 BC and early 72 BC, which suggest independently operating groups of escaped slaves[51] and a statement by Plutarch, it appears that some of the escaped slaves preferred to plunder Italy, rather than escape over the Alps.[49][clarification needed] Legacy and recognition Toussaint Louverture, a leader of the slave revolt that led to the independence of Haiti, has been called the "Black Spartacus".[52][53] Adam Weishaupt, founder of the Bavarian Illuminati, often referred to himself as Spartacus within written correspondences.[54] In communism Viva Spartaco, Spartaco a Rosarno: graffiti connecting Spartacus with 2010 Rosarno riots between locals and migrant farm workers In modern times, Spartacus became an icon for communists and socialists. Karl Marx listed Spartacus as one of his heroes and described him as "the most splendid fellow in the whole of ancient history" and a "great general, noble character, real representative of the ancient proletariat".[55] Spartacus has been a great inspiration to left-wing revolutionaries, most notably the German Spartacus League (1915–18), a forerunner of the Communist Party of Germany.[56] A January 1919 uprising by communists in Germany was called the Spartacist uprising.[53] Spartacus Books, one of the longest running collectively-run leftist book stores in North America, is also named in his honour. In sports Several sports clubs around the world, in particular the former Soviet and the Communist bloc, were named after the Roman gladiator. Spartacus's name was chosen in numerous football sides in Slavic Europe. In Russia FC Spartak Moscow, a football club FC Spartak Kostroma, a football club PFC Spartak Nalchik, a football club FC Spartak Vladikavkaz, a football club HC Spartak Moscow, an ice hockey team Spartak Saint Petersburg, a basketball team Spartak Tennis Club, a tennis training facility WBC Spartak Moscow, a women's basketball team In Ukraine FC Spartak Sumy, a football club Spartak, a village in Donetsk Oblast Spartak Ivano-Frankivsk, a football team Zakarpattia Uzhhorod, a football club, formerly known as Spartak Uzhhorod Spartak Lviv Spartak Kyiv Spartak Odesa, a football team competed in the 1941 Soviet war league Spartak Kharkiv, a football team competed in the 1941 Soviet war league In Bulgaria PFC Spartak Varna, a football team PFC Spartak Pleven, a football team FC Spartak Plovdiv, a football team Spartak Sofia, a former football team In Serbia FK Spartak Subotica, a football team FK Radnički, several teams In Slovakia FC Spartak Trnava, a football team TJ Spartak Myjava, a football team FK Spartak Vráble, a football team FK Spartak Bánovce nad Bebravou, a football team In other countries Spartak Stadium (disambiguation) Barnt Green Spartak F.C., an English football team Spartak (Cape Verde), a Cape Verdean football team FC Spartak Semey, a Kazakh football team Spartacus's name was also used in athletics in the Soviet Union and communist states of Central and Eastern Europe. The Spartakiad was a Soviet bloc version of the Olympic games.[57] This name was also used for the mass gymnastics exhibition held every five years in Czechoslovakia. The mascot for the Ottawa Senators, Spartacat, is also named after him. In popular culture Spartacus, marble sculpture by Denis Foyatier (1830), Louvre Museum Film The film Spartacus (1960), which was executive-produced by and starred Kirk Douglas, was based on Howard Fast's novel Spartacus and directed by Stanley Kubrick. The phrase "I'm Spartacus!" from this film has been referenced in a number of other films, television programs, and commercials. Television Fast's novel was adapted as a 2004 miniseries by the USA Network, with Goran Višnjić in the main role. One episode of 2007–2008 BBC's docudrama Heroes and Villains features Spartacus. The television series Spartacus, starring Andy Whitfield and later Liam McIntyre in the title role, aired on the Starz premium cable network from January 2010 to April 2013.[58][59] The History Channel's Barbarians Rising (2016) features the story of Spartacus in its third episode entitled "Rebellion". The fifth series of Outnumbered had Ben Brockmans (Daniel Roche)play Spartacus in a musical called Spartacus.[60] Literature Howard Fast wrote the historical novel Spartacus, the basis of the 1960 film of the same name. Arthur Koestler wrote a novel about Spartacus called The Gladiators. The Scottish writer Lewis Grassic Gibbon wrote a novel Spartacus. The Italian writer Raffaello Giovagnoli wrote his historical novel, Spartacus, in 1874. His novel has been subsequently translated and published in many European countries. The German writer Bertolt Brecht wrote Spartacus, his second play, before 1920. It was later renamed Drums in the Night. The Latvian writer Andrejs Upīts in 1943 wrote the play Spartacus. The Polish writer Halina Rudnicka [pl] in 1951 wrote a novel Uczniowie Spartakusa (Spartacus' disciples). The Reverend Elijah Kellogg's Spartacus to the Gladiators at Capua has been used effectively by school pupils to practice their oratory skills for ages. Amal Donkol, the Egyptian modern poet wrote "The Last Words of Spartacus". Max Gallo wrote the novel Les Romains.Spartacus. La Revolte des Esclaves, Librairie Artheme Fayard, 2006. In the Fate/Apocrypha light novel series by Yūichirō Higashide, Spartacus appears as a Berserker-class Servant summoned by the Red faction. In the anime adaptation of the novels, Spartacus is voiced by Satoshi Tsuruoka in Japanese and Josh Tomar in English. This version of Spartacus would also appear in the mobile RPG Fate/Grand Order. Music The "Spartacus Overture" was written by composer Camille Saint-Saëns in 1863. "Love Theme From Spartacus" was a hit for composer Alex North and has become a jazz standard. Spartacus (1954, first staged in 1956) is a ballet, with a score by Soviet Armenian composer Aram Khachaturian. In 1975, Triumvirat reached the apex of their commercial success with the release of Spartacus, a classic "prog rock" album. Australian composer Carl Vine wrote a short piano piece entitled "Spartacus", from Red Blues. Phantom Regiment's show, "Spartacus", was the championship show of the 2008 Drum Corps International season. Jeff Wayne released his musical retelling, Jeff Wayne's Musical Version of Spartacus, in 1992. Video games In Age of Empires: Rise of Rome Expansion IV Enemies of Rome, 3: Spartacus the campaign has the player fighting against Spartacus' army. In Spartacus Legends, Spartacus appears as an endgame boss. Places Spartacus Peak on Livingston Island in the South Shetland Islands. See also Ancient Rome portal Alaric I Ambiorix Ardaric Arminius Autaritus Bato Battle of Baduhenna Wood Boudica Fritigern Gaius Julius Civilis John of Gothia List of people who disappeared Totila Vercingetorix Viriathus References ^ Plutarch, Crassus, 11:4–7 Archived 10 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine ^ Historian Barry Strauss on His New Book The Spartacus War (Interview). Simon & Schuster. 2009. ^ Strauss 2009, p. 7 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFStrauss2009 (help) "We do not know if Spartacus wanted to abolish slavery, but if so, he aimed low. He and his men freed only gladiators, farmers, and shepherds. They avoided urban slaves, a softer and more elite group than rural workers. They rallied slaves to the cry not only of freedom but also to the themes of nationalism, religion, revenge, and riches. Another paradox: they might have been liberators but the rebels brought ruin. They devastated southern Italy in search of food and trouble." ^ "Plutarch, Crassus 8". Archived from the original on 10 April 2020. Retrieved 26 November 2006. ^ Nic Fields (2009). Spartacus and the Slave War 73–71 BC: A Gladiator Rebels Against Rome. Osprey Publishing. p. 28. ISBN 978-1-84603-353-7. ^ Appian, Civil Wars 1.116 Archived 3 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine ^ Florus, Epitome of Roman History 2.8.8 ^ Sallust (1994). The histories. Vol.2, Books iii–v. Translated by McGushin, Patrick. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198721437. ^ Annuaire de l'Université de Sofia, Faculté d'histoire, Volume 77, Issue 2, 1985, p. 122. 1985. Retrieved 24 February 2013. ^ Strauss 2009, p. 31 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFStrauss2009 (help) ^ John Boardman; I. E. S. Edwards, N. G. L. Hammond and E. Sollberger, eds. (1982). The Cambridge Ancient History (PDF) (2 ed.). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521224963. ISBN 978-0521224963. ^ Diodorus Siculus, Historical Library Book 12 ^ Diodorus Siculus, Historical Library Book 16 Archived 17 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine ^ Theucidides, History of the Peloponnesian War 2.101 ^ "Tribes, Dynasts and Kingdoms of Northern Greece: History and Numismatics". Archived from the original on 27 August 2007. Retrieved 28 February 2007. ^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:116 Archived 3 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine; Plutarch, Crassus, 8:2 Archived 10 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine. Note: Spartacus' status as an auxilia is taken from the Loeb edition of Appian translated by Horace White, which states "...who had once served as a soldier with the Romans...". However, the translation by John Carter in the Penguin Classics version reads: "...who had once fought against the Romans and after being taken prisoner and sold...". ^ Strauss 2009, p. 11 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFStrauss2009 (help) ^ a b Plutarch, Crassus, 8:1–2 Archived 10 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine; Appian, Civil Wars, 1:116 Archived 3 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine; Livy, Periochae, 95:2; Florus, Epitome, 2.8. Plutarch claims 78 escaped, Livy claims 74, Appian "about seventy", and Florus says "thirty or rather more men". "Choppers and spits" is from Life of Crassus. ^ However, according to Cicero (Ad Atticum VI, ii, 8) at the beginning his followers were much less than 50. ^ Plutarch, Crassus, 9:1 Archived 10 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:116 Archived 3 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine; Florus, Epitome, 2.8. ^ Plutarch, Crassus, 9:1–3 Archived 17 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine; Frontinus, Stratagems, Book I, 5:20–22; Appian, Civil Wars, 1:116 Archived 3 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine; Broughton, Magistrates of the Roman Republic, p. 109. ^ Plutarch, Crassus, 9:4–5 Archived 10 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine; Livy, Periochae , 95; Appian, Civil Wars, 1:116 Archived 3 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine; Sallust, Histories, 3:64–67. ^ Plutarch, Crassus, 9:3 Archived 10 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine; Appian, Civil War, 1:116 Archived 3 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Beard, Mary (2015). SPQR A History of Ancient Rome. New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation. pp. 249–250. ISBN 978-1-63149-222-8. ^ Strauss, Barry (2009). The Spartacus War. New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks. p. 46. ISBN 978-1-4165-3206-4. ^ Frontinus, Stratagems, Book I, 5:20–22 and Book VII:6. ^ Florus, Epitome, 2.8. ^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:116–117 Archived 3 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine; Plutarch, Crassus 9:6 Archived 10 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine; Sallust, Histories, 3:64–67. ^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:117 Archived 3 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine; Plutarch, Crassus 9:7 Archived 10 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine; Livy, Periochae 96. ^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:117 Archived 3 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Plutarch, Crassus, 9:7 Archived 10 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine. ^ "Spartacus and the Slave Rebellion". Historynet.com. Archived from the original on 7 August 2011. Retrieved 24 February 2013. ^ Shaw, Brent D. (2001). Spartacus and the servile wars: a brief history with documents. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-23703-5. ^ a b Appian, Civil Wars, 1:118 Archived 3 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Plutarch, Crassus 10:1 Archived 10 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:118 Archived 3 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine; Smith, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, "Exercitus", p.494 Archived 6 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine. ^ a b Plutarch, Crassus, 10:1–3 Archived 10 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Florus, Epitome, 2.8; Cicero, Orations, "For Quintius, Sextus Roscius...", 5.2 Archived 27 March 2008 at the Wayback Machine ^ Plutarch, Crassus, 10:4–5 Archived 10 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Contrast Plutarch, Crassus, 11:2 Archived 10 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine with Appian, Civil Wars, 1:119 Archived 3 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:120 Archived 3 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:120 Archived 3 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine; Plutarch, Crassus, 10:6 Archived 10 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Plutarch, Crassus, 11:3 Archived 10 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine; Livy, Periochae, 97:1. Bradley, Slavery and Rebellion. p. 97; Plutarch, Crassus, 11:4 Archived 10 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Plutarch, Crassus, 11:5 Archived 10 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine;. ^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:120 Archived 3 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine; Plutarch, Crassus, 11:6–7 Archived 10 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine; Livy, Periochae, 97.1. ^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:120 Archived 3 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine; Florus, Epitome, 2.8. ^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1.120 Archived 3 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine. ^ a b Plutarch Crassus, 9:5–6 Archived 10 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:117 Archived 3 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine; Florus, Epitome, 2.8. ^ Plutarch, Crassus, 9:7 Archived 10 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine; Appian, Civil Wars, 1:117 Archived 3 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Thomson, Ian (31 January 2004). "The black Spartacus". The Guardian. Patrick Leigh Fermor hailed L'Ouverture as the "black Spartacus" after the slave who challenged Rome... ^ a b Diken, Bulent (2012). Revolt, Revolution, Critique: The Paradox of Society. Routledge. p. 61. ISBN 978-1134005642. ...like the 'black Spartacus' Toussaint–Louverture, the leader of the insurgent black slaves who escaped from plantations and defeated the Napoleonic forces in Haiti in 1796–1804, or like the 'Spartacist' leaders of the communist revolt in Germany in 1919. ^ Douglas Reed (1978). The controversy of Zion. Dolphin Press. p. 139. ISBN 9780620041331. ^ de Ste. Croix, G. E. M. (1989). The Class Struggle in the Ancient Greek World. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. p. 25]. ISBN 978-0801495977. ^ Fowkes, Ben (2014). The German Left and the Weimar Republic: A Selection of Documents. Brill. p. 71. ISBN 978-9004271081. ^ Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 3rd edition, volume 24 (part 1), p. 286, Moscow, Sovetskaya Entsiklopediya publisher, 1976. ^ "Spartacus". Tvblog.ugo.com  – Comic-Con 2009. 29 June 2009. Archived from the original on 16 July 2012. Retrieved 24 February 2013. ^ "AUSXIP Spartacus: Blood and Sand TV Show Lucy Lawless Sam Raimi & Rob Tapert". Spartacus.ausxip.com. Archived from the original on 7 July 2011. Retrieved 24 February 2013. ^ https://www.radiotimes.com/tv-programme/e/ctbn8d/outnumbered--s5-e6-spartacus-the-musical/ Bibliography Classical authors Appian. Civil Wars. Translated by J. Carter. (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1996) Florus. Epitome of Roman History. (London: W. Heinemann, 1947) Orosius. The Seven Books of History Against the Pagans. Translated by Roy J. Deferrari. (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1964). Plutarch. Fall of the Roman Republic. Translated by R. Warner. (London: Penguin Books, 1972), with special emphasis placed on "The Life of Crassus" and "The Life of Pompey". Sallust. Conspiracy of Catiline and the War of Jugurtha. (London: Constable, 1924) Modern historiography Bradley, Keith R. Slavery and Rebellion in the Roman World, 140 B.C.–70 B.C. Bloomington; Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1989 (hardcover, ISBN 0-253-31259-0); 1998 (paperback, ISBN 0-253-21169-7). [Chapter V] The Slave War of Spartacus, pp. 83–101. Rubinsohn, Wolfgang Zeev. Spartacus' Uprising and Soviet Historical Writing. Oxford: Oxbow Books, 1987 (paperback, ISBN 0-9511243-1-5). Spartacus: Film and History, edited by Martin M. Winkler. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 2007 (hardcover, ISBN 1-4051-3180-2; paperback, ISBN 1-4051-3181-0). Trow, M.J. Spartacus: The Myth and the Man. Stroud, United Kingdom: Sutton Publishing, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0-7509-3907-9). Genner, Michael. "Spartakus. Eine Gegengeschichte des Altertums nach den Legenden der Zigeuner". Two volumes. Paperback. Trikont Verlag, München 1979/1980. Vol 1 ISBN 978-3-88167-053-1 Vol 2 ISBN 978-3-88167-060-9 Plamen Pavlov, Stanimir Dimitrov,Spartak – sinyt na drenva Trakija/Spartacus – the Son of ancient Thrace. Sofia, 2009, ISBN 978-954-378-024-2 Strauss, Barry (2009). The Spartacus War. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4165-3205-7. Beard, Mary. SPQR A History of Ancient Rome. New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation, 2015, ISBN 978-1-63149-222-8 External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Spartacus. Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Spartacus. BBC Radio 4 – In Our Time – Spartacus Spartacus Article and full text of the Roman and Greek sources. Spartacus, movie starring Kirk Douglas and Sir Peter Ustinov Spartacus, television mini-series starring Goran Višnjić and Alan Bates Starz Mini-Series airing in 2010 v t e Spartacus in fiction and media Film Sins of Rome (1953) Spartacus (1960) Spartacus and the Ten Gladiators (1964) Spartacus (2004) Heroes and Villains (2007) Television Spartacus (2010) Literature "Spartacus to the Gladiators at Capua" (1842) Spartacus (1933) The Gladiators (1939) Spartacus (1951) Albums Spartacus (1975) Jeff Wayne's Musical Version of Spartacus (1992) Theatre The Gladiator Spartacus (ballet) Games Spartacus Legends (2013) Authority control BNE: XX917750 BNF: cb12708622j (data) CANTIC: a11012043 GND: 118615947 ISNI: 0000 0001 2142 912X LCCN: n50021231 NKC: jn20000701683 NSK: 000603749 SUDOC: 072326069 VcBA: 495/196493 VIAF: 316749908 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n50021231 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spartacus&oldid=990932762" Categories: Spartacus 110s BC births 71 BC deaths 1st-century BC Romans Ancient Thracians killed in battle Deaths by blade weapons Greek generals Rebel slaves in ancient Rome Roman-era Thracians Roman gladiators Third Servile War Thracian people Republican era slaves and freedmen Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Harv and Sfn multiple-target errors Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages Use dmy dates from November 2020 Articles containing Greek-language text Articles containing Latin-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from November 2011 All articles with failed verification Articles with failed verification from October 2013 Articles with unsourced statements from October 2013 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from October 2013 Commons link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth uncertain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read View source View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Башҡортса Беларуская Български Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Kotava Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Lumbaart Magyar Malagasy മലയാളം مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Română Русский සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Ślůnski Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 27 November 2020, at 09:54 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1145	----	National Library of Greece - Wikipedia National Library of Greece From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from NLG (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search National Library of Greece Εθνική Βιβλιοθήκη της Ελλάδος Ethnikí Vivliothíki tis Elládos The façade of the main building of the library Established 1832 (188 years ago) (1832) Location Athens Coordinates 37°58′52″N 23°43′59″E / 37.98111°N 23.73306°E / 37.98111; 23.73306 Branches 2 (Αγία Παρασκευή/Agía Paraskeví & Νέα Χαλκηδόνα/Néa Chalkidóna) Collection Items collected books, journals, newspapers, magazines, multimedia and manuscripts Criteria for collection Material that is produced in Greece as well as Material that is produced abroad, but is connected with Greece in any language and form. Other information Director Fillipos Tsimpoglou (Φίλιππος Τσιμπόγλου), general director.[1] Website www.nlg.gr Map The National Library of Greece (Greek: Εθνική Βιβλιοθήκη) is situated near the center of city of Athens. It was designed by the Danish architect Theophil Freiherr von Hansen, as part of his famous Trilogy of neo-classical buildings including the Academy of Athens and the original building of the Athens University. It was founded by Ioannis Kapodistrias. Contents 1 History 2 Holdings 3 Relocation to Phaleron Bay 4 See also 5 References 6 External links History[edit] The original idea for establishing a National Library was from the philhellene Johann Jakob Mayer, in an August 1824 article of his newspaper Ellinika Chronika, published at Missolonghi, where Mayer and Lord Byron had been promoting Greece's independence. Mayer's idea was implemented in 1829 by the new Greek government of Ioannis Kapodistrias,[2] who grouped together the National Library with other intellectual institutions such as schools, national museums, and printing houses. These were all placed in a building (then being used as an orphanage) on the island Aegina and supervised by Andreas Moustoxydis, who thus became president of the committee of the Orphanage, director of the National Archaeological Museum of Athens, and director of the National School. At the end of 1830, the library, which Moustoxydis named the National Library, had 1,018 volumes of printed books, which had been collected from Greeks and philhellenes. In 1834, the Library was relocated to Athens, the new capital, and was at first housed temporarily in the public bath in the Roman Agora of Athens and then later in the Panagia Gorgoepikoos church. The collection increased rapidly. In addition to the purchase of books from private libraries, supervised by Dimitris Postolakas (1,995 volumes), the Library accepted many large donations of books, like one from Christoforos and Konstantinos Sakellarios (5,400 volumes) and one from Markos Renieris (3,401 volumes). In 1842, the Public Library merged with Athens University's library (15,000 volumes), and was housed together with the currency collection at the new building of Otto's University. The first director (then-called "president") was Georgios Kozakis-Typaldos[3] of the newly enlarged institution, retaining the job until 1863. At this time, the Library was enriched with significant donations and with rare foreign language books from all over Europe. With the royal charter of 1866, the two libraries merged, and were administered as the "National Library of Greece". From 1877–1910, its director was Michael Deffner. On 16 March 1888 the foundation stone for a new neoclassical marble building was laid. The building was financed by three Kefallonian-born brothers of the Diaspora, Panagis, Marinos and Andreas Vallianos. It was designed by Baron Theophil von Hansen and its construction supervised by Ernst Ziller. The Library remained in the older University building until 1903, when it was relocated to the new Vallianos building, which still partly houses the Library in addition to two other buildings, at Agia Paraskevi and Nea Halkidona. Holdings[edit] The library has 4,500 Greek manuscripts which is one of the greatest collection of Greek scripts. There are also many chrysobulls and archives of the Greek Revolution. Among the library's holdings are a codex of the four Gospels attributed to the scribe Matthew; uncial codex with a fragment Gospel of Matthew from 6th century (Uncial 094), Flora Graeca Sibthorpiana by English botanist John Sibthorp; Rigas' Chart by Rigas Velestinlis; The Large Etymological Dictionary, a historic Byzantine dictionary; and the first publication of Homer's epics and hymns.[4] Some other manuscripts: Uncial 075, Uncial 0161, Minuscule 798. Relocation to Phaleron Bay[edit] New Building of National Library of Greece in Stavros Niarchos Foundation Cultural Center The present building has long been inconvenient due to limited space and technology demands. Although the Vallianos building will continue to house some of its current functions, the bulk of the library in 2018 was relocated to a new 22,000-square meter building at the Stavros Niarchos Foundation Cultural Center on the Phaleron Bay "Delta". The 20-hectare Delta is a seafront area that used to host the Athens horse race track, which was replaced by the Markopoulo Olympic Equestrian Centre for the Athens 2004 Olympics. Italian architect Renzo Piano proposed a radical new plan for the National Library and the National Opera of Greece, and the project was funded by the Stavros Niarchos Foundation and donated to the Greek state. The twin buildings are integrated within a landscaped park with indigenous Mediterranean flora, and feature extensive renewable energy facilities and a central plaza around a 30-m wide seawater channel. Work on the project started in 2012 with completion due for 2016.[5] See also[edit] List of national libraries References[edit] ^ "nlg.gr". Archived from the original on 16 June 2016. Retrieved 16 June 2016. ^ Dean H. Keller (1993). Academic Libraries in Greece: The Present Situation and Future Prospects. Psychology Press. p. 26. ISBN 978-1-56024-365-6. Retrieved 5 December 2012. The National Library of Greece was founded in 1832 by Ioannis Kapodistrias, the first governor of the Greek state. ^ Εθνική Βιβλιοθήκη της Ελλάδος «Ιστορικά στοιχεία» [1] Archived 8 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine, retrieved 6 July 2015 ^ "Treasures - National Library of Greece". The European Library. ^ (in Greek) Γιάννης Ε. Στάμος (25 April 2014). "Λυρική και Βιβλιοθήκη παραδίδονται το 2016". Ελευθεροτυπία. Retrieved 17 June 2014 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to National Library of Greece. Εθνική Βιβλιοθήκη της Ελλάδος (in Greek) National Library of Greece (in English) v t e National libraries of Europe Sovereign states Albania Andorra Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Belarus Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Kazakhstan Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Moldova Monaco Montenegro Netherlands North Macedonia Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia San Marino Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom Vatican City States with limited recognition Abkhazia Artsakh Kosovo Northern Cyprus South Ossetia Transnistria Dependencies and other entities Åland Faroe Islands Gibraltar Guernsey Isle of Man Jersey Svalbard Other entities European Union v t e Major landmarks of Athens Ancient Acropolis Ancient Agora Arch of Hadrian Areopagus Aristotle’s Lyceum Hadrian's Library Kerameikos Monument of Lysicrates Odeon of Herodes Atticus Panathenaic Stadium Philopappos Hill/Monument Platonic Academy Pnyx Remains of the Acharnian Road, Acharnian Gate and Cemetery Site Remains of the Long Walls Roman Agora Stoa of Attalos Temple of Hephaestus Temple of Olympian Zeus Theatre of Dionysus Tower of the Winds Byzantine Little Metropolis Daphni Monastery Holy Apostles Church Kapnikarea Church Pantanassa Church Holy Trinity Church Ottoman Fethiye Mosque House of Saint Philothei/Benizelos-Palaiologos mansion Tzistarakis Mosque Modern Hansen's "Trilogy" Academy Kapodistrian University of Athens National Library of Greece Museums Acropolis Museum Benaki Museum Byzantine and Christian Museum Museum of Cycladic Art Kerameikos Museum National Archaeological Museum National Gallery National Historical Museum Numismatic Museum Churches Metropolitan Cathedral of Athens Cathedral Basilica of St. Dionysius the Areopagite Gardens/Parks Lycabettus Hill National Gardens Pedion tou Areos Squares and Neighbourhoods Anafiotika Kolonaki Square Kotzia Square Monastiraki Omonoia Square Plaka Syntagma Thiseio Tomb of the Unknown Soldier Athens Concert Hall Athens Towers Gennadius Library National Observatory of Athens National Theatre Old Parliament House Old Royal Palace Olympic Sports Complex Presidential Mansion Stavros Niarchos Foundation Cultural Center Zappeion Marinas Agios Kosmas Marina Alimos Marina Athens Marina (formerly Faliro Marina) Glyfada Marina Olympic Marine Marina of Vouliagmeni Marina of Zea Others Dionysiou Areopagitou Street Ermou Street First Cemetery of Athens Authority control BNF: cb122654110 (data) GND: 1081560-0 ISNI: 0000 0001 2165 7755 LCCN: n85048742 NKC: ko2017950608 NLA: 36041076 NLG: 56503 SUDOC: 031439756 ULAN: 500306495 VcBA: 494/36680 VIAF: 136996034 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n85048742 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=National_Library_of_Greece&oldid=961735928" Categories: National Library of Greece 1832 establishments in Greece Libraries in Athens Landmarks in Athens Libraries established in 1832 Tourist attractions in Athens Library buildings completed in 1903 Theophil Hansen buildings Neoclassical architecture in Greece Ioannis Kapodistrias Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with Greek-language sources (el) Use dmy dates from January 2020 Infobox mapframe without OSM relation ID on Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Pages using the Kartographer extension Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Italiano עברית مصرى Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Simple English Српски / srpski Suomi Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 June 2020, at 03:51 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1150	----	The Rape of the Lock - Wikipedia The Rape of the Lock From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 1712 mock-heroic poem by Alexander Pope Arabella Fermor, a 19th-century print after Sir Peter Lely's portrait of her The Rape of the Lock is a mock-heroic narrative poem written by Alexander Pope.[1] One of the most commonly cited examples of high burlesque, it was first published anonymously in Lintot's Miscellaneous Poems and Translations (May 1712) in two cantos (334 lines); a revised edition "Written by Mr. Pope" followed in March 1714 as a five-canto version (794 lines) accompanied by six engravings. Pope boasted that this sold more than three thousand copies in its first four days.[2] The final form of the poem appeared in 1717 with the addition of Clarissa's speech on good humour. The poem was much translated and contributed to the growing popularity of mock-heroic in Europe. Contents 1 Description 2 Dedicatory letter 3 Summary 4 Translations 5 Parody and interpretation 6 Influence 7 References 8 External links Description[edit] The poem satirises a small incident by comparing it to the epic world of the gods. It was based on an actual event recounted to the poet by Pope's friend, John Caryll. Arabella Fermor and her suitor, Lord Petre, were both from aristocratic recusant Catholic families, at a time in England when, under such laws as the Test Act, all denominations except Anglicanism suffered legal restrictions and penalties. (For example, Petre, being a Catholic, could not take the place in the House of Lords that would otherwise have been rightfully his.) Petre had cut off a lock of Arabella's hair without permission, and the consequent argument had created a breach between the two families. The poem's title does not refer to the extreme of sexual rape, but to an earlier definition of the word derived from the Latin rapere (supine stem raptum), "to snatch, to grab, to carry off"[3][4]—in this case, the theft and carrying away of a lock of hair. In terms of the sensibilities of the age, however, even this non-consensual personal invasion might be interpreted as bringing dishonour. Pope, also a Catholic, wrote the poem at the request of friends in an attempt to "comically merge the two" worlds, the heroic with the social. He utilised the character Belinda to represent Arabella and introduced an entire system of “sylphs”, or guardian spirits of virgins, a parodised version of the gods and goddesses of conventional epic. Pope derived his sylphs from the 17th-century French Rosicrucian novel Comte de Gabalis.[5] Pope, writing pseudonymously as Esdras Barnivelt, also published A Key to the Lock in 1714 as a humorous warning against taking the poem too seriously.[6] "The New Star", illustration by Aubrey Beardsley for The Rape of the Lock Pope's poem uses the traditional high stature of classical epics to emphasise the triviality of the incident. The abduction of Helen of Troy becomes here the theft of a lock of hair; the gods become minute sylphs; the description of Achilles' shield becomes an excursus on one of Belinda's petticoats. He also uses the epic style of invocations, lamentations, exclamations and similes, and in some cases adds parody to imitation by following the framework of actual speeches in Homer's Iliad. Although the poem is humorous at times, Pope keeps a sense that beauty is fragile, and emphasizes that the loss of a lock of hair touches Belinda deeply. The humour of the poem comes from the storm in a teacup being couched within the elaborate, formal verbal structure of an epic poem. It is a satire on contemporary society which showcases the lifestyle led by some people of that age. Pope arguably satirises it from within rather than looking down judgmentally on the characters. Belinda's legitimate rage is thus alleviated and tempered by her good humour, as directed by the character Clarissa.[7] Dedicatory letter[edit] Pope added to the second edition the following dedicatory letter to Mrs. Arabella Fermor: Madam, It will be in vain to deny that I have some regard for this piece, since I dedicate it to You. Yet you may bear me witness, it was intended only to divert a few young Ladies, who have good sense and good humour enough to laugh not only at their sex's little unguarded follies, but at their own. But as it was communicated with the air of a secret, it soon found its way into the world. An imperfect copy having been offered to a Bookseller, you had the good nature for my sake to consent to the publication of one more correct: This I was forced to, before I had executed half my design, for the Machinery was entirely wanting to complete it. The Machinery, Madam, is a term invented by the Critics, to signify that part which the Deities, Angels, or Dæmons are made to act in a poem: For the ancient poets are in one respect like many modern ladies: let an action be never so trivial in itself, they always make it appear of the utmost importance. These Machines I determined to raise on a very new and odd foundation, the Rosicrucian doctrine of Spirits. I know how disagreeable it is to make use of hard words before a lady; but 'tis so much the concern of a poet to have his works understood and particularly by your sex, that you must give me leave to explain two or three difficult terms. The Rosicrucians are the people I must bring you acquainted with. The best account I know of them is in a French book called Le Comte de Gabalis, which both in its title and size is so like a novel, that many of the fair sex have read it for one by mistake. According to these gentlemen, the four elements are inhabited by spirits, which they call Sylphs, Gnomes, Nymphs, and Salamanders. The Gnomes or Dæmons of Earth delight in mischief; but the Sylphs, whose habitation is in the air, are the best-conditioned creatures imaginable. For they say, any mortals may enjoy the most intimate familiarities with these gentle spirits, upon a condition very easy to all true adepts, an inviolate preservation of Chastity. As to the following Cantos, all the passages of them are as fabulous as the Vision at the beginning or the Transformation at the end; (except the loss of your Hair, which I always mention with reverence). The human persons are as fictitious as the airy ones, and the character of Belinda, as it is now managed, resembles you in nothing but in Beauty. Summary[edit] Belinda sails down the Thames to Hampton Court attended by sylphs; a copperplate engraving by Anna Maria Werner (1744) In the beginning of this mock-epic, Pope declares that a "dire offence" (Canto 1 line 1) has been committed. A lord has assaulted a "gentle belle" (line 8), causing her to reject him. He then proceeds to tell the story of this offence. While Belinda is still asleep, her guardian Sylph Ariel forewarns her that "some dread event impends". Belinda then awakes and gets ready for the day with the help of her maid, Betty. The Sylphs, though unseen, also contribute: "These set the head, and those divide the hair, some fold the sleeve, whilst others plait the gown" (146–147). Here Pope also describes Belinda's two locks of hair "which graceful hung behind". The Baron, one of Belinda's suitors, greatly admires these locks and conspires to steal one. Building an altar, he places on it "all the trophies of his former loves" (line 40), sets them on fire and fervently prays "soon to obtain, and long possess" (line 44) the lock. Ariel, disturbed by the impending event although not knowing what it will be, summons many sylphs to her and instructs them to guard Belinda from anything that may befall her, whether she "forget her prayers, or miss a masquerade, Or lost her heart, or necklace, at a ball" (line 108–109). So protected, Belinda arrives at Hampton Court and is invited to play a game of ombre. The conspiring Baron acquires a pair of scissors and tries to snip off one of her locks, but he is prevented by the watchful Sylphs. This happens three times, but in the end the Baron succeeds (also cutting a Sylph in two although Pope reassures us, parodying a passage in Paradise Lost, that "airy substance soon unites again" [line 152]). When Belinda discovers her lock is gone, she falls into a tantrum, while the Baron celebrates his victory. A gnome named Umbriel now journeys to the Cave of Spleen and from the Queen receives a bag of "sighs, sobs, and passions, and the war of tongues" (canto 4 line 84) and a vial filled "with fainting fears, soft sorrows, melting griefs, and flowing tears" (line 85–86) and brings them to Belinda. Finding her dejected in the arms of the woman Thalestris, Umbriel pours the contents over them both. Many people, moved by Belinda's grief, demand the lock back, but the Baron is unrepentant and refuses. Clarissa admonishes them to keep their good humour, but they will not listen and instead a battle ensues with glares, songs and wits as weapons. Belinda fights with the Baron and throws snuff up his nose to subdue him. When she demands that he restore the lock, however, it is nowhere to be found. It has been made a constellation and is destined to outlast the contestants. Translations[edit] Translations of the poem into French, Italian and German were all made in the first half of the 18th century. Others in those languages followed later, as well as in Dutch, Czech, Estonian, Hungarian, Polish, Swedish and Danish.[8] The work had originally come to European notice through an anonymous prose version, La Boucle de Cheveux Enlevée, published anonymously in 1728[9] and now ascribed either to Marthe-Marguerite, Marquise de Caylus, or to Pierre Desfontaines. Despite there being a playful French model for this kind of writing in Boileau's Lutrin, the translator claims of Pope's work in the preface that "I do not believe that there can be found in our language anything more ingenious, in this playful genre."[10] A verse translation by Jean-François Marmontel followed in 1746.[11] Der Lockenraub, the 1744 German translation of Pope's poem by Luise Gottsched The first German translation, Der merckwürdige Haar-Locken-Raub (1739), was a rendering of the French prose version of 1728. Luise Gottsched's verse translation, Der Lockenraub, was begun in the 1730s, again using a French prose version. However, she revised it totally once she managed to obtain the original text in English and in this way pioneered an interest in English literature in the German-language area. From then on, "Pope became very popular as a model for German poets from the 1750s onwards and remained an important source of inspiration throughout the second half of the 18th century," and in particular as a model for mock heroic poetry.[12] Early Italian verse translations of the poem include Andrea Bonducci's Il Riccio Rapito (Florence 1739), followed by Antonio Schinella Conti's version, begun much earlier and finally published in Venice in 1751.[13] The vogue for Pope's work went on to blossom at the start of the 19th century with separate translations by Federico Federici (Faziola 1819),[14] Vincenzo Benini (Milan 1819),[15] Sansone Uzielli (Livorno 1822),[16] and Antonio Beduschi (Milan 1830).[17] Scandinavian versions appeared near the start of the 19th century, beginning with the Swedish Våldet på Belindas låck (Stockholm, 1797) by Johan Lorens Odhelius (1737–1816). It was followed in 1819 by Den bortröfvade hårlocken by Jonas Magnus Stjernstolpe (1777–1831), and by the Danish imitation Belinde, eller den røvede Haarlok by Anton Martini (1773–1847) in 1829.[18] Parody and interpretation[edit] In 1717 Giles Jacob published his bawdy parody, The Rape of the Smock, the plot of which turns on voyeurism and enforced seduction,[19] building on erotic undertones present in Pope's poem which were to be taken up by its illustrators, and reached an apotheosis in Aubrey Beardsley's work.[20] The 1714 edition of The Rape of the Lock and those that followed from Lintot's press had come with six woodcuts designed by Louis Du Guernier.[21] Although the work of this artist has been described as unimaginative,[22] he goes beyond his literal brief in making Belinda sleep in unwarranted décolletage in the first canto, while in the second giving the "painted vessel" on its way down the Thames the tilted perspective of the Ship of Fools. Furthermore, Du Guernier's frontispiece owes its iconography to a print by Étienne Baudet after a painting by Francesco Albani of Venus at her Toilette, making for an identification of Belinda with the goddess.[23] The German translation of the poem published from Leipzig in 1744 had five copperplate engravings by Anna Maria Werner (1689–1753), the court painter of Saxony.[24] It has been observed, however, that the places they depict are not specifically English and that the scene of the game of ombre in Canto 3 is "clearly based on a Leipzig coffee-house", complete with lapdogs tumbling on the floor.[25] Sir Plume demands the restoration of the lock, an oil painting by Charles Robert Leslie, 1854 Meanwhile, in Britain most illustrations of the work were descending into "high kitsch and low camp".[26] The 1798 edition, for example, illustrated by a variety of contemporary artists, is particularly noted now for Thomas Stothard's watercolour in which fairies are pictured with wings. Advised by William Blake to make the sylphs like butterflies, Stothard decided to "paint the wing from the butterfly itself" and immediately went out to catch one.[27] Oil paintings by two artists rise a little above this judgment. Henry Fuseli's erotic The Dream of Belinda (1789–1790) goes beyond the actual episode to incorporate other imagery from the poem and some details peculiar only to Fuseli, such as the white moths in copulation in the lower foreground.[28] He also illustrated the Cave of Spleen episode from Canto 4, but this met with contemporary scepticism[29] and the original is now lost.[30] Only Thomas Holloway's print remains to suggest that critics might have been right in seeing in it more "burlesque than sublimity".[31] In the following century, Charles Robert Leslie's 1854 period piece, Sir Plume Demands the Restoration of the Lock, takes place in a cluttered drawing room in which the kind of lap dog present in many previous pictures feeds from a dish on the floor. The nine photo-engravings with which Aubrey Beardsley "embroidered" the 1896 edition of the poem[32] drew on the French rococo style, in which there was a contemporary revival of interest.[33] Well received at the time, their enduring popularity can be attributed to their reinterpreting of the poem in ways only a very few had managed earlier. Influence[edit] Pope's fanciful conclusion to his work, translating the stolen lock into the sky, where "'midst the stars [it] inscribes Belinda's name", contributed to the eventual naming of three of the moons of Uranus after characters from The Rape of the Lock: Umbriel, Ariel, and Belinda. The first two are major bodies and were named in 1852 by John Herschel, a year after their discovery. The inner satellite Belinda was not discovered until 1986 and is the only other of the planet's 27 moons taken from Pope's poem rather than Shakespeare's works. Modern adaptations of The Rape of the Lock include Deborah Mason's opera-ballet, on which the composer worked since 2002.[34] It had its premiere as an opera-oratorio in June 2016, performed by the Spectrum Symphony of New York and the New York Baroque Dance Company.[35][36] There had also been a 2006 performance at Sheffield University's Drama Studio of a musical work based on Pope's poem composed by Jenny Jackson.[37] References[edit] ^ Text online from Adelaide University ^ Sherburn, G., Eed. Correspondence of Alexander Pope, Oxford University Press, 1956, I, 201. ^ Corinne J. Saunders, Rape and Ravishment in the Literature of Medieval England, Boydell & Brewer, 2001, p. 20. ^ Keith Burgess-Jackson, A Most Detestable Crime: New Philosophical Essays on Rape, Oxford University Press, New York, 1999, p. 16. ^ Seeber, Edward D. (1944). "Sylphs and Other Elemental Beings in French Literature since Le Comte de Gabalis (1670)". PMLA. 59 (1): 71–83. doi:10.2307/458845. JSTOR 458845. ^ "A key to the lock: Or, a treatise proving, beyond all contradiction, the dangerous tendency of a late poem, entituled, The rape of the lock, to government and religion". ^ Ijaz, Muhammad. "RiseNotes-Rape of the Lock". www.risenotes.com. ^ Pat Rogers, The Alexander Pope Encyclopedia, Greenwood Press 2004, p.242 ^ Pope, Alexander; DESFONTAINES, Pierre François GUYOT; Caylus.), Marthe Marguerite Hippolyte de TUBIÈRES DE GRIMOARD DE PESTELS DE LEVIS (Marchioness de (24 August 2018). "La Boucle de Cheveux enlevée; poëme héroï-comique de Monsieur Pope. Traduit [in prose] de l'Anglois par Mr. ** [i.e. P. F. Guyot Desfontaines]". F. Le Breton – via Google Books. ^ Alexander Pope: The Critical Heritage, Routledge 1995, ch.23 ^ Available in Google Books,p.93ff ^ Hilary Brown, introduction to the MHRA reprint, London 2014 ^ Giuseppe Parinis Il Giorno im Kontext der europäischen Aufklärung, Würzburg 2006, p.236 ^ Pope, Alexander (24 August 2018). "Il Riccio rapito, di Alessandro Pope, traduzione di Federico Federici, ..." Stamp. Faziola – via Google Books. ^ Pope, Alexander (24 August 2018). "Il riccio rapito ; tradotto ed illustrato da G. Vincenzo Benini". Bettoni – via Google Books. ^ Pope, Alexander (24 August 2018). "Il riccio rapito". G. Masi – via Google Books. ^ Pope, Alexander (24 August 2018). "Il Riccio Rapito ... tradotto da A. Beduschi". Soc. tip. de'classici italiani – via Google Books. ^ "Dansk oversættelse af Alexander Popes "The rape of the Lock"". biblioteksvagten.dk. ^ "The Rape of the Smock. An Heroi-comic Poem. In Two Cantos. [By Giles Jacob.]". J. Brown. 24 August 1768 – via Google Books. ^ Barbara M. Benedict, Curiosity: A Cultural History of Early Modern Inquiry, University of Chicago 2002, pp.79-81 ^ Pope, Alexander. "The Rape of the Lock" – via Wikisource. ^ Morris R. Brownell, Eighteenth-Century Studies 16.1, 1982, p.91 ^ Timothy Erwin, Textual Vision: Augustan Design and the Invention of Eighteenth-Century British Culture, Bucknell University 2015, pp.17-58 ^ "A new audience for Pope - Simon Beattie". www.simonbeattie.kattare.com. ^ Hilary Brown's introduction to Luise Gottsched, Der Lockenraub, MHRA 2014, p.12 ^ Robert Halsband, The Rape of the Lock and its Illustrations, OUP 1980, p.77 ^ Jayne Elizabeth Lewis, Air's Appearance: Literary Atmosphere in British Fiction, 1660-1794, University of Chicago 2012, p.88 ^ Vancouver Art Gallery, p.4 ^ Luisa Cale, Fuseli's Milton Gallery, Oxford 2006, p.56 ^ "The Cave of Spleen, with Umbriel Receiving from the Goddess the Bag and Vial". British Museum. ^ "The Cave of Spleen, with Umbriel Receiving from the Goddess the Bag and Vial". British Museum. ^ "The Rape of the Lock". ebooks.adelaide.edu.au. ^ "Favourite Find: Aubrey Beardsley's illustrations for 'The Rape of the Lock'". 19 July 2013. ^ "the rape of the lock opera". debmasonstudio.com. ^ ""Alexander Pope's The Rape of the Lock" Opera-Oratorio by Deborah Mason". ^ A performance of the last act is available on YouTube ^ Sheffield, University of. "All that jazz… with a bit of opera and theatre mixed in - Latest - News - The University of Sheffield". www.sheffield.ac.uk. External links[edit] Wikisource has original text related to this article: The Rape of the Lock Wikimedia Commons has media related to The Rape of the Lock. The Rape of the Lock at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA) The Rape of the Lock: Study Guide With Complete Text and Detailed Explanatory Notes The Rape of the Lock: Study Guide,Summary, Selected Quotes, Themes and Detailed Explanatory Notes The Rape of the Lock and Other Poems at Project Gutenberg The Rape of the Lock public domain audiobook at LibriVox v t e Alexander Pope Plays Three Hours After Marriage (1717) Essays "Peri Bathous, Or the Art of Sinking in Poetry" (1727) Poetry "Ode on Solitude" (1700) An Essay on Criticism (1711) Messiah (English poem) (1712) The Rape of the Lock (1712) The Temple of Fame (1715) Eloisa to Abelard (1717) "Elegy to the Memory of an Unfortunate Lady" (1717) Messiah (Latin poem) (1728) The Dunciad (1728–29, 1742–43) An Essay on Man (1734) Moral Essays (1731-35) Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot (1735) Related Popeswood Binfield Scriblerus Club Memoirs of Martinus Scriblerus "Who breaks a butterfly upon a wheel?" 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en-wikipedia-org-1151	----	Category:Pages using Sister project links with wikidata namespace mismatch - Wikipedia Help Category:Pages using Sister project links with wikidata namespace mismatch From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This is a tracking category. It is used to build and maintain lists of pages—primarily for the sake of the lists themselves and their use in article and category maintenance. It is not part of the encyclopedia's categorization scheme. Pages in this category have a wikidata item which has a different namespace than the corresponding parameter More information: This category is hidden on its member pages—unless the corresponding user preference is set. These categories are used to track, build and organize lists of pages needing "attention en masse" (for example, pages using deprecated syntax), or that may need to be edited at someone's earliest convenience. 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en-wikipedia-org-115	----	Platonic Academy - Wikipedia Platonic Academy From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient philosophical, research and educative center, founded by Plato This article is about the academy founded by Plato. For the 15th-century school in Florence, see Platonic Academy (Florence). For the Raphael painting, see The School of Athens. "Akademia" redirects here. For the French early music ensemble, see Akadêmia. Coordinates: 37°59′33″N 23°42′29″E / 37.99250°N 23.70806°E / 37.99250; 23.70806 Part of a series on Platonism Plato from Raphael's The School of Athens (1509–1511) Early life Works Epistemology Idealism / realism Demiurge Theory of forms Theory of soul Transcendentals Form of the Good Third man argument Euthyphro dilemma Five regimes Philosopher king Plato's unwritten doctrines political philosophy Allegories and metaphors Atlantis Ring of Gyges The Cave The Divided Line The Sun Ship of State Myth of Er The Chariot Related articles Commentaries The Academy in Athens Socratic problem Academic skepticism Middle Platonism Neoplatonism and Christianity Allegorical interpretations of Plato Related categories ► Plato  Philosophy portal v t e Plato's Academy mosaic — from the Villa of T. Siminius Stephanus in Pompeii. The Academy (Ancient Greek: Ἀκαδημία) was founded by Plato in c. 387 BC in Athens. Aristotle studied there for twenty years (367–347 BC) before founding his own school, the Lyceum. The Academy persisted throughout the Hellenistic period as a skeptical school, until coming to an end after the death of Philo of Larissa in 83 BC. The Platonic Academy was destroyed by the Roman dictator Sulla in 86 BC.[1] Contents 1 Site 1.1 Today 2 History 2.1 The three Platonic eras 2.1.1 Old Academy 2.1.2 Middle Academy 2.1.3 New Academy 2.2 Destruction of the Academy 3 Neoplatonic Academy 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 External links Site[edit] Ancient road to the Academy. Map of Ancient Athens. The Academy is north of Athens. The Akademia was a school outside the city walls of ancient Athens. It was located in or beside a grove of olive trees dedicated to the goddess Athena,[2] which was on the site even before Cimon enclosed the precincts with a wall.[3] The archaic name for the site was Ἑκαδήμεια (Hekademia), which by classical times evolved into Ἀκαδημία (Akademia), which was explained, at least as early as the beginning of the 6th century BC, by linking it to "Akademos", a legendary Athenian hero. The site of the Academy was sacred to Athena; it had sheltered her religious cult since the Bronze Age. The site was perhaps also associated with the twin hero-gods Castor and Polydeuces (the Dioscuri), since the hero Akademos associated with the site was credited with revealing to the brothers where the abductor Theseus had hidden their sister Helen. Out of respect for its long tradition and its association with the Dioscuri – who were patron gods of Sparta – the Spartan army would not ravage these original "groves of Academe" when they invaded Attica.[4] Their piety was not shared by the Roman Sulla, who had the sacred olive trees of Athena cut down in 86 BC to build siege engines. Among the religious observances that took place at the Akademeia was a torchlit night race from altars within the city to Prometheus' altar in the Akademeia. The road to Akademeia was lined with the gravestones of Athenians, and funeral games also took place in the area as well as a Dionysiac procession from Athens to the Hekademeia and then back to the city.[5][6] The site of the Academy[7] is located near Colonus, approximately 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) north of Athens' Dipylon gates.[8] Today[edit] The site was rediscovered in the 20th century, in the modern Akadimia Platonos neighbourhood; considerable excavation has been accomplished and visiting the site is free.[9] Visitors today can visit the archaeological site of the Academy located on either side of the Cratylus street in the area of Colonos and Plato's Academy (Postal Code GR 10442). On either side of the Cratylus street are important monuments, including the Sacred House Geometric Era, the Gymnasium (1st century BC – 1st century AD), the Proto-Helladic Vaulted House and the Peristyle Building (4th century BC), which is perhaps the only major building that belonged to the actual Academy of Plato. History[edit] The area to be Plato's Academy appears to be named after Academus, an Attic hero in Greek mythology. Academus was said to have saved Athens from attack by Troy, revealing where Helen of Troy was hidden, when she had been kidnapped by King Theseus years before the incidents of the later Trojan War. Having thus spared Athens a war (or at least delayed it), Academus was seen as a savior of Athens. His land, six stadia (a total of about one kilometer, or a half mile, the exact length of a stadion varied) north of Athens, became revered even by neighboring city-states, escaping destruction during the many local wars. This piece of land was in historic Greek times adorned with oriental plane and olive plantations[10] and was called Academia after its original owner.[11] What was later to be known as Plato's school appears to have been part of Academia. Plato inherited the property at the age of thirty, with informal gatherings which included Theaetetus of Sunium, Archytas of Tarentum, Leodamas of Thasos, and Neoclides.[12] According to Debra Nails, Speusippus "joined the group in about 390 BC". She claims, "It is not until Eudoxus of Cnidos arrives in the mid-380s BC that Eudemus recognizes a formal Academy." There is no historical record of the exact time the school was officially founded, but modern scholars generally agree that the time was the mid-380s, probably sometime after 387 BC, when Plato is thought to have returned from his first visit to Italy and Sicily.[13] Originally, the meetings were held on Plato's property as often as they were at the nearby Academy gymnasium; this remained so throughout the fourth century.[14] Though the academy was open to the public, the main participants were upper class men.[15][16] It did not, at least during Plato's time, charge fees for membership.[17][15] Therefore, there was probably not at that time a "school" in the sense of a clear distinction between teachers and students, or even a formal curriculum.[18] There was, however, a distinction between senior and junior members.[19] Two women are known to have studied with Plato at the Academy, Axiothea of Phlius and Lasthenia of Mantinea.[20] In at least Plato's time, the school did not have any particular doctrine to teach; rather, Plato (and probably other associates of his) posed problems to be studied and solved by the others.[21] There is evidence of lectures given, most notably Plato's lecture "On the Good"; but probably the use of dialectic was more common.[22] According to an unverifiable story, dated of some 700 years after the founding of the school, above the entrance to the Academy was inscribed the phrase "Let None But Geometers Enter Here."[23] Many have imagined that the Academic curriculum would have closely resembled the one canvassed in Plato's Republic.[24] Others, however, have argued that such a picture ignores the obvious peculiar arrangements of the ideal society envisioned in that dialogue.[25] The subjects of study almost certainly included mathematics as well as the philosophical topics with which the Platonic dialogues deal, but there is little reliable evidence.[26] There is some evidence for what today would be considered strictly scientific research: Simplicius reports that Plato had instructed the other members to discover the simplest explanation of the observable, irregular motion of heavenly bodies: "by hypothesizing what uniform and ordered motions is it possible to save the appearances relating to planetary motions."[27] (According to Simplicius, Plato's colleague Eudoxus was the first to have worked on this problem.) Plato's Academy is often said to have been a school for would-be politicians in the ancient world, and to have had many illustrious alumni.[28] In a recent survey of the evidence, Malcolm Schofield, however, has argued that it is difficult to know to what extent the Academy was interested in practical (i.e., non-theoretical) politics since much of our evidence "reflects ancient polemic for or against Plato".[29] The three Platonic eras[edit] The School of Athens by Raphael (1509–1510), fresco at the Apostolic Palace, Vatican City. Diogenes Laërtius divided the history of the Academy into three: the Old, the Middle, and the New. At the head of the Old he put Plato, at the head of the Middle Academy, Arcesilaus, and of the New, Lacydes. Sextus Empiricus enumerated five divisions of the followers of Plato. He made Plato founder of the first Academy; Arcesilaus of the second; Carneades of the third; Philo and Charmadas of the fourth; and Antiochus of the fifth. Cicero recognised only two Academies, the Old and New, and had the latter commence with Arcesilaus.[30] Old Academy[edit] "Old Academy" redirects here. For the building in Munich, see Old Academy (Munich). Plato's immediate successors as "Scholarch" of the Academy were Speusippus (347–339 BC), Xenocrates (339–314 BC), Polemon (314–269 BC), and Crates (c. 269–266 BC). Other notable members of the Academy include Aristotle, Heraclides, Eudoxus, Philip of Opus, and Crantor. Middle Academy[edit] Around 266 BC Arcesilaus became Scholarch. Under Arcesilaus (c. 266–241 BC), the Academy strongly emphasized a version of Academic skepticism closely similar to Pyrrhonism.[31] Arcesilaus was followed by Lacydes of Cyrene (241–215 BC), Evander and Telecles (jointly) (205 – c. 165 BC), and Hegesinus (c. 160 BC). New Academy[edit] The New or Third Academy begins with Carneades, in 155 BC, the fourth Scholarch in succession from Arcesilaus. It was still largely skeptical, denying the possibility of knowing an absolute truth. Carneades was followed by Clitomachus (129 – c. 110 BC) and Philo of Larissa ("the last undisputed head of the Academy," c. 110–84 BC).[32][33] According to Jonathan Barnes, "It seems likely that Philo was the last Platonist geographically connected to the Academy."[34] Around 90 BC, Philo's student Antiochus of Ascalon began teaching his own rival version of Platonism rejecting Skepticism and advocating Stoicism, which began a new phase known as Middle Platonism. Destruction of the Academy[edit] The archaeological site of Plato's academy. When the First Mithridatic War began in 88 BC, Philo of Larissa left Athens and took refuge in Rome, where he seems to have remained until his death.[35] In 86 BC, Lucius Cornelius Sulla laid siege to Athens and conquered the city, causing much destruction. It was during the siege that he laid waste to the Academy, as Plutarch relates: "He laid hands upon the sacred groves and ravaged the Academy, which was the most wooded of the city's suburbs, as well as the Lyceum."[36] The destruction of the Academy seems to have been so severe as to make the reconstruction and re-opening of the Academy impossible.[37] When Antiochus returned to Athens from Alexandria, c. 84 BC, he resumed his teaching but not in the Academy. Cicero, who studied under him in 79/8 BC, refers to Antiochus teaching in a gymnasium called Ptolemy. Cicero describes a visit to the site of the Academy one afternoon, which was "quiet and deserted at that hour of the day".[38] Neoplatonic Academy[edit] Further information: Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism Despite the Platonic Academy being destroyed in the first century BC, the philosophers continued to teach Platonism in Athens during the Roman era, but it was not until the early 5th century (c. 410) that a revived academy (which had no connection with the original Academy) was established by some leading Neoplatonists.[39] The origins of Neoplatonist teaching in Athens are uncertain, but when Proclus arrived in Athens in the early 430s, he found Plutarch of Athens and his colleague Syrianus teaching in an Academy there. The Neoplatonists in Athens called themselves "successors" (diadochoi, but of Plato) and presented themselves as an uninterrupted tradition reaching back to Plato, but there cannot have actually been any geographical, institutional, economic or personal continuity with the original academy.[40] The school seems to have been a private foundation, conducted in a large house which Proclus eventually inherited from Plutarch and Syrianus.[41] The heads of the Neoplatonic Academy were Plutarch of Athens, Syrianus, Proclus, Marinus, Isidore, and finally Damascius. The Neoplatonic Academy reached its apex under Proclus (died 485). Severianus studied under him. The last "Greek" philosophers of the revived Neoplatonic Academy in the 6th century were drawn from various parts of the Hellenistic cultural world and suggest the broad syncretism of the common culture (see koine): Five of the seven Academy philosophers mentioned by Agathias were Syriac in their cultural origin: Hermias and Diogenes (both from Phoenicia), Isidorus of Gaza, Damascius of Syria, Iamblichus of Coele-Syria and perhaps even Simplicius of Cilicia.[40] In 529 the emperor Justinian ended the funding of the revived Neoplatonic Academy. However, other philosophical schools continued in Constantinople, Antioch, and Alexandria, which were the centres of Justinian's empire.[1] The last Scholarch of the Neoplatonic Academy was Damascius (d. 540). According to Agathias, its remaining members looked for protection under the rule of Sassanid king Khosrau I in his capital at Ctesiphon, carrying with them precious scrolls of literature and philosophy, and to a lesser degree of science. After a peace treaty between the Persian and the Byzantine empire in 532, their personal security (an early document in the history of freedom of religion) was guaranteed. It has been speculated that the Neoplatonic Academy did not altogether disappear.[40][42] After his exile, Simplicius (and perhaps some others) may have travelled to Harran, near Edessa. From there, the students of an Academy-in-exile could have survived into the 9th century, long enough to facilitate an Arabic revival of the Neoplatonist commentary tradition in Baghdad,[42] beginning with the foundation of the House of Wisdom in 832. One of the major centers of learning in the intervening period (6th to 8th centuries) was the Academy of Gundishapur in Sassanid Persia.[clarification needed] See also[edit] Academy of Athens (modern) Cyrenaics Agora Hellenistic philosophy Plato's Academy mosaic Platonic Academy (Florence) Platonism Peripatetic school Stoicism Epicureanism Notes[edit] ^ a b Lindberg, David C. (2007). The Beginnings of Western Science. University of Chicago Press. p. 70. ISBN 9780226482057. ^ Thucydides. ii:34. ^ Plutarch. Life of Cimon, xiii:7. ^ Plutarch. Life of Theseus, xxxii. ^ Pausanias. Description of Greece, i, 29.2, 30.2 ^ Plutarch. Life of Solon, i, 7. ^ Herbert Ernest Cushma. (1910). A Beginner's History of Philosophy, Volume 1, p. 219. Houghton Mifflin. ^ Ainian, A.M. & Alexandridou, A. (2007). "The 'sacred house' of the Academy Revisited". Acts of an International Symposium in Memory of William D. E. Coulson. Volos, Greece: University of Thessaly.] ^ greeceathensaegeaninfo.com Plato academy, at GreeceAthensAegeanInfo.com[unreliable source?] ^ Plutarch, Cimon 13 ^ Schmitz, Leonhard (1867), "Academus", in Smith, William (ed.), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, 1, Boston, p. 5 ^ pp. 5–6, D. Nails, "The Life of Plato of Athens", in H. Benson (ed.), A Companion to Plato, Blackwell Publishing 2006. ^ pp. 19–20, W. K. C. Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy, vol. 4, Cambridge University Press 1975; p. 1, R. Dancy, "Academy", in D. Zeyl (ed.), Encyclopedia of Classical Philosophy, Greenwood Press 1997. I. Mueller gives a much broader time frame – "...some time between the early 380s and the middle 360s..." – perhaps reflecting our real lack of evidence about the specific date (p. 170, "Mathematical Method & Philosophical Truth", in R. Kraut (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Plato, Cambridge University Press 1992). ^ D. Sedley, "Academy", in the Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3rd ed.; p. 4, J. Barnes, "Life and Work", in The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle, Cambridge University Press 1995; J. Barnes, "Academy", E. Craig (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Routledge 1998, accessed 13 Sept 2008, from http://www.rep.routledge.com/article/A001. ^ a b Plato's academy : its workings and its history. Kalligas, Paulos. Cambridge, United Kingdom. p. 76. ISBN 978-1-108-55466-4. OCLC 1120786946.CS1 maint: others (link) ^ p. 31, J. Barnes, Aristotle: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press 2000. ^ p. 170, Mueller, "Mathematical Method & Philosophical Truth"; p. 249, D. Nails, The People of Plato, Hackett 2002. ^ pp. 170–171, Mueller, "Mathematical Method & Philosophical Truth"; p. 248, Nails, The People of Plato. ^ Barnes, "Academy". ^ http://www.hackettpublishing.com/philosophy/women-in-the-academy ^ p. 2, Dancy, "Academy". ^ p. 2, Dancy, "Academy"; p. 21, Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy, vol. 4; p. 34–36, Barnes, Aristotle: A Very Short Introduction. ^ p. 67, V. Katz, History of Mathematics ^ p. 22, Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy, vol. 4. ^ pp. 170–71, Mueller, "Mathematical Method & Philosophical Truth". ^ M. Schofield, "Plato", in E. Craig (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Routledge 1998/2002, retrieved 13 Sept 2008, from http://www.rep.routledge.com/article/A088 ; p. 32, Barnes, Aristotle: A Very Short Introduction. ^ Simplicius, Commentary on Aristotle's "On the Heavens" 488.7–24, quoted on p. 174, Mueller, "Mathematical Method & Philosophical Truth". ^ p. 23, Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy, vol. 4; G. Field, "Academy", in the Oxford Classical Dictionary, 2nd ed. ^ p. 293, "Plato & Practical Politics", in Schofield & C. Rowe (eds.), Greek & Roman Political Thought, Cambridge University Press 2000. ^ Charles Anthon, (1855), A Classical Dictionary, page 6 ^ Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism, Book 1, Chapter 33, Section 232 ^ Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3rd ed. (1996), s.v. "Philon of Larissa." ^ See the table in The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy (Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 53–54. ^ "Academy", E. Craig (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Routledge 1998, accessed 14 Sept 2008, from http://www.rep.routledge.com/article/A001. ^ Giovanni Reale, John R. Catan, 1990, A History of Ancient Philosophy: The schools of the Imperial Age, page 207. SUNY Press ^ Plutarch, Sulla 12; cf. Appian, Roman History xii, 5.30 ^ Giovanni Reale, John R. Catan, 1990, A History of Ancient Philosophy: The schools of the Imperial Age, page 208. SUNY Press ^ Cicero, De Finibus, book 5 ^ Alan Cameron, "The last days of the Academy at Athens," in Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society vol 195 (n.s. 15), 1969, pp 7–29. ^ a b c Gerald Bechtle, Bryn Mawr Classical Review of Rainer Thiel, Simplikios und das Ende der neuplatonischen Schule in Athen. Stuttgart, 1999 (in English). ^ The Cambridge Ancient History, (1970), Volume XIV, page 837. Cambridge University Press. ^ a b Richard Sorabji, (2005), The Philosophy of the Commentators, 200–600 AD: Psychology (with Ethics and Religion), page 11. Cornell University Press References[edit] Baltes, M. 1993. "Plato's School, the Academy." Hermathena, (155): 5-26. Brunt, P. A. 1993. "Plato's Academy and Politics." In Studies in Greek History and Thought. Oxford: Clarendon Press, Chapter 10, 282-342. Cherniss, H. 1945. The Riddle of the Early Academy. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Dancy, R. M. 1991. Two Studies in the Early Academy. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Dillon, J. M. 1979. "The Academy in the Middle Platonic Period." Dionysius, 3: 63-77. Dillon, J. 2003. The Heirs of Plato. A Study of the Old Academy, 347–274 BC. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Dorandi, T. 1999. "Chronology: The Academy." In The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy. Edited by Keimpe Algra, Jonathan Barnes, Jaap Mansfeld, and Malcolm Schofield, 31–35. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Glucker, J. 1978. Antiochus and the Late Academy. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Lynch, J. P. 1972. Aristotle's School: A Study of a Greek Educational Institution. Berkeley: University of California Press. Murray, J. S. 2006. "Searching for Plato's Academy, 1929-1940." Mouseion: Journal of the Classical Association of Canada, 6 (2): 219-56 Russell, J. H. 2012. "When Philosophers Rule: The Platonic Academy and Statesmanship." History of Political Thought, 33 (2): 209-230. Wallach, J. R. 2002. "The Platonic Academy and Democracy." Polis (Exeter), 19 (1-2): 7-27 Watts, E. 2007. "Creating the Academy: Historical Discourse and the Shape of Community in the Old Academy". The Journal of Hellenic Studies, 127: 106–122. Wycherley, R. 1961. "Peripatos: The Athenian Philosophical Scene—I". Greece & Rome, 8(2), 152–163. Wycherley, R. 1962. Peripatos: The Athenian Philosophical Scene—II". Greece & Rome, 9(1), 2–21. Zhmud, Leonid. 2006. "Science in the Platonic Academy". In The Origin of the History of Science in Classical Antiquity. pp. 82–116. Berlin: De Gruyter. 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en-wikipedia-org-116	----	Libertas - Wikipedia Libertas From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the Roman goddess. For other uses, see Libertas (disambiguation). Libertas Goddess of liberty Libertas with her attributes Symbol Pileus, rod (vindicta or festuca) Greek equivalent Eleutheria Denarius (42 BC) issued by Cassius Longinus and Lentulus Spinther, depicting the crowned head of Libertas, with a sacrificial jug and lituus on the reverse Libertas (Latin for 'liberty' or 'freedom', pronounced [liːˈbɛrt̪aːs̠]) is the Roman goddess and personification of liberty. She became a politicised figure in the Late Republic, featured on coins supporting the populares faction, and later those of the assassins of Julius Caesar. Nonetheless, she sometimes appears on coins from the imperial period, such as Galba's "Freedom of the People" coins during his short reign after the death of Nero.[1] She is usually portrayed with two accoutrements: the rod and the soft pileus, which she holds out, rather than wears. The Greek equivalent of the goddess Libertas is Eleutheria, the personification of liberty. There are many post-classical depictions of liberty as a person which often retain some of the iconography of the Roman goddess. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Attributes 3 Temples 4 Post-classical 5 See also 6 References 6.1 Bibliography 7 External links Etymology[edit] The name Lībertās ('freedom') is a derivation from Latin Līber ('free'), stemming from Proto-Italic *leuþero, and ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *h₁leudʰero ('belonging to the people', hence 'free').[2] Attributes[edit] Libertas was associated with the pileus, commonly worn by the freed slave:[3] Among the Romans the cap of felt was the emblem of liberty. When a slave obtained his freedom he had his head shaved, and wore instead of his hair an undyed pileus (πίλεον λευκόν, Diodorus Siculus Exc. Leg. 22 p625, ed. Wess.; Plaut. Amphit. I.1.306; Persius, V.82). Hence the phrase servos ad pileum vocare is a summons to liberty, by which slaves were frequently called upon to take up arms with a promise of liberty (Liv. XXIV.32). "The figure of Liberty on some of the coins of Antoninus Pius, struck A.D. 145, holds this cap in the right hand".[4] Libertas was also recognized in ancient Rome by the rod (vindicta or festuca),[3] used ceremonially in the act of Manumissio vindicta, Latin for 'freedom by the rod' (emphasis added): The master brought his slave before the magistratus, and stated the grounds (causa) of the intended manumission. "The lictor of the magistratus laid a rod (festuca) on the head of the slave, accompanied with certain formal words, in which he declared that he was a free man ex Jure Quiritium", that is, "vindicavit in libertatem". The master in the meantime held the slave, and after he had pronounced the words "hunc hominem liberum volo," he turned him round (momento turbinis exit Marcus Dama, Persius, Sat. V.78) and let him go (emisit e manu, or misit manu, Plaut. Capt. II.3.48), whence the general name of the act of manumission. The magistratus then declared him to be free [...][5] Temples[edit] The Roman Republic was established simultaneously with the creation of Libertas and is associated with the overthrow of the Tarquin kings. She was worshiped by the Junii, the family of Marcus Junius Brutus.[6] In 238 BC, before the Second Punic War, Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus built a temple to Libertas on the Aventine Hill.[7] Census tables were stored inside the temple's atrium. A subsequent temple was built (58–57 BC) on Palatine Hill, another of the Seven hills of Rome, by Publius Clodius Pulcher. By building and consecrating the temple on the site of the former house of then-exiled Cicero, Clodius ensured that the land was legally uninhabitable. Upon his return, Cicero successfully argued that the consecration was invalid and thus managed to reclaim the land and destroy the temple. In 46 BC, the Roman Senate voted to build and dedicate a shrine to Libertas in recognition of Julius Caesar, but no temple was built; instead, a small statue of the goddess stood in the Roman Forum.[8] Post-classical[edit] The Statue of Liberty (Liberty Enlightening the World) in New York derives from the ancient goddess Libertas. The goddess Libertas is also depicted on the Great Seal of France, created in 1848. This is the image which later influenced French sculptor Frederic-Auguste Bartholdi in the creation of his statue of Liberty Enlightening the World. Libertas, along with other Roman goddesses, has served as the inspiration for many modern-day personifications, including the Statue of Liberty on Liberty Island in the United States. According to the National Park Service, the Statue's Roman robe is the main feature that invokes Libertas and the symbol of Liberty from which the statue derives its name.[9] In addition, money throughout history has borne the name or image of Libertas. As "Liberty", Libertas was depicted on the obverse (heads side) of most coinage in the U.S. into the twentieth century – and the image is still used for the American Gold Eagle gold bullion coin. The University of North Carolina records two instances of private banks in its state depicting Libertas on their banknotes;[10][11] Libertas is depicted on the 5, 10 and 20 Rappen denomination coins of Switzerland. The symbolic characters Columbia who represents the United States and Marianne, who represents France, the Statue of Liberty (Liberty Enlightening the World) in New York Harbor, and many other characters and concepts of the modern age were created, and are seen, as embodiments of Libertas. See also[edit] Liber Libera (mythology) a goddess in Roman mythology Liberty Leading the People, 1830 painting References[edit] ^ "Roman Coins" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-10-31. Retrieved 2008-09-01. ^ de Vaan 2008, p. 338. ^ a b Tate, Karen; Olson, Brad (2005). Sacred Places of Goddess: 108 Destinations. CCC Publishing. pp. 360–361. ISBN 1-888729-11-2. ^ Yates, James. Entry "Pileus" in William Smith's A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (John Murray, London, 1875). ^ Long, George. Entry "Manumission" in William Smith's A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (John Murray, London, 1875). ^ The American Catholic Quarterly Review ... Hardy and Mahony. 1880. p. 589. ^ Karl Galinsky; Kenneth Lapatin (1 January 2016). Cultural Memories in the Roman Empire. Getty Publications. p. 230. ISBN 978-1-60606-462-7. ^ "Libertas". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Retrieved 1 September 2008. ^ "Robe". National Park Service. Retrieved 2008-09-01. ^ Howgego, C. J. (1995). Ancient history from coins. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-08993-7. Retrieved 4 December 2011. ^ "Bank of Fayetteville one-dollar note, 1855". Archived from the original on 2012-05-24. Retrieved 2008-09-01. Bibliography[edit] de Vaan, Michiel (2008). Etymological Dictionary of Latin and the other Italic Languages. Brill. ISBN 9789004167971. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Libertas. David Hackett Fischer, Liberty and Freedom (2005) The many faces of Miss Liberty v t e Liberty Concepts Cognitive liberty Moral responsibility Personification of Liberty Libertas Negative liberty Positive liberty Rights Self-ownership Social liberty Free will By type Academic Civil Economic Intellectual Morphological Political By right Assembly Association Choice Education Gun Information Life Movement Press Property Religion Public speech Thought v t e Ancient Roman religion and mythology Deities (Dii Consentes) Agenoria Angerona Anna Perenna Apollo Bellona Bona Dea Carmenta Castor and Pollux Ceres Cloacina Cupid Dea Dia Diana Dies Dīs Pater Egeria Fauna Faunus Flora Genius Hercules Janus Juno Jupiter Lares Liber Libertas Mars Mercury Minerva Neptune Orcus Penates Pluto Pomona Priapus Proserpina Quirinus Saturn Silvanus Sol Venus Veritas Vesta Vulcan Abstract deities Abundantia Aequitas Aeternitas Africa Annona Averruncus Concordia Feronia Fides Fortuna Fontus Laverna Pietas Roma Salus Securitas Spes Tranquillitas Victoria Terra Legendary figures Aeneas Rhea Silvia Romulus and Remus Numa Pompilius Tullus Hostilius Servius Tullius Ancus Marcius Lucius Tarquinius Priscus Lucius Tarquinius Superbus Texts Virgil Aeneid Ovid Metamorphoses Fasti Propertius Apuleius The Golden Ass Varro Concepts and practices Religion in ancient Rome Festivals Interpretatio graeca Imperial cult Pomerium Temples Philosophy Cynicism Epicureanism Neoplatonism Peripateticism Pythagoreanism Stoicism See also Glossary Greek mythology Myth and ritual Roman polytheism (List) Classical mythology Conversion to Christianity Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism v t e Statue of Liberty Liberty Enlightening the World Creators Édouard René de Laboulaye, originator Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi, sculptor Gustave Eiffel (builder, Eiffel company) Richard Morris Hunt, pedestal Eugène Secrétan, donated copper Engineers Eugène Viollet-le-Duc Maurice Koechlin Joachim Giæver Location Statue of Liberty National Monument Liberty Island Original torch: Statue of Liberty Museum Original statue: Musée des Arts et Métiers Former locations Right arm and torch: Centennial Exposition, 1876 Madison Square Park, 1876-1882 Head: Paris World's Fair, 1878 Replicas Île aux Cygnes Flame of Liberty Leicester Strengthen the Arm of Liberty Austin, Texas Fayetteville, Arkansas Oklahoma City Overview Park, Kansas Pine Bluff, Arkansas Seattle Legacy In popular culture "The New Colossus" (1883 sonnet) Working on the Statue of Liberty (1946 painting) Miss Liberty (1949 musical) The Statue of Liberty (1985 documentary) Liberty: Mother of Exiles (2019 documentary) Statue of Liberty play (American football) Liberty Weekend, 1986 Liberty Fanfare Medal of Liberty Liberty Issue (1954-1965 stamps) Statue of Liberty Forever stamp American Platinum Eagle coin Presidential dollar coins American Innovation dollars Related Conservation-restoration of the Statue of Liberty Statue of Liberty Museum Egypt Carrying the Light to Asia Libertas Personification of Liberty Ellis Island Black Tom explosion Musée Bartholdi Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Libertas&oldid=994847214" Categories: Roman goddesses Roman mythology Personifications in Roman mythology Liberty symbols Hidden categories: Articles having different image on Wikidata and Wikipedia Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Català Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Français Italiano עברית Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Русский Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 17 December 2020, at 21:03 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1179	----	Robert Frost - Wikipedia Robert Frost From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search American poet This article is about the poet. For other people with the same name, see Robert Frost (disambiguation). Robert Frost Robert Frost in 1941 Born Robert Lee Frost (1874-03-26)March 26, 1874 San Francisco, California, US Died January 29, 1963(1963-01-29) (aged 88) Boston, Massachusetts, US Occupation Poet, playwright Alma mater Dartmouth College (no degree) Harvard University (no degree) Notable works A Boy's Will, North of Boston[1] Notable awards Pulitzer Prize for Poetry, Congressional Gold Medal Spouse Elinor Miriam White ​ ​ (m. 1895; died 1938)​ Children 6 Signature Robert Lee Frost (March 26, 1874 – January 29, 1963) was an American poet. His work was initially published in England before it was published in the United States. Known for his realistic depictions of rural life and his command of American colloquial speech,[2] Frost frequently wrote about settings from rural life in New England in the early 20th century, using them to examine complex social and philosophical themes. Frost was honored frequently during his lifetime and is the only poet to receive four Pulitzer Prizes for Poetry. He became one of America's rare "public literary figures, almost an artistic institution."[3] He was awarded the Congressional Gold Medal in 1960 for his poetic works. On July 22, 1961, Frost was named poet laureate of Vermont. Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Early years 1.2 Adult years 1.3 Personal life 2 Work 2.1 Style and critical response 2.2 Themes 2.3 Influenced by 2.4 Influenced 3 Awards and recognition 3.1 Pulitzer Prizes 4 Legacy and cultural influence 5 Selected works 5.1 Poetry collections 5.2 Plays 5.3 Letters 5.4 Other 6 See also 7 Citations 8 General sources 9 External links Biography Early years Robert Frost, circa 1910 Robert Frost was born in San Francisco, California, to journalist William Prescott Frost, Jr., and Isabelle Moodie.[2] His mother was a Scottish immigrant, and his father descended from Nicholas Frost of Tiverton, Devon, England, who had sailed to New Hampshire in 1634 on the Wolfrana. Frost was a descendant of Samuel Appleton, one of the early settlers of Ipswich, Massachusetts, and Rev. George Phillips, one of the early settlers of Watertown, Massachusetts.[4] Frost's father was a teacher and later an editor of the San Francisco Evening Bulletin (which later merged with The San Francisco Examiner), and an unsuccessful candidate for city tax collector. After his death on May 5, 1885, the family moved across the country to Lawrence, Massachusetts, under the patronage of Robert's grandfather William Frost, Sr., who was an overseer at a New England mill. Frost graduated from Lawrence High School in 1892.[5] Frost's mother joined the Swedenborgian church and had him baptized in it, but he left it as an adult. Although known for his later association with rural life, Frost grew up in the city, and he published his first poem in his high school's magazine. He attended Dartmouth College for two months, long enough to be accepted into the Theta Delta Chi fraternity. Frost returned home to teach and to work at various jobs, including helping his mother teach her class of unruly boys, delivering newspapers, and working in a factory maintaining carbon arc lamps. He did not enjoy these jobs, feeling his true calling was poetry. Adult years Robert Frost's 85th birthday in 1959 In 1894, he sold his first poem, "My Butterfly. An Elegy" (published in the November 8, 1894, edition of the New York Independent) for $15 ($443 today). Proud of his accomplishment, he proposed marriage to Elinor Miriam White, but she demurred, wanting to finish college (at St. Lawrence University) before they married. Frost then went on an excursion to the Great Dismal Swamp in Virginia and asked Elinor again upon his return. Having graduated, she agreed, and they were married at Lawrence, Massachusetts on December 19, 1895. Frost attended Harvard University from 1897 to 1899, but he left voluntarily due to illness.[6][7][8] Shortly before his death, Frost's grandfather purchased a farm for Robert and Elinor in Derry, New Hampshire; Frost worked the farm for nine years while writing early in the mornings and producing many of the poems that would later become famous. Ultimately his farming proved unsuccessful and he returned to the field of education as an English teacher at New Hampshire's Pinkerton Academy from 1906 to 1911, then at the New Hampshire Normal School (now Plymouth State University) in Plymouth, New Hampshire. In 1912, Frost sailed with his family to Great Britain, settling first in Beaconsfield, a small town outside London. His first book of poetry, A Boy's Will, was published the next year. In England he made some important acquaintances, including Edward Thomas (a member of the group known as the Dymock poets and Frost's inspiration for "The Road Not Taken"[9]), T. E. Hulme, and Ezra Pound. Although Pound would become the first American to write a favorable review of Frost's work, Frost later resented Pound's attempts to manipulate his American prosody.[10] Frost met or befriended many contemporary poets in England, especially after his first two poetry volumes were published in London in 1913 (A Boy's Will) and 1914 (North of Boston). The Robert Frost Farm in Derry, New Hampshire, where he wrote many of his poems, including "Tree at My Window" and "Mending Wall." In 1915, during World War I, Frost returned to America, where Holt's American edition of A Boy's Will had recently been published, and bought a farm in Franconia, New Hampshire, where he launched a career of writing, teaching, and lecturing. This family homestead served as the Frosts' summer home until 1938. It is maintained today as The Frost Place, a museum and poetry conference site. He was made an honorary member of Phi Beta Kappa at Harvard[11] in 1916. During the years 1917–20, 1923–25, and, on a more informal basis, 1926–1938, Frost taught English at Amherst College in Massachusetts, notably encouraging his students to account for the myriad sounds and intonations of the spoken English language in their writing. He called his colloquial approach to language "the sound of sense."[12] In 1924, he won the first of four Pulitzer Prizes for the book New Hampshire: A Poem with Notes and Grace Notes.[13] He would win additional Pulitzers for Collected Poems in 1931,[14] A Further Range in 1937,[15] and A Witness Tree in 1943.[16] For forty-two years – from 1921 to 1962 – Frost spent almost every summer and fall teaching at the Bread Loaf School of English of Middlebury College, at its mountain campus at Ripton, Vermont. He is credited as a major influence upon the development of the school and its writing programs. The college now owns and maintains his former Ripton farmstead, a National Historic Landmark, near the Bread Loaf campus.[17] In 1921, Frost accepted a fellowship teaching post at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, where he resided until 1927 when he returned to teach at Amherst. While teaching at the University of Michigan, he was awarded a lifetime appointment at the University as a Fellow in Letters.[18] The Robert Frost Ann Arbor home was purchased by The Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn, Michigan and relocated to the museum's Greenfield Village site for public tours. Throughout the 1920s, Frost also lived in his colonial era home in Shaftsbury, Vermont. The home opened as the Robert Frost Stone House Museum[19] in 2002 and was given to Bennington College in 2017.[19] In 1934, Frost began to spend winter months in Florida.[20] In March 1935, he gave a talk at the University of Miami.[20] In 1940, he bought a 5-acre (2.0 ha) plot in South Miami, Florida, naming it Pencil Pines; he spent his winters there for the rest of his life.[20] In her memoir about Frost's time in Florida, Helen Muir writes, "Frost had called his five acres Pencil Pines because he said he had never made a penny from anything that did not involve the use of a pencil."[20] His properties also included a house on Brewster Street in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Harvard's 1965 alumni directory indicates Frost received an honorary degree there. Although he never graduated from college, Frost received over 40 honorary degrees, including ones from Princeton, Oxford and Cambridge universities, and was the only person to receive two honorary degrees from Dartmouth College. During his lifetime, the Robert Frost Middle School in Fairfax, Virginia, the Robert L. Frost School in Lawrence, Massachusetts, and the main library of Amherst College were named after him. "I had a lover's quarrel with the world." The epitaph engraved on his tomb is an excerpt from his poem "The Lesson for Today." In 1960, Frost was awarded a United States Congressional Gold Medal, "In recognition of his poetry, which has enriched the culture of the United States and the philosophy of the world,"[21] which was finally bestowed by President Kennedy in March 1962.[22] Also in 1962, he was awarded the Edward MacDowell Medal for outstanding contribution to the arts by the MacDowell Colony.[23] Frost was 86 when he read at the inauguration of John F. Kennedy on January 20, 1961. Frost originally attempted to read his poem "Dedication", which was written for the occasion, but was unable to read it due to the brightness of the sunlight, so he recited his poem "The Gift Outright" from memory instead.[24] In the summer of 1962, Frost accompanied Interior Secretary Stewart Udall on a visit to the Soviet Union in hopes of meeting Nikita Khrushchev to lobby for peaceful relations between the two Cold War powers.[25][26][27][28] Frost died in Boston on January 29, 1963 of complications from prostate surgery. He was buried at the Old Bennington Cemetery in Bennington, Vermont. His epitaph quotes the last line from his poem, "The Lesson for Today" (1942): "I had a lover's quarrel with the world." One of the original collections of Frost materials, to which he himself contributed, is found in the Special Collections department of the Jones Library in Amherst, Massachusetts. The collection consists of approximately twelve thousand items, including original manuscript poems and letters, correspondence and photographs, as well as audio and visual recordings.[29] The Archives and Special Collections at Amherst College holds a small collection of his papers. The University of Michigan Library holds the Robert Frost Family Collection of manuscripts, photographs, printed items, and artwork. The most significant collection of Frost's working manuscripts is held by Dartmouth. Personal life The Frost family grave in Bennington Old Cemetery Robert Frost's personal life was plagued by grief and loss. In 1885 when he was 11, his father died of tuberculosis, leaving the family with just eight dollars. Frost's mother died of cancer in 1900. In 1920, he had to commit his younger sister Jeanie to a mental hospital, where she died nine years later. Mental illness apparently ran in Frost's family, as both he and his mother suffered from depression, and his daughter Irma was committed to a mental hospital in 1947. Frost's wife, Elinor, also experienced bouts of depression.[18] Elinor and Robert Frost had six children: son Elliot (1896–1900, died of cholera); daughter Lesley Frost Ballantine (1899–1983); son Carol (1902–1940, committed suicide); daughter Irma (1903–1967); daughter Marjorie (1905–1934, died as a result of puerperal fever after childbirth); and daughter Elinor Bettina (died just one day after her birth in 1907). Only Lesley and Irma outlived their father. Frost's wife, who had heart problems throughout her life, developed breast cancer in 1937, and died of heart failure in 1938.[18] Work Style and critical response The poet and critic Randall Jarrell often praised Frost's poetry and wrote "Robert Frost, along with Stevens and Eliot, seems to me the greatest of the American poets of this century. Frost's virtues are extraordinary. No other living poet has written so well about the actions of ordinary men; his wonderful dramatic monologues or dramatic scenes come out of a knowledge of people that few poets have had, and they are written in a verse that uses, sometimes with absolute mastery, the rhythms of actual speech". He also praised "Frost's seriousness and honesty", stating that Frost was particularly skilled at representing a wide range of human experience in his poems.[30] Jarrell's notable and influential essays on Frost include the essays "Robert Frost's 'Home Burial'" (1962), which consisted of an extended close reading of that particular poem,[31] and "To The Laodiceans" (1952) in which Jarrell defended Frost against critics who had accused Frost of being too "traditional" and out of touch with Modern or Modernist poetry. U.S stamp, 1974 In Frost's defense, Jarrell wrote "the regular ways of looking at Frost's poetry are grotesque simplifications, distortions, falsifications—coming to know his poetry well ought to be enough, in itself, to dispel any of them, and to make plain the necessity of finding some other way of talking about his work." And Jarrell's close readings of poems like "Neither Out Too Far Nor In Too Deep" led readers and critics to perceive more of the complexities in Frost's poetry.[32][33] In an introduction to Jarrell's book of essays, Brad Leithauser notes that "the 'other' Frost that Jarrell discerned behind the genial, homespun New England rustic—the 'dark' Frost who was desperate, frightened, and brave—has become the Frost we've all learned to recognize, and the little-known poems Jarrell singled out as central to the Frost canon are now to be found in most anthologies".[34][35] Jarrell lists a selection of the Frost poems he considers the most masterful, including "The Witch of Coös", "Home Burial", "A Servant to Servants", "Directive", "Neither Out Too Far Nor In Too Deep", "Provide, Provide", "Acquainted with the Night", "After Apple Picking", "Mending Wall", "The Most of It", "An Old Man's Winter Night", "To Earthward", "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening", "Spring Pools", "The Lovely Shall Be Choosers", "Design", and "Desert Places".[36] From "Birches"[37] I'd like to get away from earth awhile And then come back to it and begin over. May no fate willfully misunderstand me And half grant what I wish and snatch me away Not to return. Earth's the right place for love: I don't know where it's likely to go better. I'd like to go by climbing a birch tree, And climb black branches up a snow-white trunk Toward heaven, till the tree could bear no more, But dipped its top and set me down again. That would be good both going and coming back. One could do worse than be a swinger of birches. Robert Frost In 2003, the critic Charles McGrath noted that critical views on Frost's poetry have changed over the years (as has his public image). In an article called "The Vicissitudes of Literary Reputation," McGrath wrote, "Robert Frost ... at the time of his death in 1963 was generally considered to be a New England folkie ... In 1977, the third volume of Lawrance Thompson's biography suggested that Frost was a much nastier piece of work than anyone had imagined; a few years later, thanks to the reappraisal of critics like William H. Pritchard and Harold Bloom and of younger poets like Joseph Brodsky, he bounced back again, this time as a bleak and unforgiving modernist."[38] In The Norton Anthology of Modern Poetry, editors Richard Ellmann and Robert O'Clair compared and contrasted Frost's unique style to the work of the poet Edwin Arlington Robinson since they both frequently used New England settings for their poems. However, they state that Frost's poetry was "less [consciously] literary" and that this was possibly due to the influence of English and Irish writers like Thomas Hardy and W.B. Yeats. They note that Frost's poems "show a successful striving for utter colloquialism" and always try to remain down to earth, while at the same time using traditional forms despite the trend of American poetry towards free verse which Frost famously said was "'like playing tennis without a net.'"[39][40] In providing an overview of Frost's style, the Poetry Foundation makes the same point, placing Frost's work "at the crossroads of nineteenth-century American poetry [with regard to his use of traditional forms] and modernism [with his use of idiomatic language and ordinary, every day subject matter]." They also note that Frost believed that "the self-imposed restrictions of meter in form" was more helpful than harmful because he could focus on the content of his poems instead of concerning himself with creating "innovative" new verse forms.[41] An earlier 1963 study by the poet James Radcliffe Squires spoke to the distinction of Frost as a poet whose verse soars more for the difficulty and skill by which he attains his final visions, than for the philosophical purity of the visions themselves. "He has written at a time when the choice for the poet seemed to lie among the forms of despair: Science, solipsism, or the religion of the past century ... Frost has refused all of these and in the refusal has long seemed less dramatically committed than others ... But no, he must be seen as dramatically uncommitted to the single solution ... Insofar as Frost allows to both fact and intuition a bright kingdom, he speaks for many of us. Insofar as he speaks through an amalgam of senses and sure experience so that his poetry seems a nostalgic memory with overtones touching some conceivable future, he speaks better than most of us. That is to say, as a poet must."[42] The classicist Helen H. Bacon has proposed that Frost's deep knowledge of Greek and Roman classics influenced much of his work. Frost's education at Lawrence High School, Dartmouth, and Harvard "was based mainly on the classics". As examples, she links imagery and action in Frost's early poems "Birches" (1915) and "Wild Grapes" (1920) with Euripides' Bacchae. She cites the certain motifs, including that of the tree bent down to earth, as evidence of his "very attentive reading of Bacchae, almost certainly in Greek". In a later poem, "One More Brevity" (1953), Bacon compares the poetic techniques used by Frost to those of Virgil in the Aeneid. She notes that "this sampling of the ways Frost drew on the literature and concepts of the Greek and Roman world at every stage of his life indicates how imbued with it he was".[43] Themes In Contemporary Literary Criticism, the editors state that "Frost's best work explores fundamental questions of existence, depicting with chilling starkness the loneliness of the individual in an indifferent universe."[44] The critic T. K. Whipple focused on this bleakness in Frost's work, stating that "in much of his work, particularly in North of Boston, his harshest book, he emphasizes the dark background of life in rural New England, with its degeneration often sinking into total madness."[44] In sharp contrast, the founding publisher and editor of Poetry, Harriet Monroe, emphasized the folksy New England persona and characters in Frost's work, writing that "perhaps no other poet in our history has put the best of the Yankee spirit into a book so completely."[44] She notes his frequent use of rural settings and farm life, and she likes that in these poems, Frost is most interested in "showing the human reaction to nature's processes." She also notes that while Frost's narrative, character-based poems are often satirical, Frost always has a "sympathetic humor" towards his subjects.[44] Influenced by Robert Graves Rupert Brooke Thomas Hardy[39] William Butler Yeats[39] John Keats Influenced Robert Francis Seamus Heaney[12] Richard Wilbur[12] Edward Thomas[45] James Wright Awards and recognition Frost was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature 31 times.[46] In June 1922, the Vermont State League of Women's Clubs elected Frost as Poet laureate of Vermont. When a New York Times editorial strongly criticised the decision of the Women's Clubs, Sarah Cleghorn and other women wrote to the newspaper defending Frost.[47] On July 22, 1961, Frost was named Poet laureate of Vermont by the state legislature through Joint Resolution R-59 of the Acts of 1961, which also created the position.[48][49][50][51] Pulitzer Prizes 1924 for New Hampshire: A Poem With Notes and Grace Notes 1931 for Collected Poems 1937 for A Further Range 1943 for A Witness Tree Legacy and cultural influence Robert Frost Hall at Southern New Hampshire University Robert Frost Hall is an academic building at Southern New Hampshire University in Manchester, New Hampshire.[52] In the early morning of November 23, 1963, Westinghouse Broadcasting's Sid Davis reported the arrival of President John F. Kennedy's casket at the White House. Since Frost was one of the President's favorite poets, Davis concluded his report with a passage from "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening", but was overcome with emotion as he signed off.[53][54] Jawaharlal Nehru (1889–1964), the first Prime Minister of India, had kept a book of Robert Frost's close to him towards his later years, even at his bedside table as he lay dying.[55] The poem "Nothing Gold Can Stay" is featured in both the 1967 novel The Outsiders by S. E. Hinton and the 1983 film adaptation, first recited aloud by the character Ponyboy to his friend Johnny. In a subsequent scene Johnny quotes a stanza from the poem back to Ponyboy by means of a letter which was read after he passes away. His poem "Fire and Ice" influenced the title and other aspects of George R. R. Martin's fantasy series A Song of Ice and Fire.[56][57] Nothing Gold Can Stay is the name of the debut studio album by American pop-punk band New Found Glory, released on October 19, 1999.[58] At the funeral of former Canadian prime minister Pierre Trudeau, on October 3, 2000, his eldest son Justin rephrased the last stanza of the poem "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening" in his eulogy: "The woods are lovely, dark and deep. He has kept his promises and earned his sleep."[59] A Garfield comic strip published in October 20, 2002 originally featured the titular character reciting "Nothing Gold Can Stay".[60] However, this was replaced in book collections and online edition,[61] likely due to the poem being still under copyright when the comic ran (the poem has since lapsed into public domain, in 2019).[62] The poem "Fire and Ice" is the epigraph of Stephenie Meyers' book, Eclipse, of the Twilight Saga. It is also read by Kristen Stewart's character, Bella Swan, at the beginning of the Eclipse film. "Nothing Gold Can Stay" is referenced in First Aid Kit's 2014 album Stay Gold: "But just as the moon it shall stray / So dawn goes down today / No gold can stay / No gold can stay."[63] "Nothing Gold Can Stay" (February 4, 2015) is the title given to the tenth episode of the seventh season of The Mentalist in which a character is killed. The character of Baron Quinn recites "Fire and Ice" in an episode of AMC's Into the Badlands. Verses of "Fire and Ice" are referenced and recited throughout the episodic video game Life Is Strange: Before the Storm. The line "Nothing gold can stay" is featured in the 2018 single "Venice Bitch" by American singer Lana Del Rey.[64] Del Rey also previously used this line in her 2015 single "Music to Watch Boys To".[65] Selected works "The Road Not Taken", as featured in Mountain Interval (1916) Poetry collections 1913. A Boy's Will. London: David Nutt (New York: Holt, 1915)[66] 1914. North of Boston. London: David Nutt (New York: Holt, 1914) "After Apple-Picking" "The Death of the Hired Man" "Mending Wall" 1916. Mountain Interval. New York: Holt "Birches" "Out, Out" "The Oven Bird" "The Road Not Taken" 1923. Selected Poems. New York: Holt. "The Runaway" Also includes poems from first three volumes 1923. New Hampshire. New York: Holt (London: Grant Richards, 1924) "Fire and Ice" "Nothing Gold Can Stay" "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening" 1924. Several Short Poems. New York: Holt[67] 1928. Selected Poems. New York: Holt. 1928. West-Running Brook. New York: Holt "Acquainted with the Night" 1929. The Lovely Shall Be Choosers, The Poetry Quartos, printed and illustrated by Paul Johnston. Random House. 1930. Collected Poems of Robert Frost. New York: Holt (UK: Longmans Green, 1930) 1933. The Lone Striker. US: Knopf 1934. Selected Poems: Third Edition. New York: Holt 1935. Three Poems. Hanover, NH: Baker Library, Dartmouth College. 1935. The Gold Hesperidee. Bibliophile Press. 1936. From Snow to Snow. New York: Holt. 1936. A Further Range. New York: Holt (Cape, 1937) 1939. Collected Poems of Robert Frost. New York: Holt (UK: Longmans, Green, 1939) 1942. A Witness Tree. New York: Holt (Cape, 1943) "The Gift Outright" "A Question" "The Silken Tent" 1943. Come In, and Other Poems. New York: Holt. 1947. Steeple Bush. New York: Holt 1949. Complete Poems of Robert Frost. New York: Holt (Cape, 1951) 1951. Hard Not To Be King. House of Books. 1954. Aforesaid. New York: Holt. 1959. A Remembrance Collection of New Poems. New York: Holt. 1959. You Come Too. New York: Holt (UK: Bodley Head, 1964) 1962. In the Clearing. New York: Holt Rinehart & Winston 1969. The Poetry of Robert Frost. New York: Holt Rinehart & Winston. Plays 1929. A Way Out: A One Act Play (Harbor Press). 1929. The Cow's in the Corn: A One Act Irish Play in Rhyme (Slide Mountain Press). 1945. A Masque of Reason (Holt). 1947. A Masque of Mercy (Holt). Letters 1963. The Letters of Robert Frost to Louis Untermeyer (Holt, Rinehart & Winston; Cape, 1964). 1963. Robert Frost and John Bartlett: The Record of a Friendship, by Margaret Bartlett Anderson (Holt, Rinehart & Winston). 1964. Selected Letters of Robert Frost (Holt, Rinehart & Winston). 1972. Family Letters of Robert and Elinor Frost (State University of New York Press). 1981. Robert Frost and Sidney Cox: Forty Years of Friendship (University Press of New England). 2014. The Letters of Robert Frost, Volume 1, 1886–1920, edited by Donald Sheehy, Mark Richardson, and Robert Faggen. Belknap Press. ISBN 978-0674057609. (811 pages; first volume, of five, of the scholarly edition of the poet's correspondence, including many previously unpublished letters.) 2016. The Letters of Robert Frost, Volume 2, 1920–1928, edited by Donald Sheehy, Mark Richardson, Robert Bernard Hass, and Henry Atmore. Belknap Press. ISBN 978-0674726642. (848 pages; second volume of the series.) Other 1957. Robert Frost Reads His Poetry. Caedmon Records, TC1060. (spoken word) 1966. Interviews with Robert Frost (Holt, Rinehart & Winston; Cape, 1967). 1995. Collected Poems, Prose and Plays, edited by Richard Poirier. Library of America. ISBN 978-1-883011-06-2. (omnibus volume.) 2007. The Notebooks of Robert Frost, edited by Robert Faggen. Harvard University Press.[68] See also Biography portal Poetry portal List of poems by Robert Frost Frostiana New Hampshire Historical Marker No. 126: Robert Frost 1874–1963 Citations ^ "Robert Frost". The Poetry Foundation. Retrieved 18 February 2015. ^ a b "Robert Frost". Encyclopædia Britannica (Online ed.). 2008. Retrieved 2008-12-21. ^ Contemporary Literary Criticism. Ed. Jean C. Stine, Bridget Broderick, and Daniel G. Marowski. Vol. 26. Detroit: Gale Research, 1983. p110 ^ Watson, Marsten. Royal Families - Americans of Royal and Noble Ancestry. Volume Three: Samuel Appleton and His Wife Judith Everard and Five Generations of Their Descendants. 2010 ^ Ehrlich, Eugene; Carruth, Gorton (1982). The Oxford Illustrated Literary Guide to the United States. vol. 50. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-503186-5. ^ Nancy Lewis Tuten; John Zubizarreta (2001). The Robert Frost encyclopedia. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 145. ISBN 978-0-313-29464-8. Halfway through the spring semester of his second year, Dean Briggs released him from Harvard without prejudice, lamenting the loss of so good a student. ^ Jay Parini (2000). Robert Frost: A Life. Macmillan. pp. 64–65. ISBN 978-0-8050-6341-7. ^ Jeffrey Meyers (1996). Robert Frost: a biography. Houghton Mifflin. Frost remained at Harvard until March of his sophomore year, when he decamped in the middle of a term ... ^ Orr, David (2015-08-18). The Road Not Taken: Finding America in the Poem Everyone Loves and Almost Everyone Gets Wrong. Penguin. ISBN 9780698140899. ^ Meyers, Jeffrey (1996). Robert Frost: A Biography. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. pp. 107–109. ISBN 9780395728093. ^ "Phi Beta Kappa Authors". The Phi Beta Kappa Key. 6 (4): 237–240. 1926. JSTOR 42914052. ^ a b c "Resource: Voices & Visions". www.learner.org. Retrieved 2018-03-22. ^ "The 1924 Pulitzer Prize Winner in Poetry". Pulitzer.org. Retrieved 2018-03-22. ^ "The 1931 Pulitzer Prize Winner in Poetry". Pulitzer.org. Retrieved 2018-03-22. ^ "The 1937 Pulitzer Prize Winner in Poetry". Pulitzer.org. Retrieved 2018-03-22. ^ "The 1943 Pulitzer Prize Winner in Poetry". Pulitzer.org. Retrieved 2018-03-22. ^ "A Brief History of the Bread Loaf School of English". Middlebury Bread Loaf School of English. Retrieved February 11, 2018. ^ a b c Frost, Robert (1995). Poirier, Richard; Richardson, Mark (eds.). Collected Poems, Prose, & Plays. The Library of America. 81. New York: Library of America. ISBN 1-883011-06-X. ^ a b "Robert Frost Stone House Museum | Bennington College". www.bennington.edu. ^ a b c d Muir, Helen (1995). Frost in Florida: a memoir. Valiant Press. pp. 11, 17. ISBN 0-9633461-6-4. ^ "Office of the Clerk – U.S. House of Representatives, Congressional Gold Medal Recipients". ^ Parini, Jay (1999). Robert Frost: A Life. New York: Henry Holt and Company. pp. 408, 424–425. ISBN 9780805063417. ^ "The MacDowell Colony – Medal Day". Archived from the original on 2016-11-06. Retrieved 2015-07-02. ^ "John F. Kennedy: A Man of This Century". CBS. November 22, 1963. ^ "The Poet - Politician - JFK The Last Speech". JFK The Last Speech. Retrieved 2018-10-25. ^ Udall, Stewart L. (1972-06-11). "Robert Frost's Last Adventure". archive.nytimes.com. Retrieved 2018-10-25. ^ "When Robert Frost met Khrushchev". Christian Science Monitor. 2008-04-08. ISSN 0882-7729. Retrieved 2018-10-25. ^ Schachter, Aaron (2018-08-10). "Remembering John F. Kennedy's Last Speech". All Things Considered. Retrieved 2018-10-25. ^ "Robert Frost Collection". Jones Library, Inc. website, Amherst, Massachusetts. Archived from the original on 2009-06-12. Retrieved 2009-03-28. ^ Jarrell, Randall. "Fifty Years of American Poetry." No Other Book: Selected Essays. New York: HarperCollins, 1999. ^ Jarrell, Randall (1999) [1962]. "On 'Home Burial'". English Department at the University of Illinois. Retrieved October 18, 2018. ^ Jarrell, Randall. "To The Laodiceans." No Other Book: Selected Essays. New York: HarperCollins, 1999. ^ Jarrell, Randall. "Robert Frost's 'Home Burial.'" No Other Book: Selected Essays. New York: HarperCollins, 1999. ^ Leithauser, Brad. "Introduction." No Other Book: Selected Essays. New York: HarperCollins, 1999. ^ Nelson, Cary (2000). Anthology of Modern American Poetry. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 84. ISBN 0-19-512270-4. ^ Jarrell, Randall. "Fifty Years of American Poetry." No Other Book: Selected Essays. HarperCollins, 1999. ^ "Birches by Robert Frost". The Poetry Foundation. Retrieved 18 February 2015. ^ McGrath, Charles. "The Vicissitudes of Literary Reputation." The New York Times Magazine. 15 June 2003. ^ a b c Ellman, Richard and Robert O'Clair. The Norton Anthology of Modern Poetry, Second Edition. New York: Norton, 1988. ^ Faggen, Robert (2001). Editor (First ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ^ "Robert Frost". Poetry Foundation. Poetry Foundation. 2018-03-21. Retrieved 2018-03-22.CS1 maint: others (link) ^ Squires, Radcliffe. The Major Themes of Robert Frost, The University of Michigan Press, 1963. pp. 106-107. ^ Bacon, Helen. "Frost and the Ancient Muses." The Cambridge Companion to Robert Frost. Cambridge University Press, 2001, pp. 75-99 ^ a b c d Contemporary Literary Criticism. Ed. Jean C. Stine, Bridget Broderick, and Daniel G. Marowski. Vol. 26. Detroit: Gale Research, 1983. p 110–129. ^ Foundation, Poetry (March 16, 2019). "Edward Thomas". Poetry Foundation. ^ "Nomination Archive". NobelPrize.org. ^ Robert Frost (2007). The Collected Prose of Robert Frost. Harvard University Press. p. 289. ISBN 978-0-674-02463-2. ^ Nancy Lewis Tuten; John Zubizarreta (2001). The Robert Frost Encyclopedia. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-313-29464-8. ^ Deirdre J. Fagan (1 January 2009). Critical Companion to Robert Frost: A Literary Reference to His Life and Work. Infobase Publishing. p. 249. ISBN 978-1-4381-0854-4. ^ Vermont. Office of Secretary of State (1985). Vermont Legislative Directory and State Manual: Biennial session. p. 19. Joint Resolution R-59 of the Acts of l96l named Robert Lee Frost as Vermont's Poet Laureate. While not a native Vermonter, this eminent American poet resided here throughout much of his adult ... ^ Vermont Legislative Directory and State Manual. Secretary of State. 1989. p. 20. The position was created by Joint Resolution R-59 of the Acts of 1961, which designated Robert Frost state poet laureate. ^ "History". Southern New Hampshire University. Retrieved September 6, 2017. ^ "My Brush with History - "We Heard the Shots …": Aboard the Press Bus in Dallas 40 Years Ago" (PDF). med.navy.mil. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 26, 2012. Retrieved June 30, 2013. ^ Davis, Sid; Bennett, Susan; Trost, Catherine ‘Cathy’; Rather, Daniel ‘Dan’ Irvin Jr (2004). "Return To The White House". President Kennedy Has Been Shot: Experience The Moment-to-Moment Account of The Four Days That Changed America. Newseum (illustrated ed.). Naperville, IL: Sourcebooks. p. 173. ISBN 1-4022-0317-9. Retrieved December 10, 2011 – via Google Books. ^ https://www.footwa.com/and-miles-to-go-before-i-sleep/2187/ ^ "George R.R. Martin: "Trying to please everyone is a horrible mistake"". www.adriasnews.com. Retrieved 2018-03-22. ^ "Five Fascinating Facts about Game of Thrones". Interesting Literature. 2014-05-06. Retrieved 2018-03-22. ^ "MUSIC | New Found Glory". www.newfoundglory.com. Retrieved 2016-08-03. ^ "Justin Trudeau's eulogy". On This Day. Toronto, ON, CA: CBC Radio. October 3, 2000. Retrieved December 10, 2011. ^ "No. 2799: Original, Original Strip". mezzacotta. Retrieved 26 November 2019. ^ "Daily Comic Strip on October 20th, 2002". Garfield.com. ^ "Robert Frost – 5 Poems from NEW HAMPSHIRE (Newly released to the Public Domain)". Englewood Review of Books. Retrieved 26 November 2019. ^ Stephen M. Deusner (2014-06-12). "First Aid Kit: Stay Gold Album Review". Pitchfork. Retrieved 2016-10-06. ^ "Lana Del Rey – Venice Bitch Lyrics | Genius Lyrics". Genius.com. Retrieved 2019-12-29. ^ "Lana Del Rey – Music To Watch Boys To Lyrics | Genius Lyrics". Genius.com. Retrieved 2020-01-01. ^ "Robert Frost. 1915. A Boy's Will". www.bartleby.com. Retrieved 2018-03-22. ^ Frost, Robert (March 16, 1924). Several short poems. Place of publication not identified. OCLC 1389446. ^ "Browse Subjects, Series, and Libraries | Harvard University Press". www.hup.harvard.edu. General sources Pritchard, William H. (2000). "Frost's Life and Career". Retrieved March 18, 2001. Taylor, Welford Dunaway (1996). Robert Frost and J. J. Lankes: Riders on Pegasus. Hanover, New Hampshire: Dartmouth College Library. OCLC 1036107807. "Vandalized Frost house drew a crowd". Burlington Free Press, January 8, 2008. Robert Frost (1995). Collected Poems, Prose, & Plays. Edited by Richard Poirier and Mark Richardson. Library of America. ISBN 1-883011-06-X (trade paperback). Robert Frost Biographical Information External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Robert Frost. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Robert Frost Wikisource has original works written by or about: Robert Frost Robert Frost: Profile, Poems, Essays at Poets.org Robert Frost, profile and poems at the Poetry Foundation Profile at Modern American Poetry Richard Poirier (Summer–Fall 1960). "Robert Frost, The Art of Poetry No. 2". The Paris Review. Robert Frost Collection in Special Collections, Jones Library, Amherst, MA Robert Frost Collection in Archives and Special Collections, Amherst College, Amherst, MA Robert Frost at Bread Loaf (Middlebury College) The Victor E. Reichert Robert Frost Collection from the University at Buffalo Libraries Poetry Collection Robert Frost Farm in Derry, NH The Frost Foundation The Frost Place, a museum and poetry conference center in Franconia, N.H. Robert Frost reading his poems at Harper Audio (recordings from 1956) Yale College Lecture on Robert Frost audio, video and full transcripts of Open Yale Courses Works by Robert Frost at Project Gutenberg Works by Robert (Robert Lee) Frost at Faded Page (Canada) Works by or about Robert Frost at Internet Archive Works by Robert Frost at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Robert Frost Collection at Dartmouth College Library Robert Frost Declares Himself a "Balfour Israelite" and Discusses His Trip to the Western Wall Drawing of Robert Frost by Wilfred Byron Shaw at University of Michigan Museum of Art Robert Frost book collection and Robert Frost papers at the University of Maryland Libraries v t e Robert Frost Poems "Acquainted with the Night" "After Apple-Picking" "Birches" "The Death of the Hired Man" "Fire and Ice" "The Gift Outright" "Mending Wall" "Nothing Gold Can Stay" "Out, Out—" "The Oven Bird" "A Question" "The Road Not Taken" "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening" Poetry collections A Boy's Will North of Boston Mountain Interval New Hampshire West-Running Brook Collected Poems of Robert Frost A Further Range A Witness Tree In the Clearing Plays A Masque of Reason Related Robert Frost Farm, New Hampshire The Frost Place, Home and Museum Robert Frost Farm (Ripton, Vermont) Robert Frost Farm (South Shaftsbury, Vermont) Robert Frost House, Massachusetts Robert Frost Medal Frostiana (1959 choral art) Robert Frost: A Lover's Quarrel with the World (1963 documentary) Robert Frost: A Life (2000 biography) v t e Poets Laureate / Consultants in Poetry to the Library of Congress Joseph Auslander (1937) Allen Tate (1943) Robert Penn Warren (1944) Louise Bogan (1945) Karl Shapiro (1946) Robert Lowell (1947) Léonie Adams (1948) Elizabeth Bishop (1949) Conrad Aiken (1950) William Carlos Williams (1952) Randall Jarrell (1956) Robert Frost (1958) Richard Eberhart (1959) Louis Untermeyer (1961) Howard Nemerov (1963) Reed Whittemore (1964) Stephen Spender (1965) James Dickey (1966) William Jay Smith (1968) William Stafford (1970) Josephine Jacobsen (1971) Daniel Hoffman (1973) Stanley Kunitz (1974) Robert Hayden (1976) William Meredith (1978) Maxine Kumin (1981) Anthony Hecht (1982) Reed Whittemore (1984) Robert Fitzgerald (1984) Gwendolyn Brooks (1985) Robert Penn Warren (1986) Richard Wilbur (1987) Howard Nemerov (1988) Mark Strand (1990) Joseph Brodsky (1991) Mona Van Duyn (1992) Rita Dove (1993) Robert Hass (1995) Robert Pinsky (1997) Rita Dove, Louise Glück & W. S. Merwin (1999) Stanley Kunitz (2000) Billy Collins (2001) Louise Glück (2003) Ted Kooser (2004) Donald Hall (2006) Charles Simic (2007) Kay Ryan (2008–2010) W. S. Merwin (2010–2011) Philip Levine (2011–2012) Natasha Trethewey (2012–2014) Charles Wright (2014–2015) Juan Felipe Herrera (2015–2017) Tracy K. Smith (2017–2019) Joy Harjo (2019–present) v t e Pulitzer Prize for Poetry (1922–1950) Edwin Arlington Robinson (1922) Edna St. Vincent Millay (1923) Robert Frost (1924) Edwin Arlington Robinson (1925) Amy Lowell (1926) Leonora Speyer (1927) Edwin Arlington Robinson (1928) Stephen Vincent Benét (1929) Conrad Aiken (1930) Robert Frost (1931) George Dillon (1932) Archibald MacLeish (1933) Robert Hillyer (1934) Audrey Wurdemann (1935) Robert P. T. Coffin (1936) Robert Frost (1937) Marya Zaturenska (1938) John Gould Fletcher (1939) Mark Van Doren (1940) Leonard Bacon (1941) William Rose Benét (1942) Robert Frost (1943) Stephen Vincent Benét (1944) Karl Shapiro (1945) Robert Lowell (1947) W. H. Auden (1948) Peter Viereck (1949) Gwendolyn Brooks (1950) Complete list (1922–1950) (1951–1975) (1976–2000) (2001–2025) Authority control BIBSYS: 90052363 BNE: XX876342 BNF: cb12025599b (data) CANTIC: a1691112x CiNii: DA01305841 GND: 118703366 ISNI: 0000 0001 2126 6607 LCCN: n79005644 LNB: 000034567 MBA: e99ee665-584d-4f1e-8f12-c85f35c294b8 NARA: 10582628 NDL: 00440276 NKC: jn19990002466 NLA: 35105860 NLG: 95049 NLK: KAC199609432 NSK: 000101926 NTA: 068460082 SELIBR: 187609 SNAC: w6fk35s7 SUDOC: 028416899 Trove: 828244 ULAN: 500260165 VcBA: 495/130335 VIAF: 32010055 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79005644 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_Frost&oldid=996632070" Categories: Robert Frost 1874 births 1963 deaths 19th-century American poets 20th-century American poets American Poets Laureate American male poets American people of English descent American people of Scottish descent Amherst College faculty Appleton family Bollingen Prize recipients Burials in Vermont Congressional Gold Medal recipients Dartmouth College alumni Formalist poets Harvard University alumni Harvard University faculty Members of the American Philosophical Society Middlebury College faculty People from Bennington, Vermont People from Derry, New Hampshire People from Franconia, New Hampshire People from Lawrence, Massachusetts Phillips family (New England) Plymouth State University people Poets Laureate of Vermont Poets from California Poets from Massachusetts Poets from New Hampshire Poets from Vermont Pulitzer Prize for Poetry winners Sonneteers University of Michigan faculty Writers from San Francisco Hidden categories: CS1: long volume value CS1 maint: others CS1: Julian–Gregorian uncertainty Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Wikipedia pages semi-protected against vandalism Commons link is on Wikidata Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with NARA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers AC with 25 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read View source View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages Afrikaans العربية অসমীয়া Asturianu تۆرکجه বাংলা Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Davvisámegiella Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Kiswahili Kurdî Latina Latviešu Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी مصرى Nederlands नेपाली 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Simple English Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 27 December 2020, at 19:44 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1187	----	Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori - Wikipedia Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Quote from Horace's Odes Detail of the inscription over the rear entrance to Memorial Amphitheater at Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington, Virginia. The inscription reads: "Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori". Dulcē et decōrum est prō patriā mōrī[a] is a line from the Odes (III.2.13) by the Roman lyric poet Horace. The line translates: "It is sweet and fitting to die for the homeland." The Latin word patria (homeland), literally meaning the country of one's fathers (in Latin, patres) or ancestors, is the source of the French word for a country, patrie, and of the English word "patriot" (one who loves his country). Horace's line was quoted in the title of a poem by Wilfred Owen, "Dulce et Decorum est", published in 1921, describing soldiers' horrific experiences in World War I. Owen's poem, which calls Horace's line "the old Lie", essentially ended the line's straightforward uncritical use. Before 1920, the phrase had tended to appear in memorials and monuments to the fallen; after 1921, it tended to decry war propaganda. Contents 1 Context 2 Uses in art and literature 3 Use as a motto and inscription 3.1 Organizations 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 External links Context[edit] The poem from which the line comes, exhorts Roman citizens to develop martial prowess such that the enemies of Rome, in particular the Parthians, will be too terrified to resist the Romans. In John Conington's translation, the relevant passage reads: Angustam amice pauperiem pati robustus acri militia puer condiscat et Parthos ferocis vexet eques metuendus hasta vitamque sub divo et trepidis agat in rebus. Illum ex moenibus hosticis matrona bellantis tyranni prospiciens et adulta virgo suspiret, eheu, ne rudis agminum sponsus lacessat regius asperum tactu leonem, quem cruenta per medias rapit ira caedes. Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori: mors et fugacem persequitur virum nec parcit inbellis iuventae poplitibus timidove tergo.[1] To suffer hardness with good cheer, In sternest school of warfare bred, Our youth should learn; let steed and spear Make him one day the Parthian's dread; Cold skies, keen perils, brace his life. Methinks I see from rampired town Some battling tyrant's matron wife, Some maiden, look in terror down,— “Ah, my dear lord, untrain'd in war! O tempt not the infuriate mood Of that fell lion I see! from far He plunges through a tide of blood!” What joy, for fatherland to die! Death's darts e'en flying feet o'ertake, Nor spare a recreant chivalry, A back that cowers, or loins that quake.[2] A humorous elaboration of the original line was used as a toast in the 19th century: "Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori, sed dulcius pro patria vivere, et dulcissimum pro patria bibere. Ergo, bibamus pro salute patriae." A reasonable English translation would be: "It is sweet and fitting to die for the homeland, but sweeter still to live for the homeland, and sweetest yet to drink for the homeland. So, let us drink to the health of the homeland." Uses in art and literature[edit] Perhaps the most famous modern use of the phrase is as the title of a poem, "Dulce et Decorum est", by British poet Wilfred Owen during World War I. Owen's poem describes a gas attack during World War I and is one of his many anti-war poems that were not published until after the war ended. In the final lines of the poem, the Horatian phrase is described as "the old lie".[3] It is believed, and illustrated by the original copy of the poem, that Owen intended to dedicate the poem ironically to Jessie Pope, a popular writer who glorified the war and recruited "laddies" who "longed to charge and shoot" in simplistically patriotic poems like "The Call".[4] "Died some, pro patria, non 'dulce' non 'et decor' ..." from part IV of Ezra Pound's "Hugh Selwyn Mauberley", a damning indictment of World War I; "Daring as never before, wastage as never before." In a 1915 school essay, German playwright Bertolt Brecht referred to the phrase as Zweckpropaganda (cheap propaganda for a specific cause) and pointed out that "It is sweeter and more fitting to live for one's country", an essay for which he was nearly expelled.[5] The title of Damon Knight's 1955 short story "Dulcie and Decorum" is an ironic play on the first three words of the phrase; the story is about computers that induce humans to kill themselves. The film Johnny Got His Gun ends with this saying, along with casualty statistics since World War I. In the film All Quiet on the Western Front, a teacher quotes this early on while talking to his class. In his book And No Birds Sang, chronicling his service in Italy with the Canadian army during World War II, Farley Mowat quotes Wilfred Owen's poem on the opening pages and addresses "the Old Lie" in the final section of the book. Tim O'Brien quotes the line in the book If I Die in a Combat Zone, Box Me Up and Ship Me Home. In Margaret Mitchell's Gone with the Wind, the Tarleton brothers are buried under a tombstone which bears the phrase. The last words attributed to the Israeli national hero Yosef Trumpeldor – "It is good to die for our country" (טוב למות בעד ארצנו) – are considered to be derived from Horace's, and were a frequently used Zionist slogan in the early 20th century. In William Makepeace Thackeray's novel Vanity Fair, the quote appears on George Osborne's tombstone after he dies at Waterloo. In Thomas Wolfe's Look Homeward, Angel: A Story of the Buried Life, after the outbreak of World War I, adolescent Eugene, encouraged by his teacher, Margaret Leonard, devours stories of wartime courage (R. Brooke's "If I Should die ..." and R. Hanky's A Student in Arms), and fueled by these stories, composes his own, to the ever-present literary-referenced commentary by Wolfe. Karl Marlantes' novel Matterhorn: A Novel of the Vietnam War features a mock-mass between Mellas and others, in which the line is satirically quoted. The British rock band Kasabian includes the phrase at the end of the music video for their song "Empire".[6] The British rock band The Damned released a single named "In Dulce Decorum" in 1987. The song The Latin One by 10,000 Maniacs sets the poem by Owen to music and includes the phrase. American band Kamelot quotes the line in the song "Memento Mori", from their seventh album, The Black Halo. Scottish rock band The Skids include a song named "Dulce Et Decorum Est (Pro Patria Mori)" on the album Days in Europa in 1979. British folk-metal band Skyclad uses the quote in the song "Jeopardy", in their album The Silent Whales of Lunar Sea.[7] The British dark cabaret act The Tiger Lillies include a song called "Dulce et Decorum Est" in the album A Dream Turns Sour from 2014. This is a reading of the Wilfred Owen poem with music written by Martyn Jacques.[8] In Kenneth Branagh's film version of Mozart's "The Magic Flute", Sarastro's palace has the quote engraved across its entrance. The line is quoted in the 1966 movie "Modesty Blaise," after a plane is apparently shot down. The line appears as a Morse coded message as part of a puzzle in the 2016 videogame Battlefield 1. Use as a motto and inscription[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Plaque at the Graceville War Memorial, Queensland, Australia Australia The phrase appears prominently on a plaque at AMA House, Sydney commemorating fallen members of the New South Wales branch of the British Medical Association. The phrase can be found at the Graceville War Memorial, Graceville, Queensland. Brazil The phrase can be found at the Monument to the Expeditionary (Monumento ao Expedicionário) in Alegrete city, state of Rio Grande do Sul. Plaque at Queen's Park in Toronto dedicated to the militia that put down the North-West Rebellion Canada Queen's Park in Toronto includes a monument to the militia members who died putting down the North-West Rebellion with the phrase. The phrase appears on a bronze plaque bearing the names of Canadian soldiers lost from the city of Calgary during World War I and World War II at Central Memorial High School's front entrance.[9] The phrase is found on the Great War cenotaph in Phoenix, British Columbia [10] Cuba The phrase was prominently inscribed in a large bronze tablet commemorating Cuban patriot Calixto García, Major-General of the Spanish–American War. The tablet was erected by the Freemasons where he died at the Raleigh Hotel in Washington, D.C. Today, this tablet resides at the private residence of one of García's direct descendants. Dominican Republic The phrase is inscribed in bronze letters above the arch of the Puerta del Conde in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. India Found on the inscription on the French Monument in Shillong, Meghalaya for the soldiers of the 26th Khasi Labour Corps who died during World War I (1917–1918). The inscription is also seen on the rear-quarter of the Memorial Tablet in the front garden of St Joseph's Boys' High School, Bangalore in memory of the Old Boys of the school who died in the Great War (1914–1918). A statue of St Joseph with Infant Jesus now stands upon the tablet. Italy The verse is engraved in each medallion in the center of the crosses of Aquileia's Cemetery of the Heroes, dedicated to every soldier died during the First World War. This is the place from which, in October 1921, the Unknown Soldier departed in the direction of the Altare Patria in Rome. New Zealand The phrase is found on the memorial archway at the entrance of Otago Boys' High School in Dunedin. Pakistan The phrase is written on a plaque on the left wall of main entrance of the Patiala Block, King Edward Medical University, Lahore. It commemorates the students and graduates of the institution who died in the First World War. Spain The phrase is scribed on the tomb of Major William Martin, a fictional Royal Marine officer whose death was concocted as part of Operation Mincemeat, in the cemetery of Nuestra Señora in Huelva. Sweden The phrase can be found inscribed on the outer wall of an old war fort within the Friseboda nature reserve in Sweden. United Kingdom The phrase was inscribed on the wall of the chapel of the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst in 1913.[11] It is also inscribed on the Parish Roll of Honour for Devoran in Cornwall, hanging in the Village Hall.[12] United States The phrase can be found at the front entrance to the Arlington Memorial Amphitheater at the Arlington National Cemetery, which was constructed from 1915 to 1920 – just before Owen's poem was published. The phrase is carved in the monument commemorating the Battle of Wyoming (Pennsylvania), known as the Wyoming Massacre, 3 July 1778, erected 3 July 1878. The phrase is located on the second monument of the Point Lookout Confederate Cemetery in Point Lookout, Maryland, and at the Confederate Cemetery in the Manassas National Battlefield Park. Organizations[edit] Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori is the motto of the following organizations: The Portuguese Military Academy (Academia Militar)[13][14] The Royal Grammar School, Newcastle upon Tyne (former motto) The 103rd Ground Reconnaissance Squadron of the Royal Netherlands Army The 10/27 Royal South Australian Regiment of the Royal Australian Infantry Corps adopted Pro Patria derived from the above line meaning "For One's Country" as their unit motto. The shorter phrase Pro Patria ("for the homeland") may or may be not related to the Horace quote: Pro Patria is the motto of the Higgins or O'Huigan clan. It is the motto of the Sri Lanka Army as well as being inscribed on the collar insignia of the Royal Canadian Regiment. Pro Patria is the name of a neighborhood in Caracas, Venezuela. See also[edit] Tellus of Athens Dulce (disambiguation) Decorum Patria (disambiguation) Mori Notes[edit] ^ Latin pronunciation: [ˈd̪ʊɫ̪.keː ɛt̪ d̪ɛˈkoː.rʊ̃ˑ ɛst̪ proː ˈpa.t̪ri.aː ˈmoː.riː] Ecclesiastical Latin: [ˈd̪ul̠ʲ.t͡ʃɛ ɛt̪ d̪ɛˈkɔː.rum ɛst̪ prɔ ˈpaː.t̪ri.a ˈmɔː.ri] References[edit] ^ "Horace: Odes III". thelatinlibrary.com. ^ "Q. Horatius Flaccus (Horace), Odes, Book 3, Poem 2". ^ "Dulce et Decorum Est by Wilfred Owen". Poemhunter.com. Retrieved 20 July 2013. ^ "Copy of archival record". Archived from the original on 17 March 2014. Retrieved 17 March 2014. ^ Hässler, Hans-Jürgen; von Heusinger, Christian, eds. (1989). Kultur gegen Krieg, Wissenschaft für den Frieden [Culture against War, Science for Peace] (in German). Würzburg, Germany: Königshausen & Neumann. ISBN 978-3884794012. ^ KasabianVEVO (3 October 2009). "Kasabian - Empire" – via YouTube. ^ "Jeopardy - Skyclad". ^ The Tiger Lillies (18 June 2014). ""Dulce et Decorum Est" by The Tiger Lillies" – via YouTube. ^ "Calgary Board of Education - Central Memorial High School". Schools.cbe.ab.ca. 30 June 2013. Archived from the original on 23 July 2013. Retrieved 2013-07-20. ^ https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/WWI_Cenotaph_Phoenix_BC_Canda.jpg ^ Law, Francis (1983). A man at arms: memoirs of two world wars. London: Collins. p. 44. ISBN 0-00-217057-4. ^ "Roll of Honour of Devoran men who served in WW1, Devoran Village Hall". 13 January 2014. ^ [1] Archived 11 March 2008 at the Wayback Machine ^ [2] Archived 27 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine External links[edit] Latin text of Horace's Ode Wilfred Owen's poem Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dulce_et_decorum_est_pro_patria_mori&oldid=993219035" Categories: War poetry Latin words and phrases Horace Hidden categories: Articles containing Latin-language text CS1 German-language sources (de) Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from July 2019 Use British English from December 2016 Articles needing additional references from March 2013 All articles needing additional references Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Brezhoneg Català Čeština Español Français Interlingua Italiano עברית Latina Lingua Franca Nova Português Српски / srpski Edit links This page was last edited on 9 December 2020, at 12:31 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-120	----	Orosius - Wikipedia Orosius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Orosius (disambiguation). Orosius Paulus Orosius, shown in a miniature from the Saint-Epure codex. Born c. 375 AD Braga, Gallaecia Died c. 418 AD Occupation Theologian and historian Academic background Influences Augustine of Hippo Livy Jerome Junianus Justinus Tacitus Suetonius Florus Academic work Main interests Providentialism Universal history Germanic paganism Paulus Orosius (/ˈpɔːləs əˈroʊʒəs/; born c. 375, died after 418 AD)[1], less often Paul Orosius in English, was a Roman priest, historian and theologian, and a student of Augustine of Hippo. It is possible that he was born in Bracara Augusta (now Braga, Portugal), then capital of the Roman province of Gallaecia, which would have been the capital of the Kingdom of the Suebi by his death.[2] Although there are some questions regarding his biography, such as his exact date of birth, it is known that he was a person of some prestige from a cultural point of view, as he had contact with the greatest figures of his time such as Augustine of Hippo and Jerome of Stridon. In order to meet with them Orosius travelled to cities on the southern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, such as Hippo Regius, Alexandria, and Jerusalem. These journeys defined his life and intellectual output. Orosius did not just discuss theological matters with Saint Augustine; he also collaborated with him on the book City of God.[3] In addition, in 415 he was chosen to travel to Palestine in order to exchange information with other intellectuals. He was also able to participate in a Church Council meeting in Jerusalem on the same trip and he was entrusted with transporting the relics of Saint Stephen. The date of his death is also unclear, although it appears to have not been earlier than 418, when he finished one of his books, or later than 423.[4] He wrote a total of three books, of which his most important is his Seven Books of History Against the Pagans (Latin: Historiarum Adversum Paganos Libri VII), considered to be one of the books with the greatest impact on historiography during the period between antiquity and the Middle Ages, as well as being one of the most important Hispanic books of all time. Part of its importance comes from the fact that the author shows his historiographical methodology. The book is a historical narration focusing on the pagan peoples from the earliest time up until the time Orosius was alive.[5] Orosius was a highly influential figure both for the dissemination of information (History Against the Pagans was one of the main sources of information regarding Antiquity that was used up to the Renaissance) and for rationalising the study of history (his methodology greatly influenced later historians).[6][7] Contents 1 Biographical sources 2 Questions regarding his identity 2.1 Name 2.2 Ó Corráin's conclusions 2.3 Birthplace 2.4 Date of birth 3 Biography 3.1 Early life 3.2 Journey to Africa 3.3 Journeys to Palestine 3.4 Later years 3.5 Disappearance 4 His works 4.1 Commonitorium and Liber Apologeticus 4.2 Historiae Adversus Paganos 5 Historical methodology 5.1 Universalism 5.2 Patriotism and universalism 5.3 Optimism and pessimism 5.4 Narrative 5.5 The importance of geography 5.6 Sources used by Orosius 6 Impact of Orosius’s work 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 External links Biographical sources[edit] Despite the importance of his books many questions remain regarding his life, hampering efforts to construct a biography with any certainty. This is particularly true for sources of information regarding his birth and death.[8] However, his life has been widely studied and there are a number of authors who propose dates for both events. The main biographical references for Orosius come from the writings of Gennadius of Massilia and Braulio of Zaragoza, although his own writings should not be overlooked.[8] In addition, Orosius is mentioned in letters written by Saint Augustine. Questions regarding his identity[edit] Name[edit] While there is no doubt regarding his surname of Orosius, there are questions regarding the use of the name "Paulus". Basically the problem is that it is not completely certain if he used this name or if he was simply called Orosius and whether Paulus has been added with the passing of time. This could have happened given that the initial "P" for priest was always placed next to his name, and over time this could have led to the confusion.[9] However, this idea is flawed as authors writing immediately after Orosius's death use the name Paulus. In fact, even Casimiro Torres Rodríguez, one of the main scholars of Orosius's life, indicates that Paulus might be his Christian name and Orosius his native name, a theory that cannot be entirely dismissed.[9] Whatever the truth of the matter this subject has been widely studied and the most current theory is probably that of Pedro Martínez Cavero, another important Orosius scholar.[10] Ó Corráin's conclusions[edit] Based on a careful reading of the relevant sources, Irish scholar Donnchadh Ó Corráin concluded that: Orosius, author of Historiarum Adversum Paganos Libri vii, was a Briton, born at latest c. AD 375. Taken by Irish raiders, he spent years (c. AD 400) as a captive, held by traders, on the south shore of the Shannon estuary. He escaped and probably reached Galicia before AD 405. Ordained priest, he served at Bracara (now Braga in Portugal). He corresponded with St Augustine and moved to Hippo in AD 414. Sent to the East by Augustine, he played an undistinguished role at the councils of Jerusalem and Diospolis (AD 415). He settled at Carthage, where he wrote his main work, originally at the instigation of Augustine. He disappears after a voyage to the Balearic Islands. His is the first textual witness to Christianity in Ireland, observed c. AD 400, written up in AD 416–17. Birthplace[edit] Panorama of present-day Braga, the most likely birthplace for Orosius.[2] The subject of his birthplace is still disputed although a broad consensus has now been reached.[2] Basically there are four theories regarding his birthplace, that can be summarised as follows: Born in Braga: this idea is most widely accepted as it has the most evidence supporting it. If he was not born in Braga, it is likely he was born in the area around the town. This idea is supported by Orosius's own works and two letters written by Saint Augustine, the 166th and the 169th.[2] Born in Tarragona: this theory has been put forward because in his Histories Orosius talks of "Tarraconem nostra" (our Tarragona). The 19th-century author Teodoro de Mörner[11] held this opinion, but nowadays it does not seem reasonable to support the idea solely based on one indication.[12] Originated in A Coruña (Brigantia): this is a relatively new theory solely based on the fact that Orosius twice mentioned it in the geographical section of his Histories. Originated in Brittany: like the previous theory the supporting data for this theory rests on the fact that Orosius had some knowledge of this area.[13] Date of birth[edit] Lastly, his supposed date of birth varies between sources, however, a likely date has now been calculated. It is known for certain that in 415 Saint Augustine referred to Paulus Orosius as "a young priest", which means that at that time he could not have been older than 40, as he was young, and he had to be older than 30, as he was a priest.[14] Therefore, his date of birth can be fixed as being between 375 and 385, although the most widely accepted date is considered to be 383. This assumes that when Orosius met Saint Augustine he was 32 years old, that is, he had been an ordained priest for two years.[10] Biography[edit] Early life[edit] Despite the scarcity of sources, if his date of birth is accepted as that given above or at least within the window between 375 and 385 it can be seen that Orosius grew up during a period of cultural flourishing along with Hydatius and the Ávitos.[15] Priscillianism was an important doctrine at this time and it is considered likely that after entering the priesthood he took an interest in the Priscillianist controversy, which was being widely debated in his native country.[16] The classical theories suggest that Orosius belonged to a family with good social standing,[17] which would have allowed him to gain a good education. This would have developed along Christian lines, although assuming that Orosius was born in Braga, he would also have had a good knowledge of the rural culture of that time. Contemporary histories indicate that from an early age Orosius was loquacious and erudite,[18] alluding to statements to this effect made by both Saint Augustine and Pope Gelasius I. In any case, any discussion of Orosius's youth is pure speculation and conjecture because, as discussed above, there is little knowledge regarding this period of his life. Journey to Africa[edit] Schematic map showing all the journeys made by Paulus Orosius.[19] It is thought that Paulus Orosius lived in Gallaecia (northwest Hispania) until 409, but after that time and up until 415, there is no concrete information regarding his life. The traditional chronology, or at least the most widespread,[20] proposes the succession of events outlined in the following paragraphs. It appears that Orosius had to leave Braga as a result of the barbarian invasions of the Roman Empire. The date of his departure is in some doubt, however, what is known for certain is that he had to leave suddenly. This is even confirmed by Orosius himself who states that he was pursued onto the beach from which he set sail.[21] A number of dates have been suggested for his departure from Braga, ranging from 409 to 414, however, the best option is to stick with the two most widely accepted dates: 410: proposed by G. Fainck. This date means that Orosius had a window of 5 years for his collaboration with Saint Augustine before he travelled to Palestine. 414: which is the most widely accepted. In his book Commonitorium, which was published in 414, Orosius talks of his arrival, his meeting with Saint Augustine etc. What is certain is that once Orosius had left the Iberian Peninsula he was certain that his destination was Hippo (now Annaba in Algeria), and a meeting with Saint Augustine, who was the greatest thinker of his time. From his arrival Orosius formed part of a team that worked alongside Saint Augustine. It is therefore possible that Orosius collaborated in the writing of The City of God or at the least that he was aware of the book.[3] In 415 Saint Augustine entrusted Orosius with the task of travelling to Palestine to meet with the thinker Saint Jerome who at that time was living in Bethlehem. This indicates that Saint Augustine had a great deal of faith in Orosius as relations between Saint Augustine and Saint Jerome had not always been good. Journeys to Palestine[edit] The visit to Palestine had a double purpose: Orosius wanted to discuss a number of theological topics with Saint Jerome, particularly those relating to the soul's origins, and Saint Augustine wanted closer ties with the thinker and to gather information regarding the Priscillianists, Origenists and the Pelagian heresy.[22] In reality, it would seem that Orosius's main task was to assist Jerome and others against Pelagius, who, after the synod of Carthage in 411, had been living in Palestine, and finding some acceptance there. Orosius met with Pelagius on Saint Augustine's behalf and he represented the orthodox party against the Pelagians at the Synod of Jerusalem[23] that was held in June 415. At the synod Orosius communicated the decisions of the synod of Carthage and read several of Augustine's writings against Pelagius. Success, however, was not achieved among Greeks who did not understand Latin, and whose sense of reverence was unfased by Pelagius's famous question, Et quis est mihi Augustinus? ("Who is Augustine to me?") Orosius succeeded only in obtaining John's consent to send letters and deputies to Pope Innocent I of Rome; and, after having waited long enough to learn the unfavourable decision of the Synod of Diospolis (Lydda) in December of the same year, he returned to North Africa, Orosius had a confrontation with the Archbishop of Jerusalem, John II at the synod, in which Orosius was accused of heresy in front of the entire conclave. As his defence Orosius wrote his second book Liber Apologeticus, in which he emphatically rejected the accusation.[24] Orosius's first act on meeting Saint Jerome was to hand him the correspondence that he had brought from Saint Augustine. This implies that the journey was always conceived of as a return journey as Orosius would have to deliver the letters from Saint Jerome back to Saint Augustine. In parallel to this, the relics of Saint Stephen were uncovered at the end of 415 and part of the find was given to Orosius in order that he could take it back to Braga.[25] This marks both the start of his return journey and, from our current perspective, a new epoch in Orosius's life that is lacking in sources of information for its study. Later years[edit] Given that Saint Stephen's relics were uncovered on 26 December 415, Orosius must have departed from Palestine after that date. Although his idea was to travel to Braga, he was forced to pass through Hippo as it is known that he delivered letters from Jerome to Saint Augustine, it is also generally agreed that he passed through Jerusalem and Alexandria, although it is not known if he visited the latter on his outward journey, on his return journey or on both occasions.[26] During his second stay in Hippo he had a long conversation with Saint Augustine during which he handed over the letters he was carrying from Jerome and informed Saint Augustine about the meetings he had had with Pelagius.[27] The idea for Orosius's great work, Historiae Adversus Paganos, was born during this reencounter with Saint Augustine. However, it is difficult to estimate an exact date for when the book was written and for when the book was finished. This has given rise to a number of theories regarding the writing of the book: The traditional theory states that the book was finished between 416 and 417.[28] Support for these dates comes from the fact that the Liber Apologeticus does not mention Orosius's work as a historian, and the prologue refers to Book XI of the City of God by Saint Augustine, which was not published until 416. In order to justify how Orosius managed to write seven books in such a short time it is argued that he could have written summaries that were later filled out. A recent theory, proposed by Casimiro Torres Rodríguez, states that Orosius briefly stayed in Stridon a second time while trying to return to Portugal, which he was unable to do and he wrote the book during a third stay in Stridon. This would explain why Orosius refers in the “Histories” to events that took place in Hispania in 417. A third, older, theory, posed by T. von Mörner and G. Fainck, says that Orosius undertook the work before he travelled to Palestine. In fact, this idea has recently been given a new lease of life by M. P. Annaud-Lindet, although with the proviso that Orosius wrote the book during his return journey from Palestine. Disappearance[edit] Very little information is available regarding the life of Paulus Orosius after the publication of his Histories. It is known that he was in Menorca where he used the remains of Saint Stephen in attempts to convert members of the Jewish community to Christianity, but the date of his death is not known. This lack of information regarding Orosius could be due to cooling of relations with Saint Augustine, who never makes any clear unambiguous references to Orosius's "Histories" once they have been published. Gennadius of Massilia considers that Orosius lived at least until the end of the Roman emperor Honorius’ reign, which lasted until 423. However, there is no news of Orosius after 417 and it seems unlikely that such an active author would go six years without publishing anything new.[4] There are other theories, from a sudden death to a range of legends that talk of Orosius's final arrival in Hispania and his founding of a monastery near to Cabo de Palos where he ended his days, although this latter idea now seems improbable.[4] His works[edit] Commonitorium and Liber Apologeticus[edit] The Commonitorium and the Histories are a response, at least in their origins, to the direct influence that Saint Augustine exercised over Orosius.[29] Although Paulus Orosius's most important book was the Historiae Adversus Paganos, his other two surviving books must also be taken into account: Commonitorium and Liber Apologeticus.[30] The full name of his first book is Consultatio sive commonitorium ad Augustinum de errore Priscillianistarum et Origenistarum (in English: Warnings and Reminders by Augustine Against the Errors of the Priscillians and the Origenists).[29] Its chronology is littered with the same grey areas as Orosius's biography. In principle it is a book intended for Saint Augustine and therefore it must have been written before Orosius arrived in Africa, between 409 and 414 as discussed above.[31] The second chronological limit is 415, which is traditionally considered to be the date when Augustine's book Liber ad Orosium contra Priscillianistas et Origenistas was published, in which Augustine replies to Orosius's Commonitorium.[32] The book is not only aimed at Saint Augustine but was also preceded by conversations with the saint.[33] It not only describes Orosius journey to Africa, but also summarises the beliefs of Priscillianism and Origenism, and it asks for Saint Augustine's advice regarding these theological issues, thereby exposing some of Orosius's theological doubts.[34] The full name of Orosius's second book is Liber apologeticus contra Pelagium de Arbitrii libertate.[35] It was published at the time of Orosius's participation in the Council of Jerusalem in 415.[36] The book is the result of a theological debate during which Archbishop John II accused Orosius of heresy due to his idea that man cannot remain free of sin, not even with the help of divine intervention.[36] In order to defend himself from these accusations Orosius wrote Liber Apologeticus, in which he describes his motives for participating in the synod, he was invited by Saint Jerome, and rejects the accusation of heresy made against him.[35] However, neither of these two books are of a historical nature, despite containing elements that help in the reconstruction of Orosius's life. Historiae Adversus Paganos[edit] Historiae adversus paganos, 1561 Page from a manuscript of Orosius's Histories held in Florence. Paulus Orosius's masterpiece is Historiae Adversus Paganos, the only history book that he wrote, which gives insight into the historiographical methodology of the Spanish priesthood. It is not possible to be certain as to when it was written as there is no single theory that is unanimously accepted by all historians. The most common estimate places the drafting of the book between 416 and 417.[28][37] Miguel Ángel Rábade Navarro offers a clear and concise definition on Orosius's history in one of his articles on the author. In this article Rábade calls the Histories a "universalist history with an apologetic and providentialist character, whose main aim is to compare a pagan past with a Christian present, through their followers, their actions and their geographical and temporal location".[5] Be this as it may, the book had a definite origin and a clear purpose. The book's origins were a response to Saint Augustine's express desire for a book that would complement his De Civitate Dei which is a history focused on the pagan races.[38] The date of the book is not our main focus here, what is more important is Orosius's objective in responding to Saint Augustine's request by writing a book aimed at proving that Rome’s decadence – Rome was sacked by Alaric I in 410 – had nothing at all to do with the fact that the Romans had relatively recently converted to Christianity.[39] In a more general way Orosius wanted to show that the world has improved since the introduction of Christianity rather than declined as others had argued. In response to those who pointed to contemporary disasters, he simply argues that previous disasters occurring before Christianity were much worse. The work, a universal history of the calamities that have happened to mankind was the first attempt to write the history of the world as a history of God guiding humanity. Throughout the seven books that comprise the history, Orosius introduces several new methods and he also uses others that pick up on the traditional methods of Graeco-Roman historiography.[40] Orosius never offers a negative image of the Pagans, in this way he is being true to the traditions of the Graeco-Roman historians of that time, who always tried to give a positive impression of their "enemies".[40] Historical methodology[edit] Universalism[edit] The Universalist nature of Orosius's work is perhaps its most notable aspect. In fact, despite the lack of agreement regarding all other aspects of Orosius's life, including his biography and his works, most experts agree on the universalist nature of this work, including classicists such as Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo and even more modern historians such as Torres Rodríguez.[41] In addition, his works are not only identified as universalist but as the first Christian universalist history, or put another way, the last classical universalist history.[42] Paulus Orosius is not only a widely studied author he also described his own thoughts on his historical methodology in some of the prologues to the volumes that comprise his “Histories”. He was always clear in his objectives, he wanted to write the history starting with the creation and leading up to the times in which he lived, which is a clear declaration of his universalist intentions as a historian.[43] Orosius uses the so-called "succession of the four world empires theory" throughout his works,[44] which traced world history based on the premise that out of the ruins of one great civilization another arose. Therefore, his theory was based on four historical empires, Babylonia, pagan Rome, Macedonia and Carthage, with a fifth empire, that of Christian Rome as the inheritor of all these.[45] In fact, during the narration of their histories the four empires develop in the same way and there are a number of striking parallels between them that are markedly different from Rome, which Orosius praises.[5] Orosius's basic innovation in dealing with the four empires theory was to introduce Carthage between Macedonia and Rome, which is something that scholars such as García Fernández point out as one of Orosius's defining and definitive acts.[39] Patriotism and universalism[edit] Another important characteristic of Orosius's “Histories” is defined as patriotism.[46] There are two clearly defined positions regarding Orosius's patriotism, a more traditional view espoused by Torres Rodríguez and a more novel view as recently outlined by García Fernández. Torres Rodríguez’ theory refers to patriotism is the sense that Orosius places special emphasis on the events that took place in Hispania. This is normal given Orosius's origins, but it can be thought of not only as patriotism but also as Hispanism.[46] Examples of this tendency include narratives of events in the “Histories”, that occurred in Braga or the fact that Orosius himself was charged with transporting the reliquaries of Saint Stephen.[47] It is even pointed out that Orosius's narrations are sometimes used by current day groups of Galician nationalists.[47] On the other hand, in 2005 García Fernández made an explicit allusion to Torres Rodríguez’ theory when he stated that it was an exaggeration to characterize Orosius's historical methodology as “patriotic”.[48] This was a rejection of nearly all of the statements made by Torres Rodríguez on this matter.[49] García Fernández used the idea of “localism”, which was a fashionable idea amongst historians at the beginning of the 21st century.[50] This idea argues that beyond "Hispanism” Orosius shows a “benevolent attitude” to Hispania.[50] Optimism and pessimism[edit] Another interesting point is the pessimism with which Orosius deals with certain themes and the exaggerated optimism with which he refers to others. In general he is pessimistic about anything to do with paganism or the past and optimistic regarding Christianity and his present, which is remarkable given the difficult times that he was living in.[51] These characteristics infuse all the others, it is particularly noticeable in his narration when he places a special emphasis on the suffering of the defeated,[52] and the terrors of war.[53] This characteristic can clearly be attributed to the influence of Saint Augustine, as Orosius is showing us the two sides of a coin in the purest style of Augustinian dualism.[54] Orosius is thereby able to present the past as a series of adversities with concrete examples, from Noah's flood to the shipwrecking of ships in the Mediterranean Sea, and the future as something positive despite the reality of the times in which he lived.[54] In order to follow a narrative of suffering and tragedy he often concentrated on defeats, which was different from the usual Roman historiography which normally gave pre-eminence to victories.[52] However, from a historiographical point of view this approach led to some inconsistencies, as, in order to bring the reader round to his point of view, Orosius sometimes described myths and legends as if they were historic fact.[55] Another traditional criticism of Orosius's work relates to this dichotomy of pessimism/optimism, which often causes him to offer a narrative that in many ways lacks an objective viewpoint.[56] This divides historians into those that view him as biased and others that reject this criticism and justify his approach by saying that Orosius viewed history in the same way as Christians view life.[56] Put another way, his approach is justified as being founded in the author's Providentialist character.[5] Narrative[edit] The narrative ability of Orosius should also not be overlooked. The author had a clear objective: that the Christians be defended from the non-Christian Roman's accusations that the sacking of Rome in 410 was a reprimand because the Christians had forsaken the city's traditional pantheon of gods.[57] Orosius's narrative abilities in forwarding this argument therefore went beyond the pessimism/optimism duality that was discussed in the previous section. His basic idea is that the past is always worse than the present, because it is always further from the true religion.[57] The fact that he had clear objectives ensured that he wrote his stories with a definite end in mind. Therefore, there are events that he narrated with little detail and others that he presents in full detail. Orosius never seems lacking in sources of information, he even affirms that an historian should be selective with those he has, it rather seems that this difference in level of detail reflects the emphasis that he wants to place on reinforcing his ideas.[53] The fact that his writing has a moral objective and apologist agenda means that he focuses on unusual events, such as the suffering of the general population during wartime.[43] This selection of facts, in large part, enables him to write about patriotism, for example, as he always pays a lot of attention to events in Hispania. The importance of geography[edit] Another important aspect of Orosius's work is the importance he placed on geography in his work as a historian.[58] This is shown in his geographic description of the world in the second chapter of the first of the seven books that comprise the Histories.[58] One failing of his geographical descriptions is his imprecision, such as, for instance, when he overuses the noun "Caucasus" to refer to other nearby ranges.[59] Despite this vagueness it is notable that the Histories include a chapter on geography. This has lent an increased value to his work in modern historiography, mainly thanks to authors such as Lucien Febvre and Fernand Braudel. Sources used by Orosius[edit] The sources Orosius used have been investigated by Teodoro de Mörner;[citation needed] besides the Old and New Testaments, he appears to have consulted Caesar, Livy, Justin, Tacitus, Suetonius, Florus and a cosmography, attaching also great value to Jerome's translation of the Chronicles of Eusebius. Impact of Orosius’s work[edit] Colophon from an incunabulum of the Historiae Adversus Paganos by Paulus Orosius, one of the most copied books from the Medieval period.[7] The assumed falling out of Paulus Orosius and Saint Augustine at the end of the former's life does not seem to have had a negative effect on the distribution and impact of his Histories.[60] Despite the previously highlighted criticisms of his work, Orosius's books were considered to be successes from virtually the day of their publication. His Histories was considered to be one of the main works of Spanish historiography right up until the time of the Reformation.[6] This success has, to a large extent, meant that his other works have also been conserved. Historiae Adversus Paganos has been quoted by all types of author from Saint Braulio of Zaragoza to Dante Alighieri. Even Lope de Vega made Orosius a central character in his play The Cardinal of Bethlehem, which shows how long-lived his fame was.[7] In fact, the book was not just widely quoted, it was one of the main scholastic books used by students of Ancient History throughout the Middle Ages.[7] Nearly two hundred manuscripts of the “Histories” have survived. An abridged, free translation into Old English, known as the Old English Orosius, once wrongly attributed to King Alfred, is still extant.[61] The Florentine Judge Bono Giamboni translated it into the Italian.[62] A still unpublished 14th century Aragonese translation, made by Domingo de García Martín at the request of Juan Fernández de Heredia, comes from Bono Giamboni's Italian translation. The “Histories” was also translated into Arabic as Kitāb Hurūshiyūsh, reputedly during the reign of al-Hakam II of Córdoba. It later became one of the sources of Ibn Khaldun in his history.[63]:136–53 The printed book has been widely copied and there are at least 82 surviving copies and 28 incunables from the first printed editions.[7] There are even copies still existing of editions in Italian and German from the 16th Century.[7] There are many 19th century versions of the book still in existence. In fact, a version of the book edited by Torres Rodríguez was used in compiling this article, although there are many equally valid versions in existence, both in Castilian Spanish and in other languages. See also[edit] Bobbio Orosius Notes[edit] ^ David Rohrbacher, "Orosius," in The Historians of Late Antiquity (Routledge, 2002), pp. 135–137. Rohrbacher bases the date of birth on Augustine's description of Orosius as a "young priest" and a "son by age" in the period 414–418, which would place his age at 30 or younger. Rohrbacher further speculates (p. 137) that Orosius may have died in a shipwreck while attempting to return to Hispania after visiting Palestine and Africa since nothing is heard of him after 418, which is also the likely date of completion of his last book. ^ a b c d Martínez Cavero, Pedro, “El pensamiento…”, p. 22. ^ a b Martínez Cavero, Pedro, “El pensamiento…”, p. 35. ^ a b c Martínez Cavero, Pedro, “El pensamiento…”, p. 57. ^ a b c d Rábade Navarro, Miguel Ángel, “Una interpretación...”, pp. 377. ^ a b Torres Rodríguez, Casimiro, “Paulo Orosio…”, p. 81. ^ a b c d e f Torres Rodríguez, Casimiro, “Paulo Orosio…”, p. 82. ^ a b Torres Rodríguez, Casimiro, “Paulo Orosio…”, p. 16. ^ a b Torres Rodríguez, Casimiro, “Paulo Orosio…”, p. 19. ^ a b Martínez Cavero, Pedro, “El pensamiento…”, p. 26. In this section he refers to the author M. P. Annaud-Lindet. ^ Theodor von Mörner was a 19th-century historian who wrote De Orosii Vita Eiusque Historiarum Libris Septem Adversus Paganos. [1] ^ Martínez Cavero, Pedro, “El pensamiento…”, p. 24. ^ Martínez Cavero, Pedro, “El pensamiento…”, p. 25. ^ Torres Rodríguez, Casimiro, “Paulo Orosio…”, p. 27. ^ Pedro Martínez Cavero refers to a discussion of this theme by J. E. López Pereira in his “Cultura y literatura latinas en el NO peninsular en la latinidad tardía”. ^ Rotelle, John E. (1990). The Works of Saint Augustine: A Translation for the 21st Century. New City Press. ISBN 9781565480384. ^ Pedro Martínez Cavero this time refers to author G. Fainck. ^ Both Martínez Cavero and Torres Rodríguez maintain this in books mentioned in the bibliography. ^ Drawn by the author from information contained in Martínez Cavero, Pedro, “El pensamiento…”, Torres Rodríguez, Casimiro, “Paulo Orosio…” and others. ^ Martínez Cavero, Pedro, “El pensamiento…”, p. 29. ^ Paulo Orosio, “Historias…”, III 20, 6-7, cited in turn by Martínez Cavero, Pedro, “El pensamiento…”, p. 30. ^ Martínez Cavero, Pedro, “El pensamiento…”, p. 39. ^ Merrills, A. H., History and Geography in Late Antiquity, Cambridge Studies in Medieval Life and Thought fourth Series, Cambridge University Press, Melbourne, 2005, p.39 ^ Martínez Cavero, Pedro, “El pensamiento…”, p. 42. ^ Martínez Cavero, Pedro, “El pensamiento…”, p. 43. ^ Martínez Cavero, Pedro, “El pensamiento…”, p. 45. ^ Martínez Cavero, Pedro, “El pensamiento…”, p. 47. ^ a b Martínez Cavero, Pedro, “El pensamiento…”, p. 52-53. ^ a b Beltrán Corbalán, Domingo and others, “El Commonitorium...”, p. 65. ^ Torres Rodríguez, Casimiro, “Paulo Orosio...”, p. 18. ^ Beltrán Corbalán, Domingo and others, “El Commonitorium...”, p. 66. ^ Beltrán Corbalán, Domingo and others, “El Commonitorium...”, p. 67. ^ Beltrán Corbalán, Domingo and others, “El Commonitorium...”, p. 69. ^ Beltrán Corbalán, Domingo and others, “El Commonitorium...”, p. 71. ^ a b Torres Rodríguez, Casimiro, “Paulo Orosio...”, p. 36. ^ a b Torres Rodríguez, Casimiro, “Paulo Orosio...”, p. 35. ^ More detailed information regarding the various theories regarding the date of writing can be found in the sections “Final years” and “Disappearance” of this article. ^ Alonso Ñúñez, José Miguel, “La metodología...”, p. 375. ^ a b García Fernández, Francisco José, “La imagen de Hispania...”, p. 287. ^ a b García Fernández, Francisco José, “La imagen de Hispania...”, p. 286. ^ Torres Rodríguez, Casimiro, “Paulo Orosio…”, p. 75. ^ Alonso Ñúñez, José Miguel, “La metodología…”, p. 373. ^ a b Alonso Ñúñez, José Miguel, “La metodología…”, p. 379. ^ Rábade Navarro, Miguel Ángel, “Una interpretación…”, pp. 378. ^ Rábade Navarro, Miguel Ángel, “Una interpretación…”, pp. 381. ^ a b Torres Rodríguez, Casimiro, “Paulo Orosio…”, p. 76. ^ a b Torres Rodríguez, Casimiro, “Paulo Orosius…”, p. 77. ^ García Fernández, Francisco José, “La imagen de Hispania…”, p. 293. ^ García Fernández, Francisco José, “La imagen de Hispania…”, p. 294. ^ a b García Fernández, Francisco José, “La imagen de Hispania…”, p. 298. ^ Torres Rodríguez, Casimiro, “Paulo Orosio…”, p. 63. ^ a b Torres Rodríguez, Casimiro, “Paulo Orosio…”, p. 65. ^ a b Alonso Ñúñez, José Miguel, “La metodología…”, p. 377. ^ a b Torres Rodríguez, Casimiro, “Paulo Orosio…”, p. 64. ^ Torres Rodríguez, Casimiro, “Paulo Orosio…”, p. 66. ^ a b Torres Rodríguez, Casimiro, “Paulo Orosio…”, p. 68. ^ a b Alonso Ñúñez, José Miguel, “La metodología…”, p. 376. ^ a b Torres Rodríguez, Casimiro, “Paulo Orosio…”, p. 53. ^ Torres Rodríguez, Casimiro, “Paulo Orosio…”, p. 56. ^ Torres Rodríguez, Casimiro, “Paulo Orosio…”, p. 80. ^ Old English text, with original in Latin, edited by H. Sweet, 1883. ^ ed. Tassi, Firenze 1849; partial editions are available in Cesare Segre’s, Volgarizzamenti del Due e del Trecento, Torino 1953 and in Cesare Segre’s, La prosa del Duecento, Milano-Napoli 1959) ^ Ann Christys, Christians in al-Andalus (711-1000) (Abingdon: Routledge, 2002), ISBN 0700715649.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Orosius, Paulus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 20 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 327. References[edit] Spanish Wikipedia has a bibliographic annex at: Anexo:Bibliografía sobre Paulo Orosio. Books by Paulus Orosius Orose: Histoires contre les païens, ed. Marie-Pierre Arnaud-Lindet, 3 vols. Collection des Universités de France, Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1990–1991. Pauli Orosii historiarum adversum paganos libri VII; accedit eiusdem, Liber apologeticus, ed. K. Zangemeister. Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum 5, Vienna, 1882. Historiarum adversum paganos libri VII, ed. K. Zangemeister. Leipzig: Teubner, 1889. Pacian of Barcelona, Orosius of Braga, in Iberian Fathers: v. 3, The Catholic University of America Press, 1999; ISBN 978-0813200996 Orosius (1964). The Seven Books of History Against the Pagans. Translated by Roy J. Deferrari. Washington DC: Catholic University of America Press. OCLC 711212. Orosius, Seven Books of History Against the Pagans, trans. by A. T. Fear. Liverpool University Press, 2010 ISBN 978-1846312397 Orosius, Seven Books of History Against the Pagans, trans. Irving W. Raymond. New York: Columbia University Press, 1936. Publications on Orosius in English Linstädter, Marc-Antoine, Paulus Orosius - a Christian propagandist?, GRIN Verlag, 2013; ISBN 978-3638832410 Van Nuffelen, P., Orosius and the Rhetoric of History (Oxford Early Christian Studies), OUP Oxford 2012; ISBN 978-0199655274 Ó Corráin, Donnchadh, "Orosius, Ireland, and Christianity", Peritia 28, 2017 https://www.brepolsonline.net/doi/pdf/10.1484/J.PERIT.5.114565?download=true Publications on Orosius in Spanish Alonso Nuñez, José Miguel, “La metodología histórica de Paulo Orosio”, en Helmántica Nº 136–138, 1994, pp. 373–379. Beltrán Corbalán, Domingo, González Fernández, Rafael y Martínez Cavero, Pedro, “El Commonitorium de Orosio: traducción y comentario”, en Faventia: Revista de filología clàssica Nº 21, 1999, pp. 65.83. The complete text (in Spanish) from the article can be found on https://ddd.uab.cat/record/571. Consulted in October 2008. Fuentes De La Rosa, María Luisa, Orosio y su tiempo, 1st Edition, Madrid: Editorial de la Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 1990. García Fernández, Francisco José, “La imagen de Hispania y los hispanos a finales de la Antigüedad. Las Historiae Adversum Paganos de Paulo Orosio”, en Conimbriga Nº44, 2005, pp. 281–299. Mertínez Cavero, Pedro, El pensamiento histórico y antropológico de Orosio, 1st Edition, Murcia: Universidad. Área de Historia Antigua, 2002. Rábe Navarro Miguel Ángel, “Una interpretación de fuentes y métodos en la Historia de Paulo Orosio”, en Tabona. Revista de Prehistoria, Arqueología y Filología Clásicas Nº32, 1985–1987, pp. 377–393. Torres Rodríguez, Casimiro, Paulo Orosio. Su vida y sus obras, 1st Edition, La Coruña: Fundación Pedro Barrie de la Maza Conde de Fenosa, 1985. External links[edit] Orosius's Historiarum Adversum Paganos Libri VII at Thelatinlibrary.com (in Latin) Orosius's Historiae Adversum Paganos at Attalus (Latin text and English translation) Orosius's History against the pagans (in English) Orosius as a source for Ibn Khaldun A collection of links on Orosius Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Latina with Analytical Indexes [2] v t e History of Catholic theology Key figures General History of the Catholic Church Timeline History of the papacy Papal primacy Ecumenical councils Catholic Bible Vulgate Biblical canon History of Christian theology Early Church Paul Clement of Rome First Epistle of Clement Didache Ignatius of Antioch Polycarp Epistle of Barnabas The Shepherd of Hermas Aristides of Athens Justin Martyr Epistle to Diognetus Irenaeus Montanism Tertullian Origen Antipope Novatian Cyprian Constantine to Pope Gregory I Eusebius Athanasius of Alexandria Arianism Pelagianism Nestorianism Monophysitism Ephrem the Syrian Hilary of Poitiers Cyril of Jerusalem Basil of Caesarea Gregory of Nazianzus Gregory of Nyssa Ambrose John Chrysostom Jerome Augustine of Hippo John Cassian Orosius Cyril of Alexandria Peter Chrysologus Pope Leo I Boethius Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite Pope Gregory I Early Middle Ages Isidore of Seville John Climacus Maximus the Confessor Monothelitism Ecthesis Bede John of Damascus Iconoclasm Transubstantiation dispute Predestination disputes Paulinus II of Aquileia Alcuin Benedict of Aniane Rabanus Maurus Paschasius Radbertus John Scotus Eriugena High Middle Ages Roscellinus Gregory of Narek Berengar of Tours Peter Damian Anselm of Canterbury Joachim of Fiore Peter Abelard Decretum Gratiani Bernard of Clairvaux Peter Lombard Anselm of Laon Hildegard of Bingen Hugh of Saint Victor Dominic de Guzmán Robert Grosseteste Francis of Assisi Anthony of Padua Beatrice of Nazareth Bonaventure Albertus Magnus Boetius of Dacia Henry of Ghent Thomas Aquinas Siger of Brabant Thomism Roger Bacon Mysticism and reforms Ramon Llull Duns Scotus Dante Alighieri William of Ockham Richard Rolle John of Ruusbroec Catherine of Siena Bridget of Sweden Meister Eckhart Johannes Tauler Walter Hilton The Cloud of Unknowing Heinrich Seuse Geert Groote Devotio Moderna Julian of Norwich Thomas à Kempis Nicholas of Cusa Marsilio Ficino Girolamo Savonarola Giovanni Pico della Mirandola Reformation Counter-Reformation Erasmus Thomas Cajetan Thomas More John Fisher Johann Eck Francisco de Vitoria Thomas of Villanova Ignatius of Loyola Francisco de Osuna John of Ávila Francis Xavier Teresa of Ávila Luis de León John of the Cross Peter Canisius Luis de Molina (Molinism) Robert Bellarmine Francisco Suárez Lawrence of Brindisi Francis de Sales Baroque period to French Revolution Tommaso Campanella Pierre de Bérulle Pierre Gassendi René Descartes Mary of Jesus of Ágreda António Vieira Jean-Jacques Olier Louis Thomassin Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet François Fénelon Cornelius Jansen (Jansenism) Blaise Pascal Nicolas Malebranche Giambattista Vico Alphonsus Liguori Louis de Montfort Maria Gaetana Agnesi Alfonso Muzzarelli Johann Michael Sailer Clement Mary Hofbauer Bruno Lanteri 19th century Joseph Görres Felicité de Lamennais Luigi Taparelli Antonio Rosmini Ignaz von Döllinger John Henry Newman Henri Lacordaire Jaime Balmes Gaetano Sanseverino Giovanni Maria Cornoldi Wilhelm Emmanuel Freiherr von Ketteler Giuseppe Pecci Joseph Hergenröther Tommaso Maria Zigliara Matthias Joseph Scheeben Émile Boutroux Modernism Neo-Scholasticism Léon Bloy Désiré-Joseph Mercier Friedrich von Hügel Vladimir Solovyov Marie-Joseph Lagrange George Tyrrell Maurice Blondel Thérèse of Lisieux 20th century G. K. Chesterton Reginald Garrigou-Lagrange Joseph Maréchal Pierre Teilhard de Chardin Jacques Maritain Étienne Gilson Ronald Knox Dietrich von Hildebrand Gabriel Marcel Marie-Dominique Chenu Romano Guardini Edith Stein Fulton Sheen Henri de Lubac Daniel-Rops Jean Guitton Josemaría Escrivá Nouvelle théologie Karl Rahner Yves Congar Bernard Lonergan Emmanuel Mounier Jean Daniélou Hans Urs von Balthasar Alfred Delp Thomas Merton René Girard Johann Baptist Metz Jean Vanier Henri Nouwen 21st century Carlo Maria Martini Pope Benedict XVI Walter Kasper Raniero Cantalamessa Michał Heller Peter Kreeft Jean-Luc Marion Tomáš Halík Scott Hahn  Catholicism portal Authority control BIBSYS: 90104174 BNE: XX978431 BNF: cb11993007v (data) CANTIC: a10717912 CiNii: DA00510153 GND: 118590251 ICCU: IT\ICCU\RAVV\051992 ISNI: 0000 0001 2117 8754 LCCN: n50002187 LNB: 000031355 NKC: jn19981001916 NLI: 000101901 NSK: 000692620 NTA: 071115129 RERO: 02-A000126079 SNAC: w63796x5 SUDOC: 028008081 Trove: 939745 VcBA: 495/5295 VIAF: 2479624 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n50002187 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Orosius&oldid=992360064" Categories: 385 births 420 deaths People from Braga Sources on Germanic paganism 5th-century Christians 5th-century historians Christian writers Historians of the Catholic Church 5th-century Christian clergy 5th-century Christian theologians Christianization Romans from Hispania 5th-century Latin writers Hidden categories: Articles with hCards Articles containing Latin-language text Articles containing explicitly cited English-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from November 2015 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Use dmy dates from March 2017 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages Ænglisc Asturianu Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Slovenčina Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 December 2020, at 21:22 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1233	----	View source for Horace - Wikipedia View source for Horace ← Horace Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. You are currently unable to edit Wikipedia due to a block affecting your IP address. This does not affect your ability to read Wikipedia pages. Most people who see this message have done nothing wrong. Some kinds of blocks restrict editing from specific service providers or telecom companies in response to recent abuse or vandalism, and affect other users who are unrelated to that abuse. See below if you do not believe you have done anything wrong. Editing from 40.76.0.0/16 has been blocked (disabled) by ‪SQL‬ for the following reason(s): The IP address that you are currently using has been blocked because it is believed to be a web host provider or colocation provider. To prevent abuse, web hosts and colocation providers may be blocked from editing Wikipedia. You will not be able to edit Wikipedia using a web host or colocation provider because it hides your IP address, much like a proxy or VPN. We recommend that you attempt to use another connection to edit. For example, if you use a proxy or VPN to connect to the internet, turn it off when editing Wikipedia. If you edit using a mobile connection, try using a Wi-Fi connection, and vice versa. If you have a Wikipedia account, please log in. If you do not have any other way to edit Wikipedia, you will need to request an IP block exemption. If you are confident that you are not using a web host, you may appeal this block by adding the following text on your talk page: {{unblock|reason=Caught by a colocation web host block but this host or IP is not a web host. My IP address is _______. Place any further information here. ~~~~}}. You must fill in the blank with your IP address for this block to be investigated. Your IP address can be determined here. Alternatively, if you wish to keep your IP address private you can use the unblock ticket request system. There are several reasons you might be editing using the IP address of a web host or colocation provider (such as if you are using VPN software or a business network); please use this method of appeal only if you think your IP address is in fact not a web host or colocation provider. Administrators: The IP block exemption user right should only be applied to allow users to edit using web host in exceptional circumstances, and requests should usually be directed to the functionaries team via email. If you intend to give the IPBE user right, a CheckUser needs to take a look at the account. This can be requested most easily at SPI Quick Checkuser Requests. Unblocking an IP or IP range with this template is highly discouraged without at least contacting the blocking administrator. This block has been set to expire: 16:25, 2 June 2023. Even when blocked, you will usually still be able to edit your user talk page and email other editors and administrators. For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: == In popular culture == The Oxford Latin Course textbooks use the life of Horace to illustrate an average Roman's life in the [[Roman Republic|late Republic]] to [[Roman Empire|Early Empire]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Oxford Latin Course Part one.|last=Balme, Maurice|first=Moorwood, James|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1996|isbn=978-0195212037}}</ref> Return to Horace. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1236	----	List of Roman laws - Wikipedia List of Roman laws From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikipedia list article This is a partial list of Roman laws. A Roman law (Latin: lex) is usually named for the sponsoring legislator and designated by the adjectival form of his gens name (nomen gentilicum), in the feminine form because the noun lex (plural leges) is of feminine grammatical gender. When a law is the initiative of the two consuls, it is given the name of both, with the nomen of the senior consul first. Sometimes a law is further specified by a short phrase describing the content of the law, to distinguish that law from others sponsored by members of the same gens. Contents 1 Roman laws 2 Post-Roman law codes based on Roman legislation 3 General denominations 4 Resolutions of the Senate 5 Other 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links Roman laws[edit] Name Date Passed by Magistracy held Description Lex Acilia Calpurnia 67 BC C. Calpurnius Piso & M. Acilius Glabrio Consuls Permanent exclusion from office in cases of electoral corruption. Lex Acilia de intercalando 191 BC M. Acilius Glabrio Consul Adjustment of the calendar. Lex Acilia repetundarum 122 BC[1] M. Acilius Glabrio (& C. Sempronius Gracchus) Tribunes of the plebs Repetundae procedures for jurors in courts overseeing senatorial class to prevent corruption abroad. Lex Aebutia de formulis 120–63 BC (circa) Aebutius[2] Tribune of the plebs (?) Authorized praetor's discretion to be introduced into the court of the praetor urbanus, praetor able to remodel private law of Rome. Lex Aebutia de magistratibus extraordinariis 120–63 BC (circa) Aebutius[2] Tribune of the plebs? Proposer of extraordinary magistracy cannot hold it. Lex Aelia et Fufia 150 BC (circa)? Aelius & Fufius[3] Tribunes of the plebs? Two laws probably regulating auspices. Lex Aelia Sentia 4 AD Sex. Aelius Catus & C. Sentius Saturninus Consuls Manumissions of slaves. Lex Aemilia de censoribus 434 BC Mam. Aemilius Mamercinus Dictator Reduced the terms of censors to a year and a half. Lex Ampia 63 BC T. Ampius Balbus[4] Tribune of the plebs Allowed Pompey to wear the crown of bay at the Ludi Circenses. Lex Antonia de Termessibus 68 BC C. Antonius Hybrida[5] Tribune of the plebs Alliance with Termessus. Lex Antonia 44 BC Mark Antony Consul Measures of Mark Antony against dictatorship etc. Lex Appuleia agraria 103–100 BC Saturninus Tribune of the plebs Made provision for public lands taken in Cisalpine Gaul from the Cimbri to be allocated to poor citizens. Lex Appuleia de maiestate 103–100 BC Saturninus Tribune of the plebs Established an equestrian court to try maiestas. Lex Aquilia de damno 286 BC (possibly) Aquilius Tribune of the plebs Provided compensation to the owners of property injured by someone's fault. Lex Aternia Tarpeia 454 BC A. Aternius Varus & S. Tarpeius Montanus Capitolinus Consuls Allowed magistrates to fine citizens, but set maximum fines. Lex Atilia Marcia 311 BC L. Atilius & C. Marcius Rutilus Censorinus Tribunes of the plebs Empowered the people to elect sixteen military tribunes for each of four legions. Lex Atinia de tribunis plebis in senatum legendis 149 BC[6] Atinius Tribune of the plebs Allowed Plebeian Tribunes to be automatically enrolled in the senate upon election. Lex Atinia de usucapione 149 BC Atinius Tribune of the plebs Dealing with ownership. Lex Aufeia 123 BC Aufeius Tribune of the plebs Settlement of Asia. Lex Aufidia de ambitu 61 BC M. Aufidius Lurco Tribune of the plebs If a candidate promised money to a tribe and did not pay it, he should be unpunished; but if he did pay the money, he should further pay to each tribe (annually?) 3000 sesterces as long as he lived. Lex Aurelia de tribunicia potestate 75 BC C. Aurelius Cotta Consul Former tribunes of the plebs can hold further magistracies (this right had been removed by Sulla). Lex Aurelia iudiciaria 70 BC L. Aurelius Cotta Praetor Juries should be chosen from senators, equites and tribuni aerarii. Lex Baebia de Praetoribus 181 BC M. Baebius Tamphilus Consul Set number of praetors to alternate, but was never observed. Lex Cornelia et Baebia de Ambitu 181 BC P. Cornelius Cethegus & M. Baebius Tamphilus Consuls Against electoral bribery. Lex Caecilia de censoria 52 BC Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio Consul Repealed the lex Clodia de Censoribus passed by the tribune of the plebs Clodius in 58 BC, which had regulated the Censors. Lex Caecilia de vectigalibus 60 BC Q. Caecilius Metellus Nepos Iunior Praetor Released lands and harbors in Italy from the payment of taxes. Lex Caecilia Didia 98 BC Q. Caecilius Metellus Nepos & T. Didius Consuls Required laws to proposed at least three market days before any vote. Also forbade Omnibus bills, which are bills with a large amount of unrelated material. Lex Calpurnia 149 BC L. Calpurnius Piso Tribune of the plebs Established a permanent extortion court. Lex Canuleia 445 BC C. Canuleius Tribune of the plebs Allowed patricians and plebeians to intermarry. Lex Cassia tabellaria 137 BC L. Cassius Longinus Ravilla Tribune of the plebs Introduced secret votes in court jury decisions. Lex Cassia de senatu 104 BC L. Cassius Longinus Tribune of the plebs Required any senator to be expelled from the senate if they had been convicted of a crime, or if their power (imperium) had been revoked while serving as a magistrate. Lex Cassia 44 BC L. Cassius Longinus Tribune of the plebs Allowed Julius Caesar to add new individuals to the patrician (aristocratic) class. Lex Cassia Terentia frumentaria 73 BC C. Cassius Longinus & M. Terentius Varro Lucullus Consuls Required the distribution of corn among the poor citizens. Lex Cincia de donis et muneribus 204 BC M. Cincius Alimentus Tribune of the plebs Tort reform concerning the payment of lawyers. Lex citationis 426 AD Valentinian III Emperor During court proceedings, only five Roman lawyers could be cited. Lex Claudia 218 BC Q. Claudius Tribune of the plebs Prohibited senators from participating in overseas trade, obsolete by the time of Cicero. Lex Clodia 58 BC P. Clodius Pulcher Tribune of the plebs Seven laws: (1) Lex Clodia de Auspiciis: repealed the leges Aeliae et Fufiae. (2) Lex Clodia de Censoribus: prescribed certain rules for the Roman Censors in exercising their functions as inspectors of public morals. (3) Lex Clodia de Civibus Romanis Interemptis: threatened punishment for anyone who offered fire and water to those who had executed Roman citizens without a trial. (4) Lex Clodia Frumentaria: required the distribution of grain to Rome's poor citizens for free. (5) Lex Clodia de Sodalitatibus: declared that certain clubs of a "semi-political nature" (i.e. armed gangs) were lawful. (6) Lex Clodia de Libertinorum Suffragiis: attempted to extend freedmen's (i.e. ex-slaves') voting rights. (7) Lex Clodia de Rege Ptolemaeo et de exsulibus Byzantinis: pertained to several of Rome's eastern provinces and vassal states. Lex Cornelia annalis 81 BC Sulla Dictator A sanction law for Sulla's past acts; part of his program to strengthen the Senate. Lex Cornelia de maiestate 81 BC Sulla Dictator Treason law passed by Sulla to regulate the activities of pro-magistrates in their provinces, especially unapproved war and unauthorised travel. Lex Cornelia de sicariis et veneficiis 81 BC Sulla Dictator Dealing with injuries and deaths obtained by magic. Lex Domitia de sacerdotis 104 BC Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus Tribune of the plebs Established the election of the pontifex maximus and the members of the college of priests (chosen by cooptation before). Lex Fufia Caninia 2 BC C. Fufius Geminus & L. Caninius Gallus Consuls Limited manumissions. Lex Gabinia 67 BC A. Gabinius Tribune of the plebs Pompey has special powers in the Mediterranean to fight against pirates Lex Gabinia tabellaria 139 BC A. Gabinius Tribune of the plebs Introduced secret votes in election for magistrate offices. Lex Gellia Cornelia 72 BC L. Gellius Publicola & Cn. Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus Consuls Authorised Pompey to confer Roman citizenship to his clientela and Spaniards. Lex Genucia 342 BC L. Genucius Tribune of the plebs Three laws: (1) Abolished interest on loans. (2) Required the election of at least one plebeian consul each year. (3) Prohibited a magistrate from holding two magistracies in the same year, or the same magistracy for the next ten years (until 332).[7][8][9] Lex Hadriana 117–138 AD Hadrian Emperor Enabled permanent tenants to develop land, it was an extension of the lex Manciana. Lex Hieronica 240 BC Hiero II King of Sicily Taxation of Sicily (the legislation of Hiero II was included in Roman law). Lex Hortensia 287 BC Q. Hortensius Dictator Plebiscites approved by the Assembly of the People gain the status of law. Lex de Imperio Vespasiani 69 AD Vespasian Emperor Conferring powers, privileges and exemptions to the emperor Vespasian. Lex Icilia de Aventino publicando 456 BC L. Icilius Tribune of the plebs Gave land to plebeians. Lex Iulia de Civitate Latinis et Sociis Danda 90 BC Lucius Julius Caesar Consul Offered citizenship to all Italians who had not raised arms against Rome in the Social War. Lex Iulia de adulteriis coercendis 17 BC Augustus Emperor Made conjugal unfaithfulness a public as well as a private offence, with banishment a possible penalty. Lex Iulia de Ambitu 18 BC Augustus Emperor Penalised bribery when acquiring political offices. Lex Iulia de maritandis ordinibus 18 BC Augustus Emperor Marrying-age celibates and young widows that would not marry were barred from receiving inheritances and from attending public games. Lex Iulia de repetundis 59 BC Julius Caesar Consul Regarding extortion in the provinces. Lex Iulia de vicesima hereditatum 5 AD Augustus Emperor Instituted a 5 percent tax on testamentary inheritances, exempting close relatives. Lex Iulia municipalis 45 BC Julius Caesar Dictator and consul Set regulations for the Italian municipalities. Lex Junia Licinia 62 BC D. Junius Silanus & L. Licinius Murena Consuls A reinforcement law passed to back up the earlier lex Caecilia Didia law of 98 BC. Lex Junia Norbana 19 AD M. Junius Silanus Torquatus & L. Norbanus Balbus Consuls Regarding status of freedmen. Lex Licinia Mucia 95 BC L. Licinius Crassus & Q. Mucius Scaevola Consuls Removed Latin and Italian allies from Rome's citizen-rolls. Lex Licinia Pompeia 55 BC Pompey and Crassus Consuls Caesar's proconsulship in both the Gauls was extended for another 5 years. lex Licinia Sextia 367 BC C. Licinius Stolo & L. Sextius Lateranus Tribunes of the plebs Four laws: (1) Lex de consule altero ex plebe et de praetore ex patribus creando: resumed the consulship and opened it to plebeians, and created the praetorship, reserved to patricians.[8] (2) Lex de aere alieno: provided that the interest already paid on debts should be deducted from the principal and that the payment of the rest of the principal should be in three equal annual instalments. (3) Lex de modo agrorum: restricted individual ownership of public land in excess of 500 iugeras (300 acres) and forbade the grazing of more than 100 cattle on public land. (4) Lex de Decemviri Sacris Faciundis: created the Decemviri sacris faciundis, a college of ten priests, of whom five had to be plebeians. Lex Maenia 279 BC Maenius[10] Tribune of the plebs Carried the principle of lex Pubilia to elections (approval of Senate moved before the elections, not after).. Lex Menenia Sestia 452 BC T. Menenius Lanatus & P. Sestius Capitolinus Vaticanus Consuls Scale for fines, 1 ox = 12 sheep = 100 lb. of bronze. Lex Manciana 69–96 AD Dealt with imperial and private cases in North Africa, regulated relations between cultivators and the proprietors. Lex Manilia 66 BC C. Manilius Tribune of the plebs Pompey's actions against Mithridates. Lex Minucia 216 BC M. Minucius Tribune of the plebs Appointment of three finance commissioners. Lex Ogulnia 300 BC Cn. & Q. Ogulnius Tribune of the plebs Created four plebeian pontiffs and five plebeian augurs. Lex Oppia 215 BC C. Oppius Tribune of the plebs Limited female adornment. Lex Ovinia 312 BC (before) Ovinius Tribune of the plebs Transferred the right to appoint Senators from the consuls to the censors. Lex Papia de peregrinis 65 BC C. Papius Tribune of the plebs Challenged false claims of citizenship and deported foreigners from Rome. Lex Papia Poppaea 9 AD M. Papius Mutilus & Q. Poppaeus Secundus Consuls Regarding marriage. Lex Papiria de dedicationibus 166–155 BC[11] Papirius Tribune of the plebs Forbade consecration of real property without approval of the popular assembly. Lex Papiria Julia 430 BC L. Papirius Crassus & L. Julius Iulus Consuls Made payment of fines in bronze mandatory. Lex de permutatione provinciae 44 BC Mark Antony Consul Gave himself a five-year command in Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul in lieu of Macedon. Also gave authorization to transfer Caesar's legions from Macedon to the new provinces. Lex Petronia 32 BC (before)[12] Petronius Tribune of the plebs Regulated appointments of municipal prefects. Lex Plautia de reditu lepidanorum 70 BC Plautius Tribune of the plebs Granted a pardon to Lepidus' former associates. Lex Plautia Judiciaria 89 BC M. Plautius Silvanus Tribune of the plebs Chose jurors from other classes, not just the Equites. Lex Plautia Papiria 89 BC C. Papirius Carbo & M. Plautius Silvanus Tribunes of the plebs Granted citizenship to Roman allies. Lex Poetelia Papiria 326 BC C. Poetelius Libo & L. Papirius Cursor Consuls Abolished the contractual form of Nexum, or debt bondage. Lex Pompeia de Transpadanis 89 BC Cn. Pompeius Strabo Consul Granted Latin Right to the populations of Cisalpine Gaul. Lex de Porcia capita civium 199 BC P. Porcius Laeca Tribune of the plebs Gave right of appeal (provocatio) in capital cases. Lex Porcia de tergo civium 195 BC Cato the Elder Consul Extended the right to provocatio against flogging. Lex Porcia 185 BC L. Porcius Licinus Consul Provided for a very severe sanction (possibly death) against magistrates who refused to grant provocatio. Lex provincia 146 BC Set of laws designed to regulate and organize the administration of Roman provinces. Lex Publilia 471 BC Volero Publilius Tribune of the plebs Transferred the election of the tribunes of the plebs to the comitia tributa. Lex Publilia 339 BC Q. Publilius Philo Consul and dictator Three laws: (1) Reserved one censorship to plebeians. (2) Made plebiscites binding on all citizens (including patricians). (3) Stated that the Senate had to give its prior approval (the Auctoritas patrum) to plebiscites before becoming binding on all citizens (the lex Valeria Horatia of 449 had placed this approval after plebiscites). Lex Pupia 61 BC M. Pupius Piso Frugi Calpurnianus Consul Senate could not meet on Comitiales Dies. Lex Regia 759–509 BC Kings of Rome Laws enacted by the Roman kings before the Republic. Lex Roscia 49 BC L. Roscius Fabatus Praetor Caesar proposed full Latin Rights on the people of Transalpine Gaul. Lex Roscia theatralis 67 BC L. Roscius Otho Tribune of the plebs Allocated a place in Roman theaters to the equestrian order. Lex Rubria 122 BC C. Rubrius Tribune of the plebs Authorised a colony on the ruins of Carthage. Lex Sacrata 494 BC law after first secession of the plebeians that either affirmed the sacrosanctity of the tribunes or established the plebeians as a sworn confederacy against patricians. Lex Scantinia 149 BC (circa) M. Scantius or Scantinius[13] Tribune of the plebs Regulating some aspects of homosexual behaviour among citizens, primarily protecting freeborn male minors. Lex Sempronia agraria 133 BC Ti. Sempronius Gracchus Tribune of the plebs Set of laws that redistributed land among the poor; repealed after his assassination. Lex Servilia Caepio 106 BC Q. Servilius Caepio Consul Some control of the court de rebus repentundis was handed back to senators from the equites. Lex Servilia Glaucia de Repetundis 101 BC C. Servilius Glaucia[14] Tribune of the plebs Made juries in property court composed by equites only. Lex Terentia Cassia 73 BC M. Terentius Varro Lucullus & C. Cassius Longinus Consuls Safeguarded Rome's grain supply and distributed grain at reduced rates. Lex Titia 43 BC P. Titius Tribune of the plebs Gave Octavian, Mark Antony and Lepidus full powers to defeat the assassins of Julius Caesar; legalised the second triumvirate. Lex Trebonia 448 BC L. Trebonius Tribune of the plebs Forbade the cooptation of additional tribunes of the plebs to fill vacant positions. Lex Trebonia 55 BC C. Trebonius Tribune of the plebs Granted a five year proconsulship: in Syria to Crassus, in Spain to Pompey. Lex Tullia 63 BC Cicero Consul Regulated election fraud (see ambitus). Lex Ursonensis 44 BC Mark Antony Consul Foundation charter of the Caesarean colonia Iulia Genetiva. Lex Valeria 509, 449, & 300 BC P. Valerius Publicola Consul Granted every Roman citizen legal right to appeal against a capital sentence, defined and confirmed the right of appeal (provocatio). Lex Valeria 82 BC Lucius Valerius Flaccus Interrex Appointed Sulla dictator. Lex Valeria Cornelia 5 AD L. Valerius Messalla Volesus & Cn. Cornelius Cinna Magnus Consuls Regarding voting in the Comitia Centuriata. Lex Valeria Horatia 449 BC L. Valerius Potitus & M. Horatius Barbatus Consuls Three laws: (1) Lex Valeria Horatia de plebiscitis: established that the resolutions passed by the Plebeian Council were binding on all. (2) Lex Valeria Horatia de provocatione: granted the right to appeal to the People of any decision of magistrates. (3) Lex Valeria Horatia de tribunicia potestate: restored the potestas tribunicia, the powers of the plebeian tribunes. Lex Vatinia 59 BC P. Vatinius Tribune of the plebs Gave Julius Caesar governorship of Cisalpine Gaul and of Illyricum for five years. Lex Villia Annalis 180 BC L. Villius Annalis Tribune of the plebs Established minimum ages for the cursus honorum offices; determined an interval of two years between offices. Lex Visellia 24 CE Regulated the activities of freedmen Lex Voconia 169 BC Q. Voconius Saxa Tribune of the plebs Disallowed women from being the main heir to a dead man's estate, including cases where there were no male relatives alive. Post-Roman law codes based on Roman legislation[edit] lex Romana Burgundionum – one of the law tables for Romans after the fall of Western Roman Empire lex Romana Visigothorum (AD 506) – one of the law tables for Romans after the fall of Western Roman Empire General denominations[edit] lex agraria – A law regulating distribution of public lands lex annalis – qualifications for magistracies lex ambitus – Laws involving electoral bribery and corruption; see ambitus lex curiata – was any law passed by the comitia curiata, including the lex curiata de imperio; Roman adoptions, particularly so-called "testamentary adoptions," were also recognised by a lex curiata, famously in 59 BC when the patrician Clodius Pulcher was adopted into a plebeian gens in order to run for the office of tribune of the plebs. lex curiata de imperio – Law granting imperium to senior Roman magistrates under the Republic; it was the traditional basis for the later lex de Imperio allowing Imperial succession. Under the monarchy, it was also used to ratify the choice of a new king, and later confirmed Octavian's adoption as Caesar's son in 43 BC lex frumentaria – A law regulating price of grain lex sumptuaria – A law regulating the use of luxury items and public manifestations of wealth Resolutions of the Senate[edit] Senatus consultum – A Senate decree Senatus consultum ultimum or Senatus consultum de re publica defenda  – a late republic alternative to nominating a dictator Senatus consultum de Bacchanalibus (186 BC) – concerning the Bacchanalia Senatus consultum Claudianum (AD 52) – concerning slaves Senatus consultum Macedonianum – concerning loan/mutuum (time of Vespasian) Senatus consultum Neronianum (c. AD 100) – concerning legatum Senatus consultum Orphitianum (c. AD 200) – concerning inheritance Senatus consultum Pegasianum (c. AD 100) – concerning fideicommissum Senatus consultum Silanianum (AD 10) – concerning slaves Senatus consultum Tertullianum – concerning inheritance (time of Hadrian) Senatus consultum Vellaeanum (AD 46) – concerning intercedere Other[edit] Constitution of the Roman Republic – Set the separation of powers and checks and balances of the Roman Republic Acceptilatio – spoken statement of debt or obligation release Constitutio Antoniniana – granted citizenship to the Empire's freemen Corpus Iuris Civilis – codification by emperor Justinian Stipulatio – basic oral contract Twelve Tables – The first set of Roman laws published by the Decemviri in 451 BC, which would be the starting point of the elaborate Roman constitution. The twelve tables covered issues of civil, criminal and military law. Every Roman that went to school was supposed to know them by heart. See also[edit] Twelve Tables Constitution of the Roman Republic References[edit] ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 517, 519 (note 4). ^ a b Broughton, vol. II, p. 468. ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 452, 453. ^ Broughton, vol. II, p. 167. ^ Broughton, vol. II, pp. 138, 141 (note 8). ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 458, 459. ^ Livy, vii. 42. ^ a b Cornell, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7-2, p. 337. Cornell explains that Livy confused the contents of the Lex Licinia Sextia of 366 with the Lex Genucia of 342. ^ Brennan, The Praetorship, pp. 65-67, where he shows that the ten year rule was only temporary at this time. ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 193, 237. ^ W. Jeffrey Tatum, "The lex Papiria de Dedicationibus", in Classical Philology, Vol. 88, No. 4. (October 1993), pp. 319–328. The traditional date of 304 BC is incorrect. ^ Broughton, vol. II, p. 472. ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 459, 460 (note 3). ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 571, 572. Bibliography[edit] Brennan, T. Corey, The Praetorship in the Roman Republic, Oxford University Press, 2000. Walbank, F. W., et al., The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. VII, part 2, The Rise of Rome to 220 BC, Cambridge University Press (1989). External links[edit] The Roman Law Library, incl. Leges "Index of Roman Laws". v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Roman_laws&oldid=996507019" Categories: Roman law Ancient Rome-related lists Lists of legislation Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Български Català Čeština Español Français Italiano Magyar Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 27 December 2020, at 00:49 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1238	----	Social class in ancient Rome - Wikipedia Social class in ancient Rome From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Not to be confused with Status in Roman legal system. Example of higher class Roman men. Social class in ancient Rome was hierarchical, with multiple and overlapping social hierarchies. An individual's relative position in one might be higher or lower than in another, which complicated the social composition of Rome.[1] The status of freeborn Romans during the Republic was established by: Ancestry (patrician or plebeian); Census rank (ordo) based on wealth and political privilege, with the senatorial and equestrian ranks elevated above the ordinary citizen; Gender; and Citizenship, of which there were grades with varying rights and privileges. The different Roman classes allowed for different rights and privileges, including voting rights, marriage rights, and more. Contents 1 Patricians and plebeians 1.1 Patrician 1.2 Plebeians 2 Property-based classes 3 Gender-based classes 3.1 Pater Familias 3.2 Women 4 Slavery and freed men 4.1 Slaves 4.2 Freed men 5 Non-Roman citizens 5.1 Latin Right 5.1.1 Old Latin Rights 5.1.2 Latin Rights post-338 BC 5.2 Peregrini 6 References Patricians and plebeians[edit] Main articles: Patrician (ancient Rome) and Plebs Traditionally, patrician refers to members of the upper class, while plebeian refers to lower class.[2] Economic differentiation in Rome saw a small number of families accumulate most of the wealth in Rome, thus giving way to the creation of the patrician and plebeian classes.[2] After this initial distinction, however, the divide between patrician and plebeian families was strictly hereditary, based on social status.[2] The toga, shown here on a statue restored with the head of Nerva, was the distinctive garb of Roman male citizens. The plebeians comprised the majority of Roman citizens. Although patricians are often represented as rich and powerful families who managed to secure power over the less-fortunate plebeian families, plebeians and patricians among the senatorial class were often equally wealthy.[2] As civil rights for plebeians increased during the middle and late Roman Republic, many plebeian families had attained wealth and power while some traditionally patrician families had fallen into poverty and obscurity. Regardless of how rich a plebeian family became, they would not rise to be included in the ranks of the patricians.[2] By the second century BC, the divide between patricians and plebeians had lost most of its distinction and began to merge into one class.[3] Patrician[edit] Patricians were considered the upper-class in early Roman society. They controlled the best land and made up the majority of the Roman senate. It was rare—if not impossible—for a plebeian to be a senator until 444 BC.[2][page needed] A common type of social relation in ancient Rome was the clientela system that involved a patron and client(s) that performed services for one another and who were engaged in strong business-like relationships. Patricians were most often the patrons, and they would often have multiple plebeian clients.[2] Patrons provided many services to their clients in exchange for a promise of support if the patron went to war.[2] This patronage system was one of the class relations that most tightly bound Roman society together, while also protecting patrician social privileges.[2] Clientela continued into the late Roman society, spanning almost the entirety of the existence of ancient Rome.[2] Patricians also exclusively controlled the Censor, which controlled the census, appointed senators, and oversaw other aspects of social and political life. Through this office, patricians were able to maintain their hierarchy over the plebeians.[2] Plebeians[edit] Plebeians were the lower-class, often farmers, in Rome who mostly worked the land owned by the Patricians. Some plebeians owned small plots of land, but this was rare until the second century BC.[2] Plebeians were tied to patricians through the clientela system of patronage that saw plebeians assisting their patrician patrons in war, augmenting their social status, and raising dowries or ransoms.[2] In 450 BC, plebeians were barred from marrying patricians, but this law was repealed in 445 BC by a Tribune of the Plebs.[2][page needed] In 444 BC, the office of Military Tribune with Consular Powers was created, which enabled plebeians who passed through this office to serve in the Senate once their one-year term was completed.[2][page needed] Plebeians remained, for the most part, dependent on those of higher social class for the entirety of the existence of ancient Rome, through the clientela system or by other means attaching themselves to those with power if possible.[2][page needed] Property-based classes[edit] Further information: Roman Senate and Equites Roman society was also divided based on property in the Centuriate Assembly. The Centuriate Assembly was responsible for declaring war, for electing magistrates with imperium, and for trying select cases.[2] A statue of a member of the equestrian class from 176 CE. This statue is believed to be from the Capitoline Hill in Rome, and is the only equestrian statue that survives. Only Romans who were wealthy enough to afford their own armour were allowed to serve in the army, which consisted of both patricians and plebeians. As long as a citizen could afford armour, he was able to be a soldier.[2] The Centuriate Assembly was divided into groups based on how wealthy one was and one’s ability to provide his armour and weapons. Centuriate Assembly[2][4] Class Number of centuries/votes Census property Equipment Equestrians 18 Horse, full armour, various weapons Class I 80 100,000 As Full armour, some weapons Class II 20 75,000 As Almost full armour, some weapons Class III 20 50,000 As Some armour, few weapons Class IV 20 25,000 As Little armour, few weapons Class V 30 11,000 As No armour, single weapon Proletariate 5 None Total Centuries/Votes 193 The Equestrians and Class I held 98 votes between them, thus they could outvote the combined lower classes who only had 95 votes. This was a means for the wealthier classes to maintain control over the army and social life. Rather than risk the lower classes revolt because of their lack of influence in the Assembly, the votes were allocated to ensure that the higher classes could always outvote the lower ones.[2] Gender-based classes[edit] Pater Familias[edit] Roman society was patriarchal in the purest sense; the male head of household was the pater familias, he held special legal powers and privileges that gave him jurisdiction (patria potestas) over all the members of his familia.[2] Fathers were in charge of educating their sons. Additionally, adult sons would often marry and continue to live in the family household under their pater familias, until their father died and they took over the responsibility of pater familias.[2] The pater familias could also perform an emancipatio (emancipation) ritual - a process that set the son free, three times in a row - to grant the son his own legal authority, free from the pater familias.[2] A painting of Lucretia, the ideal Roman woman from the Roman tale, The Death of Lucretia. Women[edit] Free-born women in ancient Rome were citizens (cives), but could not vote or hold political office. Women were under exclusive control of their pater familias, which was either their father, husband, or sometimes their eldest brother.[2] Women, and their children, took on the social status of their pater familias. Women were not included in the political sphere, and they had little influence outside the home. However, women of wealthier families had more political power than poorer women as they were able to exert their influence behind the scenes of public, political actions.[5] There were three early forms of marriage that transferred Roman women from one pater familias to another. The first, coemptio, represented the purchase of the bride.[2][6] This oldest form of marriage required five witnesses and an official, and was treated as a business transaction.[6] The second, usus, occurred after one year of intimacy between a man and a woman.[6] If the woman did not leave the man for three nights following the year, she became the man's possession and he became her pater familias. If the woman left before the three nights were over, she would return to her family. The relationship would still be valid, but the man would not become her pater familias.[6] The last form of marriage, confarreatio, was the closest to modern marriage. Confarreatio was a religious ceremony that consisted of the bride and groom sharing bread in front of religious officials and other witnesses.[6] By the end of the second century CE, marriages sine manu were the standard form of marriage.[2] Through a marriage sine manu, women did not fall under the legal jurisdictions of their new husbands or their fathers. They controlled their own property (usually their dowry) after the death of their father.[2] Men still had to sign any paperwork on behalf of their women, but there were now two economic units in the marriage. Moreover, divorce could be initiated by either man or woman, often by saying "I divorce you" three times while in front of witnesses.[2] The legal status of a mother as a citizen affected her son's citizenship. The phrase ex duobus civibus Romanis natos (“children born of two Roman citizens”) indicates that a Roman woman was regarded as having citizen status, in specific contrast to a peregrina. Slavery and freed men[edit] Slaves[edit] Slaves (servi) were not citizens, and lacked even the legal standing accorded free-born foreigners. Slaves were seen as property, and they were bought and sold like any other good in Rome.[3] For the most part, slaves descended from debtors and from prisoners of war, especially women and children captured during sieges and other military campaigns in Greece, Italy, Spain, and Carthage. In the later years of the Republic and into the Empire, more slaves came from newly conquered areas of Gaul, Britain, North Africa, and Asia Minor.[3] Many slaves were created as the result of Rome's conquest of Greece, but Greek culture was considered in some respects superior to that of Rome: hence Horace's famous remark Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit ("Captured Greece took her savage conqueror captive"). The Roman playwright Terence is thought to have been brought to Rome as a slave. Thus slavery was regarded as a circumstance of birth, misfortune, or war; it was defined in terms of legal status, or rather the lack thereof, and was neither limited to or defined by ethnicity or race, nor regarded as an inescapably permanent condition. Slavery was more prominent in Roman antiquity than anywhere else in the ancient world, save for Greece.[7] Slaves who lacked skills or education performed agricultural or other forms of manual labor. More slaves were tasked with agricultural labour than any other form of work.[7] Those who were violent or disobedient, or who for whatever reason were considered a danger to society, might be sentenced to labor in the mines, where they suffered under inhumane conditions. Slave owners were allowed to return their slaves for their money back if they were found to be defective, or if the seller had concealed anything that would affect the slave's productivity.[3] Slaves that were found to be sick or defective would often be sold for very little, if anything.[3] Masters would occasionally manumit sick or elderly slaves as a way to save money if they would not fetch enough money from their sale because it was cheaper than feeding and housing a useless slave. Since slaves were legally property, they could be disposed of by their owners at any time. All children born to female slaves were slaves. Slaves who had the education or skills to earn a living were often manumitted upon the death of their owner as a condition of his will.[3] Slaves who conducted business for their masters were also permitted to earn and save money for themselves, and some might be able to buy their own freedom, while still others were granted their freedom by their owners - though this was rare.[3] Freed men[edit] Freed men (liberti) were freed slaves who, once freed, became full Roman citizens, however they were not considered equal to other citizens because of their former status as slaves or their descent from former slaves, thus they joined the ranks of the lower-class plebeians.[2] Only after a few generations would the descendants of former slaves be able to rise through the ranks of the classes (sometimes becoming equites or senators).[3] The status of liberti developed throughout the Republic as their number increased. Through their military service, and through other endeavours such as craftsmanship and business ventures, freed men often accumulated vast fortunes in the later Republic.[3] Despite the fortunes of these many liberti, throughout ancient Rome the majority of freed men were plebeians and worked as farmers or tradesmen.[3] Non-Roman citizens[edit] The Orator, c. 100 BC, an Etrusco-Roman bronze sculpture depicting Aule Metele (Latin: Aulus Metellus), an Etruscan man wearing a Roman toga while engaged in rhetoric; the statue features an inscription in the Etruscan alphabet Latin Right[edit] Latin Rights, or Jus Latii, are the rights given to Latin allies and Latin colonies of Rome.[8] Old Latin Rights[edit] Latin allies were given the right to intermarry, conduct business, and enter into contracts with full Roman citizens, and the right to move from an allied Latin city to Rome (or vice versa).[8] Children of full Roman citizens and Latin mothers could inherit the Roman property and citizenship of their fathers through the Latin League, before 338 BCE.[8] Those with Latin rights had a privileged status above other Roman allies who were not full Roman citizens.[9] Latin Rights post-338 BC[edit] The citizens of 5 Latin towns (Aricia, Lanuvium, Pedum, Nomentum, and Antium) were given full Roman citizenship in 338 BC, after the end of the Latin War. The rest of the Latin allies were given limited Roman citizenship, receiving the privileges of the Old Latin Rights, but not being granted the right to vote or obtain Roman property unless they relocated permanently to the city of Rome.[8] Peregrini[edit] Free-born foreign subjects were known as peregrini. Peregrini operated under the laws that were in effect in their provinces when they were captured by Rome.[10] Augustus (27 B.C..- 14 AD) instituted laws that allowed peregrini to become citizens through serving in the Roman army or on a city council. Citizen rights were inherited, so children of peregrini who had become citizens were also citizens upon birth.[10] Distinctions between Roman citizens and peregrini continued until 212 AD, when Caracalla (211 AD - 217 AD) extended full Roman citizenship to all free-born men in the empire[11] with the declaration of the Antonine Constitution.[10] References[edit] ^ Koenraad Verboven. (2007). The Associative Empire. Athenaeum 95, p. 861. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac Mathisen, Ralph (2019). Ancient Roman Civilization: History and Sources. Oxford University Press.[page needed] ^ a b c d e f g h i j Runciman, W. G. (1983). "Capitalism without Classes: The Case of Classical Rome". The British Journal of Sociology. 34 (2): 157–181. doi:10.2307/590734. ISSN 0007-1315. JSTOR 590734. ^ Polybius VI.19, 20; Livy I.43 ^ Milnor, Kristina (2009-09-24), The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Historians, Cambridge University Press, pp. 276–287, doi:10.1017/ccol9780521854535.018, ISBN 978-0-521-85453-5 Missing or empty |title= (help); |chapter= ignored (help) ^ a b c d e "Marriage and love life in ancient Rome « IMPERIUM ROMANUM". IMPERIUM ROMANUM. Retrieved 2020-03-26. ^ a b Wood, Ellen Meiksins (2002). "Landlords and Peasants, Masters and Slaves: Class Relations in Greek and Roman Antiquity". Historical Materialism. 10 (3): 17–69. doi:10.1163/15692060260289707 – via EBSCO. ^ a b c d Yeo, Cedric A. (1959). "The Founding and Function of Roman Colonies". The Classical World. 52 (4): 104–130. doi:10.2307/4344123. ISSN 0009-8418. JSTOR 4344123. ^ Richardson, J. S. (1980). "The Ownership of Roman Land: Tiberius Gracchus and the Italians". The Journal of Roman Studies. 70: 1–11. doi:10.2307/299552. ISSN 0075-4358. JSTOR 299552. ^ a b c Mathisen, Ralph W. (2006). "Peregrini, Barbari, and Cives Romani: Concepts of Citizenship and the Legal Identity of Barbarians in the Later Roman Empire". The American Historical Review. 111 (4): 1011–1040. doi:10.1086/ahr.111.4.1011. ISSN 0002-8762. JSTOR 10.1086/ahr.111.4.1011. ^ Lucrezi, Francesco (2016), Scarafile, Giovanni; Gruenpeter Gold, Leah (eds.), Paradoxes of Conflicts, Logic, Argumentation & Reasoning, Springer International Publishing, 12, pp. 41–46, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-41978-7_4, ISBN 978-3-319-41978-7 Missing or empty |title= (help); |chapter= ignored (help) v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares 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en-wikipedia-org-1252	----	Epicurus - Wikipedia Epicurus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus Roman marble bust of Epicurus Born February 341 BC Samos, Greece Died 270 BC (aged about 72) Athens, Greece Era Hellenistic philosophy Region Western philosophy School Epicureanism Main interests ethics epistemology physics theology Notable ideas aponia ataraxia atomic swerve "moving" and "static" pleasures[1] Attributed: Epicurean paradox Influences Democritus, Aristippus, Pyrrho, Nausiphanes Influenced Seneca the Younger, Hermarchus, Lucretius, Bentham, John Stuart Mill, Baruch Spinoza , Thomas Jefferson, Karl Marx, Metrodorus, David Hume, Philodemus, Gassendi Epicurus (Ancient Greek: Ἐπίκουρος, romanized: Epíkouros;[a] 341–270 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher and sage who founded Epicureanism, a highly influential school of philosophy. He was born on the Greek island of Samos to Athenian parents. Influenced by Democritus, Aristippus, Pyrrho,[3] and possibly the Cynics, he turned against the Platonism of his day and established his own school, known as "the Garden", in Athens. Epicurus and his followers were known for eating simple meals and discussing a wide range of philosophical subjects. He openly allowed women to join the school as a matter of policy. Epicurus is said to have originally written over 300 works on various subjects, but the vast majority of these writings have been lost. Only three letters written by him—the letters to Menoeceus, Pythocles, and Herodotus—and two collections of quotes—the Principal Doctrines and the Vatican Sayings—have survived intact, along with a few fragments of his other writings. Most knowledge of his teachings comes from later authors, particularly the biographer Diogenes Laërtius, the Epicurean Roman poet Lucretius and the Epicurean philosopher Philodemus, and with hostile but largely accurate accounts by the Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus, and the Academic Skeptic and statesman Cicero. For Epicurus, the purpose of philosophy was to help people attain a happy, tranquil life characterized by ataraxia (peace and freedom from fear) and aponia (the absence of pain). He advocated that people were best able to pursue philosophy by living a self-sufficient life surrounded by friends. He taught that the root of all human neurosis is death denial and the tendency for human beings to assume that death will be horrific and painful, which he claimed causes unnecessary anxiety, selfish self-protective behaviors, and hypocrisy. According to Epicurus, death is the end of both the body and the soul and therefore should not be feared. Epicurus taught that although the gods exist, they have no involvement in human affairs. He taught that people should behave ethically not because the gods punish or reward people for their actions, but because amoral behavior will burden them with guilt and prevent them from attaining ataraxia. Like Aristotle, Epicurus was an empiricist, meaning he believed that the senses are the only reliable source of knowledge about the world. He derived much of his physics and cosmology from the earlier philosopher Democritus (c. 460–c. 370 BC). Like Democritus, Epicurus taught that the universe is infinite and eternal and that all matter is made up of extremely tiny, invisible particles known as atoms. All occurrences in the natural world are ultimately the result of atoms moving and interacting in empty space. Epicurus deviated from Democritus by proposing the idea of atomic "swerve", which holds that atoms may deviate from their expected course, thus permitting humans to possess free will in an otherwise deterministic universe. Though popular, Epicurean teachings were controversial from the beginning. Epicureanism reached the height of its popularity during the late years of the Roman Republic. It died out in late antiquity, subject to hostility from early Christianity. Throughout the Middle Ages Epicurus was popularly, though inaccurately, remembered as a patron of drunkards, whoremongers, and gluttons. His teachings gradually became more widely known in the fifteenth century with the rediscovery of important texts, but his ideas did not become acceptable until the seventeenth century, when the French Catholic priest Pierre Gassendi revived a modified version of them, which was promoted by other writers, including Walter Charleton and Robert Boyle. His influence grew considerably during and after the Enlightenment, profoundly impacting the ideas of major thinkers, including John Locke, Thomas Jefferson, Jeremy Bentham, and Karl Marx. Contents 1 Life 1.1 Upbringing and influences 1.2 Teaching career 1.3 Death 2 Teachings 2.1 Epistemology 2.2 Ethics 2.3 Physics 2.4 Theology 2.5 Epicurean paradox 2.6 Politics 3 Works 4 Legacy 4.1 Ancient Epicureanism 4.2 Middle Ages 4.3 Renaissance 4.4 Revival 4.5 Enlightenment and after 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 7.1 Bibliography 8 Further reading 9 External links Life[edit] Upbringing and influences[edit] Athens Mytilene Samos Colophon Lampsacus Map of Greece showing locations associated with Epicurus Epicurus was born in the Athenian settlement on the Aegean island of Samos in February 341 BC.[4][5][6] His parents, Neocles and Chaerestrate, were both Athenian-born, and his father was an Athenian citizen.[4] Epicurus grew up during the final years of the Greek Classical Period.[7] Plato had died seven years before Epicurus was born and Epicurus was seven years old when Alexander the Great crossed the Hellespont into Persia.[8] As a child, Epicurus would have received a typical ancient Greek education.[9] As such, according to Norman Wentworth DeWitt, "it is inconceivable that he would have escaped the Platonic training in geometry, dialectic, and rhetoric."[9] Epicurus is known to have studied under the instruction of a Samian Platonist named Pamphilus, probably for about four years.[9] His Letter of Menoeceus and surviving fragments of his other writings strongly suggest that he had extensive training in rhetoric.[9][10] After the death of Alexander the Great, Perdiccas expelled the Athenian settlers on Samos to Colophon, on the coast of what is now Turkey.[11][10] After the completion of his military service, Epicurus joined his family there. He studied under Nausiphanes, who followed the teachings of Democritus,[10][11] and later those of Pyrrho,[12][13] whose way of life Epicurus greatly admired.[14] Allocation of key positions and satrapies following the Partition of Babylon in 323 BC after the death of Alexander the Great. Epicurus came of age at a time when Greek intellectual horizons were vastly expanding due to the rise of the Hellenistic Kingdoms across the Near East.[15] Epicurus's teachings were heavily influenced by those of earlier philosophers, particularly Democritus. Nonetheless, Epicurus differed from his predecessors on several key points of determinism and vehemently denied having been influenced by any previous philosophers, whom he denounced as "confused". Instead, he insisted that he had been "self-taught".[16][17][18] According to DeWitt, Epicurus's teachings also show influences from the contemporary philosophical school of Cynicism.[19] The Cynic philosopher Diogenes of Sinope was still alive when Epicurus would have been in Athens for his required military training and it is possible they may have met.[19] Diogenes's pupil Crates of Thebes (c. 365 – c. 285 BC) was a close contemporary of Epicurus.[19] Epicurus agreed with the Cynics' quest for honesty, but rejected their "insolence and vulgarity", instead teaching that honesty must be coupled with courtesy and kindness.[19] Epicurus shared this view with his contemporary, the comic playwright Menander.[20] Epicurus's Letter to Menoeceus, possibly an early work of his, is written in an eloquent style similar to that of the Athenian rhetorician Isocrates (436–338 BC),[19] but, for his later works, he seems to have adopted the bald, intellectual style of the mathematician Euclid.[19] Epicurus's epistemology also bears an unacknowledged debt to the later writings of Aristotle (384–322 BC), who rejected the Platonic idea of hypostatic Reason and instead relied on nature and empirical evidence for knowledge about the universe.[15] During Epicurus's formative years, Greek knowledge about the rest of the world was rapidly expanding due to the Hellenization of the Near East and the rise of Hellenistic kingdoms.[15] Epicurus's philosophy was consequently more universal in its outlook than those of his predecessors, since it took cognizance of non-Greek peoples as well as Greeks.[15] He may have had access to the now-lost writings of the historian and ethnographer Megasthenes, who wrote during the reign of Seleucus I Nicator (ruled 305–281 BC).[15] Teaching career[edit] Marble sculpture depicting Epicurus enthroned During Epicurus's lifetime, Platonism was the dominant philosophy in higher education.[21] Epicurus's opposition to Platonism formed a large part of his thought.[22][23] Over half of the forty Principal Doctrines of Epicureanism are flat contradictions of Platonism.[22] In around 311 BC, Epicurus, when he was around thirty years old, began teaching in Mytilene.[22][10] Around this time, Zeno of Citium, the founder of Stoicism, arrived in Athens, at the age of about twenty-one, but Zeno did not begin teaching what would become Stoicism for another twenty years.[22] Although later texts, such as the writings of the first-century BC Roman orator Cicero, portray Epicureanism and Stoicism as rivals,[22] this rivalry seems to have only emerged after Epicurus's death.[22][22] Epicurus's teachings caused strife in Mytilene and he was forced to leave. He then founded a school in Lampsacus before returning to Athens in c. 306 BC, where he remained until his death.[5] There he founded The Garden (κῆπος), a school named for the garden he owned that served as the school's meeting place, about halfway between the locations of two other schools of philosophy, the Stoa and the Academy.[24][10] The Garden was more than just a school;[6] it was "a community of like-minded and aspiring practitioners of a particular way of life."[6] The primary members were Hermarchus, the financier Idomeneus, Leonteus and his wife Themista, the satirist Colotes, the mathematician Polyaenus of Lampsacus, and Metrodorus of Lampsacus, the most famous popularizer of Epicureanism. His school was the first of the ancient Greek philosophical schools to admit women as a rule rather than an exception,[citation needed] and the biography of Epicurus by Diogenes Laërtius lists female students such as Leontion and Nikidion.[25] An inscription on the gate to The Garden is recorded by Seneca the Younger in epistle XXI of Epistulae morales ad Lucilium: "Stranger, here you will do well to tarry; here our highest good is pleasure."[26] According to Diskin Clay, Epicurus himself established a custom of celebrating his birthday annually with common meals, befitting his stature as heros ktistes ("founding hero") of the Garden. He ordained in his will annual memorial feasts for himself on the same date (10th of Gamelion month).[27] Epicurean communities continued this tradition,[28] referring to Epicurus as their "saviour" (soter) and celebrating him as hero. The hero cult of Epicurus may have operated as a Garden variety civic religion.[29] However, clear evidence of an Epicurean hero cult, as well as the cult itself, seems buried by the weight of posthumous philosophical interpretation.[30] Epicurus never married and had no known children. He was most likely a vegetarian.[31][32] Death[edit] Diogenes Laërtius records that, according to Epicurus's successor Hermarchus, Epicurus died a slow and painful death in 270 BC at the age of seventy-two from a stone blockage of his urinary tract.[33][34] Despite being in immense pain, Epicurus is said to have remained cheerful and to have continued to teach until the very end.[33] Possible insights into Epicurus's death may be offered by the extremely brief Epistle to Idomeneus, included by Diogenes Laërtius in Book X of his Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers.[35] The authenticity of this letter is uncertain and it may be a later pro-Epicurean forgery intended to paint an admirable portrait of the philosopher to counter the large number of forged epistles in Epicurus's name portraying him unfavorably.[35] I have written this letter to you on a happy day to me, which is also the last day of my life. For I have been attacked by a painful inability to urinate, and also dysentery, so violent that nothing can be added to the violence of my sufferings. But the cheerfulness of my mind, which comes from the recollection of all my philosophical contemplation, counterbalances all these afflictions. And I beg you to take care of the children of Metrodorus, in a manner worthy of the devotion shown by the young man to me, and to philosophy.[36] If authentic, this letter would support the tradition that Epicurus was able to remain joyful to the end, even in the midst of his suffering.[35] It would also indicate that he maintained an especial concern for the wellbeing of children.[37] Teachings[edit] Main article: Epicureanism Illustration from 1885 of a small bronze bust of Epicurus from Herculaneum. Three Epicurus bronze busts were recovered from the Villa of the Papyri, as well as text fragments.[38] Epistemology[edit] Epicurus and his followers had a well-developed epistemology, which developed as a result of their rivalry with other philosophical schools.[39][40] Epicurus wrote a treatise entitled Κανών, or Rule, in which he explained his methods of investigation and theory of knowledge.[41] This book, however, has not survived,[41] nor does any other text that fully and clearly explains Epicurean epistemology, leaving only mentions of this epistemology by several authors to reconstruct it.[39][40] Epicurus was an ardent Empiricist;[15][42][43] believing that the senses are the only reliable sources of information about the world.[15][44][43] He rejected the Platonic idea of "Reason" as a reliable source of knowledge about the world apart from the senses[15] and was bitterly opposed to the Pyrrhonists and Academic Skeptics, who not only questioned the ability of the senses to provide accurate knowledge about the world, but also whether it is even possible to know anything about the world at all.[45] Epicurus maintained that the senses never deceive humans, but that the senses can be misinterpreted.[46][47] Epicurus held that the purpose of all knowledge is to aid humans in attaining ataraxia.[48][49] He taught that knowledge is learned through experiences rather than innate[50] and that the acceptance of the fundamental truth of the things a person perceives is essential to a person's moral and spiritual health.[51][49] In the Letter to Pythocles, he states, "If a person fights the clear evidence of his senses he will never be able to share in genuine tranquility."[52] Epicurus regarded gut feelings as the ultimate authority on matters of morality and held that whether a person feels an action is right or wrong is a far more cogent guide to whether that act really is right or wrong than abstracts maxims, strict codified rules of ethics, or even reason itself.[53] Epicurus permitted that any and every statement that is not directly contrary to human perception has the possibility to be true.[54] Nonetheless, anything contrary to a person's experience can be ruled out as false.[55] Epicureans often used analogies to everyday experience to support their argument of so-called "imperceptibles", which included anything that a human being cannot perceive, such as the motion of atoms.[56] In line with this principle of non-contradiction, the Epicureans believed that events in the natural world may have multiple causes that are all equally possible and probable.[57] Lucretius writes in On the Nature of Things, as translated by William Ellery Leonard: There be, besides, some thing Of which 'tis not enough one only cause To state—but rather several, whereof one Will be the true: lo, if thou shouldst espy Lying afar some fellow's lifeless corse, 'Twere meet to name all causes of a death, That cause of his death might thereby be named: For prove thou mayst he perished not by steel, By cold, nor even by poison nor disease, Yet somewhat of this sort hath come to him We know—And thus we have to say the same In divers cases.[58] Epicurus strongly favored naturalistic explanations over theological ones.[59] In his Letter to Pythocles, he offers four different possible natural explanations for thunder, six different possible natural explanations for lightning, three for snow, three for comets, two for rainbows, two for earthquakes, and so on.[60] Although all of these explanations are now known to be false, they were an important step in the history of science, because Epicurus was trying to explain natural phenomena using natural explanations, rather than resorting to inventing elaborate stories about gods and mythic heroes.[60] Ethics[edit] Marble relief from the first or second century showing the mythical transgressor Ixion being tortured on a spinning fiery wheel in Tartarus. Epicurus taught that stories of such punishment in the afterlife are ridiculous superstitions and that believing in them prevents people from attaining ataraxia.[61][62] Epicurus was a hedonist, meaning he taught that what is pleasurable is morally good and what is painful is morally evil.[63][64][65][6] He idiosyncratically defined "pleasure" as the absence of suffering[64][6] and taught that all humans should seek to attain the state of ataraxia, meaning "untroubledness", a state in which the person is completely free from all pain or suffering.[66][67][68] He argued that most of the suffering which human beings experience is caused by the irrational fears of death, divine retribution, and punishment in the afterlife.[61][62] In his Letter to Menoeceus, Epicurus explains that people seek wealth and power on account of these fears, believing that having more money, prestige, or political clout will save them from death.[61][62] He, however, maintains that death is the end of existence, that the terrifying stories of punishment in the afterlife are ridiculous superstitions, and that death is therefore nothing to be feared.[61][62][69] He writes in his Letter to Menoeceus: "Accustom thyself to believe that death is nothing to us, for good and evil imply sentience, and death is the privation of all sentience;... Death, therefore, the most awful of evils, is nothing to us, seeing that, when we are, death is not come, and, when death is come, we are not."[70] From this doctrine arose the Epicurean epitaph: Non fui, fui, non-sum, non-curo ("I was not; I was; I am not; I do not care"), which is inscribed on the gravestones of his followers and seen on many ancient gravestones of the Roman Empire. This quotation is often used today at humanist funerals.[71] The Tetrapharmakos presents a summary of the key points of Epicurean ethics:[72] Don't fear god Don't worry about death What is good is easy to get What is terrible is easy to endure Although Epicurus has been commonly misunderstood as an advocate of the rampant pursuit of pleasure, he, in fact, maintained that a person can only be happy and free from suffering by living wisely, soberly, and morally.[64][73][74] He strongly disapproved of raw, excessive sensuality and warned that a person must take into account whether the consequences of his actions will result in suffering,[64][75][65][74] writing, "the pleasant life is produced not by a string of drinking bouts and revelries, nor by the enjoyment of boys and women, nor by fish and the other items on an expensive menu, but by sober reasoning."[64] He also wrote that a single good piece of cheese could be equally pleasing as an entire feast.[65][76] Furthermore, Epicurus taught that "it is not possible to live pleasurably without living sensibly and nobly and justly", because a person who engages in acts of dishonesty or injustice will be "loaded with troubles" on account of his own guilty conscience and will live in constant fear that his wrongdoings will be discovered by others.[64][77][78] A person who is kind and just to others, however, will have no fear and will be more likely to attain ataraxia.[64][77] Epicurus distinguished between two different types of pleasure: "moving" pleasures (κατὰ κίνησιν ἡδοναί) and "static" pleasures (καταστηματικαὶ ἡδοναί).[79][80] "Moving" pleasures occur when one is in the process of satisfying a desire and involve an active titillation of the senses.[79] After one's desires have been satisfied (e.g. when one is full after eating), the pleasure quickly goes away and the suffering of wanting to fulfill the desire again returns.[79][81] For Epicurus, static pleasures are the best pleasures because moving pleasures are always bound up with pain.[79][81] Epicurus had a low opinion of sex and marriage, regarding both as having dubious value.[82] Instead, he maintained that platonic friendships are essential to living a happy life.[83] One of the Principle Doctrines states, "Of the things wisdom acquires for the blessedness of life as a whole, far the greatest is the possession of friendship."[84][85] He also taught that philosophy is itself a pleasure to engage in.[83] One of the quotes from Epicurus recorded in the Vatican Sayings declares, "In other pursuits, the hard-won fruit comes at the end. But in philosophy, delight keeps pace with knowledge. It is not after the lesson that enjoyment comes: learning and enjoyment happen at the same time."[86][85] Epicurus distinguishes between three types of desires: natural and necessary, natural but unnecessary, and vain and empty. Natural and necessary desires include the desires for food and shelter. These are easy to satisfy, difficult to eliminate, bring pleasure when satisfied, and are naturally limited. Going beyond these limits produces unnecessary desires, such as the desire for luxury foods. Although food is necessary, luxury food is not necessary. Correspondingly, Epicurus advocates a life of hedonistic moderation by reducing desire, thus eliminating the unhappiness caused by unfulfilled desires. Vain desires include desires for power, wealth, and fame. These are difficult to satisfy because no matter how much one gets, one can always want more. These desires are inculcated by society and by false beliefs about what we need. They are not natural and are to be shunned.[87] Epicurus' teachings were introduced into medical philosophy and practice by the Epicurean doctor Asclepiades of Bithynia, who was the first physician who introduced Greek medicine in Rome. Asclepiades introduced the friendly, sympathetic, pleasing and painless treatment of patients. He advocated humane treatment of mental disorders, had insane persons freed from confinement and treated them with natural therapy, such as diet and massages. His teachings are surprisingly modern; therefore Asclepiades is considered to be a pioneer physician in psychotherapy, physical therapy and molecular medicine.[88] Physics[edit] Epicurus writes in his Letter to Herodotus that "nothing ever arises from the nonexistent", indicating that all events therefore have causes, regardless of whether those causes are known or unknown.[89] Similarly, he also writes that nothing ever passes away into nothingness, because, "if an object that passes from our view were completely annihilated, everything in the world would have perished, since that into which things were dissipated would be nonexistent."[90] He therefore states: "The totality of things was always just as it is at present and will always remain the same because there is nothing into which it can change, inasmuch as there is nothing outside the totality that could intrude and effect change."[90] Like Democritus before him, Epicurus taught that all matter is entirely made of extremely tiny particles called "atoms" (Greek: ἄτομος; atomos, meaning "indivisible").[91] For Epicurus and his followers, the existence of atoms was a matter of empirical observation;[92] Epicurus's devoted follower, the Roman poet Lucretius, cites the gradual wearing down of rings from being worn, statues from being kissed, stones from being dripped on by water, and roads from being walked on in On the Nature of Things as evidence for the existence of atoms as tiny, imperceptible particles.[92] Also like Democritus, Epicurus was a materialist who taught that the only things that exist are atoms and void.[93][10] Void occurs in any place where there are no atoms.[94] Epicurus and his followers believed that atoms and void are both infinite and that the universe is therefore boundless.[95] In On the Nature of Things, Lucretius argues this point using the example of a man throwing a javelin at the theoretical boundary of a finite universe.[96] He states that the javelin must either go past the edge of the universe, in which case it is not really a boundary, or it must be blocked by something and prevented from continuing its path, but, if that happens, then the object blocking it must be outside the confines of the universe.[96] As a result of this belief that the universe and the number of atoms in it are infinite, Epicurus and the Epicureans believed that there must also be infinitely many worlds within the universe.[97] Epicurus taught that the motion of atoms is constant, eternal, and without beginning or end.[98] He held that there are two kinds of motion: the motion of atoms and the motion of visible objects.[98] Both kinds of motion are real and not illusory.[99] Democritus had described atoms as not only eternally moving, but also eternally flying through space, colliding, coalescing, and separating from each other as necessary.[100] In a rare departure from Democritus's physics, Epicurus posited the idea of atomic "swerve" (παρέγκλισις parénklisis; Latin: clinamen), one of his best-known original ideas.[101][b] According to this idea, atoms, as they are travelling through space, may deviate slightly from the course they would ordinarily be expected to follow.[101] Epicurus's reason for introducing this doctrine was because he wanted to preserve the concepts of free will and ethical responsibility while still maintaining the deterministic physical model of atomism.[102] Lucretius describes it, saying, "It is this slight deviation of primal bodies, at indeterminate times and places, which keeps the mind as such from experiencing an inner compulsion in doing everything it does and from being forced to endure and suffer like a captive in chains."[103] Epicurus was first to assert human freedom as a result of the fundamental indeterminism in the motion of atoms. This has led some philosophers to think that, for Epicurus, free will was caused directly by chance. In his On the Nature of Things, Lucretius appears to suggest this in the best-known passage on Epicurus' position.[104] In his Letter to Menoeceus, however, Epicurus follows Aristotle and clearly identifies three possible causes: "some things happen of necessity, others by chance, others through our own agency." Aristotle said some things "depend on us" (eph'hemin). Epicurus agreed, and said it is to these last things that praise and blame naturally attach. For Epicurus, the "swerve" of the atoms simply defeated determinism to leave room for autonomous agency.[105] Theology[edit] First-century AD Roman fresco from Pompeii, showing the mythical human sacrifice of Iphigenia, daughter of Agamemnon. Epicurus's devoted follower, the Roman poet Lucretius, cited this myth as an example of the evils of popular religion, in contrast to the more wholesome theology advocated by Epicurus.[106] In his Letter to Menoeceus, a summary of his own moral and theological teachings, the first piece of advice Epicurus himself gives to his student is: "First, believe that a god is an indestructible and blessed animal, in accordance with the general conception of god commonly held, and do not ascribe to god anything foreign to his indestructibility or repugnant to his blessedness."[107] Epicurus maintained that he and his followers knew that the gods exist because "our knowledge of them is a matter of clear and distinct perception", meaning that people can empirically sense their presences.[108] He did not mean that people can see the gods as physical objects, but rather that they can see visions of the gods sent from the remote regions of interstellar space in which they actually reside.[108] According to George K. Strodach, Epicurus could have easily dispensed of the gods entirely without greatly altering his materialist worldview,[108] but the gods still play one important function in Epicurus's theology as the paragons of moral virtue to be emulated and admired.[108] Epicurus rejected the conventional Greek view of the gods as anthropomorphic beings who walked the earth like ordinary people, fathered illegitimate offspring with mortals, and pursued personal feuds.[108] Instead, he taught that the gods are morally perfect, but detached and immobile beings who live in the remote regions of interstellar space.[109] In line with these teachings, Epicurus adamantly rejected the idea that deities were involved in human affairs in any way.[107][110] Epicurus maintained that the gods are so utterly perfect and removed from the world that they are incapable of listening to prayers or supplications or doing virtually anything aside from contemplating their own perfections.[109] In his Letter to Herodotus, he specifically denies that the gods have any control over natural phenomena, arguing that this would contradict their fundamental nature, which is perfect, because any kind of worldly involvement would tarnish their perfection.[110] He further warned that believing that the gods control natural phenomena would only mislead people into believing the superstitious view that the gods punish humans for wrongdoing, which only instills fear and prevents people from attaining ataraxia.[110] Epicurus himself criticizes popular religion in both his Letter to Menoeceus and his Letter to Herodotus, but in a restrained and moderate tone.[111] Later Epicureans mainly followed the same ideas as Epicurus, believing in the existence of the gods, but emphatically rejecting the idea of divine providence.[107] Their criticisms of popular religion, however, are often less gentle than those of Epicurus himself.[112] The Letter to Pythocles, written by a later Epicurean, is dismissive and contemptuous towards popular religion[112] and Epicurus's devoted follower, the Roman poet Lucretius (c. 99 BC – c. 55 BC), passionately assailed popular religion in his philosophical poem On the Nature of Things.[112] In this poem, Lucretius declares that popular religious practices not only do not instill virtue, but rather result in "misdeeds both wicked and ungodly", citing the mythical sacrifice of Iphigenia as an example.[106] Lucretius argues that divine creation and providence are illogical, not because the gods do not exist, but rather because these notions are incompatible with the Epicurean principles of the gods' indestructibility and blessedness.[113][114] The later Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus (c. 160 – c. 210 AD) rejected the teachings of the Epicureans specifically because he regarded them as theological "Dogmaticists".[115] Epicurean paradox[edit] The most famous version of the problem of evil is attributed to Epicurus by David Hume (pictured), who was relying on an attribution of it to him by the Christian apologist Lactantius. The trilemma does not occur in any of Epicurus's extant writings, however. If Epicurus did write some version of it, it would have been an argument against divine providence, not the existence of deities.[116] See also: Problem of evil § Epicurus, and Trilemma § Epicurus' trilemma The Epicurean paradox or riddle of Epicurus or Epicurus' trilemma is a version of the problem of evil. Lactantius attributes this trilemma to Epicurus in De Ira Dei, 13, 20-21: God, he says, either wishes to take away evils, and is unable; or He is able, and is unwilling; or He is neither willing nor able, or He is both willing and able. If He is willing and is unable, He is feeble, which is not in accordance with the character of God; if He is able and unwilling, He is envious, which is equally at variance with God; if He is neither willing nor able, He is both envious and feeble, and therefore not God; if He is both willing and able, which alone is suitable to God, from what source then are evils? Or why does He not remove them? In Dialogues concerning Natural Religion (1779), David Hume also attributes the argument to Epicurus: Epicurus’s old questions are yet unanswered. Is he willing to prevent evil, but not able? then is he impotent. Is he able, but not willing? then is he malevolent. Is he both able and willing? whence then is evil? No extant writings of Epicurus contain this argument.[116] However, the vast majority of Epicurus's writings have been lost and it is possible that some form of this argument may have been found in his lost treatise On the Gods, which Diogenes Laërtius describes as one of his greatest works.[116] If Epicurus really did make some form of this argument, it would not have been an argument against the existence of deities, but rather an argument against divine providence.[116] Epicurus's extant writings demonstrate that he did believe in the existence of deities.[107] Furthermore, religion was such an integral part of daily life in Greece during the early Hellenistic Period that it is doubtful anyone during that period could have been an atheist in the modern sense of the word.[107] Instead, the Greek word ἄθεος (átheos), meaning "without a god", was used as a term of abuse, not as an attempt to describe a person's beliefs.[107] Politics[edit] Epicurus promoted an innovative theory of justice as a social contract. Justice, Epicurus said, is an agreement neither to harm nor be harmed, and we need to have such a contract in order to enjoy fully the benefits of living together in a well-ordered society. Laws and punishments are needed to keep misguided fools in line who would otherwise break the contract. But the wise person sees the usefulness of justice, and because of his limited desires, he has no need to engage in the conduct prohibited by the laws in any case. Laws that are useful for promoting happiness are just, but those that are not useful are not just. (Principal Doctrines 31–40) Epicurus discouraged participation in politics, as doing so leads to perturbation and status seeking. He instead advocated not drawing attention to oneself. This principle is epitomised by the phrase lathe biōsas (λάθε βιώσας), meaning "live in obscurity", "get through life without drawing attention to yourself", i.e., live without pursuing glory or wealth or power, but anonymously, enjoying little things like food, the company of friends, etc. Plutarch elaborated on this theme in his essay Is the Saying "Live in Obscurity" Right? (Εἰ καλῶς εἴρηται τὸ λάθε βιώσας, An recte dictum sit latenter esse vivendum) 1128c; cf. Flavius Philostratus, Vita Apollonii 8.28.12.[117] Works[edit] Epicurus, Nuremberg Chronicle Epicurus was an extremely prolific writer.[118][116][62][66] According to Diogenes Laërtius, he wrote around 300 treatises on a variety of subjects.[116][62] More original writings of Epicurus have survived to the present day than of any other Hellenistic Greek philosopher.[66] Nonetheless, the vast majority of everything he wrote has now been lost[118][116][62] and most of what is known about Epicurus's teachings come from the writings of his later followers, particularly the Roman poet Lucretius.[62] The only surviving complete works by Epicurus are three relatively lengthy letters, which are quoted in their entirety in Book X of Diogenes Laërtius's Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, and two groups of quotes: the Principal Doctrines (Κύριαι Δόξαι), which are likewise preserved through quotation by Diogenes Laërtius, and the Vatican Sayings, preserved in a manuscript from the Vatican Library that was first discovered in 1888.[62] In the Letter to Herodotus and the Letter to Pythocles, Epicurus summarizes his philosophy on nature and, in the Letter to Menoeceus, he summarizes his moral teachings.[62] Numerous fragments of Epicurus's lost thirty-seven volume treatise On Nature have been found among the charred papyrus fragments at the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum.[62][66] Scholars first began attempting to unravel and decipher these scrolls in 1800, but the efforts are painstaking and are still ongoing.[62] According to Diogenes Laertius (10.27-9), the major works of Epicurus include: On Nature, in 37 books On Atoms and the Void On Love Abridgment of the Arguments employed against the Natural Philosophers Against the Megarians Problems Fundamental Propositions (Kyriai Doxai) On Choice and Avoidance On the Chief Good On the Criterion (the Canon) Chaeridemus, On the Gods On Piety Hegesianax Four essays on Lives Essay on Just Dealing Neocles Essay addressed to Themista The Banquet (Symposium) Eurylochus Essay addressed to Metrodorus Essay on Seeing Essay on the Angle in an Atom Essay on Touch Essay on Fate Opinions on the Passions Treatise addressed to Timocrates Prognostics Exhortations On Images On Perceptions Aristobulus Essay on Music (i.e., on music, poetry, and dance) On Justice and the other Virtues On Gifts and Gratitude Polymedes Timocrates (three books) Metrodorus (five books) Antidorus (two books) Opinions about Diseases and Death, addressed to Mithras Callistolas Essay on Kingly Power Anaximenes Letters Legacy[edit] Ancient Epicureanism[edit] Bust of Epicurus leaning against his disciple Metrodorus in the Louvre Museum Epicureanism was extremely popular from the very beginning.[119][120][121] Diogenes Laërtius records that the number of Epicureans throughout the world exceeded the populations of entire cities.[121] Nonetheless, Epicurus was not universally admired and, within his own lifetime, he was vilified as an ignorant buffoon and egoistic sybarite.[64][122] He remained the most simultaneously admired and despised philosopher in the Mediterranean for the next nearly five centuries.[122] Epicureanism rapidly spread beyond the Greek mainland all across the Mediterranean world.[119] By the first century BC, it had established a strong foothold in Italy.[119] The Roman orator Cicero (106 – 43 BC), who deplored Epicurean ethics, lamented, "the Epicureans have taken Italy by storm."[119] The overwhelming majority of surviving Greek and Roman sources are vehemently negative towards Epicureanism[123] and, according to Pamela Gordon, they routinely depict Epicurus himself as "monstrous or laughable".[123] Many Romans in particular took a negative view of Epicureanism, seeing its advocacy of the pursuit of voluptas ("pleasure") as contrary to the Roman ideal of virtus ("manly virtue").[124] The Romans therefore often stereotyped Epicurus and his followers as weak and effeminate.[125] Prominent critics of his philosophy include prominent authors such as the Roman Stoic Seneca the Younger (c. 4 BC – AD 65) and the Greek Middle Platonist Plutarch (c. 46 – c. 120), who both derided these stereotypes as immoral and disreputable.[121] Gordon characterizes anti-Epicurean rhetoric as so "heavy-handed" and misrepresentative of Epicurus's actual teachings that they sometimes come across as "comical".[126] In his De vita beata, Seneca states that the "sect of Epicurus... has a bad reputation, and yet it does not deserve it." and compares it to "a man in a dress: your chastity remains, your virility is unimpaired, your body has not submitted sexually, but in your hand is a tympanum."[127] Epicureanism was a notoriously conservative philosophical school;[5][17][18] although Epicurus's later followers did expand on his philosophy, they dogmatically retained what he himself had originally taught without modifying it.[5][17][18] Epicureans and admirers of Epicureanism revered Epicurus himself as a great teacher of ethics, a savior, and even a god.[128] His image was worn on finger rings, portraits of him were displayed in living rooms, and wealthy followers venerated likenesses of him in marble sculpture.[129] His admirers revered his sayings as divine oracles, carried around copies of his writings, and cherished copies of his letters like the letters of an apostle.[129] On the twentieth day of every month, admirers of his teachings would perform a solemn ritual to honor his memory.[120] At the same time, opponents of his teachings denounced him with vehemence and persistence.[120] However, in the first and second centuries AD, Epicureanism gradually began to decline as it failed to compete with Stoicism, which had an ethical system more in line with traditional Roman values.[130] Epicureanism also suffered decay in the wake of Christianity, which was also rapidly expanding throughout the Roman Empire.[131] Of all the Greek philosophical schools, Epicureanism was the one most at odds with the new Christian teachings, since Epicureans believed that the soul was mortal, denied the existence of an afterlife, denied that the divine had any active role in human life, and advocated pleasure as the foremost goal of human existence.[131] As such, Christian writers such as Justin Martyr (c. 100–c. 165 AD), Athenagoras of Athens (c. 133–c. 190), Tertullian (c. 155–c. 240), and Clement of Alexandria (c. 150–c. 215), Arnobius (died c. 330), and Lactantius all singled it out for the most vitriolic criticism.[131] In spite of this, DeWitt argues that Epicureanism and Christianity share much common language, calling Epicureanism "the first missionary philosophy" and "the first world philosophy".[132] Both Epicureanism and Christianity placed strong emphasis on the importance of love and forgiveness[133] and early Christian portrayals of Jesus are often similar to Epicurean portrayals of Epicurus.[133] DeWitt argues that Epicureanism, in many ways, helped pave the way for the spread of Christianity by "helping to bridge the gap between Greek intellectualism and a religious way of life" and "shunt[ing] the emphasis from the political to the social virtues and offer[ing] what may be called a religion of humanity."[134] Middle Ages[edit] Dante Alighieri meets Epicurus in his Inferno in the Sixth Circle of Hell, where he and his followers are imprisoned in flaming coffins for having believed that the soul dies with the body,[131] shown here in an illustration by Gustave Doré. By the early fifth century AD, Epicureanism was virtually extinct.[131] The Christian Church Father Augustine of Hippo (354–430 AD) declared, "its ashes are so cold that not a single spark can be struck from them."[131] While the ideas of Plato and Aristotle could easily be adapted to suit a Christian worldview, the ideas of Epicurus were not nearly as easily amenable.[131] As such, while Plato and Aristotle enjoyed a privileged place in Christian philosophy throughout the Middle Ages, Epicurus was not held in such esteem.[131] Information about Epicurus's teachings was available, through Lucretius's On the Nature of Things, quotations of it found in medieval Latin grammars and florilegia, and encyclopedias, such as Isidore of Seville's Etymologiae (seventh century) and Hrabanus Maurus's De universo (ninth century),[131] but there is little evidence that these teachings were systematically studied or comprehended.[131] During the Middle Ages, Epicurus was remembered by the educated as a philosopher,[131] but he frequently appeared in popular culture as a gatekeeper to the Garden of Delights, the "proprietor of the kitchen, the tavern, and the brothel."[131] He appears in this guise in Martianus Capella's Marriage of Mercury and Philology (fifth century), John of Salisbury's Policraticus (1159), John Gower's Mirour de l'Omme, and Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales.[131] Epicurus and his followers appear in Dante Alighieri's Inferno in the Sixth Circle of Hell, where they are imprisoned in flaming coffins for having believed that the soul dies with the body.[131] Renaissance[edit] Epicurus is shown among other famous philosophers in the Italian Renaissance painter Raphael's School of Athens (1509–1511).[135] Epicurus's genuine busts were unknown prior to 1742, so early modern artists who wanted to depict him were forced to make up their own iconographies.[136] In 1417, a manuscript-hunter named Poggio Bracciolini discovered a copy of Lucretius's On the Nature of Things in a monastery near Lake Constance.[131] The discovery of this manuscript was met with immense excitement, because scholars were eager to analyze and study the teachings of classical philosophers and this previously-forgotten text contained the most comprehensive account of Epicurus's teachings known in Latin.[131] The first scholarly dissertation on Epicurus, De voluptate (On Pleasure) by the Italian Humanist and Catholic priest Lorenzo Valla was published in 1431.[131] Valla made no mention of Lucretius or his poem.[131] Instead, he presented the treatise as a discussion on the nature of the highest good between an Epicurean, a Stoic, and a Christian.[131] Valla's dialogue ultimately rejects Epicureanism,[131] but, by presenting an Epicurean as a member of the dispute, Valla lent Epicureanism credibility as a philosophy that deserved to be taken seriously.[131] None of the Quattrocento Humanists ever clearly endorsed Epicureanism,[131] but scholars such as Francesco Zabarella (1360–1417), Francesco Filelfo (1398–1481), Cristoforo Landino (1424–1498), and Leonardo Bruni (c. 1370–1444) did give Epicureanism a fairer analysis than it had traditionally received and provided a less overtly hostile assessment of Epicurus himself.[131] Nonetheless, "Epicureanism" remained a pejorative, synonymous with extreme egoistic pleasure-seeking, rather than a name of a philosophical school.[131] This reputation discouraged orthodox Christian scholars from taking what others might regard as an inappropriately keen interest in Epicurean teachings.[131] Epicureanism did not take hold in Italy, France, or England until the seventeenth century.[137] Even the liberal religious skeptics who might have been expected to take an interest in Epicureanism evidently did not;[137] Étienne Dolet (1509–1546) only mentions Epicurus once in all his writings and François Rabelais (between 1483 and 1494–1553) never mentions him at all.[138] Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592) is the exception to this trend, quoting a full 450 lines of Lucretius's On the Nature of Things in his Essays.[138] His interest in Lucretius, however, seems to have been primarily literary and he is ambiguous about his feelings on Lucretius's Epicurean worldview.[138] During the Protestant Reformation, the label "Epicurean" was bandied back and forth as an insult between Protestants and Catholics.[138] Revival[edit] The French priest and philosopher Pierre Gassendi is responsible for reviving Epicureanism in modernity as an alternative to Aristotelianism.[138] In the seventeenth century, the French Catholic priest and scholar Pierre Gassendi (1592–1655) sought to dislodge Aristotelianism from its position of the highest dogma by presenting Epicureanism as a better and more rational alternative.[138] In 1647, Gassendi published his book De vita et moribus Epicuri (The Life and Morals of Epicurus), a passionate defense of Epicureanism.[138] In 1649, he published a commentary on Diogenes Laërtius's Life of Epicurus.[138] He left Syntagma philosophicum (Philosophical Compendium), a synthesis of Epicurean doctrines, unfinished at the time of his death in 1655.[138] It was finally published in 1658, after undergoing revision by his editors.[138] Gassendi modified Epicurus's teachings to make them palatable for a Christian audience.[138] For instance, he argued that atoms were not eternal, uncreated, and infinite in number, instead contending that an extremely large but finite number of atoms were created by God at creation.[138] As a result of Gassendi's modifications, his books were never censored by the Catholic Church.[138] They came to exert profound influence on later writings about Epicurus.[138] Gassendi's version of Epicurus's teachings became popular among some members of English scientific circles.[138] For these scholars, however, Epicurean atomism was merely a starting point for their own idiosyncratic adaptations of it.[138] To orthodox thinkers, Epicureanism was still regarded as immoral and heretical.[138] For instance, Lucy Hutchinson (1620–1681), the first translator of Lucretius's On the Nature of Things into English, railed against Epicurus as "a lunatic dog" who formulated "ridiculous, impious, execrable doctrines".[138] Epicurus's teachings were made respectable in England by the natural philosopher Walter Charleton (1619–1707), whose first Epicurean work, The Darkness of Atheism Dispelled by the Light of Nature (1652), advanced Epicureanism as a "new" atomism.[138] His next work Physiologia Epicuro-Gassendo-Charletoniana, or a Fabrick of Science Natural, upon a Hypothesis of Atoms, Founded by Epicurus, Repaired by Petrus Gassendus, and Augmented by Walter Charleton (1654) emphasized this idea.[138] These works, together with Charleton's Epicurus's Morals (1658), provided the English public with readily available descriptions of Epicurus's philosophy and assured orthodox Christians that Epicureanism was no threat to their beliefs.[138] The Royal Society, chartered in 1662, advanced Epicurean atomism.[139] One of the most prolific defenders of atomism was the chemist Robert Boyle (1627–1691), who argued for it in publications such as The Origins of Forms and Qualities (1666), Experiments, Notes, etc. about the Mechanical Origin and Production of Divers Particular Qualities (1675), and Of the Excellency and Grounds of the Mechanical Hypothesis (1674).[139] By the end of the seventeenth century, Epicurean atomism was widely accepted by members of the English scientific community as the best model for explaining the physical world,[140] but it had been modified so greatly that Epicurus was no longer seen as its original parent.[140] Enlightenment and after[edit] The Anglican bishop Joseph Butler's anti-Epicurean polemics in his Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel (1726) and Analogy of Religion (1736) set the tune for what most orthodox Christians believed about Epicureanism for the remainder of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.[140] Nonetheless, there are a few indications from this time period of Epicurus's improving reputation.[140] Epicureanism was beginning to lose its associations with indiscriminate and insatiable gluttony, which had been characteristic of its reputation ever since antiquity.[140] Instead, the word "epicure" began to refer to a person with extremely refined taste in food.[140][141] Examples of this usage include "Epicurean cooks / sharpen with cloyless sauce his appetite" from William Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra (Act II. scene i; c. 1607)[141] and "such an epicure was Potiphar—to please his tooth and pamper his flesh with delicacies" from William Whately's Prototypes (1646).[140] Around the same time, the Epicurean injunction to "live in obscurity" was beginning to gain popularity as well.[140] In 1685, Sir William Temple (1628–1699) abandoned a promising career as a diplomat and instead retired to his garden, devoting himself to writing essays on Epicurus's moral teachings.[140] That same year, John Dryden translated the celebrated lines from Book II of Lucretius's On the Nature of Things: "'Tis pleasant, safely to behold from shore / The rowling ship, and hear the Tempest roar."[140] Meanwhile, John Locke (1632–1704) adapted Gassendi's modified version of Epicurus's epistemology, which became highly influential on English empiricism.[140] Many thinkers with sympathies towards the Enlightenment endorsed Epicureanism as an admirable moral philosophy.[140] Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826), one of the Founding Fathers of the United States, declared in 1819, "I too am an Epicurean. I consider the genuine (not imputed) doctrines of Epicurus as containing everything rational in moral philosophy which Greece and Rome have left us."[140] The German philosopher Karl Marx (1818–1883), whose ideas are basis of Marxism, was profoundly influenced as a young man by the teachings of Epicurus[142] and his doctoral thesis was a Hegelian dialectical analysis of the differences between the natural philosophies of Democritus and Epicurus.[143] Marx viewed Democritus as a rationalist skeptic, whose epistemology was inherently contradictory, but saw Epicurus as a dogmatic empiricist, whose worldview is internally consistent and practically applicable.[144] The British poet Alfred, Lord Tennyson (1809–1892) praised "the sober majesties / of settled, sweet, Epicurean life" in his 1868 poem "Lucretius".[140] Epicurus's ethical teachings also had an indirect impact on the philosophy of Utilitarianism in England during the nineteenth century.[140] Academic interest in Epicurus and other Hellenistic philosophers increased over the course of the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, with an unprecedented number of monographs, articles, abstracts, and conference papers being published on the subject.[140] The texts from the library of Philodemus of Gadara in the Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum, first discovered between 1750 and 1765, are being deciphered, translated, and published by scholars part of the Philodemus Translation Project, funded by the United States National Endowment for the Humanities, and part of the Centro per lo Studio dei Papiri Ercolanesi in Naples.[140] Epicurus's popular appeal among non-scholars is difficult to gauge,[140] but it seems to be relatively comparable to the appeal of more traditionally popular ancient Greek philosophical subjects such as Stoicism, Aristotle, and Plato.[145] See also[edit] Eikas Epikoros Philosophy of happiness Separation of church and state Notes[edit] ^ /ˌɛpɪˈkjʊərəs/;[2] Ancient Greek: Ἐπίκουρος, Epíkouros, "ally, comrade" ^ The only fragment in Greek about this central notion is from the Oenoanda inscription (fr. 54 in Smith's edition). The best known reference is in Lucretius's On the Nature of Things, 2.251. References[edit] ^ Bunnin & Yu (2004). The Blackwell Dictionary of Western Philosophy. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ^ Jones, Daniel (2006). Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary. 17th edition. Cambridge UP. ^ Diogenes Laertius, Book IX, Chapter 11, Section 64. ^ a b Apollodorus of Athens (reported by Diogenes Laërtius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers, 10.14–15) gives his birth on the fourth day of the month February in the third year of the 109th Olympiad, in the archonship of Sosigenes ^ a b c d Barnes 1986, p. 367. ^ a b c d e Gordon 2012, p. 3. ^ DeWitt 1954, pp. 8–9. ^ DeWitt 1954, p. 8. ^ a b c d DeWitt 1954, p. 12. ^ a b c d e f Wasson 2016. ^ a b "Epicurus". Epicurus - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2018. ^ Diogenes Laertius, ix. ^ Sextus Empiricus, adv. Math. i. 1. ^ Diogenes Laërtius Lives of the Eminent Philosophers Book IX, Chapter 11, Section 61 http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0258%3Abook%3D9%3Achapter%3D11 ^ a b c d e f g h DeWitt 1954, p. 10. ^ Huby, Pamela M. (1978). "Epicurus' Attitude to Democritus". Phronesis. 23 (1): 80–86. doi:10.1163/156852878X00235. JSTOR 4182030. ^ a b c Erler 2011, p. 9. ^ a b c Fish & Sanders 2011, pp. 1–2. ^ a b c d e f DeWitt 1954, p. 9. ^ DeWitt 1954, pp. 9–10. ^ DeWitt 1954, pp. 9, 11. ^ a b c d e f g DeWitt 1954, p. 11. ^ Long 1999, pp. 239–240. ^ David Konstan (2018). "Epicurus". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, Lives of the Eminent Philosophers, Book X, Section 7 ^ "Epistulae morales ad Lucilium". ^ D. Smith, Nicholas (2000). Reason and religion in Socratic philosophy. p. 160. ISBN 978-0-19-513322-6. ^ Glad, Clarence E. Paul and Philodemus: adaptability in Epicurean and early Christian psychology. p. 176. ISBN 978-90-04-10067-1. ^ Nussbaum, Martha Craven (2009). The Therapy of Desire: Theory and Practice in Hellenistic Ethics. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-691-14131-2. ^ Clay, Diskin (1998). Paradosis and survival: three chapters in the history of Epicurean philosophy. p. 76. ISBN 978-0-472-10896-1. ^ "The Hidden History of Greco-Roman Vegetarianism". ^ Dombrowski, Daniel A. (1984). The Philosophy of Vegetarianism. ISBN 978-0870234316. ^ a b Bitsori, Maria; Galanakis, Emmanouil (2004). "Epicurus' death". World Journal of Urology. 22 (6): 466–469. doi:10.1007/s00345-004-0448-2. PMID 15372192. S2CID 41741603. ^ In the second year of the 127th Olympiad, in the archonship of Pytharatus, according to Diogenes Laërtius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers, 10.15 ^ a b c Gordon 2012, pp. 141–142. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers, 10.22 (trans. C.D. Yonge). ^ Gordon 2012, p. 142. ^ Sheila Dillon (2006). Ancient Greek Portrait Sculpture: Contexts, Subjects, and Styles. Cambridge University Press. p. 45. ISBN 9780521854986 – via Google Books. ^ a b Strodach 2012, p. 26. ^ a b Asmis 1984, pp. 9–13. ^ a b Asmis 1984, pp. 10, 19. ^ Strodach 2012, pp. 27–32. ^ a b Asmis 1984, p. 9. ^ Strodach 2012, pp. 22–32. ^ Strodach 2012, p. 23. ^ Strodach 2012, pp. 23–24. ^ Asmis 1984, p. 11. ^ Strodach 2012, pp. 26–27. ^ a b Asmis 1984, p. 12. ^ Strodach 2012, pp. 27–28. ^ Strodach 2012, pp. 28–29. ^ Strodach 2012, p. 29. ^ Strodach 2012, pp. 30–31. ^ Strodach 2012, pp. 32–34. ^ Strodach 2012, p. 34. ^ Strodach 2012, pp. 34–35. ^ Strodach 2012, pp. 35–39. ^ Carus, Titus Lucretius (July 2008). Of The Nature of Things. Project Gutenberg EBook. 785. William Ellery Leonard (translator). Project Gutenberg. Book VI, Section Extraordinary and Paradoxical Telluric Phenomena, Line 9549–9560 ^ Strodach 2012, pp. 36–38. ^ a b Strodach 2012, p. 38. ^ a b c d Strodach 2012, pp. 56–58. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Kenny 2004, p. 94. ^ Strodach 2012, p. 58. ^ a b c d e f g h Barnes 1986, p. 372. ^ a b c Kenny 2004, p. 95. ^ a b c d Barnes 1986, p. 371. ^ Folse, Henry (2005). How Epicurean Metaphysics leads to Epicurean Ethics. Department of Philosophy, Loyola University, New Orleans, LA. ^ Konstan, David (2018). "Epicurus". Epicurus, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2013 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. forthcoming URL = <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2013/entries/epicurus/> ^ Gordon 2012, pp. 3–4. ^ Rosenbaum 2004, p. 175. ^ "Epicurus (c 341-270 BC)". British Humanist Association. ^ Hutchinson, D. S. (Introduction) (1994). The Epicurus Reader: Selected Writings and Testimonia. Cambridge: Hackett. p. vi. ^ Strodach 2012, pp. 58–60. ^ a b Gordon 2012, pp. 5–7. ^ Strodach 2012, p. 59. ^ Gordon 2013, p. 141. ^ a b Strodach 2012, pp. 58–59. ^ "Epicurus Principal Doctrines 5 and 31 transl. by Robert Drew Hicks". 1925. ^ a b c d Epicurus | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy ^ Diogenes Laërtius, The Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, X:136. ^ a b Kenny 2004, pp. 95–96. ^ Gordon 2012, p. 4. ^ a b Gordon 2012, pp. 4–5. ^ Epicurus, Principle Doctrines 27 ^ a b Gordon 2012, p. 5. ^ Epicurus, Vatican Sayings 27 ^ https://www.iep.utm.edu/epicur/#SH5c ^ C, Yapijakis (2009). "Hippocrates of Kos, the father of clinical medicine, and Asclepiades of Bithynia, the father of molecular medicine. Review". In Vivo. 23 (4): 507–14. PMID 19567383. ^ Strodach 2012, pp. 8–9. ^ a b Strodach 2012, p. 10. ^ Strodach 2012, pp. 1–8, 11. ^ a b Strodach 2012, p. 11. ^ Strodach 2012, pp. 12–13. ^ Strodach 2012, pp. 12. ^ Strodach 2012, p. 13. ^ a b Strodach 2012, pp. 13–14. ^ Strodach 2012, pp. 14–15. ^ a b Strodach 2012, p. 15. ^ Strodach 2012, pp. 15–16. ^ Strodach 2012, p. 16. ^ a b Strodach 2012, pp. 16–17. ^ Strodach 2012, pp. 17–18. ^ Strodach 2012, p. 18. ^ "On the Nature of Things, 289-293" – via Perseus Project. ^ "Epicurus page on Information Philosopher; cf. 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Of a Happy Life. ^ DeWitt 1954, pp. 3, 31–32. ^ a b DeWitt 1954, pp. 3, 32. ^ Jones 2010, pp. 320–321. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y Jones 2010, p. 321. ^ DeWitt 1954, pp. 8, 26–33. ^ a b DeWitt 1954, pp. 31–32. ^ DeWitt 1954, pp. 8, cf. 26–33. ^ Frischer 1982, p. 155. ^ Frischer 1982, pp. 155–156. ^ a b Jones 2010, pp. 321–322. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Jones 2010, p. 322. ^ a b Jones 2010, pp. 322–323. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Jones 2010, p. 323. ^ a b Brewer & Evans 1989, p. 388. ^ Schafer 2003, p. 127. ^ Schafer 2003, pp. 127–128. ^ Schafer 2003, pp. 127–129. ^ Jones 2010, pp. 323–324. Bibliography[edit] Asmis, Elizabeth (1984), Epicurus' Scientific Method, Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, ISBN 978-08014-1465-7 Barnes, Jonathan (1986), "15: Hellenistic Philosophy and Science", in Boardman, John; Griffin, Jasper; Murray, Oswyn (eds.), The Oxford History of the Classical World, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, pp. 365–385, ISBN 978-0198721123 Brewer, Ebenezer Cobham; Evans, Ivor H. (1989), Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (14th ed.), New York City, New York, Grand Rapids, Michigan, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, St. Louis, Missouri, San Francisco, California, London, England, Singapore, Singapore, Sydney, Australia, Tokyo, Japan, and Toronto, Canada: Harper & Row Publishers, ISBN 978-0-06-016200-9 DeWitt, Norman Wentworth (1954), Epicurus and His Philosophy, Minneapolis, Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press, ISBN 978-0-816-65745-2 Erler, Michael (2011), "Chapter II: Autodidact and student: on the relationship of authority and autonomy in Epicurus and the Epicurean tradition", in Fish, Jeffrey; Sanders, Kirk R. (eds.), Epicurus and the Epicurean Tradition, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, pp. 9–28, ISBN 978-0-521-19478-5 Fish, Jeffrey; Sanders, Kirk R. (2011), "Chapter I: Introduction", in Fish, Jeffrey; Sanders, Kirk R. (eds.), Epicurus and the Epicurean Tradition, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–8, ISBN 978-0-521-19478-5 Frischer, Bernard (1982), The Sculpted Word: Epicureanism and Philosophical Recruitment in Ancient Greece, Berkeley and Los Angeles, California and London, England: University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-04190-5 Gordon, Pamela (2012), The Invention and Gendering of Epicurus, Ann Arbor, Michigan: The University of Michigan Press, ISBN 978-0-472-02817-7 Gordon, Pamela (2013), "Epistulatory Epicureans", in Boter, G. J.; Chaniotis, A.; Coleman, K. M.; de Jong, I. J. F.; Reinhardt, T. (eds.), Epistolary Narratives in Ancient Greek Literature, Mnemosyne: Supplements: Monographs on Greek and Latin Language and Literature, 359, Leiden, The Netherlands: Koninklijke Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-25303-2 Jones, Howard (2010), "Epicurus and Epicureanism", in Grafton, Anthony; Most, Glenn W.; Settis, Salvatore (eds.), The Classical Tradition, Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, pp. 320–324, ISBN 978-0-674-03572-0 Hickson, Michael W. (2014), "A Brief History of Problems of Evil", in McBrayer, Justin P.; Howard-Snyder, Daniel (eds.), The Blackwell Companion to The Problem of Evil, Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 26–27, ISBN 978-1-118-60797-8 Kenny, Anthony (2004), Ancient Philosophy, A New History of Western Philosophy, 1, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, pp. 94–96, ISBN 978-0-19-875273-8 Long, A. A. (1999), "Epicurus", A Companion to Philosophers, Malden, Massachusetts and Oxford, England: Wiley Publishers, Ltd., pp. 239–243, ISBN 978-0-63-122967-4 Rosenbaum, Stephen E. (2004), "Chapter 11: How to Be Dead and Not Care: A Defense of Epicurus", in Benatar, David (ed.), Life, Death & Meaning: Key Philosophical Readings on the Big Questions, Lanham, Maryland, Boulder, Colorado, New York City, New York, Toronto, Canada, and Oxford, England: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., ISBN 978-1-442-20169-9 Schafer, Paul M. (2003), "The Young Marx on Epicurus: Dialectical Atomism and Human Freedom", in Gordon, Dane L.; Suits, David B. (eds.), Epicurus: His Continuing Influence and Contemporary Relevance, Rochester, New York: Rochester Institute of Technology, Cary Graphic Arts Press, pp. 127–138, ISBN 978-0-9713-4596-6 Strodach, George K. (2012), "Introduction", The Art of Happiness, New York City, New York: Penguin Classics, ISBN 978-0-14-310721-7 Wasson, Donald L. (7 September 2016), "Epicurus", Ancient History Encyclopedia Further reading[edit] Texts Epicurus (1994). Inwood, Brad; Gerson, Lloyd P. (eds.). The Epicurus Reader. Selected Writings and Testimonia. Indianapolis: Hackett. ISBN 978-0-87220-242-9. Epicurus (1993). The essential Epicurus : letters, principal doctrines, Vatican sayings, and fragments. Translated by O'Connor, Eugene. Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-0-87975-810-3. Epicurus (1964). Letters, principal doctrines, and Vatican sayings. Translated by Geer, Russel M. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill. Laërtius, Diogenes (1969). Caponigri, A. Robert (ed.). Lives of the Philosophers. Chicago: Henry Regnery Co. Lucretius Carus, Titus (1976). On the nature of the universe. Translated by Latham, R. E. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-044018-8. Körte, Alfred (1987). Epicureanism : two collections of fragments and studies (in Greek). New York: Garland. ISBN 978-0-8240-6915-5. Oates, Whitney J. (1940). The Stoic and Epicurean philosophers, The Complete Extant Writings of Epicurus, Epictetus, Lucretius and Marcus Aurelius. New York: Modern Library. Diogenes of Oinoanda (1993). The Epicurean inscription. Translated by Smith, Martin Ferguson. Napoli: Bibliopolis. ISBN 978-88-7088-270-4. Studies Bailey C. (1928). The Greek Atomists and Epicurus, Oxford: Clarendon Press. Bakalis, Nikolaos (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy from Thales to the Stoics. Analysis and fragments. Victoria: Trafford. ISBN 978-1-4120-4843-9. Gordon, Pamela (1996). Epicurus in Lycia. The Second-Century World of Diogenes of Oenoanda. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-10461-1. Gottlieb, Anthony (2000). The Dream of Reason. A History of Western Philosophy from the Greeks to the Renaissance. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-04951-0. Hibler, Richard W. (1984). Happiness Through Tranquillity. The school of Epicurus. Lanham, MD: University Press of America. ISBN 978-0-8191-3861-3. Hicks, R. D. (1910). Stoic and Epicurean. New York: Scribner. Jones, Howard (1989). The Epicurean Tradition. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-02069-5. O'Keefe, Tim (2009). Epicureanism. University of California Press. Panichas, George Andrew (1967). Epicurus. New York: Twayne Publishers. Rist, J.M. (1972). Epicurus. An introduction. London: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-08426-0. Warren, James (2009). The Cambridge Companion to Epicureanism. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-05218-7347-5. William Wallace. Epicureanism. SPCK (1880) External links[edit] Epicurusat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Data from Wikidata  Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Κύριαι Δόξαι  Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Ἐπιστολὴ πρὸς Μενοικέα Konstan, David. "Epicurus". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. O'Keefe, Tim. 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en-wikipedia-org-1269	----	Timeline of Roman history - Wikipedia Timeline of Roman history From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the ancient polities with their capitals at Rome and Constantinople. For the city, see Timeline of the city of Rome. This is a timeline of Roman history, comprising important legal and territorial changes and political events in the Roman Kingdom and Republic and the Roman and Byzantine Empires. To read about the background of these events, see Ancient Rome and History of the Byzantine Empire. Following tradition, this timeline marks the deposition of Romulus Augustulus and the Fall of Constantinople as the end of Rome in the west and east, respectively. See Third Rome for a discussion of claimants to the succession of Rome. This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by adding missing items with reliable sources. Millennia: 1st BC · 1st–2nd Centuries: 7th BC · 6th BC · 5th BC · 4th BC · 3rd BC · 2nd BC · 1st BC · 1st · 2nd · 3rd · 4th · 5th · 6th · 7th · 8th · 9th · 10th · 11th · 12th · 13th · 14th · 15th 8th and 7th centuries BC Year Date Event 753 BC 21 April Rome was founded. According to Roman legend, Romulus was the founder and first King of Rome, establishing the Roman Kingdom. 715 BC Numa Pompilius became the second King of Rome. 673 BC Tullus Hostilius became the third King of Rome. 667 BC Byzantium was founded by Megarian colonists. 642 BC Tullus Hostilius died. The Curiate Assembly, one of the legislative assemblies of the Roman Kingdom, elected Ancus Marcius King of Rome. 617 BC Ancus Marcius died. 616 BC The Curiate Assembly elected Lucius Tarquinius Priscus King of Rome. 6th century BC Year Date Event 575 BC The Senate accepted the regent Servius Tullius as king of Rome. 535 BC Servius Tullius was murdered by his daughter Tullia Minor and her husband Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, who declared himself King of Rome on the steps of the Curia Hostilia. 509 BC The patrician Lucretia was raped by Lucius Tarquinius Superbus' son Sextus Tarquinius. Overthrow of the Roman monarchy: Following Lucretia's suicide, Lucius Junius Brutus called the Curiate Assembly, one of the legislative assemblies of the Roman Kingdom. The latter agreed to the overthrow and expulsion of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus and to a provisional constitution under which two consuls acted as a joint executive and a Curiate Assembly held legislative power, and swore never again to let a king rule Rome. It further elected Lucius Junius Brutus and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, Lucretia's husband, as consuls. Battle of Silva Arsia: Tarquinian and Veientine forces loyal to Lucius Tarquinius Superbus were defeated in the Silva Arsia by a Roman army. Lucius Junius Brutus was killed. Publius Valerius Publicola, returning to Rome with the spoils of war, was awarded the first Roman Triumph on March 1. The consul Publius Valerius Publicola promulgated a number of liberal reforms, including opening the office of consul to all Roman citizens and placing the treasury under the administration of appointed quaestors. 13 September The Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus was ceremonially dedicated to the Capitoline Triad. 508 BC Roman–Etruscan Wars: A Clusian army failed to conquer Rome. 501 BC In the face of a potential Sabine invasion, the Senate passed a senatus consultum authorizing the consuls to appoint a dictator, a magistrate who held absolute power during a national emergency. The dictator would in turn appoint the Magister equitum, the commander of the cavalry. The consuls Titus Lartius and Postumus Cominius Auruncus selected the former as dictator. 5th century BC Year Date Event 496 BC Battle of Lake Regillus: Latin League invasion near modern Frascati which sought to reinstall Lucius Tarquinius Superbus. 494 BC First secessio plebis: Lucius Sicinius Vellutus, the plebs abandoned Rome for the nearby Monte Sacro. 471 BC After a law allowing organization of the plebs tribe, the Plebeian Council was reorganized by tribes rather than curiae. 459 BC Under popular pressure, the Senate increased the tribunes of the plebs from two to ten. 458 BC During the first dictatorship of Cincinnatus, the Aequians staged an offensive, breaking a truce. Cincinnatus defeated the Aquians at the Battle of Mount Algidus and after a triumph, returned to his farm after sixteen days.[1] 449 BC Resolutions of the Plebeian Council were given the full force of law subject to Senate veto. The second of two decemviri, specially-elected ten man commissions, issued the last of the Twelve Tables, the fundamental laws of the Republic. 447 BC The Tribal Assembly was established, and granted the right to elect quaestors. 445 BC Lex Canuleia: Marriage between patricians and plebeians was legalized. 443 BC The offices of the Tribuni militum consulari potestate were established. A collegium of three patrician or plebeian tribunes, one each from specific Roman tribes (the Titienses, the Ramnenses, and the Luceres), would hold the power of the consuls from year to year, subject to the Senate. The office of the censor, a patrician magistrate responsible for conducting the census in years without a consul, was established. 439 BC Cincinnatus was called upon to accept a second dictatorship by the patricians to prevent Spurius Maelius from seizing power; the patricians suspected Spurius of using wheat to purchase the support of the plebeians, to set himself up as a king. Gaius Servilius Ahala was appointed magister equitum in order to stop Maelius; following an attack by Maelius, Ahala slew him. Cincinnatus again resigned his dictatorship and returned to his farm after 21 days.[2] 435 BC Fidenae, an important trade post on the Tiber, was captured from the Veii.[3] 408 BC The Tribuni militum consulari potestate held office. 4th century BC Year Date Event 396 BC Battle of Veii: Roman forces led by the dictator Marcus Furius Camillus conquered Veii. Roman soldiers first earned a salary ("salary" from Latin for "salt"). 394 BC The consuls held office. 391 BC The Tribuni militum consulari potestate held office. 390 BC 18 July Battle of the Allia: The Senones routed a Roman force at the confluence of the rivers Allia and Tiber. The Senones sacked Rome. Among other artifacts, books were destroyed. The history of Rome up to this point had to be mostly reconstructed and is sometimes unreliable or mythological. 367 BC The consuls held office. 366 BC Lucius Sextius was elected the first plebeian consul. The office of Praetor, which took the judiciary responsibilities of the consul and could be held only by a patrician, was established. 351 BC The first plebeian dictator was elected. The first plebeian censor was elected. 343 BC Samnite Wars: Rome marched against the Samnites, probably after an appeal from the Campanians. Battle of Mount Gaurus: A Samnite force was routed by a Roman army near Mount Barbaro. 342 BC The Leges Genuciae were passed, banning a person from holding two offices at the same time, or during any ten-year period; charging interest on loans was also banned. 341 BC Samnite Wars: The Senate agreed a peace, following an appeal by the Samnite to a previous treaty of friendship. 340 BC Latin War: The Latin League invaded Samnium. 339 BC A law was passed which required the election of at least one plebeian censor every five years. 338 BC Latin War: Rome defeated the Latin League armies. 337 BC The first plebeian Praetor was elected. 328 BC Samnite Wars: Rome declared war on the Samnites after their failure to prevent their subjects raiding Fregellae. 321 BC Battle of the Caudine Forks: After being trapped in a mountain pass near Caudium without a water supply, Roman forces were allowed to retreat by a Samnite army. 315 BC Battle of Lautulae: A decisive Samnite victory near Terracina split Roman territory in two. 311 BC Samnite Wars: The Etruscans laid siege to Sutri. 310 BC Battle of Lake Vadimo (310 BC): Rome inflicted a substantial military defeat on the Etruscans at Lake Vadimo. 308 BC Samnite Wars: The Umbri, Picentes and Marsi joined the Samnites against Rome. 306 BC The Hernici declared their independence from Rome. 304 BC Rome conquered the Aequi. Samnite Wars: The treaty of friendship between the Romans and Samnites was restored. 3rd century BC Year Date Event 300 BC The Lex Ogulnia was passed, allowing plebeians to become priests. 298 BC Samnite Wars: Rome declared war on the Samnites after an appeal by the Lucani. Samnite Wars: Rome captured the Samnite cities of Bojano and Castel di Sangro. 297 BC Battle of Tifernum: A Roman army defeated a numerically superior Samnite force at Città di Castello. 295 BC Battle of Sentinum: A Roman army decisively defeated a numerically superior force of Samnites, Etruscans, Umbri and Senones in coalition at Sentinum. The consul Publius Decius Mus (consul 312 BC) was killed. 294 BC Samnite Wars: Roman and Samnite forces battled at Lucera. 293 BC Battle of Aquilonia: A Roman army destroyed the majority of Samnite forces, probably in modern Agnone. A census counted about 270,000 residents of Rome. 291 BC Samnite Wars: Rome conquered and colonized the Samnite city of Venosa. 290 BC Samnite Wars: The last effective Samnite resistance was eliminated. 287 BC Conflict of the Orders: A secessio plebis took place. Conflict of the Orders: The Lex Hortensia was passed, made resolutions of the Plebeian Council (plebiscites) binding on all Romans, they formally only applied to plebeians.[4] 283 BC Battle of Lake Vadimo (283 BC): A Roman army defeated a combined force of Etruscans, Boii and Senones near Lake Vadimo. 281 BC Taranto appealed to Epirus for aid against Rome. 280 BC Pyrrhic War: An Epirote army of some 25,000 landed at Taranto. July Battle of Heraclea: A Greek coalition force led by the Epirote king Pyrrhus of Epirus defeated a Roman army after their deployment of war elephants at Heraclea Lucania. 279 BC Battle of Asculum: A Greek force led by the Epirote king Pyrrhus defeated a Roman army at modern Ascoli Satriano, despite suffering heavy losses. 275 BC Battle of Beneventum (275 BC): Roman and Epirote armies met in a bloody battle at Benevento. 272 BC Pyrrhic War: Pyrrhus withdrew with his army to Epirus. Pyrrhic War: Taranto surrendered to Rome. 267 BC The number of quaestors was raised from four to ten. 264 BC Battle of Messana: A Roman force defeated a Carthaginian and Siracusani garrison at Messina. 242 BC The office of the praetor qui inter peregrinos ius dicit, a Praetor with jurisdiction over foreigners, was created. 241 BC First Punic War: Sicily was organized as the province of Sicilia. 238 BC Mercenary War: Carthage surrendered its claims on Sardinia and Corsica to Rome. 229 BC Illyrian Wars: Rome invaded the territory of the Ardiaei. 228 BC Illyrian Wars: The Ardiaei surrendered some territory, including strategically significant ports, to Rome, ending the war. 225 BC Battle of Telamon: A Roman army decisively defeated a Gallic invasion near modern Talamone. The consul Gaius Atilius Regulus was killed. 219 BC Illyrian Wars: Rome invaded Hvar. 218 BC Second Punic War: A Carthaginian army departed Cartagena. Illyrian Wars: Demetrius of Pharos fled to Macedonia. 216 BC 2 August Battle of Cannae: The Carthaginian general Hannibal decisively defeated a numerically superior Roman force at Cannae. 214 BC First Macedonian War: A Macedonian fleet captured Oricum. Siege of Syracuse (214–212 BC): Rome laid siege to Syracuse. 212 BC Siege of Syracuse (214–212 BC): Roman forces breached the inner citadel of Syracuse and slaughtered its inhabitants. 205 BC First Macedonian War: Rome and Macedonia signed the Treaty of Phoenice, according to which Macedonia renounced its alliance with Carthage in exchange for Roman recognition of its gains in Illyria. 204 BC Second Punic War: The consul Scipio Africanus landed an invasion fleet at Utica. 202 BC 19 October Battle of Zama: A Roman army decisively defeated Carthage, probably near modern Sakiet Sidi Youssef. 201 BC Second Punic War: Carthage accepted Roman conditions for peace, including disarmament, a war indemnity of ten thousand talents, and the cession of Iberia, ending the war. 2nd century BC Year Date Event 200 BC Second Macedonian War: A Roman fleet arrived in Illyria to relieve a Macedonian siege of Abydos. 197 BC The provinces of Hispania Ulterior and Hispania Citerior were organized. The number of quaestors was increased to twelve. The number of Praetors was increased to six. 196 BC Second Macedonian War: Macedonia surrendered its conquests in Greece and agreed to pay a war indemnity, ending the war. 192 BC Roman–Seleucid War: The Seleucid Empire invaded Greece. 188 BC Roman–Seleucid War: The Seleucid Empire signed the Treaty of Apamea, under which it surrendered all territory west of the Taurus Mountains to the Roman clients Rhodes and Pergamon and agreed to disarm its navy and pay a war indemnity of fifteen thousand talents of silver to Rome. 180 BC The Lex Villia annalis, which established minimum ages for high office and required a minimum of two years in private life between offices, was passed. 172 BC Third Macedonian War: Rome declared war on Macedonia. 167 BC Third Macedonian War: The Macedonian king Perseus of Macedon was captured. Macedonia was divided into four districts subject to Rome. 155 BC Lusitanian War: The Lusitanians of Hispania Ulterior rebelled against Rome. 150 BC Fourth Macedonian War: An Andriscus rebelled against Rome, claiming to be Perseus's son and the rightful king of Macedonia. 149 BC Third Punic War: Rome declared war on Carthage. The Lex Calpurnia was passed, establishing a Praetor-led court to hear appeals against extortionate taxes levied by governors in the provinces. 148 BC Fourth Macedonian War: Andriscus was surrendered to Rome to be executed. 146 BC Third Punic War: Roman forces breached the city of Carthage, burned it, and enslaved its surviving inhabitants. Achaean War: Roman forces decisively defeated the armies of the Achaean League at Corinth. The province of Macedonia was organized. The province of Africa was organized on captured Carthaginian territory. 139 BC Lusitanian War: The Lusitanian leader Viriatus was assassinated by his three ambassadors to Rome Audax, Ditalcus and Minurus. Lex Gabinia tabellaria: required a secret ballot in elections of all magistrates. 133 BC The Tribune of the Plebs Tiberius Gracchus was beaten to death by a mob of senators led by the Pontifex Maximus Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Serapio (consul 138 BC). 121 BC The province of Gallia Narbonensis was organized. The first Senatus consultum ultimum was passed, granting the consul Lucius Opimius emergency powers to defeat the partisans of Gaius Gracchus. 112 BC Jugurthine War: Rome declared war on Numidia. 107 BC Gaius Marius was elected consul. Marius instituted the Marian reforms of the military, among them the establishment of a standing army and the recruitment of non-property owners. 106 BC Marius was reelected consul. Jugurthine War: The Numidian king Jugurtha was imprisoned in the Mamertine Prison. 105 BC 6 October Battle of Arausio: A coalition of the Cimbri and Teutons inflicted a serious defeat on the Roman army at modern Orange. Some hundred thousand Roman soldiers were killed. 104 BC Marius was elected consul for the first of three years in a row. 102 BC Battle of Aquae Sextiae: Rome decisively defeated the forces of the Teutons and Ambrones and killed some ninety thousand soldiers and civilians. 101 BC Battle of Vercellae: An invasion of Italy by the Cimbri was decisively defeated by a numerically inferior Roman force. Some hundred thousand Cimbri soldiers and civilians were killed along with their king Boiorix. 1st century BC Year Date Event 100 BC Marius was elected consul. 10 December Assassins hired by Marius's political allies Lucius Appuleius Saturninus and Gaius Servilius Glaucia beat to death Gaius Memmius, a candidate for the consulship. 91 BC Social War (91–88 BC): The Roman clients in Italy the Marsi, the Paeligni, the Vestini, the Marrucini, the Picentes, the Frentani, the Hirpini, the Iapyges, Pompeii, Venosa, Lucania and Samnium rebelled against Rome. 88 BC Sulla's first civil war: The consul Sulla led an army of his partisans across the pomerium into Rome. Social War (91–89 BC): The war ended. 87 BC First Mithridatic War: Roman forces landed at Epirus. 85 BC First Mithridatic War: A peace was agreed between Rome and Pontus under which the latter returned to its prewar borders. 83 BC Sulla's second civil war: Sulla landed with an army at Brindisi. Second Mithridatic War: The Roman general Lucius Licinius Murena invaded Pontus. 82 BC Sulla's second civil war: Sulla was declared dictator. 81 BC Second Mithridatic War: Murena withdrew from Pontus. Sulla resigns dictatorship after enacting numerous reforms in the same year. 80 BC Final consulship of Sulla, he leaves Rome once the year is over. Sertorian War: Quintus Sertorius landed on the Iberian Peninsula in support of a Lusitanian rebellion. 73 BC Third Mithridatic War: Pontus invaded Bithynia. Third Servile War: Some seventy gladiators, slaves of Lentulus Batiatus in Capua, made a violent escape. 72 BC Sertorian War: Marcus Perpenna Vento, by now the leader of the Romans in revolt in Iberia, was executed by the general Pompey. 71 BC Third Servile War: The slaves in rebellion were decisively defeated by Roman forces near Petelia. Their leader Spartacus was killed. 66 BC The last of the Cilician pirates were wiped out by Pompey. 63 BC Third Mithridatic War: Defeated, the Pontic king Mithridates VI of Pontus ordered his friend and bodyguard to kill him. Siege of Jerusalem (63 BC): Pompey conquered Jerusalem and entered the Holy of Holies of the Second Temple. Cicero was elected consul. Second Catilinarian conspiracy: A conspiracy led by the senator Catiline to overthrow the Republic was exposed before the Senate. The five conspirators present were summarily executed in the Mamertine Prison. 60 BC Pompey joined a political alliance, the so-called First Triumvirate, with the consul Julius Caesar and the censor Marcus Licinius Crassus. 59 BC Consulship of Julius Caesar. 58 BC Gallic Wars: Roman forces barred the westward migration of the Helvetii across the Rhône. 55 BC 1st Invasion of Britain: Julius Caesar's first invasion of Britain. 54 BC 2nd Invasion of Britain: Julius Caesar's second invasion of Britain. 53 BC 6 May Battle of Carrhae: A Parthian army decisively defeated a numerically superior Roman invasion force near Harran. Crassus was killed. 50 BC Gallic Wars: The last Gaulish rebels were defeated. 49 BC 10 January Caesar's Civil War: Julius Caesar illegally crossed the Rubicon into Italy with his army. 48 BC 4 January Caesar's Civil War: Caesar landed at Durrës in pursuit of Pompey and his partisans the optimates. 46 BC November Caesar left Africa for Iberia in pursuit of Pompey's sons Gnaeus Pompeius and Sextus Pompey. 44 BC 15 March Assassination of Julius Caesar: Caesar was assassinated in the Theatre of Pompey by a conspiracy of senators. 43 BC 27 November The Lex Titia was passed, granting the Second Triumvirate of Octavius (later known as Augustus), Mark Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus the power to make and annul laws and appoint magistrates. 42 BC Liberators' civil war: Augustus and Antony led some thirty legions to northern Greece in pursuit of Caesar's assassins Marcus Junius Brutus the Younger and Gaius Cassius Longinus. 23 October Liberators' civil war: Brutus committed suicide after being defeated in battle. 33 BC Antony's Parthian War: A campaign led by Antony against the Parthian Empire ended in failure. The Second Triumvirate expired. 31 BC 2 September Battle of Actium: Forces loyal to Augustus defeated Antony and his lover Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, in a naval battle near Actium. 30 BC 1 August Final War of the Roman Republic: Antony's forces defected to Augustus. He committed suicide. 30 August Cleopatra committed suicide, probably in Roman custody and by snakebite. The province of Egypt was organized. Augustus took the title pharaoh. 29 BC Moesia was annexed to Rome. Cantabrian Wars: Rome deployed some eighty thousand soldiers against the Cantabri in Iberia. 27 BC 16 January The Senate granted Augustus the titles augustus, majestic, and princeps, first. 25 BC Augustus indicated his nephew Marcus Claudius Marcellus (Julio-Claudian dynasty) as his chosen successor by marrying him to his only daughter Julia the Elder. The Roman client Amyntas of Galatia died. Augustus organized his territory as the province of Galatia. 24 BC Augustus' campaigns against the Cantabrians in Hispania Tarraconensis, the Cantabrian Wars, ended. 23 BC Coinage reform of Augustus: Augustus centralized the minting of and reformed the composition and value of the Roman currency. Marcellus died. 21 BC Augustus married Julia to his general Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. 19 BC Cantabrian Wars: The last major combat operations ended. The Cantabri and Astures were pacified. 17 BC Augustus adopted the sons of Agrippa and Julia, his grandsons Gaius Caesar and Lucius Caesar, as his own sons. 16 BC Raetia and Noricum were conquered and annexed to Rome. 12 BC Germanic Wars: Roman forces crossed the Rhine into Germania. Agrippa died of fever. 11 BC Augustus married Julia to his general and stepson Tiberius. 9 BC The Roman general Nero Claudius Drusus died from injuries sustained falling from a horse. Pannonia was annexed and incorporated into Illyricum. 6 BC Augustus offered Tiberius tribunician power and imperium over the eastern half of the Empire. Tiberius refused, announcing his retirement to Rhodes. 2 BC Augustus was acclaimed Pater Patriae, father of the country, by the Senate.[5] Augustus convicted Julia of adultery and treason, annulled her marriage to Tiberius, and exiled her with her mother Scribonia to Ventotene. Centuries: 1st · 2nd · 3rd · 4th · 5th · 6th · 7th · 8th · 9th · 10th · 11th · 12th · 13th · 14th · 15th 1st century Year Date Event AD 2 20 August Lucius Caesar died of a sudden illness. Augustus allowed Tiberius to return to Rome as a private citizen. AD 4 21 February Gaius Caesar died in Lycia from wounds suffered in battle. Augustus adopted Tiberius as his son and granted him tribunician power. AD 6 Augustus deposed Herod Archelaus, ethnarch in Samaria, Judea and Idumea, and organized the province of Judea on his territories. Bellum Batonianum: The Daesitiates, an Illyrian people, rose up against Roman authority in Illyricum. AD 9 Bellum Batonianum: The Daesitiate chieftain Bato (Daesitiate chieftain) surrendered to Roman forces. September Battle of the Teutoburg Forest: A coalition of Germanic forces ambushed and destroyed three Roman legions in the Teutoburg Forest. Publius Quinctilius Varus, the commander of Roman forces in Germania, committed suicide. AD 10 Tiberius assumed command of Roman forces in Germania. Illyricum was divided into the provinces of Pannonia and Dalmatia. AD 13 Tiberius was granted power equal to Augustus as co-princeps. AD 14 19 August Augustus died. Germanicus, son of Nero Claudius Drusus and adoptive son of Tiberius, was appointed commander of Roman forces in Germania. Germanicus and Tiberius's natural son Drusus Julius Caesar were sent to suppress mutinies in Germania and Pannonia, respectively. AD 15 Lucius Seius Strabo was appointed governor of Egypt. His son Sejanus remained as the sole prefect of the Praetorian Guard. AD 16 Battle of the Weser River: A Roman army led by Germanicus decisively defeated a Germanic force on the Weser. AD 17 Archelaus of Cappadocia, king in Cappadocia and a Roman client, died. Tiberius annexed his territory, organizing it as the province of Cappadocia. Antiochus III of Commagene, king of Commagene and a Roman client, died. Tiberius annexed his territory to the province of Syria. AD 18 Tiberius granted Germanicus imperium over the eastern half of the Empire. AD 19 10 October Germanicus died in Antioch, possibly after being poisoned on Tiberius's orders. AD 22 Tiberius granted Drusus Julius Caesar tribunician power, marking him as his choice as successor. AD 23 14 September Drusus Julius Caesar died, possibly after being poisoned by Sejanus or his wife Livilla. AD 26 Tiberius retired to Capri, leaving Sejanus in control of Rome through his office. AD 28 The Frisii hanged their Roman tax collectors and expelled the governor. AD 29 Livia, Augustus's widow and Tiberius's mother, died. AD 31 18 October Sejanus was executed on Tiberius's orders. Tiberius invited Germanicus's son Caligula to join him on Capri. AD 37 16 March Tiberius died. His will left his offices jointly to Caligula and Drusus Julius Caesar's son, his grandson Tiberius Gemellus. AD 38 Tiberius Gemellus was murdered on Caligula's orders. AD 40 Ptolemy of Mauretania, king of Mauretania and a Roman client, was murdered on Caligula's orders during a state visit to Rome. His slave Aedemon rose in revolt against Roman rule. AD 41 The general Gaius Suetonius Paulinus was appointed to suppress the rebellion in Mauretania. 24 January Caligula was assassinated by the centurion Cassius Chaerea. The Praetorian Guard acclaimed Nero Claudius Drusus's son Claudius princeps. Claudius restored the Judean monarchy under king Herod Agrippa. AD 42 The territory of the former Mauretania was organized into the provinces of Mauretania Caesariensis and Mauretania Tingitana. AD 43 Roman conquest of Britain: The senator Aulus Plautius led four legions into Great Britain in support of king Verica of the Atrebates. Claudius annexed Lycia into the Empire as a province. AD 46 The Odrysian king Rhoemetalces III, a Roman client, was killed by anti-Roman insurgents. Odrysia was incorporated into the Empire as the province of Thracia. AD 48 Claudius's wife Messalina was executed for conspiracy. Claudius appointed Herod Agrippa's son Herod Agrippa II king of Judea. AD 49 Claudius married his niece, Germanicus's daughter Agrippina the Younger. AD 50 Claudius adopted Agrippina's son Nero as his own son. AD 54 13 October Claudius died. Nero succeeded him as princeps. AD 55 11 February Claudius's young natural son Britannicus died, probably by poison. AD 58 Roman–Parthian War of 58–63: Roman forces attacked Armenia in support of their preferred king Tigranes VI of Armenia against the Parthian candidate Tiridates I of Armenia. AD 59 23 March Agrippina died, probably murdered by her son Nero. AD 60 Boudica, a queen of the Iceni, was appointed to lead a revolt of the Iceni and the Trinovantes against Rome. AD 61 Battle of Watling Street: Some eighty thousand soldiers and civilians among the Iceni and Trinovantes were killed, probably in the modern West Midlands, ending Boudica's revolt. AD 63 Roman–Parthian War of 58–63: The Roman and Parthian Empires agreed that Tiridates and his descendants would remain kings of Armenia as Roman clients, ending the war. AD 64 18 July Great Fire of Rome: A fire began which would cause massive property damage and loss of life over six days in Rome. Nero began construction of his large and extravagant villa the Domus Aurea. AD 65 19 April Pisonian conspiracy: Nero was informed of a broad conspiracy to assassinate him and appoint the senator Gaius Calpurnius Piso leader of Rome. AD 66 First Jewish–Roman War: The Jewish population of Judea revolted against Roman rule. AD 68 9 June Nero, then in hiding in the villa of the freedman Phaon (freedman), was notified that the Senate had declared him an enemy of the state and ordered him brought to the Forum to be publicly beaten to death. He ordered his secretary Epaphroditos to kill him. The Senate accepted Galba, governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, as ruler of Rome. Zealot Temple Siege: The forces of Ananus ben Ananus, the Jewish former High Priest of Israel, laid siege to the Zealots in the Second Temple. AD 69 15 January The Praetorian Guard assassinated Galba and acclaimed Otho ruler of Rome. 16 April Following his defeat by Vitellius, the commander of the Roman army on the lower Rhine, near modern Calvatone, and to prevent further civil war, Otho committed suicide. Revolt of the Batavi: Gaius Julius Civilis, commander of the Batavi auxiliaries in the Rhine legions, turned against Rome. December The Senate recognized Vespasian, the commander of Roman forces in Egypt and Judea, as ruler of Rome. 22 December Vitellius was executed in Rome by troops loyal to Vespasian. AD 70 Revolt of the Batavi: Following a series of battlefield reversals, Civilis accepted peace terms from the Roman general Quintus Petillius Cerialis. September Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE): The Roman general Titus breached the walls of Jerusalem, sacked the city and destroyed the Second Temple. AD 71 Roman conquest of Britain: Roman forces entered modern Scotland. AD 73 16 April Siege of Masada: Roman forces breached the walls of Masada, a mountain fortress held by the Jewish extremist sect the Sicarii. AD 77 Gnaeus Julius Agricola was appointed consul and governor of Britain. AD 79 23 June Vespasian died. He was succeeded by his son Titus. 24 August Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79: Mount Vesuvius erupted, destroying the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum. AD 80 Rome was partially destroyed by fire. March The Colosseum was completed. AD 81 13 September Titus died of fever. He was succeeded by his younger brother Domitian. AD 85 Agricola was recalled to Rome. AD 86 Domitian's Dacian War: The Dacian king Decebalus invaded Moesia. AD 88 Domitian's Dacian War: Decebalus agreed to return all Roman prisoners of war and accept his status as a Roman client in exchange for an annual subsidy of eight million sestertii, ending the war. AD 89 1 January Lucius Antonius Saturninus, governor of Germania Superior, revolted against Domitian's rule. Saturninus was executed. AD 96 18 September Domitian was assassinated by members of the royal household. Nerva was declared ruler of Rome by the Senate. AD 97 Nerva adopted the general and former consul Trajan as his son. AD 98 27 January Nerva died. Trajan succeeded him. 2nd century Year Date Event 101 First Dacian War: Rome invaded Dacia. September Second Battle of Tapae: Dacian forces retreated from contact with the Romans at Tapae. 102 First Dacian War: The Dacian king Decebalus reaffirmed his loyalty to Rome, ending the war. 105 Second Dacian War: Trajan responded to the resumption of raids on Roman settlements in Moesia by invading Dacia. 106 Battle of Sarmisegetusa: Roman forces breached the Dacian capital Sarmizegetusa Regia. The Dacian king Decebalus escaped to the east. The Nabatean king Rabbel II Soter died. 22 March Nabatea was annexed to the Roman empire as the province of Arabia Petraea. Second Dacian War: The Dacian king Decebalus committed suicide in his fortification at Ranisstorum to avoid capture. 107 The province of Dacia was organized. 112 Trajan's Forum was inaugurated. 113 Roman–Parthian Wars: Trajan launched an expedition against Parthia. Trajan's Column was erected in Trajan's Forum to commemorate the victory over Dacia. 114 Trajan deposed the Armenian king Parthamasiris of Armenia, a Roman client, and organized the province of Armenia on his territory. 115 Kitos War: The Jews in Cyrene rose up against Roman authority. 116 The provinces of Mesopotamia and Assyria were organized on territory conquered from Parthia. Trajan captured the Parthian capital Ctesiphon and deposed its shah Osroes I in favor of his son Parthamaspates of Parthia. 117 Kitos War: Roman forces captured the rebel stronghold of Lod and executed many of its inhabitants. 8 August Trajan died. 10 August The Senate accepted the general Hadrian as ruler of Rome, following the appearance of documents indicating he had been adopted by Trajan. Osroes I deposed his son Parthamaspates of Parthia and replaced him as shah of Parthia. 118 Hadrian withdrew from the territories of Armenia, Assyria and Mesopotamia, allowing the return of their respective client monarchies. 119 A rebellion took place in Britain. 122 The construction of Hadrian's Wall at the northern border of Britain began. 123 Hadrian arrived in Mauretania to suppress a local revolt. 124 Hadrian travelled to Greece. 126 Hadrian returned to Rome. The rebuilt Pantheon was dedicated to Agrippa, its original builder. 132 Bar Kokhba revolt: Simon bar Kokhba, believed by his followers to be the Messiah, launched a revolt against Roman authority in Judea. 135 Bar Kokhba revolt: The revolt ended at a cost of tens of thousands of Roman soldiers and some six hundred thousand Jewish rebels and civilians, including bar Kokhba, killed. Judea and Syria were combined into the single province of Syria Palaestina. 136 Hadrian adopted Lucius Aelius as his son and successor. 138 1 January Lucius Aelius died. 25 February Hadrian adopted Antoninus Pius as his son and successor and granted him tribunician power and imperium, on the condition that he in turn adopt Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus as his sons. 10 July Hadrian died, probably from congestive heart failure. 11 July Antoninus succeeded Hadrian. 141 Roman conquest of Britain: Roman forces invaded modern Scotland under the command of the British governor Quintus Lollius Urbicus. 142 The construction of the Antonine Wall at the northern border of Britain began. 161 7 March Antoninus died. He was succeeded by Marcus and Lucius Verus. Roman–Parthian War of 161–166: The Parthian Empire deposed the Armenian king Sohaemus of Armenia, a Roman client, and installed Bakur. 165 Antonine Plague: A pandemic, probably of smallpox or measles, began which would kill some five million people throughout the Roman Empire. 166 Roman–Parthian War of 161–166: Roman forces sacked the Parthian capital Ctesiphon. 169 Lucius Verus died of disease, leaving Marcus the sole ruler of Rome. Marcomannic Wars: A coalition of Germanic tribes led by the Marcomanni invaded the Roman Empire across the Danube. 175 Marcomannic Wars: Rome and the Iazyges signed a treaty under which the latter agreed to return Roman prisoners of war and supply troops to the Auxilia, ending the war. 177 Marcus named his natural son Commodus co-ruler with himself. 180 17 March Marcus died. Antonine Plague: The pandemic ended. 184 The Antonine Wall was abandoned by Roman forces. 192 31 December Commodus was strangled to death. 193 1 January The Praetorian Guard acclaimed the consul Pertinax ruler of Rome at the Castra Praetoria. 28 March Pertinax was assassinated by the Praetorian Guard. The Praetorian Guard acclaimed the former consul Didius Julianus, who had provided the highest bid, ruler of Rome. 9 April Pescennius Niger, the legatus Augusti pro praetore of Syria Palaestina, was proclaimed ruler of Rome by his legions. 14 April The Legio XIV Gemina acclaimed its commander Septimius Severus ruler of Rome at Carnuntum. May The Senate recognized Septimius Severus as ruler of Rome and sentenced Julianus to death. 194 Battle of Issus (194): Niger's forces were decisively defeated by the armies of Septimius Severus at Issus. 196 Clodius Albinus, the commander of Roman troops in Britain and Iberia, took the title Imperator Caesar Decimus Clodius Septimius Albinus Augustus. 197 19 February Battle of Lugdunum: Septimius Severus and Albinus met in battle at Lugdunum. Albinus committed suicide or was killed. Roman–Parthian Wars: Septimius Severus sacked the Parthian capital Ctesiphon. 198 Septimius Severus appointed his eldest natural son Caracalla co-ruler with himself. 3rd century Year Date Event 208 Roman invasion of Caledonia 208–210: Septimius Severus invaded modern Scotland. 209 Septimius Severus named his youngest natural son Publius Septimius Geta co-ruler with himself and Caracalla. 211 4 February Septimius Severus died. Roman invasion of Caledonia 208–210: Caracalla ended the campaign. 26 December Geta was murdered in his mother's arms by members of the Praetorian Guard loyal to Caracalla. 212 Constitutio Antoniniana was an edict issued by Caracalla declaring that all free men in the Roman Empire were to be given full Roman citizenship and that all free women in the Empire were to be given the same rights as Roman men. 217 8 April Caracalla was assassinated by a member of his bodyguard. The Praetorian Guard acclaimed their prefect Macrinus ruler of Rome. 218 8 June Macrinus was captured and executed by an army loyal to Elagabalus, supposedly the illegitimate son of Caracalla. 222 11 March Elagabalus was assassinated by the Praetorian Guard, which installed his young cousin Severus Alexander as ruler of Rome. 230 Roman–Persian Wars: The Sasanian shah Ardashir I invaded Mesopotamia and Syria. 232 Roman–Persian Wars: Alexander repelled the Sasanian invasion. 235 19 March Alexander was killed in a mutiny of the Legio XXII Primigenia at Mainz. 20 March The army elected Maximinus Thrax, commander of the Legio IV Italica, ruler of Rome. 238 22 March Gordian I, governor of Africa, accepted the rule of Rome at the urging of rebels in his province. He appointed his son Gordian II to rule jointly with him. 2 April The Senate accepted Gordian I and Gordian II as rulers of Rome. Battle of Carthage (238): Forces loyal to Gordian I and Gordian II were defeated by the army of Capelianus, the governor of Numidia, who claimed fealty to Maximinus. Gordian II was killed. Gordian I committed suicide. 22 April The Senate elected two senators, Pupienus and Balbinus, as joint rulers of the Empire. Facing popular opposition to Pupienus and Balbinus, the Senate gave Gordian I's young grandson Gordian III the title Caesar. May Maximinus was murdered with his son during a mutiny of the Legio II Parthica at Aquileia. 29 July Pupienus and Balbinus were tortured and murdered by the Praetorian Guard in their barracks. 243 Battle of Resaena: Roman forces defeated the Sasanian Empire at Resaena. 244 Battle of Misiche: The Sasanian Empire decisively defeated a Roman force at Misiche, near modern Fallujah. Gordian III was killed, probably by a fellow Roman. He was succeeded by Philip the Arab, the prefect of the Praetorian Guard, who was forced to cede Mesopotamia and Armenia to the Sasanian Empire. 249 Philip was killed at Verona in battle with Decius, commander of Roman forces in Pannonia and Moesia. 251 Decius appointed his natural son Herennius Etruscus co-ruler of Rome jointly with himself. Battle of Abritus: Roman forces were dealt a bloody defeat by the Goths near modern Razgrad. Decius and Herennius were killed. The armies of the Danube region acclaimed their commander Trebonianus Gallus ruler of Rome. The Senate recognized Decius's son Hostilian as ruler of Rome. Gallus adopted Hostilian as his son. Plague of Cyprian: Hostilian died, probably of plague. Gallus appointed his natural son Volusianus co-ruler jointly with himself. 253 Battle of Barbalissos: A Sasanian force destroyed a Roman army at Barbalissos. August Gallus and Volusianus were killed in a mutiny at Terni. The army acclaimed Aemilianus, governor of Pannonia and Moesia, ruler of Rome. Aemilianus was killed by his own soldiers in the face of the army of the general Valerian (emperor). 22 October Valerian gave his son Gallienus the title Caesar. 256 The Sasanian Empire conquered and sacked Antioch. 257 Valerian reconquered Antioch. 258 The Goths invaded Asia Minor. 260 Death of Dacian king Regalianus that became Roman emperor for a brief period. 260 Valerian was taken prisoner by the Sasanian Empire during truce negotiations. September The general Postumus was declared ruler of Rome in the Gallic Empire. 264 Valerian died in captivity. 267 Odaenathus, the king of Palmyra and a Roman client, was assassinated. His widow Zenobia took power as regent for their son Vaballathus. 268 Gallienus was murdered by his soldiers during a siege of Pontirolo Nuovo. September The general Claudius Gothicus was declared ruler of Rome by his soldiers. 269 Postumus was killed by his soldiers, who in turn acclaimed one of their own, Marcus Aurelius Marius, emperor of the Gallic Empire. Marius was murdered by Victorinus, formerly prefect of Postumus's Praetorian Guard, who replaced him as emperor of the Gallic Empire. Zenobia conquered Egypt. Battle of Naissus: Roman forces decisively defeated the Goths at modern Niš, stalling an invasion of the Balkans. 270 January Claudius Gothicus died. He was succeeded by his brother Quintillus. April Quintillus died at Aquileia. September Aurelian became ruler of Rome. 271 Battle of Fano: A Roman force defeated the Juthungi on the Metauro. Victorinus was murdered by an officer he had cuckolded. Tetricus I, praeses of Gallia Aquitania was acclaimed emperor of the Gallic Empire. He appointed his natural son Tetricus II to rule jointly with him. 272 Zenobia was arrested en route to refuge in the Sasanian Empire. 273 Palmyra rebelled against Roman authority and was destroyed. 274 Battle of Châlons (274): Aurelian defeated the forces of Tetricus I and Tetricus II at modern Châlons-en-Champagne. 275 September Aurelian was murdered by the Praetorian Guard. 25 September The Senate elected Tacitus (emperor) ruler of Rome. 276 June Tacitus died. Marcus Aurelius Probus, commander of Roman forces in the east and Tacitus's half-brother, was acclaimed ruler of Rome by his troops. Florianus, prefect of the Praetorian Guard and commander of Roman forces in the west, was acclaimed ruler of Rome by his troops. September Florianus was assassinated near Tarsus by his troops following a defeat at the hands of Probus. 279 Probus launched a campaign against the Vandals in Illyricum. 282 The Praetorian Guard elected their prefect Carus ruler of Rome. Probus was assassinated. Carus gave his sons Carinus and Numerian the title Caesar. 283 Carus died. 284 Numerian died. 20 November Roman forces in the east elected the consul Diocletian their ruler and proclaimed him augustus. 285 July Battle of the Margus: Forces loyal to Diocletian defeated Carinus in battle on the Morava. Carinus was killed. July Diocletian gave Maximian the title Caesar. 286 Carausian Revolt: The naval commander Carausius declared himself emperor in Britain and northern Gaul. 2 April Diocletian proclaimed Maximian augustus of the west, ruling himself as augustus of the east. 293 Diocletian established the Tetrarchy, appointing Constantius Chlorus to hold the office of Caesar under Maximian in the west and Galerius to hold the title under himself in the east. Carausian Revolt: Constantius Chlorus conquered Carausius's Gallic territories. Carausius was murdered by his finance minister Allectus, who replaced him as emperor in Britain. 296 Carausian Revolt: Allectus was defeated in battle and killed at Calleva Atrebatum. 4th century Year Date Event 301 Diocletian issued the Edict on Maximum Prices, reforming the currency and setting price ceilings on a number of goods. 303 24 February Diocletianic Persecution: Diocletian issued his first edict against Christians, calling for the destruction of Christian holy books and places of worship and stripping Christians of their government positions and political rights. 305 1 May Diocletian and Maximian abdicated. Constantius and Galerius were elevated to augusti in the west and east. Galerius appointed Flavius Valerius Severus Caesar in the west and Maximinus II Caesar in the east. 306 25 July Constantius died at Eboracum. By his dying wish, his troops acclaimed his son Constantine the Great augustus. Galerius recognized Flavius Valerius Severus as augustus in the west and granted Constantine the Great the lesser title of Caesar, which he accepted. Civil wars of the Tetrarchy: Rioters in Rome acclaimed Maximian's son Maxentius ruler of Rome. He took the title princeps invictus, undefeated prince. Maxentius invited Maximian to reclaim the title augustus. 307 Civil wars of the Tetrarchy: Flavius Valerius Severus surrendered to Maximian at Ravenna. Civil wars of the Tetrarchy: Galerius laid siege to Rome. Many of his soldiers defected to Maxentius and he was forced to flee. 308 Civil wars of the Tetrarchy: After a failed coup against his son Maxentius, Maximian was forced to flee to Constantine's court. 11 November Maximian resigned as augustus. Galerius appointed Licinius augustus of the west and confirmed his recognition of Constantine the Great as Caesar of the west. 310 July Civil wars of the Tetrarchy: Maximian was forced to commit suicide following a failed coup against Constantine the Great. 311 May Galerius died. Licinius and Maximinus agreed to divide the eastern Empire between themselves. Civil wars of the Tetrarchy: Constantine the Great concluded an alliance with Licinius, offering his half-sister Flavia Julia Constantia to him in marriage. Civil wars of the Tetrarchy: Maximinus entered a secret alliance with Maxentius. 3 December Diocletian died, possibly from suicide. 312 28 October Battle of the Milvian Bridge: Constantine the Great had a vision of the cross appearing over the sun at the Ponte Milvio with the words "in this sign, conquer." His forces defeated and killed Maxentius. 313 February Constantine the Great and Licinius issued the Edict of Milan, providing for restitution to Christians injured during the persecutions. March Licinius married Constantia. 30 April Battle of Tzirallum: Licinius defeated a vastly numerically superior force loyal to Maximinus at modern Çorlu. Maximinus fled to Nicomedia. August Maximinus died at Tarsus. 314 8 October Battle of Cibalae: Constantine the Great dealt a bloody defeat to Licinius's forces at modern Vinkovci. 317 Battle of Mardia: After a bloody battle, probably at modern Harmanli, Licinius retreated from contact with Constantine the Great. 1 March Licinius recognized Constantine the Great as his superior, ceded all his territories outside of Thrace, and agreed to depose and execute Valerius Valens, whom he had raised to augustus. 324 3 July Battle of Adrianople (324): Licinius suffered a bloody defeat at the hands of Constantine the Great on the Maritsa. 18 September Battle of Chrysopolis: Constantine the Great dealt a decisive defeat to the remnants of Licinius's army. Licinius surrendered. 325 20 May First Council of Nicaea: An ecumenical council called by Constantine the Great at Nicaea opened which would establish the Nicene Creed, asserting Jesus to be equal to and of the same substance as God the Father. Licinius was executed. 326 Constantine the Great ordered the death of his oldest son Crispus. 330 11 May Constantine the Great moved his capital to Byzantium and renamed the city Constantinople, city of Constantine. 332 Constantine the Great campaigned against the Goths. 334 Constantine the Great campaigned against the Sarmatians. 337 Roman–Persian Wars: The Sasanian shah Shapur II invaded Armenia and Mesopotamia. 22 May Constantine the Great died. 9 September Constantine the Great's three sons declared themselves augusti and divided their father's empire into three parts, with Constantine II (emperor) receiving Britain, Iberia, Gaul and Illyria, Constantius II Asia, Syria Palaestina and Egypt, and Constans Italy and Africa. The young Constans was placed under Constantine II's guardianship. 338 Constantine II campaigned against the Alemanni. Constantine II granted Illyria to his brother Constans. 340 Constantine II invaded Italy. He was ambushed and slain at Aquileia by Constans, who inherited his territory. 341 Constans and Constantius II issued a ban against pagan sacrifice. 344 Siege of Singara: Sasanian forces failed to capture the Roman fortress of Singara. 350 18 January Magnentius, commander of the Jovians and Herculians, was acclaimed ruler of Rome by his legions. Constans was killed in Elne by followers of Magnentius. 3 June Constantius Chlorus's grandson Nepotianus entered Rome with a band of gladiators and there declared himself imperator. 30 June Marcellinus (magister officiorum), one of Magnentius's generals, entered Rome and executed Nepotianus. 351 15 March Constantius II granted his cousin Constantius Gallus the title Caesar. 28 September Battle of Mursa Major: Constantius II defeated Magnentius in a bloody battle in the valley of the Drava. 353 Battle of Mons Seleucus: Constantius II dealt Magnentius a decisive defeat at modern La Bâtie-Montsaléon. Magnentius committed suicide. 354 Gallus was put to death. 355 6 November Constantius II declared Julian (emperor) Caesar and granted him command in Gaul. 357 Battle of Strasbourg: Julian defeated a vastly superior Alemanni force near Argentoratum, solidifying Roman control west of the Rhine. 360 February The Petulantes, ordered east from Paris in preparation for a war with the Sasanian Empire, instead mutinied and proclaimed Julian augustus. 361 3 November Constantius II named Julian as his successor before dying of fever. 363 5 March Julian's Persian War: Roman forces embarked from Antioch on a punitive expedition against the Sasanian Empire. 26 June Battle of Samarra: Sasanian forces harassed a Roman army in retreat at Samarra from a failed siege of their capital Ctesiphon. Julian was killed. 27 June Julian's army declared one of their generals, Jovian (emperor), augustus. July Julian's Persian War: Jovian agreed to cede the five provinces east of the Tigris to the Sasanian Empire, ending the war. 364 17 February Jovian died. 26 February The army acclaimed the general Valentinian I the Great augustus. 28 March Valentinian the Great appointed his younger brother Valens augustus with rule over the eastern Empire, and continued as augustus in the west. 375 17 November Valentinian the Great died of a stroke. His son Gratian, then junior augustus in the west, succeeded him as senior augustus. 22 November The army acclaimed Valentinian the Great's young son Valentinian II augustus of the west. 376 Fleeing Hunnic aggression, the Goths, under the leadership of the Thervingi chieftain Fritigern, crossed the Danube and entered the eastern Empire as political refugees. Gothic War (376–382): Following the deaths of several Roman soldiers during civil unrest in Thrace, the officer Lupicinus (Roman) arrested Fritigern and the Greuthungi chieftain Alatheus. 378 9 August Battle of Adrianople: A combined Gothic-Alanic force decisively defeated the Roman army near Edirne. Valens was killed. 379 19 January Gratian named the general Theodosius I the Great augustus in the east. 380 27 February Theodosius the Great issued the Edict of Thessalonica, making Christianity the state church of the Roman Empire. 382 3 October Gothic War (376–382): The Goths were made foederati of Rome and granted land and autonomy in Thrace, ending the war. 383 25 August Gratian was delivered by mutineers to the Magister equitum Andragathius and executed. 392 15 May Valentinian II was found hanged in his residence. He may have been murdered by his guardian, the Frankish general Arbogast. 22 August Arbogast declared Eugenius augustus and ruler in the west. 393 23 January Theodosius the Great appointed his younger son Honorius (emperor) augustus in the west. 394 6 September Battle of the Frigidus: Forces loyal to Theodosius the Great defeated and killed Arbogast and Eugenius, probably near the Vipava. 395 17 January Theodosius the Great died. His elder son Arcadius succeeded him as augustus in the eastern Byzantine Empire. The young Honorius became sole augustus in the Western Roman Empire under the regency of Magister militum Stilicho. 398 Gildonic War: Gildo, comes of Africa, was killed following a failed rebellion against the Western Roman Empire. 5th century Year Date Event 402 The capital of the Western Roman Empire was moved to Ravenna. 406 31 December Crossing of the Rhine: A coalition of foreign tribes including the Vandals, Alans and Suebi invaded the Western Roman Empire across the Rhine. 408 1 May Arcadius died. 410 24 August Sack of Rome (410): Rome was sacked by the Visigoths under their king Alaric I. End of Roman rule in Britain: The last Roman forces left Britain. 421 8 February Honorius appointed his brother-in-law and Magister militum Constantius III co-ruler of the Western Roman Empire with himself. 2 September Constantius III died. 423 15 August Honorius died. The Western Roman patrician Castinus declared the primicerius Joannes augustus. 424 23 October The Byzantine augustus Theodosius II the Younger, the Calligrapher named the young Valentinian III, his cousin and Constantius III's son, Caesar with rule over the west. His mother Galla Placidia was appointed regent. 425 Joannes was executed in Aquileia. 447 Battle of the Utus: The Huns under Attila defeated a Byzantine army in a bloody battle near the Vit. 450 28 July Theodosius the Younger died in a riding accident. 452 Attila abandoned his invasion of Italy following a meeting at the Mincio with the pope Pope Leo I. 455 16 March Valentinian III was assassinated on orders of the senator Petronius Maximus. 17 March The Senate acclaimed Maximus augustus of the Western Roman Empire. 31 May Maximus was killed by a mob as he attempted to flee Rome in the face of a Vandal advance. 2 June Sack of Rome (455): The Vandals entered and began to sack Rome. 9 July The Magister militum Avitus was pronounced augustus of the Western Roman Empire at Toulouse by the Visigothic king Theodoric II. 456 17 October Avitus was forced to flee Rome following a military coup by the general Ricimer and the domesticus Majorian. 457 Avitus died. 27 January The Byzantine augustus Marcian died. 28 February The Byzantine augustus Leo I the Thracian appointed Majorian Magister militum in the west. 1 April The army acclaimed Majorian augustus of the Western Roman Empire. 461 7 August Majorian was killed after torture near the Staffora on Ricimer's orders. 19 November The Senate elected Libius Severus from among their number as augustus of the Western Roman Empire. 465 15 August Severus died. 467 12 April Leo the Thracian elevated the comes Anthemius to Caesar with rule over the Western Roman Empire. 468 Battle of Cap Bon (468): The Vandal Kingdom destroyed a combined Western Roman and Byzantine invasion fleet at Cap Bon. 472 11 July Anthemius was killed in flight following Ricimer's conquest of Rome. Maximus's son Olybrius was acclaimed augustus of the Western Roman Empire. 18 August Ricimer died. Ricimer's nephew Gundobad succeeded him as Magister militum and took the title Patrician. Olybrius died. 473 3 March The Germanic elements of the army elected the domesticus Glycerius augustus of the Western Roman Empire. Gundobad relinquished his Western Roman titles to succeed his father as king of Burgundy. 474 Leo the Thracian appointed Julius Nepos, his nephew and governor of Dalmatia, ruler of the Western Roman Empire in opposition to Glycerius. 18 January Leo the Thracian died. He was succeeded by his grandson Leo II (emperor). 9 February Zeno (emperor) became co-augustus of the Byzantine Empire with his young son Leo II. July Nepos deposed Glycerius. 17 November Leo II died, possibly after being poisoned by his mother Ariadne (empress). 475 January Zeno was forced to flee Constantinople for his homeland Isauria in the face of a popular revolt. 9 January Basiliscus, brother of Leo the Thracian's widow Verina, was acclaimed augustus of the Byzantine Empire by the Byzantine Senate. Nepos appointed Orestes (father of Romulus Augustulus) Magister militum and commander-in-chief of the Western Roman military. 28 August Orestes took control of the Western Roman capital Ravenna, forcing Nepos to flee to Dalmatia. 31 October Orestes declared his young son Romulus Augustulus augustus of the Western Roman Empire. 476 August Zeno recaptured Constantinople and accepted Basiliscus's surrender. 23 August Germanic foederati under the command of the general Odoacer renounced Western Roman authority and declared Odoacer their king. 28 August Odoacer captured and executed Orestes at Piacenza. 4 September Odoacer conquered the Western Roman capital Ravenna, forced Romulus to abdicate and declared himself king of Italy. The Senate sent Zeno the imperial regalia of the Western Roman Empire. 480 25 April Nepos was murdered in his residence in Split. 491 9 April Zeno died. 6th century Year Date Event 518 9 July Augustus Anastasius I Dicorus died. 527 1 April Augustus Justin I appointed his older son Justinian I the Great co-augustus with himself. 1 August Justin I died. 529 7 April The Codex Justinianeus, which attempted to consolidate and reconcile contradictions in Roman law, was promulgated. 532 Justinian the Great ordered the construction of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. 533 21 June Vandalic War: A Byzantine force under the general Belisarius departed for the Vandal Kingdom. 13 September Battle of Ad Decimum: A Byzantine army defeated a Vandal force near Carthage. 15 December Battle of Tricamarum: The Byzantines defeated a Vandal army and forced their king Gelimer into flight. 534 March Vandalic War: Gelimer surrendered to Belisarius and accepted his offer of a peaceful retirement in Galatia, ending the war. The territory of the Vandal Kingdom was reorganized as the praetorian prefecture of Africa. 535 Gothic War (535–554): Byzantine forces crossing from Africa invaded Sicily, then an Ostrogothic possession. 536 December Gothic War (535–554): Byzantium took Rome with little Ostrogothic resistance. 537 27 December The Hagia Sophia was completed. 552 July Battle of Taginae: A Byzantine army dealt a decisive defeat to the Ostrogoths at Gualdo Tadino. The Ostrogoth king Totila was killed. 553 Battle of Mons Lactarius: An Ostrogothic force was ambushed and destroyed at Monti Lattari on its way to relieve a Byzantine siege of Cumae. The Ostrogoth king Teia was killed. 565 March Belisarius died. 14 November Justinian the Great died. 568 The Lombards invaded Italy. 573 The general Narses died. 574 Augustus Justin II began to suffer from fits of insanity. 578 5 October Justin II died. 582 14 August Augustus Tiberius II Constantine died. 7th century Year Date Event 602 Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628: The Sasanian Empire declared war on Byzantium. 607 1 August Augustus Phocas dedicated the Column of Phocas in the Roman Forum. 626 June Siege of Constantinople (626): Sasanian and Avar forces laid siege to Constantinople. 634 April Muslim conquest of the Levant: A Rashidun army departed Medina for the Levant. 640 January Muslim conquest of Egypt: A Rashidun force laid siege to Pelusium. The legions of the East Roman army were reorganized into themes. 641 8 November Siege of Alexandria (641): Byzantine authorities in the Egyptian capital Alexandria surrendered to the besieging Rashidun army. 663 Basileus Constans II visited Rome. 698 Battle of Carthage (698): An Umayyad siege and blockade of Carthage forced the retreat of Byzantine forces. The city was conquered and destroyed. 8th century Year Date Event 717 Siege of Constantinople (717–718): The Umayyad Caliphate besieges the city of Constantinople. 718 15 August Siege of Constantinople (717–718): The Umayyad Caliphate lifts the siege of Constantinople due to Famine, Disease and an unusually hard winter. 730 Basileus Leo III the Isaurian promulgated an edict forbidding the veneration of religious images, beginning the first Byzantine Iconoclasm. 787 23 October Second Council of Nicaea: An ecumenical council in Nicaea ended which endorsed the veneration of images, ending the first Byzantine Iconoclasm. 9th century Year Date Event 813 June A group of soldiers broke into the Church of the Holy Apostles and pleaded with the body of the iconoclast basileus Constantine V to restore the Empire, marking the beginning of the second Byzantine Iconoclasm. 843 The Byzantine regent Theodora (wife of Theophilos) restored the veneration of religious images, ending the second Byzantine Iconoclasm. 867 24 September Basileus Michael III was assassinated by his co-basileus Basil I, who became sole ruler of the Empire. 10th century Year Date Event 976 10 January Basileus John I Tzimiskes died. His co-basileus and nephew Basil II became sole ruler of the Empire. 11th century Year Date Event 1002 Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria: Byzantine forces invaded Bulgaria. 1014 29 July Battle of Kleidion: Basil dealt a decisive and bloody defeat to Bulgarian forces in the Belasica near Klyuch. 1018 Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria: The Bulgarian boyars accepted the establishment of the theme of Bulgaria on the territory of the former Empire, with significant autonomy for themselves. 1025 15 December Basil died. 1054 16 July East–West Schism: The papal legate Humbert of Silva Candida laid on the altar of Hagia Sophia a document proclaiming the excommunication of Michael I Cerularius, the patriarch of Constantinople. 1071 15 April Siege of Bari: Italo-Norman forces captured Bari, capital of the katepanikion of Italy. 26 August Battle of Manzikert: The Byzantine Empire was decisively defeated by a Seljuk force near Malazgirt. The basileus Romanos IV Diogenes was captured. 1081 1 April Nikephoros III Botaneiates was deposed and replaced as basileus by Alexios I Komnenos. 1091 29 April Battle of Levounion: The Byzantine army dealt a bloody defeat to a Pecheneg invasion force. 1097 19 June Siege of Nicaea: The Rum occupants of Nicaea surrendered to Byzantine and First Crusader forces. 1098 Following the conquest of Antioch, the First Crusader leader Bohemond I of Antioch declared himself prince of Antioch. 12th century Year Date Event 1118 15 August Reign of John II begins: Being considered the greatest Komnenoi emperor, he starts extensive damage control. 1122 Battle of Beroia: A Byzantine army wiped out the Pechenegs at Stara Zagora. 1124 War with Venice begins: Over the non-renewal of trading privileges by John II Komnenos. 1126 The war with Venice ends in defeat: The Venetian fleet ravaged the coasts of Greece, forcing the emperor to back down. 1127 Hungarians invade the Empire: Invaders go far south as Philippolis. 1129 Invading Hungarins are repelled 1136 John II launches his first serious campaign in the east. 1137 John II conquers the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia. 1139 John II vassalizes the Principality of Antioch. 1143 Death of John II: his death marks the beginning of straight decline. 1146 Sack of Philomelion: Under the orders from Manuel I, before relocating the Christian population. 1167 8 July Battle of Sirmium: Byzantium decisively defeated a Hungarian force at Sirmium. 1176 17 September Battle of Myriokephalon: A Byzantine invasion force was ambushed and forced to retreat through a mountain pass by Rum near Lake Beyşehir. 1180 24 September Basileus Manuel I Komnenos died. 1185 26 October Uprising of Asen and Peter: A tax revolt began in Paristrion which would result in the establishment of the Second Bulgarian Empire. 13th century Year Date Event 1204 13 April Siege of Constantinople (1204): Fourth Crusaders breached and sacked Constantinople, deposed the basileus Alexios V Doukas and established the Latin Empire under their leader Baldwin I, Latin Emperor as Latin Emperor. Theodore I Laskaris was acclaimed basileus but forced to flee with his court to establish the Empire of Nicaea at Nicaea. April Alexios I of Trebizond, a grandson of the former basileus Andronikos I Komnenos, declared himself ruler of Trebizond. 1205 Michael I Komnenos Doukas, a descendant of Alexios I Komnenos, established himself as despot of Epirus. 1261 25 July The Nicaean ruler Michael VIII Palaiologos conquered Constantinople . 15 August Michael was crowned basileus in Constantinople along with his infant son Andronikos II Palaiologos. 14th century Year Date Event 1326 Byzantine–Ottoman Wars: The Ottoman Empire conquered Bursa. 1331 Byzantine–Ottoman Wars: The Ottoman Empire captured Nicaea. 1341 26 October Byzantine civil war of 1341–47: The regent John VI Kantakouzenos was declared basileus by his supporters in opposition to the young John V Palaiologos. 1347 8 February Byzantine civil war of 1341–47: John VI concluded an arrangement under which he would rule as senior basileus alongside John V for ten years. 15th century Year Date Event 1453 29 May Fall of Constantinople: Ottoman forces entered Constantinople. Basileus Constantine XI Palaiologos was killed. See also History of the Roman Empire References ^ Forsythe, Gary (2015). A Companion to Livy. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 313–329. ^ Forsythe, Gary (2015). A Companion to Livy. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 313–329. ^ Grant, Michael (1993). The History of Rome. Faber & Faber. p. 42. ^ "Oxford Reference - Answers with Authority". www.oxfordreference.com. Retrieved 2018-12-15. ^ Eck, Werner; translated by Deborah Lucas Schneider; new material by Sarolta A. Takács. (2003) The Age of Augustus. 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en-wikipedia-org-1270	----	Roman navy - Wikipedia Roman navy From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Navy of ancient Rome Part of a series on the Military of ancient Rome 753 BC – AD 476 Structural history Army Unit types and ranks Decorations and punishments Legions Auxilia Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Campaign history Wars and battles Technological history Military engineering Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Political history   Strategy and tactics Infantry tactics Frontiers and fortifications Limes Limes Britannicus Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Limes Germanicus Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes Norican Limes Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannonian Limes Limes Alutanus Limes Moesiae Trajan's Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmatiae Limes Arabicus Limes Tripolitanus Limes Mauretaniae  Ancient Rome portal •  War portal v t e The Roman navy (Latin: Classis, lit. 'fleet') comprised the naval forces of the ancient Roman state. The navy was instrumental in the Roman conquest of the Mediterranean Basin, but it never enjoyed the prestige of the Roman legions. Throughout their history, the Romans remained a primarily land-based people and relied partially on their more nautically inclined subjects, such as the Greeks and the Egyptians, to build their ships. Because of that, the navy was never completely embraced by the Roman state, and deemed somewhat "un-Roman".[1] In antiquity, navies and trading fleets did not have the logistical autonomy that modern ships and fleets possess, and unlike modern naval forces, the Roman navy even at its height never existed as an autonomous service but operated as an adjunct to the Roman army. During the course of the First Punic War, the Roman navy was massively expanded and played a vital role in the Roman victory and the Roman Republic's eventual ascension to hegemony in the Mediterranean Sea. In the course of the first half of the 2nd century BC, Rome went on to destroy Carthage and subdue the Hellenistic kingdoms of the eastern Mediterranean, achieving complete mastery of the inland sea, which they called Mare Nostrum. The Roman fleets were again prominent in the 1st century BC in the wars against the pirates, and in the civil wars that brought down the Republic, whose campaigns ranged across the Mediterranean. In 31 BC, the great naval Battle of Actium ended the civil wars culminating in the final victory of Augustus and the establishment of the Roman Empire. During the Imperial period, the Mediterranean became largely a peaceful "Roman lake". In the absence of a maritime enemy, the navy was reduced mostly to patrol, anti-piracy and transport duties.[2] By far, the navy's most vital task was to ensure Roman grain imports were shipped and delivered to the capital unimpeded across the Mediterranean. The navy also manned and maintained craft on major frontier rivers such as the Rhine and the Danube for supplying the army. On the fringes of the Empire, in new conquests or, increasingly, in defense against barbarian invasions, the Roman fleets were still engaged in open warfare. The decline of the Empire in the 3rd century took a heavy toll on the navy, which was reduced to a shadow of its former self, both in size and in combat ability. As successive waves of the Völkerwanderung crashed on the land frontiers of the battered Empire, the navy could only play a secondary role. In the early 5th century, the Roman frontiers were breached, and barbarian kingdoms appeared on the shores of the western Mediterranean. One of them, the Vandal Kingdom, raised a navy of its own and raided the shores of the Mediterranean, even sacking Rome, while the diminished Roman fleets were incapable of offering any resistance. The Western Roman Empire collapsed in the late 5th century. The navy of the surviving eastern Roman Empire is known as the Byzantine navy. Contents 1 History 1.1 Early Republic 1.1.1 First Punic War 1.1.2 Illyria and the Second Punic War 1.1.3 Operations in the East 1.2 Late Republic 1.2.1 Mithridates and the pirate threat 1.2.2 Caesar and the Civil Wars 1.3 Principate 1.3.1 Operations under Augustus 1.3.2 Julio-Claudian dynasty 1.3.3 Flavian, Antonine and Severan dynasties 1.3.4 3rd century crisis 1.4 Late antiquity 2 Organization 2.1 Crews 2.2 High Command 2.3 Ship types 2.4 Armament and tactics 2.5 Fleets 2.5.1 Principate period 2.5.1.1 Praetorian fleets 2.5.1.2 Provincial fleets 2.5.2 Dominate period 2.5.2.1 Fleets of the Danube frontier 2.5.2.2 Fleets in Western Europe 2.5.2.3 Fleets in the Eastern Mediterranean 2.6 Ports 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References 6 External links History[edit] Early Republic[edit] The exact origins of the Roman fleet are obscure. A traditionally agricultural and land-based society, the Romans rarely ventured out to sea, unlike their Etruscan neighbours.[3] There is evidence of Roman warships in the early 4th century BC, such as mention of a warship that carried an embassy to Delphi in 394 BC, but at any rate, the Roman fleet, if it existed, was negligible.[4] The traditional birth date of the Roman navy is set at ca. 311 BC, when, after the conquest of Campania, two new officials, the duumviri navales classis ornandae reficiendaeque causa, were tasked with the maintenance of a fleet.[5][6] As a result, the Republic acquired its first fleet, consisting of 20 ships, most likely triremes, with each duumvir commanding a squadron of 10 ships.[4][6] However, the Republic continued to rely mostly on her legions for expansion in Italy; the navy was most likely geared towards combating piracy and lacked experience in naval warfare, being easily defeated in 282 BC by the Tarentines.[6][7][8] This situation continued until the First Punic War: the main task of the Roman fleet was patrolling along the Italian coast and rivers, protecting seaborne trade from piracy. Whenever larger tasks had to be undertaken, such as the naval blockade of a besieged city, the Romans called on the allied Greek cities of southern Italy, the socii navales, to provide ships and crews.[9] It is possible that the supervision of these maritime allies was one of the duties of the four new praetores classici, who were established in 267 BC.[10] First Punic War[edit] The first Roman expedition outside mainland Italy was against the island of Sicily in 265 BC. This led to the outbreak of hostilities with Carthage, which would last until 241 BC. At the time, the Punic city was the unchallenged master of the western Mediterranean, possessing a long maritime and naval experience and a large fleet. Although Rome had relied on her legions for the conquest of Italy, operations in Sicily had to be supported by a fleet, and the ships available by Rome's allies were insufficient.[10] Thus in 261 BC, the Roman Senate set out to construct a fleet of 100 quinqueremes and 20 triremes.[9] According to Polybius, the Romans seized a shipwrecked Carthaginian quinquereme, and used it as a blueprint for their own ships.[11] The new fleets were commanded by the annually elected Roman magistrates, but naval expertise was provided by the lower officers, who continued to be provided by the socii, mostly Greeks. This practice was continued until well into the Empire, something also attested by the direct adoption of numerous Greek naval terms.[12][13] Three-banked ("trireme") Roman quinquereme with the Corvus boarding bridge. The use of the Corvus negated the superior Carthaginian naval expertise, and allowed the Romans to establish their naval superiority in the western Mediterranean. Despite the massive buildup, the Roman crews remained inferior in naval experience to the Carthaginians, and could not hope to match them in naval tactics, which required great maneuverability and experience. They, therefore, employed a novel weapon that transformed sea warfare to their advantage. They equipped their ships with the corvus, possibly developed earlier by the Syracusans against the Athenians. This was a long plank with a spike for hooking onto enemy ships. Using it as a boarding bridge, marines were able to board an enemy ship, transforming sea combat into a version of land combat, where the Roman legionaries had the upper hand. However, it is believed that the Corvus' weight made the ships unstable, and could capsize a ship in rough seas.[14] Although the first sea engagement of the war, the Battle of the Lipari Islands in 260 BC, was a defeat for Rome, the forces involved were relatively small. Through the use of the Corvus, the fledgling Roman navy under Gaius Duilius won its first major engagement later that year at the Battle of Mylae. During the course of the war, Rome continued to be victorious at sea: victories at Sulci (258 BC) and Tyndaris (257 BC) were followed by the massive Battle of Cape Ecnomus, where the Roman fleet under the consuls Marcus Atilius Regulus and Lucius Manlius inflicted a severe defeat on the Carthaginians. This string of successes allowed Rome to push the war further across the sea to Africa and Carthage itself. Continued Roman success also meant that their navy gained significant experience, although it also suffered a number of catastrophic losses due to storms, while conversely, the Carthaginian navy suffered from attrition.[14] The Battle of Drepana in 249 BC resulted in the only major Carthaginian sea victory, forcing the Romans to equip a new fleet from donations by private citizens. In the last battle of the war, at Aegates Islands in 241 BC, the Romans under Gaius Lutatius Catulus displayed superior seamanship to the Carthaginians, notably using their rams rather than the now-abandoned Corvus to achieve victory.[14] Illyria and the Second Punic War[edit] Roman as coin of the second half of the 3rd century BC, featuring the prow of a galley, most likely a quinquereme. Several similar issues are known, illustrating the importance of naval power during that period of Rome's history. After the Roman victory, the balance of naval power in the Western Mediterranean had shifted from Carthage to Rome.[15] This ensured Carthaginian acquiescence to the conquest of Sardinia and Corsica, and also enabled Rome to deal decisively with the threat posed by the Illyrian pirates in the Adriatic. The Illyrian Wars marked Rome's first involvement with the affairs of the Balkan peninsula.[16] Initially, in 229 BC, a fleet of 200 warships was sent against Queen Teuta, and swiftly expelled the Illyrian garrisons from the Greek coastal cities of modern-day Albania.[15] Ten years later, the Romans sent another expedition in the area against Demetrius of Pharos, who had rebuilt the Illyrian navy and engaged in piracy up into the Aegean. Demetrius was supported by Philip V of Macedon, who had grown anxious at the expansion of Roman power in Illyria.[17] The Romans were again quickly victorious and expanded their Illyrian protectorate, but the beginning of the Second Punic War (218–201 BC) forced them to divert their resources westwards for the next decades. Due to Rome's command of the seas, Hannibal, Carthage's great general, was forced to eschew a sea-borne invasion, instead choosing to bring the war over land to the Italian peninsula.[18] Unlike the first war, the navy played little role on either side in this war. The only naval encounters occurred in the first years of the war, at Lilybaeum (218 BC) and the Ebro River (217 BC), both resulting Roman victories. Despite an overall numerical parity, for the remainder of the war the Carthaginians did not seriously challenge Roman supremacy. The Roman fleet was hence engaged primarily with raiding the shores of Africa and guarding Italy, a task which included the interception of Carthaginian convoys of supplies and reinforcements for Hannibal's army, as well as keeping an eye on a potential intervention by Carthage's ally, Philip V.[19] The only major action in which the Roman fleet was involved was the siege of Syracuse in 214–212 BC with 130 ships under Marcus Claudius Marcellus. The siege is remembered for the ingenious inventions of Archimedes, such as mirrors that burned ships or the so-called "Claw of Archimedes", which kept the besieging army at bay for two years.[20] A fleet of 160 vessels was assembled to support Scipio Africanus' army in Africa in 202 BC, and, should his expedition fail, evacuate his men. In the event, Scipio achieved a decisive victory at Zama, and the subsequent peace stripped Carthage of its fleet.[21] Operations in the East[edit] A Roman naval bireme depicted in a relief from the Temple of Fortuna Primigenia in Praeneste (Palastrina),[22] which was built c. 120 BC;[23] exhibited in the Pius-Clementine Museum (Museo Pio-Clementino) in the Vatican Museums. Rome was now the undisputed master of the Western Mediterranean, and turned her gaze from defeated Carthage to the Hellenistic world. Small Roman forces had already been engaged in the First Macedonian War, when, in 214 BC, a fleet under Marcus Valerius Laevinus had successfully thwarted Philip V from invading Illyria with his newly built fleet. The rest of the war was carried out mostly by Rome's allies, the Aetolian League and later the Kingdom of Pergamon, but a combined Roman–Pergamene fleet of ca. 60 ships patrolled the Aegean until the war's end in 205 BC. In this conflict, Rome, still embroiled in the Punic War, was not interested in expanding her possessions, but rather in thwarting the growth of Philip's power in Greece. The war ended in an effective stalemate, and was renewed in 201 BC, when Philip V invaded Asia Minor. A naval battle off Chios ended in a costly victory for the Pergamene–Rhodian alliance, but the Macedonian fleet lost many warships, including its flagship, a deceres.[24] Soon after, Pergamon and Rhodes appealed to Rome for help, and the Republic was drawn into the Second Macedonian War. In view of the massive Roman naval superiority, the war was fought on land, with the Macedonian fleet, already weakened at Chios, not daring to venture out of its anchorage at Demetrias.[24] After the crushing Roman victory at Cynoscephalae, the terms imposed on Macedon were harsh, and included the complete disbandment of her navy. Almost immediately following the defeat of Macedon, Rome became embroiled in a war with the Seleucid Empire. This war too was decided mainly on land, although the combined Roman–Rhodian navy also achieved victories over the Seleucids at Myonessus and Eurymedon. These victories, which were invariably concluded with the imposition of peace treaties that prohibited the maintenance of anything but token naval forces, spelled the disappearance of the Hellenistic royal navies, leaving Rome and her allies unchallenged at sea. Coupled with the final destruction of Carthage, and the end of Macedon's independence, by the latter half of the 2nd century BC, Roman control over all of what was later to be dubbed mare nostrum ("our sea") had been established. Subsequently, the Roman navy was drastically reduced, depending on its Socii navales.[25] Late Republic[edit] Mithridates and the pirate threat[edit] Pompey the Great. His swift and decisive campaign against the pirates re-established Rome's control over the Mediterranean sea lanes. In the absence of a strong naval presence however, piracy flourished throughout the Mediterranean, especially in Cilicia, but also in Crete and other places, further reinforced by money and warships supplied by King Mithridates VI of Pontus, who hoped to enlist their aid in his wars against Rome.[26] In the First Mithridatic War (89–85 BC), Sulla had to requisition ships wherever he could find them to counter Mithridates' fleet. Despite the makeshift nature of the Roman fleet however, in 86 BC Lucullus defeated the Pontic navy at Tenedos.[27] Immediately after the end of the war, a permanent force of ca. 100 vessels was established in the Aegean from the contributions of Rome's allied maritime states. Although sufficient to guard against Mithridates, this force was totally inadequate against the pirates, whose power grew rapidly.[27] Over the next decade, the pirates defeated several Roman commanders, and raided unhindered even to the shores of Italy, reaching Rome's harbor, Ostia.[28] According to the account of Plutarch, "the ships of the pirates numbered more than a thousand, and the cities captured by them four hundred."[29] Their activity posed a growing threat for the Roman economy, and a challenge to Roman power: several prominent Romans, including two praetors with their retinue and the young Julius Caesar, were captured and held for ransom. Perhaps most important of all, the pirates disrupted Rome's vital lifeline, namely the massive shipments of grain and other produce from Africa and Egypt that were needed to sustain the city's population.[30] The resulting grain shortages were a major political issue, and popular discontent threatened to become explosive. In 74 BC, with the outbreak of the Third Mithridatic War, Marcus Antonius (the father of Mark Antony) was appointed praetor with extraordinary imperium against the pirate threat, but signally failed in his task: he was defeated off Crete in 72 BC, and died shortly after.[31] Finally, in 67 BC the Lex Gabinia was passed in the Plebeian Council, vesting Pompey with unprecedented powers and authorizing him to move against them.[32] In a massive and concerted campaign, Pompey cleared the seas of the pirates in only three months.[25][33] Afterwards, the fleet was reduced again to policing duties against intermittent piracy. Caesar and the Civil Wars[edit] In 56 BC, for the first time a Roman fleet engaged in battle outside the Mediterranean. This occurred during Julius Caesar's Gallic Wars, when the maritime tribe of the Veneti rebelled against Rome. Against the Veneti, the Romans were at a disadvantage, since they did not know the coast, and were inexperienced in fighting in the open sea with its tides and currents.[34] Furthermore, the Veneti ships were superior to the light Roman galleys. They were built of oak and had no oars, being thus more resistant to ramming. In addition, their greater height gave them an advantage in both missile exchanges and boarding actions.[35] In the event, when the two fleets encountered each other in Quiberon Bay, Caesar's navy, under the command of D. Brutus, resorted to the use of hooks on long poles, which cut the halyards supporting the Veneti sails.[36] Immobile, the Veneti ships were easy prey for the legionaries who boarded them, and fleeing Veneti ships were taken when they became becalmed by a sudden lack of winds.[37] Having thus established his control of the English Channel, in the next years Caesar used this newly built fleet to carry out two invasions of Britain. Silver denarius struck by Sextus Pompeius in 44–43 BC, featuring a bust of Pompey the Great and a Roman warship. The last major campaigns of the Roman navy in the Mediterranean until the late 3rd century AD would be in the civil wars that ended the Republic. In the East, the Republican faction quickly established its control, and Rhodes, the last independent maritime power in the Aegean, was subdued by Gaius Cassius Longinus in 43 BC, after its fleet was defeated off Kos. In the West, against the triumvirs stood Sextus Pompeius, who had been given command of the Italian fleet by the Senate in 43 BC. He took control of Sicily and made it his base, blockading Italy and stopping the politically crucial supply of grain from Africa to Rome.[38] After suffering a defeat from Sextus in 42 BC, Octavian initiated massive naval armaments, aided by his closest associate, Marcus Agrippa: ships were built at Ravenna and Ostia, the new artificial harbor of Portus Julius built at Cumae, and soldiers and rowers levied, including over 20,000 manumitted slaves.[39] Finally, Octavian and Agrippa defeated Sextus in the Battle of Naulochus in 36 BC, putting an end to all Pompeian resistance. The Battle of Actium, by Laureys a Castro, painted 1672. Octavian's power was further enhanced after his victory against the combined fleets of Mark Antony and Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, in the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, where Antony had assembled 500 ships against Octavian's 400 ships.[40] This last naval battle of the Roman Republic definitively established Octavian as the sole ruler over Rome and the Mediterranean world. In the aftermath of his victory, he formalized the Fleet's structure, establishing several key harbors in the Mediterranean (see below). The now fully professional navy had its main duties consist of protecting against piracy, escorting troops and patrolling the river frontiers of Europe. It remained however engaged in active warfare in the periphery of the Empire. Principate[edit] Operations under Augustus[edit] Under Augustus and after the conquest of Egypt there were increasing demands from the Roman economy to extend the trade lanes to India. The Arabian control of all sea routes to India was an obstacle. One of the first naval operations under princeps Augustus was therefore the preparation for a campaign on the Arabian Peninsula. Aelius Gallus, the prefect of Egypt ordered the construction of 130 transports and subsequently carried 10,000 soldiers to Arabia.[41] But the following march through the desert towards Yemen failed and the plans for control of the Arabian peninsula had to be abandoned. At the other end of the Empire, in Germania, the navy played an important role in the supply and transport of the legions. In 15 BC an independent fleet was installed at the Lake Constance. Later, the generals Drusus and Tiberius used the Navy extensively, when they tried to extend the Roman frontier to the Elbe. In 12 BC Drusus ordered the construction of a fleet of 1,000 ships and sailed them along the Rhine into the North Sea.[42] The Frisii and Chauci had nothing to oppose the superior numbers, tactics and technology of the Romans. When these entered the river mouths of Weser and Ems, the local tribes had to surrender. In 5 BC the Roman knowledge concerning the North and Baltic Sea was fairly extended during a campaign by Tiberius, reaching as far as the Elbe: Plinius describes how Roman naval formations came past Heligoland and set sail to the north-eastern coast of Denmark, and Augustus himself boasts in his Res Gestae: "My fleet sailed from the mouth of the Rhine eastward as far as the lands of the Cimbri to which, up to that time, no Roman had ever penetrated either by land or by sea...".[43] The multiple naval operations north of Germania had to be abandoned after the battle of the Teutoburg Forest in the year 9 AD. Julio-Claudian dynasty[edit] In the years 15 and 16, Germanicus carried out several fleet operations along the rivers Rhine and Ems, without permanent results due to grim Germanic resistance and a disastrous storm.[44] By 28, the Romans lost further control of the Rhine mouth in a succession of Frisian insurgencies. From 43 to 85, the Roman navy played an important role in the Roman conquest of Britain. The classis Germanica rendered outstanding services in multitudinous landing operations. In 46, a naval expedition made a push deep into the Black Sea region and even travelled on the Tanais. In 47 a revolt by the Chauci, who took to piratical activities along the Gallic coast, was subdued by Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo.[45] By 57 an expeditionary corps reached Chersonesos (see Charax, Crimea). It seems that under Nero, the navy obtained strategically important positions for trading with India; but there was no known fleet in the Red Sea. Possibly, parts of the Alexandrian fleet were operating as escorts for the Indian trade. In the Jewish revolt, from 66 to 70, the Romans were forced to fight Jewish ships, operating from a harbour in the area of modern Tel Aviv, on Israel's Mediterranean coast. In the meantime several flotilla engagements on the Sea of Galilee took place. In 68, as his reign became increasingly insecure, Nero raised legio I Adiutrix from sailors of the praetorian fleets. After Nero's overthrow, in 69, the "Year of the four emperors", the praetorian fleets supported Emperor Otho against the usurper Vitellius,[46] and after his eventual victory, Vespasian formed another legion, legio II Adiutrix, from their ranks.[47] Only in the Pontus did Anicetus, the commander of the Classis Pontica, support Vitellius. He burned the fleet, and sought refuge with the Iberian tribes, engaging in piracy. After a new fleet was built, this revolt was subdued.[48] Flavian, Antonine and Severan dynasties[edit] Two-banked lburnians of the Danube fleets during Trajan's Dacian Wars. Casts of reliefs from Trajan's Column, Rome. Mosaic of a Roman galley, Bardo Museum, Tunisia, 2nd century AD. During the Batavian rebellion of Gaius Julius Civilis (69–70), the rebels got hold of a squadron of the Rhine fleet by treachery,[49] and the conflict featured frequent use of the Roman Rhine flotilla. In the last phase of the war, the British fleet and legio XIV were brought in from Britain to attack the Batavian coast, but the Cananefates, allies of the Batavians, were able to destroy or capture a large part of the fleet.[50] In the meantime, the new Roman commander, Quintus Petillius Cerialis, advanced north and constructed a new fleet. Civilis attempted only a short encounter with his own fleet, but could not hinder the superior Roman force from landing and ravaging the island of the Batavians, leading to the negotiation of a peace soon after.[51] In the years 82 to 85, the Romans under Gnaeus Julius Agricola launched a campaign against the Caledonians in modern Scotland. In this context the Roman navy significantly escalated activities on the eastern Scottish coast.[52] Simultaneously multiple expeditions and reconnaissance trips were launched. During these the Romans would capture the Orkney Islands (Orcades) for a short period of time and obtained information about the Shetland Islands.[53] There is some speculation about a Roman landing in Ireland, based on Tacitus reports about Agricola contemplating the island's conquest,[54] but no conclusive evidence to support this theory has been found. Under the Five Good Emperors the navy operated mainly on the rivers; so it played an important role during Trajan's conquest of Dacia and temporarily an independent fleet for the Euphrates and Tigris rivers was founded. Also during the wars against the Marcomanni confederation under Marcus Aurelius several combats took place on the Danube and the Tisza. Under the aegis of the Severan dynasty, the only known military operations of the navy were carried out under Septimius Severus, using naval assistance on his campaigns along the Euphrates and Tigris, as well as in Scotland. Thereby Roman ships reached inter alia the Persian Gulf and the top of the British Isles. 3rd century crisis[edit] As the 3rd century dawned, the Roman Empire was at its peak. In the Mediterranean, peace had reigned for over two centuries, as piracy had been wiped out and no outside naval threats occurred. As a result, complacency had set in: naval tactics and technology were neglected, and the Roman naval system had become moribund.[55] After 230 however and for fifty years, the situation changed dramatically. The so-called "Crisis of the Third Century" ushered a period of internal turmoil, and the same period saw a renewed series of seaborne assaults, which the imperial fleets proved unable to stem.[56] In the West, Picts and Irish ships raided Britain, while the Saxons raided the North Sea, forcing the Romans to abandon Frisia.[56] In the East, the Goths and other tribes from modern Ukraine raided in great numbers over the Black Sea.[57] These invasions began during the rule of Trebonianus Gallus, when for the first time Germanic tribes built up their own powerful fleet in the Black Sea. Via two surprise attacks (256) on Roman naval bases in the Caucasus and near the Danube, numerous ships fell into the hands of the Germans, whereupon the raids were extended as far as the Aegean Sea; Byzantium, Athens, Sparta and other towns were plundered and the responsible provincial fleets were heavily debilitated. It was not until the attackers made a tactical error, that their onrush could be stopped. In 267–270 another, much fiercer series of attacks took place. A fleet composed of Heruli and other tribes raided the coasts of Thrace and the Pontus. Defeated off Byzantium by general Venerianus,[58] the barbarians fled into the Aegean, and ravaged many islands and coastal cities, including Athens and Corinth. As they retreated northwards over land, they were defeated by Emperor Gallienus at Nestos.[59] However, this was merely the prelude to an even larger invasion that was launched in 268/269: several tribes banded together (the Historia Augusta mentions Scythians, Greuthungi, Tervingi, Gepids, Peucini, Celts and Heruli) and allegedly 2,000 ships and 325,000 men strong,[60] raided the Thracian shore, attacked Byzantium and continued raiding the Aegean as far as Crete, while the main force approached Thessalonica. Emperor Claudius II however was able to defeat them at the Battle of Naissus, ending the Gothic threat for the time being.[61] Barbarian raids also increased along the Rhine frontier and in the North Sea. Eutropius mentions that during the 280s, the sea along the coasts of the provinces of Belgica and Armorica was "infested with Franks and Saxons". To counter them, Maximian appointed Carausius as commander of the British Fleet.[62] However, Carausius rose up in late 286 and seceded from the Empire with Britannia and parts of the northern Gallic coast.[63] With a single blow Roman control of the channel and the North Sea was lost, and emperor Maximinus was forced to create a completely new Northern Fleet, but in lack of training it was almost immediately destroyed in a storm.[64] Only in 293, under Caesar Constantius Chlorus did Rome regain the Gallic coast. A new fleet was constructed in order to cross the Channel,[65] and in 296, with a concentric attack on Londinium the insurgent province was retaken.[66] Late antiquity[edit] By the end of the 3rd century, the Roman navy had declined dramatically. Although Emperor Diocletian is held to have strengthened the navy, and increased its manpower from 46,000 to 64,000 men,[67] the old standing fleets had all but vanished, and in the civil wars that ended the Tetrarchy, the opposing sides had to mobilize the resources and commandeered the ships of the Eastern Mediterranean port cities.[57] These conflicts thus brought about a renewal of naval activity, culminating in the Battle of the Hellespont in 324 between the forces of Constantine I under Caesar Crispus and the fleet of Licinius, which was the only major naval confrontation of the 4th century. Vegetius, writing at the end of the 4th century, testifies to the disappearance of the old praetorian fleets in Italy, but comments on the continued activity of the Danube fleet.[68] In the 5th century, only the eastern half of the Empire could field an effective fleet, as it could draw upon the maritime resources of Greece and the Levant. Although the Notitia Dignitatum still mentions several naval units for the Western Empire, these were apparently too depleted to be able to carry out much more than patrol duties.[69] At any rate, the rise of the naval power of the Vandal Kingdom under Geiseric in North Africa, and its raids in the Western Mediterranean, were practically uncontested.[57] Although there is some evidence of West Roman naval activity in the first half of the 5th century, this is mostly confined to troop transports and minor landing operations.[68] The historian Priscus and Sidonius Apollinaris affirm in their writings that by the mid-5th century, the Western Empire essentially lacked a war navy.[70] Matters became even worse after the disastrous failure of the fleets mobilized against the Vandals in 460 and 468, under the emperors Majorian and Anthemius. For the West, there would be no recovery, as the last Western Emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed in 476. In the East however, the classical naval tradition survived, and in the 6th century, a standing navy was reformed.[57] The East Roman (Byzantine) navy would remain a formidable force in the Mediterranean until the 11th century. Organization[edit] Crews[edit] Roman warship on a denarius of Mark Antony The bulk of a galley's crew was formed by the rowers, the remiges (sing. remex) or eretai (sing. eretēs) in Greek. Despite popular perceptions, the Roman fleet, and ancient fleets in general, relied throughout their existence on rowers of free status, and not on galley slaves. Slaves were employed only in times of pressing manpower demands or extreme emergency, and even then, they were freed first.[71] In Imperial times, non-citizen freeborn provincials (peregrini), chiefly from nations with a maritime background such as Greeks, Phoenicians, Syrians and Egyptians, formed the bulk of the fleets' crews.[71][72] During the early Principate, a ship's crew, regardless of its size, was organized as a centuria. Crewmen could sign on as marines (Called Marinus), rowers/seamen, craftsmen and various other jobs, though all personnel serving in the imperial fleet were classed as milites ("soldiers"), regardless of their function; only when differentiation with the army was required, were the adjectives classiarius or classicus added. Along with several other instances of prevalence of army terminology, this testifies to the lower social status of naval personnel, considered inferior to the auxiliaries and the legionaries.[71] Emperor Claudius first gave legal privileges to the navy's crewmen, enabling them to receive Roman citizenship after their period of service.[73] This period was initially set at a minimum of 26 years (one year more than the legions), and was later expanded to 28. Upon honorable discharge (honesta missio), the sailors received a sizable cash payment as well.[74] As in the army, the ship's centuria was headed by a centurion with an optio as his deputy, while a beneficiarius supervised a small administrative staff.[13] Among the crew were also a number of principales (junior officers) and immunes (specialists exempt from certain duties). Some of these positions, mostly administrative, were identical to those of the army auxiliaries, while some (mostly of Greek provenance) were peculiar to the fleet. An inscription from the island of Cos, dated to the First Mithridatic War, provides us with a list of a ship's officers, the nautae: the gubernator (kybernētēs in Greek) was the helmsman or pilot, the celeusta (keleustēs in Greek) supervised the rowers, a proreta (prōreus in Greek) was the look-out stationed at the bow, a pentacontarchos was apparently a junior officer, and an iatros (Lat. medicus), the ship's doctor.[75] Each ship was commanded by a trierarchus, whose exact relationship with the ship's centurion is unclear. Squadrons, most likely of ten ships each, were put under a nauarchus, who often appears to have risen from the ranks of the trierarchi.[71][76][77] The post of nauarchus archigubernes or nauarchus princeps appeared later in the Imperial period, and functioned either as a commander of several squadrons or as an executive officer under a civilian admiral, equivalent to the legionary primus pilus.[78][79] All these were professional officers, usually peregrini, who had a status equal to an auxiliary centurion (and were thus increasingly called centuriones [classiarii] after ca. 70 AD).[80] Until the reign of Antoninus Pius, their careers were restricted to the fleet.[13] Only in the 3rd century were these officers equated to the legionary centurions in status and pay, and could henceforth be transferred to a similar position in the legions.[81] Merchant vessels were commanded by the magister navis. If privately owned, the owner was called exercitor navis.[82] The modern term of "master" to designate a captain of a merchant vessel derives from the magister navis. High Command[edit] During the Republic, command of a fleet was given to a serving magistrate or promagistrate, usually of consular or praetorian rank.[83] In the Punic Wars for instance, one consul would usually command the fleet, and another the army. In the subsequent wars in the Eastern Mediterranean, praetors would assume the command of the fleet. However, since these men were political appointees, the actual handling of the fleets and of separate squadrons was entrusted to their more experienced legates and subordinates. It was therefore during the Punic Wars that the separate position of praefectus classis ("fleet prefect") first appeared.[84] Initially subordinate to the magistrate in command, after the fleet's reorganization by Augustus, the praefectus classis became a procuratorial position in charge of each of the permanent fleets. These posts were initially filled either from among the equestrian class, or, especially under Claudius, from the Emperor's freedmen, thus securing imperial control over the fleets.[85] From the period of the Flavian emperors, the status of the praefectura was raised, and only equestrians with military experience who had gone through the militia equestri were appointed.[78][85] Nevertheless, the prefects remained largely political appointees, and despite their military experience, usually in command of army auxiliary units, their knowledge of naval matters was minimal, forcing them to rely on their professional subordinates.[74] The difference in importance of the fleets they commanded was also reflected by the rank and the corresponding pay of the commanders. The prefects of the two praetorian fleets were ranked procuratores ducenarii, meaning they earned 200,000 sesterces annually, the prefects of the Classis Germanica, the Classis Britannica and later the Classis Pontica were centenarii (i.e. earning 100,000 sesterces), while the other fleet prefects were sexagenarii (i.e. they received 60,000 sesterces).[86] Ship types[edit] Further information: Hellenistic-era warships Model of a Roman bireme The generic Roman term for an oar-driven galley warship was "long ship" (Latin: navis longa, Greek: naus makra), as opposed to the sail-driven navis oneraria (from onus, oneris: burden), a merchant vessel, or the minor craft (navigia minora) like the scapha.[87] The navy consisted of a wide variety of different classes of warships, from heavy polyremes to light raiding and scouting vessels. Unlike the rich Hellenistic Successor kingdoms in the East however, the Romans did not rely on heavy warships, with quinqueremes (Gk. pentērēs), and to a lesser extent quadriremes (Gk. tetrērēs) and triremes (Gk. triērēs) providing the mainstay of the Roman fleets from the Punic Wars to the end of the Civil Wars.[88] The heaviest vessel mentioned in Roman fleets during this period was the hexareme, of which a few were used as flagships.[89] Lighter vessels such as the liburnians and the hemiolia, both swift types invented by pirates, were also adopted as scouts and light transport vessels. During the final confrontation between Octavian and Mark Antony, Octavian's fleet was composed of quinqueremes, together with some "sixes" and many triremes and liburnians, while Antony, who had the resources of Ptolemaic Egypt to draw upon,[88] fielded a fleet also mostly composed of quinqueremes, but with a sizeable complement of heavier warships, ranging from "sixes" to "tens" (Gk. dekērēs).[90][91] Later historical tradition made much of the prevalence of lighter and swifter vessels in Octavian's fleet,[92] with Vegetius even explicitly ascribing Octavian's victory to the liburnians.[93] Reconstruction of a late Roman navis lusoria at Mainz This prominence of lighter craft in the historical narrative is perhaps best explained in light of subsequent developments. After Actium, the operational landscape had changed: for the remainder of the Principate, no opponent existed to challenge Roman naval hegemony, and no massed naval confrontation was likely. The tasks at hand for the Roman navy were now the policing of the Mediterranean waterways and the border rivers, suppression of piracy, and escort duties for the grain shipments to Rome and for imperial army expeditions. Lighter ships were far better suited to these tasks, and after the reorganization of the fleet following Actium, the largest ship kept in service was a hexareme, the flagship of the Classis Misenensis. The bulk of the fleets was composed of the lighter triremes and liburnians (Latin: liburna, Greek: libyrnis), with the latter apparently providing the majority of the provincial fleets.[94] In time, the term "liburnian" came to mean "warship" in a generic sense.[25] In addition, there were smaller oared vessels, such as the navis actuaria, with 30 oars (15 on each bank), a ship primarily used for transport in coastal and fluvial operations, for which its shallow draught and flat keel were ideal. In late antiquity, it was succeeded in this role by the navis lusoria ("playful ship"), which was extensively used for patrols and raids by the legionary flotillas in the Rhine and Danube frontiers. Roman ships were commonly named after gods (Mars, Iuppiter, Minerva, Isis), mythological heroes (Hercules), geographical maritime features such as Rhenus or Oceanus, concepts such as Harmony, Peace, Loyalty, Victory (Concordia, Pax, Fides, Victoria) or after important events (Dacicus for the Trajan's Dacian Wars or Salamina for the Battle of Salamis).[95] They were distinguished by their figurehead (insigne or parasemum),[96] and, during the Civil Wars at least, by the paint schemes on their turrets, which varied according to each fleet.[97] Armament and tactics[edit] Ballistae on a Roman ship In classical antiquity, a ship's main weapon was the ram (rostra, hence the name navis rostrata for a warship), which was used to sink or immobilize an enemy ship by holing its hull. Its use, however, required a skilled and experienced crew and a fast and agile ship like a trireme or quinquereme. In the Hellenistic period, the larger navies came instead to rely on greater vessels. This had several advantages: the heavier and sturdier construction lessened the effects of ramming, and the greater space and stability of the vessels allowed the transport not only of more marines, but also the placement of deck-mounted ballistae and catapults.[98] Although the ram continued to be a standard feature of all warships and ramming the standard mode of attack, these developments transformed the role of a warship: from the old "manned missile", designed to sink enemy ships, they became mobile artillery platforms, which engaged in missile exchange and boarding actions. The Romans in particular, being initially inexperienced at sea combat, relied upon boarding actions through the use of the Corvus. Although it brought them some decisive victories, it was discontinued because it tended to unbalance the quinqueremes in high seas; two Roman fleets are recorded to have been lost during storms in the First Punic War.[99] During the Civil Wars, a number of technical innovations, which are attributed to Agrippa,[100] took place: the harpax, a catapult-fired grappling hook, which was used to clamp onto an enemy ship, reel it in and board it, in a much more efficient way than with the old corvus, and the use of collapsible fighting towers placed one apiece bow and stern, which were used to provide the boarders with supporting fire.[101] Fleets[edit] Principate period[edit] Map of the Roman fleets and major naval bases during the Principate After the end of the civil wars, Augustus reduced and reorganized the Roman armed forces, including the navy. A large part of the fleet of Mark Antony was burned, and the rest was withdrawn to a new base at Forum Iulii (modern Fréjus),[102] which remained operative until the reign of Claudius.[103] However, the bulk of the fleet was soon subdivided into two praetorian fleets at Misenum and Ravenna, supplemented by a growing number of minor ones in the provinces, which were often created on an ad hoc basis for specific campaigns. This organizational structure was maintained almost unchanged until the 4th century. Praetorian fleets[edit] The two major fleets were stationed in Italy and acted as a central naval reserve, directly available to the Emperor (hence the designation "praetorian"). In the absence of any naval threat, their duties mostly involved patrolling and transport duties. These were not confined to the waters around Italy, but throughout the Mediterranean. There is epigraphic evidence for the presence of sailors of the two praetorian fleets at Piraeus and Syria. These two fleets were: The Classis Misenensis, established in 27 BC and based at Portus Julius. Later Classis praetoria Misenesis Pia Vindex. Detachments of the fleet served at secondary bases, such as Ostia, Puteoli, Centumcellae and other harbors.[104] The Classis Ravennas, established in 27 BC and based at Ravenna. Later Classis praetoria Ravennatis Pia Vindex. Provincial fleets[edit] The various provincial fleets were smaller than the praetorian fleets and composed mostly of lighter vessels. Nevertheless, it was these fleets that saw action, in full campaigns or raids on the periphery of the Empire. The Classis Africana Commodiana Herculea, established by Commodus in 186 to secure the grain shipments (annona) from North Africa to Italy,[105] after the model of the Classis Alexandrina. The Classis Alexandriae, based in Alexandria, it controlled the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea. It was founded by Augustus around 30 BC, probably from ships that fought at the Battle of Actium and manned mostly by Greeks of the Nile Delta.[106] Having supported emperor Vespasian in the civil war of 69, it was awarded of the cognomen Augusta.[106] The fleet was responsible chiefly for the escort of the grain shipments to Rome (and later Constantinople), and also apparently operated the Potamophylaciae, the Nile river patrol.[107] The Classis Britannica, established in 40 or 43 AD at Gesoriacum (Boulogne-sur-Mer).[108] It participated in the Roman invasion of Britain and the subsequent campaigns in the island.[106] The fleet was probably based at Rutupiae (Richborough) until 85 AD, when it was transferred to Dubris (Dover). Other bases were Portus Lemanis (Lympne) and Anderitum (Pevensey), while Gesoriacum on the Gallic coast likely remained active.[109] During the 2nd–3rd centuries, the fleet was chiefly employed in transport of supplies and men across the English Channel. The Classis Britannica disappears (at least under that name) from the mid-3rd century, and the sites occupied by it were soon incorporated into the Saxon Shore system.[109] The Classis Germanica was established in 12 BC by Drusus at Castra Vetera.[110] It controlled the Rhine river, and was mainly a fluvial fleet, although it also operated in the North Sea. It is noteworthy that the Romans' initial lack of experience with the tides of the ocean left Drusus' fleet stranded on the Zuiderzee.[111] After ca. 30 AD, the fleet moved its main base to the castrum of Alteburg, some 4 km south of Colonia Agrippinensis (modern Cologne).[112] Later granted the honorifics Augusta Pia Fidelis Domitiana following the suppression of the Revolt of Saturninus.[113] The Classis nova Libyca, first mentioned in 180, based most likely at Ptolemais on the Cyrenaica. The Classis Mauretanica, based at Caesarea Mauretaniae (modern Cherchell), it controlled the African coasts of the western Mediterranean Sea. Established on a permanent basis after the raids by the Moors in the early 170s. The Classis Moesica was established sometime between 20 BC and 10 AD.[110] It was based in Noviodunum and controlled the Lower Danube from the Iron Gates to the northwestern Black Sea as far as the Crimea.[114] The honorific Flavia, awarded to it and to the Classis pannonica, may indicate its reorganization by Vespasian.[115] The Classis Pannonica, a fluvial fleet controlling the Upper Danube from Castra Regina in Raetia (modern Regensburg) to Singidunum in Moesia (modern Belgrade). Its exact date of establishment is unknown. Some trace it to Augustus' campaigns in Pannonia in ca. 35 BC, but it was certainly in existence by 45 AD.[113][116] Its main base was probably Taurunum (modern Zemun) at the confluence of the river Sava with the Danube. Under the Flavian dynasty, it received the cognomen Flavia.[116] The Classis Perinthia, established after the annexation of Thrace in 46 AD and based in Perinthus. Probably based on the indigenous navy, it operated in the Propontis and the Thracian coast.[48] Probably united with the Classis Pontica at a later stage. The Classis Pontica, founded in 64 AD from the Pontic royal fleet,[110][117] and based in Trapezus, although on occasion it was moved to Byzantium (in ca. 70),[118] and in 170, to Cyzicus.[119] This fleet was used to guard the southern and eastern Black Sea, and the entrance of the Bosporus.[85] According to the historian Josephus, in the latter half of the 1st century, it numbered 40 warships and 3,000 men.[120] The Classis Syriaca, established probably under Vespasian, and based in Seleucia Pieria (hence the alternative name Classis Seleucena)[121] in Syria.[107] This fleet controlled the Eastern Mediterranean and the Aegean sea. In addition, there is significant archaeological evidence for naval activity by certain legions, which in all likelihood operated their own squadrons: legio XXII Primigenia in the Upper Rhine and Main rivers, legio X Fretensis in the Jordan River and the Sea of Galilee, and several legionary squadrons in the Danube frontier.[122] Dominate period[edit] Our main source for the structure of the late Roman military is the Notitia Dignitatum, which corresponds to the situation of the 390s for the Eastern Empire and the 420s for the Western Empire. Notable in the Notitia is the large number of smaller squadrons that have been created, most of these fluvial and of a local operational role. Fleets of the Danube frontier[edit] The Upper Danube (Pannonian) limes The Lower Danube (Moesian) limes The Classis Pannonica and the Classis Moesica were broken up into several smaller squadrons, collectively termed Classis Histrica, authority of the frontier commanders (duces).[123] with bases at Mursa in Pannonia II,[124] Florentia in Pannonia Valeria,[125] Arruntum in Pannonia I,[126] Viminacium in Moesia I[127] and Aegetae in Dacia ripensis.[128] Smaller fleets are also attested on the tributaries of the Danube: the Classis Arlapensis et Maginensis (based at Arelape and Comagena) and the Classis Lauriacensis (based at Lauriacum) in Pannonia I,[126] the Classis Stradensis et Germensis, based at Margo in Moesia I,[127] and the Classis Ratianensis, in Dacia ripensis.[128] The naval units were complemented by port garrisons and marine units, drawn from the army. In the Danube frontier these were: In Pannonia I and Noricum ripensis, naval detachments (milites liburnarii) of the legio XIV Gemina and the legio X Gemina at Carnuntum and Arrabonae, and of the legio II Italica at Ioviacum.[126] In Pannonia II, the I Flavia Augusta (at Sirmium) and the II Flavia are listed under their prefects.[124] In Moesia II, two units of sailors (milites nauclarii) at Appiaria and Altinum.[129] In Scythia Minor, marines (muscularii)[130] of legio II Herculia at Inplateypegiis and sailors (nauclarii) at Flaviana.[131] Fleets in Western Europe[edit] In the West, and in particular in Gaul, several fluvial fleets had been established. These came under the command of the magister peditum of the West, and were:[132] The Classis Anderetianorum, based at Parisii (Paris) and operating in the Seine and Oise rivers. The Classis Ararica, based at Caballodunum (Chalon-sur-Saône) and operating in the Saône River. A Classis barcariorum, composed of small vessels, at Eburodunum (modern Yverdon-les-Bains) at Lake Neuchâtel. The Classis Comensis at Lake Como. The old praetorian fleets, the Classis Misenatis and the Classis Ravennatis are still listed, albeit with no distinction indicating any higher importance than the other fleets. The "praetorian" surname is still attested until the early 4th century, but absent from Vegetius or the Notitia.[133] The Classis fluminis Rhodani, based at Arelate and operating in the Rhône River. It was complemented with a marine detachment (milites muscularii) based at Marseilles. The Classis Sambrica, based at Locus Quartensis (unknown location) and operating in the Somme River and the Channel. It came under the command of the dux Beligae Secundae.[134] The Classis Venetum, based at Aquileia and operating in the northern Adriatic Sea. This fleet may have been established to ensure communications with the imperial capitals in the Po Valley (Ravenna and Milan) and with Dalmatia.[135] Bases and command sectors of the Saxon Shore system It is notable that, with the exception of the praetorian fleets (whose retention in the list does not necessarily signify an active status), the old fleets of the Principate are missing. The Classis Britannica vanishes under that name after the mid-3rd century;[136] its remnants were later subsumed in the Saxon Shore system. By the time of the Notitia Dignitatum, the Classis Germanica has ceased to exist (it is last mentioned under Julian in 359),[137] most probably due to the collapse of the Rhine frontier after the Crossing of the Rhine by the barbarians in winter 405–406, and the Mauretanian and African fleets had been disbanded or taken over by the Vandals. Fleets in the Eastern Mediterranean[edit] As far as the East is concerned, we know from legal sources that the Classis Alexandrina[138] and the Classis Seleucena[139] continued to operate, and that in ca. 400 a Classis Carpathia was detached from the Syrian fleet and based at the Aegean island of Karpathos.[140] A fleet is known to have been stationed at Constantinople itself, but no further details are known about it.[57] Ports[edit] Major Roman ports were: Portus Julius, located at Misenum Classis, near Ravenna Alexandria Leptis Magna Ostia Portus Port of Mainz (Mogontiacum, river navy on the Rhine) See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal War portal Caligula's Giant Ship Nemi ships Roman shipyard of Stifone (Narni) Notes[edit] ^ Potter 2004, pp. 77–78 ^ "Map of the Roman Fleet". ^ Meijer 1986, pp. 147–148 ^ a b Meijer 1986, p. 149 ^ Livy, AUC IX.30; XL.18,26; XLI.1 ^ a b c Goldsworthy 2000, p. 96 ^ Meijer 1986, p. 150 ^ Potter 2004, p. 76 ^ a b Goldsworthy (2003), p. 34 ^ a b Goldsworthy (2000), p. 97 ^ Polybius, The Histories, I.20–21 ^ Saddington 2007, p. 201 ^ a b c Webster & Elton (1998), p. 166 ^ a b c Goldsworthy (2003), p. 38 ^ a b Meijer 1986, p. 167 ^ Gruen (1984), p. 359. ^ Meijer 1986, pp. 167–168 ^ Meijer 1986, p. 168 ^ Meijer 1986, p. 170 ^ Meijer 1986, pp. 170–171 ^ Meijer 1986, p. 173 ^ D.B. Saddington (2011) [2007]. "the Evolution of the Roman Imperial Fleets," in Paul Erdkamp (ed), A Companion to the Roman Army, 201–217. Malden, Oxford, Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-2153-8. Plate 12.2 on p. 204. ^ Coarelli, Filippo (1987), I Santuari del Lazio in età repubblicana. NIS, Rome, pp. 35–84. ^ a b Meijer 1986, p. 175 ^ a b c Connolly (1998), p. 273 ^ Appian, The Mithridatic Wars, § 92 ^ a b Starr (1989), p. 62 ^ Cassius Dio, Historia Romana, XXXVI.22 ^ Plutarch, Life of Pompey, § 24 ^ Appian, The Mithridatic Wars, § 93 ^ Goldsworthy (2007), p. 186 ^ Appian, The Mithridatic Wars, § 94 ^ Appian, The Mithridatic Wars, § 95–§ 96 ^ Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic Wars, III.9 ^ Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic Wars, III.13 ^ Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic Wars, III.14 ^ Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic Wars, III.15 ^ Saddington 2007, pp. 205–206 ^ Saddington 2007, p. 206 ^ Saddington 2007, p. 207 ^ Saddington 2007, p. 208 ^ Tacitus, The Annals II.6 ^ Res Gestae, 26.4 ^ Webster & Elton (1998), pp. 160–161 ^ Webster & Elton (1998), p. 161 ^ Tacitus, The Histories, II.12 ^ Tacitus, The Histories, II.67 ^ a b Webster & Elton (1998), p. 164 ^ Tacitus, The Histories, IV.16 ^ Tacitus, The Histories, IV.79 ^ Tacitus, The Histories, V.23–25 ^ Tacitus, Agricola, 25; 29 ^ Tacitus, Agricola, 10 ^ Tacitus, Agricola, 24 ^ Lewis & Runyan (1985), p. 3 ^ a b Lewis & Runyan (1985), p. 4 ^ a b c d e Casson (1991), p. 213 ^ Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Vita Gallienii, 13.6–7 ^ Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Vita Gallienii, 13.8–9 ^ Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Vita Divi Claudii, 6.2–4; 8.1 ^ Zosimus, Historia Nova, I.42–45 ^ Eutropius, Breviarium, IX.21 ^ Panegyrici Latini, 8.6 ^ Panegyrici Latini, 8.12 ^ Panegyrici Latini, 6.5; 8.6–8 ^ Eutropius, Breviarium 9.22; Aurelius Victor, Book of Caesars 39.42 ^ Treadgold (1997), p. 145 ^ a b MacGeorge (2002), pp. 306–307 ^ Lewis & Runyan (1985), pp. 4–8 ^ MacGeorge (2002), p. 307 ^ a b c d Casson (1991), p. 188 ^ Starr (1960), p. 75 Table 1 ^ Saddington 2007, p. 212 ^ a b Gardiner 2004, p. 80 ^ Saddington 2007, pp. 201–202 ^ Starr (1960), p. 39 ^ Webster & Elton (1998), pp. 165–166 ^ a b Saddington 2007, p. 210 ^ Starr (1960), pp. 42–43 ^ Saddington 2007, pp. 210–211 ^ Wesch-Klein (1998), p. 25 ^ http://casopisi.junis.ni.ac.rs/index.php/FULawPol/article/view/4688 ^ Rodgers (1976), p. 60 ^ Livy, AUC XXVI.48; XXXVI.42 ^ a b c Webster & Elton (1998), p. 165 ^ Pflaum, H.G. (1950). Les procurateurs équestres sous le Haut-Empire romain, pp. 50–53 ^ Saddington 2007, pp. 202–203 ^ a b Potter 2004, p. 77 ^ Gardiner 2004, p. 70 ^ Cassius Dio, Historia Romana, L.23.2 ^ Gardiner 2004, pp. 70, 77 ^ Plutarch, Antony, 62 ^ Vegetius, De Re Militari, IV.33 ^ Casson (1995), p. 141 ^ Casson (1995), pp. 357–358; Casson (1991), pp. 190–191 ^ Saddington 2007, p. 203 ^ Warry (2004), p. 183 ^ Warry (2004), p. 98 ^ Warry (2004), p. 118 ^ Appian, The Civil Wars, V.106 & V.118 ^ Warry (2004), pp. 182–183 ^ Tacitus, The Annals, IV.5; Strabo, Geography, IV.1.9 ^ Gardiner 2004, p. 78 ^ Webster & Elton (1998), p. 158 ^ Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Vita Commodi, 17.7 ^ a b c Webster & Elton (1998), p. 159 ^ a b Saddington 2007, p. 215 ^ Cleere (1977), pp. 16; 18–19 ^ a b Cleere (1977), p. 19 ^ a b c Cleere (1977), p. 16 ^ Webster & Elton (1998), p. 160 ^ Köln-Alteburg at livius.org ^ a b Webster & Elton (1998), p. 162 ^ Webster & Elton (1998), pp. 162–165 ^ Webster & Elton (1998), p. 163 ^ a b Saddington 2007, p. 214 ^ Starr (1989), p. 76 ^ Tacitus, The Histories, II.83; III.47 ^ Starr (1989), p. 77 ^ Josephus, The Jewish War, II.16.4 ^ Codex Theodosianus, X.23.1 ^ "The Fleets and Roman Border Policy". www2.rgzm.de. ^ Pauly-Wissowa, XXII.1300–1301 ^ a b Notitia Dignitatum, Pars Occ., XXXII. ^ Notitia Dignitatum, Pars Occ., XXXIII. ^ a b c Notitia Dignitatum, Pars Occ., XXXIV. ^ a b Notitia Dignitatum, Pars Orient., XLI. ^ a b Notitia Dignitatum, Pars Orient., XLII. ^ Notitia Dignitatum, Pars Orient., XL. ^ musculus (meaning "small mouse") was a kind of small ship ^ Notitia Dignitatum, Pars Orient., XXXIX. ^ Notitia Dignitatum, Pars Occ., XLII. ^ Pauly-Wissowa, III.2639 & XXII.1300 ^ Notitia Dignitatum, Pars Occ., XXXVIII. ^ Lewis & Runyan (1985), p. 6 ^ Classis Britannica at RomanBritain.org ^ Pauly-Wissowa, III.2645–2646 & XXII.1300 ^ Codex Justinianus, XI.2.4 ^ Codex Justinianus, XI.13.1 ^ Codex Theodosianus, XIII.5.32 References[edit] Casson, Lionel (1991), The Ancient Mariners: Seafarers and Sea Fighters of the Mediterranean in Ancient Times, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-01477-7 Casson, Lionel (1995), Ships and Seamanship in the Ancient World, Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 0-8018-5130-0 Cleere, Henry (1977), "The Classis Britannica" (PDF), CBA Research Report (18): 16–19, retrieved 2008-10-11 Connolly, Peter (1998), Greece and Rome at War, Greenhill Gardiner, Robert (Ed.) (2004), AGE OF THE GALLEY: Mediterranean Oared Vessels since pre-Classical Times, Conway Maritime Press, ISBN 978-0-85177-955-3CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) Goldsworthy, Adrian (2000), The Fall of Carthage: The Punic Wars 265–146 BC, Cassell, ISBN 0-304-36642-0 Goldsworthy, Adrian (2003), The Complete Roman Army, Thames & Hudson Ltd., ISBN 0-500-05124-0 Goldsworthy, Adrian (2007), "A Roman Alexander: Pompey the Great", In the name of Rome: The men who won the Roman Empire, Phoenix, ISBN 978-0-7538-1789-6 Gruen, Erich S. (1984), The Hellenistic World and the Coming of Rome: Volume II, University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-04569-6 Lewis, Archibald Ross; Runyan, Timothy J. (1985), European Naval and Maritime History, 300–1500, Indiana University Press, ISBN 0-253-20573-5 MacGeorge, Penny (2002), "Appendix: Naval Power in the Fifth Century", Late Roman Warlords, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-925244-2 Meijer, Fik (1986), A History of Seafaring in the Classical World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-7099-3565-0 Potter, David (2004), "The Roman Army and Navy", in Flower, Harriet I. (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, Cambridge University Press, pp. 66–88, ISBN 978-0-521-00390-2 Rodgers, William L. (1967), Naval Warfare Under Oars, 4th to 16th Centuries: A Study of Strategy, Tactics and Ship Design, Naval Institute Press, ISBN 978-0-87021-487-5 Rost, Georg Alexander (1968), Vom Seewesen und Seehandel in der Antike (in German), John Benjamins Publishing Company, ISBN 90-6032-361-0 Saddington, D.B. (2007), "Classes. The Evolution of the Roman Imperial Fleets", in Erdkamp, Paul (ed.), A Companion to the Roman Army, Blackwell Publishing Ltd., ISBN 978-1-4051-2153-8 Starr, Chester G. (1960), The Roman Imperial Navy: 31 B.C.–A.D. 324 (2nd ed.), Cornell University Press Starr, Chester G. (1989), The Influence of Sea Power on Ancient History, Oxford University Press US, ISBN 978-0-19-505667-9 Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2. Warry, John (2004), Warfare in the Classical World, Salamander Books Ltd., ISBN 0-8061-2794-5 Webster, Graham; Elton, Hugh (1998), The Roman Imperial Army of the First and Second Centuries A.D., University of Oklahoma Press, ISBN 0-8061-3000-8 Wesch-Klein, Gabriele (1998), Soziale Aspekte des römischen Heerwesens in der Kaiserzeit (in German), Franz Steiner Verlag, ISBN 3-515-07300-0 Workman-Davies, Bradley (2006), Corvus: A Review of the Design and Use of the Roman Boarding Bridge During the First Punic War 264 -241 B.C., Lulu.com, ISBN 978-1-84728-882-0 [self-published source] External links[edit] (in Italian) The Imperial fleet of Misenum The Classis Britannica The Roman Fleet, Roman-Empire.net The Roman Navy: Masters of the Mediterranean, HistoryNet.com Galleria Navale on Navigare Necesse Est Port of Claudius, the museum of Roman merchant ships found in Fiumicino (Rome) Diana Nemorensis, Caligula's ships in the lake of Nemi. 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en-wikipedia-org-1268	----	Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia Marcus Aurelius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 161 to 180, philosopher For other uses, see Marcus Aurelius (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Aurelian. Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius A marble bust of Marcus Aurelius at the Musée Saint-Raymond, Toulouse, France Roman emperor Reign 8 March 161 – 17 March 180 Predecessor Antoninus Pius Successor Commodus Co-emperor Lucius Verus (161–169) Commodus (177–180) Born 26 April 121 Rome Died 17 March 180 (aged 58) Sirmium Burial Hadrian's Mausoleum Spouse Faustina the Younger (145-175, her death) Issue Detail 14, including Commodus, Annius and Lucilla Full name Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar (see section Name for details) Regnal name Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Dynasty Nerva–Antonine Father Marcus Annius Verus Antoninus Pius (adoptive) Mother Domitia Calvilla Philosophy career Notable work Meditations Era Hellenistic philosophy Region Western Philosophy School Stoicism Main interests Ethics Notable ideas Memento mori Influences Heraclitus, Socrates, Epictetus, Quintus, Apollonius, Sextus of Chaeronea Influenced Virtually all of subsequent Stoic philosophy Roman imperial dynasties Aureus of Marcus Aurelius Nerva–Antonine dynasty (AD 96–192) Chronology Nerva 96–98 Trajan 98–117 Hadrian 117–138 Antoninus Pius 138–161 Lucius Verus 161–169 Marcus Aurelius 161–180 Commodus 177–192 Family Nerva–Antonine family tree Category:Nerva–Antonine dynasty Succession Preceded by Flavian dynasty Followed by Year of the Five Emperors v t e Part of a series on Marcus Aurelius Early life (121–161 AD) Reign (161–180 AD) Meditations v t e Part of a series on Stoicism Epictetus, Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius Background Socrates Plato Aristotle Crates of Thebes Philosophy Apatheia Ekpyrosis Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Stoic logic Stoic categories Stoic passions Stoic physics Virtue ethics Stoics Zeno of Citium Cleanthes Chrysippus Panaetius Posidonius Seneca the Younger Publius Clodius Thrasea Paetus Epictetus Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Stoic works Discourses of Epictetus Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium The Meditations Similar positions Cynicism Aristotelianism Middle Platonism Contrary positions Pyrrhonism Academic Skepticism Epicureanism  Philosophy portal v t e Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (/ɔːˈriːliəs/ ə-REE-lee-əs,[1] Latin: [ˈmaːrkʊs̠ au̯ˈreːlijʊs̠ an̪t̪oːˈniːnʊs̠]; 26 April 121 – 17 March 180 AD) was Roman emperor from 161 to 180 and a Stoic philosopher. He was the last of the rulers known as the Five Good Emperors (a term coined some 13 centuries later by Niccolò Machiavelli), and the last emperor of the Pax Romana, an age of relative peace and stability for the Roman Empire. He served as Roman consul in 140, 145, and 161. Marcus was born during the reign of Hadrian to the emperor's nephew, the praetor Marcus Annius Verus, and the heiress Domitia Calvilla. His father died when he was three, and his mother and grandfather raised Marcus. After Hadrian's adoptive son, Aelius Caesar, died in 138, the emperor adopted Marcus's uncle Antoninus Pius as his new heir. In turn, Antoninus adopted Marcus and Lucius, the son of Aelius. Hadrian died that year and Antoninus became emperor. Now heir to the throne, Marcus studied Greek and Latin under tutors such as Herodes Atticus and Marcus Cornelius Fronto. He kept in close correspondence with Fronto for many years afterwards. Marcus married Antoninus's daughter Faustina in 145. After Antoninus died in 161, Marcus acceded to the throne alongside his adoptive brother, who took the name Lucius Verus. The reign of Marcus Aurelius was marked by military conflict. In the East, the Roman Empire fought successfully with a revitalized Parthian Empire and the rebel Kingdom of Armenia. Marcus defeated the Marcomanni, Quadi, and Sarmatian Iazyges in the Marcomannic Wars; however, these and other Germanic peoples began to represent a troubling reality for the Empire. He modified the silver purity of the Roman currency, the denarius. The persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire appears to have increased during Marcus's reign, but his involvement in this is unknown. The Antonine Plague broke out in 165 or 166 and devastated the population of the Roman Empire, causing the deaths of five million people. Lucius Verus may have died from the plague in 169. Unlike some of his predecessors, Marcus chose not to adopt an heir. His children included Lucilla, who married Lucius, and Commodus, whose succession after Marcus has been a subject of debate among both contemporary and modern historians. The Column and Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius still stand in Rome, where they were erected in celebration of his military victories. Meditations, the writings of "the philosopher" – as contemporary biographers called Marcus, are a significant source of the modern understanding of ancient Stoic philosophy. They have been praised by fellow writers, philosophers, monarchs, and politicians centuries after his death. Contents 1 Sources 2 Early life and career 2.1 Name 2.2 Family origins 2.3 Childhood 2.4 Succession to Hadrian 2.5 Heir to Antoninus Pius (138–145) 2.6 Fronto and further education 2.7 Births and deaths 2.8 Antoninus Pius's last years 3 Emperor 3.1 Accession of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus (161) 3.2 Early rule 3.3 War with Parthia (161–166) 3.4 War with Germanic tribes (166–180) 3.5 Legal and administrative work 3.5.1 Trade with Han China and outbreak of plague 3.6 Death and succession (180) 4 Legacy and reputation 5 Attitude towards Christians 6 Marriage and children 7 Nerva–Antonine family tree 8 Writings 9 Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius 10 Column of Marcus Aurelius 11 In popular culture 12 Notes 13 Citations 14 Sources 14.1 Ancient 14.2 Modern 15 External links Sources[edit] Bust of Marcus Aurelius in the Archaeological Museum of Istanbul, Turkey The major sources depicting the life and rule of Marcus are patchy and frequently unreliable. The most important group of sources, the biographies contained in the Historia Augusta, claimed to be written by a group of authors at the turn of the 4th century AD, but it is believed they were in fact written by a single author (referred to here as 'the biographer') from about 395 AD.[2] The later biographies and the biographies of subordinate emperors and usurpers are unreliable, but the earlier biographies, derived primarily from now-lost earlier sources (Marius Maximus or Ignotus), are much more accurate.[3] For Marcus's life and rule, the biographies of Hadrian, Antoninus, Marcus, and Lucius are largely reliable, but those of Aelius Verus and Avidius Cassius are not.[4] A body of correspondence between Marcus's tutor Fronto and various Antonine officials survives in a series of patchy manuscripts, covering the period from c. 138 to 166.[5] Marcus's own Meditations offer a window on his inner life, but are largely undateable and make few specific references to worldly affairs.[6] The main narrative source for the period is Cassius Dio, a Greek senator from Bithynian Nicaea who wrote a history of Rome from its founding to 229 in eighty books. Dio is vital for the military history of the period, but his senatorial prejudices and strong opposition to imperial expansion obscure his perspective.[7] Some other literary sources provide specific details: the writings of the physician Galen on the habits of the Antonine elite, the orations of Aelius Aristides on the temper of the times, and the constitutions preserved in the Digest and Codex Justinianeus on Marcus's legal work.[8] Inscriptions and coin finds supplement the literary sources.[9] Early life and career[edit] Main article: Early life of Marcus Aurelius A bust of young Marcus Aurelius (Capitoline Museum). Anthony Birley, his modern biographer, writes of the bust: 'This is certainly a grave young man.'[10] Name[edit] Marcus was born in Rome on 26 April 121. His name at birth was supposedly Marcus Annius Verus,[11] but some sources assign this name to him upon his father's death and unofficial adoption by his grandfather, upon his coming of age,[12][13][14] or at the time of his marriage.[15] He may have been known as Marcus Annius Catilius Severus,[16] at birth or some point in his youth,[12][14] or Marcus Catilius Severus Annius Verus. Upon his adoption by Antoninus as heir to the throne, he was known as Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar and, upon his ascension, he was Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus until his death;[17] Epiphanius of Salamis, in his chronology of the Roman emperors On Weights and Measures, calls him Marcus Aurelius Verus.[18] Family origins[edit] Marcus's paternal family was of Roman Italo-Hispanic origins. His father was Marcus Annius Verus (III).[19] The gens Annia was of Italian origins (with legendary claims of descendance from Numa Pompilius) and a branch of it moved to Ucubi, a small town south east of Córdoba in Iberian Baetica.[20][21] This branch of the Aurelii based in Roman Spain, the Annii Veri, rose to prominence in Rome in the late 1st century AD. Marcus's great-grandfather Marcus Annius Verus (I) was a senator and (according to the Historia Augusta) ex-praetor; his grandfather Marcus Annius Verus (II) was made patrician in 73–74.[22] Through his grandmother Rupilia, Marcus was a member of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty; the emperor Trajan's sororal niece Salonia Matidia was the mother of Rupilia and her half-sister, Hadrian's wife Sabina.[23][24][note 1] Marcus's mother, Domitia Lucilla Minor (also known as Domitia Calvilla), was the daughter of the Roman patrician P. Calvisius Tullus and inherited a great fortune (described at length in one of Pliny's letters) from her parents and grandparents. Her inheritance included large brickworks on the outskirts of Rome – a profitable enterprise in an era when the city was experiencing a construction boom – and the Horti Domitia Calvillae (or Lucillae), a villa on the Caelian hill of Rome.[27][28] Marcus himself was born and raised in the Horti and referred to the Caelian hill as 'My Caelian'.[29][30][31] The adoptive family of Marcus was of Roman Italo-Gallic origins: the gens Aurelia, into which Marcus was adopted at the age of 17, was a Sabine gens; Antoninus Pius, his adoptive father, came from the Aurelii Fulvi, a branch of the Aurelii based in Roman Gaul. Childhood[edit] Marcus's sister, Annia Cornificia Faustina, was probably born in 122 or 123.[32] His father probably died in 124, when Marcus was three years old during his praetorship.[33][note 2] Though he can hardly have known his father, Marcus wrote in his Meditations that he had learnt 'modesty and manliness' from his memories of his father and the man's posthumous reputation.[35] His mother Lucilla did not remarry[33] and, following prevailing aristocratic customs, probably did not spend much time with her son. Instead, Marcus was in the care of 'nurses',[36] and was raised after his father's death by his grandfather Marcus Annius Verus (II), who had always retained the legal authority of patria potestas over his son and grandson. Technically this was not an adoption, the creation of a new and different patria potestas. Lucius Catilius Severus, described as Marcus's maternal great-grandfather, also participated in his upbringing; he was probably the elder Domitia Lucilla's stepfather.[14] Marcus was raised in his parents' home on the Caelian Hill, an upscale area with few public buildings but many aristocratic villas. Marcus's grandfather owned a palace beside the Lateran, where he would spend much of his childhood.[37] Marcus thanks his grandfather for teaching him 'good character and avoidance of bad temper'.[38] He was less fond of the mistress his grandfather took and lived with after the death of his wife Rupilia.[39] Marcus was grateful that he did not have to live with her longer than he did.[40] Marcus was educated at home, in line with contemporary aristocratic trends;[41] he thanks Catilius Severus for encouraging him to avoid public schools.[42] One of his teachers, Diognetus, a painting master, proved particularly influential; he seems to have introduced Marcus Aurelius to the philosophic way of life.[43] In April 132, at the behest of Diognetus, Marcus took up the dress and habits of the philosopher: he studied while wearing a rough Greek cloak, and would sleep on the ground until his mother convinced him to sleep on a bed.[44] A new set of tutors – the Homeric scholar Alexander of Cotiaeum along with Trosius Aper and Tuticius Proculus, teachers of Latin[45][note 3] – took over Marcus's education in about 132 or 133.[47] Marcus thanks Alexander for his training in literary styling.[48] Alexander's influence – an emphasis on matter over style and careful wording, with the occasional Homeric quotation – has been detected in Marcus's Meditations.[49] Succession to Hadrian[edit] Coin (136–138 AD) of Hadrian (obverse) and his adoptive son, Lucius Aelius (reverse). Hadrian is wearing the laurel crown. Inscription: HADRIANVS ... / LVCIVS CAESAR. In late 136, Hadrian almost died from a hemorrhage. Convalescent in his villa at Tivoli, he selected Lucius Ceionius Commodus, Marcus's intended father-in-law, as his successor and adopted son,[50] according to the biographer 'against the wishes of everyone'.[51] While his motives are not certain, it would appear that his goal was to eventually place the then-too-young Marcus on the throne.[52] As part of his adoption, Commodus took the name, Lucius Aelius Caesar. His health was so poor that, during a ceremony to mark his becoming heir to the throne, he was too weak to lift a large shield on his own.[53] After a brief stationing on the Danube frontier, Aelius returned to Rome to make an address to the Senate on the first day of 138. However, the night before the speech, he grew ill and died of a hemorrhage later in the day.[54][note 4] On 24 January 138, Hadrian selected Aurelius Antoninus, the husband of Marcus's aunt Faustina the Elder, as his new successor.[56] As part of Hadrian's terms, Antoninus, in turn, adopted Marcus and Lucius Commodus, the son of Lucius Aelius.[57] Marcus became M. Aelius Aurelius Verus, and Lucius became L. Aelius Aurelius Commodus. At Hadrian's request, Antoninus's daughter Faustina was betrothed to Lucius.[58] Marcus reportedly greeted the news that Hadrian had become his adoptive grandfather with sadness, instead of joy. Only with reluctance did he move from his mother's house on the Caelian to Hadrian's private home.[59] At some time in 138, Hadrian requested in the senate that Marcus be exempt from the law barring him from becoming quaestor before his twenty-fourth birthday. The senate complied, and Marcus served under Antoninus, the consul for 139.[60] Marcus's adoption diverted him from the typical career path of his class. If not for his adoption, he probably would have become triumvir monetalis, a highly regarded post involving token administration of the state mint; after that, he could have served as tribune with a legion, becoming the legion's nominal second-in-command. Marcus probably would have opted for travel and further education instead. As it was, Marcus was set apart from his fellow citizens. Nonetheless, his biographer attests that his character remained unaffected: 'He still showed the same respect to his relations as he had when he was an ordinary citizen, and he was as thrifty and careful of his possessions as he had been when he lived in a private household'.[61] After a series of suicide attempts, all thwarted by Antoninus, Hadrian left for Baiae, a seaside resort on the Campanian coast. His condition did not improve, and he abandoned the diet prescribed by his doctors, indulging himself in food and drink. He sent for Antoninus, who was at his side when he died on 10 July 138.[62] His remains were buried quietly at Puteoli.[63] The succession to Antoninus was peaceful and stable: Antoninus kept Hadrian's nominees in office and appeased the senate, respecting its privileges and commuting the death sentences of men charged in Hadrian's last days.[64] For his dutiful behaviour, Antoninus was asked to accept the name 'Pius'.[65] Heir to Antoninus Pius (138–145)[edit] Sestertius of Antoninus Pius (AD 140–144). It celebrates the betrothal of Marcus Aurelus and Faustina the Younger in 139, pictured below Antoninus, who is holding a statuette of Concordia and clasping hands with Faustina the Elder. Inscription: ANTONINVS AVG. PIVS P. P., TR. P., CO[N]S. III / CONCORDIAE S.C.[66] Denarius of Antoninus Pius (AD 139), with a portrait of Marcus Aurelius on the reverse. Inscription: ANTONINVS AVG. PIVS P. P. / AVRELIVS CAES. AVG. PII F. CO[N]S. DES.[67] Immediately after Hadrian's death, Antoninus approached Marcus and requested that his marriage arrangements be amended: Marcus's betrothal to Ceionia Fabia would be annulled, and he would be betrothed to Faustina, Antoninus's daughter, instead. Faustina's betrothal to Ceionia's brother Lucius Commodus would also have to be annulled. Marcus consented to Antoninus's proposal.[68] He was made consul for 140 with Antoninus as his colleague, and was appointed as a seviri, one of the knights' six commanders, at the order's annual parade on 15 July 139. As the heir apparent, Marcus became princeps iuventutis, head of the equestrian order. He now took the name Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar.[69] Marcus would later caution himself against taking the name too seriously: 'See that you do not turn into a Caesar; do not be dipped into the purple dye – for that can happen'.[70] At the senate's request, Marcus joined all the priestly colleges (pontifices, augures, quindecimviri sacris faciundis, septemviri epulonum, etc.);[71] direct evidence for membership, however, is available only for the Arval Brethren.[72] Antoninus demanded that Marcus reside in the House of Tiberius, the imperial palace on the Palatine, and take up the habits of his new station, the aulicum fastigium or 'pomp of the court', against Marcus's objections.[71] Marcus would struggle to reconcile the life of the court with his philosophic yearnings. He told himself it was an attainable goal – 'Where life is possible, then it is possible to live the right life; life is possible in a palace, so it is possible to live the right life in a palace'[73] – but he found it difficult nonetheless. He would criticize himself in the Meditations for 'abusing court life' in front of company.[74] As quaestor, Marcus would have had little real administrative work to do. He would read imperial letters to the senate when Antoninus was absent and would do secretarial work for the senators.[75] But he felt drowned in paperwork and complained to his tutor, Marcus Cornelius Fronto: 'I am so out of breath from dictating nearly thirty letters'.[76] He was being 'fitted for ruling the state', in the words of his biographer.[77] He was required to make a speech to the assembled senators as well, making oratorical training essential for the job.[78] On 1 January 145, Marcus was made consul a second time. Fronto urged him in a letter to have plenty of sleep 'so that you may come into the Senate with a good colour and read your speech with a strong voice'.[79] Marcus had complained of an illness in an earlier letter: 'As far as my strength is concerned, I am beginning to get it back; and there is no trace of the pain in my chest. But that ulcer [...][note 5] I am having treatment and taking care not to do anything that interferes with it'.[80] Never particularly healthy or strong, Marcus was praised by Cassius Dio, writing of his later years, for behaving dutifully in spite of his various illnesses.[81] In April 145, Marcus married Faustina, legally his sister, as had been planned since 138.[82] Little is specifically known of the ceremony, but the biographer calls it 'noteworthy'.[83] Coins were issued with the heads of the couple, and Antoninus, as Pontifex Maximus, would have officiated. Marcus makes no apparent reference to the marriage in his surviving letters, and only sparing references to Faustina.[84] Fronto and further education[edit] After taking the toga virilis in 136, Marcus probably began his training in oratory.[85] He had three tutors in Greek – Aninus Macer, Caninius Celer, and Herodes Atticus – and one in Latin – Fronto. The latter two were the most esteemed orators of their time,[86] but probably did not become his tutors until his adoption by Antoninus in 138. The preponderance of Greek tutors indicates the importance of the Greek language to the aristocracy of Rome.[87] This was the age of the Second Sophistic, a renaissance in Greek letters. Although educated in Rome, in his Meditations, Marcus would write his inmost thoughts in Greek.[88] Atticus was controversial: an enormously rich Athenian (probably the richest man in the eastern half of the empire), he was quick to anger and resented by his fellow Athenians for his patronizing manner.[89] Atticus was an inveterate opponent of Stoicism and philosophic pretensions.[90] He thought the Stoics' desire for apatheia was foolish: they would live a 'sluggish, enervated life', he said.[91] In spite of the influence of Atticus, Marcus would later become a Stoic. He would not mention Herodes at all in his Meditations, in spite of the fact that they would come into contact many times over the following decades.[92] Fronto was highly esteemed: in the self-consciously antiquarian world of Latin letters,[93] he was thought of as second only to Cicero, perhaps even an alternative to him.[94][note 6] He did not care much for Atticus, though Marcus was eventually to put the pair on speaking terms. Fronto exercised a complete mastery of Latin, capable of tracing expressions through the literature, producing obscure synonyms, and challenging minor improprieties in word choice.[94] A significant amount of the correspondence between Fronto and Marcus has survived.[98] The pair were very close, using intimate language such as 'Farewell my Fronto, wherever you are, my most sweet love and delight. How is it between you and me? I love you and you are not here' in their correspondence.[99] Marcus spent time with Fronto's wife and daughter, both named Cratia, and they enjoyed light conversation.[100] He wrote Fronto a letter on his birthday, claiming to love him as he loved himself, and calling on the gods to ensure that every word he learnt of literature, he would learn 'from the lips of Fronto'.[101] His prayers for Fronto's health were more than conventional, because Fronto was frequently ill; at times, he seems to be an almost constant invalid, always suffering[102] – about one-quarter of the surviving letters deal with the man's sicknesses.[103] Marcus asks that Fronto's pain be inflicted on himself, 'of my own accord with every kind of discomfort'.[104] Fronto never became Marcus's full-time teacher and continued his career as an advocate. One notorious case brought him into conflict with Atticus.[105] Marcus pleaded with Fronto, first with 'advice', then as a 'favour', not to attack Atticus; he had already asked Atticus to refrain from making the first blows.[106] Fronto replied that he was surprised to discover Marcus counted Atticus as a friend (perhaps Atticus was not yet Marcus's tutor), and allowed that Marcus might be correct,[107] but nonetheless affirmed his intent to win the case by any means necessary: '[T]he charges are frightful and must be spoken of as frightful. Those in particular that refer to the beating and robbing I will describe so that they savour of gall and bile. If I happen to call him an uneducated little Greek it will not mean war to the death'.[108] The outcome of the trial is unknown.[109] By the age of twenty-five (between April 146 and April 147), Marcus had grown disaffected with his studies in jurisprudence, and showed some signs of general malaise. His master, he writes to Fronto, was an unpleasant blowhard, and had made 'a hit at' him: 'It is easy to sit yawning next to a judge, he says, but to be a judge is noble work'.[110] Marcus had grown tired of his exercises, of taking positions in imaginary debates. When he criticized the insincerity of conventional language, Fronto took to defend it.[111] In any case, Marcus's formal education was now over. He had kept his teachers on good terms, following them devotedly. It 'affected his health adversely', his biographer writes, to have devoted so much effort to his studies. It was the only thing the biographer could find fault with in Marcus's entire boyhood.[112] Fronto had warned Marcus against the study of philosophy early on: 'It is better never to have touched the teaching of philosophy...than to have tasted it superficially, with the edge of the lips, as the saying is'.[113] He disdained philosophy and philosophers and looked down on Marcus's sessions with Apollonius of Chalcedon and others in this circle.[98] Fronto put an uncharitable interpretation of Marcus's 'conversion to philosophy': 'In the fashion of the young, tired of boring work', Marcus had turned to philosophy to escape the constant exercises of oratorical training.[114] Marcus kept in close touch with Fronto, but would ignore Fronto's scruples.[115] Apollonius may have introduced Marcus to Stoic philosophy, but Quintus Junius Rusticus would have the strongest influence on the boy.[116][note 7] He was the man Fronto recognized as having 'wooed Marcus away' from oratory.[118] He was older than Fronto and twenty years older than Marcus. As the grandson of Arulenus Rusticus, one of the martyrs to the tyranny of Domitian (r. 81–96), he was heir to the tradition of 'Stoic Opposition' to the 'bad emperors' of the 1st century;[119] the true successor of Seneca (as opposed to Fronto, the false one).[120] Marcus thanks Rusticus for teaching him 'not to be led astray into enthusiasm for rhetoric, for writing on speculative themes, for discoursing on moralizing texts.... To avoid oratory, poetry, and 'fine writing''.[121] Philostratus describes how even when Marcus was an old man, in the latter part of his reign, he studied under Sextus of Chaeronea: The Emperor Marcus was an eager disciple of Sextus the Boeotian philosopher, being often in his company and frequenting his house. Lucius, who had just come to Rome, asked the Emperor, whom he met on his way, where he was going to and on what errand, and Marcus answered, ' it is good even for an old man to learn; I am now on my way to Sextus the philosopher to learn what I do not yet know.' And Lucius, raising his hand to heaven, said, ' O Zeus, the king of the Romans in his old age takes up his tablets and goes to school.' [122] Births and deaths[edit] On 30 November 147, Faustina gave birth to a girl named Domitia Faustina. She was the first of at least thirteen children (including two sets of twins) that Faustina would bear over the next twenty-three years. The next day, 1 December, Antoninus gave Marcus the tribunician power and the imperium – authority over the armies and provinces of the emperor. As tribune, he had the right to bring one measure before the senate after the four Antoninus could introduce. His tribunician powers would be renewed with Antoninus's on 10 December 147.[123] The first mention of Domitia in Marcus's letters reveals her as a sickly infant. 'Caesar to Fronto. If the gods are willing we seem to have a hope of recovery. The diarrhea has stopped, the little attacks of fever have been driven away. But the emaciation is still extreme and there is still quite a bit of coughing'. He and Faustina, Marcus wrote, had been 'pretty occupied' with the girl's care.[124] Domitia would die in 151.[125] The Mausoleum of Hadrian, where the children of Marcus and Faustina were buried In 149, Faustina gave birth again, to twin sons. Contemporary coinage commemorates the event, with crossed cornucopiae beneath portrait busts of the two small boys, and the legend temporum felicitas, 'the happiness of the times'. They did not survive long. Before the end of the year, another family coin was issued: it shows only a tiny girl, Domitia Faustina, and one boy baby. Then another: the girl alone. The infants were buried in the Mausoleum of Hadrian, where their epitaphs survive. They were called Titus Aurelius Antoninus and Tiberius Aelius Aurelius.[126] Marcus steadied himself: 'One man prays: 'How I may not lose my little child', but you must pray: 'How I may not be afraid to lose him'.[127] He quoted from the Iliad what he called the 'briefest and most familiar saying...enough to dispel sorrow and fear':[128]  leaves, the wind scatters some on the face of the ground; like unto them are the children of men. – Iliad vi.146[128] Another daughter was born on 7 March 150, Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla. At some time between 155 and 161, probably soon after 155, Marcus's mother Domitia Lucilla died.[129] Faustina probably had another daughter in 151, but the child, Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina, might not have been born until 153.[130] Another son, Tiberius Aelius Antoninus, was born in 152. A coin issue celebrates fecunditati Augustae, 'the Augusta's fertility', depicting two girls and an infant. The boy did not survive long, as evidenced by coins from 156, only depicting the two girls. He might have died in 152, the same year as Marcus's sister Cornificia.[131] By 28 March 158, when Marcus replied, another of his children was dead. Marcus thanked the temple synod, 'even though this turned out otherwise'. The child's name is unknown.[132] In 159 and 160, Faustina gave birth to daughters: Fadilla and Cornificia, named respectively after Faustina's and Marcus's dead sisters.[133] Antoninus Pius's last years[edit] Bust of Antoninus Pius, British Museum Lucius started his political career as a quaestor in 153. He was consul in 154,[134] and was consul again with Marcus in 161.[135] Lucius had no other titles, except that of 'son of Augustus'. Lucius had a markedly different personality from Marcus: he enjoyed sports of all kinds, but especially hunting and wrestling; he took obvious pleasure in the circus games and gladiatorial fights.[136][note 8] He did not marry until 164.[140] In 156, Antoninus turned 70. He found it difficult to keep himself upright without stays. He started nibbling on dry bread to give him the strength to stay awake through his morning receptions. As Antoninus aged, Marcus would take on more administrative duties, more still when he became the praetorian prefect (an office that was as much secretarial as military) when Marcus Gavius Maximus died in 156 or 157.[141] In 160, Marcus and Lucius were designated joint consuls for the following year. Antoninus may have already been ill.[133] Two days before his death, the biographer reports, Antoninus was at his ancestral estate at Lorium, in Etruria,[142] about 19 kilometres (12 mi) from Rome.[143] He ate Alpine cheese at dinner quite greedily. In the night he vomited; he had a fever the next day. The day after that, 7 March 161,[144] he summoned the imperial council, and passed the state and his daughter to Marcus. The emperor gave the keynote to his life in the last word that he uttered when the tribune of the night-watch came to ask the password – 'aequanimitas' (equanimity).[145] He then turned over, as if going to sleep, and died.[146] His death closed out the longest reign since Augustus, surpassing Tiberius by a couple of months.[147] Emperor[edit] Main article: Reign of Marcus Aurelius Accession of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus (161)[edit] Busts of the co-emperors Marcus Aurelius (left) and Lucius Verus (right), British Museum After Antoninus died in 161, Marcus was effectively sole ruler of the Empire. The formalities of the position would follow. The senate would soon grant him the name Augustus and the title imperator, and he would soon be formally elected as Pontifex Maximus, chief priest of the official cults. Marcus made some show of resistance: the biographer writes that he was 'compelled' to take imperial power.[148] This may have been a genuine horror imperii, 'fear of imperial power'. Marcus, with his preference for the philosophic life, found the imperial office unappealing. His training as a Stoic, however, had made the choice clear to him that it was his duty.[149] Although Marcus showed no personal affection for Hadrian (significantly, he does not thank him in the first book of his Meditations), he presumably believed it his duty to enact the man's succession plans.[150] Thus, although the senate planned to confirm Marcus alone, he refused to take office unless Lucius received equal powers.[151] The senate accepted, granting Lucius the imperium, the tribunician power, and the name Augustus.[152] Marcus became, in official titulature, Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus; Lucius, forgoing his name Commodus and taking Marcus's family name Verus, became Imperator Caesar Lucius Aurelius Verus Augustus.[153][note 9] It was the first time that Rome was ruled by two emperors.[156][note 10] In spite of their nominal equality, Marcus held more auctoritas, or 'authority', than Lucius. He had been consul once more than Lucius, he had shared in Antoninus's rule, and he alone was Pontifex Maximus. It would have been clear to the public which emperor was the more senior.[156] As the biographer wrote, 'Verus obeyed Marcus...as a lieutenant obeys a proconsul or a governor obeys the emperor'.[157] Immediately after their senate confirmation, the emperors proceeded to the Castra Praetoria, the camp of the Praetorian Guard. Lucius addressed the assembled troops, which then acclaimed the pair as imperatores. Then, like every new emperor since Claudius, Lucius promised the troops a special donative.[158] This donative, however, was twice the size of those past: 20,000 sesterces (5,000 denarii) per capita, with more to officers. In return for this bounty, equivalent to several years' pay, the troops swore an oath to protect the emperors.[159] The ceremony was perhaps not entirely necessary, given that Marcus's accession had been peaceful and unopposed, but it was good insurance against later military troubles.[160] Upon his accession he also devalued the Roman currency. He decreased the silver purity of the denarius from 83.5% to 79% – the silver weight dropping from 2.68 g (0.095 oz) to 2.57 g (0.091 oz).[161] Antoninus's funeral ceremonies were, in the words of the biographer, 'elaborate'.[162] If his funeral followed those of his predecessors, his body would have been incinerated on a pyre at the Campus Martius, and his spirit would have been seen as ascending to the gods' home in the heavens. Marcus and Lucius nominated their father for deification. In contrast to their behaviour during Antoninus's campaign to deify Hadrian, the senate did not oppose the emperors' wishes. A flamen, or cultic priest, was appointed to minister the cult of the deified Divus Antoninus. Antoninus's remains were laid to rest in Hadrian's mausoleum, beside the remains of Marcus's children and of Hadrian himself.[163] The temple he had dedicated to his wife, Diva Faustina, became the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina. It survives as the church of San Lorenzo in Miranda.[160] In accordance with his will, Antoninus's fortune passed on to Faustina.[164] (Marcus had little need of his wife's fortune. Indeed, at his accession, Marcus transferred part of his mother's estate to his nephew, Ummius Quadratus.[165]) Faustina was three months pregnant at her husband's accession. During the pregnancy she dreamed of giving birth to two serpents, one fiercer than the other.[166] On 31 August, she gave birth at Lanuvium to twins: T. Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus and Lucius Aurelius Commodus.[167][note 11] Aside from the fact that the twins shared Caligula's birthday, the omens were favorable, and the astrologers drew positive horoscopes for the children.[169] The births were celebrated on the imperial coinage.[170] Early rule[edit] Soon after the emperors' accession, Marcus's eleven-year-old daughter, Annia Lucilla, was betrothed to Lucius (in spite of the fact that he was, formally, her uncle).[171] At the ceremonies commemorating the event, new provisions were made for the support of poor children, along the lines of earlier imperial foundations.[172] Marcus and Lucius proved popular with the people of Rome, who strongly approved of their civiliter ('lacking pomp') behaviour. The emperors permitted free speech, evidenced by the fact that the comedy writer Marullus was able to criticize them without suffering retribution. As the biographer wrote, 'No one missed the lenient ways of Pius'.[173] Marcus replaced a number of the empire's major officials. The ab epistulis Sextus Caecilius Crescens Volusianus, in charge of the imperial correspondence, was replaced with Titus Varius Clemens. Clemens was from the frontier province of Pannonia and had served in the war in Mauretania. Recently, he had served as procurator of five provinces. He was a man suited for a time of military crisis.[174] Lucius Volusius Maecianus, Marcus's former tutor, had been prefectural governor of Egypt at Marcus's accession. Maecianus was recalled, made senator, and appointed prefect of the treasury (aerarium Saturni). He was made consul soon after.[175] Fronto's son-in-law, Gaius Aufidius Victorinus, was appointed governor of Germania Superior.[176] Fronto returned to his Roman townhouse at dawn on 28 March, having left his home in Cirta as soon as news of his pupils' accession reached him. He sent a note to the imperial freedman Charilas, asking if he could call on the emperors. Fronto would later explain that he had not dared to write the emperors directly.[177] The tutor was immensely proud of his students. Reflecting on the speech he had written on taking his consulship in 143, when he had praised the young Marcus, Fronto was ebullient: 'There was then an outstanding natural ability in you; there is now perfected excellence. There was then a crop of growing corn; there is now a ripe, gathered harvest. What I was hoping for then, I have now. The hope has become a reality.'[178] Fronto called on Marcus alone; neither thought to invite Lucius.[179] Lucius was less esteemed by Fronto than his brother, as his interests were on a lower level. Lucius asked Fronto to adjudicate in a dispute he and his friend Calpurnius were having on the relative merits of two actors.[180] Marcus told Fronto of his reading – Coelius and a little Cicero – and his family. His daughters were in Rome with their great-great-aunt Matidia; Marcus thought the evening air of the country was too cold for them. He asked Fronto for 'some particularly eloquent reading matter, something of your own, or Cato, or Cicero, or Sallust or Gracchus – or some poet, for I need distraction, especially in this kind of way, by reading something that will uplift and diffuse my pressing anxieties.'[181] Marcus's early reign proceeded smoothly; he was able to give himself wholly to philosophy and the pursuit of popular affection.[182] Soon, however, he would find he had many anxieties. It would mean the end of the felicitas temporum ('happy times') that the coinage of 161 had proclaimed.[183] Tiber Island seen at a forty-year high-water mark of the Tiber, December 2008 In either autumn 161 or spring 162,[note 12] the Tiber overflowed its banks, flooding much of Rome. It drowned many animals, leaving the city in famine. Marcus and Lucius gave the crisis their personal attention.[185][note 13] In other times of famine, the emperors are said to have provided for the Italian communities out of the Roman granaries.[187] Fronto's letters continued through Marcus's early reign. Fronto felt that, because of Marcus's prominence and public duties, lessons were more important now than they had ever been before. He believed Marcus was 'beginning to feel the wish to be eloquent once more, in spite of having for a time lost interest in eloquence'.[188] Fronto would again remind his pupil of the tension between his role and his philosophic pretensions: 'Suppose, Caesar, that you can attain to the wisdom of Cleanthes and Zeno, yet, against your will, not the philosopher's woolen cape'.[189] The early days of Marcus's reign were the happiest of Fronto's life: Marcus was beloved by the people of Rome, an excellent emperor, a fond pupil, and perhaps most importantly, as eloquent as could be wished.[190] Marcus had displayed rhetorical skill in his speech to the senate after an earthquake at Cyzicus. It had conveyed the drama of the disaster, and the senate had been awed: 'Not more suddenly or violently was the city stirred by the earthquake than the minds of your hearers by your speech'. Fronto was hugely pleased.[191] War with Parthia (161–166)[edit] Main article: Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 See also: Roman–Persian Wars Coin of Vologases IV of Parthia. Inscription: above ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΝ ΔΟΥ, right ΑΡΣΑΚΟΥ ΒΟΛΑΓΑΣΟΥ, left ΕΠΙΦΑΝΟΥΣ ΦΙΛΕΛΛΗΝΟΣ, below ΔΙΟΥ (Greek inscription for KING OF KINGS – ARSAKIS VOLAGASES – ILLUSTRIUS PHILELLENE). Year ΔΟΥ = ΥΟΔ΄ = 474 = 162–63. On his deathbed, Antoninus spoke of nothing but the state and the foreign kings who had wronged him.[192] One of those kings, Vologases IV of Parthia, made his move in late summer or early autumn 161.[193] Vologases entered the Kingdom of Armenia (then a Roman client state), expelled its king and installed his own – Pacorus, an Arsacid like himself.[194] The governor of Cappadocia, the frontline in all Armenian conflicts, was Marcus Sedatius Severianus, a Gaul with much experience in military matters.[195] Convinced by the prophet Alexander of Abonutichus that he could defeat the Parthians easily and win glory for himself,[196] Severianus led a legion (perhaps the IX Hispana[197]) into Armenia, but was trapped by the great Parthian general Chosrhoes at Elegeia, a town just beyond the Cappadocian frontiers, high up past the headwaters of the Euphrates. After Severianus made some unsuccessful efforts to engage Chosrhoes, he committed suicide, and his legion was massacred. The campaign had lasted only three days.[198] There was threat of war on other frontiers as well – in Britain, and in Raetia and Upper Germany, where the Chatti of the Taunus mountains had recently crossed over the limes.[199] Marcus was unprepared. Antoninus seems to have given him no military experience; the biographer writes that Marcus spent the whole of Antoninus's twenty-three-year reign at his emperor's side and not in the provinces, where most previous emperors had spent their early careers.[200][note 14] More bad news arrived: the Syrian governor's army had been defeated by the Parthians, and retreated in disarray.[202] Reinforcements were dispatched for the Parthian frontier. P. Julius Geminius Marcianus, an African senator commanding X Gemina at Vindobona (Vienna), left for Cappadocia with detachments from the Danubian legions.[203] Three full legions were also sent east: I Minervia from Bonn in Upper Germany,[204] II Adiutrix from Aquincum,[205] and V Macedonica from Troesmis.[206] The northern frontiers were strategically weakened; frontier governors were told to avoid conflict wherever possible.[207] M. Annius Libo, Marcus's first cousin, was sent to replace the Syrian governor. His first consulship was in 161, so he was probably in his early thirties,[208] and as a patrician, he lacked military experience. Marcus had chosen a reliable man rather than a talented one.[209] Aureus of Marcus Aurelius (AD 166). On the reverse, Victoria is holding a shield inscribed 'VIC(toria) PAR(thica)', referring to his victory against the Parthians. Inscription: M. ANTONINVS AVG. / TR. P. XX, IMP. IIII, CO[N]S. III.[210] Marcus took a four-day public holiday at Alsium, a resort town on the coast of Etruria. He was too anxious to relax. Writing to Fronto, he declared that he would not speak about his holiday.[211] Fronto replied: 'What? Do I not know that you went to Alsium with the intention of devoting yourself to games, joking, and complete leisure for four whole days?'[212] He encouraged Marcus to rest, calling on the example of his predecessors (Antoninus had enjoyed exercise in the palaestra, fishing, and comedy),[213] going so far as to write up a fable about the gods' division of the day between morning and evening – Marcus had apparently been spending most of his evenings on judicial matters instead of at leisure.[214] Marcus could not take Fronto's advice. 'I have duties hanging over me that can hardly be begged off', he wrote back.[215] Marcus Aurelius put on Fronto's voice to chastise himself: ''Much good has my advice done you', you will say!' He had rested, and would rest often, but 'this devotion to duty! Who knows better than you how demanding it is!'[216] The dissolute Syrian army spent more time in Antioch's open-air taverns than with their units.[217] (Engraving by William Miller after a drawing by H. Warren from a sketch by Captain Byam Martin, R.N., 1866) The Euphrates River near Raqqa, Syria Fronto sent Marcus a selection of reading material,[218] and, to settle his unease over the course of the Parthian war, a long and considered letter, full of historical references. In modern editions of Fronto's works, it is labeled De bello Parthico (On the Parthian War). There had been reverses in Rome's past, Fronto writes,[219] but in the end, Romans had always prevailed over their enemies: 'Always and everywhere [Mars] has changed our troubles into successes and our terrors into triumphs'.[220] Over the winter of 161–162, news that a rebellion was brewing in Syria arrived and it was decided that Lucius should direct the Parthian war in person. He was stronger and healthier than Marcus, the argument went, and thus more suited to military activity.[221] Lucius's biographer suggests ulterior motives: to restrain Lucius's debaucheries, to make him thrifty, to reform his morals by the terror of war, and to realize that he was an emperor.[222][note 15] Whatever the case, the senate gave its assent, and, in the summer of 162, Lucius left. Marcus would remain in Rome, as the city 'demanded the presence of an emperor'.[224] Lucius spent most of the campaign in Antioch, though he wintered at Laodicea and summered at Daphne, a resort just outside Antioch.[225] Critics declaimed Lucius's luxurious lifestyle,[226] saying that he had taken to gambling, would 'dice the whole night through',[227] and enjoyed the company of actors.[228][note 16] Libo died early in the war; perhaps Lucius had murdered him.[230] Marble statue of Lucilla, 150–200 AD, Bardo National Museum, Tunisia In the middle of the war, perhaps in autumn 163 or early 164, Lucius made a trip to Ephesus to be married to Marcus's daughter Lucilla.[231] Marcus moved up the date; perhaps he had already heard of Lucius's mistress Panthea.[232] Lucilla's thirteenth birthday was in March 163; whatever the date of her marriage, she was not yet fifteen.[233] Lucilla was accompanied by her mother Faustina and Lucius's uncle (his father's half-brother) M. Vettulenus Civica Barbarus,[234] who was made comes Augusti, 'companion of the emperors'. Marcus may have wanted Civica to watch over Lucius, the job Libo had failed at.[235] Marcus may have planned to accompany them all the way to Smyrna (the biographer says he told the senate he would), but this did not happen.[236] He only accompanied the group as far as Brundisium, where they boarded a ship for the east.[237] He returned to Rome immediately thereafter, and sent out special instructions to his proconsuls not to give the group any official reception.[238] The Armenian capital Artaxata was captured in 163.[239] At the end of the year, Lucius took the title Armeniacus, despite having never seen combat; Marcus declined to accept the title until the following year.[240] When Lucius was hailed as imperator again, however, Marcus did not hesitate to take the Imperator II with him.[241] Occupied Armenia was reconstructed on Roman terms. In 164, a new capital, Kaine Polis ('New City'), replaced Artaxata.[242] A new king was installed: a Roman senator of consular rank and Arsacid descent, Gaius Julius Sohaemus. He may not even have been crowned in Armenia; the ceremony may have taken place in Antioch, or even Ephesus.[243] Sohaemus was hailed on the imperial coinage of 164 under the legend Rex armeniis Datus: Lucius sat on a throne with his staff while Sohaemus stood before him, saluting the emperor.[244] In 163, the Parthians intervened in Osroene, a Roman client in upper Mesopotamia centred on Edessa, and installed their own king on its throne.[245] In response, Roman forces were moved downstream, to cross the Euphrates at a more southerly point.[246] Before the end of 163, however, Roman forces had moved north to occupy Dausara and Nicephorium on the northern, Parthian bank.[247] Soon after the conquest of the north bank of the Euphrates, other Roman forces moved on Osroene from Armenia, taking Anthemusia, a town southwest of Edessa.[248] In 165, Roman forces moved on Mesopotamia. Edessa was re-occupied, and Mannus, the king deposed by the Parthians, was re-installed.[249] The Parthians retreated to Nisibis, but this too was besieged and captured. The Parthian army dispersed in the Tigris.[250] A second force, under Avidius Cassius and the III Gallica, moved down the Euphrates, and fought a major battle at Dura.[251] By the end of the year, Cassius's army had reached the twin metropolises of Mesopotamia: Seleucia on the right bank of the Tigris and Ctesiphon on the left. Ctesiphon was taken and its royal palace set to flame. The citizens of Seleucia, still largely Greek (the city had been commissioned and settled as a capital of the Seleucid Empire, one of Alexander the Great's successor kingdoms), opened its gates to the invaders. The city was sacked nonetheless, leaving a black mark on Lucius's reputation. Excuses were sought, or invented: the official version had it that the Seleucids broke faith first.[252] Cassius's army, although suffering from a shortage of supplies and the effects of a plague contracted in Seleucia, made it back to Roman territory safely.[253] Lucius took the title Parthicus Maximus, and he and Marcus were hailed as imperatores again, earning the title 'imp. III'.[254] Cassius's army returned to the field in 166, crossing over the Tigris into Media. Lucius took the title 'Medicus',[255] and the emperors were again hailed as imperatores, becoming 'imp. IV' in imperial titulature. Marcus took the Parthicus Maximus now, after another tactful delay.[256] On 12 October of that year, Marcus proclaimed two of his sons, Annius and Commodus, as his heirs.[257] War with Germanic tribes (166–180)[edit] Main article: Marcomannic Wars The Roman Empire at the death of Marcus Aurelius in 180, represented in purple. His annexation of lands of the Marcomanni and the Jazyges – perhaps to be provincially called Marcomannia and Sarmatia[258] – was cut short in 175 by the revolt of Avidius Cassius and by his death.[259] The light pink territory represents Roman dependencies: Armenia, Colchis, Iberia, and Albania. Scenes from the Marcomannic Wars, 176–180 AD (bas reliefs from the Arch of Marcus Aurelius, now in the Capitoline Museums) Marcus Aurelius receiving the submission of the vanquished, with raised vexillum standards Marcus Aurelius celebrating his triumph over Rome's enemies in 176 AD, riding in a quadriga chariot Bronze medallion of Marcus Aurelius (AD 168). The reverse depicts Jupiter, flanked by Marcus and Lucius Verus. Inscription: M. ANTONINVS AVG. ARM. PARTH. MAX. / TR. P. XXII, IMP. IIII, COS III.[260] Aureus of Marcus Aurelius (AD 176–177). The pile of trophies on the reverse celebrates the end of the Marcomannic Wars. Inscription: M. ANTONINVS AVG. GERM. SARM. / TR. P. XXXI, IMP. VIII, CO[N]S. III, P. P.[261] During the early 160s, Fronto's son-in-law Victorinus was stationed as a legate in Germany. He was there with his wife and children (another child had stayed with Fronto and his wife in Rome).[262] The condition on the northern frontier looked grave. A frontier post had been destroyed, and it looked like all the peoples of central and northern Europe were in turmoil. There was corruption among the officers: Victorinus had to ask for the resignation of a legionary legate who was taking bribes.[263] Experienced governors had been replaced by friends and relatives of the imperial family. Lucius Dasumius Tullius Tuscus, a distant relative of Hadrian, was in Upper Pannonia, succeeding the experienced Marcus Nonius Macrinus. Lower Pannonia was under the obscure Tiberius Haterius Saturnius. Marcus Servilius Fabianus Maximus was shuffled from Lower Moesia to Upper Moesia when Marcus Iallius Bassus had joined Lucius in Antioch. Lower Moesia was filled by Pontius Laelianus's son. The Dacias were still divided in three, governed by a praetorian senator and two procurators. The peace could not hold long; Lower Pannonia did not even have a legion.[264] Starting in the 160s, Germanic tribes, and other nomadic people launched raids along the northern border, particularly into Gaul and across the Danube. This new impetus westwards was probably due to attacks from tribes further east. A first invasion of the Chatti in the province of Germania Superior was repulsed in 162.[265] Far more dangerous was the invasion of 166, when the Marcomanni of Bohemia, clients of the Roman Empire since 19 AD, crossed the Danube together with the Lombards and other Germanic tribes.[266] Soon thereafter, the Iranian Sarmatian Iazyges attacked between the Danube and the Theiss rivers.[267] The Costoboci, coming from the Carpathian area, invaded Moesia, Macedonia, and Greece. After a long struggle, Marcus managed to push back the invaders. Numerous members of Germanic tribes settled in frontier regions like Dacia, Pannonia, Germany, and Italy itself. This was not a new thing, but this time the numbers of settlers required the creation of two new frontier provinces on the left shore of the Danube, Sarmatia and Marcomannia, including today's Czechia, Slovakia, and Hungary. Some Germanic tribes who settled in Ravenna revolted and managed to seize possession of the city. For this reason, Marcus decided not only against bringing more barbarians into Italy, but even banished those who had previously been brought there.[268] Legal and administrative work[edit] Bust of Marcus Aurelius in the Liebieghaus, Frankfurt. Like many emperors, Marcus spent most of his time addressing matters of law such as petitions and hearing disputes,[269] but unlike many of his predecessors, he was already proficient in imperial administration when he assumed power.[270] He took great care in the theory and practice of legislation. Professional jurists called him 'an emperor most skilled in the law'[271] and 'a most prudent and conscientiously just emperor'.[272] He showed marked interest in three areas of the law: the manumission of slaves, the guardianship of orphans and minors, and the choice of city councillors (decuriones).[273] Marcus showed a great deal of respect to the Roman Senate and routinely asked them for permission to spend money even though he did not need to do so as the absolute ruler of the Empire.[274] In one speech, Marcus himself reminded the Senate that the imperial palace where he lived was not truly his possession but theirs.[275] In 168, he revalued the denarius, increasing the silver purity from 79% to 82% – the actual silver weight increasing from 2.57–2.67 g (0.091–0.094 oz). However, two years later he reverted to the previous values because of the military crises facing the empire.[161] Trade with Han China and outbreak of plague[edit] Main articles: Sino-Roman relations and Antonine Plague A possible contact with Han China occurred in 166 when a Roman traveller visited the Han court, claiming to be an ambassador representing a certain Andun (Chinese: 安 敦), ruler of Daqin, who can be identified either with Marcus or his predecessor Antoninus.[276][277][278] In addition to Republican-era Roman glasswares found at Guangzhou along the South China Sea,[279] Roman golden medallions made during the reign of Antoninus and perhaps even Marcus have been found at Óc Eo, Vietnam, then part of the Kingdom of Funan near the Chinese province of Jiaozhi (in northern Vietnam). This may have been the port city of Kattigara, described by Ptolemy (c. 150) as being visited by a Greek sailor named Alexander and lying beyond the Golden Chersonese (i.e. Malay Peninsula).[280][note 17] Roman coins from the reigns of Tiberius to Aurelian have been found in Xi'an, China (site of the Han capital Chang'an), although the far greater amount of Roman coins in India suggests the Roman maritime trade for purchasing Chinese silk was centred there, not in China or even the overland Silk Road running through Persia.[281] The Antonine Plague started in Mesopotamia in 165 or 166 at the end of Lucius's campaign against the Parthians. It may have continued into the reign of Commodus. Galen, who was in Rome when the plague spread to the city in 166,[282] mentioned that 'fever, diarrhoea, and inflammation of the pharynx, along with dry or pustular eruptions of the skin after nine days' were among the symptoms.[283] It is believed that the plague was smallpox.[284] In the view of historian Rafe de Crespigny, the plagues afflicting the Eastern Han empire of China during the reigns of Emperor Huan of Han (r. 146–168) and Emperor Ling of Han (r. 168–189), which struck in 151, 161, 171, 173, 179, 182, and 185, were perhaps connected to the plague in Rome.[285] Raoul McLaughlin writes that the travel of Roman subjects to the Han Chinese court in 166 may have started a new era of Roman–Far East trade. However, it was also a 'harbinger of something much more ominous'. According to McLaughlin, the disease caused 'irreparable' damage to the Roman maritime trade in the Indian Ocean as proven by the archaeological record spanning from Egypt to India, as well as significantly decreased Roman commercial activity in Southeast Asia.[286] Death and succession (180)[edit] Last Words of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius (1844) by Eugène Delacroix Marcus died at the age of 58 on 17 March 180 due to unknown causes in near military quarters near the city of Sirmium in Pannonia (modern Sremska Mitrovica). He was immediately deified and his ashes were returned to Rome, where they rested in Hadrian's mausoleum (modern Castel Sant'Angelo) until the Visigoth sack of the city in 410. His campaigns against Germans and Sarmatians were also commemorated by a column and a temple built in Rome.[287] Some scholars consider his death to be the end of the Pax Romana.[288] Marcus was succeeded by his son Commodus, whom he had named Caesar in 166 and with whom he had jointly ruled since 177.[289] Biological sons of the emperor, if there were any, were considered heirs;[290] however, it was only the second time that a "non-adoptive" son had succeeded his father, the only other having been a century earlier when Vespasian was succeeded by his son Titus. Historians have criticized the succession to Commodus, citing Commodus's erratic behaviour and lack of political and military acumen.[289] At the end of his history of Marcus's reign, Cassius Dio wrote an encomium to the emperor, and described the transition to Commodus in his own lifetime with sorrow:[291] [Marcus] did not meet with the good fortune that he deserved, for he was not strong in body and was involved in a multitude of troubles throughout practically his entire reign. But for my part, I admire him all the more for this very reason, that amid unusual and extraordinary difficulties he both survived himself and preserved the empire. Just one thing prevented him from being completely happy, namely, that after rearing and educating his son in the best possible way he was vastly disappointed in him. This matter must be our next topic; for our history now descends from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust, as affairs did for the Romans of that day. –Dio lxxi. 36.3–4[291] Dio adds that from Marcus's first days as counsellor to Antoninus to his final days as emperor of Rome, "he remained the same [person] and did not change in the least."[292] Michael Grant, in The Climax of Rome, writes of Commodus:[293] The youth turned out to be very erratic, or at least so anti-traditional that disaster was inevitable. But whether or not Marcus ought to have known this to be so, the rejections of his son's claims in favour of someone else would almost certainly have involved one of the civil wars which were to proliferate so disastrously around future successions.[293] Legacy and reputation[edit] Marcus acquired the reputation of a philosopher king within his lifetime, and the title would remain after his death; both Dio and the biographer call him 'the philosopher'.[294][295] Christians such as Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, and Eusebius also gave him the title.[296] The last named went so far as to call him "more philanthropic and philosophic" than Antoninus and Hadrian, and set him against the persecuting emperors Domitian and Nero to make the contrast bolder.[297] The historian Herodian wrote: "Alone of the emperors, he gave proof of his learning not by mere words or knowledge of philosophical doctrines but by his blameless character and temperate way of life."[298] Iain King explains that Marcus's legacy was tragic: "[The emperor's] Stoic philosophy – which is about self-restraint, duty, and respect for others – was so abjectly abandoned by the imperial line he anointed on his death."[299] Attitude towards Christians[edit] In the first two centuries of the Christian era, it was local Roman officials who were largely responsible for the persecution of Christians. In the second century, the emperors treated Christianity as a local problem to be dealt with by their subordinates.[300] The number and severity of persecutions of Christians in various locations of the empire seemingly increased during the reign of Marcus. The extent to which Marcus himself directed, encouraged, or was aware of these persecutions is unclear and much debated by historians.[301] The early Christian apologist, Justin Martyr, includes within his First Apology (written between 140 and 150 A.D.) a letter from Marcus Aurelius to the Roman senate (prior to his reign) describing a battlefield incident in which Marcus believed Christian prayer had saved his army from thirst when "water poured from heaven," after which, "immediately we recognized the presence of God." Marcus goes on to request the senate desist from earlier courses of Christian persecution by Rome.[302] Marriage and children[edit] Coin of Commodus and Annius, 161–165. Inscription: [ΝΕΩ]ΚΟΡΟΙ CΕΒΑCΤΟΥ i.e. the city (of Tarsus in Cilicia) had a temple of Augustus. Bust of Vibia Aurelia Sabina, Prado Museum Marcus and his cousin-wife Faustina had at least 13 children during their 30-year marriage,[123][303] including two sets of twins.[123][304] One son and four daughters outlived their father.[305] Their children included: Domitia Faustina (147–151)[123][135][306] Titus Aelius Antoninus (149)[126][304][307] Titus Aelius Aurelius (149)[126][304][307] Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla (150[129][306]–182[308]), married her father's co-ruler Lucius Verus,[135] then Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus, had issue from both marriages Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina (born 151),[131] married Gnaeus Claudius Severus, had a son Tiberius Aelius Antoninus (born 152, died before 156)[131] Unknown child (died before 158)[133] Annia Aurelia Fadilla (born 159[306][133]),[135] married Marcus Peducaeus Plautius Quintillus, had issue Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor (born 160[306][133]),[135] married Marcus Petronius Sura Mamertinus, had a son Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus (161–165), elder twin brother of Commodus[307] Lucius Aurelius Commodus Antoninus (Commodus) (161–192),[309] twin brother of Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus, later emperor,[307][310] married Bruttia Crispina, no issue Marcus Annius Verus Caesar (162[257]–169[303][311])[135] Hadrianus[135] Vibia Aurelia Sabina (170[307]– died before 217[312]),[135] married Lucius Antistius Burrus, no issue Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Fundania Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 14 April 2015. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Writings[edit] Main article: Meditations While on campaign between 170 and 180, Marcus wrote his Meditations in Greek as a source for his own guidance and self-improvement. The original title of this work, if it had one, is unknown. 'Meditations' – as well as other titles including 'To Himself' – were adopted later. He had a logical mind and his notes were representative of Stoic philosophy and spirituality. Meditations is still revered as a literary monument to a government of service and duty. According to Hays, the book was a favourite of Christina of Sweden, Frederick the Great, John Stuart Mill, Matthew Arnold, and Goethe, and is admired by modern figures such as Wen Jiabao and Bill Clinton.[313] It has been considered by many commentators to be one of the greatest works of philosophy.[314] It is not known how widely Marcus's writings were circulated after his death. There are stray references in the ancient literature to the popularity of his precepts, and Julian the Apostate was well aware of his reputation as a philosopher, though he does not specifically mention Meditations.[315] It survived in the scholarly traditions of the Eastern Church and the first surviving quotes of the book, as well as the first known reference of it by name ('Marcus's writings to himself') are from Arethas of Caesarea in the 10th century and in the Byzantine Suda (perhaps inserted by Arethas himself). It was first published in 1558 in Zurich by Wilhelm Xylander (ne Holzmann), from a manuscript reportedly lost shortly afterwards.[316] The oldest surviving complete manuscript copy is in the Vatican library and dates to the 14th century.[317] Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius[edit] Main article: Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius Aureus of Marcus Aurelius (AD December 173 – June 174), with his equestrian statue on the reverse. inscription: M. ANTONINVS AVG. TR. P. XXVIII / IMP. VI, CO[N]S III.[318] Detailed view of the Column of Marcus Aurelius The Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius in Rome is the only Roman equestrian statue which has survived into the modern period.[319] This may be due to it being wrongly identified during the Middle Ages as a depiction of the Christian emperor Constantine the Great, and spared the destruction which statues of pagan figures suffered. Crafted of bronze in circa 175, it stands 11.6 ft (3.5 m) and is now located in the Capitoline Museums of Rome. The emperor's hand is outstretched in an act of clemency offered to a bested enemy, while his weary facial expression due to the stress of leading Rome into nearly constant battles perhaps represents a break with the classical tradition of sculpture.[320] A close up view of the Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius in the Capitoline Museums A full view of the equestrian statue Replica of the statue, Capitoline Hill Replica of the statue, Capitoline Hill Column of Marcus Aurelius[edit] Main article: Column of Marcus Aurelius Marcus's victory column, established in Rome either in his last few years of life or after his reign and completed in 193, was built to commemorate his victory over the Sarmatians and Germanic tribes in 176. A spiral of carved reliefs wraps around the column, showing scenes from his military campaigns. A statue of Marcus had stood atop the column but disappeared during the Middle Ages. It was replaced with a statue of Saint Paul in 1589 by Pope Sixtus V.[321] The column of Marcus and the column of Trajan are often compared by scholars given how they are both Doric in style, had a pedestal at the base, had sculpted friezes depicting their respective military victories, and a statue on top.[322] The Column of Marcus Aurelius in Piazza Colonna. The five horizontal slits allow light into the internal spiral staircase. The column, right, in the background of Panini's painting of the Palazzo Montecitorio, with the base of the Column of Antoninus Pius in the right foreground (1747) In popular culture[edit] In the 1965 epic drama The Fall of The Roman Empire, Alec Guinness portrays Marcus Aurelius. The film is noteworthy for using quotes from 'Meditations'. In the 2000 British-American drama Gladiator, Richard Harris portrays Marcus Aurelius in a fictionalized version. In the 2017 docu-drama miniseries Roman Empire, John Bach portrays Marcus Aurelius. Notes[edit] ^ Dio asserts that the Annii were near-kin of Hadrian, and that it was to these familial ties that they owed their rise to power.[25] The precise nature of these kinship ties is nowhere stated, but is believed that Rupilia Faustina was the daughter of the consular senator Libo Rupilius Frugi and Matidia, who was also the mother (presumably through another marriage) of Vibia Sabina, Hadrian's wife.[26] ^ Farquharson dates his death to 130 when Marcus was nine.[34] ^ Birley amends the text of the HA Marcus from 'Eutychius' to 'Tuticius'.[46] ^ Commodus was a known consumptive at the time of his adoption, so Hadrian may have intended Marcus's eventual succession anyway.[55] ^ The manuscript is corrupt here.[78] ^ Modern scholars have not offered as positive an assessment. His second modern editor, Niebhur, thought him stupid and frivolous; his third editor, Naber, found him contemptible.[95] Historians have seen him as a 'pedant and a bore', his letters offering neither the running political analysis of a Cicero or the conscientious reportage of a Pliny.[96] Recent prosopographic research has rehabilitated his reputation, though not by much.[97] ^ Champlin notes that Marcus's praise of Rusticus in the Meditations is out of order (he is praised immediately after Diognetus, who had introduced Marcus to philosophy), giving him special emphasis.[117] ^ Although part of the biographer's account of Lucius is fictionalized (probably to mimic Nero, whose birthday Lucius shared[137]) and another part poorly compiled from a better biographical source,[138] scholars have accepted these biographical details as accurate.[139] ^ These name-swaps have proven so confusing that even the Historia Augusta, our main source for the period, cannot keep them straight.[154] The 4th-century ecclesiastical historian Eusebius of Caesarea shows even more confusion.[155] The mistaken belief that Lucius had the name 'Verus' before becoming emperor has proven especially popular.[156] ^ There was, however, much precedent. The consulate was a twin magistracy, and earlier emperors had often had a subordinate lieutenant with many imperial offices (under Antoninus, the lieutenant had been Marcus). Many emperors had planned a joint succession in the past: Augustus planned to leave Gaius and Lucius Caesar as joint emperors on his death; Tiberius wished to have Gaius Caligula and Tiberius Gemellus do so as well; Claudius left the empire to Nero and Britannicus, imagining that they would accept equal rank. All of these arrangements had ended in failure, either through premature death (Gaius and Lucius Caesar) or judicial murder (Gemellus by Caligula and Britannicus by Nero).[156] ^ The biographer relates the scurrilous (and, in the judgment of Anthony Birley, untrue) rumor that Commodus was an illegitimate child born of a union between Faustina and a gladiator.[168] ^ Because both Lucius and Marcus are said to have taken active part in the recovery (HA Marcus viii. 4–5), the flood must have happened before Lucius's departure for the east in 162; because it appears in the biographer's narrative after Antoninus's funeral has finished and the emperors have settled into their offices, it must not have occurred in the spring of 161. A date in autumn 161 or spring 162 is probable, and, given the normal seasonal distribution of Tiber flooding, the most probable date is in spring 162.[184] (Birley dates the flood to autumn 161.[179]) ^ Since 15 AD, the river had been administered by a Tiber Conservancy Board, with a consular senator at its head and a permanent staff. In 161, the curator alevi Tiberis et riparum et cloacarum urbis ('Curator of the Tiber Bed and Banks and the City Sewers') was A. Platorius Nepos, son or grandson of the builder of Hadrian's Wall, whose name he shares. He probably had not been particularly incompetent. A more likely candidate for that incompetence is Nepos's likely predecessor, M. Statius Priscus. A military man and consul for 159, Priscus probably looked on the office as little more than 'paid leave'.[186] ^ Alan Cameron adduces the 5th-century writer Sidonius Apollinaris's comment that Marcus commanded 'countless legions' vivente Pio (while Antoninus was alive) while contesting Birley's contention that Marcus had no military experience. (Neither Apollinaris nor the Historia Augusta (Birley's source) are particularly reliable on 2nd-century history.[201]) ^ Birley believes there is some truth in these considerations.[223] ^ The whole section of the vita dealing with Lucius's debaucheries (HA Verus iv. 4–6.6), however, is an insertion into a narrative otherwise entirely cribbed from an earlier source. Most of the details are fabricated by the biographer himself, relying on nothing better than his own imagination.[229] ^ For further information on Óc Eo, see Osborne, Milton. The Mekong: Turbulent Past, Uncertain Future. Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin, 2006, revised edition, first published in 2000. pp. 24–25. ISBN 978-1741148930. Citations[edit] All citations to the Historia Augusta are to individual biographies, and are marked with a 'HA'. Citations to the works of Fronto are cross-referenced to C.R. Haines's Loeb edition. ^ 'Marcus Aurelius' Archived 28 December 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Dictionary.com. ^ Rohrbacher, p. 5. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 229–30. The thesis of single authorship was first proposed in H. Dessau's 'Über Zeit und Persönlichkeit der Scriptoes Historiae Augustae' (in German), Hermes 24 (1889), pp. 337ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 230. On the HA Verus, see Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', pp. 65–74. ^ Beard, Mary. 'Was He Quite Ordinary?'. London Review of Books 31:14, 23 July 2009; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 226. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 227. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 228–229, 253. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 227–28. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 228. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 49. ^ Magill, p. 693. ^ a b Historia MA I.9–10 ^ Van Ackeren, p. 139. ^ a b c Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 33. ^ Dio 69.21.1; HA Marcus i. 10; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 24. ^ Dio lxix.21.1; HA Marcus i. 9; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 24. ^ Van Ackeren, p. 78. ^ Dean, p. 32. ^ Knight, Charles (1856). The English Cyclopædia: A New Dictionary of Universal Knowledge. Biography. Bradbury & Evans. p. 439. Marcus Aurelius Malennius and Numa. ^ Sánchez, p. 165. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 29; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 14. ^ HA Marcus i. 2, 4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 28; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: A Life, p. 14. ^ Giacosa, p. 8. ^ Levick, pp. 161, 163. ^ Dio 69.21.2, 71.35.2–3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 31. ^ Codex Inscriptionum Latinarum 14.3579 "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby". Archived from the original on 29 April 2012. Retrieved 15 November 2011. ; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 29; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, pp. 14, 575 n. 53, citing Ronald Syme, Roman Papers 1.244. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 29, citing Pliny, Epistulae 8.18. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 30. ^ "M. Cornelius Fronto: Epistulae". ^ l. Richardson, jr; Richardson, Professor of Latin (Emeritus) L. (October 1992). A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. JHU Press. p. 198. ISBN 9780801843006. horti domizia lucilla. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem ii. 8.2 (= Haines 1.142), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 31. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 31, 44. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 31. ^ Farquharson, 1.95–96. ^ Meditations 1.1, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 31. ^ HA Marcus ii. 1 and Meditations v. 4, qtd. in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 32. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 31–32. ^ Meditations i. 1, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 35. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 35. ^ Meditations i. 17.2; Farquharson, 1.102; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 23; cf. Meditations i. 17.11; Farquharson, 1.103. ^ McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, 20–21. ^ Meditations 1.4; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 20. ^ HA Marcus ii. 2, iv. 9; Meditations i. 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 37; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, pp. 21–22. ^ HA Marcus ii. 6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 38; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 21. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 40, citing Aristides, Oratio 32 K; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 21. ^ Magie & Birley, Lives of the later Caesars, pp. 109, 109 n.8; Marcus Aurelius, pp. 40, 270 n.27, citing Bonner Historia-Augusta Colloquia 1966/7, pp. 39ff. ^ HA Marcus ii. 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 40, 270 n.27. ^ Meditations i. 10; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 40; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 22. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 40, 270 n.28, citing A.S.L. Farquharson, The Meditations of Marcus Antoninus (Oxford, 1944) ii. 453. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 41–42. ^ HA Hadrian xiii. 10, qtd. in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 42. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 42. Van Ackeren, 142. On the succession to Hadrian, see also: T.D. Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', Journal of Roman Studies 57:1–2 (1967): 65–79; J. VanderLeest, 'Hadrian, Lucius Verus, and the Arco di Portogallo', Phoenix 49:4 (1995): pp. 319–30. ^ HA Aelius vi. 2–3 ^ HA Hadrian xxiii. 15–16; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 45; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', 148. ^ Dio, lxix.17.1; HA Aelius, iii. 7, iv. 6, vi. 1–7; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 147. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 46. Date: Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 148. ^ Weigel, Richard D. 'Antoninus Pius (A.D. 138–161)'. Roman Emperors. ^ Dio 69.21.1; HA Hadrian xxiv. 1; HA Aelius vi. 9; HA Antoninus Pius iv. 6–7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 48–49. ^ HA Marcus v. 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 49. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 49–50. ^ HA Marcus v. 6–8, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 50. ^ Dio 69.22.4; HA Hadrian xxv. 5–6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 50–51. Hadrian's suicide attempts: Dio, lxix. 22.1–4; HA Hadrian xxiv. 8–13. ^ HA Hadrian xxv. 7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 53. ^ HA Antoninus Pius v. 3, vi. 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 55–56; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 151. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 55; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 151. ^ Mattingly & Sydenham, Roman imperial coinage, vol. III, p. 108. ^ Mattingly & Sydenham, Roman imperial coinage, vol. III, p. 77. ^ HA Marcus vi. 2; Verus ii. 3–4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 53–54. ^ Dio 71.35.5; HA Marcus vi. 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 56. ^ Meditations vi. 30, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 57; cf. Marcus Aurelius, p. 270 n.9, with notes on the translation. ^ a b HA Marcus vi. 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 57. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 57, 272 n.10, citing Codex Inscriptionum Latinarum 6.32, 6.379, cf. Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 360. ^ Meditations 5.16, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 57. ^ Meditations 8.9, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 57. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 57–58. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iv. 7, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 90. ^ HA Marcus vi. 5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 58. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 89. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem v. 1, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 89. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 4.8, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 89. ^ Dio 71.36.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 89. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 90–91. ^ HA Antoninus Pius x. 2, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 91. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 91. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 61. ^ HA Marcus iii. 6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 62. ^ HA Marcus ii. 4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 62. ^ Alan Cameron, review of Anthony Birley's Marcus Aurelius, Classical Review 17:3 (1967): p. 347. ^ Vita Sophistae 2.1.14; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 63–64. ^ Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae 9.2.1–7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 64–65. ^ Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae 19.12, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 65. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 65. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 67–68, citing Champlin, Fronto and Antonine Rome, esp. chs. 3 and 4. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 65–67. ^ Champlin, Fronto, pp. 1–2. ^ Mellor, p. 460. ^ Cf., e.g.: Mellor, p. 461 and passim. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 69. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iv. 6 (= Haines 1.80ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 76. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iv. 6 (= Haines 1.80ff); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 76–77. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iii. 10–11 (= Haines 1.50ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 73. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 73. ^ Champlin, 'Chronology of Fronto', p. 138. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem v. 74 ( =Haines 2.52ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 73. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 77. On the date, see Champlin, 'Chronology of Fronto', p. 142, who (with Bowersock, Greek Sophists in the Roman Empire (1964), 93ff) argues for a date in the 150s; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 78–79, 273 n.17 (with Ameling, Herodes Atticus (1983), 1.61ff, 2.30ff) argues for 140. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iii. 2 (= Haines 1.58ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 77–78. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iii. 3 (= Haines 1.62ff); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 78. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iii. 3 (= Haines 1.62ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 79. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 80. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iv. 13 (= Haines 1.214ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 93. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iv. 3.1 (= Haines 1.2ff); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 94. ^ HA Marcus iii. 5–8, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 94. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iv. 3, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 69. ^ De Eloquentia iv. 5 (= Haines 2.74), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 95. Alan Cameron, in his review of Birley's biography (The Classical Review 17:3 (1967): p. 347), suggests a reference to chapter 11 of Arthur Darby Nock's Conversion (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1933, rept. 1961): 'Conversion to Philosophy'. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 94, 105. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 95; Champlin, Fronto, p. 120. ^ Champlin, Fronto, p. 174 n. 12. ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator i.2.2 (= Haines 2.36), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 95. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 94–95, 101. ^ Champlin, Fronto, p. 120. ^ Meditations i.7, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 94–95. ^ Philostratus, Vitae sophistorum ii. 9 (557); cf. Suda, Markos ^ a b c d Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 103. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 4.11 (= Haines 1.202ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 105. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 247 F.1. ^ a b c Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 206–207. ^ Meditations ix.40, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 207. ^ a b Meditations x.34, tr. Farquharson, pp. 78, 224. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 107. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 107–08. ^ a b c Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 108. ^ Inscriptiones Graecae ad Res Romanas pertinentes 4.1399, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 114. ^ a b c d e Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 114. ^ Reed, p. 194. ^ a b c d e f g h Lendering, Jona. 'Marcus Aurelius'. Livius.org. ^ HA Verus 2.9–11; 3.4–7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 108. ^ Suetonius, Nero 6.1; HA Verus 1.8; Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', 67; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 158. See also: Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', pp. 69–70; Pierre Lambrechts, 'L'empereur Lucius Verus. Essai de réhabilitation' (in French), Antiquité Classique 3 (1934), pp. 173ff. ^ Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', p. 66. Poorly compiled: e.g. Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', p. 68. ^ Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', pp. 68–69. ^ HA Verus 2.9–11; 3.4–7; Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', 68; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 108. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 112. ^ Bowman, 156; Victor, 15:7 ^ Victor, 15:7 ^ Dio 71.33.4–5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 114. ^ Bury, p. 532. ^ HA Antoninus Pius 12.4–8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 114. ^ Bowman, p. 156. ^ HA Marcus vii. 5, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 116. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 116. Birley takes the phrase horror imperii from HA Pert. xiii. 1 and xv. 8. ^ Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 156. ^ HA Verus iii.8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 116; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 156. ^ HA Verus iv.1; Marcus vii.5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 116. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 116–17. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 117; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 157 n.53. ^ Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 157 n.53. ^ a b c d Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 117. ^ HA Verus iv.2, tr. Magie, cited in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 117, 278 n.4. ^ HA Marcus vii. 9; Verus iv.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 117–18. ^ HA Marcus vii. 9; Verus iv.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 117–18. 'twice the size': Duncan-Jones, p. 109. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 118. ^ a b 'Roman Currency of the Principate'. Tulane.edu. Archived 10 February 2001. ^ HA Marcus vii. 10, tr. Magie, cited in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 118, 278 n.6. ^ HA Marcus vii. 10–11; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 118. ^ HA Antoninus Pius xii.8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 118–19. ^ HA Marcus vii. 4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119. ^ HA Comm. i.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119. ^ HA Comm. i.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119. ^ HA Marcus xix. 1–2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 278 n.9. ^ HA Commodus. i.4, x.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 155ff.; 949ff. ^ HA Marcus vii. 7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 118. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 118, citing Werner Eck, Die Organization Italiens (1979), pp. 146ff. ^ HA Marcus viii. 1, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 157. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 122–23, citing H.G. Pfalum, Les carrières procuratoriennes équestres sous le Haut-Empire romain I–III (Paris, 1960–61); Supplément (Paris, 1982), nos. 142; 156; Eric Birley, Roman Britain and the Roman Army (1953), pp. 142ff., 151ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123, citing H.G. Pfalum, Les carrières procuratoriennes équestres sous le Haut-Empire romain I–III (Paris, 1960–61); Supplément (Paris, 1982), no. 141. ^ HA Marcus viii. 8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123, citing W. Eck, Die Satthalter der germ. Provinzen (1985), pp. 65ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120, citing Ad Verum Imperator i.3.2 (= Haines 1.298ff). ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator iv.2.3 (= Haines 1.302ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120, citing Ad Verum Imperator i.1 (= Haines 1.305). ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator iv.1 (= Haines 1.300ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120. ^ HA Marcus viii. 3–4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 841; 845. ^ Gregory S. Aldrete, Floods of the Tiber in ancient Rome (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007), pp. 30–31. ^ HA Marcus viii. 4–5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 5932 (Nepos), 1092 (Priscus); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 121. ^ HA Marcus xi. 3, cited in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 278 n.16. ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator 1.2.2 (= Haines 2.35), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 128. ^ De eloquentia 1.12 (= Haines 2.63–65), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 128. ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator 1.2.2 (= Haines 2.35); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 127–28. ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator 1.2.4 (= Haines 2.41–43), tr. Haines; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 128. ^ HA Antoninus Pius xii.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 114, 121. ^ Event: HA Marcus viii. 6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 121. Date: Jaap-Jan Flinterman, 'The Date of Lucian's Visit to Abonuteichos,' Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 119 (1997): p. 281. ^ HA Marcus viii. 6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 121. ^ Lucian, Alexander 27; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 121. ^ Lucian, Alexander 27; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 121–22. On Alexander, see: Robin Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986), pp. 241–50. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 278 n.19. ^ Dio 71.2.1; Lucian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 21, 24, 25; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 121–22. ^ HA Marcus viii. 7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 122. ^ HA Antoninus Pius vii.11; Marcus vii.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 103–04, 122. ^ Pan. Ath. 203–04, qtd. and tr. Alan Cameron, review of Anthony Birley's Marcus Aurelius, The Classical Review 17:3 (1967): p. 349. ^ HA Marcus viii. 6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum 8.7050–51; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ Incriptiones Latinae Selectae 1097–98; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ Incriptiones Latinae Selectae 1091; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ Incriptiones Latinae Selectae 2311; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ HA Marcus xii. 13; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ L'Année Épigraphique 1972.657 "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby". Archived from the original on 29 April 2012. Retrieved 15 November 2011. ; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 125. ^ HA Verus 9.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 125. ^ Mattingly & Sydenham, Roman imperial coinage, vol. III, p. 226. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 1 (= Haines 2.3); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 126. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 3.1 (= Haines 2.5), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 126. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 3.4 (= Haines 2.9); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 126–27. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 3.6–12 (= Haines 2.11–19); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 126–27. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 4, tr. Haines 2.19; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 127. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 4 (= Haines 2.19), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 127. ^ Ad Verum Imperator 2.1.19 (= Haines 2.149); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129. ^ De bello Parthico x. (= Haines 2.31), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 127. ^ De bello Parthico i–ii. (= Haines 2.21–23). ^ De bello Parthico i. (= Haines 2.21), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 127. ^ Dio, lxxi. 1.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ HA Verus v. 8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 123, 125. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 125. ^ HA Marcus viii. 9, tr. Magie; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 123–26. On Lucius's voyage, see: HA Verus vi. 7–9; HA Marcus viii. 10–11; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 125–26. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129. ^ HA Verus iv.4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129. ^ HA Verus iv. 6, tr. Magie; cf. v. 7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129. ^ HA Verus viii. 7, viii. 10–11; Fronto, Principae Historia 17 (= Haines 2.217); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129. ^ Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus.', p. 69. ^ HA Verus ix. 2; Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum 3.199 "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby". Archived from the original on 29 April 2012. Retrieved 15 November 2011. ; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 130–31. ^ HA Verus vii. 7; Marcus ix. 4; Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', p. 72; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163; cf. also Barnes, 'Legislation against the Christians', p. 39; 'Some Persons in the Historia Augusta', p. 142, citing the Vita Abercii 44ff. ^ HA Verus 7.10; Lucian, Imagines 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131. Cf. Lucian, Imagines, Pro Imaginibus, passim. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163. ^ HA Verus vii. 7; Marcus ix. 4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131, citing Année Épigraphique 1958.15. ^ HA Verus 7.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131. ^ HA Marcus ix. 4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131. ^ HA Marcus ix. 5–6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131. ^ HA Marcus ix. 1; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162. ^ HA Marcus ix. 1; HA Verus vii. 1–2; Ad Verrum Imperator 2.3 (= Haines 2.133); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 233ff. ^ Dio, lxxi.3.1; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162; Millar, Near East, p. 113. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 280 n. 42; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 261ff.; 300 ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 130, 279 n. 38; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163, citing Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 M 169; Millar, Near East, p. 112. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 130; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162. ^ Fronto, Ad Verum Imperator ii.1.3 (= Haines 2.133); Astarita, 41; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 130; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 1098; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 130. ^ Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163, citing Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 M 169. ^ Lucian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 15, 19; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163. ^ Lucian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 20, 28; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163, citing Syme, Roman Papers, 5.689ff. ^ HA Verus 8.3–4; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', 163. Birley cites R.H. McDowell, Coins from Seleucia on the Tigris (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1935), pp. 124ff., on the date. ^ Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 164. ^ Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 164, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 384 ff., 1248 ff., 1271 ff. ^ Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 164, citing P. Kneissl, Die Siegestitulatur der römischen Kaiser. Untersuchungen zu den Siegerbeinamen des 1. und 2. Jahrhunderts (Göttingen, 1969), pp. 99 ff. ^ Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 164, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 401ff. ^ a b Adams, p. 94. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 253. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 183. ^ Gnecchi, Medaglioni Romani, p. 33. ^ Mattingly & Sydenham, Roman imperial coinage, vol. III, p. 241. ^ Dio 72.11.3–4; Ad amicos 1.12 (= Haines 2.173); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 132. ^ Dio, lxxii. 11.3–4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 132, citing De nepote amisso ii (= Haines 2.222); Ad Verum Imperator ii. 9–10 (= Haines 2.232ff.). ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 133, citing Geza Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand (1977), Moesia Inferior: pp. 232ff.; Moesia Superior: pp. 234ff.; Pannonia Superior: pp. 236ff.; Dacia: pp. 245ff.; Pannonia Inferior: p. 251. ^ McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: A Life, pp. 323–24. ^ Le Bohec, p. 56. ^ Grant, The Antonines: The Roman Empire in Transition, p. 29. ^ Dio, lxxii.11.4–5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 253. ^ Fergus Millar, The Emperor in the Roman World, 31 BC – AD 337 (London: Duckworth, 1977), 6 and passim. See also: idem. 'Emperors at Work', Journal of Roman Studies 57:1/2 (1967): 9–19. ^ 'Thinkers At War – Marcus Aurelius'. Military History Monthly, published 2014. (This is the conclusion of Iain King's biography of Marcus Aurelius.) 'Pius, one of longest-serving emperors, became infirm in his last years, so Marcus Aurelius gradually assumed the imperial duties. By the time he succeeded in AD 161, he was already well-practised in public administration.' ^ Codex Justinianeus 7.2.6, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 133. ^ Digest 31.67.10, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 133. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 133. ^ Irvine, pp. 57–58. ^ Dio, lxxii.33 ^ Pulleyblank, Leslie and Gardiner, pp. 71–79. ^ Yü, pp. 460–61. ^ De Crespigny, p. 600. ^ An, 83. ^ Young, pp. 29–30. ^ Ball, p. 154. ^ Haas, pp. 1093–1098. ^ Murphy, Verity. 'Past pandemics that ravaged Europe'. BBC News, 7 November 2005. ^ Haas, pp. 1093–98. ^ De Crespigny, p. 514. ^ McLaughlin, pp. 59–60. ^ Kleiner, p. 230. ^ Merrony, p. 85. ^ a b Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', pp. 186–91. ^ Kemezis, p. 45. ^ a b Tr. Cary, ad loc. ^ Dio lxxii. 36, 72.34 ^ a b Grant, The Climax Of Rome, p. 15. ^ HA Marcus i. 1, xxvii. 7; Dio lxxi. 1.1; James Francis, Subversive Virtue: Asceticism and Authority in the Second-Century Pagan World (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995), 21 n. 1. ^ Mark, Joshua. 'Marcus Aurelius: Plato's Philosopher King'. Ancient History Encyclopedia. 8 May 2018. ^ Francis, p. 21 n.1, citing Justin, 1 Apologia 1; Athenagoras, Leg. 1; Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 4.26.9–11. ^ Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 4.26.9–11, qtd. and tr. Francis, 21 n. 1. ^ Herodian, Ab Excessu Divi Marci i.2.4, tr. Echols. ^ Thinkers at War. ^ Barnes, 'Legislation against the Christians'. ^ McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: A Life, p. 295. ^ The First Apology of Justin Martyr, Chapter LXVIII ^ a b Stephens, p. 31. ^ a b c Lendering, Jona. 'Antoninus and Aelius'. 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JSTOR 292367. Gnecchi, Francesco. I medaglioni Romani, 3 Vols, Milan, 1912. OCLC 6529816. Grant, Michael. The Antonines: the Roman Empire in transition. London: Routledge, 2016. ISBN 978-1317972105. Grant, Michael. The Climax Of Rome. London: Orion, 2011. ISBN 978-1780222769. Haas, Charles. The Antonine plague (in French). Bulletin de l'Académie Nationale de Médecine. Académie nationale de médecine. 190 (2006): 1093–98. OCLC 958470753. Hadot, Pierre. The inner citadel: the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998. ISBN 978-0674461710. Hays, Gregory. Meditations. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003. ISBN 978-1842126752. Irvine, William B. A Guide to the Good Life: The Ancient Art of Stoic Joy. Oxford University Press, 2009. ISBN 978-1522632733. Kemezis, Adam M. Greek Narratives of the Roman Empire under the Severans: Cassius Dio, Philostratus and Herodian. Cambridge University Press, 2014. ISBN 978-1107062726. Kleiner, Fred S. Gardner's art through the ages. Volume II: the western perspective. Mason, OH: Cengage Learning, 2008. ISBN 978-0495573555. Le Bohec, Yann. The Imperial Roman Army. Routledge, 2013. ISBN 978-1135955137. Levick, Barbara M. Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014. ISBN 978-0199702176. Magill, Frank N. Dictionary of World Biography. London: Routledge, 2003. ISBN 978-1579580407. Mattingly, Harold; Sydenham, Edward A. The Roman imperial coinage. Vol. III, Antoninus Pius to Commodus. London: Spink & Son, 1930. OCLC 768929523. Mellor, Ronald, review of Edward Champlin's Fronto and Antonine Rome, American Journal of Philology 103:4 (1982). Merrony, Mark. The Plight of Rome in the Fifth Century AD. London: Routledge, 2017. ISBN 978-1351702782. McLaughlin, Raoul. Rome and the Distant East: Trade Routes to the Ancient Lands of Arabia, India, and China. London & New York: Continuum, 2010. ISBN 978-1847252357. McLynn, Frank. Marcus Aurelius: A Life. New York: Da Capo Press, 2009. ISBN 978-0306819162. McLynn, Frank. Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor. London: Bodley Head, 2009. ISBN 978-0224072922. Mulroy, Michael. "* Modern Stoicism: A Case for a Philosopher-King", September 26, 2020. Millar, Fergus. The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.–A.D. 337. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993. ISBN 978-0674778863. Pulleyblank, Edwin G.; Leslie, D. D.; Gardiner, K. H. J. 'The Roman Empire as Known to Han China'. Journal of the American Oriental Society, 1999. 119 (1). doi:10.2307/605541. JSTOR 605541. Reed, J. Eugene. The Lives of the Roman Emperors and Their Associates from Julius Cæsar (B.C. 100) to Agustulus (A.D. 476). Philadelphia, PA: Gebbie & Company, 1883. Robertson, D. How to Think Like a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius Archived 4 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2019. Rohrbacher, David. The Play of Allusion in the Historia Augusta. Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 2016. ISBN 978-0299306045. Sánchez, Jorge Pisa. Breve historia de Hispania: La fascinante historia de Hispania, desde Viriato hasta el esplendor con los emperadores Trajano y Adriano. Los protagonistas, la cultura, la religión y el desarrollo económico y social de una de las provincias más ricas del Imperio romano [Brief history of Hispania: the fascinating history of Hispania, from Viriato to the splendor with the Emperors Trajan and Hadrian. The protagonists, culture, religion, and the economic and social development of one of the richest provinces of the Roman Empire]. (in Spanish) Ediciones Nowtilus S.L., 2010. ISBN 978-8497637695. Stephens, William O. Marcus Aurelius: A Guide for the Perplexed. London: Continuum, 2012. ISBN 978-1441125613. Stertz, Stephen A. 'Marcus Aurelius as Ideal Emperor in Late-Antique Greek Thought'. The Classical World 70:7 (1977): 433–39. doi:10.2307/4348712. JSTOR 4348712. Syme, Ronald. 'The Ummidii'. Historia 17:1 (1968): 72–105. JSTOR 4435015. Van Ackeren, Marcel. A Companion to Marcus Aurelius. New York: Malden, MA : Wiley-Blackwell, 2012. ISBN 978-1-405-19285-9. OCLC 784124210. Young, Gary K. Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC – AD 305. London: Routledge, 2003. ISBN 978-1-134-54793-7. Yü, Ying-shih. 'Han Foreign Relations', in Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe (eds), The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC–AD 220, 377–462. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8. Modern Stoicism: A Case for a Philosopher-King External links[edit] Marcus Aureliusat Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Resources from Wikiversity Texts on Wikisource: The Thoughts of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus "Marcus Aurelius Antoninus". Catholic Encyclopedia. 2. 1907. "Marcus Aurelius Antoninus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 17 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 693–96. "Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus". The New Student's Reference Work. 1914.  Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Μάρκος Αὐρήλιος Works by Marcus Aurelius at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Marcus Aurelius at Internet Archive Works by Marcus Aurelius at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Marcus Aurelius at the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Podcast #14: Mick Mulroy, Philosopher Kings, Ethics, and Wisdom] Marcus Aurelius Antonine dynasty Born: 26 April 121 Died: 17 March 180 Regnal titles Preceded by Antoninus Pius Roman emperor 161–180 With: Lucius Verus (161–169) Commodus (177–180) Succeeded by Commodus Political offices Preceded by M. Ceccius Justinus G. Julius Bassus as suffect consuls Consul of Rome January–April 140 With: Antoninus Pius Succeeded by Q. Antonius Isauricus L. Aurelius Flaccus Preceded by L. Marcius Celer M. Calpurnius Longus D. Velius Fidus as suffect consuls Consul of Rome January–February 145 With: Antoninus Pius Succeeded by L. Plautius Lamia Silvanus L. Poblicola Priscus Preceded by Ti. Oclatius Severus Novius Sabinianus Consul of Rome January 161 With: Lucius Verus Succeeded by M. Annius Libo Q. 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en-wikipedia-org-1280	----	Bion of Borysthenes - Wikipedia Bion of Borysthenes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Bion of Borysthenes Bronze head of a philosopher from Antikythera shipwreck, possibly of Bion Born c. 325 BC Olbia Died c. 250 BC Chalcis School Cynicism Influences Xenocrates, Crates of Athens, Crates of Thebes, Theodorus, Theophrastus Influenced Menippus Bion of Borysthenes (Greek: Βίων Βορυσθενίτης, gen.: Βίωνος; c. 325 – c. 250 BC) was a Greek philosopher. After being sold into slavery, and then released, he moved to Athens, where he studied in almost every school of philosophy. It is, however, for his Cynic-style diatribes that he is chiefly remembered. He satirized the foolishness of people, attacked religion, and eulogized philosophy. Contents 1 Life 2 Philosophy 3 Notes 4 References 5 Further reading 6 External links Life[edit] Bion was from the town of Olbia on the north coast of the Black Sea by the mouth of the river Borysthenes (modern-day Dnieper). He lived c. 325-c. 250 BC, but the exact dates of his birth and death are uncertain. Strabo[1] mentions him as a contemporary of Eratosthenes, who was born 275 BC. Diogenes Laërtius has preserved an account in which Bion describes his parentage to Antigonus II Gonatas, King of Macedonia.[2] His father was a freedman and a dealer in salt fish, with which he combined the occupation of smuggling. His mother, Olympia, was a Lacedaemonian prostitute. The whole family were sold as slaves, on account of some offence committed by the father. In consequence of this, Bion fell into the hands of a rhetorician, who made him his heir. Having burnt his patron's library, he went to Athens, and applied himself to philosophy, in the course of which study he embraced the tenets of almost every sect in succession. First he was an Academic studying under Xenocrates[3] and Crates of Athens,[4] then he became a Cynic,[4] (perhaps under Crates of Thebes), afterwards he attached to Theodorus,[5] the Cyrenaic philosopher whose alleged atheism is supposed to have influenced Bion,[6] and finally he became a pupil of Theophrastus the Peripatetic.[5] After the manner of the sophists of the period, Bion travelled through Greece and Macedonia, and was admitted to the literary circle at the court of Antigonus II Gonatas.[7] He subsequently taught philosophy at Rhodes,[8] and died at Chalcis in Euboea.[6] Philosophy[edit] Because of his early association with the Academy, Diogenes Laërtius placed Bion among the Academics, but there is nothing in his life or thought suggesting an affinity with Platonism and modern scholars regard him as a Cynic, albeit an atypical one with strong Hedonistic or Cyrenaic leanings.[9][10] Much of what Laërtius has to say about Bion seems to have been drawn from hostile sources so care has to be taken in using his account to reconstruct Bion's life and thought.[11] Laërtius reveals to us a man of considerable intellectual acuteness, but quite ready to attack everyone and everything. He was essentially a popular writer, and in his Diatribes he satirized the foolishness of people. While eulogizing poverty and philosophy, he attacked the gods, musicians, geometricians, astrologers, and the wealthy, and denied the efficacy of prayer. Laërtius claims Bion was an atheist (which he renounced at the time of his death)[12] but the surviving fragments reveal only a religious skepticism concerning mystery religions, oracles, etc.[11] The quotations of Bion recorded by Teles, and preserved by Stobaeus reveal a man who "treats of ordinary human problems in a common-sense spirit, though for emphasis employing all the devices of contemporary prose style. ... The situations dealt with are those that may confront any person, from the universalia of old age, poverty, exile, slavery, the fear of death, down to the more particular case of a nagging wife."[11] His influence is distinctly traceable in succeeding writers, e.g. in the satires of Menippus. Horace alludes to his satires and caustic wit.[13] Examples of this wit are his sayings: "The miser did not possess wealth, but was possessed by it." "Impiety was the companion of credulity, [and] avarice the metropolis of vice." "Good slaves are really free, and bad freemen really slaves." One saying is preserved by Cicero:[14] "It is useless to tear our hair when we are in grief, since sorrow is not cured by baldness." Another is cited by Plutarch:[15] "Though boys throw stones at frogs in sport, the frogs do not die in sport but in earnest." Notes[edit] ^ Strabo i.2.2 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, iv. 46–47 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, iv. 10 ^ a b Diogenes Laërtius, iv. 51 ^ a b Diogenes Laërtius, iv. 52 ^ a b Diogenes Laërtius, iv. 54 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, iv. 46, 54 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, iv. 49, 53 ^ Eduard Zeller, Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy, 13th Edition, page 247 ^ Luis E. Navia, (1996), Classical Cynicism: A Critical Study, pages 154–5. Greenwood ^ a b c Donald Dudley, (1937) A History of Cynicism, pages 64–6 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, iv. 54: "In his familiar talk he would often vehemently assail belief in the gods, a taste which he had derived from Theodorus." See also iv. 56. ^ Horace, Epistles, ii. 2.60 ^ Cicero, Tusculan Disputations, iii. 62 , "In quo facetum illud Bionis, perinde stultissimum regem in luctu capillum sibi evellere quasi calvitio maeror levaretur." ^ Plutarch, Moralia, xii. 66 References[edit]  Laërtius, Diogenes (1925). "The Academics: Bion" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. 1:4. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library. Further reading[edit] Wikisource has the text of a 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article about Bion. Kindstrand, J., (1976) Bion of Borysthenes: A Collection of the Fragments with Introduction and Commentary. Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis. ISBN 91-554-0486-3 External links[edit] Quotations related to Bion of Borysthenes at Wikiquote v t e Cynic philosophers Greek era Antisthenes Diogenes Diodorus Zoilus Onesicritus Philiscus Crates Hipparchia Metrocles Monimus Cleomenes Bion Sotades Menippus Menedemus Cercidas Teles Meleager Roman era Favonius Demetrius Dio Chrysostom Agathobulus Secundus Demonax Peregrinus Proteus Theagenes Oenomaus Pancrates Crescens Heraclius Horus Asclepiades Sallustius Authority control BIBSYS: 90299125 BNE: XX1063362 GND: 118974246 ISNI: 0000 0000 7506 1319 LCCN: no2010016071 NKC: ola2002153198 NTA: 069873909 SUDOC: 03494110X VIAF: 106932431 WorldCat Identities: lccn-no2010016071 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bion_of_Borysthenes&oldid=929973332" Categories: 4th-century BC births 3rd-century BC deaths 3rd-century BC philosophers Ancient Greek writers Ancient Greeks in Macedon Ancient Greek slaves and freedmen Ancient Pontic Greeks Cynic philosophers Hellenistic-era philosophers in Athens Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from January 2015 Articles with hCards Articles containing Greek-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating the template Lives of the Eminent Philosophers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Galego Italiano עברית Mirandés Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 9 December 2019, at 11:57 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1286	----	Marcus Terentius Varro - Wikipedia Marcus Terentius Varro From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search An imagined portrait of an elderly Varro. Before 1923, artist unknown[citation needed] Marcus Terentius Varro (Latin: [ˈmaːrkʊs t̪ɛˈrɛn̪t̪ijʊs ˈwarːoː]; 116–27 BC) was one of ancient Rome's greatest scholars and a prolific author. He is sometimes called Varro Reatinus [ˈwarːoː reaːˈt̪iːnʊs] to distinguish him from his younger contemporary Varro Atacinus. Contents 1 Biography 2 Calendars 3 Works 3.1 Extant works 3.2 Known lost works 4 References 5 Further reading 6 External links Biography[edit] Varro was born in or near Reate (now Rieti)[1] to a family thought to be of equestrian rank, and always remained close to his roots in the area, owning a large farm in the Reatine plain, reported as near Lago di Ripa Sottile,[2] until his old age. He supported Pompey, reaching the office of praetor, after having been tribune of the people, quaestor and curule aedile.[3] He was one of the commission of twenty that carried out the great agrarian scheme of Caesar for the resettlement of Capua and Campania (59 BC).[3] Statue of Marcus Terentius Varro in Rieti During Caesar's civil war he commanded one of Pompey's armies in the Ilerda campaign.[4] He escaped the penalties of being on the losing side in the civil war through two pardons granted by Julius Caesar, before and after the Battle of Pharsalus.[5] Caesar later appointed him to oversee the public library of Rome in 47 BC, but following Caesar's death Mark Antony proscribed him, resulting in the loss of much of his property, including his library. As the Republic gave way to Empire, Varro gained the favour of Augustus, under whose protection he found the security and quiet to devote himself to study and writing. Varro studied under the Roman philologist Lucius Aelius Stilo, and later at Athens under the Academic philosopher Antiochus of Ascalon. Varro proved to be a highly productive writer and turned out more than 74 Latin works on a variety of topics. Among his many works, two stand out for historians; Nine Books of Disciplines and his compilation of the Varronian chronology. His Nine Books of Disciplines became a model for later encyclopedists, especially Pliny the Elder. The most noteworthy portion of the Nine Books of Disciplines is its use of the liberal arts as organizing principles.[6] Varro decided to focus on identifying nine of these arts: grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, musical theory, medicine, and architecture. Using Varro's list, subsequent writers defined the seven classical "liberal arts of the medieval schools".[6] In 37 BC,[7] in his old age, he also wrote on agriculture for his wife Fundania, writing a "voluminous" work De re rustica (also called Res rusticae)—similar to Cato the Elder's similar work De agri cultura—on the management of large slave-run estates.[8] Calendars[edit] Fasti Antiates Maiores, an inscription containing the Roman calendar. This calendar predates the Julian reform of the calendar; it contains the months Quintilis and Sextilis, and allows for the insertion of an intercalary month The compilation of the Varronian chronology was an attempt to determine an exact year-by-year timeline of Roman history up to his time. It is based on the traditional sequence of the consuls of the Roman Republic—supplemented, where necessary, by inserting "dictatorial" and "anarchic" years. It has been demonstrated to be somewhat erroneous but has become the widely accepted standard chronology, in large part because it was inscribed on the arch of Augustus in Rome; though that arch no longer stands, a large portion of the chronology has survived under the name of Fasti Capitolini. Works[edit] Varro's literary output was prolific; Ritschl estimated it at 74 works in some 620 books, of which only one work survives complete, although we possess many fragments of the others, mostly in Gellius' Attic Nights. He was called "the most learned of the Romans" by Quintilian,[9] and also recognized by Plutarch as "a man deeply read in Roman history".[10] Varro was recognized as an important source by many other ancient authors, among them Cicero, Pliny the Elder, Virgil in the Georgics, Columella, Aulus Gellius, Macrobius, Augustine, and Vitruvius, who credits him (VII.Intr.14) with a book on architecture. His only complete work extant, Rerum rusticarum libri tres (Three Books on Agriculture), has been described as "the well digested system of an experienced and successful farmer who has seen and practised all that he records."[11] One noteworthy aspect of the work is his anticipation of microbiology and epidemiology. Varro warned his contemporaries to avoid swamps and marshland, since in such areas ...there are bred certain minute creatures which cannot be seen by the eyes, but which float in the air and enter the body through the mouth and nose and cause serious diseases.[12][13][14] Extant works[edit] Plan of the birdhouse at Casinum designed and built by Varro De lingua latina libri XXV (or On the Latin Language in 25 Books, of which six books (V–X) survive, partly mutilated) Rerum rusticarum libri III (or Agricultural Topics in Three Books) Known lost works[edit] Saturarum Menippearum libri CL or Menippean Satires in 150 books Antiquitates rerum humanarum et divinarum libri XLI (Antiquities of Human and Divine Things)[15] Logistoricon libri LXXVI Hebdomades vel de imaginibus Disciplinarum libri IX (An encyclopedia on the liberal arts, of which the first book dealt with grammar) De rebus urbanis libri III (or On Urban Topics in Three Books) De gente populi Romani libri IIII (cf. Augustine, 'De civitate dei' xxi. 8.) De sua vita libri III (or On His Own Life in Three Books) De familiis troianis (or On the Families of Troy) De Antiquitate Litterarum libri II (addressed to the tragic poet Lucius Accius; it is therefore one of his earliest writings) De Origine Linguae Latinae libri III (addressed to Pompey; cf. Augustine, 'De civitate dei' xxii. 28.) Περί Χαρακτήρων (in at least three books, on the formation of words) Quaestiones Plautinae libri V (containing interpretations of rare words found in the comedies of Plautus) De Similitudine Verborum libri III (on regularity in forms and words) De Utilitate Sermonis libri IIII (on the principle of anomaly or irregularity) De Sermone Latino [it] libri V (?) (addressed to Marcellus,[17] on orthography and the metres of poetry) De philosophia (cf. Augustine, 'De civitate dei' xix. 1.) Most of the extant fragments of these works (mostly the grammatical works) can be found in the Goetz–Schoell edition of De Lingua Latina, pp. 199–242; in the collection of Wilmanns, pp. 170–223; and in that of Funaioli, pp. 179–371. References[edit] ^ "Marcus Terentius Varro | Roman author". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 12 January 2017. ^ "LacusCurtius • Varro On Agriculture – Book I". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 12 January 2017. ^ a b Baynes, Thomas Spencer (1891). The Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. C. Scribner's sons. ^ Caesar; Damon, Cynthia (2016). Civil War. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674997035. ^ Prioreschi, Plinio (1996). A History of Medicine: Roman medicine. Horatius Press. ISBN 978-1888456035. ^ a b Lindberg, David (2007). The Beginnings of Western Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 137. ISBN 978-0-226-48205-7. Retrieved 6 March 2010. ^ Flower, Harriet I., director de la publicación. (2014). The Cambridge companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press. p. 177. ISBN 978-1-107-66942-0. OCLC 904729745.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Flower, Harriet I., director de la publicación. (2014). The Cambridge companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press. p. 193. ISBN 978-1-107-66942-0. OCLC 904729745.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Quintilian. "Chapter 1". Institutio Oratoria. Book X. Verse 95. ^ Plutarch. Life of Romulus. New York: Modern Library. p. 31. ^ Harrison, Fairfax (1918). "Note Upon the Roman Agronomists". Roman Farm Management. New York: The Macmillan Company. pp. 1–14 [10]. ^ Varro, Marcus Terentius (2014) [1934]. De Re Rustica. Loeb Classical Library. I.12.2 – via Bill Thayer's Website. ^ Thompson, Sue (March 2014). "From Ground to Tap" (PDF). The Mole: 3 (sidebar). Archived from the original on 12 October 2014. Retrieved 21 August 2017. ^ Hempelmann, Ernst; Krafts, Kristine (October 2013). "Bad Air, Amulets and Mosquitoes: 2,000 Years of Changing Perspectives on Malaria". Malaria Journal. 12: 232. doi:10.1186/1475-2875-12-232. ISSN 1475-2875. PMC 3723432. PMID 23835014. ^ "Marcus Terentius Varro | Roman author". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 4 January 2019. ^ Wilmanns, Augustus (1864). "II:97". De M. Terenti Varronis Libris Grammaticis. Gutenberg. Berlin: Weidmann. Marcellus autem ad quem haec uolumina misit quis fuerit nescio. ^ Several people called Marcellus lived during Varro's time. The identity of this one is unclear.[16] Further reading[edit] Cardauns, B. Marcus Terentius Varro: Einführung in sein Werk. Heidelberger Studienhefte zur Altertumswissenschaft. Heidelberg, Germany: C. Winter, 2001. d’Alessandro, P. “Varrone e la tradizione metrica antica”. Spudasmata, volume 143. Hildesheim; Zürich; New York: Georg Olms Verlag, 2012. Dahlmann, H.M. “Terentius Varro. Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft”. Supplement 6, Abretten bis Thunudromon. Edited by Wilhelm Kroll, 1172–1277. Stuttgart: Metzler, 1935. Ferriss-Hill, J. “Varro’s Intuition of Cognate Relationships.” Illinois Classical Studies, volume 39, 2014, pp. 81–108. Freudenburg, K. "The Afterlife of Varro in Horace's Sermones: Generic Issues in Roman Satire." Generic Interfaces in Latin Literature: Encounters, Interactions and Transformations, edited by Stavros Frangoulidis, De Gruyter, 2013, pp. 297–336. Kronenberg, L. Allegories of Farming from Greece and Rome: Philosophical Satire in Xenophon, Varro and Virgil. Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009. Nelsestuen, G. Varro the Agronomist: Political Philosophy, Satire, and Agriculture in the Late Republic. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 2015. Richardson, J.S. “The Triumph of Metellus Scipio and the Dramatic Date of Varro, RR 3.” The Classical Quarterly, volume 33, no. 2, 1983, pp. 456–463. Taylor, D.J.. Declinatio : A Study of the Linguistic Theory of Marcus Terentius Varro. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 1974. Van Nuffelen, P. “Varro’s Divine Antiquities: Roman Religion as an Image of Truth.” Classical Philology, volume 105, no. 2, 2010, pp. 162–188. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Marcus Terentius Varro Wikisource has original works written by or about: Marcus Terentius Varro Library resources about Varro Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Varro Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Works by Marcus Terentius Varro at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Marcus Terentius Varro at Internet Archive Works by Marcus Terentius Varro at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) de Re Rustica (Latin and English at LacusCurtius) Links to translation of De Linga Latina by R.G.Kent Livius.org: Varronian chronology thelatinlibrary.com: Latin works of Varro Oxford Classical Dictionary Oxford Bibliographies v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire 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en-wikipedia-org-1305	----	Vicarius - Wikipedia Vicarius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses of "vicar", see Vicar (disambiguation). Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e Original dioceses of the Roman Empire, created by emperor Diocletian (284–305) Later dioceses of the Roman Empire, around 400 AD Vicarius is a Latin word, meaning substitute or deputy. It is the root of the English word "vicar". History[edit] Originally, in ancient Rome, this office was equivalent to the later English "vice-" (as in "deputy"), used as part of the title of various officials. Each vicarius was assigned to a specific superior official, after whom his full title was generally completed by a genitive (e.g. vicarius praetoris). At a low level of society, the slave of a slave, possibly hired out to raise money to buy manumission, was a servus vicarius.[1] Later, in the 290s, the Emperor Diocletian carried out a series of administrative reforms, ushering in the period of the Dominate. These reforms also saw the number of Roman provinces increased, and the creation of a new administrative level, the diocese. The dioceses, initially twelve, grouped several provinces, each with its own governor. The dioceses were headed by a vicarius, or, more properly, by a vices agens praefecti praetorio ("deputy of the praetorian prefect"). An exception was the Diocese of the East, which was headed by a comes ("count"). In 370 or 381 Egypt and Cyrenaica were detached from the Diocese of the East and made a diocese under an official called the Augustal Prefect. In the eastern parts of the Empire, dominated by Greek language and common use of Greek terminology, vicarius was called exarch.[2] According to the Notitia dignitatum (an early 5th century imperial chancery document), the vicarius had the rank of vir spectabilis; the staff of a vicarius, his officium, was rather similar to a gubernatorial officium. For example, in the diocese of Hispania, his staff included: The princeps (i.e. chief of staff) was chosen from among the senior agentes in rebus (couriers or special investigators, 'men of affairs,' from the ministry of the interior headed by the master of the offices), from the salaried class of the ducenarii (those earning 200,000 sesterces a year - the highest regular pay grade in the Roman civil service; the highest officials, governors and above, were not civil service). A cornicularius ("chief of staff"). Two numerarii (chief accountants). A commentariensis ("keeper of the commentary", the official diary). An adiutor (adjutant; literally "helper", an assistant). An ab actis ("acts-keeper", archivist). A cura epistolarum ("curator of correspondence"). An unnamed number of subadiuvae ("deputy assistants"). Various exceptores (lower clerks). Singulares et reliquum officium (various menial staff). References[edit] ^ P. R. C. Weaver. "Vicarius and Vicarianus in the Familia Caesaris". The Journal of Roman Studies 54.1 and 2 (1964:117–128). ^ Meyendorff 1989. Sources[edit] Ostrogorsky, George (1956). History of the Byzantine State. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Meyendorff, John (1989). Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450-680 A.D. The Church in history. 2. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 9780881410563.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Notitia dignitatum Pauly-Wissowa (in German) v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vicarius&oldid=981686834" Categories: Ancient Roman titles Hidden categories: CS1 maint: ref=harv Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Català Deutsch Español Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina Lietuvių Magyar Nederlands Norsk bokmål Português Svenska Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 3 October 2020, at 20:53 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1308	----	Political history of the Roman military - Wikipedia Political history of the Roman military From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Part of a series on the Military of ancient Rome 753 BC – AD 476 Structural history Army Unit types and ranks Decorations and punishments Legions Auxilia Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Campaign history Wars and battles Technological history Military engineering Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Political history   Strategy and tactics Infantry tactics Frontiers and fortifications Limes Limes Britannicus Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Limes Germanicus Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes Norican Limes Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannonian Limes Limes Alutanus Limes Moesiae Trajan's Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmatiae Limes Arabicus Limes Tripolitanus Limes Mauretaniae  Ancient Rome portal •  War portal v t e Rome's military was always tightly keyed to its political system. In the Roman kingdom the social standing of a person impacted both his political and military roles, which were often organised into familial clans such as the Julia. These clans often wielded a large amount of power and were huge influences through the Roman Kingdom into the Republic. The political system was from an early date based upon competition within the ruling elite, the Patricians. Senators in the Republic competed fiercely for public office, the most coveted of which was the post of Consul.[1] Two were elected each year to head the government of the state, and would be assigned a consular army and an area in which to campaign.[1] From Gaius Marius and Sulla onwards, control of the army began to be tied into the political ambitions of individuals, leading to the first triumvirate of the 1st century BC and the resulting Caesar’s civil war. The late Republic and Empire was increasingly plagued by usurpations led by or supported by the military, leading to the crisis of the third century in the late empire. Contents 1 Roman kingdom 2 Roman Republic 3 From late Republic to mid-Roman Empire 4 Middle Roman Empire 5 Late Roman Empire 6 Political economy of the Roman military 7 References Roman kingdom[edit] Under the Etruscan king Servius Tullius, a person's social standing and wealth determined both their political and military role: following his reforms, a rich man would have had greater voting rights, and greater standing within the military, than a poor man. A further politicization of the military involved officers for a unit not belonging to and being drawn from the class of the military unit he commanded but being selected often through voting.[2] Roman Republic[edit] In the republic, the tradition of social class determining military duty continued, despite structural changes - the rich equestrians continued to serve together in the equites for instance - but the lower ranks became less politicized and based upon a mix of social class, age and military experience rather than social class alone. For non-citizens, 25 years in the army was a guaranteed way of gaining citizenship for them and their family.[2] Despite these changes on the bottom rungs of the military, amongst the army's commanders a process began of politicizing military command. In the Republic, military service made a person of the equestrian class eligible for a wide range of profitable postings: military triumphs boosted a person's career, and military service became a pre-requirement for a number of political posts. Intended initially to ensure that all political leaders had shown dedication and duty serving in the military, the effect was to cause military experience to become of paramount importance to a Roman's political career, with the eventual consequence that armies would become tools for the political goals of their generals, rather than neutrally aligned forces of the state. At the highest level, two consuls were elected each year to head the government of the state and simultaneously were appointed the commanders-in-chief of the Roman army, and would be assigned a consular army and an area in which to campaign.[3] From late Republic to mid-Roman Empire[edit] In 100 BC, Lucius Appuleius Saturninus was tribune and advocated several social reforms, among which was a bill that gave colonial lands to war veterans, a suggestion that was radical and displeasing to the patrician senate, which opposed the measures. Violence broke out and the Senate ordered Gaius Marius, as Consul for that year, to put down the revolt. Marius, although he was generally allied with the radicals, complied with the request and put down the revolt in the interest of public order.[4] The political issue of land allocation for Rome's military veterans would return several times to haunt the state including 14 AD when an army in central Europe mutinied over the failure of the state to provide land plots for soldiers. After the conclusion of the Social War, certain of Rome's eastern provinces became under threat of invasion and it was necessary to raise an army to counter the threat. The choice before the Senate was to put either Consul Marius or Consul Sulla in command of an army. There was already a fierce rivalry between the two, in part due to a competitive instinct amongst the two as successful generals, but more importantly distrust on Sulla's part that Marius held unhealthy ambitions.[5] The Roman Republic was always on guard against any citizen gaining too much prominence, lest he seize power and restore Rome as a kingdom; thus a series of checks and balances existed, such as consuls having to be re-elected annually.[6] Marius had already served five consulships and enjoyed widespread popularity. The senate made its decision and Sulla was given the job but a short time later the decision was reversed by the Assembly, and Marius placed in command. Already wary of Marius' prominence and previous five terms as consul, and (rightly) suspecting bribery in the securing of the position to command the army (Marius had promised to erase the debts of Publius Sulpicius Rufus), Sulla refused to acknowledge the validity of the Assembly's action.[7] Sulla left Rome and traveled to reach the army waiting in Nola, the army the Senate had asked him to lead against Mithridates. Sulla urged his legions to defy the Assembly's orders and accept him as their rightful leader. Sulla was successful and the legions stoned the representatives from the Assembly when they arrived, defying the state's orders. Sulla then commanded six legions to march with him to Rome. This was a momentous event, and was unforeseen by Marius, as no Roman army had ever marched upon Rome - it was forbidden by law and ancient tradition. Marius fled with no great loss of life and Sulla later disbanded his legions and re-established consular government, but the military had been shown to be able to be used as a political tool of individuals. It was a pattern to be repeated more famously later by Caesar.[7] During the First Triumvirate of Julius Caesar, Pompey and Crassus, each of the triumvires used military success to enhance their own political and public status. The incredibly wealthy consul Crassus, who had earlier displayed his wealth by entertaining the populace of Rome at a huge party with 10,000 tables, personally raised and funded six legions from his personal wealth. Whilst he did not at this time use them for marching on Rome in direct furtherance of his own career, his desperation to rival the military campaigns of Pompey that led to recognition in the public eye means that his motives are unlikely to have been entirely selfless. Rather, it was another step in the severance of the direct connection between state and troops that saw armies increasingly become tied to their generals' political careers.[8] When the triumvirate collapsed, Caesar crossed the Rubicon river and marched his armies upon Rome itself. This turning of an army loyal to its general against the state had occurred before under Sulla, but the circumstances were different this time: Sulla felt at least partly justified in his march on Rome by the alleged and probably real corruption of the political system by Marius, and by Marius' own quest for primacy as a political figure against a political backdrop that sought to prevent any person becoming too prominent. Caesar, on the other hand, marched his army against Rome purely for his own purposes. It is true that the political maneuverings of Pompey, which made it possible for Caesar to be prosecuted on his return to Rome, pushed Caesar into marching on Rome, but the fact that almost the entire senate fled alongside Pompey shows that Caesar's actions were at least perceived to be an act against the state itself rather than the person of Pompey: Caesar's power base was built almost exclusively on the loyalty of the soldiers who had served under him campaigning several years.[9] Unlike Sulla, Caesar also failed to revert power to the state when the threat of Pompey had been removed, not just keeping his position as de facto ruler of the state but, immediately on his return from defeating Pompey, naming his grand-nephew Gaius Octavius (Octavian) as the heir to his title, a wholly unconstitutional act. In everything but name, the army had placed the first Emperor on the throne of Rome.[10] The years following the fall of the republic were peaceful and relatively benign with the military not involving itself greatly in political affairs - such that the term Pax Augusti is often used - perhaps because the military was expending most of its energy in territorial expansion of the empire.[10] The Roman senate and emperors were not blind to the possibility of rebellion by its troops as generals could gain the loyalty of his officers through a mixture of personal charisma, promises and simple bribes: once the general and officers had a unity of purpose the rigid discipline of the military meant that the troops would normally follow. Only later seemingly did the situation reverse and the soldiers began to dictate action to the officers and generals, raising generals to Emperors even when the generals themselves were completely lacking such ambition or wishes. However, the state saw itself as relatively safe from such rebellions in the early imperial period. The reason for this safety from rebellion is that for a rebellion to be successful it was necessary for an usurper to gain control of a certain percentage of the army in order to stand some chance of success. Sulla and Caesar had managed such actions because the consular system of that period had concentrated in their hands a large proportion of the small number of armies in service of the state at the time. In the expanding empire, legions under generals were spread out across the extent of the Roman borders and it was not easy for one man to seize control of a great part of them, perhaps only commonly being in control of two or so legions. However, later larger-scale wars necessitated the concentration of greater military power in the hands of generals. There is evidence of emperors holding some members of generals' families as hostage to ensure their loyalty.[11] Middle Roman Empire[edit] By the mid Empire the military's involvement in politics had increased to the degree such that 193 AD saw no less than five emperors as armies heralded their generals as emperors or even, as after the death of Pertinax, murdered the Emperor and then sold the empire at auction to the highest bidder. Likewise, from 211 to the accession of Diocletian and the establishment of the Tetrarchy in 293, Rome saw 28 emperors of which only two had a natural death (from the plague). However, there were also 38 usurpers who raised revolts across the empire. Successful usurpers were usually either provincial governors, commanders of a large grouping of Roman legions, or prefects of the Praetorian guard, which had control of Rome, where the Imperial palace still lay. The problem of usurpation seems to have lain at least partially in the lack of a clear tradition enshrined in law and popular will of an agreed method of ensuring succession, and also in the maintenance of large standing armies. The former problem was evident from the very first emperor Augustus and meant that those claiming imperial power via various means, and whether they went on to become emperor or be denounced as usurpers, could all claim some form of legitimacy. The latter problem meant that there were always men remote from their duties and loyalties in Rome and in command or large armies marching under their discipline and command.[12] The usurpation mania of the 3rd century had profound effects in the military organization of the Empire. One of the most striking changes was the division and multiplication of the Roman provinces. The greater the manpower a provincial governor had under his command, the greater the temptation to make a bid to the throne. Thus, provinces were slowly[citation needed] divided into smaller units to avoid concentration of power and military capacity in the hands of one man.[12] Late Roman Empire[edit] See also: late Roman Empire, tetrarchy, and late Roman army The beginning of the end of the Roman Empire did not start in a way that foreshadowed the downfall of a great power. The latter part of the Roman reign began when Diocletian (r. 284-305 AD) emerged. Diocletian was a strong and able leader but by creating smaller provinces, he effectively split the empire into two parts - East and West. The maintenance of legions in a "strategic reserve" some distance behind the frontier and close to the emperors must also have been partially attributable to a need to preserve against rebellion by Roman border armies as much as against external invasion by an enemy. He also established the tetrarchy in 293 AD by appointing Maximian, who played the role of a co-emperor, as well as Galerius and Constantius Chlorus, who were subordinate but powerful nonetheless.[12] Constantius' son Constantine would reunite the halves 31 years later and founded a new capital at Constantinople in 330 AD. Ultimately, the Empire itself was destroyed because of the eventual loyalty of its troops to their commanders over their state. In 476, Odoacer was appointed leader of the foederati troops of Rome, and deposed the emperor, proclaiming himself King of Italy.[12] Political economy of the Roman military[edit] There is evidence that starvation among Roman troops could induce them to mutiny. These mutinies, in turn, could then lead to political instability, including the assassination of the emperor himself.[13] References[edit] ^ a b Leonhard, Schmitz. "Consul". ^ a b Hope, Valerie. "Social Pecking Order in the Roman World". BBC. ^ Rodriguez, Tommy. "The World of the Ancient Romans - Warfare". theancientworld.net. ^ Sampson, Gareth (2012-10-26). Appuleius Saturninus, Lucius. The Encyclopedia of Ancient History. p. 1. doi:10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah20011. ISBN 9781444338386. ^ Keaveney, Arthur (2012-10-26). Social War, Roman Republic. The Encyclopedia of Ancient History. doi:10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah20125. ISBN 9781444338386. ^ Halsall, Paul (August 2000). "The Roman Republic: Checks and Balances". sourcebooks.fordham.edu. ^ a b Morey, William (1901). Outlines of Roman History. New York, Cincinnati, Chicago: American Book Company. ^ "Marcus Licinius Crassus | First Triumvirate". sites.psu.edu. Retrieved 2017-05-09. ^ McManus, Barbara. "Julius Caesar: Historical Background". VROMA. ^ a b Watkins, Thayer. "The Timeline of the Life of Octavian, Caesar Augustus". ^ Wasson, Donald. "Roman Emperor". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Ancient History Encyclopedia. ^ a b c d Lightfoot, Author: Christopher. "The Roman Empire (27 B.C.–393 A.D.) | Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art". The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. Retrieved 2017-05-09. ^ Christian, Cornelius. "Shocks to military support and subsequent assassinations in Ancient Rome". Economics Letters. Elsevier. doi:10.1016/j.econlet.2018.06.030. Missing or empty |url= (help) v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Political_history_of_the_Roman_military&oldid=991772532" Categories: Military history of ancient Rome Hidden categories: Pages using web citations with no URL All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2013 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español Edit links This page was last edited on 1 December 2020, at 19:14 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1341	----	Theodore Martin - Wikipedia Theodore Martin From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Sir Theodore Martin) Jump to navigation Jump to search Theodore Martin Born 16 September 1816  Died 18 August 1909  (aged 92) Nationality Scottish Alma mater University of Edinburgh Spouse(s) Helena Faucit  Sir Theodore Martin KCB KCVO (16 September 1816 – 18 August 1909) was a Scottish poet, biographer, and translator. Contents 1 Biography 2 References 3 Sources 4 External links Biography[edit] Portrait by Thomas Duncan, 1826 Martin was the son of James Martin, a solicitor in Edinburgh, where Theodore was born and educated at the Royal High School and University. He practised as a solicitor in Edinburgh 1840–45, after which he went to London and became head of the firm of Martin and Leslie, parliamentary agents. His first contribution to literature was the humorous Bon Gaultier Ballads, written along with W.E. Aytoun, which remained popular for a long time; originally contributed to a magazine, they appeared in book form in 1845. Funerary monument, Brompton Cemetery, London Martin's translations include Dante's Vita Nuova, Oehlenschläger's Correggio and Aladdin, Heinrich Heine's Poems and Ballads, Friedrich Schiller's Wilhelm Tell, and Hertz's King René's Daughter.[1] He also published a complete translation of Horace with a Life, and one of Catullus. He is probably best known for his Life of the Prince Consort (1874–80), the writing of which was entrusted to him by Queen Victoria, a work which won him her lifelong friendship. He also wrote Lives of Professor Aytoun and Lord Lyndhurst. In 1851 he married Helena Faucit, a well-known actress, and author of studies on Shakespeare's Female Characters, whose Life he published in 1901. The couple lived for some time at Bryntysilio {The Hill of St. Tyssilio} which he bought in 1861, near Llangollen, where in 1889 they were visited by the queen during her progress in Wales. Martin kept up his intellectual activity into old age, published in 1905 a translation of Leopardi's poems, and Monographs (1906). He was Lord Rector of St. Andrews 1881, LL.D. of Edinburgh 1875, and Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath 1880. He died in 1909 and is buried in Brompton Cemetery, London. References[edit] ^ Martin, Theodore. King René's daughter: a Danish lyrical drama, W. Crosby and H.P. Nichols, 1850. Sources[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Cousin, John William (1910). "Martin, Sir Theodore". A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature. London: J. M. Dent & Sons – via Wikisource. Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Martin, Sir Theodore" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 17 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Lee, Sidney, ed. (1912). "Martin, Theodore" . Dictionary of National Biography (2nd supplement). 2. London: Smith, Elder & Co. Ward, A. W.; Basu, Sayoni. "Martin, Sir Theodore (1816–1909)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/34906. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sir Theodore Martin. Wikisource has original works written by or about: Theodore Martin Works by Theodore Martin at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Theodore Martin at Internet Archive Academic offices Preceded by Earl of Selborne Rector of the University of St Andrews 1880 - 1883 Succeeded by Lord Reay Authority control BNE: XX5552482 BNF: cb16666021p (data) GND: 116807806 ISNI: 0000 0003 6854 3557 LCCN: n83071958 NLA: 35331182 NLI: 000089619 NTA: 181386429 SELIBR: 306782 SNAC: w6ms3rgv SUDOC: 143242768 Trove: 914393 VcBA: 495/200869 VIAF: 773560 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n83071958 v t e Rectors of the University of St Andrews Sir Ralph Anstruther William Stirling-Maxwell John Stuart Mill J. A. Froude Lord Neaves Arthur Penrhyn Stanley Lord Selborne Sir Theodore Martin Lord Reay Arthur Balfour Marquess of Dufferin and Ava Marquess of Bute James Stuart Andrew Carnegie Baron Avebury Earl of Rosebery Earl of Aberdeen Sir Douglas Haig Sir J. M. Barrie Rudyard Kipling Fridtjof Nansen Sir Wilfred Grenfell Jan Smuts Guglielmo Marconi Lord MacGregor Mitchell Sir David Munro Sir George Cunningham Lord Burghley Earl of Crawford Viscount Kilmuir Baron Boothby Sir Charles P. Snow Sir John Rothenstein Sir Learie Constantine, Baron Constantine John Cleese Alan Coren Frank Muir Tim Brooke-Taylor Katharine Whitehorn Stanley Adams Nicholas Parsons Nicky Campbell Donald Findlay Andrew Neil Sir Clement Freud Simon Pepper Kevin Dunion Alistair Moffat Catherine Stihler Srđa Popović Leyla Hussein Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theodore_Martin&oldid=988252718" Categories: 1816 births 1909 deaths Alumni of the University of Edinburgh People educated at the Royal High School, Edinburgh People from Edinburgh Scottish poets Scottish biographers Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath Knights Commander of the Royal Victorian Order Burials at Brompton Cemetery Rectors of the University of St Andrews 19th-century poets Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from October 2017 Use British English from October 2017 Articles with hCards Articles using Template Infobox person Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating text from A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Articles incorporating Cite DNB template Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the ODNB Commons category link is on Wikidata Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages Dansk Deutsch Italiano مصرى Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 12 November 2020, at 01:16 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-134	----	Jerome - Wikipedia Jerome From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from St Jerome) Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the priest and Bible translator. For other uses, see Jerome (disambiguation) and Saint Jerome (disambiguation). 4th and 5th-century Catholic priest, theologian, and saint Saint Jerome Saint Jerome in the Desert by Bernardino Pinturicchio (c. 1475–1480) Hermit and Doctor of the Church Born c. 342-347 Stridon (possibly Strido Dalmatiae, on the border of Dalmatia and Pannonia) (located in modern Croatia)[1] Died 30 September 420 (aged c. 73-78)[2] Bethlehem, Palaestina Prima Venerated in Catholic Church Eastern Orthodox Church Oriental Orthodoxy Anglican Communion Lutheranism Major shrine Basilica of Saint Mary Major, Rome, Italy Feast 30 September (Latin Catholic Church) Attributes lion, cardinal attire, cross, skull, trumpet, owl, books and writing material Patronage archaeologists; archivists; Bible scholars; librarians; libraries; school children; students; translators; Morong, Rizal Saint Jerome St Jerome in Penitence Education Catechetical School of Alexandria Occupation Translator, theologian and writer Notable work The Vulgate De viris illustribus Chronicon Theological work Language Latin and Greek language Tradition or movement Trinitarianism Main interests Apologetics Notable ideas Perpetual virginity of Mary Part of a series on Catholic philosophy   Aquinas, Scotus, and Ockham Ethics Cardinal virtues Just price Just war Probabilism Natural law Personalism Social teaching Virtue ethics Schools Augustinianism Cartesianism Molinism Occamism Salamanca Scholasticism Neo-scholasticism Scotism Thomism Philosophers Ancient Ambrose Athanasius the Great Augustine of Hippo Clement of Alexandria Cyprian of Carthage Cyril of Alexandria Gregory of Nyssa Irenaeus of Lyons Jerome John Chrysostom John of Damascus Justin Martyr Origen Paul the Apostle Tertullian Postclassical Pseudo-Dionysius Boethius Isidore of Seville Scotus Eriugena Bede Anselm of Canterbury Hildegard of Bingen Peter Abelard Symeon the New Theologian Bernard of Clairvaux Hugh of Saint Victor Thomas Aquinas Benedict of Nursia Pope Gregory I Peter Lombard Bonaventure Albertus Magnus Duns Scotus Roger Bacon Giles of Rome James of Viterbo Giambattista Vico Gregory of Rimini William of Ockham Catherine of Siena Paul of Venice Modern Baltasar Gracián Erasmus of Rotterdam Thomas Cajetan Nicholas of Cusa Luis de Molina Teresa of Ávila Thomas More Francis de Sales Francisco de Vitoria Domingo de Soto Martín de Azpilcueta Tomás de Mercado Antoine Arnauld René Descartes Robert Bellarmine Ignacy Krasicki Hugo Kołłątaj François Fénelon Alphonsus Liguori Nicolas Malebranche Blaise Pascal Francisco Suárez Giovanni Botero Felicité de Lamennais Antonio Rosmini John Henry Newman Contemporary Pope Benedict XVI Pope John Paul II G. E. M. Anscombe Hans Urs von Balthasar Maurice Blondel G. K. Chesterton Yves Congar Henri de Lubac John Finnis Reginald Garrigou-Lagrange Étienne Gilson René Girard Nicolás Gómez Dávila Romano Guardini John Haldane Dietrich von Hildebrand Bernard Lonergan Marshall McLuhan Alasdair MacIntyre Gabriel Marcel Jean-Luc Marion Jacques Maritain Emmanuel Mounier Josef Pieper Karl Rahner Edith Stein Charles Taylor  Catholicism portal  Philosophy portal v t e Jerome (/dʒəˈroʊm/; Latin: Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus; Greek: Εὐσέβιος Σωφρόνιος Ἱερώνυμος; c. 342-347 – 30 September 420), also known as Jerome of Stridon, was a Latin priest, confessor, theologian, and historian; he is commonly known as Saint Jerome. Jerome was born at Stridon, a village near Emona on the border of Dalmatia and Pannonia.[3][4][5] He is best known for his translation of most of the Bible into Latin (the translation that became known as the Vulgate) and his commentaries on the Gospels. His list of writings is extensive.[6] The protégé of Pope Damasus I who died in December of 384, Jerome was known for his teachings on Christian moral life, especially to those living in cosmopolitan centers such as Rome. In many cases, he focused his attention on the lives of women and identified how a woman devoted to Jesus should live her life. This focus stemmed from his close patron relationships with several prominent female ascetics who were members of affluent senatorial families.[7] Jerome is recognised as a saint and Doctor of the Church by the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Lutheran Church, and the Anglican Communion.[8] His feast day is 30 September. Contents 1 Life 2 Conversion to Christianity 3 After Rome 4 Death 5 Translation of the Bible (382–405) 6 Commentaries (405–420) 7 Historical and hagiographic writings 7.1 Description of vitamin A deficiency 8 Letters 9 Theological writings 9.1 Eschatology 10 Reception by later Christianity 11 In art 12 See also 13 References 13.1 Bibliography 14 Further reading 15 External links 15.1 Latin texts 15.1.1 Facsimiles 15.2 English translations Life[edit] Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus was born at Stridon around 342-347 AD.[9] He was of Illyrian ancestry,[10] although whether he was able to speak the Illyrian languages is a subject of controversy. He was not baptized until about 360–369 in Rome, where he had gone with his friend Bonosus of Sardica to pursue rhetorical and philosophical studies. (This Bosonus may or may not have been the same Bonosus whom Jerome identifies as his friend who went to live as a hermit on an island in the Adriatic.) Jerome studied under the grammarian Aelius Donatus. There he learned Latin and at least some Greek,[11] though he probably did not yet acquire the familiarity with Greek literature that he later claimed to have acquired as a schoolboy.[12] As a student, Jerome engaged in the superficial escapades and sexual experimentation of students in Rome; he indulged himself quite casually but he suffered terrible bouts of guilt afterwards.[13][better source needed] To appease his conscience, on Sundays he visited the sepulchers of the martyrs and the Apostles in the catacombs. This experience reminded him of the terrors of hell: Often I would find myself entering those crypts, deep dug in the earth, with their walls on either side lined with the bodies of the dead, where everything was so dark that almost it seemed as though the Psalmist's words were fulfilled, Let them go down quick into Hell.[14] Here and there the light, not entering in through windows, but filtering down from above through shafts, relieved the horror of the darkness. But again, as soon as you found yourself cautiously moving forward, the black night closed around and there came to my mind the line of Virgil, "Horror ubique animos, simul ipsa silentia terrent".[15][16] St. Jerome in His Study (1480), by Domenico Ghirlandaio. His quote from Virgil reads: "On all sides round horror spread wide; the very silence breathed a terror on my soul"[17]—to describe the horror of hell. He initially used classical authors to describe Christian concepts such as hell that indicated both his classical education and his deep shame of their associated practices, such as the pederasty then found in Rome.[citation needed] Conversion to Christianity[edit] St Jerome in the Nuremberg Chronicle Although initially skeptical of Christianity, he eventually converted.[18] After several years in Rome, he travelled with Bonosus to Gaul and settled in Trier where he seems to have first taken up theological studies, and where, for his friend Tyrannius Rufinus, he copied Hilary of Poitiers' commentary on the Psalms and the treatise De synodis. Next came a stay of at least several months, or possibly years, with Rufinus at Aquileia, where he made many Christian friends. Some of these accompanied Jerome when in about 373 he set out on a journey through Thrace and Asia Minor into northern Syria. At Antioch, where he stayed the longest, two of his companions died and he himself was seriously ill more than once. During one of these illnesses (about the winter of 373–374), he had a vision that led him to lay aside his secular studies and devote himself to God. He seems to have abstained for a considerable time from the study of the classics and to have plunged deeply into study of the Bible, under the impulse of Apollinaris of Laodicea, then teaching in Antioch and not yet suspected of heresy. St. Jerome in the Desert, by Giovanni Bellini (1505) Seized with a desire for a life of ascetic penance, Jerome went for a time to the desert of Chalcis, to the southeast of Antioch, known as the "Syrian Thebaid" from the number of eremites inhabiting it. During this period, he seems to have found time for studying and writing. He made his first attempt to learn Hebrew under the guidance of a converted Jew; and he seems to have been in correspondence with Jewish Christians in Antioch. Around this time he had copied for him a Hebrew Gospel, of which fragments are preserved in his notes. It is known today as the Gospel of the Hebrews which the Nazarenes considered to be the true Gospel of Matthew.[19] Jerome translated parts of this Hebrew Gospel into Greek.[20] Returning to Antioch in 378 or 379, Jerome was ordained there by Bishop Paulinus, apparently unwillingly and on condition that he continue his ascetic life. Soon afterward, he went to Constantinople to pursue a study of Scripture under Gregory Nazianzen. He seems to have spent two years there, then left, and for the next three (382–385) he was in Rome again, as secretary to Pope Damasus I and the leading Roman Christians. Invited originally for the synod of 382, held to end the schism of Antioch as there were rival claimants to be the proper patriarch in Antioch. Jerome had accompanied one of the claimants, Paulinus, back to Rome to get more support for him; Jerome distinguished himself before the pope and assumed a prominent place in his papal councils. Jerome was given duties in Rome, and he undertook a revision of the Latin Bible based on the Greek manuscripts of the New Testament. He also updated the Psalter containing the Book of Psalms then in use in Rome, based on the Septuagint. Though he did not realize it yet, translating much of what became the Latin Vulgate Bible would take many years and be his most important achievement (see Writings – Translations section below). Saint Jerome in His Study, 1451, by Antonio da Fabriano II, shows writing implements, scrolls, and manuscripts testifying to Jerome's scholarly pursuits.[21] The Walters Art Museum. In Rome, Jerome was surrounded by a circle of well-born and well-educated women, including some from the noblest patrician families, such as the widows Lea, Marcella and Paula, with Paula's daughters Blaesilla and Eustochium. The resulting inclination of these women towards the monastic life, away from the indulgent lasciviousness in Rome, and his unsparing criticism of the secular clergy of Rome, brought a growing hostility against him among the Roman clergy and their supporters. Soon after the death of his patron Pope Damasus I on 10 December 384, Jerome was forced to leave his position at Rome after an inquiry was brought up by the Roman clergy into allegations that he had an improper relationship with the widow Paula. Still, his writings were highly regarded by women who were attempting to maintain a vow of becoming a consecrated virgin. His letters were widely read and distributed throughout the Christian empire and it is clear through his writing that he knew these virgin women were not his only audience.[7] Additionally, Jerome's condemnation of Blaesilla's hedonistic lifestyle in Rome had led her to adopt ascetic practices, but it affected her health and worsened her physical weakness to the point that she died just four months after starting to follow his instructions; much of the Roman populace were outraged at Jerome for causing the premature death of such a lively young woman, and his insistence to Paula that Blaesilla should not be mourned, and complaints that her grief was excessive, were seen as heartless, polarising Roman opinion against him.[22] After Rome[edit] In August 385, Jerome left Rome for good and returned to Antioch, accompanied by his brother Paulinian and several friends, and followed a little later by Paula and Eustochium who had resolved to end their days in the Holy Land. In the winter of 385, Jerome acted as their spiritual adviser. The pilgrims, joined by Bishop Paulinus of Antioch, visited Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and the holy places of Galilee, and then went to Egypt, the home of the great heroes of the ascetic life. At the Catechetical School of Alexandria, Jerome listened to the catechist Didymus the Blind expounding the prophet Hosea and telling his reminiscences of Anthony the Great, who had died 30 years before. Jerome spent some time in Nitria, admiring the disciplined community life of the numerous inhabitants of that "city of the Lord", but detecting even there "concealed serpents", i.e., the influence of Origen of Alexandria. Late in the summer of 388 he was back in Palestine, and spent the remainder of his life working in a cave near Bethlehem, the very cave where Jesus was born,[23] surrounded by a few friends, both men and women (including Paula and Eustochium), to whom he acted as priestly guide and teacher. Saint Jerome in His Study, by Niccolò Antonio Colantonio c. 1445–46, depicts Jerome's removal of a thorn from a lion's paw. Amply provided for by Paula with the means of livelihood and for increasing his collection of books, Jerome led a life of incessant activity in literary production. To these last 34 years of his career belong the most important of his works; his version of the Old Testament from the original Hebrew text, the best of his scriptural commentaries; his catalogue of Christian authors; and the dialogue against the Pelagians, the literary perfection of which even an opponent recognized.[citation needed] To this period also belong most of his polemics, which distinguished him among the orthodox Fathers, including the treatises against the Origenism later declared anathema, of Bishop John II of Jerusalem and his early friend Rufinus. Later, as a result of his writings against Pelagianism, a body of excited partisans broke into the monastic buildings, set them on fire, attacked the inmates and killed a deacon, forcing Jerome to seek safety in a neighboring fortress in 416. Death[edit] It is recorded that Jerome died near Bethlehem on 30 September 420. The date of his death is given by the Chronicon of Prosper of Aquitaine. His remains, originally buried at Bethlehem, are said to have been later transferred to the basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome, though other places in the West claim some relics, the cathedral at Nepi boasting possession of his head, which, according to another tradition, is in the Escorial.[citation needed] Translation of the Bible (382–405)[edit] Saint Jerome Writing, by Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, 1607, at St John's Co-Cathedral, Valletta, Malta Jerome was a scholar at a time when that statement implied a fluency in Greek. He knew some Hebrew when he started his translation project, but moved to Jerusalem to strengthen his grip on Jewish scripture commentary. A wealthy Roman aristocrat, Paula, funded his stay in a monastery in Bethlehem and he completed his translation there. He began in 382 by correcting the existing Latin-language version of the New Testament, commonly referred to as the Vetus Latina. By 390 he turned to translating the Hebrew Bible from the original Hebrew, having previously translated portions from the Septuagint which came from Alexandria. He believed that the mainstream Rabbinical Judaism had rejected the Septuagint as invalid Jewish scriptural texts because of what were ascertained as mistranslations along with its Hellenistic heretical elements.[24] He completed this work by 405. Prior to Jerome's Vulgate, all Latin translations of the Old Testament were based on the Septuagint, not the Hebrew. Jerome's decision to use a Hebrew text instead of the previous-translated Septuagint went against the advice of most other Christians, including Augustine, who thought the Septuagint inspired. Modern scholarship, however, has sometimes cast doubts on the actual quality of Jerome's Hebrew knowledge. Many modern scholars believe that the Greek Hexapla is the main source for Jerome's "iuxta Hebraeos" (i.e. "close to the Hebrews", "immediately following the Hebrews") translation of the Old Testament.[25] However, detailed studies have shown that to a considerable degree Jerome was a competent Hebraist.[26] Commentaries (405–420)[edit] Saint Jerome, unknown Southern Dutch artist, 1520, Hamburger Kunsthalle For the next 15 years, until he died, Jerome produced a number of commentaries on Scripture, often explaining his translation choices in using the original Hebrew rather than suspect translations. His patristic commentaries align closely with Jewish tradition, and he indulges in allegorical and mystical subtleties after the manner of Philo and the Alexandrian school. Unlike his contemporaries, he emphasizes the difference between the Hebrew Bible "Apocrypha" and the Hebraica veritas of the protocanonical books. In his Vulgate's prologues, he describes some portions of books in the Septuagint that were not found in the Hebrew as being non-canonical (he called them apocrypha);[27] for Baruch, he mentions by name in his Prologue to Jeremiah and notes that it is neither read nor held among the Hebrews, but does not explicitly call it apocryphal or "not in the canon".[28] His Preface to The Books of Samuel and Kings[29] includes the following statement, commonly called the Helmeted Preface: This preface to the Scriptures may serve as a "helmeted" introduction to all the books which we turn from Hebrew into Latin, so that we may be assured that what is not found in our list must be placed amongst the Apocryphal writings. Wisdom, therefore, which generally bears the name of Solomon, and the book of Jesus, the Son of Sirach, and Judith, and Tobias, and the Shepherd are not in the canon. The first book of Maccabees I have found to be Hebrew, the second is Greek, as can be proved from the very style. Although Jerome was once suspicious of the Apocrypha, it is said that he later viewed them as Scripture. For example, in Jerome's letter to Eustochium he quotes Sirach 13:2;[30] elsewhere Jerome also refers to Baruch, the Story of Susannah and Wisdom as scripture.[31][32][33] Jerome in the desert, tormented by his memories of the dancing girls, by Francisco de Zurbarán, 1639, Monastery of Santa María de Guadalupe Jerome's commentaries fall into three groups: His translations or recastings of Greek predecessors, including fourteen homilies on the Book of Jeremiah and the same number on the Book of Ezekiel by Origen (translated c. 380 in Constantinople); two homilies of Origen of Alexandria on the Song of Solomon (in Rome, c. 383); and thirty-nine on the Gospel of Luke (c. 389, in Bethlehem). The nine homilies of Origen on the Book of Isaiah included among his works were not done by him. Here should be mentioned, as an important contribution to the topography of Palestine, his book De situ et nominibus locorum Hebraeorum, a translation with additions and some regrettable omissions of the Onomasticon of Eusebius. To the same period (c. 390) belongs the Liber interpretationis nominum Hebraicorum, based on a work supposed to go back to Philo and expanded by Origen. Original commentaries on the Old Testament. To the period before his settlement at Bethlehem and the following five years belong a series of short, Old Testament studies: De seraphim, De voce Osanna, De tribus quaestionibus veteris legis (usually included among the letters as 18, 20, and 36); Quaestiones hebraicae in Genesim; Commentarius in Ecclesiasten; Tractatus septem in Psalmos 10–16 (lost); Explanationes in Michaeam, Sophoniam, Nahum, Habacuc, Aggaeum. After 395 he composed a series of longer commentaries, though in rather a desultory fashion: first on Jonah and Obadiah (396), then on Isaiah (c. 395 – c. 400), on Zechariah, Malachi, Hoseah, Joel, Amos (from 406), on the Book of Daniel (c. 407), on Ezekiel (between 410 and 415), and on Jeremiah (after 415, left unfinished). New Testament commentaries. These include only Philemon, Galatians, Ephesians, and Titus (hastily composed 387–388); Matthew (dictated in a fortnight, 398); Mark, selected passages in Luke, Revelation, and the prologue to the Gospel of John. Historical and hagiographic writings[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) In the Middle Ages, Jerome was often ahistorically depicted as a cardinal. Jerome is also known as a historian. One of his earliest historical works was his Chronicon, composed c. 380 in Constantinople; this is a translation into Latin of the chronological tables which compose the second part of the Chronicon of Eusebius, with a supplement covering the period from 325 to 379. Despite numerous errors taken over from Eusebius, and some of his own, Jerome produced a valuable work, if only for the impulse which it gave to such later chroniclers as Prosper, Cassiodorus, and Victor of Tunnuna to continue his annals. Of considerable importance as well is the De viris illustribus, which was written at Bethlehem in 392, the title and arrangement of which are borrowed from Suetonius. It contains short biographical and literary notes on 135 Christian authors, from Saint Peter down to Jerome himself. For the first seventy-eight authors Eusebius (Historia ecclesiastica) is the main source; in the second section, beginning with Arnobius and Lactantius, he includes a good deal of independent information, especially as to Western writers. Four works of a hagiographic nature are: the Vita Pauli monachi, written during his first sojourn at Antioch (c. 376), the legendary material of which is derived from Egyptian monastic tradition; the Vitae Patrum (Vita Pauli primi eremitae), a biography of Saint Paul of Thebes; the Vita Malchi monachi captivi (c. 391), probably based on an earlier work, although it purports to be derived from the oral communications of the aged ascetic Malchus of Syria originally made to him in the desert of Chalcis; the Vita Hilarionis, of the same date, containing more trustworthy historical matter than the other two, and based partly on the biography of Epiphanius and partly on oral tradition. The so-called Martyrologium Hieronymianum is spurious; it was apparently composed by a Western monk toward the end of the 6th or beginning of the 7th century, with reference to an expression of Jerome's in the opening chapter of the Vita Malchi, where he speaks of intending to write a history of the saints and martyrs from the apostolic times. Description of vitamin A deficiency[edit] The following passage, taken from Saint Jerome's "Life of St. Hilarion" which was written about A.D. 392, appears to be the earliest account of the etiology, symptoms and cure of severe vitamin A deficiency:[34] From his thirty-first to his thirty-fifth year he had for food six ounces of barley bread, and vegetables slightly cooked without oil. But finding that his eyes were growing dim, and that his whole body was shrivelled with an eruption and a sort of stony roughness (impetigine et pumicea quad scabredine) he added oil to his former food, and up to the sixty-third year of his life followed this temperate course, tasting neither fruit nor pulse, nor anything whatsoever besides.[34] Letters[edit] Saint Jerome by Matthias Stom, 1635 Jerome's letters or epistles, both by the great variety of their subjects and by their qualities of style, form an important portion of his literary remains. Whether he is discussing problems of scholarship, or reasoning on cases of conscience, comforting the afflicted, or saying pleasant things to his friends, scourging the vices and corruptions of the time and against sexual immorality among the clergy,[35] exhorting to the ascetic life and renunciation of the world, or breaking a lance with his theological opponents, he gives a vivid picture not only of his own mind, but of the age and its peculiar characteristics. Because there was no distinct line between personal documents and those meant for publication, we frequently find in his letters both confidential messages and treatises meant for others besides the one to whom he was writing.[36] Due to the time he spent in Rome among wealthy families belonging to the Roman upper-class, Jerome was frequently commissioned by women who had taken a vow of virginity to write to them in guidance of how to live their life. As a result, he spent a great deal of his life corresponding with these women about certain abstentions and lifestyle practices.[7] These included the clothing she should wear, the interactions she should undertake and how to go about conducting herself during such interactions, and what and how she ate and drank. The letters most frequently reprinted or referred to are of a hortatory nature, such as Ep. 14, Ad Heliodorum de laude vitae solitariae; Ep. 22, Ad Eustochium de custodia virginitatis; Ep. 52, Ad Nepotianum de vita clericorum et monachorum, a sort of epitome of pastoral theology from the ascetic standpoint; Ep. 53, Ad Paulinum de studio scripturarum; Ep. 57, to the same, De institutione monachi; Ep. 70, Ad Magnum de scriptoribus ecclesiasticis; and Ep. 107, Ad Laetam de institutione filiae. Francesco St Jerome by Jacopo Palma il Giovane, c. 1595 Theological writings[edit] The Virgin and Child with Saints Jerome and Nicholas of Tolentino by Lorenzo Lotto, 1522 Practically all of Jerome's productions in the field of dogma have a more or less vehemently polemical character, and are directed against assailants of the orthodox doctrines. Even the translation of the treatise of Didymus the Blind on the Holy Spirit into Latin (begun in Rome 384, completed at Bethlehem) shows an apologetic tendency against the Arians and Pneumatomachoi. The same is true of his version of Origen's De principiis (c. 399), intended to supersede the inaccurate translation by Rufinus. The more strictly polemical writings cover every period of his life. During the sojourns at Antioch and Constantinople he was mainly occupied with the Arian controversy, and especially with the schisms centering around Meletius of Antioch and Lucifer Calaritanus. Two letters to Pope Damasus (15 and 16) complain of the conduct of both parties at Antioch, the Meletians and Paulinians, who had tried to draw him into their controversy over the application of the terms ousia and hypostasis to the Trinity. At the same time or a little later (379) he composed his Liber Contra Luciferianos, in which he cleverly uses the dialogue form to combat the tenets of that faction, particularly their rejection of baptism by heretics. In Rome (c. 383) Jerome wrote a passionate counterblast against the teaching of Helvidius, in defense of the doctrine of the perpetual virginity of Mary and of the superiority of the single over the married state. An opponent of a somewhat similar nature was Jovinianus, with whom he came into conflict in 392 (Adversus Jovinianum, Against Jovinianus) and the defense of this work addressed to his friend Pammachius, numbered 48 in the letters. Once more he defended the ordinary practices of piety and his own ascetic ethics in 406 against the Gallic presbyter Vigilantius, who opposed the cultus of martyrs and relics, the vow of poverty, and clerical celibacy. Meanwhile, the controversy with John II of Jerusalem and Rufinus concerning the orthodoxy of Origen occurred. To this period belong some of his most passionate and most comprehensive polemical works: the Contra Joannem Hierosolymitanum (398 or 399); the two closely connected Apologiae contra Rufinum (402); and the "last word" written a few months later, the Liber tertius seuten ultima responsio adversus scripta Rufini. The last of his polemical works is the skilfully composed Dialogus contra Pelagianos (415). Eschatology[edit] Jerome in his study, made by the Flemish drawer de Bry.[37] Jerome warned that those substituting false interpretations for the actual meaning of Scripture belonged to the "synagogue of the Antichrist".[38] "He that is not of Christ is of Antichrist," he wrote to Pope Damasus I.[39] He believed that "the mystery of iniquity" written about by Paul in 2 Thessalonians 2:7 was already in action when "every one chatters about his views."[40] To Jerome, the power restraining this mystery of iniquity was the Roman Empire, but as it fell this restraining force was removed. He warned a noble woman of Gaul: He that letteth is taken out of the way, and yet we do not realize that Antichrist is near. Yes, Antichrist is near whom the Lord Jesus Christ "shall consume with the spirit of his mouth." "Woe unto them," he cries, "that are with child, and to them that give suck in those days."... Savage tribes in countless numbers have overrun run all parts of Gaul. The whole country between the Alps and the Pyrenees, between the Rhine and the Ocean, has been laid waste by hordes of Quadi, Vandals, Sarmatians, Alans, Gepids, Herules, Saxons, Burgundians, Allemanni, and—alas! for the commonweal!—even Pannonians.[41] His Commentary on Daniel was expressly written to offset the criticisms of Porphyry,[42] who taught that Daniel related entirely to the time of Antiochus IV Epiphanes and was written by an unknown individual living in the second century BC. Against Porphyry, Jerome identified Rome as the fourth kingdom of chapters two and seven, but his view of chapters eight and 11 was more complex. Jerome held that chapter eight describes the activity of Antiochus Epiphanes, who is understood as a "type" of a future antichrist; 11:24 onwards applies primarily to a future antichrist but was partially fulfilled by Antiochus. Instead, he advocated that the "little horn" was the Antichrist: We should therefore concur with the traditional interpretation of all the commentators of the Christian Church, that at the end of the world, when the Roman Empire is to be destroyed, there shall be ten kings who will partition the Roman world amongst themselves. Then an insignificant eleventh king will arise, who will overcome three of the ten kings. ...After they have been slain, the seven other kings also will bow their necks to the victor.[43] In his Commentary on Daniel, he noted, "Let us not follow the opinion of some commentators and suppose him to be either the Devil or some demon, but rather, one of the human race, in whom Satan will wholly take up his residence in bodily form."[43] Instead of rebuilding the Jewish Temple to reign from, Jerome thought the Antichrist sat in God's Temple inasmuch as he made "himself out to be like God."[43] Jerome identified the four prophetic kingdoms symbolized in Daniel 2 as the Neo-Babylonian Empire, the Medes and Persians, Macedon, and Rome.[44] Jerome identified the stone cut out without hands as "namely, the Lord and Savior".[45] Jerome refuted Porphyry's application of the little horn of chapter seven to Antiochus. He expected that at the end of the world, Rome would be destroyed, and partitioned among ten kingdoms before the little horn appeared.[46] Jerome believed that Cyrus of Persia is the higher of the two horns of the Medo-Persian ram of Daniel 8:3.[43] The he-goat is Greece smiting Persia.[47] Alexander is the great horn, which is then succeeded by Alexander's half brother Philip and three of his generals. Reception by later Christianity[edit] Statue of Saint Jerome (Hieronymus) – Bethlehem, Palestine Authority, West Bank Jerome is the second most voluminous writer (after Augustine of Hippo) in ancient Latin Christianity. In the Catholic Church, he is recognized as the patron saint of translators, librarians and encyclopedists.[48] He acquired a knowledge of Hebrew by studying with a Jew who converted to Christianity. Against the traditional view at the time, he maintained that the Hebrew, not the Septuagint, was the inspired text of the Old Testament. Over a period of fifteen years at the request of Pope Damasus, he made a translation from the Hebrew into Latin that eventually superseded the preceding Latin translations and became known as the Vulgate. In the Council of Trent, it was declared authoritative "in public lectures, disputations, sermons and expositions".[49][50] Jerome showed more zeal and interest in the ascetic ideal than in abstract speculation. He lived as an ascetic for four or five years in the Syrian desert and later, for 34 years, near Bethlehem. Nevertheless, his writings show outstanding scholarship and his correspondence is historically of great importance.[51] It was Jerome's strict asceticism that made Martin Luther judge him so severely. In fact, Protestant readers are not generally inclined to accept his writings as authoritative. The tendency to recognize a superior comes out in his correspondence with Augustine (cf. Jerome's letters numbered 56, 67, 102–105, 110–112, 115–116; and 28, 39, 40, 67–68, 71–75, 81–82 in Augustine's).[citation needed] In art[edit] In art, Jerome is often represented as one of the four Latin doctors of the Church along with Augustine of Hippo, Ambrose, and Pope Gregory I. As a prominent member of the Roman clergy, he has often been portrayed anachronistically in the garb of a cardinal. Even when he is depicted as a half-clad anchorite, with cross, skull and Bible for the only furniture of his cell, the red hat or some other indication of his rank as cardinal is as a rule introduced somewhere in the picture. During Jerome's life, cardinals did not exist. However, by the time of the Renaissance and the Baroque it was common practice for a secretary to the pope to be a cardinal (as Jerome had effectively been to Damasus), and so this was reflected in artistic interpretations. Jerome is also often depicted with a lion, in reference to the popular hagiographical belief that Jerome had tamed a lion in the wilderness by healing its paw. The source for the story may actually have been the second century Roman tale of Androcles, or confusion with the exploits of Saint Gerasimus (Jerome in later Latin is "Geronimus").[52][53][54] Hagiographies of Jerome talk of his having spent many years in the Syrian desert, and artists often depict him in a "wilderness", which for West European painters can take the form of a wood.[55] From the late Middle Ages, depictions of Jerome in a wider setting became popular. He is either shown in his study, surrounded by books and the equipment of a scholar, or in a rocky desert, or in a setting that combines both themes, with him studying a book under the shelter of a rock-face or cave mouth. His attribute of the lion, often shown at a smaller scale, may be beside him in either setting. Jerome is often depicted in connection with the vanitas motif, the reflection on the meaninglessness of earthly life and the transient nature of all earthly goods and pursuits. In the 16th century Saint Jerome in his study by Pieter Coecke van Aelst and workshop, the saint is depicted with a skull. Behind him on the wall is pinned an admonition, Cogita Mori ("Think upon death"). Further reminders of the vanitas motif of the passage of time and the imminence of death are the image of the Last Judgment visible in the saint's Bible, the candle and the hourglass.[56] Jerome is also sometimes depicted with an owl, the symbol of wisdom and scholarship.[57] Writing materials and the trumpet of final judgment are also part of his iconography.[57] He is commemorated on 30 September with a memorial. Saint Jerome in his study, c. 1530 by Pieter Coecke van Aelst and Workshop, Walters Art Museum Saint Jerome and the Paulines painted by Gabriel Thaller in the St. Jerome Church in Štrigova, Međimurje County, northern Croatia (18th century) Saint Jerome by Simon Vouet c. 1620 Saint Jerome c. 1520 Netherlandish stained glass window at MET. See also[edit] Saints portal Christianity portal Bible translations Church Fathers Ferdinand Cavallera Genesius of Arles International Translation Day Letter of Jerome to Pope Damasus Order of St. Jerome Saint Jerome, patron saint archive References[edit] ^ The Encyclopedia of Christian Literature, Volume 2. Scarecrow Press. 2010. ISBN 9780810872837. Jerome ("Hieronymus" in Latin), was born into a Christian family in Stridon, modern-day Strigova in northern Croatia. ^ "St. Jerome (Christian scholar)". Britannica Encyclopedia. 2 February 2017. Archived from the original on 24 March 2017. Retrieved 23 March 2017. ^ Scheck, Thomas P. (December 2008). Commentary on Matthew (The Fathers of the Church, Volume 117). p. 5. ISBN 9780813201177. Archived from the original on 5 February 2016. Retrieved 3 June 2015. "" ^ Maisie Ward, Saint Jerome, Sheed & Ward, London 1950, p. 7 "It may be taken as certain that Jerome was an Italian, coming from that wedge of Italy which seems on the old maps to be driven between Dalmatia and Pannonia." ^ Tom Streeter, The Church and Western Culture: An Introduction to Church History, AuthorHouse 2006, p. 102 "Jerome was born around 340 AD at Stridon, a town in northeast Italy at the head of the Adriatic Ocean." ^ Schaff, Philip, ed. (1893). A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church. 2nd series. VI. Henry Wace. New York: The Christian Literature Company. Archived from the original on 11 July 2014. Retrieved 7 June 2010. ^ a b c Megan Hale Williams, The Monk and the Book: Jerome and the Making of Christian Scholarship, (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2006) ^ In the Eastern Orthodox Church he is known as Saint Jerome of Stridonium or Blessed Jerome. Though "Blessed" in this context does not have the sense of being less than a saint, as in the West. ^ Williams, Megan Hale (2006), The Monk and the Book: Jerome and the making of Christian Scholarship, Chicago ^ Pevarello, Daniele (2013). The Sentences of Sextus and the origins of Christian ascetiscism. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck. p. 1. ISBN 978-3-16-152579-7. Archived from the original on 5 February 2016. Retrieved 11 December 2015. ^ Walsh, Michael, ed. (1992), Butler's Lives of the Saints, New York: HarperCollins, p. 307 ^ Kelly, JND (1975), Jerome: His Life, Writings, and Controversies, New York: Harper & Row, pp. 13–14 ^ Payne, Robert (1951), The Fathers of the Western Church, New York: Viking Press, pp. 90–92 ^ Psalm 55:15 ^ Jerome, Commentarius in Ezzechielem, c. 40, v. 5 ^ Patrologia Latina 25, 373: Crebroque cryptas ingredi, quae in terrarum profunda defossae, ex utraque parte ingredientium per parietes habent corpora sepultorum, et ita obscura sunt omnia, ut propemodum illud propheticum compleatur: Descendant ad infernum viventes (Ps. LIV,16): et raro desuper lumen admissum, horrorem temperet tenebrarum, ut non-tam fenestram, quam foramen demissi luminis putes: rursumque pedetentim acceditur, et caeca nocte circumdatis illud Virgilianum proponitur (Aeneid. lib. II): "Horror ubique animos, simul ipsa silentia terrent." ^ P. Vergilius Maro, Aeneid Theodore C. Williams, Ed. Perseus Project Archived 11 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine (retrieved 23 August 2013) ^ Payne, Robert (1951), The Fathers of the Western Church, New York: Viking, p. 91 ^ Rebenich, Stefan (2002), Jerome, p. 211, Further, he began to study Hebrew: 'I betook myself to a brother who before his conversion had been a Hebrew and...' ^ Pritz, Ray (1988), Nazarene Jewish Christianity: from the end of the New Testament, p. 50, In his accounts of his desert sojourn, Jerome never mentions leaving Chalcis, and there is no pressing reason to think... ^ "Saint Jerome in His Study". The Walters Art Museum. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 18 September 2012. ^ Joyce E. Salisbury, Encyclopedia of women in the ancient world, Blaesilla ^ Bennett, Rod (2015). The Apostasy That Wasn't: The Extraordinary Story of the Unbreakable Early Church. Catholic Answers Press. ISBN 978-1-941663-49-3. ^ "(...) die griechische Bibelübersetzung, die einem innerjüdischen Bedürfnis entsprang (...) [von den] Rabbinen zuerst gerühmt (...) Später jedoch, als manche ungenaue Übertragung des hebräischen Textes in der Septuaginta und Übersetzungsfehler die Grundlage für hellenistische Irrlehren abgaben, lehte man die Septuaginta ab." Verband der Deutschen Juden (Hrsg.), neu hrsg. von Walter Homolka, Walter Jacob, Tovia Ben Chorin: Die Lehren des Judentums nach den Quellen; München, Knesebeck, 1999, Bd.3, S. 43ff ^ Pierre Nautin, article Hieronymus, in: Theologische Realenzyklopädie, Vol. 15, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin-New York 1986, p. 304-315, here p. 309-310. ^ Michael Graves, Jerome's Hebrew Philology: A Study Based on his Commentary on Jeremiah, Brill, 2007: 196–198. Page 197: "In his discussion he gives clear evidence of having consulted the Hebrew himself, providing details about the Hebrew that could not have been learned from the Greek translations." ^ "The Bible". Archived from the original on 13 January 2016. Retrieved 14 December 2015. ^ Edgecomb, Kevin P., Jerome's Prologue to Jeremiah, archived from the original on 31 December 2013, retrieved 14 December 2015 ^ "Jerome's Preface to Samuel and Kings". Archived from the original on 2 December 2015. Retrieved 14 December 2015. ^ Barber, Michael (6 March 2006). "Loose Canons: The Development of the Old Testament (Part 2)". Archived from the original on 7 December 2009. Retrieved 1 August 2007. ^ Jerome, To Paulinus, Epistle 58 (A.D. 395), in NPNF2, VI:119.: "Do not, my dearest brother, estimate my worth by the number of my years. Gray hairs are not wisdom; it is wisdom which is as good as gray hairs at least that is what Solomon says: 'wisdom is the gray hair unto men' [Wisdom 4:9]. Moses too in choosing the seventy elders is told to take those whom he knows to be elders indeed, and to select them not for their years but for their discretion [Num. 11:16]? And, as a boy, Daniel judges old men and in the flower of youth condemns the incontinence of age [Daniel 13:55–59 aka Story of Susannah 55–59]." ^ Jerome, To Oceanus, Epistle 77:4 (A.D. 399), in NPNF2, VI:159.:"I would cite the words of the psalmist: 'the sacrifices of God are a broken spirit,’ [Ps 51:17] and those of Ezekiel 'I prefer the repentance of a sinner rather than his death,’ [Ez 18:23] and those of Baruch, 'Arise, arise, O Jerusalem,’ [Baruch 5:5] and many other proclamations made by the trumpets of the Prophets." ^ Jerome, Letter 51, 6, 7, NPNF2, VI:87-8: "For in the book of Wisdom, which is inscribed with his name, Solomon says: 'God created man to be immortal and made him be an image of his own eternity.'[Wisdom 2:23]...Instead of the three proofs from Holy Scripture which you said would satisfy you if I could produce them, behold I have given you seven" ^ a b Taylor, F. Sherwood (23 December 1944). "St. Jerome and Vitamin A". Nature. 154 (3921): 802. Bibcode:1944Natur.154Q.802T. doi:10.1038/154802a0. S2CID 4097517. ^ "regulae sancti pachomii 84 rule 104. ^ W. H. Fremantle, "Prolegomena to Jerome", V. ^ "Hiëronymus in zijn studeervertrek". lib.ugent.be. Retrieved 2 October 2020. ^ See Jerome's The Dialogue against the Luciferians Archived 1 January 2014 at the Wayback Machine, p.334 in A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church : St. Jerome: Letters and select works, 1893. Second Series By Philip Schaff, Henry Wace. ^ See Jerome's Letter to Pope Damasus Archived 13 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine, p.19 in A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church : St. Jerome: Letters and select works, 1893. Second Series By Philip Schaff, Henry Wace. ^ See Jerome's Against the Pelagians, Book I Archived 1 January 2014 at the Wayback Machine, p.449 in A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church : St. Jerome: Letters and select works, 1893. Second Series By Philip Schaff, Henry Wace. ^ See Jerome's Letter to Ageruchia Archived 2014-01-01 at the Wayback Machine, p.236-7 in A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church : St. Jerome: Letters and select works, 1893. Second Series By Philip Schaff, Henry Wace. ^ Eremantle, note on Jerome's commentary on Daniel, in NPAF, 2d series, Vol. 6, p. 500. ^ a b c d "Jerome, Commentario in Danielem". Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. Retrieved 6 May 2008. ^ "Jerome, Commentaria in Danelem, chap. 2, verses 31–40". Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. Retrieved 6 May 2008. ^ "Jerome, Commentaria in Danieluem, chap. 2, verse 40". Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. Retrieved 6 May 2008. ^ "Jerome, Commentario in Danielem, chap. 7, verse 8". Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. Retrieved 6 May 2008. ^ "Jerome, Commentaria in Danielem, chap. 8, verse 5". Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. Retrieved 6 May 2008. ^ "St. Jerome: Patron Saint of Librarians | Luther College Library and Information Services". Lis.luther.edu. Archived from the original on 4 July 2013. Retrieved 2 June 2014. ^ Jimmy Akin, "Is the Vulgate the Catholic Church’s Official Bible?" in National Catholic Register ^ The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. Oxford University Press; 2005. ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3. Vulgate. p. 1722–1723. ^ The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. Oxford University Press; 2005. ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3. Jerome. p. 872–873. ^ Hope Werness, Continuum encyclopaedia of animal symbolism in art, 2006 ^ "Eugene Rice has suggested that in all probability the story of Gerasimus's lion became attached to the figure of Jerome some time during the seventh century, after the military invasions of the Arabs had forced many Greek monks who were living in the deserts of the Middle East to seek refuge in Rome. Rice conjectures (Saint Jerome in the Renaissance, pp. 44–45) that because of the similarity between the names Gerasimus and Geronimus – the late Latin form of Jerome's name – 'a Latin-speaking cleric . . . made St Geronimus the hero of a story he had heard about St Gerasimus; and that the author of Plerosque nimirum, attracted by a story at once so picturesque, so apparently appropriate, and so resonant in suggestion and meaning, and under the impression that its source was pilgrims who had been told it in Bethlehem, included it in his life of a favourite saint otherwise bereft of miracles.'" Salter, David (2001). Holy and Noble Beasts: Encounters With Animals in Medieval Literature. D. S. Brewer. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-85991-624-0. Archived from the original on 5 February 2016. Retrieved 27 December 2015. ^ "a figment" found in the thirteenth-century Golden Legend by Jacobus de Voragine Williams, Megan Hale (2006). The Monk and the Book: Jerome and the Making of Christian Scholarship. Chicago: U of Chicago P. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-226-89900-8. ^ "Saint Jerome in Catholic Saint info". Catholic-saints.info. Archived from the original on 29 April 2014. Retrieved 2 June 2014. ^ "Saint Jerome in His Study". The Walters Art Museum. Archived from the original on 18 September 2012. Retrieved 6 September 2012. ^ a b The Collection: Saint Jerome Archived 22 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine, gallery of the religious art collection of New Mexico State University, with explanations. Retrieved 10 August 2007. Bibliography[edit] Andrew Cain and Josef Lössl, Jerome of Stridon: His Life, Writings and Legacy (London and New York, 2009) J. N. D. Kelly, Jerome: His Life, Writings, and Controversies (Peabody, MA 1998) S. Rebenich, Jerome (London and New York, 2002) Megan Hale Williams. The Monk and the Book: Jerome and the Making of Christian Scholarship (Chicago and London, 2008) Biblia Sacra Vulgata [e.g. edition published Stuttgart, 1994, ISBN 3-438-05303-9] Attribution This article uses material from the Schaff–Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge. Further reading[edit] Saint Jerome, Three biographies: Malchus, St. Hilarion and Paulus the First Hermit Authored by Saint Jerome, London, 2012. limovia.net. ISBN 978-1-78336-016-1 External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Jerome Wikimedia Commons has media related to Saint Jerome. Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: Biblia Sacra Letters of Jerome Dataset – corpus as structured data, with sender, receiver, and letter-type classification St. Jerome (pdf) from Fr. Alban Butler's Lives of the Saints The Life of St. Jerome, Priest, Confessor and Doctor of the Church Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "St. Jerome" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Jewish Encyclopedia: Jerome St. Jerome – Catholic Online St Jerome (Hieronymus) of Stridonium Orthodox synaxarion Further reading of depictions of Saint Jerome in art Saint Jerome, Doctor of the Church at the Christian Iconography web site Here Followeth the Life of Jerome from Caxton's translation of the Golden Legend Works of Saint Jerome at Somni Beati Hyeronimi Epistolarum liber, digitized codex (1464) Epistole de santo Geronimo traducte di latino, digitized codex (1475–1490) Hieronymi in Danielem, digitized codex (1490) Sancti Hieronymi ad Pammachium in duodecim prophetas, digitized codex (1470–1480) Colonnade Statue in St Peter's Square Latin texts[edit] Chronological list of Jerome's Works with modern editions and translations cited Opera Omnia (Complete Works) from Migne edition (Patrologia Latina, 1844–1855) with analytical indexes, almost complete online edition Lewis E 82 Vitae patrum (Lives of the Fathers) at OPenn Lewis E 47 Bible Commentary at OPenn Facsimiles[edit] Migne volume 23 part 1 (1883 edition) Migne volume 23 part 2 (1883 edition) Migne volume 24 (1845 edition) Migne volume 25 part 1 (1884 edition) Migne volume 25 part 2 (1884 edition) Migne volume 28 (1890 edition?) 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portal  Catholicism portal Portals Access related topics Biography portal Christianity portal Saints portal Authority control BIBSYS: 90272306 BNE: XX874236 BNF: cb119074986 (data) CANTIC: a10483937 CiNii: DA01043789 GND: 118550853 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\010145 ISNI: 0000 0001 2321 3293 LCCN: n79124709 MBA: 020ed8c3-99d5-4e54-a52f-d6d349e46dcb NDL: 01023878 NKC: jn19981001563 NLA: 36534521 NLG: 91884 NLI: 000125685 NSK: 000034555 NTA: 069616353 SELIBR: 189318 SNAC: w6r5192c SUDOC: 027396436 TePapa: 47731 Trove: 1277857 ULAN: 500060933 VcBA: 495/16594 VIAF: 95147024 WorldCat Identities: viaf-95147024 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jerome&oldid=996415972" Categories: Jerome 347 births 420 deaths 4th-century Christian theologians 4th-century historians 4th-century Latin writers 4th-century Romans 4th-century translators 5th-century Latin writers 5th-century Romans 5th-century translators Christian apologists Christian hagiographers Christian writers about 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en-wikipedia-org-1351	----	Category:Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers - Wikipedia Help Category:Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This category is for articles with SUDOC identifiers. Please do not add subcategories. For more information, see Wikipedia:Authority control. Administrators: Please do not delete this category even if it is empty! This category may be empty occasionally or even most of the time. This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a tracking category. It builds and maintains a list of pages primarily for the sake of the list itself. They are not part of the encyclopedia's categorization scheme. 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en-wikipedia-org-1374	----	Internet Archive - Wikipedia Internet Archive From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Internet archive (disambiguation). For help citing the Wayback Machine (an Internet Archive service) in the English Wikipedia, see Help:Using the Wayback Machine. "archive.org" redirects here. It is not to be confused with arXiv.org. American non-profit organization providing archives of digital media Coordinates: 37°46′56″N 122°28′18″W / 37.782321°N 122.47161137°W / 37.782321; -122.47161137 Internet Archive Type of business 501(c)(3) nonprofit Type of site Digital library Available in English Founded May 12, 1996; 24 years ago (1996-05-12)[notes 1][1] Headquarters Richmond District San Francisco, California, U.S. Chairman Brewster Kahle Services Archive-It Open Library Wayback Machine (since 2001) Netlabels NASA Images Prelinger Archives Revenue $20.3 million (2018)[2] Employees 168 (2018)[2] URL archive.org Launched 1996 (1996) Current status Active Current headquarters[as of?] The Internet Archive is an American digital library with the stated mission of "universal access to all knowledge".[notes 2][notes 3] It provides free public access to collections of digitized materials, including websites, software applications/games, music, movies/videos, moving images, and millions of books. In addition to its archiving function, the Archive is an activist organization, advocating a free and open Internet. The Internet Archive currently holds over 28 million books and texts, 6 million movies and videos, 600,000 software programs, 15 million audio files, and 492 billion web pages in the Wayback Machine.[needs update] The Internet Archive allows the public to upload and download digital material to its data cluster, but the bulk of its data is collected automatically by its web crawlers, which work to preserve as much of the public web as possible. Its web archive, the Wayback Machine, contains hundreds of billions of web captures.[notes 4][3] The Archive also oversees one of the world's largest book digitization projects. Contents 1 Operations 2 History 3 Web archiving 3.1 Wayback Machine 3.2 Archive-It 3.3 Internet Archive Scholar 4 Book collections 4.1 Text collection 4.2 Number of texts for each language 4.3 Number of texts for each decade 4.4 Open Library 4.5 Digitizing sponsors for books 5 Media collections 5.1 Audio collection 5.2 Brooklyn Museum 5.3 Images collection 5.3.1 Cover Art Archive 5.3.2 Metropolitan Museum of Art images 5.3.3 NASA Images 5.3.4 Occupy Wall Street Flickr archive 5.3.5 USGS Maps 5.4 Machinima archive 5.5 Mathematics – Hamid Naderi Yeganeh 5.6 Microfilm collection 5.7 Moving image collection 5.8 Netlabels 5.9 Open Educational Resources 5.10 TV News Search & Borrow 6 Other services and endeavors 6.1 Physical media 6.2 Software 6.3 Table Top Scribe System 6.4 Credit Union 7 Controversies and legal disputes 7.1 Grateful Dead 7.2 National security letters 7.3 Opposition to SOPA and PIPA bills 7.4 Opposition to Google Books settlement 7.5 Nintendo Power magazine 7.6 Government of India 7.7 Turkey 7.8 National Emergency Library 8 Ceramic archivists collection 9 Artists in residence 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 Further reading 14 External links Operations[edit] This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (May 2020) Mirror of the Internet Archive in the Bibliotheca Alexandrina The Archive is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit operating in the United States. It has an annual budget of $10 million, derived from revenue from its Web crawling services, various partnerships, grants, donations, and the Kahle-Austin Foundation.[4] The Internet Archive also manages periodic funding campaigns. For instance, a December 2019 campaign had a goal of reaching $6 million in donations.[citation needed] The Archive is headquartered in San Francisco, California. From 1996 to 2009, its headquarters were in the Presidio of San Francisco, a former U.S. military base. Since 2009, its headquarters have been at 300 Funston Avenue in San Francisco, a former Christian Science Church. At one time, most of its staff worked in its book-scanning centers; as of 2019, scanning is performed by 100 paid operators worldwide.[5] The Archive also has data centers in three Californian cities: San Francisco, Redwood City, and Richmond. To reduce the risk of data loss, the Archive creates copies of parts of its collection at more distant locations, including the Bibliotheca Alexandrina[notes 5] in Egypt and a facility in Amsterdam.[6] The Archive is a member of the International Internet Preservation Consortium[7] and was officially designated as a library by the state of California in 2007.[notes 6] History[edit] 2008 headquarters Brewster Kahle founded the archive in May 1996 at around the same time that he began the for-profit web crawling company Alexa Internet.[notes 7] In October 1996, the Internet Archive had begun to archive and preserve the World Wide Web in large quantities,[notes 8] though it saved the earliest pages in May 1996.[8][9] The archived content wasn't available to the general public until 2001, when it developed the Wayback Machine. In late 1999, the Archive expanded its collections beyond the Web archive, beginning with the Prelinger Archives. Now the Internet Archive includes texts, audio, moving images, and software. It hosts a number of other projects: the NASA Images Archive, the contract crawling service Archive-It, and the wiki-editable library catalog and book information site Open Library. Soon after that, the archive began working to provide specialized services relating to the information access needs of the print-disabled; publicly accessible books were made available in a protected Digital Accessible Information System (DAISY) format.[notes 9] According to its website:[notes 10] Most societies place importance on preserving artifacts of their culture and heritage. Without such artifacts, civilization has no memory and no mechanism to learn from its successes and failures. Our culture now produces more and more artifacts in digital form. The Archive's mission is to help preserve those artifacts and create an Internet library for researchers, historians, and scholars. In August 2012, the archive announced[10] that it has added BitTorrent to its file download options for more than 1.3 million existing files, and all newly uploaded files.[11][12] This method is the fastest means of downloading media from the Archive, as files are served from two Archive data centers, in addition to other torrent clients which have downloaded and continue to serve the files.[11][notes 11] On November 6, 2013, the Internet Archive's headquarters in San Francisco's Richmond District caught fire,[13] destroying equipment and damaging some nearby apartments.[14] According to the Archive, it lost a side-building housing one of 30 of its scanning centers; cameras, lights, and scanning equipment worth hundreds of thousands of dollars; and "maybe 20 boxes of books and film, some irreplaceable, most already digitized, and some replaceable".[15] The nonprofit Archive sought donations to cover the estimated $600,000 in damage.[16] In November 2016, Kahle announced that the Internet Archive was building the Internet Archive of Canada, a copy of the archive to be based somewhere in Canada. The announcement received widespread coverage due to the implication that the decision to build a backup archive in a foreign country was because of the upcoming presidency of Donald Trump.[17][18][19] Kahle was quoted as saying: On November 9th in America, we woke up to a new administration promising radical change. It was a firm reminder that institutions like ours, built for the long-term, need to design for change. For us, it means keeping our cultural materials safe, private and perpetually accessible. It means preparing for a Web that may face greater restrictions. It means serving patrons in a world in which government surveillance is not going away; indeed it looks like it will increase. Throughout history, libraries have fought against terrible violations of privacy—where people have been rounded up simply for what they read. At the Internet Archive, we are fighting to protect our readers' privacy in the digital world.[17] Since 2018, the Internet Archive visual arts residency, which is organized by Amir Saber Esfahani and Andrew McClintock, helps connect artists with the archive's over 48 petabytes[notes 12] of digitized materials. Over the course of the yearlong residency, visual artists create a body of work which culminates in an exhibition. The hope is to connect digital history with the arts and create something for future generations to appreciate online or off.[20] Previous artists in residence include Taravat Talepasand, Whitney Lynn, and Jenny Odell.[21] In 2019, its headquarters in San Francisco received a bomb threat which forced a temporary evacuation of the building.[22] The Internet Archive acquires most materials from donations,[notes 13] such as hundreds of thousands of 78 rpm discs from Boston Public Library in 2017,[23] a donation of 250,000 books from Trent University in 2018,[24] and the entire collection of Marygrove College's library in 2020 after it closed.[25] All material is then digitized and retained in digital storage, while a digital copy is returned to the original holder and the Internet Archive's copy, if not in the public domain, is borrowed to patrons worldwide one at a time under the controlled digital lending (CDL) theory of the first-sale doctrine.[26] Web archiving[edit] Wayback Machine[edit] Main article: Wayback Machine Wayback Machine logo, used since 2001 Mark Graham The Internet Archive capitalized on the popular use of the term "WABAC Machine" from a segment of The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle cartoon (specifically Peabody's Improbable History), and uses the name "Wayback Machine" for its service that allows archives of the World Wide Web to be searched and accessed.[27] This service allows users to view some of the archived web pages. The Wayback Machine was created as a joint effort between Alexa Internet and the Internet Archive when a three-dimensional index was built to allow for the browsing of archived web content.[notes 14] Millions of web sites and their associated data (images, source code, documents, etc.) are saved in a database. The service can be used to see what previous versions of web sites used to look like, to grab original source code from web sites that may no longer be directly available, or to visit web sites that no longer even exist. Not all web sites are available because many web site owners choose to exclude their sites. As with all sites based on data from web crawlers, the Internet Archive misses large areas of the web for a variety of other reasons. A 2004 paper found international biases in the coverage, but deemed them "not intentional".[28] A purchase of additional storage at the Internet Archive A "Save Page Now" archiving feature was made available in October 2013,[29] accessible on the lower right of the Wayback Machine's main page.[notes 15] Once a target URL is entered and saved, the web page will become part of the Wayback Machine.[29] Through the Internet address web.archive.org,[30] users can upload to the Wayback Machine a large variety of contents, including PDF and data compression file formats. The Wayback Machine creates a permanent local URL of the upload content, that is accessible in the web, even if not listed while searching in the http://archive.org official website. May 12, 1996, is the date of the oldest archived pages on the archive.org WayBack Machine, such as infoseek.com.[31] In October 2016, it was announced that the way web pages are counted would be changed, resulting in the decrease of the archived pages counts shown.[32] Year Archived pages (billions) 2005 40[notes 16] 2006 85[notes 17] 2007 85[notes 18] 2008 85[notes 19] 2009 150[notes 20] 2010 150[notes 21] 2011 150[notes 22] 2012 150[notes 23] 2013 373[notes 24] 2014 430[33] 2015 479[notes 25] 2016 510[A][notes 26] 273[B][32] 2017 286[notes 27] 2018 344[notes 28] A Using the old counting system used before October 2016 B Using the new counting system used after October 2016 In September 2020, the Internet Archive announced a partnership with Cloudflare to automatically index websites served via its "Always Online" services.[34] Archive-It[edit] Play media Brewster Kahle of the Internet Archive talks about archiving operations Created in early 2006, Archive-It[35] is a web archiving subscription service that allows institutions and individuals to build and preserve collections of digital content and create digital archives. Archive-It allows the user to customize their capture or exclusion of web content they want to preserve for cultural heritage reasons. Through a web application, Archive-It partners can harvest, catalog, manage, browse, search, and view their archived collections.[36] In terms of accessibility, the archived web sites are full text searchable within seven days of capture.[37] Content collected through Archive-It is captured and stored as a WARC file. A primary and back-up copy is stored at the Internet Archive data centers. A copy of the WARC file can be given to subscribing partner institutions for geo-redundant preservation and storage purposes to their best practice standards.[38] Periodically, the data captured through Archive-It is indexed into the Internet Archive's general archive. As of March 2014[update], Archive-It had more than 275 partner institutions in 46 U.S. states and 16 countries that have captured more than 7.4 billion URLs for more than 2,444 public collections. Archive-It partners are universities and college libraries, state archives, federal institutions, museums, law libraries, and cultural organizations, including the Electronic Literature Organization, North Carolina State Archives and Library, Stanford University, Columbia University, American University in Cairo, Georgetown Law Library, and many others. Internet Archive Scholar[edit] In September 2020 Internet Archive announced a new initiative to archive and preserve open access academic journals, called the "Internet Archive Scholar".[39] Book collections[edit] Text collection[edit] Internet Archive "Scribe" book scanning workstation The Internet Archive operates 33 scanning centers in five countries, digitizing about 1,000 books a day for a total of more than 2 million books,[40] financially supported by libraries and foundations.[notes 29] As of July 2013[update], the collection included 4.4 million books with more than 15 million downloads per month.[40] As of November 2008[update], when there were approximately 1 million texts, the entire collection was greater than 0.5 petabytes, which includes raw camera images, cropped and skewed images, PDFs, and raw OCR data.[41] Between about 2006 and 2008, Microsoft had a special relationship with Internet Archive texts through its Live Search Books project, scanning more than 300,000 books that were contributed to the collection, as well as financial support and scanning equipment. On May 23, 2008, Microsoft announced it would be ending the Live Book Search project and no longer scanning books.[42] Microsoft made its scanned books available without contractual restriction and donated its scanning equipment to its former partners.[42] An Internet Archive in-house scan ongoing Around October 2007, Archive users began uploading public domain books from Google Book Search.[notes 30] As of November 2013[update], there were more than 900,000 Google-digitized books in the Archive's collection;[notes 31] the books are identical to the copies found on Google, except without the Google watermarks, and are available for unrestricted use and download.[43] Brewster Kahle revealed in 2013 that this archival effort was coordinated by Aaron Swartz, who with a "bunch of friends" downloaded the public domain books from Google slow enough and from enough computers to stay within Google's restrictions. They did this to ensure public access to the public domain. The Archive ensured the items were attributed and linked back to Google, which never complained, while libraries "grumbled". According to Kahle, this is an example of Swartz's "genius" to work on what could give the most to the public good for millions of people.[44] Besides books, the Archive offers free and anonymous public access to more than four million court opinions, legal briefs, or exhibits uploaded from the United States Federal Courts' PACER electronic document system via the RECAP web browser plugin. These documents had been kept behind a federal court paywall. On the Archive, they had been accessed by more than six million people by 2013.[44] The Archive's BookReader web app,[45] built into its website, has features such as single-page, two-page, and thumbnail modes; fullscreen mode; page zooming of high-resolution images; and flip page animation.[45][46] Number of texts for each language[edit] Number of all texts (December 9, 2019) 22,197,912[47] Language Number of texts (November 27, 2015) English 6,553,945[notes 32] French 358,721[notes 33] German 344,810[notes 34] Spanish 134,170[notes 35] Chinese 84,147[notes 36] Arabic 66,786[notes 37] Dutch 30,237[notes 38] Portuguese 25,938[notes 39] Russian 22,731[notes 40] Urdu 14,978[notes 41] Japanese 14,795[notes 42] Number of texts for each decade[edit] XIX century Decade Number of texts (November 27, 2015) 1800s 39,842[notes 43] 1810s 51,151[notes 44] 1820s 79,476[notes 45] 1830s 105,021[notes 46] 1840s 127,649[notes 47] 1850s 180,950[notes 48] 1860s 210,574[notes 49] 1870s 214,505[notes 50] 1880s 285,984[notes 51] 1890s 370,726[notes 52] XX century Decade Number of texts (November 27, 2015) 1900s 504,000[notes 53] 1910s 455,539[notes 54] 1920s 185,876[notes 55] 1930s 70,190[notes 56] 1940s 85,062[notes 57] 1950s 81,192[notes 58] 1960s 125,977[notes 59] 1970s 206,870[notes 60] 1980s 181,129[notes 61] 1990s 272,848[notes 62] XXI century Decade Number of texts (November 27, 2015) 2000s 579,905[notes 63] 2010s 855,253[notes 64] Open Library[edit] Main article: Open Library The Open Library is another project of the Internet Archive. The wiki seeks to include a web page for every book ever published: it holds 25 million catalog records of editions. It also seeks to be a web-accessible public library: it contains the full texts of approximately 1,600,000 public domain books (out of the more than five million from the main texts collection), as well as in-print and in-copyright books,[48] many of which are fully readable, downloadable[49][50] and full-text searchable;[51] it offers a two-week loan of e-books in its controlled digital lending program for over 647,784 books not in the public domain, in partnership with over 1,000 library partners from 6 countries[40][52] after a free registration on the web site. Open Library is a free and open-source software project, with its source code freely available on GitHub. The Open Library faces objections from some authors and the Society of Authors, who hold that the project is distributing books without authorization and is thus in violation of copyright laws,[53] and four major publishers initiated a copyright infringement lawsuit against the Internet Archive in June 2020 to stop the Open Library project.[54] Digitizing sponsors for books[edit] Many large institutional sponsors have helped the Internet Archive provide millions of scanned publications (text items).[55] Some sponsors that have digitized large quantities of texts include the University of Toronto's Robarts Library, the University of Alberta Libraries, the University of Ottawa, the Library of Congress, Boston Library Consortium member libraries, the Boston Public Library, the Princeton Theological Seminary Library, and many others.[56] In 2017, the MIT Press authorized the Internet Archive to digitize and lend books from the press's backlist,[57] with financial support from the Arcadia Fund.[58][59] A year later, the Internet Archive received further funding from the Arcadia Fund to invite some other university presses to partner with the Internet Archive to digitize books, a project called "Unlocking University Press Books".[60][61] The Library of Congress has created numerous handle system identifers that point to free digitized books in the Internet Archive.[62] The Internet Archive and Open Library are listed on the Library of Congress website as a source of e-books.[63] Media collections[edit] Media reader Microfilms at the Internet Archive Videocassettes at the Internet Archive In addition to web archives, the Internet Archive maintains extensive collections of digital media that are attested by the uploader to be in the public domain in the United States or licensed under a license that allows redistribution, such as Creative Commons licenses. Media are organized into collections by media type (moving images, audio, text, etc.), and into sub-collections by various criteria. Each of the main collections includes a "Community" sub-collection (formerly named "Open Source") where general contributions by the public are stored. Audio collection[edit] Main articles: Live Music Archive and The Great 78 Project The Audio Archive includes music, audiobooks, news broadcasts, old time radio shows, and a wide variety of other audio files. There are more than 200,000 free digital recordings in the collection. The subcollections include audio books and poetry, podcasts, non-English audio, and many others.[notes 65] The sound collections are curated by B. George, director of the ARChive of Contemporary Music.[64] The Live Music Archive sub-collection includes more than 170,000 concert recordings from independent musicians, as well as more established artists and musical ensembles with permissive rules about recording their concerts, such as the Grateful Dead, and more recently, The Smashing Pumpkins. Also, Jordan Zevon has allowed the Internet Archive to host a definitive collection of his father Warren Zevon's concert recordings. The Zevon collection ranges from 1976 to 2001 and contains 126 concerts including 1,137 songs.[65] The Great 78 Project aims to digitize 250,000 78 rpm singles (500,000 songs) from the period between 1880 and 1960, donated by various collectors and institutions. It has been developed in collaboration with the Archive of Contemporary Music and George Blood Audio, responsible for the audio digitization.[64] Brooklyn Museum[edit] This collection contains approximately 3,000 items from Brooklyn Museum.[notes 66] Images collection[edit] This collection contains more than 3.5 million items.[66] Cover Art Archive, Metropolitan Museum of Art - Gallery Images, NASA Images, Occupy Wall Street Flickr Archive, and USGS Maps and are some sub-collections of Image collection. Cover Art Archive[edit] The Cover Art Archive is a joint project between the Internet Archive and MusicBrainz, whose goal is to make cover art images on the Internet. This collection contains more than 330,000 items.[notes 67] Metropolitan Museum of Art images[edit] The images of this collection are from the Metropolitan Museum of Art. This collection contains more than 140,000 items.[notes 68] NASA Images[edit] The NASA Images archive was created through a Space Act Agreement between the Internet Archive and NASA to bring public access to NASA's image, video, and audio collections in a single, searchable resource. The IA NASA Images team worked closely with all of the NASA centers to keep adding to the ever-growing collection.[67] The nasaimages.org site launched in July 2008 and had more than 100,000 items online at the end of its hosting in 2012. Occupy Wall Street Flickr archive[edit] This collection contains creative commons licensed photographs from Flickr related to the Occupy Wall Street movement. This collection contains more than 15,000 items.[notes 69] USGS Maps[edit] This collection contains more than 59,000 items from Libre Map Project.[notes 70] Machinima archive[edit] One of the sub-collections of the Internet Archive's Video Archive is the Machinima Archive. This small section hosts many Machinima videos. Machinima is a digital artform in which computer games, game engines, or software engines are used in a sandbox-like mode to create motion pictures, recreate plays, or even publish presentations or keynotes. The archive collects a range of Machinima films from internet publishers such as Rooster Teeth and Machinima.com as well as independent producers. The sub-collection is a collaborative effort among the Internet Archive, the How They Got Game research project at Stanford University, the Academy of Machinima Arts and Sciences, and Machinima.com.[notes 71] Mathematics – Hamid Naderi Yeganeh[edit] This collection contains mathematical images created by mathematical artist Hamid Naderi Yeganeh.[notes 72] Microfilm collection[edit] This collection contains approximately 160,000 items from a variety of libraries including the University of Chicago Libraries, the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, the University of Alberta, Allen County Public Library, and the National Technical Information Service.[notes 73][notes 74] Moving image collection[edit] See also: Wikipedia list of films freely available on the Internet Archive The Internet Archive holds a collection of approximately 3,863 feature films.[notes 75] Additionally, the Internet Archive's Moving Image collection includes: newsreels, classic cartoons, pro- and anti-war propaganda, The Video Cellar Collection, Skip Elsheimer's "A.V. Geeks" collection, early television, and ephemeral material from Prelinger Archives, such as advertising, educational, and industrial films, as well as amateur and home movie collections. Subcategories of this collection include: IA's Brick Films collection, which contains stop-motion animation filmed with Lego bricks, some of which are "remakes" of feature films. IA's Election 2004 collection, a non-partisan public resource for sharing video materials related to the 2004 United States presidential election. IA's FedFlix collection, Joint Venture NTIS-1832 between the National Technical Information Service and Public.Resource.Org that features "the best movies of the United States Government, from training films to history, from our national parks to the U.S. Fire Academy and the Postal Inspectors"[notes 76] IA's Independent News collection, which includes sub-collections such as the Internet Archive's World At War competition from 2001, in which contestants created short films demonstrating "why access to history matters". Among their most-downloaded video files are eyewitness recordings of the devastating 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. IA's September 11 Television Archive, which contains archival footage from the world's major television networks of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, as they unfolded on live television.[notes 77] Netlabels[edit] Not to be confused with Netlabel. The Archive has a collection of freely distributable music that is streamed and available for download via its Netlabels service. The music in this collection generally has Creative Commons-license catalogs of virtual record labels.[notes 78][68] Open Educational Resources[edit] Open Educational Resources is a digital collection at archive.org. This collection contains hundreds of free courses, video lectures, and supplemental materials from universities in the United States and China. The contributors of this collection are ArsDigita University, Hewlett Foundation, MIT, Monterey Institute, and Naropa University.[notes 79] TV News Search & Borrow[edit] TV tuners at the Internet Archive In September 2012, the Internet Archive launched the TV News Search & Borrow service for searching U.S. national news programs.[notes 80] The service is built on closed captioning transcripts and allows users to search and stream 30-second video clips. Upon launch, the service contained "350,000 news programs collected over 3 years from national U.S. networks and stations in San Francisco and Washington D.C."[69] According to Kahle, the service was inspired by the Vanderbilt Television News Archive, a similar library of televised network news programs.[70] In contrast to Vanderbilt, which limits access to streaming video to individuals associated with subscribing colleges and universities, the TV News Search & Borrow allows open access to its streaming video clips. In 2013, the Archive received an additional donation of "approximately 40,000 well-organized tapes" from the estate of a Philadelphia woman, Marion Stokes. Stokes "had recorded more than 35 years of TV news in Philadelphia and Boston with her VHS and Betamax machines."[71] Other services and endeavors[edit] Physical media[edit] A vintage wall intercom, an example of another "archived" item Voicing a strong reaction to the idea of books simply being thrown away, and inspired by the Svalbard Global Seed Vault, Kahle now envisions collecting one copy of every book ever published. "We're not going to get there, but that's our goal", he said. Alongside the books, Kahle plans to store the Internet Archive's old servers, which were replaced in 2010.[72] Software[edit] The Internet Archive has "the largest collection of historical software online in the world", spanning 50 years of computer history in terabytes of computer magazines and journals, books, shareware discs, FTP web sites, video games, etc. The Internet Archive has created an archive of what it describes as "vintage software", as a way to preserve them.[notes 81] The project advocated for an exemption from the United States Digital Millennium Copyright Act to permit them to bypass copy protection, which was approved in 2003 for a period of three years.[notes 82] The Archive does not offer the software for download, as the exemption is solely "for the purpose of preservation or archival reproduction of published digital works by a library or archive."[73] The exemption was renewed in 2006, and in 2009 was indefinitely extended pending further rulemakings.[74] The Library reiterated the exemption as a "Final Rule" with no expiration date in 2010.[75] In 2013, the Internet Archive began to provide abandonware video games browser-playable via MESS, for instance the Atari 2600 game E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial.[76] Since December 23, 2014, the Internet Archive presents, via a browser-based DOSBox emulation, thousands of DOS/PC games[77][78][notes 83][79] for "scholarship and research purposes only".[notes 84][80][81] In November 2020, the Archive introduced a new emulator for Adobe Flash called Ruffle, and began archiving Flash animations and games ahead of the December 31, 2020 end-of-life for the Flash plugin across all computer systems.[82] Table Top Scribe System[edit] A combined hardware software system has been developed that performs a safe method of digitizing content.[notes 85][83] Credit Union[edit] From 2012 to November 2015, the Internet Archive operated the Internet Archive Federal Credit Union, a federal credit union based in New Brunswick, New Jersey, with the goal of providing access to low- and middle-income people. Throughout its short existence, the IAFCU experienced significant conflicts with the National Credit Union Administration, which severely limited the IAFCU's loan portfolio and concerns over serving Bitcoin firms. At the time of its dissolution, it consisted of 395 members and was worth $2.5 million.[84][85] Controversies and legal disputes[edit] See also: Wayback Machine § In legal evidence The main hall of the current headquarters Grateful Dead[edit] In November 2005, free downloads of Grateful Dead concerts were removed from the site. John Perry Barlow identified Bob Weir, Mickey Hart, and Bill Kreutzmann as the instigators of the change, according to an article in The New York Times.[86] Phil Lesh commented on the change in a November 30, 2005, posting to his personal web site: It was brought to my attention that all of the Grateful Dead shows were taken down from Archive.org right before Thanksgiving. I was not part of this decision making process and was not notified that the shows were to be pulled. I do feel that the music is the Grateful Dead's legacy and I hope that one way or another all of it is available for those who want it.[87] A November 30 forum post from Brewster Kahle summarized what appeared to be the compromise reached among the band members. Audience recordings could be downloaded or streamed, but soundboard recordings were to be available for streaming only. Concerts have since been re-added.[notes 86] National security letters[edit] A national security letter issued to the Internet Archive demanding information about a user On May 8, 2008, it was revealed that the Internet Archive had successfully challenged an FBI national security letter asking for logs on an undisclosed user.[88][89] On November 28, 2016, it was revealed that a second FBI national security letter had been successfully challenged that had been asking for logs on another undisclosed user.[90] Opposition to SOPA and PIPA bills[edit] The Internet Archive blacked out its web site for 12 hours on January 18, 2012, in protest of the Stop Online Piracy Act and the PROTECT IP Act bills, two pieces of legislation in the United States Congress that they claimed would "negatively affect the ecosystem of web publishing that led to the emergence of the Internet Archive". This occurred in conjunction with the English Wikipedia blackout, as well as numerous other protests across the Internet.[91] Opposition to Google Books settlement[edit] The Internet Archive is a member of the Open Book Alliance, which has been among the most outspoken critics of the Google Book Settlement. The Archive advocates an alternative digital library project.[92] Nintendo Power magazine[edit] In February 2016, Internet Archive users had begun archiving digital copies of Nintendo Power, Nintendo's official magazine for their games and products, which ran from 1988 to 2012. The first 140 issues had been collected, before Nintendo had the archive removed on August 8, 2016. In response to the take-down, Nintendo told gaming website Polygon, "[Nintendo] must protect our own characters, trademarks and other content. The unapproved use of Nintendo's intellectual property can weaken our ability to protect and preserve it, or to possibly use it for new projects".[93] Government of India[edit] In August 2017, the Department of Telecommunications of the Government of India blocked the Internet Archive along with other file-sharing websites, in accordance with two court orders issued by the Madras High Court,[94] citing piracy concerns after copies of two Bollywood films were allegedly shared via the service.[95] The HTTP version of the Archive was blocked but it remained accessible using the HTTPS protocol.[94] Turkey[edit] See also: Censorship in Turkey On October 9, 2016, the Internet Archive was temporarily blocked in Turkey after it was used (amongst other file hosters) by hackers to host 17 GB of leaked government emails.[96][97] National Emergency Library[edit] In the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic which closed many schools, universities, and libraries, the Archive announced on March 24, 2020 that it was creating the National Emergency Library by removing the lending restrictions it had in place for 1.4 million digitized books in its Open Library but otherwise limiting users to the number of books they could check out and enforcing their return; normally, the site would only allow one digital lending for each physical copy of the book they had, by use of an encrypted file that would become unusable after the lending period was completed. This Library would remain as such until at least June 30, 2020 or until the US national emergency was over, whichever came later.[98] At launch, the Internet Archive allowed authors and rightholders to submit opt-out requests for their works to be omitted from the National Emergency Library.[99][100][101] The Internet Archive said the National Emergency Library addressed an "unprecedented global and immediate need for access to reading and research material" due to the closures of physical libraries worldwide.[102] They justified the move in a number of ways. Legally, they said they were promoting access to those inaccessible resources, which they claimed was an exercise in Fair Use principles. The Archive continued implementing their controlled digital lending policy that predated the National Emergency Library, meaning they still encrypted the lent copies and it was no easier for users to create new copies of the books than before. An ultimate determination of whether or not the National Emergency Library constituted Fair Use could only be made by a court. Morally, they also pointed out that the Internet Archive was a registered library like any other, that they either paid for the books themselves or received them as donations, and that lending through libraries predated copyright restrictions.[99][103] However, the Archive had already been criticized by authors and publishers for its prior lending approach, and upon announcement of the National Emergency Library, authors, publishers, and groups representing both took further issue, equating the move to copyright infringement and digital piracy, and using the COVID-19 pandemic as a reason to push the boundaries of copyright (see also: Open Library § Copyright violation accusations).[104][105][106] After the works of some of these authors were ridiculed in responses, the Internet Archive's Jason Scott requested that supporters of the National Emergency Library not denigrate anyone's books: "I realize there's strong debate and disagreement here, but books are life-giving and life-changing and these writers made them."[107] The operation of the National Emergency Library is part of the lawsuit filed against the Open Library project by four major book publishers in June 2020, challenging the copyright validity of the program.[54] In response, the Internet Archive closed the National Emergency Library on June 16, 2020, rather than the planned June 30, 2020, due to the lawsuit.[108][109] The plaintiffs claimed in their lawsuit that the Internet Archive's actions constituted a "willful mass copyright infringement". Additionally, Senator Thom Tillis (R-North Carolina), chairman of the intellectual property subcommittee on the Senate Judiciary Committee, said in a letter to the Internet Archive that he was "concerned that the Internet Archive thinks that it — not Congress — gets to determine the scope of copyright law".[110] The lawsuit trial is tentatively scheduled to begin in November 2021.[111] Ceramic archivists collection[edit] Ceramic figures of Internet Archive employees The Great Room of the Internet Archive features a collection of more than 100 ceramic figures representing employees of the Internet Archive. This collection, inspired by the statues of the Xian warriors in China, was commissioned by Brewster Kahle, sculpted by Nuala Creed, and is ongoing.[112] Artists in residence[edit] The Internet Archive visual arts residency,[113] organized by Amir Saber Esfahani, is designed to connect emerging and mid-career artists with the Archive's millions of collections and to show what is possible when open access to information intersects with the arts. During this one-year residency, selected artists develop a body of work that responds to and utilizes the Archive's collections in their own practice.[114] 2019 Residency Artists: Caleb Duarte, Whitney Lynn, and Jeffrey Alan Scudder. 2018 Residency Artists: Mieke Marple, Chris Sollars, and Taravat Talepasand. 2017 Residency Artists: Laura Kim, Jeremiah Jenkins, and Jenny Odell See also[edit] Internet portal History portal Lists of Internet Archive's collections List of online image archives Public domain music Web archiving Similar projects archive.today Internet Memory Foundation LibriVox National Digital Information Infrastructure and Preservation Program (NDIIPP) National Digital Library Program (NDLP) Project Gutenberg UK Government Web Archive at The National Archives (United Kingdom) UK Web Archive WebCite Other Archive Team Digital dark age Digital preservation Heritrix Link rot Memory hole PetaBox Web crawler Notes[edit] ^ "Internet Archive: About the Archive". 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Access to the Archive's Collections is provided at no cost to you and is granted for scholarship and research purposes only. ^ "Table Top Scribe System". Internet Archive. Archived from the original on October 10, 2018. Retrieved October 23, 2018. ^ Kahle, Brewster; Vernon, Matt (December 1, 2005). "Good News and an Apology: GD on the Internet Archive". Live Music Archive Forum. Internet Archive. Archived from the original on August 6, 2014. Authors and date indicate the first posting in the forum thread. References[edit] ^ "archive.org WHOIS, DNS, & Domain Info – DomainTools". WHOIS. Archived from the original on November 5, 2018. Retrieved March 13, 2016. ^ a b "Nonprofit Explorer - Internet Archive". ProPublica. Retrieved June 12, 2020. ^ Grotke, A. (December 2011). "Web Archiving at the Library of Congress" Archived December 15, 2013, at the Wayback Machine. Computers In Libraries, v.31 n.10, pp. 15–19. Information Today. ^ Womack, David (Spring 2003). "Who Owns History?". Cabinet Magazine (10). Archived from the original on March 19, 2013. ^ Whitney Kimball. "The Internet Archive Fights Wiki Citation Wars With Books". Gizmodo. Archived from the original on November 5, 2019. Retrieved November 5, 2019. ^ "Brewster Kahle: Universal Access to All Knowledge – The Long Now". longnow.org. 45'47". Archived from the original on October 20, 2016. Retrieved October 18, 2016. ^ "Members". Archived from the original on June 13, 2010. Retrieved April 24, 2011. International Internet Preservation Consortium. Netpreserve.org ^ "MTV Online: Main Page – Wayback Machine". Wayback Machine. May 12, 1996. Archived from the original on May 12, 1996. Retrieved December 16, 2016. ^ "Infoseek Guide – Wayback Machine". Wayback Machine. May 12, 1996. Archived from the original on May 12, 1996. Retrieved December 16, 2016. ^ Kahle, Brewster (August 7, 2012). "Over 1,000,000 Torrents of Downloadable Books, Music, and Movies" Archived August 13, 2014, at the Wayback Machine. Internet Archive Blogs. ^ a b Ernesto (August 7, 2012). "Internet Archive Starts Seeding 1,398,875 Torrents". TorrentFreak. Archived from the original on August 8, 2012. ^ "Hot List for bt1.us.archive.org (Updated August 7 2012, 7:31 pm PDT)" Archived August 3, 2012, at the Wayback Machine. US Cluster. Internet Archive. ^ B, Sarah (November 6, 2013). "Part of Internet Archive building badly burned in early morning fire". Archived from the original on January 31, 2017. Retrieved February 11, 2017. ^ Alexander, Kurtis (November 16, 2013). "Internet Archive's S.F. office damaged in fire". San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on December 12, 2013. ^ "Fire Update: Lost Many Cameras, 20 Boxes. No One Hurt". Internet Archive Blogs. November 6, 2013. Archived from the original on November 7, 2013. ^ Shu, Catherine (November 6, 2013). "Internet Archive Seeking Donations To Rebuild Its Fire-Damaged Scanning Center". TechCrunch. Archived from the original on July 6, 2017. ^ a b Kahle, Brewster (November 29, 2016). "Help Us Keep the Archive Free, Accessible, and Reader Private". Internet Archive. Archived from the original on May 21, 2017. Retrieved December 2, 2016. ^ Johnson, Tim (December 1, 2016). "Donald Trump scares Internet Archive into moving to Canada". McClatchy DC. Archived from the original on December 2, 2016. Retrieved December 2, 2016. ^ Rothschild, Mike (December 2, 2016). "The Internet Archive Is Moving to Canada to Protect Itself from Trump". Attn. Archived from the original on December 3, 2016. Retrieved December 2, 2016. ^ Locker, Melissa (July 3, 2018). "The Internet Archive is helping these artists get inspired by digital history". Fast Company. Archived from the original on December 29, 2018. Retrieved December 29, 2018. ^ "Jenny Odell - Neo-Surreal". The Photographers' Gallery. May 30, 2018. Archived from the original on September 27, 2019. Retrieved September 27, 2019. ^ "Internet Archive evacuated due to bomb threat". msn.com. Archived from the original on July 14, 2019. Retrieved July 14, 2019. ^ "Boston Public Library transfers sound archives collection to Internet Archive for digitization, preservation, and public access". Boston Public Library. October 11, 2017. Retrieved December 4, 2020. ^ "Trent University donates 250,000 books to be digitized by Internet Archive as part of Bata Library transformation". Trent University. September 13, 2018. Retrieved December 4, 2020. ^ Seltzer, Rick (October 21, 2020). "A new home online for closed college libraries?". Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved December 4, 2020. ^ Matt Enis (May 2, 2019). "Internet Archive Expands Partnerships for Open Libraries Project". Archived from the original on May 3, 2019. Retrieved May 3, 2019. ^ Green, Heather (February 28, 2002). "A Library as Big as the World". Business Week Online. Archived from the original on June 1, 2002. ^ Thelwall, Mike; Vaughan, Liwen (Spring 2004). "A fair history of the Web? Examining country balance in the Internet Archive" (PDF). Library & Information Science Research. 26 (2): 162–176. doi:10.1016/j.lisr.2003.12.009. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 24, 2015. ^ a b Rossi, Alexis (October 25, 2013). "Fixing Broken Links on the Internet". Internet Archive. Archived from the original on November 7, 2014. Retrieved December 29, 2013. ^ "Web.archive.org directory". Archived from the original on January 3, 2012. Retrieved March 2, 2014. ^ "Internet Archive Forums: What is the oldest page on the Wayback Machine?". archive.org. Archived from the original on March 11, 2019. Retrieved October 6, 2019. ^ a b Goel, Vinay (October 23, 2016). "Defining Web pages, Web sites and Web captures". Internet Archive. Archived from the original on December 9, 2018. Retrieved December 9, 2018. ^ "430 Billion Web Pages Saved. ... Help Us Do More! | Internet Archive Blogs". blog.archive.org. Archived from the original on July 7, 2018. Retrieved June 10, 2018. ^ Graham, Mark (September 17, 2020). "Cloudflare and the Wayback Machine, joining forces for a more reliable Web". Internet Archive Blogs. Retrieved September 17, 2020. ^ "archive-it.org". archive-it.org. Archived from the original on April 14, 2013. Retrieved April 13, 2013. ^ Truman, Gail (January 2016). Web Archiving Environmental Scan. Harvard Library Report. ^ "What is the Difference between the General Archive (sometimes called the Wayback Machine) and Archive-It?" Archived October 15, 2016, at the Wayback Machine. Archive-It How to FAQ. Archive-It. – via Jira.com. ^ "About Archive-It". Archive-It. Archived from the original on February 21, 2014. Retrieved March 3, 2014. ^ Archives, in; Data; Education; Archive, Internet; September 22nd, Libraries |; Comment, 2020 Leave a. "The Internet Archive Will Digitize & Preserve Millions of Academic Articles with Its New Database, "Internet Archive Scholar"". Open Culture. Retrieved September 23, 2020. ^ a b c Hoffelder, Nate (July 9, 2013). "Internet Archive Now Hosts 4.4 Million eBooks, Sees 15 Million eBooks Downloaded Each Month" Archived November 10, 2013, at the Wayback Machine. The Digital Reader. ^ "Bulk Access to OCR for 1 Million Books" Archived December 6, 2008, at the Wayback Machine. Open Library Blog. November 24, 2008. ^ a b "Book search winding down". MSDN Live Search Blog. May 23, 2008. Archived from the original on August 20, 2008. ^ Books imported from Google have a metadata tag of scanner:google for searching purposes. The archive provides a link to Google for PDF copies, but also maintains a local PDF copy, which is viewable under the "All Files: HTTPS" link. As all the other books in the collection, they also provide OCR text and images in open formats, particularly DjVu, which Google Books doesn't offer. ^ a b Brewster Kahle, Aaron Swartz memorial at the Internet Archive Archived June 29, 2015, at the Wayback Machine, 2013-01-24, via The well-prepared mind Archived August 14, 2014, at the Wayback Machine, via S.I.Lex Archived August 8, 2014, at the Wayback Machine. ^ a b "Internet Archive BookReader". archive.org. Archived from the original on June 21, 2019. Retrieved June 21, 2019. ^ Kaplan, Jeff (December 10, 2010). "New BookReader!". blog.archive.org. Archived from the original on June 21, 2019. Retrieved June 21, 2019. ^ "Internet Archive Search". Archived from the original on September 12, 2016. ^ "FAQ on Controlled Digital Lending (CDL)". National Writers Union. Retrieved February 15, 2019. ^ Gonsalves, Antone (December 20, 2006). "Internet Archive Claims Progress Against Google Library Initiative". InformationWeek. Archived from the original on October 14, 2007. ^ "The Open Library Makes Its Online Debut". The Wired Campus. Chronicle of Higher Education. July 19, 2007. Archived from the original on September 30, 2007. ^ "Search Inside" Archived October 20, 2013, at the Wayback Machine (feature). OpenLibrary.org. ^ Internet Archive (June 25, 2011). "In-Library eBook Lending Program Expands to 1,000 Libraries" Archived August 13, 2014, at the Wayback Machine. Internet Archive Blogs. June 25, 2011. ^ Flood, Alison (January 22, 2019). "Internet Archive's ebook loans face UK copyright challenge". The Guardian. ^ a b Brandom, Russell (June 1, 2020). "Publishers sue Internet Archive over Open Library ebook lending". The Verge. Retrieved June 1, 2020. ^ For example, the Princeton Theological Seminary Library has described how it and other academic libraries are digitization partners with the Internet Archive: "Partnering with the Internet Archive". Princeton Theological Seminary Library. Retrieved December 4, 2020. ^ "Internet Archive Search: collection:(texts)". archive.org. Retrieved December 4, 2020. ^ "The MIT Press". archive.org. Retrieved June 27, 2020. ^ Hanamura, Wendy (May 30, 2017). "MIT Press Classics Available Soon at Archive.org". blog.archive.org. Retrieved June 27, 2020. For more than eighty years, MIT Press has been publishing acclaimed titles in science, technology, art and architecture. Now, thanks to a new partnership between the Internet Archive and MIT Press, readers will be able to borrow these classics online for the first time. ^ Green, Alex (December 1, 2019). "New Takes on Academic Publishing: Three university presses find new ways to keep up with a changing market". Publishers Weekly. Retrieved June 27, 2020. Since she became director [of the MIT Press] in 2015, there's little that Brand hasn't reenvisioned at the press. In 2017, the press partnered with the Internet Archive to make its deep backlist available for free at libraries, resurrecting books that had not seen the light of day in generations. ^ Freeland, Chris (May 21, 2018). "Internet Archive awarded grant from Arcadia Fund to digitize university press collections". blog.archive.org. Retrieved June 27, 2020. Internet Archive has received a $1 million dollar grant from Arcadia – a charitable fund of Lisbet Rausing and Peter Baldwin – to digitize titles from university press collections to make them available via controlled digital lending. ^ Albanese, Andrew (May 25, 2018). "Internet Archive Lands Grant to Digitize and Lend University Press Collections". Publishers Weekly. Retrieved June 27, 2020. ^ For example: "hdl.loc.gov/loc.gdc/scd0001.00198115083", retrieved November 25, 2020 ; "hdl.loc.gov/loc.gdc/scd0001.00060921933", retrieved November 25, 2020 ; "hdl.loc.gov/loc.gdc/scd0001.00060927248", retrieved November 25, 2020 ; "hdl.loc.gov/loc.gdc/scd0001.00001740908", retrieved November 25, 2020 ; "hdl.loc.gov/loc.gdc/scd0001.00027740005", retrieved November 25, 2020 . ^ "External Web Sites – Finding E-books: A Guide – Library of Congress Bibliographies, Research Guides, and Finding Aids (Virtual Programs & Services, Library of Congress)". www.loc.gov. Retrieved November 25, 2020. The Internet Archive includes the full text of more than 2.5 million e-books, including e-books supplied by the Library of Congress. Books can be read online or downloaded and read in a variety of formats. E-books from the Internet Archive can also be found through Open Library, an Internet Archive initiative devoted to texts. And: "Devices and Formats – Finding E-books: A Guide – Library of Congress Bibliographies, Research Guides, and Finding Aids (Virtual Programs & Services, Library of Congress)". www.loc.gov. Retrieved November 25, 2020. Library of Congress publications are available for free download to the Kindle from the Internet Archive. ... The iPad can be used as an e-reader via apps such as iBooks, which support both ePub (.epub) and PDF (.pdf) formats. Both formats are available from the Internet Archive. ^ a b Pritchard, Will (August 18, 2017). "How The Great 78 Project is saving half a million songs from obscurity". The Vinyl Factory. Archived from the original on November 7, 2017. Retrieved November 2, 2017. ^ Tirpack, Alex (June 3, 2009). "Warren Zevon live shows hit the web, possible film in the works". Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on February 2, 2013. ^ "Image". Internet Archive. Archived from the original on September 25, 2020. Retrieved October 12, 2020. ^ "NASA Images" (archive). Internet Archive. Archived from the original on November 11, 2012. Retrieved April 13, 2013. ^ Boswell, Wendy (October 21, 2006). "Download free music at the Internet Archive". Lifehacker. Archived from the original on May 5, 2012. The Internet Archive has a ginormous collection of free, downloadable music in their NetLabels category ... ^ Fowler, Geoffrey A.; Hagey, Keach (September 18, 2012). "Let's Go to the Videotape: Nonprofit Offers News Clips". The Wall Street Journal Online. Archived from the original on April 24, 2013. (subscription required) ^ Kahle, Brewster (September 17, 2012). "Launch of TV News Search & Borrow with 350,000 Broadcasts". Internet Archive Blogs. Archived from the original on August 13, 2014. ^ Brownell, Brett; Benjy Hansen-Brandy (May 22, 2014). "Meet the People Behind the Wayback Machine, One of Our Favorite Things About the Internet". Mother Jones. Archived from the original on June 7, 2014. Retrieved June 7, 2014. ^ "Internet Archive founder turns to new information storage device – the book". The Guardian. August 1, 2011. Archived from the original on August 22, 2012. Brewster Kahle, the man behind a project to file every webpage, now wants to gather one copy of every published book ^ Library of Congress Copyright Office (November 27, 2006). "Exemption to Prohibition on Circumvention of Copyright Protection Systems for Access Control Technologies". Federal Register. 71 (227): 68472–68480. Archived from the original on November 1, 2007. Retrieved October 21, 2007. Computer programs and video games distributed in formats that have become obsolete and that require the original media or hardware as a condition of access, when circumvention is accomplished for the purpose of preservation or archival reproduction of published digital works by a library or archive. A format shall be considered obsolete if the machine or system necessary to render perceptible a work stored in that format is no longer manufactured or is no longer reasonably available in the commercial marketplace. ^ Library of Congress Copyright Office (October 28, 2009). "Exemption to Prohibition on Circumvention of Copyright Protection Systems for Access Control Technologies" (PDF). Federal Register. 27 (206): 55137–55139. Archived (PDF) from the original on December 2, 2009. Retrieved December 17, 2009. ^ Library of Congress Copyright Office (July 27, 2010). "Exemption to Prohibition on Circumvention of Copyright Protection Systems for Access Control Technologies". Federal Register. 75 (143): 43825–43839. Archived from the original on June 27, 2015. ^ Robertson, Adi (October 25, 2013). "The Internet Archive puts Atari games and obsolete software directly in your browser". The Verge. Archived from the original on October 27, 2013. ^ Ohlheiser, Abby (January 5, 2015). "You can now play nearly 2,400 MS-DOS video games in your browser". Washington Post. Archived from the original on January 7, 2015. Retrieved January 8, 2015. ^ Each New Boot a Miracle Archived January 9, 2015, at the Wayback Machine by Jason Scott (December 23, 2014) ^ Graft, Kris (March 5, 2015). "Saving video game history begins right now". Gamasutra. Archived from the original on March 7, 2015. Retrieved March 5, 2015. ^ Lu, Kathy (January 12, 2015). "Time suck alert: 'Pac-Man' among thousands of MS-DOS games available for free". The Kansas City Star. Archived from the original on December 20, 2016. Retrieved December 7, 2016. ^ O'Neil, Lauren (January 7, 2015). "90's kids rejoice as Internet Archive releases 2,300 MS-DOS games for free – Your Community". CBCNEWS. Archived from the original on October 17, 2016. Retrieved December 7, 2016. ^ Campbell, Ian Carlos (November 19, 2020). "The Internet Archive is now preserving Flash games and animations". The Verge. Retrieved November 19, 2020. ^ Stutz, Michael (March 28, 2007). "Linux to help the Library of Congress save American history". Linux.com. The Linux foundation. Archived from the original on October 23, 2017. ^ Strozniak, Peter (December 18, 2015). "Death of a Credit Union: Internet Archive FCU Voluntarily Liquidates". Credit Union Times. Archived from the original on October 6, 2019. Retrieved October 6, 2019. ^ "Difficult Times at our Credit Union". Internet Archive Blogs. November 24, 2015. Archived from the original on June 16, 2019. Retrieved October 6, 2019. ^ Leeds, Jeff; Mayshark, Jesse Fox (December 1, 2005). "Wrath of Deadheads stalls a Web crackdown". The New York Times. Archived from the original on May 8, 2015. ^ Lesh, Phil (November 30, 2005). "An Announcement from Phil Lesh". Hotline (blog). PhilLesh.net. Archived from the original on July 15, 2007. ^ Broache, Anne (May 7, 2008). "FBI rescinds secret order for Internet Archive records". CNet. Archived from the original on May 15, 2008. ^ Nakashima, Ellen (May 8, 2008). "FBI Backs Off From Secret Order for Data After Lawsuit". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on September 6, 2008. ^ Crocker, Andrew (December 1, 2016). "Internet Archive Received National Security Letter with FBI Misinformation about Challenging Gag Order". Electronic Frontier Foundation. Archived from the original on December 13, 2016. ^ Kahle, Brewster (January 17, 2012). "12 Hours Dark: Internet Archive vs. Censorship". Internet Archive Blogs. Archived from the original on August 13, 2014. ^ "Open Content Alliance". opencontentalliance.org. Archived from the original on April 10, 2013. Retrieved April 13, 2013. ^ Frank, Allegra (August 8, 2016). "Nintendo takes down Nintendo Power collection from Internet Archive after noticing it". Polygon. Archived from the original on August 11, 2016. ^ a b "Indian ISP Ban on Wayback Machine Lifted? Confirmation Awaited". Guiding Tech. August 9, 2017. Retrieved April 12, 2020. ^ Kelion, Leo (August 9, 2017). "Bollywood blocks the Internet Archive". BBC. Archived from the original on August 6, 2018. Retrieved January 1, 2018. ^ "Turkey restores access to Google Drive after blocking cloud storage services". Turkey Blocks. Archived from the original on September 24, 2017. Retrieved October 10, 2016. ^ "Turkey Country Report | Freedom on the Net 2017". freedomhouse.org. November 14, 2017. Archived from the original on December 27, 2018. Retrieved December 26, 2018. ^ Lee, Timothy B. (March 28, 2020). "Internet Archive offers 1.4 million copyrighted books for free online". Ars Technica. Retrieved April 10, 2020. ^ a b Freeland, Chris (March 30, 2020). "Internet Archive responds: Why we released the National Emergency Library". Internet Archive Blogs. Retrieved May 26, 2020. ^ Cohen, Noam (April 20, 2020). "The National Emergency Library and Its Discontents". Wired. Retrieved April 20, 2020. ^ Flood, Alison (March 30, 2020). "Internet Archive accused of using Covid-19 as 'an excuse for piracy'". The Guardian. Retrieved May 26, 2020. ^ Freeland, Chris (March 24, 2020). "Announcing a National Emergency Library to Provide Digitized Books to Students and the Public". Internet Archive Blogs. Retrieved May 26, 2020. ^ Hurst-Wahl, Jill (April 20, 2020). "Digitization 101: The National Emergency Library". Digitization 101. Retrieved May 26, 2020. ^ Flood, Alison (March 30, 2020). "Internet Archive accused of using Covid-19 as 'an excuse for piracy'". The Guardian. Retrieved March 30, 2020. ^ Dwyer, Colin (March 30, 2020). "Authors, Publishers Condemn The 'National Emergency Library' As 'Piracy'". NPR. Retrieved March 30, 2020. ^ Grady, Constance (April 2, 2020). "Why authors are so angry about the Internet Archive's Emergency Library". Vox. Retrieved April 2, 2020. ^ "Internet Archive Controversy". Lotus. May 2, 2020. Retrieved May 25, 2020. ^ Lee, Timothy (June 11, 2020). "Internet Archive ends "emergency library" early to appease publishers". Ars Technica. Retrieved June 14, 2020. ^ Dwyer, Colin (June 3, 2020). "Publishers Sue Internet Archive For 'Mass Copyright Infringement'". NPR. Retrieved October 16, 2020. ^ Harris, Elizabeth (June 11, 2020). "Internet Archive Will End Its Program for Free E-Books". NY Times. Retrieved June 15, 2020. ^ Albanese, Andrew (September 1, 2020). "Judge sets tentative schedule for Internet Archive copyright case". Publishers Weekly. Retrieved September 7, 2020. ^ Levy, Karyne (April 29, 2014). "These Are The Ceramic Action Figures For The Heroes Of The Internet". Business Insider. Insider Inc. Retrieved July 12, 2019. ^ "Internet Archive is a treasure trove of material for artists - SFChronicle.com". sfchronicle.com. August 11, 2017. Archived from the original on August 1, 2019. Retrieved August 1, 2019. ^ "The Internet Archive's 2019 Artists in Residency Exhibition | Internet Archive Blogs". Archived from the original on July 31, 2019. Retrieved August 1, 2019. Further reading[edit] Library resources about Internet Archive Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Kahle, Brewster (November 1996). "Archiving the Internet". Scientific America. Kahle, Brewster (November 6, 2013). "Scanning Center Fire—Please Help Rebuild". Internet Archive Blogs. Lepore, Jill (January 26, 2015). "The Cobweb". The New Yorker. Ringmar, Erik (April 10, 2008). "Liberate and Disseminate". Times Higher Education Supplement. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Internet Archive. 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n2001062537 NLA: 54356800 NLI: 002103469 SUDOC: 219991014 VIAF: 123343900 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n2001062537 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internet_Archive&oldid=996812258" Categories: 1996 establishments in California 501(c)(3) organizations Access to Knowledge movement American digital libraries Charities based in California E-book suppliers Foundations based in the United States History of the Internet Internet Archive projects Internet properties established in 2001 Mass digitization Non-profit organizations based in San Francisco Online archives of the United States Organizations established in 1996 Public libraries in California Richmond District, San Francisco Sound archives Web archiving initiatives 1996 in San Francisco Tor onion services Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Pages containing links to subscription-only content Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use mdy dates from January 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en-wikipedia-org-1395	----	Victor Kiernan - Wikipedia Victor Kiernan From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from V. G. Kiernan) Jump to navigation Jump to search This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Victor Kiernan" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (January 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Edward Victor Gordon Kiernan (4 September 1913 – 17 February 2009) was a British Marxist historian and a member of the Communist Party Historians Group. He was recognised as one of the most wide-ranging of global historians. While his middle name came from one of British imperialism's greatest heroes, General 'Chinese' Gordon of Khartoum, he emerged as one of Britain's foremost ideological warriors against empire.[1] Contents 1 Life 2 Intellectual legacy 3 Kiernan and Urdu poetry 4 Marriages 5 Selected works/articles 5.1 See also 6 References 7 External links Life[edit] Born in Ashton-on-Mersey, a southern district of Manchester, Kiernan was one of three children born to Ella née Young and John Edward Kiernan, who served as a translator of Spanish and Portuguese for the privately owned Manchester Ship Canal. His family came from a congregationalist, non-conformist religious tradition that he later suggested played a role in his socialist formation and that of many of the Communist Party Historians Group founded in 1946. A scholarship student at the Manchester Grammar School, Kiernan developed a passion for the classics, as he added ancient Greek and Latin to the modern European languages he had already learned at home. Propelled with three new scholarships, he went on to Trinity College, Cambridge where he achieved a double-starred First in History (B.A.,1934; M.A., 1937). Recruited by Guy Burgess during a time of radical ferment among Cambridge students, Kiernan joined the Communist Party in 1934. He found his radicalism subsequently reinforced by what he regarded as the treachery of Britain's elites. Perhaps the greatest influence on Kiernan was Maurice Dobb. A lecturer in economics at Cambridge, he had joined the Communist Party of Great Britain in 1920 and was open with his students about his communist beliefs. Kiernan later wrote: "We had no time then to assimilate Marxist theory more than very roughly; it was only beginning to take root in England, although it had one remarkable expounder at Cambridge in Maurice Dobb." In 1938, as a junior fellow, Kiernan departed for Bombay in to continue his political activities and to teach at the Sikh National College and Aitchison College in Lahore, India (now Pakistan). Shortly after his arrival he married the theatre activist and childhood friend of Indira Nehru, Shanta Gandhi. Though they remained friends, they split up when Kiernan returned to Cambridge in 1946 to complete his Fellowship. Spurned by both Cambridge and Oxford, Kiernan was offered a lectureship in 1948 at the University of Edinburgh, thanks to the intervention of the distinguished historian Richard Pares. In 1970, Kiernan was given a Personal Chair in Modern History; a position he held until his retirement in 1977. Having joined the CPGB in 1934, he finally left in 1959, chiefly in disgust at the suppression of the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, after which, he said: "I waited in hopes the party might improve. It didn't." In 1993 at the age of 80, Kiernan produced Shakespeare: Poet and Citizen a book he had been working on since 1947. A second volume, Eight Tragedies of Shakespeare, followed in 1996. His final book, Horace: Poetics and Politics appeared in 1999. Kiernan died peacefully in his sleep, aged 95, in Stow, Scotland. Intellectual legacy[edit] Kiernan made immense contributions to the post-war flowering of British Marxist historiography that transformed the understanding of social history. Seeking escape paths from a congealing Stalinism, this intellectual movement grew from several figures among them - E.P. Thompson, Christopher Hill, Rodney Hilton, Kiernan and Eric Hobsbawm. Brash and confident in wielding the best of the British Left's cultural arsenal, they welcomed open-ended dialogue with non-Marxist traditions. Some of this dialogue was on display in the journal Past & Present, a journal of social history that became the most prestigious in the English-speaking world. Kiernan wrote a major essay in 1952 for the first issue of the journal ("Evangelicalism and the French Revolution"), produced several landmark articles, and later served on its editorial board from 1973 to 1983. He also contributed to New Left Review throughout the journal's transitions. While Thompson, Hill and Hilton were rooted in English social history, Kiernan and Hobsbawm practised a historical craft with more global aspirations. Kiernan's distinctive contributions included the study of elites in history, the mythologies of imperialism, the folklore of capitalism and conservatism, and literature and social change. Kiernan and Urdu poetry[edit] While steeped in Western literature and the classical heritage of Horace, Kiernan called for an appreciation of Urdu poetry, as he translated works from its literary golden age spanning from Ghalib (1796-1869) to Allama Iqbal (1877-1938) to Faiz Ahmad Faiz (1911-1984). He elevated writers from the East who had been largely banished by guardians of the Western canon and then overlooked by stylish post-modern literary figures looking for more transgressive exemplars of literary craft. Marriages[edit] He was married twice: to the Indian theatre director, dancer and playwright Shanta Gandhi (Bollywood actress Dina Pathak's sister), from 1938 to 1946; and to the Canadian scholar Heather Massey, from 1984 until his death. Selected works/articles[edit] The Dragon and St. George: Anglo-Chinese relations 1880-1885 (1939) British diplomacy in China, 1880 to 1885 (1939) Poems from Iqbal, Translation (1955) The revolution of 1854 in Spanish history (1966) The lords of human kind. European attitudes towards the outside world in the Imperial Age (1969) Marxism and imperialism: studies (1974) America, the new imperialism: from white settlement to world hegemony (1978) State & society in Europe, 1550-1650 (1980) European empires from conquest to collapse, 1815-1960 (1982) The duel in European history: honour and the reign of aristocracy (1988) History, classes and nation-states (edited and introduced by Harvey J. Kaye (1988) Tobacco: A History (1991) Shakespeare, poet and citizen (1993) Imperialism and its contradictions (edited & introduced by Harvey J. Kaye; 1995) Eight tragedies of Shakespeare: a Marxist study (1996) Colonial empires and armies 1815-1960 (1982, 1998) Horace: poetics and politics (1999) See also[edit] History & humanism: essays in honour of V.G. Kiernan (edited by Owen Dudley Edwards; 1977) Across time and continents: a tribute to Victor G. Kiernan (edited by Prakash Karat; 2003). ISBN 81-87496-34-7. References[edit] ^ Tariq Ali (20 February 2009). "Victor Kiernan: Marxist historian, writer and linguist who challenged the tenets of Imperialism". The Independent. External links[edit] Obituary by Eric Hobsbawm Profile in The Hindu Obituary in The Scotsman Review of America, the new imperialism Obituary by James Dunkerley, History Workshop Journal, 69, (Spring, 2010). Obituary in The Times, 14 May 2009 Authority control BIBSYS: 90851787 BNE: XX1037055 BNF: cb120249725 (data) CANTIC: a12058117 GND: 122769864 ISNI: 0000 0001 1459 7459 LCCN: n80046671 NKC: jn19990004317 NLA: 36153410 NTA: 068191111 SELIBR: 327993 SUDOC: 028409272 VIAF: 9860778 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n80046671 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Victor_Kiernan&oldid=960686546" Categories: 1913 births 2009 deaths Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge Academics of the University of Edinburgh British Marxists Fellows of Trinity College, Cambridge British Marxist historians People educated at Manchester Grammar School People from Sale, Greater Manchester Communist Party of Great Britain members 20th-century British historians Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from May 2017 Use British English from May 2017 Articles needing additional references from January 2013 All articles needing additional references Articles lacking in-text citations from January 2013 All articles lacking in-text citations Articles with multiple maintenance issues Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Español Nederlands Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 4 June 2020, at 10:10 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1405	----	Roman consul - Wikipedia Roman consul From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Political office in ancient Rome Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e A consul held the highest elected political office of the Roman Republic (509 to 27 BC), and ancient Romans considered the consulship the highest level of the cursus honorum (an ascending sequence of public offices to which politicians aspired). Each year, the citizens of Rome elected two consuls to serve jointly for a one-year term. The consuls alternated in holding fasces each month when both were in Rome and a consul's imperium extended over Rome and all its provinces. There were two consuls in order to create a check on the power of any individual. After the establishment of the Empire (27 BC), the consuls became mere symbolic representatives of Rome's republican heritage and held very little power and authority, with the Emperor acting as the supreme authority. Contents 1 History 1.1 Under the Republic 1.2 Under the Empire 2 Powers and responsibilities 2.1 Republican duties 2.1.1 Civil sphere 2.1.2 Military sphere 2.1.3 Abuse prevention 2.1.4 Governorship 2.1.5 Appointment of the dictator 2.2 Imperial duties 3 Consular dating 4 Epigraphy 5 Lists of Roman consuls 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography History[edit] Under the Republic[edit] After the legendary expulsion of the last King, Tarquin the Proud, a harsh ruler at the end of the Roman Kingdom, most of the powers and authority of the king were ostensibly given to the newly instituted consulship. This change in leadership came about when the king's son, Sextus Tarquinius, raped the wives and daughters of powerful Roman nobles. A group of nobles led by Lucius Junius Brutus, with the support of the Roman Army, expelled Tarquinius and his family from Rome in 509 BC. Originally, consuls were called praetors ("leader"), referring to their duties as the chief military commanders. By at least 300 BC the title of Consul became commonly used.[1] Ancient writers usually derive the title consul from the Latin verb consulere, "to take counsel", but this is most likely a later gloss of the term,[2] which probably derives—in view of the joint nature of the office—from con- and sal-, "get together" or from con- and sell-/sedl-, "sit down together with" or "next to".[3] In Greek, the title was originally rendered as στρατηγὸς ὕπατος, strategos hypatos ("the supreme general"), and later simply as ὕπατος.[2] The consul was believed by the Romans to date back to the traditional establishment of the Republic in 509 BC, but the succession of consuls was not continuous in the 5th century BC. During the 440s, the office was quite often replaced with the establishment of the Consular Tribunes, who were elected whenever the military needs of the state were significant enough to warrant the election of more than the two usual consuls.[4] These remained in place until the office was abolished in 367/366 BC and the consulship was reintroduced.[5] Consuls had extensive powers in peacetime (administrative, legislative and judicial), and in wartime often held the highest military command. Additional religious duties included certain rites which, as a sign of their formal importance, could only be carried out by the highest state officials. Consuls also read auguries, an essential step before leading armies into the field. Two consuls were elected each year, serving together, each with veto power over the other's actions, a normal principle for magistracies. They were elected by the Comitia Centuriata, which had an aristocratic bias in its voting structure which only increased over the years from its foundation.[citation needed] However, they formally assumed powers only after the ratification of their election in the older Comitia Curiata, which granted the consuls their imperium by enacting a law, the "lex curiata de imperio". If a consul died during his term (not uncommon when consuls were in the forefront of battle) or was removed from office, another would be elected by the Comitia Centuriata to serve the remainder of the term as consul suffectus ("suffect consul"). A consul elected to start the year—called a consul ordinarius ("ordinary consul")—held more prestige than a suffect consul, partly because the year would be named for ordinary consuls (see consular dating). According to tradition, the consulship was initially reserved for patricians and only in 367 BC did plebeians win the right to stand for this supreme office, when the Lex Licinia Sextia provided that at least one consul each year should be plebeian. The first plebeian consul, Lucius Sextius, was elected the following year. Nevertheless, the office remained largely in the hands of a few families as, according to Gelzer[who?], only fifteen novi homines - "new men" with no consular background - were elected to the consulship until the election of Cicero in 63 BC.[6] Modern historians have questioned the traditional account of plebeian emancipation during the early Republic (see Conflict of the Orders), noting for instance that about thirty percent of the consuls prior to Sextius had plebeian, not patrician, names. It is possible that only the chronology has been distorted, but it seems that one of the first consuls, Lucius Junius Brutus, came from a plebeian family.[7] Another possible explanation is that during the 5th century social struggles, the office of consul was gradually monopolized by a patrician elite.[8] During times of war, the primary qualification for consul was military skill and reputation, but at all times the selection was politically charged. With the passage of time, the consulship became the normal endpoint of the cursus honorum, the sequence of offices pursued by the ambitious Roman who chose to pursue political power and influence. When Lucius Cornelius Sulla regulated the cursus by law, the minimum age of election to consul became, in effect, 42 years of age.[9] Beginning in the late Republic, after finishing a consular year, a former consul would usually serve a lucrative term as a proconsul, the Roman Governor of one of the (senatorial) provinces. The most commonly chosen province for the proconsulship was Cisalpine Gaul. It would not be uncommon for the patrician consulars of the early republic to intersperse public office with agricultural labour.[10] In Cicero’s words: in agris erant tum senatores, id est senes:[11] ‘In those days senators—that is, seniors—would live on their farms’. This practice was obsolete by the 2nd century. Under the Empire[edit] Flavius Anastasius (consul of the Eastern Roman Empire for AD 517) in consular garb, holding a sceptre and the mappa, a piece of cloth used to signal the start of chariot races at the Hippodrome. Ivory panel from his consular diptych. On the left: Emperor Honorius on the consular diptych of Anicius Petronius Probus (406) On the right: Consular diptych of Constantius III (a co-emperor with Honorius in 421), produced for his consulate of the Western Roman Empire in 413 or 417 Although throughout the early years of the Principate, the consuls were still formally elected by the Comitia Centuriata, they were de facto nominated by the princeps.[12] As the years progressed, the distinction between the Comitia Centuriata and the Comitia Tributa (which elected the lower magisterial positions) appears to have disappeared, and so for the purposes of the consular elections, there came to be just a single "assembly of the people" which elected all the magisterial positions of the state, while the consuls continued to be nominated by the princeps.[13] The imperial consulate during the period of the High Empire (until the 3rd century) was an important position, albeit as the method through which the Roman aristocracy could progress through to the higher levels of imperial administration – only former consuls could become consular legates, the proconsuls of Africa and Asia, or the urban prefect of Rome.[14] It was a post that would be occupied by a man halfway through his career, in his early thirties for a patrician, or in his early forties for most others.[12] Emperors frequently appointed themselves, or their protégés or relatives, consuls, even without regard to the age requirements. For example, Emperor Honorius was given the consulship at birth. Cassius Dio states that Caligula intended to make his horse Incitatus consul, but was assassinated before he could do so.[15] The need for a pool of men to fill the consular positions forced Augustus to remodel the suffect consulate, allowing more than the two elected for the ordinary consulate.[12] During the reigns of the Julio-Claudians, the ordinary consuls who began the year usually relinquished their office mid-year, with the election for the suffect consuls occurring at the same time as that for the ordinary consuls. During reigns of the Flavian and Antonine emperors, the ordinary consuls tended to resign after a period of four months, and the elections were moved to 12 January of the year in which they were to hold office. Election of the consuls were transferred to the Senate during the Flavian or Antonine periods, although through to the 3rd century, the people were still called on to ratify the Senate's selections.[16] The proliferation of suffect consuls through this process, and the allocation of this office to homines novi tended, over time, to devalue the office.[14] However, the high regard placed upon the ordinary consulate remained intact, as it was one of the few offices that one could share with the emperor, and during this period it was filled mostly by patricians or by individuals who had consular ancestors.[12] If they were especially skilled or valued, they may even have achieved a second (or rarely, a third) consulate. Prior to achieving the consulate, these individuals already had a significant career behind them, and would expect to continue serving the state, filling in the post upon which the state functioned.[17] Consequently, holding the ordinary consulship was a great honor and the office was the major symbol of the still relatively republican constitution. Probably as part of seeking formal legitimacy, the break-away Gallic Empire had its own pairs of consuls during its existence (260–274). The list of consuls for this state is incomplete, drawn from inscriptions and coins. By the end of the 3rd century, much had changed. The loss of many pre-consular functions and the gradual encroachment of the equites into the traditional senatorial administrative and military functions, meant that senatorial careers virtually vanished prior to their appointment as consuls.[17] This had the effect of seeing a suffect consulship granted at an earlier age, to the point that by the 4th century, it was being held by men in their early twenties, and possibly younger, without the significant political careers behind them that was normal previously.[17] As time progressed, second consulates, usually ordinary, became far more common than had been the case during the first two centuries, while the first consulship was usually a suffect consulate. Also, the consulate during this period was no longer just the province of senators – the automatic awarding of a suffect consulship to the equestrian praetorian prefects (who were given the ornamenta consularia upon achieving their office) allowed them to style themselves cos. II when they were later granted an ordinary consulship by the emperor.[17] All this had the effect of further devaluing the office of consul, to the point that by the final years of the 3rd century, holding an ordinary consulate was occasionally left out of the cursus inscriptions, while suffect consulships were hardly ever recorded by the first decades of the 4th century.[17] One of the reforms of Constantine I (r. 306–337) was to assign one of the consuls to the city of Rome, and the other to Constantinople. Therefore, when the Roman Empire was divided into two halves on the death of Theodosius I (r. 379–395), the emperor of each half acquired the right of appointing one of the consuls—although on occasion an emperor did allow his colleague to appoint both consuls for various reasons. The consulship, bereft of any real power, continued to be a great honor, but the celebrations attending it – above all the chariot races – had come to involve considerable expense, which only a few citizens could afford, to the extent that part of the expense had to be covered by the state.[18] In the 6th century, the consulship was increasingly sparsely given, until it was allowed to lapse under Justinian I (r. 527–565): the western consulship lapsed in 534, with Decius Paulinus the last holder, and the consulship of the East in 541, with Anicius Faustus Albinus Basilius. Consular dating had already been abolished in 537, when Justinian introduced dating by the emperor's regnal year and the indiction.[19] In the eastern court, the appointment to consulship became a part of the rite of proclamation of a new emperor from Justin II (r. 565–578) on, and is last attested in the proclamation of the future Constans II (r. 641–668) as consul in 632.[20] In the late 9th century, Emperor Leo the Wise (r. 886–912) finally abolished consular dating with Novel 94. By that time, the Greek titles for consul and ex-consul, "hypatos" and "apo hypaton", had been transformed to relatively lowly honorary dignities.[21] In the west, the rank of consul was occasionally bestowed upon individuals by the Papacy. In 719, the title of Roman consul was offered by the Pope to Charles Martel, although he refused it.[22] About 853, Alfred the Great, then a child aged four or five, was made a Roman consul by the Pope. Powers and responsibilities[edit] Republican duties[edit] After the expulsion of the kings and the establishment of the Republic, all the powers that had belonged to the kings were transferred to two offices: that of the consuls and the Rex Sacrorum. While the Rex Sacrorum inherited the kings’ position as high priest of the state, the consuls were given the civil and military responsibilities (imperium). However, to prevent abuse of the kingly power, the imperium was shared by two consuls, each of whom could veto the other's actions. The consuls were invested with the executive power of the state and headed the government of the Republic. Initially, the consuls held vast executive and judicial power. In the gradual development of the Roman legal system, however, some important functions were detached from the consulship and assigned to new officers. Thus, in 443 BC, the responsibility to conduct the census was taken from the consuls and given to the censors. The second function taken from the consulship was their judicial power. Their position as chief judges was transferred to the praetors in 366 BC. After this time, the consul would only serve as judges in extraordinary criminal cases and only when called upon by decree of the Senate. Civil sphere[edit] For the most part, power was divided between civil and military spheres. As long as the consuls were in the pomerium (the city of Rome), they were at the head of government, and all the other magistrates, with the exception of the tribunes of the plebeians, were subordinate to them, but retained independence of office. The internal machinery of the Republic was under the consuls’ supervision. In order to allow the consuls greater authority in executing laws, the consuls had the right of summons and arrest, which was limited only by the right of appeal from their judgment. This power of punishment even extended to inferior magistrates. As part of their executive functions, the consuls were responsible for carrying into effect the decrees of the Senate and the laws of the assemblies. Sometimes, in great emergencies, they might even act on their own authority and responsibility. The consuls also served as the chief diplomat of the Roman state. Before any foreign ambassadors reached the Senate, they met with the consuls. The consul would introduce ambassadors to the Senate, and they alone carried on the negotiations between the Senate and foreign states. The consuls could convene the Senate, and presided over its meetings. Each consul served as president of the Senate for a month. They could also summon any of the three Roman assemblies (Curiate, Centuriate, and Tribal) and presided over them. Thus, the consuls conducted the elections and put legislative measures to the vote. When neither consul was within the city, their civic duties were assumed by the praetor urbanus. Each consul was accompanied in every public appearance by twelve lictors, who displayed the magnificence of the office and served as his bodyguards. Each lictor held a fasces, a bundle of rods that contained an axe. The rods symbolized the power of scourging, and the axe the power of capital punishment[citation needed]. When inside the pomerium, the lictors removed the axes from the fasces to show that a citizen could not be executed without a trial. Upon entering the Comitia Centuriata, the lictors would lower the fasces to show that the powers of the consuls derive from the people (populus romanus). Military sphere[edit] Outside the walls of Rome, the powers of the consuls were far more extensive in their role as commanders-in-chief of all Roman legions. It was in this function that the consuls were vested with full imperium. When legions were ordered by a decree of the Senate, the consuls conducted the levy in the Campus Martius. Upon entering the army, all soldiers had to take their oath of allegiance to the consuls. The consuls also oversaw the gathering of troops provided by Rome's allies.[23] Within the city a consul could punish and arrest a citizen, but had no power to inflict capital punishment. When on campaign, however, a consul could inflict any punishment he saw fit on any soldier, officer, citizen, or ally. Each consul commanded an army, usually two legions strong, with the help of military tribunes and a quaestor who had financial duties. In the rare case that both consuls marched together, each one held the command for a day respectively. A typical consular army was about 20,000 men strong and consisted of two citizen and two allied legions. In the early years of the Republic, Rome's enemies were located in central Italy, so campaigns lasted a few months. As Rome's frontiers expanded, in the 2nd century BC, the campaigns became lengthier. Rome was a warlike society, and very seldom did not wage war.[24] So the consul upon entering office was expected by the Senate and the People to march his army against Rome's enemies, and expand the Roman frontiers. His soldiers expected to return to their homes after the campaign with spoils. If the consul won an overwhelming victory, he was hailed as imperator by his troops, and could request to be granted a triumph. The consul could conduct the campaign as he saw fit, and had unlimited powers. However, after the campaign, he could be prosecuted for his misdeeds (for example for abusing the provinces, or wasting public money, as Scipio Africanus was accused by Cato in 205 BC). Abuse prevention[edit] Abuse of power by consuls was prevented with each consul given the power to veto his colleague. Therefore, except in the provinces as commanders-in-chief where each consul's power was supreme, the consuls could only act not against each other's determined will. Against the sentence of one consul, an appeal could be brought before his colleague, which, if successful, would see the sentence overturned. In order to avoid unnecessary conflicts, only one consul would actually perform the office's duties every month and could act without direct interference. In the next month, the consuls would switch roles with one another. This would continue until the end of the consular term. Another point which acted as a check against consuls was the certainty that after the end of their term they would be called to account for their actions while in office. There were also three other restrictions on consular power. Their term in office was short (one year); their duties were pre-decided by the Senate; and they could not stand again for election immediately after the end of their office. Usually a period of ten years was expected between consulships. Governorship[edit] Main article: Roman governor After leaving office, the consuls were assigned by the Senate to a province to administer as governor. The provinces to which each consul was assigned were drawn by lot and determined before the end of his consulship. Transferring his consular imperium to proconsular Imperium, the consul would become a proconsul and governor of one (or several) of Rome's many provinces. As a proconsul, his imperium was limited to only a specified province and not the entire Republic. Any exercise of proconsular imperium in any other province was illegal. Also, a proconsul was not allowed to leave his province before his term was complete or before the arrival of his successor. Exceptions were given only on special permission of the Senate. Most terms as governor lasted between one and five years. Appointment of the dictator[edit] In times of crisis, when Rome's territory was in immediate danger, a dictator was appointed by the consuls for a period of no more than six months, after the proposition of the Senate.[25] While the dictator held office, the imperium of the consuls was subordinate to the dictator. Imperial duties[edit] After Augustus became the first Roman emperor in 27 BC with the establishment of the principate, the consuls lost most of their powers and responsibilities under the Roman Empire. Though still officially the highest office of the state, with the emperor's superior imperium they were merely a symbol of Rome's republican heritage. One of the two consular positions was often occupied by emperors themselves and eventually became reserved solely for the Emperor. However, the imperial consuls still maintained the right to preside at meetings of the Senate, exercising this right at the pleasure of the Emperor[citation needed]. They partially administered justice in extraordinary cases, and presented games in the Circus Maximus and all public solemnities in honor of the Emperor at their own expense. After the expiration of their offices, the ex-consuls (proconsuls) went on to govern one of the provinces that were administered by the Senate. They usually served proconsular terms of three to five years[citation needed]. Consular dating[edit] Roman dates were customarily kept according to the names of the two consuls who took office that year, much like a regnal year in a monarchy. For instance, the year 59 BC in the modern calendar was called by the Romans "the consulship of Caesar and Bibulus", since the two colleagues in the consulship were Gaius Julius Caesar and Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus — although Caesar dominated the consulship so thoroughly that year that it was jokingly referred to as "the consulship of Julius and Caesar".[26] The date the consuls took office varied: from 222 BC to 153 BC they took office 15 March, and from 153 BC onwards it was on 1 January.[27] The practice of dating years ab urbe condita (from the supposed foundation date of Rome) was less frequently used. In Latin, the ablative absolute construction is frequently used to express the date, such as "M. Messalla et M. Pupio Pisone consulibus", translated literally as "Marcus Messalla and Marcus Pupius Piso being the consuls", which appears in Caesar's De Bello Gallico. Consular Dating Key 509–479 BC: 1 September–29 August (August had only 29 days in Ancient Rome) 478–451 BC: 1 August–31 July 449–403 BC: 13 December–12 December 402–393 BC: 1 October–29 September (September had 29 days) 392–329 BC: 1 July–29 June (29 days) 222–154 BC: 15 March–14 March 153–46 BC: 1 January–29 December (29 days) [28] Epigraphy[edit] An antoninianus commemorating the third consulate ("COS III") of the emperor Philip (248 AD). The word consul is abbreviated as COS.[29] The disappearance of the N is explained by the fact that in Classical Latin an N before a fricative is pronounced as a nasalization of the previous vowel (meaning consul is pronounced /kõːsul/). Also, consul is pronounced [ko:sul], as shown in ancient writing, "COSOL", whereas the classical spelling (consul) seems like an etymological reminder of the nasal consonant.[30] If a senator held the consulship twice then: COS becomes COS II; thrice becomes COS III, etc. Lists of Roman consuls[edit] For a complete list of Roman consuls, see: List of Roman consuls List of undated Roman consuls List of consuls designate See also[edit] Look up consul in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Constitution of the Roman Republic – The norms, customs, and written laws, which guided the government of the Roman Republic French Consulate References[edit] ^ Lintott, Andrew (2004). The Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press. p. 104. ISBN 0198150687. ^ a b Kübler, B. (1900). "Consul". Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft. Band IV, Halbband 7, Claudius mons-Cornificius. pp. 1112–1138. ^ Gizewski, Christian (2013). "Consul(es)". Brill's New Pauly. Brill Online. Archived from the original on 10 November 2013. Retrieved 2 July 2013. ^ Forsythe, Gary (2005). A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War. University of California Press. p. 236. ISBN 0520226518. ^ Forsythe, Gary (2005). A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War. University of California Press. p. 237. ISBN 0520226518. ^ Wirszubzki, Ch. Libertas as a Political Idea at Rome during the Late Republic and Early Principate. Reprint. Cambridge University Press, 1960, p. 15. ^ Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3rd ed., Hornblower, S. and Spawforth, A. edd., s.v. Iunius Brutus, Lucius ^ T. J. Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome, chapter 10.4. ^ Telford, L. (2014). Sulla: A Dictator Reconsidered. United Kingdom: Pen & Sword Military, pg. 216 ^ Jehne, M. (2011) ‘The rise of the consular as a social type in the third and second centuries BC’ in Beck et al. (eds.) Consuls and Res Publica (Cambridge) 212 ^ Cic. Sen. 56 ^ a b c d Bagnall et al. 1987, p. 1. ^ Bury, John B, A History of the Roman Empire from its Foundation to the Death of Marcus Aurelius (1893), pg. 29 ^ a b Bagnall et al. 1987, pp. 1–2. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 59:14:7 ^ Michael Gagarin, Elaine Fantham; The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome, Volume 1 (2010), pgs. 296-297 ^ a b c d e Bagnall et al. 1987, p. 2. ^ Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991), Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, p. 527, ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6 ^ Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991), Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, pp. 526–527, ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6 ^ Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991), Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, p. 526, ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6 ^ Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991), Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, pp. 526, 963–964, ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6 ^ e. The Frankish Kingdom. 2001. The Encyclopedia of World History Archived 2009-03-06 at the Wayback Machine ^ Polybius - Histories book VI ^ War and society in the Roman World ed. Rich & Shipley ^ Arthur Keaveney, in Sulla, the Last Republican (Routledge, 1982, 2nd edition 2005), p. 162ff online, discusses the appointment of a dictator in regard to Sulla, in which case exceptions were made. ^ Suetonius' Lives of the Caesars: Julius Caesar Chapter XX. ^ E.J. Bickerman, Chronology of the Ancient World (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1968), p. 64 ^ Robert Maxwell Ogilvie, Commentary on Livy, books 1–5, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1965, pp. 404, 405. ^ (in French) Mireille Cébeillac-Gervasoni, Maria Letizia Caldelli, Fausto Zevi, Épigraphie latine. Ostie : cent inscriptions dans leur contexte, Armand Colin, 2006, ISBN 2-200-21774-9, p. 34. ^ (in French) Pierre Monteil, Éléments de phonétique et de morphologie du latin, Nathan, 1970, p. 75. Bibliography[edit] Bagnall, Roger S; Cameron, Alan; Schwartz, Seth R; Worp, Klaus Anthony (1987). Consuls of the later Roman Empire. Volume 36 of Philological monographs of the American Philological Association. London: Scholar Press. Burgess, R. W. (1989). "Consuls and Consular Dating in the Later Roman Empire". Phoenix (Review). 43 (2): 143–157. doi:10.2307/1088213. Beck, Hans; Duplá, Antonio; Jehne, Martin; et al., eds. (2011). Consuls and Res Publica: Holding High Office in the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-49719-0. v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine 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en-wikipedia-org-1411	----	Technological history of the Roman military - Wikipedia Technological history of the Roman military From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Technological history of the Roman military" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Part of a series on the Military of ancient Rome 753 BC – AD 476 Structural history Army Unit types and ranks Decorations and punishments Legions Auxilia Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Campaign history Wars and battles Technological history Military engineering Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Political history   Strategy and tactics Infantry tactics Frontiers and fortifications Limes Limes Britannicus Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Limes Germanicus Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes Norican Limes Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannonian Limes Limes Alutanus Limes Moesiae Trajan's Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmatiae Limes Arabicus Limes Tripolitanus Limes Mauretaniae  Ancient Rome portal •  War portal v t e The technology history of the Roman military covers the development of and application of technologies for use in the armies and navies of Rome from the Roman Republic to the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The rise of Hellenism and the Roman Republic are generally seen as signalling the end of the Iron Age in the Mediterranean. Roman iron-working was enhanced by a process known as carburization. The Romans used the better properties in their armaments, and the 1,300 years of Roman military technology saw radical changes. The Roman armies of the early empire were much better equipped than early republican armies. Metals used for arms and armor primarily included iron, bronze, and brass. For construction, the army used wood, earth, and stone. The later use of concrete in architecture was widely mirrored in Roman military technology, especially in the application of a military workforce to civilian construction projects.[1] Contents 1 Origins and development 1.1 New materials 1.2 Mining 2 Roman implementation of technology 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References 6 External links Origins and development[edit] Much of what is described as typically Roman technology, as opposed to that of the Greeks, comes directly from the Etruscan civilization, which was thriving to the North when Rome was just a small kingdom. The Etruscans had invented the stone arch, and used it in bridges as well as buildings. Some later Roman technologies were taken directly from Greek civilization. After the absorption of the ancient Greek city states into the Roman Republic in 146 BC, the highly advanced Greek technology began to spread across many areas of Roman influence and supplement the Empire. This included the military advances that the Greeks had made, as well as all the scientific, mathematical, political and artistic developments. New materials[edit] However, the Romans made many significant technological advances, such as the invention of hydraulic cement and concrete. They used such new materials to great advantage in their structures, many of which survive to this day, like their masonry aqueducts, such as the Pont du Gard, and buildings, such as the Pantheon and Baths of Diocletian in Rome. Their methods were recorded by such luminaries as Vitruvius and Frontinus for example, who wrote handbooks to advise fellow engineers and architects. Romans knew enough history to be aware that widespread technological change had occurred in the past and brought benefits, as shown for example by Pliny the Elder's Naturalis Historia. That tradition continued as the empire grew in size and absorbed new ideas. Romans thought of themselves as practical, so small-scale innovation was common (such as the development of the ballista into the polybolos or repeating ballista). The traditional view is that their reliance on a plentiful slave labour force and a lack of a patent or copyright system have both been cited as reasons that there was little social or financial pressure to automate or reduce manual tasks. However, this view is being challenged by new research that shows they did indeed innovate, and on a wide scale. Thus the watermill had been known to the Greeks, but it was the Romans who developed their efficient utilisation. The set of mills at Barbegal in southern France were worked by a single aqueduct, which drove no fewer than 16 overshot mills built into the side of a hill. They probably were built by the army and supplied flour to a wide region. Floating mills were also used to exploit fast flowing rivers. Pont du Gard Mining[edit] The Romans also used water power in an unexpected way during mining operations. It's known from the writings of Pliny the Elder that they exploited the alluvial gold deposits of north-west Spain soon after the conquest of the region in 25 BC using large-scale hydraulic mining methods. The spectacular gold mine at Las Medulas was worked by no fewer than seven long aqueducts cut into the surrounding mountains, the water being played directly onto the soft auriferous ore. The outflow was channelled into sluice boxes, and the heavier gold collected on rough pavements. They also developed many deep mines, such as those for copper at Rio Tinto, where Victorian mining developments exposed the much earlier workings. Dewatering machines, such as Archimedean screws and reverse overshot water wheels, were found in situ, one of which is on show at the British Museum. Another fragmentary example was recovered from the Roman gold mine at Dolaucothi in west Wales, and is preserved at the National Museum of Wales in Cardiff. The army were at the forefront of development of gold mines, since the metal was imperial property, and developed the Dolaucothi mines from the outset by establishing a fort there that was known as Luentinum. They had the expertise to build the infrastructure of aqueducts and reservoirs, as well as control production. Panoramic view of Las Médulas The period in which technological progress was fastest and greatest was during the 2nd century and 1st century BC, which was the period in which Roman political and economic power greatly increased. By the 2nd century, Roman technology appears to have peaked. Roman implementation of technology[edit] The Romans advanced military technology significantly, and implemented it on a massive scale. From a few early models of ballista from Greek city-states the Romans adopted and improved the design, eventually issuing one to every century in the legions. To facilitate this organization, an engineering corps was developed. An officer of engineers, or praefectus fabrum, is referenced in armies of the Late Republic, but this post is not verifiable in all accounts and may have simply been a military advisor on the personal staff of a commanding officer.[2] There were legion architects (whose rank is yet unknown), who were responsible for the construction of war machines. Ensuring that constructions were level was the job of the libratores, who would also launch missiles and other projectiles (on occasion) during battle.[3] The engineering corps was in charge of massive production, frequently prefabricating artillery and siege equipment to facilitate its transportation [4] See also[edit] Roman military engineering Roman aqueducts Roman technology Sanitation in ancient Rome Notes[edit] ^ John W. Humphrey, John P. Oleson and Andrew N. Sherwood; Greek and Roman Technology: A sourcebook ^ Keppie 1984: 99 ^ Le Bohec, p. 52 ^ Goldsworthy, p. 144 References[edit] Primary sources Frontinus Pliny the elder Vitruvius External links[edit] Roman Swords in the Republic and After, [1] v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Technological_history_of_the_Roman_military&oldid=868168269" Categories: Ancient Roman military technology Hidden categories: Articles needing additional references from October 2011 All articles needing additional references Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 10 November 2018, at 12:39 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1446	----	Abraham Cowley - Wikipedia Abraham Cowley From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 17th-century English writer Abraham Cowley, portrait by Peter Lely Abraham Cowley (/ˈkuːli/;[1] 1618 – 28 July 1667) was an English poet born in the City of London late in 1618. He was one of the leading English poets of the 17th century, with 14 printings of his Works published between 1668 and 1721.[2] Contents 1 Early life and career 2 Royalist in exile 3 Return to England 4 References 5 Sources 6 External links Early life and career[edit] Cowley's father, a wealthy citizen, who died shortly before his birth, was a stationer. His mother was wholly given to works of devotion, but it happened that there lay in her parlour a copy of The Faerie Queene. This became the favourite reading of her son, and he had read it twice before he was sent to school.[3] As early as 1628, that is, in his tenth year, he composed his Tragicall History of Piramus and Thisbe, an epic romance written in a six-line stanza, a style of his own invention. It is not too much to say that this work is the most astonishing feat of imaginative precocity on record; it is marked by no great faults of immaturity, and possesses constructive merits of a very high order. Two years later the child wrote another and still more ambitious poem, Constantia and Philetus, being sent about the same time to Westminster School. Here he displayed extraordinary mental precocity and versatility, and wrote in his thirteenth year the Elegy on the Death of Dudley, Lord Carlton. These three poems of considerable size, and some smaller ones, were collected in 1633, and published in a volume entitled Poetical Blossoms, dedicated to Lambert Osbaldeston, the head master of the school, and prefaced by many laudatory verses by schoolfellows.[3] The author at once became famous, although he had not, even yet, completed his fifteenth year. His next composition was a pastoral comedy, entitled Love's Riddle, a marvellous production for a boy of sixteen, airy, correct and harmonious in language, and rapid in movement. The style is not without resemblance to that of Randolph, whose earliest works, however, were at that time only just printed.[3] In 1637 Cowley went up to Trinity College, Cambridge,[4] where he "betook himself with enthusiasm to the study of all kinds of learning, and early distinguished himself as a ripe scholar".[3] Portraits of Cowley, attributed to William Faithorne and Stephen Slaughter, are in Trinity College's collection.[5] It was about this time that he composed his scriptural epic on the history of King David, one book of which still exists in the Latin original, the rest being superseded in favour of an English version in four books, called the Davideis, which were published after his death. The epic deals with the adventures of King David from his boyhood to the smiting of Amalek by Saul, where it abruptly closes.[3] Abraham Cowley In 1638 Love's Riddle and a Latin comedy, the Naufragium Joculare, were printed, and in 1641 the passage of Prince Charles through Cambridge gave occasion to the production of another dramatic work, The Guardian, which was acted before the royal visitor with much success. During the civil war this play was privately performed at Dublin, but it was not printed till 1650. It is bright and amusing, in the style common to the "sons" of Ben Jonson, the university wits who wrote more for the closet than the public stage.[3] Royalist in exile[edit] The learned quiet of the young poet's life was broken up by the Civil War; he warmly espoused the royalist side. He became a fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, but was ejected by the Parliamentarians in 1643. He made his way to Oxford, where he enjoyed the friendship of Lord Falkland, and was tossed, in the tumult of affairs, into the personal confidence of the royal family itself.[3] After the battle of Marston Moor he followed the queen to Paris, and the exile so commenced lasted twelve years. This period was spent almost entirely in the royal service, "bearing a share in the distresses of the royal family, or labouring in their affairs. To this purpose he performed several dangerous journeys into Jersey, Scotland, Flanders, the Netherlands, or wherever else the king's troubles required his attendance. But the chief testimony of his fidelity was the laborious service he underwent in maintaining the constant correspondence between the late king and the queen his wife. In that weighty trust he behaved himself with indefatigable integrity and unsuspected secrecy; for he ciphered and deciphered with his own hand the greatest part of all the letters that passed between their majesties, and managed a vast intelligence in many other parts, which for some years together took up all his days, and two or three nights every week."[3] In spite of these labours he did not refrain from literary industry. During his exile he met with the works of Pindar, and determined to reproduce their lofty lyric passion in English.[3] However, Cowley misunderstood Pindar's metrical practice and therefore his reproduction of the Pindaric Ode form in English does not accurately reflect Pindar's poetics. But despite this problem, Cowley's use of iambic lines of irregular length, pattern, and rhyme scheme was very influential and is still known as English "Pindarick" Ode, or Irregular Ode. One of the most famous odes written after Cowley in the Pindaric tradition is Wordsworth's "Ode: Intimations of Immortality".[citation needed] During this same time, Cowley occupied himself in writing a history of the Civil War (which did not get published in full until 1973). In the preface to his 1656 Poems, Cowley mentioned that he had completed three books of an epic poem on the Civil War, but had left it unfinished after the First Battle of Newbury when the Royalist cause began to lose significant ground. In the preface Cowley indicated that he had destroyed all copies of the poem, but this was not precisely the truth. In 1697, twelve years after Cowley's death, a shortened version of the first book of the poem, called A Poem on the Late Civil War was published. It was assumed that the rest of the poem had indeed been destroyed or lost until the mid-20th century when scholar Allan Pritchard discovered the first of two extant manuscript copies of the whole poem among the Cowper family papers. Thus, the three completed books of Cowley's great (albeit unfinished) English epic, The Civill Warre (otherwise spelled "The Civil War"), was finally published in full for the first time in 1973.[6] In 1647 a collection of his love verses, entitled The Mistress, was published, and in the next year a volume of wretched satires, The Four Ages of England, was brought out under his name, with the composition of which he had nothing to do. In spite of the troubles of the times, so fatal to poetic fame, his reputation steadily increased, and when, on his return to England in 1656, he published a volume of his collected poetical works, he found himself without a rival in public esteem. This volume included the later works already mentioned, the Pindarique Odes, the Davideis, the Mistress and some Miscellanies. Among the latter are to be found Cowley's most vital pieces. This section of his works opens with the famous aspiration: "What shall I do to be for ever known, And make the coming age my own?" It contains elegies on Wotton, Vandyck, Falkland, William Hervey and Crashaw, the last two being among Cowley's finest poems, brilliant, sonorous and original; the amusing ballad of The Chronicle, giving a fictitious catalogue of his supposed amours; various gnomic pieces; and some charming paraphrases from Anacreon. The Pindarique Odes contain weighty Lines and passages, buried in irregular and inharmonious masses of moral verbiage. Not more than one or two are good throughout, but a full posy of beauties may easily be culled from them. The long cadences of the Alexandrines with which most of the strophes close, continued to echo in English poetry from Dryden down to Gray, but the Odes themselves, which were found to be obscure by the poet's contemporaries, immediately fell into disesteem.[3] The Mistress was the most popular poetic reading of the age, and is now the least read of all Cowley's works. It was the last and most violent expression of the amatory affectation of the 17th century, an affectation which had been endurable in Donne and other early writers because it had been the vehicle of sincere emotion, but was unendurable in Cowley because in him it represented nothing but a perfunctory exercise, a mere exhibition of literary calisthenics. He appears to have been of a cold, or at least of a timid, disposition; in the face of these elaborately erotic volumes, we are told that to the end of his days he never summoned up courage to speak of love to a single woman in real life. The "Leonora" of The Chronicle is said to have been the only woman he ever loved, and she married the brother of his biographer, Sprat.[3] Return to England[edit] Soon after his return to England he was seized in mistake for another person, and only obtained his liberty on a bail of £1000. In 1658 he revised and altered his play of The Guardian, and prepared it for the press under the title of The Cutter of Coleman Street, but it did not appear until 1661. Late in 1658 Oliver Cromwell died, and Cowley took advantage of the confusion of affairs to escape to Paris, where he remained until the Restoration brought him back in Charles's train. He published in 1663 Verses upon several occasions, in which The Complaint is included.[3] He is also known for having provided the earliest reference to coca in English literature, in a poem called "A legend of coca" in his 1662 collection of poems Six Books of Plants.[7] Abraham Cowley's Chertsey house Cowley obtained permission to retire into the country; and through his friend, Lord St Albans, he obtained a property near Chertsey, where, devoting himself to botany and books, he lived in comparative solitude until his death. He took a practical interest in experimental science, and he was one of those advocating the foundation of an academy for the protection of scientific enterprise. Cowley's pamphlet on The Advancement of Experimental Philosophy, 1661, immediately preceded the foundation of the Royal Society; to which Cowley, in March 1667, at the suggestion of John Evelyn, addressed an ode. He died in the Porch House, in Chertsey, in consequence of having caught a cold while superintending his farm-labourers in the meadows late on a summer evening. On 3 August, Cowley was buried in Westminster Abbey beside the ashes of Chaucer and Spenser, where in 1675 the Duke of Buckingham erected a monument to his memory. His Poemata Latina, including six books "Plantarum", were printed in 1668. The poetry of Cowley rapidly fell into neglect.[3] Frontispice and titlepage to a 1678 edition of the collected works of Abraham Cowley The works of Cowley were collected in 1668, when Thomas Sprat brought out an edition in folio, to which he prefixed a life of the poet. There were many reprints of this collection, which formed the standard edition till 1881, when it was superseded by Alexander Balloch Grosart's privately printed edition in two volumes, for the Chertsey Worthies library. The Essays have frequently been revived.[3] A Satire Against Separatists, printed in 1675, has been variously attributed to Cowley and to Peter Hausted.[citation needed] References[edit] ^ Alan Hager (ed.), The Age of Milton: An Encyclopedia of Major 17th-Century British and American Authors, ABC-CLIO, 2004, p. 89. ^ Oxford Dictionary of National Biography "Abraham Cowley" ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Gosse, Edmund (1911). "Cowley, Abraham". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 347–348. ^ "Cowley, Abraham (CWLY636A)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge. ^ "Trinity College, University of Cambridge". BBC Your Paintings. Archived from the original on 11 May 2014. Retrieved 12 February 2018. ^ Ed. Allan Pritchard. Abraham Cowley, The Civil War, Toronto,(UTPress: 1973) p.3 ^ Peru. History of coca, "the divine plant" of the Incas; with an introductory account of the Incas, and of the Andean Indians of to-day. W. Golden Mortimer, M.D. Ed. J. H. Vail & Co, 1901. Abraham Cowley's poem "A Legend of Coca" : in chapter I An introduction to the history of coca, pp. 25–27. Sources[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Cousin, John William (1910). A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature. London: J. M. Dent & Sons – via Wikisource. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Abraham Cowley. Wikisource has original works written by or about: Abraham Cowley Wikisource has the text of the 1885–1900 Dictionary of National Biography's article about Abraham Cowley. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Abraham Cowley Works by Abraham Cowley at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Abraham Cowley at Internet Archive Works by Abraham Cowley at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Essays by Abraham Cowley at Quotidiana.org Works of Abraham Cowley at Archive.org (pdf download) Samuel Johnson elevates Cowley for "easy poetry" v t e Metaphysical poetry Major poets John Donne (1572–1631) George Herbert (1593–1633) Andrew Marvell (1621–1678) Abraham Cowley (1618–1667) Robert Southwell (c. 1561–1595) Richard Crashaw (c. 1613–1649) Thomas Traherne (1636/1637–1674) Henry Vaughan (1622–1695) Minor poets Anne Bradstreet (c. 1612–1672) Thomas Carew (1595–1640) George Chapman (c. 1559–1634) John Hall (c. 1627–1656) Edward Herbert (1583–1648) Richard Leigh (1649-1728) Katherine Philips (1632–1664) Sir John Suckling (1609–1642) Edward Taylor (c. 1642–1729) Critics Samuel Johnson T. S. Eliot Authority control BNF: cb121973647 (data) CANTIC: a11565780 GND: 118677187 ISNI: 0000 0001 0927 3222 LCCN: n50018768 MBA: 280b42e9-a4ff-4b6f-8786-1834a18018ce NDL: 00620534 NKC: jn20000700334 NLA: 35031753 NLG: 120604 NLI: 000035442 NTA: 070405956 SELIBR: 182914 SNAC: w6ht37fm SUDOC: 030588413 Trove: 804491 VcBA: 495/5884 VIAF: 95254963 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n50018768 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham_Cowley&oldid=990044084" Categories: 1618 births 1667 deaths English essayists Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge People from the City of London People educated at Westminster School, London Burials at Westminster Abbey 17th-century English poets 17th-century male writers Male essayists English male poets Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from January 2020 EngvarB from January 2020 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2016 Wikipedia articles incorporating text from A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature Commons category link is on Wikidata Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages العربية Cymraeg Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Հայերեն Italiano עברית മലയാളം Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 22 November 2020, at 13:42 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1471	----	Archilochus - Wikipedia Archilochus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Greek lyric poet For the hummingbird, see Archilochus (genus). Portrait of a bearded man (poet Archilochos?). Roman copy c. 2nd century BCE of the Greek original of 4 century BCE. Coin from ancient Thasos showing Satyr and nymph, dated to late 5th century BCE. Archilochus was involved in the Parian colonization of Thasos about two centuries before the coin was minted. His poetry includes vivid accounts of life as a warrior, seafarer and lover. Archilochus (/ɑːrˈkɪləkəs/; Greek: Ἀρχίλοχος Arkhilokhos; c. 680–645 BCE)[a] was a Greek lyric poet from the island of Paros in the Archaic period. He is celebrated for his versatile and innovative use of poetic meters, and is the earliest known Greek author to compose almost entirely on the theme of his own emotions and experiences.[3][4] Alexandrian scholars included him in their canonic list of iambic poets, along with Semonides and Hipponax,[5] yet ancient commentators also numbered him with Tyrtaeus and Callinus as the possible inventor of the elegy.[6] Modern critics often characterize him simply as a lyric poet.[7] Although his work now only survives in fragments, he was revered by the ancient Greeks as one of their most brilliant authors, able to be mentioned in the same breath as Homer and Hesiod,[8] yet he was also censured by them as the archetypal poet of blame[9] – his invectives were even said to have driven his former fiancée and her father to suicide. He presented himself as a man of few illusions either in war or in love, such as in the following elegy, where discretion is seen to be the better part of valour: Ἀσπίδι μὲν Σαΐων τις ἀγάλλεται, ἥν παρὰ θάμνῳ ἔντος ἀμώμητον κάλλιπον οὐκ ἐθέλων· αὐτὸν δ' ἔκ μ' ἐσάωσα· τί μοι μέλει ἀσπὶς ἐκείνη; Ἐρρέτω· ἐξαῦτις κτήσομαι οὐ κακίω.[10] One of the Saians (Thracian tribe) now delights in the shield I discarded Unwillingly near a bush, for it was perfectly good, But at least I got myself safely out. Why should I care for that shield? Let it go. Some other time I'll find another no worse.[citation needed] Archilochus was much imitated even up to Roman times and three other distinguished poets later claimed to have thrown away their shields – Alcaeus, Anacreon and Horace.[11] Contents 1 Biography 1.1 The historical sources 1.2 Scholarship and the biographical tradition 1.2.1 The poet's character 2 Poetry 2.1 Style 3 Recent discoveries 4 Quotes 5 Notes 6 References 6.1 Bibliography 7 External links Biography[edit] The historical sources[edit] A considerable amount of information about the life of Archilochus has come down to the modern age via his surviving work, the testimony of other authors and inscriptions on monuments,[4] yet it all needs to be viewed with caution – the biographical tradition is generally unreliable and the fragmentary nature of the poems doesn't really support inferences about his personal history.[12] The vivid language and intimate details of the poems often look autobiographical[8][13] yet it is known, on the authority of Aristotle, that Archilochus sometimes role-played. The philosopher quoted two fragments as examples of an author speaking in somebody else's voice: in one, an unnamed father commenting on a recent eclipse of the sun and, in the other, a carpenter named Charon, expressing his indifference to the wealth of Gyges, the king of Lydia.[14] There is nothing in those two fragments to suggest that Archilochus is speaking in those roles (we rely entirely on Aristotle for the context) and possibly many of his other verses involved role-playing too. It has even been suggested by one modern scholar that imaginary characters and situations might have been a feature of the poetic tradition within which Archilochus composed, known by the ancients as iambus.[15] The two poems quoted by Aristotle help to date the poet's life (assuming of course that Charon and the unnamed father are speaking about events that Archilochus had experienced himself). Gyges reigned 687–652 BCE and the date of the eclipse must have been either 6 April 648 BCE or 27 June 660 BCE (another date, 14 March 711 BCE, is generally considered too early).[4] These dates are consistent with other evidence of the poet's chronology and reported history, such as the discovery at Thasos of a cenotaph, dated around the end of the seventh century and dedicated to a friend named in several fragments: Glaucus, son of Leptines.[16] The chronology for Archilochus is complex but modern scholars generally settle for c.680–c.640 BCE.[4] Whether or not their lives had been virtuous, authors of genius were revered by their fellow Greeks. Thus a sanctuary to Archilochus (the Archilocheion) was established on his home island Paros sometime in the third century BCE, where his admirers offered him sacrifices, as well as to gods such as Apollo, Dionysus, and the Muses.[8] Inscriptions found on orthostats from the sanctuary include quoted verses and historical records. In one, we are told that his father Telesicles once sent Archilochus to fetch a cow from the fields, but that the boy chanced to meet a group of women who soon vanished with the animal and left him a lyre in its place – they were the Muses and they had thus earmarked him as their protégé. According to the same inscription, the omen was later confirmed by the oracle at Delphi. Not all the inscriptions are as fanciful as that. Some are records by a local historian of the time, set out in chronological order according to custom, under the names of archons. Unfortunately, these are very fragmentary.[17] Snippets of biographical information are provided by ancient authors as diverse as Tatian, Proclus, Clement of Alexandria, Cicero, Aelian, Plutarch, Galen, Dio Chrysostom, Aelius Aristides and several anonymous authors in the Palatine Anthology. See and other poets below for the testimony of some famous poets. Scholarship and the biographical tradition[edit] According to tradition, Archilochus was born to a notable family on Paros. His grandfather (or great-grandfather), Tellis, helped establish the cult of Demeter on Thasos near the end of the eighth century, a mission that was famously depicted in a painting at Delphi by the Thasian Polygnotus.[3] The painting, later described by Pausanias, showed Tellis in Hades, sharing Charon's boat with the priestess of Demeter.[b] The poet's father, Telesicles, also distinguished himself in the history of Thasos, as the founder of a Parian colony there. The names 'Tellis' and 'Telesicles' can have religious connotations and some modern scholars infer that the poet was born into a priestly family devoted to Demeter. Inscriptions in the Archilocheion identify Archilochus as a key figure in the Parian cult of Dionysus[19] There is no evidence to back isolated reports that his mother was a slave, named Enipo, that he left Paros to escape poverty, or that he became a mercenary soldier – the slave background is probably inferred from a misreading of his verses; archaeology indicates that life on Paros, which he associated with "figs and seafaring", was quite prosperous; and though he frequently refers to the rough life of a soldier, warfare was a function of the aristocracy in the archaic period and there is no indication that he fought for pay.[4][c] "Look Glaucus! Already waves are disturbing the deep sea and a cloud stands straight round about the heights of Gyrae,[d] a sign of storm; from the unexpected comes fear." The trochaic verse was quoted by the Homeric scholar Heraclitus, who said that Archilochus used the image to describe war with the Thracians.[22] The life of Archilochus was marked by conflicts. The ancient tradition identified a Parian, Lycambes, and his daughters as the main target of his anger. The father is said to have betrothed his daughter, Neobule, to Archilochus, but reneged on the agreement, and the poet retaliated with such eloquent abuse that Lycambes, Neobule and one or both of his other daughters committed suicide.[23][24] The story later became a popular theme for Alexandrian versifiers, who played upon its poignancy at the expense of Archilochus.[e] Some modern scholars believe that Lycambes and his daughters were not actually the poet's contemporaries but fictional characters in a traditional entertainment.[26] According to another view, Lycambes as an oath-breaker had marked himself out as a menace to society and the poet's invective was not just personal revenge but a social obligation consistent with the practice of 'iambos'.[27] The inscriptions in the Archilocheion imply that the poet had a controversial role in the introduction of the cult of Dionysus to Paros. It records that his songs were condemned by the Parians as "too iambic" (the issue may have concerned phallic worship) but they were the ones who ended up being punished by the gods for impiety, possibly with impotence. The oracle of Apollo then instructed them to atone for their error and rid themselves of their suffering by honouring the poet, which led to the shrine being dedicated to him.[28][29] His hero cult lasted on Paros over 800 years.[30] His combative spirit also expressed itself in warfare. He joined the Parian colony on Thasos and battled the indigenous Thracians, expressing himself in his poems as a cynical, hard-bitten soldier fighting for a country he doesn't love ("Thasos, thrice miserable city") on behalf of a people he scorns[f] yet he values his closest comrades and their stalwart, unglamorous commander.[g] Later he returned to Paros and joined the fight against the neighbouring island of Naxos. A Naxian warrior named Calondas won notoriety as the man that killed him. The Naxian's fate interested later authors such as Plutarch and Dio Chrysostom, since it had been a fair fight yet he was punished for it by the gods: He had gone to the temple of Apollo at Delphi to consult the oracle and was rebuked with the memorable words: "You killed the servant of the Muses; depart from the temple."[33] The poet's character[edit] Εἰμὶ δ' ἐγὼ θεράπων μὲν Ἐνυαλίοιο ἄνακτος, καὶ Μουσέων ἐρατὸν δῶρον ἐπιστάμενος. I am the servant of Lord Enyalios [Ares, god of war], and skilled in the lovely gift of the Muses.[34] This couplet testifies to a social revolution: Homer's poetry was a powerful influence on later poets and yet in Homer's day it had been unthinkable for a poet to be a warrior.[35] Archilochus deliberately broke the traditional mould even while adapting himself to it. "Perhaps there is a special relevance to his times in the particular gestures he elects to make: The abandonment of grandly heroic attitudes in favour of a new unsentimental honesty, an iconoclastic and flippant tone of voice coupled with deep awareness of traditional truths."[36] Ancient authors and scholars often reacted to his poetry and to the biographical tradition angrily, condemning "fault-finding Archilochus" for "fattening himself on harsh words of hatred" (see Pindar's comment below) and for "the unseemly and lewd utterances directed towards women", whereby he made "a spectacle of himself"[37] He was considered "... a noble poet in other respects if one were to take away his foul mouth and slanderous speech and wash them away like a stain" (Suda).[38] According to Valerius Maximus, the Spartans banished the works of Archilochus from their state for the sake of their children "... lest it harm their morals more than it benefited their talents."[39] Yet some ancient scholars interpreted his motives more sympathetically: "For of the two poets who for all time deserve to be compared with no other, namely Homer and Archilochus, Homer praised nearly everything ... But Archilochus went to the opposite extreme, to censure; seeing, I suppose, that men are in greater need of this, and first of all he censures himself ...", thus winning for himself "... the highest commendation from heaven." – Dio Chrysostom[40] Poetry[edit] The earliest meter in extant Greek poetry was the epic hexameter of Homer. Homer did not create the epic hexameter, however, and there is evidence that other meters also predate his work.[42] Thus, though ancient scholars credited Archilochus with the invention of elegy and iambic poetry, he probably built on a "flourishing tradition of popular song" that pre-dated Homer. His innovations however seem to have turned a popular tradition into an important literary medium.[36] His merits as a poet were neatly summarized by the rhetorician Quintilian: "We find in him the greatest force of expression, sententious statements that are not only vigorous but also terse and vibrant, and a great abundance of vitality and energy, to the extent that in the view of some his inferiority to anyone results from a defect of subject matter rather than poetic genius. – Quintilian[43] "A kingfisher flapped its wings on a protruding rock" – Archilochus fr. 41[44] The poet, "a frank celebrant of sex",[45] found various ways to describe sexual relations, including allusions. Here the rock is a phallic symbol and the kingfisher represents a female partner.[46] Most ancient commentators focused on his lampoons and on the virulence of his invective[47] as in the comments below, yet the extant verses (most of which come from Egyptian papyri[48]) indicate a very wide range of poetic interests. Alexandrian scholars collected the works of the other two major iambographers, Semonides and Hipponax, in just two books each, which were cited by number, whereas Archilochus was edited and cited not by book number but rather by poetic terms such as 'elegy', 'trimeters', 'tetrameters' and 'epodes'.[49] Moreover, even those terms fail to indicate his versatility: "... not all his iambic and trochaic poetry was invective. In his elegiacs we find neat epigrams, consolatory poems and a detailed prediction of battle; his trochaics include a cry for help in war, an address to his troubled soul and lines on the ideal commander; in his iambics we find an enchanting description of a girl and Charon the carpenter's rejection of tyranny."[29] One convenient way to classify the poems is to divide them between elegy and iambus (ἵαμβος) – elegy aimed at some degree of decorum, since it employed the stately hexameter of epic, whereas the term 'iambus', as used by Alexandrian scholars, denoted any informal kind of verse meant to entertain (it may have included the iambic meter but was not confined to it). Hence the accusation that he was "too iambic" (see Biography) referred not to his choice of meter but his subject matter and tone (for an example of his iambic verse see Strasbourg papyrus). Elegy was accompanied by the aulos or pipe, whereas the performance of iambus varied, from recitation or chant in iambic trimeter and trochaic tetrameter, to singing of epodes accompanied by some musical instrument (which one isn't known).[50] Archilochus was not included in the canonic list of nine lyric poets compiled by Hellenistic scholars – his range exceeded their narrow criteria for lyric ('lyric' meant verse accompanied by the lyre). He did in fact compose some lyrics but only the tiniest fragments of these survive today. However they include one of the most famous of all lyric utterances, a hymn to Heracles with which victors were hailed at the Olympic Games, featuring a resounding refrain Τήνελλα καλλίνικε in which the first word imitates the sound of the lyre.[29]{{efn|Τήνελλα καλλίνικε, χαῖρ' ἄναξ Ἡράκλεες, αὐτός τε καὶ Ἰόλαος, αἰχμητὰ δύο. Τήνελλα καλλίνικε χαῖρ' ἄναξ Ἡράκλεες. Style[edit] Like other archaic Greek poets, Archilochus relied heavily on Homer's example for his choice of language, particularly when using the same meter, dactylic hexameter (as for example in elegy), but even in other meters the debt is apparent – in the verse below, for example, his address to his embattled soul or spirit, θυμέ, has Homeric echoes.[52] The meter below is trochaic tetrameter catalectic (four pairs of trochees with the final syllable omitted), a form later favoured by Athenian dramatists because of its running character, expressing aggression and emotional intensity.[53] The comic poet Aristophanes employed it for the arrival on stage of an enraged chorus in The Knights, but Archilochus uses it here to communicate the need for emotional moderation. His use of the meter isn't intentionally ironic, however, since he didn't share the tidy functionalism of later theorists, for whom different meters and verse-forms were endowed with distinctive characters suited to different tasks – his use of meter is "neutral in respect of ethos".[29] The following verse is indicative too of the fragmentary nature of Archilochus's extant work: lines 2 and 3 are probably corrupted and modern scholars have tried to emend them in various ways, none satisfactory, though the general meaning is clear.[51] θυμέ, θύμ᾽ ἀμηχάνοισι κήδεσιν κυκώμενε, ἄνα δέ, δυσμενέων δ᾽ ἀλέξευ προσβαλὼν ἐναντίον στέρνον, ἐν δοκοῖσιν ἐχθρῶν πλησίον κατασταθείς ἀσφαλέως· καὶ μήτε νικῶν ἀμφαδὴν ἀγάλλεο μηδὲ νικηθεὶς ἐν οἴκωι καταπεσὼν ὀδύρεο. ἀλλὰ χαρτοῖσίν τε χαῖρε καὶ κακοῖσιν ἀσχάλα μὴ λίην· γίνωσκε δ᾽ οἷος ῥυσμὸς ἀνθρώπους ἔχει.[54] My Soul, my Soul, all disturbed by sorrows inconsolable, Bear up, hold out, meet front-on the many foes that rush on you Now from this side and now that, enduring all such strife up close, Never wavering; and should you win, don't openly exult, Nor, defeated, throw yourself lamenting in a heap at home, But delight in things that are delightful and, in hard times, grieve Not too much – appreciate the rhythm that controls men's lives. Recent discoveries[edit] A small papyrus scrap first published in 1908 which is derived from the same ancient manuscript of Archilochus that yielded the most recent discovery (P.Oxy. VI 854, 2nd century CE). Thirty previously unknown lines by Archilochus, in the elegiac meter, describing events leading up to the Trojan War, in which Achaeans battled Telephus king of Mysia, have recently been identified among the Oxyrhynchus Papyri and published in The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, Volume LXIX (Graeco-Roman Memoirs 89).[55] A discovery of a fragment of writing by Archilochus contained a citation of a proverb that was important to the proper interpretation of a letter in the Akkadian language from the emperor of the Old Assyrian Empire, Shamshi-Adad I, with the same proverb: "The bitch by her acting too hastily brought forth the blind."[56] Quotes[edit] "Keep some measure in the joy you take in luck, and the degree you give way to sorrow." (fragment 67, tr. Richmond Lattimore)[57] "Πόλλ᾽ οἶδ᾽ ἀλώπηξ, ἀλλ' ἐχῖνος ἕν μέγα." (The fox knows many things; the hedgehog one big thing.)[58][h] Notes[edit] ^ While these have been the generally accepted dates since Felix Jacoby (1941),[1] some scholars disagree; for instance, Robin Lane Fox (2008)[2] dates him c. 740–680 BCE. ^ "Tellis appears to be in his late teens, Cleoboea as still a girl and she has on her knees a chest of the sort that they are accustomed to make for Demeter. With regard to Tellis I heard only that he was the grandfather of Archilochus and they say that Cleoboea was the first to introduce the rites of Demeter to Thasos from Paros." – Pausanias 10.28.3[18] ^ The name 'Enipo' has connotations of abuse (enipai), which is curiously apt for the mother of a famous iambographer.[20] ^ The heights of Gyrae is a promontoty on Tenos, or a mythological allusion to the rocks on which the Lesser Ajax met his death.[21] ^ Elegies include the following by a certain Dioscorides, in which the victims are imagined to speak from the grave: "We here, the daughters of Lycambes who gained a hateful reputation, swear by the reverence in which this tomb of the dead is held that we did not shame our virginity or our parents or Paros, pre-eminent among holy islands, but Archilochus spewed forth frightful reproach and a hateful report against our family. We swear by the gods and spirits that we did not set eyes on Archilochus either in the streets or in Hera's great precinct. If we had been lustful and wicked, he would have not wanted to beget legitimate children from us." – Palatine Anthology 7.351[25] ^ "The [dregs] of all the Greeks have come together in Thasos".[31] ^ "I have no liking for a general who is tall, walks with a swaggering gait, takes pride in his curls, and is partly shaven. Let mine be one who is short, has a bent look about the shins, stands firmly on his feet, and is full of courage." – Fragment 114[32] ^ see Isaiah Berlin's The Hedgehog and the Fox References[edit] ^ Jacoby, Felix (1941). "The date of Archilochus". Classical Quarterly. 35: 97–109. ^ Fox, R.L. (2008). Travelling Heroes: Greeks and their myths in the epic age of Homer. London, UK: Allen Lane. p. 388. ISBN 978-0-7139-9980-8. ^ a b Barron & Easterling 1985, p. 117. ^ a b c d e Campbell 1982, p. 136. ^ Sophie Mills (2006), 'Archilochus', in Encyclopaedia of Ancient Greece, Nigel Wilson (ed.), Routledge, page 76 ^ Didymus ap. Orion, Et. Mag. p. 57, Scholiast on Ar. Birds 217, cited by Barron & Easterling 1985, p. 129 (note 1) ^ Diane J., Rayor (1991). Sappho's Lyre: Archaic lyric and women poets of ancient Greece. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-07336-4. ^ a b c Barron & Easterling 1985, p. 118. ^ Brown 1997, p. 49. ^ Gerber, Douglas E., ed. (1999). "Fragment 5". Greek Iambic Poetry. Translated by Gerber, Douglas E. Loeb Classical Library. pp. 80–82. ISBN 9780674995819. ^ Campbell 1982, p. 145. ^ Brown 1997, p. 43. ^ Van Sickle (October–November 1975), "Archilochus: A New Fragment of an Epode" The Classical Journal 71.1:1–15, p. 14. ^ Aristotle Rhetoric 3.17.1418b28, cited by Douglas E. Gerber (1999), Greek Iambic Poetry, Loeb Classical Library, pages 93–95 ^ West 1974, pp. 22–39. ^ Brown 1997, pp. 43–44. ^ Douglas E. Gerber (1999), Greek Iambic Poetry, Loeb Classical Library, pages 16–33 ^ translated by Douglas E. Gerber (1999), Greek Iambic Poetry, Loeb Classical Library, page 75 ^ Brown 1997, pp. 45–46. ^ West 1974, p. 28. ^ Douglas E. Gerber (tr)(ed) (1999), Greek Iambic Poetry, Loeb Classical Library, note 1 page 145 ^ Campbell 1982, p. 150. ^ Douglas E. Gerber (1999), Greek Iambic Poetry, Loeb Classical Library, page 75 ^ Gerber, Douglas E., 1997, A Companion to the Greek Lyric Poets, Brill. ISBN 90-04-09944-1. cf. p.50 ^ cited and translated by Douglas E. Gerber (1999), Greek Iambic Poetry, Loeb Classical Library, page 49 ^ West 1974, p. 27. ^ Brown 1997, p. 59. ^ Brown 1997, p. 46. ^ a b c d Campbell 1982, p. 138. ^ Encyclopedia of ancient Greece By Nigel Guy Wilson Page 353 ISBN 978-0-415-97334-2 ^ Barron & Easterling 1985, p. 121. ^ Fragment 114 cited and translated by Douglas E. Gerber, Greek Iambic Poetry, Loeb Classical Library, page 153[full citation needed] ^ Galen, Exhortation to learning, cited and translated by Douglas E. Gerber (1999), Greek Iambic Poetry, Loeb Classical Library, page 41 ^ Fr. 1, cited and translated by Douglas E. Gerber (1999), Greek Iambic Poetry, Loeb Classical Library, page 77 ^ Denis Page, 'Archilochus and the Oral Tradition', Entretiens Hardt 10: 117–163, Geneva ^ a b Barron & Easterling 1985, p. 119. ^ Plutarch, de curiositate 10.520a-b cited and translated by Douglas E. Gerber (1999), Greek Iambic Poetry, Loeb Classical Library, page 63 ^ Suda (i.376.11 Adler) = Aelian fr. 80 Hercher, cited and translated by Douglas E. Gerber (1999), Loeb Classical Library, page 39[full citation needed] ^ Valerius Maximus, 6.3, ext. 1, cited and translated by Douglas E. Gerber (1999), Loeb Classical Library, page 39[full citation needed] ^ Dio Chrysostom 33.11–12, cited and translated Douglas E. Gerber (1999), Loeb Classical Library, page 43[full citation needed] ^ Jeffrey M. Hurwit, The Art and Culture of Early Greece[full citation needed] ^ See for example the Iliad 1.472–474; 16.182–183; 18.493[41] ^ Quintilian, Principles of Oratory 10.1.60, cited and translated by D.E. Gerber (1999), Loeb Classical Library, page 65[full citation needed] ^ cited and translated by Douglas E. Gerber (1999), Greek Iambic Poetry, Loeb Classical Library, page 113 ^ Barron & Easterling 1985, p. 122. ^ West 1974, pp. 123–124. ^ Barron & Easterling 1985, p. 123. ^ Davenport, Guy (1980), Archilochus, Alcman, Sappho: Three Lyric Poets of the Seventh Century B.C. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-05223-4, p.2. ^ D.E. Gerber (1999), Loeb Classical Library, page 6 ^ Barron & Easterling 1985, pp. 120–121. ^ a b Campbell 1982, pp. 153–154. ^ See Odyssey 20.18 ff, Iliad 22.98–99 and 22.122[51] ^ L.P.E. Parker, (1997), The Songs of Aristophanes, Oxford, p. 36 ^ Archilochus fr. 128, quoted by Stobaeus (3.20.28), cited by Douglas E. Gerber (1999), Greek Iambic Poetry, Loeb Classical Library, page 167 ^ "POxy Oxyrhynchus Online". www.papyrology.ox.ac.uk. ^ Moran, William L. (1978). "An Assyriological gloss on the new Archilochus fragment". Harvard Studies in Classical Philology. 82: 18. doi:10.2307/311017. JSTOR 311017. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2012-07-01. Retrieved 2008-05-09.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ 151 [Ed.118]; quoted in M. L. West (ed.), (1971), Iambi et elegi Graeci, Vol. I, Oxford Bibliography[edit] Brown, Christopher (1997). "Introduction". In Gerber, Douglas E. (ed.). A Companion to the Greek Lyric Poets. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-09944-9. Campbell, David A. (1982). Greek Lyric Poetry. Bristol Classical Press. ISBN 978-0-86292-008-1. Barron, J. P.; Easterling, P. E. (1985). "Elegy and Iambus". In Easterling, P. E.; Knox, Bernard M. W. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Classical Literature. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-35981-8. West, Martin L. (1974). Studies in Greek Elegy and Iambus. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-083318-8. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Archilochos. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Archilochus Works written by or about Archilochus at Wikisource Introduction to Archilochos and translation of A's longest fragment by Guy Davenport Web Resources on Archilochos The Poetry of Archilochos Archilochos fragments in Greek Archilochus Bilingual Anthology (in Greek and English, side by side) Archilochos Poems – J. M. Edmonds Edition Zweisprachige Textauswahl zu den griechischen Lyrikern mit zusätzlichen Hilfen SORGLL: Archilochos 67; read by Stephen Daitz Archilochos of Paros and Archilochos' Beloved Paros: documentaries by Yannis Tritsibidas Authority control BIBSYS: 90193837 BNE: XX1302018 BNF: cb123142449 (data) CiNii: DA03337612 GND: 118503855 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\087177 ISNI: 0000 0001 2140 2007 LCCN: n80008559 NKC: xx0143866 NLK: KAC201105059 NTA: 069646554 RERO: 02-A000009078 SELIBR: 223275 SUDOC: 032035535 VcBA: 495/42023 VIAF: 100167694 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n80008559 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Archilochus&oldid=992328684" Categories: 680s BC births 640s BC deaths Ancient Greek poets Ionic Greek poets Iambic poets 7th-century BC poets Ancient Thasos Ancient Parians Epigrammatists of the Greek Anthology Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2020 All articles with incomplete citations Articles with incomplete citations from May 2020 CS1 maint: archived copy as title Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages العربية Aragonés Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Latina Latviešu Magyar Македонски Mirandés Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Sicilianu Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 December 2020, at 18:17 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1501	----	Pages that link to "Horace" - Wikipedia Help Pages that link to "Horace" ← Horace Jump to navigation Jump to search What links here Page:  Namespace: all (Article) Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk Portal Portal talk Book Book talk Draft Draft talk Education Program Education Program talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Gadget Gadget talk Gadget definition Gadget definition talk   Invert selection Filters Hide transclusions | Hide links | Hide redirects The following pages link to Horace External tool: Transclusion count Displayed 50 items. View (previous 50 | next 50) (20 | 50 | 100 | 250 | 500) Achilles ‎ (links | edit) Arthur Schopenhauer ‎ (links | edit) Avicenna ‎ (links | edit) Augustus ‎ (links | edit) Alcaeus of Mytilene ‎ (links | edit) Apuleius ‎ (links | edit) Aedile ‎ (links | edit) Ab urbe condita ‎ (links | edit) Aeacus ‎ (links | edit) A. E. Housman ‎ (links | edit) Bede ‎ (links | edit) Classics ‎ (links | edit) Catullus ‎ (links | edit) Carlo Goldoni ‎ (links | edit) Continuity (fiction) ‎ (links | edit) Cicero ‎ (links | edit) Cursus honorum ‎ (links | edit) Roman censor ‎ (links | edit) Celts ‎ (links | edit) Carthage ‎ (links | edit) Chaldea ‎ (links | edit) Candide ‎ (links | edit) Cerberus ‎ (links | edit) December 8 ‎ (links | edit) Denis Diderot ‎ (links | edit) Diana (mythology) ‎ (links | edit) Dactylic hexameter ‎ (links | edit) Encyclopedia ‎ (links | edit) Empedocles ‎ (links | edit) Elegiac couplet ‎ (links | edit) Ennius ‎ (links | edit) Epitaph ‎ (links | edit) Fernando Pessoa ‎ (links | edit) Greece ‎ (links | edit) Gotthold Ephraim Lessing ‎ (links | edit) Giosuè Carducci ‎ (links | edit) Horace (transclusion) ‎ (links | edit) Hexameter ‎ (links | edit) Italy ‎ (links | edit) Italic languages ‎ (links | edit) Jonathan Swift ‎ (links | edit) Julian calendar ‎ (links | edit) John Quincy Adams ‎ (links | edit) Satires (Juvenal) ‎ (links | edit) Julius Caesar ‎ (links | edit) Julio-Claudian dynasty ‎ (links | edit) John Milton ‎ (links | edit) Latin ‎ (links | edit) Livy ‎ (links | edit) Latin literature ‎ (links | edit) View (previous 50 | next 50) (20 | 50 | 100 | 250 | 500) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Horace" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools Upload file Special pages Printable version Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1502	----	Horace's Villa - Wikipedia Horace's Villa From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Horace's villa) Jump to navigation Jump to search Horace's Villa Villa Romana di Orazio Drawing of the villa Shown within Italy Location Licenza, Province of Rome, Lazio, Italy Type Dwelling History Cultures Roman Site notes Condition Ruined Ownership Public Public access Yes Horace's Villa is a Roman archaeological complex near Licenza, Italy. The identification has been made possible because Horace wrote several poems about the place, and the location of the villa corresponds to the geographical indications in the poetry. The site can be visited today.[1] Contents 1 Identification 2 Description 3 References 4 External links Identification[edit] It was owing to references to the villa in Horace's writings that humanists attempted to find the site as early as the mid-fifteenth century, but the site in Licenza was not considered as a possible candidate for two hundred years. This changed when an inscription mentioning a temple of the goddess Victory was found in nearby Roccagiovine. Vicovaro (marked), close to Tibur on the Tabula Peutingeriana, 12-13th century Horace tells in one of his poems (Epistles 1.10) that his villa was next to the sanctuary of the Sabine goddess, Vacuna. Lucas Holstenius (a mid-17th century geographer and a librarian at the Vatican Library) identified the sanctuary with the temple of the goddess Victory mentioned in the inscription, and he showed that the Romans associated the Sabine deity with their goddess Victoria. A confirmation of Holstenius' thesis came in 1757 with the discovery of the massa Mandelana inscription near Cantalupo (Mandela), which helped antiquarians to identify yet another place name mentioned by Horace as being near his Sabine estate. Description[edit] The Aniene Valley to the east of Rome is rich with archaeological remains. The Roman villa on the east slope of the Colle Rotondo (980 meters above sea level) in the Lucretili Mountains near the hilltown of Licenza is one of the best preserved and most significant sites. Attributed by most scholars since the 18th century to the Roman poet Horace, this villa dates from the first century B.C. and is located just 30 miles from the center of Rome in a valley near Vicovaro and Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli. The actual site was identified and a small portion was excavated in the 18th century. Major excavations were undertaken in the early 20th century. Thus far, the main residence of the estate has been identified, covering, in the imperial period, some 40 x 110 meters of built space and gardens. Black and white mosaics (formerly dated to Horace's lifespan, but now known to be from the Flavian dynasty), marble wall revetment and architectonic elements, an elaborate water system, and artistic and utilitarian remains have been found. A selection of the material is on display in the local museum in the town of Licenza. References[edit] ^ "Horace's Villa at Licenza". Archived from the original on 2 April 2018. External links[edit] Horace's Villa Project of the American Academy in Rome and the Soprintendenza Archeologica per il Lazio A two-part documentary about Horace's Villa Site of the Villa in Google Maps Authority control BNF: cb14535623q (data) GND: 4361917-4 LCCN: sh95005567 NLI: 000594565 SUDOC: 076495019 VcBA: 494/5161 VIAF: 240066424 WorldCat Identities: viaf-240066424 Coordinates: 42°03′58″N 12°54′04″E / 42.0661°N 12.9011°E / 42.0661; 12.9011 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horace%27s_Villa&oldid=982124824" Categories: Roman villas in Italy Buildings and structures in Lazio Archaeological sites in Lazio Horace Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Coordinates on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Italiano Edit links This page was last edited on 6 October 2020, at 09:14 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1579	----	Libanius - Wikipedia Libanius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Libanius" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Libanius as imagined in an eighteenth-century woodcut Libanius (Greek: Λιβάνιος, Libanios; c. 314 – 392 or 393) was a Greek teacher of rhetoric of the Sophist school. During the rise of Christian hegemony in the later Roman Empire, he remained unconverted and in religious matters was a pagan Hellene. Contents 1 Life 2 Works 3 English editions 4 References 5 External links Life[edit] Libanius was born into a once-influential, deeply cultured family of Antioch[1] that had recently come into diminished circumstances. At fourteen years old he began his study of rhetoric, for which he withdrew from public life and devoted himself to philosophy. Unfamiliar with Latin literature, he deplored its influence. He studied in Athens under Diophantus the Arab and began his career in Constantinople as a private tutor. He was exiled to Nicomedia in 346 (or earlier) for around five years[1] but returned to Constantinople and taught there until 354.[2] Before his exile, Libanius was a friend of the emperor Julian, with whom some correspondence survives, and in whose memory he wrote a series of orations; they were composed between 362 and 365. In 354 he accepted the chair of rhetoric in Antioch, his birthplace, where he stayed until his death. His pupils included both pagans and Christians.[2] Libanius used his arts of rhetoric to advance various private and political causes. He attacked the increasing imperial pressures on the traditional city-oriented culture that had been supported and dominated by the local upper classes. He is known to have protested against the persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire. In 386, he appealed without success to emperor Theodosius to prevent the destruction of a temple in Edessa, and pleaded for toleration and the preservation of the temples against the predation of Christian monks, who he claimed: "hasten to attack the temples with sticks and stones and bars of iron, and in some cases, disdaining these, with hands and feet. Then utter desolation follows, with the stripping of roofs, demolition of walls, the tearing down of statues and the overthrow of altars, and the priests must either keep quiet or die. After demolishing one, they scurry to another, and to a third, and trophy is piled on trophy, in contravention of the law. Such outrages occur even in the cities, but they are most common in the countryside. Many are the foes who perpetrate the separate attacks, but after their countless crimes this scattered rabble congregates and they are in disgrace unless they have committed the foulest outrage...Temples, Sire, are the soul of the countryside: they mark the beginning of its settlement, and have been passed down through many generations to the men of today. In them the farming communities rest their hopes for husbands, wives, children, for their oxen and the soil they sow and plant. An estate that has suffered so has lost the inspiration of the peasantry together with their hopes, for they believe that their labour will be in vain once they are robbed of the gods who direct their labours to their due end. And if the land no longer enjoys the same care, neither can the yield match what it was before, and, if this be the case, the peasant is the poorer, and the revenue jeopardized."[3] The surviving works of Libanius, which include over 1,600 letters, 64 speeches and 96 progymnasmata (rhetorical exercises), are valuable as a historical source for the changing world of the later 4th century.[2] His oration "A Reply To Aristides On Behalf Of The Dancers" is one of the most important records of Roman concert dance, particularly that immensely popular form known as pantomime.[4] His first Oration I is an autobiographical narrative, first written in 374 and revised throughout his life, a scholar's account that ends as an old exile's private journal. Progymnasma 8 (see below for explanation of a "progymnasma") is an imaginary summation of the prosecution's case again a physician charged with poisoning some of his patients.[5] Although Libanius was not a Christian his students included such notable Christians as John Chrysostom[1] and Theodore of Mopsuestia.[6] Despite his friendship with the pagan restorationist Emperor Julian he was made an honorary praetorian prefect by the Christian Emperor Theodosius I. Works[edit] 64 orations in the three fields of oratory: judicial, deliberative and epideictic, both orations as if delivered in public and orations meant to be privately read (aloud) in the study. The two volumes of selections in the Loeb Classical Library devote one volume to Libanius' orations that bear on the emperor Julian, the other on Theodosius; the most famous is his "Lamentation" about the desecration of the temples (Περὶ τῶν Ἱερῶν); 51 declamationes, a traditional public-speaking format of Rhetoric in Antiquity, taking set topics with historical and mythological themes (translations into English by e.g. D.A. Russell, "Libanius: Imaginary Speeches"; M. Johansson, "Libanius' Declamations 9 and 10"; 96 progymnasmata or compositional exercises for students of rhetoric, used in his courses of instruction and widely admired as models of good style; 57 hypotheses or introductions to Demosthenes' orations (written ca 352), in which he sets them in historical context for the novice reader, without polemics; 1545 letters have been preserved, more letters than those of Cicero. Some 400 additional letters in Latin were later accepted, purporting to be translations, but a dispassionate examination of the texts themselves shows them to be misattributed or forgeries, by the Italian humanist Francesco Zambeccari in the 15th century. Among his correspondents there was Censorius Datianus. English editions[edit] Scott Bradbury, Selected Letters of Libanius. Liverpool, University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-85323-509-0 Raffaella Cribiore, The School of Libanius in Late Antique Antioch. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007. (Includes translation of c. 200 letters dealing with the school and its students. Reviewed in Bryn Mawr Classical Reviews.) Margaret E. Molloy: Libanius and the Dancers, Olms-Weidmann, Hildesheim 1996 ISBN 3-487-10220-X A.F. Norman, Libanius: Selected Works, 2 volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Loeb Classical Library, 1969–1977. A.F. Norman, Libanius: Autobiography and Selected Letters, 2 volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Loeb Classical Library, 1993. Reviewed in Bryn Mawr Classical Reviews.) Lieve Van Hoof, Libanius: a critical introduction (Cambridge University Press, 2014) References[edit] ^ a b c Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Libanius" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 16 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 534. ^ a b c Speake, Graham, ed. (1994). Dictionary of Ancient History. London: Penguin Books. p. 370. ISBN 0-14-051260-8. ^ Pro Templis (Oration XXX.8-10) ^ Alessandra Zanobi, Ancient Pantomime and its Reception, Article retrieved April 2016 [1] ^ Ratzan RM and Ferngren GB (April 1993). "A Greek progymnasma on the physician-poisoner". Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences. 48 (2): 157–70. ^ Cameron, A. (1998) "Education and literary culture" in Cameron, A. and Garnsey, P. (eds.) The Cambridge ancient history: Vol. XIII The late empire, A.D. 337-425. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 668-669. External links[edit] Libanius: "Funeral Oration on Julian" Libanius: "16 letters to Julian" Libanius: "On the temple of Apollo destroyed by fire" Libanius: "On Nicomedia, destroyed by an earthquake" Libanius: Oration 30: for the temples (in French) Centre Libanios, the Libanius Site by P.-L. Malosse, part of CRISES research centre. Two moral anecdotes from the Progymnasmata: (in English) on the harshness of classical Roman education and an encomium of Thersites Craig Gibson, translator, Summary of “Libanius, Hypotheses to the Orations of Demosthenes” Open source XML version of Libanius' works by the University of Leipzig, at Open Greek & Latin Project Authority control BIBSYS: 90333936 BNE: XX1315863 BNF: cb11912954z (data) CANTIC: a10418933 CiNii: DA01323515 GND: 11857258X ISNI: 0000 0001 2122 2137 LCCN: n50052091 LNB: 000046383 NDL: 001156519 NKC: jn19990005063 NLA: 35304333 NLG: 22890 NLI: 000084151 NSK: 000423216 NTA: 068216483 RERO: 02-A000105012 SELIBR: 71241 SUDOC: 026989573 Trove: 904679 VcBA: 495/56341 VIAF: 17225859 WorldCat Identities: viaf-74669487 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Libanius&oldid=994437266" Categories: 314 births 394 deaths Byzantine-era pagans 4th-century writers 4th-century Romans Ancient Greek rhetoricians Ancient Greek educators Ancient Greek writers Correspondents of Libanius Roman-era students in Athens Roman-era Sophists Roman-era Greeks Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Articles needing additional references from December 2013 All articles needing additional references Articles containing Greek-language text Articles with French-language sources (fr) Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikisource Languages العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Galego Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Lietuvių Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 15 December 2020, at 18:46 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1580	----	Women in ancient Rome - Wikipedia Women in ancient Rome From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The educated and well-traveled Vibia Sabina (ca. 136 AD) was a grand-niece of the emperor Trajan and became the wife of his successor Hadrian; unlike some empresses, she played little role in court politics and remained independent in private life, having no children and seeking emotional gratification in love affairs[1] Part of a series on Women in society Society Women's history (legal rights) Woman Animal advocacy Business Female entrepreneur Gender representation on corporate boards of directors Economic development Explorers and travelers Education Feminism Womyn Government Conservatives in the US heads of government heads of state Queen regnant List Health Journalism and the media Law Law enforcement Military Mother Nobel Prize laureates Piracy Positions of power Reproductive rights Venture capital Violence and abuse Voting rights Workforce Exchange of women Science Technology Computing Engineering Geology Medicine dentistry in the United States Organizations Science Science, technology, engineering and mathematics Space Telegraphy Arts Humanities Architecture Arts Art history field Dance Film industry "Chick flicks" Films about women Film directors, cinematographers and screenwriters Fine arts Literature Science fiction Philosophy Feminist philosophy Photography Music Jazz Punk rock In Shakespeare's works Religion Bahá'í Faith Bible Buddhism Christianity Catholicism Mormonism Opus Dei Daoism Hinduism Islam Judaism Sikhism Popular culture Comics Portrayal in American comics Film industry Music Fictional pirates Speculative fiction Video games Gender representation in video games Sports Auto racing Baseball Basketball Boxing Cricket Curling Cycling Fastpitch softball Football / soccer Golf Gymnastics Ice hockey Lacrosse Mixed martial arts Netball Paralympic Games Rodeo Roller derby Rowing Surfing Swimming Tennis Track and field Volleyball Winter sport See also: List of sports By country Afghanistan Albania Algeria Andorra Angola Argentina Armenia Australia Azerbaijan Bahrain Bangladesh Belgium Benin Bhutan Bolivia Bosnia Brazil Brunei Bulgaria Burma Cambodia Chad Chile China Colombia Comoros Croatia Cuba Cyprus (North) Denmark DR Congo Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt El Salvador East Timor Ethiopia FS Micronesia Fiji Finland France Georgia Germany Ghana Greece Guatemala Guyana Haiti Honduras Iceland Italy India Indonesia Iran Iraq Israel Ivory Coast Japan Jordan Kazakhstan Kenya Kiribati Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Laos Lebanon Libya Madagascar Malaysia Maldives Mali Marshall Islands Mauritania Mauritius Mexico Mongolia Morocco Nepal New Zealand Niger Nigeria North Korea Oman Pakistan Palau Panama Paraguay Peru Philippines Poland Portugal Puerto Rico Qatar Russia Saudi Arabia Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Singapore Spain Somalia South Africa South Korea South Sudan Sudan Suriname Sri Lanka Sweden Syria Taiwan Tajikistan Thailand Tonga Tunisia Turkey Turkmenistan Tuvalu Trinidad and Tobago Uganda Ukraine United Arab Emirates United Kingdom United States Uruguay Uzbekistan Vanuatu Venezuela Vietnam Yemen v t e Freeborn women in ancient Rome were citizens (cives),[2] but could not vote or hold political office.[3] Because of their limited public role, women are named less frequently than men by Roman historians. But while Roman women held no direct political power, those from wealthy or powerful families could and did exert influence through private negotiations.[4] Exceptional women who left an undeniable mark on history range from Lucretia and Claudia Quinta, whose stories took on mythic significance; fierce Republican-era women such as Cornelia, mother of the Gracchi, and Fulvia, who commanded an army and issued coins bearing her image; women of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, most prominently Livia (58 BC-AD 29) and Agrippina the Younger (15 AD-59 AD), who contributed to the formation of Imperial mores; and the empress Helena (c.250–330 AD), a driving force in promoting Christianity.[5] As is the case with male members of society, elite women and their politically significant deeds eclipse those of lower status in the historical record. Inscriptions and especially epitaphs document the names of a wide range of women throughout the Roman Empire, but often tell little else about them. Some vivid snapshots of daily life are preserved in Latin literary genres such as comedy, satire, and poetry, particularly the poems of Catullus and Ovid, which offer glimpses of women in Roman dining rooms and boudoirs, at sporting and theatrical events, shopping, putting on makeup, practicing magic, worrying about pregnancy — all, however, through male eyes.[6] The published letters of Cicero, for instance, reveal informally how the self-proclaimed great man interacted on the domestic front with his wife Terentia and daughter Tullia, as his speeches demonstrate through disparagement the various ways Roman women could enjoy a free-spirited sexual and social life.[7] The one major public role reserved solely for women was in the sphere of religion: the priestly office of the Vestals. Forbidden from marriage or sex for a period of thirty years, the Vestals devoted themselves to the study and correct observance of rituals which were deemed necessary for the security and survival of Rome but which could not be performed by the male colleges of priests.[8] Contents 1 Childhood and education 2 Women in the family and law 2.1 Always a daughter 3 Women and sexuality 3.1 Augustus's campaign on women and the family 3.2 Women and the law 3.3 Marriage 3.3.1 Divorce 3.3.2 Remarriage 3.3.3 Concubinage 3.3.4 Domestic abuse 3.4 Motherhood 4 Daily life 4.1 In business 4.2 In politics 4.3 Women and the military 4.4 Religious life 4.5 Social activities 4.6 Attire and adornment 4.6.1 Body image 4.7 Mos maiorum and the love poets 4.8 Gynecology and medicine 5 Slavery 6 Prostitution 7 See also 8 References 9 Bibliography 10 Further reading 11 External links Childhood and education[edit] Roman girls playing a game Childhood and upbringing in ancient Rome were determined by social status. Roman children played a number of games, and their toys are known from archaeology and literary sources. Animal figures were popular, and some children kept live animals and birds as pets.[9] In Roman art, girls are shown playing many of the same games as boys, such as ball, hoop-rolling, and knucklebones. Dolls are sometimes found in the tombs of those who died before adulthood. The figures are typically 15–16 cm tall, with jointed limbs, and made of materials such as wood, terracotta, and especially bone and ivory. Girls coming of age dedicated their dolls to Diana, the goddess most concerned with girlhood, or to Venus when they were preparing for marriage.[10] Noble girls were known to marry as young as 12 years of age,[11] whereas females in the lower classes were more likely to marry slightly further into their teenage years.[12][13] An example of the marriage age of noble females can be seen with Cicero's lifelong friend Atticus, who married his daughter Caecilia Attica to Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa when she was 14.[13] Bronze statuette of the 1st century depicting a girl reading Girls were expected to safeguard their chastity, modesty and reputation, in preparation for eventual marriage.[14] The light regulation of marriage by the law with regards to minimum age (12) and consent to marriage was designed to leave families, primarily fathers, with much freedom to propel girls into marriage whenever and with whomever they saw fit. Marriage facilitated a partnership between the father and prospective husbands, and enabled the formation of a mutually beneficial alliance with both political and economic incentives at heart.[15] The social regime, geared towards early marriage and implemented through children's education and upbringing, was particularly restrictive for girls.[14] Some, perhaps many, girls went to a public primary school, however there is some evidence to suggest that girls’ education was limited to this elementary school level. It has been inferred that individual school tutoring of girls at home was led by concerns about threats to girls’ modesty in coeducational classrooms.[16] Ovid and Martial imply that boys and girls were educated either together or similarly, and Livy takes it for granted that the daughter of a centurion would be in school.[17] However many other historians and philosophers, such as Epictetus, suggest that the educational system, particularly rhetorical training, was preoccupied with the development of masculine virtue; with male teenagers performing school exercises in public speaking about Roman values.[18] Children of both genders learned to behave socially by attending dinner parties or other, less elitist events. Both genders participated in religious festivals; for example, at the Secular Games of 17 BC, the Carmen Saeculare was sung by a choir of girls and boys.[19] Children were made into virtuous adults through scholastic means, with curriculum, language, literature, and philosophy teaching moral precepts. Children of the elite were taught Greek as well as Latin from an early age.[20] Among the upper classes, women seem to have been well-educated, some highly so, and were sometimes praised by the male historians for their learning and cultivation.[21] Some women became socially prominent, and even relatively independent.[22] Cornelia Metella, the young wife of Pompey the Great at the time of his death, was distinguished for her musicianship and her knowledge of geometry, literature, and philosophy.[23] This degree of learning indicates formal preparation, however among the lower classes education was limited and strongly geared towards the course of marriage, and performing the tasks of the female within the household.[24] Elite families poured money into their daughters literary and virtue training to equip them with skills that would appeal to prospective husbands. Epictetus suggests that at the age of 14, girls were considered to be on the brink of womanhood, and beginning to understand the inevitability of their future role as wives. They learned modesty through explicit instruction and upbringing.[25] The lives of boys and girls began to diverge dramatically after they formally came of age,[26] and memorials to women recognize their domestic qualities far more often than intellectual achievements.[27] The skills a Roman matron needed to run a household required training, and mothers probably passed on their knowledge to their daughters in a manner appropriate to their station in life, given the emphasis in Roman society on traditionalism.[28] Virginity and sexual purity was a culturally valued quality, and considered vital for the stability of both family and state. The rape of an unmarried girl posed a threat to her reputation and marriageability, and the penalty of death was sometimes imposed on the unchaste daughter.[29] The Emperor Augustus introduced marriage legislation, the Lex Papia Poppaea, which rewarded marriage and childbearing. The legislation also imposed penalties on young persons who failed to marry and on those who committed adultery. Therefore, marriage and childbearing was made law between the ages of twenty-five and sixty for men, and twenty and fifty for women.[30] Women in the family and law[edit] Always a daughter[edit] See also: Pater familias Both daughters and sons were subject to patria potestas, the power wielded by their father as head of household (familia). A Roman household was considered a collective (corpus, a "body") over which the pater familias had mastery (dominium). Slaves, who had no legal standing, were part of the household as property. In the early Empire, the legal standing of daughters differed little if at all from that of sons.[31] If the father died without a will, the right of a daughter to share in the family property was equal to that of a son, though legislation in the 2nd century BCE had attempted to limit this right. Even apart from legal status, daughters seem no less esteemed within the Roman family than sons, though sons were expected to ensure family standing by following their fathers into public life.[32] Bust of a Roman girl, early 3rd century The pater familias had the right and duty to find a husband for his daughter,[33] and first marriages were normally arranged. Technically, the couple had to be old enough to consent, but the age of consent was 12 for girls and 14 for boys, though in practice boys seem to have been on average five years older. Among the elite, 14 was the age of transition from childhood to adolescence,[34] but a betrothal might be arranged for political reasons when the couple were too young to marry,[11] and in general noble women married younger than women of the lower classes. Most Roman women would have married in their late teens to early twenties. An aristocratic girl was expected to be a virgin when she married, as her young age might indicate.[35] A daughter could legitimately refuse a match made by her parents only by showing that the proposed husband was of bad character.[36] In the early Republic, the bride became subject to her husband's potestas, but to a lesser degree than their children.[37] By the early Empire, however, a daughter's legal relationship to her father remained unchanged when she married, even though she moved into her husband's home.[38] This arrangement was one of the factors in the degree of independence Roman women enjoyed relative to those of many other ancient cultures and up to the early modern period: although she had to answer to her father legally, she didn't conduct her daily life under his direct scrutiny,[39] and her husband had no legal power over her.[38] A daughter was expected to be deferential toward her father and to remain loyal to him, even if it meant having to differ with her husbands.[40] "Deference" was not always absolute. After arranging his daughter's first two marriages, Cicero disapproved — rightly, as it turned out — of her choice to marry the unreliable Dolabella, but found himself unable to prevent it.[41] A daughter kept her own family name (nomen) for life, not assuming that of her husband. Children usually took the father's name. In the Imperial period, however, children might sometimes make their mother's family name part of theirs, or even adopt it instead.[42] Women and sexuality[edit] From the start of the Roman republic, there was a high emphasis placed on a woman's virginity. Pudicitia (chastity) was a goddess of feminine purity, and was worshipped by Roman women. Only those who were virgins were allowed to enter the temple.[43] A woman's sexual life began with the consummation of her marriage in her husband's cubiculum, or private room where slaves did not enter. In Roman houses it was common for men and women to each have their own cubicula, allowing potential for them to engage in sex lives separate from each other. While it was expected that women should only have sexual relations with their husbands, it was common for men to have many sexual partners throughout his life.[43] After marriage, women were scrutinized in the household to prevent any adulterous behavior. For example, Julius Caesar's second wife, Pompeia, highlights this point well as she attempted to have private relations with Publius Clodius. Julius Caesar's mother, Aurelia, monitored Pompeia's actions and prevented their private meetings. The mere possibility of Pompeia committing adultery caused Caesar to divorce her.[44] Augustus's campaign on women and the family[edit] The obsession with a woman's purity, and her role as a faithful wife and dutiful mother in the family increased during the reign of Augustus. This general campaign to improve family dynamics began in 18–17 BC.[45] Augustus' new laws targeted both men and women between the ages of 20-55, who were rewarded for being in healthy relationships, and punished if not married and without children. Additionally, Augustus enforced the divorce and punishment of adulterous wives. Women under his rule could be punished in the courts for adultery and banished. This shifted a woman's body and relationships from being private, to become a public matter that could be regulated. Therefore, the palace was secured and driven by this idea that women would be returned to their proper places as chaste wives and mothers, and thus household order would be restored. Augustus went so far as to punish and exile his own daughter, Julia, for engaging in extramarital affairs.[45] Women and the law[edit] There never was a case in court in which the quarrel was not started by a woman. If Manilia is not a defendant, she'll be the plaintiff; she will herself frame and adjust the pleadings; she will be ready to instruct Celsus himself how to open his case, and how to urge his points. — Juvenal, Satire VI Although the rights and status of women in the earliest period of Roman history were more restricted than in the late Republic and Empire, as early as the 5th century BC, Roman women could own land, write their own wills, and appear in court. The historian Valerius Maximus devotes a section of his work On Memorable Deeds and Speeches to women who conducted cases on their own behalf, or on behalf of others.[46] These women got to show their ability as orators in the courtroom at a time when oratory was considered a defining pursuit of the most ambitious Roman men. One of these, Maesia Sentinas,[47] is identified by her origin in the town of Sentinum, and not, as was customary, by her relation to a man. The independent Maesia spoke in her own defense, and was acquitted almost unanimously after only a short trial because she spoke with such strength and effectiveness. Since these characteristics were considered masculine, however, the historian opined that under her feminine appearance, she had a "virile spirit," and thereafter she was called "the Androgyne."[48] Roman fresco of a maiden reading a text, Pompeian Fourth Style (60–79 AD), Pompeii, Italy Maesia's ability to present a case "methodically and vigorously" suggests that while women didn't plead regularly in open court, they had experience in private declamation and family court.[49] Afrania,[50] the wife of a senator during the time of Sulla, appeared so frequently before the praetor who presided over the court, even though she had male advocates who could have spoken for her, that she was accused of calumnia, malicious prosecution. An edict was consequently enacted that prohibited women from bringing claims on behalf of others, on the grounds that it jeopardized their pudicitia, the modesty appropriate to one's station.[51] It has been noted[52] that while women were often impugned for their feeblemindedness and ignorance of the law, and thus in need of protection by male advocates, in reality actions were taken to restrict their influence and effectiveness. Despite this specific restriction, there are numerous examples of women taking informed actions in legal matters in the Late Republic and Principate, including dictating legal strategy to their advocate behind the scenes.[53] An emancipated woman legally became sui iuris, or her own person, and could own property and dispose of it as she saw fit. If a pater familias died intestate, the law required the equal division of his estate amongst his children, regardless of their age and sex. A will that did otherwise, or emancipated any family member without due process of law, could be challenged.[54] From the late Republic onward, a woman who inherited a share equal with her brothers would have been independent of agnatic control.[55] As in the case of minors, an emancipated woman had a legal guardian (tutor) appointed to her. She retained her powers of administration, however, and the guardian's main if not sole purpose was to give formal consent to actions.[56] The guardian had no say in her private life, and a woman sui iuris could marry as she pleased.[57] A woman also had certain avenues of recourse if she wished to replace an obstructive tutor.[58] Under Augustus, a woman who had gained the ius liberorum, the legal right to certain privileges after bearing three children, was also released from guardianship,[59] and the emperor Claudius banned agnatic guardianship. The role of guardianship as a legal institution gradually diminished, and by the 2nd century CE the jurist Gaius said he saw no reason for it.[60] The Christianization of the Empire, beginning with the conversion of the Emperor Constantine in the early 4th century, eventually had consequences for the legal status of women. Marriage[edit] Main article: Marriage in ancient Rome Roman couple in the ceremonial joining of hands; the bride's knotted belt symbolized that her husband was "belted and bound" to her.[61] 4th century sarcophagus Family tomb inscriptions of respectable Romans suggest that the ideal Roman marriage was one of mutual loyalty, in which husband and wife shared interests, activities, and property.[62] In the earliest period of the Roman Republic, a bride passed from her father's control into the "hand" (manus) of her husband. She then became subject to her husband's potestas, though to a lesser degree than their children.[63] In the earliest periods of Roman history, Manus Marriage meant that a married woman would be subjugated by her husband, but that custom had died out by the 1st century BCE, in favor of Free Marriage which did not grant a husband any rights over his wife or have any changing effect on a woman's status.[64] During the classical era of Roman law, marriage required no ceremony, but only a mutual will and agreement to live together in harmony. Marriage ceremonies, contracts, and other formalities were meant only to prove that a couple had, in fact, married. Under early or archaic Roman law, marriages were of three kinds: confarreatio, symbolized by the sharing of bread (panis farreus); coemptio, "by purchase"; and usus, by mutual cohabitation. Patricians always married by confarreatio, while plebeians married by the latter two kinds. In marriage by usus, if a woman was absent for three consecutive nights at least once a year, she would avoid her husband establishing legal control over her. This differed from the Athenian custom of arranged marriage and sequestered wives who were not supposed to walk in the street unescorted. The form of marriage known as manus was the norm in the early Republic, but became less frequent thereafter.[65] Under this early form of marriage, the bride passed into the "hand" (manus) of her husband; that is, she was transferred from the potestas of her father to that of her husband. Her dowry, any inheritance rights transferred through her marriage, and any property acquired by her after marriage belonged to him. Husbands could divorce on grounds of adultery, and a few cases of divorce for a wife's infertility are recorded.[66] Manus marriage was an unequal relationship; it changed a woman’s intestate heirs from her siblings to her children, not because she was their mother, but because in law her position was the same as that of a daughter to her husband. Under manus, women were expected to obey their husbands in almost all aspects of their lives. This archaic form of manus marriage was largely abandoned by the time of Julius Caesar, when a woman remained under her father's authority by law even when she moved into her husband's home. This arrangement was one of the factors in the independence Roman women enjoyed relative to those of many other ancient cultures and up to the modern period:[67] So-called "free" marriage caused no change in personal status for either the wife or the husband.[68] Free marriage usually involved two citizens, or a citizen and a person who held Latin rights, and in the later Imperial period and with official permission, soldier-citizens and non-citizens. In a free marriage a bride brought a dowry to the husband: if the marriage ended with no cause of adultery he returned most of it.[69] So total was the law's separation of property that gifts between spouses were not recognized as such; if a couple divorced or even lived apart, the giver could reclaim the gift.[70] Divorce[edit] Fresco of a seated woman from Stabiae, 1st century AD Divorce was a legal but relatively informal affair which mainly involved a wife leaving her husband’s house and taking back her dowry. According to the historian Valerius Maximus, divorces were taking place by 604 BCE or earlier, and the law code as embodied in the mid-5th century BCE by the Twelve Tables provides for divorce. Divorce was socially acceptable if carried out within social norms (mos maiorum). By the time of Cicero and Julius Caesar, divorce was relatively common and "shame-free," the subject of gossip rather than a social disgrace.[71] Valerius says that Lucius Annius was disapproved of because he divorced his wife without consulting his friends; that is, he undertook the action for his own purposes and without considering its effects on his social network (amicitia and clientela). The censors of 307 BCE thus expelled him from the Senate for moral turpitude. Elsewhere, however, it is claimed that the first divorce took place only in 230 BCE, at which time Dionysius of Halicarnassus notes[72] that "Spurius Carvilius, a man of distinction, was the first to divorce his wife" on grounds of infertility. This was most likely the Spurius Carvilius Maximus Ruga who was consul in 234 and 228 BCE. The evidence is confused.[73] During the classical period of Roman law (late Republic and Principate), a man or woman[74] could end a marriage simply because he or she wanted to, and for no other reason. Unless the wife could prove the spouse was worthless, he kept the children. Because property had been kept separate during the marriage, divorce from a "free" marriage was a very easy procedure.[75] Remarriage[edit] Heracles and Omphale, Roman fresco, Pompeian Fourth Style (45–79 AD), Naples National Archaeological Museum, Italy The frequency of remarriage among the elite was high. Speedy remarriage was not unusual, and perhaps even customary, for aristocratic Romans after the death of a spouse.[76] While no formal waiting period was dictated for a widower, it was customary for a woman to remain in mourning for ten months before remarrying.[77] The duration may allow for pregnancy: if a woman had become pregnant just before her husband's death, the period of ten months ensures that no question of paternity, which might affect the child's social status and inheritance, would attach to the birth.[78] No law prohibited pregnant women from marrying, and there are well-known instances: Augustus married Livia when she was carrying her former husband's child, and the College of Pontiffs ruled that it was permissible as long as the child's father was determined first. Livia's previous husband even attended the wedding.[79] Because elite marriages often occurred for reasons of politics or property, a widow or divorcée with assets in these areas faced few obstacles to remarrying. She was far more likely to be legally emancipated than a first-time bride, and to have a say in the choice of husband. The marriages of Fulvia, who commanded troops during the last civil war of the Republic and who was the first Roman woman to have her face on a coin, are thought to indicate her own political sympathies and ambitions: she was married first to the popularist champion Clodius Pulcher, who was murdered in the street after a long feud with Cicero; then to Scribonius Curio, a figure of less ideological certitude who at the time of his death had come over to Julius Caesar; and finally to Mark Antony, the last opponent to the republican oligarchs and to Rome's future first emperor. The Greek observer Plutarch indicates that a second wedding among Romans was likely to be a quieter affair, as a widow would still feel the absence of her dead husband, and a divorcée ought to feel shame.[80] But while the circumstances of divorce might be shameful or embarrassing, and remaining married to the same person for life was ideal, there was no general disapproval of remarriage; on the contrary, marriage was considered the right and desirable condition of adult life for both men and women.[81] Cato the Younger, who presented himself as a paragon modeled after his moral namesake, allowed his pregnant wife Marcia to divorce him and marry Hortensius, declining to offer his young daughter to the 60-year-old orator instead. After the widowed Marcia inherited considerable wealth, Cato married her again, in a ceremony lacking many of the formalities.[82] Women might be mocked, however, for marrying too often or capriciously, particularly if it could be implied that sexual appetites and vanity were motives.[83] Concubinage[edit] Further information: Concubinage in ancient Rome Roman fresco with a banquet scene from the Casa dei Casti Amanti, Pompeii A concubine was defined by Roman law as a woman living in a permanent monogamous relationship with a man not her husband.[84] There was no dishonor in being a concubine or living with a concubine, and a concubine could become a wife.[85] Gifts could be exchanged between the partners in concubinage, in contrast to marriage, which maintained a more defined separation of property. Couples usually resorted to concubinage when inequality of social rank was an obstacle to marriage: for instance, a man of senatorial rank, and a woman who was a social inferior, such as a freedwoman or one who had a questionable background of poverty or prostitution.[86] Two partners who lacked the right to the form of legal marriage known as conubium might enter into concubinage, or even a highborn woman who loved a man of low social status.[87] Concubinage differed from marriage chiefly in the status of children born from the relationship. Children had their mother's social rank, and not as was customary their father's. Domestic abuse[edit] A maenad with a cupid in her arms, fresco, 1st century AD Classical Roman law did not allow any domestic abuse by a husband to his wife,[88] but as with any other crime, laws against domestic abuse can be assumed to fail to prevent it. Cato the Elder said, according to his biographer Plutarch, "that the man who struck his wife or child, laid violent hands on the holiest of holy things. Also that he thought it more praiseworthy to be a good husband than a good senator."[89] A man of status during the Roman Republic was expected to behave moderately toward his wife and to define himself as a good husband. Wife beating was sufficient grounds for divorce or other legal action against the husband.[90] Domestic abuse enters the historical record mainly when it involves the egregious excesses of the elite. The Emperor Nero was alleged to have had his first wife (and stepsister) Claudia Octavia murdered, after subjecting her to torture and imprisonment. Nero then married his pregnant mistress Poppaea Sabina, whom he kicked to death for criticizing him.[91] Some modern historians believe that Poppaea died from a miscarriage or childbirth, and that the story was exaggerated to vilify Nero. The despised Commodus is supposed also to have killed his wife and his sister.[92] Motherhood[edit] Mother nursing an infant in the presence of the father, detail from a young boy's sarcophagus ca. 150 CE Roman wives were expected to bear children, but the women of the aristocracy, accustomed to a degree of independence, showed a growing disinclination to devote themselves to traditional motherhood. By the 1st century CE, most elite women avoided breast-feeding their infants themselves, and hired wet-nurses.[93] The practice was not uncommon as early as the 2nd century BCE, when the comic playwright Plautus mentions wet-nurses casually.[94] Since a mother's milk was considered best for the baby,[95] aristocratic women might still choose to breast-feed, unless physical reasons prevented it.[96] If a woman chose to forgo nursing her own child she could visit the Columna Lactaria ("Milk Column"), where poor parents could obtain milk for their infants as charity from wet nurses, and those who could afford it could choose to hire a wet nurse.[97] Licinia, the wife of Cato the Elder (d. 149 BCE), is reported to have nursed not only her son, but sometimes the infants of her slaves, to encourage "brotherly affection" among them.[98] By the time of Tacitus (d. 117 CE), breastfeeding by elite matrons was idealized as a practice of the virtuous old days.[99] Large families were not the norm among the elite even by the Late Republic; the family of Clodius Pulcher, who had at least three sisters and two brothers, was considered unusual.[100] The birth rate among the aristocracy declined to such an extent that the first Roman emperor Augustus (reigned 27 BCE–14 CE) passed a series of laws intended to increase it, including special honors for women who bore at least three children (the ius trium liberorum).[101] Those who were unmarried, divorced, widowed, or barren were prohibited from inheriting property unless named in a will.[102] The extent to which Roman women might expect their husbands to participate in the rearing of very young children seems to vary and is hard to determine. Family-values traditionalists such as Cato appear to have taken an interest: Cato liked to be present when his wife bathed and swaddled their child.[103] Roman women were not only valued for the number of children that they produced, but also for their part in raising and educating children to become good citizens. To rear children for successful lives, an exemplary Roman mother needed to be well-educated herself.[104] One of the Roman women most famous for their strength and influence as a mother was Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi. Julius Caesar, whose father died when he was only a young teen, had a close relationship with his mother, Aurelia, whose political clout was essential in preventing the execution of her 18-year-old son during the proscriptions of Sulla. Daily life[edit] Left image: Wall painting from the Vila San Marco, Stabiae, 1st century Right image: A woman fixing her hair in the mirror, fresco from the Villa of Arianna at Stabiae, 1st century AD Aristocratic women managed a large and complex household. Since wealthy couples often owned multiple homes and country estates with dozens or even hundreds of slaves, some of whom were educated and highly skilled, this responsibility was the equivalent of running a small corporation. In addition to the social and political importance of entertaining guests, clients, and visiting dignitaries from abroad, the husband held his morning business meetings (salutatio) at home.[105] The home (domus) was also the center of the family's social identity, with ancestral portraits displayed in the entrance hall (atrium). Since the most ambitious aristocratic men were frequently away from home on military campaign or administrative duty in the provinces, sometimes for years at a time, the maintenance of the family's property and business decisions were often left to the wives; for instance, while Julius Caesar was away from Rome throughout the 50s BCE, his wife Calpurnia was responsible for taking care of his assets. When Ovid, Rome's greatest living poet, was exiled by Augustus in 8 CE, his wife exploited social connections and legal maneuvers to hold on to the family's property, on which their livelihood depended.[106] Ovid expresses his love and admiration for her lavishly in the poetry he wrote during his exile.[107] Frugality, parsimony, and austerity were characteristics of the virtuous matron.[108] One of the most important tasks for women is to oversee in a large household was clothing production. In the early Roman period, the spinning of wool was a central domestic occupation, and indicated a family's self-sufficiency, since the wool would be produced on their estates. Even in an urban setting, wool was often a symbol of a wife's duties, and equipment for spinning might appear on the funeral monument of a woman to show that she was a good and honorable matron.[109] Even women of the upper classes were expected to be able to spin and weave in virtuous emulation of their rustic ancestors — a practice ostentatiously observed by Livia. In business[edit] "One of the most curious characteristics of that age," observed French classical scholar Gaston Boissier, "was that the women appear as much engaged in business and as interested in speculations as the men. Money is their first care. They work their estates, invest their funds, lend and borrow. We find one among Cicero's creditors, and two among his debtors."[110] Although Roman society did not allow women to gain official political power, it did allow them to enter business.[111] Even women of wealth were not supposed to be idle ladies of leisure. Among the aristocracy, women as well as men lent money to their peers to avoid resorting to a moneylender. When Pliny was considering buying an estate, he factored in a loan from his mother-in-law as a guarantee rather than an option.[112] Women also joined in funding public works, as is frequently documented by inscriptions during the Imperial period. The "lawless" Politta, who appears in the Martyrdom of Pionius, owned estates in the province of Asia. Inscriptions record her generosity in funding the renovation of the Sardis gymnasium.[113] Because women had the right to own property, they might engage in the same business transactions and management practices as any landowner. As with their male counterparts, their management of slaves appears to have varied from relative care to negligence and outright abuse. During the First Servile War, Megallis and her husband Damophilus were both killed by their slaves on account of their brutality, but their daughter was spared because of her kindness and granted safe passage out of Sicily, along with an armed escort.[114] Women and a man working alongside one another at a dye shop (fullonica), on a wall painting from Pompeii Unlike landholding, industry was not considered an honorable profession for those of senatorial rank. Cicero suggested that in order to gain respectability a merchant should buy land. Attitudes changed during the Empire, however, and Claudius created legislation to encourage the upper classes to engage in shipping. Women of the upper classes are documented as owning and running shipping corporations. Trade and manufacturing are not well represented in Roman literature, which was produced for and largely by the elite, but funerary inscriptions sometimes record the profession of the deceased, including women.[115] Women are known to have owned and operated brick factories.[116] A woman might develop skills to complement her husband's trade, or manage aspects of his business. Artemis the gilder was married to Dionysius the helmet maker, as indicated by a curse tablet asking for the destruction of their household, workshop, work, and livelihood.[117] The status of ordinary women who owned a business seems to have been regarded as exceptional. Laws during the Imperial period aimed at punishing women for adultery exempted those "who have charge of any business or shop" from prosecution.[118] Some typical occupations for a woman would be wet nurse, actress, dancer or acrobat, prostitute, and midwife — not all of equal respectability.[119] Prostitutes and performers such as actresses were stigmatized as infames, people who had recourse to few legal protections even if they were free.[120] Inscriptions indicate that a woman who was a wet nurse (nutrix) would be quite proud of her occupation.[121] Women could be scribes and secretaries, including "girls trained for beautiful writing," that is, calligraphers.[122] Pliny gives a list of female artists and their paintings.[123] Most Romans lived in insulae (apartment buildings), and those housing the poorer plebeian and non-citizen families usually lacked kitchens. The need to buy prepared food meant that takeaway food was a thriving business. Most of the Roman poor, whether male or female, young or old, earned a living through their own labour. In politics[edit] The heroic suicide of Porcia, daughter of Cato and wife of Brutus, as pictured by Pierre Mignard Men argued firmly to block women from engaging in the public sphere. The political system in ancient Rome involved men exclusively—from senators to magistrates. Women were even prevented from voting. They were not seen as fit to be part of the political sphere as men believed them to be only suited for "elegance, adornment, and finery."[43] However, elite women could manipulate their husbands and through them exercise control over the political world. In some cases, women were viewed as a threat to male rule. Cato the Censor went so far as to prevent boys from attending senatorial meetings in fear that they would relay the news to their inquisitive mothers.[124] During the civil wars that ended the Republic, Appian reports the heroism of wives who saved their husbands. An epitaph known as the Laudatio Turiae preserves a husband's eulogy for his wife, who during the civil war following the death of Julius Caesar endangered her own life and relinquished her jewelry to send support to her husband in exile.[125] Both survived the turbulence of the time to enjoy a long marriage. Porcia, the daughter of Cato the Younger and wife of Brutus the assassin, came to a less fortunate but (in the eyes of her time) heroic end: she killed herself as the Republic collapsed, just as her father did. The rise of Augustus to sole power in the last decades of the 1st century BCE diminished the power of political officeholders and the traditional oligarchy, but did nothing to diminish and arguably increased the opportunities for women, as well as slaves and freedmen, to exercise influence behind the scenes.[126] Before this point, women's political power was extremely curtailed compared to the power men held by preventing their right to vote. However, starting with Augustus' rule, the inability to vote no longer mattered because the senate lost its power. Additionally, the shift from the forum to the palace allowed for women who lived there to gain an upper hand in influencing politics.[43] One notable woman was Livia Drusilla Augusta (58 BCE – CE 29), the wife of Augustus and the most powerful woman in the early Roman Empire, acting several times as regent and being Augustus' faithful advisor. Several women of the Imperial family, such as Livia's great-granddaughter and Caligula's sister Agrippina the Younger, gained political influence as well as public prominence. Women also participated in efforts to overthrow emperors, predominantly for personal gain. Shortly after Caligula's sister Drusilla died, her widower Marcus Aemilius Lepidus and her sisters Agrippina the Younger and Livilla conspired to overthrow Caligula. The plot was discovered, and Lepidus was executed. Agrippina and Livilla were exiled, and returned from exile only when their paternal uncle Claudius came to power after Caligula's assassination in 41 CE. In turn, Claudius's third wife Valeria Messalina conspired with Gaius Silius to overthrow her husband in the hope of installing herself and her lover in power. Tacitus immortalized the woman Epicharis for her part in the Pisonian conspiracy, where she attempted to gain the support of the Roman fleet and was instead arrested.[127] Once the conspiracy was uncovered, she would reveal nothing even under torture, in contrast to the senators, who were not subjected to torture and yet raced to spill the details. Tacitus also praises Egnatia Maximilla for sacrificing her fortune in order to stand by her innocent husband against Nero.[128] According to the Historia Augusta (Elagabalus 4.2 and 12.3) emperor Elagabalus had his mother or grandmother take part in Senate proceedings. "And Elagabalus was the only one of all the emperors under whom a woman attended the senate like a man, just as though she belonged to the senatorial order" (David Magie's translation). According to the same work, Elagabalus also established a women's senate called the senaculum, which enacted rules to be applied to matrons, regarding clothing, chariot riding, the wearing of jewelry etc. (Elagabalus 4.3 and Aurelian 49.6). Before this, Agrippina the Younger, mother of Nero, had been listening to Senate proceedings, concealed behind a curtain, according to Tacitus (Annales, 13.5). Women and the military[edit] Classical texts have little to say about women and the Roman army. Emperor Augustus (reigned 27 BC–AD 14) disallowed marriage by ordinary soldiers, a ban that lasted nearly two centuries. However it has been suggested that wives and children of centurions lived with them at border and provincial forts.[129] Shoes in women's and children's sizes were found at Vindolanda[130] (site of a Roman fort on Hadrian's wall in northern England), along with bronze plaques, awarded to provincial soldiers whose 25 years of service earned them Roman citizenship, that mention their wives and children. Likewise, in Germany, further evidence of this practice was discovered in the form of brooches and shoes. Trajan's Column depicts six women amongst the soldiers who are attendants holding sacrificial offerings at a military religious ceremony.[131] Religious life[edit] Ruins of the House of the Vestals, with pedestals for statuary in the foreground Women were present at most Roman festivals and cult observances. Some rituals specifically required the presence of women, but their participation might be limited. As a rule women did not perform animal sacrifice, the central rite of most major public ceremonies,[132] though this was less a matter of prohibition than the fact that most priests presiding over state religion were men.[133] Some cult practices were reserved for women only, for example, the rites of the Good Goddess (Bona Dea).[134] Women priests played a prominent and crucial role in the official religion of Rome. Although the state colleges of male priests were far more numerous, the six women of the college of Vestals were Rome's only "full-time professional clergy."[135] Sacerdos, plural sacerdotes, was the Latin word for a priest of either gender. Religious titles for women include sacerdos, often in relation to a deity or temple, such as a sacerdos Cereris or Cerealis, "priestess of Ceres", an office never held by men;[136] magistra, a high priestess, female expert or teacher in religious matters; and ministra, a female assistant, particularly one in service to a deity. A magistra or ministra would have been responsible for the regular maintenance of a cult. Epitaphs provide the main evidence for these priesthoods, and the woman is often not identified in terms of her marital status.[137] The Vestals possessed unique religious distinction, public status and privileges, and could exercise considerable political influence. It was also possible for them to amass "considerable wealth."[138] Upon entering her office, a Vestal was emancipated from her father's authority. In archaic Roman society, these priestesses were the only women not required to be under the legal guardianship of a man, instead answering directly and only to the Pontifex Maximus.[139] Their vow of chastity freed them of the traditional obligation to marry and rear children, but its violation carried a heavy penalty: a Vestal found to have polluted her office by breaking her vow was given food, water, and entombed alive. The independence of the Vestals thus existed in relation to the prohibitions imposed on them. In addition to conducting certain religious rites, the Vestals participated at least symbolically in every official sacrifice, as they were responsible for preparing the required ritual substance mola salsa.[140] The Vestals seem to have retained their religious and social distinctions well into the 4th century CE, until the Christian emperors dissolved the order. A few priesthoods were held jointly by married couples. Marriage was a requirement for the Flamen Dialis, the high priest of Jupiter; his wife, the Flaminica Dialis, had her own unique priestly attire, and like her husband was placed under obscure magico-religious prohibitions. The flaminica was a perhaps exceptional case of a woman performing animal sacrifice; she offered a ram to Jupiter on each of the nundinae, the eight-day Roman cycle comparable to a week.[141] The couple were not permitted to divorce, and if the flaminica died the flamen had to resign his office. The Capitoline Triad of Minerva, Jupiter, and Juno Like the Flaminica Dialis, the regina sacrorum, "queen of the sacred rites," wore distinctive ceremonial dress and performed animal sacrifice, offering a sow or female lamb to Juno on the first day of each month.[142] The names of some reginae sacrorum are recorded by inscriptions.[143] The regina was the wife of the rex sacrorum, "king of the sacred rites," an archaic priesthood regarded in the earliest period as more prestigious than even the Pontifex Maximus.[144] These highly public official duties for women contradict the commonplace notion that women in ancient Rome took part only in private or domestic religion. The dual male-female priesthoods may reflect the Roman tendency to seek a gender complement within the religious sphere;[145] most divine powers are represented by both a male and a female deity, as seen in divine pairs such as Liber and Libera.[146] The twelve major gods were presented as six gender-balanced pairs,[147] and Roman religion departed from Indo-European tradition in installing two goddesses in its supreme triad of patron deities, Juno and Minerva along with Jupiter. This triad "formed the core of Roman religion."[148] Mosaic depicting masked actors in a play: two women consult a "witch" or private diviner From the Mid Republic onward, religious diversity became increasingly characteristic of the city of Rome. Many religions that were not part of Rome's earliest state cult offered leadership roles for women, among them the cult of Isis and of the Magna Mater. An epitaph preserves the title sacerdos maxima for a woman who held the highest priesthood of the Magna Mater's temple near the current site of St. Peter's Basilica.[149] Although less documented than public religion, private religious practices addressed aspects of life that were exclusive to women. At a time when the infant mortality rate was as high as 40 percent,[150] divine aid was solicited for the life-threatening act of giving birth and the perils of caring for a baby. Invocations were directed at the goddesses Juno, Diana, Lucina, the di nixi, and a host of divine attendants devoted to birth and childrearing. Male writers vary in their depiction of women's religiosity: some represent women as paragons of Roman virtue and devotion, but also inclined by temperament to excessive religious devotion, the lure of magic, or "superstition".[151] Nor was "private" the same as "secret": Romans were suspicious of secretive religious practices, and Cicero cautioned that nocturnal sacrifices were not to be performed by women, except for those ritually prescribed pro populo, on behalf of the Roman people, that is, for the public good.[152] Social activities[edit] Mosaic showing Roman women in various recreational activities Wealthy women traveled around the city in a litter carried by slaves.[153] Women gathered in the streets on a daily basis to meet with friends, attend religious rites at temples, or to visit the baths. The wealthiest families had private baths at home, but most people went to bath houses not only to wash but to socialize, as the larger facilities offered a range of services and recreational activities, among which casual sex was not excluded. One of the most vexed questions of Roman social life is whether the sexes bathed together in public. Until the late Republic, evidence suggests that women usually bathed in a separate wing or facility, or that women and men were scheduled at different times. But there is also clear evidence of mixed bathing from the late Republic until the rise of Christian dominance in the later Empire. Some scholars have thought that only lower-class women bathed with men, or those of dubious moral standing such as entertainers or prostitutes, but Clement of Alexandria observed that women of the highest social classes could be seen naked at the baths. Hadrian prohibited mixed bathing, but the ban seems not to have endured. Most likely, customs varied not only by time and place, but by facility, so that women could choose to segregate themselves by gender or not.[154] For entertainment women could attend debates at the Forum, the public games (ludi), chariot races, and theatrical performances. By the late Republic, they regularly attended dinner parties, though in earlier times the women of a household dined in private together.[155] Conservatives such as Cato the Censor (234–149 BCE) considered it improper for women to take a more active role in public life; his complaints indicated that indeed some women did voice their opinions in the public sphere.[156] Though the practice was discouraged, Roman generals would sometimes take their wives with them on military campaigns. Caligula's mother Agrippina the Elder often accompanied her husband Germanicus on his campaigns in northern Germania, and the emperor Claudius was born in Gaul for this reason. Wealthy women might tour the empire, often participating or viewing religious ceremonies and sites around the empire.[157] Rich women traveled to the countryside during the summer when Rome became too hot.[158] For more on how women fit into social classes in ancient Rome, see Social Class in ancient Rome. Attire and adornment[edit] Livia attired in a stola and palla See also: Cosmetics in ancient Rome and Clothing in ancient Rome Women in ancient Rome took great care in their appearance, though extravagance was frowned upon. They wore cosmetics and made different concoctions for their skin. Ovid even wrote a poem about the correct application of makeup. Women used white chalk or arsenic to whiten their faces, or rouge made of lead or carmine to add color to their cheeks as well as using lead to highlight their eyes.[159] They spent much time arranging their hair and often dyed it black, red, or blonde. They also wore wigs regularly.[160] Matrons usually wore two simple tunics for undergarments covered by a stola. The stola was a long white dress that was cinched at the waist and which fell to the wearer’s feet, secured by clasps at the shoulder. Wealthier women would decorate their stola further. When going out a woman wore a palla over her stola, which was held by a clasp at the shoulder.[161] Young women were not permitted to wear a stola, and instead wore tunics.[162] Prostitutes and those caught committing adultery put on the male toga.[163] Wealthy women wore jewels such as emeralds, aquamarine, opal, and pearls as earrings, necklaces, rings and sometimes sewn onto their shoes and clothing.[164] Exaggerated hairstyle of the Flavian period (80s–90s CE) In the aftermath of Roman defeat at Cannae, economic crisis provoked the passing of the Lex Oppia (215 BCE) to restrict personal and public extravagance. The law limited women's possession and display of gold and silver (as money or personal ornament), expensive clothing and their "unnecessary" use of chariots and litters. Victory over Carthage flooded Rome with wealth and in 195 BCE the Lex Oppia was reviewed. The ruling consul, Cato the Censor argued for its retention: personal morality and self-restraint were self-evidently inadequate controls on indulgence and luxury. Luxury provoked the envy and shame of those less well-off, and was therefore divisive. Roman women, in Cato's view, had showed only too clearly that their appetites once corrupted knew no limits, and must be restrained. Large numbers of Roman matrons thought otherwise, and made concerted public protest. In 193 BCE the laws were abolished: Cato's opposition did not harm his political career. Later, in 42 BCE, Roman women, led by Hortensia, successfully protested against laws designed to tax Roman women, by use of the argument of no taxation without representation.[165] Evidence of a lessening on luxury restrictions can also be found; one of the Letters of Pliny is addressed to the woman Pompeia Celerina praising the luxuries she keeps in her villa.[166] Body image[edit] Venus, goddess of beauty and love (2nd century) Based on Roman art and literature, small breasts and wide hips were the ideal body type for women considered alluring by Roman men.[167] Roman art from the Augustan period shows idealized women as substantial and fleshy, with a full abdomen and breasts that are rounded,[168] not pendulous.[169] Prostitutes depicted in Roman erotic art have fleshy bodies and wide hips, and often have their breasts covered by a strophium (a sort of strapless bra) even when otherwise nude and performing sex acts.[170] Large breasts were mocked as humorous or a sign of old age.[171] Young girls wore a strophium secured tightly in the belief that it would inhibit the growth of breasts,[172] and a regimen of massaging the breasts with hemlock, begun while a woman was still a virgin, was thought to prevent sagging.[173] Breasts receive relatively minimal attention in erotic art and literature as a sexual focus;[174] the breast was associated primarily with nursing infants and a woman's role as a mother.[175] In times of extreme emotional duress, such as mourning or captivity in wartime, women might bare their breasts as an apotropaic gesture.[176] Mos maiorum and the love poets[edit] See also: Sexuality in ancient Rome Romantic scene from a mosaic (Villa at Centocelle, Rome, 20 BCE–20 CE) During the late Republic penalties for sexuality were barely enforced if at all,[177] and a new erotic ideal of romantic relationship emerges. Subverting the tradition of male dominance, the love poets of the late Republic and Augustan era declared their eagerness to submit to "love slavery" (servitium amoris). Catullus addresses a number of poems to "Lesbia," a married woman with whom he has an affair, usually identified as a fictionalized Clodia, sister of the prominent popularist politician Clodius Pulcher. The affair ends badly, and Catullus's declarations of love turn to attacks on her sexual appetites — rhetoric that accords with the other hostile source on Clodia's behavior, Cicero's Pro Caelio. In The Art of Love, Ovid goes a step further, adopting the genre of didactic poetry for offering instruction in how to pursue, keep, and get over a lover. Satirists such as Juvenal complain about the dissolute behavior of women.[178] Gynecology and medicine[edit] The practices and views in the Hippocratic Corpus regarding women's bodies and their perceived weaknesses were inadequate for addressing the needs of women in the Hellenistic and Roman eras, when women led active lives and more often engaged in family planning. The physiology of women began to be seen as less alien to that of men.[179] In the older tradition, intercourse, pregnancy, and childbirth were not only central to women's health, but the raison d'être for female physiology;[180] men, by contrast, were advised to exercise moderation in their sexual behavior, since hypersexuality would cause disease and fatigue.[181] A female artist paints a statue of the phallic god Priapus The Hippocratic view that amenorrhea was fatal became by Roman times a specific issue of infertility, and was recognized by most Roman medical writers as a likely result when women engage in intensive physical regimens for extended periods of time. Balancing food, exercise, and sexual activity came to be regarded as a choice that women might make. The observation that intensive training was likely to result in amenorrhea implies that there were women who engaged in such regimens.[182] In the Roman era, medical writers saw a place for exercise in the lives of women in sickness and health. Soranus recommends playing ball, swimming, walking, reading aloud, riding in vehicles, and travel as recreation, which would promote overall good health.[183] In examining the causes of undesired childlessness, these later gynecological writers include information about sterility in men, rather than assuming some defect in the woman only.[184] Hypersexuality was to be avoided by women as well as men. An enlarged clitoris, like an oversized phallus,[185] was considered a symptom of excessive sexuality. Although Hellenistic and Roman medical and other writers refer to clitoridectomy as primarily an "Egyptian" custom, gynecological manuals under the Christian Empire in late antiquity propose that hypersexuality could be treated by surgery or repeated childbirth.[186] Slavery[edit] See also: Freedman and Manumission Left image: A young woman sits while a servant fixes her hair with the help of a cupid, who holds up a mirror to offer a reflection, detail of a fresco from the Villa of the Mysteries, Pompeii, c. 50 BC Right image: A floor mosaic of a woman dancer from the Villa Romana del Casale, 4th century AD Freedwomen were manumitted slaves. A freed slave owed a period of service, the terms of which might be agreed upon as a precondition of freedom, to her former owner, who became her patron. The patron had obligations in return, such as paying for said services and helping in legal matters. The patron-client relationship was one of the fundamental social structures of ancient Rome, and failure to fulfill one's obligations brought disapproval and censure. In most ways, freedwomen had the same legal status as freeborn women. But because under Roman law a slave had no father, freed slaves had no inheritance rights unless they were named in a will. The relationship of a former slave to her patron could be complicated. In one legal case, a woman named Petronia Iusta attempted to show — without a birth declaration to prove it — that she had been free-born. Her mother, she acknowledged, had been a slave in the household of Petronius Stephanus and Calatoria Themis, but Iusta maintained that she had been born after her mother's manumission. Calatoria, by now a widow, in turn argued that Iusta was born before her mother was free and that she had been manumitted, therefore owing her former owner the service due a patron. Calatoria could produce no documentation of this supposed manumission, and the case came down to the testimony of witnesses.[187] The status of freedwomen, like freedmen, varied widely. Caenis was a freedwoman and secretary to the Emperor Vespasian; she was also his concubine. He is said to have lived with her faithfully, but she was not considered a wife.[188] Prostitution[edit] Main article: Prostitution in ancient Rome Women could turn to prostitution to support themselves, but not all prostitutes had freedom to decide. There is some evidence that even slave prostitutes could benefit from their labor.[189] Although rape was a crime, the law only punished the rape of a slave if it "damaged the goods," because a slave had no legal standing. The penalty was aimed at providing her owner compensation for the "damage" of his property. Because a slave woman was considered property under Roman law, forcing her to be a prostitute was not considered a crime. Prior to Septimius Severus, women who engaged in acts that brought infamia to them as slaves also suffered infamia when freed.[190] Sometimes sellers of female slaves attached a ne serva clause to the slave to prevent her from being prostituted. The Ne Serva clause meant that if the new owner or any owner after him or her used the slave as a prostitute she would be free. Later on the ne serva agreements became enforceable by law.[191] Prostitution was not limited to slaves or poor citizens; according to Suetonius, Caligula when converting his palace into a brothel employed upper class "matrons and youths" as prostitutes. Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula, Tacitus records that during one of Nero's feasts the prefect Tigellinus had brothels filled with upper class women.[192] Prostitution could also be a punishment instead of an occupation; a law of Augustus allowed that women guilty of adultery could be sentenced to work in brothels as prostitutes. The law was abolished in 389.[193] See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal List of Roman women List of Roman birth and childhood deities Sexuality in ancient Rome Women in ancient Sparta Women in Classical Athens Women in ancient warfare References[edit] ^ Jasper Burns, "Sabina," in Great Women of Imperial Rome: Mothers and Wives of the Caesars (Routledge, 2007), pp. 124–140. ^ The form of Roman marriage called conubium, for instance, requires that both spouses be citizens; like men from towns granted civitas sine suffragio, women (at least those eligible for conubium) were citizens without suffrage. The legal status of a mother as a citizen affected her son's citizenship. All Roman citizens recognized as such by law did not hold equal rights and privileges, particularly in regard to holding high office. See A Casebook on Roman Family Law following, and A.N. Sherwin-White, Roman Citizenship (Oxford University Press, 1979), pp. 211 and 268 online (on male citizenship as it relates to marrying citizen women) et passim. ("children born of two Roman citizens") indicates that a Roman woman was regarded as having citizen status, in specific contrast to a peregrina. ^ Bruce W. Frier and Thomas A.J. McGinn, A Casebook on Roman Family Law (Oxford University Press: American Philological Association, 2004), pp. 31–32, 457, et passim. ^ Kristina Milnor, "Women in Roman Historiography," in The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Historians (Cambridge University Press, 2009), p. 278; Ann Ellis Hanson, "The Restructuring of Female Physiology at Rome," in Les écoles médicales à Rome: Actes du 2ème Colloque international sur les textes médicaux latins antiques, Lausanne, septembre 1986 (Université de Nantes, 1991), p. 256. ^ Unless otherwise noted, this introductory overview is based on Beryl Rawson, "Finding Roman Women," in A Companion to the Roman Republic (Blackwell, 2010), p. 325. ^ Kelly Olson, "The Appearance of the Young Roman Girl," in Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture (University of Toronto Press, 2008), p. 139. ^ In reference to his character assassination of the notorious Clodia; see Pro Caelio. ^ For an extensive modern consideration of the Vestals, see Ariadne Staples, From Good Goddess to Vestal Virgins: Sex and Category in Roman Religion (Routledge, 1998). ^ Beryl Rawson, Children and Childhood in Roman Italy (Oxford University Press, 2003), pp. 129–130. ^ Rawson, Children and Childhood in Roman Italy, p. 128, citing Persius 2.70 and the related scholion, and p. 48 on Diana. Rome lacked the elaborate puberty rites for girls that were practiced in ancient Greece (p. 145). ^ a b Beryl Rawson, "The Roman Family in Italy" (Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 21. ^ Judith P. Hallett, Fathers and Daughters in Roman Society: Women and the Elite Family (Princeton University Press, 1984), 142. ^ a b Lauren, Caldwell, "Roman Girlhood and the Fashioning of Femininity" (Cambridge University Press, 2014), pp. 3–4. ^ a b Caldwell, "Roman Girlhood and the Fashioning of Femininity", p. 16. ^ Caldwell, "Roman Girlhood and the Fashioning of Femininity", pp. 106–107. ^ Caldwell, "Roman Girlhood and the Fashioning of Femininity", p. 18. ^ Rawson, Children and Childhood in Roman Italy, pp. 197–198 ^ Caldwell, "Roman Girlhood and the Fashioning of Femininity", p. 17. ^ Rawson, Children and Childhood in Roman Italy, p. 198. ^ Janine Assa, The Great Roman Ladies (New York, 1960), p. 50. ^ Beryl Rawson, "The Roman Family," in The Family in Ancient Rome: New Perspectives (Cornell University Press, 1986), pp. 30, 40–41. ^ Caldwell, "Roman Girlhood and the Fashioning of Femininity", p. 2. ^ Plutarch, Life of Pompey 55 LacusCurtius edition. ^ Sandra R. Joshel, Sheila Murnaghan, "Women and Slaves in Greco-Roman Culture" (Routledge; New edition 2001), p. 86. ^ Caldwell, "Roman Girlhood and the Fashioning of Femininity", pp. 15–16. ^ Rawson, "The Roman Family," p. 40. ^ Rawson, Children and Childhood in Roman Italy, p. 45. ^ Rawson, Children and Childhood in Roman Italy, p. 197. ^ Caldwell, "Roman Girlhood and the Fashioning of Femininity", pp. 11, 45–46. ^ Mary T. Boatwright, Daniel J. Gargola, Noel Lenski, Richard J. A. Talbert, "A Brief History of The Romans" (Oxford University Press; 2 edition, 2013), p. 176. ^ Frier, A Casebook on Roman Family Law, pp. 19–20. ^ Beryl Rawson, "The Roman Family," in The Family in Ancient Rome: New Perspectives (Cornell University Press, 1986), p. 18. ^ Frier, A Casebook on Roman Family Law, p. 66. ^ J.A. Crook, Law and Life of Rome 90B.C.-212 A.D. ^ Judith P. Hallett, Fathers and Daughters in Roman Society: Women and the Elite Family (Princeton University Press, 1984), 142. ^ Rawson, "The Roman Family", p. 21. ^ Bruce W. Frier and Thomas A.J. McGinn, A Casebook on Roman Family Law (Oxford University Press, 2004), p. 20. ^ a b Frier and McGinn, Casebook, pp. 19–20. ^ "If adults sons or daughters and their children had lived in the same household as the paterfamilias," notes Rawson, "they may well have found the constant awareness of his powers and position a great strain" ("The Roman Family," p. 15). ^ Hallett, 139. ^ Rawson, The Roman Family, p. 21. ^ Rawson, "The Roman Family," p. 18. ^ a b c d Bauman, Richard (1992). Women and Politics in Ancient Rome. New York, New York: Routledge. pp. 8, 10, 15, 105. ^ Harlow, Mary, and Ray, Laurence (2002). Growing up and Growing old in Ancient Rome. New York, New York: Rutledge. pp. 30–31. ^ a b Boatwright, Mary; Gargola, Daniel; Lenski, Noel; Talbert, Richard (2005). A Brief History of the Romans. New York: Oxford University. pp. 176–177. ^ Richard A. Bauman, Women and Politics in Ancient Rome (Routledge, 1992, 1994), p. 50. ^ Her name appears also as Amesia. ^ Valerius Maximus 8.3.1; Joseph Farrell, Latin Language and Latin Culture (Cambridge University Press, 2001), pp. 74–75; Michael C. Alexander, Trials in the Late Roman Republic, 149–50 BCE (University of Toronto Press, 1990), p. 180. Alexander places the date of the trial, about which Valerius is unclear, to sometime between 80 and 50 BCE. The charge goes unrecorded. ^ Bauman, Women and Politics, p. 50. ^ The name is vexed; it may also be Carfrania. ^ Bauman, Women and Politics, pp. 50–51. ^ Bauman, Women and Politics, p. 51. ^ Bauman, Women and Politics, pp. 51–52. ^ Johnston, Roman Law in Context, chapter 3.3; Frier and McGinn, Casebook, Chapter IV. ^ Yan Thomas, "The Division of the Sexes in Roman Law," in A History of Women from Ancient Goddesses to Christian Saints (Harvard University Press, 1991), p. 134. ^ Alan Watson, The Spirit of Roman Law (University of Georgia Press, 1995), p. 13; Thomas, "The Division of the Sexes," p. 135. ^ Judith Evans Grubbs, Women and the Law in the Roman Empire: A Sourcebook on Marriage, Divorce and Law in the Roman Empire (Routledge, 2002) , p. 24. ^ Watson, The Spirit of Roman Law, p. 13; Gaius, Inst. 1.173. ^ Thomas, "The Division of the Sexes," p. 133. ^ Gaius, Institutes 1.190–1.191. ^ Cinctus vinctusque, according to Festus 55 (edition of Lindsay); Karen K. Hersch, The Roman Wedding: Ritual and Meaning in Antiquity (Cambridge University Press, 2010), pp. 101, 110, 211 . ^ Wiesner, Merry E. “The Family” Gender in History: Global Perspectives, 2nd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 2011, p.32 ^ Frier and McGinn, A Casebook on Roman Family Law, p. 20. ^ Duby,Perrot,and Pantel A History of Women Volume 1, pg. 133 ^ The late Imperial Roman jurist Gaius writes of manus marriage as something that used to happen. Frier and McGinn, Casebook, p. 54. ^ Frier and McGinn, Casebook, p. 53. ^ Eva Cantarella, Pandora's Daughters: The Role and Status of Women in Greek and Roman Antiquity (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987), pp. 140–141; J.P. Sullivan, "Martial's Sexual Attitudes", Philologus 123 (1979), p. 296, specifically on sexual freedom. ^ David Johnston, Roman Law in Context (Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 33–34. ^ Johnston, Roman Law, pp. 36–36; Frier and McGinn, Casebook, section V. ^ Frier and McGinn, Casebook, pp. 49, 52, citing Ulpian, D. 24.1.3.1. If the donor died first, however, the gift to the surviving spouse was valid. ^ Suzanne Dixon, "From Ceremonial to Sexualities: A Survey of Scholarship on Roman Marriage" in A Companion to Families in the Greek and Roman Worlds (Wiley-Blackwell, 2011), p. 248. ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Antiquitates Romanae, 2.25 ^ Aulus Gellius (Noctes Atticae 4.3.1) places the divorce in 227 BCE, but fudges the date and his sources elsewhere. ^ Alan Watson, The Spirit of Roman Law (University of Georgia Press, 1995), p. 173. ^ Frier and McGinn, Casebook, part D, "The End of Marriage." ^ Susan Treggiari, Roman Marriage: Iusti Coniuges from the Time of Cicero to the Time of Ulpian (Oxford University Press, 1991), pp. 258–259, 500–502 et passim. ^ Karen K. Hersch, The Roman Wedding: Ritual and Meaning in Antiquity, p. 48. ^ In Roman inclusive counting, a pregnancy was counted as lasting ten months. ^ Eva Cantarella, "Marriage and Sexuality in Republican Rome: A Roman Conjugal Love Story," in The Sleep of Reason: Erotic Experience and Sexual Ethics in Ancient Greece and Rome (University of Chicago Press, 2002), p. 276. ^ Plutarch, Roman Questions 105. ^ Karen K. Hersh, The Roman Wedding: Ritual and Meaning in Antiquity (Cambridge University Press, 2010), pp. 4, 48, et passim citing Humbert (1971), pp. 1–11. See also Treggiari, Roman Marriage. ^ Hersh, The Roman Wedding, passim, pointing to the fictionalized and possibly satiric account by Lucan. Or some scholars see in this more of an arrangement than marriage proper. ^ Hersh, The Roman Wedding, pp. 103–104. ^ Frier and McGinn, Casebook, p. 480. ^ Frier and McGinn, Casebook, p. 52. ^ Frier and McGinn, Casebook, p. 50 ^ J.A. Crook Law and Life of Rome 90 B.C.-212 A.D. ^ A casebook on Roman Family Law, Frier and McGinn, pg. 95. ^ Plutarch, Life of Cato the Elder 20.2. ^ Garrett G. Fagan, "Violence in Roman Social Relations," in The Oxford Handbook of Social Relations (Oxford University Press, 2011), p. 487. ^ Tacitus, Annals XVI.6 ^ Frank McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: A Life, p. 435. ^ Rawson, "The Roman Family," p. 30. ^ Plautus, Miles Gloriosus 697. ^ As noted by Soranus (1st century AD) in his Gynaecology 2.18. ^ Jane F. Gardner, Women in Roman Law and Society (Indiana University Press, 1991), p. 242. ^ Lawrence Richardson, "A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome," (JHU Press, 1992), p. 94. ^ Plutarch, Life of Cato the Elder 20.3; Christopher Michael McDonough, "Carna, Procra and the Strix on the Kalends of June," Transactions of the American Philological Association 127 (1997), p. 322, note 29. ^ Tacitus, Dialogus 28, as noted by McDonough, p. 322. ^ W. Jeffrey Tatum, The Patrician Tribune: Publius Clodius Pulcher (University of North Carolina Press, 1999), p. 33ff. ^ Janine Assa, The Great Roman Ladies (New York, 1960), p. 32; A History of Women in the West from Ancient Goddesses to Christian Saints, vol. 1, p. 115. ^ Jane F. Gardner, Family and Familia in Roman Law and Life (Oxford University Press, 1999, 2004), p. 53. ^ Plutarch, Life of Cato the Elder 20.2. ^ Assa, The Great Roman Ladies, p. 50. ^ Susan Treggiari, Roman Marriage: Iusti Coniuges from the Time of Cicero to the Time of Ulpian (Oxford University Press, 1991, reprinted 2002), p. 420. ^ Hermann Fränkel, Ovid: A Poet between Two Worlds (University of California Press, 1956), p. 151. ^ Jo-Marie Claasen, "Tristia," in A Companion to Ovid (Blackwell, 2009), p. 179. ^ Assa, The Great Roman Ladies, p. 45. ^ Assa, The Great Roman Ladies, p. 51. ^ Gaston Boissier, Cicero and his friends: a study of Roman Society in the time of Caesar, Questia edition. ^ A Casebook on Roman Family Law Frier+McGinn pg 461 ^ Law and Life of Rome, J.A. Crook pg.172 ^ Christians and Pagans, Fox, Pg. 464 ^ The Gracchi Marius and Sulla, A.H. Beesley, pg. 21 on the first Serville War ^ See Ancient Roman Life as Illustrated by Latin Inscriptions by Brian K. Harvey. ^ Abbott, Society and Politics in Ancient Rome: Essays and Sketches, pg. 98 ^ Women's life in Greece & Rome, Lefkowitz+Fant, pg. 171 ^ Paul, Opinions 2.26.11 L, as cited in Women's Life in Greece and Rome: A Source Book in Translation, edited by Mary R. Lefkowitz and Maureen B. Fant (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982, 3rd ed. 2005), p. 104. ^ "Women and Marriage in Ancient Rome," Chapter 1; Jane Bingham,The Usborne Internet-Linked Encyclopedia of The Roman World (Usborne, 2002), page 48. ^ Catharine Edwards, "Unspeakable Professions: Public Performance and Prostitution in Ancient Rome," in Roman Sexualities (Princeton University Press, 1997), pp. 66ff. ^ Celia E. Schultz, Women's Religious Activity in the Roman Republic (University of North Carolina Press, 2006), p. 54. ^ Rawson, Children and Childhood in Roman Italy, p. 80. ^ Pliny the Elder, Natural History, 35.147. ^ Hallet, Judith (1984). Fathers and Daughters in Roman Society. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University. pp. 8, 10. ^ Arthur Ernest Gordon, Illustrated Introduction to Latin Epigraphy (University of California Press, 1983), pp. 34, 103. ^ Richard Saller, "Status and patronage", Cambridge Ancient History: The High Empire, A.D. 70–192 (Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 18. ^ Tacitus, Annals 15.51 ^ Tacitus, Annals 15.71. ^ Allison P. (2011) 'Soldiers’ families in the early Roman Empire', in B. Rawson, ed., Family and household in ancient Greece and Rome: a companion, 161–182. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell ^ Greene, E.M. (2014). “If the shoe fits: Style and function of children’s shoes from Vindolanda” in R. Collins and F. McIntosh (eds.), Life in the Limes: Studies of the People and Objects of the Roman Frontiers. Oxford: Oxbow. 29–36. ^ Greene, E.M. (2015) 'Girls or Boys on the Column of Trajan? Depictions of Female Participation in Military Religion' presented at 116th Joint Annual Meeting of the Archaeological Institute of America and the Society for Classical Studies (formerly the American Philological Association), January 8–11, 2015. ^ Mary Beard, J.A. North, and S.R.F. Price, Religions of Rome: A History (Cambridge University Press, 1998), vol. 1, p. 297. ^ Celia E. Schultz, Women's Religious Activity in the Roman Republic (University of North Carolina Press, 2006), pp. 134–136. In some sense, every head of household was a priest responsible for religious maintenance at home; in Roman patriarchal society, this was the paterfamilias. Public religion, like society and politics in general, reflected the hierarchy of the household, since the familia was the building block of society. See John Scheid, An Introduction to Roman Religion (Indiana University Press, 2003), p. 129ff. ^ Beard et al., Religions of Rome, vol. 1, pp. 296–297. ^ Phyllis Culham, "Women in the Roman Republic," in The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic (Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 143. ^ Barbette Stanley Spaeth, The Roman Goddess Ceres (University of Texas Press, 1996), p. 104. ^ Lesley E. Lundeen, "In Search of the Etruscan Priestess: A Re-Examination of the hatrencu," in Religion in Republican Italy (Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 46; Schultz, Women's Religious Activity in the Roman Republic, pp. 70–71. ^ Ariadne Staples, From Good Goddess to Vestal Virgins: Sex and Category in Roman Religion (Routledge, 1998), p. 184. ^ Gary Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War (University of California Press, 2005, 2006), p. 141. ^ Staples, From Good Goddess to Vestal Virgins, pp. 154–155. ^ Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.16. ^ Emily A. Hemelrijk, "Women and Sacrifice in the Roman Empire," in Ritual Dynamics and Religious Change in the Roman Empire. Proceedings of the Eighth Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire (Heidelberg, July 5–7, 2007) (Brill, 2009), pp. 258–259, citing Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.15.19. ^ Jörg Rüpke, Fasti sacerdotum: A Prosopography of Pagan, Jewish, and Christian Religious Officials in the City of Rome, 300 BCE to CE 499 (Oxford University Press, 2008, originally published in German 2005), pp. 223, 783, 840. ^ Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome, p. 136, based on Festus on the ordo sacerdotum (hierarchy of priests), 198 in the edition of Lindsay. ^ Schultz, Women's Religious Activity in the Roman Republic, pp. 79–81. ^ Michael Lipka, Roman Gods: A Conceptual Approach (Brill, 2009), pp. 141–142 online. ^ Varro, De re rustica 1.1.4, says their golden images stood in the forum, "six male and the same number of female." ^ The Capitoline Triad replaced the Indo-European Archaic Triad, composed of three male gods, and is thought to result from Etruscan influence; see Robert Schilling, Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992, from the French edition of 1981), pp. 73, 87, 131, 150. ^ Stephen L. Dyson, Rome: A Living Portrait of an Ancient City (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010), p. 283. ^ M. Golden, "Did the Ancients Care When Their Children Died?" Greece & Rome 35 (1988) 152–163. ^ Beard et al., Religions of Rome, vol. 1, p. 297. ^ Cicero, De legibus 2.9.21; Emily A. Hemelrijk, "Women and Sacrifice in the Roman Empire," in Ritual Dynamics and Religious Change in the Roman Empire. Proceedings of the Eighth Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire (Heidelberg, July 5–7, 2007) (Brill, 2009), p. 255. ^ Assa, The Great Roman Ladies, p. 73. ^ Garrett G. Fagan, Bathing in Public in the Roman World (University of Michigan Press, 1999, 2002), pp. 26–27. ^ Assa, The Great Roman Ladies, p. 92. ^ Livius, Titus, A History of Rome, (Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Pub, 2006), 182. ^ Assa, 102. ^ Assa, 96. ^ Assa, 65. ^ Assa, 60. ^ Assa, 65 ^ Assa, 66. ^ Christopher A. Faraone; Laura K. McClure (14 March 2008). Prostitutes and Courtesans in the Ancient World. Univ of Wisconsin Press. pp. 6–. ISBN 978-0-299-21313-8. Retrieved 3 April 2013. ^ Assa, 67. ^ Pomeroy, Sarah Jane, Women in Classical Antiquity ^ Pliny the Younger, Letters, Book 1 letter IV ^ Kelly Olson, "The Appearance of the Young Roman Girl," in Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture (University of Toronto Press, 2008), p. 143. ^ John R. Clarke, Looking at Lovemaking: Constructions of Sexuality in Roman Art 100 B.C.–A.D. 250 (University of California Press, 1998, 2001), p. 34. ^ Amy Richlin, The Garden of Priapus: Sexuality and Aggression in Roman Humor (Oxford University Press, 1983, 1992), pp. 68, 110. ^ Clarke, Looking at Lovemaking, p. 34 et passim. ^ Martial, Epigrams 1.100, 2.52, 14.66; Richlin, The Garden of Priapus, pp. 52, 54, 68. ^ Olson, "The Appearance of the Young Roman Girl," p. 143. ^ Pliny the Elder, Natural History 25.95, citing Anaxilaus, a Pythagorean physician in the time of Augustus; Matthew W. Dickie, Magic and Magicians in the Greco-Roman World (Routledge, 2001, 2005), p. 167. Pliny also notes that an application of hemlock was used to suppress lactation. ^ Richlin, The Garden of Priapus, p. 38. ^ Larissa Bonfante, "Nursing Mothers in Classical Art," in Naked Truths: Women, Sexuality, and Gender in Classical Art and Archaeology (Routledge, 1997, 2000), pp. 174ff. ^ Anthony Corbeill, Nature Embodied: Gesture in Ancient Rome (Princeton University Press, 2004), p. 87ff.; Alan Cameron, The Last Pagans of Rome (Oxford University Press, 2011), p. 725; Mary Lefkowitz and Maureen B. Fant, Women's Life in Greece and Rome, p. 350, note 5. ^ Citation needed ^ Juvenal, Satire VI lines 6.286–313 ^ Ann Ellis Hanson, "The Restructuring of Female Physiology at Rome," in Les écoles médicales à Rome (Université de Nantes, 1991), p. 259. ^ Hanson, "The Restructuring of Female Physiology," p. 259–260; Marilyn B. Skinner, introduction to Roman Sexualities (Princeton University Press, 1997), p. 11: The "notion of women as 'Same' as well as 'Other' presupposed a female body partly assimilated to the male constitution, one whose sex-specific functions, such as lactation or even pregnancy, did not constitute its entire raison d'être." ^ Hanson, "The Restructuring of Female Physiology," pp. 259–260. ^ Hanson, "The Restructuring of Female Physiology," p. 260. The Gynecology of Soranus is central to Hanson's arguments. ^ Hanson, "The Restructuring of Female Physiology," p. 264. ^ Hanson, "The Restructuring of Female Physiology," p. 265. ^ Hanson, "The Restructuring of Female Physiology," p. 267, citing Priapea 78 on the vitiating effects of uncontrolled sexual activity and releasing too much semen, and CIL 12.6721(5), one of the Perusine glandes. The outsized phallus of Roman art was associated with the god Priapus, among others. It was laughter-provoking, grotesque, or used for magical purposes; see David Fredrick, The Roman Gaze: Vision, Power, and the Body (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002), p. 156. Nude statues of men that were intended to be beautiful or dignified had a small penis. ^ Hanson, "The Restructuring of Female Physiology," p. 267. Clitoridectomy is described in some detail by the Byzantine physicians and medical writers Aëtius of Amida (fl. mid-5th century/mid-6th century) and Paul of Aegina, as well as the North African gynecological writer Muscio (ca. 500 CE); see Holt N. Parker, "The Teratogenic Grid," in Roman Sexualities (Princeton University Press, 1997), p. 59. ^ J.A. Crook, Law and Life of Rome 90 B.C.-A.D. 212 (Cornell University Press, 1967, 1984), pp. 48–50. ^ Crook, Law and Life of Rome, p. 101. ^ The Economy of Prostitution in the Roman World: A Study of social History and the Brothel By Thomas A. McGinn. pg. 52 ^ Thomas AJ McGinn, Prostitution, Sexuality and the Law in Ancient Rome, Oxford University Press. 1998, p. 56. ^ Thomas AJ McGinn, Prostitution, Sexuality and the Law in Ancient Rome, Oxford University Press, 1998, p. 293 ^ Tacitus, Annals 15.37 ^ Thomas AJ McGinn, Prostitution, Sexuality and the Law in Ancient Rome, Oxford University Press, 1998, pp. 171, 310. Bibliography[edit] Assa, Janine (1960). The Great Roman Ladies. New York: Grove Press. Daehner, Jens (ed.), The Herculaneum Women: History, Context, Identities (Los Angeles: The J. Paul Getty Museum, 2007), Pp. xiv, 178. Freisenbruch, Annelise (2010). The First Ladies of Rome: the Women behind the Caesars. London: Jonathan Cape. Bruce W. Frier, Thomas A. J. McGinn (2004). A casebook on Roman family law. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-516186-6. Gardner, Jane F. 1986. Women in Roman Law and Society. Croom Helm Hallett, Judith P. (1984). Fathers and daughters in Roman society: women and the elite family. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-03570-9. Spaeth, Barbette Stanley. The Roman goddess Ceres, University of Texas Press, 1996. Further reading[edit] (in French) Gérard Minaud, Les vies de 12 femmes d’empereur romain - Devoirs, Intrigues & Voluptés , Paris, L’Harmattan, 2012. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Women of Rome. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ancient Roman women. Dr. Susan Martin, Private Lives and Public Personae, 1997. WomenintheAncientWorld.com (2005). Moya K. Mason, Ancient Roman Women: A Look at their Lives. Essay on the lives of Roman women. "Wife-beating in Ancient Rome": an article by Joy Connolly in the TLS, April 9, 2008 "An etext version of: Ferrero, Guglielmo. "Women and Marriage in Ancient Rome." The Women of the Caesars. The Century Co.; New York, 1911. This edition was created by Jone Johnson Lewis, 2003." v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Women_in_ancient_Rome&oldid=995744570" Categories: Women in ancient Rome Women by culture Women by former country Hidden categories: Articles with French-language sources (fr) Commons category link is locally defined Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Català Deutsch Español Euskara Français Galego Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Nederlands Português Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 22 December 2020, at 17:39 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-159	----	Edward FitzGerald (poet) - Wikipedia Edward FitzGerald (poet) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Edward FitzGerald Edward FitzGerald by Eva Rivett-Carnac (after a photograph of 1873) Born (1809-03-31)31 March 1809 Bredfield House, Bredfield, Woodbridge, Suffolk, England, UK Died 14 June 1883(1883-06-14) (aged 74) Merton, Norfolk, England, UK Occupation Poet, writer Notable works English translation of The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam Signature Edward FitzGerald or Fitzgerald[1] (31 March 1809 – 14 June 1883) was an English poet and writer. His most famous poem is the first and best known English translation of The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, which has kept its reputation and popularity since the 1860s. Contents 1 Life 2 Early literary work 3 Personal life 4 The Rubáiyát 4.1 Parodies 5 See also 6 Notes 7 Bibliography, biographies 8 Further reading 9 External links Life[edit] Edward FitzGerald was born Edward Purcell at Bredfield House in Bredfield, some 2 miles north of Woodbridge, Suffolk, England, in 1809. In 1818, his father, John Purcell, assumed the name and arms of his wife's family, the FitzGeralds.[2] His elder brother John used the surname Purcell-Fitzgerald from 1858.[3] The change of family name occurred shortly after FitzGerald's mother inherited her second fortune. She had previously inherited over half a million pounds from an aunt, but in 1818, her father died and left her considerably more than that. The FitzGeralds were one of the wealthiest families in England. Edward FitzGerald later commented that all of his relatives were mad; further, that he was insane as well, but was at least aware of the fact.[4] In 1816, the family moved to France, and lived in St Germain as well as Paris, but in 1818, after the death of his maternal grandfather, the family had to return to England. In 1821, Edward was sent to King Edward VI School, Bury St Edmunds. In 1826, he went on to Trinity College, Cambridge.[5] He became acquainted with William Makepeace Thackeray and William Hepworth Thompson.[2] Though he had many friends who were members of the Cambridge Apostles, most notably Alfred Tennyson, FitzGerald himself was never offered an invitation to this famous group.[citation needed] In 1830, FitzGerald left for Paris, but in 1831 was living in a farmhouse on the battlefield of Naseby.[2] Needing no employment, FitzGerald moved to his native Suffolk, where he lived quietly, never leaving the county for more than a week or two while he resided there. Until 1835, the FitzGeralds lived in Wherstead, then moved until 1853 to a cottage in the grounds of Boulge Hall, near Woodbridge, to which his parents had moved. In 1860, he again moved with his family to Farlingay Hall, where they stayed until in 1873. Their final move was to Woodbridge itself, where FitzGerald resided at his own house close by, called Little Grange. During most of this time, FitzGerald was preoccupied with flowers, music and literature. Friends like Tennyson and Thackeray had surpassed him in the field of literature, and for a long time FitzGerald showed no intention of emulating their literary success. In 1851, he published his first book, Euphranor, a Platonic dialogue, born of memories of the old happy life in Cambridge. This was followed in 1852 by the publication of Polonius, a collection of "saws and modern instances," some of them his own, the rest borrowed from the less familiar English classics. FitzGerald began the study of Spanish poetry in 1850 at Elmsett, followed by Persian literature at the University of Oxford with Professor Edward Byles Cowell in 1853.[2] FitzGerald married Lucy, daughter of the Quaker poet Bernard Barton, in Chichester on 4 November 1856, after a death-bed promise to Bernard made in 1849 to look after her. The marriage was unhappy and the couple separated after only a few months,[6] despite having known each other for many years, including collaborating on a book about her father's works in 1849. Early literary work[edit] In 1853, FitzGerald issued Six Dramas of Calderon, freely translated.[6] He then turned to Oriental studies, and in 1856 published anonymously a version of the Salámán and Absál of Jami in Miltonic verse. In March 1857, Cowell discovered a set of Persian quatrains by Omar Khayyám in the Asiatic Society library, Calcutta, and sent them to FitzGerald. At the time, the name with which FitzGerald has been so closely identified first occurs in his correspondence: "Hafiz and Omar Khayyam ring like true metal." On 15 January 1859, an anonymous pamphlet appeared as The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam. In the world at large and the circle of FitzGerald's close friends, the poem seems at first to have attracted no attention. The publisher allowed it to gravitate to a fourpenny or even (as he afterwards boasted) to a penny box on the bookstalls.[2] Grave of Edward FitzGerald in Boulge churchyard[7] However, it was discovered in 1861 by Rossetti and soon after by Swinburne and Lord Houghton. The Rubaiyat slowly became famous, but it was not until 1868 that FitzGerald was encouraged to print a second, greatly revised edition of it. He had produced in 1865 a version of the Agamemnon, and two more plays from Calderón. In 1880–1881, he privately issued translations of the two Oedipus tragedies. His last publication was Readings in Crabbe, 1882. He left in manuscript a version of Attar of Nishapur's Mantic-Uttair.[2] This last translation FitzGerald called "A Bird's-Eye view of the Bird Parliament", whittling the Persian original (some 4500 lines) down to a more manageable 1500 lines in English. Some have called this translation a virtually unknown masterpiece.[8] From 1861 onwards, FitzGerald's greatest interest had been in the sea. In June 1863 he bought a yacht, "The Scandal", and in 1867 he became part-owner of a herring lugger, the Meum and Tuum ("mine and thine"). For some years up to 1871, he spent his summers "knocking about somewhere outside of Lowestoft." He died in his sleep in 1883 and was buried in the graveyard at St Michael's Church in Boulge, Suffolk. He was in his own words "an idle fellow, but one whose friendships were more like loves." In 1885 his fame was enhanced by Tennyson's dedication of his Tiresias to FitzGerald's memory, in some reminiscent verses to "Old Fitz."[2] Personal life[edit] Little was known of FitzGerald personally until his close friend and literary executor W. Aldis Wright, published his three-volume Letters and Literary Remains in 1889 and the Letters to Fanny Kemble in 1895. These letters reveal that FitzGerald was a witty, picturesque, and sympathetic letter writer.[9] The late 19th-century English novelist George Gissing found them interesting enough to read the three-volume collection twice, in 1890 and 1896. This included some of Fitzgerald's letters to Fanny Kemble. Gissing also read the 1895 volume of letters in December of that year.[10] FitzGerald was unobtrusive personally, but in the 1890s, his distinctive individuality gradually gained a broad influence over English belles-lettres.[11] FitzGerald's emotional life was complex. He was extremely close to many friends, among them William Browne, who was 16 when they met. Browne's tragically early death in a horse-riding accident was a catastrophe for FitzGerald. Later, FitzGerald became close to a fisherman named Joseph Fletcher, with whom he had bought a herring boat.[6] While it appears there are no contemporary sources on the matter, a number of present-day academics and journalists believe FitzGerald to have been a homosexual.[12] With Professor Daniel Karlin writing in his introduction to the 2009 edition of Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám that "His [FitzGerald] homoerotic feelings (...) were probably unclear to him, at least in the form conveyed by our word 'gay'",[13] it is unclear whether FitzGerald himself ever identified himself as a homosexual or acknowledged himself to be one. FitzGerald grew disenchanted with Christianity and eventually ceased to attend church.[14] This drew the attention of the local pastor, who stopped by. FitzGerald reportedly told him that his decision to absent himself was the fruit of long and hard meditation. When the pastor protested, FitzGerald showed him the door and said, "Sir, you might have conceived that a man does not come to my years of life without thinking much of these things. I believe I may say that I have reflected [on] them fully as much as yourself. You need not repeat this visit."[14] The 1908 book Edward Fitzgerald and "Posh": Herring Merchants (Including letters from E. Fitzgerald to J. Fletcher) recounts the friendship of Fitzgerald with Joseph Fletcher (born June 1838), nicknamed "Posh", who was still living when James Blyth started researching for the book.[15] Posh is also often present in Fitzgerald's letters. Documentary data about the Fitzgerald–Posh partnership are available at the Port of Lowestoft Research Society. Posh died at Mutford Union workhouse, near Lowestoft, on 7 September 1915, at the age of 76.[16] Fitzgerald was termed "almost vegetarian", as he ate meat only in other people's houses.[17] His biographer Thomas Wright noted that "though never a strict vegetarian, his diet was mainly bread and fruit."[18] Several years before his death, FitzGerald said of his diet, "Tea, pure and simple, with bread-and-butter, is the only meal I do care to join in."[19] The Rubáiyát[edit] Beginning in 1859, FitzGerald authorized four editions (1859, 1868, 1872 and 1879) and there was a fifth posthumous edition (1889) of his translation of the Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám (Persian: رباعیات عمر خیام‎). Three (the first, second, and fifth) differ significantly; the second and third are almost identical, as are the fourth and fifth. The first and fifth are reprinted almost equally often,[20][21] and equally often anthologized.[22] A Book of Verses underneath the Bough, A Jug of Wine, a Loaf of Bread – and Thou Beside me singing in the Wilderness – Oh, Wilderness were Paradise enow! Title page from the first American edition of FitzGerald's translation, 1878 Stanza XI above, from the fifth edition, differs from the corresponding stanza in the first edition, wherein it reads: "Here with a Loaf of Bread beneath the bough/A Flask of Wine, a Book of Verse – and Thou". Other differences are discernible. Stanza XLIX is more well known in its incarnation in the first edition (1859): 'Tis all a Chequer-board of Nights and Days Where Destiny with Men for Pieces plays: Hither and thither moves, and mates, and slays, And one by one back in the Closet lays. The fifth edition (1889) of stanza LXIX, with different numbering, is less familiar: "But helpless Pieces of the Game He plays/Upon this Chequer-board of Nights and Days;/Hither and thither moves, and checks, and slays,/And one by one back in the Closet lays." FitzGerald's translation of the Rubáiyát is notable for being a work to which allusions are both frequent and ubiquitous.[11] It remains popular, but enjoyed its greatest popularity for a century following its publication, wherein it formed part of the wider English literary canon.[11] One indicator of the popular status of the Rubáiyát is that, of the 101 stanzas in the poem's fifth edition, the Oxford Dictionary of Quotations (2nd edition) quotes no less than 43 entire stanzas in full, in addition to many individual lines and couplets. Stanza LI, also well-known, runs: The Moving Finger writes; and, having writ, Moves on; nor all your Piety nor Wit Shall lure it back to cancel half a Line, Nor all your Tears wash out a Word of it. Lines and phrases from the poem have been used as the titles of many literary works, among them Nevil Shute's The Chequer Board, James Michener's The Fires of Spring and Agatha Christie's The Moving Finger. Eugene O'Neill's Ah, Wilderness alludes to the Rubáiyát without making a direct quotation. Allusions are frequent in the short stories of O. Henry.[23] Saki's pseudonym makes reference to it. The popular 1925 song A Cup of Coffee, A Sandwich, and You, by Billy Rose and Al Dubin, echoes the first of the stanzas quoted above. Parodies[edit] FitzGerald's translations were popular in the century of their publication, also with humorists for the purpose of parody.[11] The Rubáiyát of Ohow Dryyam by J. L. Duff utilises the original to create a satire commenting on Prohibition. Rubaiyat of a Persian Kitten by Oliver Herford, published in 1904, is the illustrated story of a kitten in parody of the original verses. The Rubaiyat of Omar Cayenne by Gelett Burgess (1866–1951) was a condemnation of the writing and publishing business. The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, Jr. (1971) by Wallace Irwin purports to be a translation from "Mango-Bornese" chronicling the adventures of Omar Khayyam's son "Omar Junior" – unmentioned in the original – who has emigrated from Persia to Borneo. Astrophysicist Arthur Eddington wrote a parody about his famous 1919 experiment to test Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity by observing a solar eclipse. The new Rubaiyat: Omar Khayyam reincarnated by "Ame Perdue" (pen name of W.J. Carroll) was published in Melbourne in 1943. It revisits the plaints of the original text with references to modern science, technology and industry. See also[edit] Translation § History Notes[edit] ^ His name is seen written as both FitzGerald and Fitzgerald. The use here of FitzGerald conforms to that of his own publications, anthologies such as Quiller-Couch's Oxford Book of English Verse, and most reference books until about the 1960s. ^ a b c d e f g  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Gosse, Edmund (1911). "Edward FitzGerald". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 10 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 443. ^ "Fitzgerald (formerly Purcell), John (FTST820J)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge. ^ Caufield, Catherine (1981). The Emperor of the United States and other magnificent British eccentrics. Routledge and Kegan Paul. p. 86. ISBN 0-7100-0957-7. ^ "Edward Fitzgerald (FTST826E)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge. ^ a b c "Edward Fitzgerald", Poem Hunter ^ Historic England. "Details from listed building database (1284168)". National Heritage List for England. ^ Briggs, A. D. P. (1998). The Rubaiyat and the Bird Parliament. Everyman's Poetry. ^ Joseph Sendry (1984) "Edward FitzGerald", in William E. Fredeman and Ira B. Nadel, eds (1984) Dictionary of Literary Biography, Volume 32: Victorian Poets Before 1850 Gale Research Company, Detroit, Michigan, pp. 121–122, ISBN 0-8103-1710-9 ^ Pierre Coustillas, ed., London and the Life of Literature in Late Victorian England: the Diary of George Gissing, Novelist. Brighton: Harvester Press, 1978, pp. 232, 396, 413 and 415. ^ a b c d Staff (10 April 1909) "Two Centenaries" New York Times: Saturday Review of Books p. BR-220 ^ "From Persia to Tyneside and the door of darkness". The Independent. 5 November 1995. Retrieved 7 July 2020. ^ Omar Khayyam (2009). Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám. FitzGerald, Edward, 1809-1883, Karlin, Daniel, 1953-. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-19-156230-3. OCLC 320958676. ^ a b Plomer, William (1978). Electric Delights. David R. Godine. p. 89. ISBN 0-87923-248-X. ^ Blyth, James (1908). Edward Fitzgerald and 'Posh', 'herring merchants' Including letters from E. Fitzgerald to J. Fletcher. ^ Fitzgerald, Edward (2014). The Letters of Edward Fitzgerald, Volume 3: 1867–1876. Princeton University Press. p. 194. ISBN 9781400854011. ^ "An Old Man in a Dry Month": a Brief Life of Edward FitzGerald (1809–1883)". The Victorian Web. ^ Thomas Wright, The Life of Edward Fitzgerald. New York, 1904, p. 116. ^ John Glyde, 1900 The Life of Edward Fitz-Gerald, by John Glyde. Chicago. p. 44. ^ Christopher Decker, ed., "Introduction: Postscript" Edward FitzGerald, Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám: a critical edition University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, page xlv, 1997. ISBN 0-8139-1689-5 ^ Stanley Appelbaum, (editor) (1990) "Note" Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam Dover Publications, Mineola, New York, back cover, ISBN 0-486-26467-X ^ Frederick A. Manchester and William F. Giese, eds, Harper's anthology for college courses in composition and literature Harper & Brothers, New York, vol. 2, 1926, p. 685, OCLC 1743706 Worldcat.org. ^ Victoria Blake, ed., "Notes" Selected Stories of O. Henry Barnes & Noble Books, New York, pp. 404 and 418, 1993. ISBN 1-59308-042-5 Bibliography, biographies[edit] The Works of Edward FitzGerald appeared in 1887. See also a chronological list of FitzGerald's works (Caxton Club, Chicago, 1899). Notes for a bibliography by Col. W. F. Prideaux, in Notes and Queries (9th series, vol. VL), published separately in 1901 Letters and Literary Remains, ed. W. Aldis Wright, 1902–1903 'Letters to Fanny Kemble', ed. William Aldis Wright Life of Edward FitzGerald, by Thomas Wright (1904) contains a bibliography, vol. ii. pp. 241–243, and a list of sources, vol. i. pp. xvi–xvii The volume on FitzGerald in the "English Men of Letters" series is by A. C. Benson. The FitzGerald centenary was marked in March 1909. See the Centenary Celebrations Souvenir (Ipswich, 1909) and The Times for 25 March 1909. Today, the major source is Robert Bernard Martin's biography, With Friends Possessed: A Life of Edward Fitzgerald. A comprehensive four-volume collection of The Letters of Edward FitzGerald, edited by Syracuse University English professor Alfred M. Terhune, was published in 1980. Further reading[edit] William Axon, "Omar" Fitzgerald. Good Health 46 (1), 1911, pp. 107–113 Harold Bloom, Modern Critical Interpretations Philadelphia, 2004 Jorge Borges, "The Enigma of Edward FitzGerald," Selected Non-Fictions, Penguin, 1999. ISBN 0-14-029011-7 Robert Douglas-Fairhurst, Victorian Afterlives: The Shaping of Influence in Nineteenth-Century Literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002 Garnett, Richard; Gosse, Edmund (1904). English Literature. 4. New York: Grosset & Dunlap. Francis Hindes Groome; Edward FitzGerald (1902). Edward FitzGerald. Portland, Maine: Thomas B. Mosher. Edward FitzGerald Gary Sloan, Great Minds, "The Rubáiyát of Edward FitzOmar", Free Inquiry, Winter 2002/2003 – Volume 23, No. 1 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Edward FitzGerald (poet). Wikisource has original works written by or about: Edward FitzGerald Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article FitzGerald, Edward. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Edward FitzGerald (poet) Works by Edward FitzGerald at Project Gutenberg Works by Edward Fitzgerald (translator) at Faded Page (Canada) Works by or about Edward FitzGerald at Internet Archive Works by Edward FitzGerald at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Encyclopedia Iranica, "Fitzgerald Edward" by Dick Davis Bird Parliament by Edward FitzGerald Parodies of the Rubaiyat – several parodies of the Rubaiyat are included, with artwork and comparisons to the Fitzgerald translation. Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyam. Rendered into English verse by Edward Fitzgerald. Complete edition showing variants in the five original printings. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1921 Edward FitzGerald Collection. General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library. v t e The Barton/Hack family tree This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Mary Done (1752–1784) John Barton (1755–1789) Elizabeth Horne (1760–1833) Lucy Jesup (1781–1808) Bernard Barton (1784–1849) Maria Hack (1777–1844) Stephen Hack (1775–1823) John Barton (1789–1852) Edward FitzGerald (1809–1883) Lucy Barton (1808–1898) Bridget Watson (1806–1881) John Barton Hack (1805–1884) Stephen Hack Elizabeth Marsh Wilton (1815-1915) Thomas Sandon Hack (1811–1865) Theodore Hack (1840–1902) Wilton Hack (1843–1923) Notes References: "Thomas Sandon Hack: architect of Southampton, 1841-49" (PDF). southampton.gov.uk. "Edward FitzGerald (poet)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/9548. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) "Bernard Barton". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/1595. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) "Maria Hack". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/11834. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) "John Barton (economist)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/37160. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) Family tree of the Barton/Hack family Authority control BNF: cb11930306c (data) CANTIC: a10817268 CiNii: DA01048181 GND: 118910361 ISNI: 0000 0001 2134 8194 LCCN: n80126218 MBA: 8cf0cc9f-c6d6-4948-b91c-c351902f46b8 NDL: 00439642 NGV: 14792 NKC: jo2012689001 NLA: 35087344 NLI: 000606180 NLK: KAC199608859 NLP: A19501377 NSK: 000170946 NTA: 068374895 RKD: 28185 SELIBR: 186969 SNAC: w62v2gmp SUDOC: 027211622 Trove: 157556 ULAN: 500004336 VcBA: 495/255770 VIAF: 59091022 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n80126218 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Edward_FitzGerald_(poet)&oldid=981426513" Categories: 1809 births 1883 deaths 19th-century translators Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge English agnostics English expatriates in France English male poets People from Woodbridge, Suffolk Persian–English translators Translators of Omar Khayyám Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Use dmy dates from August 2020 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2019 Articles containing Persian-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with LibriVox links Articles needing additional references from April 2015 All articles needing additional references Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the ODNB Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NGV identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLP identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RKDartists identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages العربية تۆرکجه Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Español فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Italiano مصرى Nederlands ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Русский සිංහල Svenska Tagalog Taqbaylit Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 2 October 2020, at 07:29 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1593	----	Empire - Wikipedia Empire From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Multiple states under one central authority This article is about the political and historical term. For other uses, see Empire (disambiguation). The Roman Empire at its greatest extent in 117 AD, the time of Trajan's death (with its vassals in pink) Part of the Politics series Basic forms of government Power source Democracy (rule by many) Demarchy Direct Liberal Representative Social Socialist Others Oligarchy (rule by few) Anocracy Aristocracy Ergatocracy Gerontocracy Kleptocracy Kritarchy Noocracy Particracy Plutocracy Stratocracy Technocracy Autocracy (rule by one) Despotism Dictatorship Military dictatorship Tyranny Anarchism (rule by none) Anarchy Free association Stateless Power ideology Monarchy vs. republic (socio-political ideologies) Absolute Constitutional Confucianist Directorial Legalist Parliamentary Presidential Semi-presidential Socialist Authoritarian vs. libertarian (socio-economic ideologies) Anarchism Colonialism Communism Despotism Distributism Feudalism Socialism Totalitarianism Tribalism Global vs. local (geo-cultural ideologies) Commune City-state Intergovernmental organisation National government World government Nationalism Internationalism Globalism Power structure Unitary Unitary state Empire Principality Client state Associated state Dependent territory Dominion Protectorate Puppet state Puppet monarch Satellite state Self-governing colony Tributary state Vassal state Federalism Confederation Devolution Federation Superstate Supranational union International relations Small power Regional power Middle power Great power Superpower Politics portal v t e An empire is a sovereign state consisting of several territories and peoples subject to a single ruling authority, often an emperor. States can be empires either by narrow definition through having an emperor and being named as such, or by broad definition as stated above in being an aggregated realm under the rule of a supreme authority. An empire can be made solely of contiguous territories, such as the Austro-Hungarian Empire or the Russian Empire, or include territories which are far remote from the 'home' country of the empire, such as a colonial empire. Aside from the more formal usage, the word empire can also refer colloquially to a large-scale business enterprise (e.g. a transnational corporation), a political organisation controlled by a single individual (a political boss), or a group (political bosses).[1] The concept of empire is associated with other such concepts as imperialism, colonialism, and globalization, with imperialism referring to the creation and maintenance of unequal relationships between nations and not necessarily the policy of a state headed by an emperor or empress. Empire is often used as a term to describe displeasure to overpowering situations.[2] There are two main ways to establish and maintain an imperial political structure: (i) as a territorial empire of direct conquest and control with force or (ii) as a coercive, hegemonic empire of indirect conquest and control with power. The former method provides greater tribute and direct political control, yet limits further expansion because it absorbs military forces to fixed garrisons. The latter method provides less tribute and indirect control, but avails military forces for further expansion.[3] Territorial empires (e.g. the Mongol Empire and Median Empire) tend to be contiguous areas. The term, on occasion, has been applied to maritime republics or thalassocracies (e.g. the Athenian and British empires) with looser structures and more scattered territories, often consisting of many islands and other forms of possessions which required the creation and maintenance of a powerful navy. Empires such the Holy Roman Empire also came together by electing the emperor with votes from member realms through the Imperial election. Contents 1 Definition 2 Characteristics 3 History of imperialism 3.1 Bronze and Iron Age empires 3.2 Classical period 3.3 Post-classical period 3.4 Colonial empires 3.5 Modern period 3.6 Transition from empire 4 Fall of empires 4.1 Roman Empire 5 Contemporary usage 6 Timeline of empires 7 Theoretical research 7.1 The Seven Stages of Empire 7.2 Empire versus nation state 7.3 Universal empire 7.4 Circumscription theory 7.5 Present 7.6 Future 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links Definition[edit] An empire is an aggregate of many separate states or territories under a supreme ruler or oligarchy.[4] This is in contrast to a federation, which is an extensive state voluntarily composed of autonomous states and peoples. An empire is a large polity which rules over territories outside of its original borders. Definitions of what physically and politically constitute an empire vary. It might be a state affecting imperial policies or a particular political structure. Empires are typically formed from diverse ethnic, national, cultural, and religious components.[5] 'Empire' and 'colonialism' are used to refer to relationships between a powerful state or society versus a less powerful one; Michael W. Doyle has defined empire as "effective control, whether formal or informal, of a subordinated society by an imperial society".[6] Tom Nairn and Paul James define empires as polities that "extend relations of power across territorial spaces over which they have no prior or given legal sovereignty, and where, in one or more of the domains of economics, politics, and culture, they gain some measure of extensive hegemony over those spaces for the purpose of extracting or accruing value".[7] Rein Taagepera has defined an empire as "any relatively large sovereign political entity whose components are not sovereign".[8] The terrestrial empire's maritime analogue is the thalassocracy, an empire composed of islands and coasts which are accessible to its terrestrial homeland, such as the Athenian-dominated Delian League. Furthermore, empires can expand by both land and sea. Stephen Howe notes that empires by land can be characterized by expansion over terrain, "extending directly outwards from the original frontier"[9] while an empire by sea can be characterized by colonial expansion and empire building "by an increasingly powerful navy".[10] However, sometimes an empire is only a semantic construction, such as when a ruler assumes the title of "emperor".[11][12][13][14] That polity over which the ruler reigns logically becomes an "empire", despite having no additional territory or hegemony. Examples of this form of empire are the Central African Empire, or the Korean Empire proclaimed in 1897 when Korea, far from gaining new territory, was on the verge of being annexed by the Empire of Japan, one of the last to use the name officially. Among the last states in the 20th century known as empires in this sense were the Central African Empire, Ethiopia, Empire of Vietnam, Manchukuo, Russia, Germany, and Korea. Characteristics[edit] Empires originated as different types of states, although they commonly began as powerful monarchies. Ideas about empires have changed over time, ranging from public approval to universal distaste. Empires are built out of separate units with some kind of diversity – ethnic, national, cultural, religious – and imply at least some inequality between the rulers and the ruled. Without this inequality, the system would be seen as a commonwealth. Throughout history, the major powers of the world constantly seek to conquer other parts of the world. Imperialism is the idea of a major power controlling another nation or land with the intentions to use the native people and resources to help the mother country in any way possible. Many empires were the result of military conquest, incorporating the vanquished states into a political union, but imperial hegemony can be established in other ways. The Athenian Empire, the Roman Empire, and the British Empire developed at least in part under elective auspices. The Empire of Brazil declared itself an empire after separating from the Portuguese Empire in 1822. France has twice transitioned from being called the French Republic to being called the French Empire while it retained an overseas empire.[15] Diachronic map of the main empires of the modern era (1492–1945). Europeans began applying the designation of "empire" to non-European monarchies, such as the Qing Empire and the Mughal Empire, as well as the Maratha Empire, eventually leading to the looser denotations applicable to any political structure meeting the criteria of "imperium". Some monarchies styled themselves as having greater size, scope, and power than the territorial, politico-military, and economic facts support. As a consequence, some monarchs assumed the title of "emperor" (or its corresponding translation, tsar, empereur, kaiser, shah etc.) and renamed their states as "The Empire of ...". Empires were seen as an expanding power, administration, ideas and beliefs followed by cultural habits from place to place. Empires tend to impose their culture on the subject states to strengthen the imperial structure. This can have notable effects that outlast the empire itself, both positive and negative. Most histories of empires have been hostile, especially if the authors were promoting nationalism. Stephen Howe, although himself hostile, listed positive qualities: the guaranteed stability, security, and legal order for their subjects. They tried to minimize ethnic and religious antagonism inside the empire. The aristocracies that ruled them were often more cosmopolitan and broad-minded than their nationalistic successors. [16] History of imperialism[edit] For comprehensive historical coverage see Peter Stearns, ed. The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, Chronologically Arranged (6th ed. 2001). Bronze and Iron Age empires[edit] Early empires Achaemenid Empire of Persia at its zenith Maurya Empire of India at its greatest extent under Ashoka the Great The earliest known empire appeared in southern Egypt sometime around 3200 BC. Southern Egypt was divided by three kingdoms each centered on a powerful city. Hierapolis conquered the other two cities over two centuries, and later grew into the country of Egypt. The Akkadian Empire, established by Sargon of Akkad (24th century BC), was an early all-Mesopotamian empire. This imperial achievement was repeated by Hammurabi of Babylon in the 17th century BC. In the 15th century BC, the New Kingdom of Ancient Egypt, ruled by Thutmose III, was ancient Africa's major force upon incorporating Nubia and the ancient city-states of the Levant. Circa 1500 BC in China rose the Shang Empire which was succeeded by the Zhou Empire circa 1100 BC. Both surpassed in territory their contemporary Near Eastern empires. The Zhou Empire dissolved in 770 BC into feudal multi-state system which lasted for five and a half centuries until the universal conquest of Qin in 221 BC. The first empire comparable to Rome in organization was the Neo-Assyrian Empire (916–612 BC). The Median Empire was the first empire within the territory of Persia. By the 6th century BC, after having allied with the Babylonians to defeat the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the Medes were able to establish their own empire, which was the largest of its day and lasted for about sixty years.[17] Classical period[edit] Classical period The Roman Empire under Trajan (98–117). This would be the peak of the empire's territorial extent. Han Empire of China in 2 AD. The Axial Age (mid-First Millennium BC) witnessed unprecedented imperial expansion in the Indo-Mediterranean region and China.[18] The successful and extensive Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC), also known as the first Persian Empire, covered Mesopotamia, Egypt, parts of Greece, Thrace, the Middle East, much of Central Asia, and North-Western India. It is considered the first great empire in history or the first "world empire".[19] It was overthrown and replaced by the short-lived empire of Alexander the Great. His Empire was succeeded by three Empires ruled by the Diadochi—the Seleucid, Ptolemaic, and Macedonian, which, despite being independent, are called the "Hellenistic Empire" by virtue of their similarities in culture and administration. Meanwhile, in the western Mediterranean the Empires of Carthage and Rome began their rise. Having decisively defeated Carthage in 202 BC, Rome defeated Macedonia in 200 BC and the Seleucids in 190–189 BC to establish an all-Mediterranean Empire. The Seleucid Empire broke apart and its former eastern part was absorbed by the Parthian Empire. In 30 BC Rome annexed Ptolemaic Egypt. In India during the Axial Age appeared the Maurya Empire—a geographically extensive and powerful empire, ruled by the Mauryan dynasty from 321 to 185 BC. The empire was founded in 322 BC by Chandragupta Maurya through the help of Chanakya,[20] who rapidly expanded his power westward across central and western India, taking advantage of the disruptions of local powers following the withdrawal by Alexander the Great. By 320 BC, the Maurya Empire had fully occupied northwestern India as well as defeating and conquering the satraps left by Alexander. Under Emperor Asoka the Great, the Maurya Empire became the first Indian empire to conquer the whole Indian Peninsula — an achievement repeated only twice, by the Gupta and Mughal Empires. In the reign of Asoka Buddhism spread to become the dominant religion in many parts of the ancient India.[21] In 221 BC, China became an empire when the State of Qin ended the chaotic Warring States period through its conquest of the other six states and proclaimed the Qin Empire (221–207 BC). The Qin Empire is known for the construction of the Great Wall of China and the Terracotta Army, as well as the standardization of currency, weights, measures and writing system. It laid the foundation for China's first golden age, the Han Empire (202 BC–AD 9, AD 25–220). The Han Empire expanded into Central Asia and established trade through the Silk Road. Confucianism was, for the first time, adopted as an official state ideology. During the reign of the Emperor Wu of Han, the Xiongnu were pacified. By this time, only four empires stretched between the Pacific and the Atlantic: the Han Empire of China, the Kushan Empire, the Parthian Empire of Persia, and the Roman Empire. The collapse of the Han Empire in AD 220 saw China fragmented into the Three Kingdoms, only to be unified once again by the Jin Empire (AD 266–420). The relative weakness of the Jin Empire plunged China into political disunity that would last from AD 304 to AD 589 when the Sui Empire (AD 581–618) reunited China.[22] Map showing the four empires of Eurasia in the 2nd century AD The Romans were the first people to invent and embody the concept of empire in their two mandates: to wage war and to make and execute laws.[2] They were the most extensive Western empire until the early modern period, and left a lasting impact on European society. Many languages, cultural values, religious institutions, political divisions, urban centers, and legal systems can trace their origins to the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire governed and rested on exploitative actions. They took slaves and money from the peripheries to support the imperial center.[2] However, the absolute reliance on conquered peoples to carry out the empire's fortune, sustain wealth, and fight wars would ultimately lead to the collapse of the Roman Empire.[2] The Romans were strong believers in what they called their "civilizing mission". This term was legitimized and justified by writers like Cicero who wrote that only under Roman rule could the world flourish and prosper.[2] This ideology, that was envisioned to bring a new world order, was eventually spread across the Mediterranean world and beyond. People started to build houses like Romans, eat the same food, wear the same clothes and engage in the same games.[2] Even rights of citizenship and authority to rule were granted to people not born within Roman territory.[2] The Latin word imperium, referring to a magistrate's power to command, gradually assumed the meaning "The territory in which a magistrate can effectively enforce his commands", while the term "imperator" was originally an honorific meaning "commander". The title was given to generals who were victorious in battle. Thus, an "empire" may include regions that are not legally within the territory of a state, but are under either direct or indirect control of that state, such as a colony, client state, or protectorate. Although historians use the terms "Republican Period" and "Imperial Period" to identify the periods of Roman history before and after absolute power was assumed by Augustus, the Romans themselves continued to refer to their government as a republic, and during the Republican Period, the territories controlled by the republic were referred to as "Imperium Romanum". The emperor's actual legal power derived from holding the office of "consul", but he was traditionally honored with the titles of imperator (commander) and princeps (first man or, chief). Later, these terms came to have legal significance in their own right; an army calling their general "imperator" was a direct challenge to the authority of the current emperor.[23] The legal systems of France and its former colonies are strongly influenced by Roman law.[24] Similarly, the United States was founded on a model inspired by the Roman Republic, with upper and lower legislative assemblies, and executive power vested in a single individual, the president. The president, as "commander-in-chief" of the armed forces, reflects the ancient Roman titles imperator princeps.[25] The Roman Catholic Church, founded in the early Imperial Period, spread across Europe, first by the activities of Christian evangelists, and later by official imperial promulgation. Post-classical period[edit] In Western Asia, the term "Persian Empire" came to denote the Iranian imperial states established at different historical periods of pre–Islamic and post–Islamic Persia.[26] In East Asia, various Chinese empires dominated the political, economic and cultural landscapes during this era, the most powerful of which was probably the Tang Empire (618–690, 705–907). Other influential Chinese empires during the post-classical period include the Sui Empire (581–618), the Great Liao Empire (916–1125), the Song Empire (960–1279), the Western Xia Empire (1038–1227), the Great Jin Empire (1115–1234), the Western Liao Empire (1124–1218), the Great Yuan Empire (1271–1368), and the Great Ming Empire (1368–1644). During this period, Japan and Korea underwent voluntary Sinicization.[27][28][29] The Sui, Tang and Song empires had the world's largest economy and were the most technologically advanced during their time;[30][31] the Great Yuan Empire was the world's ninth largest empire by total land area; while the Great Ming Empire is famous for the seven maritime expeditions led by Zheng He.[32] The 7th century saw the emergence of the Islamic Empire, also referred to as the Islamic Caliphate. The Rashidun Caliphate expanded from the Arabian Peninsula and swiftly conquered the Persian Empire and much of the Byzantine Roman Empire. Its successor state, the Umayyad Caliphate, expanded across North Africa and into the Iberian Peninsula. By the beginning of the 8th century, the Umayyad Caliphate had become the largest empire in history, it would not be surpassed in size until the establishment of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century. In 750 the Caliphate clashed with the Tang China at Talas. By this time only these two Empires stretched between the Atlantic and the Pacific. From the 11th century Moroccan empires began to appear, starting with the Almoravid Empire, dominating territories in both Europe as well as Sub-Saharan Africa.[33] Post-classical period Eastern Roman Empire in 555. The territory directly held by the Tang Empire of China and its sphere of influence. The Great Liao Empire, the Song Empire and the Western Xia Empire of China in 1111. The expansion of the Rashidun Empire. Mongol Empire in the 13th century. Ajuran Sultanate in the 15th century Almohad Empire 1147 - 1269 Bulgarian Empire in 850 The Ajuran Sultanate was a Somali empire in the medieval times that dominated the Indian Ocean trade. They belonged to the Somali Muslim sultanate [34][35][36] that ruled over large parts of the Horn of Africa in the Middle Ages. Through a strong centralized administration and an aggressive military stance towards invaders, the Ajuran Sultanate successfully resisted an Oromo invasion from the west and a Portuguese incursion from the east during the Gaal Madow and the Ajuran-Portuguese wars. Trading routes dating from the ancient and early medieval periods of Somali maritime enterprise were strengthened or re-established, and foreign trade and commerce in the coastal provinces flourished with ships sailing to and coming from many kingdoms and empires in East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, Europe, Middle East, North Africa and East Africa.[37] In the 7th century, Maritime Southeast Asia witnessed the rise of a Buddhist thallasocracy, the Srivijaya Empire, which thrived for 600 years and was succeeded by the Hindu-Buddhist Majapahit Empire that ruled from the 13th to 15th centuries. In the Southeast Asian mainland, the Hindu-Buddhist Khmer Empire was centered in the city of Angkor and flourished from the 9th to 13th centuries. Following the demise of the Khmer Empire, the Siamese Empire flourished alongside the Burmese and Lan Chang Empires from the 13th through the 18th centuries. In Southeastern and Eastern Europe, during the year of 917, the Eastern Roman Empire, sometimes called Byzantine Empire, was forced to recognize the Imperial title of Bulgarian ruler Simeon the Great, who were then called Tsar, the first ruler to hold that precise imperial title. The Bulgarian Empire, establishes in the region in 680/681, remained a major power in Southeast Europe until its fall in the late 14th century. Bulgaria gradually reached its cultural and territorial apogee in the 9th century and early 10th century under Prince Boris I and Simeon I, when its early Christianization in 864 allowed it to develop into the cultural and literary center of Slavic Europe, as well as one of the largest states in Europe, thus the period is considered the Golden Age of medieval Bulgarian culture. Major events included the development of the Cyrillic script at the Preslav Literary School, declared official in 893, and the establishment of the liturgy in Old Church Slavonic, also called Old Bulgarian.[38][39][40] At the time, in the Medieval West, the title "empire" had a specific technical meaning that was exclusively applied to states that considered themselves the heirs and successors of the Roman Empire. Among these were the "Byzantine Empire", which was the actual continuation of the Eastern portion of the Roman Empire, the Carolingian Empire, the largely Germanic Holy Roman Empire, and the Russian Empire. Yet, these states did not always fit the geographic, political, or military profiles of empires in the modern sense of the word. To legitimise their imperium, these states directly claimed the title of Empire from Rome. The sacrum Romanum imperium (Holy Roman Empire), which lasted from 800 to 1806, claimed to have exclusively comprehended Christian principalities, and was only nominally a discrete imperial state. The Holy Roman Empire was not always centrally-governed, as it had neither core nor peripheral territories, and was not governed by a central, politico-military elite. Hence, Voltaire's remark that the Holy Roman Empire "was neither holy, nor Roman, nor an empire" is accurate to the degree that it ignores[41] German rule over Italian, French, Provençal, Polish, Flemish, Dutch, and Bohemian populations, and the efforts of the ninth-century Holy Roman Emperors (i.e., the Ottonians) to establish central control. Voltaire's "nor an empire" observation applies to its late period. In 1204, after the Fourth Crusade conquered Constantinople, the crusaders established a Latin Empire (1204–1261) in that city, while the defeated Byzantine Empire's descendants established two smaller, short-lived empires in Asia Minor: the Empire of Nicaea (1204–1261) and the Empire of Trebizond (1204–1461). Constantinople was retaken in 1261 by the Byzantine successor state centered in Nicaea, re-establishing the Byzantine Empire until 1453, by which time the Turkish-Muslim Ottoman Empire (ca. 1300–1918), had conquered most of the region. The Ottoman Empire was a successor of the Abbasid Empire and it was the most powerful empire to succeed the Abbasi empires at the time, as well as one of the most powerful empires in the world.[42] The Ottoman Empire centered on modern day Turkey, dominated the eastern Mediterranean, overthrew the Byzantine Empire to claim Constantinople and it would start battering at Austria and Malta, which were countries that were key to central and to south-west Europe respectively — mainly for their geographical location.[42] The reason these occurrences of batterings were so important was because the Ottomans were Muslim, and the rest of Europe was Christian, so there was a sense of religious fighting going on.[42] This was not just a rivalry of East and West but a rivalry between Christians and Muslims.[42] Both the Christians and Muslims had alliances with other countries, and they had problems in them as well.[42] The flows of trade and of cultural influences across the supposed great divide never ceased, so the countries never stopped bartering with each other.[2] These epochal clashes between civilizations profoundly shaped many people's thinking back then, and continues to do so in the present day.[43] Modern hatred against Muslim communities in South-Eastern Europe, mainly in Bosnia and Kosovo, has often been articulated in terms of seeing them as unwelcome residues of this imperialism: in short, as Turks.[44] Moreover, Eastern Orthodox imperialism was not re-established until the coronation of Peter the Great as Emperor of Russia in 1721. Likewise, with the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815), the Austrian Empire (1804–1867) emerged reconstituted as the Empire of Austria–Hungary (1867–1918), having "inherited" the imperium of Central and Western Europe from the losers of said wars. In the thirteenth century, Genghis Khan expanded the Mongol Empire to be the largest contiguous empire in the world. However, within two generations, the empire was separated into four discrete khanates under Genghis Khan's grandsons. One of them, Kublai Khan, conquered China and established the Yuan dynasty with the imperial capital at Beijing. One family ruled the whole Eurasian land mass from the Pacific to the Adriatic and Baltic Seas. The emergence of the Pax Mongolica had significantly eased trade and commerce across Asia. The Safavid Empire of Iran was also founded. [45][46] The Age of the Islamic Gunpowders started to develop from the 15th century.[47] In the Indian subcontinent, the Delhi Sultanate conquered most of the Indian peninsula and spread Islam across it. It later got broken with the establishment of the Bengal Sultanate. In the 15th century, the Mughal Empire was founder by Timur and Genghis Khan's direct descendant Babur. His successors such Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan extended the empire. Meanwhile, the Sur Empire was also established in the north by Sher Shah Suri. In the 17th century, Muhammad Aurangzeb Alamgir expanded the Mughal Empire, controlling most of the South Asia through Sharia,[48][49] which became the world's largest economy and leading manufacturing power with a nominal GDP that valued a quarter of world GDP, superior than the combination of Europe's GDP.[50][51] It has been estimated that the Mughal emperors controlled an unprecedented one-fourth of the world's entire economy and was home to one-fourth of the world's population at the time.[52] After the death of Aurangzeb, which marks the end of the medieval India and the beginning of European invasion in India, the empire was weakened by Nader Shah's invasion.[53] The Mysore Empire was soon established by Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan, allies of Napoleone Bonaparte.[54][55][56] Other independent empires were also been established, such as those ruled by the Nawabs of Bengal and Murshidabad[57] and Hyderabad State's Nizam of Hyderabad.[58] In the pre-Columbian Americas, two Empires were prominent—the Azteca in Mesoamerica and Inca in Peru. Both existed for several generations before the arrival of the Europeans. Inca had gradually conquered the whole of the settled Andean world as far south as today Santiago in Chile. In Oceania, the Tonga Empire was a lonely empire that existed from the Late Middle Ages to the Modern period.[59] Colonial empires[edit] All areas of the world that were once part of the Portuguese Empire. The Portuguese established in the early 16th century together with the Spanish Empire the first global empire and trade network.[60] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) In the 15th century, Castile (Spain) landing in the so-called "New World" (first, the Americas, and later Australia), along with Portuguese travels around the Cape of Good Hope and along the coast of Africa bordering the southeast Indian Ocean, proved ripe opportunities for the continent's Renaissance-era monarchies to establish colonial empires like those of the ancient Romans and Greeks. In the Old World, colonial imperialism was attempted and established on the Canary Islands and Ireland. These conquered lands and people became de jure subordinates of the empire, rather than de facto imperial territories and subjects. Such subjugation often elicited "client-state" resentment that the empire unwisely ignored, leading to the collapse of the European colonial imperial system in the late 19th through the mid-20th century. Portuguese discovery of Newfoundland in the New World gave way to many expeditions led by England (later Britain), Spain, France, and the Dutch Republic. In the 18th century, the Spanish Empire was at its height because of the great mass of goods taken from conquered territory in the Americas (nowadays Mexico, parts of the United States, the Caribbean, most of Central America, and South America) and the Philippines. Modern period[edit] Modern period Red shows self-governing North American British colonies and pink shows claimed and largely indirectly controlled territories in 1775. In the year 1690, the realms of the Mughal Empire spanned from Kabul in the west to Cape Comorin, Tamil Nadu in the south.[61] The Ottoman Empire at its greatest extent. The Spanish–Portuguese Empire of the Iberian Union (1580–1640) was the first global imperial entity. The map includes all Spanish territories, but only territories Portugal had during the Iberian Union. The Russian Empire in 1866 became the second largest contiguous empire to have ever existed. The Russian Federation is currently the largest state on the planet. In 1920, the British Empire was the largest empire in history. The evolution of the French Empire in the 18th to the 20th century. The 19th to 20th century Japanese Empire at its maximum extent, 1942. The territory ruled by the Great Qing Empire of China in 1820. The German Empire in 1914. The British established their first empire (1583–1783) in North America by colonising lands that made up British America, including parts of Canada, the Caribbean and the Thirteen Colonies. In 1776, the Continental Congress of the Thirteen Colonies declared itself independent from the British Empire, thus beginning the American Revolution. Britain turned towards Asia, the Pacific, and later Africa, with subsequent exploration leading to the rise of the Second British Empire (1783–1815), which was followed by the Industrial Revolution and Britain's Imperial Century (1815–1914). It became the largest empire in world history, encompassing one quarter of the world's land area and one fifth of its population.[62] The impacts of this period are still prominent in the current age "including widespread use of the English language, belief in Protestant religion, economic globalization, modern precepts of law and order, and representative democracy."[63][64] The Great Qing Empire of China (1636–1912) was the fifth largest empire in world history by total land area, and laid the foundation for the modern territorial claims of both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China. Apart from having direct control over much of East Asia, the empire also exerted domination over other states through the Chinese tributary system. The multiethnic and multicultural nature of the Great Qing Empire was crucial to the subsequent birth of the nationalistic concept of zhonghua minzu. The empire reached its peak during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor, after which the empire entered a period of prolonged decline, culminating in its collapse as a result of the Xinhai Revolution. The Ashanti Empire (or Confederacy), also Asanteman (1701–1896), was a West African state of the Ashanti, the Akan people of the Ashanti Region, Akanland in modern-day Ghana. The Ashanti (or Asante) were a powerful, militaristic and highly disciplined people in West Africa. Their military power, which came from effective strategy and an early adoption of European firearms, created an empire that stretched from central Akanland (in modern-day Ghana) to present day Benin and Ivory Coast, bordered by the Dagomba kingdom to the north and Dahomey to the east. Due to the empire's military prowess, sophisticated hierarchy, social stratification and culture, the Ashanti empire had one of the largest historiographies of any indigenous Sub-Saharan African political entity. The Sikh Empire (1799–1846) was established in the Punjab region of India. The empire collapsed when its founder, Ranjit Singh, died and its army fell to the British. During the same period, the Maratha Empire (also known as the Maratha Confederacy) was a Hindu state located in present-day India. It existed from 1674 to 1818, and at its peak, the empire's territories covered much of Southern Asia. The empire was founded and consolidated by Shivaji. After the death of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, it expanded greatly under the rule of the Peshwas. In 1761, the Maratha army lost the Third Battle of Panipat, which halted the expansion of the empire. Later, the empire was divided into a confederacy of states which, in 1818, were lost to the British during the Anglo-Maratha wars.[65] The French emperors Napoleon I and Napoleon III (See: Premier Empire, Second French Empire) each attempted establishing a western imperial hegemony centered in France. The French colonial empire constituted the overseas colonies, protectorates and mandate territories that came under French rule from the 16th century onward. A distinction is generally made between the "first colonial empire," that existed until 1814, and the "second colonial empire", which began with the conquest of Algiers in 1830. The second colonial empire came to an end after the decolonizations of Indochina (1954), Algeria (1962) and French Africa. At its apex, it was one of the largest empires in history; including metropolitan France, the total amount of land under French sovereignty reached 11,500,000 km2 (4,400,000 sq mi), with a population of 110 million people in 1939. The Empire of Brazil (1822–1889) was the only South American modern monarchy, established by the heir of the Portuguese Empire as an independent nation eventually became an emerging international power. The new country was huge but sparsely populated and ethnically diverse. In 1889 the monarchy was overthrown in a sudden coup d'état led by a clique of military leaders whose goal was the formation of a republic. The German Empire (1871–1918), another "heir to the Holy Roman Empire", arose in 1871. The term "American Empire" refers to the United States' cultural ideologies and foreign policy strategies. The term is most commonly used to describe the U.S.'s status since the 20th century, but it can also be applied to the United States' world standing before the rise of nationalism in the 20th century.[66] The United States is not traditionally recognized as an empire, in part because the U.S. adopted a different political system from those that previous empires had used. Despite these systematic differences, the political objectives and strategies of the United States government have been quite similar to those of previous empires.[67] Due to this similarity some scholars confess: "When it walks like a duck, talks like a duck, it's a duck."[68][69][70] Academic, Krishna Kumar, argues the distinct principles of nationalism and imperialism may result in common practice; that is, the pursuit of nationalism can often coincide with the pursuit of imperialism in terms of strategy and decision making.[71] Throughout the 19th century, the United States government attempted to expand its territory by any means necessary. Regardless of the supposed motivation for this constant expansion, all of these land acquisitions were carried out by imperialistic means. This was done by financial means in some cases, and by military force in others. Most notably, the Louisiana Purchase (1803), the Texas Annexation (1845), and the Mexican Cession (1848) highlight the imperialistic goals of the United States during this “modern period” of imperialism. The U.S. government has stopped adding additional territories, where they permanently and politically take over since the early 20th century, and instead have established 800 military bases as their outposts. [72] With this overt but subtile military control of other countries, scholars consider U.S. foreign policy strategies to be imperialistic.[73] This idea is explored in the "contemporary usage" section. Transition from empire[edit] In time, an empire may change from one political entity to another. For example, the Holy Roman Empire, a German re-constitution of the Roman Empire, metamorphosed into various political structures (i.e., federalism), and eventually, under Habsburg rule, re-constituted itself in 1804 as the Austrian Empire, an empire of much different politics and scope, which in turn became the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1867. The Roman Empire, perennially reborn, also lived on as the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire) – temporarily splitting into the Latin Empire, the Empire of Nicaea and the Empire of Trebizond before its remaining territory and centre became part of the Ottoman Empire. A similarly persistent concept of empire saw the Mongol Empire become the Khanate of the Golden Horde, the Yuan Empire of China, and the Ilkhanate before resurrection as the Timurid Empire and as the Mughal Empire. After 1945 the Empire of Japan retained its Emperor but lost its colonial possessions and became the State of Japan. An autocratic empire can become a republic (e.g., the Central African Empire in 1979), or it can become a republic with its imperial dominions reduced to a core territory (e.g., Weimar Germany shorn of the German colonial empire (1918–1919), or the Ottoman Empire (1918–1923)). The dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire after 1918 provides an example of a multi-ethnic superstate broken into constituent nation-oriented states: the republics, kingdoms, and provinces of Austria, Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Czechoslovakia, Ruthenia, Galicia, et al. In the aftermath of World War I the Russian Empire also broke up and became reduced to the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) before re-forming as the USSR (1922–1991) – sometimes seen as the core of a Soviet Empire. After the Second World War (1939–1945), the deconstruction of colonial empires quickened and became commonly known as decolonisation. The British Empire evolved into a loose, multinational Commonwealth of Nations, while the French colonial empire metamorphosed to a Francophone commonwealth. The same process happened to the Portuguese Empire, which evolved into a Lusophone commonwealth, and to the former territories of the extinct Spanish Empire, which alongside the Lusophone countries of Portugal and Brazil, created an Ibero-American commowealth. France returned the French territory of Kwang-Chou-Wan to China in 1946. The British gave Hong Kong back to China in 1997 after 150 years of rule. The Portuguese territory of Macau reverted to China in 1999. Macau and Hong Kong did not become part of the provincial structure of China; they have autonomous systems of government as Special Administrative Regions of the People's Republic of China. France still governs overseas territories (French Guiana, Martinique, Réunion, French Polynesia, New Caledonia, Saint Martin, Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon, Guadeloupe, TAAF, Wallis and Futuna, Saint Barthélemy, and Mayotte), and exerts hegemony in Francophone Africa (29 francophone countries such as Chad, Rwanda, et cetera). Fourteen British Overseas Territories remain under British sovereignty. Sixteen countries of the Commonwealth of Nations share their head of state, Queen Elizabeth II, as Commonwealth Realms. In 2004 Eliot A. Cohen summarized the contemporary transition from empire: "The Age of Empire may indeed have ended, but then an age of American hegemony has begun, regardless of what one calls it."[74] Fall of empires[edit] Roman Empire[edit] Further information: Fall of the Western Roman Empire The fall of the western half of the Roman Empire is seen as one of the most pivotal points in all of human history. This event traditionally marks the transition from classical civilization to the birth of Europe. The Roman Empire started to decline at the end of the reign of the last of the Five Good Emperors, Marcus Aurelius in 161–180 A.D. There is still a debate over the cause of the fall of one of the largest empires in history. Piganiol argues that the Roman Empire under its authority can be described as "a period of terror",[75] holding its imperial system accountable for its failure. Another theory blames the rise of Christianity as the cause, arguing that the spread of certain Christian ideals caused internal weakness of the military and state.[76] In the book The Fall of the Roman Empire, by Peter Heather, he contends that there are many factors, including issues of money and manpower, which produce military limitations and culminate in the Roman army's inability to effectively repel invading barbarians at the frontier.[77] The Western Roman economy was already stretched to its limit in the 4th and 5th Centuries C.E. due to continual conflict and loss of territory which, in turn, generated loss of revenue from the tax base. There was also the looming presence of the Persians which, at any time, took a large percentage of the fighting force's attention. At the same time the Huns, a nomadic warrior people from the steppes of Asia, are also putting extreme pressure on the German tribes outside of the Roman frontier, which gave the German tribes no other choice, geographically, but to move into Roman territory. At this point, without increased funding, the Roman army could no longer effectively defend its borders against major waves of Germanic tribes. This inability is illustrated by the crushing defeat at Adrianople in 378 C.E. and, later, the Battle of Frigidus. Contemporary usage[edit] Main article: Imperialism Contemporaneously, the concept of empire is politically valid, yet is not always used in the traditional sense. For example, Japan is considered the world's sole remaining empire because of the continued presence of the Japanese Emperor in national politics. Despite the semantic reference to imperial power, Japan is a de jure constitutional monarchy, with a homogeneous population of 127 million people that is 98.5 percent ethnic Japanese, making it one of the largest nation-states.[78] Characterising some aspects of the United States in regards to its territorial expansion, foreign policy, and its international behaviour as "American Empire" is controversial but not uncommon. This characterisation is controversial because of the strong tendency in American society to reject claims of American imperialism. The initial motivations for the inception of the United States eventually led to the development of this tendency, which has been perpetuated by the country-wide obsession with this national narrative. The United States was formed because colonists did not like being under control of the British Empire. Essentially, the United States was formed in an attempt to reject imperialism. This makes it very hard for people to acknowledge America's status as an empire. This active rejection of imperialist status is not limited to high-ranking government officials, as it has been ingrained in American society throughout its entire history. As David Ludden explains, "journalists, scholars, teachers, students, analysts, and politicians prefer to depict the U.S. as a nation pursuing its own interests and ideals".[79] This often results in imperialist endeavors being presented as measures taken to enhance state security. Ludden explains this phenomenon with the concept of "ideological blinders", which he says prevent American citizens from realizing the true nature of America's current systems and strategies. These "ideological blinders" that people wear have resulted in an "invisible" American empire of which most American citizens are unaware.[79] Stuart Creighton Miller posits that the public's sense of innocence about Realpolitik (cf. American exceptionalism) impairs popular recognition of US imperial conduct since it governed other countries via surrogates. These surrogates were domestically-weak, right-wing governments that would collapse without US support.[80] Former President G. W. Bush's Secretary of Defense, Donald Rumsfeld, said: "We don't seek empires. We're not imperialistic; we never have been."[81] This statement directly contradicts Thomas Jefferson who, in the 1780s while awaiting the fall of the Spanish empire, said: "till our population can be sufficiently advanced to gain it from them piece by piece".[82][83][84] In turn, historian Sidney Lens argues that from its inception, the US has used every means available to dominate foreign peoples and states.[85] Since the European Union was formed as a polity in 1993, it has established its own currency, its own citizenship, established discrete military forces, and exercises its limited hegemony in the Mediterranean, eastern parts of Europe, Sub-Saharan Africa, and Asia. The big size and high development index of the EU economy often has the ability to influence global trade regulations in its favour. The political scientist Jan Zielonka suggests that this behaviour is imperial because it coerces its neighbouring countries into adopting its European economic, legal, and political structures.[86][87][88][89][90][91] In his book review of Empire (2000) by Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, Mehmet Akif Okur posits that since the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks in the US, the international relations determining the world's balance of power (political, economic, military) have been altered. These alterations include the intellectual (political science) trends that perceive the contemporary world's order via the re-territorrialisation of political space, the re-emergence of classical imperialist practices (the "inside" vs. "outside" duality, cf. the Other), the deliberate weakening of international organisations, the restructured international economy, economic nationalism, the expanded arming of most countries, the proliferation of nuclear weapon capabilities and the politics of identity emphasizing a state's subjective perception of its place in the world, as a nation and as a civilisation. These changes constitute the "Age of Nation Empires"; as imperial usage, nation-empire denotes the return of geopolitical power from global power blocs to regional power blocs (i.e., centred upon a "regional power" state [China, EU, Russia, US, et al.]) and regional multi-state power alliances (i.e., Mediterranean, Latin America, South East Asia). Nation-empire regionalism claims sovereignty over their respective (regional) political (social, economic, ideologic), cultural, and military spheres.[92] Timeline of empires[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The chart below shows a timeline of polities that have been called empires. Dynastic changes are marked with a white line.[93] The Roman Empire's timeline listed below only includes the Western portion. The Byzantine continuation of the Roman Empire is listed separately. The Empires of Nicaea and Trebizond were Byzantine successor states. The Empire of Bronze Age Egypt is not included in the graph. Established by Narmer circa 3000 BC, it lasted as long as China until it was conquered by Achaemenid Persia in 525 BC. Japan is presented for the period of its overseas Empire (1895–1945). The original Japanese Empire of "the Eight Islands" would be third persistent after Egypt and China. Many Indian empires are also included, though only Mauryans, Guptas, Delhi Sultans, Mughals and Marathas ruled most of the India. Theoretical research[edit] The Seven Stages of Empire[edit] The military historian Sir John Bagot Glubb studied eleven empires starting with the Assyrians in 859 B.C. and ending with the British in 1950 A.D. Sir John determined that each followed a remarkably similar pattern from birth to demise. Spanning a period of about ten generations, each went through 7 Stages of Empire:[94] The Age of Pioneers (Outburst) The Age of Conquests The Age of Commerce The Age of Affluence The Age of Intellect The Age of Decadence The Age of Decline & Collapse Glubb noted that in all these example, the penultimate age was marked by defensiveness, pessimism, materialism, frivolity, an influx of foreigners, the Welfare State, and a weakening of religion. He attributed this decadence to an excessively long period of wealth and power, selfishness, love of money, and the loss of a sense of duty. Mike Maloney, an economist, arrived at exactly the same conclusion but in Economic terms whilst studying the history of money. His 7 stages were: [95] The Age of Good Money The Age of Public Works The Age of Military Expansionism The Age of War The Age of Currency Debasement The Age of Monetary Inflation The Age of Financial Decline & Fiscal Collapse Empire versus nation state[edit] Empires have been the dominant international organization in world history: The fact that tribes, peoples, and nations have made empires points to a fundamental political dynamic, one that helps explain why empires cannot be confined to a particular place or era but emerged and reemerged over thousands of years and on all continents.[96] Empires ... can be traced as far back as the recorded history goes; indeed, most history is the history of empires ... It is the nation-state—an essentially 19th-century ideal—that is the historical novelty and that may yet prove to be the more ephemeral entity.[97] Our field’s fixation on the Westphalian state has tended to obscure the fact that the main actors in global politics, for most of time immemorial, have been empires rather than states ... In fact, it is a very distorted view of even the Westphalian era not to recognize that it was always at least as much about empires as it was states. Almost all of the emerging European states no sooner began to consolidate than they were off on campaigns of conquest and commerce to the farthest reaches of the globe… Ironically, it was the European empires that carried the idea of the sovereign territorial state to the rest of the world ...[98] Empire has been the historically predominant form of order in world politics. Looking at a time frame of several millennia, there was no global anarchic system until the European explorations and subsequent imperial and colonial ventures connected disparate regional systems, doing so approximately 500 years ago. Prior to this emergence of a global-scope system, the pattern of world politics was characterized by regional systems. These regional systems were initially anarchic and marked by high levels of military competition. But almost universally, they tended to consolidate into regional empires ... Thus it was empires—not anarchic state systems—that typically dominated the regional systems in all parts of the world ... Within this global pattern of regional empires, European political order was distinctly anomalous because it persisted so long as an anarchy.[99] Similarly, Anthony Pagden, Eliot A. Cohen, Jane Burbank and Frederick Cooper estimate that "empires have always been more frequent, more extensive political and social forms than tribal territories or nations have ever been".[100] Many empires endured for centuries, while the age of the ancient Egyptian, Chinese and Japanese Empires is counted in millennia. "Most people throughout history have lived under imperial rule."[101] Empires have played a long and critical part in human history ... [Despite] efforts in words and wars to put national unity at the center of political imagination, imperial politics, imperial practices, and imperial cultures have shaped the world we live in ... Rome was evoked as a model of splendor and order into the Twentieth century and beyond… By comparison, the nation-state appears as a blip on the historical horizon, a state form that emerged recently from under imperial skies and whose hold on the world's political imagination may well prove partial or transitory… The endurance of empire challenges the notion that the nation-state is natural, necessary, and inevitable ...[102] Political scientist Hedley Bull wrote that "in the broad sweep of human history ... the form of states system has been the exception rather than the rule".[103] His colleague Robert Gilpin confirmed this conclusion for the pre-modern period: The history of interstate relations was largely that of successive great empires. The pattern of international political change during the millennia of the pre-modern era has been described as an imperial cycle ... World politics was characterized by the rise and decline of powerful empires, each of which in turn unified and ordered its respective international system. The recurrent pattern in every civilization of which we have knowledge was for one state to unify the system under its imperial domination. The propensity toward universal empire was the principal feature of pre-modern politics.[104] Historian Michael Doyle who undertook an extensive research on empires extended the observation into the modern era: Empires have been the key actors in world politics for millennia. They helped create the interdependent civilizations of all the continents ... Imperial control stretches through history, many say, to the present day. Empires are as old as history itself ... They have held the leading role ever since.[105] Universal empire[edit] Expert on warfare Quincy Wright generalized on what he called "universal empire"—empire unifying all the contemporary system: Balance of power systems have in the past tended, through the process of conquest of lesser states by greater states, towards reduction in the number of states involved, and towards less frequent but more devastating wars, until eventually a universal empire has been established through the conquest by one of all those remaining.[106] German Sociologist Friedrich Tenbruck finds that the macro-historic process of imperial expansion gave rise to global history in which the formations of universal empires were most significant stages.[107] A later group of political scientists, working on the phenomenon of the current unipolarity, in 2007 edited research on several pre-modern civilizations by experts in respective fields. The overall conclusion was that the balance of power was inherently unstable order and usually soon broke in favor of imperial order.[108] Yet before the advent of the unipolarity, world historian Arnold Toynbee and political scientist Martin Wight had drawn the same conclusion with an unambiguous implication for the modern world: When this [imperial] pattern of political history is found in the New World as well as in the Old World, it looks as if the pattern must be intrinsic to the political history of societies of the species we call civilizations, in whatever part of the world the specimens of this species occur. If this conclusion is warranted, it illuminates our understanding of civilization itself.[109] Most states systems have ended in universal empire, which has swallowed all the states of the system. The examples are so abundant that we must ask two questions: Is there any states system which has not led fairly directly to the establishment of a world empire? Does the evidence rather suggest that we should expect any states system to culminate in this way? ... It might be argued that every state system can only maintain its existence on the balance of power, that the latter is inherently unstable, and that sooner or later its tensions and conflicts will be resolved into a monopoly of power.[110] The earliest thinker to approach the phenomenon of universal empire from a theoretical point of view was Polybius (2:3): In previous times events in the world occurred without impinging on one another ... [Then] history became a whole, as if a single body; events in Italy and Libya came to be enmeshed with those in Asia and Greece, and everything gets directed towards one single goal. Fichte, having witnessed the battle at Jena in 1806 when Napoleon overwhelmed Prussia, described what he perceived as a deep historical trend: There is necessary tendency in every cultivated State to extend itself generally ... Such is the case in Ancient History ... As the States become stronger in themselves and cast off that [Papal] foreign power, the tendency towards a Universal Monarchy over the whole Christian World necessarily comes to light ... This tendency ... has shown itself successively in several States which could make pretensions to such a dominion, and since the fall of the Papacy, it has become the sole animating principle of our History ... Whether clearly or not—it may be obscurely—yet has this tendency lain at the root of the undertakings of many States in Modern Times ... Although no individual Epoch may have contemplated this purpose, yet is this the spirit which runs through all these individual Epochs, and invisibly urges them onward.[111] Fichte's later compatriot, Geographer Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859), in the mid-Nineteenth century observed a macro-historic trend of imperial growth in both Hemispheres: "Men of great and strong minds, as well as whole nations, acted under influence of one idea, the purity of which was utterly unknown to them."[112] The imperial expansion filled the world circa 1900.[113][114] Two famous contemporary observers—Frederick Turner and Halford Mackinder described the event and drew implications, the former predicting American overseas expansion[115] and the latter stressing that the world empire is now in sight.[116] Friedrich Ratzel, writing at the same time, observed that the "drive toward the building of continually larger states continues throughout the entirety of history" and is active in the present.[117] He drew "Seven Laws of Expansionism". His seventh law stated: "The general trend toward amalgamation transmits the tendency of territorial growth from state to state and increases the tendency in the process of transmission." He commented on this law to make its meaning clear: "There is on this small planet sufficient space for only one great state."[118] Two other contemporaries—Kang Yu-wei and George Vacher de Lapouge—stressed that imperial expansion cannot indefinitely proceed on the definite surface of the globe and therefore world empire is imminent. Kang Yu-wei in 1885 believed that the imperial trend will culminate in the contest between Washington and Berlin[119] and Vacher de Lapouge in 1899 estimated that the final contest will be between Russia and America in which America is likely to triumph.[120] The above envisaged contests indeed took place, known to us as World War I and II. Writing during the Second, political scientists Derwent Whittlesey, Robert Strausz-Hupé and John H. Herz concluded: “Now that the earth is at last parceled out, consolidation has commenced.”[121] In "this world of fighting superstates there could be no end to war until one state had subjected all others, until world empire had been achieved by the strongest. This undoubtedly is the logical final stage in the geopolitical theory of evolution."[122] The world is no longer large enough to harbor several self-contained powers ... The trend toward world domination or hegemony of a single power is but the ultimate consummation of a power-system engrafted upon an otherwise integrated world.[123] Writing in the last year of the War, German Historian Ludwig Dehio drew a similar conclusion: [T]he old European tendency toward division is now being thrust aside by the new global trend toward unification. And the onrush of this trend may not come to rest until it has asserted itself throughout our planet ... The global order still seems to be going through its birth pangs ... With the last tempest barely over, a new one is gathering.[124] The year after the War and in the first year of the nuclear age, Albert Einstein and British Philosopher Bertrand Russell, known as prominent pacifists, outlined for the near future a perspective of world empire (world government established by force). Einstein believed that, unless world government is established by agreement, an imperial world government would come by war or wars.[125] Russell expected a third World War to result in a world government under the empire of the United States.[126] Three years later, another prominent pacifist, Theologian Reinhold Niebuhr, generalized on the ancient Empires of Egypt, Babylon, Persia and Greece to imply for the modern world: "The analogy in present global terms would be the final unification of the world through the preponderant power of either America or Russia, whichever proved herself victorious in the final struggle."[127] Russian colleague of Russell and Neighbour, Georgy Fedotov, wrote in 1945: All empires are but stages on the way to the sole Empire which must swallow all others. The only question is who will build it and on which foundations. Universal unity is the only alternative to annihilation. Unity by conference is utopian but unity by conquest by the strongest Power is not and probably the uncompleted in this War will be completed in the next. "Pax Atlantica" is the best of possible outcomes.[128] Originally drafted as a secret study for the Office of Strategic Services (the precursor of the CIA) in 1944[129] and published as a book three years later, The Struggle for the World... by James Burnham concludes: If either of the two Superpowers wins, the result would be a universal empire which in our case would also be a world empire. The historical stage for a world empire had already been set prior to and independently of the discovery of atomic weapons but these weapons make a world empire inevitable and imminent. "The atomic weapons ... will not permit the world to wait." Only a world empire can establish monopoly on atomic weapons and thus guarantee the survival of civilization. A world empire "is in fact the objective of the Third World War which, in its preliminary stages, has already began". The issue of a world empire "will be decided, and in our day. In the course of the decision, both of the present antagonists may, it is true, be destroyed, but one of them must be."[130] In 1951, Hans Morgenthau concluded that the "best" outcome of World War III would be world empire: Today war has become an instrument of universal destruction, an instrument that destroys the victor and the vanquished ... At worst, victor and loser would be undistinguishable under the leveling impact of such a catastrophe ... At best, the destruction on one side would not be quite as great as on the other; the victor would be somewhat better off than the loser and would establish, with the aid of modern technology, his domination over the world.[131] Expert on earlier civilizations, Toynbee, further developed the subject of World War III leading to world empire: The outcome of the Third World War ... seemed likely to be the imposition of an ecumenical peace of the Roman kind by the victor whose victory would leave him with a monopoly on the control of atomic energy in his grasp ... This denouement was foreshadowed, not only by present facts, but by historical precedents, since, in the histories of other civilizations, the time of troubles had been apt to culminate in the delivery of a knock-out blow resulting in the establishment of a universal state ...[132] The year this volume of A Study of History was published, US Secretary of State John Foster Dulles announced "a knock-out blow" as an official doctrine, a detailed Plan was elaborated and Fortune magazine mapped the design.[133] Section VIII, "Atomic Armaments", of the famous National Security Council Report 68 (NSC 68), approved by President Harry Truman in 1951, uses the term "blow" 17 times, mostly preceded by such adjectives as "powerful", "overwhelming", or "crippling". Another term applied by the strategists was "Sunday punch".[134] A pupil of Toynbee, William McNeill, associated on the case of ancient China, which "put a quietus upon the disorders of the warring states by erecting an imperial bureaucratic structure ... The warring states of the Twentieth century seem headed for a similar resolution of their conflicts."[135] The ancient "resolution" McNeill evoked was one of the most sweeping universal conquests in world history, performed by Qin in 230–221 BC. Chinese classic Sima Qian (d. 86 BC) described the event (6:234): "Qin raised troops on grand scale" and "the whole world celebrated a great bacchanal". Herman Kahn of the RAND Corporation criticized to an assembled group of SAC officers their war plan (SIOP-62). He did not use the term bacchanal but he coined on the occasion an associating word: "Gentlemen, you do not have a war plan. You have a wargasm!"[136] History did not completely repeat itself but it passed close. Circumscription theory[edit] Main article: Carneiro's circumscription theory According to the circumscription theory of Robert Carneiro, "the more sharply circumscribed area, the more rapidly it will become politically unified."[137] The Empires of Egypt,[138][139] China[140] and Japan are named the most durable political structures in human history. Correspondingly, these are the three most circumscribed civilizations in human history. The Empires of Egypt (established by Narmer c. 3000 BC) and China (established by Cheng in 221 BC) endured for over two millennia. German Sociologist Friedrich Tenbruck, criticizing the Western idea of progress, emphasized that China and Egypt remained at one particular stage of development for millennia. This stage was universal empire. The development of Egypt and China came to a halt once their empires "reached the limits of their natural habitat".[141] Sinology does not recognize the Eurocentric view of the "inevitable" imperial fall;[142][143] Egyptology[144][145] and Japanology pose equal challenges. Carneiro explored the Bronze Age civilizations. Stuart J. Kaufman, Richard Little and William Wohlforth researched the next three millennia, comparing eight civilizations. They conclude: The "rigidity of the borders" contributed importantly to hegemony in every concerned case.[146] Hence, "when the system's borders are rigid, the probability of hegemony is high".[147] The circumscription theory was stressed in the comparative studies of the Roman and Chinese Empires. The circumscribed Chinese Empire recovered from all falls, while the fall of Rome, by contrast, was fatal. "What counteracted this [imperial] tendency in Europe ... was a countervailing tendency for the geographical boundaries of the system to expand." If "Europe had been a closed system, some great power would eventually have succeeded in establishing absolute supremacy over the other states in the region".[148] The ancient Chinese system was relatively enclosed, whereas the European system began to expand its reach to the rest of the world from the onset of system formation… In addition, overseas provided outlet for territorial competition, thereby allowing international competition on the European continent to ... trump the ongoing pressure toward convergence.[149] His 1945 book on the four centuries of the European power struggle, Ludwig Dehio titled The Precarious Balance. He explained the durability of the European states system by its overseas expansion: "Overseas expansion and the system of states were born at the same time; the vitality that burst the bounds of the Western world also destroyed its unity."[150] Edward Carr causally linked the end of the overseas outlet for imperial expansion and World Wars. In the nineteenth century, he wrote during the Second World War, imperialist wars were waged against "primitive" peoples. "It was silly for European countries to fight against one another when they could still ... maintain social cohesion by continuous expansion in Asia and Africa. Since 1900, however, this has no longer been possible: "the situation has radically changed". Now wars are between "imperial powers."[151] Hans Morgenthau wrote that the very imperial expansion into relatively empty geographical spaces in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth centuries, in Africa, Eurasia, and western North America, deflected great power politics into the periphery of the earth, thereby reducing conflict. For example, the more attention Russia, France and the United States paid to expanding into far-flung territories in imperial fashion, the less attention they paid to one another, and the more peaceful, in a sense, the world was. But by the late nineteenth century, the consolidation of the great nation-states and empires of the West was consummated, and territorial gains could only be made at the expense of one another.[152] John H. Herz outlined one "chief function" of the overseas expansion and the impact of its end: [A] European balance of power could be maintained or adjusted because it was relatively easy to divert European conflicts into overseas directions and adjust them there. Thus the openness of the world contributed to the consolidation of the territorial system. The end of the 'world frontier' and the resulting closedness of an interdependent world inevitably affected the system's effectiveness.[153] Some later commentators[who?] drew similar conclusions: For some commentators, the passing of the Nineteenth century seemed destined to mark the end of this long era of European empire building. The unexplored and unclaimed "blank" spaces on the world map were rapidly diminishing ... and the sense of "global closure" prompted an anxious fin-de-siècle debate about the future of the great empires ... The "closure" of the global imperial system implied ... the beginning of a new era of intensifying inter-imperial struggle along borders that now straddled the globe.[154] The opportunity for any system to expand in size seems almost a necessary condition for it to remain balanced, at least over the long haul. Far from being impossible or exceedingly improbable, systemic hegemony is likely under two conditions: "when the boundaries of the international system remain stable and no new major powers emerge from outside the system."[155] With the system becoming global, further expansion is precluded. The geopolitical condition of "global closure"[156] will remain to the end of history. Since "the contemporary international system is global, we can rule out the possibility that geographic expansion of the system will contribute to the emergence of a new balance of power, as it did so many times in the past."[157] As Quincy Wright had put it, "this process can no longer continue without interplanetary wars."[158] One of leading experts on world-system theory, Christopher Chase-Dunn, noted that the circumscription theory is applicable for the global system, since the global system is circumscribed.[159][160] In fact, within less than a century of its circumscribed existence the global system overcame the centuries-old balance of power and reached the unipolarity. Given "constant spatial parameters" of the global system, its unipolar structure is neither historically unusual nor theoretically surprising.[161] Randall Schweller theorized that a "closed international system", such as the global became a century ago, would reach "entropy" in a kind of thermodynamic law. Once the state of entropy is reached, there is no going back. The initial conditions are lost forever. Stressing the curiosity of the fact, Schweller writes that since the moment the modern world became a closed system, the process has worked in only one direction: from many poles to two poles to one pole. Thus unipolarity might represent the entropy—stable and permanent loss of variation—in the global system.[162] Present[edit] Main article: American empire See also: Pax Americana Al Udeid Air Base in Qatar Chalmers Johnson argues that the US globe-girding network of hundreds of military bases already represents a global empire in its initial form: For a major power, prosecution of any war that is not a defense of the homeland usually requires overseas military bases for strategic reasons. After the war is over, it is tempting for the victor to retain such bases and easy to find reasons to do so. Commonly, preparedness for a possible resumption of hostilities will be invoked. Over time, if a nation’s aims become imperial, the bases form the skeleton of an empire.[163] Simon Dalby associates the network of bases with the Roman imperial system: Looking at these impressive facilities which reproduce substantial parts of American suburbia complete with movie theatres and restaurant chains, the parallels with Roman garrison towns built on the Rhine, or on Hadrian’s wall in England, where the remains are strikingly visible on the landscape, are obvious … Less visible is the sheer scale of the logistics to keep garrison troops in residence in the far-flung reaches of empire ... That [military] presence literally builds the cultural logic of the garrison troops into the landscape, a permanent reminder of imperial control.[164] Kenneth Pomeranz and Harvard Historian Niall Ferguson share the above-cited views: "With American military bases in over 120 countries, we have hardly seen the end of empire.” This “vast archipelago of US military bases … far exceeds 19th-century British ambitions. Britain’s imperium consisted of specific, albeit numerous, colonies and clients; the American imperial vision is much more global…”[165] Conventional maps of US military deployments understate the extent of America's military reach. A Defense Department map of the world, which shows the areas of responsibility of the five major regional commands, suggests that America's sphere of military influence is now literally global … The regional combatant commanders—the 'pro-consuls' of this imperium—have responsibility for swaths of territory beyond the wildest imaginings of their Roman predecessors.[166] Another Harvard Historian Charles S. Maier opens his Among Empires: American Ascendancy and Its Predecessors with these words: "What a substratum for empire! Compared with which, the foundation of the Macedonian, the Roman and the British, sink into insignificance."[167] One of the most accepted distinctions between earlier empires and the American Empire is the latter's “global” or “planetary” scope.[168] French former Foreign Minister Hubert Vedrine wondered: "The situation is unprecedented: What previous empire subjugated the entire world...?"[169] The quests for universal empire are old but the present quest outdoes the previous in "the notable respect of being the first to actually be global in its reach."[170] For Historian Eric Hobsbawm, a "key novelty of the US imperial project is that all other great powers and empires knew that they were not the only ones..."[171] Another Historian Paul Kennedy, who made his name in the 1980s with his prediction of the imminent US “imperial overstretch,” in 2002 acknowledged about the present world system: Nothing has ever existed like this disparity of power. The Pax Britannica was run on the cheap. Napoleon’s France and Philip II’s Spain had powerful foes and were part of a multipolar system. Charlemagne’s empire was merely western European in stretch. The Roman Empire stretched further afield, but there was another great empire in Persia and a larger one in China. There is … no comparison.[172] Walter Russell Mead observes that the United States attempts to repeate “globally” what the ancient empires of Egypt, China and Rome had each accomplished on a regional basis.[173] Professor Emeritus of Sociology at the University of Leeds, Zygmunt Bauman, concludes that due to its planetary dimension, the new empire cannot be drawn on a map: The new ‘empire’ is not an entity that could be drawn on a map… Drawing a map of the empire would also be a pointless exercise because the most conspicuously ‘imperial’ trait of the new empire’s mode of being consists in viewing and treating the whole of the planet … as a potential grazing ground…[174] Times Atlas of Empires numbers 70 empires in the world history. Niall Ferguson lists numerous parallels between them and the United States. He concludes: “To those who would still insist on American exceptionalism, the historian of empires can only retort: as exceptional as all the other 69 empires.”[175] Fareed Zakaria stressed one element not exceptional for the American Empire—the concept of exceptionalism. All dominant empires thought they were special.[176] Future[edit] In 1945, Historian Ludwig Dehio predicted global unification due to the circumscription of the global system, although he did not use this term. Being global, the system can neither expand nor be subject to external intrusion as the European states system had been for centuries: In all previous struggles for supremacy, attempts to unite the European peninsula in a single state have been condemned to failure primarily through the intrusion of new forces from outside the old Occident. The Occident was an open area. But the globe was not, and, for that very reason, ultimately destined to be unified… And this very process [of unification] was clearly reflected in both World Wars.[177] Fifteen years later, Dehio confirmed his hypothesis: The European system owed its durability to its overseas outlet. “But how can a multiple grouping of world states conceivably be supported from outside in the framework of a finite globe?”[178] During the same time, Quincy Wright developed a similar concept. Balance-of-power politics has aimed less at preserving peace than at preserving the independence of states and preventing the development of world empire. In the course of history, the balance of power repeatedly reemerged, but on ever-wider scale. Eventually, the scale became global. Unless we proceed to “interplanetary wars,” this pattern can no longer continue. In spite of significant reversals, the “trend towards world unity” can “scarcely be denied.” World unity appears to be “the limit toward which the process of world history seems to tend.”[179] Five scholars—Hornell Hart,[180] Raoul Naroll,[181] Louis Morano,[182] Rein Taagepera[183] and the author of the circumscription theory Robert Carneiro[184][185]—researched expanding imperial cycles. They worked with historical atlases but the advent of YouTube provided us with a better visualization.[113][114] They reached the same conclusion—that a world empire is pre-determined—and attempted to estimate the time of its appearance. Naroll and Carneiro found that this time is close at hand: around the year 2200 and 2300 respectively. The founder of the Paneuropean Union, Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi, writing yet in 1943, drew a more specific and immediate future imperial project: After the War America is bound “to take over the command of the skies.” The danger of “the utter annihilation of all enemy towns and lands” can “only be prevented by the air superiority of a single power … America’s air role is the only alternative to intercontinental wars.” Despite his outstanding anti-imperialism, Coudenhove-Kalergi detailed: No imperialism, but technical and strategic problems of security urge America to rule the skies of the globe, just as Britain during the last century ruled the seas of the world… Pacifists and anti-imperialists will be shocked by this logic. They will try to find an escape. But they will try in vain… At the end of the war the crushing superiority of American plane production will be an established fact… The solution of the problem … is by no means ideal, nor even satisfactory. But it is the minor evil…[186] Coudenhove-Kalergi envisaged a kind of Pax Americana modeled on “Pax Romana”: During the third century BC the Mediterranean world was divided on five great powers—Roma and Carthage, Macedonia, Syria, and Egypt. The balance of power led to a series of wars until Rome emerged the queen of the Mediterranean and established an incomparable era of two centuries of peace and progress, the ‘Pax Romana’… It may be that America’s air power could again assure our world, now much smaller than the Mediterranean at that period, two hundred years of peace…[187] This period would be necessary transitory stage before World State is eventually established, though he did not specify how the last transformation is expected to occur. Coudenhove-Kalergi's follower in the teleological theory of World State, Toynbee, supposed the traditional way of universal conquest and emphasized that the world is ripe for conquest: "…Hitler's eventual failure to impose peace on the world by the force of arms was due, not to any flaw in his thesis that the world was ripe for conquest, but to an accidental combination of incidental errors in his measures…" But "in falling by so narrow a margin to win the prize of world-dominion for himself, Hitler had left the prize dangling within the reach of any successor capable of pursuing the same aims of world-conquest with a little more patience, prudence, and tact." With his "revolution of destruction," Hitler has performed the "yeoman service" for "some future architect of a Pax Ecumenica... For a post-Hitlerian empire-builder, Hitler's derelict legacy was a gift of the Gods."[188] The next “architect of a Pax Ecumenica,” known more commonly as Pax Americana, demonstrated “more patience, prudence, and tact.” Consequently, as President Dwight Eisenhower put it, the NATO allies became “almost psychopathic” whenever anyone talked about a US withdrawal, and the reception of his successor John F. Kennedy in Berlin was “almost hysterical,” as Chancellor Conrad Adenauer characterized it .[189] John Ikenberry finds that the Europeans wanted a stronger, more formal and more imperial system than the United States was initially willing to provide. In the end the United States settled for this “form of empire—a Pax Americana with formal commitments to Europe.”[190] According to a much debated thesis, the United States became “empire by invitation.”[191] The period discussed in the thesis (1945–1952) ended precisely the year Toynbee theorized on "some future architect of a Pax Ecumenica.” Dissociating America from Rome, Eisenhower gave a pessimistic forecast. In 1951, before he became President, he had written on West Europe: “We cannot be a modern Rome guarding the far frontiers with our legions if for no other reason than that these are not, politically, our frontiers. What we must do is to assist these [West European] peoples.” Two years later, he wrote: When it was decided to deploy US divisions to Europe, no one had “for an instant” thought that they would remain there for “several decades”—that the United States could “build a sort of Roman Wall with its own troops and so protect the world.”[192] Eisenhower assured Soviet Chairman Nikita Khrushchev on Berlin in 1959: “Clearly we did not contemplate 50 years in occupation there.” It lasted, remarks Marc Trachtenberg, from July 1945 to September 1994, 10 months short of 50 years.[193] Notably, when the US troops eventually left, they left eastward. Confirming the theory of the “empire by invitation,” with their first opportunity East European states extended the “invitation.”[194] Chalmers Johnson regards the global military reach of the United States as empire in its “initial” form.[195] Dimitri Simes finds that most of the world sees the United States as a "nascent" imperial power.[196] Some scholars concerned how this empire would look in its ultimate form. The ultimate form of empire was described by Michael Doyle in his Empires. It is empire in which its two main components—the ruling core and the ruled periphery—merged to form one integrated whole. At this stage the empire as defined ceases to exist and becomes world state. Doyle examplifies the transformation on the case of the Roman Emperor Caracalla whose legislation in AD 212 extended the Roman citizenship to all inhabitants of the Mediterranean world.[197] International Relations scholar Alexander Wendt in his 2003 article “Why the World State is Inevitable…” supposed the pathway of universal conquest and subsequent consolidation provided the conquering power recognizes all conquered members.[198] Replying on criticism, Wendt invoked the example of the Roman Empire: A "world empire would be an unstable equilibrium, still subject to the struggle for recognition." However, conquest can "produce a proper ‘state’ if, as a result of internal reform, the world empire eventually recognizes all of its members (like the Roman Empire did, for example).”[199] Doyle's case of the Roman Empire had also been evoked by Susan Strange in her 1988 article, "The Future of the American Empire." Strange emphasized that the most persistent empires were those which best managed to integrate the ruling core and the peripheral allies. The article is partly a reply on the published a year earlier bestseller The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers which predicted imminent US "imperial overstretch." Strange found this outcome unlikely, stressing the fact that the peripheral allies have been successfully recruited into the American Empire.[200] Envisaging a world empire of either the United States or the Soviet Union (whoever is victorious in World War III), Bertrand Russell projected the Roman scenario too: "Like the Romans, they will, in the course of time, extend citizenship to the vanquished. There will then be a true world state, and it will be possible to forget that it will have owed its origin to conquest."[201] To the case of Caracalla, Toynbee added the Abbasid cosmopolitan reformation of 750 AD. Both "were good auguries for the prospect that, in a post-Modern chapter of Western history, a supranational commonwealth originally based on the hegemony of a paramount power over its satellites might eventually be put on the sounder basis of a constitutional partnership in which all the people of all the partner states would have their fare share in the conduct of common affairs.”[202] Historian Maks Ostrovski finds above mentioned cosmopolitan reformations to be the characteristic fate of persistent empires. When such a reformation occurs in our world, he writes, the green card would be abolished since all earth inhabitants would have it by birth. This cosmopolitan World State, as the records of earlier circumscribed civilizations suggest, will last millennia.[203] See also[edit] Colonialism Comparative studies of the Roman and Han empires Democratic empire Empire-building Hegemony Historical powers Imperialism Linguistic imperialism Military globalization Nomadic empire Soviet Empire World state Lists: List of empires List of largest empires List of extinct countries, empires, etc. List of countries spanning more than one continent List of Hindu Empires and Dynasties References[edit] Citations ^ "Empire". Oxford Dictionary Online. Retrieved 21 October 2014. ^ a b c d e f g h Howe 2002. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFHowe2002 (help) ^ Ross Hassig, Mexico and the Spanish Conquest (1994), pp. 23–24, ISBN 0-582-06829-0 (pbk) ^ "Oxford Dictionary Online". Retrieved 2020-06-30. 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Nation-states and nationalisms organization, ideology and solidarity. Polity Press. ISBN 9780745672069. ^ Sebastian Huhnholz, "Do All Roads Lead to Rome? Ancient Implications and Modern Transformations in the Recent US Discourse on an American Empire", Mediterraneo Antico, 13/1-2, (2010): p. 55. ^ Dimitri K. Simes, "America's Imperial Dilemma", Foreign Affairs, 82/6, (2003): p 93. ^ In Clyde V. Prestowitz's version it also "quacks" like a duck. Rogue Nation: American Unilateralism and the Failure of Good Intentions, (New York: Basic Books, 2004: p 25). ^ Kumar, Krishan (2010). "Nation-states as empires, empires as nation-states: two principles, one practice?". Theory and Society. 39 (2): 119–143. doi:10.1007/s11186-009-9102-8. S2CID 144559989. ^ Immerwahr, Daniel (2019). How to Hide and Empire: A History of the Greater United States. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ^ Debrix, Francois; Lacy, Mark, eds. (2009). The Geopolitics of American Insecurity: Terror, Power and Foreign Policy. Routledge. pp. 129–141. ISBN 978-1134045402. ^ Cohen 2004, p. 56. ^ Piganiol, André (1950). "The Causes of the Fall of the Roman Empire". The Journal of General Education. 5 (1): 62–69. JSTOR 27795332. ^ Bury, John (2011). History of the Later Roman Empire. New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0486203980. ^ Heather, Peter (2007). The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195325416. ^ George Hicks, Japan's hidden apartheid: the Korean Minority and the Japanese, (Aldershot, England; Brookfield, VT: Ashgate, 1998), 3. ^ a b "America's Invisible Empire". Economic and Political Weekly. 39 (44). 30 October 2004. Text available here Archived 2017-01-27 at the Wayback Machine, author link here. ^ Johnson, Chalmers, Blowback: The Costs and Consequences of American Empire (2000), pp. 72–79 ^ Niall Ferguson. "Colossus: The Rise and Fall of the American Empire". ^ Lens & Zinn 2003, p. 63-64. ^ LaFeber, Walter, Inevitable Revolutions: The United States in Central America (1993) 2nd edition, p. 19 ^ Boot, Max (May 6, 2003). "American Imperialism? No Need to Run Away from Label". Council on Foreign Relations op-ed, quoting USA Today. Archived from the original on January 23, 2009. Retrieved 2008-01-06. ^ Lens & Zinn 2003, p. Back cover. ^ Ian Black (December 20, 2002). "Living in a euro wonderland". Guardian. Retrieved 2008-01-06. ^ "EU gets its military fist". BBC News. December 13, 2002. Retrieved 2008-01-06. ^ Nikolaos Tzifakis (April 2007). "EU's region-building and boundary-drawing policies: the European approach to the Southern Mediterranean and the Western Balkans 1". Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans. informaworld. 9 (1): 47–64. doi:10.1080/14613190701217001. S2CID 154857668. ^ Stephen R. Hurt (2003). "Co-operation and coercion? The Cotonou Agreement between the European Union and acp states and the end of the Lomé Convention" (PDF). Third World Quarterly. informaworld. 24: 161–176. doi:10.1080/713701373. S2CID 153354532. Retrieved 2007-01-06. ^ Bruno Coppieters, Michael Emerson, Michel Huysseune, Tamara Kovziridze, Nathalie Tocci, Gergana Noutcheva and Marius Vahl. "Europeanisation and Conflict Resolution: Case Studies from the European Periphery" (PDF). Belgian Science Policy. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-12-02. Retrieved 2008-01-06.CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link) ^ Jan Zielonka (2006). Europe as Empire: The Nature of the Enlarged European Union (PDF). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-929221-9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-12-02. Retrieved 2008-01-06. ^ For the Okur's thesis about "nation empires", look at the article: Mehmet Akif Okur, "Rethinking Empire After 9/11: Towards A New Ontological Image of World Order" Perceptions, Journal of International Affairs, Volume XII, Winter 2007, pp. 61–93 ^ Peter Stearns, ed. The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, Chronologically Arranged (6th ed. 2001), passim. ^ John Glubb, The fate of empires and Search for survival (William Blackwood & Sons, 1976). ^ See video ^ Jane Burbank and Frederick Cooper, Empires in World History: Power and the Politics of Difference, (Princeton & Oxford, Princeton University Press, 2010, p 8. ^ Niall Ferguson, "The Unconscious Colossus: Limits of (Alternatives to) American Empire", Daedalus, 134/2, (2005): p 24. ^ Yale H. Ferguson & Richard W. Mansbach, "Superpower, Hegemony, Empire," San Diego: Annual Meeting paper, The International Studies Association, March 22–26, (2006: 9), http://citation.allacademic.com//meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/0/9/9/0/5/pages99056/p99056-9.php Archived 2016-11-24 at the Wayback Machine ^ Daniel Deudney & G. John Ikenberry, "America's Impact: The End of Empire and the Globalization of the Westphalian System", working paper, Princeton University, 2015, pp. 7–8, http://www.scholar.princeton.edu/sites/.../am-impact-dd-gji-final-1-august-2015.pdf[permanent dead link] ^ Anthony Pagden, "Imperialism, Liberalism & the Quest for Perpetual Peace", Daedalus, 134/2, (2005): p. 47. ^ Cohen 2004, p. 50. ^ Jane Burbank & Frederick Cooper, Empires in World History: Power and the Politics of Difference, (Princeton & Oxford, Princeton University Press, 2010, pp. 2–3. ^ The Anarchical Society: A Study of Order in World Politics, London: Macmillan, 1977, p. 21). ^ Gilpin War and Change in World Politics, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981, pp. 110–116). ^ Empires, (London: Cornell University Press, 1986, pp. 12, 51, 137). ^ Quincy Wright, “On the Application of Intelligence to World Affairs", Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 4/8, (August 1, 1948): p. 250, https://books.google.com/books?id=3A0AAAAAMBAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=en&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false ^ Friedrich Tenbruck, "Internal History of Society or Universal History?" tr. 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Федотов, (1945). “Новое Отечество,” Новый Град, Нью Йорк: Издательство Чехова, 1952, p 98, 102, 107. ^ John Bellamy Foster, "The New Geopolitics of Empire", The Monthly Review, 57/8, (2006): p 7, http://monthlyreview.org/2006/01/01/the-new-geopolitics-of-empire Archived 2018-09-29 at the Wayback Machine ^ James Burnham, Struggle for the World, (New York: The John Day Company, 1947), pp. 33, 50, 53, 55; 134–135, 143. ^ In Defense of the National Interest: A Critical Examination of American Foreign Policy, (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1951), p 58. ^ A Study of History, (London: Oxford University Press, 1954), vol. IX, p. 524. ^ Max Gschwind, "Massive Retaliatory Power", map, Fortune, 51, May 1954: p. 105, https://www.fulltable.com/vts/f/fortune/xf/34.jpg Archived 2017-03-12 at the Wayback Machine ^ Michio Kaku, & Daniel Axelrod, To Win a Nuclear War: The Pentagon Secret War Plans, (Boston: South End Press, 1987), p. 195. ^ The Rise of the West: A History of the Human Community, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963), p. 807. ^ Emphasis added, cited in Fred Kaplan, The Wizards of Armageddon. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1991, pp. 222–223. ^ Robert Carneiro, "The Circumscription Theory: Challenge and Response", American Behavioral Scientist, 31/4, (1988): p 499. ^ O’Connor, D. B. & Silverman, D. P., Ancient Egyptian Kingship, (Leiden & New York: E. J. Brill, 1995), p XXI. ^ Amelie Kuhrt, The Ancient Near East circa 3000–330 BC, (London & New York: Routledge, 1995), vol. 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(March 24, 2003), http://www.newsweek.com/arrogant-empire-132751 ^ Ludwig Dehio, The Precarious Balance: Four Centuries of the European Power Struggle, 1945, (tr. Fullman, Charles, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1962), p 234. ^ Ludwig Dehio, “Epilogue,” The Precarious Balance: Four Centuries of the European Power Struggle, 1960, (tr. Fullman, Charles, New York: Alfred A. 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Further reading[edit] Abernethy, David. The Dynamics of Global Dominance: European Empires 1414–1980. New Haven: Yale University Press 2000. Barkey, Karen. Empire of Difference: The Ottomans in Comparative Perspective. New York: Cambridge University Press 2008. Bowden, Brett (2009). The Empire of Civilization: The Evolution of an Imperial Idea. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-06814-5. Brown, Peter, "No Barbarians Needed" (review of Michael Kulikowski, The Tragedy of Empire: From Constantine to the Destruction of Roman Italy; Walter Scheidel, Escape from Rome: The Failure of Empire and the Road to Prosperity; Janet L. Nelson, King and Emperor: A New Life of Charlemagne), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVII, no. 14 (24 September 2020, pp. 61–62. "Warlordism, not any great movement of peoples, was the political virus that brought down the Roman empire in the West. [...] 'In less than a generation, provinces [became] kingdoms.' [p. 61.] [Due to Europe's] state of perpetual war [amid] the persistent polycentrism made possible by the disappearance of Rome, [b]y the time of the Reformation the 'competitive fragmentation of power' ensured that Europe was studded with safety zones that protected beleaguered dissidents. [...] The best thing that Rome ever did for Europe was to die and not return." (p. 62.) Burbank, Jane and Frederick Cooper. Empires in World History: Power and the Politics of Difference. Princeton: Princeton University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-691-12708-8 Cohen, Eliot A. (July–August 2004). "History and the Hyperpower". Foreign Affairs. 83 (4): 49–63. doi:10.2307/20034046. JSTOR 20034046. Retrieved 26 December 2017. Colomer, Josep [2]The European Empire. Amazon Books, 2016. Colomer, Josep [3]Great Empires, Small Nations. The uncertain future of the sovereign state. London: Routledge, 2007. Cooper, Frederick. Colonialism in Question: Theory, Knowledge, History. Berkeley: University of California Press 1997. Darwin, John. After Tamerlane: The Global History of Empire since 1405. London: Bloomsbury Press 2008. Elliott, J.H. Empires of the Atlantic World: Britain and Spain in America, 1492–1830. New Haven: Yale University Press 2006. Findlay, Ronald and Kevin H. O'Rourke. Power and Plenty: Trade, Power, and the World Economy in the Second Millennium. Princeton: Princeton University Press 2007. Johan Galtung (January 1996). "The Decline and Fall of Empires: A Theory of De-Development". Honolulu. Archived from the original on 2007-10-13. Retrieved 2008-01-06. Written for the United Nations Research Institute on Development, UNRISD, Geneva. Geiss, Imanuel (1983). War and Empire in the Twentieth Century. Aberdeen University Press. ISBN 978-0-08-030387-1. Gilpin, Robert War and Change in World Politics pp. 110–116 Howe, Stephen (2002). Empire: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. Innis, Harold (1950, rev. 1972). Empire and Communications. Rev. by Mary Q. Innis; foreword by Marshall McLuhan. Toronto, Ont.: University of Toronto Press. James, Paul; Nairn, Tom (2006). Globalization and Violence, Vol. 1: Globalizing Empires, Old and New. London: Sage Publications. Kamen, Henry. Empire: How Spain Became a World Power, 1492–1763. New York: HarperCollins 2003, Kennedy, Paul. The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000. New York: Random House 1987. Kumar, Krishan. Visions of empire: How five imperial regimes shaped the world (Princeton UP, 2019), examines the Roman, Ottoman, Habsburg, Russian, British and French empires. excerpts Lens, Sidney; Zinn, Howard (2003). The Forging of the American Empire: From the Revolution to Vietnam: A History of American Imperialism. Pluto Press. p. 464. ISBN 978-0-7453-2100-4. Pagden, Anthony. Peoples and Empires: A Short History of European Migration, Exploration, and Conquest from Greece to the Present. New York: Modern Library 2001. Subrahmanyam, Sanjay. The Portuguese Empire in Asia, 1500–1700. London: Longman 1993. Tracy, James D., ed. The Rise of Merchant Empires: State Power and World Trade, 1350–1750. New York: Cambridge University Press 1990. External links[edit] Empireat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Data from Wikidata Index of Colonies and Possessions Gavrov, Sergey Modernization of the Empire. Social and Cultural Aspects of Modernization Processes in Russia ISBN 978-5-354-00915-2 Mehmet Akif Okur, Rethinking Empire After 9/11: Towards A New Ontological Image of World Order, Perceptions, Journal of International Affairs, Volume XII, Winter 2007, pp. 61–93. v t e Empires Ancient (Colonies) Akkadian Neo-Sumerian Old Babylonian Egyptian Old Kingdom Middle Kingdom New Kingdom Assyrian Neo-Babylonian Phoenician Carthaginian Chinese Shang Qin Han Three Kingdoms Jin North and South Hellenistic Macedonian Seleucid Hittite Indian Nanda Maurya Satavahana Shunga Gupta Harsha Iranian Median Achaemenid Parthian Sasanian Kushan Mongol Xianbei Roman Western Eastern Teotihuacan Post-classical Aksum Arab Rashidun Umayyad Abbasid Fatimid Córdoba Aragonese Angevin Aztec Benin Bornu Bruneian Bulgarian First Second Byzantine Nicaea Thessalonica Trebizond Calakmul Castilian Chinese Sui Tang Liao Song Jīn Yuan Uyghur Khaganate Ethiopian Zagwe Solomonic Genoese Georgian Holy-Roman Carolingian Huetar 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en-wikipedia-org-1608	----	Portal:Current events - Wikipedia Portal:Current events From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Portal maintenance status: (October 2020) This portal's subpages have been checked by an editor, and are needed. Please take care when editing, especially if using automated editing software. Learn how to update the maintenance information here. Wikipedia's portal for exploring content related to Current events Edit instructions Worldwide current events Sports events Recent deaths Topics in the news COVID-19 pandemic Disease Virus By location Impact Vaccines Portal Chang'e 5 The closest great conjunction between Jupiter and Saturn since 1623 occurs. The Chang'e 5 (illustration shown) sample-return mission returns lunar material to Earth. Nana Akufo-Addo is re-elected for a second term as President of Ghana. Ongoing: Indian farmers' protest Tigray conflict Recent deaths: Robin Jackman Barry Lopez Phil Niekro Minoru Makihara Karima Baloch Jim McLean Nominate an article Current events of December 28, 2020 (2020-12-28) (Monday) edithistorywatch Armed conflicts and attacks Insurgency in the North Caucasus Knife-wielding assailants wound one and kill another police officer in the centre of the Chechen capital Grozny. Both attackers are shot dead. It is the second attack against police in the region in the last months, as in October two fellow officers were killed by militants. (Reuters) Aftermath of the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war An Azerbaijani soldier is killed and another injured during a shooting attack in Nagorno-Karabakh. Azerbaijan blames the attack on "an Armenian armed group"; all the six attackers are shot dead. (Al Jazeera) Disasters and accidents The Russian-flagged fishing trawler Onega capsizes near the Novaya Zemlya archipelago in the Barents Sea with 17 fishermen missing and are feared dead, while two have been rescued. Search and rescue operations in the area have been suspended due to strong winds and low temperatures. (AFP via The Moscow Times) Health and environment COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in Asia COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia Foreign Minister Retno Marsudi announces that the country will ban all International visitors for two weeks from January 1 to 14, citing concerns over new variants of SARS-CoV-2. Government officials are exempt. (Merdeka.com) COVID-19 pandemic in Japan Transport Minister Yuichiro Hata, who died yesterday, tested positive for COVID-19. He is the first Japanese lawmaker to die from the disease. (The Asahi Shimbun) COVID-19 pandemic in Saudi Arabia, Variant of Concern 202012/01 Saudi Arabia extends the suspension of all international commercial flights, as well as entry through land and sea ports for another week due to concern over the new SARS-CoV-2 variant. (Gulf News) COVID-19 pandemic in South Korea, Variant of Concern 202012/01 South Korea reports its first cases of a more infectious variant of SARS-CoV-2, after South Korean nationals who arrived from the United Kingdom tested positive for COVID-19, including an elderly man who has since died. (Yonhap News Agency) COVID-19 pandemic in Europe COVID-19 pandemic in Finland, Variant of Concern 202012/01 Finland reports its first case of a new variant of SARS-CoV-2, after a person who travelled from Western Europe test positive for COVID-19. (Yle) International relations European Union–United Kingdom relations, Trade negotiation between the UK and the EU European Union ambassadors unanimously approve the EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement with the United Kingdom. (BBC) Law and crime COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China A court in China sentences a citizen journalist to four years in prison for "picking quarrels and provoking trouble" for reporting during the peak of the COVID-19 pandemic last year in Wuhan. Her lawyer says they will "probably" appeal the verdict. (Reuters) A court in Saudi Arabia sentences women's rights activist Loujain al-Hathloul to five years and eight months in prison on grounds of "various activities prohibited by the anti-terrorism law". The verdict comes despite pressure from international organizations to release her. (DW) Current events of December 27, 2020 (2020-12-27) (Sunday) edithistorywatch Armed conflicts and attacks Boko Haram insurgency Boko Haram militants storms a village jear Gamboru, Nigeria, killing three people and abducting more than 40 others. It is the second mass abducting by the group this month. (Al Jazeera) Spillover of the Syrian Civil War in Lebanon Hundreds of Syrian refugees flee a makeshift camp in North Governorate, Lebanon, after local youths storm the camp and torch tents, wounding three people, according to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (Reuters) War in Darfur Sudan says it will deploy troops to South Darfur "in large numbers" following recent tribal violence between the Masalit and Fula. (Reuters) Business and economy Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, CARES Act President Donald Trump signs the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2021, which contains a $900 billion COVID-19 relief package, before Monday's deadline, in order to avert a government shutdown. This comes after Trump called the bill a "disgrace" last week. (The Washington Post) (Politico) Disasters and accidents In Cameroon, a bus travelling from Douala, to the capital Yaoundé collides with a truck and plunges into a ravine, killing at least 37 people and injuring 19 others. (AFP via The Economic Times) Health and environment COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in North America COVID-19 pandemic in Canada COVID-19 pandemic in British Columbia, Variant of Concern 202012/01 British Columbia reports their first case of the new variant of SARS-CoV-2 from a man in Island Health who returned from the United Kingdom on December 15 and tested positive on December 19. (CBC) COVID-19 pandemic in Quebec Quebec reports 6,783 cases and 110 deaths between 24 and 26 December, bringing the total number of cases to 192,655 and deaths to 8,023. (Toronto Star) COVID-19 pandemic in the United States The U.S. surpasses 19 million cases of COVID-19, having averaged 185,000 daily cases over the past week. (The Hill) COVID-19 pandemic in Asia COVID-19 pandemic in Oman Oman officially begins a vaccination campaign against COVID-19 using the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine. The country is the last Gulf Cooperation Council member state to begin vaccinations. Health Minister Ahmed Al-Saidi is one of the first citizens to receive a dose of the vaccine. (Arab News) The Supreme Committee decides to reopen Oman's land, sea, and air borders on December 29 after closing them on December 21 due to fears of a new variant of SARS-CoV-2. All travellers must show a negative PCR test within 72 hours before entering the country and must have valid health insurance. In addition, all travellers must quarantine for seven days and take another test after completing their quarantine. (Hindustan Times) COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia Indonesia reports a record 6,983 recoveries in the past 24 hours, bringing the nationwide total of recoveries to 583,676. (Kompas) COVID-19 pandemic in Jordan, Variant of Concern 202012/01 Jordan reports their first two cases of a new variant of SARS-CoV-2 in a couple who travelled from the United Kingdom. (Medical Xpress) COVID-19 pandemic in Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia announces that they will lift their flight ban on non-Saudis leaving the country. (Al Arabiya) COVID-19 pandemic in South Korea South Korea extends its current social distancing measures aimed at reducing the spread of COVID-19 until January 3, as record numbers of new cases are being reported. (The Straits Times) COVID-19 pandemic in Europe COVID-19 pandemic in Austria Austria begins administering the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine tozinameran to its citizens. An 84-year-old woman becomes the first Austrian to be vaccinated against COVID-19 at the Medical University of Vienna. (ORF) COVID-19 pandemic in the Czech Republic The Czech Republic begins a vaccination campaign against COVID-19 using the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine tozinameran, with Prime Minister Andrej Babiš and World War II veteran Emilie Řepíková among the first people to get vaccinated. (Expats.cz) COVID-19 pandemic in Greece Greece officially begins a vaccination programme against COVID-19, with ICU nurse Efstathia Kambissiouli, President Katerina Sakellaropoulou and Prime Minister Kyriakos Mitsotakis among the first people to get vaccinated. (The National Herald) COVID-19 pandemic in Norway, Variant of Concern 202012/01 Norway reports its first cases of a new variant of SARS-CoV-2, after two people who travelled from the United Kingdom earlier in December test positive for COVID-19. (Reuters) COVID-19 pandemic in Portugal, Variant of Concern 202012/01 Portugal reports their first case of a new variant of SARS-CoV-2 from the United Kingdom in Madeira. (PUBLICO) COVID-19 pandemic in Romania Romania begins a vaccination campaign against COVID-19 using the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine tozinameran. The first person vaccinated is a 26-year-old doctor from Bucharest. (Digi24) The European Union begins a mass vaccination campaign against COVID-19. (NBC News) COVID-19 pandemic in South America COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil Brazilian Vice President Hamilton Mourão tests positive for COVID-19. (Diário do Nordeste) COVID-19 pandemic in Uruguay Uruguay reported a record of 11 deaths in the past 24 hours, bringing the nationwide death toll to 158. (El País) COVID-19 pandemic in South Africa South Africa surpasses one million cases of COVID-19, becoming the first African country to reach this milestone. (Voice of America) Law and crime Kaiyuan stabbing attack Seven people are killed and seven others injured in a mass stabbing in Kaiyuan, Liaoning, China. The attacker has been arrested. (BBC) 2020 Nashville bombing Authorities officially identify the perpetrator of Friday's suicide bombing in Nashville, Tennessee, as 63-year-old Anthony Quinn Warner and conclude that he had been acting alone. (The Tennessean) Politics and elections 2020 Nigerien general election Citizens in Niger head to the polls to elect their President in their first democratic power transfer since the country's independence from France. The election comes amidst a growing Islamist insurgency as Mohamed Bazoum is the favourite to succeed incumbent Mahamadou Issoufou, who is stepping down after serving two five-year terms. (DW) 2020 Central African general election Elections in the Central African Republic are underway, after a campaign marred by violence between government and rebel forces. (BBC) Science and technology The Solar Orbiter spacecraft makes its closest approach to Venus. (Space.com) Current events of December 26, 2020 (2020-12-26) (Saturday) edithistorywatch Armed conflicts and attacks Israeli–Palestinian conflict The Israeli military (IDF) carries out several airstrikes in the Gaza Strip, in response to overnight rocket attacks in Israel. IDF says it targeted a rocket manufacturing site, underground infrastructure and a military post. Two minor injuries are reported. The attacks caused power outages in the eastern part of the strip. Hamas claims the strikes damaged a children's hospital, a centre for disabled people, and damaged the windows of several residential buildings. IDF claims that the damage was due to detonations of ground munitions. (Al Jazeera) (The Times of Israel) Kashmir conflict India arrests 75 Kashmiri political leaders and activists for "preventive custody" due to recent violence following local elections. (Al Jazeera) Disasters and accidents Twelve climbers die during avalanches and blizzards on mountains north of Tehran, Iran. Fourteen others went missing but are rescued alive. (The Guardian) A fire inside an intensive care unit for COVID-19 patients at a hospital in Obour, Egypt, kills seven people and injures five others. (ABC News) Health and environment COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in Europe COVID-19 pandemic in Spain COVID-19 vaccine Spain receives its first shipment of the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine tozinameran in Guadalajara, a day before the country begins its vaccination programme. (Euro Weekly News) COVID-19 pandemic in the Community of Madrid, Variant of Concern 202012/01 Madrid reports the nation's first four cases of a new variant of SARS-CoV-2. (The Guardian) COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom COVID-19 pandemic in Northern Ireland Northern Ireland enters a six-week lockdown in an effort to reduce the number of COVID-19 infections. All "non-essential" shops and businesses will be closed, while "essential" shops must close each day by 20:00 GMT during the first week of the lockdown. No gatherings will be allowed between 20:00 and 6:00 each day, and anyone travelling to Northern Ireland must self-isolate for at least 10 days. (BBC) COVID-19 pandemic in Belarus, 2020 Belarusian protests Two men jailed for protesting against President Alexander Lukashenko say they tested positive for COVID-19, after developing symptoms in jail and not receiving treatment. (AP) COVID-19 pandemic in Germany The German state of Saxony-Anhalt begins a vaccination campaign against COVID-19, which also began nationwide. A 101-year-old woman in a nursing home become one of first people in the country to get vaccinated. (DW) COVID-19 pandemic in Hungary Hungary begins a vaccination campaign against COVID-19 using the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine Tozinameran. The first vaccinations are being delivered at two hospitals in Budapest. (Reuters) COVID-19 pandemic in Russia Russia surpasses three million cases of COVID-19, becoming the fourth country to do so after the United States, India, and Brazil. (Arab News) (Mint) COVID-19 pandemic in Sweden, Variant of Concern 202012/01 Sweden reports their first case of a new variant of SARS-CoV-2 after a traveller from the United Kingdom tested positive for COVID-19. (The Hill) COVID-19 pandemic in North America COVID-19 pandemic in Canada COVID-19 pandemic in Ontario, Variant of Concern 202012/01 Ontario reports its first two cases of a new SARS-COV-2 variant in a couple from Durham Region with no known travel history, exposure, or high-risk contacts. Ontario is the first province in Canada to identify a case of this new variant. (CBC) COVID-19 pandemic in the United States The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention issues guidelines stating that people with underlying health conditions can receive the vaccine. (The Hill) One out of every 1,000 Americans have died from COVID-19, according to a comparison of census and death toll estimates. (CNN) COVID-19 pandemic in Asia COVID-19 pandemic in Japan Tokyo reports a record 949 new cases in the past 24 hours, bringing the total number of confirmed cases in the prefecture to 55,851. (The Japan Times) The Japanese Foreign Ministry will ban non-resident foreign nationals from entering Japan from December 28 until the end of January after several cases of a more infectious variant of SARS-CoV-2 were reported in the country. Japanese citizens and foreign residents will be required to self-quarantine for 14 days when they enter the country. (CNN) COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia Indonesia reports a record 6,389 recoveries in the past 24 hours, bringing the nationwide total of recoveries to 576,693. (detikNews) COVID-19 pandemic in Iran Iran extends a nighttime traffic curfew that runs from 9:00 p.m. to 4:00 a.m. local time to 330 lower-risk "yellow" cities in an effort to sustain a recent decrease in the numbers of new cases and deaths. (Hindustan Times) COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia Malaysia reports a record 2,335 new confirmed cases in the past 24 hours, bringing the nationwide total of confirmed cases to 103,900. (CNA) Law and crime 2020 Nashville bombing Federal investigators identify a person of interest in yesterday's bombing in downtown Nashville, Tennessee, and join local police in raiding his home. (AP) Authorities announce that they suspect the incident was a suicide bombing, following the discovery of human remains at the blast site. (CNN) Crime in Germany Four men are seriously injured in a mass shooting in Kreuzberg, Berlin. The city's attorney said that rival gangs may have been responsible for the shooting. (BBC) Crime in China China lowers the age of criminal responsibility to 12 years old for "abominable" crimes such as murder or causing injury that leads to death or severe disabilities by extremely cruel means. The measure was passed by the National People's Congress Standing Committee. (Al Arabiya) Don Carter Lanes shooting Three people are killed, and three others are injured, during a mass shooting at a bowling alley in Rockford, Illinois. Police believe the suspect, in custody, identified as a soldier from Florida, randomly selected his victims. (Al Jazeera) Politics and elections 2021 Ethiopian general election The government sets June 5 as the date for the 2021 parliamentary elections. The elections were delayed to 2021 in response to the COVID-19 pandemic with the delay being a cause of the ongoing Tigray conflict. (Reuters) Sports Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on sports, 2020 NFL season The Cleveland Browns announce that they will close their facility and delay their flight to New Jersey for an upcoming matchup with the New York Jets after a player on the team tested positive for COVID-19. (Reuters) Current events of December 25, 2020 (2020-12-25) (Friday) edithistorywatch Armed conflicts and attacks Central African Republic Civil War Three United Nations peacekeepers from Burundi are killed and two others injured in the Central African Republic during two attacks by unknown gunmen. The shootings are carried out two days before the general election in the country. (BBC) Disasters and accidents A boat overturns and sinks due to strong winds on the Ugandan side of Lake Albert, killing 26 people. (BBC) Health and environment COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in Asia COVID-19 pandemic in Hong Kong The authorities extends the compulsory quarantine in designed hotels to 21 days for visitors from outside China, Macau, and Taiwan beginning tomorrow and also ban all people who stayed in South Africa over the past 21 days from entering Hong Kong in order to prevent the spread of new variants of SARS-CoV-2. (The Straits Times) COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia Indonesia reports a record 258 deaths and 6,324 recoveries in the past 24 hours, bringing the nationwide totals to 20,847 deaths and 570,304 recoveries. (CNN Indonesia) COVID-19 pandemic in Japan Japan reports their first cases of the new variant of SARS-COV-2 in five people who arrived from the United Kingdom. (The Japan Times) COVID-19 pandemic in Kyrgyzstan Kyrgyzstan surpasses 80,000 cases of COVID-19. (Xinhua News Agency) COVID-19 pandemic in Lebanon, Variant of Concern 202012/01 Lebanon reports their first case of a new variant of SARS-CoV-2 in a passenger on a Middle East Airlines flight from London on December 21. (The National) COVID-19 pandemic in Saudi Arabia, COVID-19 vaccine Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman receives a COVID-19 vaccine. (The Hill) COVID-19 pandemic in South Korea South Korea reports a record 1,241 new confirmed cases in the past 24 hours, bringing the nationwide total to 54,770 cases. (Yonhap News Agency) COVID-19 pandemic in Europe COVID-19 pandemic in France, Variant of Concern 202012/01 France reports their first case of the new variant of SARS-CoV-2 in a French citizen who travelled from London to Tours, France on December 19. (Sky News) COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland, Variant of Concern 202012/01 Chief Medical Officer Tony Holohan confirms that the Republic has detected the new variant of SARS-CoV-2 from the United Kingdom as the country reports more than 1,000 for the first time in two months. (Independent.ie) COVID-19 pandemic in Russia, Variant of Concern 202012/01 Rospotrebnadzor orders a 14-day quarantine for anyone who travels from the United Kingdom, with the exception of aircraft crew members, beginning tomorrow due to the spread of a more contagious variant of SARS-CoV-2. (The Moscow Times) COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey Turkey signs a deal with BioNTech to receive up to 30 million doses of their vaccine. (Daily Sabah) COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom The United Kingdom exceeds 70,000 deaths from COVID-19. (The Independent) (BBC) COVID-19 pandemic in Africa COVID-19 pandemic in Mali, COVID-19 pandemic in France Malian opposition leader Soumaila Cissé dies from COVID-19 in France two months after he was released by jihadist militants in a prisoner swap. (France 24) COVID-19 pandemic in Morocco, COVID-19 vaccine Morocco is expected to acquire 65 million vaccine doses from AstraZeneca and Sinopharm. (ABC News) COVID-19 pandemic in South Africa South Africa reports a record 14,796 new cases in the past 24 hours, bringing the nationwide total to 983,359 cases. (The Citizens) Law and crime 2020 Nashville bombing An explosion occurs in a recreational vehicle in downtown Nashville, Tennessee, U.S., causing structural damage and injuring three people. Police believe the explosion was an "intentional act". (CNN) (The Tennessean) The explosion also results in AT&T service outages across the U.S. due to infrastructure damage to a service facility located near the blast site. Cellular, wireline telephone, Internet, and U-verse television service, as well as multiple local 9-1-1 and non-emergency phone networks, are among the services affected. (WKRN-TV) (The Tennessean) 2018 Puebla helicopter crash Four people are arrested for a helicopter crash in Puebla, Mexico, that killed Governor Martha Érika Alonso, her husband, and former Governor Rafael Moreno Valle Rosas. (ABC News) A court in Russia sentences prominent historian Oleg Sokolov to 12 and a half years in prison for the murder and dismemberment of his student lover. Sokolov, a former history professor at St. Petersburg State University, pled guilty to the murder. (Reuters) Sports Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on sports Greg Norman, Australian former world number one champion of the 1986 and 1993 Open Championships, tests positive for COVID-19 and is hospitalized in the United States due to having symptoms. (BBC) Current events of December 24, 2020 (2020-12-24) (Thursday) edithistorywatch Armed conflicts and attacks Metekel conflict Metekel massacre The Ethiopian National Defense Force clashes with armed bandits involved in yesterday's massacre, killing 42 of them and seizing weapons. (Al Arabiya English) Boko Haram insurgency Pemi attack Boko Haram jihadists storm Pemi, a Christian village in Borno State, Nigeria, shooting people and burning down a church and a hospital, killing at least 11 civilians. A priest is kidnapped. (BBC) Insurgency in the Maghreb Niger says seven troops and 11 Islamist militants have been killed in clashes in Tillabéri, ahead of Sunday's general election. (Arab News) War in Afghanistan December 2020 Afghanistan attacks Gunmen on a motorbike shoot dead a women’s rights activist and her brother near their home in Kohistan, Afghanistan. (Al Jazeera) Business and economy Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, CARES Act Republicans in the House block an attempt by Democrats, empowered by a veto threat from President Donald Trump if not amended, to pass a $2,000 relief bill for Americans. However, House Speaker Nancy Pelosi announces that the House will still hold a vote on the bill on Monday. (CNBC) (NBC News) Disasters and accidents European migrant crisis At least 20 African migrants die when their boat sinks off the coast of Tunisia as they tried to cross the Mediterranean Sea to the Italian island of Lampedusa. The coast guard confirmed they had rescued people and were searching for others who were on the boat, which was carrying a total of 45 people. (Reuters) Health and environment COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in North America COVID-19 pandemic in the United States Travel restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic, VOC-202012/01 The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention announces that American passengers traveling from the United Kingdom will be required to test negative for COVID-19 within 72 hours due to the emergence of a new variant of SARS-CoV-2. The order is expected to take effect on December 28. (MarketWatch) United Airlines and Delta Air Lines will require passengers from the United Kingdom to test negative for COVID-19 due to the emergence of a new variant of SARS-CoV-2. (Reuters) COVID-19 pandemic in California California surpasses two million cases of COVID-19, becoming the first U.S. state to do so. (CBS News) COVID-19 pandemic in Arkansas Arkansas reports 3,204 new cases on Christmas Eve, a new single-day record. (Arkansas Democrat-Gazette) COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico, COVID-19 vaccine Mexico begins vaccinations with the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine. An intensive care unit nurse in Mexico City becomes the first person in the country to receive the vaccine. (The Washington Post) COVID-19 pandemic in Canada COVID-19 pandemic in Ontario Ontario reports 2,447 cases on Christmas Eve, a new single-day record. (The Chronicle-Journal) COVID-19 pandemic in Quebec Quebec reports 2,349 cases over the past 24 hours, a new single-day record. (Montreal Gazette) COVID-19 pandemic in Asia COVID-19 pandemic in Japan Tokyo reports a record 888 new cases in the past 24 hours, bringing the total number of confirmed cases in the prefecture to 54,018. (NHK World) Nationwide, a record 3,743 new cases are reported in Japan in the past 24 hours. (The Japan Times) COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China, VOC-202012/01, travel restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic China says it will suspend all direct flights to and from the United Kingdom indefinitely due to the new variant of SARS-CoV-2. (CNA) COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia, VOC-202012/01 Indonesia issues a ban on travellers from the United Kingdom and restricts entry to people from mainland Europe and Australia to prevent the spread of the new variant of SARS-CoV-2. COVID-19 Task Force Chief Doni Monardo says that these measures will remain in place until January 8. (Reuters) COVID-19 pandemic in Israel Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and the Health Ministry announce that a third nationwide lockdown will begin from December 27 at 5:00 p.m. local time for at least two weeks in order to curb the resurgence of COVID-19. (The Times of Israel) COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia Malaysia surpasses 100,000 cases of COVID-19. (CNA) COVID-19 pandemic in Europe COVID-19 pandemic in Germany Germany reports the first case of a new variant of SARS-CoV-2 from the United Kingdom after a woman who flew from London to Frankfurt this weekend tested positive for COVID-19. (DW) COVID-19 pandemic in Italy Italy surpasses two million cases of COVID-19. (ANSA) COVID-19 pandemic in Russia Russia reports a record 29,935 new cases and 635 deaths in the past 24 hours, thus bringing the nationwide totals to 2,963,688 confirmed cases and 53,096 deaths. (Arab News) COVID-19 pandemic in Serbia, COVID-19 vaccine Serbia officially begins its vaccination programme against COVID-19, with Prime Minister Ana Brnabić becoming the first person to receive the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine. (Anadolu Agency) COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey, COVID-19 vaccine Turkey announces that CoronaVac is 91.25% effective in preventing COVID-19 based on data in interim studies. These initial results follow Phase III trials that involved 7,371 volunteers. (Daily Sabah) COVID-19 pandemic in Ukraine Ukraine surpasses one million cases of COVID-19. (Kyiv Post) COVID-19 pandemic in South America COVID-19 pandemic in Argentina, COVID-19 vaccine Over 300,000 doses of Russia's Sputnik V vaccine arrive in Argentina. (Livemint) COVID-19 pandemic in Chile, COVID-19 vaccine Chile begins its vaccination campaign against COVID-19 after the arrival of 10,000 doses of Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine to the country. (Prensa Latina) International relations European Union–United Kingdom relations, Trade negotiation between the UK and the EU The United Kingdom and the European Union agree on a post-Brexit trade deal. (BBC) Law and crime In Pakistan, the Sindh High Court orders the release of Ahmed Omar Saeed Sheikh, initially sentenced to death for the kidnapping and murder of American journalist Daniel Pearl in Karachi in 2002. The government opposes his release on the basis of public safety; both the government and Pearl's family will appeal the decision. (Al Jazeera) A 37-year-old man is charged with murder and hate crimes in Los Angeles, California, U.S., after killing a 82-year-old man in a hospital room for praying. Both men were in the hospital after testing positive for COVID-19. (BBC) The President of Burundi, Évariste Ndayishimiye, pardons four journalists jailed since 2019 for offences related to "undermining state security" following a petition by human rights groups and the journalists themselves. (Reuters) Politics and elections 2020 Moldovan presidential election Maia Sandu is sworn in as the first female President of Moldova. (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty) Current events of December 23, 2020 (2020-12-23) (Wednesday) edithistorywatch Armed conflicts and attacks Central African Republic Civil War A coalition of rebel groups briefly seize the city of Bambari from the Central African Republic government and United Nations before being driven off in a UN counter-offensive. (France 24) War in Afghanistan December 2020 Afghanistan attacks Yousuf Rasheed, CEO of the Free and Fair Election Forum of Afghanistan, is killed by unknown gunmen in Kabul. His driver is also shot and later died of his wounds. It is the latest targeted killing of a prominent Afghan figure. (TOLO News) Metekel conflict Metekel massacre More than 100 people are killed and at least 30 others wounded in a massacre in Metekel, Benishangul-Gumuz, Ethiopia. (BBC) Business and economy Shortages related to the COVID-19 pandemic, Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom Lufthansa ships 80 tonnes of fresh food to the United Kingdom to prevent shortages amid fears that the lifting of the French blockade of the France–UK border will not prevent shortages in some supermarkets. The airline says "additional special cargo flights" are planned to meet demand. Thousands of trucks remain outside of Dover. (The Guardian) Health and environment COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in North America COVID-19 pandemic in the United States COVID-19 pandemic in New York (state) COVID-19 pandemic in New York City, VOC-202012/01 Mayor Bill de Blasio orders people traveling from the United Kingdom to quarantine or face fines due to the discovery of a new variant of SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19. (CBS News) The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention says that 1 million Americans have received the vaccines. (Politico) COVID-19 pandemic in Canada Health Canada approves the Moderna COVID-19 vaccine and expects that up to 168,000 doses will arrive in Canada by the end of the year. (CBC) COVID-19 pandemic in Asia COVID-19 pandemic in India COVID-19 pandemic in Karnataka, VOC-202012/01 Karnataka imposes a night curfew from 10:00 p.m. to 6:00 a.m. IST until January 2 due to fears of a mutant version of SARS-CoV-2 that was found in the United Kingdom. It becomes the second Indian state to do so after Maharashtra. (NDTV) COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia The number of recovered patients in Indonesia increases by a record 5,981 in the past 24 hours, bringing the nationwide total of recovered patients to 558,703. (detikNews) COVID-19 pandemic in Japan, VOC-202012/01 Japan bans the entry of non-Japanese citizens from the United Kingdom beginning tomorrow, following the emergence of a more infectious strain of SARS-CoV-2. (The Straits Times) COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia Malaysia discovers a new variant of SARS-CoV-2 named A701B in Sabah. It has been deemed to be more infectious. (The Star) COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines, VOC-202012/01 President Rodrigo Duterte approves the suspension of flights from the Philippines to the United Kingdom from tomorrow at 12:01 a.m. local time until December 31 due to concerns about the new strain of SARS-CoV-2. (ABS-CBN News) COVID-19 pandemic in Qatar Qatar begins administering the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine Tozinameran to its citizens at designated health centers in the country. Those aged over 70, adults with chronic health conditions and healthcare personnel are to be prioritised for the vaccine. (The Peninsula Qatar) COVID-19 pandemic in Singapore, VOC-202012/01 Singapore reports the first case of a mutated variant of SARS-CoV-2 from the United Kingdom when 17-year-old girl who had studied in the United Kingdom tested positive for COVID-19. (The Straits Times) COVID-19 pandemic in South Korea, VOC-202012/01 South Korea suspends flights to and from the United Kingdom until December 31 over concerns about the new strain of SARS-CoV-2. (KBS World) COVID-19 pandemic in Europe COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom The United Kingdom reports a record 39,237 new cases in the past 24 hours. In addition, the country also reports 744 deaths, the highest single-day total since April 29. (ITV) Health Secretary Matt Hancock announces a ban on travel from South Africa due to the discovery of a mutated variant of SARS-CoV-2 in South Africa. (Business Standard) Hancock also announces that more locations in England will be placed in Tier 4 restrictions beginning on Boxing Day, including Oxfordshire, West Sussex, and the remainder of East Sussex. (The Guardian) COVID-19 pandemic in the Czech Republic The government announces that the Czech Republic will be moving to the highest level of PES measures beginning on December 27. This means that all non-essential shops will be closed and a curfew between 9:00 p.m. to 5:00 a.m. local time on Sunday will be enforced. There will also be no exceptions on New Year's Eve. (Expats.cz) COVID-19 pandemic in Germany Germany reports a record 962 deaths in the past 24 hours, according to data from the Robert Koch Institute, bringing the nationwide death toll to 27,968. (dpa International) COVID-19 pandemic in Italy Italy surpasses 70,000 deaths from COVID-19. (Huffington Post) COVID-19 pandemic in Switzerland Switzerland begins a mass vaccination campaign against COVID-19 using the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine Tozinameran. A ninety-year-old woman in Lucerne is the first Swiss citizen to receive the vaccine. (Reuters) International relations Belarus–United States relations, International reactions to the 2020 Belarusian presidential election and protests The Trump administration imposes additional sanctions against Belarusian officials and four offices for human rights abuses that occurred during protests against President Alexander Lukashenko. (The Hill) Law and crime 2020 Saint-Just shooting Three police officers are killed and a fourth wounded after they responded to a domestic violence incident in Saint-Just, Puy-de-Dôme, France. The gunman, who set his house on fire, is later found dead. The gunman's partner was rescued. (BBC) Travel restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic Stranded lorry drivers clash with police in Kent, England, amid frustrations over ongoing delays at the border with France. At least one person has been arrested for obstructing a highway, according to the police. (The Guardian) Politics and elections Elections in Israel Parliament is dissolved as the deadline to approve the 2020 state budget expires without an agreement, requiring elections within 90 days, for the fourth time in less than two years. (The Times of Israel) Presidency of Donald Trump U.S. President Donald Trump pardons former presidential campaign manager Paul Manafort, former adviser Roger Stone, and real estate developer Charles Kushner. Manafort was convicted of tax fraud and obstructing an investigation; Stone of lying to Congress; Kushner of tax evasion, campaign finance offences and witness tampering. (BBC) Moldovan Prime Minister Ion Chicu announces that he will resign ahead of President-elect Maia Sandu's inauguration. (Al Jazeera) Science and technology A ~8 metres (26 ft) asteroid falls over Nangqên, in western China on the Qinghai-Tibet border. This was the largest asteroid to hit Earth since the Kamchatka meteor in 2018, and the largest to fall over land since the Chelyabinsk meteor in 2013. (Daily Mail) (JPL Center for NEO Studies) Current events of December 22, 2020 (2020-12-22) (Tuesday) edithistorywatch Armed conflicts and attacks War in Afghanistan December 2020 Afghanistan attacks Four prison doctors are killed after a magnetic bomb attached to their vehicle exploded in Kabul. A civilian passerby also died in the attack. The bombing follows a series of recent assassination attempts and targeted killings of prominent Afghan figures. (Channel News Asia) War in Darfur The United Nations Security Council votes to end the United Nations–African Union Mission in Darfur on December 31, beginning a complete withdrawal of peacekeeping forces by June 30, 2021. (Middle East Monitor) Business and economy Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, CARES Act President Donald Trump says that he might not sign the $900 billion relief bill, which was passed by both the House and Senate. He also calls for Congress to amend the bill and increase stimulus checks to Americans earning under $75,000 per year from $600 to $2,000. House Speaker Nancy Pelosi agrees to work with Congress to increase the payout amount. (The Washington Post) (BBC) (WFLA-TV) Health and environment COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in North America Travel restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic, VOC-202012/01 COVID-19 pandemic in Guatemala Guatemala announces a mandatory two-week quarantine for anyone who has recently visited the United Kingdom or South Africa in an effort to prevent the spread of a new variant of SARS-CoV-2. The restrictions will last for two months. (Reuters) COVID-19 pandemic in the United States COVID-19 pandemic in Maryland NIAID director Dr. Anthony Fauci receives the Moderna vaccine at the National Institutes of Health in Bethesda, Maryland. (ABC News) COVID-19 pandemic in Mississippi Mississippi Governor Tate Reeves announces that he has extended the mask mandate to 78 counties in the state. (AP) COVID-19 pandemic in New York (state), VOC-202012/01 New York Governor Andrew Cuomo orders hospitals in the state to begin testing for the new SARS-CoV-2 variant from the United Kingdom. (WNBC) COVID-19 pandemic in Washington, D.C. White House Coronavirus Task Force director Deborah Birx says that she will retire after President-elect Joe Biden's transition is completed. (NPR) Overall deaths in the U.S. for this year are projected to surpass three million mainly due to the COVID-19 pandemic, thus making 2020 the deadliest year in U.S. history. The numbers also represent an approximate 15 percent increase compared to the previous year, which is the largest single-year percentage increase since 1918. (AP) COVID-19 pandemic in Canada COVID-19 pandemic in Quebec Quebec reports 2,183 cases, a new-single day record. (The Globe and Mail) COVID-19 pandemic in Asia COVID-19 vaccine COVID-19 pandemic in Iraq Iraq signs a preliminary deal to receive 1.5 million doses of the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine Tozinameran. Ministry of Health spokesman Seif al-Badr says troops and the elderly will be prioritized for vaccinations. (France 24) COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia Malaysia signs a deal to receive 6.4 million doses of the AstraZeneca vaccine. (The Star) COVID-19 pandemic in United Arab Emirates The United Arab Emirates announces that they will roll out the Sinopharm vaccine to all adult UAE citizens. (Financial Times) Abu Dhabi is expected to lift restrictions in the city beginning December 24. (Al Arabiya) COVID-19 pandemic in Singapore, VOC-202012/01 Singapore bans all long-term passport holders and short-term visitors who had travel history to the United Kingdom within the last 14 days to enter the country beginning tomorrow at 11:59 p.m. local time due to the emergence of a new strain of SARS-CoV-2. (The Straits Times) COVID-19 pandemic in South Korea Prime Minister Chung Sye-kyun announces that the country will ban gatherings of more than five people and order all ski resorts and tourist attractions to close from December 24 until January 3 in order to contain the third wave of COVID-19. (Al Jazeera) COVID-19 pandemic in Sri Lanka, VOC-202012/01 Sri Lanka's Civil Aviation Authority bans all flights to and from the United Kingdom beginning on December 23 to prevent a new strain of SARS-CoV-2 from spreading to the country. (Adaderana) COVID-19 pandemic in Taiwan Taiwan reports their first locally transmitted case since April 12 after an unidentified patient tested positive for COVID-19. (Bloomberg) COVID-19 pandemic in Europe COVID-19 pandemic in France, VOC-202012/01 France agrees to reopen its border with the United Kingdom after it was closed for 48 hours due to the spread of a new variant of the virus in England. Planes, boats, and Eurostar trains will resume services tomorrow but only British, French, and EU citizens or residents who show a negative COVID-19 test result from the previous 72 hours will be allowed to travel until January 6. (BBC) COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland Taoiseach Micheál Martin announces a return of "Level 5" lockdown in the country with specific adjustments from Christmas Eve until at least January 12. (The Journal) COVID-19 pandemic in Slovakia Finance Minister Eduard Heger tests positive for COVID-19. (TV Noviny) COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom The United Kingdom reports a record 36,804 new cases in the past 24 hours. In addition, the country also reports 691 new deaths, the highest daily total in nearly a month. (Sky News) COVID-19 pandemic in Peru Peru surpasses one million cases of COVID-19, becoming the fifth Latin American country to surpass the milestone after Brazil, Argentina, Colombia, and Mexico. (AP) COVID-19 pandemic in Fiji, VOC-202012/01 Fiji announces it will close its borders from Thursday until next Monday to review border quarantine processes after a new variant of the virus was found in the United Kingdom. (RNZ) COVID-19 pandemic in Malawi Malawi closes its borders for 14 days and restricts public gatherings to no more than 100 people due to an increase in COVID-19 cases. (Malawi 24) International relations Israel–Morocco relations Israel–Morocco normalization agreement El Al operates the first direct commercial flight between Israel and Morocco following the normalization agreement between the two countries on December 10. Senior Advisor to the U.S. President Jared Kushner and Israel's National Security Advisor Meir Ben-Shabbat are among the high-level officials on board the flight. (AFP via Barron's) Colombia–Russia relations Migración Colombia confirms the expulsion of two Russian diplomats accused of espionage. (Reuters) Cayman Islands–United States relations, COVID-19 pandemic in the Cayman Islands The appeals court of the Cayman Islands reduces the prison sentence of Georgia teenager Skylar Mack from 4 months to 2 months. Mack was arrested on November 29 for breaching quarantine rules. (CBS News) China–South Korea relations, Russia–South Korea relations South Korea says it has scrambled fighter jets after four Chinese and fifteen Russian military aircraft entered its air defense identification zone. South Korea's Joint Chiefs of Staff says that it was notified in advance by China of a joint military exercise between China and Russia. (Reuters) Politics and elections Cabinet of Indonesia President Joko Widodo announces a year-end reshuffle of the Onward Indonesia Cabinet with the replacement of six ministers who had been in the cabinet since October 2019, including two ministers who were arrested by the Corruption Eradication Commission due to separate bribery cases. (The Jakarta Post) Sandiaga Uno, businessman and former candidate of the 2019 presidential election, is appointed as the new Tourism and Creative Economy Minister. It is the first time in Indonesian history that all candidates who previously ran in a presidential election serve together in the same cabinet. (Jakarta Globe) 2021 Israeli legislative election The Knesset fails to pass legislation to avert a dispersal of the current legislative session, triggering new elections in March. (JPost) Science and technology Chinese space program The maiden flight of the Long March 8 orbital launch vehicle is launched from Wenchang Spacecraft Launch Site at 04:37 UTC, carrying five satellites. (Reuters) More December 2020 events... Time: 18:27 UTC|Day: 28 December ◀ December 2020 ▶ S M T W T F S     1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21   22     23     24     25     26     27     28   29 30 31     More December 2020 events...    About this page Report a dispute • News about Wikipedia Ongoing events Business COVID-19 recession FinCEN Files leak Disasters COVID-19 pandemic 2020–21 European windstorm season 2020 H5N8 outbreak 2019–20 locust infestation 2020 North Indian Ocean cyclone season 2020 Pacific typhoon season 2018–20 Southern Africa drought 2020 wildfire season Yemeni famine Politics Afghan peace process Armenian protests Belarusian protests Bulgarian protests Chilean protests Hong Kong protests Indian farmers protests Indonesia omnibus law protests Kashmir lock-down Libyan peace process Nicaraguan protests Nigerian protests Persian Gulf crisis Peruvian protests Philippine protests (timeline) Polish protests Post-Brexit diplomatic talks (trade negotiations) Second Arab Spring Sudanese protests Thai protests United States election protests United States racial unrest Venezuelan presidential crisis (protests) Yellow vests movement edit section Elections and referendums Recent December 27: Central African Republic, President (1st), National Assembly (1st) 27: Niger, President (1st), National Assembly Upcoming January 10: Kazakhstan, Majilis 10: Kyrgyzstan, President, Constitutional referendum 10: Uganda, President (1st), Parliament edit section Trials Recently concluded France: Charlie Hebdo shooting Greece: Nikolaos Michaloliakos Ongoing Argentina: Rodolfo Martín Villa Armenia: Serzh Sargsyan Colombia: Álvaro Uribe France: Nicolas Sarkozy Israel: Benjamin Netanyahu Kyrgyzstan: Almazbek Atambayev Malta: Yorgen Fenech South Africa: Jacob Zuma Spain: Bárcenas affair, 2017 Catalonia attacks Sudan: Omar al-Bashir United States: Fat Leonard scandal, Varsity Blues scandal International: The Gambia v. Myanmar Upcoming Indonesia: Edhy Prabowo, Juliari Batubara, Muhammad Rizieq Shihab Kosovo: Hashim Thaçi, Kadri Veseli Lesotho: Maesiah Thabane Rwanda: Paul Rusesabagina Spain: Jordi Pujol United States: Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, Elizabeth Holmes, Meng Wanzhou, R. Kelly, Ghislaine Maxwell, Steve Bannon Vanuatu: Charlot Salwai Zimbabwe: Ignatius Chombo edit section Sport Association football 2020–21 Premier League 2020 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A 2020–21 UEFA Nations League 2020 Copa Libertadores 2020–21 UEFA Champions League group stage 2020–21 UEFA Europa League group stage Women's association football 2020–21 Champions League 2020–21 Division 1 Féminine 2020–21 FA WSL American football 2020 NFL season 2020 NCAA Division I FBS Baseball 2021 MLB season Basketball 2020–21 NBA season 2020–21 NCAA Division I men's basketball season 2020–21 NCAA Division I women's basketball season Golf 2020–21 PGA Tour Ice hockey 2020–21 KHL season 2020–21 NHL season Motorsport 2020 Formula One Championship 2020 Rally Championship Rugby union 2020–21 Premiership Rugby 2020–21 Pro14 2019–20 Top 14 Other sports seasons 2020–21 international cricket season 2020–21 snooker season 2020–21 curling season More details – current sports events edit section Recent deaths December 2020 27: Armando Manzanero 26: George Blake 26: Brodie Lee 26: Phil Niekro 25: Michael Alig 25: Soumaïla Cissé 25: Danny Hodge 25: K. C. Jones 25: Jamal Khwaja 24: Ivry Gitlis 23: James E. Gunn 23: Rebecca Luker 23: Frankie Randall 23: Sugathakumari 23: Leslie West 22: Muhammad Mustafa Mero 22: Stella Tennant 21: Kevin Greene 21: K. T. Oslin 21: Motilal Vora 20: Doug Anthony 20: Ezra Vogel 19: Shirley Abrahamson 19: David Giler 19: Rosalind Knight 19: Mekere Morauta 19: Leo Panitch 18: Aristóteles Sandoval 18: José Vicente Rangel 18: Òscar Ribas Reig 18: Michael Jeffery 18: Peter Lamont 18: Rahah Noah 17: Donato Bilancia 17: Jeremy Bulloch 17: Pierre Buyoya 17: Stanley Cowell 17: Hennadiy Kernes 17: Saufatu Sopoanga 17: Pelle Svensson 16: Awesome Again 16: Flavio Cotti 16: Leticia Lee 16: Lorenzo Taliaferro 15: Ungku Abdul Aziz 15: Anthony Casso 15: Donald Fowler 15: Bruce Seals 14: Herman Asaribab 14: Gérard Houllier 14: Roddam Narasimha 14: Paulo César dos Santos 14: Totilas 14: Huang Zongying 13: Ambrose Mandvulo Dlamini 13: Nur Hossain Kasemi 12: John le Carré 12: Charley Pride 12: Ann Reinking 12: Ruhollah Zam 11: Kenneth Alwyn 11: Kim Ki-duk 10: Tommy Lister Jr. 10: Barbara Windsor 9: Paolo Rossi 9: Mohammad Yazdi 8: Harold Budd 8: Alejandro Sabella 8: Yevgeny Shaposhnikov 7: Dick Allen 7: Joselyn Cano 7: Chuck Yeager 6: Paul Sarbanes 6: Tabaré Vázquez 5: Peter Alliss 4: David Lander 4: James Odongo 3: Mahashay Dharampal Gulati 2: Warren Berlinger 2: Richard Corben 2: Valéry Giscard d'Estaing 2: Zafarullah Khan Jamali 2: Rafer Johnson 2: Pat Patterson 2: Walter E. Williams 1: Hugh Keays-Byrne 1: Brian Kerr November 2020 28: Dave Prowse 27: Tony Hsieh edit section Ongoing conflicts Africa Algeria, Libya and Tunisia Maghreb insurgency Cameroon Anglophone Crisis Cameroon, Chad, Niger, and Nigeria Boko Haram insurgency Central African Republic Civil War Democratic Republic of the Congo Kivu conflict Allied Democratic Forces insurgency Ituri conflict Lord's Resistance Army insurgency Ethiopia Tigray conflict Mali Mali War Mozambique Insurgency in Cabo Delgado Nigeria Communal conflicts in Nigeria Somalia Civil war South Sudan Ethnic violence (South Sudanese Civil War) Sudan War in Darfur South Kordofan conflict Sudanese nomadic conflicts Western Sahara Western Sahara conflict 2020 Western Saharan clashes Americas Colombia Colombian conflict Mexico Mexican War on Drugs Peru Internal conflict in Peru Asia-Pacific Afghanistan Afghanistan War China Xinjiang conflict India Naxalite–Maoist insurgency Insurgency in Northeast India India and Pakistan Kashmir 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en-wikipedia-org-1613	----	Tribune of the plebs - Wikipedia Tribune of the plebs From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Tribune of the Plebs) Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Roman political office Tribune of the plebs, tribune of the people or plebeian tribune (Latin: tribunus plebis) was the first office of the Roman state that was open to the plebeians, and was, throughout the history of the Republic, the most important check on the power of the Roman Senate and magistrates. These tribunes had the power to convene and preside over the Concilium Plebis (people's assembly); to summon the senate; to propose legislation; and to intervene on behalf of plebeians in legal matters; but the most significant power was to veto the actions of the consuls and other magistrates, thus protecting the interests of the plebeians as a class. The tribunes of the plebs were sacrosanct, meaning that any assault on their person was punishable by death. In imperial times, the powers of the tribunate were granted to the emperor as a matter of course, and the office itself lost its independence and most of its functions.[1] During the day the tribunes used to sit on the tribune benches on the Forum Romanum. Contents 1 Establishment of the tribunate 2 Powers of the tribunes 3 Limitations 4 History 4.1 The tribunes in the conflict of the orders 4.2 Erosion of the tribunician power at the end of the Republic 5 See also 6 Notes 7 External links Establishment of the tribunate[edit] The Secession of the People to the Mons Sacer, engraving by B. Barloccini, 1849. Fifteen years after the expulsion of the kings and establishment of the Roman Republic, the plebeians were burdened by the weight of crushing debt. A series of clashes between the people and the ruling patricians in 495 and 494 BC brought the plebeians to the brink of revolt, and there was talk of assassinating the consuls. Instead, on the advice of Lucius Sicinius Vellutus, the plebeians seceded en masse to the Mons Sacer (the Sacred Mount), a hill outside of Rome.[2] The senate dispatched Agrippa Menenius Lanatus, a former consul who was well liked by the plebeians, as an envoy. Menenius was well received, and told the fable of the belly and the limbs, likening the people to the limbs who chose not to support the belly, and thus starved themselves; just as the belly and the limbs, the city, he explained, could not survive without both the patricians and plebeians working in concert.[3] The plebeians agreed to negotiate for their return to the city; and their condition was that special tribunes should be appointed to represent the plebeians, and to protect them from the power of the consuls. No member of the senatorial class would be eligible for this office (in practice, this meant that only plebeians were eligible for the tribunate), and the tribunes should be sacrosanct; any person who laid hands on one of the tribunes would be outlawed, and the whole body of the plebeians entitled to kill such person without fear of penalty. The senate agreeing to these terms, the people returned to the city.[4] The first tribuni plebis were Lucius Albinius Paterculus and Gaius Licinius, appointed for the year 493 BC. Soon afterward, the tribunes themselves appointed Sicinius and two others as their colleagues.[4] The ancient sources indicate the tribunes may have originally been two or five in number. If the former, the college of tribunes was expanded to five in 470 BC. Either way, the college was increased to ten in 457 BC, and remained at this number throughout Roman history. They were assisted by two aediles plebis, or plebeian aediles. Only plebeians were eligible for these offices, although there were at least two exceptions.[5] Powers of the tribunes[edit] Although sometimes referred to as plebeian magistrates, the tribunes of the people, like the plebeian aediles, who were created at the same time, were technically not magistrates, as they were elected by the plebeian assembly alone. However, they functioned very much like magistrates of the Roman state. They could convene the concilium plebis, which was entitled to pass legislation affecting the plebeians alone (plebiscita), and beginning in 493 BC to elect the plebeian tribunes and aediles. From the institution of the tribunate, any one of the tribunes of the plebs was entitled to preside over this assembly. The tribunes were entitled to propose legislation before the assembly. By the third century BC, the tribunes also had the right to call the senate to order, and lay proposals before it.[1][6] Ius intercessionis, also called intercessio, the power of the tribunes to intercede on behalf of the plebeians and veto the actions of the magistrates, was unique in Roman history. Because they were not technically magistrates, and thus possessed no maior potestas, they relied on their sacrosanctity to obstruct actions unfavourable to the plebeians. Being sacrosanct, no person could harm the tribunes or interfere with their activities. To do so, or to disregard the veto of a tribune, was punishable by death, and the tribunes could order the death of persons who violated their sacrosanctity. This could be used as a protection when a tribune needed to arrest someone. This sacrosanctity also made the tribunes independent of all magistrates; no magistrate could veto the action of a tribune. If a magistrate, the senate, or any other assembly disregarded the orders of a tribune, he could "interpose the sacrosanctity of his person" to prevent such action. Only a dictator (or perhaps an interrex) was exempted from the veto power.[1] The tribunes could veto acts of the Roman senate. The tribune Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus imposed his veto on all government functions in 133 BC, when the senate attempted to block his agrarian reforms by imposing the veto of another tribune.[7] Tribunes also possessed the authority to enforce the right of provocatio ad populum, a precursor of the modern right of habeas corpus. This entitled a citizen to appeal the actions of a magistrate by shouting appello tribunos! ("I call upon the tribunes") or provoco ad populum! ("I appeal to the people").[8] Once invoked, this right required one of the tribunes to assess the situation, and determine the lawfulness of the magistrate's action. Any action taken in defiance of this right was illegal on its face. In effect, this gave the tribunes of the people unprecedented power to protect individuals from the arbitrary exercise of state power, and afforded Roman citizens a degree of liberty unequalled in the ancient world. If the tribune decided to act, he would impose his ius intercessionis ("right of intercession"). Limitations[edit] Although a tribune could veto any action of the magistrates, senate, or other assemblies, he had to be physically present in order to do so. Because the sacrosanctity of the tribunes depended on the oath of the plebeians to defend them, their powers were limited to the boundaries of the city of Rome. A tribune traveling abroad could not rely on his authority to intervene on behalf of the plebeians. For this reason, the activities of the tribunes were normally confined to the city itself, and a one-mile radius beyond.[1] History[edit] The tribunes in the conflict of the orders[edit] In 471 BC the Lex Publilia transferred the election of the tribunes from comitia curiata to the comitia tributa, thus removing the influence of the patricians on their election.[9] In 462, the tribune Gaius Terentillius Arsa alleged that the consular government had become even more oppressive than the monarchy that it had replaced. He urged the passage of a law appointing five commissioners to define and limit the powers of the consuls. By threat of war and plague, the issue was postponed for five contentious years, with the same college of tribunes elected each year. In 457, hoping to deprive the law's supporters of their impetus, the senate agreed to increase the number of tribunes to ten, provided that none of the tribunes from the preceding years should be re-elected.[10] However, the new tribunes continued to press for the adoption of Terentillus' law, until in 454 the senate agreed to appoint three commissioners to study Greek laws and institutions, and on their return help to resolve the strife between the orders. On the return of the envoys, the senate and the tribunes agreed to the appointment of a committee of ten men, known as the decemviri, or decemvirs, to serve for one year in place of the annual magistrates, and codify Roman law. The tribunate itself was suspended during this time. But when a second college of decemvirs appointed for the year 450 illegally continued their office into the following year, and the abuses of their authority became clear to the people, the decemvirate was abolished and the tribunate restored, together with the annual magistrates.[11] Among the laws codified by the decemvirs was one forbidding intermarriage between the patricians and the plebeians; the Twelve Tables of Roman law also codified that the consulate itself was closed to the plebeians. Worse still, in 448, two patricians were co-opted to fill vacant positions in the tribunate, although they proved to be of moderate views, and their year of office was peaceful. To prevent future attempts by the patricians to influence the selection of tribunes, Lucius Trebonius Asper promulgated a law forbidding the tribunes to co-opt their colleagues, and requiring their election to continue until all of the seats were filled. But relations between the orders deteriorated, until in 445, the tribunes, led by Gaius Canuleius, were able to push through a law permitting the intermarriage of patricians and plebeians, and allowing one of the consuls to be a plebeian.[12] Rather than permit the election of a plebeian consul, the senate resolved upon the election of military tribunes with consular power, who might be elected from either order. Initially this compromise satisfied the plebeians, but in practice only patricians were elected. The regular election of military tribunes in the place of consuls prevented any plebeians from assuming the highest offices of state until the year 400, when four of the six military tribunes were plebeians. Plebeian military tribunes served in 399, 396, 383, and 379, but in all other years between 444 and 376 BC, every consul or military tribune with consular powers was a patrician.[13] Beginning in 376, Gaius Licinius Calvus Stolo and Lucius Sextius Lateranus, tribunes of the plebs, used the veto power to prevent the election of any annual magistrates. Continuing in office each year, they frustrated the patricians, who, despite electing patrician military tribunes from 371 to 367, finally conceded the consulship, agreeing to the Licinian Rogations. Under this law, military tribunes with consular power were abolished, and one of the consuls elected each year was to be a plebeian. Although this law was occasionally violated by the election of two patrician consuls, Sextius himself was elected consul for 366, and Licinius in 364. At last, the plebeian tribunes had broken the patrician monopoly on the highest magistracies of the state.[14][15][16] Following their victory in 367, the tribunes remained an important check on the power of the senate and the annual magistrates. In 287 BC, the senate formally recognized the plebiscita as laws with binding force.[1] In 149 BC, men elected to the tribunate automatically entered the Senate. Erosion of the tribunician power at the end of the Republic[edit] However, in 81 BC, the dictator Sulla, who considered the tribunate a threat to his power, deprived the tribunes of their powers to initiate legislation, and to veto acts of the senate. He also prohibited former tribunes from holding any other office, effectively preventing the use of the tribunate as a stepping stone to higher office. Although the tribunes retained the power to intercede on behalf of individual citizens, most of their authority was lost under Sulla's reforms.[17] Former tribunes were once again admitted to the annual magistracies beginning in 75 BC, and the tribunician authority was fully restored by the consuls Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus and Marcus Licinius Crassus in 70.[1] The dignity of the office was further impaired when, in 59 BC, the patrician Publius Clodius Pulcher, who aspired to hold the tribunician power, had himself adopted by a plebeian youth, and renounced his patrician status, in order to be elected tribune for the following year. Although considered outrageous at the time, Clodius' scheme was allowed to proceed, and he embarked on a program of legislation designed to outlaw his political opponents and confiscate their property, while realizing a substantial gain from his actions.[18][19][20] In 48 BC, the senate bestowed the tribunicia potestas (tribunician power) on the dictator Gaius Julius Caesar, who, as a patrician, was ineligible to be elected one of the tribunes. When two of the elected tribunes attempted to obstruct his actions, Caesar had them impeached, and taken before the senate, where they were deprived of their powers. Never again did Caesar face opposition from the tribunes; he held the tribunician power until his death in 44.[21] In 23 BC, the senate bestowed the tribunician power on Caesar's nephew, Octavian, now styled Augustus. From this point, the tribunicia potestas became a pre-requisite for the emperors, most of whom received it from the senate upon claiming the throne, though some had already received this power during the reigns of their predecessors; the granting of this authority was a means of designating a favoured member of the imperial court as the emperor's intended successor. Agrippa, Drusus the Younger, Tiberius, Titus, Trajan, and Marcus Aurelius each received the tribunician power in this way. With the regular assumption of the tribunician power by the emperors and their heirs, the ancient authority of the tribunes dwindled away.[22] Although the office of tribune endured throughout imperial times, its independence and most of its practical functions were lost. Together with the aedileship, it remained a step in the political career of many plebeians who aspired to sit in the senate, at least until the third century. There is evidence that the tribunate continued to exist as late as the fifth century AD.[1] See also[edit] List of Tribune of the Plebs Notes[edit] ^ a b c d e f g Oxford Classical Dictionary, 2nd Ed. (1970), "Tribuni Plebis." ^ Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita ii. 23–32. ^ Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita ii. 32. ^ a b Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita ii. 33. ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, ii. 33, 58 (citing Piso, iii. 31. ^ Frank Frost Abbott, A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions, Ginn & Co., 1901, pp. 196, 261. ^ Plutarchus, Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans Tiberius Gracchus. ^ See the use of both forms by Volero in Livy's account.Livy (1880). Ab urbe condita. 2.55.5.CS1 maint: location (link) ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, ii. 58. ^ Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita iii. 8–31. ^ Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita iii. 32–55. ^ Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita iv. 1–6. ^ Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita iv. 6. ff, v. 12. ff. ^ Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita vi. 35, 36, 38, 42, vii. 1, 2. ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Romaike Archaiologia xiv. 12. ^ Plutarchus, Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans "Life of Camillus." ^ Frank Frost Abbott, A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions, Ginn & Co., 1901, p. 105 ^ Marcus Tullius Cicero, Pro Domo Sua 13; De Haruspicum Responsis 27. ^ Plutarchus, Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans "Life of Cicero." ^ H.J. Haskell, This was Cicero (1924), pp. 200–201. ^ Frank Frost Abbott, A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions, Ginn & Co., 1901, p. 135 ^ Michael Grant, The Roman Emperors (1985), pp. 13, 20, 56. 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en-wikipedia-org-1632	----	Mimnermus - Wikipedia Mimnermus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Mimnermus was one of several ancient, Greek poets who composed verses about solar eclipses, and there was a total solar eclipse of his home town, Smyrna, on April 6, 648 BC[1] His poetry survives only as a few fragments yet they afford us a glimpse of his "brilliantly vivid" style.[2] Mimnermus (Greek: Μίμνερμος Mímnermos) was a Greek elegiac poet from either Colophon or Smyrna in Ionia, who flourished about 630–600 BC. He was strongly influenced by the example of Homer yet he wrote short poems suitable for performance at drinking parties and was remembered by ancient authorities chiefly as a love poet. Mimnermus in turn exerted a strong influence on Hellenistic poets such as Callimachus and thus also on Roman poets such as Propertius, who even preferred him to Homer for his eloquence on love themes (see Comments by other poets below). His work was collected by Alexandrian scholars in just two "books" (relatively few compared for example with the twenty-six books for Stesichorus) and today only small fragments survive. The fragments confirm the ancient estimate of him as a "consummate poet"[3] but also indicate that he was a "sturdier character" than the indulgent love poet he was assumed to be by various ancient commentators.[4] Almost no reliable, biographical details have been recorded. One ancient account linked him romantically with a flute girl who subsequently gave her name, Nanno, to one of his two books. Contents 1 Life and work 2 Nanno 3 Poetic style 3.1 Comments by other poets 3.1.1 Solon 3.1.2 Hermesianax 3.1.3 Callimachus 3.1.4 Propertius 3.1.5 Horace 4 Translations 5 References 6 External links Life and work[edit] The Byzantine encyclopaedia Suda provides a good example of the biographical uncertainties. Mimnermus, son of Ligyrtyades, from Colophon or Smyrna or Astypalaea, an elegiac poet. He flourished in the 37th Olympiad (632–29 BC) and so is earlier than the seven sages, although some say that he was their contemporary. He was also called Ligyaistades because of his harmonious clarity. He wrote ... books.[5] The gap indicates a corruption in the text and the original wording probably testified to two books, though the only source we have for this number was the grammarian Pomponius Porphyrion.[6] The Suda's mention of Astypalaea, an island in the southern Aegean, as a possible candidate for the poet's home town is mere fantasy.[7] Smyrna seems to be the most likely candidate.[8] The nickname Ligyaistades was probably taken by the Suda from an elegy addressed to Mimnermus by one of the seven sages—the Athenian lawgiver and elegiac poet, Solon (see Comments by other poets). Solon clearly admired the skills of the older poet, whom he addressed as Ligyaistades, yet he objected to his hedonism and singled out this couplet for criticism: The aulos was an instrument that might accompany the singing of elegies (Brygos Painter, Attic red-figured kylix, ca. 490 BC) αἲ γὰρ ἄτερ νούσων τε καὶ ἀργαλέων μελεδωνέων ἑξηκονταέτη μοῖρα κίχοι θανάτου. Would that my fated death might come at sixty, unattended by sickness and grievous cares.[9] Solon thought he should be willing to live to eighty. Plutarch was another ancient author critical of the poet's self-indulgence, dismissing one poem (see Fragment 1 in Poetic style below) as "the utterances of intemperate people."[10] Mimnermus however was not timid in his hedonism, as indicated by a couplet attributed to him in the Palatine Anthology, an exhortation to others to live intemperately: "Enjoy yourself. Some of the harsh citizens will speak ill of you, some better.". However, the same lines have also been attributed to Theognis.[11] A robust side to his personality is shown by his versatility as a poet. Archaic elegy was often used for patriotic purposes, to screw courage to the sticking place in times of war and to celebrate national achievements, and there is ample evidence that Mimnermus assumed this role as a poet. A quote recorded by the geographer Strabo represents the earliest surviving account of the Ionian migration, celebrating the settlement of Colophon and Smyrna from Pylos,[12] [13] while another quotation, recorded by Stobaeus, describes the heroic exploits of a Greek warrior against the cavalry of the Lydian king, Gyges, early in the 7th century—Mimnermus evidently hoped thereby to strengthen his countrymen's resolve against further Lydian encroachments.[14] The name "Mimnermus" might have been chosen by his parents to commemorate a famous Smyrnean victory against Gyges near the Hermus river (and yet names ending in -ermus were quite common in Ionia).[15] He was alive when Smyrna was besieged for the final time by the Lydians under Alyattes of Lydia and possibly he died with the town.[16] The disappearance of Smyrna for the next three hundred years might be the reason why Colophon was able to claim the poet as one of its own, yet Smyrna's own claim persisted and this suggests that its claim had the advantage of being true.[17] Smyrna lay near Mount Sipylos, one of whose rocky outcrops was traditionally imagined to be the tragic figure Niobe. Like other archaic poets, Mimnermus adapted myths to his own artistic needs and Aelian recorded that he attributed twenty children to Niobe, unlike Homer, for example, who attributed twelve to her.[18] According to Sallustius, Mimnermus was just as creative in his poetical account of Ismene, representing her as being killed by Tydeus at the command of the goddess, Athena, in the very act of making love to Theoclymenus[19]—an original account that was soon accepted by an international audience, being represented on an early Corinthian amphora[20] (pictured below). Imaginative accounts of the sun, voyaging at night from west to east in a golden bed, and of Jason the Argonaut voyaging to "Aeetes' city, where the rays of the swift Sun lie in a golden storeroom at the edge of Oceanus", survive in brief quotes by ancient authors.[21] According to Strabo, Smyrna was named after an Amazon and, according to a manuscript on proverbs, Mimnermus once composed on the theme of the proverb "A lame man makes the best lover", illustrating the Amazonian practice of maiming their men.[22] Nanno[edit] Unlike epic and lyric verse, which were accompanied by stringed instruments (the cithara and barbiton respectively), elegy was accompanied by a wind instrument (the aulos) and its performance therefore required at least two people—one to sing and one to play.[23] Ancient accounts associate Mimnermus with a female aulos player, Nanno, and one makes him her lover (see quote from Hermesianax in Comments by other poets below). Another ancient source indicates that Mimnermus was a pederast,[24] which is consistent with conventional sexual themes in Greek elegy. However, as noted by Martin Litchfield West, Mimnermus could have been a pederast and yet still have composed elegies about his love for Nanno: "Greek pederasty ... was for the most part a substitute for heterosexual love, free contacts between the sexes being restricted by society."[25] Mimnermus apparently was also capable of playing all by himself—Strabo described him as "both a pipe-player and an elegiac poet".[26] According to the poet Hipponax, Mimnermus when piping used the melancholy "fig-branch strain," apparently a traditional melody played while scapegoats were ritually driven from town, whipped with fig branches.[27] Weeping Stone, Mount Sipylos—associated with the tragic figure of Niobe. Ancient commentators sometimes refer to a work called Nanno and there is one clear reference to a work called Smyrneis. Modern scholars have concluded that these could be the two books mentioned by Porphyrion. The Nanno appears to have been a collection of short poems on a variety of themes (not just love), whereas the Smyrneis appears to have been a quasi-epic about Smyrna's confrontation with the Lydians. A cryptic comment by the Hellenistic poet Callimachus (see Comments by other poets below) also seems to refer to those two books, commending one for "sweetness" and distinguishing it from "the great lady". The latter seems to be a reference to Smyrneis, whereas the sweet verses—apparently the slender, economical kind of verses on which Callimachus modelled his own poetry—appear to refer to Nanno. However, the comment is preserved as an incomplete fragment and modern scholars are not unanimous in their interpretation of it.[28] Another Callimachus fragment has been interpreted as proof that Mimnermus composed some iambic verse but this conjecture has also been disputed.[29] Poetic style[edit] Corinthian vase depicting Mimnermus's original account of Ismene's death. Tydeus is depicted in black (usual for a male), Ismene and her fleeing lover Theoclymenus are white (usual for females and appropriate for an adulterous male on the run).[30] Elegy has been described as "a variation upon the heroic hexameter, in the direction of lyric poetry,"[31] and, in Mimnermus, this takes the form of a variation on Homer, as appears for example in Fragment 1, quoted below, about which one modern scholar had this to say" Mimnermus' dependence on Homer is striking: it is amusing to see him express such un-Homeric thoughts as those of fr.1 in language which is almost entirely Homer's. Homer's vocabulary, line-endings, formulas, similes, all reappear, but from this material Mimnermus creates quite a distinctive poetry of easy grace and pleasing rhythm. — David A. Campbell[32] Fragment 1 τίς δὲ βίος, τί δὲ τερπνὸν ἄτερ χρυσῆς Ἀφροδίτης; τεθναίην, ὅτε μοι μηκέτι ταῦτα μέλοι, κρυπταδίη φιλότης καὶ μείλιχα δῶρα καὶ εὐνή· οἷ’ ἥβης ἄνθεα γίγνεται ἁρπαλέα ἀνδράσιν ἠδὲ γυναιξίν· ἐπεὶ δ’ ὀδυνηρὸν ἐπέλθῃ γῆρας, ὅ τ’ αἰσχρὸν ὁμῶς καὶ καλὸν ἄνδρα τιθεῖ, αἰεί μιν φρένας ἀμφὶ κακαὶ τείρουσι μέριμναι, οὐδ’ αὐγὰς προσορῶν τέρπεται ἠελίου, ἀλλ’ ἐχθρὸς μὲν παισίν, ἀτίμαστος δὲ γυναιξίν· οὕτως ἀργαλέον γῆρας ἔθηκε θεός. Typically, the elegiac couplet enabled a poet to develop his ideas in brief, striking phrases, often made more memorable by internal rhyme in the shorter, pentameter line.[33] Mimnermus employs the internal rhyme in the pentameter lines 2 (μοι... μέλοι) and 4 (ἄνθεα...ἁρπαλέα). Here is the same poem paraphrased in English to imitate the rhythms of an elegy, with half-rhymes employed in the same lines 2 (far...for) and 4 (youth...bloom): What is life, what is sweet, if it is missing golden Aphrodite? Death would be better by far than to live with no time for Amorous assignations and the gift of tenderness and bedrooms, All of those things that give youth all of its covetted bloom, Both for men and for women. But when there arrives the vexatiousness Of old age, even good looks alter to unsightliness And the heart wears away under the endlessness of its anxieties: There is no joy anymore then in the light of the sun; In children there is found hate and in women there is found no respect. So difficult has old age been made for us all by God! Commenting on the poem, Maurice Bowra observed that "...after the challenging, flaunting opening we are led through a swift account of youth, and then as we approach the horrors of old age, the verse becomes slower, the sentences shorter, the stops more emphatic, until the poet closes with a short, damning line of summary."[34] Of all the other early elegists, only Archilochus might be compared with Mimnermus for effective use of language,[35] both being lifelong poets of outstanding skill.[36] Comments by other poets[edit] Solon[edit] Addressing Mimnermus and criticizing him for his stated wish to die at sixty years of age, as quoted above in Life and work, the Athenian sage said: ἀλλ᾽ εἴ μοι κἂν νῦν ἔτι πείσεαι, ἔξελε τοῦτον:— μηδὲ μέγαιρ᾽ ὅτι σεῦ λῷον ἐπεφρασάμην:— καὶ μεταποίησον, Λιγυαιστάδη, ὧδε δ᾽ ἄειδε: ὀγδωκονταέτη μοῖρα κίχοι θανάτου.[37] But if even now you will listen to me, remove this (i.e. Mimnermus's objectionable verse)— and do not be offended because my thoughts are better than yours— and changing it, Ligyaistades, sing as follows: May my fated death come at eighty.[38] Hermesianax[edit] "And Mimnermus who, after much suffering, discovered the sweet sound and breath given off by the soft pentameter, was on fire for Nanno..."[39] Callimachus[edit] Defining the kind of poetry he liked and believed best suited to his own, much later times, the Alexandrian scholar-poet commended Mimnermus thus [brackets indicate gaps in the text]: "Of the two [types of poetry] it was his slender [verses?], not the big lady, that revealed Mimnermus' sweetness. Propertius[edit] plus in amore valet Mimnermi versus Homero: :carmina mansuetus lenia quaerit Amor. [40] In love the verses of Mimnermus prevail over those of Homer. Gentle love calls for soft songs.[41] Horace[edit] si, Mimnermus uti censet, sine amore iocisque nil est iucundum, vivas in amore iocisque.[42] If, as Mimnermus believes, without love and jests There is no joy, may you live amid love and jests.[43] Translations[edit] Greek lyric: an anthology in translation By Andrew M. Miller Loeb vol. 1 lyric poetry Several fragments translated by Steve Hays Translation of Fragment 2 into Elegiac couplets References[edit] ^ Plutarch de.facie.lun., cited and annotated by Douglas E. Gerber, Greek Elegiac Poetry, Loeb (1999), pages 99–101 ^ J.P.Barron and P.E.Easterling, "Early Greek Elegy", P.Easterling and B.Knox (ed.s), The Cambridge History of Classical Literature:Greek Literature, Cambridge University Press (1985), page 136 ^ Douglas E. Gerber, Greek Elegiac Poetry, Loeb/Harvard University Press (1999), page 6 ISBN 9780674995826 ^ David A. Campbell, Greek Lyric Poetry, Bristol Classical Press (1982), page 222 ^ Suda, cited and translated by Douglas E. Gerber, Greek Elegiac Poetry, Loeb (1999), page 73 note 3 ^ Porph. on Hor. Epist. 2.2.101, cited, translated and annotated by Douglas E. Gerber, Greek Elegiac Poetry, Loeb (1999), page 77 note 1 ^ Douglas E. Gerber, Greek Elegiac Poetry, Loeb (1999), page 73 note 1 ^ A. Allen, The Fragments of Mimnermus: Text and Commentary, (Stuttgart 1993) page 13 note 17 ^ Douglas E. Gerber, Greek Elegiac Poetry, Loeb (1999), page 85 ^ Plutarch de virt.mor. 6.445f, cited and translated by Douglas E. Gerber, Greek Elegiac Poetry, Loeb (1999), page 81 ^ Anth.Pal. 9.50 = Theognis 795–96, cited, translated and annotated by Douglas E. Gerber, Greek Elegiac Poetry, Loeb (1999), pages 86 and 289 ^ J.P. Barron and P.E. Easterling, "Early Greek Elegy", P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), The Cambridge History of Classical Literature:Greek Literature, Cambridge University Press (1985), page 134 ^ Strabo 14.1.4 and 14.1.3, cited by Douglas E. Gerber, Greek Elegiac Poetry, Loeb (1999), pages 87–9 ^ Stobaeus 3.7.11, cited and annotated by Douglas E. Gerber, Greek Elegiac Poetry, Loeb (1999), pages 95–7 ^ Martin Litchfield West, Studies in Greek Elegy and Iambus, Walter de Gruyter and Co. (1974), page 73 ^ Stobaeus 3.7.11, cited by David A. Campbell, Greek Lyric Poetry, Bristol Classical Press (1982), pages 222–23 ^ David A. Campbell, Greek Lyric Poetry, Bristol Classical Press (1982), pages 222 ^ Aelian V.H. 12.36, cited and annotated by Douglas E. Gerber, Greek Elegiac Poetry, Loeb (1999), page 99 ^ Sallustius' preface to Sophocles, Antigone, cited by Douglas E. Gerber, Greek Elegiac Poetry, Loeb (1999), page 99 ^ J.P.Barron and P.E.Easterling, "Early Greek Elegy", P.Easterling and B.Knox (ed.s), The Cambridge History of Classical Literature:Greek Literature, Cambridge University Press (1985), page 136 ^ Athenaeus 11.470a, and Strabo 1.2.40, cited by Douglas E. Gerber, Greek Elegiac Poetry, Loeb (1999), page 91–3 ^ Manuscript on proverbs, cited and annotated by Douglas E. Gerber, Greek Elegiac Poetry, Loeb (1999), page 101–3 ^ J.P. Barron and P.E. Easterling, "Early Greek Elegy", P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), The Cambridge History of Classical Literature:Greek Literature, Cambridge University Press (1985), page 128 ^ Alexander Aetolus fr. 5.4–5 Powell ap. Ath. 15.699b, cited by Douglas E. Gerber, Greek Elegiac Poetry, Loeb (1999), page 77 ^ Martin Litchfield West, Studies in Greek Elegy and Iambus, Walter de Gruyter and Co. (1974), page 75 ^ Strabo 14.1.28, cited by Douglas E. Gerber, Greek Elegiac Poetry, Loeb (1999), page 72 ^ Pseudo-Plutarch de musica 8.1133f = Hipponax fr. 153 W., cited and annotated by Douglas E. Gerber, Greek Elegiac Poetry, Loeb (1999), page 77 ^ A. Allen, The Fragments of Mimnermus: Text and Commentary, (Stuttgart 1993) pages 146–56 ^ Douglas E. Gerber, A Companion to Greek Lyric Poets, Brill (1997) page 111 ^ James I Porter (ed), Construction of the Classical Body, University of Michigan Press (1999), pages 13, 38 Google preview ^ W.R.Hardie, Res Metrica 49, cited by David A. Campbell, Greek Lyric Poetry, Bristol Classical Press (1982), page xxiv-v ^ David A. Campbell, Greek Lyric Poetry, Bristol Classical Press (1982), pages 223-4 ^ David A. Campbell, Greek Lyric Poetry, Bristol Press (1982), page xxv ^ Maurice Bowra, E.G.E.19, quoted by David A. Campbell, Greek Lyric Poetry, Bristol Press (1982), page 224 ^ Douglas E. Gerber, A Companion to Greek Lyric Poets, Brill (1997) page 112 ^ J.P. Barron and P.E. Easterling, 'Early Greek Elegy', P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), The Cambridge History of Classical Literature:Greek Literature, Cambridge University Press (1985), page 133-34 ^ Solon quoted by Diogenes Laertius 1.60 ^ Douglas E. Gerber, Greek Elegiac Poetry, Loeb (1999), page 141 ^ Hermesianax fr.7.35-37 Powell ap. Ath. 13.597f, cited by Douglas E. Gerber, Greek Elegiac Poetry, Loeb (1999), page 75 ^ Propertius 1.9.11-12 ^ Douglas E. Gerber, Greek Elegiac Poetry, Loeb (1999), page 79 ^ Horace, epist. 1.6.65-66 ^ Douglas E. Gerber, Greek Elegiac Poetry, Loeb (1999), page 79 External links[edit] Quotations related to Mimnermus at Wikiquote  Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Μίμνερμος Mimnermus Poems at demonax.info Authority control BIBSYS: 90782444 BNE: XX1000355 BNF: cb12356269z (data) CANTIC: a10124299 GND: 118784080 ISNI: 0000 0004 0362 0432 LCCN: n83319399 NTA: 069833486 RERO: 02-A003596768 SELIBR: 287061 SUDOC: 088480763 VcBA: 495/173252 VIAF: 249318061 WorldCat Identities: viaf-249318061 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mimnermus&oldid=974268942" Categories: Ancient Greek elegiac poets 7th-century BC Greek people 7th-century BC poets Ancient Colophonians Epigrammatists of the Greek Anthology Hidden categories: Articles containing Latin-language text Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikiquote Languages Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Estremeñu فارسی Français Galego Հայերեն Íslenska Italiano Latina Latviešu Magyar Mirandés Nederlands Polski Português Română Русский Sicilianu Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 August 2020, at 02:02 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1649	----	Friedrich von Hagedorn - Wikipedia Friedrich von Hagedorn From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Friedrich von Hagedorn Friedrich von Hagedorn (23 April 1708 – 28 October 1754), German poet, was born at Hamburg, where his father, a man of scientific and literary taste, was Danish ambassador.[1] Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Life 1.2 Career 2 References 3 External links Biography[edit] Life[edit] He was educated at the gymnasium of Hamburg, and later (1726) became a student of law at Jena. Returning to Hamburg in 1729, he obtained the appointment of unpaid private secretary to the Danish ambassador in London, where he lived till 1731.[2] Hagedorn's return to Hamburg was followed by a period of great poverty and hardship, but in 1733 he was appointed secretary to the so-called "English Court" (Englischer Hof) in Hamburg, a trading company founded in the 13th century.[2] He shortly afterwards married, and from this time had sufficient leisure to pursue his literary occupations till his death. Career[edit] The first collection of Hagedorn's poems was published at Hamburg shortly after his return from Jena in 1729, under the title Versuch einiger Gedichte (reprinted by A. Sauer, Heilbronn, 1883). In 1738 appeared Versuch in poetischen Fabeln und Erzählungen;[3] in 1742 a collection of his lyric poems, under the title Sammlung neuer Oden und Lieder;[3] and his Moralische Gedichte in 1750.[3] A collection of his entire works was published at Hamburg in 1757 after his death. The best is J.J. Eschenburg's edition (5 vols., Hamburg, 1800). Selections of his poetry with an excellent introduction in F. Muncker's Anakreontiker und preussisch-patriotische Lyriker (Stuttgart, 1894). See also H. Schuster, F. von Hagedorn und seine Bedeutung für die deutsche Literatur (Leipzig, 1882); W. Eigenbrodt, Hagedorn und die Erzählung in Reimversen (Berlin, 1884). The Austrian composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart set his poem Die Alte (The Old Woman) in his song of the same name (K. 517) in 1787. Joseph Haydn set two of his poems in his canons (a capella songs) (Hob. XXVIIb). References[edit] ^ Britannica Online. "Friedrich von Hagedorn". Britannica eb.com. Retrieved 19 February 2012. ^ a b Pohl, Wolfgang. "Friedrich von Hagedorn" (in German). Studio für alte Literatur. Retrieved 19 February 2012. ^ a b c Projekt Gutenberg-DE. "Friedrich von Hagedorn". Spiegel Online. Retrieved 19 February 2012.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Hagedorn, Friedrich von". Encyclopædia Britannica. 12 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 813. External links[edit] Poems of Friedrich von Hagedorn (Complete) (in German) Authority control BNF: cb13176487n (data) GND: 118700421 ISNI: 0000 0000 8086 0326 LCCN: n83800080 MBA: 9d9ccf8d-91cf-4b5b-8a1a-3bda1e5bf20b NKC: ola364066 NTA: 072286490 SELIBR: 274320 SNAC: w67h3jj3 SUDOC: 035245301 VcBA: 495/337868 VIAF: 7371751 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n83800080 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Friedrich_von_Hagedorn&oldid=990671659" Categories: 1708 births 1754 deaths 18th-century German poets Writers from Hamburg University of Jena alumni German male poets German-language poets 18th-century male writers Hidden categories: CS1 German-language sources (de) Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Articles with German-language sources (de) Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto Français Italiano Norsk bokmål Polski Русский Suomi Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 25 November 2020, at 21:15 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1676	----	Julian (emperor) - Wikipedia Julian (emperor) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 361 to 363, philosopher Roman emperor Julian Portrait of Emperor Julian on a bronze coin from Antioch. Legend: d n Fl Cl Iulianus p f aug. Roman emperor Augustus 3 November 361 – 26 June 363 (proclaimed in early 360) Predecessor Constantius II Successor Jovian Caesar 6 November 355 – early 360 Born 331 Constantinople Died 26 June 363 (aged 31 or 32) Frygium, Mesopotamia Burial Tarsus, then Church of the Holy Apostles Spouse Helena Full name Flavius Claudius Julianus Regnal name Imperator Caesar dominus noster Flavius Claudius Iulianus pius felix Augustus[1] Dynasty Constantinian Father Julius Constantius Mother Basilina Religion Greco-Roman polytheism Previously Christianity Julian[i] (Latin: Flavius Claudius Julianus; Greek: Ἰουλιανὸς, Ioulianòs; 331 – 26 June 363) was Roman emperor from 361 to 363, as well as a notable philosopher and author in Greek.[3] His rejection of Christianity, and his promotion of Neoplatonic Hellenism in its place, caused him to be remembered as Julian the Apostate by the Christian Church.[4][5] A member of the Constantinian dynasty, Julian was orphaned as a child. He was raised by the Gothic slave Mardonius, who had a profound influence on him, providing Julian with an excellent education.[6] Julian became caesar over the western provinces by order of Constantius II in 355, and in this role he campaigned successfully against the Alamanni and Franks. Most notable was his crushing victory over the Alamanni at the Battle of Argentoratum (Strasbourg) in 357, leading his 13,000 men against a Germanic army three times larger. In 360, Julian was proclaimed Augustus by his soldiers at Lutetia (Paris), sparking a civil war with Constantius. However, Constantius died before the two could face each other in battle, and named Julian as his successor. In 363, Julian embarked on an ambitious campaign against the Sasanian Empire. The campaign was initially successful, securing a victory outside Ctesiphon in Mesopotamia.[7] However, he did not attempt to besiege the capital and moved into Persia's heartland, but soon faced supply problems and was forced to retreat northwards while ceaselessly being harassed by Persian skirmishes. During the Battle of Samarra, Julian was mortally wounded under mysterious circumstances.[8][6] He was succeeded by Jovian, a senior officer in the imperial guard, who was obliged to cede territory, including Nisibis, in order to save the trapped Roman forces.[9] Julian was a man of unusually complex character: he was "the military commander, the theosophist, the social reformer, and the man of letters".[10] He was the last non-Christian ruler of the Roman Empire, and he believed that it was necessary to restore the Empire's ancient Roman values and traditions in order to save it from dissolution.[11] He purged the top-heavy state bureaucracy, and attempted to revive traditional Roman religious practices at the expense of Christianity. His attempt to build a Third Temple in Jerusalem was probably intended to harm Christianity rather than please Jews.[6] Julian also forbade the Christians from teaching and learning classical texts.[12] Contents 1 Life 1.1 Early life 1.2 Caesar in Gaul 1.2.1 Campaigns against Germanic kingdoms 1.2.2 Taxation and administration 1.3 Rebellion in Paris 1.4 Empire and administration 1.5 Clash with the Antiochenes 1.6 Persian campaign 1.6.1 Into enemy territory 1.6.2 Ctesiphon 1.6.3 Death 1.7 Tomb 2 Religious issues 2.1 Beliefs 2.2 Restoration of state Paganism 2.2.1 Paganism's shift under Julian 2.2.2 Juventinus and Maximus 2.2.3 Charity 2.3 Attempt to rebuild the Jewish Temple 3 Ancestry 4 Works 4.1 Problems regarding authenticity 5 In popular culture 5.1 Literature 5.2 Film 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 8.1 Citations 8.2 Ancient sources 8.3 Modern sources 9 Further reading 10 External links Life[edit] Early life[edit] Flavius Claudius Julianus was born at Constantinople in 331,[13] the son of Julius Constantius,[14] consul in 335 and half-brother of the emperor Constantine, by his second wife, Basilina, a woman of Greek origin.[15][16] Both of his parents were Christians. Julian's paternal grandparents were the emperor Constantius Chlorus and his second wife, Flavia Maximiana Theodora. His maternal grandfather was Julius Julianus, Praetorian Prefect of the East under the emperor Licinius from 315 to 324, and consul suffectus in 325.[17] The name of Julian's maternal grandmother is unknown. Julian solidus, c. 361. The obverse shows a bearded Julian inscribed fl·cl·iulianus p·p· aug·, calling Julian "father of the nation" (Latin: Pater Patriae). The reverse depicts an armed Roman soldier bearing a military standard in one hand and subduing a captive with the other, a reference to the military strength of the Roman Empire, inscribed: virtus exercitus romanorum, lit. 'the virtue of the Roman Army' The mint mark sirm. indicates the coin was minted in Sirmium, the home of Constantine's family. In the turmoil after the death of Constantine in 337, in order to establish himself and his brothers, Julian's zealous Arian cousin Constantius II appears to have led a massacre of most of Julian's close relatives. Constantius II allegedly ordered the murders of many descendants from the second marriage of Constantius Chlorus and Theodora, leaving only Constantius and his brothers Constantine II and Constans I, and their cousins, Julian and Constantius Gallus (Julian's half-brother), as the surviving males related to Emperor Constantine. Constantius II, Constans I, and Constantine II were proclaimed joint emperors, each ruling a portion of Roman territory. Julian and Gallus were excluded from public life, were strictly guarded in their youth, and given a Christian education. They were likely saved by their youth and at the urging of the Empress Eusebia. If Julian's later writings are to be believed, Constantius would later be tormented with guilt at the massacre of 337. Initially growing up in Bithynia, raised by his maternal grandmother, at the age of seven Julian was under the guardianship of Eusebius, the semi-Arian Christian Bishop of Nicomedia, and taught by Mardonius, a Gothic eunuch, about whom he later wrote warmly. After Eusebius died in 342, both Julian and Gallus were exiled to the imperial estate of Macellum in Cappadocia. Here Julian met the Christian bishop George of Cappadocia, who lent him books from the classical tradition. At the age of 18, the exile was lifted and he dwelt briefly in Constantinople and Nicomedia.[18] He became a lector, a minor office in the Christian church, and his later writings show a detailed knowledge of the Bible, likely acquired in his early life.[19] Julian's conversion from Christianity to paganism happened at around the age of 20. Looking back on his life in 362, Julian wrote that he had spent twenty years in the way of Christianity and twelve in the true way, i.e., the way of Helios.[20] Julian began his study of Neoplatonism in Asia Minor in 351, at first under Aedesius, the philosopher, and then Aedesius' student Eusebius of Myndus. It was from Eusebius that Julian learned of the teachings of Maximus of Ephesus, whom Eusebius criticized for his more mystical form of Neoplatonic theurgy. Eusebius related his meeting with Maximus, in which the theurgist invited him into the temple of Hecate and, chanting a hymn, caused a statue of the goddess to smile and laugh, and her torches to ignite. Eusebius reportedly told Julian that he "must not marvel at any of these things, even as I marvel not, but rather believe that the thing of the highest importance is that purification of the soul which is attained by reason." In spite of Eusebius' warnings regarding the "impostures of witchcraft and magic that cheat the senses" and "the works of conjurers who are insane men led astray into the exercise of earthly and material powers", Julian was intrigued, and sought out Maximus as his new mentor. According to the historian Eunapius, when Julian left Eusebius, he told his former teacher "farewell, and devote yourself to your books. You have shown me the man I was in search of."[21] Constantine II died in 340 when he attacked his brother Constans. Constans in turn fell in 350 in the war against the usurper Magnentius. This left Constantius II as the sole remaining emperor. In need of support, in 351 he made Julian's half-brother, Gallus, caesar of the East, while Constantius II himself turned his attention westward to Magnentius, whom he defeated decisively that year. In 354 Gallus, who had imposed a rule of terror over the territories under his command, was executed. Julian was summoned to Constantius' court in Mediolanum (Milan) in 354, and held for a year, under suspicion of treasonable intrigue, first with his brother and then with Claudius Silvanus; he was cleared, in part because Empress Eusebia intervened on his behalf, and he was permitted to study in Athens (Julian expresses his gratitude to the empress in his third oration).[22] While there, Julian became acquainted with two men who later became both bishops and saints: Gregory of Nazianzus and Basil the Great. In the same period, Julian was also initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries, which he would later try to restore. Caesar in Gaul[edit] After dealing with the rebellions of Magnentius and Silvanus, Constantius felt he needed a permanent representative in Gaul. In 355, Julian was summoned to appear before the emperor in Mediolanum and on 6 November was made caesar of the West, marrying Constantius' sister, Helena. Constantius, after his experience with Gallus, intended his representative to be more a figurehead than an active participant in events, so he packed Julian off to Gaul with a small retinue, assuming his prefects in Gaul would keep Julian in check. At first reluctant to trade his scholarly life for war and politics, Julian eventually took every opportunity to involve himself in the affairs of Gaul.[23] In the following years he learned how to lead and then run an army, through a series of campaigns against the Germanic tribes that had settled on both sides of the Rhine. Campaigns against Germanic kingdoms[edit] During his first campaign in 356, Julian led an army to the Rhine, where he engaged the inhabitants and recovered several towns that had fallen into Frankish hands, including Colonia Agrippina (Cologne). With success under his belt he withdrew for the winter to Gaul, distributing his forces to protect various towns, and choosing the small town of Senon near Verdun to await the spring.[24] This turned out to be a tactical error, for he was left with insufficient forces to defend himself when a large contingent of Franks besieged the town and Julian was virtually held captive there for several months, until his general Marcellus deigned to lift the siege. Relations between Julian and Marcellus seem to have been poor. Constantius accepted Julian's report of events and Marcellus was replaced as magister equitum by Severus.[25][26] The following year saw a combined operation planned by Constantius to regain control of the Rhine from the Germanic peoples who had spilt across the river onto the west bank. From the south his magister peditum Barbatio was to come from Milan and amass forces at Augst (near the Rhine bend), then set off north with 25,000 soldiers; Julian with 13,000 troops would move east from Durocortorum (Rheims). However, while Julian was in transit, a group of Laeti attacked Lugdunum (Lyon) and Julian was delayed in order to deal with them. This left Barbatio unsupported and deep in Alamanni territory, so he felt obliged to withdraw, retracing his steps. Thus ended the coördinated operation against the Germanic peoples.[27][28] With Barbatio safely out of the picture, King Chnodomarius led a confederation of Alamanni forces against Julian and Severus at the Battle of Argentoratum. The Romans were heavily outnumbered[ii] and during the heat of battle a group of 600 horsemen on the right wing deserted,[29] yet, taking full advantage of the limitations of the terrain, the Romans were overwhelmingly victorious. The enemy was routed and driven into the river. King Chnodomarius was captured and later sent to Constantius in Milan.[30][31] Ammianus, who was a participant in the battle, portrays Julian in charge of events on the battlefield[32] and describes how the soldiers, because of this success, acclaimed Julian attempting to make him Augustus, an acclamation he rejected, rebuking them. He later rewarded them for their valor.[33] Rather than chase the routed enemy across the Rhine, Julian now proceeded to follow the Rhine north, the route he followed the previous year on his way back to Gaul. At Moguntiacum (Mainz), however, he crossed the Rhine in an expedition that penetrated deep into what is today Germany, and forced three local kingdoms to submit. This action showed the Alamanni that Rome was once again present and active in the area. On his way back to winter quarters in Paris he dealt with a band of Franks who had taken control of some abandoned forts along the Meuse River.[31][34] In 358, Julian gained victories over the Salian Franks on the Lower Rhine, settling them in Toxandria in the Roman Empire, north of today's city of Tongeren, and over the Chamavi, who were expelled back to Hamaland. Taxation and administration[edit] At the end of 357 Julian, with the prestige of his victory over the Alamanni to give him confidence, prevented a tax increase by the Gallic praetorian prefect Florentius and personally took charge of the province of Belgica Secunda. This was Julian's first experience with civil administration, where his views were influenced by his liberal education in Greece. Properly it was a role that belonged to the praetorian prefect. However, Florentius and Julian often clashed over the administration of Gaul. Julian's first priority, as caesar and nominal ranking commander in Gaul, was to drive out the barbarians who had breached the Rhine frontier. However, he sought to win over the support of the civil population, which was necessary for his operations in Gaul and also to show his largely Germanic army the benefits of Imperial rule. He therefore felt it was necessary to rebuild stable and peaceful conditions in the devastated cities and countryside. For this reason, Julian clashed with Florentius over the latter's support of tax increases, as mentioned above, and Florentius's own corruption in the bureaucracy. Constantius attempted to maintain some modicum of control over his caesar, which explains his removal of Julian's close adviser Saturninius Secundus Salutius from Gaul. His departure stimulated the writing of Julian's oration, "Consolation Upon the Departure of Salutius".[35] Rebellion in Paris[edit] 19th century depiction of Julian being proclaimed Emperor in Paris (fancifully located in the Thermes de Cluny, then thought to have been the Imperial Palace), standing on a shield in the Frankish manner, in February 360. In the fourth year of Julian's stay in Gaul, the Sassanid Emperor, Shapur II, invaded Mesopotamia and took the city of Amida after a 73-day siege. In February 360, Constantius II ordered more than half of Julian's Gallic troops to join his eastern army, the order by-passing Julian and going directly to the military commanders. Although Julian at first attempted to expedite the order, it provoked an insurrection by troops of the Petulantes, who had no desire to leave Gaul. According to the historian Zosimus, the army officers were those responsible for distributing an anonymous tract[36] expressing complaints against Constantius as well as fearing for Julian's ultimate fate. Notably absent at the time was the prefect Florentius, who was seldom far from Julian's side, though now he was kept busy organizing supplies in Vienne and away from any strife that the order could cause. Julian would later blame him for the arrival of the order from Constantius.[37] Ammianus Marcellinus even suggested that the fear of Julian gaining more popularity than himself caused Constantius to send the order on the urging of Florentius.[38] The troops proclaimed Julian Augustus in Paris, and this in turn led to a very swift military effort to secure or win the allegiance of others. Although the full details are unclear, there is evidence to suggest that Julian may have at least partially stimulated the insurrection. If so, he went back to business as usual in Gaul, for, from June to August of that year, Julian led a successful campaign against the Attuarian Franks.[39][40] In November, Julian began openly using the title Augustus, even issuing coins with the title, sometimes with Constantius, sometimes without. He celebrated his fifth year in Gaul with a big show of games.[41] Solidus of Julian issued at Ravenna in 361, during his war with Constantius. The reverse reads VIRTUS EXERC(ITUS) GALL(ICARUM), 'virtue of the Gallic army', celebrating Julian's legions from Gaul which acclaimed him as emperor. In the spring of 361, Julian led his army into the territory of the Alamanni, where he captured their king, Vadomarius. Julian claimed that Vadomarius had been in league with Constantius, encouraging him to raid the borders of Raetia.[42] Julian then divided his forces, sending one column to Raetia, one to northern Italy and the third he led down the Danube on boats. His forces claimed control of Illyricum and his general, Nevitta, secured the pass of Succi into Thrace. He was now well out of his comfort zone and on the road to civil war.[43] (Julian would state in late November that he set off down this road "because, having been declared a public enemy, I meant to frighten him [Constantius] merely, and that our quarrel should result in intercourse on more friendly terms..."[44]) However, in June, forces loyal to Constantius captured the city of Aquileia on the north Adriatic coast, an event that threatened to cut Julian off from the rest of his forces, while Constantius's troops marched towards him from the east. Aquileia was subsequently besieged by 23,000 men loyal to Julian.[45] All Julian could do was sit it out in Naissus, the city of Constantine's birth, waiting for news and writing letters to various cities in Greece justifying his actions (of which only the letter to the Athenians has survived in its entirety).[46] Civil war was avoided only by the death on November 3 of Constantius, who, in his last will, is alleged by some sources to have recognized Julian as his rightful successor. Empire and administration[edit] The Church of the Holy Apostles, where Julian brought Constantius II to be buried. On December 11, 361, Julian entered Constantinople as sole emperor and, despite his rejection of Christianity, his first political act was to preside over Constantius' Christian burial, escorting the body to the Church of the Apostles, where it was placed alongside that of Constantine.[46] This act was a demonstration of his lawful right to the throne.[47] He is also now thought to have been responsible for the building of Santa Costanza on a Christian site just outside Rome as a mausoleum for his wife Helena and sister-in-law Constantina.[48] The new Emperor rejected the style of administration of his immediate predecessors. He blamed Constantine for the state of the administration and for having abandoned the traditions of the past. He made no attempt to restore the tetrarchal system begun under Diocletian. Nor did he seek to rule as an absolute autocrat. His own philosophic notions led him to idealize the reigns of Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius. In his first panegyric to Constantius, Julian described the ideal ruler as being essentially primus inter pares ("first among equals"), operating under the same laws as his subjects. While in Constantinople, therefore, it was not strange to see Julian frequently active in the Senate, participating in debates and making speeches, placing himself at the level of the other members of the Senate.[49] He viewed the royal court of his predecessors as inefficient, corrupt and expensive. Thousands of servants, eunuchs and superfluous officials were therefore summarily dismissed. He set up the Chalcedon tribunal to deal with the corruption of the previous administration under the supervision of Magister Militum Arbitio. Several high-ranking officials under Constantius, including the chamberlain Eusebius, were found guilty and executed. (Julian was conspicuously absent from the proceedings, perhaps signaling his displeasure at their necessity.)[50] He continually sought to reduce what he saw as a burdensome and corrupt bureaucracy within the Imperial administration whether it involved civic officials, secret agents or the imperial postal service. Another effect of Julian's political philosophy was that the authority of the cities was expanded at the expense of the imperial bureaucracy as Julian sought to reduce direct imperial involvement in urban affairs. For example, city land owned by the imperial government was returned to the cities, city council members were compelled to resume civic authority, often against their will, and the tribute in gold by the cities called the aurum coronarium was made voluntary rather than a compulsory tax. Additionally, arrears of land taxes were cancelled.[51] This was a key reform reducing the power of corrupt imperial officials, as the unpaid taxes on land were often hard to calculate or higher than the value of the land itself. Forgiving back taxes both made Julian more popular and allowed him to increase collections of current taxes. While he ceded much of the authority of the imperial government to the cities, Julian also took more direct control himself. For example, new taxes and corvées had to be approved by him directly rather than left to the judgment of the bureaucratic apparatus. Julian certainly had a clear idea of what he wanted Roman society to be, both in political as well as religious terms. The terrible and violent dislocation of the 3rd century meant that the Eastern Mediterranean had become the economic locus of the Empire. If the cities were treated as relatively autonomous local administrative areas, it would simplify the problems of imperial administration, which as far as Julian was concerned, should be focused on the administration of the law and defense of the empire's vast frontiers. In replacing Constantius's political and civil appointees, Julian drew heavily from the intellectual and professional classes, or kept reliable holdovers, such as the rhetorician Themistius. His choice of consuls for the year 362 was more controversial. One was the very acceptable Claudius Mamertinus, previously the Praetorian prefect of Illyricum. The other, more surprising choice was Nevitta, Julian's trusted Frankish general. This latter appointment made overt the fact that an emperor's authority depended on the power of the army. Julian's choice of Nevitta appears to have been aimed at maintaining the support of the Western army which had acclaimed him. Clash with the Antiochenes[edit] Julian as portrayed by Giovanni Battista Cavalieri (1583). From Romanorum Imperatorum effigies, preserved in the Municipal Library of Trento (Italy) After five months of dealings at the capital, Julian left Constantinople in May and moved to Antioch, arriving in mid-July and staying there for nine months before launching his fateful campaign against Persia in March 363. Antioch was a city favored by splendid temples along with a famous oracle of Apollo in nearby Daphne, which may have been one reason for his choosing to reside there. It had also been used in the past as a staging place for amassing troops, a purpose which Julian intended to follow.[52] His arrival on 18 July was well received by the Antiochenes, though it coincided with the celebration of the Adonia, a festival which marked the death of Adonis, so there was wailing and moaning in the streets—not a good omen for an arrival.[53][54] Julian soon discovered that wealthy merchants were causing food problems, apparently by hoarding food and selling it at high prices. He hoped that the curia would deal with the issue for the situation was headed for a famine. When the curia did nothing, he spoke to the city's leading citizens, trying to persuade them to take action. Thinking that they would do the job, he turned his attention to religious matters.[54] He tried to resurrect the ancient oracular spring of Castalia at the temple of Apollo at Daphne. After being advised that the bones of 3rd-century bishop Babylas were suppressing the god, he made a public-relations mistake in ordering the removal of the bones from the vicinity of the temple. The result was a massive Christian procession. Shortly after that, when the temple was destroyed by fire, Julian suspected the Christians and ordered stricter investigations than usual. He also shut up the chief Christian church of the city, before the investigations proved that the fire was the result of an accident.[55][56] When the curia still took no substantial action in regards to the food shortage, Julian intervened, fixing the prices for grain and importing more from Egypt. Then landholders refused to sell theirs, claiming that the harvest was so bad that they had to be compensated with fair prices. Julian accused them of price gouging and forced them to sell. Various parts of Libanius' orations may suggest that both sides were justified to some extent[57][58] while Ammianus blames Julian for "a mere thirst for popularity".[59] Julian's ascetic lifestyle was not popular either, since his subjects were accustomed to the idea of an all-powerful Emperor who placed himself well above them. Nor did he improve his dignity with his own participation in the ceremonial of bloody sacrifices.[60] David S. Potter, an assistant secretary of the US Navy, said after nearly two millennia: They expected a man who was both removed from them by the awesome spectacle of imperial power, and would validate their interests and desires by sharing them from his Olympian height (...) He was supposed to be interested in what interested his people, and he was supposed to be dignified. He was not supposed to leap up and show his appreciation for a panegyric that it was delivered, as Julian had done on January 3, when Libanius was speaking, and ignore the chariot races.[61] He then tried to address public criticism and mocking of him by issuing a satire ostensibly on himself, called Misopogon or "Beard Hater". There he blames the people of Antioch for preferring that their ruler have his virtues in the face rather than in the soul. Even Julian's intellectual friends and fellow pagans were of a divided mind about this habit of talking to his subjects on an equal footing: Ammianus Marcellinus saw in that only the foolish vanity of someone "excessively anxious for empty distinction", whose "desire for popularity often led him to converse with unworthy persons".[62] On leaving Antioch he appointed Alexander of Heliopolis as governor, a violent and cruel man whom the Antiochene Libanius, a friend of the emperor, admits on first thought was a "dishonourable" appointment. Julian himself described the man as "undeserving" of the position, but appropriate "for the avaricious and rebellious people of Antioch".[63] Persian campaign[edit] v t e Julian's Persian War Pirisabora Maiozamalcha Ctesiphon Maranga Samarra Julian's rise to Augustus was the result of military insurrection eased by Constantius's sudden death. This meant that, while he could count on the wholehearted support of the Western army which had aided his rise, the Eastern army was an unknown quantity originally loyal to the Emperor he had risen against, and he had tried to woo it through the Chalcedon tribunal. However, to solidify his position in the eyes of the eastern army, he needed to lead its soldiers to victory and a campaign against the Sassanid Persians offered such an opportunity. An audacious plan was formulated whose goal was to lay siege on the Sassanid capital city of Ctesiphon and definitively secure the eastern border. Yet the full motivation for this ambitious operation is, at best, unclear. There was no direct necessity for an invasion, as the Sassanids sent envoys in the hope of settling matters peacefully. Julian rejected this offer.[64] Ammianus states that Julian longed for revenge on the Persians and that a certain desire for combat and glory also played a role in his decision to go to war.[65] Illustration from The Fall of Princes by John Lydgate (which is a translation of De Casibus Virorum Illustribus by Giovanni Boccaccio) depicting "the skyn of Julyan". There is no evidence that Julian's corpse was skinned and displayed, and it is likely that the illustrator simply confused the fate of Julian's body with that of Emperor Valerian. Into enemy territory[edit] On 5 March 363, despite a series of omens against the campaign, Julian departed from Antioch with about 65,000–83,000,[66][67] or 80,000–90,000 men[68] (the traditional number accepted by Gibbon[69] is 95,000 effectives total), and headed north toward the Euphrates. En route he was met by embassies from various small powers offering assistance, none of which he accepted. He did order the Armenian King Arsaces to muster an army and await instructions.[70] He crossed the Euphrates near Hierapolis and moved eastward to Carrhae, giving the impression that his chosen route into Persian territory was down the Tigris.[71] For this reason it seems he sent a force of 30,000 soldiers under Procopius and Sebastianus further eastward to devastate Media in conjunction with Armenian forces.[72] This was where two earlier Roman campaigns had concentrated and where the main Persian forces were soon directed.[73] Julian's strategy lay elsewhere, however. He had had a fleet built of over 1,000 ships at Samosata in order to supply his army for a march down the Euphrates and of 50 pontoon ships to facilitate river crossings. Procopius and the Armenians would march down the Tigris to meet Julian near Ctesiphon.[72] Julian's ultimate aim seems to have been "regime change" by replacing king Shapur II with his brother Hormisdas.[73][74] After feigning a march further eastward, Julian's army turned south to Circesium at the confluence of the Abora (Khabur) and the Euphrates arriving at the beginning of April.[72] Passing Dura on April 6, the army made good progress, bypassing towns after negotiations or besieging those which chose to oppose him. At the end of April the Romans captured the fortress of Pirisabora, which guarded the canal approach from the Euphrates to Ctesiphon on the Tigris.[75] As the army marched toward the Persian capital, the Sassanids broke the dikes which crossed the land, turning it into marshland, slowing the progress of the Roman army.[76] Ctesiphon[edit] Julian near Ctesiphon; medieval miniature By mid-May, the army had reached the vicinity of the heavily fortified Persian capital, Ctesiphon, where Julian partially unloaded some of the fleet and had his troops ferried across the Tigris by night.[77] The Romans gained a tactical victory over the Persians before the gates of the city, driving them back into the city.[78] However, the Persian capital was not taken, the main Persian army was still at large and approaching, while the Romans lacked a clear strategic objective.[79] In the council of war which followed, Julian's generals persuaded him not to mount a siege against the city, given the impregnability of its defenses and the fact that Shapur would soon arrive with a large force.[80] Julian, not wanting to give up what he had gained and probably still hoping for the arrival of the column under Procopius and Sebastianus, set off east into the Persian interior, ordering the destruction of the fleet.[78] This proved to be a hasty decision, for they were on the wrong side of the Tigris with no clear means of retreat and the Persians had begun to harass them from a distance, burning any food in the Romans' path. Julian had not brought adequate siege equipment, so there was nothing he could do when he found that the Persians had flooded the area behind him, forcing him to withdraw.[81] A second council of war on 16 June 363 decided that the best course of action was to lead the army back to the safety of Roman borders, not through Mesopotamia, but northward to Corduene.[82][83] Death[edit] Sassanian relief of the investiture of Ardashir II showing Mithra, Shapur II and Ahura Mazda above a defeated Julian, lying prostrate Detail of the fallen Julian During the withdrawal, Julian's forces suffered several attacks from Sassanid forces.[83] In one such engagement on 26 June 363, the indecisive Battle of Samarra near Maranga, Julian was wounded when the Sassanid army raided his column. In the haste of pursuing the retreating enemy, Julian chose speed rather than caution, taking only his sword and leaving his coat of mail.[84] He received a wound from a spear that reportedly pierced the lower lobe of his liver, the peritoneum and intestines. The wound was not immediately deadly. Julian was treated by his personal physician, Oribasius of Pergamum, who seems to have made every attempt to treat the wound. This probably included the irrigation of the wound with a dark wine, and a procedure known as gastrorrhaphy, the suturing of the damaged intestine. On the third day a major hemorrhage occurred and the emperor died during the night.[85][iii] As Julian wished, his body was buried outside Tarsus, though it was later removed to Constantinople.[86] In 364, Libanius stated that Julian was assassinated by a Christian who was one of his own soldiers;[87] this charge is not corroborated by Ammianus Marcellinus or other contemporary historians. John Malalas reports that the supposed assassination was commanded by Basil of Caesarea.[88] Fourteen years later, Libanius said that Julian was killed by a Saracen (Lakhmid) and this may have been confirmed by Julian's doctor Oribasius who, having examined the wound, said that it was from a spear used by a group of Lakhmid auxiliaries in Persian service.[89] Later Christian historians propagated the tradition that Julian was killed by Saint Mercurius.[90] Julian was succeeded by the short-lived Emperor Jovian who reestablished Christianity's privileged position throughout the Empire. Libanius says in his epitaph of the deceased emperor (18.304) that "I have mentioned representations (of Julian); many cities have set him beside the images of the gods and honour him as they do the gods. Already a blessing has been besought of him in prayer, and it was not in vain. To such an extent has he literally ascended to the gods and received a share of their power from him themselves." However, no similar action was taken by the Roman central government, which would be more and more dominated by Christians in the ensuing decades. Considered apocryphal is the report that his dying words were νενίκηκάς με, Γαλιλαῖε, or Vicisti, Galilaee ("You have won, Galilean"),[iv] supposedly expressing his recognition that, with his death, Christianity would become the Empire's state religion. The phrase introduces the 1866 poem Hymn to Proserpine, which was Algernon Charles Swinburne's elaboration of what a philosophic pagan might have felt at the triumph of Christianity. It also ends the Polish Romantic play The Undivine comedy written in 1833 by Zygmunt Krasiński. Tomb[edit] Porphyry sarcophagi outside the Istanbul Archaeological Museum. As he had requested,[92] Julian's body was buried in Tarsus. It lay in a tomb outside the city, across a road from that of Maximinus Daia.[93] However, chronicler Zonaras says that at some "later" date his body was exhumed and reburied in or near the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople, where Constantine and the rest of his family lay.[94] His sarcophagus is listed as standing in a "stoa" there by Constantine Porphyrogenitus.[95] The church was demolished by the Ottoman Turks after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. Today a sarcophagus of porphyry, identified as Julian's by Jean Ebersolt, stands in the grounds of the Archaeological Museum in Istanbul.[96] 4th-century cameo of an emperor, probably Julian, performing sacrifice (National Archaeological Museum, Florence) Religious issues[edit] Beliefs[edit] Julian's personal religion was both pagan and philosophical; he viewed the traditional myths as allegories, in which the ancient gods were aspects of a philosophical divinity. The chief surviving sources are his works To King Helios and To the Mother of the Gods, which were written as panegyrics, not theological treatises.[14] As the last pagan ruler of the Roman Empire, Julian's beliefs are of great interest for historians, but they are not in complete agreement. He learned theurgy from Maximus of Ephesus, a student of Iamblichus;[97] his system bears some resemblance to the Neoplatonism of Plotinus; Polymnia Athanassiadi has brought new attention to his relations with Mithraism, although whether he was initiated into it remains debatable; and certain aspects of his thought (such as his reorganization of paganism under High Priests, and his fundamental monotheism) may show Christian influence. Some of these potential sources have not come down to us, and all of them influenced each other, which adds to the difficulties.[98] According to one theory (that of Glen Bowersock in particular), Julian's paganism was highly eccentric and atypical because it was heavily influenced by an esoteric approach to Platonic philosophy sometimes identified as theurgy and also Neoplatonism. Others (Rowland Smith, in particular) have argued that Julian's philosophical perspective was nothing unusual for a "cultured" pagan of his time, and, at any rate, that Julian's paganism was not limited to philosophy alone, and that he was deeply devoted to the same gods and goddesses as other pagans of his day. Because of his Neoplatonist background Julian accepted the creation of humanity as described in Plato's Timaeus. Julian writes, "when Zeus was setting all things in order there fell from him drops of sacred blood, and from them, as they say, arose the race of men."[99] Further he writes, "they who had the power to create one man and one woman only, were able to create many men and women at once..."[100] His view contrasts with the Christian belief that humanity is derived from the one pair, Adam and Eve. Elsewhere he argues against the single pair origin, indicating his disbelief, noting for example, "how very different in their bodies are the Germans and Scythians from the Libyans and Ethiopians."[101][102] The Christian historian Socrates Scholasticus was of the opinion that Julian believed himself to be Alexander the Great "in another body" via transmigration of souls, "in accordance with the teachings of Pythagoras and Plato".[103] The diet of Julian is said to have been predominantly vegetable-based.[104] Restoration of state Paganism[edit] See also: Henosis and Henotheism Julian the Apostate presiding at a conference of sectarians, by Edward Armitage, 1875 After gaining the purple, Julian started a religious reformation of the empire, which was intended to restore the lost strength of the Roman state. He supported the restoration of Hellenistic polytheism as the state religion. His laws tended to target wealthy and educated Christians, and his aim was not to destroy Christianity but to drive the religion out of "the governing classes of the empire — much as Chinese Buddhism was driven back into the lower classes by a revived Confucian mandarinate in 13th century China."[105] He restored pagan temples which had been confiscated since Constantine's time, or simply appropriated by wealthy citizens; he repealed the stipends that Constantine had awarded to Christian bishops, and removed their other privileges, including a right to be consulted on appointments and to act as private courts. He also reversed some favors that had previously been given to Christians. For example, he reversed Constantine's declaration that Majuma, the port of Gaza, was a separate city. Majuma had a large Christian congregation while Gaza was still predominantly pagan. On 4 February 362, Julian promulgated an edict to guarantee freedom of religion. This edict proclaimed that all the religions were equal before the law, and that the Roman Empire had to return to its original religious eclecticism, according to which the Roman state did not impose any religion on its provinces. The edict was seen as an act of favor toward the Jews, in order to upset the Christians. Coptic icon showing Saint Mercurius killing Julian. According to a tradition, Saint Basil (an old school-mate of Julian) had been imprisoned at the start of Julian's Sassanid campaign. Basil prayed to Mercurius to help him, and the saint appeared in a vision to Basil, claiming to have speared Julian to death. Since the persecution of Christians by past Roman Emperors had seemingly only strengthened Christianity, many of Julian's actions were designed to harass Christians and undermine their ability to organize resistance to the re-establishment of paganism in the empire.[106] Julian's preference for a non-Christian and non-philosophical view of Iamblichus' theurgy seems to have convinced him that it was right to outlaw the practice of the Christian view of theurgy and demand the suppression of the Christian set of Mysteries.[107] In his School Edict Julian required that all public teachers be approved by the Emperor; the state paid or supplemented much of their salaries. Ammianus Marcellinus explains this as intending to prevent Christian teachers from using pagan texts (such as the Iliad, which was widely regarded as divinely inspired)[citation needed] that formed the core of classical education: "If they want to learn literature, they have Luke and Mark: Let them go back to their churches and expound on them", the edict says.[105] This was an attempt to remove some of the influence of the Christian schools which at that time and later used ancient Greek literature in their teachings in their effort to present the Christian religion as being superior to paganism.[citation needed] The edict also dealt a severe financial blow to many Christian scholars, tutors and teachers, as it deprived them of students. In his Tolerance Edict of 362, Julian decreed the reopening of pagan temples, the restitution of confiscated temple properties, and the return from exile of dissident Christian bishops. The latter was an instance of tolerance of different religious views, but it may also have been an attempt by Julian to foster schisms and divisions between different Christian sects, since conflict between rival Christian sects was quite fierce.[108] His care in the institution of a pagan hierarchy in opposition to that of the Christians was due to his wish to create a society in which every aspect of the life of the citizens was to be connected, through layers of intermediate levels, to the consolidated figure of the Emperor — the final provider for all the needs of his people. Within this project, there was no place for a parallel institution, such as the Christian hierarchy or Christian charity.[109] Paganism's shift under Julian[edit] Julian's popularity among the people and the army during his brief reign suggest that he might have brought paganism back to the fore of Roman public and private life.[110] In fact, during his lifetime, neither pagan nor Christian ideology reigned supreme, and the greatest thinkers of the day argued about the merits and rationality of each religion.[111] Most importantly for the pagan cause, though, Rome was still a predominantly pagan empire that had not wholly accepted Christianity.[112] Even so, Julian's short reign did not stem the tide of Christianity. The emperor's ultimate failure can arguably be attributed to the manifold religious traditions and deities that paganism promulgated. Most pagans sought religious affiliations that were unique to their culture and people, and they had internal divisions that prevented them from creating any one ‘pagan religion.’ Indeed, the term pagan was simply a convenient appellation for Christians to lump together the believers of a system they opposed.[113] In truth, there was no Roman religion, as modern observers would recognize it.[114] Instead, paganism came from a system of observances that one historian has characterized as “no more than a spongy mass of tolerance and tradition.”[114] This system of tradition had already shifted dramatically by the time Julian came to power; gone were the days of massive sacrifices honoring the gods. The communal festivals that involved sacrifice and feasting, which once united communities, now tore them apart—Christian against pagan.[115] Civic leaders did not even have the funds, much less the support, to hold religious festivals. Julian found the financial base that had supported these ventures (sacred temple funds) had been seized by his uncle Constantine to support the Christian Church.[116] In all, Julian's short reign simply could not shift the feeling of inertia that had swept across the Empire. Christians had denounced sacrifice, stripped temples of their funds, and cut priests and magistrates off from the social prestige and financial benefits accompanying leading pagan positions in the past. Leading politicians and civic leaders had little motivation to rock the boat by reviving pagan festivals. Instead, they chose to adopt the middle ground by having ceremonies and mass entertainment that were religiously neutral.[117] After witnessing the reign of two emperors bent on supporting the Church and stamping out paganism, it is understandable that pagans simply did not embrace Julian's idea of proclaiming their devotion to polytheism and their rejection of Christianity. Many chose to adopt a practical approach and not support Julian's public reforms actively for fear of a Christian revival. However, this apathetic attitude forced the emperor to shift central aspects of pagan worship. Julian's attempts to reinvigorate the people shifted the focus of paganism from a system of tradition to a religion with some of the same characteristics that he opposed in Christianity.[118] For example, Julian attempted to introduce a tighter organization for the priesthood, with greater qualifications of character and service. Classical paganism simply did not accept this idea of priests as model citizens. Priests were elites with social prestige and financial power who organized festivals and helped pay for them.[116] Yet Julian's attempt to impose moral strictness on the civic position of priesthood only made paganism more in tune with Christian morality, drawing it further from paganism's system of tradition. Indeed, this development of a pagan order created the foundations of a bridge of reconciliation over which paganism and Christianity could meet.[119] Likewise, Julian's persecution of Christians, who by pagan standards were simply part of a different cult, was quite an un-pagan attitude that transformed paganism into a religion that accepted only one form of religious experience while excluding all others—such as Christianity.[120] In trying to compete with Christianity in this manner, Julian fundamentally changed the nature of pagan worship. That is, he made paganism a religion, whereas it once had been only a system of tradition. Juventinus and Maximus[edit] Despite this inadvertent reconciliation of paganism to Christianity, however, many of the Church fathers viewed the emperor with hostility, and told stories of his supposed wickedness after his death. A sermon by Saint John Chrysostom, entitled On Saints Juventinus and Maximinus, tells the story of two of Julian's soldiers at Antioch, who were overheard at a drinking party, criticizing the emperor's religious policies, and taken into custody. According to John, the emperor had made a deliberate effort to avoid creating martyrs of those who disagreed with his reforms; but Juventinus and Maximinus admitted to being Christians, and refused to moderate their stance. John asserts that the emperor forbade anyone from having contact with the men, but that nobody obeyed his orders; so he had the two men executed in the middle of the night. John urges his audience to visit the tomb of these martyrs.[121] Charity[edit] The fact that Christian charities were open to all, including pagans, put this aspect of Roman citizens' lives out of the control of Imperial authority and under that of the Church. Thus Julian envisioned the institution of a Roman philanthropic system, and cared for the behaviour and the morality of the pagan priests, in the hope that it would mitigate the reliance of pagans on Christian charity, saying: "These impious Galileans not only feed their own poor, but ours also; welcoming them into their agapae, they attract them, as children are attracted, with cakes."[122] Attempt to rebuild the Jewish Temple[edit] In 363, not long before Julian left Antioch to launch his campaign against Persia, in keeping with his effort to oppose Christianity, he allowed Jews to rebuild their Temple.[123][124][125] The point was that the rebuilding of the Temple would invalidate Jesus prophecy about its destruction in 70, which Christians had cited as proof of Jesus' truth.[123] But fires broke out and stopped the project.[126] A personal friend of his, Ammianus Marcellinus, wrote this about the effort: Julian thought to rebuild at an extravagant expense the proud Temple once at Jerusalem, and committed this task to Alypius of Antioch. Alypius set vigorously to work, and was seconded by the governor of the province; when fearful balls of fire, breaking out near the foundations, continued their attacks, till the workmen, after repeated scorchings, could approach no more: and he gave up the attempt. The failure to rebuild the Temple has been ascribed to the Galilee earthquake of 363. Although there is contemporary testimony for the miracle, in the Orations of St. Gregory Nazianzen, this may be taken to be unreliable.[127] Sabotage by Christians is a possibility, as is an accidental fire. Divine intervention was for centuries a common view among Christian historians,[128] and it was seen as proof of Jesus divinity.[123] Julian's support of Jews caused Jews to call him "Julian the Hellene".[129] Ancestry[edit] Ancestors of Julian 4. Constantius Chlorus 2. Julius Constantius 5. Flavia Maximiana Theodora 1.Julian 6. Julius Julianus 3. Basilina 7. (Unknown) Works[edit] Julian wrote several works in Greek, some of which have come down to us. Budé Date Work Comment Wright I 356/7[130] Panegyric In Honour Of Constantius Written to reassure Constantius that he was on his side. I II ~June 357[130] Panegyric In Honour Of Eusebia Expresses gratitude for Eusebia's support. III III 357/8[131] The Heroic Deeds Of Constantius Indicates his support of Constantius, while being critical. (Sometimes called "second panegyric to Constantius".) II IV 359[35] Consolation Upon the Departure of Salutius[132] Grapples with the removal of his close advisor in Gaul. VIII V 361[133] Letter To The Senate And People of Athens An attempt to explain the actions leading up to his rebellion. – VI early 362[134] Letter To Themistius The Philosopher Response to an ingratiating letter from Themistius, outlining J.'s political reading – VII March 362[135] To The Cynic Heracleios Attempt to set Cynics straight regarding their religious responsibilities. VII VIII ~March 362[136] Hymn To The Mother Of The Gods A defense of Hellenism and Roman tradition. V IX ~May 362[137] To the Uneducated Cynics Another attack on Cynics who he thought didn't follow the principles of Cynicism. VI X December 362[138] The Caesars[139] Satire describing a competition among Roman emperors as to who was the best. Strongly critical of Constantine. – XI December 362[140] Hymn To King Helios Attempt to describe the Roman religion as seen by Julian. IV XII early 363[141] Misopogon, Or, Beard-Hater Written as a satire on himself, while attacking the people of Antioch for their shortcomings. – – 362/3[142] Against the Galilaeans Polemic against Christians, which now only survives as fragments. – – 362[v] Fragment Of A Letter To A Priest Attempt to counteract the aspects that he thought were positive in Christianity. – – 359–363 Letters Both personal and public letters from much of his career. – – ? Epigrams Small number of short verse works. – Budé indicates the numbers used by Athanassiadi given in the Budé edition (1963 & 1964) of Julian's Opera.[vi] Wright indicates the oration numbers provided in W.C.Wright's edition of Julian's works. Ioulianou autokratoros ta sozomena (1696) The religious works contain involved philosophical speculations, and the panegyrics to Constantius are formulaic and elaborate in style. The Misopogon (or "Beard Hater") is a light-hearted account of his clash with the inhabitants of Antioch after he was mocked for his beard and generally scruffy appearance for an Emperor. The Caesars is a humorous tale of a contest among some of the most notable Roman Emperors: Julius Caesar, Augustus, Trajan, Marcus Aurelius, Constantine, and also Alexander the Great. This was a satiric attack upon the recent Constantine, whose worth, both as a Christian and as the leader of the Roman Empire, Julian severely questions. One of the most important of his lost works is his Against the Galileans, intended to refute the Christian religion. The only parts of this work which survive are those excerpted by Cyril of Alexandria, who gives extracts from the three first books in his refutation of Julian, Contra Julianum. These extracts do not give an adequate idea of the work: Cyril confesses that he had not ventured to copy several of the weightiest arguments. Problems regarding authenticity[edit] Julian's works have been edited and translated several times since the Renaissance, most often separately; but many are translated in the Loeb Classical Library edition of 1913, edited by Wilmer Cave Wright. Wright mentions, however, that there are many problems surrounding Julian's vast collection of works, mainly the letters ascribed to Julian.[143] The collections of letters we have today are the result of many smaller collections which contained varying numbers of Julian's works in various combinations. For example, in Laurentianus 58.16 the largest collection of letters ascribed to Julian was found, containing 43 manuscripts. it is unclear what the origins of many letters in these collections are. Joseph Bidez & François Cumont compiled all of these different collections together in 1922 and got a total of 284 items. 157 of these were considered genuine and 127 were regarded spurious. This contrasts starkly with Wright's earlier mentioned collection which contains only 73 items which are considered genuine and 10 apocryphal letter. Michael Trapp notes however that when comparing Bidez & Cumont's work with Wright, they regard as many as sixteen of Wright's genuine letters as spurious.[144] Which works can be ascribed to Julian is thus very much up to debate. The problems surrounding Julian's collection of works are exacerbated by the fact that Julian was a very motivated writer, which means it is possible that many more letters could have circulated, despite his short reign. Julian himself attests to the large amount of letters he had to write in one of the letters which is likely to be genuine.[145] Julian's religious agenda gave him even more work than the average emperor as he sought to instruct his newly-styled pagan priests and he had to deal with discontent Christian leaders and communities. An example of him instructing his pagan priests is visible in a fragment in the Vossianus MS., inserted in the Letter to Themistius.[146] Additionally, Julian's hostility towards the Christian faith inspired vicious counteractions by Christian authors as can be seen in Gregory of Nazianzus' invectives against Julian.[147][148] Christians no doubt suppressed some of Julian's works as well.[149] This Christian influence is still visible in Wright's much smaller collection of Julian's letters. She comments on how some letters are suddenly cut off when the contents become hostile towards Christians, believing them to be the result of Christian censoring. Notable examples of this are in the Fragment of a letter to a Priest and the letter to High-Priest Theodorus.[150][151] In popular culture[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Julian" emperor – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (June 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Literature[edit] In 1681 Lord Russell, an outspoken opponent of King Charles II of England and his brother The Duke of York, got his chaplain to write a Life of Julian the Apostate. This work made use of the Roman Emperor's life in order to address contemporary English political and theological debates – specifically, to reply to the conservative arguments of Dr Hickes's sermons, and defend the lawfulness of resistance in extreme cases. In 1847, the controversial German theologian David Friedrich Strauss published in Mannheim the pamphlet Der Romantiker auf dem Thron der Cäsaren ("A Romantic on the Throne of the Caesars"), in which Julian was satirised as "an unworldly dreamer, a man who turned nostalgia for the ancients into a way of life and whose eyes were closed to the pressing needs of the present". In fact, this was a veiled criticism of the contemporary King Frederick William IV of Prussia, known for his romantic dreams of restoring the supposed glories of feudal Medieval society.[152] Julian's life inspired the play Emperor and Galilean by Henrik Ibsen. The late nineteenth century English novelist George Gissing read an English translation of Julian's work in 1891[153] Julian's life and reign were the subject of the novel The Death of the Gods (Julian the Apostate) (1895) in the trilogy of historical novels entitled "Christ and Antichrist" (1895–1904) by the Russian Symbolist poet, novelist and literary theoretician Dmitrii S. Merezhkovskii. The opera Der Apostat (1924) by the composer and conductor Felix Weingartner is about Julian. In 1945 Nikos Kazantzakis authored the tragedy Julian the Apostate in which the emperor is depicted as an existentialist hero committed to a struggle which he knows will be in vain. It was first staged in Paris in 1948. Julian was the subject of a novel, Julian (1964), by Gore Vidal, describing his life and times. It is notable for, among other things, its scathing critique of Christianity. Julian appeared in Gods and Legions, by Michael Curtis Ford (2002). Julian's tale was told by his closest companion, the Christian saint Caesarius, and accounts for the transition from a Christian philosophy student in Athens to a pagan Roman Augustus of the old nature. Julian's letters are an important part of the symbolism of Michel Butor's novel La Modification. The fantasy alternate history The Dragon Waiting by John M. Ford, while set in the time of the Wars of the Roses, uses the reign of Julian as its point of divergence. His reign not being cut short, he was successful in disestablishing Christianity and restoring a religiously eclectic societal order which survived the fall of Rome and into the Renaissance. Characters in the novel refer to him as "Julian the Wise". The dystopian speculative fiction novel by Robert Charles Wilson, Julian Comstock: A Story of 22nd-Century America, parallels the life of Julian with the title character as the hereditary president of an oligarchic future United States of America who tries to restore science and combat the fundamentalist Christianity that has taken over the country. Film[edit] An Italian movie treatment of his life, Giuliano l'Apostata, appeared in 1919. See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal Against the Galilaeans Peroz-Shapur, the ancient town of Perisabora destroyed by Julian in 363 Diodorus of Tarsus Itineraries of the Roman emperors, 337–361 List of Byzantine emperors Notes[edit] ^ Rarely Julian II. The iteration distinguishes him from Didius Julianus; it does not account for the usurper Sabinus Julianus.[2] ^ Ammianus says that there were 35,000 Alamanni, Res Gestae, 16.12.26, though this figure is now thought to be an overestimate – see David S. Potter, p. 501. ^ Note that Ammianus Marcellinus (Res Gestae, 25.3.6 & 23) is of the view that Julian died the night of the same day that he was wounded. ^ First recorded by Theodoret[91] in the 5th century. ^ Not dealt with in Athanassiadi, or dated by Bowersock, but reflects a time when Julian was emperor, and he had other issues to deal with later. ^ Julian's Opera, edited by J.Bidez, G.Rochefort, and C.Lacombrade, with French translations of all the principal works except Against the Galilaeans, which is only preserved in citations in a polemic work by Cyril. References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Browning, p. 103. ^ David Sear, Roman Coins and Their Values, Volume 5 (London: Spink, 2014), p. 267. ^ Grant, Michael (1980). Greek and Latin authors, 800 B.C.–A.D. 1000, Part 1000. H. W. Wilson Co. p. 240. ISBN 978-0-8242-0640-6. JULIAN THE APOSTATE (Flavins Claudius Julianus), Roman emperor and Greek writer, was born at Constantinople in ad 332 and died in 363. ^ Gibbon, Edward. "Chapter 23". The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. ^ A Companion to Julian the Apostate. Brill. 2020-01-20. ISBN 978-90-04-41631-4. ^ a b c "Julian". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 23, 2018. ^ Phang et al. 2016, p. 998. ^ "Ancient Rome: The reign of Julian". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 23, 2018. ^ Potter, David (2009). Rome in the Ancient World - From Romulus to Justinian. Thames & Hudson. p. 289. ISBN 978-0500251522. ^ Glanville Downey, "Julian the Apostate at Antioch", Church History, Vol. 8, No. 4 (December, 1939), pp. 303–315. See p. 305. ^ Athanassiadi, p. 88. ^ Potter, David (2009). Rome in the Ancient World - From Romulus to Justinian. Thames & Hudson. p. 288. ISBN 978-0500251522. ^ Tougher, 12, citing Bouffartigue: L'Empereur Julien et la culture de son temps p. 30 for the argument for 331; A.H. Jones, J.R. Martindale, and J. Morris "Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Vol. I", p. 447 (Iulianus 29) argues for May or June 332. Bowersock, p. 22, wrote that the month attribution originated in an error and considers that the weight of evidence points to 331, against 332. ^ a b Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Julian" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 548. ^ Norwich, John Julius (1989). Byzantium: the early centuries. Knopf. p. 83. ISBN 978-0-394-53778-8. Julius Constantius...Constantine had invited him, with his second wife and his young family, to take up residence in his new capital; and it was in Constantinople that his third son Julian was born, in May or June of the year 332. The baby's mother, Basilina, a Greek from Asia Minor, died a few weeks later... ^ Bradbury, Jim (2004). The Routledge companion to medieval warfare. Routledge. p. 54. ISBN 978-0-415-22126-9. JULIAN THE APOSTATE, FLAVIUS CLAUDIUS JULIANUS, ROMAN EMPEROR (332–63) Emperor from 361, son of Julius Constantius and a Greek mother Basilina, grandson of Constantius Chlorus, the only pagan Byzantine Emperor. ^ Jones, Martindale, and Morris (1971) Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire volume 1, pp. 148, 478–479. Cambridge. ^ Cambridge Ancient History, v. 13, pp. 44–45. ^ Boardman, p. 44, citing Julian to the Alexandrians, Wright's letter 47, of November or December 362. Ezekiel Spanheim 434D. Twelve would be literal, but Julian is counting inclusively. ^ Julian. "Letter 47: To the Alexandrians", translated by Emily Wilmer Cave Wright, v. 3, p. 149. The full text of Letters of Julian/Letter 47 at Wikisource ^ "Maximus Lives of the Philosophers and Sophists (English translation)". www.tertullian.org. 1921. pp. 343–565. Retrieved March 19, 2019. ^ R. Browning, The Emperor Julian (London, 1975), pp. 74–75. However, Shaun Tougher, "The Advocacy of an Empress: Julian and Eusebia" (The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 48, No. 2 (1998), pp. 595–599), argues that the kind Eusebia of Julian's panegyric is a literary creation and that she was doing the bidding of her husband in bringing Julian around to doing what Constantius had asked of him. See especially p. 597. ^ David S. Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay AD 180–395, p. 499. ^ Most sources give the town as Sens, which is well into the interior of Gaul. See John F. Drinkwater, The Alamanni and Rome 213–496, OUP Oxford 2007, p. 220. ^ Cambridge Ancient History, v. 13, p. 49. ^ David S. Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay AD 180–395, p. 501. ^ David S. Potter, p. 501. ^ Cambridge Ancient History, v.13, pp. 50–51. ^ D. Woods, "On the 'Standard-Bearers' at Strasbourg: Libanius, or. 18.58–66", Mnemosyne, Fourth Series, Vol. 50, Fasc. 4 (August, 1997), p. 479. ^ David S. Potter, pp. 501–502. ^ a b Cambridge Ancient History, v.13, p. 51. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus Res Gestae, 16.12.27ff, 38ff, 55 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus Res Gestae, 16.12.64–65 ^ John F. Drinkwater, The Alamanni and Rome 213–496, pp. 240–241. ^ a b Athanassiadi, p. 69. ^ grammation: cf. Zosimus, Historia Nova, 3.9, commented by Veyne, L'Empire Gréco-Romain, p. 45 ^ Julian, Letter to the Athenians, 282C. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus Res Gestae, 20.4.1–2 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus. Res Gestae, 20.10.1–2 ^ Cambridge Ancient History, v. 13, pp. 56–57. ^ David S. Potter, p. 506. ^ Cambridge Ancient History v. 13, p. 58. ^ Cambridge Ancient History v. 13, p. 59. ^ In a private letter to his Uncle Julian, in W.C. Wright, v. 3, p. 27. ^ J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries, 89 ^ a b Cambridge Ancient History v. 13, p. 60. ^ Athanassiadi, p. 89. ^ Webb, Matilda. The Churches and Catacombs of Early Christian Rome: A Comprehensive Guide, pp. 249–252, 2001, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 1-902210-58-1, 978-1-902210-58-2, google books ^ Cambridge Ancient History v. 13, pp. 63–64. ^ Cambridge Ancient History v. 13, p. 61. ^ Cambridge Ancient History v. 13, p. 65. ^ Bowersock, p. 95. ^ Cambridge Ancient History v. 13, p. 69. ^ a b Bowersock, p. 96. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 22.12.8 – 22.13.3 ^ Socrates of Constantinople, Historia ecclesiastica, 3.18 ^ Libanius, Orations, 18.195 & 16.21 ^ Libanius, Orations, 1.126 & 15.20 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 22.14.1 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 22.14.3 ^ David S. Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay, pp. 515–516 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 22.7.1, 25.4.17 (Commented by Veyne, L"Empire Gréco-Romain, p. 77) ^ See Letter 622 by Libanius: "That Alexander was appointed to the government at first, I confess, gave me some concern, as the principal persons among us were dissatisfied. I thought it dishonourable, injurious, and unbecoming a prince; and that repeated fines would rather weaken than improve the city...." and the translator's note upon it: "This is the Alexander of whom Ammianus says (23.2), "When Julian was going to leave Antioch, he made one Alexander of Heliopolis, governor of Syria, a turbulent and severe man, saying that 'undeserving as he was, such a ruler suited the avaricious and contumellious Antiochians'." As the letter makes clear, Julian handed the city over to be looted by a man he himself regarded as unworthy, and the Christian inhabitants, who had dared to oppose his attempt to restore paganism, to be forced to attend and applaud pagan ceremonies at sword-point; and be 'urged' to cheer more loudly." ^ Libanius, Oration 12, 76–77 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 22.12.1–2 ^ Zosimus, Historia Nova, book 3, chapter 12. Zosimus' text is ambiguous and refers to a smaller force of 18,000 under Procopius and a larger force of 65,000 under Julian himself; it's unclear if the second figure includes the first. ^ Elton, Hugh, Warfare in Roman Europe AD 350–425, p. 210, using the higher estimate of 83,000. ^ Bowersock, Julian the Apostate, p. 108. ^ The Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire, (The Modern Library, 1932), chapter XXIV., p. 807 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 23.2.1–2 ^ Ridley, Notes, p. 318. ^ a b c Bowersock, Julian the Apostate, p. 110. ^ a b David S, Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay, p. 517. ^ Libanius, Epistulae, 1402.2 ^ Dodgeon & Lieu, The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars, p. 203. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 24.3.10–11. ^ Dodgeon & Lieu, The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars, p. 204. ^ a b Cambridge Ancient History, p. 75. ^ Adrian Goldsworth, How Rome fell. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009, ISBN 978-0-300-13719-4 , p. 232 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 24.7.1. ^ David S. Potter, Rome in the ancient world, pp. 287–290. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 24.8.1–5. ^ a b Dodgeon & Lieu, The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars, p. 205. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 25.3.3 ^ Lascaratos, John and Dionysios Voros. 2000 Fatal Wounding of the Byzantine Emperor Julian the Apostate (361–363 A.D.): Approach to the Contribution of Ancient Surgery. World Journal of Surgery 24: 615–619. See p. 618. ^ Grant, Michael. The Roman Emperors. (New York: Barnes and Noble Books, 1997), p. 254. ^ Libanius, Orations, 18.274 ^ John Malalas, Chronographia, pp. 333–334. Patrologia Graeca XCII, col. 496. ^ evidence preserved by Philostorgius, see David S. Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay AD 180–395, p. 518. ^ Sozomenus, Historia ecclesiastica, 6.2 ^ Theodoret, Historia ecclesiastica, 3.25 ^ Kathleen McVey (Editor), The Fathers of the Church: Selected Prose Works (1994) p. 31 ^ Libanius, Oration 18, 306; Ammianus Marcellinus 23, 2.5 and 25, 5.1. References from G. Downey,The tombs of the Byzantine emperors at the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople, Journal of Hellenic Studies 79 (1959) p. 46 ^ Downey gives the text: '...later the body was transferred to the imperial city' (xiii 13, 25) ^ Glanville Downey, The tombs of the Byzantine emperors at the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople, Journal of Hellenic Studies 79 (1959) 27–51. On p. 34 he states that the Book of Ceremonies of Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus gives a list of tombs, ending with: "43. In this stoa, which is to the north, lies a cylindrically-shaped sarcophagus, in which lies the cursed and wretched body of the apostate Julian, porphyry or Roman in colour. 44 Another sarcophagus, porphyry, or Roman, in which lies the body of Jovian, who ruled after Julian." ^ Vasiliev, A. A. (1948). "Imperial Porphyry Sarcophagi in Constantinople" (PDF). Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 4: 1+3–26. doi:10.2307/1291047. JSTOR 1291047. ^ The emperor's study of Iamblichus and of theurgy are a source of criticism from his primary chronicler, Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 22.13.6–8 and 25.2.5 ^ Tougher, Shaun (2007). Julian the Apostate. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 27ff, 58f. ISBN 9780748618873. ^ Julian, "Letter to a Priest", 292. Transl. W.C. Wright, v. 2, p. 307. ^ As above. Wright, v. 2, p. 305. ^ Julian, "Against the Galilaeans", 143. Transl. W.C. Wright, v. 3, p. 357. ^ Thomas F. Gossett, Race: The History of an Idea in America, 1963 (Southern Methodist University Press) /1997 (Oxford University Press, US), p. 8. ^ Socrates Scholasticus, Church History, iii, 21. ^ Gibbon, Edward. The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Chapter 22. ^ a b Brown, Peter, The World of Late Antiquity, W. W. Norton, New York, 1971, p. 93. ^ Julian, Epistulae, 52.436A ff. ^ Richard T. Wallis, Jay Bregman (1992). Neoplatonism and Gnosticism. p. 22. ISBN 9780791413371. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 22.5.4. ^ See Roberts and DiMaio. ^ Adrian Murdoch, The Last Pagan (UK: Sutton Publishing Limited, 2003), 3. ^ Adrian Murdoch, The Last Pagan (UK: Sutton Publishing Limited, 2003), 4. ^ Scott Bradbury, "Julian's Pagan Revival and the Decline of Blood Sacrifice," Phoenix 49 (1995), 331. ^ Scott Bradbury, "Julian's Pagan Revival and the Decline of Blood Sacrifice," Phoenix 49 (1995). ^ a b Jonathan Kirsch, God against the Gods (New York: Penguin Group, 2004), 9. ^ Scott Bradbury, "Julian's Pagan Revival and the Decline of Blood Sacrifice," Phoenix 49 (1995): 333. ^ a b Scott Bradbury, "Julian's Pagan Revival and the Decline of Blood Sacrifice," Phoenix 49 (1995): 352. ^ Scott Bradbury, "Julian's Pagan Revival and the Decline of Blood Sacrifice," Phoenix 49 (1995): 354. ^ Harold Mattingly, “The Later Paganism,” The Harvard Theological Review 35 (1942): 178. ^ Harold Mattingly, “The Later Paganism,” The Harvard Theological Review 35 (1942): 171. ^ James O’Donnell, “The Demise of Paganism,” Traditio 35 (1979): 53, accessed September 23, 2014, JSTOR 27831060 ^ St. John Chrysostom, The Cult of the Saints (select homilies and letters), Wendy Mayer & Bronwen Neil, eds., St. Vladimir's Seminary Press (2006). ^ Quoted in : Schmidt, Charles (1889). The Social Results of Early Christianity (2 ed.). Wm. Isbister. p. 328. Retrieved 2013-02-09. ^ a b c Jacob Neusner (15 September 2008). Judaism and Christianity in the Age of Constantine: History, Messiah, Israel, and the Initial Confrontation. University of Chicago Press. pp. 21–22. ISBN 978-0-226-57647-3. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 23.1.2–3. ^ Kavon, Eli (4 December 2017). "Julian and the dream of a Third Temple". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 7 February 2018. ^ Encyclopaedia Britannica: Or, Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature, Volume 8; Volume 12. Little, Brown & Company. 1856. p. 744. In A.D. 363, the Emperor Julian undertook to rebuild the temple, but after considerable preparations and much expense he was compelled to desist by flames which burst forth from the foundations. Repeated attempts have been made to account for these igneous explosions by natural causes; for instance, by the ignition of gases which had long been pent up in the subterraneous vaults. ^ Edward Gibbon, The Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire, (The Modern Library), chapter XXIII., pp. 780–82, note 84 ^ See "Julian and the Jews 361–363 CE" (Fordham University, The Jesuit University of New York) and "Julian the Apostate and the Holy Temple" Archived 2005-10-20 at the Wayback Machine ^ Falk, Avner, A Psychoanalytic History of the Jews (1996), Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, London, ISBN 0-8386-3660-8. ^ a b Athanassiadi, p. 61. ^ Athanassiadi, pp. 62–63. ^ The manuscript tradition uses the name "Sallustius", but see Bowersock, p. 45 (footnote #12), and Athanassiadi, p. 20. ^ Athanassiadi, p. 85. ^ Athanassiadi, p. 90. ^ Athanassiadi, p. 131. ^ Athanassiadi, p. 141, "at the same time" as To The Cynic Heracleios. ^ Athanassiadi, p. 137. ^ Athanassiadi, p. 197, written for the Saturnalia festival, which began December 21. ^ "Julian: Caesars – translation". www.attalus.org. ^ Athanassiadi, p. 148, doesn't supply a clear date. Bowersock, p. 103, dates it to the celebration of Sol Invictus, December 25, shortly after the Caesars was written. ^ Athanassiadi, p. 201, dates it "towards the end of his stay in Antioch". ^ Athanassiadi, p. 161. – Wikisource:Against the Galileans ^ Wright, Wilmer (1923). Letters. Epigrams. Against the Galilaeans. Fragments. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. xxvii–xxviii. ISBN 9781258198077. ^ Trapp, Michael (2012). Baker-Brian & Tougher, Nicholas & Shaun (ed.). The Emperor's Shadow: Julian in his Correspondence. Emperor and Author: The Writings of Julian the Apostate. Swansea: Classical Press of Wales. p. 105. ISBN 978-1905125500. ^ Wright, Wilmer (1923). Julian. Letters. Epigrams. Against the Galilaeans. Fragments. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. 208-209. ISBN 978-0674991736. ^ Wright, Wilmer (1913). Julian, Volume II. Orations 6–8. Letters to Themistius. To The Senate and People of Athens. To a Priest. The Caesars. Misopogon. Loeb Classical Library (Book 29). Cambridge: Harvard University Press. p. 295. ISBN 978-0674990326. ^ Pearse, Roger (2003). "Oration 4: First Invective Against Julian". ^ Pearse, Roger (2003). "Oration 5: Second Invective Against Julian". ^ Wright, Wilmer (1923). Julian. Letters. Epigrams. Against the Galilaeans. Fragments. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. 453–454. ISBN 9781258198077. ^ Wright, Wilmer (1913). Julian, Orations 6–8. Letters to Themistius, To the Senate and People of Athens, To a Priest. The Caesars. Misopogon. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. 338–339. ISBN 978-0674990326. ^ Wright, Wilmer (1923). Julian. Letters. Epigrams. Against the Galilaeans. Fragments. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. 60–61. ISBN 9781258198077. ^ Christopher Clark, "Iron Kingdom", p. 446 ^ Coustillas, Pierre ed. London and the Life of Literature in Late Victorian England: the Diary of George Gissing, Novelist. Brighton: Harvester Press, 1978, p. 237. Ancient sources[edit] Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, Libri XV-XXV (books 15–25). See J.C. Rolfe, Ammianus Marcellinus, Harvard University Press, Cambridge Mass., 1935/1985. 3 Volumes. Ammianus Marcellinus, The Roman History of Ammianus Marcellinus During the Reigns of the Emperors Constantius, Julian, Jovianus, Valentinian, and Valens. Translated by C. D. Yonge. Full text at Internet Archive at The Roman History of Ammianus Marcellinus During the Reigns of the Emperors Constantius, Julian, Jovianus, Valentinian, and Valens. Gutenberg etext# 28587. Julian the emperor: containing Gregory Nazianzen's two Invectives and Libanius' Monody : with Julian's extant theosophical works., Translated by C.W. King. George Bell and Sons, London, 1888. At the Internet Archive Claudius Mamertinus, "Gratiarum actio Mamertini de consulato suo Iuliano Imperatori", Panegyrici Latini, panegyric delivered in Constantinople in 362, also as a speech of thanks at his assumption of the office of consul of that year Gregory Nazianzen, Orations, "First Invective Against Julian", "Second Invective Against Julian". Both transl. C.W. King, 1888. Libanius, Monody — Funeral Oration for Julian the Apostate. Transl. C.W. King, 1888. Modern sources[edit] Athanassiadi, Polymnia (1992) [1981]. Julian: An Intellectual Biography. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-07763-X. Bowersock, G.W. (1978). Julian the Apostate. London: Duckworth. ISBN 0-7156-1262-X. Browning, Robert (1975). The Emperor Julian. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-77029-2. Dodgeon, Michael H. & Samuel N.C. Lieu, The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars AD 226–363, Routledge, London, 1991. ISBN 0-203-42534-0 Drinkwater, John F., The Alamanni and Rome 213–496 (Caracalla to Clovis), OUP Oxford 2007. ISBN 0-19-929568-9 Lascaratos, John and Dionysios Voros. 2000 Fatal Wounding of the Byzantine Emperor Julian the Apostate (361–363 A.D.): Approach to the Contribution of Ancient Surgery. World Journal of Surgery 24: 615–619 Murdoch, Adrian. The Last Pagan: Julian the Apostate and the Death of the Ancient World, Stroud, 2005, ISBN 0-7509-4048-4 Phang, Sara E.; Spence, Iain; Kelly, Douglas; Londey, Peter, eds. (2016). Conflict in Ancient Greece and Rome: The Definitive Political, Social, and Military Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. Potter, David S. The Roman Empire at Bay AD 180–395, Routledge, New York, 2004. ISBN 0-415-10058-5 Ridley, R.T., "Notes on Julian's Persian Expedition (363)", Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, Vol. 22, No. 2, 1973, pp. 317–330 Roberts, Walter E. & DiMaio, Michael (2002), "Julian the Apostate (360–363 A.D.)", De Imperatoribus Romanis Smith, Rowland. Julian's gods: religion and philosophy in the thought and action of Julian the Apostate, London, 1995. ISBN 0-415-03487-6 Veyne, Paul. L'Empire Gréco-Romain. Seuil, Paris, 2005. ISBN 2-02-057798-4 Wiemer, Hans-Ulrich & Stefan Rebenich, eds. (2020). A Companion to Julian the Apostate. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-41456-3. Further reading[edit] Gardner, Alice, Julian Philosopher and Emperor and the Last Struggle of Paganism Against Christianity, G.P. Putnam's Son, London, 1895. ISBN 0-404-58262-1 / ISBN 978-0-404-58262-3. Downloadable at Julian, philosopher and emperor. Hunt, David. "Julian". In The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 13 (Averil Cameron & Peter Garnsey editors). CUP, Cambridge, 1998. ISBN 0-521-30200-5 Kettenhofen, Erich (2009). "JULIAN". JULIAN – Encyclopaedia Iranica. Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. XV, Facs. 3. pp. 242–247. Lenski, Noel Emmanuel Failure of Empire: Valens and the Roman State in the Fourth Century AD University of California Press: London, 2003 Lieu, Samuel N.C. & Dominic Montserrat: editors, From Constantine to Julian: A Source History Routledge: New York, 1996. ISBN 0-203-42205-8 Neander, August, The Emperor Julian and His Generation, An Historical Picture, translated by G.V. Cox, John W. Parker, London, 1859. ISBN 0-217-34765-7 / ISBN 9780217347655. Downloadable at The Emperor Julian and his generation. Rendall, Gerald Henry, The Emperor Julian: Paganism and Christianity with Genealogical, Chronological and Bibliographical Appendices, George Bell and Sons, London, 1879. ISBN 1-152-51929-8 / ISBN 9781152519299. Downloadable at The Emperor Julian. Rohrbacher, David. Historians of Late Antiquity. Routledge: New York, 2002. ISBN 0-415-20459-3 Rosen, Klaus. Julian. Kaiser, Gott und Christenhasser. Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart, 2006. External links[edit] Wikisource has original works written by or about: Julian Wikiquote has quotations related to: Julian (emperor) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Flavius Claudius Julianus. Works by Julian at Project Gutenberg Laws of Julian. Two laws by Constantius II, while Julian was Caesar. Imperial Laws and Letters Involving Religion, some of which are by Julian relating to Christianity. A 4th century chalcedony portrait of Julian, Saint Petersburg, The State Hermitage Museum. Julian's Spin Doctor: The Persian Mutiny, Article by Adam J. Bravo. Rowland Smith's "Julian's Gods", Review by Thomas Banchich. Excerpt from by Adrian Murdoch, The Last Pagan at the California Literary Review. The Julian Society. A society of pagans who admire Julian. The Emperor Julian, Paganism and Christianity, by Gerald Henry Rendall Julian the Apostate why he was important, and his place in world history, by Andrew Selkirk Letters in Epistolographi graeci, R. Hercher (ed.), Parisiis, editore Ambrosio Firmin Didot, 1873, pp. 337–391. Entry in The Encyclopedia of Ancient History, doi:10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah12217 Julian (emperor) Constantinian dynasty Born: 331 Died: 26 June 363 Regnal titles Preceded by Constantius II Roman emperor 361–363 Succeeded by Jovian Political offices Preceded by Arbitio Lollianus Mavortius Consul of the Roman Empire 356–357 with Constantius II Succeeded by Neratius Cerealis Censorius Datianus Preceded by Flavius Eusebius Flavius Hypatius Consul of the Roman Empire 360 with Constantius II Succeeded by Taurus Florentius Preceded by Claudius Mamertinus Nevitta Consul of the Roman Empire 363 with Flavius Sallustius Succeeded by Jovian Varronianus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–284 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic Emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius Chlorus Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daia (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo the Thracian Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian the Great Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. v t e Platonists Academic Old Plato Aristotle Eudoxus Philip of Opus Aristonymus Coriscus and Erastus of Scepsis Demetrius of Amphipolis Euaeon of Lampsacus Heraclides and Python of Aenus Hestiaeus of Perinthus Lastheneia of Mantinea Timolaus of Cyzicus Speusippus Axiothea of Phlius Heraclides Ponticus Menedemus of Pyrrha Xenocrates Crantor Polemon Crates of Athens Skeptic Middle Arcesilaus Diocles of Cnidus Lacydes Telecles and Evander Hegesinus New Carneades Hagnon of Tarsus Metrodorus of Stratonicea Clitomachus Charmadas Aeschines of Neapolis Philo of Larissa Cicero Dio of Alexandria Middle Platonist Antiochus Philo of Alexandria Plutarch Justin Martyr Gaius Albinus Alcinous Apuleius Atticus Maximus of Tyre Numenius of Apamea Longinus Clement of Alexandria Origen the Pagan Calcidius Neoplatonist Ancient Ammonius Saccas Plotinus Disciples Origen Amelius Porphyry Iamblichus Sopater Eustathius of Cappadocia Sosipatra Aedesius Dexippus Chrysanthius Theodorus of Asine Julian Sallustius Maximus of Ephesus Eusebius of Myndus Priscus of Epirus Antoninus Gregory of Nyssa Hypatia Augustine Macrobius Academy Plutarch of Athens Asclepigenia Hierocles Syrianus Hermias Aedesia Proclus Ammonius Hermiae Asclepiodotus Hegias Zenodotus Marinus Agapius Isidore Damascius Simplicius Priscian Medieval Boethius John Philoponus Olympiodorus Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite John Scotus Eriugena Islamic Golden Age Al-Farabi Anselm Peter Abelard Chartres Bernard Gilbert Thierry Henry of Ghent Bonaventure Theodoric of Freiberg Meister Eckhart Berthold of Moosburg Paul of Venice Modern Renaissance Florentine Academy Plethon Marsilio Ficino Cristoforo Landino Giovanni Pico della Mirandola Cambridge Ralph Cudworth Henry More Anne Conway Petrus Ramus Giordano Bruno Blaise Pascal Emanuel Swedenborg German idealist Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Christian Wolff Moses Mendelssohn Immanuel Kant Johann Gottlieb Fichte Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling Arthur Schopenhauer G. W. F. Hegel Hermann Lotze Otto Weininger Thomas Taylor Ralph Waldo Emerson Josiah Royce Søren Kierkegaard Henri Bergson Aleksei Losev Contemporary Analytic Gottlob Frege G. E. Moore Kurt Gödel Alonzo Church Roderick Chisholm Michael Dummett W. V. O. Quine David Kaplan Saul Kripke Alvin Plantinga Peter van Inwagen Nicholas Wolterstorff Crispin Wright Edward N. Zalta Continental Edmund Husserl Roman Ingarden Leo Strauss Miscellaneous Philip K. Dick Joseph Ratzinger Bernard Bolzano Authority control BIBSYS: 90137776 BNE: XX1051260 BNF: cb121721673 (data) CANTIC: a10878099 CiNii: DA0131112X GND: 118558684 ISNI: 0000 0001 2134 5428 LCCN: n79067875 LNB: 000105493 NDL: 00620907 NKC: jn19990003922 NLA: 35799227 NLG: 19252 NLI: 000605003 NSK: 000294965 NTA: 06766668X RERO: 02-A000095969 SELIBR: 65361 SNAC: w6vf0182 SUDOC: 028722620 Trove: 1092646 VcBA: 495/19103 VIAF: 57406701 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79067875 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Julian_(emperor)&oldid=995636849" Categories: Julian (emperor) 331 births 363 deaths 4th-century Byzantine emperors 4th-century Roman emperors 4th-century writers Byzantine-era pagans Claudii Constantinian dynasty Converts to pagan religions from Christianity Critics of Christianity Critics of the Catholic Church Flavii Greek-language writers Imperial Roman consuls Julian's Persian War Neoplatonists Pagan restorations People of the Roman–Sasanian Wars Persecution of Christians Roman emperors killed in battle Roman philhellenes Roman-era students in Athens Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text Articles containing Greek-language text Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2016 Articles with unsourced statements from September 2013 Articles needing additional references from June 2019 All articles needing additional references Commons link is locally defined Articles with Project Gutenberg links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Kiswahili Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lietuvių La .lojban. 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en-wikipedia-org-1679	----	Philostratus - Wikipedia Philostratus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Lucius Flavius Philostratus, Greek sophist of Roman imperial period For other people named Philostratus, see Philostratus (disambiguation). Philostratus or Lucius Flavius Philostratus (/fɪˈlɒstrətəs/; Greek: Φλάβιος Φιλόστρατος;[1] c. 170 – 247/250 AD), called "the Athenian", was a Greek sophist of the Roman imperial period. His father was a minor sophist of the same name. He was born probably around 170, and is said by the Suda to have been living in the reign of emperor Philip the Arab (244–249). His death possibly occurred in Tyre c. 250 AD. Contents 1 Name and identity 2 Works attributed to Philostratus 3 Translations 4 Notes 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links Name and identity[edit] Some ambiguity surrounds his name. The praenomen Flavius is given in The Lives of the Sophists and Tzetzes. Eunapius and Synesius call him a Lemnian; Photius a Tyrian; his letters refer to him as an Athenian. It is probable that he was born in Lemnos, studied and taught at Athens, and then settled in Rome (where he would naturally be called Atheniensis) as a member of the learned circle with which empress Julia Domna surrounded herself. Works attributed to Philostratus[edit] Historians agree that Philostratus authored at least five works: Life of Apollonius of Tyana (Τὰ ἐς τὸν Τυανέα Ἀπολλώνιον; Latin: Vita Apollonii), Lives of the Sophists (Βίοι Σοφιστῶν), Gymnasticus (Γυμναστικός), Heroicus (Ἡρωικός) and Epistolae (Ἐπιστολαί). Another work, Imagines (Εἰκόνες), is usually assigned to his son-in-law Philostratus of Lemnos. Heroicus (On Heroes, 213–214 AD) is in the form of a dialogue between a Phoenician traveler and a vine-tender or groundskeeper (ἀμπελουργός ampelourgos), regarding Protesilaus (or "Protosilaos"), the first Achaean warrior to be killed at the siege of Troy, as described in The Iliad. The dialogue extends into a discussion and critique of Homer's presentation of heroes and gods, based on the greater authority of the dead Protosileus, who lives after death and communicates with the ampelourgos. Heroicus includes Achilles' "Ode to Echo".[2] Life of Apollonius of Tyana, written between 217 and 238 AD, tells the story of Apollonius of Tyana (c. 40 – c. 120 AD), a Pythagorean philosopher and teacher. Philostratus wrote the book for Julia Domna, wife of Septimius Severus and mother of Caracalla. The book was completed after her death. Lives of the Sophists, written between 231 and 237 AD, is a semi-biographical history of the Greek sophists. The book is dedicated to a consul Antonius Gordianus, perhaps one of the two Gordians who were killed in 238. The work is divided into two parts: the first dealing with the ancient Sophists, e.g. Gorgias, the second with the later school, e.g. Herodes Atticus. The Lives are not in the true sense biographical, but rather picturesque impressions of leading representatives of an attitude of mind full of curiosity, alert and versatile, but lacking scientific method, preferring the external excellence of style and manner to the solid achievements of serious writing. The philosopher, as he says, investigates truth; the sophist embellishes it, and takes it for granted. Gymnasticus, written after 220 AD, contains accounts concerning the Olympic games and athletic contests in general. Epistolae, or Love Letters, breathe the spirit of the New Comedy and the Alexandrine poets; portions of Letter 33 are almost literally translated in Ben Jonson's Song to Celia, "Drink to Me Only with Thine Eyes." The letters are mainly of an erotic character. Their publication date is unknown. Internal evidence confirms that the authors of Life of Apollonius and Lives of the Sophists are one and the same.[citation needed] The Lives of the Sophists was to have an enormous impact upon later writers, particularly Neoplatonists.[citation needed] Translations[edit] Alciphron, Aelian, and Philostratus, The Letters. Translated by A. R. Benner, F. H. Fobes. 1949. Loeb Classical Library. ISBN 978-0-674-99421-8 Philostratus, Lives of the Sophists. Eunapius, Lives of the Philosophers and Sophists. Translated by Wilmer C. Wright. 1921. Loeb Classical Library. ISBN 978-0-674-99149-1 Philostratus, Apollonius of Tyana. 3 volumes. Translated by Christopher P. Jones. 2005-6. Loeb Classical Library. ISBN 978-0-674-99613-7, ISBN 978-0-674-99614-4, and ISBN 978-0-674-99617-5 Philostratus, Heroicus; Gymnasticus; Discourses 1 and 2. Edited and translated by Jeffrey Rusten and Jason König. Loeb Classical Library. (Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England, 2014). Philostratos, Leben der Sophisten. Greek and German by Kai Brodersen. Wiesbaden: Marix 2014, ISBN 978-3-86539-368-5 Philostratos, Sport in der Antike (Peri Gymnastikes). Greek and German by Kai Brodersen. Wiesbaden: Marix, 2015, ISBN 978-3-7374-0961-2. Notes[edit] ^ Flavius Philostratus, Phlauiu Philostratu Bioi sophistōn, Mohr, 1838, p. xxv. ^ Sophia Papaioannou, Redesigning Achilles: 'Recycling' the Epic Cycle in the 'Little Iliad' (Ovid, Metamorphoses 12.1-13.622). Berlin/New York. Paul, George M. (1982) - 2007 Page 153 "Nagy's article comments on an interesting but little known literary reception of Achilles, namely his representation as a lyric poet and lyre-player, singing a song to Echo (a code name for the Muse) in the company of Helen of Troy. ... and the two heroes, now souls distanced from their epic lives/roles, have become bards who sing of their own deeds. Cf. Maclean and Aitken above for a translation of the Heroicus, including Achilles' 'Ode to Echo'." References[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Philostratus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 445. Further reading[edit] Aitken, Ellen Bradshaw, and Jennifer Kay Berenson MacLean, eds. 2004. Philostratus’s “Heroikos”: Religion and Cultural Identity in the Third Century C.E. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature. Bowie, Ewen L., and Jaś Elsner, eds. 2009. Philostratus. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Bryson, Norman. 1994. "Philostratus and the Imaginary Museum." In Art and Text in Ancient Greek Culture. Edited by Simon Goldhill and Robin Osborne, 255–283. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Elsner, Jaś. 2009. "Beyond Compare: Pagan Saint and Christian God in Late Antiquity." Critical Inquiry 35:655–683. Eshleman, Kendra Joy. 2008. "Defining the Circle of Sophists: Philostratus and the Construction of the Second Sophistic." Classical Philology 103:395–413. Demoen, K., and Danny Praet, eds. 2009. Theios Sophistes: Essays on Flavius Philostratus’ “Vita Apollonii.” Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. Kemezis, Adam M. 2014. Greek Narratives of the Roman Empire under the Severans: Cassius Dio, Philostratus and Herodian. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. König, Jason. 2014. "Images of Elite Communities in Philostratus: Re-Reading the Preface to the “Lives of the Sophists.”" In Roman Rule in Greek and Latin Writing: Double Vision. Edited by Jesper Majbom Madsen and Roger Rees, 246–270. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. Potter, David. 2011. The Victor’s Crown: A History of Ancient Sport from Homer to Byzantium. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Walker, Andrew. 1992. "Eros and the Eye in the Love-Letters of Philostratus." Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society 38:132–148. External links[edit] Wikisource has original works written by or about: Philostratus Wikiquote has quotations related to: Philostratus Library resources about Philostratus Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Philostratus Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Livius, Philostratus Updates the subsequent article with some ninety years of more recent research. Online Text: Philostratus, On Heroes (Heroicus) translated by Ellen Bradshaw Aitken and Jennifer K. Berenson Maclean. Online Text: Philostratus, Life of Apollonius of Tyana translated by F. C. Conybeare Flavius Philostratus entry in historical sourcebook with fresh translations of excerpts from the Life of Apollonius by Mahlon H. Smith Imagines in National Széchényi Library, Budapest Works by or about Philostratus at Internet Archive Works by Philostratus at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Flavii Philostrati opera, C. L. Kayser (edit.), 2 voll., Lipsiae, in aedibus B. G. Teubneri, 1870-71: Life of Apollonius: vol. 1 pp. 1-344. Lives of the sophists: vol. 2 pp. 1-127. Heroicus: vol. 2 pp. 128-219. Epistolae: vol. 2 pp. 225-260. Gymnasticus: vol. 2 pp. 261-293. Philostratorum et Callistrati opera, Eunapii vitae sophistarum, Himerii sophistae declamationes, A. Westermann, Jo. Fr. Boissoade, Fr. Dübner (ed.), Parisiis, editore Ambrosio Firmin Didot, 1849, pp. 1-194 (Life of Apollonius), pp. 195-265 (Lives of the Sophists), pp. 267-319 (Heroicus), pp. 320-338 (Epistolae). v t e Platonists Academic Old Plato Aristotle Eudoxus Philip of Opus Aristonymus Coriscus and Erastus of Scepsis Demetrius of Amphipolis Euaeon of Lampsacus Heraclides and Python of Aenus Hestiaeus of Perinthus Lastheneia of Mantinea Timolaus of Cyzicus Speusippus Axiothea of Phlius Heraclides Ponticus Menedemus of Pyrrha Xenocrates Crantor Polemon Crates of Athens Skeptic Middle Arcesilaus Diocles of Cnidus Lacydes Telecles and Evander Hegesinus New Carneades Hagnon of Tarsus Metrodorus of Stratonicea Clitomachus Charmadas Aeschines of Neapolis Philo of Larissa Cicero Dio of Alexandria Middle Platonist Antiochus Philo of Alexandria Plutarch Justin Martyr Gaius Albinus Alcinous Apuleius Atticus Maximus of Tyre Numenius of Apamea Longinus Clement of Alexandria Origen the Pagan Calcidius Neoplatonist Ancient Ammonius Saccas Plotinus Disciples Origen Amelius Porphyry Iamblichus Sopater Eustathius of Cappadocia Sosipatra Aedesius Dexippus Chrysanthius Theodorus of Asine Julian Sallustius Maximus of Ephesus Eusebius of Myndus Priscus of Epirus Antoninus Gregory of Nyssa Hypatia Augustine Macrobius Academy Plutarch of Athens Asclepigenia Hierocles Syrianus Hermias Aedesia Proclus Ammonius Hermiae Asclepiodotus Hegias Zenodotus Marinus Agapius Isidore Damascius Simplicius Priscian Medieval Boethius John Philoponus Olympiodorus Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite John Scotus Eriugena Islamic Golden Age Al-Farabi Anselm Peter Abelard Chartres Bernard Gilbert Thierry Henry of Ghent Bonaventure Theodoric of Freiberg Meister Eckhart Berthold of Moosburg Paul of Venice Modern Renaissance Florentine Academy Plethon Marsilio Ficino Cristoforo Landino Giovanni Pico della Mirandola Cambridge Ralph Cudworth Henry More Anne Conway Petrus Ramus Giordano Bruno Blaise Pascal Emanuel Swedenborg German idealist Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Christian Wolff Moses Mendelssohn Immanuel Kant Johann Gottlieb Fichte Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling Arthur Schopenhauer G. W. F. Hegel Hermann Lotze Otto Weininger Thomas Taylor Ralph Waldo Emerson Josiah Royce Søren Kierkegaard Henri Bergson Aleksei Losev Contemporary Analytic Gottlob Frege G. E. Moore Kurt Gödel Alonzo Church Roderick Chisholm Michael Dummett W. V. O. Quine David Kaplan Saul Kripke Alvin Plantinga Peter van Inwagen Nicholas Wolterstorff Crispin Wright Edward N. Zalta Continental Edmund Husserl Roman Ingarden Leo Strauss Miscellaneous Philip K. Dick Joseph Ratzinger Bernard Bolzano Authority control BIBSYS: 95004118 BNE: XX879327 BNF: cb13092089h (data) CANTIC: a11741375 GND: 118594044 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\058110 ISNI: 0000 0001 3927 7072 LCCN: n50012277 NKC: skuk0002440 NLK: KAC201902689 NTA: 068574592 SELIBR: 258126 SUDOC: 030324149 VcBA: 495/52674 VIAF: 250889454 WorldCat Identities: viaf-250889454 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Philostratus&oldid=969488799" Categories: Roman-era Sophists Roman-era philosophers in Athens Roman-era Athenian rhetoricians 2nd-century Romans 3rd-century Romans 2nd-century Greek people 3rd-century Greek people People from Lemnos 170s births 250s deaths Flavii Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Latin-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2007 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikiquote Wikisource Languages العربية Български Brezhoneg Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Mirandés Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 25 July 2020, at 18:59 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1686	----	Heiric of Auxerre - Wikipedia Heiric of Auxerre From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in French. (May 2009) Click [show] for important translation instructions. View a machine-translated version of the French article. Machine translation like DeepL or Google Translate is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Wikipedia. Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article. You must provide copyright attribution in the edit summary accompanying your translation by providing an interlanguage link to the source of your translation. A model attribution edit summary Content in this edit is translated from the existing French Wikipedia article at [[:fr:Heiric d'Auxerre]]; see its history for attribution. You should also add the template {{Translated|fr|Heiric d'Auxerre}} to the talk page. For more guidance, see Wikipedia:Translation. Heiric of Auxerre[1] (841–876) was a French Benedictine theologian and writer. He was an oblate of the monastery of St. Germanus of Auxerre from a young age. He studied with Servatus Lupus and Haymo of Auxerre. His own students included Remigius of Auxerre and Hucbald. His Miracula sancti Germani was a verse life of St. Germanus. Other works include his Collectaeum,[2] a homiliary, and glosses on the Categoriae decem. Notes[edit] ^ Heiricus Autissiodorensis or Altissiodorensis, Eric of Auxerre. ^ ... a florilegium consisting mainly of extracts from classical authors, particularly Valerius Maximus, Rosamond McKitterick, The Frankish Kingdoms under the Carolingians (1983), p. 290. External links[edit] Friedrich Wilhelm Bautz (1990). "Heiric of Auxerre". In Bautz, Friedrich Wilhelm (ed.). Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon (BBKL) (in German). 2. Hamm: Bautz. col. 689. ISBN 3-88309-032-8. Chapter on the School of Auxerre from The History of Philosophy by William Turner, 1903. Heiric of Auxerre's labyrinth Authority control BIBSYS: 90668480 BNF: cb12176434x (data) CiNii: DA06761214 GND: 119215888 ISNI: 0000 0000 7978 2156 LCCN: nr91031758 NKC: jn20031125012 NLP: A27052230 NTA: 097190799 RERO: 02-A000079319 SELIBR: 190387 SUDOC: 030325749 VcBA: 495/25317 VIAF: 77120804 WorldCat Identities: lccn-nr91031758 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Heiric_of_Auxerre&oldid=845090256" Categories: 841 births 876 deaths 9th-century Latin writers Writers of the Carolingian Empire French Benedictines Medieval French theologians 9th-century people from West Francia Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from July 2013 Articles to be expanded from May 2009 All articles to be expanded Articles needing translation from French Wikipedia CS1 German-language sources (de) Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLP identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Asturianu Català Deutsch Español Français Italiano Magyar مصرى Nederlands Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 9 June 2018, at 08:58 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1698	----	Ennius - Wikipedia Ennius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman writer Ennius Double herm with the portrait of the Roman poets Virgil or Ennius Born Quintus Ennius c. 239 BC Rudiae, Roman Republic Died c. 169 BC Occupation Poet Nationality Roman Genre Epic poetry Quintus Ennius (Latin pronunciation: [ˈkᶣiːnt̪ʊs̺ ˈɛnːijʊs̺]; c. 239 – c. 169 BC) was a writer and poet who lived during the Roman Republic. He is often considered the father of Roman poetry. He was born in Rudiae,[1] formerly a small town located near modern Lecce in the heel of Italy (ancient Calabria, today Salento), and could speak Oscan as well as Latin and Greek. Although only fragments of his works survive, his influence in Latin literature was significant, particularly in his use of Greek literary models. Contents 1 Biography 2 Literature 2.1 The Annales 2.2 Minor works 3 Editions 4 See also 5 Footnotes 5.1 Bibliography 6 Further reading 7 External links Biography[edit] Very little is reliably known about the life of Ennius. His contemporaries hardly mentioned him and much that is related about him could have been embroidered from references to himself in his now fragmentary writings.[2] Some lines of the Annales, as well as ancient testimonies, for example, suggest that Ennius opened his epic with a recollection of a dream in which the ancient epic-writer Homer informed him that his spirit had been reborn into Ennius.[3] It is true that the doctrine of the transmigration of souls once flourished in the areas of Italy settled by Greeks, but the statement might have been no more than a literary flourish. Ennius seems to have been given to making large claims, as in the report by Maurus Servius Honoratus that he claimed descent from Messapus, the legendary king of his native district.[4] The partly Hellenised city of Rudiae, his place of birth, was certainly in the area settled by the Messapians. And this, he used to say, according to Aulus Gellius, had endowed him with a triple linguistic and cultural heritage, fancifully described as "three hearts… Greek, Oscan and Latin”.[5] The public career of Ennius first really emerges in middle life, when he was serving in the army with the rank of centurion during the Second Punic War. While in Sardinia in the year 204 BC, he is said to have attracted the attention of Cato the Elder and was taken by him to Rome. There he taught Greek and adapted Greek plays for a livelihood, and by his poetical compositions gained the friendship of some of the greatest men in Rome whose achievements he praised. Amongst these were Scipio Africanus and Fulvius Nobilior, whom he accompanied on his Aetolian campaign (189). Afterwards he made the capture of Ambracia, at which he was present, the subject of a play and of an episode in the Annales. It was through the influence of Nobilior's son Quintus that Ennius subsequently obtained Roman citizenship. But he himself lived plainly and simply in the literary quarter on the Aventine Hill with the poet Caecilius Statius, a fellow adapter of Greek plays. At about the age of 70 Ennius died, immediately after producing his tragedy Thyestes. In the last book of his epic poem, in which he seems to have given various details of his personal history, he mentioned that he was in his 67th year at the date of its composition. He compared himself, in contemplation of the close of the great work of his life, to a gallant horse which, after having often won the prize at the Olympic Games, obtained his rest when weary with age. A similar feeling of pride at the completion of a great career is expressed in the memorial lines which he composed to be placed under his bust after death: “Let no one weep for me, or celebrate my funeral with mourning; for I still live, as I pass to and fro through the mouths of men.”[6] Literature[edit] Ennius continued the nascent literary tradition by writing plays in Greek and Roman style (praetextae and palliatae), as well as his most famous work, a historic epic in hexameters called the Annales. Other minor works include the Epicharmus, Epigrammata, the Euhemerus, the Hedyphagetica, Praecepta/Protrepticus, Saturae (or Satires), Scipio, and Sota.[7] The Annales[edit] The Annales was an epic poem in fifteen books, later expanded to eighteen, covering Roman history from the fall of Troy in 1184 BC down to the censorship of Cato the Elder in 184 BC. It was the first Latin poem to adopt the dactylic hexameter metre used in Greek epic and didactic poetry,[8] leading it to become the standard metre for these genres in Latin poetry. The Annals became a school text for Roman schoolchildren, eventually supplanted by Virgil's Aeneid. About 600 lines survive. A copy of the work is among the Latin rolls of the Herculaneum library. Minor works[edit] The Epicharmus was inspired by the philosophical hypotheses developed by the Sicilian poet and philosopher Epicharmus of Kos, after which Ennius's work took its name.[9][10] In the Epicharmus, the poet describes a dream he had in which he died and was transported to some place of heavenly enlightenment. Here, he met Epicharmus, who explained the nature of the gods and taught Ennius the physics of the universe.[11] The Euhemerus presented a theological doctrine based on the ideas Greek of Euhemerus of Messene, who argued that the gods of Olympus were not supernatural powers that interference in the lives of humans, but rather heroes of old who after death were eventually regarded as deities due to their valor, bravery, or cultural impact (this belief is now known as euhemerism). Both Cicero and Lactantius write that the Euhemerus was a "translat[ion] and a recount[ing]" of Euhemerus's original work the Sacred History, but it is unclear if this means Ennius simply translated the original from Greek into Latin, or added in his own elements. Most of what is preserved of this work comes to us from Lactantius, and these snippets suggest that the Euhemerus was a prose text.[12] The Hedyphagetica took much of its substance from the gastronomical epic of Archestratus of Gela. The extant portions of Ennius's poem discuss where a reader might find the best type of fish. Most of the fragments, replete with unique terms for fish and numerous place names, are corrupt or damaged. The Hedyphagetica is written in hexameters, but differs from the Annales in regards to "metrical practices"; this difference is largely due to each works' distinct subject matter.[13] The titles Praecepta and Protrepticus were likely used to refer to the same (possibly exhortatory) work. However, given this work's almost non-existent nature (only the word pannibus—an "unusual" form of the word pannis, meaning "rags"—is preserved in the work of the Latin grammarian Charisius), this position is extremely difficult to verify.[7][14] The Saturae is a collection of about thirty lines from satirical poems—making it the first extant instance of Roman satire.[7] These lines are written in a variety of poetic metres.[7][15] The poems in this collection "were mostly concerned with practical wisdom, often driving home a lesson with the help of a fable."[9] Ennius's Scipio was a work (possibly a panegyric poem) that apparently celebrated the life and deeds of Scipio Africanus. Hardly anything remains of this work, and what is preserved is embedded in the works of others. Unfortunately, "no quotation of [Scipio] supplies a context".[16] Some have proposed that the work was written before the Annales, and others have said that the work was written after Scipio's 201 BC triumph that followed the Battle of Zama (202 BC).[16] The Sota was a poem, potentially of some length, named after the Greek poet Sotades. The work, which followed a metre established by Sotades known as the "Sotadeus", concerned itself with a number of disparate topics and ideas.[17] Editions[edit] Quinto Ennio. Le opere minori, Vol. I. Praecepta, Protrepticus, Saturae, Scipio, Sota. Ed., tr., comm. Alessandro Russo. Pisa: Edizioni ETS, 2007 (Testi e studi di cultura classica, 40). Warmington, E. H. (1935). Ennius (Q. Ennius). Remains of Old Latin. Edited by Eric Herbert Warmington. Vol. 2: Ennius and Caecilius. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal Latin literature List of ancient Romans Prosody (Latin) Footnotes[edit] ^ Smith (1852), p. 359. "Rudiae is celebrated as the birthplace of Ennius." ^ E. Badian, “Ennius and his Friends” in Ennius, Fondation Hardt, Geneva 1972, pp.149-99 ^ Aicher (1989), pp. 227–32. ^ Commentary on the Aeneid, vii. 691 ^ Noctes Atticae 17.17.1 ^ Most of this section is drawn from the 1911 edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica ^ a b c d La Barbera (2014). ^ "FJCL Latin Literature Study Guide" (PDF). Florida Junior Classical League. Retrieved 2 March 2014. ^ a b Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica (2016). ^ Ennius, Goldberg, & Manuwald (2018), pp. 220–21. ^ Merry (1891), p. 65. ^ Ennius, Goldberg, & Manuwald (2018), pp. 238–40. ^ Ennius, Goldberg, & Manuwald (2018), pp. 260–61. ^ Ennius, Goldberg, & Manuwald (2018), pp. 268–69. ^ Ennius, Goldberg, & Manuwald (2018), pp. 270–71. ^ a b Ennius, Goldberg, & Manuwald (2018), pp. 286–87. ^ Ennius, Goldberg, & Manuwald (2018), pp. 296–97. Bibliography[edit] Aicher, Peter (Summer 1989). "Ennius' Dream of Homer". The American Journal of Philology. 110 (2): 227–232. doi:10.2307/295173. JSTOR 295173. Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica (February 10, 2016). "Ennius". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 1, 2018.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) Ennius (2018). Goldberg, Sander M.; Manuwald, Gesine (eds.). Fragmentary Republican Latin. Volume II: Ennius, Dramatic Fragments. Minor Works. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. La Barbera, Sandro (August 26, 2014). "Ennius". Oxford Bibliographies. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/obo/9780195389661-0172. Retrieved August 1, 2018. Merry, William Walter, ed. (1891). Selected Fragments of Roman Poetry: From the Earliest Times of the Republic to the Augustan Age. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. Smith, William (1852). "Rudiae". A Smaller Classical Dictionary. London, UK: John Murray. Retrieved August 1, 2018. Further reading[edit] Bettini, M. (1979). Studi e note su Ennio. Pisa: Giardini. Brooks, R. A. (1981). Ennius and Roman Tragedy. New York: Arno Press. ISBN 0-405-14030-4. Elliott, J. (2009). "Ennius' 'Cunctator' and the History of a Gerund in the Roman Historiographical Tradition". The Classical Quarterly. 59 (2): 532–42. doi:10.1017/S0009838809990164. Elliott, J. (2010). "Ennius as Universal Historian: The Case of the Annales." Historiae Mundi: Studies in Universal History. Ed. Peter Liddel and Andrew Fear. London: Bloomsbury Academic, 148–161. Evans, R.L.S. (1999). "Ennius". In Briggs, Ward (ed.). Ancient Roman Writers. Dictionary of Literary Biography. 211. Fisher, J. (2014). The 'Annals' of Quintus Ennius and the Italic Tradition. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Fitzgerald, W., and Emily Gowers, eds. (2007). Ennius Perennis. The Annals and Beyond. Proceedings of the Cambridge Philolological Society, Supplementary Volume 31. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Goldberg, S. M. (1995). Epic in Republican Rome. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509372-0. Goldberg, Sander M. (1989). "Poetry, Politics, and Ennius". Transactions of the American Philological Association. 119: 247–261. doi:10.2307/284274. JSTOR 284274. Goldschmidt, N. (2012). "Absent Presence: Pater Ennius in Renaissance Europe". Classical Receptions Journal. 4: 1–19. doi:10.1093/crj/clr011. Goldschmidt, Nora (2013). "Shaggy Crowns". doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199681297.001.0001. ISBN 9780199681297. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Jocelyn, H. D. Ennius (Q. Ennius). (1967). The Tragedies of Ennius: The Fragments. Edited by Henry David Jocelyn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Jocelyn, Henry David (1972). "The Poems of Quintus Ennius". Recht, Religion, Sprache und Literatur (Bis zum Ende des 2. Jahrhunderts v. CHR.). doi:10.1515/9783110836417-036. ISBN 9783110836417. Morgan, Llewelyn (2014). "A Metrical Scandal in Ennius". The Classical Quarterly. 64: 152–159. doi:10.1017/S0009838813000608. Sciarrino, Enrica (2006). "The Introduction of Epic in Rome: Cultural Thefts and Social Contests". Arethusa. 39 (3): 449–469. doi:10.1353/are.2006.0029. Skutsch, O. (1968). Studia Enniana. London: Athlone. Ennius, Quintus (1985). Skutsch, Otto (ed.). The Annals of Quintus Ennius. p. 70. doi:10.1093/oseo/instance.00075748. ISBN 9780198144489. External links[edit] Library resources about Ennius Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Ennius Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Quotations related to Ennius at Wikiquote  Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: Ennius Media related to Quintus Ennius at Wikimedia Commons Fragments of Ennius' Annals at The Latin Library; text from Wordsworth (1874), line numbering from Warmington (1935) Ennius' Annales: text and translation of all fragments at attalus.org; adapted from Warmington (1935) Ennius: translation of selected fragments at elfinspell.com; from Specimens of the Poets and Poetry of Greece and Rome by Various Translators (1847) Remains of old latin. Vol. 1: Aennius and Caecilius, E. H. Warmington (a cura di), Cambridge-London, 1935, pagg. 1-465.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Ennius, Quintus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 9 (11th ed.). 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en-wikipedia-org-1705	----	Boethius - Wikipedia Boethius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman senator, magister officiorum and philosopher of the early 6th century For other people named Boethius, see Boethius (disambiguation). Anicius Manlius Severinus Boëthius Boethius teaching his students (initial in a 1385 Italian manuscript of the Consolation of Philosophy) Born c. 477[1] Rome, Kingdom of Odoacer Died 524 (aged about 44) Pavia, Ostrogothic Kingdom Notable work The Consolation of Philosophy Era Medieval philosophy Region Western philosophy School Neoplatonism Main interests problem of universals, theology, music Notable ideas The Wheel of Fortune Influences Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Seneca, Plotinus, Porphyry, Saint Augustine, Proclus Influenced All Medieval philosophy (notably Johannes Scotus Eriugena, Peter Abelard, Anselm of Canterbury,[2] Saint Albert the Great, Saint Thomas Aquinas, Dante Alighieri) Blessed Severinus Boethius Born Rome, Kingdom of Odoacer Died Pavia, Ostrogothic Kingdom Venerated in Roman Catholic Diocese of Pavia Major shrine San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro, Pavia, Italy Feast 23 October (Orthodox Tradition) Influences Augustine of Hippo Influenced Thomas Aquinas Part of a series on Neoplatonism Reconstructed bust believed to represent Plotinus Concepts Theory of Forms Form of the Good Demiurge Henosis Microcosm and macrocosm Nous Arche Logos Hypostasis Works Enneads De Mysteriis Aegyptiorum Liber de Causis The City of God The Consolation of Philosophy De Coelesti Hierarchia De divisione naturae People Plato Ammonius Saccas Plotinus (disciples) Origen Porphyry Iamblichus Julian the Apostate Sallustius Hypatia Plutarch of Athens Macrobius Augustine of Hippo Syrianus Proclus Pseudo-Dionysius Damascius Simplicius of Cilicia Boethius Maximus the Confessor Johannes Scotus Eriugena Al-Farabi Brethren of Purity Solomon ibn Gabirol Isaac the Blind Thierry of Chartres Gemistus Pletho Marsilio Ficino Giovanni Pico della Mirandola Giordano Bruno Cambridge Platonists Thomas Taylor Roman Ingarden Edward N. Zalta Related topics Platonism (in the Renaissance) Platonic Academy Middle Platonism Kabbalah Spirituality Isma'ilism Druze Allegorical interpretations of Plato Plato's unwritten doctrines Neoplatonism and Christianity / Gnosticism  Philosophy portal v t e Anicius Manlius Severinus Boëthius,[a] commonly called Boethius[b] (/boʊˈiːθiəs/; also Boetius /-ʃəs/; c. 477 – 524 AD), was a Roman senator, consul, magister officiorum, and philosopher of the early 6th century. He was born about a year after Odoacer deposed the last Western Roman Emperor and declared himself King of Italy. Boethius entered public service under Ostrogothic King Theodoric the Great, who later imprisoned and executed him in 524 on charges of conspiracy to overthrow him.[4] While jailed, Boethius composed his Consolation of Philosophy, a philosophical treatise on fortune, death, and other issues, which became one of the most popular and influential works of the Middle Ages. As the author of numerous handbooks and translator of Plato and Aristotle, he became the main intermediary between Classical antiquity and following centuries. Contents 1 Early life and rise to power 2 Fall and death 3 Works 3.1 De consolatione philosophiae 3.2 De topicis differentiis 3.3 De arithmetica 3.4 De institutione musica 3.5 Opuscula sacra 4 History of reception 5 Veneration 6 In popular culture 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 9.1 Works available online 9.2 Bibliography 10 External links 10.1 Works 10.2 On Boethius' life and works 10.3 On Boethius' logic and philosophy Early life and rise to power[edit] Boethius was born in Rome to a patrician family around 480,[5] but his exact birth date is unknown.[3] His family, the Anicii, included emperors Petronius Maximus and Olybrius and many consuls.[3] His grandfather, a senator by the same name, was appointed as Praetorian Prefect of Italy. He died in 454, during the palace plot against magister militum Flavius Aetius.[6] Boethius' father, Manlius Boethius, who was appointed consul in 487, died while Boethius was young. Another patrician, Quintus Aurelius Memmius Symmachus, adopted and raised Boethius, instilling in him a love for literature and philosophy.[7] Both Memmius Symmachus and Boethius were fluent in Greek, an increasingly rare skill at the time in the Western Empire; for this reason, some scholars believe that Boethius was educated in the East. According to John Moorhead, the traditional view is that Boethius studied in Athens, based on Cassiodorus' rhetoric describing Boethius' learning in one of his letters, though this does appear to be a misreading of the text for Boethius' simple facility with the works of Greek philosophers.[8] Pierre Courcelle has argued that Boethius studied at Alexandria with the Neoplatonist philosopher Ammonius Hermiae. However, Moorhead observes that the evidence supporting Boethius having studied in Alexandria "is not as strong as it may appear", and adds that Boethius may have been able to acquire his formidable learning without travelling.[9] On account of his erudition, Boethius entered the service of Theodoric the Great at a young age and was already a senator by the age of 25.[10] His earliest documented acts on behalf of the Ostrogothic ruler were to investigate allegations that the paymaster of Theodoric's bodyguards had debased the coins of their pay; to produce a waterclock for Theodoric to give to king Gundobad of the Burgunds; and to recruit a lyre-player to perform for Clovis, king of the Franks.[11] Boethius married his foster-father's daughter, Rusticiana; their children included two boys, Symmachus and Boethius. During Theodoric's reign, Boethius held many important offices, including the consulship in the year 510, but Boethius confesses in his The Consolation of Philosophy that his greatest achievement was to have both his sons made co-consuls for the same year (522),[12] one representing the east and the other the west, and finding himself sitting "between the two consuls and as if it were a military triumph [letting his] largesse fulfill the wildest expectations of the people packed in their seats around [him]".[13] In 522, the same year his two sons were appointed joint consuls, Boethius accepted the appointment to the position of magister officiorum, the head of all the government and court services.[14] Fall and death[edit] Boethius imprisoned, from a 1385 manuscript of the Consolation. In 520 Boethius was working to revitalize the relationship between the Roman See and the Constantinopolitan See; though still both a part of the same Church, disagreements had begun to emerge between them. This may have set in place a course of events that would lead to loss of royal favour.[14] Five hundred years later, this continuing disagreement led to the East–West Schism in 1054, in which communion between the Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Church was broken. In 523 Boethius fell from power. After a period of imprisonment in Pavia for what was deemed a treasonable offence, he was executed in 524.[5][15] The primary sources are in general agreement over the facts of what happened. At a meeting of the Royal Council in Verona, the referendarius Cyprianus accused the ex-consul Caecina Decius Faustus Albinus of treasonous correspondence with Justin I. Boethius leapt to his defense, crying, "The charge of Cyprianus is false, but if Albinus did that, so also have I and the whole senate with one accord done it; it is false, my Lord King."[16] Cyprianus then also accused Boethius of the same crime and produced three men who claimed they had witnessed the crime. Boethius and Basilius were arrested. First the pair were detained in the baptistery of a church, then Boethius was exiled to the Ager Calventianus, a distant country estate, where he was put to death. Not long afterwards Theodoric had Boethius' father-in-law Symmachus put to death, according to Procopius, on the grounds that he and Boethius together were planning a revolution, and confiscated their property.[17] "The basic facts in the case are not in dispute," writes Jeffrey Richards. "What is disputed about this sequence of events is the interpretation that should be put on them."[18] Boethius claims his crime was seeking "the safety of the Senate". He describes the three witnesses against him as dishonorable: Basilius had been dismissed from Royal service for his debts, while Venantius Opilio and Gaudentius had been exiled for fraud.[19] However, other sources depict these men in a far more positive light. For example, Cassiodorus describes Cyprianus and Opilio as "utterly scrupulous, just and loyal" and mentions they are brothers and grandsons of the consul Opilio.[20] Theodoric was feeling threatened by international events. The Acacian Schism had been resolved, and the Nicene Christian aristocrats of his kingdom were seeking to renew their ties with Constantinople. The Catholic Hilderic had become king of the Vandals and had put Theodoric's sister Amalafrida to death,[21] and Arians in the East were being persecuted.[22] Then there was the matter that with his previous ties to Theodahad, Boethius apparently found himself on the wrong side in the succession dispute following the untimely death of Eutharic, Theodoric's announced heir. The method of Boethius' execution varies in the sources. Perhaps he was killed with an axe or a sword, or possibly he was clubbed to death, or possibly hanged.[23] According to another version a rope was attached round his head and tightened till his eyes bulged out; then his skull was cracked. In any case, his remains were entombed in the church of San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro in Pavia, also the resting place of Augustine of Hippo. In Dante's The Divine Comedy, Paradise, Canto X, lines 121–29, the spirit of Boethius is pointed out by Saint Thomas Aquinas: Now if thy mental eye conducted be From light to light, as I resound their frame, The eighth well worth attention thou wilt see. The soul who pointed out the world's dark ways, To all who listen, its deceits unfolding. Beneath in Cieldauro lies the frame Whence it was driven; -from woe and exile, to This fair abode of peace and bliss it came. Past historians have had a hard time accepting a sincere Christian who was also a serious Hellenist.[24] Arnaldo Momigliano argues that "many people have turned to Christianity for consolation. Boethius turned to paganism. His Christianity collapsed—it collapsed so thoroughly that perhaps he did not even notice its disappearance." However, this view does not reflect the majority of current scholarship on the matter.[25] The community that he was part of valued both classical and Christian culture.[26] Works[edit] Narius Manilas Boethius, the father of Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius. Dates of composition[27] Mathematical works De arithmetica (On Arithmetic, c. 500) adapted translation of the Introductionis Arithmeticae by Nicomachus of Gerasa (c. 160 – c. 220). De musica (On Music, c. 510), based on a lost work by Nicomachus of Gerasa and on Ptolemy's Harmonica. Possibly a treatise on geometry, extant only in fragments.[28] Logical Works A) Translations Porphyry's Isagoge In Categorias Aristotelis: Aristotle's Categories De interpretatione vel periermenias: Aristotle's De Interpretatione Interpretatio priorum Analyticorum (two versions): Aristotle's Prior Analytics Interpretatio Topicorum Aristotelis: Aristotle's Topics Interpretatio Elenchorum Sophisticorum Aristotelis: Aristotle's Sophistical Refutations B) Commentaries In Isagogen Porphyrii commenta (two commentaries, the first based on a translation by Marius Victorinus, (c. 504–05); the second based on Boethius' own translation (507–509). In Categorias Aristotelis (c. 509–11) In librum Aristotelis de interpretatione Commentaria minora (not before 513) In librum Aristotelis de interpretatione Commentaria majora (c. 515–16) In Aristotelis Analytica Priora (c. 520–523) Commentaria in Topica Ciceronis (incomplete: the end the sixth book and the seventh are missing) Original Treatises De divisione (515–520?) De syllogismo cathegorico (505–506) Introductio ad syllogismos cathegoricos (c. 523) De hypotheticis syllogismis (516–522) De topicis differentiis (c. 522–23) Opuscula Sacra (Theological Treatises) De Trinitate (c. 520–21) Utrum Pater et Filius et Spiritus Sanctus de divinitate substantialiter praedicentur (Whether Father and Son and Holy Spirit are Substantially Predicated of the Divinity) Quomodo substantiae in eo quod sint bonae sint cum non sint substantialia bona [also known as De hebdomadibus] (How Substances are Good in that they Exist, when They are not Substantially Good) De fide Catholica Contra Eutychen et Nestorium (Against Eutyches and Nestorius) De consolatione Philosophiae (524–525). De consolatione philosophiae[edit] Lady Philosophy and Boethius from the Consolation, (Ghent, 1485) Boethius's best known work is the Consolation of Philosophy (De consolatione philosophiae), which he wrote most likely while in exile under house arrest or in prison while awaiting his execution.[29] This work represented an imaginary dialogue between himself and philosophy, with philosophy personified as a woman.[29] The book argues that despite the apparent inequality of the world, there is, in Platonic fashion, a higher power and everything else is secondary to that divine Providence.[4] Several manuscripts survived and these were widely edited, translated and printed throughout the late 15th century and later in Europe.[29] Beyond Consolation of Philosophy, his lifelong project was a deliberate attempt to preserve ancient classical knowledge, particularly philosophy. Boethius intended to translate all the works of Aristotle and Plato from the original Greek into Latin.[30][31][32] De topicis differentiis[edit] His completed translations of Aristotle's works on logic were the only significant portions of Aristotle available in Latin Christendom from the sixth century until the 12th century. However, some of his translations (such as his treatment of the topoi in The Topics) were mixed with his own commentary, which reflected both Aristotelian and Platonic concepts.[29] Unfortunately, the commentaries themselves have been lost.[33] In addition to his commentary on the Topics, Boethius composed two treatises on Topical argumentation, In Ciceronis Topica and De topicis differentiis. The first work has six books, and is largely a response to Cicero's Topica.[34] The first book of In Ciceronis Topica begins with a dedication to Patricius. It includes distinctions and assertions important to Boethius's overall philosophy, such as his view of the role of philosophy as "establish[ing] our judgment concerning the governing of life",[35] and definitions of logic from Plato, Aristotle and Cicero. He breaks logic into three parts: that which defines, that which divides, and that which deduces.[35] He asserts that there are three types of arguments: those of necessity, of ready believability, and sophistry.[36] He follows Aristotle in defining one sort of Topic as the maximal proposition, a proposition which is somehow shown to be universal or readily believable.[37] The other sort of Topic, the differentiae, are "Topics that contain and include the maximal propositions"; means of categorizing the Topics which Boethius credits to Cicero.[38] Book II covers two kinds of topics: those from related things and those from extrinsic topics. Book III discusses the relationship among things studied through Topics, Topics themselves, and the nature of definition. Book IV analyzes partition, designation and relationships between things (such as pairing, numbering, genus, and species, etc.). After a review of his terms, Boethius spends Book V discussing Stoic logic and Aristotelian causation. Book VI relates the nature of the Topic to causes. In Topicis Differentiis has four books; Book I discusses the nature of rhetorical and dialectical Topics together, Boethius's overall purpose being "to show what the Topics are, what their differentiae are, and which are suited for what syllogisms."[39] He distinguishes between argument (that which constitutes belief) and argumentation (that which demonstrates belief). Propositions are divided into three parts: those that are universal, those that are particular, and those that are somewhere in between.[40] These distinctions, and others, are applicable to both types of Topical argument, rhetorical and dialectical. Books II and III are primarily focused on Topics of dialectic (syllogisms), while Book IV concentrates on the unit of the rhetorical Topic, the enthymeme. Topical argumentation is at the core of Boethius's conception of dialectic, which "have categorical rather than conditional conclusions, and he conceives of the discovery of an argument as the discovery of a middle term capable of linking the two terms of the desired conclusion."[41] Not only are these texts of paramount importance to the study of Boethius, they are also crucial to the history of topical lore. It is largely due to Boethius that the Topics of Aristotle and Cicero were revived, and the Boethian tradition of topical argumentation spans its influence throughout the Middle Ages and into the early Renaissance: "In the works of Ockham, Buridan, Albert of Saxony, and the Pseudo-Scotus, for instance, many of the rules of consequence bear a strong resemblance to or are simply identical with certain Boethian Topics ... Boethius's influence, direct and indirect, on this tradition is enormous."[42] It was also in De Topicis Differentiis that Boethius made a unique contribution to the discourse on dialectic and rhetoric. Topical argumentation for Boethius is dependent upon a new category for the topics discussed by Aristotle and Cicero, and "[u]nlike Aristotle, Boethius recognizes two different types of Topics. First, he says, a Topic is a maximal proposition (maxima propositio), or principle; but there is a second kind of Topic, which he calls the differentia of a maximal proposition ..."[43] Maximal propositions are "propositions [that are] known per se, and no proof can be found for these."[44] This is the basis for the idea that demonstration (or the construction of arguments) is dependent ultimately upon ideas or proofs that are known so well and are so fundamental to human understanding of logic that no other proofs come before it. They must hold true in and of themselves. According to Stump, "the role of maximal propositions in argumentation is to ensure the truth of a conclusion by ensuring the truth of its premises either directly or indirectly."[45] These propositions would be used in constructing arguments through the Differentia, which is the second part of Boethius' theory. This is "the genus of the intermediate in the argument."[46] So maximal propositions allow room for an argument to be founded in some sense of logic while differentia are critical for the demonstration and construction of arguments. Boethius' definition of "differentiae" is that they are "the Topics of arguments ... The Topics which are the Differentiae of [maximal] propositions are more universal than those propositions, just as rationality is more universal than man."[47] This is the second part of Boethius' unique contribution to the field of rhetoric. Differentia operate under maximal propositions to "be of use in finding maximal propositions as well as intermediate terms," or the premises that follow maximal propositions.[48] Though Boethius is drawing from Aristotle's Topics, Differentiae are not the same as Topics in some ways. Boethius arranges differentiae through statements, instead of generalized groups as Aristotle does. Stump articulates the difference. They are "expressed as words or phrases whose expansion into appropriate propositions is neither intended nor readily conceivable", unlike Aristotle's clearly defined four groups of Topics. Aristotle had hundreds of topics organized into those four groups, whereas Boethius has twenty-eight "Topics" that are "highly ordered among themselves."[49] This distinction is necessary to understand Boethius as separate from past rhetorical theories. Maximal propositions and Differentiae belong not only to rhetoric, but also to dialectic. Boethius defines dialectic through an analysis of "thesis" and hypothetical propositions. He claims that "[t]here are two kinds of questions. One is that called, 'thesis' by the [Greek] dialecticians. This is the kind of question which asks about and discusses things stripped of relation to other circumstances; it is the sort of question dialecticians most frequently dispute about—for example, 'Is pleasure the greatest good?' [or] 'Should one marry?'."[50] Dialectic has "dialectical topics" as well as "dialectical-rhetorical topics", all of which are still discussed in De Topicis Differentiis.[43] Dialectic, especially in Book I, comprises a major component of Boethius' discussion on Topics. Boethius planned to completely translate Plato's Dialogues, but there is no known surviving translation, if it was actually ever begun.[51] De arithmetica[edit] Boethius chose to pass on the great Greco-Roman culture to future generations by writing manuals on music, astronomy, geometry and arithmetic.[10] Several of Boethius' writings, which were hugely influential during the Middle Ages, drew on the thinking of Porphyry and Iamblichus.[52] Boethius wrote a commentary on the Isagoge by Porphyry,[53] which highlighted the existence of the problem of universals: whether these concepts are subsistent entities which would exist whether anyone thought of them, or whether they only exist as ideas. This topic concerning the ontological nature of universal ideas was one of the most vocal controversies in medieval philosophy. Besides these advanced philosophical works, Boethius is also reported to have translated important Greek texts on the topics of the quadrivium [51] His loose translation of Nicomachus's treatise on arithmetic (De institutione arithmetica libri duo) and his textbook on music (De institutione musica libri quinque, unfinished) contributed to medieval education.[53] De arithmetica begins with modular arithmetic, such as even and odd, evenly even, evenly odd, and oddly even. He then turns to unpredicted complexity by categorizing numbers and parts of numbers.[54] His translations of Euclid on geometry and Ptolemy on astronomy,[55] if they were completed, no longer survive. Boethius made Latin translations of Aristotle's De interpretatione and Categories with commentaries.[14] In his article The Ancient Classics in the Mediaeval Libraries, James Stuart Beddie cites Boethius as the reason Aristotle's works were popular in the Middle Ages, as Boethius preserved many of the philosopher's works.[56] De institutione musica[edit] Boethius' De institutione musica was one of the first musical works to be printed in Venice between the years of 1491 and 1492. It was written toward the beginning of the sixth century and helped medieval authors during the ninth century understand Greek music.[57] Like his Greek predecessors, Boethius believed that arithmetic and music were intertwined, and helped to mutually reinforce the understanding of each, and together exemplified the fundamental principles of order and harmony in the understanding of the universe as it was known during his time.[58] In "De Musica", Boethius introduced the threefold classification of music:[59] Musica mundana – music of the spheres/world; this "music" was not actually audible and was to be understood rather than heard Musica humana – harmony of human body and spiritual harmony Musica instrumentalis – instrumental music Boethius, Arithmetica Geometrica Musica (1492 first printed edition, from Hans Adler Collection) In De musica I.2, Boethius describes 'musica instrumentis' as music produced by something under tension (e.g., strings), by wind (e.g., aulos), by water, or by percussion (e.g., cymbals). Boethius himself doesn't use the term 'instrumentalis', which was used by Adalbold II of Utrecht (975–1026) in his Epistola cum tractatu.[full citation needed] The term is much more common in the 13th century and later.[citation needed] It is also in these later texts that musica instrumentalis is firmly associated with audible music in general, including vocal music. Scholars have traditionally assumed that Boethius also made this connection, possibly under the header of wind instruments ("administratur ... aut spiritu ut tibiis"[c] [60]), but Boethius himself never writes about "instrumentalis" as separate from "instrumentis" explicitly in his very brief description. In one of his works within De institutione musica, Boethius said that "music is so naturally united with us that we cannot be free from it even if we so desired."[61] During the Middle Ages, Boethius was connected to several texts that were used to teach liberal arts. Although he did not address the subject of trivium, he did write many treatises explaining the principles of rhetoric, grammar, and logic. During the Middle Ages, his works of these disciplines were commonly used when studying the three elementary arts.[55] The historian R. W. Southern called Boethius "the schoolmaster of medieval Europe."[62] An 1872 German translation of "De Musica" was the magnum opus of Oscar Paul.[63] Opuscula sacra[edit] Boethius also wrote Christian theological treatises, which supported Catholicism and condemned Arianism and other heterodox forms of Christianity.[64] Five theological works are known:[65] De Trinitate – "The Trinity", where he defends the Council of Chalcedon Trinitarian position, that God is in three persons who have no differences in nature. He argues against the Arian view of the nature of God, which put him at odds with the faith of the Arian King of Italy. Utrum Pater et filius et Spiritus Sanctus de divinitate substantialiter praedicentur – "Whether Father, Son and Holy Spirit are Substantially Predicated of the Divinity," a short work where he uses reason and Aristotelian epistemology to argue that the Catholic views of the nature of God are correct.[66] Quomodo substantiae De fide catholica – "On the Catholic Faith" Contra Eutychen et Nestorium – "Against Eutyches and Nestorius," from around 513, which dates it as the earliest of his theological works. Eutyches and Nestorius were contemporaries from the early to mid-5th century who held divergent Christological theologies. Boethius argues for a middle ground in conformity with Roman Catholic faith. His theological works played an important part during the Middle Ages in philosophical thought, including the fields of logic, ontology, and metaphysics.[67] History of reception[edit] Part of a series on Scholasticism Scholastic schools Thomism Scotism Occamism Major scholastic works Summa Theologica Cur Deus Homo Summa Grammatica Summa logicae Opus Oxoniense Libri Quattuor Sententiarum Precursors Augustine of Hippo Boethius Pope Gregory I Alcuin of York John Scotus Eriugena People Thomas Aquinas ("Doctor Angelicus") Duns Scotus ("Doctor Subtilis") William of Ockham ("Doctor Invincibilis") Francisco Suárez ("Doctor Eximius") Averroes ("The Commentator") Albertus Magnus ("Doctor Universalis") Peter Lombard ("The Master") Bonaventure ("Doctor Seraphicus") Anselm of Canterbury ("Doctor Marianus") Peter Abelard ("Doctor Scholasticus") Related Philosophy Aristotelianism Dominican Order Franciscan Order Catholic theology Islamic philosophy Empiricism Neoplatonism Neo-Thomism Problem of universals  Philosophy portal  Catholicism portal v t e Lorenzo Valla described Boethius as the last of the Romans and the first of the scholastic philosophers.[12] Despite the use of his mathematical texts in the early universities, it is his final work, the Consolation of Philosophy, that assured his legacy in the Middle Ages and beyond. This work is cast as a dialogue between Boethius himself, at first bitter and despairing over his imprisonment, and the spirit of philosophy, depicted as a woman of wisdom and compassion. "Alternately composed in prose and verse,[52] the Consolation teaches acceptance of hardship in a spirit of philosophical detachment from misfortune".[68] Parts of the work are reminiscent of the Socratic method of Plato's dialogues, as the spirit of philosophy questions Boethius and challenges his emotional reactions to adversity. The work was translated into Old English by King Alfred, although Alfred's authorship of this Old English translation has recently been questioned,[citation needed] and into later English by Chaucer and Queen Elizabeth.[64] Many manuscripts survive and it was extensively edited, translated and printed throughout Europe from the 14th century onwards.[69] Many commentaries on it were compiled, and it has been one of the most influential books in European culture. No complete bibliography has ever been assembled, but it would run into thousands of items.[68][failed verification] "The Boethian Wheel" is a model for Boethius' belief that history is a wheel,[70] a metaphor that Boethius uses frequently in the Consolation; it remained very popular throughout the Middle Ages, and is still often seen today. As the wheel turns, those who have power and wealth will turn to dust; men may rise from poverty and hunger to greatness, while those who are great may fall with the turn of the wheel. It was represented in the Middle Ages in many relics of art depicting the rise and fall of man. Descriptions of "The Boethian Wheel" can be found in the literature of the Middle Ages from the Romance of the Rose to Chaucer.[71] De topicis differentiis was the basis for one of the first works of logic in a western European vernacular, a selection of excerpts translated into Old French by John of Antioch in 1282.[72] Veneration[edit] The Tomb of Boethius in San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro, Pavia. Boethius is recognized as a martyr for the Catholic faith by the Roman Martyrology, though to Watkins "his status as martyr is dubious".[73] His cult is held in Pavia, where Boethius's status as a saint was confirmed in 1883, and in the Church of Santa Maria in Portico in Rome. His feast day is 23 October.[74][73][75] In the current Martyrologium Romanum, his feast is still restricted to that diocese.[76] Pope Benedict XVI explained the relevance of Boethius to modern day Christians by linking his teachings to an understanding of Providence.[10] He is also venerated in the Eastern Orthodox Church.[77] In popular culture[edit] In the novel A Confederacy of Dunces by John Kennedy Toole, Boethius is the favorite philosopher of main character Ignatius J. Reilly. "The Boethian Wheel" is a theme throughout the book, which won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 1981.[78] Peter Glassgold translated Boethius's poems on the consolation of philosophy "out of the original Latin into a diverse historical Englishings diligently collaged," (Sun and Moon Press, 1994).[79] C.S. Lewis references Boethius in chapter 27 of the Screwtape Letters. [80] Boethius also appears in the 2002 film "24 Hour Party People" where he is played by Christopher Eccleston. As Tony Wilson passes by, Boethius (disguised as a beggar) says, "It's my belief that history is a wheel. "Inconstancy is my very essence" -says the wheel- "Rise up on my spokes if you like, but don't complain when you are cast back down into the depths. Good times pass away, but then so do the bad. Mutability is our tragedy, but it is also our hope. The worst of times, like the best, are always passing away." See also[edit] De Fide Catolica Notes[edit] ^ The name Anicius demonstrated his connection with a noble family of the Lower Empire, while Manlius claims lineage from the Manlii Torquati of the Republic. The name Severinus was given to him in honour of Severinus of Noricum.[3] ^ In English, the o and e in Boethius are pronounced separately: /boʊˈiːθiəs/. It is hence traditionally written with a diæresis, viz. "Boëthius", a spelling which has been disappearing due to the limitations of typewriters. ^ "Haec vero administratur aut intentione ut nervis, aut spiritu ut tibiis, vel his, quae ad aquam moventur, aut percussione quadam, ut in his, quae in concava quaedam aerea feriuntur, atque inde diversi efficiuntur soni." Translated: "This, however, is operated by the motion of a string, or the wind of a pipe, or to those, which are moved by the water, or the beat of time, as in the following, which is striking a kind of brass hollow, and in the other are made of a corresponding sound." References[edit] ^ Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ^ A.D. Smith, Anselm's Other Argument, Harvard University Press, 2014, p. 66. ^ a b c Hodgkin, Thomas (2001), Italy and Her Invaders, London: Adamant Media Corporation. ^ a b "Boethius", The Online Library of Liberty, retrieved 23 October 2017 . ^ a b Noel Harold Kaylor; Philip Edward Phillips (2012), A Companion to Boethius in the Middle Ages, Brill, pp. 1–, ISBN 978-90-04-18354-4, retrieved 19 January 2013 ^ Heather, P. J. (Peter J.) (2006). The fall of the Roman Empire : a new history of Rome and the Barbarians. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 244–245. ISBN 9780199978618. OCLC 806039879. ^ Boethius (1969), De consolatione philosophiae, translated by Watts, V.E., Harmonsworth: Penguin, 2.3, p. 59 . ^ Noel Harold Kaylor; Philip Edward Phillips (2012), A Companion to Boethius in the Middle Ages, Brill, pp. 4–, ISBN 978-90-04-18354-4, retrieved 19 January 2013 ^ Moorhead (2009), "Boethius' life and the world of late antique philosophy", in Marenbon, John (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Boethius, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 29 . ^ a b c Pope Benedict XVI (12 March 2008), Boethius and Cassiodorus, archived from the original on 28 December 2008, retrieved 4 November 2009 . ^ Cassiodorus (1992), Variae, translated by Barnish, S.J.B., Liverpool: University Press, I.10, pp. 12–14; I.45, 20–23; II.40, 38–43 . ^ a b Boethius, Anicius Manlius Severinus. The Theological Tractates and The Consolation of Philosophy. Translated by H. F. Steward and E. K. Rand. Cambridge: The Project Gutenberg, 2004. ^ De consolatione philosophiae, 2.3; translated by Watts, p. 60 ^ a b c "Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius", MacTutor History of Mathematicas archive, U of St Andrews, 2000, retrieved 4 November 2009 . ^ Boethius (2007), The Theological Tractates and The Consolation of Philosophy, Digireads.com, pp. 5–, ISBN 978-1-4209-2975-1, retrieved 22 January 2013 ^ Anonymous Valesianus, 14.85; text and English translation of this document is in J. C. Rolfe (trans.), Ammianus Marcellinus (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), vol. 3 pp. 562ff ^ History of the Wars, 5.1.34. Text and translation in H. B. Dewing, Procopius (London: Heinemann, 1968), vol. 3 p. 12f ^ Richards, The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979), p. 114 ^ De consolatione I.4.3; translated by V. E. Watts, Boethius: The consolation of philosophy (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1969), p. 42 ^ Cassiodorus, Variae, V.40, 41 ^ Bury, J. B., History of the Later Roman Empire, p.158, Macmillan & Co., Ltd. 1923 ^ Richards, Popes and the Papacy, p. 119 ^ Fried, Johannes (2015). The Middle Ages (third ed.). Cambridge, MA and London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-674-05562-9. ^ Lindberg, David C. (1980), Science in the Middle Ages, University of Chicago Press, pp. 10–, ISBN 978-0-226-48233-0, retrieved 12 January 2013 ^ Walsh, P.G. (2000), "Introduction", The Consolation of Philosophy, Oxford: Oxford U. Press, p. xxvii . ^ Noel Harold Kaylor; Philip Edward Phillips (2012), A Companion to Boethius in the Middle Ages, Brill, pp. 14–, ISBN 978-90-04-18354-4, retrieved 19 January 2013 ^ Phillips, Philip Edward (2012), "Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius: A Chronology and Selected Annotated Bibliography", in Noel Harold Kaylor Jr.; Philip Edward Phillips (eds.), A Companion to Boethius in the Middle Ages, Leiden: Brill, pp. 551–589 . ^ Folkerts, Menso, ed. (1970), Boethius' Geometrie II. Ein mathematisches Lehrbuch des Mittelalters, Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner ^ a b c d Boethius, Anicius Manlius Severinus. Consolation of Philosophy. Translated by Joel Relihan. Norton: Hackett Publishing Company, 2001. ^ Spade, Paul Vincent (15 March 2016), "Medieval Philosophy", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, retrieved 23 October 2017 ^ Thomas Aquinas; Frederick Christian Bauerschmidt (2005), Holy Teaching: Introducing the Summa Theologiae of St. Thomas Aquinas, Brazos Press, pp. 14–, ISBN 978-1-58743-035-0, retrieved 22 March 2013 ^ Rubenstein, Richard E. (2004). Aristotle's Children. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. pp. 62–. ISBN 978-0-547-35097-4. Retrieved 22 March 2013. ^ Stump, Eleonore (1988), Introduction, In Ciceronis Topica, by Boethius, Cornell University Press, p. 3, ISBN 978-0801489341 ^ Stump, Eleanor (1988), Introduction, In Ciceronis Topica, by Boethius, Cornell University Press, p. 22, ISBN 978-0801489334 ^ a b Boethius (1988), In Ciceronis Topica, translated by Stump, Eleonore, Cornell University, p. 25 ^ Stump, Eleanor (1988), Introduction, In Ciceronis Topica, by Boethius, Cornell University Press, p. 26, ISBN 978-0801489341 ^ Boethius. In Ciceronis Topica. 34 ^ Boethius. In Ciceronis Topica. 35 ^ Boethius (1978), De topicis differentiis, translated by Stump, Eleonore, Cornell University Press, p. 29, ISBN 978-0801489334 ^ Boethius (1978), De topicis differentiis, translated by Stump, Eleonore, Cornell University Press, p. 31, ISBN 978-0801489334 ^ Stump, Eleonore (1978), Introduction, De topicis differentiis, by Boethius, Cornell University Press, p. 6, ISBN 9780801489334 ^ Stump, Eleonore (1978), Introduction, De topicis differentiis, by Boethius, Cornell University Press, pp. 7, 9–8, ISBN 978-0801489334 . ^ a b Stump, Eleonore (1978), "Dialectic and Boethius's De topicis differentiis", De topicis differentiis, by Boethius, Cornell University Press, p. 180, ISBN 978-0801489334 . ^ Boethius (1978), De topicis differentiis, translated by Stump, Eleonore, Cornell University Press, p. 33, ISBN 978-0801489334 ^ Stump, Eleonore (1978), "Dialectic and Boethius's De topicis differentiis", De topicis differentiis, by Boethius, Cornell University Press, p. 181, ISBN 978-0801489334 ^ Stump, Eleonore (1978), "Dialectic and Boethius's De topicis differentiis", De topicis differentiis, by Boethius, Cornell University Press, p. 198, ISBN 978-0801489334 ^ Boethius (1978), De topicis differentiis, translated by Stump, Eleonore, Cornell University Press, p. 48, ISBN 978-0801489334 ^ Stump, Eleonore (1978), "Dialectic and Boethius's De topicis differentiis", De topicis differentiis, by Boethius, Cornell University Press, p. 204, ISBN 978-0801489334 . ^ Stump, Eleonore (1978), "Dialectic and Boethius's De topicis differentiis", De topicis differentiis, by Boethius, Cornell University Press, p. 205, ISBN 978-0801489334 ^ Boethius (1978), De topicis differentiis, translated by Stump, Eleonore, Cornell University Press, p. 35, ISBN 978-0801489334 ^ a b Cassiodorus (1992), Variae, translated by Barnish, S.J.B., Liverpool: University Press, I.45.4 . ^ a b Marenbon, John (2016), "Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, retrieved 23 October 2017 ^ a b Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. . ^ Schrader, Dorothy V (1968), "De Arithmetica, Book I, of Boethius", Mathematics Teacher, 61: 615–28 . ^ a b Masi, Michael (1979), "The Liberal Arts and Gerardus Ruffus' Commentary on the Boethian De Arithmetica", The Sixteenth Century Journal, 10 (2): 24, doi:10.2307/2539405, JSTOR 2539405 . ^ Beddie, James Stuart (1930), "The Ancient Classics in the Mediaeval Libraries", Speculum, 5 (1): 3–20, doi:10.2307/2846353, JSTOR 2846353, S2CID 163314872 , p. 3 ^ Boethius, Anicius Manlius Severinus (1989), Palisca, Claude V. (ed.), Fundamentals of Music, translated by Bower, Calvin M., New Haven: Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0300039436 . ^ Grout, Donald (1980). A History of Western Music (3rd ed.). New York: W.W. Norton & Company. p. 24. ISBN 978-0393951363. ^ Bower, Calvin M. (2006), "The transmission of ancient music theory into the Middle Ages", in Christensen, Thomas (ed.), The Cambridge History of Western Music Theory, Cambridge University Press, pp. 136–167, ISBN 978-0521686983 , p. 146. ^ Boethius 1867, p. 189. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBoethius1867 (help) ^ Boethius, Anicius Manlius Severinus (1989), Palisca, Claude V. (ed.), Fundamentals of Music, translated by Bower, Calvin M., New Haven: Yale University Press, p. 8, ISBN 978-0300039436 . ^ Herman, Arthur (2013). The Cave and the Light. Random House. ISBN 978-0553807301. ^ Paul, Oscar (1872), Boetius und die griechische Harmonik (in German), Leipzig: F.E.C. Leuckart . ^ a b Cooper, W.V. (1902), "Editorial Note", Consolation of Philosophy, by Boethius, Anicius Manlius Severinus, translated by W.V. Cooper, London: J.M. Dent and Company . ^ Noel Harold Kaylor; Philip Edward Phillips (2012), A Companion to Boethius in the Middle Ages, Brill, pp. 15–, ISBN 978-90-04-18354-4, retrieved 19 January 2013 ^ Speer, Andreas (2011), "The Division of Metaphysical Discourses: Boethius, Thomas Aquinas, and Meister Eckhart", in Emery, Kent; Friedman, Russell; Speer, Andreas (eds.), Philosophy and Theology in the Long Middle Ages: A Tribute to Stephen F. Brown, Leiden: Brill, pp. 91–116, ISBN 978-90-04-16942-5 , p. 95 ^ Bradshaw, David (2009), "The Opuscula sacra: Boethius and theology", in Marenbon, John (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Boethius, pp. 105–128, doi:10.1017/CCOL9780521872669.006, ISBN 978-1139002493 ^ a b James, H.R. (2007), Preface, Consolation of Philosophy, by Boethius, translated by H.R. James, Adelaide: The University of Adelaide . ^ Dwyer, Richard A. (1976), Boethian Fictions: Narratives in the Medieval French Versions of the Consolatio Philosophiae, Medieval Academy of America . ^ Boethius (1999), Consolation of Philosophy, translated by Watts, Victor (Rev ed.), Penguin, p. 24, n. 1 . ^ Carroll-Clark, Susan (1994), "The Wheel of Fortune", The Middle Ages.net . ^ Jonathan Rubin (2018), "John of Antioch and the Perceptions of Language and Translation in Thirteenth-Century Acre", in John France (ed.), Acre and Its Falls: Studies in the History of a Crusader City, Brill , p. 93. ^ a b Watkins, Basil (2016). The Book of Saints. St. Augustine's Abbey of Ramsgate, England (8th ed.). London: Bloomsbury. p. 108. ISBN 978-0567664150. OCLC 908373623. ^ Farmer, David Hugh (2011). The Oxford Dictionary of Saints (5th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 53. ISBN 978-0199596607. OCLC 726871260. ^ Martirologio (in Italian), translated by Stefano Calvi, archived from the original on 7 December 2010 . ^ Martyrologium Romanum (2nd ed.). Rome: Libreria Editrice Vaticana. 2004. p. 586. ISBN 978-8820972103. ^ Latin Saints of the Orthodox Patriarchate of Rome ^ Miller, Karl (1999-03-05). "An American tragedy. A lifetime of rejection broke John Kennedy Toole. But his aged mother believed in his talent, found a publisher for his novel and rescued his memory from oblivion". www.newstatesman.com. Retrieved 2018-06-09. ^ Glassgold, Peter. "Beothius: The Poems from on the Consolation of Philosophy Translated out of the original Latin into diverse historical Englishings diligently collaged". Amazon. Retrieved 28 April 2019. ^ Lewis, Clive (1942). The Screwtape Letters. Faded Page. p. 57. Retrieved 28 April 2019. Works available online[edit] Dialectica, 1547 James, H.R. (translator) [1897] (2007), The Consolation of Philosophy of Boethius, The University of Adelaide: eBooks @ Adelaide, archived from the original on 2007-04-27 . Boethius, Anicius Manlius Severinus (1867). "De institutione arithmetica libri duo". In Gottfried Friedlein (ed.). Anicii Manlii Torquati Severini Boetii De institutione arithmetica libri duo: De institutione musica libri quinque. Accedit geometria quae fertur Boetii (in Latin). in aedibus B.G. Teubneri. pp. 1–173. Retrieved 2008-08-03. Boethius, Anicius Manlius Severinus (1867). "De institutione musica libri quinque". In Gottfried Friedlein (ed.). Anicii Manlii Torquati Severini Boetii De institutione arithmetica libri duo: De institutione musica libri quinque. Accedit geometria quae fertur Boetii (in Latin). in aedibus B.G. Teubneri. pp. 177–371. Retrieved 2015-10-08. Bibliography[edit] Attwater, Donald; Catherine Rachel John (1995), The Penguin Dictionary of Saints, London: Penguin Books, ISBN 978-0-14-051312-7, OCLC 34361179 . Baird, Forrest E.; Walter Kaufmann (2008), From Plato to Derrida, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall, ISBN 978-0-13-158591-1 . Boethius, Anicius Manlius Severinus (1926), trans., H.F. Stewart, E.K. Rand, and "I.T.". The Theological Tractates and The Consolation of Philosophy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard, Loeb Classical Library, parallel text. Chadwick, Henry (1981), Boethius, the Consolations of Music, Logic, Theology, and Philosophy, Oxford: Clarendon Press, ISBN 978-0-19-826549-8, OCLC 8533668 . Colish, Marcia L. (2002), Medieval Foundations of the Western Intellectual Tradition, 400–1400, New Haven: Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0-300-07852-7, OCLC 185694056 . Magee, John (1989), Boethius on Signification and Mind, Leiden: Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-09096-5 . Marenbon, John (2004), Boethius, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-513407-0, OCLC 186379876 . Marenbon, John (2009), The Cambridge Companion to Boethius, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-87266-9 . Papahagi, Adrian (2010). Boethiana Mediaevalia – A Collection of Studies on the Early Medieval Fortune of Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy. Bucharest: Zeta Books. ISBN 978-973-1997-79-7. Suto, Taki (2011), Boethius on Mind, Grammar and Logic. A Study of Boethius' Commentaries on Peri Hermeneias, Cambridge: Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-21418-7 . Westfall, Joseph (2008), "Boethius: Kierkegaard and The Consolation", in Stewart, Jon (ed.), Kierkegaard and the Patristic and Medieval Traditions, Ashgate, pp. 207–222, ISBN 978-0-7546-6391-1 . Library resources about Boethius Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Boethius Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries External links[edit] Works[edit] Wikisource has original works written by or about: Boethius Wikiquote has quotations related to: Boethius Wikimedia Commons has media related to Anicius Manlius Torquatus Severinus Boethius. Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: Anicius Manlius Torquatus Severinus Boethius Works by Boethius at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Boethius at Internet Archive Works by Boethius at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) {en} De Trinitate (On the Holy Trinity) – Boethius, Erik Kenyon (trans.) {en} Theological Tractates; Christian Classics Ethereal Library A 10th-century manuscript of Institutio Arithmetica is available online from Lund University, Sweden The Geoffrey Freudlin 1885 edition of the Arithmetica, from the Cornell Library Historical Mathematics Monographs Online Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries High resolution images of works by Boethius in .jpg and .tiff format. Codices Boethiani: A Conspectus of Manuscripts of the Work of Boethius Works by Boethius at Perseus Digital Library MS 1083/30 Regiment of princes; Consolation of philosophy at OPenn MS 484/15 Commentum super libro Porphyrii Isagoge; De decim predicamentis at OPenn On Boethius' life and works[edit] Blessed Severinus Boethius at Patron Saints Index Blackwood, Stephen. The Meters of Boethius: Rhythmic Therapy in the Consolation of Philosophy. Blackwood, Stephen (2015). The Consolation of Boethius as Poetic Liturgy. Oxford Early Christian Studies. Oxford University Press. p. 398. ISBN 978-0-19-871831-4. O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Boethius", MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews . Phillips, Philip Edward. Boethius: A Selected Bibliography for Students Boethius at The Online Library of Liberty On Boethius and Cassiodorus – Pope Benedict XVI On Boethius' logic and philosophy[edit] Marenbon, John. "Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The Philosophical Works of Boethius. Editions and Translations Boethius' Logic and Metaphysics. An Annotated Bibliography Preceded by Flavius Inportunus (alone) Consul of the Roman Empire 510 Succeeded by Arcadius Placidus Magnus Felix, Flavius Secundinus v t e Ancient Greek and Hellenistic mathematics (Euclidean geometry) Mathematicians (timeline) Anaxagoras Anthemius Archytas Aristaeus the Elder Aristarchus Apollonius Archimedes Autolycus Bion Bryson Callippus Carpus Chrysippus Cleomedes Conon Ctesibius Democritus Dicaearchus Diocles Diophantus Dinostratus Dionysodorus Domninus Eratosthenes Eudemus Euclid Eudoxus Eutocius Geminus Heron Hipparchus Hippasus Hippias Hippocrates Hypatia Hypsicles Isidore of Miletus Leon Marinus Menaechmus Menelaus Metrodorus Nicomachus Nicomedes Nicoteles Oenopides Pappus Perseus Philolaus Philon Philonides Porphyry Posidonius Proclus Ptolemy Pythagoras Serenus Simplicius Sosigenes Sporus Thales Theaetetus Theano Theodorus Theodosius Theon of Alexandria Theon of Smyrna Thymaridas Xenocrates Zeno of Elea Zeno of Sidon Zenodorus Treatises Almagest Archimedes Palimpsest Arithmetica Conics (Apollonius) Catoptrics Data (Euclid) Elements (Euclid) Measurement of a Circle On Conoids and Spheroids On the Sizes and Distances (Aristarchus) On Sizes and Distances (Hipparchus) On the Moving Sphere (Autolycus) Euclid's Optics On Spirals On the Sphere and Cylinder Ostomachion Planisphaerium Sphaerics The Quadrature of the Parabola The Sand Reckoner Problems Angle trisection Doubling the cube Squaring the circle Problem of Apollonius Concepts/definitions Circles of Apollonius Apollonian circles Apollonian gasket Circumscribed circle Commensurability Diophantine equation Doctrine of proportionality Golden ratio Greek numerals Incircle and excircles of a triangle Method of exhaustion Parallel postulate Platonic solid Lune of Hippocrates Quadratrix of Hippias Regular polygon Straightedge and compass construction Triangle center Results In Elements Angle bisector theorem Exterior angle theorem Euclidean algorithm Euclid's theorem Geometric mean theorem Greek geometric algebra Hinge theorem Inscribed angle theorem Intercept theorem Pons asinorum Pythagorean theorem Thales's theorem Theorem of the gnomon Apollonius Apollonius's theorem Other Aristarchus's inequality Crossbar theorem Heron's formula Irrational numbers Menelaus's theorem Pappus's area theorem Ptolemy's inequality Ptolemy's table of chords Ptolemy's theorem Spiral of Theodorus Centers Cyrene Library of Alexandria Platonic Academy Other Ancient Greek astronomy Greek numerals Latin translations of the 12th century Neusis construction v t e Platonists Academic Old Plato Aristotle Eudoxus Philip of Opus Aristonymus Coriscus and Erastus of Scepsis Demetrius of Amphipolis Euaeon of Lampsacus Heraclides and Python of Aenus Hestiaeus of Perinthus Lastheneia of Mantinea Timolaus of Cyzicus Speusippus Axiothea of Phlius Heraclides Ponticus Menedemus of Pyrrha Xenocrates Crantor Polemon Crates of Athens Skeptic Middle Arcesilaus Diocles of Cnidus Lacydes Telecles and Evander Hegesinus New Carneades Hagnon of Tarsus Metrodorus of Stratonicea Clitomachus Charmadas Aeschines of Neapolis Philo of Larissa Cicero Dio of Alexandria Middle Platonist Antiochus Philo of Alexandria Plutarch Justin Martyr Gaius Albinus Alcinous Apuleius Atticus Maximus of Tyre Numenius of Apamea Longinus Clement of Alexandria Origen the Pagan Calcidius Neoplatonist Ancient Ammonius Saccas Plotinus Disciples Origen Amelius Porphyry Iamblichus Sopater Eustathius of Cappadocia Sosipatra Aedesius Dexippus Chrysanthius Theodorus of Asine Julian Sallustius Maximus of Ephesus Eusebius of Myndus Priscus of Epirus Antoninus Gregory of Nyssa Hypatia Augustine Macrobius Academy Plutarch of Athens Asclepigenia Hierocles Syrianus Hermias Aedesia Proclus Ammonius Hermiae Asclepiodotus Hegias Zenodotus Marinus Agapius Isidore Damascius Simplicius Priscian Medieval Boethius John Philoponus Olympiodorus Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite John Scotus Eriugena Islamic Golden Age Al-Farabi Anselm Peter Abelard Chartres Bernard Gilbert Thierry Henry of Ghent Bonaventure Theodoric of Freiberg Meister Eckhart Berthold of Moosburg Paul of Venice Modern Renaissance Florentine Academy Plethon Marsilio Ficino Cristoforo Landino Giovanni Pico della Mirandola Cambridge Ralph Cudworth Henry More Anne Conway Petrus Ramus Giordano Bruno Blaise Pascal Emanuel Swedenborg German idealist Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Christian Wolff Moses Mendelssohn Immanuel Kant Johann Gottlieb Fichte Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling Arthur Schopenhauer G. W. F. Hegel Hermann Lotze Otto Weininger Thomas Taylor Ralph Waldo Emerson Josiah Royce Søren Kierkegaard Henri Bergson Aleksei Losev Contemporary Analytic Gottlob Frege G. E. Moore Kurt Gödel Alonzo Church Roderick Chisholm Michael Dummett W. V. O. Quine David Kaplan Saul Kripke Alvin Plantinga Peter van Inwagen Nicholas Wolterstorff Crispin Wright Edward N. Zalta Continental Edmund Husserl Roman Ingarden Leo Strauss Miscellaneous Philip K. Dick Joseph Ratzinger Bernard Bolzano v t e Medieval philosophers Islamic Early Al-Jahiz Alkindus Ibn al-Rawandi Al-Razi (Rhazes) Al-Farabi (Alpharabius) Ibn Masarra Al Amiri Ebn Meskavayh Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) Abu Rayhan Biruni "Brethren of Purity" High Ibn Sīnā (Avicenna) Ibn Hazm Al-Ghazali (Algazel) Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī Ibn Bajjah (Avempace) Ayn al-Quzat Hamadani Ibn Tufail Ibn Rushd (Averroes) Late Ibn Sab'in Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi Fakhr ad-Din ar-Razi Rashid al-Din Ibn Arabi Zachariah Kazwin Abd-el-latif Athīr al-Dīn al-Abharī Nasir al-Din al-Tusi Ibn al-Nafis Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi Ibn Taymiyyah Ibn Khaldun Jewish Medieval Isaac Israeli ben Solomon Saadia Gaon Solomon ibn Gabirol Judah Halevi Abraham ibn Daud Maimonides Nachmanides Gersonides Hasdai Crescas Joseph Albo Christian Early "Church Fathers" Augustine of Hippo Boethius Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite Isidore of Seville Johannes Scotus Eriugena Alcuin 11–12th century "Scholasticism" Anselm of Canterbury Peter Abelard Anselm of Laon Hugh of Saint Victor Richard of Saint Victor Roscelin Peter Lombard Alexander of Hales Bernard of Chartres Dominicus Gundissalinus Gilbert de la Porrée Alain de Lille 13–14th century Robert Grosseteste Albertus Magnus Bonaventure Thomas Aquinas Siger of Brabant Boetius of Dacia Henry of Ghent Roger Bacon John Peckham Ramon Llull Petrus Aureolus Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt Durandus Giles of Rome Godfrey of Fontaines Duns Scotus William of Ockham Late Jean Buridan Nicole Oresme Albert of Saxony Francesc Eiximenis Vincent Ferrer Paul of Venice Lambertus de Monte John Hennon See also Renaissance philosophy v t e Catholic philosophy Ethics Cardinal virtues Divine command Just price Just war Probabilism Natural law Personalism Seven virtues Social teaching Theological virtues Virtue ethics Schools Medieval Augustinianism Scholasticism Thomism Scotism Occamism Modern Salamanca Christian humanism Cartesianism Molinism Neo-scholasticism Analytical Thomism Universals Augustinian realism Nominalism Conceptualism Moderate realism Scotistic realism Other Theological intellectualism Theological voluntarism Foundationalism Philosophers Clement Augustine Boethius Dionysius Isidore Eriugena Alcuin Anselm Abelard Lombard Albertus Bonaventure Aquinas Llull Scotus Occam Ficino Pico Erasmus Cusa Luis More Suárez Descartes Pierre Montaigne Pascal Krasicki Kołłątaj Staszic Newman Scheler Chesterton Maritain Stein Mortimer Rahner Anscombe MacIntyre Wojtyla Ratzinger Concepts Actus purus Actus Essendi Actus primus Quinque viae Theodicy Augustinian Irenaean Formal distinction Univocity Head of a pin Occam's razor Augustinian values Principle of double effect Seven deadly sins Quiddity Cardinal virtues Stratification of emotional life Disputation Evil demon Aevum Haecceity Cartesian dualism Divine illumination Peripatetic axiom Memento mori Ressentiment Rota Fortunae Double truth Ontological argument Utopia Trademark argument Pascal's wager Dehellenization Differentia Homo unius libri Cogito, ergo sum Infused righteousness Related Catholic theology Platonism Aristotelianism Neoplatonism Islamic philosophy Doctor of the Church Renaissance Rationalism Empiricism Phenomenology  Catholicism portal  Philosophy portal v t e Philosophy of religion Concepts in religion Afterlife Euthyphro dilemma Faith Intelligent design Miracle Problem of evil Religious belief Soul Spirit Theodicy Theological veto Conceptions of God Aristotelian view Brahman Demiurge Divine simplicity Egoism Holy Spirit Misotheism Pandeism Personal god Process theology Supreme Being Unmoved mover God in Abrahamic religions Buddhism Christianity Hinduism Islam Jainism Judaism Mormonism Sikhism Baháʼí Faith Wicca Existence of God For Beauty Christological Consciousness Cosmological Kalam Contingency Degree Desire Experience Fine-tuning of the universe Love Miracles Morality Necessary existent Ontological Pascal's wager Proper basis Reason Teleological Natural law Watchmaker analogy Transcendental Against 747 gambit Atheist's Wager Evil Free will Hell Inconsistent revelations Nonbelief Noncognitivism Occam's razor Omnipotence Poor design Russell's teapot Theology Acosmism Agnosticism Animism Antireligion Atheism Creationism Dharmism Deism Demonology Divine command theory Dualism Esotericism Exclusivism Existentialism Christian Agnostic Atheistic Feminist theology Thealogy Womanist theology Fideism Fundamentalism Gnosticism Henotheism Humanism Religious Secular Christian Inclusivism Theories about religions Monism Monotheism Mysticism Naturalism Metaphysical Religious Humanistic New Age Nondualism Nontheism Pandeism Panentheism Pantheism Perennialism Polytheism Possibilianism Process theology Religious skepticism Spiritualism Shamanism Taoic Theism Transcendentalism more... Religious language Eschatological verification Language game Logical positivism Apophatic theology Verificationism Problem of evil Augustinian theodicy Best of all possible worlds Euthyphro dilemma Inconsistent triad Irenaean theodicy Natural evil Theodicy Philosophers of religion (by date active) Ancient and medieval Anselm of Canterbury Augustine of Hippo Avicenna Averroes Boethius Erasmus Gaunilo of Marmoutiers Pico della Mirandola Heraclitus King James VI and I Marcion of Sinope Thomas Aquinas Maimonides Early modern Augustin Calmet René Descartes Blaise Pascal Baruch Spinoza Nicolas Malebranche Gottfried W Leibniz William Wollaston Thomas Chubb David Hume Baron d'Holbach Immanuel Kant Johann G Herder 1800 1850 Friedrich Schleiermacher Karl C F Krause Georg W F Hegel William Whewell Ludwig Feuerbach Søren Kierkegaard Karl Marx Albrecht Ritschl Afrikan Spir 1880 1900 Ernst Haeckel W K Clifford Friedrich Nietzsche Harald Høffding William James Vladimir Solovyov Ernst Troeltsch Rudolf Otto Lev Shestov Sergei Bulgakov Pavel Florensky Ernst Cassirer Joseph Maréchal 1920 postwar George Santayana Bertrand Russell Martin Buber René Guénon Paul Tillich Karl Barth Emil Brunner Rudolf Bultmann Gabriel Marcel Reinhold Niebuhr Charles Hartshorne Mircea Eliade Frithjof Schuon J L Mackie Walter Kaufmann Martin Lings Peter Geach George I Mavrodes William Alston Antony Flew 1970 1990 2010 William L Rowe Dewi Z Phillips Alvin Plantinga Anthony Kenny Nicholas Wolterstorff Richard Swinburne Robert Merrihew Adams Ravi Zacharias Peter van Inwagen Daniel Dennett Loyal Rue Jean-Luc Marion William Lane Craig Ali Akbar Rashad Alexander Pruss Related topics Criticism of religion Desacralization of knowledge Ethics in religion Exegesis History of religion Religion Religious language Religious philosophy Relationship between religion and science Faith and rationality more... Portal Category Authority control BIBSYS: 90083479 BNE: XX859481 BNF: cb14840639m (data) CANTIC: a10490036 CiNii: DA01010815 GND: 11851282X ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\082200 ISNI: 0000 0001 2283 4442 LCCN: n79029805 LNB: 000002771 MBA: febb8d96-761d-4c19-b0c3-cb53d8a2dd52 NDL: 00434105 NKC: jn19981000321 NLA: 35019855 NLG: 77346 NLI: 001790325 NLK: KAC199602875 NSK: 000232260 NTA: 068554923 RERO: 02-A000021134 SELIBR: 224936 SNAC: w6s75djd SUDOC: 026650045 Trove: 794148 ULAN: 500355319 VcBA: 495/44468 VIAF: 100218964 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79029805 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Boethius&oldid=995679950" Categories: 477 births 524 deaths 5th-century Italo-Roman people 6th-century Christian saints 6th-century Christian theologians 6th-century Italo-Roman people 6th-century Italian writers 6th-century Latin writers 6th-century mathematicians 6th-century philosophers Ancient Roman rhetoricians Anicii Augustinian philosophers Burials at San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro Deaths by blade weapons Executed ancient Roman people Executed philosophers Executed writers Greek–Latin translators Imperial Roman consuls Last of the Romans Latin commentators on Aristotle Magistri officiorum Manlii Music theorists People of the Ostrogothic Kingdom Philosophers of Roman Italy Catholic philosophers Neoplatonists Roman-era philosophers Italian logicians Hidden categories: Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Harv and Sfn multiple-target errors CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 Italian-language sources (it) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles with hCards All articles with incomplete citations Articles with incomplete citations from October 2015 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2013 Articles with unsourced statements from October 2017 All articles with failed verification Articles with failed verification from October 2017 CS1 Latin-language sources (la) Commons category link is on Wikidata Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers AC with 27 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages Ænglisc العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русский Sardu Scots Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 December 2020, at 08:48 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1692	----	Byzantine Empire - Wikipedia Byzantine Empire From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman Empire during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages "Byzantine" redirects here. For other uses, see Byzantine (disambiguation). Byzantine Empire Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων, Basileía Rhōmaíōn Imperium Romanum 395–1453c Chi Rho (see Byzantine insignia) Solidus depicting Christ Pantocrator, a common motif on Byzantine coins. The empire in 555 under Justinian the Great, at its greatest extent since the fall of the Western Roman Empire (its vassals in pink) The change of territory of the Byzantine Empire (476–1400) Capital and largest city Constantinopled (395–1204, 1261–1453) Common languages Late Latin, Koine Greek Medieval Greek (610–1453) Religion Eastern Christianity (tolerated after the Edicts of Serdica (311) and Milan (313); state religion after 380) Eastern Orthodoxy (following the Schism of 1054) Notable emperors   • 330–337 Constantine I • 395–408 Arcadius • 402–450 Theodosius II • 527–565 Justinian I • 610–641 Heraclius • 717–741 Leo III • 797–802 Irene • 867–886 Basil I • 976–1025 Basil II • 1042–1055 Constantine IX • 1081–1118 Alexius I • 1259–1282 Michael VIII • 1449–1453 Constantine XI Historical era Late Antiquity to Late Middle Ages • First division of the Roman Empire (diarchy) 1 April 286 • Founding of Constantinople 11 May 330 • Final East–West division after the death of Theodosius I 17 January 395 • Fall of Rome; deposition of Romulus Augustulus by Odoacer 4 September 476 • Assassination of Julius Nepos; nominal end of the Western Roman Empire 25 April 480 • Fourth Crusade; establishment of the Latin Empire by Catholic crusaders 12 April 1204 • Reconquest of Constantinople by Michael VIII Palaiologos 25 July 1261 • Fall of Constantinople 29 May 1453 • Fall of Trebizond 15 August 1461 Population • 457 16,000,000e • 565 26,000,000 • 775 7,000,000 • 1025 12,000,000 • 1320 2,000,000 Currency Solidus, denarius and hyperpyron Preceded by Succeeded by Roman Empire Ottoman Empire ^ Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων may be transliterated in Latin as Basileia Rhōmaiōn (literally meaning Monarchy of the Romans, but commonly rendered Empire of the Romans). ^ Roman Empire ^ Between 1204 and 1261 there was an interregnum when the Empire was divided into the Empire of Nicaea, the Empire of Trebizond and the Despotate of Epirus, which were all contenders for rule of the Empire. The Empire of Nicaea is considered the legitimate continuation of the Byzantine Empire because it managed to retake Constantinople. ^ Constantinople became the capital of the (united) empire in 330. Theodosius I was the last emperor to rule over both the Eastern and Western Roman Empire. He died in 395 AD, dividing the empire in western and eastern halves. ^ See Population of the Byzantine Empire for more detailed figures taken provided by McEvedy and Jones, Atlas of World Population History, 1978, as well as Angeliki E. Laiou, The Economic History of Byzantium, 2002. Part of a series on the History of the Byzantine Empire Preceding Roman Empire Dominate Early period (330–717) Constantinian–Valentinianic era (Constantinian dynasty – Valentinianic dynasty) Theodosian era Leonid era Justinian era Heraclian era Twenty Years' Anarchy Middle period (717–1204) Isaurian era Nikephorian era Amorian era Macedonian era Doukid era Komnenian era Angelid era Late period (1204–1453) Fourth Crusade and Latin rule Latin Empire Principality of Achaea others Byzantine successor states Nicaea Epirus/Thessalonica Trebizond Theodoro Palaiologan era Despotate of the Morea Decline of the Byzantine Empire Fall of Constantinople Timeline By topic Art Government Economy Army Navy  Byzantine Empire portal v t e The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire, or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinople (modern Istanbul, formerly Byzantium). It survived the fragmentation and fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD and continued to exist for an additional thousand years until it fell to the Ottoman Empire in 1453.[1] During most of its existence, the empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in Europe. "Byzantine Empire" is a term created after the end of the realm; its citizens continued to refer to their empire simply as the Roman Empire (Medieval Greek: Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων, romanized: Basileía Rhōmaíōn)[2] or Romania (Medieval Greek: Ῥωμανία), and to themselves as Romans (Medieval Greek: Ῥωμαῖοι, romanized: Rhōmaîoi). Several signal events from the 4th to 6th centuries mark the period of transition during which the Roman Empire's Greek East and Latin West diverged. Constantine I (r. 324–337) reorganised the empire, made Constantinople the new capital and legalised Christianity. Under Theodosius I (r. 379–395), Christianity became the state religion and other religious practices were proscribed. In the reign of Heraclius (r. 610–641), the Empire's military and administration were restructured and adopted Greek for official use in place of Latin.[3] Although the Roman state continued and its traditions were maintained, modern historians distinguish Byzantium from ancient Rome insofar as it was centred on Constantinople, oriented towards Greek rather than Latin culture and characterised by Eastern Orthodox Christianity.[4] The borders of the empire fluctuated through several cycles of decline and recovery. During the reign of Justinian I (r. 527–565), the empire reached its greatest extent, after reconquering much of the historically Roman western Mediterranean coast, including North Africa, Italy and Rome, which it held for two more centuries. The Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 exhausted the empire's resources, and during the Early Muslim conquests of the 7th century, it lost its richest provinces, Egypt and Syria, to the Rashidun Caliphate.[5] During the Macedonian dynasty (10th–11th centuries), the empire expanded again and experienced the two-century long Macedonian Renaissance, which came to an end with the loss of much of Asia Minor to the Seljuk Turks after the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. This battle opened the way for the Turks to settle in Anatolia. The empire recovered during the Komnenian restoration, and by the 12th century Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe.[6] The Byzantine Empire was delivered a mortal blow during the Fourth Crusade, when Constantinople was sacked in 1204 and the territories that the empire formerly governed were divided into competing Byzantine Greek and Latin realms. Despite the eventual recovery of Constantinople in 1261, the Byzantine Empire remained only one of several small rival states in the area for the final two centuries of its existence. Its remaining territories were progressively annexed by the Ottomans in the Byzantine–Ottoman wars over the 14th and 15th centuries. The fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 ended the Byzantine Empire.[7] The last of the imperial Byzantine successor states, the Empire of Trebizond, would be conquered by the Ottomans eight years later in the 1461 siege.[8] Contents 1 Nomenclature 2 History 2.1 Early history 2.2 Christianization and partition of the Empire 2.3 Loss of the Western Roman Empire 2.4 Justinian dynasty 2.5 Shrinking borders 2.5.1 Early Heraclian dynasty 2.5.2 First Arab Siege of Constantinople (674–678) and the theme system 2.5.3 Late Heraclian dynasty 2.5.4 Second Arab Siege of Constantinople (717–718) and the Isaurian dynasty 2.5.5 Religious dispute over iconoclasm 2.6 Macedonian dynasty and resurgence (867–1025) 2.6.1 Wars against the Abbasids 2.6.2 Wars against the Bulgarian Empire 2.6.3 Relations with the Kievan Rus' 2.6.4 Campaigns in the Caucasus 2.6.5 Apex 2.6.6 Split between Orthodoxy and Catholicism (1054) 2.7 Crisis and fragmentation 2.8 Komnenian dynasty and the Crusades 2.8.1 Alexios I and the First Crusade 2.8.2 John II, Manuel I and the Second Crusade 2.8.3 12th-century Renaissance 2.9 Decline and disintegration 2.9.1 Angelid dynasty 2.9.2 Fourth Crusade 2.9.3 Crusader sack of Constantinople (1204) 2.10 Fall 2.10.1 Empire in exile 2.10.2 Reconquest of Constantinople 2.10.3 Rise of the Ottomans and fall of Constantinople 2.11 Political aftermath 3 Government and bureaucracy 3.1 Diplomacy 4 Science, medicine and law 5 Culture 5.1 Religion 5.2 Arts 5.2.1 Art and literature 5.2.2 Music 5.3 Cuisine 5.4 Flags and insignia 5.5 Language 5.6 Recreation 6 Economy 7 Legacy 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 10.1 Citations 10.2 Sources 10.2.1 Primary sources 10.2.2 Secondary sources 11 Further reading 12 External links 12.1 Byzantine studies, resources and bibliography Nomenclature[edit] See also: Names of the Greeks The first use of the term "Byzantine" to label the later years of the Roman Empire was in 1557, 104 years after the empire's collapse, when the German historian Hieronymus Wolf published his work Corpus Historiæ Byzantinæ, a collection of historical sources. The term comes from "Byzantium", the name of the city to which Constantine moved his capital, leaving Rome, and rebuilt under the new name of Constantinople. The older name of the city would rarely be used from this point onward except in historical or poetic contexts. The publication in 1648 of the Byzantine du Louvre (Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae), and in 1680 of Du Cange's Historia Byzantina further popularised the use of "Byzantine" among French authors, such as Montesquieu.[9] However, it was not until the mid-19th century that the term came into general use in the Western world.[10] The Byzantine Empire was known to its inhabitants as the "Roman Empire" or the "Empire of the Romans" (Latin: Imperium Romanum, Imperium Romanorum; Medieval Greek: Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Ἀρχὴ τῶν Ῥωμαίων, romanized: Basileia tōn Rhōmaiōn, Archē tōn Rhōmaiōn), Romania (Latin: Romania; Medieval Greek: Ῥωμανία, romanized: Rhōmania),[note 1] the Roman Republic (Latin: Res Publica Romana; Medieval Greek: Πολιτεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, romanized: Politeia tōn Rhōmaiōn), or in Greek "Rhōmais" Medieval Greek: Ῥωμαΐς).[13] The inhabitants called themselves Romaioi and even as late as the 19th century Greeks typically referred to Modern Greek as Romaiika "Romaic".[14] After 1204 when the Byzantine Empire was mostly confined to its purely Greek provinces the term 'Hellenes' was increasingly used instead.[15] While the Byzantine Empire had a multi-ethnic character during most of its history[16] and preserved Romano-Hellenistic traditions,[17] it became identified by its western and northern contemporaries with its increasingly predominant Greek element.[18] Western medieval sources also referred to the empire as the "Empire of the Greeks" (Latin: Imperium Graecorum) and to its emperor as Imperator Graecorum (Emperor of the Greeks);[19] these terms were used to distinguish it from the Holy Roman Empire that claimed the prestige of the classical Roman Empire in the West.[20] No such distinction existed in the Islamic and Slavic worlds, where the Empire was more straightforwardly seen as the continuation of the Roman Empire. In the Islamic world, the Roman Empire was known primarily as Rûm.[21] The name millet-i Rûm, or "Roman nation," was used by the Ottomans until the 20th century to refer to the former subjects of the Byzantine Empire, that is, the Orthodox Christian community within Ottoman realms. History[edit] Main article: History of the Byzantine Empire Early history[edit] Constantine the Great was the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity and moved the seat of the empire to Byzantium, renamed Constantinople in his honor. The Roman army succeeded in conquering many territories covering the Mediterranean region and coastal regions in southwestern Europe and North Africa. These territories were home to many different cultural groups, both urban populations, and rural populations. Generally speaking, the eastern Mediterranean provinces were more urbanized than the western, having previously been united under the Macedonian Empire and Hellenised by the influence of Greek culture.[22] The West also suffered more heavily from the instability of the 3rd century AD. This distinction between the established Hellenised East and the younger Latinised West persisted and became increasingly important in later centuries, leading to a gradual estrangement of the two worlds.[22] An early instance of the partition of the Empire into East and West occurred in 293 when Emperor Diocletian created a new administrative system (the tetrarchy), to guarantee security in all endangered regions of his Empire. He associated himself with a co-emperor (Augustus), and each co-emperor then adopted a young colleague given the title of Caesar, to share in their rule and eventually to succeed the senior partner. Each tetrarch was in charge of a part of the Empire. The tetrarchy collapsed, however, in 313 and a few years later Constantine I reunited the two administrative divisions of the Empire as sole Augustus.[23] Christianization and partition of the Empire[edit] See also: Byzantium under the Constantinian and Valentinian dynasties Restored section of the Walls of Constantinople After the death of Theodosius I in 395, the empire was again divided. The west disintegrated in the late 400s while the east ended with the fall of Constantinople in 1453.   The Western Roman Empire   The Eastern Roman/Byzantine Empire In 330, Constantine moved the seat of the Empire to Constantinople, which he founded as a second Rome on the site of Byzantium, a city strategically located on the trade routes between Europe and Asia and between the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. Constantine introduced important changes to the Empire's military, monetary, civil and religious institutions. In regards to his economic policies he has been accused by certain scholars of "reckless fiscality", but the gold solidus he introduced became a stable currency that transformed the economy and promoted development.[24] Under Constantine, Christianity did not become the exclusive religion of the state but enjoyed imperial preference since he supported it with generous privileges. Constantine established the principle that emperors could not settle questions of doctrine on their own but should summon instead general ecclesiastical councils for that purpose. His convening of both the Synod of Arles and the First Council of Nicaea indicated his interest in the unity of the Church, and showcased his claim to be its head.[25] The rise of Christianity was briefly interrupted on the accession of the emperor Julian in 361, who made a determined effort to restore polytheism throughout the empire and was thus dubbed "Julian the Apostate" by the Church.[26] However, this was reversed when Julian was killed in battle in 363.[27] Theodosius I (379–395) was the last Emperor to rule both the Eastern and Western halves of the Empire. In 391 and 392 he issued a series of edicts essentially banning pagan religion. Pagan festivals and sacrifices were banned, as was access to all pagan temples and places of worship.[28] The last Olympic Games are believed to have been held in 393.[29] In 395, Theodosius I bequeathed the imperial office jointly to his sons: Arcadius in the East and Honorius in the West, once again dividing Imperial administration. In the 5th century the Eastern part of the empire was largely spared the difficulties faced by the West – due in part to a more established urban culture and greater financial resources, which allowed it to placate invaders with tribute and pay foreign mercenaries. This success allowed Theodosius II to focus on the codification of Roman law and further fortification of the walls of Constantinople, which left the city impervious to most attacks until 1204.[30] Large portions of the Theodosian Walls are preserved to the present day. To fend off the Huns, Theodosius had to pay an enormous annual tribute to Attila. His successor, Marcian, refused to continue to pay the tribute, but Attila had already diverted his attention to the Western Roman Empire. After Attila's death in 453, the Hun Empire collapsed, and many of the remaining Huns were often hired as mercenaries by Constantinople.[31] Loss of the Western Roman Empire[edit] After the fall of Attila, the Eastern Empire enjoyed a period of peace, while the Western Empire continued to deteriorate due to the expanding migration and invasions of the "barbarians", most prominently the Germanic nations. The West's end is usually dated 476 when the East Germanic Roman foederati general Odoacer deposed the Western Emperor Romulus Augustulus, a year after the latter usurped the position from Julius Nepos.[32] In 480 with the death of Julius Nepos, Eastern Emperor Zeno became sole claimant to Emperor of the empire. Odoacer, now ruler of Italy, was nominally Zeno's subordinate but acted with complete autonomy, eventually providing support to a rebellion against the Emperor.[33] Zeno negotiated with the invading Ostrogoths, who had settled in Moesia, convincing the Gothic king Theodoric to depart for Italy as magister militum per Italiam ("commander in chief for Italy") with the aim of deposing Odoacer. By urging Theodoric to conquer Italy, Zeno rid the Eastern Empire of an unruly subordinate (Odoacer) and moved another (Theodoric) further from the heart of the Empire. After Odoacer's defeat in 493, Theodoric ruled Italy de facto, although he was never recognised by the eastern emperors as "king" (rex).[33] In 491, Anastasius I, an aged civil officer of Roman origin, became Emperor, but it was not until 497 that the forces of the new emperor effectively took the measure of Isaurian resistance.[34] Anastasius revealed himself as an energetic reformer and an able administrator. He introduced a new coinage system of the copper follis, the coin used in most everyday transactions.[35] He also reformed the tax system and permanently abolished the chrysargyron tax. The State Treasury contained the enormous sum of 320,000 lb (150,000 kg) of gold when Anastasius died in 518.[36] Justinian dynasty[edit] See also: Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty Emperor Justinian (left) and (presumed) general Belisarius (right) (Mosaic from Basilica of San Vitale, 6th century) Empress Theodora and attendants (Mosaic from Basilica of San Vitale, 6th century) Hagia Sophia built in AD 537, during the reign of Justinian The Byzantine Empire in c. 600 during the reign of Maurice. Half of the Italian peninsula and most of southern Hispania were lost, but the eastern borders expanded gaining land from the Persians. The Justinian dynasty was founded by Justin I, who though illiterate, rose through the ranks of the military to become Emperor in 518.[37] He was succeeded by his nephew Justinian I in 527, who may already have exerted effective control during Justin's reign.[38] One of the most important figures of late antiquity and possibly the last Roman emperor to speak Latin as a first language,[39] Justinian's rule constitutes a distinct epoch, marked by the ambitious but only partly realised renovatio imperii, or "restoration of the Empire".[40] His wife Theodora was particularly influential.[41] In 529, Justinian appointed a ten-man commission chaired by John the Cappadocian to revise Roman law and create a new codification of laws and jurists' extracts, known as the "Corpus Juris Civilis", or the Justinian Code. In 534, the Corpus was updated and, along with the enactments promulgated by Justinian after 534, formed the system of law used for most of the rest of the Byzantine era.[42] The Corpus forms the basis of civil law of many modern states.[43] In 532, attempting to secure his eastern frontier, Justinian signed a peace treaty with Khosrau I of Persia, agreeing to pay a large annual tribute to the Sassanids. In the same year, he survived a revolt in Constantinople (the Nika riots), which solidified his power but ended with the deaths of a reported 30,000 to 35,000 rioters on his orders.[44] The western conquests began in 533, as Justinian sent his general Belisarius to reclaim the former province of Africa from the Vandals, who had been in control since 429 with their capital at Carthage.[45] Their success came with surprising ease, but it was not until 548 that the major local tribes were subdued.[46] In 535, a small Byzantine expedition to Sicily met with easy success, but the Goths soon stiffened their resistance, and victory did not come until 540, when Belisarius captured Ravenna, after successful sieges of Naples and Rome.[47] In 535–536, Theodahad sent Pope Agapetus I to Constantinople to request the removal of Byzantine forces from Sicily, Dalmatia, and Italy. Although Agapetus failed in his mission to sign a peace with Justinian, he succeeded in having the Monophysite Patriarch Anthimus I of Constantinople denounced, despite Empress Theodora's support and protection.[48] The Ostrogoths captured Rome in 546. Belisarius, who had been sent back to Italy in 544, was eventually recalled to Constantinople in 549.[49] The arrival of the Armenian eunuch Narses in Italy (late 551) with an army of 35,000 men marked another shift in Gothic fortunes. Totila was defeated at the Battle of Taginae and his successor, Teia, was defeated at the Battle of Mons Lactarius (October 552). Despite continuing resistance from a few Gothic garrisons and two subsequent invasions by the Franks and Alemanni, the war for the Italian peninsula was at an end.[50] In 551, Athanagild, a noble from Visigothic Hispania, sought Justinian's help in a rebellion against the king, and the emperor dispatched a force under Liberius, a successful military commander. The empire held on to a small slice of the Iberian Peninsula coast until the reign of Heraclius.[51] In the east, the Roman–Persian Wars continued until 561 when the envoys of Justinian and Khosrau agreed on a 50-year peace.[52] By the mid-550s, Justinian had won victories in most theatres of operation, with the notable exception of the Balkans, which were subjected to repeated incursions from the Slavs and the Gepids. Tribes of Serbs and Croats were later resettled in the northwestern Balkans, during the reign of Heraclius.[53] Justinian called Belisarius out of retirement and defeated the new Hunnish threat. The strengthening of the Danube fleet caused the Kutrigur Huns to withdraw and they agreed to a treaty that allowed safe passage back across the Danube.[54] Although polytheism had been suppressed by the state since at least the time of Constantine in the 4th century, traditional Greco-Roman culture was still influential in the Eastern empire in the 6th century.[55] Hellenistic philosophy began to be gradually amalgamated into newer Christian philosophy. Philosophers such as John Philoponus drew on neoplatonic ideas in addition to Christian thought and empiricism. Because of active paganism of its professors Justinian closed down the Neoplatonic Academy in 529. Other schools continued in Constantinople, Antioch and Alexandria, which were the centers of Justinian's empire.[56] Hymns written by Romanos the Melodist marked the development of the Divine Liturgy, while the architects Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles worked to complete the new Church of the Holy Wisdom, Hagia Sophia, which was designed to replace an older church destroyed during the Nika Revolt. Completed in 537, the Hagia Sophia stands today as one of the major monuments of Byzantine architectural history.[57] During the 6th and 7th centuries, the Empire was struck by a series of epidemics, which greatly devastated the population and contributed to a significant economic decline and a weakening of the Empire.[58] After Justinian died in 565, his successor, Justin II, refused to pay the large tribute to the Persians. Meanwhile, the Germanic Lombards invaded Italy; by the end of the century, only a third of Italy was in Byzantine hands. Justin's successor, Tiberius II, choosing between his enemies, awarded subsidies to the Avars while taking military action against the Persians. Although Tiberius' general, Maurice, led an effective campaign on the eastern frontier, subsidies failed to restrain the Avars. They captured the Balkan fortress of Sirmium in 582, while the Slavs began to make inroads across the Danube.[59] Maurice, who meanwhile succeeded Tiberius, intervened in a Persian civil war, placed the legitimate Khosrau II back on the throne, and married his daughter to him. Maurice's treaty with his new brother-in-law enlarged the territories of the Empire to the East and allowed the energetic Emperor to focus on the Balkans. By 602, a series of successful Byzantine campaigns had pushed the Avars and Slavs back across the Danube.[59] However, Maurice's refusal to ransom several thousand captives taken by the Avars, and his order to the troops to winter in the Danube, caused his popularity to plummet. A revolt broke out under an officer named Phocas, who marched the troops back to Constantinople; Maurice and his family were murdered while trying to escape.[60] Shrinking borders[edit] Early Heraclian dynasty[edit] Further information: Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty Battle between Heraclius and the Persians. Fresco by Piero della Francesca, c. 1452 By 650 (pictured) the empire had lost all its southern provinces, except the Exarchate of Africa, to the Rashidun Caliphate. At the same time the Slavs invaded and settled in the Balkans. After Maurice's murder by Phocas, Khosrau used the pretext to reconquer the Roman province of Mesopotamia.[61] Phocas, an unpopular ruler invariably described in Byzantine sources as a "tyrant", was the target of a number of Senate-led plots. He was eventually deposed in 610 by Heraclius, who sailed to Constantinople from Carthage with an icon affixed to the prow of his ship.[62] Following the accession of Heraclius, the Sassanid advance pushed deep into the Levant, occupying Damascus and Jerusalem and removing the True Cross to Ctesiphon.[63] The counter-attack launched by Heraclius took on the character of a holy war, and an acheiropoietos image of Christ was carried as a military standard[64] (similarly, when Constantinople was saved from a combined Avar–Sassanid–Slavic siege in 626, the victory was attributed to the icons of the Virgin that were led in procession by Patriarch Sergius about the walls of the city).[65] In this very siege of Constantinople of the year 626, amidst the climactic Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628, the combined Avar, Sassanid, and Slavic forces unsuccessfully besieged the Byzantine capital between June and July. After this, the Sassanid army was forced to withdraw to Anatolia. The loss came just after news had reached them of yet another Byzantine victory, where Heraclius's brother Theodore scored well against the Persian general Shahin.[66] Following this, Heraclius led an invasion into Sassanid Mesopotamia once again. The main Sassanid force was destroyed at Nineveh in 627, and in 629 Heraclius restored the True Cross to Jerusalem in a majestic ceremony,[67] as he marched into the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon, where anarchy and civil war reigned as a result of the enduring war. Eventually, the Persians were obliged to withdraw all armed forces and return Sassanid-ruled Egypt, the Levant and whatever imperial territories of Mesopotamia and Armenia were in Roman hands at the time of an earlier peace treaty in c. 595. The war had exhausted both the Byzantines and Sassanids, however, and left them extremely vulnerable to the Muslim forces that emerged in the following years.[68] The Byzantines suffered a crushing defeat by the Arabs at the Battle of Yarmouk in 636, while Ctesiphon fell in 637.[69] First Arab Siege of Constantinople (674–678) and the theme system[edit] Greek fire was first used by the Byzantine Navy during the Byzantine–Arab Wars (from the Madrid Skylitzes, Biblioteca Nacional de España, Madrid). The Arabs, now firmly in control of Syria and the Levant, sent frequent raiding parties deep into Asia Minor, and in 674–678 laid siege to Constantinople itself. The Arab fleet was finally repulsed through the use of Greek fire, and a thirty-years' truce was signed between the Empire and the Umayyad Caliphate.[70] However, the Anatolian raids continued unabated, and accelerated the demise of classical urban culture, with the inhabitants of many cities either refortifying much smaller areas within the old city walls, or relocating entirely to nearby fortresses.[71] Constantinople itself dropped substantially in size, from 500,000 inhabitants to just 40,000–70,000, and, like other urban centres, it was partly ruralised. The city also lost the free grain shipments in 618, after Egypt fell first to the Persians and then to the Arabs, and public wheat distribution ceased.[72] The void left by the disappearance of the old semi-autonomous civic institutions was filled by the system called theme, which entailed dividing Asia Minor into "provinces" occupied by distinct armies that assumed civil authority and answered directly to the imperial administration. This system may have had its roots in certain ad hoc measures taken by Heraclius, but over the course of the 7th century it developed into an entirely new system of imperial governance.[73] The massive cultural and institutional restructuring of the Empire consequent on the loss of territory in the 7th century has been said to have caused a decisive break in east Mediterranean Romanness and that the Byzantine state is subsequently best understood as another successor state rather than a real continuation of the Roman Empire.[74] Late Heraclian dynasty[edit] See also: Twenty Years' Anarchy Constantine IV and his retinue, mosaic in Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe. Constantine IV defeated the First Arab Siege of Constantinople. The withdrawal of large numbers of troops from the Balkans to combat the Persians and then the Arabs in the east opened the door for the gradual southward expansion of Slavic peoples into the peninsula, and, as in Asia Minor, many cities shrank to small fortified settlements.[75] In the 670s, the Bulgars were pushed south of the Danube by the arrival of the Khazars. In 680, Byzantine forces sent to disperse these new settlements were defeated.[76] In 681, Constantine IV signed a treaty with the Bulgar khan Asparukh, and the new Bulgarian state assumed sovereignty over a number of Slavic tribes that had previously, at least in name, recognised Byzantine rule.[76] In 687–688, the final Heraclian emperor, Justinian II, led an expedition against the Slavs and Bulgarians, and made significant gains, although the fact that he had to fight his way from Thrace to Macedonia demonstrates the degree to which Byzantine power in the north Balkans had declined.[77] Justinian II attempted to break the power of the urban aristocracy through severe taxation and the appointment of "outsiders" to administrative posts. He was driven from power in 695, and took shelter first with the Khazars and then with the Bulgarians. In 705, he returned to Constantinople with the armies of the Bulgarian khan Tervel, retook the throne, and instituted a reign of terror against his enemies. With his final overthrow in 711, supported once more by the urban aristocracy, the Heraclian dynasty came to an end.[78] Second Arab Siege of Constantinople (717–718) and the Isaurian dynasty[edit] Further information: Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian dynasty The Byzantine Empire at the accession of Leo III, c. 717. Striped indicates areas raided by the Umayyads. Gold solidus of Leo III (left), and his son and heir, Constantine V (right) In 717 the Umayyad Caliphate launched the Siege of Constantinople (717–718) which lasted for one year. However, the combination of Leo III the Isaurian's military genius, the Byzantines' use of Greek Fire, a cold winter in 717–718, and Byzantine diplomacy with the Khan Tervel of Bulgaria resulted in a Byzantine victory. After Leo III turned back the Muslim assault in 718, he addressed himself to the task of reorganising and consolidating the themes in Asia Minor. In 740 a major Byzantine victory took place at the Battle of Akroinon where the Byzantines destroyed the Umayyad army once again. Leo III the Isaurian's son and successor, Constantine V, won noteworthy victories in northern Syria and also thoroughly undermined Bulgarian strength.[79] In 746, profiting by the unstable conditions in the Umayyad Caliphate, which was falling apart under Marwan II, Constantine V invaded Syria and captured Germanikeia and the Battle of Keramaia resulted in a major Byzantine naval victory over the Umayyad fleet. Coupled with military defeats on other fronts of the Caliphate and internal instability, Umayyad expansion came to an end. Religious dispute over iconoclasm[edit] Main article: Byzantine iconoclasm A Simple Cross: An example of Iconoclast art in the Hagia Irene Church in Istanbul. The 8th and early 9th centuries were also dominated by controversy and religious division over Iconoclasm, which was the main political issue in the Empire for over a century. Icons (here meaning all forms of religious imagery) were banned by Leo and Constantine from around 730, leading to revolts by iconodules (supporters of icons) throughout the empire. After the efforts of empress Irene, the Second Council of Nicaea met in 787 and affirmed that icons could be venerated but not worshipped. Irene is said to have endeavoured to negotiate a marriage between herself and Charlemagne, but, according to Theophanes the Confessor, the scheme was frustrated by Aetios, one of her favourites.[80] In the early 9th century, Leo V reintroduced the policy of iconoclasm, but in 843 Empress Theodora restored the veneration of icons with the help of Patriarch Methodios.[81] Iconoclasm played a part in the further alienation of East from West, which worsened during the so-called Photian schism, when Pope Nicholas I challenged the elevation of Photios to the patriarchate.[82] Macedonian dynasty and resurgence (867–1025)[edit] See also: Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty The Byzantine Empire, c. 867 The accession of Basil I to the throne in 867 marks the beginning of the Macedonian dynasty, which would rule for the next two and a half centuries. This dynasty included some of the most able emperors in Byzantium's history, and the period is one of revival and resurgence. The Empire moved from defending against external enemies to reconquest of territories formerly lost.[83] In addition to a reassertion of Byzantine military power and political authority, the period under the Macedonian dynasty is characterised by a cultural revival in spheres such as philosophy and the arts. There was a conscious effort to restore the brilliance of the period before the Slavic and subsequent Arab invasions, and the Macedonian era has been dubbed the "Golden Age" of Byzantium.[83] Although the Empire was significantly smaller than during the reign of Justinian, it had regained significant strength, as the remaining territories were less geographically dispersed and more politically, economically, and culturally integrated. Wars against the Abbasids[edit] Main article: Arab–Byzantine wars The general Leo Phokas defeats the Hamdanid Emirate of Aleppo at Andrassos in 960, from the Madrid Skylitzes Taking advantage of the Empire's weakness after the Revolt of Thomas the Slav in the early 820s, the Arabs re-emerged and captured Crete. They also successfully attacked Sicily, but in 863 general Petronas gained a decisive victory against Umar al-Aqta, the emir of Melitene (Malatya). Under the leadership of emperor Krum, the Bulgarian threat also re-emerged, but in 815–816 Krum's son, Omurtag, signed a peace treaty with Leo V.[84] In the 830s Abbasid Caliphate started military excursions culminating with a victory in the Sack of Amorium. The Byzantines then counter-attacked and sacked Damietta in Egypt. Later the Abbasid Caliphate responded by sending their troops into Anatolia again, sacking and marauding until they were eventually annihilated by the Byzantines in 863. In the early years of Basil I's reign, Arab raids on the coasts of Dalmatia were successfully repelled, and the region once again came under secure Byzantine control. This enabled Byzantine missionaries to penetrate to the interior and convert the Serbs and the principalities of modern-day Herzegovina and Montenegro to Christianity.[85] By contrast, the Byzantine position in Southern Italy was gradually consolidated so that by 873 Bari was once again under Byzantine rule,[85] and most of Southern Italy would remain in the Empire for the next 200 years.[86] On the more important eastern front, the Empire rebuilt its defences and went on the offensive. The Paulicians were defeated and their capital of Tephrike (Divrigi) taken, while the offensive against the Abbasid Caliphate began with the recapture of Samosata.[85] 10th century military successes were coupled with a major cultural revival, the so-called Macedonian Renaissance. Miniature from the Paris Psalter, an example of Hellenistic-influenced art. Under Basil's son and successor, Leo VI the Wise, the gains in the east against the now-weak Abbasid Caliphate continued. However, Sicily was lost to the Arabs in 902, and in 904 Thessaloniki, the Empire's second city, was sacked by an Arab fleet. The naval weakness of the Empire was rectified. Despite this revenge the Byzantines were still unable to strike a decisive blow against the Muslims, who inflicted a crushing defeat on the imperial forces when they attempted to regain Crete in 911.[87] The death of the Bulgarian tsar Simeon I in 927 severely weakened the Bulgarians, allowing the Byzantines to concentrate on the eastern front.[88] Melitene was permanently recaptured in 934, and in 943 the famous general John Kourkouas continued the offensive in Mesopotamia with some noteworthy victories, culminating in the reconquest of Edessa. Kourkouas was especially celebrated for returning to Constantinople the venerated Mandylion, a relic purportedly imprinted with a portrait of Christ.[89] The soldier-emperors Nikephoros II Phokas (r. 963–969) and John I Tzimiskes (969–976) expanded the empire well into Syria, defeating the emirs of north-west Iraq. The great city of Aleppo was taken by Nikephoros in 962 and the Arabs were decisively expelled from Crete in 963. The recapture of Crete put an end to Arab raids in the Aegean allowing mainland Greece to flourish once again. Cyprus was permanently retaken in 965 and the successes of Nikephoros culminated in 969 with the recapture of Antioch, which he incorporated as a province of the Empire.[90] His successor John Tzimiskes recaptured Damascus, Beirut, Acre, Sidon, Caesarea, and Tiberias, putting Byzantine armies within striking distance of Jerusalem, although the Muslim power centres in Iraq and Egypt were left untouched.[91] After much campaigning in the north, the last Arab threat to Byzantium, the rich province of Sicily, was targeted in 1025 by Basil II, who died before the expedition could be completed. Nevertheless, by that time the Empire stretched from the straits of Messina to the Euphrates and from the Danube to Syria.[92] Wars against the Bulgarian Empire[edit] Further information: Byzantine–Bulgarian wars Emperor Basil II (r. 976–1025) The extent of the Empire under Basil II The traditional struggle with the See of Rome continued through the Macedonian period, spurred by the question of religious supremacy over the newly Christianised state of Bulgaria.[83] Ending eighty years of peace between the two states, the powerful Bulgarian tsar Simeon I invaded in 894 but was pushed back by the Byzantines, who used their fleet to sail up the Black Sea to attack the Bulgarian rear, enlisting the support of the Hungarians.[93] The Byzantines were defeated at the Battle of Boulgarophygon in 896, however, and agreed to pay annual subsidies to the Bulgarians.[87] Leo the Wise died in 912, and hostilities soon resumed as Simeon marched to Constantinople at the head of a large army.[94] Although the walls of the city were impregnable, the Byzantine administration was in disarray and Simeon was invited into the city, where he was granted the crown of basileus (emperor) of Bulgaria and had the young emperor Constantine VII marry one of his daughters. When a revolt in Constantinople halted his dynastic project, he again invaded Thrace and conquered Adrianople.[95] The Empire now faced the problem of a powerful Christian state within a few days' marching distance from Constantinople,[83] as well as having to fight on two fronts.[87] A great imperial expedition under Leo Phocas and Romanos I Lekapenos ended with another crushing Byzantine defeat at the Battle of Achelous in 917, and the following year the Bulgarians were free to ravage northern Greece. Adrianople was plundered again in 923, and a Bulgarian army laid siege to Constantinople in 924. Simeon died suddenly in 927, however, and Bulgarian power collapsed with him. Bulgaria and Byzantium entered a long period of peaceful relations, and the Empire was now free to concentrate on the eastern front against the Muslims.[96] In 968, Bulgaria was overrun by the Rus' under Sviatoslav I of Kiev, but three years later, John I Tzimiskes defeated the Rus' and re-incorporated Eastern Bulgaria into the Byzantine Empire.[97] Bulgarian resistance revived under the rule of the Cometopuli dynasty, but the new Emperor Basil II (r. 976–1025) made the submission of the Bulgarians his primary goal.[98] Basil's first expedition against Bulgaria, however, resulted in a defeat at the Gates of Trajan. For the next few years, the emperor would be preoccupied with internal revolts in Anatolia, while the Bulgarians expanded their realm in the Balkans. The war dragged on for nearly twenty years. The Byzantine victories of Spercheios and Skopje decisively weakened the Bulgarian army, and in annual campaigns, Basil methodically reduced the Bulgarian strongholds.[98] At the Battle of Kleidion in 1014 the Bulgarians were annihilated: their army was captured, and it is said that 99 out of every 100 men were blinded, with the hundredth man left with one eye so he could lead his compatriots home. When Tsar Samuil saw the broken remains of his once formidable army, he died of shock. By 1018, the last Bulgarian strongholds had surrendered, and the country became part of the Empire.[98] This victory restored the Danube frontier, which had not been held since the days of the Emperor Heraclius.[92] Relations with the Kievan Rus'[edit] Rus' under the walls of Constantinople (860) Varangian Guardsmen, an illumination from the Skylitzis Chronicle Between 850 and 1100, the Empire developed a mixed relationship with the new state of the Kievan Rus', which had emerged to the north across the Black Sea.[99] This relationship would have long-lasting repercussions in the history of the East Slavs, and the Empire quickly became the main trading and cultural partner for Kiev. The Rus' launched their first attack against Constantinople in 860, pillaging the suburbs of the city. In 941, they appeared on the Asian shore of the Bosphorus, but this time they were crushed, an indication of the improvements in the Byzantine military position after 907, when only diplomacy had been able to push back the invaders. Basil II could not ignore the emerging power of the Rus', and, following the example of his predecessors, he used religion as a means for the achievement of political purposes.[100] Rus'–Byzantine relations became closer following the marriage of Anna Porphyrogeneta to Vladimir the Great in 988, and the subsequent Christianisation of the Rus'.[99] Byzantine priests, architects, and artists were invited to work on numerous cathedrals and churches around Rus', expanding Byzantine cultural influence even further, while numerous Rus' served in the Byzantine army as mercenaries, most notably as the famous Varangian Guard.[99] Even after the Christianisation of the Rus', however, relations were not always friendly. The most serious conflict between the two powers was the war of 968–971 in Bulgaria, but several Rus' raiding expeditions against the Byzantine cities of the Black Sea coast and Constantinople itself are also recorded. Although most were repulsed, they were often followed by treaties that were generally favourable to the Rus', such as the one concluded at the end of the war of 1043, during which the Rus' gave an indication of their ambitions to compete with the Byzantines as an independent power.[100] Campaigns in the Caucasus[edit] Main article: Byzantine–Georgian wars Between 1021 and 1022, following years of tensions, Basil II led a series of victorious campaigns against the Kingdom of Georgia, resulting in the annexation of several Georgian provinces to the Empire. Basil's successors also annexed Bagratid Armenia in 1045. Importantly, both Georgia and Armenia were significantly weakened by the Byzantine administration's policy of heavy taxation and abolishing of the levy. The weakening of Georgia and Armenia would play a significant role in the Byzantine defeat at Manzikert in 1071.[101] Apex[edit] Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe throughout late antiquity and most of the Middle Ages until the Fourth Crusade in 1204. Basil II is considered among the most capable Byzantine emperors and his reign as the apex of the empire in the Middle Ages. By 1025, the date of Basil II's death, the Byzantine Empire stretched from Armenia in the east to Calabria in Southern Italy in the west.[92] Many successes had been achieved, ranging from the conquest of Bulgaria to the annexation of parts of Georgia and Armenia, and the reconquest of Crete, Cyprus, and the important city of Antioch. These were not temporary tactical gains but long-term reconquests.[85] Leo VI achieved the complete codification of Byzantine law in Greek. This monumental work of 60 volumes became the foundation of all subsequent Byzantine law and is still studied today.[102] Leo also reformed the administration of the Empire, redrawing the borders of the administrative subdivisions (the Themata, or "Themes") and tidying up the system of ranks and privileges, as well as regulating the behaviour of the various trade guilds in Constantinople. Leo's reform did much to reduce the previous fragmentation of the Empire, which henceforth had one center of power, Constantinople.[103] However, the increasing military success of the Empire greatly enriched and empowered the provincial nobility with respect to the peasantry, who were essentially reduced to a state of serfdom.[104] Under the Macedonian emperors, the city of Constantinople flourished, becoming the largest and wealthiest city in Europe, with a population of approximately 400,000 in the 9th and 10th centuries.[105] During this period, the Byzantine Empire employed a strong civil service staffed by competent aristocrats that oversaw the collection of taxes, domestic administration, and foreign policy. The Macedonian emperors also increased the Empire's wealth by fostering trade with Western Europe, particularly through the sale of silk and metalwork.[106] Split between Orthodoxy and Catholicism (1054)[edit] Further information: East–West Schism Mural of Saints Cyril and Methodius, 19th century, Troyan Monastery, Bulgaria The Macedonian period also included events of momentous religious significance. The conversion of the Bulgarians, Serbs and Rus' to Orthodox Christianity drew the religious map of Europe which still resonates today. Cyril and Methodius, two Byzantine Greek brothers from Thessaloniki, contributed significantly to the Christianization of the Slavs and in the process devised the Glagolitic alphabet, ancestor to the Cyrillic script.[107] In 1054, relations between the Eastern and Western traditions of the Chalcedonian Christian Church reached a terminal crisis, known as the East–West Schism. Although there was a formal declaration of institutional separation, on 16 July, when three papal legates entered the Hagia Sophia during Divine Liturgy on a Saturday afternoon and placed a bull of excommunication on the altar,[108] the so-called Great Schism was actually the culmination of centuries of gradual separation.[109] Crisis and fragmentation[edit] The Byzantine Empire soon fell into a period of difficulties, caused to a large extent by the undermining of the theme system and the neglect of the military. Nikephoros II, John Tzimiskes, and Basil II shifted the emphasis of the military divisions (τάγματα, tagmata) from a reactive, defence-oriented citizen army into an army of professional career soldiers, increasingly dependent on foreign mercenaries. Mercenaries were expensive, however, and as the threat of invasion receded in the 10th century, so did the need for maintaining large garrisons and expensive fortifications.[110] Basil II left a burgeoning treasury upon his death, but he neglected to plan for his succession. None of his immediate successors had any particular military or political talent and the imperial administration increasingly fell into the hands of the civil service. Incompetent efforts to revive the Byzantine economy resulted in severe inflation and a debased gold currency. The army was now seen as both an unnecessary expense and a political threat. A number of standing local units were demobilised, further augmenting the army's dependence on mercenaries, who could be retained and dismissed on an as-needed basis.[111] The seizure of Edessa (1031) by the Byzantines under George Maniakes and the counterattack by the Seljuk Turks At the same time, Byzantium was faced with new enemies. Its provinces in southern Italy were threatened by the Normans, who arrived in Italy at the beginning of the 11th century. During a period of strife between Constantinople and Rome culminating in the East-West Schism of 1054, the Normans began to advance, slowly but steadily, into Byzantine Italy.[112] Reggio, the capital of the tagma of Calabria, was captured in 1060 by Robert Guiscard, followed by Otranto in 1068. Bari, the main Byzantine stronghold in Apulia, was besieged in August 1068 and fell in April 1071.[113] About 1053, Constantine IX disbanded what the historian John Skylitzes calls the "Iberian Army", which consisted of 50,000 men and it was turned into a contemporary Drungary of the Watch. Two other knowledgeable contemporaries, the former officials Michael Attaleiates and Kekaumenos, agree with Skylitzes that by demobilising these soldiers Constantine did catastrophic harm to the Empire's eastern defences. The emergency lent weight to the military aristocracy in Anatolia, who in 1068 secured the election of one of their own, Romanos Diogenes, as emperor. In the summer of 1071, Romanos undertook a massive eastern campaign to draw the Seljuks into a general engagement with the Byzantine army. At the Battle of Manzikert, Romanos suffered a surprise defeat by Sultan Alp Arslan, and he was captured. Alp Arslan treated him with respect and imposed no harsh terms on the Byzantines.[111] In Constantinople, however, a coup put in power Michael Doukas, who soon faced the opposition of Nikephoros Bryennios and Nikephoros Botaneiates. By 1081, the Seljuks had expanded their rule over virtually the entire Anatolian plateau from Armenia in the east to Bithynia in the west, and they had founded their capital at Nicaea, just 90 kilometres (56 miles) from Constantinople.[114] Komnenian dynasty and the Crusades[edit] See also: Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty and Komnenian restoration Alexios I, founder of the Komnenos dynasty During the Komnenian, or Comnenian, period from about 1081 to about 1185, the five emperors of the Komnenos dynasty (Alexios I, John II, Manuel I, Alexios II, and Andronikos I) presided over a sustained, though ultimately incomplete, restoration of the military, territorial, economic, and political position of the Byzantine Empire.[115] Although the Seljuk Turks occupied the heartland of the Empire in Anatolia, most Byzantine military efforts during this period were directed against Western powers, particularly the Normans.[115] The Empire under the Komnenoi played a key role in the history of the Crusades in the Holy Land, which Alexios I had helped bring about, while also exerting enormous cultural and political influence in Europe, the Near East, and the lands around the Mediterranean Sea under John and Manuel. Contact between Byzantium and the "Latin" West, including the Crusader states, increased significantly during the Komnenian period. Venetian and other Italian traders became resident in large numbers in Constantinople and the empire (there were an estimated 60,000 Latins in Constantinople alone, out of a population of three to four hundred thousand), and their presence together with the numerous Latin mercenaries who were employed by Manuel helped to spread Byzantine technology, art, literature and culture throughout the Latin West, while also leading to a flow of Western ideas and customs into the Empire.[116] In terms of prosperity and cultural life, the Komnenian period was one of the peaks in Byzantine history,[117] and Constantinople remained the leading city of the Christian world in size, wealth, and culture.[118] There was a renewed interest in classical Greek philosophy, as well as an increase in literary output in vernacular Greek.[119] Byzantine art and literature held a pre-eminent place in Europe, and the cultural impact of Byzantine art on the west during this period was enormous and of long lasting significance.[120] Alexios I and the First Crusade[edit] Further information: Alexios I Komnenos See also: First Crusade The Chora Church, dating from the Komnenian period, has some of the finest Byzantine frescoes and mosaics. After Manzikert, a partial recovery (referred to as the Komnenian restoration) was made possible by the Komnenian dynasty.[121] The Komnenoi attained power again under Alexios I in 1081. From the outset of his reign, Alexios faced a formidable attack by the Normans under Robert Guiscard and his son Bohemund of Taranto, who captured Dyrrhachium and Corfu, and laid siege to Larissa in Thessaly. Robert Guiscard's death in 1085 temporarily eased the Norman problem. The following year, the Seljuq sultan died, and the sultanate was split by internal rivalries. By his own efforts, Alexios defeated the Pechenegs; they were caught by surprise and annihilated at the Battle of Levounion on 28 April 1091.[122] The Byzantine Empire and the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm before the First Crusade (1095–1099) Having achieved stability in the West, Alexios could turn his attention to the severe economic difficulties and the disintegration of the Empire's traditional defences.[123] However, he still did not have enough manpower to recover the lost territories in Asia Minor and to advance against the Seljuks. At the Council of Piacenza in 1095, envoys from Alexios spoke to Pope Urban II about the suffering of the Christians of the East, and underscored that without help from the West they would continue to suffer under Muslim rule.[124] Urban saw Alexios's request as a dual opportunity to cement Western Europe and reunite the Eastern Orthodox Church with the Roman Catholic Church under his rule.[124] On 27 November 1095, Pope Urban II called together the Council of Clermont, and urged all those present to take up arms under the sign of the Cross and launch an armed pilgrimage to recover Jerusalem and the East from the Muslims. The response in Western Europe was overwhelming.[122] Alexios had anticipated help in the form of mercenary forces from the West, but he was totally unprepared for the immense and undisciplined force that soon arrived in Byzantine territory. It was no comfort to Alexios to learn that four of the eight leaders of the main body of the Crusade were Normans, among them Bohemund. Since the crusade had to pass through Constantinople, however, the Emperor had some control over it. He required its leaders to swear to restore to the empire any towns or territories they might reconquer from the Turks on their way to the Holy Land. In return, he gave them guides and a military escort.[125] Alexios was able to recover a number of important cities and islands, and in fact much of western Asia Minor. The Crusaders agreed to become Alexios' vassals under the Treaty of Devol in 1108, which marked the end of the Norman threat during Alexios' reign.[126] John II, Manuel I and the Second Crusade[edit] Main articles: John II Komnenos and Manuel I Komnenos A mosaic from the Hagia Sophia of Constantinople (modern Istanbul), depicting Mary and Jesus, flanked by John II Komnenos (left) and his wife Irene of Hungary (right), 12th century Byzantine Empire in orange, c. 1180, at the end of the Komnenian period Alexios's son John II Komnenos succeeded him in 1118 and ruled until 1143. John was a pious and dedicated Emperor who was determined to undo the damage to the empire suffered at the Battle of Manzikert, half a century earlier.[127] Famed for his piety and his remarkably mild and just reign, John was an exceptional example of a moral ruler at a time when cruelty was the norm.[128] For this reason, he has been called the Byzantine Marcus Aurelius. During his twenty-five-year reign, John made alliances with the Holy Roman Empire in the West and decisively defeated the Pechenegs at the Battle of Beroia.[129] He thwarted Hungarian and Serbian threats during the 1120s, and in 1130 he allied himself with the German emperor Lothair III against the Norman king Roger II of Sicily.[130] In the later part of his reign, John focused his activities on the East, personally leading numerous campaigns against the Turks in Asia Minor. His campaigns fundamentally altered the balance of power in the East, forcing the Turks onto the defensive, while restoring many towns, fortresses, and cities across the peninsula to the Byzantines. He defeated the Danishmend Emirate of Melitene and reconquered all of Cilicia, while forcing Raymond of Poitiers, Prince of Antioch, to recognise Byzantine suzerainty. In an effort to demonstrate the Emperor's role as the leader of the Christian world, John marched into the Holy Land at the head of the combined forces of the Empire and the Crusader states; yet despite his great vigour pressing the campaign, his hopes were disappointed by the treachery of his Crusader allies.[131] In 1142, John returned to press his claims to Antioch, but he died in the spring of 1143 following a hunting accident. John's chosen heir was his fourth son, Manuel I Komnenos, who campaigned aggressively against his neighbours both in the west and in the east. In Palestine, Manuel allied with the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem and sent a large fleet to participate in a combined invasion of Fatimid Egypt. Manuel reinforced his position as overlord of the Crusader states, with his hegemony over Antioch and Jerusalem secured by agreement with Raynald, Prince of Antioch, and Amalric, King of Jerusalem.[132] In an effort to restore Byzantine control over the ports of southern Italy, he sent an expedition to Italy in 1155, but disputes within the coalition led to the eventual failure of the campaign. Despite this military setback, Manuel's armies successfully invaded the Southern parts of the Kingdom of Hungary in 1167, defeating the Hungarians at the Battle of Sirmium. By 1168, nearly the whole of the eastern Adriatic coast lay in Manuel's hands.[133] Manuel made several alliances with the Pope and Western Christian kingdoms, and he successfully handled the passage of the Second Crusade through his empire.[134] In the east, however, Manuel suffered a major defeat in 1176 at the Battle of Myriokephalon, against the Turks. Yet the losses were quickly recovered, and in the following year Manuel's forces inflicted a defeat upon a force of "picked Turks".[135] The Byzantine commander John Vatatzes, who destroyed the Turkish invaders at the Battle of Hyelion and Leimocheir, not only brought troops from the capital but also was able to gather an army along the way, a sign that the Byzantine army remained strong and that the defensive program of western Asia Minor was still successful.[136] 12th-century Renaissance[edit] Further information: Byzantine civilisation in the 12th century See also: Komnenian Byzantine army The Lamentation of Christ (1164), a fresco from the church of Saint Panteleimon in Nerezi, North Macedonia, considered a superb example of 12th-century Komnenian art John and Manuel pursued active military policies, and both deployed considerable resources on sieges and on city defences; aggressive fortification policies were at the heart of their imperial military policies.[137] Despite the defeat at Myriokephalon, the policies of Alexios, John and Manuel resulted in vast territorial gains, increased frontier stability in Asia Minor, and secured the stabilisation of the Empire's European frontiers. From c. 1081 to c. 1180, the Komnenian army assured the Empire's security, enabling Byzantine civilisation to flourish.[138] This allowed the Western provinces to achieve an economic revival that continued until the close of the century. It has been argued that Byzantium under the Komnenian rule was more prosperous than at any time since the Persian invasions of the 7th century. During the 12th century, population levels rose and extensive tracts of new agricultural land were brought into production. Archaeological evidence from both Europe and Asia Minor shows a considerable increase in the size of urban settlements, together with a notable upsurge in new towns. Trade was also flourishing; the Venetians, the Genoese and others opened up the ports of the Aegean to commerce, shipping goods from the Crusader kingdoms of Outremer and Fatimid Egypt to the west and trading with the Empire via Constantinople.[139] In artistic terms, there was a revival in mosaic, and regional schools of architecture began producing many distinctive styles that drew on a range of cultural influences.[140] During the 12th century, the Byzantines provided their model of early humanism as a renaissance of interest in classical authors. In Eustathius of Thessalonica, Byzantine humanism found its most characteristic expression.[141] In philosophy, there was resurgence of classical learning not seen since the 7th century, characterised by a significant increase in the publication of commentaries on classical works.[119] In addition, the first transmission of classical Greek knowledge to the West occurred during the Komnenian period.[120] Decline and disintegration[edit] Main article: Decline of the Byzantine Empire Angelid dynasty[edit] Main article: Byzantine Empire under the Angelos dynasty Byzantium in the late Angeloi period Manuel's death on 24 September 1180 left his 11-year-old son Alexios II Komnenos on the throne. Alexios was highly incompetent in the office, and with his mother Maria of Antioch's Frankish background, made his regency unpopular.[142] Eventually, Andronikos I Komnenos, a grandson of Alexios I, launched a revolt against his younger relative and managed to overthrow him in a violent coup d'état.[143] Utilizing his good looks and his immense popularity with the army, he marched on to Constantinople in August 1182 and incited a massacre of the Latins.[143] After eliminating his potential rivals, he had himself crowned as co-emperor in September 1183. He eliminated Alexios II, and took his 12-year-old wife Agnes of France for himself.[143] Andronikos began his reign well; in particular, the measures he took to reform the government of the Empire have been praised by historians. According to George Ostrogorsky, Andronikos was determined to root out corruption: Under his rule, the sale of offices ceased; selection was based on merit, rather than favouritism; officials were paid an adequate salary so as to reduce the temptation of bribery. In the provinces, Andronikos's reforms produced a speedy and marked improvement.[144] The aristocrats were infuriated against him, and to make matters worse, Andronikos seems to have become increasingly unbalanced; executions and violence became increasingly common, and his reign turned into a reign of terror.[145] Andronikos seemed almost to seek the extermination of the aristocracy as a whole. The struggle against the aristocracy turned into wholesale slaughter, while the Emperor resorted to ever more ruthless measures to shore up his regime.[144] Despite his military background, Andronikos failed to deal with Isaac Komnenos, Béla III of Hungary (r. 1172–1196) who reincorporated Croatian territories into Hungary, and Stephen Nemanja of Serbia (r. 1166–1196) who declared his independence from the Byzantine Empire. Yet, none of these troubles would compare to William II of Sicily's (r. 1166–1189) invasion force of 300 ships and 80,000 men, arriving in 1185.[146] Andronikos mobilised a small fleet of 100 ships to defend the capital, but other than that he was indifferent to the populace. He was finally overthrown when Isaac Angelos, surviving an imperial assassination attempt, seized power with the aid of the people and had Andronikos killed.[147] The reign of Isaac II, and more so that of his brother Alexios III, saw the collapse of what remained of the centralised machinery of Byzantine government and defence. Although the Normans were driven out of Greece, in 1186 the Vlachs and Bulgars began a rebellion that led to the formation of the Second Bulgarian Empire. The internal policy of the Angeloi was characterised by the squandering of the public treasure and fiscal maladministration. Imperial authority was severely weakened, and the growing power vacuum at the center of the Empire encouraged fragmentation. There is evidence that some Komnenian heirs had set up a semi-independent state in Trebizond before 1204.[148] According to Alexander Vasiliev, "the dynasty of the Angeloi, Greek in its origin, ... accelerated the ruin of the Empire, already weakened without and disunited within."[149] Fourth Crusade[edit] Further information: Fourth Crusade The Entry of the Crusaders into Constantinople, by Eugène Delacroix (1840) In 1198, Pope Innocent III broached the subject of a new crusade through legates and encyclical letters.[150] The stated intent of the crusade was to conquer Egypt, now the centre of Muslim power in the Levant. The crusader army that arrived at Venice in the summer of 1202 and hired the Venetian fleet to transport them to Egypt. As payment to the Venetians, they captured the (Christian) port of Zara in Dalmatia (vassal city of Venice, which had rebelled and placed itself under Hungary's protection in 1186).[151] Shortly afterwards, Alexios Angelos, son of the deposed and blinded Emperor Isaac II Angelos, made contacts with the crusaders. Alexios offered to reunite the Byzantine church with Rome, pay the crusaders 200,000 silver marks, join the crusade, and provide all the supplies they needed to reach Egypt.[152] Crusader sack of Constantinople (1204)[edit] Further information: Siege of Constantinople (1203) and Siege of Constantinople (1204) The partition of the empire following the Fourth Crusade, c. 1204 The crusaders arrived at Constantinople in the summer of 1203 and quickly attacked, starting a major fire that damaged large parts of the city, and briefly seized control. Alexios III fled from the capital and Alexios Angelos was elevated to the throne as Alexios IV along with his blind father Isaac. Alexios IV and Isaac II were unable to keep their promises and were deposed by Alexios V. The crusaders again took the city on 13 April 1204 and Constantinople was subjected to pillage and massacre by the rank and file for three days. Many priceless icons, relics and other objects later turned up in Western Europe, a large number in Venice. According to Choniates, a prostitute was even set up on the Patriarchal throne.[153] When order had been restored, the crusaders and the Venetians proceeded to implement their agreement; Baldwin of Flanders was elected Emperor of a new Latin Empire and the Venetian Thomas Morosini was chosen as Patriarch. The lands divided up among the leaders included most of the former Byzantine possessions, though resistance would continue through the Byzantine remnants of Nicaea, Trebizond, and Epirus.[154] Although Venice was more interested in commerce than conquering territory, it took key areas of Constantinople and the Doge took the title of "Lord of a Quarter and Half a Quarter of the Roman Empire".[155] Fall[edit] Empire in exile[edit] Further information: Frankokratia After the sack of Constantinople in 1204 by Latin crusaders, two Byzantine successor states were established: the Empire of Nicaea, and the Despotate of Epirus. A third, the Empire of Trebizond, was created after Alexios Komnenos, commanding the Georgian expedition in Chaldia[156] a few weeks before the sack of Constantinople, found himself de facto emperor, and established himself in Trebizond. Of the three successor states, Epirus and Nicaea stood the best chance of reclaiming Constantinople. The Nicaean Empire struggled to survive the next few decades, however, and by the mid-13th century it had lost much of southern Anatolia.[157] The weakening of the Sultanate of Rûm following the Mongol invasion in 1242–43 allowed many beyliks and ghazis to set up their own principalities in Anatolia, weakening the Byzantine hold on Asia Minor.[158] In time, one of the Beys, Osman I, created an empire that would eventually conquer Constantinople. However, the Mongol invasion also gave Nicaea a temporary respite from Seljuk attacks, allowing it to concentrate on the Latin Empire to its north. Reconquest of Constantinople[edit] Main article: Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty The Byzantine Empire, c. 1263 The Empire of Nicaea, founded by the Laskarid dynasty, managed to effect the Recapture of Constantinople from the Latins in 1261 and defeat Epirus. This led to a short-lived revival of Byzantine fortunes under Michael VIII Palaiologos but the war-ravaged Empire was ill-equipped to deal with the enemies that surrounded it. To maintain his campaigns against the Latins, Michael pulled troops from Asia Minor and levied crippling taxes on the peasantry, causing much resentment.[159] Massive construction projects were completed in Constantinople to repair the damage of the Fourth Crusade but none of these initiatives was of any comfort to the farmers in Asia Minor suffering raids from Muslim ghazis.[160] Rather than holding on to his possessions in Asia Minor, Michael chose to expand the Empire, gaining only short-term success. To avoid another sacking of the capital by the Latins, he forced the Church to submit to Rome, again a temporary solution for which the peasantry hated Michael and Constantinople.[160] The efforts of Andronikos II and later his grandson Andronikos III marked Byzantium's last genuine attempts in restoring the glory of the Empire. However, the use of mercenaries by Andronikos II would often backfire, with the Catalan Company ravaging the countryside and increasing resentment towards Constantinople.[161] Rise of the Ottomans and fall of Constantinople[edit] Main articles: Byzantine–Ottoman Wars and Fall of Constantinople The Siege of Constantinople in 1453, depicted in a 15th-century French miniature The situation became worse for Byzantium during the civil wars after Andronikos III died. A six-year-long civil war devastated the empire, allowing the Serbian ruler Stefan Dušan (r. 1331–1346) to overrun most of the Empire's remaining territory and establish a Serbian Empire. In 1354, an earthquake at Gallipoli devastated the fort, allowing the Ottomans (who were hired as mercenaries during the civil war by John VI Kantakouzenos) to establish themselves in Europe.[162] By the time the Byzantine civil wars had ended, the Ottomans had defeated the Serbians and subjugated them as vassals. Following the Battle of Kosovo, much of the Balkans became dominated by the Ottomans.[163] The Byzantine emperors appealed to the West for help, but the Pope would only consider sending aid in return for a reunion of the Eastern Orthodox Church with the See of Rome. Church unity was considered, and occasionally accomplished by imperial decree, but the Orthodox citizenry and clergy intensely resented the authority of Rome and the Latin Rite.[164] Some Western troops arrived to bolster the Christian defence of Constantinople, but most Western rulers, distracted by their own affairs, did nothing as the Ottomans picked apart the remaining Byzantine territories.[165] Constantinople by this stage was underpopulated and dilapidated. The population of the city had collapsed so severely that it was now little more than a cluster of villages separated by fields. On 2 April 1453, Sultan Mehmed's army of 80,000 men and large numbers of irregulars laid siege to the city.[166] Despite a desperate last-ditch defence of the city by the massively outnumbered Christian forces (c. 7,000 men, 2,000 of whom were foreign),[165] Constantinople finally fell to the Ottomans after a two-month siege on 29 May 1453. The last Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI Palaiologos, was last seen casting off his imperial regalia and throwing himself into hand-to-hand combat after the walls of the city were taken.[167] Political aftermath[edit] The Eastern Mediterranean just before the Fall of Constantinople Flag of the late Empire under the Palaiologoi, sporting the tetragrammic cross symbol of the Palaiologos dynasty By the time of the fall of Constantinople, the only remaining territory of the Byzantine Empire was the Despotate of the Morea (Peloponnese), which was ruled by brothers of the last Emperor, Thomas Palaiologos and Demetrios Palaiologos. The Despotate continued on as an independent state by paying an annual tribute to the Ottomans. Incompetent rule, failure to pay the annual tribute and a revolt against the Ottomans finally led to Mehmed II's invasion of Morea in May 1460.[168] A few holdouts remained for a time. The island of Monemvasia refused to surrender and it was first ruled for a short time by an Aragonese corsair. When the population drove him out they obtained the consent of Thomas to place themselves under the Pope's protection before the end of 1460. The Mani Peninsula, on the Morea's south end, resisted under a loose coalition of the local clans and then that area came under Venice's rule. The last holdout was Salmeniko, in the Morea's northwest. Graitzas Palaiologos was the military commander there, stationed at Salmeniko Castle. While the town eventually surrendered, Graitzas and his garrison and some town residents held out in the castle until July 1461, when they escaped and reached Venetian territory.[169] The Empire of Trebizond, which had split away from the Byzantine Empire just weeks before Constantinople was taken by the Crusaders in 1204, became the last remnant and last de facto successor state to the Byzantine Empire. Efforts by the Emperor David to recruit European powers for an anti-Ottoman crusade provoked war between the Ottomans and Trebizond in the summer of 1461. After a month-long siege, David surrendered the city of Trebizond on 14 August 1461. The Empire of Trebizond's Crimean principality, the Principality of Theodoro (part of the Perateia), lasted another 14 years, falling to the Ottomans in December 1475. A nephew of the last Emperor, Constantine XI, Andreas Palaiologos claimed to have inherited the title of Byzantine Emperor. He lived in the Morea until its fall in 1460, then escaped to Rome where he lived under the protection of the Papal States for the remainder of his life. Since the office of emperor had never been technically hereditary, Andreas' claim would have been without merit under Byzantine law. However, the Empire had vanished, and Western states generally followed the Roman-church-sanctioned principles of hereditary sovereignty. Seeking a life in the west, Andreas styled himself Imperator Constantinopolitanus ("Emperor of Constantinople"), and sold his succession rights to both Charles VIII of France and the Catholic Monarchs. Constantine XI died without producing an heir, and had Constantinople not fallen he might have been succeeded by the sons of his deceased elder brother, who were taken into the palace service of Mehmed II after the fall of Constantinople. The oldest boy, renamed Has Murad, became a personal favourite of Mehmed and served as Beylerbey (Governor-General) of the Balkans. The younger son, renamed Mesih Pasha, became Admiral of the Ottoman fleet and Sancak Beg (Governor) of the Province of Gallipoli. He eventually served twice as Grand Vizier under Mehmed's son, Bayezid II.[170] Mehmed II and his successors continued to consider themselves heirs to the Roman Empire until the demise of the Ottoman Empire in the early 20th century following World War 1. They considered that they had simply shifted its religious basis as Constantine had done before, and they continued to refer to their conquered Eastern Roman inhabitants (Orthodox Christians) as Rûm. Meanwhile, the Danubian Principalities (whose rulers also considered themselves the heirs of the Eastern Roman Emperors[171]) harboured Orthodox refugees, including some Byzantine nobles. At his death, the role of the emperor as a patron of Eastern Orthodoxy was claimed by Ivan III, Grand duke of Muscovy. He had married Andreas' sister, Sophia Palaiologina, whose grandson, Ivan IV, would become the first Tsar of Russia (tsar, or czar, meaning caesar, is a term traditionally applied by Slavs to the Byzantine Emperors). Their successors supported the idea that Moscow was the proper heir to Rome and Constantinople. The idea of the Russian Empire as the successive Third Rome was kept alive until its demise with the Russian Revolution.[172] Government and bureaucracy[edit] Main article: Byzantine bureaucracy The themes, c. 750 The themes, c. 950 In the Byzantine state, the emperor was the sole and absolute ruler, and his power was regarded as having divine origin.[173] The Senate had ceased to have real political and legislative authority but remained as an honorary council with titular members. By the end of the 8th century, a civil administration focused on the court was formed as part of a large-scale consolidation of power in the capital (the rise to pre-eminence of the position of sakellarios is related to this change).[174] The most important administrative reform, which probably started in the mid-7th century, was the creation of themes, where civil and military administration was exercised by one person, the strategos.[175] Despite the occasionally derogatory use of the terms "Byzantine" and "Byzantinism", the Byzantine bureaucracy had a distinct ability for reconstituting itself in accordance with the Empire's situation. The elaborate system of titulature and precedence gave the court prestige and influence. Officials were arranged in strict order around the emperor, and depended upon the imperial will for their ranks. There were also actual administrative jobs, but authority could be vested in individuals rather than offices.[176] In the 8th and 9th centuries, civil service constituted the clearest path to aristocratic status, but, starting in the 9th century, the civil aristocracy was rivalled by an aristocracy of nobility. According to some studies of Byzantine government, 11th-century politics were dominated by competition between the civil and the military aristocracy. During this period, Alexios I undertook important administrative reforms, including the creation of new courtly dignities and offices.[177] Diplomacy[edit] Main article: Byzantine diplomacy The embassy of John the Grammarian in 829, between the emperor Theophilos and the Abbasid caliph Al-Ma'mun After the fall of Rome, the key challenge to the Empire was to maintain a set of relations between itself and its neighbours. When these nations set about forging formal political institutions, they often modelled themselves on Constantinople. Byzantine diplomacy soon managed to draw its neighbours into a network of international and inter-state relations.[178] This network revolved around treaty making, and included the welcoming of the new ruler into the family of kings, and the assimilation of Byzantine social attitudes, values and institutions.[179] Whereas classical writers are fond of making ethical and legal distinctions between peace and war, Byzantines regarded diplomacy as a form of war by other means. For example, a Bulgarian threat could be countered by providing money to the Kievan Rus'.[180] Italian sketch of Emperor John VIII during his visit in Ferrara and Florence in 1438 Diplomacy in the era was understood to have an intelligence-gathering function on top of its pure political function. The Bureau of Barbarians in Constantinople handled matters of protocol and record keeping for any issues related to the "barbarians", and thus had, perhaps, a basic intelligence function itself.[181] John B. Bury believed that the office exercised supervision over all foreigners visiting Constantinople, and that they were under the supervision of the Logothetes tou dromou.[182] While on the surface a protocol office – its main duty was to ensure foreign envoys were properly cared for and received sufficient state funds for their maintenance, and it kept all the official translators – it probably had a security function as well.[183] Byzantines availed themselves of a number of diplomatic practices. For example, embassies to the capital would often stay on for years. A member of other royal houses would routinely be requested to stay on in Constantinople, not only as a potential hostage, but also as a useful pawn in case political conditions where he came from changed. Another key practice was to overwhelm visitors by sumptuous displays.[178] According to Dimitri Obolensky, the preservation of the ancient civilisation in Europe was due to the skill and resourcefulness of Byzantine diplomacy, which remains one of Byzantium's lasting contributions to the history of Europe.[184] Science, medicine and law[edit] See also: Byzantine science, Byzantine medicine, Byzantine law, and List of Byzantine inventions Interior of the Hagia Sophia, the patriarchal basilica in Constantinople designed 537 CE by Isidore of Miletus, the first compiler of Archimedes' various works. The influence of Archimedes' principles of solid geometry is evident. The writings of Classical antiquity were cultivated and extended in Byzantium. Therefore, Byzantine science was in every period closely connected with ancient philosophy, and metaphysics.[185] In the field of engineering Isidore of Miletus, the Greek mathematician and architect of the Hagia Sophia, produced the first compilation of Archimedes' works c. 530, and it is through this manuscript tradition, kept alive by the school of mathematics and engineering founded c. 850 during the "Byzantine Renaissance" by Leo the Mathematician, that such works are known today (see Archimedes Palimpsest).[186] Pendentive architecture, a specific spherical form in the upper corners to support a dome, is a Byzantine invention. Although the first experimentation was made in the 200s, it was in the 6th century in the Byzantine Empire that its potential was fully achieved.[187] A mechanical sundial device consisting of complex gears made by the Byzantines has been excavated which indicates that the Antikythera mechanism, a sort of analogue device used in astronomy and invented around the late second century BC, continued to be (re)active in the Byzantine period.[188][189][190] J. R. Partington writes that Constantinople was full of inventors and craftsmen. The "philosopher" Leo of Thessalonika made for the Emperor Theophilos (829–42) a golden tree, the branches of which carried artificial birds which flapped their wings and sang, a model lion which moved and roared, and a bejewelled clockwork lady who walked. These mechanical toys continued the tradition represented in the treatise of Heron of Alexandria (c. A.D. 125), which was well-known to the Byzantines.[191] Such mechanical devices reached a high level of sophistication and were made in order to impress visitors.[192] The frontispiece of the Vienna Dioscurides, which shows a set of seven famous physicians Leo the Mathematician has also been credited with the system of beacons, a sort of optical telegraph, stretching across Anatolia from Cilicia to Constantinople, which gave advance warning of enemy raids, and which was used as diplomatic communication as well. The Byzantines knew and used the concept of hydraulics: in the 900s the diplomat Liutprand of Cremona, when visiting the Byzantine emperor, explained that he saw the emperor sitting on a hydraulic throne and that it was "made in such a cunning manner that at one moment it was down on the ground, while at another it rose higher and was seen to be up in the air".[193] John Philoponus, an Alexandrian philologist, Aristotelian commentator and Christian theologian, author of a considerable number of philosophical treatises and theological works, was the first who questioned Aristotle's teaching of physics, despite its flaws. Unlike Aristotle, who based his physics on verbal argument, Philoponus relied on observation. In his Commentaries on Aristotle, Philoponus wrote: But this is completely erroneous, and our view may be corroborated by actual observation more effectively than by any sort of verbal argument. For if you let fall from the same height two weights of which one is many times as heavy as the other, you will see that the ratio of the times required for the motion does not depend on the ratio of the weights, but that the difference in time is a very small one. And so, if the difference in the weights is not considerable, that is, of one is, let us say, double the other, there will be no difference, or else an imperceptible difference, in time, though the difference in weight is by no means negligible, with one body weighing twice as much as the other.[194] Bas-relief plaque of Tribonian in the Chamber of the House of Representatives in the United States Capitol Many refugee Byzantine scholars fled to North Italy in the 1400s. Here John Argyropoulos (1415–1487), born in Constantinople and who ended his days in north Italy. John Philoponus' criticism of Aristotelian principles of physics was an inspiration for Galileo Galilei's refutation of Aristotelian physics during the Scientific Revolution many centuries later, as Galileo cited Philoponus substantially in his works.[195][196] The ship mill is a Byzantine invention, designed to mill grains using hydraulic power. The technology eventually spread to the rest of Europe and was in use until c. 1800.[197][198] In 438, the Codex Theodosianus, named after Theodosius II, codified Byzantine law. It went into force not just in the Eastern Roman/Byzantine Empire, but also in the Western Roman Empire. It not only summarised the laws, but also gave direction on interpretation. Under the reign of Justinian I it was Tribonian, a notable jurist, who supervised the revision of the legal code known today as Corpus Juris Civilis. In the field of law, Justinian I's reforms had a clear effect on the evolution of jurisprudence, with his Corpus Juris Civilis becoming the basis for revived Roman law in the Western world, while Leo III's Ecloga influenced the formation of legal institutions in the Slavic world.[199] In the 10th century, Leo VI the Wise achieved the complete codification of the whole of Byzantine law in Greek with the Basilika, which became the foundation of all subsequent Byzantine law with an influence extending through to modern Balkan legal codes.[102] The Byzantines pioneered the concept of the hospital as an institution offering medical care and possibility of a cure for the patients, as a reflection of the ideals of Christian charity, rather than merely a place to die.[200] Ceramic grenades that were filled with Greek fire, surrounded by caltrops, 10th–12th century, National Historical Museum, Athens, Greece Although the concept of uroscopy was known to Galen, he did not see the importance of using it to diagnose disease. It was Byzantine physicians, such as Theophilus Protospatharius, who realised the diagnostic potential of uroscopy in a time when no microscope or stethoscope existed. That practice eventually spread to the rest of Europe.[201] In medicine the works of Byzantine doctors, such as the Vienna Dioscorides (6th century), and works of Paul of Aegina (7th century) and Nicholas Myrepsos (late 13th century), continued to be used as the authoritative texts by Europeans through the Renaissance. The latter one invented the Aurea Alexandrina which was a kind of opiate or antidote. The first known example of separating conjoined twins happened in the Byzantine Empire in the 10th century when a pair of conjoined twins from Armenia came to Constantinople. Many years later one of them died, so the surgeons in Constantinople decided to remove the body of the dead one. The result was partly successful, as the surviving twin lived three days before dying, a result so impressive that it was mentioned a century and half later by historians. The next case of separating conjoined twins would not occur until 1689 in Germany.[202][203] Greek fire, an incendiary weapon which could even burn on water is also attributed to the Byzantines. It played a crucial role in the Empire's victory over the Umayyad Caliphate during the Siege of Constantinople (717–718).[204] The discovery is attributed to Callinicus of Heliopolis from Syria who fled during the Arab conquest of Syria. However, it has also been argued that no single person invented Greek fire, but rather, that it was "invented by the chemists in Constantinople who had inherited the discoveries of the Alexandrian chemical school...".[191] The first example of a grenade also appeared in Byzantine Empire, consisting of ceramic jars holding glass and nails, and filled with the explosive component of Greek Fire. It was used on battlefields.[205][206][207] The first examples of hand-held flamethrower also occurred in the Byzantine Empire in the 10th century, where infantry units were equipped with hand pumps and swivel tubes used to project the flame.[208] The counterweight trebuchet was invented in the Byzantine Empire during the reign of Alexios I Komnenos (1081–1118) under the Komnenian restoration when the Byzantines used this new-developed siege weaponry to devastate citadels and fortifications. This siege artillery marked the apogee of siege weaponry prior to the use of the cannon. From the Byzantines the armies of Europe and Asia eventually learned and adopted this siege weaponry.[209] In the final century of the Empire, astronomy and other mathematical sciences were taught in Trebizond; medicine attracted the interest of almost all scholars.[210] The Fall of Constantinople in 1453 fuelled the era later commonly known as the "Italian Renaissance". During this period, refugee Byzantine scholars were principally responsible for carrying, in person and in writing, ancient Greek grammatical, literary studies, mathematical, and astronomical knowledge to early Renaissance Italy.[211] They also brought with them classical learning and texts on botany, medicine and zoology, as well as the works of Dioscorides and John Philoponus' criticism of Aristotelian physics.[196] Culture[edit] Religion[edit] Main articles: State church of the Roman Empire and Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople As a symbol and expression of the universal prestige of the Patriarchate of Constantinople, Justinian built the Church of the Holy Wisdom of God, Hagia Sophia, which was completed in the short period of four and a half years (532–537). Mosaic of Jesus in Pammakaristos Church, Istanbul Triumphal arch mosaics of Jesus Christ and the Apostles. In Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy. The Byzantine Empire was a theocracy, said to be ruled by God working through the Emperor. Jennifer Fretland VanVoorst argues, "The Byzantine Empire became a theocracy in the sense that Christian values and ideals were the foundation of the empire's political ideals and heavily entwined with its political goals."[212] Steven Runciman says in his book on The Byzantine Theocracy (2004): The constitution of the Byzantine Empire was based on the conviction that it was the earthly copy of the Kingdom of Heaven. Just as God ruled in Heaven, so the Emperor, made in his image, should rule on earth and carry out his commandments ... It saw itself as a universal empire. Ideally, it should embrace all the peoples of the Earth who, ideally, should all be members of the one true Christian Church, its own Orthodox Church. Just as man was made in God's image, so man's kingdom on Earth was made in the image of the Kingdom of Heaven.[213] The survival of the Empire in the East assured an active role of the Emperor in the affairs of the Church. The Byzantine state inherited from pagan times the administrative, and financial routine of administering religious affairs, and this routine was applied to the Christian Church. Following the pattern set by Eusebius of Caesarea, the Byzantines viewed the Emperor as a representative or messenger of Christ, responsible particularly for the propagation of Christianity among pagans, and for the "externals" of the religion, such as administration and finances. As Cyril Mango points out, the Byzantine political thinking can be summarised in the motto "One God, one empire, one religion".[214] The imperial role in the affairs of the Church never developed into a fixed, legally defined system.[215] Additionally, due to the decline of Rome and internal dissension in the other Eastern Patriarchates, the Church of Constantinople became, between the 6th and 11th centuries, the richest and most influential center of Christendom.[216] Even when the Empire was reduced to only a shadow of its former self, the Church continued to exercise significant influence both inside and outside of the imperial frontiers. As George Ostrogorsky points out: The Patriarchate of Constantinople remained the center of the Orthodox world, with subordinate metropolitan sees and archbishoprics in the territory of Asia Minor and the Balkans, now lost to Byzantium, as well as in Caucasus, Russia and Lithuania. The Church remained the most stable element in the Byzantine Empire.[217] Byzantine monasticism especially came to be an "ever-present feature" of the empire, with monasteries becoming "powerful landowners and a voice to be listened to in imperial politics".[218] The official state Christian doctrine was determined by the first seven ecumenical councils, and it was then the emperor's duty to impose it on his subjects. An imperial decree of 388, which was later incorporated into the Codex Justinianeus, orders the population of the Empire "to assume the name of Catholic Christians", and regards all those who will not abide by the law as "mad and foolish persons"; as followers of "heretical dogmas".[219] Despite imperial decrees and the stringent stance of the state church itself, which came to be known as the Eastern Orthodox Church or Eastern Christianity, the latter never represented all Christians in Byzantium. Mango believes that, in the early stages of the Empire, the "mad and foolish persons", those labelled "heretics" by the state church, were the majority of the population.[220] Besides the pagans, who existed until the end of the 6th century, and the Jews, there were many followers – sometimes even emperors – of various Christian doctrines, such as Nestorianism, Monophysitism, Arianism, and Paulicianism, whose teachings were in some opposition to the main theological doctrine, as determined by the Ecumenical Councils.[221] Another division among Christians occurred, when Leo III ordered the destruction of icons throughout the Empire. This led to a significant religious crisis, which ended in the mid-9th century with the restoration of icons. During the same period, a new wave of pagans emerged in the Balkans, originating mainly from Slavic people. These were gradually Christianised, and by Byzantium's late stages, Eastern Orthodoxy represented most Christians and, in general, most people in what remained of the Empire.[222] Jews were a significant minority in the Byzantine state throughout its history, and, according to Roman law, they constituted a legally recognised religious group. In the early Byzantine period they were generally tolerated, but then periods of tensions and persecutions ensued. In any case, after the Arab conquests, the majority of Jews found themselves outside the Empire; those left inside the Byzantine borders apparently lived in relative peace from the 10th century onwards.[223] Arts[edit] Art and literature[edit] Main articles: Byzantine art and Byzantine literature See also: Byzantine dress Miniatures of the 6th-century Rabula Gospel display the more abstract and symbolic nature of Byzantine art. Surviving Byzantine art is mostly religious and with exceptions at certain periods is highly conventionalised, following traditional models that translate carefully controlled church theology into artistic terms. Painting in fresco, illuminated manuscripts and on wood panel and, especially in earlier periods, mosaic were the main media, and figurative sculpture very rare except for small carved ivories. Manuscript painting preserved to the end some of the classical realist tradition that was missing in larger works.[224] Byzantine art was highly prestigious and sought-after in Western Europe, where it maintained a continuous influence on medieval art until near the end of the period. This was especially so in Italy, where Byzantine styles persisted in modified form through the 12th century, and became formative influences on Italian Renaissance art. But few incoming influences affected Byzantine style. With the expansion of the Eastern Orthodox church, Byzantine forms and styles spread throughout the Orthodox world and beyond.[225] Influences from Byzantine architecture, particularly in religious buildings, can be found in diverse regions from Egypt and Arabia to Russia and Romania. In Byzantine literature, three different cultural elements are recognised: the Greek, the Christian, and the Oriental. Byzantine literature is often classified in five groups: historians and annalists, encyclopaedists (Patriarch Photios, Michael Psellus, and Michael Choniates are regarded as the greatest encyclopaedists of Byzantium) and essayists, and writers of secular poetry. The only genuine heroic epic of the Byzantines is the Digenis Acritas. The remaining two groups include the new literary species: ecclesiastical and theological literature, and popular poetry.[226] Of the approximately two to three thousand volumes of Byzantine literature that survive, only 330 consist of secular poetry, history, science and pseudo-science.[226] While the most flourishing period of the secular literature of Byzantium runs from the 9th to the 12th century, its religious literature (sermons, liturgical books and poetry, theology, devotional treatises, etc.) developed much earlier with Romanos the Melodist being its most prominent representative.[227] Music[edit] Main article: Byzantine music See also: List of Byzantine composers Late 4th century AD "Mosaic of the Musicians" with organ, aulos, and lyre from a Byzantine villa in Maryamin, Syria[228] The ecclesiastical forms of Byzantine music, composed to Greek texts as ceremonial, festival, or church music,[229] are, today, the most well-known forms. Ecclesiastical chants were a fundamental part of this genre. Greek and foreign historians agree that the ecclesiastical tones and in general the whole system of Byzantine music is closely related to the ancient Greek system.[230] It remains the oldest genre of extant music, of which the manner of performance and (with increasing accuracy from the 5th century onwards) the names of the composers, and sometimes the particulars of each musical work's circumstances, are known. Earliest known depiction of a bowed lyra, from a Byzantine ivory casket (900–1100 AD) (Museo Nazionale, Florence) The 9th century Persian geographer Ibn Khordadbeh (d. 911); in his lexicographical discussion of instruments cited the lyra (lūrā) as the typical instrument of the Byzantines along with the urghun (organ), shilyani (probably a type of harp or lyre) and the salandj (probably a bagpipe).[231] The first of these, the early bowed stringed instrument known as the Byzantine lyra, would come to be called the lira da braccio,[232] in Venice, where it is considered by many to have been the predecessor of the contemporary violin, which later flourished there.[233] The bowed "lyra" is still played in former Byzantine regions, where it is known as the Politiki lyra (lit. 'lyra of the City', i.e. Constantinople) in Greece, the Calabrian lira in Southern Italy, and the Lijerica in Dalmatia. The second instrument, the organ, originated in the Hellenistic world (see Hydraulis) and was used in the Hippodrome during races.[234][235] A pipe organ with "great leaden pipes" was sent by the emperor Constantine V to Pepin the Short, King of the Franks in 757. Pepin's son Charlemagne requested a similar organ for his chapel in Aachen in 812, beginning its establishment in Western church music.[235] The aulos was a double reeded woodwind like the modern oboe or Armenian duduk. Other forms include the plagiaulos (πλαγίαυλος, from πλάγιος "sideways"), which resembled the flute,[236] and the askaulos (ἀσκός askos – wine-skin), a bagpipe.[237] Bagpipes, also known as Dankiyo (from ancient Greek: angion (Τὸ ἀγγεῖον) "the container"), had been played even in Roman times and continued to be played throughout the empire's former realms through to the present. (See Balkan Gaida, Greek Tsampouna, Pontic Tulum, Cretan Askomandoura, Armenian Parkapzuk, and Romanian Cimpoi.) The modern descendant of the aulos is the Greek Zourna. Other instruments used in Byzantine Music were Kanonaki, Oud, Laouto, Santouri, Tambouras, Seistron (defi tambourine), Toubeleki and Daouli. Some claim that Lavta may have been invented by the Byzantines before the arrival of the Turks. Cuisine[edit] Main article: Byzantine cuisine Byzantine culture was initially the same as Late Greco-Roman, but over the following millennium of the empire's existence it slowly changed into something more similar to modern Balkan and Anatolian culture. The cuisine still relied heavily on the Greco-Roman fish-sauce condiment garos, but it also contained foods still familiar today, such as the cured meat pastirma (known as "paston" in Byzantine Greek),[238][239][240] baklava (known as koptoplakous κοπτοπλακοῦς),[241] tiropita (known as plakountas tetyromenous or tyritas plakountas),[242] and the famed medieval sweet wines (Commandaria and the eponymous Rumney wine). Retsina, wine flavoured with pine resin, was also drunk, as it still is in Greece today, producing similar reactions from unfamiliar visitors; "To add to our calamity the Greek wine, on account of being mixed with pitch, resin, and plaster was to us undrinkable," complained Liutprand of Cremona, who was the ambassador sent to Constantinople in 968 by the German Holy Roman Emperor Otto I.[243] The garos fish sauce condiment was also not much appreciated by the unaccustomed; Liutprand of Cremona described being served food covered in an "exceedingly bad fish liquor."[243] The Byzantines also used a soy sauce like condiment, murri, a fermented barley sauce, which, like soy sauce, provided umami flavouring to their dishes.[244][245] Flags and insignia[edit] Main article: Byzantine flags and insignia The double-headed eagle, a common Imperial symbol For most of its history, the Byzantine Empire did not know or use heraldry in the West European sense. Various emblems (Greek: σημεία, sēmeia; sing. σημείον, sēmeion) were used in official occasions and for military purposes, such as banners or shields displaying various motifs such as the cross or the labarum. The use of the cross, and of images of Christ, the Virgin Mary and various saints is also attested on seals of officials, but these were personal rather than family emblems.[246] Double-headed eagle Tetragrammic cross Language[edit] Further information: Medieval Greek Left: The Mudil Psalter, the oldest complete psalter in the Coptic language (Coptic Museum, Egypt, Coptic Cairo) Right: The Joshua Roll, a 10th-century illuminated Greek manuscript possibly made in Constantinople (Vatican Library, Rome) Distribution of Greek dialects in Anatolia in the late Byzantine Empire through to 1923. Demotic in yellow. Pontic in orange. Cappadocian in green. (Green dots indicate Cappadocian Greek speaking villages in 1910.[247]) Apart from the Imperial court, administration and military, the primary language used in the eastern Roman provinces even before the decline of the Western Empire was Greek, having been spoken in the region for centuries before Latin.[248] Following Rome's conquest of the east its 'Pax Romana', inclusionist political practices and development of public infrastructure, facilitated the further spreading and entrenchment of Greek language in the east. Indeed, early on in the life of the Roman Empire, Greek had become the common language of the Church, the language of scholarship and the arts, and to a large degree the lingua franca for trade between provinces and with other nations.[249] Greek for a time became diglossic with the spoken language, known as Koine (eventually evolving into Demotic Greek), used alongside an older written form (Attic Greek) until Koine won out as the spoken and written standard.[250] The emperor Diocletian (r. 284–305) sought to renew the authority of Latin, making it the official language of the Roman administration also in the East, and the Greek expression ἡ κρατοῦσα διάλεκτος (hē kratousa dialektos) attests to the status of Latin as "the language of power."[251] In the early 5th century, Greek gained equal status with Latin as official language in the East and emperors gradually began to legislate in Greek rather than Latin starting with the reign of Leo I the Thracian in the 460s.[39] The last Eastern emperor to stress the importance of Latin was Justinian I (r. 527–565), whose Corpus Juris Civilis was written almost entirely in Latin. He may also have been the last native Latin-speaking emperor.[39] The use of Latin as the language of administration persisted until adoption of Greek as the sole official language by Heraclius in the 7th century. Scholarly Latin would rapidly fall into disuse among the educated classes although the language would continue to be at least a ceremonial part of the Empire's culture for some time.[252] Additionally, Latin remained a minority language in the Empire, mainly on the Italian peninsula and along the Dalmatian coast, eventually developing into various Romance languages like Dalmatian.[253] Many other languages existed in the multi-ethnic Empire, and some of these were given limited official status in their provinces at various times.[254] Notably, by the beginning of the Middle Ages, Syriac had become more widely used by the educated classes in the far eastern provinces.[255] Similarly Coptic, Armenian, and Georgian became significant among the educated in their provinces.[256] Later foreign contacts made Old Church Slavic, Middle Persian, and Arabic important in the Empire and its sphere of influence.[257] There was a revival of Latin studies in the 10th century for the same reason and by the 11th century knowledge of Latin was no longer unusual at Constantinople.[258] There was widespread use of the Armenian and various Slavic languages, which became more pronounced in the border regions of the empire.[254] Aside from these languages, since Constantinople was a prime trading center in the Mediterranean region and beyond, virtually every known language of the Middle Ages was spoken in the Empire at some time, even Chinese.[259] As the Empire entered its final decline, the Empire's citizens became more culturally homogeneous and the Greek language became integral to their identity and religion.[260] Recreation[edit] A game of τάβλι (tabula) played by Byzantine emperor Zeno in 480 and recorded by Agathias in c. 530 because of a very unlucky dice throw for Zeno (red), as he threw 2, 5 and 6 and was forced to leave eight pieces alone.[261] Byzantines were avid players of tavli (Byzantine Greek: τάβλη), a game known in English as backgammon, which is still popular in former Byzantine realms, and still known by the name tavli in Greece.[261] Byzantine nobles were devoted to horsemanship, particularly tzykanion, now known as polo. The game came from Sassanid Persia in the early period and a Tzykanisterion (stadium for playing the game) was built by Theodosius II (r. 408–450) inside the Great Palace of Constantinople. Emperor Basil I (r. 867–886) excelled at it; Emperor Alexander (r. 912–913) died from exhaustion while playing, Emperor Alexios I Komnenos (r. 1081–1118) was injured while playing with Tatikios, and John I of Trebizond (r. 1235–1238) died from a fatal injury during a game.[262][263] Aside from Constantinople and Trebizond, other Byzantine cities also featured tzykanisteria, most notably Sparta, Ephesus, and Athens, an indication of a thriving urban aristocracy.[264] The game was introduced to the West by crusaders, who developed a taste for it particularly during the pro-Western reign of emperor Manuel I Komnenos. Economy[edit] Further information: Byzantine economy and Byzantine silk Further information: Sino-Roman relations Gold coin of Justinian I (527–565 CE) excavated in India probably in the south, an example of Indo-Roman trade during the period The Byzantine economy was among the most advanced in Europe and the Mediterranean for many centuries. Europe, in particular, could not match Byzantine economic strength until late in the Middle Ages. Constantinople operated as a prime hub in a trading network that at various times extended across nearly all of Eurasia and North Africa, in particular as the primary western terminus of the famous Silk Road. Until the first half of the 6th century and in sharp contrast with the decaying West, the Byzantine economy was flourishing and resilient.[265] The Plague of Justinian and the Arab conquests would represent a substantial reversal of fortunes contributing to a period of stagnation and decline. Isaurian reforms and Constantine V's repopulation, public works and tax measures marked the beginning of a revival that continued until 1204, despite territorial contraction.[266] From the 10th century until the end of the 12th, the Byzantine Empire projected an image of luxury and travellers were impressed by the wealth accumulated in the capital.[267] The Fourth Crusade resulted in the disruption of Byzantine manufacturing and the commercial dominance of the Western Europeans in the eastern Mediterranean, events that amounted to an economic catastrophe for the Empire.[267] The Palaiologoi tried to revive the economy, but the late Byzantine state would not gain full control of either the foreign or domestic economic forces. Gradually, Constantinople also lost its influence on the modalities of trade and the price mechanisms, and its control over the outflow of precious metals and, according to some scholars, even over the minting of coins.[268] One of the economic foundations of Byzantium was trade, fostered by the maritime character of the Empire. Textiles must have been by far the most important item of export; silks were certainly imported into Egypt, and appeared also in Bulgaria, and the West.[269] The state strictly controlled both the internal and the international trade, and retained the monopoly of issuing coinage, maintaining a durable and flexible monetary system adaptable to trade needs.[270] The government attempted to exercise formal control over interest rates, and set the parameters for the activity of the guilds and corporations, in which it had a special interest. The emperor and his officials intervened at times of crisis to ensure the provisioning of the capital, and to keep down the price of cereals. Finally, the government often collected part of the surplus through taxation, and put it back into circulation, through redistribution in the form of salaries to state officials, or in the form of investment in public works.[270] Legacy[edit] See also: Third Rome and Greek scholars in the Renaissance Christ Pantocrator fresco in Hagia Sophia, circa 1261 Byzantine culture Aristocracy and bureaucracy Army Art Architecture Calendar Cities Coinage Cuisine Dance Diplomacy Dress Economy Gardens Law Literature Medicine Music Navy People Science v t e Byzantium has been often identified with absolutism, orthodox spirituality, orientalism and exoticism, while the terms "Byzantine" and "Byzantinism" have been used as bywords for decadence, complex bureaucracy, and repression. Both Eastern and Western European authors have often perceived Byzantium as a body of religious, political, and philosophical ideas contrary to those of the West. Even in 19th-century Greece, the focus was mainly on the classical past, while Byzantine tradition had been associated with negative connotations.[271] This traditional approach towards Byzantium has been partially or wholly disputed and revised by modern studies, which focus on the positive aspects of Byzantine culture and legacy. Averil Cameron regards as undeniable the Byzantine contribution to the formation of medieval Europe, and both Cameron and Obolensky recognise the major role of Byzantium in shaping Orthodoxy, which in turn occupies a central position in the history and societies of Greece, Romania, Bulgaria, Russia, Georgia, Serbia and other countries.[272] The Byzantines also preserved and copied classical manuscripts, and they are thus regarded as transmitters of classical knowledge, as important contributors to modern European civilisation, and as precursors of both Renaissance humanism and Slavic-Orthodox culture.[273] As the only stable long-term state in Europe during the Middle Ages, Byzantium isolated Western Europe from newly emerging forces to the East. Constantly under attack, it distanced Western Europe from Persians, Arabs, Seljuk Turks, and for a time, the Ottomans. From a different perspective, since the 7th century, the evolution and constant reshaping of the Byzantine state were directly related to the respective progress of Islam.[273] Following the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks in 1453, Sultan Mehmed II took the title "Kaysar-i Rûm" (the Ottoman Turkish equivalent of Caesar of Rome), since he was determined to make the Ottoman Empire the heir of the Eastern Roman Empire.[274] See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal Byzantine Empire portal Christianity portal Greece portal Middle Ages portal Byzantine Army Byzantine philosophy Byzantine Rite Index of Byzantine Empire-related articles Family trees of the Byzantine imperial dynasties Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty List of Byzantine emperors List of Byzantine inventions List of Byzantine revolts and civil wars List of Byzantine wars Despotate of the Morea List of Roman dynasties Succession of the Roman Empire Legacy of the Roman Empire Notes[edit] ^ "Romania" was a popular name of the empire used mainly unofficially, which meant "land of the Romans".[11] After 1081, it occasionally appears in official Byzantine documents as well. In 1204, the leaders of the Fourth Crusade gave the name Romania to their newly founded Latin Empire.[12] The term does not refer to modern Romania. References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ "Byzantine Empire". Encyclopædia Britannica. ^ Kazhdan & Epstein 1985, p. 1. ^ Ostrogorsky 1969, pp. 105–07, 109; Norwich 1998, p. 97; Haywood 2001, pp. 2.17, 3.06, 3.15. ^ Millar 2006, pp. 2, 15; James 2010, p. 5; Freeman 1999, pp. 431, 435–37, 459–62; Baynes & Moss 1948, p. xx; Ostrogorsky 1969, p. 27; Kaldellis 2007, pp. 2–3; Kazhdan & Constable 1982, p. 12; Norwich 1998, p. 383. ^ Haldon, John; Haldon, Shelby Cullom Davis 3.0. Professor of European History Professor of History Hellenic Studies John (2002). Warfare, State And Society in the Byzantine World 560–1204. p. 47. ISBN 978-1-135-36437-3. ^ Pounds, Norman John Greville. An Historical Geography of Europe, 1500–1840, p. 124. CUP Archive, 1979. ISBN 0-521-22379-2. ^ "The End of the Byzantine Empire, 1081–1453". 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Runciman, Steven (2004). The Byzantine Theocracy. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-54591-4. Salaman, Rena (1986). "The Case of the Missing Fish, or Dolmathon Prolegomena". In Jaine, Tom (ed.). Oxford Symposium on Food & Cookery 1984 & 1985: Cookery: Science, Lore & Books: Proceedings (Introduction by Alan Davidson). London: Prospect Books Limited. pp. 184–87. ISBN 978-0-907325-16-1. Sarantis, Alexander (2009). "War and Diplomacy in Pannonia and the Northwest Balkans during the Reign of Justinian: The Gepid Threat and Imperial Responses". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 63: 15–40. JSTOR 41219761. Sedlar, Jean W. (1994). East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000–1500. III. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-97290-9. Seton-Watson, Hugh (1967). The Russian Empire, 1801–1917. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-822152-4. Sotinel, Claire (2005). "Emperors and Popes in the Sixth Century: The Western View". In Maas, Michael (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 267–90. ISBN 978-0-521-81746-2. Speck, Paul (1984). "Ikonoklasmus und die Anfänge der Makedonischen Renaissance". Poikila Byzantina. 4: 175–210. Stephenson, Paul (2000). Byzantium's Balkan Frontier: A Political Study of the Northern Balkans, 900–1204. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77017-0. Tarasov, Oleg; Milner-Gulland, R.R. (2004). Icon and Devotion: Sacred Spaces in Imperial Russia. London: Reaktion. ISBN 978-1-86189-118-1. Tatakes, Vasileios N.; Moutafakis, Nicholas J. (2003). Byzantine Philosophy. Indianapolis: Hackett. ISBN 978-0-87220-563-5. Teall, John L. (1967). "The Age of Constantine Change and Continuity in Administration and Economy". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 21: 11–36. doi:10.2307/1291256. JSTOR 1291256. Timberlake, Alan (2004). A Reference Grammar of Russian. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77292-1. Treadgold, Warren (1995). Byzantium and Its Army, 284–1081. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-2420-3. Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2. Troianos, Spyros; Velissaropoulou-Karakosta, Julia (1997). Ιστορία δικαίου από την αρχαία στην νεώτερη Ελλάδα [History of law from ancient to modern Greece] (in Greek). Athens: Sakkoulas. ISBN 978-960-232-594-0. Vasiliev, Alexander Alexandrovich (1928–1935). History of the Byzantine Empire. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-80925-6. Versteegh, Cornelis H.M. (1977). Greek Elements in Arabic Linguistic Thinking. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-04855-3. Vryonis, Speros (1971). The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-01597-5. Watson, Bruce (1993). Sieges: A Comparative Study. Westport: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-94034-8. Weitzmann, Kurt (1982). The Icon. London: Evans Brothers. ISBN 978-0-237-45645-0. Wells, Herbert George (1922). A Short History of the World. New York: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-06-492674-4. Whittow, Mark (1996). The Making of Byzantium, 600–1025. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-20496-6. Wickham, Chris (2009). The Inheritance of Rome: A History of Europe from 400 to 1000. New York: Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-02098-0. Wolff, Robert Lee (1948). "Romania: The Latin Empire of Constantinople". Speculum. 23 (1): 1–34. doi:10.2307/2853672. JSTOR 2853672. Wroth, Warwick (1908). Catalogue of the Imperial Byzantine Coins in the British Museum. British Museum Dept. of Coins and Medals. ISBN 978-1-4021-8954-8. Further reading[edit] Ahrweiler, Hélène; Aymard, Maurice (2000). Les Européens. Paris: Hermann. ISBN 978-2-7056-6409-1. Angelov, Dimiter (2007). Imperial Ideology and Political Thought in Byzantium (1204–1330). Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85703-1. Baboula, Evanthia, Byzantium, in Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God (2 vols.), Edited by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker, Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, 2014. ISBN 1-61069-177-6. Evans, Helen C.; Wixom, William D (1997). The glory of Byzantium: art and culture of the Middle Byzantine era, A.D. 843–1261. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-0-8109-6507-2. Cameron, Averil (2014). Byzantine Matters. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-5009-9. Duval, Ben (2019), Midway Through the Plunge: John Cantacuzenus and the Fall of Byzantium, Byzantine Emporia, LLC Haldon, John (2001). The Byzantine Wars: Battles and Campaigns of the Byzantine Era. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Tempus Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7524-1795-0. Haldon, John (2002). Byzantium: A History. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Tempus Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4051-3240-4. Haldon, John (2016). The Empire That Would Not Die: The Paradox of Eastern Roman Survival, 640–740. Harvard University. ISBN 978-0-674-08877-1. Harris, Jonathan. Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium. Bloomsbury, 2nd edition, 2017. ISBN 978-1-4742-5465-6. online review Harris, Jonathan (2015). The Lost World of Byzantium. New Haven CT and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-17857-9. Harris, Jonathan (2020). Introduction to Byzantium, 602–1453 (1st ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-55643-0. Hussey, J.M. (1966). The Cambridge Medieval History. Vol. IV: The Byzantine Empire. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Moles Ian N., "Nationalism and Byzantine Greece", Greek Roman and Byzantine Studies, Duke University, pp. 95–107, 1969 Runciman, Steven (1966). Byzantine Civilisation. London: Edward Arnold Limited. ISBN 978-1-56619-574-4. Runciman, Steven (1990) [1929]. The Emperor Romanus Lecapenus and his Reign. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-06164-3. Stanković, Vlada, ed. (2016). The Balkans and the Byzantine World before and after the Captures of Constantinople, 1204 and 1453. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books. ISBN 978-1-4985-1326-5. Stathakopoulos, Dionysios (2014). A Short History of the Byzantine Empire. London: I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-1-78076-194-7. Thomas, John P. (1987). Private Religious Foundations in the Byzantine Empire. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 978-0-88402-164-3. Toynbee, Arnold Joseph (1972). Constantine Porphyrogenitus and His World. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-215253-4. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Byzantine Empire. Wikisource has original works on the topic: Byzantine Empire Look up Byzantine in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Library resources about Byzantine Empire Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Byzantine Empire on In Our Time at the BBC De Imperatoribus Romanis. Scholarly biographies of many Byzantine emperors. 12 Byzantine Rulers by Lars Brownworth of The Stony Brook School; audio lectures. NYTimes review. 18 centuries of Roman Empire by Howard Wiseman (Maps of the Roman/Byzantine Empire throughout its lifetime). Byzantine & Christian Museum Byzantine studies, resources and bibliography[edit] Fox, Clinton R. "What, If Anything, Is a Byzantine?" (Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors) Byzantine studies homepage at Dumbarton Oaks. Includes links to numerous electronic texts. Byzantium: Byzantine studies on the Internet. Links to various online resources. Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c. 700–1204. Online sourcebook. De Re Militari. Resources for medieval history, including numerous translated sources on the Byzantine wars. Medieval Sourcebook: Byzantium. Numerous primary sources on Byzantine history. Bibliography on Byzantine Material Culture and Daily Life. Hosted by the University of Vienna; in English. Constantinople Home Page. Links to texts, images and videos on Byzantium. Byzantium in Crimea: Political History, Art and Culture. Institute for Byzantine Studies of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (with further resources and a repository with papers on various aspects of the Byzantine Empire) v t e Byzantine Empire topics History Preceding Roman Empire Dominate Early (330–717) Constantinian–Valentinianic era Constantinian dynasty Valentinianic dynasty Theodosian era Leonid era Justinian era Heraclian era "Byzantine Dark Ages" Twenty Years' Anarchy Middle (717–1204) Isaurian era Nikephorian era Amorian era Macedonian era Doukid era Komnenian era Angelid era Late (1204–1453) Sack of Constantinople Fourth Crusade Frankokratia Latin Empire Byzantine successor states (Nicaea / Epirus–Thessalonica / Morea / Trebizond) Palaiologan era Decline of the Byzantine Empire Fall of Constantinople By modern region or territory Albania Anatolia Armenia Bulgaria Corsica Crete Cyprus Dalmatia Egypt Greece Italy Sardinia Sicily Maghreb Malta Serbia Spain (Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands) Syria Thrace Governance Central 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(1943–1945) Free Territory of Trieste (1947–1954) v t e Ancient Syria and Mesopotamia Syria Northern Mesopotamia Southern Mesopotamia c. 3500–2350 BCE Semitic nomads Sumerian city-states c. 2350–2200 BCE Akkadian Empire c. 2200–2100 BCE Gutians c. 2100–2000 BCE Third Dynasty of Ur (Sumerian Renaissance) c. 2000–1800 BCE Mari and other Amorite city-states Old Assyrian Empire (Northern Akkadians) Isin/Larsa and other Amorite city-states c. 1800–1600 BCE Old Hittite Kingdom Old Babylonian Empire (Southern Akkadians) c. 1600–1400 BCE Mitanni (Hurrians) Karduniaš (Kassites) c. 1400–1200 BCE Middle Hittite Kingdom Middle Assyria c. 1200–1150 BCE Bronze Age Collapse ("Sea Peoples") Arameans c. 1150–911 BCE Phoenicia Neo-Hittite city-states Aram- Damascus Arameans Middle Babylonia Chal- de- ans 911–729 BCE Neo-Assyrian Empire 729–609 BCE 626–539 BCE Neo-Babylonian Empire (Chaldeans) 539–331 BCE Achaemenid Empire 336–301 BCE Macedonian Empire (Ancient Greeks and Macedonians) 311–129 BCE Seleucid Empire 129–63 BCE Seleucid Empire Parthian Empire 63 BCE–243 CE Roman Empire/Byzantine Empire (Syria) 243–636 CE Sassanid Empire v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum 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en-wikipedia-org-1708	----	File:Fedor Bronnikov 014.jpg - Wikipedia File:Fedor Bronnikov 014.jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Size of this preview: 800 × 455 pixels. Other resolutions: 320 × 182 pixels | 640 × 364 pixels | 1,000 × 569 pixels. Original file ‎(1,000 × 569 pixels, file size: 135 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Summary Author Fyodor Bronnikov  (1827–1902)   Alternative names Feodor Andrejewitsch Bronnikoff; Fedor Andreevich Bronnikov Description Russian painter and watercolorist Date of birth/death 17 September 1827 (in Julian calendar)  1 September 1902 (in Julian calendar)  Location of birth/death Shadrinsk Anticoli Corrado Authority control : Q4097027 VIAF: 56884021 ISNI: 0000 0000 6663 0321 ULAN: 500045176 LCCN: no2014087084 GND: 129034843 WorldCat author QS:P170,Q4097027 Description Horatius reads before Maecenaslabel QS:Len,"Horatius reads before Maecenas" label QS:Lfr,"Horace lit ses poèmes devant Mécène" label QS:Lru,"Федор Бронников. Гораций читает свои сатиры меценату." Date 1863date QS:P571,+1863-00-00T00:00:00Z/9 Medium painting Collection Odessa Art Museum    Native name Ukrainian: Одеський художній музей Location Odessa , Ukraine Coordinates 46° 29′ 36.24″ N, 30° 43′ 43.68″ E   Established 1899 Web page ofam.od.ua Authority control : Q4331480 VIAF: 133233459 ISNI: 0000 0001 2286 8052 LCCN: n81144006 WorldCat institution QS:P195,Q4331480 Source/Photographer http://artpoisk.info/artist/bronnikov_fedor_andreevich_1827/goraciy_chitaet_svoi_satiry_mecenatu/ Licensing This is a faithful photographic reproduction of a two-dimensional, public domain work of art. The work of art itself is in the public domain for the following reason: Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse This work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 100 years or fewer. You must also include a United States public domain tag to indicate why this work is in the public domain in the United States. This file has been identified as being free of known restrictions under copyright law, including all related and neighboring rights. https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/PDMCreative Commons Public Domain Mark 1.0falsefalse The official position taken by the Wikimedia Foundation is that "faithful reproductions of two-dimensional public domain works of art are public domain". This photographic reproduction is therefore also considered to be in the public domain in the United States. In other jurisdictions, re-use of this content may be restricted; see Reuse of PD-Art photographs for details. File history Click on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensions User Comment current 13:24, 31 March 2010 1,000 × 569 (135 KB) Shakko {{Information |Description={{ru|Гораций читает свои сатиры меценату. 1863}}{{en|Horatius reads before Maecenas}} |Source=http://etnaa.mylivepage.ru/image/411/12072_Гораций_читает_свои_сатиры_меце� File usage The following pages on the English Wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Decorum Horace User:Mulief/Gather lists/23201 – Born on 27 Global file usage The following other wikis use this file: Usage on bg.wikipedia.org Фьодор Бронников Usage on de.wikipedia.org Kulturförderung Usage on en.wikiquote.org Horace John Conington Decorum Usage on es.wikipedia.org Historia intelectual Usage on eu.wikipedia.org Horazio Usage on fi.wikipedia.org Horatius Usage on fr.wikipedia.org 38 av. J.-C. Convenable Utilisateur:Ahemes/Odessa Usage on he.wikipedia.org גאיוס קילניוס מאיקנס Usage on it.wikipedia.org Lucio Vario Rufo Comunicazione letteraria nell'antica Roma Augusto Storia della letteratura latina (31 a.C. - 14 d.C.) Politica interna di Augusto Decorum Usage on ru.wikipedia.org Гораций Decorum Usage on tr.wikiquote.org Horatius Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fedor_Bronnikov_014.jpg" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces File Talk Variants Views Read View on Commons More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Upload file Special pages Printable version Page information Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1721	----	Roman finance - Wikipedia Roman finance From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Roman finance" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The practices of Ancient Roman finance, while originally rooted in Greek models, evolved in the second century BCE with the expansion of Roman monetization. Roman elites engaged in private lending for various purposes, and various banking models arose to serve different lending needs.[1] Contents 1 Private finance 1.1 Pooling capital 1.2 Private loans 1.3 Deferred payment 2 Public finance 3 See also 4 References 5 Further reading Private finance[edit] Pooling capital[edit] Before banks were established in Rome there was little ability to mobilize large amounts of capital, leaving Romans to operate within the constraints of the wealth of their households. When household wealth was exhausted, the elites in Roman society would often extend loans amongst themselves.[2] The value of these loans to the lender was not always derived from interest payments, but rather from the social obligations that were an implication of being a lender.[3][4] The formation of societas allowed for the utilization of pooled capital. Societas were groups who could combine their resources to place a bid for a government contract and then share in the resulting profit or loss.[2][5] The publicani (public contractors) were an early incarnation of societas who would bid for the right to collect taxes from the Roman provinces. Senators were not allowed to engage in trade, so it fell to the knights (equites) to bid on these contracts issued by the censors every five years.[6] Banks were established in Rome that modeled their Greek counterparts and introduced formalized financial intermediation. Livy is the first writer to acknowledge the rise of formal Roman banks in 310 BCE.[7] Ancient Roman banks operated under private law, which did not have clear guidance on how to decide cases concerning financial matters, which forced Roman banks to operate entirely on their word and character. Bankers congregated around the arch of Janus to conduct their business and despite their informal location, were clearly professional in their dealings.[8][9] Private loans[edit] Up until the dawn of the empire, it was common for loans to be negotiated as oral contracts. In the early empire, lenders and borrowers began to adopt the usage of a chirographum (“handwritten record”) to record these contracts and use them for evidence of the agreed terms.[10] One copy of the contract was presented on the exterior of the chirographum, while a second copy was kept sealed within two waxed tablets of the document in the presence of a witness.[10][11] Informal methods of maintaining records of loans made and received existed, as well as formal incarnations adopted by frequent lenders. These serial lenders used a kalendarium to document the loans that they issued to assist in tabulating interest accrued at the beginning of each month (Kalends).[12] Parties to contracts were supposed to be Roman citizens, but there is evidence of this boundary being broken.[12] Loans to citizens were also originated from public or governmental positions. For example, the Temple of Apollo is believed to have engaged in secured loans with citizens’ homes being used as collateral.[13] Loans were more rarely extended to citizens from the government, as in the case of Tiberius who allowed for three-year, interest-free loans to be issued to senators in order to avert a looming credit crisis.[14] Deferred payment[edit] There is sufficient evidence of deferred payments and financing arrangements to be negotiated for large purchases. Deferred payments were used in the auction of wine or oil that was “on the tree” (not yet harvested or produced), requiring payment from the winning bidder long after the auction had ended. Roman peasants who needed money to pay their taxes would use an inverted form of this process by selling the right to a portion of their harvest in the future in exchange for cash in the present.[15] The Sulpicii arose as professional bankers in the first century AD, and among other forms of financial intermediation, they offered financing for speculators in grain markets.[2][5] Public finance[edit] For centuries the monetary affairs of the Roman Republic had rested in the hands of the Senate. These elite liked to present themselves as steady and fiscally conservative, but as the 19th-century historian of Rome Wilhelm Ihne remarked: Though individually the Romans were exceedingly economical and careful in the management of their private property, the state as such was extravagant and careless with the state revenue. It was found impossible to protect the public property from being plundered by private individuals, and the feeling of powerlessness resulted in reckless indifference. It was felt that revenues which could not be preserved intact and devoted to the common good were of no value to the state and might as well be abandoned.[16] The aerarium (state treasury) was supervised by members of the government rising in power and prestige, the Quaestors, Praetors, and eventually the Prefects. With the dawn of the Roman Empire, a major change took place, as the emperors assumed the reins of financial control. Augustus adopted a system that was, on the surface, fair to the Senate. Just as the world was divided in provinces designated as imperial or senatorial, so was the treasury. All tribute brought in from senatorially controlled provinces was given to the aerarium, while that of the imperial territories went to the treasury of the emperor, the fiscus. Initially, this process of distribution seemed to work, although the legal technicality did not disguise the supremacy of the emperor or his often used right to transfer funds back and forth regularly from the aerarium to the fiscus. The fiscus actually took shape after the reign of Augustus and Tiberius. It began as a private fund (fiscus meaning purse or basket) but grew to include all imperial monies, not only the private estates but also all public lands and finances under the imperial eye. The property of the rulers grew to such an extent that changes had to be made starting sometime in the 3rd century, most certainly under Septimius Severus. Henceforth the imperial treasury was divided. The fiscus was retained to handle actual government revenue, while a patrimonium was created to hold the private fortune, the inheritance of the royal house. There is a considerable question as to the exact nature of this evaluation, involving possibly a res privata so common in the Late Empire. Just as the Senate had its own finance officers, so did the emperors. The head of the fiscus in the first years was the rationalis, originally a freedman due to Augustus' desire to place the office in the hands of a servant free of the class demands of the traditional society. In succeeding years the corruption and reputation of the freedman forced new and more reliable administrators. From the time of Hadrian (117-138), any rationalis hailed from the Equestrian Order (equites) and remained so through the chaos of the 3rd century and into the age of Diocletian. With Diocletian came a series of massive reforms, and total control over the finances of the Empire fell to the now stronger central government. Tax reforms made possible a real budget in the modern sense for the first time. Previously it had issued the tax demands to the cities and allowed them to allocate the burden. From now on the imperial government driven by fiscal needs dictated the entire process down to the civic level. Under Constantine this aggrandizement continued with the emergence of an appointed minister of finance, the comes sacrarum largitionum (count of the sacred largesses). He maintained the general treasury and the intake of all revenue until Constantine divided the treasury into three giving the prefect, count and the manager of the res privata their own treasuries. The treasury of the prefect was called the 'arca.' His powers were directed toward control of the new sacrum aerarium, the result of the combination of the aerarium and the fiscus. The comes sacrarum largitionum was a figure of tremendous influence. He was responsible for all money taxes, examined banks, ran the mints and mines everywhere, weaving mills and dye works, paid the salaries and expenses of many departments of the state, the upkeep of imperial palaces and other public buildings, supplied the Courts with clothing and other items. To accomplish these many tasks, he was aided by a large central staff, a regional field force and small staffs in larger cities and towns. Just below the comes sacrarum were the rationales, comptrollers, positioned in each diocese. They supervised the collection of all tribute, taxes, or fees. They were everywhere and omnipotent until Constantine demoted them after his reorganization of the palatine level ministries' competencies in the years 325-326 by restricting their activity to supervision of the collection of taxes collected in gold and silver performed by the governors under the general supervision of the vicars. The rationales lost the last of their provincial field force of procurators between 330-337. Only the praetorian prefects were more powerful. His office, as vice-regent to the emperors, took precedence over all other civilian officials and military officers. They were chief finance officers of the empire. They composed the global budget and set the tax rates across the board. Before Constantine's reforms they were directly responsible for the supply of the army, the Annona militaris which was a separate tax form the time of Diocletian in place of arbitrary requsititions. The Annona civilis, the general in kind taxes were turned over to the prefects alone. To their care was entrusted the supply of food stuffs to the capitals, the imperial armament factories, the maintenance of the state post. The magister officiorum who was a kind of Minister of the Interior and State Security and the comes rerum privatarum could counter the political the comes sacrarum largitionum. The magister officiorum (master of offices) made all the major decisions concerning intelligence matters was not a fiscal officer and could not interfere with the operation of the sacrae largitiones and the res privata. The comes sacrarum largitionum gradually lost power to the prefects as more and more in kind taxes of his department were converted to gold. By the 5th century their diocesan level staff were no longer of much importance, although they continued in their duties. However the heads of the office continued to have power into the 430s in part because appellate jurisdiction in fiscal cases had been returned to them in 385. The imperial estates and holdings were huge. They res privata was directly under the management of the RP. The patromonium', or imperial inheritance were lands leased to indivivuals. Both were under the jurisdiction of the comes rerum privatarum. In the West the rents and tax income was shared with the sacrae largitionum but not in the East. In the East the palace administration took over gradually post-450 and the RP was finally dissolved by Justinian's successors. See also[edit] Agentes in rebus Comes Congiarium Donativum Fiscus Rationibus Roman commerce Roman economy References[edit] ^ Walter Scheidel (8 November 2012). "13: Money and Finance". The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Economy. Cambridge University Press. pp. 266–282. ISBN 978-1-107-49556-2. ^ a b c Holleran, Claire (2008-01-01). Jones, D. (ed.). "Roman Finance". The Classical Review. 58 (2): 538–539. doi:10.1017/s0009840x08001054. JSTOR 20482578. ^ Temin, Peter (2013). The Roman Market Economy. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 168. ISBN 978-0-691-14768-0. ^ Scheidel, Walter (2012-11-08). The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Economy. Cambridge University Press. p. 279. ISBN 9781107495562. ^ a b Scheidel, Walter (2012-11-08). The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Economy. Cambridge University Press. p. 281. ISBN 9781107495562. ^ Wilhelm Ihne (1882). The History of Rome. Longmans, Green, and Company. pp. 158–159. ^ Temin 2013, p. 177 ^ Temin 2013, p. 176 ^ Scheidel, Walter (2012). Cambridge Companion to the Roman Economy. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 280. ISBN 978-0-521-89822-5. ^ a b Temin 2013, p. 168 ^ Scheidel, Walter (2012-11-08). The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Economy. Cambridge University Press. pp. 277–278. ISBN 9781107495562. ^ a b Temin 2013, p. 169 ^ Temin 2013, p. 178 ^ Temin 2013, p. 175 ^ Temin 2013, p. 171 ^ Wilhelm Ihne, The History of Rome (London, 1884), vol. 4, p. 156, full text online. Further reading[edit] Jean Andreau: Banking and Business in the Roman World, translated by Janet Lloyd (Cambridge University Press, 1999). 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en-wikipedia-org-1743	----	Ancient Greek literature - Wikipedia Ancient Greek literature From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Hellenistic poetry) Jump to navigation Jump to search A Greek manuscript of the beginning of Hesiod's Works and Days Ancient Greek literature is literature written in the Ancient Greek language from the earliest texts until the time of the Byzantine Empire. The earliest surviving works of ancient Greek literature, dating back to the early Archaic period, are the two epic poems The Iliad and The Odyssey, set in an idealized archaic past today identified as having some relation to the Mycenaean era. These two epics, along with the Homeric Hymns and the two poems of Hesiod, Theogony and Works and Days, comprised the major foundations of the Greek literary tradition that would continue into the Classical, Hellenistic, and Roman periods. The lyric poets Sappho, Alcaeus, and Pindar were highly influential during the early development of the Greek poetic tradition. Aeschylus is the earliest Greek tragic playwright for whom any plays have survived complete. Sophocles is famous for his tragedies about Oedipus, particularly Oedipus the King and Antigone. Euripides is known for his plays which often pushed the boundaries of the tragic genre. The comedic playwright Aristophanes wrote in the genre of Old Comedy, while the later playwright Menander was an early pioneer of New Comedy. The historians Herodotus of Halicarnassus and Thucydides, who both lived during the sixth century BC, wrote accounts of events that happened shortly before and during their own lifetimes. The philosopher Plato wrote dialogues, usually centered around his teacher Socrates, dealing with various philosophical subjects, whereas his student Aristotle wrote numerous treatises, which later became highly influential. Important later writers included Apollonius of Rhodes, who wrote The Argonautica, an epic poem about the voyage of the Argonauts; Archimedes, who wrote groundbreaking mathematical treatises; and Plutarch, who wrote mainly biographies and essays. The second-century AD writer [ Contents 1 Pre-classical and classical antiquity 1.1 Epic poetry 1.2 Lyric poetry 1.3 Drama 1.4 Historiography 1.5 Philosophy 2 Hellenistic period 2.1 Poetry 2.2 Drama 2.3 Historiography 2.4 Ancient Biography 2.5 Science and mathematics 2.6 Prose fiction 3 Roman period 3.1 Poetry 3.2 Historiography 3.3 Science and mathematics 3.4 Philosophy 3.5 Prose fiction 4 Legacy 5 Notes 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Pre-classical and classical antiquity[edit] Further information: Mycenaean Greece, Archaic Greece, and Classical Greece Linear B tablet from the Archaeological Museum of Mycenae Tablet MY Oe 106 (obverse) exhibited at the Greek National Archaeological Museum This period of Greek literature stretches from Homer until the fourth century BC and the rise of Alexander the Great. The earliest known Greek writings are Mycenaean, written in the Linear B syllabary on clay tablets. These documents contain prosaic records largely concerned with trade (lists, inventories, receipts, etc.); no real literature has been discovered.[1][2] Michael Ventris and John Chadwick, the original decipherers of Linear B, state that literature almost certainly existed in Mycenaean Greece,[2] but it was either not written down or, if it was, it was on parchment or wooden tablets, which did not survive the destruction of the Mycenaean palaces in the twelfth century BC.[2] Greek literature was divided in well-defined literary genres, each one having a compulsory formal structure, about both dialect and metrics.[3] The first division was between prose and poetry. Within poetry there were three super-genres: epic, lyric and drama. The common European terminology about literary genres is directly derived from the ancient Greek terminology.[4] Lyric and drama were further divided into more genres: lyric in four (elegiac, iambic, monodic lyric and choral lyric); drama in three (tragedy, comedy and pastoral drama).[5] Prose literature can largely be said to begin with Herodotus.[6] Over time, several genres of prose literature developed,[6] but the distinctions between them were frequently blurred.[6] Epic poetry[edit] At the beginning of Greek literature stand the two monumental works of Homer, the Iliad and the Odyssey.[7]:1–3 The figure of Homer is shrouded in mystery. Although the works as they now stand are credited to him, it is certain that their roots reach far back before his time (see Homeric Question).[7]:15 The Iliad is a narrative of a single episode spanning over the course of a ten-day-period from near the end of the ten years of the Trojan War. It centers on the person of Achilles,[8] who embodied the Greek heroic ideal.[9][7]:3 A painting by the French Neoclassical painter Thomas Degeorge depicting the climactic final scene from Book Twenty-Two of The Odyssey in which Odysseus, Telemachus, Eumaeus, and Philoetius slaughter the suitors of Penelope The Odyssey is an account of the adventures of Odysseus, one of the warriors at Troy.[7]:3 After ten years fighting the war, he spends another ten years sailing back home to his wife and family. Penelope was considered the ideal female, Homer depicted her as the ideal female based on her commitment, modesty, purity, and respect during her marriage with Odysseus. During his ten-year voyage, he loses all of his comrades and ships and makes his way home to Ithaca disguised as a beggar. Both of these works were based on ancient legends.[7]:15 The stories are told in language that is simple, and direct. The Homeric dialect was an archaic language based on Ionic dialect mixed with some element of Aeolic dialect and Attic dialect,[10] the latter due to the Athenian edition of the 6th century BC. The epic verse was the hexameter.[11] The other great poet of the preclassical period was Hesiod.[7]:23–24[12] Unlike Homer, Hesiod refers to himself in his poetry.[13] Nonetheless, nothing is known about him from any external source. He was a native of Boeotia in central Greece, and is thought to have lived and worked around 700 BC.[14] Hesiod's two extant poems are Works and Days and Theogony. Works and Days is a faithful depiction of the poverty-stricken country life he knew so well, and it sets forth principles and rules for farmers. Theogony is a systematic account of creation and of the gods. It vividly describes the ages of mankind, beginning with a long-past Golden Age.[15] The writings of Homer and Hesiod were held in extremely high regard throughout antiquity[12] and were viewed by many ancient authors as the foundational texts behind ancient Greek religion;[16] Homer told the story of a heroic past, which Hesiod bracketed with a creation narrative and an account of the practical realities of contemporary daily life.[7]:23–24 Lyric poetry[edit] Main article: Greek lyric A nineteenth-century painting by the English painter Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema depicting the poetess Sappho gazing on in admiration as the poet Alcaeus plays the lyre Lyric poetry received its name from the fact that it was originally sung by individuals or a chorus accompanied by the instrument called the lyre. Despite the name, however, the lyric poetry in this general meaning was divided in four genres, two of which were not accompanied by cithara, but by flute. These two latter genres were elegiac poetry and iambic poetry. Both were written in the Ionic dialect. Elegiac poems were written in elegiac couplets and iambic poems were written in iambic trimeter. The first of the lyric poets was probably Archilochus of Paros, 7th century BC, the most important iambic poet.[17] Only fragments remain of his work, as is the case with most of the poets. The few remnants suggest that he was an embittered adventurer who led a very turbulent life.[18] Many lyric poems were written in the Aeolic dialect. Lyric poems often employed highly varied poetic meters. The most famous of all lyric poets were the so-called "Nine Lyric Poets".[19] Of all the lyric poets, Sappho of Lesbos (c. 630 – c. 570 BC) was by far the most widely revered. In antiquity, her poems were regarded with the same degree of respect as the poems of Homer.[20] Only one of her poems, "Ode to Aphrodite", has survived to the present day in its original, completed form.[21] In addition to Sappho, her contemporary Alcaeus of Lesbos was also notable for monodic lyric poetry. The poetry written by Alcman was considered beautiful, even though he wrote exclusively in the Doric dialect, which was normally considered unpleasant to hear.[22] The later poet Pindar of Thebes was renowned for his choral lyric poetry.[23] Drama[edit] Medea kills her son (a scene from Euripides's Medea), Campanian red-figure amphora, c. 330 BC, Louvre (K 300) All surviving works of Greek drama were composed by playwrights from Athens and are written exclusively in the Attic dialect.[24] Choral performances were a common tradition in all Greek city-states.[24] The Athenians credited a man named Thespis with having invented drama[24] by introducing the first actor, whose primary purpose was to interact with the leader of the chorus.[25] Later playwrights expanded the number of actors to three, allowing for greater freedom in storytelling.[26] In the age that followed the Greco-Persian Wars, the awakened national spirit of Athens was expressed in hundreds of tragedies based on heroic and legendary themes of the past. The tragic plays grew out of simple choral songs and dialogues performed at festivals of the god Dionysus. In the classical period, performances included three tragedies and one pastoral drama, depicting four different episodes of the same myth. Wealthy citizens were chosen to bear the expense of costuming and training the chorus as a public and religious duty. Attendance at the festival performances was regarded as an act of worship. Performances were held in the great open-air theater of Dionysus in Athens. The poets competed for the prizes offered for the best plays.[27] All fully surviving Greek tragedies are conventionally attributed to Aeschylus, Sophocles or Euripides. The authorship of Prometheus Bound, which is traditionally attributed to Aeschylus,[28] and Rhesus, which is traditionally attributed to Euripides, are, however, questioned.[29] There are seven surviving tragedies attributed to Aeschylus. Three of these plays, Agamemnon, The Libation-Bearers, and The Eumenides, form a trilogy known as The Oresteia.[30] One of these plays, Prometheus Bound, however, may actually be the work of Aeschylus's son Euphorion.[31] Seven works of Sophocles have survived, the most acclaimed of which are the three Theban plays, which center around the story of Oedipus and his offspring.[32] The Theban Trilogy consists of Oedipus the King, Oedipus at Colonus, and Antigone. Although the plays are often called a "trilogy," they were actually written many years apart. Antigone, the last of the three plays sequentially, was actually first to be written, having been composed in 441 BC, towards the beginning of Sophocles's career.[33] Oedipus the King, the most famous of the three, was written around 429 BC at the midpoint of Sophocles's career.[Notes 1] Oedipus at Colonus, the second of the three plays chronologically, was actually Sophocles's last play and was performed in 401 BC, after Sophocles's death.[34] There are nineteen surviving plays attributed to Euripides. The most well-known of these plays are Medea, Hippolytus, and Bacchae.[35] Rhesus is sometimes thought to have been written by Euripides' son, or to have been a posthumous reproduction of a play by Euripides.[36] Euripides pushed the limits of the tragic genre and many of the elements in his plays were more typical of comedy than tragedy.[37] His play Alcestis, for instance, has often been categorized as a "problem play" or perhaps even as a work of tragicomedy rather than a true tragedy due to its comedic elements and the fact that it has a happy ending.[38][39] Illustration for Aristophanes's Lysistrata by Aubrey Beardsley (1896) Like tragedy, comedy arose from a ritual in honor of Dionysus, but in this case the plays were full of frank obscenity, abuse, and insult. At Athens, the comedies became an official part of the festival celebration in 486 BC, and prizes were offered for the best productions. As with the tragedians, few works still remain of the great comedic writers. The only complete surviving works of classical comedy are eleven plays written by the playwright Aristophanes.[40] These are a treasure trove of comic presentation. He poked fun at everyone and every institution. In The Birds, he ridicules Athenian democracy. In The Clouds, he attacks the philosopher Socrates. In Lysistrata, he denounces war.[41] Aristophanes has been praised highly for his dramatic skill and artistry. John Lemprière's Bibliotheca Classica describes him as, quite simply, "the greatest comic dramatist in world literature: by his side Molière seems dull and Shakespeare clownish."[42] Of all Aristophanes's plays, however, the one that has received the most lasting recognition is The Frogs, which simultaneously satirizes and immortalizes the two giants of Athenian tragedy: Aeschylus and Euripides. When it was performed for the first time at the Lenaia Festival in 405 BC, just one year after the death of Euripides, the Athenians awarded it first prize.[43] It was the only Greek play that was ever given an encore performance, which took place two months later at the City Dionysia.[44] Even today, The Frogs still appeals to modern audiences. A commercially successful modern musical adaptation of it was performed on Broadway in 2004.[45] The third dramatic genre was the satyr play. Although the genre was popular, only one complete example of a satyr play has survived: Cyclops by Euripides.[46] Large portions of a second satyr play, Ichneutae by Sophocles, have been recovered from the site of Oxyrhynchus in Egypt among the Oxyrhynchus Papyri.[47] Historiography[edit] A second century AD Roman copy of a Greek bust of Herodotus from the first half of the fourth century BC Two notable historians who lived during the Classical Era were Herodotus of Halicarnassus and Thucydides. Herodotus is commonly called "The Father of History."[48] His book The Histories is among the oldest works of prose literature in existence. Thucydides's book History of the Peloponnesian War greatly influenced later writers and historians, including the author of the book of Acts of the Apostles and the Byzantine Era historian Procopius of Caesarea.[49] A third historian of ancient Greece, Xenophon of Athens, began his Hellenica where Thucydides ended his work about 411 BC and carried his history to 362 BC.[50] Xenophon's most famous work is his book The Anabasis, a detailed, first-hand account of his participation in a Greek mercenary army that tried to help the Persian Cyrus expel his brother from the throne. Xenophon also wrote three works in praise of the philosopher Socrates: The Apology of Socrates to the Jury, The Symposium, and Memorabilia. Although both Xenophon and Plato knew Socrates, their accounts are very different. Many comparisons have been made between the account of the military historian and the account of the poet-philosopher.[51] Philosophy[edit] Many important and influential philosophers lived during the fifth and fourth centuries BC. Among the earliest Greek philosophers were the three so-called "Milesian philosophers": Thales of Miletus, Anaximander, and Anaximenes.[52] Of these philosophers' writings, however, only one fragment from Anaximander preserved by Simplicius of Cilicia has survived.[Notes 2][53] Very little is known for certain about the life of the philosopher Pythagoras of Samos and no writings by him have survived to the present day,[54] but an impressive corpus of poetic writings written by his pupil Empedocles of Acragas has survived, making Empedocles one of the most widely attested Pre-Socratic philosophers.[55] A large number of fragments written by the philosophers Heraclitus of Ephesus[56] and Democritus of Abdera have also survived.[57] Of all the classical philosophers, however, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle are generally considered the most important and influential. Socrates did not write any books himself and modern scholars debate whether or not Plato's portrayal of him is accurate. Some scholars contend that many of his ideas, or at least a vague approximation of them, are expressed in Plato's early socratic dialogues.[58] Meanwhile, other scholars have argued that Plato's portrayal of Socrates is merely a fictional representation intended to expound Plato's own opinions who has very little to do with the historical figure of the same name.[59] The debate over the extent to which Plato's portrayal of Socrates represents the actual Socrates's ideas is known as the Socratic problem.[60][61] The Death of Socrates, by Jacques-Louis David (1787) Plato expressed his ideas through dialogues, that is, written works purporting to describe conversations between different individuals. Some of the best-known of these include: The Apology of Socrates, a purported record of the speech Socrates gave at his trial;[62] Phaedo, a description of the last conversation between Socrates and his disciples before his execution;[63] The Symposium, a dialogue over the nature of love;[64] and The Republic, widely regarded as Plato's most important work,[65][66] a long dialogue describing the ideal government.[67] Aristotle of Stagira is widely considered to be one of the most important and influential philosophical thinkers of all time.[68] The first sentence of his Metaphysics reads: "All men by nature desire to know." He has, therefore, been called the "Father of those who know." His medieval disciple Thomas Aquinas referred to him simply as "the Philosopher". Aristotle was a student at Plato's Academy, and like his teacher, he wrote dialogues, or conversations. However, none of these exist today. The body of writings that have come down to the present probably represents lectures that he delivered at his own school in Athens, the Lyceum.[69] Even from these books, the enormous range of his interests is evident: He explored matters other than those that are today considered philosophical; the extant treatises cover logic, the physical and biological sciences, ethics, politics, and constitutional government. Among Aristotle's most notable works are Politics, Nicomachean Ethics, Poetics, On the Soul, and Rhetoric.[70] Hellenistic period[edit] Further information: Hellenistic period, Hellenistic art, and Hellenistic Greece Imaginative nineteenth-century engraving of the ancient Library of Alexandria By 338 BC all of the Greek city-states except Sparta had been united by Philip II of Macedon.[71] Philip's son Alexander the Great extended his father's conquests greatly. Athens lost its preeminent status as the leader of Greek culture, and it was replaced temporarily by Alexandria, Egypt.[72] The city of Alexandria in northern Egypt became, from the 3rd century BC, the outstanding center of Greek culture. It also soon attracted a large Jewish population, making it the largest center for Jewish scholarship in the ancient world. In addition, it later became a major focal point for the development of Christian thought. The Musaeum, or Shrine to the Muses, which included the library and school, was founded by Ptolemy I. The institution was from the beginning intended as a great international school and library.[73] The library, eventually containing more than a half million volumes, was mostly in Greek. It was intended to serve as a repository for every work of classical Greek literature that could be found.[74] Poetry[edit] A painting by John William Waterhouse depicting a scene from The Argonautica by Apollonius of Rhodes The genre of bucolic poetry was first developed by the poet Theocritus.[75] The Roman Virgil later wrote his Eclogues in this genre.[76] Callimachus, a scholar at the Library of Alexandria, composed the Aetia ("Causes"),[77] a long poem written in four volumes of elegiac couplets describing the legendary origins of obscure customs, festivals, and names,[77] which he probably wrote in several stages over the course of many years in the third century BC.[77] The Aetia was lost during the Middle Ages,[77] but, over the course of the twentieth century, much of it was recovered due to new discoveries of ancient papyri.[77] Scholars initially denigrated it as "second-rate", showing great learning, but lacking true "art".[77] Over the course of the century, scholarly appraisal of it greatly improved, with many scholars now seeing it in a much more positive light.[77] Callimachus also wrote short poems for special occasions and at least one short epic, the Ibis, which was directed against his former pupil Apollonius.[78] He also compiled a prose treatise entitled the Pinakes, in which he catalogued all the major works held in the Library of Alexandria.[79] The Alexandrian poet Apollonius of Rhodes is best known for his epic poem the Argonautica, which narrates the adventures of Jason and his shipmates the Argonauts on their quest to retrieve the Golden Fleece from the land of Colchis.[80] The poet Aratus wrote the hexameter poem Phaenomena, a poetic rendition of Eudoxus of Cnidus's treatise on the stars written in the fourth century BC.[81] Drama[edit] Republican or Early Imperial relief depicting a seating Menander holding the masks of New Comedy (1st century BC – early 1st century AD) Princeton University Art Museum During the Hellenistic period, the Old Comedy of the Classical Era was replaced by New Comedy. The most notable writer of New Comedy was the Athenian playwright Menander. None of Menander's plays have survived to the present day in their complete form, but one play, The Bad-Tempered Man, has survived to the present day in a near-complete form. Most of another play entitled The Girl from Samos and large portions of another five have also survived.[82] Historiography[edit] The historian Timaeus was born in Sicily but spent most of his life in Athens.[83] His History, though lost, is significant because of its influence on Polybius. In 38 books it covered the history of Sicily and Italy to the year 264 BC, which is where Polybius begins his work. Timaeus also wrote the Olympionikai, a valuable chronological study of the Olympic Games.[84] Ancient Biography[edit] Ancient biography, or bios, as distinct from modern biography, was a genre of Greek (and Roman) literature interested in describing the goals, achievements, failures, and character of ancient historical persons and whether or not they should be imitated. Authors of ancient bios, such as the works of Nepos and Plutarch's Parallel Lives imitated many of the same sources and techniques of the contemporary historiographies of ancient Greece, notably including the works of Herodotus and Thucydides. There were various forms of ancient biographies, including 1) philosophical biographies that brought out the moral character of their subject (such as Diogenes Laertius's Lives of Eminent Philosophers 2) literary biographies which discussed the lives of orators and poets (such as Philostratus's Lives of the Sophists) 3) school and reference biographies that offered a short sketch of someone including their ancestry, major events and accomplishments, and death, 4) autobiographies, commentaries and memoirs where the subject presents his own life and 5) historical/political biography focusing on the lives of those active in the military, among other categories.[85] Science and mathematics[edit] In 1906, The Archimedes Palimpsest revealed works by Archimedes previously thought to have been lost. Eratosthenes of Alexandria (c. 276 BC – c. 195/194 BC), wrote on astronomy and geography, but his work is known mainly from later summaries. He is credited with being the first person to measure the Earth's circumference. Much that was written by the mathematicians Euclid and Archimedes has been preserved. Euclid is known for his Elements, much of which was drawn from his predecessor Eudoxus of Cnidus. The Elements is a treatise on geometry, and it has exerted a continuing influence on mathematics. From Archimedes several treatises have come down to the present. Among them are Measurement of the Circle, in which he worked out the value of pi; The Method of Mechanical Theorems, on his work in mechanics; The Sand Reckoner; and On Floating Bodies. A manuscript of his works is currently being studied.[86] Prose fiction[edit] Very little has survived of prose fiction from the Hellenistic Era. The Milesiaka by Aristides of Miletos was probably written during the second century BC. The Milesiaka itself has not survived to the present day in its complete form, but various references to it have survived. The book established a whole new genre of so-called "Milesian tales," of which The Golden Ass by the later Roman writer Apuleius is a prime example.[87][88] The ancient Greek novels Chaereas and Callirhoe[89] by Chariton and Metiochus and Parthenope[90][91] were probably both written during the late first century BC or early first century AD, during the latter part of the Hellenistic Era. The discovery of several fragments of Lollianos's Phoenician Tale reveal the existence of a genre of ancient Greek picaresque novel.[92] Roman period[edit] Further information: Roman Greece While the transition from city-state to empire affected philosophy a great deal, shifting the emphasis from political theory to personal ethics, Greek letters continued to flourish both under the Successors (especially the Ptolemies) and under Roman rule. Romans of literary or rhetorical inclination looked to Greek models, and Greek literature of all types continued to be read and produced both by native speakers of Greek and later by Roman authors as well. A notable characteristic of this period was the expansion of literary criticism as a genre, particularly as exemplified by Demetrius, Pseudo-Longinus and Dionysius of Halicarnassus. The New Testament, written by various authors in varying qualities of Koine Greek also hails from this period,[93][7]:208–209 the most important works being the Gospels and the Epistles of Saint Paul.[94][7]:208–213 Poetry[edit] The Mykonos vase, one of the earliest surviving depictions of the myth of the Trojan Horse, a myth which is described in depth in Quintus of Smyrna's Posthomerica The poet Quintus of Smyrna, who probably lived during the late fourth century AD,[95][96] wrote Posthomerica, an epic poem narrating the story of the fall of Troy, beginning where The Iliad left off.[97] The poet Nonnus of Panopolis wrote The Dionysiaca, the longest surviving epic poem from antiquity. He also wrote a poetic paraphrase of The Gospel of John.[98][99] Nonnus probably lived sometime during the late fourth century AD or early fifth century AD.[100][101] Historiography[edit] A bust of Plutarch, one of the most famous ancient Greek historians, from his hometown of Chaeronea The historian Polybius was born about 200 BC. He was brought to Rome as a hostage in 168. In Rome he became a friend of the general Scipio Aemilianus. He probably accompanied the general to Spain and North Africa in the wars against Carthage. He was with Scipio at the destruction of Carthage in 146.[102] Diodorus Siculus was a Greek historian who lived in the 1st century BC, around the time of Julius Caesar and Augustus. He wrote a universal history, Bibliotheca Historica, in 40 books. Of these, the first five and the 11th through the 20th remain. The first two parts covered history through the early Hellenistic era. The third part takes the story to the beginning of Caesar's wars in Gaul, now France.[103] Dionysius of Halicarnassus lived late in the first century BC. His history of Rome from its origins to the First Punic War (264 to 241 BC) is written from a Roman point of view, but it is carefully researched. He also wrote a number of other treatises, including On Imitation, Commentaries on the Ancient Orators, and On the Arrangement of Words.[104] The historians Appian of Alexandria and Arrian of Nicomedia both lived in the second century AD.[105][106] Appian wrote on Rome and its conquests, while Arrian is remembered for his work on the campaigns of Alexander the Great. Arrian served in the Roman army. His book therefore concentrates heavily on the military aspects of Alexander's life. Arrian also wrote a philosophical treatise, the Diatribai, based on the teachings of his mentor Epictetus. Best known of the late Greek historians to modern readers is Plutarch of Chaeronea, who died about AD 119. His Parallel Lives of great Greek and Roman leaders has been read by every generation since the work was first published. His other surviving work is the Moralia, a collection of essays on ethical, religious, political, physical, and literary topics.[107][108] During later times, so-called "commonplace books," usually describing historical anecdotes, became quite popular. Surviving examples of this popular genre include works such as Aulus Gellius's Attic Nights,[109] Athenaeus of Naucratis's Deipnosophistae,[110] and Claudius Aelianus's De Natura Animalium and Varia Historia.[111] Science and mathematics[edit] Further information: Greek mathematics, Greek astronomy, and Medicine in ancient Greece Manuscript (1485), of Pausanias's Description of Greece at the Laurentian Library The physician Galen lived during the 2nd century AD. He was a careful student of anatomy, and his works exerted a powerful influence on medicine for the next 1,400 years. Strabo, who died about AD 23, was a geographer and historian. His Historical Sketches in 47 volumes has nearly all been lost. His Geographical Sketches remain as the only existing ancient book covering the whole range of people and countries known to the Greeks and Romans through the time of Augustus.[112] Pausanias, who lived in the 2nd century AD, was also a geographer.[113] His Description of Greece is a travel guide describing the geography and mythic history of Greece during the second century. The book takes the form of a tour of Greece, starting in Athens and ending in Naupactus.[114] The scientist of the Roman period who had the greatest influence on later generations was undoubtedly the astronomer Ptolemy. He lived during the 2nd century AD,[115] though little is known of his life. His masterpiece, originally entitled The Mathematical Collection, has come to the present under the title Almagest, as it was translated by Arab astronomers with that title.[116] It was Ptolemy who devised a detailed description of an Earth-centered universe,[117] a notion that dominated astronomical thinking for more than 1,300 years.[118] The Ptolemaic view of the universe endured until Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, and other early modern astronomers replaced it with heliocentrism.[119] Philosophy[edit] Head of Plotinus, a major philosopher from the Roman Era Epictetus (c. 55 AD – 135 AD) was associated with the moral philosophy of the Stoics. His teachings were collected by his pupil Arrian in the Discourses and the Encheiridion (Manual of Study).[120] Diogenes Laërtius, who lived in the third century AD, wrote Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, a voluminous collection of biographies of nearly every Greek philosopher who ever lived. Unfortunately, Diogenes Laërtius often fails to cite his sources and many modern historians consider his testimony unreliable.[121] Nonetheless, in spite of this, he remains the only available source on the lives of many early Greek philosophers.[122] His book is not entirely without merit; it does preserve a tremendous wealth of information that otherwise would not have been preserved. His biography of Epicurus, for instance, is of particularly high quality and contains three lengthy letters attributed to Epicurus himself, at least two of which are generally agreed to be authentic.[123] Another major philosopher of his period was Plotinus. He transformed Plato's philosophy into a school called Neoplatonism.[124] His Enneads had a wide-ranging influence on European thought until at least the seventeenth century.[125] Plotinus's philosophy mainly revolved around the concepts of nous, psyche, and the "One."[126] After the rise of Christianity, many of the most important philosophers were Christians. The second-century Christian apologist Justin Martyr, who wrote exclusively in Greek, made extensive use of ideas from Greek philosophy, especially Platonism.[127] Origen of Alexandria, the founder of Christian theology,[128] also made extensive use of ideas from Greek philosophy[129] and was even able to hold his own against the pagan philosopher Celsus in his apologetic treatise Contra Celsum.[130] Prose fiction[edit] A nineteenth-century painting by the Swiss-French painter Marc Gabriel Charles Gleyre depicting a scene from Daphnis and Chloe The Roman Period was the time when the majority of extant works of Greek prose fiction were composed. The ancient Greek novels Leucippe and Clitophon by Achilles Tatius[131][132] and Daphnis and Chloe by Longus[133] were both probably written during the early second century AD. Daphnis and Chloe, by far the most famous of the five surviving ancient Greek romance novels, is a nostalgic tale of two young lovers growing up in an idealized pastoral environment on the Greek island of Lesbos.[134] The Wonders Beyond Thule by Antonius Diogenes may have also been written during the early second century AD, although scholars are unsure of its exact date. The Wonders Beyond Thule has not survived in its complete form, but a very lengthy summary of it written by Photios I of Constantinople has survived.[135] The Ephesian Tale by Xenophon of Ephesus was probably written during the late second century AD.[133] Illustration from 1894 by William Strang depicting a battle scene from Book One of Lucian of Samosata's A True Story The satirist Lucian of Samosata lived during the late second century AD. Lucian's works were incredibly popular during antiquity. Over eighty different writings attributed to Lucian have survived to the present day.[136] Almost all of Lucian's works are written in the heavily Atticized dialect of ancient Greek language prevalent among the well-educated at the time. His book The Syrian Goddess, however, was written in a faux-Ionic dialect, deliberately imitating the dialect and style of Herodotus.[137][138] Lucian's most famous work is the novel A True Story, which some authors have described as the earliest surviving work of science fiction.[139][140] His dialogue The Lover of Lies contains several of the earliest known ghost stories[141] as well as the earliest known version of "The Sorcerer's Apprentice."[142] His letter The Passing of Peregrinus, a ruthless satire against Christians, contains one of the earliest pagan appraisals of early Christianity.[143] The Aethiopica by Heliodorus of Emesa was probably written during the third century AD.[144] It tells the story of a young Ethiopian princess named Chariclea, who is estranged from her family and goes on many misadventures across the known world.[145] Of all the ancient Greek novels, the one that attained the greatest level of popularity was the Alexander Romance, a fictionalized account of the exploits of Alexander the Great written in the third century AD. Eighty versions of it have survived in twenty-four different languages, attesting that, during the Middle Ages, the novel was nearly as popular as the Bible.[146]:650–654 Versions of the Alexander Romance were so commonplace in the fourteenth century that Geoffrey Chaucer wrote that "...every wight that hath discrecioun / Hath herd somwhat or al of [Alexander's] fortune."[146]:653–654 Legacy[edit] Hero Mourns the Dead Leander by Gillis Backereel (1640s) Ancient Greek literature has had an enormous impact on western literature as a whole.[147] Ancient Roman authors adopted various styles and motifs from ancient Greek literature. These ideas were later, in turn, adopted by other western European writers and literary critics.[147] Ancient Greek literature especially influenced later Greek literature. For instance, the Greek novels influenced the later work Hero and Leander, written by Musaeus Grammaticus.[148] Ancient Roman writers were acutely aware of the ancient Greek literary legacy and many deliberately emulated the style and formula of Greek classics in their own works. The Roman poet Vergil, for instance, modeled his epic poem The Aeneid on The Iliad and The Odyssey.[149] During the Middle Ages, ancient Greek literature was largely forgotten in Western Europe. The medieval writer Roger Bacon wrote that "there are not four men in Latin Christendom who are acquainted with the Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic grammars."[150] It was not until the Renaissance that Greek writings were rediscovered by western European scholars.[151] During the Renaissance, Greek began to be taught in western European colleges and universities for the first time, which resulted in western European scholars rediscovering the literature of ancient Greece.[152] The Textus Receptus, the first New Testament printed in the original Greek, was published in 1512 by the Italian humanist scholar Desiderius Erasmus.[153] Erasmus also published Latin translations of classical Greek texts, including a Latin translation of Hesiod's Works and Days.[154] The influence of classical Greek literature on modern literature is also evident. Numerous figures from classical literature and mythology appear throughout The Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri.[155] Plutarch's Lives were a major influence on William Shakespeare and served as the main source behind his tragedies Julius Caesar, Antony and Cleopatra, and Coriolanus.[156]:883–884 Shakespeare's comedies A Comedy of Errors and The Twelfth Night drew heavily on themes from Graeco-Roman New Comedy.[156]:881–882 Meanwhile, Shakespeare's tragedy Timon of Athens was inspired by a story written by Lucian[157] and his comedy Pericles, Prince of Tyre was based on an adaptation of the ancient Greek novel Apollonius of Tyre found in John Gower's Confessio Amantis.[158] Page from an Arabic translation of Aristotle's Poetics by Abū Bishr Mattā John Milton's epic poem Paradise Lost is written using a similar style to the two Homeric epics.[159] It also makes frequent allusions to figures from classical literature and mythology, using them as symbols to convey a Christian message.[160] Lucian's A True Story was part of the inspiration for Jonathan Swift's novel Gulliver's Travels.[156]:545 Bulfinch's Mythology, a book on Greek mythology published in 1867 and aimed at a popular audience, was described by Carl J. Richard as "one of the most popular books ever published in the United States".[161] George Bernard Shaw's play Pygmalion is a modern, rationalized retelling of the ancient Greek legend of Pygmalion.[156]:794 James Joyce's novel Ulysses, heralded by critics as one of the greatest works of modern literature,[162][163] is a retelling of Homer's Odyssey set in modern-day Dublin.[164][165] The mid-twentieth-century British author Mary Renault wrote a number of critically acclaimed novels inspired by ancient Greek literature and mythology, including The Last of the Wine and The King Must Die.[166] Even in works that do not consciously draw on Graeco-Roman literature, authors often employ concepts and themes originating in ancient Greece. The ideas expressed in Aristotle's Poetics, in particular, have influenced generations of Western writers and literary critics.[167] A Latin translation of an Arabic version of the Poetics by Averroes was available during the Middle Ages.[168] Common Greek literary terms still used today include: catharsis,[169] ethos,[170] anagnorisis,[171] hamartia,[172] hubris,[173] mimesis,[174] mythos,[175] nemesis,[176] and peripeteia.[177] Notes[edit] ^ Although Sophocles won second prize with the group of plays that included Oedipus Rex, its date of production is uncertain. The prominence of the Theban plague at the play's opening suggests to many scholars a reference to the plague that devastated Athens in 430 BC, and hence a production date shortly thereafter. See, for example, Knox, Bernard (1956). "The Date of the Oedipus Tyrannus of Sophocles". American Journal of Philology. 77 (2): 133–147. doi:10.2307/292475. JSTOR 292475. ^ Simplicius, Comments on Aristotle's Physics (24, 13): "Ἀναξίμανδρος [...] λέγει δ' αὐτὴν μήτε ὕδωρ μήτε ἄλλο τι τῶν καλουμένων εἶναι στοιχείων, ἀλλ' ἑτέραν τινὰ φύσιν ἄπειρον, ἐξ ἧς ἅπαντας γίνεσθαι τοὺς οὐρανοὺς καὶ τοὺς ἐν αὐτοῖς κόσμους· ἐξ ὧν δὲ ἡ γένεσίς ἐστι τοῖς οὖσι, καὶ τὴν φθορὰν εἰς ταῦτα γίνεσθαι κατὰ τὸ χρεών· διδόναι γὰρ αὐτὰ δίκην καὶ τίσιν ἀλλήλοις τῆς ἀδικίας κατὰ τὴν τοῦ χρόνου τάξιν, ποιητικωτέροις οὕτως ὀνόμασιν αὐτὰ λέγων. δῆλον δὲ ὅτι τὴν εἰς ἄλληλα μεταβολὴν τῶν τεττάρων στοιχείων οὗτος θεασάμενος οὐκ ἠξίωσεν ἕν τι τούτων ὑποκείμενον ποιῆσαι, ἀλλά τι ἄλλο παρὰ ταῦτα· οὗτος δὲ οὐκ ἀλλοιουμένου τοῦ στοιχείου τὴν γένεσιν ποιεῖ, ἀλλ' ἀποκρινομένων τῶν ἐναντίων διὰ τῆς αἰδίου κινήσεως." In ancient Greek, quotes usually blend with the surrounding text. Consequently, deciding where they start and where they end is often difficult. However, it is generally accepted that this quote is not Simplicius' own interpretation, but Anaximander's writing, in "somewhat poetic terms" as it is mentioned by Simplicius. References[edit] ^ Chadwick, John (1967). The Decipherment of Linear B (Second ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 101. ISBN 978-1-107-69176-6. "The glimpse we have suddenly been given of the account books of a long-forgotten people..." ^ a b c Ventris, Michael; Chadwick, John (1956). Documents in Mycenaean Greek. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. xxix. ISBN 978-1-107-50341-0. ^ Heath, Malcolm, ed. (1997). Aristotle's Poetics. Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-044636-2. ^ Grendler, Paul F (2004). The Universities of the Italian Renaissance. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 239. ISBN 0-8018-8055-6. ^ Frow, John (2007). Genre (Reprint ed.). Routledge. pp. 57–59. ISBN 978-0-415-28063-1. ^ a b c Engels, Johannes (2008). "Chapter Ten: Universal History and Cultural Geography of the Oikoumene in Herodotus' Historiai and Strabo's Geographika". In Pigoń, Jakub (ed.). The Children of Herodotus: Greek and Roman Historiography and Related Genres. Newcastle upon Tyne, England: Cambridge Scholar Publishing. p. 146. ISBN 978-1-4438-0015-0. ^ a b c d e f g h i Jenkyns, Richard (2016). Classical Literature: An Epic Journey from Homer to Virgil and Beyond. New York City, New York: Basic Books, A Member of the Perseus Books Group. ISBN 978-0-465-09797-5. ^ Lattimore, Richmond (2011). The Iliad of Homer. The University of Chicago Press, Ltd., London: The University of Chicago Press. Book 1, Line number 155 (p. 79). ISBN 978-0-226-47049-8. ^ Guy Hedreen, "The Cult of Achilles in the Euxine" Hesperia 60.3 (July 1991), pp. 313–330. ^ Stanford, William Bedell (1959) [1947]. "Introduction, Grammatical Introduction". Homer: Odyssey I-XII. 1 (2nd ed.). Macmillan Education Ltd. pp. ix–lxxxvi. ISBN 1-85399-502-9. ^ Harris, William. "The Greek Dactylic Hexameter: A Practical Reading Approach". Middlebury College. Retrieved 12 March 2017. ^ a b M. Hadas (2013-08-13). A History of Greek Literature (p.16). published by Columbia University Press 13 Aug 2013, 327 pages. ISBN 978-0-231-51486-6. Retrieved 2015-09-08. ^ J.P. Barron and P.E. Easterling, "Hesiod" in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (eds), Cambridge University Press (1985), page 92 ^ West, M. L. Theogony. Oxford University Press (1966), page 40 ^ Jasper Griffin, "Greek Myth and Hesiod", J. Boardman, J. Griffin and O. Murray (eds), The Oxford History of the Classical World, Oxford University Press (1986), page 88 ^ Cartwright, Mark. "Greek Religion". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 17 January 2017. 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"The Great Library of Alexandria?". Library Philosophy and Practice. ISSN 1522-0222. Archived from the original on 2012-04-18. Retrieved 2017-05-17. ^ Introduction (p.14) to Virgil: The Eclogues trans. Guy Lee (Penguin Classics) ^ Article on "Bucolic poetry" in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (1989) ^ a b c d e f g Harder, Annette (2012). Callimachus: Aetia. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–5. ISBN 978-0-19-958101-6. ^ Nisetich, Frank (2001). The Poems of Callimachus. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. xviii–xx. ISBN 0-19814760-0. Retrieved 27 July 2017. ^ Blum 1991, p. 236, cited in Phillips, Heather A. (August 2010). "The Great Library of Alexandria?". Library Philosophy and Practice. ISSN 1522-0222. Archived from the original on 2012-04-18. Retrieved 2017-05-17. ^ Stephens, Susan (2011), "Ptolemaic Epic", in T. Papaghelis; A. Rengakos (eds.), Brill's Companion to Apollonius Rhodius; Second (Revised ed.), Brill ^ A. W. Mair and G. R. Mair, trans., Callimachus and Lycophron; Aratus, Loeb Classical Library (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1921), p. 363 ^ Konstan, David (2010). Menander of Athens. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 3–6. ISBN 0-19-980519-9. ^ Baron, Christopher A. (2013). Timaeus of Tauromenium and Hellenistic Historiography. Cambridge University Press. ^ Brown, Truesdell S. (1958). Timaeus of Tauromenium. Berkeley: University of California Press. ^ Marincola, John, ed. A companion to Greek and Roman historiography. John Wiley & Sons, 2010, 528-531. ^ Bergmann, Uwe. "X-Ray Fluorescence Imaging of the Archimedes Palimpsest: A Technical Summary" (PDF). Retrieved 2013-09-29. ^ Walsh, P.G. (1968). "Lucius Madaurensis". Phoenix. 22 (2): 143–157. doi:10.2307/1086837. JSTOR 1086837. ^ Apuleius Madaurensis, Lucius; trans. Lindsay, Jack (1960). The Golden Ass. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. p. 31. ISBN 0-253-20036-9. ^ Edmund P. Cueva (Fall 1996). 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ISBN 0-8006-2597-8. ^ Thomas Christian Tychsen, Quinti Smyrnaei Posthomericorum libri XIV. Nunc primum ad librorum manoscriptorum fidem et virorum doctorum coniecturas recensuit, restituit et supplevit Thom. Christ. Tychsen acceserunt observationes Chr. Gottl. Heynii (Strassburg: Typhographia Societatis Bipontinae) 1807. ^ Armin H. Köchly, Quinti Smyrnaei Posthomericorum libri XIV. Recensuit, prolegomenis et adnotatione critica instruxit Arminius Koechly (Leipzig: Weidmannos) 1850. ^ A.S. Way, Introduction 1913. ^ Vian, Francis. '"Mârtus" chez Nonnos de Panopolis. Étude de sémantique et de chronologie.' REG 110, 1997, 143-60. Reprinted in: L'Épopée posthomérique. Recueil d'études. Ed. Domenico Accorinti. Alessandria: Edizioni dell'Orso, 2005 (Hellenica 17), 565-84 ^ Cameron (2016). sfnp error: no target: CITEREFCameron2016 (help) ^ Agathias Scholasticus, Hist. 4.23. (530 x 580) ^ Fornaro, S. s.v. Nonnus in Brill's New Pauly vol. 9 (ed. Canick & Schneider) (Leiden, 2006) col.812–815 ^ "Titus Livius (Livy), The History of Rome, Book 39, chapter 35". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2016-11-02. ^ Sacks, Kenneth S. (1990). Diodorus Siculus and the First Century. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-03600-4. ^ T. Hidber. Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece (p.229). Routledge 31 Oct 2013, 832 pages, ISBN 1-136-78799-2, (editor N. Wilson). Retrieved 2015-09-07. ^ White, Horace (1912). "Introduction". Appian's Roman History. Cambridge, Mass: The Loeb Classical Library. pp. vii–xii. ISBN 0-674-99002-1. ^ FW Walbank (November 1984). F. W. Walbank (ed.). The Cambridge Ancient History. Cambridge University Press, 6 Sep 1984. ISBN 0-521-23445-X. Retrieved 2015-04-01. ^ "Plutarch". Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. ^ Stadter, Philip A. (2015). Plutarch and His Roman Readers. Oxford University Press. p. 69. ISBN 978-0-19-871833-8. Retrieved 2015-02-04. Although Plutarch wrote in Greek and with a Greek point of view, [...] he was thinking of a Roman as well as a Greek audience. ^ Ramsay, William (1867), "A. Gellius", in Smith, William, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, 2, Boston, p. 235 ^ Ἀθήναιος [Athenaeus]. Δειπνοσοφισταί [Deipnosophistaí, Sophists at Dinner], c. 3rd century (Ancient Greek) Trans. Charles Burton Gulick as Athenaeus, Vol. I, p. viii. Harvard University Press (Cambridge), 1927. Accessed 13 Aug 2014. ^ Aelian, Historical Miscellany. Translated by Nigel G. Wilson. 1997. Loeb Classical Library. ISBN 978-0-674-99535-2 ^ Dueck, Daniela (2000). Strabo of Amasia: A Greek Man of Letters in Augustan Rome. London, New York: Routledge: Taylor & Francis Group. p. 145. ISBN 0-415-21672-9. ^ Historical and Ethnological Society of Greece, Aristéa Papanicolaou Christensen, The Panathenaic Stadium – Its History Over the Centuries (2003), p. 162 ^ Pausanias, --. Description of Greece: Complete. First Rate Publishers. ISBN 978-1-5028-8547-0.CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) ^ "Ptolemy | Accomplishments, Biography, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2016-03-06. ^ A. I. Sabra, "Configuring the Universe: Aporetic, Problem Solving, and Kinematic Modeling as Themes of Arabic Astronomy," Perspectives on Science 6.3 (1998): 288–330, at pp. 317–18 ^ NT Hamilton, N. M. Swerdlow, G. J. Toomer. "The Canobic Inscription: Ptolemy's Earliest Work". In Berggren and Goldstein, eds., From Ancient Omens to Statistical Mechanics. Copenhagen: University Library, 1987. ^ Fraser, Craig G. (2006). The Cosmos: A Historical Perspective. p. 14. ^ Lattis, James L. (1995). Between Copernicus and Galileo: Christoph Clavius and the Collapse of Ptolemaic Cosmology, University of Chicago Press, pgs 186–190 ^ Epictetus, Discourses, prologue. ^ Long, Herbert S. (1972). Introduction. Lives of Eminent Philosophers. By Laërtius, Diogenes. 1 (reprint ed.). Loeb Classical Library. p. xvi. ^ "Diogenes Laërtius", The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 2013 ^  Laërtius, Diogenes (1925c). "Epicurus" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. 2:10. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) ^ Philip Merlan, From Platonism to Neoplatonism (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1954, 1968), p. 3. ^ Detlef Thiel: Die Philosophie des Xenokrates im Kontext der Alten Akademie, München 2006, pp. 197ff. and note 64; Jens Halfwassen: Der Aufstieg zum Einen. ^ "Who was Plotinus?". ^ New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge 3rd ed. 1914. Pg 284 ^ Moore, Edward. "Origen of Alexandria (entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy)". The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. IEP. ISSN 2161-0002. Retrieved 2014-04-27. ^ Schaff, Philip (1910). The new Schaff-Herzog encyclopedia of religious knowledge: embracing biblical, historical, doctrinal, and practical theology and biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical biography from the earliest times to the present day. Funk and Wagnalls Company. p. 272. Retrieved 2014-07-30. ^ Herzog, Johann Jakob; Philip Schaff; Albert Hauck (December 1908). "Celsus". In Samual Macauley Jackson (ed.). The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge. II. New York and London: Funk and Wagnalls Company. p. 466. ^ The "early dating of P.Oxy 3836 holds, Achilles Tatius' novel must have been written 'nearer 120 than 150'" Albert Henrichs, Culture In Pieces: Essays on Ancient Texts in Honour of Peter Parsons, eds. Dirk Obbink, Richard Rutherford, Oxford University Press, 2011, p. 309, n. 29 ISBN 0-19-929201-9, 9780199292011 ^ "the use (albeit mid and erratic) of the Attic dialect suggest a date a little earlier [than mid-2nd century] in the same century." The Greek Novel: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide Oxford University Press, 2010, p. 7 ISBN 0-19-980303-X, 9780199803033 ^ a b Longus; Xenophon of Ephesus (2009), Henderson, Jeffery, ed., Anthia and Habrocomes (translation), Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, pp. 69 & 127, ISBN 978-0-674-99633-5 ^ Richard Hunter (1996). "Longus, Daphnis and Chloe". In Gareth L. Schmeling (ed.). The Novel in the Ancient World. Brill. pp. 361–86. ISBN 90-04-09630-2. ^ J.R. Morgan. Lucian's True Histories and the Wonders Beyond Thule of Antonius Diogenes. The Classical Quarterly (New Series), 35, pp 475–490 doi:10.1017/S0009838800040313. ^ Moeser, Marion (Dec 15, 2002). The Anecdote in Mark, the Classical World and the Rabbis: A Study of Brief Stories in the Demonax, The Mishnah, and Mark 8:27–10:45. A&C Black. p. 88. ISBN 978-0-8264-6059-2. Retrieved 16 September 2016. ^ Lightfoot, De Dea Syria (2003) ^ Lucinda Dirven, "The Author of De Dea Syria and his Cultural Heritage", Numen 44.2 (May 1997), pp. 153–179. ^ Greg Grewell: "Colonizing the Universe: Science Fictions Then, Now, and in the (Imagined) Future", Rocky Mountain Review of Language and Literature, Vol. 55, No. 2 (2001), pp. 25–47 (30f.) ^ Fredericks, S.C.: "Lucian's True History as SF", Science Fiction Studies, Vol. 3, No. 1 (March 1976), pp. 49–60 ^ "The Doubter" by Lucian in Roger Lancelyn Green (1970) Thirteen Uncanny Tales. London, Dent: 14–21; and Finucane, pg 26. ^ George Luck "Witches and Sorcerers in Classical Literature", p. 141, Witchcraft and Magic in Europe: Ancient Greece And Rome edited by Bengt Ankarloo and Stuart Clark ISBN 0-8122-1705-5 ^ Robert E. Van Voorst, Jesus outside the New Testament, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2000. ^ Holzberg, Niklas. The Ancient Novel. 1995. p. 78 ^ Bowersock, Glanwill W. The Aethiopica of Heliodorus and the Historia Augusta. In: Historiae Augustae Colloquia n.s. 2, Colloquium Genevense 1991. p. 43. ^ a b Reardon, Bryan P. (1989). Collected Ancient Greek Novels. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-04306-5. Retrieved 22 June 2017. ^ a b "Western literature". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 19 June 2017. ^ English translations of Musaeus Grammaticus' Hero and Leander: The Divine Poem of Musaeus: First of All Books Translated According to the Original (George Chapman, 1616); Hero & Leander (E.E. Sikes, 1920) ^ Jenkyns, Richard (2007). Classical Epic: Homer and Virgil. London: Duckworth. p. 53. ISBN 978-1-85399-133-2. ^ Sandys, Sir John Edwin (1921). A History of Classical Scholarship; Volume One: From the Sixth Century B.C. to the End of the Middle Ages (3 ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 591. ISBN 978-1-108-02706-9. Retrieved 24 March 2017. ^ Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society, Marvin Perry, Myrna Chase, Margaret C. Jacob, James R. Jacob, 2008, 903 pages, p.261/262. ^ Reynolds and Wilson, pp. 119, 131. ^ W. W. Combs, Erasmus and the textus receptus, DBSJ 1 (Spring 1996), 45. ^ Meagher, Robert E. (2002). The Meaning of Helen: In Search of an Ancient Icon. Wauconda, Illinois: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers. p. 56. ISBN 0-86516-510-6. Retrieved 19 June 2017. ^ Osborn, Kevin; Burgess, Dana (1998-07-01). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Classical Mythology. Penguin. pp. 270–. ISBN 9780028623856. Retrieved 19 December 2012. ^ a b c d Grafton, Anthony; Most, Glenn W.; Settis, Salvatore (2010). The Classical Tradition. Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-03572-0. ^ Armstrong, A. Macc. "Timon of Athens - A Legendary Figure?", Greece & Rome, 2nd Ser., Vol. 34, No. 1 (April 1987), pp. 7–11 ^ Reardon, Bryan P. (1989). Collected Ancient Greek Novels. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 737. ISBN 0-520-04306-5. Retrieved 17 June 2017. ^ Kirk, G. S. (1976). Homer and the Oral Tradition. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 85–99. ISBN 978-0-521-13671-6. Homeric style. ^ Osgood, Charles Grosvenor (1900). The Classical Mythology of Milton's English Poems. New York City, New York: Henry Holt. p. ix-xi. Retrieved 5 June 2017. ^ Richard, Carl J., The Golden Age of the Classics in America, Harvard University Press, 2009, page 33. ^ Harte, Tim (Summer 2003). "Sarah Danius, The Senses of Modernism: Technology, Perception, and Aesthetics". Bryn Mawr Review of Comparative Literature. 4 (1). Archived from the original on 2003-11-05. Retrieved 2001-07-10. (review of Danius book). ^ Kiberd, Declan (16 June 2009). "Ulysses, Modernism's Most Sociable Masterpiece". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 28 June 2011. ^ Jaurretche, Colleen (2005). Beckett, Joyce and the Art of the Negative. European Joyce studies. 16. Rodopi. p. 29. ISBN 978-90-420-1617-0. Retrieved February 1, 2011. ^ Ellmann, Richard. James Joyce. Oxford University Press, revised edition (1983). ^ "Who was Mary Renault?". The Mary Renault Society. The Mary Renault Society. Retrieved 31 May 2017. ^ Forster, E. M.; Hans-Georg, Gadamer. "Aristotle:Poetics". CriticaLink. University of Hawaii. Retrieved 25 June 2017. ^ Habib, M.A.R. (2005). A History of Literary Criticism and Theory: From Plato to the Present. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 60. ISBN 0-631-23200-1. ^ "Catharsis". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 25 June 2017. ^ "Ethos". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 25 June 2017. ^ "Anagnorisis". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 25 June 2017. ^ "Hamartia". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 25 June 2017. ^ "Hubris". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 25 June 2017. ^ "Mimesis". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 25 June 2017. ^ "Plot". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 25 June 2017. ^ "Nemesis". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 25 June 2017. ^ "Peripeteia". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 25 June 2017. Further reading[edit] Beye, Charles Rowan (1987). Ancient Greek Literature and Society. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-1874-7. Easterling, P.E.; Knox, B.M.W., eds. (1985). The Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Volume 1: Greek literature. Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]; New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-21042-9. Flacelière, Robert (1964). A Literary History of Greece. (Translated by Douglas Garman). Chicago: Aldine Pub. Co. Gutzwiller, Kathryn (2007). A Guide to Hellenistic Literature. Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-23322-0. Hadas, Moses (1950). A History of Greek Literature. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Lesky, Albin (1966). A History of Greek Literature. Translated by James Willis; Cornelis de Heer. Indianapolis / Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. ISBN 0-87220-350-6. Schmidt, Michael (2004). The First Poets: Lives of the Ancient Greek Poets. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-64394-0. C. A. Trypanis (1981). Greek Poetry from Homer to Seferis. University of Chicago Press. Whitmarsh, Tim (2004). Ancient Greek Literature. Cambridge: Polity Press. ISBN 0-7456-2792-7. 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en-wikipedia-org-1752	----	Lucania - Wikipedia Lucania From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Lucania (disambiguation). Map of ancient Lucania Lucania (Greek: Λευκανία, translit. Leukanía, lit. "Lefkanía (Modern Greek)") was a historical region of Southern Italy. It was the land of the Lucani, an Oscan people. It extended from the Tyrrhenian Sea to the Gulf of Taranto. It bordered with Samnium and Campania in the north, Apulia in the east, and Bruttium in the south-west, at the tip of the peninsula which is now called Calabria. It thus comprised almost all the modern region of Basilicata, the southern part of the Province of Salerno (the Cilento area) and a northern portion of the Province of Cosenza. The precise limits were the river Silarus in the north-west, which separated it from Campania, and the Bradanus, which flows into the Gulf of Taranto, in the east. The lower tract of the river Laus, which flows from a ridge of the Apennine Mountains to the Tyrrhenian Sea in an east-west direction, marked part of the border with Bruttium. Contents 1 Geography 2 Etymology 3 History 4 Cities and towns 5 Later use 6 Notes 7 References Geography[edit] Almost the whole area is occupied by the Apennine Mountains, which here are an irregular group of lofty masses. The main ridge approaches the western sea, and continues from the lofty knot of mountains on the frontiers of Samnium, in a mostly southerly direction, to within a few miles of the Gulf of Policastro. From then on it is separated from the sea by only a narrow interval until it enters Bruttium. Just within the frontier of Lucania rises Monte Pollino, 7,325 ft (2,233 m), the highest peak in the southern Apennines. The mountains descend in a much more gradual slope to the coastal plain of the Gulf of Taranto. Thus the rivers which flow to the Tyrrhenian Sea are of little importance compared with those that descend towards the Gulf of Tarentum. Of these the most important are the Bradanus (Bradano), the Casuentus (Basento), the Aciris (Agri), and the Siris (Sinni). The Crathis, which forms at its mouth the southern limit of the province, belongs almost wholly to the territory of the Bruttii, but it receives a tributary, the Sybaris (Coscile), from the mountains of Lucania. The only considerable stream on the western side is the Silarus (Sele), which constitutes the northern boundary, and has two important tributaries in the Calor (Calore Lucano or Calore Salernitano) and the Tanager (Tanagro or Negro) which joins it from the south. Etymology[edit] There are several hypotheses on the origin of the name Lucania, inhabited by Lucani, an Osco-Samnite population from central Italy. Lucania might be derived from Greek λευκός, leukos meaning "white", cognate of Latin lux ("light"). According to another hypothesis, Lucania might be derived from Latin word lucus meaning "sacred wood" (cognate of lucere), or from Greek λύκος, lykos meaning "wolf". History[edit] A mounted Lucani warrior, fresco from a tomb of Paestum, Italy, c. 360 BC The district of Lucania was so called from the people bearing the name Lucani (Lucanians) by whom it was conquered about the middle of the 5th century BC. Before that period it was included under the general name of Oenotria, which was applied by the Greeks to the southernmost portion of Italy. The mountainous interior was occupied by the tribes known as Oenotrians and Choni, while the coasts on both sides were occupied by powerful Greek colonies which doubtless exercised a protectorate over the interior (see Magna Graecia). The Lucanians were a southern branch of the Samnite or Sabellic people, who spoke the Oscan language. They had a democratic constitution save in time of war, when a dictator was chosen from among the regular magistrates. A few Oscan inscriptions survive, mostly in Greek characters, from the 4th or 3rd century BC, and some coins with Oscan legends of the 3rd century.[1] The Lucanians gradually conquered the whole country (with the exception of the Greek towns on the coast) from the borders of Samnium and Campania to the southern extremity of Italy. Subsequently the inhabitants of the peninsula, now known as Calabria, broke into insurrection, and under the name of Bruttians established their independence, after which the Lucanians became confined within the limits already described. After this we find them engaged in hostilities with the Tarentines, and with Alexander, king of Epirus, who was called in by that people to their assistance, 334 BC. In 298 BC (Livy x. II seq.) they made alliance with Rome, and Roman influence was extended by the colonies of Venusia (291 BC), Paestum (273), and above all Tarentum (272). Subsequently they were sometimes in alliance, but more frequently engaged in hostilities, during the Samnite wars. On the landing of Pyrrhus in Italy (281 BC) they were among the first to declare in his favor, and found themselves exposed to the resentment of Rome when the departure of Pyrrhus left his allies at the mercy of the Romans. After several campaigns they were reduced to subjection (272 BC). Notwithstanding this they espoused the cause of Hannibal during the Second Punic War (216 BC), and their territory during several campaigns was ravaged by both armies. The country never recovered from these disasters, and under the Roman government fell into decay, to which the Social War, in which the Lucanians took part with the Samnites against Rome (90–88 BC) gave the finishing stroke. In the time of Strabo the Greek cities on the coast had fallen into insignificance, and owing to the decrease of population and cultivation the malaria began to obtain the upper hand. The few towns of the interior were of no importance. A large part of the province was given up to pasture, and the mountains were covered with forests, which abounded in wild boars, bears and wolves. There were some fifteen independent communities, but none of great importance. For administrative purposes under the Roman empire, Lucania was always united with the district of the Bruttii, a practice continued by Theodoric.[2] The two together constituted the third region of Augustus. Cities and towns[edit] A Lucani man riding a chariot, from a tomb in Paestum, Italy, 4th century BC The towns on the east coast were Metapontum, a few miles south of the Bradanus; Heraclea, at the mouth of the Aciris; and Sins, on the river of the same name. Close to its southern frontier stood Sybaris, which was destroyed in 510 BC, but subsequently replaced by Thurii. On the west coast stood Posidonia, known under the Roman government as Paestum; below that came Elea (Velia under the Romans), Pyxus, called by the Romans Buxentum, and Laüs, near the frontier of the province towards Bruttium. Of the towns of the interior the most considerable was Potentia, still called Potenza. To the north, near the frontier of Apulia, was Bantia (Aceruntia belonged more properly to Apulia); while due south from Potentia was Grumentum, and still farther in that direction were Nerulum and Muranum. In the upland valley of the Tanagrus were Atina, Forum Popilii and Consilinum (near Sala Consilina); Eburi (Eboli) and Volceii (Buccino), though to the north of the Silarus, were also included in Lucania. The Via Popilia traversed the district from north to south, entering it at the northwestern extremity; the Via Herculia, coming southwards from the Via Appia and passing through Potentia and Grumentum, joined the Via Popilia near the southwestern edge of the district: while another nameless road followed the east coast and other roads of less importance ran west from Potentia to the Via Popilia, northeast to the Via Appia and east from Grumentum to the coast at Heraclea. Later use[edit] See also: Theme of Lucania The modern name Basilicata originates from the 10th century AD, when the area was under Byzantine control. During the early 19th century, during the Carbonari revolution of 1820–21, the region was renamed and divided into Eastern and Western Lucania (Lucania Orientale and Lucania Occidentale). From the latter half of the 19th century some residents campaigned to reinstate that name. In 1932 the Fascist regime changed the name to Lucania, as part of its appropriation of symbols from the Roman Empire. After the end of the war and Italy's defeat, the new government restored the name of Basilicata to the province in 1947. In the late 20th century, Lucania was still in vernacular use as a synonym to Basilicata.[3] Notes[edit] ^ see Conway, Italic Dialects, p. II sqq.; Mommsen, C.I.L. x. p. 2I; Roehl, Inscriptiones Graecae Antiquissimae, 547. ^ Cassiodorus: Chapter 1, Backgrounds and Some Dates Archived 2005-05-10 at the Wayback Machine ^ Guida d'Italia: Basilicata, Calabria. Touring club italiano (1980) ISBN 978-88-365-0021-5 p.11 References[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Lucania". Encyclopædia Britannica. 17 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 92. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lucania&oldid=991981265" Categories: Lucania Geography of Italy Roman Italy Coloniae (Roman) Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Euskara فارسی Français Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Lumbaart Polski Русский Sicilianu Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 2 December 2020, at 21:07 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1762	----	National Library of Latvia - Wikipedia National Library of Latvia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from LNB (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in Latvian. (January 2015) Click [show] for important translation instructions. View a machine-translated version of the Latvian article. Machine translation like DeepL or Google Translate is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Wikipedia. Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article. You must provide copyright attribution in the edit summary accompanying your translation by providing an interlanguage link to the source of your translation. A model attribution edit summary Content in this edit is translated from the existing Latvian Wikipedia article at [[:lv:Latvijas Nacionālā bibliotēka]]; see its history for attribution. You should also add the template {{Translated|lv|Latvijas Nacionālā bibliotēka}} to the talk page. For more guidance, see Wikipedia:Translation. This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in German. (January 2015) Click [show] for important translation instructions. View a machine-translated version of the German article. Machine translation like DeepL or Google Translate is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Wikipedia. Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article. You must provide copyright attribution in the edit summary accompanying your translation by providing an interlanguage link to the source of your translation. A model attribution edit summary Content in this edit is translated from the existing German Wikipedia article at [[:de:Lettische Nationalbibliothek]]; see its history for attribution. You should also add the template {{Translated|de|Lettische Nationalbibliothek}} to the talk page. For more guidance, see Wikipedia:Translation. National Library of Latvia Latvijas Nacionālā bibliotēka The main building of the National Library of Latvia in Riga Country Latvia Type National library Established 29 August 1919 (101 years ago) (1919-08-29) Location 2 buildings in Riga and in Ropaži Municipality Collection Size 4.2 million books and other publications Other information Director Andris Vilks Staff 372 Website https://www.lnb.lv Map The National Library of Latvia (Latvian: Latvijas Nacionālā bibliotēka), also known as Castle of Light (Gaismas pils), is a national cultural institution under the supervision of the Ministry of Culture of Latvia. The National Library of Latvia was formed in 1919 after the independent Republic of Latvia was proclaimed in 1918. The first supervisor of the Library was Jānis Misiņš, a librarian and the founder of the Latvian scientific bibliography (1862–1945). The current building was designed in 1989 by noted Latvian-American architect Gunnar Birkerts (1925-2017), who emigrated to the United States and made his career there. It was constructed in the early 21st century and opened in 2014. Today the Library plays an important role in the development of Latvia's information society, providing Internet access to residents and supporting research and lifelong education. The historical main building, Krišjāņa Barona iela 14 Contents 1 History 1.1 Interwar period 1.2 German and Soviet occupation 1.3 Renewed independence 2 Collections 3 Lettonica 4 New building 4.1 Current projects 5 See also 6 References 7 External links History[edit] Interwar period[edit] The National Library was founded on 29 August 1919, one year after independence, as the State Library (Valsts Bibliotēka).[1] Its first chief librarian and bibliographer was Jānis Misiņš (1862-1944), who made his immense private collection the basis of the new library.[2] Within a year, until 1920, the stocks had grown to 250,000 volumes.[3] Starting in the same year, all publishers were obliged to hand in a deposit copy of their works. Since 1927, the Library has published the National Bibliography of Latvia. There were significant additions in 1939 and 1940, when the State Library took over many of the libraries and collections of the Baltic Germans. Most resettled to the Nazi German Reich. Among these collections was a large part of the collection of the Society for History and Archaeology of Russia's Baltic Provinces, est. 1834, the primary historical society of the Baltic Germans.[1] In 1940, holdings encompassed 1.7 million volumes,[3] so that they had to be stored in two different locations in the Old Town (Jēkaba iela 6/8 and Anglikāņu iela 5). German and Soviet occupation[edit] During World War II, Germany invaded Latvia and occupied Riga (1941-1944). At that time, German authorities renamed the State Library as Country Library (Zemes bibliotēka), eliminating reference to a sovereign Latvian state). Following the war, Latvia was under Soviet rule, and the institution was known as State Library of the Latvian SSR (Latvijas PSR Valsts bibliotēka).[1] According to Soviet customs, in 1966 the library received an honorary name, commemorating Vilis Lācis, a writer and the late prime minister of Soviet Latvia. From 1946, literature deemed 'dangerous' from the Soviet perspective was withdrawn from the shelves and until 1988, when the Soviet Union gave up control, could be accessed only with a special permit. [4] In 1956, the State Library moved into a new building at Krišjāņa Barona iela. Renewed independence[edit] Since the reestablishment of Lativan national independence in 1991, the institution has been called National Library of Latvia. In 1995, it received as a permanent loan the Baltic Central Library of Otto Bong (1918-2006), a collection pertaining to the history, regional studies and languages of the Baltic countries.[5] In 2006, the National Library joined the European Library online service. Collections[edit] The Library's holdings today encompass more than 5 million titles, incl. about 18,000 manuscripts from the 14th century up to modern times.[6] One of the characteristic cornerstones of the NLL, which characterizes every national library, is the formation of the collection of national literature, its eternal storage and long-term access. The NLL is a centre of theoretical research and practical analyses of the activities of Latvian libraries. The Library carries out the functions of the centre of Latvia Interlibrary Loan, ensures the library and information service to the Parliament of the Republic of Latvia – the Saeima, implements the standardisation of the branch. Since the very outset, its main concern has been the national bibliography. The massive union catalogue Seniespiedumi latviešu valodā (Ancient Prints in Latvian 1525–1855, published in Riga, 1999)[7] received the Spīdola Prize in 2000 and was awarded The Beautiful Book of the Year 99.[8] In 2005, the Letonikas grāmatu autoru rādītājs (1523-1919) (Index of the Authors of Lettonica Books (1523–1919)) was published,[9] providing information about versatile branches of science and representatives of various nations, Latvia being the main focus of their publications. The NLL includes several collections of posters (artists Oskars Šteinbergs (1882–1937), Sigismunds Vidbergs (1890–1970), Raoul Dufy (1877–1953), Bernhard Borchert (1863–1945), Niklāvs Strunke (1894–1966) and others).[10] Lettonica[edit] Digitising collections at the NLL started in 1999. At present the Latvian National Digital Library Letonica, which was formed in 2006, holds digitized collections of newspapers, pictures, maps, books, sheet-music and audio recordings. In 2008 NLL launched two major digital projects. Periodika.lv is the NLL's collection of digitized historical periodicals in Latvian with the possibility to read full texts and search page by page.[11] Latvia has a tradition of Song and Dance Festivals organized every four years. The historical materials from the first Song Festival in 1864 till the Latgale Song Festival in 1940 can be explored in another digital collection of the National Library of Latvia.[12] New building[edit] Interior of the library Conference hall Ziedonis From the tower of St. Peter's Church An amphora-shaped sculpture in front of the library. The surface of the sculpture is covered in letters. The first discussions about the need for a new National Library began as early as 1928, and the significance of the project of this century was confirmed by high-level international recognition of the value of its collections. In 1999 almost all 170 UNESCO member states adopted a resolution during its General Conference,[13] calling on member states and the international community to ensure all possible support for the implementation of the NLL project. The continuous growth of the Library had made it necessary to transfer parts of the stocks into other buildings. By NLL had its holdings distributed among five locations in Riga.[14] Furthermore, since 1998, some stocks had to be stored in a depot in Silakrogs outside the capital.[4] The Parliament finally authorized a new building to be constructed on the left bank of the Daugava River. On 15 May 2008, after discussions lasting for many years, the state agency Three New Brothers and the Union of National Construction Companies signed the contract on the construction of the new National Library of Latvia. On 18 May 2014, the main facility of the Library at Krišjāņa Barona iela was closed for the move.[15] In 2008, construction started according to the design of noted Latvian-American architect Gunnar Birkerts, who had been based in the Detroit, Michigan area since the early 1950s.[16] He had been commissioned to design the building in 1989.[17] He was inspired by the Glass Mountain of Latvian mythology. The new building has 13 floors[18] and is 68 m high.[19] Construction costs were given as 193 million euros.[20] 480 people work there. As part of Riga's programme for its title as European Capital of Culture, selected holdings were symbolically carried from the old to the new building by a human chain on 18 January 2014. The new building was finally opened on 29 August that year, the Library's 95th anniversary.[21] Today the NLL building is a dominant landmark on the Riga cityscape. It has space for conferences and conventions, and other community events. Among others, it hosted the 4th summit of the EU's Eastern Partnership programme in May 2015,[22] and a debate chaired by the BBC's Jonathan Dimbleby on 14 March 2016.[23] Current projects[edit] LIBER 43rd Annual Conference Development of the digital library services Dissemination and Exploitation via Libraries: for Success and Sustainability of LLP Results Effective training tools application to qualification improvement in library sector (ETQI) Europeana Awareness Europeana Inside Europeana Newspapers Europeana Sounds The Exhibition "Book 1514–2014" and Academic readings "Content of the 21st Century" The Impact of Digital text and Multimedia Format on Childhood Learning: a Multidimensional Approach See also[edit] List of national libraries Latvian ISBN Agency References[edit] ^ a b c Klöker, Martin (2004). "Bibliotheksgeschichtliche Einleitung". In Garber, Klaus (ed.). Handbuch des personalen Gelegenheitsschrifttums in europäischen Bibliotheken und Archiven. Vol. 7: Riga - Tallinn. Part 3: Riga (in German). Hildesheim: Olms. p. 41. ISBN 3-487-11405-4. ^ Zanders, Viesturs (1997). "Bibliotheken in Lettland". In Fabian, Bernhard (ed.). Handbuch deutscher historischer Buchbestände in Europa. Eine Übersicht über Sammlungen in ausgewählten Bibliotheken. Bd. 7, Teil 2: Finnland, Estland, Lettland, Litauen (in German). Hildesheim: Olms. p. 145. ISBN 3-487-10361-3. ^ a b Zanders, Viesturs (1997). "Latvijas Nacionālā bibliotēka – Lettische Nationalbibliothek". In Fabian, Bernhard (ed.). Handbuch deutscher historischer Buchbestände in Europa. Eine Übersicht über Sammlungen in ausgewählten Bibliotheken. Bd. 7, Teil 2: Finnland, Estland, Lettland, Litauen. Hildesheim: Olms. p. 151. ^ a b "LNB vēstures fakti" (in Latvian). Retrieved 18 May 2014. ^ Zanders, Viesturs (1997). "Latvijas Nacionālā bibliotēka – Lettische Nationalbibliothek". In Fabian, Bernhard (ed.). Handbuch deutscher historischer Buchbestände in Europa. Eine Übersicht über Sammlungen in ausgewählten Bibliotheken. Bd. 7, Teil 2: Finnland, Estland, Lettland, Litauen. Hildesheim: Olms. p. 152. ^ Klöker, Martin (2004). "Bibliotheksgeschichtliche Einleitung". In Garber, Klaus (ed.). Handbuch des personalen Gelegenheitsschrifttums in europäischen Bibliotheken und Archiven. Vol. 7: Riga - Tallinn. Part 3: Riga (in German). Hildesheim: Olms. p. 42. ISBN 3-487-11405-4. ^ Šiško, Silvija, ed. (1999). Seniespiedumi latviešu valodā 1525–1855. Kopkatalogs / Die älteren Drucke in lettischer Sprache 1525–1855 (in Latvian and German). Riga: Latvijas Nacionālā Bibliotēka. ISBN 9984-607-19-4. ^ "About collection of NLL". lnb.lv. Retrieved 31 August 2008. ^ Bočarova, Rita, ed. (2005). Letonikas grāmatu autoru rādītājs (1523–1919) / Autoren-Verzeichnis der Lettonika-Bücher (in Latvian and German). Riga: Latvijas Nacionālā Bibliotēka. ISBN 9984-607-68-2. ^ "Treasures of the National Library of Latvia". theeuropeanlibrary.org. Retrieved 31 August 2008. ^ "Latvijas Nacionālā digitālā bibliotēka" (in Latvian). periodika.lv. Retrieved 2 September 2008. ^ "Latviešu Dziesmu svētki (1864–1940)" (in Latvian). lndb.lv. Retrieved 2 September 2008. ^ "Resolution 38 adopted at the 30th session of the UNESCO General Conference" (PDF). ^ "[Addresses of NLL's branches]" (in Latvian). Archived from the original on 19 May 2014. Retrieved 31 December 2013. ^ "[Press release]" (in Latvian). 15 May 2014. Retrieved 18 May 2014. ^ Berndsen, Silke (2010). "'Gut zehn Jahre haben wir über unsere Bibliothek diskutiert, aber gebaut haben wir sie nicht.' Die lettische Nationalbibliothek und ihr Neubau". Bibliotheksdienst (in German). 44: 930–940. ^ "Architekt: Nationalbibliothek ist Symbol für freies Lettland" (in German). 14 January 2014. Retrieved 17 January 2014. ^ Brill, Klaus (2 January 2014). "Die singende Schöne. Riga putzt sich für seine Rolle als Kulturhauptstadt Europas 2014 heraus". Süddeutsche Zeitung (in German). ^ "National Library of Latvia". Retrieved 17 January 2014. ^ "Jaunumi". Archived from the original on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 17 January 2014. ^ "Jaunā LNB ēka" (in Latvian). Retrieved 3 January 2015. ^ Brössler, Daniel (21 May 2015). "Geschichte schrreiben. Beim Gipfel in Riga wollen die Staats- und Regierungschefs der EU unter Beweis stellen, dass ihre Ostpolitik nicht gescheitert ist". Süddeutsche Zeitung (in German). p. 7. ^ BBC World Service report, 14 March 2016 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to National Library of Latvia. Official site of the National Library of Latvia Project of the new building of the NLL Friends of the National Library of Latvia National Library of Latvia at Google Cultural Institute Message to the future readers Live from the construction site World Wide Science Coordinates: 56°57′03″N 24°07′15″E / 56.950882°N 24.120897°E / 56.950882; 24.120897 v t e Riga cityscape Old Town Castle Cat House Convent Yard Dannenstern House House of the Blackheads House of the Livonian Noble Corporation Large Guild Powder Tower Small Guild Swedish Gate Three Brothers Hotels Grand Palace Radisson Blu Daugava Gallery Park Monuments & memorials Brothers' Cemetery Bikernieki Memorial Forest Cemetery Freedom Monument Great Cemetery Pokrov Cemetery Monument to the Liberators of Soviet Latvia and Riga Parks & gardens Bastejkalns University of Latvia Botanical Garden Vērmane Garden Victory Park Museums & galleries Museum of the History of Riga and Navigation National Museum of Art Museum of the Occupation of 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WorldCat Identities Authority control BNF: cb15014038q (data) GND: 5198443-X ISNI: 0000 0001 1016 0284 LCCN: n93025426 LNB: 000001029 NKC: ko2003197165 SUDOC: 067152783 VcBA: 494/21831 VIAF: 148127403 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n93025426 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=National_Library_of_Latvia&oldid=996081244" Categories: Library buildings completed in 1919 Buildings and structures in Riga Latvian culture National libraries Latvian digital libraries 1919 establishments in Latvia Libraries established in 1919 Deposit libraries Libraries in Latvia Hidden categories: CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 Latvian-language sources (lv) Use dmy dates from November 2015 Articles to be expanded from January 2015 All articles to be expanded Articles needing translation from Latvian Wikipedia Articles needing translation from German Wikipedia Infobox mapframe without OSM relation ID on Wikidata Articles containing Latvian-language text Commons category link is on 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projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Español فارسی Français 한국어 Ilokano Italiano עברית Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 December 2020, at 12:22 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1789	----	Persius - Wikipedia Persius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman poet and satirist (AD 34-62) Not to be confused with Perseus. Persius Aulus Persius Flaccus (/ˈpɜːrʃiəs, ˈpɜːrʃəs/; 4 December 34 – 24 November 62) was a Roman poet and satirist of Etruscan origin. In his works, poems and satires, he shows a Stoic wisdom and a strong criticism for what he considered to be the stylistic abuses of his poetic contemporaries. His works, which became very popular in the Middle Ages, were published after his death by his friend and mentor, the Stoic philosopher Lucius Annaeus Cornutus. Contents 1 Life 1.1 Doubts over his biography 2 Work 2.1 Authorities 3 Editions 4 Notes 5 References 6 External links Life[edit] According to the Life contained in the manuscripts, Persius was born into an equestrian family at Volterra (Volaterrae, in Latin), a small Etruscan city in the province of Pisa, of good stock on both parents' side. When six years old he lost his father; his stepfather died a few years later. At the age of twelve Persius came to Rome, where he was taught by Remmius Palaemon and the rhetor Verginius Flavus. During the next four years he developed friendships with the Stoic Lucius Annaeus Cornutus, the lyric poet Caesius Bassus, and the poet Lucan.[1] Lucan would become a generous admirer of all Persius wrote. He also became close friends with Thrasea Paetus, the husband of Arria, a relative of Persius's; over the next ten years Persius and Thrasea Paetus shared many travels together. Later, he met Seneca, but was not impressed by his genius. In his boyhood, Persius wrote a tragedy dealing with an episode in Roman history, and another work, probably on travel (although this would have been before the travels with Thrasea Paetus). Reading the satires of Lucilius made Persius want to write like him, and he set to work on a book of his own satires. But he wrote seldom and slowly; a premature death (uitio stomachi) prevented him from completing the book. He has been described as having "a gentle disposition, girlish modesty and personal beauty", and is said to have lived a life of exemplary devotion towards his mother Fulvia Sisennia, his sister and his aunt. To his mother and sister he left his considerable fortune. Cornutus suppressed all his work except the satires, to which he made some slight alterations before handing it over to Bassus for editing. It proved an immediate success.[1] Doubts over his biography[edit] The scholia add a few details—on what authority is, as generally with such sources, very doubtful. The Life itself, though not free from the suspicion of interpolation and undoubtedly corrupt and disordered in places, is probably trustworthy. The manuscripts say it came from the commentary of Valerius Probus, no doubt a learned edition of Persius like those of Virgil and Horace by this same famous "grammarian" of Berytus, the poet's contemporary. The only case in which it seems to conflict with the Satires (Saturae) themselves is in its statement as to the death of Persius's father. The declaiming of a suasoria in his presence (Sat. 3.4 sqq.) implies a more mature age than that of six in the performer. But pater might here mean "stepfather," or Persius may have forgotten his own autobiography, may be simply reproducing one of his models. The mere fact that the Life and the Satires agree so closely does not of course prove the authenticity of the former. One of the points of harmony is, however, too subtle for us to believe that a forger evolved it from the works of Persius: the Life gives the impression of a "bookish" youth, who never strayed far from home and family. This is also the picture drawn by the Satires; many of the characters that Persius creates have the same names as characters found in Horace.[1] A keen observer of what occurs within his narrow horizon, Persius did not shy away from describing the seamy side of life (cf. e.g. such hints as Sat. iii.110), especially the relationship between excesses of consumption and moral failure; he shows little of Horace's easy-going acceptance of human weaknesses. Perhaps the sensitive, homebred nature of Persius can also be glimpsed in his frequent references to ridicule, whether of great men by street gamins or of the cultured by philistines.[1] Montaigne mentions Persius several times.[citation needed] Work[edit] The chief interest of Persius's work lies in its relation to Roman satire, in its interpretation of Roman Stoicism, and in its use of the Latin tongue. The influence of Horace on Persius can, in spite of the silence of the Life, hardly have been less than that of Lucilius. Not only characters, as noted above, but whole phrases, thoughts and situations come direct from him. The resemblance only emphasizes the difference between the caricaturist of Stoicism and its preacher. Persius strikes the highest note that Roman satire reached; in earnestness and moral purpose he rises far superior to the political rancour or good-natured persiflage of his predecessors and the rhetorical indignation of Juvenal. From him we learn how that philosophy could work on minds that still preserved the depth and purity of the old Roman gravitas. Some of the parallel passages in the works of Persius and Seneca are very close, and cannot be explained by assuming the use of a common source. Like Seneca, Persius censures the style of the day, and imitates it. Indeed, in some of its worst failings, straining of expression, excess of detail, exaggeration, he outbids Seneca, whilst the obscurity, which makes his little book of not seven hundred lines so difficult to read and is in no way due to great depth of thought, compares poorly with the terse clearness of the Epistolae morales. A curious contrast to this tendency is presented by his free use of "popular" words. As of Plato, so of Persius, we hear that he emulated Sophron; the authority is a late one (the Byzantine Lydus, De mag. I.41), but we can at least recognize in the scene that opens Sat. 3 kinship with such work as Theocritus' Adoniazusae and the Mimes of Herodas.[1] Persius's satires are composed in hexameters, except for the scazons of the short prologue above referred to. The first satire censures the literary tastes of the day as a reflection of the decadence of the national morals. The theme of Seneca's 114th letter is similar. The description of the recitator and the literary twaddlers after dinner is vividly natural, but an interesting passage which cites specimens of smooth versification and the languishing style is greatly spoiled by the difficulty of appreciating the points involved and indeed of distributing the dialogue (a not uncommon crux in Persius). The remaining satires handle in order (2) the question as to what we may justly ask of the gods (cf. Second Alcibiades), (3) the importance of having a definite aim in life, (4) the necessity of self-knowledge for public men (cf. Plato's First Alcibiades), (5) the Stoic doctrine of liberty (introduced by generous allusions to Cornutus' teaching), and (6) the proper use of money.[1] The Life tells us that the Satires were not left complete; some lines were taken (presumably by Cornutus or Bassus) from the end of the work so that it might be quasi finitus. This perhaps means that a sentence in which Persius had left a line imperfect, or a paragraph which he had not completed, had to be omitted. The same authority says that Cornutus definitely blacked out an offensive allusion to the emperor's literary taste, and that we owe to him the reading of the manuscripts in Sat. i.121,—"auriculas asini quis non (for Mida rex ) habet!" Traces of lack of revision are, however, still visible; cf. e.g. v.176 (sudden transition from ambition to superstition) and vi.37 (where criticism of Greek doctores has nothing to do with the context). The parallels to passages of Horace and Seneca are recorded in the commentaries: in view of what the Life says about Lucan, the verbal resemblance of Sat. iii.3 to Phars. x.163 is interesting. Examples of bold language or metaphor: i.25, rupto iecore exierit caprificus, 60, linguae quantum sitiat canis; iii.42, intus palleat, 81, silentia rodunt; v.92, ueteres auiae de pulmone reuello. Passages like iii.87, 100 sqq. show elaboration carried beyond the rules of good taste. "Popular" words: baro, cerdo, ebullire, glutto, lallare, mamma, muttire, obba, palpo, scloppus. Fine lines, etc., in i.116 sqq., ii.6 sqq., 61 sqq., 73 sqq., iii.39 sqq.[1] Authorities[edit] The manuscripts of Persius fall into two groups, one represented by two of the best of them, the other by that of Petrus Pithoeus, so important for the text of Juvenal. Since the publication of J. Bieger's de Persii cod. pith. recte aestimando (Berlin, 1890) the tendency has been to prefer the tradition of the latter.[1] The first important editions were: (1) with explanatory notes: Isaac Casaubon (Paris, 1605, enlarged edition by Johann Friedrich Dübner, Leipzig, 1833); Otto Jahn (with the scholia and valuable prolegomena, Leipzig, 1843); John Conington (with translation; 3rd ed., Oxford, 1893), etc.; but there are several modern editions.[1] Editions[edit] Braund, Susanna M. (2004) Juvenal and Persius. Loeb Classical Library. Harvard University Press. Notes[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h i  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Persius". Encyclopædia Britannica. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 254–255. References[edit] Bartsch, Shadi. Persius: A Study in Food, Philosophy, and the Figural. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015). Hooley, D. M. The Knotted Thong: Structures of Mimesis in Persius (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1997). Reckford, Kenneth J. Recognizing Persius (Princeton; Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2009) (Martin Classical Lectures). External links[edit] Media related to Aulus Persius Flaccus at Wikimedia Commons  Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: Aulus Persius Flaccus  English Wikisource has original text related to this article: Aulus Persius Flaccus Quotations related to Persius at Wikiquote Works by Persius at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Persius at Internet Archive Online Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries High resolution images of works by Persius in .jpg and .tiff format. Auli Persii Flacci satirarum liber, cum scholiis antiquis, Otto Jahn (ed.), Lipsiae, typis et impensis Breitropfii er Baertelii, 1843. 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en-wikipedia-org-1804	----	Virgil - Wikipedia Virgil From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the ancient Roman poet. For the grammarian, see Virgilius Maro Grammaticus. For other uses, see Virgil (disambiguation). 1st-century BC Roman poet Virgil 19th-century imagining of Virgil Born Publius Vergilius Maro 15 October 70 BC Near Mantua, Cisalpine Gaul, Roman Republic Died 21 September 19 BC (age 50) Brundisium, Italy, Roman Empire Occupation Poet Nationality Roman Genre Epic poetry, didactic poetry, pastoral poetry Literary movement Augustan poetry Publius Vergilius Maro (Classical Latin: [ˈpuːbli.ʊs wɛrˈɡɪli.ʊs ˈmaroː]; traditional dates 15 October 70 BC – 21 September 19 BC),[1] usually called Virgil or Vergil (/ˈvɜːrdʒɪl/ VUR-jil) in English, was an ancient Roman poet of the Augustan period. He wrote three of the most famous poems in Latin literature: the Eclogues (or Bucolics), the Georgics, and the epic Aeneid. A number of minor poems, collected in the Appendix Vergiliana, are sometimes attributed to him as well.[2][3] Virgil is traditionally ranked as one of Rome's greatest poets. His Aeneid has been considered the national epic of ancient Rome since the time of its composition. Modeled after Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, the Aeneid follows the Trojan refugee Aeneas as he struggles to fulfill his destiny and reach Italy, where his descendants Romulus and Remus were to found the city of Rome. Virgil's work has had wide and deep influence on Western literature, most notably Dante's Divine Comedy, in which Virgil appears as the author's guide through Hell and Purgatory.[4] Contents 1 Life and works 1.1 Birth and biographical tradition 1.2 Early works 1.3 The Eclogues 1.4 The Georgics 1.5 The Aeneid 1.6 Reception of the Aeneid 1.7 Virgil's death and editing of the Aeneid 2 Later views and reception 2.1 In antiquity 2.2 Late antiquity, the Middle Ages, and after 2.3 Legends 2.4 Virgil's tomb 3 Spelling of name 4 See also 5 References 5.1 Notes 5.2 Citations 6 Further reading 7 External links Life and works[edit] Birth and biographical tradition[edit] Virgil's biographical tradition is thought to depend on a lost biography by Varius, Virgil's editor, which was incorporated into the biography by Suetonius and the commentaries of Servius and Donatus, the two great commentators on Virgil's poetry. Although the commentaries no doubt record much factual information about Virgil, some of their evidence can be shown to rely on inferences made from his poetry and allegorizing; thus, Virgil's biographical tradition remains problematic.[5]:1602 The tradition holds that Virgil was born in the village of Andes, near Mantua[i] in Cisalpine Gaul (northern Italy, added to Italy proper during his lifetime).[6] Analysis of his name has led some to believe that he descended from earlier Roman colonists. Modern speculation, however, ultimately is not supported by narrative evidence either from his own writings or his later biographers. Macrobius says that Virgil's father was of a humble background, though scholars generally believe that Virgil was from an equestrian landowning family who could afford to give him an education. He attended schools in Cremona, Mediolanum, Rome and Naples. After considering briefly a career in rhetoric and law, the young Virgil turned his talents to poetry.[7] According to Robert Seymour Conway, the only ancient source which reports the actual distance between Andes and Mantua is a surviving fragment from the works of Marcus Valerius Probus. Probus flourished during the reign of Nero (AD 54–68).[8] Probus reports that Andes was located 30 Roman miles from Mantua. Conway translated this to a distance of about 45 kilometres or 28 miles.[8] Relatively little is known about the family of Virgil. His father reportedly belonged to gens Vergilia, and his mother belonged to gens Magia.[8] According to Conway, gens Vergilia is poorly attested in inscriptions from the entire Northern Italy, where Mantua is located. Among thousands of surviving ancient inscriptions from this region, there are only 8 or 9 mentions of individuals called "Vergilius" (masculine) or "Vergilia" (feminine). Out of these mentions, three appear in inscriptions from Verona, and one in an inscription from Calvisano.[8] Conway theorized that the inscription from Calvisano had to do with a kinswoman of Virgil. Calvisano is located 30 Roman miles from Mantua, and would fit with Probus' description of Andes.[8] The inscription, in this case, is a votive offering to the Matronae (a group of deities) by a woman called Vergilia, asking the goddesses to deliver from danger another woman, called Munatia. Conway notes that the offering belongs to a common type for this era, where women made requests for deities to preserve the lives of female loved ones who were pregnant and were about to give birth. In most cases, the woman making the request was the mother of a woman who was pregnant or otherwise in danger. Though there is another inscription from Calvisano, where a woman asks the deities to preserve the life of her sister.[8] Munatia, the woman who Vergilia wished to protect, was likely a close relative of Vergilia, possibly her daughter. The name "Munatia" indicates that this woman was a member of gens Munatia, and makes it likely that Vergilia married into this family.[8] Other studies[9] claim that today's consideration for ancient Andes should be sought in the area of Castel Goffredo.[10] Early works[edit] Main article: Appendix Vergiliana According to the commentators, Virgil received his first education when he was five years old and he later went to Cremona, Milan, and finally Rome to study rhetoric, medicine, and astronomy, which he soon abandoned for philosophy. From Virgil's admiring references to the neoteric writers Pollio and Cinna, it has been inferred that he was, for a time, associated with Catullus' neoteric circle. According to Servius, schoolmates considered Virgil extremely shy and reserved, and he was nicknamed "Parthenias" or "maiden" because of his social aloofness. Virgil also seems to have suffered bad health throughout his life and in some ways lived the life of an invalid. According to the Catalepton, he began to write poetry while in the Epicurean school of Siro in Naples. A group of small works attributed to the youthful Virgil by the commentators survive collected under the title Appendix Vergiliana, but are largely considered spurious by scholars. One, the Catalepton, consists of fourteen short poems,[5]:1602 some of which may be Virgil's, and another, a short narrative poem titled the Culex ("The Gnat"), was attributed to Virgil as early as the 1st century AD. The Eclogues[edit] Main article: Eclogues Page from the beginning of the Eclogues in the 5th-century Vergilius Romanus The biographical tradition asserts that Virgil began the hexameter Eclogues (or Bucolics) in 42 BC and it is thought that the collection was published around 39–38 BC, although this is controversial.[5]:1602 The Eclogues (from the Greek for "selections") are a group of ten poems roughly modeled on the bucolic hexameter poetry ("pastoral poetry") of the Hellenistic poet Theocritus. After defeating the army led by the assassins of Julius Caesar in the Battle of Philippi (42 BC), Octavian tried to pay off his veterans with land expropriated from towns in northern Italy, which—according to tradition—included an estate near Mantua belonging to Virgil. The loss of Virgil's family farm and the attempt through poetic petitions to regain his property have traditionally been seen as his motives in the composition of the Eclogues. This is now thought to be an unsupported inference from interpretations of the Eclogues. In Eclogues 1 and 9, Virgil indeed dramatizes the contrasting feelings caused by the brutality of the land expropriations through pastoral idiom but offers no indisputable evidence of the supposed biographic incident. While some readers have identified the poet himself with various characters and their vicissitudes, whether gratitude by an old rustic to a new god (Ecl. 1), frustrated love by a rustic singer for a distant boy (his master's pet, Ecl. 2), or a master singer's claim to have composed several eclogues (Ecl. 5), modern scholars largely reject such efforts to garner biographical details from works of fiction, preferring to interpret an author's characters and themes as illustrations of contemporary life and thought. The ten Eclogues present traditional pastoral themes with a fresh perspective. Eclogues 1 and 9 address the land confiscations and their effects on the Italian countryside. 2 and 3 are pastoral and erotic, discussing both homosexual love (Ecl. 2) and attraction toward people of any gender (Ecl. 3). Eclogue 4, addressed to Asinius Pollio, the so-called "Messianic Eclogue", uses the imagery of the golden age in connection with the birth of a child (who the child was meant to be has been subject to debate). 5 and 8 describe the myth of Daphnis in a song contest, 6, the cosmic and mythological song of Silenus; 7, a heated poetic contest, and 10 the sufferings of the contemporary elegiac poet Cornelius Gallus. Virgil is credited[by whom?] in the Eclogues with establishing Arcadia as a poetic ideal that still resonates in Western literature and visual arts, and setting the stage for the development of Latin pastoral by Calpurnius Siculus, Nemesianus and later writers. The Georgics[edit] Main article: Georgics Sometime after the publication of the Eclogues (probably before 37 BC),[5]:1603 Virgil became part of the circle of Maecenas, Octavian's capable agent d'affaires who sought to counter sympathy for Antony among the leading families by rallying Roman literary figures to Octavian's side. Virgil came to know many of the other leading literary figures of the time, including Horace, in whose poetry he is often mentioned,[11] and Varius Rufus, who later helped finish the Aeneid. Late 17th-century illustration of a passage from the Georgics by Jerzy Siemiginowski-Eleuter At Maecenas' insistence (according to the tradition) Virgil spent the ensuing years (perhaps 37–29 BC) on the long didactic hexameter poem called the Georgics (from Greek, "On Working the Earth") which he dedicated to Maecenas. The ostensible theme of the Georgics is instruction in the methods of running a farm. In handling this theme, Virgil follows in the didactic ("how to") tradition of the Greek poet Hesiod's Works and Days and several works of the later Hellenistic poets. The four books of the Georgics focus respectively on raising crops and trees (1 and 2), livestock and horses (3), and beekeeping and the qualities of bees (4). Well-known passages include the beloved Laus Italiae of Book 2, the prologue description of the temple in Book 3, and the description of the plague at the end of Book 3. Book 4 concludes with a long mythological narrative, in the form of an epyllion which describes vividly the discovery of beekeeping by Aristaeus and the story of Orpheus' journey to the underworld. Ancient scholars, such as Servius, conjectured that the Aristaeus episode replaced, at the emperor's request, a long section in praise of Virgil's friend, the poet Gallus, who was disgraced by Augustus, and who committed suicide in 26 BC. The Georgics' tone wavers between optimism and pessimism, sparking critical debate on the poet's intentions,[5]:1605 but the work lays the foundations for later didactic poetry. Virgil and Maecenas are said to have taken turns reading the Georgics to Octavian upon his return from defeating Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. The Aeneid[edit] Main article: Aeneid A 1st-century terracotta expressing the pietas of Aeneas, who carries his aged father and leads his young son The Aeneid is widely considered Virgil's finest work and one of the most important poems in the history of Western literature (T. S. Eliot referred to it as 'the classic of all Europe').[12] Virgil worked on the Aeneid during the last eleven years of his life (29–19 BC), commissioned, according to Propertius, by Augustus.[13] The epic poem consists of 12 books in dactylic hexameter verse which describe the journey of Aeneas, a warrior fleeing the sack of Troy, to Italy, his battle with the Italian prince Turnus, and the foundation of a city from which Rome would emerge. The Aeneid's first six books describe the journey of Aeneas from Troy to Rome. Virgil made use of several models in the composition of his epic;[5]:1603 Homer, the preeminent author of classical epic, is everywhere present, but Virgil also makes special use of the Latin poet Ennius and the Hellenistic poet Apollonius of Rhodes among the various other writers to which he alludes. Although the Aeneid casts itself firmly into the epic mode, it often seeks to expand the genre by including elements of other genres such as tragedy and aetiological poetry. Ancient commentators noted that Virgil seems to divide the Aeneid into two sections based on the poetry of Homer; the first six books were viewed as employing the Odyssey as a model while the last six were connected to the Iliad.[14] Book 1[ii] (at the head of the Odyssean section) opens with a storm which Juno, Aeneas' enemy throughout the poem, stirs up against the fleet. The storm drives the hero to the coast of Carthage, which historically was Rome's deadliest foe. The queen, Dido, welcomes the ancestor of the Romans, and under the influence of the gods falls deeply in love with him. At a banquet in Book 2, Aeneas tells the story of the sack of Troy, the death of his wife, and his escape, to the enthralled Carthaginians, while in Book 3 he recounts to them his wanderings over the Mediterranean in search of a suitable new home. Jupiter in Book 4 recalls the lingering Aeneas to his duty to found a new city, and he slips away from Carthage, leaving Dido to commit suicide, cursing Aeneas and calling down revenge in symbolic anticipation of the fierce wars between Carthage and Rome. In Book 5, funeral games are celebrated for Aeneas' father Anchises, who had died a year before. On reaching Cumae, in Italy in Book 6, Aeneas consults the Cumaean Sibyl, who conducts him through the Underworld where Aeneas meets the dead Anchises who reveals Rome's destiny to his son. Book 7 (beginning the Iliadic half) opens with an address to the muse and recounts Aeneas' arrival in Italy and betrothal to Lavinia, daughter of King Latinus. Lavinia had already been promised to Turnus, the king of the Rutulians, who is roused to war by the Fury Allecto, and Amata Lavinia's mother. In Book 8, Aeneas allies with King Evander, who occupies the future site of Rome, and is given new armor and a shield depicting Roman history. Book 9 records an assault by Nisus and Euryalus on the Rutulians, Book 10, the death of Evander's young son Pallas, and 11 the death of the Volscian warrior princess Camilla and the decision to settle the war with a duel between Aeneas and Turnus. The Aeneid ends in Book 12 with the taking of Latinus' city, the death of Amata, and Aeneas' defeat and killing of Turnus, whose pleas for mercy are spurned. The final book ends with the image of Turnus' soul lamenting as it flees to the underworld. Reception of the Aeneid[edit] Virgil Reading the Aeneid to Augustus, Octavia, and Livia by Jean-Baptiste Wicar, Art Institute of Chicago Critics of the Aeneid focus on a variety of issues.[iii] The tone of the poem as a whole is a particular matter of debate; some see the poem as ultimately pessimistic and politically subversive to the Augustan regime, while others view it as a celebration of the new imperial dynasty. Virgil makes use of the symbolism of the Augustan regime, and some scholars see strong associations between Augustus and Aeneas, the one as founder and the other as re-founder of Rome. A strong teleology, or drive towards a climax, has been detected in the poem. The Aeneid is full of prophecies about the future of Rome, the deeds of Augustus, his ancestors, and famous Romans, and the Carthaginian Wars; the shield of Aeneas even depicts Augustus' victory at Actium against Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII in 31 BC. A further focus of study is the character of Aeneas. As the protagonist of the poem, Aeneas seems to waver constantly between his emotions and commitment to his prophetic duty to found Rome; critics note the breakdown of Aeneas' emotional control in the last sections of the poem where the "pious" and "righteous" Aeneas mercilessly slaughters Turnus. The Aeneid appears to have been a great success. Virgil is said to have recited Books 2, 4, and 6 to Augustus;[5]:1603 and Book 6 apparently caused Augustus' sister Octavia to faint. Although the truth of this claim is subject to scholarly skepticism, it has served as a basis for later art, such as Jean-Baptiste Wicar's Virgil Reading the Aeneid. Unfortunately, some lines of the poem were left unfinished, and the whole was unedited, at Virgil's death in 19 BC. Virgil's death and editing of the Aeneid[edit] According to the tradition, Virgil traveled to Greece in about 19 BC to revise the Aeneid. After meeting Augustus in Athens and deciding to return home, Virgil caught a fever while visiting a town near Megara. After crossing to Italy by ship, weakened with disease, Virgil died in Brundisium harbor on 21 September 19 BC. Augustus ordered Virgil's literary executors, Lucius Varius Rufus and Plotius Tucca, to disregard Virgil's own wish that the poem be burned, instead of ordering it published with as few editorial changes as possible.[15] As a result, the text of the Aeneid that exists may contain faults which Virgil was planning to correct before publication. However, the only obvious imperfections are a few lines of verse that are metrically unfinished (i.e. not a complete line of dactylic hexameter). Some scholars have argued that Virgil deliberately left these metrically incomplete lines for dramatic effect.[16] Other alleged imperfections are subject to scholarly debate. Later views and reception[edit] A 3rd-century Roman mosaic of Virgil seated between Clio and Melpomene (from Hadrumetum [Sousse], Tunisia) A 5th-century portrait of Virgil from the Vergilius Romanus Virgil in His Basket, Lucas van Leyden, 1525 In antiquity[edit] The works of Virgil almost from the moment of their publication revolutionized Latin poetry. The Eclogues, Georgics, and above all the Aeneid became standard texts in school curricula with which all educated Romans were familiar. Poets following Virgil often refer intertextually to his works to generate meaning in their own poetry. The Augustan poet Ovid parodies the opening lines of the Aeneid in Amores 1.1.1–2, and his summary of the Aeneas story in Book 14 of the Metamorphoses, the so-called "mini-Aeneid", has been viewed as a particularly important example of post-Virgilian response to the epic genre. Lucan's epic, the Bellum Civile, has been considered an anti-Virgilian epic, disposing of the divine mechanism, treating historical events, and diverging drastically from Virgilian epic practice. The Flavian poet Statius in his 12-book epic Thebaid engages closely with the poetry of Virgil; in his epilogue he advises his poem not to "rival the divine Aeneid, but follow afar and ever venerate its footsteps."[17] In Silius Italicus, Virgil finds one of his most ardent admirers. With almost every line of his epic Punica, Silius references Virgil. Indeed, Silius is known to have bought Virgil's tomb and worshipped the poet.[18] Partially as a result of his so-called "Messianic" Fourth Eclogue – widely interpreted later to have predicted the birth of Jesus Christ – Virgil was in later antiquity imputed to have the magical abilities of a seer; the Sortes Vergilianae, the process of using Virgil's poetry as a tool of divination, is found in the time of Hadrian, and continued into the Middle Ages. In a similar vein Macrobius in the Saturnalia credits the work of Virgil as the embodiment of human knowledge and experience, mirroring the Greek conception of Homer.[5]:1603 Virgil also found commentators in antiquity. Servius, a commentator of the 4th century AD, based his work on the commentary of Donatus. Servius' commentary provides us with a great deal of information about Virgil's life, sources, and references; however, many modern scholars find the variable quality of his work and the often simplistic interpretations frustrating. Late antiquity, the Middle Ages, and after[edit] The verse inscription at Virgil's tomb was supposedly composed by the poet himself: Mantua me genuit, Calabri rapuere, tenet nunc Parthenope. Cecini pascua, rura, duces. ("Mantua gave me life, the Calabrians took it away, Naples holds me now; I sang of pastures, farms, and commanders" [transl. Bernard Knox]) Even as the Western Roman Empire collapsed, literate men acknowledged that Virgil was a master poet – Saint Augustine, for example, confessing how he had wept at reading the death of Dido.[19] Gregory of Tours read Virgil, whom he quotes in several places, along with some other Latin poets, though he cautions that "we ought not to relate their lying fables, lest we fall under sentence of eternal death".[20] In the Renaissance of the 12th century, Alexander Neckham placed the "divine" Aeneid on his standard arts curriculum,[21] and Dido became the romantic heroine of the age.[22] Monks like Maiolus of Cluny might repudiate what they called "the luxurious eloquence of Virgil",[23] but they could not deny the power of his appeal. Dante made Virgil his guide in Hell and the greater part of Purgatory in the Divine Comedy.[24] Dante also mentions Virgil in De vulgari eloquentia, along with Ovid, Lucan and Statius, as one of the four regulati poetae (ii, vi, 7). The Renaissance saw a number of authors inspired to write epic in Virgil's wake: Edmund Spenser called himself the English Virgil; Paradise Lost was calqued on the Aeneid; and later artists influenced by Virgil include Berlioz and Hermann Broch.[25] The best-known surviving manuscripts of Virgil's works include the Vergilius Augusteus, the Vergilius Vaticanus and the Vergilius Romanus. Legends[edit] The legend of "Virgil in his basket" arose in the Middle Ages, and is often seen in art and mentioned in literature as part of the Power of Women literary topos, demonstrating the disruptive force of female attractiveness on men. In this story Virgil became enamoured of a beautiful woman, sometimes described as the emperor's daughter or mistress and called Lucretia. She played him along and agreed to an assignation at her house, which he was to sneak into at night by climbing into a large basket let down from a window. When he did so he was hoisted only halfway up the wall and then left trapped there into the next day, exposed to public ridicule. The story paralleled that of Phyllis riding Aristotle. Among other artists depicting the scene, Lucas van Leyden made a woodcut and later an engraving.[26] In the Middle Ages, Virgil's reputation was such that it inspired legends associating him with magic and prophecy. From at least the 3rd century, Christian thinkers interpreted Eclogues 4, which describes the birth of a boy ushering in a golden age, as a prediction of Jesus' birth. In consequence, Virgil came to be seen on a similar level to the Hebrew prophets of the Bible as one who had heralded Christianity.[27] Relatedly, The Jewish Encyclopedia argues that medieval legends about the golem may have been inspired by Virgilian legends about the poet's apocryphal power to bring inanimate objects to life.[28] Possibly as early as the second century AD, Virgil's works were seen as having magical properties and were used for divination. In what became known as the Sortes Vergilianae ('Virgilian Lots'), passages would be selected at random and interpreted to answer questions.[29] In the 12th century, starting around Naples but eventually spreading widely throughout Europe, a tradition developed in which Virgil was regarded as a great magician. Legends about Virgil and his magical powers remained popular for over two hundred years, arguably becoming as prominent as his writings themselves.[29] Virgil's legacy in medieval Wales was such that the Welsh version of his name, Fferyllt or Pheryllt, became a generic term for magic-worker, and survives in the modern Welsh word for pharmacist, fferyllydd.[30] Virgil's tomb[edit] The structure known as "Virgil's tomb" is found at the entrance of an ancient Roman tunnel (aka "grotta vecchia") in Piedigrotta, a district 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) from the centre of Naples, near the Mergellina harbor, on the road heading north along the coast to Pozzuoli. While Virgil was already the object of literary admiration and veneration before his death, in the Middle Ages his name became associated with miraculous powers, and for a couple of centuries his tomb was the destination of pilgrimages and veneration.[31] Tomb of Virgil in Naples, Italy Spelling of name[edit] By the fourth or fifth century AD the original spelling Vergilius had been corrupted to Virgilius, and then the latter spelling spread to the modern European languages.[32] The error persisted even though, as early as the 15th century, the classical scholar Poliziano had shown Vergilius to be the original spelling.[33] Today, the anglicizations Vergil and Virgil are both acceptable.[34] There is some speculation that the spelling Virgilius might have arisen due to a pun, since virg- carries an echo of the Latin word for 'wand' (uirga), Vergil being particularly associated with magic in the Middle Ages. There is also a possibility that virg- is meant to evoke the Latin uirgo ('virgin'); this would be a reference to the fourth Eclogue, which has a history of Christian, and specifically Messianic, interpretations.[iv] See also[edit] Quintus Caecilius Epirota References[edit] Notes[edit] ^ The epitaph on his tomb in Posilipo near Naples read Mantua me genuit; Calabri rapuere; tenet nunc Parthenope. Cecini pascua, rura, duces ("Mantua gave birth to me, the Calabrians took me, now Naples holds me; I sang of pastures [the Eclogues], country [the Georgics] and leaders [the Aeneid]"). ^ For a succinct summary, see Globalnet.co.uk Archived 18 December 2009 at the Wayback Machine ^ For a bibliography and summary see Fowler, pp. 1605–1606 ^ For more discussion on the spelling of Virgil's name, see Flickinger, R. C. 1930. "Vergil or Virgil?." The Classical Journal 25(9):658–60. Citations[edit] ^ Jones, Peter (2011). Reading Virgil: Aeneid I and II. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1, 4. ISBN 978-0521768665. Retrieved 23 November 2016. ^ Bunson, Matthew (2014). Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. Infobase Publishing. p. 584. ISBN 978-1438110271. Retrieved 23 November 2016. ^ Roberts, John (2007). The Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0192801463. Retrieved 23 November 2016. ^ Ruud, Jay (2008). Critical Companion to Dante. Infobase Publishing. p. 376. ISBN 978-1438108414. Retrieved 23 November 2016. ^ a b c d e f g h Fowler, Don. 1996. "Virgil (Publius Vergilius Maro)." In The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ^ "Map of Cisalpine Gaul". gottwein.de. Archived from the original on 28 May 2008. ^ Damen, Mark. [2002] 2004. "Vergil and 'The Aeneid'." Ch. 11 in A Guide to Writing in History and Classics. Utah State University. Archived from the original on 16 February 2017. Retrieved 28 May 2020. ^ a b c d e f g Conway, Robert Seymour. 1967. "Where Was Vergil's Farm." Harvard Lectures on the Vergilian Age. Biblo & Tannen. ISBN 978-0819601827. pp. 14–41. The article was originally sourced from Nupedia and is open content. ^ Nardoni, Davide (1986). "La terra di Virgilio". Archeologia Viva (in Italian) (january-february ed.). pp. 71–76. ^ Gualtierotti, Piero (2008). Castel Goffredo dalle origini ai Gonzaga (in Italian). Mantua. p. 96-100. ^ Horace, Satires 1.5, 1.6; Horace, Odes 1.3 ^ Eliot, T. S. 1944. What Is a Classic?. London: Faber & Faber. ^ Avery, W. T. (1957). "Augustus and the "Aeneid"". The Classical Journal. 52 (5): 225–29. ^ Jenkyns, p. 53 ^ Sellar, William Young, Terrot R. Glover, and Margaret Bryant. 1911. "Virgil." Pp. 111–16 in Encyclopædia Britannica 28 (11th ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 27 May 2020. p. 112. ^ Miller, F. J. 1909. "Evidences of Incompleteness in the "Aeneid" of Vergil." The Classical Journal 4(11):341–55. JSTOR 3287376. ^ Theb.12.816–817 ^ Pliny Ep. 3.7.8 ^ K. W. Gransden, Virgil: The Aeneid (Cambridge 1990), p. 105. ^ Gregory of Tours 1916, p. xiii. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGregory_of_Tours1916 (help) ^ Helen Waddell, The Wandering Scholars (Fontana 1968), p. 19. ^ Waddell, pp. 22–3. ^ Waddell, p. 101. ^ Alighieri, Dante (2003). The Divine Comedy (The Inferno, The Purgatorio, and The Paradiso). New York: Berkley. ISBN 978-0451208637. ^ Gransden, pp. 108–111. ^ Snyder, James. 1985. Northern Renaissance Art. US: Harry N. Abrams, ISBN 0136235964. pp. 461–62. ^ Ziolkowski, Jan M.; Putnam, Michael C. J. (2008). The Virgilian Tradition: The First Fifteen Hundred Years. Yale University Press. pp. xxxiv–xxxv. ISBN 978-0300108224. Retrieved 11 November 2013. ^  Singer, Isidore; et al., eds. (1901–1906). "Golem". The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. ^ a b Ziolkowski, Jan M.; Putnam, Michael C. J. (2008). The Virgilian Tradition: The First Fifteen Hundred Years. Yale University Press. p. xxxiv. ISBN 978-0300108224. Retrieved 11 November 2013. ^ Ziolkowski, Jan M.; Putnam, Michael C. J. (2008). The Virgilian Tradition: The First Fifteen Hundred Years. Yale University Press. pp. 101–102. ISBN 978-0300108224. Retrieved 11 November 2013. ^ Chambers, Robert (1832). The Book of Days. London: W and R Chambers. p. 366. ^ Comparetti, Domenico (1997). Vergil in the Middle Ages. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691026787. Retrieved 23 November 2016. ^ Wilson-Okamura, David Scott (2010). Virgil in the Renaissance. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521198127. Retrieved 23 November 2016. ^ Winkler, Anthony C.; McCuen-Metherell, Jo Ray (2011). Writing the Research Paper: A Handbook. Cengage Learning. p. 278. ISBN 978-1133169024. Retrieved 23 November 2016. Further reading[edit] Anderson, W. S., and L. N. Quartarone. 2002. Approaches to Teaching Vergil's Aeneid. New York: Modern Language Association. Buckham, Philip Wentworth, Joseph Spence, Edward Holdsworth, William Warburton, and John Jortin. 1825. Miscellanea Virgiliana: In Scriptis Maxime Eruditorum Virorum Varie Dispersa, in Unum Fasciculum Collecta. Cambridge: Printed for W. P. Grant. Conway, R. S. [1914] 1915. "The Youth of Vergil." Bulletin of the John Rylands Library July 1915. Farrell, J. 1991. Vergil's Georgics and the Traditions of Ancient Epic: The Art of Allusion in Literary History. New York: Oxford University Press. — 2001. "The Vergilian Century." Vergilius (1959-) 47:11–28. JSTOR 41587251. Farrell, J., and Michael C. J. Putnam, eds. 2010. A Companion to Vergil's Aeneid and Its Tradition, (Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World). Chichester, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. Fletcher, K. F. B. 2014. Finding Italy: Travel, Nation and Colonization in Vergil's 'Aeneid'. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Gregory of Tours. 1916. The History of the Franks, translated by E. Brehaut. New York: Columbia University Press. OCLC 560532077. Hardie, Philip R., ed. 1999. Virgil: Critical Assessments of Ancient Authors 1–4. New York: Routledge. Henkel, John. 2014. "Vergil Talks Technique: Metapoetic Arboriculture in 'Georgics' 2." Vergilius (1959–) 60:33–66. JSTOR 43185985. Horsfall, N. 2016. The Epic Distilled: Studies in the Composition of the Aeneid. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Mack, S. 1978. Patterns of Time in Vergil. Hamden: Archon Books. Panoussi, V. 2009. Greek Tragedy in Vergil's "Aeneid": Ritual, Empire, and Intertext. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Quinn, S., ed. 2000. Why Vergil? A Collection of Interpretations. Wauconda: Bolchazy-Carducci. Rossi, A. 2004. Contexts of War: Manipulation of Genre in Virgilian Battle Narrative. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Sondrup, Steven P. 2009. "Virgil: From Farms to Empire: Kierkegaard's Understanding of a Roman Poet." In Kierkegaard and the Roman World, edited by J. B. Stewart. Farnham: Ashgate. Syed, Y. 2005. Vergil's Aeneid and the Roman Self: Subject and Nation in Literary Discourse. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Syson, A. 2013. Fama and Fiction in Vergil's 'Aeneid'. Columbus: Ohio State University Press. External links[edit] Virgilat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Resources from Wikiversity Library resources about Virgil Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Virgil Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Collected works Works by Virgil at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Virgil at Internet Archive Works by Virgil at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Works of Virgil at the Perseus Digital Library — Latin texts, translations, and commentaries Aeneid, Eclogues, and Georgics translated by J. C. Greenough, 1900 Aeneid, translated by T. C. Williams, 1910 — translated by John Dryden, 1697 Works of Virgil at Theoi Project Aeneid, Eclogues and Georgics, translated by H. R. Fairclough, 1916 Works of Virgil at Internet Sacred Texts Archive Aeneid, translated by John Dryden, 1697 Eclogues and Georgics, translated by J. W. MacKail, 1934 P. Vergilius Maro at The Latin Library Virgil's works — text, concordances, and frequency list. Virgil: The Major Texts: contemporary, line-by-line English translations of Eclogues, Georgics, and Aeneid. Virgil in the collection of Ferdinand, Duke of Calabria at Somni: Publii Vergilii Maronis Opera Naples and Milan, 1450. Publii Vergilii Maronis Opera Italy, 1470 – 1499. Publii Vergilii Maronis Opera Milan, 1465. Lewis E 198 Opera at OPenn Biography Virgil at the Encyclopædia Britannica Suetonius: The Life of Virgil — an English translation. Vita Vergiliana [The Life of Virgil] by Aelius Donatus (in original Latin). Aelius Donatus' Life of Virgil, translated by David Wilson-Okamura Vergil – A Biography (Project Gutenberg ed.), by Tenney Frank. Vergilian Chronology (in German). Commentary The Vergil Project. "A new Aeneid for the 21st century." — A review of Robert Fagles's new translation of the Aeneid in the TLS, 9 February 2007. Virgilmurder — Jean-Yves Maleuvre's website setting forth his theory that Virgil was murdered by Augustus. The Secret History of Virgil — contains selection on the magical legends and tall tales that circulated about Virgil in the Middle Ages. Interview with Virgil scholar Richard Thomas and poet David Ferry, who recently translated the "Georgics" — via ThoughtCast SORGLL: Aeneid, Bk I, 1–49, read by Robert Sonkowsky SORGLL: Aeneid, Bk IV, 296–396, read by Stephen Daitz Bibliographies Comprehensive bibliographies on all three of Virgil's major works, downloadable in Word or pdf format Bibliography of works relating Vergil to the literature of the Hellenistic age A selective Bibliographical Guide to Vergil's Aeneid Virgil in Late Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Renaissance: an Online Bibliography v t e Virgil Works Eclogues (Eclogue 4) Georgics Aeneid Appendix Vergiliana (spurious) Manuscripts Vergilius Augusteus Vergilius Romanus Vergilius Vaticanus Miscellaneous Christian interpretations of Eclogue 4 Sortes Vergilianae The Virgilian Progression Virgil's tomb Commons Wikiquote Wikisource texts v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Associated subjects v t e Virgil's Aeneid (19 BC) Characters Deities Alecto Crinisus Cupid Hecate Hymen Juno Jupiter Mars Mercury Saturn Tiberinus Venus Humans Acestes Achaemenides Achates Actor Aeneads Aeneas Aeolus Ajax the Lesser Aletes Amata Anchises Androgeos Andromache Anna Perenna Antiphates Ascanius Automedon Aventinus Butes Caieta Camilla Capys Cassandra Catillus Clonius Clytius Creusa Cydon Cydonians Dardanus Dares Phrygius Deiphobus Diomedes Elymus Entellus Erulus Euryalus Evander of Pallene Halaesus Halys Helenus Hippocoon Iarbas Ilioneus Juturna Laocoön Latinus Lausus Lavinia Macar Messapus Metabus Mezentius Mimas Misenus Mnestheus Neoptolemus Nisus and Euryalus Ornytus Palinurus Pallas Pandarus Panthous Paris Picus Polites Priam Ripheus Rutuli Salius Sinon Theano Thymoetes Turnus Ucalegon Ufens Phoenicians Acerbas Belus II Dido Mattan I Pygmalion of Tyre Film and TV The Avenger (1962) Eneide (1971–2) Eneyida (1991) Literature Roman d'Enéas (1160 poem) Dido, Queen of Carthage (c. 1593 play) Amelia (1751 novel) The Dunciad (1729 poem) Lavinia (2008 novel) Opera Didone (1641 Cavalli) Achille et Polyxène (1687 Lully/Collasse) Dido and Aeneas (1688 Purcell) Didon (1693 Desmarets) Didone abbandonata (1724 libretto Metastasio) Didone abbandonata (1724 Sarro) Didone abbandonata (1724 Albinoni) Didone abbandonata (1726 Vinci) Didone abbandonata (1762 Sarti) Didon (1783 Piccinni) Dido, Queen of Carthage (1792 Storace) Les Troyens (1858 Berlioz) Manuscripts Book of Ballymote Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 31 Vergilius Augusteus Vergilius Romanus Vergilius Vaticanus Phrases Ad astra Annuit cœptis Experto crede Lacrimae rerum Obscuris vera involvens Quos ego Timeo Danaos et dona ferentes Art Laocoön and His Sons (25 BC) Aeneas, Anchises, and Ascanius (1619) The Dream of Aeneas (1660–65) Ascanius Shooting the Stag of Sylvia (1689) Dido building Carthage (1815) The Golden Bough (1834) Music "And Then There Was Silence" Gates of Fire Study Aposiopesis Dactylic hexameter Hysteron proteron Sortes Vergilianae Related Trojan Horse The Golden Bough Eneados Sulpicius Apollinaris "Fortune favours the bold" "Mind over matter" Parallels between Virgil's Aeneid and Homer's Iliad and Odyssey Political commentary of the Aeneid v t e "Dido and Aeneas" from Virgil's Aeneid Characters Dido Aeneas Operas Didone (1641, Cavalli) Dido and Aeneas (1688, Purcell) discography "Dido's Lament" Didon (1693, Desmarets) Didone abbandonata (1724, Metastasio) Didone abbandonata (1724, Sarro) Didone abbandonata (1724, Albinoni) Didone abbandonata (1762, Sarti) Didon (1783, Piccinni) Dido, Queen of Carthage (1792, Storace) Les Troyens (1863, Berlioz) Plays Dido, Queen of Carthage (c. 1593) Poetry Roman d'Enéas (1160) Music Simple Man Art Dido building Carthage Related Low Ham Roman Villa Amelia Authority control BIBSYS: 90056752 BNC: 000035929 BNE: XX874783 BNF: cb11887823w (data) BPN: 49151168 CANTIC: a10176597 CiNii: DA01154972 GND: 118626574 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\008978 ISNI: 0000 0001 2119 8069 LCCN: n79014062 LNB: 000013016 MBA: 0109a674-73aa-41a0-b52f-512eb878a6dd NDL: 00459674 NKC: jn19981002320 NLA: 35579909 NLG: 194480 NLI: 000138175 NLK: KAC199628865 NLP: A11799808 NSK: 000025569 NTA: 068890133 RERO: 02-A000172072 RSL: 000080997 SELIBR: 200505 SNAC: w6tr8912 SUDOC: 026674327 Trove: 1002542 ULAN: 500337098 VcBA: 495/15609 VIAF: 8194433 WorldCat Identities: 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en-wikipedia-org-1807	----	Category:Pages using Sister project links with wikidata mismatch - Wikipedia Help Category:Pages using Sister project links with wikidata mismatch From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This is a tracking category. It is used to build and maintain lists of pages—primarily for the sake of the lists themselves and their use in article and category maintenance. It is not part of the encyclopedia's categorization scheme. Pages in this category have a explicit link argument that conflicts with the sitelink in Wikidata. More information: This category is hidden on its member pages—unless the corresponding user preference is set. These categories are used to track, build and organize lists of pages needing "attention en masse" (for example, pages using deprecated syntax), or that may need to be edited at someone's earliest convenience. These categories also serve to aggregate members of several lists or sub-categories into a larger, more efficient list (discriminated by classifications). Pages in category "Pages using Sister project links with wikidata mismatch" The following 200 pages are in this category, out of approximately 328 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). (previous page) (next page)B Advertising Bicycle Cold War JSON List of programming languages Rubik's Cube Thalassery cuisine Ubuntu Unix Birmingham, Alabama C 2011–2013 Russian protests 2014 FIFA World Cup 2016 United States presidential election recounts Agatha Christie Agra Ahrar al-Sham Amazon River Ambrosius Holbein Anne Hathaway Ashton Irwin Assembly language Aucassin and Nicolette Bell hooks Beyoncé Buckminsterfullerene C. Auguste Dupin C. 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Mosby (previous page) (next page) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Pages_using_Sister_project_links_with_wikidata_mismatch&oldid=995954028" Hidden categories: Hidden categories Tracking category for Sister project links Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 23 December 2020, at 19:26 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. 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en-wikipedia-org-1815	----	CiNii - Wikipedia CiNii From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from CiNii (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search CiNii Producer National Institute of Informatics (Japan) History 2005–present Languages Japanese, English Access Cost Free; Subscription for full-text Coverage Disciplines Multidisciplinary Record depth Index, abstract & full-text Format coverage Journal articles and books Temporal coverage 1906–present Geospatial coverage Japan No. of records 22 million Links Website http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ CiNii (/ˈsaɪniː/)[1] is a bibliographic database service for material in Japanese academic libraries, especially focusing on Japanese works and English works published in Japan. The database was founded in April 2005 and is maintained by the National Institute of Informatics.[2] The service searches from within the databases maintained by the NII itself [NII Electronic Library Service (NII-ELS) and Citation Database for Japanese Publications (CJP)], as well as the databases provided by the National Diet Library of Japan, institutional repositories, and other organizations.[3] The database contains more than 22 million articles from more than 3,600 publications.[4] A typical month (in 2012) saw more than 30 million accesses from 2.2 million unique visitors,[5] and is the largest and most comprehensive database of its kind in Japan. Although the database is multidisciplinary, the largest portion of the queries it receives is in the humanities and social sciences field, perhaps because CiNii is the only database that covers Japanese scholarly works in this field (as opposed to the natural, formal, and medical sciences which benefit from other databases).[6] Contents 1 Database identifiers 1.1 NCID examples 2 See also 3 References 4 External links Database identifiers[edit] The database assigns a unique identifier, NII Article ID (NAID), to each of its journal article entries.[5] A different identifier, NII Citation ID (NCID or 書誌ID) aka NACSIS-CAT Record ID, is used for books. NCID examples[edit] NCID BA04004867 for the 1951 Little, Brown edition and of The Catcher in the Rye NCID BB17611495 for the 2010 Penguin edition of The Catcher in the Rye NCID BA36680090 for a 1952 edition of Kiken na nenrei (危険な年齢), NCID BN01880084 for a 1964 edition of Rai-mugi batake de tsukamaete (ライ麦畑でつかまえて), and NCID BA61718322 for a 2003 edition of Kyatchā in za rai (キャッチャー・イン・ザ・ライ), all three being Japanese translations of The Catcher in the Rye NCID BB13715590 for a 1997 edition of Mai tian li de shou wang zhe (麦田里的守望者), a Chinese translation of The Catcher in the Rye. Identifiers are also assigned to authors of books, and of journal articles, in two separate series (so an author may have a different identifier value in each). For example, Shinsaku Kimoto is DA00432173 for books and 9000002393144 for journal articles. See also[edit] List of academic databases and search engines References[edit] ^ "About CiNii". CiNii. Retrieved 2014-02-23. ^ 大向一輝 (Ohmukai, Ikki) (2009). "学術情報プラットフォームとしてのCiNii". Current Awareness (301). CA1691. ^ "Databases Incorporated". CiNii. Retrieved 2014-02-23. ^ "titlelist_els.tsv". CiNii. 2014-02-15. Retrieved 2014-02-23. ^ a b 大向一輝 (Ohmukai, Ikki) (2012). "System design and data modeling of CiNii articles". The Journal of Information Science and Technology Association. 62 (11): 473–477. ^ 日詰梨恵 (Hizume, Rie); 逸村裕 (Itsumura, Hiroshi) (2010). "CiNii 収録率から見たわが国の学術情報電子化の現状：人文学４領域を対象に". 中部図書館情報学会誌. 50: 19–35. hdl:2241/105270. External links[edit] Wikidata has the properties: CiNii author ID (books) (P271) (see uses) CiNii book ID (P1739) (see uses) CiNii article ID (P2409) (see uses) CiNii author ID (articles) (P4787) (see uses) CiNii CiNii in English v t e Authority control files AAG • ACM DL • ADB • AGSA • autores.uy • AWR • BALaT • BIBSYS • Bildindex • BNC • BNE • BNF • Botanist • BPN • CANTIC • CiNii • CWGC • DAAO • DBLP • DSI • FNZA • GND • HDS • IAAF • ICCU • ICIA • ISNI • Joconde • KulturNav • LCCN • LIR • LNB • Léonore • MBA • MGP • NARA • NBL • NDL • NGV • NKC • NLA • NLG • NLI • NLK • NLP • NLR • NSK • NTA • ORCID • PIC • ResearcherID • RERO • RKD • RKDimages ID • RSL • SELIBR • SIKART • SNAC • SUDOC • S2AuthorId • TA98 • TDVİA • TE • TePapa • TH • TLS • Trove • UKPARL • ULAN • US Congress • VcBA • VIAF • WorldCat Identities Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CiNii&oldid=995120545" Categories: Bibliographic databases and indexes Databases in Japan Japanese studies 2005 establishments in Japan Hidden categories: Articles containing Japanese-language text AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Bân-lâm-gú भोजपुरी Dansk Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia עברית مصرى Bahasa Melayu 日本語 Português Русский Simple English Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 19 December 2020, at 09:50 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1819	----	Pindarics - Wikipedia Pindarics From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Pindarics (alternatively Pindariques or Pindaricks) was a term for a class of loose and irregular odes greatly in fashion in England during the close of the 17th and the beginning of the 18th century.[1] Abraham Cowley, who published fifteen Pindarique Odes in 1656, was the poet most identified with the form though many others had composed irregular verses before him.[2] The term is derived from the name of a Greek archaic poet, Pindar, but is based on a misconception since Pindar's odes were in fact very formal, obeying a triadic structure, in which the form of the first stanza (strophe) was repeated in the second stanza (antistrophe), followed by a third stanza (epode) that introduced variations but whose form was repeated by other epodes in subsequent triads. Cowley's Resurrection, which was considered in the 17th century to be a model of the 'pindaric' style, is a formless poem of sixty-four lines, arbitrarily divided, not into triads, but into four stanzas of unequal volume and structure; the lines which form these stanzas are of lengths varying from three feet to seven feet, with rhymes repeated in no order.[1] It was the looseness of these 'pindarics' that appealed to many poets at the close of the 17th century, including John Dryden and Alexander Pope, and many lesser poets, such as John Oldham, Aphra Behn, Thomas Otway, Thomas Sprat, John Hughes and Thomas Flatman. John Milton employed 'pindarics' for the chorus of his lyrical tragedy, Samson Agonistes, published in 1670/71 (and probably composed in the 1660s) but he was a classical scholar and he termed them more appropriately: "The measure of verse used in the chorus is of all sorts, called by the Greeks 'monostrophic', or rather 'apolelymenon', without regard had to strophe, antistrophe or epode, which were a kind of stanzas framed only for the music, then used with the chorus that sung; not essential to the poem and therefore not material; or, being divided into stanzas or pauses, they may be called 'alloeostropha'."[nb 1] The form in this sense can be thought to be modelled on the works of the tragic poet Aeschylus, as noted by Milton's nephew, Edward Phillips: "...that which we call the pindaric hath a nearer affinity with the monostrophic or apolelymenon used in the chorus's of Aeschylus's tragedies."[3] Phillips was one of his uncle's pupils and his views may have been shaped by Milton's theories as early as the 1640s yet he also reproduced some of the great poet's later views and his reactions to the literary fashions of the Restoration.[4] Thus he contrasts 'pindarics' with rhyming couplets as a verse form suited to tragedy: "...that way of versifying which bears the name of Pindaric and which hath no necessity of being divided into strophs or stanzas would be much more suitable for tragedy than the continued rhapsody of rhyming couplets, which whoever shall mark it well will find it appear too stiff and of too much constraint for the liberty of conversation and the interlocution of several persons."[5] In Discourse on the Pindarique Ode, 1706, the dramatist William Congreve, reviled pindarics as "bundles of rambling incoherent thoughts" and "uncertain and perplexed verses and rhymes".[1] Joseph Addison dismissed them in 1711 in the journal The Spectator as monstrous Compositions.[6] Richard Steele in an entry in the Spectator the following year underscored the difference between English pindarics and the verse of Pindar by imagining the Greek poet in Cowley's company—but not for long: "I saw Pindar walking all alone, no one daring to accost him till Cowley joyn'd himself to him, but, growing weary of one who almost walk'd him out of Breath, he left him for Horace and Anacreon, with whom he seemed infinitely delighted."[7] The pindaric came to be commonly used for complimentary poems on births, weddings and funerals. Although the vogue of these forms hardly survived the age of Queen Anne, something of the tradition still remained, and even in the odes of Wordsworth, Shelley and Coleridge the broken versification of Cowley's pindarics occasionally survives. Tennyson's Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington (1852) may be considered another specimen of a pindaric in English literature,[1] as seen for example in the opening and closing lines: Bury the Great Duke With an empire's lamentation, Let us bury the Great Duke To the noise of the mourning of a mighty nation, Mourning when their leaders fall, Warriors carry the warrior's pall, And sorrow darkens hamlet and hall... Ashes to ashes, dust to dust; He is gone who seem'd so great. Gone; but nothing can bereave him Of the force he made his own Being here, and we believe him Something far advanced in State, And that he wears a truer crown Than any wreath that man can weave him. Speak no more of his renown, Lay your earthly fancies down, And in the vast cathedral leave him, God accept him, Christ receive him. Notes[edit] ^ Milton's Preface to Samson Agonistes, where apolelymenon denotes verses free from stanzaic patterns, and alloeostropha denotes strophes or stanzas of varying form—see Douglas Bush (ed), Milton: Poetical Works, Oxford University Press (1966), page 518 References[edit] ^ a b c d  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Gosse, Edmund William (1911). "Pindarics". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 620. ^ David Money, 'The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries' in The Cambridge Companion to Horace, Stephen Harrison (ed), Cambridge University Press (2007), page 328 ^ Edward Phillips, Preface to 'Theatrum Poetarum', cited by Allan H. Gilbert (ed) in Literary Criticism: Plato to Dryden, Wayne Books, reprinted 1982, page 670 ^ Allan H. Gilbert (ed), Literary Criticism: Plato to Dryden, Wayne Books, reprinted 1982, page 667 ^ Edward Phillips, Preface to 'Theatrum Poetarum', cited by Allan H. Gilbert (ed) in Literary Criticism: Plato to Dryden, Wayne Books, reprinted 1982, pages 676-77 ^ Joseph Addison, Spectator 160, 3 September 1711, cited by David Money, 'The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries' in The Cambridge Companion to Horace, Stephen Harrison (ed), Cambridge University Press (2007), page 328 ^ Richard Steele, Spectator 514, 20 October 1712, cited by David Money, 'The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries' in The Cambridge Companion to Horace, Stephen Harrison (ed), Cambridge University Press (2007), page 328 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pindarics&oldid=901399909" Categories: Literature of England Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 11 June 2019, at 16:31 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1836	----	Interrex - Wikipedia Interrex From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the interrex of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, see Interrex (Poland). The interrex (plural interreges) was literally a ruler "between kings" (Latin inter reges) during the Roman Kingdom and the Roman Republic. He was in effect a short-term regent. The office of interrex was supposedly created following the death of Rome's first king Romulus, and thus its origin is obscured by legend. The Senate of the Roman Kingdom was at first unable to choose a new king. For the purpose of continuing the government of the city, the senate, which then consisted of one hundred members, was divided into ten decuriae (groups of ten); and from each of these decuriae one senator was nominated as decurio. Each of the ten decuriones in succession held the regal power and its badges for five days as interrex; and if no king had been appointed at the expiration of fifty days, the rotation began anew. The period during which they exercised their power was called an interregnum, and on that occasion lasted for one year, after which Numa Pompilius was elected as the new king.[1] After the death of each subsequent king, an interrex was appointed by the senate. His function was to call a meeting of the Comitia Curiata, which would elect a new king.[2] Under the Republic, interreges were appointed to hold the comitia for the election of the consuls when the consuls, through civil commotion or other cause such as death, had been unable to do so during their year of office. Each interrex held the office for only five days, as under the kings. The comitia were, as a general rule, not held by the first interrex, who was originally the curio maximus, but more usually by the second or third; but in one instance we read of an eleventh, and in another of a fourteenth interrex. The comitia to elect the first consuls were held by Spurius Lucretius Tricipitinus as interrex was also called praefectus urbis.[clarification needed] The interreges under the republic, at least from 482 BC, were elected from ex-consuls by the senate, and were not confined to the decem primi or ten chief senators as under the kings. Plebeians, however, were not admissible to this office; and consequently when the senate included plebeians, the patrician senators met together without the plebeian members to elect an interrex. For this reason, as well as on account of the influence which the interrex exerted in the election of the magistrates, we find that the tribunes of the plebs were strongly opposed to the appointment of an interrex. The interrex had jurisdictio.[clarification needed] Interreges continued to be appointed occasionally until the time of the Second Punic War. After that no interrex was appointed until the senate, by command of Sulla, named L. Valerius Flaccus to hold the comitia for his election as Dictator in 82 BC. In 55 BC another interrex was appointed to hold the comitia in which Pompey and Crassus were elected consuls. There were interreges in 53 and 52 BC; in 52 an interrex held the comitia in which Pompey was appointed sole consul. List of Roman interreges (509 - 52 BC)[edit] Unless otherwise indicated, the names and dates of the interreges are taken from Thomas Broughton's The Magistrates of the Roman Republic.[3] Year Interrex note 509 Sp. Lucretius Tricipitinus 482 A. Sempronius Atratinus, 1st Sp. Lartius Flavus, 2nd 462 P. Valerius Poplicola 444 T. Quinctius Capitolinus Barbatus 420 L. Papirius Mugillanus 413 Q. Fabius Vibulanus 396 L. Valerius Potitus Q. Servilius Fidenas M. Furius Camillus 391 M. Furius Camillus II P. Cornelius Scipio L. Valerius Potitus II 389 P. Cornelius Scipio II M. Furius Camillus III 387 M. Manlius Capitolinus Ser. Sulpicius Camerinus L. Valerius Potitus III 355 Q. Servilius Ahala I & II M. Fabius Ambustus I & II Cn. Manlius Capitolinus Imperiosus C. Fabius Ambustus C. Sulpicius Peticus L. Aemilius Mamercinus Servilius & M. Fabius appointed twice 352 11 unknown interreges L. Cornelius Scipio Cornelius as the twelfth of a series of interreges 351 C. Sulpicius Peticus II M. Fabius Ambustus III 340 M. Valerius Corvus M. Fabius Ambustus IV? or M. Fabius Dursuo 332 4 unknown interreges M. Valerius Corvus II Valerius as the fifth and last of a series of interreges 326 14 unknown interreges L. Aemilius Mamercinus Privernas Aemilius as the fifteenth of a series of interreges 320 Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus M. Valerius Corvus III 298 Ap. Claudius Caecus P. Sulpicius Saverrio 291 L. Postumius Megellus 222 Q. Fabius Maximus Verrucosus? Fabius was twice Interrex, both at unknown dates. This is one possible date as suggested by Broughton. 216 C. Claudius Centho P. Cornelius Scipio Asina Scipio held the comitia that elected the consul Varro 208? Q. Fabius Maximus Verrucosus II? Mommsen and Broughton suggests this as a possible date for Fabius as interrex. Livy instead attributes the elections to the Dictator, T. Manlius Torquatus 82 L. Valerius Flaccus 55 53 52 References[edit] "Oxford Classical Dictionary: Interrex". Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford Research Encyclopedias. Retrieved 14 May 2019. ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:17 ^ see e.g. Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:32 ^ Broughton, T. Robert S. (1952). The magistrates of the Roman Republic. American Philological Association. OCLC 1120836609. v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Interrex&oldid=993058640" Categories: Ancient Roman titles Monarchy Regents Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles needing clarification from November 2009 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from May 2015 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Azərbaycanca Bân-lâm-gú Български Català Deutsch Español Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 8 December 2020, at 16:01 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1877	----	Imperium - Wikipedia Imperium From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Imperium (disambiguation). This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Imperium" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2007) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. No cleanup reason has been specified. Please help improve this article if you can. (July 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This article appears to be a dictionary definition. Please rewrite it to present the subject from an encyclopedic point of view. If it cannot be turned into a full encyclopedia article in the near future, consider moving it to Wiktionary. Steps for moving to Wiktionary: Check that this article meets Wiktionary's criteria for inclusion. Check that Wiktionary does not have an article on this word or phrase, as verified using the search page. If Wiktionary has a definition already, change this tag to {{TWCleanup2}} or else consider a soft redirect to Wiktionary by replacing the text on this page with {{Wi}}. If Wiktionary does not have the definition yet, consider moving the whole article to Wiktionary by replacing this tag with the template {{Copy to Wiktionary}}. This template will no longer automatically categorize articles as candidates to move to Wiktionary. (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Look up imperium in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. In ancient Rome, imperium was a form of authority held by a citizen to control a military or governmental entity. It is distinct from auctoritas and potestas, different and generally inferior types of power in the Roman Republic and Empire. One's imperium could be over a specific military unit, or it could be over a province or territory. Individuals given such power were referred to as curule magistrates or promagistrates. These included the curule aedile, the praetor, the consul, the magister equitum, and the dictator. In a general sense, imperium was the scope of someone's power, and could include anything, such as public office, commerce, political influence, or wealth. Contents 1 Ancient Rome 2 Later Roman Empire 3 Divine and earthly imperium 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading Ancient Rome[edit] Imperium originally meant absolute or kingly power—the word being derived from the Latin verb imperare (to command)—which became somewhat limited under the republic by the collegiality of the republican magistrates and the right of appeal, or provocatio, on the part of citizens. Imperium remained absolute in the army, and the power of the imperator (army commander) to punish remained uncurtailed. The title imperator later was exclusively held by the emperor, as the commander of the armed forces. In fact, the Latin word imperator is the root of the English word emperor.[1][2] In ancient Rome, imperium could be used as a term indicating a characteristic of people, their wealth in property, or the measure of formal power they had. This qualification could be used in a rather loose context (for example, poets used it, not necessarily writing about state officials). However, in Roman society, it was also a more formal concept of legal authority. A man with imperium (an imperator) had, in principle, absolute authority to apply the law within the scope of his magistracy or promagistracy. He could be vetoed or overruled either by a magistrate or promagistrate who was a colleague with equal power (e.g. a fellow consul), by one whose imperium outranked his – that is, one of imperium maius (greater imperium), or by a tribune of the people. Some modern scholars such as A. H. M. Jones have defined imperium as "the power vested by the state in a person to do what he considers to be in the best interests of the state".[citation needed] Imperium was indicated in two prominent ways: a curule magistrate or promagistrate carried an ivory baton surmounted by an eagle as his personal symbol of office (compare the field marshal's baton);[citation needed] any such magistrate was also escorted by lictors bearing the fasces (traditional symbols of imperium and authority), when outside the pomerium, axes being added to the fasces to indicate an imperial magistrate's power to inflict capital punishment outside Rome (the axes being removed within the pomerium). The number of lictors in attendance upon a magistrate was an overt indication of the degree of imperium. When in the field, a curule magistrate possessing an imperium greater or equal to that of a praetor wore a sash ritually knotted on the front of his cuirass. Furthermore, any man executing imperium within his sphere of influence was entitled to the curule chair. Curule aedile (aedilis curulis) – 2 lictors Since a plebeian aedile (aedilis plebis) was not vested with imperium, he was not escorted by lictors. Magister equitum (the dictator's deputy) – 6 lictors Praetor – 6 lictors (2 lictors within the pomerium) Consul – 12 lictors each Dictator – 24 lictors outside the pomerium and 12 inside; starting from the dictatorship of Lucius Sulla the latter rule was ignored. To symbolize that the dictator could enact capital punishment within Rome as well as without, his lictors did not remove the axes from their fasces within the pomerium. As can be seen, dictatorial imperium was superior to consular, consular to praetorian, and praetorian to aedilician; there is some historical dispute as to whether or not praetorian imperium was superior to "equine-magisterial" imperium. A promagistrate, or a man executing a curule office without actually holding that office, also possessed imperium in the same degree as the actual incumbents (i.e., proconsular imperium being more or less equal to consular imperium, propraetorian imperium to praetorian) and was attended by an equal number of lictors. Certain extraordinary commissions, such as Pompey's famous command against the pirates, were invested with imperium maius meaning they outranked all other owners of imperium of the same type or rank (in Pompey's case, even the consuls) within their sphere of command (his being "ultimate on the seas, and within 50 miles inland"). Imperium maius later became a hallmark of the Roman emperor. Another technical use of the term in Roman law was for the power to extend the law beyond its mere interpretation, extending imperium from formal legislators under the ever-republican constitution: popular assemblies, senate, magistrates, emperor and their delegates to the jurisprudence of jurisconsults. Later Roman Empire[edit] While the Byzantine Eastern Roman Emperors retained full Roman imperium and made the episcopate subservient, in the feudal West a long rivalry would oppose the claims to supremacy within post-Roman Christianity between sacerdotium in the person of the Pope and the secular imperium of the Holy Roman Emperor, beginning with Charlemagne, whose title was claimed to have "restored" the office of Western Roman Emperor among the new kingdoms of Western Europe. Both would refer to the heritage of Roman law by their titular link with the very city Rome: the Pope, Bishop of Rome, versus the Holy Roman Emperor (even though his seat of power was north of the Alps). The Donatio Constantini, by which the Papacy had allegedly been granted the territorial Patrimonium Petri in Central Italy, became a weapon against the Emperor. The first pope who used it in an official act and relied upon it, Leo IX, cites the "Donatio" in a letter of 1054 to Michael Cærularius, Patriarch of Constantinople, to show that the Holy See possessed both an earthly and a heavenly imperium, the royal priesthood. Thenceforth the "Donatio" acquires more importance and is more frequently used as evidence in the ecclesiastical and political conflicts between the papacy and the secular power: Anselm of Lucca and Cardinal Deusdedit inserted it in their collections of canons; Gratian excluded it from his Decretum, but it was soon added to it as Palea; the ecclesiastical writers in defence of the papacy during the conflicts of the early part of the 12th century quoted it as authoritative. In one bitter episode, Pope Gregory IX, who had several times mediated between the Lombards and the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, reasserted his right to arbitrate between the contending parties. In the numerous manifestos of the Pope and the Emperor the antagonism between Church and State became more evident: the Pope claimed for himself the imperium animarum ("command of the souls", i.e. voicing God's will to the faithful) and the principatus rerum et corporum in universo mundo ("primacy over all things and bodies in the whole world"), while the Emperor wished to restore the imperium mundi, imperium (as under Roman Law) over the (now Christian) world. Rome was again to be the capital of the world and Frederick was to become the real emperor of the Romans, so he energetically protested against the authority of the Pope. The emperor's successes, especially his victory over the Lombards at the battle of Cortenuova (1237), only aggravated tensions between Church and State. The pope again excommunicated the "self-confessed heretic", the "blasphemous beast of the Apocalypse" (20 March 1239) who now attempted to conquer the rest of Italy (i.e. the papal states, et cetera). Divine and earthly imperium[edit] In some monotheistic religions such as Christianity (the Catholic Church where the official language, Latin, used terms as Imperium Dei/Domini) the Divine is held to have a superior imperium, as ultimate King of Kings, above all earthly powers. Whenever a society accepts this Divine will to be expressed on earth, as by a religious authority, this can lead to theocratic legitimation. However, the Catholic Church and most other Christian groups acknowledge the authority of secular governments. If however, a secular ruler controls the religious hierarchy, he can use it to legitimize his own authority. Thus absolute, universal power was vested under early Islam in the original Caliphate, and later again claimed by Mahdis. The chief minister of Henry VIII, the Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer suggested removal of the Roman Catholic papacy's imperium in imperio (Latin for "state within a state") by requesting that Parliament pass the Act in Restraint of Appeals (1533) specifying that England was an empire and that The Crown was imperial, and a year later the Act of Supremacy proclaiming the Imperial Crown Protector and Supreme Head of the Church of England.[citation needed] In Orthodox Russia too, when Peter I the Great assumed the Byzantine imperial titles Imperator and Autokrator, instead of the royal Tsar, the idea in founding the Russian Holy Synod was to put an end to the old Imperium in imperio of the free Church, by substituting the synod for the all too independent Patriarch of Moscow, which had become almost a rival of the Tsars — Peter meant to unite all authority in himself, over Church as well as State: through his Ober-Procurator and synod, the Emperor ruled his Church as absolutely as the military through their respective ministries; he appointed its members just as he did generals; and the Russian Government continued his policy until the end of the empire in 1917. See also[edit] Imperator Constitution of the Roman Republic Cursus honorum Translatio imperii References[edit] ^ "Etymology of the word emperor". Retrieved 13 January 2018. ^ Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony, eds. (1996). "Imperium". Oxford Classical Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 751–752. ISBN 978-0-19-866172-6. Retrieved 31 October 2020. Further reading[edit] Cary, M. (1967). A History of Rome Down to the Reign of Constantine (2nd ed.). New York: St. Martin's Press. pp. 56–58, 79, 80, 115, 124, 249, 476, 479, 492.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Donation of Constantine". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Imperium&oldid=994696317" Categories: Ancient Roman government Philosophy of law Political philosophy Roman law Government of the Roman Empire Hidden categories: Articles needing additional references from December 2007 All articles needing additional references Articles needing cleanup from July 2010 All pages needing cleanup Cleanup tagged articles without a reason field from July 2010 Wikipedia pages needing cleanup from July 2010 Flagged dictionary definitions Articles with multiple maintenance issues All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2015 Articles with unsourced statements from October 2020 Articles with unsourced statements from February 2014 CS1 maint: ref=harv Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Articles incorporating text from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Use dmy dates from November 2011 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto Føroyskt Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 17 December 2020, at 02:08 (UTC). 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Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: {{Navbox | name = Ancient Rome topics | state = {{{state<includeonly>|{{{1|collapsed}}}</includeonly>}}} | bodyclass = hlist | title = [[Ancient Rome]] topics | above = * [[Outline of ancient Rome|Outline]] * [[Timeline of Roman history|Timeline]] <!------------- Epochs ----------------> | group1 = [[History of Rome|History]] | list1 = {{Navbox |child |bodyclass=hlist |groupstyle=font-weight:normal; | list1 = * [[Founding of Rome|Foundation]] * [[Roman Kingdom|Kingdom]] ** [[Overthrow of the Roman monarchy|overthrow]] * [[Roman Republic|Republic]] | group2 = [[Roman Empire|Empire]] | list2 = * [[History of the Roman Empire|History]] * [[Pax Romana]] * [[Principate]] * [[Dominate]] * [[Western Roman Empire|Western Empire]] ** [[Fall of the Western Roman Empire|fall]] ** [[Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire|historiography of the fall]] * [[Byzantine Empire]] ** [[Decline of the Byzantine Empire|decline]] ** [[Fall of Constantinople|fall]] }} <!---group2 omitted to maintain alternating list backgrounds---> <!---------- Constitution -------------> | group3 = [[Roman Constitution|Constitution]] | list3 = * [[History of the Roman Constitution|History]] * [[Constitution of the Roman Kingdom|Kingdom]] * [[Constitution of the Roman Republic|Republic]] * [[Constitution of the Roman Empire|Empire]] * [[Constitution of the Late Roman Empire|Late Empire]] * [[Roman Senate|Senate]] * [[Roman assemblies|Legislative assemblies]] ** [[Curiate Assembly|Curiate]] ** [[Centuriate Assembly|Centuriate]] ** [[Tribal Assembly|Tribal]] ** [[Plebeian Council|Plebeian]] * [[Roman magistrate|Executive magistrates]] * [[SPQR]] <!--------------- Law -----------------> | group4 = [[Roman law|Law]] | list4 = * [[Twelve Tables]] * [[Mos maiorum]] * [[Roman citizenship|Citizenship]] * [[Auctoritas]] * [[Imperium]] * [[Status in Roman legal system|Status]] * [[Roman litigation|Litigation]] <!----------- Government --------------> | group5 = [[Political institutions of ancient Rome|Government]] | list5 = * [[Curia]] * [[Forum (Roman)|Forum]] * [[Cursus honorum]] * [[Collegiality#In the Roman Republic|Collegiality]] * [[Roman emperor|Emperor]] * [[Legatus]] * [[Dux]] * [[Officium (ancient Rome)|Officium]] * [[Prefect]] * [[Vicarius]] * [[Vigintisexviri]] * [[Lictor]] * [[Magister militum]] * [[Imperator]] * [[Princeps senatus]] * [[Pontifex Maximus]] * [[Augustus (honorific)|Augustus]] * [[Caesar (title)|Caesar]] * [[Tetrarchy|Tetrarch]] * [[Optimates]] * [[Populares]] * [[Roman province|Province]] <!----------- Magistrates -------------> | group6 = [[Roman magistrate|Magistrates]] | list6 = {{Navbox |child |bodyclass=hlist |groupstyle=font-weight:normal; | group1 = Ordinary | list1 = * [[Roman consul|Consul]] * [[Roman censor|Censor]] * [[Praetor]] * [[Tribune]] * [[Tribune of the Plebs]] * [[Military tribune]] * [[Quaestor]] * [[Aedile]] * [[Promagistrate]] * [[Roman governor|Governor]] | group2 = Extraordinary | list2 = * [[King of Rome|Rex]] * [[Interrex]] * [[Roman dictator|Dictator]] * [[Master of the Horse|Magister Equitum]] * [[Decemviri]] * [[Tribuni militum consulari potestate|Consular Tribune]] * [[Triumvirate|Triumvir]] }} <!---group6 omitted to maintain alternating list backgrounds---> <!------------ Military ---------------> | group7 = [[Military of ancient Rome|Military]] | list7 = * [[Military history of ancient Rome|History]] * [[Borders of the Roman Empire|Borders]] * [[Military establishment of the Roman Republic|Establishment]] * [[Structural history of the Roman military|Structure]] * [[Campaign history of the Roman military|Campaigns]] * [[Political history of the Roman military|Political control]] * [[Strategy of the Roman military|Strategy]] * [[Roman military engineering|Engineering]] * [[Roman military frontiers and fortifications|Frontiers and fortifications]] ** [[castra]] * [[Technological history of the Roman military|Technology]] * [[Roman army|Army]] ** [[Roman legion|Legion]] ** [[Roman infantry tactics|Infantry tactics]] ** [[Roman military personal equipment|Personal equipment]] ** [[Roman siege engines|Siege engines]] * [[Roman navy|Navy]] * [[Auxilia|Auxiliaries]] * [[Roman military decorations and punishments|Decorations and punishments]] * [[Hippika gymnasia]] <!------------- Economy ---------------> | group8 = [[Roman economy|Economy]] | list8 = * [[Roman agriculture|Agriculture]] * [[Deforestation during the Roman period|Deforestation]] * [[Roman commerce|Commerce]] * [[Roman finance|Finance]] * [[Roman currency|Currency]] * [[Roman Republican currency|Republican currency]] * [[Roman Imperial currency|Imperial currency]] <!------------ Culture ----------------> | group9 = [[Culture of ancient Rome|Culture]] | list9 = <!--Alphabetically by linkname displayed:--> * [[Ancient Roman architecture|Architecture]] * [[Roman art|Art]] * [[Ancient Roman bathing|Bathing]] * [[Roman calendar|Calendar]] * [[Clothing in ancient Rome|Clothing]] * [[Cosmetics in ancient Rome|Cosmetics]] * [[Ancient Roman cuisine|Cuisine]] * [[Roman hairstyles|Hairstyles]] * [[Education in ancient Rome|Education]] * [[Latin literature|Literature]] * [[Music of ancient Rome|Music]] * [[Roman mythology|Mythology]] * [[Religion in ancient Rome|Religion]] **[[List of Roman deities|Deities]] * [[Romanization (cultural)|Romanization]] * [[Roman people]] * [[Sexuality in ancient Rome|Sexuality]] * [[Theatre of ancient Rome|Theatre]] * [[Ancient Rome and wine|Wine]] <!------------- Society ---------------> | group10 = [[Social class in ancient Rome|Society]] | list10 = * [[Patrician (ancient Rome)|Patricians]] * [[Plebs]] * [[Conflict of the Orders]] * [[Secessio plebis]] * [[Equites]] * [[Gens]] * [[Roman tribe|Tribes]] ** [[Tribal Assembly|Assembly]] * [[Roman naming conventions|Naming conventions]] * [[Demography of the Roman Empire|Demography]] * [[Women in ancient Rome|Women]] * [[Marriage in ancient Rome|Marriage]] * [[Adoption in ancient Rome|Adoption]] * [[Slavery in ancient Rome|Slavery]] * [[Bagaudae]] <!----------- Technology --------------> | group11 = [[Roman technology|Technology]] | list11 = * [[Roman amphitheatre|Amphitheatres]] * [[Roman aqueduct|Aqueducts]] * [[Roman bridge|Bridges]] * [[Circus (building)|Circuses]] * [[Roman engineering|Civil engineering]] * [[Roman concrete|Concrete]] * [[History of Roman and Byzantine domes|Domes]] * [[Roman metallurgy|Metallurgy]] * [[Roman numerals|Numerals]] * [[Roman roads|Roads]] * [[Roman temple|Temples]] * [[Roman theatre (structure)|Theatres]] * [[Sanitation in ancient Rome|Sanitation]] * [[Thermae]] <!------------- Language --------------> | group13 = [[Latin]] | list13 = * [[History of Latin|History]] * [[Latin alphabet|Alphabet]] * Versions ** [[Old Latin|Old]] ** [[Classical Latin|Classical]] ** [[Vulgar Latin|Vulgar]] ** [[Late Latin|Late]] ** [[Medieval Latin|Medieval]] ** [[Renaissance Latin|Renaissance]] ** [[New Latin|New]] ** [[Contemporary Latin|Contemporary]] ** [[Ecclesiastical Latin|Ecclesiastical]] * [[Romance languages]] <!------------- Writers ---------------> | group14 = [[Latin literature|Writers]] | list14 = {{Navbox |child |bodyclass=hlist |groupstyle=font-weight:normal; | group1 = Latin | list1 = * [[Aelius Donatus]] * [[Ammianus Marcellinus]] * [[Apuleius|Appuleius]] * [[Asconius Pedianus]] * [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] * [[Aurelius Victor]] * [[Ausonius]] * [[Boethius|Boëthius]] * [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]] * [[Catullus]] * [[Cassiodorus]] * [[Censorinus]] * [[Cicero]] * [[Claudian]] * [[Columella]] * [[Cornelius Nepos]] * [[Ennius]] * [[Eutropius (historian)|Eutropius]] * [[Fabius Pictor]] * [[Sextus Pompeius Festus]] * [[Festus (historian)|Rufus Festus]] * [[Florus]] * [[Frontinus]] * [[Marcus Cornelius Fronto|Fronto]] * [[Fulgentius]] * [[Aulus Gellius|Gellius]] * [[Horace]] * [[Hydatius]] * [[Gaius Julius Hyginus|Hyginus]] * [[Jerome]] * [[Jordanes]] * [[Julius Paulus Prudentissimus|Julius Paulus]] * [[Justin (historian)|Justin]] * [[Juvenal]] * [[Lactantius]] * [[Livy]] * [[Lucan]] * [[Lucretius]] * [[Macrobius]] * [[Marcellus Empiricus]] * [[Marcus Aurelius]] * [[Marcus Manilius|Manilius]] * [[Martial]] * [[Nicolaus of Damascus|Nicolaus Damascenus]] * [[Nonius Marcellus]] * [[Julius Obsequens|Obsequens]] * [[Orosius]] * [[Ovid]] * [[Petronius]] * [[Phaedrus (fabulist)|Phaedrus]] * [[Plautus]] * [[Pliny the Elder]] * [[Pliny the Younger]] * [[Pomponius Mela]] * [[Priscian]] * [[Propertius]] * [[Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius|Quadrigarius]] * [[Quintilian]] * [[Quintus Curtius Rufus]] * [[Sallust]] * [[Seneca the Elder]] * [[Seneca the Younger]] * [[Maurus Servius Honoratus|Servius]] * [[Sidonius Apollinaris]] * [[Silius Italicus]] * [[Statius]] * [[Suetonius]] * [[Quintus Aurelius Symmachus|Symmachus]] * [[Tacitus]] * [[Terence]] * [[Tertullian]] * [[Tibullus]] * [[Valerius Antias]] * [[Valerius Maximus]] * [[Marcus Terentius Varro|Varro]] * [[Velleius Paterculus]] * [[Verrius Flaccus]] * [[Virgil|Vergil]] * [[Vitruvius]] | group2 = Greek | list2 = * [[Claudius Aelianus|Aelian]] * [[Aëtius of Amida]] * [[Appian]] * [[Arrian]] * [[Cassius Dio]] * [[Diodorus Siculus]] * [[Diogenes Laërtius]] * [[Dionysius of Halicarnassus]] * [[Pedanius Dioscorides|Dioscorides]] * [[Eusebius of Caesaria]] * [[Galen]] * [[Herodian]] * [[Josephus]] * [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]] * [[Libanius]] * [[Lucian]] * [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] * [[Philostratus]] * [[Phlegon of Tralles]] * [[Photios I of Constantinople|Photius]] * [[Plutarch]] * [[Polyaenus]] * [[Polybius]] * [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyrius]] * [[Priscus]] * [[Procopius]] * [[Simplicius of Cilicia]] * [[Sozomen]] * [[Stephanus of Byzantium|Stephanus Byzantinus]] * [[Strabo]] * [[Themistius]] * [[Theodoret]] * [[Zonaras]] * [[Zosimus]] }} <!---group15 omitted to maintain alternating list backgrounds---> <!---------- Major cities -------------> | group16 = Major cities | list16 = * [[Alexandria]] * [[Antioch]] * [[Aquileia]] * [[Berytus]] * [[Bologna|Bononia]] * [[Carthage]] * [[Constantinople|Constantinopolis]] * [[Eboracum]] * [[Leptis Magna]] * [[Londinium]] * [[Lugdunum]] * [[Lutetia]] * [[Mediolanum]] * [[Pompeii]] * [[Ravenna]] * [[Rome|Roma]] * [[Smyrna]] * [[Vindobona]] * [[Volubilis]] <!---------- Lists / Other ------------> | group17 = Lists {{nobold|and other<br/>topics}} | list17 = * [[List of cities founded by the Romans|Cities and towns]] * [[Climate of ancient Rome|Climate]] * [[List of Roman consuls|Consuls]] * [[List of Roman dictators|Dictators]] * [[List of Roman women|Distinguished women]] * [[List of Roman dynasties|Dynasties]] * [[List of Roman emperors|Emperors]] * [[List of Roman generals|Generals]] * [[List of Roman gentes|Gentes]] * [[List of Graeco-Roman geographers|Geographers]] * [[Political institutions of ancient Rome|Institutions]] * [[List of Roman laws|Laws]] * [[Legacy of the 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en-wikipedia-org-1899	----	Overthrow of the Roman monarchy - Wikipedia Overthrow of the Roman monarchy From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Political revolution (traditionally 509 BC) which expelled the last king of Rome and established the Roman Republic Overthrow of L. Tarquinius Superbus A 16th-century painting by Sandro Botticelli, depicting the rape of Lucretia and the subsequent uprising. Date 510–509 BC Location Rome Result Decisive revolutionary victory Expulsion of L. Tarquinius Superbus End of the Roman Kingdom Establishment of the Roman Republic Belligerents L. Junius Brutus Patricians Plebeians L. Tarquinius Superbus The overthrow of the Roman monarchy, a political revolution in ancient Rome, took place around 509 BC and resulted in the expulsion of the last king of Rome, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, and the establishment of the Roman Republic. The semi-legendary Roman histories[1] tell that while the king was away on campaign, his son Sextus Tarquinius raped a noblewoman, Lucretia. Afterwards she revealed the offence to various Roman noblemen, and then committed suicide. The Roman noblemen, led by Lucius Junius Brutus, obtained the support of the Roman aristocracy and the people to expel the king and his family and to institute a republic. The Roman army supported Brutus, and the king went into exile. Despite a number of attempts by Lucius Tarquinius Superbus to reinstate the monarchy, the citizens established a republic and thereafter elected two consuls annually to rule the city. Contents 1 Background: The Kingdom 2 Rape of Lucretia 3 Uprising 4 Establishment of the republic 5 Attempts to reinstate the monarchy 6 References Background: The Kingdom[edit] Main articles: Roman Kingdom, King of Rome, and Lucius Tarquinius Superbus Roman history held that seven kings of Rome reigned from the establishment of the city in 753 BC by Romulus up to the reign of Tarquinius. The accuracy of this account has been doubted by modern historians, although it appears to be accepted that there was a monarchy, and the last king Tarquinius was expelled upon the founding of the republic in the late 6th century BC. Tarquinius was the son of the fifth king, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus. In around 535 BC Tarquinius, together with his wife Tullia Minor (one of the daughters of the then king Servius Tullius) arranged the murder of Servius. Tarquinius became king in his place. Despite various military victories, Tarquinius became an unpopular king. He refused to bury his predecessor, then put to death a number of the leading senators whom he suspected of remaining loyal to Servius (one of whom was the brother of Lucius Junius Brutus). By not replacing the slain senators, and not consulting the Senate on all matters of government, he diminished both the size and authority of the Senate. In another break with tradition, he judged capital criminal cases without advice of counsellors, thereby creating fear among those who might think to oppose him. He also engaged in treachery with the Latin allies. Rape of Lucretia[edit] Titian's Tarquin and Lucretia (1571) Main article: Lucretia In about 510 BC, Tarquinius went to war with the Rutuli. According to Livy, the Rutuli were, at that time, a very wealthy people and Tarquinius was keen to obtain the spoils that would come with victory over the Rutuli in order, in part, to assuage the anger of his subjects.[2] Tarquinius unsuccessfully sought to take the Rutulian capital Ardea by storm, and subsequently began an extensive siege of the city.[2] Sextus Tarquinius, the king's son, was sent on a military errand to Collatia. Sextus was received with great hospitality at the governor's mansion, home of Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, son of the king's nephew, Arruns Tarquinius, former governor of Collatia and first of the Tarquinii Collatini. Lucius' wife, Lucretia, daughter of Spurius Lucretius, prefect of Rome, "a man of distinction",[3] made sure that the king's son was treated as became his rank, although her husband was away at the siege. In a variant of the story,[4] Sextus and Lucius, at a wine party on furlough, were debating the virtues of wives when Lucius volunteered to settle the debate by all of them riding to his home to see what Lucretia was doing. She was weaving with her maids. The party awarded her the palm of victory and Lucius invited them to visit, but for the time being they returned to camp. At night Sextus entered her bedroom by stealth, quietly going around the slaves who were sleeping at her door. She awakened, he identified himself and offered her two choices: she could submit to his sexual advances and become his wife and future queen, or he would kill her and one of her slaves and place the bodies together, then claim he had caught her having adulterous sex (see sexuality in ancient Rome). In the alternative story, he returned from camp a few days later with one companion to take Collatinus up on his invitation to visit and was lodged in a guest bedroom. He entered Lucretia's room while she lay naked in her bed and started to wash her belly with water, which woke her up. Uprising[edit] Brutus holding the knife and swearing the oath, with Lucretia The next day Lucretia dressed in black and went to her father's house in Rome and cast herself down in the suppliant's position (embracing the knees), weeping. Asked to explain herself she insisted on first summoning witnesses and after disclosing the rape, called on them for vengeance, a plea that could not be ignored, as she was speaking to the chief magistrate of Rome. While they were debating she drew a concealed dagger and stabbed herself in the heart. She died in her father's arms, with the women present keening and lamenting. "This dreadful scene struck the Romans who were present with so much horror and compassion that they all cried out with one voice that they would rather die a thousand deaths in defence of their liberty than suffer such outrages to be committed by the tyrants."[5] In the alternative version, Lucretia summoned Lucius Junius Brutus (a leading citizen, and the grandson of Rome's fifth king Tarquinius Priscus), along with her father Spurius Lucretius Tricipitinus, another leading citizen Publius Valerius Publicola, and her husband Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus (also related to Tarquinius Priscus) to Collatia after she had been raped. Lucretia, believing that the rape dishonored her and her family, committed suicide by stabbing herself with a dagger after telling of what had befallen her. According to legend, Brutus grabbed the dagger from Lucretia's breast after her death and immediately shouted for the overthrow of the Tarquins.[6] The four men gathered the youth of Collatia, then went to Rome where Brutus, being at that time Tribunus Celerum, summoned the people to the forum and exhorted them to rise up against the king. The people voted for the deposition of the king, and the banishment of the royal family.[7] Brutus summoned the comitia curiata, an organization of patrician families used mainly to ratify the decrees of the king and began to harangue them in one of the more noted and effective speeches of ancient Rome. He began by revealing that his pose as fool was a sham designed to protect him against an evil king. He leveled a number of charges against the king and his family: the outrage against Lucretia, whom everyone could see on the dais, the king's tyranny, the forced labor of the plebeians in the ditches and sewers of Rome. He pointed out that Superbus had come to rule by the murder of Servius Tullius, his wife's father, next-to-the-last king of Rome. He "solemnly invoked the gods as the avengers of murdered parents." The king's wife, Tullia, was in fact in Rome and probably was a witness to the proceedings from her palace near the forum. Seeing herself the target of so much animosity she fled from the palace in fear of her life and proceeded to the camp at Ardea.[7] Brutus opened a debate on the form of government Rome ought to have; there were many speakers (all patricians). In summation he proposed the banishment of the Tarquins from all the territories of Rome and appointment of an interrex to nominate new magistrates and conduct an election of ratification. They had decided on a republican form of government with two consuls in place of a king executing the will of a patrician senate. This was a temporary measure until they could consider the details more carefully. Brutus renounced all right to the throne. In subsequent years the powers of the king were divided among various elected magistracies. A final vote of the curiae carried the interim constitution. Spurius Lucretius was swiftly elected interrex (he was prefect of the city anyway). He proposed Brutus and Collatinus as the first two consuls and that choice was ratified by the curiae. Needing to acquire the assent of the population as a whole they paraded Lucretia's body through the streets, summoning the plebeians to legal assembly in the forum. Once there they heard a further speech by Brutus. It began:[8] Inasmuch as Tarquinius neither obtained the sovereignty in accordance with our ancestral customs and laws, nor, since he obtained it — in whatever manner he got it — has he been exercising it in an honourable or kingly manner, but has surpassed in insolence and lawlessness all the tyrants the world ever saw, we patricians met together and resolved to deprive him of his power, a thing we ought to have done long ago, but are doing now when a favourable opportunity has offered. And we have called you together, plebeians, in order to declare our own decision and then ask for your assistance in achieving liberty for our country.... A general election was held. The vote was for the republic. The monarchy was at an end, even while Lucretia was still displayed in the forum. Brutus, leaving Lucretius in command of the city, proceeded with armed men to the Roman army then camped at Ardea. The king, who had been with the army, heard of developments at Rome, and left the camp for the city before Brutus' arrival. The army received Brutus as a hero, and the king's sons were expelled from the camp. Tarquinius Superbus, meanwhile, was refused entry at Rome, and fled with his family into exile.[9] Establishment of the republic[edit] The Capitoline Brutus, an ancient Roman bust from the Capitoline Museums is traditionally identified as a portrait of Lucius Junius Brutus That uprising resulted in the exile or Regifugium, after a reign of 25 years, of Tarquinius and his family, and the establishment of the Roman Republic, with Brutus and Collatinus (both related by blood to Rome's fifth king Lucius Tarquinius Priscus) as the first consuls.[10] Tarquinius and his two eldest sons, Titus and Arruns, went into exile at Caere.[11] According to Livy, Brutus' first act after the expulsion of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus was to bring the people to swear an oath (the Oath of Brutus) never to allow any man again to be king in Rome.[12] Omnium primum avidum novae libertatis populum, ne postmodum flecti precibus aut donis regiis posset, iure iurando adegit neminem Romae passuros regnare. First of all, by swearing an oath that they would suffer no man to rule Rome, it forced the people, desirous of a new liberty, not to be thereafter swayed by the entreaties or bribes of kings. This is, fundamentally, a restatement of the "private oath" sworn by the conspirators to overthrow the monarchy:[13] Per hunc... castissimum ante regiam iniuriam sanguinem iuro, vosque, di, testes facio me L. Tarquinium Superbum cum scelerata coniuge et omni liberorum stirpe ferro igni quacumque dehinc vi possim exsecuturum, nec illos nec alium quemquam regnare Romae passurum. By this guiltless blood before the kingly injustice I swear – you and the gods as my witnesses – I make myself the one who will prosecute, by what force I am able, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus along with his wicked wife and the whole house of his freeborn children by sword, by fire, by any means hence, so that neither they nor any one else be suffered to rule Rome. There is no scholarly agreement that the oath took place; it is reported, although differently, by Plutarch (Poplicola, 2) and Appian (B.C. 2.119). Brutus also replenished the number of senators to 300 from the principal men of the equites. The new consuls also created a new office of rex sacrorum to carry out the religious duties that had previously been performed by the kings.[14] Because of the Roman people's revulsion at the name and family of the exiled king, the consul Tarquinius Collatinus was forced to resign from the office of consul and go into exile.[14] Attempts to reinstate the monarchy[edit] After his exile, Tarquinius made a number of attempts to regain the throne. At first, he sent ambassadors to the Senate to request the return of his family's personal effects, which had been seized in the coup. In secret, while the Senate debated his request, the ambassadors met with and subverted a number of the leading men of Rome to the royal cause, in the Tarquinian conspiracy. The conspirators included two of Brutus' brothers-in-law, and his two sons Titus and Tiberius. The conspiracy was discovered, and the conspirators executed.[15] Although the Senate had initially agreed to Tarquin's request for a return of his family's effects, the decision was reconsidered and revoked after the discovery of the conspiracy, and the royal property was given over to be plundered by the Roman populace.[16] Tarquinius next attempted to regain Rome by force of arms. He first gained the support of the cities of Veii and Tarquinii, recalling to the former their regular losses of war and land to the Roman state, and to the latter his family ties. The armies of the two cities were led by Tarquinius against Rome in the Battle of Silva Arsia. The king commanded the Etruscan infantry. Although the result initially appeared uncertain, the Romans were victorious. Both Brutus (the consul) and Arruns (the king's son) were killed in battle.[17] Another attempt by Tarquinius relied on military support from Lars Porsenna, king of Clusium. The war led to the siege of Rome, and finally a peace treaty. However, Tarquinius failed to achieve his aim of regaining the throne.[18][19] Tarquinius and his family left Clusium, and instead sought refuge in Tusculum with his son-in-law Octavius Mamilius.[20] In about 496 BC, Tarquin and his son Titus fought with Mamilius and the Latin League against Rome, but lost, at the Battle of Lake Regillus at which Mamilius perished. Subsequently, Tarquinius fled to take refuge with the tyrant of Cumae, Aristodemus and Tarquin died there in 495 BC.[21] References[edit] ^ Gates, Charles (2013) [2003]. "19: Rome from its origins to the end of the Republic". Ancient Cities: The Archaeology of Urban Life in the Ancient Near East and Egypt, Greece and Rome. London: Routledge. p. 318. ISBN 9781134676620. Retrieved 2018-01-17. The early history of Rome, such as it can be reconstructed from the legends recounted notably by Livy, a historian of the Augustan period, divides into two periods, the first under the rule of four Latin kings (ca. 753–600 BC), the second under the rule of three Etruscan kings (ca. 600—509 BC). ^ a b Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1.57 ^ D.H. IV.64. ^ T.L. I.57. ^ D.H. IV.66. ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1.58–59 ^ a b Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1.59 ^ D.H. IV.78. ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1.59–60 ^ Gale, Robert L. (1995). A Herman Melville encyclopedia. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 504. ISBN 978-0-313-29011-4. ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1.60 ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, ed. R. S. Conway & C. F. Walters (Oxford, 1914), 2.1.9. ^ Livy, "Ab urbe condita" 1.59.1. ^ a b Livy, Ab urbe condita, 2.1–2 ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 2.3–5 ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 2.5 ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 2.6–7 ^ Cornell, Tim (1995). The Beginnings of Rome. Routledge. pp. 215–17. ISBN 978-0-415-01596-7. Retrieved 2009-04-22. ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 2.9–15 ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 2.15 ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 2.21 v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Overthrow_of_the_Roman_monarchy&oldid=995609200" Categories: 509 BC 6th-century BC conflicts 6th century BC in the Roman Kingdom Rebellions in ancient history Democratization Coups d'état Revolutions Hidden categories: Articles with short description Articles with long short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages فارسی Lingua Franca Nova Português Русский Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 21 December 2020, at 23:51 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1909	----	Tribune - Wikipedia Tribune From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Elected Roman officials For other uses, see Tribune (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Tribute. Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Tribune" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Tribune (Latin: Tribunus) was the title of various elected officials in ancient Rome. The two most important were the tribunes of the plebs and the military tribunes. For most of Roman history, a college of ten tribunes of the plebs acted as a check on the authority of the senate and the annual magistrates, holding the power of ius intercessionis to intervene on behalf of the plebeians, and veto unfavourable legislation. There were also military tribunes, who commanded portions of the Roman army, subordinate to higher magistrates, such as the consuls and praetors, promagistrates, and their legates. Various officers within the Roman army were also known as tribunes. The title was also used for several other positions and classes in the course of Roman history. Contents 1 Tribal Tribunes 2 Tribune of the Celeres 3 Tribune of the Plebs 4 Military Tribunes 5 Consular Tribunes 6 Tribunes of the treasury 7 Later uses of the title 7.1 Republic of Venice 7.2 French revolutionary tribunat 8 See also 9 References 9.1 Notes 9.2 Bibliography 10 External links Tribal Tribunes[edit] The word tribune is derived from the Roman tribes. The three original tribes known as the Ramnes or Ramnenses, Tities or Titienses, and the Luceres, were each headed by a tribune, who represented each tribe in civil, religious, and military matters.[1]:ii. 7[2][3] Subsequently, each of the Servian tribes was also represented by a tribune.[1]:ii. 14[4] Tribune of the Celeres[edit] Under the Roman Kingdom, the Tribunus Celerum, in English Tribune of the Celeres, or Tribune of the Knights, was commander of the king's personal bodyguard, known as the Celeres. This official was second only to the king, and had the authority to pass law, known as lex tribunicia, and to preside over the comitia curiata. Unless the king himself elected to lead the cavalry into battle, this responsibility fell to the tribune of the celeres. In theory he could deprive the king of his imperium, or authority to command, with the agreement of the comitia curiata.[1]:ii. 13[4] In the reign of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the last Roman king, this office was held by Lucius Junius Brutus, the king's nephew, and thus the senior member of the king's household, after the king himself and his sons. It was Brutus who convened the comitia and asked that they revoke the king's imperium.[5]:i. 59 After the fall of the monarchy, the powers of the tribune of the celeres were divided between the Magister Militum, or Master of the Infantry, also known as the Praetor Maximus or dictator, and his lieutenant, the magister equitum or "Master of the Horse". Tribune of the Plebs[edit] Main article: Tribune of the Plebs The Tribuni Plebis, known in English as Tribunes of the Plebs, Tribunes of the People, or Plebeian Tribunes, were instituted in 494 BC, after the first secession of the plebs, in order to protect the interests of the plebeians against the actions of the senate and the annual magistrates, who were uniformly patrician. The ancient sources indicate the tribunes may have originally been two or five in number. If the former, the college of tribunes was expanded to five in 470 BC. Either way, the college was increased to ten in 457 BC, and remained at this number throughout Roman history. They were assisted by two aediles plebis, or plebeian aediles. Only plebeians were eligible for these offices, although there were at least two exceptions.[6] The tribunes of the plebs had the power to convene the concilium plebis, or plebeian assembly, and propose legislation before it. Only one of the tribunes could preside over this assembly, which had the power to pass laws affecting only the plebeians, known as plebiscita, or plebiscites. After 287 BC, the decrees of the concilium plebis had the effect of law over all Roman citizens. By the 3rd century BC, the tribunes could also convene and propose legislation before the senate.[7] Although sometimes referred to as "plebeian magistrates," technically the tribunes of the plebs were not magistrates, having been elected by the plebeians alone, and not the whole Roman people. However, they were sacrosanct, and the whole body of the plebeians were pledged to protect the tribunes against any assault or interference with their persons during their terms of office. Anyone who violated the sacrosanctity of the tribunes might be killed without penalty.[7][8] This was also the source of the tribunes' power, known as ius intercessionis, or intercessio, by which any tribune could intercede on behalf of a Roman citizen to prohibit the act of a magistrate or other official. Citizens could appeal the decisions of the magistrates to the tribunes, who would then be obliged to determine the legality of the action before a magistrate could proceed. This power also allowed the tribunes to forbid, or veto any act of the senate or another assembly. Only a dictator was exempt from these powers.[7] The tribunicia potestas, or tribunician power, was limited by the fact that it was derived from the oath of the people to defend the tribunes. This limited most of the tribunes' actions to the boundaries of the city itself, as well as a radius of one mile around. They had no power to affect the actions of provincial governors.[7] The powers of the tribunes were severely curtailed during the constitutional reforms of the dictator Sulla in 81 BC. Although many of these powers were restored in further reforms of 75 BC and 70 BC, the prestige and authority of the tribunes had been irreparably damaged. In 48 BC, the senate granted tribunician powers (tribunicia potestas, powers equivalent to those of a tribune without actually being one) to the dictator Julius Caesar. Caesar used them to prevent the other tribunes interfering with his actions. In 23 BC, the senate granted the same power to Augustus, the first Roman Emperor, and from that point onwards it was regularly granted to each emperor as part of their formal titles. Under the Roman Empire, the tribunes continued to be elected, but had lost their independence and most of their practical power. The office became merely a step in the political careers of plebeians who aspired toward a seat in the senate.[7] Military Tribunes[edit] Main article: Military tribune The Tribuni Militum, known in English as Military Tribunes or literally, Tribunes of the Soldiers, were elected each year along with the annual magistrates. Their number varied throughout Roman history, but eventually reached twenty-four. These were usually young men in their late twenties, who aspired to a senatorial career. Each tribune would be assigned to command a portion of the Roman army, subordinate to the magistrates and promagistrates appointed by the senate, and their legates. Within each of the legions, various middle-ranking officers were also styled tribune. These officers included: Tribunus laticlavius, a senatorial officer, second in command of a legion; identified by a broad stripe, or laticlavus. Tribunus angusticlavius, an officer chosen from among the equites, five to each legion; identified by a narrow stripe, or angusticlavus. Tribunus rufulus, an officer chosen by the commander. Tribunus vacans, an unassigned officer in the Late Roman army; a member of the general's staff. Tribunus cohortis, an officer commanding a cohort, part of a legion usually consisting of six centuries. Tribunus cohortis urbanae, commander of one of the urban cohorts, a sort of military police unit stationed at Rome. Tribunus sexmestris, a tribune serving a tour of duty of only six months; there is no evidence to identify this officer as a cavalry commander, as sometimes stated in modern literature. In the late Roman army, a tribunus was a senior officer, sometimes called a comes, who commanded a cavalry vexillatio. As tribounos, the title survived in the East Roman army until the early 7th century. From the use of tribunus to describe various military officers is derived the word tribunal, originally referring to a raised platform used to address the soldiers or administer justice. Military tribunes are featured in notable works of historical fiction, including Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ, by Lew Wallace, and The Robe by Lloyd C. Douglas. Both novels involve characters affected by the life and death of Jesus, and were turned into epic films during the 1950s. Messala, the primary antagonist in Ben-Hur, was played by Stephen Boyd, while Marcellus Gallio, the protagonist of The Robe, was played by a young Richard Burton. Consular Tribunes[edit] Main article: Tribuni militum consulari potestate In 445 BC, the tribunes of the plebs succeeded in passing the lex Canuleia, repealing the law forbidding the intermarriage of patricians and plebeians, and providing that one of the consuls might be a plebeian. Rather than permit the consular dignity to pass into the hands of a plebeian, the senate proposed a compromise whereby three military tribunes, who might be either patrician or plebeian, should be elected in place of the consuls. The first tribuni militum consulare potestate, or military tribunes with consular power, were elected for the year 444. Although plebeians were eligible for this office, each of the first "consular tribunes" was a patrician.[5]:iv. 1–6 Military tribunes were elected in place of the consuls in half the years from 444 to 401 BC, and in each instance, all of the tribunes were patricians; nor did any plebeian succeed in obtaining the consulship. The number of tribunes increased to four beginning in 426, and six beginning in 405. At last, the plebeians elected four of their number military tribunes for the year 400; others were elected in 399, 396, 383, and 379. But apart from these years, no plebeian obtained the highest offices of the Roman State. The patricians' monopoly on power was finally broken by Gaius Licinius Calvus Stolo and Lucius Sextius Lateranus, tribunes of the people, who in 376 BC brought forward legislation demanding not merely that one of the consuls might be a plebeian, but that henceforth one must be chosen from their order. When the senate refused their demand, the tribunes prevented the election of annual magistrates for five years, before relenting and permitting the election of consular tribunes from 370 to 367. In the end, and with the encouragement of the dictator Marcus Furius Camillus, the senate conceded the battle, and passed the Licinian Rogations. Sextius was elected the first plebeian consul, followed by Licinius two years later; and with this settlement, the consular tribunes were abolished.[1]:xiv. 12[5]:vi. 35, 36, 38, 42, vii. 1, 2[9] Tribunes of the treasury[edit] The exact nature of the Tribuni Aerarii, or Tribunes of the Treasury is shrouded in mystery. Originally they seem to have been tax collectors, but this power was slowly lost to other officials. By the end of the Republic, this style belonged to a class of persons slightly below the equites in wealth. When the makeup of Roman juries was reformed in 70 BC, it was stipulated that one-third of the members of each jury should belong to this class. Later uses of the title[edit] Republic of Venice[edit] In the early history of the Republic of Venice, during the tenure of the sixth Doge Domenico Monegario, Venice instituted a dual Tribunal modeled on the above Roman institution - two new Tribunes being elected each year, with the intention to oversee the Doge and prevent abuse of power (though this aim was not always successfully achieved). French revolutionary tribunat[edit] Main article: Tribunat The "Tribunat", the French word for tribunate, derived from the Latin term tribunatus, meaning the office or term of a Roman tribunus (see above), was a collective organ of the young revolutionary French Republic composed of members styled tribun (the French for tribune), which, despite the apparent reference to one of ancient Rome's prestigious magistratures, never held any real political power as an assembly, its individual members no role at all. It was instituted by Napoleon I Bonaparte's Constitution of the Year VIII "in order to moderate the other powers" by discussing every legislative project, sending its orateurs ("orators", i.e. spokesmen) to defend or attack them in the Corps législatif, and asking the Senate to overturn "the lists of eligibles, the acts of the Legislative Body and those of the government" on account of unconstitutionality. Its 100 members were designated by the Senate from the list of citizens from 25 years up, and annually one fifth was renewed for a five-year term. When it opposed the first parts of Bonaparte's proposed penal code, he made the Senate nominate 20 new members at once to replace the 20 first opponents to his politic; they accepted the historically important reform of penal law. As the Tribunate opposed new despotic projects, he got the Senate in year X to allow itself to dissolve the Tribunate. In XIII it was further downsized to 50 members. On August 16, 1807 it was abolished and never revived. See also[edit] Constitution of the Roman Republic List of Roman tribunes References[edit] Notes[edit] ^ a b c d Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Romaike Archaiologia. ^ Digesta seu Pandectae. i. tit. 2 s2 § 20. ^ Servius. ad Virg. Aen. 560. ^ a b Smith, William (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. ^ a b c Titus Livius. Ab Urbe Condita. ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, ii. 33, 58 (citing Piso, iii. 31) ^ a b c d e "Tribuni Plebis". Oxford Classical Dictionary (2nd ed.). 1970. ^ Abbott, Frank Frost (1901). A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. Ginn & Co. pp. 196, 261. ^ Plutarchus. "Life of Camillus". Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans. Bibliography[edit] Nouveau Larousse illustré (in French). Mackay, Christopher S. Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History. p. 135. for information on Tribunes of the Treasury External links[edit] Livius.org: Tribune v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum 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Teubneri, 1864–9. * [http://latin.topword.net/?Horace Common sayings from Horace] * [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/hor.html The works of Horace] at [[The Latin Library]] * [http://www.stilus.nl/horatius/index-latine.htm Carmina Horatiana] All ''Carmina'' of Horace in Latin recited by Thomas Bervoets. * [http://www.poetseers.org/the_great_poets/the_classics/horace/ Selected Poems of Horace] * [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/searchresults?q=Horatius&redirect=true Works by Horace at Perseus Digital Library] * [http://www.stoa.org/diotima/anthology/horawillbio.shtml Biography and chronology] * [http://www.intratext.com/Catalogo/Autori/Aut186.HTM Horace's works]: text, concordances and frequency list * [http://www.rhapsodes.fll.vt.edu/horace_ode_1.htm SORGLL: Horace, ''Odes'' I.22, read by Robert Sonkowsky] * [http://toutcoule.blogspot.com/search/label/horace Translations of several odes in the original meters (with accompaniment).] * [http://www.thethepoetry.com/2011/02/some-notes-on-translations-of-horace/ A discussion and comparison of three different contemporary translations of Horace's ''Odes''] * [http://www.virgilmurder.org/images/pdf/arsengl.pdf Some spurious lines in the ''Ars Poetica''?] * [http://www.horatius.net Horati opera, Acronis et Porphyrionis commentarii, varia lectio etc. (latine)] * [http://openn.library.upenn.edu/Data/0023/html/horace_ms_1a.html Horace MS 1a Ars Poetica and Epistulae at OPenn] {{Horace|state=expanded}} {{Ancient Rome topics|state=collapsed}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Horace| ]] [[Category:65 BC births]] [[Category:8 BC deaths]] [[Category:1st-century BC Romans]] [[Category:1st-century BC writers]] [[Category:Ancient Roman soldiers]] [[Category:Golden Age Latin writers]] [[Category:Latin-language writers]] [[Category:People from Venosa]] [[Category:Roman-era poets]] [[Category:Roman-era satirists]] [[Category:Iambic poets]] [[Category:Ancient literary critics]] [[Category:Roman-era Epicurean philosophers]] [[Category:Horatii|Flaccus, Quintus]] [[Category:Roman philhellenes]] Return to Horace. 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en-wikipedia-org-1919	----	Julius Obsequens - Wikipedia Julius Obsequens From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Late antique Roman writer and collector of prodigies Julius Obsequens was a Roman writer active in the 4th or early 5th centuries AD, during late antiquity. His sole known work is the Prodigiorum liber (Book of Prodigies), a tabulation of the wonders and portents that had occurred in the Roman Republic and early Principate in the years 249–12 BC.[1] The material for the Prodigiorum liber was largely excerpted from the 1st century AD Ab Urbe Condita Libri of the Augustan historian Livy, which chronicled the history of the Roman state from its origin to the beginning of the imperial period, though Julius used it selectively and sometimes added interpretations of the omens and incidents he included.[1] There is a common view that Julius only knew Livy's text wholly or in part from an epitome, but there is scant evidence of this.[1] The work was first printed by the Italian humanist, Aldus Manutius, in 1508, after a manuscript belonging to Jodocus of Verona (now lost). Of great importance was the edition by the Basle humanist Conrad Lycosthenes (1552), trying to reconstruct lost parts and illustrating the text with wood-cuts. Later editions were printed by Johannes Schefferus (Amsterdam, 1679), Franciscus Oudendorp (Leiden, 1720) and Otto Jahn (1853, with the periochae of Livy). The text of Julius Obsequens frequently makes reference to unusual astronomical and meteorological events as portentous signs like meteor showers, comets, and sun dogs, alongside earthquakes, aberrant births, haruspicy, and sweating, crying, or bleeding statues. After the alleged Kenneth Arnold UFO sighting in 1947, Harold T. Wilkins among others, interpreted Julius Obsequens as preserving ancient reports of unidentified flying objects (UFOs).[2] Since Julius wrote some four centuries after the latest of the events he describes, his is not an eye-witness account, and for most of his subject matter his source Livy was himself neither an eye-witness nor even a contemporary. This section's factual accuracy is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on Talk:Julius Obsequens. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are reliably sourced. (June 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) In the consulship of Gaius Marius and L. Valerius Flaccus, (100 BC) for example, Julius writes: At Tarquinii a blazing torch was seen far and wide and fell suddenly dropping. Around the setting of the sun an orb similar to a shield seemed to be borne across [the sky] from the west to the east.[3][4] For the consulship of L. Marcius Philippus and Sextus Julius Caesar, (91 BC) Julius Obsequens reports that: When Livius Drusus, tribune of the people, was passing his laws, and the Italian War began, many prodigies appeared in the city. Around sunrise a ball of fire flashed out of the sky with a mighty sound from the northern regions. At Arretium as they were breaking bread blood flowed from the middle of the loaves. In the territory of the Vestini for seven days it rained stones and potsherds. At Aenaria a flame which came out of a cleft in the earth flashed out to the sky. Around Regium part of the city and the walls were destroyed by an earth tremor. At Spoletum a ball of fire with a golden hue rolled down to earth. It increased in size and after it was seen being carried from the land to the east it covered the sun with its magnitude.[5][6] Finally, Obsequens provided another example of this phenomenon for the consulship of M. Aemilius Lepidus and L. Munatius Plancus (42 BC), stating that: At Rome a mule gave birth by the Twelve Gates. A dead bitch belonging to a temple keeper was dragged away by a dog. Light so shone at night, that it seemed that people woke up for work as though it was daybreak. At Mutina the south facing standard of the Marian victory, of its own accord, turned northward at the fourth hour. When these things were being expiated by sacrificial victims, three suns were seen at around the third hour of the day, then they drew together as one globe.[7][8] References[edit] ^ a b c Pelling, Christopher Brendan Reginald (2012), Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.), "Obsequens (RE 2), Iulius", The Oxford Classical Dictionary (4th ed.), Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780199545568.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-954556-8, retrieved 2020-05-06 ^ Östling, Erik A. W. (2016). "What Does God Need with a Starship? UFOs and Extraterrestrials in the Contemporary Religious Landscape". In Lewis, James R.; Tollefsen, Inga B. (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of New Religious Movements. II. Oxford University Press. pp. 417–418. ISBN 978-0-19-046619-0. ^ Julius Obsequens, Prodigiorum liber, XLV. "Fax ardens Tarquiniis late visa subito lapsu cadens. Sub occasu solis orbis clipei similis ab occidente ad orientem visus perferri." ^ "Julius Obsequens, Liber Prodigiorum". alexthenice.com. Retrieved 2020-05-05. ^ Julius Obsequens, Prodigiorum liber, LIV. "Livio Druso tr.pl. leges ferente cum bellum Italicum consurgeret, prodigia multa apparuerunt urbi. Sub ortu solis globus ignis a septemtrionali regione cum ingenti sono caeli emicuit. Arretii frangentibus panes cruor e mediis fluxit. In Vestinis per dies septem lapidibus testisque pluit. Aenariae terrae hiatu flamma exorta in caelum emicuit. Circa Regium terrae motu pars urbis murique diruta. In Spoletino colore aureo globus ignis ad terram devolutus, maiorque factus e terra ad orientem ferri visus magnitudine solem obtexit." ^ "Julius Obsequens, Liber Prodigiorum". alexthenice.com. Retrieved 2020-05-06. ^ Julius Obsequens, Prodigiorum liber, LXX. "Mula Romae ad duodecim portas peperit. Canis aeditui mortua a cane tracta. Lux ita nocte fulsit ut tamquam die orto ad opus surgeretur. In Mutinensi victoriae Marianae signum meridiem spectans sua sponte conversum in septentrionem hora quarta. Cum haec victimis expiarentur, soles tres circiter hora tertia diei visi, mox in unum orbem contracti." ^ "Julius Obsequens, Liber Prodigiorum". alexthenice.com. Retrieved 2020-05-05. Julio Obsecuente, Libro de los Prodigios (restituido a su integridad, en beneficio de la Historia, por Conrado Licóstenes), ed. Ana Moure Casas (Madrid: Ediciones Clásicas, 1990) Giulio Ossequente, Il Libro dei prodigi, ed. Solas Boncompagni (Rome: Edizioni Mediterranee, 1992) Beyer, Jürgen, 'Obsequens, Julius', in Enzyklopädie des Märchens. Handwörterbuch zur historischen und vergleichenden Erzählforschung, vol. 10 (Berlin & New York: Walter de Gruyter, 2000–02), coll. 176-8 David Engels, Das römische Vorzeichenwesen (753-27 v.Chr.). Quellen, Terminologie, Kommentar, historische Entwicklung (Stuttgart: Franz-Steiner, 2007), p. 221-235. External links[edit] Latin text of Prodigiorum Liber at The Latin Library v t e UFOs Ufology Index of ufology articles Claimed sightings General List of reported UFO sightings Sightings in outer space Pre-20th century Tulli Papyrus (possibly 15th century B.C.) Ezekiel's Wheel (circa 622–570 B.C.) 1561 celestial phenomenon over Nuremberg 1566 celestial phenomenon over Basel José Bonilla observation (1883) Aurora (1897) 20th century Los Angeles (1942) Kenneth Arnold (1947) Roswell (1947) Mantell (1948) Chiles-Whitted (1948) Gorman Dogfight (1948) Mariana (1950) McMinnville photographs (1950) Sperry (1950) Lubbock Lights (1951) Carson Sink (1952) Nash-Fortenberry (1952) Washington, D.C. (1952) Flatwoods monster (1952) Ellsworth (1953) Kelly–Hopkinsville (1955) Lakenheath-Bentwaters (1956) Antônio Villas Boas (1957) Levelland (1957) Trindade Island (1958) Barney and Betty Hill abduction (1961) Lonnie Zamora incident (1964) Solway Firth Spaceman (1964) Exeter (1965) Kecksburg (1965) Westall (1966) Shag Harbour (1967) Finnish Air Force (1969) Pascagoula Abduction (1973) Travis Walton incident (1975) Allagash (1976) Tehran (1976) Petrozavodsk phenomenon (1977) Operação Prato (1977) Zanfretta UFO Incident (1978) Valentich disappearance (1978) Kaikoura Lights (1978) Robert Taylor incident (1979) Val Johnson incident (1979) Cash-Landrum incident (1980) Rendlesham Forest (1980) Trans-en-Provence (1981) Japan Air Lines (1986) Voronezh UFO incident (1989) Belgian UFO wave (1990) Varginha (1996) Phoenix Lights (1997) 21st century USS Nimitz UFO incident (2004) Campeche, Mexico (2004) O'Hare Airport (2006) Alderney (2007) Norway (2009) USS Theodore Roosevelt UFO incidents (2014) Confirmed hoaxes Maury Island incident Aztec, New Mexico, UFO incident Morristown UFO hoax Sightings by country Argentina Australia Belarus Belgium Brazil Canada China France India Indonesia Iran Italy Mexico New Zealand Norway Philippines Russia South Africa Spain (Canary Islands) Sweden Thailand United Kingdom United States Types of UFOs Black triangle Flying saucer Foo fighter Ghost rockets Green fireballs Mystery airship Space jellyfish Types of alleged extraterrestrial beings Energy beings Grey aliens Insectoids Little green men Nordic aliens Reptilian humanoids Studies The Flying Saucers Are Real (1947–1950) Project Sign (1948) Project Grudge (1949) Flying Saucer Working Party (1950) Project Magnet (1950–1962) Project Blue Book (1952–1970) Robertson Panel (1953) National Investigations Committee On Aerial Phenomena (1956-1980) Condon Report (1966–1968) Institute 22 (1978–?) Project Condign (1997–2000) Advanced Aerospace Threat Identification Program (2007–2012) Identification studies of UFOs Unidentified Aerial Phenomenon Task Force (current) Hypotheses Ancient astronauts Cryptoterrestrial Extraterrestrial Interdimensional Psychosocial Nazi UFOs Trotskyist-Posadism Conspiracy theories Area 51 Storm Area 51 Bob Lazar Dulce Base Majestic 12 Men in black Project Serpo Involvement Abduction claims History Entities Claimants Narrative Perspectives Insurance Other Implants Cattle mutilation Close encounter Contactee Crop circles Government responses GEIPAN Organizations Ufologists Culture Conventions Fiction Religions list Skepticism List of scientific skeptics Committee for Skeptical Inquiry Category Authority control BIBSYS: 95002655 BNE: XX927324 BNF: cb120201511 (data) CANTIC: a10875633 CiNii: DA07864937 GND: 100314244 ISNI: 0000 0000 8169 4665 LCCN: n79063433 NKC: mzk2003200503 NTA: 070224986 SELIBR: 81159 SUDOC: 028347749 VcBA: 495/77375 VIAF: 100202247 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79063433 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Julius_Obsequens&oldid=990804020" Categories: Latin-language writers Ancient Roman writers UFO sightings UFO writers 4th-century Romans 4th-century Latin writers Julii Hidden categories: Articles containing Latin-language text Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Accuracy disputes from June 2011 All accuracy disputes Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Asturianu Български Català Deutsch Español Français Galego Italiano Latina Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Português Русский Slovenčina Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 26 November 2020, at 16:20 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1922	----	Venosa - Wikipedia Venosa From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Venusia" redirects here. For the genus of moth, see Venusia (moth). For other uses, see Venosa (disambiguation). Comune in Basilicata, Italy Venosa Comune Città di Venosa Coat of arms Location of Venosa Venosa Location of Venosa in Italy Show map of Italy Venosa Venosa (Basilicata) Show map of Basilicata Coordinates: 40°57′42.37″N 15°48′53.23″E / 40.9617694°N 15.8147861°E / 40.9617694; 15.8147861Coordinates: 40°57′42.37″N 15°48′53.23″E / 40.9617694°N 15.8147861°E / 40.9617694; 15.8147861 Country Italy Region Basilicata Province Potenza (PZ) Government  • Mayor Tommaso Gammone Area[1]  • Total 170.39 km2 (65.79 sq mi) Elevation 415 m (1,362 ft) Population (31 December 2015)[2]  • Total 11,863  • Density 70/km2 (180/sq mi) Demonym(s) Venosini Time zone UTC+1 (CET)  • Summer (DST) UTC+2 (CEST) Postal code 85029 Dialing code 0972 Patron saint St Roch (formerly St Felix of Thibiuca) Saint day August 16 Website Official website Venosa (Lucano: Venòse) is a town and comune in the province of Potenza, in the southern Italian region of Basilicata, in the Vulture area. It is bounded by the comuni of Barile, Ginestra, Lavello, Maschito, Montemilone, Palazzo San Gervasio, Rapolla and Spinazzola. Contents 1 History 1.1 Ancient 1.2 Middle Ages 1.3 Modern era 2 Main sights 3 People 4 Twin towns 5 References 6 External links History[edit] Ancient[edit] The city was known as Venusia ("City of Venus") to the Romans, who credited its establishment—as Aphrodisia ("City of Aphrodite")—to the Homeric hero Diomedes. He was said to have moved to Magna Graecia in southern Italy following the Trojan War, seeking a life of peace and building the town and its temples to appease the anger of Aphrodite for the destruction of her beloved Troy. The town was taken by the Romans after the Third Samnite War in 291 BC and became a colony. No fewer than 20,000 men were sent there, owing to its military importance. Throughout the Hannibalic wars it remained faithful to Rome, and had a further contingent of colonists sent in 200 BC to replace its losses in war. In 190 BC the Appian way was extended to the town. Some coins of Venusia of this period exist. It took part in the Social War, and was recaptured by Quintus Metellus Pius; it then became a municipium, but in 43 BC its territory was assigned to the veterans of the triumvirs, and it became a colony once more. Horace was born here in 65 BC. It remained an important place under the Empire as a station on the Via Appia, though Theodor Mommsen's description of it as having branch roads to Aequum Tuticum and Potentia, and Kiepert's maps annexed to the volume, do not agree with one another.[3] Middle Ages[edit] After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Venusia was sacked by the Heruls, and in 493 AD it was turned into the administrative centre of the area in the Ostrogothic kingdom of Italy, although later this role was moved to Acerenza. The Lombards made it a gastaldate in 570/590. In 842 Venosa was sacked by the Saracens, who were later ousted by Emperor Louis II. Next rulers in the 9th century were the Byzantines, who lost control of it after their defeat in 1041 by the Normans. Under the latter, Venosa was assigned to Drogo of Hauteville. In 1133 the town was sacked and set on fire by Roger II of Sicily. His later successor Frederick II had a castle built here where a Lombard outpost existed before, which was to house the Treasury (Ministry of Finances) of the Kingdom of Sicily. Frederick's son, Manfred of Sicily, was born here in 1232. After the latter's fall, the Hohenstaufens were replaced by the Angevines; King Charles of Anjou assigned Venosa as a county to his son Robert. Modern era[edit] After a series of different feudal lords, Venosa became a possession of the Orsini in 1453. Count Pirro Del Balzo, who had married Donata Orsini, built a new castle (1460–1470) and a cathedral. Then, under the Aragonese domination, followed the Gesualdo family (1561); amongst their number was the famous prince, musician and murderer Carlo Gesualdo. Despite the plague that had reduced its population from the 13,000 of 1503 to 6,000, Venosa had a flourishing cultural life under the Gesualdos: apart from the famous Carlo, other relevant figures of the period include the poet Luigi Tansillo (1510–1580) and the jurist Giovanni Battista De Luca (1614–1683). Venosa took part in the revolt of Masaniello in 1647. The Gesualdos were in turn followed by the Ludovisi and the Caracciolo families. Home to a traditionally strong republican tradition, Venosa had a role in the peasant revolts and the Carbonari movement of the early 19th century. A true civil war between baronial powers and supporters of the peasants' rights broke out in 1849, being harshly suppressed by the Neapolitan troops.(See Sicilian revolution of independence of 1848.) In 1861, after the fall of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies during the Italian unification, Venosa was occupied by some bands of brigands under the command of Carmine Crocco in order to restore the Bourbon power in Basilicata. Main sights[edit] The Aragonese Castle. The Church of SS. Trinità. The Archaeological Area of Notarchirico. The Aragonese castle, built in 1470 by Pirro del Balzo Orsini. It has a square plan with four cylindrical towers. The shining sun, the del Balzo coat of arms, is visible on the western towers. It was turned into a residence by Carlo and Emanuele Gesualdo, who added also an internal loggia, the north-western wing and bastions used as prisons. From 1612 it was the seat of the Accademia dei Rinascenti. It is now home to the National Museum of Venosa, inaugurated in 1991, with ancient Roman and other findings up to the 9th century. The entrance is preceded by a fountain conceded by King Charles I of Anjou. Many fragments of Roman workmanship are built into the walls of the cathedral, which is due to Pirro del Balzo also (c. 1470). The abbey church of SS. Trinità is historically interesting; it was consecrated in 1059 by Pope Nicholas II and passed into the hands of the Knights of Saint John in the time of Boniface VIII (1295–1303). In the central aisle is the tomb of Alberada, the first wife of Robert Guiscard and mother of Bohemund. An inscription on the wall commemorates the great Norman brothers William Iron Arm, Drogo, Humfrey and Robert Guiscard. The bones of these brothers rest together in a simple stone sarcophagus opposite the tomb of Alberada. The church also contains some 14th-century frescoes. Behind it is a larger church, which was begun for the Benedictines about 1150, from the designs of a French architect, in imitation of the Cluniac church at Paray-le-Monial, but never carried beyond the spring of the vaulting. The ancient amphitheatre adjacent furnished the materials for its walls. Baroque Church of the Purgatory (or San Filippo Neri) The Archaeological Area of Notarchirico, in the communal territory. It covers the Palaeolithic period with eleven layers dating from 600,000 to 300,000 years ago. Remains of ancient wildlife, including extinct species of elephants, bisons and rhinoceroses, have been found, as well as a fragment of a femur of Homo erectus. Jewish catacombs with inscriptions in Hebrew, Greek and Latin show the importance of the Jewish population here in the 4th and 5th centuries.[3] Remains of the ancient city walls and of an amphitheatre still exist, and a number of inscriptions have been found there.[3] People[edit] Horace (65 BC – 8 BC): Roman poet Manfred (1232–1266): king of Sicily Bartolomeo Maranta (1500–1571): physician, botanist, and literary theorist Luigi Tansillo (1510–1568): poet Carlo Gesualdo (1566–1613): music composer, lutenist and nobleman Giovanni Battista de Luca (1614–1683): jurist and cardinal Giacomo Di Chirico (1844–1883): painter Mario de Bernardi (1893–1959): colonel and aviator Cinzia Giorgio (b. 1975): writer Twin towns[edit] Tortolì, Italy Bernalda, Italy References[edit] ^ "Superficie di Comuni Province e Regioni italiane al 9 ottobre 2011". Istat. Retrieved 16 March 2019. ^ "Popolazione Residente al 1° Gennaio 2018". Istat. Retrieved 16 March 2019. ^ a b c  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Venusia". Encyclopædia Britannica. 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 1014. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Venosa. Official website v t e Basilicata · Comuni of the Province of Potenza Abriola Acerenza Albano di Lucania Anzi Armento Atella Avigliano Balvano Banzi Baragiano Barile Bella Brienza Brindisi Montagna Calvello Calvera Campomaggiore Cancellara Carbone Castelgrande Castelluccio Inferiore Castelluccio Superiore Castelmezzano Castelsaraceno Castronuovo di Sant'Andrea Cersosimo Chiaromonte Corleto Perticara Episcopia Fardella Filiano Forenza Francavilla in Sinni Gallicchio Genzano di Lucania Ginestra Grumento Nova Guardia Perticara Lagonegro Latronico Laurenzana Lauria Lavello Maratea Marsico Nuovo Marsicovetere Maschito Melfi Missanello Moliterno Montemilone Montemurro Muro Lucano Nemoli Noepoli Oppido Lucano Palazzo San Gervasio Paterno Pescopagano Picerno Pietragalla Pietrapertosa Pignola Potenza Rapolla Rapone Rionero in Vulture Ripacandida Rivello Roccanova Rotonda Ruoti Ruvo del Monte San Chirico Nuovo San Chirico Raparo San Costantino Albanese San Fele San Martino d'Agri San Paolo Albanese San Severino Lucano Sant'Angelo Le Fratte Sant'Arcangelo Sarconi Sasso di Castalda Satriano di Lucania Savoia di Lucania Senise Spinoso Teana Terranova di Pollino Tito Tolve Tramutola Trecchina Trivigno Vaglio Basilicata Venosa Vietri di Potenza Viggianello Viggiano Authority control GND: 4302067-7 MBAREA: 2bf82f05-6695-4288-8fd0-16d6be1f1032 NKC: ge608165 VIAF: 243578471 WorldCat Identities: viaf-243578471 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Venosa&oldid=977356195" Categories: Cities and towns in Basilicata Communes of the Province of Potenza Roman sites of Basilicata Coloniae (Roman) Archaeological sites in Italy Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Italian-language text Coordinates on Wikidata Pages using infobox settlement with image map1 but not image map Articles containing Neapolitan-language text Commons link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz area identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Pages using the Kartographer extension Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Български Català Cebuano Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Հայերեն Interlingua Italiano עברית Қазақша Latina Lumbaart Magyar Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Napulitano Нохчийн Norsk bokmål Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Sicilianu Simple English Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tarandíne Татарча/tatarça Türkçe Українська Vèneto Volapük Winaray 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 8 September 2020, at 10:36 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1925	----	Aquileia - Wikipedia Aquileia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the aquileia in Italy. For its namesake, see Aglar Zainapora. Comune in Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Italy Aquileia Olee / Acuilee  (Friulian) Comune Comune di Aquileia The Basilica of Aquileia. Coat of arms Location of Aquileia Aquileia Location of Aquileia in Italy Show map of Italy Aquileia Aquileia (Friuli-Venezia Giulia) Show map of Friuli-Venezia Giulia Coordinates: 45°46′11.01″N 13°22′16.29″E / 45.7697250°N 13.3711917°E / 45.7697250; 13.3711917Coordinates: 45°46′11.01″N 13°22′16.29″E / 45.7697250°N 13.3711917°E / 45.7697250; 13.3711917 Country Italy Region Friuli-Venezia Giulia Province Udine (UD) Frazioni Beligna, Belvedere, Viola, Monastero Government  • Mayor Emanuele Zorino Area[1]  • Total 37.44 km2 (14.46 sq mi) Elevation 5 m (16 ft) Population (30 April 2017)[2]  • Total 3,302  • Density 88/km2 (230/sq mi) Demonym(s) Aquileiesi Time zone UTC+1 (CET)  • Summer (DST) UTC+2 (CEST) Postal code 33051 Dialing code 0431 Patron saint Sts. Hermagoras and Fortunatus Saint day July 12 Website Official website UNESCO World Heritage Site Official name Archaeological Area and the Patriarchal Basilica of Aquileia Criteria Cultural: iii, iv, vi Reference 825 Inscription 1998 (22nd session) Aquileia (UK: /ˌækwɪˈliːə/ AK-wil-EE-ə,[3] US: /ˌɑːkwɪˈleɪə/ AH-kwil-AY-ə,[4] Italian: [akwiˈlɛːja]; Friulian: Olee / Olea / Acuilee / Aquilee / Aquilea;[5] Venetian: Aquiłeja / Aquiłegia; German: Aglar / Agley / Aquileja; Slovene: Oglej) is an ancient Roman city in Italy, at the head of the Adriatic at the edge of the lagoons, about 10 kilometres (6 mi) from the sea, on the river Natiso (modern Natisone), the course of which has changed somewhat since Roman times. Today, the city is small (about 3,500 inhabitants), but it was large and prominent in classical antiquity as one of the world's largest cities with a population of 100,000 in the 2nd century AD.[6][7] and is one of the main archaeological sites of northern Italy. In late antiquity the city was the first city in the Italian Peninsula to be sacked by Attila the Hun. Contents 1 History 1.1 Classical Antiquity 1.1.1 Roman Republic 1.1.2 Roman Empire 1.2 Late Antiquity 1.3 Middle Ages 2 Main sights 2.1 Cathedral 2.2 Ancient Roman Remains 2.3 Others 3 Notable people 4 Twin towns – sister cities 5 See also 6 References 7 Sources 8 External links History[edit] Classical Antiquity[edit] A view of the archaeological area of Aquileia. Roman Republic[edit] Aquileia was founded as a colony by the Romans in 180/181 BC along the Natiso River, on land south of the Julian Alps but about 13 kilometres (8 mi) north of the lagoons. The colony served as a strategic frontier fortress at the north-east corner of transpadane Italy (on the far side of the Po river) and was intended to protect the Veneti, faithful allies of Rome during the invasion of Hannibal in the Second Punic War and during the Illyrian Wars. The colony would serve as a citadel to check the advance into Cisalpine Gaul of other warlike peoples, such as the hostile Carni to the northeast in what is now Carnia and Histri tribes to the southeast in what is now Istria. In fact, the site chosen for Aquileia was about 6 km from where an estimated 12,000 Celtic Taurisci nomads had attempted to settle in 183 BC. However, since the 13th century BC, the site, on the river and at the head of the Adriatic, had also been of commercial importance as the end of the Baltic amber (sucinum) trade. It is, therefore, theoretically not unlikely that Aquileia had been a Gallic oppidum even before the coming of the Romans. However, few Celtic artefacts have been discovered from 500 BC to the Roman arrival.[8] The colony was established with Latin Rights by the triumvirate of Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica, Caius Flaminius, and Lucius Manlius Acidinus, two of whom were of consular and one of praetorian rank. Each of the men had first hand knowledge of Cisalpine Gaul. Nasica had conquered the Boii in 191. Flaminius had overseen the construction of the road named after him from Bononia (Bologna) to Arretium (Arezzo). Acidinus had conquered the Taurisci in 183.[9][10] The triumvirate led 3,000 families to settle the area[citation needed] meaning Aquileia probably had a population of 20,000 soon after its founding.[vague] Meanwhile, based on the evidence of names chiselled on stone, the majority of colonizing families came from Picenum, Samnium, and Campania, which also explains why the colony was Latin and not Roman. Among these colonists, pedites received 50 iugera of land each, centuriones received 100 iugera each, and equites received 140 iugera each. Either at the founding or not long afterwards, colonists from the nearby Veneti supplemented these families.[8] Roads soon connected Aquileia with the Roman colony of Bologna probably in 173 BC. In 148 BC, it was connected with Genua by the Via Postumia, which stretched across the Padanian plain from Aquileia through or near to Opitergium, Tarvisium, Vicetia, Verona, Bedriacum, and the three Roman colonies of Cremona, Placentia, and Dertona. The construction of the Via Popilia from the Roman colony of Ariminium to Ad Portum near Altinum in 132 BC improved communications still further. In the 1st century AD, the Via Gemina would link Aquileia with Emona to the east of the Julian Alps, and by 78 or 79 AD the Via Flavia would link Aquileia to Pula. Meanwhile, in 169 BC, 1,500 more Latin colonists with their families, led by the triumvirate of Titus Annius Lucius, Publius Decius Subulo, and Marcus Cornelius Cethegus, settled in the town as a reinforcement to the garrison.[11] The discovery of the gold fields near the modern Klagenfurt in 130 BC[12] brought the growing colony into further notice, and it soon became a place of importance, not only owing to its strategic military position, but as a centre of commerce, especially in agricultural products and viticulture. It also had, in later times at least, considerable brickfields. In 90 BC, the original Latin colony became a municipium and its citizens were ascribed to the Roman tribe Velina. The customs boundary of Italy was close by in Cicero's day. Julius Caesar visited the city on a number of occasions and pitched winter camp nearby in 59–58 BC. Roman Empire[edit] Although the Iapydes plundered Aquileia during the Augustan period, subsequent increased settlement and no lack of profitable work meant the city was able to develop its resources. Jewish artisans established a flourishing trade in glass-work. Metal from Noricum was forged and exported. The ancient Venetic trade in amber from the Baltic continued. Wine, especially its famous Pucinum was exported. Olive oil was imported from Proconsular Africa. By sea, the port of Aquae Gradatae (modern Grado, Friuli-Venezia Giulia) was developed. On land, Aquileia was the starting-point of several important roads leading outside Italy to the north-eastern portion of the empire — the road (Via Julia Augusta) by Iulium Carnicum (Zuglio) to Veldidena (mod. Wilten, near Innsbruck), from which branched off the road into Noricum, leading by Virunum (Klagenfurt) to Laurieum (Lorch) on the Danube, the road leading via Emona into Pannonia and to Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica), the road to Tarsatica (near Fiume, now Rijeka) and Siscia (Sisak), and the road to Tergeste (Trieste) and the Istrian coast. Augustus was the first of a number of emperors to visit Aquileia, notably during the Pannonian wars in 12–10 BC. It was the birthplace of Tiberius' son by Julia, in the latter year. The Roman poet Martial praised Aquileia as his hoped for haven and resting place in his old age.[13] In terms of religion, the populace adopted the Roman pantheon, although the Celtic sun-god, Belenus, had a large following. Jews practised their ancestral religion and it was perhaps some of these Jews who became the first Christians. Meanwhile, soldiers brought the martial cult of Mithras. The ancient inland port of Aquileia In the war against the Marcomanni in 167, the town was hard pressed; its fortifications had fallen into disrepair during the long peace. Nevertheless, when in 168 Marcus Aurelius made Aquileia the principal fortress of the empire against the barbarians of the North and East, it rose to the pinnacle of its greatness and soon had a population of 100,000. Septimius Severus visited in 193. In 238, when the town took the side of the Senate against the emperor Maximinus Thrax, the fortifications were hastily restored, and proved of sufficient strength to resist for several months, until Maximinus himself was assassinated. Late Antiquity[edit] An imperial palace was constructed in Aquileia, in which the emperors after the time of Diocletian frequently resided. Roman Emperor Flavius Victor on this as struck in Aquileia mint. During the 4th century, Aquileia maintained its importance. Constantine sojourned there on numerous occasions. It became a naval station and the seat of the Corrector Venetiarum et Histriae; a mint was established, of which the coins were very numerous, and the bishop obtained the rank of metropolitan archbishop. A council held in the city in 381 was only the first of a series of Councils of Aquileia that have been convened over the centuries. However, the city played a part in the struggles between the rulers of the 4th century. In 340, the emperor Constantine II was killed nearby while invading the territory of his younger brother Constans. Aquileia in a 1493 woodcut from Hartmann Schedel's Nuremberg Chronicle At the end of the 4th century, Ausonius enumerated Aquileia as the ninth among the great cities of the world, placing Rome, Constantinople, Carthage, Antioch, Alexandria, Trier, Mediolanum, and Capua before it. However, such prominence made it a target and Alaric and the Visigoths besieged it in 401, during which time some of its residents fled to the nearby lagoons. Alaric again attacked it in 408. Attila attacked the city in 452. During this invasion, on July 18, Attila and his Huns so utterly destroyed the city that it was afterwards hard to recognize its original site. The fall of Aquileia was the first of Attila's incursions into Roman territory; followed by cities like Mediolanum and Ticinum.[14] The Roman inhabitants, together with those of smaller towns in the neighbourhood, fled en masse to the lagoons, and so laid the foundations of the cities of Venice and nearby Grado. Yet Aquileia would rise again, though much diminished, and continue to exist until the Lombards invaded in 568; the Lombards destroyed it a second time in 590. Meanwhile, the patriarch fled to the island town of Grado, which was under the protection of the Byzantines. When the patriarch residing in Grado reconciled with Rome in 606, those continuing in the Schism of the Three Chapters, rejecting the Second Council of Constantinople, elected a patriarch at Aquileia. Thus, the diocese was essentially divided into two parts, with the mainland patriarchate of Aquileia under the protection of the Lombards, and the insular patriarchate of Aquileia seated in Grado being protected by the exarchate of Ravenna and later the Doges of Venice, with the collusion of the Lombards. The line of the patriarchs elected in Aquileia would continue in schism until 699 CE. However, although they kept the title of patriarch of Aquileia, they moved their residence first to Cormons and later to Cividale. Middle Ages[edit] Main article: Patriarchate of Aquileia (State) The Lombard dukes of Friuli ruled Aquileia and the surrounding mainland territory from Cividale. In 774, Charlemagne conquered the Lombard duchy and made it into a Frankish one with Eric of Friuli as duke. In 787, Charlemagne named the priest and master of grammar at the Palace School of Paulinus II, the new patriarch of Aquileia. The patriarchate, despite being divided with a northern portion assigned to the pastoral care of the newly created Archbishopric of Salzburg, would remain one of the largest dioceses. Although Paulinus resided mainly at Cividale, his successor Maxentius considered rebuilding Aquileia. However, the project never came to fruition. While Maxentius was patriarch, the pope approved the Synod of Mantua, which affirmed the precedence of the mainland patriarch of Aquileia over the patriarch of Grado. However, material conditions were soon to worsen for Aquileia. The ruins of Aquileia were continually pillaged for building material. And with the collapse of the Carolingians in the 10th century, the inhabitants would suffer under the raids of the Magyars. By the 11th century, the patriarch of Aquileia had grown strong enough to assert temporal sovereignty over Friuli and Aquileia. The Holy Roman Emperor gave the region to the patriarch as a feudal possession. However, the patriarch's temporal authority was constantly disputed and assailed by the territorial nobility. In 1027 and 1044 Patriarch Poppo of Aquileia, who rebuilt the cathedral of Aquileia, entered and sacked neighbouring Grado, and, though the Pope reconfirmed the Patriarch of the latter in his dignities, the town never fully recovered, though it continued to be the seat of the Patriarchate until its formal transference to Venice in 1450. In the 14th century the Patriarchal State reached its largest extension, stretching from the Piave river to the Julian Alps and northern Istria. The seat of the Patriarchate of Aquileia had been transferred to Udine in 1238, but returned to Aquiliea in 1420 when Venice annexed the territory of Udine. In 1445, the defeated patriarch Ludovico Trevisan acquiesced in the loss of his ancient temporal estate in return for an annual salary of 5,000 ducats allowed him from the Venetian treasury. Henceforth only Venetians were allowed to hold the title of Patriarch of Aquileia. The Patriarchal State was incorporated in the Republic of Venice with the name of Patria del Friuli, ruled by a provveditore generale or a luogotenente living in Udine. The Patriarchal diocese was only finally officially suppressed in 1751, and the sees of Udine and Gorizia established from its territory. Interior of the Cathedral, with the mosaic pavement. Ancient mosaic in the Cathedral. The archaeological walk. Main sights[edit] Cathedral[edit] The Aquileia Cathedral is a flat-roofed basilica erected by Patriarch Poppo in 1031 on the site of an earlier church, and rebuilt about 1379 in the Gothic style by Patriarch Marquard of Randeck. The façade, in Romanesque-Gothic style, is connected by a portico to the so-called Church of the Pagans, and the remains of the 5th-century baptistery. The interior has a nave and two aisles, with a noteworthy mosaic pavement from the 4th century. The wooden ceiling is from 1526, while the fresco decoration belongs to various ages: from the 4th century in the St. Peter's chapel of the apse area; from the 11th century in the apse itself; from the 12th century in the so-called "Crypt of the Frescoes", under the presbytery, with a cycle depicting the origins of Christianity in Aquileia and the history of St. Hermagoras, first bishop of the city. Next to the 11th-century Romanesque chapel of the Holy Sepulchre, at the beginning of the left aisle, flooring of different ages can be seen: the lowest is from a Roman villa of the age of Augustus; the middle one has a typical cocciopesto pavement; the upper one, bearing blackening from Attila's fire, has geometrical decorations. Externally, behind the 9th-century campanile and the apse, is the Cemetery of the Fallen, where ten unnamed soldiers of World War I are buried. Saint Hermagoras is also buried there. Ancient Roman Remains[edit] Today, Aquileia is a town smaller than the colony first founded by Rome. Over the centuries, sieges, earthquakes, floods, and pillaging of the ancient buildings for materials means that no edifices of the Roman period remain above ground. The site of Aquileia, believed to be the largest Roman city yet to be excavated, is inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. Excavations, however, have revealed some of the layout of the Roman town such as a segment of a street, the north-west angle of the town walls, the river port, and the former locations of baths, of an amphitheatre, of a Circus, of a cemetery, of the Via Sacra, of the forum, and of a market. The National Archaeological Museum contains over 2,000 inscriptions, statues and other antiquities, mosaics, as well as glasses of local production and a numismatics collection. Others[edit] In the Monastero fraction is a 5th-century Christian basilica, later a Benedictine monastery, which today houses the Palaeo-Christian Museum. Notable people[edit] Saint Chrysogonus was martyred here in the beginning of the 4th century. Twin towns – sister cities[edit] Aquileia is twinned with the following settlements:[15] Piran, Slovenia Maria Saal, Austria See also[edit] Schism of the Three Chapters Aquileian rite Councils of Aquileia List of Aquileia Bishops and patriarchs Acaste Bresciani References[edit] ^ "Superficie di Comuni Province e Regioni italiane al 9 ottobre 2011". Istat. Retrieved 16 March 2019. ^ "Popolazione Residente al 1° Gennaio 2018". Istat. Retrieved 16 March 2019. ^ "Aquileia". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Retrieved April 6, 2019. ^ "Aquileia". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (5th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Retrieved April 6, 2019. ^ Bilingual name of Aquileja – Oglej in: Gemeindelexikon, der im Reichsrate Vertretenen Königreiche und Länder. Herausgegeben von der K.K. Statistischen Zentralkommission. VII. Österreichisch-Illyrisches Küstenland (Triest, Görz und Gradiska, Istrien) (in German). Vienna. 1910. ^ The Oxford Classical Dictionary, p. 129, at Google Books ^ A Brief History of Venice, p. 16, at Google Books ^ a b G. Bandelli, "Aquileia dalla fondazione al II secolo d.C" in Aquileia dalla fondazione al alto medioevo, M. Buora, ed. (Udine: Arte Grafiche Friulane, 1982), 20. ^ Livy, XL, 34, 2-4. ^ E. Mangani, F. Rebecchi, and M.J. Srazzulla, Emilia Venezie (Bari: Laterza & Figli, 1981), 210. ^ Livy XLIII 17,1 ^ Strabo IV. 208 ^ Martial, Epigrams lib. 4, 25: Aemula Baianis Altini litora villis et Phaethontei conscia silva rogi, quaeque Antenoreo Dryadum pulcherrima Fauno nupsit ad Euganeos Sola puella lacus, et tu Ledaeo felix Aquileia Timauo, hic ubi septenas Cyllarus hausit aquas: uos eritis nostrae requies portusque senectae, si iuris fuerint otia nostra sui. http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/martial/mart4.shtml ^ Jordanus (1997). "THE ORIGINS AND DEEDS OF THE GOTHS". Getica. University of Calgary. Archived from the original on 16 July 2011. Retrieved 16 August 2011. ^ "Gemellaggi". Retrieved 4 November 2014. Sources[edit] Catholic Encyclopedia Neher in Kirchenlexikon I, 1184–89 De Rubeis, Monumenta Eccles. Aquil. (Strasburg, 1740) Ferdinando Ughelli, Italia Sacra, I sqq.; X, 207 Cappelletti, Chiese d'Italia, VIII, 1 sqq. Menzano, Annali del Friuli (1858–68) Paschini, Sulle Origini della Chiesa di Aquileia (1904) Glaschroeder, in Buchberger's Kirchl. Handl. (Munich, 1904), I, 300-301 Hefele, Conciliengesch. II, 914–23. For the episcopal succession, see P. B. Gams, Series episcoporum (Ratisbon, 1873–86), and Eubel, Hierarchia Catholica Medii Aevi (Muenster, 1898). External links[edit] Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Aquileia. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Aquileia. Aquileia virtual tour (Italian Landmarks) Pre-Roman and Celtic Aquileia Aquileia featured on 10 Euro Italian Coin v t e Friuli – Venezia Giulia · Comuni of the former Province of Udine Aiello del Friuli Amaro Ampezzo Aquileia Arta Terme Artegna Attimis Bagnaria Arsa Basiliano Bertiolo Bicinicco Bordano Buja Buttrio Camino al Tagliamento Campoformido Campolongo Tapogliano Carlino Cassacco Castions di Strada Cavazzo Carnico Cercivento Cervignano del Friuli Chiopris-Viscone Chiusaforte Cividale del Friuli Codroipo Colloredo di Monte Albano Comeglians Corno di Rosazzo Coseano Dignano Dogna Drenchia Enemonzo Faedis Fagagna Fiumicello Villa Vicentina Flaibano Forgaria nel Friuli Forni Avoltri Forni di Sopra Forni di Sotto Gemona del Friuli Gonars Grimacco Latisana Lauco Lestizza Lignano Sabbiadoro Lusevera Magnano in Riviera Majano Malborghetto Valbruna Manzano Marano Lagunare Martignacco Mereto di Tomba Moggio Udinese Moimacco Montenars Mortegliano Moruzzo Muzzana del Turgnano Nimis Osoppo Ovaro Pagnacco Palazzolo dello Stella Palmanova Paluzza Pasian di Prato Paularo Pavia di Udine Pocenia Pontebba Porpetto Povoletto Pozzuolo del Friuli Pradamano Prato Carnico Precenicco Premariacco Preone Prepotto Pulfero Ragogna Ravascletto Raveo Reana del Rojale Remanzacco Resia Resiutta Rigolato Rive d'Arcano Rivignano Teor Ronchis Ruda San Daniele del Friuli San Giorgio di Nogaro San Giovanni al Natisone San Leonardo San Pietro al Natisone San Vito al Torre San Vito di Fagagna Santa Maria la Longa Sauris Savogna di Cividale Sedegliano Socchieve Stregna Sutrio Taipana Talmassons Tarcento Tarvisio Tavagnacco Terzo d'Aquileia Tolmezzo Torreano Torviscosa Trasaghis Treppo Grande Treppo Ligosullo Tricesimo Trivignano Udinese Udine Varmo Venzone Verzegnis Villa Santina Visco Zuglio v t e World Heritage Sites in Italy Northwest Crespi d'Adda Genoa Ivrea Mantua and Sabbioneta Monte San Giorgio1 Porto Venere, Palmaria, Tino and Tinetto, Cinque Terre Corniglia Manarola Monterosso al Mare Riomaggiore Vernazza Residences of the Royal House of Savoy Castle of Moncalieri Castle of Racconigi Castle of Rivoli Castello del Valentino Royal Palace of Turin Palazzo Carignano Palazzo Madama, Turin Palace of Venaria Palazzina di caccia of Stupinigi Villa della Regina Rhaetian Railway in the Albula / Bernina Landscapes1 Rock Drawings in Valcamonica Sacri Monti of Piedmont and Lombardy Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan Vineyard Landscape of Piedmont: Langhe-Roero and Monferrato Northeast Aquileia The Dolomites Ferrara Le Colline del Prosecco di Conegliano e Valdobbiadene Modena Cathedral, Torre della Ghirlandina and Piazza Grande, Modena Orto botanico di Padova Ravenna Venice Verona City of Vicenza and the Palladian Villas of the Veneto Central Assisi Basilica of Saint Francis of Assisi Etruscan Necropolises of Cerveteri and Tarquinia Florence Hadrian's Villa Medici villas Piazza del Duomo, Pisa Pienza Rome2 San Gimignano Siena Urbino Val d'Orcia Villa d'Este South Alberobello Amalfi Coast Castel del Monte, Apulia Cilento and Vallo di Diano National Park, Paestum and Velia, Certosa di Padula Herculaneum Oplontis and Villa Poppaea Naples Royal Palace of Caserta, Aqueduct of Vanvitelli and San Leucio Complex Pompeii Sassi di Matera Islands Aeolian Islands Arab-Norman Palermo and the Cathedral Churches of Cefalù and Monreale Archaeological Area of Agrigento Barumini nuraghes Mount Etna Syracuse and Necropolis of Pantalica Val di Noto Caltagirone Catania Militello in Val di Catania Modica Noto Palazzolo Acreide Ragusa Scicli Villa Romana del Casale Countrywide Longobards in Italy, Places of Power (568–774 A.D.) Brescia Cividale del Friuli Castelseprio Spoleto Temple of Clitumnus located at Campello sul Clitunno Santa Sofia located at Benevento Sanctuary of Monte Sant'Angelo located at Monte Sant'Angelo Prehistoric pile dwellings around the Alps3 Primeval Beech Forests of Europe4 Venetian Works of Defence between 15th and 17th centuries5 Bergamo Palmanova Peschiera del Garda 1 Shared with Switzerland 2 Shared with the Holy See 3 Shared with Austria, France, Germany, Slovenia, and Switzerland 4 Shared with Albania, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Germany, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain and Ukraine 5 Shared with Croatia and Montenegro Authority control BNE: XX461180 GND: 4002522-6 HDS: 006950 LCCN: n50059847 MBAREA: c2256257-d073-4c2e-8efe-b5343724680f NARA: 10044619 NKC: ge338926 NLI: 000971763 VIAF: 148893013 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n50059847 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aquileia&oldid=995802585" Categories: Cities and towns in Friuli-Venezia Giulia Communes of the Province of Udine Aquileia World Heritage Sites in Italy Populated places established in the 2nd century BC States and territories established in the 2nd century BC 180 BC 180s BC establishments Roman sites of Friuli-Venezia Giulia Coloniae (Roman) Destroyed cities Former populated places in Italy Domini di Terraferma Razed cities Hidden categories: CS1 German-language sources (de) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Friulian-language text Articles containing Italian-language text Coordinates on Wikidata Pages using infobox settlement with image map1 but not image map Articles containing Venetian-language text Articles containing German-language text Articles containing Slovene-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2016 All Wikipedia articles needing clarification Wikipedia articles needing clarification from December 2016 Commons link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with HDS identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz area identifiers Wikipedia articles with NARA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Pages using the Kartographer extension Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikivoyage Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch Ænglisc العربية Asturianu تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Furlan Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Italiano עברית ქართული Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Lumbaart Magyar Malagasy മലയാളം მარგალური Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Napulitano Norsk bokmål Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Sardu Sicilianu Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tarandíne ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Vèneto Tiếng Việt Volapük Winaray 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 December 2020, at 23:47 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1929	----	National Library of Korea - Wikipedia National Library of Korea From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from NLK (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search National Library of Korea 국립중앙도서관 Established October 15, 1945 (75 years ago) (1945-10-15) Location Banpo-dong, Seocho-gu, Seoul, South Korea Branches 2 Collection Size 12,565,821 Legal deposit Library Act, art. 20 Access and use Circulation library does not publicly circulate Population served all citizen (age over 16) Other information Director Suh Hye Ran, Chief Executive Website www.nl.go.kr Korean name Hangul 국립중앙도서관 Hanja 國立中央圖書館 Revised Romanization Gungnip Jungang Doseogwan McCune–Reischauer Kungnip Chung'ang Tosŏgwan The National Library of Korea is located in Seoul, South Korea and was established in 1945. It houses over 10 million volumes, including over 1,134,000 foreign books and some of the National Treasures of South Korea. It was relocated within Seoul, from Sogong-dong, Jung-gu to Namsan-dong in 1974, and again to the present location at Banpo-dong, Seocho-gu, in 1988. It was transferred from the Ministry of Education to the Ministry of Culture in 1991. Contents 1 Public transport connection 2 Collection Statistics 3 See also 4 External links 5 References Public transport connection[edit] Exterior of National Library of Korea The library is served by Seoul Subway Lines 3, 7 and 9 which all connect at Express Bus terminal Station. Collection Statistics[edit] As on November 2020; Total Domestic Books Foregin Books Non Books Old Books 12,768,751 9,158,363 1,552,489 1,771,738 286,161 See also[edit] National Digital Library of Korea National Library for Children and Young Adults Information Center on North Korea The National Library for the Disabled National Assembly Library of Korea List of national and state libraries External links[edit] Official website (in English) Wikimedia Commons has media related to National Library of Korea. References[edit] Choi, Yoon Kyung; Chung, Yeon-Kyoung (2014). "A Study on Improvements for High Quality in National Library of Korea Subject Headings List". Journal of the Korean Society for Library and Information Science. 48 (1): 75–95. doi:10.4275/KSLIS.2014.48.1.075. 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en-wikipedia-org-1958	----	Augustus (title) - Wikipedia Augustus (title) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Augustus (honorific)) Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses of Augustus, see Augustus (disambiguation). Ancient Roman title This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Augustus" title – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Coin of the emperor Diocletian, marked diocletianus augustus Augustus (plural augusti; /ɔːˈɡʌstəs/ aw-GUST-əs,[1] Classical Latin: [au̯ˈɡʊstʊs]; "majestic", "the increaser" or "venerable") was an ancient Roman title given as both name and title to Gaius Octavius (often referred to simply as Augustus), Rome's first Emperor. On his death, it became an official title of his successor, and was so used by Roman emperors thereafter. The feminine form Augusta was used for Roman empresses and other females of the Imperial family. The masculine and feminine forms originated in the time of the Roman Republic, in connection with things considered divine or sacred in traditional Roman religion. Their use as titles for major and minor Roman deities of the Empire associated the Imperial system and Imperial family with traditional Roman virtues and the divine will, and may be considered a feature of the Roman Imperial cult. In Rome's Greek-speaking provinces, "Augustus" was translated as sebastos (σεβαστός, "venerable"), or Hellenised as Augoustos (αὔγουστος). After the fall of the Roman Empire, Augustus was sometimes used as a name for men of aristocratic birth, especially in the lands of the Holy Roman Empire. It remains a given name for males. Contents 1 Title in Ancient Rome 1.1 Earliest usage 1.2 Imperial honorific 1.3 Feminine equivalent 2 Other uses 2.1 Holy Roman Empire 2.2 Brian Boru 3 See also 4 References Title in Ancient Rome[edit] Earliest usage[edit] Some thirty years before its first association with Caesar's heir, Augustus was an obscure honorific with religious associations. One early context (58 BC), associates it with provincial Lares (Roman household gods).[2] In Latin poetry and prose, it signifies the "elevation" or "augmentation" of what is already sacred or religious.[3] Some Roman sources connected it to augury, and Rome was said to have been founded with the "august augury" of Romulus.[4] A coin of the late 3rd century emperor Probus, marked with abbreviated titles and honorifics: imp·c·probus·invic·p·f· aug Imperial honorific[edit] See also: Sebastos The first true Roman Emperor known as "Augustus" (and first counted as a Roman Emperor) was Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (Octavian). He was the adopted son and heir of Julius Caesar, who had been murdered for his seeming aspiration to divine monarchy, then subsequently and officially deified. Octavian studiously avoided any association with Caesar's claims, other than acknowledging his position and duties as Divi filius, "son of the deified one". Nevertheless, his position was unique and extraordinary. He had ended Rome's prolonged and bloody civil war with his victory at Actium, and established a lasting peace. He was self-evidently favoured by the gods. As princeps senatus ("first man or head of the senate") he presided at senatorial meetings. He was pontifex maximus, chief priest of Roman state religion. He held consular imperium, with authority equal to the official chief executive, he was supreme commander of all Roman legions, and held tribunicia potestas ("tribunician power"). As a tribune, his person was inviolable (sacrosanctitas) and he had the right to veto any act or proposal by any magistrate within Rome. He was officially renamed Augustus by the Roman Senate on January 16, 27 BC – or perhaps the Senate ratified his own careful choice; "Romulus" had been considered, and rejected.[5][6] This name was deemed too blatant as it would make Octavius the second founder of Rome.[7] So his official renaming in a form vaguely associated with a traditionally Republican religiosity, but unprecedented as a cognomen, may have served to show that he owed his position to the approval of Rome and its gods, and possibly his own unique, elevated, "godlike" nature and talents.[citation needed] His full and official title was Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus. Augustus' religious reforms extended or affirmed augusti as a near ubiquitous title or honour for various minor local deities, including the Lares Augusti of local communities, and obscure provincial deities such as the North African Marazgu Augustus. This extension of an Imperial honorific to major and minor deities of Rome and her provinces is considered a ground-level feature of Imperial cult, which continued until the official replacement of Rome's traditional religions by Christianity. The religious ambiguity of the title allowed for this kind of deification throughout the empire as subjects - beginning from Asia and Bithynia - adopted the worship of the genius or soul of Augustus, establishing a ruler-cult.[8] The title or name of Augustus was adopted by his successors, who held the name during their own lifetimes by virtue of their status, offices and powers. This included the Christian emperors. Most emperors also used imperator but others could and did bear the same title and functions. "Caesar" was used as a title, but was also the name of a clan within the Julian line.[citation needed] The first emperor bequeathed the title augustus to his adopted heir and successor Tiberius in his will.[9] From then on, though it conferred no specific legal powers, augustus was a titular element of the imperial name.[9] Subsequently, the title was bestowed by the Roman Senate.[9] Until the reign of Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180), the title was unique to its bearer; in 161 Marcus Aurelius elevated Lucius Verus (r. 161–69) to augustus and both bore the title at the same time.[9] The date of an emperor's investiture with the title augustus was celebrated as the dies imperii and commemorated annually.[9] From the 3rd century, new emperors were often acclaimed as augusti by the army.[9] A late Byzantine example of Augustus in imperial titulature: in this miniature from ca. 1404, Manuel II Palaiologos is titled "basileus and autokrator of the Romans", but also "aei augoustos" ("always augustus"), after the late antique formula "semper augustus". The Tetrarchy instituted by Diocletian shared power between two augusti and two emperors titled caesares.[9] Nevertheless, as augustus senior Diocletian retained legislative power.[9] Diocletian and his eventual successor after the civil wars of the Tetrarchy, Constantine the Great both used the title semper augustus ('ever august'), which indicates a formalisation of the name in the late 3rd and early 4th century.[9] From the reign of Constantine onwards, the Greek: σεβαστός, translit. sebastós was abandoned as the translation of the Latin: augustus in favour of the homophone Greek: αὔγουστος, translit. aúgoustos.[9] Beginning with Valentinian the Great and his brother Valens, whom he raised to augustus pari iure, 'augustus without reserve' in 364, the concurrent augusti of the eastern and western provinces were of equal standing.[9] The last Roman Emperor to rule in the West, Romulus Augustus became known as Augustulus ("little Augustus"), due to the unimportance of his reign.[citation needed] After the victory over the Sasanian Empire in the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628, the 7th century final phase of the Roman–Persian Wars, the emperor Heraclius introduced the Greek: βασιλεύς, translit. basileús, lit. "king" and the title aúgoustos fell out of favour.[9] Until Heraclius's 629 reforms, royal titles had been eschewed in Rome since the legendary overthrow of the Roman monarchy's last king Tarquinius Superbus by Lucius Junius Brutus in the late 6th century BC.[9] The Imperial titles of imperator, caesar, and augustus were respectively rendered in Greek as autokratōr, kaisar, and augoustos (or sebastos[10]). The Greek titles were used in the Byzantine Empire until its extinction in 1453, although sebastos lost its imperial exclusivity and autokratōr along with basileus became the exclusive title of the Byzantine Emperor. Feminine equivalent[edit] Further information: List of Augustae Augusta was the female equivalent of Augustus, and had similar origins as an obscure descriptor with vaguely religious overtones. It was bestowed on some women of the Imperial dynasties, as an indicator of worldly power and influence and a status near to divinity. There was no qualification with higher prestige. The title or honorific was shared by state goddesses associated with the Imperial regime's generosity and provision, such as Ceres, Bona Dea, Juno, Minerva, and Ops, and by local or minor goddesses around the empire. Other personifications perceived as essentially female and given the title Augusta include Pax (peace) and Victoria (victory). The first woman to receive the honorific Augusta was Livia Drusilla, by the last will of her husband Augustus. From his death (14 AD) she was known as Julia Augusta, until her own death in AD 29. Other uses[edit] Holy Roman Empire[edit] Charlemagne used the title serenissimus augustus as a prefix to his titles. The style assumed by Otto I was imperator augustus. The relative simplicity of the style and absence of any mention of Rome was in deference to Byzantium (although he would briefly use the title imperator augustus Romanorum ac Francorum (Emperor-Augustus of the Romans and Franks) in 966), which would soon reach the medieval apex of its power. By the 12th century, the standard style of the Emperor was Dei gratia Romanorum imperator semper augustus (By the grace of God, Emperor of the Romans, ever Augustus). The formula of semper augustus ("ever exalted") when translated into German in the late period of the Holy Roman Empire was not rendered literally, but as allzeit Mehrer des Reiches ("ever Increaser of the Realm"), from the transitive verbal meaning of augere "to augment, increase". Brian Boru[edit] The Irish High King Brian Boru (c. 941 – 1014) was described in the Annals of Ulster as ardrí Gaidhel Erenn & Gall & Bretan, August iartair tuaiscirt Eorpa uile ("High King of the Gaels of Ireland, the Norsemen and the Britons, Augustus of the whole of north-west Europe"), the only Irish king to receive that distinction.[11][12] See also[edit] Archons Auctoritas Basileus Caesar (title) Imperium List of Augustae References[edit] ^ Wells, John C. (1990). Longman pronunciation dictionary. Harlow, England: Longman. ISBN 0-582-05383-8. entry "Augustus" ^ Hornum, Michael B., Nemesis, the Roman state and the games, Brill, 1993, p.37 footnote 23, citing epigraphic evidence from the Roman province of Cisalpine Gaul. ^ It appears as such in works of Cicero, before its use by Octavian, later known as Augustus. See entry at Lewis and Short's Latin dictionary, online at perseus.org. ^ Haverfield, F J, "The name Augustus", Journal of Roman Studies, 5 (1915), pp. 249‑250, citing Ennius, Annales, 245 M. (494 V.) "Augusto augurio postquam incluta condita Romast". available from penelope.uchicago.edu ^ Cassius Dio|Roman History][1], 53.16.7 ^ Haverfield, F J, "The name Augustus", Journal of Roman Studies, 5 (1915), pp. 249‑250, available from penelope.uchicago.edu Octavian was also an augur. Haverfield surmises that the choice of "Augustus" as the name might also have meant to overshadow the legend "AUG" on coins issued by his defeated enemy Pompey' – where "AUG" signifies Pompey's status as an augur, defeated with the help of Augustus' superior augury. ^ Wacher, John (2002). The Roman World, Volume II. London: Routledge. p. 770. ISBN 0415263166. ^ Ferguson, John (1985). The Religions of the Roman Empire. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. p. 90. ISBN 0801493110. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Strothmann, Meret (Bochum) (2006-10-01). "Augustus [2]". Brill's New Pauly. ^ White, L. Michael (2005). From Jesus to Christianity: How Four Generations of Visionaries & Storytellers Created the New Testament and Christian Faith. San Francisco, CA: HarperCollins. p. 44. ISBN 9780060816100. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2017-05-27. Retrieved 2017-05-23.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ "The Annals of Ulster". celt.ucc.ie. Archived from the original on 15 March 2009. 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en-wikipedia-org-1991	----	Eduard Fraenkel - Wikipedia Eduard Fraenkel From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search German-British classicist David Mortier Eduard Fraenkel Born (1888-03-17)17 March 1888 Berlin, German Empire Died 5 February 1970(1970-02-05) (aged 81) Oxford, England, United Kingdom Nationality German-British Occupation Philologist, Chair of Latin at Corpus Christi College, Oxford David Mortier Eduard Fraenkel (17 March 1888 in Berlin – 5 February 1970 in Oxford) was a German-British philologist. Contents 1 Background and early life 2 Oxford years and later life 3 Works 4 Selected writings 5 References Background and early life[edit] Eduard Fraenkel was born to Jewish parents in Berlin. His father was a wine dealer, and his mother the daughter of an important publishing family. At the age of ten, Fraenkel suffered from an attack of osteomyelitis in his right arm that deformed his right hand. From 1897 to 1906 he attended the Askanisches Gymnasium in Berlin, where he was educated in Greek and Latin. At University, he began to study law, but soon turned his attention to Classics at Berlin University under the great philologist Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff. After two years, he moved from Berlin to Göttingen where he stayed until 1912, studying under Friedrich Leo (1851–1914). Oxford years and later life[edit] After losing his post under the antisemitic laws passed in 1933, Fraenkel emigrated to Great Britain. In 1934 he was elected to a Bevan fellowship at Trinity College, Cambridge, but later in the year took up the Corpus Chair of Latin at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, a post he held until 1953. He was known to be an impressive and exhilarating, if formidable, teacher of both Latin and Greek literature. His wartime seminars on Aeschylus's Agamemnon were famous both in their own right and also for forming the basis of his edition of the play, published in 1950, which remains a monument of 20th-century classical scholarship. After 1953 he continued teaching as an honorary fellow. He received the freedom of the city of Sarsina, the birthplace of the playwright Plautus, to whose study Fraenkel made groundbreaking and lasting contributions.[1] Several prominent female scholars have remarked since Fraenkel's death that he was known for inappropriate contact with his some of his female students during private lessons. Isobel Henderson, a tutor at Somerville College, warned students that they would learn much from Fraenkel but they would be "pawed about a bit." One of these students, the philosopher Baroness Mary Warnock, recounted being groped by Fraenkel in her memoirs.[2] Nevertheless, she later remarked that Fraenkel was the best teacher she had ever known and stresses that his status as a classical scholar is undiminished by his conduct towards women.[3] Cambridge classicist Mary Beard referred to him as a "serial groper", and noted that biographies omitted the "persistent sexual harassment" intrinsic to his teaching.[4] In a 2017 interview, Roger Tomlin described Fraenkel as "a bully": in the one seminar of Fraenkel's that Tomlin attended he described Fraenkel trying to embarrass women by asking them ridiculous questions, like what an 'ithyphallic metre' was.[5] Fraenkel took his own life on 5 February 1970, aged 81, a few hours after his wife died of natural causes.[2] Works[edit] Eduard Fraenkel was one of the most prominent and respected classical philologists of the 20th century, publishing studies of both Greek and Latin poets. Most well known are his book-length study of the Roman comic poet Plautus, Plautinisches im Plautus, which was later expanded and translated into Italian as Elementi Plautini in Plauto. An English version, entitled Plautine Elements in Plautus, was published in 2007 on the basis of the German and Italian versions. Also notable are his magisterial three volume text, commentary, and translation of the Agamemnon of Aeschylus, which remains one of the standard works of scholarship on that play, and a valuable study of the poetry of Horace. Selected writings[edit] — (1922). Plautinisches bei Plautus (in German). Berlin: Weidmannsche Buchhandlung.CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) — (2007). Plautine Elements in Plautus. Translated by Drevikovsky, Tomas; Muecke, Frances. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) — (1926). Die Stellung des Römertums in der humanistischen Bildung (in German). Berlin: Weidmannsche Buchhandlung.CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) — (1928). Iktus und Akzent im lateinischen Sprechvers (in German). Berlin: Weidmannsche Buchhandlung.CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) — (1930). Gedanken zu einer deutschen Vergilfeier (in German). Berlin: Weidmannsche Buchhandlung.CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) — (1933). Das Pindargedicht des Horaz (in German). Heidelberg: Carl Winter.CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) — (1950). Aeschylus: Agamemnon, edited with a commentary. Oxford: Clarendon Press.CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) — (1957). Der Agamemnon des Aeschylus. Ein Vortrag (in German). Zürich: Artemis.CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) — (1957). Die sieben Redenpaare im Thebanerdrama des Aeschylus (in German). Munich: Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften.CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) — (1957). Horace. Oxford: Clarendon Press.CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) — (1963). Horaz (in German). Darmstadt: WBG.CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) — (1962). Beobachtungen zu Aristophanes (in German). Rome: Edizioni di Storia e Letteratura.CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) — (1963). Zu den Phoenissen des Euripides (in German). Munich: Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften.CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) — (1965). Noch einmal Kolon und Satz (in German). Munich: Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften.CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) Delz, Josef; — (2015). Schwarz, Georg; Nikitinski, Oleg (eds.). Briefwechsel 1947–1969. Eine Gelehrtenfreundschaft [Correspondence 1947–1969: A Scholarly Friendship] (in German). Munich: Symposion Eleutheron. ISBN 978-3-928411-81-3. OCLC 944186683.CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) References[edit] Di Benedetto, Vincenzo (2000). "Ricordo di Eduard Fraenkel" [I remember Eduard Fraenkel]. Annali della Scuola Normale di Pisa. IV (in Italian). 5: 1–20. JSTOR 24308296. Krömer, Dietfried (1993). "Eduard Fraenkel (1888–1970)". Eikasmós. IV: 169–174. ISSN 1121-8819. ^ "Fraenkel, Eduard David Mortier". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/33241. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) ^ a b Beard, Mary (2013). "What Gets Left Out". Confronting the classics: traditions, adventures, and innovations. London: Profile Books. pp. 263–69. ISBN 9781847658883. OCLC 843527477. ^ Beard, Mary (1 August 2006). "Keeping sex out of scholarship". Times Literary Supplement. ^ "Scholar fires sex harassment row". Times Higher Education (THE). 18 August 2006. Retrieved 4 December 2017. ^ Czeti, I.; Seres, D. (2019). ""I try to publish whatever turns up": Interview with Roger S. O. Tomlin". Litterae Magicae: Studies in Honour of Roger S. O. Tomlin. pp. 19–27. Authority control BIBSYS: 90226070 BNE: XX1273617 BNF: cb121790696 (data) CiNii: DA0210829X GND: 116690496 ISNI: 0000 0001 1029 4653 LCCN: n80159792 NKC: mub20181001483 NLA: 35878911 NLI: 000221673 NSK: 000069055 NTA: 067623557 RERO: 02-A003256913 SNAC: w65n6bqr SUDOC: 030359341 Trove: 1128063 VcBA: 495/76354 VIAF: 73896802 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n80159792 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eduard_Fraenkel&oldid=983709558" Categories: 1888 births 1970 deaths German classical philologists British classical philologists Corpus Christi Professors of Latin Writers from Berlin Fellows of Corpus Christi College, Oxford German male writers Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United Kingdom German emigrants to England University of Freiburg faculty Suicides in England Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the ODNB Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from March 2020 Articles with hCards CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 Italian-language sources (it) Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Íslenska Italiano עברית Latina Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 15 October 2020, at 20:05 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1995	----	Tetrarchy - Wikipedia Tetrarchy From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Period of Roman history when power was divided among four rulers This article is about the tetrarchy created by Diocletian. For the tetrarchy formed from the kingdom of Herod, see Tetrarchy (Judea). For other uses, see Tetrarch (disambiguation). This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (May 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Roman imperial dynasties The Tetrarchy Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs, two porphyry sculptures looted from the Philadelphion of Constantinople after 1204, now standing at the southwest corner of St Mark's Basilica, Venice Chronology Diocletian as Augustus 284–286 -with Maximian as Augustus of the West 286–293 -with Galerius and Constantius Chlorus as Caesares 293–305 Maximian as the sole Caesar 285–286 -with Diocletian as Augustus of the East 286–305 -with Galerius and Constantius Chlorus as Caesares 293–305 Galerius and Constantius Chlorus as Caesares 293–305 Galerius and Constantius Chlorus as Augusti of East and West 305–306 -with Severus and Maximinus Daia as Caesares 305–306 Galerius and Severus as Augusti of East and West 306–307 -with Maximinus Daia and Constantine the Great as Caesares 306–307 Galerius and Maxentius as Augusti of East and West 307–308 -with Maximinus Daia and Constantine the Great as Caesares 307–308 Galerius and Licinius as Augusti of East and West 308–311 -with Maximinus Daia and Constantine the Great as Caesares 308–311 Maxentius as usurper in Rome (and Asia Minor 311–312) 308–312 Maximinus Daia and Licinius as Augusti of East and West 311–312 -with Constantine the Great as Caesar (self-proclaimed Augustus) 311–312 Licinius and Constantine the Great as Augusti of East and West 312–324 -with Licinius II and Constantine II, Crispus as Caesares 317–324 Succession Preceded by Crisis of the Third Century Followed by Constantinian dynasty Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e Part of a series of articles on Monarchy Central concepts Monarch Monarchism Imperialism Divine right of kings Mandate of Heaven Types Absolute Chinese Legalist Composite Constitutional Crowned republic Diarchy Dual Elective Emirate Ethnarch Federal Hereditary Personal union Non-sovereign Popular Regency Coregency Tetrarch Triarchy Universal History Birth of the Roman Empire Magna Carta Foundation of the Ottoman Empire Glorious Revolution French Revolution Trienio Liberal First French Empire Liberal Wars Second French Empire Italian unification Meiji Restoration Austro-Hungarian Compromise German unification 5 October 1910 Revolution Proclamation of the Republic in Brazil Chinese Revolution Russian Revolution Siamese revolution of 1932 Birth of the Italian Republic Spanish transition to democracy Iranian Revolution Modern Cambodia Nepalese Civil War Related topics Aristocracy Nobility Autocracy Chamberlain Conservatism Despotism Dynasty List Enlightened absolutism Thomas Hobbes Legitimists Orléanist Oligarchy Peerage Philosopher king Primogeniture Rank Royalism Regicide Regnal number Royal family Style Ultra-royalist Politics portal v t e The Tetrarchy is the term adopted to describe the system of government of the ancient Roman Empire instituted by Roman Emperor Diocletian in 293, marking the end of the Crisis of the Third Century and the recovery of the Roman Empire. The government of the empire was divided between the two senior emperors, the augusti, and their juniors and designated successors, the caesares. Initially Diocletian chose Maximian as his caesar in 285, raising him to co-augustus the following year; Maximian was to govern the western provinces and Diocletian would administer the eastern ones. The role of the augustus was likened to Jupiter, while his caesar was akin to Jupiter's son Hercules. Galerius and Constantius were appointed caesares in March 293. Diocletian and Maximian retired on 1 May 305, raising Galerius and Constantius to the rank of augustus. Their places as caesares were in turn taken by Valerius Severus and Maximinus Daia. The orderly system of two senior and two junior emperors endured until Constantius died in July 306, and his son Constantine was unilaterally acclaimed augustus and caesar by his father's army. Maximian's son Maxentius contested Severus's title, styled himself princeps invictus, and was appointed caesar by his retired father in 306. Severus surrendered to Maximian and Maxentius in 307. Maxentius and Constantine were both recognized as augusti by Maximian that same year. Galerius appointed Licinius augustus for the west in 308 and elevated Maximinus Daia to augustus in 310. Constantine's victory over Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312 left him in control of the western part of the empire, while Licinius was left in control of the east on the death of Maximinus Daia. Constantine and Licinius jointly recognized their sons – Crispus, Constantine II, and Licinius II – as caesares in March 317. Ultimately the tetrarchic system lasted until c. 324, when mutually destructive civil wars eliminated most of the claimants to power: Licinius resigned as augustus after the losing the Battle of Chrysopolis, leaving Constantine in control of the entire empire. The Constantinian dynasty's emperors retained some aspects of collegiate rule; Constantine appointed his son Constantius II as another caesar in 324, followed by Constans in 333 and his nephew Dalmatius in 335, and the three surviving sons of Constantine in 337 were declared joint augusti together, and the concept of the division of the empire under multiple joint emperors endured until the Fall of the Western Roman Empire. In the Eastern Roman empire, augusti and caesares continued to be appointed sporadically. Contents 1 Terminology 2 Creation 3 Regions and capitals 4 Public image 5 Military successes 6 Demise 7 Emperors 8 Detailed timeline 9 Simplified timeline 9.1 Tetrarchy until 1 May 305 9.2 Tetrarchy until July 306 9.3 Tetrarchy until 16 May 307 9.4 Tetrarchy from 18 November 308 to the beginning of May 311 9.5 Tetrarchy from May 311 9.6 Tetrarchy after 8 October 316 to the end of 316 9.7 Tetrarchy from 1 March 317 to 18 September 324 10 Legacy 11 Other examples 12 See also 13 Notes 14 Citations 15 References 16 External links Terminology[edit] The term "tetrarchy" (from the Greek: τετραρχία, tetrarchia, "leadership of four [people]")[a] describes any form of government where power is divided among four individuals. Although the term "tetrarch" was current in antiquity, it was never used of the imperial college under Diocletian. Instead, the term was used to describe independent portions of a kingdom that were ruled under separate leaders. The tetrarchy of Judaea, established after the death of Herod the Great, is the most famous example of the antique tetrarchy. The term was understood in the Latin world as well, where Pliny the Elder glossed it as follows: "each is the equivalent of a kingdom, and also part of one" (regnorum instar singulae et in regna contribuuntur).[1] As used by the ancients, the term describes not only different governments, but also a different system of government from the Diocletianic arrangements. The Judaean tetrarchy was a set of four independent and distinct states, where each tetrarch ruled a quarter of a kingdom as they saw fit; the Diocletianic tetrarchy was a college led by a single supreme leader. When later authors described the period, this is what they emphasized: Ammianus had Constantius II admonish Gallus for disobedience by appealing to the example in submission set by Diocletian's lesser colleagues; his successor Julian compared the Diocletianic tetrarchs to a chorus surrounding a leader, speaking in unison under his command.[2] Only Lactantius, a contemporary of Diocletian and a deep ideological opponent of the Diocletianic state, referred to the tetrarchs as a simple multiplicity of rulers.[3] Much modern scholarship was written without the term. Although Edward Gibbon pioneered the description of the Diocletianic government as a "New Empire", he never used the term "tetrarchy"; neither did Theodor Mommsen. It did not appear in the literature until used in 1887 by schoolmaster Hermann Schiller in a two-volume handbook on the Roman Empire (Geschichte der Römischen Kaiserzeit), to wit: "die diokletianische Tetrarchie". Even so, the term did not catch on in the literature until Otto Seeck used it in 1897.[4] On the reverse of this argenteus struck in Antioch under Constantius I, the tetrarchs offer sacrifice to celebrate a victory against the Sarmatians. Creation[edit] The first phase, sometimes referred to as the diarchy ("rule of two"), involved the designation of the general Maximian as co-emperor—firstly as caesar (junior emperor) in 285, followed by his promotion to augustus in 286. Diocletian took care of matters in the eastern regions of the empire while Maximian similarly took charge of the western regions. In 293, Diocletian thought that more focus was needed on both civic and military problems, so with Maximian's consent, he expanded the imperial college by appointing two caesares (one responsible to each augustus)—Galerius and Constantius I.[5] In 305, the senior emperors jointly abdicated and retired, allowing Constantius and Galerius to be elevated in rank to augustus. They in turn appointed two new caesares—Severus II in the west under Constantius, and Maximinus in the east under Galerius—thereby creating the second Tetrarchy. Regions and capitals[edit] Map of the Roman Empire under the Tetrarchy, showing the dioceses and the four tetrarchs' zones of influence. The four tetrarchs based themselves not at Rome but in other cities closer to the frontiers, mainly intended as headquarters for the defence of the empire against bordering rivals (notably Sassanian Persia) and barbarians (mainly Germanic, and an unending sequence of nomadic or displaced tribes from the eastern steppes) at the Rhine and Danube. These centres are known as the tetrarchic capitals. Although Rome ceased to be an operational capital, Rome continued to be nominal capital of the entire Roman Empire, not reduced to the status of a province but under its own, unique Prefect of the City (praefectus urbi, later copied in Constantinople). The four tetrarchic capitals were: Nicomedia in northwestern Asia Minor (modern Izmit in Turkey), a base for defence against invasion from the Balkans and Persia's Sassanids was the capital of Diocletian, the eastern (and most senior) augustus; in the final reorganisation by Constantine the Great, in 318, the equivalent of his domain, facing the most redoubtable foreign enemy, Sassanid Persia, became the praetorian prefecture Oriens, 'the East', the core of later Byzantium. Sirmium (modern Sremska Mitrovica in the Vojvodina region of modern Serbia, and near Belgrade, on the Danube border) was the capital of Galerius, the eastern caesar; this was to become the Balkans-Danube prefecture Illyricum. Mediolanum (modern Milan, near the Alps) was the capital of Maximian, the western augustus; his domain became "Italia et Africa", with only a short exterior border. Augusta Treverorum (modern Trier, in Germany) was the capital of Constantius, the western caesar, near the strategic Rhine border; it had been the capital of Gallic emperor Tetricus I. This quarter became the prefecture Galliae. Aquileia, a port on the Adriatic coast, and Eboracum (modern York, in northern England near the Celtic tribes of modern Scotland and Ireland), were also significant centres for Maximian and Constantius respectively. In terms of regional jurisdiction there was no precise division among the four tetrarchs, and this period did not see the Roman state actually split up into four distinct sub-empires. Each emperor had his zone of influence within the Roman Empire, but little more, mainly high command in a 'war theater'. Each tetrarch was himself often in the field, while delegating most of the administration to the hierarchic bureaucracy headed by his respective Pretorian Prefect, each supervising several Vicarii, the governors-general in charge of another, lasting new administrative level, the civil diocese. For a listing of the provinces, now known as eparchy, within each quarter (known as a praetorian prefecture), see Roman province. In the West, the augustus Maximian controlled the provinces west of the Adriatic Sea and the Syrtis, and within that region his caesar, Constantius, controlled Gaul and Britain. In the East, the arrangements between the augustus Diocletian and his caesar, Galerius, were much more flexible. However, it appears that some contemporary and later writers, such as the Christian author Lactantius, and Sextus Aurelius Victor (who wrote about fifty years later and from uncertain sources), misunderstood the tetrarchic system in this respect, believing it to have involved a stricter division of territories among the four emperors. Public image[edit] Although power was shared in the tetrarchic system, the public image of the four emperors in the imperial college was carefully managed to give the appearance of a united empire (patrimonium indivisum). This was especially important after the numerous civil wars of the 3rd century. The tetrarchs appeared identical in all official portraits. Coinage dating from the tetrarchic period depicts every emperor with identical features—only the inscriptions on the coins indicate which one of the four emperors is being shown. The Byzantine sculpture Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs shows the tetrarchs again with identical features and wearing the same military costume. Military successes[edit] One of the greatest problems facing emperors in the Third Century Crisis was that they were only ever able to personally command troops on one front at any one time. While Aurelian and Probus were prepared to accompany their armies thousands of miles between war regions, this was not an ideal solution. Furthermore, it was risky for an emperor to delegate power in his absence to a subordinate general, who might win a victory and then be proclaimed as a rival emperor himself by his troops (which often happened). All members of the imperial college, on the other hand, were of essentially equal rank, despite two being senior emperors and two being junior; their functions and authorities were also equal. Under the Tetrarchy a number of important military victories were secured. Both the dyarchic and the tetrarchic system ensured that an emperor was near to every crisis area to personally direct and remain in control of campaigns simultaneously on more than just one front. After suffering a defeat by the Persians in 296, Galerius crushed Narseh in 298—reversing a series of Roman defeats throughout the century—capturing members of the imperial household and a substantial amount of booty and gaining a highly favourable peace treaty, which secured peace between the two powers for a generation. Similarly, Constantius defeated the British usurper Allectus, Maximian pacified the Gauls, and Diocletian crushed the revolt of Domitianus in Egypt. Demise[edit] Main article: Civil wars of the Tetrarchy When in 305 the 20-year term of Diocletian and Maximian ended, both abdicated. Their caesares, Galerius and Constantius Chlorus, were both raised to the rank of augustus, and two new caesares were appointed: Maximinus Daia (caesar to Galerius) and Valerius Severus (caesar to Constantius). These four formed the second tetrarchy. Constantine at the battle of the Milvian Bridge, fresco by Raphael, Vatican Rooms. However, the system broke down very quickly thereafter. When Constantius died in 306, Galerius promoted Severus to augustus while Constantine, Constantius' son, was proclaimed augustus by his father's troops. At the same time, Maxentius, the son of Maximian, who also resented being left out of the new arrangements, defeated Severus before forcing him to abdicate and then arranging his murder in 307. Maxentius and Maximian both then declared themselves augusti. By 308 there were therefore no fewer than four claimants to the rank of augustus (Galerius, Constantine, Maximian and Maxentius), and only one to that of caesar (Maximinus). In 308 Galerius, together with the retired emperor Diocletian and the supposedly retired Maximian, called an imperial "conference" at Carnuntum on the River Danube. The council agreed that Licinius would become augustus in the West, with Constantine as his caesar. In the East, Galerius remained augustus and Maximinus remained his caesar. Maximian was to retire, and Maxentius was declared a usurper. This agreement proved disastrous: by 308 Maxentius had become de facto ruler of Italy and Africa even without any imperial rank, and neither Constantine nor Maximinus—who had both been caesares since 306 and 305 respectively—were prepared to tolerate the promotion of the augustus Licinius as their superior. After an abortive attempt to placate both Constantine and Maximinus with the meaningless title filius augusti ("son of the augustus"), essentially an alternative title for caesar), they both had to be recognised as Augusti in 309. However, four full Augusti all at odds with each other did not bode well for the tetrarchic system. Between 309 and 313 most of the claimants to the imperial office died or were killed in various civil wars. Constantine forced Maximian's suicide in 310. Galerius died naturally in 311. Maxentius was defeated by Constantine at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312 and subsequently killed. Maximinus committed suicide at Tarsus in 313 after being defeated in battle by Licinius. By 313, therefore, there remained only two emperors: Constantine in the West and Licinius in the East. The tetrarchic system was at an end, although it took until 324 for Constantine to finally defeat Licinius, reunite the two halves of the Roman Empire and declare himself sole augustus. Emperors[edit] Portrait Name Reign Co-ruler(s) Ref Diocletian CAIVS AVRELIVS VALERIVS DIOCLETIANVS (Whole, then East) 20 November 284– 1 May 305 (20 years, 5 months and 11 days) Maximian (caesar, 21 July 285–1 April 286; co-augustus, 286–1 May 305) Galerius (caesar, 21 March 293–1 May 305) Constantius I Chlorus (caesar, 1 March 293–1 May 305) [6] Maximian MARCVS AVRELIVS VALERIVS MAXIMIANVS HERCVLIVS (West) 1 April 286 – 1 May 305 (retired) end 306/early 307 – November 308 (19 years and 1 month) Diocletian (augustus, 21 July 285; co-augustus, 1 April 286–1 May 305) Galerius (caesar, 21 March 293–1 May 305) Constantius I Chlorus (caesar, 1 March 293–1 May 305) Maxentius (caesar, 28 October 306; junior co-augustus, April 307–November 308) Constantine I (rival augustus, 25 July 306; proclaimed junior co-augustus by Maximian, c. late summer 308) [6] Galerius CAIVS GALERIVS VALERIVS MAXIMIANVS (East) 1 May 305– 5 May 311 (6 years and 4 days) Diocletian (augustus, 21 March 293–1 May 305) Maximian (augustus, 21 March 293–1 May 305) Constantius I Chlorus (caesar, 1 March 293; co-augustus, 1 May 305–25 July 306) Valerius Severus (caesar, 1 May 305; co-augustus, August 306–April 307) Maxentius (caesar, 28 October 306; junior co-augustus, April 307–May 311) Licinius (designated augustus for the West, 11 November 308–311) Maximinus II (caesar, 1 May 305; co-augustus, 1 May 310–early May 311) [6] Constantius I Chlorus MARCVS FLAVIVS VALERIVS CONSTANTIVS HERCVLIVS (West) 1 May 305– 25 July 306 (1 year, 2 months and 24 days) Diocletian (augustus, 1 March 293–1 May 305) Maximian (augustus, 1 April 286–1 May 305) Galerius (caesar, 21 March 293; co-augustus, 1 May 305–25 July 306) Valerius Severus (caesar, 1 May 305 –July 306) Maximinus II (caesar, 1 May 305–25 July 306) [6] Valerius Severus (also Severus II) FLAVIVS VALERIVS SEVERVS (West) 25 July 306 – April 307 (<1 year) Galerius (augustus, 25 July 306–April 307) Maxentius (caesar, 28 October 306; rival augustus, c. April 307) Constantine I (rival augustus, 25 July 306–April 307) Maximinus II (caesar, 1 May 305–April 307) [6] Constantine I the Great FLAVIVS VALERIVS CONSTANTINVS (West) 25 July 306– 18 September 324 (18 years, 1 month and 25 days; later emperor of the entire empire 324–337) Maximian (rival augustus, late 306; senior co-augustus, c. late summer 308–November 308)Maxentius (caesar, 28 October 306; rival augustus, c. April 307–28 October 312) Licinius (rival augustus, 11 November 308–312; co-augustus, 313–314; rival augustus, 314–317; co-augustus, 317–321; rival augustus, 321–19 September 324) Crispus (caesar, 1 March 317–324) Constantine II (caesar, 1 March 317–324) Martinian (rival augustus, 324) [6] Maxentius MARCVS AVRELIVS VALERIVS MAXENTIVS (West) 28 October 306– 28 October 312 (6 years) Maximian (co-augustus, 306–308) Valerius Severus (rival augustus, August 306–April 307) Licinius (rival-augustus, 11 November 308–28 October 312) Constantine I (rival augustus, 25 July 306–28 October 312) [6] Licinius CAIVS VALERIVS LICINIANVS LICINIVS (West, then East) 11 November 308– 19 September 324 (15 years, 10 months and 8 days) Constantine I (rival augustus, 11 November 308–312; co-augustus, 313–314; rival augustus, 314–317; co-augustus, 317–321; rival augustus, 321–19 September 324) Valerius Valens (designated augustus for the West, 316–317) Licinius II (caesar, 1 March 317–324) Crispus (caesar, 1 March 317–324) Constantine II (caesar, 1 March 317–324) Martinian (designated augustus for the West, 324) [6] Maximinus II Daia CAIVS CALERIVS VALERIVS MAXIMINVS (East) 1 May 310 – summer 313 (2 years) Constantius I Chlorus (augustus, 1 May 305–25 July 306) Galerius (augustus, 1 May 305–25 July 311) Valerius Severus (caesar, 1 May 305–July 306) Maximian (augustus, late 306–November 308) Maxentius (rival caesar, 28 October 306; augustus, c. April 307; rival augustus, 1 May 310–28 October 312) Constantine I (augustus, 25 July 306; rival augustus, 1 May 310–313) Licinius (augustus, 11 November 308; rival augustus, 1 May 310–313) [6] Detailed timeline[edit] Diarchy 21 July 285 – 1 March 293 Western Roman Empire Eastern Roman Empire augustus Maximian (250-310) augustus Diocletian (244-311) Usurpers (date) Carausius (286-293) Roman Britain First Tetrarchy 1 March 293 - 1 May 305 Dioceses of Spain, Italy and Africa Dioceses of the East, Asia and Pontus augustus Maximian (250-310) augustus Diocletian (244-311) Dioceses of Gaul, Vienne and Britain Dioceses of Pannonia, Moesia and Thrace caesar Constantius Chlorus (250-306) caesar Galerius (250-311) Usurpers (date) Carausius (286-293) Roman Britain Allectus (293-296) Roman Britain Domitius Domitianus (297) Roman Egypt Achilleus (297-298) Roman Egypt Second Tetrarchy 1 May 305 – 25 July 306 Dioceses of Gaul, Vienne, Spain and Britain[7] Dioceses of Pannonia, Moesia, Thrace, Pontus and Asia[7] augustus Constantius Chlorus (250-306) augustus Galerius (250-311) Dioceses of Italy and Africa[7] Dioceses of the East[7] caesar Valerius Severus (?-307) caesar Maximinus Daia (270-313) Third Tetrarchy 25 July 306 – 16 August 307 Dioceses of Italy, Africa, Hispania and Pannonia[7] Dioceses of Moesia, Macedonia, Thrace, Pontus and Asia[7] augustus Valerius Severus (?-307) augustus Galerius (250-311) Dioceses of Britain, Vienne and Gaul[7] Diocesis of the East[7] caesar Constantine I (272-337) caesar Maximinus Daia (270-313) Usurpers (date) augustus Maxentius (306-312) firstly Rome, then Italy and Africa augustus Maximian (306-309) Italy and Africa Fourth Tetrarchy 16 August 307 – May 311 Dioceses of Gaul, Vienne, Hispania and Britain Dioceses of Moesia, Macedonia, Thrace, Pontus and Asia augustus Constantine I (272-337) augustus Galerius (250-311) Dioceses of Pannonia Dioceses of the East augustus Licinius (250-325) augustus Maximinus Daia (270-313) Dioceses of Italy and Africa augustus Maxentius (306-312) augustus Maximian (306-309) He broke with his son and took refuge in Arles under protection of Constantine. He later rebelled against Constantine and was compelled to commit suicide in 310 Usurpers(date) Domitius Alexander (309-311) in Africa against Maxentius Fifth Tetrarchy May 311 – August 313 Dioceses of Gaul, Vienne, Hispania, Britain (Italy and Africa)[8] Dioceses of Pannonia, Moesia, Macedonia and Thrace (Asia, Pontus and of the East)[9] augustus Constantine I (272-337) augustus Licinius (250-325) Dioceses de Italy and Africa Dioceses de Asia, Pontus and of the East augustus Maxentius (306-312) augustus Maximinus Daia (270-313) Last Tetrarchy August 313 – 18 September 324 Dioceses of Gaul, Vienne, Hispania, Britain, Italy and Africa (Pannonia, Moesia and Macedonia)[10] Dioceses of Pannonia, Moesia, Macedonia, Thrace, Asia, Pontus and of the East augustus Constantine I (272-337) augustus Licinius (250-325) Western Roman Empire Eastern Roman Empire caesar Crispus (305-326) he was proclaimed by his father Constantine in 317 caesar Constantine II (317-337) he was proclaimed by his father Constantine in 317 augustus Valerius Valens (?-317) co-emperor with Licinius in Pannonia, elevated as Augustus by Licinius, but he had Valens executed caesar Licinius II (316-326) he was raised to the rank of Caesar by his father Licinius in 317 augustus Martinianus (?-325) nominal co-emperor with Licinius in 324 Simplified timeline[edit] Tetrarchy until 1 May 305[edit] West East augusti Maximian Diocletian caesares Constantius Chlorus Galerius Tetrarchy until July 306[edit] After the retirement of the two Augusti both previous caesares succeeded them, and two new caesares were appointed. Maximinus Daia was Galerius' nephew. West East augusti Constantius Chlorus Galerius caesares Severus Maximinus Daia Tetrarchy until 16 May 307[edit] After the death of Constantius his legions proclaim his son Constantine the new augustus, but Galerius elevates Severus to be the new junior augustus and compensates Constantine with the rank of caesar. West East augusti Severus Galerius caesares Constantine Maximinus Daia Tetrarchy from 18 November 308 to the beginning of May 311[edit] After the death of Severus, Constantine does not succeed him. At the council of Carnutum, Diocletian decides that Licinius will be the new augustus of the West. West East augusti Licinius Galerius caesares Constantine Maximinus Daia Tetrarchy from May 311[edit] After the death of Galerius he was succeeded by Maximinus Daia in as augustus of the East, but is crowded by Licinius, who wants to have the status of the senior augustus. Maximinus appoints no new caesar, although it was assumed that this position should later on be filled out with the son of Severus, Flavius Severianus, or at least that he was scheduled for this position. West East augusti Licinius Maximinus Daia caesares Constantine vacant Tetrarchy after 8 October 316 to the end of 316[edit] Shortly before the turn of the year 316/317, Constantine, now augustus in the West, appointed a caesar, while Licinius briefly appointed one of his officers, Valerius Valens, as the third augustus. This was apparent from coins, though Valens was apparently inferior to Licinius, who soon executed him. Even the chronology is unclear, as the date stamping could also be the turn of the year 314/315. West East augusti Constantine Licinius and Valerius Valens caesares Bassianus Tetrarchy from 1 March 317 to 18 September 324[edit] The tetrarchic system is at its end. Both Augusti appoint their own sons as co-emperors, restoring a dynastic system. However, before his death, Licinius appoints the General Martinianus on 3 July 324 as augustus in name only, as Martinianus was intended to replace Constantine in the west. West East augusti Constantine I Licinius caesares Crispus and Constantine II Licinius II Legacy[edit] Although the tetrarchic system as such only lasted until 313, many aspects of it survived. The fourfold regional division of the empire continued in the form of Praetorian prefectures, each of which was overseen by a praetorian prefect and subdivided into administrative dioceses, and often reappeared in the title of the military supra-provincial command assigned to a magister militum. The pre-existing notion of consortium imperii, the sharing of imperial power, and the notion that an associate to the throne was the designated successor (possibly conflicting with the notion of hereditary claim by birth or adoption), was to reappear repeatedly. The idea of the two halves, the east and the west, re-emerged and eventually resulted in the permanent de facto division into two separate Roman empires after the death of Theodosius I, though it is important to remember that the empire was never formally divided, the emperors of the eastern and western halves legally ruling as one imperial college until the fall of Rome's western empire left Byzantium, the "second Rome", sole direct heir. Other examples[edit] Part of a series of articles on Monarchy Central concepts Monarch Monarchism Imperialism Divine right of kings Mandate of Heaven Types Absolute Chinese Legalist Composite Constitutional Crowned republic Diarchy Dual Elective Emirate Ethnarch Federal Hereditary Personal union Non-sovereign Popular Regency Coregency Tetrarch Triarchy Universal History Birth of the Roman Empire Magna Carta Foundation of the Ottoman Empire Glorious Revolution French Revolution Trienio Liberal First French Empire Liberal Wars Second French Empire Italian unification Meiji Restoration Austro-Hungarian Compromise German unification 5 October 1910 Revolution Proclamation of the Republic in Brazil Chinese Revolution Russian Revolution Siamese revolution of 1932 Birth of the Italian Republic Spanish transition to democracy Iranian Revolution Modern Cambodia Nepalese Civil War Related topics Aristocracy Nobility Autocracy Chamberlain Conservatism Despotism Dynasty List Enlightened absolutism Thomas Hobbes Legitimists Orléanist Oligarchy Peerage Philosopher king Primogeniture Rank Royalism Regicide Regnal number Royal family Style Ultra-royalist Politics portal v t e Tetrarchies in the ancient world existed in both Thessaly (in northern Greece) and Galatia (in central Asia Minor; including Lycaonia) as well as among the British Cantiaci. The constellation of Jewish principalities in the Herodian kingdom of Judea was known as a tetrarchy; see Tetrarchy (Judea). In the novel The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, the Pevensie siblings rule Narnia as a tetrarchy of two kings and two queens. See also[edit] Notitia dignitatum, a later document from the imperial chancery Problem of two emperors – A problem arising when multiple people claim the title of emperor Notes[edit] ^ Historian David Potter translates the term as "gang of four". See idem., Constantine the Emperor (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 1. Citations[edit] ^ Qtd. and tr. Leadbetter, Galerius, 3. ^ Amm. Marc. 14.11.10; Jul. Caes. 315A-B. ^ Leadbetter, Galerius, 3. ^ Leadbetter, Galerius, 3–4. ^ The chronology has been thoroughly established by Kolb, Diocletian, and Kuhoff, Diokletian. ^ a b c d e f g h i Cooley, Alison E. (2012). "Imperial titles, Augustus–Justinian (Appendix 2)". The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. pp. 488–509. doi:10.1017/cbo9781139020442.007. Retrieved 2020-06-26. ^ a b c d e f g h Bajo, F. (1990) Constantino y sus sucesores. La conversión del Imperio. Akal Historia del mundo antiguo, pág 9 ^ after defeating Maxentius in 312 ^ A partir de derrotar a Maximino Daya ^ After defeating Licinius in 317 References[edit] Barnes, Timothy D. (1984). Constantine and Eusebius. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-16531-4. Bowman, Alan (2005). The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 12, The Crisis of Empire, AD 193–337. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-30199-8. Corcoran, Simon (2000). The Empire of the Tetrarchs, Imperial Pronouncements and Government AD 284–324. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-815304-X. Kolb, Frank (2011-07-11). Diocletian und die Erste Tetrarchie: Improvisation oder Experiment in der Organisation monarchischer Herrschaft? (in German). Berlin: de Gruyter. ISBN 9783110846508. Kuhoff, Wolfgang (2001). Diokletian und die Epoche der Tetrarchie: Das römische Reich zwischen Krisenbewältigung und Neuaufbau (284-313 n. CHR.). Frankfurt am Main: Lang. ISBN 9783631367926. Leadbetter, William Lewis (2009-12-04). Galerius and the Will of Diocletian. London, New York: Routledge. ISBN 9781135261320. Rees, Roger (2004). Diocletian and the Tetrarchy. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 9780748616602. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tetrarchy. 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en-wikipedia-org-2001	----	Pindar - Wikipedia Pindar From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Pindar (disambiguation). Ancient Greek lyric poet from Thebes Pindar Pindar, Roman copy of Greek 5th century BC bust (Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples) Native name Πίνδαρος Born c. 518 [1] Cynoscephalae, Boiotia Died c. 438 (aged approx 80) Argos Occupation Lyric poet Genre Poetry Pindar (/ˈpɪndər/; Greek: Πίνδαρος Pindaros, [píndaros]; Latin: Pindarus; c. 518 – 438 BC) was an Ancient Greek lyric poet from Thebes. Of the canonical nine lyric poets of ancient Greece, his work is the best preserved. Quintilian wrote, "Of the nine lyric poets, Pindar is by far the greatest, in virtue of his inspired magnificence, the beauty of his thoughts and figures, the rich exuberance of his language and matter, and his rolling flood of eloquence, characteristics which, as Horace rightly held, make him inimitable."[2] His poems can also, however, seem difficult and even peculiar. The Athenian comic playwright Eupolis once remarked that they "are already reduced to silence by the disinclination of the multitude for elegant learning".[3] Some scholars in the modern age also found his poetry perplexing, at least until the 1896 discovery of some poems by his rival Bacchylides; comparisons of their work showed that many of Pindar's idiosyncrasies are typical of archaic genres rather than of only the poet himself. His poetry, while admired by critics, still challenges the casual reader and his work is largely unread among the general public.[4] Pindar was the first Greek poet to reflect on the nature of poetry and on the poet's role.[5] Like other poets of the Archaic Age, he has a profound sense of the vicissitudes of life, but he also articulates a passionate faith in what men can achieve by the grace of the gods, most famously expressed in the conclusion to one of his Victory Odes:[6] Creatures of a day! What is anyone? What is anyone not? A dream of a shadow Is our mortal being. But when there comes to men A gleam of splendour given of heaven, Then rests on them a light of glory And blessed are their days. (Pythian 8)[7][8] His poetry illustrates the beliefs and values of Archaic Greece at the dawn of the classical period.[9] Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Sources 1.2 Life 1.2.1 Infancy to adulthood 1.2.2 Middle age 1.2.3 Old age and death 1.2.4 Post mortem 1.3 Values and beliefs 2 Works 2.1 Victory odes 2.1.1 Style 2.1.2 Structure 2.1.3 Chronological order 2.2 Manuscripts, shreds and quotes 3 Influence and legacy 3.1 Horace's tribute 3.2 Bowra's tribute 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 Sources 8 Further reading 9 External links Biography[edit] Sources[edit] Five ancient sources contain all the recorded details of Pindar's life. One of them is a short biography discovered in 1961 on an Egyptian papyrus dating from at least 200 AD (P.Oxy.2438).[10] The other four are collections that weren't finalized until some 1600 years after his death: Commentaries on Pindar by Eustathius of Thessalonica; Vita Vratislavensis, found in a manuscript at Breslau, author unknown; a text by Thomas Magister; some meagre writings attributed to the lexicographer Suidas. Although these sources are based on a much older literary tradition, going as far back as Chamaeleon of Heraclea in the 4th century BC, they are generally viewed with scepticism today: much of the material is clearly fanciful.[11][12] Scholars both ancient and modern have turned to Pindar's own work – his victory odes in particular – as a source of biographical information: some of the poems touch on historic events and can be accurately dated. The 1962 publication of Elroy Bundy's ground-breaking work Studia Pindarica[13] led to a change in scholarly opinion—the Odes were no longer seen as expressions of Pindar's personal thoughts and feelings, but rather as public statements "dedicated to the single purpose of eulogizing men and communities."[14] It has been claimed that biographical interpretations of the poems are due to a "fatal conjunction" of historicism and Romanticism.[15] In other words, we know almost nothing about Pindar's life based on either traditional sources or his own poems. However, the pendulum of intellectual fashion has begun to change direction again, and cautious use of the poems for some biographical purposes is considered acceptable once more.[16][17][18][19] πολλὰ γὰρ πολλᾷ λέλεκται: νεαρὰ δ᾽ ἐξευ- ρόντα δόμεν βασάνῳ ἐς ἔλεγχον, ἅπας κίνδυνος.[20][21] Story is vast in range: new ways to find and test upon the touchstone, Here danger lies.[nb 1][22] Life[edit] Infancy to adulthood[edit] Pindar was born in circa 518 BC (the 65th Olympiad) in Cynoscephalae, a village in Boeotia, not far from Thebes. His father's name is variously given as Daiphantus, Pagondas or Scopelinus, and his mother's name was Cleodice.[11] It is told that he was stung on the mouth by a bee in his youth and this was the reason he became a poet of honey-like verses (an identical fate has been ascribed to other poets of the archaic period). Pindar was about twenty years old in 498 BC when he was commissioned by the ruling family in Thessaly to compose his first victory ode (Pythian 10). He studied the art of lyric poetry in Athens, where his tutor was Lasos of Hermione, and he is also said to have received some helpful criticism from Corinna. The early-to-middle years of Pindar's career coincided with the Greco-Persian Wars during the reigns of Darius and Xerxes. This period included the first Persian invasion of Greece, which ending at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC, and second Persian invasion of Greece (480-479 BC).[23][24] During the second invasion, when Pindar was almost forty years old, Thebes was occupied by Xerxes' general, Mardonius, who with many Theban aristocrats subsequently perished at the Battle of Plataea. It is possible that Pindar spent much of this time at Aegina. His choice of residence during the earlier invasion in 490 BC is not known, but he was able to attend the Pythian Games for that year, where he first met the Sicilian prince, Thrasybulus, nephew of Theron of Acragas. Thrasybulus had driven the winning chariot and he and Pindar were to form a lasting friendship, paving the way for his subsequent visit to Sicily. Middle age[edit] Pindar seems to have used his odes to advance his, and his friends', personal interests.[25] In 462 BC he composed two odes in honour of Arcesilas, king of Cyrene, (Pythians 4 and 5), pleading for the return from exile of a friend, Demophilus. In the latter ode Pindar proudly mentions his own ancestry, which he shared with the king, as an Aegeid or descendant of Aegeus, the legendary king of Athens. The clan was influential in many parts of the Greek world, having intermarried with ruling families in Thebes, in Lacedaemonia, and in cities that claimed Lacedaemonian descent, such as Cyrene and Thera. The historian Herodotus considered the clan important enough to deserve mention (Histories IV.147). Membership of this clan possibly contributed to Pindar's success as a poet, and it informed his political views, which are marked by a conservative preference for oligarchic governments of the Doric kind. "Pindar might not actually claim to be an Aegeid since his 'I' statements do not necessarily refer to himself. The Aegeid clan did however have a branch in Thebes, and his reference to 'my ancestors' in Pythian 5 could have been spoken on behalf of both Arcesilas and himself – he may have used this ambivalence to establish a personal link with his patrons."[26] He was possibly the Theban proxenos or consul for Aegina and/or Molossia, as indicated in another of his odes, Nemean 7,[27][28][29][30] in which he glorifies Neoptolemus, a national hero of Aegina and Molossia. According to tradition, Neoptolemus died disgracefully in a fight with priests at the temple in Delphi over their share of some sacrificial meat. Pindar diplomatically glosses over this and concludes mysteriously with an earnest protestation of innocence – "But shall my heart never admit that I with words none can redeem dishonoured Neoptolemus".[clarification needed] Possibly he was responding to anger among Aeginetans and/or Molossians over his portrayal of Neoptolemus in an earlier poem, Paean 6, which had been commissioned by the priests at Delphi and which depicted the hero's death in traditional terms, as divine retribution for his crimes. "Some doubt this biographical interpretation of Nemean 7 since it is largely based on marginal comments by scholiasts and Pindaric scholiasts are often unreliable. The fact that Pindar gave different versions of the myth may simply reflect the needs of different genres, and does not necessarily indicate a personal dilemma.[31] Nemean 7 in fact is the most controversial and obscure of Pindar's victory odes, and scholars ancient and modern have been ingenious and imaginative in their attempts to explain it, so far with no agreed success."[32] In his first Pythian ode, composed in 470 BC in honour of the Sicilian tyrant Hieron, Pindar celebrated a series of victories by Greeks against foreign invaders: Athenian and Spartan-led victories against Persia at Salamis and Plataea, and victories by the western Greeks led by Theron of Acragas and Hieron against the Carthaginians and Etruscans at the battles of Himera and Cumae. Such celebrations were not appreciated by his fellow Thebans: they had sided with the Persians and had incurred many losses and privations as a result of their defeat. His praise of Athens with such epithets as bulwark of Hellas (fragment 76) and city of noble name and sunlit splendour (Nemean 5) induced the authorities in Thebes to fine him 5000 drachmae, to which the Athenians are said to have responded with a gift of 10000 drachmae. According to another account,[33] the Athenians even made him their proxenus or consul in Thebes. His association with the fabulously rich Hieron was another source of annoyance at home. It was probably in response to Theban sensitivities over this issue that he denounced the rule of tyrants (i.e. rulers like Hieron) in an ode composed shortly after a visit to Hieron's sumptuous court in 476–75 BC (Pythian 11).[34] "Pindar's actual phrasing in Pythian 11 was "I deplore the lot of tyrants" and though this was traditionally interpreted as an apology for his dealings with Sicilian tyrants like Hieron, an alternative date for the ode has led some scholars to conclude that it was in fact a covert reference to the tyrannical behaviour of the Athenians, although this interpretation is ruled out if we accept the earlier note about covert references. According to yet another interpretation Pindar is simply delivering a formulaic warning to the successful athlete to avoid hubris.[17] It is highly unlikely that Pindar ever acted for Athenians as their proxenus or consul in Thebes."[35] Lyric verse was conventionally accompanied by music and dance, and Pindar himself wrote the music and choreographed the dances for his victory odes. Sometimes he trained the performers at his home in Thebes, and sometimes he trained them at the venue where they performed. Commissions took him to all parts of the Greek world – to the Panhellenic festivals in mainland Greece (Olympia, Delphi, Corinth and Nemea), westwards to Sicily, eastwards to the seaboard of Asia Minor, north to Macedonia and Abdera (Paean 2) and south to Cyrene on the African coast. Other poets at the same venues vied with him for the favours of patrons. His poetry sometimes reflects this rivalry. For example, Olympian 2 and Pythian 2, composed in honour of the Sicilian tyrants Theron and Hieron following his visit to their courts in 476–75 BC, refer respectively to ravens and an ape, apparently signifying rivals who were engaged in a campaign of smears against him – possibly the poets Simonides and his nephew Bacchylides.[36] Pindar's original treatment of narrative myth, often relating events in reverse chronological order, is said to have been a favourite target for criticism.[37] Simonides was known to charge high fees for his work and Pindar is said to have alluded to this in Isthmian 2, where he refers to the Muse as "a hireling journeyman". He appeared in many poetry competitions and was defeated five times by his compatriot, the poet Corinna, in revenge of which he called her Boeotian sow in one of his odes (Olympian 6. 89f.). "It was assumed by ancient sources that Pindar's odes were performed by a chorus, but this has been challenged by some modern scholars, who argue that the odes were in fact performed solo.[38] It is not known how commissions were arranged, nor if the poet travelled widely: even when poems include statements like "I have come" it is not certain that this was meant literally.[39] Uncomplimentary references to Bacchylides and Simonides were found by scholiasts but there is no reason to accept their interpretation of the odes.[40] In fact, some scholars have interpreted the allusions to fees in Isthmian 2 as a request by Pindar for payment of fees owed to himself.[41] His defeats by Corinna were probably invented by ancient commentators to account for the Boeotian sow remark, a phrase moreover that was completely misunderstood by scholiasts, since Pindar was scoffing at a reputation that all Boeotians had for stupidity."[42] Old age and death[edit] His fame as a poet drew Pindar into Greek politics. Athens, the most important city in Greece throughout his poetic career, was a rival of his home city, Thebes, and also of the island state Aegina, whose leading citizens commissioned about a quarter of his Victory Odes. There is no open condemnation of the Athenians in any of his poems but criticism is implied. For example, the victory ode mentioned above (Pythian 8) describes the downfall of the giants Porphyrion and Typhon and this might be Pindar's way of covertly celebrating a recent defeat of Athens by Thebes at the Battle of Coronea (447 BC).[43] The poem ends with a prayer for Aegina's freedom, long threatened by Athenian ambitions. Covert criticism of Athens (traditionally located in odes such as Pythian 8, Nemean 8 and Isthmian 7) is now dismissed as highly unlikely, even by scholars who allow some biographical and historical interpretations of the poems.[44] One of his last odes (Pythian 8) indicates that he lived near a shrine to the oracle Alcmaeon and that he stored some of his wealth there. In the same ode he says that he had recently received a prophecy from Alcmaeon during a journey to Delphi ("...he met me and proved the skills of prophecy that all his race inherit")[45] but he does not reveal what the long-dead prophet said to him nor in what form he appeared.[nb 2] The ode was written to commemorate a victory by an athlete from Aegina. "Pindar doesn't necessarily mean himself when he uses the first person singular. Many of his 'I' statements are generic, indicating somebody engaged in the role of a singer i.e. a 'bardic' I. Other 'I' statements articulate values typical of the audience, and some are spoken on behalf of the subjects celebrated in the poems.[46] The 'I' that received the prophecy in Pythian 8 therefore might have been the athlete from Aegina, not Pindar. In that case the prophecy must have been about his performance at the Pythian Games, and the property stored at the shrine was just a votive offering."[47] Nothing is recorded about Pindar's wife and son except their names, Megacleia and Daiphantus. About ten days before he died, the goddess Persephone appeared to him and complained that she was the only divinity to whom he had never composed a hymn. She said he would come to her soon and compose one then. Pindar lived to about eighty years of age. He died around 438 BC while attending a festival at Argos. His ashes were taken back home to Thebes by his musically-gifted daughters, Eumetis and Protomache. Post mortem[edit] One of Pindar's female relatives claimed that he dictated some verses to her in honour of Persephone after he had been dead for several days. Some of Pindar's verses were inscribed in letters of gold on a temple wall in Lindos, Rhodes. At Delphi, where he had been elected a priest of Apollo, the priests exhibited an iron chair on which he used to sit during the festival of the Theoxenia. Every night, while closing the temple doors, they intoned: "Let Pindar the poet go unto the supper of the gods!" Pindar's house in Thebes became one of the city's landmarks. When Alexander the Great demolished Thebes in 335 BC, as punishment for its resistance to Macedonian expansionism, he ordered the house be left intact out of gratitude for verses praising his ancestor, Alexander I of Macedon.[48] Values and beliefs[edit] Pindar's values and beliefs have been inferred from his poetry. No other ancient Greek poet has left so many comments about the nature of his art. He justified and exalted choral poetry at a time when society was turning away from it. It "...had for two centuries reflected and shaped the sentiments, the outlook, and the convictions of the Greek aristocracies...and Pindar spoke up for it with passionate assurance".[49] His poetry is a meeting ground for gods, heroes and men – even the dead are spoken of as participants: "Deep in the earth their heart listens".[50] His view of the gods is traditional but more self-consistent than Homer's and more reverent. He never depicts gods in a demeaning role. He seems indifferent to the intellectual reforms that were shaping the theology of the times. Thus an eclipse is not a mere physical effect, as contemplated by early thinkers such as Thales, Anaximander and Heraclitus, nor was it even a subject for bold wonder, as it was for an earlier poet, Archilochus;[51] instead Pindar treated an eclipse as a portent of evil.[nb 3][52][53] Gods are the embodiment of power, uncompromisingly proud of their nature and violent in defense of their privileges.[54][55] There is some rationalization of religious belief, but it is within a tradition at least as old as Hesiod, where abstractions are personified, such as "Truth the daughter of Zeus".[56] Sometimes the wording suggests a belief in 'God' rather than 'a god' (e.g. "What is God? Everything"),[nb 4] but the implications are not given full expression and the poems are not examples of monotheism.[citation needed] Nor do they vocalize a belief in Fate as the background to the gods, unlike the plays of Aeschylus for example. Pindar subjects both fortune and fate to divine will (e.g. "child of Zeus...Fortune").[57][53][58][59][60] A short Heracles: Pindar once ignored the traditional image of Heracles, the supreme example of the heroic physique, and described him as short in order to compare him with a short patron. He selects and revises traditional myths so as not to diminish the dignity and majesty of the gods. Such revisionism was not unique. Xenophanes had castigated Homer and Hesiod for the misdeeds they ascribed to gods, such as theft, adultery and deception, and Pythagoras had envisioned those two poets being punished in Hades for blasphemy. A subtle example of Pindar's approach can be found in his treatment of the myth of Apollo's rape of the nymph Cyrene.[61] As the god of the Delphic oracle, Apollo is all-knowing, yet in keeping with his anthropomorphic nature he seeks information about the nymph from a third party, in this case the centaur Chiron. Chiron however affirms the god's omniscience with an elegant compliment, as if Apollo had only pretended to be ignorant: "You, Sire, who know the appointed end of all, and all paths..."[nb 5][62] Apollo's abduction of the nymph is not presented as a shameful act. Pindar's gods are above such ethical issues and it is not for men to judge them by ordinary human standards. Indeed, the finest breeds of men resulted from divine passions: "For Pindar a mortal woman who is loved by a god is an outstanding lesson in divine favours handsomely bestowed".[63][64] Being descendants of divine unions with privileged mortals, mythical heroes are an intermediate group between gods and men, and they are sympathetic to human ambitions. Thus, for example, Pindar not only invokes Zeus for help on behalf of the island of Aegina but also its national heroes Aeacus, Peleus and Telamon.[65] Unlike the gods, however, heroes can be judged according to ordinary human standards and they are sometimes shown in the poems to demean themselves. Even in that case, they receive special consideration. Thus Pindar refers obliquely to the murder of Phocus by his brothers Peleus and Telamon ("I am shy of speaking of a huge risk, hazarded not in right"), telling the audience that he will not talk of it ("silence is a man's wisest counsel").[nb 6][66][67] The Theban hero Heracles was a favourite subject but in one poem he is depicted as small in order to be compared with a small Theban patron who had won the pankration at the Isthmian Games:[68] a unique example of Pindar's readiness to shape traditional myths to fit the occasion, even if not always flattering to the mythical hero. A hero's status is not diminished by an occasional blemish but rests on a summary view of his heroic exploits.[69][70][71] Some of his patrons claimed divine descent, such as Diagoras of Rhodes, but Pindar makes all men akin to gods if they realize their full potential: their innate gifts are divinely bestowed, and even then success still depends on the gods' active favour. In honouring such men, therefore, Pindar was honouring the gods too.[72][66][73] His statements about life after death were not self-consistent but that was typical for the times. Traditional ambivalence, as expressed by Homer, had been complicated by a growth of religious sects, such as the Eleusinian mysteries and Pythagoreanism, representing various schemes of rewards and punishments in the next life. However, for the poet, glory and lasting fame were men's greatest assurance of a life well-lived.[74] He presents no theory of history apart from the view that Fortune is variable even for the best men, an outlook suited to moderation in success, courage in adversity. Notions of 'good' and 'bad' in human nature were not analysed by him in any depth nor did he arrive at anything like the compassionate ethics of his near contemporary, Simonides of Ceos.[75][76][77] His poems are indifferent to the ordinary mass of people. They are dismissed with phrases such as "the brute multitude" (Pythian Ode 2.87). Nor are the poems concerned with the fate of rich and powerful men once they lose their wealth and social status (compared for example with the bitter and disillusioned poems of Theognis of Megara). They are more interested in what successful men do with their good fortune: success brings obligations, and religious and artistic activities need patrons.[78][79][80][81] Whereas the Muses inspired Homer with relevant information and with the language to express it, Pindar seems to receive only their inspiration: his role is to shape that inspiration with his own wisdom and skill. Like his patrons, whom he immortalizes in verse, he owes his success to hard work as well as to innate gifts; though he hires himself out, he has a vocation. The Muses are to him as an oracle is to a prophet, and lesser poets are to him as ravens are to an eagle; the art of such men is as hackneyed as garland-making; his is magical:[82][83][84][85] εἴρειν στεφάνους ἐλαφρόν: ἀναβάλεο: Μοῖσά τοι κολλᾷ χρυσὸν ἔν τε λευκὸν ἐλέφανθ᾽ ἁμᾷ καὶ λείριον ἄνθεμον ποντίας ὑφελοῖσ᾽ ἐέρσας. To plait garlands is easy. Strike up! The Muse Welds together gold and white ivory And the lily-flower snatched from the sea's dew.[86][87] Works[edit] Pindar's strongly individual genius is apparent in all his extant compositions but, unlike Simonides and Stesichorus for example, he created no new lyrical genres.[88] He was however innovative in his use of the genres he inherited – for example, in one of his victory odes (Olympian 3), he announces his invention of a new type of musical accompaniment, combining lyre, flute and human voice (though our knowledge of Greek music is too sketchy to allow us to understand the full nature of this innovation).[89] Although he probably spoke Boeotian Greek he composed in a literary language that tended to rely more on the Doric dialect than his rival Bacchylides, but less insistently than Alcman. There is an admixture of other dialects, especially Aeolic and epic forms, and an occasional use of some Boeotian words.[90] He composed 'choral' songs yet it is by no means certain that they were all sung by choirs – the use of choirs is testified only by the generally unreliable scholiasts.[91] Scholars at the Library of Alexandria collected his compositions in seventeen books organized according to genre:[92] 1 book of hymnoi – "hymns" 1 book of paianes – "paeans" 2 books of dithyramboi – "dithyrambs" 2 books of prosodia – "processionals" 3 books of parthenia – "songs for maidens" 2 books of hyporchemata – "songs for light dances" 1 book of enkomia – "songs of praise" 1 book of threnoi – "laments" 4 books of epinikia – "victory odes" Of this vast and varied corpus, only the epinikia – odes written to commemorate athletic victories – survive in complete form; the rest survive only by quotations in other ancient authors or from papyrus scraps unearthed in Egypt. Even in fragmentary form however they reveal the same complexity of thought and language that are found in the victory odes.[93] Dionysius of Halicarnassus singled out Pindar's work as an outstanding example of austere style (αὐστηρὰ ἁρμονία) but he noted its absence in the maiden songs or parthenia. One surviving fragment of a maiden song does seem to be different in tone, due however to the fact that it is spoken in the character of a girl:[94][95][96] ἐμὲ δὲ πρέπει παρθενήια μὲν φρονεῖν γλώσσᾳ τε λέγεσθαι. emè dè prépei parthenḗia mèn phroneîn glṓssāi te légesthai. I must think maidenly thoughts And utter them with my tongue.[96][53][97][98] Enough of his dithyrambic poetry survives for comparison with that of Bacchylides, who used it for narrative. Pindar's dithyrambs are an exuberant display of religious feeling, capturing the wild spirit of Dionysus and pointing forward to the ecstatic songs of Euripides' Bacchae. In one of these, dedicated to the Athenians and written to be sung in Spring, he depicts the divine energy of the revitalized world.[99][100] φοινικοεάνων ὁπότ' οἰχθέντος Ὡρᾶν θαλάμου εὔοδμον ἐπάγοισιν ἐάρ φυτὰ νεκτάρεα. τότε βάλλεται, τότ' ἐπ' ἀμβρόταν χθόν' ἐραταί ἴων φόβαι, ῥόδα τε κόμαισι μείγνυται, ἀχεῖ τ' ὀμφαὶ μελέων σὺν αὐλοῖς οἰχνεῖ τε Σεμέλαν ἑλικάμπυκα χοροί. phoinikoeánōn hopót' oikhthéntos Hōrân thalámou eúodmon epágoisin eár phutà nektárea. tóte bálletai, tót' ep' ambrótan khthón' erataí íōn phóbai, rhóda te kómaisi meígnutai, akheî t' omphaì meléōn sùn auloîs oikhneî te Semélan helikámpuka khoroí. When the chamber of the scarlet-clothed Hours is opened And the nectareous flowers usher in the fragrant spring, Then are scattered, then, on the immortal ground The lovely petals of violets; roses are wound in our hair; Loudly echo the voices of songs to the flutes, And choirs step in procession to dark-ribboned Semele.[100][101][87][102][103][104][105] Victory odes[edit] The so-called 'Farnese Diadumenos' is a Roman copy of a Greek original attributed to Polykleitos c. 440 BC, depicting an athlete tying a victory ribbon round his head. Almost all Pindar's victory odes are celebrations of triumphs gained by competitors in Panhellenic festivals such as the Olympian Games. The establishment of these athletic and musical festivals was among the greatest achievements of the Greek aristocracies. Even in the 5th century BC, when there was an increased tendency towards professionalism, they were predominantly aristocratic assemblies, reflecting the expense and leisure needed to attend such events either as a competitor or spectator. Attendance was an opportunity for display and self-promotion, and the prestige of victory, requiring commitment in time and/or wealth, went far beyond anything that accrues to athletic victories today, even in spite of the modern preoccupation with sport.[106] Pindar's odes capture something of the prestige and the aristocratic grandeur of the moment of victory, as in this stanza from one of his Isthmian Odes, here translated by Geoffrey S. Conway: If ever a man strives With all his soul's endeavour, sparing himself Neither expense nor labour to attain True excellence, then must we give to those Who have achieved the goal, a proud tribute Of lordly praise, and shun All thoughts of envious jealousy. To a poet's mind the gift is slight, to speak A kind word for unnumbered toils, and build For all to share a monument of beauty. (Isthmian I, antistrophe 3)[107] His victory odes are grouped into four books named after the Olympian, Pythian, Isthmian, and Nemean Games – Panhellenic festivals held respectively at Olympia, Delphi, Corinth and Nemea. This reflects the fact that most of the odes were composed in honour of boys, youths, and men who had recently enjoyed victories in athletic (and sometimes musical) contests at those festivals. In a few odes however much older victories, and even victories in lesser games, are celebrated, often as a pretext for addressing other issues or achievements. For example, Pythian 3, composed in honour of Hieron of Syracuse, briefly mentions a victory he had once enjoyed at the Pythian Games, but it is actually intended to console him for his chronic illness (similarly, Pythian 2 is like a private letter in its intimacy).[108] Nemean 9 and Nemean 10 celebrate victories in games at Sicyon and Argos, and Nemean 11 celebrates a victory in a municipal election on Tenedos (though it also mentions some obscure athletic victories). These three odes are the final odes in the Nemean book of odes, and there is a reason for their inclusion. In the original manuscripts, the four books of odes were arranged in the order of importance assigned to the festivals, with the Nemean festival, considered least important, coming last. Victory odes that lacked a Panhellenic subject were then bundled together at the end of the book of Nemean odes.[109] Style[edit] Pindar's poetic style is very distinctive, even when the peculiarities of the genre are set aside. The odes typically feature a grand and arresting opening, often with an architectural metaphor or a resounding invocation to a place or goddess. He makes rich use of decorative language and florid compound adjectives.[110] Sentences are compressed to the point of obscurity, unusual words and periphrases give the language an esoteric quality, and transitions in meaning often seem erratic, the images seem to burst out – it is a style that sometimes baffles but also makes his poetry vivid and unforgettable.[111] Pindar's power does not lie in the pedigrees of ... athletes ... It lies in a splendour of phrase and imagery that suggests the gold and purple of a sunset sky. – F. L. Lucas[112] He has that force of imagination which can bring clear-cut and dramatic figures of gods and heroes into vivid relief...he has that peculiar and inimitable splendour of style which, though sometimes aided by magnificent novelties of diction, is not dependent on them, but can work magical effects with simple words; he has also, at frequent moments, a marvellous swiftness, alike in the succession of images, and in the transitions from thought to thought; and his tone is that of a prophet who can speak with a voice as of Delphi. – Richard Claverhouse Jebb[88] His odes were animated by... one burning glow which darted out a shower of brilliant images, leapt in a white-hot spark across gaps unbridgeable by thought, passed through a commonplace leaving it luminous and transparent, melted a group of heterogeneous ideas into a shortlived unity and, as suddenly as a flame, died. – Gilbert Highet[113] Some of these qualities can be found, for example, in this stanza from Pythian 2, composed in honour of Hieron: θεὸς ἅπαν ἐπὶ ἐλπίδεσσι τέκμαρ ἀνύεται, θεός, ὃ καὶ πτερόεντ᾽ αἰετὸν κίχε, καὶ θαλασ- :σαῖον παραμείβεται δελφῖνα, καὶ ὑψιφρόνων τιν᾽ ἔκαμψε βροτῶν, ἑτέροισι δὲ κῦδος ἀγήραον παρέδωκ᾽. ἐμὲ δὲ χρεὼν φεύγειν δάκος ἀδινὸν κακαγοριᾶν. εἶδον γὰρ ἑκὰς ἐὼν τὰ πόλλ᾽ ἐν ἀμαχανίᾳ ψογερὸν Ἀρχίλοχον βαρυλόγοις ἔχθεσιν πιαινόμενον: τὸ πλουτεῖν δὲ σὺν τύχᾳ πό- :τμου σοφίας ἄριστον. [114] God achieves all his purpose and fulfills his every hope, God who can overtake the winged eagle, or upon the sea outstrip the dolphin; and he bends the arrogant heart of many a man, But gives to others eternal glory that will never fade. Now for me Is it needful that I shun the fierce and biting tooth of slanderous words. For from old have I seen sharp-tongued Archilochus in want and struggling, Grown fat on the harsh words of hate. The best that fate can bring is wealth joined with the happy gift of wisdom.[115] The stanza begins with a celebration of divine power, and then abruptly shifts to a darker, more allusive train of thought, featuring condemnation of a renowned poet, Archilochus, Grown fat on the harsh words of hate. Archilochus was an iambic poet, working within a genre that licensed abusive and scurrilous verse – a regrettable tendency from the viewpoint of Pindar, whose own persona is intensely earnest, preaching to Hieron the need for moderation (wealth with wisdom) and submission to the divine will. The reference to the embittered poet appears to be Pindar's meditative response to some intrigues at Hieron's court, possibly by his rivals, condemned elsewhere as a pair of ravens (Olympian 2). The intensity of the stanza suggests that it is the culmination and climax of the poem. In fact, the stanza occupies the middle of Pythian 2 and the intensity is sustained throughout the poem from beginning to end. It is the sustained intensity of his poetry that Quintilian refers to above as a rolling flood of eloquence and Horace below refers to as the uncontrollable momentum of a river that has burst its banks. Longinus likens him to a vast fire[116] and Athenaeus refers to him as the great-voiced Pindar.[117] Pindar's treatment of myth is another unique aspect of his style, often involving variations on the traditional stories,[118] since his original audience was familiar with the myths and this allowed him to concentrate on unique and surprising effects. Reversing the chronological order was one such effect, as in Olympian VII dedicated to Diagoras of Rhodes, but this could also resemble a circular pattern, beginning with a culminating event, followed by scenes leading up to it, and ending with its restatement, as in his account of the Dioscuri in Nemean 10.[119] Myths enabled him to develop the themes and lessons that pre-occupy him – in particular mankind's exulted relation with the gods via heroic ancestors and, in contrast, the limitations and uncertainties of human existence – but sometimes the traditional stories were an embarrassment and were carefully edited, as for example: "Be still my tongue: here profits not / to tell the whole truth with clear face unveiled," (Nemean 5, epode 1); "Away, away this story! / Let no such tale fall from my lips! / For to insult the gods is a fool's wisdom," (Olympian 9, strophe 2); "Senseless, I hold it, for a man to say / the gods eat mortal flesh. / I spurn the thought," (Olympian 1, epode 2).[120] His mythical accounts are edited for dramatic and graphic effects, usually unfolding through a few grand gestures against a background of large, often symbolic elements such as sea, sky, darkness, fire or mountain.[110] Structure[edit] Pindar's odes typically begin with an invocation to a god or the Muses, followed by praise of the victor and often of his family, ancestors and home-town. Then follows a narrated myth, usually occupying the central and longest section of the poem, which exemplify a moral, while aligning the poet and his audience with the world of gods and heroes.[121] The ode usually ends in more eulogies, for example of trainers (if the victor is a boy), and of relatives who have won past events, as well as with prayers or expressions of hope for future success.[122] The event where the victory was gained is never described in detail, but there is often some mention of the hard work needed to bring the victory about. A lot of modern criticism tries to find hidden structure or some unifying principle within the odes. 19th century criticism favoured 'gnomic unity' i.e. that each ode is bound together by the kind of moralizing or philosophic vision typical of archaic Gnomic poetry. Later critics sought unity in the way certain words or images are repeated and developed within a particular ode. For others, the odes are just celebrations of men and their communities, in which the elements such as myths, piety, and ethics are stock themes that the poet introduces without much real thought. Some conclude that the requirement for unity is too modern to have informed Pindar's ancient approach to a traditional craft.[90] The great majority of the odes are triadic in structure – i.e., stanzas are grouped together in three's as a lyrical unit. Each triad comprises two stanzas identical in length and meter (called 'strophe' and 'antistrophe') and a third stanza (called an 'epode'), differing in length and meter but rounding off the lyrical movement in some way. The shortest odes comprise a single triad, the largest (Pythian 4) comprises thirteen triads. Seven of the odes however are monostrophic (i.e., each stanza in the ode is identical in length and meter). The monostrophic odes seem to have been composed for victory marches or processions, whereas the triadic odes appear suited to choral dances.[122] Pindar's metrical rhythms are nothing like the simple, repetitive rhythms familiar to readers of English verse – typically the rhythm of any given line recurs infrequently (for example, only once every ten, fifteen or twenty lines). This adds to the aura of complexity that surrounds Pindar's work. In terms of meter, the odes fall roughly into two categories – about half are in dactylo-epitrites (a meter found for example in the works of Stesichorus, Simonides and Bacchylides) and the other half are in Aeolic metres based on iambs and choriambs.[90] Chronological order[edit] Modern editors (e.g., Snell and Maehler in their Teubner edition), have assigned dates, securely or tentatively, to Pindar's victory odes, based on ancient sources and other grounds. The date of an athletic victory is not always the date of composition but often serves merely as a terminus post quem. Many dates are based on comments by ancient sources who had access to published lists of victors, such as the Olympic list compiled by Hippias of Elis, and lists of Pythian victors made by Aristotle and Callisthenes. There were however no such lists for the Isthmian and Nemean Games[123] – Pausanias (6.13.8) complained that the Corinthians and Argives never kept proper records. The resulting uncertainty is reflected in the chronology below, with question marks clustered around Nemean and Isthmian entries, and yet it still represents a fairly clear general timeline of Pindar's career as an epinician poet. The code M denotes monostrophic odes (odes in which all stanzas are metrically identical) and the rest are triadic (i.e. featuring strophes, antistrophes, epodes): Estimated chronological order Date BC Ode Victor Event Focusing Myth 498 Pythian 10 Hippocles of Thessaly Boy's long foot-race Perseus, Hyperboreans 490 Pythian 6 (M) Xenocrates of Acragas Chariot-race Antilochus, Nestor 490 Pythian 12 (M) Midas of Acragas Flute-Playing Perseus, Medusa 488 (?) Olympian 14 (M) Asopichus of Orchomenus Boys' foot-race None 486 Pythian 7 Megacles of Athens Chariot-race None 485 (?) Nemean 2 (M) Timodemus of Acharnae Pancration None 485 (?) Nemean 7 Sogenes of Aegina Boys' Pentathlon Neoptolemus 483 (?) Nemean 5 Pythias of Aegina Youth's Pancration Peleus, Hippolyta, Thetis 480 Isthmian 6 Phylacides of Aegina Pancration Heracles, Telamon 478 (?) Isthmian 5 Phylacides of Aegina Pancration Aeacids, Achilles 478 Isthmian 8 (M) Cleandrus of Aegina Pancration Zeus, Poseidon, Thetis 476 Olympian 1 Hieron of Syracuse Horse-race Pelops 476 Olympians 2 & 3 Theron of Acragas Chariot-race 2.Isles of the Blessed 3.Heracles, Hyperboreans 476 Olympian 11 Agesidamus of Epizephyrian Locris Boys' Boxing Match Heracles, founding of Olympian Games 476 (?) Nemean 1 Chromius of Aetna Chariot-race Infant Heracles 475 (?) Pythian 2 Hieron of Syracuse Chariot-race Ixion 475 (?) Nemean 3 Aristocleides of Aegina Pancration Aeacides, Achilles 474 (?) Olympian 10 Agesidamus of Epizephyrian Locris Boys' Boxing Match None 474 (?) Pythian 3 Hieron of Syracuse Horse-race Asclepius 474 Pythian 9 Telesicrates of Cyrene Foot-race in armour Apollo, Cyrene 474 Pythian 11 Thrasydaeus of Thebes Boys' short foot-race Orestes, Clytemnestra 474 (?) Nemean 9 (M) Chromius of Aetna Chariot-race Seven against Thebes 474/3 (?) Isthmian 3 & 4 Melissus of Thebes Chariot race & pancration 3.None 4.Heracles, Antaeus 473 (?) Nemean 4 (M) Timisarchus of Aegina Boys' Wrestling Match Aeacids, Peleus, Thetis 470 Pythian 1 Hieron of Aetna Chariot-race Typhon 470 (?) Isthmian 2 Xenocrates of Acragas Chariot-race None 468 Olympian 6 Agesias of Syracuse Chariot-race with mules Iamus 466 Olympian 9 Epharmus of Opous Wrestling-Match Deucalion, Pyrrha 466 Olympian 12 Ergoteles of Himera Long foot-race Fortune 465 (?) Nemean 6 Alcimidas of Aegina Boys' Wrestling Match Aeacides, Achilles, Memnon 464 Olympian 7 Diagoras of Rhodes Boxing-Match Tlepolemus 464 Olympian 13 Xenophon of Corinth Short foot-race & pentathlon Bellerophon, Pegasus 462/1 Pythian 4 & 5 Arcesilas of Cyrene Chariot-race 4.Argonauts 5.Battus 460 Olympian 8 Alcimidas of Aegina Boys' Wrestling-Match Aeacus, Troy 459 (?) Nemean 8 Deinis of Aegina Foot-race Ajax 458 (?) Isthmian 1 Herodotus of Thebes Chariot-race Castor, Iolaus 460 or 456 (?) Olympian 4 & 5 Psaumis of Camarina Chariot-race with mules 4.Erginus 5.None 454 (?) Isthmian 7 Strepsiades of Thebes Pancration None 446 Pythian 8 Aristomenes of Aegina Wrestling-Match Amphiaraus 446 (?) Nemean 11 Aristagoras of Tenedos Inauguration as Prytanis None 444 (?) Nemean 10 Theaius of Argos Wrestling-Match Castor, Pollux Manuscripts, shreds and quotes[edit] Pindar's verses have come down to us in a variety of ways. Some are only preserved as fragments via quotes by ancient sources and papyri unearthed by archeologists, as at Oxyrhynchus – in fact the extant works of most of the other canonic lyric poets have survived only in this tattered form. Pindar's extant verses are unique in that the bulk of them – the victory odes – have been preserved in a manuscript tradition, i.e., generations of scribes copying from earlier copies, possibly originating in a single archetypal copy and sometimes graphically demonstrated by modern scholars in the form of a stemma codicum, resembling a 'family tree'. Pindar's victory odes are preserved in just two manuscripts, but incomplete collections are located in many others, and all date from the mediaeval period. Some scholars have traced a stemma through these manuscripts, for example Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, who inferred from them the existence of a common source or archetype dated no earlier than the 2nd century AD, while others, such as C.M. Bowra, have argued that there are too many discrepancies between manuscripts to identify a specific lineage, even while accepting the existence of an archetype. Otto Schroeder identified two families of manuscripts but, following on the work of Polish-born classicist, Alexander Turyn,[124] Bowra rejected this also.[125] Different scholars interpret the extant manuscripts differently. Bowra for example singled out seven manuscripts as his primary sources (see below), all featuring errors and/or gaps due to loss of folios and careless copying, and one arguably characterized by the dubious interpolations of Byzantine scholars. These he cross-referenced and then supplemented or verified by reference to other, still more doubtful manuscripts, and some papyrus fragments – a combination of sources on which he based his own edition of the odes and fragments. His general method of selection he defined as follows: Where all the codices agree, there perhaps the true reading shines out. Where however they differ, the preferred reading is that which best fits the sense, meter, scholia and grammatic conventions. Wherever moreover two or more readings of equal weight are found in the codices, I have chosen that which smacks most of Pindar. Yet this difficulty rarely occurs, and in many places the true reading will be found if you examine and compare the language of the codices with that of other Greek poets and especially of Pindar himself.[126] Selected manuscripts – a sample of preferred sources (Bowra's choice, 1947) Code Source Format Date Comments A codex Ambrosianus C 222inf. paper 35×25.5 cm 13–14th century Comprises Olympian Odes 1–12, with some unique readings that Bowra considered reliable, and including scholia. B codex Vaticanus graeca 1312 silk 24.3×18.4 cm 13th century Comprises odes Olympian 1 to Isthmian 8 (entire corpus), but with some leaves and verses missing, and includes scholia; Zacharias Callierges based his 1515 Roman edition on it, possibly with access to the now missing material. C codex Parisinus graecus 2774 silk 23×15 cm 14th century Comprises odes Olympian 1 to Pythian 5, including some unique readings but also with many Byzantine interpolations/conjectures (Turyn rejected this codex accordingly), and written in a careless hand. D codex Laurentianus 32, 52 silk 27×19 cm 14th century Comprises odes Olympian 1 to Isthmian 8 (entire corpus), including a fragment (Frag. 1) and scholia, written in a careless hand. E codex Laurentianus 32, 37 silk 24×17 cm 14th century Comprises odes Olympian 1 to Pythian 12, largely in agreement with B, including scholia but with last page removed and replaced with paper in a later hand. G codex Gottingensis philologus 29 silk 25×17 cm 13th century Comprises odes Olympian 2 to Pythian 12, largely in agreement with B (thus useful for comparisons), including Olympian 1 added in the 16th century. V codex Parisinus graecus 2403 silk 25×17 cm 14th century Comprises odes Olympian 1 to Nemean 4, including some verses from Nemean 6; like G, useful for supporting and verifying B. Influence and legacy[edit] The influential Alexandrian poet Callimachus was fascinated by Pindar's originality. His masterpiece Aetia (Callimachus)Aetia included an elegy in honour of Queen Berenice, celebrating a chariot victory at the Nemean Games, composed in a style and presented in a manner that recall Pindar.[127] The Hellenistic epic Argonautica, by Apollonius Rhodius, was influenced by some aspects of Pindar's style and his use of episodic vignettes in narrative. The epic concerns the adventures of Jason, also touched on by Pindar in Pythian 4, and both poems link the myth to a Greek audience in Africa.[128] There seems to have been a vogue for Pindaric-style lyrics following the 'publication' of Horace's Odes 1–3 – Horace had mastered other styles such as Sapphic and Alcaeic, which had discouraged his contemporaries from attempting anything in the same form, but he had not composed anything in triadic stanzas in the manner of Pindar.[129] Pindar was much read, quoted, and copied during the Byzantine Era. For example, Christophoros Mytilenaios of the 11th century parodied a chariot race in his sixth poem employing explicit allusions to Pindar.[130] During the 17th and 18th centuries, literary theorists in Europe distinguished between two types of lyric poetry, loosely associated with Horace and Pindar. Regular verses in four line stanzas were associated with Horace's Odes, which did in fact inspire and influence poets of the period. Irregular verses in longer stanzas were termed Pindarics though the association with Pindar was largely fanciful. Abraham Cowley was considered the main exponent of English Pindarics. In fact, the two styles were not always easy to distinguish and many 'Pindaric' odes were quite Horatian in content, as in some poems by Thomas Gray.[131] A 'Pindaric Ode' was composed for the revived 1896 Olympic Games in Athens by the Oxford scholar George Stuart Robinson, and similar compositions were commissioned from and composed by classicist Armand D'Angour for the Athens Olympics in 2004 and the London Olympics in 2012. Horace's tribute[edit] The Latin poet, Quintus Horatius Flaccus, was an admirer of Pindar's style. He described it in one of his Sapphic poems, addressed to a friend, Iullus Antonius: Pindarum quisquis studet aemulari, Iule, ceratis ope Daedalea nititur pennis vitreo daturus nomina ponto. monte decurrens velut amnis, imbres quem super notas aluere ripas, fervet immensusque ruit profundo Pindarus ore. (C.IV.II) Julus, whoever tries to rival Pindar, Flutters on wings of wax, a rude contriver Doomed like the son of Daedalus to christen Somewhere a shining sea. A river bursts its banks and rushes down a Mountain with uncontrollable momentum, Rain-saturated, churning, chanting thunder – There you have Pindar's style.[132] Bowra's tribute[edit] C. M. Bowra, the leading Pindaric scholar of his generation, and the editor of the 1935 O.U.P edition of his poems, summarized Pindar's qualities in the following words: "His innate, unquestioning pride in his poetical mission means that he gives to it all his gifts and all his efforts. The result is a poetry that by any standards deserves the name because it is based on a radiant vision of reality and fashioned with so subtle, so adventurous, and so dedicated an art that it is worthy to be an earthly counterpart of the songs which Pindar regards as the archetype of music on those lofty occasions when all discords are resolved and all misgivings obliterated by the power of the life-giving word."[133] See also[edit] John Wolcot Notes[edit] ^ Pindar (1972) p. 212. The three lines here, and in Bowra's Greek, are actually two lines or stichoi in Greek prosody. Stichoi however are often too long to be preserved as single lines in published form, and they are then broken into metrical units, or cola, the break indicated by indentation. This practice is observed both in Greek and in translations, but it is a modern convenience or preference and it has no historical authority: "...nullam habet apud codices auctoritatem neque veri simile est Pindarum ita carmina manu propria conscripsisse." ^ There are several other accounts of supernatural visitations relating to Pindar (see for example C.M. Bowra, Pindar, pages 49-51). According to a scholium, he and a pupil, Olympichus, once saw a mysterious flame on a mountain, attended by strange noises. Pindar then beheld Rhea, the Mother of the Gods, advancing in the form of a wooden image. Pausanias (9.25.3) reported that he set up a monument near his home, dedicated conjointly to Pan and the Mother of the Gods (Δινδυμήνη). According to Eustathius (Proem. 27, p. 298. 9 Dr) and Vit. Ambr. (p. 2. 2 Dr.), Pan was once heard between Cithaeron and Helicon singing a paean composed to him by Pindar (fr. 85). ^ Paean 9.13-20). The eclipse is mentioned in a fragment quoted by Stobaeus, addressed to the Thebans: Is it some sign of war you bring? / Or blight on crops, or snow-fall's strength / Beyond all telling, or murderous strife at home, / Or emptying of the sea on land, / Or frost binding the earth, or south-wind in summer / With a flood of furious rain, / Or will you drown the land and raise / A new breed of men from the beginning? ^ fr. 129: τί θεός; τὸ πάν ^ Chiron's compliment to Apollo: "You, Sire, who know / The appointed end of all, and all paths: / How many leaves in April the earth puts forth, / How many grains of sand / In the sea and rivers / Are troubled by the waves and the swirling winds, / And what shall be, and whence it shall come / You see with clear eyes." ^ Nemean Odes 5.14–18: I am shy of speaking of a huge risk / Hazarded not in right, / How they left the famous island, / And what fate drove strong men from the Vineland. / I shall halt. Truth does not always / Gain more if unflinching / She reveals her face; / And silence is often a man's wisest counsel. References[edit] ^ The Greek and Roman critics: "The odes of Pindar (518-438B.C.), written for the most part to celebrate victories in athletic contests, are interspersed with moral and philosophical reflections" ^ Quintilian 10.1.61; cf. Pseudo-Longinus 33.5 Archived 2011-08-06 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Eupolis F366 Kock, 398 K/A, from Athenaeus 3a, (Deipnosophistae, epitome of book I) ^ Lawrence Henry Baker (1923). "Some Aspects of Pindar's Style". The Sewanee Review. 31 (1): 100–110. JSTOR 27533621. ^ Gerber, p. 261 ^ de Romilly, p. 37 ^ Bowra, Pythia VIII, lines 95–7 ^ Pindar (1972) p. 144 ^ Pindar (1972) Introduction p. xv ^ Race, p. 4 ^ a b Gerber, p. 253 ^ Morice, pp. 211–15 ^ Escholarship.org ^ E.Bundy, Studia Pindarica, Berkeley (1962), p. 35 ^ Lloyd-Jones, Hugh (1982). "Pindar". Proceedings of the British Academy. 68: 139–163 (145). [permanent dead link] ^ Hornblower 2004, p. 38. ^ a b Hornblower 2004, p. 59. ^ Hornblower 2004, p. 67. ^ Currie, pp. 11–13 ^ Nemean 8, lines 20–21 ^ Bowra 1947. ^ Bowra 1947, p. 9. ^ "Ancient Greece - War - The British Museum". www.ancientgreece.co.uk. Retrieved 2020-07-18. ^ Editors, History com. "Battle of Marathon". HISTORY. Retrieved 2020-07-18.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) ^ Hubbard, T. K. (1992). "Remaking Myth and Rewriting History: Cult Tradition in Pindar's Ninth Nemean'". Harvard Studies in Classical Philology. 94: 77–111 [78]. doi:10.2307/311420. JSTOR 311420. ^ Gerber, p. 270 ^ Hornblower 2004, p. 177. ^ Hornblower 2004, p. 178. ^ Hornblower 2004, p. 179. ^ Hornblower 2004, p. 180. ^ Ian Rutherford, Pindar's Paeans, Oxford University Press (2001), pp. 321–22 ^ Woodbury, Leonard (1979). "Neoptolemus at Delphi: Pindar, Nem.7.30ff". Phoenix. 33 (2): 95–133. doi:10.2307/1087989. JSTOR 1087989. ^ Isocrates 15.166 ^ Pindar (1972) p. 158 ^ Hornblower 2004, p. 57. ^ Pindar (1972) pp. 10, 88–9 ^ Pindar (1972) Introduction p. XIII ^ Hornblower 2004, p. 16. ^ Race, pp. 10–11 ^ David Campbell, Greek Lyric IV, Loeb Classical Library (1992), page 6 ^ Pindar (1972) p. 239 ^ D. Campbell, Greek Lyric IV, p. 2 ^ Pindar (1972), p. 138 ^ Charles Segal, 'Choral Lyric in the Fifth Century', in Easterling, pp. 231–232 ^ Pindar (1972) p. 142 ^ Currie, p. 20 ^ Gerber, pp. 268–269 ^ Plutarch, Life of Alexander 11.6; Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri 1.9.10 ^ Bowra 1964, p. 2. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 38. ^ Archilochus fr. 122 West ^ Bowra 1964, p. 83. ^ a b c Bowra 1964, p. 84. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 42. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 43. ^ Olympic Ode 10.3-4 ^ Olympic Ode 12.1-2) ^ Bowra 1964, p. 85. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 86. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 87. ^ Pythian Ode 9 ^ Bowra 1964, p. 61. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 64. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 65. ^ Pythian Ode 8.99–100 ^ a b Bowra 1964, p. 67. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 68. ^ Isthmian Odes 4.57 ^ Bowra 1964, p. 47. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 48. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 71. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 66. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 96. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 89-96. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 76. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 77. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 120. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 100. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 101. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 102. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 103. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 4. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 5. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 6. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 7. ^ Nemean Ode 7.77-79 ^ a b Bowra 1964, p. 16. ^ a b Jebb, Richard (1905) Bacchylides: the poems and fragments, Cambridge University Press, p. 41 ^ Pindar (1972) p. 17 ^ a b c Gerber, p. 255 ^ Gregory Nagy, Greek Literature in the Hellenistic Period, Routledge (2001), page 66 ^ M.M. Willcock: Pindar: Victory Odes (1995). Cambridge University Press, p. 3. ^ Bowie, p. 110 ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus, de Comp. 22, de Dem. 39 ^ Bowra 1964, p. 193. ^ a b Bowra 1964, p. 363. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 25. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 26. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 62. ^ a b Bowra 1964, p. 63. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 15. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 17. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 18. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 19. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 20. ^ Antony Andrewes, Greek Society, Pelican Books (1971), pp. 219–22 ^ Pindar (1972) p. 235 ^ Pindar (1972), p. 88. 96 ^ Pindar (1972) Introduction p. xx ^ a b Charles Segal, 'Choral Lyric in the Fifth Century', in Easterling, p. 232 ^ de Romilly, p. 38 ^ Lucas, F. L. Greek Poetry for Everyman. Macmillan Company, New York. p. 262. ^ Gilbert Highet, The Classical Tradition, Oxford University Press (1949), p. 225 ^ Bowra, Pythia II 49–56 ^ Pindar (1972) pp. 92–3 ^ De Subl. 33.5 ^ Athenaeus 13.5.64c ^ Bowie, pp. 107–8 ^ Bowra 1964, p. 310. ^ Pindar (1972) pp. 192, 54, 4, respectively ^ Bowie, p. 108 ^ a b Pindar (1972) ^ Currie, p. 25 ^ Miroslav Marcovich (1982). "Alexander Turyn". Gnomon. 54 (1): 97–98. JSTOR 27688007. ^ Bowra, Praefatio iii–iv, vii ^ Bowra, Praefatio iv ^ A.W. Bulloch, 'Hellenistic Poetry', in Easterling, pp. 556–57 ^ William H. Race, Apollonius Rhodius: Argonautica, Loeb Classical Library (2008), page xiii ^ R. Tarrant, 'Ancient receptions of Horace', in The Cambridge Companion to Horace, Stephen Harrison (ed.), Cambridge university Press (2007), page 280 ^ F. Lauritzen, Readers of Pindar and students of Mitylinaios, Byzantion 2010 ^ David Money, 'The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries', in The Cambridge Companion to Horace, Stephen Harrison (ed), Cambridge University Press (2007), pp. 327–28 ISBN 0-521-83002-8 ^ The Odes of Horace James Michie (translator), Penguin Classics 1976 ^ Bowra 1964, p. 401. Sources[edit] Bowie, Ewen, 'Lyric and Elegiac Poetry' in The Oxford History of the Classical World, J. Boardman, J. Griffin and O. Murray (eds), Oxford University Press (1986) ISBN 0-19-872112-9 Bowra, C. M. (1947). Pindari Carmina Cum Fragmentis, Editio Altera. Oxford University Press. Bowra, Cecil Maurice (1964). Pindar. Clarendon Press. pp. 446. ISBN 978-0-19-814338-3. Campbell, David A. (1992). Greek Lyric IV: Bacchylides, Corinna and Others. Loeb Classical Library. ISBN 978-0-674-99508-6. Currie, Bruno (2005), Pindar and the Cult of Heroes, Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-161516-1 Easterling, P. & Knox, B. (eds) (1985), The Cambridge History of Classical Greek Literature "Greek Literature", Cambridge University Press Gerber, Douglas E. (1997) A Companion to the Greek lyric poets, Brill ISBN 90-04-09944-1 Hornblower, Simon (2004). Thucydides and Pindar: Historical Narrative and the World of Epinikian Poetry. Oxford University Press. p. 454. ISBN 978-0-19-929828-0. Morice, Francis David (2009), Pindar, Bibliobazaar, LLC ISBN 1-148-33210-3 Conway, Geoffrey Seymour (1972), The Odes of Pindar, Dent ISBN 978-0-460-01017-7 Race, William H. (1997), Pindar: Olympian Odes, Pythian Odes, Loeb Classical Library ISBN 0-674-99564-3 De Romilly, Jacqueline (1985), A Short History of Greek Literature, University of Chicage Press Further reading[edit] Nisetich, Frank J., Pindar's Victory Songs. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980: translations and extensive introduction, background and critical apparatus. Revard, Stella P., Politics, Poetics, and the Pindaric Ode 1450–1700, Turnhout, Brepols Publishers, 2010, ISBN 978-2-503-52896-0 Race, W. H. Pindar. 2 vols. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997. Bundy, Elroy L. (2006) [1962]. Studia Pindarica (PDF) (digital version ed.). Berkeley, California: Department of Classics, University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved 2007-02-12. Barrett, W. S., Greek Lyric, Tragedy, and Textual Criticism: Collected Papers, edited M. L. West (Oxford & New York, 2007): papers dealing with Pindar, Stesichorus, Bacchylides and Euripides Kiichiro Itsumi, Pindaric Metre: 'The Other Half' (Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, 2009). Burnett, Anne Pippin, Pindar (London: Bristol Classical Press, 2008) (Ancients in action). Wells, James Bradley. Pindar's Verbal Art: An Enthnographic Study of Epinician Style, Hellenic Studies Series 40. Washington, DC, Center for Hellenic Studies, 2010, ISBN 978-0-674-03627-7 External links[edit] Pindarat Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Data from Wikidata Wikisource has original text related to this article: Portal:Odes of Pindar Library resources about Pindar Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Pindar Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Works by Pindar at Perseus Digital Library Classical poetry at Curlie Works by Pindar at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Pindar at Internet Archive Works by Pindar at Open Library Selected odes, marked up to show selected rhetorical and poetic devices Olympian 1, read aloud in Greek, with text and English translation provided Pythian 8, 'Approaching Pindar' by William Harris (text, translation, analysis) Pindar by Gregory Crane, in the Perseus Encyclopedia Pindar's Life by Basil L. Gildersleeve, in Pindar: The Olympian and Pythian Odes Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Pindar, Olympian Odes, I, 1–64; read by William Mullen Perseus Digital Library Lexicon to Pindar, William J. Slater, De Gruyter 1969: scholarly dictionary for research into Pindar Pindar-A Hellenistic Bibliography compiled by Martine Cuypers William J. Slater, Lexicon to Pindar, Berlin, De Gruyter, 1969 on http://www.perseus.tufts.edu Historic editions The Odes of Pindar translated into English with notes, D.W.Turner, A Moore, Bohm Classical Library (1852), digitalized by Google Encyclopædia Britannica 11th ed. 1911 Vol. 21 'Pindar' Pindar – translations and notes by Reverend C.A.Wheelwright, printed by A.J.Valpy, M.A., London (1830): digitalized by Google Pindari carmina, adnotationem criticam addidit Tycho Mommsen, vol. 1, vol. 2, Berolini apud Weidmannos, 1864. Scholia of Pindar: Pindari opera quae supersunt. Scholia integra, Augustus Boeckhius (ed.), 2 voll., Lipsiae apud Ioann. August. Gottlob Weigen, 1811: vol. 1, vol. 2. Scholia vetera in Pindari carmina, Anders Bjørn Drachmann (ed.), 3 voll., Verlag Adolf M. Hakkert, Amsterdam, 1903-27: vol. 1, vol. 2, vol. 3. v t e Nine lyric poets — Ancient Greek literature Alcman Sappho Alcaeus Anacreon Stesichorus Ibycus Simonides Pindar Bacchylides v t e Ancient Greece Timeline History Geography Periods Cycladic civilization Minoan civilization Mycenaean civilization Greek Dark Ages Archaic period Classical Greece Hellenistic Greece Roman Greece Geography Aegean Sea Aeolis Alexandria Antioch Cappadocia Crete Cyprus Doris Ephesus Epirus Hellespont Ionia Ionian Sea Macedonia Magna Graecia Miletus Peloponnesus Pergamon Pontus Taurica Ancient Greek colonies City states Politics Military City states Argos Athens Byzantion Chalcis Corinth Eretria Kerkyra Larissa Megalopolis Megara Rhodes Samos Sparta Syracuse Thebes Politics Boule Koinon Proxeny Tagus Tyrant Amphictyonic League Athenian Agora Areopagus Ecclesia Graphe paranomon Heliaia Ostracism Spartan Apella Ephor Gerousia Macedon Synedrion Koinon Military Wars Athenian military Scythian archers Antigonid 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en-wikipedia-org-2010	----	Festus (historian) - Wikipedia Festus (historian) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Not to be confused with Postumius Rufius Festus Avienius. Titel Page of Festus' Breviarium (Rome, 1819) Festus (fl. 4th century), whose name also appears in the manuscripts of his work as Rufus Festus, Ruffus Festus, Sextus Festus, Sextus Rufus, and Sextus, was a Late Roman historian and proconsul of Asia whose epitome Breviarium rerum gestarum populi Romani ("Summary of the history of Rome"[1]) was commissioned by the emperor Valens in preparation for his war against Persia. It was completed about AD 370. The Breviarium covers the entire history of the Roman state from the foundation of the City until AD 364. The book consists of 30 chapters treating events in Roman history in terse overview, mainly focused on military and political conflicts. It is estimated as a work of very low quality.[2] Festus of Tridentum, magister memoriae (secretary) to Valens and notoriously severe proconsul of the province of Asia, where he was sent to punish those implicated in the conspiracy of Theodorus. The work itself (Breviarium rerum gestarum populi Romani) is divided into two parts, one geographical, the other historical. J. W. Eadie has shown that Festus used the following sources:[3] The Breviarium historiae Romanae of Eutropius, newly compiled by order of the same emperor The Epitome rerum Romanarum (until the reign of Augustus) by Florus The epitome of Livy, a lost work based on Ab Urbe condita A history of the Roman emperors, perhaps the one that is called the Enmannsche Kaisergeschichte References[edit] ^ One source was the Enmannsche Kaisergeschichte[clarification needed] ^ Baldwin, B. (1991), "Festus", The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, 2, Oxford, p. 784 ^ Eadie, J. W., ed. (1967) The Breviarium of Festus. London: Athlone Press; pp. 70-98 ("The Sources of the Breviarium"). Sources[edit] Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae 29.2.22. Eunapius, Vitae sophistarum 7.6.6-13. Suda s.v. Φῆστος. Zosimus, Historia Nova 4.15.2-3. External links[edit] "Sextus Rufus" in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology Banchich, Thomas M. (translator); Meka, Jennifer A. (translator) (2001), De Imperatoribus Romanis: Breviarium of the accomplishments of the Roman people translated, Canisius College Translated Texts, Number 2, Buffalo, New York: Canisius College Mecenate, Raphael (editor) (1819), Breviarium Rerum Gestarum Populi Romani, Latin TextCS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) Authority control BIBSYS: 95004540 BNE: XX5165576 BNF: cb122000076 (data) CiNii: DA09667700 GND: 118843966 ISNI: 0000 0001 0923 4696 LCCN: n88181630 NKC: jn19981002093 NLG: 216597 NSK: 000382515 NTA: 073755842 RERO: 02-A000140308 SELIBR: 53189 SUDOC: 030739233 Trove: 1057906 VcBA: 495/21879 VIAF: 79076696 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n88181630 This ancient Roman biographical article is a stub. 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en-wikipedia-org-2018	----	Polybius - Wikipedia Polybius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Greek historian For other uses, see Polybius (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Polybius" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Polybius The stele of Kleitor depicting Polybius, Hellenistic art, 2nd century BC, Museum of Roman Civilization.[1] Born c. 200 BC Megalopolis, Arcadia Died c. 118 BC Roman Greece Nationality Greek Occupation Historian Notable work The Histories, events of the Roman Republic, 220–146 BC Polybius (/pəˈlɪbiəs/; Greek: Πολύβιος, Polýbios; c. 200 – c. 118 BC[2]) was a Greek historian of the Hellenistic period noted for his work The Histories, which covered the period of 264–146 BC in detail. The work describes the rise of the Roman Republic to the status of dominance in the ancient Mediterranean world. It includes his eyewitness account of the Sack of Carthage and Corinth in 146 BC, and the Roman annexation of mainland Greece after the Achaean War. Polybius is important for his analysis of the mixed constitution or the separation of powers in government, which was influential on Montesquieu's The Spirit of the Laws and the framers of the United States Constitution. He was also noted for witnessing the events that he recorded.[3] The leading expert on Polybius was F. W. Walbank (1909–2008), who for 50 years published studies related to him, including a long commentary of his Histories and a biography.[4] Contents 1 Origins 2 Personal experiences 3 At Rome 4 The Histories 4.1 Sources 5 As historian 6 Cryptography 7 Influence 8 Editions and translations 9 See also 10 Notes and references 11 Sources 11.1 Ancient sources 11.2 Modern sources 12 Further reading 13 External links Origins[edit] Polybius was born around 208 BC in Megalopolis, Arcadia,[5] when it was an active member of the Achaean League. The town was revived, along with other Achaean states, a century before he was born.[6] Polybius' father, Lycortas, was a prominent, land-owning politician and member of the governing class who became strategos (commanding general) of the Achaean League.[7] Consequently, Polybius was able to observe first hand during his first 40 years the political and military affairs of Megalopolis, gaining experience as a statesman.[5] In his early years, he accompanied his father while travelling as ambassador.[8] He developed an interest in horse riding and hunting, diversions that later commended him to his Roman captors. In 182 BC, he was given quite an honor when he was chosen to carry the funeral urn of Philopoemen, one of the most eminent Achaean politicians of his generation. In either 169 BC or 170 BC, Polybius was elected hipparchus (cavalry officer) with the intention of fighting for Rome during the Third Macedonian War.[8] This event often presaged election to the annual strategia (chief generalship). His early political career was devoted largely towards maintaining the independence of Megalopolis.[citation needed] Personal experiences[edit] Polybius’ father, Lycortas, was a prominent advocate of neutrality during the Roman war against Perseus of Macedon. Lycortas attracted the suspicion of the Romans, and Polybius subsequently was one of the 1,000 Achaean nobles who were transported to Rome as hostages in 167 BC, and was detained there for 17 years. In Rome, by virtue of his high culture, Polybius was admitted to the most distinguished houses, in particular to that of Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus, the conqueror in the Third Macedonian War, who entrusted Polybius with the education of his sons, Fabius and Scipio Aemilianus (who had been adopted by the eldest son of Scipio Africanus). Polybius remained on cordial terms with his former pupil Scipio Aemilianus and was among the members of the Scipionic Circle. When Scipio defeated the Carthaginians in the Third Punic War, Polybius remained his counsellor. The Achaean hostages were released in 150 BC, and Polybius was granted leave to return home, but the next year he went on campaign with Scipio Aemilianus to Africa, and was present at the Sack of Carthage in 146, which he later described. Following the destruction of Carthage, Polybius likely journeyed along the Atlantic coast of Africa, as well as Spain. After the destruction of Corinth in the same year, Polybius returned to Greece, making use of his Roman connections to lighten the conditions there. Polybius was charged with the difficult task of organizing the new form of government in the Greek cities, and in this office he gained great recognition. At Rome[edit] In the succeeding years, Polybius resided in Rome, completing his historical work while occasionally undertaking long journeys through the Mediterranean countries in the furtherance of his history, in particular with the aim of obtaining firsthand knowledge of historical sites. He apparently interviewed veterans to clarify details of the events he was recording and was similarly given access to archival material. Little is known of Polybius' later life; he most likely accompanied Scipio to Spain, acting as his military advisor during the Numantine War. He later wrote about this war in a lost monograph. Polybius probably returned to Greece later in his life, as evidenced by the many existent inscriptions and statues of him there. The last event mentioned in his Histories seems to be the construction of the Via Domitia in southern France in 118 BC, which suggests the writings of Pseudo-Lucian may have some grounding in fact when they state, "[Polybius] fell from his horse while riding up from the country, fell ill as a result and died at the age of eighty-two". The Histories[edit] Main article: The Histories (Polybius) Polybius’ Histories cover the period from 264 BC to 146 BC. Its main focus is the period from 220 BC to 167 BC, describing Rome's efforts in subduing its arch-enemy, Carthage, and thereby becoming the dominant Mediterranean force. Books I through V of The Histories are the introduction for the years during his lifetime, describing the politics in leading Mediterranean states, including ancient Greece and Egypt, and culminating in their ultimate συμπλοκή or interconnectedness. In Book VI, Polybius describes the political, military, and moral institutions that allowed the Romans to succeed. He describes the First and Second Punic Wars. Polybius concludes the Romans are the pre-eminent power because they have customs and institutions which promote a deep desire for noble acts, a love of virtue, piety towards parents and elders, and a fear of the gods (deisidaimonia). He also chronicled the conflicts between Hannibal and Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus such as the Battle of Ticinus, the Battle of the Trebia, the Siege of Saguntum, the Battle of Lilybaeum, and the Battle of Rhone Crossing. In Book XII, Polybius discusses the worth of Timaeus’ account of the same period of history. He asserts Timaeus' point of view is inaccurate, invalid, and biased in favor of Rome. Therefore, Polybius's Histories is also useful in analyzing the different Hellenistic versions of history and of use as a credible illustration of actual events during the Hellenistic period. Sources[edit] In the twelfth volume of his Histories, Polybius defines the historian's job as the analysis of documentation, the review of relevant geographical information, and political experience. Polybius held that historians should only chronicle events whose participants the historian was able to interview,[9] and was among the first to champion the notion of factual integrity in historical writing. In Polybius' time, the profession of a historian required political experience (which aided in differentiating between fact and fiction) and familiarity with the geography surrounding one's subject matter to supply an accurate version of events. Polybius himself exemplified these principles as he was well travelled and possessed political and military experience. He did not neglect written sources that provided essential material for his histories of the period from 264 BC to 220 BC. When addressing events after 220 BC, he examined the writings of Greek and Roman historians to acquire credible sources of information, but rarely did he name those sources. As historian[edit] Polybius wrote several works, the majority of which are lost. His earliest work was a biography of the Greek statesman Philopoemen; this work was later used as a source by Plutarch when composing his Parallel Lives, however the original Polybian text is lost. In addition, Polybius wrote an extensive treatise entitled Tactics, which may have detailed Roman and Greek military tactics. Small parts of this work may survive in his major Histories, but the work itself is lost, as well. Another missing work was a historical monograph on the events of the Numantine War. The largest Polybian work was, of course, his Histories, of which only the first five books survive entirely intact, along with a large portion of the sixth book and fragments of the rest. Along with Cato the Elder (234–149 BC), he can be considered one of the founding fathers of Roman historiography. Livy made reference to and uses Polybius' Histories as source material in his own narrative. Polybius was among the first historians to attempt to present history as a sequence of causes and effects, based upon a careful examination and criticism of tradition. He narrated his history based upon first-hand knowledge. The Histories capture the varied elements of the story of human behavior: nationalism, xenophobia, duplicitous politics, war, brutality, loyalty, valour, intelligence, reason, and resourcefulness. Aside from the narrative of the historical events, Polybius also included three books of digressions. Book 34 was entirely devoted to questions of geography and included some trenchant criticisms of Eratosthenes, whom he accused of passing on popular preconceptions or laodogmatika. Book 12 was a disquisition on the writing of history, citing extensive passages of lost historians, such as Callisthenes and Theopompus. Most influential was Book 6, which describes Roman political, military, and moral institutions, which he considered key to Rome's success; it presented Rome as having a mixed constitution in which monarchical, aristocratic, and popular elements existed in stable equilibrium. This enabled Rome to escape, for the time being, the cycle of eternal revolutions (anacyclosis). While Polybius was not the first to advance this view, his account provides the most cogent illustration of the ideal for later political theorists. A key theme of The Histories is the good statesman as virtuous and composed. The character of the Polybian statesman is exemplified in that of Philip II. His beliefs about Philip's character led Polybius to reject historian Theopompus' description of Philip's private, drunken debauchery. For Polybius, it was inconceivable that such an able and effective statesman could have had an immoral and unrestrained private life as described by Theopompus.[10] In recounting the Roman Republic, Polybius stated that "the Senate stands in awe of the multitude, and cannot neglect the feelings of the people".[11] Other important themes running through The Histories are the role of Fortune in the affairs of nations, his insistence that history should be demonstratory, or apodeiktike, providing lessons for statesmen, and that historians should be "men of action" (pragmatikoi). Polybius is considered by some to be the successor of Thucydides in terms of objectivity and critical reasoning, and the forefather of scholarly, painstaking historical research in the modern scientific sense. According to this view, his work sets forth the course of history's occurrences with clearness, penetration, sound judgment, and, among the circumstances affecting the outcomes, he lays special emphasis on geographical conditions. Modern historians are especially impressed with the manner in which Polybius used his sources, particularly documentary evidence as well as his citation and quotation of sources. Furthermore, there is some admiration of Polybius's meditation on the nature of historiography in Book 12. His work belongs, therefore, amongst the greatest productions of ancient historical writing. The writer of the Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (1937) praises him for his "earnest devotion to truth" and his systematic pursuit of causation. It has long been acknowledged that Polybius's writings are prone to a certain hagiographic tone when writing of his friends, such as Scipio, and subject to a vindictive tone when detailing the exploits of his enemies, such as Callicrates, the Achaean statesman responsible for his Roman exile.[12] As a hostage in Rome, then as client to the Scipios, and after 146 BC, a collaborator with Roman rule, Polybius was probably in no position to freely express any negative opinions of Rome. Peter Green advises that Polybius was chronicling Roman history for a Greek audience, to justify what he believed to be the inevitability of Roman rule. Nonetheless, Green considers Polybius's Histories the best source for the era they cover. For Ronald Mellor, Polybius was a loyal partisan of Scipio, intent on vilifying his patron's opponents.[13] Adrian Goldsworthy, while using Polybius as a source for Scipio's generalship, notes Polybius' underlying and overt bias in Scipio's favour. H. Ormerod considers that Polybius cannot be regarded as an 'altogether unprejudiced witness' in relation to his betes noires; the Aetolians, the Carthaginians, and the Cretans.[14] Other historians perceive considerable negative bias in Polybius' account of Crete;[15] on the other hand, Hansen notes that the same work, along with passages from Strabo and Scylax,[16] proved a reliable guide in the eventual rediscovery of the lost city of Kydonia.[17] Cryptography[edit] Polybius was responsible for a useful tool in telegraphy that allowed letters to be easily signaled using a numerical system, called "the Polybius square". (mentioned in Hist. X.45.6 ff.). This idea also lends itself to cryptographic manipulation and steganography. 1 2 3 4 5 1 A B C D E 2 F G H I/J K 3 L M N O P 4 Q R S T U 5 V W X Y Z This was known as the "Polybius square", where the letters of the alphabet were arranged left to right, top to bottom in a 5 x 5 square, (when used with the modern 26 letter alphabet, the letters "I" and "J" are combined). Five numbers were then aligned on the outside top of the square, and five numbers on the left side of the square vertically. Usually these numbers were arranged 1 through 5. By cross-referencing the two numbers along the grid of the square, a letter could be deduced. In The Histories, he specifies how this cypher could be used in fire signals, where long-range messages could be sent by means of torches raised and lowered to signify the column and row of each letter. This was a great leap forward from previous fire signaling, which could send prearranged codes only (such as, 'if we light the fire, it means that the enemy has arrived'). Other writings of scientific interest include detailed discussions of the machines Archimedes created for the defense of Syracuse against the Romans, where he praises the 'old man' and his engineering in the highest terms, and an analysis of the usefulness of astronomy to generals (both in the Histories). Influence[edit] Part of the Politics series on Republicanism Central concepts Anti-monarchism Liberty as non-domination Popular sovereignty Republic Res publica Social contract Schools Classical Federal Kemalism Nasserism Neo-republicanism Venizelism Types of republics Autonomous Capitalist Christian Corporate Democratic Federal Federal parliamentary Islamic Parliamentary People's Revolutionary Sister Soviet Important thinkers Hannah Arendt Cicero James Harrington Thomas Jefferson John Locke James Madison Montesquieu Polybius Jean-Jacques Rousseau Algernon Sidney Mary Wollstonecraft History Roman Republic Gaṇa sangha Classical Athens Republic of Venice Republic of Genoa Republic of Florence Dutch Republic American Revolution French Revolution Spanish American wars of independence Trienio Liberal French Revolution of 1848 5 October 1910 revolution Chinese Revolution Russian Revolution German Revolution of 1918–19 Turkish War of Independence Mongolian Revolution of 1921 11 September 1922 Revolution 1935 Greek coup d'état attempt Spanish Civil War 1946 Italian institutional referendum Egyptian revolution of 1952 14 July Revolution North Yemen Civil War Zanzibar Revolution 1969 Libyan coup d'état Cambodian coup of 1970 Metapolitefsi Iranian Revolution 1987 Fijian coups d'état Nepalese Civil War By country Australia Barbados Canada Ireland Jamaica Japan Morocco Netherlands New Zealand Norway Spain Sweden Turkey United Kingdom Scotland United States Related topics Communitarianism Democracy Liberalism Monarchism Politics portal v t e Marcus Tullius Cicero Polybius was considered a poor stylist by Dionysius of Halicarnassus, writing of Polybius' history that "no one has the endurance to reach [its] end".[18] Nevertheless, clearly he was widely read by Romans and Greeks alike. He is quoted extensively by Strabo writing in the 1st century BC and Athenaeus in the 3rd century AD. His emphasis on explaining causes of events, rather than just recounting events, influenced the historian Sempronius Asellio. Polybius is mentioned by Cicero and mined for information by Diodorus, Livy, Plutarch and Arrian. Much of the text that survives today from the later books of The Histories was preserved in Byzantine anthologies. Montesquieu His works reappeared in the West first in Renaissance Florence. Polybius gained a following in Italy, and although poor Latin translations hampered proper scholarship on his works, they contributed to the city's historical and political discourse. Niccolò Machiavelli in his Discourses on Livy evinces familiarity with Polybius. Vernacular translations in French, German, Italian and English first appeared during the 16th century.[19] Consequently, in the late 16th century, Polybius's works found a greater reading audience among the learned public. Study of the correspondence of such men as Isaac Casaubon, Jacques Auguste de Thou, William Camden, and Paolo Sarpi reveals a growing interest in Polybius' works and thought during the period. Despite the existence of both printed editions in the vernacular and increased scholarly interest, however, Polybius remained an "historian's historian", not much read by the public at large.[20] Printings of his work in the vernacular remained few in number — seven in French, five in English,(John Dryden provided an enthusiastic preface to Sir Henry Sheers' edition of 1693) and five in Italian.[21] Polybius' political analysis has influenced republican thinkers from Cicero to Charles de Montesquieu to the Founding Fathers of the United States.[22] John Adams, for example, considered him one of the most important teachers of constitutional theory. Since the Age of Enlightenment, Polybius has in general held appeal to those interested in Hellenistic Greece and early Republican Rome, while his political and military writings have lost influence in academia. More recently, thorough work on the Greek text of Polybius, and his historical technique, has increased the academic understanding and appreciation of him as a historian. According to Edward Tufte, he was also a major source for Charles Joseph Minard's figurative map of Hannibal's overland journey into Italy during the Second Punic War.[23] In his Meditations On Hunting, Spanish philosopher José Ortega y Gasset calls Polybius "one of the few great minds that the turbid human species has managed to produce", and says the damage to the Histories is "without question one of the gravest losses that we have suffered in our Greco-Roman heritage". The Italian version of his name, Polibio, was used as a male first name - for example, the composer Polibio Fumagalli - though it never became very common. The University of Pennsylvania has an intellectual society, the Polybian Society, which is named in his honor and serves as a non-partisan forum for discussing societal issues and policy. Editions and translations[edit] Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Usher, S. (ed. and trans.) Critical Essays, Volume II. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1985. Polybii Historiae, editionem a Ludovico Dindorfi curatam, retractavit Theodorus Büttner-Wobst, Lipsiae in aedibus B. G. Teubneri, vol. 1, vol. 2, vol. 3, vol. 4, vol. 5, 1882-1904. Polybius (1922–1927). Polybius: The Histories. The Loeb Classical Library (in Ancient Greek, English, and Latin). Translated by Paton, W.R. London; New York: William Heinemann; G.P. Putnam's Sone. —— (1922A). Polybius. Volume I. ISBN 0-674-99142-7. Loeb Number L128; Books I-II. —— (1922B). Polybius. Volume II. ISBN 0-674-99152-4. Loeb Number L137; Books III-IV. —— (1923). Polybius. Volume III. ISBN 0-674-99153-2. Loeb Number L138; Books V-VIII. —— (1925). Polybius. Volume IV. ISBN 0-674-99175-3. Loeb Number L159; Books IX-XV. —— (1926). Polybius. Volume V. ISBN 0-674-99176-1. Loeb Number L160; Books XVI-XXVII. —— (1927). Polybius. Volume VI. ISBN 0-674-99178-8. Loeb Number L161; Books XXVIII-XXXIX. Polybius (2012). Polybius: The Histories. The Loeb Classical Library (in Ancient Greek, English, and Latin). Translated by Paton, W.R. Chicago: University of Chicago (LacusCurtius). The Histories or The Rise of the Roman Empire by Polybius: At Perseus Project: English & Greek version At "LacusCurtius": Short introduction to the life and work of Polybius 1670 edition of Polybius' works vol.1 at the Internet archive 1670 edition of Polybius' works vol.2 at the Internet archive Polybius: "The Rise Of The Roman Empire", Penguin, 1979. "Books 1–5 of History. Ethiopian Story. Book 8: From the Departure of the Divine Marcus" featuring Book I-V of The Histories, digitized, from the World Digital Library See also[edit] Anacyclosis Kyklos The Histories Polybius square Polybius (urban legend) Mixed government Notes and references[edit] ^ John Ma. (2013). Statues and Cities: Honorific Portraits and Civic Identity in the Hellenistic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-966891-5, pp 281-282. ^ Derow 2016. ^ Brunschwig, Jacques; Lloyd, Geoffrey Ernest Richard; Lloyd, Geoffrey E. R.; Pellegrin, Pierre (2003). A Guide to Greek Thought: Major Figures and Trends. London: Harvard University Press. p. 190. ISBN 0-674-02156-8. ^ Gibson & Harrison: Polybius, pp. 1–5. ^ a b Walbank, F. W. (2014). Philip V of Macedon. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 278. ISBN 978-1-107-63060-4. ^ On Writing History from Herodotus to Herodian. Penguin UK. 2017-12-07. ISBN 978-0-14-139358-2. ^ "Titus Livius (Livy), The History of Rome, Book 39, chapter 35". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2016-11-02. ^ a b Sorek, Susan (2012). Ancient Historians: A Student Handbook. London: Continuum. p. 76. ISBN 978-1-4411-1135-7. ^ Farrington, Scott Thomas (February 2015). "A Likely Story: Rhetoric and the Determination of Truth in Polybius’ Histories." Histos 9: 29-66. (p. 40): "Polybius begins his history proper with the 140th Olympiad because accounts of the remote past amount to hearsay and do not allow for safe judgements (διαλήψεις) and assertions (ἀποφάσεις) regarding the course of events.... he can relate events he saw himself, or he can use the testimony of eyewitnesses. ([footnote 34]: Pol. 4.2.2: ἐξ οὗ συµβαίνει τοῖς µὲν αὐτοὺς ἡµᾶς παραγεγονέναι, τὰ δὲ παρὰ τῶν ἑωρακότων ἀκηκοέναι.)" [archive URLs: 1 (full text), 2 (abstract & journal citation)] ^ Hannibal at New Carthage: Polybius 3. 15 and the Power of Irrationality Author: A. M. Eckstein, Classical Philology, Vol. 84, No. 1 (January 1989), pp. 3-4 ^ Polybius on the Senate and People (6.16) from Perseus Digital Library at Tufts University ^ Peter Green, Alexander to Actium ^ The Historians of Ancient Rome, Ronald J. Mellor ^ Piracy in the Ancient World, p141 H Ormerod ^ Mogens Herman Hansen 1995, Sources for the Ancient Greek City-State: Symposium, August 24–27, 1994, Kgl. Danske, Videnskabernes Selskab, 376 pages ISBN 87-7304-267-6 ^ Robert Pashley, Travels in Crete, 1837, J. Murray ^ "C. Michael Hogan, Cydonia, Modern Antiquarian, January 23, 2008". Themodernantiquarian.com. Retrieved 2010-02-28. ^ Comp. 4 ^ Polybius; Frank W. Walbank; Ian Scott-Kilvert (1979). The Rise of the Roman Empire. Penguin Classics. ISBN 0-14-044362-2. ^ Burke, Peter (1966). "A Survey of the Popularity of Ancient Historians, 1450-1700". History and Theory. History and Theory, Vol. 5, No. 2. 5 (2): 135–152 [141]. doi:10.2307/2504511. JSTOR 2504511. ^ Burke, Peter (1966). "A Survey of the Popularity of Ancient Historians, 1450-1700". History and Theory. History and Theory, Vol. 5, No. 2. 5 (2): 135–152 [139]. doi:10.2307/2504511. JSTOR 2504511. ^ Marshall Davies Lloyd, Polybius and the Founding Fathers: the separation of powers, Sept. 22, 1998. ^ "Minard's figurative map of Hannibal's war". Edwardtufte.com. Retrieved 2010-02-28. Sources[edit] Ancient sources[edit] Titus Livius of Patavium (Livy), libri XXI — XLV Pseudo-Lucian Makrobioi Paulus Orosius libri VII of Histories against Pagans Modern sources[edit] Davidson, James: 'Polybius' in Feldherr, Andrew ed. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Historians (Cambridge University Press, 2009) Derow, Peter S. (2016). "Polybius (1), Greek historian, c. 200–c. 118 BCE". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001 (inactive 2020-10-28).CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of October 2020 (link) Gibson, Bruce & Harrison, Thomas (editors): Polybius and his World: Essays in Memory of F.W. Walbank, (Oxford, 2013). Momigliano, Arnaldo M.: Sesto Contributo alla Storia degli Studi Classici e del Mondo Antico (Rome, 1980) —— Vol. V (1974) "The Historian's Skin”, 77–88 (Momigliano Bibliography no. 531) —— Vol. VI (1973) “Polibio, Posidonio e l'imperialismo Romano”, 89 (Momigliano Bibliography no. 525) (original publication: Atti della Accademia delle Scienze di Torino, 107, 1972–73, 693–707) Moore, John M: The Manuscript Tradition of Polybius (Cambridge University Press, 1965) Walbank, Frank W: —— Philip V of Macedon, the Hare Prize Essay 1939 (Cambridge University Press, 1940) —— A Historical Commentary on Polybius (Oxford University Press) Vol. I (1957) Commentary on Books I–VI Vol. II (1967) Commentary on Books VII–XVIII Vol. III (1979) Commentary on Books XIX–XL —— Polybius (University of California Press, 1972) Further reading[edit] Champion, Craige B. 2004. Cultural Politics in Polybius’s Histories. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press. Derow, Peter S. 1979. "Polybius, Rome, and the East." Journal of Roman Studies 69:1–15. Eckstein, Arthur M. 1995. Moral Vision in the Histories of Polybius. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press. Farrington, Scott Thomas. 2015. "A Likely Story: Rhetoric and the Determination of Truth in Polybius’ Histories. Histos: The On-Line Journal of Ancient Historiography 9: 29-66. McGing, Brian C. 2010. Polybius: The Histories. Oxford Approaches to Classical Literature. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Moore, Daniel Walker. 2017. "Learning from Experience: Polybius and the Progress of Rome." Classical Quarterly 67.1: 132-148. Pausch, Dennis. 2014. "Livy Reading Polybius: Adapting Greek Narrative to Roman History." In Defining Greek Narrative. Edited by Douglas L. Cairns and Ruth Scodel, 279-297. Edinburgh : Edinburgh University Press. Sacks, Kenneth S. 1981. Polybius on the Writing of History. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press. Schepens, Guido, and Jan Bollansée, eds. 2005. The Shadow of Polybius: Intertextuality as a Research Tool in Greek Historiography. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters. Walbank, Frank W. 2002. Polybius, Rome and the Hellenistic World: Essays and Reflections. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. 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en-wikipedia-org-2020	----	Scriba (ancient Rome) - Wikipedia Scriba (ancient Rome) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e In ancient Rome, the scriba (Latin, plural scribae[1]) was a public notary or clerk (see also scrivener). The public scribes were the highest in rank of the four prestigious occupational grades (decuriae) among the apparitores, the attendants of the magistrates who were paid from the state treasury.[2] The word scriba might also refer to a man who was a private secretary, but should be distinguished from a copyist (who might be called a "scribe" in English) or bookseller (librarius).[3] In Rome the scribae worked out of the aerarium, the state treasury and government archive. They received a good salary, but could earn additional commissions for collecting and recording state revenues, and making official copies of government documents and decrees. The Roman posting was such a lucrative assignment that the scribae worked in rotations, serving one year in Rome and two in the provinces. Those who became scribes might be freedmen (libertini) and their sons; literary or educated men who advanced to the job through patronage; or even men of the equestrian order.[4] Among the scribe's duties was the recording of sworn oaths on public tablets.[5] As a magistrate's attendant, he might also assist in religious rituals; for instance, since the exact wording of a prescribed prayer was considered vital to its success, a scribe might prompt the presiding magistrate by reading it out as recorded on official tablets.[6] By the end of the 4th century BC, the office evidently afforded several advantages, including a knowledge of Roman law that was traditionally the privilege of the elite, and the ability to trade favors that could be translated into political capital. In 305 BC, the public scribe Gnaeus Flavius, the son of a freedman, shocked the Roman upperclasses by winning election as curule aedile for the following year. Though not the first plebeian to hold the office,[7] his victory, made possible by the growing number of freedmen and those of libertine descent among the urban population, prompted the censors of 304 BC to adopt voter registration policies that curtailed the political power of the lower orders.[8] Gaius Cicereius, a former scriba of Scipio Africanus, was elected praetor in 173 BC, and enjoyed greater popularity than Scipio's own son. Certainly by the late Republic, the scribae had become a well-organized group who had achieved or were near to equestrian status.[9] The scriba Sextus Cloelius kept a high profile as an agent of the popularist Clodius Pulcher. At the beginning of Clodius's year in office as tribune of the plebs in 58 BC, Cloelius organized ludi compitalicii, neighborhood new-year festivities that had been banned as promoting unrest and political subversion. Cloelius also led the people in riots when Clodius was murdered a few years later, taking his body to the senate house and turning it into the popular leader's funeral pyre.[10] The Augustan poet Horace introduced himself in his first published book as the son of a freedman and as a civil servant, specifically a scriba quaestorius, or clerk to the quaestors who were in charge of the public treasury.[11] Further reading[edit] E. Badian, "The scribae of the Roman Republic," Klio 7 (1989) 582–603. References[edit] ^ The Latin word scriba, like poeta ("poet") and nauta ("sailor"), is a first declension noun of masculine gender. ^ The others are the lictores, "lictors"; viatores, "messengers" or "summoners," that is, agents on official errands; and praecones, "announcers" or "heralds." See Marietta Horster, "Living on Religion: Professionals and Personnel," in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 334; Daniel Peretz, "The Roman Interpreter and His Diplomatic and Military Roles," Historia 55 (2006), p. 452. ^ Peter White, "Bookshops in the Literary Culture of Rome," in Ancient Literacies: The Culture of Reading in Ancient Greece and Rome (Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 269, note 4. ^ David Armstrong, Horace (Yale University Press, 1989), p. 18. ^ Clifford Ando, Imperial Ideology and Provincial Loyalty in the Roman Empire (University of California Press, 2000), p. 96. ^ Valerius Maximus 4.1.10; Eric M. Orlin, Temples, Religions, and Politics in the Roman Republic (Brill, 1997), p. 37; on the use of prompters in general, see Matthias Klinghardt, "Prayer Formularies for Public Recitation: Their Use and Function in Ancient Religion," Numen 46 (1999) 1–52. ^ T.R.S. Broughton, The Magistrates of the Roman Republic (American Philological Association, 1951, 1986), vol. 1, pp. 166–168. ^ Gary Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War (University of California Press, 2005), p. 319. ^ Forsythe, Critical History, p. 319. ^ Geoffrey S. Sumi, "Power and Ritual: The Crowd at Clodius' Funeral," Historia 46 (1997), pp. 84–85; Cynthia Damon, "Sex. Cloelius, Scriba," Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 94 (1992) 227–244, limited preview online. ^ Emily Gowers, "The Restless Companion: Horace, Satires 1 and 2," in The Cambridge Companion to Roman Satire (Cambridge University Press, 2005), p. 48. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scriba_(ancient_Rome)&oldid=948843964" Categories: Ancient Roman government Notary Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Português Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 3 April 2020, at 10:12 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. 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en-wikipedia-org-2026	----	Horace's Villa - Wikipedia Horace's Villa From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Horace's Villa Villa Romana di Orazio Drawing of the villa Shown within Italy Location Licenza, Province of Rome, Lazio, Italy Type Dwelling History Cultures Roman Site notes Condition Ruined Ownership Public Public access Yes Horace's Villa is a Roman archaeological complex near Licenza, Italy. The identification has been made possible because Horace wrote several poems about the place, and the location of the villa corresponds to the geographical indications in the poetry. The site can be visited today.[1] Contents 1 Identification 2 Description 3 References 4 External links Identification[edit] It was owing to references to the villa in Horace's writings that humanists attempted to find the site as early as the mid-fifteenth century, but the site in Licenza was not considered as a possible candidate for two hundred years. This changed when an inscription mentioning a temple of the goddess Victory was found in nearby Roccagiovine. Vicovaro (marked), close to Tibur on the Tabula Peutingeriana, 12-13th century Horace tells in one of his poems (Epistles 1.10) that his villa was next to the sanctuary of the Sabine goddess, Vacuna. Lucas Holstenius (a mid-17th century geographer and a librarian at the Vatican Library) identified the sanctuary with the temple of the goddess Victory mentioned in the inscription, and he showed that the Romans associated the Sabine deity with their goddess Victoria. A confirmation of Holstenius' thesis came in 1757 with the discovery of the massa Mandelana inscription near Cantalupo (Mandela), which helped antiquarians to identify yet another place name mentioned by Horace as being near his Sabine estate. Description[edit] The Aniene Valley to the east of Rome is rich with archaeological remains. The Roman villa on the east slope of the Colle Rotondo (980 meters above sea level) in the Lucretili Mountains near the hilltown of Licenza is one of the best preserved and most significant sites. Attributed by most scholars since the 18th century to the Roman poet Horace, this villa dates from the first century B.C. and is located just 30 miles from the center of Rome in a valley near Vicovaro and Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli. The actual site was identified and a small portion was excavated in the 18th century. Major excavations were undertaken in the early 20th century. Thus far, the main residence of the estate has been identified, covering, in the imperial period, some 40 x 110 meters of built space and gardens. Black and white mosaics (formerly dated to Horace's lifespan, but now known to be from the Flavian dynasty), marble wall revetment and architectonic elements, an elaborate water system, and artistic and utilitarian remains have been found. A selection of the material is on display in the local museum in the town of Licenza. References[edit] ^ "Horace's Villa at Licenza". Archived from the original on 2 April 2018. External links[edit] Horace's Villa Project of the American Academy in Rome and the Soprintendenza Archeologica per il Lazio A two-part documentary about Horace's Villa Site of the Villa in Google Maps Authority control BNF: cb14535623q (data) GND: 4361917-4 LCCN: sh95005567 NLI: 000594565 SUDOC: 076495019 VcBA: 494/5161 VIAF: 240066424 WorldCat Identities: viaf-240066424 Coordinates: 42°03′58″N 12°54′04″E / 42.0661°N 12.9011°E / 42.0661; 12.9011 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horace%27s_Villa&oldid=982124824" Categories: Roman villas in Italy Buildings and structures in Lazio Archaeological sites in Lazio Horace Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Coordinates on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Italiano Edit links This page was last edited on 6 October 2020, at 09:14 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2038	----	Secessio plebis - Wikipedia Secessio plebis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about secession in ancient Rome. For other uses of secession, see Secession (disambiguation). This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in Italian. (September 2018) Click [show] for important translation instructions. View a machine-translated version of the Italian article. Machine translation like DeepL or Google Translate is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Wikipedia. Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article. You must provide copyright attribution in the edit summary accompanying your translation by providing an interlanguage link to the source of your translation. A model attribution edit summary Content in this edit is translated from the existing Italian Wikipedia article at [[:it:Secessio_plebis]]; see its history for attribution. You should also add the template {{Translated|it|Secessio_plebis}} to the talk page. For more guidance, see Wikipedia:Translation. Secessio plebis (withdrawal of the commoners, or secession of the plebs) was an informal exercise of power by Rome's plebeian citizens, similar in concept to the general strike. During the secessio plebis, the plebs would abandon the city en masse in a protest emigration and leave the patrician order to themselves. Therefore, a secessio meant that all shops and workshops would shut down and commercial transactions would largely cease. This was an effective strategy in the Conflict of the Orders due to strength in numbers; plebeian citizens made up the vast majority of Rome's populace and produced most of its food and resources, while a patrician citizen was a member of the minority upper class, the equivalent of the landed gentry of later times. Authors report different numbers for how many secessions there were. Cary & Scullard state there were five between 494 BC and 287 BC.[1] Contents 1 Secessions in Roman history 1.1 First Secession – 494 BC 1.2 Second Secession – 449 BC 1.3 Third Secession – 445 BC 1.4 Fourth Secession – 342 BC 1.5 Fifth Secession – 287 BC 2 References 3 Bibliography 4 External links Secessions in Roman history[edit] First Secession – 494 BC[edit] Main article: First secessio plebis The Secession of the People to the Mons Sacer, engraving by B. Barloccini, 1849. Beginning in 495 BC, and culminating in 494–493 BC, the plebeian class of Rome grew increasingly unhappy with the political rulership of the patrician class. At this time, the Roman city-state was governed by two consuls and the senate, which performed executive and most of the legislative functions of Rome. Both of these governing bodies were composed of only patricians, who were generally a wealthy minority of the Roman populace. In 495 BC, the plebeian populace of Rome began to raise significant concerns about debt, including questioning the necessity of beatings and imprisonment of debtors by money-lenders. Roman historian Livy records an account of a former military official throwing himself into the forum in an extremely disheveled state, telling the people of his troubles. He explained that during the war against the Sabines his estate was torched by the enemy and his possessions stolen. Upon returning home, he was forced to take a loan to afford paying a tax that had been imposed on him, driving him deeply into debt due to usury. This resulted in him being forced to give up family properties including his grandfather and father's farms. When this was still insufficient, he was taken by his creditors to a prison, whipped, and threatened with death. The people at the forum were angered and the story quickly spread, drawing a large crowd into an uproar.[2] After much anticipation about consul or senate action to address popular debt concerns, consul Appius worsened the situation by passing unpopular decrees reinforcing the imprisonment of debtors by creditors.[3] This outrage further compounded by continued senate inaction resulted in the plebeians on the advice of Lucius Sicinius Vellutus seceding to the Mons Sacer (the Sacred Mountain), over three miles from the city. The plebeians then established basic defences in the area, waiting for senate action.[4] Map of Republican Rome by William R Shepherd, 1923. After the secession, the senate finally took action to address the issue. Negotiating with three envoys from the plebeians, the senate came to a resolution. The patricians freed some of the plebs from their debts and conceded some of their power by creating the office of the Tribune of the Plebs.[5] This office was the first government position to be held by the plebs, since at this time the office of consul was held by patricians solely. Plebeian Tribunes were made personally sacrosanct during their period in office, meaning that any person who harmed them was subject to punishment by death.[6][7] Second Secession – 449 BC[edit] The Second Secessio Plebis of 449 BC was precipitated by the abuses of a commission of the decemviri (Latin for "ten men") and involved demands for the restoration of the plebeian tribunes (the representatives of the plebeians) and of the right to appeal, which had been suspended. In 450 BC Rome decided to appoint the decemviri which was tasked with compiling a law code (which became the Law of the Twelve Tables). The commission was given a term of one year, during which the offices of state were suspended. The decemviri were also exempted from appeal. In 450 BC, they issued a set of laws, but did not resign at the end of their term and held onto their power instead. They killed a soldier, a former plebeian tribune, who had criticised them. One of the decemviri, Appius Claudius Crassus, tried to force a woman, Verginia, to marry him. To prevent this, her father stabbed her and cursed Appius Claudius Crassus. This sparked riots which started when the crowd witnessed the incident and spread to the army, encamped outside the city. The crowd went to the Aventine Hill. The senate pressured the decemviri to resign, but they refused. The people decided to withdraw to Mons Sacer, as they had during the first secession. The senate blamed the decemviri for the new secession and managed to force their full resignation. The body selected two senators, Lucius Valerus Potitus and Marcus Horatius Barbatus, to go meet with the people to negotiate. Those gathered at Mons Sacer demanded the restoration of both the plebeian tribunes and the right to appeal, as they had been suspended during the term of the decemviri. The senate's delegation of two agreed to these terms and they returned to the Aventine Hill and elected their tribunes. Lucius Valerius Potitus and Marcus Horatius Barbatus became the consuls for 449 BC. They introduced new laws which increased the power and added to the political strength of the plebeians. The lex Valeria Horatia de plebiscìtis stipulated that the laws passed by the Plebeian Council were binding of all Roman citizens (that is, both patricians and plebeians) despite the patrician opposition to the requirement that they adhere to the universal law. However, once passed, these laws had to receive the approval of the senate (auctoritas patrum). This meant that the senate had the power of veto over the laws passed by the plebeians. Lex Valeria Horatia de senatus consulta ordered that the senatus consulta (the decrees of the senate) had to be kept in the Temple of Ceres by the plebeian aediles (assistants of the plebeian tribunes). This meant that the plebeian tribunes and aediles had knowledge of these decrees, which previously was privileged knowledge. Thus, the decrees entered into the public domain. In the past, the consuls had been in the habit of suppressing or altering them.[8][9] The lex Valeria Horatia de provocatio forbade the creation of state offices that were not subject to appeal.[10] Third Secession – 445 BC[edit] Main article: Lex Canuleia As part of the process of establishing the Twelve Tables of Roman law, the second decemvirate placed severe restrictions on the plebeian order, including a prohibition on the intermarriage of patricians and plebeians.[11][12] Gaius Canuleius, one of the tribunes of the plebs in 445 BCE, proposed a rogatio repealing this law. The consuls vehemently opposed Canuleius, arguing that the tribune was proposing nothing less than the breakdown of Rome's social and moral fabric, at a time when the city was faced with external threats.[i] Undeterred, Canuleius reminded the people of the many contributions of Romans of lowly birth, and pointed out that the Senate had willingly given Roman citizenship to defeated enemies, even while maintaining that the marriage of patricians and plebeians would be detrimental to the state. He then proposed that, in addition to restoring the right of conubium, the law should be changed to allow plebeians to hold the consulship; all but one of the other tribunes supported this measure.[14] A remark by a consul, that the children of mixed marriages might incur the displeasure of the gods, inflamed the plebeians into a military strike, refusing to defend the city against attacking neighbors. This caused the consuls to yield to their demands, allowing a vote on Canuleius' original rogatio. The prohibition on intermarriage between patricians and plebeians was thus repealed.[15] However, the proposal that would permit plebeians to stand for the consulship was not brought to a vote. Threatening a radical escalation of the conflict between the plebeian assembly and the patrician senate.[16][17] A compromise was instead suggested that military tribunes with consular power might be elected from either order. This proposal was well-received, and the first consular tribunes were elected for the following year.[16][18] Fourth Secession – 342 BC[edit] This fourth secession is noted by Livy. The Oxford Classical Dictionary refers to this as an "obscure military revolt." Fifth Secession – 287 BC[edit] Main article: Lex Hortensia In 287 BC, the plebeians seceded for the fifth and final time. In 290 BC, Roman armies led by consuls Manio Curio Denato and Publio Cornelio Rufino Lands conquered large territories in the plains of Rieti and Amiternum from the Sabines.[19] After the war, lands were distributed solely to the Patricians. Meanwhile plebeian farmers, many of whom had fought in the war, found difficulty in repaying debts incurred with these wealthy patricians. This time plebeians seceded to Aventine Hill in protest. To resolve the matter, Quintus Hortensius was appointed as dictator, who convinced the crowd to stop the secession. Shortly afterwards Hortensius promulgated a law, the Lex Hortensia, which established that the laws decided on by plebeian assemblies (plebiscite) were made binding on all Roman citizens, including patricians.[6] This law finally eliminated the political disparity between the two classes, closing the Conflict of Orders after about two hundred years of struggle. This event, although far from resolving all the economic and social inequalities between patricians and plebeians, nevertheless marked an important turning point in the history of Roman democracy as it gave rise to the formation of a new type of patrician-plebeian nobility (nobilitas) which, allowing continuity in the government of the republic, constituted one of the main elements of strength in its economic and military expansion. References[edit] ^ Specifically, a revolt at Ardea, Veientes raiding Roman territory, and increased activity at a fortification of the Aequi and Volsci.[13] ^ Cary, M; Scullard, H.H. (1980). A History of Rome. p. 66. ISBN 0-333-27830-5. ^ Livy, 2.23 ^ Livy, 2.27 ^ Livy, 2.32 ^ Kondratieff, Eric (2018). "Tribuni plebis". Wiley Online Library. ^ a b "Secessio plebis". Imperium Romanum. ^ Livy, 2.33 ^ Livy, 3.55.13 ^ Cornell, p. 265 ^ Cornell, p. 277 ^ Livy, iv. 4. ^ Dionysius, x. 60. ^ Livy, iv. 1. ^ Livy, iv. 3–5. ^ Livy, iv. 6. ^ a b Livy, iv. 7. ^ Dionysius, xi. 60. ^ Dionysius, xi. 60, 61. ^ Florus , Epitome , Lib. I, X Bibliography[edit] Livy, "Ab urbe condita" Cornell, T.J., "The Beginnings of Rome", Routledge, 1995. 'The Growth of Plebeian Privilege in Rome', The English Historical Review No. II (April 1886) Forsythe, G., A Critical History of Early Rome", Berkeley, 2005 Florus, Epitome, Lib. I, X External links[edit] Quotations related to Secessio plebis at Wikiquote The dictionary definition of secession at Wiktionary v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Secessio_plebis&oldid=996324310" Categories: 494 BC Protest tactics Secession Ancient Roman society Hidden categories: Articles to be expanded from September 2018 All articles to be expanded Articles needing translation from Italian Wikipedia Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikiquote Languages Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano Latina Magyar Nederlands Norsk bokmål Português Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски ไทย Edit links This page was last edited on 25 December 2020, at 22:23 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2044	----	Gaius Asinius Pollio - Wikipedia Gaius Asinius Pollio From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Asinius Pollio) Jump to navigation Jump to search 1st-century BC and AD Roman politician, historian and writer For the 1st-century consul, see Gaius Asinius Pollio (consul 23). Gaius Asinius Pollio (75 BC – AD 4)[1] was a Roman soldier, politician, orator, poet, playwright, literary critic and historian, whose lost contemporary history provided much of the material used by the historians Appian and Plutarch. Pollio was most famously a patron of Virgil and a friend of Horace and had poems dedicated to him by both men.[2] Contents 1 Early life 2 Political career 3 Time in Hispania 4 Role in civil war 5 Later life 6 Personal life 7 Legacy 8 See also 9 References 10 Sources Early life[edit] Asinius Pollio was born in Teate Marrucinorum, the modern current Chieti in Abruzzi, central Italy. According to an inscription his father was called Gnaeus Asinius Pollio.[3] He had a brother called Asinius Marrucinus, whom Catullus calls out for his tasteless practical joke,[4] whose name suggests a family origin among the Marrucini. He may therefore have been the grandson of Herius Asinius, a plebeian and a general of the Marrucini who fought on the Italian side in the Social War.[5] Pollio moved in the literary circle of Catullus, and entered public life in 56 BC by supporting Lentulus Spinther. In 54 he unsuccessfully impeached Gaius Cato, a distant relative of the more famous Cato the Younger. Gaius Porcius Cato had acted as the tool of the triumvirs Pompey, Crassus and Caesar in his tribunate in 56. Political career[edit] Despite his initial support of Lentulus Spinther, in the civil war between Caesar and Pompey, Pollio sided with Caesar. He was present when Caesar deliberated whether to cross the Rubicon and begin the war.[6] After Pompey and the Senate fled to Greece, Caesar sent Pollio to Sicily to relieve Cato of his command.[7] He and Gaius Scribonius Curio were sent to Africa to fight the province's governor, the Pompeian Publius Attius Varus. Curio defeated Varus at Utica, despite his opponents' poisoning of the water supply. Curio marched to face Pompey's ally King Juba of Numidia, but was defeated and killed, along with all his men, on the Bagradas River. Pollio managed to retreat to Utica with a small force.[8] He was present as Caesar's legate at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48, and recorded Pompeian casualties at 6,000.[9] In 47 Pollio was probably tribune, and resisted the efforts of another tribune, Publius Cornelius Dolabella, to cancel all debts. The following year he returned to Africa, this time with Caesar himself, in pursuit of Cato and Metellus Scipio.[10] Time in Hispania[edit] When Caesar was assassinated in 44, Pollio was leading his forces in Hispania against Sextus Pompeius, and distinguishing himself early in the campaign.[11] He had accepted the commission reluctantly because of a personal enmity with another of Caesar's allies. Marcus Aemilius Lepidus was appointed the new governor of the province,[12] but Pollio, while remaining loyal to Caesar's supporters, held out against him, announcing at Corduba that he would not hand over his province to anyone who did not have a commission from the Senate.[13] A few months later his quaestor, Lucius Cornelius Balbus, absconded from Gades with the money intended to pay the soldiers, and fled to Mauretania.[14] Pollio was then so severely defeated by Pompeius that he had to escape the battlefield in disguise.[15] Role in civil war[edit] Pollio vacillated between Mark Antony and Octavian as civil war between them brewed,[16] but ultimately threw in his lot with Antony.[17] Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian soon joined forces in the Second Triumvirate. In their series of bloody proscriptions, Pollio's father-in-law, Lucius Quintius, was one of the first to be marked for murder. He fled by sea, but committed suicide by throwing himself overboard.[18] In the division of the provinces, Gaul fell to Antony, who entrusted Pollio with the administration of Gallia Transpadana (the part of Cisalpine Gaul between the Po and the Alps).[19] In superintending the distribution of the Mantuan territory amongst the veterans, he used his influence to save from confiscation the property of the poet Virgil. In 40 Pollio helped to arrange the peace of Brundisium by which Octavian and Antony were for a time reconciled. In the same year Pollio entered upon his consulship, which had been promised him in 43 by the Second Triumvirate. Virgil addressed the famous fourth eclogue to him, though there is uncertainty regarding whether Virgil composed the poem in anticipation of Pollio's consulship or to celebrate his part in the Treaty of Brundisium. Virgil, like other Romans, hoped that peace was at hand and looked forward to a Golden Age under Pollio's consulship. However, Pollio did not complete his consular year. He and his co-consul were removed from office by Antony and Octavian in the final months of the year. The following year Pollio conducted a successful campaign against the Parthini, an Illyrian people who adhered to Marcus Junius Brutus,[20] and celebrated a triumph on 25 October. Virgil's eighth eclogue was addressed to Pollio while he was engaged in this campaign. In 31 Octavian asked him to take part in the Battle of Actium against Antony, but Pollio, remembering the kindness that Antony had shown him, remained neutral.[21] Later life[edit] From the spoils of the war Pollio constructed the first public library at Rome, in the Atrium Libertatis, also erected by him,[22] which he adorned with statues of the most celebrated heroes. The library had Greek and Latin wings, and reportedly its establishment posthumously fulfilled one of Caesar's ambitions. There was a magnificent art collection attached to this library.[23] Pollio loved Hellenistic art at its most imaginative, even including the rather extravagant group known as the Farnese Bull. Like the library, the art gallery was open to the public. After his military and political successes, Pollio appears to have retired into private life as a patron of literary figures and a writer. He was known as a severe literary critic, fond of an archaic style and purity. In retirement, Pollio organized literary readings where he encouraged authors to read their own work, and he was the first Roman author to recite his own works. One of the most dramatic such readings brought the poet Virgil to the attention of the imperial family, when Virgil read from his work-in-progress the Aeneid, and flattered the imperial family by his portrayal of Aeneas, whom the Julii Caesares believed to be their direct patrilineal ancestor. As a result, Virgil was praised by Augustus himself.[24] Pollio may have died in his villa at Tusculum. He was apparently a staunch republican, and thus held himself somewhat aloof from Augustus. Personal life[edit] Married to Quinctia, daughter of Lucius Quinctius, who was executed in 43, Pollio is also notable as the father of Gaius Asinius Gallus Saloninus, the second husband of Vipsania Agrippina, daughter of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Augustus's partner, second-in-command and second son-in-law. Gallus and Vipsania had several sons together, two of whom were full consuls and a third was consul suffectus. Legacy[edit] Pollio's contemporary history, though itself lost, provided much of the material for the historians Appian and Plutarch. As such, he significantly influenced posterity's perception of his time — a key moment in Roman history. According to the poet Horace (Odes 2.1.1–4), he dated the start of the Civil Wars to the consulship of Quintus Metellus Celer in 60 BC. Johan Rudolph Thorbecke, a Dutch statesman of the 19th century, wrote a thesis about Pollio at the University of Leiden. Pollio makes a cameo appearance in Robert Graves's novel I, Claudius, where he discusses the ethics of writing history with young Claudius and Titus Livius. See also[edit] Pollio References[edit] ^ Jerome (Chronicon 2020) says he died in AD 4 in the seventieth year of his life, which would place the year of his birth at 65 BC. ^ Virgil, Eclogues 4, 8; Horace, Carmina 2.1 ^ William Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, 1870, Vol. 3 pp. 437–439 Archived 11 May 2006 at the Wayback Machine ^ Catullus, Carmina 12 ^ Livy, Periochae 73.9 ^ Plutarch, Caesar 32 ^ Appian, Civil Wars 2.40 ^ Appian, Civil Wars 2.45 ^ Appian, Civil Wars2.82 ^ Plutarch, Caesar 52 ^ Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.73 ^ Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.63 ^ Cicero, Letters to Friends 10.31 ^ Cicero, Letters to Friends 10.32 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History 45.10 ^ Cicero, Letters to Friends 10.32, 10.33; Appian, Civil Wars 3.46 ^ Appian, Civil Wars 3.97 ^ Appian, Civil Wars 4.12, 27 ^ Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.76 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History 48.41.7 ^ Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.86 ^ Pliny, Natural History 35.10 ^ Paul Zanker, "The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus" ^ Tony Perrotet, "The Ancient Roman Reading Craze", The Believer, September 2003 Sources[edit] Louis H. Feldman, "Asinius Pollio and Herod's Sons", The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 35, No. 1 (1985), pp. 240–243. Article reading online requires subscription to JSTOR. Miland Brown, Loot, Plunder, and a New Public Library. G. S. Bobinski, (1994). Library Philanthropy. In W.A Wiegand and D.G. Davis (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Library History. New York: Garland Publishing. Political offices Preceded by L. Antonius P. Servilius Vatia Isauricus Consul of Rome 40 BC (renounced) With: Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus Succeeded by L. Cornelius Balbus P. Canidius Crassus Authority control BIBSYS: 95004195 GND: 118646117 ICCU: IT\ICCU\SBLV\192050 ISNI: 0000 0001 1683 1237 LCCN: n82153080 NLA: 35373813 NLI: 001471851 NTA: 072823240 RERO: 02-A010020099 SUDOC: 079574939 Trove: 930148 VIAF: 408149294315180521782 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n82153080 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gaius_Asinius_Pollio&oldid=990456466" Categories: 75 BC births AD 4 deaths 1st-century BC historians 1st-century BC Roman poets 1st-century BC Romans 1st-century Romans Ancient Roman generals Asinii Correspondents of Cicero Italian librarians Last of the Romans Latin historians People from Chieti Roman Republican consuls Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Use dmy dates from July 2020 Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikisource Languages العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Español فارسی Français Furlan Italiano עברית Latina Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 24 November 2020, at 15:58 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2057	----	Londinium - Wikipedia Londinium From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Settlement established on the current site of the City of London around AD 47-50 For other uses, see Londinium (disambiguation). A general outline of Roman London in late antiquity, with the modern banks of the Thames.[1] Discovered roads drawn as double lines; conjectural roads, single lines. Londinium, also known as Roman London, was the capital of Roman Britain during most of the period of Roman rule. It was originally a settlement established on the current site of the City of London around AD 47–50.[2][3] It sat at a key crossing point over the River Thames which turned the city into a road nexus and major port, serving as a major commercial centre in Roman Britain until its abandonment during the 5th century. Following the foundation of the town in the mid-1st century, early Londinium occupied the relatively small area of 1.4 km2 (0.5 sq mi), roughly equivalent to the size of present-day Hyde Park. In the year 60 or 61, the rebellion of the Iceni under Boudica forced the Roman authorities to abandon the settlement, which was then razed. Following the defeat of Boudica by the Roman governor Gaius Suetonius Paulinus a military installation was established[4] and the city was rebuilt. It had probably largely recovered within about a decade. During the later decades of the 1st century, Londinium expanded rapidly, becoming Britannia's largest city, and it was provided with large public buildings such as a forum[5] and amphitheatre.[6] By the turn of the century, Londinium had grown to perhaps 30,000 or 60,000 people, almost certainly replacing Camulodunum (Colchester) as the provincial capital and by the mid-2nd century, Londinium was at its height. Its forum-basilica was one of the largest structures north of the Alps when the Emperor Hadrian visited Londinium in 122. Excavations have discovered evidence of a major fire that destroyed much of the city shortly thereafter, but the city was again rebuilt. By the second half of the 2nd century, Londinium appears to have shrunk in both size and population. Although Londinium remained important for the rest of the Roman period, no further expansion resulted. Londinium supported a smaller but stable settlement population as archaeologists have found that much of the city after this date was covered in dark earth—the by-product of urban household waste, manure, ceramic tile, and non-farm debris of settlement occupation, which accumulated relatively undisturbed for centuries. Sometime between 190 and 225, the Romans built a defensive wall around the landward side of the city. Along with Hadrian's Wall and the road network, this wall was one of the largest construction projects carried out in Roman Britain. The London Wall survived for another 1,600 years and broadly defined the perimeter of the old City of London. Part of a series on the History of London Roman London Anglo-Saxon London Norman and Medieval London Tudor London Stuart London 18th-century London 19th-century London London 1900–1939 London in World War II Modern London (from 1945) London in the 1960s See also Timeline  London portal v t e Contents 1 Name 2 Location 3 Status 4 History 4.1 Founding 4.2 Roads 4.3 Boudica 4.4 1st century 4.5 Port 4.6 2nd century 4.7 London Wall 4.8 3rd century 4.9 Carausian Revolt 4.10 4th century 4.11 5th century 5 Demographics 6 Excavation 7 Displays 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Name[edit] Main article: Etymology of London The etymology of the name Londinium is unknown. Following Geoffrey of Monmouth's pseudohistorical History of the Kings of Britain,[7][8] it was long published as derived from an eponymous founder named Lud, son of Heli. There is no evidence such a figure ever existed. Instead, the Latin name was probably based on a native Brittonic placename reconstructed as *Londinion.[10] Morphologically, this points to a structure of two suffixes: -in-jo-. However, the Roman Londinium was not the immediate source of English "London" (Old English: Lunden), as i-mutation would have caused the name to have been Lyndon. This suggests an alternative Brittonic form Londonion;[13] alternatively, the local pronunciation in British Latin may have changed the pronunciation of Londinium to Lundeiniu or Lundein, which would also have avoided i-mutation in Old English.[14] The list of the 28 Cities of Britain included in the 9th-century History of the Britons precisely notes London[15] in Old Welsh as Cair Lundem[16] or Lundein.[15][18] Location[edit] A map of Roman Britain[19] The site guarded the Romans' bridgehead on the north bank of the Thames and a major road nexus shortly after the invasion. It was centred on Cornhill and the River Walbrook, but extended west to Ludgate Hill and east to Tower Hill. Just prior to the Roman conquest, the area had been contested by the Catuvellauni based to the west and the Trinovantes based to the east; it bordered the realm of the Cantiaci on the south bank of the Thames. The Roman city ultimately covered at least the area of the City of London, whose boundaries are largely defined by its former wall. Londinium's waterfront on the Thames ran from around Ludgate Hill in the west to the present site of the Tower in the east, around 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi). The northern wall reached Bishopsgate and Cripplegate near the Museum of London, a course now marked by the street "London Wall". Cemeteries and suburbs existed outside the city proper. A round temple has been located west of the city, although its dedication remains unclear. Substantial suburbs existed at St Martin-in-the-Fields in Westminster and around the southern end of the Thames bridge in Southwark, where inscriptions suggest a temple of Isis was located.[20] Status[edit] Londinium grew up as a vicus and soon became an important port for trade between Britain and the Roman provinces on the continent. Tacitus wrote that, at the time of the uprising of Boudica, "Londinium... though undistinguished by the name of 'colony', was much frequented by a number of merchants and trading vessels."[22][23] Depending on the time of its creation, the modesty of Londonium's first forum may have reflected its early elevation to city (municipium) status or may have reflected an administrative concession to a low-ranking but major Romano-British settlement.[24] It had almost certainly been granted colony (colonia) status prior to the complete replanning of the city's street plan attending the erection of the great second forum around the year 120.[25] By this time, Britain's provincial administration had also almost certainly been moved to Londinium from Camulodunum (Colchester in Essex). The precise date of this change is unknown and no surviving source explicitly states that Londinium was "the capital of Britain" but there are several strong indications of this status: 2nd-century roofing tiles have been found marked by the "Procurator" or "Publican of the Province of Britain at Londinium",[27] the remains of a governor's palace and tombstones belonging to the governor's staff have been discovered, and the city was well defended and armed, with a new military camp erected at the beginning of the 2nd century in a fort on the north-western edge of the city, despite being far from any frontier.[28] Despite some corruption to the text, the list of bishops for the 314 Council of Arles indicates that either Restitutus or Adelphius came from Londinium.[31] The city seems to have been the seat of the diocesan vicar and one of the provincial governors following the Diocletian Reforms around the year 300; it had been renamed Augusta—a common epithet of provincial capitals—by 368.[32] History[edit] Founding[edit] See also: Roman conquest of Britain Unlike many cities of Roman Britain, Londinium was not placed on the site of a Celtic oppidum.[33] Prior to the arrival of the Roman legions, the area was almost certainly lightly rolling open countryside traversed by numerous streams now underground. Ptolemy lists it as one of the cities of the Cantiacs,[34] but Durovernum (Roman Canterbury) was their tribal capital (civitas). It is possible that the town was preceded by a short-lived Roman military camp but the evidence is limited and this topic remains a matter of debate.[35][36] Archaeologist Lacey Wallace notes that "Because no LPRIA settlements or significant domestic refuse have been found in London, despite extensive archaeological excavation, arguments for a purely Roman foundation of London are now common and uncontroversial."[37] The city's Latin name seems to have derived from an originally Brittonic one and significant pre-Roman finds in the Thames, especially the Battersea Shield (Chelsea Bridge, perhaps 4th-century BC) and the Wandsworth Shield (perhaps 1st-century BC), both assumed to be votive offerings deposited a couple of miles upstream of Londinium, suggest the general area was busy and significant. It has been suggested that the area was where a number of territories met.[38] There was probably a ford in that part of the river; other Roman and Celtic finds suggest this was perhaps where the opposed crossing Julius Caesar describes in 54 BC took place. Londinium grew up around the point on the River Thames narrow enough for the construction of a Roman bridge but still deep enough to handle the era's seagoing ships.[39] Its placement on the Tideway permitted easier access for ships sailing upstream.[39][40] The remains of a massive pier base for such a bridge were found in 1981 close by the modern London Bridge. Some Claudian-era camp ditches have been discovered,[41] but archaeological excavations undertaken since the 1970s by the Department of Urban Archaeology at the Museum of London (now MOLAS) have suggested the early settlement was largely the product of private enterprise.[42] A timber drain by the side of the main Roman road excavated at No 1 Poultry has been dated by dendrochronology to AD 47, which is likely to be the foundation date.[43] Following its foundation in the mid-1st century, early Roman London occupied a relatively small area, about 350 acres (1.4 km2) or roughly the area of present-day Hyde Park. Archaeologists have uncovered numerous goods imported from across the Roman Empire in this period, suggesting that early Roman London was a highly cosmopolitan community of merchants from across the Empire and that local markets existed for such objects. Roads[edit] Main article: Roman roads in Britain A map of the known Roman road network, highlighting the routes included in the Antonine Itinerary Of the fifteen British routes recorded in the 2nd- or 3rd-century Antonine Itinerary, seven ran to or from Londinium.[32][45] Most of these have been shown to have been initially constructed near the time of the city's foundation around AD 47.[46] The roads are now known by Welsh or Old English names, as their original Roman names have been entirely lost due to the lack of written and inscribed sources. (It was customary elsewhere to name roads after the emperor during whose principate they were completed, but the number and vicinity of routes completed during the time of Claudius would seem to have made this impractical in Britain's case.) The road from the Kentish ports of Rutupiae (Richborough), Dubris (Dover), and Lemanis (Lympne) via Durovernum (Canterbury) seems to have first crossed the Thames at a natural ford near Westminster before being diverted north to the new bridge at London.[53] The Romans enabled the road to cross the marshy terrain without subsidence by laying down substrates of one to three layers of oak logs.[46][52] This route, now known as Watling Street, then passed through the town from the bridgehead in a straight line to reconnect with its northern extension towards Viroconium (Wroxeter) and the legionary base at Deva Victrix (Chester). The Great Road ran northeast across Old Ford to Camulodunum (Colchester) and thence northeast along Pye Road to Venta Icenorum (Caistor St Edmund). Ermine Street ran north from the city to Lindum (Lincoln) and Eboracum (York). The Devil's Highway connected Londinium to Calleva (Silchester) and its roads to points west over the bridges near modern Staines. A minor road led southwest to the city's main cemetery and the old routes to the ford at Westminster. Stane Street to Noviomagus (Chichester) did not reach Londinium proper but ran from the bridgehead in the southern suburb at Southwark. These roads varied from 12–20 m (39–66 ft) wide.[46] After its reconstruction in the AD 60s, the streets largely adhered to a grid. The main streets were 9–10 m (30–33 ft) wide, while side streets were usually about 5 m (16 ft) wide.[46] Boudica[edit] Main article: Boudica's Revolt The rediscovery of Tacitus's works revived English interest in Boudica, particularly during the 19th century, when she was used as a symbol for Queen Victoria and the British Empire. (Boadicea and Her Daughters by Thomas Thornycroft, 1860s, cast by his son in 1902.) In the year 60 or 61, a little more than ten years after Londinium was founded, the king of the Iceni died. He had possibly been installed by the Romans after the Iceni's failed revolt against P. Ostorius Scapula's disarmament of the allied tribes in AD 47[54] or may have assisted the Romans against his tribesmen during that revolt. His will had divided his wealth and lands between Rome and his two daughters, but Roman law forbade female inheritance and it had become common practice to treat allied kingdoms as life estates that were annexed upon the ruler's death, as had occurred in Bithynia[55] and Galatia.[56] Roman financiers including Seneca called in all the king's outstanding loans at once[57] and the provincial procurator confiscated the property of both the king and his nobles. Tacitus records that, when the king's wife Boudica objected, the Romans flogged her, raped her two daughters, and enslaved their nobles and kinsmen.[58] Boudica then led a failed revolt against Roman rule. Two hundred ill-equipped men were sent to defend the provincial capital and Roman colony at Camulodunum, probably from the garrison at Londinium.[59] The Iceni and their allies overwhelmed them and razed the city. The 9th Legion under Q. Petillius Cerialis, coming south from the Fosse Way, was ambushed and annihilated. The procurator, meanwhile, escaped with his treasure to Gaul, probably via Londinium.[59] G. Suetonius Paulinus had been leading the 14th and 20th Legions in the invasion of Anglesey now known as the Menai massacre; hearing of the rising, he immediately returned along Watling Street with the legions' cavalry.[59] An early historical record of London appears in Tacitus's account of his actions upon arriving and finding the state of the 9th Legion:[21][23] At first, [Paulinus] hesitated as to whether to stand and fight there. Eventually, his numerical inferiority—and the price only too clearly paid by the divisional commander's rashness—decided him to sacrifice the single city of Londinium to save the province as a whole. Unmoved by lamentations and appeals, Suetonius gave the signal for departure. The inhabitants were allowed to accompany him. But those who stayed because they were women, or old, or attached to the place, were slaughtered by the enemy. Excavation has revealed extensive evidence of destruction by fire in the form of a layer of red ash beneath the city at this date. Suetonius then returned to the legions' slower infantry, who met and defeated the British army, slaughtering as many as 70,000 men and camp followers. There is a long-standing folklore belief that this battle took place at King’s Cross, simply because as a mediaeval village it was known as Battle Bridge. Suetonius's flight back to his men, the razing of Verulamium (St Albans), and the battle shortly thereafter at "a place with narrow jaws, backed by a forest",[21][23] speaks against the tradition and no supporting archaeological evidence has been yet discovered.[60] 1st century[edit] A model of London in 85–90 on display in the Museum of London, depicting the first bridge over the Thames After being sacked, the city was rebuilt as a planned Roman town, its streets generally adhering to a grid skewed by major roads passing from the bridgehead and by changes in alignment produced by crossings over the local streams.[61] It recovered after about a decade.[citation needed] A fortified enclosure was erected at Plantation Place on Cornhill. The first forum was constructed in the 70s or 80s[24] and has been excavated, showing it had an open courtyard with a basilica and several shops around it, altogether measuring about 100 m × 50 m (330 ft × 160 ft).[62] The basilica would have functioned as the city's administrative heart, hearing law cases and seating the town's local senate. It formed the north side of the forum, whose south entrance was located along the north side of the intersection of the present Gracechurch, Lombard, and Fenchurch Streets.[63] Forums elsewhere typically had a civic temple constructed within the enclosed market area; British sites usually did not, instead placing a smaller shrine for Roman services somewhere within the basilica. The first forum in Londinium seems to have had a full temple, but placed outside just west of the forum.[64] During the later decades of the 1st century, Londinium expanded rapidly and quickly became Roman Britain's largest city, although most of its houses continued to be made of wood. By the turn of the century, Londinium was perhaps as large as 60,000 people,[65][66] and had replaced Camulodunum (Colchester) as the provincial capital. A large building discovered near Cannon Street Station has had its foundation dated to this era and is assumed to have been the governor's palace. It boasted a garden, pools, and several large halls, some of which were decorated with mosaic floors.[67] It stood on the east bank of the now-covered Walbrook, near where it joins the Thames. London Stone may originally have been part of the palace's main entrance. Another site dating to this era is the bathhouse (thermae) at Huggin Hill, which remained in use prior to its demolition around the year 200. Brothels were legal but taxed.[68] Port[edit] A diagram of the Roman structures from the port of Londinium (c. AD 100) excavated along the bank of the Thames. The bulk of the Roman port was quickly rebuilt after Boudicca's rebellion[69] when the waterfront was extended with gravel to permit a sturdy wharf to be built perpendicular to the shore. The port was built in four sections, starting upstream of the London Bridge and working down towards the Walbrook at the centre of Londinium. Expansion of the flourishing port continued into the 3rd century. Scraps of armour, leather straps, and military stamps on building timbers suggest that the site was constructed by the city's legionaries.[70] Major imports included fine pottery, jewellery and wine.[71] Only two large warehouses are known, implying that Londinium functioned as a bustling trade centre rather than a supply depot and distribution centre like Ostia near Rome.[70] 2nd century[edit] A bronze head of Hadrian found in London (British Museum) Emperor Hadrian visited in 122. The impressive public buildings from around this period may have been initially constructed in preparation for his visit or during the rebuilding that followed the "Hadrianic Fire". The so-called 'Hadrianic Fire' is not mentioned in any historical sources but has been inferred by evidence of large-scale burning identified by archaeologists on a number of excavation sites around the City of London.[72] The best dating evidence for this event(s) comes from burnt stocks of unsold Terra Sigilatta pottery, which can be dated to circa AD 120-125. These were found in destroyed warehouse or shop buildings at Regis House and Bucklersbury.[73] Hadrianic fire horizons tend to be dated to around the AD 120-130s but it is difficult to prove that they are precisely contemporary and there remains some uncertainty as to whether they indicate a single large fire or a series of smaller conflagrations.[72] Fire destroyed substantial areas of the city in the area north of the Thames but does not seem to have damaged many major public buildings. There is very little evidence to suggest similar burning in the adjacent Southwark settlement. The Hadrianic fire (or fires) has normally been assumed to be accidental[72] but it has also been suggested that it could relate to an episode of political turbulence.[74] A model of the expanded forum at the Museum of London Stela mentioning the Londiniensi ('Londoners') Reconstruction drawing of Londinium c. 120 AD During the early 2nd century, Londinium was at its height, having recovered from the fire and again had between 45,000 and 60,000 inhabitants around the year 140, with many more stone houses and public buildings erected. Some areas were tightly packed with townhouses (domus). The town had piped water[75] and a "fairly-sophisticated" drainage system.[76] The governor's palace was rebuilt[67] and an expanded forum was built around the earlier one over a period of 30 years from around 90 to 120 into an almost perfect square measuring 168 m × 167 m (551 ft × 548 ft).[62] Its three-storey basilica was probably visible across the city and was the largest in the empire north of the Alps;[62][77] the marketplace itself rivaled those in Rome and was the largest in the north before Augusta Treverorum (Trier, Germany) became an imperial capital.[78] The city's temple of Jupiter was renovated,[79] public and private bathhouses were erected, and a fort (arx) was erected around the year 120 that maintained the city garrison northwest of town.[80] The fort was square (with rounded corners) measuring more than 200 m × 200 m (660 ft × 660 ft) and covering more than 12 acres (4.9 ha). Each side had a central gatehouse and stone towers were erected at the corners and at points along each wall.[80] Londinium's amphitheatre, constructed in AD 70, is situated at Guildhall.[81] When the Romans left in the 4th century the amphitheatre lay derelict for hundreds of years. In the 11th century the area was reoccupied and by the 12th century the first Guildhall was built next to it. A large port complex on both banks near London Bridge was discovered during the 1980s. A temple complex with two Romano-British temples was excavated at Empire Square, Long Lane, Southwark in 2002/2003. A large house there may have been a guesthouse. A marble slab with a dedication to the god Mars was discovered in the temple complex. The inscription mentions the Londoners, the earliest known reference naming the people of London.[82] A Roman mosaic floor from Londinium (British Museum) By the second half of the 2nd century, Londinium had many large, well-equipped stone buildings, some of which were richly adorned with wall paintings and floor mosaics, and had subfloor hypocausts. The Roman house at Billingsgate was built next to the waterfront and had its own bath.[83] In addition to such structures reducing the city's building density, however, Londinium also seems to have shrunk in both size and population in the second half of the 2nd century. The cause is uncertain but plague is considered likely, as the Antonine Plague is recorded decimating other areas of Western Europe between 165 and 190. The end of imperial expansion in Britain after Hadrian's decision to build his wall may have also damaged the city's economy. Although Londinium remained important for the rest of the Roman period, no further expansion occurred. Londinium remained well populated, as archaeologists have found that much of the city after this date was covered in dark earth which accumulated relatively undisturbed over centuries. London Wall[edit] Main article: London Wall A surviving fragment of the London Wall behind Tower Hill Station (2005) Some time between 190 and 225, the Romans built the London Wall, a defensive ragstone wall around the landward side of the city. Along with Hadrian's Wall and the road network, the London Wall was one of the largest construction projects carried out in Roman Britain. The wall was originally about 5 km (3 mi) long, 6 m (20 ft) high, and 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) thick.[citation needed] Its dry moat (fossa) was about 2 m (6 ft 7 in) deep and 3–5 m (9.8–16.4 ft) wide.[84] In the 19th century, Smith estimated its length from the Tower west to Ludgate at about one mile (1.6 km) and its breadth from the northern wall to the bank of the Thames at around half that.[citation needed] In addition to small pedestrian postern gates like the one by Tower Hill, it had four main gates: Bishopsgate and Aldgate in the northeast at the roads to Eboracum (York) and to Camulodunum (Colchester) and Newgate and Ludgate in the west along at the road that divided for travel to Viroconium (Wroxeter) and to Calleva (Silchester) and at another road that ran along the Thames to the city's main cemetery and the old ford at Westminster. The wall partially utilized the army's existing fort, strengthening its outer wall with a second course of stone to match the rest of the course.[80][85] The fort had two gates of its own—Cripplegate to the north and another to the west—but these were not along major roads.[85] Aldersgate was eventually added, perhaps to replace the west gate of the fort. (The names of all these gates are medieval, as they continued to be occasionally refurbished and replaced until their demolition in the 17th and 18th centuries to permit widening the roads.)[85][86] The wall initially left the riverbank undefended: this was corrected in the 3rd century. Although the exact reason for the wall's construction is unknown, some historians have connected it with the Pictish invasion of the 180s.[87] Others link it with Clodius Albinus, the British governor who attempted to usurp Septimius Severus in the 190s. The wall survived another 1,600 years and still roughly defines the City of London's perimeter. 3rd century[edit] Ulpius Silvanus's Tauroctony depicting Mithras killing the bull, discovered in the ruins of the London Mithraeum. Septimius Severus defeated Albinus in 197 and shortly afterwards divided the province of Britain into Upper and Lower halves, with the former controlled by a new governor in Eboracum (York). Despite the smaller administrative area, the economic stimulus provided by the Wall and by Septimius Severus's campaigns in Caledonia somewhat revived London's fortunes in the early 3rd century. The northwest fort was abandoned and dismantled[80] but archaeological evidence points to renewed construction activity from this period. The London Mithraeum rediscovered in 1954 dates from around 240,[88] when it was erected on the east bank at the head of navigation on the now-covered River Walbrook about 200 m (660 ft) from the Thames.[89] From about 255 onwards, raiding by Saxon pirates led to the construction of a riverside wall as well. It ran roughly along the course of present-day Thames Street, which then roughly formed the shoreline. Large collapsed sections of this wall were excavated at Blackfriars and the Tower in the 1970s.[90] Carausian Revolt[edit] Main article: Carausian Revolt A Carausian coin from his mint at Londinium. The "Trier medallion" showing a woman kneeling in front of a Roman soldier at the city walls, thanking him for bringing Allectus's rule to an end In 286, the emperor Maximian issued a death sentence against Carausius, admiral of the Roman navy's Britannic fleet (Classis Britannica), on charges of having abetted Frankish and Saxon piracy and of having embezzled recovered treasure. Carausius responded by consolidating his allies and territory and revolting. After fending off Maximian's first assault in 288, he declared a new Britannic Empire and issued coins to that effect. Constantius Chlorus's sack of his Gallic base at Gesoriacum (Boulogne), however, led his treasurer Allectus to assassinate and replace him. In 296, Chlorus mounted an invasion of Britain that prompted Allectus's Frankish mercenaries to sack Londinium. They were only stopped by the arrival of a flotilla of Roman warships on the Thames, which slaughtered the survivors.[91] The event was commemorated by the golden "Trier Medallion", Chlorus on one side and, on the other, a woman kneeling at the city wall welcoming a mounted Roman soldier.[92] Another memorial to the return of Londinium to Roman control was the construction of a new set of forum baths around the year 300. The structures were modest enough that they were previously identified as parts of the forum and market but are now recognized as elaborate and luxurious baths including a frigidarium with two southern pools and an eastern swimming pool. 4th century[edit] See also: Celtic Christianity and Bishops of Londinium Following the revolt, the Diocletian Reforms saw the British administration restructured. Londinium is universally supposed to have been the capital of one of them, but it remains unclear where the new provinces were, whether there were initially three or four in total, and whether Valentia represented a fifth province or a renaming of an older one. In the 12th century, Gerald of Wales listed "Londonia" as the capital of Flavia, having had Britannia Prima (Wales) and Secunda (Kent) severed from the territory of Upper Britain.[93][94] Modern scholars more often list Londinium as the capital of Maxima Caesariensis on the assumption that the presence of the diocesan vicar in London would have required its provincial governor to outrank the others. The governor's palace[67] and old large forum seem to have fallen out of use around 300,[77] but in general the first half of the 4th century appears to have been a prosperous time for Britain, for the villa estates surrounding London appear to have flourished during this period. The London Mithraeum was rededicated, probably to Bacchus. A list of the 16 "archbishops" of London was recorded by Jocelyne of Furness in the 12th century, claiming the city's Christian community was founded in the 2nd century under the legendary King Lucius and his missionary saints Fagan, Deruvian, Elvanus, and Medwin. None of that is considered credible by modern historians but, although the surviving text is problematic, either Bishop Restitutus or Adelphius at the 314 Council of Arles seems to have come from Londinium.[31] The location of Londinium's original cathedral is uncertain. The present structure of St Peter upon Cornhill was designed by Christopher Wren following the Great Fire in 1666 but it stands upon the highest point in the area of old Londinium and medieval legends tied it to the city's earliest Christian community. In 1995, however, a large and ornate 4th-century building on Tower Hill was discovered: built sometime between 350 and 400, it seems to have mimicked St Ambrose's cathedral in the imperial capital at Milan on a still-larger scale.[95] It was about 100 m (330 ft) long by about 50 m (160 ft) wide.[96] Excavations by David Sankey of MOLAS established it was constructed out of stone taken from other buildings, including a veneer of black marble.[95][97] It was probably dedicated to St Paul.[96] From 340 onwards, northern Britain was repeatedly attacked by Picts and Gaels. In 360, a large-scale attack forced the emperor Julian the Apostate to send troops to deal with the problem. Large efforts were made to improve Londinium's defenses around the same time. At least 22 semi-circular towers were added to the city walls to provide platforms for ballistae[85] and the present state of the river wall suggested hurried repair work around this time.[90] In 367, the Great Conspiracy saw a coordinated invasion of Picts, Gaels, and Saxons joined with a mutiny of troops along the Wall. Count Theodosius dealt with the problem over the next few years, using Londinium—then known as "Augusta"—as his base.[98] It may have been at this point that one of the existing provinces was renamed Valentia, although the account of Theodosius's actions describes it as a province recovered from the enemy. In 382, Magnus Maximus organized all of the British-based troops and attempted to establish himself as emperor over the west. The event was obviously important to the Britons, as "Macsen Wledig" would remain a major figure in Welsh folklore and several medieval Welsh dynasties claimed descent from him. He was probably responsible for London's new church in the 370s or 380s.[95][96] He was initially successful but was defeated by Theodosius I at the 388 Battle of the Save. A new stretch of the river wall near Tower Hill seems to have been built further from the shore at some point over the next decade.[90] 5th century[edit] See also: Sub-Roman Britain, Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain, Lundenwic, and Lundenburh Roman Britain around AD 410, without speculative provincial borders. With few troops left in Britain, many Romano-British towns—including Londinium—declined drastically over the next few decades. Many of London's public buildings had fallen into disrepair by this point,[citation needed] and excavations of the port show signs of rapid disuse.[69] Between 407 and 409, large numbers of barbarians overran Gaul and Hispania, seriously weakening communication between Rome and Britain. Trade broke down. Officials went unpaid and Romano-British troops elected their own leaders. Constantine III declared himself emperor over the west and crossed the Channel, an act considered the Roman withdrawal from Britain since the emperor Honorius subsequently directed the Britons to look to their own defence rather than send another garrison force.[99] Surviving accounts are scanty and mixed with Welsh and Saxon legends concerning Vortigern, Hengest, Horsa, and Ambrosius Aurelianus. Even archaeological evidence of Londinium during this period is minimal. Despite remaining on the list of Roman provinces, Romano-Britain seems to have dropped their remaining loyalties to Rome. Raiding by the Irish, Picts, and Saxons continued but Gildas records a time of luxury and plenty[102] which is sometimes attributed to reduced taxation. Archaeologists have found evidence that a small number of wealthy families continued to maintain a Roman lifestyle until the middle of the 5th century, inhabiting villas in the southeastern corner of the city and importing luxuries.[99] Medieval accounts state that the invasions that established Anglo-Saxon England (the Adventus Saxonum) did not begin in earnest until some time in the 440s and 450s.[108] Bede recorded that the Britons fled to Londinium in terror after their defeat at the Battle of Crecganford (probably Crayford),[105][106] but nothing further is said. By the end of the 5th century, the city was largely an uninhabited ruin,[99] its large church on Tower Hill burnt to the ground.[95] Over the next century, Angles, Saxons, Jutes, and Frisians arrived and established tribal areas and kingdoms. The area of the Roman city was administered as part of the Kingdom of the East Saxons – Essex, although the Saxon settlement of Lundenwic was not within the Roman walls but to the west in Aldwych. It was not until the Viking invasions of England that King Alfred the Great moved the settlement back within the safety of the Roman walls, which gave it the name Lundenburh. The foundations of the river wall, however, were undermined over time and had completely collapsed by the 11th century.[90] Memory of the earlier settlement survived: it is generally identified as the Cair Lundem[16] counted among the 28 cities of Britain included in the History of the Britons traditionally attributed to Nennius.[15][17] Demographics[edit] The population of Londinium is estimated to have peaked around 100 AD when it was still the capital of Britannia; at this point estimates for the population vary between about 30,000,[109] or about 60,000 people.[66] But there seems to have been a large decline after about 150 AD, possibly as the regional economic centres developed, and Londinium as the main port for imported goods became less significant. The Antonine Plague which swept the Empire from 165 to 180 may have had a big effect. Pottery workshops outside the city in Brockley Hill and Highgate appear to have ended production around 160, and the population may have fallen by as much as two thirds.[110] Londinium was an ethnically diverse city with inhabitants from across the Roman Empire, including those with backgrounds from Britannia, continental Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa.[111] A 2017 genetic test of human remains in Roman cemeteries states that the "presence of people born in London with African ancestry is not an unusual or atypical result for Londinium."[112] A 2016 study of the isotope analysis of 20 bodies from various periods suggested that at least 12 had grown up locally, with four being immigrants, and the last four unclear.[113] Excavation[edit] See also: Museum of London and Museum of London Archaeology See also: Amphitheatre (London) A Romano-Celtic temple being excavated at 56 Gresham Street. Many ruins remain buried beneath London, although understanding them can be difficult. Owing to London's own geology, which consists of a Taplow Terrace deep bed of brickearth, sand, and gravel over clay,[114] Roman gravel roads can only be identified as such if they were repeatedly relayered or if the spans of gravel can be traced across several sites. The minimal remains from wooden structures are easy to miss and stone buildings may leave foundations, but—as with the great forum—they were often dismantled for stone during the Middle Ages and early modern period.[25] The known floorplan of the presumed "governor's palace". The Roman wall at St Alphege Gardens The first extensive archaeological review of the Roman city of London was done in the 17th century after the Great Fire of 1666. Christopher Wren's renovation of St Paul's on Ludgate Hill found no evidence supporting Camden's contention[115] that it had been built over a Roman temple to the goddess Diana.[116] The extensive rebuilding of London in the 19th century and following the German bombing campaign during World War II also allowed for large parts of old London to be recorded and preserved while modern updates were made.[118] The construction of the London Coal Exchange led to the discovery of the Roman house at Billingsgate in 1848. In the 1860s, excavations by General Rivers uncovered a large number of human skulls and almost no other bones in the bed of the Walbrook.[119] The discovery recalls a passage in Geoffrey of Monmouth's pseudohistorical History of the Kings of Britain where Asclepiodotus besieged the last remnants of the usurper Allectus's army at "Londonia". Having battered the town's walls with siegeworks constructed by allied Britons, Asclepiodotus accepted the commander's surrender only to have the Venedotians rush upon them, ritually decapitating them and throwing the heads into the river "Gallemborne".[120][121] Asclepiodotus's siege was an actual event that occurred in AD 296, but further skull finds beneath the 3rd-century wall place at least some of the slaughter before its construction, leading most modern scholars to attribute them to Boudica's forces.[122][123] In 1947, the city's northwest fortress of the city garrison was discovered.[124] In 1954, excavations of what was thought to have been an early church instead revealed the London Mithraeum, which was relocated to permit building over its original site. (The building erected at the time has since been demolished, and plans to return the temple to its former location are under way.) Archaeologists began the first intensive excavation of the waterfront sites of Roman London in the 1970s. What was not found during this time has been built over making it very difficult to study or discover anything new.[9] Another phase of archaeological work followed the deregulation of the London Stock Exchange in 1986, which led to extensive new construction in the City's financial district. From 1991, many excavations were undertaken by the Museum of London's Archaeology Service, although it was spun off into the separately-run MOLA in 2011 following legislation to address the Rose Theatre fiasco. Displays[edit] A reconstructed Roman kitchen (culina) at the Museum of London (2014) Major finds from Roman London, including mosaics, wall fragments, and old buildings were formerly housed in the London and Guildhall Museums.[71] These merged after 1965[125] into the present Museum of London near the Barbican Centre. Museum of London Docklands, a separate branch dealing with the history of London's ports, opened on the Isle of Dogs in 2003. Other finds from Roman London continue to be held by the British Museum.[71] Much of the surviving wall is medieval, but Roman-era stretches are visible near Tower Hill Station, in a hotel courtyard at 8–10 Coopers Row, and in St Alphege Gardens off Wood Street.[85] A section of the river wall is visible inside the Tower.[90] Parts of the amphitheatre are on display at the Guildhall Art Gallery.[81] The southwestern tower of the Roman fort northwest of town can still be seen at Noble Street.[80] Occasionally, Roman sites are incorporated into the foundations of new buildings for future study, but these are not generally available to the public.[62][83] See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal Anglo-Saxon London Elizabethan London Notes[edit] ^ Note that this image includes both the garrison fort, which was demolished in the 3rd century, and the Mithraeum, which was abandoned around the same time. The identification of the "governor's palace" remains conjectural. ^ Hingley, Richard. Londinium : a biography : Roman London from its origins to the fifth century. London. pp. 27–32. ISBN 978-1-350-04730-3. OCLC 1042078915. ^ Hill, Julian. and Rowsome, Peter (2011). Roman London and the Walbrook stream crossing : excavations at 1 Poultry and vicinity, City of London. Rowsome, Peter., Museum of London Archaeology. London: Museum of London Archaeology. pp. 251–62. ISBN 978-1-907586-04-0. OCLC 778916833.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Dunwoodie, Lesley. (2015). An early Roman fort and urban development on Londinium's eastern hill : excavations at Plantation Place, City of London, 1997-2003. Harward, Chiz., Pitt, Ken. London: MOLA (Museum of London Archaeology). ISBN 978-1-907586-32-3. OCLC 920542650. ^ Marsden, Peter Richard Valentine. (1987). The Roman Forum Site in London : discoveries before 1985. Museum of London. London: H.M.S.O. ISBN 0-11-290442-4. OCLC 16415134. ^ Bateman, Nick. (2008). London's Roman amphitheatre : Guildhall Yard, City of London. Cowan, Carrie., Wroe-Brown, Robin., Museum of London. Archaeology Service. [London]: Museum of London Archaeology Service. ISBN 978-1-901992-71-7. OCLC 276334521. ^ Galfredus Monemutensis [Geoffrey of Monmouth]. Historia Regnum Britanniae [History of the Kings of Britain], Vol. III, Ch. xx. c. 1136. (in Latin) ^ Geoffrey of Monmouth. Translated by J.A. Giles & al. as Geoffrey of Monmouth's British History, Vol. III, Ch. XX, in Six Old English Chronicles of Which Two Are Now First Translated from the Monkish Latin Originals: Ethelwerd's Chronicle, Asser's Life of Alfred, Geoffrey of Monmouth's British History, Gildas, Nennius, and Richard of Cirencester. Henry G. Bohn (London), 1848. Hosted at Wikisource. ^ a b Haverfield, p. 145 ^ This etymology was first suggested in 1899 by d'Arbois de Jubainville and is generally accepted, as by Haverfield.[9] ^ Jackson, Kenneth H. (1938). "Nennius and the 28 cities of Britain". Antiquity. 12 (45): 44–55. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00013405. ^ Coates, Richard (1998). "A new explanation of the name of London". Transactions of the Philological Society. 96 (2): 203–29. doi:10.1111/1467-968X.00027. ^ This is the argument made by Jackson[11] and accepted by Coates.[12] ^ Peter Schrijver, Language Contact and the Origins of the Germanic Languages (2013), p. 57. ^ a b c Ford, David Nash. "The 28 Cities of Britain Archived 15 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine" at Britannia. 2000. ^ a b Nennius (attrib.). Theodor Mommsen (ed.). Historia Brittonum, VI. Composed after AD 830. (in Latin) Hosted at Latin Wikisource. ^ a b Newman, John Henry & al. Lives of the English Saints: St. German, Bishop of Auxerre, Ch. X: "Britain in 429, A. D.", p. 92. Archived 21 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine James Toovey (London), 1844. ^ Bishop Ussher, cited in Newman[17] ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th edition. 1911. ^ White, Kevan (7 February 2016). "LONDINIVM AVGVSTA". roman-britain.co.uk. Archived from the original on 13 February 2018. Retrieved 1 February 2018. ^ a b c Tacitus. Ab Excessu Divi Augusti Historiarum Libri [Books of History from the Death of the Divine Augustus], Vol. XIV, Ch. XXXIII. c. AD 105. Hosted at Latin Wikisource. (in Latin) ^ Latin: Londinium..., cognomento quidem coloniae non insigne, sed copia negotiatorum et commeatuum maxime celebre.[21] ^ a b c Tacitus. Translated by Alfred John Church & William Jackson Brodribb. Annals of Tacitus, Translated into English, with Notes and Maps, Book XIV, § 33. Macmillan & Co. (London, 1876. Reprinted by Random House, 1942. Reprinted by the Perseus Project, c. 2011. Hosted at Wikisource. ^ a b Merrifield, pp. 64–66. ^ a b Merrifield, p. 68. ^ Egbert, James. Introduction to the Study of Latin Inscriptions, p. 447. American Book Co. (Cincinnati),1896. ^ Latin: P·P·BR·LON [Publicani Provinciae Britanniae Londinienses] & P·PR·LON [Publicani Provinciae Londinienses][26] ^ Wacher, p. 85. ^ Labbé, Philippe & Gabriel Cossart (eds.) Sacrosancta Concilia ad Regiam Editionem Exacta: quae Nunc Quarta Parte Prodit Actior [The Sancrosanct Councils Exacted for the Royal Edition: which the Editors Now Produce in Four Parts], Vol. I: "Ab Initiis Æræ Christianæ ad Annum CCCXXIV" ["From the Beginning of the Christian Era to the Year 324"], col. 1429. The Typographical Society for Ecclesiastical Books (Paris), 1671. (in Latin) ^ Thackery, Francis. Researches into the Ecclesiastical and Political State of Ancient Britain under the Roman Emperors: with Observations upon the Principal Events and Characters Connected with the Christian Religion, during the First Five Centuries, pp. 272 ff. T. Cadell (London), 1843. (in Latin and English) ^ a b "Nomina Episcoporum, cum Clericis Suis, Quinam, et ex Quibus Provinciis, ad Arelatensem Synodum Convenerint" ["The Names of the Bishops with Their Clerics who Came Together at the Synod of Arles and from which Province They Came"] from the Consilia[29] in Thackery[30] ^ a b "Living in Roman London: From Londinium to London". London: The Museum of London. Retrieved 17 February 2015. ^ Hingley, Introduction ^ Wright, Thomas (1852). The Celt, the Roman, and the Saxon: A history of the early inhabitants of Britain, down to the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity. London: Arthur Hall, Virtue & Co. p. 95. ^ Perring, Dominic (2011). "Two studies on Roman London. A: London's military origins. B: Population decline and ritual landscapes in Antonine London". Journal of Roman Archaeology. 24: 249–282. doi:10.1017/S1047759400003378. ISSN 1047-7594. ^ Wallace, Lacey (2013). "The Foundation of Roman London: Examining the Claudian Fort Hypothesis". Oxford Journal of Archaeology. 32 (3): 275–291. doi:10.1111/ojoa.12015. ISSN 1468-0092. ^ Wallace, Leslie (2015). The Origin of Roman London. Cambridge University Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-107-04757-0. Retrieved 16 February 2018. ^ Hingley, start of Introduction ^ a b c Merrifield, p. 40. ^ It may have spanned the tidal limit of the Thames at the time, with the port in tidal waters and the bridge upstream beyond its reach.[39] This is uncertain, however: in the Middle Ages, the Thames's tidal reach extended to Staines and today it still reaches Teddington. ^ Togodumnus (2011). "Londinivm Avgvsta: Provincial Capital". Roman Britain. Archived from the original on 20 February 2015. Retrieved 16 February 2015. ^ Wacher, pp. 88–90. ^ Number 1 Poultry (ONE 94), Museum of London Archaeology, 2013. Archaeology Data Service, The University of York. ^ Antonine Itinerary. British Routes. Routes 2, 3, & 4. ^ Although three of them used the same route into town.[44] ^ a b c d "Public life: All roads lead to Londinium". Museum of London Group. Retrieved 22 February 2015. ^ Margary, Ivan Donald (1967). Roman Roads in Britain (2nd ed.). London: John Baker. p. 54. ISBN 978-0-319-22942-2. ^ a b c Perring, Dominic (1991). Roman London: The Archaeology of London. Abingdon: Routledge. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-415-62010-9. ^ Fearnside, William Gray; Harral, Thomas (1838). The History of London: Illustrated by Views of London and Westminster. Illustrated by John Woods. London: Orr & Co. p. 15. ^ a b Sheppard, Francis (1998). London: A History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 12–13. ISBN 978-0-19-822922-3. ^ a b Merrifield, Ralph (1983). London, City of the Romans. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 116–119. ISBN 978-0-520-04922-2. ^ a b Merrifield, pp. 32–33. ^ Margary,[47] cited by Perring,[48] although he notes that this remains conjectural: the known roads would not meet at the river if continued in a straight line,[48] there is no evidence textual or archaeological at the moment for a ford at Westminster,[48] and the Saxon ford was further upstream at Kingston.[49] Against such doubts, Sheppard notes the known routes broadly direct towards Westminster in a way "inconceivable" if they were meant to be directed towards a ferry at Londinium[50] and Merrifield points to routes directed towards the presumed ford from Southwark.[51] Both include maps of the known routes around London and their proposed reconstruction of major connections now-lost.[50][51][52] ^ Tacitus, Annals, 12.31. ^ H. H. Scullard, From the Gracchi to Nero, 1982, p. 90 ^ John Morris, Londinium: London in the Roman Empire, 1982, pp. 107–108 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History 62.2 ^ Tacitus, Annals, 14.31 ^ a b c Merrifield, p. 53. ^ "Highbury, Upper Holloway and King's Cross", Old and New London: Volume 2 (1878:273–279). Date accessed: 26 December 2007. ^ Merrifield, pp. 66–68. ^ a b c d "Londinium Today: Basilica and forum". Museum of London Group. Retrieved 19 February 2015. ^ Merrifield, p. 62. ^ Merrifield, p. 63–64. ^ Will Durant (7 June 2011). Caesar and Christ: The Story of Civilization. Simon and Schuster. pp. 468–. ISBN 978-1-4516-4760-0. ^ a b Anne Lancashire (2002). London Civic Theatre: City Drama and Pageantry from Roman Times to 1558. Cambridge University Press. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-521-63278-2. ^ a b c Marsden, Peter (1975). "The Excavation of a Roman Palace Site in London". Transactions of the London and Middlesex Archaeological Society. 26: 1–102. ^ Emerson, Giles (2003). City of Sin: London in Pursuit of Pleasure. Carlton Books. pp. 24–25. ISBN 978-1-84222-901-9. ^ a b Milne. ^ a b Brigham. ^ a b c Hall & Merrifield. ^ a b c Hingley, Richard. Londinium : a biography : Roman London from its origins to the fifth century. Unwin, Christina. London. pp. 116–120. ISBN 978-1-350-04730-3. OCLC 1042078915. ^ Hill, Julian and Rowsome, P. (2011). Roman London and the Walbrook stream crossing : excavations at 1 Poultry and vicinity, City of London. Rowsome, Peter., Museum of London Archaeology. London: Museum of London Archaeology. pp. 354–7. ISBN 978-1-907586-04-0. OCLC 778916833.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Perring, Dominic (November 2017). "London's Hadrianic War?". Britannia. 48: 37–76. doi:10.1017/S0068113X17000113. ISSN 0068-113X. ^ Fields, Nic (2011). Campaign 233: Boudicca's Rebellion AD 60–61: The Britons rise up against Rome. Illustrated by Peter Dennis. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84908-313-3. ^ Merrifield, p. 50. ^ a b P. Marsden (1987). The Roman Forum Site in London: Discoveries before 1985. ISBN 978-0-11-290442-7. ^ Merrifield, p. 68. ^ According to a recovered inscription. The location of the Temple of Jupiter has not been discovered yet. ^ a b c d e "Londinium Today: The fort". Museum of London Group. Retrieved 18 February 2015. ^ a b "Londinium Today: The amphitheatre". Museum of London Group. Retrieved 21 February 2015. ^ Roman London Fragments, Cosmetic Cream And Bikini Bottoms ^ a b "Londinium Today: House and baths at Billingsgate". Museum of London Group. Retrieved 20 February 2015. ^ Lepage, Jean-Denis G.G. (2012). British Fortifications through the Reign of Richard III: An Illustrated History. Jefferson: McFarland & Co. p. 90. ISBN 978-0-7864-5918-6. ^ a b c d e f "Visible Roman London: City wall and gates". Museum of London Group. Archived from the original on 19 February 2015. Retrieved 19 February 2015. ^ In the 1170s, William FitzStephen mentioned seven gates in London's landward wall, but it's not clear whether this included a minor postern gate or another, now unknown, major gate. Moorgate was later counted as a seventh major gate after its enlargement in 1415, but in William's time it would have been a minor postern gate.[85] ^ "Timeline of Romans in Britain". Channel4.com. Retrieved 24 August 2012. ^ "Visible Roman London: Temple of Mithras". Museum of London Group. Retrieved 19 February 2015. ^ Trench, Richard; Hillman Ellis (1985). London under London: a subterranean guide. John Murray (publishers) Ltd. pp. 27–29. ISBN 978-0-7195-4080-6. ^ a b c d e "Londinium Today: Riverside wall". Museum of London Group. Retrieved 17 February 2015. ^ Eumenius. ^ The medallion is named for its mint mark from Augusta Treverorum (Trier); it was discovered in Arras, France, in the 1920s. ^ Giraldus Cambriensis [Gerald of Wales]. De Inuectionibus [On Invectives], Vol. II, Ch. I, in Y Cymmrodor: The Magazine of the Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion, Vol. XXX, pp. 130–31. George Simpson & Co. (Devizes), 1920. (in Latin) ^ Gerald of Wales. Translated by W.S. Davies as The Book of Invectives of Giraldus Cambrensis in Y Cymmrodor: The Magazine of the Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion, Vol. XXX, p. 16. George Simpson & Co. (Devizes), 1920. ^ a b c d Denison, Simon (June 1995). "News: In Brief". British Archaeology. Council for British Archaeology. Archived from the original on 13 May 2013. Retrieved 30 March 2013. ^ a b c Keys, David (3 April 1995). "Archaeologists unearth capital's first cathedral: Giant edifice built out of secondhand masonry". The Independent. London. ^ Sankey, D. (1998). "Cathedrals, granaries and urban vitality in late Roman London". In Watson, Bruce (ed.). Roman London: Recent Archaeological Work. JRA Supplementary Series. 24. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology. pp. 78–82. ^ Riddell, Jim. "The status of Roman London". Archived from the original on 24 April 2008. ^ a b c "Roman London: A Brief History". Museum of London. Archived from the original on 12 September 2009. ^ Giles, John Allen (ed. & trans.). "The Works of Gildas, Surnamed 'Sapiens,' or the Wise" in Six Old English Chronicles of Which Two Are Now First Translated from the Monkish Latin Originals: Ethelwerd's Chronicle, Asser's Life of Alfred, Geoffrey of Monmouth's British History, Gildas, Nennius, and Richard of Cirencester. Henry G. Bohn (London), 1848. ^ Habington, Thomas (trans.). The Epistle of Gildas the most ancient British Author: who flourished in the yeere of our Lord, 546. And who by his great erudition, sanctitie, and wisdome, acquired the name of Sapiens. Faithfully translated out of the originall Latine in 8 vols. T. Cotes for William Cooke (London), 1638. ^ a b The Ruin of Britain, Ch. 22 ff, John Allen Giles's revision[100] of Thomas Habington's translation,[101] hosted at Wikisource. ^ Jones, Michael E.; Casey, John (1988), "The Gallic Chronicle Restored: a Chronology for the Anglo-Saxon Invasions and the End of Roman Britain", Britannia, XIX (November): 367–98, doi:10.2307/526206, JSTOR 526206, archived from the original on 13 March 2020, retrieved 6 January 2014 ^ Anderson, Alan Orr (October 1912). Watson, Mrs W.J. (ed.). "Gildas and Arthur". The Celtic Review (published 1913). VIII (May 1912 – May 1913) (30): 149–165. doi:10.2307/30070428. JSTOR 30070428. ^ a b Beda Venerabilis [The Venerable Bede]. Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum [The Ecclesiastical History of the English People], Vol. I, Ch. XV, & Vol. V, Ch. XXIIII. 731. Hosted at Latin Wikisource. (in Latin) ^ a b Bede. Translated by Lionel Cecil Jane as The Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation, Vol. 1, Ch. 15, & Vol. 5, Ch. 24. J.M. Dent & Co. (London), 1903. Hosted at Wikisource. ^ Anonymous. Translated by James Ingram. The Saxon Chronicle, with an English Translation, and Notes, Critical and Explanatory. To Which Are Added Chronological, Topographical, and Glossarial Indices; a Short Grammar of the Anglo-Saxon Language; a New Map of England during the Heptarchy; Plates of Coins, &c., p. 15., "An. CCCCLV." Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, & Brown (London), 1823. (in Old English and English) ^ The near-contemporary 452 Gallic Chronicle recorded that "The British provinces, which to this time had suffered various defeats and misfortunes, are reduced to Saxon rule" in the year 441;[103] Gildas described a revolt of Saxon foederati[102] but his dating is obscure;[104] Bede dates it to a few years after 449 and opines that invasion had been the Saxons' intention from the beginning;[105][106] the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle dates the revolt to 455.[107] ^ Sheppard, 35, google books ^ Sheppard, 35-36 ^ DNA study finds London was ethnically diverse from start, BBC, 23 November 2015 ^ Poinar, Hendrik N.; Eaton, Katherine; Marshall, Michael; Redfern, Rebecca C. (2017). "'Written in Bone': New Discoveries about the Lives and Burials of Four Roman Londoners". Britannia. 48: 253–277. doi:10.1017/S0068113X17000216. ISSN 0068-113X. ^ Janet Montgomery, Rebecca Redfern, Rebecca Gowland, Jane Evans, Identifying migrants in Roman London using lead and strontium stable isotopes, 2016, Journal of Archaeological Science [1] ^ Grimes, Ch. I. ^ Camden, William (1607), Britannia (in Latin), London: G. Bishop & J. Norton, pp. 306–7 ^ Clark, John (1996). "The Temple of Diana". In Bird, Joanna; et al. (eds.). Interpreting Roman London. Oxbow Monograph. 58. Oxford: Oxbow. pp. 1–9. ^ Grimes, William Francis (1968). "Map of the walled city of London showing areas devastated by bombing, with sites excavated by the Excavation Council". The Excavation of Roman and Mediaeval London. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-60471-6. ^ For a map of the locations of bombed sites in the City of London excavated by the Society of Antiquaries of London's Roman and Medieval London Excavation Council during this period, see Grimes.[117] ^ Thorpe, Lewis. The History of the Kings of Britain, p. 19. Penguin, 1966. ^ Galfredus Monemutensis [Geoffrey of Monmouth]. Historia Regnum Britanniae [History of the Kings of Britain], Vol. V, Ch. iv. c. 1136. (in Latin) ^ Geoffrey of Monmouth. Translated by J.A. Giles & al. as Geoffrey of Monmouth's British History, Vol. V, Ch. IV, in Six Old English Chronicles of Which Two Are Now First Translated from the Monkish Latin Originals: Ethelwerd's Chronicle, Asser's Life of Alfred, Geoffrey of Monmouth's British History, Gildas, Nennius, and Richard of Cirencester. Henry G. Bohn (London), 1848. Hosted at Wikisource. ^ Merrifield, p. 57. ^ Morris, John. Londinium: London in the Roman Empire, p. 111. 1982. ^ Grimes, Ch. II, § 2. ^ "Museum of London Act 1965". legislation.gov.uk. National Archives. Retrieved 26 February 2012. References[edit] Billings, Malcolm (1994), London: a companion to its history and archaeology, ISBN 1-85626-153-0 Brigham, Trevor. 1998. “The Port of Roman London.” In Roman London Recent Archeological Work, edited by B. Watson, 23–34. Michigan: Cushing–Malloy Inc. Paper read at a seminar held at The Museum of London, 16 November. Hall, Jenny, and Ralph Merrifield. Roman London. London: HMSO Publications, 1986. Haverfield, F. "Roman London." The Journal of Roman Studies 1 (1911): 141–72. Hingley, Richard, Londinium: A Biography: Roman London from its Origins to the Fifth Century, 2018, Bloomsbury Publishing, ISBN 1350047317, 9781350047310 Inwood, Stephen. A History of London (1998) ISBN 0-333-67153-8 John Wacher: The Towns of Roman Britain, London/New York 1997, p. 88–111. ISBN 0-415-17041-9 Gordon Home: Roman London: A.D. 43–457 Illustrated with black and white plates of artefacts. diagrams and plans. Published by Eyre and Spottiswoode (London) in 1948 with no ISBN. Milne, Gustav. The Port of Roman London. London: B.T. Batsford, 1985. Sheppard, Francis, London: A History, 2000, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0192853694, 9780192853691, google books Further reading[edit] Middle English orthography (most English words containing, not starting, with the sound /ʌn/ are spelt '..on' for obsolete disambiguatory reasons) John Timbs (1867), "Roman London", Curiosities of London (2nd ed.), J.C. Hotten, OCLC 12878129 Wallace, Lacey M., The Origin of Roman London, 2014, Cambridge Classical Studies, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 1107047579, 9781107047570 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Londinium. Roman London, History of World Cities Roman London, Encyclopædia Britannica A map of known and conjectural Roman roads around Londinium, from London: A History The eastern cemetery of Roman London: excavations 1983–90, Museum of London Archive v t e History of London Evolution Londinium Lundenwic City of London City of Westminster Middlesex County of London Greater London Timeline Periods Roman London Anglo-Saxon London Norman and Medieval London Tudor London Stuart London 18th-century London 19th-century London 1900–1939 World War II (The Blitz) 1945–2000 21st century Events Peasants' Revolt Black Death Great Plague Great Fire 1854 cholera outbreak Great Stink Great Exhibition 1908 Franco-British Exhibition The Battle of Cable Street Festival of Britain Great Smog Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II Swinging London London Plan 1966 FIFA World Cup Final Hyde Park and Regent's Park bombings Funeral of Princess Diana Anti-war protests 7/7 bombings Olympic Games (1908 1948 2012) 2012 Summer Paralympics Grenfell Tower fire COVID-19 pandemic Government Historic Metropolitan Board of Works London County Council Greater London Council Current Greater London Authority London Assembly Mayor of London Politics Parties Labour Conservatives Liberal Democrats London independence Services Bow Street Runners Metropolitan Police London Ambulance Service London Fire Brigade Port of London Authority London sewerage system London Underground London Metropolitan Archives City of London City of London Corporation Lord Mayor of the City of London Wards of the City of London Guildhall Livery Companies Lord Mayor's Show City of London Police Bank of England Structures St Paul's Cathedral Tower of London Palace of Whitehall Westminster Hall London Bridge Tower Bridge Westminster Abbey Big Ben The Monument Fortifications Category v t e Major towns of Roman Britain Placenames in brackets are either present-day names or counties where the towns formerly existed. 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en-wikipedia-org-2071	----	Leptis Magna - Wikipedia Leptis Magna From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Leptis Magna The Arch of Septimius Severus in Leptis Magna Shown within Libya Alternative name Lepcis Magna, Neapolis, Lpqy Location Khoms, Libya Region Tripolitania Coordinates 32°38′21″N 14°17′26″E / 32.63917°N 14.29056°E / 32.63917; 14.29056Coordinates: 32°38′21″N 14°17′26″E / 32.63917°N 14.29056°E / 32.63917; 14.29056 Type Settlement History Founded 7th c. BC Abandoned 7th c. AD Periods Iron Age to Byzantine Cultures Carthaginian Libyco-Berber Roman UNESCO World Heritage Site Official name Archaeological Site of Leptis Magna Type Cultural Criteria i, ii, iii Designated 1982 (6th session) Reference no. 183 State Party Libya Region North Africa Leptis or Lepcis Magna, also known by other names in antiquity, was a prominent city of the Carthaginian Empire and Roman Libya at the mouth of the Wadi Lebda in the Mediterranean. Originally a 7th-century BC Phoenician foundation, it was greatly expanded under Roman Emperor Septimius Severus (r. 193–211), who was a native of the city. The 3rd Augustan Legion was stationed here to defend the city against Berber incursions. After the legion's dissolution under Gordian III in 238, the city was increasingly open to raids in the later part of the 3rd century. Diocletian reinstated the city as provincial capital, and it grew again in prosperity until it fell to the Vandals in 439. It was reincorporated into the Eastern Empire in 533 but continued to be plagued by Berber raids and never recovered its former importance. It fell to the Muslim invasion in c. 647 and was subsequently abandoned. Its ruins are within present-day Khoms, Libya, 130 km (81 mi) east of Tripoli. They are among the best-preserved Roman sites in the Mediterranean. Contents 1 Names 2 History 2.1 Phoenicians 2.2 Roman Republic 2.3 Roman Empire 2.4 Vandal Kingdom 2.5 Byzantine Empire 2.6 Islamic conquest 2.7 Excavation 3 Gallery 4 See also 5 References 5.1 Citations 5.2 Bibliography 6 Further reading 7 External links Names[edit] The Punic name of the settlement was written LPQ (Punic: 𐤋𐤐𐤒) or LPQY (𐤋𐤐𐤒𐤉).[1][2][3] This has been tentatively connected to the Semitic root (present in Arabic) LFQ, meaning "to build" or "to piece together", presumably in reference to the construction of the city.[4] This name was hellenized as Léptis (Ancient Greek: Λέπτις),[5] also known as Léptis Megálē (Λέπτις μεγάλη, "Greater Leptis") distinguishing it from the "Lesser Leptis" closer to Carthage in modern-day Tunisia. It was also known by the Greeks as Neápolis (Νεάπολις, "New Town"). The latinization of these names was Lepcis or Leptis Magna ("Greater Leptis"), which also appeared as the "Leptimagnese City" (Latin: Leptimagnensis Civitas). The Latin demonym was "Leptitan" (Leptitanus). It was also known as Ulpia Traiana as a Roman colony.[3] Its Italian name is Lepti Maggiore, and in Arabic it is named Labdah (لَبْدَة).[6][7] History[edit] Map of Leptis Magna Severan Basilica Angling in the 1st century CE. Villa of the Nile Mosaic, Leptis Magna, Tripoli National Museum. Phoenicians[edit] The Phoenician city was founded in the second half of the 7th century BC. Little is known about Leptis during this time, but it appears to have been powerful enough to repel Dorieus's attempt to establish a Greek colony nearby around 515 BC.[2] Like most western Phoenician settlements, Leptis became part of the Carthaginian Empire and fell under Rome's control with Carthage's defeat in the Punic Wars. Leptis remained highly independent for a period after about 111 BC. Roman Republic[edit] The Roman Republic sent some colonists together with a small garrison in order to control the city. The city prospered and was even allowed to coin its own money in silver and bronze. Reflecting its blend of cultures, its coins bore Punic inscriptions but images of Hercules and Dionysus.[3] Soon Italian merchants settled in the city and started a profitable commerce with the Libyan interior.[8] The city depended primarily on the fertility of its surrounding farmland, where many olive-presses have been excavated. By 46 BC, its olive oil production was of such an extent that the city was able to provide three million pounds of oil annually to Julius Caesar as tax.[2] Roman Empire[edit] Kenneth D. Matthews, Jr. writes:[9] During the reign of Augustus, Leptis Magna was classified as a civitas libera et immunis, or a free community, over which the governor had an absolute minimum of control. As such Leptis retain its two suphetes at the head of its government, with the mhzm, similar to the Roman aediles, as minor magistrates. In addition there were such sacred officials as the ʾaddir ʾararim or praefectus sacrorum, the nēquim ēlīm, and probably a sacred college of fifteen members. Leptis Magna remained as such until the reign of the Roman emperor Tiberius, when the city and the surrounding area were formally incorporated into the empire as part of the province of Africa. It soon became one of the leading cities of Roman Africa and a major trading post. The city grew rapidly under Roman administration. During the reign of Nero, an amphitheater was constructed. The settlement was elevated to municipium in AD 64 or 65 and to colonia under Trajan (r. 98–117) Leptis achieved its greatest prominence beginning in AD 193, as the hometown of emperor Septimius Severus. Septimius favored his hometown above all other provincial cities, and the buildings and wealth he lavished on it made Leptis Magna the third-most important city in Africa, rivaling Carthage and Alexandria. In AD 205, he and the imperial family visited the city and bestowed great honors. Among the changes that Severus introduced were the creation of a magnificent new forum and the rebuilding of the docks. The natural harbor had a tendency to silt up, but the Severan changes made this worse, and the eastern wharves are extremely well preserved, since they were scarcely used. Leptis overextended itself during this period. During the Crisis of the 3rd Century, when trade declined precipitously, Leptis Magna's importance also fell into a decline, and by the middle of the 4th century, even before it was completely devastated by the 365 tsunami, large parts of the city had been abandoned. Ammianus Marcellinus recounts that the crisis was worsened by a corrupt Roman governor named Romanus, who demanded bribes to protect the city during a major tribal raid. The ruined city could not pay these and complained to the emperor Valentinian I. Romanus then bribed people at court and arranged for the Leptan envoys to be punished "for bringing false accusations". It enjoyed a minor renaissance beginning in the reign of the emperor Theodosius I. Vandal Kingdom[edit] In 439, Leptis Magna and the rest of the cities of Tripolitania fell under the control of the Vandals when their king, Gaiseric, captured Carthage from the Romans and made it his capital. Unfortunately for the future of Leptis Magna, Gaiseric ordered the city's walls demolished so as to dissuade its people from rebelling against Vandal rule. The people of Leptis and the Vandals both paid a heavy price for this in AD 523 when a group of Berber raiders sacked the city. Byzantine Empire[edit] Belisarius, general of Emperor Justinian I of the Byzantine Empire, recaptured Leptis Magna in the name of the Roman Empire ten years later, and in 533/4 it was re-incorporated into the empire. Leptis became a provincial capital of the Eastern Empire, but never recovered from the destruction wreaked upon it by the Berbers. In 544, under the prefecture of Sergius, the city came under intensified attack of Berber tribes, and after some successes, Sergius was reduced to retreating into the city, with the Leuathae tribal confederation camped outside the gate demanding payments. Sergius admitted eighty deputies into the city to present their demands, but when Sergius moved to leave the conference he was detained by the robe by one deputy and crowded by others. This provoked an officer of the prefect's guard to kill the deputy laying hands on the prefect, which resulted in a general massacre. The Berbers reacted with an all-out attack and Sergius was eventually forced to abandon Leptis and retreat to Carthage.[10] Islamic conquest[edit] By the 6th century, the city was fully Christianized.[11][failed verification] During the decade 565–578 AD Christian missionaries from Leptis Magna even began to move once more among the Berber tribes as far south as the Fezzan in the Libyan desert and converted the Garamantes.[12] Numerous new churches were built in the 6th century,[13] but the city continued to decline, and by the time of the Arab conquest around 647 the city was mostly abandoned except for a Byzantine garrison force and a population of less than 1,000 inhabitants. By the 10th century, the city of Al-Khums had fully absorbed it.[14] Excavation[edit] Today, the site of Leptis Magna is the site of some of the most impressive ruins of the Roman period. Part of an ancient temple was brought from Leptis Magna to the British Museum in 1816 and installed at the Fort Belvedere royal residence in England in 1826. It now lies in part of Windsor Great Park.[15] The ruins are located between the south shore of Virginia Water and Blacknest Road close to the junction with the A30 London Road and Wentworth Drive. Theater When Italians conquered Italian Libya in the early 20th century, they dedicated huge efforts to the rediscovery of Leptis Magna. In the early 1930s Italian archeological research was able to show again the buried remains of nearly all the city.[16][page needed] A 4th to 3rd century BC necropolis was found under the Roman theater. In June 2005, it was revealed that archaeologists from the University of Hamburg had been working along the coast of Libya when they uncovered a 30 ft length of five colorful mosaics created during the 1st or 2nd century. The mosaics show with exceptional clarity depictions of a warrior in combat with a deer, four young men wrestling a wild bull to the ground, and a gladiator resting in a state of fatigue and staring at his slain opponent. The mosaics decorated the walls of a cold plunge pool in a bath house within a Roman villa at Wadi Lebda in Leptis Magna. The gladiator mosaic is noted by scholars as one of the finest examples of representational mosaic art ever seen—a "masterpiece comparable in quality with the Alexander Mosaic in Pompeii." The mosaics were originally discovered in the year 2000 but were kept secret in order to avoid looting. They are currently on display in the Leptis Magna Museum.[17] There were reports that Leptis Magna was used as a cover for tanks and military vehicles by pro-Gaddafi forces during the First Libyan Civil War in 2011.[18] When asked about the possibility of conducting an air-strike on the historic site, NATO refused to rule out the possibility of such an action saying that it had not been able to confirm the rebels' report that weapons were being hidden at the location.[19] Shortly after the war, Libyan archaeologist Hafed Walda reported that Leptis Magna, along with nearby Rasaimergib Fort and the western Tripolis of Sabratha, had "so far seen no visible loss" from either fighting on the ground or bombings conducted by international forces.[20] In the midst of the Second Libyan Civil War and the disappearance of governmental and international support for the site, people living in the area organized to voluntarily protect and maintain Leptis Magna.[21][22] Gallery[edit] Columns (on the stage) Columns (on the stage) Ruins Small Gate (Western side) Theater Theater (side view) Amphitheater Marketplace Arch of Septimius Severus Some of Leptis Magna yet to be excavated One of the entrances to the theater (external view) View on Leptis Magna from the theater wall Street view (from Arch of Septimius Severus arch to Arch of Trajan) Market place Market place Measure converter, Market (founded 8 or 9 BC) (Phoenician colony) Severan Basilica, Leptis Magna 2nd century AD Stairs inside Septimius Severus Basilica Decorative columns inside Basilica of Septimius Severus Severan Basilica Forum in Leptis Magna, 2nd century AD See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal Libya portal Caesarea, Numidia Cirta Lambaesis Thysdrus Timgad Volubilis References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Ghaki (2015), p. 67. ^ a b c Brogan & Wilson (2012). ^ a b c Head (1911). ^ Lipiński (2004), p. 345. ^ Strabo, Geography, §17.3.18. ^ "لَبْدَة, Libya". National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency. 30 June 2006. Archived from the original on 2020-05-23 – via Geographic.org. ^ Leptis Magna at the Encyclopædia Britannica ^ Bullo (2002), pp. 167–171. ^ Matthews (1957), p. 37. ^ Beechey & Beechey (1828), pp. 54–56. ^ Mommsen (1909), Chapter XIII. The African Provinces. ^ Prevost (2007), pp. 462–463. ^ Livius.org, Photos: Lepcis Magna, Byzantine Church. ^ Bullo (2002), pp. 185–188. ^ The Atlantic, 10 January 2018. ^ Musso (2010). ^ The Times, 13 June 2005. ^ The Times, 14 June 2011. ^ CNN, 14 June 2011. ^ AP, 4 November 2011. ^ AFP, 23 December 2016. ^ Reuters, 28 November 2017. Bibliography[edit] Alberge, Dalya (13 June 2005). "Roman mosaic 'worthy of Botticelli'". The Times. Retrieved 2020-08-31. Lay summary – The Roman Hideout. Beechey, Frederick William; Beechey, Henry William (1828). Proceedings of the Expedition to Explore the Northern Coast of Africa, from Tripoly Eastward; in MDCCCXXI and MDCCCXXII. Comprehending an Account of the Greater Syrtis and Cyrenaica; and of the Ancient Cities Composing the Pentapolis. London: John Murray. OCLC 719432955. Brogan, Olwen Phillis Frances; Wilson, R. J. A. (2012). "Lepcis Magna". In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.). The Oxford Classical Dictionary (4th ed.). Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press. p. 821. ISBN 9780199545568. Bullo, Silvia (2002). Provincia Africa. Le città e il territorio dalla caduta di Cartagine a Nerone [Province of Africa: The Cities and the Territory from the Fall of Carthage to Nero]. Le Rovine Circolari, 4 (in Italian). Rome: L'Erma di Bretschneider. ISBN 9788882651688. Coghlan, Tom (14 June 2011). "Wonder of the Ancient World at risk as Gaddafi uses ruins to hide deadly rockets". The Times. Archived from the original on 2020-08-31. Cooper, Paul (10 January 2018). "How Ancient Roman Ruins Ended Up 2,000 Miles Away in a British Garden". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 2019-12-23. D'Emilio, Frances (4 November 2011). "Expert: NATO raids spared Libyan antiquities". The San Diego Union-Tribune. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 2020-08-31. De Miro, Ernesto; Polito, Antonella (2005). Leptis Magna. Dieci anni di scavi archeologici nell area del Foro Vecchio. I livelli fenici, punici e romani [Leptis Magna: Ten Years of Archaeological Excavations in the Area of the Old Forum. The Phoenician, Punic and Roman Levels.]. Quaderni di Archeologia della Libya, 19 (in Italian and Arabic). Rome: L’Erma di Bretschneider. ISBN 9788882653095. Floriani Squarciapino, Maria (1966). Leptis Magna. Ruinenstädte Nordafrikas, 2 (in German). Basel: Raggi Verlag. OCLC 625443. Ghaki, Mansour (2015). "Toponymie et onomastique. L'apport de l'ecriture punique neopunique" [Toponymy and Onomastics: The Contribution of Neopunic Punic Writing] (PDF). In Di Tolla, Anna Maria (ed.). La lingua nella vita e la vita della lingua. Itinerari e percorsi degli studi berberi. Miscellanea per il Centenario di studi berberi a "L'Orientale" di Napoli. Scritti in onore di Francesco Beguinot [Language in Life and the Life of Language: Routes and Paths of Berber Studies. Miscellany for the Centenary of Berber Studies at "L'Orientale" in Naples: Written in Honor of Francesco Beguinot.]. Studi Africanistici: Quaderni di Studi Berberi e Libico-Berberi, 4 (in French). Naples: Unior. pp. 65–71. ISBN 9788867191253. Retrieved 2020-08-31 – via Academia.edu. Head, Barclay; et al. (assisted by G. F. Hill, George MacDonald, and W. Wroth) (1911). "Syrtica". Historia Numorum (2nd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 875 – via Digital Historia Numorum, ed. Ed Snible. Kreikenbom, Detlev (2007). "Leptis Magna vor der arabischen Eroberung" [Leptis Magna Before the Arab Conquest]. In Kreikenbom, Detlev; Muth, Franz-Christoph; Thielmann, Jörn (eds.). Arabische Christen – Christen in Arabien [Arab Christians – Christians in Arabia]. Nordostafrikanisch-Westasiatische Studien, 6 (in German). Frankfurt am Main & New York: Peter Lang. pp. 35–54. ISBN 9783631550403. Lamloun, Imed (23 December 2016). "The unlikely saviors of Libya's Roman remains". The Daily Star. Agence France-Presse. Archived from the original on 2020-08-31. Lendering, Jona (13 August 2020). "Lepcis Magna". Livius.org. Archived from the original on 2020-08-31. Lewis, Aidan (28 November 2017). "Famed Libyan ruins rely on locals for support". Reuters. Archived from the original on 2018-12-21. Lipiński, Edward (2004). Itineraria Phoenicia. Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta, 127; Studia Phoenicia, 18. Leuven; Paris; Dudley, MA: Uitgeverij Peeters en Departement Oosterse Studies. ISBN 9789042913448. Matthews, Kenneth D., Jr. (1957). Cities in the Sand: Leptis Magna and Sabratha in Roman Africa. Photographs by Alfred W. Cook. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. OCLC 414295. Mattingly, D. J. (2000). "Map 35: Tripolitana". In Talbert, Richard J. A. (ed.). Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691031699. Mommsen, Theodor (1909) [1886]. The Provinces of the Roman Empire from Caesar to Diocletian. 2. Translated by Dickson, William P. (Corrected ed.). London: Macmillan. OCLC 4308504. Musso, Luisa (2010). Contributions by Daniela Baldoni, Barbara Bianchi, Maria Gloria Calì, Barbara Davidde, Ginette Di Vita-Evrard, Massimiliano Munzi, Roberto Petriaggi, Beatrice Pinna Caboni, Gianni Ponti & Ramadan Shebani. "Missione archeologica dell'Università Roma Tre, 1998-2007" [Archaeological Mission of Roma Tre University, 1998-2007] (PDF). The Department of Archaeology of Libya. Libya Antiqua (in English and Italian). Pisa & Rome: Fabrizio Serra Editore. N.S., vol. V: 49–78. OCLC 4221464. Retrieved 2020-08-31 – via Academia.edu. Prevost, Virginie (2007). "Les dernières communautés chrétiennes autochtones d'Afrique du Nord" [The Last Native Christian Communities of North Africa]. Revue de l'histoire des religions (in French). 224 (4): 461–483. doi:10.4000/rhr.5401. JSTOR 23618252. Robin, Daniel (2010). This Holy Seed: Faith, Hope and Love in the Early Churches of North Africa (2nd ed.). Chester: Tamarisk Publications. ISBN 9780953856534. Strabo (1903) [1854]. The Geography of Strabo. Bohn's Classical Library. 3 vols. Translated by Hamilton, H. C.; Falconer, W. London: George Bell & Sons. OCLC 250411. Swails, Brent; Ward, Damien; Perez Maestro, Laura; Abdelaziz, Salma; Pleitgen, Frederik & Khadder, Kareem (14 June 2011). "South African president blasts NATO actions in Libya". CNN. Archived from the original on 2020-06-14. Tomlinson, R. A. (1993). "Lepcis Magna". From Mycenae to Constantinople: The Evolution of the Ancient City. London & New York: Routledge. pp. 191–202. ISBN 9780203412909. Further reading[edit] Babelon, E.C.F. (1911). "Leptis § Leptis Magna" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 16 (11th ed.). p. 482. Bianchi Bandinelli, Ranuccio; Vergara Caffarelli, Ernesto; Caputo, Giacomo (1966). The Buried City: Excavations at Leptis Magna. Photographs by Fabrizio Clerici. New York: F. A. Praeger. OCLC 670109. Draper, Robert (February 2013). "New Old Libya". National Geographic. Photographs by George Steinmetz. Archived from the original on 2020-08-30. Huß, Werner; Niemeyer, Hans Georg (2006). "Leptis Magna". In Cancik, Hubert; Schneider, Helmuth; Salazar, Christine F. (eds.). Brill's New Pauly: Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World. Antiquity. 7. Leiden: Brill. doi:10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e701890. ISBN 9789004122598. Smith, Gemma (February 2013). "Archaeologists, propaganda and the military: Libya's cultural heritage and the role of archaeologists in a political crisis". The Post Hole. Department of Archaeology, University of York (27). Archived from the original on 2020-07-16. Ward-Perkins, J. B. (1993). Kenrick, Philip (ed.). The Severan Buildings Of Lepcis Magna: An Architectural Survey (PDF). Society for Libyan Studies Monograph, 2. With a contribution by Barri Jones and Roger Ling; architectural drawings prepared and edited by R. Kronenburg. London: The Society for Libyan Studies, on behalf of the Department of Antiquities, Tripoli, SPLAJ. ISBN 9780950836362. Retrieved 2020-08-31. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Leptis Magna. 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en-wikipedia-org-2082	----	Aurelius Victor - Wikipedia Aurelius Victor From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sextus Aurelius Victor Afer (c. 320 – c. 390) was a historian and politician of the Roman Empire. Victor was the author of a short history of imperial Rome, entitled De Caesaribus and covering the period from Augustus to Constantius II. The work was published in 361. Under the emperor Julian (361-363), Victor served as governor of Pannonia Secunda; in 389 he became praefectus urbi (urban prefect), senior imperial official in Rome.[1] Contents 1 Works 2 See also 3 Notes 4 References 5 External links Works[edit] Four small historical works have been ascribed to him, although only his authorship of De Caesaribus is securely established: Origo Gentis Romanae De Viris Illustribus Romae De Caesaribus (for which Aurelius Victor used the Enmannsche Kaisergeschichte) Epitome de Caesaribus (attributed) The four have generally been published together under the name Historia Romana. The second was first printed at Naples about 1472, in 4to, under the name of Pliny the Younger, and the fourth in Strasbourg in 1505.[2] The first edition of all four books was that of Andreas Schottus (8 volumes, Antwerp, 1579). A recent edition of the De Caesaribus is by Pierre Dufraigne (Collection Budé, 1975). See also[edit] Sirmium Sremska Mitrovica Syrmia Tetrarchy Praetorian prefecture Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum Roman provinces Roman Empire Notes[edit] ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, xxi.10. ^ Chisholm 1911. References[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Victor, Sextus Aurelius". Encyclopædia Britannica. 28 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. H.W. Bird (1994) Aurelius Victor: De Caesaribus. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. H.W. Bird (1984) Sextus Aurelius Victor: A Historiographical Study. Liverpool: Francis Cairns. W. den Boer (1972) Some Minor Roman Historians. Leiden: Brill. P. Dufraigne (1975) Aurelius Victor: Livre de Cesars. Paris: Les Belles Lettres. D. Rohrbacher (2002) The Historians of Late Antiquity. London: Routledge. External links[edit] Chaumont, M.L. (1987). "AURELIUS VICTOR". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. III, Fasc. 1. pp. 28–29.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Works by Aurelius Victor in thelatinlibrary.com (Latin text) Works by Aurelius Victor in forumromanum.org (Latin, English and French texts) Sexti Aurelii Victoris quae vulgo habentur scripta historica, Friedrich Schroeter (ed.), 2 voll., Lipsiae, sumptibus Augusti Lehnholdi, 1829-31 (contains Origo and De viris illustribus). Sexti Aurelii Victoris de caesaribus liber, Franciscus Pichlmayr (ed.), Monachii, typos curavit F. Straub, 1892. Sexti Aurelii Victoris historia romana, Lipsiae, sumptibus succ. Ottonis Holtze, 1892 (contains the opera omnia). Sexti Aurelii Victoris historia romana, Th. Chr. Harlesii (ed.), 2 voll., Londini, curante et imprimente A. J. Valpy, 1829: vol. 1, vol. 2 (contains the opera omnia). 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en-wikipedia-org-2092	----	Petrarch - Wikipedia Petrarch From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the thoroughbred racehorse, see Petrarch (horse). For the crater on Mercury, see Petrarch (crater). 14th-century Italian scholar and poet Francesco Petrarca Petrarch portrait by Altichiero Born Francesco Petracco (1304-07-20)July 20, 1304 Comune of Arezzo Died July 19, 1374(1374-07-19) (aged 69) Arquà, Padua, Republic of Venice (now Padua, Italy) Resting place Arquà Petrarca Occupation Scholar, poet Language Italian, Latin Nationality Aretine Alma mater University of Montpellier University of Bologna Period Early Renaissance Literary movement Renaissance humanism Notable works Triumphs Il Canzoniere Notable awards Poet laureate of Padua Partner unknown woman or women Children Giovanni (1337–1361) Francesca (born in 1343) Relatives Eletta Canigiani (mother) Ser Petracco (father) Santa Maria della Pieve in Arezzo La Casa del Petrarca (birthplace) at Vicolo dell'Orto, 28 in Arezzo Francesco Petrarca (Italian: [franˈtʃesko peˈtrarka]; July 20, 1304 – July 18/19, 1374), commonly anglicized as Petrarch (/ˈpiːtrɑːrk, ˈpɛt-/), was an Aretine scholar and poet during the early Italian Renaissance, and one of the earliest humanists.[1] Petrarch's rediscovery of Cicero's letters is often credited with initiating the 14th-century Italian Renaissance and the founding of Renaissance humanism.[2] In the 16th century, Pietro Bembo created the model for the modern Italian language based on Petrarch's works, as well as those of Giovanni Boccaccio, and, to a lesser extent, Dante Alighieri.[3] Petrarch would be later endorsed as a model for Italian style by the Accademia della Crusca. Petrarch's sonnets were admired and imitated throughout Europe during the Renaissance and became a model for lyrical poetry. He is also known for being the first to develop the concept of the "Dark Ages."[4] Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Youth and early career 1.2 Mount Ventoux 1.3 Later years 2 Works 2.1 Laura and poetry 2.2 Sonnet 227 3 Dante 4 Philosophy 5 Legacy 6 Works in English translation 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links Biography[edit] Youth and early career[edit] Petrarch was born in the Tuscan city of Arezzo on 20 July 1304. He was the son of Ser Petracco and his wife Eletta Canigiani. His given name was Francesco Petracco, which was Latinized to Petrarca. Petrarch's younger brother was born in Incisa in Val d'Arno in 1307. Dante Alighieri was a friend of his father.[5] Petrarch spent his early childhood in the village of Incisa, near Florence. He spent much of his early life at Avignon and nearby Carpentras, where his family moved to follow Pope Clement V, who moved there in 1309 to begin the Avignon Papacy. Petrarch studied law at the University of Montpellier (1316–20) and Bologna (1320–23) with a lifelong friend and schoolmate called Guido Sette. Because his father was in the legal profession (a notary), he insisted that Petrarch and his brother also study law. Petrarch, however, was primarily interested in writing and Latin literature and considered these seven years wasted. Additionally, he proclaimed that through legal manipulation his guardians robbed him of his small property inheritance in Florence, which only reinforced his dislike for the legal system. He protested, "I couldn't face making a merchandise of my mind," as he viewed the legal system as the art of selling justice.[5] Petrarch was a prolific letter writer and counted Boccaccio among his notable friends to whom he wrote often. After the death of their parents, Petrarch and his brother Gherardo went back to Avignon in 1326, where he worked in numerous clerical offices. This work gave him much time to devote to his writing. With his first large-scale work, Africa, an epic in Latin about the great Roman general Scipio Africanus, Petrarch emerged as a European celebrity. On April 8, 1341, he became the second [6] poet laureate since antiquity and was crowned by Roman Senatori Giordano Orsini and Orso dell'Anguillara on the holy grounds of Rome's Capitol.[7][8][9] He traveled widely in Europe, served as an ambassador, and (because he traveled for pleasure,[10] as with his ascent of Mont Ventoux), has been called "the first tourist".[11] During his travels, he collected crumbling Latin manuscripts and was a prime mover in the recovery of knowledge from writers of Rome and Greece. He encouraged and advised Leontius Pilatus's translation of Homer from a manuscript purchased by Boccaccio, although he was severely critical of the result. Petrarch had acquired a copy, which he did not entrust to Leontius,[12] but he knew no Greek; Petrarch said, "Homer was dumb to him, while he was deaf to Homer".[13] In 1345 he personally discovered a collection of Cicero's letters not previously known to have existed, the collection Epistulae ad Atticum, in the Chapter Library (Biblioteca Capitolare) of Verona Cathedral.[14] Disdaining what he believed to be the ignorance of the centuries preceding the era in which he lived, Petrarch is credited or charged with creating the concept of a historical "Dark Ages".[4] Mount Ventoux[edit] Main article: Ascent of Mont Ventoux Summit of Mont Ventoux Petrarch recounts that on April 26, 1336, with his brother and two servants, he climbed to the top of Mont Ventoux (1,912 meters (6,273 ft), a feat which he undertook for recreation rather than necessity.[15] The exploit is described in a celebrated letter addressed to his friend and confessor, the monk Dionigi di Borgo San Sepolcro, composed some time after the fact. In it, Petrarch claimed to have been inspired by Philip V of Macedon's ascent of Mount Haemo and that an aged peasant had told him that nobody had ascended Ventoux before or after himself, 50 years before, and warned him against attempting to do so. The nineteenth-century Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt noted that Jean Buridan had climbed the same mountain a few years before, and ascents accomplished during the Middle Ages have been recorded, including that of Anno II, Archbishop of Cologne.[16][17] Scholars[18] note that Petrarch's letter[19][20] to Dionigi displays a strikingly "modern" attitude of aesthetic gratification in the grandeur of the scenery and is still often cited in books and journals devoted to the sport of mountaineering. In Petrarch, this attitude is coupled with an aspiration for a virtuous Christian life, and on reaching the summit, he took from his pocket a volume by his beloved mentor, Saint Augustine, that he always carried with him.[21] For pleasure alone he climbed Mont Ventoux, which rises to more than six thousand feet, beyond Vaucluse. It was no great feat, of course; but he was the first recorded Alpinist of modern times, the first to climb a mountain merely for the delight of looking from its top. (Or almost the first; for in a high pasture he met an old shepherd, who said that fifty years before he had attained the summit, and had got nothing from it save toil and repentance and torn clothing.) Petrarch was dazed and stirred by the view of the Alps, the mountains around Lyons, the Rhone, the Bay of Marseilles. He took Augustine's Confessions from his pocket and reflected that his climb was merely an allegory of aspiration toward a better life.[22] As the book fell open, Petrarch's eyes were immediately drawn to the following words: And men go about to wonder at the heights of the mountains, and the mighty waves of the sea, and the wide sweep of rivers, and the circuit of the ocean, and the revolution of the stars, but themselves they consider not.[19] Petrarch's response was to turn from the outer world of nature to the inner world of "soul": I closed the book, angry with myself that I should still be admiring earthly things who might long ago have learned from even the pagan philosophers that nothing is wonderful but the soul, which, when great itself, finds nothing great outside itself. Then, in truth, I was satisfied that I had seen enough of the mountain; I turned my inward eye upon myself, and from that time not a syllable fell from my lips until we reached the bottom again. ... [W]e look about us for what is to be found only within. ... How many times, think you, did I turn back that day, to glance at the summit of the mountain which seemed scarcely a cubit high compared with the range of human contemplation[19] James Hillman argues that this rediscovery of the inner world is the real significance of the Ventoux event.[23] The Renaissance begins not with the ascent of Mont Ventoux but with the subsequent descent—the "return [...] to the valley of soul", as Hillman puts it. Arguing against such a singular and hyperbolic periodization, Paul James suggests a different reading: In the alternative argument that I want to make, these emotional responses, marked by the changing senses of space and time in Petrarch’s writing, suggest a person caught in unsettled tension between two different but contemporaneous ontological formations: the traditional and the modern.[24] Later years[edit] Petrarch spent the later part of his life journeying through northern Italy as an international scholar and poet-diplomat. His career in the Church did not allow him to marry, but he is believed to have fathered two children by a woman or women unknown to posterity. A son, Giovanni, was born in 1337, and a daughter, Francesca, was born in 1343. He later legitimized both.[25] Petrarch's Arquà house near Padua where he retired to spend his last years Giovanni died of the plague in 1361. In the same year Petrarch was named canon in Monselice near Padua. Francesca married Francescuolo da Brossano (who was later named executor of Petrarch's will) that same year. In 1362, shortly after the birth of a daughter, Eletta (the same name as Petrarch's mother), they joined Petrarch in Venice to flee the plague then ravaging parts of Europe. A second grandchild, Francesco, was born in 1366, but died before his second birthday. Francesca and her family lived with Petrarch in Venice for five years from 1362 to 1367 at Palazzo Molina; although Petrarch continued to travel in those years. Between 1361 and 1369 the younger Boccaccio paid the older Petrarch two visits. The first was in Venice, the second was in Padua. About 1368 Petrarch and his daughter Francesca (with her family) moved to the small town of Arquà in the Euganean Hills near Padua, where he passed his remaining years in religious contemplation. He died in his house in Arquà early on July 20, 1374—his seventieth birthday. The house hosts now a permanent exhibition of Petrarchian works and curiosities; inside is the famous tomb of Petrarch's beloved cat who was embalmed, among other objects. On the marble slab there is a Latin inscription written by Antonio Quarenghi: Etruscus gemino vates ardebat amore: Maximus ignis ego; Laura secundus erat. Quid rides? divinæ illam si gratia formæ, Me dignam eximio fecit amante fides. Si numeros geniumque sacris dedit illa libellis Causa ego ne sævis muribus esca forent. Arcebam sacro vivens a limine mures, Ne domini exitio scripta diserta forent; Incutio trepidis eadem defuncta pavorem, Et viget exanimi in corpore prisca fides.[26] Petrarch's will (dated April 4, 1370) leaves 50 florins to Boccaccio "to buy a warm winter dressing gown"; various legacies (a horse, a silver cup, a lute, a Madonna) to his brother and his friends; his house in Vaucluse to its caretaker; for his soul, and for the poor; and the bulk of his estate to his son-in-law, Francescuolo da Brossano, who is to give half of it to "the person to whom, as he knows, I wish it to go"; presumably his daughter, Francesca, Brossano's wife. The will mentions neither the property in Arquà nor his library; Petrarch's library of notable manuscripts was already promised to Venice, in exchange for the Palazzo Molina. This arrangement was probably cancelled when he moved to Padua, the enemy of Venice, in 1368. The library was seized by the lords of Padua, and his books and manuscripts are now widely scattered over Europe.[27] Nevertheless, the Biblioteca Marciana traditionally claimed this bequest as its founding, although it was in fact founded by Cardinal Bessarion in 1468.[28] Works[edit] Original lyrics by Petrarch, found in 1985 in Erfurt Petrarch's Virgil (title page) (c. 1336) Illuminated manuscript by Simone Martini, 29 x 20 cm Biblioteca Ambrosiana, Milan. The Triumph of Death, or The 3 Fates. Flemish tapestry (probably Brussels, c. 1510–1520). Victoria and Albert Museum, London. The three Fates, Clotho, Lachesis and Atropos, who spin, draw out and cut the thread of life, represent Death in this tapestry, as they triumph over the fallen body of Chastity. This is the third subject in Petrarch's poem "The Great Triumphs". First, Love triumphs; then Love is overcome by Chastity, Chastity by Death, Death by Fame, Fame by Time and Time by Eternity Petrarch is best known for his Italian poetry, notably the Rerum vulgarium fragmenta ("Fragments of Vernacular Matters"), a collection of 366 lyric poems in various genres also known as 'canzoniere' ('songbook'), and the Triumphi ("Triumphs"), a six-part narrative poem of Dantean inspiration. However, Petrarch was an enthusiastic Latin scholar and did most of his writing in this language. His Latin writings include scholarly works, introspective essays, letters, and more poetry. Among them are Secretum ("My Secret Book"), an intensely personal, imaginary dialogue with a figure inspired by Augustine of Hippo; De Viris Illustribus ("On Famous Men"), a series of moral biographies; Rerum Memorandarum Libri, an incomplete treatise on the cardinal virtues; De Otio Religiosorum ("On Religious Leisure")[29] and De Vita Solitaria ("On the Solitary Life"), which praise the contemplative life; De Remediis Utriusque Fortunae ("Remedies for Fortune Fair and Foul"), a self-help book which remained popular for hundreds of years; Itinerarium ("Petrarch's Guide to the Holy Land"); invectives against opponents such as doctors, scholastics, and the French; the Carmen Bucolicum, a collection of 12 pastoral poems; and the unfinished epic Africa. He translated seven psalms, a collection known as the Penitential Psalms.[30] Petrarch revived the work and letters of the ancient Roman Senator Marcus Tullius Cicero Petrarch also published many volumes of his letters, including a few written to his long-dead friends from history such as Cicero and Virgil. Cicero, Virgil, and Seneca were his literary models. Most of his Latin writings are difficult to find today, but several of his works are available in English translations. Several of his Latin works are scheduled to appear in the Harvard University Press series I Tatti.[31] It is difficult to assign any precise dates to his writings because he tended to revise them throughout his life. Petrarch collected his letters into two major sets of books called Rerum familiarum liber ("Letters on Familiar Matters") and Seniles ("Letters of Old Age"), both of which are available in English translation.[32] The plan for his letters was suggested to him by knowledge of Cicero's letters. These were published "without names" to protect the recipients, all of whom had close relationships to Petrarch. The recipients of these letters included Philippe de Cabassoles, bishop of Cavaillon; Ildebrandino Conti, bishop of Padua; Cola di Rienzo, tribune of Rome; Francesco Nelli, priest of the Prior of the Church of the Holy Apostles in Florence; and Niccolò di Capoccia, a cardinal and priest of Saint Vitalis. His "Letter to Posterity" (the last letter in Seniles)[33] gives an autobiography and a synopsis of his philosophy in life. It was originally written in Latin and was completed in 1371 or 1372—the first such autobiography in a thousand years (since Saint Augustine).[34][35] While Petrarch's poetry was set to music frequently after his death, especially by Italian madrigal composers of the Renaissance in the 16th century, only one musical setting composed during Petrarch's lifetime survives. This is Non al suo amante by Jacopo da Bologna, written around 1350. Laura and poetry[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) On April 6, 1327,[36] after Petrarch gave up his vocation as a priest, the sight of a woman called "Laura" in the church of Sainte-Claire d'Avignon awoke in him a lasting passion, celebrated in the Rerum vulgarium fragmenta ("Fragments of Vernacular Matters"). Laura may have been Laura de Noves, the wife of Count Hugues de Sade (an ancestor of the Marquis de Sade). There is little definite information in Petrarch's work concerning Laura, except that she is lovely to look at, fair-haired, with a modest, dignified bearing. Laura and Petrarch had little or no personal contact. According to his "Secretum", she refused him because she was already married. He channeled his feelings into love poems that were exclamatory rather than persuasive, and wrote prose that showed his contempt for men who pursue women. Upon her death in 1348, the poet found that his grief was as difficult to live with as was his former despair. Later in his "Letter to Posterity", Petrarch wrote: "In my younger days I struggled constantly with an overwhelming but pure love affair—my only one, and I would have struggled with it longer had not premature death, bitter but salutary for me, extinguished the cooling flames. I certainly wish I could say that I have always been entirely free from desires of the flesh, but I would be lying if I did". Laura de Noves While it is possible she was an idealized or pseudonymous character—particularly since the name "Laura" has a linguistic connection to the poetic "laurels" Petrarch coveted—Petrarch himself always denied it. His frequent use of l'aura is also remarkable: for example, the line "Erano i capei d'oro a l'aura sparsi" may both mean "her hair was all over Laura's body", and "the wind ("l'aura") blew through her hair". There is psychological realism in the description of Laura, although Petrarch draws heavily on conventionalised descriptions of love and lovers from troubadour songs and other literature of courtly love. Her presence causes him unspeakable joy, but his unrequited love creates unendurable desires, inner conflicts between the ardent lover and the mystic Christian, making it impossible to reconcile the two. Petrarch's quest for love leads to hopelessness and irreconcilable anguish, as he expresses in the series of paradoxes in Rima 134 "Pace non trovo, et non ò da far guerra;/e temo, et spero; et ardo, et son un ghiaccio": "I find no peace, and yet I make no war:/and fear, and hope: and burn, and I am ice".[37] Laura is unreachable and evanescent – descriptions of her are evocative yet fragmentary.Francesco De Sanctis on the powerful music of his verse in his Storia della letteratura italiana. Gianfranco Contini, in a famous essay ("Preliminari sulla lingua del Petrarca". Petrarca, Canzoniere. Turin, Einaudi, 1964) has described Petrarch's language in terms of "unilinguismo" (contrasted with Dantean "plurilinguismo"). Sonnet 227[edit] Original Italian[38] English translation by A.S. Kline[39] Aura che quelle chiome bionde et crespe cercondi et movi, et se’ mossa da loro, soavemente, et spargi quel dolce oro, et poi ’l raccogli, e ’n bei nodi il rincrespe, tu stai nelli occhi ond’amorose vespe mi pungon sí, che ’nfin qua il sento et ploro, et vacillando cerco il mio tesoro, come animal che spesso adombre e ’ncespe: ch’or me ’l par ritrovar, et or m’accorgo ch’i’ ne son lunge, or mi sollievo or caggio, ch’or quel ch’i’ bramo, or quel ch’è vero scorgo. Aër felice, col bel vivo raggio rimanti; et tu corrente et chiaro gorgo, ché non poss’io cangiar teco vïaggio? Breeze, blowing that blonde curling hair, stirring it, and being softly stirred in turn, scattering that sweet gold about, then gathering it, in a lovely knot of curls again, you linger around bright eyes whose loving sting pierces me so, till I feel it and weep, and I wander searching for my treasure, like a creature that often shies and kicks: now I seem to find her, now I realise she’s far away, now I’m comforted, now despair, now longing for her, now truly seeing her. Happy air, remain here with your living rays: and you, clear running stream, why can’t I exchange my path for yours? Dante[edit] Dante Alighieri, detail from a Luca Signorelli fresco in the chapel of San Brizio, Duomo, Orvieto. Petrarch is a world apart from Dante and his Divina Commedia. In spite of the metaphysical subject, the Commedia is deeply rooted in the cultural and social milieu of turn-of-the-century Florence: Dante's rise to power (1300) and exile (1302); his political passions call for a "violent" use of language, where he uses all the registers, from low and trivial to sublime and philosophical. Petrarch confessed to Boccaccio that he had never read the Commedia, remarks Contini, wondering whether this was true or Petrarch wanted to distance himself from Dante. Dante's language evolves as he grows old, from the courtly love of his early stilnovistic Rime and Vita nuova to the Convivio and Divina Commedia, where Beatrice is sanctified as the goddess of philosophy—the philosophy announced by the Donna Gentile at the death of Beatrice.[40] In contrast, Petrarch's thought and style are relatively uniform throughout his life—he spent much of it revising the songs and sonnets of the Canzoniere rather than moving to new subjects or poetry. Here, poetry alone provides a consolation for personal grief, much less philosophy or politics (as in Dante), for Petrarch fights within himself (sensuality versus mysticism, profane versus Christian literature), not against anything outside of himself. The strong moral and political convictions which had inspired Dante belong to the Middle Ages and the libertarian spirit of the commune; Petrarch's moral dilemmas, his refusal to take a stand in politics, his reclusive life point to a different direction, or time. The free commune, the place that had made Dante an eminent politician and scholar, was being dismantled: the signoria was taking its place. Humanism and its spirit of empirical inquiry, however, were making progress—but the papacy (especially after Avignon) and the empire (Henry VII, the last hope of the white Guelphs, died near Siena in 1313) had lost much of their original prestige.[41] Petrarch polished and perfected the sonnet form inherited from Giacomo da Lentini and which Dante widely used in his Vita nuova to popularise the new courtly love of the Dolce Stil Novo. The tercet benefits from Dante's terza rima (compare the Divina Commedia), the quatrains prefer the ABBA–ABBA to the ABAB–ABAB scheme of the Sicilians. The imperfect rhymes of u with closed o and i with closed e (inherited from Guittone's mistaken rendering of Sicilian verse) are excluded, but the rhyme of open and closed o is kept. Finally, Petrarch's enjambment creates longer semantic units by connecting one line to the following. The vast majority (317) of Petrarch's 366 poems collected in the Canzoniere (dedicated to Laura) were sonnets, and the Petrarchan sonnet still bears his name.[42] Philosophy[edit] Petrarch Statue of Petrarch on the Uffizi Palace, in Florence Petrarch is traditionally called the father of Humanism and considered by many to be the "father of the Renaissance."[43] In his work Secretum meum he points out that secular achievements did not necessarily preclude an authentic relationship with God. Petrarch argued instead that God had given humans their vast intellectual and creative potential to be used to their fullest.[44] He inspired humanist philosophy which led to the intellectual flowering of the Renaissance. He believed in the immense moral and practical value of the study of ancient history and literature—that is, the study of human thought and action. Petrarch was a devout Catholic and did not see a conflict between realizing humanity's potential and having religious faith. A highly introspective man, he shaped the nascent humanist movement a great deal because many of the internal conflicts and musings expressed in his writings were seized upon by Renaissance humanist philosophers and argued continually for the next 200 years. For example, Petrarch struggled with the proper relation between the active and contemplative life, and tended to emphasize the importance of solitude and study. In a clear disagreement with Dante, in 1346 Petrarch argued in his De vita solitaria that Pope Celestine V's refusal of the papacy in 1294 was as a virtuous example of solitary life.[45] Later the politician and thinker Leonardo Bruni (1370–1444) argued for the active life, or "civic humanism". As a result, a number of political, military, and religious leaders during the Renaissance were inculcated with the notion that their pursuit of personal fulfillment should be grounded in classical example and philosophical contemplation.[46] Legacy[edit] Petrarch's tomb at Arquà Petrarca Petrarch's influence is evident in the works of Serafino Ciminelli from Aquila (1466–1500) and in the works of Marin Držić (1508–1567) from Dubrovnik.[47] The Romantic composer Franz Liszt set three of Petrarch's Sonnets (47, 104, and 123) to music for voice, Tre sonetti del Petrarca, which he later would transcribe for solo piano for inclusion in the suite Années de Pèlerinage. Liszt also set a poem by Victor Hugo, " O quand je dors" in which Petrarch and Laura are invoked as the epitome of erotic love. While in Avignon in 1991, Modernist composer Elliott Carter completed his solo flute piece Scrivo in Vento which is in part inspired by and structured by Petrarch's Sonnet 212, Beato in sogno. It was premiered on Petrarch's 687th birthday.[48] In November 2003, it was announced that pathological anatomists would be exhuming Petrarch's body from his casket in Arquà Petrarca, in order to verify 19th-century reports that he had stood 1.83 meters (about six feet), which would have been tall for his period. The team from the University of Padua also hoped to reconstruct his cranium in order to generate a computerized image of his features to coincide with his 700th birthday. The tomb had been opened previously in 1873 by Professor Giovanni Canestrini, also of Padua University. When the tomb was opened, the skull was discovered in fragments and a DNA test revealed that the skull was not Petrarch's,[49] prompting calls for the return of Petrarch's skull. The researchers are fairly certain that the body in the tomb is Petrarch's due to the fact that the skeleton bears evidence of injuries mentioned by Petrarch in his writings, including a kick from a donkey when he was 42.[50] Works in English translation[edit] Francesco Petrarch, Letters on Familiar Matters (Rerum familiarium libri), translated by Aldo S. Bernardo (New York: Italica Press, 2005). Volume 1, Books 1–8; Volume 2, Books 9–16; Volume 3, Books 17–24[ISBN missing] Francesco Petrarch, Letters of Old Age (Rerum senilium libri), translated by Aldo S. Bernardo, Saul Levin & Reta A. Bernardo (New York: Italica Press, 2005). Volume 1, Books 1–9; Volume 2, Books 10–18[ISBN missing] Francesco Petrarch, My Secret Book, (Secretum), translated by Nicholas Mann. Harvard University Press[ISBN missing] Francesco Petrarch, On Religious Leisure (De otio religioso), edited & translated by Susan S. Schearer, introduction by Ronald G. Witt (New York: Italica Press, 2002)[ISBN missing] Francesco Petrarch, The Revolution of Cola di Rienzo, translated from Latin and edited by Mario E. Cosenza; 3rd, revised, edition by Ronald G. Musto (New York; Italica Press, 1996)[ISBN missing] Francesco Petrarch, Selected Letters, vol. 1 and 2, translated by Elaine Fantham. Harvard University Press[ISBN missing] See also[edit] Italy portal Literature portal Otium Notes[edit] ^ Rico, Francisco; Marcozzi, Luca (2015). "Petrarca, Francesco". Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani (in Italian). 82. Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana. ^ This designation appears, for instance, in a recent review of Carol Quillen's Rereading the Renaissance. ^ In the Prose della volgar lingua, Bembo proposes Petrarch and Boccaccio as models of Italian style, while expressing reservations about emulating Dante's usage. ^ a b Renaissance or Prenaissance, Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 4, No. 1. (Jan. 1943), pp. 69–74; Theodore E. Mommsen, "Petrarch's Conception of the 'Dark Ages'" Speculum 17.2 (April 1942: 226–242); JSTOR link to a collection of several letters in the same issue. ^ a b J.H. Plumb, The Italian Renaissance, 1961; Chapter XI by Morris Bishop "Petrarch", pp. 161–175; New York, American Heritage Publishing, ISBN 0-618-12738-0 ^ after "Albertino Mussato" who was the first to be so crowned according to Robert Weiss, The Renaissance Discovery of Classical Antiquity (Oxford, 1973) ^ Plumb, p. 164 ^ Pietrangeli (1981), p. 32 ^ Kirkham, Victoria (2009). Petrarch: A Critical Guide to the Complete Works. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0226437439. ^ Bishop, Morris Petrarch and his World, p. 92, Indiana University Press 1963, ISBN 0-8046-1730-9 ^ NSA Family Encyclopedia, Petrarch, Francesco, Vol. 11, p. 240, Standard Education Corp. 1992 ^ Vittore Branca, Boccaccio; The Man and His Works, tr. Richard Monges, pp. 113–118 ^ Ep. Fam. 18.2 §9 ^ "History – Biblioteca Capitolare Verona". ^ Nicolson, Marjorie Hope; Mountain Gloom and Mountain Glory: The Development of the Aesthetics of the Infinite (1997), p. 49; ISBN 0-295-97577-6 ^ Burckhardt, Jacob. The Civilisation of the Period of the Renaissance in Italy (1860). Translated by S.G.C. Middlemore. Swan Sonnenschein (1904), pp. 301–302. ^ Lynn Thorndike, Renaissance or Prenaissance, Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 4, No. 1. (Jan. 1943), pp. 69–74. JSTOR link to a collection of several letters in the same issue. ^ Such as J.H. Plumb, in his book The Italian Renaissance, ^ a b c Familiares 4.1 translated by Morris Bishop, quoted in Plumb. ^ Asher, Lyell (1993). "Petrarch at the Peak of Fame". PMLA. 108 (5): 1050–1063. doi:10.2307/462985. JSTOR 462985. ^ McLaughlin, Edward Tompkins; Studies in Medieval Life and Literature, p. 6, New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1894 ^ Plumb, J.H. (1961). The Horizon Book of the Renaissance. New York: American Heritage. p. 26. ^ Hillman, James (1977). Revisioning Psychology. Harper & Row. pp. 197. ISBN 978-0-06-090563-7. ^ James, Paul (Spring 2014). "Emotional Ambivalence across Times and Spaces: Mapping Petrarch's Intersecting Worlds". Exemplaria. 26 (1): 82. doi:10.1179/1041257313Z.00000000044. S2CID 191454887. Retrieved August 4, 2015. ^ Plumb, p. 165 ^ The last lay of Petrarch's cat, Notes and Queries, Vol. V, Number 121, February 21, 1852, Author: Various, Editor: George Bell ^ Bishop, pp. 360, 366. Francesca and the quotes from there;[clarification needed] Bishop adds that the dressing-gown was a piece of tact: "fifty florins would have bought twenty dressing-gowns". ^ Tedder, Henry Richard; Brown, James Duff (1911). "Libraries § Italy" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 16 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 573. ^ Francesco Petrarch, On Religious Leisure (De otio religioso), edited & translated by Susan S. Schearer, introduction by Ronald G. Witt (New York: Italica Press, 2002). ^ Sturm-Maddox, Sara (2010). Petrarch's Laurels. Pennsylvania State UP. p. 153. ISBN 978-0271040745. ^ "I Tatti Renaissance Library/Forthcoming and Published Volumes". Hup.harvard.edu. Retrieved July 31, 2009. ^ Letters on Familiar Matters (Rerum familiarium libri), translated by Aldo S. Bernardo, 3 vols.' and Letters of Old Age (Rerum senilium libri), translated by Aldo S. Bernardo, Saul Levin & Reta A. Bernardo, 2 vols. ^ Petrarch's Letter to Posterity (1909 English translation, with notes, by James Harvey Robinson) ^ Wilkins Ernest H (1964). "On the Evolution of Petrarch's Letter to Posterity". Speculum. 39 (2): 304–308. doi:10.2307/2852733. JSTOR 2852733. S2CID 164097201. ^ Plumb, p. 173 ^ April 6, 1327 is often thought to be Good Friday based on poems 3 and 211 of Petrarch's Rerum vulgarium fragmenta, but in fact that date fell on Monday in 1327. The apparent explanation is that Petrarch was not referring to the variable date of Good Friday but to the date fixed by the death of Christ in absolute time, which at the time was thought to be April 6 (Mark Musa, Petrarch's Canzoniere, Indiana University Press, 1996, p. 522). ^ "Petrarch (1304–1374). The Complete Canzoniere: 123–183". www.poetryintranslation.com. ^ "Canzoniere (Rerum vulgarium fragmenta)/Aura che quelle chiome bionde et crespe - Wikisource". ^ "Petrarch (1304–1374) - the Complete Canzoniere: 184-244". ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on November 12, 2013. Retrieved December 28, 2013.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ "The Oregon Petrarch Open Book – "Petrarch is again in sight"". petrarch.uoregon.edu. ^ "Movements : Poetry through the Ages". www.webexhibits.org. ^ See for example Rudolf Pfeiffer, History of Classical Scholarship 1300–1850, Oxford University Press, 1976, p. 1; Gilbert Highet, The Classical Tradition, Oxford University Press, 1949, p. 81–88. ^ Famous First Facts International, H.W. Wilson Company, New York 2000, ISBN 0-8242-0958-3, p. 303, item 4567. ^ Petrarca, Francesco (1879). De vita Solitaria (in Italian). Bologna: Gaetano Romagnoli. ^ "Edizioni Ghibli, Il Rinascimento e Petrarca" (in Italian). edizionighibli.com. August 18, 2016. Retrieved September 6, 2019. ^ Encyclopedia of the Renaissance: Class-Furió Ceriol, Vol. 2, p. 106, Paul F. Grendler, Renaissance Society of America, Scribner's published in association with the Renaissance Society of America, 1999. ISBN 978-0-684-80509-2 ^ Spencer, Patricia (2008) "Regarding Scrivo in Vento: A Conversation with Elliott Carter" Flutest Quarterly summer. ^ Caramelli D, Lalueza-Fox C, Capelli C, et al. (November 2007). "Genetic analysis of the skeletal remains attributed to Francesco Petrarch". Forensic Sci. Int. 173 (1): 36–40. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2007.01.020. PMID 17320326. ^ "UPF.edu" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on March 6, 2009. Retrieved March 1, 2009. References[edit] Bartlett, Kenneth R. (1992). The Civilization of the Italian Renaissance; a Source Book. Lexington: D.C. Heath and Company. ISBN 0-669-20900-7 Bishop, Morris (1961). "Petrarch." In J. H. Plumb (Ed.), Renaissance Profiles, pp. 1–17. New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 0-06-131162-6 . Hanawalt, A. Barbara (1998). The Middle Ages: An Illustrated History pp. 131–132 New York: Oxford University Press[ISBN missing] James, Paul (2014). "Emotional Ambivalence across Times and Spaces: Mapping Petrarch's Intersecting Worlds". Exemplaria. 26 (1): 81–104. doi:10.1179/1041257313z.00000000044. S2CID 191454887. Kallendorf, Craig. "The Historical Petrarch," The American Historical Review, Vol. 101, No. 1 (Feb. 1996): 130–141. Further reading[edit] Bernardo, Aldo (1983). "Petrarch." In Dictionary of the Middle Ages, volume 9 Celenza, Christopher S. (2017). Petrarch: Everywhere a Wanderer. London: Reaktion. ISBN 978-1780238388 Hennigfeld, Ursula (2008). Der ruinierte Körper. Petrarkistische Sonette in transkultureller Perspektive. Würzburg, Königshausen & Neumann, 2008, ISBN 978-3-8260-3768-9 Hollway-Calthrop, Henry (1907). Petrarch: His Life and Times, Methuen. From Google Books Kohl, Benjamin G. (1978). "Francesco Petrarch: Introduction; How a Ruler Ought to Govern His State," in The Earthly Republic: Italian Humanists on Government and Society, ed. Benjamin G. Kohl and Ronald G. Witt, 25–78. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-1097-2 Nauert, Charles G. (2006). Humanism and the Culture of Renaissance Europe: Second Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-54781-4 Rawski, Conrad H. (1991). Petrarch's Remedies for Fortune Fair and Foul A Modern English Translation of De remediis utriusque Fortune, with a Commentary. ISBN 0-253-34849-8 Robinson, James Harvey (1898). Petrarch, the First Modern Scholar and Man of Letters Harvard University Kirkham, Victoria and Armando Maggi (2009). Petrarch: A Critical Guide to the Complete Works. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-43741-5. A. Lee, Petrarch and St. Augustine: Classical Scholarship, Christian Theology and the Origins of the Renaissance in Italy, Brill, Leiden, 2012, ISBN 978-9004224032 N. Mann, Petrarca [Ediz. orig. Oxford University Press (1984)] – Ediz. ital. a cura di G. Alessio e L. Carlo Rossi – Premessa di G. Velli, LED Edizioni Universitarie, Milano, 1993, ISBN 88-7916-021-4 Il Canzoniere» di Francesco Petrarca. La Critica Contemporanea, G. Barbarisi e C. Berra (edd.), LED Edizioni Universitarie, Milano, 1992, ISBN 88-7916-005-2 G. Baldassari, Unum in locum. Strategie macrotestuali nel Petrarca politico, LED Edizioni Universitarie, Milano, 2006, ISBN 88-7916-309-4 Francesco Petrarca, Rerum vulgarium Fragmenta. Edizione critica di Giuseppe Savoca, Olschki, Firenze, 2008, ISBN 978-88-222-5744-4 Plumb, J. H., The Italian Renaissance, Houghton Mifflin, 2001, ISBN 0-618-12738-0 Giuseppe Savoca, Il Canzoniere di Petrarca. Tra codicologia ed ecdotica, Olschki, Firenze, 2008, ISBN 978-88-222-5805-2 Roberta Antognini, Il progetto autobiografico delle "Familiares" di Petrarca, LED Edizioni Universitarie, Milano, 2008, ISBN 978-88-7916-396-5 Paul Geyer und Kerstin Thorwarth (hg), Petrarca und die Herausbildung des modernen Subjekts (Göttingen, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2009) (Gründungsmythen Europas in Literatur, Musik und Kunst, 2) External links[edit] Petrarchat Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Petrarch and his Cat Muse Petrarch from the Catholic Encyclopedia Excerpts from his works and letters Francesco Petrarca (Petrarch) (1304-1374) Works by Petrarch at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Francesco Petrarca at Internet Archive Works by or about Petrarch at Internet Archive Works by Petrarch at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Timeline of life of Petrarch Poems From The Canzoniere, translated by Tony Kline. Francesco Petrarch at The Online Library of Liberty De remediis utriusque fortunae, Cremonae, B. de Misintis ac Caesaris Parmensis, 1492. (Vicifons) Free scores of works by Petrarch in the Choral Public Domain Library (ChoralWiki) Petrarch and Laura Multi-lingual site including translated works in the public domain and biography, pictures, music. Petrarch - the poet who lost his head April 2004 article in The Guardian regarding the exhumation of Petrarch's remains Oregon Petrarch Open Book – A working database-driven hypertext in and around Francis Petrarch's Rerum Vulgarium Fragmenta (Canzoniere) Historia Griseldis From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress Francesco Petrarch, De viris illustribus, digitized French codex, at Somni v t e Petrarch Works Poetry Canzoniere (Rerum vulgarium fragmenta) Africa Trionfi Bucolicum carmen Treatises De viris illustribus De remediis utriusque fortunae De vita solitaria De otio religiosorum Rerum memorandarum libri Epistles Familiares "Ascent of Mont Ventoux" Liber sine nomine Seniles Letter to Posterity Others Secretum Itinerarium syriacum Related people Philippe de Cabassoles Laura de Noves Ser Petracco Stefano Colonna Dionigi di Borgo San Sepolcro Francescuolo da Brossano Giovanni Boccaccio Dante Alighieri Robert, King of Naples Francesco Nelli Simone Martini Giovanni Colonna Lodewijk Heyligen Miscellaneous Petrarch's library Petrarchan sonnet Petrarch's and Shakespeare's sonnets Arquà Petrarca Influence of Italian humanism on Chaucer Palazzo Molina Petrarca-Preis award Authority control BIBSYS: 90089282 BNC: 000046972 BNE: XX886780 BNF: cb11919436b (data) CANTIC: a10452229 CiNii: DA02041632 GND: 118593234 HDS: 041573 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\017574 ISNI: 0000 0001 2128 7790 LCCN: n79092622 LNB: 000006994 MBA: a2109c59-5f37-4cab-8b7d-1927d586b36f NDL: 00472990 NKC: jn19990006495 NLA: 35419481 NLG: 273823 NLI: 000105066 NLK: KAC201729120 NLP: A11823938 NLR: [1] NSK: 000033192 NTA: 068380984 RERO: 02-A000129752 RKD: 337905 SELIBR: 206232 SNAC: w64850xt SUDOC: 027068935 Trove: 946186 ULAN: 500323951 VcBA: 495/15994 VIAF: 39382430 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79092622 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Petrarch&oldid=994985582" Categories: Petrarch Italian Renaissance humanists Italian Renaissance writers 1304 births 1374 deaths Bibliophiles Book and manuscript collectors Christian humanists Italian male poets Italian Roman Catholics People from Arezzo Rhetoricians Roman Catholic writers Sonneteers 14th-century historians 14th-century Italian poets 14th-century Italian writers 14th-century Latin writers Hidden categories: CS1 Italian-language sources (it) Wikipedia articles needing clarification from May 2009 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference CS1 maint: archived copy as title Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use mdy dates from April 2020 Articles needing additional references from April 2017 All articles needing additional references Pages with missing ISBNs Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with 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en-wikipedia-org-2093	----	List of Roman dynasties - Wikipedia List of Roman dynasties From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This is a list of the dynasties that ruled the Roman Empire and its two succeeding counterparts, the Western Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire). Dynasties of states that had claimed legal succession from the Roman Empire are not included in this list. Contents 1 List of Roman dynasties 2 Graphical representation 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References List of Roman dynasties[edit] Dynasty Period of rule Rulers[a] Start End Term First to rule Last to rule List / Family tree Dynasties of the Principate Julio–Claudian dynasty 27 BCE[1] 68 CE[1] 95 years Augustus Nero (list) (tree) Flavian dynasty 69 CE[1] 96 CE[1] 27 years Vespasian Domitian (list) (tree) Nerva–Antonine dynasty[b] 96 CE[2] 192 CE[2] 96 years Nerva Commodus (list) (tree) Severan dynasty 193 CE[3] 235 CE[3] 41 years[c] Septimius Severus Severus Alexander (list) (tree) Gordian dynasty 238 CE[4] 244 CE[4] 6 years Gordian I Gordian III (list) (tree) Decian dynasty 249 CE 251 CE 2 years Decius Hostilian (list) Valerian dynasty 253 CE 268 CE 15 years Valerian Gallienus (list) Caran dynasty 282 CE 285 CE 3 years Carus Carinus (list) Dynasties of the Dominate Constantinian dynasty[d] 305 CE[5] 363 CE[5] 58 years Constantius Chlorus (Western) Constantine I (Eastern) Julian (Western & Eastern) (list) (tree) Valentinianic dynasty 364 CE[6] 392 CE[6] 28 years Valentinian I (Western & Eastern) Valens (Eastern) Valentinian II (Western) (list) (tree) Theodosian dynasty 379 CE[7] 457 CE[7] 78 years Theodosius I (Western & Eastern) Valentinian III (Western) Marcian (Eastern) (list W) / (list E) (tree) Eastern (Byzantine) dynasties Leonid dynasty 457 CE[8] 518 CE[8] 61 years Leo I Anastasius I (list) (tree) Justinian dynasty 518 CE[9] 602 CE[9] 84 years Justin I Maurice and Theodosius[e] (list) (tree) Heraclian dynasty 610 CE[10] 711 CE[10] 91 years[f] Heraclius Justinian II and Tiberius[g] (list) (tree) Isaurian dynasty[h] 717 CE[11] 802 CE[11] 85 years Leo III Irene of Athens (list) (tree) Nikephorian dynasty 802 CE 813 CE 11 years Nikephoros I Michael I Rangabe and Theophylact[i] (list) (tree) Amorian dynasty[j] 820 CE[12] 867 CE[12] 47 years Michael II Michael III (list) (tree) Macedonian dynasty 867 CE[12] 1056 CE[12] 189 years Basil I Theodora Porphyrogenita (list) (tree) Komnenid dynasty[k] 1057 CE[13] 1185 CE[13] 106 years[l] Isaac I Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos and John Komnenos[m] (list) (tree) Doukid dynasty 1059 CE[14] 1078 CE[14] 19 years Constantine X Doukas Michael VII Doukas (list) (tree) Angelid dynasty 1185 CE[15] 1204 CE[15] 19 years Isaac II Angelos Alexios V Doukas (list) (tree) Laskarid dynasty[n] 1204 CE 1261 CE 57 years Theodore I Laskaris John IV Laskaris (list) (tree) Palaiologan dynasty 1259 CE[16] 1453 CE[16] 194 years Michael VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos (list) (tree) Graphical representation[edit] See also[edit] History portal Monarchy portal Dynasty History of the Byzantine Empire History of the Roman Empire List of Byzantine emperors List of Byzantine usurpers List of condemned Roman emperors List of Roman emperors List of Roman usurpers Pax Romana Succession of the Roman Empire Notes[edit] ^ As adoption was widely practiced by the upper classes, some Roman monarchs were not directly biologically related to their predecessors despite belonging to the same dynasty. For example, the second emperor of the Julio–Claudian dynasty, Tiberius, was in fact an adopted son of the dynastic founder, Augustus. ^ The Nerva–Antonine dynasty is sometimes subdivided into the Nerva–Trajan dynasty and the Antonine dynasty. ^ The rule of the Severan dynasty was interrupted between 217 CE and 218 CE. Caracalla was the last ruler before the interregnum. Elagabalus was the first ruler after the interregnum. ^ The Constantinian dynasty is also known as the "Neo-Flavian dynasty". ^ Maurice and Theodosius reigned as co-rulers. ^ The rule of the Heraclian dynasty was interrupted between 695 CE and 705 CE. Justinian II was both the last ruler before the interregnum and the first ruler after the interregnum. ^ Justinian II and Tiberius reigned as co-rulers. ^ The Isaurian dynasty is also known as the "Syrian dynasty". ^ Michael I Rangabe and Theophylact reigned as co-rulers. ^ The Amorian dynasty is also known as the "Phrygian dynasty". ^ The Komnenid dynasty ruled the Empire of Trebizond between 1204 CE and 1461 CE. ^ The rule of the Komnenid dynasty was interrupted between 1059 CE and 1081 CE. Isaac I Komnenos was the last ruler before the interregnum. Alexios I Komnenos was the first ruler after the interregnum. ^ Andronikos I Komnenos and John Komnenos reigned as co-rulers. ^ The Laskarid dynasty of the Empire of Nicaea during the Fourth Crusade is considered as the legitimate continuation of the Roman Empire. References[edit] ^ a b c d Kidner, Frank; Bucur, Maria; Mathisen, Ralph; McKee, Sally; Weeks, Theodore (2013). Making Europe: The Story of the West. p. 161. ISBN 978-1111841317. ^ a b D'Amato, Raffaele; Frediani, Andrea (2019). Strasbourg AD 357: The victory that saved Gaul. p. 8. ISBN 9781472833969. ^ a b Ermatinger, James (2018). The Roman Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia. p. 233. ISBN 9781440838095. ^ a b Fomenko, Anatoly (2005). History: Fiction Or Science?. p. 171. ISBN 9782913621060. ^ a b Cowell, Frank (1961). Everyday Life in Ancient Rome. p. 199. ^ a b Christ, Karl (1984). The Romans: An Introduction to Their History and Civilisation. p. 184. ISBN 9780520045668. ^ a b Grig, Lucy; Kelly, Gavin (2015). Two Romes: Rome and Constantinople in Late Antiquity. p. 186. ISBN 9780190241087. ^ a b Maas, Michael (2015). The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Attila. p. 106. ISBN 9781107021754. ^ a b Konstam, Angus (2015). Byzantine Warship vs Arab Warship: 7th–11th centuries. p. 18. ISBN 9781472807588. ^ a b Flichy, Thomas (2012). Financial Crises and Renewal of Empires. p. 30. ISBN 9781291097337. ^ a b LePree, James; Djukic, Ljudmila (2019). The Byzantine Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia. p. 209. ISBN 9781440851476. ^ a b c d Tougher, Shaun (2009). The Eunuch in Byzantine History and Society. p. 55. ISBN 9781135235710. ^ a b Walker, Alicia (2012). The Emperor and the World: Exotic Elements and the Imaging of Middle Byzantine Imperial Power, Ninth to Thirteenth Centuries C.E. p. 11. ISBN 9781107004771. ^ a b Stacton, David (1965). The World on the Last Day: The Sack of Constantinople by the Turks, May 29, 1453: Its Causes and Consequences. p. 276. ^ a b LePree & Djukic (2019). p. 305. ^ a b Woodfin, Warren (2012). The Embodied Icon: Liturgical Vestments and Sacramental Power in Byzantium. p. xxv. ISBN 9780199592098. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Roman_dynasties&oldid=992860527" Categories: Roman imperial dynasties Lists of dynasties Hidden categories: Pages using the EasyTimeline extension Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages فارسی 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 7 December 2020, at 14:16 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. 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en-wikipedia-org-2109	----	Caesar (title) - Wikipedia Caesar (title) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Imperial title of the Roman empire Not to be confused with the Roman politician Julius Caesar or William Shakespeare's play of the same name. Caesar Julius Caesar The name Caesar became very popular in Italy during the Roman Empire after Caesar's Civil War. Pronunciation English: /ˈsiːzər/ SEE-zər Classical Latin: [ˈkae̯sar] Gender Male Language(s) Latin Origin Meaning Emperor Region of origin Roman Empire Other names Variant form(s) ΚΑΙϹΑΡ Kaiser Tsar Popularity see popular names Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e Caesar (Latin: [ˈkae̯.sar]English pl. Caesars; Latin pl. Caesares; in Greek: Καῖσᾰρ Kaîsar) is a title of imperial character. It derives from the cognomen of Julius Caesar, the Roman dictator. The change from being a familial name to a title adopted by the Roman Emperors can be dated to about 68/69 AD, the so-called "Year of the Four Emperors".[dubious – discuss] Contents 1 Etymology 2 Sole Roman Emperor 3 Dynastic title 4 Late Empire 4.1 Crisis of the Third Century 4.2 Tetrarchy 4.3 After the Tetrarchy 5 Byzantine Empire 6 Ottoman Empire 7 Legacy 7.1 Title (and name) 7.2 Historiography 8 List of holders 9 See also 10 References 11 Bibliography Etymology[edit] The meaning of the term is unknown and there are several theories. Julius himself, however, endorsed a meaning where it came from a Punic word meaning elephant. Sole Roman Emperor[edit] For political and personal reasons, Octavian chose to emphasize his relationship with Julius Caesar by styling himself simply "Imperator Caesar" (whereto the Roman Senate added the honorific Augustus, "Majestic" or "Venerable", in 27 BC), without any of the other elements of his full name. His successor as emperor, his stepson Tiberius, also bore the name as a matter of course; born Tiberius Claudius Nero, he was adopted by Caesar Augustus on 26 June 4 AD, as "Tiberius Julius Caesar". The precedent was set: the Emperor designated his successor by adopting him and giving him the name "Caesar". The fourth Emperor, Claudius, was the first to assume the name "Caesar" upon accession, without having been adopted by the previous emperor; however, he was at least a member by blood of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, being the maternal great-nephew of Augustus on his mother's side, the nephew of Tiberius, and the uncle of Caligula. Claudius in turn adopted his stepson and grand-nephew Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, giving him the name "Caesar" in the traditional way; his stepson would rule as the Emperor Nero. The first emperor to assume the position and the name simultaneously without any real claim to either was the usurper Servius Sulpicius Galba, who took the imperial throne under the name "Servius Galba Imperator Caesar" following the death of the last of the Julio-Claudians, Nero, in 68 AD. Galba helped solidify "Caesar" as the title of the designated heir by giving it to his own adopted heir, Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi Licinianus. Galba's reign did not last long and he was soon deposed by Marcus Otho. Otho did not at first use the title "Caesar" and occasionally used the title "Nero" as emperor, but later adopted the title "Caesar" as well. Otho was then defeated by Aulus Vitellius, who acceded with the name "Aulus Vitellius Germanicus Imperator Augustus". Vitellius did not adopt the cognomen "Caesar" as part of his name and may have intended to replace it with "Germanicus" (he bestowed the name "Germanicus" upon his own son that year). Nevertheless, Caesar had become such an integral part of the imperial dignity that its place was immediately restored by Titus Flavius Vespasianus ("Vespasian"), whose defeat of Vitellius in 69 AD put an end to the period of instability and began the Flavian dynasty. Vespasian's son, Titus Flavius Vespasianus became "Titus Flavius Caesar Vespasianus". Dynastic title[edit] By this point the status of "Caesar" had been regularised into that of a title given to the Emperor-designate (occasionally also with the honorific title Princeps Iuventutis, "Prince of Youth") and retained by him upon accession to the throne (e.g., Marcus Ulpius Traianus became Marcus Cocceius Nerva's designated heir as Caesar Nerva Traianus in October 97 and acceded on 28 January 98 as "Imperator Caesar Nerva Traianus Augustus"). After some variation among the earliest emperors, the style of the Emperor-designate on coins was usually Nobilissimus Caesar "Most Noble Caesar" (abbreviated to NOB CAES, N CAES etc.), though Caesar (CAES) on its own was also used. Late Empire[edit] Crisis of the Third Century[edit] The popularity of using the title Caesar to designate heirs-apparent increased throughout the third century. Many of the soldier emperors during the Crisis of the Third Century attempted to strengthen their legitimacy by naming heirs, including Maximinus Thrax, Philip the Arab, Decius, Trebonianus Gallus and Gallienus. Some of these were promoted to the rank of Augustus within their father's lifetime, for example Philippus II. The same title would also be used in the Gallic Empire, which operated autonomously from the rest of the Roman Empire from 260 to 274, with the final Gallic emperor Tetricus I appointing his heir Tetricus II Caesar and his consular colleague for 274. Despite the best efforts of these emperors, however, the granting of this title does not seem to have made succession in this chaotic period any more stable. Almost all Caesars would be killed before or alongside their fathers, or at best outlive them for a matter of months, as in the case of Hostilian. The sole Caesar to successfully obtain the rank of Augustus and rule for some time in his own right was Gordian III, and even he was heavily controlled by his court. Tetrarchy[edit] On 1 March 293, Diocletian established the Tetrarchy, a system of rule by two senior Emperors and two junior sub-Emperors. The two coequal senior emperors were styled identically to previous Emperors, as Imperator Caesar NN. Pius Felix Invictus Augustus (Elagabalus had introduced the use of Pius Felix, "the Pious and Blessed", while Maximinus Thrax introduced the use of Invictus, "the Unconquered") and were called the Augusti, while the two junior sub-Emperors were styled identically to previous Emperors-designate, as Nobilissimus Caesar. Likewise, the junior sub-Emperors retained the title "Caesar" upon accession to the senior position. The Tetrarchy was quickly abandoned as a system (though the four quarters of the empire survived as praetorian prefectures) in favour of two equal, territorial emperors, and the previous system of Emperors and Emperors-designate was restored, both in the Latin-speaking West and the Greek-speaking East. After the Tetrarchy[edit] The title of Caesar remained in use throughout the Constantinian period, with both Constantine I and his co-emperor and rival Licinius utilising it to mark their heirs. In the case of Constantine, this meant that by the time he died, he had four Caesars: Constantius II, Constantine II, Constans and his nephew Dalmatius, with his eldest son Crispus having been executed in mysterious circumstances earlier in his reign. In the event, Constantine would be succeeded only by his three sons, with Dalmatius dying in the summer of 337 in similarly murky circumstances. Constantius II himself would nominate as Caesars his two cousins Constantius Gallus and Julian in succession in the 350s, although he first executed Gallus and then found himself at war with Julian before his own death. After Julian's revolt of 361, the title Caesar fell out of imperial fashion for some time, with emperors preferring simply to elevate their sons directly to the post of Augustus, as with Gratian. It would be revived only nearly three quarters of a century later when Theodosius II used it to mark his nephew Valentinian III before successfully installing him upon the western throne vacated by the boy's other uncle Honorius. Thereafter it would receive limited use in the Eastern Roman Empire, for example, in the designation of the future Leo II in the final months of his grandfather's life. Byzantine Empire[edit] The Roman emperor Constantine the Great, mosaic in Hagia Sophia, Constantinople Caesar or Kaisar (Καῖσαρ) was a senior court title in the Byzantine Empire. Originally, as in the late Roman Empire, it was used for a subordinate co-emperor or the heir apparent, and was first among the "awarded" dignities. From the reign of Theodosius I, however, most emperors chose to solidify the succession of their intended heirs by raising them to co-emperors. Hence the title was more frequently awarded to second- and third-born sons, or to close and influential relatives of the Emperor: thus for example Alexios Mosele was the son-in-law of Theophilos (ruled 829–842), Bardas was the uncle and chief minister of Michael III (r. 842–867), while Nikephoros II (r. 963–969) awarded the title to his father, Bardas Phokas.[1][2] An exceptional case was the conferment of the dignity and its insignia to the Bulgarian khan Tervel by Justinian II (r. 685–695, 705–711) who had helped him regain his throne in 705.[2] The title was awarded to the brother of Empress Maria of Alania, George II of Georgia in 1081. The office enjoyed extensive privileges, great prestige and power. When Alexios I Komnenos created the title of sebastokrator, kaisar became third in importance, and fourth after Manuel I Komnenos created the title of despot, which it remained until the end of the Empire. The feminine form was kaisarissa. It remained an office of great importance, usually awarded to imperial relations, as well as a few high-ranking and distinguished officials, and only rarely awarded to foreigners. According to the Klētorologion of 899, the Byzantine Caesar's insignia were a crown without a cross, and the ceremony of a Caesar's creation (in this case dating to Constantine V), is included in De Ceremoniis I.43.[3] The title remained the highest in the imperial hierarchy until the introduction of the sebastokratōr (a composite derived from sebastos and autokrator, the Greek equivalents of Augustus and imperator) by Alexios I Komnenos (r. 1081–1118) and later of despotēs by Manuel I Komnenos (r. 1143–1180). The title remained in existence through the last centuries of the Empire. In the Palaiologan period, it was held by prominent nobles like Alexios Strategopoulos, but from the 14th century, it was mostly awarded to rulers of the Balkans such as the princes of Vlachia, Serbia and Thessaly.[2] Seal of the Caesar Michael Angelos In the late Byzantine hierarchy, as recorded in the mid-14th century Book of Offices of pseudo-Kodinos, the rank continued to come after the sebastokratōr. Pseudo-Kodinos further records that the Caesar was equal in precedence to the panhypersebastos, another creation of Alexios I, but that Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos (r. 1259–1282) had raised his nephew Michael Tarchaneiotes to the rank of protovestiarios and decreed that to come after the Caesar; while under Andronikos II Palaiologos (r. 1282–1328) the megas domestikos was raised to the same eminence, when it was awarded to the future emperor John VI Kantakouzenos (r. 1347–1354).[4] According to pseudo-Kodinos, the Caesar's insignia under the Palaiologoi were a skiadion hat in red and gold, decorated with gold-wire embroideries, with a veil bearing the wearer's name and pendants identical to those of the despotēs and the sebastokratōr. He wore a red tunic (rouchon) similar to the emperor's (without certain decorations), and his shoes and stockings were blue, as were the accouterments of his horse; these were all identical to those of the sebastokratōr, but without the embroidered eagles of the latter. Pseudo-Kodinos writes that the particular forms of another form of hat, the domed skaranikon, and of the mantle, the tamparion, for the Caesar were not known.[5] Ottoman Empire[edit] Mehmed II and Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople Gennadios. "Caesar" is the title officially used by the Sasanid Persian to refer to the Roman and Byzantine emperors.[6][7] In the Middle East, the Persians and the Arabs continued to refer to the Roman and Byzantine emperors as "Caesar" (in Persian: قیصر روم‎ Qaysar-i Rum, "Caesar of the Romans", from Middle Persian kēsar). Thus, following the conquest of Constantinople in 1453, the victorious Ottoman sultan Mehmed II became the first of the rulers of the Ottoman Empire to assume the title (in Ottoman Turkish: قیصر روم‎ Kaysar-i Rûm). After the Fall of Constantinople, having conquered the Byzantine Empire, Mehmed took the title Kaysar-i Rûm, claiming succession to the Roman imperium.[8] His claim was that, by possession of the city, he was emperor, a new dynast by conquest, as had been done previously by the likes of Heraclius and Leo III.[9] Contemporary scholar George of Trebizond wrote "the seat of the Roman Empire is Constantinople ... and he who is and remains Emperor of the Romans is also the Emperor of the whole world".[10] Gennadius II, a staunch antagonist of the West because of the Sack of Constantinople committed by the Western Catholics and theological controversies between the two Churches, had been enthroned the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople-New Rome with all the ceremonial elements and ethnarch (or milletbashi) status by the Sultan himself in 1454. In turn, Gennadius II formally recognized Mehmed as successor to the throne.[11] Mehmed also had a blood lineage to the Byzantine Imperial family; his predecessor, Sultan Orhan I had married a Byzantine princess, and Mehmed may have claimed descent from John Tzelepes Komnenos.[12] Ottoman sultans were not the only rulers to claim such a title, as there was the Holy Roman Empire in Western Europe, whose emperor, Frederick III, traced his titular lineage from Charlemagne who obtained the title of Roman Emperor when he was crowned by Pope Leo III in 800, although he was never recognized as such by the Byzantine Empire. In diplomatic writings between the Ottomans and Austrians, the Ottoman bureaucracy was angered by their use of the Caesar title when the Ottomans saw themself as the true successors of Rome. When war broke out and peace negotiations were done, the Austrians (Holy Roman Empire) agreed to give up the use of the Caesar title according to the Treaty of Konstantiniyye 1533 (though they would continue to use it and the Roman imperial title until the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806). The Russians who also claimed as the Third Rome were sanctioned by the Ottomans by giving orders to the Crimean Khanate to raid Russia numerous times.[13] The Ottomans would lose their political superiority to Holy Roman Empire in the Treaty of Sitvatorok in 1606 and to the Russians in the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca in 1774. Legacy[edit] Title (and name)[edit] This section has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. The specific problem is: Pronunciation hints without IPA; Issues with templating, capitalization, spelling and punctuation Please help improve this section if you can. (May 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The history of "Caesar" as an imperial title is reflected by the following monarchic titles, usually reserved for "emperor" and "empress" in many languages (note that the name Caesar, pronounced /siːzər/ in English, was pronounced [kaisar] in Classical Latin): Afro-Asiatic languages: Arabic: Qays'r قصر;قيصر Qas'r Hebrew: Kesár‎ קיסר (male) and Kesarít קיסרית (female); Albanian: Albanian: Çezar and Qesarinë; Armenian: Armenian: կայսր Kaysr, and Armenian: կայսրություն Kaysrutiun meaning empire; Greek: Modern Greek: Greek: Καίσαρας (Kaisaras), the archaic form Greek: Καίσαρ is rarely used today; Austronesian languages: Bahasa Indonesia: Kaisar; Baltic languages: Latvian: Ķeizars and Ķeizariene; Germanic languages: Danish: Kejser and Kejserinde; Dutch: Keizer and Keizerin; German: Kaiser and Kaiserin; Icelandic: Keisari and Keisaraynja; Faroese: Keisari and Keisarinna; Norwegian: Keiser and Keiserinne (bokmål) / Keisar and Keisarinne (nynorsk); Swedish: Kejsare and Kejsarinna Old English: cāsere Indo-Iranian languages: Persian: Ghaysar‎ قيصر Urdu: Qaysar قيصر used in the title "Kaiser-i-Hind" ("Emperor of India") during the British Raj Kartvelian languages Georgian: კეისარი (Keisari) Romance languages Italian, Cesare, used as a first name. Romanian, cezar as a common noun in certain contexts; Cezar, used as a first name. Spanish, Portuguese and French, César: commonly used as first or second name. Slavic languages: Belarusian: Цар, царыца (transliterated as tsar, tsarytsa) Bulgarian: Цар, царица (transliterated as tsar, tsaritsa); Czech: Císař, císařovna; Macedonian: Цар, царица (transliterated as tsar, tsarica) Polish: Cesarz, Cesarzowa; Russian: Царь, Царица, (transliterated as tsar, tsaritsa); however in the Russian Empire (also reflected in some of its other languages), which aimed to be the "third Rome" as successor to the Byzantine Empire, it was abandoned (not in the foreign language renderings though) as imperial style—in favor of Imperator and Autocrator—and used as a lower, royal style as within the empire in chief of some of its parts, e.g. Georgia and Siberia In the United States and, more recently, Britain, the title "czar" (an archaic transliteration of the Russian title) is a slang term for certain high-level civil servants, such as the "drug czar" for the director of the Office of National Drug Control Policy and "terrorism czar" for a Presidential advisor on terrorism policy. More specifically, a czar refers to a sub-cabinet-level advisor within the executive branch of the U.S. government. Serbo-Croatian: Car, carica (цар, царица) Slovak: Cisár, cisárovná; Slovene: cesar, cesarica or car, carica; Ukrainian: Цісар, цісарева (tsisar, tsisareva), also Ukrainian: цар/царь, царина (archaic transliteration: czar and czarina), Tsar, tsaryna (modern transliteration) Turkic languages: Turkish: Kayser (historical), Sezar (modern). Kayser-i-Rûm "Caesar of [Constantinople, the second] Rome", one of many subsidiary titles proclaiming the Ottoman Sultan (main imperial title Padishah) as (Muslim) successor to "Rum" as the Turks called the (Christian) Roman Empire (as Byzantium had continued to call itself), continuing to use the name for part of formerly Byzantine territory (compare the Seljuk Rum-sultanate) Uralic languages: Estonian: Keiser and Keisrinna; Finnish: Keisari and Keisarinna or Keisaritar; Hungarian: Császár and Császárnő; In various Romance and other languages, the imperial title was based on the Latin Imperator (a military mandate or a victory title), but Caesar or a derivation is still used for both the name and the minor ranks (still perceived as Latin).[citation needed] There have been other cases of a noun proper being turned into a title, such as Charlemagne's Latin name, including the epithet, Carolus (magnus), becoming Slavonic titles rendered as King: Kralj (Serbo-Croatian), Král (Czech) and Król (Polish), etc.[citation needed] However certain languages, especially Romance languages, also commonly use a "modernized" word (e.g., César in French) for the name, both referring to the Roman cognomen and modern use as a first name, and even to render the title Caesar, sometimes again extended to the derived imperial titles above.[citation needed] Yoruba language: Yoruba: Késárì Translation of the name Caesar first recorded in the first book translated to Yoruba, the bible. The Caesar in the bible refers to Emperor Augustus, who was referred to as Caesar. It was not used as a title for kings as it did not reach the language till the late 19th century and was not widely known till the 20th century. The main title for king was "Kábíyèsi", meaning one who cannot be questioned (Ká-bí-yò-èsi). Historiography[edit] Oswald Spengler used the term, Caesarism, in his book, The Decline of the West. List of holders[edit] This list is incomplete; you can help by adding missing items with reliable sources. Titus (proclaimed caesar, 69 AD) (augustus 24 June 79–13 September 81) Domitian (proclaimed caesar, 69 AD) (augustus 14 September 81–18 September 96) Antoninus Pius (proclaimed caesar, 25 February 138 ) (augustus 10 July 138 – 7 March 161) Marcus Aurelius (proclaimed caesar, 5 December 139) (augustus 7 March 161 – 17 March 180) Lucius Verus (proclaimed caesar, 12 October 166) (augustus 7 March 161 – January/February 169) Commodus (proclaimed caesar, 12 October 166) (augustus 27 November 176 – 31 December 192) Caracalla (proclaimed caesar, 195/6) (augustus 4 February 211 – 8 April 217) Geta (proclaimed caesar, 28 January 198) (augustus 4 February 211 – 2 February 212) Diadumenian (proclaimed caesar, April 217) (augustus May – June 218) Gordian III (proclaimed caesar, April 238) (augustus early August 238 – late January/early February 244) Volusianus (proclaimed caesar, June? 251) (augustus late June/early August 251 – late July/early August 253) Maximian (proclaimed caesar, 21 July 285 ) (augustus 1 April 286 – 1 May 305; end 306/early 307 – November 308) Constantius I (proclaimed caesar, 1 March 293) (augustus 1 May 305 – 25 July 306) Galerius (proclaimed caesar, 21 March 293) (augustus 1 May 305 – early May 311) Valerius Severus (proclaimed caesar, 1 May 305) (augustus 25 July 306 – April 307) Maximinus Daia (proclaimed caesar, 1 May 305) (augustus 1 May 310 – summer 313) Maxentius (proclaimed caesar, 28 October 306) (augustus Apr? 307 – 28 October 312) Constantine the Great (proclaimed caesar, 25 July 306) (augustus 25 July 306 – 22 May 337) Crispus (proclaimed caesar, 1 March 317) Licinius II (proclaimed caesar, 1 March 317) Constantine II (proclaimed caesar, 1 March 317) (augustus 9 Sep. 337 – early April 340) Constans (proclaimed caesar, 25 December 333) (augustus 9 Sep. 337 – 18 January 350) Constantius II (proclaimed caesar, 8 November 324) (augustus 9 Sep. 337 – 3 November 361) Constantius Gallus Julian (proclaimed caesar, 6 November 355) (augustus 3 November 361 – 26/7 June 363) Valentinian III (proclaimed caesar, 23 October 424) (augustus 23 October 425 – 16 March 455) Majorian (proclaimed caesar, 1 April 457) (augustus 28 December 457 – 2 August 461) Procopius Anthemius (proclaimed caesar, 25 March 467) (augustus 12 April 467 – 11 July 472) Leo II (proclaimed caesar, October 473) (augustus January – November 474) Byzantine Tervel, khan of the Bulgars, named in 705 by Justinian II (r. 685–695, 705–711). Theophobos, named by Theophilos (r. 829–842).[14] Alexios Mosele, named by Theophilos (r. 829–842). Bardas, named by his nephew Michael III (r. 842–867). Bardas Phokas, named by his son Nikephoros II (r. 963–969). John Doukas, named in 1059 by his brother Constantine X Doukas. Nikephoros Bryennios, named by his father-in-law Alexios I Komnenos Isaac Komnenos, named by his father Alexios I Komnenos (according to Ioannes Zonaras) George II of Georgia, brother of Empress Maria of Alania, in 1081. John Rogerios Dalassenos, named by John II Komnenos. Alexios Strategopoulos, named by Michael VIII Palaiologos (r. 1261–1282). Roger de Flor, leader of the Catalan Grand Company, named in 1304 by Andronikos II Palaiologos. Hrelja, likely named by John VI Kantakouzenos. Serbian Grgur Golubić, named in 1347 by Stefan Dušan. Vojihna, named in 1347 by Stefan Dušan. Preljub, named in 1348–49 by Stefan Dušan. Uglješa Vlatković, named by Uroš V. Nikola Radonja, named by Uroš V. Novak, named by Uroš V. See also[edit] Augustus (honorific) Caesaropapism Khosrow (word) References[edit] ^ Bury 1911, p. 36. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBury1911 (help) ^ a b c ODB, "Caesar" (A. Kazhdan), p. 363. ^ Bury 1911, pp. 20, 36. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBury1911 (help) ^ Verpeaux 1966, pp. 134–136. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFVerpeaux1966 (help) ^ Verpeaux 1966, pp. 147–149. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFVerpeaux1966 (help) ^ Middle Persian: 𐭪𐭩𐭮𐭫𐭩‎ kysly (Inscriptional Pahlavi), kysl (Book Pahlavi), transcribed as kēsar ^ Hurbanič, Martin (2019). The Avar Siege of Constantinople in 626: History and Legend. Springer. p. 234. ISBN 978-3-030-16684-7. ^ Michalis N. Michael; Matthias Kappler; Eftihios Gavriel (2009). Archivum Ottomanicum. Mouton. p. 10. ^ Christine Isom-Verhaaren; Kent F. Schull (11 April 2016). Living in the Ottoman Realm: Empire and Identity, 13th to 20th Centuries. Indiana University Press. pp. 38–. ISBN 978-0-253-01948-6. ^ Roger Crowley (2009). Constantinople: The Last Great Siege, 1453. Faber & Faber. pp. 13–. ISBN 978-0-571-25079-0. ^ "Gennadios II Scholarios". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 13 July 2020. ^ Norwich, John Julius (1995). Byzantium:The Decline and Fall. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 81–82. ISBN 0-679-41650-1. ^ Halil, Inançik (2017). Kırım Hanlığı Tarihi Üzerine Araştırmalar 1441-1700: Seçme Eserleri - XI. ISBN 978-6052952511. ^ Juan Signes Codoñer (23 March 2016). The Emperor Theophilos and the East, 829–842: Court and Frontier in Byzantium During the Last Phase of Iconoclasm. Routledge. pp. 121–. ISBN 978-1-317-03427-8. Bibliography[edit] Pauly-Wissowa – Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft Bury, J. B. (1911). The Imperial Administrative System of the Ninth Century - With a Revised Text of the Kletorologion of Philotheos. London: Oxford University Press. OCLC 1046639111. Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Verpeaux, Jean, ed. (1966). Pseudo-Kodinos, Traité des Offices (in French). Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. Ferjančić, Božidar (1970). "Севастократори и кесари у Српском царству" [Sebastocrators and Caesares in the Serbian Empire]. Зборник Филозофског факултета. Belgrade: 255–269. Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Verpeaux, Jean, ed. (1966). Pseudo-Kodinos, Traité des Offices (in French). 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en-wikipedia-org-2133	----	Medieval Latin - Wikipedia Medieval Latin From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Form of Latin used in the Middle Ages This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Medieval Latin" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Medieval Latin LINGVA LATINA lingua latina Lingua Latina Carmina Cantabrigiensia, Medieval Latin manuscript Native to Numerous small states Region Most of Europe Era Developed from Late Latin between 4th and 10th centuries; replaced by Renaissance Latin from the 14th century Language family Indo-European Italic Latino-Faliscan Latin Medieval Latin Early forms Old Latin Classical Latin Late Latin Writing system Latin alphabet  Official status Official language in De facto in most Catholic and/or Romance-speaking states during the Middle Ages Language codes ISO 639-3 – Linguist List lat-med Glottolog medi1250 Europe, AD 1000 Medieval Latin was the form of Latin used in Roman Catholic Western Europe during the Middle Ages. In this region it served as the primary written language, though local languages were also written to varying degrees. Latin functioned as the main medium of scholarly exchange, as the liturgical language of the Church, and as the working language of science, literature, law, and administration. Medieval Latin represented a continuation of Classical Latin and Late Latin, with enhancements for new concepts as well as for the increasing integration of Christianity. Despite some meaningful differences from Classical Latin, Medieval writers did not regard it as a fundamentally different language. There is no real consensus on the exact boundary where Late Latin ends and Medieval Latin begins. Some scholarly surveys begin with the rise of early Ecclesiastical Latin in the middle of the 4th century, others around 500,[1] and still others with the replacement of written Late Latin by written Romance languages starting around the year 900. The terms Medieval Latin and Ecclesiastical Latin are often used synonymously, though some scholars draw distinctions. Ecclesiastical Latin refers specifically to the form that has been used by the Roman Catholic Church, whereas Medieval Latin refers more broadly to all of the (written) forms of Latin used in the Middle Ages. The Romance languages spoken in the Middle Ages were often referred to as Latin, since the Romance languages were all descended from Vulgar Latin itself.[2] Contents 1 Influences 1.1 Christian Latin 1.2 Vulgar Latin 2 Changes in vocabulary, syntax, and grammar 2.1 Syntax 3 Orthography 4 Medieval Latin literature 5 Medieval Latin and everyday life 6 Important medieval Latin authors 6.1 4th–5th centuries 6.2 6th–8th centuries 6.3 9th century 6.4 10th century 6.5 11th century 6.6 12th century 6.7 13th century 6.8 14th century 7 Literary movements 8 Works 9 References 9.1 Citations 9.2 Sources 10 Further reading 11 External links Influences[edit] Christian Latin[edit] Medieval Latin had an enlarged vocabulary, which freely borrowed from other sources. It was heavily influenced by the language of the Vulgate, which contained many peculiarities alien to Classical Latin that resulted from a more or less direct translation from Greek and Hebrew; the peculiarities mirrored the original not only in its vocabulary but also in its grammar and syntax. Greek provided much of the technical vocabulary of Christianity. The various Germanic languages spoken by the Germanic tribes, who invaded southern Europe, were also major sources of new words. Germanic leaders became the rulers of parts of the Roman Empire that they conquered, and words from their languages were freely imported into the vocabulary of law. Other more ordinary words were replaced by coinages from Vulgar Latin or Germanic sources because the classical words had fallen into disuse. An illuminated manuscript of a Book of Hours contains prayers in medieval Latin. Latin was also spread to areas such as Ireland and Germany, where Romance languages were not spoken, and which had never known Roman rule. Works written in those lands where Latin was a learned language, having no relation to the local vernacular, also influenced the vocabulary and syntax of medieval Latin. Since subjects like science and philosophy, including Argumentation theory and Ethics (pre-law), were communicated in Latin, the Latin vocabulary that developed for them became the source of a great many technical words in modern languages. English words like abstract, subject, communicate, matter, probable and their cognates in other European languages generally have the meanings given to them in medieval Latin.[3] Vulgar Latin[edit] The influence of Vulgar Latin was also apparent in the syntax of some medieval Latin writers, although Classical Latin continued to be held in high esteem and studied as models for literary compositions. The high point of the development of medieval Latin as a literary language came with the Carolingian renaissance, a rebirth of learning kindled under the patronage of Charlemagne, king of the Franks. Alcuin was Charlemagne's Latin secretary and an important writer in his own right; his influence led to a rebirth of Latin literature and learning after the depressed period following the final disintegration of the authority of the Western Roman Empire. Although it was simultaneously developing into the Romance languages, Latin itself remained very conservative, as it was no longer a native language and there were many ancient and medieval grammar books to give one standard form. On the other hand, strictly speaking there was no single form of "medieval Latin". Every Latin author in the medieval period spoke Latin as a second language, with varying degrees of fluency and syntax. Grammar and vocabulary, however, were often influenced by an author's native language. This was especially true beginning around the 12th century, after which the language became increasingly adulterated: late medieval Latin documents written by French speakers tend to show similarities to medieval French grammar and vocabulary; those written by Germans tend to show similarities to German, etc. For instance, rather than following the classical Latin practice of generally placing the verb at the end, medieval writers would often follow the conventions of their own native language instead. Whereas Latin had no definite or indefinite articles, medieval writers sometimes used forms of unus as an indefinite article, and forms of ille (reflecting usage in the Romance languages) as a definite article or even quidam (meaning "a certain one/thing" in Classical Latin) as something like an article. Unlike classical Latin, where esse ("to be") was the only auxiliary verb, medieval Latin writers might use habere ("to have") as an auxiliary, similar to constructions in Germanic and Romance languages. The accusative and infinitive construction in classical Latin was often replaced by a subordinate clause introduced by quod or quia. This is almost identical, for example, to the use of que in similar constructions in French. In every age from the late 8th century onwards, there were learned writers (especially within the Church) who were familiar enough with classical syntax to be aware that these forms and usages were "wrong" and resisted their use. Thus the Latin of a theologian like St Thomas Aquinas or of an erudite clerical historian such as William of Tyre tends to avoid most of the characteristics described above, showing its period in vocabulary and spelling alone; the features listed are much more prominent in the language of lawyers (e.g. the 11th-century English Domesday Book), physicians, technical writers and secular chroniclers. However the use of quod to introduce subordinate clauses was especially pervasive and is found at all levels.[4] Changes in vocabulary, syntax, and grammar[edit] Medieval Latin had ceased to be a living language and was instead a scholarly language of the minority of educated men in medieval Europe, used in official documents more than for everyday communication. This resulted in two major features of Medieval Latin compared with Classical Latin, though when it is compared to the other vernacular languages, Medieval Latin developed very few changes.[4] There are many prose constructions written by authors of this period that can be considered "showing off" a knowledge of Classical or Old Latin by the use of rare or archaic forms and sequences. Though they had not existed together historically, it is common that an author would use grammatical ideas of the two periods Republican and archaic, placing them equally in the same sentence. As well, many undistinguished scholars had limited educations of "proper" Latin, or had been influenced in their writings by Vulgar Latin. Word order usually tended towards that of the vernacular language of the author, not the artificial and polished word order of Classical Latin. Conversely, an erudite scholar might attempt to "show off" by intentionally constructing a very complicated sentence. Because Latin is an inflected language, it is technically possible to place related words at opposite ends of a paragraph-long sentence, and owing to the complexity of doing so, it was seen by some as a sign of great skill. Typically, prepositions are used much more frequently (as in modern Romance languages) for greater clarity, instead of using the ablative case alone. Further, in Classical Latin the subject of a verb was often left implied, unless it was being stressed: videt = "he sees". For clarity, Medieval Latin more frequently includes an explicit subject: is videt = "he sees" without necessarily stressing the subject. Various changes occurred in vocabulary, and certain words were mixed into different declensions or conjugations. Many new compound verbs were formed. Some words retained their original structure but drastically changed in meaning: animositas specifically means "wrath" in Medieval Latin while in Classical Latin, it generally referred to "high spirits, excited spirits" of any kind. Owing to heavy use of biblical terms, there was a large influx of new words borrowed from Greek and Hebrew and even some grammatical influences. That obviously largely occurred among priests and scholars, not the laity. In general, it is difficult to express abstract concepts in Latin, as many scholars admitted. For example, Plato's abstract concept of "the Truth" had to be expressed in Latin as "what is always true". Medieval scholars and theologians, translating both the Bible and Greek philosophers into Latin out of the Koine and Classical Greek, cobbled together many new abstract concept words in Latin. Syntax[edit] Indirect discourse, which in Classical Latin was achieved by using a subject accusative and infinitive, was now often simply replaced by new conjunctions serving the function of English "that" such as quod, quia, or quoniam. There was a high level of overlap between the old and new constructions, even within the same author's work, and it was often a matter of preference. A particularly famous and often cited example is from the Venerable Bede, using both constructions within the same sentence: "Dico me scire et quod sum ignobilis" = "I say that I know [accusative and infinitive] and that I am unknown [new construction]". The resulting subordinate clause often used the subjunctive mood instead of the indicative. This new syntax for indirect discourse is among the most prominent features of Medieval Latin, the largest syntactical change. Several substitutions were often used instead of subjunctive clause constructions. They did not break the rules of Classical Latin but were an alternative way to express the same meaning, avoiding the use of a subjunctive clause. The present participle was frequently used adverbially in place of qui or cum clauses, such as clauses of time, cause, concession, and purpose. That was loosely similar to the use of the present participle in an ablative absolute phrase, but the participle did not need to be in the ablative case. Habeo (I have [to]) and "Debeo" (I must) would be used to express obligation more often than the gerundive. Given that obligation inherently carries a sense of futurity ("Carthage must be destroyed" at some point in the future), it anticipates how the Romance languages such as French would use "habeo" as the basis for their future tenses (abandoning the Latin forms of the future tense). While in Latin "amare habeo" is the indirect discourse "I have to love", in the French equivalent,"aimerai" (habeo > ayyo > ai, aimer+ai), it has become the future tense, "I shall love", losing the sense of obligation. In Medieval Latin, however, it was still indirect discourse and not yet used as simply a future tense. Instead of a clause introduced by ut or ne, an infinitive was often used with a verb of hoping, fearing, promising, etc. Conversely, some authors might haphazardly switch between the subjunctive and indicative forms of verbs, with no intended difference in meaning. The usage of sum changed significantly: it was frequently omitted or implied. Further, many medieval authors did not feel that it made sense for the perfect passive construction "laudatus sum" to use the present tense of esse in a past tense construction so they began using fui, the past perfect of sum, interchangeably with sum. Chaos in the usage of demonstrative pronouns. Hic, ille, iste, and even the intensive ipse are often used virtually interchangeably. In anticipation of Romance languages, hic and ille were also frequently used simply to express the definite article "the", which Classical Latin did not possess. Unus was also used for the indefinite article "a, an". Use of reflexives became much looser. A reflexive pronoun in a subordinate clause might refer to the subject of the main clause. The reflexive possessive suus might be used in place of a possessive genitive such as eius. Comparison of adjectives changed somewhat. The comparative form was sometimes used with positive or superlative meaning. Also, the adverb "magis" was often used with a positive adjective to indicate a comparative meaning,and multum and nimis could be used with a positive form of adjective to give a superlative meaning. Classical Latin used the ablative absolute, but as stated above, in Medieval Latin examples of nominative absolute or accusative absolute may be found. This was a point of difference between the ecclesiastical Latin of the clergy and the "Vulgar Latin" of the laity, which existed alongside it. The educated clergy mostly knew that traditional Latin did not use the nominative or accusative case in such constructions, but only the ablative case. These constructions are observed in the medieval era, but they are changes that developed among the uneducated commoners. Classical Latin does not distinguish progressive action in the present tense, thus laudo can mean either "I praise" or "I am praising". In imitation of Greek, Medieval Latin could use a present participle with sum to form a periphrastic tense equivalent to the English progressive. This "Greek Periphrastic Tense" formation could also be done in the past and future tenses: laudans sum ("I am praising"), laudans eram ("I was praising"), laudans ero ("I shall be praising"). Classical Latin verbs had at most two voices, active and passive, but Greek (the original language of the New Testament) had an additional "middle voice" (or reflexive voice). One use was to express when the subject is acting upon itself: "Achilles put the armor onto himself" or "Jesus clothed himself in the robe" would use the middle voice. Because Latin had no middle voice, Medieval Latin expresses such sentences by putting the verb in the passive voice form, but the conceptual meaning is active (similar to Latin deponent verbs). For example, the Medieval Latin translation of Genesis states literally, "the Spirit of God was moved over the waters" ("spiritus Dei ferebatur super aquas", Genesis 1:2), but it is just expressing a Greek middle-voice verb: "God moved [himself] over the waters". Overlapping with orthography differences (see below), certain diphthongs were sometimes shortened: "oe" to "e", and "ae" to "e". Thus, "oecumenicus" becomes the more familiar "ecumenicus" (more familiar in this later form because religious terms such as "ecumenical" were more common in medieval Latin). The "oe" diphthong is not particularly frequent in Latin, but the shift from "ae" to "e" affects many common words, such as "caelum" (heaven) being shortened to "celum"; even "puellae" (girls) was shortened to "puelle". Often, a town would lose its name to that of the tribe which was either accusative or ablative plural; two forms that were then used for all cases, or in other words, considered "indeclinable".[5][clarification needed] Orthography[edit] The Prüfening dedicatory inscription from Bavaria, dated to 1119, composed in medieval Latin. It was printed rather than carved. Many striking differences between classical and medieval Latin are found in orthography. Perhaps the most striking difference is that medieval manuscripts used a wide range of abbreviations by means of superscripts, special characters etc.: for instance the letters "n" and "s" were often omitted and replaced by a diacritical mark above the preceding or following letter. Apart from this, some of the most frequently occurring differences are as follows. Clearly many of these would have been influenced by the spelling, and indeed pronunciation,[5] of the vernacular language, and thus varied between different European countries. Following the Carolingian reforms of the 9th century, Carolingian minuscule was widely adopted, leading to a clear differentiation between capital and lowercase letters. A partial or full differentiation between v and u, and between j and i. The diphthong ae is usually collapsed and simply written as e (or e caudata, ę); for example, puellae might be written puelle (or puellę). The same happens with the diphthong oe, for example in pena, Edipus, from poena, Oedipus. This feature is already found on coin inscriptions of the 4th century (e.g. reipublice for reipublicae). Conversely, an original e in Classical Latin was often represented by ae or oe (e.g. aecclesia and coena), also reflected in English spellings such as foetus. Because of a severe decline in the knowledge of Greek, in loanwords and foreign names from or transmitted through Greek, y and i might be used more or less interchangeably: Ysidorus, Egiptus, from Isidorus, Aegyptus. This is also found in pure Latin words: ocius ("more swiftly") appears as ocyus and silva as sylva, this last being a form which survived into the 18th century and so became embedded in modern botanical Latin (also cf. Pennsylvania). h might be lost, so that habere becomes abere, or mihi becomes mi (the latter also occurred in Classical Latin); or mihi may be written michi, indicating that the h had come to be pronounced as k or perhaps kh. This pronunciation is not found in Classical Latin. The loss of h in pronunciation also led to the addition of h in writing where it did not previously belong, especially in the vicinity of r, such as chorona for corona, a tendency also sometimes seen in Classical Latin. -ti- before a vowel is often written as -ci- [tsi], so that divitiae becomes diviciae (or divicie), tertius becomes tercius, vitium vicium. The combination mn might have another plosive inserted, so that alumnus becomes alumpnus, somnus sompnus. Single consonants were often doubled, or vice versa, so that tranquillitas becomes tranquilitas and Africa becomes Affrica. Syncopation became more frequent: vi, especially in verbs in the perfect tense, might be lost, so that novisse becomes nosse (this occurred in Classical Latin as well but was much more frequent in medieval Latin). These orthographical differences were often due to changes in pronunciation or, as in the previous example, morphology, which authors reflected in their writing. By the 16th century, Erasmus complained that speakers from different countries were unable to understand each other's form of Latin.[6] The gradual changes in Latin did not escape the notice of contemporaries. Petrarch, writing in the 14th century, complained about this linguistic "decline", which helped fuel his general dissatisfaction with his own era. Medieval Latin literature[edit] The corpus of medieval Latin literature encompasses a wide range of texts, including such diverse works as sermons, hymns, hagiographical texts, travel literature, histories, epics, and lyric poetry. The first half of the 5th century saw the literary activities of the great Christian authors Jerome (c. 347–420) and Augustine of Hippo (354–430), whose texts had an enormous influence on theological thought of the Middle Ages, and of the latter's disciple Prosper of Aquitaine (c. 390-455). Of the later 5th century and early 6th century, Sidonius Apollinaris (c. 430 – after 489) and Ennodius (474–521), both from Gaul, are well known for their poems, as is Venantius Fortunatus (c. 530–600). This was also a period of transmission: the Roman patrician Boethius (c. 480–524) translated part of Aristotle's logical corpus, thus preserving it for the Latin West, and wrote the influential literary and philosophical treatise De consolatione Philosophiae; Cassiodorus (c. 485–585) founded an important library at the monastery of Vivarium near Squillace where many texts from Antiquity were to be preserved. Isidore of Seville (c. 560-636) collected all scientific knowledge still available in his time into what might be called the first encyclopedia, the Etymologiae. Gregory of Tours (c. 538–594) wrote a lengthy history of the Frankish kings. Gregory came from a Gallo-Roman aristocratic family, and his Latin, which shows many aberrations from the classical forms, testifies to the declining significance of classical education in Gaul. At the same time, good knowledge of Latin and even of Greek was being preserved in monastic culture in Ireland and was brought to England and the European mainland by missionaries in the course of the 6th and 7th centuries, such as Columbanus (543–615), who founded the monastery of Bobbio in Northern Italy. Ireland was also the birthplace of a strange poetic style known as Hisperic Latin. Other important Insular authors include the historian Gildas (c. 500–570) and the poet Aldhelm (c. 640–709). Benedict Biscop (c. 628–690) founded the monastery of Wearmouth-Jarrow and furnished it with books which he had taken home from a journey to Rome and which were later used by Bede (c. 672–735) to write his Ecclesiastical History of the English People. Many medieval Latin works have been published in the series Patrologia Latina, Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum and Corpus Christianorum. Medieval Latin and everyday life[edit] Medieval Latin was separated from Classical Latin around 800 and at this time was no longer considered part of the everyday language. Spoken Latin became a practice used mostly by the educated high class population. Even then it was not frequently used in casual conversation. An example of these men includes the churchmen who could read Latin, but could not effectively speak it. Latin's use in universities was structured in lectures and debates, however, it was highly recommended that students use it in conversation. This practice was kept up only due to rules.[4] One of Latin's purposes, writing, was still in practice; the main uses being charters for property transactions and to keep track of the pleadings given in court. Even then, those of the church still used Latin more than the rest of the population. At this time, Latin served little purpose to the regular population but was still used regularly in ecclesiastical culture.[4] Important medieval Latin authors[edit] 4th–5th centuries[edit] Aetheria (fl. 385) Jerome (c. 347–420) Augustine (354-430) 6th–8th centuries[edit] Boëthius (c. 480 – 525) Cassiodorus (c. 485 – c. 585) Gildas (d. c. 570) Flavius Cresconius Corippus (d. c. 570) Venantius Fortunatus (c. 530 – c. 600) Gregory of Tours (c. 538–594) Pope Gregory I (c. 540 – 604) Isidore of Seville (c. 560–636) Bede (c. 672–735) St. Boniface (c. 672 - 754) Chrodegang of Metz (d. 766) Paul the Deacon (720s - c.799) Beatus of Liébana (c. 730 - 800) Peter of Pisa (d. 799) Paulinus of Aquileia (730s - 802) Alcuin (c. 735–804) 9th century[edit] Einhard (775-840) Rabanus Maurus (780-856) Paschasius Radbertus (790-865) Rudolf of Fulda (d. 865) Dhuoda Lupus of Ferrieres (805-862) Andreas Agnellus (Agnellus of Ravenna) (c. 805-846?) Hincmar (806-882) Walafrid Strabo (808-849) Florus of Lyon (d. 860?) Gottschalk (theologian) (808-867) Sedulius Scottus (fl. 840-860) Anastasius Bibliothecarius (810-878) Johannes Scotus Eriugena (815-877) Asser (d. 909) Notker Balbulus (840-912) 10th century[edit] Ratherius (890–974) Hrotsvitha of Gandersheim (935-973) Thietmar of Merseburg (975–1018) 11th century[edit] Marianus Scotus (1028–1082) Adam of Bremen (fl. 1060–1080) Anselm of Canterbury (1033/4-1109) Marbodius of Rennes (c. 1035-1123) 12th century[edit] Pierre Abélard (1079–1142) Suger of St Denis (c. 1081–1151) Geoffrey of Monmouth (c. 1100 – c. 1155) Ailred of Rievaulx (1110–1167) Otto of Freising (c. 1114–1158) Archpoet (c. 1130 - c. 1165) William of Tyre (c. 1130-1185) Peter of Blois (c. 1135 – c. 1203) Walter of Châtillon (fl. c. 1200) Adam of St. Victor 13th century[edit] Giraldus Cambrensis (c. 1146 – c. 1223) Saxo Grammaticus (c. 1150 – c. 1220) Anonymous (fl. late 12th century – early 13th century) Thomas of Celano (c. 1200 – c. 1265) Albertus Magnus (c. 1200–1280) Roger Bacon (c. 1214–1294) St Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225–1274) Ramon Llull (1232–1315) Siger of Brabant (c. 1240–1280s) Duns Scotus (c. 1266–1308) 14th century[edit] See also: Renaissance Latin Ranulf Higdon (c. 1280 - c. 1363) William of Ockham (c. 1288 - c. 1347) Jean Buridan (1300 – 1358) Henry Suso (c. 1295 - 1366) Literary movements[edit] Goliards Hiberno-Latin Medieval Roman Law Medieval Latin comedy Riddle Poems Works[edit] Carmina Burana (11th - 12th century) Pange Lingua (ca.1250) Summa Theologiae (ca.1270) Etymologiae (ca.600) Dies Irae (ca.1260) Decretum Gratiani (ca.1150) De Ortu Waluuanii Nepotis Arturi (ca.1180) Magna Carta (ca.1215) References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Ziolkowski, Jan M. (1996), "Towards a History of Medieval Latin Literature", in Mantello, F. A. C.; Rigg, A. G. (eds.), Medieval Latin: An Introduction and Bibliographical Guide, Washington, D.C., pp. 505-536 (pp. 510-511) ^ "Romance languages". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 27 November 2018. ^ J. Franklin, Mental furniture from the philosophers, Et Cetera 40 (1983), 177-91. ^ a b c d Mantello, F. A. C., Rigg, A. G. (1996). Medieval Latin: An Introduction and Bibliographical Guide. United States of America: The Catholic University of America Press. p. 85. ISBN 0813208416. ^ a b Beeson, Charles Henry (1986). A Primer of Medieval Latin: an anthology of prose and poetry. Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press. ISBN 0813206359. ^ See Desiderius Erasmus, De recta Latini Graecique sermonis pronunciatione dialogus, Basel (Frobenius), 1528. Sources[edit] K.P. Harrington, J. Pucci, and A.G. Elliott, Medieval Latin (2nd ed.), (Univ. Chicago Press, 1997) ISBN 0-226-31712-9 F.A.C. Mantello and A.G. Rigg, eds., Medieval Latin: An Introduction and Bibliographical Guide (CUA Press, 1996) ISBN 0-8132-0842-4 Dictionaries Du Cange et al., Glossarium ad scriptores mediæ et infimæ latinitatis, Niort : L. Favre, 1883–1887, Ecole des chartes. Thesaurus Linguae Latinae Further reading[edit] Chavannes-Mazel, Claudine A., and Margaret M. Smith, eds. 1996. Medieval Manuscripts of the Latin Classics: Production and Use; Proceedings of the Seminar in the History of the Book to 1500, Leiden, 1993. Los Altos Hills, CA: Anderson-Lovelace. Lapidge, Michael. 1993. Anglo-Latin Literature 900–1066. London and Rio Grande, OH: Hambledon. --. 1996. Anglo-Latin Literature 600–899. London and Rio Grande, OH: Hambledon. Mann, Nicholas, and Birger Munk Olsen, eds. 1997. Medieval and Renaissance Scholarship: Proceedings of the Second European Science Foundation Workshop on the Classical Tradition in the Middle Ages and Renaissance, London: Warburg Institute, 27–28 November 1992. New York: Brill. Mantello, F. A. C., and George Rigg. 1996. Medieval Latin: An Introduction and Bibliographical Guide. Washington, DC: Catholic University of American Press. Pecere, Oronzo, and Michael D. Reeve. 1995. Formative Stages of Classical Traditions: Latin Texts from Antiquity to the Renaissance; Proceedings of a Conference Held at Erice, 16–22 October 1993, as the 6th Course of International School for the Study of Written Records. Spoleto, Italy: Centro Italiano di Studi sull’alto Medioevo. Raby, F. J. E. 1957. A History of Secular Latin Poetry in the Middle Ages. 2 vols. 2nd ed. Oxford: Clarendon. Rigg, A. G. 1992. A History of Anglo-Latin Literature A.D. 1066–1422. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Walde, Christine, ed. 2012. Brill's New Pauly Supplement 5: The Reception of Classical Literature. Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Brill. Ziolkowski, Jan M., 1993. Talking Animals: Medieval Latin Beast Poetry, 750-1150. Philadelphia, PA, University of Pennsylvania Press. Raby, F.J.E., 1959. The Oxford Book of Medieval Latin Verse. Amen House, London, Oxford University Press. Harrington, Karl Pomeroy, 1942. Mediaeval Latin. Norwood, MA, USA, Norwood Press. Dronke, Peter, vol. 1, 1965. Medieval Latin and the Rise of European Love-Lyric. Oxford, UK, Clarendon Press. Bacci, Antonii. Varia Latinitatis Scripta II, Inscriptiones Orationes Epistvlae. Rome, Italy, Societas Librania Stvdivm. Beeson, Charles H., 1925. A Primer of Medieval Latin: An Anthology of Prose and Poetry. Chicago, United States, Scott, Foresman and Company. Curtius, Ernst Roberts, 1953. European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages. New York, New York, United States, Bollingen Foundation Inc. Auerbach, Erich, 1965. Literary Language & Its Public: in Late Latin Antiquity and in the Middle Ages. New York, NY, USA, Bollingen Foundation. External links[edit] Library resources about Medieval Latin Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries In-depth Guides to Learning Latin at the UK National Archives. The Journal of Medieval Latin Wright, Thomas, ed. A Selection of Latin Stories, from Manuscripts of the Thirteenth and Founteenth Centuries: A Contribution to the History of Fiction During the Middle Ages. (London: The Percy Society. 1842.) 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en-wikipedia-org-2161	----	Marcus Cornelius Fronto - Wikipedia Marcus Cornelius Fronto From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Marcus Cornelius Fronto (c. 100 – late 160s), best known as Fronto, was a Roman grammarian, rhetorician, and advocate. Of Berber origin, he was born at Cirta in Numidia. He was suffect consul for the nundinium of July-August 142 with Gaius Laberius Priscus as his colleague.[1] Emperor Antoninus Pius appointed him tutor to his adopted sons and future emperors, Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. Contents 1 Life 2 Surviving works 3 References 4 Further reading 5 External links Life[edit] Fronto was born a Roman citizen in the year 100[2] in the Numidian capital, Cirta. He described himself as a Libyan of the nomadic Libyans.[3][4] He was taught as a child by the Greek paedagogus Aridelus.[5][6] Later, he continued his education at Rome,[7] with the philosopher Athenodotus and the orator Dionysius.[8][9] He soon gained such renown as an advocate and orator as to be reckoned inferior only to Cicero. He amassed a large fortune, erected magnificent buildings and purchased the famous gardens of Maecenas.[10] In 142 he was consul for two months (August and September),[11] but declined the proconsulship of Asia on the grounds of ill-health. His latter years were embittered by the loss of all his children except one daughter. His talents as an orator and rhetorician were greatly admired by his contemporaries, a number of whom were later regarded as forming a school called after him Frontoniani; his object in his teaching was to inculcate the exact use of the Latin language in place of the artificialities of such 1st-century authors as Seneca the Younger, and encourage the use of "unlooked-for and unexpected words", to be found by diligent reading of pre-Ciceronian authors. He found fault with Cicero for inattention to that refinement, though admiring his letters without reserve. He may well have died in the late 160s, as a result of the Antonine Plague that followed the Parthian War, though conclusive proof is lacking. C.R. Haines asserts he died in 166 or 167.[12] Surviving works[edit] Until 1815, the only extant works ascribed (erroneously) to Fronto were two grammatical treatises, De nominum verborumque differentiis and Exempla elocutionum (the latter being really by Arusianus Messius). In that year, Angelo Mai discovered in the Ambrosian library at Milan a palimpsest manuscript, on which had been originally written some of Fronto's letters to his imperial pupils and their replies; four years later Mai found several more sheets from this manuscript in the Vatican. These palimpsests had originally belonged to the famous convent of St Columbanus at Bobbio, and had been written over by the monks with the acts of the First Council of Chalcedon. The letters from the Ambrosian palimpsest, together with the other fragments, were published at Rome in 1815. The Vatican texts were added in 1823, as well as the end of his Gratiarum actio pro Carthaginiensibus from another Vatican manuscript. It was not until 1956 that Bernhard Bischoff identified a third manuscript (consisting of a single leaf) that contained fragments of Fronto's correspondence with Verus which overlapped the Milan palimpsest; however, the actual manuscript had been first published in 1750 by Dom Tassin, who conjectured that it might have been the work of Fronto.[13] These fragments disappointed Romantic scholars as not matching the writer's great reputation, partly because Fronto's teachings, with their emphasis on studying ancient writers in search of striking words, were not in accordance with current fashion (Italy, where not only Mai but Leopardi enthused over them, was an exception), partly because they gave no support to the assumption that Fronto had been a wise counsellor to Marcus Aurelius (indeed, they contain no trace of political advice), partly because his frequent complaints about ill-health, especially those collected in book 5 of Ad M. Caesarem, aroused more annoyance than compassion; these adverse judgements were reversed once Fronto was read for what he was rather than what he was not, as already in the sympathetic treatment by Dorothy Brock, Studies in Fronto and his Age (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1911). The bulk of the letters consist of correspondence with Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, in which the character of Fronto's pupils appears in a very favourable light, especially in the affection they both seem to have retained for their old master[14] There are also letters to friends, chiefly letters of recommendation, but including one (Ad amicos 1. 19) in which an out-of-sorts Fronto (ego epistulas invitissime scribo, "I hate writing letters") complains of Aulus Gellius' attempts to procure copies of his writings for publication. (Fronto appears in five chapters of the Noctes Atticae, though expressing tastes that sometime seem closer to Gellius' own than to those evinced in the letters.) The collection also contains treatises on eloquence, some historical fragments, and literary trifles on such subjects as the praise of smoke and dust, of negligence, and a dissertation on Arion. In addition, a fragment of a speech is preserved by Minucius Felix (Octavius 9. 6-7) in which Fronto accuses the Christians of incestuous orgies. Marcus Aurelius, in his Meditations, says nothing of Fronto's rhetorical teaching; nor, although writing in Greek, does he so much as mention his teacher of Greek rhetoric and longtime friend Herodes Atticus. He does, however, credit Fronto with teaching him about the vices of tyranny and the lack of affection in the Roman upper class (1.11); since the former were commonplaces, there may be a concealed reference to life under Hadrian, whom Fronto retrospectively claims to have feared rather than loved,[15] but the latter is borne out by the master's remark that there is no Latin equivalent for the Greek philóstorgos, meaning "affectionate".[16] The editio princeps was by Mai, as described above; the standard edition is the Teubner text by M. van den Hout (Leipzig, 1988). The Loeb Classical Library printed an edition of Fronto's correspondence with a facing English translation by C. R. Haines in two volumes (1919–1920); its text, though dated, is still of interest. Van den Hout also published a full-scale commentary in English (Leiden, 1999). References[edit] ^ Werner Eck, "Die Fasti consulares der Regungszeit des Antoninus Pius, eine Bestandsaufnahme seit Géza Alföldys Konsulat und Senatorenstand" in Studia epigraphica in memoriam Géza Alföldy, hg. W. Eck, B. Feher, and P. Kovács (Bonn, 2013), p. 73 ^ "or a year or two earlier", C.R. Haines, p.lii. See also p. xxiii: "The probable date of his birth is 100 A.D., and in any case before 113 A.D." ^ Ad M. Caesarem 2. 3. 5; cf. A. R. Birley, The African Emperor (London: Batsford, 1999), 43. ^ Edward Champlin, Fronto and Antonine Rome (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980), 7–8. ^ Ballif, Michelle; Moran, Michael G. (2005). Classical Rhetorics and Rhetoricians: Critical Studies and Sources. Greenwood. p. 83. ISBN 978-0313321788. ^ Hout, Michel P J (1999). A Commentary on the Letters of M. Cornelius Fronto. Brill. p. 1. ISBN 978-9004109575. ^ Champlin, Fronto, 20 ^ Fronto, M. Cornelius (2014). Fronto: Selected Letters. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 163. ISBN 978-1780934426. ^ Greek Letters-Marcus Cornelius Fronto ^ Aulus Gellius, 19.10 ^ W. Eck and M. M. Roxan in Festschrift für Hans Lieb 1995, p. 79-99 ^ "There can be little doubt that he predeceased Verus and died in 166 or 167". C.R. Haines, p. xl. ^ This account of Fronto's rediscovery is based on L.D. Reynolds (editor), Texts and Transmission: A Survey of the Latin Classics (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983), pp. 173f. ^ Amy Richlin, Marcus Aurelius in Love (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006). ^ Ad M. Caesarem 2.4.1; a certain distancing from Hadrian may be observed in the actions of Antoninus Pius and the words of Marcus Aurelius. ^ Ad Verum 1.6.7, Ad amicos 1.3.3 (margin). Further reading[edit] Champlin, E. 1980. Fronto and Antonine Rome. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press. Claassen, J. M. 2009. "Cornelius Fronto: A “Libyan Nomad” at Rome." Acta Classica 52:47–71. Fleury, P. 2012. "Marcus Aurelius’ Letters." In A Companion to Marcus Aurelius. Edited by M. van Ackeren, 62–76. Oxford and Malden, MA: Blackwell. Freisenbruch, A. 2007. "Back to Fronto: Doctor and Patient in His Correspondence with an Emperor." In Ancient Letters: Classical and Late Antique Epistolography. Edited by R. Morello and A. D. Morrison, 235–256. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Kemezis, A. M. 2010. "Lucian, Fronto, and the Absence of Contemporary Historiography Under the Antonines." American Journal of Philology 131:285–325. Keulen, W. 2014. "Fronto and Apuleius: Two African Careers in the Roman Empire." In Apuleius and Africa. Edited by B. Todd Lee, E. Finkelpearl, and L. Graverini, 129–153. London: Routledge. Mullen, A. 2015. “In Both Our Languages:" Greek-Latin Code-switching in Roman Literature." Language and Literature 24:213–232. Richlin, A. 2011. "Parallel Lives: Domitia Lucilla and Cratia, Fronto and Marcus." Eugesta 1:163–203. Ronnick, M. V. 1997. "Substructural Elements of Architectonic Rhetoric and Philosophical Thought in Fronto’s Epistles." In Roman Eloquence: Rhetoric in Society and Literature. Edited by W. J. Dominik, 229–245. London and New York: Routledge. Wei, R. 2013. "Fronto and the Rhetoric of Friendship." Cahiers des études anciennes 50: 67-93. External links[edit] Wikisource has original works written by or about: Marcus Cornelius Fronto Library resources about Marcus Cornelius Fronto Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Marcus Cornelius Fronto Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries The correspondence of Marcus Cornelius Fronto. Edited and translated by C. R. Haines (1919). Volume 1, Volume 2, at the Internet Archive. Alternate links to the same: Loeb edition vol. 1 and Loeb edition vol. 2 M. Cornelius Fronto: Epistulae (Latin text)  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Fronto, Marcus Cornelius". Encyclopædia Britannica. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 250. Political offices Preceded by Lucius Granius Castus, and Tiberius Junius Julianus as suffect consuls Suffect consul of the Roman Empire 142 with Gaius Laberius Priscus Succeeded by Lucius Tusidius Campester, and Quintus Cornelius Senecio Annianus as suffect consuls Authority control BIBSYS: 90357972 BNE: XX1724652 BNF: cb121186639 (data) CANTIC: a19746210 CiNii: DA03048717 GND: 118536451 ISNI: 0000 0001 1573 0602 LCCN: n79151442 NKC: ola2011663363 NLA: 35105684 NLG: 229886 NSK: 000480950 NTA: 068668171 RERO: 02-A000066747 SELIBR: 187604 SUDOC: 029593840 Trove: 828200 VcBA: 495/19181 VIAF: 66499129 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79151442 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Cornelius_Fronto&oldid=981554777" Categories: 100s births 160s deaths 2nd-century Berber people 2nd-century Romans 2nd-century writers Ancient Roman rhetoricians Berber writers Cornelii Latin letter writers Romans from Africa Silver Age Latin writers Suffect consuls of Imperial Rome Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages Asturianu Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Français Հայերեն Hrvatski Italiano עברית Latina Magyar مصرى Nederlands Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 3 October 2020, at 01:31 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2169	----	Alcaeus of Mytilene - Wikipedia Alcaeus of Mytilene From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Greek lyric poet Alcaeus and Sappho, Attic red-figure calathus, c. 470 BC, Staatliche Antikensammlungen (Inv. 2416) Alcaeus of Mytilene (/ælˈsiːəs/; Ancient Greek: Ἀλκαῖος ὁ Μυτιληναῖος, Alkaios ho Mutilēnaios; c. 625/620 – c. 580 BC)[1][2] was a lyric poet from the Greek island of Lesbos who is credited with inventing the Alcaic stanza. He was included in the canonical list of nine lyric poets by the scholars of Hellenistic Alexandria. He was a contemporary and an alleged lover of Sappho, with whom he may have exchanged poems. He was born into the aristocratic governing class of Mytilene, the main city of Lesbos, where he was involved in political disputes and feuds. Contents 1 Biography 2 Poetry 2.1 Poetic genres 2.2 A drinking poem (fr. 346) 2.3 A hymn (fr. 34) 3 Tributes from other poets 3.1 Horace 3.2 Ovid 4 Scholars, fragments and sources 5 References 6 Sources 7 External links Biography[edit] Alcaeus "A probably authentic Lesbian coin has been preserved, bearing upon the obverse ... a profile head of Alcaeus, and upon the reverse ...a profile head of Pittacus. This coin is said to have belonged to Fulvius Ursinus. It passed through various hands and collections into the Royal Museum at Paris, and was engraved by the Chevalier Visconti." — J. Easby-Smith[3] Pittacus The broad outlines of the poet's life are well known.[4][5][6] He was born into the aristocratic, warrior class that dominated Mytilene, the strongest city-state on the island of Lesbos and, by the end of the seventh century BC, the most influential of all the North Aegean Greek cities, with a strong navy and colonies securing its trade-routes in the Hellespont. The city had long been ruled by kings born to the Penthilid clan but, during the poet's life, the Penthilids were a spent force and rival aristocrats and their factions contended with each other for supreme power. Alcaeus and his older brothers were passionately involved in the struggle but experienced little success. Their political adventures can be understood in terms of three tyrants who came and went in succession: Melanchrus – he was overthrown sometime between 612 BC and 609 BC by a faction that, in addition to the brothers of Alcaeus, included Pittacus (later renowned as one of the Seven Sages of Greece); Alcaeus at that time was too young to be actively involved; Myrsilus – it is not known when he came to power but some verses by Alcaeus (frag. 129) indicate that the poet, his brothers and Pittacus made plans to overthrow him and that Pittacus subsequently betrayed them; Alcaeus and his brothers fled into exile where the poet later wrote a drinking song in celebration of the news of the tyrant's death (frag. 332); Pittacus – the dominant political figure of his time, he was voted supreme power by the political assembly of Mytilene and appears to have governed well (590-580 BC), even allowing Alcaeus and his faction to return home in peace. Sometime before 600 BC, Mytilene fought Athens for control of Sigeion and Alcaeus was old enough to participate in the fighting. According to the historian Herodotus,[7] the poet threw away his shield to make good his escape from the victorious Athenians then celebrated the occasion in a poem that he later sent to his friend, Melanippus. It is thought that Alcaeus travelled widely during his years in exile, including at least one visit to Egypt. His older brother, Antimenidas, appears to have served as a mercenary in the army of Nebuchadnezzar II and probably took part in the conquest of Askelon. Alcaeus wrote verses in celebration of Antimenides' return, including mention of his valour in slaying the larger opponent (frag. 350), and he proudly describes the military hardware that adorned their family home (frag. 357). "Alcaeus was in some respects not unlike a Royalist soldier of the age of the Stuarts. He had the high spirit and reckless gaiety, the love of country bound up with belief in a caste, the licence tempered by generosity and sometimes by tenderness, of a cavalier who has seen good and evil days." — Richard Claverhouse Jebb[8] Sappho and Alcaeus by Lawrence Alma-Tadema. The Walters Art Museum. Alcaeus was a contemporary and a countryman of Sappho and, since both poets composed for the entertainment of Mytilenean friends, they had many opportunities to associate with each other on a quite regular basis, such as at the Kallisteia, an annual festival celebrating the island's federation under Mytilene, held at the 'Messon' (referred to as temenos in frs. 129 and 130), where Sappho performed publicly with female choirs. Alcaeus' reference to Sappho in terms more typical of a divinity, as holy/pure, honey-smiling Sappho (fr. 384), may owe its inspiration to her performances at the festival.[9] The Lesbian or Aeolic school of poetry "reached in the songs of Sappho and Alcaeus that high point of brilliancy to which it never after-wards approached"[10] and it was assumed by later Greek critics and during the early centuries of the Christian era that the two poets were in fact lovers, a theme which became a favourite subject in art (as in the urn pictured above). Poetry[edit] The poetic works of Alcaeus were collected into ten books, with elaborate commentaries, by the Alexandrian scholars Aristophanes of Byzantium and Aristarchus of Samothrace sometime in the 3rd century BC, and yet his verses today exist only in fragmentary form, varying in size from mere phrases, such as wine, window into a man (fr. 333) to entire groups of verses and stanzas, such as those quoted below (fr. 346). Alexandrian scholars numbered him in their canonic nine (one lyric poet per Muse). Among these, Pindar was held by many ancient critics to be pre-eminent,[11] but some gave precedence to Alcaeus instead.[12] The canonic nine are traditionally divided into two groups, with Alcaeus, Sappho and Anacreon, being 'monodists' or 'solo-singers', with the following characteristics:[13] They composed and performed personally for friends and associates on topics of immediate interest to them; They wrote in their native dialects (Alcaeus and Sappho in Aeolic dialect, Anacreon in Ionic); They preferred quite short, metrically simple stanzas or 'strophes' which they re-used in many poems — hence the 'Alcaic' and 'Sapphic' stanzas, named after the two poets who perfected them or possibly invented them. The other six of the canonic nine composed verses for public occasions, performed by choruses and professional singers and typically featuring complex metrical arrangements that were never reproduced in other verses. However, this division into two groups is considered by some modern scholars to be too simplistic and often it is practically impossible to know whether a lyric composition was sung or recited, or whether or not it was accompanied by musical instruments and dance. Even the private reflections of Alcaeus, ostensibly sung at dinner parties, still retain a public function.[9] Critics often seek to understand Alcaeus in comparison with Sappho: If we compare the two, we find that Alcaeus is versatile, Sappho narrow in her range; that his verse is less polished and less melodious than hers; and that the emotions which he chooses to display are less intense. — David Campbell[14] The Aeolian song is suddenly revealed, as a mature work of art, in the spirited stanzas of Alcaeus. It is raised to a supreme excellence by his younger contemporary, Sappho, whose melody is unsurpassed, perhaps unequalled, among all the relics of Greek verse. — Richard Jebb[15] In the variety of his subjects, in the exquisite rhythm of his meters, and in the faultless perfection of his style, all of which appear even in mutilated fragments, he excels all the poets, even his more intense, more delicate and more truly inspired contemporary Sappho. — James Easby-Smith[12] The Roman poet, Horace, also compared the two, describing Alcaeus as "more full-throatedly singing"[16] — see Horace's tribute below. Alcaeus himself seems to underscore the difference between his own 'down-to-earth' style and Sappho's more 'celestial' qualities when he describes her almost as a goddess (as cited above), and yet it has been argued that both poets were concerned with a balance between the divine and the profane, each emphasising different elements in that balance.[9] Dionysius of Halicarnassus exhorts us to "Observe in Alcaeus the sublimity, brevity and sweetness coupled with stern power, his splendid figures, and his clearness which was unimpaired by the dialect; and above all mark his manner of expressing his sentiments on public affairs,"[17] while Quintilian, after commending Alcaeus for his excellence "in that part of his works where he inveighs against tyrants and contributes to good morals; in his language he is concise, exalted, careful and often like an orator;" goes on to add: "but he descended into wantonness and amours, though better fitted for higher things."[18] Poetic genres[edit] The works of Alcaeus are conventionally grouped according to five genres. Political songs: Alcaeus often composed on a political theme, covering the power struggles on Lesbos with the passion and vigour of a partisan, cursing his opponents,[19] rejoicing in their deaths,[20] delivering blood-curdling homilies on the consequences of political inaction[21] and exhorting his comrades to heroic defiance, as in one of his 'ship of state' allegories.[22] Commenting on Alcaeus as a political poet, the scholar Dionysius of Halicarnassus once observed that "...if you removed the meter you would find political rhetoric."[23] Drinking songs: According to the grammarian Athenaeus, Alcaeus made every occasion an excuse for drinking and he has provided posterity several quotes in proof of it.[24] Alcaeus exhorts his friends to drink in celebration of a tyrant's death,[20] to drink away their sorrows,[25] to drink because life is short[26] and along the lines in vino veritas,[27] to drink through winter storms[28] and to drink through the heat of summer.[29] The latter poem in fact paraphrases verses from Hesiod,[30] re-casting them in Asclepiad meter and Aeolian dialect. Hymns: Alcaeus sang about the gods in the spirit of the Homeric hymns, to entertain his companions rather than to glorify the gods and in the same meters that he used for his 'secular' lyrics.[31] There are for example fragments in 'Sapphic' meter praising the Dioscuri,[32] Hermes[33] and the river Hebrus[34] (a river significant in Lesbian mythology since it was down its waters that the head of Orpheus was believed to have floated singing, eventually crossing the sea to Lesbos and ending up in a temple of Apollo, as a symbol of Lesbian supremacy in song).[35] According to Porphyrion, the hymn to Hermes was imitated by Horace in one of his own 'sapphic' odes (C.1.10: Mercuri, facunde nepos Atlantis).[36] Love songs: Almost all Alcaeus' amorous verses, mentioned with disapproval by Quintilian above, have vanished without trace. There is a brief reference to his love poetry in a passage by Cicero.[37] Horace, who often wrote in imitation of Alcaeus, sketches in verse one of the Lesbian poet's favourite subjects — Lycus of the black hair and eyes (C.1.32.11-12: nigris oculis nigroque/crine decorum). It is possible that Alcaeus wrote amorously about Sappho, as indicated in an earlier quote.[38] Miscellaneous: Alcaeus wrote on such a wide variety of subjects and themes that contradictions in his character emerge. The grammarian Athenaeus quoted some verses about perfumed ointments to prove just how unwarlike Alcaeus could be[39] and he quoted his description of the armour adorning the walls of his house[40] as proof that he could be unusually warlike for a lyric poet.[41] Other examples of his readiness for both warlike and unwarlike subjects are lyrics celebrating his brother's heroic exploits as a Babylonian mercenary[42] and lyrics sung in a rare meter (Sapphic Ionic in minore) in the voice of a distressed girl,[43] "Wretched me, who share in all ills!" — possibly imitated by Horace in an ode in the same meter (C.3.12: Miserarum est neque amori dare ludum neque dulci).[44] He also wrote Sapphic stanzas on Homeric themes but in un-Homeric style, comparing Helen of Troy unfavourably with Thetis, the mother of Akhilles.[45] A drinking poem (fr. 346)[edit] The following verses demonstrate some key characteristics of the Alcaic style (square brackets indicate uncertainties in the ancient text): πώνωμεν· τί τὰ λύχν' ὀμμένομεν; δάκτυλος ἀμέρα· κὰδ δ'ἄερρε κυλίχναις μεγάλαις [αιτα]ποικίλαισ· οἶνον γὰρ Σεμέλας καὶ Δίος υἶος λαθικάδεον ἀνθρώποισιν ἔδωκ'. ἔγχεε κέρναις ἔνα καὶ δύο πλήαις κὰκ κεφάλας, [ἀ] δ' ἀτέρα τὰν ἀτέραν κύλιξ ὠθήτω...[46] Let's drink! Why are we waiting for the lamps? Only an inch of daylight left. Lift down the large cups, my friends, the painted ones; for wine was given to men by the son of Semele and Zeus to help them forget their troubles. Mix one part of water to two of wine, pour it in up to the brim, and let one cup push the other along...[47] The Greek meter here is relatively simple, comprising the Greater Asclepiad, adroitly used to convey, for example, the rhythm of jostling cups (ἀ δ' ἀτέρα τὰν ἀτέραν). The language of the poem is typically direct and concise and comprises short sentences — the first line is in fact a model of condensed meaning, comprising an exhortation ("Let's drink!), a rhetorical question ("Why are we waiting for the lamps?") and a justifying statement (Only an inch of daylight left.)[48] The meaning is clear and uncomplicated, the subject is drawn from personal experience, and there is an absence of poetic ornament, such as simile or metaphor. Like many of his poems (e.g., frs. 38, 326, 338, 347, 350), it begins with a verb (in this case "Let's drink!") and it includes a proverbial expression ("Only an inch of daylight left") though it is possible that he coined it himself.[14] A hymn (fr. 34)[edit] Alcaeus rarely used metaphor or simile and yet he had a fondness for the allegory of the storm-tossed ship of state. The following fragment of a hymn to Castor and Polydeuces (the Dioscuri) is possibly another example of this though some scholars interpret it instead as a prayer for a safe voyage.[49] Hither now to me from your isle of Pelops, You powerful children of Zeus and Leda, Showing youselves kindly by nature, Castor And Polydeuces! Travelling abroad on swift-footed horses, Over the wide earth, over all the ocean, How easily you bring deliverance from Death's gelid rigor, Landing on tall ships with a sudden, great bound, A far-away light up the forestays running, Bringing radiance to a ship in trouble, Sailed in the darkness! The poem was written in Sapphic stanzas, a verse form popularly associated with his compatriot, Sappho, but in which he too excelled, here paraphrased in English to suggest the same rhythms. There were probably another three stanzas in the original poem but only nine letters of them remain.[50] The 'far-away light' (Πήλοθεν λάμπροι) is a reference to St. Elmo's Fire, an electrical discharge supposed by ancient Greek mariners to be an epiphany of the Dioscuri, but the meaning of the line was obscured by gaps in the papyrus until reconstructed by a modern scholar—such reconstructions are typical of the extant poetry (see Scholars, fragments and sources below). This poem doesn't begin with a verb but with an adverb (Δευτέ) but still communicates a sense of action. He probably performed his verses at drinking parties for friends and political allies—men for whom loyalty was essential, particularly in such troubled times.[44] Tributes from other poets[edit] Horace[edit] The Roman poet Horace modelled his own lyrical compositions on those of Alcaeus, rendering the Lesbian poet's verse-forms, including 'Alcaic' and 'Sapphic' stanzas, into concise Latin — an achievement he celebrates in his third book of odes.[51] In his second book, in an ode composed in Alcaic stanzas on the subject of an almost fatal accident he had on his farm, he imagines meeting Alcaeus and Sappho in Hades: quam paene furvae regna Proserpinae et iudicantem vidimus Aeacum sedesque descriptas piorum et Aeoliis fidibus querentem Sappho puellis de popularibus et te sonantem plenius aureo, Alcaee, plectro dura navis, dura fugae mala, dura belli! [52] How close the realm of dusky Proserpine Yawned at that instant! I half glimpsed the dire Judge of the dead, the blest in their divine Seclusion, Sappho on the Aeolian lyre, Mourning the cold girls of her native isle, And you, Alcaeus, more full-throatedly Singing with your gold quill of ships, exile And war, hardship on land, hardship at sea.[16] Ovid[edit] Ovid compared Alcaeus to Sappho in Letters of the Heroines, where Sappho is imagined to speak as follows: nec plus Alcaeus consors patriaeque lyraeque laudis habet, quamvis grandius ille sonet. Nor does Alcaeus, my fellow-countryman and fellow-poet, receive more praise, although he resounds more grandly.[53] Scholars, fragments and sources[edit] A 2nd century AD papyrus of Alcaeus, one of the many such fragments that have contributed to our greatly improved knowledge of Alcaeus' poetry during the 20th century (P.Berol. inv. 9810 = fr. 137 L.–P.). The story of Alcaeus is partly the story of the scholars who rescued his work from oblivion.[6][54] His verses have not come down to us through a manuscript tradition — generations of scribes copying an author's collected works, such as delivered intact into the modern age four entire books of Pindar's odes — but haphazardly, in quotes from ancient scholars and commentators whose own works have chanced to survive, and in the tattered remnants of papyri uncovered from an ancient rubbish pile at Oxyrhynchus and other locations in Egypt: sources that modern scholars have studied and correlated exhaustively, adding little by little to the world's store of poetic fragments. Ancient scholars quoted Alcaeus in support of various arguments. Thus for example Heraclitus 'The Allegorist'[55] quoted fr. 326 and part of fr. 6, about ships in a storm, in his study on Homer's use of allegory.[56] The hymn to Hermes, fr308(b), was quoted by Hephaestion (grammarian)[57] and both he and Libanius, the rhetorician, quoted the first two lines of fr. 350,[58] celebrating the return from Babylon of Alcaeus' brother. The rest of fr. 350 was paraphrased in prose by the historian/geographer Strabo.[59] Many fragments were supplied in quotes by Athenaeus, principally on the subject of wine-drinking, but fr. 333, "wine, window into a man", was quoted much later by the Byzantine grammarian, John Tzetzes.[60] The first 'modern' publication of Alcaeus' verses appeared in a Greek and Latin edition of fragments collected from the canonic nine lyrical poets by Michael Neander, published at Basle in 1556. This was followed by another edition of the nine poets, collected by Henricus Stephanus and published in Paris in 1560. Fulvius Ursinus compiled a fuller collection of Alcaic fragments, including a commentary, which was published at Antwerp in 1568. The first separate edition of Alcaeus was by Christian David Jani and it was published at Halle in 1780. The next separate edition was by August Matthiae, Leipzig 1827. Some of the fragments quoted by ancient scholars were able to be integrated by scholars in the nineteenth century. Thus for example two separate quotes by Athenaeus[61] were united by Theodor Bergk to form fr. 362. Three separate sources were combined to form fr. 350, as mentioned above, including a prose paraphrase from Strabo that first needed to be restored to its original meter, a synthesis achieved by the united efforts of Otto Hoffmann, Karl Otfried Müller[62] and Franz Heinrich Ludolf Ahrens. The discovery of the Oxyrhynchus papyri towards the end of the nineteenth century dramatically increased the scope of scholarly research. In fact, eight important fragments have now been compiled from papyri — frs. 9, 38A, 42, 45, 34, 129, 130 and most recently S262. These fragments typically feature lacunae or gaps that scholars fill with 'educated guesses', including for example a "brilliant supplement" by Maurice Bowra in fr. 34, a hymn to the Dioscuri that includes a description of St. Elmo's fire in the ship's rigging.[63] Working with only eight letters (πρό...τρ...ντες; tr. pró...tr...ntes), Bowra conjured up a phrase that develops the meaning and the euphony of the poem (πρότον' ὀντρέχοντες; tr. próton' ontréchontes), describing luminescence "running along the forestays". References[edit] ^ Carey, C. (2016-03-07). "Alcaeus (1), lyric poet". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.254. ^ "Alcaeus | Greek poet". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2019-10-17. ^ J. Easby-Smith, The Songs of Alcaeus, W. H. Lowdermilk and Co. (1901) ^ David Mulroy, Early Greek Lyric Poetry, University of Michigan Press, 1992, pp. 77–78 ^ David. A. Campbell, Greek Lyric Poetry, Bristol Classic Press, 1982, pp. 285–7 ^ a b Easby-Smith, James S. (1901). "The Songs of Alcaeus". Washington: W. H. Lowdermilk and Co. ^ Histories 5.95 ^ R. C. Jebb, Greek Literature, MacMillan and Co. 1878, p. 59 ^ a b c Nagy, Gregory (2007). Lyric and Greek Myth (The Cambridge Companion to Greek Mythology). ed. R. D. Woodward, Cambridge University Press. pp. 19–51. ^ James S. Easby-Smith, The Songs of Alcaeus, W. H. Lowdermilk and Co., Washington, 1901 ^ Quintilian 10.1.61; cf. Pseudo-Longinus 33.5 Archived 2011-08-06 at the Wayback Machine. ^ a b James Easby-Smith, The Songs of Alcaeus p.31 ^ Andrew M.Miller (trans.), Greek Lyric: An Anthology in Translation, Hackett Publishing Co. (1996), Intro. xiii ^ a b David A. Campbell, Greek Lyric Poetry, Bristol Classical Press (1982), p. 287 ^ Jebb, Richard (1905). Bacchylides: the poems and fragments. Cambridge University Press. p. 29. ^ a b James Michie (trans.), The Odes of Horace, Penguin Classics (1964), p. 116 ^ Imit. 422, quoted from Easby-Smith in Songs of Alcaeus ^ Quintillian 10.1.63, quoted by D.Campbell in G.L.P, p. 288 ^ fr. 129 ^ a b fr. 332 ^ fr. S262 ^ fr. 6 ^ Imit. 422, quoted by Campbell in G.L.P., p. 286 ^ Athenaeus 10.430c ^ Frs. 335, 346 ^ fr. 38A ^ fr. 333 ^ fr. 338 ^ fr. 347 ^ Hesiod Op. 582–8 ^ David A. Campbell, Greek Lyric Poetry, Bristol Classical Press (1982), p. 286 ^ fr. 34a ^ fr. 308c ^ fr. 45 ^ David A. Campbell, Greek Lyric Poetry, Bristol Classical Press (1982), pp. 292–3 ^ David Campbell, 'Monody', in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and E. Kenney (eds), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 213 ^ Cicero, Tusc. Disp. 4.71 ^ fr. 384; however, Liberman (1999) reads "Aphro" (Ἄφροι; a diminutive of "Aphrodite"), instead of "Sappho". ^ fr. 362, Athenaeus 15.687d ^ fr. 357 ^ Athenaeus 14.627a ^ fr. 350 ^ fr. 10B ^ a b David Campbell, 'Monody', in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and E. Kenney (eds), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 214 ^ fr. 42 ^ David A. Campbell, Greek Lyric Poetry, Bristol Classical Press (1982), p. 60 ^ Andrew M.Miller (trans.), Greek Lyric: An Anthology in Translation, Hackett Publishing Co. (1996), p. 48 ^ David Campbell, 'Monody', in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and E. Kenney (eds), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 212 ^ David A. Campbell, Greek Lyric Poetry, Bristol Classical Press (1982), pp. 286, 289 ^ David A. Campbell, Greek Lyric Vol. I, Loeb Classical Library (1990), p. 247 ^ Horace Od. 3.30 ^ Horace Od. 2.13.21–8 ^ Ovid Her.15.29s, cited and translated by David A. Campbell, Greek Lyric I: Sappho and Alcaeus, Loeb Classical Library (1982), p. 39 ^ David. A. Campbell, Greek Lyric Poetry, Bristol Classic Press, 1982, pp. 285–305 ^ Donald. A. Russell and David Konstan (ed.s and tran.s.), Heraclitus:Homeric Problems, Society of Biblical Literature (2005), Introduction ^ Heraclitus All.5 ^ Hephaestion Ench. xiv.1 ^ Hephaestion Ench. x 3; Libanus Or. 13.5 ^ Strabo 13.617 ^ Tzetzes Alex. 212 ^ Athenaeus 15.674cd, 15.687d ^ Müller, Karl Otfried, "Ein Bruder des Dichters Alkäos ficht unter Nebukadnezar," Rheinisches Museum 1 (1827):287. ^ David. A. Campbell, Greek Lyric Poetry, Bristol Classic Press, 1982, p. 290 Sources[edit] Sappho et Alcaeus. Fragmenta. Eva-Maria Voigt (ed.). Polak and van Gennep, Amsterdam, 1971. Greek Lyric Poetry. D.A. Campbell (ed.). Bristol Classical Press, London, 1982. ISBN 978-0-86292-008-1 Greek Lyric 1: Sappho and Alcaeus. D. A. Campbell (ed.). Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1982. ISBN 978-0-674-99157-6 Alcée. Fragments. Gauthier Liberman (ed.). Collection Budé, Paris, 1999. ISBN 978-2-251-00476-1 Sappho and the Greek Lyric Poets. Translated by Willis Barnstone. Schoken Books Inc., New York, 1988. ISBN 978-0-8052-0831-3 External links[edit] Alcaeus of Mytileneat Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Wikimedia Commons Texts from Wikisource Data from Wikidata Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Ἀλκαῖος ὁ Μυτιληναῖος Works by or about Alcaeus of Mytilene at Internet Archive Works by Alcaeus of Mytilene at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Poems by Alcaeus – English translations A. M. Miller, Greek Lyric: – Alcaeus, many fragments Alcaeus Bilingual Anthology (in Greek and English, side by side) v t e Nine lyric poets — Ancient Greek literature Alcman Sappho Alcaeus Anacreon Stesichorus Ibycus Simonides Pindar Bacchylides Authority control BIBSYS: 90193838 BNE: XX995176 BNF: cb121387870 (data) CANTIC: a11132449 CiNii: DA00907587 GND: 118501720 ISNI: 0000 0001 1839 1183 LCCN: n81024909 MBA: e48e97fc-97ba-4e89-af15-0b0783022a0d NKC: jn19981000081 NSK: 000141705 NTA: 069035121 SELIBR: 175080 SUDOC: 02984701X Trove: 1175794 VcBA: 495/7392 VIAF: 228050642 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n81024909 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alcaeus_of_Mytilene&oldid=980915586" Categories: Nine Lyric Poets Aeolic Greek poets Ancient Greek political refugees Ancient Mytileneans Poets from Ancient Lesbos 620s BC births 6th-century BC deaths 6th-century BC Greek people 6th-century BC poets Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages العربية Aragonés Беларуская Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ಕನ್ನಡ Latina Latviešu Magyar Македонски Mirandés Монгол Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 29 September 2020, at 06:50 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2203	----	Ut pictura poesis - Wikipedia Ut pictura poesis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ut Pictura Poesis, by Charles François Hutin Ut pictura poesis is a Latin phrase literally meaning "as is painting so is poetry". The statement (often repeated) occurs most famously in Horace's "Ars Poetica", near the end, immediately after another famous quotation, "bonus dormitat Homerus", or "even Homer nods" (an indication that even the most skilled poet can compose inferior verse): Poetry resembles painting. Some works will captivate you when you stand very close to them and others if you are at a greater distance. This one prefers a darker vantage point, that one wants to be seen in the light since it feels no terror before the penetrating judgment of the critic. This pleases only once, that will give pleasure even if we go back to it ten times over.[1] Horace meant that poetry (in its widest sense, "imaginative texts") merited the same careful interpretation that was, in Horace's day, reserved for painting. Some centuries before, Simonides of Keos (c. 556 – 468 BC) had stated, "Poema pictura loquens, pictura poema silens," which translates into, "Poetry is a speaking picture, painting a silent poetry."[2] Yet, as this phrase has traversed history, it has ignited academic arguments over whether or not it is true. Plato, through his own thought process on credible knowledge, found painting and writing to be unreliable sources of understanding, disregarding the concept entirely. The lack of credibility rested on his opinion that both forms of art gave a false simulation of reality. Moving on from Plato's time to the Renaissance, the argument sprung up over which form was superior. It was decided, at this time, that painting took precedence because sight was higher-ranking to people than hearing was.[3] Gotthold Ephraim Lessing opens his Laocoön: An Essay on the Limits of Painting and Poetry (1766) by observing that "the first who compared painting with poetry [Simonides of Ceos] was a man of fine feeling,"[4] though, Lessing makes it clear, not a critic or philosopher. Lessing argues that painting is a synchronic, visual phenomenon, one of space that is immediately in its entirety understood and appreciated, while poetry (again, in its widest sense) is a diachronic art of the ear, one that depends on time to unfold itself for the reader's appreciation. He recommends that poetry and painting should not be confused, and that they are best practiced and appreciated "as two equitable and friendly neighbors."[citation needed] W. J. T. Mitchell trenchantly observed that "We tend to think that to compare poetry with painting is to make a metaphor, while to differentiate poetry from painting is to state a literal truth."[5] The paragone was another long-running debate, typically rather more competitive, comparing painting and sculpture. Alexander Pope[edit] 18th-century British poet Alexander Pope was partial to ut pictura poesis. He considered both painting and poetry to be equals, and "it can easily be seen that he held that there was a close relationship between the art of poetry and the art of painting, especially perhaps since such a relationship combined the two arts of which he was a practitioner."[6] There is note of Pope finding himself "in a larger context of a continuous line of poetic pictorialism".[6] Ut pictura poesis surfaces in regards to Pope's "Rape of the Lock" through his in-depth descriptions of the characters and plot. Rebecca Ferguson, in her essay "'Quick as her Eyes, and as unfix'd as those': objectification and seeing in Pope's 'Rape of the Lock'", draws attention to these details, specifically with Belinda’s character. Ferguson explains an aspect of how Pope was painting a character and a plot: "Pope's construction of Belinda seems to render her just such a 'frontier' between a constructive and a destructive chaos, between qualities which are 'neither inside nor outside', neither invested in her 'essential' self nor in her body," and The belle is identified in many ways with the display of vessels and treasures around her, both as a consumer and as a figure who takes on some of the properties of those riches, yet her attractions are in the end not so much displayed as set in motion; she 'rises in her charms', 'awakens' and 'calls forth' her wonders and graces, culminating in the dispersal of both her body and her allure in the reader's eye.[7] There is an emphasis on the reader's eye and the imagery that contributed to audience members being able to so vividly 'watch' the plot of this poem unfold. Notes[edit] ^ Golden, Leon (2010). "Reception of Horace's Ars Poetica". In Davis, Gregson (ed.). A Companion to Horace. Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 400. ISBN 978-1-4051-5540-3. ^ "Ut Pictura Poesis". ^ "Ut Pictura Poesis". ^ Simonides, who wrote "poema pictura locguens, pictura poema silens" (poetry is a speaking picture, painting a silent [mute] poetry) was quoted by Plutarch, De gloria Atheniensium 3.346f. ^ Iconology: Image, Text, Ideology (University of Chicago Press, 1986) page 49 ^ a b Williams, Robert W. (1983–1984). "Alexander Pope and Ut Pictura Poesis". Sydney Studies in English. 9: 61–75 – via MLA International Bibliography. ^ Ferguson, Rebecca (1992). "Quick as her Eyes, and as unfix'd as those': objectification and seeing in Pope's "Rape of the Lock"". Critical Survey. 4: 14–146. References[edit] Rensselaer, W. Lee (1967). Ut Pictura Poesis: The humanistic theory of painting. New York: Norton. archive.org v t e Works by Horace Poetry Satires Epodes Odes Epistles Carmen Saeculare Ars Poetica Collections Satires 2.5 Quote Ut pictura poesis Related Spring of Bandusium Authority control LCCN: sh85141581 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ut_pictura_poesis&oldid=993815029" Categories: Horace Literary theory Visual arts theory Hidden categories: Articles containing Latin-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2010 Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Español Français Italiano 日本語 Polski Edit links This page was last edited on 12 December 2020, at 17:12 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2214	----	Clothing in ancient Rome - Wikipedia Clothing in ancient Rome From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Clothing style in ancient Rome. Statue of the Emperor Tiberius showing the draped toga of the 1st century AD Clothing in ancient Rome generally comprised a short-sleeved or sleeveless, knee-length tunic for men and boys, and a longer, usually sleeved tunic for women and girls. On formal occasions, adult male citizens could wear a woolen toga, draped over their tunic, and married citizen women wore a woolen mantle, known as a palla, over a stola, a simple, long-sleeved, voluminous garment that hung to midstep. Clothing, footwear and accoutrements identified gender, status, rank and social class. This was especially apparent in the distinctive, privileged official dress of magistrates, priesthoods and the military. The toga was considered Rome's "national costume," but for day-to-day activities most Romans preferred more casual, practical and comfortable clothing; the tunic, in various forms, was the basic garment for all classes, both sexes and most occupations. It was usually made of linen, and was augmented as necessary with underwear, or with various kinds of cold-or-wet weather wear, such as knee-breeches for men, and cloaks, coats and hats. In colder parts of the empire, full length trousers were worn. Most urban Romans wore shoes, slippers, boots or sandals of various types; in the countryside, some wore clogs. Most clothing was simple in structure and basic form, and its production required minimal cutting and tailoring, but all was produced by hand and every process required skill, knowledge and time. Spinning and weaving were thought virtuous, frugal occupations for Roman women of all classes. Wealthy matrons, including Augustus' wife Livia, might show their traditionalist values by producing home-spun clothing, but most men and women who could afford it bought their clothing from specialist artisans. The manufacture and trade of clothing and the supply of its raw materials made an important contribution to Rome's economy. Relative to the overall basic cost of living, even simple clothing was expensive, and was recycled many times down the social scale. Rome's governing elite produced laws designed to limit public displays of personal wealth and luxury. None were particularly successful, as the same wealthy elite had an appetite for luxurious and fashionable clothing. Exotic fabrics were available, at a price; silk damasks, translucent gauzes, cloth of gold, and intricate embroideries; and vivid, expensive dyes such as saffron yellow or Tyrian purple. Not all dyes were costly, however, and most Romans wore colourful clothing. Clean, bright clothing was a mark of respectability and status among all social classes. The fastenings and brooches used to secure garments such as cloaks provided further opportunities for personal embellishment and display. Contents 1 Tunics and undergarments 2 Formal wear for citizens 2.1 Toga 2.2 Stola and palla 3 Freedmen, freedwomen and slaves 4 Children and adolescents 5 Footwear 6 Military costume 7 Religious offices and ceremonies 8 Roman clothing of Late Antiquity (after 284 AD) 9 Fabrics 9.1 Animal fibres 9.1.1 Wool 9.1.2 Silk 9.2 Plant fibres 9.2.1 Linen 9.2.2 Other plant fibres 10 Manufacture 11 Colours and dyes 12 Leather and hide 13 Laundering and fulling 14 See also 15 References 16 Cited sources Tunics and undergarments 4th-century mosaic from Villa del Casale, Sicily, showing "bikini girls" in an athletic contest The basic garment for both genders and all classes was the tunica (tunic). In its simplest form, the tunic was a single rectangle of woven fabric, originally woolen, but from the mid-republic onward, increasingly made from linen. It was sewn into a wide, sleeveless tubular shape and pinned around the shoulders like a Greek chiton, to form openings for the neck and arms. In some examples from the eastern part of the empire, neck openings were created in the weaving. Sleeves could be added, or formed in situ from the excess width. Most working men wore knee-length, short-sleeved tunics, secured at the waist with a belt. Some traditionalists considered long sleeved tunics appropriate only for women, very long tunics on men as a sign of effeminacy, and short or unbelted tunics as marks of servility; nevertheless, very long-sleeved, loosely belted tunics were also fashionably unconventional and were adopted by some Roman men; for example, by Julius Caesar. Women's tunics were usually ankle or foot-length, long-sleeved, and could be worn loosely or belted.[1] For comfort and protection from cold, both sexes could wear a soft under-tunic or vest (subucula) beneath a coarser over-tunic; in winter, the Emperor Augustus, whose physique and constitution were never particularly robust, wore up to four tunics, over a vest.[2] Although essentially simple in basic design, tunics could also be luxurious in their fabric, colours and detailing.[3] Loincloths, known as subligacula or subligaria could be worn under a tunic. They could also be worn on their own, particularly by slaves who engaged in hot, sweaty or dirty work. Women wore both loincloth and strophium (a breast cloth) under their tunics; and some wore tailored underwear for work or leisure.[4] A 4th-century AD Sicillian mosaic shows several "bikini girls" performing athletic feats; in 1953 a Roman leather bikini bottom was excavated from a well in London. Formal wear for citizens The Orator, c. 100 BC, an Etrusco-Roman bronze sculpture depicting Aule Metele (Latin: Aulus Metellus), an Etruscan man of Roman senatorial rank, engaging in rhetoric. He wears senatorial shoes, and a toga praetexta of "skimpy" (exigua) Republican type.[5] The statue features an inscription in the Etruscan alphabet Silenus holding a lyre (left); demi-god Pan and a nymph sitting on a rock, nursing a goat (centre); woman with coat (right); fresco from the Villa of the Mysteries, Pompeii, Italy, c. 50 BC Roman society was graded into several citizen and non-citizen classes and ranks, ruled by a powerful minority of wealthy, landowning citizen-aristocrats. Even the lowest grade of citizenship carried certain privileges denied to non-citizens, such as the right to vote for representation in government. In tradition and law, an individual's place in the citizen-hierarchy – or outside it – should be immediately evident in their clothing. The seating arrangements at theatres and games enforced this idealised social order, with varying degrees of success. In literature and poetry, Romans were the gens togata ("togate race"), descended from a tough, virile, intrinsically noble peasantry of hard-working, toga-wearing men and women. The toga's origins are uncertain; it may have begun as a simple, practical work-garment and blanket for peasants and herdsmen. It eventually became formal wear for male citizens; at much the same time, respectable female citizens adopted the stola. The morals, wealth and reputation of citizens were subject to official scrutiny. Male citizens who failed to meet a minimum standard could be demoted in rank, and denied the right to wear a toga; by the same token, female citizens could be denied the stola. Respectable citizens of either sex might thus be distinguished from freedmen, foreigners, slaves and infamous persons.[6] Toga Main article: Toga The toga virilis ("toga of manhood") was a semi-elliptical, white woolen cloth some 6 feet in width and 12 feet in length, draped across the shoulders and around the body. It was usually worn over a plain white linen tunic. A commoner's toga virilis was a natural off-white; the senatorial version was more voluminous, and brighter. The toga praetexta of curule magistrates and some priesthoods added a wide purple edging, and was worn over a tunic with two vertical purple stripes. It could also be worn by noble and freeborn boys and girls, and represented their protection under civil and divine law. Equites wore the trabea (a shorter, "equestrian" form of white toga or a purple-red wrap, or both) over a white tunic with two narrow vertical purple-red stripes. The toga pulla, used for mourning, was made of dark wool. The rare, prestigious toga picta and tunica palmata were purple, embroidered with gold. They were originally awarded to Roman generals for the day of their triumph, but became official dress for emperors and Imperial consuls. From at least the late Republic onward, the upper classes favoured ever longer and larger togas, increasingly unsuited to manual work or physically active leisure. Togas were expensive, heavy, hot and sweaty, hard to keep clean, costly to launder and challenging to wear correctly. They were best suited to stately processions, oratory, sitting in the theatre or circus, and self-display among peers and inferiors while "ostentatiously doing nothing" at salutationes.[7] These early morning, formal "greeting sessions" were an essential part of Roman life, in which clients visited their patrons, competing for favours or investment in business ventures. A client who dressed well and correctly – in his toga, if a citizen – showed respect for himself and his patron, and might stand out among the crowd. A canny patron might equip his entire family, his friends, freedmen, even his slaves, with elegant, costly and impractical clothing, implying his entire extended family's condition as one of "honorific leisure" (otium), buoyed by limitless wealth.[8] The vast majority of citizens had to work for a living, and avoided wearing the toga whenever possible.[9][10] Several emperors tried to compel its use as the public dress of true Romanitas but none were particularly successful.[11] The aristocracy clung to it as a mark of their prestige, but eventually abandoned it for the more comfortable and practical pallium. Stola and palla Roman marble torso from the 1st century AD, showing a woman's clothing Besides tunics, married citizen women wore a simple garment known as a stola (pl. stolae) which was associated with traditional Roman female virtues, especially modesty.[12] In the early Roman Republic, the stola was reserved for patrician women. Shortly before the Second Punic War, the right to wear it was extended to plebeian matrons, and to freedwomen who had acquired the status of matron through marriage to a citizen. Stolae typically comprised two rectangular segments of cloth joined at the side by fibulae and buttons in a manner allowing the garment to be draped in elegant but concealing folds.[13] Over the stola, citizen-women often wore the palla, a sort of rectangular shawl up to 11 feet long, and five wide. It could be worn as a coat, or draped over the left shoulder, under the right arm, and then over the left arm. Outdoors and in public, a chaste matron's hair was bound up in woolen bands (fillets, or vitae) in a high-piled style known as tutulus. Her face was concealed from the public, male gaze with a veil; her palla could also serve as a hooded cloak.[14][15] Two ancient literary sources mention use of a coloured strip or edging (a limbus) on a woman's "mantle", or on the hem of their tunic; probably a mark of their high status, and presumably purple.[16] Outside the confines of their homes, matrons were expected to wear veils; a matron who appeared without a veil was held to have repudiated her marriage.[17] High-caste women convicted of adultery, and high-class female prostitutes (meretrices), were not only forbidden public use of the stola, but might have been expected to wear a toga muliebris (a "woman's toga") as a sign of their infamy.[18][19] Freedmen, freedwomen and slaves For citizens, salutationes meant wearing the toga appropriate to their rank.[20] For freedmen, it meant whatever dress disclosed their status and wealth; a man should be what he seemed, and low rank was no bar to making money. Freedmen were forbidden to wear any kind of toga. Elite invective mocked the aspirations of wealthy, upwardly mobile freedmen who boldly flouted this prohibition, donned a toga, or even the trabea of an equites, and inserted themselves as equals among their social superiors at the games and theatres. If detected, they were evicted from their seats.[21] Notwithstanding the commonplace snobbery and mockery of their social superiors, some freedmen and freedwomen were highly cultured, and most would have had useful personal and business connections through their former master. Those with an aptitude for business could amass a fortune; and many did. They could function as patrons in their own right, fund public and private projects, own grand town-houses, and "dress to impress".[22][23] There was no standard costume for slaves; they might dress well, badly, or barely at all, depending on circumstance and the will of their owner. Urban slaves in prosperous households might wear some form of livery; cultured slaves who served as household tutors might be indistinguishable from well-off freedmen. Slaves serving out in the mines might wear nothing. For Appian, a slave dressed as well as his master signalled the end of a stable, well-ordered society. According to Seneca, tutor to Nero, a proposal that all slaves be made to wear a particular type of clothing was abandoned, for fear that the slaves should realise both their own overwhelming numbers, and the vulnerability of their masters. Advice to farm-owners by Cato the Elder and Columella on the regular supply of adequate clothing to farm-slaves was probably intended to mollify their otherwise harsh conditions, and maintain their obedience.[24][25][26] Children and adolescents Roman infants were usually swaddled. Apart from those few, typically formal garments reserved for adults, most children wore a scaled-down version of what their parents wore. Girls often wore a long tunic that reached the foot or instep, belted at the waist and very simply decorated, most often white. Outdoors, they might wear another tunic over it. Boys' tunics were shorter. Boys and girls wore amulets to protect them from immoral or baleful influences such as the evil eye and sexual predation. For boys, the amulet was a bulla, worn around the neck; the equivalent for girls was a crescent-shaped lunula. The toga praetexta, which was thought to offer similar apotropaic protection, was formal wear for freeborn boys until puberty, when they gave their toga praetexta and childhood bulla into the care of their family lares and put on the adult male's toga virilis. According to some Roman literary sources, freeborn girls might also wear – or at least, had the right to wear – a toga praetexta until marriage, when they offered their childhood toys, and perhaps their maidenly praetexta to Fortuna Virginalis; others claim a gift made to the family Lares, or to Venus, as part of their passage to adulthood. In traditionalist families, unmarried girls might be expected to wear their hair demurely bound in a fillet.[27][28] Notwithstanding such attempts to protect the maidenly virtue of Roman girls, there is little anecdotal or artistic evidence of their use or effective imposition. Some unmarried daughters of respectable families seem to have enjoyed going out and about in flashy clothing, jewellery, perfume and make-up;[29] and some parents, anxious to find the best and wealthiest possible match for their daughters, seem to have encouraged it.[30] Footwear Left image: The goddess Diana hunting in the forest with a bow, and wearing the high-laced open "Hellenistic shoe-boots" associated with deities, and some images of very high status Romans. From a fresco in the Via Livenza Hypogeum, Rome, c. 350 AD Right image: Detail of the "Big Game Hunt" mosaic from the Villa Romana del Casale (4th century AD), Roman Sicily, showing hunters shod in calceii, wearing vari-coloured tunics and protective leggings Romans used a wide variety of practical and decorative footwear, all of it flat soled (without heels). Outdoor shoes were often hobnailed for grip and durability.[31] The most common types of footwear were a one-piece shoe (carbatina), sometimes with semi-openwork uppers; a usually thin-soled sandal (solea), secured with thongs; a laced, soft half-shoe (soccus); a usually hobnailed, thick-soled walking shoe (calcea); and a heavy-duty, hobnailed standard-issue military marching boot (caliga). Thick-soled wooden clogs, with leather uppers, were available for use in wet weather, and by rustics and field-slaves[32] Archaeology has revealed many more unstandardised footwear patterns and variants in use over the existence of the Roman Empire. For the wealthy, shoemakers employed sophisticated strapwork, delicate cutting, dyes and even gold leaf to create intricate decorative patterns. Indoors, most reasonably well-off Romans of both sexes wore slippers or light shoes of felt or leather.[32] Brides on their wedding-day may have worn distinctively orange-coloured light soft shoes or slippers (lutei socci).[33] Public protocol required red ankle boots for senators, and shoes with crescent-shaped buckles for equites, though some wore Greek-style sandals to "go with the crowd".[34][35] Costly footwear was a mark of wealth or status, but being completely unshod need not be a mark of poverty. Cato the younger showed his impeccable Republican morality by going publicly barefoot; many images of the Roman gods, and later, statues of the semi-divine Augustus, were unshod.[36][37] Fashions in footwear reflected changes in social conditions. For example, during the unstable middle Imperial era, the military was overtly favoured as the true basis for power; at around this time, a tough, heavy, so-called "Gallic sandal" – up to 4 inches broad at the toe – developed as outdoor wear for men and boys, reminiscent of the military boot. Meanwhile, outdoor footwear for women, young girls and children remained elegantly pointed at the toe.[32] Military costume Main article: Ancient Roman military clothing Levy of the army during the taking of the Roman census, detail from the marble-sculpted Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus, 122–115 BC, showing two Polybian-era soldiers (pedites) wearing chain mail and wielding a gladius and scutum, opposite an aristocratic cavalryman (eques) Marble statue of Mars from the Forum of Nerva, wearing a plumed Corinthian helmet and muscle cuirass, 2nd century AD For the most part, common soldiers seem to have dressed in belted, knee-length tunics for work or leisure. In the northern provinces, the traditionally short sleeved tunic might be replaced by a warmer, long-sleeved version. Soldiers on active duty wore short trousers under a military kilt, sometimes with a leather jerkin or felt padding to cushion their armour, and a triangular scarf tucked in at the neck.[4] For added protection from wind and weather, they could wear the sagum, a heavy-duty cloak also worn by civilians. According to Roman tradition, soldiers had once worn togas to war, hitching them up with what was known as a "Gabine cinch"; but by the mid-Republican era, this was only used for sacrificial rites and a formal declaration of war.[38] Thereafter, citizen-soldiers wore togas only for formal occasions. Cicero's "sagum-wearing" soldiers versus "toga-wearing" civilians are rhetorical and literary trope, referring to a wished-for transition from military might to peaceful, civil authority.[39][40] When on duty in the city, the Praetorian guard concealed their weapons beneath their white "civilian" togas.[41] The sagum distinguished common soldiers from the highest ranking commanders, who wore a larger, purple-red cloak, the paludamentum.[42] The colour of the ranker's sagum is uncertain.[43] Roman military clothing was probably less uniform and more adaptive to local conditions and supplies than is suggested by its idealised depictions in contemporary literature, statuary and monuments.[44] Nevertheless, Rome's levies abroad were supposed to represent Rome in her purest form; provincials were supposed to adopt Roman ways, not vice versa. Even when foreign garments – such as full-length trousers – proved more practical than standard issue, soldiers and commanders who used them were viewed with disdain and alarm by their more conservative compatriots, for undermining Rome's military virtus by "going native".[45][46] This did not prevent their adoption. In the late 3rd century the distinctive Pannonian "pill-box" hat became firstly a popular, and then a standard item of legionary fatigues.[47] In Mediterranean climates, soldiers typically wore hobnailed "open boots" (caligae). In colder and wetter climates, an enclosing "shoeboot" was preferred.[48] Some of the Vindolanda tablets mention the despatch of clothing – including cloaks, socks, and warm underwear – by families to their relatives, serving at Brittania's northern frontier.[49] During the early and middle Republican era, conscripted soldiers and their officers were expected to provide or pay for all their personal equipment. From the late republic onwards, they were salaried professionals, and bought their own clothing from legionary stores, quartermasters or civilian contractors. Military needs were prioritised. Clothing was expensive to start with, and the military demand was high; this inevitably pushed up prices, and a common soldier's clothing expenses could be more than a third of his annual pay. In the rampant inflation of the later Imperial era, as currency and salaries were devalued, deductions from military salaries for clothing and other staples were replaced by payments in kind, leaving common soldiers cash-poor, but adequately clothed.[50] Religious offices and ceremonies Most priesthoods were reserved to high status, male Roman citizens, usually magistrates or ex-magistrates. Most traditional religious rites required that the priest wore a toga praetexta, in a manner described as capite velato (head covered [by a fold of the toga]) when performing augury, reciting prayers or supervising at sacrifices.[51] Where a rite prescribed the free use of both arms, the priest could employ the cinctus Gabinus ("Gabine cinch") to tie back the toga's inconvenient folds.[52] Roman statue of a Virgo Vestalis Maxima (Senior Vestal) The Vestal Virgins tended Rome's sacred fire, in Vesta's temple, and prepared essential sacrificial materials employed by different cults of the Roman state. They were highly respected, and possessed unique rights and privileges; their persons were sacred and inviolate. Their presence was required at various religious and civil rites and ceremonies. Their costume was predominantly white, woolen, and had elements in common with high-status Roman bridal dress. They wore a white, priestly infula, a white suffibulum (veil) and a white palla, with red ribbons to symbolise their devotion to Vesta's sacred fire, and white ribbons as a mark of their purity.[53] Statue of a Gallus priest, 2nd century, Musei Capitolini The Flamen priesthood was dedicated to various deities of the Roman state. They wore a close-fitting, rounded cap (Apex) topped with a spike of olive-wood; and the laena, a long, semi-circular "flame-coloured" cloak fastened at the shoulder with a brooch or fibula. Their senior was the Flamen dialis, who was the high priest of Jupiter and was married to the Flamenica dialis. He was not allowed to divorce, leave the city, ride a horse, touch iron, or see a corpse. The laena was thought to predate the toga.[54] The twelve Salii ("leaping priests" of Mars) were young patrician men, who processed through the city in a form of war-dance during the festival of Mars, singing the Carmen Saliare. They too wore the apex, but otherwise dressed as archaic warriors, in embroidered tunics and breastplates. Each carried a sword, wore a short, red military cloak (paludamentum) and ritually struck a bronze shield, whose ancient original was said to have fallen from heaven.[55] Rome recruited many non-native deities, cults and priesthoods as protectors and allies of the state. Aesculapius, Apollo, Ceres and Proserpina were worshiped using the so-called "Greek rite", which employed Greek priestly dress, or a Romanised version of it. The priest presided in Greek fashion, with his head bare or wreathed.[56] In 204 BC, the Galli priesthood were brought to Rome from Phrygia, to serve the "Trojan" Mother Goddess Cybele and her consort Attis on behalf of the Roman state. They were legally protected but flamboyantly "un-Roman". They were eunuchs, and told fortunes for money; their public rites were wild, frenzied and bloody, and their priestly garb was "womanly". They wore long, flowing robes of yellow silk, extravagant jewellery, perfume and make-up, and turbans or exotic versions of the "phrygian" hat over long, bleached hair.[57][58] Roman clothing of Late Antiquity (after 284 AD) Roman fashions underwent very gradual change from the late Republic to the end of the Western empire, 600 years later.[59] In part, this reflects the expansion of Rome's empire, and the adoption of provincial fashions perceived as attractively exotic, or simply more practical than traditional forms of dress. Changes in fashion also reflect the increasing dominance of a military elite within government, and a corresponding reduction in the value and status of traditional civil offices and ranks. In the later empire after Diocletian's reforms, clothing worn by soldiers and non-military government bureaucrats became highly decorated, with woven or embellished strips, clavi, and circular roundels, orbiculi, added to tunics and cloaks. These decorative elements usually comprised geometrical patterns and stylised plant motifs, but could include human or animal figures.[60] The use of silk also increased steadily and most courtiers in late antiquity wore elaborate silk robes. Heavy military-style belts were worn by bureaucrats as well as soldiers, revealing the general militarization of late Roman government. Trousers — considered barbarous garments worn by Germans and Persians — achieved only limited popularity in the latter days of the empire, and were regarded by conservatives as a sign of cultural decay.[61] The toga, traditionally seen as the sign of true Romanitas, had never been popular or practical. Most likely, its official replacement in the East by the more comfortable pallium and paenula simply acknowledged its disuse.[62] In early medieval Europe, kings and aristocrats dressed like the late Roman generals they sought to emulate, not like the older toga-clad senatorial tradition.[63] Fabrics An elaborately-designed golden fibula (brooch) with the Latin inscription "VTERE FELIX" ("use [this] with luck"), late 3rd century AD, from the Osztropataka Vandal burial site Animal fibres Wool Wool was the most commonly used fibre in Roman clothing. The sheep of Tarentum were renowned for the quality of their wool, although the Romans never ceased trying to optimise the quality of wool through cross-breeding. Miletus in Asia Minor and the province of Gallia Belgica were also renowned for the quality of their wool exports, the latter producing a heavy, rough wool suitable for winter.[64] For most garments, white wool was preferred; it could then be further bleached, or dyed. Naturally dark wool was used for the toga pulla and work garments subjected to dirt and stains.[65] In the provinces, private landowners and the State held large tracts of grazing land, where large numbers of sheep were raised and sheared. Their wool was processed and woven in dedicated manufactories. Britannia was noted for its woolen products, which included a kind of duffel coat (the Birrus Brittanicus), fine carpets, and felt linings for army helmets.[66] Silk Further information: Sino-Roman relations and Indo-Roman trade relations A maenad wearing a silk gown, a Roman fresco from the Casa del Naviglio in Pompeii, 1st century AD Silk from China was imported in significant quantities as early as the 3rd century BC. It was bought in its raw state by Roman traders at the Phoenician ports of Tyre and Beirut, then woven and dyed.[64] As Roman weaving techniques developed, silk yarn was used to make geometrically or freely figured damask, tabbies and tapestry. Some of these silk fabrics were extremely fine – around 50 threads or more per centimeter. Production of such highly decorative, costly fabrics seems to have been a speciality of weavers in the eastern Roman provinces, where the earliest Roman horizontal looms were developed.[67] Various sumptuary laws and price controls were passed to limit the purchase and use of silk. In the early Empire the Senate passed legislation forbidding the wearing of silk by men because it was viewed as effeminate[68] but there was also a connotation of immorality or immodesty attached to women who wore the material,[69] as illustrated by Seneca the Elder: "I can see clothes of silk, if materials that do not hide the body, nor even one's decency, can be called clothes... Wretched flocks of maids labour so that the adulteress may be visible through her thin dress, so that her husband has no more acquaintance than any outsider or foreigner with his wife's body." (Declamations Vol. 1) The Emperor Aurelian is said to have forbidden his wife to buy a mantle of Tyrian purple silk. The Historia Augusta claims that the emperor Elagabalus was the first Roman to wear garments of pure silk (holoserica) as opposed to the usual silk/cotton blends (subserica); this is presented as further evidence of his notorious decadence.[64][70] Moral dimensions aside, Roman importation and expenditure on silk represented a significant, inflationary drain on Rome's gold and silver coinage, to the benefit of foreign traders and loss to the empire. Diocletian's Edict on Maximum Prices of 301 AD set the price of one kilo of raw silk at 4,000 gold coins.[64] Wild silk, cocoons collected from the wild after the insect had eaten its way out, was also known;[71] being of shorter, smaller lengths, its fibres had to be spun into somewhat thicker yarn than the cultivated variety. A rare luxury cloth with a beautiful golden sheen, known as sea silk, was made from the long silky filaments or byssus produced by Pinna nobilis, a large Mediterranean clam.[72] Plant fibres Linen Pliny the Elder describes the production of linen from flax and hemp. After harvesting, the plant stems were retted to loosen the outer layers and internal fibres, stripped, pounded and then smoothed. Following this, the materials were woven. Flax, like wool, came in various speciality grades and qualities. In Pliny's opinion, the whitest (and best) was imported from Spanish Saetabis; at double the price, the strongest and most long-lasting was from Retovium. The whitest and softest was produced in Latium, Falerii and Paelignium. Natural linen was a "greyish brown" that faded to off-white through repeated laundering and exposure to sunlight. It did not readily absorb the dyes in use at the time, and was generally bleached, or used in its raw, undyed state.[73] Other plant fibres Cotton from India was imported through the same Eastern Mediterranean ports that supplied Roman traders with silk and spices.[64] Raw cotton was sometimes used for padding. Once its seeds were removed, cotton could be spun, then woven into a soft, lightweight fabric appropriate for summer use; cotton was more comfortable than wool, less costly than silk, and unlike linen, it could be brightly dyed; for this reason, cotton and linen were sometimes interwoven to produce vividly coloured, soft but tough fabric.[74] High quality fabrics were also woven from nettle stems; poppy-stem fibre was sometimes interwoven with flax, to produce a glossy smooth, lightweight and luxuriant fabric. Preparation of such stem fibres involved similar techniques to those used for linen.[75] Manufacture Ready-made clothing was available for all classes, at a price; the cost of a new cloak for an ordinary commoner might represent three fifths of their annual subsistence expenses. Clothing was left to heirs and loyal servants in wills, and changed hands as part of marriage settlements. High quality clothing could be hired out to the less-well-off who needed to make a good impression. Clothing was a target in some street robberies, and in thefts from the public baths;[76] it was re-sold and recycled down the social scale, until it fell to rags; even these were useful, and centonarii ("patch-workers") made a living by sewing clothing and other items from recycled fabric patches.[77] Owners of slave-run farms and sheep-flocks were advised that whenever the opportunity arose, female slaves should be fully occupied in the production of homespun woolen cloth; this would likely be good enough for clothing the better class of slave or supervisor.[78] Self-sufficiency in clothing paid off. The carding, combing, spinning and weaving of wool were part of daily housekeeping for most women. Those of middling or low income could supplement their personal or family income by spinning and selling yarn, or by weaving fabric for sale. In traditionalist, wealthy households, the family's wool-baskets, spindles and looms were positioned in the semi-public reception area (atrium), where the mater familias and her familia could thus demonstrate their industry and frugality; a largely symbolic and moral activity for those of their class, rather than practical necessity.[79] Augustus was particularly proud that his wife and daughter had set the best possible example to other Roman women by spinning and weaving his clothing.[80] High-caste brides were expected to make their own wedding garments, using a traditional vertical loom.[81] Most fabric and clothing was produced by professionals whose trades, standards and specialities were protected by guilds; these in turn were recognised and regulated by local authorities.[82] Pieces were woven as closely as possible to their intended final shape, with minimal waste, cutting and sewing thereafter. Once a woven piece of fabric was removed from the loom, its loose end-threads were tied off, and left as a decorative fringe, hemmed, or used to add differently coloured "Etruscan style" borders, as in the purple-red border of the toga praetexta, and the vertical coloured stripe of some tunics;[82] a technique known as "tablet weaving".[83] Weaving on an upright, hand-powered loom was a slow process. The earliest evidence for the transition from vertical to more efficient horizontal, foot-powered looms comes from Egypt, around 298 AD.[84] Even then, the lack of mechanical aids in spinning made yarn production a major bottleneck in the manufacture of cloth. Colours and dyes From Rome's earliest days, a wide variety of colours and coloured fabrics would have been available; in Roman tradition, the first association of professional dyers dated back to the days of King Numa. Roman dyers would certainly have had access to the same locally produced, usually plant-based dyes as their neighbours on the Italian peninsula, producing various shades of red, yellow, blue, green, and brown; blacks could be achieved using iron salts and oak gall. Other dyes, or dyed cloths, could have been obtained by trade, or through experimentation. For the very few who could afford it, cloth-of-gold (lamé) was almost certainly available, possibly as early as the 7th century BC.[85] Throughout the Regal, Republican and Imperial eras, the fastest, most expensive and sought-after dye was imported Tyrian purple, obtained from the murex. Its hues varied according to processing, the most desirable being a dark "dried-blood" red.[86] Purple had long-standing associations with regality, and with the divine. It was thought to sanctify and protect those who wore it, and was officially reserved for the border of the toga praetexta, and for the solid purple toga picta. Edicts against its wider, more casual use were not particularly successful; it was also used by wealthy women and, somewhat more disreputably, by some men.[87][88] Verres is reported as wearing a purple pallium at all-night parties, not long before his trial, disgrace and exile for corruption. For those who could not afford genuine Tyrian purple, counterfeits were available.[89] The expansion of trade networks during the early Imperial era brought the dark blue of Indian indigo to Rome; though desirable and costly in itself, it also served as a base for fake Tyrian purple.[90] For red hues, madder was one of the cheapest dyes available. Saffron yellow was much admired, but costly. It was a deep, bright and fiery yellow-orange, and was associated with purity and constancy. It was used for the flammeum (meaning "flame-coloured"), a veil used by Roman brides and the Flamenica Dialis, who was virgin at marriage and forbidden to divorce.[91] Specific colours were associated with chariot-racing teams and their supporters. The oldest of these were the Reds and the Whites. During the later Imperial era, the Blues and Greens dominated chariot-racing and, up to a point, civil and political life in Rome and Constantinople. Although the teams and their supporters had official recognition, their rivalry sometimes spilled into civil violence and riot, both within and beyond the circus venue.[92] Leather and hide The Romans had two methods of converting animal skins to leather: tanning produced a soft, supple brown leather; tawing in alum and salt produced a soft, pale leather that readily absorbed dyes. Both these processes produced a strong, unpleasant odour, so tanners’ and tawers’ shops were usually placed well away from urban centres. Unprocessed animal hides were supplied directly to tanners by butchers, as a byproduct of meat production; some was turned to rawhide, which made a durable shoe-sole. Landowners and livestock ranchers, many of whom were of the elite class, drew a proportion of profits at each step of the process that turned their animals into leather or hide and distributed it through empire-wide trade networks. The Roman military consumed large quantities of leather; for jerkins, belts, boots, saddles, harness and strap-work, but mostly for military tents.[93][94] Laundering and fulling Workers hanging up clothing to dry, wall painting from a fuller's shop (fullonica) at Pompeii The almost universal habit of public bathing ensured that most Romans kept their bodies at least visually clean, but dirt, spillage, staining and sheer wear of garments were constant hazards to the smart, clean appearance valued by both the elite and non-elite leisured classes, particularly in an urban setting.[95] Most Romans lived in apartment blocks with no facilities for washing or finishing clothes on any but the smallest scale. Professional laundries and fuller's shops (fullonicae, singular fullonica) were highly malodorous but essential and commonplace features of every city and town. Small fulling enterprises could be found at local market-places; others operated on an industrial scale, and would have required a considerable investment of money and manpower, especially slaves.[96] Basic laundering and fulling techniques were simple, and labour-intensive. Garments were placed in large tubs containing aged urine, then well trodden by bare-footed workers. They were well-rinsed, manually or mechanically wrung, and spread over wicker frames to dry. Whites could be further brightened by bleaching with sulphur fumes. Some colours could be restored to brightness by "polishing" or "refinishing" with Cimolian earth (the basic fulling process). Others were less colour-fast, and would have required separate laundering. In the best-equipped establishments, garments were further smoothed under pressure, using screw-presses and stretching frames.[97] Laundering and fulling were punishingly harsh to fabrics, but were evidently thought to be worth the effort and cost. The high-quality woolen togas of the senatorial class were intensively laundered to an exceptional, snowy white, using the best and most expensive ingredients. Lower ranking citizens used togas of duller wool, more cheaply laundered; for reasons that remain unclear, the clothing of different status groups might have been laundered separately.[98] Front of house, fullonicae were run by enterprising citizens of lower social class, or by freedmen and freedwomen; behind the scenes, their enterprise might be supported discreetly by a rich or elite patron, in return for a share of the profits.[96] The Roman elite seem to have despised the fulling and laundering professions as ignoble; though perhaps no more than they despised all manual trades. The fullers themselves evidently thought theirs a respectable and highly profitable profession, worth celebration and illustration in murals and memorials.[99] Pompeian mural paintings of launderers and fullers at work show garments in a rainbow variety of colours, but not white; fullers seem to have been particularly valued for their ability to launder dyed garments without loss of colour, sheen or "brightness", rather than merely whitening, or bleaching.[100] New woolen cloth and clothing may also have been laundered; the process would have partially felted and strengthened woolen fabrics, and raised the softer nap.[101] See also Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ancient Roman fashion. Clothing in the ancient world Biblical clothing Byzantine dress Clothing in ancient Greece Ancient Roman military clothing Roman jewelry References ^ Heskel, J., p. 134 in Sebesta ^ Suetonius, Augustus, 82 ^ Sebesta, J. L., pp. 71–72 in Sebesta ^ a b Goldman, N., pp. 223 and 233 in Sebesta ^ Ceccarelli, L. (2016) p. 33 in Bell, S., and Carpino, A. A. (eds) A Companion to the Etruscans. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-1-118-35274-8 ^ Edmondson, J. C., p. 25 in Edmondson ^ Braund, Susanna, and Osgood, Josiah, eds. (2012) A Companion to Persius and Juvenal, Wiley-Blackwell, p. 79. ISBN 978-1-4051-9965-0 ^ Braund, Susanna, and Osgood, Josiah eds. (2012) A Companion to Persius and Juvenal, Wiley-Blackwell. p. 65. ISBN 978-1-4051-9965-0 ^ Vout, pp. 205–208 ^ cf. the description of Roman clothing, including the toga, as "simple and elegant, practical and comfortable" by Goldman, B., p. 217 in Sebesta ^ Edmondson, J. C., p. 96 in Edmondson ^ Harlow, M.E. ‘Dressing to please themselves: clothing choices for Roman Women’ in Harlow, M.E. (ed.) Dress and identity (University of Birmingham IAA Interdisciplinary Series: Studies in Archaeology, History, Literature and Art 2), 2012, Archaeopress, pp. 39 ^ Sebesta, J. L., pp. 48–50 in Sebesta ^ Roman Clothing, Part II. Vroma.org. Retrieved on 2012-07-25. ^ Goldman, N., p. 228 in Sebesta ^ Sebesta, J. L., pp. 67, 245 in Sebesta: citing Nonius M 541, Servius, In Aeneadem, 2.616, 4.137 ^ Sebesta, J. L., p. 49 in Sebesta ^ Edwards, Catharine (1997) "Unspeakable Professions: Public Performance and Prostitution in Ancient Rome", pp. 81–82 in Roman Sexualities. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691011783 ^ Vout, pp. 205–208, 215, citing Servius, In Aenidem, 1.281 and Nonius, 14.867L for the former wearing of togas by women other than prostitutes and adulteresses. Some modern scholars doubt the "togate adulteress" as more than literary and social invective: cf Dixon, J., in Harlow, M., and Nosch, M-L., (Editors) Greek and Roman Textiles and Dress: An Interdisciplinary Anthology, Oxbow Books, 2014, pp. 298–304. Some, on similar grounds, doubt both the "togate adulteress" and the "togate meretrix": see Knapp, Robert, Invisible Romans, Profile Books, 2013, pp. 256 – 257, citing Horace, Satires 1.2.63, 82., and Sulpicia (in Tibullus, Elegies, 3.16.3 – 4) ^ Vout, p. 216 ^ Edmondson, J., pp. 31–34 in Edmondson ^ Clarke, John R. (1992) The Houses of Roman Italy, 100 BC-AD 250. Ritual, Space and Decoration. University Presses of California, Columbia and Princeton. p. 4. ISBN 9780520084292 ^ For more general discussion see Wilson, A., and Flohr, M. eds. (2016) Urban Craftsmen and Traders in the Roman World. Oxford University Press. pp. 101–110. ISBN 9780191811104 ^ Bradley, Keith R. (1988). "Roman Slavery and Roman Law". Historical Reflections. 15 (3): 477–495. JSTOR 23232665. ^ Appian Civil Wars, 2.120; Seneca, On Mercy, 1. 24. 1 ^ Bradley, Keith R. (1987) Slaves and Masters in the Roman Empire: A Study in Social Control. Oxford University Press. pp. 21–23. ISBN 978-0195206074 ^ Hersch, Karen K. (2010) The Roman Wedding: Ritual and Meaning in Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. pp. 66–67. ISBN 9780521124270 ^ Sebesta, J. L., p. 47 in Sebesta ^ Olson, Kelly (2008) Dress and the Roman Woman: Self-Presentation and Society. Routledge. pp. 16–20. ISBN 9780415414760 ^ Olson, Kelly, pp. 143–149 in Edmondson ^ Croom, Alexandra (2010). Roman Clothing and Fashion. The Hill, Stroud, Gloucestershire: Amberley Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84868-977-0. ^ a b c Goldman, N., pp. 105–113 in Sebesta ^ Stone, S., in Edmondson, J. C., p. 27 in Edmondson; see also Colours and dyes in this article. ^ Shumba, L., in Edmondson, J. C., and Keith, A., (Editors), Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, University of Toronto Press, 2008, p. 191 ^ Edmonson, J. C., pp. 45–47 and note 75 in Edmondson ^ Stone, S., p. 16 in Sebesta ^ Stout, A. M., p. 93 in Sebesta: the gods needed no footwear, having "no need to touch the ground" ^ Stone, S., p. 13 in Sebesta ^ Phang, pp. 82–83 ^ Duggan, John, Making a New Man: Ciceronian Self-Fashioning in the Rhetorical Works, Oxford University Press, 2005, pp. 61–65, citing Cicero's Ad Pisonem (Against Piso). ^ Phang, pp. 77–78 ^ Sebesta, pp. 133, 191 ^ Its modern recreation as an intense red, or indeed any shade of red, is based on slender, unreliable literary evidence; see Phang, pp. 82–83 ^ The columns of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius represent such idealised forms of military clothing and armour. ^ Phang, pp. 94–95 ^ Erdkamp, pp. 237, 541 ^ Vegetius, On Military Matters, 1. 20 ^ Goldman, N., pp. 122, 125 in Sebesta ^ Bowman, Alan K (1994) Life and Letters on the Roman Frontier, British Museum Press. pp. 45–46, 71–72. ISBN 9780415920247 ^ Erdkamp, pp. 81, 83, 310–312 ^ Palmer, Robert (1996) "The Deconstruction of Mommsen on Festus 462/464, or the Hazards of Interpretation", p. 83 in Imperium sine fine: T. Robert S. Broughton and the Roman Republic. Franz Steiner. ISBN 9783515069489 ^ Scheid, John (2003) An Introduction to Roman Religion. Indiana University Press, p. 80. ISBN 9780253216601 ^ Wildfang, R. L. (2006) Rome's Vestal Virgins: A Study of Rome's Vestal Priestesses in the Late Republic and Early Empire, Routledge, p. 54. ISBN 9780415397964 ^ Goldman, N., pp. 229–230 in Sebesta ^ Smith, William; Wayte, William and Marindin, G. E. (1890). A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. Albemarle Street, London. John Murray. ^ Robert Schilling, "Roman Sacrifice", Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992), p. 78. ^ Beard, Mary (1994) "The Roman and the Foreign: The Cult of the "Great Mother" in Imperial Rome", pp. 164–190 in Thomas, N., and Humphrey, C., (eds) Shamanism, History and the State, Anne Arbor, The University of Michigan Press. ISBN 9780472084012 ^ Vermaseren, Maarten J. (1977) Cybele and Attis: the myth and the cult, translated by A. M. H. Lemmers, London: Thames and Hudson. pp. 96–97, 115. ISBN 978-0500250549 ^ Rodgers, p. 490 ^ Sumner, Graham (2003). Roman Military clothing (2) AD 200 to 400. Osprey Publishing. pp. 7–9. ISBN 1841765597. ^ Rodgers, p. 491 ^ Vout, pp. 212–213 ^ Wickham, Chris. The Inheritance of Rome, Penguin Books, 2009, ISBN 978-0-670-02098-0 p. 106 ^ a b c d e Gabucci, Ada (2005). Dictionaries of Civilization: Rome. University of California Press. p. 168. ^ Sebesta, J. L., p. 66 in Sebesta ^ Wild, J. P. (1967). "Soft-finished Textiles in Roman Britain". The Classical Quarterly. 17 (1): 133–135. doi:10.1017/S0009838800010405. JSTOR 637772. ^ Wild, J. P. (1987). "The Roman Horizontal Loom". American Journal of Archaeology. 91 (3): 459–471. doi:10.2307/505366. JSTOR 505366. ^ Whitfield, Susan (1999) Life Along the Silk Road, Berkeley University of California Press. p. 21. ISBN 0-520-23214-3. ^ "Chinese Silk in the Roman Empire" (PDF). www.saylor.org. p. 1. ^ Historia Augusta Vita Heliogabali. p. XXVI.1. ^ Pliny Nat.His XI, 75–77 ^ "The project Sea-silk – Rediscovering an Ancient Textile Material." Archaeological Textiles Newsletter, Number 35, Autumn 2002, p. 10. ^ Sebesta, J. L., pp. 66, 72 in Sebesta ^ Sebesta, J. L., pp. 68–72 in Sebesta ^ Stone, S., p. 39, and note 9 in Sebesta, citing Pliny the Elder, Natural History, 8.74.195 ^ Croom, pp. 28-29, citing Tibullus 1.2.26; the story of the Good Samaritan in Luke 10.30; and Juvenal, Satires 6.352 for rental of clothing ^ Vout, pp. 211, 212. ^ The notoriously parsimonious Cato the Elder, in his De Agri Cultura, 57, advises that slaves on farming estates be given a cloak and tunic every two years. Columella gives similar advice, adding that while homespun would likely be "too good" for the lowest class of rustic slave, it would not be good enough for their masters; but cf Augustus' pride in his "homespun" clothes. Sebesta, J. L., p. 70 in Sebesta, citing Columella, 12, praef. 9–10, 12.3.6 ^ In reality, she was the female equivalent of the romanticised citizen-farmer: Flower, pp. 153, 195–197 ^ Flower, pp. 153–154, citing Suetonius, Life of Augustus, 73 ^ Sebesta, J. L., pp. 55–61 in Sebesta ^ a b Goldman, B., p. 221 in Sebesta ^ Meyers, G. E. (2016) p. 331 in Bell, S., and Carpino, A. A. (eds) A Companion to the Etruscans. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-1-118-35274-8 ^ Carroll, D.L. (1985). "Dating the foot-powered loom: the Coptic evidence". American Journal of Archaeology. 89 (1): 168–73. doi:10.2307/504781. JSTOR 504781. ^ Sebesta, J. L., pp. 62–68 in Sebesta ^ Bradley, Mark (2011) Colour and Meaning in Ancient Rome. Cambridge University Press. pp. 189, 194–195. ISBN 978-0521291224 ^ Edmonson, J. C., pp. 28–30 and note 75 in Edmondson ^ Keith, A., in Edmonson, J. C., and Keith, A., (Editors), Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, University of Toronto Press, 2008, p. 200 ^ Sebesta, J., L., pp. 54–56 in Sebesta ^ Sebesta, J. L., pp. 68–69 in Sebesta, citing Pliny the Elder, Natural History, 33.163, 35.43, 35.46, 37.84, and Vitruvius, On architecture, 7.9.8, 7.14; as indigo was imported as "bricks" of dye-powder, Vitruvius believed it a mineral. ^ La Follette, L., pp. 54–56 in Sebesta ^ Sebesta, J. L., pp. 70–71 in Sebesta ^ Goldman, N., pp. 104–106 in Sebesta ^ Erdkamp, pp. 316, 327 ^ Bradley, Mark, "'It all comes out in the wash’: Looking harder at the Roman fullonica," Journal of Roman Archaeology, 2002, pp. 21-24. ^ a b Flohr, pp. 31–34, 68–72 ^ Flohr, pp. 57–65, 144–148 ^ Flower, pp. 168–169 ^ Flohr, pp. 2, 31–34 ^ Flohr, p. 61 ^ Flohr, pp. 31–34 Cited sources Croom, Alexandra (2010). Roman Clothing and Fashion. The Hill, Stroud, Gloucestershire: Amberley Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84868-977-0. Edmondson, J.C.; Keith, Alison, eds. (2008). Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 9780802093196. Erdkamp, Paul, ed. (2007). A Companion to the Roman Army. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-1444339215. Flohr, Miko (2013). The World of the Fullo: Work, Economy, and Society in Roman Italy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199659357. Flower, Harriet I. (2004). The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-00390-2. Phang, Sar Elise (2008). Roman Military Service: Ideologies of Discipline in the Late Republic and Early Principate. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781139468886. Rodgers, Nigel (2007). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. Lorenz Books. ISBN 978-0-7548-1911-0. Sebesta, Judith Lynn; Bonfante, Larissa, eds. (1994). The World of Roman Costume: Wisconsin Studies in Classics. The University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 9780299138509. Vout, Caroline (1996). "The Myth of the Toga: Understanding the History of Roman Dress". Greece & Rome. 43 (2): 204–220. doi:10.1093/gr/43.2.204. 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preceded by the Scientific Revolution and the work of Francis Bacon, among others. Some date the beginning of the Enlightenment to René Descartes' 1637 philosophy of Cogito, ergo sum ("I think, therefore I Am"), while others cite the publication of Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica (1687) as the culmination of the Scientific Revolution and the beginning of the Enlightenment. French historians traditionally date its beginning with the death of Louis XIV of France in 1715 until the 1789 outbreak of the French Revolution. Most end it with the beginning of the 19th century. Philosophers and scientists of the period widely circulated their ideas through meetings at scientific academies, Masonic lodges, literary salons, coffeehouses and in printed books, journals, and pamphlets. The ideas of the Enlightenment undermined the authority of the monarchy and the Catholic Church and paved the way for the political revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries. A variety of 19th-century movements, including liberalism and neoclassicism, trace their intellectual heritage to the Enlightenment.[4] The Enlightenment included a range of ideas centered on the sovereignty of reason and the evidence of the senses as the primary sources of knowledge and advanced ideals such as liberty, progress, toleration, fraternity, constitutional government and separation of church and state.[5][6] In France, the central doctrines of the Enlightenment philosophers were individual liberty and religious tolerance, in opposition to an absolute monarchy and the fixed dogmas of the Church. The Enlightenment was marked by an emphasis on the scientific method and reductionism, along with increased questioning of religious orthodoxy—an attitude captured by Immanuel Kant's essay Answering the Question: What is Enlightenment, where the phrase Sapere aude (Dare to know) can be found.[7] Contents 1 Significant people and publications 2 Philosophy 3 Science 4 Sociology, economics and law 5 Politics 5.1 Theories of government 5.2 Enlightened absolutism 5.3 French Revolution 6 Religion 6.1 Separation of church and state 7 National variations 7.1 Great Britain 7.1.1 England 7.1.2 Scotland 7.1.3 Anglo-American colonies 7.2 German states 7.3 Italy 7.4 Spain and Spanish America 7.5 Portugal 7.6 Russia 7.7 Poland 8 Historiography 8.1 Definition 8.2 Time span 8.3 Modern study 9 Society and culture 9.1 Social and cultural implications in the arts 10 Dissemination of ideas 10.1 The Republic of Letters 10.2 The book industry 10.3 Natural history 10.4 Scientific and literary journals 10.5 Encyclopedias and dictionaries 10.6 Popularization of science 10.7 Schools and universities 10.8 Learned academies 10.9 Salons 10.10 Coffeehouses 10.11 Debating societies 10.12 Masonic lodges 10.13 Art 11 Important intellectuals 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References 14.1 Citations 14.2 Sources 15 Further reading 15.1 Reference and surveys 15.2 Specialty studies 15.3 Primary sources 16 External links Significant people and publications The most famous work by Nicholas de Condorcet, Esquisse d'un tableau historique des progres de l'esprit humain, 1795.[8] With the publication of this book, the development of the Age of Enlightenment is considered generally ended.[9] The Age of Enlightenment was preceded by and closely associated with the Scientific Revolution.[10] Earlier philosophers whose work influenced the Enlightenment included Francis Bacon and René Descartes.[11] Some of the major figures of the Enlightenment included Cesare Beccaria, Denis Diderot, David Hume, Immanuel Kant, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, John Locke, Montesquieu, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Adam Smith, Hugo Grotius, Baruch Spinoza, and Voltaire.[12] One particularly influential Enlightenment publication was the Encyclopédie (Encyclopedia). Published between 1751 and 1772 in thirty-five volumes, it was compiled by Denis Diderot, Jean le Rond d'Alembert, and a team of 150 other intellectuals. The Encyclopédie helped in spreading the ideas of the Enlightenment across Europe and beyond.[13] Other landmark publications of the Enlightenment included Voltaire's Letters on the English (1733) and Dictionnaire philosophique (Philosophical Dictionary; 1764); Hume's A Treatise of Human Nature (1740); Montesquieu's The Spirit of the Laws (1748); Rousseau's Discourse on Inequality (1754) and The Social Contract (1762); Adam Smith's The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759) and The Wealth of Nations (1776); and Kant's Critique of Pure Reason (1781). Enlightenment thought was deeply influential in the political realm. European rulers such as Catherine II of Russia, Joseph II of Austria and Frederick II of Prussia tried to apply Enlightenment thought on religious and political tolerance, which became known as enlightened absolutism.[12] Many of the main political and intellectual figures behind the American Revolution associated themselves closely with the Enlightenment: Benjamin Franklin visited Europe repeatedly and contributed actively to the scientific and political debates there and brought the newest ideas back to Philadelphia; Thomas Jefferson closely followed European ideas and later incorporated some of the ideals of the Enlightenment into the Declaration of Independence; and James Madison incorporated these ideals into the United States Constitution during its framing in 1787.[14] The ideas of the Enlightenment also played a major role in inspiring the French Revolution, which began in 1789. Philosophy René Descartes' rationalist philosophy laid the foundation for enlightenment thinking. His attempt to construct the sciences on a secure metaphysical foundation was not as successful as his method of doubt applied in philosophic areas leading to a dualistic doctrine of mind and matter. His skepticism was refined by John Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) and David Hume's writings in the 1740s. His dualism was challenged by Spinoza's uncompromising assertion of the unity of matter in his Tractatus (1670) and Ethics (1677). According to Jonathan Israel, these laid down two distinct lines of Enlightenment thought: first, the moderate variety, following Descartes, Locke and Christian Wolff, which sought accommodation between reform and the traditional systems of power and faith, and second, the radical enlightenment, inspired by the philosophy of Spinoza, advocating democracy, individual liberty, freedom of expression and eradication of religious authority.[15][16] The moderate variety tended to be deistic, whereas the radical tendency separated the basis of morality entirely from theology. Both lines of thought were eventually opposed by a conservative Counter-Enlightenment, which sought a return to faith.[17] German philosopher Immanuel Kant In the mid-18th century, Paris became the center of philosophic and scientific activity challenging traditional doctrines and dogmas. The philosophical movement was led by Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who argued for a society based upon reason as in ancient Greece[18] rather than faith and Catholic doctrine, for a new civil order based on natural law, and for science based on experiments and observation. The political philosopher Montesquieu introduced the idea of a separation of powers in a government, a concept which was enthusiastically adopted by the authors of the United States Constitution. While the Philosophes of the French Enlightenment were not revolutionaries and many were members of the nobility, their ideas played an important part in undermining the legitimacy of the Old Regime and shaping the French Revolution.[19] Francis Hutcheson, a moral philosopher, described the utilitarian and consequentialist principle that virtue is that which provides, in his words, "the greatest happiness for the greatest numbers". Much of what is incorporated in the scientific method (the nature of knowledge, evidence, experience and causation) and some modern attitudes towards the relationship between science and religion were developed by his protégés David Hume and Adam Smith.[20] Hume became a major figure in the skeptical philosophical and empiricist traditions of philosophy. Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom and political authority, as well as map out a view of the public sphere through private and public reason.[21] Kant's work continued to shape German thought and indeed all of European philosophy, well into the 20th century.[22] Mary Wollstonecraft was one of England's earliest feminist philosophers.[23] She argued for a society based on reason and that women as well as men should be treated as rational beings. She is best known for her work A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1791).[24] Science Main article: Science in the Age of Enlightenment Science played an important role in Enlightenment discourse and thought. Many Enlightenment writers and thinkers had backgrounds in the sciences and associated scientific advancement with the overthrow of religion and traditional authority in favour of the development of free speech and thought. Scientific progress during the Enlightenment included the discovery of carbon dioxide (fixed air) by the chemist Joseph Black, the argument for deep time by the geologist James Hutton and the invention of the condensing steam engine by James Watt.[25] The experiments of Lavoisier were used to create the first modern chemical plants in Paris and the experiments of the Montgolfier Brothers enabled them to launch the first manned flight in a hot-air balloon on 21 November 1783 from the Château de la Muette, near the Bois de Boulogne.[26] The wide-ranging contributions to mathematics of Leonhard Euler (1707–1783) included major results in analysis, number theory, topology, combinatorics, graph theory, algebra, and geometry (among other fields). In applied mathematics, he made fundamental contributions to mechanics, hydraulics, acoustics, optics, and astronomy. He was based in the Imperial Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg (1727–1741), then in Berlin at the Royal Prussian Academy of Sciences and Belles Lettres (1741–1766), and finally back in St. Petersburg at the Imperial Academy (1766–1783).[27] Broadly speaking, Enlightenment science greatly valued empiricism and rational thought and was embedded with the Enlightenment ideal of advancement and progress. The study of science, under the heading of natural philosophy, was divided into physics and a conglomerate grouping of chemistry and natural history, which included anatomy, biology, geology, mineralogy and zoology.[28] As with most Enlightenment views, the benefits of science were not seen universally: Rousseau criticized the sciences for distancing man from nature and not operating to make people happier.[29] Science during the Enlightenment was dominated by scientific societies and academies, which had largely replaced universities as centres of scientific research and development. Societies and academies were also the backbone of the maturation of the scientific profession. Another important development was the popularization of science among an increasingly literate population. Philosophes introduced the public to many scientific theories, most notably through the Encyclopédie and the popularization of Newtonianism by Voltaire and Émilie du Châtelet. Some historians have marked the 18th century as a drab period in the history of science.[30] However, the century saw significant advancements in the practice of medicine, mathematics and physics; the development of biological taxonomy; a new understanding of magnetism and electricity; and the maturation of chemistry as a discipline, which established the foundations of modern chemistry. Scientific academies and societies grew out of the Scientific Revolution as the creators of scientific knowledge in contrast to the scholasticism of the university.[31] During the Enlightenment, some societies created or retained links to universities, but contemporary sources distinguished universities from scientific societies by claiming that the university's utility was in the transmission of knowledge while societies functioned to create knowledge.[32] As the role of universities in institutionalized science began to diminish, learned societies became the cornerstone of organized science. Official scientific societies were chartered by the state in order to provide technical expertise.[33] Most societies were granted permission to oversee their own publications, control the election of new members and the administration of the society.[34] After 1700, a tremendous number of official academies and societies were founded in Europe and by 1789 there were over seventy official scientific societies. In reference to this growth, Bernard de Fontenelle coined the term "the Age of Academies" to describe the 18th century.[35] The influence of science also began appearing more commonly in poetry and literature during the Enlightenment. Some poetry became infused with scientific metaphor and imagery, while other poems were written directly about scientific topics. Sir Richard Blackmore committed the Newtonian system to verse in Creation, a Philosophical Poem in Seven Books (1712). After Newton's death in 1727, poems were composed in his honour for decades.[36] James Thomson (1700–1748) penned his "Poem to the Memory of Newton", which mourned the loss of Newton, but also praised his science and legacy.[37] Sociology, economics and law Cesare Beccaria, father of classical criminal theory (1738–1794) Hume and other Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed a "science of man",[38] which was expressed historically in works by authors including James Burnett, Adam Ferguson, John Millar and William Robertson, all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behaved in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of modernity. Modern sociology largely originated from this movement[39] and Hume's philosophical concepts that directly influenced James Madison (and thus the U.S. Constitution) and as popularised by Dugald Stewart, would be the basis of classical liberalism.[40] In 1776, Adam Smith published The Wealth of Nations, often considered the first work on modern economics as it had an immediate impact on British economic policy that continues into the 21st century.[41] It was immediately preceded and influenced by Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune drafts of Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth (Paris, 1766). Smith acknowledged indebtedness and possibly was the original English translator.[42] Cesare Beccaria, a jurist, criminologist, philosopher and politician and one of the great Enlightenment writers, became famous for his masterpiece Of Crimes and Punishments (1764), later translated into 22 languages,[43] which condemned torture and the death penalty and was a founding work in the field of penology and the Classical School of criminology by promoting criminal justice. Another prominent intellectual was Francesco Mario Pagano, who wrote important studies such as Saggi Politici (Political Essays, 1783), one of the major works of the Enlightenment in Naples; and Considerazioni sul processo criminale (Considerations on the criminal trial, 1787), which established him as an international authority on criminal law.[44] Politics The Enlightenment has long been hailed as the foundation of modern Western political and intellectual culture.[45] The Enlightenment brought political modernization to the West, in terms of introducing democratic values and institutions and the creation of modern, liberal democracies. This thesis has been widely accepted by Anglophone scholars and has been reinforced by the large-scale studies by Robert Darnton, Roy Porter and most recently by Jonathan Israel.[46][47] Theories of government John Locke, one of the most influential Enlightenment thinkers,[48] based his governance philosophy in social contract theory, a subject that permeated Enlightenment political thought. The English philosopher Thomas Hobbes ushered in this new debate with his work Leviathan in 1651. Hobbes also developed some of the fundamentals of European liberal thought: the right of the individual; the natural equality of all men; the artificial character of the political order (which led to the later distinction between civil society and the state); the view that all legitimate political power must be "representative" and based on the consent of the people; and a liberal interpretation of law which leaves people free to do whatever the law does not explicitly forbid.[49] Like other Enlightenment philosophers, Rousseau was critical of the Atlantic slave trade[50] Both Locke and Rousseau developed social contract theories in Two Treatises of Government and Discourse on Inequality, respectively. While quite different works, Locke, Hobbes and Rousseau agreed that a social contract, in which the government's authority lies in the consent of the governed,[51] is necessary for man to live in civil society. Locke defines the state of nature as a condition in which humans are rational and follow natural law, in which all men are born equal and with the right to life, liberty and property. However, when one citizen breaks the Law of Nature both the transgressor and the victim enter into a state of war, from which it is virtually impossible to break free. Therefore, Locke said that individuals enter into civil society to protect their natural rights via an "unbiased judge" or common authority, such as courts, to appeal to. Contrastingly, Rousseau's conception relies on the supposition that "civil man" is corrupted, while "natural man" has no want he cannot fulfill himself. Natural man is only taken out of the state of nature when the inequality associated with private property is established.[52] Rousseau said that people join into civil society via the social contract to achieve unity while preserving individual freedom. This is embodied in the sovereignty of the general will, the moral and collective legislative body constituted by citizens. Locke is known for his statement that individuals have a right to "Life, Liberty and Property" and his belief that the natural right to property is derived from labor. Tutored by Locke, Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury wrote in 1706: "There is a mighty Light which spreads its self over the world especially in those two free Nations of England and Holland; on whom the Affairs of Europe now turn".[53] Locke's theory of natural rights has influenced many political documents, including the United States Declaration of Independence and the French National Constituent Assembly's Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The philosophes argued that the establishment of a contractual basis of rights would lead to the market mechanism and capitalism, the scientific method, religious tolerance and the organization of states into self-governing republics through democratic means. In this view, the tendency of the philosophes in particular to apply rationality to every problem is considered the essential change.[54] Although much of Enlightenment political thought was dominated by social contract theorists, both David Hume and Adam Ferguson criticized this camp. Hume's essay Of the Original Contract argues that governments derived from consent are rarely seen and civil government is grounded in a ruler's habitual authority and force. It is precisely because of the ruler's authority over-and-against the subject, that the subject tacitly consents and Hume says that the subjects would "never imagine that their consent made him sovereign", rather the authority did so.[55] Similarly, Ferguson did not believe citizens built the state, rather polities grew out of social development. In his 1767 An Essay on the History of Civil Society, Ferguson uses the four stages of progress, a theory that was very popular in Scotland at the time, to explain how humans advance from a hunting and gathering society to a commercial and civil society without "signing" a social contract. Both Rousseau's and Locke's social contract theories rest on the presupposition of natural rights, which are not a result of law or custom, but are things that all men have in pre-political societies and are therefore universal and inalienable. The most famous natural right formulation comes from John Locke in his Second Treatise, when he introduces the state of nature. For Locke, the law of nature is grounded on mutual security or the idea that one cannot infringe on another's natural rights, as every man is equal and has the same inalienable rights. These natural rights include perfect equality and freedom, as well as the right to preserve life and property. Locke also argued against slavery on the basis that enslaving oneself goes against the law of nature because one cannot surrender one's own rights: one's freedom is absolute and no-one can take it away. Additionally, Locke argues that one person cannot enslave another because it is morally reprehensible, although he introduces a caveat by saying that enslavement of a lawful captive in time of war would not go against one's natural rights. As a spill-over of the Enlightenment, nonsecular beliefs expressed first by Quakers and then by Protestant evangelicals in Britain and the United States emerged. To these groups, slavery became "repugnant to our religion" and a "crime in the sight of God."[56] These ideas added to those expressed by Enlightenment thinkers, leading many in Britain to believe that slavery was "not only morally wrong and economically inefficient, but also politically unwise."[57] As these notions gained more adherents, Britain was forced to end its participation in the slave trade. Enlightened absolutism Main article: Enlightened absolutism The Marquis of Pombal, as the head of the government of Portugal, implemented sweeping socio-economic reforms (abolished slavery, significantly weakened the Inquisition, created the basis for secular public schools and restructured the tax system) The leaders of the Enlightenment were not especially democratic, as they more often look to absolute monarchs as the key to imposing reforms designed by the intellectuals. Voltaire despised democracy and said the absolute monarch must be enlightened and must act as dictated by reason and justice – in other words, be a "philosopher-king".[58] Denmark's minister Johann Struensee, a social reformer, was publicly executed in 1772 In several nations, rulers welcomed leaders of the Enlightenment at court and asked them to help design laws and programs to reform the system, typically to build stronger states. These rulers are called "enlightened despots" by historians.[59] They included Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, Leopold II of Tuscany and Joseph II of Austria. Joseph was over-enthusiastic, announcing many reforms that had little support so that revolts broke out and his regime became a comedy of errors and nearly all his programs were reversed.[60] Senior ministers Pombal in Portugal and Johann Friedrich Struensee in Denmark also governed according to Enlightenment ideals. In Poland, the model constitution of 1791 expressed Enlightenment ideals, but was in effect for only one year before the nation was partitioned among its neighbors. More enduring were the cultural achievements, which created a nationalist spirit in Poland.[61] Frederick the Great, the king of Prussia from 1740 to 1786, saw himself as a leader of the Enlightenment and patronized philosophers and scientists at his court in Berlin. Voltaire, who had been imprisoned and maltreated by the French government, was eager to accept Frederick's invitation to live at his palace. Frederick explained: "My principal occupation is to combat ignorance and prejudice ... to enlighten minds, cultivate morality, and to make people as happy as it suits human nature, and as the means at my disposal permit".[62] French Revolution The Enlightenment has been frequently linked to the French Revolution of 1789. One view of the political changes that occurred during the Enlightenment is that the "consent of the governed" philosophy as delineated by Locke in Two Treatises of Government (1689) represented a paradigm shift from the old governance paradigm under feudalism known as the "divine right of kings". In this view, the revolutions of the late 1700s and early 1800s were caused by the fact that this governance paradigm shift often could not be resolved peacefully and therefore violent revolution was the result. Clearly a governance philosophy where the king was never wrong was in direct conflict with one whereby citizens by natural law had to consent to the acts and rulings of their government. Alexis de Tocqueville proposed the French Revolution as the inevitable result of the radical opposition created in the 18th century between the monarchy and the men of letters of the Enlightenment. These men of letters constituted a sort of "substitute aristocracy that was both all-powerful and without real power". This illusory power came from the rise of "public opinion", born when absolutist centralization removed the nobility and the bourgeoisie from the political sphere. The "literary politics" that resulted promoted a discourse of equality and was hence in fundamental opposition to the monarchical regime.[63] De Tocqueville "clearly designates  ... the cultural effects of transformation in the forms of the exercise of power".[64] Religion The French philosopher Voltaire argued for religious tolerance, saying that "It does not require great art, or magnificently trained eloquence, to prove that Christians should tolerate each other. I, however, am going further: I say that we should regard all men as our brothers. What? The Turk my brother? The Chinaman my brother? The Jew? The Siam? Yes, without doubt; are we not all children of the same father and creatures of the same God?"[65] Enlightenment era religious commentary was a response to the preceding century of religious conflict in Europe, especially the Thirty Years' War.[66] Theologians of the Enlightenment wanted to reform their faith to its generally non-confrontational roots and to limit the capacity for religious controversy to spill over into politics and warfare while still maintaining a true faith in God. For moderate Christians, this meant a return to simple Scripture. John Locke abandoned the corpus of theological commentary in favor of an "unprejudiced examination" of the Word of God alone. He determined the essence of Christianity to be a belief in Christ the redeemer and recommended avoiding more detailed debate.[67] In the Jefferson Bible, Thomas Jefferson went further and dropped any passages dealing with miracles, visitations of angels and the resurrection of Jesus after his death, as he tried to extract the practical Christian moral code of the New Testament.[68] Enlightenment scholars sought to curtail the political power of organized religion and thereby prevent another age of intolerant religious war.[69] Spinoza determined to remove politics from contemporary and historical theology (e.g., disregarding Judaic law).[70] Moses Mendelssohn advised affording no political weight to any organized religion, but instead recommended that each person follow what they found most convincing.[71] They believed a good religion based in instinctive morals and a belief in God should not theoretically need force to maintain order in its believers, and both Mendelssohn and Spinoza judged religion on its moral fruits, not the logic of its theology.[72] A number of novel ideas about religion developed with the Enlightenment, including deism and talk of atheism. According to Thomas Paine, deism is the simple belief in God the Creator, with no reference to the Bible or any other miraculous source. Instead, the deist relies solely on personal reason to guide his creed,[73] which was eminently agreeable to many thinkers of the time.[74] Atheism was much discussed, but there were few proponents. Wilson and Reill note: "In fact, very few enlightened intellectuals, even when they were vocal critics of Christianity, were true atheists. Rather, they were critics of orthodox belief, wedded rather to skepticism, deism, vitalism, or perhaps pantheism".[75] Some followed Pierre Bayle and argued that atheists could indeed be moral men.[76] Many others like Voltaire held that without belief in a God who punishes evil, the moral order of society was undermined. That is, since atheists gave themselves to no Supreme Authority and no law and had no fear of eternal consequences, they were far more likely to disrupt society.[77] Bayle (1647–1706) observed that, in his day, "prudent persons will always maintain an appearance of [religion]," and he believed that even atheists could hold concepts of honor and go beyond their own self-interest to create and interact in society.[78] Locke said that if there were no God and no divine law, the result would be moral anarchy: every individual "could have no law but his own will, no end but himself. He would be a god to himself, and the satisfaction of his own will the sole measure and end of all his actions."[79] Separation of church and state Main articles: Separation of church and state and Separation of church and state in the United States The "Radical Enlightenment"[80][81] promoted the concept of separating church and state,[82] an idea that is often credited to English philosopher John Locke (1632–1704).[83] According to his principle of the social contract, Locke said that the government lacked authority in the realm of individual conscience, as this was something rational people could not cede to the government for it or others to control. For Locke, this created a natural right in the liberty of conscience, which he said must therefore remain protected from any government authority. These views on religious tolerance and the importance of individual conscience, along with the social contract, became particularly influential in the American colonies and the drafting of the United States Constitution.[84] Thomas Jefferson called for a "wall of separation between church and state" at the federal level. He previously had supported successful efforts to disestablish the Church of England in Virginia[85] and authored the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom.[86] Jefferson's political ideals were greatly influenced by the writings of John Locke, Francis Bacon, and Isaac Newton,[87] whom he considered the three greatest men that ever lived.[88] National variations Europe at the beginning of the War of the Spanish Succession, 1700 The Enlightenment took hold in most European countries, often with a specific local emphasis. For example, in France it became associated with anti-government and anti-Church radicalism, while in Germany it reached deep into the middle classes, where it expressed a spiritualistic and nationalistic tone without threatening governments or established churches.[89] Government responses varied widely. In France, the government was hostile, and the philosophes fought against its censorship, sometimes being imprisoned or hounded into exile. The British government, for the most part, ignored the Enlightenment's leaders in England and Scotland, although it did give Isaac Newton a knighthood and a very lucrative government office. A common theme among most countries which derived enlightenment ideas from Europe was the intentional non-inclusion of enlightenment philosophies pertaining to slavery. Originally during the French Revolution, a revolution deeply inspired by enlightenment philosophy, "France's revolutionary government had denounced slavery, but the property-holding 'revolutionaries' then remembered their bank accounts."[90] Slavery often showed the limitations of the enlightenment as it pertained to European countries since many European countries held colonies supported by slavery. For instance, during the Haitian Revolution England and the United States supported France "rather than giving aid to Saint-Domingue's anti-colonial struggle."[90] Great Britain England Further information: Georgian era § English Enlightenment The very existence of an English Enlightenment has been hotly debated by scholars. The majority of textbooks on British history make little or no mention of an English Enlightenment. Some surveys of the entire Enlightenment include England and others ignore it, although they do include coverage of such major intellectuals as Joseph Addison, Edward Gibbon, John Locke, Isaac Newton, Alexander Pope, Joshua Reynolds and Jonathan Swift.[91] Roy Porter argues that the reasons for this neglect were the assumptions that the movement was primarily French-inspired, that it was largely a-religious or anti-clerical, and that it stood in outspoken defiance to the established order.[92] Porter admits that, after the 1720s, England could claim thinkers to equal Diderot, Voltaire or Rousseau. However, its leading intellectuals such as Edward Gibbon,[93] Edmund Burke and Samuel Johnson were all quite conservative and supportive of the standing order. Porter says the reason was that Enlightenment had come early to England and had succeeded so that the culture had accepted political liberalism, philosophical empiricism, and religious toleration of the sort that intellectuals on the continent had to fight for against powerful odds. Furthermore, England rejected the collectivism of the continent and emphasized the improvement of individuals as the main goal of enlightenment.[94] One leader of the Scottish Enlightenment was Adam Smith, the father of modern economic science Scotland Further information: Scottish Enlightenment In the Scottish Enlightenment, Scotland's major cities created an intellectual infrastructure of mutually supporting institutions such as universities, reading societies, libraries, periodicals, museums and masonic lodges.[95] The Scottish network was "predominantly liberal Calvinist, Newtonian, and 'design' oriented in character which played a major role in the further development of the transatlantic Enlightenment".[96] In France, Voltaire said that "we look to Scotland for all our ideas of civilization".[97] The focus of the Scottish Enlightenment ranged from intellectual and economic matters to the specifically scientific as in the work of William Cullen, physician and chemist; James Anderson, an agronomist; Joseph Black, physicist and chemist; and James Hutton, the first modern geologist.[20][98] Anglo-American colonies Further information: American Enlightenment John Trumbull's Declaration of Independence imagines the drafting committee presenting its work to the Congress Several Americans, especially Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, played a major role in bringing Enlightenment ideas to the New World and in influencing British and French thinkers.[99] Franklin was influential for his political activism and for his advances in physics.[100][101] The cultural exchange during the Age of Enlightenment ran in both directions across the Atlantic. Thinkers such as Paine, Locke and Rousseau all take Native American cultural practices as examples of natural freedom.[102] The Americans closely followed English and Scottish political ideas, as well as some French thinkers such as Montesquieu.[103] As deists, they were influenced by ideas of John Toland (1670–1722) and Matthew Tindal (1656–1733). During the Enlightenment there was a great emphasis upon liberty, republicanism and religious tolerance. There was no respect for monarchy or inherited political power. Deists reconciled science and religion by rejecting prophecies, miracles and Biblical theology. Leading deists included Thomas Paine in The Age of Reason and by Thomas Jefferson in his short Jefferson Bible – from which all supernatural aspects were removed.[104] German states Further information: History of Germany § Enlightenment, and Hymnody of continental Europe § Rationalism Prussia took the lead among the German states in sponsoring the political reforms that Enlightenment thinkers urged absolute rulers to adopt. There were important movements as well in the smaller states of Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover and the Palatinate. In each case, Enlightenment values became accepted and led to significant political and administrative reforms that laid the groundwork for the creation of modern states.[105] The princes of Saxony, for example, carried out an impressive series of fundamental fiscal, administrative, judicial, educational, cultural and general economic reforms. The reforms were aided by the country's strong urban structure and influential commercial groups and modernized pre-1789 Saxony along the lines of classic Enlightenment principles.[106][107] Weimar's Courtyard of the Muses by Theobald von Oer, a tribute to The Enlightenment and the Weimar Classicism depicting German poets Schiller, Wieland, Herder and Goethe Before 1750, the German upper classes looked to France for intellectual, cultural and architectural leadership, as French was the language of high society. By the mid-18th century, the Aufklärung (The Enlightenment) had transformed German high culture in music, philosophy, science and literature. Christian Wolff (1679–1754) was the pioneer as a writer who expounded the Enlightenment to German readers and legitimized German as a philosophic language.[108] Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744–1803) broke new ground in philosophy and poetry, as a leader of the Sturm und Drang movement of proto-Romanticism. Weimar Classicism (Weimarer Klassik) was a cultural and literary movement based in Weimar that sought to establish a new humanism by synthesizing Romantic, classical and Enlightenment ideas. The movement (from 1772 until 1805) involved Herder as well as polymath Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832) and Friedrich Schiller (1759–1805), a poet and historian. Herder argued that every folk had its own particular identity, which was expressed in its language and culture. This legitimized the promotion of German language and culture and helped shape the development of German nationalism. Schiller's plays expressed the restless spirit of his generation, depicting the hero's struggle against social pressures and the force of destiny.[109] German music, sponsored by the upper classes, came of age under composers Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750), Joseph Haydn (1732–1809) and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756–1791).[110] In remote Königsberg, philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom and political authority. Kant's work contained basic tensions that would continue to shape German thought – and indeed all of European philosophy – well into the 20th century.[111] The German Enlightenment won the support of princes, aristocrats and the middle classes and it permanently reshaped the culture.[112] However, there was a conservatism among the elites that warned against going too far.[113] In the 1780s, Lutheran ministers Johann Heinrich Schulz and Karl Wilhelm Brumbey got in trouble with their preaching as they were attacked and ridiculed by Immanuel Kant, Wilhelm Abraham Teller and others. In 1788, Prussia issued an "Edict on Religion" that forbade preaching any sermon that undermined popular belief in the Holy Trinity and the Bible. The goal was to avoid skepticism, deism and theological disputes that might impinge on domestic tranquility. Men who doubted the value of Enlightenment favoured the measure, but so too did many supporters. German universities had created a closed elite that could debate controversial issues among themselves, but spreading them to the public was seen as too risky. This intellectual elite was favoured by the state, but that might be reversed if the process of the Enlightenment proved politically or socially destabilizing.[114] Italy The Enlightenment played a distinctive, if small, role in the history of Italy.[115][116] Although most of Italy was controlled by conservative Habsburgs or the pope, Tuscany had some opportunities for reform. Leopold II of Tuscany abolished the death penalty in Tuscany and reduced censorship. From Naples, Antonio Genovesi (1713–1769) influenced a generation of southern Italian intellectuals and university students. His textbook "Diceosina, o Sia della Filosofia del Giusto e dell'Onesto" (1766) was a controversial attempt to mediate between the history of moral philosophy on the one hand and the specific problems encountered by 18th-century commercial society on the other. It contained the greater part of Genovesi's political, philosophical and economic thought – guidebook for Neapolitan economic and social development.[117] Science flourished as Alessandro Volta and Luigi Galvani made break-through discoveries in electricity. Pietro Verri was a leading economist in Lombardy. Historian Joseph Schumpeter states he was "the most important pre-Smithian authority on Cheapness-and-Plenty".[118] The most influential scholar on the Italian Enlightenment has been Franco Venturi.[119][120] Italy also produced some of the Enlightenment's greatest legal theorists, including Cesare Beccaria, Giambattista Vico and Francesco Mario Pagano. Beccaria in particular is now considered one of the fathers of classical criminal theory as well as modern penology.[121] Beccaria is famous for his masterpiece On Crimes and Punishments (1764), a treatise (later translated into 22 languages) that served as one of the earliest prominent condemnations of torture and the death penalty and thus a landmark work in anti-death penalty philosophy.[43] Spain and Spanish America Main articles: Enlightenment in Spain and Spanish American Enlightenment Spanish Constitution of 1812 When Charles II the last Spanish Hapsburg monarch died in 1700, it touched out a major European conflict about succession and the fate of Spain and the Spanish Empire. The War of the Spanish Succession (1700-1715) brought Bourbon prince Philip, Duke of Anjou to the throne of Spain as Philip V. Under the 1715 Treaty of Utrecht, the French and the Spanish Bourbons could not unite, with Philip renouncing any rights to the French throne. The political restriction did not impede strong French influence of the Age of Enlightenment on Spain, the Spanish monarchs, the Spanish Empire.[122][123] Philip did not come into effective power until 1715 and began implementing administrative reforms to try to stop the decline of the Spanish Empire. Under Charles III, the crown began to implement serious structural changes, generally known as the Bourbon Reforms. The crown curtailed the power of the Catholic Church and the clergy, established a standing military in Spanish America, established new viceroyalties and reorganized administrative districts into intendancies. Freer trade was promoted under comercio libre in which regions could trade with companies sailing from any other Spanish port, rather than the restrictive mercantile system limiting trade. The crown sent out scientific expeditions to assert Spanish sovereignty over territories it claimed but did not control, but also importantly to discover the economic potential of its far-flung empire. Botanical expeditions sought plants that could be of use to the empire.[124] One of the best acts by Charles IV, a monarch not notable for his good judgment, was to give Prussian scientist, Baron Alexander von Humboldt, free rein to travel and gather information about the Spanish empire during his five-year, self-funded expedition. Crown officials were to aid Humboldt in any way they could, so that he was able to get access to expert information. Given that Spain’s empire was closed to foreigners, Humboldt's unfettered access is quite remarkable. His observations of New Spain, published as the Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain remains an important scientific and historical text.[125] When Napoleon invaded Spain in 1808, Ferdinand VII abdicated and Napoleon placed his brother Joseph Bonaparte on the throne. To add legitimacy to this move, the Bayonne Constitution was promulgated, which included representation from Spain's overseas components, but most Spaniards rejected the whole Napoleonic project. A war of national resistance erupted. The Cortes de Cádiz (parliament) was convened to rule Spain in the absence of the legitimate monarch, Ferdinand. It created a new governing document, the Constitution of 1812, which laid out three branches of government: executive, legislative, and judicial, put limits on the king by creating a constitutional monarchy, defined citizens as those in the Spanish Empire without African ancestry, established universal manhood suffrage, and established public education starting with primary school through university as well as freedom of expression. The constitution was in effect from 1812 until 1814, when Napoleon was defeated and Ferdinand was restored to the throne of Spain. Upon his return, Ferdinand repudiated the constitution and reestablished absolutist rule.[126] The French invasion of Spain sparked a crisis of legitimacy of rule in Spanish America, with many regions establishing juntas to rule in the name of Ferdinand VII. Most of Spanish America fought for independence, leaving only Cuba and Puerto Rico, as well as the Philippines as overseas components of the Spanish Empire. All of newly independent and sovereign nations became republics by 1824, with written constitutions. Mexico's brief post-independence monarchy was overthrown and replaced by a federal republic under the Constitution of 1824, inspired by both the U.S. and Spanish constitutions. Portugal Main article: History of Portugal (1640–1777) The enlightenment in Portugal (iluminismo) was marked by the rule of the Prime Minister Marquis of Pombal under King Joseph I of Portugal from 1756 to 1777. Following the 1755 Lisbon earthquake which destroyed great part of Lisbon, the Marquis of Pombal implemented important economic policies to regulate commercial activity (in particular with Brazil and England), and to standardise quality throughout the country (for example by introducing the first integrated industries in Portugal). His reconstruction of Lisbon's riverside district in straight and perpendicular streets, methodically organized to facilitate commerce and exchange (for example by assigning to each street a different product or service), can be seen as a direct application of the Enlightenment ideas to governance and urbanism. His urbanistic ideas, also being the first large-scale example of earthquake engineering, became collectively known as Pombaline style, and were implemented throughout the kingdom during his stay in office. His governance was as enlightened as ruthless, see for example the Távora affair. In literature, the first Enlightenment ideas in Portugal can be traced back to the diplomat, philosopher, and writer António Vieira (1608-1697)[citation needed], who spent a considerable amount of his life in colonial Brazil denouncing discriminations against New Christians and the Indigenous peoples in Brazil. His works remain today as one of the best pieces of Portuguese literature[citation needed]. During the 18th century, enlightened literary movements such as the Arcádia Lusitana (lasting from 1756 until 1776, then replaced by the Nova Arcádia in 1790 until 1794) surfaced in the academic medium, in particular involving former students of the University of Coimbra. A distinct member of this group was the poet Manuel Maria Barbosa du Bocage. The ideas of the enlightenment also influenced various economists and anti-colonial intellectuals throughout the Portuguese Empire, such as José de Azeredo Coutinho, José da Silva Lisboa, Cláudio Manoel da Costa, and Tomás de Antônio Gonzaga. As with the Napoleonic invasion of Spain, his invasion of Portugal had consequences for the Portuguese monarchy. With the aid of the British navy, the Portuguese royal family was evacuated to Brazil, its most important colony. Even though Napoleon had been defeated, the royal court remained in Brazil. The Liberal Revolution of 1820 forced the return of the royal family to Portugal. The terms by which the restored king was to rule was a constitutional monarchy under the Constitution of Portugal. Brazil declared its independence of Portugal in 1822, and became a monarchy. Russia In Russia, the government began to actively encourage the proliferation of arts and sciences in the mid-18th century. This era produced the first Russian university, library, theatre, public museum and independent press. Like other enlightened despots, Catherine the Great played a key role in fostering the arts, sciences and education. She used her own interpretation of Enlightenment ideals, assisted by notable international experts such as Voltaire (by correspondence) and in residence world class scientists such as Leonhard Euler and Peter Simon Pallas. The national Enlightenment differed from its Western European counterpart in that it promoted further modernization of all aspects of Russian life and was concerned with attacking the institution of serfdom in Russia. The Russian enlightenment centered on the individual instead of societal enlightenment and encouraged the living of an enlightened life.[127][128] A powerful element was prosveshchenie which combined religious piety, erudition and commitment to the spread of learning. However, it lacked the skeptical and critical spirit of the Western European Enlightenment.[129] Poland Constitution of 3 May, 1791, Europe's first modern constitution Main article: Enlightenment in Poland Enlightenment ideas (oświecenie) emerged late in Poland, as the Polish middle class was weaker and szlachta (nobility) culture (Sarmatism) together with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth political system (Golden Liberty) were in deep crisis. The political system was built on republicanism, but was unable to defend itself against powerful neighbors Russia, Prussia and Austria as they repeatedly sliced off regions until nothing was left of independent Poland. The period of Polish Enlightenment began in the 1730s–1740s and especially in theatre and the arts peaked in the reign of King Stanisław August Poniatowski (second half of the 18th century). Warsaw was a main centre after 1750, with an expansion of schools and educational institutions and the arts patronage held at the Royal Castle.[130] Leaders promoted tolerance and more education. They included King Stanislaw II Poniatowski and reformers Piotr Switkowski, Antoni Poplawski, Josef Niemcewicz and Jósef Pawlinkowski, as well as Baudouin de Cortenay, a Polonized dramatist. Opponents included Florian Jaroszewicz, Gracjan Piotrowski, Karol Wyrwicz and Wojciech Skarszewski.[131] The movement went into decline with the Third Partition of Poland (1795) – a national tragedy inspiring a short period of sentimental writing – and ended in 1822, replaced by Romanticism.[132] Historiography The Enlightenment has always been contested territory. According to Keith Thomas, its supporters "hail it as the source of everything that is progressive about the modern world. For them, it stands for freedom of thought, rational inquiry, critical thinking, religious tolerance, political liberty, scientific achievement, the pursuit of happiness, and hope for the future."[133] Thomas adds that its detractors accuse it of shallow rationalism, naïve optimism, unrealistic universalism and moral darkness. From the start, conservative and clerical defenders of traditional religion attacked materialism and skepticism as evil forces that encouraged immorality. By 1794, they pointed to the Terror during the French Revolution as confirmation of their predictions. As the Enlightenment was ending, Romantic philosophers argued that excessive dependence on reason was a mistake perpetuated by the Enlightenment because it disregarded the bonds of history, myth, faith, and tradition that were necessary to hold society together.[134] Definition The term "Enlightenment" emerged in English in the later part of the 19th century,[135] with particular reference to French philosophy, as the equivalent of the French term Lumières (used first by Dubos in 1733 and already well established by 1751). From Immanuel Kant's 1784 essay "Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?" ("Answering the Question: What is Enlightenment?"), the German term became Aufklärung (aufklären = to illuminate; sich aufklären = to clear up). However, scholars have never agreed on a definition of the Enlightenment, or on its chronological or geographical extent. Terms like les Lumières (French), illuminismo (Italian), ilustración (Spanish) and Aufklärung (German) referred to partly overlapping movements. Not until the late nineteenth century did English scholars agree they were talking about "the Enlightenment".[134][136] If there is something you know, communicate it. If there is something you don't know, search for it.— An engraving from the 1772 edition of the Encyclopédie; Truth, in the top center, is surrounded by light and unveiled by the figures to the right, Philosophy and Reason Enlightenment historiography began in the period itself, from what Enlightenment figures said about their work. A dominant element was the intellectual angle they took. D'Alembert's Preliminary Discourse of l'Encyclopédie provides a history of the Enlightenment which comprises a chronological list of developments in the realm of knowledge – of which the Encyclopédie forms the pinnacle.[137] In 1783, Jewish philosopher Moses Mendelssohn referred to Enlightenment as a process by which man was educated in the use of reason.[138] Immanuel Kant called Enlightenment "man's release from his self-incurred tutelage", tutelage being "man's inability to make use of his understanding without direction from another".[139] "For Kant, Enlightenment was mankind's final coming of age, the emancipation of the human consciousness from an immature state of ignorance".[140] The German scholar Ernst Cassirer called the Enlightenment "a part and a special phase of that whole intellectual development through which modern philosophic thought gained its characteristic self-confidence and self-consciousness".[141] According to historian Roy Porter, the liberation of the human mind from a dogmatic state of ignorance, is the epitome of what the Age of Enlightenment was trying to capture.[142] Bertrand Russell saw the Enlightenment as a phase in a progressive development which began in antiquity and that reason and challenges to the established order were constant ideals throughout that time.[143] Russell said that the Enlightenment was ultimately born out of the Protestant reaction against the Catholic counter-reformation and that philosophical views such as affinity for democracy against monarchy originated among 16th-century Protestants to justify their desire to break away from the Catholic Church. Although many of these philosophical ideals were picked up by Catholics, Russell argues that by the 18th century the Enlightenment was the principal manifestation of the schism that began with Martin Luther.[143] Jonathan Israel rejects the attempts of postmodern and Marxian historians to understand the revolutionary ideas of the period purely as by-products of social and economic transformations.[144] He instead focuses on the history of ideas in the period from 1650 to the end of the 18th century and claims that it was the ideas themselves that caused the change that eventually led to the revolutions of the latter half of the 18th century and the early 19th century.[145] Israel argues that until the 1650s Western civilization "was based on a largely shared core of faith, tradition and authority".[146] Time span There is little consensus on the precise beginning of the Age of Enlightenment, though several historians and philosophers argue that it was marked by Descartes' 1637 philosophy of Cogito, ergo sum ("I think, therefore I Am"), which shifted the epistemological basis from external authority to internal certainty.[147][148][149] In France, many cited the publication of Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica (1687),[150] which built upon the work of earlier scientists and formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation.[151] The middle of the 17th century (1650) or the beginning of the 18th century (1701) are often used as epochs.[citation needed] French historians usually place the Siècle des Lumières ("Century of Enlightenments") between 1715 and 1789: from the beginning of the reign of Louis XV until the French Revolution.[152] Most scholars use the last years of the century, often choosing the French Revolution of 1789 or the beginning of the Napoleonic Wars (1804–1815) as a convenient point in time with which to date the end of the Enlightenment.[153] Modern study In the 1947 book Dialectic of Enlightenment, Frankfurt School philosophers Max Horkheimer and Theodor W. Adorno argued: Enlightenment, understood in the widest sense as the advance of thought, has always aimed at liberating human beings from fear and installing them as masters. Yet the wholly enlightened earth radiates under the sign of disaster triumphant.[154] Extending Horkheimer and Adorno's argument, intellectual historian Jason Josephson-Storm has argued that any idea of the Age of Enlightenment as a clearly defined period that is separate from the earlier Renaissance and later Romanticism or Counter-Enlightenment constitutes a myth. Josephson-Storm points out that there are vastly different and mutually contradictory periodizations of the Enlightenment depending on nation, field of study, and school of thought; that the term and category of "Enlightenment" referring to the scientific revolution was actually applied after the fact; that the Enlightenment did not see an increase in disenchantment or the dominance of the mechanistic worldview; and that a blur in the early modern ideas of the humanities and natural sciences makes it hard to circumscribe a Scientific Revolution.[155] Josephson-Storm defends his categorization of the Enlightenment as "myth" by noting the regulative role ideas of a period of Enlightenment and disenchantment play in modern Western culture, such that belief in magic, spiritualism, and even religion appears somewhat taboo in intellectual strata.[156] In the 1970s, study of the Enlightenment expanded to include the ways Enlightenment ideas spread to European colonies and how they interacted with indigenous cultures and how the Enlightenment took place in formerly unstudied areas such as Italy, Greece, the Balkans, Poland, Hungary and Russia.[157] Intellectuals such as Robert Darnton and Jürgen Habermas have focused on the social conditions of the Enlightenment. Habermas described the creation of the "bourgeois public sphere" in 18th-century Europe, containing the new venues and modes of communication allowing for rational exchange. Habermas said that the public sphere was bourgeois, egalitarian, rational and independent from the state, making it the ideal venue for intellectuals to critically examine contemporary politics and society, away from the interference of established authority. While the public sphere is generally an integral component of the social study of the Enlightenment, other historians[note 3] have questioned whether the public sphere had these characteristics. Society and culture A medal minted during the reign of Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor, commemorating his grant of religious liberty to Jews and Protestants in Hungary—another important reform of Joseph II was the abolition of serfdom In contrast to the intellectual historiographical approach of the Enlightenment, which examines the various currents or discourses of intellectual thought within the European context during the 17th and 18th centuries, the cultural (or social) approach examines the changes that occurred in European society and culture. This approach studies the process of changing sociabilities and cultural practices during the Enlightenment. One of the primary elements of the culture of the Enlightenment was the rise of the public sphere, a "realm of communication marked by new arenas of debate, more open and accessible forms of urban public space and sociability, and an explosion of print culture", in the late 17th century and 18th century.[158] Elements of the public sphere included that it was egalitarian, that it discussed the domain of "common concern," and that argument was founded on reason.[159] Habermas uses the term "common concern" to describe those areas of political/social knowledge and discussion that were previously the exclusive territory of the state and religious authorities, now open to critical examination by the public sphere. The values of this bourgeois public sphere included holding reason to be supreme, considering everything to be open to criticism (the public sphere is critical), and the opposition of secrecy of all sorts.[160] German explorer Alexander von Humboldt showed his disgust for slavery and often criticized the colonial policies—he always acted out of a deeply humanistic conviction, borne by the ideas of the Enlightenment.[161] The creation of the public sphere has been associated with two long-term historical trends: the rise of the modern nation state and the rise of capitalism. The modern nation state, in its consolidation of public power, created by counterpoint a private realm of society independent of the state, which allowed for the public sphere. Capitalism also increased society's autonomy and self-awareness, as well as an increasing need for the exchange of information. As the nascent public sphere expanded, it embraced a large variety of institutions and the most commonly cited were coffee houses and cafés, salons and the literary public sphere, figuratively localized in the Republic of Letters.[162] In France, the creation of the public sphere was helped by the aristocracy's move from the King's palace at Versailles to Paris in about 1720, since their rich spending stimulated the trade in luxuries and artistic creations, especially fine paintings.[163] The context for the rise of the public sphere was the economic and social change commonly associated with the Industrial Revolution: "Economic expansion, increasing urbanization, rising population and improving communications in comparison to the stagnation of the previous century".[164] Rising efficiency in production techniques and communication lowered the prices of consumer goods and increased the amount and variety of goods available to consumers (including the literature essential to the public sphere). Meanwhile, the colonial experience (most European states had colonial empires in the 18th century) began to expose European society to extremely heterogeneous cultures, leading to the breaking down of "barriers between cultural systems, religious divides, gender differences and geographical areas".[165] The word "public" implies the highest level of inclusivity – the public sphere by definition should be open to all. However, this sphere was only public to relative degrees. Enlightenment thinkers frequently contrasted their conception of the "public" with that of the people: Condorcet contrasted "opinion" with populace, Marmontel "the opinion of men of letters" with "the opinion of the multitude" and d'Alembert the "truly enlightened public" with "the blind and noisy multitude".[166] Additionally, most institutions of the public sphere excluded both women and the lower classes.[167] Cross-class influences occurred through noble and lower class participation in areas such as the coffeehouses and the Masonic lodges. Social and cultural implications in the arts Because of the focus on reason over superstition, the Enlightenment cultivated the arts.[168] Emphasis on learning, art and music became more widespread, especially with the growing middle class. Areas of study such as literature, philosophy, science, and the fine arts increasingly explored subject matter to which the general public, in addition to the previously more segregated professionals and patrons, could relate.[169] George Frideric Handel As musicians depended more and more on public support, public concerts became increasingly popular and helped supplement performers' and composers' incomes. The concerts also helped them to reach a wider audience. Handel, for example, epitomized this with his highly public musical activities in London. He gained considerable fame there with performances of his operas and oratorios. The music of Haydn and Mozart, with their Viennese Classical styles, are usually regarded as being the most in line with the Enlightenment ideals.[170] The desire to explore, record and systematize knowledge had a meaningful impact on music publications. Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Dictionnaire de musique (published 1767 in Geneva and 1768 in Paris) was a leading text in the late 18th century.[170] This widely available dictionary gave short definitions of words like genius and taste and was clearly influenced by the Enlightenment movement. Another text influenced by Enlightenment values was Charles Burney's A General History of Music: From the Earliest Ages to the Present Period (1776), which was a historical survey and an attempt to rationalize elements in music systematically over time.[171] Recently, musicologists have shown renewed interest in the ideas and consequences of the Enlightenment. For example, Rose Rosengard Subotnik's Deconstructive Variations (subtitled Music and Reason in Western Society) compares Mozart's Die Zauberflöte (1791) using the Enlightenment and Romantic perspectives and concludes that the work is "an ideal musical representation of the Enlightenment".[171] As the economy and the middle class expanded, there was an increasing number of amateur musicians. One manifestation of this involved women, who became more involved with music on a social level. Women were already engaged in professional roles as singers and increased their presence in the amateur performers' scene, especially with keyboard music.[172] Music publishers begin to print music that amateurs could understand and play. The majority of the works that were published were for keyboard, voice and keyboard and chamber ensemble.[172] After these initial genres were popularized, from the mid-century on, amateur groups sang choral music, which then became a new trend for publishers to capitalize on. The increasing study of the fine arts, as well as access to amateur-friendly published works, led to more people becoming interested in reading and discussing music. Music magazines, reviews and critical works which suited amateurs as well as connoisseurs began to surface.[172] Dissemination of ideas The philosophes spent a great deal of energy disseminating their ideas among educated men and women in cosmopolitan cities. They used many venues, some of them quite new. French philosopher Pierre Bayle The Republic of Letters Main article: Republic of Letters The term "Republic of Letters" was coined in 1664 by Pierre Bayle in his journal Nouvelles de la Republique des Lettres. Towards the end of the 18th century, the editor of Histoire de la République des Lettres en France, a literary survey, described the Republic of Letters as being: In the midst of all the governments that decide the fate of men; in the bosom of so many states, the majority of them despotic ... there exists a certain realm which holds sway only over the mind ... that we honour with the name Republic, because it preserves a measure of independence, and because it is almost its essence to be free. It is the realm of talent and of thought.[173] The Republic of Letters was the sum of a number of Enlightenment ideals: an egalitarian realm governed by knowledge that could act across political boundaries and rival state power.[173] It was a forum that supported "free public examination of questions regarding religion or legislation".[174] Immanuel Kant considered written communication essential to his conception of the public sphere; once everyone was a part of the "reading public", then society could be said to be enlightened.[175] The people who participated in the Republic of Letters, such as Diderot and Voltaire, are frequently known today as important Enlightenment figures. Indeed, the men who wrote Diderot's Encyclopédie arguably formed a microcosm of the larger "republic".[176] Front page of The Gentleman's Magazine, January 1731 Many women played an essential part in the French Enlightenment, due to the role they played as salonnières in Parisian salons, as the contrast to the male philosophes. The salon was the principal social institution of the republic[177] and "became the civil working spaces of the project of Enlightenment". Women, as salonnières, were "the legitimate governors of [the] potentially unruly discourse" that took place within.[178] While women were marginalized in the public culture of the Old Regime, the French Revolution destroyed the old cultural and economic restraints of patronage and corporatism (guilds), opening French society to female participation, particularly in the literary sphere.[179] In France, the established men of letters (gens de lettres) had fused with the elites (les grands) of French society by the mid-18th century. This led to the creation of an oppositional literary sphere, Grub Street, the domain of a "multitude of versifiers and would-be authors".[180] These men came to London to become authors, only to discover that the literary market simply could not support large numbers of writers, who in any case were very poorly remunerated by the publishing-bookselling guilds.[181] The writers of Grub Street, the Grub Street Hacks, were left feeling bitter about the relative success of the men of letters[182] and found an outlet for their literature which was typified by the libelle. Written mostly in the form of pamphlets, the libelles "slandered the court, the Church, the aristocracy, the academies, the salons, everything elevated and respectable, including the monarchy itself".[183] Le Gazetier cuirassé by Charles Théveneau de Morande was a prototype of the genre. It was Grub Street literature that was most read by the public during the Enlightenment.[184] According to Darnton, more importantly the Grub Street hacks inherited the "revolutionary spirit" once displayed by the philosophes and paved the way for the French Revolution by desacralizing figures of political, moral and religious authority in France.[185] The book industry ESTC data 1477–1799 by decade given with a regional differentiation The increased consumption of reading materials of all sorts was one of the key features of the "social" Enlightenment. Developments in the Industrial Revolution allowed consumer goods to be produced in greater quantities at lower prices, encouraging the spread of books, pamphlets, newspapers and journals – "media of the transmission of ideas and attitudes". Commercial development likewise increased the demand for information, along with rising populations and increased urbanisation.[186] However, demand for reading material extended outside of the realm of the commercial and outside the realm of the upper and middle classes, as evidenced by the Bibliothèque Bleue. Literacy rates are difficult to gauge, but in France the rates doubled over the course of the 18th century.[187] Reflecting the decreasing influence of religion, the number of books about science and art published in Paris doubled from 1720 to 1780, while the number of books about religion dropped to just one-tenth of the total.[19] Reading underwent serious changes in the 18th century. In particular, Rolf Engelsing has argued for the existence of a Reading Revolution. Until 1750, reading was done intensively: people tended to own a small number of books and read them repeatedly, often to small audience. After 1750, people began to read "extensively", finding as many books as they could, increasingly reading them alone.[188] This is supported by increasing literacy rates, particularly among women.[189] The vast majority of the reading public could not afford to own a private library and while most of the state-run "universal libraries" set up in the 17th and 18th centuries were open to the public, they were not the only sources of reading material. On one end of the spectrum was the Bibliothèque Bleue, a collection of cheaply produced books published in Troyes, France. Intended for a largely rural and semi-literate audience these books included almanacs, retellings of medieval romances and condensed versions of popular novels, among other things. While some historians have argued against the Enlightenment's penetration into the lower classes, the Bibliothèque Bleue represents at least a desire to participate in Enlightenment sociability.[190] Moving up the classes, a variety of institutions offered readers access to material without needing to buy anything. Libraries that lent out their material for a small price started to appear and occasionally bookstores would offer a small lending library to their patrons. Coffee houses commonly offered books, journals and sometimes even popular novels to their customers. The Tatler and The Spectator, two influential periodicals sold from 1709 to 1714, were closely associated with coffee house culture in London, being both read and produced in various establishments in the city.[191] This is an example of the triple or even quadruple function of the coffee house: reading material was often obtained, read, discussed and even produced on the premises.[192] Denis Diderot is best known as the editor of the Encyclopédie It is extremely difficult to determine what people actually read during the Enlightenment. For example, examining the catalogs of private libraries gives an image skewed in favor of the classes wealthy enough to afford libraries and also ignores censored works unlikely to be publicly acknowledged. For this reason, a study of publishing would be much more fruitful for discerning reading habits.[193] Across continental Europe, but in France especially, booksellers and publishers had to negotiate censorship laws of varying strictness. For example, the Encyclopédie narrowly escaped seizure and had to be saved by Malesherbes, the man in charge of the French censor. Indeed, many publishing companies were conveniently located outside France so as to avoid overzealous French censors. They would smuggle their merchandise across the border, where it would then be transported to clandestine booksellers or small-time peddlers.[194] The records of clandestine booksellers may give a better representation of what literate Frenchmen might have truly read, since their clandestine nature provided a less restrictive product choice.[195] In one case, political books were the most popular category, primarily libels and pamphlets. Readers were more interested in sensationalist stories about criminals and political corruption than they were in political theory itself. The second most popular category, "general works" (those books "that did not have a dominant motif and that contained something to offend almost everyone in authority"), demonstrated a high demand for generally low-brow subversive literature. However, these works never became part of literary canon and are largely forgotten today as a result.[195] A healthy, legal publishing industry existed throughout Europe, although established publishers and book sellers occasionally ran afoul of the law. For example, the Encyclopédie condemned not only by the King, but also by Clement XII, nevertheless found its way into print with the help of the aforementioned Malesherbes and creative use of French censorship law.[196] However, many works were sold without running into any legal trouble at all. Borrowing records from libraries in England, Germany, and North America indicate that more than 70 percent of books borrowed were novels. Less than 1 percent of the books were of a religious nature, indicating the general trend of declining religiosity.[173] Natural history Georges Buffon is best remembered for his Histoire naturelle, a 44 volume encyclopedia describing everything known about the natural world Main article: Natural history A genre that greatly rose in importance was that of scientific literature. Natural history in particular became increasingly popular among the upper classes. Works of natural history include René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur's Histoire naturelle des insectes and Jacques Gautier d'Agoty's La Myologie complète, ou description de tous les muscles du corps humain (1746). Outside ancien régime France, natural history was an important part of medicine and industry, encompassing the fields of botany, zoology, meteorology, hydrology and mineralogy. Students in Enlightenment universities and academies were taught these subjects to prepare them for careers as diverse as medicine and theology. As shown by Matthew Daniel Eddy, natural history in this context was a very middle class pursuit and operated as a fertile trading zone for the interdisciplinary exchange of diverse scientific ideas.[197] The target audience of natural history was French polite society, evidenced more by the specific discourse of the genre than by the generally high prices of its works. Naturalists catered to polite society's desire for erudition – many texts had an explicit instructive purpose. However, natural history was often a political affair. As Emma Spary writes, the classifications used by naturalists "slipped between the natural world and the social ... to establish not only the expertise of the naturalists over the natural, but also the dominance of the natural over the social".[198] The idea of taste (le goût) was a social indicator: to truly be able to categorize nature, one had to have the proper taste, an ability of discretion shared by all members of polite society. In this way natural history spread many of the scientific developments of the time, but also provided a new source of legitimacy for the dominant class.[199] From this basis, naturalists could then develop their own social ideals based on their scientific works.[200] Scientific and literary journals Journal des sçavans was the earliest academic journal published in Europe The first scientific and literary journals were established during the Enlightenment. The first journal, the Parisian Journal des Sçavans, appeared in 1665. However, it was not until 1682 that periodicals began to be more widely produced. French and Latin were the dominant languages of publication, but there was also a steady demand for material in German and Dutch. There was generally low demand for English publications on the Continent, which was echoed by England's similar lack of desire for French works. Languages commanding less of an international market—such as Danish, Spanish and Portuguese—found journal success more difficult and more often than not a more international language was used instead. French slowly took over Latin's status as the lingua franca of learned circles. This in turn gave precedence to the publishing industry in Holland, where the vast majority of these French language periodicals were produced.[201] Jonathan Israel called the journals the most influential cultural innovation of European intellectual culture.[202] They shifted the attention of the "cultivated public" away from established authorities to novelty and innovation and instead promoted the "enlightened" ideals of toleration and intellectual objectivity. Being a source of knowledge derived from science and reason, they were an implicit critique of existing notions of universal truth monopolized by monarchies, parliaments and religious authorities. They also advanced Christian enlightenment that upheld "the legitimacy of God-ordained authority"—the Bible—in which there had to be agreement between the biblical and natural theories.[203] Encyclopedias and dictionaries First page of the Encyclopedie, published between 1751 and 1766 Although the existence of dictionaries and encyclopedias spanned into ancient times, the texts changed from simply defining words in a long running list to far more detailed discussions of those words in 18th-century encyclopedic dictionaries.[204] The works were part of an Enlightenment movement to systematize knowledge and provide education to a wider audience than the elite. As the 18th century progressed, the content of encyclopedias also changed according to readers' tastes. Volumes tended to focus more strongly on secular affairs, particularly science and technology, rather than matters of theology. Along with secular matters, readers also favoured an alphabetical ordering scheme over cumbersome works arranged along thematic lines.[205] Commenting on alphabetization, the historian Charles Porset has said that "as the zero degree of taxonomy, alphabetical order authorizes all reading strategies; in this respect it could be considered an emblem of the Enlightenment". For Porset, the avoidance of thematic and hierarchical systems thus allows free interpretation of the works and becomes an example of egalitarianism.[206] Encyclopedias and dictionaries also became more popular during the Age of Enlightenment as the number of educated consumers who could afford such texts began to multiply.[204] In the later half of the 18th century, the number of dictionaries and encyclopedias published by decade increased from 63 between 1760 and 1769 to approximately 148 in the decade proceeding the French Revolution (1780–1789).[207] Along with growth in numbers, dictionaries and encyclopedias also grew in length, often having multiple print runs that sometimes included in supplemented editions.[205] The first technical dictionary was drafted by John Harris and entitled Lexicon Technicum: Or, An Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. Harris' book avoided theological and biographical entries and instead it concentrated on science and technology. Published in 1704, the Lexicon technicum was the first book to be written in English that took a methodical approach to describing mathematics and commercial arithmetic along with the physical sciences and navigation. Other technical dictionaries followed Harris' model, including Ephraim Chambers' Cyclopaedia (1728), which included five editions and was a substantially larger work than Harris'. The folio edition of the work even included foldout engravings. The Cyclopaedia emphasized Newtonian theories, Lockean philosophy and contained thorough examinations of technologies, such as engraving, brewing and dyeing. "Figurative system of human knowledge", the structure that the Encyclopédie organised knowledge into—it had three main branches: memory, reason and imagination In Germany, practical reference works intended for the uneducated majority became popular in the 18th century. The Marperger Curieuses Natur-, Kunst-, Berg-, Gewerkund Handlungs-Lexicon (1712) explained terms that usefully described the trades and scientific and commercial education. Jablonksi Allgemeines Lexicon (1721) was better known than the Handlungs-Lexicon and underscored technical subjects rather than scientific theory. For example, over five columns of text were dedicated to wine while geometry and logic were allocated only twenty-two and seventeen lines, respectively. The first edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (1771) was modelled along the same lines as the German lexicons.[208] However, the prime example of reference works that systematized scientific knowledge in the age of Enlightenment were universal encyclopedias rather than technical dictionaries. It was the goal of universal encyclopedias to record all human knowledge in a comprehensive reference work.[209] The most well-known of these works is Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert's Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers. The work, which began publication in 1751, was composed of thirty-five volumes and over 71 000 separate entries. A great number of the entries were dedicated to describing the sciences and crafts in detail and provided intellectuals across Europe with a high-quality survey of human knowledge. In d'Alembert's Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot, the work's goal to record the extent of human knowledge in the arts and sciences is outlined: As an Encyclopédie, it is to set forth as well as possible the order and connection of the parts of human knowledge. As a Reasoned Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades, it is to contain the general principles that form the basis of each science and each art, liberal or mechanical, and the most essential facts that make up the body and substance of each.[210] The massive work was arranged according to a "tree of knowledge". The tree reflected the marked division between the arts and sciences, which was largely a result of the rise of empiricism. Both areas of knowledge were united by philosophy, or the trunk of the tree of knowledge. The Enlightenment's desacrilization of religion was pronounced in the tree's design, particularly where theology accounted for a peripheral branch, with black magic as a close neighbour.[211] As the Encyclopédie gained popularity, it was published in quarto and octavo editions after 1777. The quarto and octavo editions were much less expensive than previous editions, making the Encyclopédie more accessible to the non-elite. Robert Darnton estimates that there were approximately 25 000 copies of the Encyclopédie in circulation throughout France and Europe before the French Revolution.[212] The extensive, yet affordable encyclopedia came to represent the transmission of Enlightenment and scientific education to an expanding audience.[213] Popularization of science One of the most important developments that the Enlightenment era brought to the discipline of science was its popularization. An increasingly literate population seeking knowledge and education in both the arts and the sciences drove the expansion of print culture and the dissemination of scientific learning. The new literate population was due to a high rise in the availability of food. This enabled many people to rise out of poverty, and instead of paying more for food, they had money for education.[214] Popularization was generally part of an overarching Enlightenment ideal that endeavoured "to make information available to the greatest number of people".[215] As public interest in natural philosophy grew during the 18th century, public lecture courses and the publication of popular texts opened up new roads to money and fame for amateurs and scientists who remained on the periphery of universities and academies.[216] More formal works included explanations of scientific theories for individuals lacking the educational background to comprehend the original scientific text. Sir Isaac Newton's celebrated Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica was published in Latin and remained inaccessible to readers without education in the classics until Enlightenment writers began to translate and analyze the text in the vernacular. A portrait of Bernard de Fontenelle The first significant work that expressed scientific theory and knowledge expressly for the laity, in the vernacular and with the entertainment of readers in mind, was Bernard de Fontenelle's Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (1686). The book was produced specifically for women with an interest in scientific writing and inspired a variety of similar works.[217] These popular works were written in a discursive style, which was laid out much more clearly for the reader than the complicated articles, treatises and books published by the academies and scientists. Charles Leadbetter's Astronomy (1727) was advertised as "a Work entirely New" that would include "short and easie [sic] Rules and Astronomical Tables".[218] The first French introduction to Newtonianism and the Principia was Eléments de la philosophie de Newton, published by Voltaire in 1738.[219] Émilie du Châtelet's translation of the Principia, published after her death in 1756, also helped to spread Newton's theories beyond scientific academies and the university.[220] Writing for a growing female audience, Francesco Algarotti published Il Newtonianism per le dame, which was a tremendously popular work and was translated from Italian into English by Elizabeth Carter. A similar introduction to Newtonianism for women was produced by Henry Pemberton. His A View of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophy was published by subscription. Extant records of subscribers show that women from a wide range of social standings purchased the book, indicating the growing number of scientifically inclined female readers among the middling class.[221] During the Enlightenment, women also began producing popular scientific works themselves. Sarah Trimmer wrote a successful natural history textbook for children titled The Easy Introduction to the Knowledge of Nature (1782), which was published for many years after in eleven editions.[222] Schools and universities Main article: Education in the Age of Enlightenment Most work on the Enlightenment emphasizes the ideals discussed by intellectuals, rather than the actual state of education at the time. Leading educational theorists like England's John Locke and Switzerland's Jean Jacques Rousseau both emphasized the importance of shaping young minds early. By the late Enlightenment, there was a rising demand for a more universal approach to education, particularly after the American and French Revolutions. The predominant educational psychology from the 1750s onward, especially in northern European countries was associationism, the notion that the mind associates or dissociates ideas through repeated routines. In addition to being conducive to Enlightenment ideologies of liberty, self-determination and personal responsibility, it offered a practical theory of the mind that allowed teachers to transform longstanding forms of print and manuscript culture into effective graphic tools of learning for the lower and middle orders of society.[223] Children were taught to memorize facts through oral and graphic methods that originated during the Renaissance.[224] Many of the leading universities associated with Enlightenment progressive principles were located in northern Europe, with the most renowned being the universities of Leiden, Göttingen, Halle, Montpellier, Uppsala and Edinburgh. These universities, especially Edinburgh, produced professors whose ideas had a significant impact on Britain's North American colonies and later the American Republic. Within the natural sciences, Edinburgh's medical school also led the way in chemistry, anatomy and pharmacology.[225] In other parts of Europe, the universities and schools of France and most of Europe were bastions of traditionalism and were not hospitable to the Enlightenment. In France, the major exception was the medical university at Montpellier.[226] Learned academies Louis XIV visiting the Académie des sciences in 1671: "It is widely accepted that 'modern science' arose in the Europe of the 17th century, introducing a new understanding of the natural world" — Peter Barrett[227] The history of Academies in France during the Enlightenment begins with the Academy of Science, founded in 1635 in Paris. It was closely tied to the French state, acting as an extension of a government seriously lacking in scientists. It helped promote and organize new disciplines and it trained new scientists. It also contributed to the enhancement of scientists' social status, considering them to be the "most useful of all citizens". Academies demonstrate the rising interest in science along with its increasing secularization, as evidenced by the small number of clerics who were members (13 percent).[228] The presence of the French academies in the public sphere cannot be attributed to their membership, as although the majority of their members were bourgeois, the exclusive institution was only open to elite Parisian scholars. They perceived themselves as "interpreters of the sciences for the people". For example, it was with this in mind that academicians took it upon themselves to disprove the popular pseudo-science of mesmerism.[229] The strongest contribution of the French Academies to the public sphere comes from the concours académiques (roughly translated as "academic contests") they sponsored throughout France. These academic contests were perhaps the most public of any institution during the Enlightenment.[230] The practice of contests dated back to the Middle Ages and was revived in the mid-17th century. The subject matter had previously been generally religious and/or monarchical, featuring essays, poetry and painting. However, by roughly 1725 this subject matter had radically expanded and diversified, including "royal propaganda, philosophical battles, and critical ruminations on the social and political institutions of the Old Regime". Topics of public controversy were also discussed such as the theories of Newton and Descartes, the slave trade, women's education and justice in France.[231] Antoine Lavoisier conducting an experiment related to combustion generated by amplified sun light More importantly, the contests were open to all and the enforced anonymity of each submission guaranteed that neither gender nor social rank would determine the judging. Indeed, although the "vast majority" of participants belonged to the wealthier strata of society ("the liberal arts, the clergy, the judiciary and the medical profession"), there were some cases of the popular classes submitting essays and even winning.[232] Similarly, a significant number of women participated—and won—the competitions. Of a total of 2,300 prize competitions offered in France, women won 49—perhaps a small number by modern standards, but very significant in an age in which most women did not have any academic training. Indeed, the majority of the winning entries were for poetry competitions, a genre commonly stressed in women's education.[233] In England, the Royal Society of London also played a significant role in the public sphere and the spread of Enlightenment ideas. It was founded by a group of independent scientists and given a royal charter in 1662.[234] The Society played a large role in spreading Robert Boyle's experimental philosophy around Europe and acted as a clearinghouse for intellectual correspondence and exchange.[235] Boyle was "a founder of the experimental world in which scientists now live and operate" and his method based knowledge on experimentation, which had to be witnessed to provide proper empirical legitimacy. This is where the Royal Society came into play: witnessing had to be a "collective act" and the Royal Society's assembly rooms were ideal locations for relatively public demonstrations.[236] However, not just any witness was considered to be credible: "Oxford professors were accounted more reliable witnesses than Oxfordshire peasants". Two factors were taken into account: a witness's knowledge in the area and a witness's "moral constitution". In other words, only civil society were considered for Boyle's public.[237] Salons Main article: Historiography of the salon Salons were places where philosophes were reunited and discussed old, actual or new ideas. This led to salons being the birthplace of intellectual and enlightened ideas. Coffeehouses Main articles: Coffeehouse and English coffeehouses in the 17th and 18th centuries Coffeehouses were especially important to the spread of knowledge during the Enlightenment because they created a unique environment in which people from many different walks of life gathered and shared ideas. They were frequently criticized by nobles who feared the possibility of an environment in which class and its accompanying titles and privileges were disregarded. Such an environment was especially intimidating to monarchs who derived much of their power from the disparity between classes of people. If classes were to join together under the influence of Enlightenment thinking, they might recognize the all-encompassing oppression and abuses of their monarchs and because of their size might be able to carry out successful revolts. Monarchs also resented the idea of their subjects convening as one to discuss political matters, especially those concerning foreign affairs—rulers thought political affairs to be their business only, a result of their supposed divine right to rule.[238] Coffeehouses represent a turning point in history during which people discovered that they could have enjoyable social lives within their communities. Coffeeshops became homes away from home for many who sought, for the first time, to engage in discourse with their neighbors and discuss intriguing and thought-provoking matters, especially those regarding philosophy to politics. Coffeehouses were essential to the Enlightenment, for they were centers of free-thinking and self-discovery. Although many coffeehouse patrons were scholars, a great deal were not. Coffeehouses attracted a diverse set of people, including not only the educated wealthy but also members of the bourgeoisie and the lower class. While it may seem positive that patrons, being doctors, lawyers, merchants, etc. represented almost all classes, the coffeeshop environment sparked fear in those who sought to preserve class distinction. One of the most popular critiques of the coffeehouse claimed that it "allowed promiscuous association among people from different rungs of the social ladder, from the artisan to the aristocrat" and was therefore compared to Noah's Ark, receiving all types of animals, clean or unclean.[239] This unique culture served as a catalyst for journalism when Joseph Addison and Richard Steele recognized its potential as an audience. Together, Steele and Addison published The Spectator (1711), a daily publication which aimed, through fictional narrator Mr. Spectator, both to entertain and to provoke discussion regarding serious philosophical matters. The first English coffeehouse opened in Oxford in 1650. Brian Cowan said that Oxford coffeehouses developed into "penny universities", offering a locus of learning that was less formal than structured institutions. These penny universities occupied a significant position in Oxford academic life, as they were frequented by those consequently referred to as the virtuosi, who conducted their research on some of the resulting premises. According to Cowan, "the coffeehouse was a place for like-minded scholars to congregate, to read, as well as learn from and to debate with each other, but was emphatically not a university institution, and the discourse there was of a far different order than any university tutorial".[240] The Café Procope was established in Paris in 1686 and by the 1720s there were around 400 cafés in the city. The Café Procope in particular became a center of Enlightenment, welcoming such celebrities as Voltaire and Rousseau. The Café Procope was where Diderot and D'Alembert decided to create the Encyclopédie.[241] The cafés were one of the various "nerve centers" for bruits publics, public noise or rumour. These bruits were allegedly a much better source of information than were the actual newspapers available at the time.[242] Debating societies Main article: London Debating Societies The debating societies are an example of the public sphere during the Enlightenment.[243] Their origins include: Clubs of fifty or more men who, at the beginning of the 18th century, met in pubs to discuss religious issues and affairs of state. Mooting clubs, set up by law students to practice rhetoric. Spouting clubs, established to help actors train for theatrical roles. John Henley's Oratory, which mixed outrageous sermons with even more absurd questions, like "Whether Scotland be anywhere in the world?".[244] An example of a French salon In the late 1770s, popular debating societies began to move into more "genteel" rooms, a change which helped establish a new standard of sociability.[245] The backdrop to these developments was "an explosion of interest in the theory and practice of public elocution". The debating societies were commercial enterprises that responded to this demand, sometimes very successfully. Some societies welcomed from 800 to 1,200 spectators a night.[246] The debating societies discussed an extremely wide range of topics. Before the Enlightenment, most intellectual debates revolved around "confessional" – that is, Catholic, Lutheran, Reformed (Calvinist) or Anglican issues and the main aim of these debates was to establish which bloc of faith ought to have the "monopoly of truth and a God-given title to authority".[247] After this date, everything thus previously rooted in tradition was questioned and often replaced by new concepts in the light of philosophical reason. After the second half of the 17th century and during the 18th century, a "general process of rationalization and secularization set in" and confessional disputes were reduced to a secondary status in favor of the "escalating contest between faith and incredulity".[247] In addition to debates on religion, societies discussed issues such as politics and the role of women. However, it is important to note that the critical subject matter of these debates did not necessarily translate into opposition to the government. In other words, the results of the debate quite frequently upheld the status quo.[248] From a historical standpoint, one of the most important features of the debating society was their openness to the public, as women attended and even participated in almost every debating society, which were likewise open to all classes providing they could pay the entrance fee. Once inside, spectators were able to participate in a largely egalitarian form of sociability that helped spread Enlightenment ideas.[249] Masonic lodges Masonic initiation ceremony Historians have long debated the extent to which the secret network of Freemasonry was a main factor in the Enlightenment. The leaders of the Enlightenment included Freemasons such as Diderot, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Lessing, Pope,[250] Horace Walpole, Sir Robert Walpole, Mozart, Goethe, Frederick the Great, Benjamin Franklin[251] and George Washington.[252] Norman Davies said that Freemasonry was a powerful force on behalf of liberalism in Europe from about 1700 to the twentieth century. It expanded rapidly during the Age of Enlightenment, reaching practically every country in Europe. It was especially attractive to powerful aristocrats and politicians as well as intellectuals, artists and political activists.[253] During the Age of Enlightenment, Freemasons comprised an international network of like-minded men, often meeting in secret in ritualistic programs at their lodges. They promoted the ideals of the Enlightenment and helped diffuse these values across Britain and France and other places. Freemasonry as a systematic creed with its own myths, values and set of rituals originated in Scotland around 1600 and spread first to England and then across the Continent in the eighteenth century. They fostered new codes of conduct—including a communal understanding of liberty and equality inherited from guild sociability—"liberty, fraternity and equality".[254] Scottish soldiers and Jacobite Scots brought to the Continent ideals of fraternity which reflected not the local system of Scottish customs but the institutions and ideals originating in the English Revolution against royal absolutism.[255] Freemasonry was particularly prevalent in France—by 1789, there were perhaps as many as 100,000 French Masons, making Freemasonry the most popular of all Enlightenment associations.[256] The Freemasons displayed a passion for secrecy and created new degrees and ceremonies. Similar societies, partially imitating Freemasonry, emerged in France, Germany, Sweden and Russia. One example was the Illuminati founded in Bavaria in 1776, which was copied after the Freemasons, but was never part of the movement. The Illuminati was an overtly political group, which most Masonic lodges decidedly were not.[257] Masonic lodges created a private model for public affairs. They "reconstituted the polity and established a constitutional form of self-government, complete with constitutions and laws, elections and representatives". In other words, the micro-society set up within the lodges constituted a normative model for society as a whole. This was especially true on the continent: when the first lodges began to appear in the 1730s, their embodiment of British values was often seen as threatening by state authorities. For example, the Parisian lodge that met in the mid 1720s was composed of English Jacobite exiles.[258] Furthermore, freemasons all across Europe explicitly linked themselves to the Enlightenment as a whole. For example, in French lodges the line "As the means to be enlightened I search for the enlightened" was a part of their initiation rites. British lodges assigned themselves the duty to "initiate the unenlightened". This did not necessarily link lodges to the irreligious, but neither did this exclude them from the occasional heresy. In fact, many lodges praised the Grand Architect, the masonic terminology for the deistic divine being who created a scientifically ordered universe.[259] German historian Reinhart Koselleck claimed: "On the Continent there were two social structures that left a decisive imprint on the Age of Enlightenment: the Republic of Letters and the Masonic lodges".[260] Scottish professor Thomas Munck argues that "although the Masons did promote international and cross-social contacts which were essentially non-religious and broadly in agreement with enlightened values, they can hardly be described as a major radical or reformist network in their own right".[261] Many of the Masons values seemed to greatly appeal to Enlightenment values and thinkers. Diderot discusses the link between Freemason ideals and the enlightenment in D'Alembert's Dream, exploring masonry as a way of spreading enlightenment beliefs.[262] Historian Margaret Jacob stresses the importance of the Masons in indirectly inspiring enlightened political thought.[263] On the negative side, Daniel Roche contests claims that Masonry promoted egalitarianism and he argues that the lodges only attracted men of similar social backgrounds.[264] The presence of noble women in the French "lodges of adoption" that formed in the 1780s was largely due to the close ties shared between these lodges and aristocratic society.[265] The major opponent of Freemasonry was the Roman Catholic Church so that in countries with a large Catholic element, such as France, Italy, Spain and Mexico, much of the ferocity of the political battles involve the confrontation between what Davies calls the reactionary Church and enlightened Freemasonry.[266][267] Even in France, Masons did not act as a group.[268] American historians, while noting that Benjamin Franklin and George Washington were indeed active Masons, have downplayed the importance of Freemasonry in causing the American Revolution because the Masonic order was non-political and included both Patriots and their enemy the Loyalists.[269] Art The art produced during the Enlightenment focused on a search for morality that was absent from the art in previous eras. At the same time, the Classical art of Greece and Rome became interesting to people again, since archaeological teams discovered Pompeii and Herculaneum.[270] People did take inspiration from it and revived the classical art into neo-classical art. This can be especially seen in early American art, where, throughout their art and architecture, they used arches, goddesses, and other classical architectural designs. Important intellectuals For a more comprehensive list, see List of intellectuals of the Enlightenment. See also 1755 Lisbon earthquake Atlantic Revolutions Chapbook Early modern philosophy Education in the Age of Enlightenment European and American voyages of scientific exploration Midlands Enlightenment Regional Enlightenments: American Enlightenment Haskalah, Jewish Enlightenment Modern Greek Enlightenment Polish Enlightenment Russian Enlightenment Scottish Enlightenment Spanish Enlightenment Whig history Notes ^ Back row, left to right: Jean-Baptiste-Louis Gresset, Pierre de Marivaux, Jean-François Marmontel, Joseph-Marie Vien, Antoine Léonard Thomas, Charles Marie de La Condamine, Guillaume Thomas François Raynal, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Jean-Philippe Rameau, La Clairon, Charles-Jean-François Hénault, Étienne François, duc de Choiseul, a bust of Voltaire, Charles-Augustin de Ferriol d'Argental, Jean François de Saint-Lambert, Edmé Bouchardon, Jacques-Germain Soufflot, Jean-Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville, Anne Claude de Caylus, Fortunato Felice, François Quesnay, Denis Diderot, Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune, Chrétien Guillaume de Lamoignon de Malesherbes, Armand de Vignerot du Plessis, Pierre Louis Maupertuis, Jean-Jacques Dortous de Mairan, Henri François d'Aguesseau, Alexis Clairaut. Front row, right to left: Montesquieu, Sophie d'Houdetot, Claude Joseph Vernet, Bernard Le Bouyer de Fontenelle, Marie-Thérèse Rodet Geoffrin, Louis François, Prince of Conti, Duchesse d'Anville, Philippe Jules François Mancini, François-Joachim de Pierre de Bernis, Claude Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon, Alexis Piron, Charles Pinot Duclos, Claude-Adrien Helvétius, Charles-André van Loo, Jean le Rond d'Alembert, Lekain at the desk reading aloud, Jeanne Julie Éléonore de Lespinasse, Anne-Marie du Boccage, René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur, Françoise de Graffigny, Étienne Bonnot de Condillac, Bernard de Jussieu, Louis-Jean-Marie Daubenton, Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon. ^ French: le Siècle des Lumières, lit. 'the Century of Lights'; German: Aufklärung, "Enlightenment"; Italian: L'Illuminismo, "Enlightenment"; Polish: Oświecenie , "Enlightenment"; Portuguese: Iluminismo, "Enlightenment"; Spanish: La Ilustración, "Enlightenment"[2] ^ For example, Robert Darnton, Roger Chartier, Brian Cowan, Donna T. Andrew. References Citations ^ Roberson, Rusty (2016), "Enlightened Piety during the Age of Benevolence: The Christian Knowledge Movement in the British Atlantic World", Church History, 85 (2): 246, doi:10.1017/S0009640716000391 ^ "Enlightenment", Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica Online, Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2016, retrieved 13 June 2016 ^ "The Age of Enlightenment: A History From Beginning to End: Chapter 3". publishinghau5.com. Archived from the original on 3 March 2017. Retrieved 3 April 2017. ^ Eugen Weber, Movements, Currents, Trends: Aspects of European Thought in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (1992). ^ Outram, Dorinda (2006), Panorama of the Enlightenment, Getty Publications, p. 29, ISBN 978-0892368617 ^ Zafirovski, Milan (2010), The Enlightenment and Its Effects on Modern Society, p. 144 ^ Gay, Peter (1996), The Enlightenment: An Interpretation, W.W. Norton & Company, ISBN 0-393-00870-3 ^ Vottari, Giuseppe (2003). L'illuminismo. Un percorso alfabetico nell'età delle riforme. Alpha Test. p. 54. ISBN 978-88-483-0456-6. ^ Maddaloni, Domenico (2011-11-17). Visioni in movimento. Teorie dell'evoluzione e scienze sociali dall'Illuminismo a oggi: Teorie dell'evoluzione e scienze sociali dall'Illuminismo a oggi. FrancoAngeli. p. 20. ISBN 978-88-568-7115-9. ^ I. Bernard Cohen, "Scientific Revolution and Creativity in the Enlightenment." Eighteenth-Century Life 7.2 (1982): 41–54. ^ Sootin, Harry. Isaac Newton. New York: Messner (1955) ^ a b Jeremy Black, "Ancien Regime and Enlightenment. Some Recent Writing on Seventeenth-and Eighteenth-Century Europe," European History Quarterly 22.2 (1992): 247–55. ^ Robert Darnton, The Business of Enlightenment: a publishing history of the Encyclopédie, 1775–1800 (2009). ^ Robert A. Ferguson, The American Enlightenment, 1750–1820 (1994). ^ Israel 2006, p. 15. ^ Israel 2010, pp. vii–viii, 19. ^ Israel 2010, p. 11. ^ "Enlightenment - Definition, History, & Facts". 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Retrieved 2014-01-14. ^ Pierre Manent, An Intellectual History of Liberalism (1994) pp. 20–38 ^ "The Abolition of The Slave Trade" ^ Lessnoff, Michael H. Social Contract Theory. New York: NYU, 1990. Print.[page needed] ^ Discourse on the Origin of Inequality ^ Rand, B. (1900), The Life, Unpublished Letters and Philosophical Regimen of Anthony, Earl of Shaftesbury, p. 353 quoted in Porter, Roy (2000), Enlightenment, Britain and the Creation of the Modern World, Allen Lane, The Penguin Press, p. 3 ^ Lorraine Y. Landry, Marx and the postmodernism debates: an agenda for critical theory (2000) p. 7 ^ Of the Original Contract ^ Eltis, David; Walvin, James, eds. (1981). The Abolition of the Atlantic Slave Trade. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. p. 76. ^ Northrup, David, ed. (2002). The Atlantic Slave Trade. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. p. 200. ^ David Williams, ed. (1994). Voltaire: Political Writings. pp. xiv–xv. ISBN 978-0-521-43727-1. ^ Stephen J. Lee, Aspects of European history, 1494–1789 (1990) pp. 258–66 ^ Nicholas Henderson, "Joseph II", History Today (March 1991) 41:21–27 ^ John Stanley, "Towards A New Nation: The Enlightenment and National Revival in Poland", Canadian Review of Studies in Nationalism, 1983, Vol. 10 Issue 2, pp. 83–110 ^ Giles MacDonogh, Frederick the Great: A Life in Deed and Letters (2001) p. 341 ^ Chartier, 8. See also Alexis de Tocqueville, L'Ancien Régime et la Révolution, 1850, Book Three, Chapter One. ^ Chartier, 13. ^ Voltaire (1763) A Treatise on Toleration ^ Margaret C. Jacob, ed. The Enlightenment: Brief History with Documents, Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2001, Introduction, pp. 1–72. ^ Locke, John (1695). Reasonableness of Christianity. "Preface" The Reasonableness of Christianity, as delivered in the Scriptures. ^ R.B. Bernstein (2003). Thomas Jefferson. Oxford University Press. p. 179. ISBN 978-0-19-975844-9. ^ Ole Peter Grell; Porter, Roy (2000). Toleration in Enlightenment Europe. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–68. ISBN 978-0-521-65196-7. ^ Baruch Spinoza, Theologico-Political Treatise, "Preface," 1677, gutenberg.com ^ Mendelssohn, Moses (1783). "Jerusalem: Or on Religious Power and Judaism" (PDF). ^ Goetschel, Willi (2004). Spinoza's Modernity: Mendelssohn, Lessing, and Heine. Univ of Wisconsin Press. p. 126. ISBN 978-0-299-19083-5. ^ Thomas Paine, Of the Religion of Deism Compared with the Christian Religion, 1804, Internet History Sourcebook ^ Ellen Judy Wilson; Peter Hanns Reill (2004). Encyclopedia Of The Enlightenment. Infobase Publishing. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-4381-1021-9. ^ Wilson and Reill (2004). Encyclopedia Of The Enlightenment. Infobase Publishing. p. 26. ISBN 978-1-4381-1021-9. ^ Pagden, Anthony (2013). The Enlightenment: And Why it Still Matters. Oxford University Press. p. 100. ISBN 978-0-19-966093-3. ^ Brown, Stuart (2003). British Philosophy and the Age of Enlightenment: Routledge History of Philosophy. Taylor & Francis. p. 256. ISBN 978-0-415-30877-9. ^ Bayle, Pierre (1741). A general dictionary: historical and critical: in which a new and accurate translation of that of the celebrated Mr. Bayle, with the corrections and observations printed in the late edition at Paris, is included; and interspersed with several thousand lives never before published. The whole containing the history of the most illustrious persons of all ages and nations particularly those of Great Britain and Ireland, distinguished by their rank, actions, learning and other accomplishments. With reflections on such passages of Bayle, as seem to favor scepticism and the Manichee system. p. 778. ^ ENR // AgencyND // University of Notre Dame (2003-05-04). "God, Locke and Equality: Christian Foundations of Locke's Political Thought". Nd.edu. ^ Israel 2011, pp. 11. ^ Israel 2010, p. 19. ^ Israel 2010, pp. vii–viii. ^ Feldman, Noah (2005). Divided by God. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, p. 29 ("It took John Locke to translate the demand for liberty of conscience into a systematic argument for distinguishing the realm of government from the realm of religion.") ^ Feldman, Noah (2005). Divided by God. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, p. 29 ^ Ferling, 2000, p. 158 ^ Mayer, 1994 p. 76 ^ Hayes, 2008, p. 10 ^ Cogliano, 2003, p. 14 ^ David N. Livingstone and Charles W.J. Withers, Geography and Enlightenment (1999) ^ a b A History of Modern Latin America: 1800 to the Present, Second Edition, by Teresa A. Meade ^ Peter Gay, ed. The Enlightenment: A comprehensive anthology (1973) p. 14 ^ Roy Porter, "England" in Alan Charles Kors, ed., Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment (2003) 1:409–15. ^ Karen O'Brien, "English Enlightenment Histories, 1750–c.1815" in José Rabasa, ed. (2012). The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 3: 1400–1800. Oxford, England: OUP. pp. 518–35. 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Sauter, "The Enlightenment on trial: state service and social discipline in eighteenth-century Germany's public sphere." Modern Intellectual History 5.2 (2008): 195–223. ^ Dino Carpanetto and Giuseppe Ricuperati, Italy in the Age of Reason, 1685–1789 (1987). ^ Burr Litchfield, "Italy" in Kors, ed., Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment (2003) 2:270–76 ^ Niccolò Guasti, "Antonio genovesi's Diceosina: Source of the Neapolitan Enlightenment." History of European ideas 32.4 (2006): 385–405. ^ Pier Luigi Porta, "Lombard enlightenment and classical political economy." The European Journal of the History of Economic Thought 18.4 (2011): 521–50. ^ Franco Venturi, Italy and the Enlightenment: studies in a cosmopolitan century (1972) online ^ Anna Maria Rao, "Enlightenment and reform: an overview of culture and politics in Enlightenment Italy." Journal of Modern Italian Studies 10.2 (2005): 142–67. ^ Hostettler, John (2011). Cesare Beccaria: The Genius of 'On Crimes and Punishments'. Hampshire: Waterside Press. p. 160. ISBN 978-1904380634. ^ Aldridge, Alfred Owen. The Ibero-American Enlightenment. Urbana: University of Illinois Press 1971. ^ De Vos, Paula S. "Research, Development, and Empire: State Support of Science in Spain and Spanish America, Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries," Colonial Latin America Review 15, no. 1 (June 2006) 55-79. ^ Bleichmar, Daniela. Visible Empire: Botanical Expeditions & Visual Culture in the Hispanic Enlightenment. Chicago: University of Chicago Press 2012. ^ Brading, D. A. The First America: The Spanish Monarchy, Creole Patriots, and the Liberal State, 1492-1867 Chapter 23, "Scientific Traveller". New York: Cambridge University Press 1991 ISBN 0-521-39130-X ^ Thiessen, Heather. "Spain: Constitution of 1812." Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture, vol. 5, p. 165. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996. ^ Elise Kimerling Wirtschafter, "Thoughts on the Enlightenment and Enlightenment in Russia", Modern Russian History & Historiography, 2009, Vol. 2 Issue 2, pp. 1–26 ^ Israel 2011, pp. 609–32. ^ Colum Leckey, "What is Prosveshchenie? Nikolai Novikov's Historical Dictionary of Russian Writers Revisited." Russian History 37.4 (2010): 360–77. ^ Maciej Janowski, "Warsaw and Its Intelligentsia: Urban Space and Social Change, 1750–1831." Acta Poloniae Historica 100 (2009): 57–77. ISSN 0001-6829 ^ Richard Butterwick, "What is Enlightenment (oświecenie)? Some Polish Answers, 1765–1820." Central Europe 3.1 (2005): 19–37. online[dead link] ^ Jerzy Snopek, "The Polish Literature of the Enlightenment." Archived 2011-10-05 at the Wayback Machine (PDF 122 KB) Poland.pl. Retrieved October 7, 2011. ^ Keith Thomas, "The Great Fight Over the Enlightenment," The New York Review April 3, 2014 ^ a b Thomas, 2014 ^ Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd Edn (revised) ^ Lough, John (1985). "Reflections on Enlightenment and Lumieres". Journal for Eighteenth-Century Studies. 8#1: 1–15. doi:10.1111/j.1754-0208.1985.tb00093.x. ^ Jean le Rond d'Alembert, Discours préliminaire de l'Encyclopédie ^ Outram, 1. The past tense is used deliberately as whether man would educate himself or be educated by certain exemplary figures was a common issue at the time. D'Alembert's introduction to l'Encyclopédie, for example, along with Immanuel Kant's essay response (the "independent thinkers"), both support the later model. ^ Immanuel Kant, "What is Enlightenment?", 1. ^ Porter 2001, p. 1 ^ Ernst Cassirer, The Philosophy of the Enlightenment, (1951), p. vi ^ Porter 2001, p. 70 ^ a b Russell, Bertrand. A History of Western Philosophy. pp. 492–94 ^ Israel 2010, pp. 49–50. ^ Israel 2006, pp. v–viii. ^ Israel 2001, pp. 3. ^ Martin Heidegger [1938] (2002) The Age of the World Picture quotation: For up to Descartes ... a particular sub-iectum ... lies at the foundation of its own fixed qualities and changing circumstances. The superiority of a sub-iectum ... arises out of the claim of man to a ... self-supported, unshakeable foundation of truth, in the sense of certainty. Why and how does this claim acquire its decisive authority? The claim originates in that emancipation of man in which he frees himself from obligation to Christian revelational truth and Church doctrine to a legislating for himself that takes its stand upon itself. ^ Ingraffia, Brian D. (1995) Postmodern theory and biblical theology: vanquishing God's shadow p. 126 ^ Norman K. Swazo (2002) Crisis theory and world order: Heideggerian reflections pp. 97–99 ^ Shank, J. B. The Newton Wars and the Beginning of the French Enlightenment (2008), "Introduction"[page needed] ^ "PHYS 200 – Lecture 3 – Newton's Laws of Motion – Open Yale Courses". oyc.yale.edu. ^ Anderson, M. S. Historians and eighteenth-century Europe, 1715-1789 (Oxford UP, 1979); Jean de Viguerie, Histoire et dictionnaire du temps des Lumières (1715-1789) (Paris: Robert Laffont, 1995). ^ Frost, Martin (2008), The age of Enlightenment, archived from the original on 2007-10-10, retrieved 2008-01-18 ^ Theodor W. Adorno; Horkheimer, Max (1947). "The Concept of Enlightenment". In G.S. Noerr (ed.). Dialectic of Enlightenment: Philosophical Fragments. Translated by E. Jephcott. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-85984-154-9. ^ Josephson-Storm, Jason (2017). The Myth of Disenchantment: Magic, Modernity, and the Birth of the Human Sciences. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 58–61. ISBN 978-0-226-40336-6. ^ Josephson-Storm, Jason (2017). The Myth of Disenchantment: Magic, Modernity, and the Birth of the Human Sciences. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 61–62. ISBN 978-0-226-40336-6. ^ Outram, 6. See also, A. Owen Alridge (ed.), The Ibero-American Enlightenment (1971)., Franco Venturi, The End of the Old Regime in Europe 1768–1776: The First Crisis. ^ James Van Horn Melton, The Rise of the Public in Enlightenment Europe (2001), p. 4. ^ Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, (1989), pp. 36, 37. ^ Melton, 8. ^ Nicolaas A. Rupke (2008). "Alexander Von Humboldt: A Metabiography". University of Chicago Press. p. 138 ISBN 0-226-73149-9 ^ Melton, 4, 5. Habermas, 14–26. ^ Daniel Brewer, ed. (2014). The Cambridge Companion to the French Enlightenment. Cambridge UP. pp. 91ff. ISBN 978-1-316-19432-4. ^ Outram, Dorinda. The Enlightenment (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press, 2005, p. 12. ^ Outram 2005, p. 13. ^ Chartier, 27. ^ Mona Ozouf, "'Public Opinion' at the End of the Old Regime ^ David Beard and Kenneth Gloag, Musicology, The Key Concepts (New York: Routledge, 2005), 58. ^ J. Peter Burkholder, Donald J. Grout and Claude V. Palisca, A History of Western Music, Seventh Edition, (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2006), 475. ^ a b Beard and Gloag, Musicology, 59. ^ a b Beard and Gloag, Musicology, 60. ^ a b c Burkholder, Grout and Palisca, A History of Western Music, 475. ^ a b c Outram, 21. ^ Chartier, 26. ^ Chartier, 26, 26. Kant, "What is Enlightenment?" ^ Outram, 23. ^ Goodman, 3. ^ Dena Goodman, The Republic of Letters: A Cultural History of the French Enlightenment (1994), 53. ^ Carla Hesse, The Other Enlightenment: How French Women Became Modern (2001), 42. ^ Crébillon fils, quoted from Darnton, The Literary Underground, 17. ^ Darnton, The Literary Underground, 19, 20. ^ Darnton, "The Literary Underground", 21, 23. ^ Darnton, The Literary Underground, 29 ^ Outram, 22. ^ Darnton, The Literary Underground, 35–40. ^ Outram, 17, 20. ^ Darnton, "The Literary Underground", 16. ^ from Outram, 19. See Rolf Engelsing, "Die Perioden der Lesergeschichte in der Neuzeit. Das statische Ausmass und die soziokulturelle Bedeutung der Lektüre", Archiv für Geschichte des Buchwesens, 10 (1969), cols. 944–1002 and Der Bürger als Leser: Lesergeschichte in Deutschland, 1500–1800 (Stuttgart, 1974). ^ "history of publishing :: Developments in the 18th century". Encyclopædia Britannica. ^ Outram, 27–29 ^ Erin Mackie, The Commerce of Everyday Life: Selections from The Tatler and The Spectator (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 1998), 16. ^ See Mackie, Darnton, An Early Information Society ^ In particular, see Chapter 6, "Reading, Writing and Publishing" ^ See Darnton, The Literary Underground, 184. ^ a b Darnton, The Literary Underground, 135–47. ^ Darnton, The Business of Enlightenment, 12, 13. For a more detailed description of French censorship laws, see Darnton, The Literary Underground ^ Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2008). The Language of Mineralogy: John Walker, Chemistry and the Edinburgh Medical School, 1750–1800. Ashgate. ^ Emma Spary, "The 'Nature' of Enlightenment" in The Sciences in Enlightened Europe, William Clark, Jan Golinski, and Steven Schaffer, eds. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 281–82. ^ Spary, 289–93. ^ See Thomas Laqueur, Making sex: body and gender from the Greeks to Freud (1990). ^ Israel 2001, pp. 143–44. ^ Israel 2001, pp. 142. ^ Israel 2001, pp. 150–51. ^ a b Headrick, (2000), p. 144. ^ a b Headrick, (2000), p. 172. ^ Porter, (2003), pp. 249–50. ^ Headrick, (2000), p. 168. ^ Headrick, (2000), pp. 150–52. ^ Headrick, (2000), p. 153. ^ d'Alembert, p. 4. ^ Darnton, (1979), p. 7. ^ Darnton, (1979), p. 37. ^ Darnton, (1979), p. 6. ^ Jacob, (1988), p. 191; Melton, (2001), pp. 82–83 ^ Headrick, (2000), p. 15 ^ Headrick, (2000), p. 19. ^ Phillips, (1991), pp. 85, 90 ^ Phillips, (1991), p. 90. ^ Porter, (2003), p. 300. ^ Porter, (2003), p. 101. ^ Phillips, (1991), p. 92. ^ Phillips, (1991), p. 107. ^ Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2013). "The Shape of Knowledge: Children and the Visual Culture of Literacy and Numeracy". Science in Context. 26 (2): 215–45. doi:10.1017/s0269889713000045. ^ Hotson, Howard (2007). Commonplace Learning: Ramism and Its German Ramifications 1543–1630. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ^ Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2008). The Language of Mineralogy: John Walker, Chemistry and the Edinburgh Medical School, 1750–1800. Aldershot: Ashgate. ^ Elizabeth Williams, A Cultural History of Medical Vitalism in Enlightenment Montpellier (2003) p. 50 ^ Peter Barrett (2004), Science and Theology Since Copernicus: The Search for Understanding, p. 14, Continuum International Publishing Group, ISBN 0-567-08969-X ^ Daniel Roche, France in the Enlightenment, (1998), 420. ^ Roche, 515–16. ^ Caradonna JL. Annales, "Prendre part au siècle des Lumières: Le concours académique et la culture intellectuelle au XVIIIe siècle" ^ Jeremy L. Caradonna, "Prendre part au siècle des Lumières: Le concours académique et la culture intellectuelle au XVIIIe siècle", Annales. Histoire, Sciences sociales, vol. 64 (mai-juin 2009), n. 3, 633–62. ^ Caradonna, 634–36. ^ Caradonna, 653–54. ^ "Royal Charters". royalsociety.org. ^ Steven Shapin, A Social History of Truth: Civility and Science in Seventeenth-Century England, Chicago; London: University of Chicago Press, 1994. ^ Steven Shapin and Simon Schaffer, Leviathan and the Air-Pump: Hobbes, Boyle, and the Experimental Life (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985), 5, 56, 57. This same desire for multiple witnesses led to attempts at replication in other locations and a complex iconography and literary technology developed to provide visual and written proof of experimentation. See pp. 59–65. ^ Shapin and Schaffer, 58, 59. ^ Klein, Lawrence E. (1 January 1996). "Coffeehouse Civility, 1660–1714: An Aspect of Post-Courtly Culture in England". Huntington Library Quarterly. 59 (1): 31–51. doi:10.2307/3817904. JSTOR 3817904. ^ Klein, 35. ^ Cowan, 90, 91. ^ Colin Jones, Paris: Biography of a City (New York: Viking, 2004), 188, 189. ^ Darnton, Robert (2000). "An Early Information Society: News and the Media in Eighteenth-Century Paris". The American Historical Review. 105#1 (1): 1–35. doi:10.2307/2652433. JSTOR 2652433. ^ Donna T. Andrew, "Popular Culture and Public Debate: London 1780", This Historical Journal, Vol. 39, No. 2. (June 1996), pp. 405–23. ^ Andrew, 406. Andrew gives the name as "William Henley", which must be a lapse of writing. ^ Andrew, 408. ^ Andrew, 406–08, 411. ^ a b Israel 2001, p. 4. ^ Andrew, 412–15. ^ Andrew, 422. ^ Maynard Mack, Alexander Pope: A Life, Yale University Press, 1985 p. 437–40. Pope, a Catholic, was a Freemason in 1730, eight years before membership was prohibited by the Catholic Church (1738). Pope's name is on the membership list of the Goat Tavern Lodge (p. 439). Pope's name appears on a 1723 list and a 1730 list. ^ J.A. Leo Lemay (2013). The Life of Benjamin Franklin, Volume 2: Printer and Publisher, 1730–1747. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 83–92. ISBN 978-0-8122-0929-7. ^ Bullock, Steven C. (1996). "Initiating the Enlightenment?: Recent Scholarship on European Freemasonry". Eighteenth-Century Life. 20 (1): 81. ^ Norman Davies, Europe: A History (1996) pp. 634–35 ^ Margaret C. Jacob's seminal work on Enlightenment freemasonry, Margaret C. Jacob, Living the Enlightenment: Free masonry and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Europe (Oxford University Press, 1991) p. 49. ^ Margaret C. Jacob, "Polite worlds of Enlightenment," in Martin Fitzpatrick and Peter Jones, eds. The Enlightenment World (Routledge, 2004) pp. 272–87. ^ Roche, 436. ^ Fitzpatrick and Jones, eds. The Enlightenment World p. 281 ^ Jacob, pp. 20, 73, 89. ^ Jacob, 145–47. ^ Reinhart Koselleck, Critique and Crisis, p. 62, (The MIT Press, 1988) ^ Thomas Munck, 1994, p. 70. ^ Diderot, Denis (1769). "D'Alembert's Dream" (PDF). ^ Margaret C. Jacob, Living the Enlightenment: Freemasonry and politics in eighteenth-century Europe (Oxford University Press, 1991.) ^ Roche, 437. ^ Jacob, 139. See also Janet M. Burke, "Freemasonry, Friendship and Noblewomen: The Role of the Secret Society in Bringing Enlightenment Thought to Pre-Revolutionary Women Elites", History of European Ideas 10 no. 3 (1989): 283–94. ^ Davies, Europe: A History (1996) pp. 634–35 ^ Richard Weisberger et al., eds., Freemasonry on both sides of the Atlantic: essays concerning the craft in the British Isles, Europe, the United States, and Mexico (2002) ^ Robert R. Palmer, The Age of the Democratic Revolution: The struggle (1970) p. 53 ^ Neil L. York, "Freemasons and the American Revolution", The Historian Volume: 55. Issue: 2. 1993, pp. 315+. ^ Janson, H. W.; Janson, Anthony (2003). A Basic History of Art. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. pp. 458–74. Sources Andrew, Donna T. "Popular Culture and Public Debate: London 1780". The Historical Journal, Vol. 39, No. 2. (June 1996), pp. 405–23. in JSTOR Burns, William. Science in the Enlightenment: An Encyclopædia (2003) Cowan, Brian, The Social Life of Coffee: The Emergence of the British Coffeehouse. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005 Darnton, Robert. The Literary Underground of the Old Regime. (1982). Israel, Jonathan I. (2001). Radical Enlightenment; Philosophy and the Making of Modernity 1650–1750. Oxford University Press. Israel, Jonathan I. (2006). Enlightenment Contested. Oxford University Press. Israel, Jonathan I. (2010). A Revolution of the Mind: Radical Enlightenment and the Intellectual Origins of Modern Democracy. Princeton. Israel, Jonathan I. (2011). Democratic Enlightenment: Philosophy, Revolution, and Human Rights 1750–1790. Oxford University Press. Melton, James Van Horn. The Rise of the Public in Enlightenment Europe. (2001). Petitfils, Jean-Christian (2005). Louis XVI. Perrin. ISBN 978-2-7441-9130-5. Roche, Daniel. France in the Enlightenment. (1998). Further reading Reference and surveys Becker, Carl L. The Heavenly City of the Eighteenth-Century Philosophers. (1932), a famous short classic Bronner, Stephen. The Great Divide: The Enlightenment and its Critics (1995) Chisick, Harvey. Historical Dictionary of the Enlightenment. 2005. Delon, Michel. Encyclopædia of the Enlightenment (2001) 1480 pp. Dupre, Louis. The Enlightenment & the Intellectual Foundations of Modern Culture 2004 Gay, Peter. The Enlightenment: The Rise of Modern Paganism (1966, 2nd ed. 1995), 952 pp. excerpt and text search vol 1. Peter Gay, The Enlightenment: The Science of Freedom, (1969 2nd ed. 1995), a highly influential study excerpt and text search vol 2; Greensides F, Hyland P, Gomez O (ed.). The Enlightenment (2002) Fitzpatrick, Martin et al., eds. The Enlightenment World. (2004). 714 pp. 39 essays by scholars Hampson, Norman. The Enlightenment (1981) online Hazard, Paul. European thought in the 18th century: From Montesquieu to Lessing (1965) Hesmyr, Atle: From Enlightenment to Romanticism in 18th Century Europe (2018) Himmelfarb, Gertrude. The Roads to Modernity: The British, French, and American Enlightenments (2004) excerpt and text search Jacob, Margaret Enlightenment: A Brief History with Documents 2000 Kors, Alan Charles. Encyclopædia of the Enlightenment (4 vol. 1990; 2nd ed. 2003), 1984 pp. excerpt and text search Munck, Thomas. Enlightenment: A Comparative Social History, 1721–1794 England. (1994) Lehner, Ulrich L.. The Catholic Enlightenment (2016) Lehner, Ulrich L.. Women, Catholicism and Enlightenment (2017) Outram, Dorinda. The Enlightenment(1995) 157 pp. excerpt and text search; also online Outram, Dorinda. Panorama of the Enlightenment (2006), emphasis on Germany; heavily illustrated Porter, Roy (2001), The Enlightenment (2nd ed.), ISBN 978-0-333-94505-6 Sarmant, Thierry (2012). Histoire de Paris: Politique, urbanisme, civilisation. Editions Jean-Paul Gisserot. ISBN 978-2-7558-0330-3. Reill, Peter Hanns, and Wilson, Ellen Judy. Encyclopædia of the Enlightenment. (2nd ed. 2004). 670 pp. Warman, Caroline; et al. (2016), Warman, Caroline (ed.), Tolerance: The Beacon of the Englightenment, Open Book Publishers, doi:10.11647/OBP.0088, ISBN 978-1-78374-203-5 Yolton, John W. et al. The Blackwell Companion to the Enlightenment. (1992). 581 pp. Specialty studies Aldridge, A. Owen (ed.). The Ibero-American Enlightenment (1971). Artz, Frederick B. The Enlightenment in France (1998) online Brewer, Daniel. The Enlightenment Past: reconstructing 18th-century French thought. (2008). Broadie, Alexander. The Scottish Enlightenment: The Historical Age of the Historical Nation (2007) Broadie, Alexander. The Cambridge Companion to the Scottish Enlightenment (2003) excerpt and text search Bronner, Stephen. Reclaiming the Enlightenment: Toward a Politics of Radical Engagement, 2004 Brown, Stuart, ed. British Philosophy in the Age of Enlightenment (2002) Buchan, James. Crowded with Genius: The Scottish Enlightenment: Edinburgh's Moment of the Mind (2004) excerpt and text search Campbell, R.S. and Skinner, A.S., (eds.) The Origins and Nature of the Scottish Enlightenment, Edinburgh, 1982 Cassirer, Ernst. The Philosophy of the Enlightenment. 1955. a highly influential study by a neoKantian philosopher excerpt and text search Chartier, Roger. The Cultural Origins of the French Revolution. Translated by Lydia G. Cochrane. Duke University Press, 1991. Europe in the age of enlightenment and revolution. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 1989. ISBN 978-0-87099-451-7. Edelstein, Dan. The Enlightenment: A Genealogy (University of Chicago Press; 2010) 209 pp. Golinski, Jan (2011). "Science in the Enlightenment, Revisited". History of Science. 49 (2): 217–31. Bibcode:2011HisSc..49..217G. doi:10.1177/007327531104900204. S2CID 142886527. Goodman, Dena. The Republic of Letters: A Cultural History of the French Enlightenment. (1994). Hesse, Carla. The Other Enlightenment: How French Women Became Modern. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001. Hankins, Thomas L. Science and the Enlightenment (1985). May, Henry F. The Enlightenment in America. 1976. 419 pp. Porter, Roy. The Creation of the Modern World: The Untold Story of the British Enlightenment. 2000. 608 pp. excerpt and text search Redkop, Benjamin. The Enlightenment and Community, 1999 Reid-Maroney, Nina. Philadelphia's Enlightenment, 1740–1800: Kingdom of Christ, Empire of Reason. 2001. 199 pp. Schmidt, James (2003). "Inventing the Enlightenment: Anti-Jacobins, British Hegelians, and the 'Oxford English Dictionary'". Journal of the History of Ideas. 64 (3): 421–43. JSTOR 3654234. Sorkin, David. The Religious Enlightenment: Protestants, Jews, and Catholics from London to Vienna (2008) Staloff, Darren. Hamilton, Adams, Jefferson: The Politics of Enlightenment and the American Founding. 2005. 419 pp. excerpt and text search Till, Nicholas. Mozart and the Enlightenment: Truth, Virtue, and Beauty in Mozart's Operas. 1993. 384 pp. Tunstall, Kate E. Blindness and Enlightenment. An Essay. With a new translation of Diderot's Letter on the Blind (Continuum, 2011) Venturi, Franco. Utopia and Reform in the Enlightenment. George Macaulay Trevelyan Lecture, (1971) Venturi, Franco. Italy and the Enlightenment: studies in a cosmopolitan century (1972) online Wills, Garry. Cincinnatus : George Washington and the Enlightenment (1984) online Winterer, Caroline. American Enlightenments: Pursuing Happiness in the Age of Reason (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2016) Navarro i Soriano, Ferran (2019). Harca, harca, harca! Músiques per a la recreació històrica de la Guerra de Successió (1794-1715). Editorial DENES. ISBN 978-84-16473-45-8. Primary sources Broadie, Alexander, ed. The Scottish Enlightenment: An Anthology (2001) excerpt and text search Diderot, Denis. Rameau's Nephew and other Works (2008) excerpt and text search. Diderot, Denis. "Letter on the Blind" in Tunstall, Kate E. Blindness and Enlightenment. An Essay. With a new translation of Diderot's Letter on the Blind (Continuum, 2011) Diderot, Denis. The Encyclopédie of Diderot and D'Alembert: Selected Articles (1969) excerpt and text search Collaborative Translation Project of the University of Michigan Gay, Peter, ed. (1973). The Enlightenment: A Comprehensive Anthology. ISBN 0671217070. Gomez, Olga, et al. eds. The Enlightenment: A Sourcebook and Reader (2001) excerpt and text search Kramnick, Issac, ed. The Portable Enlightenment Reader (1995) excerpt and text search Manuel, Frank Edward, ed. The Enlightenment (1965) online, excerpts Schmidt, James, ed. What is Enlightenment?: Eighteenth-Century Answers and Twentieth-Century Questions (1996) excerpt and text search External links Age of Enlightenmentat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Data from Wikidata Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). "Enlightenment". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Age of Enlightenment at PhilPapers Age of Enlightenment at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project Still, Judith; Marks, John; Ford, Rebecca. "Enlightenment". Words of the World. Brady Haran (University of Nottingham). 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en-wikipedia-org-2204	----	Rudyard Kipling - Wikipedia Rudyard Kipling From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Kipling) Jump to navigation Jump to search "Kipling" redirects here. For other uses, see Kipling (disambiguation). English short-story writer, poet, and novelist Rudyard Kipling Kipling in 1895 Born Joseph Rudyard Kipling (1865-12-30)30 December 1865 Malabar Hill, Bombay Presidency, British India Died 18 January 1936(1936-01-18) (aged 70) Fitzrovia, London, England Resting place Westminster Abbey Occupation Short-story writer, novelist, poet, journalist Nationality British Genre Short story, novel, children's literature, poetry, travel literature, science fiction Notable works The Jungle Book Just So Stories Kim Captains Courageous "If—" "Gunga Din" "The White Man's Burden" Notable awards Nobel Prize in Literature 1907 Spouse Caroline Starr Balestier ​ ​ (m. 1892)​ Children Josephine Elsie John Signature Joseph Rudyard Kipling (/ˈrʌdjərd/ RUD-yərd; 30 December 1865 – 18 January 1936)[1] was an English journalist, short-story writer, poet, and novelist. He was born in India, which inspired much of his work. Kipling's works of fiction include The Jungle Book (1894), Kim (1901), and many short stories, including "The Man Who Would Be King" (1888).[2] His poems include "Mandalay" (1890), "Gunga Din" (1890), "The Gods of the Copybook Headings" (1919), "The White Man's Burden" (1899), and "If—" (1910). He is seen as an innovator in the art of the short story.[3] His children's books are classics; one critic noted "a versatile and luminous narrative gift." [4][5] Kipling in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was among the United Kingdom's most popular writers.[3] Henry James said "Kipling strikes me personally as the most complete man of genius, as distinct from fine intelligence, that I have ever known."[3] In 1907, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, as the first English-language writer to receive the prize, and at 41, its youngest recipient to date.[6] He was also sounded out for the British Poet Laureateship and several times for a knighthood, but declined both.[7] Following his death in 1936, his ashes were interred at Poets' Corner, part of the South Transept of Westminster Abbey. Kipling's subsequent reputation has changed with the political and social climate of the age.[8][9] The contrasting views of him continued for much of the 20th century.[10][11] Literary critic Douglas Kerr wrote: "[Kipling] is still an author who can inspire passionate disagreement and his place in literary and cultural history is far from settled. But as the age of the European empires recedes, he is recognised as an incomparable, if controversial, interpreter of how empire was experienced. That, and an increasing recognition of his extraordinary narrative gifts, make him a force to be reckoned with."[12] Contents 1 Childhood (1865–1882) 1.1 Education in Britain 1.2 Return to India 2 Early adult life (1882–1914) 2.1 Return to London 2.2 London 2.3 United States 2.3.1 Life in New England 2.4 Devon 2.5 Visits to South Africa 2.6 Sussex 2.6.1 Speculative fiction 2.6.2 Nobel laureate and beyond 2.7 Freemasonry 3 First World War (1914–1918) 3.1 Death of John Kipling 4 After the war (1918–1936) 5 Death 5.1 Legacy 5.2 Links with camping and scouting 5.3 Kipling's Burwash home 5.4 Reputation in India 6 Art 7 Screen portrayals 8 Bibliography 9 See also 10 References 11 Cited sources 12 Further reading 13 External links 13.1 Other information Childhood (1865–1882)[edit] Malabar Point, Bombay, 1865 Rudyard Kipling was born on 30 December 1865 in Bombay, in the Bombay Presidency of British India, to Alice Kipling (née MacDonald) and John Lockwood Kipling.[13] Alice (one of the four noted MacDonald sisters)[14] was a vivacious woman,[15] of whom Lord Dufferin would say, "Dullness and Mrs Kipling cannot exist in the same room."[3][16][17] John Lockwood Kipling, a sculptor and pottery designer, was the Principal and Professor of Architectural Sculpture at the newly founded Sir Jamsetjee Jeejebhoy School of Art in Bombay.[15] John Lockwood and Alice had met in 1863 and courted at Rudyard Lake in Rudyard, Staffordshire, England. They married and moved to India in 1865. They had been so moved by the beauty of the Rudyard Lake area that they named their first child after it. Two of Alice's sisters were married to artists: Georgiana to the painter Edward Burne-Jones, and her sister Agnes to Edward Poynter. Kipling's most prominent relative was his first cousin, Stanley Baldwin, who was Conservative Prime Minister three times in the 1920s and 1930s.[18] Kipling's birth home on the campus of the J.J. School of Art in Bombay was for many years used as the Dean's residence.[19] Although a cottage bears a plaque noting it as his birth site, the original one may have been torn down and replaced decades ago.[20] Some historians and conservationists take the view that the bungalow marks a site merely close to the home of Kipling's birth, as it was built in 1882 – about 15 years after Kipling was born. Kipling seems to have said as much to the Dean when visiting J. J. School in the 1930s.[21] Kipling's India: a map of British India Kipling wrote of Bombay: Mother of Cities to me, For I was born in her gate, Between the palms and the sea, Where the world-end steamers wait.[22] According to Bernice M. Murphy, "Kipling's parents considered themselves 'Anglo-Indians' [a term used in the 19th century for people of British origin living in India] and so too would their son, though he spent the bulk of his life elsewhere. Complex issues of identity and national allegiance would become prominent in his fiction."[23] Kipling referred to such conflicts. For example: "In the afternoon heats before we took our sleep, she (the Portuguese ayah, or nanny) or Meeta (the Hindu bearer, or male attendant) would tell us stories and Indian nursery songs all unforgotten, and we were sent into the dining-room after we had been dressed, with the caution 'Speak English now to Papa and Mamma.' So one spoke 'English', haltingly translated out of the vernacular idiom that one thought and dreamed in."[24] Education in Britain[edit] English Heritage blue plaque marking Kipling's time in Southsea, Portsmouth Kipling's days of "strong light and darkness" in Bombay ended when he was five.[24] As was the custom in British India, he and his three-year-old sister Alice ("Trix") were taken to the United Kingdom – in their case to Southsea, Portsmouth – to live with a couple who boarded children of British nationals living abroad.[25] For the next six years (from October 1871 to April 1877), the children lived with the couple – Captain Pryse Agar Holloway, once an officer in the merchant navy, and Sarah Holloway – at their house, Lorne Lodge, 4 Campbell Road, Southsea.[26] In his autobiography published 65 years later, Kipling recalled the stay with horror, and wondered if the combination of cruelty and neglect which he experienced there at the hands of Mrs Holloway might not have hastened the onset of his literary life: "If you cross-examine a child of seven or eight on his day's doings (specially when he wants to go to sleep) he will contradict himself very satisfactorily. If each contradiction be set down as a lie and retailed at breakfast, life is not easy. I have known a certain amount of bullying, but this was calculated torture – religious as well as scientific. Yet it made me give attention to the lies I soon found it necessary to tell: and this, I presume, is the foundation of literary effort." [24] Kipling's England: A map of England showing Kipling's homes Trix fared better at Lorne Lodge; Mrs Holloway apparently hoped that Trix would eventually marry the Holloways' son.[27] The two Kipling children, however, had no relatives in England they could visit, except that they spent a month each Christmas with a maternal aunt Georgiana ("Georgy") and her husband, Edward Burne-Jones, at their house, The Grange, in Fulham, London, which Kipling called "a paradise which I verily believe saved me."[24] In the spring of 1877, Alice returned from India and removed the children from Lorne Lodge. Kipling remembers "Often and often afterwards, the beloved Aunt would ask me why I had never told any one how I was being treated. Children tell little more than animals, for what comes to them they accept as eternally established. Also, badly-treated children have a clear notion of what they are likely to get if they betray the secrets of a prison-house before they are clear of it."[24] Alice took the children during Spring 1877 to Goldings Farm at Loughton, where a carefree summer and autumn was spent on the farm and adjoining Forest, some of the time with Stanley Baldwin. In January 1878, Kipling was admitted to the United Services College at Westward Ho!, Devon, a school recently founded to prepare boys for the army. It proved rough going for him at first, but later led to firm friendships and provided the setting for his schoolboy stories Stalky & Co. (1899).[27] While there, Kipling met and fell in love with Florence Garrard, who was boarding with Trix at Southsea (to which Trix had returned). Florence became the model for Maisie in Kipling's first novel, The Light That Failed (1891).[27] Return to India[edit] Near the end of his schooling, it was decided that Kipling did not have the academic ability to get into Oxford University on a scholarship.[27] His parents lacked the wherewithal to finance him,[15] and so Kipling's father obtained a job for him in Lahore, where the father served as Principal of the Mayo College of Art and Curator of the Lahore Museum. Kipling was to be assistant editor of a local newspaper, the Civil and Military Gazette. He sailed for India on 20 September 1882 and arrived in Bombay on 18 October. He described the moment years later: "So, at sixteen years and nine months, but looking four or five years older, and adorned with real whiskers which the scandalised Mother abolished within one hour of beholding, I found myself at Bombay where I was born, moving among sights and smells that made me deliver in the vernacular sentences whose meaning I knew not. Other Indian-born boys have told me how the same thing happened to them."[24] This arrival changed Kipling, as he explains: "There were yet three or four days' rail to Lahore, where my people lived. After these, my English years fell away, nor ever, I think, came back in full strength." [24] Early adult life (1882–1914)[edit] From 1883 to 1889, Kipling worked in British India for local newspapers such as the Civil and Military Gazette in Lahore and The Pioneer in Allahabad.[24] Lahore Railway Station in the 1880s Bundi, Rajputana, where Kipling was inspired to write Kim. The former, which was the newspaper Kipling was to call his "mistress and most true love," [24] appeared six days a week throughout the year, except for one-day breaks for Christmas and Easter. Stephen Wheeler, the editor, worked Kipling hard, but Kipling's need to write was unstoppable. In 1886, he published his first collection of verse, Departmental Ditties. That year also brought a change of editors at the newspaper; Kay Robinson, the new editor, allowed more creative freedom and Kipling was asked to contribute short stories to the newspaper.[4] In an article printed in the Chums boys' annual, an ex-colleague of Kipling's stated that "he never knew such a fellow for ink – he simply revelled in it, filling up his pen viciously, and then throwing the contents all over the office, so that it was almost dangerous to approach him."[28] The anecdote continues: "In the hot weather when he (Kipling) wore only white trousers and a thin vest, he is said to have resembled a Dalmatian dog more than a human being, for he was spotted all over with ink in every direction." In the summer of 1883, Kipling visited Shimla, then Simla, a well-known hill station and the summer capital of British India. By then it was the practice for the Viceroy of India and government to move to Simla for six months, and the town became a "centre of power as well as pleasure." [4] Kipling's family became annual visitors to Simla, and Lockwood Kipling was asked to serve in Christ Church there. Rudyard Kipling returned to Simla for his annual leave each year from 1885 to 1888, and the town featured prominently in many stories he wrote for the Gazette.[4] "My month's leave at Simla, or whatever Hill Station my people went to, was pure joy – every golden hour counted. It began in heat and discomfort, by rail and road. It ended in the cool evening, with a wood fire in one's bedroom, and next morn – thirty more of them ahead! – the early cup of tea, the Mother who brought it in, and the long talks of us all together again. One had leisure to work, too, at whatever play-work was in one's head, and that was usually full."[24] Back in Lahore, 39 of his stories appeared in the Gazette between November 1886 and June 1887. Kipling included most of them in Plain Tales from the Hills, his first prose collection, published in Calcutta in January 1888, a month after his 22nd birthday. Kipling's time in Lahore, however, had come to an end. In November 1887, he was moved to the Gazette's larger sister newspaper, The Pioneer, in Allahabad in the United Provinces, where he worked as assistant editor and lived in Belvedere House from 1888 to 1889.[29][30] Rudyard Kipling (right) with his father John Lockwood Kipling (left), circa 1890 Kipling's writing continued at a frenetic pace. In 1888, he published six collections of short stories: Soldiers Three, The Story of the Gadsbys, In Black and White, Under the Deodars, The Phantom Rickshaw, and Wee Willie Winkie. These contain a total of 41 stories, some quite long. In addition, as The Pioneer's special correspondent in the western region of Rajputana, he wrote many sketches that were later collected in Letters of Marque and published in From Sea to Sea and Other Sketches, Letters of Travel.[4] Kipling was discharged from The Pioneer in early 1889 after a dispute. By this time, he had been increasingly thinking of his future. He sold the rights to his six volumes of stories for £200 and a small royalty, and the Plain Tales for £50; in addition, he received six-months' salary from The Pioneer, in lieu of notice.[24] Return to London[edit] Kipling decided to use the money to move to London, as the literary centre of the British Empire. On 9 March 1889, he left India, travelling first to San Francisco via Rangoon, Singapore, Hong Kong and Japan. Kipling was favourably impressed by Japan, calling its people "gracious folk and fair manners." [31] Kipling later wrote that he "had lost his heart" to a geisha whom he called O-Toyo, writing while in the United States during the same trip across the Pacific, "I had left the innocent East far behind.... Weeping softly for O-Toyo.... O-Toyo was a darling."[31] Kipling then travelled through the United States, writing articles for The Pioneer that were later published in From Sea to Sea and Other Sketches, Letters of Travel.[32] Starting his North American travels in San Francisco, Kipling went north to Portland, Oregon, then Seattle, Washington, up to Victoria and Vancouver, British Columbia, through Medicine Hat, Alberta, back into the US to Yellowstone National Park, down to Salt Lake City, then east to Omaha, Nebraska and on to Chicago, Illinois, then to Beaver, Pennsylvania on the Ohio River to visit the Hill family. From there, he went to Chautauqua with Professor Hill, and later to Niagara Falls, Toronto, Washington, D.C., New York, and Boston.[32] In the course of this journey he met Mark Twain in Elmira, New York, and was deeply impressed. Kipling arrived unannounced at Twain's home, and later wrote that as he rang the doorbell, "It occurred to me for the first time that Mark Twain might possibly have other engagements other than the entertainment of escaped lunatics from India, be they ever so full of admiration."[33] A portrait of Kipling by John Collier, ca. 1891 Rudyard Kipling, by Bourne & Shepherd, Calcutta (1892) As it was, Twain gladly welcomed Kipling and had a two-hour conversation with him on trends in Anglo-American literature and about what Twain was going to write in a sequel to Tom Sawyer, with Twain assuring Kipling that a sequel was coming, although he had not decided upon the ending: either Sawyer would be elected to Congress or he would be hanged.[33] Twain also passed along the literary advice that an author should "get your facts first and then you can distort 'em as much as you please."[33] Twain, who rather liked Kipling, later wrote of their meeting: "Between us, we cover all knowledge; he covers all that can be known and I cover the rest."[33] Kipling then crossed the Atlantic to Liverpool in October 1889. He soon made his début in the London literary world, to great acclaim.[3] London[edit] In London, Kipling had several stories accepted by magazines. He found a place to live for the next two years at Villiers Street, near Charing Cross (in a building subsequently named Kipling House): Meantime, I had found me quarters in Villiers Street, Strand, which forty-six years ago was primitive and passionate in its habits and population. My rooms were small, not over-clean or well-kept, but from my desk I could look out of my window through the fanlight of Gatti's Music-Hall entrance, across the street, almost on to its stage. The Charing Cross trains rumbled through my dreams on one side, the boom of the Strand on the other, while, before my windows, Father Thames under the Shot tower walked up and down with his traffic.[34] In the next two years, he published a novel, The Light That Failed, had a nervous breakdown, and met an American writer and publishing agent, Wolcott Balestier, with whom he collaborated on a novel, The Naulahka (a title which he uncharacteristically misspelt; see below).[15] In 1891, as advised by his doctors, Kipling took another sea voyage, to South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and once again India.[15] He cut short his plans to spend Christmas with his family in India when he heard of Balestier's sudden death from typhoid fever and decided to return to London immediately. Before his return, he had used the telegram to propose to, and be accepted by, Wolcott's sister, Caroline Starr Balestier (1862–1939), called "Carrie", whom he had met a year earlier, and with whom he had apparently been having an intermittent romance.[15] Meanwhile, late in 1891, a collection of his short stories on the British in India, Life's Handicap, was published in London.[35] On 18 January 1892, Carrie Balestier (aged 29) and Rudyard Kipling (aged 26) married in London, in the "thick of an influenza epidemic, when the undertakers had run out of black horses and the dead had to be content with brown ones."[24] The wedding was held at All Souls Church, Langham Place. Henry James gave away the bride. United States[edit] Kipling in his study at Naulakha, Vermont, US, 1895. Kipling and his wife settled upon a honeymoon that took them first to the United States (including a stop at the Balestier family estate near Brattleboro, Vermont) and then to Japan.[15] On arriving in Yokohama, they discovered that their bank, The New Oriental Banking Corporation, had failed. Taking this loss in their stride, they returned to the U.S., back to Vermont – Carrie by this time was pregnant with their first child – and rented a small cottage on a farm near Brattleboro for $10 a month.[24] According to Kipling, "We furnished it with a simplicity that fore-ran the hire-purchase system. We bought, second or third hand, a huge, hot-air stove which we installed in the cellar. We cut generous holes in our thin floors for its eight-inch [20 cm] tin pipes (why we were not burned in our beds each week of the winter I never can understand) and we were extraordinarily and self-centredly content."[24] In this house, which they called Bliss Cottage, their first child, Josephine, was born "in three-foot of snow on the night of 29th December, 1892. Her Mother's birthday being the 31st and mine the 30th of the same month, we congratulated her on her sense of the fitness of things...."[24] Rudyard Kipling's America 1892–1896, 1899 It was also in this cottage that the first dawnings of The Jungle Books came to Kipling: "The workroom in the Bliss Cottage was seven feet by eight, and from December to April, the snow lay level with its window-sill. It chanced that I had written a tale about Indian Forestry work which included a boy who had been brought up by wolves. In the stillness, and suspense, of the winter of '92 some memory of the Masonic Lions of my childhood's magazine, and a phrase in Haggard's Nada the Lily, combined with the echo of this tale. After blocking out the main idea in my head, the pen took charge, and I watched it begin to write stories about Mowgli and animals, which later grew into the two Jungle Books."[24] With Josephine's arrival, Bliss Cottage was felt to be congested, so eventually the couple bought land – 10 acres (4.0 ha) on a rocky hillside overlooking the Connecticut River – from Carrie's brother Beatty Balestier and built their own house. Kipling named this Naulakha, in honour of Wolcott and of their collaboration, and this time the name was spelt correctly.[15] From his early years in Lahore (1882–87), Kipling had become enamoured with the Mughal architecture,[36] especially the Naulakha pavilion situated in Lahore Fort, which eventually inspired the title of his novel as well as the house.[37] The house still stands on Kipling Road, three miles (5 km) north of Brattleboro in Dummerston, Vermont: a big, secluded, dark-green house, with shingled roof and sides, which Kipling called his "ship," and which brought him "sunshine and a mind at ease." [15] His seclusion in Vermont, combined with his healthy "sane clean life," made Kipling both inventive and prolific. In a mere four years he produced, along with the Jungle Books, a book of short stories (The Day's Work), a novel (Captains Courageous), and a profusion of poetry, including the volume The Seven Seas. The collection of Barrack-Room Ballads was issued in March 1892, first published individually for the most part in 1890, and contained his poems "Mandalay" and "Gunga Din." He especially enjoyed writing the Jungle Books and also corresponding with many children who wrote to him about them.[15] Life in New England[edit] Caroline Starr Balestier, portrait by Philip Burne-Jones The writing life in Naulakha was occasionally interrupted by visitors, including his father, who visited soon after his retirement in 1893,[15] and the British writer Arthur Conan Doyle, who brought his golf clubs, stayed for two days, and gave Kipling an extended golf lesson.[38][39] Kipling seemed to take to golf, occasionally practising with the local Congregational minister and even playing with red-painted balls when the ground was covered in snow.[13][39] However, winter golf was "not altogether a success because there were no limits to a drive; the ball might skid two miles (3 km) down the long slope to Connecticut river."[13] Kipling loved the outdoors,[15] not least of whose marvels in Vermont was the turning of the leaves each fall. He described this moment in a letter: "A little maple began it, flaming blood-red of a sudden where he stood against the dark green of a pine-belt. Next morning there was an answering signal from the swamp where the sumacs grow. Three days later, the hill-sides as fast as the eye could range were afire, and the roads paved, with crimson and gold. Then a wet wind blew, and ruined all the uniforms of that gorgeous army; and the oaks, who had held themselves in reserve, buckled on their dull and bronzed cuirasses and stood it out stiffly to the last blown leaf, till nothing remained but pencil-shadings of bare boughs, and one could see into the most private heart of the woods."[40] The Kiplings' first daughter Josephine, 1895. She died of pneumonia in 1899 aged 6. In February 1896, Elsie Kipling was born, the couple's second daughter. By this time, according to several biographers, their marital relationship was no longer light-hearted and spontaneous.[41] Although they would always remain loyal to each other, they seemed now to have fallen into set roles.[15] In a letter to a friend who had become engaged around this time, the 30‑year‑old Kipling offered this sombre counsel: marriage principally taught "the tougher virtues – such as humility, restraint, order, and forethought."[42] Later in the same year, he temporarily taught at Bishop's College School in Quebec, Canada.[43] The Kiplings loved life in Vermont and might have lived out their lives there, were it not for two incidents – one of global politics, the other of family discord. By the early 1890s, the United Kingdom and Venezuela were in a border dispute involving British Guiana. The U.S. had made several offers to arbitrate, but in 1895, the new American Secretary of State Richard Olney upped the ante by arguing for the American "right" to arbitrate on grounds of sovereignty on the continent (see the Olney interpretation as an extension of the Monroe Doctrine).[15] This raised hackles in Britain, and the situation grew into a major Anglo-American crisis, with talk of war on both sides. Although the crisis eased into greater United States–British cooperation, Kipling was bewildered by what he felt was persistent anti-British sentiment in the U.S., especially in the press.[15] He wrote in a letter that it felt like being "aimed at with a decanter across a friendly dinner table."[42] By January 1896, he had decided[13] to end his family's "good wholesome life" in the U.S. and seek their fortunes elsewhere. A family dispute became the final straw. For some time, relations between Carrie and her brother Beatty Balestier had been strained, owing to his drinking and insolvency. In May 1896, an inebriated Beatty encountered Kipling on the street and threatened him with physical harm.[15] The incident led to Beatty's eventual arrest, but in the subsequent hearing and the resulting publicity, Kipling's privacy was destroyed, and he was left feeling miserable and exhausted. In July 1896, a week before the hearing was to resume, the Kiplings packed their belongings, left the United States and returned to England.[13] Kipling's Torquay house, with an English heritage blue plaque on the wall. Devon[edit] By September 1896, the Kiplings were in Torquay, Devon, on the south-western coast of England, in a hillside home overlooking the English Channel. Although Kipling did not much care for his new house, whose design, he claimed, left its occupants feeling dispirited and gloomy, he managed to remain productive and socially active.[15] Kipling was now a famous man, and in the previous two or three years had increasingly been making political pronouncements in his writings. The Kiplings had welcomed their first son, John, in August 1897. Kipling had begun work on two poems, "Recessional" (1897) and "The White Man's Burden" (1899), which were to create controversy when published. Regarded by some as anthems for enlightened and duty-bound empire-building (capturing the mood of the Victorian era), the poems were seen by others as propaganda for brazen-faced imperialism and its attendant racial attitudes; still others saw irony in the poems and warnings of the perils of empire.[15] Take up the White Man's burden— Send forth the best ye breed— Go, bind your sons to exile To serve your captives' need; To wait, in heavy harness, On fluttered folk and wild— Your new-caught sullen peoples, Half devil and half child. —The White Man's Burden[44] There was also foreboding in the poems, a sense that all could yet come to naught.[45] Far-called, our navies melt away; On dune and headland sinks the fire: Lo, all our pomp of yesterday Is one with Nineveh and Tyre! Judge of the Nations, spare us yet. Lest we forget – lest we forget! —Recessional[46] A prolific writer during his time in Torquay, he also wrote Stalky & Co., a collection of school stories (born of his experience at the United Services College in Westward Ho!), whose juvenile protagonists display a know-it-all, cynical outlook on patriotism and authority. According to his family, Kipling enjoyed reading aloud stories from Stalky & Co. to them and often went into spasms of laughter over his own jokes.[15] Visits to South Africa[edit] H.A. Gwynne, Julian Ralph, Perceval Landon, and Rudyard Kipling in South Africa, 1900–1901. In early 1898, the Kiplings travelled to South Africa for their winter holiday, so beginning an annual tradition which (except the following year) would last until 1908. They would stay in "The Woolsack," a house on Cecil Rhodes's estate at Groote Schuur (now a student residence for the University of Cape Town), within walking distance of Rhodes' mansion.[47] With his new reputation as Poet of the Empire, Kipling was warmly received by some of the influential politicians of the Cape Colony, including Rhodes, Sir Alfred Milner, and Leander Starr Jameson. Kipling cultivated their friendship and came to admire the men and their politics. The period 1898–1910 was crucial in the history of South Africa and included the Second Boer War (1899–1902), the ensuing peace treaty, and the 1910 formation of the Union of South Africa. Back in England, Kipling wrote poetry in support of the British cause in the Boer War and on his next visit to South Africa in early 1900, became a correspondent for The Friend newspaper in Bloemfontein, which had been commandeered by Lord Roberts for British troops.[48] Although his journalistic stint was to last only two weeks, it was Kipling's first work on a newspaper staff since he left The Pioneer in Allahabad more than ten years before.[15] At The Friend, he made lifelong friendships with Perceval Landon, H. A. Gwynne, and others.[49] He also wrote articles published more widely expressing his views on the conflict.[50] Kipling penned an inscription for the Honoured Dead Memorial (Siege memorial) in Kimberley. Sussex[edit] Kipling at his desk, 1899. Portrait by his cousin, Sir Philip Burne-Jones In 1897, Kipling moved from Torquay to Rottingdean, near Brighton, East Sussex – first to North End House and then to the Elms.[51] In 1902, Kipling bought Bateman's, a house built in 1634 and located in rural Burwash. Bateman's was Kipling's home from 1902 until his death in 1936.[52] The house and its surrounding buildings, the mill and 33 acres (13 ha), were bought for £9,300. It had no bathroom, no running water upstairs and no electricity, but Kipling loved it: "Behold us, lawful owners of a grey stone lichened house – A.D. 1634 over the door – beamed, panelled, with old oak staircase, and all untouched and unfaked. It is a good and peaceable place. We have loved it ever since our first sight of it" (from a November 1902 letter).[53][54] In the non-fiction realm, he became involved in the debate over the British response to the rise in German naval power known as the Tirpitz Plan, to build a fleet to challenge the Royal Navy, publishing a series of articles in 1898 collected as A Fleet in Being. On a visit to the United States in 1899, Kipling and his daughter Josephine developed pneumonia, from which she eventually died. ("Kim's Gun" as seen in 1903) "He sat in defiance of municipal orders, astride the gun Zam-Zammeh, on her old platform, opposite the old Ajaibgher, the Wonder House, as the natives called the Lahore Museum." -Kim In the wake of his daughter's death, Kipling concentrated on collecting material for what became Just So Stories for Little Children, published in 1902, the year after Kim.[55] The American literary scholar David Scott has argued that Kim disproves the claim by Edward Said about Kipling as a promoter of Orientalism as Kipling – who was deeply interested in Buddhism – as he presented Tibetan Buddhism in a fairly sympathetic light and aspects of the novel appeared to reflect a Buddhist understanding of the universe.[56][57] Kipling was offended by the German Emperor Wilhelm II's Hun speech (Hunnenrede) in 1900, urging German troops being sent to China to crush the Boxer Rebellion to behave like "Huns" and take no prisoners.[58] In a 1902 poem, The Rowers, Kipling attacked the Kaiser as a threat to Britain and made the first use of the term "Hun" as an anti-German insult, using Wilhelm's own words and the actions of German troops in China to portray Germans as essentially barbarian.[58] In an interview with the French newspaper Le Figaro, the Francophile Kipling called Germany a menace and called for an Anglo-French alliance to stop it.[58] In another letter at the same time, Kipling described the "unfrei peoples of Central Europe" as living in "the Middle Ages with machine guns." [58] Speculative fiction[edit] Kipling wrote a number of speculative fiction short stories, including "The Army of a Dream," in which he sought to show a more efficient and responsible army than the hereditary bureaucracy of England at the time, and two science fiction stories: "With the Night Mail" (1905) and "As Easy As A.B.C." (1912). Both were set in the 21st century in Kipling's Aerial Board of Control universe. They read like modern hard science fiction,[59] and introduced the literary technique known as indirect exposition, which would later become one of science fiction writer Robert Heinlein's hallmarks. This technique is one that Kipling picked up in India, and used to solve the problem of his English readers not understanding much about Indian society, when writing The Jungle Book.[60] Nobel laureate and beyond[edit] In 1907, he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature, having been nominated in that year by Charles Oman, professor at the University of Oxford.[61] The prize citation said it was "in consideration of the power of observation, originality of imagination, virility of ideas and remarkable talent for narration which characterize the creations of this world-famous author." Nobel prizes had been established in 1901 and Kipling was the first English-language recipient. At the award ceremony in Stockholm on 10 December 1907, the Permanent Secretary of the Swedish Academy, Carl David af Wirsén, praised both Kipling and three centuries of English literature: The Swedish Academy, in awarding the Nobel Prize in Literature this year to Rudyard Kipling, desires to pay a tribute of homage to the literature of England, so rich in manifold glories, and to the greatest genius in the realm of narrative that that country has produced in our times.[62] To "book-end" this achievement came the publication of two connected poetry and story collections: Puck of Pook's Hill (1906), and Rewards and Fairies (1910). The latter contained the poem "If—." In a 1995 BBC opinion poll, it was voted the UK's favourite poem.[63] This exhortation to self-control and stoicism is arguably Kipling's most famous poem.[63] Rudyard Kipling by George Wylie Hutchinson Such was Kipling's popularity that he was asked by his friend Max Aitken to intervene in the 1911 Canadian election on behalf of the Conservatives.[64] In 1911, the major issue in Canada was a reciprocity treaty with the United States signed by the Liberal Prime Minister Sir Wilfrid Laurier and vigorously opposed by the Conservatives under Sir Robert Borden. On 7 September 1911, the Montreal Daily Star newspaper published a front-page appeal against the agreement by Kipling, who wrote: "It is her own soul that Canada risks today. Once that soul is pawned for any consideration, Canada must inevitably conform to the commercial, legal, financial, social, and ethical standards which will be imposed on her by the sheer admitted weight of the United States."[64] At the time, the Montreal Daily Star was Canada's most read newspaper. Over the next week, Kipling's appeal was reprinted in every English newspaper in Canada and is credited with helping to turn Canadian public opinion against the Liberal government.[64] Kipling sympathised with the anti-Home Rule stance of Irish Unionists, who opposed Irish autonomy. He was friends with Edward Carson, the Dublin-born leader of Ulster Unionism, who raised the Ulster Volunteers to prevent Home Rule in Ireland. Kipling wrote in a letter to a friend that Ireland was not a nation, and that before the English arrived in 1169, the Irish were a gang of cattle thieves living in savagery and killing each other while "writing dreary poems" about it all. In his view it was only British rule that allowed Ireland to advance.[65] A visit to Ireland in 1911 confirmed Kipling's prejudices. He wrote that the Irish countryside was beautiful, but spoiled by what he called the ugly homes of Irish farmers, with Kipling adding that God had made the Irish into poets having "deprived them of love of line or knowledge of colour." [66] In contrast, Kipling had nothing but praise for the "decent folk" of the Protestant minority and Unionist Ulster, free from the threat of "constant mob violence".[66] Kipling wrote the poem "Ulster" in 1912, reflecting his Unionist politics. Kipling often referred to the Irish Unionists as "our party." [67] Kipling had no sympathy or understanding for Irish nationalism, seeing Home Rule as an act of treason by the government of the Liberal Prime Minister H. H. Asquith that would plunge Ireland into the Dark Ages and allow the Irish Catholic majority to oppress the Protestant minority.[68] The scholar David Gilmour wrote that Kipling's lack of understanding of Ireland could be seen in his attack on John Redmond – the Anglophile leader of the Irish Parliamentary Party who wanted Home Rule because he believed it was the best way of keeping the United Kingdom together – as a traitor working to break up the United Kingdom.[69] Ulster was first publicly read at an Unionist rally in Belfast, where the largest Union Jack ever made was unfolded.[69] Kipling admitted it was meant to strike a "hard blow" against the Asquith government's Home Rule bill: "Rebellion, rapine, hate, Oppression, wrong and greed, Are loosed to rule our fate, By England's act and deed." [66] Ulster generated much controversy with the Conservative MP Sir Mark Sykes – who as a Unionist was opposed to the Home Rule bill – condemning Ulster in The Morning Post as a "direct appeal to ignorance and a deliberate attempt to foster religious hate." [69] Kipling was a staunch opponent of Bolshevism, a position which he shared with his friend Henry Rider Haggard. The two had bonded on Kipling's arrival in London in 1889 largely due to their shared opinions, and remained lifelong friends. Freemasonry[edit] According to the English magazine Masonic Illustrated, Kipling became a Freemason in about 1885, before the usual minimum age of 21,[70] being initiated into Hope and Perseverance Lodge No. 782 in Lahore. He later wrote to The Times, "I was Secretary for some years of the Lodge... which included Brethren of at least four creeds. I was entered [as an Apprentice] by a member from Brahmo Somaj, a Hindu, passed [to the degree of Fellow Craft] by a Mohammedan, and raised [to the degree of Master Mason] by an Englishman. Our Tyler was an Indian Jew." Kipling received not only the three degrees of Craft Masonry but also the side degrees of Mark Master Mason and Royal Ark Mariner.[71] Kipling so loved his Masonic experience that he memorialised its ideals in his poem "The Mother Lodge," [70] and used the fraternity and its symbols as vital plot devices in his novella The Man Who Would Be King.[72] First World War (1914–1918)[edit] At the beginning of the First World War, like many other writers, Kipling wrote pamphlets and poems enthusiastically supporting the UK war aims of restoring Belgium, after it had been occupied by Germany, together with generalised statements that Britain was standing up for the cause of good. In September 1914, Kipling was asked by the government to write propaganda, an offer that he accepted.[73] Kipling's pamphlets and stories were popular with the British people during the war, his major themes being to glorify the British military as the place for heroic men to be, while citing German atrocities against Belgian civilians and the stories of women brutalised by a horrific war unleashed by Germany, yet surviving and triumphing in spite of their suffering.[73] Kipling was enraged by reports of the Rape of Belgium together with the sinking of the RMS Lusitania in 1915, which he saw as a deeply inhumane act, which led him to see the war as a crusade for civilisation against barbarism.[74] In a 1915 speech, Kipling declared, "There was no crime, no cruelty, no abomination that the mind of men can conceive of which the German has not perpetrated, is not perpetrating, and will not perpetrate if he is allowed to go on.... Today, there are only two divisions in the world... human beings and Germans."[74] Alongside his passionate antipathy towards Germany, Kipling was privately deeply critical of how the war was being fought by the British Army, complaining as early as October 1914 that Germany should have been defeated by now, and something must be wrong with the British Army.[75] Kipling, who was shocked by the heavy losses that the British Expeditionary Force had taken by the autumn of 1914, blamed the entire pre-war generation of British politicians who, he argued, had failed to learn the lessons of the Boer War. Thus thousands of British soldiers were now paying with their lives for their failure in the fields of France and Belgium.[75] Kipling had scorn for men who shirked duty in the First World War. In "The New Army in Training"[76] (1915), Kipling concluded by saying: This much we can realise, even though we are so close to it, the old safe instinct saves us from triumph and exultation. But what will be the position in years to come of the young man who has deliberately elected to outcaste himself from this all-embracing brotherhood? What of his family, and, above all, what of his descendants, when the books have been closed and the last balance struck of sacrifice and sorrow in every hamlet, village, parish, suburb, city, shire, district, province, and Dominion throughout the Empire? In 1914, Kipling was one of 53 leading British authors — a number that included H. G. Wells, Arthur Conan Doyle and Thomas Hardy — who signed their names to the “Authors’ Declaration.” This manifesto declared that the German invasion of Belgium had been a brutal crime, and that Britain “could not without dishonour have refused to take part in the present war.”[77] Death of John Kipling[edit] 2nd Lt John Kipling Memorial to 2nd Lt John Kipling in Burwash Parish Church, Sussex, England Kipling's son John was killed in action at the Battle of Loos in September 1915, at age 18. John initially wanted to join the Royal Navy, but having had his application turned down after a failed medical examination due to poor eyesight, he opted to apply for military service as an army officer. Again, his eyesight was an issue during the medical examination. In fact, he tried twice to enlist, but was rejected. His father had been lifelong friends with Lord Roberts, former commander-in-chief of the British Army, and colonel of the Irish Guards, and at Rudyard's request, John was accepted into the Irish Guards.[73] John Kipling was sent to Loos two days into the battle in a reinforcement contingent. He was last seen stumbling through the mud blindly, with a possible facial injury. A body identified as his was found in 1992, although that identification has been challenged.[78][79][80] In 2015, the Commonwealth War Grave Commission confirmed that it had correctly identified the burial place of John Kipling;[81] they record his date of death as 27 September 1915, and that he is buried at St Mary's A.D.S. Cemetery, Haisnes.[82] After his son's death, in a poem titled "Epitaphs of the War," Kipling wrote "If any question why we died / Tell them, because our fathers lied." Critics have speculated that these words may express Kipling's guilt over his role in arranging John's commission.[83] Professor Tracy Bilsing contends that the line refers to Kipling's disgust that British leaders failed to learn the lessons of the Boer War, and were unprepared for the struggle with Germany in 1914, with the "lie" of the "fathers" being that the British Army was prepared for any war when it was not.[73] John's death has been linked to Kipling's 1916 poem "My Boy Jack," notably in the play My Boy Jack and its subsequent television adaptation, along with the documentary Rudyard Kipling: A Remembrance Tale. However, the poem was originally published at the head of a story about the Battle of Jutland and appears to refer to a death at sea; the "Jack" referred to is probably a generic "Jack Tar." [84] In the Kipling family, Jack was the name of the family dog, while John Kipling was always John, making the identification of the protagonist of "My Boy Jack" with John Kipling somewhat questionable. However, Kipling was indeed emotionally devastated by the death of his son. He is said to have assuaged his grief by reading the novels of Jane Austen aloud to his wife and daughter.[85] During the war, he wrote a booklet The Fringes of the Fleet[86] containing essays and poems on various nautical subjects of the war. Some of these were set to music by the English composer Edward Elgar. Kipling became friends with a French soldier named Maurice Hammoneau, whose life had been saved in the First World War when his copy of Kim, which he had in his left breast pocket, stopped a bullet. Hammoneau presented Kipling with the book, with bullet still embedded, and his Croix de Guerre as a token of gratitude. They continued to correspond, and when Hammoneau had a son, Kipling insisted on returning the book and medal.[87] On 1 August 1918, the poem "The Old Volunteer" appeared under his name in The Times. The next day, he wrote to the newspaper to disclaim authorship and a correction appeared. Although The Times employed a private detective to investigate, the detective appears to have suspected Kipling himself of being the author, and the identity of the hoaxer was never established.[88] After the war (1918–1936)[edit] Kipling, aged 60, on the cover of Time magazine, 27 September 1926. Partly in response to John's death, Kipling joined Sir Fabian Ware's Imperial War Graves Commission (now the Commonwealth War Graves Commission), the group responsible for the garden-like British war graves that can be found to this day dotted along the former Western Front and the other places in the world where British Empire troops lie buried. His main contributions to the project were his selection of the biblical phrase, "Their Name Liveth For Evermore" (Ecclesiasticus 44.14, KJV), found on the Stones of Remembrance in larger war cemeteries, and his suggestion of the phrase "Known unto God" for the gravestones of unidentified servicemen. He also chose the inscription "The Glorious Dead" on the Cenotaph, Whitehall, London. Additionally, he wrote a two-volume history of the Irish Guards, his son's regiment, published in 1923 and seen as one of the finest examples of regimental history.[89] Kipling's short story "The Gardener" depicts visits to the war cemeteries, and the poem "The King's Pilgrimage" (1922) a journey which King George V made, touring the cemeteries and memorials under construction by the Imperial War Graves Commission. With the increasing popularity of the automobile, Kipling became a motoring correspondent for the British press, writing enthusiastically of trips around England and abroad, though he was usually driven by a chauffeur. After the war, Kipling was sceptical of the Fourteen Points and the League of Nations, but had hopes that the United States would abandon isolationism and the post-war world be dominated by an Anglo-French-American alliance.[90] He hoped the United States would take on a League of Nations mandate for Armenia as the best way of preventing isolationism, and hoped that Theodore Roosevelt, whom Kipling admired, would again become president.[90] Kipling was saddened by Roosevelt's death in 1919, believing him to be the only American politician capable of keeping the United States in the "game" of world politics.[91] Kipling was hostile towards communism, writing of the Bolshevik take-over in 1917 that one sixth of the world had "passed bodily out of civilization."[92] In a 1918 poem, Kipling wrote of Soviet Russia that everything good in Russia had been destroyed by the Bolsheviks – all that was left was "the sound of weeping and the sight of burning fire, and the shadow of a people trampled into the mire." [92] In 1920, Kipling co-founded the Liberty League[93] with Haggard and Lord Sydenham. This short-lived enterprise focused on promoting classic liberal ideals as a response to the rising power of communist tendencies within Great Britain, or as Kipling put it, "to combat the advance of Bolshevism." [94][95] Kipling (second from left) as rector of the University of St Andrews, Scotland in 1923 In 1922, Kipling, having referred to the work of engineers in some of his poems, such as "The Sons of Martha," "Sappers," and "McAndrew's Hymn," [96] and in other writings, including short-story anthologies such as The Day's Work,[97] was asked by a University of Toronto civil engineering professor, Herbert E. T. Haultain, for assistance in developing a dignified obligation and ceremony for graduating engineering students. Kipling was enthusiastic in his response and shortly produced both, formally titled "The Ritual of the Calling of an Engineer." Today engineering graduates all across Canada are presented with an iron ring at a ceremony to remind them of their obligation to society.[98][99] In 1922 Kipling became Lord Rector of St Andrews University in Scotland, a three-year position. Kipling, as a Francophile, argued strongly for an Anglo-French alliance to uphold the peace, calling Britain and France in 1920 the "twin fortresses of European civilization." [100] Similarly, Kipling repeatedly warned against revising the Treaty of Versailles in Germany's favour, which he predicted would lead to a new world war.[100] An admirer of Raymond Poincaré, Kipling was one of few British intellectuals who supported the French Occupation of the Ruhr in 1923, at a time when the British government and most public opinion was against the French position.[101] In contrast to the popular British view of Poincaré as a cruel bully intent on impoverishing Germany with unreasonable reparations, Kipling argued that he was rightfully trying to preserve France as a great power in the face of an unfavourable situation.[101] Kipling argued that even before 1914, Germany's larger economy and higher birth rate had made that country stronger than France; with much of France devastated by war and the French suffering heavy losses meant that its low birth rate would give it trouble, while Germany was mostly undamaged and still with a higher birth rate. So he reasoned that the future would bring German domination if Versailles were revised in Germany's favour, and it was madness for Britain to press France to do so.[101] Kipling late in his life, portrait by Elliott & Fry. In 1924, Kipling was opposed to the Labour government of Ramsay MacDonald as "Bolshevism without bullets." He believed that Labour was a communist front organisation, and "excited orders and instructions from Moscow" would expose Labour as such to the British people.[102] Kipling's views were on the right. Though he admired Benito Mussolini to some extent in the 1920s, he was against fascism, calling Oswald Mosley was "a bounder and an arriviste." By 1935, he was calling Mussolini a deranged and dangerous egomaniac and in 1933 wrote, "The Hitlerites are out for blood." [103] Despite his anti-communism, the first major translations of Kipling into Russian took place under Lenin's rule in the early 1920s, and Kipling was popular with Russian readers in the interwar period. Many younger Russian poets and writers, such as Konstantin Simonov, were influenced by him.[104] Kipling's clarity of style, use of colloquial language and employment of rhythm and rhyme were seen as major innovations in poetry that appealed to many younger Russian poets.[105] Though it was obligatory for Soviet journals to begin translations of Kipling with an attack on him as a "fascist" and an "imperialist," such was Kipling's popularity with Russian readers that his works were not banned in the Soviet Union until 1939, with the signing of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact.[104] The ban was lifted in 1941 after Operation Barbarossa, when Britain become a Soviet ally, but imposed for good with the Cold War in 1946.[106] A left-facing swastika in 1911, a symbol of good luck Covers of two of Kipling's books from 1919 (l) and 1930 (r) showing the removal of the swastika Many older editions of Rudyard Kipling's books have a swastika printed on the cover, associated with a picture of an elephant carrying a lotus flower, reflecting the influence of Indian culture. Kipling's use of the swastika was based on the Indian sun symbol conferring good luck and the Sanskrit word meaning "fortunate" or "well-being." [107] He used the swastika symbol in both right and left-facing forms, and it was in general use by others at the time.[108][109] In a note to Edward Bok after the death of Lockwood Kipling in 1911, Rudyard said: "I am sending with this for your acceptance, as some little memory of my father to whom you were so kind, the original of one of the plaques that he used to make for me. I thought it being the Swastika would be appropriate for your Swastika. May it bring you even more good fortune."[107] Once the Nazis came to power and usurped the swastika, Kipling ordered that it should no longer adorn his books.[107] Less than a year before his death, Kipling gave a speech (titled "An Undefended Island") to the Royal Society of St George on 6 May 1935, warning of the danger which Nazi Germany posed to Britain.[110] Kipling scripted the first Royal Christmas Message, delivered via the BBC's Empire Service by George V in 1932.[111][112] In 1934, he published a short story in The Strand Magazine, "Proofs of Holy Writ," postulating that William Shakespeare had helped to polish the prose of the King James Bible.[113] Death[edit] Kipling kept writing until the early 1930s, but at a slower pace and with less success than before. On the night of 12 January 1936, he suffered a haemorrhage in his small intestine. He underwent surgery, but died at Middlesex Hospital less than a week later on 18 January 1936, at the age of 70, of a perforated duodenal ulcer.[114][115][116] His death had previously been incorrectly announced in a magazine, to which he wrote, "I've just read that I am dead. Don't forget to delete me from your list of subscribers."[117] The pallbearers at the funeral included Kipling's cousin, Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin, and the marble casket was covered by a Union Jack.[118] Kipling was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium in north-west London, and his ashes interred at Poets' Corner, part of the South Transept of Westminster Abbey, next to the graves of Charles Dickens and Thomas Hardy.[118] Kipling's will was proven on 6 April, with his estate valued at £168,141 2s. 11d. (roughly equivalent to £11,508,703 in 2019[119]).[120] Legacy[edit] In 2010, the International Astronomical Union approved that a crater on the planet Mercury should be named after Kipling – one of ten newly discovered impact craters observed by the MESSENGER spacecraft in 2008–2009.[121] In 2012, an extinct species of crocodile, Goniopholis kiplingi, was named in his honour "in recognition for his enthusiasm for natural sciences." [122] More than 50 unpublished poems by Kipling, discovered by the American scholar Thomas Pinney, were released for the first time in March 2013.[123] Kipling's writing has strongly influenced that of others. His stories for adults remain in print and have garnered high praise from writers as different as Poul Anderson, Jorge Luis Borges, and Randall Jarrell, who wrote: "After you have read Kipling's fifty or seventy-five best stories you realize that few men have written this many stories of this much merit, and that very few have written more and better stories."[124] His children's stories remain popular and his Jungle Books made into several films. The first was made by producer Alexander Korda. Other films have been produced by The Walt Disney Company. A number of his poems were set to music by Percy Grainger. A series of short films based on some of his stories was broadcast by the BBC in 1964.[125] Kipling's work is still popular today. The poet T.S. Eliot edited A Choice of Kipling's Verse (1941) with an introductory essay.[126] Eliot was aware of the complaints that had been levelled against Kipling and he dismissed them one by one: that Kipling is "a Tory" using his verse to transmit right wing political views, or "a journalist" pandering to popular taste; while Eliot writes: "I cannot find any justification for the charge that he held a doctrine of race superiority."[127] Eliot finds instead: An immense gift for using words, an amazing curiosity and power of observation with his mind and with all his senses, the mask of the entertainer, and beyond that a queer gift of second sight, of transmitting messages from elsewhere, a gift so disconcerting when we are made aware of it that thenceforth we are never sure when it is not present: all this makes Kipling a writer impossible wholly to understand and quite impossible to belittle. — T.S. Eliot[128] Of Kipling's verse, such as his Barrack-Room Ballads, Eliot writes "of a number of poets who have written great poetry, only... a very few whom I should call great verse writers. And unless I am mistaken, Kipling's position in this class is not only high, but unique."[129] In response to Eliot, George Orwell wrote a long consideration of Kipling's work for Horizon in 1942, noting that although as a "jingo imperialist" Kipling was "morally insensitive and aesthetically disgusting," his work had many qualities which ensured that while "every enlightened person has despised him... nine-tenths of those enlightened persons are forgotten and Kipling is in some sense still there.": One reason for Kipling's power [was] his sense of responsibility, which made it possible for him to have a world-view, even though it happened to be a false one. Although he had no direct connexion with any political party, Kipling was a Conservative, a thing that does not exist nowadays. Those who now call themselves Conservatives are either Liberals, Fascists or the accomplices of Fascists. He identified himself with the ruling power and not with the opposition. In a gifted writer this seems to us strange and even disgusting, but it did have the advantage of giving Kipling a certain grip on reality. The ruling power is always faced with the question, 'In such and such circumstances, what would you do?', whereas the opposition is not obliged to take responsibility or make any real decisions. Where it is a permanent and pensioned opposition, as in England, the quality of its thought deteriorates accordingly. Moreover, anyone who starts out with a pessimistic, reactionary view of life tends to be justified by events, for Utopia never arrives and 'the gods of the copybook headings', as Kipling himself put it, always return. Kipling sold out to the British governing class, not financially but emotionally. This warped his political judgement, for the British ruling class were not what he imagined, and it led him into abysses of folly and snobbery, but he gained a corresponding advantage from having at least tried to imagine what action and responsibility are like. It is a great thing in his favour that he is not witty, not 'daring', has no wish to épater les bourgeois. He dealt largely in platitudes, and since we live in a world of platitudes, much of what he said sticks. Even his worst follies seem less shallow and less irritating than the 'enlightened' utterances of the same period, such as Wilde's epigrams or the collection of cracker-mottoes at the end of Man and Superman. — George Orwell[130] In 1939, the poet W.H. Auden celebrated Kipling in a similarly ambiguous way in his elegy for William Butler Yeats. Auden deleted this section from more recent editions of his poems. Time, that is intolerant Of the brave and innocent, And indifferent in a week To a beautiful physique, Worships language, and forgives Everyone by whom it lives; Pardons cowardice, conceit, Lays its honours at his feet. Time, that with this strange excuse, Pardons Kipling and his views, And will pardon Paul Claudel, Pardons him for writing well.[131] The poet Alison Brackenbury writes "Kipling is poetry's Dickens, an outsider and journalist with an unrivalled ear for sound and speech."[132] The English folk singer Peter Bellamy was a lover of Kipling's poetry, much of which he believed to have been influenced by English traditional folk forms. He recorded several albums of Kipling's verse set to traditional airs, or to tunes of his own composition written in traditional style.[133] However, in the case of the bawdy folk song, "The Bastard King of England," which is commonly credited to Kipling, it is believed that the song is actually misattributed.[134] Kipling often is quoted in discussions of contemporary British political and social issues. In 1911, Kipling wrote the poem "The Reeds of Runnymede" that celebrated Magna Carta, and summoned up a vision of the "stubborn Englishry" determined to defend their rights. In 1996, the following verses of the poem were quoted by former Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher warning against the encroachment of the European Union on national sovereignty: At Runnymede, at Runnymede, Oh, hear the reeds at Runnymede: ‘You musn’t sell, delay, deny, A freeman’s right or liberty. It wakes the stubborn Englishry, We saw ’em roused at Runnymede! … And still when Mob or Monarch lays Too rude a hand on English ways, The whisper wakes, the shudder plays, Across the reeds at Runnymede. And Thames, that knows the mood of kings, And crowds and priests and suchlike things, Rolls deep and dreadful as he brings Their warning down from Runnymede![135] Political singer-songwriter Billy Bragg, who attempts to build a left-wing English nationalism in contrast with the more common right-wing English nationalism, has attempted to 'reclaim' Kipling for an inclusive sense of Englishness.[136] Kipling's enduring relevance has been noted in the United States, as it has become involved in Afghanistan and other areas about which he wrote.[137][138][139] Links with camping and scouting[edit] In 1903, Kipling gave permission to Elizabeth Ford Holt to borrow themes from the Jungle Books to establish Camp Mowglis, a summer camp for boys on the shores of Newfound Lake in New Hampshire. Throughout their lives, Kipling and his wife Carrie maintained an active interest in Camp Mowglis, which still continues the traditions that Kipling inspired. Buildings at Mowglis have names such as Akela, Toomai, Baloo, and Panther. The campers are referred to as "the Pack," from the youngest "Cubs" to the oldest living in "Den."[140] Kipling's links with the Scouting movements were also strong. Robert Baden-Powell, founder of Scouting, used many themes from Jungle Book stories and Kim in setting up his junior Wolf Cubs. These ties still exist, such as the popularity of "Kim's Game." The movement is named after Mowgli's adopted wolf family, and adult helpers of Wolf Cub Packs take names from The Jungle Book, especially the adult leader called Akela after the leader of the Seeonee wolf pack.[141] Kipling's Burwash home[edit] Bateman's, Kipling's beloved home – which he referred to as "A good and peaceable place" – in Burwash, East Sussex, is now a public museum dedicated to the author[142] After the death of Kipling's wife in 1939, his house, Bateman's in Burwash, East Sussex, where he had lived from 1902 until 1936, was bequeathed to the National Trust. It is now a public museum dedicated to the author. Elsie Bambridge, his only child who lived to maturity, died childless in 1976, and bequeathed her copyrights to the National Trust, which in turn donated them to the University of Sussex to ensure better public access.[143] Novelist and poet Sir Kingsley Amis wrote a poem, "Kipling at Bateman's," after visiting Burwash (where Amis's father lived briefly in the 1960s) as part of a BBC television series on writers and their houses.[144] In 2003, actor Ralph Fiennes read excerpts from Kipling's works from the study in Bateman's, including The Jungle Book, Something of Myself, Kim, and The Just So Stories, and poems, including "If ..." and "My Boy Jack," for a CD published by the National Trust.[145][146] Reputation in India[edit] In modern-day India, whence he drew much of his material, Kipling's reputation remains controversial, especially among modern nationalists and some post-colonial critics. Rudyard Kipling was a prominent supporter of Colonel Reginald Dyer, who was responsible for the Jallianwala Bagh massacre in Amritsar (in the province of Punjab). Kipling called Dyer "the man who saved India" and initiated collections for the latter's homecoming prize.[147] However, Subhash Chopra writes in his book Kipling Sahib – the Raj Patriot that the benefit fund was started by The Morning Post newspaper, not by Kipling, and that Kipling made no contribution to the Dyer fund. While Kipling's name was conspicuously absent from the list of donors as published in The Morning Post, he clearly admired Dyer.[148] Other contemporary Indian intellectuals such as Ashis Nandy have taken a more nuanced view. Jawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister of independent India, often described Kipling's novel Kim as one of his favourite books.[149][150] G.V. Desani, an Indian writer of fiction, had a more negative opinion of Kipling. He alludes to Kipling in his novel All About H. Hatterr: I happen to pick up R. Kipling's autobiographical Kim. Therein, this self-appointed whiteman's burden-bearing sherpa feller's stated how, in the Orient, blokes hit the road and think nothing of walking a thousand miles in search of something. Indian writer Khushwant Singh wrote in 2001 that he considers Kipling's "If—" "the essence of the message of The Gita in English," [151] referring to the Bhagavad Gita, an ancient Indian scripture. Indian writer R.K. Narayan said "Kipling, the supposed expert writer on India, showed a better understanding of the mind of the animals in the jungle than of the men in an Indian home or the marketplace."[152] The Indian politician and writer Sashi Tharoor commented "Kipling, that flatulent voice of Victorian imperialism, would wax eloquent on the noble duty to bring law to those without it".[153] In November 2007, it was announced that Kipling's birth home in the campus of the J. J. School of Art in Mumbai would be turned into a museum celebrating the author and his works.[154] Art[edit] Though best known as an author, Kipling was also an accomplished artist. Influenced by Aubrey Beardsley, Kipling produced many illustrations for his stories, e.g. Just So Stories, 1919.[155] Screen portrayals[edit] Reginald Sheffield portrayed Rudyard Kipling in Gunga Din (1939). Paul Scardon portrayed Rudyard Kipling in The Adventures of Mark Twain (1944). Christopher Plummer portrayed Rudyard Kipling in The Man Who Would Be King (1975). David Haig portrayed Rudyard Kipling in My Boy Jack (2007). Bibliography[edit] Main article: Rudyard Kipling bibliography Kipling's bibliography includes fiction (including novels and short stories), non-fiction, and poetry. Several of his works were collaborations. See also[edit] Poetry portal Biography portal Kipling Trail List of Nobel laureates in Literature HMS Birkenhead (1845) – ship mentioned in one of Kipling's poems References[edit] ^ The Times, (London) 18 January 1936, p. 12. ^ "The Man who would be King". Notes on the text by John McGivering. kiplingsociety.co.uk. ^ a b c d e Rutherford, Andrew (1987). General Preface to the Editions of Rudyard Kipling, in "Puck of Pook's Hill and Rewards and Fairies", by Rudyard Kipling. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-282575-5 ^ a b c d e Rutherford, Andrew (1987). Introduction to the Oxford World's Classics edition of 'Plain Tales from the Hills', by Rudyard Kipling. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-281652-7 ^ James Joyce considered Tolstoy, Kipling and D'Annunzio the "three writers of the nineteenth century who had the greatest natural talents", but that they "did not fulfill that promise". He also noted their "semi-fanatic ideas about religion, or about patriotism". Diary of David Fleischman, 21 July 1938, quoted in James Joyce by Richard Ellmann, p. 661, Oxford University Press (1983) ISBN 0-19-281465-6 ^ Alfred Nobel Foundation. "Who is the youngest ever to receive a Nobel Prize, and who is the oldest?". Nobelprize.com. p. 409. Archived from the original on 25 September 2006. Retrieved 30 September 2006. ^ Birkenhead, Lord. (1978). Rudyard Kipling, Appendix B, "Honours and Awards". Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London; Random House Inc., New York. ^ Lewis, Lisa. (1995). Introduction to the Oxford World"s Classics edition of "Just So Stories", by Rudyard Kipling. Oxford University Press. pp. xv–xlii. ISBN 0-19-282276-4 ^ Quigley, Isabel. (1987). Introduction to the Oxford World's Classics edition of "The Complete Stalky & Co.", by Rudyard Kipling. Oxford University Press. pp. xiii–xxviii. ISBN 0-19-281660-8 ^ Said, Edward. (1993). Culture and Imperialism. London: Chatto & Windus. p. 196. ISBN 0-679-75054-1. ^ Sandison, Alan. (1987). Introduction to the Oxford World's Classics edition of Kim, by Rudyard Kipling. Oxford University Press. pp. xiii–xxx. ISBN 0-19-281674-8 ^ Douglas Kerr, University of Hong Kong (30 May 2002). "Rudyard Kipling." The Literary Encyclopedia. The Literary Dictionary Company. 26 September 2006. ^ a b c d e Carrington, C.E. (Charles Edmund) (1955). Rudyard Kipling: His Life and Work. Macmillan & Co. ^ Flanders, Judith. (2005). A Circle of Sisters: Alice Kipling, Georgiana Burne-Jones, Agnes Poynter, and Louisa Baldwin. W. W. Norton and Company, New York. ISBN 0-393-05210-9 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Gilmour ^ "My Rival" 1885. Notes edited by John Radcliffe. kiplingsociety.co.uk ^ Gilmour, p. 32. ^ thepotteries.org (13 January 2002). "did you know..." The potteries.org. Retrieved 2 October 2006. ^ Ahmed, Zubair (27 November 2007). "Kipling's India home to become museum". BBC News. Retrieved 7 August 2015. ^ Sir J. J. College of Architecture (30 September 2006). "Campus". Sir J. J. College of Architecture, Mumbai. Archived from the original on 28 July 2011. Retrieved 2 October 2006. ^ Aklekar, Rajendra (12 August 2014). "Red tape keeps Kipling bungalow in disrepair". Mumbai Mirror. Retrieved 7 August 2015. ^ Kipling, Rudyard (1894) "To the City of Bombay", dedication to Seven Seas, Macmillan & Co. ^ Murphy, Bernice M. (21 June 1999). "Rudyard Kipling – A Brief Biography". School of English, The Queen's University of Belfast. Archived from the original on 14 November 2012. Retrieved 6 October 2006.CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link) ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Kipling, Rudyard (1935). "Something of Myself". Archived from the original on 23 February 2014. Retrieved 6 September 2008.CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link) ^ Pinney, Thomas (2011) [2004]. "Kipling, (Joseph) Rudyard (1865–1936)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/34334. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) ^ Pinney, Thomas (1995). "A Very Young Person, Notes on the text". Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 6 March 2012. ^ a b c d Carpenter, Humphrey and Prichard, Mari. (1984). Oxford Companion to Children's Literature. Oxford University Press. pp. 296–297. ISBN 0192115820. ^ Chums, No. 256, Vol. V, 4 August 1897, p. 798. ^ Neelam, S (8 June 2008). "Rudyard Kipling's Allahabad bungalow in shambles". Hindustan Times. Retrieved 7 August 2015. ^ "Kipling, Rudyard – 1865–1936 – Homes & haunts – India – Allahabad (from the collection of William Carpenter)". Library of Congress US. Retrieved 7 August 2015. ^ a b Scott, p. 315 ^ a b Pinney, Thomas (editor). Letters of Rudyard Kipling, volume 1. Macmillan & Co., London and NY. ^ a b c d Hughes, James (2010). "Those Who Passed Through: Unusual Visits to Unlikely Places". New York History. 91 (2): 146–151. JSTOR 23185107. ^ Kipling, Rudyard (1956) Kipling: a selection of his stories and poems, Volume 2 p. 349 Doubleday, 1956 ^ Coates, John D. (1997). The Day's Work: Kipling and the Idea of Sacrifice. Fairleigh University Press. p. 130. ISBN 083863754X. ^ Kaplan, Robert D. (1989) Lahore as Kipling Knew It. The New York Times. Retrieved 9 March 2008 ^ Kipling, Rudyard (1996) Writings on Writing. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-44527-2, pp. 36 and 173 ^ Mallet, Phillip (2003). Rudyard Kipling: A Literary Life. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. ISBN 0-333-55721-2 ^ a b Ricketts, Harry (1999). Rudyard Kipling: A life. Carroll and Graf Publishers Inc., New York. ISBN 0-7867-0711-9 ^ Kipling, Rudyard. (1920). Letters of Travel (1892–1920). Macmillan & Co. ^ Nicolson, Adam (2001). Carrie Kipling 1862–1939: The Hated Wife. Faber & Faber, London. ISBN 0-571-20835-5 ^ a b Pinney, Thomas (editor). Letters of Rudyard Kipling, volume 2. Macmillan & Co. ^ Bliss Carman, et al., eds. The World’s Best Poetry. Volume I. Of Home: of Friendship. 1904. ^ Kipling, Rudyard. 1899. The White Man's Burden. Published simultaneously in The Times, London, and McClure's Magazine (US) 12 February 1899 ^ Snodgrass, Chris (2002). A Companion to Victorian Poetry. Blackwell, Oxford. ^ Kipling, Rudyard. (July 1897). "Recessional'". The Times, London ^ "Something of Myself", published 1935, South Africa Chapter ^ Reilly, Bernard F., Center for Research Libraries, Chicago, Illinois. email to Marion Wallace The Friend newspaper, Orange Free State, South Africa. ^ Carrington, C. E. (1955). The life of Rudyard Kipling, Doubleday & Co., Garden City, NY, p. 236. ^ Kipling, Rudyard (18 March 1900). "Kipling at Cape Town: Severe Arraignment of Treacherous Afrikanders and Demand for Condign Punishment By and By" (PDF). The New York Times. p. 21. ^ "Kipling.s Sussex: The Elms". Kipling.org. ^ "Bateman's: Jacobean house, home of Rudyard Kipling". National Trust.org. ^ C. E. Carrington (1955). The life of Rudyard Kipling, p. 286. ^ "Bateman's House". Nationaltrust.org.uk. 17 November 2005. Archived from the original on 17 January 2014. Retrieved 23 June 2010.CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link) ^ "Writers History – Kipling Rudyard". writershistory.com. Archived from the original on 25 April 2015.CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link) ^ Scott, pp. 318–319. ^ Leoshko, J. (2001). "What is in Kim? Rudyard Kipling and Tibetan Buddhist Traditions". South Asia Research. 21 (1): 51–75. doi:10.1177/026272800102100103. S2CID 145694033. ^ a b c d Gilmour, p. 206 ^ Bennett, Arnold (1917). Books and Persons Being Comments on a Past Epoch 1908–1911. London: Chatto & Windus. ^ Fred Lerner. "A Master of Our Art: Rudyard Kipling and modern Science Fiction". The Kipling Society. ^ Nomination Database. Nobelprize.org. Retrieved on 4 May 2017. ^ "Nobel Prize in Literature 1907 – presentation Speech". Nobelprize.org. ^ a b Emma Jones (2004). The Literary Companion. Robson. p. 25. ISBN 978-1-86105-798-3. ^ a b c MacKenzie, David & Dutil, Patrice (2011) Canada 1911: The Decisive Election that Shaped the Country. Toronto: Dundurn. p. 211. ISBN 1554889472. ^ Gilmour, p. 242. ^ a b c Gilmour, p. 243. ^ Gilmour, p. 241. ^ Gilmour, pp. 242–244. ^ a b c Gilmour, p. 244. ^ a b Mackey, Albert G. (1946). Encyclopedia of Freemasonry, Vol. 1. Chicago: The Masonic History Co. ^ Our brother Rudyard Kipling. Masonic lecture Archived 8 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Albertpike.wordpress.com (7 October 2011). Retrieved on 4 May 2017. ^ "Official Visit to Meridian Lodge No. 687" (PDF). 12 February 2014. ^ a b c d Bilsing, Tracey (Summer 2000). "The Process of Manufacture of Rudyard Kipling's Private Propaganda" (PDF). War Literature and the Arts. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 15 August 2013. ^ a b Gilmour, p. 250. ^ a b Gilmour, p. 251. ^ "Full text of 'The new army in training'". archive.org. ^ "1914 Authors' Manifesto Defending Britain's Involvement in WWI, Signed by H.G. Wells and Arthur Conan Doyle". Slate. Retrieved 27 February 2020. ^ Brown, Jonathan (28 August 2006). "The Great War and its aftermath: The son who haunted Kipling". The Independent. Retrieved 3 May 2018. It was only his father's intervention that allowed John Kipling to serve on the Western Front – and the poet never got over his death. ^ Quinlan, Mark (11 December 2007). "The controversy over John Kipling's burial place". War Memorials Archive Blog. Retrieved 3 May 2018. ^ "Solving the mystery of Rudyard Kipling's son". BBC News Magazine. 18 January 2016. Retrieved 3 May 2018. ^ McGreevy, Ronan (25 September 2015). "Grave of Rudyard Kipling's son correctly named, says authority". The Irish Times. Retrieved 3 May 2018. ^ "Casualty record: Lieutenant Kipling, John". Commonwealth War Graves Commission. Retrieved 3 May 2018. ^ Webb, George (1997). Foreword to: Kipling, Rudyard. The Irish Guards in the Great War. 2 vols. Spellmount. p. 9. ^ Southam, Brian (6 March 2010). "Notes on "My Boy Jack"". Retrieved 23 July 2011. ^ "The Many Lovers of Miss Jane Austen", BBC2 broadcast, 9 pm 23 December 2011 ^ The Fringes of the Fleet, Macmillan & Co., 1916. ^ Original correspondence between Kipling and Maurice Hammoneau and his son Jean Hammoneau concerning the affair at the Library of Congress under the title: How "Kim" saved the life of a French soldier: a remarkable series of autograph letters of Rudyard Kipling, with the soldier's Croix de Guerre, 1918–1933. LCCN 2007-566938. The library also possesses the actual French 389-page paperback edition of Kim that saved Hammoneau's life, LCCN 2007-581430 ^ Simmers, George (27 May 1918). "A Kipling Hoax". The Times. ^ Kipling, Rudyard (1923). The Irish Guards in the Great War. 2 vols. London. ^ a b Gilmour, p. 273. ^ Gilmour, pp. 273–274. ^ a b Hodgson, p. 1060. ^ "The Liberty League – a campaign against Bolshevism". jot101.com. Retrieved 2 January 2017. ^ Miller, David and Dinan, William (2008) A Century of Spin. Pluto Press. ISBN 978-0-7453-2688-7 ^ Gilmour, p. 275. ^ Kipling, Rudyard (1940) The Definitive edition of Rudyard Kipling's verse. Hodder & Stoughton. ^ "The day's work". Internet Archive. ^ "The Iron Ring". Ironring.ca. Retrieved 10 September 2008. ^ "The Calling of an Engineer". Ironring.ca. Retrieved 24 November 2012. ^ a b Gilmour, p. 300. ^ a b c Gilmour, pp. 300–301. ^ Gilmour, p. 293. ^ Gilmour, pp. 302 and 304. ^ a b Hodgson, pp. 1059–1060. ^ Hodgson, pp. 1062–1063. ^ Hodgson, p. 1059. ^ a b c Smith, Michael."Kipling and the Swastika". Kipling.org. ^ Schliemann, H, Troy and its remains, London: Murray, 1875, pp. 102, 119–120 ^ Boxer, Sarah (29 June 2000). "One of the World's Great Symbols Strives for a Comeback". Think Tank. The New York Times. Retrieved 7 May 2012. ^ Rudyard Kipling, War Stories and Poems (Oxford Paperbacks, 1999), pp. xxiv–xxv ^ Knight, Sam (17 March 2017). "'London Bridge is down': the secret plan for the days after the Queen's death". The Guardian. Retrieved 12 October 2017. ^ Rose, Kenneth (1983). King George V. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. p. 394. ISBN 978-1-84212-001-9. ^ Short Stories from the Strand, The Folio Society, 1992 ^ Harry Ricketts (2000). Rudyard Kipling: A Life. Carroll & Graf. pp. 388–. ISBN 978-0-7867-0830-7. Retrieved 18 July 2013. ^ Rudyard Kipling's Waltzing Ghost: The Literary Heritage of Brown's Hotel, paragraph 11, Sandra Jackson-Opoku, Literary Traveler. ^ "Index entry". FreeBMD. ONS. Retrieved 15 November 2020. ^ Chernega, Carol (2011). A Dream House: Exploring the Literary Homes of England. p. 90. Dog Ear Publishing. ISBN 1457502461. ^ a b "History – Rudyard Kipling". Westminster abbey.org. ^ UK Retail Price Index inflation figures are based on data from Clark, Gregory (2017). "The Annual RPI and Average Earnings for Britain, 1209 to Present (New Series)". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved 2 February 2020. ^ "Kipling, Rudyard". probatesearchservice.gov. UK Government. 1936. Retrieved 11 August 2019. ^ – Article from the Red Orbit News network 16 March 2010. Retrieved 18 March 2010 ^ "Rudyard Kipling inspires naming of prehistoric crocodile". BBC Online. 20 March 2011. Retrieved 20 March 2012. ^ Flood, Alison (25 February 2013). "50 unseen Rudyard Kipling poems discovered". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 26 February 2013. ^ Jarrell, Randall (1999). "On Preparing to Read Kipling." No Other Book: Selected Essays. New York: HarperCollins. ^ The Indian Tales of Rudyard Kipling on IMDb ^ Eliot. Eliot's essay occupies 31 pages. ^ Eliot, p. 29. ^ Eliot, p. 22. ^ Eliot, p. 36. ^ Orwell, George (February 1942). "Rudyard Kipling". Horizon. Retrieved 4 December 2013. ^ Auden, W. H. "In Memory of W. B. Yeats". Selected Poems (PDF). Retrieved 28 December 2019. ^ Brackenbury, Alison. "Poetry Hero: Rudyard Kipling". Poetry News. The Poetry Society (Spring 2011). Archived from the original on 23 May 2013. Retrieved 11 February 2013. ^ Pareles, Jon (26 September 1991). "Peter Bellamy, 47; British Folk Singer Who Wrote Opera". The New York Times. Retrieved 15 July 2014. ^ "Bastard King of England, The". fresnostate.edu. ^ “Keith Joseph Memorial Lecture ("Liberty and Limited Government")”. Margaret Thatcher.org. 1996 Jan 11. ^ Billy Bragg. "Rhyme and Reason". BBC Radio 4. ^ World View: Is Afghanistan turning into another Vietnam?, Johnathan Power, The Citizen, 31 December 2010 ^ Is America waxing or waning?, Andrew Sullivan, The Atlantic, 12 December 2010 ^ Dufour, Steve. "Rudyard Kipling, official poet of the 911 War". 911poet.blogspot.com. ^ "History of Mowglis". Retrieved 26 November 2013. ^ "ScoutBase UK: The Library – Scouting history – Me Too! – The history of Cubbing in the United Kingdom 1916–present". Scoutbase.org.uk. Archived from the original on 25 November 2005. Retrieved 10 September 2008. ^ "History at Bateman's". National Trust. 22 February 2019. ^ Howard, Philip (19 September 1977) "University library to have Kipling papers". The Times", p. 1. ^ leader, Zachary (2007). The Life of Kingsley Amis. Vintage. pp. 704–705. ISBN 0375424989. ^ "Personal touch brings Kipling's Sussex home to life". The Argus. ^ "Rudyard Kipling Readings by Ralph Fiennes". Allmusic. ^ "History repeats itself, in stopping short". telegraphindia.com. ^ Subhash Chopra (2016). Kipling Sahib: the Raj patriot. London: New Millennium. ISBN 978-1858454405. ^ Globalization and educational rights: an intercivilizational analysis, Joel H. Spring, p. 137. ^ Post independence voices in South Asian writings, Malashri Lal, Alamgīr Hashmī, Victor J. Ramraj, 2001. ^ Khushwant Singh, Review of The Book of Prayer by Renuka Narayanan , 2001 ^ "When Malgudi man courted controversy". The Hindu. Retrieved 13 October 2014 ^ The Guardian, ("'But what about the railways ...?' The myth of Britain's gifts to India"), 8 March 2017 ^ Ahmed, Zubair (27 November 2007). "Kipling's India home to become museum". BBC News. Retrieved 9 August 2008. ^ “Illustrations by Rudyard Kipling”. Victorian Web. Retrieved 1 October 2020 Cited sources[edit] Eliot, T.S. (1941). A Choice of Kipling's Verse, made by T. S. Eliot with an essay on Rudyard Kipling. Faber and Faber. [ISBN missing] Gilmour, David (2003). The long recessional: the imperial life of Rudyard Kipling. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 978-1466830004. Hodgson, Katherine (October 1998). "The Poetry of Rudyard Kipling in Soviet Russia". The Modern Language Review. 93 (4): 1058–1071. doi:10.2307/3736277. JSTOR 3736277. Scott, David (June 2011). "Kipling, the Orient, and Orientals: 'Orientalism' Reoriented?". Journal of World History. 22 (2): 299–328 [315]. doi:10.1353/jwh.2011.0036. JSTOR 23011713. S2CID 143705079. Further reading[edit] Biography and criticism Allen, Charles (2007). Kipling Sahib: India and the Making of Rudyard Kipling, Abacus. ISBN 978-0-349-11685-3 Bauer, Helen Pike (1994). Rudyard Kipling: A Study of the Short Fiction. New York: Twayne Birkenhead, Lord (Frederick Smith, 2nd Earl of Birkenhead) (1978). Rudyard Kipling. Worthing: Littlehampton Book Services Ltd. ISBN 978-0-297-77535-5 Carrington, Charles (1955). Rudyard Kipling: His Life and Work. London: Macmillan & Co. Croft-Cooke, Rupert (1948). Rudyard Kipling (London: Home & Van Thal Ltd.) David, C. (2007). Rudyard Kipling: a critical study, New Delhi: Anmol. ISBN 81-261-3101-2 Dillingham, William B (2005). Rudyard Kipling: Hell and Heroism New York: Palgrave Macmillan[ISBN missing] Gilbert, Elliot L. ed. (1965). Kipling and the Critics (New York: New York University Press) Gilmour, David (2003). The Long Recessional: The Imperial Life of Rudyard Kipling New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 0-374-52896-9 Green, Roger Lancelyn, ed. (1971). Kipling: the Critical Heritage. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Gross, John, ed. (1972). Rudyard Kipling: the Man, his Work and his World. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson Harris, Brian (2014). The Surprising Mr Kipling: An anthology and reassessment of the poetry of Rudyard Kipling. CreateSpace. ISBN 978-1-4942-2194-2 Harris, Brian (2015). The Two Sided Man. CreateSpace. ISBN 1508712328. Kemp, Sandra (1988). Kipling's Hidden Narratives Oxford: Blackwell Lycett, Andrew (1999). Rudyard Kipling. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-81907-0 Lycett, Andrew (ed.) (2010). Kipling Abroad, I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84885-072-9 Mallett, Phillip (2003). Rudyard Kipling: A Literary Life Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan Montefiore, Jan (ed.) (2013). In Time's Eye: Essays on Rudyard Kipling. Manchester: Manchester University Press Narita, Tatsushi (2011). T. S. Eliot and his Youth as 'A Literary Columbus'. Nagoya: Kougaku Shuppan Nicolson, Adam (2001). Carrie Kipling 1862–1939 : The Hated Wife. Faber & Faber, London. ISBN 0-571-20835-5 Ricketts, Harry (2001). Rudyard Kipling: A Life. New York: Da Capo Press ISBN 0-7867-0830-1 Rooney, Caroline, and Kaori Nagai, eds. (2011). Kipling and Beyond: Patriotism, Globalisation, and Postcolonialism. Palgrave Macmillan; 214 pp.; scholarly essays on Kipling's "boy heroes of empire," Kipling and C.L.R. James, and Kipling and the new American empire, etc. Rutherford, Andrew, ed. (1964). Kipling's Mind and Art. Edinburgh and London: Oliver and Boyd Sergeant, David (2013). Kipling's Art of Fiction 1884–1901 Oxford: Oxford University Press Martin Seymour-Smith (1990). Rudyard Kipling,[ISBN missing] Shippey, Tom, "Rudyard Kipling," in: Cahier Calin: Makers of the Middle Ages. Essays in Honor of William Calin, ed. Richard Utz and Elizabeth Emery (Kalamazoo, MI: Studies in Medievalism, 2011), pp. 21–23. Tompkins, J.M.S. (1959). The Art of Rudyard Kipling. London: Methuen online edition Walsh, Sue (2010). Kipling's Children's Literature: Language, Identity, and Constructions of Childhood Farnham: Ashgate Wilson, Angus (1978). The Strange Ride of Rudyard Kipling: His Life and Works New York: The Viking Press. ISBN 0-670-67701-9 External links[edit] Rudyard Kiplingat Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Data from Wikidata The Kipling Society website Rudyard Kipling on Nobelprize.org Rudyard Kipling at the Encyclopedia of Fantasy Rudyard Kipling at the Encyclopedia of Science Fiction Other information[edit] Library resources about Rudyard Kipling Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Works Works by Rudyard Kipling at Project Gutenberg List of works at the Works Catalogues of Laureates of the Nobel Prize for Literature Works by or about Rudyard Kipling at Internet Archive Works by Rudyard Kipling at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Works by Rudyard Kipling (not public domain in US, so not available on Wikisource) Resources The Rudyard Kipling Collection maintained by Marlboro College. The Rudyard Kipling Poems by Poemist. Rudyard Kipling: The Books I Leave Behind exhibition, related podcast, and digital images maintained by the Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library, Yale University Rudyard Kipling at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database The Rudyard Kipling Collections From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress Archival material at Leeds University Library Newspaper clippings about Rudyard Kipling in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW A. P. Watt & Son records relating to Rudyard Kipling. General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University. Academic offices Preceded by Sir J. M. Barrie Rector of the University of St Andrews 1922–1925 Succeeded by Fridtjof Nansen v t e Rudyard Kipling Novels The Light That Failed (1891) The Naulahka: A Story of West and East (co-author, Wolcott Balestier, 1892) Captains Courageous (1896) Kim (1901) Collections Plain Tales from the Hills (1888) Soldiers Three (1888) The Story of the Gadsbys (1888) In Black and White (1888) The Phantom 'Rickshaw and other Eerie Tales (1888) Under the Deodars (1888) Wee Willie Winkie and Other Child Stories (1888) From Sea to Sea and Other Sketches, Letters of Travel (1889) Barrack-Room Ballads (1892, poetry) Many Inventions (1893) The Jungle Book (1894) "Mowgli's Brothers" "Kaa's Hunting" "Tiger! Tiger!" "Rikki-Tikki-Tavi" The Second Jungle Book (1895) "Letting in the Jungle" "Red Dog" All the Mowgli Stories (c. 1895) The Seven Seas (1896, poetry) The Day's Work (1898) Stalky & Co. (1899) Just So Stories (1902) The Five Nations (1903, poetry) Puck of Pook's Hill (1906) Rewards and Fairies (1910) The Fringes of the Fleet (1915, non-fiction) Debits and Credits (1926) Limits and Renewals (1932) Rudyard Kipling's Verse: Definitive Edition (1940) A Choice of Kipling's Verse (by T. S. Eliot, 1941) Poems "The Absent-Minded Beggar" "The Ballad of the 'Clampherdown'" "The Ballad of East and West" "The Beginnings" "The Bell Buoy" "The Betrothed" "Big Steamers" "Boots" "Cold Iron" "Dane-geld" "Danny Deever" "A Death-Bed" "The Female of the Species" "Fuzzy-Wuzzy" "Gentleman ranker" "The Gods of the Copybook Headings" "Gunga Din" "Hymn Before Action" "If—" "In the Neolithic Age" "The King's Pilgrimage" "The Last of the Light Brigade" "The Lowestoft Boat" "Mandalay" "The Mary Gloster" "McAndrew's Hymn" "My Boy Jack" "Recessional" "A Song in Storm" "The Sons of Martha" "Submarines" "The Sweepers" "Tommy" "Ubique" "The White Man's Burden" "The Widow at Windsor" Short stories ".007" "The Arrest of Lieutenant Golightly" "Baa Baa, Black Sheep" "Bread upon the Waters" "The Broken Link Handicap" "The Butterfly that Stamped" "Consequences" "The Conversion of Aurelian McGoggin" "Cupid's Arrows" "The Devil and the Deep Sea" "The Drums of the Fore and Aft" "Fairy-Kist" "False Dawn" "A Germ-Destroyer" "His Chance in Life" "His Wedded Wife" "In the House of Suddhoo" "Kidnapped" "Learoyd, Mulvaney and Ortheris" "Lispeth" "The Man Who Would Be King" "A Matter of Fact" "Miss Youghal's Sais" "The Mother Hive" "Ortheris" "The Other Man" "The Rescue of Pluffles" "The Ship that Found Herself" "The Sing-Song of Old Man Kangaroo" "The Taking of Lungtungpen" "Three and – an Extra" "The Three Musketeers" "Thrown Away" "Toomai of the Elephants" "Watches of the Night" "Wireless" "Yoked with an Unbeliever" Related Bibliography Bateman's (house) Indian Railway Library Ritual of the Calling of an Engineer Iron Ring Law of the jungle Aerial Board of Control My Boy Jack (1997 play) Rudyard Kipling: A Remembrance Tale (2006 documentary) My Boy Jack (2007 film) Family Elsie Bambridge (daughter) John Kipling (son) John Lockwood Kipling (father) MacDonald sisters (mother's family) Stanley Baldwin (cousin) Georgiana Burne-Jones (aunt) Edward Burne-Jones (uncle) Philip Burne-Jones (cousin) Edward Poynter (uncle) Alfred Baldwin (uncle) v t e Laureates of the Nobel Prize in Literature 1901–1925 1901: Sully Prudhomme 1902: Theodor Mommsen 1903: Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson 1904: Frédéric Mistral / José Echegaray 1905: Henryk Sienkiewicz 1906: Giosuè Carducci 1907: Rudyard Kipling 1908: Rudolf Eucken 1909: Selma Lagerlöf 1910: Paul Heyse 1911: Maurice Maeterlinck 1912: Gerhart Hauptmann 1913: Rabindranath Tagore 1914 1915: Romain Rolland 1916: Verner von Heidenstam 1917: Karl Gjellerup / Henrik Pontoppidan 1918 1919: Carl Spitteler 1920: Knut Hamsun 1921: Anatole France 1922: Jacinto Benavente 1923: W. B. Yeats 1924: Władysław Reymont 1925: George Bernard Shaw 1926–1950 1926: Grazia Deledda 1927: Henri Bergson 1928: Sigrid Undset 1929: Thomas Mann 1930: Sinclair Lewis 1931: Erik Axel Karlfeldt 1932: John Galsworthy 1933: Ivan Bunin 1934: Luigi Pirandello 1935 1936: Eugene O'Neill 1937: Roger Martin du Gard 1938: Pearl S. Buck 1939: Frans Eemil Sillanpää 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944: Johannes V. Jensen 1945: Gabriela Mistral 1946: Hermann Hesse 1947: André Gide 1948: T. S. Eliot 1949: William Faulkner 1950: Bertrand Russell 1951–1975 1951: Pär Lagerkvist 1952: François Mauriac 1953: Winston Churchill 1954: Ernest Hemingway 1955: Halldór Laxness 1956: Juan Ramón Jiménez 1957: Albert Camus 1958: Boris Pasternak 1959: Salvatore Quasimodo 1960: Saint-John Perse 1961: Ivo Andrić 1962: John Steinbeck 1963: Giorgos Seferis 1964: Jean-Paul Sartre (declined award) 1965: Mikhail Sholokhov 1966: Shmuel Yosef Agnon / Nelly Sachs 1967: Miguel Ángel Asturias 1968: Yasunari Kawabata 1969: Samuel Beckett 1970: Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn 1971: Pablo Neruda 1972: Heinrich Böll 1973: Patrick White 1974: Eyvind Johnson / Harry Martinson 1975: Eugenio Montale 1976–2000 1976: Saul Bellow 1977: Vicente Aleixandre 1978: Isaac Bashevis Singer 1979: Odysseas Elytis 1980: Czesław Miłosz 1981: Elias Canetti 1982: Gabriel García Márquez 1983: William Golding 1984: Jaroslav Seifert 1985: Claude Simon 1986: Wole Soyinka 1987: Joseph Brodsky 1988: Naguib Mahfouz 1989: Camilo José Cela 1990: Octavio Paz 1991: Nadine Gordimer 1992: Derek Walcott 1993: Toni Morrison 1994: Kenzaburō Ōe 1995: Seamus Heaney 1996: Wisława Szymborska 1997: Dario Fo 1998: José Saramago 1999: Günter Grass 2000: Gao Xingjian 2001–present 2001: V. S. Naipaul 2002: Imre Kertész 2003: J. M. Coetzee 2004: Elfriede Jelinek 2005: Harold Pinter 2006: Orhan Pamuk 2007: Doris Lessing 2008: J. M. G. Le Clézio 2009: Herta Müller 2010: Mario Vargas Llosa 2011: Tomas Tranströmer 2012: Mo Yan 2013: Alice Munro 2014: Patrick Modiano 2015: Svetlana Alexievich 2016: Bob Dylan 2017: Kazuo Ishiguro 2018: Olga Tokarczuk 2019: Peter Handke 2020: Louise Glück v t e 1907 Nobel Prize laureates Chemistry Eduard Buchner (Germany) Literature Rudyard Kipling (Great Britain) Peace Ernesto Teodoro Moneta (Italy) Louis Renault (France) Physics Albert Abraham Michelson (United States/Poland) Physiology or Medicine Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran (France) Nobel Prize recipients 1990 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 2000 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 v t e Nobel Laureates in English Literature 1907: Kipling 1913: Tagore 1923: Yeats 1925: Shaw 1930: Lewis 1932: Galsworthy 1936: O'Neill 1938: Buck 1948: Eliot 1949: Faulkner 1950: Russell 1953: Churchill 1954: Hemingway 1962: Steinbeck 1969: Beckett 1973: White 1976: Bellow 1983: Golding 1986: Soyinka 1987: Brodsky 1991: Gordimer 1992: Walcott 1993: Morrison 1995: Heaney 2001: Naipaul 2003: Coetzee 2005: Pinter 2007: Lessing 2013: Munro 2016: Dylan 2017: Ishiguro Tagore, Beckett, and Brodsky also wrote in Bengali, French, and Russian languages respectively alongside English. v t e Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book Books The Jungle Book (1894) The Second Jungle Book (1895) All the Mowgli Stories (1933) Mowgli stories "Mowgli's Brothers" "Kaa's Hunting" "Tiger! Tiger!" "Letting in the Jungle" "Red Dog" Other stories "Rikki-Tikki-Tavi" "Toomai of the Elephants" Characters Mowgli Baloo Bagheera Akela Raksha Kaa Hathi Shere Khan Bandar-log King Louie Disney franchise Film The Jungle Book (1967) The Jungle Book (1994) The Jungle Book: Mowgli's Story (1998) The Jungle Book 2 (2003) The Jungle Book (2016) Television TaleSpin (1990–91) Jungle Cubs (1996–1998) Soundtrack "Colonel Hathi's March" "The Bare Necessities" "I Wan'na Be like You" "Trust in Me" "That's What Friends Are For" "My Own Home" "Jungle Jungle Baat Chali Hai" Video games The Jungle Book (1993) The Jungle Book Groove Party (2000) Other The Jungle Book: Alive with Magic Colonel Hathi's Pizza Outpost Other adaptations Live-action Film Elephant Boy (1937) Rudyard Kipling's Jungle Book (1942) The Second Jungle Book: Mowgli & Baloo (1997) Mowgli: Legend of the Jungle (2018) Animation Film Adventures of Mowgli (1967-1971) Television Mowgli's Brothers (1976) Jungle Book Shōnen Mowgli (1989–90) episodes Mowgli: The New Adventures of the Jungle Book (1998) The Jungle Book (2010–) Other The Third Jungle Book (1992) A dzsungel könyve Djungelboken Related Bagheera Fountain Law of the jungle The Jungle Book and Scouting The Wolf Cub's Handbook Mowgli syndrome The Graveyard Book (2008) v t e Rudyard Kipling's The Light That Failed Films The Light That Failed (1916) The Light That Failed (1923) The Light That Failed (1939) Phrases "Bite the bullet" "Sturgeon's law" v t e Victorian-era children's literature Authors Henry Cadwallader Adams R. M. Ballantyne Lucy Lyttelton Cameron Lewis Carroll Christabel Rose Coleridge Harry Collingwood Maria Edgeworth Evelyn Everett-Green Juliana Horatia Ewing Frederic W. Farrar G. E. Farrow Agnes Giberne Anna Maria Hall L. T. Meade G. A. Henty Frances Hodgson Burnett Thomas Hughes Richard Jefferies Charles Kingsley W. H. G. Kingston Rudyard Kipling Andrew Lang Frederick Marryat George MacDonald Mary Louisa Molesworth Kirk Munroe E. Nesbit Frances Mary Peard Beatrix Potter William Brighty Rands Talbot Baines Reed Elizabeth Missing Sewell Anna Sewell Mary Martha Sherwood Flora Annie Steel Robert Louis Stevenson Hesba Stretton Charlotte Elizabeth Tonna Charlotte Maria Tucker Charlotte Mary Yonge Illustrators Eleanor Vere Boyle Gordon Browne Randolph Caldecott Thomas Crane Walter Crane George Cruikshank Thomas Dalziel (engraver) Richard Doyle H. H. Emmerson Edmund Evans (engraver) Kate Greenaway Sydney Prior Hall Edward Lear Harold Robert Millar Arthur Rackham J. G. Sowerby Millicent Sowerby John Tenniel Books List of 19th-century British children's literature titles Types Toy book Publishers Blackie & Son Marcus Ward & Co. Frederick Warne & Co v t e Rectors of the University of St Andrews Sir Ralph Anstruther William Stirling-Maxwell John Stuart Mill J. A. Froude Lord Neaves Arthur Penrhyn Stanley Lord Selborne Sir Theodore Martin Lord Reay Arthur Balfour Marquess of Dufferin and Ava Marquess of Bute James Stuart Andrew Carnegie Baron Avebury Earl of Rosebery Earl of Aberdeen Sir Douglas Haig Sir J. M. Barrie Rudyard Kipling Fridtjof Nansen Sir Wilfred Grenfell Jan Smuts Guglielmo Marconi Lord MacGregor Mitchell Sir David Munro Sir George Cunningham Lord Burghley Earl of Crawford Viscount Kilmuir Baron Boothby Sir Charles P. Snow Sir John Rothenstein Sir Learie Constantine, Baron Constantine John Cleese Alan Coren Frank Muir Tim Brooke-Taylor Katharine Whitehorn Stanley Adams Nicholas Parsons Nicky Campbell Donald Findlay Andrew Neil Sir Clement Freud Simon Pepper Kevin Dunion Alistair Moffat Catherine Stihler Srđa Popović Leyla Hussein v t e Stanley Baldwin Premierships 1923–1924 1924–1929 1935–1937 General elections 1923 1924 1929 1931 1935 Constituency Bewdley Family Alfred Baldwin (father) Louisa Baldwin (mother) Lucy Baldwin (wife) Oliver Baldwin, 2nd Earl Baldwin of Bewdley (son) Arthur Baldwin, 3rd Earl Baldwin of Bewdley (son) Rudyard Kipling (cousin) Career Carlton Club meeting Power without responsibility speech National Government British Empire Economic Conference Appeasement Hoare–Laval Pact Edward VIII abdication crisis Honours Cultural depictions The Gathering Storm (TV, 1974) Edward & Mrs. Simpson (TV, 1978) Winston Churchill: The Wilderness Years (TV, 1981) The Woman He Loved (TV, 1988) The Gathering Storm (TV, 2002) Wallis & Edward (TV, 2005) The King's Speech (Film, 2010) W.E. (Film, 2011) See also Astley Hall Earl Baldwin of Bewdley Wilden Ironworks 1921 Bewdley by-election 1924 Prime Minister's Resignation Honours Authority control BIBSYS: 90088673 BNC: 000037839 BNE: XX1719503 BNF: cb13091505s (data) CANTIC: a10904220 CiNii: DA0046379X GND: 118562290 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\009380 ISNI: 0000 0001 2098 9213 LCCN: n79103792 LNB: 000012147 MBA: 7e2f7b7e-0441-4777-bd5e-b4c8d82eaccd NDL: 00445744 NKC: jn19990004353 NLA: 35272795 NLG: 62086 NLI: 000076070 NLK: KAC199634785 NLP: A16149403 NSK: 000040030 NTA: 069062315 RERO: 02-A003455393 SELIBR: 193587 SNAC: w6251gxf SUDOC: 026949962 Trove: 892127 VcBA: 495/111131 VIAF: 7524679 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79103792 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rudyard_Kipling&oldid=996497794" Categories: Rudyard Kipling 1865 births 1936 deaths 19th-century British novelists 19th-century British short story writers 19th-century English poets 19th-century English writers 20th-century British male writers 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en-wikipedia-org-2229	----	Renaissance Latin - Wikipedia Renaissance Latin From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Renaissance Latin" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2007) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Renaissance Latin Mural of Dante in the Uffizi Gallery, by Andrea del Castagno, c. 1450. Native to No native speakers, used by the administrations and universities of numerous countries Region Europe Era Evolved from Medieval Latin in the 14th century; developed into New Latin by the 16th century Language family Indo-European Italic Latino-Faliscan Latin Renaissance Latin Early forms Old Latin Classical Latin Late Latin Medieval Latin Writing system Latin alphabet  Official status Official language in Most Roman Catholic countries Regulated by The community of scholars at the earliest universities Language codes ISO 639-3 – Glottolog None Renaissance Latin is a name given to the distinctive form of Latin style developed during the European Renaissance of the fourteenth to fifteenth centuries, particularly by the Renaissance humanism movement. Contents 1 Ad fontes 2 Renaissance Latin works and authors 2.1 14th century 2.2 15th century 3 References 4 Further reading 5 External links Ad fontes[edit] Ad fontes ("to the sources") was the general cry of the Renaissance humanists, and as such their Latin style sought to purge Latin of the medieval Latin vocabulary and stylistic accretions that it had acquired in the centuries after the fall of the Roman Empire. They looked to golden age Latin literature, and especially to Cicero in prose and Virgil in poetry, as the arbiters of Latin style. They abandoned the use of the sequence and other accentual forms of metre, and sought instead to revive the Greek formats that were used in Latin poetry during the Roman period. The humanists condemned the large body of medieval Latin literature as "Gothic"—for them, a term of abuse—and believed instead that only ancient Latin from the Roman period was "real Latin". Some 16th-century Ciceronian humanists also sought to purge written Latin of medieval developments in its orthography. They insisted, for example, that ae be written out in full wherever it occurred in classical Latin; medieval scribes often wrote e instead of ae. They were much more zealous than medieval Latin writers that t and c be distinguished; because the effects of palatalization made them homophones, medieval scribes often wrote, for example, eciam for etiam. Their reforms even affected handwriting; Humanists usually wrote Latin in a humanist minuscule script derived from Carolingian minuscule, the ultimate ancestor of most contemporary lower-case typefaces, avoiding the black-letter scripts used in the Middle Ages. This sort of writing was particularly vigilant in edited works, so that international colleagues could read them more easily, while in their own handwritten documents the Latin is usually written as it is pronounced in the vernacular. Therefore, the first generations of humanists did not dedicate much care to the orthography till the late sixteenth and seventeenth century. Erasmus proposed that the then-traditional pronunciations of Latin be abolished in favour of his reconstructed version of classical Latin pronunciation, even though one can deduce from his works that he himself used the ecclesiastical pronunciation. The humanist plan to remake Latin was largely successful, at least in education. Schools taught the humanistic spellings, and encouraged the study of the texts selected by the humanists, to the large exclusion of later Latin literature. On the other hand, while humanist Latin was an elegant literary language, it became much harder to write books about law, medicine, science or contemporary politics in Latin while observing all of the Humanists' norms about vocabulary purging and classical usage.[citation needed] Renaissance Latin gradually developed into the New Latin of the 16th–19th centuries, used as the language of choice for authors discussing subjects considered sufficiently important to merit an international (i.e., pan-European) audience. Renaissance Latin works and authors[edit] 14th century[edit] For 14th-century works and authors that are still medieval in outlook (practically all non-Italians), see Medieval Latin. 1359. Epistolæ familiares by Petrarch (1304–1374) 1360. Genealogia deorum gentilium by Giovanni Boccaccio (1313–1375) 15th century[edit] Incunables by language.[1] Latin dominated printed book production in the 15th century by a wide margin. 1409. Flos Duellatorum by Fiore dei Liberi 1425. Hermaphroditus by Antonio Beccadelli (1394–1471) 1441. De elegantiis Latinæ linguæ by Lorenzo Valla (1406–1457) 1442. Historia Florentini populi by Leonardo Bruni (c. 1370–1444) 1444. Historia de duobus amantibus by Æneas Sylvius Piccolomini, Pope Pius II (1405–1464) 1452. De re ædificatoria by Leone Battista Alberti (1404–1472) 1471. Contra amores by Bartolomeo Platina (1421–1481) 1479. De inventione dialectica by Rodolphus Agricola (1444–1485) 1481. Introductiones Latinæ by Antonio de Nebrija (1441–1522) 1486. De hominis dignitate by Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463–1494) 1491. Nutricia by Poliziano (1454–1494) Theologia Platonica de immortalitate animæ by Marsilio Ficino (1433–1499) Francesco Filelfo (1398–1481) References[edit] ^ "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue". British Library. Retrieved 2 March 2011. Further reading[edit] Cranz, F. Edward, Virginia Brown, and Paul Oslar Kristeller, eds. 1960–2003. Catalogus translationum et commentariorum: Medieval and Renaissance Latin Translations and Commentaries; Annotated Lists and Guides. 8 vols. Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press. D’Amico, John F. 1984. “The Progress of Renaissance Latin Prose: The Case of Apuleianism.” Renaissance Quarterly 37: 351–92. Deitz, Luc. 2005. "The Tools of the Trade: A Few Remarks on Editing Renaissance Latin Texts." Humanistica Lovaniensia 54: 345-58. Hardie, Philip. 2013. “Shepherds’ Songs: Generic Variation in Renaissance Latin Epic.” In Generic Interfaces in Latin Literature: Encounters, Interactions and Transformations. Edited by Theodore D. Paphanghelis, Stephen J. Harrison, and Stavros Frangoulidis, 193–204. Berlin: De Gruyter. Houghton, L. B. T. 2013. “Renaissance Latin Love Elegy.” In The Cambridge Companion to Latin Love Elegy. Edited by Thea S. Thorsen, 290–305. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Lohr, C. H. 1974. “Renaissance Latin Aristotle Commentaries: Authors A–B.” Studies in the Renaissance 21: 228–89. McFarlane, I. D., ed. and trans. 1980. Renaissance Latin Poetry. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press. Parker, Holt. 2012. “Renaissance Latin Elegy.” In A Companion to Roman Love Elegy. Edited by Barbara K. Gold, 476–90. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. Perosa, Alessandro, and John Sparrow, eds. 1979. Renaissance Latin Verse: An Anthology. London: Duckworth. External links[edit] Library resources about Renaissance Latin Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries An Analytic Bibliography of On-line Neo-Latin Titles (also Renaissance Latin). Neo-Latin Humanist Texts at DigitalBookIndex. René Hoven, Lexique de la prose latine de la Renaissance. Dictionary of Renaissance Latin from prose sources, with the collaboration of Laurent Grailet, Leiden, Brill, 2006 (2nd edition), 683 p. The Centre for Neo-Latin Studies, focusing on Irish Renaissance Latin. v t e Ages of Latin until 75 BC Old Latin 75 BC – 200 AD Classical Latin 200–900 Late Latin 900–1300 Medieval Latin 1300–1500 Renaissance Latin 1500–1900 New Latin 1900–present Contemporary Latin History of Latin Latin literature Vulgar Latin Ecclesiastical Latin Romance languages Latino sine flexione Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum Hiberno-Latin Judeo-Latin v t e Renaissance General Renaissance High Renaissance Greek scholars in the Renaissance Mannerism Northern Mannerism Renaissance studies By field Architecture Brick Central and Eastern Europe French Italian domes Palladian Plateresque Portuguese Purism Spanish Venetian Art Dance Humanism France Northern Europe Latin Literature Dutch French Spanish Magic Medicine Music Philosophy Platonism in the Renaissance Science Scientific Revolution Technology Theatre Warfare By region English Flemish French German Weser Italian Roman Venetian Northern Papal States Polish Portuguese Scottish Spanish Spanish Golden Age Lists Composers Figures Humanists Structures See also 12th century Medieval renaissances Renaissance reenactment Languages portal Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Renaissance_Latin&oldid=995070391" Categories: Latin language Forms of Latin Medieval languages Latin-language literature History of literature Languages attested from the 14th century 14th-century establishments in Europe Languages extinct in the 16th century 16th-century disestablishments in Europe Hidden categories: Articles needing additional references from May 2007 All articles needing additional references Use dmy dates from November 2015 Languages without Glottolog code Historical forms of languages with ISO codes Language articles with unreferenced extinction date All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2016 Articles containing Latin-language text AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Čeština Deutsch Français Latina Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 19 December 2020, at 01:50 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2238	----	Patrician (ancient Rome) - Wikipedia Patrician (ancient Rome) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Hereditary nobility of ancient Rome Romulus and his brother, Remus, with the she-wolf. Romulus is credited with creating the patrician class. The patricians (from Latin: patricius) were originally a group of ruling class families in ancient Rome. The distinction was highly significant in the Roman Kingdom, and the early Republic, but its relevance waned after the Conflict of the Orders (494 BC to 287 BC). By the time of the late Republic and Empire, membership in the patriciate was of only nominal significance. The social structure of Ancient Rome revolved around the distinction between the patricians and the plebeians. The status of patricians gave them more political power than the plebeians. The relationship between the patricians and the plebeians eventually caused the Conflict of the Orders. This time period resulted in changing the social structure of Ancient Rome. After the Western Empire fell, the term "patrician" continued as a high honorary title in the Byzantine Empire. In the Holy Roman Empire and in many medieval Italian republics, medieval patrician classes were once again formally defined groups of leading Grand Burgher families, especially in Venice and Genoa. Subsequently "patrician" became a vague term used to refer to aristocrats and the higher bourgeoisie in many countries. The legacy of the Roman patrician and plebeian distinction lives on in modern society. Contents 1 Origin 2 Roman Republic and Empire 2.1 Status 2.2 Patricians vs. plebeians 2.3 Marriage 2.4 The Conflict of The Orders 2.5 Fading of distinction 2.6 Modern Day 2.7 Patrician families 2.7.1 Gentes maiores et minores 3 Late Roman and Byzantine periods 4 See also 5 References 6 Sources 7 Further reading 8 External links Origin[edit] According to Livy, the first 100 men appointed as senators by Romulus were referred to as "fathers" (Latin patres), and the descendants of those men became the patrician class. This fact is also included in an account by Cicero.[1] The appointment of these one hundred men into the senate gave them a noble status.[1] This noble status is what separated the patricians from the plebeians. Some accounts detail that the one hundred men were chosen because of their wisdom.[1] This would coincide with the idea that Ancient Rome was founded on a merit-based ideal.[1] According to other opinions, the patricians (patricii) were those who could point to fathers, i.e. those who were members of the clans (gentes) whose members originally comprised the whole citizen body.[2] Other noble families which came to Rome during the time of the kings were also admitted to the patriciate, including several who emigrated from Alba Longa, after that city was destroyed by Tullus Hostilius. The last-known instance of a gens being admitted to the patriciate prior to the 1st century BC was when the Claudii were added to the ranks of the patricians after coming to Rome in 504 BC, five years after the establishment of the Republic.[3][4][5][6] The criteria for why Romulus chose certain men for this class remains contested by academics and historians, but the importance of the patrician/ plebeian distinction is accounted by all as paramount to Ancient Roman society. The distinction between the noble class, the patricians, and the Roman populace, the plebeians, existed from the beginning of Ancient Rome.[7] This distinction became increasingly important in the society. The patricians were given noble status when named to the Senate, giving them wider political influence than the plebeians, at least in the times of the early Republic.[8] The patricians in Ancient Rome were of the same status as aristocrats in Greek society.[9] Being of the noble class meant that patricians were able to participate in government and politics, while the plebeians could not. This privilege was important in Ancient Roman history and ended up causing a large divide between the two classes. During the middle and late Republic, as this influence gradually eroded, plebeians were granted equal rights in most areas, and even greater in some. For example, only plebeians could serve as the Tribune of the Plebs. There were quotas for official offices. One of the two consulships was reserved for plebeians. Although being a patrician remained prestigious, it was of minimal practical importance. With the exception of some religious offices which were devoid of political power, plebeians were able to stand for all of the offices that were open to patricians. Plebeians of the senatorial class were no less wealthy than patricians at the height of the republic. Originally patrician, Publius Clodius Pulcher willingly arranged to be adopted by a plebeian family in order to qualify to be appointed as the Tribune of the Plebs. Roman Republic and Empire[edit] This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (April 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Status[edit] Patricians historically had more privileges and rights than plebeians. This status difference was marked at the beginning of the Republic: patricians were better represented in the Roman assemblies, only patricians could hold high political offices, such as dictator, consul, and censor, and all priesthoods (such as pontifex maximus) were closed to non-patricians. There was a belief that patricians communicated better with the Roman gods, so they alone could perform the sacred rites and take the auspices. Additionally, not only were the patricians of higher status in political offices but they also had the best land in Ancient Rome.[10] Having the best land would allow the patrician class to have more opportunities, such as being able to produce better agriculture. This view had political consequences, since in the beginning of the year or before a military campaign, Roman magistrates used to consult the gods. Livy reports that the first admission of plebeians into a priestly college happened in 300 BC with the passage of the Lex Ogulnia, when the college of Augurs raised their number from four to nine. After that, plebeians were accepted into the other religious colleges. By the end of the Republic, only priesthoods with limited political importance, such as the Salii, the Flamines, and the Rex Sacrorum, were filled exclusively by patricians. While it was not illegal for a plebeian to run for political office, a plebeian would have not have had the backing needed to win a seat.[11] Since society was organized in this way, the patrician class was essentially in complete control of Ancient Rome's government.[11] In Cassius' accounts of Ancient Rome, he details how important and advantaged the patrician class was over the plebeian class.[12] He indicates the status difference between patricians and plebeians by detailing about the specific shoes the patricians wore. Cassius states, "For the shoes worn by the patricians in the city were ornamented with laced straps and the design of the letter, to signify that they were descended from the original hundred men that had been senators."[12] It is clear through Cassius' account that these details mattered and represent the differentiation between classes. For more on Ancient Rome's social class distinction visit Social Class in Ancient Rome. Very few plebeian names appear in lists of Roman magistrates during the early Republic. Two laws passed during the fourth century BC began the gradual opening of magistrates to the plebeians: the Lex Licinia Sextia of 367 BC, which established the right of plebeians to hold the consulship; and the Genucian Law of 342 BC, which required that at least one of the consuls be a plebeian (although this law was frequently violated for several decades). Many of the ancient patrician gentes whose members appear in the founding legends of Rome disappeared as Rome acquired its empire, and new plebeian families rose to prominence. A number of patrician families such as the Horatii, Lucretii, Verginii and Menenii rarely appear in positions of importance during the later republic. Many old families had both patrician and plebeian branches, of which the patrician lines frequently faded into obscurity, and were eclipsed by their plebeian namesakes. The decline accelerated toward the end of the Republic, principally because of the civil wars, from the Social War to the proscriptions of the Triumvirs, which took a heavy toll on them. As a result, several illustrious patrician houses were on the verge of extinction during the 1st century BC, sometimes only surviving through adoptions, such as: Julii Caesares Manlii Torquatii Papirii Masones Postumii Albini Servilii Caepiones However, large gentes with multiple stirpes seem to have coped better; the Aemilii, Claudii, Cornelii, Fabii, Sulpicii, and Valerii all continued to thrive under the Principate. Patricians vs. plebeians[edit] The distinction between patricians and plebeians in Ancient Rome was based purely on birth. Although modern writers often portray patricians as rich and powerful families who managed to secure power over the less-fortunate plebeian families, plebeians and patricians among the senatorial class were equally wealthy. As civil rights for plebeians increased during the middle and late Roman Republic, many plebeian families had attained wealth and power while some traditionally patrician families had fallen into poverty and obscurity. However, no amount of wealth could change one's class.[13] Marriage[edit] A marriage between a patrician and a plebeian was the only way to legally integrate the two classes. However, once the Twelve Tables were written down, a law was written which made the marriage between the two classes illegal.[14] If a marriage was to occur between a patrician and a plebeian, the children of that marriage would then be given patrician status. This law was created to prevent the classes from mixing. In Ancient Rome women did not have power in the household. However, according to Mathisen, having a recognized marriage, so not illegally marrying into the other class, was important.[14] Having a legally recognized marriage ensured that the children born from the marriage were given Roman citizenship and any property they might inherit.[14] The Conflict of The Orders[edit] Eventually, the plebeians became unsatisfied with being the lower class and not having the same rights and privileges as the patricians.[15] This time in Roman history is called the Conflict of the Orders, which took place between 500-287 BCE.[15] Due to the patricians having the political status, the plebeian class had no representation in the government to advocate for their interests.[15] By not having anyone advocating for their interests, this also meant that the Plebeians did not know the laws they had to abide by.[15] Since the patricians were of high social status, they did not want to lose this status; they were not in agreement with changing the structure of society by giving plebeians more status.[15] Eventually, the plebeian class came together and created their own governing body, the Council of the Plebs.[15] Another advancement that came from the Conflict of the Orders was the twelve tables. At this time in Ancient Rome, the monarchy had been over thrown.[16] The plebeians wanted to know the laws, which resulted in the written form of laws: the Twelve Tables.[15] Even once these laws were written down, and the new Centuriate Assembly was created, the patrician class remained in power. The assembly separated citizens into classes, however, the top two class, Equestrians and Patricians, were able to control the majority of the vote.[15] This meant, that while the plebeians were able to vote, if the patrician classes voted together, they could control the vote.[15] Ancient Rome, according to Ralph Mathisen, author of Ancient Roman Civilization: History and Sources, made political reforms, such as the introduction of the Council of the Plebs and the Tribunes of the Plebs. These two political bodies were created to give the plebeians a voice. After the Conflict of the Orders, according to Mathisen, Plebeians were able to rise in politics and become members of the Senate, which used to be exclusively for patricians.[15] Fading of distinction[edit] A series of laws diminished the distinction between the two classes, including Lex Canuleia (445 BC; which allowed the marriage—ius connubii—between patricians and plebeians), Leges Licinae Sextiae (367 BC; which made restrictions on possession of public lands—ager publicus—and also made sure that one of the consuls was plebeian), Lex Ogulnia (300 BC; plebeians received access to priest posts), and Lex Hortensia (287 BC; verdicts of plebeian assemblies—plebiscita—now bind all people). Gradually, by the late Republic, most distinctions between patricians and plebeians had faded away.[17] Modern Day[edit] "Patrician" and "plebeian" are still used today to refer to groups of people of high and lower classes.[18] Patrician families[edit] The following gentes were regarded as patrician, although they may have had plebeian members or branches. Aebutia Aemilia Aquillia Atilia Claudia Cloelia Cornelia Curtia Fabia Foslia Furia Gegania Genucia Herminia Horatia Julia Lartia Lucretia Manlia Menenia Metilia Minucia Mucia Nautia Numicia Papiria Pinaria Pollia Postumia Potitia Quinctia Quinctilia Romilia Sempronia Sergia Servilia Sestia Siccia Sulpicia Tarpeia Tarquinia Tarquitia Tullia Valeria Verginia Veturia Vitellia Volumnia A number of other gentes originally belonged to the patricians but were known chiefly for their plebeian branches. Antonia Cassia Cominia Curiatia Hostilia Junia Marcia Gentes maiores et minores[edit] Among the patricians, certain families were known as the gentes maiores, the greatest or perhaps the most noble houses. The other patrician families were called the gentes minores. Whether this distinction had any legal significance is not known, but it has been suggested that the princeps senatus, or Speaker of the Senate, was traditionally chosen from the gentes maiores. No list of the gentes maiores has been discovered, and even their number is entirely unknown. It has been suggested that the Aemilii, Claudii, Cornelii, Fabii, Manlii, and Valerii were amongst them. The Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology suggests that the gentes maiores consisted of families that settled at Rome in the time of Romulus, or at least before the destruction of Alba Longa. The noble Alban families that settled in Rome in the time of Tullus Hostilius then formed the nucleus of the gentes minores. These included the Julii, Tulii, Servilii, Quinctii, Geganii, Curtii, and Cloelii.[4][19] However, Harper's Dictionary of Classical Antiquities suggests that the Alban families were also included among the gentes maiores, and that the gentes minores consisted of the families admitted to the patriciate under the Tarquins and in the early years of the Republic. In any case, the distinction cannot have been based entirely on priority, because the Claudii did not arrive at Rome until after the expulsion of the kings.[4][20][21][22] Late Roman and Byzantine periods[edit] Patrician status still carried a degree of prestige at the time of the early Roman Empire, and Roman emperors routinely elevated their supporters to the patrician caste en masse. This prestige gradually declined further, and by the end of the 3rd-century crisis patrician status, as it had been known in the Republic, ceased to have meaning in everyday life. The emperor Constantine the Great (r. 306–337) reintroduced the term as the empire's senior honorific title, not tied to any specific administrative position, and from the first limited to a very small number of holders.[23][24] The historian Zosimus states that in Constantine's time, the holders of the title ranked even above the praetorian prefects.[25] In the late Western Roman Empire, the title was sparingly used and retained its high prestige, being awarded, especially in the 5th century, to the powerful magistri militum who dominated the state, such as Stilicho, Constantius III, Flavius Aetius, Comes Bonifacius, and Ricimer.[23] The eastern emperor Zeno (r. 474–491) granted it to Odoacer to legitimize the latter's rule in Italy after his overthrow of the rebellious magister militum Orestes and his son Romulus Augustulus in 476. In the Eastern Empire, Theodosius II (r. 408–450) barred eunuchs from holding it, although this restriction had been overturned by the 6th century. Under Justinian I (r. 527–565), the title proliferated and was consequently somewhat devalued, as the emperor opened it up to all those above illustris rank, i.e. the majority of the Senate.[26] In the 8th century, the title was further lowered in the court order of precedence, coming after the magistros and the anthypatos. However it remained one of the highest in the imperial hierarchy until the 11th century, being awarded to the most important strategoi (provincial governors and generals) of the Empire.[23] In the court hierarchy, the eunuch patrikioi enjoyed higher precedence, coming before even the anthypatoi-Latn.[27] According to the late 9th-century Kletorologion, the insignia of the dignity were ivory inscribed tablets.[28] During the 11th century, the dignity of patrikios followed the fate of other titles: extensively awarded, it lost in status, and disappeared during the Komnenian period in the early 12th century.[23] The title of prōtopatrikios (πρωτοπατρίκιος, "first patrician") is also evidenced in the East from 367 to 711, possibly referring to the senior-most holder of the office and leader of the patrician order (taxis).[23][29] The feminine variant patrikia (πατρικία) denoted the spouses of patrikioi; it is not to be confused with the title of zostē patrikia ("girded patrikia"), which was a unique dignity conferred on the ladies-in-waiting of the empress.[23] The patrician title was occasionally used in Western Europe after the end of the Roman Empire; for instance, Pope Stephen II granted the title "Patricius of the Romans" to the Frankish ruler Pepin the Short.[23] The revival of patrician classes in medieval Italian city-states, and also north of the Alps, is covered in patricianship. See also[edit] Nobility Aristocracy References[edit] ^ a b c d Botsford, George Willis (1906). "The Social Composition of the Primitive Roman Populus". Political Science Quarterly. 21 (3): 498–526. doi:10.2307/2140599. ISSN 0032-3195. JSTOR 2140599. ^ Clay (1911), p. 931 cites Livy ii. 56 ^ Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities, Second Edition, Harry Thurston Peck, Editor (1897) ^ a b c Oxford Classical Dictionary, 2nd ed. (1970). ^ Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, Book II ^ Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, Book I ^ Botsford, George Willis (1906). "The Social Composition of the Primitive Roman Populus". Political Science Quarterly. 21 (3): 498–526. doi:10.2307/2140599. ISSN 0032-3195. JSTOR 2140599. ^ Botsford, George Willis (1906). "The Social Composition of the Primitive Roman Populus". Political Science Quarterly. 21 (3): 498–526. doi:10.2307/2140599. ISSN 0032-3195. JSTOR 2140599. ^ Mathisen, Ralph W., 1947- author. (2019). Ancient Roman civilization : history and sources, 753 BCE to 640 CE. ISBN 978-0-19-084960-3. OCLC 1137838429.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Mathisen, Ralph W., 1947- author. (2019). Ancient Roman civilization : history and sources, 753 BCE to 640 CE. ISBN 978-0-19-084960-3. OCLC 1137838429.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ a b Mathisen, Ralph W., 1947- author. (2019). Ancient Roman civilization : history and sources, 753 BCE to 640 CE. ISBN 978-0-19-084960-3. OCLC 1137838429.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ a b "Cassius Dio — Fragments of Book 2". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2020-02-23. ^ Mathisen, Ralph W., 1947- author. (2019). Ancient Roman civilization : history and sources, 753 BCE to 640 CE. ISBN 978-0-19-084960-3. OCLC 1137838429.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ a b c Mathisen, Ralph W., 1947- author. (2019). Ancient Roman civilization : history and sources, 753 BCE to 640 CE. ISBN 978-0-19-084960-3. OCLC 1137838429.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ a b c d e f g h i j Mathisen, Ralph W., 1947- author. (2019). Ancient Roman civilization : history and sources, 753 BCE to 640 CE. ISBN 978-0-19-084960-3. OCLC 1137838429.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Steinberg, Michael (1982). "The Twelve Tables and Their Origins: An Eighteenth-Century Debate". Journal of the History of Ideas. 43 (3): 379–396. doi:10.2307/2709429. ISSN 0022-5037. JSTOR 2709429. ^ Tellegen-Couperus, O. E. (1993). A short history of Roman law. Psychology Press. ^ Mathisen, Ralph W., 1947- author. (2019). Ancient Roman civilization : history and sources, 753 BCE to 640 CE. ISBN 978-0-19-084960-3. OCLC 1137838429.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Greenidge, Abel Hendy Jones, Roman Public Life (London: MacMillan, 1901), page 12. ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, William Smith, Editor. ^ Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, i. 30, ii. 16. ^ Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities, Second Edition, Harry Thurston Peck, Editor (1897) ^ a b c d e f g Kazhdan (1991), p. 1600 ^ Paul Stephenson, Constantine, Roman Emperor, Christian Victor, 2010:240. ^ Zosimus, Historia Nova, II.40.2 ^ Bury (1911), p. 27 ^ Bury (1911), p. 124 ^ Bury (1911), p. 22 ^ Bury (1911), p. 28 Sources[edit] Bury, John B. (1911). The Imperial Administrative System of the Ninth Century. Oxford University Publishing. Clay, Agnes Muriel (1911). "Patricians" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 20 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 931–933. Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6. Further reading[edit] Ferenczy, Endre. 1976. From the Patrician State to the Patricio-Plebeian State. Amsterdam: A. M. Hakkert. Forsythe, Gary (2005). A Critical History of Early Rome. University of California Press. Mitchell, Richard E. 1990. Patricians and plebeians: The origin of the Roman state. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press. Raaflaub, Kurt A., ed. 2004. Social struggles in Archaic Rome: New perspectives on the conflict of the orders. 2d ed. Oxford: Blackwell. Raaflaub, Kurt, ed. (2005). Social Struggles in Archaic Rome: New Perspectives on the Conflict of the Orders. Blackwell Publishing. Rosenstein, Nathan and Robert Morstein-Marx. 2010. A Companion to the Roman Republic. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. Stewart, Roberta. 1998. Public office in early Rome: Ritual procedure and political practice. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press. Tatum, W. Jeffrey. 1999. The patrician tribune: Publius Clodius Pulcher. Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press. Williamson, Callie. 2005. The laws of the Roman people: Public law in the expansion and decline of the Roman Republic. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press. External links[edit] Texts on Wikisource: "Patricians". Encyclopedia Americana. 1920. "Patrician". 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en-wikipedia-org-2239	----	List of Roman dictators - Wikipedia List of Roman dictators From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search A list of all of the Roman dictators and magistri equitum known from ancient sources. In some cases the names or dates have been inferred by modern historians. Contents 1 Key to Latin terms and phrases 1.1 Other phrases 2 List of dictators and magistri equitum 2.1 6th and 5th centuries BC 2.2 4th century BC 2.3 3rd century BC 2.4 1st century BC 3 See also 4 Footnotes 5 References 6 Bibliography Key to Latin terms and phrases[edit] Roman dictators were usually appointed for a specific purpose, or causa, which limited the scope of their activities. The chief causae were rei gerundae (a general purpose, usually to lead an army in the field against a particular enemy), clavi figendi (an important religious rite involving the driving of a nail into the wall of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus), and comitiorum habendorum (the holding of the comitia to elect magistrates, when the consuls were unable to do so). Other causae included ludorum faciendorum, holding the Ludi Romani (Roman games), an important religious festival; ferarium constituendarum (establishing a religious festival in response to serious prodigies); seditionis sedandae (quelling sedition); and in one remarkable case, senatus legendi (filling up the ranks of the Senate after the Battle of Cannae). The causa given at the very end of the Republic for the dictatorships of Sulla and Caesar are completely novel, as the powers granted greatly exceeded those traditionally accorded a Roman dictator. By legibus faciendis et rei publicae constituendae causa, Sulla was empowered to rewrite the laws and revise the constitution of the Roman state; by dictator perpetuo rei publicae constituendae causa, Caesar was appointed dictator in perpetuity, and given the power to revise the constitution. The various causae may not have been legally distinguished from one another prior to 368 BC, when Publius Manlius Capitolinus was appointed dictator seditionis sedandae et rei gerundae causa. The precise formula of each causa later reported by ancient historians may only date to Manlius' dictatorship, in which case the causae attributed to earlier dictators must be later additions.[1] Other phrases[edit] abdicavit – abdicated, or resigned. mortuus est – died in office. non iniit – not inaugurated. occisus est – killed, slain. sine magistro equitum – without a magister equitum. Roman numerals given following a name indicate that the dictator or magister equitum for that year previously held the same magistracy. The causae listed in the table are based largely on T. R. S. Broughton's The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, reporting those given in ancient sources. For cases in which no causa is given, rei gerundae may usually be inferred. List of dictators and magistri equitum[edit] 6th and 5th centuries BC[edit] Year BC Year AUC Dictator Magister Equitum Notes 501 253 Titus Lartius Flavus[i] Spurius Cassius Viscellinus rei gerundae causa 496 255 Aulus Postumius Albus Regillensis Titus Aebutius Elva 494 260 Manius Valerius Volusus Maximus Quintus Servilius Priscus Structus 463 291 (Gaius Aemilius Mamercus)[ii] not recorded clavi figendi causa 458 296 Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus Lucius Tarquitius Flaccus 439 315 Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus II Gaius Servilius Structus Ahala 437 317 Mamercus Aemilius Mamercinus Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus 435 319 Quintus Servilius Priscus Structus Fidenas Postumus Aebutius Elva Cornicen 434 320 Mamercus Aemilius Mamercinus II Aulus Postumius Tubertus 431 323 Aulus Postumius Tubertus Lucius Julius Iulus 426 328 Mamercus Aemilius Mamercinus III Aulus Cornelius Cossus 418 336 Quintus Servilius Priscus Structus Fidenas II Gaius Servilius Structus Axilla 408 346 Publius Cornelius Rutilus Cossus Gaius Servilius Structus Ahala 4th century BC[edit] Year BC Year AUC Dictator Magister Equitum Notes 396 358 Marcus Furius Camillus Publius Cornelius Maluginensis 390 364 Marcus Furius Camillus II Lucius Valerius Potitus 389 365 Marcus Furius Camillus III Gaius Servilius Ahala 385 369 Aulus Cornelius Cossus Titus Quinctius Cincinnatus Capitolinus 380 374 Titus Quinctius Cincinnatus Capitolinus Aulus Sempronius Atratinus 368 386 Marcus Furius Camillus IV Lucius Aemilius Mamercinus rei gerundae causa 368 386 Publius Manlius Capitolinus Gaius Licinius Calvus seditionis sedandae et rei gerundae causa 367 387 Marcus Furius Camillus V Titus Quinctius Cincinnatus Capitolinus rei gerundae causa 363 391 Lucius Manlius Capitolinus Imperiosus Lucius Pinarius Natta clavi figendi causa 362 392 Appius Claudius Crassus Regillensis Publius Cornelius Scapula? 361 393 Titus Quinctius Pennus Capitolinus Crispinus Servius Cornelius Maluginensis rei gerundae causa 360 394 Quintus Servilius Ahala Titus Quinctius Pennus Capitolinus Crispinus rei gerundae causa 358 396 Gaius Sulpicius Peticus Marcus Valerius Poplicola 356 398 Gaius Marcius Rutilus Gaius Plautius Proculus 353 401 Titus Manlius Imperiosus Torquatus Aulus Cornelius Cossus Arvina 352 402 Gaius Julius Iulus Lucius Aemilius Mamercinus 351 403 Marcus Fabius Ambustus Quintus Servilius Ahala comitiorum habendorum causa 350 404 Lucius Furius Camillus Publius Cornelius Scipio comitiorum habendorum causa 349 405 Titus Manlius Imperiosus Torquatus II Aulus Cornelius Cossus Arvina II comitiorum habendorum causa 348 406 (Gaius Claudius Crassinus Regillensis) (Gaius Livius Denter) comitiorum habendorum causa; names uncertain.[iii] 345 409 Lucius Furius Camillus II Gnaeus Manlius Capitolinus Imperiosus 344 410 Publius Valerius Poplicola Quintus Fabius Ambustus ferarium constituendarum causa 342 412 Marcus Valerius Corvus Lucius Aemilius Mamercinus Privernas 340 414 Lucius Papirius Crassus Lucius Papirius Cursor 339 415 Quintus Publilius Philo Decimus Junius Brutus Scaeva 337 417 Gaius Claudius Crassinus Regillensis Gaius Claudius Hortator abdicavit 335 419 Lucius Aemilius Mamercinus Privernas Quintus Publilius Philo comitiorum habendorum causa 334 to 333 420 to 421 Publius Cornelius Rufinus Marcus Antonius abdicavit; 333 the first of the "dictator years".[iv] 332 422 Marcus Papirius Crassus Publius Valerius Poplicola 331 423 Gnaeus Quinctilius Varus or  Gnaeus Quinctius Capitolinus Lucius Valerius Potitus clavi figendi causa 327 427 Marcus Claudius Marcellus Spurius Postumius Albinus comitiorum habendorum causa; abdicavit 325 to 324 429 to 430 Lucius Papirius Cursor Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus rei gerundae causa; 324 the second of the "dictator years".[iv] 322 432 Aulus Cornelius Cossus Arvina Marcus Fabius Ambustus rei gerundae (for a general purpose) or ludi faciendorum causa [v] 321 433 Quintus Fabius Ambustus Publius Aelius Paetus comitiorum habendorum causa; abdicavit 321 433 Marcus Aemilius Papus Lucius Valerius Flaccus comitiorum habendorum causa 320 434 Gaius Maenius Marcus Foslius Flaccinator causa uncertain.[vi] 320 434 Lucius Cornelius Lentulus Lucius Papirius Cursor II 320 434 Titus Manlius Imperiosus Torquatus III Lucius Papirius Crassus 316 438 Lucius Aemilius Mamercinus Privernas II Lucius Fulvius Curvus rei gerundae causa 315 439 Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus Quintus Aulius Cerretanus Gaius Fabius Ambustus rei gerundae causa 314 440 Gaius Maenius II Marcus Foslius Flaccinator II rei gerundae causa 313 441 Gaius Poetilius Libo Visolus or  Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus II Marcus Foslius Flaccinator III or  Marcus Poetilius Libo rei gerundae (et clavi figendi?) causa [vii] 312 442 Gaius Sulpicius Longus Gaius Junius Bubulcus Brutus rei gerundae causa [viii] 310 to 309 444 to 445 Lucius Papirius Cursor II Gaius Junius Bubulcus Brutus II 309 the third of the "dictator years".[iv] 306 448 Publius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus Publius Decius Mus comitiorum habendorum causa 302 452 Gaius Junius Bubulcus Brutus Marcus Titinius 302 to 301 452 to 453 Marcus Valerius Maximus Corvus II Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus?  or Marcus Aemilius Paullus? 301 the fourth and last of the "dictator years".[iv] 3rd century BC[edit] Year BC Year AUC Dictator Magister Equitum Notes 287 467 Quintus Hortensius mortuus est not recorded 287 467 Appius Claudius Caecus? not recorded dictator suffectus? [ix] 285 469 Marcus Aemilius Barbula? not recorded date uncertain.[x] 280 474 Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus Maximus not recorded comitiorum habendorum causa 276 478 Publius Cornelius Rufinus? not recorded date uncertain.[xi] 263 491 Gnaeus Fulvius Maximus Centumalus Quintus Marcius Philippus clavi figendi causa 257 497 Quintus Ogulnius Gallus Marcus Laetorius Plancianus Latinarum feriarum causa 249 505 Marcus Claudius Glicia abdicavit [xii] 249 505 Aulus Atilius Calatinus Lucius Caecilius Metellus 246 508 Tiberius Coruncanius Marcus Fulvius Flaccus comitiorum habendorum causa 231 523 Gaius Duilius Gaius Aurelius Cotta comitiorum habendorum causa 224 530 Lucius Caecilius Metellus Numerius Fabius Buteo comitiorum habendorum causa 221 533 Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus Gaius Flaminius date uncertain.[xiii] 217 537 Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus II Marcus Minucius Rufus Minucius given authority equal to the dictator's.[xiv] 217 537 Lucius Veturius Philo Marcus Pomponius Matho comitiorum habendorum causa; abdicavit 216 538 Marcus Junius Pera Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus 216 538 Marcus Fabius Buteo sine magistro equitum senatus legendi causa [xv] 213 541 Gaius Claudius Centho Quintus Fulvius Flaccus comitiorum habendorum causa 210 544 Quintus Fulvius Flaccus Publius Licinius Crassus Dives comitiorum habendorum causa 208 546 Titus Manlius Torquatus Gaius Servilius Geminus comitiorum habendorum et ludorum faciendorum causa 207 547 Marcus Livius Salinator Quintus Caecilius Metellus comitiorum habendorum causa 205 549 Quintus Caecilius Metellus Lucius Veturius Philo comitiorum habendorum causa 203 551 Publius Sulpicius Galba Maximus Marcus Servilius Pulex Geminus comitiorum habendorum causa 202 552 Gaius Servilius Geminus Publius Aelius Paetus comitiorum habendorum causa 1st century BC[edit] Year BC Year AUC Dictator Magister Equitum Notes 82 to 81 672 to 673 Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix Lucius Valerius Flaccus legibus faciendis et rei publicae constituendae causa 49 705 Gaius Julius Caesar sine magistro equitum rei gerundae causa 48 706 Gaius Julius Caesar II Marcus Antonius 47 to 44 707 to 710 Gaius Julius Caesar III Marcus Aemilius Lepidus 44 710 Gaius Julius Caesar IV occisus est Marcus Aemilius Lepidus II Gaius Octavius Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus (non iniit) dictator perpetuo rei publicae constituendae causa See also[edit] Constitution of the Roman Republic Dictator Footnotes[edit] ^ The name of the first dictator is also given as Manius Valerius, but Livy rejects this in favor of Titus Lartius Flavus on the basis of the law that only consulars could be named dictator; Valerius had not yet been named consul. Broughton follows Livy in this.[2] ^ No dictator is listed for this year in the fasti consulares, but Lydus says that there was a dictator in the forty-eighth year of the Republic. Bendel links this with the story that the senate appointed a dictator clavi figendi causa in 363 BC because that had worked to stop a pestilence a century earlier and concludes that Mamercus was this dictator. Broughton sees this as an insufficient reason to say that Mamercus was dictator in 463 BC, and suggests that Lydus has mistaken an interrex for a dictator.[3] ^ The names of the dictator and magister equitum for this year are missing from the consular fasti, and not explicitly stated by any ancient author. The Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology inserts these names, although the basis for them is not stated.[4][5] ^ a b c d The fasti consulares, but no other source, list four years in which there was a dictator but no consuls elected: 333, 324, 309, and 301. In each case, Livy includes the names of the dictator and magister equitum under the previous year's consuls.[6] ^ The sources for the causa of this dictator conflict. Most historians accept that Cornelius carried on the Ludi Romani games when the praetor fell ill, and attempt to explain how an annalist would have altered the records to make this a dictator rei gerundae causa.[7] ^ Maenius is one of three dictators appointed in 320, none of whom is listed as having abdicated and been replaced by another dictator. Hartfield asserts that Maenius was not appointed for quaestionibus exercendis, to conduct a court of inquiry into conspiracies against the Republic, as described by Livy. Instead, she concludes that he must have had a religious function, although she cannot determine precisely which causa he had, except to exclude clavi figendi. Cornelius can only have been nominated rei gerundae causa, due to the war with the Samnites, while Manlius must have been appointed to hold the elections for the next year's magistrates.[8] ^ Livy and the fasti consulares suggest that Poetelius was dictator rei gerundae causa, but Livy preserves a source who claims that one of the consuls that year instead captured the town Poetelius was said to have captured and that his dictatorship was instead clavi figendi causa. Some modern historians do not dismiss this alternate account. Because a dictator rei gerundae causa would not have hammered in the sacred nail, Hartfield adduces that he must have been appointed dictator twice this year, if he did so. Diodorus Siculus attributes the victories credited to Gaius Poetelius Libo Visolus to "Κόιντος Φάβιος" (Quintus Fabius) instead.[9] ^ The fasti consulares list Gaius Sulpicius Longus as the dictator rei gerundae causa and Gaius Junius Bubulcus Brutus as his magister equitum, but Livy names the latter as dictator, without following his usual procedure of recording the magister equitum.[10] ^ Three dictators are known only from various literary sources. Historians date them to a period for which the fasti consulares and Livy's history are missing but nothing about their causa can be known.[11] One of these was probably dictator suffectus after the death of Quintus Hortensius in 287 BC. Mommsen suggested that this was Claudius.[12] ^ One of three dictators known from literary sources, but not found in the surviving portions of the consular fasti or Livy's history. Broughton concludes that they must have held office between 292 and 285 BC, and lists them under the latest possible date. ^ The third of three dictators known from literary sources, but not found in the surviving portions of the consular fasti or Livy's history. Although Broughton concluded that they must have held office between 292 and 285 BC, the Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology places Rufinus in 276, during the war with Pyrrhus, noting, however, that Niebuhr placed his dictatorship in 280, after the Battle of Heraclea.[13] ^ Nominated by the consul Publius Claudius Pulcher after the Senate had relieved him of his command following the Battle of Drepana. Glicia was a freedman and a scribe; as such he was considered wholly unsuitable for the office and compelled to resign even before he could name his magister equitum. The precise means by which his resignation was procured is unclear. Aulus Atilius Calatinus was appointed in Claudius' stead. Notwithstanding his humble origin, Glicia was recorded as dictator in the consular fasti, and continued to wear the toga praetexta as a symbol of the honour. In 236 BC, he was a legate under the consul Gaius Licinius Varus, but after granting a treaty without permission from the Senate or the consul, was handed over to the enemy, who returned him unharmed; he was then imprisoned, banished, or put to death.[14][15][16] ^ Livy says that Fabius was appointed dictator for the second time in 217. Broughton adduces that he must have been dictator during a gap in the Capitoline fasti from 221 to 219, and before Livy's history resumes in 218. Since Flaminius was censor in 220 and 219, Broughton places this dictatorship in 221.[17] ^ Minucius, the magister equitum, vehemently opposed the dictator's delaying strategy against Hannibal, and induced a tribune of the plebs to propose a law granting him authority equal to that of the dictator. Some scholars therefore regard Minucius as a second dictator, while others describe him as a magister equitum with dictatorial imperium. Since ancient sources refer to Minucius as having been dictator, those who consider him merely magister equitum during Fabius' dictatorship suggest that Minucius later held the office during a period for which Livy's history is missing, perhaps in order to hold the comitia.[18][19] ^ This is the only instance of this causa. The Senate appointed a dictator to enroll new senators after the Battle of Cannae, instead of holding elections for new censors to carry out the same task. References[edit] ^ Hartfield, pp. (?). ^ Broughton, vol. I, p. 9. ^ Broughton, vol. I, p. 35 (note 2). ^ Broughton, vol. I, p. 130. ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. I, pp. 993 ("Livius Denter, no. 1"), vol. III, p. 1354 ("Chronological Tables of Roman History"). ^ Broughton, vol. I, p. 141. ^ Hartfield, p. 420. ^ Hartfield, pp. 425–428. ^ Hartfield, pp. 443–451. ^ Hartfield, pp. 452–454. ^ Hartfield, pp. 471–476. ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 185–187. ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. III, pp. 665 ("Cornelius Rufinus" no. 2), 1357 ("Chronological Tables of Roman History"). ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. II, p. 276 (Glicia). ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 215, 223. ^ Hartfield, pp. 480–483. ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 234, 235. ^ Hartfield, pp. 489–499. ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 243, 244. Bibliography[edit] Marianne Elizabeth Hartfield, The Roman Dictatorship: its Character and Evolution (Ph.D. dissertation), University of California, Berkeley (1981). T. Robert S. Broughton, The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, American Philological Association (1952). Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Roman_dictators&oldid=996099472" Categories: People of the Roman Republic Government of the Roman Republic Ancient Roman titles Ancient Roman dictators Lists of office-holders in ancient Rome Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikidata Languages Беларуская Български Español Français ქართული Magyar 日本語 Русский Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 December 2020, at 14:52 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2244	----	Thasos - Wikipedia Thasos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Regional unit in East Macedonia and Thrace, Greece Thasos Περιφερειακή Ενότητα / Δήμος Θάσου Regional unit Limenas (port) of Thasos, capital of the island Thasos within East Macedonia and Thrace Coordinates: 40°41′N 24°39′E / 40.683°N 24.650°E / 40.683; 24.650Coordinates: 40°41′N 24°39′E / 40.683°N 24.650°E / 40.683; 24.650 Country Greece Region East Macedonia and Thrace Capital Thasos Area  • Total 380.097 km2 (146.756 sq mi) Elevation 1,205 m (3,953 ft) Population (2011)  • Total 13,770  • Density 36/km2 (94/sq mi) Time zone UTC+2 (EET)  • Summer (DST) UTC+3 (EEST) Postal codes 640 04 Area codes 25930 Car plates ΚΒ Website www.thassos.gr Thasos (from West) Thasos or Thassos (Greek: Θάσος, Thásos) is a Greek island, geographically part of the North Aegean Sea, but administratively part of the Kavala regional unit, Macedonia. It is the northernmost major Greek island, and 12th largest by area. Thasos is also the name of the largest town of the island (officially known as Limenas Thasou, "Port of Thasos"), situated at the northern side, opposite the mainland and about 10 kilometres (6 miles) from Keramoti. Thassos island is known from ancient times for its termae making it a climatic and balneoclimateric resort area. Thasos's economy relies on timber (it is rich in forests), marble quarries, olive oil and honey. Tourism has also become important since the 1960s, although not to the level of other Greek islands. Contents 1 History 1.1 Mythology 1.2 Prehistory 1.3 Antiquity 1.4 Middle Ages 1.5 Ottoman era 1.6 Archaeological discovery 1.7 Modern era 2 Administration 3 Geography 3.1 Geology 3.2 Mining history 4 Economy 5 Localities 6 Historical population 7 Sights 8 Notable people 9 Notes 10 References 11 External links History[edit] Mythology[edit] Staphylus (Ancient Greek: Στάφυλος), the beloved of god Dionysus, lived in Thasos.[1] Prehistory[edit] Lying close to the coast of Eastern Macedonia, Thasos was inhabited from the Palaeolithic period onwards,[2] but the earliest settlement to have been explored in detail is that at Limenaria, where remains from the Middle and Late Neolithic relate closely to those found at the mainland's Drama plain. In contrast, Early Bronze Age remains on the island align it with the Aegean culture of the Cyclades and Sporades, to the south; at Skala Sotiros[3] for example, a small settlement was encircled by a strongly built defensive wall. Even earlier activity is demonstrated by the presence of large pieces of 'megalithic' anthropomorphic stelai built into these walls, which, so far, have no parallels in the Aegean area. There is then a gap in the archaeological record until the end of the Bronze Age c 1100 BC, when the first burials took place at the large cemetery of Kastri in the interior of the island.[4][5] Here built tombs covered with small mound of earth were typical until the end of the Iron Age. In the earliest tombs were a small number of locally imitated Mycenaean pottery vessels, but the majority of the hand-made pottery with incised decoration reflects connections eastwards with Thrace and beyond. Antiquity[edit] Ancient Agora of Thasos The island was colonised at an early date by Phoenicians, attracted probably by its gold mines; they founded a temple to the god Melqart, whom the Greeks identified as "Tyrian Heracles", and whose cult was merged with Heracles in the course of the island's Hellenization.[6] The temple still existed in the time of Herodotus.[7] An eponymous Thasos or Thasus, son of Phoenix (or of Agenor, as Pausanias reported) was said to have been the leader of the Phoenicians, and to have given his name to the island.[8] Around 650 BC, or a little earlier, Greeks from Paros founded a colony on Thasos.[9] A generation or so later, the poet Archilochus, a descendant of these colonists, wrote of casting away his shield during a minor war against an indigenous Thracian tribe, the Saians.[10] Thasian power, and sources of its wealth, extended to the mainland, where the Thasians owned gold mines even more valuable than those of the island; their combined annual revenues amounted to between 200 and 300 talents. Herodotus says that the best mines on the island were those opened by the Phoenicians on the east side of the island, facing Samothrace. Archilochus described Thasos as "an ass's backbone crowned with wild wood." The island's capital, Thasos, had two harbours. Besides its gold mines, the wine, nuts and marble of Thasos were well known in antiquity.[8] Thasian wine was quite famous. Thasian coins had the head of the wine god Dionysos on one side and bunches of grape of the other.[11] Thasos was important during the Ionian Revolt against Persia. After the capture of Miletus (494 BC) Histiaeus, the Ionian leader, laid siege. The attack failed, but, warned by the danger, the Thasians employed their revenues to build war ships and strengthen their fortifications. This excited the suspicions of the Persians, and Darius compelled them to surrender their ships and pull down their walls.[12] After the defeat of Xerxes the Thasians joined the Delian League; but afterwards, on account of a difference about the mines and marts on the mainland, they revolted.[8] silver tritartemorion struck in Thasos circa 411-404 BC. Satyr on the obverse and dolphins on the reverse The Athenians defeated them by sea, and, after a siege that lasted more than two years, took the capital, Thasos, probably in 463 BC, and compelled the Thasians to destroy their walls, surrender their ships, pay an indemnity and an annual contribution (in 449 BC this was 21 talents, from 445 BC about 30 talents), and resign their possessions on the mainland. In 411 BC, at the time of the oligarchical revolution at Athens, Thasos again revolted from Athens and received a Lacedaemonian governor; but in 407 BC the partisans of Lacedaemon were expelled, and the Athenians under Thrasybulus were admitted.[8] After the Battle of Aegospotami (405 BC), Thasos again fell into the hands of the Lacedaemonians under Lysander who formed a decarchy there; but the Athenians must have recovered it, for it formed one of the subjects of dispute between them and Philip II of Macedonia. In the embroilment between Philip V of Macedonia and the Romans, Thasos submitted to Philip, but received its freedom at the hands of the Romans after the Battle of Cynoscephalae (197 BC), and it was still a "free" state in the time of Pliny.[8] Middle Ages[edit] Further information: Byzantine Greece and Frankokratia Byzantine church in Thasos Thasos was part of the Eastern Roman Empire, now known as the Byzantine Empire, from 395 on. According to the 6th century Synecdemus, it belonged to the province of Macedonia Prima, although the 10th century De thematibus claims that it was part of Thracia.[13] The island was a major source of marble until the disruption of the Slavic invasions in the late 6th/7th centuries, and several churches from Late Antiquity have been found on it.[13] The island remained in Byzantine hands for most of the Middle Ages. It functioned as a naval base in the 13th century, under its own doux, and came briefly under the rule of the Genoese Tedisio Zaccaria in 1307–13. Returning to Byzantine control, its bishopric was raised to an archdiocese by Manuel II Palaiologos. Thasos was captured by the Genoese Gattilusi family c. 1434, who surrendered it to the Ottoman Empire in 1455.[13] Following the Ottoman conquest of the Despotate of the Morea in 1460, the former Despot Demetrios Palaiologos received lands on the island.[13] It is related that the Byzantine Greek Saint Joannicius the Great (752–846) in one of his miracles freed the island of Thasos from a multitude of snakes. Ottoman era[edit] Further information: Ottoman Greece Thasos was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire in 1456.[14] Under the Ottoman rule, the island was known as Ottoman Turkish: طاشوز Taşöz. Between 1770 and 1774, the island was briefly occupied by a Russian fleet. By this time the population of Thassos had gravitated to the inland villages as a protective measure.[15] Nearly 50 years later, a revolt against Ottoman rule arose in 1821, at the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence, led by Hatzigiorgis Metaxas, but it failed. The island had been given in 1813 by the Sultan Mahmud II to Muhammad Ali of Egypt as a personal fiefdom, as a reward for his intervention against the Wahhabites. Egyptian rule was relatively benign (by some accounts Muhammad Ali had either been born or spent his infancy on Thasos) and the island became prosperous, until 1908, when the New Turk regime asserted Turkish control. The island was a kaza (sub-province), lastly of the Sanjak of Drama in the Salonica Vilayet, until the Balkan Wars. On 20 October 1912 during the First Balkan War, a Greek naval detachment freed Thasos from the Ottomans and it became part of Greece. From the day it was reunited with Greece, it has remained so ever since. Archaeological discovery[edit] On the 23 November 1902 issue of the New York Times (p. 5), it was reported that on the island of Thassos, archaeologist Theodore Bent discovered the tomb of Cassius, the one who slew himself after the disastrous defeat at the Battle of Philippi in 42 B.C. Cassius was buried by Brutus at Thassos, where the army of the patriots of the Republic had established its base of supplies.[16][17] Researchers from the Adelphi University discovered in the Paliokastro on Thasos ten skeletal remains, four women and six men, who were buried between the fourth and seventh centuries A.D. Their bones illuminated their physical activities, traumas, and even a complex form of brain surgery. According to the researchers: "The very serious trauma cases sustained by both males and females had been treated surgically or orthopedically by a very experienced physician/surgeon with great training in trauma care. We believe it to have been a military physician". The researchers were impressed by the complexity of the brain surgical operation.[18] Modern era[edit] Further information: Axis occupation of Greece during World War II Limenaria in 1950s The writer Vassilis Vassilikos, famous for his novel "Z", which was later adapted into an Academy Award-winning film was born in Thasos in 1934. He later became Director General of Greek Public Television, and Greece's ambassador to UNESCO. During the Axis occupation (April 1941 – October 1944) Thasos, along with the region of East Macedonia and Thrace, was assigned by the Nazis to their Bulgarian allies. The Bulgarian government renamed the island "Tasos" and closed its schools. Thasos' mountainous terrain facilitated resistance activity against the occupation forces, mainly led by the left-wing National Liberation Front (EAM). After the end of the war and the withdrawal of Axis troops in 1944, the island was caught up in the Greek Civil War. The leader of the communist naval forces in the civil war, Sarantis Spintzos, was a native of Thasos.[19] Skirmishes and communist guerilla attacks continued on Thasos until 1950, almost a year after the main hostilities were over on the mainland. In the post-war decades, another native of Thasos, Costas Tsimas, was to attain national recognition; a friend of Prime Minister Andreas Papandreou, he was appointed Director of the National Intelligence Service, the first civilian to hold that post. Thasos, the capital, is now informally known as Limenas, or "the port". It is served by a ferry route to and from Keramoti a port close to Kavala International Airport, and has the shortest possible crossing to the island. Scala Prinos 20 km south of Thassos town is served by a ferry route to and from Kavala. Administration[edit] Thasos is a separate regional unit of the East Macedonia and Thrace region, and the only municipality of the regional unit.[20] As a part of the 2011 Kallikratis government reform, the regional unit Thasos was created out of part of the former Kavala Prefecture. The municipality, unchanged at the Kallikratis reform, includes a few uninhabited islets besides the main island Thasos and has an area of 380.097 km2.[21] The province of Thasos (Greek: Επαρχία Θάσου) was one of the provinces of the Kavala Prefecture. It had the same territory as the present municipality.[22] It was abolished in 2006. Geography[edit] Thasos from space, April 1993 Thasos island is located in the northern Aegean sea approximately 7 km (4 mi) from the northern mainland and 20 kilometres (12 miles) south-east of Kavala, and is of generally rounded shape, without deep bays or significant peninsulas. The terrain is mountainous but not particularly rugged, rising gradually from coast to centre. The highest peak is Ypsario (Ipsario), at 1,205 metres (3,953 feet), somewhat east of centre. Pine forest covers much of the island's eastern slopes. Historically, the island's population was chiefly engaged in agriculture and stockbreeding, and established villages inland, some of them connected via stairways (known as skalas) to harbors at the shore. The local population gradually migrated towards these shoreline settlements as tourism began to develop as an important source of income. Thus, there are several "paired villages" such as Maries–Skala Maries, with the former inland and the latter on the coast. Geology[edit] This section may be too technical for most readers to understand. Please help improve it to make it understandable to non-experts, without removing the technical details. (January 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Geological and Metallogenic map of Thasos island. The island is formed mainly by gneisses, schists and marbles of the Rhodope Massif. Marble sequences corresponding to the Falacron Marbles intercalated by schists and gneisses, are up to 500m thick and are separated from the underlying gneisses by a transition zone about 300 m thick termed the T-zone consisting of alternances of dolomitic and calcitic marbles intercalated by schists and gneisses. The rocks have undergone several periods of regional metamorphism, to at least upper amphibolite facies, and there was a subsequent phase of retrograde metamorphism. At least three periods of regional deformation have been identified, the most important being large scale isoclinal folding with axes aligned north-west. The T-zone is deformed and is interpreted by some authors as a regional thrust of pre-major folding age. There are two major high angle fault systems aligned north-west and north-east respectively. A large low-angle thrust cuts the gneiss, schist and marble sequence at the south-west corner of the island, probably indicating an overthrusting of the Serbomacedonian Massif onto the Rodope Massif. The Late Miocene oil-producing Nestos-Prinos basin is located between Thassos island and the mainland. The floor of the basin is around 1,500 m deep off the Thassos coast (South Kavala ridge; Proedrou, 1988) and up to 4.000–5.000 m in the axial sector between Thassos and the mainland. The basin is filled with Late Miocene-Pliocene sediments, including ubiquitously repeated evaporite layers of rock salt and anhydrite-dolomite that alternate with sandstones, conglomerates, black shales, and uraniferous coal measures (Proedrou, 1979, 1988; Taupitz, 1985). Stratigraphically equivalent rocks on the mainland are clastic sediments with coal beds, marine to brackish fluvial units and travertines. Mining history[edit] The earliest mining on the island has been dated to around 13,000 BC, when paleolithic miners dug a shaft at the site of the modern-era Tzines iron mine for the extraction of limonitic ochre.[23] Mining for base and precious metals started around the 7th century BC with the Phoenicians, followed in the 4th century by the Greeks, then the Romans. These later mines were both open-cast and underground, mostly to exploit the island's numerous karst hosted calamine deposits for their lead and silver. Gold, copper and iron were also found; the Byzantines quarried marble on the island. In the early 20th century, mining companies (most notably the Speidel mining company) exploited the island's zinc-lead rich calamine ores, with a yield of around 2 million tonnes, and a processing plant at Limenaria produced zinc oxide. Iron ore was mined on a significant scale from 1954 to 1964, with a yield of around 3 million tonnes. Since 1964, surveys have established the existence of a deep-level zinc-lead deposit, but the only mining activity on the island has been marble quarrying. Lead-zinc mine at Sellada Iron mine of Koupanada Gold mine Iron mine at Tzines, with paleolithic mine-tunnel Marble quarry of Alyki Economy[edit] Shiploading in Limenaria during the 1950s By far the most important economic activity is tourism. The main agricultural products on the island are honey, almonds, walnuts, olives (famously Throuba olives), and olive oil, as well as wine, sheep, goat herding, and fishing.[24] Other industries are lumber and mining which includes lead, zinc, and marble, especially in the Panagia area where one of the mountains near the Thracian Sea has a large marble quarry. The marble quarries in the south (in the area of Aliki), now abandoned, were mined during ancient times. Localities[edit] Panagia village Towns and villages with over 100 inhabitants (2011 census) are: Kallirachi (452) Koinyra (105) Limenaria (2,471) Maries (158) Ormos Prinou (156) Panagia (725) Potamia (1,383) Potos (815) Prinos (1,211) Rachoni (446) Skala Kallirachis (566) Skala Marion (379) Skala Rachoniou (283) Skala Sotiros (376) Thasos (Limenas Thasou) (3,234) Theologos (636) Traditional village of Theologos Historical population[edit] Year Town Municipality 1981 2,312 – 1991 2,600 – 2001 3,140 13,765 2011 3,240 13,770 Sights[edit] Kouros at the Archaeological Museum of Thasos Polygnotos Vagis Municipal Museum in Potamia Paradisos beach Archaeological Museum of Thasos and the nearby ancient agora in Thasos town Acropolis of Thasos and ancient theater near Thasos town Polygnotos Vagis Municipal Museum in Potamia Folklore Museum of Limenaria Archangel Michael's Monastery Saint Panteleimon Monastery: it was built in 1843 and became monastery in 1987. According to inhabitants of Thassos, someone wanted to build it in favor of Saint Panteleimon. The workers started the building at a location, but the next day when they wanted to continue with the construction, the part they had built was found destroyed and their tools were missing. The same happened on the following days. One day they saw footprints on the ground and followed them until they found their tools nearby a natural spring. Finally, they built the monastery at that spot. Monastery of the Assumption Kastro: its foundation year is unknown. This village must have been created during the years of Frankish domination. Krambousa Isle: it can be found across the coast of Skala Potamia. The thick vegetation make it impossible to explore all parts of it. It is full with special wild vegetable called "Krambi". The little church of Saint Daniel is located at the top of the hill. The inhabitants visit this church on the day of the saint every year. Mount Ypsario (Ipsario) 1,203 meters (3,947 ft) Artificial Lake in Maries Notable people[edit] Archilochos (7th century BC), warrior and poet. Aglaophon (6th–5th century BC), painter, teacher and father of Polygnotus and Aristophon[25] Hegemon of Thasos, comedian, inventor of parody Leodamas (4th century BC), mathematician Neseus of Thasos, painter Polygnotos Vagis (1892–1965), Thasos-born US sculptor Polygnotus (mid-5th century BC), painter Stesimbrotos (c. 470 BC – c. 420 BC), sophist Theagenes of Thasos (480 BC) Olympic boxer Pankratiast (476 BC), Olympic runner Androsthenes of Thasos (4th century BC), Admiral serving under Alexander the Great. Vassilis Vassilikos (1934), poet and author. Notes[edit] ^ Suda, § th.59 ^ Papadopoulos S., "Recent Field Investigations in Paleolithic, Neolithic and Bronze Age Thasos", International Symposium in Memoriam Mieczislaw Domaradzki, Kazanlak, Archaeological Institute of Sofia, Kazanluk, (in press) ^ Κουκούλη Χ.- Χρυσανθάκη, "Ανασκαφή Σκάλας Σωτήρος Θάσου", Το Αρχαιολογικό Έργο στη Μακεδονία και Θράκη, 1, ((1987), 1988, 391–406, 2 (1988), 1991, 421–431, 3 (1989), 1992, 507–520, 4 (1990), 1993, 531–545). ^ Chaidou Koukouli-Chrysanthaki: Πρωτοιστορική Θάσος. Τα νεκροταφεία του οικισμού Κάστρι, Μερος Α και Β, Υπουργείο Πολιτισμού, Δυμοσιέυματα του αρχαιολογικού Δελτίου Αρ. 45, ISBN 960-214-107-7 ^ Agelarakis A., "Reflections of the Human Condition in Prehistoric Thasos: Aspects of the Anthropological and Palaeopathological Record from the Settlement of Kastri". Actes du Colloque International Matières prèmieres et Technologie de la Préhistoire à nos jours, Limenaria, Thasos. The French Archaeological Institute in Greece, 1999. 447–468. ^ Pausanias, 5.25.12. "The Thasians, who are Phoenicians by descent, and sailed from Tyre, and from Phoenicia generally, together with Thasos, the son of Agenor, in search of Europa, dedicated at Olympia a Herakles, the pedestal as well as the image being of bronze. The height of the image is ten cubits, and he holds a club in his right hand and a bow in his left. They told me in Thasos that they used to worship the same Heracles as the Tyrians, but that afterwards, when they were included among the Greeks, they adopted the worship of Heracles the son of Amphitryon." ^ Herodotus. Histories, 2.44. "In the wish to get the best information that I could on these matters, I made a voyage to Tyre in Phoenicia, hearing there was a temple of Heracles at that place, very highly venerated. I visited the temple, and found it richly adorned with a number of offerings, among which were two pillars, one of pure gold, the other of smaragdos, shining with great brilliancy at night. In a conversation I held with the priests, I inquired how long their temple had been built, and found by their answer that they, too, differed from the Hellenes. They said that the temple was built at the same time that the city was founded, and that the foundation of the city took place 2,300 years ago. In Tyre I remarked another temple where the same god was worshipped as the Thasian Heracles. So I went on to Thasos, where I found a temple of Heracles, which had been built by the Phoenicians who colonised that island when they sailed in search of Europa. Even this was five generations earlier than the time when Heracles, son of Amphitryon, was born in Hellas. These researches show plainly that there is an ancient god Heracles; and my own opinion is that those Hellenes act most wisely who build and maintain two temples of Heracles, in the one of which the Heracles worshipped is known by the name of Olympian, and has sacrifice offered to him as an immortal, while in the other the honours paid are such as are due to a hero." ^ a b c d e Chisholm 1911, p. 727. ^ AJ Graham,"The Foundation of Thasos", The Annual of the British School at Athens, Vol. 73 (1978), pp. 61-98. ^ Zafeiropoulou F., A., Agelarakis, "Warriors of Paros". Archaeology 58.1(2005): 30–35. ^ Hugh Johnson, Vintage: The Story of Wine pg 39. Simon and Schuster 1989 ^ Agelarakis A., – Y., Serpanos "Auditory Exostoses, Infracranial Skeleto-Muscular Changes and Maritime Activities in Classical Period Thasos Island", Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10, No. 2, 2010, 45–57. ^ a b c d Gregory, Timothy E.; Cutler, Anthony (1991). "Thasos". In Kazhdan, Alexander (ed.). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. London and New York: Oxford University Press. p. 2031. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6. ^ Somel, Selçuk Akşin, The A to Z of the Ottoman Empire, p. 103, Scarecrow Press, Mar 23, 2010 ^ "Greek Islands:Thassos". Retrieved 4 December 2015. ^ http://article.archive.nytimes.com/1902/11/23/118486761.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAJBTN455PTTBQQNRQ&Expires=1444129535&Signature=KwJSjEtOxWUN5qiW9LmU9weHdNk%3D[dead link] ^ "Life and Land » Blog Archive » The Battle of Philippi: The Battle that Changed the Course of Western Civilization". Retrieved 4 December 2015. ^ Adelphi researcher discovers early, complex brain surgery in ancient Greece ^ Κώστας Τσίμας, Σελίδες Ζωής: Αγώνες για την Ελευθερία και τη Δημοκρατία, 2004, σελίδες 36-40 ^ "Kallikratis reform law text" (PDF). ^ "Population & housing census 2001 (incl. area and average elevation)" (PDF) (in Greek). National Statistical Service of Greece. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-09-21. ^ "Detailed census results 1991" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-03.  (39 MB) (in Greek and French) ^ Kovkouli et al. 1988. ^ "Why is Thassos important". thassos-dream.gr. Economy. Archived from the original on 2015-12-08. Retrieved 2015-12-04. ^ "Aglaophon". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Ancientlibrary.com. p. 74 (v. 1). Archived from the original on 2012-10-07. Retrieved 2012-10-26. References[edit] Agelarakis A., "Linen Thread Fragment". Ed. Chi. Koukouli-Chrysanthaki. "Proto-Historic Thasos", Archaeologiko Deltio 2.45 (1992–1993): 803 Agelarakis A., "Investigations of Archaeo-Anthropological Nature at the Classical Necropolis of the Island of Thasos between 1979–1996", Archaiologiko Ergo sti Makedonia kai Thraki, 10B (1997): 770–794. Agelarakis A., "On the Anthropological and Palaeopathological Records of a Select Number of Human Individuals from the Ancient Necropolis of Thasos Island". In <Jewelry from Thasian Graves> by Sgourou M., BSA 96 (2001): 355–364. Agelarakis A., "Investigations of Physical Anthropology & Palaeopathology at the Ancient Necropolis of Thasos", In M. Sgourou, Excavating houses and graves: exploring aspects of everyday life and afterlife in ancient Thasos, BAR International series 1031 (2002): 12–19. Antje and Günther Schwab: Thassos – Samothraki, 1999, ISBN 3-932410-30-0. N. Epitropou et al.: "The discovery of primary stratabound Pb – Zn mineralization at Thassos Island", L' Industria Mineraria n. 4, 1982. N. Epitropou, D. Konstantinides, D. Bitzios: "The Mariou Pb – Zn Mineralization of the Thassos Island Greece.", Mineral deposits of the Alps and of Alpine Epoch in Europe ed. by H. J. Echneibert, Spring – Verlag Berlin Heilderberg, 1983. N. Epitropou et al.: "Le mineralizzazioni carsiche a Pb – Zn dell' isola di Thassos, Grecia.", Mem. Soc. Geol. H. 22, 1981, pp. 139–143. Omenetto P., Epitropou N., Konstantinides D.: "The base metal sulphides of W. Thassos Island in the Geological Metallogenic Frame work of Rhodope and Surrounding Regions.", International Earth Sciences Congress on AEGEAN Regions, 1–6 October 1990, İzmir -Turkey. Epitropou N., Omenetto P., Constantinides D., "Μineralizations a Pb – Zn comparables au type ' Mississippi Valley'. L'example de l'ile de Thassos ( Macedoine, Grece du Nord)", MVT WORKSHOP, Paris, France, 1993.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Thasos". Encyclopædia Britannica. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 727–728. External links[edit] Media related to Thasos at Wikimedia Commons Thasos travel guide from Wikivoyage Virtual tour of Thasos v t e Administrative division of the Eastern Macedonia and Thrace Region Area 14,157 km2 (5,466 sq mi) Population 608,182 (as of 2011) Municipalities 22 (since 2011) Capital Komotini Regional unit of Drama Doxato Drama Kato Nevrokopi Paranesti Prosotsani Regional unit of Evros Alexandroupoli Didymoteicho Orestiada Samothrace Soufli Regional unit of Kavala Kavala Nestos Pangaio Regional unit of Rhodope Arriana Iasmos Komotini Maroneia-Sapes Regional unit of Thasos Thasos Regional unit of Xanthi Abdera Myki Topeiros Xanthi Regional governor Christos Metios (since November 2016) Decentralized Administration Macedonia and Thrace v t e Subdivisions of the municipality of Thasos Municipal unit of Thasos Kallirachi Limenaria Maries Panagia Potamia Prinos Rachoni Sotiras Thasos (town) Theologos v t e Aegean Sea General Countries  Greece  Turkey Other Aegean civilizations Aegean dispute Aegean Islands Aegean Islands Cyclades Ananes Amorgos Anafi Andros Antimilos Antiparos Delos Despotiko Donousa Folegandros Gyaros Ios Irakleia Kardiotissa Kea Keros Kimolos Koufonisia Kythnos Milos Mykonos Naxos Paros Polyaigos Rineia Santorini Schoinoussa Serifopoula Serifos Sifnos Sikinos Syros Therasia Tinos Vous Dodecanese Agathonisi Arkoi Armathia Alimia Astakida Astypalaia Çatalada Chamili Farmakonisi Gaidaros Gyali Halki Imia/Kardak Kalolimnos Kalymnos Kandelioussa Kara Ada Karpathos Kasos Kinaros Kos Küçük Tavşan Adası Leipsoi (Lipsi) Leros Levitha (Lebynthos) Nimos Nisyros Pacheia Patmos Platy Pserimos Rhodes Salih Ada Saria Symi Syrna Telendos Tilos Zaforas North Aegean Agios Efstratios Agios Minas Ammouliani Ayvalık Islands Büyük Ada Chios Chryse Cunda Foça Islands Fournoi Korseon Icaria Imbros Koukonesi Lemnos Lesbos Megalonisi (Nisiopi) Metalik Ada Oinousses Pasas Psara Samiopoula Samos Samothrace Tenedos Thasos Thymaina Uzunada Zourafa Saronic Aegina Agios Georgios Agistri Dokos Hydra Poros Psyttaleia Salamis Spetses Sporades Adelfoi Islets Agios Georgios Skopelou Alonnisos Argos Skiathou Dasia Erinia Gioura Grammeza Kyra Panagia Lekhoussa Peristera Piperi Psathoura Repi Sarakino Skandili Skantzoura Skiathos Skopelos Skyropoula Skyros Tsoungria Valaxa Cretan Afentis Christos Agia Varvara Agioi Apostoloi Agioi Pantes Agioi Theodoroi Agios Nikolaos Anavatis Arnaouti Aspros Volakas Avgo Crete Daskaleia Dia Diapori Dionysades Elasa Ftena Trachylia Glaronisi Gramvousa Grandes Kalydon (Spinalonga) Karavi Karga Katergo Kavallos Kefali Kolokythas Koursaroi Kyriamadi Lazaretta Leon Mavros Mavros Volakas Megatzedes Mochlos Nikolos Palaiosouda Peristeri Peristerovrachoi Petalida Petalouda Pontikaki Pontikonisi Praso (Prasonisi) Prosfora Pseira Sideros Souda Valenti Vryonisi Other Antikythera Euboea Kythira Makronisos v t e Former provinces of Greece Grouped by region and prefecture Attica East and West Attica Attica Piraeus Aegina Hydra Kythira Piraeus Troizinia West Attica Megaris Central Greece Boeotia Livadeia Thebes Euboea Chalcis Istiaia Karystia Phocis Dorida Parnassida Phthiotis Domokos Locris Phthiotis Central Macedonia Chalkidiki Arnaia Chalkidiki Imathia Imathia Naousa Kilkis Kilkis Paionia Pella Almopia Edessa Giannitsa Serres Fyllida Serres Sintiki Visaltia Thessaloniki Lagkadas Thessaloniki Crete Chania Apokoronas Kissamos Kydonia Selino Sfakia Heraklion Kainourgio Malevizi Monofatsi Pediada Pyrgiotissa Temenos Viannos Lasithi Ierapetra Lasithi Mirampello Siteia Rethymno Agios Vasileios Amari Mylopotamos Rethymno Eastern Macedonia and Thrace Evros Alexandroupoli Didymoteicho Orestiada Samothrace Soufli Kavala Kavala Nestos Pangaio Thasos Rhodope Komotini Sapes Epirus Ioannina Dodoni Konitsa Metsovo Pogoni Thesprotia Filiates Margariti Souli Thyamida Ionian Islands Corfu Corfu Paxoi Kefallinia Ithaca Kranaia Pali Sami North Aegean Lesbos Lemnos Mithymna Mytilene Plomari Samos Ikaria Samos Peloponnese Arcadia Gortynia Kynouria Mantineia Megalopoli Argolis Argos Ermionida Nafplia Laconia Epidavros Limira Gytheio Lacedaemon Oitylo Messenia Kalamai Messini Pylia Trifylia South Aegean Cyclades Andros Kea Milos Naxos Paros Syros Thira Tinos Dodecanese Kalymnos Karpathos Kos Rhodes Thessaly Larissa Agia Elassona Farsala Larissa Tyrnavos Magnesia Almyros Skopelos Volos Trikala Kalampaka Trikala West Greece Achaea Aigialeia Kalavryta Patras Aetolia-Acarnania Missolonghi Nafpaktia Trichonida Valtos Vonitsa-Xiromero Elis Elis Olympia Western Macedonia Kozani Eordaia Kozani Voio Note: not all prefectures were subdivided into provinces. Authority control GND: 4119578-4 NKC: ge310935 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thasos&oldid=995100446" Categories: Thasos Gold mines in Greece Zinc mines in Greece Surface mines in Greece Underground mines in Greece Quarries in Greece Municipalities of Eastern Macedonia and Thrace Provinces of Greece Islands of Greece Islands of Eastern Macedonia and Thrace Landforms of Thasos Regional units of Eastern Macedonia and Thrace North Aegean islands Macedonia (Greece) Members of the Delian League Thracian Sea Greek city-states Parian colonies Territories of the Republic of Genoa Populated places in Thasos Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from July 2017 CS1 Greek-language sources (el) Articles with Greek-language sources (el) Articles with French-language sources (fr) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Coordinates on Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles that are too technical from January 2013 All articles that are too technical Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikivoyage Languages العربية Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Cebuano Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски മലയാളം مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 19 December 2020, at 06:19 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2292	----	Roman currency - Wikipedia Roman currency From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Denarius of Marcus Aurelius. Legend: IMP. M. ANTONINVS AVG. TR. P. XXV. Numismatics Currency Coins Banknotes Forgery List ISO Circulating currencies Africa The Americas Europe Asia Oceania Local currencies Company scrip LETS Time dollars Fictional currencies Proposed currencies History Historical currencies Greek Roman China India Persian Tibetan Thai Filipino Malay Byzantine Medieval currencies Production Mint Designers Coining Milling Hammering Cast Exonumia Credit cards Medals Tokens Cheques Notaphily Banknotes Scripophily Stocks Bonds Glossary of numismatics  Numismatics portal  Money portal v t e Roman currency for most of Roman history consisted of gold, silver, bronze, orichalcum and copper coinage[1] (see: Roman metallurgy). From its introduction to the Republic, during the third century BC, well into Imperial times, Roman currency saw many changes in form, denomination, and composition. A persistent feature was the inflationary debasement and replacement of coins over the centuries. Notable examples of this followed the reforms of Diocletian. This trend continued into Byzantine times. Due to the economic power and longevity of the Roman state, Roman currency was widely used throughout western Eurasia and northern Africa from classical times into the Middle Ages. It served as a model for the currencies of the Muslim caliphates and the European states during the Middle Ages and the Modern Era. Roman currency names survive today in many countries (e.g., the Arabic dinar (from the denarius coin), the British pound and Mexican peso (both translations of the Roman libra)). Contents 1 Authority to mint coins 1.1 Roman Republic: c. 500 – 27 BC 2 Iconography and design 2.1 Imperial iconography 3 Value and composition 3.1 Debasement 3.2 Equivalences 4 See also 5 References 5.1 Footnotes 5.2 Bibliography 6 External links Authority to mint coins[edit] The manufacture of coins in the Roman culture, dating from about the 4th century BC, significantly influenced later development of coin minting in Europe. The origin of the word "mint" is ascribed to the manufacture of silver coin at Rome in 269 BC near the temple of Juno Moneta. This goddess became the personification of money, and her name was applied both to money and to its place of manufacture. Roman mints were spread widely across the Empire, and were sometimes used for propaganda purposes. The populace often learned of a new Roman Emperor when coins appeared with the new Emperor's portrait. Some of the emperors who ruled only for a short time made sure that a coin bore their image[citation needed]; Quietus, for example, ruled only part of the Roman Empire from 260 to 261 AD, and yet he issued two coins bearing his image. The Romans cast their larger copper coins in clay moulds carrying distinctive markings, not because they did not know about striking, but because it was not suitable for such large masses of metal. Roman Republic: c. 500 – 27 BC[edit] Main article: Roman Republican currency Bronze aes signatum produced by the Roman Republic after 450 BC. Roman adoption of metallic commodity money was a late development in monetary history. Bullion bars and ingots were used as money in Mesopotamia since the 7th millennium BC; and Greeks in Asia Minor had pioneered the use of coinage (which they employed in addition to other more primitive, monetary mediums of exchange) as early as the 7th century BC.[2] Coinage proper was only introduced by the Roman Republican government c. 300 BC. The greatest city of the Magna Graecia region in southern Italy, and several other Italian cities, already had a long tradition of using coinage by this time and produced them in large quantities during the 4th century BC to pay for their wars against the inland Italian groups encroaching on their territory. For these reasons, the Romans would have certainly known about coinage systems long before their government actually introduced them. The reason behind Rome's adoption of coinage was likely cultural. The Romans had no pressing economic need, but they wanted to emulate Greek culture; they considered the institution of minted money a significant feature of that culture. However, Roman coinage initially saw very limited use.[3] The type of money introduced by Rome was unlike that found elsewhere in the ancient Mediterranean. It combined a number of uncommon elements. One example is the large bronze bullion, the aes signatum (Latin for signed bronze). It measured about 160 by 90 millimetres (6.3 by 3.5 in) and weighed around 1,500 to 1,600 grams (53 to 56 oz), being made out of a highly leaded tin bronze. Although similar metal currency bars had been produced in Italy and northern Etruscan areas, these had been made of Aes grave, an unrefined metal with a high iron content.[4] Along with the aes signatum, the Roman state also issued a series of bronze and silver coins that emulated the styles of those produced in Greek cities.[5] Produced using the manner of manufacture then utilised in Greek Naples, the designs of these early coins were also heavily influenced by Greek designs.[6] The designs on the coinage of the Republican period displayed a "solid conservatism", usually illustrating mythical scenes or personifications of various gods and goddesses.[7] Iconography and design[edit] Imperial iconography[edit] The most commonly used coin denominations and their relative sizes during Roman times. Coins of the Roman Republic and Empire - from Cassell's History of England, Vol. I - anonymous author and artists The imagery on coins took an important step when Julius Caesar issued coins bearing his own portrait. While moneyers had earlier issued coins with portraits of ancestors, Caesar's was the first Roman coinage to feature the portrait of a living individual. The tradition continued following Caesar's assassination, although the imperators from time to time also produced coins featuring the traditional deities and personifications found on earlier coins. The image of the Roman emperor took on a special importance in the centuries that followed, because during the empire, the emperor embodied the state and its policies. The names of moneyers continued to appear on the coins until the middle of Augustus' reign. Although the duty of moneyers during the Empire is not known, since the position was not abolished, it is believed that they still had some influence over the imagery of the coins. The main focus of the imagery during the empire was on the portrait of the emperor. Coins were an important means of disseminating this image throughout the empire. Coins often attempted to make the emperor appear god-like through associating the emperor with attributes normally seen in divinities, or emphasizing the special relationship between the emperor and a particular deity by producing a preponderance of coins depicting that deity. During his campaign against Pompey, Caesar issued a variety of types that featured images of either Venus or Aeneas, attempting to associate himself with his divine ancestors. An example of an emperor who went to an extreme in proclaiming divine status was Commodus. In 192 A.D., he issued a series of coins depicting his bust clad in a lion-skin (the usual depiction of Hercules) on the obverse, and an inscription proclaiming that he was the Roman incarnation of Hercules on the reverse. Although Commodus was excessive in his depiction of his image, this extreme case is indicative of the objective of many emperors in the exploitation of their portraits. While the emperor is by far the most frequent portrait on the obverse of coins, heirs apparent, predecessors, and other family members, such as empresses, were also featured. To aid in succession, the legitimacy of an heir was affirmed by producing coins for that successor. This was done from the time of Augustus till the end of the empire. Featuring the portrait of an individual on a coin, which became legal in 44 BC, caused the coin to be viewed as embodying the attributes of the individual portrayed. Dio wrote that following the death of Caligula the Senate demonetized his coinage, and ordered that they be melted. Regardless of whether or not this actually occurred, it demonstrates the importance and meaning that was attached to the imagery on a coin. The philosopher Epictetus jokingly wrote: "Whose image does this sestertius carry? Trajan's? Give it to me. Nero's? Throw it away, it is unacceptable, it is rotten." Although the writer did not seriously expect people to get rid of their coins, this quotation demonstrates that the Romans attached a moral value to the images on their coins. Unlike the obverse, which during the imperial period almost always featured a portrait, the reverse was far more varied in its depiction. During the late Republic there were often political messages to the imagery, especially during the periods of civil war. However, by the middle of the Empire, although there were types that made important statements, and some that were overtly political or propagandistic in nature, the majority of the types were stock images of personifications or deities. While some images can be related to the policy or actions of a particular emperor, many of the choices seem arbitrary and the personifications and deities were so prosaic that their names were often omitted, as they were readily recognizable by their appearance and attributes alone. It can be argued that within this backdrop of mostly indistinguishable types, exceptions would be far more pronounced. Atypical reverses are usually seen during and after periods of war, at which time emperors make various claims of liberation, subjugation, and pacification. Some of these reverse images can clearly be classified as propaganda. An example struck by emperor Philip in 244 features a legend proclaiming the establishment of peace with Persia; in truth, Rome had been forced to pay large sums in tribute to the Persians. Although it is difficult to make accurate generalizations about reverse imagery, as this was something that varied by emperor, some trends do exist. An example is reverse types of the military emperors during the second half of the third century, where virtually all of the types were the common and standard personifications and deities. A possible explanation for the lack of originality is that these emperors were attempting to present conservative images to establish their legitimacy, something that many of these emperors lacked. Although these emperors relied on traditional reverse types, their portraits often emphasized their authority through stern gazes,[8][citation needed] and even featured the bust of the emperor clad in armor.[9] Value and composition[edit] Unlike most modern coins, Roman coins had (at least in the early centuries) significant intrinsic value. However, while the gold and silver issues contained precious metals, the value of a coin could be slightly higher than its precious metal content, so they were not, strictly speaking, equivalent to bullion. Also, over the course of time the purity and weight of the silver coins were reduced. Estimates of the value of the denarius range from 1.6 to 2.85 times its metal content,[citation needed] thought to equal the purchasing power of 10 modern British Pound Sterling at the beginning of the Roman Empire to around 18 Pound Sterling by its end (comparing bread, wine and meat prices) and, over the same period, around one to three days' pay for a Legionary.[10] The coinage system that existed in Egypt until the time of Diocletian's monetary reform was a closed system based upon the heavily debased tetradrachm. Although the value of these tetradrachms can be reckoned as being equivalent to that of the denarius, their precious metal content was always much lower. Elsewhere also, not all coins that circulated contained precious metals, as the value of these coins was too great to be convenient for everyday purchases. A dichotomy existed between the coins with an intrinsic value and those with only a token value. This is reflected in the infrequent and inadequate production of bronze coinage during the Republic, where from the time of Sulla till the time of Augustus no bronze coins were minted at all; even during the periods when bronze coins were produced, their workmanship was sometimes very crude and of low quality. Debasement[edit] The rapid decline in silver purity of the antoninianus The type of coins issued changed under the coinage reform of Diocletian, the heavily debased antoninianus (double denarius) was replaced with a variety of new denominations, and a new range of imagery was introduced that attempted to convey different ideas. The new government set up by Diocletian was a tetrarchy, or rule by four, with each emperor receiving a separate territory to rule. The new imagery includes a large, stern portrait that is representative of the emperor. This image was not meant to show the actual portrait of a particular emperor, but was instead a character that embodied the power that the emperor possessed. The reverse type was equally universal, featuring the spirit (or genius) of the Romans. The introduction of a new type of government and a new system of coinage represents an attempt by Diocletian to return peace and security to Rome, after the previous century of constant warfare and uncertainty. Diocletian characterizes the emperor as an interchangeable authority figure by depicting him with a generalized image. He tries to emphasize unity amongst the Romans by featuring the spirit of Romans (Sutherland 254). The reverse types of coins of the late Empire emphasized general themes, and discontinued the more specific personifications depicted previously. The reverse types featured legends that proclaimed the glory of Rome, the glory of the army, victory against the "barbarians", the restoration of happy times, and the greatness of the emperor. These general types persisted even after the adoption of Christianity as the state religion of the Roman Empire. Muted Christian imagery, such as standards that featured Christograms (the chi-rho monogram for Jesus Christ's name in Greek) were introduced, but with a few rare exceptions, there were no explicitly Christian themes. From the time of Constantine until the "end" of the Roman Empire, coins featured almost indistinguishable idealized portraits and general proclamations of greatness. Although the denarius remained the backbone of the Roman economy from its introduction in 211 BC until it ceased to be normally minted in the middle of the third century, the purity and weight of the coin slowly, but inexorably, decreased. The problem of debasement in the Roman economy appears to be pervasive, although the severity of the debasement often paralleled the strength or weakness of the Empire. While it is not clear why debasement was such a common occurrence for the Romans, it's believed that it was caused by several factors, including a lack of precious metals and inadequacies in state finances. When introduced, the denarius contained nearly pure silver at a theoretical weight of approximately 4.5 grams, but from the time of Nero onwards the tendency was nearly always for its purity to be decreased. The theoretical standard, although not usually met in practice, remained fairly stable throughout the Republic, with the notable exception of times of war. The large number of coins required to raise an army and pay for supplies often necessitated the debasement of the coinage. An example of this is the denarii that were struck by Mark Antony to pay his army during his battles against Octavian. These coins, slightly smaller in diameter than a normal denarius, were made of noticeably debased silver. The obverse features a galley and the name Antony, while the reverse features the name of the particular legion that each issue was intended for (hoard evidence shows that these coins remained in circulation over 200 years after they were minted, due to their lower silver content). The coinage of the Julio-Claudians remained stable at 4 grams of silver, until the debasement of Nero in 64, when the silver content was reduced to 3.8 grams, perhaps due to the cost of rebuilding the city after fire consumed a considerable portion of Rome. The denarius continued to decline slowly in purity, with a notable reduction instituted by Septimius Severus. This was followed by the introduction of a double denarius piece, differentiated from the denarius by the radiate crown worn by the emperor. The coin is commonly called the antoninianus by numismatists after the emperor Caracalla, who introduced the coin in early 215. Although nominally valued at two denarii, the antoninianus never contained more than 1.6 times the amount of silver of the denarius. The profit of minting a coin valued at two denarii, but weighing only about one and a half times as much is obvious; the reaction to these coins by the public is unknown. As the number of antoniniani minted increased, the number of denarii minted decreased, until the denarius ceased to be minted in significant quantities by the middle of the third century. Again, coinage saw its greatest debasement during times of war and uncertainty. The second half of the third century was rife with this war and uncertainty, and the silver content of the antonianus fell to only 2%, losing almost any appearance of being silver. During this time the aureus remained slightly more stable, before it too became smaller and more base (lower gold content and higher base metal content) before Diocletian's reform. The decline in the silver content to the point where coins contained virtually no silver at all was countered by the monetary reform of Aurelian in 274. The standard for silver in the antonianus was set at twenty parts copper to one part silver, and the coins were noticeably marked as containing that amount (XXI in Latin or KA in Greek). Despite the reform of Aurelian, silver content continued to decline, until the monetary reform of Diocletian. In addition to establishing the tetrarchy, Diocletian devised the following system of denominations: an aureus struck at the standard of 60 to the pound, a new silver coin struck at the old Neronian standard known as the argenteus, and a new large bronze coin that contained two percent silver. Diocletian issued an Edict on Maximum Prices in 301, which attempted to establish the legal maximum prices that could be charged for goods and services. The attempt to establish maximum prices was an exercise in futility as maximum prices were impossible to enforce. The Edict was reckoned in terms of denarii, although no such coin had been struck for over 50 years (it is believed that the bronze follis was valued at ​12 1⁄2 denarii). Like earlier reforms, this too eroded and was replaced by an uncertain coinage consisting mostly of gold and bronze. The exact relationship and denomination of the bronze issues of a variety of sizes is not known, and is believed to have fluctuated heavily on the market. The exact reason that Roman coinage sustained constant debasement is not known, but the most common theories involve inflation, trade with India, which drained silver from the Mediterranean world, and inadequacies in state finances. It is clear from papyri that the pay of the Roman soldier increased from 900 sestertii a year under Augustus to 2000 sestertii a year under Septimius Severus and the price of grain more than tripled indicating that fall in real wages and a moderate inflation occurred during this time.[11] Another reason for debasement was lack of raw metal with which to produce coins. Italy itself contains no large or reliable mines for precious metals; therefore the precious metals for coinage had to be obtained elsewhere. The majority of the precious metals that Rome obtained during its period of expansion arrived in the form of war booty from defeated territories, and subsequent tribute and taxes by new-conquered lands. When Rome ceased to expand, the precious metals for coinage then came from newly mined silver, such as from Greece and Spain, and from melting older coins. Without a constant influx of precious metals from an outside source, and with the expense of continual wars, it would seem reasonable that coins might be debased to increase the amount that the government could spend. This explanation for the debasement of coinage is that it allowed the state to spend more than it had. By decreasing the amount of silver in its coins, Rome could produce more coins and "stretch" its budget. As time progressed, the trade deficit of the west, because of its buying of grain and other commodities, led to a currency drainage in Rome. Equivalences[edit] The first rows show the values of each boldface coin in the first column in relation to the coins in the following columns: Early Republic values[12][13] (after 211 BC) Denarius Sestertius Dupondius As Semis Quincunx Triens Quadrans Uncia Denarius 1 4 5 10 20 24 30 40 120 Sestertius ​1⁄4 1 ​1  1⁄4 ​2  1⁄2 5 6 ​7  1⁄2 10 30 Dupondius ​1⁄5 ​4⁄5 1 2 4 ​4  4⁄5 6 8 24 As ​1⁄10 ​2⁄5 ​1⁄2 1 2 ​2  2⁄5 3 4 12 Semis ​1⁄20 ​1⁄5 ​1⁄4 ​1⁄2 1 ​1  1⁄5 ​1  1⁄2 2 6 Quincunx ​1⁄24 ​1⁄6 ​5⁄24 ​5⁄12 ​5⁄6 1 ​1  1⁄4 ​1  2⁄3 5 Triens ​1⁄30 ​2⁄15 ​1⁄6 ​1⁄3 ​2⁄3 ​4⁄5 1 ​1  1⁄3 4 Quadrans ​1⁄40 ​1⁄10 ​1⁄8 ​1⁄4 ​1⁄2 ​3⁄5 ​3⁄4 1 3 Uncia ​1⁄120 ​1⁄30 ​1⁄24 ​1⁄12 ​1⁄6 ​1⁄5 ​1⁄4 ​1⁄3 1 Augustan values (27 BC – AD 301) Aureus Quinarius Aureus Denarius Quinarius Sestertius Dupondius As Semis Quadrans Aureus 1 2 25 50 100 200 400 800 1600 Quinarius Aureus ​1⁄2 1 ​12  1⁄2 25 50 100 200 400 800 Denarius ​1⁄25 ​2⁄25 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 Quinarius Argenteus ​1⁄50 ​1⁄25 ​1⁄2 1 2 4 8 16 32 Sestertius ​1⁄100 ​1⁄50 ​1⁄4 ​1⁄2 1 2 4 8 16 Dupondius ​1⁄200 ​1⁄100 ​1⁄8 ​1⁄4 ​1⁄2 1 2 4 8 As ​1⁄400 ​1⁄200 ​1⁄16 ​1⁄8 ​1⁄4 ​1⁄2 1 2 4 Semis ​1⁄800 ​1⁄400 ​1⁄32 ​1⁄16 ​1⁄8 ​1⁄4 ​1⁄2 1 2 Quadrans ​1⁄1600 ​1⁄800 ​1⁄64 ​1⁄32 ​1⁄16 ​1⁄8 ​1⁄4 ​1⁄2 1 Diocletian values (301–305) Solidus Argenteus Nummus Radiate Laureate Denarius Solidus 1 10 40 200 500 1000 Argenteus ​1⁄10 1 4 20 50 100 Nummus ​1⁄40 ​1⁄4 1 5 ​12  1⁄2 25 Radiate ​1⁄200 ​1⁄20 ​1⁄5 1 ​2  1⁄2 5 Laureate ​1⁄500 ​1⁄50 ​2⁄25 ​2⁄5 1 2 Denarius ​1⁄1000 ​1⁄100 ​1⁄25 ​1⁄5 ​1⁄2 1 Late Empire coin values (337–476) Solidus Miliarense Siliqua Follis Nummus Solidus 1 12 24 180 7200 Miliarense ​1⁄12 1 2 15 600 Siliqua ​1⁄24 ​1⁄2 1 ​7  1⁄2 300 Follis ​1⁄180 ​1⁄15 ​2⁄15 1 40 Nummus ​1⁄7200 ​1⁄600 ​1⁄300 ​1⁄40 1 See also[edit] Numismatics portal Money portal Cupellation List of historical currencies Roman economy Roman Republican coinage Roman provincial currency Byzantine coinage Visigothic coinage Sasanian coinage Roman Republican moneyers Tessera Spintria Ancient Symbols (Unicode block) References[edit] Footnotes[edit] ^ "Blanchard and Company, Inc. - The Twelve Caesars". Retrieved February 8, 2017. ^ Metcalf 2012, p. 33. ^ Burnett 1987. pp. 15–16. ^ Burnett 1987. p. 3. ^ Burnett 1987. pp. 4–5. ^ Burnett 1987. p. 16. ^ Reece 1970. p. 19. ^ Trentinella, Rosemarie (October 2003). "Roman Portrait Sculpture: The Stylistic Cycle". www.metmuseum.org. Retrieved 2019-08-13. ^ "Probus". www.forumancientcoins.com. Retrieved 2019-05-06. ^ "Buying Power of Ancient Coins". Archived from the original on February 10, 2013. Retrieved 2013-02-10. ^ ancientcoins.biz ^ W.G. Sayles, Ancient Coin Collecting III: The Roman World-Politics and Propaganda, Iola, 1997, p. 20. ^ William Boyne, A Manual of Roman Coins: from the earliest period to the extinction of the empire, W. H. Johnston, 1865, p. 7. Available online. Bibliography[edit] Burnett, Andrew (1987). Coinage in the Roman World. London: Seaby. ISBN 978-0-900652-84-4. Cohen, Henry, Description historiques des monnaies frappées sous l'Empire romain, Paris, 1882, 8 vols. There exists online version of this Cohen's catalogue Greene, Kevin. Archaeology of the Roman Economy. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1986. Howgego, Christopher. Ancient History from Coins. London: Routledge, 1995. Jones, A. H. M. The Roman Economy: Studies in Ancient Economic and Administrative History. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1974. Melville Jones, John R., 'A Dictionary of Ancient Roman Coins', London, Spink 2003. Metcalf, William E. (2012). The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195305746. Reece, Richard (1970). Roman Coins. London: Ernest Benn Limited. ISBN 978-0-510-06151-7. Salmon, E. Togo. Roman Coins and Public Life under the Empire. Ann Arbor, Michigan: The University of Michigan Press, 1999. Suarez, Rasiel. The Encyclopedia of Roman Imperial Coins. Dirty Old Books, 2005. Sutherland, C. H. V. Roman Coins. New York: G. P. (Also published by Barrie and Jenkins in London in 1974 with ISBN 0-214-66808-8) Van Meter, David. The Handbook of Roman Imperial Coins. Laurion Press, 1990. Vecchi, Italo. Italian Cast Coinage. A descriptive catalogue of the cast coinage of Rome and Italy. London Ancient Coins, London 2013. Hard bound in quarto format, 84 pages, 92 plates. ISBN 978-0-9575784-0-1 External links[edit] A Collection of Flavian coins Wikimedia Commons has media related to Roman currency. 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en-wikipedia-org-2306	----	Fall of Constantinople - Wikipedia Fall of Constantinople From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 1453 capture of the capital of the Byzantine Empire For other sieges of the city, see List of sieges of Constantinople. Fall of Constantinople Part of the Byzantine–Ottoman Wars and Ottoman wars in Europe The last siege of Constantinople (1453), French miniature by Jean Le Tavernier after 1455. Date 6 April – 29 May 1453 (53 days) Location Constantinople (present-day Istanbul) 41°01′00″N 28°58′37″E / 41.0167°N 28.9769°E / 41.0167; 28.9769Coordinates: 41°01′00″N 28°58′37″E / 41.0167°N 28.9769°E / 41.0167; 28.9769 Result Ottoman victory Fall of the Byzantine Empire Territorial changes Ottoman Empire annexes the remaining Byzantine territories; Constantinople becomes its new capital The Morea and Trebizond continue as Byzantine rump states, until their conquest in 1460 and 1461 respectively Belligerents Ottoman Empire Byzantine Empire  Republic of Genoa  Republic of Venice  Kingdom of Sicily Papal States Ottoman defectors Commanders and leaders Mehmed II Çandarlı Halil  Zagan Pasha Suleiman Baltoghlu (WIA) Karaca Pasha Hamza Bey Konstantinos XI † Loukas Notaras  Theophilos Palaiologos † Giovanni Giustiniani (DOW) Gabriele Trevisano (POW) Cardinal Isidore (POW) Orhan Çelebi  Don Francisco de Toledo † Strength Ottomans Land forces: 50,000–80,000[note 1] 5,000–10,000 Janissaries Various cannon and bombards 20 horse transports Naval forces: 31 Galleys 75 large row boats Byzantines Land forces: 7,000–10,000 600 Ottoman defectors[1] 200 Papal archers[2] Naval forces: 26 ships Casualties and losses Unknown but likely heavy 4,000 killed[3] 30,000 enslaved[4][5] v t e Byzantine–Ottoman wars Kulaca Hisar Bapheus Dimbos Catalan campaign Bursa Pelekanon Nicaea Nicomedia 1st Gallipoli 2nd Gallipoli Adrianople 1st Thessalonica Philadelphia 1st Constantinople 2nd Constantinople 3rd Constantinople 2nd Thessalonica 4th Constantinople Trebizond The Fall of Constantinople (Byzantine Greek: Ἅλωσις τῆς Κωνσταντινουπόλεως, romanized: Hálōsis tē̂s Kōnstantinoupóleōs; Turkish: İstanbul'un Fethi, lit. 'Conquest of Istanbul') was the capture of the Byzantine Empire's capital by the Ottoman Empire. The city fell on 29 May 1453,[6] the culmination of a 53-day siege which had begun on 6 April 1453. The attacking Ottoman army, which significantly outnumbered Constantinople's defenders, was commanded by the 21-year-old Sultan Mehmed II (later called "the Conqueror"), while the Byzantine army was led by Emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos. After conquering the city, Mehmed II made Constantinople the new Ottoman capital, replacing Adrianople. The Fall of Constantinople marked the end of the Byzantine Empire, and effectively the end of the Roman Empire, a state which dated back to 27 BC and lasted nearly 1,500 years.[7] The capture of Constantinople, a city which marked the divide between Europe and Asia Minor, also allowed the Ottomans to more effectively invade mainland Europe, eventually leading to Ottoman control of much of the Balkan peninsula. The conquest of Constantinople and the fall of the Byzantine Empire[8] was a key event of the Late Middle Ages and is sometimes considered the end of the Medieval period.[9] The city's fall also stood as a turning point in military history. Since ancient times, cities and castles had depended upon ramparts and walls to repel invaders. However, Constantinople's substantial fortifications were overcome with the use of gunpowder, specifically in the form of large cannons and bombards.[10] Contents 1 State of the Byzantine Empire 2 Preparations 2.1 European support 2.2 Strength 2.2.1 Ottoman dispositions and strategies 2.2.2 Byzantine dispositions and strategies 3 Siege 3.1 Final assault 3.2 Plundering phase 4 Aftermath 4.1 Third Rome 4.2 Impact on the Churches 5 Legacy 5.1 Prophecies 5.2 Legends 5.3 Cultural impact 5.4 Impact on the Renaissance 5.5 Renaming of the city 5.6 In historical fiction 6 Primary sources 6.1 Eyewitness accounts 6.2 Non-eyewitness accounts 7 Notes 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links State of the Byzantine Empire[edit] Constantinople had been an imperial capital since its consecration in 330 under Roman emperor Constantine the Great. In the following eleven centuries, the city had been besieged many times but was captured only once before: the Sack of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade in 1204.[11]:304 The crusaders established an unstable Latin state in and around Constantinople while the remainder of the Byzantine Empire splintered into a number of successor states, notably Nicaea, Epirus and Trebizond. They fought as allies against the Latin establishments, but also fought among themselves for the Byzantine throne. The Nicaeans eventually reconquered Constantinople from the Latins in 1261, reestablishing the Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty. Thereafter, there was little peace for the much-weakened empire as it fended off successive attacks by the Latins, Serbs, Bulgarians and Ottoman Turks.[11][page needed][12][13][14] Between 1346 and 1349 the Black Death killed almost half of the inhabitants of Constantinople.[15] The city was further depopulated by the general economic and territorial decline of the empire, and by 1453, it consisted of a series of walled villages separated by vast fields encircled by the fifth-century Theodosian Walls. By 1450, the empire was exhausted and had shrunk to a few square kilometers outside the city of Constantinople itself, the Princes' Islands in the Sea of Marmara and the Peloponnese with its cultural center at Mystras. The Empire of Trebizond, an independent successor state that formed in the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade, was also present at the time on the coast of the Black Sea. Preparations[edit] When Mehmed II succeeded his father in 1451, he was just nineteen years old. Many European courts assumed that the young Ottoman ruler would not seriously challenge Christian hegemony in the Balkans and the Aegean.[16] This calculation was boosted by Mehmed's friendly overtures to the European envoys at his new court.[11]:373 But Mehmed's mild words were not matched by his actions. By early 1452, work began on the construction of a second fortress (Rumeli hisarı) on the European side of the Bosphorus,[17] several miles north of Constantinople. The new fortress sat directly across the strait from the Anadolu Hisarı fortress, built by Mehmed's great-grandfather Bayezid I. This pair of fortresses ensured complete control of sea traffic on the Bosphorus[11]:373 and defended against attack by the Genoese colonies on the Black Sea coast to the north. In fact, the new fortress was called Boğazkesen, which means "strait-blocker" or "throat-cutter". The wordplay emphasizes its strategic position: in Turkish boğaz means both "strait" and "throat". In October 1452, Mehmed ordered Turakhan Beg to station a large garrison force in the Peloponnese to block Thomas and Demetrios (despotes in Southern Greece) from providing aid to their brother Constantine XI Palaiologos during the impending siege of Constantinople.[note 2] Karaca Pasha, the beylerbeyi of Rumelia, sent men to prepare the roads from Adrianople to Constantinople so that bridges could cope with massive cannon. Fifty carpenters and 200 artisans also strengthened the roads where necessary.[3] The Greek historian Michael Critobulus quotes Mehmed II's speech to his soldiers before the siege:[19]:23 My friends and men of my empire! You all know very well that our forefathers secured this kingdom that we now hold at the cost of many struggles and very great dangers and that, having passed it along in succession from their fathers, from father to son, they handed it down to me. For some of the oldest of you were sharers in many of the exploits carried through by them—those at least of you who are of maturer years—and the younger of you have heard of these deeds from your fathers. They are not such very ancient events nor of such a sort as to be forgotten through the lapse of time. Still, the eyewitness of those who have seen testifies better than does the hearing of deeds that happened but yesterday or the day before. European support[edit] Byzantine Emperor Constantine XI swiftly understood Mehmed's true intentions and turned to Western Europe for help; but now the price of centuries of war and enmity between the eastern and western churches had to be paid. Since the mutual excommunications of 1054, the Pope in Rome was committed to establishing authority over the eastern church. The union was agreed by the Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos in 1274, at the Second Council of Lyon, and indeed, some Palaiologoi emperors had since been received into the Latin Church. Emperor John VIII Palaiologos had also recently negotiated union with Pope Eugene IV, with the Council of Florence of 1439 proclaiming a Bull of Union. The imperial efforts to impose union were met with strong resistance in Constantinople. A propaganda initiative was stimulated by anti-unionist Orthodox partisans in Constantinople; the population, as well as the laity and leadership of the Byzantine Church, became bitterly divided. Latent ethnic hatred between Greeks and Italians, stemming from the events of the Massacre of the Latins in 1182 by the Greeks and the Sack of Constantinople in 1204 by the Latins, played a significant role. Ultimately, the attempted union between east and west failed, greatly annoying Pope Nicholas V and the hierarchy of the Roman church. The Byzantine Empire in the first half of the 15th century. Thessaloniki was captured by the Ottomans in 1430. A few islands in the Aegean and the Propontis remained under Byzantine rule until 1453 (not shown on the map). In the summer of 1452, when Rumelı Hisari was completed and the threat of the Ottomans had become imminent, Constantine wrote to the Pope, promising to implement the union, which was declared valid by a half-hearted imperial court on 12 December 1452.[11]:373 Although he was eager for an advantage, Pope Nicholas V did not have the influence the Byzantines thought he had over the Western kings and princes, some of whom were wary of increasing papal control. Furthermore, these Western rulers did not have the wherewithal to contribute to the effort, especially in light of the weakened state of France and England from the Hundred Years' War, Spain's involvement in the Reconquista, the internecine fighting in the Holy Roman Empire, and Hungary and Poland's defeat at the Battle of Varna of 1444. Although some troops did arrive from the mercantile city-states in northern Italy, the Western contribution was not adequate to counterbalance Ottoman strength. Some Western individuals, however, came to help defend the city on their own account. Cardinal Isidore, funded by the Pope, arrived in 1452 with 200 archers.[20] An accomplished soldier from Genoa, Giovanni Giustiniani, arrived in January 1453 with 400 men from Genoa and 300 men from Genoese Chios.[21]:83–84 As a specialist in defending walled cities, Giustiniani was immediately given the overall command of the defence of the land walls by the Emperor. Around the same time, the captains of the Venetian ships that happened to be present in the Golden Horn offered their services to the Emperor, barring contrary orders from Venice, and Pope Nicholas undertook to send three ships laden with provisions, which set sail near the end of March.[21]:81 Meanwhile, in Venice, deliberations were taking place concerning the kind of assistance the Republic would lend to Constantinople. The Senate decided upon sending a fleet in February 1453, but the fleet's departure was delayed until April, when it was already too late for ships to assist in battle.[22][page needed][21]:85 Further undermining Byzantine morale, seven Italian ships with around 700 men, despite having sworn to defend Constantinople, slipped out of the capital the moment when Giustiniani arrived. At the same time, Constantine's attempts to appease the Sultan with gifts ended with the execution of the Emperor's ambassadors.[11]:373[23][24][25][26][27][28] Restored Walls of Constantinople The chain that closed off the entrance to the Golden Horn in 1453, now on display in the İstanbul Archaeology Museums. Fearing a possible naval attack along the shores of the Golden Horn, Emperor Constantine XI ordered that a defensive chain be placed at the mouth of the harbour. This chain, which floated on logs, was strong enough to prevent any Turkish ship from entering the harbour. This device was one of two that gave the Byzantines some hope of extending the siege until the possible arrival of foreign help.[22]:380 This strategy was enforced because in 1204, the armies of the Fourth Crusade successfully circumvented Constantinople's land defences by breaching the Golden Horn Wall. Another strategy employed by the Byzantines was the repair and fortification of the Land Wall (Theodosian Walls). Emperor Constantine deemed it necessary to ensure that the Blachernae district's wall was the most fortified because that section of the wall protruded northwards. The land fortifications consisted of a 60 ft (18 m) wide moat fronting inner and outer crenellated walls studded with towers every 45–55 metres.[29] Strength[edit] Map of Constantinople and the dispositions of the defenders and the besiegers The army defending Constantinople was relatively small, totalling about 7,000 men, 2,000 of whom were foreigners.[note 3] At the onset of the siege, probably fewer than 50,000 people were living within the walls, including the refugees from the surrounding area.[30]:32 [note 4] Turkish commander Dorgano, who was in Constantinople working for the Emperor, was also guarding one of the quarters of the city on the seaward side with the Turks in his pay. These Turks kept loyal to the Emperor and perished in the ensuing battle. The defending army's Genoese corps were well trained and equipped, while the rest of the army consisted of small numbers of well-trained soldiers, armed civilians, sailors and volunteer forces from foreign communities, and finally monks. The garrison used a few small-calibre artillery pieces, which in the end proved ineffective. The rest of the citizens repaired walls, stood guard on observation posts, collected and distributed food provisions, and collected gold and silver objects from churches to melt down into coins to pay the foreign soldiers. The Ottomans had a much larger force. Recent studies and Ottoman archival data state that there were some 50,000–80,000 Ottoman soldiers, including between 5,000 and 10,000 Janissaries,[31][page needed], 70 cannons[32]:139–140[30][page needed][33][page needed], an elite infantry corps. Contemporaneous Western witnesses of the siege, who tend to exaggerate the military power of the Sultan, provide disparate and higher numbers ranging from 160,000 to 300,000[31][page needed](Niccolò Barbaro:[34] 160,000; the Florentine merchant Jacopo Tedaldi[35] and the Great Logothete George Sphrantzes:[36][page needed] 200,000; the Cardinal Isidore of Kiev[37] and the Archbishop of Mytilene Leonardo di Chio:[38] 300,000).[39] Ottoman dispositions and strategies[edit] The Dardanelles Gun, cast by Munir Ali in 1464, is similar to bombards used by the Ottoman besiegers of Constantinople in 1453 (British Royal Armouries collection). Mehmed built a fleet (partially manned by Spanish sailors from Gallipoli) to besiege the city from the sea.[30][page needed] Contemporary estimates of the strength of the Ottoman fleet span from 110 ships to 430. (Tedaldi:[35] 110; Barbaro:[34] 145; Ubertino Pusculo:[40] 160, Isidore of Kiev[37] and Leonardo di Chio:[41] 200–250; (Sphrantzes):[36][page needed] 430) A more realistic modern estimate predicts a fleet strength of 110 ships comprising 70 large galleys, 5 ordinary galleys, 10 smaller galleys, 25 large rowing boats, and 75 horse-transports.[30]:44 Before the siege of Constantinople, it was known that the Ottomans had the ability to cast medium-sized cannons, but the range of some pieces they were able to field far surpassed the defenders' expectations.[11]:374 The Ottomans deployed a number of cannons, anywhere from 50 cannons to 200. They were built at foundries that employed Turkish cannon founders and technicians, most notably Saruca, in addition to at least one foreign cannon founder, Orban (also called Urban). Most of the cannons at the siege were built by Turkish engineers, including a large bombard by Saruca, while one cannon was built by Orban, who also contributed a large bombard.[42][43] Orban, a Hungarian (though some suggest he was German), was a somewhat mysterious figure.[11]:374 His 27 feet (8.2 m) long cannon was named "Basilica" and was able to hurl a 600 lb (270 kg) stone ball over a mile (1.6 km).[44] Orban initially tried to sell his services to the Byzantines, but they were unable to secure the funds needed to hire him. Orban then left Constantinople and approached Mehmed II, claiming that his weapon could blast "the walls of Babylon itself". Given abundant funds and materials, the Hungarian engineer built the gun within three months at Edirne.[21]:77–78 However, this was the only cannon that Orban built for the Ottoman forces at Constantinople,[42][43] and it had several drawbacks: it took three hours to reload; cannonballs were in very short supply; and the cannon is said to have collapsed under its own recoil after six weeks. The account of the cannon's collapse is disputed,[31][page needed] given that it was only reported in the letter of Archbishop Leonardo di Chio[38] and in the later, and often unreliable, Russian chronicle of Nestor Iskander.[note 5] Modern painting of Mehmed and the Ottoman Army approaching Constantinople with a giant bombard, by Fausto Zonaro. Having previously established a large foundry about 150 miles (240 km) away, Mehmed now had to undertake the painstaking process of transporting his massive artillery pieces. In preparation for the final assault, Mehmed had an artillery train of 70 large pieces dragged from his headquarters at Edirne, in addition to the bombards cast on the spot.[45] This train included Orban's enormous cannon, which was said to have been dragged from Edrine by a crew of 60 oxen and over 400 men.[11]:374[21]:77–78 There was another large bombard, independently built by Turkish engineer Saruca, that was also used in the battle.[42][43] Mehmed planned to attack the Theodosian Walls, the intricate series of walls and ditches protecting Constantinople from an attack from the West and the only part of the city not surrounded by water. His army encamped outside the city on 2 April 1453, the Monday after Easter. The bulk of the Ottoman army was encamped south of the Golden Horn. The regular European troops, stretched out along the entire length of the walls, were commanded by Karadja Pasha. The regular troops from Anatolia under Ishak Pasha were stationed south of the Lycus down to the Sea of Marmara. Mehmed himself erected his red-and-gold tent near the Mesoteichion, where the guns and the elite Janissary regiments were positioned. The Bashi-bazouks were spread out behind the front lines. Other troops under Zagan Pasha were employed north of the Golden Horn. Communication was maintained by a road that had been destroyed over the marshy head of the Horn.[21]:94–95 Byzantine dispositions and strategies[edit] Painting of the Fall of Constantinople, by Theophilos Hatzimihail The city had about 20 km of walls (land walls: 5.5 km; sea walls along the Golden Horn: 7 km; sea walls along the Sea of Marmara: 7.5 km), one of the strongest sets of fortified walls in existence. The walls had recently been repaired (under John VIII) and were in fairly good shape, giving the defenders sufficient reason to believe that they could hold out until help from the West arrived.[30]:39 In addition, the defenders were relatively well-equipped with a fleet of 26 ships: 5 from Genoa, 5 from Venice, 3 from Venetian Crete, 1 from Ancona, 1 from Aragon, 1 from France, and about 10 from the empire itself.[30]:45 On 5 April, the Sultan himself arrived with his last troops, and the defenders took up their positions. As Byzantine numbers were insufficient to occupy the walls in their entirety, it had been decided that only the outer walls would be manned. Constantine and his Greek troops guarded the Mesoteichion, the middle section of the land walls, where they were crossed by the river Lycus. This section was considered the weakest spot in the walls and an attack was feared here most. Giustiniani was stationed to the north of the emperor, at the Charisian Gate (Myriandrion); later during the siege, he was shifted to the Mesoteichion to join Constantine, leaving the Myriandrion to the charge of the Bocchiardi brothers. Minotto and his Venetians were stationed in the Blachernae Palace, together with Teodoro Caristo, the Langasco brothers, and Archbishop Leonardo of Chios.[21]:92 To the left of the emperor, further south, were the commanders Cataneo, who led Genoese troops, and Theophilus Palaeologus, who guarded the Pegae Gate with Greek soldiers. The section of the land walls from the Pegae Gate to the Golden Gate (itself guarded by a Genoese called Manuel) was defended by the Venetian Filippo Contarini, while Demetrius Cantacuzenus had taken position on the southernmost part of the Theodosian wall.[21]:92 The sea walls were manned more sparsely, with Jacobo Contarini at Stoudion, a makeshift defence force of Greek monks to his left hand, and Prince Orhan at the Harbour of Eleutherios. Pere Julià was stationed at the Great Palace with Genoese and Catalan troops; Cardinal Isidore of Kiev guarded the tip of the peninsula near the boom. Finally, the sea walls at the southern shore of the Golden Horn were defended by Venetian and Genoese sailors under Gabriele Trevisano.[21]:93 Two tactical reserves were kept behind in the city: one in the Petra district just behind the land walls and one near the Church of the Holy Apostles, under the command of Loukas Notaras and Nicephorus Palaeologus, respectively. The Venetian Alviso Diedo commanded the ships in the harbour.[21]:94 Although the Byzantines also had cannons, the weapons were much smaller than those of the Ottomans, and the recoil tended to damage their own walls.[38] According to David Nicolle, despite many odds, the idea that Constantinople was inevitably doomed is incorrect, and the overall situation was not as one-sided as a simple glance at a map might suggest.[30]:40 It has also been claimed that Constantinople was "the best-defended city in Europe" at that time.[46] Siege[edit] At the beginning of the siege, Mehmed sent out some of his best troops to reduce the remaining Byzantine strongholds outside the city of Constantinople. The fortress of Therapia on the Bosphorus and a smaller castle at the village of Studius near the Sea of Marmara were taken within a few days. The Princes' Islands in the Sea of Marmara were taken by Admiral Baltoghlu's fleet.[21]:96–97 Mehmed's massive cannon fired on the walls for weeks, but due to its imprecision and extremely slow rate of reloading, the Byzantines were able to repair most of the damage after each shot, mitigating the cannon's effect.[11]:376 The Ottoman Turks transport their fleet overland into the Golden Horn. Meanwhile, despite some probing attacks, the Ottoman fleet under Baltoghlu could not enter the Golden Horn due to the chain the Byzantines had previously stretched across the entrance. Although one of the fleet's main tasks was to prevent any foreign ships from entering the Golden Horn, on 20 April, a small flotilla of four Christian ships[note 6] managed to slip in after some heavy fighting, an event which strengthened the morale of the defenders and caused embarrassment to the Sultan.[11]:376 Baltoghlu's life was spared after his subordinates testified to his bravery during the conflict. Mehmed ordered the construction of a road of greased logs across Galata on the north side of the Golden Horn, and dragged his ships over the hill, directly into the Golden Horn on 22 April, bypassing the chain barrier.[11]:376 This action seriously threatened the flow of supplies from Genoese ships from the nominally neutral colony of Pera, and it demoralized the Byzantine defenders. On the night of 28 April, an attempt was made to destroy the Ottoman ships already in the Golden Horn using fire ships, but the Ottomans forced the Christians to retreat with heavy losses. 40 Italians escaped their sinking ships and swam to the northern shore. On orders of Mehmed, they were impaled on stakes, in sight of the city's defenders on the sea walls across the Golden Horn. In retaliation, the defenders brought their Ottoman prisoners, 260 in all, to the walls, where they were executed, one by one, before the eyes of the Ottomans.[21]:108[47] With the failure of their attack on the Ottoman vessels, the defenders were forced to disperse part of their forces to defend the sea walls along the Golden Horn. The Ottoman army had made several frontal assaults on the land wall of Constantinople, but they were always repelled with heavy losses.[48] Venetian surgeon Niccolò Barbaro, describing in his diary one such land attack by the Janissaries, wrote: They found the Turks coming right up under the walls and seeking battle, particularly the Janissaries ... and when one or two of them were killed, at once more Turks came and took away the dead ones ... without caring how near they came to the city walls. Our men shot at them with guns and crossbows, aiming at the Turk who was carrying away his dead countryman, and both of them would fall to the ground dead, and then there came other Turks and took them away, none fearing death, but being willing to let ten of themselves be killed rather than suffer the shame of leaving a single Turkish corpse by the walls.[34] Siege of Constantinople as depicted between 1453 and 1475[49] After these inconclusive frontal offensives, the Ottomans sought to break through the walls by constructing tunnels in an effort to mine them from mid-May to 25 May. Many of the sappers were miners of Serbian origin sent from Novo Brdo[50] and were under the command of Zagan Pasha. However, an engineer named Johannes Grant, a German[note 7] who came with the Genoese contingent, had counter-mines dug, allowing Byzantine troops to enter the mines and kill the workers. The Byzantines intercepted the first tunnel on the night of 16 May. Subsequent tunnels were interrupted on 21, 23, and 25 May, and destroyed with Greek fire and vigorous combat. On 23 May, the Byzantines captured and tortured two Turkish officers, who revealed the location of all the Turkish tunnels, which were subsequently destroyed.[51] On 21 May, Mehmed sent an ambassador to Constantinople and offered to lift the siege if they gave him the city. He promised he would allow the Emperor and any other inhabitants to leave with their possessions. Moreover, he would recognize the Emperor as governor of the Peloponnese. Lastly, he guaranteed the safety of the population that might choose to remain in the city. Constantine XI only agreed to pay higher tributes to the sultan and recognized the status of all the conquered castles and lands in the hands of the Turks as Ottoman possession. However, the Emperor was not willing to leave the city without a fight: As to surrendering the city to you, it is not for me to decide or for anyone else of its citizens; for all of us have reached the mutual decision to die of our own free will, without any regard for our lives.[note 8] Around this time, Mehmed had a final council with his senior officers. Here he encountered some resistance; one of his Viziers, the veteran Halil Pasha, who had always disapproved of Mehmed's plans to conquer the city, now admonished him to abandon the siege in the face of recent adversity. Zagan Pasha argued against Halil Pasha and insisted on an immediate attack. Believing that the beleaguered Byzantine defence was already weakened sufficiently, Mehmed planned to overpower the walls by sheer force and started preparations for a final all-out offensive. Final assault[edit] Painting by the Greek folk painter Theophilos Hatzimihail showing the battle inside the city, Constantine is visible on a white horse Preparations for the final assault began in the evening of 26 May and continued to the next day.[11]:378 For 36 hours after the war council decided to attack, the Ottomans extensively mobilized their manpower in order to prepare for the general offensive.[11]:378 Prayer and resting was then granted to the soldiers on the 28th before the final assault would be launched. On the Byzantine side, a small Venetian fleet of 12 ships, after having searched the Aegean, reached the Capital on 27 May and reported to the Emperor that no large Venetian relief fleet was on its way.[11]:377 On 28 May, as the Ottoman army prepared for the final assault, large-scale religious processions were held in the city. In the evening, a solemn last ceremony was held in the Hagia Sophia, in which the Emperor with representatives and nobility of both the Latin and Greek churches partook.[53]:651–652 Shortly after midnight on 29 May, the all-out offensive began. The Christian troops of the Ottoman Empire attacked first, followed by successive waves of the irregular azaps, who were poorly trained and equipped, and Anatolian Turkmen beylik forces who focused on a section of the damaged Blachernae walls in the north-west part of the city. This section of the walls had been built earlier, in the eleventh century, and was much weaker. The Turkmen mercenaries managed to breach this section of walls and entered the city, but they were just as quickly pushed back by the defenders. Finally, the last wave consisting of elite Janissaries, attacked the city walls. The Genoese general in charge of the land troops,[31][page needed][37][38] Giovanni Giustiniani, was grievously wounded during the attack, and his evacuation from the ramparts caused a panic in the ranks of the defenders.[note 9] With Giustiniani's Genoese troops retreating into the city and towards the harbour, Constantine and his men, now left to their own devices, continued to hold their ground against the Janissaries. However, Constantine's men eventually could not prevent the Ottomans from entering the city, and the defenders were overwhelmed at several points along the wall. When Turkish flags were seen flying above the Kerkoporta, a small postern gate that was left open, panic ensued, and the defence collapsed. Meanwhile, Janissary soldiers, led by Ulubatlı Hasan, pressed forward. Many Greek soldiers ran back home to protect their families, the Venetians retreated to their ships, and a few of the Genoese escaped to Galata. The rest surrendered or committed suicide by jumping off the city walls.[22][page needed] The Greek houses nearest to the walls were the first to suffer from the Ottomans. It is said that Constantine, throwing aside his purple regalia, led the final charge against the incoming Ottomans, perishing in the ensuing battle in the streets alongside his soldiers. On the other hand, the Venetian Nicolò Barbaro wrote in his diary that Constantine hanged himself at the moment when the Turks broke in at the San Romano gate, although his ultimate fate remains unknown.[note 10] After the initial assault, the Ottoman army fanned out along the main thoroughfare of the city, the Mese, past the great forums and the Church of the Holy Apostles, which Mehmed II wanted to provide a seat for his newly appointed patriarch to better control his Christian subjects. Mehmed II had sent an advance guard to protect these key buildings. A small few lucky civilians managed to escape. When the Venetians retreated over to their ships, the Ottomans had already taken the walls of the Golden Horn. Luckily for the occupants of the city, the Ottomans were not interested in killing potentially valuable slaves, but rather in the loot they could get from raiding the city's houses, so they decided to attack the city instead. The Venetian captain ordered his men to break open the gate of the Golden Horn. Having done so, the Venetians left in ships filled with soldiers and refugees. Shortly after the Venetians left, a few Genoese ships and even the Emperor's ships followed them out of the Golden Horn. This fleet narrowly escaped prior to the Ottoman navy assuming control over the Golden Horn, which was accomplished by midday.[22][page needed] The army converged upon the Augusteum, the vast square that fronted the great church of Hagia Sophia whose bronze gates were barred by a huge throng of civilians inside the building, hoping for divine protection. After the doors were breached, the troops separated the congregation according to what price they might bring in the slave markets.[citation needed] Ottoman casualties are unknown but they are believed by most historians to be very heavy due to several unsuccessful Ottoman attacks made during the siege and final assault.[citation needed] The Venetian Barbaro observed that blood flowed in the city "like rainwater in the gutters after a sudden storm" and that bodies of Turks and Christians floated in the sea "like melons along a canal". and that "the Turks made a great slaughter of Christians through the city".[34] Plundering phase[edit] Mehmed II granted his soldiers three days to plunder the city, as he had promised them and in accordance with the custom of the time.[21]:145[55] Soldiers fought over the possession of some of the spoils of war.[56]:283 The women of Constantinople also suffered from rape at the hands of Ottoman forces.[57] According to Barbaro, "all through the day the Turks made a great slaughter of Christians through the city". According to historian Philip Mansel, widespread persecution of the city's civilian inhabitants took place, resulting in thousands of murders and rapes, and 30,000 civilians being enslaved or forcibly deported.[4][58][5][59] George Sphrantzes says that people of both genders were raped inside Hagia Sophia.[59] Loukas Notaras and his son were executed after Notaras refused Mehmed's demand to offer his son for the sultan's pleasure.[59] According to Steven Runciman most of the elderly and the infirm/wounded and sick who were refugees inside the churches were killed, and the remainder (mainly teenage males and young boys) were chained up and sold into slavery.[60] According to the Encyclopædia Britannica Mehmed II "permitted an initial period of looting that saw the destruction of many Orthodox churches", but tried to prevent a complete sack of the city.[61] The looting was extremely thorough in certain parts of the city. On 2 June, the Sultan would find the city largely deserted and half in ruins; churches had been desecrated and stripped, houses were no longer habitable, and stores and shops were emptied. He is famously reported to have been moved to tears by this, saying, "What a city we have given over to plunder and destruction."[21]:152 Looting was carried out by sailors and marines on a massive scale who entered the city via other walls before they had been suppressed by regular troops, which were beyond main gate. According to David Nicolle, the ordinary people were treated better by their Ottoman conquerors than their ancestors had been by Crusaders back in 1204, stating only about 4,000 Greeks died in the siege.[62] Aftermath[edit] On the third day of the conquest, Mehmed II ordered all looting to stop and issued a proclamation that all Christians who had avoided capture or who had been ransomed could return to their homes without further molestation, although many had no homes to return to, and many more had been taken captive and not ransomed.[21]:150–51 Byzantine historian George Sphrantzes, an eyewitness to the fall of Constantinople, described the Sultan's actions:[63][64] On the third day after the fall of our city, the Sultan celebrated his victory with a great, joyful triumph. He issued a proclamation: the citizens of all ages who had managed to escape detection were to leave their hiding places throughout the city and come out into the open, as they were to remain free and no question would be asked. He further declared the restoration of houses and property to those who had abandoned our city before the siege. If they returned home, they would be treated according to their rank and religion, as if nothing had changed. — George Sphrantzes The Hagia Sophia was converted into a mosque, but the Greek Orthodox Church was allowed to remain intact and Gennadius Scholarius was appointed Patriarch of Constantinople. This was once thought to be the origin of the Ottoman millet system; however, it is now considered a myth and no such system existed in the fifteenth century.[65][66] Following the city's conquest, the Church of the Holy Wisdom (the Hagia Sophia) was converted into a mosque. The fall of Constantinople shocked many Europeans, who viewed it as a catastrophic event for their civilization.[67] Many feared other European Christian kingdoms would suffer the same fate as Constantinople. Two possible responses emerged amongst the humanists and churchmen of that era: Crusade or dialogue. Pope Pius II strongly advocated for another Crusade, while the German Nicholas of Cusa supported engaging in a dialogue with the Ottomans.[68] The Morean (Peloponnesian) fortress of Mystras, where Constantine's brothers Thomas and Demetrius ruled, constantly in conflict with each other and knowing that Mehmed would eventually invade them as well, held out until 1460. Long before the fall of Constantinople, Demetrius had fought for the throne with Thomas, Constantine, and their other brothers John and Theodore.[69]:446 Thomas escaped to Rome when the Ottomans invaded Morea while Demetrius expected to rule a puppet state, but instead was imprisoned and remained there for the rest of his life. In Rome, Thomas and his family received some monetary support from the Pope and other Western rulers as Byzantine emperor in exile, until 1503. In 1461 the independent Byzantine state in Trebizond fell to Mehmed.[69]:446 Constantine XI had died without producing an heir, and had Constantinople not fallen he likely would have been succeeded by the sons of his deceased elder brother, who were taken into the palace service of Mehmed after the fall of Constantinople. The oldest boy, renamed to Murad, became a personal favourite of Mehmed and served as Beylerbey (Governor-General) of Rumeli (the Balkans). The younger son, renamed Mesih Pasha, became Admiral of the Ottoman fleet and Sancak Beg (Governor) of the Province of Gallipoli. He eventually served twice as Grand Vizier under Mehmed's son, Bayezid II.[70] With the capture of Constantinople, Mehmed II had acquired the future capital of his kingdom, albeit one in decline due to years of war. The loss of the city was a crippling blow to Christendom, and it exposed the Christian West to a vigorous and aggressive foe in the East. The Christian reconquest of Constantinople remained a goal in Western Europe for many years after its fall to the Ottoman Empire. Rumours of Constantine XI's survival and subsequent rescue by an angel led many to hope that the city would one day return to Christian hands. Pope Nicholas V called for an immediate counter-attack in the form of a crusade,[citation needed] however no European powers wished to participate, and the Pope resorted to sending a small fleet of 10 ships to defend the city. The short lived Crusade immediately came to an end and as Western Europe entered the 16th century, the age of Crusading began to come to an end. For some time Greek scholars had gone to Italian city-states, a cultural exchange begun in 1396 by Coluccio Salutati, chancellor of Florence, who had invited Manuel Chrysoloras, a Byzantine scholar to lecture at the University of Florence.[71] After the conquest many Greeks, such as John Argyropoulos and Constantine Lascaris, fled the city and found refuge in the Latin West, bringing with them knowledge and documents from the Greco-Roman tradition to Italy and other regions that further propelled the Renaissance.[72][73] Those Greeks who stayed behind in Constantinople mostly lived in the Phanar and Galata districts of the city. The Phanariotes, as they were called, provided many capable advisers to the Ottoman rulers. Third Rome[edit] Main article: Third Rome Sultan Mehmed II the Conqueror, by Gentile Bellini Byzantium is a term used by modern historians to refer to the later Roman Empire. In its own time, the Empire ruled from Constantinople (or "New Rome" as some people call it, although this was a laudatory expression that was never an official title) was considered simply as "the Roman Empire." The fall of Constantinople led competing factions to lay claim to being the inheritors of the Imperial mantle. Russian claims to Byzantine heritage clashed with those of the Ottoman Empire's own claim. In Mehmed's view, he was the successor to the Roman Emperor, declaring himself Kayser-i Rum, literally "Caesar of Rome", that is, of the Roman Empire, though he was remembered as "the Conqueror". He founded a political system that survived until 1922 with the establishment of the Republic of Turkey. Stefan Dušan, Tsar of Serbia, and Ivan Alexander, Tsar of Bulgaria, both made similar claims, regarding themselves as legitimate heirs to the Roman Empire. Other potential claimants, such as the Republic of Venice and the Holy Roman Empire have disintegrated into history.[74] Impact on the Churches[edit] Pope Pius II believed that the Ottomans would persecute Greek Orthodox Christians and advocated for another crusade at the Council of Mantua in 1459.[67][75] However, Vlad the Impaler was the only Christian ruler who showed enthusiasm for this suggestion. In 17th-century Russia, the fall of Constantinople had a role in the fierce theological and political controversy between adherents and opponents of the reforms in the Russian Orthodox Church carried out by Patriarch Nikon, which he intended to bring the Russian Church closer to the norms and practices of other Orthodox churches. Avvakum and other "Old Believers" saw these reforms as a corruption of the Russian Church, which they considered to be the "true" Church of God. As the other Churches were more closely related to Constantinople in their liturgies, Avvakum argued that Constantinople fell to the Turks because of these heretical beliefs and practices. The fall of Constantinople has a profound impact on the ancient Pentarchy of the Orthodox Church. Today, the four ancient sees of Jerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria, and Constantinople have relatively few followers and believers locally, because of Islamization and the Dhimma system to which Christians have been subjected since the earliest days of Islam, although migration has created a body of followers in Western Europe and the United States,[citation needed]. As a result of this process, the centre of influence in the Orthodox Church changed and migrated to Eastern Europe (e.g., Russia) rather than remaining in the former Byzantine Near East.[citation needed] Legacy[edit] Prophecies[edit] The Islamic prophet Muhammad prophesied the hadith about the Islamic conquest of Constantinople. Verily you shall conquer Constantinople. What a wonderful leader will he be, and what a wonderful army will that army be!" and "The first army that goes on expedition to Constantinople will be forgiven.[76] Legends[edit] There are many legends in Greece surrounding the Fall of Constantinople. It was said that the partial lunar eclipse that occurred on 22 May 1453 represented a fulfilment of a prophecy of the city's demise.[77] Four days later, the whole city was blotted out by a thick fog, a condition unknown in that part of the world in May. When the fog lifted that evening, a strange light was seen playing about the dome of the Hagia Sophia, which some interpreted as the Holy Spirit departing from the city. "This evidently indicated the departure of the Divine Presence, and its leaving the City in total abandonment and desertion, for the Divinity conceals itself in cloud and appears and again disappears."[19]:59 For others, there was still a distant hope that the lights were the campfires of the troops of John Hunyadi who had come to relieve the city.[note 11] Another legend holds that two priests saying divine liturgy over the crowd disappeared into the cathedral's walls as the first Turkish soldiers entered. According to the legend, the priests will appear again on the day that Constantinople returns to Christian hands.[21]:147 Another legend refers to the Marble Emperor (Constantine XI), holding that an angel rescued the emperor when the Ottomans entered the city, turning him into marble and placing him in a cave under the earth near the Golden Gate, where he waits to be brought to life again (a variant of the sleeping hero legend).[79][80] However many of the myths surrounding the disappearance of the Constantine were developed later and little evidence can be found to support them even in friendly primary accounts of the siege. Cultural impact[edit] Guillaume Dufay composed several songs lamenting the fall of the Eastern church, and the duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good, avowed to take up arms against the Turks. However, as the growing Ottoman power from this date on coincided with the Protestant Reformation and subsequent Counter-Reformation, the recapture of Constantinople became an ever-distant dream. Even France, once a fervent participant in the Crusades, became an ally of the Ottomans. Nonetheless, depictions of Christian coalitions taking the city and of the late Emperor's resurrection by Leo the Wise persisted.[14]:280 29 May 1453, the day of the fall of Constantinople, fell on a Tuesday, and since then Tuesday has been considered an unlucky day by Greeks generally.[81] Impact on the Renaissance[edit] Main article: Greek scholars in the Renaissance The migration waves of Byzantine scholars and émigrés in the period following the sacking of Constantinople and the fall of Constantinople in 1453 is considered by many scholars key to the revival of Greek and Roman studies that led to the development of the Renaissance humanism[73][dead link][better source needed] and science. These émigrés were grammarians, humanists, poets, writers, printers, lecturers, musicians, astronomers, architects, academics, artists, scribes, philosophers, scientists, politicians and theologians.[82][better source needed] They brought to Western Europe the far greater preserved and accumulated knowledge of their own (Greek) civilization. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica: "Many modern scholars also agree that the exodus of Greeks to Italy as a result of this event marked the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Renaissance".[83] Renaming of the city[edit] Ottomans used the Arabic transliteration of the city's name "Qosṭanṭīniyye," (القسطنطينية, more commonly known as "Kostantiniyye"), as can be seen in numerous Ottoman documents. Islambol (اسلامبول, Full of Islam) or Islambul (find Islam) or Islam(b)ol (old Turkic: be Islam), both in Turkish Language, were folk-etymological adaptations of Istanbul created after the Ottoman conquest of 1453 to express the city's new role as the capital of the Islamic Ottoman Empire. It is first attested shortly after the conquest, and its invention was ascribed by some contemporary writers to Mehmed II himself.[84] The name of Istanbul is thought to be derived from the Greek phrase īs tīmbolī(n) (Greek: εἰς τὴν πόλιν, translit. eis tēn pólin, "to the City"), and it is claimed that it had already spread among the Turkish populace of the Ottoman Empire before the conquest. However, Istanbul only became the official name of the city in 1930 by the revised Turkish Postal Law as part of Atatürk's reforms.[85][86][87] In historical fiction[edit] Lew Wallace, The Prince of India; or, Why Constantinople Fell. New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1893. 2 volumes Mika Waltari, The Dark Angel (Original title Johannes Angelos) 1952. Translated from the Finnish by Naomi Walford and pub. in English edition, New York: Putnam, 1953 Peter Sandham, Porphyry and Ash. Hong Kong: Johnston Fleming, 2019 Muharem Bazdulj, The Bridge on Landz from The Second Book, 2000. Translated from Bosnian by Oleg Andric and Andrew Wachtel and pub. in English edition, Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 2005 Andrew Novo, Queen of Cities, Seattle: Coffeetown Press, 2009 Jack Hight, Siege. London: John Murray Publisher Ltd, 2010 James Shipman, Constantinopolis, Amazon Digital Services, 2013 C.C. Humphreys, A Place called Armageddon. London: Orion, 2011 Emanuele Rizzardi, L'ultimo Paleologo. PubMe Editore, 2018 John Bellairs, The Trolley to Yesterday Dial, 1989 Kiersten White, "The Conqueror's Saga", 2016 Stefan Zweig, "Die Eroberung von Byzanz (Conquest of Byzantium)" in "Sternstunden der Menschheit (Decisive Moments in History)", 1927 Primary sources[edit] For the fall of Constantinople, Marios Philippides and Walter Hanak list 15 eyewitness accounts (13 Christian and 2 Turkish) and __ contemporary non-eyewitness accounts (13 Italian).[88] Eyewitness accounts[edit] Mehmed Şems el-Mille ve'd Din, Sufi holy man who gives an account in a letter Tursun Beg, wrote a history entitled Tarih-i Abu'l Fath George Sphrantzes, the only Greek eyewitness who wrote about it, but his laconic account is almost entirely lacking in narrative Nicolò Barbaro, physician on a Venetian galley who kept a journal Angelino Giovanni Lomellini, Venetian podestà of Pera who wrote a report dated 24 June 1453 Jacopo Tetaldi, Florentine merchant Leonardo Giustiniani, wrote a report to Pope Nicholas V Isidore of Kiev, Orthodox churchman who wrote eight letters to Italy Benvenuto, Anconitan consul in Constantinople Ubertino Puscolo, Italian poet learning Greek in the city, wrote an epic poem Eparkhos and Diplovatatzes, two refugees whose accounts has become garbled through multiple translations Nestor Iskander, youthful eyewitness who wrote a Slavonic account Samile the Vladik, bishop who, like Eparkhos and Diplovatatzes, fled as a refugee to Wallachia Konstantin Mihailović, Serbian who fought on the Ottoman side a report by some Franciscan prisoners of war who later came to Bologna Non-eyewitness accounts[edit] Doukas, a Byzantine Greek historian, one of the most important sources for the last decades and eventual fall of the Byzantine Empire to the Ottomans Laonikos Chalkokondyles, a Byzantine Greek historian Michael Kritoboulos, a Byzantine Greek historian Makarios Melissourgos, 16th-century historian who augmented the account of Sphrantzes, not very reliably Paolo Dotti, Venetian official on Crete whose account is based on oral reports Fra Girolamo's letter from Crete to Domenico Capranica Lauro Quirini, wrote a report to Pope Nicholas V from Crete based on oral reports Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini (Pope Pius II), wrote an account based on written sources Henry of Soemmern, wrote a letter dated 11 September 1453 in which he cites his sources of information Niccola della Tuccia, whose Cronaca di Viterbo written in the autumn of 1453 contains unique information Niccolò Tignosi da Foligno, Expugnatio Constantinopolitana, part of a letter to a friend Filippo da Rimini, Excidium Constantinopolitanae urbis quae quondam Bizantium ferebatur Antonio Ivani da Sarzana, Expugnatio Constantinopolitana, part of a letter to the duke of Urbino Nikolaos Sekoundinos, read a report before the Venetian Senate, the Pope and the Neapolitan court Giacomo Languschi, whose account is embedded in the Venetian chronicle of Zorzi Dolfin, had access to eyewitnesses John Moskhos, wrote a poem in honour of Loukas Notaras Adamo di Montaldo, De Constantinopolitano excidio ad nobilissimum iuvenem Melladucam Cicadam, which contains unique information Ashikpashazade, included a chapter on the conquest in his Tarih-i al-i Osman[89] Neshri, included a chapter on the conquest in his universal history[89] Evliya Çelebi, 17th-century traveller who collected local traditions of the conquest[89] Notes[edit] ^ "Exaggerated" western estimates ranged between 160,000 and 300,000. ^ While Mehmed II had been steadily preparing for the siege of Constantinople, he had sent the old general Turakhan and the latter's two sons, Ahmed Beg and Omar Beg, to invade the Morea and to remain there all winter also to prevent the despots Thomas and Demetrius from giving aid to Constantine XI.[18]:146 ^ According to Sphrantzes, whom Constantine had ordered to make a census, the Emperor was appalled when the number of native men capable of bearing arms turned out to be only 4,983. Leonardo di Chio gave a number of 6,000 Greeks.[21]:85 ^ The Spanish Cristóbal de Villalón claims there were ' 60,000 Turkish households, 40,000 Greek and Armenian, 10,000 Jewish.[21]:85 ^ Another expert who was employed by the Ottomans was Ciriaco de' Pizzicolli, also known as Ciriaco of Ancona, a traveler and collector of antiquities.[citation needed] ^ These were the three Genoese ships sent by the Pope, joined by a large Imperial transport ship which had been sent on a foraging mission to Sicily previous to the siege and was on its way back to Constantinople.[21]:100 ^ Runciman speculates that he may have been Scottish[21]:84 ^ Original text: Τὸ δὲ τὴν πόλιν σοῖ δοῦναι οὔτ' ἐμὸν ἐστίν οὔτ' ἄλλου τῶν κατοικούντων ἐν ταύτῃ• κοινῇ γὰρ γνώμῃ πάντες αὐτοπροαιρέτως ἀποθανοῦμεν καὶ οὐ φεισόμεθα τῆς ζωῆς ἡμῶν.[52] ^ Sources hostile towards the Genoese (such as the Venetian Nicolò Barbaro), however, report that Longo was only lightly wounded or not wounded at all, but, overwhelmed by fear, simulated the wound to abandon the battlefield, determining the fall of the city. These charges of cowardice and treason were so widespread that the Republic of Genoa had to deny them by sending diplomatic letters to the Chancelleries of England, France, the Duchy of Burgundy and others.[54]:296–297 Giustiniani was carried to Chios, where he succumbed to his wounds a few days later. ^ Barbaro added the description of the emperor's heroic last moments to his diary based on information he received afterward. According to some Ottoman sources Constantine was killed in an accidental encounter with Turkish marines a little further to the south, presumably while making his way to the Sea of Marmara in order to escape by sea.[30][page needed] ^ It is possible that all these phenomena were local effects of the cataclysmic Kuwae volcanic eruption in the Pacific Ocean. The "fire" seen may have been an optical illusion due to the reflection of intensely red twilight glow by clouds of volcanic ash high in the atmosphere.[78] References[edit] ^ "İstanbul'un fethinde 600 Türk askeri, Fatih'e karşı savaştı" [In the Conquest of Istanbul 600 Turkish Military Fought Against the Conqueror]. Osmanlı Arauştırmalarlı (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 15 April 2015. Retrieved 29 April 2015. ^ Nicol, Donald M. (2002). The Immortal Emperor: The Life and Legend of Constantine Palaiologos, Last Emperor of the Romans. Cambridge University Press. p. 57. ISBN 978-0-521-89409-8. Archived from the original on 2 July 2019. Retrieved 9 January 2018. ^ a b Nicolle 2000, p. 41. ^ a b Mansel, Philip. "Constantinople: City of the World's Desire 1453-1924". Washington Post. Archived from the original on 24 July 2019. Retrieved 7 August 2020. ^ a b M.J Akbar (3 May 2002). The Shade of Swords: Jihad and the Conflict Between Islam and Christianity. Routledge. p. 86. 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ISBN 1-4022-2475-3. ^ İnalcıkt, Halil (2001). Osmanlı İmparatorluğu Klasik Çağ (1300–1600) [The Ottoman Empire, The Classical Age, 1300–1600]. Translated by Itzkouritz, Norman; Imber, Colin. London: Orion. ^ a b c d Nicolò Barbaro, Giornale dell'Assedio di Costantinopoli, 1453. The autograph copy is conserved in the Biblioteca Marciana in Venice. Barbaro's diary has been translated into English by John Melville-Jones (New York: Exposition Press, 1969) ^ a b (in French) Concasty, M.-L., Les "Informations" de Jacques Tedaldi sur le siège et la prise de Constantinople ^ a b Sphrantzes, George. Οικτρός Γεώργιος ο Φραντζής ο και Πρωτοβεσιαρίτης Γρηγόριος τάχα μοναχός ταύτα έγραψεν υπέρ των καθ' αυτών και τινων μερικών γεγονότων εν τώ της αθλίας ζωής αυτε χρόνω [The Pitiful George Frantzes Who was Protovestiaros, Now a Monk, Wrote This for the Βetterment of Others and as Recompense for Some Deeds in His Miserable Life, This Chronicle] (in Greek). ^ a b c Rutheniae, Isidorus (6 July 1453). 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Retrieved 27 January 2019. ^ Greeks in Italy Archived 7 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine ^ "Fall of Constantinople". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 19 August 2020. Retrieved 2 August 2020. ^ Sakaoğlu, Necdet (1993–94). "İstanbul'un adları" [The names of Istanbul]. Dünden bugüne İstanbul ansiklopedisi (in Turkish). Istanbul: Türkiye Kültür Bakanlığı. ^ Robinson, Richard D. (1965). The First Turkish Republic: A Case Study in National Development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press ^ Room, Adrian, (1993), Place Name changes 1900–1991, (Metuchen, N.J., & London:The Scarecrow Press, Inc.), ISBN 0-8108-2600-3 pp. 46, 86. ^ "Timeline: Turkey". BBC News. 10 December 2009. Archived from the original on 4 June 2010. Retrieved 18 January 2010. ^ Marios Philippides and Walter K. Hanak, The Siege and the Fall of Constantinople in 1453: Historiography, Topography, and Military Studies (Ashgate, 2011), pp. 10–46 (eyewitnesses), 46 (Greeks) and 88–91 (Turks). ^ a b c Michael Angold, The Fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans: Context and Consequences (Routledge, 2012), pp. 150–152, 163. Further reading[edit] Babinger, Franz (1992): Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01078-1 Crowley, Roger (2005): 1453: The Holy War for Constantinople and the Clash of Islam and the West. Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4013-0558-1 Fletcher, Richard A.: The Cross and the Crescent (2005) Penguin Group ISBN 0-14-303481-2 Harris, Jonathan (2007): Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium. Hambledon/Continuum. ISBN 978-1-84725-179-4 Harris, Jonathan (2010): The End of Byzantium. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-11786-8 Melville Jones, John, The Siege of Constantinople 1453: Seven Contemporary Accounts, Amsterdam 1972 Momigliano, Arnaldo; Schiavone, Aldo (1997). Storia di Roma, 1 (in Italian). Turin: Einaudi. ISBN 88-06-11396-8. Murr Nehme, Lina (2003). 1453: The Conquest of Constantinople. Aleph Et Taw. ISBN 2-86839-816-2. Pertusi, Agostino, ed. (1976). La Caduta di Costantinopoli, II: L'eco nel mondo [The Fall of Constantinople, II: The Echo in the World] (in Italian). II. Verona: Fondazione Lorenzo Valla. Philippides, Marios and Walter K. Hanak, The Siege and the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, Ashgate, Farnham and Burlington 2011. Smith, Michael Llewellyn, "The Fall of Constantinople", in History Makers magazine No. 5 (London, Marshall Cavendish, Sidgwick & Jackson, 1969) p. 192. Wheatcroft, Andrew (2003): The Infidels: The Conflict Between Christendom and Islam, 638–2002. Viking Publishing ISBN 0-670-86942-2 Wintle, Justin (2003): The Rough Guide History of Islam. Rough Guides. ISBN 1-84353-018-X External links[edit] Library resources about Fall of Constantinople Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Wikimedia Commons has media related to Fall of Constantinople (1453). 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en-wikipedia-org-2320	----	Marcellus Empiricus - Wikipedia Marcellus Empiricus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Marcellus Empiricus, also known as Marcellus Burdigalensis (“Marcellus of Bordeaux”), was a Latin medical writer from Gaul at the turn of the 4th and 5th centuries. His only extant work is the De medicamentis, a compendium of pharmacological preparations drawing on the work of multiple medical and scientific writers as well as on folk remedies and magic. It is a significant if quirky text in the history of European medical writing, an infrequent subject of monographs, but regularly mined as a source for magic charms, Celtic herbology and lore, and the linguistic study of Gaulish and Vulgar Latin.[1] Bonus auctor est (“he’s a good authority”) was the judgment of J.J. Scaliger,[2] while the science historian George Sarton called the De medicamentis an “extraordinary mixture of traditional knowledge, popular (Celtic) medicine, and rank superstition.”[3] Marcellus is usually identified with the magister officiorum of that name who held office during the reign of Theodosius I. Contents 1 Life and political career 2 Medical background 3 Religious background 3.1 Christian benefactor? 4 The Book of Medicaments 5 Significance as medical writer 6 Therapeutic system 7 The text 8 References Life and political career[edit] Little is known of the life of Marcellus. The primary sources are: Marcellus’s own preface to the De medicamentis; the Codex Theodosianus (probably referring to this Marcellus); a letter written in 399 by Symmachus to a Marcellus who is likely to have been the medical writer; a letter written by the Antiochan scholar Libanius that mentions a Marcellus; an inscription in Narbonne (his association with which would require that he not be from Bordeaux; see below); an anecdote in Orosius about an unnamed Gaul (also a highly conjectural link). The Gallic origin of Marcellus is rarely disputed, and he is traditionally identified with the toponym Burdigalensis; that is, from Bordeaux (Latin Burdigala), within the Roman province of Aquitania. In his prefatory epistle, he refers to three Bordelaise praetorian prefects as his countrymen: Siburius, Eutropius, and Julius Ausonius, the father of the poet Decimus Magnus Ausonius.[4] He is sometimes thought to have come from Narbonne rather than Bordeaux.[5] There has been an attempt to make a Spanish senator of him on the basis of Symmachus's reference to property he owned in Spain; but this inference ignores that Marcellus is said explicitly to have left Spain to return to living in avitis penatibus, or among the household spirits of his grandfathers — that is, at home as distinguished from Spain. He probably wrote the De medicamentis liber during his retirement there.[6] Numismatic image of Theodosius I The author of the De medicamentis is most likely the Marcellus who was appointed magister officiorum by Theodosius I. The heading of the prefatory epistle identifies him as a vir inlustris, translatable as “a distinguished man,” but a more formal designation of rank that indicates he had held imperial office. Marcellus's 16th-century editor Janus Cornarius gives the unhelpful phrase ex magno officio (something like “from high office”); coupled with two references in the Theodosian Code to a Marcellus as magister officiorum,[7] Cornarius's phrase has been taken as a mistaken expansion of the standard abbreviation mag. off. The magister officiorum was a sort of Minister of the Interior[8] and the identification is consistent with what is known of the author's life and with the politics of the time.[9] His stated connection to the Ausonii makes it likely that he was among the several aristocratic Gauls who benefitted politically when the emperor Gratian appointed his Bordelaise tutor Ausonius to high office and from Theodosius's extended residence in the western empire during the latter years of his reign.[10] Marcellus would have entered his office sometime after April 394 A.D., when his predecessor is last attested,[11] and before the emperor's death on January 17, 395. He was replaced in late November or December of 395, as determined by the last reference to a Marcellus holding office that is dated November 24 and by the dating of a successor.[12] The timing of his departure suggests that he had been a supporter of Rufinus, the calculating politician of Gallic origin who was assassinated November 27 of that year, having failed to resist if not facilitating the advance of Alaric and the Visigoths. Marcellus's support may have been pragmatic or superficial; a source that condemns Rufinus heartily praises Marcellus as “the very soul of excellence.”[13] Given Rufinus's dealings with the Visigoths, however, it is conceivable that Marcellus should be identified with “a certain former high-ranking official from Narbonne” mentioned by Orosius[14] as present in Bethlehem in 415 A.D. While visiting Jerome, Orosius says he heard this Gaul relate the declaration made by Athaulf, king of the Visigoths, at Narbonne regarding his intentions toward the Roman empire.[15] John Matthews argued that Marcellus, who would have been about 60 at the time, is “clearly the most eligible candidate.”[16] Since Orosius identifies the Gaul only as having served under Theodosius, and as a “devout, cautious, and serious” person, other figures have been put forth as the likely bearer of the Athaulf declaration.[17] Medical background[edit] It is not unreasonable but also not necessary to conclude that Marcellus was a practicing physician. In his dissertation, the intellectual historian of magic and medicine Lynn Thorndike pronounced him the “court physician” of Theodosius I,[18] but the evidence is thin: Libanius, if referring to this Marcellus, praises his ability to cure a headache.[19] The prevailing view is that Marcellus should be categorized as a medical writer and not a physician.[20] A translator of the medical writings of Isidore of Seville characterizes Marcellus as a “medical amateur” and dismisses the De medicamentis as “nothing more than the usual ancient home remedies,”[21] and the historian of botany Ernst Meyer seems to have considered him a dilettante.[22] Like Ausonius and later Sidonius Apollinaris, Marcellus is among those aristocratic Gauls of the 4th and 5th centuries who were nominally or even devoutly Christian but who fashioned themselves after the Republican ideal of the Roman noble: a career in politics balanced with country villas and informational or literary writing on a range of subjects, including philosophy, astronomy, agriculture, and the natural sciences.[23] Although medical writing might have been regarded as a lesser achievement, it was a resource for the pater familias who traditionally took personal responsibility for the health care of his household, both family members and slaves.[24] Prescriptions for veterinary treatments dispersed throughout the De medicamentis also suggest the interests and concerns of the author — the letter from Symmachus serves mainly to inquire whether Marcellus can provide thoroughbred horses for games to be sponsored by his son, who has been elected praetor — and of his intended audience, either the owners of estates or the literate workers who managed them.[25] “Do-it-yourself” manuals were popular among the landowning elite because they offered, as Marcellus promises, a form of self-sufficiency and mastery.[26] Alf Önnerfors has argued that a personal element distinguishes the De medicamentis from similar medical manuals, which are in effect if not fact anonymous. In the letter to his sons, whom he addresses as dulcissimi (“my sweetest”), Marcellus expresses the hope that they and their families will, in case of sickness, find support and remedies in their father's manual, without intervention by doctors (sine medicis intercessione). This emphasis on self-reliance, however, is not meant to exclude others, but to empower oneself to help others; appealing to divina misericordia (“godlike compassion”), Marcellus urges his sons to extend caritas (“caring” or perhaps Christian “charity”) to strangers and the poor as well as to their loved ones.[27] The tone, Önnerfors concludes, is “humane and full of gentle humor.”[28] Religious background[edit] Marcellus is usually regarded as a Christian,[29] but he also embraces magico-medical practices that draw on the traditional religions of antiquity. Historian of botanical pharmacology Jerry Stannard believed that evidence in the De medicamentis could neither prove nor disprove Marcellus's religious identity, noting that the few references to Christianity are “commonplace” and that, conversely, charms with references to Hellenistic magic occur widely in medieval Christian texts.[30] In his classic study The Cult of the Saints, Peter Brown describes and sets out to explain what he sees as “the exclusively pagan tone of a book whose author was possibly a Christian writing for a largely Christianized upper class.”[31] Historians of ancient medicine Carmélia Opsomer and Robert Halleux note that in his preface, Marcellus infuses Christian concerns into the ancient tradition of “doctoring without doctors.”[32] That Marcellus was at least a nominal Christian is suggested by his appointment to high office by Theodosius I, who exerted his will to Christianize the empire by ordering the Roman senate to convert en masse.[33] The Celtic god Esus (Aisus) The internal evidence of religion in the text is meager. The phrase divina misericordia in the preface appears also in St. Augustine’s De civitate Dei, where the reference to divine mercy follows immediately after a passage on barbarian incursions.[34] Marcellus and Augustine are contemporaries, and the use of the phrase is less a question of influence than of the currency of a shared Christian concept.[35] Elsewhere, passages sometimes cited as evidence of Christianity[36] on closer inspection only display the syncretism of the Hellenistic magico-religious tradition, as Stannard noted. Christ, for instance, is invoked in an herb-gathering incantation,[37] but the ritual makes use of magico-medical practices of pre-Christian antiquity. A Judaeo-Christian reference — nomine domini Iacob, in nomine domini Sabaoth[38] — appears as part of a magic charm that the practitioner is instructed to inscribe on a lamella, or metal leaf. Such “magic words” often include nonsense syllables and more-or-less corrupt phrases from “exotic” languages such as Celtic, Aramaic, Coptic, and Hebrew, and are not indications of formal adherence to a religion.[39] The first reference to any religious figure in the text is Asclepius, the premier god of healing among the Greeks. Marcellus alludes to a Roman version of the myth in which Asclepius restores the dismembered Virbius to wholeness; as a writer, Marcellus says, he follows a similar course of gathering the disiecta … membra ("scattered body parts") of his sources into one corpus (whole body).[40] In addition to gods from the Greco-Roman pantheon, one charm deciphered as a Gaulish passage has been translated to invoke the Celtic god Aisus, or Esus as it is more commonly spelled, for his aid in dispelling throat trouble.[41] Christian benefactor?[edit] An inscription[42] dated 445 recognizes a Marcellus as the most important financial supporter in the rebuilding of the cathedral at Narbonne, carried out during the bishopric of St. Rusticus. John Matthews has argued that this Marcellus is likely to have been a son or near descendant of the medical writer, since the family of an inlustris is most likely to have possessed the wealth for such a generous contribution.[43] The donor had served for two years as praetorian prefect of Gaul. Assuming that the man would have been a native, Matthews weighs this piece of evidence with the Athaulf anecdote from Orosius to situate the author of the De medicamentis in the Narbonensis,[44] but this is a minority view. The Book of Medicaments[edit] Marcellus begins the De medicamentis liber by acknowledging his models. The texts he draws on include the so-called Medicina Plinii or “Medical Pliny,” the herbal (Herbarius) of Pseudo-Apuleius, and the pharmacological treatise of Scribonius Largus, as well as the most famous Latin encyclopedia from antiquity, the Historia naturalis of Pliny the Elder.[45] The work is structured as follows: Epistolary dedication, addressed to Marcellus's sons, a prose preface equivalent to seven paragraphs. Index medicalium scriptorum, or table of contents for the medical topics, listing the 36 chapter headings. A short tract on metrology,[46] with notes in Latin on units of measure and a conversion chart in Greek. Epistulae diversorum de qualitate et observatione medicinae (“Letters by various authors on ‘quality’ and ‘observation’ in medicine”), a series of seven epistles, each attributed to a different medical writer. The epistles serve as a literary device for discussing methodology, diagnosis, and the importance of ethical and accurate treatment.[47] They are not, or not wholly, fictional; just as Marcellus's work begins with a prefatory epistle addressed to his sons, the seven letters represent prefaces to other authors’ works, some now lost. Marcellus has detached them from the works they headed and presented them collectively, translating, sometimes taking liberties, those originally in Greek, as a kind of bonus for his sons.[48] For instance, the “Letter from Celsus”, addressed to a Callistus, deals with the physician's ethical duty in relation to the Hippocratic Oath.[49] Ferula gummosa, source of the ingredient galbanum Thirty-six chapters on treatments, consisting mainly of recipes both pharmacological and magical, and arranged by convention anatomically a capite ad calcem (“from head to toe,” in the equivalent English expression) as were Marcellus's sources Scribonius Largus and the Medicina Plinii.[50] The treatment chapters run to 255 pages in Niedermann's edition. Meyer lists 262 different plant names in Marcellus; allowing for synonyms, of which there are many, the number of plants mentioned would be around 131.[51] About 25 of the botanicals most frequently prescribed are “exotica”’ such as galbanum, sagapenum, and ginger; these may have been available in Gaul as imports, but only to elite consumers. Other ingredients likely to have been rare for Marcellus’s intended audience include cinnamon, cloves, candied tragacanth, Alexandrian niter, and African snails, perhaps the Giant African land snail, which are prescribed live for pulping into a mélange. Availability is possibly a lesser criterion of selection for Marcellus than completeness and variety of interest.[52] And last, the Carmen de speciebus (“Song of Species”), a 78-line Latin hexameter poem on pharmacology, which Marcellus contrasts to his prose assemblage of prescriptions by asserting his originality in writing it.[53] Significance as medical writer[edit] Marcellus was a transitional figure between ancient and medieval materia medica. Although the contents of the recipes — their names, uses, and methods of treatment — derive from the medical texts of ancient Greece and Rome, the book also points forward to doctrines and approaches characteristic of medieval medicine. Marcellus is seldom cited directly, but his influence, though perhaps not wide or pervasive, can be traced in several medieval medical texts.[54] A major change in the approach to writing about botanical pharmacology is signalled in the De Medicamentis. As texts associated with Mediterranean medicine traveled west and north with the expanding borders of the Roman empire, the plants required by drug recipes were no longer familiar, and the descriptions or illustrations provided by earlier herbals failed to correspond to indigenous flora. Marcellus's practice of offering synonyms is one attempt to bridge this gap. He often provides a string of correspondences: the Greek plant name polygonos is first glossed as sanguinaria in Latin (1.2),[55] then as "what we [in Gaul?] call rubia" (1.44); in the same chapter polygonos is given as another name for millefolium (1.28), and identified elsewhere as equivalent to verbena (10.5). Of the dozen or so Celtic plant names, ten are provided with or as synonyms for Greek or Latin names. A preoccupation with naming rather than description is a characteristic also of medieval herbals.[56] The problems of identifying plants may have been an intellectual attraction for Marcellus's Renaissance editor Cornarius, whose botanical work emphasized the value of words over illustration.[57] Another medieval emphasis foreshadowed in Marcellus is a concern for locating ingredients in their native environment, replacing the exotic flora and fauna prescribed in texts from antiquity with indigenous species. Recipes in both Marcellus and the medieval writers tend toward “polypharmacy,” or the use of a great number of ingredients in a single preparation. Many recipes in De medicamentis contain at least ten ingredients, and one, the antidotus Cosmiana (29.11), is compounded of 73.[58] Marcellus is one of the likely sources for Anglo-Saxon leechcraft,[59] or at least drew on the shared European magico-medical tradition that also produced runic healing: a 13th-century wooden amulet from Bergen is inscribed with a charm in runes that resembles Marcellus's Aisus charm.[60] Therapeutic system[edit] Reliquary of St. Martin of Tours In The Cult of the Saints, Peter Brown contrasts the “horizontal” or environmental healing prescribed by Marcellus to the “vertical,” authoritarian healing of his countryman and contemporary St. Martin of Tours, known for miracle cures and especially exorcism. Since magic for medical purposes can be considered a form of faith healing, that is also not a distinction between the two; “rich layers of folklore and superstition,” writes Brown, “lie beneath the thin veneer of Hippocratic empiricism” in Marcellus.[61] Nor does the difference lie in the social class of the intended beneficiaries, for both therapeutic systems encompassed “country folk and the common people”[62] as well as senatorial landowners. At the Christian shrines, however, healing required submission to “socially chartered” authority;[63] in Marcellus, the patient or practitioner, often addressed directly as “you,” becomes the agent of his own cure.[64] While the power of a saint to offer a cure resided within a particular shrine which the patient must visit, health for Marcellus lay in the interconnectivity of the patient with his environment, the use he actively made of herbs, animals, minerals, dung, language, and transformative processes such as emulsification, calcination and fermentation. In the prefatory epistle, Marcellus insists on the efficacy of remedia fortuita atque simplicia (remedies that are readily available and act directly), despite the many recipes involving more than a dozen ingredients; in the concluding Carmen, he celebrates ingredients from the far reaches of the empire and the known world (lines 41–67), emphasizing that the Roman practitioner has access to a “global” marketplace.[65] The text[edit] Janus Cornarius: Marcelli ... de medicamentis empiricis, physicis ac rationabilibus Liber. Froben, Basel 1536 (Digitalisat) The standard text is that of Maximillian Niedermann, Marcelli de medicamentis liber, vol. 5 of the Teubner Corpus Medicorum Latinorum (Leipzig, 1916). The previous Teubner edition had been edited by Georg Helmreich in 1889. References[edit] ^ Carmélia Opsomer and Robert Halleux, “Marcellus ou le mythe empirique,” in Les écoles médicales à Rome. Actes du 2ème Colloque international sur les textes médicaux latins antiques, Lausanne, septembre 1986, edited by Philippe Mudry and Jackie Pigeaud (Geneva: Librairie Droz, 1991), p. 160. ^ In the Prima Scaligerana of 1740, cited by George W. Robinson, “Joseph Scaliger’s Estimates of Greek and Latin Authors,” Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 29 (1918) p. 160. ^ George Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science (1927), vol. 1, p. 391. ^ Alf Önnerfors, “Marcellus, De medicamentis: Latin de science, de superstition, d’humanité,” in Le latin médical: La constitution d’un langage scientifique: réalités et langage de la médecine dans le monde romain, edited by Guy Sabbah (Université de Saint-Étienne, 1991), p. 397; Jerry Stannard, “Marcellus of Bordeaux and the Beginnings of the Medieval Materia Medica,” Pharmacy in History 15 (1973), p. 51, note 4, as reprinted in Pristina Medicamenta: Ancient and Medieval Medical Botany, edited by Katherine E. Stannard and Richard Kay, Variorum Collected Studies Series (Aldershot 1999). ^ J.F. Matthews, “Gallic Supporters of Theodosius,” Latomus 30 (1971), pp. 1084–1087. ^ Spanish origin argued by K.F. Stroheker, Spanische Senatoren der spätrömischen und westgotischen Zeit, in Madrider Mitteilungen (1963) p. 121, note 75, cited and contradicted by J.F. Matthews, “Gallic Supporters of Theodosius,” Latomus 30 (1971) p. 1085. The De medicamentis seems to refer to Theodosius II, son of the emperor who had appointed Marcellus to office, suggesting that it was not circulated until his accession in January 408; see Alan Cameron, “A New Fragment of Eunapius,” Classical Review 17 (1967) 11. ^ Codex Theodosianus vi.29.8 (May 395) and xvi.5.29 (November 395). ^ Alf Önnerfors, “Marcellus, De medicamentis,” in Le latin médical (Université de Saint-Étienne, 1991), p. 397. ^ For careful and thoroughly documented conjecture about the political career of Marcellus, see J.F. Matthews, “Gallic Supporters of Theodosius,” Latomus 30 (1971) 1073–1099. ^ J.F. Matthews. “Gallic Supporters of Theodosius,” Latomus 30 (1971), p. 1086, who points out that earlier (in the period 379–88) Spaniards had predominated in Theodosius’s court. ^ Codex Theodosianus vii.1.14. ^ Codex Theodosianus xvi.5.29. ^ Alan Cameron, “A New Fragment of Eunapius,” Classical Review 17 (1967) 10–11. ^ Orosius 7.43.4: virum quendam Narbonensem inlustris sub Theodosio militiae, etiam religiosum prudentemque et gravem. ^ For the text of that declaration in English translation, see article on Ataulf. ^ J.F. Matthews, “Gallic Supporters of Theodosius,” Latomus 30 (1971), pp. 1085–1086. ^ For instance, David Frye, “A Mutual Friend of Athaulf and Jerome,” Historia 40 (1991) 507–508, argues for the Gaul named Rusticus who is mentioned in Jerome’s epistles. ^ Lynn Thorndike, The Place of Magic in the Intellectual History of Europe (New York 1905), p. 99, ^ Lynn Thorndike, History of Magic and Experimental Science (Columbia University Press 1923), p. 584, without citing the specific letter. ^ Jerry Stannard, “Marcellus of Bordeaux and the Beginnings of the Medieval Materia Medica,” Pharmacy in History 15 (1973), p. 48; Alf Önnerfors, “Marcellus, De medicamentis,” in Le latin médical (Université de Saint-Étienne, 1991), pp. 398–399; Carmélia Opsomer and Robert Halleux, “Marcellus ou le mythe empirique,” in Les écoles médicales à Rome, (Geneva: Librairie Droz, 1991). ^ William D. Sharpe, introduction to “Isidore of Seville: The Medical Writings. An English Translation with an Introduction and Commentary,” Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 54 (1964), p. 14. ^ E.H.F. Meyer, Geschichte der Botanik (Königsberg 1854–57), vol. 2, p. 300, cited by Önnerfors, p. 398. ^ Thomas Habinek, The Politics of Latin Literature: Writing, Empire, and Identity in Ancient Rome (Princeton University Press, 1998); Roland Mayer, “Creating a Literature of Information in Rome,” in Wissensvermittlung in dichterischer Gestalt (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 2005), pp. 227–241. ^ Elizabeth Rawson, Intellectual Life in the Late Roman Republic (The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985), p. 170; Carmélia Opsomer and Robert Halleux, “Marcellus ou le mythe empirique,” in Les écoles médicales à Rome (Geneva: Librairie Droz, 1991), p. 178. ^ Literacy among farm workers at the managerial level was perhaps not meant to be surprising; according to an interlocutor in Varro’s De re rustica (2.18), a master ought to require his cattleman to read veterinary excerpts from the work of Mago the Carthaginian, available in Latin and Greek translations. ^ De medicamentis prefatory epistle 3, edition of Maximillian Niedermann, Marcelli de medicamentis liber, vol. 5 of the Teubner Corpus Medicorum Latinorum (Leipzig, 1916), p. 3; discussion of general topic in Brendon Reay, “Agriculture, Writing, and Cato’s Aristocratic Self-Fashioning,” Classical Antiquity 24 (2005) 331–361. ^ De medicamentis prefatory epistle 3. ^ Alf Önnerfors, “Marcellus, De medicamentis,” in Le latin médical (Université de Saint-Étienne, 1991), p. 404–405. ^ Alan Cameron, “A New Fragment of Eunapius,” p. 11; J.F. Matthews, “Gallic Supporters of Theodosius,” Latomus 30 (1971) p. 1086. ^ Jerry Stannard, “Marcellus of Bordeaux and the Beginnings of the Medieval Materia Medica,” Pharmacy in History 15 (1973), p. 50. ^ Peter Brown, The Cult of the Saints: Its Rise and Function in Latin Christianity (University of Chicago Press, 1981), p. 117. ^ Carmélia Opsomer and Robert Halleux, “Marcellus ou le mythe empirique,” in Les écoles médicales à Rome (Geneva: Librairie Droz, 1991), p. 164. ^ T.D. Barnes and R.W. Westall, “The Conversion of the Roman Aristocracy in Prudentius’ Contra Symmachus,” Phoenix 45 (1991) 50–61; Prudentius, Contra Symmachum 1.506–607. ^ De civitate Dei 1.8; barbarian incursions are a subject relevant to Marcellus, living in 4th century Gaul under threat of the Visigoths. ^ On the interpenetration of Christianity and traditional religion and culture in the 4th century, see for instance Clifford Ando, “Pagan Apologetics and Christian Intolerance in the Ages of Themistius and Augustine,” Journal of Early Christian Studies 4 (1996) 171–207. ^ As by J.F. Matthews, “Gallic Supporters of Theodosius,” Latomus 30 (1971) p. 1086. ^ In nomine Christi, De medicamentis 25.13. ^ De medicamentis 21.2 ^ William M. Brashear, “The Greek Magical Papyri: ‘Voces Magicae’,” Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II, 18.5 (1995), p. 3435; see also David E. Aune, “Magic in Early Christianity: Glossolalia and Voces Magicae,” reprinted in Apocalypticism, Prophecy and Magic in Early Christianity: Collected Essays (2006). ^ De medicamentis prefatory epistle 1. ^ De medicamentis 15.106, p. 121 in Niedermann; Gustav Must, “A Gaulish Incantation in Marcellus of Bordeaux,” Language 36 (1960) 193–197; Pierre-Yves Lambert, “Les formules de Marcellus de Bordeaux,” in La langue gauloise (Éditions Errance 2003), p.179, citing Léon Fleuriot, “Sur quelques textes gaulois,” Études celtiques 14 (1974) 57–66. ^ CIL XII.5336. ^ In the amount of 2,100 solidi. ^ John Matthews, Western Aristocracies and Imperial Court, A.D. 364–425 (Oxford University Press 1975), pp. 340–341, and “Gallic Supporters of Theodosius,” Latomus 30 (1971), p. 1087. ^ William D. Sharpe, “Isidore of Seville: The Medical Writings,” Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 54 (1964), pp. 13–14. ^ Jerry Stannard, “Marcellus of Bordeaux and the Beginnings of the Medieval Materia Medica,” Pharmacy in History 15 (1973), p. 48. ^ Jerry Stannard, “Marcellus of Bordeaux and the Beginnings of the Medieval Materia Medica,” Pharmacy in History 15 (1973), p. 51, note 9. ^ D.R. Langslow, “The Epistula in Ancient Scientific and Technical Literature, with Special Reference to Medicine,” in Ancient Letters: Classical and Late Antique Epistolography, edited by Ruth Morello and A.D. Morrison (Oxford University Press, 2007), pp. 218–219 and 230. ^ Jean-Marie André, “Du serment hippocratique à la déontologie de la médecine romaine,” Revue des études latines 83 (2005) 140–153. ^ Jerry Stannard, “Marcellus of Bordeaux and the Beginnings of the Medieval Materia Medica,” Pharmacy in History 15 (1973), p. 48. ^ E.H.F. Meyer, “Geschichte der Botanik,” vol. 2 (1855) 305-315 (Digitalisat), as cited by Jerry Stannard, “Marcellus of Bordeaux and the Beginnings of the Medieval Materia Medica,” Pharmacy in History 15 (1973), p. 52, note 23. Stannard finds about 350 plant names in all. ^ Jerry Stannard, “Marcellus of Bordeaux and the Beginnings of the Medieval Materia Medica,” Pharmacy in History 15 (1973), p. 50. ^ Marco Formisano, “Veredelte Bäume und kultivierte Texte. Lehrgedichte in technischen Prosawerken der Spätantike,” in Wissensvermittlung in dichterischer Gestalt (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 2005), pp. 295–312, with English summary. ^ Jerry Stannard, “Marcellus of Bordeaux and the Beginnings of the Medieval Materia Medica,” Pharmacy in History 15 (1973), pp. 47 and 50, also p. 53, notes 59 and 60, for extensive references. ^ Also De medicamentis 9.21, where herbae polygoni is equivalent to sanguinalis, reiterated at 9.81. ^ Jerry Stannard, “Marcellus of Bordeaux and the Beginnings of the Medieval Materia Medica,” Pharmacy in History 15 (1973), p. 50. ^ Sachiko Kusukawa, “Leonhart Fuchs on the Importance of Pictures,” Journal of the History of Ideas 58 (1997), pp. 423–426. ^ Jerry Stannard, “Marcellus of Bordeaux and the Beginnings of the Medieval Materia Medica,” Pharmacy in History 15 (1973), p. 50. ^ Wilfrid Bonser, The Medical Background of Anglo-Saxon England (1963) p. 252. ^ Mindy LacLeod and Bernard Mees, Runic Amulets and Magic Objects (Boydell Press, 2006), pp. 117 online, 139, and 141. ^ Peter Brown, The Cult of the Saints (University of Chicago Press, 1981), pp. 113–114. ^ De medicamentis, prefatory epistle 2, ab agrestibus et plebeis. ^ Peter Brown, The Cult of the Saints (University of Chicago Press, 1981), p. 116. ^ Aline Rousselle, “Du sanctuaire au thaumaturge,” Annales 31 (1976) p. 1095, as cited by Brown, The Cult of the Saints, p. 116: “Il devient sujet actif de sa guérison. … L’homme est engagé, corps et esprit, dans sa propre guérison.” ^ Peter Brown, The Cult of the Saints (University of Chicago Press, 1981) p. 118; Aline Rousselle, “Du sanctuaire au thaumaturge,” Annales 31 (1976) p. 1095, quoted by Brown, p. 116, refers to “une thérapie globale.” Authority control BIBSYS: 2053384 BNE: XX1365731 BNF: cb12851449j (data) CiNii: DA13504958 GND: 118781758 ISNI: 0000 0000 6145 0655 LCCN: n83218012 NTA: 069636087 SUDOC: 088782557 VcBA: 495/32344 VIAF: 196567001 WorldCat Identities: viaf-3266886 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcellus_Empiricus&oldid=985883995" Categories: 4th-century Gallo-Roman people 4th-century Latin writers 5th-century Gallo-Roman people 5th-century Latin writers 5th-century physicians 5th-century scientists Ancient pharmacologists Ancient Roman medicine Ancient Roman physicians Encyclopedias of medicine Magistri officiorum Medical writers Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Català Deutsch Español Esperanto Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina Magyar Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 28 October 2020, at 14:44 (UTC). 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ===Age of Enlightenment=== During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, or the [[Age of Enlightenment]], neoclassical culture was pervasive. English literature in the middle of that period has been dubbed [[Augustan literature|Augustan]]. It is not always easy to distinguish Horace's influence during those centuries (the mixing of influences is shown for example in one poet's pseudonym, ''Horace Juvenal'').<ref group="nb">'Horace Juvenal' was author of ''Modern manners: a poem'', 1793</ref> However a measure of his influence can be found in the diversity of the people interested in his works, both among readers and authors.<ref>D. Money, ''The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries'', 318, 331, 332</ref> New editions of his works were published almost yearly. There were three new editions in 1612 (two in [[Leiden]], one in [[Frankfurt]]) and again in 1699 ([[Utrecht]], [[Barcelona]], [[Cambridge]]). Cheap editions were plentiful and fine editions were also produced, including one whose entire text was engraved by [[John Pine]] in [[copperplate engraving|copperplate]]. The poet [[James Thomson (poet)|James Thomson]] owned five editions of Horace's work and the physician [[James Douglas (physician)|James Douglas]] had five hundred books with Horace-related titles. Horace was often commended in periodicals such as [[The Spectator (1711)|The Spectator]], as a hallmark of good judgement, moderation and manliness, a focus for moralising.<ref group="nb">see for example ''Spectator'' '''312''', 27 Feb. 1712; '''548''', 28 Nov. 1712; '''618''', 10 Nov. 1714</ref> His verses offered a fund of mottoes, such as ''[[simplex munditiis]]'' (elegance in simplicity), ''[[splendide mendax]]'' (nobly untruthful), ''[[sapere aude]]'' (dare to know), ''[[nunc est bibendum]]'' (now is the time to drink), ''[[carpe diem]]'' (seize the day, perhaps the only one still in common use today).<ref name="Tarrant"/> These were quoted even in works as prosaic as [[Edmund Quincy (1703-1788)|Edmund Quincy]]'s ''A treatise of hemp-husbandry'' (1765). The fictional hero [[The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling|Tom Jones]] recited his verses with feeling.<ref>D. Money, ''The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries'', 322</ref> His works were also used to justify commonplace themes, such as patriotic obedience, as in James Parry's English lines from an Oxford University collection in 1736:<ref>D. Money, ''The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries'', 326–27</ref> {{poemquote| What friendly [[Muse]] will teach my Lays To emulate the Roman fire? Justly to sound a Caeser's praise Demands a bold Horatian lyre. }} Horatian-style lyrics were increasingly typical of Oxford and Cambridge verse collections for this period, most of them in Latin but some like the previous ode in English. [[John Milton]]'s [[Lycidas]] first appeared in such a collection. It has few Horatian echoes<ref group="nb">One echo of Horace may be found in line 69: "''Were it not better done as others use,/ To sport with Amaryllis in the shade/Or with the tangles of Neaera's hair?''", which points to the Neara in ''Odes'' 3.14.21 (Douglas Bush, ''Milton: Poetical Works'', 144, note 69)</ref> yet Milton's associations with Horace were lifelong. He composed a controversial version of ''Odes'' 1.5, and [[Paradise Lost]] includes references to Horace's 'Roman' ''Odes'' 3.1–6 (Book 7 for example begins with echoes of ''Odes'' 3.4).<ref>J. Talbot, ''A Horatian Pun in Paradise Lost'', 21–3</ref> Yet Horace's lyrics could offer inspiration to libertines as well as moralists, and neo-Latin sometimes served as a kind of discrete veil for the risqué. Thus for example [[Benjamin Loveling]] authored a catalogue of Drury Lane and Covent Garden prostitutes, in Sapphic stanzas, and an encomium for a dying lady "of salacious memory".<ref>B. Loveling, ''Latin and English Poems'', 49–52, 79–83</ref> Some Latin imitations of Horace were politically subversive, such as a marriage ode by [[Anthony Alsop]] that included a rallying cry for the [[Jacobitism|Jacobite]] cause. On the other hand, [[Andrew Marvell]] took inspiration from Horace's ''Odes'' 1.37 to compose his English masterpiece [[Horatian Ode upon Cromwell's Return from Ireland]], in which subtly nuanced reflections on the execution of [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] echo Horace's ambiguous response to the death of [[Cleopatra]] (Marvell's ode was suppressed in spite of its subtlety and only began to be widely published in 1776). [[Samuel Johnson]] took particular pleasure in reading ''The Odes''.<ref group="nb">Cfr. [[James Boswell]], "The Life of [[Samuel Johnson]]" ''Aetat.'' 20, 1729 where Boswell remarked of Johnson that Horace's ''Odes'' "were the compositions in which he took most delight."</ref> [[Alexander Pope]] wrote direct ''Imitations'' of Horace (published with the original Latin alongside) and also echoed him in ''Essays'' and [[The Rape of the Lock]]. He even emerged as "a quite Horatian Homer" in his translation of the ''[[Iliad]]''.<ref>D. Money, ''The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries'', 329–31</ref> Horace appealed also to female poets, such as [[Anna Seward]] (''Original sonnets on various subjects, and odes paraphrased from Horace'', 1799) and [[Elizabeth Tollet]], who composed a Latin ode in Sapphic meter to celebrate her brother's return from overseas, with tea and coffee substituted for the wine of Horace's [[symposium|sympotic]] settings: {{verse translation|lang=la | Quos procax nobis numeros, jocosque Musa dictaret? mihi dum tibique Temperent baccis Arabes, vel herbis Pocula Seres<ref>E. Tollet, ''Poems on Several Occasions'', 84</ref> | What verses and jokes might the bold Muse dictate? while for you and me Arabs flavour our cups with beans Or Chinese with leaves.<ref>Translation adapted from D. Money, ''The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries'', 329</ref> }} Horace's ''Ars Poetica'' is second only to Aristotle's ''Poetics'' in its influence on literary theory and criticism. Milton recommended both works in his treatise ''of Education''.<ref>A. Gilbert, ''Literary Criticism: Plato to Dryden'', 124, 669</ref> Horace's ''Satires'' and ''Epistles'' however also had a huge impact, influencing theorists and critics such as [[John Dryden]].<ref>W. Kupersmith, ''Roman Satirists in Seventeenth Century England'', 97–101</ref> There was considerable debate over the value of different lyrical forms for contemporary poets, as represented on one hand by the kind of four-line stanzas made familiar by Horace's Sapphic and Alcaic ''Odes'' and, on the other, the loosely structured [[Pindarics]] associated with the odes of [[Pindar]]. Translations occasionally involved scholars in the dilemmas of censorship. Thus [[Christopher Smart]] entirely omitted ''Odes'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber IV/Carmen X|4.10]] and re-numbered the remaining odes. He also removed the ending of ''Odes'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber IV/Carmen I|4.1]]. [[Thomas Creech]] printed ''Epodes'' [[:wikisource:la:Epodi#VIII|8]] and [[:wikisource:la:Epodi#XII|12]] in the original Latin but left out their English translations. [[Philip Francis (translator)|Philip Francis]] left out both the English and Latin for those same two epodes, a gap in the numbering the only indication that something was amiss. French editions of Horace were influential in England and these too were regularly [[bowdlerize]]d. Most European nations had their own 'Horaces': thus for example [[Friedrich von Hagedorn]] was called ''The German Horace'' and [[Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski]] ''The Polish Horace'' (the latter was much imitated by English poets such as [[Henry Vaughan]] and [[Abraham Cowley]]). Pope [[Urban VIII]] wrote voluminously in Horatian meters, including an ode on gout.<ref>D. Money, ''The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries'', 319–25</ref> Return to Horace. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2334	----	Roman bridge - Wikipedia Roman bridge From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For a list of known Roman bridges, see List of Roman bridges. For the railway station in Wales, see Roman Bridge railway station. The Alcántara Bridge, Spain, a masterpiece of ancient bridge building Roman bridges, built by ancient Romans, were the first large and lasting bridges built.[1] Roman bridges were built with stone and had the arch as the basic structure (see arch bridge). Most utilized concrete as well, which the Romans were the first to use for bridges. Contents 1 Typology 1.1 Arch shapes 1.2 Typical characteristics 2 Opus pontis 3 Examples 3.1 Large river bridging 4 Gallery 5 See also 6 Footnotes 7 References 8 External links Typology[edit] Known Roman bridges[2] Country Number Europe 800 Italian base 460 Spain 142 France 172 Germany 130 Great Britain 129 Portugal 114 Yugoslavia 113 Switzerland 111 Greece 110 Netherlands 114 Bulgaria 113 Luxemburg 113 Albania 112 Austria 112 Belgium 112 Romania 112 Hungary 111 Asia 174 Turkey 155 Syria 117 Jordan 115 Lebanon 114 Israel 112 Iraq 111 Africa 157 Tunisia 133 Algeria 119 Libya 115 Total 1931 As with the vault and the dome, the Romans were the first to fully realize the potential of arches for bridge construction.[3] Roman pontoon bridge across the lower Danube A list of Roman bridges compiled by the engineer Colin O'Connor features 330 Roman stone bridges for traffic, 34 Roman timber bridges and 54 Roman aqueduct bridges, a substantial part still standing and even used to carry vehicles.[4] A more complete survey by the Italian scholar Vittorio Galliazzo found 931 Roman bridges, mostly of stone, in as many as 26 different countries (including former Yugoslavia; see right table).[5] Roman arch bridges were usually semicircular, although a few were segmental (such as Alconétar Bridge). A segmental arch is an arch that is less than a semicircle.[6] The advantages of the segmental arch bridge were that it allowed great amounts of flood water to pass under it, which would prevent the bridge from being swept away during floods and the bridge itself could be more lightweight. Generally, Roman bridges featured wedge-shaped primary arch stones (voussoirs) of the same in size and shape. The Romans built both single spans and lengthy multiple arch aqueducts, such as the Pont du Gard and Segovia Aqueduct. Their bridges featured from an early time onwards flood openings in the piers, e.g. in the Pons Fabricius in Rome (62 BC), one of the world's oldest major bridges still standing. Roman engineers were the first and until the industrial revolution the only ones to construct bridges with concrete, which they called opus caementicium. The outside was usually covered with brick or ashlar, as in the Alcántara Bridge. The Romans also introduced segmental arch bridges into bridge construction. The 330 m long Limyra Bridge in southwestern Turkey features 26 segmental arches with an average span-to-rise ratio of 5.3:1,[7] giving the bridge an unusually flat profile unsurpassed for more than a millennium. Trajan's bridge over the Danube featured open-spandrel segmental arches made of wood (standing on 40 m high concrete piers). This was to be the longest arch bridge for a thousand years both in terms of overall and individual span length, while the longest extant Roman bridge is the 790 m long Puente Romano at Mérida. The late Roman Karamagara Bridge in Cappadocia may represent the earliest surviving bridge featuring a pointed arch.[8] Arch shapes[edit] Pons Fabricius in Rome, Italy Early Roman arch bridges, influenced by the ancient notion of the ideal form of the circle, often describe a full circle, with the stone arch continuing underground. A typical example is the Pons Fabricius in Rome. Later, Roman masonry bridges rested mostly on semi-circular arches, or, to a lesser extent, on segmental arches.[9][10] For the later design, which shows an early, local concentration in north-eastern Italy, but can be found scattered throughout the whole empire, the Limyra Bridge, the Alconétar Bridge and the Ponte San Lorenzo are prime examples. In addition, a number of other arch forms make rare appearances, in some cases of which later deformations cannot be ruled out. The late antique Karamagara Bridge represents an early example for the use of pointed arches Typical characteristics[edit] Puente Romano, Mérida, Spain. With an overall length of 792 m and still in use, is the largest surviving Roman bridge Many are more than 5 metres wide Most of them slope slightly Many have rustic work The stonework has alternating stretcher and header courses ; i.e. one layer of rectangular stones is laid lengthwise, and the next layer has the ends facing outwards Stones linked with dovetail joints or metal bars Indents in the stones for gripping tools to hold on to (Source Traianus – An endeavour to identify Roman Bridges built in former Hispania) Opus pontis[edit] The costs of building and repairing bridges, known as opus pontis ("bridge work"), were the responsibility of multiple local municipalities. Their shared costs prove Roman bridges belonged to the region overall, and not to any one town (or two, if on a border). The Alcántara Bridge in Lusitania, for example, was built at the expense of 12 local municipalities, whose names were added on an inscription.[11] Later, in the Roman Empire, the local lords of the land had to pay tithes to the empire for opus pontis.[12][13] The Anglo-Saxons continued this practice with bricg-geworc, a literal translation of opus pontis.[14] Examples[edit] For outstanding achievements of Roman bridge building, see List of ancient architectural records. The remaining arch of the Pons Aemilius, located in the middle of the Tiber Built in 142 BC, the Pons Aemilius, later named Ponte Rotto (broken bridge), is the oldest Roman stone bridge in Rome, Italy. The largest Roman bridge was Trajan's bridge over the lower Danube, constructed by Apollodorus of Damascus, which remained for over a millennium the longest bridge to have been built both in terms of overall and span length. They were most of the time at least 2 metres above the body of water. An example of temporary military bridge construction are the two Caesar's Rhine bridges. Large river bridging[edit] Roman engineers built stone arch or stone pillar bridges over all major rivers of their Imperium, save two: the Euphrates which lay at the frontier to the rival Persian empires, and the Nile, the longest river in the world, which was 'bridged' as late as 1902 by the British Old Aswan Dam.[15] The largest rivers to be spanned by solid bridges by the Romans were the Danube and the Rhine, the two largest European rivers west of the Eurasian Steppe. The lower Danube was crossed by least two (Trajan's Bridge, Constantine's Bridge) and the middle and lower Rhine by four different bridges (Roman Bridge at Mainz, Caesar's Rhine bridges, Roman Bridge at Koblenz, Roman Bridge at Cologne). For rivers with strong currents and to allow swift army movements, pontoon bridges were also routinely employed.[16] Going from the distinct lack of records of pre-modern solid bridges spanning larger rivers,[17] the Roman feat appears to be unsurpassed anywhere in the world until into the 19th century. Gallery[edit] Römerbrücke in Trier, Germany Pont Julien in Apt, France The Roman Bridge in Vaison-la-Romaine, France Pont Ambroix, France Ponte Sant'Angelo in Rome, Italy Ponte Milvio in Rome, Italy Ponte Pietra in Verona, Italy Puente de Alconétar, Spain Taşköprü, in Adana, Cilicia region, Turkey Eurymedon Bridge at Selge, Turkey Limyra Bridge, Turkey Pont de Pierre (Aosta), Aosta Valley, Italy Severan Bridge, Turkey Bermaña Bridge, in Caldas de Reis, Spain Pira Delal, in Zakho, Kurdistan Region, Iraq See also[edit] List of Roman bridges Bridges in Rome Record-holding bridges in antiquity Roman architecture Roman architectural revolution Footnotes[edit] ^ O’Connor 1993, p. 1 ^ Galliazzo 1994, p. 2 (Indice). Galliazzo's survey excludes Late Roman or Byzantine structures. ^ Robertson, D.S.: Greek and Roman Architecture, 2nd edn., Cambridge 1943, p.231: "The Romans were the first builders in Europe, perhaps the first in the world, fully to appreciate the advantages of the arch, the vault and the dome." ^ Colin O'Connor: "Roman Bridges", Cambridge University Press 1993, p. 187ff. ISBN 0-521-39326-4 ^ Galliazzo, Vittorio (1994), I ponti romani. Catalogo generale, Vol. 2, Treviso: Edizioni Canova, ISBN 88-85066-66-6, cf. Indice ^ Beall, Christine (1988). "Designing the segmental arch" (PDF). ebuild.com. Retrieved 8 May 2010. [permanent dead link] ^ Colin O'Connor: "Roman Bridges", Cambridge University Press 1993, p. 126 ISBN 0-521-39326-4 ^ Galliazzo 1995, pp. 92, 93 (fig. 39) ^ Galliazzo 1995, pp. 429–437 ^ O’Connor 1993, p. 171 ^ Frothingham, A.I. (1915). "The Roman Territorial Arch". American Journal of Archaeology. Macmillan Company. 14 (19): 159, 172. ^ James-Raoul, Danièle; Thomasset, Claude (2006). Les ponts au Moyen Âge (in French). Presses Paris Sorbonne. p. 201. ISBN 9782840503736. Retrieved 15 July 2017. ^ Gillespie, Donald S. (2015). Le Beau Dieu. Holy Fire Publishing. p. 27. ISBN 9781603835084. Retrieved 15 July 2017. ^ Bosworth, Joseph (1882). An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Based on the Manuscript Collections of the Late Joseph Bosworth ... Clarendon Press. p. 125. Retrieved 15 July 2017. ^ O’Connor 1993, pp. 193–202 (Appendices A and B) ^ O’Connor 1993, pp. 133–139 ^ Fernández Troyano 2003 References[edit] Fuentes, Manuel Durán: La construcción de puentes romanos en Hispania, Xunta de Galicia, Santiago de Compostela 2004, ISBN 978-84-453-3937-4 Fernández Troyano, Leonardo (2003), Bridge Engineering. A Global Perspective, London: Thomas Telford Publishing, ISBN 0-7277-3215-3 Galliazzo, Vittorio (1995), I ponti romani, Vol. 1, Treviso: Edizioni Canova, ISBN 88-85066-66-6 Galliazzo, Vittorio (1994), I ponti romani. Catalogo generale, Vol. 2, Treviso: Edizioni Canova, ISBN 88-85066-66-6 Gazzola, Piero (1963), Ponti romani. Contributo ad un indice sistematico con studio critico bibliografico, Florence O’Connor, Colin (1993), Roman Bridges, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-39326-4 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Roman bridges. Traianus - Technical investigation of Roman public works The Waters of Rome: Tiber River Bridges and the Development of the Ancient City of Rome Livius.org: Pontes longi – Roman bog bridges v t e Roman bridges England Chesters Bridge Piercebridge Roman Bridge Pons Aelius France Pont Ambroix Pont de Bornègre Pont des Marchands Pont du Gard Pont Flavien Pont Julien Pont Serme Pont sur la Laye Roman Bridge (Saint-Thibéry) Roman Bridge (Vaison-la-Romaine) Germany Caesar's Rhine bridges Roman Bridge (Trier) Iran Band-e Kaisar Italy Pons Aemilius Pons Agrippae Ponte Altinate Pons Cestius Pons Fabricius Pons Neronianus Pons Probi Pons Sublicius Pont d'Aël Pont de Pierre (Aosta) Pont-Saint-Martin Ponte d'Augusto (Narni) Ponte di Tiberio (Rimini) Ponte Corvo Ponte del Gran Caso Ponte Milvio Ponte Molino (Padua) Ponte Nomentano Ponte Pietra (Verona) Ponte di Pioraco Ponte di Quintodecimo Ponte Salario Ponte San Lorenzo Ponte Sant'Angelo Susegana Bridge Lebanon Leontes Bridge Portugal Ponte de Rubiães Ponte Nova da Cava da Velha Roman Bridge (Chaves) Romania Constantine's Bridge (Danube) Trajan's Bridge Spain Acueducto de los Milagros, Mérida Albarregas bridge, Mérida Alcántara's bridge Ávila's bridge Puente de Alcántara, Toledo Garrovillas de Alconétar's bridge Córdoba's bridge Lugo's bridge Aqüeducte de les Ferreres, Tarragona Mérida's bridge Salamanca's bridge Segovia's aqueduct Talamanca de Jarama's bridge Syria Ain Diwar Bridge Bridge at Nimreh Gemarrin Bridge Kharaba Bridge Turkey Aesepus Bridge Arapsu Bridge Bridge at Oinoanda Constantine's Bridge (Mysia) Eurymedon Bridge (Aspendos) Eurymedon Bridge (Selge) Karamagara Bridge Kemer Bridge Limyra Bridge Misis Bridge Macestus Bridge Nysa Bridge Penkalas Bridge Pergamon Bridge Sangarius Bridge Severan Bridge Taşköprü (Adana) Valens Aqueduct Bridge White Bridge (Mysia) Full list of Roman bridges v t e Ancient bridges on the Tiber (from source to mouth) Upstream Milvius (Molle) Ælius (Sant'Angelo) Neronianus† Agrippae (Sisto) Aurelius† After Tiber Isl. 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"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_bridge&oldid=995828273" Categories: Ancient Roman architecture Roman bridges Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from December 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links CS1 French-language sources (fr) CS1: long volume value Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Brezhoneg Català Esperanto 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en-wikipedia-org-2339	----	Niall Rudd - Wikipedia Niall Rudd From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search William James Niall Rudd (23 June 1927 – 5 October 2015) was an Irish-born British classical scholar.[1] Life and work[edit] Rudd was born in Dublin and studied Classics at Trinity College, Dublin. He then taught Latin at the Universities of Hull and Manchester.[2] From 1958 to 1968 he was Associate Professor of Latin at University College, Toronto. In 1968 he returned to England and taught for five years as a professor of Latin at the University of Liverpool. In 1973 he moved to the University of Bristol to the chair of Latin, where he remained until his retirement in 1989. From 1976 to 1979 he was Director (Head of Department) of the Department of Classics and Archaeology.[3] After retirement Rudd returned to Liverpool and was appointed an Honorary Research Fellow there. Trinity College Dublin awarded him an honorary doctorate in 1998 (DLitt). Rudd died of Melanoma after a long illness (Alzheimer's) on 5 October 2015 at St. John's Hospice on the Wirral. Rudd worked intensively with Latin literature, especially Roman poetry, and its reception in English literature of the modern age. He wrote books, monographs and articles about works of Cicero, and on the satires of Horace and Juvenal whose work he presented in English translation. This work has been published in two collections (1994, 2005). In addition, he published, in 1994, an autobiographical record of his childhood and youth in Ireland. Bibliography[edit] The Satires of Horace. A Study (1966) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press [4] The Satires of Horace and Persius. A verse translation with an introduction and notes (1973) London: Harmondsworth Press Essays on Classical Literature, Selected from Arion and introduced by Niall Rudd (1974) Cambridge: Heffer Press Lines of Enquiry – Studies in Latin Poetry (1976) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press with Edward Courtney: Juvenal: Satires I, III, X (1977) Bristol: Bristol Classical Press T. E. Page: Schoolmaster Extraordinary (1981) Bristol: Bristol Classical Press The Satires of Horace (1982) Bristol: Bristol Classical Press Themes in Roman Satire (1986) London: Duckworth Press Cicero: 'De Legibus I'. (1987) Bristol: Bristol Classical Press Horace, Epistles Book II and Epistle to the Pisones (‘Ars Poetica’) (1989) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Juvenal. The Satires (1991) Oxford: Oxford University Press The Classical Tradition in Operation: Chaucer/Virgil, Shakespeare/Plautus, Pope/Horace, Tennyson/Lucretius, Pound/Propertius (1994) Toronto: University of Toronto Press Pale Green, Light Orange. A Portrait of Bourgeois Ireland 1930-1950 (1994) Dublin: Lilliput Press[2] with JGF Powell: Marcus Tullius Cicero: 'The Republic' and 'The Laws' (1998) Oxford: Oxford University Press with Robin G. M. Nisbet: A Commentary on Horace, Odes, Book III (2004) Oxford: Oxford University Press Horace, Odes and Epodes (2004) Cambridge (Massachusetts): Harvard University Press (Loeb Classical Library)[5] The Common Spring. Essays on Latin and English Poetry. (2005) Exeter: Bristol Phoenix Press Lines of Enquiry. Studies in Latin Poetry (2005) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Samuel Johnson: The Latin Poems (2005) Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press Landor’s Latin Poems: Fifty Pieces (2010) Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press References[edit] ^ "Bristol University - News - October: Niall Rudd". bristol.ac.uk. ^ a b "The Lilliput Press". lilliputpress.ie. ^ "Niall Rudd". Penguin Classics UK. ^ "Review". JSTOR 293312. Missing or empty |url= (help) ^ "Nicholas Horsfall reviews 'Horace' edited by Niall Rudd · LRB 23 June 2005". London Review of Books. Authority control BNF: cb120544743 (data) GND: 1066399042 ISNI: 0000 0001 1027 2809 LCCN: n85805339 NTA: 067985009 VIAF: 56629043 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n85805339 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Niall_Rudd&oldid=794852779" Categories: British classical scholars Irish classical scholars 1927 births 2015 deaths Hidden categories: Pages using web citations with no URL Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Edit links This page was last edited on 10 August 2017, at 12:17 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-234	----	Roman naming conventions - Wikipedia Roman naming conventions From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman naming conventions Over the course of some fourteen centuries, the Romans and other peoples of Italy employed a system of nomenclature that differed from that used by other cultures of Europe and the Mediterranean Sea, consisting of a combination of personal and family names. Although conventionally referred to as the tria nomina, the combination of praenomen, nomen, and cognomen that have come to be regarded as the basic elements of the Roman name in fact represent a continuous process of development, from at least the seventh century BC to the end of the seventh century AD. The names that developed as part of this system became a defining characteristic of Roman civilization, and although the system itself vanished during the Early Middle Ages, the names themselves exerted a profound influence on the development of European naming practices, and many continue to survive in modern languages. Contents 1 Overview 2 Origin and development 3 Tria nomina 3.1 Praenomen 3.2 Nomen 3.3 Cognomen 3.3.1 Agnomen 3.3.1.1 Cognomina ex virtute 3.3.1.2 Adoptive cognomina 4 Filiation 5 Tribe 6 Women's names 7 Foreign names 8 Imperial names 9 Later development 9.1 Binary nomenclature and polyonymy 9.2 Cognomen replaces praenomen 9.3 Edict of Caracalla 9.4 Traditional nomen replaced 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 Bibliography 14 External links Overview[edit] The distinguishing feature of Roman nomenclature was the use of both personal names and regular surnames. Throughout Europe and the Mediterranean, other ancient civilizations distinguished individuals through the use of single personal names, usually dithematic in nature. Consisting of two distinct elements, or "themes", these names allowed for hundreds or even thousands of possible combinations. But a markedly different system of nomenclature arose in Italy, where the personal name was joined by a hereditary surname. Over time, this binomial system expanded to include additional names and designations.[1][2] An Etruscan musician, fresco from the Tomb of the Triclinium, near Tarquinii, c. 470 BC The most important of these names was the nomen gentilicium, or simply nomen, a hereditary surname that identified a person as a member of a distinct gens. This was preceded by the praenomen, or "forename", a personal name that served to distinguish between the different members of a family. For example, a Roman named Publius Lemonius might have sons named Publius, Lucius, and Gaius Lemonius. Here, Lemonius is the nomen, identifying each person in the family as a member of the gens Lemonia; Publius, Lucius, and Gaius are praenomina used to distinguish between them.[1] The origin of this binomial system is lost in prehistory, but it appears to have been established in Latium and Etruria by at least 650 BC.[2] In written form, the nomen was usually followed by a filiation, indicating the personal name of an individual's father, and sometimes the name of the mother or other antecedents. Toward the end of the Roman Republic, this was followed by the name of a citizen's voting tribe. Lastly, these elements could be followed by additional surnames, or cognomina, which could be either personal or hereditary, or a combination of both.[1] The Roman grammarians came to regard the combination of praenomen, nomen, and cognomen as a defining characteristic of Roman citizenship, known as the tria nomina. However, although all three elements of the Roman name existed throughout most of Roman history, the concept of the tria nomina can be misleading, because not all of these names were required or used throughout the whole of Roman history. During the period of the Roman Republic, the praenomen and nomen represented the essential elements of the name; the cognomen first appeared among the Roman aristocracy at the inception of the Republic, but was not widely used among the plebeians, who made up the majority of the Roman people, until the second century BC. Even then, not all Roman citizens bore cognomina, and until the end of the Republic the cognomen was regarded as somewhat less than an official name. By contrast, in imperial times the cognomen became the principal distinguishing element of the Roman name, and although praenomina never completely vanished, the essential elements of the Roman name from the second century onward were the nomen and cognomen.[2] Naming conventions for women also varied from the classical concept of the tria nomina. Originally Roman women shared the binomial nomenclature of men; but over time the praenomen became less useful as a distinguishing element, and women's praenomina were gradually discarded, or replaced by informal names. By the end of the Republic, the majority of Roman women either did not have or did not use praenomina. Most women were called by their nomen alone, or by a combination of nomen and cognomen. Praenomina could still be given when necessary, and as with men's praenomina the practice survived well into imperial times, but the proliferation of personal cognomina eventually rendered women's praenomina obsolete.[1][2] In the later empire, members of the Roman aristocracy used several different schemes of assuming and inheriting nomina and cognomina, both to signify their rank, and to indicate their family and social connections. Some Romans came to be known by alternative names, or signia, and due to the lack of surviving epigraphic evidence, the full nomenclature of most Romans, even among the aristocracy, is seldom recorded.[2] Thus, although the three types of names referred to as the tria nomina existed throughout Roman history, the period during which the majority of citizens possessed exactly three names was relatively brief. Nevertheless, because most of the important individuals during the best-recorded periods of Roman history possessed all three names, the tria nomina remains the most familiar conception of the Roman name.[2] For a variety of reasons, the Roman nomenclature system broke down in the centuries following the collapse of imperial authority in the west. The praenomen had already become scarce in written sources during the fourth century, and by the fifth century it was retained only by the most conservative elements of the old Roman aristocracy, such as the Aurelii Symmachi. Over the course of the sixth century, as Roman institutions and social structures gradually fell away, the need to distinguish between nomina and cognomina likewise vanished. By the end of the seventh century, the people of Italy and western Europe had reverted to single names. But many of the names that had originated as part of the tria nomina were adapted to this usage, and survived into modern times.[1][2] Origin and development[edit] The Shepherd Faustulus Bringing Romulus and Remus to His Wife Nicolas Mignard, 1606–1668 As in other cultures, the early peoples of Italy probably used a single name, which later developed into the praenomen.[1] Marcus Terentius Varro wrote that the earliest Italians used simple names.[3] Names of this type could be honorific or aspirational, or might refer to deities, physical peculiarities, or circumstances of birth.[1] In this early period, the number of personal names must have been quite large; but with the development of additional names the number in widespread use dwindled.[1] By the early Republic, about three dozen Latin praenomina remained in use, some of which were already rare; about eighteen were used by the patricians.[4] Barely a dozen praenomina remained in general use under the Empire, although aristocratic families sometimes revived older praenomina, or created new ones from cognomina.[1] The development of the nomen as the second element of the Italic name cannot be attributed to a specific period or culture. From the earliest period it was common to both the Indo-European speaking Italic peoples and the Etruscans. The historian Livy relates the adoption of Silvius as a nomen by the kings of Alba Longa in honour of their ancestor, Silvius.[i][5] As part of Rome's foundation myth, this statement cannot be regarded as historical fact, but it does indicate the antiquity of the period to which the Romans themselves ascribed the adoption of hereditary surnames.[ii] In Latin, most nomina were formed by adding an adjectival suffix, usually -ius, to the stem of an existing word or name. Frequently this required a joining element, such as -e-, -id-, -il-, or -on-. Many common nomina arose as patronymic surnames; for instance, the nomen Marcius was derived from the praenomen Marcus, and originally signified Marci filius, "son of Marcus". In the same way, Sextius, Publilius, and Lucilius arose from the praenomina Sextus, Publius, and Lucius.[1][iii] This demonstrates that, much like later European surnames, the earliest nomina were not necessarily hereditary, but might be adopted and discarded at will, and changed from one generation to the next. The practice from which these patronymics arose also gave rise to the filiation, which in later times, once the nomen had become fixed, nearly always followed the nomen. Other nomina were derived from names that later came to be regarded as cognomina, such as Plancius from Plancus or Flavius from Flavus; or from place-names, such as Norbanus from Norba.[1] The binomial name consisting of praenomen and nomen eventually spread throughout Italy. Nomina from different languages and regions often have distinctive characteristics; Latin nomina tended to end in -ius, -us, -aius, -eius, -eus, or -aeus, while Oscan names frequently ended in -is or -iis; Umbrian names in -as, -anas, -enas, or -inas, and Etruscan names in -arna, -erna, -ena, -enna, -ina, or -inna. Oscan and Umbrian forms tend to be found in inscriptions; in Roman literature these names are often Latinized.[4] Many individuals added an additional surname, or cognomen, which helped to distinguish between members of larger families. Originally these were simply personal names, which might be derived from a person's physical features, personal qualities, occupation, place of origin, or even an object with which a person was associated. Some cognomina were derived from the circumstance of a person's adoption from one family into another, or were derived from foreign names, such as when a freedman received a Roman praenomen and nomen. Other cognomina commemorated important events associated with a person; a battle in which a man had fought (Regillensis), a town captured (Coriolanus); or a miraculous occurrence (Corvus). The late grammarians distinguished certain cognomina as agnomina.[1] Although originally a personal name, the cognomen frequently became hereditary, especially in large families, or gentes, in which they served to identify distinct branches, known as stirpes. Some Romans had more than one cognomen, and in aristocratic families it was not unheard of for individuals to have as many as three, of which some might be hereditary and some personal. These surnames were initially characteristic of patrician families, but over time cognomina were also acquired by the plebeians. However, a number of distinguished plebeian gentes, such as the Antonii and the Marii, were never divided into different branches, and in these families cognomina were the exception rather than the rule.[1] Cognomina are known from the beginning of the Republic, but were long regarded as informal names, and omitted from most official records before the second century BC. Later inscriptions commemorating the early centuries of the Republic supply these missing surnames, although the authenticity of some of them has been disputed. Under the Empire, however, the cognomen acquired great importance, and the number of cognomina assumed by the Roman aristocracy multiplied exponentially.[1] Adding to the complexity of aristocratic names was the practice of combining the full nomenclature of both one's paternal and maternal ancestors, resulting in some individuals appearing to have two or more complete names. Duplicative or politically undesirable names might be omitted, while the order of names might be rearranged to emphasize those giving the bearer the greatest prestige.[2] Following the promulgation of the Constitutio Antoniniana in AD 212, granting Roman citizenship to all free men living within the Roman Empire, the praenomen and nomen lost much of their distinguishing function, as all of the newly enfranchised citizens shared the name of Marcus Aurelius. The praenomen and sometimes the nomen gradually disappeared from view, crowded out by other names indicating the bearer's rank and social connections. Surviving inscriptions from the fifth century rarely provide a citizen's full nomenclature.[1][2] In the final centuries of the Empire, the traditional nomenclature was sometimes replaced by alternate names, known as signa. In the course of the sixth century, as central authority collapsed and Roman institutions disappeared, the complex forms of Roman nomenclature were abandoned altogether, and the people of Italy and western Europe reverted to single names. Modern European nomenclature developed independently of the Roman model during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. However, many modern names are derived from Roman originals.[1] Tria nomina[edit] The three types of names that have come to be regarded as quintessentially Roman were the praenomen, nomen, and cognomen. Together, these were referred to as the tria nomina. Although not all Romans possessed three names, the practice of using multiple names having different functions was a defining characteristic of Roman culture that distinguished citizens from foreigners. Praenomen[edit] Main article: Praenomen A Roman child. In the Peristyle (1874), John William Waterhouse, 1849–1917 The praenomen was a true personal name, chosen by a child's parents, and bestowed on the dies lustricius, or "day of lustration", a ritual purification performed on the eighth day after the birth of a girl, or the ninth day after the birth of a boy.[iv] Normally all of the children in a family would have different praenomina.[v] Although there was no law restricting the use of specific praenomina,[vi] the choice of the parents was usually governed by custom and family tradition. An eldest son was usually named after his father, and younger sons were named after their father's brothers or other male ancestors. In this way, the same praenomina were passed down in a family from one generation to the next. Not only did this serve to emphasize the continuity of a family across many generations, but the selection of praenomina also distinguished the customs of one gens from another. The patrician gentes in particular tended to limit the number of praenomina that they used far more than the plebeians, which was a way of reinforcing the exclusiveness of their social status.[8] Of course, there were many exceptions to these general practices. A son might be named in honour of one of his maternal relatives, thus bringing a new name into the gens.[9] Because some gentes made regular use of only three or four praenomina, new names might appear whenever a family had more than three or four sons. Furthermore, a number of the oldest and most influential patrician families made a habit of choosing unusual names; in particular the Fabii, Aemilii, Furii, Claudii, Cornelii, and Valerii all used praenomina that were uncommon amongst the patricians, or which had fallen out of general use. In the last two centuries of the Republic, and under the early Empire, it was fashionable for aristocratic families to revive older praenomina.[1] About three dozen Latin praenomina were in use at the beginning of the Republic, although only about eighteen were common. This number fell gradually, until by the first century AD, about a dozen praenomina remained in widespread use, with a handful of others used by particular families.[4] The origin and use of praenomina was a matter of curiosity to the Romans themselves; in De Praenominibus, Probus discusses a number of older praenomina and their meanings.[3] Most praenomina were regularly abbreviated, and rarely written in full.[4] Other praenomina were used by the Oscan, Umbrian, and Etruscan-speaking peoples of Italy, and many of these also had regular abbreviations. Lists of praenomina used by the various people of Italy, together with their usual abbreviations, can be found at praenomen. Roman men were usually known by their praenomina to members of their family and household, clientes and close friends; but outside of this circle, they might be called by their nomen, cognomen, or any combination of praenomen, nomen, and cognomen that was sufficient to distinguish them from other men with similar names.[4] In the literature of the Republic, and on all formal occasions, such as when a senator was called upon to speak, it was customary to address a citizen by praenomen and nomen; or, if this were insufficient to distinguish him from other members of the gens, by praenomen and cognomen.[1][4] In imperial times, the praenomen became increasingly confused by the practices of the aristocracy. The emperors usually prefixed Imperator to their names as a praenomen, while at the same time retaining their own praenomina; but because most of the early emperors were legally adopted by their predecessors, and formally assumed new names, even these were subject to change. Several members of the Julio-Claudian dynasty exchanged their original praenomina for cognomina, or received cognomina in place of praenomina at birth. An emperor might emancipate or enfranchise large groups of people at once, all of whom would automatically receive the emperor's praenomen and nomen. Yet another common practice beginning in the first century AD was to give multiple sons the same praenomen, and distinguish them using different cognomina; by the second century this was becoming the rule, rather than the exception. Another confusing practice was the addition of the full nomenclature of maternal ancestors to the basic tria nomina, so that a man might appear to have two praenomina, one occurring in the middle of his name.[2] Under the weight of these practices and others, the utility of the praenomen to distinguish between men continued to decline, until only the force of tradition prevented its utter abandonment. Over the course of the third century, praenomina become increasingly scarce in written records, and from the fourth century onward their appearance becomes exceptional. The descendants of those who had been granted citizenship by the Constitutio Antoniniana seem to have dispensed with praenomina altogether, and by the end of the western empire, only the oldest Roman families continued to use them.[1][2] Nomen[edit] The nomen gentilicium, or "gentile name",[vii] designated a Roman citizen as a member of a gens. A gens, which may be translated as "race", "family", or "clan", constituted an extended Roman family, all of whom shared the same nomen, and claimed descent from a common ancestor. Particularly in the early Republic, the gens functioned as a state within the state, observing its own sacred rites, and establishing private laws, which were binding on its members, although not on the community as a whole.[10] Cognomen[edit] Main article: Cognomen Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, surnamed "Cunctator". Maximus was the branch of the Fabia gens to which he belonged; Verrucosus was a personal cognomen referring to a wart above his upper lip; Cunctator a cognomen ex virtute referring to his delaying strategy against Hannibal. Statue at Schönbrunn Palace, Vienna The cognomen, the third element of the tria nomina, began as an additional personal name. It was not unique to Rome, but Rome was where the cognomen flourished, as the development of the gens and the gradual decline of the praenomen as a useful means of distinguishing between individuals made the cognomen a useful means of identifying both individuals and whole branches of Rome's leading families. In the early years of the Republic, some aristocratic Romans had as many as three cognomina, some of which were hereditary, while others were personal.[1] Like the nomen, cognomina could arise from any number of factors: personal characteristics, habits, occupations, places of origin, heroic exploits, and so forth. One class of cognomina consisted largely of archaic praenomina that were seldom used by the later Republic, although as cognomina these names persisted throughout Imperial times.[11] Many cognomina had unusual terminations for Latin names, ending in -a, -o, or -io, and their meanings were frequently obscure, even in antiquity; this seems to emphasize the manner in which many cognomina originally arose from nicknames. The -ius termination typical of Latin nomina was generally not used for cognomina until the fourth century AD, making it easier to distinguish between nomina and cognomina until the final centuries of the western empire.[2] Unlike the nomen, which was passed down unchanged from father to son, cognomina could appear and disappear almost at will. They were not normally chosen by the persons who bore them, but were earned or bestowed by others, which may account for the wide variety of unflattering names that were used as cognomina. Doubtless some cognomina were used ironically, while others continued in use largely because, whatever their origin, they were useful for distinguishing among individuals and between branches of large families. New cognomina were coined and came into fashion throughout Roman history.[1] Under the Empire, the number of cognomina increased dramatically. Where once only the most noble patrician houses used multiple surnames, Romans of all backgrounds and social standing might bear several cognomina. By the third century, this had become the norm amongst freeborn Roman citizens. The question of how to classify different cognomina led the grammarians of the fourth and fifth centuries to designate some of them as agnomina.[4] For most of the Republic, the usual manner of distinguishing individuals was through the binomial form of praenomen and nomen. But as the praenomen lost its value as a distinguishing name, and gradually faded into obscurity, its former role was assumed by the versatile cognomen, and the typical manner of identifying individuals came to be by nomen and cognomen; essentially one form of binomial nomenclature was replaced by another, over the course of several centuries. The very lack of regularity that allowed the cognomen to be used as either a personal or a hereditary surname became its strength in imperial times; as a hereditary surname, a cognomen could be used to identify an individual's connection with other noble families, either by descent, or later by association. Individual cognomina could also be used to distinguish between members of the same family; even as siblings came to share the same praenomen, they bore different cognomina, some from the paternal line, and others from their maternal ancestors.[2] Although the nomen was a required element of Roman nomenclature down to the end of the western empire, its usefulness as a distinguishing name declined throughout imperial times, as an increasingly large portion of the population bore nomina such as Flavius or Aurelius, which had been granted en masse to newly enfranchised citizens. As a result, by the third century the cognomen became the most important element of the Roman name, and frequently the only one that was useful for distinguishing between individuals. In the later empire, the proliferation of cognomina was such that the full nomenclature of most individuals was not recorded, and in many cases the only names surviving in extant records are cognomina.[2] By the sixth century, traditional Roman cognomina were frequently prefixed by a series of names with Christian religious significance. As Roman institutions vanished, and the distinction between nomen and cognomen ceased to have any practical importance, the complex system of cognomina that developed under the later empire faded away. The people of the western empire reverted to single names, which were indistinguishable from the cognomina that they replaced; many former praenomina and nomina also survived in this way.[2] Agnomen[edit] Main article: Agnomen The proliferation of cognomina in the later centuries of the Empire led some grammarians to classify certain types as agnomina. This class included two main types of cognomen: the cognomen ex virtute, and cognomina that were derived from nomina, to indicate the parentage of Romans who had been adopted from one gens into another. Although these names had existed throughout Roman history, it was only in this late period that they were distinguished from other cognomina.[4] Cognomina ex virtute[edit] The cognomen ex virtute was a surname derived from some virtuous or heroic episode attributed to the bearer. Roman history is filled with individuals who obtained cognomina as a result of their exploits: Aulus Postumius Albus Regillensis, who commanded the Roman army at the Battle of Lake Regillus; Gaius Marcius Coriolanus, who captured the city of Corioli; Marcus Valerius Corvus, who defeated a giant Gaul in single combat, aided by a raven; Titus Manlius Torquatus, who likewise defeated a Gaulish giant, and took his name from the torque that he claimed as a prize; Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus, who carried the Second Punic War to Africa, and defeated Hannibal. Interestingly, the most famous examples of this class of cognomen come from the period of the Republic, centuries before the concept of the agnomen was formulated. Adoptive cognomina[edit] Main article: Adoption in ancient Rome Adoption was a common and formal process in Roman culture. Its chief purpose had nothing to do with providing homes for children; it was about ensuring the continuity of family lines that might otherwise become extinct. In early Rome, this was especially important for the patricians, who enjoyed tremendous status and privilege compared with the plebeians. Because few families were admitted to the patriciate after the expulsion of the kings, while the number of plebeians continually grew, the patricians continually struggled to preserve their wealth and influence. A man who had no sons to inherit his property and preserve his family name would adopt one of the younger sons from another family. In time, as the plebeians also acquired wealth and gained access to the offices of the Roman state, they too came to participate in the Roman system of adoption.[12][13] Since the primary purpose of adoption was to preserve the name and status of the adopter, an adopted son would usually assume both the praenomen and nomen of his adoptive father, together with any hereditary cognomina, just as an eldest son would have done. However, adoption did not result in the complete abandonment of the adopted son's birth name. The son's original nomen (or occasionally cognomen) would become the basis of a new surname, formed by adding the derivative suffix -anus or -inus to the stem. Thus, when a son of Lucius Aemilius Paullus was adopted by Publius Cornelius Scipio, he became Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus; in his will, the dictator Gaius Julius Caesar adopted his grandnephew, Gaius Octavius, who became known as Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus.[1][4][12] Filiation[edit] Apart from the praenomen, the filiation was the oldest element of the Roman name. Even before the development of the nomen as a hereditary surname, it was customary to use the name of a person's father as a means of distinguishing him or her from others with the same personal name, like a patronymic; thus Lucius, the son of Marcus would be Lucius, Marci filius; Paulla, the daughter of Quintus, would be Paulla, Quinti filia. Many nomina were derived in the same way, and most praenomina have at least one corresponding nomen, such as Lucilius, Marcius, Publilius, Quinctius, or Servilius. These are known as patronymic surnames, because they are derived from the name of the original bearer's father. Even after the development of the nomen and cognomen, filiation remained a useful means of distinguishing between members of a large family.[4]   "Dedicated by the emperor Caesar, son of the divine Marcus Antoninus Pius, brother of the divine Commodus, grandson of the divine Antoninus Pius, great-grandson of the divine Hadrian, great-great-grandson of the divine Trajan, conqueror of Parthia, great-great-great-grandson of the divine Nerva, Lucius Septimius Severus Pius Pertinax Augustus Arabicus Adiabenicus, father of his country, Pontifex Maximus, holding the tribunician power for the fourth year, in the eighth year of his imperium, consul for the second time; and Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Caesar" Filiations were normally written between the nomen and any cognomina, and abbreviated using the typical abbreviations for praenomina, followed by f. for filius or filia, and sometimes n. for nepos (grandson) or neptis (granddaughter). Thus, the inscription S. Postumius A. f. P. n. Albus Regillensis means "Spurius Postumius Albus Regillensis, of Aulus the son, of Publius the grandson". "Tiberius Aemilius Mamercinus, the son of Lucius and grandson of Mamercus" would be written Ti. Aemilius L. f. Mam. n. Mamercinus. The more formal the writing, the more generations might be included; a great-grandchild would be pron. or pronep. for pronepos or proneptis, a great-great-grandchild abn. or abnep. for abnepos or abneptis, and a great-great-great-grandchild adnepos or adneptis.[viii] However, these forms are rarely included as part of a name, except on the grandest of monumental inscriptions.[14] The filiation sometimes included the name of the mother, in which case gnatus[ix] would follow the mother's name, instead of filius or filia.[x] This is especially common in families of Etruscan origin. The names of married women were sometimes followed by the husband's name and uxor for "wife". N. Fabius Q. f. M. n. Furia gnatus Maximus means "Numerius Fabius Maximus, son of Quintus, grandson of Marcus, born of Furia",[xi] while Claudia L. Valeri uxor would be "Claudia, wife of Lucius Valerius". Slaves and freedmen also possessed filiations, although in this case the person referred to is usually the slave's owner, rather than his or her father. The abbreviations here include s. for servus or serva and l. for libertus or liberta. A slave might have more than one owner, in which case the names could be given serially. In some cases the owner's nomen or cognomen was used instead of or in addition to the praenomen. The liberti of women sometimes used an inverted "C", signifying the feminine praenomen Gaia, here used generically to mean any woman; and there are a few examples of an inverted "M", although it is not clear whether this was used generically, or specifically for the feminine praenomen Marca or Marcia.[11] An example of the filiation of slaves and freedmen would be: Alexander Corneli L. s., "Alexander, slave of Lucius Cornelius", who upon his emancipation would probably become L. Cornelius L. l. Alexander, "Lucius Cornelius Alexander, freedman of Lucius"; it was customary for a freedman to take the praenomen of his former owner, if he did not already have one, and to use his original personal name as a cognomen. Another example might be Salvia Pompeia Cn. Ɔ. l., "Salvia Pompeia, freedwoman of Gnaeus (Pompeius) and Gaia"; here Gaia is used generically, irrespective of whether Pompeius' wife was actually named Gaia. A freedman of the emperor might have the filiation Aug. l., Augusti libertus. Although filiation was common throughout the history of the Republic and well into imperial times, no law governed its use or inclusion in writing. It was used by custom and for convenience, but could be ignored or discarded, as it suited the needs of the writer. Tribe[edit] Main article: Roman tribe From the beginning of the Roman Republic, all citizens were enumerated in one of the tribes making up the comitia tributa, or "tribal assembly". This was the most democratic of Rome's three main legislative assemblies of the Roman Republic, in that all citizens could participate on an equal basis, without regard to wealth or social status. Over time, its decrees, known as plebi scita, or "plebiscites" became binding on the whole Roman people. Although much of the assembly's authority was usurped by the emperors, membership in a tribe remained an important part of Roman citizenship, so that the name of the tribe came to be incorporated into a citizen's full nomenclature.[15][16][17] The number of tribes varied over time; tradition ascribed the institution of thirty tribes to Servius Tullius, the sixth King of Rome, but ten of these were destroyed at the beginning of the Republic. Several tribes were added between 387 and 241 BC, as large swaths of Italy came under Roman control, bringing the total number of tribes to thirty-five; except for a brief experiment at the end of the Social War in 88 BC, this number remained fixed. The nature of the tribes was mainly geographic, rather than ethnic; inhabitants of Rome were, in theory, assigned to one of the four "urban" tribes, while the territory beyond the city was allocated to the "rural" or "rustic" tribes.[15][16] Geography was not the sole determining factor in one's tribus; at times efforts were made to assign freedmen to the four urban tribes, thus concentrating their votes and limiting their influence on the comitia tributa. Perhaps for similar reasons, when large numbers of provincials gained the franchise, certain rural tribes were preferred for their enrollment. Citizens did not normally change tribes when they moved from one region to another; but the censors had the power to punish a citizen by expelling him from one of the rural tribes and assigning him to one of the urban tribes. In later periods, most citizens were enrolled in tribes without respect to geography.[16] Precisely when it became common to include the name of a citizen's tribus as part of his full nomenclature is uncertain. The name of the tribe normally follows the filiation and precedes any cognomina, suggesting that it occurred before the cognomen was recognized as a formal part of the Roman name; so probably no later than the second century BC. However, in both writing and inscriptions, the tribus is found with much less frequency than other parts of the name; so the custom of including it does not seem to have been deeply ingrained in Roman practice. As with the filiation, it was common to abbreviate the name of the tribe. For the names of the thirty-five tribes and their abbreviations, see Roman tribe.[15] Women's names[edit] Main article: Naming conventions for women in ancient Rome A Roman woman, attired as a Priestess of Vesta, performing sacred rites. Invocation Frederic Leighton (1830–1896) In the earliest period, the binomial nomenclature of praenomen and nomen that developed throughout Italy was shared by both men and women.[1] Most praenomina had both masculine and feminine forms, although a number of praenomina common to women were seldom or never used by men. Just as men's praenomina, women's names were regularly abbreviated instead of being written in full.[18] A list of women's praenomina can be found at praenomen. For a variety of reasons, women's praenomina became neglected over the course of Roman history, and by the end of the Republic, most women did not have or did not use praenomina. They did not disappear entirely, nor were Roman women bereft of personal names; but for most of Roman history women were known chiefly by their nomina or cognomina.[1] The first of these reasons is probably that the praenomen itself lost much of its original utility following the adoption of hereditary surnames. The number of praenomina commonly used by both men and women declined throughout Roman history. For men, who might hold public office or serve in the military, the praenomen remained an important part of the legal name. But, as in other ancient societies, Roman women played little role in public life, so the factors that resulted in the continuation of men's praenomina did not exist for women. Another factor was probably that the praenomen was not usually necessary to distinguish between women within the family. Because a Roman woman did not change her nomen when she married, her nomen alone was usually sufficient to distinguish her from every other member of the family. As Latin names had distinctive masculine and feminine forms, the nomen was sufficient to distinguish a daughter from both of her parents and all of her brothers. Thus, there was no need for a personal name unless there were multiple sisters in the same household.[2] When this occurred, praenomina could be and frequently were used to distinguish between sisters. However, it was also common to identify sisters using a variety of names, some of which could be used as either praenomina or cognomina. For example, if Publius Servilius had two daughters, they would typically be referred to as Servilia Major and Servilia Minor. If there were more daughters, the eldest might be called Servilia Prima or Servilia Maxima;[xii] younger daughters as Servilia Secunda, Tertia, Quarta, etc. All of these names could be used as praenomina, preceding the nomen, but common usage from the later Republic onward was to treat them as personal cognomina; when these names appear in either position, it is frequently impossible to determine whether they were intended as praenomina or cognomina.[11][18] Although women's praenomina were infrequently used in the later Republic, they continued to be used, when needed, into imperial times. Among the other peoples of Italy, women's praenomina continued to be used regularly until the populace was thoroughly Romanized. In the Etruscan culture, where women held a markedly higher social status than at Rome or in other ancient societies, inscriptions referring to women nearly always include praenomina.[18] Avlia L.F. Secunda Aulia Secunda, daughter of Lucius Most Roman women were known by their nomina, with such distinction as described above for older and younger siblings. If further distinction were needed, she could be identified as a particular citizen's daughter or wife. For instance, Cicero refers to a woman as Annia P. Anni senatoris filia, which means "Annia, daughter of Publius Annius, the senator".[2] However, toward the end of the Republic, as hereditary cognomina came to be regarded as proper names, a woman might be referred to by her cognomen instead, or by a combination of nomen and cognomen; the daughter of Lucius Caecilius Metellus was usually referred to as Caecilia Metella. Sometimes these cognomina were given diminutive forms, such as Agrippina from the masculine Agrippa, or Drusilla from Drusus.[1] In imperial times, other, less formal names were sometimes used to distinguish between women with similar names. Still later, Roman women, like men, adopted signa, or alternative names, in place of their Roman names. With the fall of the western empire in the fifth century, the last traces of the distinctive Italic nomenclature system began to disappear, and women too reverted to single names. Foreign names[edit] As Roman territory expanded beyond Italy, many foreigners obtained Roman citizenship, and adopted Roman names. Often these were discharged auxiliary soldiers, or the leaders of annexed towns and peoples. Customarily a newly enfranchised citizen would adopt the praenomen and nomen of his patron; that is, the person who had adopted or manumitted him, or otherwise procured his citizenship. But many such individuals retained a portion of their original names, usually in the form of cognomina. This was especially true for citizens of Greek origin. A name such as T. Flavius Aristodemus or Gaius Julius Hyginus would be typical of such persons, although in form these names are not distinguishable from those of freedmen.[xiii][1] The Constitutio Antoniniana promulgated by Caracalla in AD 212 was perhaps the most far-reaching of many imperial decrees enfranchising large numbers of non-citizens living throughout the empire. It extended citizenship to all free inhabitants of the empire, all of whom thus received the name Marcus Aurelius, after the emperor's praenomen and nomen. The result was that vast numbers of individuals who had never possessed praenomina or nomina formally shared the same names. In turn, many of the "new Romans" promptly discarded their praenomina, and ignored their nomina except when required by formality. As a result, the cognomina adopted by these citizens, often including their original non-Latin names, became the most important part of their nomenclature.[2] Imperial names[edit] During the Republic, a person's names were usually static and predictable, unless he were adopted into a new family or obtained a new surname. In imperial times, however, names became highly variable and subject to change. Perhaps no names were more variable than those of the emperors. For example, the first emperor, known conventionally as Augustus, began life as C. Octavius C. f., or Gaius Octavius, the son of Gaius Octavius. His ancestors had borne the same name for at least four generations.[19] Although the Octavii were an old and distinguished plebeian family, the gens was not divided into stirpes and had no hereditary cognomina; Octavius' father had put down a slave revolt at Thurii and was sometimes given the surname Thurinus (a cognomen ex virtute), but this name was not passed down to the son. At the age of eighteen in 44 BC, Octavius was nominated magister equitum by his granduncle, Gaius Julius Caesar, who held the office of dictator. On the Ides of March, Caesar was assassinated, without legitimate children; but in his will he adopted his nephew, who then became C. Julius C. f. Caesar Octavianus, "Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, son of Gaius". Thus far, his name follows the Republican model, becoming that of his adoptive father, followed by his original nomen in the form of an agnomen. Two years later, Caesar was deified by the Roman Senate, and Octavian, as he was then known, was styled Divi f., "son of the divine (Caesar)", instead of C. f.. Still later, after having been acclaimed Imperator by the troops under his command, Octavian assumed this title as an additional praenomen, becoming Imp. C. Julius Divi f. Caesar Octavianus; in some inscriptions his original praenomen is discarded altogether. In 27 BC, the Senate granted him the title of Augustus, which would ever after be affixed as a cognomen to the names of the Roman emperors. A similar pattern was followed by Augustus' heirs. The emperor's stepson and eventual successor was born Tiberius Claudius Nero; after his adoption by the emperor, he became Tiberius Julius Caesar (retaining his original praenomen). His brother, born Decimus Claudius Nero, subsequently became Nero Claudius Drusus, exchanging his original praenomen for his paternal cognomen, and assuming a new cognomen from his maternal grandfather. Other members of the Julio-Claudian dynasty used praenomina such as Drusus and Germanicus. In subsequent generations, all reigning emperors assumed Imperator as an additional praenomen (usually without foregoing their original praenomina), and Augustus as a cognomen. Caesar came to be used as a cognomen designating an heir apparent; and for the first two centuries of the empire, most emperors were adopted by their predecessors. The result was that each emperor bore a series of names that had more to do with the previous emperor than the names with which he had been born. They added new cognomina as they fought and conquered enemies and new lands, and their filiations recorded their descent from a series of gods. As the names of the emperors themselves changed, so did the names of the members of their families. Later development[edit] During the Empire, a variety of new naming conventions developed which, while differing, were internally coherent.[20] Binary nomenclature and polyonymy[edit] Under the "High Empire", the new aristocracy began adopting two or more nomina – a practice which has been termed 'binary nomenclature'.[21] This arose out of a desire to incorporate distinguished maternal ancestry in a name or, in order to inherit property, an heir was required by a will to incorporate the testator's name into his own name.[22] For example, the suffect consul of AD 118/9, Gaius Bruttius Praesens Lucius Fulvius Rusticus, has a name which is composed of two standard sets of tria nomina: he was the natural son of a Lucius Bruttius, and added the nomina of his maternal grandfather, Lucius Fulvius Rusticus, to his paternal nomina.[22] In order to reflect an illustrious pedigree or other connections, the aristocracy expanded the binary nomenclature concept to include other nomina from an individual's paternal and maternal ancestry.[22] There was no limit to the number of names which could be added in this way (known as polyonomy), and, for example, the consul of 169 AD, (usually called Q. Sosius Priscus) had thirty-eight names comprising fourteen sets of nomina reflecting a complex pedigree stretching back three generations.[22] Cognomen replaces praenomen[edit] The praenomen, even under the classic system, had never been particularly distinctive because of the limited number of praenomina available.[23] Between the late Republic and the second century AD, the praenomen gradually became less used and eventually disappeared altogether.[21] Even among the senatorial aristocracy it became a rarity by about 300 AD.[21] In part this came about through a tendency for the same praenomen to be given to all males of a family, thereby fossilizing a particular preaenomen/nomen combination and making the praenomen even less distinctive e.g. all males in the emperor Vespasian's family (including all his sons) had the praenomen/nomen combination Titus Flavius:[24] Titus Flavius Petro Titus Flavius Sabinus (married Vespasia Polla) Titus Flavius Sabinus Titus Flavius Vespasianus emperor Vespasian (married Flavia Domitilla) Titus Flavius Sabinus Titus Flavius Clemens Titus Flavius Vespasianus emperor Titus Titus Flavius Domitianus emperor Domitian The cognomen, as in Vespasian's family, then assumed the distinguishing function for individuals; where this happened, the cognomen replaced the praenomen in intimate address.[24] The result was that two names remained in use for formal public address but instead of praenomen + nomen, it became nomen + cognomen.[24] Edict of Caracalla[edit] With the Constitutio Antoniniana in 212, the emperor Caracalla granted Roman citizenship to all free inhabitants of the empire. It had long been the expectation that when a non-Roman acquired citizenship he, as part of his enfranchisement, took on a Roman name.[25] With the mass enfranchisement of 212, the new citizens adopted the nomen "Aurelius" in recognition of Caracalla's beneficence[24] (the emperor's full name was Marcus Aurelius Severus Antoninus Augustus, with Aurelius as the nomen). "Aurelius" quickly became the most common nomen in the east and the second most common (after "Julius") in the west.[26] The change in the origins of the new governing elite that assumed control of the empire from the end of the third century can be seen in their names: seven of the eleven emperors between Gallienus and Diocletian (Claudius Gothicus, Quintillus, Probus, Carus, Carinus, Numerian and Maximian) bore the name "Marcus Aurelius"[27] Although praenomina were not adopted by the new citizens, reflecting the pre-existing decline amongst "old" Romans,[25] in the west the new names were formulated on the same basis as the existing Roman practices.[26] In the east, however, the new citizens formulated their names by placing "Aurelius" before versions of their non-Roman given name and a patronymic.[26] Ultimately, the ubiquity of "Aurelius" meant that it could not function as a true distinguishing nomen, and became primarily just a badge of citizenship added to any name.[26] Traditional nomen replaced[edit] Although a nomen would long be required for official purposes, and, in isolated corners of the empire and in parts of Italy, its usage would persist into the seventh century, the nomen was generally omitted from the name (even of emperors) by the third century.[28] Two factors encouraged its frequent non-use. Firstly, the cognomen increasingly became the distinguishing name and general name of address.[28] As a result, "New Romans" and, under their influence, "old Romans" too, either dropped the nomen from their name[28] or, in some cases, treated the nomen as a praenomen.[27] Secondly, with the nomen becoming an increasingly fossilized formality, non-Italian families, even those who had acquired citizenship and a nomen prior to 212, began to ignore their nomen.[28] When a nomen was required for official purposes they would simply put the default nomen of "Aurelius" in front of their name, rather than use their actual nomen.[28] See also[edit] Ancient Greek personal names Latinisation of names – Practice of rendering a non-Latin name in a Latin style Notes[edit] ^ Livy refers to this as a cognomen, or "surname", which in later Roman practice was the third element of the Roman tria nomina; but it must be remembered that the word nomen simply means "name", and before the adoption of a second name, this is how the praenomen would have been called; thus, the first surnames adopted would have been known as cognomina before their gradually-increasing importance caused the word nomen to refer to them, while the original personal name became known as the praenomen, or "forename".[5] ^ Although a few individuals mentioned in relation to the period of and before Rome's legendary foundation in the eighth century BC are known by only a single name, it is equally difficult to discern which of these represent actual historical figures, and if so, whether their names were accurately remembered by the historians who recorded these myths centuries later. Romulus and Remus, together with their foster-father, the herdsman Faustulus, are among those easily remembered; but even supposing that Romulus and Remus are the names of historical persons, they belonged, in theory, to the royal house of the Silvii; or they might have borne no surname because they were said to have been fathered by Mars himself. Meanwhile, Faustulus may represent a mythical personage interjected into Rome's foundation legend; although it may be noted that his name is a diminutive of the Latin praenomen Faustus. Almost all other persons mentioned as part of the traditions surrounding Romulus as the first King of Rome have both praenomen and nomen.[4][6] ^ So common was this practice that nearly all Latin praenomina gave rise to patronymic nomina, including many that were uncommon in historical times. ^ In his treatise, De Praenominibus, Probus cites Quintus Mucius Scaevola, an authority on Roman law, for the proposition that boys did not receive a praenomen before assuming the Toga virilis, signifying the transition into adulthood, and that girls did not receive a praenomen before marriage.[3] But this appears to refer to some sort of formal ceremony in which a praenomen was granted or confirmed, rather than the original act of naming. The funerary inscriptions of many Romans who died in childhood conclusively demonstrate that Roman children had praenomina.[4] ^ As usual, there were exceptions to this policy as well; for instance, among the Fabii Maximi, several brothers in a single family were all named Quintus; in the first century AD, the Flavii Sabini all bore the praenomen Titus, but were distinguished in each generation by the use of different cognomina. Also, because praenomina had grammatical gender, a brother and sister could have the same praenomen, in masculine and feminine forms, and still be easily distinguished. ^ A few exceptions are noted by the ancient historians; for example, supposedly no member of the Junia gens was named Titus or Tiberius after two brothers of this name, sons of the consul Lucius Junius Brutus, were put to death for plotting to restore the Roman monarchy. The Manlia gens is said to have forbidden the use of Marcus after the condemnation of Marcus Manlius Capitolinus;[7] and after the death of Marcus Antonius and the execution of his son, it was decreed that none of the Antonii should ever again be named Marcus. However, all of these supposed prohibitions were subsequently broken. ^ Although this use of the term gentile has the same origin as the term used to distinguish non-Jews from the Jewish population, its meaning is purely civil, and has nothing to do with ethnic or religious identity; in this use it simply refers to a member of a gens, distinguished by his or her surname, and in this sense the term gentile name is used today without any religious connotation, despite (or perhaps because of) the use of Christian name to refer to personal names. In this sense, Romanized Jews could also be gentiles, and gentiles could be Jewish! This is also the origin of the term gentleman; the association of gentlemen with courtesy developed later. ^ Also spelled atnepos and atneptis. ^ Also spelled natus; this could be abbreviated gn., gnat., or, perhaps confusingly, n. ^ Evidently there were exceptions to this as well. CIL ii. 4566 gives the name Fabia Domitia Ɔ. f. Secunda, in which Ɔ. f. can only be read "Gaiae filia" (the use of an inverted C. for "Gaia" was common in the filiations of freedmen, but apparently not restricted to them; see below); this may be the same woman referred to as Fabia Domitia D. f. Secunda, CIL ii. 1806, in the latter case giving her father's name. Both inscriptions are from Roman Spain, and are also notable for the doubled nomen and for the cognomen Secunda, which in this case is really a praenomen placed after the filiation, a common practice in Roman women's names of this period. ^ Note that while the names of the father and grandfather are genitive (Quinti filius, Marci nepos), the mother's name is ablative; the translation "born of" is simply idiomatic in English. "Born to" would also be idiomatic, but could imply the dative case. ^ However, the eldest daughter, who might have been called by her nomen alone for several years, might continue to be so called even after the birth of younger sisters; in this case only the younger sisters might receive distinctive personal names. ^ In such cases, the filiation, if present, would indicate if someone were a freedman; but in these particular instances the nomina suggest citizens of provincial origin, who have been enfranchised by imperial decree. References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z Oxford Classical Dictionary, 2nd Ed. (1970), "Names, Personal." ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Benet Salway, "What's in a Name? A Survey of Roman Onomastic Practice from c. 700 B.C. to A.D. 700", in Journal of Roman Studies, vol. 84, pp. 124–145 (1994). ^ a b c Gaius Titius Probus, De Praenominibus, epitome by Julius Paris. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities, Second Edition, Harry Thurston Peck, Editor (1897), "Nomen." ^ a b Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita i. 3. ^ Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita i. 4–16. ^ Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita vi. 20. ^ Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft. ^ Sextus Pompeius Festus, epitome of Marcus Verrius Flaccus, De Verborum Significatu, s.v. "Numerius." ^ Oxford Classical Dictionary, 2nd Ed. (1970), "Gens." ^ a b c George Davis Chase, "The Origin of Roman Praenomina", in Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, vol. VIII (1897). ^ a b Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities, Second Edition, Harry Thurston Peck, Editor (1897), "Adoption." ^ Oxford Classical Dictionary, 2nd Ed. (1970), "Adoption." ^ James Chidester Egbert, Jr., Introduction to the Study of Latin Inscriptions (American Book Company, 1896). ^ a b c Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities, Second Edition, Harry Thurston Peck, Editor (1897), "Tribus." ^ a b c Oxford Classical Dictionary, 2nd Ed. (1970), "Tribus." ^ Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities, Second Edition, Harry Thurston Peck, Editor (1897), "Comitia." ^ a b c Mika Kajava [fi], Roman Female Praenomina: Studies in the Nomenclature of Roman Women (1994), ISBN 951-96902-1-2 ^ CIL VI, 41023 ^ Salway, p.145 ^ a b c Salway, p.131 ^ a b c d Salway, p.132 ^ Flower, Harriet (ed.) (2004-01-19). The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-521-00390-2.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) ^ a b c d Salway, p.130 ^ a b Salway, p.133 ^ a b c d Salway, p.134 ^ a b Salway, p.136 ^ a b c d e Salway, p.135 Bibliography[edit] Salway, Benet (1994). "What's in a Name? A Survey of Roman Onomastic Practice from c. 700 B.C. to A.D. 700" (PDF). Journal of Roman Studies. 84: 124–145. doi:10.2307/300873. Cambridge Latin Course, University of Cambridge Press 2004, ISBN 0-521-78230-9 Liberati, Anna Maria and Bourbon, Fabio (2005), Ancient Rome, Barnes and Noble Press, ISBN 0-7607-6234-1 External links[edit] Roman Names Names of Byzantine Romans in Turkish v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs 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en-wikipedia-org-2352	----	Cambridge - Wikipedia Cambridge From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the English city. For the city in Massachusetts, United States, see Cambridge, Massachusetts. For other uses, see Cambridge (disambiguation). City and non-metropolitan district in England Cambridge City of Cambridge City and non-metropolitan district King's College Chapel, seen from the Backs Coat of arms Cambridge shown within Cambridgeshire Cambridge Location within England Show map of England Cambridge Location within the United Kingdom Show map of the United Kingdom Cambridge Location within Europe Show map of Europe Coordinates: 52°12′19″N 0°07′09″E / 52.20528°N 0.11917°E / 52.20528; 0.11917 Sovereign state  United Kingdom Country  England Region East of England Ceremonial county  Cambridgeshire Admin HQ Cambridge Guildhall Founded 1st century City status 1951 Government  • Type Non-metropolitan district, city  • Governing body Cambridge City Council  • Mayor Russ McPherson (L)  • MPs: Daniel Zeichner (L) Anthony Browne (C) Area  • Total 40.7 km2 (15.71 sq mi) Elevation 6 m (20 ft) Population (mid-2019 est. -)  • Total 124,798 (ranked 186th)  • Ethnicity (2011)[1] 66% White British 1.4% White Irish 15% White Other 1.7% Black British 3.2% Mixed Race 11% British Asian & Chinese 1.6% other Demonym(s) Cantabrigian Time zone UTC+0 (Greenwich Mean Time)  • Summer (DST) UTC+1 (BST) Postcode CB1 – CB5 Area code(s) 01223 ONS code 12UB (ONS) E07000008 (GSS) OS grid reference TL450588 Website www.cambridge.gov.uk Cambridge (/ˈkeɪmbrɪdʒ/[2] KAYM-brij) is a university city and the county town of Cambridgeshire, England, on the River Cam approximately 55 miles (89 km) north of London. At the United Kingdom Census 2011, the population of the Cambridge built-up area (which is larger than the remit of Cambridge City Council) was 158,434 including 29,327 students.[3] Cambridge became an important trading centre during the Roman and Viking ages, and there is archaeological evidence of settlement in the area as early as the Bronze Age. The first town charters were granted in the 12th century, although modern city status was not officially conferred until 1951. The University of Cambridge was founded in 1209.[4] The buildings of the university include King's College Chapel, Cavendish Laboratory, and the Cambridge University Library, one of the largest legal deposit libraries in the world. The city's skyline is dominated by several college buildings, along with the spire of the Our Lady and the English Martyrs Church, and the chimney of Addenbrooke's Hospital. Anglia Ruskin University, which evolved from the Cambridge School of Art and the Cambridgeshire College of Arts and Technology, also has its main campus in the city. Cambridge is at the heart of the high-technology Silicon Fen with industries such as software and bioscience and many start-up companies born out of the university. Over 40 per cent of the workforce have a higher education qualification, more than twice the national average. The Cambridge Biomedical Campus, one of the largest biomedical research clusters in the world, is soon to house premises of AstraZeneca, a hotel, and the relocated Royal Papworth Hospital.[5] The first game of association football took place at Parker's Piece. The Strawberry Fair music and arts festival and Midsummer Fair are held on Midsummer Common, and the annual Cambridge Beer Festival takes place on Jesus Green. The city is adjacent to the M11 and A14 roads. Cambridge station is less than an hour from London King's Cross railway station. Contents 1 History 1.1 Prehistory 1.2 Roman 1.3 Medieval 1.4 Early modern 1.5 Early-industrial era 1.6 20th and 21st centuries 2 Governance 2.1 Local government 2.2 Westminster 3 Geography and environment 3.1 Climate 3.2 Ecology 3.3 Green belt 4 Demography 4.1 Historical population 5 Economy 6 Transport 6.1 Rail 7 Education 8 Sport 8.1 Football 8.2 Cricket 8.3 Rugby 8.4 Watersports 8.5 Greyhound racing 8.6 Other sports 8.7 Varsity sports 9 Culture 9.1 Theatre 9.2 Museums 9.3 Music 9.3.1 Popular music 9.3.2 Classical music 9.4 Contemporary art 9.5 Festivals and events 9.6 Literature and film 10 Public services 11 Religion 12 Twinned cities 13 Panoramic gallery 14 See also 15 Notes 16 References 17 Further reading 18 External links History[edit] See also: Timeline of Cambridge Prehistory[edit] See also: Prehistoric Britain and British Iron Age Settlements have existed around the Cambridge area since prehistoric times. The earliest clear evidence of occupation is the remains of a 3,500-year-old farmstead discovered at the site of Fitzwilliam College.[6] Archaeological evidence of occupation through the Iron Age is a settlement on Castle Hill from the 1st century BC, perhaps relating to wider cultural changes occurring in southeastern Britain linked to the arrival of the Belgae.[7] Roman[edit] Main article: Duroliponte The principal Roman site is a small fort (castrum) Duroliponte on Castle Hill, just northwest of the city centre around the location of the earlier British village. The fort was bounded on two sides by the lines formed by the present Mount Pleasant, continuing across Huntingdon Road into Clare Street. The eastern side followed Magrath Avenue, with the southern side running near to Chesterton Lane and Kettle's Yard before turning northwest at Honey Hill.[8] It was constructed around AD 70 and converted to civilian use around 50 years later. Evidence of more widespread Roman settlement has been discovered including numerous farmsteads[9] and a village in the Cambridge district of Newnham.[10] Medieval[edit] Trinity Street, pictured in 2008. Trinity College is on the left, with St John's College in the background. Following the Roman withdrawal from Britain around 410, the location may have been abandoned by the Britons, although the site is usually identified as Cair Grauth[11] listed among the 28 cities of Britain by the History of the Britons.[12][14] Evidence exists that the invading Anglo-Saxons had begun occupying the area by the end of the century.[15] Their settlement – also on and around Castle Hill – became known as Grantebrycge.[17] ("Granta-bridge"). (By Middle English, the settlement's name had changed to "Cambridge", and the lower stretches of the Granta changed their name to match.[18]) Anglo-Saxon grave goods have been found in the area. During this period, Cambridge benefited from good trade links across the hard-to-travel fenlands. By the 7th century, the town was less significant and described by Bede as a "little ruined city" containing the burial site of Etheldreda.[16] Cambridge was on the border between the East and Middle Anglian kingdoms and the settlement slowly expanded on both sides of the river.[16] St Bene't's Church, the oldest standing building in Cambridgeshire, situated next to Corpus Christi College[19] Peterhouse was the first college to be founded in the University of Cambridge. The President's Lodge, Queens' College. The arrival of the Vikings was recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 875. Viking rule, the Danelaw, had been imposed by 878[20] Their vigorous trading habits caused the town to grow rapidly. During this period the centre of the town shifted from Castle Hill on the left bank of the river to the area now known as the Quayside on the right bank.[20] After the Viking period, the Saxons enjoyed a return to power, building churches such as St Bene't's Church, wharves, merchant houses and a mint, which produced coins with the town's name abbreviated to "Grant".[20] In 1068, two years after his conquest of England, William of Normandy built a castle on Castle Hill.[16] Like the rest of the newly conquered kingdom, Cambridge fell under the control of the King and his deputies. The first town charter was granted by Henry I between 1120 and 1131. It gave Cambridge monopoly of waterborne traffic and hithe tolls and recognised the borough court.[21] The distinctive Round Church dates from this period.[22] In 1209, Cambridge University was founded by Oxford students fleeing from hostility.[23][24] The oldest existing college, Peterhouse, was founded in 1284.[25] In 1349 Cambridge was affected by the Black Death. Few records survive but 16 of 40 scholars at King's Hall died.[26] The town north of the river was severely affected being almost wiped out.[27] Following further depopulation after a second national epidemic in 1361, a letter from the Bishop of Ely suggested that two parishes in Cambridge be merged as there were not enough people to fill even one church.[26] With more than a third of English clergy dying in the Black Death, four new colleges were established at the university over the following years to train new clergymen, namely Gonville Hall, Trinity Hall, Corpus Christi and Clare.[28] In 1382 a revised town charter effects a "diminution of the liberties that the community had enjoyed", due to Cambridge's participation in the Peasants' Revolt. The charter transfers supervision of baking and brewing, weights and measures, and forestalling and regrating, from the town to the university.[21] King's College Chapel, was begun in 1446 by King Henry VI.[29] The chapel was built in phases by a succession of kings of England from 1446 to 1515, its history intertwined with the Wars of the Roses, and completed during the reign of King Henry VIII.[29] The building would become synonymous with Cambridge, and currently is used in the logo for the City Council.[30] Early modern[edit] Cambridge in 1575 Following repeated outbreaks of pestilence throughout the 16th Century,[31] sanitation and fresh water were brought to Cambridge by the construction of Hobson's Conduit in the early 1600s. Water was brought from Nine Wells, at the foot of the Gog Magog Hills, into the centre of the town.[32] Cambridge played a significant role in the early part of the English Civil War as it was the headquarters of the Eastern Counties Association, an organisation administering a regional East Anglian army, which became the mainstay of the Parliamentarian military effort before the formation of the New Model Army.[33] In 1643 control of the town was given by Parliament to Oliver Cromwell, who had been educated at Sidney Sussex College.[34] The town's castle was fortified and garrisoned with troops and some bridges were destroyed to aid its defence. Although Royalist forces came within 2 miles (3 km) of the town in 1644, the defences were never used and the garrison was stood down the following year.[33] Early-industrial era[edit] In the 19th century, in common with many other English towns, Cambridge expanded rapidly, due in part to increased life expectancy and improved agricultural production leading to increased trade in town markets.[35] The Inclosure Acts of 1801 and 1807 enabled the town to expand over surrounding open fields and in 1912 and again in 1935 its boundaries were extended to include Chesterton, Cherry Hinton, and Trumpington.[33] The railway came to Cambridge in 1845 after initial resistance, with the opening of the Great Eastern Railway's London to Norwich line. The station was outside the town centre following pressure from the university to restrict travel by undergraduates.[36] With the arrival of the railway and associated employment came development of areas around the station, such as Romsey Town.[37] The rail link to London stimulated heavier industries, such as the production of brick, cement and malt.[35] 20th and 21st centuries[edit] From the 1930s to the 1980s, the size of the city was increased by several large council estates.[38] The biggest impact has been on the area north of the river, which are now the estates of East Chesterton, King's Hedges, and Arbury where Archbishop Rowan Williams lived and worked as an assistant priest in the early 1980s.[39] During the Second World War, Cambridge was an important centre for defence of the east coast. The town became a military centre, with an R.A.F. training centre and the regional headquarters for Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire, Hertfordshire, and Bedfordshire established during the conflict.[33] The town itself escaped relatively lightly from German bombing raids, which were mainly targeted at the railway. 29 people were killed and no historic buildings were damaged. In 1944, a secret meeting of military leaders held in Trinity College laid the foundation for the allied invasion of Europe.[35] During the war Cambridge served as an evacuation centre for over 7,000 people from London, as well as for parts of the University of London.[33] Cambridge was granted its city charter in 1951 in recognition of its history, administrative importance and economic success.[33] Cambridge does not have a cathedral, traditionally a prerequisite for city status, instead falling within the Church of England Diocese of Ely. In 1962 Cambridge's first shopping arcade, Bradwell's Court, opened on Drummer Street, though this was demolished in 2006.[40] Other shopping arcades followed at Lion Yard, which housed a relocated Central Library for the city, and the Grafton Centre which replaced Victorian housing stock which had fallen into disrepair in the Kite area of the city. This latter project was controversial at the time.[41] The city gained its second University in 1992 when Anglia Polytechnic became Anglia Polytechnic University. Renamed Anglia Ruskin University in 2005, the institution has its origins in the Cambridge School of Art opened in 1858 by John Ruskin. The Open University also has a presence in the city, with an office operating on Hills Road.[42] Governance[edit] Local government[edit] Map showing the 2010 electoral boundaries of the city, with postcode districts superimposed. See also: Cambridge local elections Cambridge is a non-metropolitan district served by Cambridge City Council. Cambridge Local Authority District covers most of the City's urban area but some extends outside this into South Cambridgeshire District. Cambridge is one of five districts within the county of Cambridgeshire, and is bordered on all sides by the mainly rural South Cambridgeshire district. The city council's headquarters are in the Guildhall, a large building in the market square. Cambridge was granted a Royal Charter by King John in 1207, which permitted the appointment of a Mayor,[43] although the first recorded Mayor, Harvey FitzEustace, served in 1213.[44] City councillors now elect a mayor annually. For electoral purposes the city is divided into 14 wards: Abbey, Arbury, Castle, Cherry Hinton, Coleridge, East Chesterton, King's Hedges, Market, Newnham, Petersfield, Queen Edith's, Romsey, Trumpington, and West Chesterton. The political composition of the city council is currently: 25 Labour councillors, 14 Liberal Democrat, 2 independent and one Conservative.[45] Each of the 14 wards also elects councillors to Cambridgeshire County Council. Responsible for services including school education, social care and highways, since 2017 the County Council has been controlled by the Conservative Party.[46] Westminster[edit] See also: Cambridge (UK Parliament constituency) The parliamentary constituency of Cambridge covers most of the city; Daniel Zeichner (Labour) has represented the seat since the 2015 general election. The seat was generally held by the Conservatives until it was won by Labour in 1992, then taken by the Liberal Democrats in 2005 and 2010, before returning to Labour in 2015. A southern area of the city, Queen Edith's ward,[47] falls within in the South Cambridgeshire constituency, whose MP is Anthony Browne (Conservative), first elected in 2019. The University of Cambridge formerly had two seats in the House of Commons; Sir Isaac Newton was one of the most notable MPs. The Cambridge University constituency was abolished under 1948 legislation, and ceased at the dissolution of Parliament for the 1950 general election, along with the other university constituencies. Geography and environment[edit] Places adjacent to Cambridge Girton Histon and Impington Milton Fen Ditton Coton Cambridge Teversham Grantchester Great Shelford Fulbourn Aerial view of Cambridge city centre Cambridge is situated about 55 miles (89 km) north-by-east of London and 95 miles (152 kilometres) east of Birmingham. The city is located in an area of level and relatively low-lying terrain just south of the Fens, which varies between 6 and 24 metres (20 and 79 ft) above sea level.[48] The town was thus historically surrounded by low lying wetlands that have been drained as the town has expanded.[49] The underlying geology of Cambridge consists of gault clay and Chalk Marl, known locally as Cambridge Greensand,[50] partly overlaid by terrace gravel.[49] A layer of phosphatic nodules (coprolites) under the marl were mined in the 19th century for fertiliser. It became a major industry in the county, and its profits yielded buildings such as the Corn Exchange, Fulbourn Hospital and St. John's Chapel until the Quarries Act 1894 and competition from America ended production.[50] The River Cam flows through the city from the village of Grantchester, to the southwest. It is bordered by water meadows within the city such as Sheep's Green as well as residential development.[49] Like most cities, modern-day Cambridge has many suburbs and areas of high-density housing. The city centre of Cambridge is mostly commercial, historic buildings, and large green areas such as Jesus Green, Parker's Piece and Midsummer Common. Many of the roads in the centre are pedestrianised. The rear of Old Court, Clare College, taken from the Backs. Population growth has seen new housing developments in the 21st century, with estates such as the CB1[51] and Accordia schemes near the station,[52] and developments such as Great Kneighton, formally known as Clay Farm,[53] and Trumpington Meadows[54] currently under construction in the south of the city. Other major developments currently being constructed in the city are Darwin Green (formerly NIAB), and University-led developments at West Cambridge and North West Cambridge, (Eddington). The entire city centre, as well as parts of Chesterton, Petersfield, West Cambridge, Newnham, and Abbey, are covered by an Air Quality Management Area, implemented to counter high levels of nitrogen dioxide in the atmosphere.[55] Climate[edit] The city has an oceanic climate. (Köppen: Cfb).[56] Cambridge currently has two official weather observing stations, the National Institute of Agricultural Botany (NIAB), about 1 mile (2 km) north of the city boundary near Histon, and the Cambridge University Botanic Garden, about 1 mile south of the city centre. In addition, the Digital Technology Group of the University's Department of Computer Science and Technology[57] maintains a weather station on the West Cambridge site, displaying current weather conditions online via web browsers or an app, and also an archive dating back to 1995.[58] The city, like most of the UK, has a maritime climate highly influenced by the Gulf Stream. Located in the driest region of Britain,[59][60] Cambridge's rainfall averages around 570 mm (22.44 in) per year, around half the national average,[61] The driest recent year was in 2011 with 380.4 mm (14.98 in)[62] of rain at the Botanic Garden and 347.2 mm (13.67 in) at the NIAB site.[63] This is just below the semi-arid precipitation threshold for the area, which is 350mm of annual precipitation.[64] Conversely, 2012 was the wettest year on record, with 812.7 mm (32.00 in) reported.[65] Snowfall accumulations are usually small, in part because of Cambridge's low elevation, and low precipitation tendency during transitional snow events. Owing to its low lying, inland, and easterly position within the British Isles, summer temperatures tend to be somewhat higher than areas further west, and often rival or even exceed those recorded in the London area. July 2006 for example recorded the highest official mean monthly maximum (i.e. averaged over the entire month) of any month at any location in the UK since records began; 28.3 °C (82.9 °F), at both the NIAB[66] and Botanic Garden[67] observing stations. Cambridge also often records the annual highest national temperature in any given year – 30.2 °C (86.4 °F) in July 2008 at NIAB[68] and 30.1 °C (86.2 °F) in August 2007 at the Botanic Garden[69] are two recent examples. Other years include 1876, 1887, 1888, 1892, 1897, 1899 and 1900.[70] The absolute maximum stands at 38.7 °C (101.7 °F) recorded on 25 July 2019 at Cambridge University Botanic Garden,[71] which is also the national all time temperature record. Typically the temperature will reach 25.1 °C (77.2 °F) or higher on over 25 days of the year over the 1981–2010 period,[72] with the annual warmest day averaging 31.5 °C (88.7 °F)[73] over the same period. The absolute minimum temperature recorded at the Botanic Garden site was −17.2 °C (1.0 °F), recorded in February 1947,[74] although a minimum of −17.8 °C (0.0 °F) was recorded at the now defunct observatory site in December 1879.[75] More recently the temperature fell to −15.3 °C (4.5 °F) on 11 February 2012,[76] −12.2 °C (10.0 °F) on 22 January 2013[77] and −10.9 °C (12.4 °F)[78] on 20 December 2010. The average frequency of air frosts ranges from 42.8 days at the NIAB site,[79] to 48.3 days at the Botanic Garden[80] per year over the 1981–2010 period. Typically the coldest night of the year at the Botanic Garden will fall to −8.0 °C (17.6 °F).[81] Such minimum temperatures and frost averages are typical for inland areas across much of southern and central England. Sunshine averages around 1,500 hours a year or around 35% of possible, a level typical of most locations in inland central England. Climate data for Cambridge University Botanic Garden[a], elevation: 13 m (43 ft), 1981–2010 normals, extremes 1914–present Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 14.9 (58.8) 18.8 (65.8) 23.9 (75.0) 27.4 (81.3) 31.1 (88.0) 34.0 (93.2) 38.7 (101.7) 36.9 (98.4) 33.9 (93.0) 29.3 (84.7) 21.1 (70.0) 15.8 (60.4) 38.7 (101.7) Average high °C (°F) 7.4 (45.3) 8.0 (46.4) 11.1 (52.0) 13.8 (56.8) 17.5 (63.5) 20.4 (68.7) 23.1 (73.6) 22.8 (73.0) 19.6 (67.3) 15.2 (59.4) 10.5 (50.9) 7.7 (45.9) 14.8 (58.6) Daily mean °C (°F) 4.4 (39.9) 4.6 (40.3) 7.1 (44.8) 9.1 (48.4) 12.4 (54.3) 15.3 (59.5) 17.8 (64.0) 17.5 (63.5) 14.8 (58.6) 11.2 (52.2) 7.2 (45.0) 4.7 (40.5) 10.5 (50.9) Average low °C (°F) 1.4 (34.5) 1.2 (34.2) 3.0 (37.4) 4.3 (39.7) 7.3 (45.1) 10.2 (50.4) 12.4 (54.3) 12.2 (54.0) 10.0 (50.0) 7.2 (45.0) 3.9 (39.0) 1.7 (35.1) 6.2 (43.2) Record low °C (°F) −16.1 (3.0) −17.2 (1.0) −11.7 (10.9) −6.1 (21.0) −4.4 (24.1) −0.6 (30.9) 2.2 (36.0) 3.3 (37.9) −2.2 (28.0) −6.1 (21.0) −13.3 (8.1) −15.6 (3.9) −17.2 (1.0) Average precipitation mm (inches) 46.0 (1.81) 34.6 (1.36) 38.6 (1.52) 40.3 (1.59) 46.7 (1.84) 52.1 (2.05) 50.7 (2.00) 53.6 (2.11) 54.3 (2.14) 57.7 (2.27) 54.9 (2.16) 46.9 (1.85) 576.2 (22.69) Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) 10.7 8.4 9.9 8.9 8.1 9.2 8.4 8.2 8.4 9.5 10.2 9.7 109.6 Source: KNMI[82] Climate data for Cambridge NIAB[b], elevation: 26 m (85 ft), 1981–2010 normals Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high °C (°F) 7.3 (45.1) 7.7 (45.9) 10.6 (51.1) 13.3 (55.9) 16.9 (62.4) 19.9 (67.8) 22.8 (73.0) 22.6 (72.7) 19.3 (66.7) 14.9 (58.8) 10.3 (50.5) 7.5 (45.5) 14.5 (58.1) Daily mean °C (°F) 4.5 (40.1) 4.5 (40.1) 6.9 (44.4) 8.8 (47.8) 12.0 (53.6) 15.1 (59.2) 17.6 (63.7) 17.5 (63.5) 14.9 (58.8) 11.3 (52.3) 7.3 (45.1) 4.7 (40.5) 10.4 (50.7) Average low °C (°F) 1.6 (34.9) 1.3 (34.3) 3.1 (37.6) 4.3 (39.7) 7.1 (44.8) 10.2 (50.4) 12.4 (54.3) 12.4 (54.3) 10.4 (50.7) 7.6 (45.7) 4.2 (39.6) 1.9 (35.4) 6.4 (43.5) Average precipitation mm (inches) 46.6 (1.83) 34.5 (1.36) 38.3 (1.51) 41.2 (1.62) 46.0 (1.81) 51.5 (2.03) 47.5 (1.87) 50.8 (2.00) 53.5 (2.11) 59.0 (2.32) 52.8 (2.08) 46.4 (1.83) 568.1 (22.37) Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) 10.5 8.0 9.6 8.8 8.0 8.9 8.3 8.0 8.4 9.4 9.8 9.8 107.5 Mean monthly sunshine hours 58.3 77.1 110.7 152.5 179.4 176.7 187.6 182.6 139.5 113.9 66.7 49.3 1,494.5 Source: Met Office[83] Ecology[edit] The city contains three Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs), at Cherry Hinton East Pit, Cherry Hinton West Pit, and Travellers Pit,[84] and ten Local Nature Reserves (LNRs): Sheep's Green and Coe Fen, Coldham's Common, Stourbridge Common, Nine Wells, Byron's Pool, West Pit, Paradise, Barnwell West, Barnwell East, and Logan's Meadow.[85] Green belt[edit] Further information: Cambridge Green Belt Cambridge is completely enclosed by green belt as a part of a wider environmental and planning policy first defined in 1965 and formalised in 1992.[86][87] While some small tracts of green belt exist on the fringes of the city's boundary, much of the protection is in the surrounding South Cambridgeshire[88] and nearby East Cambridgeshire[89] districts, helping to maintain local green space, prevent further urban sprawl and unplanned expansion of the city, as well as protecting smaller outlying villages from further convergence with each other as well as the city.[90] Demography[edit] At the 2011 Census, the population of the Cambridge contiguous built-up area (urban area) was 158,434,[91] while that of the City Council area was 123,867.[92] In the 2001 Census held during University term, 89.44% of Cambridge residents identified themselves as white, compared with a national average of 92.12%.[93] Within the University, 84% of undergraduates and 80% of post-graduates identify as white (including overseas students).[94] Cambridge has a much higher than average proportion of people in the highest paid professional, managerial or administrative jobs (32.6% vs. 23.5%)[95] and a much lower than average proportion of manual workers (27.6% vs. 40.2%).[95] In addition, 41.2% have a higher-level qualification (e.g. degree, Higher National Diploma, Master's or PhD), much higher than the national average proportion (19.7%).[96] Centre for Cities identified Cambridge as the UK's most unequal city in 2017 and 2018. Residents' income was the least evenly distributed of 57 British cities measured, with its top 6% earners accounting for 19% of its total income and the bottom 20% for only 2%, and a Gini coefficient of 0.460 in 2018.[97][98] Historical population[edit] Year Population Year Population 1749 6,131 6131  1901 38,379 38379  ⋮ 1911 40,027 40027  1801 10,087 10087  1921 59,212 59212  1811 11,108 11108  1931 66,789 66789  1821 14,142 14142  1951 81,500 81500  1831 20,917 20917  1961 95,527 95527  1841 24,453 24453  1971 99,168 99168  1851 27,815 27815  1981 87,209 87209  1861 26,361 26361  1991 107,496 107496  1871 30,078 30078  2001 108,863 108863  1891 36,983 36983  2011 123,900 123900  Local census 1749[99] Census: Regional District 1801–1901[100] Civil Parish 1911–1961[101] District 1971–2011[102] Economy[edit] The town's river link to the surrounding agricultural land, and good road connections to London in the south meant Cambridge has historically served as an important regional trading post. King Henry I granted Cambridge a monopoly on river trade, privileging this area of the economy of Cambridge[103] The town market provided for trade in a wide variety of goods and annual trading fairs such as Stourbridge Fair and Midsummer Fair were visited by merchants from across the country. The river was described in an account of 1748 as being "often so full of [merchant boats] that the navigation thereof is stopped for some time".[104] For example, 2000 firkins of butter were brought up the river every Monday from the agricultural lands to the North East, particularity Norfolk, to be unloaded in the town for road transportation to London.[104] Changing patterns of retail distribution and the advent of the railways led to a decline in Cambridge's importance as a market town.[105] Cambridge Market viewed from the Tower of St. Mary the Great Today Cambridge has a diverse economy with strength in sectors such as research & development, software consultancy, high value engineering, creative industries, pharmaceuticals and tourism.[106] Described as one of the "most beautiful cities in the world" by Forbes in 2010,[107] with the view from The Backs being selected as one of the 10 greatest in England by National Trust chair Simon Jenkins, tourism generates over £750 million for the city's economy.[108] Cambridge and its surrounds are sometimes referred to as Silicon Fen, an allusion to Silicon Valley, because of the density of high-tech businesses and technology incubators that have developed on science parks around the city. Many of these parks and buildings are owned or leased by university colleges, and the companies often have been spun out of the university.[109] Cambridge Science Park, which is the largest commercial R&D centre in Europe, is owned by Trinity College;[110][111] St John's is the landlord of St John's Innovation Centre.[112] Technology companies include Abcam, CSR, ARM Limited, CamSemi, Jagex and Sinclair.[113] Microsoft has located its Microsoft Research UK offices in West Cambridge, separate from the main Microsoft UK campus in Reading, and also has an office on Station Road. Cambridge was also the home of Pye Ltd, founded in 1898 by W. G. Pye, who worked in the Cavendish Laboratory; it began by supplying the University and later specialised in wireless telegraphy equipment, radios, televisions and also defence equipment.[35] Pye Ltd evolved into several other companies including TETRA radio equipment manufacturer Sepura. Another major business is Marshall Aerospace located on the eastern edge of the city. The Cambridge Network keeps businesses in touch with each other. The software company Autonomy Corporation is located at the Business Park on Cowley Road. Transport[edit] Main article: Transport in Cambridge A guided bus on the Cambridgeshire Guided Busway Because of its rapid growth in the 20th century, Cambridge has a congested road network.[114] The M11 motorway from east London terminates to the north-west of the city where it joins the A14, a major freight route which connects the port of Felixstowe on the east coast with the Midlands. The A428 connects the city with the A1 at St Neots: the route continues westwards towards Oxford (as the A421) via Bedford and Milton Keynes. The A10 connects the city to King's Lynn to the north via Ely, and is the historic route south to the City of London. As a university town lying on fairly flat ground and with traffic congestion, Cambridge has the highest level of cycle use in the UK.[115] According to the 2001 census, 25% of residents travelled to work by bicycle. Furthermore, a survey in 2013 found that 47% of residents travel by bike at least once a week.[116] Cambridge has five Park and Ride sites, all of which operate seven days a week and are aimed at encouraging motorists to park near the city's edge.[117] Since 2011, the Cambridgeshire Guided Busway has carried bus services into the centre of Cambridge from St Ives, Huntingdon, and other towns and villages along the routes, operated by Stagecoach in the Fens and Whippet.[118] The A service continues on to the railway station and Addenbrookes, before terminating at a new Park and Ride in Trumpington. Since 2017 it has also linked to Cambridge North railway station. Although Cambridge has its own airport, Cambridge City Airport, it has no scheduled services and is used mainly by charter and training flights as well FBO services.[119] London Stansted Airport, about 30 miles (48 km) south via the M11 or direct rail, offers a broad range of international destinations. Rail[edit] Cambridge railway station. Cambridge railway station was opened in 1845, initially linking to Bishopsgate station in London, via Bishops Stortford.[120] Further lines opened throughout the 19th century, including the Cambridge and St Ives branch line, the Stour Valley Railway, the Cambridge to Mildenhall railway, and the Varsity Line to Oxford. Another station was opened in Cherry Hinton though, at the time, this was a separate village to Cambridge. Several of these lines were closed during the 1960s. Today, Cambridge station has direct rail links to London with termini at London King's Cross (via the Cambridge Line and the East Coast Main Line), Liverpool Street (on the West Anglia Main Line), and St Pancras (on the Thameslink line). Commuter trains to King's Cross run every half-hour during peak hours, with a journey time of 53 minutes.[121] Trains also run to King's Lynn and Ely (via the Fen Line), Norwich (via the Breckland Line), Leicester, Birmingham, Peterborough, Stevenage, Ipswich, Stansted Airport, Brighton and Gatwick Airport railway stations. A second railway station, Cambridge North, opened on 21 May 2017, having originally planned to open in March 2015.[122][123][124] A third railway station, Cambridge South, near Addenbrooke's Hospital has been proposed.[125] It is expected to open in 2025.[126] In February 2020, consultations opened for a commuter light railway known as the Cambridge Autonomous Metro. It will connect the historic city centre and the existing busway route with the mainline railway stations, Cambridge Science Park, and Haverhill.[127] Education[edit] Anglia Ruskin University evolved from the nineteenth century Cambridge School of Art, opened by educationist and art figure John Ruskin in 1858 See also: List of schools in Cambridgeshire Cambridge's two universities,[128] the collegiate University of Cambridge and the local campus of Anglia Ruskin University, serve around 30,000 students, by some estimates.[129] Cambridge University estimated its 2007/08 student population at 17,662,[130] and Anglia Ruskin reports 24,000 students across its two campuses (one of which is outside Cambridge, in Chelmsford) for the same period.[131] ARU now (2019) has additional campuses in London and Perborough. State provision in the further education sector includes Hills Road Sixth Form College, Long Road Sixth Form College, and Cambridge Regional College. Both state and independent schools serve Cambridge pupils from nursery to secondary school age. State schools are administered by Cambridgeshire County Council, which maintains 251 schools in total,[132] 35 of them in Cambridge city.[133] Netherhall School, Chesterton Community College, the Parkside Federation (comprising Parkside Community College and Coleridge Community College), North Cambridge Academy and the Christian inter-denominational St Bede's School provide comprehensive secondary education.[134] Many other pupils from the Cambridge area attend village colleges, an educational institution unique to Cambridgeshire, which serve as secondary schools during the day and adult education centres outside of school hours.[135] Independent schools in the city include The Perse School, Stephen Perse Foundation, Sancton Wood School, St Mary's School, Heritage School and The Leys School.[136] The city has one university technical college, Cambridge Academy for Science and Technology, which opened in September 2014. Sport[edit] Football[edit] Parker's Piece Cambridge played a unique role in the invention of modern football: the game's first set of rules were drawn up by members of the University in 1848. The Cambridge Rules were first played on Parker's Piece and had a 'defining influence on the 1863 Football Association rules' which again were first played on Parker's Piece.[137] The city is home to Cambridge United FC, who play at the Abbey Stadium. Formed in 1912, as Abbey United, they were elected to the Football League in 1970 and reached the Football League Second Division in 1978, although a serious decline in them in the mid 1980s saw them drop back down to the Football League Fourth Division and almost go out of business. Success returned to the club in the early 1990s when they won two successive promotions and reached the FA Cup quarter finals in both of those seasons, and in 1992 they came close to becoming the first English team to win three successive Football League promotions which would have taken them into the newly created FA Premier League. But they were beaten in the playoffs and another decline set in, which was completed in 2005 when they were relegated from the Football League and for the second time in 20 years narrowly avoided going out of business. After nine years of non-league football they returned to the Football League in 2014 by winning the Conference National playoffs. Cambridge City FC of the Southern Football League Premier Division now play in the adjoining village of Histon. Formed in Cambridge in 1908 as Cambridge Town, the club were Southern Premier League champions in 1962–63, the highest they have finished in the English football pyramid. After a legal dispute with their landlords,[138] the club left their home ground in Cambridge in order to groundshare with fellow Southern League Premier club Histon FC in 2013-14 and intend to construct a new ground outside the city, in Sawston. Cricket[edit] As well as being the home of the Cambridge Rules in football, Parker's Piece was used for first-class cricket matches from 1817 to 1864.[139] The University of Cambridge's cricket ground, Fenner's, is located in the city and is one of the home grounds for minor counties team Cambridgeshire CCC.[140] There are seven amateur cricket clubs within the city: Cambridge Granta, Camden, Cambridge St Giles, New Chesterton Institute, Fen Ditton, Romsey Town and Cherry Hinton.[141] Rugby[edit] The city is represented in both codes of Rugby football. Rugby Union club Cambridge R.U.F.C. were founded in 1923,[142] and play in National League 1[143] at their home ground, Grantchester Road, in the southwest corner of the city. Cambridge Lions represent the city in rugby league, and are members of East Rugby League.[144] Watersports[edit] Bumps race on the River Cam The River Cam running through the city centre is used for boating. The University and its colleges are well known for rowing and the Cambridgeshire Rowing Association, formed in 1868, organises competitive rowing on the river outside of the University.[145] Rowing clubs based in the city include City of Cambridge RC, Cambridge '99 RC, Cantabrigian RC and Rob Roy BC. Shallower parts of the Cam are used for recreational punting, a type of boating in which the craft is propelled by pushing against the river bed with a quant pole. Cambridge Swimming Club, Cambridge Dive team, and City of Cambridge Water Polo Club are all based at Parkside Swimming Pool.[146] Greyhound racing[edit] This section contains information of unclear or questionable importance or relevance to the article's subject matter. Please help improve this section by clarifying or removing indiscriminate details. If importance cannot be established, the section is likely to be moved to another article, pseudo-redirected, or removed. Find sources: "Cambridge" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (Learn how and when to remove this template message) There are three known former venues for greyhound racing in Cambridge. The most significant venue was the racing held around the City Ground which was licensed by the sports governing body the National Greyhound Racing Club (NGRC) and took place from 1968 to 1984. The other two venues were independent tracks and known as a flapping tracks, the nickname given to non-NGRC tracks.[147] They were at Coldham Road, which was opened by the Cambridge and District Greyhound Racing Club on 10 April 1931, and Cowper Lane which also opened in 1931.[148] Other sports[edit] Cambridge is home to two Real Tennis courts (out of just 42 in the world) at Cambridge University Real Tennis Club.[149] British American Football League club Cambridgeshire Cats play at Coldham's Common. Cambridge Royals are members of the British Baseball Federation's Triple-A South Division.[150] Cambridge has two cycling clubs: Team Cambridge[151] and Cambridge Cycling Club.[152] Cambridge & Coleridge Athletic Club[153] is the city's track and field club, based at the University of Cambridge's Wilberforce Road track. Cambridge Handball Club compete in the men's England Handball National Super 8 League, and the women's England Handball National Super 7 League. There are three field hockey clubs; Cambridge City Hockey Club, Cambridge South Hockey Club and Cambridge Nomads. The city is also represented in polo by Cambridge Polo Club, based in Barton, just outside the city. The Romsey Town Rollerbillies play roller derby in Cambridge.[154] Speedway racing was formerly staged at a greyhound stadium in Coldhams Lane.[155] Varsity sports[edit] Cambridge is also known for the sporting events between the University of Cambridge and the University of Oxford, especially the rugby union Varsity Match and the Boat Race, though many of these do not take place within Cambridge. Culture[edit] Theatre[edit] Cambridge Corn Exchange Cambridge's main traditional theatre is the Arts Theatre, a venue with 666 seats in the town centre.[156] The theatre often has touring shows, as well as those by local companies. The largest venue in the city to regular hold theatrical performances is the Cambridge Corn Exchange with a capacity of 1,800 standing or 1,200 seated. Housed within the city's 19th century former corn exchange building the venue was used for a variety of additional functions throughout the 20th century including tea parties, motor shows, sports matches and a music venue with temporary stage.[157] The City Council renovated the building in the 1980s, turning it into a full-time arts venue, hosting theatre, dance and music performances.[157] The newest theatre venue in Cambridge is the 220-seat J2, part of Cambridge Junction in Cambridge Leisure Park. The venue was opened in 2005 and hosts theatre, dance, live music and comedy[158] The ADC Theatre is managed by the University of Cambridge, and typically has 3 shows a week during term time. It hosts the Cambridge University Footlights Dramatic Club which has produced many notable figures in British comedy. The Mumford Theatre is part of Anglia Ruskin University, and hosts shows by both student and non-student groups. There are also a number of venues within the colleges. Museums[edit] Within the city there are several notable museums, some run by the University of Cambridge Museums consortium and others independent of it. The Fitzwilliam Museum is the city's largest, and is the lead museum of the University of Cambridge Museums. Founded in 1816 from the bequeathment and collections of Richard, Viscount FitzWilliam, the museum was originally located in the building of the Perse Grammar School in Free School Lane.[159] After a brief housing in the University of Cambridge library, it moved to its current, purpose-built building on Trumpington Street in 1848.[159] The museum has five departments: Antiquities; Applied Arts; Coins and Medals; Manuscripts and Printed Books; and Paintings, Drawings and Prints. Other members of the University of Cambridge Museums are the Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, The Polar Museum, The Sedgwick Museum of Earth Sciences, Museum of Classical Archaeology, The Whipple Museum of the History of Science, and the University Museum of Zoology. The Museum of Cambridge, formerly known as the Cambridge & County Folk Museum, is a social history museum located in a former pub on Castle Street.[160] The Centre for Computing History, a museum dedicated to the story of the Information age, moved to Cambridge from Haverhill in 2013.[161] Housed in a former sewage pumping station, the Cambridge Museum of Technology has a collection of large exhibits related to the city's industrial heritage. Music[edit] Popular music[edit] Pink Floyd are the most notable band with roots in Cambridge. The band's former songwriter, guitarist and vocalist Syd Barrett was born and lived in the city, and he and another founding member, Roger Waters, went to school together at Cambridgeshire High School for Boys. David Gilmour, the guitarist who replaced Barrett, was also a Cambridge resident and attended the nearby Perse School. Bands that were formed in Cambridge include Clean Bandit, Henry Cow, The Movies, Katrina and the Waves, The Soft Boys,[162] Ezio[163] The Broken Family Band,[164] Uncle Acid & the Deadbeats,[165] and the pop-classical group King's Singers, who were formed at the University.[166] Solo artist Boo Hewerdine[167] is from Cambridge, as are drum and bass artists (and brothers) Nu:Tone and Logistics. Singers Matthew Bellamy,[168] of the rock band Muse, Tom Robinson,[169] and Olivia Newton-John[170] were born in the city. 2012 Mercury Prize winners Alt-J are based in Cambridge.[171] Live music venues hosting popular music in the city include the Cambridge Corn Exchange, Cambridge Junction and the Portland Arms. Classical music[edit] Started in 1991, the annual Cambridge Music Festival takes place each November.[172] The Cambridge Summer Music Festival takes place in July.[173] Contemporary art[edit] Cambridge contains the Kettle's Yard gallery and the artist run organisations Aid and Abet, Cambridge Art Salon, and Changing Spaces.[174] Wysing Arts Centre, one of the leading research centres for the visual arts in Europe, is associated with the city, though is located several miles west of Cambridge.[175] Anglia Ruskin University operates the publicly accessible Ruskin Gallery within the Cambridge School of Art.[176] Festivals and events[edit] Strawberry Fair Several fairs and festivals take place in Cambridge, mostly during the British summer. Midsummer Fair dates back to 1211, when it was granted a charter by King John.[177] Today it exists primarily as an annual funfair with the vestige of a market attached and is held over several days around or close to midsummers day. On the first Saturday in June Midsummer Common is the site for Strawberry Fair, a free music and children's fair, with various market stalls. For one week in May, on Jesus Green, the annual Cambridge Beer Festival has been held since 1974.[178] Cambridge Folk Festival is held annually in the grounds of Cherry Hinton Hall. The festival has been organised by the city council since its inception in 1964. The Cambridge Summer Music Festival is an annual festival of classical music, held in the University's colleges and chapels.[179] The Cambridge Shakespeare Festival is an eight-week season of open-air performances of the works of William Shakespeare, held in the gardens of various colleges of the university.[180] Started in 1977, the Cambridge Film Festival was held annually in July, moving to September in 2008 to avoid a clash with the rescheduled Edinburgh Film Festival.[181] The Cambridge Science Festival, typically held annually in March, is the United Kingdom's largest free science festival.[182] Between 1975 and 1985 the Cambridge Poetry Festival was held biannually.[183] Other festivals include the annual Mill Road Winter Fair, held the first Saturday of December,[184] the E-luminate Festival, which has taken place every November since 2013,[185] and The Big Weekend, is a city outdoor event organised by the City Council every July.[186] Three Cambridge Free Festivals held in 1969, 1970, and 1971 that featured artists including David Bowie, King Crimson, Roy Harper, Spontaneous Combustion, UFO and others are believed by the festival organiser to have been the first free multiple-day rock music festivals held in the UK.[187][188][189][190][191][192][193][194][195] Literature and film[edit] See also: University of Cambridge in popular culture The city has been the setting for all or part of several novels, including Douglas Adams' Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency, Rose Macaulay's They Were Defeated,[196] Kate Atkinson's Case Histories,[197] Rebecca Stott's Ghostwalk[198] and Robert Harris' Enigma,[199][200] while Susanna Gregory wrote a series of novels set in 14th century Cambridge.[201] Gwen Raverat, the granddaughter of Charles Darwin, talked about her late Victorian Cambridge childhood in her memoir Period Piece and The Night Climbers of Cambridge is a book written by Noel Symington under the pseudonym "Whipplesnaith" about nocturnal climbing on the colleges and town buildings of Cambridge in the 1930s.[202] Fictionalised versions of Cambridge appear in Philippa Pearce's Tom's Midnight Garden and Minnow on the Say, the city renamed as Castleford, and as the home of Tom Sharpe's fictional college in Porterhouse Blue.[203] ITV TV series Granchester was partly filmed in Cambridge.[204] Public services[edit] Addenbrooke's Hospital Cambridge is served by Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, with several smaller medical centres in the city and a teaching hospital at Addenbrooke's. Located on the Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Addenbrooke's is one of the largest hospitals in the United Kingdom and is a designated regional trauma centre. The East of England Ambulance Service covers the city and has an ambulance station on Hills Road.[205] The smaller Brookfields Hospital stands on Mill Road.[206] Cambridgeshire Constabulary provides the city's policing; the main police station is at Parkside,[207] adjacent to the city's fire station, operated by Cambridgeshire Fire and Rescue Service.[208] Cambridge Water Company supplies water services to the city,[209] while Anglian Water provides sewerage services.[210] For the supply of electricity, Cambridge is part of the East of England region, for which the distribution network operator is UK Power Networks.[211] The city has no power stations, though a five-metre wind turbine, part of a Cambridge Regional College development, can be seen in King's Hedges.[212] The Cambridge Electric Supply Company had provided the city with electricity since the early twentieth century from Cambridge power station. Upon nationalisation of the electricity industry in 1948 ownership passed to the British Electricity Authority and later to the Central Electricity Generating Board. Electricity connections to the national grid rendered the small 7.26 megawatt (MW) coal fired power station redundant. It closed in 1965 and was subsequently demolished; in its final year of operation it delivered 2771 MWh of electricity to the city.[213] Following the Public Libraries Act 1850 the city's first public library, located on Jesus Lane, was opened in 1855.[214] It was moved to the Guildhall in 1862,[214] and is now located in the Grand Arcade shopping centre. The library was reopened in September 2009,[215] after having been closed for refurbishment for 33 months, more than twice as long as was forecast when the library closed for redevelopment in January 2007.[215][216] As of 2018 the city contains six public libraries, run by the County Council.[217] The Cambridge City Cemetery is located to the north of Newmarket Road. Religion[edit] Great St Mary's Church marks the centre of Cambridge, while the Senate House on the left is the centre of the University. Gonville and Caius College is in the background. Cambridge has a number of churches, some of which form a significant part of the city's architectural landscape. Like the rest of Cambridgeshire it is part of the Anglican Diocese of Ely.[218] A Cambridge-based family and youth Christian charity, Romsey Mill, had its centre re-dedicated in 2007 by the Archbishop of York, and is quoted as an example of best practice in a study[219] into social inclusion by the East of England Regional Assembly. Great St Mary's Church has the status of "University Church".[220] Many of the University colleges contain chapels that hold services according to the rites and ceremonies of the Church of England, while the chapel of St Edmund's College is Roman Catholic.[221] The city also has a number of theological colleges training clergy for ordination into a number of denominations, with affiliations to both the University of Cambridge and Anglia Ruskin University. Cambridge is in the Roman Catholic Diocese of East Anglia and is served by the large Gothic Revival Our Lady and the English Martyrs Church at the junction of Hills Road and Lensfield Road, St Laurence's on Milton Road, St Vincent De Paul Church on Ditton Lane and by the church of St Philip Howard, in Cherry Hinton Road.[222] There is a Russian Orthodox church under the Diocese of Sourozh who worship at the chapel of Westcott House,[223] the Greek Orthodox Church holds services at the purpose-built St Athanasios church under the Archdiocese of Thyateira and Great Britain,[224] while the Romanian Orthodox Church share St Giles' with the Church of England.[225] St Botolph's Church, next to Corpus Christi College. Wesley Methodist Church Castle Street Methodist Church There are two Methodist churches in the city. Wesley Methodist Church was built in 1913, and is located next to Christ's Pieces. The Castle Street Methodist Church is the oldest of the two, having been built in 1823, and was formerly a Primitive Methodist church. There are three Quaker Meetings in Cambridge, located on Jesus Lane, Hartington Grove, and a Meeting called "Oast House" that meets in Pembroke College.[226] An Orthodox synagogue and Jewish student centre is located on Thompson's Lane, operated jointly by the Cambridge Traditional Jewish Congregation and the Cambridge University Jewish Society, which is affiliated to the Union of Jewish Students.[227][228] The Beth Shalom Reform synagogue which previously met at a local school,[229] opened a purpose-built synagogue in 2015.[230] There is also a student-led egalitarian minyan which holds services on Friday evenings. Cambridge Central Mosque atrium, looking out towards Mill Road Cambridge Central Mosque is the main place of worship for Cambridge's community of around 4,000 Muslims.[231][232] Opened in 2019, it is described as Europe's first eco-friendly mosque[233] and is the first purpose-built mosque within the city. The Abu Bakr Jamia Islamic Centre on Mawson Road and the Omar Faruque Mosque and Cultural Centre in Kings Hedges are additional places of Muslim worship.[234][235][236] Cambridge Buddhist Centre which belongs to Triratna Buddhist Community was opened in the former Barnwell Theatre on Newmarket Road in 1998.[237] There are also several local Buddhist meditation groups from various Buddhist traditions like Samatha Trust and Buddha Mettā Society that are available for anyone to explore Buddhism and Buddhist meditation practices.[238] A Hindu shrine was opened in 2010 at the Bharat Bhavan Indian cultural centre off Mill Road.[239][240] Twinned cities[edit] Cambridge is twinned with two cities. Like Cambridge, both have universities and are also similar in population; Heidelberg, Germany since 1965,[241] and Szeged, Hungary since 1987.[241] Panoramic gallery[edit] King's Parade, seen from outside St. Mary the Great Panorama of the city centre, viewed from the tower of St. Mary the Great Panorama of Trinity Street See also[edit] England portal Cambridgeshire Archives and Local Studies List of bridges in Cambridge Category:Buildings and structures in Cambridge Category:Organisations based in Cambridge Category:People from Cambridge Notes[edit] ^ Weather station is located 0.8 miles (1.3 km) from the Cambridge city centre. ^ Weather station is located 3 miles (5 km) from the Cambridge city centre. References[edit] ^ UK Census (2011). "Local Area Report – Cambridge Local Authority (2092957699)". Nomis. Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 8 February 2018. ^ "Cambridge". Collins Dictionary. n.d. Archived from the original on 23 September 2015. 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en-wikipedia-org-2353	----	Marcus Junius Brutus - Wikipedia Marcus Junius Brutus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the assassin of Julius Caesar. For other people with the same name, see Brutus (disambiguation). Marcus Junius Brutus Brutus in a coin issued shortly before his death Born Late 85 BC[1] Died 23 October 42 BC (aged 42/43) Near Philippi, Macedonia Cause of death Suicide Nationality Roman Other names Quintus Servilius Caepio Brutus Occupation Politician, jurist, military commander Known for Assassination of Julius Caesar Et tu, Brute? Office Governor of Cisalpine Gaul (47–45 BC) Praetor (44 BC) Consul designate (41 BC) Political party Optimates Spouse(s) Claudia Porcia Parent(s) M. Junius Brutus and Servilia Relatives Cato of Utica (uncle) Quintus Servilius Caepio (uncle and adoptive father) Marcus Junius Brutus (/ˈbruːtəs/; 85 BC – 23 October 42 BC), often referred to simply as Brutus, was a Roman senator and the most famous of the assassins of Julius Caesar. After being adopted by an uncle, he used the name Quintus Servilius Caepio Brutus, but subsequently returned to his birth name. Brutus was close to General Julius Caesar, the leader of the Populares faction. However, Caesar's attempts to assume greater power for himself put him at greater odds with the Roman elite and members of the Senate. Brutus eventually came to oppose Caesar and fought on the side of the Optimates faction, led by Pompey, against Caesar's forces in the Civil War (49–45 BC). Pompey was defeated at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC, after which Brutus surrendered to Caesar, who granted him amnesty. However, the underlying political tensions that led to the war had not been resolved. Due to Caesar's increasingly monarchical behavior, several senators, calling themselves "Liberators", plotted to assassinate him. They recruited Brutus, who took a leading role in the assassination, which was carried out successfully on 15 March 44 BC. The Senate, at the request of the Consul Mark Antony, granted amnesty to the assassins. However, a popular uprising forced Brutus and his brother-in-law, fellow assassin Gaius Cassius Longinus, to leave the City of Rome. In 43 BC Octavian, Caesar's adoptive son, became consul and immediately after taking office passed a resolution declaring Brutus and the other conspirators murderers. This led to a second civil war, in which Antony and Octavian fought the Liberatores led by Brutus and Cassius. The former decisively defeated the outnumbered armies of Brutus and Cassius at the Battle of Philippi in October 42 BC. After the battle, Brutus committed suicide. His name has since become synonymous with acts of intimate public betrayal or treason, and is perhaps only rivaled in this regard by the name of Judas. Contents 1 Early life 2 Military career 3 Assassination of Julius Caesar 4 Liberators' civil war 5 Chronology 6 Legacy 6.1 Influence 6.2 Fiction 7 See also 8 References 9 Bibliography 10 Further reading 11 External links Early life[edit] Marcus Junius Brutus belonged to the illustrious plebeian gens Junia. Its semi-legendary founder was Lucius Junius Brutus, who played a pivotal role during the overthrow of Tarquinius Superbus, the last Roman King, and was later one of the two first consuls of the new Roman Republic in 509 BC. Brutus' homonymous father was tribune of the plebs in 83, but he was put to death by Pompey in 77 for having participated in the rebellion of Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. He had married Servilia of the Servilii Caepiones, who was the half-sister of Cato the Younger, and later Julius Caesar's mistress.[2] Some sources refer to the possibility of Caesar being Brutus' real father,[3] despite Caesar being only fifteen years old when Brutus was born. Brutus' uncle, Quintus Servilius Caepio, adopted him posthumously in about 59 BC, and Brutus was known officially for a time as Quintus Servilius Caepio Brutus before he reverted to using his birth-name. Following Caesar's assassination in 44 BC, Brutus revived his adoptive name in order to illustrate his links to another famous tyrannicide, Gaius Servilius Ahala, from whom he was descended.[4][5] Brutus held his uncle in high regard[6] and his political career started when he became an assistant to Cato, during his governorship of Cyprus.[7] During this time, he enriched himself by lending money at high rates of interest. Brutus was also active in the province of Cilicia, in the year before Marcus Tullius Cicero was proconsul there; Cicero documents how Brutus profited from money lending to the provincials in his Letters.[8] He returned to Rome a rich man, where he married Claudia Pulchra.[9] From his first appearance in the Senate, Brutus aligned with the Optimates (the conservative faction) against the First Triumvirate of Marcus Licinius Crassus, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, and Gaius Julius Caesar. Marcus Brutus belonged to the last generation of Roman nobiles who came of age and began a political career before the collapse of the Republic. His peers included Mark Antony, Publius Licinius Crassus, his distant cousin Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus, and Gaius Cassius Longinus. Military career[edit] Marble bust, so-called Brutus, at the Palazzo Massimo alle Terme in the National Museum of Rome When Caesar's Civil War broke out in 49 BC between Pompey and Caesar, Brutus followed his old enemy and the present leader of the Optimates, Pompey. When the Battle of Pharsalus began on August 9, Caesar ordered his officers to take Brutus prisoner if he gave himself up voluntarily, but to leave him alone and do him no harm if he persisted in fighting against capture.[10] Caesar's concern, given that he and Brutus' mother Servilia had been lovers in their youth, was that Brutus might be his biological son. Indeed, he and Brutus enjoyed a close relationship at this time. Even when Brutus joined Pompey the Great to fight with Caesar and his soldiers, Caesar's main focus was Pompey, but he demanded Brutus be captured alive.[11] After the defeat of the Optimates at the Battle of Pharsalus, Brutus surrendered and wrote to Caesar with apologies. Caesar immediately forgave him. Caesar then accepted him into his inner circle and made him governor of Gaul when he left for Africa in pursuit of Cato and Metellus Scipio. In 45 BC, Caesar nominated Brutus to serve as urban praetor for the following year. Also, in June 45 BC, Brutus divorced his wife and married his first cousin, Porcia Catonis, Cato's daughter.[12][13] According to Cicero the marriage caused a semi-scandal as Brutus failed to state a valid reason for his divorce from Claudia other than he wished to marry Porcia.[14] The marriage also caused a rift between Brutus and his mother, who was resentful of the affection Brutus had for Porcia.[15] Assassination of Julius Caesar[edit] Main article: Assassination of Julius Caesar Death of Caesar by Vincenzo Camuccini Around this time many senators began to fear Caesar's growing power, following his appointment as dictator in perpetuity.[16] The other senators persuaded Brutus to join the conspiracy against Caesar.[17] Eventually, Brutus decided to move against Caesar after Caesar's alleged king-like behavior prompted him to take action.[18][19] His wife was the only woman privy to the plot.[20][21] The conspirators planned to carry out their plot on the Ides of March (March 15) that same year. On that day, Caesar was delayed going to the Senate because his wife Calpurnia tried to convince him not to go.[22] The conspirators feared the plot had been found out.[23] Brutus persisted, however, waiting for Caesar at the Senate, and allegedly still chose to remain even when a messenger brought him news that would otherwise have caused him to leave.[24] When Caesar finally did come to the Senate, he was distracted by Tillius Cimber, who presented Caesar with a request to free his exiled brother. Caesar dismissed him, and Cimber subsequently grabbed his toga. "Why this violence?" Caesar asked.[25] At this, the conspirators attacked Caesar. Publius Servilius Casca Longus was allegedly the first to attack him, with a stab to the shoulder, which Caesar blocked.[26] However, upon seeing Brutus was with the conspirators, Caesar covered his face with his toga and resigned himself to his fate.[27] The conspirators attacked in such numbers that they even wounded one another. Brutus is said to have been wounded in the hand and in the legs.[28][29] After the assassination, the Senate passed an amnesty on the assassins. This amnesty was proposed by Caesar's friend and co-consul Mark Antony. Nonetheless, uproar among the population against the assassins caused Brutus and the conspirators to leave Rome. Brutus settled in Crete from 44 to 42 BC.[30][citation needed] Marcus Junius Brutus Liberators' civil war[edit] Brutus and his companions after the battle of Philippi Main article: Liberators' civil war In 43 BC, after Octavian received his consulship from the Roman Senate, one of his first actions was to have the people who had assassinated Julius Caesar declared murderers and enemies of the state.[31] Cicero, angry at Octavian, wrote a letter to Brutus explaining that the forces of Octavian and Mark Antony were divided. Antony had laid siege to the province of Gaul, where he wanted a governorship. In response to this siege, Octavian rallied his troops and fought a series of battles, culminating in the Battle of Mutina, in which Antony was defeated.[32] Upon hearing that neither Mark Antony nor Octavian had an army large enough to defend Rome, Brutus rallied his troops, which totalled about 17 legions. When Octavian heard that Brutus was on his way to Rome, he made peace with Antony.[33] Their armies, which together totalled about 19 legions, marched to meet Brutus and his ally, fellow assassin Gaius Cassius Longinus, thus beginning the Liberators' civil war. The two sides met in two engagements known as the Battle of Philippi. The first was fought on October 3, 42 BC, in which Brutus defeated Octavian's forces, although Cassius was defeated by Antony's forces, and subsequently committed suicide. The second engagement was fought on October 23, and ended in Brutus' defeat. EID MAR ("Ides of March") denarius, issued by Marcus Junius Brutus in 43/42 BC. The obverse of the coin features a portrait of Marcus Brutus. The inscription reads BRVT IMP L PLAET CEST, which means Brutus, Imperator, Lucius Plaetorius Cestianus. Lucius Plaetorius Cestianus was the moneyer who actually managed the mint workers who produced the coin. The two daggers on the reverse differ to show more than one person was involved in the slaying. The cap is a pileus (liberty cap) that in Roman times was given to slaves on the day of their emancipation, or freedom from slavery. In the context of the assassination, Brutus is making it clear the killers were defending the Republic and its people from Caesar's attempt to attain kingship. A gold aureus with the same design was also minted. Both coins are exceptionally rare.[34] After the defeat, Brutus fled into the nearby hills with only about four legions. Knowing his army had been defeated and that he would be captured, he committed suicide by running into his own sword, which was held by two of his men. Among his last words were, according to Plutarch, "By all means must we fly; not with our feet, however, but with our hands". Brutus also uttered the well-known verse calling down a curse upon Antony (Plutarch repeats this from the memoirs of Publius Volumnius): Forget not, Zeus, the author of these crimes (in the Dryden translation this passage is given as Punish, great Jove, the author of these ills).[35] Plutarch wrote that, according to Volumnius, Brutus repeated two verses, but Volumnius was only able to recall the one quoted. Mark Antony, as a show of great respect, ordered Brutus' body to be wrapped in Antony's most expensive purple mantle (this was later stolen, and Antony had the thief executed). Brutus was cremated, and his ashes were sent to his mother, Servilia.[36] His wife Porcia was reported to have committed suicide upon hearing of her husband's death, although, according to Plutarch (Brutus 53 para 2), there is some dispute as to whether this is the case. Plutarch states that there was a letter in existence allegedly written by Brutus mourning the manner of her death.[37][38][39] Chronology[edit] 85 BC: Brutus was born in Rome to Marcus Junius Brutus The Elder and Servilia. 58 BC: He was made assistant to Cato, governor of Cyprus, which helped him start his political career. 53 BC: He was given the quaestorship in Cilicia. 49 BC: Brutus followed Pompey to Greece during the civil war against Caesar. 48 BC: Brutus was pardoned by Caesar. 46 BC: He was made governor of Gaul. 45 BC: He was made Praetor. 44 BC: Murdered Caesar with other liberatores; went to Athens and then to Crete. 42 BC: Battle with Mark Antony's forces and suicide. Legacy[edit] This was the noblest Roman of them all: All the conspirators save only he Did that they did in envy of great Caesar; He only, in a general honest thought And common good to all, made one of them. His life was gentle, and the elements So mix'd in him that Nature might stand up And say to all the world "This was a man!" William Shakespeare, Julius Caesar, Act 5, Scene 5 (Mark Antony) Influence[edit] Brutus by Michelangelo Buonarroti The phrase Sic semper tyrannis! ["thus, ever (or always), to tyrants!"] is attributed to Brutus at Caesar's assassination. The phrase is also the official motto of the Commonwealth of Virginia. In 1787, the Anti-Federalist Papers were written under the pseudonym "Brutus" in reference to Caesar's assassin who tried to preserve the Republic. John Wilkes Booth, the assassin of Abraham Lincoln, claimed to be inspired by Brutus. Booth's father, Junius Brutus Booth, was named for Brutus, and Booth (as Mark Antony) and his brother Edwin (as Brutus) had performed in a production of Julius Caesar in New York City just six months before the assassination. On the night of the assassination, Booth is alleged to have shouted "Sic semper tyrannis" while leaping to the stage of Ford's Theater. Lamenting the negative reaction to his deed, Booth wrote in his journal on April 21, 1865, while on the run, "[W]ith every man's hand against me, I am here in despair. And why; For doing what Brutus was honored for ... And yet I for striking down a greater tyrant than they ever knew am looked upon as a common cutthroat." Booth was also known to be greatly attracted to Caesar himself, having played both Brutus and Caesar upon various stages.[40] Fiction[edit] In Dante's Inferno, Brutus is one of three people deemed sinful enough to be chewed in one of the three mouths of Satan, in the very center of Hell, for all eternity. The other two are Cassius, who was Brutus's fellow conspirator, and Judas Iscariot (Canto XXXIV). Dante condemned these three in the afterlife for being treacherous to their benefactors. William Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar depicts Brutus' internal struggles, his assassination of Caesar with the other conspirators, and their subsequent downfall. In the final scene, Mark Antony describes Brutus as "the noblest Roman of them all", for he was the only conspirator who acted for the good of Rome. In the play, the dying Caesar says "Et tu, Brute?" ("You too, Brutus?"), although they are not his last words, and the sources describing Caesar's death disagree about what his last words were. The 1911 Italian silent film Brutus portrays the life of Brutus. The Ides of March is an epistolary novel by Thornton Wilder dealing with characters and events leading to, and culminating in, the assassination of Julius Caesar. In the Masters of Rome novels of Colleen McCullough, Brutus is portrayed as a timid intellectual whose relationship with Caesar is deeply complex. He resents Caesar for breaking his marriage arrangement with Caesar's daughter, Julia, whom Brutus deeply loved, so that she could be married instead to Pompey the Great. However, Brutus enjoys Caesar's favor after he receives a pardon for fighting with Republican forces against Caesar at the Battle of Pharsalus. In the lead-up to the Ides of March, Cassius and Trebonius use him as a figurehead because of his family connections to the founder of the Republic. He appears in Fortune's Favourites, Caesar's Women, Caesar and The October Horse. Brutus is an occasional supporting character in Asterix comics, most notably Asterix and Son in which he is the main antagonist. The character appears in the first three live Asterix film adaptations – though briefly in the first two – Asterix and Obelix vs Caesar (played by Didier Cauchy) and Asterix at the Olympic Games. In the latter film, he is portrayed as a comical villain by Belgian actor Benoît Poelvoorde: he is a central character to the film, even though he was not depicted in the original Asterix at the Olympic Games comic book. Following sources cited in Plutarch, he is implied in that film to be Julius Caesar's biological son. In the TV series Rome, Brutus, portrayed by Tobias Menzies, is depicted as a young man torn between what he believes is right, and his loyalty to and love of a man who has been like a father to him. In the series, his personality and motives are somewhat inaccurate, as Brutus is portrayed as an unwilling participant in politics. In the earlier episodes he is frequently inebriated and easily ruled by emotion. Brutus' relationship to Cato is not mentioned, and his three sisters and wife Porcia are omitted from the series completely. The Hives' song "B is for Brutus" contains titular and lyrical references to Junius Brutus. Red Hot Chili Peppers song "Even You Brutus?" from their 2011 album I'm with You makes reference to Brutus and Judas Iscariot. The video game Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood features a small side story in the form of the "Scrolls of Romulus" written by Brutus, which reveals that Caesar was a Templar, and Brutus and the conspirators were members of the Roman Brotherhood of Assassins. At the end of the side quest, the player is able to get Brutus' armor and dagger. Later at Assassin's Creed Origins, Brutus and Cassius make an appearance as Aya's earliest recruits and is the one who give the killing blow to Caesar, though his armor from Brotherhood does not make an appearance here. In Tina Fey's teen movie Mean Girls, one of the main characters delivers a monologue about Brutus and how he is just as good as Caesar, saying, "And when did it become okay for one person to be the boss of everybody, huh? Because that's not what Rome is about. We should totally just stab Caesar!"[41] See also[edit] Junia (gens) References[edit] ^ Year given by Cicero (Brutus 324), which agrees with Brutus's cursus honorum. Livy's summary (124) gives XL (40) and a subsequent gap in the text. Velleius Paterculus has Brutus aged 36 at death, but this is probably incorrect. Tempest, pp. 262–263 ^ Suetonius, The Deified Julius, 50 ^ Plutarch, Life of Brutus, 5.2. ^ M. Crawford (1971) Roman Republican Coinage 502.2 shows that Brutus issued coins bearing the inscription Q. CAEPIO BRVTVS PRO [COS] (Q. Caepio Brutus, proconsul) in 42 BC ^ "Coin bearing inscription Q. Caepio Brutus". oldcoin.com.au. Archived from the original on 2011-07-06. Retrieved 2011-01-16. ^ Plutarch, Life of Brutus, 2.1. ^ Plutarch, Life of Brutus, 3.1. ^ Cicero, Att. V 21 ^ Cicero. ad Fam. iii. 4. ^ Plutarch, Life of Brutus, 5.1. ^ Plutarch. "Marcus Brutus". Retrieved January 7, 2017. ^ Plutarch, Marcus Brutus, 13.3. ^ Cicero. Brutus. 77, 94 ^ Cic. Att. 13. 16 ^ Cic. Att. 13. 22 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 44.8.4. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 44.12.2. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 44.12.3. ^ Cassius Dio, 44.13.1. ^ Cassius Dio, 44.13. ^ Plutarch, Marcus Brutus, 14.4 ^ Plutarch. Marcus Brutus. 15.1. ^ Cassius Dio. Roman History. 44.18.1. ^ Plutarch. Marcus Brutus. 15.5. ^ Getlen, Larry (March 1, 2015). "The real story behind the assassination of Julius Caesar". New York Post. Retrieved January 2, 2017. ^ Plutarch. Marcus Brutus. 17.5. ^ Plutarch. Marcus Brutus. 17.6. ^ Plutarch. Marcus Brutus. 17.7. ^ Nicolaus. Life of Augustus. 24. ^ Smith, R. Scott (2014). Ancient Rome: An Anthology of Sources. Hackett Publishing Company. pp. 72, 106. ISBN 978-1624660009. Retrieved 2019-07-11. ^ Plutarch, translated by John Dryden. "Marcus Brutus". Greek Texts. p. 13. Archived from the original on 2011-06-13. Retrieved 2011-01-16. ^ "Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa". Livius.org. 2010-01-02. Retrieved 2011-01-16. ^ "Ancient Greek Online library: Marcus Brutus by Plutarch page 13". Greektexts.com. 2005. Archived from the original on 2011-06-13. Retrieved 2011-01-16. ^ "EID MAR". penelope.uchicago.edu. ^ Plutarch, Life of Brutus, chapter 48 ^ Plutarch, Marcus Brutus, 52.1-53.4. ^ Valerius Maximus, De factis mem. iv.6.5. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History. 47.49.3. ^ Appian, The Civil Wars, Book 5.136. ^ "John Wilkes Booth Manuscript". Baltimore Sun. 26 April 1992. Retrieved 24 December 2013. ^ "Gretchen Wieners (Character)". IMDb. Retrieved 2017-10-05. Bibliography[edit] Plutarch. Life of Brutus. Further reading[edit] Clarke, M. L. (1981). The Noblest Roman. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Corrigan, Kirsty (2015). Brutus - Caesar's Assassin. Barnsley: Pen & Sword Military. Heitland, W. E. (1909). The Roman Republic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Parenti, Michael (2003). The Assassination of Julius Caesar. New York: New Press. Plutarch (1910). Arthur H. Clough (ed.). Lives. London: Dutton. Syme, Ronald (1939). The Roman Revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Tempest, Kathryn (2017). Brutus: The Noble Conspirator. London: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-18009-1. Wistrand, Erik (1981). The Policy of Brutus the Tyrannicide. Goteborg, Sweden: Kungl. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Marcus Junius Brutus. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Marcus Junius Brutus Marcus Junius Brutus at the Encyclopædia Britannica Information on Marcus Junius Brutus from www.Greektext.com Livius.org: Brutus v t e The works of Plutarch Works Parallel Lives Moralia "De genio Socratis" "On the Malice of Herodotus" Pseudo-Plutarch Lives Alcibiades and Coriolanus1 Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar Aratus of Sicyon / Artaxerxes and Galba / Otho2 Aristides and Cato the Elder1 Crassus and Nicias1 Demetrius and Antony1 Demosthenes and Cicero1 Dion and Brutus1 Fabius and Pericles1 Lucullus and Cimon1 Lysander and Sulla1 Numa and Lycurgus1 Pelopidas and Marcellus1 Philopoemen and Flamininus1 Phocion and Cato the Younger Pompey and Agesilaus1 Poplicola and Solon1 Pyrrhus and Gaius Marius Romulus and Theseus1 Sertorius and Eumenes1 Agis / Cleomenes1 and Tiberius Gracchus / Gaius Gracchus Timoleon and Aemilius Paulus1 Themistocles and Camillus Translators and editors Jacques Amyot Arthur Hugh Clough John Dryden Philemon Holland Thomas North 1 Comparison extant 2 Four unpaired Lives v t e Julius Caesar Major life events Early life and career First Triumvirate Lucca Conference Gallic Wars Caesar's Civil War Crossing the Rubicon Constitutional reforms Dictator perpetuo Assassination Military campaigns Gallic Wars Arar Bibracte Vosges Axona Sabis Atuatuci Octodurus Invasions of Britain Ambiorix's revolt Avaricum Gergovia Alesia Uxellodunum Civil War Corfinium Brundisium Ilerda Dyrrhachium Gomphi Pharsalus Nile Alexandria Zela Ruspina Thapsus Munda Planned invasion of the Parthian Empire Works Laudatio Iuliae amitae Anticato Commentarii de Bello Civili Commentarii de Bello Gallico De analogia Poems by Julius Caesar Portraits Green Caesar Tusculum portrait Arles bust Buildings Forum of Caesar Curia Julia Basilica Julia Temple of Venus Genetrix Caesar's Rhine bridges Quotes Alea iacta est Veni, vidi, vici Ut est rerum omnium magister usus last words Family Wives Cossutia (disputed) Cornelia Pompeia Calpurnia Children Julia Caesarion Augustus (adopted) Other Gaius Julius Caesar (father) Aurelia (mother) Julia Major (sister) Julia Minor (sister) Legacy Cultural depictions of Julius Caesar Temple of Caesar Caesar's Comet Caesarism Julio-Claudian dynasty Related Julia gens Mark Antony Cleopatra Servilia Marcus Junius Brutus Category Authority control BIBSYS: 90282539 BNE: XX1237329 BNF: cb125362018 (data) GND: 118516361 ISNI: 0000 0001 2136 2762 LCCN: n80056883 NKC: jn20000700250 NLA: 35855724 NLG: 284146 NLI: 000025897 NTA: 070089140 RERO: 02-A003051911 SELIBR: 179992 SUDOC: 067069037 Trove: 1117637 VIAF: 63975332 WorldCat Identities: viaf-63975332 Roman politician and assassin of Julius Caesar (85 BC-42 BC) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Junius_Brutus&oldid=996569578" Categories: Marcus Junius Brutus 85 BC births 42 BC deaths Ancient Roman generals Ancient Roman jurists Ancient Roman politicians who committed suicide Assassins of heads of 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en-wikipedia-org-2366	----	Legacy of the Roman Empire - Wikipedia Legacy of the Roman Empire From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search    Official Romance language   Co-official Romance language   Unofficial Romance language Global distribution of Romance languages: Blue – French; Green – Spanish; Orange – Portuguese; Purple – Catalan; Yellow – Italian; Red – Romanian The legacy of the Roman Empire has been varied and significant, comparable to that of other hegemonic polities of world history (e.g. Persian Empire, ancient Egypt or imperial China). The Roman Empire itself, built upon the legacy of other cultures, has had long-lasting influence with broad geographical reach on a great range of cultural aspects, including state institutions, law, cultural values, religious beliefs, technological advances, engineering and language. This legacy survived the demise of the empire itself (5th century AD in the West, and 15th century AD in the East) and went on to shape other civilisations, a process which continues to this day. The city of Rome was the civitas (reflected in the etymology of the word "civilisation") and connected with the actual western civilisation on which subsequent cultures built. One main legacy is the Latin language of ancient Rome, epitomized by the Classical Latin used in Latin literature, evolved during the Middle Ages and remains in use in the Roman Catholic Church as Ecclesiastical Latin. Vulgar Latin, the common tongue used for regular social interactions, evolved simultaneously into the various Romance languages that exist today (notably Italian, Sardinian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, Romanian, etc.). Although the Western Roman Empire fell in the 5th century AD, the Eastern Roman Empire continued until its conquest by the Ottoman Empire in the 15th century AD and cemented the Greek language in many parts of the Eastern Mediterranean even after the Early Muslim conquests of the 7th century AD. Although there has been a small modern revival of the Hellenistic religion with Hellenism, ancient Roman paganism was largely displaced by Roman Catholic Christianity after the 4th century AD and the Christian conversion of Roman emperor Constantine I (r. 306-337 AD). The Christian faith of the late Roman Empire continued to evolve during the Middle Ages and remains a major facet of the religion and the psyche of the modern Western world. Ancient Roman architecture, largely indebted to ancient Greek architecture of the Hellenistic period, has influenced the architecture of the Western world, particularly during the Italian Renaissance of the 15th century. Roman law and republican politics (from the age of the Roman Republic) have left an enduring legacy, influencing the Italian city-state republics of the Medieval period as well as the early United States and other modern democratic republics. The Julian calendar of ancient Rome formed the basis of the standard modern Gregorian calendar, while Roman inventions and engineering, such as the construction of concrete domes, continued to influence various peoples after the fall of Rome. Roman models of colonialism and of warfare also became influential. Contents 1 Language 1.1 Script 1.2 Latin literature 2 Education 3 Calendar and measurement 3.1 Hours of the day 3.2 Numerals and units 3.3 Three-age systems 4 Religion 5 Science and philosophy 6 Roman law and politics 7 Inventions 8 Colonies and roads 9 Architecture 10 Imperial idea 11 Toponymy and ethnonymy 12 See also 13 References 14 Sources 15 External links Language[edit] Main articles: Romance languages and Romance-speaking world Latin became the lingua franca of the early Roman Empire and later of the Western Roman Empire, while - particularly in the Eastern Roman Empire - indigenous languages such as Greek and to a lesser degree Egyptian and Aramaic language continued in use. Despite the decline of the Western Roman Empire, the Latin language continued to flourish in the very different social and economic environment of the Middle Ages, not least because it became the official language of the Roman Catholic Church. Koine Greek, which served as a lingua franca in the Eastern Empire, remains in use today as a sacred language in some Eastern Orthodox churches. In Western and Central Europe and in parts of northern Africa, Latin retained its elevated status as the main vehicle of communication for the learned classes throughout the Middle Ages and subsequently; witness especially the Renaissance and Baroque periods. Books which had a revolutionary impact on science, such as Nicolaus Copernicus' De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (1543), were composed in Latin. This language was not supplanted for scientific purposes until the 18th century, and for formal descriptions in zoology, as well as botany - it survived to the later 20th century.[1] The modern international binomial nomenclature holds to this day: taxonomists assign a Latin or Latinized name as the scientific name of each species. In the 21st century the Romance languages, which comprise all languages that descended from Latin, are spoken by more than 920 million people as their mother tongue, and by 300 million people as a second language, mainly in the Americas, Europe, and Africa.[2] Romance languages are either official, co-official, or significantly used in 72 countries around the world.[3][failed verification][4][need quotation to verify][5][need quotation to verify][6][need quotation to verify][7][need quotation to verify][8][need quotation to verify] Of the United Nations' six official languages, two (French and Spanish) descend from Latin. Additionally, Latin has had a great influence on both the grammar[citation needed] and the lexicon of West Germanic languages. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and Dutch vocabularies.[9][10][11] Those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch.[11] Of all the loanwords in Dutch, 32.2% come directly from some form of Latin (excluding loans from Romance languages).[12] Script[edit] Main article: Latin alphabet Global distribution of the Latin script. All three official scripts of the modern European Union— Latin, Greek and Cyrillic—descend from writing systems used in the Roman Empire. Today, the Latin script, the Latin alphabet spread by the Roman Empire to most of Europe, and derived from the Phoenician alphabet through an ancient form of the Greek alphabet adopted and modified by Etruscan, is the most widespread and commonly used script in the world. Spread by various colonies, trade routes, and political powers, the script has continued to grow in influence. The Greek alphabet, which had spread throughout the eastern Mediterranean region during the Hellenistic period, remained the primary script of the Eastern Roman Empire through the Byzantine Empire until its demise in the 15th century. Cyrillic scripts largely derive from the Greek.[13] Latin literature[edit] 15th-century printed books by language.[14] The high prestige of Latin meant that that language still dominated European published discourse a millennium after the demise of the Western Roman Empire. The Carolingian Renaissance of the 8th century rescued many works in Latin from oblivion: manuscripts transcribed at that time are our only sources for some works that later fell into obscurity once more, only to be recovered during the Renaissance: Tacitus, Lucretius, Propertius and Catullus furnish examples.[15] Other Latin writers never went out of circulation: Virgil, reinterpreted as a prophet of Christianity by the 4th century, gained the reputation of a sorcerer in the 12th century. Cicero, in a limited number of his works, remained a model of good style, mined for quotations. Medieval Christians read Ovid allegorically, or re-imagined Seneca as the correspondent of Saint Paul. Lucan, Persius, Juvenal, Horace, Terence, and Statius survived in the continuing canon and the historians Valerius Maximus and Livy continued to be read for the moral lessons history was expected to impart. Through the Roman Empire, Greek literature also continued to make an impact in Europe long after the Empire's fall, especially after the recovery of Greek texts from the East during the high Middle Ages and the resurgence of Greek literacy during the Renaissance. Many educated Westerners from the Renaissance up to the 20th century, for instance, read Plutarch's Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans, originally written in Greek. Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar takes most of its material from Plutarch's biographies of Caesar, Cato, and Brutus, whose exploits were frequently discussed and debated by the literati of Shakespeare's time. Education[edit] Main article: Liberal arts Martianus Capella developed the system of the seven liberal arts that structured medieval education. Although the liberal arts were already known in Ancient Greece, it was only after Martianus that the seven liberal arts took on canonical form. His single encyclopedic work, De nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii "On the Marriage of Philology and Mercury", laid the standard formula of academic learning from the Christianized Roman Empire of the 5th century until the Renaissance of the 12th century. The seven liberal arts were formed by the trivium, which included the skills of grammar, logic, and rhetoric, while arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy played part as the quadrivium. Calendar and measurement[edit] Main articles: Gregorian calendar and Names of the days of the week The modern Western calendar is a refinement of the Julian calendar, which was introduced by Julius Caesar. The calendar of the Roman Empire began with the months Ianuarius (January), Februarius (February), and Martius (March). The common tradition to begin the year on 1 January was a convention established in ancient Rome. Throughout the medieval period, the year began on 25 March, the Catholic Solemnity of the Annunciation. Roman monk of the 5th-century, Dionysius Exiguus, devised the modern dating system of the Anno Domini (AD) era, which is based on the reckoned year of the birth of Jesus, with AD counting years from the start of this epoch, and BC denoting years before the start of the era. The modern seven-day week follows the Greco-Roman system of planetary hours, in which one of the seven heavenly bodies of the Solar System that were known in ancient times—Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mercury and the Moon—is given "rulership" over each day. The Romance languages (with the exception of Portuguese, that assigns an ordinal number to five days of the week, from Monday to Friday, beginning with segunda-feira, and ending with sexta-feira) preserve the original Latin names of each day of the week, except for Sunday, which came to be called dies dominicus (Lord's Day) under Christianity. This system for the days of the week spread to Celtic and Germanic peoples, as well as the Albanians, before the collapse of the empire, after which the names of comparable gods were substituted for the Roman deities in some languages. In Germanic languages, for instance, Thor stood in for Jupiter (Jove), yielding "Thursday" from the Latin dies Iovis, while in Albanian, native deities En and Prende were assigned to Thursday and Friday respectively. Day Sunday Sōl (Sun) Monday Luna (Moon) Tuesday Mars (Mars) Wednesday Mercurius (Mercury) Thursday Iuppiter (Jupiter) Friday Venus (Venus) Saturday Saturnus (Saturn) Latin dies Sōlis dies Lūnae dies Martis dies Mercuriī dies Iovis dies Veneris dies Saturnī Italian domenica lunedì martedì mercoledì giovedì venerdì sabato French dimanche lundi mardi mercredi jeudi vendredi samedi Spanish domingo lunes martes miércoles jueves viernes sábado Catalan diumenge dilluns dimarts dimecres dijous divendres dissabte Romanian duminică luni marți miercuri joi vineri sâmbătă Albanian te dielën (diell = "sun") të hënën (hënë = "moon") të martën të mërkurën të enjten të premte të shtunën Irish An Domhnach Dé Domhnaigh An Luan Dé Luain An Mháirt Dé Máirt An Chéadaoin Dé Céadaoin An Déardaoin Déardaoin An Aoine Dé hAoine An Satharn Dé Sathairn Welsh dydd Sul dydd Llun dydd Mawrth dydd Mercher dydd Iau dydd Gwener dydd Sadwrn Breton Disul Dilun Dimeurzh Dimerc’her Diriaou Digwener Disadorn Old English Sunnandæg Mōnandæg Tīwesdæg Wōdnesdæg Þunresdæg Frīgedæg Sæternesdæg German Sonntag Montag Dienstag, Ziestag (Swiss German) Mittwoch (older Wutenstag) Donnerstag Freitag Sonnabend, Samstag Dutch zondag maandag dinsdag woensdag donderdag vrijdag zaterdag Icelandic sunnudagur mánudagur þriðjudagur miðvikudagur fimmtudagur föstudagur laugardagur Norwegian Nynorsk sundag/søndag måndag tysdag onsdag torsdag fredag laurdag Danish søndag mandag tirsdag onsdag torsdag fredag lørdag Swedish söndag måndag tisdag onsdag torsdag fredag lördag Hours of the day[edit] Main articles: 12-hour clock and Roman timekeeping The 12-hour clock is a time convention popularized by the Romans in which the 24 hours of the day are divided into two periods. The Romans divided the day into 12 equal hours, A.M. (ante-meridiem, meaning before midday) and P.M. (post-meridiem, meaning past midday). The Romans also started the practice used worldwide today of a new day beginning at midnight. Numerals and units[edit] Main articles: Roman numerals and Ancient Roman units of measurement A typical clock face with Roman numerals in Bad Salzdetfurth, Germany. The notion of a twelve-hour day dates to the Roman Empire. Roman numerals continued as the primary way of writing numbers in Europe until the 14th century, when they were largely replaced in common usage by Hindu-Arabic numerals. The Roman numeral system continues to be widely used, however, in certain formal and minor contexts, such as on clock faces, coins, in the year of construction on cornerstone inscriptions, and in generational suffixes (such as Louis XIV or William Howard Taft IV). According to the Royal Spanish Academy, in the Spanish language centuries must be written in Roman numerals, so "21st century" should be written as "Siglo XXI". The Romans solidified the modern concept of the hour as one-24th part of a day and night. The English measurement system also retains features of the Ancient Roman foot (11.65 modern inches), which was used in England prior to the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain. The inch itself derives from the Roman uncia, meaning one-twelfth part. Three-age systems[edit] Main article: Three-age system Although the present archaeological system of the three main ages—stone, bronze and iron—originates with the Danish archaeologist Christian Jürgensen Thomsen, the concept of dividing pre-historical ages into systems based on metals extends to Ancient Rome, originated by the Roman Lucretius in the first century BC. Religion[edit] Christianity by percentage of population in each country. Main articles: Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Church While classical Roman and Hellenistic religion were ultimately superseded by Christianity, many key theological ideas and questions that are characteristic of Western religions originated with pre-Christian theology. The first cause argument for the existence of God, for instance, originates with Plato. Design arguments, which were introduced by Socrates and Aristotle and remain widely discussed to this day, formed an influential component of Stoic theology well into the late Roman period. The problem of evil was widely discussed among ancient philosophers, including the Roman writers such as Cicero and Seneca, and many of the answers they provided were later absorbed into Christian theodicy. In Christian moral theology, moreover, the field of natural law ethics draws heavily on the tradition established by Aristotle, the Stoics, and especially by Cicero's popular Latin work, De Legibus. Cicero's conception of natural law "found its way to later centuries notably through the writings of Saint Isidore of Seville and the Decretum of Gratian"[16] and influenced the discussion of the topic up through the era of the American Revolution. Christianity itself also spread through the Roman Empire; since emperor Theodosius I (AD 379-395), the official state church of the Roman Empire was Christianity. Subsequently, former Roman territories became Christian states which exported their religion to other parts of the world, through colonization and missionaries. Christianity also served as a conduit for preserving and transmitting Greco-Roman literary culture. Classical educational tradition in the liberal arts was preserved after the fall of the empire by the medieval Christian university. Education in the Middle Ages relied heavily on Greco-Roman books such as Euclid's Elements and the influential quadrivium textbooks written in Latin by the Roman statesman Boethius (AD 480–524). Major works of Greek and Latin literature, moreover, were both read and written by Christians during the imperial era. Many of the most influential works of the early Christian tradition were written by Roman and Hellenized theologians who engaged heavily with the literary culture of the empire (see church fathers). St. Augustine's (AD 354-430) City of God, for instance, draws extensively on Virgil, Cicero, Varro, Homer, Plato, and elements of Roman values and identity to criticize paganism and advocate for Christianity amidst a crumbling empire. The engagement of early Christians as both readers and writers of important Roman and Greek literature helped to ensure that the literary culture of Rome would persist after the fall of the empire. For thousands of years to follow, religious scholars in the Latin West from Bede to Thomas Aquinas and later renaissance figures such as Dante, Montaigne and Shakespeare would continue to read, reference and imitate both Christian and pagan literature from the Roman Empire. In the east, the empire's prolific tradition of Greek literature continued uninterrupted after the fall of the west, in part due to the works of the Greek fathers, who were widely read by Christians in medieval Byzantium and continue to influence religious thought to this day (see Byzantine literature). Science and philosophy[edit] Main articles: Roman philosophy and Ancient Greek philosophy Ptolemy's refined geocentric theory of epicycles was backed up by rigorous mathematics and detailed astronomical observations. It was not overturned until the Copernican Revolution, over a thousand years later. The Bible as codex. The codex, the book format today in universal use, was invented by the Romans and spread by Roman Christians.[17] While much of the most influential Greek science and philosophy was developed before the rise of the Empire, major innovations occurred under Roman rule that have had a lasting impact on the intellectual world. The traditions of Greek, Egyptian and Babylonian scholarship continued to flourish at great centers of learning such as Athens, Alexandria, and Pergamon. Epicurean philosophy reached a literary apex in the long poem by Lucretius, who advocated an atomic theory of matter and revered the older teachings of the Greek Democritus. The works of the philosophers Seneca the Younger, Epictetus and the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius were widely read during the revival of Stoic thought in the Renaissance, which synthesized Stoicism and Christianity. Fighter pilot James Stockdale famously credited the philosophy of Epictetus as being a major source of strength when he was shot down and held as prisoner during the Vietnam War. Plato's philosophy continued to be widely studied under the Empire, growing into the sophisticated neoplatonic system through the influence of Plotinus. Platonic philosophy was largely reconciled with Christianity by the Roman theologian Augustine of Hippo, who, while a staunch opponent of Roman paganism, viewed the Platonists as having more in common with Christians than the other pagan schools.[18] To this day, Plato's Republic is considered the foundational work of Western philosophy, and is read by students around the globe. The widespread Lorem ipsum text, which is widely used as a meaningless placeholder in modern typography and graphic design, is derived from the Latin text of Cicero's philosophical treatise De finibus. Pagan philosophy was gradually supplanted by Christianity in the later years of the Empire, culminating in the closure of the Academy of Athens by Justinian I. Many Greek-speaking philosophers moved to the east, outside the borders of the Empire. Neoplatonism and Aristotelianism gained a stronghold in Persia, where they were a heavy influence on early Islamic philosophy. Thinkers of the Islamic Golden Age such as Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Ibn Rushd (Averroës) engaged deeply with Greek philosophy, and played a major role in saving works of Aristotle that had been lost to the Latin West. The influence of Greek philosophy on Islam was dramatically reduced In the 11th century when the views of Avicenna and Avveroes were strongly criticized by Al-Ghazali. His Incoherence of the Philosophers is among the most influential books in Islamic history. In Western Europe, meanwhile, the recovery of Greek texts during the Scholastic period had a profound influence on Latin science and theology from the Middle Ages into the Renaissance. In science, the theories of the Greco-Roman physician Galen dominated Western medical thought and practice for more than 1,300 years. Ptolemy produced the most thorough and sophisticated astronomical theory of antiquity, documented in the Almagest. The Ptolemaic model of the solar system would remain the dominant approach to astronomy across Europe and the Middle East for more than a thousand years. Forty eight of the 88 constellations the IAU recognizes today were recorded in the seventh and eighth books of Claudius Ptolemy's Almagest. At Alexandria, the engineer and experimentalist Hero of Alexandria founded the study of mechanics and pneumatics. In modern geometry, Heron's formula bears his name. Roman Alexandria also saw the seeds of modern algebra arise in the works of Diophantus. Greek algebra continued to be studied in the east well after the fall of the Western Empire, where it matured into modern algebra in the hands of al-Khwārizmī (see the history of algebra). The study of Diophantine Equations and Diophantine Approximations are still important areas of mathematical research today. All of the planets in the Solar System, excluding Earth and Uranus, are named after Roman deities. Roman law and politics[edit] Main articles: Corpus Juris Civilis, Civil law (legal system), and Republic Roman Law in blue tones. Republics   Presidential republics with a full presidential system.   Presidential republics with a semi-presidential system.   Parliamentary republics with an executive president chosen by the parliament   Parliamentary republics with a ceremonial president, where the prime minister is the executive.   One-party state considered Republics Although the law of the Roman Empire is not used today, modern law in many jurisdictions is based on principles of law used and developed during the Roman Empire. Some of the same Latin terminology is still used today. The general structure of jurisprudence used today, in many jurisdictions, is the same (trial with a judge, plaintiff, and defendant) as that established during the Roman Empire. The modern concept of republican government is directly modeled on the Roman Republic. The republican institutions of Rome survived in many of the Italian city-states of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. The United States Congress is inspired by the Roman senate and legislative assemblies, while the president holds a position similar to that of a Roman consul. Many European political thinkers of the Enlightenment were avid consumers of Latin literature. Montesquieu, Edmund Burke, and John Adams were all strongly influenced by Cicero, for instance. Adams recommended Cicero as a model for politicians to imitate, and once remarked that "the sweetness and grandeur of his sounds, and the harmony of his numbers give pleasure enough to reward the reading if one understood none of his meaning."[19] Inventions[edit] Main articles: Roman technology and Eastern Roman technology Gnocchi, a kind of traditional Italian pasta, was introduced to various parts of Europe by the Roman legions during the expansion of the empire. Many Roman inventions were improved versions of other people's inventions and ranged from military organization, weapon improvements, armour, siege technology, naval innovation, architecture, medical instruments, irrigation, civil planning, construction, agriculture and many more areas of civic, governmental, military and engineering development. That said, the Romans also developed a huge array of new technologies and innovations. Many came from common themes but were vastly superior to what had come before, whilst others were totally new inventions developed by and for the needs of Empire and the Roman way of life. Some of the more famous examples are the Roman aqueducts (some of which are still in use today), Roman roads, water powered milling machines, thermal heating systems (as employed in Roman baths, and also used in palaces and wealthy homes) sewage and pipe systems and the invention and widespread use of concrete. Metallurgy and glass work (including the first widespread use of glass windows) and a wealth of architectural innovations including high rise buildings, dome construction, bridgeworks and floor construction (seen in the functionality of the Colosseum's arena and the underlying rooms/areas beneath it) are other examples of Roman innovation and genius. Military inventiveness was widespread and ranged from tactical/strategic innovations, new methodologies in training, discipline and field medicine as well as inventions in all aspects of weaponry, from armor and shielding to siege engines and missile technology. This combination of new methodologies, technical innovation, and creative invention in the military gave Rome the edge against its adversaries for half a millennium, and with it, the ability to create an empire that even today, more than 2000 years later, continues to leave its legacy in many areas of modern life. Colonies and roads[edit] Main article: List of cities founded by the Romans Rome left a legacy of founding many cities as Colonia. There were more than 500 Roman colonies spread through the Empire, most of them populated by veterans of the Roman legions. Some Roman colonies rose to become influential commercial and trade centers, transportation hubs and capitals of international empires, like Constantinople, London, Paris and Vienna. All those colonies were connected by another important legacy of the Roman Empire: the Roman roads. Indeed, the empire comprised more than 400,000 kilometres (250,000 mi) of roads, of which over 80,500 kilometres (50,000 mi) were stone-paved.[20] The courses (and sometimes the surfaces) of many Roman roads survived for millennia and many are overlaid by modern roads, like the Via Emilia in northern Italy. The roads are closely linked to modern-day economies, with those that survived from the empire's territorial peak in 117CE having more economic activity today. This is especially true in European areas, which kept wheeled vehicles in the latter half of the first millennium, whereas other regions preferred cheaper methods of transport such as camel caravans.[21] Architecture[edit] Main article: Ancient Roman architecture The Cathedral of Vilnius (1783), by Laurynas Gucevičius. In the mid-18th century, Roman architecture inspired neoclassical architecture. Neoclassicism was an international movement. Though neoclassical architecture employs the same classical vocabulary as late Baroque architecture, it tends to emphasize its planar qualities, rather than sculptural volumes. Projections and recessions and their effects of light, and shade are flatters; sculptural bas-reliefs are flatter and tend to be enframed in friezes, tablets or panels. Its clearly articulated individual features are isolated rather than interpenetrating, autonomous and complete in themselves. International neoclassical architecture was exemplified in Karl Friedrich Schinkel's buildings, especially the Old Museum in Berlin, Sir John Soane's Bank of England in London and the newly built White House and Capitol in Washington, DC in the United States. The Scots architect Charles Cameron created palatial Italianate interiors for the German-born Catherine II the Great in St. Petersburg. Italy clung to Rococo until the Napoleonic regimes brought the new archaeological classicism, which was embraced as a political statement by young, progressive, urban Italians with republican leanings. Imperial idea[edit] See also: Succession of the Roman Empire and Translatio imperii From a legal point of view the Roman Empire, founded by Augustus in 27 BC and divided into two "parts" (or rather, courts, as the empire continued to be considered as one) after the death of Theodosius I in 395, had survived only in the eastern part which, with the deposition of the last western emperor Romulus Augustulus, in 476, had also obtained the imperial regalia of the western part reuniting from a formal point of view the Roman Empire. The Roman line continued uninterrupted to rule the Eastern Roman Empire, whose main characteristics were Roman concept of state, medieval Greek culture and language, and Orthodox Christian faith. The Byzantines themselves never ceased to refer to themselves as "Romans" (Rhomaioi) and to their state as the "Roman Empire", the "Empire of the Romans" (in Greek Βασιλεία των Ῥωμαίων, Basileía ton Rhōmaíōn) or "Romania" (Ῥωμανία, Rhōmanía). Likewise, they were called "Rûm" (Rome) by their eastern enemies to the point that competing neighbours even acquired its name, such as the Sultanate of Rûm. Flask for Priming Power with the Justice of Trajan (mid-16th century), depicting a woman's plea for justice from Trajan, with an imperial pennant of the Habsburgs suggesting that as Holy Roman Emperors they are the political descendants of the ancient Roman emperors (Walters Art Museum) The designation of the Empire as "Byzantine" is a retrospective idea: it began only in 1557, a century after the fall of Constantinople, when German historian Hieronymus Wolf published his work Corpus Historiæ Byzantinæ, a collection of Byzantine sources. The term did not come in general use in the Western world before the 19th century,[citation needed] when modern Greece was born. The end of the continuous tradition of the Roman Empire is open to debate: the final point may be viewed as coming as early as the sack of Constantinople in 1204, or the capture of Constantinople in 1453, or as late as the abolition of the Ottoman sultanate in 1922 given the Sultans' adoption of the title of Emperor of the Romans (Kayser-i Rum) for themselves. After the fall of Constantinople, Thomas Palaiologos, brother of the last Eastern Roman Emperor, Constantine XI, was elected emperor and tried to organize the remaining forces. His rule came to an end after the fall of the last major Byzantine city, Corinth. He then moved to Italy and continued to be recognized as Eastern emperor by the Christian powers. His son Andreas Palaiologos continued claims on the Byzantine throne until he sold the title to Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile before his death in 1502.[22] However, there is no evidence that any Spanish monarch used the Byzantine imperial titles. In Western Europe, the Roman concept of state was continued for almost a millennium by the Holy Roman Empire whose emperors, mostly of German tongue, viewed themselves as the legitimate successors to the ancient imperial tradition (King of the Romans) and Rome as the capital of its Empire. The German title of "Kaiser" is derived from the Latin name Caesar, which is pronounced [ˈkae̯sar] in Classical Latin. The coronation of Charlemagne as "Roman" emperor by Pope Leo III in the year 800 happened at a time of unprecedented sole female imperial rule in Constantinople (by Empress Irene) which was interpreted by adversaries as tantamount to a vacancy. The imperial title in the West generated what historians have called the problem of two emperors. The emperors of the Holy Roman Empire sought in many ways to make themselves accepted by the Byzantines as their peers: with diplomatic relations, political marriages or threats. Sometimes, however, they did not obtain the expected results, because from Constantinople they were always called "King of the Germans", never "Emperor." The Holy Roman Empire survived Byzantium, but was eventually dissolved in 1806 owing to pressure by Napoleon I. In Eastern Europe, firstly the Bulgarian, then the Serbian and ultimately the Russian czars (Czar derived from Caesar) proclaimed being Emperors. In Moscow in Russia adopted the idea of being a Third Rome (with Constantinople being the second). Sentiments[citation needed] of being the heir of the fallen Eastern Roman Empire began during the reign of Ivan III, Grand Duke of Moscow who had married Sophia Paleologue, the niece of Constantine XI (it is important to note that she was not the heiress of the Byzantine throne, rather her brother Andreas was). Being the most powerful Orthodox Christian state, the Tsars were thought of in Russia as succeeding the Eastern Roman Empire as the rightful rulers of the Orthodox Christian world.[citation needed] There were also competing Bulgarian and Wallachian[23][24] claims for succession of the Roman Empire. In the early 20th century, the Italian fascists under their "Duce" Benito Mussolini dreamed of transforming Italy back into the Roman Empire again, encompassing the Mediterranean basin. Associated with Italian fascism also Nazi Germany and Francoist Spain connected their claims with Roman imperialism. Toponymy and ethnonymy[edit] See also: List of cities founded by the Romans; List of Latin place names in Continental Europe, Ireland and Scandinavia; List of Latin place names in Britain; List of Latin place names in Africa; and List of Latin place names in Asia Aside from the city of Rome itself, the Imperial Roman name has survived in a number of regions and was also adopted by some of the political regimes that ruled them. These include: Romagna, the Italian region that was the administrative center of Byzantine Italy and thus remained associated with the Roman Empire when most of the country had fallen under Lombard rule; Rûm, the name by which the Seljuq Turks referred to the parts of Anatolia which they had conquered from the Eastern Roman Empire, thus the common name of the Sultanate of Rum for their realm (1077-1308).[25] Under the Ottoman Empire after the 1390s, the Rûm Eyalet was the region around Sivas, later known simply as Eyalet of Sivas. The name of the Turkish city of Erzurum has been derived from the Arabic Arḍ ar-Rūm (Arabic: ارض الروم‎) 'land of the Rûm'.[26][27] Romania, a habitual reference in medieval Latin and Romance languages to the Byzantine Empire, or between 1204 and 1261 to the Latin Empire. It survived for a time in place names such as that of Nafplio, which in Italian was referred to as Napoli in Romania well into the modern era, or to this day in the Bosnian region of Romanija. Rumelia, the Balkanic parts of the former Eastern Empire, labelled "land of the Romans" following their conquest by the Ottomans and at a time when the Asia Minor territories formerly known as Rum were more commonly referred to again as Anatolia. Central Greece is still known colloquially as Roúmeli (Ρούμελη). The modern country of Romania. Tracing the origin of the Romanians to the Roman Empire's province of Dacia has long been part of the national narrative in spite of the scarcity of conclusive evidence. The "Roman" demonym referring to Romance speakers in Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania appeared in the 16th century (with various vernacular spellings) under the influence of Renaissance humanism. In linguistics and ethnonymy: The word Romance, naming the language family that also includes Spanish, Portuguese, French and Italian among others, is itself derived from "Roman". See also: Substrate in Romanian Rûm in Asia Minor and the Middle East refers dependent on context to Byzantines and/or Orthodox Christians, namely the Rum Millet in the Ottoman Empire. Correspondingly, Orthodox Armenians are known as Hayhurum - literally, Armenian and Rûm - and Urums are Turkic-speaking Orthodox Christians in the Crimea and Georgia. Romaniote Jews also derive their name from the former Eastern/Byzantine/Ottoman Empire. In turn, during the 16th century, Portuguese used "rume" and "rumes" (plural) as a generic term to refer to the Mamluk-Ottoman forces they faced then in the Indian Ocean.[28] Chinese authors during the Ming dynasty similarly referred to the Ottomans in general as Lumi (魯迷), derived from Rûm. During the Qing dynasty they also used the word Wulumu (務魯木). The Romani people, by contrast, are named after an unrelated Sanskrit root common with the Domba people in India. See also[edit] Western Roman Empire Byzantine Empire Third Rome General: Classical antiquity Classical tradition History of the Roman Empire References[edit] ^ See History of Latin. ^ "Romance languages". Britannica.com. Retrieved 2018-11-24. ^ "Language Acquisition in the Romance Speaking World: Peru - Departamento de Educación". Departamento.pucp.edu.pe. Retrieved 2016-05-14. ^ Fäcke, Christiane (2014-08-25). Manual of Language Acquisition - Google Libros. ISBN 9783110302257. Retrieved 2016-05-14. ^ Weber, Jean Jacques (2009). Multilingualism, Education and Change - Jean Jacques Weber - Google Libros. ISBN 9783631572856. Retrieved 2016-05-14. ^ Johnson, Sally; Ensslin, Astrid (2007-09-19). Language in the Media: Representations, Identities, Ideologies - Google Libros. ISBN 9781441151254. Retrieved 2016-05-14. ^ Beretta, Claudio (2003). I nomi dei fiumi, dei monti, dei siti: strutture linguistiche preistoriche - Claudio Beretta - Google Libros. ISBN 9788820330989. Retrieved 2016-05-14. ^ USA (2015-09-28). "Radiation oncology in Latin speaking countries: A link between Europe and Latin America". Rep Pract Oncol Radiother. 19 (4): 227–9. doi:10.1016/j.rpor.2013.06.004. PMC 4104016. PMID 25061515. ^ Finkenstaedt, Thomas; Dieter Wolff (1973). Ordered Profusion; studies in dictionaries and the English lexicon. C. Winter. ISBN 3-533-02253-6. ^ Uwe Pörksen, German Academy for Language and Literature's Jahrbuch [Yearbook] 2007 (Wallstein Verlag, Göttingen 2008, pp. 121-130) ^ a b Loanwords in the World's Languages: A Comparative Handbook (PDF). Walter de Gruyter. 2009. p. 370. ^ van der Sijs, Nicoline (2009). "Loanwords in Dutch". In Haspelmath, Martin; Tadmor, Uri (eds.). Loanwords in the World's Languages: A Comparative Handbook (PDF). Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. p. 350. ISBN 978-3-11-021843-5. Retrieved 3 June 2020. The Latin loanwords [in Dutch] (from Roman times, from Church Latin and from medical and scientific Latin) amount to 32.2% of all loanwords [...]. ^ Lunt, Horace G. (1955). "The Old Church Slavonic writing systems". Old Church Slavonic Grammar (7 ed.). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter (published 2010). p. 16. ISBN 9783110876888. Retrieved 3 June 2020. [...] the Greek-based alphabet is the ancestor of the cyrillic alphabets used today in the Balkans and among the East Slavs. ^ "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue". British Library. Retrieved 2 March 2011. ^ Roberto Weiss, The Renaissance Discovery of Classical Antiquity (Oxford: Blackwell) 1969:1. ^ Corwin, Edward S. (1955). The "Higher Law" Background of American Constitutional Law. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. pp. 17–18. ^ Roberts & Skeat 1983, pp. 38−67; 75 ^ Agustine, De Civitate Dei, book viii. ^ Carl J. Richard, Why We're All Romans: The Roman Contribution to the Western World, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2010, p. 122. ^ Gabriel, Richard A. The Great Armies of Antiquity. Westport, Conn: Praeger, 2002. Page 9. ^ Dalgaard, Carl-Johan and Kaarsen, Nicolai and Olsson, Ola and Selaya, Pablo (2018). "Roman Roads to Prosperity: Persistence and Non-Persistence of Public Goods Provision". Center for Economic and Policy Research. SSRN 3130184.CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link) ^ Norwich, John Julius, Byzantium — The Decline and Fall, p. 446. ^ Clark, Victoria (2000). "Chapter 5: Romania". Why Angels Fall. New York: St. Martin's Press: Macmillan. p. 213. ISBN 978-0-312-23396-9. ^ Runciman, Steven (1985). "Chapter 10: The Phanariots". The Great Church in Captivity. Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]; New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 365. ISBN 978-0-521-31310-0. ^ Alexander Kazhdan, "Rūm" The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (Oxford University Press, 1991), vol. 3, p. 1816. Paul Wittek, Rise of the Ottoman Empire, Royal Asiatic Society Books, Routledge (2013), p. 81: "This state too bore the name of Rûm, if not officially, then at least in everyday usage, and its princes appear in the Eastern chronicles under the name 'Seljuks of Rûm' (Ar.: Salâjika ar-Rûm). A. Christian Van Gorder, Christianity in Persia and the Status of Non-muslims in Iran p. 215: "The Seljuqs called the lands of their sultanate Rum because it had been established on territory long considered 'Roman', i.e. Byzantine, by Muslim armies." ^ See Joseph Laurent's extensive note in his (in French) L’Arménie entre Byzance et l’Islam depuis la conquête arabe jusqu’en 886, 1919, new edition revised and updated by Marius Canard, Lisbon: Librairie Bertrand, 1980, pp. 87–88, note 83. ^ (in Armenian) Darbinyan, M. «Էրզրում» [Erzurum] Armenian Soviet Encyclopedia. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1978, vol. 4, p. 93. ^ Ozbaran, Salih, "Ottomans as 'Rumes' in Portuguese sources in the sixteenth century", Portuguese Studies, Annual, 2001 Sources[edit] Kuzmanović, Zorica; Mihajlović, Vladimir D. (2015). "Roman Emperors and Identity Constructions in Modern Serbia". Identities: Global Studies in Culture and Power. 22 (4): 416–432. Roberts, Colin H.; Skeat (1983), The Birth of the Codex, London: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-726024-1 External links[edit] Byzantine & Christian Museum / From the ancient world to Byzantium v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor 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en-wikipedia-org-2367	----	Eutropius (historian) - Wikipedia Eutropius (historian) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman historian For other uses, see Eutropius. Eutropius (fl. AD 363–387) was a Roman historian. Contents 1 Life 2 Work 3 Legacy 4 References 4.1 Citations 4.2 Bibliography 5 External links Life[edit] The exact background and birthplace of Eutropius is disputed. Some scholars claim he was born in Burdigala (Bordeaux) and was a man of medicine.[1] Others, however, most notably H.W. Bird, have dismissed these claims as being highly unlikely. Eutropius has been referred to as 'Italian' in other sources and supposedly held estates in Asia. Aside from that, his name was Greek, making it unlikely he came from Gaul. Confusion about this has arisen due to the fact that Eutropius was a popular name in late antiquity.[2] He was, however, almost certainly a pagan and remained one under the emperor Julian's Christian successors.[1] He served as the imperial secretary (Latin: magister memoriae) in Constantinople.[3] He accompanied Julian the Apostate (r. 361–363) on his expedition against the Parthians in 363.[1][4] He survived at least as long as the reign of the emperor Valens (364–378), to whom he dedicated his Summary of Roman History.[3] Eutropius may have been the same Eutropius that was proconsul, or Governor of Asia from 371 to 372.[4] He may have also been the Praetorian Prefect of the Illyrian Provinces from 380 to 381.[4] As well possibly being a consul in 387.[4] Work[edit] His Summary of Roman History (Latin: Breviarium Historiae Romanae) is a ten-chapter compendium of Roman history from its foundation to the short reign of Jovian.[4] It was compiled with considerable care from the best accessible authorities; it was written in a clear and simple style; and it treats its subjects with general impartiality.[3][1] The message of the book was simple, that Romans always overcome their problems. This theme became especially important after the Battle of Adrianople.[4] Eutropius stressed the importance of the Senate in his work.[4] This is probably secretly advice to Valens.[4] For the Republican period, Eutropius depended upon an epitome of Livy. For the Empire, he appears to have used Suetonius and the now lost Enmannsche Kaisergeschichte. At the end, he probably made use of his own personal experiences.[5] The fact that the work ends with the reign of Jovian implies that it was written during the reign of either Valentinian I or Valens.[4] If that was true, than the work would been written between 364-378.[4] Legacy[edit] The independent value of his Summary is small, but it sometimes fills a gap left by the more authoritative records. It is particularly useful to historians for its account of the First Punic War, as no copy of Livy's original books for that period have survived. Its stylistic and methodological virtues caused it to be much used by later Roman chroniclers.[1] In particular, it received expanded editions by Paul the Deacon and Landolf Sagax[6] that repeated the original text and then continued it into the reigns of Justinian the Great and Leo the Armenian respectively.[3] It was translated into Greek by Paeanius around 380[1] and by Capito Lycius in the 6th century. The latter translation has survived almost in its entirety. Although Eutropius's style contains some idiosyncrasies, the work's plain style made it long a favorite elementary Latin schoolbook.[3] A scholarly edition was compiled by H. Droysen in 1879, containing Capito Lycius's Greek edition and the expanded Latin editions of Paul and Landolf.[3] There have been numerous English editions and translations, including Bird's.[7] References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ a b c d e f Lieu (1998), p. 77. ^ Eutropius, active 4th century. (1993). The breviarium ab urbe condita of Eutropius : the right honourable secretary of state for general petitions : dedicated to Lord Valens, Gothicus Maximus & perpetual emperor. Bird, H. W. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. ISBN 0-85323-208-3. OCLC 28250017. ^ a b c d e f Chisholm 1911. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "Eutropius - Livius". www.livius.org. Retrieved 2020-09-06. ^ Bird (1993), pp. xliv & seq. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFBird1993 (help) ^ Landolfus Sagax, Historia Miscella, about AD 1000. ^ Bird (1993). sfnp error: no target: CITEREFBird1993 (help) Bibliography[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Eutropius". Encyclopædia Britannica. 9 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 958. Bird, Harold W., ed. (1993), Breviarium, Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, ISBN 978-0853232087 . Den Boer, Willem (1972), Some Minor Roman Historians, Leiden: Brill, pp. 114 & seq., ISBN 90-04-03545-1 Lieu, Samuel N. C. (1998), "Eutropius", Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. IX, Fasc. 1, p. 77 . External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Eutropius. Wikisource has original works written by or about: Eutropius Online version of a 1559/61 Basel edition of the Breviarium with detailed comments by Glareanus and other humanists (Latin) Eutropius, Abridgement of Roman History, John Selby Watson (translator), (1853) (from Forum Romanum; both Latin text and English translation) Eutropius, Abridgement of Roman History, John Selby Watson (translator), (1886) (from The Tertullian Project; only English translation) Eutropius, Abridgement of Roman History, Lamberto Bozzi (translator), (2019) (from CRT Pesaro; both Latin text and English translation) Eutropius, Eutropii Breviarium (from The Latin Library; only Latin text) Eutropius, Eutropi Breviarium ab urbe condita cum versionibus graecis et Pauli Landolfique additamentis, Ed. Droysen, Hans. (from Monumenta Germaniae Historica Digital); Image files include the preface, Greek and Latin text, critical apparatus, appendices and indices The Chinese translation of Eutropi Breviarium Political offices Preceded by Honorius Flavius Euodius Consul of the Roman Empire 387 with Valentinian II Succeeded by Magnus Maximus, Theodosius I, Maternus Cynegius Authority control BIBSYS: 95001684 BNE: XX904451 BNF: cb11995592s (data) CANTIC: a11466108 CiNii: DA0142807X GND: 118682768 ISNI: 0000 0001 2124 8871 LCCN: n85083031 NKC: jn20000400642 NSK: 000118099 NTA: 06982374X RERO: 02-A000059513 SELIBR: 185725 SUDOC: 029815584 Trove: 958007 VcBA: 495/14750 VIAF: 25396473 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n85083031 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eutropius_(historian)&oldid=993130646" Categories: 4th-century historians 4th-century Latin writers 4th-century Romans Imperial Roman consuls Latin historians People from Bordeaux Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica CS1: long volume value Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages العربية Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français Galego Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Taqbaylit Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 8 December 2020, at 23:29 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2387	----	National Library of Poland - Wikipedia National Library of Poland From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from NLP (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Central Polish library National Library Biblioteka Narodowa Type National library Established August 8, 1747 (273 years ago) (1747-08-08) as Załuski Library February 24, 1928 (92 years ago) (1928-02-24) as National Library Location Warsaw, Poland Coordinates 52°12′52″N 21°00′16″E / 52.21444°N 21.00444°E / 52.21444; 21.00444Coordinates: 52°12′52″N 21°00′16″E / 52.21444°N 21.00444°E / 52.21444; 21.00444 Collection Size 9,634,026 (As of 2013)[1] Legal deposit Yes Other information Director Dr. Tomasz Makowski Website www.bn.org.pl Map The National Library (Polish: Biblioteka Narodowa) is the central Polish library, subject directly to the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage of the Republic of Poland. The library collects books, journals, electronic and audiovisual publications published in the territory of Poland, as well as Polonica published abroad. It is the most important humanities research library, the main archive of Polish writing and the state centre of bibliographic information about books. It also plays a significant role as a research facility and is an important methodological center for other Polish libraries. The National Library receives a copy of every book published in Poland as legal deposit. The Jagiellonian Library is the only other library in Poland to have a national library status. Contents 1 Organizational structure 2 History 3 Collections 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 External links Organizational structure[edit] There are three general sections: The Library The Bibliographic Institute of the National Library The Book and Readership Institute History[edit] Special Collections Building: Krasiński Palace (Palace of the Commonwealth), Warsaw The National Library's history has origins in the 18th century (Załuski Library)[2] including items from the collections of John III Sobieski which were obtained from his grand daughter Maria Karolina Sobieska, Duchess of Bouillon. However, the Załuski collection was confiscated by troops of Russian tsarina Catherine II in the aftermath of the second Partition of Poland and sent to Saint Petersburg, where the books formed the mass of the Imperial Public Library on its formation in 1795.[3][4][5] Parts of the collection were damaged or destroyed as they were mishandled while being removed from the library and transported to Russia, and many were stolen.[3][4] According to the historian Joachim Lelewel, the Zaluskis' books, "could be bought at Grodno by the basket".[4] Because of that, when Poland regained her independence in 1918, there was no central institution to serve in the capacity of a national library. On 24 February 1928, by the decree of president Ignacy Mościcki, the National Library was created in its modern form.[6] It was opened in 1930 and initially had 200 thousand volumes. Its first Director General was Stefan Demby, succeeded in 1934 by Stefan Vrtel-Wierczyński. The collections of the library were rapidly extended. For instance, in 1932 president Mościcki donated all of the books and manuscripts from the Wilanów Palace Museum to the library, some 40 thousand volumes and 20 thousand pictures from the collection of Stanisław Kostka Potocki. Initially the National Library lacked a seat of its own. Because of that, the collections had to be accommodated in several places. The main reading room was located in the newly built library building of the Warsaw School of Economics. In 1935 the Potocki Palace in Warsaw became home for the special collections. A new, purpose-built building for the library was planned in what is now the Pole Mokotowskie, in a planned monumental "Government District". However, its construction was hampered by the outbreak of World War II. Before World War II, the library collections consisted of: 6.5 million books and journals from 19th and 20th centuries 3,000 early prints 2,200 incunables 52,000 manuscripts maps, icons and music In 1940 the Nazi occupants changed the National Library into Municipal Library of Warsaw and divided it as follows: Department of Books for Germans (located in the Warsaw University building) Restricted Department, containing books that were not available to readers (located in the then main seat of the library—the School of Economics) All special collections from various Warsaw offices and institutions (located in the Palace of the Republic) In 1944 the special collections were set ablaze by the Nazi occupants as a part of repressions after the Warsaw Uprising.[7] This caused the destruction of 80,000 early printed books, including priceless 16th–18th century Polonica, 26,000 manuscripts, 2,500 incunables, 100,000 drawings and engravings, 50,000 pieces of sheet music and theatre materials.[8] It is estimated that out of over six million volumes in Warsaw's major libraries in 1939, 3.6 million volumes were lost during World War II, a large part of them belonging to the National Library.[9][10] Collections[edit] The main reading room Today the collections of the National Library are one of the largest in the country. Among 7,900,000 volumes (2004) held in the library are 160,000 objects printed before 1801, over 26,000 manuscripts (including 6,887 music manuscripts), over 114,000 music prints and 400,000 drawings. The library collections also include photographs and other iconographic documents, more than 101,000 atlases and maps, over 2,000,000 ephemera, as well as over 2,000,000 books and about 800,000 copies of journals from the 19th to 21st centuries. Notable items in the collection include 151 leaves of the Codex Suprasliensis, which was inscribed in UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme Register in 2007 in recognition for its supranational and supraregional significance.[11] In 2012 the library signed an agreement to add 1.3 million Polish library records to WorldCat.[12] See also[edit] Digital Library of the National Library of Poland List of libraries damaged during the World War II Notes[edit] ^ Zbiory—www.bn.org.pl ^ Pasztaleniec-Jarzyńska 2000, p. 5 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFPasztaleniec-Jarzyńska2000 (help) ^ a b Czechowicz, ¶ "After the fall..." ^ a b c Witt, ¶ "The Dispersal of the collection" ^ Basbanes, p. 185 ^ Pasztaleniec-Jarzyńska 2000, p. 3 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFPasztaleniec-Jarzyńska2000 (help) ^ Knuth, p. 166 ^ Pasztaleniec-Jarzyńska 2000, p. 9 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFPasztaleniec-Jarzyńska2000 (help) ^ Mężyński, p. 296 ^ Balcerzak, p. 4 ^ UNESCO, ¶ "The codex was written..." ^ "National Library of Poland will add 1.3 million more records to WorldCat". Research Information. November 8, 2012. References[edit] Nicholas A. Basbanes (2003). A Splendor of Letters: The Permanence of Books in an Impermanent World. Warsaw: HarperCollins. p. 155. ISBN 0-06-008287-9. Retrieved 2008-02-17. Zaluski library Russia. various authors; Tomasz Balcerzak; Lech Kaczyński (2004). Tomasz Balcerzak (ed.). Pro memoria: Warszawskie biblioteki naukowe w latach okupacji 1939-1945. transl. Philip Earl Steele. Warsaw: Biblioteka Narodowa. p. 38. Katarzyna Czechowicz (August 14, 2007). "The 260th anniversary of opening the Załuski Library". eduskrypt.pl. Archived from the original on August 14, 2017. Retrieved 2008-02-17. Rebecca Knuth (2006). Burning books and leveling libraries: extremist violence and cultural destruction. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 166. ISBN 0-275-99007-9. Andrzej Mężyński (2010). Biblioteki Warszawy w latach 1939–1945 [Warsaw's Libraries in the years 1939-1945]. Straty Kultury Polskiej (in Polish). Warsaw: Ministry of Culture and National Heritage. p. 367. ISBN 9788392922766. Joanna Pasztaleniec-Jarzyńska; Halina Tchórzewska-Kabata (2000), The National Library in Warsaw: tradition and the present day (in Polish), Warsaw: National Library, ISBN 83-7009-295-0 UNESCO (corporate author) (2007). "Codex Suprasliensis". portal.unesco.org. UNESCO. Archived from the original on 2013-10-20. Retrieved 2013-07-18. Maria Witt (September 15, 2005). "The Zaluski Collection in Warsaw". The Strange Life of One of the Greatest European Libraries of the Eighteenth Century. FYI France. ISSN 1071-5916. Retrieved 2008-02-17. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to National Library in Warsaw. National Library website Polona—National Digital Library A Commonwealth of Diverse Cultures (an exhibition carried out by the National Library) v t e National libraries of Europe Sovereign states Albania Andorra Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Belarus Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Kazakhstan Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Moldova Monaco Montenegro Netherlands North Macedonia Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia San Marino Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom Vatican City States with limited recognition Abkhazia Artsakh Kosovo Northern Cyprus South Ossetia Transnistria Dependencies and other entities Åland Faroe Islands Gibraltar Guernsey Isle of Man Jersey Svalbard Other entities European Union v t e Authority control files AAG • ACM DL • ADB • AGSA • autores.uy • AWR • BALaT • BIBSYS • Bildindex • BNC • BNE • BNF • Botanist • BPN • CANTIC • CiNii • CWGC • DAAO • DBLP • DSI • FNZA • GND • HDS • IAAF • ICCU • ICIA • ISNI • Joconde • KulturNav • LCCN • LIR • LNB • Léonore • MBA • MGP • NARA • NBL • NDL • NGV • NKC • NLA • NLG • NLI • NLK • NLP • NLR • NSK • NTA • ORCID • PIC • ResearcherID • RERO • RKD • RKDimages ID • RSL • SELIBR • SIKART • SNAC • SUDOC • S2AuthorId • TA98 • TDVİA • TE • TePapa • TH • TLS • Trove • UKPARL • ULAN • US Congress • VcBA • VIAF • WorldCat Identities Authority control BIBSYS: 90860808 BNE: XX121233 BNF: cb11882741b (data) GND: 1002214-4 ISNI: 0000 0001 0942 8415 LCCN: n80014571 LNB: 000050545 NKC: kn20010709017 NLA: 36059319 NLG: 100012 NLP: A10237288 NSK: 000033546 SUDOC: 026613603 ULAN: 500312754 VIAF: 132112363 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n80014571 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=National_Library_of_Poland&oldid=995069221" Categories: 1928 establishments in Poland Buildings and structures in Warsaw Deposit libraries Libraries established in 1928 Libraries in Warsaw Library buildings completed in 1930 National libraries Rebuilt buildings and structures in Poland Research libraries Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Coordinates on Wikidata Infobox mapframe without OSM relation ID on Wikidata Articles containing Polish-language text CS1 Polish-language sources (pl) Commons link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLP identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Pages using the Kartographer extension Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Беларуская Български Català Čeština Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Italiano עברית ქართული Kaszëbsczi Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Simple English Српски / srpski Suomi Türkçe Удмурт Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 19 December 2020, at 01:41 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2371	----	Roman infantry tactics - Wikipedia Roman infantry tactics From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Part of a series on the Military of ancient Rome 753 BC – AD 476 Structural history Army Unit types and ranks Decorations and punishments Legions Auxilia Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Campaign history Wars and battles Technological history Military engineering Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Political history   Strategy and tactics Infantry tactics Frontiers and fortifications Limes Limes Britannicus Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Limes Germanicus Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes Norican Limes Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannonian Limes Limes Alutanus Limes Moesiae Trajan's Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmatiae Limes Arabicus Limes Tripolitanus Limes Mauretaniae  Ancient Rome portal •  War portal v t e Roman infantry tactics refers to the theoretical and historical deployment, formation, and manoeuvres of the Roman infantry from the start of the Roman Republic to the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The focus below is primarily on Roman tactics – the "how" of their approach to battle, and how it stacked up against a variety of opponents over time. It does not attempt detailed coverage of things like army structure or equipment. Various battles are summarized to illustrate Roman methods with links to detailed articles on individual encounters. The original Roman army was made up of hoplites. Their main strategy was forming into a Phalanx. Eventually the Roman army would switch to the Maniple system. The maniple system would divide the Roman army into three units called Hastati, Principes, and Triarii. Later Roman statesmen Marius would institute the Marian reforms, creating the Roman legion of popular imagination. Eventually, Roman emperor Diocletian would create the Comitatenses and Limatanei units in order to better defend the Roman empire. Roman legionaries had armor, a gladius, a shield, two pila, and food rations. They also carried around tools such as dolabra, wooden stave, shallow wicker, and a basket. These tools would be used for building the castrum. Sometimes Roman soldiers would have mules that carried equipment. Legions also carried onagers, ballistas, and scorpios. Roman soldiers would train for four months.They learned marching skills first, followed by learning how to use their weapons. Then they began to spar with other soldiers. During the training exercise Roman legionaries would also be taught to obey their commanders and either the Republic or the Emperor. Roman Legions were divided into units called Cohorts. Each Cohort was divided into three maniples. Each maniple was divided into centuries. Several legions made up field armies. During the Republic Consuls, Proconsuls, Praetors, Propraetors, or Dictators were the only officials that could command an army. A Legatus assisted the magistrate in commanding the legion. Tribunes oversaw the logistics of the army. Centurions commanded the Centuries. The Roman army would be supplied by purchasing agents that would by provisions. Local peasants or farmers might have their supplies taken from them in order to supply the Roman legion. Roman soldiers would build infrastructure such as roads or supply caches well on march. Some equipment was moved by pack animals and carts. Traders, hucksters, prostitutes, and other miscellaneous service providers. While marching the Legion would deploy in several columns with a vanguard behind them. This formation would be surrounded by soldiers on the flanks. Afterwards the soldiers would construct a fortified camp. After staying in the camp for some time, the army would destroy the camp to prevent its use by the enemy, and then continue moving. The commanders of the Roman army might try to gather intelligence on the enemy. The commander would try to boost the morale of his soldiers during the march. Before a battle the commander would try to maneuver his army in a way that granted him the advantage. If the battle was fought when the maniple system was in place, the army would have the hastati in the front, the Principes in the middle, and the Triarii in the back. Skirmishers called Velites would be placed in front of the army in order to throw javelins at the enemy. Once the Marian reforms were enacted, the same formations and strategies continued to be used. However instead of Hastati, Principes, and Triarii they used Cohorts. When conducting a siege the army would begin by building a military camp. Then they would use siege weapons and the soldiers to assault the city an take it. When defending a city they built palisades, assault roads,moles, breakwaters and double walls. The legions also would build a camp. Contents 1 Evolution 1.1 Roman Infantry of the Roman Kingdom and Republic 1.2 Roman infantry of the Late Republic and Early Empire 1.3 Roman Infantry of the Late Empire 2 Manpower 3 Equipment and training 3.1 Equipment 3.1.1 Individual weapons, personal equipment and haulage 3.1.2 Artillery package 3.2 Training 4 Organization, leadership and logistics 4.1 Command, control and structure 4.1.1 Military structure and ranks 4.1.1.1 Force structure 4.1.1.2 Rank summary 4.2 Logistics 5 Battle 5.1 Initial preparations and movement for battle 5.2 Deployment for combat 5.2.1 Layout of the triple line 5.2.2 Maneuvering 5.2.3 Formations 5.3 Combat 5.4 3-line system advantages 5.4.1 Flexibility 5.4.2 Mixing of a continuous front with interval fighting 5.4.3 Line spacing and combat stamina 5.5 Post-deployment commands 6 Siegecraft and fortifications 6.1 Besieging cities 6.2 Field fortifications 7 Infantry effectiveness 7.1 Roman infantry versus the Macedonian phalanx 7.1.1 Versus Pyrrhus 7.1.2 Notable triumphs 7.1.2.1 Battle of Cynoscephalae 7.1.2.2 Battle of Pydna 7.1.3 Other anti-phalanx tactics 7.1.4 Versus Hannibal's Carthage 7.2 Roman infantry versus Gallic and the Germanic tribes 7.2.1 Barbarian armies 7.2.2 Early Gallic victories 7.2.3 Tactical performance versus Gallic and Germanic opponents 7.2.3.1 Gallic and Germanic strengths 7.2.3.2 Gallic and Germanic weaknesses 7.2.3.3 Gallic and Germanic chariots 7.2.3.4 Superior tactical organization: victory of Caesar at the Sambre River 7.2.3.5 Persisting logistics strategy: Gallic victory at Gergovia 7.2.4 Roman infantry versus mobile and guerilla warfare in Hispania 7.3 Victory through attrition 7.3.1 Resource tactics 7.4 Roman infantry versus cavalry 7.4.1 Tactical problems of fighting cavalry 7.4.2 Successful tactics 7.5 Decline 7.5.1 "Barbarization" of the heavy infantry 7.5.2 Changes in the legions 7.5.3 The mobile forces approach 7.6 Twilight of the hard-core infantry 7.7 Assessment of the Roman infantry 7.7.1 Central factors in Roman success 8 See also 9 References 9.1 Citations 10 Sources 11 External links Evolution[edit] Roman military tactics evolved from the type of a small tribal host-seeking local hegemony to massive operations encompassing a world empire.This advance was affected by changing trends in Roman political, social and economic life, and that of the larger Mediterranean world, but it was also undergirded by a distinctive "Roman way" of war. This approach included a tendency towards standardization and systematization, practical borrowing, copying and adapting from outsiders, flexibility in tactics and methods, a strong sense of discipline, a ruthless persistence that sought comprehensive victory, and a cohesion brought about by the idea of Roman citizenship under arms – embodied in the legion.[1] These elements waxed and waned over time, but they form a distinct basis underlying Rome's rise. Some key phases of this evolution throughout Rome's military history include:[2] Military forces based primarily on heavy citizen infantry with tribal beginnings and early use of phalanx-type elements (see Military establishment of the Roman kingdom) Growing sophistication as Roman hegemony expanded outside Italy into North Africa, Greece and the Middle East (see Military establishment of the Roman Republic) Continued refinement, standardization and streamlining in the period associated with Gaius Marius including broader-based incorporation of more citizenry into the army, and more professionalism and permanence in army service Continued expansion, flexibility and sophistication from the end of the republic into the time of the Caesars (see Military establishment of the Roman Empire) Growing barbarization, turmoil and weakening of the heavy infantry units in favour of cavalry and lighter troops (see Foederati) Demise of the Western Empire and fragmentation into smaller, weaker local forces. This included the reversal of status of cavalry and infantry in the Eastern Empire. Cataphract forces formed an elite, with infantry being reduced to auxiliaries. Roman Infantry of the Roman Kingdom and Republic[edit] A phalanx A depiction of the Maniple Formation The earliest soldiers of the Roman army were hoplites. Census data from the Roman Kingdom shows that the soldiers were Hoplites in a Phalanx. Cavalrymen went into battle with their torso's bare.[3]The legion of the Early Roman Republic was divided into 30 120-160 men strong maniples organized into 3 lines of 10 maniples. In front of the main infantrymen were skirmishers called Velites. The Velites would fight in a swarm of uncoordinated soldiers. They would have no commander. The Velites purpose on the battlefield was using javelins to disrupt the enemy formation. The first line was made up of Hastati, the second Princeps, and the third Triarii. Each maniple was commanded by two Centurions and the whole legion was commanded by six tribunes. Each maniple had a trumpeteer. The trumpeteer would use music to convey orders between maniples.[4]The soldiers in the manipular legions would be heavily spaced apart, allowing greater flexibility on the battlefield. The maniple units would be spaced 20 yards apart, and 100 yards from the next line of manipular soldiers. Aside from improving the flexibility of the legion, the space between each unit meant that if a line was routed, they could retreat through the gaps. The next line could then attack the enemy. This maneuver could be repeated indefinitely, the enemy would always be facing fresh units of Romans. The maniples in the army could act totally independently, allowing commanders to use the element of surprise to its maximum.[5][6]Livy states that soldiers would "open" the maniple in order to let the soldiers fight well. It is unknown how the soldiers opened the maniple but it was probably by ordering one soldier in every second line to take a step forward. This maneuver would result in soldiers having a checkerboard formation. Cassius Dio and other historians believe that the maniples would expand laterally, this movement would fill in the gaps in the formation and expand the space between each soldier. Such a maneuver may be feasible during a lull in the fighting during a battle, however during the heat of battle the maneuver would be difficult to manage and time-consuming. A coin depicting two soldiers fighting Polybius described the swordsmanship of the Roman army as: In their manner of fighting, however, each man undertakes movement on his own, protecting his body with his long shield, parrying a blow, and fighting hand to hand with the cut and thrust of his sword. They therefore clearly require a space and flexibility between each other, so that each soldier must have three feet from the men to their flank and rear, if they are to be effective. It is unclear whether Polybius meant the "three feet" counts the space occupied by the Roman soldier and his equipment. If Polybius meant this, then each Roman soldier would have nine feet between them and the other soldiers. It is also possible Polybius included the area the soldier occupied, which meant the soldier had six feet of space between them and the other soldiers. Vegetius talked about Roman soldiers having three feet between them. Depictions of Roman soldiers in art suggest that the gap between soldiers is 65-75 centimeters. Modern scholars such as Michael J Taylor state that the gaps between the maniples were 10-20 meters.[6] Roman infantry of the Late Republic and Early Empire[edit] Roman Legionaries The legions would form into a close-defensive formation to resist a barrage of arrow fire or an enemy charge. This formation was called the testudo, the Romans would continue to use the testudo throughout the entire history of their civilization. When in battle, the legions would be separated into their cohorts. Four of the cohorts would line up on the battle line and lead. The other six would follow behind the first four as reserves should many men fall in battle. If cavalry is involved, they would be placed on the sides of the main cohorts. Like the Early Republican armies, the legions would still be organized into the same checkerboard formation. The soldiers would march forward until they met the enemy, and proceed to attack. The initial formation of soldiers is dictated by the enemy's formation, the terrain of the battlefield[5], and the troops of which the legion is made up. To soften up the enemy before the main infantry, the soldiers would throw pilum, or shoot arrows. On occasion, a legion would have ballista, or a piece of field artillery that threw large arrows. To instill fear into their enemy, the soldiers of a legion would march onto an enemy completely silent until they were close enough to attack. At that point, the entire army would utter a battle cry to frighten their enemy. When their tactics did not initially work, commanders would often mold their strategy to what was necessary.[7] Roman Infantry of the Late Empire[edit] The army of the Late Roman Empire would consist of the Limitanei and Comitatenses armies. The Germanic tribes would contribute paramilitary units called Foederati to the Roman army. The Limitanei would defend the borders of the Empire from small attacks by the Germanic peoples. The Limitanei would also hold against a larger invasion long enough for the Comitatenses legions to arrive. The Limitanei would be stationed in their own forts throughout the empire. Usually these forts would be in or near cities and villages. This meant that the soldiers were in constant interaction with civilians. Often times the soldiers families would live in the cities or villages near the fort. Occasionally villages and town would grow around these forts in order to suit the needs of the Limitanei.[8] This strategy has been described as "defense in depth."The Comitatenses were grouped into field armies. The Emperor would have his own personal Comitatenses army to help fight rebellions. Roman generals of the late empire would try to avoid pitched battles in order to conserve manpower. During a battle the Comitatenses legions would wait in a defensive formation while performing a shield wall. The Romans would then try to use their superior superior coordination to repulse the enemy attack and inflict heavy casualties. Skirmishers would be placed in front of the Roman line in order to inflict casualties on the enemy and reduce the amount of Comitatenses killed in battle. After Attila's invasion of the Western Roman Empire the Romans started to use mounted archers.[9] Manpower[edit] Numerous scholarly histories of the Roman military machine note the huge numbers of men that could be mobilized, more than any other Mediterranean power. This bounty of military resources enabled Rome to apply crushing pressure to its enemies, and stay in the field and replace losses, even after suffering setbacks. One historian of the Second Punic War states: According to Polybius (2.24), the total number of Roman and allied men capable of bearing arms in 225 BC exceeded 700,000 infantry and 70,000 cavalries. Brunt adjusted Polybius’ figures and estimated that the population of Italy, not including Greeks and Bruttians, exceeded 875,000 free adult males, from whom the Romans could levy troops. Rome not only had the potential to levy vast numbers of troops but did in fact field large armies in the opening stages of the war. Brunt estimates that Rome mobilized 108,000 men for service in the legions between 218 BC and 215 BC, while at the height of the war effort (214 BC to 212 BC) [against Hannibal] Rome was able to mobilize approximately 230,000 men. Against these mighty resources Hannibal led from Spain an army of approximately 50,000 infantry and 9,000 cavalry ... Rome's manpower reserves allowed it to absorb staggering losses yet still continue to field large armies. For example, according to Brunt, as many as 50,000 men were lost between 218 BC and 215 BC, but Rome continued to place between 14 and 25 legions in the field for the duration of the war. Moreover, as will be discussed below, Roman manpower allowed for the adoption of the so-called "Fabian strategy", which proved to be an effective response to Hannibal's apparent battlefield superiority. Put simply, the relative disparity in the number of available troops at the outset of the conflict meant that Hannibal had a much narrower margin for error than the Romans.[10] Equipment and training[edit] Further information: Roman military personal equipment and Roman legion Equipment[edit] Individual weapons, personal equipment and haulage[edit] A legionary typically carried around 27 kilograms (60 pounds) of armour, weapons, and equipment. This load consisted of armour, a sword, called a gladius, a shield, two pila (one heavy, one light) and 15 days' food rations. There were also tools for digging and constructing a castrum, the legions' fortified base camp. One writer recreates the following as to Caesar's army in Gaul:[11] Each soldier arranged his heavy pack on a T or Y-shaped rod, borne on his left shoulder. Shields were protected on the march with a hide cover. Each legionary carried about 5 days' worth of wheat, pulses or chickpeas, a flask of oil, and a mess kit with a dish, cup, and utensil. Personal items might include a dyed horsehair crest for the helmet, a semi-water-resistant oiled woollen cloak, socks and breeches for cold weather and a blanket. Entrenchment equipment included a shallow wicker basket for moving earth, a spade and/or pick-axe like dolabra or turf cutter, and two wooden staves to construct the next camp palisade. All these were arranged in the marching pack toted by each infantryman. Fighters travelled in groups of eight, and each octet was sometimes assigned a mule. The mule carried a variety of equipment and supplies, including a mill for grinding grain, a small clay oven for baking bread, cooking pots, spare weapons, waterskins, and tents. A Roman century had a complement of 10 mules, each attended by two non-combatants who handled foraging and water supply. A century might be supported by wagons in the rear, each drawn by six mules, and carrying tools, nails, water barrels, extra food and the tent and possessions of the centurion- commanding officer of the unit. Artillery package[edit] The legion also carried an artillery detachment with 30 pieces of artillery. This consisted of 10 stone-throwing onagers and 20 bolt-shooting ballistas; in addition, each of the legion's centuries had its own scorpio bolt thrower (60 total), together with supporting wagons to carry ammunition and spare parts. Bolts were used for targeted fire on human opponents, while stones were used against fortifications or as an area saturation weapon. The catapults were powered by rope and sinew, tightened by a ratchet and released, powered by the stored torsion energy. Caesar was to mount these in boats on some operations in Britain, striking fear in the heart of the native opponents according to his writings. His placement of siege engines and bolt throwers in the towers and along the wall of his enclosing fortifications at Alesia were critical to turning back the enormous tide of Gauls. These defensive measures, used in concert with the cavalry charge led by Caesar himself, broke the Gauls and won the battle—and therefore the war—for good. Bolt-throwers like the Scorpio were mobile and could be deployed in defence of camps, field entrenchments and even in the open field by no more than two or three men.[12] Training[edit] Over time the military system changed its equipment and roles, but throughout the course of Roman history, it always remained a disciplined and professional war machine. Soldiers carried out training common to every organized army, from initial muster, arms and weapons drill, formation marching and tactical exercises. According to Vegetius, during the four-month initial training of a Roman legionary, marching skills were taught before recruits ever handled a weapon, since any formation would be split up by stragglers at the back or soldiers trundling along at differing speeds.[13] Standards varied over time, but normally recruits were first required to complete 20 Roman miles (29.62 km or 18.405 modern miles) with 20.5 kg in five summer hours (the Roman day was divided into 12 hours regardless of season, as was the night), which was known as "the regular step" or "military pace".[14] They then progressed to the "faster step" or "full pace"[14] and were required to complete 24 Roman miles (35.544 km or 22.086 modern miles) in five summer hours loaded with 20.5 kilograms (45 lb). The typical conditioning regime also included gymnastics and swimming to build physical strength and fitness.[15] After conditioning, the recruits underwent weapons training; this was deemed of such importance that weapons instructors generally received double rations.[13] Legionaries were trained to thrust with their gladii because they could defend themselves behind their large shields (scuta) while stabbing the enemy. These training exercises began with thrusting a wooden gladius and throwing wooden pila into a quintain (wooden dummy or stake) while wearing full armor. Their wooden swords and pila were designed to be twice as heavy as their metal counterparts so that the soldiers could wield a true gladius with ease. Next, soldiers progressed to armatura, a term for sparring that was also used to describe the similar one-on-one training of gladiators. Unlike earlier training, the wooden weapons used for armatura were the same weight as the weapons they emulated. Vegetius notes that roofed halls were built to allow for these drills to continue throughout the winter.[13] Other training exercises taught the legionary to obey commands and assume battle formations.[16] At the end of training the legionary had to swear an oath of loyalty to the SPQR (Senatus Populusque Romanus, the senate and the Roman people) or later to the emperor. The soldier was then given a diploma and sent off to fight for his living and the glory and honour of Rome.[16] Organization, leadership and logistics[edit] Command, control and structure[edit] Once the soldier had finished his training he was typically assigned to a legion, the basic mass fighting force. The legion was split into ten sub-units called cohorts, roughly comparable to a modern infantry battalion. The cohorts were further sub-divided into three maniples, which in turn were split into two centuries of about 80–100 men each. The first cohort in a legion was usually the strongest, with the fullest personnel complement and with the most skilled, experienced men. Several legions grouped together made up a distinctive field force or "army".[16] Fighting strength could vary but generally a legion was made up of 4,800 soldiers, 60 centurions, 300 artillerymen, and 100 engineers and artificers, and 1,200 non-combatants. Each legion was supported by a unit of 300 cavalries, the equites. Supreme command of either legion or army was by consul or proconsul or a praetor, or in cases of emergency in the republican era, a dictator. A praetor or a propraetor could only command a single legion and not a consular army, which normally consisted of two legions plus the allies. In the early republican period, it was customary for an army to have dual commands, with different consuls holding the office on alternate days. In later centuries this was phased out in favour of one overall army commander. The legati were officers of senatorial rank who assisted the supreme commander. Tribunes were young men of aristocratic rank who often supervised administrative tasks like camp construction. Centurions (roughly equivalent in rank to today's non-commissioned or junior officers, but functioning as modern captains in field operations) commanded cohorts, maniples and centuries. Specialist groups like engineers and artificers were also used. Military structure and ranks[edit] For an in-depth analysis of ranks, types, and historical units, see Structural history of the Roman military and Roman legion for a detailed breakdown. Below is a very basic summary of the legion's structure and ranks.[17] Force structure[edit] Contubernium: "tent unit" of eight men Centuria: 80 men commanded by a centurion Cohort: six centuries or a total of 480 fighting men. Added to these were officers. The first cohort was double strength in terms of manpower and generally held the best fighting men. Legion: made up of 10 cohorts Field army: a grouping of several legions and auxiliary cohorts Equites: Each legion was supported by 300 cavalry (equites), sub-divided into ten turmae Auxilia and velites: allied contingents, often providing light infantry and specialist fighting services, like archers, slingers or javelin-men. They were usually formed into the light infantry or velites. Auxilia in the republican period also formed allied heavy legions to complement Roman citizen formations. Non-combatant support: generally the men who tended the mules, forage, watering and sundries of the baggage train 4,500–5,200 men in a legion Rank summary[edit] Consul – an elected official with military and civic duties; like a co-president (there were two), but also a major military commander Praetor – appointed military commander of a legion or grouping of legions, also a government official Legatus legionis – the legate or overall legion commander, usually filled by a senator Tribune – young officer, second in command of the legion. Other lesser tribunes served as junior officers. Prefect – third in command of the legion. There were various types. The prefectus equitarius commanded a unit of cavalry Primus pilus – commanding centurion for the first cohort – the senior centurion of the entire legion Centurion – basic commander of the century. Prestige varied based on the cohort they supervised. Decurio – commander of the cavalry unit or turma Aquilifer – standard bearer of each legion – a position of much prestige Signifer – one for each century, handled financial matters and decorations Optio – equivalent to a sergeant, second in command for the centurion Cornicen – hornblower or signaler Imaginifer – carried standard bearing the emperor's image Decanus – equivalent to a corporal, commanded an eight-man tent party Munifex – basic legionary – the lowest of the trained rank and file Tirones – new recruit to the legions, a novice Logistics[edit] Roman logistics were among some of the best in the ancient world over the centuries, from the deployment of purchasing agents to systematically buy provisions during a campaign, to the construction of roads and supply caches, to the rental of shipping if the troops had to move by water. Heavy equipment and material (tents, artillery, extra weapons and equipment, millstones etc.) were moved by pack animal and cart, while troops carried weighty individual packs with them, including staves and shovels for constructing the fortified camps. Typical of all armies, local opportunities were also exploited by troops on the spot, and the fields of peasant farmers who were near the zone of conflict might be stripped to meet army needs. As with most armed forces, a variety of traders, hucksters, prostitutes and other miscellaneous service providers trailed in the wake of the Roman fighting men.[18] Battle[edit] Initial preparations and movement for battle[edit] The approach march. Once the legion was deployed on an operation, the marching began. The approach to the battlefield was made in several columns, enhancing manoeuvrability. Typically a strong vanguard preceded the main body and included scouts, cavalry and light troops. A tribune or other officer often accompanied the vanguard to survey the terrain for possible camp locations. Flank and reconnaissance elements were also deployed to provide the usual covering security. Behind the vanguard came the main body of heavy infantry. Each legion marched as a distinct formation and was accompanied by its own baggage train. The last legion usually provided the rear force, although several recently raised units might occupy this final echelon. Construction of fortified camps. Legions on a campaign typically established a strong field camp, complete with palisade and a deep ditch, providing a basis for supply storage, troop marshalling and defence. Camps were recreated each time the army moved and were constructed with a view to both military necessity and religious symbolism. There were always four gateways, connected by two main crisscrossing streets, with the intersection at a concentration of command tents in the centre. Space was also made for an altar and religious gathering area. Everything was standardized, from the positioning of baggage, equipment and specific army units, to the duties of officers who were to set up sentries, pickets and orders for the next day's march. Construction could take between 2 and 5 hours with part of the army labouring, while the rest stood guard, depending on the tactical situation. The shape of the camp was generally rectangular but could vary based on the terrain or tactical situation. A distance of about 60 meters was left clear between the entrenchments and the first row of troop tents. This gap provided space for marshalling the legionnaires for battle and kept the troop area out of enemy missile range.[19] No other ancient army persisted over such a long period in systematic camp construction like the Romans, even if the army rested for only a single day.[20] Breaking camp and marching. After a regimented breakfast at the allocated time, trumpets were sounded and the camp's tents and huts were dismantled and preparations made for departure. The trumpet then sounded again with the signal for "stand by to march". Mules and wagons of the baggage train would be loaded and units formed up. The camp would then be burned to the ground to prevent its later occupation and use by the enemy. The trumpets would then be sounded for a final time and then the troops were asked three times whether they were ready, to which they were expected to shout together "Ready!", before marching off.[21] Intelligence. Good Roman commanders did not hesitate to exploit useful intelligence, particularly where a siege situation or impending clash in the field was developing. Information was gathered from spies, collaborators, diplomats and envoys, and allies. Intercepted messages during the Second Punic War for example were an intelligence coup for the Romans, and enabled them to dispatch two armies to find and destroy Hasdrubal's Carthaginian force, preventing his reinforcement of Hannibal. Commanders also kept an eye on the situation in Rome since political enemies and rivals could use an unsuccessful campaign to inflict painful career and personal damage. During this initial phase, the usual field reconnaissance was also conducted - patrols might be sent out, raids mounted to probe for weaknesses, prisoners snatched, and local inhabitants intimidated.[18] Morale. If the field of potential battle were near, the movement became more careful and more tentative. Several days might be spent in a location studying the terrain and opposition, while the troops were prepared mentally and physically for battle. Pep talks, sacrifices to the gods and the announcements of good omens might be carried out. A number of practical demonstrations might also be undertaken to test enemy reaction as well as to build troop morale. Part of the army might be led out of the camp and drawn up in battle array towards the enemy. If the enemy refused to come out and at least make a demonstration, the commander could claim a moral advantage for his men, contrasting the timidity of the opposition with the resolution of his fighting forces.[18] Historian Adrian Goldsworthy notes that such tentative pre-battle manoeuvring was typical of ancient armies as each side sought to gain the maximum advantage before the encounter.[22] During this period, some ancient writers paint a picture of meetings between opposing commanders for negotiation or general discussion, as with the famous pre-clash conversation between Hannibal and Scipio at Zama. It's unknown if the recorded flowery speeches are non-fiction, but these encounters don't show a record of resolving the conflict by means other than the anticipated battle. Deployment for combat[edit] Pre-battle manoeuvre gave the competing commanders a feel for the impending clash, but final outcomes could be unpredictable, even after the start of hostilities. Skirmishing could get out of hand, launching both main forces towards one another. Political considerations, exhaustion of supplies, or even rivalry between commanders for glory could also spark a forward launch, as at the Battle of the Trebia River.[18] The Roman army after the Marian reforms was also unique in the ancient world because when lined up opposite an enemy readying for battle it was completely silent except for the orders of officers and the sound of trumpets signalling orders. The reason for this was because the soldiers needed to be able to hear such instruction, the Optios of the Legions would patrol behind the century and anyone who was talking or failing to obey orders immediately was struck with the stick of the optio. This silence also had the unintended consequence of being very intimidating to its enemies because they recognized this took immense discipline to achieve before a battle. Layout of the triple line[edit] Once the machinery was in motion however, the Roman infantry typically was deployed, as the main body, facing the enemy. During deployment in the Republican era, the maniples were commonly arranged in triplex acies (triple battle order): that is, in three ranks, with the hastati in the first rank (that nearest the enemy), the principes in the second rank, and the veteran triarii in the third and final rank as barrier troops, or sometimes even further back as a strategic reserve. When in danger of imminent defeat, the first and second lines, the hastati and principes, ordinarily fell back on the triarii to reform the line to allow for either a counter-attack or an orderly withdrawal. Because falling back on the triarii was an act of desperation, to mention "returning to the triarii" ("ad triarios rediisse") became a common Roman phrase indicating one to be in a desperate situation.[23] Within this triplex acies system, contemporary Roman writers talk of the maniples adopting a checkered formation called quincunx when deployed for battle but not yet engaged. In the first line, the hastati left modest gaps between each maniple. The second line consisting of principes followed in a similar manner, lining up behind the gaps left by the first line.[24] This was also done by the third line, standing behind the gaps in the second line. The velites were deployed in front of this line in a continuous, loose-formation line.[25] The Roman manoeuvre was a complex one, filled with the dust of thousands of soldiers wheeling into place, and the shouting of officers moving to and from as they attempted to maintain order. Several thousand men had to be positioned from column into line, with each unit taking its designated place, along with light troops and cavalry. The fortified camps were laid out and organized to facilitate deployment. It might take some time for the final array of the host, but when accomplished the army's grouping of legions represented a formidable fighting force, typically arranged in three lines with a frontage as long as one mile (about 1.5 km).[26] A general three-line deployment was to remain over the centuries, although the Marian reforms phased out most divisions based on age and class, standardized weapons and reorganized the legions into bigger manoeuvre units like cohorts. The overall size of the legion and length of the soldier's service also increased on a more permanent basis.[27] Maneuvering[edit] As the army approached its enemy, the velites in front would throw their javelins at the enemy and then retreat through the gaps in the lines. This was an important innovation since in other armies of the period skirmishers would have to either retreat through their own army's ranks, causing confusion or else to flee around either flank of their own army. After the velites had retreated through the hastati, the 'posterior' century would march to the left and then forward so that they presented a solid line, creating a solid line of soldiers. The same procedure would be employed as they passed through the second and third ranks or turned to the side to channel down the gap between the first and second rows on route to help guard the legion's flanks.[28] At this point, the legion then presented a solid line to the enemy and the legion was in the correct formation for engagement. When the enemy closed, the hastati would charge. If they were losing the fight, the 'posterior' century returned to its position creating gaps again. Then the maniples would fall back through the gaps in the principes, who followed the same procedure to form a battle line and charge. If the principes could not break the enemy, they would retreat behind the triarii and the whole army would leave the battlefield in good order. According to some writers, the triarii formed a continuous line when they deployed, and their forward movement allowed scattered or discomfited units to rest and reform, to later rejoin the struggle.[29] The manipular system allowed engaging every kind of enemy even in rough terrain, because the legion had both flexibility and toughness according to the deployment of its lines. Lack of a strong cavalry corps, however, was a major flaw of the Roman forces. In the later imperial army, the general deployment was very similar, with the cohorts deploying in quincunx pattern. In a reflection of the earlier placement of the veteran triarii in the rear, the less experienced cohorts - usually the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 6th, and 8th - were in the front; the more experienced cohorts - 1st, 5th, 7th, 9th, and 10th - were placed behind.[30] Formations[edit] The above is only standard procedure and was often modified; for example, at Zama, Scipio deployed his entire legion in a single line to envelop Hannibal's army just as Hannibal had done at Cannae. A brief summary of alternative formations known to have been used is shown below: Combat[edit] Hand-to-hand engagement after the release of missile weapons: Once the deployment and initial skirmishing described above took place, the main body of heavy infantry closed the gap and attacked the double. The front ranks usually cast their pila, and the following ranks hurled theirs over the heads of the front-line fighters. After the pila were cast, the soldiers then drew their swords and engaged the enemy. Emphasis was on using the shield to provide maximum body coverage, and for pushing enemies, while attacking with their gladius in thrusts and short cuts in clinch, minimizing exposure to the enemy. In the combat that ensued, Roman discipline, heavy shield, armour and training were to give them important advantages in combat. The acute shock of combat: Some scholars of the Roman infantry maintain that the intense trauma and stress of hand-to-hand combat meant that the contenders did not simply hack at one another continuously until one dropped. Instead, there were short periods of intense, vicious fighting. If indecisive, the contenders might fall back a short distance to recuperate, and then surge forward to renew the struggle. Others behind them would be stepping up into the fray meanwhile, engaging new foes or covering their colleagues. The individual warrior could thus count on temporary relief, rather than endless fighting until death or crippling injury. As the battle progressed, the massive physical and mental stress intensified. The stamina and willpower demanded to make yet one more charge, to make yet one more surge grew even greater.[22] Eventually one side began to break down, and it is then that the greatest slaughter began. Use of war machines and covering fire: Many Roman battles, especially during the late empire, were fought with the preparatory fire from catapults, ballistas and onagers. These war machines, a form of ancient artillery, fired arrows and large stones towards the enemy (although many historians question the battlefield effectiveness of such weapons). Following this barrage, the Roman infantry advanced, in four lines, until they came within 30 meters of the enemy, then they halted, hurled their pila and charged. If the first line was repelled by the enemy, another line would rapidly resume the attack. Often this rapid sequence of deadly attacks proved the key to victory. Another common tactic was to taunt the enemy with feigned charges and rapid arrow fire by the auxiliares equites (auxiliary cavalry), forcing the enemy into pursuing them, and then leading the enemy into an ambush where they would be counterattacked by Roman heavy infantry and cavalry. 3-line system advantages[edit] Flexibility[edit] Some ancient sources such as Polybius seem to imply that the legions could fight with gaps in their lines. Yet, most sources seem to admit that more usually a line would form into a solid front. Various approaches have been taken to reconcile these possibilities with the ancient writings.[31] The advantages of gaps are obvious when a formation is on the move- it can more easily flow around obstacles and manoeuvre and control are enhanced and, as the Romans did in the pre-Marius republic, place baggage between the lines meaning that the cargo cannot be easily captured and that the army can quickly get ready for a battle by using it as cover. After the approach marching was complete, it would be extremely difficult to deploy an unbroken army of men for combat across any but the flattest ground without some sort of intervals. Many ancient armies used gaps of some sort, even the Carthaginians, who typically withdrew their initial skirmishing troops between the spaces before the main event. Even more loosely organized enemies like the Germanic hosts typically charged in distinct groups with small gaps between them, rather than marching up in a neat line.[32] Fighting with gaps is thus feasible as writers like Polybius assert. According to those who support the quincunx formation view, what made the Roman approach stand out is that their intervals were generally larger and more systematically organized than those of other ancient armies. Each gap was covered by maniples or cohorts from lines farther back. Penetration of any significance could not just slip in unmolested. It would not only be mauled as it fought past the gauntlet of the first line but would also clash with aggressive units moving up to plug the space.[33] From a larger standpoint, as the battle waxed and waned, fresh units might be deployed through the intervals to relieve the men of the first line, allowing continual pressure to be brought forward. Mixing of a continuous front with interval fighting[edit] One scenario for not using gaps is deployment in a limited space, such as the top of a hill or ravine, where extensive spreading out would not be feasible. Another is a particular attack formation, such as the wedge discussed above, or an encirclement as at the Battle of Ilipa. Yet another is a closing phase manoeuvre when a solid line is constructed to make a last, final push as in the battle of Zama. During the maelstrom of battle, it is also possible that as the units merged into line, the general checkerboard spacing became more compressed or even disappeared, and the fighting would see a more or less solid line engaged with the enemy. Thus gaps at the beginning of the struggle might tend to vanish in the closing phases.[34] Some historians view the intervals as primarily useful in maneuver. Before the legionaries closed with the enemy each echelon would form a solid line to engage. If things went badly for the first line, it would retreat through the gaps and the second echelon moved up- again forming a continuous front. Should they be discomfited, there still remained the veterans of the triarii who let the survivors retreat through the preset gaps. The veterans then formed a continuous front to engage the enemy or provided cover for the retreat of the army as a whole. The same procedure was followed when the triarii was phased out - intervals for manoeuvre, reforming and recovery- solid line to engage.[35] Some writers maintain that in Caesar's armies the use of the quincunx and its gaps seems to have declined, and his legions generally deployed in three unbroken lines as shown above, with four cohorts in front, and three apiece in the echeloned order. The relief was provided by the second and third lines 'filtering' forward to relieve their comrades in small groups, while the exhausted and wounded eased back from the front.[36] The Romans still remained flexible however, using gaps and deploying four or sometimes two lines based on the tactical situation.[37] Line spacing and combat stamina[edit] Another unique feature of the Roman infantry was the depth of its spacing. Most ancient armies deployed in shallower formations, particularly phalanx-type forces. Phalanxes might deepen their ranks heavily to add both stamina and shock power, but their general approach still favoured one massive line, as opposed to the deep three-layer Roman arrangement. The advantage of the Roman system is that it allowed the continual funnelling or metering of combat power forward over a longer period—massive, steadily renewed pressure to the front—until the enemy broke. Deployment of the second and third lines required careful consideration by the Roman commander. Deployed too early, and they might get entangled in the frontal fighting and become exhausted. Deployed too late, and they might be swept away in a rout if the first line began to break. Tight control had to be maintained, hence the 3rd line triarii were sometimes made to squat or kneel, effectively discouraging premature movement to the front. The Roman commander was thus generally mobile, constantly moving from spot to spot, and often riding back in person to fetch reserves if there was no time for standard messenger service. A large number of officers in the typical Roman army, and the flexible breakdown into sub-units like cohorts or maniples greatly aided coordination of such moves.[38] Whatever the actual formation took however, the ominous funnelling or surge of combat power up to the front remained constant: When the first line as a whole had done its best and become weakened and exhausted by losses, it gave way to the relief of freshmen from the second line who, passing through it gradually, pressed forward one by one, or in single file, and worked their way into the fight in the same way. Meanwhile the tired men of the original first line, when sufficiently rested, reformed and re-entered the fight. This continued until all men of the first and second lines had been engaged. This does not presuppose an actual withdrawal of the first line, but rather a merging, a blending or a coalescing of both lines. Thus the enemy was given no rest and was continually opposed by fresh troops until, exhausted and demoralized, he yielded to repeated attacks.[39] Post-deployment commands[edit] Roman re-enactors demonstrate a variant of the Roman testudo formation Whatever the deployment, the Roman army was marked both by flexibility and strong discipline and cohesion. Different formations were assumed according to different tactical situations. Repellere equites ("repel horsemen/knights") was the formation used to resist cavalry. The legionaries would assume a square formation, holding their pila as spears in the space between their shields and strung together shoulder to shoulder. At the command iacite pila, the legionaries hurled their pila at the enemy. At the command cuneum formate, the infantry formed a wedge to charge and break enemy lines. This formation was used as a shock tactic. At the command contendite vestra sponte, the legionaries assumed an aggressive stance and attacked every opponent they faced. At the command orbem formate, the legionaries assumed a circle-like formation with the archers placed in the midst of and behind the legionaries providing missile fire support. This tactic was used mainly when a small number of legionaries had to hold a position and were surrounded by enemies. At the command ciringite frontem, the legionaries held their position. At the command frontem allargate, a scattered formation was adopted. At the command testudinem formate, the legionaries assumed the testudo (tortoise) formation. This was slow-moving but almost impenetrable to enemy fire, and thus very effective during sieges and/or when facing off against enemy archers. However, the testudo formation didn't allow for effective close combat and therefore it was used when the enemy were far enough away so as the legionaries could get into another formation before being attacked. At the command tecombre, the legionaries would break the Testudo formation and revert to their previous formation. At the command Agmen formate, the legionaries assumed a square formation, which was also the typical shape of a century in battle. Siegecraft and fortifications[edit] Besieging cities[edit] Oppidum expugnare was the Roman term for besieging cities. It was divided into three phases: Modern reconstruction of a Scorpio. In the first phase, engineers (the cohors fabrorum) built a fortified camp near the city with walls of circumvallation and at the command 'turres extruere' built watch towers to prevent the enemy from bringing in reinforcements. Siege towers were built, trenches were dug and traps set all around the city. Also second, exterior line of walls (contravallation) was built around the city facing the enemy, as Caesar did at the Battle of Alesia. Sometimes the Romans would mine the enemy's walls. The second phase began with onager and ballista fire to cover the approach of the siege towers, which were full of legionaries ready to assault the wall's defenders. Meanwhile, other cohorts approached the city's wall in testudo formation, bringing up battering rams and ladders to breach the gates and scale the walls. The third phase included the opening of the city's main gate by the cohorts which had managed to break through or scale the walls, provided the rams had not knocked the gate open. Once the main gate was opened or the walls breached, the cavalry and other cohorts entered the city to finish off the remaining defenders. Field fortifications[edit] While strong cities/forts and elaborate sieges to capture them were common throughout the ancient world, the Romans were unique among ancient armies in their extensive use of field fortifications. In campaign after campaign, enormous effort was expended to dig—a job done by the ordinary legionary. His field pack included a shovel, a dolabra or pickaxe, and a wicker basket for hauling dirt. Some soldiers also carried a type of turf cutter. With these, they dug trenches, built walls and palisades and constructed assault roads. The operations of Julius Caesar at Alesia are well known. The Gallic city was surrounded by massive double walls penning in defenders, and keeping out relieving attackers. A network of camps and forts were included in these works. The inner trench alone was 20 feet (6.1 m) deep, and Caesar diverted a river to fill it with water. The ground was also sown with caltrops of iron barbs at various places to discourage assault. Surprisingly for such an infantry centred battle, Caesar relied heavily on cavalry forces to counter Gallic sorties. Ironically, many of these were from Germanic tribes who had come to terms earlier.[40] The power of Roman field camps has been noted earlier, but in other actions, the Romans sometimes used trenches to secure their flanks against envelopment when they were outnumbered, as Caesar did during operations in Belgaic Gaul. In the Brittany region of France, moles and breakwaters were constructed at enormous effort to assault the estuarine strongholds of the Gauls. Internal Roman fighting between Caesar and Pompey also saw the frequent employment of trenches, counter-trenches, dug-in strong points, and other works as the contenders manoeuvred against each other in field combat.[40] In the latter stages of the empire, the extensive use of such field fortifications declined as the heavy infantry itself was phased down. Nevertheless, they were an integral part of the relentless Roman rise to dominance over large parts of the ancient world.[41] Infantry effectiveness[edit] Roman infantry versus the Macedonian phalanx[edit] Strengths of the Macedonian phalanx. Prior to the rise of Rome, the Macedonian phalanx was the premiere infantry force in the Western World. It had proven itself on the battlefields of Mediterranean Europe, from Sparta to Macedonia, and had met and overcome several strong non-European armies from Persia to Pakistan/Northwest India. Packed into a dense armoured mass, and equipped with massive pikes 12 to 21 feet (6.4 m) in length, the phalanx was a formidable force. While defensive configurations were sometimes used, the phalanx was most effective when it was moving forward in attack, either in a frontal charge or in "oblique" or echeloned order against an opposing flank, as the victories of Alexander the Great and Theban innovator Epaminondas attest. When working with other formations—light infantry and cavalry—it was, at its height under Alexander, without peer.[42] Weaknesses of the Macedonian phalanx. Nevertheless, the Macedonian phalanx had key weaknesses. It had some manoeuvrability, but once a clash was joined this decreased, particularly on rough ground. Its "dense pack" approach also made it rigid. Compressed in the heat of battle, its troops could only primarily fight facing forward. The diversity of troops gave the phalanx great flexibility, but this diversity was a double-edged sword, relying on a mix of units that was complicated to control and position. These included not only the usual heavy infantrymen, cavalry and light infantry but also various elite units, medium armed groups, foreign contingents with their own styles and shock units of war-elephants.[43] Such "mixed" forces presented additional command and control problems. If properly organized and fighting together a long time under capable leaders, they could be very proficient. The campaigns of Alexander and Pyrrhus (a Hellenic-style formation of mixed contingents) show this. Without such long-term cohesion and leadership, however, their performance was uneven. By the time the Romans were engaging against Hellenistic armies, the Greeks had ceased to use strong flank guards and cavalry contingents, and their system had degenerated into a mere clash of phalanxes. This was the formation overcome by the Romans at the Battle of Cynoscephalae. Advantages of Roman infantry. The Romans themselves had retained some aspects of the classical phalanx (not to be confused with the Macedonian phalanx) in their early legions, most notably the final line of fighters in the classic "triple line", the spearmen of the triarii. The long pikes of the triarii were to eventually disappear, and all hands were uniformly equipped with short sword, shield and pilum, and deployed in the distinctive Roman tactical system, which provided more standardization and cohesion in the long run over the Hellenic type formations. Phalanxes facing the legion were vulnerable to the more flexible Roman "checkerboard" deployment, which provided each fighting man a good chunk of personal space to engage in close order fighting. The manipular system also allowed entire Roman sub-units to manoeuvre more widely, freed from the need to always remain tightly packed in rigid formation. The deep three-line deployment of the Romans allowed combat pressure to be steadily applied forward. Most phalanxes favoured one huge line several ranks deep. This might do well in the initial stages, but as the battle entangled more and more men, the stacked Roman formation allowed fresh pressure to be imposed over a more extended time. As combat lengthened and the battlefield compressed, the phalanx might thus become exhausted or rendered immobile, while the Romans still had enough left to not only manoeuvre but to make the final surges forward.[26] Hannibal's deployment at Zama appears to recognize this—hence the Carthaginian also used a deep three-layer approach, sacrificing his first two lower quality lines and holding back his combat-hardened veterans of Italy for the final encounter. Hannibal's arrangement had much to recommend it given his weakness in cavalry and infantry, but he made no provision for one line relieving the other as the Romans did. Each line fought its own lonely battle and the last ultimately perished when the Romans reorganized for a final surge. The legions also drilled and trained together over a more extended time, and were more uniform and streamlined, (unlike Hannibal's final force and others) enabling even less than brilliant army commanders to manoeuvre and position their forces proficiently. These qualities, among others, made them more than a match for the phalanx, when they met in combat.[32] According to Polybius, in his comparison of the phalanx versus the Roman system: ".. Whereas the phalanx requires one time and one type of ground. Its use requires flat and level ground which is unencumbered by any obstacles.. If the enemy refuses to come down to [meet it on the level ground].. what purpose can the phalanx serve?.. [Also] the phalanx soldier cannot operate in either smaller units or singly, whereas the Roman formation is highly flexible. Every Roman soldier.. can adapt himself equally well to any place of time and meet an attack from any quarter.. Accordingly, since the effective use of parts of the Roman army is so much superior, their plans are much more likely to achieve success."[42] Versus Pyrrhus[edit] See also: Pyrrhus of Epirus The Greek king Pyrrhus' phalangical system was to prove a tough trial for the Romans. Despite several defeats, the Romans inflicted such losses on the Epirote army that the phrase "Pyrrhic victory" has become a byword for a victory won at a terrible cost. A skilful and experienced commander, Pyrrhus deployed a typically mixed phalanx system, including shock units of war-elephants, and formations of light infantry (peltasts), elite units, and cavalry to support his infantry. Using these he was able to defeat the Romans twice, with a third battle deemed inconclusive or a limited Roman tactical success by many scholars. The battles below (see individual articles for detailed accounts) illustrate the difficulties of fighting against phalanx forces. If well-led and deployed (compare Pyrrhus to the fleeing Perseus at Pydna below), they presented a credible infantry alternative to the heavy legion. The Romans, however, were to learn from their mistakes. In subsequent battles after the Pyrrhic wars, they showed themselves masters of the Hellenic phalanx. Battle of Heraclea Battle of Asculum Battle of Beneventum Notable triumphs[edit] Battle of Cynoscephalae[edit] Main article: Battle of Cynoscephalae In this battle the Macedonian phalanx originally held the high ground but all of its units had not been properly positioned due to earlier skirmishing. Nevertheless, an advance by its left-wing drove back the Romans, who counterattacked on the right flank and made some progress against a somewhat disorganized Macedonian left. However, the issue was still in doubt until an unknown tribune (officer) detached 20 maniples from the Roman line and made an encircling attack against the Macedonian rear. This caused the enemy phalanx to collapse, securing a route for the Romans. The more flexible, streamlined legionary organization had exploited the weaknesses of the densely packed phalanx. Such triumphs secured Roman hegemony in Greece and adjoining lands. Battle of Pydna[edit] Main article: Battle of Pydna At Pydna the contenders deployed on a relatively flat plain, and the Macedonians had augmented the infantry with a sizeable cavalry contingent. At the hour of decision, the enemy phalanx advanced in formidable array against the Roman line and made some initial progress. However, the ground it had to advance over was rough, and the powerful phalangial formation lost its tight cohesion. The Romans absorbed the initial shock and came on into the fray, where their more spacious formation and continuously applied pressure proved decisive in hand-to-hand combat on the rough ground. Shield and sword at close quarters on such terrain neutralized the long pike, and supplementary Macedonian weapons (lighter armour and a dagger-like short sword) made an indifferent showing against the skilful and aggressive assault of the heavy Roman infantrymen. The opposition also failed to deploy supporting forces effectively to help the phalanx at its time of dire need. Indeed, the Macedonian commander, Perseus, seeing the situation deteriorating, seems to have fled without even bringing his cavalry into the engagement. The affair was decided in less than two hours, with a comprehensive defeat for the Macedonians. Other anti-phalanx tactics[edit] "Breaking phalanxes" illustrates more of the Roman army's flexibility. When the Romans faced phalangite armies, the legions often deployed the velites in front of the enemy with the command to contendite vestra sponte (attack), presumably with their javelins, to cause confusion and panic in the solid blocks of phalanxes. Meanwhile, auxilia archers were deployed on the wings of the legion in front of the cavalry, in order to defend their withdrawal. These archers were ordered to eiaculare flammas, fire incendiary arrows into the enemy. The cohorts then advanced in a wedge formation, supported by the velites' and auxiliaries' fire, and charged into the phalanx at a single point, breaking it, then flanking it with the cavalry to seal the victory. See the Battle of Beneventum for evidence of fire-arrows being used. Versus Hannibal's Carthage[edit] Tactical superiority of Hannibal's forces. While not a classic phalanx force, Hannibal's army was composed of "mixed" contingents and elements common to Hellenic formations, and it is told that towards the end of his life, Hannibal reportedly named Pyrrhus as the commander of the past that he most admired[44] Rome however had blunted Pyrrhus' hosts prior to the rise of Hannibal, and given their advantages in organization, discipline, and resource mobilization, why did they not make a better showing in the field against the Carthaginian, who throughout most of his campaign in Italy suffered from numerical inferiority and lack of support from his homeland? Hannibal's individual genius, the steadiness of his core troops (forged over several years of fighting together in Spain, and later in Italy) and his cavalry arm seem to be the decisive factors. Time after time Hannibal exploited the tendencies of the Romans, particularly their eagerness to close and achieve a decisive victory. The cold, tired, wet legionnaires that slogged out of the Trebia River to form up on the river bank are but one example of how Hannibal forced or manipulated the Romans into fighting on his terms, and on the ground of his own choosing. The later debacles at Lake Trasimene and Cannae, forced the proud Romans to avoid battle, shadowing the Carthaginians from the high ground of the Apennines, unwilling to risk a significant engagement on the plains where the enemy cavalry held sway.[32] Growing Roman tactical sophistication and ability to adapt overcome earlier disasters. But while the case of Hannibal underscored that the Romans were far from invincible, it also demonstrated their long-term strengths. Rome had a vast manpower surplus far outnumbering Hannibal that gave them more options and flexibility. They isolated and eventually bottled up the Carthaginians and hastened their withdrawal from Italy with the constant manoeuvre. More importantly, they used their manpower resources to launch an offensive into Spain and Africa. They were willing to absorb the humiliation in Italy and remain on the strategic defensive, but with typical relentless persistence they struck elsewhere, to finally crush their foes.[32] They also learned from those enemies. The operations of Scipio were an improvement on some of those who had previously faced Hannibal, showing a higher level of advance thinking, preparation and organization. (Compare with Sempronius at the Battle of the Trebia River for example). Scipio's contribution was in part to implement more flexible manoeuvre of tactical units, instead of the straight-ahead, three-line grind favoured by some contemporaries. He also made better use of cavalry, traditionally an arm in which the Romans were lacking. His operations also included pincer movements, a consolidated battle line, and "reverse Cannae" formations and cavalry movements. His victories in Spain and the African campaign demonstrated a new sophistication in Roman warfare and reaffirmed the Roman capacity to adapt, persist and overcome.[16] See detailed battles: Battle of Baecula Battle of Ilipa Battle of Zama Roman infantry versus Gallic and the Germanic tribes[edit] Barbarian armies[edit] Views of the Gallic enemies of Rome have varied widely. Some older histories consider them to be backward savages, ruthlessly destroying the civilization and "grandeur that was Rome." Some modernist views see them in a proto-nationalist light, ancient freedom fighters resisting the iron boot of empire. Often their bravery is celebrated as worthy adversaries of Rome. See the Dying Gaul for an example. The Gallic opposition was also composed of a large number of different peoples and tribes, geographically ranging from the mountains of Switzerland to the lowlands of France and thus are not easy to categorize. The term "Gaul" has also been used interchangeably to describe Celtic peoples farther afield in Britain adding even more to the diversity of peoples lumped together under this name. From a military standpoint, however, they seem to have shared certain general characteristics: tribal polities with a relatively small and lesser elaborated state structure, light weaponry, fairly unsophisticated tactics and organization, a high degree of mobility, and inability to sustain combat power in their field forces over a lengthy period.[45] Roman sources reflect on the prejudices of their times, but nevertheless testify to the Gauls' fierceness and bravery. "Their chief weapons were long, two-edged swords of soft iron. For defence, they carried small wicker shields. Their armies were undisciplined mobs, greedy for plunder.. Brave to the point of recklessness, they were formidable warriors, and the ferocity of their first assault inspired terror even in the ranks of veteran armies."[46] Early Gallic victories[edit] Though popular accounts celebrate the legions and an assortment of charismatic commanders quickly vanquishing massive hosts of "wild barbarians",[47] Rome suffered a number of early defeats against such tribal armies. As early as the Republican period (circa 390–387 BC), they had sacked Rome under Brennus, and had won several other victories such as the Battle of Noreia and the Battle of Arausio. The foremost Gallic triumph in this early period was "The Day of Allia"- July 18- when Roman troops were routed and driven into the Allia River. Henceforth, July 18 was considered an unlucky date on the Roman Calendar.[48] Some writers suggest that as a result of such debacles, the expanding Roman power began to adjust to this vigorous, fast-moving new enemy.[49] The Romans began to phase out the monolithic phalanx they formerly fought in and adopted the more flexible manipular formation. The circular hoplite shield was also enlarged and eventually replaced with the rectangular scutum for better protection. The heavy phalanx spear was replaced by the pila, suitable for throwing. Only the veterans of the triarii retained the long spear- vestige of the former phalanx. Such early reforms also aided the Romans in their conquest of the rest of Italy over such foes as the Samnites, Latins and Greeks.[50] As time went on Roman arms saw increasing triumph over the Gallics, particularly in the campaigns of Caesar. In the early imperial period, however, Germanic warbands inflicted one of Rome's greatest military defeats, (the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest) which saw the destruction of three imperial legions and was to place a limit on Roman expansion in the West. And it was these Germanic tribes in part (most having some familiarity with Rome and its culture, and becoming more Romanized themselves) that were to eventually bring about the Roman military's final demise in the West. Ironically, in the final days, the bulk of the fighting was between forces composed mostly of barbarians on either side.[51] Tactical performance versus Gallic and Germanic opponents[edit] Gallic and Germanic strengths[edit] Whatever their particular culture, the Gallic and Germanic tribes generally proved themselves to be tough opponents, racking up several victories over their enemies. Some historians show that they sometimes used massed fighting in tightly packed phalanx-type formations with overlapping shields, and employed shield coverage during sieges. In open battle, they sometimes used a triangular "wedge" style formation in attack. Their greatest hope of success lay in 4 factors: (a) numerical superiority, (b) surprising the Romans (via an ambush for example) or in (c) advancing quickly to the fight, or (d) engaging the Romans over heavily covered or difficult terrain where units of the fighting horde could shelter within striking distance until the hour of decision, or if possible, withdraw and regroup between successive charges.[52] Most significant Gallic and Germanic victories show two or more of these characteristics. The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest contains all four: numerical superiority, surprise, quick charges to close rapidly, and favorable terrain and environmental conditions (thick forest and pounding rainstorms) that hindered Roman movement and gave the warriors enough cover to conceal their movements and mount successive attacks against the Roman line. Another factor in the Romans' defeat was a treacherous defection by Arminius and his contingent.[53] Gallic and Germanic weaknesses[edit] Weaknesses in organization and equipment. Against the fighting men from the legion however, the Gauls, Iberians and Germanic forces faced a daunting task. The barbarians' rudimentary organization and tactics fared poorly against the well-oiled machinery that was the Legion. The fierceness of the Gallic and Germanic charges is often commented upon by some writers, and in certain circumstances, they could overwhelm Roman lines. Nevertheless, the in-depth Roman formation allowed adjustments to be made, and the continual application of forwarding pressure made long-term combat a hazardous proposition for the Gauls. Flank attacks were always possible, but the legion was flexible enough to pivot to meet this, either through sub-unit manoeuvre or through the deployment of lines farther back. The cavalry screen on the flanks also added another layer of security, as did nightly regrouping in fortified camps. The Gauls and Germans also fought with little or no armour and with weaker shields, putting them at a disadvantage against the legion. Other items of Roman equipment from studded sandals, to body armour, to metal helmets added to Roman advantages. Generally speaking, the Gauls and Germans needed to get into good initial position against the Romans and to overwhelm them in the early phases of the battle. An extended set-piece slogging match between the lightly armed tribesmen and the well-organized heavy legionaries usually spelt doom for the tribal fighters.[52] Caesar's slaughter of the Helvetii near the Saône River is just one example of tribal disadvantage against the well-organized Romans,[54] as is the victory of Germanicus at the Weser River and Agricola against the Celtic tribesmen of Caledonia (Scotland) circa 84 A.D.[55] Weaknesses in logistics. Roman logistics also provided a trump card against Germanic foes as it had against so many previous foes. Tacitus in his Annals reports that the Roman commander Germanicus recognized that continued operations in Gaul would require long trains of men and material to come overland, where they would be subject to attack as they traversed the forests and swamps. He, therefore, opened sea and river routes, moving large quantities of supplies and reinforcements relatively close to the zone of battle, bypassing the dangerous land routes. In addition, the Roman fortified camps provided secure staging areas for offensive, defensive and logistical operations, once their troops were deployed. Assault roads and causeways were constructed on the marshy ground to facilitate manoeuvre, sometimes under direct Gallic attack. These Roman techniques repeatedly defeated their Germanic adversaries.[56] While Germanic leaders and fighters influenced by Roman methods sometimes adapted them, most tribes did not have the strong organization of the Romans. As German scholar Hans Delbruck notes in his "History of the Art of War": ".. the superiority of the Roman art of warfare was based on the army organization.. a system that permitted very large masses of men to be concentrated at a given point, to move in an orderly fashion, to be fed, to be kept together. The Gauls could do none of these things."[57] Gallic and Germanic chariots[edit] The Gallic also demonstrated a high level of tactical prowess in some areas. Gallic chariot warfare, for example, showed a high degree of integration and coordination with infantry, and Gallic horse and chariot assaults sometimes threatened Roman forces in the field with annihilation. At the Battle of Sentinum for example, c. 295 BC, the Roman and Campanian cavalry encountered Gallic war-chariots and were routed in confusion—driven back from the Roman infantry by the unexpected appearance of the fast-moving Gallic assault. The discipline of the Roman infantry restored the line, however, and a counterattack eventually defeated the Gallic forces and their allies.[58] The accounts of Polybius leading up to the Battle of Telamon, c. 225 BC mention chariot warfare, but it was ultimately unsuccessful. The Gauls met comprehensive defeat by the Roman legions under Papus and Regulus. Chariot forces also attacked the legions as they were disembarking from ships during Caesar's invasion of Britain, but the Roman commander drove off the fast-moving assailants using covering fire (slings, arrows and engines of war) from his ships and reinforcing his shore party of infantry to charge and drive off the attack. In the open field against Caesar, the Gallic/Celtics apparently deployed chariots with a driver and an infantry fighter armed with javelins. During the clash, the chariots would drop off their warriors to attack the enemy and retire a short distance away, massed in reserve. From this position, they could retrieve the assault troops if the engagement was going badly, or apparently, pick them up and deploy elsewhere. Caesar's troops were discomfited by one such attack, and he met it by withdrawing into his fortified redoubt. A later Gallic attack against the Roman camp was routed.[59] Superb as the Gallic fighters were, chariots were already declining as an effective weapon of war in the ancient world with the rise of mounted cavalry.[60] At the battle of Mons Grapius in Caledonia (circa 84AD), Celtic chariots made an appearance. However, they were no longer used in an offensive role but primarily for the pre-battle show - riding back and forth and hurling insults. The main encounter was decided by infantry and mounted cavalry.[55] Superior tactical organization: victory of Caesar at the Sambre River[edit] Superior Gallic mobility and numbers often troubled Roman arms, whether deployed in decades-long mobile or guerrilla warfare or in decisive field engagement. The near-defeat of Caesar in his Gallic campaign confirms this latter pattern but also shows the strengths of Roman tactical organization and discipline. At the Battle of the Sabis river, (see more detailed article) contingents of the Nervii, Atrebates, Veromandui and Aduatuci tribes massed secretly in the surrounding forests as the main Roman force was busy making camp on the opposite side of the river. Some distance away behind them slogged two slow-moving legions with the baggage train. Engaged in foraging and camp construction the Roman forces were somewhat scattered. As camp building commenced, the barbarian forces launched a ferocious attack, streaming across the shallow water and quickly assaulting the distracted Romans. This incident is discussed in Caesar's Gallic War Commentaries.[61] So far the situation looked promising for the warrior host.[45] The 4 conditions above were in their favour: (a) numerical superiority, (b) the element of surprise, (c) a quick advance/assault, and (d) favourable terrain that masked their movements until the last minute. Early progress was spectacular as the initial Roman dispositions were driven back. A rout looked possible. Caesar himself rallied sections of his endangered army, impressing resolve upon the troops. With their customary discipline and cohesion, the Romans then began to drive back the barbarian assault. A charge by the Nervi tribe through a gap between the legions however almost turned the tide again, as the onrushing warriors seized the Roman camp and tried to outflank the other army units engaged with the rest of the tribal host. The initial phase of the clash had passed however and a slogging match ensued. The arrival of the two rear legions that had been guarding the baggage reinforced the Roman lines. Led by the 10th Legion, a counterattack was mounted with these reinforcements that broke the back of the barbarian effort and sent the tribesmen reeling in retreat. It was a close-run thing, illustrating both the fighting prowess of the tribal forces and the steady, disciplined cohesion of the Romans. Ultimately, the latter was to prove decisive in Rome's long fought conquest of Gaul. Persisting logistics strategy: Gallic victory at Gergovia[edit] As noted above, the fierce charge of the Gauls and their individual prowess is frequently acknowledged by several ancient Roman writers.[62] The Battle of Gergovia however demonstrates that the Gallic were capable of a level of strategic insight and operation beyond merely mustering warriors for an open field clash. Under their war leader Vercingetorix, the Gallic pursued what some modern historians have termed a "persisting" or "logistics strategy" - a mobile approach relying not on direct open field clashes, but avoidance of major battle, "scorched earth" denial of resources, and the isolation and piecemeal destruction of Roman detachments and smaller unit groupings.[63] When implemented consistently, this strategy saw some success against Roman operations. According to Caesar himself, during the siege of the town of Bourges, the lurking warbands of Gauls were: "on the watch for our foraging and grain-gatherer parties, when necessarily scattered far afield he attacked them and inflicted serious losses... This imposed such scarcity upon the army that for several days they were without grain and staved off starvation only by driving cattle from remote villages."[64] Caesar countered with a strategy of enticing the Gallic forces out into open battle, or of blockading them into submission. At the town of Gergovia, resource denial was combined with a concentration of superior force and multiple threats from more than one direction. This caused the opposing Roman forces to divide and ultimately fail. Gergovia was situated on the high ground of a tall hill, and Vercingetorix carefully drew up the bulk of his force on the slope, positioning allied tribes in designated places. He drilled his men and skirmished daily with the Romans, who had overrun a hilltop position and had created a small camp some distance from Caesar's larger main camp. A rallying of about 10,000 disenchanted Aeudan tribesmen (engineered by Vercingetorix's agents) created a threat in Caesar's rear, including a threat to a supply convoy promised by the allied Aeudans, and he diverted four legions to meet this danger.[65] This, however, gave Vercingetorix's forces the chance to concentrate in superior strength against the smaller two-legion force left behind at Gergovia, and desperate fighting ensued. Caesar dealt with the real threat, turned around and by ruthlessly forced marching once again consolidated his forces at the town. A feint using bogus cavalry by the Romans drew off part of the Gallic assault, and the Romans advanced to capture three more enemy outposts on the slope, and proceeded towards the walls of the stronghold. The diverted Gallic forces returned however and in frantic fighting outside the town walls, the Romans lost 700 men, including 46 centurions. Caesar commenced a retreat from the town with the victorious Gallic warriors in pursuit. The Roman commander, however, mobilized his 10th Legion as a blocking force to cover his withdrawal and after some fighting, the tribesmen themselves withdrew back to Gergovia, taking several captured legion standards. The vicious fighting around Gergovia was the first time Caesar had suffered a military reverse, demonstrating the Gallic martial valor noted by the ancient chroniclers. The hard battle is referenced by the Roman historian Plutarch, who writes of the Averni people showing visitors a sword in one of their temples, a weapon that reputedly belonged to Caesar himself. According to Plutarch, the Roman general was shown the sword in the temple at Gergovia some years after the battle, but he refused to reclaim it, saying that it was consecrated, and to leave it where it was.[66] The Gallic were unable to sustain their strategy, however, and Vercingetorix was to become trapped in Alesia, facing not divided sections or detachments of the Roman Army but Caesar's full force of approximately 70,000 men (50,000 legionnaires plus numerous additional auxiliary cavalry and infantry). This massive concentration of Romans was able to besiege the fortress in detail and repulse Gallic relief forces, and it fell in little more than a month.[66] Vercingetorix overall persisting logistics policy, however, demonstrates a significant level of strategic thinking. As historian A. Goldsworthy (2006) notes: "His [Vercingetorix's] strategy was considerably more sophisticated than that employed by Caesar's earlier opponents.."[67] At Alesia this mobile approach became overly static. The Gauls gave battle at a place where they were inadequately provisioned for an extended siege, and where Caesar could bring his entire field force to bear on a single point without them being dissipated, and where his lines of supply were not effectively interdicted.[68] At Gergovia by contrast, Caesar's strength was divided by the appearance of another Gallic force in his rear (the Aeudans)- threatening his sources and lines of supply. Together with a strong defensive anvil, (the town) supported by an offensive hammer (the open field forces), and coupled with previous resource denial pressure over time, the Romans were forced to retreat, and the Gallic secured a victory. As one historian notes about the persisting strategy: "But before the defeat at Alesia, Vercingetorix's strategy had driven Cesar from central Gaul.. In finding and overwhelming Roman foragers as Fabius had done to Hannibal's men, the Gauls concentrated against weakness to win many small victories. Their strength in cavalry helped them concentrate rapidly, facilitating the application of the combat element in their strategy, though attacking foragers and grain gatherers were also intrinsic to the logistic aspect of their campaign."[69] Roman infantry versus mobile and guerilla warfare in Hispania[edit] The Iberian zone of struggle. The Gallic-Celtic-Iberian peoples, like many other tribes, descended from the general "Celtic" race, put up an obstinate fight against Roman hegemony. Based in Hispania (what is now Spain and Portugal), they fought continuously, with varying levels of intensity, for almost two centuries, beginning around 218 BC. The initial hegemons of Hispania were the Carthaginians who struggled against various tribes to carve out colonies and a commercial empire, primarily in coastal enclaves. Carthaginian defeats by Rome brought struggle against a new imperium. Tribes such as the Celtiberi carried out a strong resistance, a struggle later continued by other groups such as the Lusitani, under Viriathus. The Lusitanian War and the Numantine War are but a few examples of the prolonged conflict, which cut across 20 decades of Roman history. Full conquest was not achieved until the time of Augustus. The vicious long-term fighting made Hispania a place of dread for the Roman soldier. Historian Sir Edward Creasy, in his "The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World" had this to say about the Iberian conflicts.[70] "The war against the Spaniards, who, of all the nations subdued by the Romans, defended their liberty with the greatest obstinacy... the Romans in both provinces were so often beaten, that nothing was more dreaded by the soldiers at home than to be sent there... Roman tactics. Rome deployed its standard methods, with greater emphasis on blended units of light troops, cavalry and heavy infantry when confronting the guerrilla or mobile tactics used by the Iberians. Roman fortified camps were also valuable in protecting the troops and providing bases of operation. While combat results were mixed in the open field, the Romans did comparatively well when besieging Iberian cities, systematically eliminating enemy leaders, supply bases and centres of resistance. Destruction of Iberian resources by burning grain fields or demolishing villages also put the native resistance under greater pressure. The operations of Scipio during the Numantine War illustrate these methods, including a crackdown on lax practices and tightening of legionary discipline.[71] Other Roman tactics touched on the political sphere such as the "pacification" treaties of Gracchus, and treachery and trickery, as in the massacres of tribal leaders by Lucullus and Galba under guise of negotiation. Rome frequently capitalized on divisions among the tribes. A "divide and conquer" policy was in use, with competing (and sometimes insincere) treaties being negotiated to isolate targeted groups, and allied tribes being used to subdue others.[72] Celtic-Iberian tactics. Fighting for their independence and survival, the Iberian tribes used fortified cities or strongpoints to defend against their enemies and mixed this with mobile warfare in formations ranging from small guerrilla bands to large units numbering thousands of men. The Celtic/Iberian horsemen, in particular, appear to be more than a match for those of Rome, a fact proved in earlier years by the key role such allied cavalry played in Hannibal's victories. Favourable mobility and knowledge of the local terrain were to help the tribes immensely. One of the most successful ambushes was pulled off by a chieftain named Carus, who liquidated around 6,000 Romans in a combined cavalry-infantry strike. Another was executed by Caesarus, who took advantage of a disorderly Roman pursuit under Mummius, to lay a trap that resulted in Roman losses of around 9,000 men. A similar Iberian "turn and fight" gambit is also recorded as being successful against Galba. Roman arms however triumphed over two grinding centuries of conflict. See "Appian's History of Rome: The Spanish Wars" for a more detailed discussion of individual battles, leaders and engagements.[71] Victory through attrition[edit] In their battles against a wide variety of opponents, Rome's ruthless persistence, greater resources and stronger organization wore down their opponents over time.[73] Rome's massive manpower supply was the foundation of this approach. Opponents could be relentlessly weakened and exhausted over the long run.[74] In Spain, resources were thrown at the problem until it yielded over 150 years later—a slow, harsh grind of endless marching, constant sieges and fighting, broken treaties, burning villages and enslaved captives. As long as the Roman Senate and its successors were willing to replace and expend more men and material decade after decade, victory could be bought through a strategy of exhaustion.[75] The systematic wastage and destruction of enemy economic and human resources were called vastatio by the Romans. Crops and animals were destroyed or carried off, and local populaces were massacred or enslaved. Sometimes these tactics were also used to conduct punitive raids on barbarian tribes which had performed raids across the border. In the campaigns of Germanicus, Roman troops in the combat area carried out a "scorched earth" approach against their Germanic foes, devastating the land they depended on for supplies. "The country was wasted by fire and sword fifty miles round, nor sex nor age found mercy; places sacred and profane had the equal lot of destruction, all razed to the ground.." (Tacitus, Annals). The Roman "grind down" approach is also seen in the Bar Kokba Jewish revolt against the Romans. The Roman commander Severus avoided meeting the hard-fighting Jewish rebels in the open field. Instead, he relied on attacking their fortified strongpoints and devastating the zone of conflict in a methodical campaign.[76] This "attritional" aspect of the Roman approach to combat contrasts with the notion of brilliant generalship or tactics sometimes seen in popular depictions of the Roman infantry. Some historians note however that Rome often balanced brutal attrition with shrewd diplomacy, as demonstrated by Caesar's harsh treatment of Gallic tribes that opposed him, but his sometimes conciliatory handling of those that submitted. Rome also used a variety of incentives to encourage cooperation by the elites of conquered peoples, co-opting opposition and incorporating them into the structure of the empire. This carrot and stick approach forms an integral part of "the Roman way" of war.[77] Resource tactics[edit] As with any military organization, training soldiers/armies requires a number of things and could prove to be quite costly in the long run. The Romans understood this concept very well and realized that training soldiers could include paying for his rations [food], his salary, his armour, his armaments [weapons], and a soldier's honorarium [which was paid to those who received honourable discharges]. With all this in perspective, they realized each individual soldier was a far too valuable resource to waste. They knew the costs they were incurring for each soldier had to be quite similar on their enemy's side. So they developed a tactic that could cause a significant setback or even defeat for their enemy while only creating a limited risk for their own soldiers. This was known as “Resource Tactics.” Standing armies run on their stomachs and their equipment, and both require regular supplies. "Resource Tactics" cut off their opponents from resources in one of three ways: Attack resource locations: Once they conquered territory, the Romans would secure as many resources as they could handle. This allowed them to restock their own supply and prevent the available resources from falling into their opponents' hands.[78] Intercept supplies while in transit: The Romans would identify their enemies' main supply routes and create a stopping point. Once the enemy was stopped, the Romans would ransack the supply, which would drastically reduce the supplies reaching the enemy.[78] Conduct a “siege” [siege - a military operation in which troops surround a place and cut off all outside access to force surrender]: The Romans would typically build a wall around the existing city to help control the enemy. This wall would be built out of reach of the archers and would prevent the enemy from escaping. Once the Romans completed the wall, they would use catapults, ballistas and onagers to hurl rocks, spears, and other objects from safe distances. The ongoing siege would eventually cause the city/fort to run out of resources, thus causing the opponents to die off or surrender.[78] The basic principle behind these tactics was to disrupt their enemies' resources while increasing Roman resources. Without a regular supply of food, water, and other commodities, armies would begin to starve or dehydrate, resulting in low morale or killing of fellow soldiers.[78] Roman infantry versus cavalry[edit] Tactical problems of fighting cavalry[edit] Cavalry opponents were one of the toughest challenges faced by the Roman infantry. Combining both missile and shock capability with extensive mobility, cavalry exploited the inherent weakness of the legion—its relatively slow movement and deployment. Defeat by strong cavalry forces is a recurring event in Roman military history. The campaigns of Hannibal illustrate this well, as Numidian and Spanish/Gallic horsemen repeatedly outflanked Roman formations, dealing devastating blows in the sides and rear. Hannibal's great victory at Cannae (considered one of the greatest Roman defeats ever) was primarily an infantry struggle, but the key role was played by his cavalry, as in his other victories. An even more dramatic demonstration of Roman vulnerability is shown in the numerous wars against Parthian heavy cavalry. The Parthians and their successors used large numbers of fast-moving light riders to harass and skirmish, and delivered the coup de grâce with heavily armoured lancers called "cataphracts". Both types of troops used powerful composite bows that shot arrows of sufficient strength to penetrate Roman armour. The cataphracts extended combat power by serving as shock troops, engaging opposing forces with their heavy lances in thundering charges after they had been "softened up" by swarms of arrows. The Parthians also conducted a "scorched earth" policy against the Romans, refusing major set-piece encounters, while luring them deeper on to the unfavorable ground, where they would lack water supplies and a secure line of retreat. The debacle of the Battle of Carrhae saw a devastating defeat of Roman arms by the Parthian cavalry.[79] Crassus' force was systematically dismembered by the smaller Parthians army, who surprised Roman expectations that they would run out of arrows, by arranging for a supply train of ammunition borne by thousands of camels. Roman casualties were approximately 20,000 killed and 10,000 captured making the battle one of the costliest defeats in Roman history. Parthian casualties were minimal.[80] Successful tactics[edit] Clues exist in the earlier campaigns of Alexander the Great against mounted Asiatic warriors—engaging the horsemen with strong detachments of light infantry and missile troops and driving them off with charges by Alexander's heavy cavalry units. The Roman variant, with its large manpower resources, continued the same "combined arms" approach, with a larger role for cavalry as the empire went on. The Eastern half of the Roman Empire, particularly, was ultimately to rely mostly on cavalry forces. Adjustments of Ventidius. The operations of the Roman commander Publius Ventidius Bassus illustrate three general tactics used by the infantry to fight their mounted foes. These drew on Caesar's veteran legions and made Ventidius one of the Roman generals to celebrate a triumph against the Parthians. In three separate battles, he not only managed to defeat the Parthian armies and drive them out of the Roman territory but also managed to kill Parthia's three top military commanders during the battles.[81] The adjustments of Ventidius were as follows:[81] Increase in firepower. Ventidius sought to neutralize the Parthian advantage in firepower, by adding his own, and provided his legions with numerous slingers whose furious fire was instrumental in checking the Parthian horsemen during several battles. In subsequent engagements, other Roman commanders increased cavalry units and slingers, with the latter being supplied with leaden bullets which gave more range and killing power.[81] Securing the high ground and other terrain features. During movement against the horsemen, special care had to be taken when crossing a mountain, ravine or bridge. In such cases, sub-sections of the legion had to be redeployed to provide covering and blocking forces until the army had safely navigated the route.[82] In his three victories over the horsemen, Ventidius had his infantry secure the high ground, bolstering defensive positions and manoeuvres with withering covering fire by the slingers. Seizure of hilly terrain features hindered sweeping enemy cavalry movements, obstructed avenues of attack and provided anchor points that allowed manoeuvring detachments to counterattack, or to fall back if unfavourable conditions developed. Against the horsemen, heavy infantry units had to work closely with cavalry and light troops, and be mutually supporting, or they could be quickly isolated and destroyed.[81] Quick counterattack from a stable base. Once entering the zone of battle, Ventidius generally operated from a defensive base and did not prematurely venture on to flat terrain or allow his forces to lose cohesion as at Carrhae. He let the Parthian forces come to him after taking a strong position, and aggressively and quickly counterattacked. In two victories the Parthians were induced to attack the army camp, where they were mauled by the corps of slingers. The legions then counterattacked from this defensive anvil, light and heavy units working together to smash opposition.[83] In one victory, Ventidius took a position on the high ground, and then dispatched a strong vanguard of cavalry against a Parthian concentration at the Syrian Gates, or narrow pass over Mount Amanus, leading from Cilicia into Syria. This vanguard was a decoy to lure the opposition forward. As the Parthians moved in for the kill, the Romans ambushed them from the flank with a detachment of slingers and infantry. Rather than wait for reinforcements by the allied force of Labenieus in the area, the Parthians decided to mount a full-scale attach on the main Roman position at dawn. Ventidius held back his forces until most of the Parthians were on the steep slope, then made a fast counterattack - his infantry covered by the slingers. The Parthians were defeated in detail and Pharnapates the Parthian commander was killed.[83] In his third triumph, Ventidius again secured the high ground, the pivot of his tactics, and did not oppose a Parthian crossing of the Euphrates. He held back his forces and let the Parthians advance to his position until they were close, then ordered a rapid counterattack- the slingers blanketing the enemy with fire, and the infantry surging forward. This quick "combined arms counter-punch" caught the Parthians on unfavorable terrain under a furious hail of slingstones and leaden pellets, and prevented them from destroying the legions with arrow barrages from a distance. Forced to fight at close quarters with the quickly advancing legionaries, the Parthians faltered and their leader Pacorus and his body guard were killed. The rest of their army eventually broke and retreated.[84] Combined arms and quick advance in later eras. In the later Roman empire, cavalry forces played a larger role, with the infantry in support. The campaign of the Emperor Julian II against the Persians is instructive in this regard. On June 22, 363 a large-scale clash occurred near the town of Maranga. Facing an enemy that threatened to blanket his troops with a hail of arrows, and in danger of envelopment, Julian deployed his force in a crescent formation, and ordered an advance by both infantry and cavalry on the double, thwarting both dangers by closing quickly. The gambit was successful. After a long battle, the Persians withdrew- a tactical victory (albeit a costly one for the Romans according to some historians).[85] The work of Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus offers a detailed description of the Persian campaign, including the quick charge by the heavy Roman infantry under Julian. "To prevent the preliminary volleys of the archers from disrupting our ranks he (Julian) advanced at the double and so ruined the effect of their fire... Roman foot in close order made a mighty push and drove the serried ranks of the enemy before them..." Marcellinus's commentary also sharply contrasts the fighting spirit of the Persian infantrymen with those of Rome, stating that they had "aversion to pitched infantry battles."[86] In an earlier engagement outside the walls of Ctesiphon, Marcellinus again notes the value of the quick advance by the infantry: "both sides fought hand-to-hand with spears and drawn swords; the quicker our men forced themselves into the enemy's line the less they were exposed to danger from arrows."[87] Mixed results against major cavalry enemies. Rome's overall record against the Parthians was favourable, although the Parthian horsemen offered stiff resistance, as it was against the horsemen of Hannibal, and some Gallic opponents. Subsequent Roman leaders like Antony invaded Parthian territory but had to withdraw after severe losses. Others like Severus and Trajan saw great success in their invasions of Mesopotamia, defeating Parthian armies through combined arms tactics.[81] Thus, the battles of Ventidius and Julian show that the Roman infantry, when properly handled and manoeuvred, and when working in conjunction with other supporting arms like slingers, could certainly meet the challenge of an enemy cavalryman.[81] Decline[edit] Any history of the Roman infantry must grapple with the factors that led to the decline of the heavy legions that once dominated the Western world. Such decline, of course, is closely linked with the decay of other facets of Rome's economy, society and political scene. Nevertheless, some historians emphasize that the final demise of Rome was due to military defeat, however plausible (or implausible) the plethora of theories advanced by some scholars, ranging from declining tax bases, to class struggle, to mass lead poisoning.[88] Two of the major factors that have occupied scholars of the military will be discussed here: barbarization and the adaptation of a "mobile reserve" strategy. There are a number of controversies in this area with duelling scholars advancing competing theories. "Barbarization" of the heavy infantry[edit] "Barbarization" is a common theme in many works on Rome (See Gibbon, Mommsen, Delbrück, et al.), and thus cannot be excluded from any analysis of its infantry forces. Essentially it is argued that the increasing barbarization of the heavy legions weakened weaponry, training, morale and military effectiveness in the long run. The weapons changes described above are but one example.[89] It could be argued that the use of barbarian personnel was nothing new. This is accurate, however, such use was clearly governed by "the Roman way." It was the barbarian personnel who had to adapt to Roman standards and organization, not the other way around. In the twilight of the empire, this was not the case. Such practices as permitting the settlement of massive, armed barbarian populations on Roman territory, the watering down of the privilege of citizenship, increasing use of alien contingents, and relaxation or removal of traditionally thorough and severe Roman discipline, organization and control, contributed to the decline of the heavy infantry.[90] The settlement of the foederati for example, saw large barbarian contingents ushered on to Roman territory, with their own organization, under their own leaders. Such groupings showed a tendency to neglect "the Roman way" in organization, training, logistics etc., in favour of their own ideas, practices and agendas. These settlements may have bought short-term political peace for imperial elites, but their long-term effect was negative, weakening the traditional strengths of the heavy infantry in discipline, training and deployment. They also seemed to have lessened the incentive for remaining "old Guard" troops to adhere to such strengths, since the barbarians received equal or more favour with less effort. Indeed, such "allied" barbarian contingents were at times to turn on the Romans, devastating wide areas with sack and pillage and even attacking imperial army formations.[91] Other writers argue that while some ancient Romans did view the world in terms of barbarians versus civilized Romans (epitomized in Hadrian's Wall of separation), the reality of Roman frontiers was a fuzzy set of interlocking zones - political, military, judicial and financial, rather than a neat linear boundary. Changes to the Roman forces that moved away from the old fighting organization order were thus the outcome of several influences, rather than simply the appearance of more, allegedly uncivilized non-Romans.[92] Changes in the legions[edit] To combat the more frequent raids and advances of their hostile neighbours the legions were changed from slow and heavy to much lighter troops, and cavalry was introduced as a serious concept. State-controlled factories produced vast quantities of less specialist arms such as chainmail armour and spears as opposed to the gladius and lorica segmentata more prevalent in the early empire. The difference between auxiliaries and legionaries began to become negligible from an equipment point of view. This meant that the new subdivided infantry lost the awesome power that the earlier legions had, meaning that whilst they were more likely to see a battle they were less likely to win it. That legion size was at an all-time low was also a factor. On the other hand, legions in the late empire were used far more flexibly as accounts by authors like Ammianus Marcellinus make clear. Smaller detachments waged more personal and smaller scale, yet intense operations against tribal foes on the Rhine and Danubian frontiers. Instead of vast formations of thousands of troops, smaller units would engage smaller-scale incursions by raiders. Roman horsemen, while fast, were actually much too weak to cope with the very cavalry based invasions of the Huns, Goths, Vandals and Sassanids. Their ineffectiveness was demonstrated at Cannae and Adrianople; in both instances, the cavalry was completely destroyed by a vastly more powerful enemy horse. Advances in Roman tactical thinking led to the adoption of eastern-style cataphracts and mass-use of auxiliary forces as cavalry, both of which were used to address previous shortcomings of the Roman army. The later Roman army was more cavalry-orientated than it had been before and as a result, detachments were able to be moved around the empire at will, ending the previous doctrine of keeping all forces on the frontiers at the edge of the empire. The mobile forces approach[edit] The "mobile reserve" strategy, traditionally identified with Constantine I, saw a reversal of the traditional "forward" policy of strong frontier fortifications backed by legions stationed near likely zones of conflict. Instead, it is argued that the best troops were pulled back into a type of "mobile reserve" closer to the centre that could be deployed to trouble areas throughout the empire. Some scholars claim this was a positive development, (Luttwak, Delbruck, et al.) given growing difficulties with governing the vast empire, where political turmoil and severe financial difficulties had made the old preclusive security system untenable. Some writers such as Luttwak condemn the old-style "forward" policy as indicating a "Maginot Line" mentality in the troubled latter centuries of the Empire.[93] Disadvantages of the mobile reserve strategy versus the "forward" policy Ancient writers like Zosimus in the 5th century AD condemned the "reserve" policy as a major weakening of the military force. Other modern scholars (Ferrill et al.) also see the pullback as a strategic mistake, arguing that it left lower quality "second string" limitanei forces to stop an enemy until the distant mobile reserve arrived. While the drop in quality did not happen immediately, it is argued that over time, the limitanei declined into lightly armed, static watchman type troops that were of dubious value against increasing barbarian marauders on the frontiers. The pullback of the best infantry was based more on political reasons (shoring up the power bases of the emperors and various elites) rather than on military reality. In addition, it is claimed, the "forward" policy was not at all a static "Maginot" approach, but that traditional heavy legions and supporting cavalry could still move to a trouble spot by redeploying them from fortifications elsewhere along a particular frontier. Some scholars challenge the notion that a "mobile reserve" in the modern military sense existed in the Roman Empire, and instead argue that the shifts in an organization represent a series of field armies deployed in various areas as needed, particularly in the East. Others point to the heavy fiscal difficulties and political turmoil of the later Empire that made it difficult to continue a traditional policy.[94] Twilight of the hard-core infantry[edit] There are numerous other facets to the controversy, but whatever the school of thought, all agree that the traditional strengths and weaponry of the heavy infantry legion declined from the standards of earlier eras. The 4th-century writer Vegetius, in one of the most influential Western military works De Re Militari, highlighted this decline as the key factor in military weakness, noting that the core legions always fought as part of an integrated team of cavalry and light foot. In the latter years, this formula that had brought so much success petered out. Caught between the growth of lighter armed/less organized foot soldiers, and the increasing cavalry formations of the mobile forces, the "heavies" as the dominant force, withered on the vine. This does not mean that heavy units disappeared entirely, but that their mass recruitment, formation, organization and deployment as the dominant part of the Roman military was greatly reduced. Ironically, in Rome's final battles (the Western half of the empire) the defeats suffered were substantially inflicted by infantry forces (many fighting dismounted).[94] Speaking of the decline of the heavy infantry, the Roman historian Vegetius lauded the old fighting units, and lamented how the heavy armour of the early days had been discarded by the weaker, less disciplined, barbarized forces: "Those who find the old arms so burdensome, must either receive wounds upon their naked bodies and die, or what is worse still, run the risk of being made prisoners, or of betraying the country by their flight. Thus, to avoid fatigue, they allow themselves to be butchered shamefully, like cattle."[95] Historian Arther Ferrill notes that even towards the end, some of the old infantry formations were still in use. Such grouping was increasingly ineffective, however, without the severe close order discipline, drill and organization of old times.[94] At the Battle of Châlons (circa 451 AD) Attila the Hun rallied his troops by mocking the once-vaunted Roman infantry, alleging that they merely huddled under a screen of protective shields in close formation. He ordered his troops to ignore them and to attack the powerful Alans and Visigoths instead. It was a sad commentary on the force that had once dominated Europe, the Mediterranean and much of the Middle East. It is true that at Châlons, the Roman infantry contributed to the victory by seizing part of the battlefield's high ground. Nevertheless, its day had already passed in favour of the mass levies of the barbarian federates.[51] Assessment of the Roman infantry[edit] Central factors in Roman success[edit] Some elements that made the Romans an effective military force, both tactically and at higher levels, were: The Romans were able to copy and adapt the weapons and methods of their opponents more effectively. Some weapons, such as the gladius, were adopted outright by the legionaries. Publius asserts that the pilum was of Samnite origin, and the shield was based on Greek design.[96] In other cases, especially formidable units of enemy forces were invited to serve in the Roman army as auxiliaries after peace was made. In the naval sphere, the Romans followed some of the same methods they used with the infantry, dropping their ineffective designs and copying, adapting and improving on Punic warships, and introducing heavier marine contingents (infantry fighters) on to their ships.[97] Roman organization was more flexible than those of many opponents. Compared to the tightly packed spearmen of the phalanx, the Roman heavy infantry, through their training and discipline, and operating in conjunction with light foot and cavalry, could quickly adopt a number of methods and formations depending on the situation. These range from the Testudo formation during siege warfare, to a hollow square against cavalry attack, to mixed units of heavy foot, horse and light infantry against guerrillas in Spain, to the classic "triple line" or checkerboard patterns. Against more sophisticated opponents the Romans also showed great flexibility at times, such as the brilliant adjustments Scipio made against Hannibal at Zama. These included leaving huge gaps in the ranks to trap the charging elephants, and the recall, reposition and consolidation of a single battle line that advanced to the final death struggle against the Carthaginian veterans of Italy.[98] Roman discipline, organization and logistical systemization sustained combat effectiveness over a longer period. Notably, the Roman system of castra, or fortified camps, allowed the army to stay in the field on favourable ground and be rested and resupplied for battle. Well organized Roman logistics also sustained combat power, from routine resupply and storage to the construction of military roads, to state-run arsenals and weapons factories, to well organized naval convoys that helped stave off defeat by Carthage. The death of a leader generally did not cause the legions to lose heart in battle. Others stepped to the fore and carried on. In the defeat by Hannibal at the River Trebia, 10,000 Romans cut their way through the debacle to safety, maintaining unit cohesion when all around was rout, a testimony to their tactical organization and discipline.[97] The Romans were more persistent and more willing to absorb and replace losses over time than their opponents. Unlike other civilizations, the Romans kept going relentlessly until typically their enemies had been completely crushed or neutralized. The army acted to implement policy and were not allowed to stop unless they received a command from the emperor or a decree from the senate. Against the tribal polities of Europe, particularly in Hispania, Roman tenacity and material weight eventually wore down most opposition. The tribes of Europe did not have a state or economic structure able to support lengthy campaigns and therefore could often (but not always) be made to change their minds about opposing Roman hegemony. The defeat in the Teutoburg Forest might seem like an exception, but even here, the Romans were back on the warpath 5 years later with major forces against their Germanic opponents. That their persistence was not actually endless does not negate the general pattern. Where the Romans faced another large state structure, such as the Parthian Empire, they found the military road rocky indeed and were sometimes forced to an impasse. Nevertheless, the distinct pattern of Roman tenacity holds. Rome suffered its greatest defeats against sophisticated Carthage, notably at Cannae, and was forced to avoid a battle for a lengthy period. Yet in time, it rebuilt its forces on land and at sea, and persisted in the struggle, astonishing the Punics who expected it to sue for peace. Against the Parthians, crushing defeats did not stop the Romans from inflicting serious defeats on the Parthians themselves, for they invaded Parthian territory several times afterwards, and though Parthia proper was never totally conquered, Rome ultimately secured a rough hegemony in the area and managed to successfully destroy Parthian forces in Mesopotamia on numerous occasions. Roman leadership was mixed, but over time it was often effective in securing Roman military success. Leadership debacles are common in Roman military history, from the routs against Hannibal to the demise of the unlucky Crassus against the Parthians. The Roman polity's structuring, however, produced a steady supply of men willing and able to lead troops in battle- men that were held accountable for defeat or malfeasance. It was not unusual for a losing general to be prosecuted by political enemies in Rome, with some having their property confiscated and barely escaping death. The senatorial oligarchy, for all its political manoeuvring, interference and other faults, provided the functions of oversight and audit over military matters, that over the course of time, shaped final results. The record is a mixed one, but whether under boisterous Republic or Imperial emperor, Rome produced enough competent leaders to secure its military dominance for over a millennium. Some of the best leaders come from both eras, including Marius, Sulla, Scipio, Caesar, Trajan and others. Note should be taken here of a large number of junior officers the Romans typically used to assure coordination and guidance. The initiative of such men played a key part in Roman success. Effective leadership was also bound up with the famous Roman centurions, the backbone of the legionary organization. While not all such men could be considered models of perfection, they commanded with substantial respect. Rome's massive manpower supply enabled it to stay in the field and continue fighting after defeats and to launch new campaigns. Against Hannibal for example, Rome suffered huge losses, but still vastly outnumbered Hannibal's forces. This meant not only defensive operations under Fabius but the aggressive deployment of new armies under Scipio to take the battle to the Carthaginians in Africa. Other enemies of Rome came up against this massive manpower reserve and faltered over time - from small tribes, city-states or kingdoms fighting to maintain their independence, to major empires that confronted the Romans. The huge pool of fighting men gave the Romans much more room for errors or setbacks, compared to their opponents.[99] The influence of the Roman military and civic culture, as embodied particularly in the heavy infantry legion, gave the Roman military consistent motivation and cohesion. Such culture included but was not limited to: (a) the valuing of Roman citizenship, (b) the broad-based muster of free males into mass infantry units (as opposed to widespread use of foreign contingents, slaves or mercenaries), and (c) loyalty to those fighting units (the Legion) which remained characteristically Roman in outlook and discipline. Citizenship conveyed certain valuable rights in Roman society, and was another element that helped to promote the standardization and integration of the infantry.[100] The citizen under arms - the legion soldier - was supposed to reflect and practice the Roman ideal of virtus, pietas, fides, - self-discipline, respect and faithfulness to engagements. Implementation of such ideals could be mixed according to some writers, but it was "a trilogy [driving] every aspect of military, domestic, economic and social life."[101] As such it was a strong force for cohesion among Rome's infantrymen. 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Brady, The Military Affairs of Ancient Rome and Roman Art of War in Caesar's Time, The Military Service Publishing Company: 1947– url: http://www.digitalattic.org/home/war/romanarmy/ ^ a b Warry, pp. 159–172 ^ Warry, pp. 115–169 ^ a b Polybius, Histories pp. 511-12 ^ John Warry, Warfare in the Ancient World, (St. Martin's, 1980), pp. 70-86 ^ Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars ^ a b Hans Delbrück, Warfare in Antiquity ^ Don Nardo, The Roman Army: Instrument of Power, Lucent Books: 2004, 22-23 ^ The opening scene of the 2000 US movie Gladiator, showing Germanic barbarians being vanquished, was shown to senior American officers before the 2003 US attack on Iraq as a motivational tool- reported in Michael R. Gordon and Bernard E. Trainor, Cobra II: The Inside Story of the Invasion and Occupation of Iraq, (Pantheon Books, 2006) p. 164 ^ Don Nardo, The Roman Army: pp. 22-23 ^ Nardo, op. cit ^ Nardo, The Roman Army, pp. 23-30 ^ a b Arther Ferrill, The Fall of the Roman Empire: The Military Explanation ^ a b Hans Delbrück, History of the Art of War, Vols. I & II. University of Nebraska Press (1990) [1920-21]. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, Macropedia, 1974 ed, "Germans, Ancient" ^ Nardo, pg 74 ^ a b Nardo, pg. 90 ^ Tacitus, Annals - Book II - "War with the Germans", THE REIGN OF TIBERIUS, OUT OF THE FIRST SIX ANNALS OF TACITUS; WITH HIS ACCOUNT OF GERMANY, AND LIFE OF AGRICOLA, TRANSLATED BY THOMAS GORDON, 1917. url: https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext05/7rtib10.txt ^ Hans Delbrück, History of the Art of War, (Vol. I, p. 510), University of Nebraska Press (1990) [1920-21]. ^ DENISON, GEORGE T. A History of Cavalry. From the earliest times, with Lessons for the Future. 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Yale University Press, 2006, pp. 3291-359 ^ Stephen Dando-Collins (2002). Caesar's legion: the epic saga of Julius Caesar's elite tenth legion. Wiley. pp. 50-69 ^ Dando-Collins. Caesar's legions. 52–68 ^ The Fifteen Decisive Battles Of The World: From Marathon To Waterloo by Sir Edward Creasy, M.A., 1851 ^ a b History of Rome: The Spanish Wars, by Appian, circa 165 A.D. ^ Appian, op. cit. ^ John Warry, Warfare in the classical world, University of Oklahoma Press ^ Fronda, 2010. Between Rome and Carthage.. p38 ^ Robert Asprey, War in the Shadows: The Guerrilla in History, Vol 1, Doubleday, 1975, p 21-30 ^ Richard Gottheil, Samuel Krauss, "Bar-Kokba and The Bar-Kokba War", The Jewish Encyclopedia, 2002, See also Hist. Rom. lxix. ch. 12-14 of Dio Cassius for details on the massive Jewish Revolt. ^ Archer Jones, The Art of War in the Western World, University of Illinois Press: 1987, pp. 34-92, 267-381 ^ a b c d http://romanmilitary.net/strategy/resource ^ Denison, History of Cavalry, op. cit ^ Plutarch. Life of Crassus, 31.7. ^ a b c d e f Denison, op. cit ^ Xenophon, Anabasis, Loeb's Classical Library, 1998). See this classic work for a detailed discussion of anti-cavalry problems by another heavy infantry formation- the Hellenic phalanx, including the weaknesses of the hollow square formation ^ a b A history of Persia, Volume 1. 1915. By Sir Percy Molesworth Sykes. pg 385-386 ^ Rose Mary Sheldon -2010. Rome's War in Parthia_ Blood in the Sand-Vallentine Mitchell p 60 ^ Arther Ferrill, The Fall of the Roman Empire: The Military Explanation, (Thames & Hudson, 1986) p. 114-157 ^ Marcellinus, Ammianus, The Later Roman Empire, translated by Hamilton, W. (Penguin, 1987). See also Chris Cornuelle, An Overview of the Sassanian Persian Military, (n.d.) retrieved from May 2008 from Iran Chamber Society http://www.iranchamber.com/history/articles/overview_sassanian_persian_military2.php ^ Marcellinus, op. cit. ^ Arther Ferrill, The Fall of the Roman Empire, pp. 43-190 ^ Arther Ferrill, The Fall of the Roman Empire: The Military Explanation, op. cit. ^ Ferrill, Fall of the Roman Empire 43-190 ^ Ferrill, Fall of the Roman Empire.. 43-190 ^ Hugh Elton, 2012, Frontiers of the Roman Empire, pg 36-131 ^ Edward Luttwak, Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, (The Johns Hopkins University Press 1979) ^ a b c Ferrill, op. cit ^ Quoted in Denison, p. 92 ^ Grimal, op. cit ^ a b Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, 98-162 ^ Goldsworthy, op. cit ^ Michael Fronda (2010) Between Rome and Carthage.. p. 38 ^ Grimal, The Civilization of Rome, p. 98-102 ^ Grimal, p. 104 Sources[edit] Primary sources Caesar's Commentarii de Bello Gallico Vegetius's De Re Militari Notitia Dignitatum Secondary sources 'Later Roman Battle Tactics' in C. Koepfer, F.W. Himmler and J. Löffl (eds), Die römische Armee im Experiment (Region im Umbruch, Band 6). Frank & Timme, Berlin 2011, 267–286. — An essay on Roman infantry and cavalry tactics from AD 194 to 378. Ross Cowan, Roman Battle Tactics, 109 BC - AD 313. Osprey, Oxford 2007. — The book clearly explains and illustrates the mechanics of how Roman commanders — at every level — drew up and committed their different types of troops for open-field battles. Adrian Goldsworthy (2001), The Punic Wars, Cassell — A detailed breakdown of Roman strategy, methods, tactics and those of their opponents. Analyzes strengths and weaknesses of the Roman military and how they were able to beat a sophisticated Carthage Arther Ferrill (1986), The Fall of the Roman Empire: The Military Explanation, Thames & Hudson — Focuses on military issues leading to the fall of Rome as opposed to a plethora of theories such as overpopulation, shrinking tax bases, "class struggle", etc. Reemphasizes the military factors in Rome's final demise. Compares the "mobile reserve" strategy of later decades o the earlier "forward" policy of keeping the heavy fighting legions near likely combat zones. Ferrill also tackles the weakening effect of "barbarization", particularly on the core heavy infantry legions. Many historians have argued […] that the fall of Rome was not primarily a military phenomenon. In fact, it was exactly that. After 410 the emperor in the West could no longer project military power to the frontiers. — The Fall of the Roman Empire: The Military Explanation, p. 164 Adrian Goldsworthy (2003), The Complete Roman Army, Thames & Hudson — One volume history covering the Roman Army, which was the biggest most important part of its military. Goldsworthy covers the early Republican days down to the final Imperial era demise, tracing changes in tactics, equipment, strategy, organization etc. He notes the details of the military system such as training and battlefield tactics, as well as bigger picture strategy, and changes that impacted Roman arms. He assesses what made the Romans effective, and ineffective in each of the various eras. Edward Luttwak (1979), Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, Thames & Hudson — Prominent advocate of the mobile or central reserve theory. Hans Delbrück (1990), History of the Art of War: Warfare in Antiquity, University of Nebraska — Prominent advocate of the mobile or central reserve theory. ISBN 0-8032-9199-X Xenophon (1988), Anabasis, Loeb Classical Library — See this classic work for a detailed discussion of anti-cavalry problems by another heavy infantry formation- the Hellenic phalanx, including the weaknesses of the hollow square formation. 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en-wikipedia-org-2396	----	LibriVox - Wikipedia LibriVox From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Audiobook library LibriVox Established August 2005 Location Worldwide (USA based) Collection Size 13,537 items (1 January 2020[update])[1] Access and use Members Worldwide volunteers Other information Budget US$5,000 per annum (As of 2010[update]) Director N/A (community-shared) Website librivox.org LibriVox is a group of worldwide volunteers who read and record public domain texts creating free public domain audiobooks for download from their website and other digital library hosting sites on the internet. It was founded in 2005 by Hugh McGuire to provide "Acoustical liberation of books in the public domain"[2] and the LibriVox objective is "To make all books in the public domain available, for free, in audio format on the internet".[3] On 6 August 2016, the project completed project number 10,000.[4][5] and from 2009–2017 was producing about 1,000 items per year.[6] Most releases are in the English language, but many non-English works are also available. There are multiple affiliated projects that are providing additional content. LibriVox is closely affiliated with Project Gutenberg from where the project gets some of its texts, and the Internet Archive that hosts their offerings. Contents 1 History 2 Etymology of LibriVox 3 Organization and funding 4 Production process 5 Content 6 Reputation 7 Quality 8 See also 9 References 10 External links History[edit] Hugh McGuire, founder of LibriVox Can the net harness a bunch of volunteers to help bring books in the public domain to life through podcasting? — Hugh McGuire LibriVox was started in August 2005 by Montreal-based writer Hugh McGuire, who set up a blog, and posed the question.[7][8] The first recorded book[9] was The Secret Agent by Joseph Conrad. The main features of the way LibriVox works have changed little since its inception, although the technology that supports it has been improved by the efforts of its volunteers with web-development skills. Etymology of LibriVox[edit] LibriVox is an invented word inspired by Latin words liber (book) in its genitive form libri and vox (voice), giving the meaning BookVoice (or voice of the book). The word was also coined because of other connotations: liber also means child and free, independent, unrestricted. As the LibriVox forum says: "We like to think LibriVox might be interpreted as 'child of the voice', and 'free voice'. Finally, the other link we like is 'library' so you could imagine it to mean Library of Voice."[10] There has been no decision or consensus by LibriVox founders or the community of volunteers for a single pronunciation of LibriVox. It is accepted that any audible pronunciation is accurate.[11] Organization and funding[edit] LibriVox is a volunteer-run, free content, Public Domain project. It has no budget or legal personality. The development of projects is managed through an Internet forum, supported by an admin team, who also maintain a searchable catalogue database of completed works. In early 2010, LibriVox ran a fundraising drive to raise $20,000 to cover hosting costs for the website of about $5,000/year and improve front- and backend usability.[12] The target was reached in 13 days, and so the fundraising ended and LibriVox suggested that supporters consider making donations to its affiliates and partners, Project Gutenberg [13] and the Internet Archive.[14] Production process[edit] Volunteers can choose new projects to start, either recording on their own or inviting others to join them, or they can contribute to projects that have been started by others. Once a volunteer has recorded his or her contribution, it is uploaded to the site, and proof-listened by members of the LibriVox community. Finished audiobooks are available from the LibriVox website, and MP3 and Ogg Vorbis files are hosted separately by the Internet Archive. Recordings are also available through other means, such as iTunes, and, being free of copyright, they are frequently distributed independently of LibriVox on the Internet and otherwise. Content[edit] LibriVox works per month 2005–2011 LibriVox only records material that is in the public domain in the United States, and all LibriVox books are released with a public domain dedication.[15] Because of copyright restrictions, LibriVox produces recordings of only a limited number of contemporary books. These have included, for example, the 9/11 Commission Report which is a work of the US Federal Government therefore in the Public Domain. The LibriVox catalogue is varied. It contains much popular classic fiction, but also includes less predictable texts, such as Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason and a recording of the first 500 digits of pi. The collection also features poetry, plays, religious texts (for example, English versions of the Koran and books from various translations of the Bible) and non-fiction of various kinds. In January 2009, the catalogue contained approximately 55 percent fiction and drama, 25 percent non-fiction and 20 percent poetry (calculated by numbers of recordings). By the end of 2019, the most downloaded book (8,1M) was a collaborative reading of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland.[1] Around 90 percent of the catalogue is recorded in English, but recordings exist in 31 languages altogether (as of February 2010[update]). Chinese, French and German are the most popular languages other than English amongst volunteers, but recordings have also been made in languages including Urdu and Tagalog. Reputation[edit] LibriVox has garnered significant interest, in particular from those interested in the promotion of volunteer-led content and alternative approaches to copyright ownership on the Internet. It has received support from the Internet Archive and Project Gutenberg. Intellectual freedom and commons proponent Mike Linksvayer described it in 2008 as "perhaps the most interesting collaborative culture project this side of Wikipedia".[16] The project has also been featured in press around the world and has been recommended by the BBC's Click, MSNBC's The Today Show, Reason,[17] Wired,[18] the US PC Magazine and the UK Metro and Sunday Times[19] newspapers. Quality[edit] A frequent concern of listeners is the site's policy of allowing any recording to be published as long as it is understandable and faithful to the source text.[20] This means that some recordings are of lower audio fidelity; some feature background noises, non-native accents or other perceived imperfections in comparison to professionally recorded audiobooks.[21][22] While some listeners may object to those books with chapters read by multiple readers,[23] others find this to be a non-issue or even a feature,[24][25][26] though many books are narrated by a single reader. See also[edit] Virtual volunteering Voice acting References[edit] ^ a b "The LibriVox Free Audiobook Collection", The Internet Archive. Retrieved 1 January 2020. ^ "LibriVox Author", LibriVox website. Retrieved 16 April 2015. ^ "Objective LibriVox", LibriVox website. Retrieved 24 August 2011. ^ "Another LibriVox Milestone: 10,000 projects!", librivox.org, 6 August 2016. Retrieved 3 September 2016. ^ "Offerings LibriVox", Archive website. Retrieved 17 April 2015. ^ MaryAnnSpiegel (January 1, 2018). "LibriVox stats". LibriVox. Retrieved January 22, 2018. ^ McGuire, Hugh (9 August 2005). "Welcome to LibriVox". LibriVox.org. Retrieved 20 August 2010. ^ McGuire, Hugh (February 12, 2007). "Clarity (blog entry)". HughMcGuire.net. Retrieved 2009-01-09. ^ "The Secret Agent", librivox.org. Retrieved 31 March 2014. ^ "What does LibriVox mean?", LibriVox forum, retrieved 29 September 2013. ^ "Pronunciation of "LibriVox"", LibriVox wiki. Retrieved 21 November 2011. ^ "LibriVox Needs Your Help", LibriVox blog, 24 February 2010. Retrieved 24 August 2011. ^ "Gutenberg Affiliates", Gutenberg.org, Retrieved 19 April 2015. ^ "Archive.org partners", Archive.org, Retrieved 19 April 2015. ^ "Public Domain". LibriVox. Retrieved 11 November 2018. ^ Linksvayer, Mike (June 2, 2008). "LibriVox: 1500 public domain audio books (blog entry)". Retrieved 2009-01-09. ^ "The Wealth of LibriVox", Reason.com, Retrieved 19 April 2015. ^ "The Web Will Read You a Story", archive.org, Retrieved 19 April 2015. ^ "Public Domain Books, Ready for Your iPod", nytimes.com, Retrieved 19 April 2015. ^ "Quality of Delivery?", Librivox forums. Retrieved 22 November 2011. ^ "The Return of the Native Audiobook (Librivox) Archived 2012-04-25 at the Wayback Machine", Review. Retrieved 22 November 2011. ^ "On the absence of ratings at LibriVox", Review 2 May 2010. Retrieved 22 November 2011. ^ "Librivox - free audio books", Review. Retrieved 22 November 2011. ^ "Librivox (free audio books)", Review January 09, 2009. Retrieved 22 November 2011. ^ "Librivox", Review October 1, 2008. Retrieved 22 November 2011. ^ "My Favorite LibriVox Readers", Review 12 March 2010. Retrieved 22 November 2011. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to LibriVox. Wikidata has the property: LibriVox author ID (P1899) (see uses) Wikinews has related news: Interview with LibriVox founder Hugh McGuire Listen to this article (3.3 megabytes) This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 14 July 2007 (2007-07-14), and does not reflect subsequent edits. (Audio help · More spoken articles) LibriVox site LibriVox home page and LibriVox Catalogue of Audio Books Articles Xeni Tech story from NPR's Day to Day, "Amateur Audio Books Catch Fire on the Web" Reason Magazine: The Wealth of LibriVox (May 2007) LibriVox mirrors LibriVox at Internet Archive (full mirror with streaming and reviews) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=LibriVox&oldid=994042733" Categories: Accessible information Audiobook companies and organizations American book websites Collaborative projects Open content projects Public domain books Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing potentially dated statements from January 2020 All articles containing potentially dated statements Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2010 Articles containing Latin-language text Articles containing potentially dated statements from February 2010 Commons category link is on Wikidata Articles with hAudio microformats Spoken articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Boarisch Чӑвашла Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Português Română Русский Simple English Suomi اردو 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 13 December 2020, at 20:41 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2398	----	Rubaʿi - Wikipedia Rubaʿi From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Ruba'i) Jump to navigation Jump to search For the 2017 film, see Rubaai (film). Calligraphic rendition of a ruba'i attributed to Omar Khayyam from Bodleian MS. Ouseley 140 (one of the sources of FitzGerald's Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam). Rubāʿī (Persian: رباعی‎, rubāʿiyy, plural: رباعيات‎, rubāʿiyāt)[1] is the term for a quatrain, a poem or a verse of a poem consisting of four lines. It refers specifically to a form of Persian poetry, or its derivative form in English and other languages. In classical Persian poetry, the ruba'i is written as a four-line (or two-couplet) poem, with a rhyme-scheme AABA or AAAA.[2][3][4][5] This is an example of a ruba'i from Rūmī's Dīwān-i Shams: Anwār-i Ṣalāḥ-i Dīn bar angēkhta bād Dar dīda u jān-i ʿāshiqān rēkhta bād Har jān ki laṭīf gasht u az luṭf guzasht Bā khāk-i Ṣalāḥ-i Dīn dar āmēkhta bād May the splendors of Salahuddin be roused, And poured into the eyes and souls of the lovers. May every soul that has become refined and has surpassed refinement Be mingled with the dust of Salahuddin![6] Contents 1 Metre 2 In English 3 See also 4 References 5 External links Metre[edit] Further information: Persian metres The usual metre of a Persian ruba'i, which is used for all four lines of the above quatrain by Rumi, is as follows:[7] – – u u – u – u – – u u – In the above scheme, "–" represents a long syllable, and "u" a short one. As variations of this scheme, any sequence of – u can be replaced by a single "overlong" syllable, such as gēkh, tīf, luṭf in the poem above, containing either a long vowel followed by a consonant other than "n", or a short vowel followed by two consonants. An overlong syllable can also freely be substituted for the final syllable of the line, as with bād above. Another variation is that occasionally a sequence of two short syllables (u u) can be replaced by a single long one (–). A third variation is to use the same metre as above, but with the eighth and ninth syllables reversed: – – u u – – u u – – u u – In English[edit] The verse form AABA as used in English verse is known as the Rubaiyat Quatrain due to its use by Edward FitzGerald in his famous 1859 translation, Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam. Algernon Charles Swinburne, one of the first admirers of FitzGerald's translation of Khayyam's medieval Persian verses, was the first to imitate the stanza form, which subsequently became popular and was used widely, as in the case of Robert Frost's 1922 poem "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening". FitzGerald's translation became so popular by the turn of the century that hundreds of American humorists wrote parodies using the form and, to varying degrees, the content of his stanzas, including The Rubaiyat of Ohow Dryyam, The Rubaiyat of A Persian Kitten, The Rubaiyat of Omar Cayenne and The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, Jr. Quatrain VII from the fourth edition of FitzGerald's Rubaiyat: Come, fill the Cup, and in the fire of Spring Your Winter-garment of Repentance fling: The Bird of Time has but a little way To flutter—and the Bird is on the Wing.[8] In extended sequences of ruba'i stanzas, the convention is sometimes extended so that the unrhymed line of the current stanza becomes the rhyme for the following stanza.[9] The structure can be made cyclical by linking the unrhymed line of the final stanza back to the first stanza: ZZAZ.[10] These more stringent systems were not, however, used by FitzGerald in his Rubaiyat. See also[edit] Poetry portal Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam 'Parwaze Taffakkur' – published in 2015 containing about 250 Persian Rubaiyat of renowned Indian Poet Syed Waheed Ashraf[11] References[edit] ^ The Persian noun is borrowed from Arabic rubāʿiyy (رباعي) "consisting of four, quadripartite, fourfold" whose root consonants r-b-ʿ (ر ب ع) also occur in the numeral arbaʿah (أربعة, 'four'). See: Cowan, J. M., ed. 1994. The Hans Wehr Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic (4th edition). Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ^ Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics, Princeton University Press, 1974, p.611 ^ Introduction to The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, translated by Peter Avery and John Heath-Stubbs, Penguin Classics, 1981, ISBN 0-14-044384-3, p. 9 [1] ^ The Cambridge History of Iran, v. 4, edited by R. N. Frye, Cambridge University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-521-20093-8, pgs. 633-634 [2] ^ Elwell-Sutton, L. P. "The Foundations of Persian Prosody and Metrics," Iran, v. 13 (1975), p. 92. ^ "The Splendors of Salahuddin". ^ L. P. Elwell-Sutton (1986), “ʿARŪŻ,” Encyclopaedia Iranica, II/6-7, pp. 670-679. ^ [3] ^ Skelton, Robin (2002). The Shapes of Our Singing: A Comprehensive Guide to Verse Forms and Metres from Around the World. Spokane, WA: Eastern Washington University Press. p. 106. ISBN 0-910055-76-9. ^ Turco, Lewis (2000). The Book of Forms: A Handbook of Poetics. Lebanon, NH: University Press of New England. p. 245. ISBN 1-58465-022-2. ^ [4] External links[edit] Dr.Amjad Parvez (25 March 2013). "A splendid poetry collection". Daily Times. Archived from the original on 18 January 2014. Retrieved 11 April 2014. Tajik girls reciting ruba'i quatrains v t e Literary composition General topics Literature Fiction writing Writer Characterization Exposition Description Writer's block Techniques / devices Linguistic contrast Literary contrast Trope Idiom Cliché Methods Writing process Mimesis Plagiarism Cut-up technique Pastiche Assemblage Diegesis Features Writing style Stylistics Writer's voice Grammatical mood Tone Register Rhetorical modes Forms Novel Screenplay Short story Poetry Essay Joke Creative nonfiction Beyond the arts Composition studies Technical writing Articulation (sociological) v t e Poetry of different cultures and languages Albanian American Anglo-Welsh Arabic Assamese Australian Bengali Biblical British Bulgarian Byzantine Canadian Chinese Cantonese Cornish English Estonian Finnish French Greek Guernésiais Gujarati Hindi Hebrew Indian Indian epic Irish Italian Japanese Javanese Jèrriais Kannada Kashmiri Korean Latin Latin American Latino Manx Marathi Malayalam Nepali New Zealand Old English Old Norse Ottoman Pakistani Pashto Persian Polish Portuguese Punjabi Rajasthani Russian Sanskrit Classical Vedic Scottish Serbian Serbian epic Sindhi Slovak Spanish Tamil Telugu Thai Turkish Urdu Vietnamese Welsh This poetry-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rubaʿi&oldid=988692242" Categories: Poetry stubs Stanzaic form Persian literature Medieval poetry Iranian inventions Hidden categories: Articles containing Persian-language text Articles containing Arabic-language text All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Bân-lâm-gú Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto فارسی Français Հայերեն Ирон Italiano עברית Қазақша Lietuvių Македонски Bahasa Melayu Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی پښتو Polski Русский سنڌي Татарча/tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Zazaki Edit links This page was last edited on 14 November 2020, at 18:23 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2414	----	Information for "Horace" - Wikipedia Help Information for "Horace" Jump to navigation Jump to search Contents Basic information Page protection Edit history Page properties External tools Basic information Display title Horace Default sort key Horace Page length (in bytes) 85,696 Page ID 13693 Page content language en - English Page content model wikitext Indexing by robots Allowed Number of page watchers 237 Number of page watchers who visited recent edits 29 Number of redirects to this page 6 Counted as a content page Yes Page image Page views in the past 30 days 19,489 Wikidata item ID Q6197 Local description Roman lyric poet Central description Roman lyric poet Page protection Edit Allow all users (no expiry set) Move Allow all users (no expiry set) View the protection log for this page. 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en-wikipedia-org-2428	----	Diodorus Siculus - Wikipedia Diodorus Siculus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Greek historian "Diodorus" redirects here. For other uses, see Diodorus (disambiguation). Diodorus Siculus Diodorus Siculus as depicted in a 19th-century fresco Born c. 90 BC Agira, Sicily Died c. 30 BC (aged 60) Known for Bibliotheca historica Scientific career Fields History Influenced Jerome Charles Henry Oldfather Diodorus Siculus (/ˌdaɪəˈdɔːrəs ˈsɪkjʊləs/; Koinē Greek: Διόδωρος Σικελιώτης Diodoros Sikeliotes) (fl. 1st century BC) or Diodorus of Sicily was an ancient Greek historian. He is known for writing the monumental universal history Bibliotheca historica, in forty books, fifteen of which survive intact,[1] between 60 and 30 BC. The history broke new ground in not being Hellenocentric, partly because of Stoic influences on his belief in the brotherhood of all men.[2] The history is arranged in three parts. The first covers mythic history up to the destruction of Troy, arranged geographically, describing regions around the world from Egypt, India and Arabia to Europe. The second covers the time from the Trojan War to the death of Alexander the Great. The third covers the period to about 60 BC. Bibliotheca, meaning 'library', acknowledges that he was drawing on the work of many other authors. Contents 1 Life 2 Work 2.1 Details 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links Life[edit] According to his own work, he was born at Agyrium in Sicily (now called Agira).[3] With one exception, antiquity affords no further information about his life and doings beyond in his work. Only Jerome, in his Chronicon under the "year of Abraham 1968" (49 BC), writes, "Diodorus of Sicily, a writer of Greek history, became illustrious". However, his English translator, Charles Henry Oldfather, remarks on the "striking coincidence"[4] that one of only two known Greek inscriptions from Agyrium (Inscriptiones Graecae XIV, 588) is the tombstone of one "Diodorus, the son of Apollonius".[5] Work[edit] Main article: Bibliotheca historica Bibliotheca historica, 1746 Diodorus' universal history, which he named Bibliotheca historica (Greek: Βιβλιοθήκη Ἱστορική, "Historical Library"), was immense and consisted of 40 books, of which 1–5 and 11–20 survive:[6] fragments of the lost books are preserved in Photius and the excerpts of Constantine Porphyrogenitus. It was divided into three sections. The first six books treated the mythic history of the non-Hellenic and Hellenic tribes to the destruction of Troy and are geographical in theme, and describe the history and culture of Ancient Egypt (book I), of Mesopotamia, India, Scythia, and Arabia (II), of North Africa (III), and of Greece and Europe (IV–VI). In the next section (books VII–XVII), he recounts the history of the world from the Trojan War down to the death of Alexander the Great. The last section (books XVII to the end) concerns the historical events from the successors of Alexander down to either 60 BC or the beginning of Julius Caesar's Gallic Wars. (The end has been lost, so it is unclear whether Diodorus reached the beginning of the Gallic War as he promised at the beginning of his work or, as evidence suggests, old and tired from his labours he stopped short at 60 BC.) He selected the name "Bibliotheca" in acknowledgment that he was assembling a composite work from many sources. Identified authors on whose works he drew include Hecataeus of Abdera, Ctesias of Cnidus, Ephorus, Theopompus, Hieronymus of Cardia, Duris of Samos, Diyllus, Philistus, Timaeus, Polybius, and Posidonius. Details[edit] His book on Egypt, besides accounts of education, medicine, and Egyptian animal worship,[7] included the inscription of Osymandias - “If anyone wishes to know how mighty I am and where I lie, let him surpass any of my works” - which was Shelley’s inspiration for his poem Ozymandias.[8] Diodorus provides a fuller account of the half-century preceding the Peloponnesian War than Thucydides, and a more extensive, and arguably less biased, account of fourth century Greece than Xenophon.[9] Diodorus also provides details of Pytheas’s voyage to Britain, including data about Cornish mining, and the judgement that “The inhabitants of Britain...are simple in their habits, and far removed from the cunning and knavishness of modern man”.[10] His account of gold mining in Nubia in eastern Egypt (Book III Chapters 12-14)[11] describes in vivid detail the use of slave labour in terrible working conditions, while he provides an equally sympathetic account of the slave mines in Spain.[12] Karl Marx in Das Kapital, for his account of the overworking of slave labour, wrote “Only read Diodorus Siculus”.[13] Diodorus also gave an account of the Gauls: "The Gauls are terrifying in aspect and their voices are deep and altogether harsh; when they meet together they converse with few words and in riddles, hinting darkly at things for the most part and using one word when they mean another; and they like to talk in superlatives, to the end that they may extol themselves and depreciate all other men. They are also boasters and threateners and are fond of pompous language, and yet they have sharp wits and are not without cleverness at learning." (Book 5)[14] See also[edit] Pliny the Elder Strabo Acadine Notes[edit] ^ S Usher, The Historians of Greece and Rome (London 1969) p. 235 ^ S Usher, The Historians of Greece and Rome (London 1969) p. 235 ^ Diod. History 1.4.4. ^ Diodorus of Sicily In Twelve Volumes by Charles Henry Oldfather (1977), Introduction. ^ Ctesias' Persian History: Introduction, text, and translation by Ctesias by Jan P. Stronk (2010), p. 60. ^ "Diodorus Siculus" entry in the Encyclopædia Britannica. ^ A R David, The Egyptian Kingdoms (Oxford 1975) p. 43 ^ M Macovski ed, Dialogue and Critical Discourse (OUP 1997) p. 40 ^ S Usher, The Historians of Greece and Rome (London 1969) p. 237 ^ M Cary, The Ancient Explorers (Penguin 1963) p. 48-50 ^ "LacusCurtius • Diodorus Siculus — Book III Chapters 12‑14". uchicago.edu. ^ S Usher, The Historians of Greece and Rome (London 1969) p. 236 ^ K Marx, Capital (OUP 2008) p. 151 ^ "LacusCurtius • Diodorus Siculus — Book V Chapters 19‑40". uchicago.edu. References[edit] Ambaglio, Dino, Franca Landucci Gattinoni and Luigi Bravi. Diodoro Siculo: Biblioteca storica: commento storico: introduzione generale. Storia. Ricerche. Milano: V&P, 2008. x, 145 p. Buckley, Terry (1996). Aspects of Greek History 750-323 BC: A Source-based Approach. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-09958-7. Siculus, Diodorus; Oldfather, C. H. (Translator) (1935). Library of History: Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University Press. Siculus, Diodorus; G. Booth (Translator); H. Valesius; I. Rhodomannus; F. Ursinus (1814). The Historical Library of Diodorus the Sicilian in Fifteen Books to which are added the Fragments of Diodorus. London: J. Davis. Downloadable via Google Books. Siculi, Diodori; Peter Wesseling (Editor); L. Rhodoman; G. Heyn; N. Eyring (1798). Bibliothecae Historicae Libri Qui Supersunt: Nova Editio (in Ancient Greek and Latin). Argentorati: Societas Bipontina.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) Downloadable via Google Books. Further reading[edit] Braithwaite-Westoby, Kara. "Diodorus and the Alleged Revolts of 374–373 BCE," Classical Philology 115, no. 2 (April 2020): 265-270. Clarke, Katherine. 1999. "Universal perspectives in Historiography." In The Limits of Historiography: Genre and Narrative in Ancient Historical Texts. Edited by Christina Shuttleworth Kraus, 249–279. Mnemosyne. Supplementum 191. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. Hammond, Nicholas G. L. 1998. "Portents, Prophecies, and Dreams in Diodorus’ Books 14–17." Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies 39.4: 407–428. McQueen, Earl I. 1995. Diodorus Siculus. The Reign of Philip II: The Greek and Macedonian Narrative from Book XVI. A Companion. London: Bristol Classical Press. Muntz, Charles E. 2017. Diodorus Siculus and the World of the Late Roman Republic. New York: Oxford Univ. Press. Pfuntner, Laura. 2015. "Reading Diodorus through Photius: The Case of the Sicilian Slave Revolts." Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies 55.1: 256–272. Rubincam, Catherine. 1987. "The Organization and Composition of Diodorus’ Bibliotheke." Échos du monde classique (= Classical views) 31:313–328. Sacks, Kenneth S. 1990. Diodorus Siculus and the First Century. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press. Sinclair, Robert K. 1963. "Diodorus Siculus and the Writing of History." Proceedings of the African Classical Association 6:36–45. Stronk, Jan P. 2017. Semiramis’ Legacy. The History of Persia According to Diodorus of Sicily. Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press. Sulimani, Iris. 2008. "Diodorus’ Source-Citations: A Turn in the Attitude of Ancient Authors Towards their Predecessors?" Athenaeum 96.2: 535–567. External links[edit] Library resources about Didorus Siculus Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Didorus Siculus Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Wikimedia Commons has media related to Diodorus Siculus. Wikisource has original works written by or about: Diodorus Siculus Wikiquote has quotations related to: Diodorus Siculus Greek original works  Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Ιστορική Βιβλιοθήκη Siculus, Diodorus. "Library" (in Ancient Greek). Perseus Digital Library. pp. Books 1‑5 only. Retrieved 2017-09-06. "The Library of History" (in Ancient Greek). LacusCurtius. pp. Books 6-10 only. Retrieved 2017-09-06. Siculus, Diodorus. "Library" (in Ancient Greek). Perseus Digital Library. pp. Books 9‑17 only. Retrieved 2017-09-06. English translations Works by Diodorus Siculus at Project Gutenberg Siculus, Diodorus; C.H. Oldfather et al. (Translators). "The Library of History". LacusCurtius. pp. Books 1‑32 only. Retrieved 2017-06-25. Siculus, Diodorus; C.H. Oldfather (Translator). "Library". Theoi E-Texts Library. pp. Books 4‑6 only. Retrieved 2008-10-08. Siculus, Diodorus; C.H. Oldfather (Translator). "Library". Perseus Digital Library. pp. Books 9‑17 only. Retrieved 2017-06-25. Siculus, Diodorus; Andrew Smith (Translator). "Historical Library". Attalus.org. pp. Books 33‑40 only. Retrieved 2014-02-07. Authority control BIBSYS: 90321794 BNE: XX1076951 BNF: cb11900233c (data) CANTIC: a11185818 CiNii: DA01310863 GND: 118679627 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\068396 ISNI: 0000 0001 2020 835X LCCN: n50028820 LNB: 000012489 NDL: 00746934 NKC: jn19981000658 NLA: 35763969 NSK: 000084353 NTA: 06809499X RERO: 02-A000051703 SELIBR: 49277 SUDOC: 026832682 Trove: 1076593 VcBA: 495/14135 VIAF: 56608763 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n50028820 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diodorus_Siculus&oldid=982689547" Categories: Roman-era Greek historians Historians from Magna Graecia Classical geography Sicilian Greeks 1st-century BC Greek people 1st-century BC historians 90s BC births 30s BC deaths Works about mining Hellenistic-era historians Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles with hCards Articles containing Koinē Greek-language text Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text CS1 maint: extra text: authors list CS1 foreign language sources (ISO 639-2) CS1 Latin-language sources (la) Commons category link from Wikidata Articles with Project Gutenberg links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Corsu Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Кыргызча Latina Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Македонски മലയാളം مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Winaray 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 9 October 2020, at 18:28 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2401	----	List of Roman consuls - Wikipedia List of Roman consuls From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikimedia list article "List of rulers of the Roman Republic" redirects here. For a list of rulers of the Roman Empire, see List of Roman emperors. Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e This is a list of consuls known to have held office, from the beginning of the Roman Republic to the latest use of the title in Imperial times, together with those magistrates of the Republic who were appointed in place of consuls, or who superseded consular authority for a limited period. Contents 1 Background 1.1 Republican consuls 1.2 Other magistrates included 1.3 The consulship in imperial times 1.4 Chronology 1.5 Consules prior and posterior 1.6 Other lists of consuls 2 Key 2.1 Latin terms 2.2 Abbreviations for praenomina 2.3 Colors 3 6th century BC (509–501) 4 5th century BC (500–401) 5 4th century BC (400–301) 6 3rd century BC (300–201) 7 2nd century BC (200–101) 8 1st century BC (100–1) 9 1st century (1–100) 10 2nd century (101–200) 11 3rd century (201–300) 12 4th century (301–395) 13 Roman Consuls of East and West (396–534) 14 Roman Consuls of the East alone (535–887) 15 References 16 Further reading 16.1 Primary sources 16.2 Secondary sources 17 External links Background[edit] Republican consuls[edit] From the establishment of the Republic to the time of Augustus, the consuls were the chief magistrates of the Roman state, and normally there were two of them, so that the executive power of the state was not vested in a single individual, as it had been under the kings.[1][2] As other ancient societies dated historical events according to the reigns of their kings, it became customary at Rome to date events by the names of the consuls in office when the events occurred, rather than (for instance) by counting the number of years since the foundation of the city, although that method could also be used.[2] If a consul died during his year of office, another was elected to replace him. Although his imperium was the same as his predecessor's, he was termed consul suffectus, in order to distinguish him from the consul ordinarius whom he replaced; but the eponymous magistrates for each year were normally the consules ordinarii.[1][2] Because of this method of dating events, it was important to keep records of each year's eponymous magistrates. Many such lists have survived, either in the form of monumental inscriptions, conventionally referred to as fasti, or indirectly through the ancient historians, who had access to linen rolls recording the names of magistrates. Although these lists account for the entire period of the Republic, and most of Imperial times, there are discrepancies due to gaps and disagreements between different sources. Many of these no doubt arose as copying errors, especially those that involved the substitution of a familiar name for a less common one. Others may represent later attempts to edit the lists in order to explain deficiencies in the record, to reconcile conflicting traditions, or to ascribe particular actions or events to the time of a particular individual.[3] Other magistrates included[edit] Occasionally, the authority of the consuls was temporarily superseded by the appointment of a dictator, who held greater imperium than that of the consuls.[1] By tradition, these dictators laid down their office upon the completion of the task for which they were nominated, or after a maximum period of six months, and did not continue in office longer than the year for which the nominating consul had been elected.[4] However, in four years at the end of the 4th century BC, dictators are said to have continued in office in the year following their nomination, in place of consuls. Modern scholars are skeptical of these years, which might be due to later editing of the lists of magistrates in order to fill a gap.[5] All known dictators have been included in this table. Two other types of magistrates are listed during the period of the Republic. In the year 451 BC, a board of ten men, known as decemviri, or decemvirs, was appointed in place of the consuls in order to draw up the tables of Roman law, in a sense establishing the Roman constitution. According to tradition, a second college of decemvirs was appointed for the next year, and these continued in office illegally into 449, until they were overthrown in a popular revolt, and the consulship was reinstated.[6][7] Among the disputes which the decemvirs failed to resolve was the relationship between the patricians, Rome's hereditary aristocracy, and the plebeians, or common citizens. Although it has been argued that some of the consuls prior to the Decemvirate may have been plebeians, the office was definitely closed to them in the second half of the 5th century BC. To prevent open hostility between the two orders, the office of military tribune with consular power, or "consular tribune", was established. In place of patrician consuls, the people could elect a number of military tribunes, who might be either patrician or plebeian.[2][8] According to Livy, this compromise held until 376 BC, when two of the tribunes of the plebs, Gaius Licinius Calvus Stolo and Lucius Sextius Lateranus, blocked the election of any magistrates for the following year, unless the senate would agree to place a law before the people opening the consulship to the plebeians, and effecting other important reforms. The senate refused, and the tribunes continued to prevent the election of magistrates for several years until the senate capitulated, and the lex Licinia Sextia was passed, leading to the election of the first plebeian consul in 367.[2][8][9] Other accounts of this event are inconsistent, and current scholarly opinion is that the duration of the period without magistrates may have been exaggerated, or even invented to fill a gap in the record; nevertheless Roman tradition unanimously holds that Licinius and Sextius were able to open the consulship to the plebeians.[10] The consulship in imperial times[edit] In imperial times the consulship became the senior administrative office under the emperors, who frequently assumed the title of consul themselves, and appointed other consuls at will.[1] The consulship was often bestowed as a political favour, or a reward for faithful service. Because there could only be two consuls at once, the emperors frequently appointed several sets of suffecti sequentially in the course of a year; holding the consulship for an entire year became a special honour.[1][2] As the office lost much of its executive authority, and the number of consuls appointed for short and often irregular periods increased, surviving lists from Imperial times are often incomplete, and have been reconstructed from many sources, not always with much certainty. In many cases it is stated that a particular person had been consul, but the exact time cannot be firmly established. As an institution, the consulship survived the abdication of the last emperor of the West, and for a time consuls continued to be appointed, one representing the Eastern Roman Empire, and the other the Western, even as the Western Empire dissolved as a political entity. The last consuls appointed represented only the Eastern Empire, until finally the title became the sole province of the Emperor, who might or might not assume it upon taking office.[1][2] Chronology[edit] For the early Republic, this article observes the Varronian chronology, established by the historian Marcus Terentius Varro, who calculated that Rome was founded in what is now called the year 753 BC (the founding of the city was traditionally observed on the Palilia, a festival occurring on April 21). This becomes the year 1 ab urbe condita, or AUC. The Republic was established in 245 AUC, or 509 BC. Although other ancient historians gave different years, Varro's chronology was the most widely accepted; it was used in the Fasti Capitolini, and its use by Censorinus brought it to the attention of Joseph Scaliger, who helped popularize its use in modern times.[11][12] For Imperial times, the dates of the consules ordinarii are far more certain than those of the suffecti, who were not recorded with the same attention as the eponymous magistrates. Their identification and dating is far more controversial, and despite the efforts of generations of scholars, gaps in coverage remain. Known consules suffecti are shown with their known (or reconstructed) dates of tenure, which normally varied from two to six months — although one suffect consul, Rosius Regulus, is known to have held the fasces for a single day, October 31, AD 69.[13] Where neither consul is known or inferred for a portion of the year, their names are omitted for convenience; if one consul can be named, but his colleague is unknown, the unnamed colleague is listed as ignotus (unknown). Consules prior and posterior[edit] Consuls during the Republic and the early Empire are identified as consul prior and consul posterior, terms that the Romans used to distinguish between the magistrates. The consul prior was the more senior and esteemed of the pair. Under the Republic he was elected first, and had priority in holding the fasces, as well as the honor of being named first in the lists for the year, although in all other respects the two consuls' authority was equal.[1][14] The order of the consuls of the Republic was however edited in the Fasti Capitolini. Augustus and several prominent patricians falsified the Fasti by listing some of their ancestors as consuls prior. Livy apparently gives the initial order throughout most of his work, but seems to have followed the new "official" order in his later books; perhaps he was influenced by the imperial propaganda.[15] When the emperor assumed the consulship, he was necessarily consul prior. This distinction continued until the 4th century AD, when the Empire was divided into a Western Roman Empire and an Eastern Roman Empire: the consuls who were appointed by the court in the Western Empire, which was sometimes at Rome, are commonly identified as the "Western consul", and those appointed by the court in the Eastern, usually Constantinople, the "Eastern consul". These designations were used until the end of the consulship in the 6th century.[16] Other lists of consuls[edit] For a list of consuls whose year of office is uncertain or entirely unknown (usually suffecti, although some of the ordinarii in the breakaway Gallic Empire also lack dates[17]), see the List of undated Roman consuls. For those individuals who were elected consul but never assumed the office due to death, disgrace, or any other reason, see List of Roman consuls designate. Key[edit] Latin terms[edit] Imperator (abbreviated Imp.) = literally "commander"; originally an honorary title bestowed upon a general by his soldiers, the term later became part of the style of the emperors, and the word "emperor" is derived from it. suffectus (abbreviated suff.) = a substitute elected or appointed in place of a magistrate who died or resigned. Information is not available for all consules suffecti, and some may not be listed. ignotus = unknown. All consuls who can be assigned to a particular date, at least tentatively, are included in this table. If neither consul for a given period is known, they are entirely omitted; if one is known, and the other is not, the unknown colleague is referred to as ignotus. sine collega = without colleague. On a few occasions before the dissolution of the Western Empire, only one consul was appointed. post consulatum = after the (preceding) consulship. Used for gaps when no consuls were appointed for a period following the end of another consulship, or at least none are known to have been appointed. inter alios = among others. Abbreviations for praenomina[edit] A. = Aulus Ap. = Appius C. = Gaius Cn. = Gnaeus D. = Decimus K. = Caeso L. = Lucius M. = Marcus M'. = Manius Mam. = Mamercus N. = Numerius Opet. = Opiter P. = Publius Post. = Postumus Proc. = Proculus Q. = Quintus Ser. = Servius Sex. = Sextus Sp. = Spurius T. = Titus Ti. = Tiberius Vop. = Vopiscus Colors[edit] Republican senators Consular Tribunes Decemviri Dictators Imperial senators Emperor serving as consul 6th century BC (509–501)[edit] Unless otherwise indicated, the names and dates of the consuls between 509 and 81 BC are taken from Thomas Broughton's The Magistrates of the Roman Republic. Year Consul prior Consul posterior 509[18] L. Junius Brutus L. Tarquinius Collatinus suff. Sp. Lucretius Tricipitinus P. Valerius Poplicola suff. M. Horatius Pulvillus 508 P. Valerius Poplicola II T. Lucretius Tricipitinus 507 P. Valerius Poplicola III M. Horatius Pulvillus II[19] 506 Sp. Lartius (Rufus or Flavus) T. Herminius Aquilinus[20] 505 M. Valerius Volusus P. Postumius Tubertus 504 P. Valerius Poplicola IV T. Lucretius Tricipitinus II 503 Agrippa Menenius Lanatus P. Postumius Tubertus II 502 Opet. Verginius Tricostus Sp. Cassius Viscellinus 501 Post. Cominius Auruncus T. Lartius (Flavus or Rufus) 5th century BC (500–401)[edit] Year Consul prior Consul posterior 500 Ser. Sulpicius Camerinus Cornutus M'. Tullius Longus 499 T. Aebutius Elva C. Veturius Geminus Cicurinus 498 Q. Cloelius Siculus T. Lartius (Flavus or Rufus) II 497 A. Sempronius Atratinus I M. Minucius Augurinus I 496 A. Postumius Albus Regillensis T. Verginius Tricostus Caeliomontanus 495 Ap. Claudius Sabinus Regillensis P. Servilius Priscus Structus 494 A. Verginius Tricostus Caeliomontanus T. Veturius Geminus Cicurinus 494 Dictator: M'. Valerius Maximus 493 Post. Cominius Auruncus II Sp. Cassius Viscellinus II 492 T. Geganius Macerinus P. Minucius Augurinus 491 M. Minucius Augurinus II A. Sempronius Atratinus II 490 Q. Sulpicius Camerinus Cornutus Sp. Lartius (Rufus or Flavus) II[21] 489 C. Julius Iulus P. Pinarius Mamercinus Rufus 488 Sp. Nautius Rutilus Sex. Furius Medullinus Tuscus 487 T. Sicinius (Sabinus?) C. Aquillius (Tuscus?) 486 Sp. Cassius Viscellinus III Proculus Verginius Tricostus Rutilus 485 Q. Fabius Vibulanus[22] Ser. Cornelius Maluginensis[22] 484 L. Aemilius Mamercus K. Fabius Vibulanus I 483 M. Fabius Vibulanus I L. Valerius Potitus I 482 Q. Fabius Vibulanus II[22] C. Julius Iulus[22] 481 K. Fabius Vibulanus II Sp. Furius Medullinus Fusus 480 M. Fabius Vibulanus II[22] Cn. Manlius Cincinnatus[22] 479 K. Fabius Vibulanus III T. Verginius Tricostus Rutilus 478 L. Aemilius Mamercus II C. Servilius Structus Ahala[23] suff. Opet. Verginius Tricostus Esquilinus[24] 477 C. Horatius Pulvillus T. Menenius Lanatus[25] 476 A. Verginius Tricostus Rutilus Sp. Servilius Structus 475 P. Valerius Poplicola C. Nautius Rutilus 474 L. Furius Medullinus Fusus[22] Cn. Manlius Vulso[22] 473 L. Aemilius Mamercus III Vop. Julius Iulus[26] 472 L. Pinarius Mamercinus Rufus P. Furius Medullinus Fusus 471 Ap. Claudius Sabinus Regillensis T. Quinctius Capitolinus Barbatus 470 L. Valerius Potitus II Ti. Aemilius Mamercus 469 T. Numicius Priscus A. Verginius Caeliomontanus 468 T. Quinctius Capitolinus Barbatus II Q. Servilius Structus Priscus 467 Ti. Aemilius Mamercus II Q. Fabius Vibulanus 466 Sp. Postumius Albinus Regillensis Q. Servilius Structus Priscus Structus II 465 Q. Fabius Vibulanus II T. Quinctius Capitolinus Barbatus III 464 A. Postumius Albinus Regillensis Sp. Furius Medullinus Fusus 463 P. Servilius Priscus L. Aebutius Elva 462 L. Lucretius Tricipitinus T. Veturius Geminus Cicurinus 461 P. Volumnius Amintinus Gallus Ser. Sulpicius Camerinus Cornutus 460 P. Valerius Poplicola II C. Claudius Inregillensis Sabinus suff. L. Quinctius Cincinnatus 459 Q. Fabius Vibulanus III L. Cornelius Maluginensis Uritinus 458 C. Nautius Rutilus II L. Minucius Esquilinus Augurinus[27] 458 Dictator: L. Quinctius 457 C. Horatius Pulvillus II Q. Minucius Esquilinus[28] 456 M. Valerius Maximus Lactuca Sp. Verginius Tricostus Caeliomontanus 455 T. Romilius Rocus Vaticanus C. Veturius Cicurinus 454 Sp. Tarpeius Montanus Capitolinus A. Aternius Varus Fontinalis 453 Sex. Quinctilius Varus P. Curiatius Fistus Trigeminus suff. Sp. Furius Medullinus Fusus II 452 P. Sestius Capitolinus Vaticanus T. Menenius Lanatus 451[29] Ap. Claudius Crassus Sabinus Regillensis T. Genucius Augurinus First Decemvirate Ap. Claudius Crassus Sabinus Regillensis A. Manlius Vulso T. Genucius Augurinus Ser. Sulpicius Camerinus Cornutus[30] Veturius Geminus Cicurinus[31] P. Curiatius Fistus Trigeminus P. Sestius Capitolinus Vaticanus T. Romilius Rocus Vaticanus C. Julius Iulus Sp. Postumius Albus Regillensis 450 Second Decemvirate Ap. Claudius Crassus Sabinus Regillensis II Q. Poetelius Libo Visolus M. Cornelius Maluginensis T. Antonius Merenda L. (?) Sergius Esquilinus[32] K. Duillius L. Minucius Esquilinus Augurinus Sp. Oppius Cornicen Q. Fabius Vibulanus M'. Rabuleius 449 Second Decemvirate (continued) Ap. Claudius Crassus Sabinus Regillensis III Q. Poetelius Libo Visolus II M. Cornelius Maluginensis II T. Antonius Merenda II L. (?) Sergius Esquilinus II K. Duillius II L. Minucius Esquilinus Augurinus II Sp. Oppius Cornicen II Q. Fabius Vibulanus II M'. Rabuleius II L. Valerius Potitus M. Horatius (Tu?)rrinus Barbatus 448 Lars Herminius Aquilinus T. Verginius Tricostus Caeliomontanus 447 M. Geganius Macerinus C. Julius Iulus 446 T. Quinctius Capitolinus Barbatus IV[22] Agrippa Furius Fusus[22] 445 M. Genucius Augurinus C. Curtius Philo 444 Consular Tribunes A. Sempronius Atratinus T. Cloelius Siculus L. Atilius Luscus suff. L. Papirius Mugillanus L. Sempronius Atratinus[33] 443 M. Geganius Macerinus II T. Quinctius Capitolinus Barbatus V 442 M. Fabius Vibulanus Post. Aebutius Elva Cornicen 441 C. Furius Pacilus Fusus M'. Papirius Crassus 440 Proc. Geganius Macerinus Menenius Lanatus II[34] 439 T. Quinctius Capitolinus Barbatus VI[22] Agrippa Menenius Lanatus[22] 439 Dictator: L. Quinctius Cincinnatus 438 Consular Tribunes Mam. Aemilius Macerinus L. Julius Iulus L. Quinctius Cincinnatus 437 M. Geganius Macerinus III L. Sergius Fidenas suff. M. Valerius Lactuca Maximus 436 L. Papirius Crassus M. Cornelius Maluginensis 435 C. Julius Iulus II L. Verginius Tricostus 434 M. Manlius Capitolinus Q. Sulpicius Camerinus Praetextatus[35] 433 Consular Tribunes M. Fabius Vibulanus L. Sergius Fidenas M. Folius Flaccinator 432 Consular Tribunes L. Pinarius Mamercinus Sp. Postumius Albus Regillensis L. Furius Medullinus 431 T. Quinctius Poenus Cincinnatus C. Julius Mento 430 L. Papirius Crassus II[36] L. Julius Iulus 429 Hostus Lucretius Tricipitinus L. Sergius Fidenas II 428 A. Cornelius Cossus T. Quinctius Poenus Cincinnatus II[37] 427 C. Servilius Structus Ahala L. Papirius Mugillanus 426 Consular Tribunes T. Quinctius Poenus Cincinnatus M. Postumius Albinus Regillensis C. Furius Pacilus Fusus A. Cornelius Cossus 425 Consular Tribunes A. Sempronius Atratinus L. Furius Medullinus II L. Quinctius Cincinnatus II L. Horatius Barbatus 424 Consular Tribunes Ap. Claudius Crassus L. Sergius Fidenas II Sp. Nautius Rutilus[38] Sex. Julius Iulus 423 C. Sempronius Atratinus Q. Fabius Vibulanus 422 Consular Tribunes L. Manlius Capitolinus L. Papirius Mugillanus Q. Antonius Merenda 421 T. Quinctius Capitolinus Barbatus Cn. Fabius Vibulanus[39] 420 Consular Tribunes Quinctius Cincinnatus[40] M. Manlius Vulso L. Furius Medullinus III A. Sempronius Atratinus II 419 Consular Tribunes Agrippa Menenius Lanatus Sp. Nautius Rutilus P. Lucretius Tricipitinus C. Servilius Axilla 418 Consular Tribunes L. Sergius Fidenas III C. Servilius Axilla II M. Papirius Mugillanus 417 Consular Tribunes P. Lucretius Tricipitinus II Agrippa Menenius Lanatus II Sp. Veturius Crassus[41] C. Servilius Axilla III 416 Consular Tribunes A. Sempronius Atratinus III Q. Fabius Vibulanus M. Papirius Mugillanus II Sp. Nautius Rutilus II 415 Consular Tribunes P. Cornelius Cossus N. Fabius Vibulanus C. Valerius Potitus Volusus Q. Quinctius Cincinnatus 414 Consular Tribunes Cn. Cornelius Cossus Q. Fabius Vibulanus II L. Valerius Potitus P. Postumius Albinus Regillensis 413 L. Furius Medullinus[22] A. Cornelius Cossus II[22] 412 Q. Fabius Vibulanus Ambustus C. Furius Pacilus 411 M. Papirius Atratinus[42] Sp. Nautius Rutilus 410 M'. Aemilius Mamercinus C. Valerius Potitus Volusus 409 Cn. Cornelius Cossus L. Furius Medullinus II 408 Consular Tribunes C. Julius Iulus C. Servilius Ahala P. Cornelius Cossus 407 Consular Tribunes L. Furius Medullinus N. Fabius Vibulanus II C. Valerius Potitus Volusus II C. Servilius Ahala II 406 Consular Tribunes P. Cornelius Rutilus Cossus N. Fabius Ambustus Cn. Cornelius Cossus L. Valerius Potitus II 405 Consular Tribunes T. Quinctius Capitolinus Barbatus A. Manlius Vulso Capitolinus Q. Quinctius Cincinnatus II L. Furius Medullinus II C. Julius Iulus II M'. Aemilius Mamercinus 404 Consular Tribunes C. Valerius Potitus Volusus III Cn. Cornelius Cossus II M'. Sergius Fidenas K. Fabius Ambustus[43] P. Cornelius Maluginensis Sp. Nautius Rutilus III 403[44] Consular Tribunes M'. Aemilius Mamercinus II M. Quinctilius Varus L. Valerius Potitus III L. Julius Iulus Ap. Claudius Crassus Inregillensis M. Furius Fusus 402 Consular Tribunes C. Servilius Ahala III Q. Sulpicius Camerinus Cornutus Q. Servilius Fidenas A. Manlius Vulso Capitolinus II L. Verginius Tricostus Esquilinus M'. Sergius Fidenas II 401 Consular Tribunes L. Valerius Potitus IV Cn. Cornelius Cossus III M. Furius Camillus K. Fabius Ambustus II M'. Aemilius Mamercinus III L. Julius Iulus 4th century BC (400–301)[edit] Year Consul prior Consul posterior 400 Consular Tribunes P. Licinius Calvus Esquilinus P. Maelius Capitolinus P. Manlius Vulso Sp. Furius Medullinus L. Titinius Pansa Saccus L. Publilius Philo Vulscus 399 Consular Tribunes Cn. Genucius Augurinus C. Duillius Longus L. Atilius Priscus M. Veturius Crassus Cicurinus M. Pomponius Rufus Volero Publilius Philo 398 Consular Tribunes L. Valerius Potitus V L. Furius Medullinus III M. Valerius Lactucinus Maximus Q. Servilius Fidenas II M. Furius Camillus II Q. Sulpicius Camerinus Cornutus II 397 Consular Tribunes L. Julius Iulus II A. Postumius Albinus Regillensis L. Furius Medullinus IV P. Cornelius Maluginensis L. Sergius Fidenas A. Manlius Vulso Capitolinus III 396 Consular Tribunes L. Titinius Pansa Saccus II Q. Manlius Vulso Capitolinus P. Licinius Calvus Esquilinus II Cn. Genucius Augurinus II P. Maelius Capitolinus II L. Atilius Priscus II 395 Consular Tribunes P. Cornelius Cossus L. Furius Medullinus V P. Cornelius Scipio Q. Servilius Fidenas III K. Fabius Ambustus III M. Valerius Lactucinus Maximus II 394 Consular Tribunes M. Furius Camillus III L. Valerius Poplicola L. Furius Medullinus VI Sp. Postumius Albinus Regillensis C. Aemilius Mamercinus P. Cornelius II[45] 393 L. Valerius Potitus Ser. Cornelius Maluginensis suff.[46] L. Lucretius Tricipitinus Flavus Ser. Sulpicius Camerinus 392 L. Valerius Potitus II M. Manlius Capitolinus 391 Consular Tribunes L. Lucretius Tricipitinus Flavus L. Furius Medullinus VII Ser. Sulpicius Camerinus Agrippa Furius Fusus L. Aemilius Mamercinus[47] C. Aemilius Mamercinus II 390 Consular Tribunes Q. Fabius Ambustus Q. Sulpicius Longus K. Fabius Ambustus IV Q. Servilius Fidenas IV N. Fabius Ambustus II P. Cornelius Maluginensis IV 389 Consular Tribunes L. Valerius Poplicola II A. Manlius Capitolinus L. Verginius Tricostus Esquilinus (II?) L. Aemilius Mamercinus II P. Cornelius L. Postumius Albinus Regillensis 388 Consular Tribunes T. Quinctius Cincinnatus Capitolinus Q. Servilius Fidenas V L. Julius Iulus L. Aquillius Corvus L. Lucretius Tricipitinus Flavus II Ser. Sulpicius Rufus 387 Consular Tribunes[48] L. Papirius Cursor Cn. Sergius Fidenas Coxo L. Aemilius Mamercinus III Licinus Menenius Lanatus L. Valerius Poplicola III 386 Consular Tribunes M. Furius Camillus IV Ser. Cornelius Maluginensis Q. Servilius Fidenas VI L. Quinctius Cincinnatus L. Horatius Pulvillus P. Valerius Potitus Poplicola 385 Consular Tribunes A. Manlius Capitolinus II P. Cornelius T. Quinctius (Cincinnatus?) Capitolinus II L. Papirius Cursor II L. Quinctius Capitolinus Cn. Sergius Fidenas Coxo II 384 Consular Tribunes Ser. Cornelius Maluginensis II P. Valerius Potitus Poplicola II M. Furius Camillus V Ser. Sulpicius Rufus II C. Papirius Crassus T. Quinctius Cincinnatus Capitolinus III 383 Consular Tribunes L. Valerius Poplicola IV A. Manlius Capitolinus IV Ser. Sulpicius Rufus III L. Lucretius Tricipitinus Flavus III L. Aemilius Mamercinus IV M. Trebonius 382 Consular Tribunes Sp. Papirius Crassus L. Papirius Mugillanus Ser. Cornelius Maluginensis III Q. Servilius Fidenas C. Sulpicius Camerinus L. Aemilius Mamercinus V 381 Consular Tribunes M. Furius Camillus VI A. Postumius Albinus Regillensis II L. Postumius Albinus Regillensis II L. Furius Medullinus L. Lucretius Tricipitinus Flavus IV M. Fabius Ambustus 380 Consular Tribunes[49] L. Valerius Potitus Poplicola V P. Valerius Potitus Poplicola III Ser. Cornelius Maluginensis IV Licinus Menenius Lanatus II C. Sulpicius Peticus L. Aemilius Mamercinus VI Cn. Sergius Fidenas Coxo III Ti. Papirius Crassus L. Papirius Mugillanus II 379 Consular Tribunes P. Manlius Capitolinus Cn. Manlius Vulso L. Julius Iulus II C. Sextilius M. Albinius L. Antistius P. Trebonius[50] C. Erenucius[50] 378 Consular Tribunes Sp. Furius Medullinus Q. Servillius Fidenas II Licinus Menenius Lanatus III P. Cloelius Siculus M. Horatius[51] L. Geganius Macerinus[51] 377 Consular Tribunes L. Aemilius Mamercinus P. Valerius Potitus Poplicola IV C. Veturius Crassus Cicurinus Ser. Sulpicius Rufus IV or: Ser. Sulpicius Praetextatus L. Quinctius Cincinnatus III C. Quinctius Cincinnatus 376 Consular Tribunes L. Papirius Mugillanus III Licinus Menenius Lanatus IV Ser. Cornelius Maluginensis V Ser. Sulpicius Praetextatus II 375– 371 solitudo magistratuum According to Livy (6.35), the tribunes Gaius Licinius Stolo and Lucius Sextius introduced new laws known as the Lex Licinia Sextia, which provoked strong resistance from the patricians. Licinius Stolo and Sextius resorted to using the tribunican veto to prevent either consuls or consular tribunes from being elected.The actual length of this period is controversial, with primary sources stating it was one (Diodorus Siculus), five (Fasti Capitolini), or ten (Livy) years.[52] 370 Consular Tribunes A. Manlius Capitolinus V L. Furius Medullinus II Ser. Sulpicius Praetextatus III Ser. Cornelius Maluginensis VI P. Valerius Potitus Poplicola V C. Valerius Potitus 369 Consular Tribunes Q. Servilius Fidenas III C. Veturius Crassus Cicurinus II A. Cornelius Cossus M. Cornelius Maluginensis Q. Quinctius Cincinnatus M. Fabius Ambustus II 368 Consular Tribunes Ser. Cornelius Maluginensis VII Ser. Sulpicius Praetextatus IV Sp. Servilius Structus T. Quinctius Cincinnatus Capitolinus L. Papirius Crassus L. Veturius Crassus Cicurinus 367 Consular Tribunes A. Cornelius Cossus II M. Cornelius Maluginensis II M. Geganius Macerinus P. Manlius Capitolinus II L. Veturius Crassus Cicurinus II P. Valerius Potitus Poplicola VI 366 L. Aemilius Mamercinus L. Sextius Sextinus Lateranus (first plebeian) 365 L. Genucius Aventinensis Q. Servilius Ahala 364 C. Sulpicius Peticus C. Licinius Calvus[53] 363 L. Aemilius Mamercinus II Cn. Genucius Aventinensis 362 Q. Servilius Ahala II L. Genucius Aventinensis II 361 C. Sulpicius Peticus II[22] C. Licinius Stolo[53][22] 360 M. Fabius Ambustus I C. Poetelius Libo Visolus 359 M. Popillius Laenas Cn. Manlius Capitolinus Imperiosus 358 C. Fabius Ambustus C. Plautius Proculus 357 C. Marcius Rutilus Cn. Manlius Capitolinus Imperiosus II 356 M. Fabius Ambustus II M. Popillius Laenas II 355 C. Sulpicius Peticus III M. Valerius Poplicola 354 M. Fabius Ambustus III T. Quinctius Poenus Capitolinus Crispinus[54] 353 C. Sulpicius Peticus IV M. Valerius Poplicola II 352 P. Valerius Poplicola C. Marcius Rutilus II 351 C. Sulpicius Peticus V T. Quinctius Pennus Capitolinus Crispinus II 350 M. Popillius Laenas III L. Cornelius Scipio 349 L. Furius Camillus Ap. Claudius Crassus Inregillensis[55] 348 M. Valerius (Maximus) Corvus I[22] M. Popillius Laenas IV[22] 347 T. Manlius Imperiosus Torquatus I[22] C. Plautius Venno (or Venox)[22] 346 M. Valerius (Maximus) Corvus II C. Poetelius Libo Visolus II 345 M. Fabius Dorsuo Ser. Sulpicius Camerinus Rufus 344 C. Marcius Rutilus III T. Manlius Imperiosus Torquatus II 343 A. Cornelius Cossus Arvina M. Valerius (Maximus) Corvus III 342 C. Marcius Rutilus IV[22] Q. Servilius Ahala III[22] 341 C. Plautius Venno (or Venox) II L. Aemilius Mamercinus Privernas 340 T. Manlius Imperiosus Torquatus III P. Decius Mus 339 Ti. Aemilius Mamercinus Q. Publilius Philo 338 L. Furius Camillus C. Maenius 337 C. Sulpicius Longus[22] P. Aelius Paetus[22] 336 L. Papirius Crassus K. Duillius 335 M. Valerius (Maximus) Corvus IV[22] M. Atilius Regulus Calenus[22] 334 Sp. Postumius Albinus (Caudinus) T. Veturius Calvinus 333 Dictator: P. Cornelius Rufinus[56] 332 A. Cornelius Cossus Arvina II[22] Cn. Domitius Calvinus[22] 331 M. Claudius Marcellus[22] C. Valerius Potitus[22] 330 L. Papirius Crassus II L. Plautius Venno (or Venox) 329 L. Aemilius Mamercinus Privernas II C. Plautius Decianus 328[57] Plautius P. Cornelius 327 L. Cornelius Lentulus Q. Publilius Philo II 326 C. Poetelius Libo Visolus III L. Papirius Cursor 325 L. Furius Camillus II D. Junius Brutus Scaeva 324 Dictator: L. Papirius Cursor[56] 323 C. Sulpicius Longus II Q. Aulius Cerretanus[58] 322 Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus I[22] L. Fulvius Curvus[22] 321 T. Veturius Calvinus II Sp. Postumius Albinus Caudinus II 320 Q. Publilius Philo III[22] L. Papirius Cursor II[22] 319 L. Papirius Cursor III[59] Q. Aulius Cerretanus II 318 M. Folius Flaccinator[22] L. Plautius Venno (or Venox)[22] 317 C. Junius Bubulcus Brutus[22] Q. Aemilius Barbula[22] 316 Sp. Nautius Rutilus M. Popillius Laenas 315 L. Papirius Cursor IV Q. Publilius Philo IV 314 M. Poetelius Libo C. Sulpicius Longus III 313 L. Papirius Cursor V C. Junius Bubulcus Brutus II 312 M. Valerius Maximus (Corvinus) I P. Decius Mus I 311 C. Junius Bubulcus Brutus III Q. Aemilius Barbula II 310 Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus II C. Marcius Rutilus Censorinus 309 Dictator: L. Papirius Cursor[56] 308 Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus III[22] P. Decius Mus II[22] 307 Ap. Claudius Caecus I L. Volumnius Flamma Violens I 306 P. Cornelius Arvina I[22] Q. Marcius Tremulus I[22] 305 L. Postumius Megellus I Ti. Minucius Augurinus suff. M. Fulvius Curvus Paetinus 304 P. Sempronius Sophus P. Sulpicius Saverrio 303 L. Genucius Aventinensis[22] Ser. Cornelius Lentulus[22] 302 M. Livius Denter M. Aemilius Paullus 301 Dictator: M. Valerius Maximus Corvus[56] 3rd century BC (300–201)[edit] Year Consul prior Consul posterior 300 M. Valerius Maximus Corvus V Q. Appuleius Pansa 299 M. Fulvius Paetinus T. Manlius Torquatus suff. M. Valerius Maximus Corvus VI 298 L. Cornelius Scipio Barbatus Cn. Fulvius Maximus Centumalus 297 Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus IV P. Decius Mus III 296 Ap. Claudius Caecus II L. Volumnius Flamma Violens II 295 Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus V P. Decius Mus IV 294 L. Postumius Megellus II M. Atilius Regulus 293 L. Papirius Cursor I Sp. Carvilius Maximus I 292 Q. Fabius Maximus Gurges I D. Junius Brutus Scaeva 291 L. Postumius Megellus III C. Junius Bubulcus Brutus I 290 P. Cornelius Rufinus I[22] M'. Curius Dentatus I[22] 289 M. Valerius Maximus Corvinus II Q. Caedicius Noctua 288 Q. Marcius Tremulus II P. Cornelius Arvina II 287 M. Claudius Marcellus C. Nautius Rutilus 286 M. Valerius Maximus Potitus[60] C. Aelius Paetus 285 C. Claudius Canina I M. Aemilius Lepidus 284 C. Servilius Tucca L. Caecilius Metellus Denter 283 P. Cornelius Dolabella Cn. Domitius Calvinus Maximus 282 C. Fabricius Luscinus I Q. Aemilius Papus I 281 L. Aemilius Barbula Q. Marcius Philippus 280 P. Valerius Laevinus Ti. Coruncanius 279 P. Sulpicius Saverrio P. Decius Mus 278 C. Fabricius Luscinus II Q. Aemilius Papus II 277 P. Cornelius Rufinus II C. Junius Bubulcus Brutus II 276 Q. Fabius Maximus Gurges II C. Genucius Clepsina I 275 M'. Curius Dentatus II L. Cornelius Lentulus Caudinus 274 Ser. Cornelius Merenda[22] M'. Curius Dentatus III[22] 273 C. Fabius Licinus C. Claudius Canina II 272 L. Papirius Cursor II Sp. Carvilius Maximus II 271 K. Quinctius Claudus L. Genucius Clepsina 270 C. Genucius Clepsina II Cn. Cornelius Blasio 269 Q. Ogulnius Gallus C. Fabius Pictor 268 P. Sempronius Sophus Ap. Claudius Russus 267 M. Atilius Regulus I L. Julius Libo 266 D. Junius Pera N. Fabius Pictor 265 Q. Fabius Maximus Gurges L. Mamilius Vitulus 264 Ap. Claudius Caudex M. Fulvius Flaccus 263 M'. Valerius Maximus Mesalla M'. Otacilius Crassus I 262 L. Postumius Megellus Q. Mamilius Vitulus 261 L. Valerius Flaccus T. Otacilius Crassus 260 Cn. Cornelius Scipio Asina I C. Duilius 259 L. Cornelius Scipio C. Aquillius Florus 258 A. Atilius Calatinus I C. Sulpicius Paterculus 257 Cn. Cornelius Blasio II[22] C. Atilius Regulus I[22] 256 L. Manlius Vulso Longus I Q. Caedicius suff. M. Atilius Regulus II 255 Ser. Fulvius Paetinus Nobilior[22] M. Aemilius Paullus[22] 254 Cn. Cornelius Scipio Asina II A. Atilius Calatinus II 253 Cn. Servilius Caepio C. Sempronius Blaesus 252 C. Aurelius Cotta I P. Servilius Geminus I 251 L. Caecilius Metellus I C. Furius Pacilus 250 C. Atilius Regulus II L. Manlius Vulso Longus II 249 P. Claudius Pulcher L. Junius Pullus 248 C. Aurelius Cotta II P. Servilius Geminus II 247 L. Caecilius Metellus II N. Fabius Buteo 246 M'. Otacilius Crassus II M. Fabius Licinus 245 M. Fabius Buteo C. Atilius Bulbus I 244 A. Manlius Torquatus Atticus I C. Sempronius Blaesus II 243 C. Fundanius Fundulus C. Sulpicius Galus 242 C. Lutatius Catulus A. Postumius Albinus 241 A. Manlius Torquatus Atticus II Q. Lutatius Cerco 240 C. Claudius Centho M. Sempronius Tuditanus 239 C. Mamilius Turrinus Q. Valerius Falto 238 Ti. Sempronius Gracchus P. Valerius Falto 237 L. Cornelius Lentulus Caudinus Q. Fulvius Flaccus I 236 P. Cornelius Lentulus Caudinus C. Licinius Varus 235 T. Manlius Torquatus I C. Atilius Bulbus II 234 L. Postumius Albinus I Sp. Carvilius Maximus Ruga I 233 Q. Fabius Maximus Verrucosus I M'. Pomponius Matho 232 M. Aemilius Lepidus M. Publicius Malleolus 231 M. Pomponius Matho C. Papirius Maso 230 M. Aemilius Barbula M. Junius Pera 229 L. Postumius Albinus II Cn. Fulvius Centumalus 228 Q. Fabius Maximus Verrucosus II[22] Sp. Carvilius Maximus Ruga II[22] 227 P. Valerius Flaccus M. Atilius Regulus I 226 M. Valerius Maximus Messalla L. Apustius Fullo 225 L. Aemilius Papus C. Atilius Regulus 224 T. Manlius Torquatus II Q. Fulvius Flaccus II 223 C. Flaminius I P. Furius Philus 222 M. Claudius Marcellus I[22] Cn. Cornelius Scipio Calvus[22] 221 P. Cornelius Scipio Asina M. Minucius Rufus 220[61] M. Valerius Laevinus Q. Mucius Scaevola Q. Lutatius Catulus L. Veturius Philo 219 L. Aemilius Paullus I M. Livius (Salinator) I 218 P. Cornelius Scipio Ti. Sempronius Longus 217 Cn. Servilius Geminus C. Flaminius II 217 Dictator: Q. Fabius Maximus Verrucosus III suff. M. Atilius Regulus II 216 L. Aemilius Paullus II C. Terentius Varro 215 Ti. Sempronius Gracchus I L. Postumius Albinus III[62] suff. M. Claudius Marcellus II[63] suff. Q. Fabius Maximus Verrucosus III 214 Q. Fabius Maximus Verrucosus IV M. Claudius Marcellus III 213 Q. Fabius Maximus Ti. Sempronius Gracchus II 212 Q. Fulvius Flaccus III[22] Ap. Claudius Pulcher[22] 211 Cn. Fulvius Centumalus Maximus[22] P. Sulpicius Galba Maximus I[22] 210 M. Claudius Marcellus IV[22] M. Valerius Laevinus[22] 209 Q. Fabius Maximus Verrucosus V Q. Fulvius Flaccus IV 208 M. Claudius Marcellus V T. Quinctius Crispinus 207 C. Claudius Nero M. Livius Salinator II 206 L. Veturius Philo Q. Caecilius Metellus 205 P. Cornelius Scipio (Africanus) I P. Licinius Crassus Dives 204 M. Cornelius Cethegus P. Sempronius Tuditanus 203 Cn. Servilius Caepio C. Servilius Geminus 202 Ti. Claudius Nero M. Servilius Pulex Geminus 201 Cn. Cornelius Lentulus P. Aelius Paetus 2nd century BC (200–101)[edit] Year Consul prior Consul posterior 200 P. Sulpicius Galba Maximus II C. Aurelius Cotta 199 L. Cornelius Lentulus P. Villius Tappulus 198 T. Quinctius Flamininus Sex. Aelius Paetus Catus 197 C. Cornelius Cethegus Q. Minucius Rufus 196 L. Furius Purpureo M. Claudius Marcellus 195 L. Valerius Flaccus[22] M. Porcius Cato[22] 194 P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus II Ti. Sempronius Longus 193 L. Cornelius Merula Q. Minucius Thermus 192 L. Quinctius Flamininus Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus 191 P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica[22] M'. Acilius Glabrio[22] 190 L. Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus C. Laelius 189 M. Fulvius Nobilior[22] Cn. Manlius Vulso[22] 188 C. Livius Salinator M. Valerius Messalla 187 M. Aemilius Lepidus I C. Flaminius 186 Sp. Postumius Albinus Q. Marcius Philippus I 185 Ap. Claudius Pulcher M. Sempronius Tuditanus 184 P. Claudius Pulcher L. Porcius Licinus 183 M. Claudius Marcellus[22] Q. Fabius Labeo[22] 182 L. Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus I Cn. Baebius Tamphilus 181 P. Cornelius Cethegus M. Baebius Tamphilus 180 A. Postumius Albinus Luscus C. Calpurnius Piso suff. Q. Fulvius Flaccus 179 Q. Fulvius Flaccus[22] L. Manlius Acidinus Fulvianus[22] 178 M. Junius Brutus A. Manlius Vulso 177 C. Claudius Pulcher Ti. Sempronius Gracchus I 176 Cn. Cornelius Scipio Hispallus Q. Petillius Spurinus suff. C. Valerius Laevinus 175 M. Aemilius Lepidus II[22] P. Mucius Scaevola[22] 174 Sp. Postumius Albinus Paullulus Q. Mucius Scaevola 173 L. Postumius Albinus M. Popillius Laenas 172 C. Popillius Laenas I P. Aelius Ligus 171 P. Licinius Crassus C. Cassius Longinus 170 A. Hostilius Mancinus A. Atilius Serranus 169 Q. Marcius Philippus II Cn. Servilius Caepio 168 L. Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus II C. Licinius Crassus 167 Q. Aelius Paetus M. Junius Pennus 166 M. Claudius Marcellus I[22] C. Sulpicius Galus[22] 165 Cn. Octavius[22] T. Manlius Torquatus[22] 164 A. Manlius Torquatus Q. Cassius Longinus 163 Ti. Sempronius Gracchus II M'. Juventius Thalna 162 P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica Corculum I C. Marcius Figulus I suff. P. Cornelius Lentulus Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus 161 M. Valerius Messalla C. Fannius Strabo 160 L. Anicius Gallus M. Cornelius Cethegus 159 Cn. Cornelius Dolabella M. Fulvius Nobilior 158 M. Aemilius Lepidus C. Popillius Laenas II 157 Sex. Julius Caesar L. Aurelius Orestes 156 L. Cornelius Lentulus Lupus C. Marcius Figulus II 155 P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica Corculum II M. Claudius Marcellus II 154 Q. Opimius L. Postumius Albinus suff. M'. Acilius Glabrio 153 Q. Fulvius Nobilior T. Annius Luscus 152 M. Claudius Marcellus III L. Valerius Flaccus 151 L. Licinius Lucullus A. Postumius Albinus 150 T. Quinctius Flamininus M'. Acilius Balbus 149 L. Marcius Censorinus M'. Manilius 148 Sp. Postumius Albinus Magnus L. Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus 147 P. Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus I C. Livius Drusus 146 Cn. Cornelius Lentulus L. Mummius Achaicus 145 Q. Fabius Maximus Aemilianus L. Hostilius Mancinus 144 Ser. Sulpicius Galba L. Aurelius Cotta 143 Ap. Claudius Pulcher Q. Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus 142 L. Caecilius Metellus Calvus Q. Fabius Maximus Servilianus 141 Cn. Servilius Caepio Q. Pompeius 140 Q. Servilius Caepio[22] C. Laelius[22] 139 Cn. Calpurnius Piso M. Popillius Laenas 138 P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica Serapio D. Junius Brutus Callaicus 137 M. Aemilius Lepidus Porcina C. Hostilius Mancinus 136 L. Furius Philus Sex. Atilius Serranus 135 Ser. Fulvius Flaccus Q. Calpurnius Piso 134 P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus Aemilianus II C. Fulvius Flaccus 133 P. Mucius Scaevola L. Calpurnius Piso Frugi 132 P. Popillius Laenas P. Rupilius 131 P. Licinius Crassus Dives Mucianus L. Valerius Flaccus 130 M. Perperna[22] L. Cornelius Lentulus[22] suff. Ap. Claudius Pulcher 129 C. Sempronius Tuditanus M'. Aquillius 128 Cn. Octavius T. Annius Rufus 127 L. Cassius Longinus Ravilla L. Cornelius Cinna 126 M. Aemilius Lepidus L. Aurelius Orestes 125 M. Plautius Hypsaeus M. Fulvius Flaccus 124 C. Cassius Longinus C. Sextius Calvinus 123 Q. Caecilius Metellus Balearicus T. Quinctius Flamininus 122 Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus C. Fannius 121 L. Opimius Q. Fabius Maximus Allobrogicus 120 P. Manilius C. Papirius Carbo 119 L. Caecilius Metellus Delmaticus L. Aurelius Cotta 118 M. Porcius Cato Q. Marcius Rex 117 L. Caecilius Metellus Diadematus Q. Mucius Scaevola Augur 116 C. Licinius Geta Q. Fabius Maximus Eburnus 115 M. Aemilius Scaurus M. Caecilius Metellus 114 M'. Acilius Balbus C. Porcius Cato 113 C. Caecilius Metellus Caprarius Cn. Papirius Carbo 112 M. Livius Drusus L. Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus 111 P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica L. Calpurnius Bestia 110 M. Minucius Rufus Sp. Postumius Albinus 109 Q. Caecilius Metellus (Numidicus) M. Junius Silanus 108 Ser. Sulpicius Galba M. Aurelius Scaurus 107 L. Cassius Longinus C. Marius I suff. M. Aemilius Scaurus II 106 Q. Servilius Caepio[22] C. Atilius Serranus[22] 105 P. Rutilius Rufus Cn. Mallius Maximus 104 C. Marius II C. Flavius Fimbria 103 C. Marius III L. Aurelius Orestes 102 C. Marius IV Q. Lutatius Catulus 101 C. Marius V M'. Aquillius 1st century BC (100–1)[edit] Year Consul prior Consul posterior 100[64] C. Marius VI L. Valerius Flaccus 99 M. Antonius A. Postumius Albinus 98 Q. Caecilius Metellus Nepos T. Didius 97 Cn. Cornelius Lentulus P. Licinius Crassus 96 Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus C. Cassius Longinus 95 L. Licinius Crassus Q. Mucius Scaevola 94 C. Coelius Caldus L. Domitius Ahenobarbus 93 C. Valerius Flaccus M. Herennius 92 C. Claudius Pulcher M. Perperna 91 L. Marcius Philippus Sex. Julius Caesar 90 L. Julius Caesar P. Rutilius Lupus 89 Cn. Pompeius Strabo L. Porcius Cato 88 L. Cornelius Sulla I Q. Pompeius Rufus 87 Cn. Octavius L. Cornelius Cinna I suff. L. Cornelius Merula 86 L. Cornelius Cinna II C. Marius VII suff. L. Valerius Flaccus 85 L. Cornelius Cinna III Cn. Papirius Carbo I 84 Cn. Papirius Carbo II L. Cornelius Cinna IV 83 L. Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus C. Norbanus 82 C. Marius Cn. Papirius Carbo III 81 M. Tullius Decula Cn. Cornelius Dolabella 81 Dictator: L. Cornelius Sulla Felix 80[65] L. Cornelius Sulla Felix II Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius 79 P. Servilius Vatia Isauricus Ap. Claudius Pulcher 78 M. Aemilius Lepidus Q. Lutatius Catulus 77 D. Junius Brutus Mam. Aemilius Lepidus Livianus 76 Cn. Octavius C. Scribonius Curio 75 L. Octavius C. Aurelius Cotta 74 L. Licinius Lucullus M. Aurelius Cotta 73 M. Terentius Varro Lucullus C. Cassius Longinus 72 L. Gellius Cn. Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus 71 P. Cornelius Lentulus Sura Cn. Aufidius Orestes 70 Cn. Pompeius Magnus I M. Licinius Crassus I 69 Q. Hortensius Hortalus Q. Caecilius Metellus Creticus 68 L. Caecilius Metellus Q. Marcius Rex suff. Servilius Vatia[66] 67 C. Calpurnius Piso M'. Acilius Glabrio 66 M'. Aemilius Lepidus L. Volcatius Tullus 65[67] consules designati P. Cornelius Sulla P. Autronius Paetus L. Aurelius Cotta L. Manlius Torquatus 64 L. Julius Caesar C. Marcius Figulus 63 M. Tullius Cicero C. Antonius Hybrida 62 D. Junius Silanus L. Licinius Murena 61 M. Pupius Piso Frugi Calpurnianus M. Valerius Messalla Niger 60 Q. Caecilius Metellus Celer L. Afranius 59 C. Julius Caesar I M. Calpurnius Bibulus 58 L. Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus A. Gabinius 57 P. Cornelius Lentulus Spinther Q. Caecilius Metellus Nepos 56 Cn. Cornelius Lentulus Marcellinus L. Marcius Philippus 55 Cn. Pompeius Magnus II M. Licinius Crassus II 54 L. Domitius Ahenobarbus Ap. Claudius Pulcher 53 Cn. Domitius Calvinus I M. Valerius Messalla Rufus 52 Cn. Pompeius Magnus III Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio 51 Ser. Sulpicius Rufus M. Claudius Marcellus 50 L. Aemilius Paullus C. Claudius Marcellus 49 C. Claudius Marcellus L. Cornelius Lentulus Crus 48 C. Julius Caesar II P. Servilius Isauricus I 47 Q. Fufius Calenus P. Vatinius 46 C. Julius Caesar III M. Aemilius Lepidus I 45 C. Julius Caesar IV sine collega suff. Q. Fabius Maximus C. Trebonius suff. C. Caninius Rebilus 44 C. Julius Caesar V M. Antonius I suff. P. Cornelius Dolabella 43 C. Vibius Pansa Caetronianus A. Hirtius suff. C. Julius Caesar (Octavianus) I Q. Pedius suff. P. Ventidius Bassus C. Carrinas 42 M. Aemilius Lepidus II L. Munatius Plancus 41 L. Antonius Pietas P. Servilius Isauricus II 40 Cn. Domitius Calvinus II C. Asinius Pollio suff. L. Cornelius Balbus P. Canidius Crassus 39[68] L. Marcius Censorinus C. Calvisius Sabinus suff. P. Alfenus Varus (after October–December) suff. C. Cocceius Balbus (December) 38[68] Ap. Claudius Pulcher (January–June) C. Norbanus Flaccus (January–August) suff. L. Cornelius Lentulus (July–December) suff. L. Marcius Philippus (September–December) 37 M. Vipsanius Agrippa I L. Caninius Gallus suff. T. Statilius Taurus I 36[69] L. Gellius Poplicola (January–August) M. Cocceius Nerva (January–June) suff. Q. Marcius (July–December) suff. L. Nonius Asprenas (September–December) 35[68] L. Cornificius (January–August) Sex. Pompeius (January–June) suff. P. Cornelius Dolabella (September–December) suff. T. Peducaeus (July–December) 34[70] M. Antonius II (1 January only) L. Scribonius Libo (January–June) suff. L. Sempronius Atratinus (2 January–June) suff. Paullus Aemilius Lepidus (July–December) C. Memmius (July–August) suff. M. Herennius Picens (September–December) 33[70] Imp. Caesar divi f. II (1 January only) L. Volcacius Tullus (January–April) suff. L. Autronius Paetus (2 January–April) suff. L. Flavius (May–June or August) C. Fonteius Capito (May–June or August) suff. M. Acilius Glabrio (July–August or September) suff. L. Vinicius (September–December) suff. Q. Laronius (October–December) 32 Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus C. Sosius suff. L. Cornelius Cinna M. Valerius Messalla 31 M. Antonius III (only in the east) Imp. Caesar divi f. III suff. M. Valerius Messalla Corvinus suff. M. Titius suff. Cn. Pompeius 30 Imp. Caesar divi f. IV M. Licinius Crassus suff. C. Antistius Vetus suff. M. Tullius Cicero suff. L. Saenius 29 Imp. Caesar divi f. V Sex. Appuleius suff. Potitus Valerius Messalla 28 Imp. Caesar divi f. VI M. Vipsanius Agrippa II 27 Imp. Caesar divi f. Augustus VII M. Vipsanius Agrippa III 26 Imp. Caesar divi f. Augustus VIII T. Statilius Taurus II 25 Imp. Caesar divi f. Augustus IX M. Junius Silanus 24 Imp. Caesar divi f. Augustus X C. Norbanus Flaccus 23[71] Imp. Caesar divi f. Augustus XI (January–June) Cn. Calpurnius Piso (January–December)[72] suff. L. Sestius Albanianus Quirinalis (July–December) 22 M. Claudius Marcellus Aeserninus L. Arruntius 21 M. Lollius Q. Aemilius Lepidus 20 M. Appuleius P. Silius Nerva 19[73] C. Sentius Saturninus (until some point between 1 August and 12 October) sine collega suff. M. Vinicius (before 12 October–December) Q. Lucretius Vespillo (before 12 October–December) 18 Publius Cornelius Lentulus Marcellinus Cn. Cornelius Lentulus 17 C. Furnius C. Junius Silanus 16 L. Domitius Ahenobarbus P. Cornelius Scipio suff. L. Tarius Rufus 15 M. Livius Drusus Libo L. Calpurnius Piso 14 M. Licinius Crassus Frugi Cn. Cornelius Lentulus Augur 13 Ti. Claudius Nero I P. Quinctilius Varus 12[74] M. Valerius Messalla Appianus (died 6 March) P. Sulpicius Quirinius (January–after 29 August) suff. C. Valgius Rufus (March–after 29 August) suff. C. Caninius Rebilus (until death in office) L. Volusius Saturninus (until December) 11 Q. Aelius Tubero Paullus Fabius Maximus 10 Africanus Fabius Maximus Iullus Antonius 9 Nero Claudius Drusus T. Quinctius Crispinus Sulpicianus 8 C. Marcius Censorinus C. Asinius Gallus 7 Ti. Claudius Nero II Cn. Calpurnius Piso 6 D. Laelius Balbus C. Antistius Vetus 5[75] Imp. Caesar divi f. Augustus XII (January–after 11 April) L. Cornelius Sulla (January–after 11 April) suff. Q. Haterius (before 1 July–December) L. Vinicius (until 16 July or 13 August) suff. C. Sulpicius Galba (until 31 December) 4 C. Calvisius Sabinus L. Passienus Rufus suff. C. Caelius (Rufus?) Galus Sulpicius 3 L. Cornelius Lentulus M. Valerius Messalla Messallinus 2[76] Imp. Caesar divi f. Augustus XIII (January–August) M. Plautius Silvanus (January–June) suff. L. Caninius Gallus (July–December) suff. C. Fufius Geminus (September–October) suff. Q. Fabricius (November–December) 1 Cossus Cornelius Lentulus (Gaetulicus) L. Calpurnius Piso suff. A. Plautius A. Caecina Severus 1st century (1–100)[edit] Year Consul prior Consul posterior 1[77] C. Caesar (January–December) L. Aemilius Paullus (January–June) suff. M. Herennius Picens (July–December) 2 P. Vinicius (January–June) P. Alfenus Varus suff. P. Cornelius Lentulus Scipio (July–December) T. Quinctius Crispinus Valerianus 3 L. Aelius Lamia (January–June) M. Servilius suff. P. Silius (July–December) L. Volusius Saturninus 4 Sex. Aelius Catus (January–June) C. Sentius Saturninus suff. Cn. Sentius Saturninus (July–December) C. Clodius Licinus 5 L. Valerius Messalla Volesus (January–June) Cn. Cornelius Cinna Magnus suff. C. Vibius Postumus (July–December) C. Ateius Capito 6 M. Aemilius Lepidus (January–December) L. Arruntius (January–June) suff. L. Nonius Asprenas (July–December) 7 Q. Caecilius Metellus Creticus Silanus (January–December) A. Licinius Nerva Silianus (January–June) suff. Lucilius Longus (July–December) 8 M. Furius Camillus (January–June) Sex. Nonius Quinctilianus suff. L. Apronius (July–December) A. Vibius Habitus 9 C. Poppaeus Sabinus (January–June) Q. Sulpicius Camerinus suff. M. Papius Mutilus (July–December) Q. Poppaeus Secundus 10 P. Cornelius Dolabella (January–June) C. Junius Silanus suff. Ser. Cornelius Lentulus Maluginensis (July–December) Q. Junius Blaesus 11 M'. Aemilius Lepidus (January–June) T. Statilius Taurus (January–December) suff. L. Cassius Longinus (July–December) 12 Germanicus Julius Caesar (January–December) C. Fonteius Capito (January–June) suff. C. Visellius Varro (July–December) 13[78] C. Silius (January–June) L. Munatius Plancus (January–December) suff. A. Caecina Largus (July–December) 14[79] Sex. Pompeius (January–December) Sex. Appuleius 15 Drusus Julius Caesar (January–December) C. Norbanus Flaccus (January–June) suff. M. Junius Silanus (July–December) 16 Sisenna Statilius Taurus (January–June) L. Scribonius Libo suff. C. Vibius Rufus (July–December) P. Pomponius Graecinus 17 L. Pomponius Flaccus (January–June) C. Caelius Rufus suff. C. Vibius Marsus (July–December) L. Voluseius Proculus 18 Ti. Caesar Augustus III (January) Germanicus Julius Caesar II (January–April) suff. L. Seius Tubero (February–July) Livineius Regulus (May–July) suff. C. Rubellius Blandus (August–December) M. Vipstanus Gallus 19 M. Junius Silanus Torquatus (January–December) L. Norbanus Balbus (January–June) suff. P. Petronius (July–December) 20 M. Valerius Messala Barbatus (January–December) M. Aurelius Cotta Maximus Messalinus 21 Ti. Caesar Augustus IV (January–June) Drusus Julius Caesar II suff. Mam. Aemilius Scaurus (July–December) Cn. Tremellius 22[80] D. Haterius Agrippa C. Sulpicius Galba suff. M. Cocceius Nerva[81] C. Vibius Rufinus[82] 23 C. Asinius Pollio (January–December) C. Antistius Vetus (January–June) suff. C. Stertinius Maximus (July–December) 24 Ser. Cornelius Cethegus (January–June) L. Visellius Varro suff. C. Calpurnius Aviola (July–December) P. Cornelius Lentulus Scipio 25 Cossus Cornelius Lentulus (January–August) M. Asinius Agrippa (January–December) suff. C. Petronius (September–December) 26 Cn. Cornelius Lentulus Gaetulicus (January–June) C. Calvisius Sabinus suff. Q. Junius Blaesus (July–December) L. Antistius Vetus 27 L. Calpurnius Piso (January–June) M. Licinius Crassus Frugi suff. P. Cornelius Lentulus (July–December) C. Sallustius Passienus Crispus 28 Ap. Junius Silanus (January–June) P. Silius Nerva suff. L. Junius Silanus (July–December) C. Vellaeus Tutor 29 C. Fufius Geminus (January–June) L. Rubellius Geminus suff. A. Plautius (July–December) L. Nonius Asprenas 30 L. Cassius Longinus (January–June) M. Vinicius suff. L. Naevius Surdinus (July–December) C. Cassius Longinus 31[83] Ti. Caesar Augustus V (January-8 May) L. Aelius Seianus suff. Faustus Cornelius Sulla (9 May–September) Sex. Tedius Valerius Catullus (9 May–June) suff. L. Fulcinius Trio (July–December) suff. P. Memmius Regulus (October–December) 32 Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus (January–December) L. Arruntius Camillus Scribonianus (January–June) suff. A. Vitellius (July–December) 33 L. Livius Ocella Ser. Sulpicius Galba (January–June) L. Cornelius Sulla Felix suff. L. Salvius Otho (July–December) C. Octavius Laenas 34 Paullus Fabius Persicus (January–June) L. Vitellius I suff. Q. Marcius Barea Soranus (July–December) T. Rustius Nummius Gallus 35 C. Cestius Gallus (January–June) M. Servilius Nonianus suff. D. Valerius Asiaticus (July–December) A. Gabinius Secundus 36 Sex. Papinius Allenius (January–June) Q. Plautius suff. C. Vettius Rufus[84] (July–December) M. Porcius Cato 37[85] Cn. Acerronius Proculus (January–June) C. Petronius Pontius Nigrinus suff. C. Caesar Augustus Germanicus (July–August) Ti. Claudius Nero Germanicus suff. A. Caecina Paetus (September–December) C. Caninius Rebilus 38 M. Aquila Julianus (January–June) P. Nonius Asprenas Calpurnius Serranus suff. Ser. Asinius Celer (July–December) Sex. Nonius Quinctilianus 39 C. Caesar Augustus Germanicus II (January) L. Apronius Caesianus (January–June) suff. Q. Sanquinius Maximus (February–June) suff. Cn. Domitius Corbulo (July–1 September) ignotus suff. A. Didius Gallus (2 September–December) Cn. Domitius Afer 40 C. Caesar Augustus Germanicus III (To 13 January) sine collega suff. C. Laecanius Bassus (January–June) Q. Terentius Culleo 41[86] C. Caesar Augustus Germanicus IV (January) Cn. Sentius Saturninus (January–June) suff. Q. Pomponius Secundus (February–June) suff. Q. Futius Lusius Saturninus (September–October) M. Seius Varanus suff. Q. Ostorius Scapula[87] (November–December) P. Suillius Rufus 42 Ti. Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus II (January–February) C. Caecina Largus (January–December) suff. C. Cestius Gallus (March–? June) suff. Cornelius Lupus[88] 43[89] Ti. Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus III (January–February) L. Vitellius II suff. Sex. Palpellius Hister (March–July) L. Pedanius Secundus suff. A. Gabinius Secundus (August–September) ignotus suff. Q. Curtius Rufus (October–December) Sp. Oppius[90] 44[91] C. Sallustius Crispus Passienus II (early January) T. Statilius Taurus (January–June) suff. P. Calvisius Sabinus Pomponius Secundus (early January–June) 45 M. Vinicius II (January–February) T. Statilius Taurus Corvinus (January–June) suff. Ti. Plautius Silvanus Aelianus (March–June) suff. A. Antonius Rufus (July–? October) M. Pompeius Silvanus Staberius Flavianus 46 D. Valerius Asiaticus II (January–February) M. Junius Silanus (January–December) suff. Camerinus Antistius Vetus (Early March)[92] suff. Q. Sulpicius Camerinus (Early March–June) suff. D. Laelius Balbus (July–August) suff. C. Terentius Tullius Geminus (September–December) 47[93] Ti. Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus IV (January–February) L. Vitellius III suff. C. Calpetanus Rantius Sedatus (March–April) M. Hordeonius Flaccus suff. Cn. Hosidius Geta (July–December) T. Flavius Sabinus (July–August) suff. L. Vagellius (September–October) suff. C. Volasenna Severus (November–December) 48 A. Vitellius (January–June) L. Vipstanus Poplicola[94] suff. L. Vitellius (July–December) Messalla Vipstanus Gallus 49 Q. Veranius (January–February) C. Pompeius Longus Gallus suff. L. Mammius Pollio (March–June) Q. Allius Maximus 50 C. Antistius Vetus (January–? February) M. Suillius Nerullinus 51 Ti. Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus V (January–December) Ser. Cornelius Scipio Salvidienus Orfitus (January–June) suff. L. Calventius Vetus Carminius (by September–October) suff. T. Flavius Vespasianus (November–December) 52 Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix (January–December) L. Salvius Otho Titianus I (January–June) suff. Q. Marcius Barea Soranus (Attested 10 August) suff. L. Salvidienus Rufus Salvianus (Attested 11 December) 53 D. Junius Silanus Torquatus (January–June) Q. Haterius Antoninus suff. P. Trebonius (June–? October) Q. Caecina Primus suff. P. Calvisius Ruso (? November–December) 54 M'. Acilius Aviola (January–June) M. Asinius Marcellus suff. M. Aefulanus (After June)[95] ignotus 55[96] Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (January–February) L. Antistius Vetus[97] suff. N. Cestius (March–April) suff. P. Cornelius Dolabella (May–June) L. Annaeus Seneca (until October) suff. M. Trebellius Maximus (July–August) suff. P. Palfurius (September–October) suff. Cn. Cornelius Lentulus Gaetulicus (November–December) T. Curtilius Mancia 56 Q. Volusius Saturninus (January–June) P. Cornelius (Lentulus?) Scipio suff. L. Junius Gallio Annaeanus (July–August) T. Cutius Ciltus suff. P. Sulpicius Scribonius Rufus (September–October) P. Sulpicius Scribonius Proculus suff. L. Duvius Avitus (November–December) P. Clodius Thrasea Paetus 57[98] Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus II (January–December) L. Calpurnius Piso (January–June) suff. L. Caesius Martialis (July–December) 58 Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus III (January–April) M. Valerius Messalla Corvinus (January–June) suff. C. Fonteius Agrippa (May–June) suff. A. Petronius Lurco (July–December) A. Paconius Sabinus 59 C. Vipstanus Apronianus (January–June) C. Fonteius Capito suff. T. Sextius Africanus (July–December) M. Ostorius Scapula 60 Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus IV (January–June) Cossus Cornelius Lentulus suff. C. Velleius Paterculus (July–October) M. Manilius Vopiscus 61 P. Petronius Turpilianus (January–June) L. Junius Caesennius Paetus suff. Cn. Pedanius Fuscus Salinator (July–August) L. Velleius Paterculus 62[99] P. Marius[100] (January – April) Lucius Afinius Gallus suff. Q. Manlius Ancharius Tarquitius Saturninus (May–August) P. Petronius Niger suff. Q. Junius Marullus[101] (September–December) T. Clodius Eprius Marcellus 63 C. Memmius Regulus (January–June) L. Verginius Rufus suff. T. Petronius Niger[102] (July–August) Q. Manlius Tarquitius Saturninus 64 C. Laecanius Bassus (January–June) M. Licinius Crassus Frugi suff. C. Licinius Mucianus I (July–October) Q. Fabius Barbarus Antonius Macer 65 A. Licinius Nerva Silianus (January–June) M. Julius Vestinus Atticus (Killed self in April) suff. P. Pasidienus Firmus (Attested 18 June)[103] suff. C. Pomponius Pius (Attested 13 August) C. Anicius Cerialis 66 C. Luccius Telesinus (January–June) C. Suetonius Paullinus suff.[104] M. Annius Afrinus (July–August) C. Paccius Africanus suff. M. Arruntius Aquila (September–December) M. Vettius Bolanus 67 L. Julius Rufus (January–June) Fonteius Capito (January–May) suff. L. Aurelius Priscus (June) suff.[104] Ap. Annius Gallus (July–December) L. Verulanus Severus 68[105] Ti. Catius Asconius Silius Italicus (January–March) P. Galerius Trachalus suff. Imp. Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus V (April–June) C. Luccius Telesinus II (May-June) suff. C. Bellicius Natalis (September–December) P. Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus 69[106] Ser. Galba Imp. Caesar Augustus II (Murdered 15 January) T. Vinius (Rufinus?) (Murdered 15 January) suff. M. Otho Caesar Augustus (15 January–28 February) L. Salvius Otho Titianus II suff. L. Verginius Rufus II (March) L. Pompeius Vopiscus suff. Cn. Arulenus Caelius Sabinus (April–June) T. Flavius Sabinus I suff. Cn. Arrius Antoninus (July–August) A. Marius Celsus suff. Fabius Valens (September–October) A. Caecina Alienus (September–30 October) suff. Rosius Regulus (31 October) suff. Cn. Caecilius Simplex (November−December) C. Quinctius Atticus 70[107] Imp. Caesar Vespasianus Augustus II (January–June) T. Caesar Vespasianus suff. C. Licinius Mucianus II (July–August) Q. Petillius Cerealis Caesius Rufus suff.[108] Q. Julius Cordinus C. Rutilius Gallicus (September–October) ignotus suff. L. Annius Bassus (November–December) C. Laecanius Bassus Caecina Paetus 71[109] Imp. Caesar Vespasianus Augustus III (January–February) M. Cocceius Nerva I suff. Caesar Domitianus (March–June) Cn. Pedius Cascus (March–April) suff. C. Calpetanus Rantius Quirinalis Valerius Festus (May–June) suff. L. Flavius Fimbria (July–August) C. Atilius Barbarus suff.[110] Cn. Pompeius Collega (November–December) Q. Julius Cordus 72 Imp. Caesar Vespasianus Augustus IV (January–April) T. Caesar Vespasianus II suff. C. Licinius Mucianus III (May–? June) T. Flavius Sabinus II suff. M. Ulpius Traianus[108] (September–October) suff.[111] Sex. Marcius Priscus (November–December) Cn. Pinarius Aemilius Cicatricula 73 Caesar Domitianus II (January–? February) L. Valerius Catullus Messallinus suff. L. Aelius Oculatus (May–June) Q. Gavius Atticus suff. M. Arrecinus Clemens I (July–? August) . ]m[ .....[112] suff. Sex. Julius Frontinus ignotus 74 Imp. Caesar Vespasianus Augustus V (To 13 January) T. Caesar Vespasianus III (January–April) suff. Ti. Plautius Silvanus Aelianus II (13 January–February) suff. L. Junius Q. Vibius Crispus II (March–April) suff. Q. Petillius Cerialis Caesius Rufus II (May–June) T. Clodius Eprius Marcellus II suff. ignotus (July–August) .... ]on[.[113] suff. C. Pomponius (September–October) L. Manlius Patruinus suff. Cn. Domitius Tullus[114] 75 Imp. Caesar Vespasianus Augustus VI (To 13 January or February) T. Caesar Vespasianus IV (January–February) suff. Caesar Domitianus III (13 January or March–April) suff. L. Pasidienus Firmus (March–April) 76 Imp. Caesar Vespasianus Augustus VII (To 13 January or February) T. Caesar Vespasianus V (To 13 January or February or April) suff. Caesar Domitianus IV (13 January or March–February or April) suff. L. Tampius Flavianus II (March–April or May–June) M. Pompeius Silvanus Staberius Flavianus II suff. Galeo Tettienus Petronianus (November–December) M. Fulvius Gillo 77 Imp. Caesar Vespasianus Augustus VIII (To 13 January or February) T. Caesar Vespasianus VI (January–June) suff. Caesar Domitianus V (13 January or February–June) suff. L. Pompeius Vopiscus C. Arruntius Catellius Celer (September–October) M. Arruntius Aquila suff. Cn. Julius Agricola (November–December) ignotus 78 D. Junius Novius Priscus (? Rufus) (January–April) L. Ceionius Commodus suff. Q. Corellius Rufus (September–October) L. Funisulanus Vettonianus suff. Sex. Vitulasius Nepos ignotus suff. Q. Articuleius Paetus ignotus 79 Imp. Caesar Vespasianus Augustus IX (To 13 January) T. Caesar Vespasianus VII (January–February) suff. Caesar Domitianus VI (13 January–February) suff. L. Junius Caesennius Paetus (March–June) P. Calvisius Ruso[115] suff. T. Rubrius Aelius Nepos (September–December) M. Arrius Flaccus 80 Imp. T. Caesar Vespasianus Augustus VIII (To 13 January) Caesar Domitianus VII suff. A. Didius Gallus Fabricius Veiento II (13 January–February) L. Aelius Lamia Plautius Aelianus (13 January–June) suff. Q. Aurelius Pactumeius Fronto (March–April) suff. C. Marius Marcellus Octavius Publius Cluvius Rufus (May–June) suff.[116] M. Atilius Postumus Bradua (July–August) Q. Pompeius Trio suff.[117] Sex. Neranius Capito (September–October) L. Acilius Strabo suff. M. Tittius Frugi (November–December) T. Vinicius Julianus 81 L. Flavius Silva Nonius Bassus (January–February) L. Asinius Pollio Verrucosus suff. M. Roscius Coelius (March–April) C. Julius Juvenalis suff. L. Vettius Paullus (May–June) T. Junius Montanus suff. C. Scoedius Natta Pinarius (July–August) T. Tettienus Serenus suff. L. Carminius Lusitanicus (September–October) M. Petronius Umbrinus 82 Imp. Caesar Domitianus Augustus VIII (To 13 January) T. Flavius Sabinus suff. [? Servaeus In]noc(ens) (13 January–February) L. Salvius Otho Cocceianus[117] suff. [ ... ]an(us)[118] (March–April) M'. Acilius Aviola[117] suff. [C. Arinius Mo]dest(us)[119] (May–June) ignotus suff.[120] P. Valerius Patruinus (July–August) L. Antonius Saturninus suff. M. Larcius Magnus Pompeius Silo (September–October) T. Aurelius Quietus 83[121] Imp. Caesar Domitianus Augustus IX (To 13 January) Q. Petillius Rufus[122] (January–February) suff. M. Annius Messalla (March–April) C. Fisius Sabinus suff. L. Tettius Julianus (May–June) Terentius Strabo Erucius Homullus suff. L. Calventius Sex. Carminius Vetus (September–October) M. Cornelius Nigrinus Curiatius Maternus 84 Imp. Caesar Domitianus Augustus X (To 13 January or ? February) C. Oppius Sabinus (January–February) suff. L. Julius Ursus (July–August) ignotus suff. C. Tullius Capito Pomponianus Plotius Firmus (September–October) C. Cornelius Gallicanus suff. ignotus Gallus[123] 85[124] Imp. Caesar Domitianus Augustus XI (January–February ) T. Aurelius Fulvus II suff. Q. Julius Cordinus C. Rutilius Gallicus II (March–April) L. Valerius Catullus Messallinus II suff. M. Arrecinus Clemens II (May–June) L. Baebius Honoratus suff. P. Herennius Pollio (July–August) M. Annius Herennius Pollio suff. D. Aburius Bassus (September–October) Q. Julius Balbus suff.[125] C. Salvius Liberalis Nonius Bassus (November–December) [? Cornelius] Orestes 86 Imp. Caesar Domitianus Augustus XII (To 13 January) Ser. Cornelius Dolabella Petronianus (January–February) suff. C. Secius Campanus[126] (13 January–February or April) suff. incertus (March–April)[126] Q. Vibius Secundus (March–April) suff. Sex. Octavius Fronto (May–August) Ti. Julius Candidus Marius Celsus suff. A. Bucius Lappius Maximus (September–December) C. Octavius Tidius Tossianus L. Javolenus Priscus 87 Imp. Caesar Domitianus Augustus XIII (To 13 January) L. Volusius Saturninus (January–April) suff. C. Calpurnius Piso Crassus Frugi Licinianus (13 January–April) suff. C. Bellicius Natalis Gavidius Tebanianus[127] (May–August) C. Ducenius Proculus suff. C. Cilnius Proculus (September–December) L. Neratius Priscus 88 Imp. Caesar Domitianus Augustus XIV (To 13 January) L. Minicius Rufus (January–April) suff. D. Plotius Grypus (13 January–April) suff. Q. Ninnius Hasta (May–August) L. Scribonius Libo Rupilius Frugi Bonus suff. M. Otacilius Catulus (September–December) Sex. Julius Sparsus 89 T. Aurelius Fulvus (January–April) M. Asinius Atratinus suff. P. Sallustius Blaesus (May–August) M. Peducaeus Saenianus suff. A. Vicirius Proculus (September–December) M'. Laberius Maximus 90 Imp. Caesar Domitianus Augustus XV (To 13 January) M. Cocceius Nerva II (January–February) suff. L. Cornelius Pusio Annius Messala (13 January–February) suff. L. Antistius Rusticus (March–April) Ser. Julius Servianus suff. Q. Accaeus Rufus (May–June) C. Caristanius Fronto suff. P. Baebius Italicus (July–August) C. Aquillius Proculus suff. L. Albius Pullaienus Pollio (September–October) Cn. Pinarius Aemilius Cicatricula Pompeius Longinus suff. M. Tullius Cerialis[128] (November–December) Cn. Pompeius Catullinus 91 M'. Acilius Glabrio (January–April) M. Ulpius Trajanus suff. D. Minicius Faustinus (May–August) P. Valerius Marinus suff. Q. Valerius Vegetus (September–December) P. Metilius Sabinus Nepos 92 Imp. Caesar Domitianus Augustus XVI (To 13 January) Q. Volusius Saturninus (January–April) suff. L. Venuleius Montanus Apronianus (13 January–April) suff. L. Stertinius Avitus (May–August) Ti. Julius Celsus Polemaeanus suff. C. Julius Silanus (September–December) Q. Junius Arulenus Rusticus 93[129] Sex. Pompeius Collega (January–April) Q. Peducaeus Priscinus suff.[130] T. Avidius Quietus (May–August) Sex. Lusianus Proculus suff. C. Cornelius Rarus Sextius Na(so?) (September–December) [? Tuccius Ceria]lis 94 L. Nonius Calpurnius Torquatus Asprenas (January–April) T. Sextius Magius Lateranus suff. M. Lollius Paulinus D. Valerius Asiaticus Saturninus (May–August) C. Antius A. Julius Quadratus suff. L. Silius Decianus (September–December) T. Pomponius Bassus 95 Imp. Caesar Domitianus Augustus XVII (To 13 January) T. Flavius Clemens (January–April) suff. L. Neratius Marcellus (13 January–April) suff. A. Bucius Lappius Maximus II (May–August) P. Ducenius Verus suff. Q. Pomponius Rufus (September–December) L. Baebius Tullus 96 C. Manlius Valens (January–April) C. Antistius Vetus suff. Q. Fabius Postuminus (May–August) T. Prifernius [Paetus] suff. Ti. Catius Caesius Fronto (September–December) M. Calpurnius [...]icus 97[131] Imp. Nerva Caesar Augustus III (January–February) L. Verginius Rufus III suff. Cn. Arrius Antoninus II (March–April ) (C.?) Calpurnius Piso suff. M. Annius Verus I (May–June) L. Neratius Priscus suff. L. Domitius Apollinaris (July–August ) Sex. Hermentidius Campanus suff. Q. Glitius Atilius Agricola (September–October) L. Pomponius Maternus[132] suff. P. Cornelius Tacitus (November–December) M. Ostorius Scapula[133] 98[134] Imp. Nerva Caesar Augustus IV (To 13 January) Imp. Caesar Nerva Trajanus II (January–June) suff. Cn. Domitius Afer Curvius Tullus II (13 January–31 January) suff. Sex. Julius Frontinus II (February) suff. L. Julius Ursus II (March) suff. T. Vestricius Spurinna II (April) suff. C. Pomponius Pius (May–June) suff. A. Vicirius Martialis (July–August) L. Maecius Postumus suff. C. Pomponius Rufus Acilius [Pri]scus Coelius Sparsus (September–October) Cn. Pompeius Ferox Licinianus suff.[135] Q. Fulvius Gillo Bittius Proculus (November–December) P. Julius Lupus 99 A. Cornelius Palma Frontonianus (January–?) Q. Sosius Senecio suff. P. Sulpicius Lucretius Barba (June–July) Senecio Memmius Afer suff. Q. Fabius Barbarus Valerius Magnus Julianus (August–?) A. Caecilius Faustinus suff. Ti. Julius Ferox[136] ignotus 100 Imp. Caesar Nerva Trajanus Augustus III (January) Sex. Julius Frontinus III (January–February) suff. L. Julius Ursus III (January–February) suff. M. Marcius Macer (March–April) C. Cilnius Proculus suff. L. Herennius Saturninus (May–June) Pomponius Mamilianus suff. Q. Acutius Nerva (July–August) L. Fabius Tuscus suff. C. Julius Cornutus Tertullus (September–October) C. Plinius Caecilius Secundus suff. L. Roscius Aelianus Maecius Celer (November–December) Ti. Claudius Sacerdos Julianus 2nd century (101–200)[edit] Year Consul prior Consul posterior 101[137] Imp. Caesar Nerva Trajanus Augustus IV (January) Q. Articuleius Paetus II (January–March) suff. Sex. Attius Suburanus Aemilianus (February–March) suff. C. Sertorius Brocchus Q. Servaeus Innocens (April–May) M. Maecius Celer suff. [...]us Proculus (Sometime between May and October) ignotus suff.[138] L. Arruntius Stella (Attested October) L. Julius Marinus Caecilius Simplex 102 L. Julius Ursus Servianus II (January–April) L. Licinius Sura II (January–February) suff. L. Fabius Justus (March–April) suff.[139] T. Didius Secundus (May–August) L. Publilius Celsus suff. L. Antonius Albus (September–December) M. Junius Homullus 103 Imp. Caesar Nerva Trajanus Augustus V (January) M'. Laberius Maximus II (January–March) suff. Q. Glitius Atilius Agricola II (January–March) suff. P. Metilius Nepos (April–June) Q. Baebius Macer suff. [? M. Flavius Ap]er[140] (July–September) C. Trebonius Proculus Mettius Modestus suff. (A?)nnius Mela (October–December) P. Calpurnius Macer Caulius Rufus 104 Sex. Attius Suburanus Aemilianus II M. Asinius Marcellus 105 Ti. Julius Candidus Marius Celsus II (January–March) C. Antius A. Julius Quadratus II suff. C. Julius Quadratus Bassus (May–August) Cn. Afranius Dexter (May–15 July) suff. Q. Caelius Honoratus (July–August) suff. M. Vitorius Marcellus (September–December) C. Caecilius Strabo 106 L. Ceionius Commodus Sex. Vettulenus Civica Cerialis suff. L. Minicius Natalis Q. Licinius Silvanus Granianus Quadronius Proculus 107 L. Licinius Sura III (January–February or April)[141] Q. Sosius Senecio II suff. Acilius Rufus[142] (March–April) suff. C. Minicius Fundanus (May–August) C. Vettennius Severus suff. C. Julius Longinus (September–December) C. Valerius Paullinus 108 Ap. Annius Trebonius Gallus (January–?) M. Appius Bradua suff. P. Aelius Hadrianus (attested 22 June) M. Trebatius Priscus suff.[143] Q. Pompeius Falco (Attested 27 July) M. Titius Lustricus Bruttianus 109 A. Cornelius Palma Frontonianus II (January–February) P. Calvisius Tullus Ruso (January–April) suff. L. Annius Largus (March–April) suff. Cn. Antonius Fuscus (May–August) C. Julius Antiochus Epiphanes Philopappus suff. C. Aburnius Valens (September–December) C. Julius Proculus 110 M. Peducaeus Priscinus (January–March) Ser. Cornelius Scipio Salvidienus Orfitus suff. C. Avidius Nigrinus (April–June) Ti. Julius Aquila Polemaeanus suff. L. Catilius Severus Julianus Claudius Reginus (July–September) C. Erucianus Silo suff. A. Larcius Priscus (October–December) Sex. Marcius Honoratus 111 C. Calpurnius Piso (January–April) M. Vettius Bolanus suff. T. Avidius Quietus (May–August) L. Eggius Marullus suff. L. Octavius Crassus (September–December) P. Coelius Apollinaris 112 Imp. Caesar Nerva Trajanus Augustus VI (January) T. Sextius Cornelius Africanus (January–March) suff. [M. ?] Licinius Ruso (January–March) suff. Cn. Pinarius Cornelius Severus (April–June) L. Mummius Niger Q. Valerius Vegetus suff. P. Stertinius Quartus (July–September) T. Julius Maximus Manlianus Brocchus Servilianus suff. C. Claudius Severus (October–December) T. Settidius Firmus 113 L. Publilius Celsus II (January) C. Clodius Crispinus (January–April) suff. Ser. Cornelius Dolabella Metilianus Pompeius Marcellus (February–April) suff. L. Stertinius Noricus (May–August) L. Fadius Rufinus suff. Cn. Cornelius Urbicus (September–December) T. Sempronius Rufus 114 Q. Ninnius Hasta (January–April) P. Manilius Vopiscus Vicinillianus suff. C. Clodius Nummus (May–August) L. Caesennius Sospes[144] suff. L. Hedius Rufus Lollianus Avitus (September–December) M. Messius Rusticus[145] 115 L. Vipstanus Messalla (January–April) M. Pedo Vergilianus (January) suff. T. Statilius Maximus Severus Hadrianus (February–April) suff. L. Julius Frugi (May–August) P. Juventius Celsus T. Aufidius Hoenius Severianus suff. M. Pompeius Macrinus Neos Theophanes (September–December) T. Vibius Varus 116[146] L. Fundanius Lamia Aelianus (January–March) Sex. Carminius Vetus suff. Ti. Julius Secundus (April–June) M. Egnatius Marcellinus suff. D. Terentius Gentianus (July–September) L. Co[...][147] suff. L. Statius Aquila (October–December) C. Julius Alexander Berenicianus 117 Q. Aquilius Niger (January–? March) M. Rebilus Apronianus suff. L. Cossonius Gallus (Attested 16 August) P. Afranius Flavianus suff. ignotus (Attested 8 September) Cn. Minicius Faustinus 118[148] Imp. Caesar Trajanus Hadrianus Augustus II (January–June) Cn. Pedanius Fuscus Salinator (January–February) suff. Bellicius Tebanianus (March) suff. C. Ummidius Quadratus (Attested May) suff. L. Pomponius Bassus (Attested 9 July and 31 August) T. Sabinius Barbarus 119[149] Imp. Caesar Traianus Hadrianus Augustus III (January–April) P. Dasumius Rusticus (January–February) suff. A. Platorius Nepos (March–April) suff. M. Paccius Silvanus Q. Coredius Gallus Gargilius Antiquus (May–June) Q. Vibius Gallus suff. C. Herennius Capella (November–December) L. Coelius Rufus 120[150] L. Catilius Severus Julianus Claudius Reginus II T. Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus suff. C. Quinctius Certus Poblicius Marcellus (May–June) T. Rutilius Propinquus suff. C. Arminius Gallus[151] (Attested 19 October) C. Atilius Serranus 121 M. Annius Verus II (January–February) Cn. Arrius Augur suff. M. Herennius Faustus (March–April) Q. Pomponius Marcellus suff. T. Pomponius Antistianus Funisulanus Vettonianus (May–June) L. Pomponius Silvanus suff. M. Statorius Secundus (July–August) L. Sempronius Merula Auspicatus 122[148] M'. Acilius Aviola L. Corellius Neratius Pansa suff. Ti. Julius Candidus Capito (attested 17 July) L. Vitrasius Flamininus suff. C. Trebius Maximus (attested 18 November) T. Calestrius Tiro Orbius Speratus 123[152] Q. Articuleius Paetinus L. Venuleius Apronianus Octavius Priscus suff. T. Prifernius Geminus (Attested 16 June) P. Metilius Secundus suff. T. Salvius Rufinus Minicius Opimianus (Attested 10 August) Cn. Sentius Aburnianus 124[153] M'. Acilius Glabrio (January–April) C. Bellicius Flaccus Torquatus Tebanianus suff. A. Larcius Macedo (May–August) P. Ducenius Verres suff. C. Julius Gallus (September–December) C. Valerius Severus 125 M. Lollius Paulinus D. Valerius Asiaticus Saturninus II L. Titius Epidius Aquilinus suff. Q. Vetina Verus[154] (Attested 1 June) P. Lucius Cosconianus 126 M. Annius Verus III (January–February) C. Eggius Ambibulus suff. L. Valerius Propinquus (From 1 March) suff. L. Cuspius Camerinus (Attested 1 July) C. Saenius Severus 127 T. Atilius Rufus Titianus (January–March) M. Gavius Squilla Gallicanus suff. P. Tullius Varro (April) [D.?] Junius Paetus suff. Q. Tineius Rufus (May–September) M. Licinius Celer Nepos suff. L. Aemilius Juncus (October–December) Sex. Julius Severus 128 L. Nonius Calpurnius Torquatus Asprenas II (January) M. Annius Libo (January–March) suff. L. Caesennius Antoninus (February–March) suff. M. Junius Mettius Rufus (April–June) Q. Pomponius Maternus suff. L. Valerius Flaccus (July–September) M. [Junius Homullus ?][155] suff. A. Egrilius Plarianus (October–December) Q. [Planius Sardus Varius Ambibulus ?][156] 129 P. Juventius Celsus T. Aufidius Hoenius Severianus II (January–After 22 March) L. Neratius Marcellus II (January–? February) suff. Q. Julius Balbus (Attested 22 March) 130 Q. Fabius Catullinus (January–February) M. Flavius Aper suff. Cassius Agrippa (or Agrippinus) (Attested 19 March) Ti. Claudius Quartinus 131[157] Sergius Octavius Laenas Pontianus (January–April) M. Antonius Rufinus suff. L. Fabius Gallus (May–August) Q. Fabius Julianus 132 C. Junius Serius Augurinus (January–April) C. Trebius Sergianus suff. C. Acilius Priscus (September–December) A. Cassius Arrianus 133 M. Antonius Hiberus (January–April) P. Mummius Sisenna suff. Q. Flavius Tertullus (May–August) Q. Junius Rusticus suff. Ti. Claudius Atticus Herodes (September–December) P. Sufenas Verus 134 L. Julius Ursus Servianus III (January–March) T. Vibius Varus (January–April) suff. T. Haterius Nepos (Attested 2 April) suff. P. Licinius Pansa (Attested September–December) L. Attius Macro 135 L. Tutilius Lupercus Pontianus (January–April) P. Calpurnius Atilianus (Atticus Rufus?) suff. M. Cutius Priscus Messius Rusticus Aemilius Papus Arrius Proculus Julius Celsus (May–August) L. Burbuleius Optatus Ligarianus suff. P. Rutilius Fabianus (September–December) Cn. Papirius Aelianus Aemilius Tuscillus 136[158] L. Ceionius Commodus Sex. Vettulenus Civica Pompeianus 137 L. Aelius Caesar II P. Coelius Balbinus Vibullius Pius 138[159] Kanus Junius Niger (January–March) C. Pomponius Camerinus suff. M. Vindius Verus (April–June) P. Pactumeius Clemens (in absentia) suff. P. Cassius Secundus (October–December) Marcus Nonius Mucianus 139 Imp. Caesar T. Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Augustus Pius II (January–April) C. Bruttius Praesens L. Fulvius Rusticus II suff. L. Minicius Natalis Quadronius Verus (July–August) L. Claudius Proculus suff. ignotus (September–October) C. Julius Scapula suff. M. Ceccius Justinus (November–December) C. Julius Bassus 140 Imp. Caesar T. Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Augustus Pius III (January) M. Aurelius Caesar (January–April) suff. Q. Antonius Isauricus (May) L. Aurelius Flaccus suff. Julius Crassipes (Between June and October) ignotus suff. M. Barbius Aemilianus (November–December) T. Flavius Julianus 141 T. Hoenius Severus (January–February) M. Peducaeus Stloga Priscinus suff. C. Julius Pisibanus (May–June) (Larcius?) Lepidus suff. T. Caesernius Statianus (September–October) ignotus suff. L. Annius Fabianus (November–December) ignotus 142[160] L. Cuspius Pactumeius Rufinus (January–March) L. Statius Quadratus suff. L. Granius Castus (April–June) Ti. Junius Julianus suff. M. Cornelius Fronto (July–August) C. Laberius Priscus suff. L. Tusidius Campester (September–October) Q. Cornelius Senecio Annianus suff. [? Sulpicius] Julianus (November–December) T. Julius Castus 143 C. Bellicius Flaccus Torquatus (January–March) L. Vibullius Hipparchus Ti. Claudius Atticus Herodes suff. Q. Junius Calamus (Attested 7 August) M. Valerius Junianus 144 L. Hedius Rufus Lollianus Avitus (January–February) T. Statilius Maximus suff. L. Aemilius Carus (Attested 19 March) Q. Egrilius Plarianus suff. ignotus (Attested 7 September) Q. Laberius Licinianus suff. L. Marcius Celer M. Calpurnius Longus (Attested 18 December) D. Velius Fidus 145 Imp. Caesar T. Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Augustus Pius IV (January–February) M. Aurelius Caesar II suff. L. Plautius Lamia Silvanus (March–April) L. Poblicola Priscus suff. Cn. Arrius Cornelius Proculus (May–June) D. Junius (Paetus?) suff. Q. Mustius Priscus (July–August) M. Pontius Laelianus suff. L. Petronius Sabinus (September–October) C. Vicrius Rufus suff. C. Fadius Rufus (November–December) P. Vicrius 146 Sex. Erucius Clarus II (January–February) Cn. Claudius Severus Arabianus (January–April) suff. Q. Licinius Modestinus (Sex.?) Attius Labeo (March–April) suff. P. Mummius Sisenna Rutilianus (May–June) T. Prifernius Paetus Rosianus Nonius Agricola C. Labeo Tetius Geminus suff. Cn. Terentius Homullus Iunior (July–August) L. Aurelius Gallus suff. Q. Voconius Saxa Fidus (September–October) C. Annianus Verus suff. L. Aemilius Longus (November–December) Q. Cornelius Proculus 147 C. Prastina Messalinus (January–March) L. Annius Largus suff. A. Claudius Charax (April–June) Q. Fuficius Cornutus suff. Cupressenus Gallus (July–September) Q. Cornelius Quadratus suff. Sex. Cocceius Severianus Honorinus (October–December) Ti. Licinius Cassius Cassianus (October–?) suff. C. Popilius Carus Pedo (To December) 148 L. Octavius Cornelius P. Salvius Julianus Aemilianus (January–March) C. Bellicius Calpurnius Torquatus suff. Satyrius Firmus (April–June) C. Salvius Capito suff. L. Coelius Festus (July–September) P. Orfidius Senecio suff. C. Fabius Agrippinus (October–December) M. Antonius Zeno 149 L. Sergius Salvidienus Scipio Orfitus[161] (January–? February) Q. Pompeius Sosius Priscus suff. Q. Passienus Licinus (Attested 5 July) C. Julius Avitus 150 M. Gavius Squilla Gallicanus (January–February) Sex. Carminius Vetus suff. --]mus (Attested 27 May) C. La[berius Priscus][162] suff. M. Cassius Apollinaris (Attested 1 August) M. Petronius Mamertinus 151 Sex. Quintilius Condianus (January–March) Sex. Quintilius Valerius Maximus suff. M. Cominius Secundus (Attested 24 September) L. Attidius Cornelianus suff. C. Curtius Justus (Attested 2 October) P. Julius Nauto 152 M'. Acilius Glabrio Cn. Cornelius Severus (January–March) M. Valerius Homullus suff. P. Sufenas [? Verus] (April–June) L. Dasumius Tullius Tuscus suff. C. Novius Priscus (July–September) L. Julius Romulus suff. P. Cluvius Maximus Paulinus (October–December) M. Servilius Silanus 153 L. Fulvius Rusticus C. Bruttius Praesens (January–March) A. Junius Rufinus suff. Sex. Caecilius Maximus[163] (April–June) M. Pontius Sabinus suff. P. Septimius Aper (July–September) M. Sedatius Severianus Julius Acer Metilius Nepos Rufinus Ti. Rutilianus Censor suff. C. Cattius Marcellus (October–December) Q. Petiedius Gallus 154 L. Aelius Aurelius Commodus I (January–March) T. Sextius Lateranus suff. [Prifernius ?] Paetus (April–June) M. Nonius Macrinus suff. M. Valerius Etruscus (?)[164] (July–August) L. [Aemilius Iuncus ?][165] suff. Ti. Claudius Julianus (September–October) Sex. Calpurnius Agricola suff. C. Julius Statius Severus (November–December) T. Junius Severus 155 C. Julius Severus (January–March) M. Junius Rufinus Sabinianus suff. C. Aufidius Victorinus (April–June) M. Gavius ...[166] suff. Antius Pollio (Attested 3 November) Minicius Opimianus[167] suff. [? D. Rupilius] Severus (Attested 11 December) L. Julius T. Statilius Severus 156 M. Ceionius Silvanus (January–February) C. Serius Augurinus suff. A. Avillius Urinatius Quadratus (Attested 7–14 March) Strabo Aemilianus suff. Q. Canusius Praenestinus (Attested 13 December) C. Lusius Sparsus 157 M. Vettulenus Civica Barbarus (January–March) M. Metilius Aquillius Regulus Nepos Volusius Torquatus Fronto suff. L. Roscius Aelianus (April-? June) Cn. Papirius Aelianus suff. C. Julius Commodus Orfitianus (Attested 28 September) C. Caelius Secundus suff. Q. Vilius Proculus[168] (Attested 6 December) Q. [...]binus 158 Sextus Sulpicius Tertullus (January–March ?) Q. Tineius Sacerdos Clemens suff. M. Servilius Fabianus Maximus (Attested 8 July) Q. Iallius Bassus suff. Q. Pomponius Musa (Attested 27 December) L. Cassius Juvenalis 159 Plautius Quintillus (January–March) M. Statius Priscus Licinius Italicus suff. M. Pisibanius Lepidus (April–June) L. Matuccius Fuscinus suff. Publius Cornelius Dexter (July–September) ignotus suff. A. Curtius Crispinus (October–December) ignotus 160 Appius Annius Atilius Bradua (January–February) T. Clodius Vibius Varus suff. A. Platorius Nepos Calpurnianus (March–April) M. Postumius Festus suff. [? C. Septimius] Severus[169] (May–June) [...] Flavus[170] suff. C. Prastina Pacatus (July–September) M. Censorius Paulus[171] suff. Ti. Oclatius Severus (October–December) [Q.?] Ninnius Hastianus (October-?) suff. [... N]ovius Sabinianus (Attested 18 December) 161 M. Aurelius Caesar III (1–13 January or 31 January) L. Aelius Aurelius Commodus II suff. M. Annius Libo (13 or 31 January–? March) Q. Camurius Numisius Junior suff. [? Julius] Geminus Capellianus (Attested 26 October) T. Flavius Boethus 162[172] Q. Junius Rusticus II L. Titius Plautius Aquilinus suff.[173] Ti. Claudius Paullinus (Attested 23 August) Ti. Claudius Pompeianus suff. D. Fonteius Frontinianus L. Stertinius Rufus ignotus suff. M. Insteius Bithynicus ignotus 163 M. Pontius Laelianus A. Junius Pastor L. Caesennius Sospes 164 M. Pompeius Macrinus P. Juventius Celsus suff. Ti. Haterius Saturninus (Attested 19 and 21 July) Q. Caecilius Avitus 165[160] M. Gavius Orfitus L. Arrius Pudens 166 Q. Servilius Pudens L. Fufidius Pollio suff. M. Vibius Liberalis (Attested 23 March) P. Martius Verus 167 Imp. Caesar L. Aurelius Verus Augustus III M. Ummidius Quadratus suff. Q. Caecilius Dentilianus (Attested 5 May) M. Antonius Pallas 168 L. Venuleius Apronianus Octavius Priscus II L. Sergius Paullus II suff. Q. Tullius Maximus[174] ignotus 169 Q. Pompeius Senecio Sosius Priscus P. Coelius Apollinaris 170 C. Erucius Clarus M. Gavius Cornelius Cethegus suff. T. Hoenius Severus ignotus 171 T. Statilius Severus L. Alfidius Herennianus 172 Ser. Calpurnius Scipio Orfitus Sex. Quintilius Maximus suff. C. Modius Justus ignotus 173 Cn. Claudius Severus II Ti. Claudius Pompeianus II 174 L. Aurelius Gallus Q. Volusius Flaccus Cornelianus suff. M. Aemilius Macer Saturninus ignotus 175 L. Calpurnius Piso P. Salvius Julianus suff. P. Helvius Pertinax M. Didius Severus Julianus 176 T. Pomponius Proculus Vitrasius Pollio II M. Flavius Aper II 177 L. Aelius Aurelius Commodus Caesar I M. Peducaeus Plautius Quintillus 178 Ser. Cornelius Scipio Salvidienus Orfitus D. Velius Rufus (Julianus?) 179 Imp. Caesar L. Aelius Aurelius Commodus Augustus II P. Martius Verus II suff.[175] T. Flavius Claudianus (Attested 21 March) L. Aemilius Iuncus suff.[176] M'. Acilius Faustinus (Attested 1 April) L. Julius Proculianus 180 L. Fulvius Rusticus C. Bruttius Praesens II Sex. Quintilius Condianus 181[177] Imp. Caesar L. Aurelius Commodus Augustus III L. Antistius Burrus 182 M. Petronius Sura Mamertinus Q. Tineius Rufus suff. (?) Aurelianus (Attested 15 May) (L. Attidius?) Cornelianus 183 Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Commodus Antoninus Augustus IV C. Aufidius Victorinus II suff. L. Tutilius Pontianus Gentianus (Attested 8 February) ignotus suff. M. Herennius Secundus (Attested 13 and 20 May) M. Egnatius Postumus suff. T. Pactumeius Magnus (After 20 May) L. Septimius Flaccus 184 L. Cossonius Eggius Marullus Cn. Papirius Aelianus suff. C. Octavius Vindex (Attested 18 May) Cassius Apronianus[178] 185 Triarius Maternus Lascivius Ti. Claudius M. Ap. Atilius Bradua Regillus Atticus 186 Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Commodus Antoninus Augustus V M'. Acilius Glabrio II suff. L. Novius Rufus (Attested 25 May) L. Annius Ravus[179] suff. C. Sabucius Maior Caecilianus (Attested 24 and 27 November) Valerius Senecio 187 L. Bruttius Quintius Crispinus L. Roscius Aelianus Paculus 188 P. Seius Fuscianus II M. Servilius Silanus II 189 Dulius Silanus Q. Servilius Silanus suff. Severus (Attested 27 May) Vitellius 190 Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Commodus Antoninus Augustus VI M. Petronius Sura Septimianus suff. L. Septimius Severus (May–?) Apuleius Rufinus[180] 191 Popilius Pedo Apronianus M. Valerius Bradua Mauricus 192 Imp. Caesar L. Aelius Aurelius Commodus Augustus VII P. Helvius Pertinax II 193[181] Q. Pompeius Sosius Falco C. Julius Erucius Clarus Vibianus suff. Q. Tineius Sacerdos (March) P. Julius Scapula Priscus suff. M. Silius Messala (May) ignotus suff. L. Julius Messala Rutilianus (July) C. Aemilius Severus Cantabrinus suff. L. Fabius Cilo Septiminus Catinius Acilianus Lepidus Fulcinianus[182] 194 Imp. Caesar L. Septimius Severus Pertinax Augustus II D. Clodius Septimius Albinus Caesar II suff. C. Gabinius Barbarus Pompeianus ignotus 195 P. Julius Scapula Tertullus Priscus Q. Tineius Clemens 196 C. Domitius Dexter II L. Valerius Messalla Thrasea Priscus 197 T. Sextius Magius Lateranus Cuspius Rufinus[183] 198 P. Martius Sergius Saturninus L. Aurelius Gallus suff. Q. Anicius Faustus[184] ignotus 199 P. Cornelius Anullinus II M. Aufidius Fronto 200 Ti. Claudius Severus Proculus C. Aufidius Victorinus 3rd century (201–300)[edit] Year Consul prior Consul posterior 201 L. Annius Fabianus M. Nonius Arrius Mucianus 202 Imp. Caesar L. Septimius Severus Pertinax Augustus III Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Antoninus Augustus suff.[185] T. Murrenius Severus C. Cassius Regallianus 203 C. Fulvius Plautianus P. Septimius Geta II 204 L. Fabius Cilo Septiminus Catinius Acilianus Lepidus Fulcinianus II M. Annius Flavius Libo suff. L. Pomponius Liberalis[186] ignotus 205 Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Antoninus Augustus II P. Septimius Geta Caesar 206 M. Nummius Umbrius Primus Senecio Albinus L. Fulvius Gavius Numisius Petronius Aemilianus suff.[187] P. Tullius Marsus (Attested 10 December) M. Caelius Faustinus 207 L. Annius Maximus[188] C. Septimius Severus Aper 208 Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Antoninus Augustus III P. Septimius Geta Caesar II 209 L. Aurelius Commodus Pompeianus Q. Hedius Lollianus Plautius Avitus 210 M'. Acilius Faustinus A. Triarius Rufinus 211 Hedius Lollianus Terentius Gentianus Pomponius Bassus 212 C. Julius Asper II C. Julius Camilius Asper suff. (Cn. Claudius ?) Severus (May - June) (Ti. Claudius ?) Pompeianus 213 Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Severus Antoninus Augustus IV D. Caelius Calvinus Balbinus II 214 L. Valerius Messalla C. Octavius Appius Suetrius Sabinus 215 Q. Maecius Laetus II M. Munatius Sulla Cerialis 216 P. Catius Sabinus II P. Cornelius Anullinus 217 C. Bruttius Praesens T. Messius Extricatus II 218 Imp. Caesar M. Opellius Severus Macrinus Augustus II M. Oclatinius Adventus suff. Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (from 8 June) 219 Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Antoninus Augustus II Q. Tineius Sacerdos II 220 Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Antoninus Augustus III P. Valerius Comazon 221 C. Vettius Gratus Sabinianus M. Flavius Vitellius Seleucus 222 Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Antoninus Augustus IV M. Aurelius Alexander Caesar I 223 L. Marius Maximus Perpetuus Aurelianus II L. Roscius Aelianus Paculus Salvius Julianus 224 Ap. Claudius Julianus II C. Bruttius Crispinus 225 Ti. Manilius Fuscus II Ser. Calpurnius Domitius Dexter 226 Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Severus Alexander Augustus II C. Aufidius Marcellus II 227 M. Nummius Senecio Albinus M. Laelius Fulvius Maximus Aemilianus 228 Q. Aiacius Modestus Crescentianus II M. Pomponius Maecius Probus 229 Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Severus Alexander Augustus III L. Claudius Cassius Dio Cocceianus II 230 L. Virius Agricola Sex. Catius Clementinus Priscillianus 231 L. Ti. Claudius Pompeianus T. Flavius Sallustius Paelignianus 232 L. Virius Lupus Julianus L. Marius Maximus 233 L. Valerius Maximus . . . Acilius Priscillianus Cn. Cornelius Paternus 234 M. Clodius Pupienus Maximus II M. Munatius Sulla Urbanus[189] 235 Cn. Claudius Severus L. Ti. Claudius Quintianus 236[190] Imp. Caesar C. Julius Verus Maximinus Augustus M. Pupienus Africanus Maximus 237 L. Marius Perpetuus L. Mummius Felix Cornelianus 238 [? L.] Fulvius Pius Pontius Proculus Pontianus 239 Imp. Caesar M. Antonius Gordianus Augustus M'. Acilius Aviola 240 C. Octavius Appius Suetrius Sabinus II L. Ragonius Venustus 241 Imp. Caesar M. Antonius Gordianus Augustus II Clodius Pompeianus 242 C. Vettius Gratus Atticus Sabinianus C. Asinius Lepidus Praetextatus 243 L. Annius Arrianus C. Cervonius Papus 244 Ti. Pollienus Armenius Peregrinus Fulvius Aemilianus 245 Imp. Caesar M. Julius Philippus Augustus C. Maesius Titianus 246 C. Bruttius Praesens C. Allius Albinus[191] 247 Imp. Caesar M. Julius Philippus Augustus II M. Julius Severus Philippus Caesar 248 Imp. Caesar M. Julius Philippus Augustus III Imp. Caesar M. Julius Severus Philippus Augustus II 249 L. Fulvius Gavius Numisius Aemilianus II L. Naevius Aquilinus 250 Imp. Caesar C. Messius Quintus Trajanus Decius Augustus II C. Vettius Gratus 251 Imp. Caesar C. Messius Quintus Trajanus Decius Augustus III Q. Herennius Etruscus Messius Decius Caesar 252 Imp. Caesar C. Vibius Trebonianus Gallus Augustus II Imp. Caesar C. Vibius Volusianus Augustus 253 Imp. Caesar C. Vibius Volusianus Augustus II L. Valerius Poplicola Balbinus Maximus 254 Imp. Caesar P. Licinius Valerianus Augustus II Imp. Caesar P. Licinius Gallienus Augustus 255 Imp. Caesar P. Licinius Valerianus Augustus III Imp. Caesar P. Licinius Gallienus Augustus II 256 L. Valerius Maximus . . . Acilius Priscillianus II M. Acilius Glabrio 257 Imp. Caesar P. Licinius Valerianus Augustus IV Imp. Caesar P. Licinius Gallienus Augustus III 258 M. Nummius Tuscus Mummius Bassus 259 (Nummius) Aemilianus (Dexter) Pomponius Bassus I 260 P. Cornelius Saecularis II C. Junius Donatus II Imp. Caesar M. Cassianius Latinius Postumus Augustus II (Gaul) Honoratianus (Gaul)[192] 261 Imp. Caesar P. Licinius Gallienus Augustus IV L. Petronius Taurus Volusianus Imp. Caesar M. Cassianius Latinius Postumus Augustus III (Gaul) Imp. Caesar Fulvius Macrianus Augustus II (East) Imp. Caesar Fulvius Quietus Augustus (East) 262 Imp. Caesar P. Licinius Gallienus Augustus V Nummius Faustianus 263 M. Nummius Albinus II Dexter (Maximus?) 264 Imp. Caesar P. Licinius Gallienus Augustus VI Saturninus 265 P. Licinius Valerianus II Lucillus 266 Imp. Caesar P. Licinius Gallienus Augustus VII Sabinillus 267 Ovinius Gaius Julius Aquilius Paternus Arcesilaus Imp. Caesar M. Cassianius Latinius Postumus Augustus IV (Gaul) M. Piavonius Victorinus I (Gaul) 268 Aspasius Paternus II P. Licinius Egnatius Marinianus Imp. Caesar M. Cassianius Latinius Postumus Augustus V (Gaul) 269 Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Claudius Augustus Paternus Imp. Caesar M. Piavonius Victorinus II (Gaul) Sanctus (Gaul) 270 Flavius Antiochianus II Virius Orfitus Imp. Caesar M. Piavonius Victorinus II (Gaul) 271 Imp. Caesar L. Domitius Aurelianus Augustus I Pomponius Bassus II Imp. Caesar C. Pius Esuvius Tetricus Augustus I (Gaul) 272 T. Flavius Postumius Quietus Junius Veldumnianus Imp. Caesar C. Pius Esuvius Tetricus Augustus II (Gaul) 273 M. Claudius Tacitus I Julius Placidianus Imp. Caesar C. Pius Esuvius Tetricus Augustus III (Gaul) 274 Imp. Caesar L. Domitius Aurelianus Augustus II Capitolinus 275 Imp. Caesar L. Domitius Aurelianus Augustus III (Aurelius?) Marcellinus[193] 276 Imp. Caesar M. Claudius Tacitus Augustus II (Fulvius?) Aemilianus 277 Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Probus Augustus I Paulinus 278 Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Probus Augustus II Virius Lupus 279 Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Probus Augustus III Nonius Paternus II 280 (Lucius Valerius?) Messalla (Vettius?) Gratus 281 Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Probus Augustus IV Junius Tiberianus 282 Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Probus Augustus V Victorinus 283 Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Carus Augustus II Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Carinus Augustus I 284 Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Carinus Augustus II Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Numerianus Augustus suff. Imp. Caesar C. Valerius Diocletianus Augustus I (November–December ) (?) L. Caesonius Ovinius Rufinus Manilius Bassus II (November–December ) 285 Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Carinus Augustus III (West) T. Claudius Aurelius Aristobulus Imp. Caesar C. Valerius Diocletianus Augustus II (East)[194] 286 M. Junius Maximus II Vettius Aquilinus 287 Imp. Caesar C. Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus Augustus III Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Valerius Maximianus Augustus I 288 Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Valerius Maximianus Augustus II Pomponius Januarianus suff. ... a ... ivianus[195] Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Mausaeus Carausius II (Britain) 289 M. Magrius Bassus (January -June)[196] L. Ragonius Quintianus (January–June) suff. M. Umbrius Primus (July–August ) T. Flavius Coelianus (July–August ) suff. M. Ceionius Proculus (September–October ) Helvius Clemens (September–October) suff. Flavius Decimus (November–December ) ... ninius Maximus (November–December ) Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Mausaeus Carausius III (Britain) 290 Imp. Caesar C. Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus Augustus IV Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Valerius Maximianus Augustus III Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Mausaeus Carausius IV (Britain) 291 C. Junius Tiberianus II Cassius Dio 292 Afranius Hannibalianus Julius Asclepiodotus 293 Imp. Caesar C. Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus Augustus V Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Valerius Maximianus Augustus IV 294 Flavius Valerius Constantius Caesar I C. Galerius Valerius Maximianus Caesar I 295 Nummius Tuscus C. Annius Anullinus 296 Imp. Caesar C. Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus Augustus VI Flavius Valerius Constantius Caesar II 297 Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Valerius Maximianus Augustus V C. Galerius Valerius Maximianus Caesar II 298 Anicius Faustus II Virius Gallus 299 Imp. Caesar C. Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus Augustus VII Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Valerius Maximianus Augustus VI 300 Flavius Valerius Constantius Caesar III C. Galerius Valerius Maximianus Caesar III 4th century (301–395)[edit] Year Consul prior Consul posterior 301 T. Flavius Postumius Titianus II Virius Nepotianus 302 Flavius Valerius Constantius Caesar IV C. Galerius Valerius Maximianus Caesar IV 303 Imp. Caesar C. Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus Augustus VIII Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Valerius Maximianus Augustus VII 304 Imp. Caesar C. Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus Augustus IX Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Valerius Maximianus Augustus VIII 305 Flavius Valerius Constantius Caesar V C. Galerius Valerius Maximianus Caesar V 306 Flavius Valerius Constantius Augustus VI C. Galerius Valerius Maximianus Augustus VI 307 M. Aurelius Valerius Maximianus Augustus IX (West) Flavius Valerius Constantinus Caesar (West) Flavius Valerius Severus Augustus (East) Galerius Valerius Maximinus Caesar (East) C. Galerius Valerius Maximianus Augustus VII (Rome, January–April) Galerius Valerius Maximinus Caesar (Rome, January–April) 308 M. Aurelius Valerius Maximianus Augustus X (West) C. Galerius Valerius Maximianus Augustus VII (West) C. Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus senior Augustus X (East) C. Galerius Valerius Maximianus Augustus VII (East) M. Aurelius Valerius Maxentius Augustus (Rome, April–December) Valerius Romulus I (Rome, April–December) 309 Valerius Licinianus Licinius Augustus Flavius Valerius Constantinus Augustus M. Aurelius Valerius Maxentius Augustus II (Rome) Valerius Romulus II (Rome) 310 Tatius Andronicus Pompeius Probus M. Aurelius Valerius Maxentius Augustus III (Rome) 311 C. Galerius Valerius Maximianus Augustus VIII Galerius Valerius Maximinus Augustus II C. Caeionius Rufius Volusianus (Rome, from September) Aradius Rufinus (Rome, from September) 312 Flavius Valerius Constantinus Augustus II Valerius Licinianus Licinius Augustus II M. Aurelius Valerius Maxentius Augustus IV (Rome) 313 Flavius Valerius Constantinus Augustus III Valerius Licinianus Licinius Augustus III Galerius Valerius Maximinus Augustus III (Rome, Egypt, inter alios) 314 C. Caeionius Rufius Volusianus II Petronius Annianus 315 Flavius Valerius Constantinus Augustus IV Valerius Licinianus Licinius Augustus IV 316 Antonius Caecina Sabinus C. Vettius Cossinius Rufinus 317 Ovinius Gallicanus Caesonius Bassus (from February) 318 Valerius Licinianus Licinius Augustus V Flavius Julius Crispus Caesar 319 Flavius Valerius Constantinus Augustus V Valerius Licinianus Licinius Caesar 320 Flavius Valerius Constantinus Augustus VI Flavius Claudius Constantinus Caesar 321 Flavius Julius Crispus Caesar II (West) Flavius Claudius Constantinus Caesar II (West) Valerius Licinianus Licinius Augustus VI (East) Valerius Licinianus Licinius Caesar II (East) 322 Petronius Probianus (West) Amnius Anicius Julianus (West) Post consulatum Licinii Augusti VI et Licinii Caesaris II (East) 323 Acilius Severus (West) Vettius Rufinus (West)[197] II post consulatum Licinii Augusti VI et Licinii Caesaris II (East) 324 Flavius Julius Crispus Caesar III Flavius Claudius Constantinus Caesar III 325 Valerius Proculus (January–May)[198] Sex. Anicius Paulinus suff. Julius Julianus (May–December)[199] 326 Flavius Valerius Constantinus Augustus VII Flavius Julius Constantius Caesar 327 Flavius Constantius L. Valerius Maximus Basilius 328 Flavius Januarinus Vettius Justus 329 Flavius Valerius Constantinus Augustus VIII Flavius Claudius Constantinus Caesar IV 330 Flavius Gallicanus Aurelius Valerius Tullianus Symmachus 331 Junius Annius Bassus Ablabius 332 Lucius Papius Pacatianus Maecilius Hilarianus 333 Flavius Dalmatius Domitius Zenophilus 334 Flavius Optatus Amnius M'. Caesonius Nicomachus Anicius Paulinus Honorius 335 Julius Constantius Caeionius Rufius Albinus 336 Virius Nepotianus Tettius Facundus 337 Flavius Felicianus T. Fabius Titianus 338 Flavius Ursus Flavius Polemius 339 Flavius Julius Constantius Augustus II Flavius Julius Constans Augustus 340 Septimius Acindynus L. Aradius Valerius Proculus Populonius 341 Antonius Marcellinus Petronius Probinus 342 Flavius Julius Constantius Augustus III Flavius Julius Constans Augustus II 343 M. Maecius Memmius Furius Baburius Caecilianus Placidus Flavius Romulus 344 Domitius Leontius (West and East) Flavius Bonosus (West, until April/May) Julius Sallustius (East, all year. West, after April/May) 345 Flavius Amantius M. Nummius Albinus 346 Flavius Julius Constantius Augustus IV Flavius Julius Constans Augustus III 347 Vulcacius Rufinus Flavius Eusebius 348 Flavius Philippus Flavius Salia 349 Ulpius Limenius Fabius Aconius Catullinus Philomathius 350 Flavius Sergius Flavius Nigrinianus 351 Flavius Magnus Magnentius Augustus (West) Gaiso (West) Post consulatum Sergii et Nigriniani (East) 352 Magnus Decentius Caesar (West) Paulus (West) Flavius Julius Constantius Augustus V (East) Flavius Claudius Constantius Caesar I (East) 353 Flavius Julius Constantius Augustus VI Flavius Claudius Constantius Caesar II 354 Flavius Julius Constantius Augustus VII Flavius Claudius Constantius Caesar III 355 Flavius Arbitio Q. Flavius Maesius Egnatius Lollianus Mavortius 356 Flavius Julius Constantius Augustus VIII Flavius Claudius Julianus Caesar 357 Flavius Julius Constantius Augustus IX Flavius Claudius Julianus Caesar II 358 Censorius Datianus Neratius Cerealis 359 Flavius Eusebius Flavius Hypatius 360 Flavius Julius Constantius Augustus X Flavius Claudius Julianus Caesar III 361 Flavius Taurus Flavius Florentius 362 Claudius Mamertinus Flavius Nevitta 363 Flavius Claudius Julianus Augustus IV Flavius Sallustius 364 Flavius Jovianus Augustus Varronianus 365 Flavius Valentinianus Augustus Flavius Valens Augustus 366 Flavius Gratianus Dagalaifus 367 Flavius Lupicinus Flavius Jovinus 368 Flavius Valentinianus Augustus II Flavius Valens Augustus II 369 Valentinianus Galates Flavius Victor 370 Flavius Valentinianus Augustus III Flavius Valens Augustus III 371 Flavius Gratianus Augustus II Sex. Claudius Petronius Probus 372 Domitius Modestus Flavius Arinthaeus 373 Flavius Valentinianus Augustus IV Flavius Valens Augustus IV 374 Flavius Gratianus Augustus III Flavius Equitius 375 Post consulatum Gratiani Augusti III et Equiti 376 Flavius Valens Augustus V Flavius Valentinianus iunior Augustus I 377 Flavius Gratianus Augustus IV Flavius Merobaudes I 378 Flavius Valens Augustus VI Flavius Valentinianus iunior Augustus II 379 Decimius Magnus Ausonius Q. Clodius Hermogenianus Olybrius 380 Flavius Gratianus Augustus V Flavius Theodosius Augustus 381 Flavius Syagrius Flavius Eucherius 382 Claudius Antonius Afranius Syagrius 383 Flavius Merobaudes II Flavius Saturninus 384 Flavius Ricomer Flavius Clearchus 385 Flavius Arcadius Augustus Flavius Bauto 386 Flavius Honorius Flavius Euodius 387 Flavius Valentinianus iunior Augustus III Eutropius 388 Flavius Merobaudes III (West, until Jan. 11) Flavius Theodosius Augustus II Magnus Maximus Augustus II (West, from Jan. 11) sine collega Flavius Theodosius Augustus II (East) Maternus Cynegius (East) 389 Flavius Timasius Flavius Promotus 390 Flavius Valentinianus iunior Augustus IV Flavius Neoterius 391 Flavius Eutolmius Tatianus Q. Aurelius Symmachus 392 Flavius Arcadius Augustus II Flavius Rufinus 393 Flavius Theodosius Augustus III (West and East) Flavius Eugenius Augustus (West) Flavius Abundantius (East) 394 Virius Nicomachus Flavianus (West) sine collega Flavius Arcadius Augustus III (East) Flavius Honorius Augustus II (East) 395 Anicius Hermogenianus Olybrius Anicius Probinus Roman Consuls of East and West (396–534)[edit] In 395, the Roman Empire was divided into a Western Roman Empire and an Eastern Roman Empire, and thereafter the separate courts each appointed one consul. Western Consuls continued to be appointed after the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476. Year Eastern Consul Western Consul 396 Flavius Arcadius Augustus IV Flavius Honorius Augustus III 397 Flavius Caesarius Nonius Atticus 398 Flavius Eutychianus Flavius Honorius Augustus IV 399 Eutropius Flavius Mallius Theodorus 400 Aurelianus Flavius Stilicho 401 Flavius Vincentius Flavius Fravitta (Fravitus) 402 Flavius Arcadius Augustus V Flavius Honorius Augustus V 403 Flavius Theodosius Augustus I Flavius Rumoridus 404 Aristaenetus Flavius Honorius Augustus VI 405 Flavius Anthemius Flavius Stilicho II 406 Flavius Arcadius Augustus VI Anicius Petronius Probus 407 Flavius Theodosius Augustus II Flavius Honorius Augustus VII 408 Anicius Auchenius Bassus Flavius Philippus 409 Flavius Theodosius Augustus III Flavius Honorius Augustus VIII Flavius Claudius Constantinus Augustus (Britannia/Gaul) 410 Varanes Tertullus 411 Flavius Theodosius Augustus IV sine collega 412 Flavius Theodosius Augustus V Flavius Honorius Augustus IX 413 Heraclianus Flavius Lucius 414 Flavius Constantius Flavius Constans 415 Flavius Theodosius Augustus VI Flavius Honorius Augustus X 416 Flavius Theodosius Augustus VII Junius Quartus Palladius 417 Flavius Honorius Augustus XI Flavius Constantius II 418 Flavius Theodosius Augustus VIII Flavius Honorius Augustus XII 419 Flavius Monaxius Flavius Plinta 420 Flavius Theodosius Augustus IX Flavius Constantius III 421 Flavius Eustathius Flavius Agricola 422 Flavius Theodosius Augustus X Flavius Honorius Augustus XIII 423 Flavius Asclepiodotus Flavius Avitus Marinianus 424 Flavius Castinus Victor 425 Johannes Augustus (West) Flavius Theodosius Augustus XI Placidus Valentinianus Caesar 426 Flavius Theodosius Augustus XII Flavius Placidus Valentinianus Augustus II 427 Flavius Hierius Flavius Ardaburius 428 Flavius Taurus Flavius Felix 429 Flavius Florentius Flavius Dionysius 430 Flavius Theodosius Augustus XIII Flavius Placidus Valentinianus Augustus III 431 Anicius Auchenius Bassus Flavius Antiochus 432 Flavius Valerius Flavius Aëtius 433 Flavius Theodosius Augustus XIV Petronius Maximus 434 Flavius Ardaburius Aspar Flavius Areobindus 435 Flavius Theodosius Augustus XV Flavius Placidus Valentinianus Augustus IV 436 Flavius Anthemius Isidorus Flavius Senator 437 Flavius Sigisvultus Flavius Aëtius II 438 Flavius Theodosius Augustus XVI Anicius Acilius Glabrio Faustus 439 Flavius Theodosius Augustus XVII Festus 440 Flavius Anatolius Flavius Placidus Valentinianus Augustus V 441 Flavius Taurus Seleucus Cyrus sine collega 442 Flavius Dioscorus Flavius Eudoxius 443 Flavius Paterius Petronius Maximus II 444 Flavius Theodosius Augustus XVIII Caecina Decius Aginatius Albinus 445 Flavius Nomus Flavius Placidus Valentinianus Augustus VI 446 Flavius Aetius III (West) Q. Aurelius Symmachus 447 Flavius Ardaburius iunior Flavius Calepius 448 Flavius Zeno Rufius Praetextatus Postumianus 449 Flavius Astyrius (West) Flavius Flor(entius?) Romanus Protogenes 450 Gennadius Avienus Flavius Placidus Valentinianus Augustus VII 451 Flavius Marcianus Augustus VI Valerius Faltonius Adelfius 452 Flavius Sporacius Flavius Bassus Herculanus 453 Flavius Rufius Opilio Iohannes Vincomalus 454 Flavius Aëtius[200] Flavius Studius (East) 455 Procopius Anthemius Flavius Placidus Valentinianus Augustus VIII 456 Eparchius Avitus Augustus (West) sine collega Johannes (East) Varanes (East) 457 Flavius Constantinus Flavius Rufus (East) 458 Flavius Leo Augustus Julius Valerius Majorianus Augustus 459 Flavius Patricius Flavius Ricimer 460 Flavius Magnus Flavius Apollonius 461 Flavius Dagalaiphus Flavius Severinus 462 Flavius Valerius Leo Augustus II Libius Severus Augustus 463 Flavius Antoninus Messala Vivianus Caecina Decius Basilius 464 Anicius Olybrius Flavius Rusticius 465 Flavius Hermenericus Flavius Basiliscus 466 Flavius Valerius Leo Augustus III Tatianus (Gaul) 467 Flavius Pusaeus Flavius Johannes (East) 468 sine collega Procopius Anthemius Augustus II 469 Flavius Zeno Flavius Marcianus 470 Messius Phoebus Severus (West) Flavius Jordanes 471 Flavius Valerius Novus Leo Augustus IV Caelius Aconius Probianus 472 Rufius Postumius Festus Flavius Marcianus II 473 Flavius Valerius Leo Augustus V sine collega 474 Flavius Leo iunior Augustus sine collega 475 Flavius Zeno Augustus II Post consulatum Leonis iunioris Augusti (West) 476 Flavius Basiliscus Augustus II Flavius Armatus 477 Post consulatum Basilisci Augusti II et Armati 478 Illus sine collega 479 Flavius Zeno Augustus III sine collega 480 sine collega Caecina Decius Maximus Basilius iunior[201] 481 sine collega Rufius Achilius Maecius Placidus 482 Flavius Appalius Illus Trocundes Severinus iunior 483 Post consulatum Trocundis (East) Anicius Acilius Aginantius Faustus iunior 484 Flavius Theodericus Decius Marius Venantius Basilius 485 Post consulatum Theoderici (East) Q. Aurelius Memmius Symmachus iunior 486 Flavius Longinus Caecina Mavortius Basilius Decius iunior 487 Post consulatum Longini (East) Nar. Manlius Boëthius 488 Claudius Julius Ecclesius Dynamius Rufius Achilius Sividius 489 Flavius Eusebius Petronius Probinus 490 Flavius Longinus II Anicius Probus Faustus iunior 491 Flavius Olybrius Iunior sine collega 492 Flavius Anastasius Augustus Flavius Rufus[202] 493 Flavius Eusebius II Flavius Albinus iunior 494 Flavius Turcius Rufius Apronianus Asterius Flavius Praesidius 495 sine collega Flavius Viator[203] 496 Flavius Paulus Post consulatum Viatoris (West) 497 Flavius Anastasius Augustus II II post consulatum Viatoris (West) 498 Johannes Scytha Flavius Paulinus 499 Flavius Johannes qui est Gibbus Post consulatum Paulini (West) 500 Flavius Patricius Flavius Hypatius 501 Flavius Pompeius Flavius Avienus iunior 502 Flavius Probus Rufius Magnus Faustus Avienus iunior 503 Flavius Dexicrates[204] Flavius Volusianus[204] 504 sine collega Rufius Petronius Nicomachus Cethegus 505 Flavius Sabinianus Flavius Theodorus 506 Flavius Areobindus Dagalaiphus Areobindus Flavius Ennodius Messala 507 Flavius Anastasius Augustus III Venantius iunior 508 Flavius Celer Basilius Venantius iunior 509 sine collega Flavius Inportunus iunior 510 sine collega Anicius Manlius Severinus Boëthius iunior 511 Flavius Secundinus Felix 512 Flavius Paulus Flavius Moschianus (East) 513 Taurus Clementinus Armonius Clementinus Flavius Probus 514 Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus Senator sine collega 515 Procopius Anthemius Flavius Florentius[204] 516 sine collega Flavius Petrus 517 Flavius Anastasius Paulus Probus Sabinianus Pompeius Anastasius Flavius Agapitus 518 Flavius Anastasius Paulus Probus Moschianus Probus Magnus Post consulatum Agapiti (West) 519 Flavius Justinus Augustus Eutharicus Cillica 520 Flavius Vitalianus Flavius Rusticius[204] 521 Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Justinianus Flavius Valerius 522 Flavius Symmachus (West) Flavius Boëthius (West) 523 sine collega Flavius Anicius Maximus 524 Flavius Justinus Augustus II Venantius Opilio 525 Flavius Theodorus Philoxenus Soterichus Philoxenus Flavius Probus iunior 526 sine collega Flavius Olybrius iunior 527 sine collega Vettius Agorius Basilius Mavortius 528 Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Justinianus Augustus II Post consulatum Mavortii (West) 529 sine collega Flavius Decius Iunior; II post consulatum Mavortii (Gaul) 530 Flavius Lampadius[204] Rufius Gennadius Probus Orestes 531 Post consulatum Lampadii et Orestis Post consulatum Lampadii et Orestis 532 II post consulatum Lampadii et Orestis II post consulatum Lampadii et Orestis 533 Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Justinianus Augustus III III post consulatum Lampadii et Orestis (West) 534 Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Justinianus Augustus IV Flavius Decius Paulinus iunior Roman Consuls of the East alone (535–887)[edit] During the reign of Justinian I (527–565), the position of consul altered in two significant ways. From 535, there was no longer a Roman consul chosen in the West. In 541, the separate office of Roman consul was abolished.[205] When used thereafter, the office was with few exceptions used as part of the imperial title. The office was finally abolished as part of the Basilika reforms of Leo VI the Wise in 887.[206] Year Eastern Roman Consul 535[207] Flavius Belisarius 536 Post consulatum Belisarii 537 II post consulatum Belisarii 538 Flavius Marianus Michaelius Gabrielius Archangelius Johannes[208] 539 Flavius Strategius Apion Strategius Apion 540 Flavius Mar. Petrus Theodorus Valentinus Rusticius Boraides Germanus Justinus 541 Anicius Faustus Albinus Basilius iunior 566 Flavius Justinus Augustus 568 Flavius Justinus Augustus II 579 Flavius Tiberius Constantinus Augustus 583 Flavius Mauricius Tiberius Augustus 603 Flavius Phocas Augustus 611 Flavius Heraclius Augustus 613 Flavius Heraclius Novus Constantinus Augustus 615 Leontius (honorary) 639 Flavius Constantinus Heraclius Augustus 642 Flavius Constantinus Augustus 656 Theodosius,[209] Paulus[209] 668 Flavius Constantinus Augustus 686 Flavius Justinianus Augustus[210][211] 699 Tiberius Augustus 711 Philippicus Augustus[212] 714 Anastasius Augustus 718 Leo Augustus 742 Constantinus Augustus 776 Leo Augustus 782 Constantinus Augustus 803 Nicephorus Augustus 814 Leo Augustus 821 Michael Augustus 830 Theophilus Augustus 843 Michael Augustus 867 Basilius Augustus 887 Leo Augustus References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g "Consules", in Harper's Dictionary of Classical Antiquities. ^ a b c d e f g "Consul" in A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. ^ Broughton, The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, vol. I, pp. xi, xii. ^ "Dictator" in Harper's Dictionary of Classical Antiquities. ^ Broughton, The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, vol. I, pp. xi, xii, 141, 148, 149, 163, 171. ^ Livy, History of Rome, iii. 32 ff. ^ "Decemviri" in Harper's Dictionary of Classical Antiquities. ^ a b "Tribunus" in Harper's Dictionary of Classical Antiquities. ^ Livy, History of Rome, vi. 42, vii. 1. ^ Broughton, The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, vol. I, pp. 108–114. ^ Anthony Grafton and Noel Swerdlow, "Technical Chronology and Astrological History in Varro, Censorinus, and Others", Classical Quarterly, N.S. 35 (1985), p. 454-65 ^ Lendering, Jona (2008). "Varronian Chronology". Livius.Org. ^ Tacitus, Historiae, 3.37 ^ The evidence for this is collected in Lily Ross Taylor and T. Robert S. Broughton, "The Order of the Two Consuls' Names in the Yearly Lists", Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome, 19 (1949), pp. 3-14 ^ Taylor, "Augustan Editing in the Capitoline Fasti", pp. 73–80. ^ Roger S. Bagnall, et alia, Consuls of the later Roman Empire, Philological Monographs #36 (Atlanta: American Philological Association, 1987), pp. 13-18 ^ The fasti for the Gallic consuls under Postumus are incomplete, with the names of some ordinary consuls known, but not the year they served — see Martindale et al., Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire (1971), p. 1041. ^ Both Livy (ii.8.5) and Dionysius of Halicarnassus (iv.1.2, iv.12.3, iv.19.2) assign 5 consuls to the first year of the Republic; however Polybius (iii.22.1), a historian considered very reliable and having access to an older tradition, names only Brutus and Horatius as consuls for this year. Various theories have been offered to explain this contradiction. For example, Gary Forsythe argues that Polybius accurately reports the names of the first pair of consuls, while Livy and Dionysius follow "the later annalistic tradition". (Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome (Berkley: University of California, 2005), p. 153) ^ These consuls are omitted by Livy, likely due to confusion with the consuls of 506 BC ^ So Dionysius of Halicarnassus (v.36.1) and others. Livy (ii.15.1), however, names another pair: P. Lucretius and P. Valerius Poplicola. Alan Samuel explains this difference as Lucretius being an error for Larcius, due to confusion with Poplicola's colleague in 508 and 504 BC. (Samuel, Greek and Roman Chronology (Muenchen: Beck'sche, 1972), p. 256) ^ This pair of consuls as well as those of 489 BC are omitted by Livy. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp bq br bs bt bu bv bw bx by bz ca cb cc cd ce cf The order of these consuls was reversed in the Fasti Capitolini after Augustus and other patricians falsified the list in order to enhance the prestige of their ancestors (by placing them as consuls prior). Cf. Taylor, "Augustan Editing in the Capitoline Fasti", pp. 73–80. ^ So the Fasti Capitolini; both Livy and Dionysisus of Halicarnassus call him simply C. Servilius. Diodorus Siculus (XI.52.1) names C. Cornelius Lentulus as the colleague of Mamercus (Samuel, Greek and Roman Chronology, p. 256) ^ Both Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus omit all mention of this suffect consul. ^ Aulus Gellius (17.21.13) names a different pair of consuls for this year: Menenius Agrippa and M. Horatius Pulvillus. B.W. Frier suggests his source may have been the Chronica of Cornelius Nepos, "who is cited three times in this passage". (Frier, "Licinius Macer and the Consules Suffecti of 444 B. C.", Transactions of the American Philological Association, 105 (1975), p. 84) ^ So Dionysius of Halicarnassus (IX.37.2) and Fasti Capitolini, which Livy admits is an alternative to the man he names as Mamercus' colleague, Opet. Verginius (II.54.3). Diodorus Siculus (XI.65.1) names L. Stoudios Iulius as Mamercus' colleague. (Samuel, Greek and Roman Chronology, p. 256) ^ R. M. Ogilvie opens his article on the line containing the consuls for this year with the words "One of the outstanding puzzles of the Capitoline Fasti." ("The Consul of 458 B.C.", Hermes, 89 (1961), pp. 379-382) The Fasti Capitolini adds a suffect consul with the cognomen Carve[tus] or Carve[ntanus] for the suffect of this year; Livy (III.25.1) names only the consuls L. Minucius and C. Nautius for this year, as does Dionysius of Halicarnassus (X.22.1; XI.20.1); Diodorus Siculus XI.88.1 gives L. Minucius the cognomen Karoutianos; the late sources the Chronicle Pascal and the Fasti Hydratus both present the cognomen Atratinus. Based on these contradictory entries, Ogilvie notes that it "was the practice of the Annalists to collect together whatever material from whatever sources they could and to combine evidence from the tabulae pontificum, inscriptions, monuments and family tradition" and claims to have found here an example of such an interpolation. ^ Diodorus Siculus (XII.3.1) instead lists the consuls for this year as L. Quinctius Cincinnatus and M. Fabius Vibulanus ^ Livy mentions Claudius and Genucius as being elected consuls, but resigning to allow the Decemviri to take office (III.33); Diodorus Siculus mentions them only as Decemviri (XII.23.1). ^ Two different praenomina have been reported for this person: Publius and Servius. If he was P. Sulpicius Camerinus Cornutus, he would be identical with an officer who fought the Volscians in 446 BC under the consuls Quinctius and Furius; if he was Ser. Sulpicius Camerinus Cornutus, he would be identical with the consul of 461 BC; in either case, this Decemvir was one of three ambassadors sent to Greece to study their laws. (Broughton, Magistrates of the Roman Republic, vol. 1, p. 46 n. 4, p. 51 and note) ^ Three different praenomina have been reported for this person: Spurius, Lucius, and Titus. If he was T. Veturius Crassus Cicurinus, he would be identical with the consul of 462 BC; if he was C. Veturius Crassus Cicurinus (in Old Roman cursive, "C", "S" and "L" are similar enough that it is not unreasonable to assume they could be confused), he would be identical with the consul of 455 BC. (Broughton, Magistrates of the Roman Republic, vol. 1, p. 46 n. 3 ^ His praenomen is not preserved in Fasti Capitolini, but ancient authors disagree. Livy gives "Marcus" and later "Lucius", Diodorus Siculus gives "Caius", and Dionysius of Halicarnassus gives "Marcus". (Broughton, Magistrates of the Roman Republic, vol. 1, p. 47 n. 3) ^ Livy (IV.7.10) adds this pair of consuls, based on Macer's reading of the libri lintei; however they are not mentioned by Diodorus Siculus, and according to Cicero these two consuls became Rome's first pair of censors the following year. As a result modern authorities eliminate the consuls, the consular tribunes, or attempt to fit both into 444 BC. B.W. Frier argues that this textual issue "reflects an important historiographic conflict in the late Roman Republic." (Frier, "Licinius Macer", p. 79; this is the thesis of his article.) ^ Livy (IV.12.6) records his praenomen as Lucius, while Diodorus Siculus (XII.36.1) gives it as Titus. ^ Livy (IV.23.1–3) states Gaius Julius Iullus and Lucius Verginius Tricostus were re-elected consuls, based on the testimony of Licinius Macer, while admitting Valerius Antias and Aelius Tubero both report M. Manlius Capitolinus and Q. Sulpicius Camerinus Praetextatus as consuls. Diodorus (XII.53.1) includes Manlius and Sulpicius with Ser. Cornelius Cossus as Consular Tribunes for the year. Broughton: "Of the three possibilities listed ... it seems least likely that the consuls of 435 continued in office this year. The second pair of Consuls are repeated in the other tradition which reported Military Tribunes with consular powers." (Magistrates of the Roman Republic, vol. 1, p. 62 n. 1) ^ Cicero (De Re Publica 2.60), when referring to the consul of this year, calls him P. Papirius while Diodorus Siculus (xii, 72.1) calls him C. Papirius ^ Diodorus Siculus (XII.77.1) inserts the pair L. Quinctius Cincinnatus and A. Sempronius Atratinus between the consuls of 428 and 427 BC. ^ So Diodorus Siculus (XII.82.1), whose reading is favored by Broughton; Livy names this consular tribune Naevius Rutilius, but in another passage (IV.35.6) states all four consular tribunes are Patricians, and in a third passage (IV.44.13) calls him Nautius Rutilus. ^ So Broughton (Magistrates of the Roman Republic, vol. 1, p. 69) following Degrassi, which is the praenomen Livy (IV.43.1) gives; the Fasti Capitolini has "N." which is a much more common praenomen for the gens Fabii than Gnaeus. This praenomen would also indicate he is identical to the consular tribune of 415 and 407 BC, N. Fabius Vibulanus. ^ Livy (IV.44.1) calls him L. Quinctius Cincinnatus III; the Fasti Capitolini reads [...] Cincinnatus II which would indicate he was T. Quinctius Pennus Cincinnatus II ^ So Diodorus Siculus (XIII.7.1); Livy has here Sp. Rutilius Crassus Cicurinus, but none of the Rutilii appear in the Fasti for the next 250 years, and neither do they use the praenomen Spurius or the cognomen Crassus. (Broughton, Magistrates of the Roman Republic, vol. 1, p. 73 n.1) ^ So Livy (IV.52.4), following Licinius Macer who attributed this reading to the libri lintei; Fasti derived from the Fasti Capitolini show it was Marcus Papirius Mugillanus. Ogilvie notes that "is the only instance of a Papirius being attributed the cognomen Atratinus which is common among, if not confined to, the Sempronii", and on this basis argues that "the original list of 411 will have been a college of three consular tribunes, Papirius, Sempronius and Nautius". (Ogilvie, "Consul of 458 BC", pp. 380f) ^ Livy (IV.61.4) instead has Gaius Fabius Ambustus, and treats him as a different person than the Consular Tribune of 401, 395 and 390 BC. ^ Livy adds to this college the two Censors M. Furius Camillus and M. Postumius Albinus Regillensis. (Broughton, Magistrates of the Roman Republic, vol. 1 p. 82 n. 1) ^ The Fasti Capitolini is damaged where the cognomen would appear; Broughton suggests three identifications: P. Cornelius Scipio (Consular tribune 395 BC), P. Cornelius Cossos (consular tribune 395 BC) or P. Cornelius Maluginensis (consular tribune 397 BC). (Magistrates of the Roman Republic, vol. 1, p. 90 n. 1) ^ Livy (5.29.2) omits all reference to Valerius and Cornelius, presenting L. Lucretius Tricipinus Flavus and Ser. Sulpicius Camerinus as the consules ordinaires for the year. ^ Livy (5.32.1) calls him M. Aemilius Mamercinus, indicating he is a different person than the four-time consular tribune of 389 BC forward. ^ Diodorus Siculus (XV.24.1) states that there were six consular tribunes this year, but Livy only lists five; Attilio Degrassi suggests either L. Cornelius or A. Manlius for the sixth member of this college; Broughton, based on the evidence of the Fasti Capitolini, suggests A. Manlius Capitolinus. (Broughton, Magistrates of the Roman Republic, vol. 1, p. 100 n. 1) ^ These are the nine consular tribunes the Fasti Capitolini lists for this year. Livy names only six (omitting C. Sulpicius Peticus, L. Aemilius Mamercinus, and Ti. Papirius Crassus), and Diodorus Siculus eight (omitting L. Papirius Mugillanus). Broughton notes, "Clearly Fast. Cap. has the most seriously interpolated tradition." (Magistrates of the Roman Republic, vol. 1 p. 106 n. 1) ^ a b These two consular tribunes are only known from Diodorus Siculus (XV.51.1). Broughton suggests "Erenucius" may be a corruption of "Genucius" or "Minucius". (Magistrates of the Roman Republic, vol. 1, p. 106 n. 1) ^ a b These two consular tribunes are only known from Livy (6.31.1) ^ Modern scholarly consensus is that the fasti for the fourth century was discovered to be missing several sets of eponymous magistrates, and explained this gap by stating elections were blocked by these two tribunes. See the discussions of T.J. Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome (London: Routeledge, 1995), pp. 399-402; and Forsythe, Critical History of Early Rome, pp. 368-70 ^ a b The Fasti Capitolini states C. Licinius Calvus was consul in 364 BC and C. Lincinius Stolo in 361 BC; however Livy reverses these two. ^ Livy (7.18.10) notes that "in some annals" M. Popillius Laenas appears instead of Quinctius. ^ Diodorus Siculus (XVI.59.1) reports instead the consuls for this year were M. Aemilius and T. Quinctius. ^ a b c d The years 333, 324, 309 and 301 BC come from the Fasti Capitolini, but are not evidenced in other authorities, such as Livy, Diodorus Siculus, or Cicero. A. Drummond has persuasively argued that they are the introduction of the antiquarian Titus Pomponius Atticus (whose work is better known as the Varronian Chronology, which was adopted by the Fasti Capitolini) both to fix the synchronization of the Battle of Allia to 390 BC, and to provide precedent for Julius Caesar's use of annual dictatorships. "The Dictator Years", Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, 27 (1978), pp. 550-572 ^ Broughton admits that the primary sources -- Livy, Diodorus Siculus, and the lists derived from the Fasti Capitolini -- "admit of four different identifications for Plautius and two for Cornelius". Plautius may be C. Plautius Proculus (cos. 358 BC); P. Plautius Proculus, an otherwise unattested son of the consul; C. Plautius Decianus (cos. 329 BC); or C. Plautius Venno/Vennox, a brother of the consul of 330 BC. Likewise, P. Cornelius could be P. Cornelius Scapula or P. Cornelius Scipio Barbatus. (Magistrates of the Roman Republic, vol. 1, p. 145 n. 1) ^ Livy (8.37.2-3) would prefer Aemilius to Aulius, but notes this form is found in some annals, and describes Aulius as consul iterum in 319 BC. ^ Livy (9.15.11) notes one source instead names as consul L. Papirius Mugillanus. ^ So Broughton; Munzer (De Gente Valeria 50, no. 50 and 38, n. 8) identifies this M. Valerius Maximus with M. Valerius Maximus Corvinus, consul in 312 and 289 BC. For the period 289-285 BC the only authorities for this list are late sources such as the "Chronography of 354", Fasti Hydratus and the Pascal Chronicle, which are often corrupt. (Magistrates of the Roman Republic, vol. 1, p. 186 n. 1) ^ For some reason Laevinus and Scaevola never entered office, and in their place Catulus and Philo served as consuls. (Broughton, Magistrates of the Roman Republic, vol. 1, p. 235) ^ Killed before taking office. Cf. Broughton, vol. I, pp. 253, 257 (note 1). ^ Election declared invalid. Cf. Broughton, vol. I, pp. 254, 257 (note 3). ^ Unless otherwise noted, consuls from 100 BC through 81 BC are taken from Thomas Robert Shannon Broughton, The Magistrates of the Roman Republic. Philological Monograph No. 15. New York: American Philological Association, 1951 ^ Unless otherwise noted, consuls from 80 BC through 1 BC are taken from Ronald Syme, The Augustan Aristocracy (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986), pp. 455-458 ^ Metellus died early in 68 BC; Vatia was elected to replace him, but Vatia died before he could enter office and Marcius continued as sole consul. (Dio 36.4.1; Broughton, Magistrates vol. II p. 137) ^ P. Cornelius Sulla and P. Antonius Paetus were elected consuls, but both were convicted of bribery under the Calpurnian Law. L. Aurelius Cotta and L. Manlius Torquatus were their replacements ^ a b c Dates of succession for this year are taken from John Bodel, "Chronology and Succession 2: Notes on Some Consular Lists on Stone", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 105 (1995), p. 285 ^ Dates of succession for this year are taken from Bodel, "Chronology and Succession", p. 280 ^ a b Dates of succession for this year are taken from Bodel, "Chronology and Succession", p. 287 ^ Dates of succession for this year are taken from Darryl A. Phillips, "The Conspiracy of Egnatius Rufus and the Election of Suffect Consuls under Augustus", Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, 46 (1997), pp. 106f ^ Aulus Terentius Varro Murena was consul designate for 23 BC, but died before taking office – see Swan, Michael (1967). "The Consular Fasti of 23 B.C. and the Conspiracy of Varro Murena". Harvard Studies in Classical Philology. Harvard University Press. 71: 235–247. doi:10.2307/310766. JSTOR 310766. ^ Augustus was apparently intended to be the other consul ordinarius, but never took office. Dates of succession for this year are taken from Phillips, "Conspiracy of Egnatius Rufus", p. 107 ^ Dates of succession for this year are taken from Phillips, "Conspiracy of Egnatius Rufus", p. 107 ^ Dates of succession for this year are taken from Phillips, "Conspiracy of Egnatius Rufus", pp. 107f ^ Dates of succession for this year are taken from Bodel, "Chronology and Succession", p. 289 ^ Unless otherwise noted, consuls from AD 1 through AD 12 are taken from Ronald Syme, The Augustan Aristocracy, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986), pp. 455–458 ^ The consuls of this year are taken from Diana Gorostidi Pi, "Sui consoli dell’anno 13 d.C.: Nuovi dati dai fasti consulares Tusculani", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 189 (2014), pg 265–275 ^ Unless otherwise indicated, the names and dates for the years AD 14–36 are taken from Alison E. Cooley, The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy (Cambridge: University Press, 2012), pp.458-460 ^ Cooley indicates no suffect consuls for this year ^ Tacitus, Ann., IV, 28. ^ Der Neue Pauly, Stuttgardiae 1999, T. 12/2, c. 177 ^ The dates of the consuls in this year is taken from John Bodel, "Chronology and Succession 2: Notes on Some Consular Lists on Stone", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 105 (1995), p. 296 ^ First proposed by Hans-Georg Pflaum, and accepted by Ladislaus Vidman (Fasti Ostienses, 2nd edition, p. 68); Cooley offers as a possible alternative A. Didius Gallus although she also puts him in the last nundinium of 39. ^ Unless otherwise indicated, the names and dates for the years AD 37–40 are taken from Paul Gallivan, "The Fasti for the Reign of Gaius", Antichthon, 13 (1979), p. 66–69 ^ Unless otherwise indicated, the names and dates for the years AD 41-54 are taken from Gallivan, "The Fasti for the Reign of Claudius", Classical Quarterly, 28 (1978), pp. 407–426 ^ M. Christol and S. Demougin have shown that the colleague of P. Suillius Rufus is not the governor of Britain, but another member of the gens Ostoria ("Notes de prosopographie équestre", in Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 57 (1984), pp. 171-8). ^ Gallivan's source (Gaius Institutes, 3.63) does not indicate which months Cornelius held office. ^ In a re-examination of the primary source, Camodeca has shown that the consul "L. S[...]" is a phantom, and it has been removed from this list. ("I consoli del 43 e gli Antistii Veteres d'età claudia dalla riedizione delle Tabulae Herculanenses", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 140 (2002), pp. 227–236 ^ Camodeca concludes that the former reading, L. Oppius, is erroneous, and that the initial is certainly 'S', probably followed by 'p', but the name is definitely not Sex. This late occurrence of the praenomen indicates that the consul was probably descended from the praetor Spurius Oppius of 44 BC, and recalls the decemvir Spurius Oppius Cornicen. "I consoli del 43", pp. 230, 232, 233. ^ Suffect consuls for July–December Gallivan placed in 44 Camodeca moved to 47 ("Novità sui fasti consolari delle tavolette cerate della Campania", Publications de l'École française de Rome, 143 (1991), p. 52) ^ Giuseppe Camodeca, "I consoli del 43 e gli Antistii Veteres d'età claudia dalla riedizione delle Tabulae Herculanenses", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 140 (2002), pp. 234–236. ^ See Camodeca, "Novità sui fasti consolari", p. 52 ^ Giuseppe Camodeca argues that Gallivan mistakenly followed an error by the writer of Tabula Pompeiana 41, and combined the two Vipstani into one person; other wax tablets dated to that year show the two suffect consuls as separate people. ("Novità sui fasti consolari", p. 53) ^ Gallivan shows Aefulanus held his office in this year, but not which month. ^ Names and dates for 55 and 56 taken from Giuseppe Camodeca, "I consoli des 55–56 e un nuovo collega di seneca nel consolato: P. Cornelius Dolabella (TP.75 [=1401 +135)*", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 63 (1986), pp. 201–215. ^ Camodeca allocates January–April to Vetus, while Werner Eck, Historia, 24 (1975), pp. 338 ff. extends his tenure to June. ^ Unless otherwise indicated, the names and dates for the years 57-67 are taken from Gallivan, "Some Comments on the Fasti for the Reign of Nero", Classical Quarterly, 24 (1974), pp. 290–311 ^ Names and dates for 62 taken from Eck, "Miscellanea prosopographica", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 42 (1981), pp. 227 ff. ^ George Houston points out that this consul had no attested cognomen, and "Celsus" was added based on a preliminary reading of a wax table from Pompeii, CIL IV.3340.151. "P. Marius P.f., Cos. Ord. A.D. 62", ZPE 16 (1975), pp. 33–35 ^ Giuseppe Camodeca reads C. Junius Marullus ("I consoli degli anni di Nerone nelle 'Tabulae Herculanenses'", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 193 (2015), p. 277) ^ Camodeca reads P. Petronius Niger ("I consoli degli anni di Nerone", p. 276) ^ Gallivan, "Reign of Nero" followed Degrassi in assuming that the ordinary consul for this year was named "A. Licinius Nerva Silianus P. Pasidienus Firmus", a case of polyonymy. A military diploma published later (AE 1978, 658) shows they are two different people. ^ a b Gallivan, "Reign of Nero", placed Appius Annius Gallus and Severus in 66 and Marcus Annius Afrinus and Africanus in 67; however Camodeca published one of the Tabulae Herculei that shows Appius Annius Gallus and Severus were suffect consuls 4 November of an unknown year -- thus proving their office was in 67. (AE 1993, 460 = Bolletino del Centro internazionale per lo studio dei papiri ercolanesi, 23 (1993), 109-119) ^ Names and dates for this year are taken from Camodeca, "I consoli degli anni di Nerone", p. 281 ^ Names and dates for this year are taken from G. B. Townend, "The Consuls of A. D. 69/70", American Journal of Philology, 83 (1962), pp. 113–129 ^ Unless otherwise indicated, the names and dates for the years 70–96 are taken from Paul Gallivan, "The Fasti for A. D. 70–96", Classical Quarterly, 31 (1981), pp. 186–220 ^ a b Gallivan dated M. Ulpius Traianus (father of Trajan) to 70 based on his arrangement of the fragments of tablet E of the Fasti Ostienses (p. 187); however, subsequent recovery of fragments allowed Ladislav Vidman to date Ulpius Traianus' tenure to 72 (Vidman, Fasti Ostienses, pp. 73-75). AE 1978, 60 proves that C. Licinius Mucianus was suffect consul for that nundinium; redating Ulpius Traianus is the only change required. ^ The suffect consuls for September–October are attested in 80 by the Fasti Septempeda, a primary source. ^ This pair of suffects added from Camodeca, "Novità sui fasti consolari", pp. 57–62 ^ Gallivan ("Fasti for A. D. 70–96", pp. 206, 219) dated this pair of suffects to 30 December "71-72"; because Camodeca added the consuls for November–December 71, they are placed here. ^ All that survives of this suffect's name on the Fasti Feriarum Latinarum (CIL VI, 2242) ^ AE 1968, 7 restores this as "Sex. Iulius Fr]on[tinus", stating he is attested as suffect consul in June. ^ Grainger, John D. (2004). Nerva and the Roman Succession Crisis of AD 96–99. London: Routledge. p. 14. ISBN 0203218078. ^ See Syme, "P. Calvisius Ruso. One Person or Two?" Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 56 (1984), pp. 173-192 ^ Gallivan ("Fasti for A. D. 70–96", pp. 209, 219) dated this pair of suffects to "79-80"; this is the only open office in those two years, so he is placed here. ^ a b c Added from the Fasti Septempeda (AE 1998, 419) ^ All that survives of this suffect's name on the Fasti Ostienses (frag. Fa) ^ So Gallivan. Werner Eck suggests instead M. Mettius Modestus. "Epigraphische Untersuchungen zu Konsuln und Senatoren des 1.-3. Jh. n. Chr.", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 37 (1980), pp. 51-60 ^ CIL IX, 5420 dates Patruinus to this nundinium, and Werner Eck ("Epigraphische Untersuchungen zu Konsuln und Senatoren des 1.-3. Jh. n. Chr.", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 37 (1980), pp. 51-60) restores the deleted name as Saturninus'. ^ For the suffect consuls Gallivan placed in July/August of this year see List of undated Roman consuls and note. ^ This person is a puzzle. G.B. Townend stated he was the son of the suffect consul of 70 and 74, but that means the older Petillius either held the fasces late in life, or had his son very young. Gallivan suggests that this may actually be the third consulship of Petilius. (Gallivan, "The Fasti for A. D. 70–96", p. 212) ^ Syme first proposed the identification of this consul with M. Raecius Gallus ("Pliny the Procurator", Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, 73 (1969), pp. 201–236 [p. 229]). However, he later concluded that Publius Glitius Gallus "is on every count a better candidate" than Raecius ("P. Calvisius Ruso. One Person or Two?", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 56 (1984), pp. 173-192 [p. 175]). ^ Syme raised the possibility that L. Valerius Catullus Messallinus was the second consul ordinarius for this year Journal of Roman Studies, 43 (1953), p. 155), a suggestion shared by H. Nesselhauf (Gnomon 26 (1954), p. 270); however, Vidman has found an inscription which is dated a.d. X k. Februarias Imp. Domitiano XI, T. Aurelio Fulvo it(terum) co(n)sulibus, showing that Fulvus was the consul posterior for this year. (Fasti Ostienses, pp. 78f) ^ This pair of suffects taken from Eck and Pangerl, "Neue Diplome mit den Namen von Konsuln und Statthaltern", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 187 (2013), pp. 274f ^ a b Evidence is lacking to determine whether Campanus served until April, or an unknown person held the fasces in March and April. ^ So AE 2012, 1959; Gallivan "Bellicus", following CIL VI, 2065 ^ Or M. Tuccius Cerialis, a consular mentioned by Pliny (Epistulae, II.11.9) ^ Names and dates for this year are taken from Werner Eck, "Diplome, Konsuln und Statthalter: Fortschritte und Probleme der kaiserzeitlichen Prosopographie", Chiron, 34 (2004), pp. 35-44. ^ AE 2008, 1753 ^ Unless otherwise noted, the consuls for this year are taken from Fausto Zevi "I consoli del 97 d. Cr. in due framenti gia' editi dei Fasti Ostienses", Listy filologické / Folia philologica, 96 (1973), pp. 125–137 ^ All that survives of the consul's name on the Fasti ostienses is "..]us", which Zevi had plausibly restored as Lucius Licinius Sura. However, two more recently recovered fragments of military diplomas show that the name of this consul is L. Pomponius Maternus, who is otherwise unknown. (Eck and Pangerl, "Zwei Konstitutionen für die Truppen Niedermösiens vom 9. September 97", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 151 (2005), pp. 185-192 ^ So Zevi; Cooley offers no colleague for Tacitus. Peter Weiss has argued, based on more recently recovered evidence, that Scapula could have been suffect consul in September–October 99, or even later. (Weiss, "Weitere Diplomfragmente von Moesia Inferior", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 124 (1999), pp. 287-289 ^ Unless otherwise indicated, the names and dates for the years 98 - 100 are taken from Cooley, Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy, pp. 466f ^ This pair of suffects added from Vidman (Fasti Ostienses, p. 94), following Syme's suggestion (review of Degrassi, I Fasti Consolari dell' Impero Romano dal 30 Av anti Christo al 613 Dopo Christo in Journal of Roman Studies, 43 (1953), p. 154) ^ Placed in this year by Mommsen. ^ Unless otherwise indicated, the names and dates for the years 101 through 115 are taken from Cooley, Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy, pp. 467f ^ Added from Werner Eck, "Jahres- und Provinzialfastern der senatorischen Statthalter von 69/70 bis 138/139", Chiron, 12 (1982), p. 327 n.181 ^ Added from AE 2013, 650 ^ As proposed by Syme, "People in Pliny", Journal of Roman Studies, 58 (1968), pp. 139f ^ It is uncertain which ordinary consul Acilius Rufus replaced. ^ Fasti ostiensis reads ...] Rufu[s]; Attilo Degrassi and Vidman restore this name as "L. Acilius Rufus", while Ronald Syme restores it as "M. Acilius Rufus" (Syme, "Superior Suffect Consuls", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 58 (1985), pp. 239-242) ^ This pair of consuls added from AE 2004, 1898 ^ Added from Evgeni I. Paunov and Margaret M. Roxan, "The Earliest Extant Diploma of Thrace, AD 114 (=RMD I 14)", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 119 (1997), pp. 269–279. ^ The praenomen Marcus is attested by an inscription dated 1 September. (AE 1998, 1727) ^ Unless otherwise indicated, the names and dates for the years 116 and 117 are taken from Werner Eck, "Konsuln des Jahres 117 in Militärdiplomen Traians mit Tribunicia Potestas XX", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 185 (2013), pp. 235–238 ^ All that survives of the name on the Fasti ostienses. Suggested restorations include Q. Cornelius Senecio Annainus (favored by Cooley) and Q. Coelius Honoratus. (Vidman Fasti Ostienses, 2nd edition, p. 114) ^ a b The names and dates for this year are taken from Cooley, Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy, p. 469 ^ The names and dates for this year are taken from Werner Eck and Andreas Pangerl, "Neue Diplome mit den Namen von Konsuln und Statthaltern," Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 187 (2013), p. 282 ^ The names and dates for 120 and 121 are taken from Werner Eck and Andreas Pangerl, "Ein Consul Suffectus Q. Aburnius in drei fragmentarischen Diplomen", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 185 (2013), pp. 239–247 ^ W. Eck, A. Pangerl,"Neue Diplome aus der Zeit Hadrians für die beiden mösischen Provinzen", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 207 (2018), pp. 219-224 ^ The names and dates for this year are taken from Eck and Pangerl, "Neue Diplome," pp. 287f ^ Unless otherwise indicated, the names and dates for the years 124 through 130 are taken from Cooley, Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy, pp. 469f ^ Werner Eck and Andreas Pangerl had previously reconstructed the gentilium of this otherwise unknown person as "Accena", but a more recently discovered military diploma proved this is his correct name. Eck and Pangerl, "Eine Konstitution für das Herr von Moesia Inferior vom 1. Juni 125 in fünf Diplomen", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 188 (2014), pp. 245–249 ^ All that survives from the Fasti ostienses is the praenomen; Vidman suggests this restoration (Vidman, Fasti Ostienses, p. 118) ^ All that survives from the Fasti ostienses is the praenomen; Cooley suggests this restoration. ^ Unless otherwise noted, the names and dates for the consuls from 131 to 135 are taken from Werner Eck, Paul Holder and Andreas Pangerl, "A Diploma for the Army of Britain in 132 and Hadrian's Return to Rome from the East", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 174 (2010), p. 194. The structure of the nundinia presented for those years is also used here. ^ Unless otherwise indicated, the names and dates for the years 136 and 137 are taken from Cooley, Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy, p. 471 ^ Unless otherwise noted, consuls from 138 to 161 are taken from Werner Eck, "Die Fasti consulares der Regungszeit des Antoninus Pius, eine Bestandsaufnahme seit Géza Alföldys Konsulat und Senatorenstand" in Studia epigraphica in memoriam Géza Alföldy, hg. W. Eck, B. Feher, and P. Kovács (Bonn, 2013), pp. 69–90 ^ a b Werner Eck and Peter Weiß have shown a fragment of a military diploma proves that the suffect consuls previously allocated to 165 are correctly placed in 142. "Tusidius Campester, cos. suff. unter Antoninus Pius, und die Fasti Ostienses der Jahrec141/142 n. Chr.", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 134 (2001), pp. 251-260 ^ So Eck ("Die Fasti consulares", p.75) and James H. Oliver ("The Solonian Constitution and a Consul of A.D. 149", Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies, 13 (1972), pp. 103-107) separately. Alföldy identifies this consul with Servius Cornelius Scipio Salvidienus Orfitus, proconsul of Africa 163/164 (Konsulat und Senatorenstand, p. 153) ^ AE 1947, 59, as restored by Alföldy; Eck accepts this restoration. ^ Thus Ronald Syme and Alföldy. Fasti ostiensis reads ...]imus; Attilo Degrassi reads "C. Julius Maximus". (Eck, "Die Fasti consulares", p. 76) ^ Fasti ostiensis reads [...]cus; Eck restores the name as the legate of Legio III (Eck, "Die Fasti consulares", p. 77) ^ All that survives from the Fasti ostienses is the praenomen; Eck accepts this restoration by Alföldy. ^ Identified by Alföldy as M. Gavius Appalius Maximus. (Eck, "Die Fasti consulares", p. 77 n. 24) ^ The son of the son of the suffect consul of 123. (Eck, "Die Fasti consulares", p. 77) ^ Or Q. Virius Larcius Sulpicius, both suggested by Eck. The inscription these suggestions are based on, IGR III 667 reads Q. V[...]SV[...]clus. (Eck, "Die Fasti consulares", p. 79) ^ Eck suggests that he may be identical to C. Septimus Severus, proconsul of Africa. ^ All that survives of this suffect's name on the diploma CIL XVI, 130 ^ Ladislav Vidman, "Ein neuer Konsul des Jahres 160", Listy filologické / Folia philologica, 100 (1977), pp. 199–203 ^ Unless otherwise noted, consuls from 162 to 180 are taken from Géza Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand unter der Antoninen (Bonn: Rudolf Habelt Verlag, 1977), pp. 176-191 ^ W. Eck, A. Pangerl, "Eine neue Bürgerrechtskonstitution für die Truppen von Pannonia inferior aus dem Jahr 162 mit einem neuen Konsulnpaar", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 173 (2010), pp. 223-236 ^ P. A. Holder, Roman Military Diplomas V, (2006), p. 861 ^ C. Römer, "Diplom für einen Fußsoldaten aus Koptos vom 23. März 179", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 82 (1990), pp. 137–153 ^ Ioan Piso and Doina Benea, "Das Militärdiplom von Drobeta", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 56 (1984), pp. 263ff ^ Unless otherwise noted, consuls from 181 to 235 are taken from Paul M. M. Leunissen, Konsuln und Konsulare in der Zeit von Commodus bis Severus Alexander, (Amsterdam: Verlag Gieben, 1989), pp. 129-137 ^ David Stone Potter, The Roman Empire at bay, AD 180–395 (2006), pg. 72 ^ CIL VI, 2100 reads ..]vo or (nominative) ...]vus for Rufus' colleague. This is the most frequent restoration. ^ Leunissen disagrees with Dessau, Groag, and Barbieri that the gentilium of this suffect consul could be Atulenus. (Leunissen, Konsuln und Konsulare, p. 132 n. 20) ^ The suffects for this year are taken from Peter Weiß, "Konstitutionen eines toten Kaisers: Militärdiplome von Commodus aus dem Jahr 193 n. Chr.", PHAROS Studien zur griechisch-römischen Antike. Verlag Marie Leidorf GmbH, Rahden 2015. Verlag Marie Leidorf GmbH, Rahden 2015, pp. 273–280. ^ Fabius Cilo was possibly a colleague of Silius Messalla. Peter Weiß, p. 277. ^ The sources disagree on his praenomen: CIL XIII, 1754 attests "L.", while CIL VIII, 8937 attests "C." ^ Suffectus in absentia. It is uncertain which consul he replaced. (Leunissen, Konsuln und Konsulare, p. 134 and note) ^ This pair of suffect consuls taken from Werner Eck, "Prosopographische Bemerkungen zum Militärdiplom vom 20.12.202 n. Chr. Der Flottenpräfekt Aemilius Sullectinus und das Gentilnomen des Usurpators Regalianus", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 139 (2002), pp. 208–210. ^ Added from Leunissen, p. 238 ^ This pair is attested in M. M. Roxan, Roman Military Diplomas, 3: 1985–93 (1994), no. 188 ^ His praenomen was confirmed by Askold Ivantchik, Oleg Pogorelets and Rostislav Savvov, "A New Roman Military Diploma from the Territory of the Ukraine", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 163 (2007), pp. 255-262 ^ Andreas Krieckhaus, "Vater und Sohn. Bemerkungen zu den severischen consules ordinarii M. Munatius Sulla Cerialis und M. Munatius Sulla Urbanus", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 153 (2005), pp. 283-284 ^ Unless otherwise noted, consuls from 236 to 285 are taken from Alan E. Samuel, Greek and Roman Chronology (München: Beck'sch, 1972), pp. 272f ^ Cognomen restored from RMD-03, 199 ^ Olivier Hekster, Nicholas Zair, Rome and Its Empire, AD 193–284 (2008), pg. 117 ^ Bowman, Alan K. The Cambridge Ancient History: The Crisis of Empire, AD. 193–337, pg. 120 ^ Diocletian assumed the ordinary consulship in the east in opposition to Carinus in Rome – see Bagnall, Consuls of the Later Roman Empire (1987), pg. 105 ^ From the Fasti Caleni, as published in Bagnall, Roger S., et al., Consuls of the Later Roman Empire (1987), p. 110 ^ From the Fasti Caleni, as published in Bagnall, Roger S., et al., Consuls of the Later Roman Empire (1987), pp. 112–113 ^ Potentially related to Vettius Rufinus, consul of 316 AD, see discussion in Bagnall, Roger S., et al., Consuls of the Later Roman Empire (1987), p. 180 ^ Proculus seems to have fallen into disgrace and Iulianus appointed for him, see T. D. Barnes, in ZPE 21 (1976), p. 280 and T. D. Barnes, The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine, p. 102. Proculus could be identical with the proc. Africae in 319/320 AD, see Bagnall, Roger S., et al., Consuls of the Later Roman Empire (1987), p. 184. ^ Following p.Stras 137.20 and p.Stras 138.17 the first name could be Ionius instead of Julius, see discussion in Bagnall, Roger S., et al., Consuls of the Later Roman Empire (1987), p. 629f. ^ This Aëtius was not the general of the Western Empire, but comes domesticorum of the Eastern court. Bagnall, Roger S.; Cameron, Alan; Schwartz, Seth R.; Worp, Klaas A. Consuls of the later Roman Empire. Philological Monographs #36. American Philological Association, 1989, p. 443 ^ "the first consul designated by a barbarian king" according to Bagnall, Roger S.; Cameron, Alan; Schwartz, Seth R.; Worp, Klaas A. (1987). Consuls of the later Roman Empire. Philological Monographs #36. American Philological Association. p. 495. ISBN 1-55540-099-X. ^ Both consuls were Easterners – see Bagnall, Roger S.; Cameron, Alan; Schwartz, Seth R.; Worp, Klaas A. (1987). Consuls of the later Roman Empire. Philological Monographs #36. American Philological Association. p. 18. ISBN 1-55540-099-X. ^ '[P]resumably a westerner' – Bagnall, Roger S.; Cameron, Alan; Schwartz, Seth R.; Worp, Klaas A. (1987). Consuls of the later Roman Empire. Philological Monographs #36. American Philological Association. p. 524. ISBN 1-55540-099-X. ^ a b c d e Otherwise unknown ^ Vasiliev (1952), p. I 192. ^ Timothy Gregory, A History of Byzantium, (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2005), p. 227 ^ Unless otherwise noted, consuls from 535 through 613 are taken from Attilio Degrassi, I fasti consolari dell'Impero Romano dal 30 avanti Cristo al 613 dopo Cristo (Rome, 1952), pp. 99-106 ^ Latin-Greek Inscription (AE 2004, 01410) ^ a b Chapman, John. Buehler, Joe (ed.). "Catholic Encyclopedia: Maxiums of Constantinople, Saint". Eternal Word Television Network. ^ Bede (1999). Halsall, Paul (ed.). "Bede (673–734): Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation, Book V: Chapter VII". Medieval Sourcebook. Archived from the original on 2014-08-14. Retrieved 2008-01-17. ^ Justinian II adopted the title of consul for all the Julian years of his reign, consecutively numbered. ^ Thompson, Margaret (1940). "The American Excavations in the Athenian Agora: Eighteenth Report (Jul. – Sep., 1940): Some Unpublished Bronze Money of the Early Eighth Century". Hesperia. 9 (3): 358–380. doi:10.2307/146483. JSTOR 146483. Further reading[edit] Primary sources[edit] Baiterus, Georgius (1837). "Consulares Triumphalesque Romanorum ad Fidem Optimorum Auctorum". In von Orelli, Johann Caspar (ed.). M. Tullii Ciceronis opera quae supersunt omnia, ac deperditorum (in Latin). Volume 12. Turici: Typis Orelli, Fuesslini et Sociorum. B. Bargaglia and C. Grosso, I Fasti Ostienses, Itinerari Ostiensi 8 (1997). Attilio Degrassi. Fasti Capitolini. n.p.: G. B. Paravia, 1954 An English translation of one version of this primary source can be found on attalus.org Mommsen, Theodor; Pearse, Roger, eds. (2006) [1892]. "Part 8: List (fasti) of the consuls to 354 AD". Chronography of 354. The Tertullian Project. Ladislav Vidman (ed.), Fasti ostienses. First edition: Praha: Československá Akademie Věd, 1957. Second edition: Praha: Academia, 1982 Richard W. Burgess, "'Non Duo Antonini Sed Duo Augusti' The Consuls of 161 and the Origins and Traditions of the Latin Consular Fasti of the Roman Empire", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 132 (2000), pp. 259–290 Secondary sources[edit] Alföldy, Géza (1977). Konsulat und Senatorenstand unter den Antoninen (in German). Bonn: Habelt Verlag. Bagnall, Roger S.; Cameron, Alan; Schwartz, Seth R.; Worp, Klaas A. (1987). Consuls of the Later Roman Empire. Philological Monographs #36. American Philological Association. ISBN 1-55540-099-X. Broughton, Thomas Robert Shannon; Patterson, Marcia L. (Collaborator) (1986). The Magistrates of the Roman Republic. Philological Monograph No. 15. American Philological Association. ISBN 0-89130-811-3. Camodeca, Giuseppe (1986). "I consoli des 55–56 e un nuovo collega di seneca nel consolato: P. Cornelius Dolabella (TP.75 [=1401 +135)*". Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik (in Italian). 63: 201–215. Camodeca, Giuseppe (1991). "Epigrafia. Actes du Colloque international d'epigraphie latine en mémoire de Attilio Degrassi etc". Collection de l’ecole française de Rome 143 (in Italian). Rome: 45–74. Cite journal requires |journal= (help); |contribution= ignored (help) Degrassi, Attilio (1952). I fasti consolari dell'impero romano dal 30 avanti Cristo al 613 dopo Cristo (in Italian). Roma. Eck, Werner (1970). Senatoren von Vespasian bis Hadrian (in German). München: Beck. Eck, Werner (1975). "Ergänzungen zu den Fasti Consulares des 1. und 2. Jh.n.Chr". Historia (in German). 24: 324–344. Gallivan, Paul A. (1974). "Some Comments on the Fasti for the Reign of Nero". Classical Quarterly. New Series. 24 (2): 290–311. doi:10.1017/S0009838800032821. Gallivan, Paul A. (1978). "The Fasti for the Reign of Claudius". Classical Quarterly. 28 (2): 407–426. doi:10.1017/S0009838800034959. Ginsburg, Judith R. (1981). "Nero's Consular Policy". American Journal of Ancient History. 6 (1): 51–68. Leunissen, Paul (1989). Konsuln und Konsulare in der Zeit von Commodus bis Severus Alexander (in German). Amsterdam: Verlag Gieben. Mennen, Inge (2011). Power and Status in the Roman Empire, AD 193–284. BRILL. Peck, Harry Thurston, ed. (1897). "Consules". Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities (Second ed.). p. 406. Smith, William, ed. (1859). "Consul". A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (Second ed.). Boston: Little, Brown, and Company. pp. 352–356. Smith, William; Anthon, Charles, eds. (1886). "Fasti Consulares". A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (Third American Carefully Revised ed.). New York: Harper & Brothers, Publishers. pp. 1075–1092. Tortoriello, Annalisa (2004). I fasti consolari degli anni di Claudio (in Italian). Roma: Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei. 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en-wikipedia-org-2437	----	The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling - Wikipedia The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Novel by Henry Fielding Tom Jones Title page from the 1749 edition Author Henry Fielding Original title The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling Country England Language English Genre Novel Publisher Andrew Millar Publication date 28 February 1749 The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling, often known simply as Tom Jones, is a comic novel by English playwright and novelist Henry Fielding. It is a Bildungsroman and a picaresque novel. It was first published on 28 February 1749 in London and is among the earliest English works to be classified as a novel.[1] It is the earliest novel mentioned by W. Somerset Maugham in his 1948 book Great Novelists and Their Novels among the ten best novels of the world.[2] The novel is highly organised despite its length. Samuel Taylor Coleridge argued that it has one of the "three most perfect plots ever planned", alongside Oedipus Tyrannus and The Alchemist.[3] It became a best seller with four editions published in its first year alone.[4] It is generally regarded as Fielding's greatest book and as an influential English novel.[5] Contents 1 Plot 2 Style 3 Themes 4 List of characters 5 Adaptations and influences 6 See also 7 Bibliography 7.1 Editions 7.2 Critical collections 8 References 8.1 Sources 9 External links Plot[edit] The novel's events occupy eighteen books. The book opens with the narrator stating that the purpose of the novel will be to explore "human nature". The kindly and wealthy Squire Allworthy and his sister Bridget are introduced in their wealthy estate in Somerset. Allworthy returns from London after an extended business trip and finds an abandoned baby sleeping in his bed. He summons his housekeeper, Mrs Deborah Wilkins, to take care of the child. After searching the nearby village Mrs Wilkins is told about a young woman called Jenny Jones, a servant of a schoolmaster and his wife, as the most likely person to have committed the deed. Jenny is brought before the Allworthys and admits being the baby's mother, but she refuses to reveal the father's identity. Mr Allworthy mercifully removes Jenny to a place where her reputation will be unknown and tells his sister to raise the boy, whom he names Thomas, in his household. Two brothers, Dr Blifil and Captain Blifil, regularly visit the Allworthy estate. The doctor introduces the captain to Bridget in the hope of marrying into Allworthy's wealth. The couple soon marries. After the marriage, Captain Blifil begins to show a coldness to his brother, who eventually feels obliged to leave the house for London. He does, and, soon after, he dies "of a broken heart". Captain Blifil and his wife start to grow cool towards one another, and the former is found dead from apoplexy one evening after taking his customary evening stroll before dinner. By then, he has fathered a boy who grows up with the bastard Tom. Captain Blifil's son, known as Master Blifil, is a miserable and jealous boy who conspires against Tom. Tom grows into a vigorous and lusty yet honest and kind-hearted youth. He tends to be closer friends with the servants and gamekeepers than with members of the gentry. He is close friends with Black George, who is the gamekeeper. His first love is Molly, Black George's second daughter and a local beauty. She throws herself at Tom, who gets her pregnant and then feels obliged to offer her his protection. After some time, however, Tom finds out that Molly is somewhat promiscuous. He then falls in love with a neighbouring squire's lovely daughter, Sophia Western. Tom and Sophia confess their love for each other after Tom breaks his arm rescuing Sophia. Tom's status as a bastard causes Sophia's father and Allworthy to disapprove their love. This class friction gives Fielding an opportunity for biting social commentary. The inclusion of prostitution and sexual promiscuity in the plot was also novel for its time, and it was the foundation for criticism of the book's "lowness".[6] Squire Allworthy falls ill and is convinced that he is dying. His family and servants gather around his bed as he disposes his wealth. He gives a favourable amount of his wealth to Tom Jones, which displeases Master Blifil. Tom doesn't care about what he has been given, since his only concern is Allworthy's health. Allworthy's health improves, and we learn that he will live. Tom Jones is so excited that he begins to get drunk and gets into a fight with Master Blifil. Sophia wants to conceal her love for Tom, so she gives a majority of her attention to Blifil when the three of them are together. This leads to Sophia's aunt, Mrs Western, believing that Sophia and Blifil are in love. Squire Western wants Sophia to marry Blifil in order to gain property from the Allworthy estate. Blifil learns of Sophia's true affection for Tom Jones and is angry. Blifil tells Allworthy that, on the day he almost died, Tom was out drinking and singing and celebrating his coming death. This leads Tom to be banished. Tom’s banishment seems to ensure that Sophia will be forced to marry Blifil, whom she finds odious, so she flees to avoid that fate. After Tom is expelled from Allworthy's estate he begins his adventures across Britain, eventually ending up in London. On the way, he meets a barber, Partridge, who was banished from town because he was thought to be Tom's father. He becomes Tom's faithful companion in the hope of restoring his reputation. During their journey, they end up at an inn. While they are there, a lady and her maid arrive. An angry man arrives, and the chambermaid points him in the direction she thinks he needs to go. He bursts in on Tom and Mrs Waters, a woman whom Tom rescued, in bed together. The man, however, was looking for Mrs Fitzpatrick and leaves. Sophia and her maid arrive at the same inn, and Partridge unknowingly reveals the relationship between Tom and Mrs Waters. Sophia leaves with Mrs Fitzpatrick, who is her cousin, and heads for London. They arrive at the home of Lady Bellaston, followed by Tom and Partridge. Eventually, Tom tells Sophia that his true love is for her and no one else. Tom ends up getting into a duel with Mr Fitzpatrick, which leads to his imprisonment. Eventually, the secret of Tom's birth is revealed after a brief scare involving Mrs Waters. Mrs Waters is really Jenny Jones, Tom's supposed mother, and Tom fears that he has committed incest. This, however, is not the case, as Tom's mother is in fact Bridget Allworthy, who conceived him after an affair with a schoolmaster. Tom is thus Squire Allworthy's nephew. After finding out about the intrigues of Blifil, who is Tom's half-brother, Allworthy decides to bestow most of his inheritance on Tom. After Tom's true parentage is revealed, he and Sophia marry, as Squire Western no longer harbours any misgivings about Tom marrying his daughter. Sophia bears Tom a son and a daughter, and the couple live on happily with the blessings of Squire Western and Squire Allworthy. Style[edit] The highly visible narrator is a central feature of Tom Jones. Each book begins with a prefatory chapter directly addressing the reader, and the narrator provides a continuous commentary on characters and events. According to Wayne C. Booth, the reader's relationship with the narrator is something like a subplot. The reader becomes more attached to the narrator over the course of the book, culminating in a heartfelt farewell.[7] The fight at the inn at Upton Fielding presents a panorama of contemporary British life, drawing characters from many different classes and occupations. But Ian Watt argues in The Rise of the Novel that Fielding did not aim at the "realism of presentation" of lifelike detail and psychology practiced by authors such as Richardson. Watt claims that Fielding was more focused on the "realism of assessment", the way in which the novel engages a broad range of topics with intelligence and "a wise assessment of life".[8] Themes[edit] The main theme of the novel is the contrast between Tom Jones's good nature, flawed but eventually corrected by his love for virtuous Sophia Western, and his half-brother Blifil's hypocrisy. Secondary themes include several other examples of virtue (especially that of Squire Allworthy), hypocrisy (especially that of Thwackum) and villainy (for example, that of Mrs Western and Ensign Northerton), sometimes tempered by repentance (for instance Square and Mrs Waters née Jones). Both introductory chapters to each book and interspersed commentary introduce a long line of further themes. For instance, introductory chapters dwell extensively on bad writers and critics, quite unrelated to the plot but apologetic to the author and the novel itself; and authorial commentary on several characters shows strong opposition to Methodism, calling it fanatical and heretical, and implying an association between Methodism and hypocrites such as the younger Blifil. The novel takes place against the backdrop of the Jacobite rising of 1745. Characters take different sides over the rebellion, which was an attempt to restore Roman Catholicism as the established religion of England and to undo the Glorious Revolution. At one point Sophia Western is even mistaken for Jenny Cameron, the supposed lover of Bonnie Prince Charlie. Good-natured characters are often moderately loyalist and Anglican, or even supporters of the House of Hanover, while ill-natured characters (Mrs Western) or mistaken ones (Partridge) can be Jacobites, or (like Squire Western) anti-Hanoverian. List of characters[edit] Caption at bottom: SOPHIA WESTERN: "Adorned with all the charms in which Nature can array her, bedecked with beauty, youth, sprightliness, innocence, modesty and tenderness, breathing sweetness from her rosy lips and darting brightness from her sparkling eyes, the lovely Sophia comes!" This depicts the heroine of the novel, but shows her in the latest fashions of 1800, rather than in the historically accurate hoop skirts of 1749 – it would have been extremely difficult to skip in the clothing styles (and high-heeled shoes) of 1749... The dishevelment of her clothes in the picture was not meant to contradict the word "modesty" in the caption, but was supposed to be understood as being the accidental and unintentional effect of her strenuous physical activity. Master Thomas "Tom" Jones, a bastard and Squire Allworthy's ward Miss Sophia "Sophy" Western /ˌsoʊˈfaɪə/, Western's only daughter, the model of virtue, beauty and all good qualities Master William Blifil /ˈblɪfəl/, the son of Captain Blifil and Bridget; a hypocrite and Tom Jones's rival Squire Allworthy, the wealthy squire of an estate in Somerset and Tom's guardian; of irreproachable character and good nature Squire Western, a wealthy squire and huntsman who owns an estate bordering on Squire Allworthy's; a simpleton who wants to marry his daughter Sophia to Allworthy's heir (first Blifil and then Jones) Miss Bridget Allworthy (later Mrs Blifil), Allworthy's sister Lady Bellaston, Tom's lover and a leading figure in London society, who tries to force Sophia into marriage to a lord by having her raped by him, so that she can have Jones to herself Mrs Honour Blackmore, Sophia's maid; egotistical and inconstant to her employer Dr Blifil, Captain Blifil's brother; dies of a broken heart at his brother's rejection Captain John Blifil, a captain in the army and Bridget Allworthy's husband; with Methodist tendencies Lawyer Dowling, a lawyer Lord Fellamar, a peer and socialite; unsuccessfully conspires with Lady Belladonna to rape Sophia so as to force her into marriage Brian Fitzpatrick, an Irishman who abuses his wife, Harriet Fitzpatrick Harriet Fitzpatrick, Mrs Western's former ward and Fitzpatrick's wife; a cousin and friend of Sophia, but lacking her virtue Miss Jenny Jones (later Mrs Waters), the Partridges' servant, a very intelligent woman who is believed to be Tom's mother Mrs Miller, mother of Nancy and Betty Miller Miss Betty Miller, pre-adolescent daughter of Mrs Miller Miss Nancy Miller (later Nightingale), a good-natured girl who is imposed on by Mr Nightingale and is ruined by him, together with her family, by lack of constancy in virtue Mr Nightingale, a young gentleman of leisure; saved from ruining his first true love by Jones's entreaties Mr Benjamin "Little Benjamin" Partridge, a teacher, barber, and surgeon, suspected to be Tom Jones's father Mrs Partridge, Partridge's extremely ill-natured first wife Mr George "Black George" Seagrim, Allworthy and later Western's gamekeeper; a poor man and the object of Tom's charity Miss Molly "Moll" Seagrim, Black George's second daughter and Tom Jones's first lover; has a bastard son, possibly by Tom Mr Thomas Square, a humanist philosopher and tutor to Tom and Master Blifil; a hypocrite who hates Jones and favors Blifil, but eventually repents The Rev. Mr Roger Thwackum, tutor to Tom and Master Blifil, a hypocrite who hates Tom Jones, favors Master Blifil and conspires with the latter against the former Miss Western, Squire Western's unmarried sister, who wrongly believes herself to "know the World" (both international and national politics and social mores) Mrs Deborah Wilkins, Bridget's servant Adaptations and influences[edit] The book was made into the 1963 film Tom Jones written by John Osborne, directed by Tony Richardson, and starring Albert Finney as Tom. It inspired the 1976 film The Bawdy Adventures of Tom Jones. It has also been the basis of operas by François-André Philidor (Tom Jones, 1765); by Edward German (Tom Jones, 1907); and by Stephen Oliver in 1975. A BBC adaptation dramatised by Simon Burke was broadcast in 1997 with Max Beesley in the title role. The book has also been adapted for the stage by Joan Macalpine.[9] In 2014, Jon Jory adapted the novel for the stage.[10] The book will also be adapted into a jukebox musical called What's New Pussycat? featuring songs by the singer Tom Jones setting the story in the 1960s.[11] See also[edit] Novels portal Illegitimacy in fiction Bibliography[edit] Editions[edit] Fielding, Henry Tom Jones (London: Andrew Millar, 1749). The first edition. Fielding, Henry "Tom Jones" (New York: The Modern Library, 1931). First Modern Library Edition. Fielding, Henry Tom Jones (Wesleyan University Press, 1975) ISBN 978-0-8195-6048-3. Edited by Martin Battestin and Fredson C. Bowers. Widely taken to be the authoritative version. Fielding, Henry Tom Jones (New York: W. W. Norton, 1995) ISBN 0393965945. Edited with notes by Sheridan Baker. This edition includes a collection of critical essays; it is based on the fourth and final edition of the novel, though it also includes the version of The Man of the Hill episode found in the 3rd edition in an appendix. Fielding, Henry Tom Jones (London: Everyman's Library, 1998) ISBN 978-0-460-87833-3. Edited with an introduction and notes by Douglas Brooks-Davies. Fielding, Henry Tom Jones (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 2005) ISBN 978-0-14-043622-8. Edited with an introduction and notes by Tom Keymer and Alice Wakely. Fielding, Henry Tom Jones (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985). Edited with an introduction and notes by Reginald P. C. Mutter. Critical collections[edit] Compton, Neil (ed.) Henry Fielding: Tom Jones, A Casebook (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1987) ISBN 0333077393. Includes essays by William Empson, Ian Watt, and Claude Rawson, amongst others. Monographs Battestin, Martin C. The Providence of Wit (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1970) ISBN 0198120524. Includes a chapter on Tom Jones. Ewers, Chris. Mobility in the English Novel from Defoe to Austen (Woodbridge: Boydell and Brewer, 2018) ISBN 978-1787442726. Includes a chapter on Tom Jones. Power, Henry. Epic into Novel (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015) ISBN 978-0198723875. Includes two chapters on Tom Jones. Rogers, Pat The Augustan Vision (London: Methuen, 1978) ISBN 0416709702. Includes a chapter on Fielding, which treats Tom Jones briefly. Watt, Ian The Rise of the Novel (London: Pimlico, 2000) ISBN 0712664270. Includes a chapter on Tom Jones, preceded by one titled 'Fielding and the epic theory of the novel'. References[edit] ^ Yardley, Jonathan (9 December 2003). "Tom Jones, as Fresh as Ever". The Washington Post. p. C1. Retrieved 31 December 2006. ^ http://home.comcast.net/~dwtaylor1/maughamstenbestnovels.html[permanent dead link] ^ Samuel Taylor Coleridge and Henry Nelson Coleridge, Specimens of the table talk of Samuel Taylor Coleridge (London, England: John Murray, 1835), volume 2, page 339. ^ Patton, Allyson (12 June 2006). "The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling (Book Review)". Historynet.com. HistoryNet LLC. Retrieved 16 September 2016. ^ Drabble, Margaret, ed. (1998) The Oxford Companion to English Literature; (2nd) revised ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press; pp. 982–983 ^ Fielding, H (1950), "Introduction by G. Sherburn", The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling, New York: Modern Library, p. viii . ^ Booth, Wayne C (1961). The Rhetoric of Fiction. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 94-96. ISBN 9780226065786. ^ Watt, Ian (2015) [1957]. The Rise of the Novel. London: The Bodley Head. p. 288. ISBN 9781847923851. ^ "Tom Jones (Macalpine)". Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. ^ Jones, Chris (27 January 2014). "Jory's stage version of novel has wit but lacks clarity". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2 October 2018. ^ "Tom Jones musical What's New Pussycat? to premiere this autumn". the Guardian. 6 March 2020. Retrieved 6 September 2020. Sources[edit] Tom Jones, Wordsworth Classics, Introduction and Notes Doreen Roberts, Canterbury: Rutherford College, University of Kent, 1999 [1992], ISBN 1-85326-021-5CS1 maint: others (link) . Words, Words, Words: From the Beginnings to the Eighteenth Century, La Spiga languages, 2003 . Battestin, Martin. The Providence of Wit: Aspects of Form in Augustan Literature and the Arts. Oxford: Clarendon, 1974. Hunter, J. Paul. Before Novels: The Cultural Context of Eighteenth-Century English Fiction. New York: WW Norton and Co., 1990. McKeon, Michael. The Origins of the English Novel, 1600–1740. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987. Paulson, Ronald. Satire and the Novel in the Eighteenth Century. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1967. Richetti, John. "Representing an Under Class: Servants and Proletarians in Fielding and Smollett." The New Eighteenth Century: Theory, Politics, English Literature. Eds. Felicity Nussbaum and Laura Brown. London: Routledge, 1987. Richetti, John. "The Old Order and the New Novel of the Mid-Eighteenth Century: Narrative Authority in Fielding and Smollett." Eighteenth-Century Fiction 2 (1990): 99–126. Smallwood, Angela J. Fielding and the Woman Question. New York: St. Martin's, 1989. Spacks, Patricia Meyer. Desire and Truth: Functions of Plot in Eighteenth-Century English Novels. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990. Watt, Ian. The Rise of the Novel: Studies in Defoe, Richardson and Fielding. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1957. External links[edit] Wikisource has original text related to this article: The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling Wikimedia Commons has media related to The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling. The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling at Internet Archive and Google Books (scanned books original editions color illustrated) The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling from Project Gutenberg (plain text and HTML) The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling public domain audiobook at LibriVox Tom Jones Map The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling at Open Library v t e Henry Fielding Early plays Love in Several Masques The Temple Beau The Author's Farce Tom Thumb Rape upon Rape The Tragedy of Tragedies The Letter Writers The Welsh Opera The Grub Street Opera The Lottery The Modern Husband The Old Debauchees The Covent Garden Tragedy The Mock Doctor The Miser The Universal Gallant Later plays The Historical Register for the Year 1736 Novels and Narratives Shamela Joseph Andrews Jonathan Wild Tom Jones Amelia Essays and Misc. The Covent-Garden Journal The Golden Rump (play, attributed) Events Actor Rebellion of 1733 Licensing Act 1737 Paper War of 1752–1753 People John Fielding Sarah Fielding Christopher Smart Samuel Richardson Scriblerus Club Authority control BNF: cb122892543 (data) MBW work: 9cf1f767-568b-49e8-9c6a-00d9c977cebc Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_History_of_Tom_Jones,_a_Foundling&oldid=996199629" Categories: 1749 novels British novels adapted into films British novels adapted into plays Novels adapted into operas Novels by Henry Fielding 18th-century British novels Picaresque novels English novels Novels set in Somerset Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from December 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata EngvarB from September 2013 CS1 maint: others Commons category link is on Wikidata Articles with LibriVox links Articles with Open Library links Use dmy dates from September 2013 Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz work identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages العربية Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Italiano עברית Magyar 日本語 Norsk bokmål ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Suomi Svenska Українська Vèneto 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 25 December 2020, at 02:48 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2439	----	John Keats - Wikipedia John Keats From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Keats" redirects here. For other uses, see Keats (disambiguation). English Romantic poet (1795-1821) John Keats Posthumous portrait of John Keats by William Hilton. National Portrait Gallery, London Born (1795-10-31)31 October 1795 Moorgate, London, England Died 23 February 1821(1821-02-23) (aged 25) Rome, Papal States Cause of death Tuberculosis Occupation Poet Literary movement Romanticism Relatives George Keats (brother) John Keats (/kiːts/; 31 October 1795 – 23 February 1821) was an English Romantic poet. He was one of the main figures of the second generation of Romantic poets, along with Lord Byron and Percy Bysshe Shelley, despite his works having been in publication for only four years before his death from tuberculosis at the age of 25.[1] Although his poems were not generally well received by critics during his lifetime, his reputation grew after his death, and by the end of the 19th century, he had become one of the most beloved of all English poets. He had a significant influence on a diverse range of poets and writers. Jorge Luis Borges stated that his first encounter with Keats' work was a great experience that he felt all of his life.[2] The poetry of Keats is characterised by a style "heavily loaded with sensualities", most notably in the series of odes. This is typical of the Romantic poets, as they aimed to accentuate extreme emotion through an emphasis on natural imagery. Today his poems and letters are some of the most popular and most analysed in English literature. Some of his most acclaimed works are "Ode to a Nightingale", "Sleep and Poetry", and the sonnet "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer". Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Early life 1.2 Early career 1.3 Wentworth Place 1.4 Isabella Jones and Fanny Brawne 1.5 Last months: Rome 1.6 Death 2 Reception 2.1 Biographers 2.2 Other portrayals 3 Letters 4 Major Works 5 Notes 6 References 7 Sources 8 Further reading 9 External links Biography[edit] Early life[edit] John Keats was born in Moorgate, London, on 31 October 1795 to Thomas Keats and his wife, Frances Jennings. There is little evidence of his exact birthplace. Although Keats and his family seem to have marked his birthday on 29 October, baptism records give the date as the 31st.[3][4] He was the eldest of four surviving children; his younger siblings were George (1797–1841), Thomas (1799–1818), and Frances Mary "Fanny" (1803–1889) who eventually married Spanish author Valentín Llanos Gutiérrez.[5] Another son was lost in infancy. His father first worked as a hostler[6] at the stables attached to the Swan and Hoop Inn, an establishment he later managed, and where the growing family lived for some years. Keats believed that he was born at the inn, a birthplace of humble origins, but there is no evidence to support his belief.[4] The Globe pub now occupies the site (2012), a few yards from the modern-day Moorgate station.[7] He was baptised at St Botolph-without-Bishopsgate, and sent to a local dame school as a child.[3][8] Life mask of Keats by Benjamin Haydon, 1816 His parents were unable to afford Eton or Harrow,[9][10] so in the summer of 1803, he was sent to board at John Clarke's school in Enfield, close to his grandparents' house. The small school had a liberal outlook and a progressive curriculum more modern than the larger, more prestigious schools.[11] In the family atmosphere at Clarke's, Keats developed an interest in classics and history, which would stay with him throughout his short life. The headmaster's son, Charles Cowden Clarke, also became an important mentor and friend, introducing Keats to Renaissance literature, including Tasso, Spenser, and Chapman's translations. The young Keats was described by his friend Edward Holmes as a volatile character, "always in extremes", given to indolence and fighting. However, at 13 he began focusing his energy on reading and study, winning his first academic prize in midsummer 1809.[11] In April 1804, when Keats was eight, his father died from a skull fracture, suffered when he fell from his horse while returning from a visit to Keats and his brother George at school.[12] Thomas Keats died intestate. Frances remarried two months later, but left her new husband soon afterwards, and the four children went to live with their grandmother, Alice Jennings, in the village of Edmonton.[13] In March 1810, when Keats was 14, his mother died of tuberculosis, leaving the children in the custody of their grandmother. She appointed two guardians, Richard Abbey and John Sandell, to take care of them. That autumn, Keats left Clarke's school to apprentice with Thomas Hammond, a surgeon and apothecary who was a neighbour and the doctor of the Jennings family. Keats lodged in the attic above the surgery at 7 Church Street until 1813.[4] Cowden Clarke, who remained a close friend of Keats, described this period as "the most placid time in Keats' life."[14] Early career[edit] From 1814 Keats had two bequests, held in trust for him until his 21st birthday: £800, willed by his grandfather John Jennings (equivalent to about £56371 in 2020) and a quarter of his mother's legacy of £8000 (equivalent to about £563705 in 2019), to be equally divided between her living children.[nb 1] It seems he was not told of the £800, and probably knew nothing of it, since he never applied for it. Historically, blame has often been laid on Abbey as legal guardian, but he may also have been unaware.[15] William Walton, solicitor for Keats' mother and grandmother, definitely did know and had a duty of care to relay the information to Keats. It seems he did not. The money would have made a critical difference to the poet's expectations. Money was always a great concern and difficulty for him, as he struggled to stay out of debt and make his way in the world independently.[4][16] On First Looking into Chapman's Homer Much have I travell'd in the realms of gold, And many goodly states and kingdoms seen; Round many western islands have I been Which bards in fealty to Apollo hold. Oft of one wide expanse had I been told That deep-browed Homer ruled as his demesne; Yet did I never breathe its pure serene Till I heard Chapman speak out loud and bold: Then felt I like some watcher of the skies When a new planet swims into his ken; Or like stout Cortez when with eagle eyes He star'd at the Pacific — and all his men Look'd at each other with a wild surmise — Silent, upon a peak in Darien. The sonnet "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer" October 1816 Having finished his apprenticeship with Hammond, Keats registered as a medical student at Guy's Hospital (now part of King's College London) and began studying there in October 1815. Within a month of starting, he was accepted as a dresser at the hospital, assisting surgeons during operations, the equivalent of a junior house surgeon today. It was a significant promotion, that marked a distinct aptitude for medicine; it brought greater responsibility and a heavier workload.[4] Keats' long and expensive medical training with Hammond and at Guy's Hospital led his family to assume he would pursue a lifelong career in medicine, assuring financial security, and it seems that at this point Keats had a genuine desire to become a doctor.[4][11] He lodged near the hospital, at 28 St Thomas's Street in Southwark, with other medical students, including Henry Stephens who became an inventor and ink magnate.[17] However, Keats' training took up increasing amounts of his writing time, and he was increasingly ambivalent about his medical career. He felt that he faced a stark choice.[11][18] He had written his first extant poem, "An Imitation of Spenser," in 1814, when he was 19. Now, strongly drawn by ambition, inspired by fellow poets such as Leigh Hunt and Lord Byron, and beleaguered by family financial crises, he suffered periods of depression. His brother George wrote that John "feared that he should never be a poet, & if he was not he would destroy himself".[19] In 1816, Keats received his apothecary's licence, which made him eligible to practise as an apothecary, physician, and surgeon, but before the end of the year he announced to his guardian that he was resolved to be a poet, not a surgeon.[4] Although he continued his work and training at Guy's, Keats devoted more and more time to the study of literature, experimenting with verse forms, particularly the sonnet.[4] In May 1816, Leigh Hunt agreed to publish the sonnet "O Solitude" in his magazine, The Examiner, a leading liberal magazine of the day.[20] It was the first appearance in print of Keats' poetry, and Charles Cowden Clarke described it as his friend's red letter day,[21] the first proof that Keats' ambitions were valid. Among his poems of 1816 was To My Brothers.[22] In the summer of that year, Keats went with Clarke to the seaside town of Margate to write. There he began "Calidore" and initiated the era of his great letter writing. On his return to London, he took lodgings at 8 Dean Street, Southwark, and braced himself for further study in order to become a member of the Royal College of Surgeons.[23] In October 1816, Clarke introduced Keats to the influential Leigh Hunt, a close friend of Byron and Shelley. Five months later came the publication of Poems, the first volume of Keats' verse, which included "I stood tiptoe" and "Sleep and Poetry," both strongly influenced by Hunt.[20] The book was a critical failure, arousing little interest, although Reynolds reviewed it favourably in The Champion.[11] Clarke commented that the book "might have emerged in Timbuctoo."[4] Keats' publishers, Charles and James Ollier, felt ashamed of the book. Keats immediately changed publishers to Taylor and Hessey on Fleet Street.[24] Unlike the Olliers, Keats' new publishers were enthusiastic about his work. Within a month of the publication of Poems they were planning a new Keats volume and had paid him an advance. Hessey became a steady friend to Keats and made the company's rooms available for young writers to meet. Their publishing lists eventually included Coleridge, Hazlitt, Clare, Hogg, Carlyle and Lamb.[25] Through Taylor and Hessey, Keats met their Eton-educated lawyer, Richard Woodhouse, who advised them on literary as well as legal matters and was deeply impressed by Poems. Although he noted that Keats could be "wayward, trembling, easily daunted," Woodhouse was convinced of Keats' genius, a poet to support as he became one of England's greatest writers. Soon after they met, the two became close friends, and Woodhouse started to collect Keatsiana, documenting as much as he could about Keats' poetry. This archive survives as one of the main sources of information on Keats' work.[4] Andrew Motion represents him as Boswell to Keats' Johnson, ceaselessly promoting the writer's work, fighting his corner, and spurring his poetry to greater heights. In later years, Woodhouse was one of the few people to accompany Keats to Gravesend to embark on his final trip to Rome.[26] In spite of the bad reviews of Poems, Hunt published the essay "Three Young Poets" (Shelley, Keats, and Reynolds) and the sonnet "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer," foreseeing great things to come.[27] He introduced Keats to many prominent men in his circle, including the editor of The Times, Thomas Barnes; the writer Charles Lamb; the conductor Vincent Novello; and the poet John Hamilton Reynolds, who would become a close friend.[28] He was also regularly meeting William Hazlitt, a powerful literary figure of the day. It was a decisive turning point for Keats, establishing him in the public eye as a figure in what Hunt termed "a new school of poetry."[29] At this time Keats wrote to his friend Bailey: "I am certain of nothing but the holiness of the Heart's affections and the truth of the imagination. What imagination seizes as Beauty must be truth."[1][30] This passage would eventually be transmuted into the concluding lines of "Ode on a Grecian Urn": "'Beauty is truth, truth beauty' – that is all / Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know". In early December 1816, under the heady influence of his artistic friends, Keats told Abbey that he had decided to give up medicine in favour of poetry, to Abbey's fury. Keats had spent a great deal on his medical training and, despite his state of financial hardship and indebtedness, had made large loans to friends such as painter Benjamin Haydon. Keats would go on to lend £700 to his brother George. By lending so much, Keats could no longer cover the interest of his own debts.[4][31] Having left his training at the hospital, suffering from a succession of colds, and unhappy with living in damp rooms in London, Keats moved with his brothers into rooms at 1 Well Walk in the village of Hampstead in April 1817. Both John and George nursed their brother Tom, who was suffering from tuberculosis. The house was close to Hunt and others from his circle in Hampstead, as well as to Coleridge, respected elder of the first wave of Romantic poets, at that time living in Highgate. On 11 April 1818, Keats reported that he and Coleridge had a long walk together on Hampstead Heath. In a letter to his brother George, Keats wrote that they talked about "a thousand things,... nightingales, poetry, poetical sensation, metaphysics."[32] Around this time he was introduced to Charles Wentworth Dilke and James Rice.[33] In June 1818, Keats began a walking tour of Scotland, Ireland, and the Lake District with his friend Charles Armitage Brown. Keats' brother George and his wife Georgina accompanied them as far as Lancaster and then continued to Liverpool, from where the couple emigrated to America. They lived in Ohio and Louisville, Kentucky, until 1841, when George's investments failed. Like Keats' other brother, they both died penniless and racked by tuberculosis, for which there was no effective treatment until the next century.[34][35] In July, while on the Isle of Mull, Keats caught a bad cold and "was too thin and fevered to proceed on the journey."[36] After his return south in August, Keats continued to nurse Tom, exposing himself to infection. Some biographers suggest that this is when tuberculosis, his "family disease," first took hold.[37][38] "Consumption" was not identified as a disease with a single infectious origin until 1820, and there was considerable stigma attached to the condition, as it was often associated with weakness, repressed sexual passion, or masturbation. Keats "refuses to give it a name" in his letters.[39] Tom Keats died on 1 December 1818. Wentworth Place[edit] Wentworth Place, now the Keats House museum (left), Ten Keats Grove (right) John Keats moved to the newly built Wentworth Place, owned by his friend Charles Armitage Brown. It was on the edge of Hampstead Heath, ten minutes' walk south of his old home in Well Walk. The winter of 1818–19, though a difficult period for the poet, marked the beginning of his annus mirabilis in which he wrote his most mature work.[1] He had been inspired by a series of recent lectures by Hazlitt on English poets and poetic identity and had also met Wordsworth.[40][41] Keats may have seemed to his friends to be living on comfortable means, but in reality he was borrowing regularly from Abbey and his friends.[4] He composed five of his six great odes at Wentworth Place in April and May and, although it is debated in which order they were written, "Ode to Psyche" opened the published series. According to Brown, "Ode to a Nightingale" was composed under a plum tree in the garden.[nb 2][42][43] Brown wrote, "In the spring of 1819 a nightingale had built her nest near my house. Keats felt a tranquil and continual joy in her song; and one morning he took his chair from the breakfast-table to the grass-plot under a plum-tree, where he sat for two or three hours. When he came into the house, I perceived he had some scraps of paper in his hand, and these he was quietly thrusting behind the books. On inquiry, I found those scraps, four or five in number, contained his poetic feelings on the song of our nightingale."[44] Dilke, co-owner of the house, strenuously denied the story, printed in Richard Monckton Milnes' 1848 biography of Keats, dismissing it as 'pure delusion'.[45] My heart aches, and a drowsy numbness pains  My sense, as though of hemlock I had drunk, Or emptied some dull opiate to the drains  One minute past, and Lethe-wards had sunk: 'Tis not through envy of thy happy lot,  But being too happy in thine happiness,—  That thou, light-winged Dryad of the trees,  In some melodious plot  Of beechen green, and shadows numberless,  Singest of summer in full-throated ease. First stanza of "Ode to a Nightingale", May 1819 "Ode on a Grecian Urn" and "Ode on Melancholy" were inspired by sonnet forms and probably written after "Ode to a Nightingale".[4] Keats' new and progressive publishers Taylor and Hessey issued Endymion, which Keats dedicated to Thomas Chatterton, a work that he termed "a trial of my Powers of Imagination".[4] It was damned by the critics, giving rise to Byron's quip that Keats was ultimately "snuffed out by an article", suggesting that he never truly got over it. A particularly harsh review by John Wilson Croker appeared in the April 1818 edition of The Quarterly Review.[nb 3] John Gibson Lockhart writing in Blackwood's Magazine, described Endymion as "imperturbable drivelling idiocy". With biting sarcasm, Lockhart advised, "It is a better and a wiser thing to be a starved apothecary than a starved poet; so back to the shop Mr John, back to plasters, pills, and ointment boxes".[nb 4] It was Lockhart at Blackwoods who coined the defamatory term "the Cockney School" for Hunt and his circle, which included both Hazlitt and Keats. The dismissal was as much political as literary, aimed at upstart young writers deemed uncouth for their lack of education, non-formal rhyming and "low diction". They had not attended Eton, Harrow or Oxbridge and they were not from the upper classes.[46] In 1819, Keats wrote "The Eve of St. Agnes", "La Belle Dame sans Merci", "Hyperion", "Lamia" and a play, Otho the Great (critically damned and not performed until 1950).[47] The poems "Fancy" and "Bards of passion and of mirth" were inspired by the garden of Wentworth Place. In September, very short of money and in despair considering taking up journalism or a post as a ship's surgeon, he approached his publishers with a new book of poems.[4] They were unimpressed with the collection, finding the presented versions of "Lamia" confusing, and describing "St Agnes" as having a "sense of pettish disgust" and "a 'Don Juan' style of mingling up sentiment and sneering" concluding it was "a poem unfit for ladies".[48] The final volume Keats lived to see, Lamia, Isabella, The Eve of St. Agnes, and Other Poems, was eventually published in July 1820. It received greater acclaim than had Endymion or Poems, finding favourable notices in both The Examiner and Edinburgh Review. It would come to be recognised as one of the most important poetic works ever published.[4] Wentworth Place now houses the Keats House museum.[49] Isabella Jones and Fanny Brawne[edit] See also: Fanny Brawne Keats befriended Isabella Jones in May 1817, while on holiday in the village of Bo Peep, near Hastings. She is described as beautiful, talented and widely read, not of the top flight of society yet financially secure, an enigmatic figure who would become a part of Keats' circle.[50][51] Throughout their friendship Keats never hesitates to own his sexual attraction to her, although they seem to enjoy circling each other rather than offering commitment. He writes that he "frequented her rooms" in the winter of 1818–19, and in his letters to George says that he "warmed with her" and "kissed her".[51] The trysts may have been a sexual initiation for Keats according to Bate and Gittings.[51] Jones inspired and was a steward of Keats' writing. The themes of "The Eve of St. Agnes" and "The Eve of St Mark" may well have been suggested by her, the lyric Hush, Hush! ["o sweet Isabel"] was about her, and that the first version of "Bright Star" may have originally been for her.[52][53] In 1821, Jones was one of the first in England to be notified of Keats' death.[50] Letters and drafts of poems suggest that Keats first met Frances (Fanny) Brawne between September and November 1818.[54] It is likely that the 18-year-old Brawne visited the Dilke family at Wentworth Place before she lived there. She was born in the hamlet of West End (now in the district of West Hampstead), on 9 August 1800. Like Keats' grandfather, her grandfather kept a London inn, and both lost several family members to tuberculosis. She shared her first name with both Keats' sister and mother, and had a talent for dress-making and languages as well as a natural theatrical bent.[55] During November 1818 she developed an intimacy with Keats, but it was shadowed by the illness of Tom Keats, whom John was nursing through this period.[56] Ambrotype of Fanny Brawne taken circa 1850 (photograph on glass) On 3 April 1819, Brawne and her widowed mother moved into the other half of Dilke's Wentworth Place, and Keats and Brawne were able to see each other every day. Keats began to lend Brawne books, such as Dante's Inferno, and they would read together. He gave her the love sonnet "Bright Star" (perhaps revised for her) as a declaration. It was a work in progress which he continued at until the last months of his life, and the poem came to be associated with their relationship. "All his desires were concentrated on Fanny".[57] From this point there is no further documented mention of Isabella Jones.[57] Sometime before the end of June, he arrived at some sort of understanding with Brawne, far from a formal engagement as he still had too little to offer, with no prospects and financial stricture.[58] Keats endured great conflict knowing his expectations as a struggling poet in increasingly hard straits would preclude marriage to Brawne. Their love remained unconsummated; jealousy for his 'star' began to gnaw at him. Darkness, disease and depression surrounded him, reflected in poems such as "The Eve of St. Agnes" and "La Belle Dame sans Merci" where love and death both stalk. "I have two luxuries to brood over in my walks;" he wrote to her, "...your loveliness, and the hour of my death".[58] In one of his many hundreds of notes and letters, Keats wrote to Brawne on 13 October 1819: "My love has made me selfish. I cannot exist without you – I am forgetful of every thing but seeing you again – my Life seems to stop there – I see no further. You have absorb'd me. I have a sensation at the present moment as though I was dissolving – I should be exquisitely miserable without the hope of soon seeing you ... I have been astonished that Men could die Martyrs for religion – I have shudder'd at it – I shudder no more – I could be martyr'd for my Religion – Love is my religion – I could die for that – I could die for you." Tuberculosis took hold and he was advised by his doctors to move to a warmer climate. In September 1820 Keats left for Rome knowing he would probably never see Brawne again. After leaving he felt unable to write to her or read her letters, although he did correspond with her mother.[4] He died there five months later. None of Brawne's letters to Keats survive.[59] It took a month for the news of his death to reach London, after which Brawne stayed in mourning for six years. In 1833, more than 12 years after his death, she married and went on to have three children; she outlived Keats by more than 40 years.[49][60] Last months: Rome[edit] During 1820 Keats displayed increasingly serious symptoms of tuberculosis, suffering two lung haemorrhages in the first few days of February.[61][62] On first coughing up blood, on 3 February 1820, he said to Charles Armitage Brown, "I know the colour of that blood! It is arterial blood. I cannot be deceived in that colour. That drop of blood is my death warrant. I must die."[63][64] He lost large amounts of blood and was bled further by the attending physician. Hunt nursed him in London for much of the following summer. At the suggestion of his doctors, he agreed to move to Italy with his friend Joseph Severn. On 13 September, they left for Gravesend and four days later boarded the sailing brig Maria Crowther. On 1 October the ship landed at Lulworth Bay or Holworth Bay where the two went ashore; back onboard ship he made the final revisions of "Bright Star".[65][66] The journey was a minor catastrophe: storms broke out followed by a dead calm that slowed the ship's progress. When they finally docked in Naples, the ship was held in quarantine for ten days due to a suspected outbreak of cholera in Britain. Keats reached Rome on 14 November, by which time any hope of the warmer climate he sought had disappeared.[67] Keats' house in Rome Keats wrote his last letter on 30 November 1820 to Charles Armitage Brown; "Tis the most difficult thing in the world to me to write a letter. My stomach continues so bad, that I feel it worse on opening any book – yet I am much better than I was in Quarantine. Then I am afraid to encounter the proing and conning of any thing interesting to me in England. I have an habitual feeling of my real life having past, and that I am leading a posthumous existence".[68] On arrival in Italy, he moved into a villa on the Spanish Steps in Rome, today the Keats–Shelley Memorial House museum. Despite care from Severn and Dr. James Clark, his health rapidly deteriorated. The medical attention Keats received may have hastened his death.[69] In November 1820, Clark declared that the source of his illness was "mental exertion" and that the source was largely situated in his stomach. Clark eventually diagnosed consumption (tuberculosis) and placed Keats on a starvation diet of an anchovy and a piece of bread a day intended to reduce the blood flow to his stomach. He also bled the poet: a standard treatment of the day, but also likely a significant contributor to Keats' weakness.[70] Severn's biographer Sue Brown writes: "They could have used opium in small doses, and Keats had asked Severn to buy a bottle of opium when they were setting off on their voyage. What Severn didn't realise was that Keats saw it as a possible resource if he wanted to commit suicide. He tried to get the bottle from Severn on the voyage but Severn wouldn't let him have it. Then in Rome he tried again... Severn was in such a quandary he didn't know what to do, so in the end he went to the doctor who took it away. As a result Keats went through dreadful agonies with nothing to ease the pain at all." Keats was angry with both Severn and Clark when they would not give him laudanum (opium). He repeatedly demanded "how long is this posthumous existence of mine to go on?"[70] Death[edit] The first months of 1821 marked a slow and steady decline into the final stage of tuberculosis. Keats was coughing up blood and covered in sweat. Severn nursed him devotedly and observed in a letter how Keats would sometimes cry upon waking to find himself still alive. Severn writes, Keats raves till I am in a complete tremble for him[70]...about four, the approaches of death came on. [Keats said] "Severn—I—lift me up—I am dying—I shall die easy; don't be frightened—be firm, and thank God it has come." I lifted him up in my arms. The phlegm seem'd boiling in his throat, and increased until eleven, when he gradually sank into death, so quiet, that I still thought he slept.[71] Keats' grave in Rome John Keats died in Rome on 23 February 1821. His body was buried in the city's Protestant Cemetery. His last request was to be placed under a tombstone bearing no name or date, only the words, "Here lies One whose Name was writ in Water." Severn and Brown erected the stone, which under a relief of a lyre with broken strings, includes the epitaph: This Grave / contains all that was Mortal / of a / Young English Poet / Who / on his Death Bed, in the Bitterness of his Heart / at the Malicious Power of his Enemies / Desired / these Words to be / engraven on his Tomb Stone: / Here lies One / Whose Name was writ in Water. 24 February 1821 The text bears an echo from Catullus LXX: Sed mulier cupido quod dicit amanti / in vento et rapida scribere oportet aqua (What a woman says to a passionate lover / should be written in the wind and the running water). Francis Beaumont also used the expression in The Nice Valour, Act 5, scene 5 (? 1616): All your better deeds / Shall be in water writ, but this in marble. Severn and Brown added their lines to the stone in protest at the critical reception of Keats' work. Hunt blamed his death on the Quarterly Review's scathing attack of "Endymion". As Byron quipped in his narrative poem Don Juan; 'Tis strange the mind, that very fiery particle Should let itself be snuffed out by an article. (canto 11, stanza 60) Seven weeks after the funeral, Shelley memorialised Keats in his poem Adonais.[72] Clark saw to the planting of daisies on the grave, saying that Keats would have wished it. For public health reasons, the Italian health authorities burned the furniture in Keats' room, scraped the walls and made new windows, doors and flooring.[73][74] The ashes of Shelley, one of Keats' most fervent champions, are buried in the cemetery and Joseph Severn is buried next to Keats. Describing the site today, Marsh wrote, "In the old part of the graveyard, barely a field when Keats was buried here, there are now umbrella pines, myrtle shrubs, roses, and carpets of wild violets".[67] Reception[edit] Relief on wall near his grave in Rome When Keats died at 25, he had been writing poetry seriously for only about six years, from 1814 until the summer of 1820; and publishing for only four. In his lifetime, sales of Keats' three volumes of poetry probably amounted to only 200 copies.[75] His first poem, the sonnet O Solitude, appeared in the Examiner in May 1816, while his collection Lamia, Isabella, The Eve of St. Agnes and other poems was published in July 1820 before his last visit to Rome. The compression of his poetic apprenticeship and maturity into so short a time is just one remarkable aspect of Keats' work.[1] Although prolific during his short career, and now one of the most studied and admired British poets, his reputation rests on a small body of work, centred on the Odes,[76] and only in the creative outpouring of the last years of his short life was he able to express the inner intensity for which he has been lauded since his death.[77] Keats was convinced that he had made no mark in his lifetime. Aware that he was dying, he wrote to Fanny Brawne in February 1820, "I have left no immortal work behind me – nothing to make my friends proud of my memory – but I have lov'd the principle of beauty in all things, and if I had had time I would have made myself remember'd."[78] Keats' ability and talent was acknowledged by several influential contemporary allies such as Shelley and Hunt.[75] His admirers praised him for thinking "on his pulses", for having developed a style which was more heavily loaded with sensualities, more gorgeous in its effects, more voluptuously alive than any poet who had come before him: "loading every rift with ore".[79] Shelley often corresponded with Keats in Rome and loudly declared that Keats' death had been brought on by bad reviews in the Quarterly Review. Seven weeks after the funeral he wrote Adonais, a despairing elegy,[80] stating that Keats' early death was a personal and public tragedy: The loveliest and the last, The bloom, whose petals nipped before they blew Died on the promise of the fruit.[81][82] Although Keats wrote that "if poetry comes not as naturally as the Leaves to a tree it had better not come at all", poetry did not come easily to him; his work was the fruit of a deliberate and prolonged classical self-education. He may have possessed an innate poetic sensibility, but his early works were clearly those of a young man learning his craft. His first attempts at verse were often vague, languorously narcotic and lacking a clear eye.[77] His poetic sense was based on the conventional tastes of his friend Charles Cowden Clarke, who first introduced him to the classics, and also came from the predilections of Hunt's Examiner, which Keats read as a boy.[83] Hunt scorned the Augustan or "French" school, dominated by Pope, and attacked the earlier Romantic poets Wordsworth and Coleridge, now in their forties, as unsophisticated, obscure and crude writers. Indeed, during Keats' few years as a published poet, the reputation of the older Romantic school was at its lowest ebb. Keats came to echo these sentiments in his work, identifying himself with a "new school" for a time, somewhat alienating him from Wordsworth, Coleridge and Byron and providing the basis for the scathing attacks from Blackwood's and The Quarterly.[83] Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness Close bosom-friend of the maturing sun Conspiring with him how to load and bless With fruit the vines that round the thatch-eaves run; To bend with apples the moss'd cottage-trees, And fill all fruit with ripeness to the core; To swell the gourd, and plump the hazel shells With a sweet kernel; to set budding more, And still more, later flowers for the bees, Until they think warm days will never cease, For Summer has o'er-brimm'd their clammy cells. First stanza of "To Autumn",[84] September 1819 By the time of his death, Keats had therefore been associated with the taints of both old and new schools: the obscurity of the first-wave Romantics and the uneducated affectation of Hunt's "Cockney School". Keats' posthumous reputation mixed the reviewers' caricature of the simplistic bumbler with the image of the hyper-sensitive genius killed by high feeling, which Shelley later portrayed.[83] The Victorian sense of poetry as the work of indulgence and luxuriant fancy offered a schema into which Keats was posthumously fitted. Marked as the standard-bearer of sensory writing, his reputation grew steadily and remarkably.[83] His work had the full support of the influential Cambridge Apostles, whose members included the young Tennyson,[nb 5] later a popular Poet Laureate who came to regard Keats as the greatest poet of the 19th century.[41] Constance Naden was a great admirer of his poems, arguing that his genius lay in his 'exquisite sensitiveness to all the elements of beauty'.[85] In 1848, twenty-seven years after Keats' death, Richard Monckton Milnes published the first full biography, which helped place Keats within the canon of English literature. The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, including Millais and Rossetti, were inspired by Keats and painted scenes from his poems including "The Eve of St. Agnes", "Isabella" and "La Belle Dame sans Merci", lush, arresting and popular images which remain closely associated with Keats' work.[83] In 1882, Swinburne wrote in the Encyclopædia Britannica that "the Ode to a Nightingale, [is] one of the final masterpieces of human work in all time and for all ages".[86] In the twentieth century, Keats remained the muse of poets such as Wilfred Owen, who kept his death date as a day of mourning, Yeats and T. S. Eliot.[83] Critic Helen Vendler stated the odes "are a group of works in which the English language find ultimate embodiment".[87] Bate declared of To Autumn: "Each generation has found it one of the most nearly perfect poems in English"[88] and M. R. Ridley claimed the ode "is the most serenely flawless poem in our language."[89] The largest collection of the letters, manuscripts, and other papers of Keats is in the Houghton Library at Harvard University. Other collections of material are archived at the British Library, Keats House, Hampstead, the Keats-Shelley Memorial House in Rome and the Pierpont Morgan Library in New York. Since 1998 the British Keats-Shelley Memorial Association have annually awarded a prize for romantic poetry.[90] A Royal Society of Arts blue plaque was unveiled in 1896 to commemorate Keats at Keats House.[91] Biographers[edit] None of Keats' biographies were written by people who had known him.[92] Shortly after his death, his publishers announced they would speedily publish The memoirs and remains of John Keats but his friends refused to cooperate and argued with each other to the extent that the project was abandoned. Leigh Hunt's Lord Byron and some of his Contemporaries (1828) gives the first biographical account, strongly emphasising Keats' supposedly humble origins, a misconception which still continues.[4] Given that he was becoming a significant figure within artistic circles, a succession of other publications followed, including anthologies of his many notes, chapters and letters.[92] However, early accounts often gave contradictory or heavily biased versions of events and were subject to dispute.[92] His friends Brown, Severn, Dilke, Shelley and his guardian Richard Abbey, his publisher Taylor, Fanny Brawne and many others issued posthumous commentary on Keats' life. These early writings coloured all subsequent biography and have become embedded in a body of Keats legend.[93] Shelley promoted Keats as someone whose achievement could not be separated from agony, who was 'spiritualised' by his decline and too fine-tuned to endure the harshness of life; the consumptive, suffering image popularly held today.[94] The first full biography was published in 1848 by Richard Monckton Milnes. Landmark Keats biographers since include Sidney Colvin, Robert Gittings, Walter Jackson Bate, Aileen Ward, and Andrew Motion. The idealised image of the heroic romantic poet who battled poverty and died young was inflated by the late arrival of an authoritative biography and the lack of an accurate likeness. Most of the surviving portraits of Keats were painted after his death, and those who knew him held that they did not succeed in capturing his unique quality and intensity.[4] Other portrayals[edit] Sculpture of poet John Keats (seated on bench) by Vincent Gray – Chichester, West Sussex, UK. August 2017 John Keats: His Life and Death, the first major motion picture about the life of Keats, was produced in 1973 by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.. It was directed by John Barnes. John Stride played John Keats and Janina Faye played Fanny Brawne.[95] The 2009 film Bright Star, written and directed by Jane Campion, focuses on Keats' relationship with Fanny Brawne.[96] Inspired by the 1997 Keats biography penned by Andrew Motion, it stars Ben Whishaw as Keats and Abbie Cornish as Fanny.[97] In Dan Wells's book A Night of Blacker Darkness, John Keats is portrayed in a comedic tone. He is the companion and sidekick of the protagonist.[98] In Dan Simmons' book Hyperion, one of the characters is a clone of John Keats, of whom he possesses personality and memories.[99] In Tim Powers' book The Stress of Her Regard, John Keats, along with Percy Shelley and Lord Byron, is the victim of a vampire and his gift with language and poetry is a direct consequence of the vampire breed's attention.[100] Letters[edit] The poem On death on a wall at Breestraat 113 in Leiden, Netherlands. Keats' letters were first published in 1848 and 1878. During the 19th century, critics deemed them unworthy of attention, distractions from his poetic works.[101] During the 20th century they became almost as admired and studied as his poetry,[41] and are highly regarded within the canon of English literary correspondence.[102] T. S. Eliot described them as "certainly the most notable and most important ever written by any English poet."[41][103] Keats spent a great deal of time considering poetry itself, its constructs and impacts, displaying a deep interest unusual amongst his milieu who were more easily distracted by metaphysics or politics, fashions or science. Eliot wrote of Keats' conclusions; "There is hardly one statement of Keats' about poetry which ... will not be found to be true, and what is more, true for greater and more mature poetry than anything Keats ever wrote."[101][104] Few of Keats' letters are extant from the period before he joined his literary circle. From spring 1817, however, there is a rich record of his prolific letter writing.[4] Keats and his friends, poets, critics, novelists, and editors wrote to each other daily, and Keats' ideas are bound up in the ordinary, his day-to-day missives sharing news, parody and social commentary..[4] When his brother George went to America, Keats wrote to him in great detail, the body of letters becoming "the real diary" and self-revelation of Keats' life, as well as containing an exposition of his philosophy, and the first drafts of poems containing some of Keats' finest writing and thought.[105] Gittings describes them as akin to a "spiritual journal" not written for a specific other, so much as for synthesis.[101] Keats also reflected on the background and composition of his poetry, and specific letters often coincide with or anticipate the poems they describe.[101] In February to May 1819 he produced many of his finest letters.[4] Writing to his brother George, Keats explored the idea of the world as "the vale of Soul-making", anticipating the great odes that he would write some months later.[101][106] In the letters, Keats coined ideas such as the Mansion of Many Apartments and the Chameleon Poet, concepts that came to gain common currency and capture the public imagination, despite only making single appearances as phrases in his correspondence.[107] The poetical mind, Keats argued: has no self – it is every thing and nothing – It has no character – it enjoys light and shade;... What shocks the virtuous philosopher, delights the camelion [chameleon] Poet. It does no harm from its relish of the dark side of things any more than from its taste for the bright one; because they both end in speculation. A Poet is the most unpoetical of any thing in existence; because he has no Identity – he is continually in for – and filling some other Body – The Sun, the Moon, the Sea and Men and Women who are creatures of impulse are poetical and have about them an unchangeable attribute – the poet has none; no identity – he is certainly the most unpoetical of all God's Creatures. He used the term negative capability to discuss the state in which we are "capable of being in uncertainties, Mysteries, doubts without any irritable reaching after fact & reason ...[Being] content with half knowledge" where one trusts in the heart's perceptions.[108] He wrote later: "I am certain of nothing but the holiness of the Heart's affections and the truth of Imagination – What the imagination seizes as Beauty must be truth – whether it existed before or not – for I have the same Idea of all our Passions as of Love they are all in their sublime, creative of essential Beauty"[109] again and again turning to the question of what it means to be a poet.[40] "My Imagination is a Monastery and I am its Monk", Keats notes to Shelley. In September 1819, Keats wrote to Reynolds "How beautiful the season is now – How fine the air. A temperate sharpness about it  ... I never lik'd the stubbled fields as much as now – Aye, better than the chilly green of spring. Somehow the stubble plain looks warm – in the same way as some pictures look warm – this struck me so much in my Sunday's walk that I composed upon it".[110] The final stanza of his last great ode, "To Autumn", runs: Where are the songs of Spring? Ay, where are they? Think not of them, thou hast thy music too,- While barred clouds bloom the soft-dying day, And touch the stubble-plains with rosy hue;[84] Later, "To Autumn" became one of the most highly regarded poems in the English language.[nb 6][nb 7] There are areas of his life and daily routine that Keats does not describe. He mentions little about his childhood or his financial straits and is seemingly embarrassed to discuss them. There is a total absence of any reference to his parents.[4] In his last year, as his health deteriorated, his concerns often give way to despair and morbid obsessions. The publications of letters to Fanny Brawne in 1870 focus on this period and emphasise this tragic aspect, giving rise to widespread criticism at the time.[101] Major Works[edit] Main article: John Keats bibliography Cox, Jeffrey N., ed., Keats's Poetry and Prose (New York and London: W.W. Norton & Co., 2008). ISBN 978-0393924916 Wolfson, Susan, ed., John Keats (London and New York: Longman, 2007). Allott, Miriam, ed., The Complete Poems (London and New York: Longman, 1970). Scott, Grant F., ed., Selected Letters of John Keats (Cambridge: Harvard UP, 2002). Stillinger, Jack, ed., John Keats: Poetry Manuscripts at Harvard, a Facsimile Edition (Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1990). ISBN 0-674-47775-8 Stillinger, Jack, ed., The Poems of John Keats (Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1978). Hyder Edward Rollins, ed., The Letters of John Keats 1814–1821, 2 vols. (Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1958). Forman, H. Buxton, ed., The Complete Poetical Works of John Keats (Oxford: Oxford UP, 1907). Scudder, Horace E., ed., The Complete Poetical Works and Letters of John Keats (Boston: Riverside Press, 1899). Notes[edit] ^ Keats' share would have increased on the death of his brother Tom in 1818. ^ The original plum tree no longer survives, though others have been planted since. ^ The Quarterly Review. April 1818. 204–08. "It is not, we say, that the author has not powers of language, rays of fancy, and gleams of genius – he has all these; but he is unhappily a disciple of the new school of what has been somewhere called 'Cockney Poetry'; which may be defined to consist of the most incongruous ideas in the most uncouth language ... There is hardly a complete couplet enclosing a complete idea in the whole book. He wanders from one subject to another, from the association, not of ideas, but of sounds." ^ Extracts from Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, 3 (1818) p519-24". Nineteenth Century Literary Manuscripts, Part 4. Retrieved 29 January 2010. "To witness the disease of any human understanding, however feeble, is distressing; but the spectacle of an able mind reduced to a state of insanity is, of course, ten times more afflicting. It is with such sorrow as this that we have contemplated the case of Mr John Keats .... He was bound apprentice some years ago to a worthy apothecary in town. But all has been undone by a sudden attack of the malady ... For some time we were in hopes that he might get off with a violent fit or two; but of late the symptoms are terrible. The phrenzy of the "Poems" was bad enough in its way; but it did not alarm us half so seriously as the calm, settled, imperturbable drivelling idiocy of Endymion .... It is a better and a wiser thing to be a starved apothecary than a starved poet; so back to the [apothecary] shop Mr John, back to 'plasters, pills, and ointment boxes' ". ^ Tennyson was writing Keats-style poetry in the 1830s and was being critically attacked in the same manner as his predecessor. ^ Bate p581: "Each generation has found it one of the most nearly perfect poems in English." ^ The 1888 Encyclopædia Britannica declared that, "Of these [odes] perhaps the two nearest to absolute perfection, to the triumphant achievement and accomplishment of the very utmost beauty possible to human words, may be that of to Autumn and that on a Grecian Urn" Baynes, Thomas (Ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica Vol XIV. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1888. OCLC 1387837. 23 References[edit] ^ a b c d O'Neill and Mahoney (1988), 418 ^ Jorge Luis Borges (2000). This Craft of Verse. Harvard University Press, 98–101 ^ a b Motion (1997), 10 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w Kelvin Everest, "Keats, John (1795–1821)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004 Online (subscription only) ^ "Literary gossip". The Week : A Canadian Journal of Politics, Literature, Science and Arts. 1 (4): 61. 27 December 1883. Retrieved 23 April 2013. ^ Gittings (1968), 11 ^ "Two become one at The Globe". Evening Standard. 12 August 2008. Retrieved 17 September 2012. ^ Gittings (1968), 24 ^ Harrow. Motion (1998), 22 ^ Milnes (1848) ^ a b c d e Gittings (1987), 1–3 ^ John Keats, Colvin, S, (1917) ^ Monckton Milnes (1848), xiii ^ Motion (1999), 46 ^ Motion, Andrew (1999). Keats. University of Chicago Press. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-226-54240-9. ^ "See the British National Archives for conversion rates". Nationalarchives.gov.uk. Retrieved 1 March 2014. ^ Motion (1998), 74 ^ Motion (1998), 98 ^ Motion (1997), 94 ^ a b Hirsch, Edward (2001) ^ Colvin (2006), 35 ^ Keats, John (1816). "Sonnett VIII. To My Brothers". Poemist.com. Retrieved 31 October 2015. ^ Motion (1998), 104–5 ^ Motion proposes that the Olliers suggested Keats leave their publishing lists. See Motion (1997) p156 ^ Motion (1997), 156 ^ Motion (1997), 157 ^ Gittings (1968), 155 ^ Motion (1997), 116–120 ^ Motion (1997) 130 ^ Keats' letter to Benjamin Bailey, 22 November 1817 ^ Bate (1964) p632 ^ Motion (1997), 365–66 ^ Motion (1997), 364, 184 ^ Tracing the Keats Family in America New York Times Koch 30 July 1922. Retrieved 29 January 2010. ^ Motion (1997), 494 ^ Letter of 7 August 1818; Brown (1937) ^ Motion (1997), 290 ^ Zur Pathogenie der Impetigines. Auszug aus einer brieflichen Mitteilung an den Herausgeber. [Müller's] Archiv für Anatomie, Physiologie und wissenschaftliche Medicin. 1839, p82. ^ De Almeida (1991), 206–07; Motion (1997), 500–01 ^ a b O'Neill and Mahoney (1988), 419 ^ a b c d "Keats, John" The Oxford Companion to English Literature. Edited by Dinah Birch. Oxford University Press Inc. ^ Charles Armitage Brown (1937) 53–54 ^ Hart, Christopher. (2 August 2009.) "Savour John Keats' poetry in garden where he wrote". The Sunday Times. Retrieved 29 January 2010. ^ Bate (1963), 63 ^ Keats, John; Gittings, Robert (1970). The odes of Keats and their earliest known manuscripts. Kent State University Press. ISBN 978-0873380997. ^ Motion (1997) pp204-5 ^ A preface to Keats (1985) Cedric Thomas Watts, Longman, University of Michigan p90 ISBN 9780582353671 ^ Gittings (1968), 504 ^ a b Kennedy, Maev. "Keats' London home reopens after major refurbishment". The Guardian, 22 July 2009. Retrieved 29 January 2010. ^ a b Motion (1997), 180–1 ^ a b c Gittings (1968), 139 ^ Walsh William (1981) Introduction to Keats Law Book Co of Australasia p81 ^ Gittings (1956), Mask of Keats. Heinmann, 45 ^ Gittings (1968), 262 ^ Gittings (1968), 268 ^ Gittings (1968), 264 ^ a b Gittings (1968), 293–298 ^ a b Gittings (1968), 327–331 ^ Houghton Library, Harvard University, I shall ever be your dearest love: John Keats and Fanny Brawne. "1820". ^ Richardson, 1952, 112 ^ Bate (1964), 636 ^ Motion (1997), 496 ^ Porter, Roy (1 April 1998). The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity (The Norton History of Science). W. W. Norton & Company. p. 440?. ISBN 978-0393046342. ^ McCormick, Eric Hall (23 February 1989). The Friend of Keats: A Life of Charles Armitage Brown. Victoria University Press. p. 60. ISBN 9780864730817. Retrieved 23 February 2019 – via Google Books. ^ Rodriguez, Andres; Rodríguez, Andrés (7 September 1993). Book of the Heart: The Poetics, Letters, and Life of John Keats. SteinerBooks. ISBN 9780940262577 – via Google Books. ^ Thomas Hardy’s poem ‘At Lulworth Cove a Century Back’, September 1920, commemorates Keats’ landing on the Dorset coast on the voyage to Rome ^ a b "A window to the soul of John Keats" by Marsh, Stefanie. The Times, 2 November 2009. Retrieved 29 January 2010. ^ Keats' Last Letter, written to Charles Armitage Brown from Rome, 30 November 1820 ^ Brown (2009) ^ a b c Flood, Alison. "Doctor's mistakes to blame for Keats' agonising end, says new biography". The Guardian, 26 October 2009. Retrieved 29 January 2010. ^ Colvin (1917), 208 ^ Adonais: An Elegy on the Death of John Keats. Representative Poetry Online. Retrieved 29 January 2010. ^ Richardson, 1952, p89. ^ "Keats's keeper". Motion, Andrew. The Guardian, 7 May 2005. Retrieved 29 January 2010. ^ a b Andrew Motion (23 January 2010). "Article 23 January 2010 An introduction to the poetry of John Keats". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 15 February 2010. ^ Strachan (2003), 2 ^ a b Walsh (1957), 220–221 ^ "John-Keats.com - Letters". www.john-keats.com. Retrieved 23 February 2019. ^ Keats Letter To Percy Bysshe Shelley, 16 August 1820 ^ Adonais by Shelley is a despairing elegy of 495 lines and 55 Spenserian stanzas. It was published that July 1820 and he came to view it as his "least imperfect" work. ^ Adonais (Adonais: An Elegy on the Death of John Keats, Author of Endymion, Hyperion, etc.) by Shelley, published 1821 ^ "Adonais: An Elegy on the Death of John Keats | Representative Poetry Online". rpo.library.utoronto.ca. ^ a b c d e f Gittings (1987), 18–21 ^ a b Gittings (1987), 157 ^ 'Poesy Club', Mason College Magazine, 4.5 (October 1886), 106. ^ "Keats, John". Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, Vol. XIV. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1882. 22–24 ^ Vendler (1983) 60 ^ Bate (1963) 581 ^ Ridley & Clarendon (1933) 289 ^ The Keats-Shelley Poetry Award. Retrieved 11 February 2010. ^ "KEATS, JOHN (1795–1821)". English Heritage. Retrieved 23 October 2012. ^ a b c Gittings (1968), 3 ^ Gittings (1968), 5 ^ Motion (1997), 499 ^ "John Keats: His Life and Death". Retrieved 23 February 2019 – via www.imdb.com. ^ The Academy of American Poets "Bright Star": Campion's Film About the Life and Love of Keats. ^ "Talking Pictures: 'Bright Star' – 2 1/2 stars". ^ "A Night of Blacker Darkness". Goodreads. Retrieved 6 February 2017. ^ "Hyperion (Hyperion Cantos, #1)". Goodreads. Retrieved 6 February 2017. ^ "The Stress of Her Regard". Goodreads. Retrieved 6 February 2017. ^ a b c d e f Gittings (1987), 12–17 ^ Strachan (2003), 12 ^ T. S. Eliot The Use of Poetry and the Use of Criticism (1937) p100 ^ T. S. Eliot The Use of Poetry and the Use of Criticism (1937) p101 ^ Gittings (1968), 66 ^ Letter to George Keats, Sunday 14 February 1819 ^ Scott, Grant (ed.), Selected Letters of John Keats, Harvard University Press (2002) ^ Wu, Duncan (2005) Romanticism: an anthology: Edition: 3, illustrated. Blackwell, 2005 p.1351. citing Letter to George Keats. Sunday, 21 December 1817 ^ Keats letter to Benjamin Bailey, 22 November 1817 ^ Houghton (2008), 184 Sources[edit] Bate, Walter Jackson (1964). John Keats. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. Bate, Walter Jackson (2012). Negative Capability: The Intuitive Approach in Keats (1965), reprinted with a new intro by Maura Del Serra. New York: Contra Mundum Press, 2012. Brown, Charles Armitage (1937). The Life of John Keats, ed. London: Oxford University Press. Brown, Sue (2009). Joseph Severn, A Life: The Rewards of Friendship. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-956502-3 Chapman, D. (2012). What's in an Urn?, Concept, ISBN 978-1291143119. Colvin, Sidney (1917). John Keats: His Life and Poetry, His Friends Critics and After-Fame. London: Macmillan. Colvin, Sidney (1970). John Keats: His Life and Poetry, His Friends, Critics, and After-Fame. New York: Octagon Books. Coote, Stephen (1995). John Keats. A Life. London: Hodder & Stoughton. De Almeida, Hermione (1991). Romantic Medicine and John Keats. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-506307-4 Gittings, Robert (1954). John Keats: The Living Year. 21 September 1818 to 21 September 1819. London: Heinemann. Gittings, Robert (1964). The Keats Inheritance. London: Heinemann. Gittings, Robert (1968). John Keats. London: Heinemann. Gittings, Robert (1987) Selected poems and letters of Keats London: Heinemann. Goslee, Nancy (1985). Uriel's Eye: Miltonic Stationing and Statuary in Blake, Keats and Shelley. University of Alabama Press. ISBN 0-8173-0243-3 Hewlett, Dorothy (3rd rev. ed. 1970). A life of John Keats. London: Hutchinson. Hirsch, Edward (Ed.) (2001). Complete Poems and Selected Letters of John Keats. Random House Publishing. ISBN 0-375-75669-8 Houghton, Richard (Ed.) (2008). The Life and Letters of John Keats. Read Books. ISBN 978-1-4097-9103-4 Jones, Michael (1984). "Twilight of the Gods: The Greeks in Schiller and Lukacs". Germanic Review. 59 (2): 49–56. doi:10.1080/00168890.1984.9935401. Lachman, Lilach (1988). "History and Temporalization of Space: Keats' Hyperion Poems". Proceedings of the XII Congress of the International Comparative Literature Association, edited by Roger Bauer and Douwe Fokkema (Munich, Germany): 159–164. G. M. Matthews (Ed). (1995). "John Keats: The Critical Heritage". London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-13447-1 Monckton Milnes, Richard, ed. (Lord Houghton) (1848). Life, Letters and Literary Remains of John Keats. 2 vols. London: Edward Moxon. Motion, Andrew (1997). Keats. London: Faber. O'Neill, Michael & Mahoney Charles (Eds.) (2007). Romantic Poetry: An Annotated Anthology. Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-21317-1 Ridley, M. and R. Clarendon (1933). Keats' craftsmanship: a study in poetic development ASIN: B00085UM2I (Out of Print in 2010). Scott, Grant F. (1994). The Sculpted Word: Keats, Ekphrasis, and the Visual Arts. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England. ISBN 0-87451-679-X Stillinger, Jack (1982). Complete Poems. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-15430-4 Strachan, John (Ed.) (2003). A Routledge Literary Sourcebook on the Poems of John Keats. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-23478-6 Vendler, Helen (1983). The Odes of John Keats. Belknap Press ISBN 0-674-63076-9 Walsh, John Evangelist (1999). Darkling I Listen: The Last Days and Death of John Keats. New York: St. Martin's Press. Walsh, William (1957). "John Keats", in From Blake to Byron. Middlesex: Penguin. Ward, Aileen (1963). John Keats: The Making of a Poet. London: Secker & Warburg. Wolfson, Susan J. (1986). The Questioning Presence. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-1909-3 Further reading[edit] Bate, Walter Jackson. Negative Capability: The Intuitive Approach in Keats. New York: Contra Mundum Press, 2012. Cox, Jeffrey N. Poetry and Politics in the Cockney School: Keats, Shelley, Hunt and Their Circle. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004. ISBN 978-0521604239 Kirkland, John (2008). Love Letters of Great Men, Vol. 1. CreateSpace Publishing. Kottoor, Gopikrishnan (1994). The Mask of Death: The Final Days of John Keats, (A Radio Play). Writers WorkShop Kolkata, 1994. Lowell, Amy (1925). John Keats. 2 vols. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Parson, Donald (1954). Portraits of Keats. Cleveland: World Publishing Co. Plumly, Stanley (2008). Posthumous Keats. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. Richardson, Joanna (1963). The Everlasting Spell. A Study of Keats and His Friends. London: Cape. Richardson, Joanna (1980). Keats and His Circle. An Album of Portraits. London: Cassell. Roe, Nicholas (2012). John Keats. A New Life. New Haven and London: Yale University Press ISBN 978-0-300-12465-1 Rossetti, William Michael (1887). The Life and Writings of John Keats. London: Walter Scott. Turley, Richard Marggraf (2004). Keats' Boyish Imagination. London: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-28882-8 External links[edit] Poetry portal Wikimedia Commons has media related to John Keats. Wikiquote has quotations related to: John Keats Wikisource has original works written by or about: John Keats John Keats on the British Library's Discovering Literature website John Keats at the Poetry Foundation Biography of Keats at poets.org Works by John Keats at Project Gutenberg Works by or about John Keats at Internet Archive Works by John Keats at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) The Harvard Keats Collection at the Houghton Library, Harvard University Keats House, Hampstead: official website The Keats-Shelley House museum in Rome John Keats at the National Portrait Gallery Keats, John (1795–1821) Poet at the National Register of Archives Mapping Keats's Progress: A Critical Chronology v t e John Keats Bibliography John Keats bibliography List of poems by John Keats Poetry collections 1819 odes (1819) Short poems "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer" (1816) "Sleep and Poetry" (1817) "Ode to a Nightingale" (1819) "La Belle Dame sans Merci" (1820) "Ode on a Grecian Urn" (1820) "Ode on Melancholy" (1820) "Ode to Psyche" (1820) "To Autumn" (1820) "Bright star, would I were stedfast as thou art" (1838) "Ode on Indolence" (1848) "When I have Fears that I may Cease to Be" (1848) "You say you love; but with a voice" (1914) Long poems Endymion (1818) Isabella, or the Pot of Basil (1820) Hyperion (1820) Lamia (1820) The Eve of St. Agnes (1820) The Fall of Hyperion: A Dream (1856–57) People Fanny Brawne Charles Armitage Brown Charles Cowden Clarke Charles Wentworth Dilke Benjamin Haydon Leigh Hunt George Keats John Hamilton Reynolds Joseph Severn Percy Bysshe Shelley (Adonais) John Taylor Related Keats House Keats–Shelley Memorial House "negative capability" Keats and His Nightingale: A Blind Date Bright Star v t e Romanticism Countries Denmark England (literature) France (literature) Germany Norway Poland Russia (literature) Scotland Spain (literature) Sweden (literature) Movements Bohemianism Coppet group Counter-Enlightenment Dark romanticism Düsseldorf School Gesamtkunstwerk Gothic fiction Gothic Revival (architecture) Hudson River School Indianism Jena Romanticism Lake Poets Nazarene movement Ossian Romantic hero Romanticism and Bacon Romanticism in science Romantic nationalism Romantic poetry Opium and Romanticism Transcendentalism Ultra-Romanticism Wallenrodism Writers Abovian Abreu Alencar Alfieri Alves Andersen A. v. Arnim B. v. Arnim Azevedo Baratashvili Baratynsky Barbauld (Aikin) Batyushkov Baudelaire Bécquer Beer Bertrand Blake Botev Brentano Bryant Burns Byron Castelo Branco Castilho Chateaubriand Chavchavadze Clare Coleridge Cooper De Quincey Dias Dumas Eichendorff Emerson Eminescu Espronceda Fouqué Foscolo Frashëri Fredro Freire Garrett Gautier Goethe Grimm Brothers Günderrode Gutiérrez Gutzkow Hauff Hawthorne Heine Heliade Herculano Hoffmann Hölderlin Hugo Kostić Irving Isaacs Jakšić Jean Paul Karamzin Keats Kleist Krasiński Küchelbecker Lamartine Landor Lenau Leopardi Lermontov Longfellow Lowell Macedonski Macedo Mácha Magalhães Malczewski Manzoni Maturin Mérimée Mickiewicz Mörike Musset Nalbandian Nerval Njegoš Nodier Norwid Novalis Oehlenschläger O'Neddy Orbeliani Poe Polidori Potocki Prešeren Pushkin Raffi Saavedra Sand Schiller Schwab Scott Seward M. Shelley P. B. 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en-wikipedia-org-2451	----	Iamb (poetry) - Wikipedia Iamb (poetry) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Metrical foot Metrical feet and accents Disyllables ˘ ˘ pyrrhic, dibrach ˘ ¯ iamb ¯ ˘ trochee, choree ¯ ¯ spondee Trisyllables ˘ ˘ ˘ tribrach ¯ ˘ ˘ dactyl ˘ ¯ ˘ amphibrach ˘ ˘ ¯ anapaest, antidactylus ˘ ¯ ¯ bacchius ¯ ¯ ˘ antibacchius ¯ ˘ ¯ cretic, amphimacer ¯ ¯ ¯ molossus See main article for tetrasyllables. v t e An iamb (/ˈaɪæm/) or iambus is a metrical foot used in various types of poetry. Originally the term referred to one of the feet of the quantitative meter of classical Greek prosody: a short syllable followed by a long syllable (as in "above"). This terminology was adopted in the description of accentual-syllabic verse in English, where it refers to a foot comprising an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable (as in a-bove). Contents 1 Etymology 2 Accentual-syllabic use 3 Types of meter 3.1 Dimeter 3.2 Trimeter 3.3 Tetrameter 3.4 Pentameter 3.5 Hexameter 3.6 Heptameter 4 Sound change 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links Etymology[edit] Main article: Iambus (genre) R. S. P. Beekes has suggested that the Ancient Greek: ἴαμβος iambos has a Pre-Greek origin.[1] An old hypothesis is that the word is borrowed from Phrygian or Pelasgian, and literally means "Einschritt", i. e., "one-step", compare dithyramb and thriambus, but H. S. Versnel rejects this etymology and suggests instead a derivation from a cultic exclamation.[2] The word may be related to Iambe, a Greek minor goddess of verse, especially scurrilous, ribald humour. In ancient Greece iambus was mainly satirical poetry, lampoons, which did not automatically imply a particular metrical type. Iambic metre took its name from being characteristic of iambi, not vice versa.[3] Accentual-syllabic use[edit] A metrical tree representation of an iamb. W = weak syllable, S = strong syllable An alternative metrical tree representation of an iamb. F = foot, σ = syllable. The head of the foot constituent, i.e. the stressed syllable, is indicated with a vertical line. A bracketed grid representation of an iamb. The x's in the lower grid are syllables, the x in the upper grid indicates the position of the stressed syllable. In accentual-syllabic verse an iamb is a foot that has the rhythmic pattern: da DUM Using the 'ictus and x' notation (see systems of scansion for a full discussion of various notations) we can write this as: x / The word 'attempt' is a natural iamb: x / at- tempt In phonology, an iambic foot is notated in a flat representation as (σ'σ) or as foot tree with two branches W and S where W = weak and S = strong. Iambic pentameter is one of the most commonly used measures in English and German poetry, for instance it can be found Shakespeare's Sonnets.[4] A line of iambic pentameter comprises five consecutive iambs. Iambic trimeter is the metre of the spoken verses in Greek tragedy and comedy, comprising six iambs—as one iambic metrum consisted of two iambs. In English accentual-syllabic verse, iambic trimeter is a line comprising three iambs. Less common iambic measures include iambic tetrameter (four iambs per line) and iambic heptameter, sometimes called the "fourteener" (seven iambs per line). Lord Byron's also "She Walks in Beauty" exemplifies iambic tetrameter; iambic heptameter is found in Australian poet A. B. "Banjo" Paterson's "The Man from Ironbark". Related to iambic heptameter is the more common ballad verse (also called common metre), in which a line of iambic tetrameter is succeeded by a line of iambic trimeter, usually in quatrain form. Samuel Taylor Coleridge's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner is a classic example of this form. The reverse of an iamb is called a trochee. Types of meter[edit] Key: Non-bold = unstressed syllable Bold = stressed syllable Dimeter[edit] Iambic dimeter is a meter referring to a line consisting of two iambic feet. The way a crow Shook down on me.... (Robert Frost, "Dust of Snow") Trimeter[edit] Main article: Iambic trimeter Iambic trimeter is a meter referring to a line consisting of three iambic feet. We romped until the pans Slid from the kitchen shelf; (Theodore Roethke, "My Papa's Waltz") The only news I know Is bulletins all day (Emily Dickinson, "The Only News I Know") Tetrameter[edit] Main article: Iambic tetrameter Iambic tetrameter is a meter referring to a line consisting of four iambic feet: She walks in beauty, like the night Of cloudless climes and starry skies; (Lord Byron, "She Walks in Beauty") Pentameter[edit] Main article: Iambic pentameter Iambic Pentameter is a meter referring to a line consisting of five iambic feet: To strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield. (Alfred Tennyson, "Ulysses") Shall I compare thee to a summer's day? (William Shakespeare, Sonnet 18) (Although, it could be argued that this line in fact reads: Shall I compare thee to a summer's day? Meter is often broken in this way, sometimes for intended effect and sometimes simply due to the sound of the words in the line. Where the stresses lie can be debated, as it depends greatly on where the reader decides to place the stresses. Although in this meter the foot is no longer iambs but trochees.)[original research?] A horse! A horse! My kingdom for a horse! (William Shakespeare, Richard III) Hexameter[edit] Main article: Iambic hexameter Iambic hexameter is a meter referring to a line consisting of six iambic feet. In English verse, "alexandrine" is typically used to mean "iambic hexameter" Ye sacred Bards, that to ¦ your harps' melodious strings Sung th'ancient Heroes' deeds (the monuments of Kings) (Michael Drayton, Poly-Olbion) Heptameter[edit] Main article: Iambic heptameter Iambic Heptameter is a meter referring to a line consisting of seven iambic feet: I s'pose the flats is pretty green up there in Ironbark. (A. B. Paterson, The Man from Ironbark) Sound change[edit] Main article: Latin spelling and pronunciation § Iambic shortening Through iambic shortening, a word with the shape light–heavy or short–long changes to become light–light. See also[edit] Look up iamb in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Common metre Long metre Prosody (Latin) Short metre Notes[edit] ^ R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. 572. ^ Versnel, H. S. (1970). "I. 2 Θρίαμβος". Triumphus: An Inquiry Into the Origin, Development and Meaning of the Roman Triumph. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill Publishers. pp. 16–38. ISBN 90-04-02325-9. Retrieved 2 January 2015. ^ Studies in Greek elegy and iambus By Martin Litchfield West Page 22 ISBN 3-11-004585-0 ^ "Poetry 101: What Is a Shakespearean Sonnet? Learn About Shakespearean Sonnets With Examples". MasterClass. Master Class. Retrieved 11 November 2020. References[edit] Murfin, Ross C.; Ray, Supryia M. (2009). The Bedford Glossary of Critical and Literary Terms. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's. ISBN 978-0-312-46188-1. LCCN 2008925882. External links[edit] "Iambic" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Iamb_(poetry)&oldid=988208186" Categories: Metrical feet Phonology Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles that may contain original research Articles that may contain original research from February 2016 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Alemannisch Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Català Чӑвашла Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara Français Galego 贛語 Հայերեն Ido Íslenska Italiano ქართული Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 11 November 2020, at 19:35 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2458	----	Neume - Wikipedia Neume From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Neumes) Jump to navigation Jump to search "Daseia" redirects here. For the Greek diacritic, see rough breathing. A sample of Kýrie Eléison XI (Orbis Factor) from the Liber Usualis. Listen to it interpreted. A neume (/ˈnjuːm/; sometimes spelled neum)[1][2][3] is the basic element of Western and Eastern systems of musical notation prior to the invention of five-line staff notation. The earliest neumes were inflective marks that indicated the general shape but not necessarily the exact notes or rhythms to be sung. Later developments included the use of heightened neumes that showed the relative pitches between neumes, and the creation of a four-line musical staff that identified particular pitches. Neumes do not generally indicate rhythm, but additional symbols were sometimes juxtaposed with neumes to indicate changes in articulation, duration, or tempo. Neumatic notation was later used in medieval music to indicate certain patterns of rhythm called rhythmic modes, and eventually evolved into modern musical notation. Neumatic notation remains standard in modern editions of plainchant. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Early history 3 Western plainchant 4 Solesmes notation 5 Rhythmic interpretation 6 Illustrations 6.1 Clefs 6.2 Single notes 6.3 Two notes 6.4 Three notes 6.5 Compound neumes 6.6 Other basic markings 6.7 Interpretive marks 7 Other functions 8 Other types 9 Digital notation 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 External links Etymology[edit] The word "neume" entered the English language in the Middle English forms "newme", "nevme", "neme" in the 15th century, from the Middle French "neume", in turn from either medieval Latin "pneuma" or "neuma", the former either from ancient Greek πνεῦμα pneuma ("breath") or νεῦμα neuma ("sign"),[4][5] or else directly from Greek as a corruption or an adaptation of the former.[6][citation needed] Early history[edit] Although chant was probably sung since the earliest days of the church, for centuries they were only transmitted orally. The earliest known systems involving neumes are of Aramaic origin and were used to notate inflections in the quasi-emmelic (melodic) recitation of the Christian holy scriptures. As such they resemble functionally a similar system used for the notation of recitation of the Qur'an, the holy book of Islam. This early system was called ekphonetic notation, from the Greek ἐκφώνησις ekphonesis meaning quasi-melodic recitation of text. Around the 9th century neumes began to become shorthand mnemonic aids for the proper melodic recitation of chant.[7] A prevalent view is that neumatic notation was first developed in the Eastern Roman Empire. This seems plausible given the well-documented peak of musical composition and cultural activity in major cities of the empire (now regions of southern Turkey, Syria, Lebanon and Israel) at that time. The corpus of extant Byzantine music in manuscript and printed form is far larger than that of the Gregorian chant, due in part to the fact that neumes fell into disuse in the west after the rise of modern staff notation and with it the new techniques of polyphonic music, while the Eastern tradition of Greek orthodox church music and the reformed neume notation remains alive today. Slavic neume notations ("Znamenny Chant") are on the whole even more difficult to decipher and transcribe than Byzantine or Gregorian neume notations. Western plainchant[edit] "Iubilate deo universa terra" shows psalm verses in unheightened cheironomic neumes. The earliest Western notation for chant appears in the 9th century. These early staffless neumes, called cheironomic or in campo aperto, appeared as freeform wavy lines above the text. Various scholars see these as deriving from cheironomic hand-gestures, from the ekphonetic notation of Byzantine chant, or from punctuation or accent marks.[8] A single neume could represent a single pitch, or a series of pitches all sung on the same syllable. Cheironomic neumes indicated changes in pitch and duration within each syllable, but did not attempt to specify the pitches of individual notes, the intervals between pitches within a neume, nor the relative starting pitches of different syllables' neumes. There is evidence that the earliest Western musical notation, in the form of neumes in campo aperto (without staff-lines), was created at Metz around 800, as a result of Charlemagne's desire for Frankish church musicians to retain the performance nuances used by the Roman singers.[9] Presumably these were intended only as mnemonics for melodies learned by ear. The earliest extant manuscripts (9th–10th centuries) of such neumes include: the abbey of St. Gall, in modern-day Switzerland Messine neumes (from the monastery of Metz in northeast France) Aquitanian neumes (southern France, also used in Spain) Laon, Chartres, Montpellier Digraphic neumes in an 11th-century manuscript from Dijon. Letter names for individual notes in the neume are provided In the early 11th century, Beneventan neumes (from the churches of Benevento in southern Italy) were written at varying distances from the text to indicate the overall shape of the melody; such neumes are called "heightened" or "diastematic" neumes, which showed the relative pitches between neumes. A few manuscripts from the same period use "digraphic" notation in which note names are included below the neumes. Shortly after this, one to four staff lines—an innovation traditionally ascribed to Guido d'Arezzo—clarified the exact relationship between pitches. One line was marked as representing a particular pitch, usually C or F. These neumes resembled the same thin, scripty style of the chironomic notation. By the 11th century, chironomic neumes had evolved into square notation;[10] in Germany, a variant called Gothic neumes continued to be used until the 16th century. This variant is also known as Hufnagel notation, as the used neumes resemble the nails (hufnagels) one uses to attach horseshoes.[11] "Gaudeamus omnes", from the Graduale Aboense, was scripted using square notation. By the 13th century, the neumes of Gregorian chant were usually written in square notation on a staff with four lines and three spaces and a clef marker, as in the 14th–15th century Graduale Aboense shown here. In square notation, small groups of ascending notes on a syllable are shown as stacked squares, read from bottom to top, while descending notes are written with diamonds read from left to right. In melismatic chants, in which a syllable may be sung to a large number of notes, a series of smaller such groups of neumes are written in succession, read from left to right. A special symbol called the custos, placed at the end of a system, showed which pitch came next at the start of the following system. Special neumes such as the oriscus, quilisma, and liquescent neumes, indicate particular vocal treatments for these notes. This system of square notation is standard in modern chantbooks. Solesmes notation[edit] Various manuscripts and printed editions of Gregorian chant, using varying styles of square-note neumes, circulated throughout the Catholic Church for centuries. Some editions added rhythmic patterns, or meter, to the chants. In the 19th century the monks of the Benedictine abbey of Solesmes, particularly Dom Joseph Pothier (1835–1923) and Dom André Mocquereau (1849–1930) collected facsimiles of the earliest manuscripts and published them in a series of 12 publications called Paléographie musicale (French article). They also assembled definitive versions of many of the chants, and developed a standardized form of the square-note notation that was adopted by the Catholic Church and is still in use in publications such as the Liber Usualis (although there are also published editions of this book in modern notation). As a general rule, the notes of a single neume are never sung to more than one syllable; all three pitches of a three-note neume, for example, must all be sung on the same syllable. (This is not universally accepted; Richard Crocker has argued that in the special case of the early Aquitanian polyphony of the St. Martial school, neumes must have been "broken" between syllables to facilitate the coordination of parts.) However, a single syllable may be sung to so many notes that several neumes in succession are used to notate it. The single-note neumes indicate that only a single note corresponds to that syllable. Chants that primarily use single-note neumes are called syllabic; chants with typically one multi-note neume per syllable are called neumatic, and those with many neumes per syllable are called melismatic. Rhythmic interpretation[edit] The Solesmes monks also determined, based on their research, performance practice for Gregorian chant. Because of the ambiguity of medieval musical notation, the question of rhythm in Gregorian chant is contested by scholars. Some neumes, such as the pressus, do indicate the lengthening of notes.[contradictory] Common modern practice, following the Solesmes interpretation, is to perform Gregorian chant with no beat or regular metric accent, in which time is free, allowing the text to determine the accent and the melodic contour to determine phrasing. By the 13th century, with the widespread use of square notation, it is believed that most chant was sung with each note getting approximately an equal value, although Jerome of Moravia cites exceptions in which certain notes, such as the final notes of a chant, are lengthened.[12] The Solesmes school, represented by Dom Pothier and Dom Mocquereau, supports a rhythm of equal values per note, allowing for lengthening and shortening of note values for musical purposes. A second school of thought, including Wagner, Jammers, and Lipphardt, supports different rhythmic realizations of chant by imposing musical meter on the chant in various ways.[13] Musicologist Gustave Reese said that the second group, called mensuralists, "have an impressive amount of historical evidence on their side" (Music in the Middle Ages, p. 146), but the equal-note Solesmes interpretation has permeated the musical world, apparently due to its ease of learning and resonance with modern musical taste.[14] Illustrations[edit] Examples of neumes may be seen here: "Basic & Liquescent Aquitanian Neumes" (archive from 10 June 2006, accessed 12 September 2014), [1], [2]. Clefs[edit] Neumes are written on a four-line staff on the lines and spaces, unlike modern music notation, which uses five lines. Chant does not rely on any absolute pitch or key; the clefs are only to establish the half and whole steps of the solfege or hexachord scale: "ut", "re", "mi", "fa", "sol", "la", "ti", "ut". The clef bracketing a line indicates the location "ut" in the case of the C clef, or "fa" in the case of the F clef as shown: C clef F clef Single notes[edit] Punctum ("point") Virga ("rod") Bipunctum ("two points") The virga and punctum are sung identically. Scholars disagree on whether the bipunctum indicates a note twice as long, or whether the same note should be re-articulated. When this latter interpretation is favoured, it may be called a repercussive neume. Two notes[edit] Clivis ("by slope") Two notes descending Podatus or Pes ("foot") Two notes ascending When two notes are one above the other, as in the podatus, the lower note is always sung first. Three notes[edit] Scandicus Three notes ascending Climacus Three notes descending Torculus down-up-down Porrectus up-down-up The fact that the first two notes of the porrectus are connected as a diagonal rather than as individual notes seems to be a scribe's shortcut. Compound neumes[edit] Several neumes in a row can be juxtaposed for a single syllable, but the following usages have specific names. These are only a few examples. Praepunctis a note appended to the beginning is praepunctis; this example is a podatus pressus because it involves a repeated note Subpunctis One or more notes appended at the end of a neume; this example is a scandicus subbipunctis Other basic markings[edit] Flat Same meaning as modern flat; only occurs on B, and is placed before the entire neume, or group of neumes, rather than immediately before the affected note. Its effect typically lasts the length of a word and is reinserted if needed on the next word. Custos At the end of a staff, the custos indicates what the first note of the next staff will be Mora Like a dot in modern notation, lengthens the preceding note, typically doubling it Interpretive marks[edit] The interpretation of these markings is the subject of great dispute among scholars. Vertical episema (vertical stroke) Indicates a subsidiary accent when there are five or more notes in a neume group. This marking was an invention of the Solemnes interpreters, rather than a marking from the original manuscripts. Horizontal episema (horizontal stroke) Used over a single note or a group of notes (as shown), essentially ignored in the Solesmes interpretation; other scholars treat it as indicating a lengthening or stress on the note(s). Liquescent neume (small note) Can occur on almost any type of neume pointing up or down; usually associated with certain letter combinations such as double consonants, consonant pairs, or diphthongs in the text; usually interpreted as a kind of grace note Quilisma (squiggly note) Always as part of a multi-note neume, usually a climacus, this sign is a matter of great dispute; the Solesmes interpretation is that the preceding note is to be lengthened slightly. Other interpretations of the quilisma: Shake or trill—Prof. William Mahrt of Stanford University supports this interpretation. This interpretation is also put into practice by the Washington Cappella Antiqua, under the current direction of Dr. Patrick Jacobson. Quarter-tone or accidental. The support for this interpretation lies in some early digraphic manuscripts that combine chironomic neumes with letter-names. In places where other manuscripts have quilismas these digraphs often have a strange symbol in place of a letter, suggesting to some scholars the use of a pitch outside the solmization system represented by the letter names.[citation needed] There are other uncommon neume shapes thought to indicate special types of vocal performance, though their precise meaning is a matter of debate:[15] The trigon.[16] The orthodox Solesme interpretation of this obscure three-note neume is a unison plus a third below, but there are other possibilities.[17] It appears to have originated at St. Gall, though it is also widespread in French chant sources from the 10th and 11th centuries.[18] It has been proposed that it may have a microtonal meaning, but there is "an admitted lack of conclusiveness in the arguments in favor of notes smaller than a semitone."[19] The distropha and tristropha are groups of two and three apostrophes, usually of the same pitch. They probably differed from normal repeated notes (virgae or puncta) in the way they were sung. Although there is some doubt on the matter, most modern writers accept Aurelian of Réôme's description of a staccato reiteration.[20] The oriscus is a single-note neume, usually found added as an auxiliary note to another neume. The name may derive from either the Greek horos (limit) or ōriskos (little hill). Its intended manner of performance is not clear. Although a microtonal interpretation has been suggested, there is possible contradicting evidence in the Dijon tonary, Montpellier H. 159.[21] The pressus is a compound neume, usually involving an initial neume followed by an oriscus and a punctum. The initial neume may be a virga (in which case the virga + oriscus may be together called a virga strata), in which case the pressus indicates three notes; if the initial neume is a pes, then the compound indicates a four-note group. Just as with the oriscus itself, the interpretation is unsure. When chant came to be notated on a staff, the oriscus was normally represented as having the same pitch as the immediately preceding note.[22] There are also litterae significativae in many manuscripts, usually interpreted to indicate variations in tempo, e.g. c = celeriter (fast), t = tenete (hold) (an early form of the tenuto), a = auge (lengthen, as in a tie). The Solesmes editions omit all such letters. Other functions[edit] Neumes were used for notating other kinds of melody than plainchant, including troubadour and trouvère melodies, monophonic versus and conductus, and the individual lines of polyphonic songs. In some traditions, such as the Notre Dame school of polyphony, certain patterns of neumes were used to represent particular rhythmic patterns called rhythmic modes. Other types[edit] Ekphonetic neumes annotating the melodic recitation of (Christian) holy scriptures. Neumes of Byzantine music – in several stages, old Byzantine, middle Byzantine, late Byzantine and post-Byzantine, and neo-Byzantine (reformed). Neumes of Slavic chant (Slavic neumes). Mozarabic or Hispanic neumes (Spain), also called Visigothic script. These neumes have not been deciphered, but the Mozarabic liturgy varies somewhat from the Roman rite. Catalan notation.[23] Daseian notation – an early form of Western music notation used in 9th and 10th-century music theory treatises. Buddhist chant uses a type of neume. Digital notation[edit] Because notation software usually focuses on modern European music notation, software that allows the user to use neumes is rare. Gregorio is a software especially written for that purpose. With its own GABC-Syntax and together with LuaTeX it provides high quality output of square notation neumes and also St. Gall neumes. Finale can be enhanced with Medieval 2, a third-party package devoted to early music and especially neumes.[24][25] Lilypond is able to produce output using neumes.[26] Some open fonts[27][28] for neumes are available, which can be used by common office software or scorewriters. See also[edit] Mensural notation Musical notation Znamenny Chant Notes[edit] ^ Dom Gregory Sunol, Textbook of Gregorian Chant According to the Solesmes Method, 2003, ISBN 0-7661-7241-4, ISBN 978-0-7661-7241-8. ^ Chants of the Church ^ Liber Usualis ^ "neume". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press.  (Subscription or participating institution membership required.) ^ πνεῦμα, νεῦμα. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project. ^ "neume". Oxford English Dictionary (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. 1989. ^ One of the earliest examples is the Planctus de obitu Karoli (c.814), which was provided neumatic notation in the 10th century, cf. Rosamond McKitterick (2008), Charlemagne: The Formation of a European Identity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-88672-4), 225 n54. For the lyrics, see Peter Godman (1985), Latin Poetry of the Carolingian Renaissance (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press), 206–11. ^ Kenneth levy, "Plainchant", Grove Music Online, edited by Laura Macy (Accessed January 20, 2006), (subscription access) ^ James Grier Ademar de Chabannes, Carolingian Musical Practices, and "Nota Romana", Journal of the American Musicological Society, Vol. 56, No. 1 (Spring, 2003), pp. 43–98, retrieved July 2007 ^ "Gregorian Chant - Classical Music". sites.google.com. ^ David Hiley. "Hufnagel". Oxford Music Online. Oxford University. Retrieved 5 February 2015. ^ Hiley, "Chant", p. 44. "The performance of chant in equal note lengths from the 13th century onwards is well supported by contemporary statements." ^ Apel, Gregorian Chant, p. 127. ^ Mahrt "Chant,", p. 18. ^ Don Michael Randel (ed.). 2003. "Neume". Harvard Dictionary of Music, fourth edition. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01163-5. ^ Willi Apel, ed. (1972). "Neume". Harvard Dictionary of Music, 2nd ed. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 572. ^ David Hughes, "The Musical Text of the Introit Ressurexi", in Music in Medieval Europe: Studies in Honour of Bryan Gillingham, edited by Terence Bailey and Alma Colk Santosuosso, 163–80 (Farnham, Surrey: Ashgate Publishing, 2007), p. 170. ISBN 978-0-7546-5239-7. ^ David Hughes, "An Enigmatic Neume", in Themes and Variations: Writings on Music in Honor of Rulan Chao Pian, edited by Bell Yung and Joseph S. C. Lam, 8–30 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press Press, 1994), pp. 13–14. ^ David Hughes, "An Enigmatic Neume", in Themes and Variations: Writings on Music in Honor of Rulan Chao Pian, edited by Bell Yung and Joseph S. C. Lam, 8–30 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press Press, 1994), p. 26. ^ David Hiley, "Distropha, tristropha [double apostrophe, bistropha; triple apostrophe]", The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell (London: Macmillan Publishers, 2001). ^ Anon., "Oriscus", The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell (London: Macmillan Publishers, 2001). ^ David Hiley, "Pressus", The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell (London: Macmillan Publishers, 2001). ^ Garrigosa i Massana, Joaquim (2003). Els manuscrits musicals a Catalunya fins al segle XIII. Lleida: Institut d'Estudis Ilerdencs. ISBN 9788489943742. ^ "Medieval 2 release". MakeMusic. Retrieved 2017-06-17. ^ "Medieval 2 website". Klemm Music Technology (for Robert Piéchaud). Retrieved 2017-06-17. ^ "Lilypond Notation Reference – Typesetting Gregorian Chant". Lilypond Development Team. Retrieved 2016-08-12. ^ "CaeciliaeCaeciliae". Marello.org. Archived from the original on 2016-10-31. Retrieved 2017-08-28.CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link) ^ "Liturgical Music / Downloads". Monastery Saint Meinrad Archabbey. Retrieved 2016-08-12. References[edit] Graduale triplex (1979). Tournai: Desclée & Socii. ISBN 2-85274-094-X, a special edition of the Graduale Romanum with chant notation in three forms, one above the other, for easy comparison: Laon, St. Gall, and square note Liber usualis (1953). Tournai: Desclée & Socii. Paléographie musicale.[full citation needed] ISBN 2-85274-219-5. Facsimiles of early adiastamatic chant manuscripts. Apel, Willi (1990). Gregorian Chant. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-20601-4. Constantin, Floros. "Universale Neumenkunde" (Universal Theory of Neumes); three-volume[full citation needed] covering all major styles and schools of neumatic musical notation in three major divisions: Byzantine, Gregorian and Slavic. Hiley, David (1990). "Chant". In Performance Practice: Music before 1600, Howard Mayer Brown and Stanley Sadie, eds., pp. 37–54. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-02807-0. Hiley, David (1995). Western Plainchant: A Handbook. Cambridge and New York: Clarendon Press and Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-19-816572-2. Mahrt, William P. (2000). "Chant". In A Performer's Guide to Medieval Music, Ross Duffin, ed., pp. 1–22. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-33752-6. McKinnon, James, ed. (1990). Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-036153-4.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) Wagner, Peter. (1911) Einführung in die Gregorianischen Melodien. Ein Handbuch der Choralwissenschaft. Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel. Wilson, David (1990). Music of the Middle Ages. Schirmer Books. ISBN 0-02-872951-X. External links[edit] Learning Resources The 1961 Liber Usualis compares, inter alia, modern and chant notations. It is also a handy reference for all the types of neumes. Singing Gregorian Chant: Pitch and Mode Other Oliver Gerlach (Ensemble Ison): Performing Western Plainchant—Introduction into the Latin Neumes of the 10th century (Accessed November 26, 2009) David Hiley and Janka Szendrei: "Notation", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (Accessed June 12, 2006), (subscription access) Font package for writing post-Byzantine neumes Kenneth Levy: "Plainchant", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (Accessed January 20, 2006), (subscription access) Comparative table of cheironomic and square neumes Samples of early notation, showing the same chant in many different notations Catholic Encyclopedia entry for Neum Solesmes Abbey The Intonation of the Eight Tones Byzantine notation Music for Vespers Byzantine notation v t e Musical notation Staff 8va 15ma Abbreviation Bar / barline / measure Clef Da capo Dal segno Key signature Ledger line Mode Ossia Scale Rehearsal letter Repeat sign Tempo Time signature Transposition Transposing instrument Musical notes Accidental (flat natural sharp) Cue note Dotted note Grace note Note value (beam notehead stem) Pitch Rest Tacet Tuplet Tremolo Interval Helmholtz pitch notation Letter notation Scientific pitch notation Articulation Accent Sforzando Caesura Damping Dynamics Fermata Fingering Legato Marcato Ornament (appoggiatura glissando grace note mordent slide trill) Portato Slur Staccato Tenuto Tie Tonguing Sheet music History of music publishing Music engraving Popular-music publisher Sheet-music publisher Scorewriter Alternative Braille music Chord chart Figured bass Graphic notation Lead sheet Eye music Nashville Number System Numbered musical notation Klavarskribo Tablature ("Tab") Parsons Percussion notation Simplified Non-Western and ancient Ancient Greek Chinese Kepatihan Kunkunshi Neume Swaralipi Shakuhachi Znamenny Related Mensural notation Music stand Sight-reading Sight singing Transcription List of musical symbols Category:Musical notation Authority control BNF: cb11977807m (data) GND: 4171568-8 LCCN: sh85091086 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neume&oldid=995906801" Categories: Christian music Musical notation Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2015 All self-contradictory articles Articles with unsourced statements from January 2015 All articles with incomplete citations Articles with incomplete citations from January 2015 CS1 maint: extra text: authors list Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Bosanski Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Հայերեն Italiano עברית Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 23 December 2020, at 14:43 (UTC). 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A category page can only display a limited number of items (currently 200). If more pages belong to the category, there will be a link to the next ones. The categories box for the category page appears at the bottom, in the same place as for other pages. This contains the categories to which the current category page has been added, i.e. its parent categories (the categories of which it is a subcategory). Add a category page to other categories in the normal way, using the "[[Category:Category name]]" or "[[Category:Category name|Sortkey]]" syntax. Putting pages into categories Shortcut WP:PAGECAT A page belongs to a category if the page's wikimarkup contains a declaration for that category. A category declaration takes the form [[Category:Category name]] or [[Category:Category name|Sortkey]]. The declaration must be processed, i.e. it will not work if it appears between <nowiki>...</nowiki> or <includeonly>...</includeonly> tags, or in a comment. The declaration may however come from a transcluded page; see Categories and templates below. A category name can be any string that would be a legitimate page title. If the category name begins with a lower-case letter it will be capitalized. In Wikipedia, it is customary to place category declarations at the end of the wikimarkup, but before any stub templates (which themselves transclude categories) and interlanguage links. When a page has been added to one or more categories, a categories box appears at the bottom of the page (or possibly elsewhere, if a non-default skin is being used). This box contains a list of the categories the page belongs to, in the order in which the category declarations appear in the processed wikimarkup. The category names are linked to the corresponding category pages. They appear as redlinks if the corresponding category page does not exist. If a user has enabled the HotCat gadget, the categories box will also provide links to quickly add, remove, or modify category declarations on the page, without having to edit the whole page. Hidden categories are not displayed, except as described below under Hiding categories. Working with category pages The following subsections are ordered from simple actions to more elaborate or rarer actions. Linking to category pages To link to a category page without putting the current page in that category, precede the link with a colon: [[:Category:Category name]]. Such a link can be piped like a normal wikilink. (The {{cl}} template, and others listed on its documentation page, may sometimes be helpful.) Retrieving raw category information Raw information about the members of a category, their sortkeys and timestamps (time when last added to the category) can be obtained from the API, using a query of the form: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?cmtitle=Category:Category_name&action=query&list=categorymembers&cmlimit=500&cmprop=title|sortkey|timestamp Listings of up to 500 members are possible. If there are more members then the results will include text near the end like this: <categorymembers cmcontinue="page|NNNN|TITLE" />. This can be added to the previous one, without quotation marks, for the next page of members: ...&cmcontinue=page|NNNN|TITLE Sorting category pages See also: Help:Sorting Shortcut WP:SORTCAT By default, a page is sorted under the first character of its name, without the namespace. English Wikipedia groups accented characters together with their unaccented version, so pages starting with À, Á, Ä, will be listed under heading A. Sorting is case-insensitive, so "ABC" comes after "Abacus". Unlike at Special:Allpages and Special:Prefixindex, a space is treated as a space (coming before all other characters), not as an underscore. The English Wikipedia has numerical sorting in categories. This means a page whose title begins with a number will be sorted according to the numeric value of the number (even if it is multiple digits). Thus "9 dogs", "25 dogs", and "112 dogs" will all appear under the "0–9" heading in numeric order. If the number includes a comma, space, or period, the sorting algorithm will only consider the part of the number before the separator. Each of the three lists (subcategories, pages, media files) is arranged in the order explained above (except that, in the subcategories list, the namespace indicator "Category:" is not considered). If an item ought to be positioned within a list on the basis of an alternative name (sort key) for that item, then this can be specified in the category tag that places the item in the list: [[Category:Category name|Sortkey]] For example, to add an article called Albert Einstein to the category "People" and have the article sorted by "Einstein, Albert", you would type: [[Category:People|Einstein, Albert]] Unlike a piped link (which uses the same syntax), the sort key itself is not displayed to readers. It affects only the order in which pages are listed on the category page. It is useful to document the system being used for sort keys on the category page. For guidelines about the use of sort keys on Wikipedia, see WP:SORTKEY. Default sort key Shortcut WP:DEFAULTSORT See also: WP:NAMESORT and WP:SORTKEY It is possible to set a default sort key which is different from {{PAGENAME}} by using the magic word {{DEFAULTSORT}}: {{DEFAULTSORT:new key}} In the case of multiple default sort key tags, the last DEFAULTSORT on the final rendering of a page applies for all categories, regardless of the position of the category tags. This also means that a DEFAULTSORT tag included from a template is not effective if another DEFAULTSORT tag occurs later on the page, even if the later DEFAULTSORT tag is also "hidden" (included by another template). Searching for pages in categories Further information: Help:Searching § Syntax See also: § Searching for articles in categories, Wikipedia:Category intersection, and Wikimedia bug T3497 "Hierarchical category system is urgently needed" In addition to browsing through hierarchies of categories, it is possible to use the search tool to find specific articles in specific categories. To search for articles in a specific category, type incategory:"CategoryName" in the search box. An "OR" can be added to join the contents of one category with the contents of another. For example, enter incategory:"Suspension bridges" OR incategory:"Bridges in New York City" to return all pages that belong to either (or both) of the categories, as here. Note that using search to find categories will not find articles which have been categorized using templates. This feature also doesn't return pages in subcategories. Listing all categories Special:Categories provides an alphabetic list of all categories, with the number of members of each; this number does not include the content of the subcategories, but it includes the subcategories themselves, i.e., each counting as one. The above list contains all categories that have members, regardless of whether they have corresponding category pages. To list all existing category pages (regardless of whether they have members), use Special:AllPages/Category:. Displaying category trees and page counts As described at mw:Help:Magic words, {{PAGESINCATEGORY:Example}} or {{PAGESINCAT:Example}} returns the number of pages in "Category:Example". Each subcategory counts as one page; pages in subcategories are not counted. The page Special:CategoryTree enables you to see the tree structure of a category (its subcategories, their subcategories and so on; the display of files and other member pages is optional). The CategoryTree extension can be used to display such a tree on any page. (This is sometimes done on the category page itself, if the category is split over multiple screens, to make all subcategories available on every screen.) The basic syntax is <categorytree>Category name</categorytree> to display just the subcategory tree, and <categorytree mode=pages>Category name</categorytree> to display member pages as well. They will be indicated by italics. Dapete's category-visualizer vCat will render charts of the tree structure. You may also use Template:Category tree or Template:Category tree all, instead. Warning: The following code {{PAGESINCATEGORY:{{PAGENAME}}}} will not work as expected when used in the wikitext or in a transcluded template in a category page whose title contains some ASCII punctuations. For legacy reasons, {{PAGENAME}} may return the page name with these characters being HTML-encoded using numeric character entities : this still works for generating derived wikilinks or displaying page names, or when HTML-encoded this page name is used in a conditional "#switch", but PAGESINCATEGORY does not recognize the category name given in parameter if some characters are HTML-encoded (this is the case notably when the category name contains ASCII apostrophes ' and a few other ASCII punctuations. (The same HTML-encoding is also applied to the values returned by {{FULLPAGENAME}}, {{SUBPAGENAME}}, or {{NAMESPACE}}). In that case, as the category is not found by its HTML-encoded pagename, PAGESINCATEGORY will unexpectedly return 0 and not its effective number of member pages. A simple workaround is to transform these HTML-encoded characters back into standard UTF-8-encoded characters, by using the {{titleparts:}} parser function, like this: {{PAGESINCATEGORY:{{titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}}}}} Moving and redirecting category pages Categories can be moved in the same way as an ordinary page; but a certain amount of cleanup may be necessary. A redirect is left at the old category name, and this is not a normal #REDIRECT [[...]] but a {{category redirect}}. Once all the pages have been moved out of the old category, it may be left as a category redirect or deleted. For categories entirely populated through templates (see above), modifying the templates enables all affected articles to be moved to another category, but with the refresh problem mentioned. Almost all category name changes are made pursuant to a consensus decision at Wikipedia:Categories for discussion. Do not create intercategory redirects other than with a {{category redirect}} template. See Wikipedia:Categories for discussion#Redirecting categories for more on category redirects. Hiding categories When the magic word __HIDDENCAT__ is placed on a category page, that category becomes hidden, meaning that it will not be displayed on the pages belonging to that category. On Wikipedia, the magic word is not normally used explicitly, but is applied through the {{hidden category}} template. The feature is mostly used to prevent project maintenance categories from showing up to ordinary readers on article pages. However, hidden categories are displayed (although listed as hidden): on category pages (whether as parent categories or subcategories); at preview during editing; if the user has selected "Show hidden categories" in user preferences. Hidden categories are automatically added to Category:Hidden categories. For guidelines on the hiding of categories on Wikipedia, see WP:HIDDENCAT. Finding articles for a category The most effective way of finding entries of a category is using the "What links here" tool on the category's main article. An easy way to find relevant articles for a new category or missing entries in an existing one is by finding the most relevant list and checking its entries. Sometimes categories are about things that are intersections of other categories for which the PetScan tool can be used. More relevant articles may also be found linked in a category's main article and the articles already featured in the category − especially in their "See also" sections (if existent) and the automatically suggested "RELATED ARTICLES" below them. Furthermore, a category's superordinate categories often feature articles that should be subcategorized to the category. Other ways to find relevant articles include searching Wikipedia for the category's topic and searching the Web for the topic in quotes " (with synonyms also in quotes and appended after an OR) and appending the word wiki or Wikipedia or site:Wikipedia.org to them. Categorizing Main page: Wikipedia:Categorization Categorizing templates Templates are categorized the same way as articles, except that [[Category: Some-topic templates]] should be placed on the template's documentation page (or inside <noinclude>...</noinclude> tags, if there is no documentation page), this is necessary to avoid categorizing pages by template inclusion (see below). Categories and templates A template can be used to add pages to a category, usually by placing the category link inside <includeonly></includeonly> tags on the template (e.g. <includeonly>[[Category:category name]]</includeonly>). When the template is transcluded into the page, the category link becomes active, and the page is added to the category page. This is useful for categories that have high turnover or many pages included, like cleanup categories. Changes to the template, however, may not be reflected immediately on the category page. When you edit an article to add a category tag directly, the list of category members is updated immediately when the page is saved. When a category link is contained in a template, however, this does not happen immediately: instead, whenever a template is edited, all the pages that transclude it are put into the job queue to be recached during periods of low server load. This means that, in busy periods, it may take hours or even days before individual pages are recached and they start to appear in the category list. Performing a null edit to a page will allow it to jump the queue and be immediately recached. To add the template itself to the category page as well, omit the "includeonly" tags. To add the template to a category without categorizing pages on which the template is transcluded, place the category declaration between <noinclude>...</noinclude> tags, or add it to the template documentation page between <includeonly></includeonly> (the latter allows recategorizing the template without editing it, which is helpful if it is protected, or so complicated that mere mortals hesitate to touch it). Parser functions can be used to make the transcluded categories, or the sort key used in them, dependent on other variables, notably PAGENAME. Passing a category name as a parameter <includeonly>[[Category:{{{cat|default}}}]]</includeonly> or <includeonly>{{{cat|[[Category:default]]}}}</includeonly> If the user provides a parameter 'cat=XXX' the page will be categorized at the page [[Category:XXX]], otherwise it will be categorized at the page [[Category:default]]. Calling the template with "cat=" (equal to nothing) disables putting the page in any category. Excluding non-article pages <includeonly>{{#if:{{NAMESPACE}} | | [[Category:XXX]]}}</includeonly> the variable NAMESPACE is null for mainspace articles. For any space other than mainspace, this ParserFunction will produce an empty string, but for regular articles this will include the article in Category:XXX. On Wikipedia it is not recommended that templates be used to populate ordinary content categories of articles. See Categorization using templates in the categorization guideline. Categorizing redirect pages Main page: Wikipedia:Categorizing redirects Redirect pages can be categorized and there are conventions how to do it. The redirect link must be first on the page. On a category page, redirects are listed in italics. "Related Changes" with categories For a category, the "Related Changes" feature, when applied to the corresponding category page, lists recent changes to the pages which are currently listed as belonging to a category. Where those pages are subcategories or image pages, only changes to their editable parts are listed. Notice that "Related Changes" does not show edits to pages that have been removed from the category. Also, "Related Changes" does not list recent changes to pages linked from the editable part of the category page (as it would normally, with a non-category page). If a workaround would be required, the links in question could be placed in a template and transcluded onto the category page. As usual – unlike with watchlists – recent changes to corresponding talk pages are not shown under "Related Changes". Pages one is watching are bolded on the list. This can help to find which pages in a given category one has on one's watchlist. The DynamicPageList (third-party) extension provides a list of last edits to the pages in a category, or optionally, just the list of pages; the simpler DynamicPageList (Wikimedia) is installed on Meta, Wikinews, Wikibooks and Wikiversity; the extension mw:Extension:DPLforum is installed on Wikia. Watching category additions and removals Since 2016, additions and removals from categories are available via the "Category changes" filter on recent changes pages, including watchlists and Special:RecentChangesLinked. For example, category changes to articles in Category:Cannabis stubs can be found here. You can monitor additions and removals from specific categories by adding the categories to your watchlist and making sure the "Category changes" filter is active. You can view changes to categories in your watchlist by clicking here. Additional scripts with similar functionality are User:CategoryWatchlistBot and User:Ais523/catwatch. See also MW:Help:Categories {{Category TOC}} Wikipedia:FAQ/Categorization Wikipedia:WikiProject Categories Wikipedia:Quick cat index Notes ^ The category itself is permanently created as soon as it has been saved on to any page. Unless you create a category page, it will display as a red link. Unless you add another category to the category page, it will not be placed in the category tree. Category pages are created like any other page. Most commonly, editors click on the redlink in an article and create the category page that way. Wikipedia help pages Visit the Teahouse or the Help desk for an interactive Q & A forum. FAQs (?) Reference desks (?) Noticeboards (?) Cheatsheet (?) Directories (?) About Wikipedia (?) Administration Purpose Principles Policies and guidelines What Wikipedia is not Disclaimer (parental advice) Making requests Who writes Wikipedia? Help for readers (?) 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en-wikipedia-org-2497	----	Martial - Wikipedia Martial From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Martialis" redirects here. For the Roman writer on horticulture, see Quintus Gargilius Martialis. For the ant, see Martialis heureka. For other uses, see Martial (disambiguation). 1st-century Latin poet from Hispania Martial Born March, between 38 and 41 AD Augusta Bilbilis (now Calatayud, Spain) Died Between 102 and 104 AD Augusta Bilbilis Occupation Author Nationality Roman Genre Satire Notable works Epigrams Marcus Valerius Martialis (known in English as Martial /ˈmɑːrʃəl/) (March, between 38 and 41 AD – between 102 and 104 AD) was a Roman poet from Hispania (modern Spain) best known for his twelve books of Epigrams, published in Rome between AD 86 and 103, during the reigns of the emperors Domitian, Nerva and Trajan. In these short, witty poems he cheerfully satirises city life and the scandalous activities of his acquaintances, and romanticises his provincial upbringing. He wrote a total of 1,561 epigrams, of which 1,235 are in elegiac couplets. Martial was famously deaf in his left ear, an attribute most likely arising from a birth defect.[1] Martial has been called the greatest Latin epigrammatist,[2][3] and is considered the creator of the modern epigram. Contents 1 Early life 2 Life in Rome 3 Martial and his patrons 4 Martial's character 5 Martial's Epigrams 6 Reception 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links 9.1 Works 9.2 Other links Early life[edit] Knowledge of his origins and early life are derived almost entirely from his works, which can be more or less dated according to the well-known events to which they refer. In Book X of his Epigrams, composed between 95 and 98, he mentions celebrating his fifty-seventh birthday; hence he was born during March 38, 39, 40 or 41 AD (x. 24, 1),[4] under Caligula or Claudius. His place of birth was Augusta Bilbilis (now Calatayud) in Hispania Tarraconensis. His parents, Fronto and Flaccilla, appear to have died in his youth. His name seems to imply that he was born a Roman citizen, but he speaks of himself as "sprung from the Celts and Iberians, and a countryman of the Tagus"; and, in contrasting his own masculine appearance with that of an effeminate Greek, he draws particular attention to "his stiff Hispanian hair" (x. 65, 7). His home was evidently one of rude comfort and plenty, sufficiently in the country to afford him the amusements of hunting and fishing, which he often recalls with keen pleasure, and sufficiently near the town to afford him the companionship of many comrades, the few survivors of whom he looks forward to meeting again after his thirty-four years' absence (x. 104). The memories of this old home, and of other spots, the rough names and local associations which he delights to introduce into his verse, attest to the simple pleasures of his early life and were among the influences which kept his spirit alive in the stultifying routines of upper-crust social life in Rome. He was educated in Hispania, a part of the Roman Empire which in the 1st century produced several notable Latin writers, including Seneca the Elder and Seneca the Younger, Lucan and Quintilian, and Martial's contemporaries Licinianus of Bilbilis, Decianus of Emerita and Canius of Gades. Martial professes to be of the school of Catullus, Pedo, and Marsus. The epigram bears to this day the form impressed upon it by his unrivalled skill in wordsmithing. Life in Rome[edit] The success of his countrymen may have been what motivated Martial to move to Rome, from Hispania, once he had completed his education. This move occurred in AD 64. Seneca the Younger and Lucan may have served as his first patrons, but this is not known for sure. Not much is known of the details of his life for the first twenty years or so after he came to Rome. He published some juvenile poems of which he thought very little in his later years, and he chuckles at a foolish bookseller who would not allow them to die a natural death (I. 113). His faculty ripened with experience and with the knowledge of that social life which was both his theme and his inspiration; many of his best epigrams are among those written in his last years. From many answers which he makes to the remonstrances of friends—among others to those of Quintilian—it may be inferred that he was urged to practice at the bar, but that he preferred his own lazy, some would say Bohemian kind of life. He made many influential friends and patrons and secured the favor of both Titus and Domitian. From them he obtained various privileges, among others the semestris tribunatus, which conferred on him equestrian rank. Martial failed, however, in his application to Domitian for more substantial advantages, although he commemorates the glory of having been invited to dinner by him, and also the fact that he procured the privilege of citizenship for many persons on whose behalf he appealed to him. The earliest of his extant works, known as Liber spectaculorum, was first published at the opening of the Colosseum in the reign of Titus. It relates to the theatrical performances given by him, but the book as it now stands was published about the first year of Domitian, i.e. about the year 81. The favour of the emperor procured him the countenance of some of the worst creatures at the imperial court—among them of the notorious Crispinus, and probably of Paris, the supposed author of Juvenal's exile, for whose monument Martial afterwards wrote a eulogistic epitaph. The two books, numbered by editors XIII and XIV, known by the names of Xenia and Apophoreta—inscriptions in two lines each for presents—were published at the Saturnalia of 84. In 86 he produced the first two of the twelve books on which his reputation rests. From that time till his return to Hispania in 98 he published a volume almost every year. The first nine books and the first edition of Book X appeared in the reign of Domitian; Book XI. appeared at the end of 96, shortly after the accession of Nerva. A revised edition of book X, that which we now possess, appeared in 98, about the time of Trajan's entrance into Rome. The last book was written after three years' absence in Hispania, shortly before his death about the year 102 or 103. These twelve books bring Martial's ordinary mode of life between the age of forty-five and sixty before us. His regular home for thirty-five years was the bustle of metropolitan Rome. He lived at first up three flights of stairs, and his "garret" overlooked the laurels in front of the portico of Agrippa. He had a small villa and unproductive farm near Nomentum, in the Sabine territory, to which he occasionally retired from the pestilence, boors and noises of the city (ii. 38, xii. 57). In his later years he had also a small house on the Quirinal, near the temple of Quirinus. At the time when his third book was brought out he had retired for a short time to Cisalpine Gaul, in weariness, as he tells us, of his unprofitable attendance to the bigwigs of Rome. For a time he seems to have felt the charm of the new scenes which he visited, and in a later book (iv. 25) he contemplates the prospect of retiring to the neighbourhood of Aquileia and the Timavus. But the spell exercised over him by Rome and Roman society was too great; even the epigrams sent from Forum Corneli and the Aemilian Way ring much more of the Roman forum, and of the streets, baths, porticos, brothels, market stalls, public houses, and clubs of Rome, than of the places from which they are dated. His final departure from Rome was motivated by a weariness of the burdens imposed on him by his social position, and apparently the difficulties of meeting the ordinary expenses of living in the metropolis (x. 96); and he looks forward to a return to the scenes familiar to his youth. The well-known epigram addressed to Juvenal (xii. I 8) shows that for a time his ideal was happily realized; but the evidence of the prose epistle prefixed to Book XII proves and that he could not live happily away from the literary and social pleasures of Rome for long. The one consolation of his exile was a lady, Marcella, of whom he writes rather platonically as if she were his patroness—and it seems to have been a necessity of his life to always have a patron or patroness—rather than his wife or mistress. During his life at Rome, although he never rose to a position of real independence, he seems to have known many writers of the time. In addition to Lucan and Quintilian, he numbered among his friends Silius Italicus, Juvenal and Pliny the Younger. The silence which he and Statius, although authors writing at the same time, having common friends, maintain in regard to one another may be explained by mutual dislike. Martial in many places shows an undisguised contempt for the artificial kind of epic on which Statius's reputation chiefly rests; and it is possible that the respectable author of the Thebaid and the Silvae felt little admiration for the life or the works of the bohemian epigrammatist. Martial and his patrons[edit] Martial was dependent on his wealthy friends and patrons for gifts of money, for his dinner, and even for his dress, but the relation of client to patron had been recognized as an honourable one by the best Roman traditions. No blame had attached to Virgil or Horace on account of the favours which they received from Augustus and Maecenas, or of the return which they made for these favours in their verse. That old honourable relationship, however, greatly changed between Augustus and Domitian. Men of good birth and education, and sometimes even of high official position (Juv. i. 117), accepted the dole (sportula). Martial was merely following a general fashion in paying his court to "a lord," and he made the best of the custom. In his earlier career he used to accompany his patrons to their villas at Baiae or Tibur, and to attend their morning levees. Later on, he went to his own small country house, near Nomentum, and sent a poem, or a small volume of his poems, as his representative at the early visit. Martial's character[edit] Pliny the Younger, in the short tribute which he pays to him on hearing of his death, wrote, "He had as much good-nature as wit and pungency in his writings".[5] Martial professes to avoid personalities in his satire, and honour and sincerity (fides and simplicitas) seem to have been the qualities which he most admires in his friends. Some have found distasteful his apparent servile flattery to the worst of the many bad emperors of Rome in the 1st century. These were emperors Martial would later censure immediately after their death (xii. 6). However, he seems to have disliked hypocrisy in its many forms, and seems to be free from cant, pedantry, or affectation of any kind. Though many of his epigrams indicate a cynical disbelief in the character of women, yet others prove that he could respect and almost revere a refined and courteous lady. His own life in Rome afforded him no experience of domestic virtue; but his epigrams show that, even in the age which is known to modern readers chiefly from the Satires of Juvenal, virtue was recognized as the purest source of happiness. The tenderest element in Martial's nature seems, however, to have been his affection for children and for his dependents. Martial's Epigrams[edit] Martial's keen curiosity and power of observation are manifested in his epigrams. The enduring literary interest of Martial's epigrams arises as much from their literary quality as from the colorful references to human life that they contain. Martial's epigrams bring to life the spectacle and brutality of daily life in imperial Rome, with which he was intimately connected. From Martial, for example, we have a glimpse of living conditions in the city of Rome: "I live in a little cell, with a window that won't even close, In which Boreas himself would not want to live." Book VIII, No. 14. 5–6. As Jo-Ann Shelton has written, "fire was a constant threat in ancient cities because wood was a common building material and people often used open fires and oil lamps. However, some people may have deliberately set fire to their property in order to collect insurance money."[6] Martial makes this accusation in one of his epigrams: "Tongilianus, you paid two hundred for your house; An accident too common in this city destroyed it. You collected ten times more. Doesn't it seem, I pray, That you set fire to your own house, Tongilianus?" Book III, No. 52 Martial also pours scorn on the doctors of his day: "I felt a little ill and called Dr. Symmachus. Well, you came, Symmachus, but you brought 100 medical students with you. One hundred ice-cold hands poked and jabbed me. I didn't have a fever, Symmachus, when I called you –but now I do. Book V, No. 9 Martial's epigrams also refer to the extreme cruelty shown to slaves in Roman society. Below, he chides a man named Rufus for flogging his cook for a minor mistake: "You say that the hare isn't cooked, and ask for the whip; Rufus, you prefer to carve up your cook than your hare." Book III, No. 94 Martial's epigrams are also characterized by their biting and often scathing sense of wit as well as for their lewdness; this has earned him a place in literary history as the original insult comic. Below is a sample of his more insulting work: "You feign youth, Laetinus, with your dyed hair So suddenly you are a raven, but just now you were a swan. You do not deceive everyone. Proserpina knows you are grey-haired; She will remove the mask from your head." Book III, No. 43 "Rumor tells, Chiona, that you are a virgin, and that nothing is purer than your fleshy delights. Nevertheless, you do not bathe with the correct part covered: if you have the decency, move your panties onto your face." Book III, No. 87 "'You are a frank man', you are always telling me, Cerylus. Anyone who speaks against you, Cerylus, is a frank man." Book I, No. 67 "Eat lettuce and soft apples eat: For you, Phoebus, have the harsh face of a defecating man." Book III, No. 89 Or the following two examples (in translations by Mark Ynys-Mon): Fabullus' wife Bassa frequently totes A friend's baby, on which she loudly dotes. Why does she take on this childcare duty? It explains farts that are somewhat fruity. Book IV, No. 87 With your giant nose and cock I bet you can with ease When you get excited check the end for cheese. Book VI, No. 36 Along with Roman graffiti, the Epigrams are important sources for Latin obscene words. Reception[edit] The works of Martial became highly valued on their discovery by the Renaissance, whose writers often saw them as sharing an eye for the urban vices of their own times. The poet's influence is seen in Juvenal, late classical literature, the Carolingian revival, the Renaissance in France and Italy, the Siglo de Oro, and early modern English and German poetry, until he became unfashionable with the growth of the Romantic movement. The 21st century has seen a resurgence of scholarly attention to Martial's work.[7] Notes[edit] ^ "Martial". ^ Czigány, Lóránt. "Janus Pannonius". Library of Hungarian Studies. Retrieved January 19, 2017. ^ Johnston, Patricia A. "Epigrams and Satire in Latin Poetry". Oxford University Press. Retrieved January 19, 2017. ^ Not necessarily March 1, on account of the habit of celebrating one's birthday on that day if one had been born during that month: D. R. Shackleton Bailey, Martial. Epigrams. Edited and translated by D. R. S. B. (Cambridge (Mass.): Harvard University Press, 1993), vol. I, p. 1 n. 1. ^ Pliny the Younger, Letters, 3.21 ^ Jo-Ann Shelton, As the Romans Did: A Sourcebook in Roman Social History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 65. ^ Lucci, Joseph M. (2015). "Hidden in Plain Sight: Martial and the Greek Epigrammatic Tradition". University of Pennsylvania. Retrieved January 19, 2017. References[edit] Coleman, Kathleen M. (2006). "The Identity of Caesar." In M. Valerii Martialis Liber Spectaculorum. Edited by Kathleen Coleman, xlv–lxiv. New York: Oxford Univ. Press. Fagan, Garrett G. (1999). "A Visit to the Baths with Martial" In Bathing in Public in the Roman World. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Fitzgerald, William. (2007). Martial: The World of the Epigram. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press. Howell, Peter. (2009). Martial. Ancients in Action. London: Bristol Classical Press. Leary, Timothy John. (2012). "Modifying Martial in Nineteenth-Century Britain." In Expurgating the Classics: Editing Out in Greek and Latin. Edited by Stephen Harrison and Christopher Stray. London: Bristol Classical Press. Nisbet, Gideon. (2003). Greek Epigram in the Roman Empire: Martial’s Forgotten Rivals. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Rimell, Victoria. (2008). Martial’s Rome: Empire and the Ideology of Epigram. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Sapsford, Francesca May (2012). The 'Epic' of Martial. University of Birmingham PhD thesis. Stanley, Farland. (2014). "Observations on Martial's Imagery of Provincial Spain." Glotta, 90, 192-215. Sullivan, John P. (2004). Martial: The Unexpected Classic: A Literary and Historical Study. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Sullivan, John P. (1989). "Martial’s “Witty Conceits”: Some Technical Observations." Illinois Classical Studies 14.1/2: 185–199. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Marcus Valerius Martialis. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Martial Wikisource has original works written by or about: Martial Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: Marcus Valerius Martialis Library resources about Martial Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Martial Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Works[edit] Works by Martial at Perseus Digital Library Epigrammaton libri (in Latin) at The Latin Library. Complete Epigrams (in English, 1897 edition) at The Tertullian Project—actually incomplete: scatological and sexually explicit material is left untranslated. Martial Blog—translations from much of the first three books of Epigrams Selected Epigrams translated by A. S. Kline Selected Epigrams translated by Elizabeth Duke Selected Epigrams in translation at Theatre of Pompey: 2:14; 6:9; 10:51; 11:1; 11:47; 14:29; 14:166 Some of Martial's more risqué Epigrams translated by Joseph S Salemi Translations from Martial by Franklin P Adams Other links[edit] Poems by Martial at PoemHunter.com Martial Quotations at The Quotations Page SORGLL: Martial I.96, V.41, and X.30; read by Wakefield Foster Court Poet & Pornographer Glen Bowersock on Martial from The New York Review of Books * This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Martial". Encyclopædia Britannica. 17 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 788–790. v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns 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716e8313-cfb4-42c2-9c8c-f13eadd608f9 NDL: 00448954 NKC: skuk0000831 NLA: 35601942 NLG: 218473 NLI: 000089516 NLP: A11807659 NSK: 000152921 NTA: 068570279 RERO: 02-A000110912 SELIBR: 195258 SNAC: w6z33x70 SUDOC: 027383709 Trove: 1010714 ULAN: 500214511 VcBA: 495/17422 VIAF: 8099277 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n82013667 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Martial&oldid=991710810" Categories: 1st-century births 100s deaths 1st-century Romans 2nd-century Romans 1st-century writers 2nd-century writers Latin-language writers Roman-era satirists Silver Age Latin writers Romans from Hispania Epigrammatists People from Calatayud Valerii Ancient LGBT people Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica 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en-wikipedia-org-2524	----	International Standard Name Identifier - Wikipedia International Standard Name Identifier From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from ISNI (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search 16 digit identifier for people and organisations This article relies too much on references to primary sources. Please improve this by adding secondary or tertiary sources. (December 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) International Standard Name Identifier Acronym ISNI Organisation ISNI-IA Introduced March 15, 2012 (2012-03-15) No. of digits 16 Check digit MOD 11-2 Example 000000012146438X Website isni.org The International Standard Name Identifier (ISNI) is an identifier system for uniquely identifying the public identities of contributors to media content such as books, television programmes, and newspaper articles. Such an identifier consists of 16 digits. It can optionally be displayed as divided into four blocks. ISNI can be used to disambiguate named entities that might otherwise be confused, and links the data about names that are collected and used in all sectors of the media industries. It was developed under the auspices of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as Draft International Standard 27729; the valid standard was published on 15 March 2012. The ISO technical committee 46, subcommittee 9 (TC 46/SC 9) is responsible for the development of the standard. Contents 1 ISNI format 1.1 Format without space 1.2 Format with space 2 Uses of an ISNI 2.1 ORCID 3 Organisations involved in the management 3.1 ISNI Registration Authority 3.2 ISNI Registration Agencies 3.3 ISNI members 4 ISNI assignment 5 ISNI coverage 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links ISNI format[edit] The FAQ of the isni.org websites states "An ISNI is made up of 16 digits, the last character being a check character."[1] Format without space[edit] MARC: it was proposed to store the ISNI without spaces, e.g.(isni)1234567899999799[2] isni.org URL: no spaces, e.g. http://www.isni.org/isni/0000000114559647 viaf.org: URL https://viaf.org/viaf/118892012/ URL https://viaf.org/processed/ISNI%7C0000000114559647 the data dumps contain it in form ISNI|0000000114559647 Format with space[edit] In display it is frequently shown with spaces. isni.org[3] viaf.org[4] Uses of an ISNI[edit] The ISNI allows a single identity (such as an author's pseudonym or the imprint used by a publisher) to be identified using a unique number. This unique number can then be linked to any of the numerous other identifiers that are used across the media industries to identify names and other forms of identity. An example of the use of such a number is the identification of a musical performer who is also a writer both of music and of poems. Where he or she might currently be identified in many different databases using numerous private and public identification systems, under the ISNI system, he or she would have a single linking ISNI record. The many different databases could then exchange data about that particular identity without resorting to messy methods such as comparing text strings. An often quoted example in the English language world is the difficulty faced when identifying 'John Smith' in a database. While there may be many records for 'John Smith', it is not always clear which record refers to the specific 'John Smith' that is required. If an author has published under several different names or pseudonyms, each such name will receive its own ISNI. ISNI can be used by libraries and archives when sharing catalogue information; for more precise searching for information online and in databases, and it can aid the management of rights across national borders and in the digital environment. ORCID[edit] ORCID (Open Researcher and Contributor ID) identifiers consist of a reserved block of ISNI identifiers for scholarly researchers[5] and administered by a separate organisation.[5] Individual researchers can create and claim their own ORCID identifier.[6] The two organisations coordinate their efforts.[5][6] Organisations involved in the management[edit] ISNI Registration Authority[edit] According to ISO the Registration Authority for ISO 27729:2012 is the "ISNI International Agency".[7] It is located in London (c/o EDItEUR)[8] It is incorporated under the Companies Act 2006 as a private company limited by guarantee.[9] The 'International Agency' is commonly known as the ISNI-IA.[10][11] This UK registered, not-for-profit company has been founded by a consortium of organisations consisting of the Confédération Internationale des Sociétés d'Auteurs et Compositeurs (CISAC), the Conference of European National Librarians (CENL), the International Federation of Reproduction Rights Organisations (IFRRO), the International Performers Database Association (IPDA), the Online Computer Library Center (OCLC) and ProQuest. It is managed by directors nominated from these organisations and, in the case of CENL, by representatives of the Bibliothèque nationale de France and the British Library. ISNI Registration Agencies[edit] A registration agency provides the interface between ISNI applicants and the ISNI Assignment Agency.[12] List of Registration Agencies in order as on ISNI-IA website Name (as on ISNI-IA website) Since Relation Biblioteca Nacional de España (BNE) Spain BnF (Bibliothèque nationale de France) 2014[13] France Bibliothèque nationale de Luxembourg Luxembourg British Library UK BTLF (Société de gestion de la Banque de Titres de Langue Française) France Casalini Libri Italy China Knowledge Centre for Engineering Sciences and Technology (CKCEST) China Consolidated Independent United Kingdom Electre Identification Agency (IDA) Russia Koninklijke Bibliotheek Netherlands Kültür ve Turizm Bakanliği Turkey National Assembly Library of Korea South Korea National Library of Korea South Korea National Library of Poland Poland Numerical Gurus United States Program for Cooperative Cataloging (PCC) Quansic Switzerland Ringgold organisations, international Rakuten Kobo Canada Sound Exchange Inc. United States Sound Credit United States YouTube 2018[14] international In 2018, YouTube became an ISNI registry, and announced its intention to begin creating ISNI IDs for the musicians whose videos it features.[15] ISNI anticipates the number of ISNI IDs "going up by perhaps 3-5 million over the next couple of years" as a result.[16] In 2020, Sound Credit, together with ISNI, announced that music industry ISNI registrations were free and automated. The free registration system is part of Sound Credit user profile creation, used by its larger system for music crediting. It includes an automated search to avoid duplicate ISNIs and a certificate generated by the Sound Credit registration system to officiate newly registered ISNIs.[17] ISNI members[edit] ISNI members (ISNI-IA Members[18]) as of 2018[update]-07-11:[18] ABES (French Bibliographic Agency for Higher Education) Brill Publishers CEDRO (Centro Español de Derechos Reprográficos) CDR (Centrale Discotheek Rotterdam) Copyrus FCCN French National Archives (Archives nationales de France) Harvard University Iconoclaste Irish Copyright Licensing Agency (ICLA) ISSN International Centre La Trobe University Library of Congress MacOdrum Library, Carleton University National Library of Finland National Library of New Zealand National Library of Norway National Library of Sweden (Kungliga Biblioteket) Publishers' Licensing Services UNSW Library ISNI assignment[edit] ISNI-IA uses an assignment system comprising a user interface, data-schema, disambiguation algorithms, and database that meets the requirements of the ISO standard, while also using existing technology where possible. The system is based primarily on the Virtual International Authority File (VIAF) service, which has been developed by OCLC for use in the aggregation of library catalogues. Access to the assignment system and database, and to the numbers that are generated as the output of the process, are controlled by independent bodies known as 'registration agencies'. These registration agencies deal directly with customers, ensuring that data is provided in appropriate formats and recompensing the ISNI-IA for the cost of maintaining the assignment system. Registration agencies are appointed by ISNI-IA but will be managed and funded independently. ISNI coverage[edit] As of 5 August 2017[update] ISNI holds public records of over 9.41 million identities, including 8.757 million people (of which 2.606 million are researchers) and 654,074 organisations.[19] As of 19 April 2018[update] 9.86 million identities, including 9.15 million people (of which 2.86 million are researchers) and 714,401 organisations.[19] As of 11 July 2018[update] 10 million identities, including: 9.28 million people (of which 2.87 million are researchers) 717,204 organisations.[19] As of 13 August 2018[update] 10 million identities, including: 9.32 million people (of which 2.87 million are researchers) 717,795 organisations.[19] As of 17 October 2018[update] 10 million identities, including: 9.39 million people (of which 2.87 million are researchers) 719,010 organisations.[19] As of 5 December 2018[update] 10 million identities, including: 9.4 million people (of which 2.88 million are researchers) 826,810 organisations.[19] As of 11 March 2019[update] over 10 million identities, including: 9.59 million people (of which 2.88 million are researchers) 864,999 organisations.[19] As of 21 June 2019[update] over 10.5 million identities, including: 9.6 million people (of which 2.88 million are researchers) 876,017 organisations.[19] As of 27 November 2019[update] over 10.92 million identities, including: 10.01 million people (of which 2.89 million are researchers) 908,299 organisations.[19] As of 13 February 2020[update] over 11.02 million identities, including: 10.11 million people (of which 2.91 million are researchers) 912,991 organisations.[19] As of 20 October 2020[update] over 11.51 million identities, including: 10.45 million individuals (of which 2.91 million are researchers) 1,062,333 organisations.[19] See also[edit] Authority control Digital Author Identification (DAI) Digital object identifier (DOI) GRID International Standard Text Code (ISTC) ResearcherID Ringgold identifier References[edit] ^ "ISNI - FAQ". www.isni.org. Retrieved 19 April 2018. ^ Office, Library of Congress Network Development and MARC Standards. "Encoding the International Standard Name Identifier (ISNI) in the MARC 21 Bibliographic and Authority Formats". www.loc.gov. Retrieved 19 April 2018. ^ "ISNI 000000012281955X Ai-en-ssu-tan (1879-1955)". www.isni.org. Retrieved 19 April 2018. ^ http://viaf.org/viaf/75121530/ ^ a b c "What is the relationship between ISNI and ORCID?". About ORCID. ORCID. Retrieved 10 February 2020. ^ a b "ISNI and ORCID". ISNI. Archived from the original on 4 March 2013. Retrieved 29 March 2013. ^ "Maintenance agencies and registration authorities". Iso.org. Retrieved 16 July 2018. ^ "ISNI International Agency - ISNI International Agency". Iso.org. Retrieved 16 July 2018. ^ http://www.isni.org/filedepot_download/134/473 ^ "ISNI". Retrieved 19 December 2014. ^ "About the ISNI International Agency". Retrieved 19 December 2014. ^ "Registration Agencies". ISNI. Retrieved 16 July 2018. ^ "BnF: First National Library In the World to Become an ISNI Registration Agency". ISNI. Retrieved 16 July 2018. ^ "YouTube Adopts ISNI ID for Artists & Songwriters". ISNI. 22 January 2018. Retrieved 16 July 2018. ^ "YouTube Adopts ISNI ID for Artists & Songwriters". ISNI. Retrieved 1 June 2018. ^ "Transcript: YouTube Knows Who You Are". Beyond the Book. 18 March 2018. Retrieved 1 June 2018. ^ "Music Industry ISNI Registrations Now Free and Automated". ISNI. 23 October 2020. Retrieved 27 November 2020. ^ a b "Members". ISNI. Retrieved 16 July 2018. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "ISNI". www.isni.org. Retrieved 19 April 2018. Further reading[edit] Karen Smith-Yoshimura, Janifer Gatenby, Grace Agnew, Christopher Brown, Kate Byrne, Matt Carruthers, Peter Fletcher, Stephen Hearn, Xiaoli Li, Marina Muilwijk, Chew Chiat Naun, John Riemer, Roderick Sadler, Jing Wang, Glen Wiley, and Kayla Willey. 233 "Addressing the Challenges with Organizational Identifiers and ISNI." Dublin, Ohio: OCLC Research. External links[edit] Wikidata has the property: ISNI (P213) (see uses) Official website v t e International numbering standards Standards ISO 2108: International Standard Book Number (ISBN) ISO 3297: International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) ISO 3901: International Standard Recording Code (ISRC) ISO 6166: International Securities Identification Number (ISIN) ISO/IEC 7812: Issuer Identification Number (IIN) ISO 9362: Business Entity Identifier (BIC) ISO 10957: International Standard Music Number (ISMN) ISO 13616: International Bank Account Number (IBAN) ISO 15511: International Standard Identifier for Libraries... (ISIL) ISO 15706: International Standard Audiovisual Number (ISAN) ISO 15707: International Standard Musical Work Code (ISWC) ISO 17316: International Standard Link Identifier (ISLI) ISO 17442: Legal Entity Identifier (LEI) ISO 21047: International Standard Text Code (ISTC) ISO 26324: Digital Object Identifier System (DOI) ISO 27729: International Standard Name Identifier (ISNI) ISO 27730: International Standard Collection Identifier (ISCI) CAE/IPI Virtual International Authority File (VIAF) v t e ISO standards by standard number List of ISO standards / ISO romanizations / IEC standards 1–9999 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 16 17 31 -0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 -10 -11 -12 -13 68-1 128 216 217 226 228 233 259 261 262 269 302 306 361 428 500 518 519 639 -1 -2 -3 -5 -6 646 657 668 690 704 732 764 838 843 860 898 965 999 1000 1004 1007 1073-1 1073-2 1155 1413 1538 1629 1745 1989 2014 2015 2022 2033 2047 2108 2145 2146 2240 2281 2533 2709 2711 2720 2788 2848 2852 3029 3103 3166 -1 -2 -3 3297 3307 3601 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en-wikipedia-org-2560	----	Template:Horace - Wikipedia Template:Horace From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search v t e Works by Horace Poetry Satires Epodes Odes Epistles Carmen Saeculare Ars Poetica Collections Satires 2.5 Quote Ut pictura poesis Related Spring of Bandusium Initial visibility: currently defaults to autocollapse To set this template's initial visibility, the |state= parameter may be used: |state=collapsed: {{Horace|state=collapsed}} to show the template collapsed, i.e., hidden apart from its title bar |state=expanded: {{Horace|state=expanded}} to show the template expanded, i.e., fully visible |state=autocollapse: {{Horace|state=autocollapse}} shows the template collapsed to the title bar if there is a {{navbar}}, a {{sidebar}}, or some other table on the page with the collapsible attribute shows the template in its expanded state if there are no other collapsible items on the page If the |state= parameter in the template on this page is not set, the template's initial visibility is taken from the |default= parameter in the Collapsible option template. For the template on this page, that currently evaluates to autocollapse. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Horace&oldid=972382073" Categories: Ancient Roman writer navigational boxes Poet navigational boxes Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Template Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Italiano Edit links This page was last edited on 11 August 2020, at 19:07 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2570	----	Military of ancient Rome - Wikipedia Military of ancient Rome From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Part of a series on the Military of ancient Rome 753 BC – AD 476 Structural history Army Unit types and ranks Decorations and punishments Legions Auxilia Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Campaign history Wars and battles Technological history Military engineering Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Political history   Strategy and tactics Infantry tactics Frontiers and fortifications Limes Limes Britannicus Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Limes Germanicus Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes Norican Limes Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannonian Limes Limes Alutanus Limes Moesiae Trajan's Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmatiae Limes Arabicus Limes Tripolitanus Limes Mauretaniae  Ancient Rome portal •  War portal v t e The military of ancient Rome, according to Titus Livius, one of the more illustrious historians of Rome over the centuries, was a key element in the rise of Rome over “above seven hundred years”[1] from a small settlement in Latium to the capital of an empire governing a wide region around the shorty of the Mediterranean, or, as the Romans themselves said, ‘’mare nostrum’’, “our sea". Livy asserts: ”... if any people ought to be allowed to consecrate their origins and refer them to a divine source, so great is the military glory of the Roman People that when they profess that their Father and the Father of their Founder was none other than Mars, the nations of the earth may well submit to this also with as good a grace as they submit to Rome's dominion.” Titus Flavius Josephus, a contemporary historian, sometime high-ranking officer in the Roman army, and commander of the rebels in the Jewish revolt describes the Roman people as if they were "born readily armed."[2] At the time of the two historians, Roman society had already evolved an effective military and had used it to defend itself against the Etruscans, the Italics, the Greeks, the Gauls, the maritime empire of Carthage, and the Macedonian kingdoms. In each war, it acquired more territory until, when the civil war ended the Roman Republic, nothing was left for the first emperor, Augustus, to do except declare it an empire and defend it.[citation needed] The role and structure of the military were then altered during the empire. It became less Roman, the duties of border protection and territorial administration being more and more taken by foreign mercenaries officered by Romans. When they divided at last into warring factions the empire fell, unable to keep out invading armies. During the Roman Republic, the function of the military was defined as service to the ‘’Senatus Populusque Romanus’’ - an agency designated by 'SPQR' on public inscriptions. Its main body was the senate, which met in a building still extant in the forum of Rome. Its decrees were handed off to the two chief officers of the state, the consuls. They could levy from the citizens whatever military force they judged was necessary to execute such decree. This conscription was executed through a draft of male citizens assembled by age class. The officers of the legion were tasked with selecting men for the ranks. The will of the SPQR was binding on the consuls and the men, with the death penalty often assigned for disobedience or failure. The men were under a rigorous code, known now for its punitive crucifixion. The consular duties were of any type whatever: military defense, police work, public hygiene, assistance in a civil disaster, health work, agriculture, and especially the construction of public roads, bridges, aqueducts, buildings, and the maintenance of such. The soldiers were kept busy doing whatever service needed to be done: soldiering, manning vessels, carpentry, blacksmithing, clerking, etc. They were trained as required, but also previous skills, such as a trade, were exploited. They brought to the task and were protected by the authority of the state. The military's campaign history stretched over 1300 years and saw Roman armies campaigning as far east as Parthia (modern-day Iran), as far south as Africa (modern-day Tunisia) and Aegyptus (modern-day Egypt) and as far north as Britannia (modern-day England, south Scotland, and Wales). The makeup of the Roman military changed substantially over its history, from its early history as an unsalaried citizen militia to a later professional force, the Imperial Roman army. The equipment used by the military altered greatly in type over time, though there were very few technological improvements in weapons manufacture, in common with the rest of the classical world. For much of its history, the vast majority of Rome's forces were maintained at or beyond the limits of its territory, to either expand Rome's domain or protect its existing borders. Expansions were infrequent, as the emperors, adopting a strategy of fixed lines of defense, had determined to maintain existing borders. For that purpose, they constructed extensive walls and created permanent stations that became cities. Contents 1 Personnel 1.1 Population base of the early empire 1.2 Recruitment 1.3 Military subculture 2 Funding and expenditures 2.1 Private funding 2.2 Plunder economy 2.3 Taxation 3 Capabilities 3.1 Readiness and disposition 3.2 Power projection 3.3 Sustainability 3.4 Policing 3.5 Engineering 4 International stance 4.1 Grand strategy 4.2 Campaigns 5 Equipment 6 Medicine 6.1 Need for specialized care 6.2 Roman hospitals 6.3 Physicians 6.4 Distinctions in practice 6.5 Diet 6.6 Scale 6.7 Source of knowledge 7 See also 8 References 8.1 Citations 8.2 Bibliography 8.3 Primary sources 8.4 Secondary sources 9 External links Personnel[edit] See also: Structural history of the Roman military Population base of the early empire[edit] Roman soldiers on the cast of Trajan's Column in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Relief scene of Roman legionaries marching, from the Column of Marcus Aurelius, Rome, Italy, 2nd century AD. At its territorial height, the Roman Empire may have contained between 45 million and 120 million people.[3] Historian Edward Gibbon estimated that the size of the Roman army "most probably formed a standing force of three hundred and seventy-five thousand men"[4] at the Empire's territorial peak in the time of the Roman Emperor Hadrian (117 − 138CE). This estimate probably included only legionary and auxiliary troops of the Roman army.[4] However, Gibbon states that it is "not... easy to define the size of the Roman military with any tolerable accuracy." In the late Imperial period, when vast numbers of foederati were employed by the Romans, Antonio Santosuosso estimated the combined number of men in arms of the two Roman empires numbered closer to 700,000 in total (not all members of a standing army), drawing on data from the Notitia Dignitatum. However, he notes that these figures were probably subject to inflation due to the practice of leaving dead soldiers "on the books" to continue to draw their wages and ration. Furthermore, it is irrespective of whether the troops were raised by the Romans or simply hired by them to fight on their behalf.[5] Recruitment[edit] Initially, Rome's military consisted of an annual citizen levy performing military service as part of their duty to the state. During this period, the Roman army would prosecute seasonal campaigns against largely local adversaries. As the extent of the territories falling under Roman suzerainty expanded, and the size of the city's forces increased, the soldiery of ancient Rome became increasingly professional and salaried. As a consequence, military service at the lower (non-staff) levels became progressively longer-term. Roman military units of the period were largely homogeneous and highly regulated. The army consisted of units of citizen infantry known as legions (Latin: legio) as well as non-legionary allied troops known as auxiliary. The latter were most commonly called upon to provide light infantry or cavalry support. Military service in the later empire continued to be salaried yearly and professionally for Rome's regular troops. However, the trend of employing allied or mercenary troops was expanded such that these troops came to represent a substantial proportion of Rome's forces. At the same time, the uniformity of structure found in Rome's earlier military forces disappeared. The soldiery of the era ranged from lightly armed mounted archers to heavy infantry, in regiments of varying size and quality. This was accompanied by a trend in the late empire of an increasing predominance of cavalry rather than infantry troops, as well as an emphasis on more mobile operations. Military subculture[edit] The British historian Peter Heather describes Roman military culture as being "just like the Marines, but much nastier".[6] The army did not provide much social mobility, and it also took quite some time to complete one's service. The pay was not the best for the time but could be remedied by advance in rank, loot from wars, and additional pay from emperors. Also, the army did provide a guaranteed supply of food (many times soldiers had to pay for food and supplies), doctors, and stability. In the legions of the Republic, discipline was fierce and training harsh, all intended to instill a group cohesion or esprit de corps that could bind the men together into effective fighting units. Unlike opponents such as the Gauls, who were fierce individual warriors, Roman military training concentrated on instilling teamwork and maintaining a level head over individual bravery − troops were to maintain exact formations in battle and "despise wild swinging blows"[7] in favor of sheltering behind one's shield and delivering efficient stabs when an opponent made himself vulnerable. Loyalty was to the Roman state but pride was based in the soldier's unit, to which was attached a military standard − in the case of the legions a legionary eagle. Successful units were awarded accolades that became part of their official name, such as the 20th legion, which became the XX Valeria Victrix (the "Valiant and Victorious 20th"). Of the martial culture of less valued units such as sailors, and light infantry, less is known, but it is doubtful that its training was as intense or its esprit de corps as strong as in the legions. Literacy was highly valued in the Roman military, and literacy rates in the military far exceeded that of the Roman society as a whole.[8] Funding and expenditures[edit] See also: Economics of the Roman army Private funding[edit] Roman coins grew gradually more debased due to the demands placed on the treasury of the Roman state by the military. Although early in its history, troops were expected to provide much of their equipment, eventually, the Roman military became almost entirely funded by the state. Since soldiers of the early Republican armies were also unpaid citizens, the financial burden of the army on the state was minimal. However, since the Roman state did not provide services such as housing, health, education, social security, and public transport that are part and parcel of modern states, the military always represented by far the greatest expenditure of the state.[9] Plunder economy[edit] During the time of expansion in the Republic and early Empire, Roman armies had acted as a source of revenue for the Roman state, plundering conquered territories, displaying the massive wealth in triumphs upon their return and fueling the economy[10] to the extent that historians such as Toynbee and Burke believe that the Roman economy was essentially a plunder economy. Nathan Rosenstein has questioned this assumption, indicating that Rome ran the majority of its campaigns in the 2nd Century BCE at a loss and relied on rare windfalls such as Aemilius Paullus' campaign in the East in 168 BCE to make up the cost of war.[11] Regardless, after the Empire had stopped expanding in the 2nd century CE, this source of revenue dried up; by the end of the 3rd century CE, Rome had "ceased to vanquish."[12] As tax revenue was plagued by corruption and hyperinflation during the Crisis of the Third Century, military expenditures began to become a "crushing burden"[13] on the finances of the Roman state.[14] It now highlighted weaknesses that earlier expansion had disguised. By 440 CE, an imperial law frankly states that the Roman state has the insufficient tax revenue to fund an army of a size required by the demands placed upon it.[15] Several additional factors bloated the military expenditure of the Roman Empire. First, substantial rewards were paid to "barbarian" chieftains for their good conduct in the form of negotiated subsidies and the provision of allied troops.[16] Secondly, the military boosted its numbers, possibly by one third in a single century.[9] Third, the military increasingly relied on a higher ratio of cavalry units in the late Empire, which were many times more expensive to maintain than infantry units.[17] Taxation[edit] As military size and costs increased, new taxes were introduced or existing tax laws reformed in the late Empire to finance it, even though more inhabitants were available within the borders of the late Empire, reducing the per capita costs for an increased standing army was impractical. A large number of the population could not be taxed because they were slaves or held Roman citizenship, both of which exempted them from taxation.[18] Of the remaining, a large number were already impoverished by centuries of warfare and weakened by chronic malnutrition. Still, they had to handle an increasing tax rate[19] and so they often abandoned their lands to survive in a city.[20] Of the Western Empire's taxable population, a larger number than in the East could not be taxed because they were "primitive subsistence peasant[s]"[20] and did not produce a great deal of goods beyond agricultural products. Plunder was still made from suppressing insurgencies within the Empire and on limited incursions into enemy land. Legally, much of it should have returned to the Imperial purse, but these goods were simply kept by the common soldiers, who demanded it of their commanders as a right. Given the low wages and high inflation in the later Empire, the soldiers felt that they had a right to acquire plunder.[21][22] Capabilities[edit] Readiness and disposition[edit] Locations of Roman legions, 80 CE. The military capability of Rome – its preparedness or readiness – was always primarily based upon the maintenance of an active fighting force acting either at or beyond its military frontiers, something that historian Luttwak refers to as a "thin linear perimeter.[23] This is best illustrated by showing the dispositions of the Roman legions, the backbone of the Roman army. (see right). Because of these deployments, the Roman military kept a central strategic reserve after the Social War. Such reserves were only re-established during the late Empire when the army was split into a border defense force and mobile response field units. Power projection[edit] The Roman military was keen on the doctrine of power projection – it frequently removed foreign rulers by force or intimidation and replaced them with puppets. This was facilitated by the maintenance, for at least part of its history, of a series of client states and other subjugate and buffer entities beyond its official borders, although over which Rome extended massive political and military control. On the other hand, this also could mean the payment of immense subsidies to foreign powers[24] and opened the possibility of extortion in case military means were insufficient. Sustainability[edit] The Empire's system of building an extensive and well-maintained road network, as well as its absolute command of the Mediterranean for much of its history, enabled a primitive form of rapid reaction, also stressed in modern military doctrine, although because there was no real strategic reserve, this often entailed the raising of fresh troops or the withdrawing of troops from other parts of the border. However, border troops were usually very capable of handling enemies before they could penetrate far into the Roman hinterland. The Roman military had an extensive logistical supply chain. There was no specialised branch of the military devoted to logistics and transportation, although this was to a great extent carried out by the Roman Navy due to the ease and low costs of transporting goods via sea and river compared to overland.[25] There is archaeological evidence that Roman armies campaigning in Germania were supplied by a logistical supply chain beginning in Italy and Gaul, then transported by sea to the northern coast of Germania, and finally penetrating Germania via barges on inland waterways. Forces were routinely supplied via fixed supply chains, and although Roman armies in enemy territory would often supplement or replace this by foraging for food or purchasing food locally, this was often insufficient for their needs: Heather states that a single legion would have required 13.5 tonnes of food per month, and that it would have proved impossible to source this locally.[26] Policing[edit] For the most part, Roman cities had a civil guard used for maintaining peace. Due to fear of rebellions and other uprisings, they were forbidden to be armed at militia levels. Policing was split between the city guard for low-level affairs and the Roman legions and auxiliary for suppressing higher-level rioting and rebellion. This civil guard created a limited strategic reserve, one that fared poorly in actual warfare. Engineering[edit] See also: Roman military engineering and Greek and Roman artillery The massive earthen ramp at Masada, designed by the Roman army to breach the fortress' walls. The military engineering of Ancient Rome's armed forces was of a scale and frequency far beyond that of any of its contemporaries. Indeed, military engineering was in many ways institutionally endemic in Roman military culture, as demonstrated by the fact that each Roman legionary had as part of his equipment a shovel, alongside his gladius (sword) and pila (spears). Heather writes that "Learning to build, and build quickly, was a standard element of training".[27] This engineering prowess was, however, only evident during the peak of Roman military prowess from the mid-Republic to the mid-Empire. Before the mid-Republic period, there is little evidence of protracted or exceptional military engineering, and in the late Empire likewise, there is little sign of the kind of engineering feats that were regularly carried out in the earlier Empire. Roman military engineering took both routine and extraordinary forms, the former a proactive part of standard military procedure, and the latter of an extraordinary or reactionary nature. Proactive military engineering took the form of the regular construction of fortified camps, in road-building, and the construction of siege engines. The knowledge and experience learned through such routine engineering lent itself readily to any extraordinary engineering projects required by the army, such as the circumvallations constructed at Alesia and the earthen ramp constructed at Masada. This engineering expertise practiced in daily routines also served in the construction of siege equipment such as ballistae, onagers and siege towers, as well as allowing the troops to construct roads, bridges, and fortified camps. All of these led to strategic capabilities, allowing Roman troops to, respectively, assault besieged settlements, move more rapidly to wherever they were needed, cross rivers to reduce march times and surprise enemies, and to camp in relative security even in enemy territory. International stance[edit] Third-century Roman soldiers battling barbarian troops on the Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus (250-260). Rome was established as a nation by making aggressive use of its high military potential. From very early on in its history, it would raise two armies annually to campaign abroad. The Roman military was far from being solely a defense force. For much of its history, it was a tool of aggressive expansion. The Roman army had derived from a militia of main farmers and the gain of new farmlands for the growing population or later retiring soldiers was often one of the campaign's chief objectives. Only in the late Empire did the preservation of control over Rome's territories become the Roman military's primary role. The remaining major powers confronting Rome were the Kingdom of Aksum, Parthia and the Hunnic Empire. Knowledge of China, the Han dynasty at the times of Mani, existed and it is believed that Rome and China swapped embassies about 170 CE.[28] Grand strategy[edit] See also: Strategy of the Roman military In its purest form, the concept of strategy deals solely with military issues. However, Rome is offered by Edward Luttwak and others as an early example of a state that possessed a grand strategy which encompassed the management of the resources of an entire nation in the conduct of warfare. Up to half of the funds raised by the Roman state were spent on its military, and the Romans displayed a strategy that was more complicated than simple knee-jerk strategic or tactical responses to individual threats. Rome's strategy changed over time, implementing different systems to meet different challenges that reflected changing internal priorities. Elements of Rome's strategy included the use of client states, the deterrent of armed response in parallel with manipulative diplomacy, and a fixed system of troop deployments and road networks. Luttwak states that there are "instructive similarities" between Roman and modern military strategy.[29] Rome would rely on brute force and sheer numbers when in doubt. The soldiers were trained to memorize every step in battle, so discipline and order could not break down into chaos. They were largely successful because of this. Campaigns[edit] See also: Campaign history of the Roman military Equipment[edit] Although Roman iron-working was enhanced by a process known as Carburizing, the Romans are not thought to have developed true steel production. From the earliest history of the Roman state to its downfall, Roman arms were therefore uniformly produced from either bronze or, later, iron. As a result, the 1300 years of Roman military technology saw little radical change at the technological level. Within the bounds of classical military technology, however, Roman arms and armor were developed, discarded, and adopted from other peoples based on changing methods of engagement. It included at various times stabbing daggers and swords, stabbing or thrusting swords, long thrusting spears or pikes, lances, light throwing javelins and darts, slings, and bow and arrows. Roman military personal equipment was produced in large numbers to established patterns and used in an established way. It, therefore, varied little in design and quality within each historical period. According to Hugh Elton, Roman equipment gave them "a distinct advantage over their barbarian enemies." Elton, Hugh, 1996, "Warfare in Roman Europe, AD 350-425", who were often, as Germanic tribesmen, completely unarmoured. However, Luttwak points out that whilst the uniform possession of armor gave Rome an advantage, the actual standard of each item of Roman equipment was of no better quality than that used by the majority of its adversaries. In Luttwack, E., "The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire", JHUP, 1979, Luttwack states that "Roman weapons, far from being universally more advanced, were frequently inferior to those used by enemies. The relatively low quality of Roman weaponry was primarily a function of its large-scale production, and later factors such as governmental price-fixing for certain items, which gave no allowance for quality and incentivized cheap, poor-quality goods. The Roman military readily adopted types of arms and armor that were effectively used against them by their enemies. Initially, Roman troops were armed after Greek and Etruscan models, using large oval shields and long pikes. On encountering the Celts they adopted much Celtic equipment and again later adopted items such as the "gladius" from Iberian peoples. Later in Rome's history, it adopted practices such as arming its cavalry with bows in the Parthian style and even experimented briefly with niche weaponry such as elephants and camel-troops. Besides personal weaponry, the Roman military adopted team weaponry such as the ballista and developed a naval weapon known as the Corvus, a spiked plank used for affixing and boarding enemy ships. Medicine[edit] Need for specialized care[edit] Showing the vast amount of land held by the Romans. The expansion of the Roman Empire was achieved through military force in nearly every case. Roman culture as a whole revolved around its military for both expansion and protection.[30] Geographic areas on the outskirts of the Empire were prone to attack and required heavy military presence. The constant barrage of attacks and the increase of expansion caused casualties. Due to attack there was a need for specialized medical care for these armies in order to keep them in operational status.[31] The specialized form of care however, was not created until the time of Augustus (31BC-14AD).[31] Prior to this there is little information about the care of soldiers. It is assumed soldiers were self-reliant, treating their own wounds and caring for other ailments encountered.[32] They would also turn to civilians for help throughout the villages they would come across. This was considered a custom of the time, and was quite common for households to take in wounded soldiers and tend to them.[32] As time progressed, there was an increase in care for the wounded as hospitals appeared. The idea was held by the Romans that a healed soldier was better than a dead one and a healed veteran was better than a new recruit.[33] General set up of Ancient Roman Military Hospital. Roman hospitals[edit] With the need for soldier health a growing concern, places for the sick to go in the army were starting to show up. Dates ranged from AD 9 to AD 50, but this is when the first evidence of hospitals was seen in archeological remains.[31] These hospitals were specific places for only military members to go to if they were injured or fell ill. Similar hospitals were set up for slaves in areas where slaves were used in large numbers. Military hospitals were permanent structures set up in forts. These buildings had clear patient rooms and were designed to accommodate large numbers of soldiers.[31] The size of these hospitals varied based on their location. Some of the large facilities, such as the hospital in Hod Hill England, was large enough to accommodate roughly 12% of the force within the hospital. In more stable areas such as Inchtuthil in Scotland, there was room for as little as 2% of the force within the hospital. In areas with more conflict, there were larger medical facilities as they saw more casualties.[31] These hospitals were solely designed for the use of the military. If a civilian fell ill or needed surgery they would likely go to the physician's home and stay, not a hospital.[31] Prior to these permanent structures there were tents set up as mobile field hospitals. Soldiers suffering from severe wounds were brought to these for treatment. These were quickly assembled and disassembled as the army moved. The tents served as a precursor for the permanent structured hospitals.[32] These permanent hospitals and mobile treatment centers were a relatively new concept in this time period. Physicians[edit] Doctors serving in the army were considered to be a member of the military. Just like everyone else they would take the military oath and be bound by the military law. They would also start among the lower fighting ranks. Even though they took the military oath and were among the lower ranks it did not mean they would be fighting among the masses.[34] These doctors were not always professionals or career physicians. Oftentimes they were slaves who were forced into that career. The Medici was also a group that treated wounded soldiers on the battlefield. These men were not trained physicians even though they played the role of one. Typically they were soldiers who demonstrated they had knowledge in wound treatment and even simple surgical techniques.[35] These men were used before the actual trained doctors were largely implemented. Physicians got their knowledge from experience and information being passed down from person to person. Likely they never used medical texts, as it was not commonplace even in the civilian field.[35] Generals and Emperors were exceptions, as they would typically have their physician with them. This was a common occurrence as Emperors such as Marcus Aurelius employed famous physicians such as Galen. There were also physicians among the ranks of the Roman soldiers.[33] Distinctions in practice[edit] With any large number of people being in close quarters, there was a constant threat of disease. When one individual in a large group gets sick with a communicable disease, it spreads to others very quickly. This premise remains true even today in the modern military. The Romans recognized the difference between disease and wounds, each requiring separate treatment.[34] Drainage of excess water and waste were common practices in camps as well as the permanent medical structures, which come at a later date. As the medical corps grew in size there was also specialization evolving. Physicians surfaced that specialized in disease, surgery, wound dressing and even veterinary medicine. Veterinary physicians were there to tend to livestock for agricultural purposes as well as combat purposes. The Cavalry was known for their use of horses in combat and scouting purposes.[36] Because of the type of injuries that would have been commonly seen, surgery was a somewhat common occurrence. Tools such as scissors, knives and arrow extractors have been found in remains.[37] In fact, Roman surgery was quite intuitive, in contrast to common thought of ancient surgery. The Roman military surgeons used a cocktail of plants, which created a sedative similar to modern anesthesia. Written documentation also showed surgeons would use oxidation from a metal such as copper and scrape it into wounds, which provided an antibacterial effect; however, this method was most likely more toxic than providing an actual benefit.[38] Doctors had the knowledge to clean their surgical instruments with hot water after each use. Wounds were dressed, and dead tissue was removed when bandages were changed. Honey and cobwebs were items used to cover wounds, and have even been shown today to increase healing.[38] Because of the wide array of cases, it was not uncommon for surgeons to begin their careers in the army to learn their trade. Physicians such as Galen and Dioscorides served in the military. Most major advancements in knowledge and technique came from the military rather than civil practice.[38] Diet[edit] Diet was an issue that is often discussed through this time, as an aspect of medical care. Since our idea of modern technology did not exist, the diet was a simple way for Romans to attain a healthy life. This remains true in the Roman Military as the soldiers required appropriate nutrition in order to function at high activity levels.[39] Because of the number of the people requiring food, there were unique circumstances in the acquisition of food. During a campaign, the soldiers would often forage food from their enemy's land. In fact, as part of the standard kit, Roman soldiers would carry a sickle, which would be used to forage food. They would carry a three-day ration of food in case they were in a situation where foraging was not available.[40] This would largely consist of items such as wheat and barley. During a time of peace, the Roman Army would have had a typical diet consisting of bacon, cheese, vegetables, and beer to drink. Corn is mentioned in their works as well, however; this was a common term that was applied to their use of grain. The Roman use of the term corn is not to be confused with maize, which did not come to Europe until the discovery of the New World. Items such as poultry and fish were also likely part of the standard diet. The soldier was given a ration, which was taken from his pay.[40] This shows that the soldiers were well-fed in times of peace. If the soldiers were well fed, they were healthier and able to maintain a high level of physical activity, as well as to stave off disease. The disease is easier to prevent rather than treat. This idea holds in the event a fort was under siege; certain food items were rationed such as poultry. The reasoning behind this was that poultry was very inexpensive to maintain and in the event of a siege, it did not require a lot of resources to maintain. It was also noted that poultry had benefits for those who were sick. This demonstrates the idea was present that the army needed to maintain the health of its members regardless of circumstances.[40] These discoveries were made while looking at the remains of Roman military sites. By excavating these sites and looking at fecal matter found, scientists were able to determine what was eaten.[41] It is a simple fact that poor diet negatively affects a military's combat readiness. The variety of food found shows the Romans were not focused on just caloric intake, as they knew a variety of food was important to health.[39] Scale[edit] Shows where various Roman Legions were stationed By the time of Trajan (53AD-117AD), the medical corps was well on the way to being an organized machine. At this time, Physicians were attached to nearly every Army and Navy Unit in all the Roman Military. By this time the Army was massive, consisting of twenty-five to thirty legions, each of which contained nearly 6,000 men. Each one included both soldiers and physicians.[38] Despite these massive numbers there was still no formal requirements for being a physician.[34] At this point all physicians were either self-taught or learned their trade through an apprenticeship. Despite this, there was an attempt at organization, as the army did have a medical manual that was passed out to its physicians. The Medici were used on both the front line as emergency care providers and in the rear as the main physicians. The Capsarii were mainly used as the front line care providers and bandages, but also assisted the Medici behind the lines.[38] Source of knowledge[edit] Romans received their medical knowledge largely from the Greeks that came before them. As Rome started to expand, it slowly embraced the Greek culture, causing an influx of medicinal information in Roman society.[42] Because of this influx, it allowed this knowledge to become the foundation of all western medical tradition. The Greek theories were kept alive and their practices continued well into the future.[42] This knowledge was also the foundation used in military medicine since it contained the overarching ideas of their medical knowledge. As time progressed these medical texts would be translated into Arabic and then back into Latin as the flow of information changed. Based on this, we can presume that some of the information in these texts has been lost in translation. Despite this, we are still able to illustrate a clear picture of what military medicine was like during the reign of the Roman Empire. See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal War portal References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ ’’ History of Rome’’, Book 1.4. ^ Williamson, G. (tr.), Josephus, The Jewish War, 1959, p. 378 ^ Estimates range wildly because census data was imprecise and there is some disagreement over how many federated tribes had settled permanently in Roman lands during the Mid to late Empire. ^ a b Gibbon E., The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Penguin, 1985, para. 65 ^ Santosuosso, p. 188 ^ Heather, P., The Fall of the Roman Empire, Macmillan, 2005, p. 6 ^ Heather, P., The Fall of the Roman Empire, Macmillan, 2005, p.6 ^ Mattingly, David (2008-05-27). AN Imperial Possession: Britain in the Roman Empire, 54 BC - AD 409. Penguin. ISBN 9781101160404. ^ a b Heather, P., The Fall of the Roman Empire, Macmillan, 2005, p. 64 ^ Caesar is said to have spent "huge portions of the wealth he accumulated in his victorious wars... on celebrating Triumphs... [and] on erecting magnificent buildings". Grant, p. 194 ^ Rosenstein (2016), pp. 121-126 ^ Gibbon, p. 199 ^ Santosuosso, p. 214 ^ Jones, p. 1041 ^ Heather, p. 297 ^ Hadas, M, et al., Imperial Rome, in Great Ages of Man: A History of the World's Cultures, New York, Time-Life Books, 1965 ^ Jones, AHM, The Later Roman Empire 284-602, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1964, p.1035 ^ Including the millions of citizens of Rome ^ Edward Gibbon relates that "the fertile... province of Campania...was [w]ithin sixty years of the death of Constantine... granted [an exemption from tax amounting to] three hundred and fifty thousand... acres of desert and uncultivated land" - Gibbon, p. 376 ^ a b Santosuosso A., Soldiers, Emperors and Citizens in the Roman Empire, Westview, 2001, p. 214 ^ Grant, M., The History of Rome, Fabre and Faber, 1993, p. 287 ^ Heather, P., The Fall of the Roman Empire, Macmillan, 2005, p. 29 ^ Luttwak, p. 80 ^ The Grand Byzantine Strategy Edward Luttwak ^ Luttwak notes that Roman troops could march roughly 15 miles per day over long distances, while ships could carry them far more economically and at speeds of 27-81 miles per day. - Luttwak, p. 81 ^ Heather, P., The Fall of the Roman Empire, Macmillan, 2005, p. 55 ^ Heather, P., The Fall of the Roman Empire, Macmillan, 2005, p. 7 ^ Fan Ye, Xiyu Chuan ("Chapter on the Western Regions"), in Hou Han Shu (Official history of the Later Han Dynasty), ch. 88. ^ Luttwak, p. 1 ^ Garrison, F. H. (1921-01-01). Notes on the history of military medicine. Рипол Классик, Ch. 3 Rome. ISBN 9785882286582. ^ a b c d e f Vivian, Nutton (1993). "Roman Medicine: Tradition, Confrontation, Assimilation". Rise and Decline of the Roman World: 49–51. ^ a b c Byrne, Eugene (1910). "Medicine in the Roman Army". The Classical Journal: 267–272. ^ a b Prioreschi, Plinio (1998-01-01). A History of Medicine: Roman medicine. Edwin Mellen Press. pp. 542, 550. ISBN 9781888456035. ^ a b c Nutton, Vivian (1969). "Medicine and the Roman Army: A Further Reconsideration". Medical History. 13: 267–270. doi:10.1017/S0025727300014526. PMC 1033953. PMID 4893625. ^ a b John, Scarborough (1968). "Roman Medicine and the Legions: A Reconsideration". Medical History. 12: 254–261. doi:10.1017/S0025727300013296. PMC 1033827. PMID 4875612. ^ Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith (1998-01-01). The Roman Army at War: 100 BC-AD 200. Clarendon Press. p. 16. ISBN 9780198150909. ^ Milne, John Stewart (1907-01-01). Surgical instruments in Greek and Roman times. At the Clarendon Press. p. 207. ^ a b c d e McCallum, Jack Edward (2008-01-01). Military Medicine: From Ancient Times to the 21st Century. ABC-CLIO. pp. 271–272. ISBN 9781851096930. ^ a b Roth, Jonathan; Roth, Jonathan P. (1999-01-01). The Logistics of the Roman Army at War: 264 B.C. - A.D. 235. BRILL. p. 7. ISBN 9004112715. ^ a b c Davies, R. W. (1971). "The Roman Military Diet". Britannia: 122–130. ^ Kuijper and Turner, W. J and H. (1992). "Diet of a Roman Centurion at Alphen Aan Den Rijn, The Netherlands, in the First Century AD". Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology. 73 (1–4): 200. doi:10.1016/0034-6667(92)90057-n. ^ a b Nutton, Vivian (2004). "Rome and the Transplantation of Greek Medicine". Ancient Medicine: 160. Library resources about Military of ancient Rome Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Bibliography[edit] Primary sources[edit] Livy, From the Founding of the City on Wikisource (print: Book 1 as The Rise of Rome, Oxford University Press, 1998, ISBN 0-19-282296-9). Polybius: The Rise of the Roman Empire at LacusCurtius (print: Harvard University Press, 1927. (Translation by W. R. Paton). Tacitus: The Annals. Secondary sources[edit] Edward Gibbon: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (print: Penguin Books, 1985, ISBN 0-14-043189-6). Peter Connolly, Greece and Rome at War, Greenhill Books, 1998, ISBN 978-1-85367-303-0. Adrian Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome: The Men Who Won the Roman Empire, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003, ISBN 0-297-84666-3. Michael Grant, The History of Rome, Faber and Faber, 1993, ISBN 0-571-11461-X. Peter Heather, The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History, Macmillan Publishers, 2005, ISBN 0-330-49136-9. Arnold Hugh Martin Jones, The Later Roman Empire, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1964, ISBN 0-8018-3285-3. Robin Lane Fox, The Classical World, Penguin Books, 2005, ISBN 0-14-102141-1 Edward Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 0-8018-2158-4. Philip Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, Thames and Hudson, 2004, ISBN 0-500-25124-X. Antonio Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens: Soldiers, Emperors and Civilians in the Roman Empire, Westview Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8133-3523-X. External links[edit] Wikisource has the text of a 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article about Military of ancient Rome. 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en-wikipedia-org-2622	----	Paradise Lost - Wikipedia Paradise Lost From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Paradise Lost (disambiguation). Epic poem by John Milton Paradise Lost Title page of the first edition (1667) Author John Milton Cover artist J. B. de Medina Henry Aldrich Country England Language English Genre Epic poetry Christian mythology Publisher Samuel Simmons (original) Publication date 1667 Media type Print Followed by Paradise Regained  Text Paradise Lost at Wikisource Paradise Lost is an epic poem in blank verse by the 17th-century English poet John Milton (1608–1674). The first version, published in 1667, consists of ten books with over ten thousand lines of verse. A second edition followed in 1674, arranged into twelve books (in the manner of Virgil's Aeneid) with minor revisions throughout.[1][2] It is considered to be Milton's major work, and it helped solidify his reputation as one of the greatest English poets of his time.[3] The poem concerns the biblical story of the Fall of Man: the temptation of Adam and Eve by the fallen angel Satan and their expulsion from the Garden of Eden. Milton's purpose, as stated in Book I, is to "justify the ways of God to men."[6] Contents 1 Composition 2 Structure 3 Synopsis 4 Characters 4.1 Satan 4.2 Adam 4.3 Eve 4.4 The Son of God 4.5 God the Father 4.6 Raphael 4.7 Michael 5 Motifs 5.1 Marriage 5.2 Idolatry 6 Interpretation and critique 7 Iconography 8 See also 9 References 9.1 Footnotes 9.2 Bibliography 10 Further reading 11 External links 11.1 Online text 11.2 Other information Composition[edit] Gustave Doré, The Heavenly Hosts, c. 1866, illustration to Paradise Lost. In his introduction to the Penguin edition of Paradise Lost, the Milton scholar John Leonard notes, "John Milton was nearly sixty when he published Paradise Lost in 1667. The biographer John Aubrey (1626–97) tells us that the poem was begun in about 1658 and finished in about 1663. However, parts were almost certainly written earlier, and its roots lie in Milton's earliest youth."[7] Leonard speculates that the English Civil War interrupted Milton's earliest attempts to start his "epic [poem] that would encompass all space and time."[7] Leonard also notes that Milton "did not at first plan to write a biblical epic."[7] Since epics were typically written about heroic kings and queens (and with pagan gods), Milton originally envisioned his epic to be based on a legendary Saxon or British king like the legend of King Arthur.[8][9] Having gone totally blind in 1652, Milton wrote Paradise Lost entirely through dictation with the help of amanuenses and friends. He also wrote the epic poem while he was often ill, suffering from gout, and despite suffering emotionally after the early death of his second wife, Katherine Woodcock, in 1658, and the death of their infant daughter.[10] Structure[edit] In the 1667 version of Paradise Lost, the poem was divided into ten books. However, in the 1672 edition, the text was reorganized into twelve books.[11] In later printing, “Arguments” (brief summaries) were inserted at the beginning of each book.[12] Milton used a number of acrostics in the poem. In Book 9, a verse describing the serpent which tempted Eve to eat the forbidden fruit in the Garden of Eden spells out "SATAN" (9.510), while elsewhere in the same book, Milton spells out "FFAALL" and "FALL". Respectively, these probably represent the double fall of humanity embodied in Adam and Eve, as well as Satan's fall from Heaven.[13] Synopsis[edit] John Martin, Satan Presiding at the Infernal Council, c. 1823–1827 Gustave Doré, Depiction of Satan, the central character of John Milton's Paradise Lost c. 1866 The poem follows the epic tradition of starting in medias res (in the midst of things), the background story being recounted later. Milton's story has two narrative arcs, one about Satan (Lucifer) and the other, Adam and Eve. It begins after Satan and the other fallen angels have been defeated and banished to Hell, or, as it is also called in the poem, Tartarus. In Pandæmonium, the capital city of Hell, Satan employs his rhetorical skill to organise his followers; he is aided by Mammon and Beelzebub. Belial and Moloch are also present. At the end of the debate, Satan volunteers to corrupt the newly created Earth and God's new and most favoured creation, Mankind. He braves the dangers of the Abyss alone, in a manner reminiscent of Odysseus or Aeneas. After an arduous traversal of the Chaos outside Hell, he enters God's new material World, and later the Garden of Eden. At several points in the poem, an Angelic War over Heaven is recounted from different perspectives. Satan's rebellion follows the epic convention of large-scale warfare. The battles between the faithful angels and Satan's forces take place over three days. At the final battle, the Son of God single-handedly defeats the entire legion of angelic rebels and banishes them from Heaven. Following this purge, God creates the World, culminating in his creation of Adam and Eve. While God gave Adam and Eve total freedom and power to rule over all creation, he gave them one explicit command: not to eat from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil on penalty of death. The story of Adam and Eve's temptation and fall is a fundamentally different, new kind of epic: a domestic one. Adam and Eve are presented as having a romantic and sexual relationship while still being without sin. They have passions and distinct personalities. Satan, disguised in the form of a serpent, successfully tempts Eve to eat from the Tree by preying on her vanity and tricking her with rhetoric. Adam, learning that Eve has sinned, knowingly commits the same sin. He declares to Eve that since she was made from his flesh, they are bound to one another – if she dies, he must also die. In this manner, Milton portrays Adam as an heroic figure, but also as a greater sinner than Eve, as he is aware that what he is doing is wrong. After eating the fruit, Adam and Eve have lustful sex. At first, Adam is convinced that Eve was right in thinking that eating the fruit would be beneficial. However, they soon fall asleep and have terrible nightmares, and after they awake, they experience guilt and shame for the first time. Realizing that they have committed a terrible act against God, they engage in mutual recrimination. Meanwhile, Satan returns triumphantly to Hell, amid the praise of his fellow fallen angels. He tells them about how their scheme worked and Mankind has fallen, giving them complete dominion over Paradise. As he finishes his speech, however, the fallen angels around him become hideous snakes, and soon enough, Satan himself turns into a snake, deprived of limbs and unable to talk. Thus, they share the same punishment, as they shared the same guilt. Eve appeals to Adam for reconciliation of their actions. Her encouragement enables them to approach God, and sue for grace, bowing on supplicant knee, to receive forgiveness. In a vision shown to him by the Archangel Michael, Adam witnesses everything that will happen to Mankind until the Great Flood. Adam is very upset by this vision of the future, so Michael also tells him about Mankind's potential redemption from original sin through Jesus Christ (whom Michael calls "King Messiah"). Adam and Eve are cast out of Eden, and Michael says that Adam may find "a paradise within thee, happier far." Adam and Eve now have a more distant relationship with God, who is omnipresent but invisible (unlike the tangible Father in the Garden of Eden). Characters[edit] Satan[edit] Satan, formerly called Lucifer, is the first major character introduced in the poem. He was once the most beautiful of all angels, and is a tragic figure who famously declares: "Better to reign in Hell than serve in Heaven." Following his failed rebellion against God, he is cast out from Heaven and condemned to Hell. Satan's desire to rebel against his creator stems from his unwillingness to be subjugated by God and his Son, claiming that angels are "self-begot, self-raised,"[14] and thereby denying God's authority over them as their creator. Satan is deeply arrogant, albeit powerful and charismatic.[citation needed] Satan's persuasive powers are evident throughout the book; not only is he cunning and deceptive, but he is also able to rally the fallen angels to continue in the rebellion after their agonizing defeat in the Angelic War. He argues that God rules as a tyrant and that all the angels ought to rule as gods.[15] Though commonly understood to be the antagonizing force in Paradise Lost, Satan may be best defined as a tragic or Hellenic hero. According to William McCollom, one quality of the classical tragic hero is that he is not perfectly good and that his defeat is caused by a tragic flaw, as Satan causes both the downfall of man and the eternal damnation of his fellow fallen angels despite his dedication to his comrades. In addition, Satan's Hellenic qualities, such as his immense courage and, perhaps, lack of completely defined morals compound his tragic nature.[16] Satan's status as a protagonist in the epic poem is debated. Milton characterizes him as such, but Satan lacks several key traits that would otherwise make him the definitive protagonist in the work. One deciding factor that insinuates his role as the protagonist in the story is that most often a protagonist is heavily characterized and far better described than the other characters, and the way the character is written is meant to make him seem more interesting or special to the reader.[17] For that matter, Satan is both well described and is depicted as being quite versatile in that he is shown as having the capacity to do evil while retaining his characteristic sympathetic qualities and thus it is this complex and relatable nature that makes him a likely candidate for the story's overarching protagonist.[17] By some definitions a protagonist must be able to exist in and of themselves and the secondary characters in the work exist only to further the plot for the protagonist.[18] Because Satan does not exist solely for himself, as without God he would not have a role to play in the story, he may not be viewed as the protagonist because of the continual shifts in perspective and relative importance of characters in each book of the work. Satan's existence in the story involves his rebellion against God and his determination to corrupt the beings he creates in order to perpetuate evil so that there can be a discernible balance and justice for both himself and his fallen angels. Therefore, it is more probable that he exists in order to combat God, making his status as the definitive protagonist of the work relative to each book. Following this logic, Satan may very well be considered as an antagonist in the poem, whereas God could be considered as the protagonist instead. Satan's status as a traditional hero in the work is similarly up to debate as the term "hero" evokes different meanings depending on the time and the person giving the definition and is thus a matter of contention within the text. According to Aristotle, a hero is someone who is "superhuman, godlike, and divine" but is also human.[19] A hero would have to either be a human with God-like powers or the offspring of God. While Milton gives reason to believe that Satan is superhuman, as he was originally an angel, he is anything but human. However, one could argue that Satan's faults make him more human than any other divine being described in Milton's work.[citation needed] Torquato Tasso and Francesco Piccolomini expanded on Aristotle's definition and declared that to be heroic one has to be perfectly or overly virtuous.[20] In this regard, Satan repeatedly demonstrates a lack of virtue throughout the story as he intends to tempt God's creations with evil in order to destroy the good God is trying to create. Therefore, Satan is not a hero according to Tasso and Piccolomini's expanded definition. Satan goes against God's law and therefore becomes corrupt and lacking of virtue and, as Piccolomini warned, "vice may be mistaken for heroic virtue."[19] Satan is very devoted to his cause, although that cause is evil but he strives to spin his sinister aspirations to appear as good ones. Satan achieves this end multiple times throughout the text as he riles up his band of fallen angels during his speech by deliberately telling them to do evil to explain God's hypocrisy and again during his entreaty to Eve. He makes his intentions seem pure and positive even when they are rooted in evil and, according to Steadman, this is the chief reason that readers often mistake Satan as a hero.[20] Although Satan's army inevitably loses the war against God, Satan achieves a position of power and begins his reign in Hell with his band of loyal followers, composed of fallen angels, which is described to be a "third of heaven." Satan's characterization as the leader of a failing cause folds into this as well and is best exemplified through his own quote, "to be weak is to be miserable; Doing or Suffering," as through shared solidarity espoused by empowering rhetoric, Satan riles up his comrades in arms and keeps them focused towards their shared goal.[21] Similar to Milton's republican sentiments of overthrowing the King of England for both better representation and parliamentary power, Satan argues that his shared rebellion with the fallen angels is an effort to "explain the hypocrisy of God," and in doing so, they will be treated with the respect and acknowledgement that they deserve. As scholar Wayne Rebhorn argues, "Satan insists that he and his fellow revolutionaries held their places by right and even leading him to claim that they were self-created and self-sustained" and thus Satan's position in the rebellion is much like that of his own real world creator.[22] Adam[edit] William Blake, The Temptation and Fall of Eve, 1808 (illustration of Milton's Paradise Lost) Adam is the first human being created by God. Finding himself alone, Adam complains and requests a mate from God, who grants his request and creates Eve to be Adam's conjugal companion and spouse. God appraises Adam and Eve most of all his creations, and appoints them to rule over all the creatures of the world and to reside in the Garden of Eden. Adam is more gregarious than Eve, and yearns for her company. His complete infatuation with Eve, while pure of itself, eventually contributes to his deciding to join her in disobedience to God. Unlike the biblical Adam, before Milton's Adam leaves Paradise he is given a glimpse of the future of mankind by the Archangel Michael—including a synopsis of stories from the Old and New Testaments. Eve[edit] Eve is the second human created by God, who takes one of Adam's ribs and shapes it into a female form of Adam. Not the traditional model of a good wife, Milton's Eve is often unwilling to be submissive towards Adam. She is the more intelligent of the two and more curious about external ideas than her husband. Though happy, she longs for knowledge, specifically for self-knowledge. (Her first act in existence is to turn away from Adam to look at and ponder her own reflection.) Eve is beautiful and though she loves Adam she may feel suffocated by his constant presence.[citation needed] In Book IX, she convinces Adam to separate for a time and work in different parts of the Garden. In her solitude, she is tempted by Satan to sin against God by eating of the Tree of Knowledge. Soon thereafter, Adam follows Eve in support of her act. The Son of God[edit] The Son of God is the spirit who will become incarnate as Jesus Christ, though he is never named explicitly because he has not yet entered human form. Milton believed in a subordinationist doctrine of Christology that regarded the Son as secondary to the Father and as God's "great Vice-regent" (5.609). Milton's God in Paradise Lost refers to the Son as "My word, my wisdom, and effectual might" (3.170). The poem is not explicitly anti-trinitarian, but it is consistent with Milton's convictions. The Son is the ultimate hero of the epic and is infinitely powerful—he single-handedly defeats Satan and his followers and drives them into Hell. After their fall, the Son of God tells Adam and Eve about God's judgment: He, the Son, volunteers to journey into the World and become a man himself; then he redeems the Fall of Man through his own sacrificial death and resurrection. In the final scene, a vision of Salvation through the Son of God is revealed to Adam by Michael. Still, the name Jesus of Nazareth, and the details of Jesus' story are not depicted in the poem,[23] though they are alluded to when Michael explains that "Joshua, whom the Gentiles Jesus call," prefigures the Son of God, "his name and office bearing" to "quell / The adversarie Serpent, and bring back [...] long wander[e]d man / Safe to eternal Paradise of rest."[24] God the Father[edit] God the Father is the creator of Heaven, Hell, the world, of everyone and everything there is, through the agency of His Son. Milton presents God as all-powerful and all-knowing, as an infinitely great being who cannot be overthrown by even the great army of angels Satan incites against him. Milton's stated purpose for the poem is to justify the ways of God to men, so he portrays God as often conversing about his plans and his motives for his actions with the Son of God. The poem shows God creating the world in the way Milton believed it was done, that is, God created Heaven, Earth, Hell, and all the creatures that inhabit these separate planes from part of Himself, not out of nothing.[25] Thus, according to Milton, the ultimate authority of God over all things that happen derives from his being the "author" of all creation. Satan tries to justify his rebellion by denying this aspect of God and claiming self-creation, but he admits to himself the truth otherwise, and that God "deserved no such return/ From me, whom He created what I was."[26][27] Raphael[edit] Raphael is the archangel whom God sends to warn Adam of Satan's infiltration of Eden and to warn that Satan will try to curse the pair. Raphael also discusses at length with the curious Adam some details about the creation and about events that transpired in Heaven. Michael[edit] Michael is a mighty archangel who fought for God in the Angelic War. In the first battle, he wounds Satan terribly with a powerful sword that God fashioned to cut through even the substance of angels. After Adam and Eve disobey God by eating from the Tree of Knowledge, God sends the angel Michael to visit them in the garden. Before he escorts them out of Paradise, Michael shows them visions of the future that disclose an outline of Bible stories from that of Cain and Abel in Genesis through the story of Christ Jesus in the New Testament. Motifs[edit] Marriage[edit] Milton first presented Adam and Eve in Book IV with impartiality. The relationship between Adam and Eve is one of "mutual dependence, not a relation of domination or hierarchy." While the author placed Adam above Eve in his intellectual knowledge and, in turn, his relation to God, he granted Eve the benefit of knowledge through experience. Hermine Van Nuis clarifies, that although there was stringency specified for the roles of male and female, Adam and Eve unreservedly accept their designated roles.[28] Rather than viewing these roles as forced upon them, each uses their assignment as an asset in their relationship with each other. These disitinctions can be interpreted as Milton's view on the importance of mutuality between husband and wife. When examining the relationship between Adam and Eve, some critics apply either an Adam-centered or Eve-centered view of hierarchy and importance to God. David Mikics argues, by contrast, these positions "overstate the independence of the characters' stances, and therefore miss the way in which Adam and Eve are entwined with each other."[29] Milton's narrative depicts a relationship where the husband and wife (here, Adam and Eve) depend on each other and, through each other's differences, thrive.[29] Still, there are several instances where Adam communicates directly with God while Eve must go through Adam to God; thus, some have described Adam as her guide.[30] Although Milton does not directly mention divorce, critics posit theories on Milton's view of divorce based upon their inferences from the poem and from his tracts on divorce written earlier in his life. Other works by Milton suggest he viewed marriage as an entity separate from the church. Discussing Paradise Lost, Biberman entertains the idea that "marriage is a contract made by both the man and the woman."[31] These ideas imply Milton may have favored that both man and woman have equal access to marriage and to divorce. Idolatry[edit] Milton's 17th-century contemporaries by and large criticised his ideas and considered him as a radical, mostly because of his Protestant views on politics and religion. One of Milton's most controversial arguments centred on his concept of what is idolatrous, which subject is deeply embedded in Paradise Lost. Milton's first criticism of idolatry focused on the constructing of temples and other buildings to serve as places of worship. In Book XI of Paradise Lost, Adam tries to atone for his sins by offering to build altars to worship God. In response, the angel Michael explains that Adam does not need to build physical objects to experience the presence of God.[32] Joseph Lyle points to this example, explaining "When Milton objects to architecture, it is not a quality inherent in buildings themselves he finds offensive, but rather their tendency to act as convenient loci to which idolatry, over time, will inevitably adhere."[33] Even if the idea is pure in nature, Milton thought it would unavoidably lead to idolatry simply because of the nature of humans. That is, instead of directing their thoughts towards God, humans will turn to erected objects and falsely invest their faith there. While Adam attempts to build an altar to God, critics note Eve is similarly guilty of idolatry, but in a different manner. Harding believes Eve's narcissism and obsession with herself constitutes idolatry.[34] Specifically, Harding claims that "... under the serpent's influence, Eve's idolatry and self-deification foreshadow the errors into which her 'Sons' will stray."[34] Much like Adam, Eve falsely places her faith in herself, the Tree of Knowledge, and to some extent the Serpent, all of which do not compare to the ideal nature of God. Milton made his views on idolatry more explicit with the creation of Pandæmonium and his allusion to Solomon's temple. In the beginning of Paradise Lost and throughout the poem, there are several references to the rise and eventual fall of Solomon's temple. Critics elucidate that "Solomon's temple provides an explicit demonstration of how an artefact moves from its genesis in devotional practice to an idolatrous end."[35] This example, out of the many presented, distinctly conveys Milton's views on the dangers of idolatry. Even if one builds a structure in the name of God, the best of intentions can become immoral in idolatry. Further, critics have drawn parallels between both Pandemonium and Saint Peter's Basilica,[citation needed] and the Pantheon. The majority of these similarities revolve around a structural likeness, but as Lyle explains, they play a greater role. By linking Saint Peter's Basilica and the Pantheon to Pandemonium—an ideally false structure—the two famous buildings take on a false meaning.[36] This comparison best represents Milton's Protestant views, as it rejects both the purely Catholic perspective and the Pagan perspective. In addition to rejecting Catholicism, Milton revolted against the idea of a monarch ruling by divine right. He saw the practice as idolatrous. Barbara Lewalski concludes that the theme of idolatry in Paradise Lost "is an exaggerated version of the idolatry Milton had long associated with the Stuart ideology of divine kingship."[37] In the opinion of Milton, any object, human or non-human, that receives special attention befitting of God, is considered idolatrous. Interpretation and critique[edit] The Creation of Man, engraving from the 1688 edition, by John Baptist Medina. The writer and critic Samuel Johnson wrote that Paradise Lost shows off "[Milton's] peculiar power to astonish" and that "[Milton] seems to have been well acquainted with his own genius, and to know what it was that Nature had bestowed upon him more bountifully than upon others: the power of displaying the vast, illuminating the splendid, enforcing the awful, darkening the gloomy, and aggravating the dreadful."[38] Milton scholar John Leonard interpreted the "impious war" between Heaven and Hell as civil war:[39][page needed] Paradise Lost is, among other things, a poem about civil war. Satan raises 'impious war in Heav'n' (i 43) by leading a third of the angels in revolt against God. The term 'impious war' implies that civil war is impious. But Milton applauded the English people for having the courage to depose and execute King Charles I. In his poem, however, he takes the side of 'Heav'n's awful Monarch' (iv 960). Critics have long wrestled with the question of why an antimonarchist and defender of regicide should have chosen a subject that obliged him to defend monarchical authority. The editors at the Poetry Foundation argue that Milton's criticism of the English monarchy was being directed specifically at the Stuart monarchy and not at the monarchy system in general.[3] In a similar vein, critic and writer C.S. Lewis argued that there was no contradiction in Milton's position in the poem since "Milton believed that God was his 'natural superior' and that Charles Stuart was not." Lewis interpreted the poem as a genuine Christian morality tale.[39][page needed] Other critics, like William Empson, view it as a more ambiguous work, with Milton's complex characterization of Satan playing a large part in that perceived ambiguity.[39][page needed] Empson argued that "Milton deserves credit for making God wicked, since the God of Christianity is 'a wicked God.'" Leonard places Empson's interpretation "in the [Romantic interpretive] tradition of William Blake and Percy Bysshe Shelley."[39][page needed] Blake famously wrote, "The reason Milton wrote in fetters when he wrote of Angels & God, and at liberty when of Devils & Hell, is because he was a true Poet and of the Devil's party without knowing it."[40] This quotation succinctly represents the way in which some 18th- and 19th-century English Romantic poets viewed Milton. Speaking of the complexity of Milton's epic are John Rogers' lectures which try their best to synthesize the "advantages and limitations of a diverse range of interpretive techniques and theoretical concerns in Milton scholarship and criticism."[41] Empson's view is complex. Leonard points out that "Empson never denies that Satan's plan is wicked. What he does deny is that God is innocent of its wickedness: 'Milton steadily drives home that the inmost counsel of God was the Fortunate Fall of man; however wicked Satan's plan may be, it is God's plan too [since God in Paradise Lost is depicted as being both omniscient and omnipotent].'"[39][page needed] Leonard calls Empson's view "a powerful argument"; he notes that this interpretation was challenged by Dennis Danielson in his book Milton's Good God (1982).[39][page needed] Iconography[edit] See also: William Blake's illustrations of Paradise Lost In Sin, Death and the Devil (1792), James Gillray caricatured the political battle between Pitt and Thurlow as a scene from Paradise Lost. Pitt is Death and Thurlow Satan, with Queen Charlotte as Sin in the middle. The first illustrations to accompany the text of Paradise Lost were added to the fourth edition of 1688, with one engraving prefacing each book, of which up to eight of the twelve were by Sir John Baptist Medina, one by Bernard Lens II, and perhaps up to four (including Books I and XII, perhaps the most memorable) by another hand.[42] The engraver was Michael Burghers (given as 'Burgesse' in some sources[43]). By 1730 the same images had been re-engraved on a smaller scale by Paul Fourdrinier. Some of the most notable illustrators of Paradise Lost included William Blake, Gustave Doré and Henry Fuseli. However, the epic's illustrators also include John Martin, Edward Francis Burney, Richard Westall, Francis Hayman, and many others. Outside of book illustrations, the epic has also inspired other visual works by well-known painters like Salvador Dalí who executed a set of ten colour engravings in 1974.[44] Milton's achievement in writing Paradise Lost while blind (he dictated to helpers) inspired loosely biographical paintings by both Fuseli[45] and Eugène Delacroix.[46] See also[edit] Paradise Lost in popular culture John Milton's poetic style Paradise Regained Visio Tnugdali Prince of Darkness (Satan) References[edit] Footnotes[edit] ^ Milton, John (1674). Paradise Lost; A Poem in Twelve Books (II ed.). London: S. Simmons. Retrieved 8 January 2017 – via Internet Archive. ^ "Paradise Lost: Introduction". Dartmouth College. Retrieved 26 March 2010. ^ a b "John Milton". Poetry Foundation. 19 April 2018. ^ John Milton. Paradise Lost, Book I, l. 26. 1667. Hosted by Dartmouth. Accessed 13 December 2013. ^ Milton 1674 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMilton1674 (help), 1:26. ^ Milton's original line read "...justifie the wayes of God to men."[4][5] ^ a b c Leonard 2000, p. xii. ^ Leonard 2000, p. xiii. ^ Broadbent 1972, p. 54. ^ Abrahm, M.H., Stephen Greenblatt, Eds. The Norton Anthology of English Literature. New York: Norton, 2000. ^ Forsythe, Neil (2002). The Satanic Epic. Princeton University. ^ Teskey, Gordon (2005). "Introduction". Paradise Lost: A Norton Critical Edition. New York: Norton. pp. xxvii-xxviii. ISBN 978-0393924282. ^ History, Stephanie Pappas-Live Science Contributor 2019-09-16T18:16:12Z. "Secret Message Discovered in Milton's Epic 'Paradise Lost'". livescience.com. Retrieved 17 September 2019. ^ Milton 1674 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMilton1674 (help), 5:860. ^ Milton 1674 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMilton1674 (help), 5:794–802. ^ McCollom, William G. ―The Downfall of the Tragic Hero.‖ College English 19.2 (1957): 51- 56. ^ a b (Taha, Ibrahim. "Heroism In Literature." The American Journal of Semiotics18.1/4 (2002): 107-26. Philosophy Document Center. Web. 12 Nov. 2014) ^ Taha, Ibrahim. "Heroism In Literature." The American Journal of Semiotics18.1/4 (2002): 107-26. Philosophy Document Center. Web. 12 Nov. 2014 ^ a b Steadman, John M. "Heroic Virtue and the Divine Image in Paradise Lost. "Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 22.1/2 (1959): pp. 89 ^ a b Steadman, John M. "Heroic Virtue and the Divine Image in Paradise Lost. "Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 22.1/2 (1959): pp. 90 ^ Milton, John. Paradise Lost. The Norton Anthology of English Literature. 9th ed. Vol. B. New York ; London: W.W. Norton, 2012. 1950. Print. ^ Rebhorn, Wayne A. "The Humanist Tradition and Milton's Satan: The Conservative as Revolutionary." SEL: Studies in English Literature 1500–1900, Vol. 13, No. 1, The English Renaissance (Winter 1973), pp. 81-93. Print. ^ Marshall 1961, p. 17 ^ Milton 1674 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMilton1674 (help), 12:310-314 ^ Lehnhof 2008, p. 15 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLehnhof2008 (help). ^ Milton 1674 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMilton1674 (help), 4:42–43. ^ Lehnhof 2008, p. 24 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLehnhof2008 (help). ^ Van Nuis 2000, p. 50. ^ a b Mikics 2004, p. 22 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMikics2004 (help). ^ Mikics, David (24 February 2004). "Miltonic Marriage and the Challenge to History in Paradise Lost". Texas Studies in Literature and Language. 46 (1): 20–48. doi:10.1353/tsl.2004.0005. S2CID 161371845 – via Project MUSE. ^ Biberman 1999, p. 137. ^ Milton 1674 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMilton1674 (help), Book 11. ^ Lyle 2000, p. 139. ^ a b Harding 2007, p. 163. ^ Lyle 2000, p. 140. ^ Lyle 2000, p. 147. ^ Lewalski 2003, p. 223. ^ Johnson, Samuel. Lives of the English Poets. New York: Octagon, 1967. ^ a b c d e f Leonard, John. "Introduction." Paradise Lost. New York: Penguin, 2000. ^ Blake, William. The Marriage of Heaven and Hell. 1793. ^ "John Rogers Milton". Yale. 19 February 2020. ^ Illustrating Paradise Lost Archived 1 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine from Christ's College, Cambridge, has all twelve on line. See Medina's article for more on the authorship, and all the illustrations, which are also in Commons. ^ William Bridges Hunter (1978). A Milton encyclopedia. Bucknell University Press. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-8387-1837-7. ^ Lockport Street Gallery. Retrieved on 2013-12-13. ^ Art Institute of Chicago. Retrieved on 2013-12-13. ^ WikiPaintings. 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(1769), The King James Bible , Oxford: Oxford University Press Bradford, R (July 1992), Paradise Lost (1st ed.), Philadelphia: Open University Press, ISBN 978-0-335-09982-5, OCLC 25050319 Broadbent, John (1972), Paradise Lost: Introduction, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9780521096393 Butler, G (February 1998), "Giants and Fallen Angels in Dante and Milton: The Commedia and the Gigantomachy in Paradise Lost", Modern Philosophy, 95 (3): 352–363 Carter, R. and McRae, J. (2001). The Routledge History of Literature in English: Britain and Ireland. 2 ed. Oxon: Routledge. Carey, J; Fowler, A (1971), The Poems of John Milton, London Doerksen, D (December 1997), "Let There Be Peace': Eve as Redemptive Peacemaker in Paradise Lost, Book X", Milton Quarterly, 32 (4): 124–130, doi:10.1111/j.1094-348X.1997.tb00499.x, S2CID 162488440 Eliot, T.S. (1957), On Poetry and Poets, London: Faber and Faber Eliot, T. S. (1932), "Dante", Selected Essays, New York: Faber and Faber, OCLC 70714546 . Empson, W (1965), Milton's God (Revised ed.), London John Milton: A Short Introduction (2002 ed., paperback by Roy C. Flannagan, Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-0-631-22620-8; 2008 ed., ebook by Roy Flannagan, Massachusetts: Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-0-470-69287-5) Forsyth, N (2003), The Satanic Epic, Princeton: Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-11339-5 Frye, N (1965), The Return of Eden: Five Essays on Milton's Epics, Toronto: University of Toronto Press Harding, P (January 2007), "Milton's Serpent and the Birth of Pagan Error", SEL: Studies in English Literature 1500–1900, 47 (1): 161–177, doi:10.1353/sel.2007.0003, S2CID 161758649 Hill, G (1905), Lynch, Jack (ed.), Samuel Johnson: The Lives of the English Poets, 3 vols, Oxford: Clarendon, OCLC 69137084, archived from the original on 18 February 2012, retrieved 22 December 2006 Kermode, F, ed. (1960), The Living Milton: Essays by Various Hands, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, ISBN 0-7100-1666-2, OCLC 17518893 Kerrigan, W, ed. (2007), The Complete Poetry and Essential Prose of John Milton, New York: Random House, ISBN 978-0-679-64253-4, OCLC 81940956 Lehnhof, K. (Summer 2004), "Paradise Lost and the Concept of Creation", South Central Review, 21 (2): 15–41, doi:10.1353/scr.2004.0021, S2CID 13244028 Leonard, John (2000), "Introduction", in Milton, John (ed.), Paradise Lost, New York: Penguin, ISBN 9780140424393 Lewalski, B. (January 2003), "Milton and Idolatry", SEL: Studies in English Literature 1500–1900, 43 (1): 213–232, doi:10.1353/sel.2003.0008, S2CID 170082234 Lewis, C.S. (1942), A Preface to Paradise Lost, London: Oxford University Press, OCLC 822692 Lyle, J (January 2000), "Architecture and Idolatry in Paradise Lost", SEL: Studies in English Literature 1500–1900, 40 (1): 139–155, doi:10.2307/1556158, JSTOR 1556158 Marshall, W. H. (January 1961), "Paradise Lost: Felix Culpa and the Problem of Structure", Modern Language Notes, 76 (1): 15–20, doi:10.2307/3040476, JSTOR 3040476 Mikics, D (2004), "Miltonic Marriage and the Challenge to History in Paradise Lost", Texas Studies in Literature and Language, 46 (1): 20–48, doi:10.1353/tsl.2004.0005, S2CID 161371845 Miller, T.C., ed. (1997), The Critical Response to John Milton's "Paradise Lost", Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group, ISBN 978-0-313-28926-2, OCLC 35762631 Milton, J (1674), Paradise Lost  (2nd ed.), London: S. Simmons Rajan, B (1947), Paradise Lost and the Seventeenth Century Reader, London: Chatto & Windus, OCLC 62931344 Ricks, C.B. (1963), Milton's Grand Style, Oxford: Clarendon Press, OCLC 254429 Stone, J.W. (May 1997), ""Man's effeminate s(lack)ness:" Androgyny and the Divided Unity of Adam and Eve", Milton Quarterly, 31 (2): 33–42, doi:10.1111/j.1094-348X.1997.tb00491.x, S2CID 163023289 Van Nuis, H (May 2000), "Animated Eve Confronting Her Animus: A Jungian Approach to the Division of Labor Debate in Paradise Lost", Milton Quarterly, 34 (2): 48–56, doi:10.1111/j.1094-348X.2000.tb00619.x Walker, Julia M. (1998), Medusa's Mirrors: Spenser, Shakespeare, Milton, and the Metamorphosis of the Female Self, University of Delaware Press, ISBN 978-0-87413-625-8 Wheat, L (2008), Philip Pullman's His dark materials—a multiple allegory : attacking religious superstition in The lion, the witch, and the wardrobe and Paradise lost, Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, ISBN 978-1-59102-589-4, OCLC 152580912 Further reading[edit] Patrides, C. A. Approaches to Paradise Lost: The York Tercentenary Lectures (University of Toronto, 1968) ISBN 0-8020-1577-8 Ryan J. Stark, "Paradise Lost as Incomplete Argument," 1650—1850: Aesthetics, Ideas, and Inquiries in the Early Modern Era (2011): 3–18. External links[edit] Paradise Lostat Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Data from Wikidata Gustave Doré Paradise Lost Illustrations from the University at Buffalo Libraries Major Online Resources on Paradise Lost Paradise Lost public domain audiobook at LibriVox Online text[edit] Paradise Lost XHTML version at Dartmouth's Milton Reading Room Project Gutenberg text version 1 Project Gutenberg text version 2 Paradise Lost PDF/Ebook version with layout and fonts inspired by 17th century publications. paradiselost.org has the original poetry side-by-side with a translation to plain (prosaic) English Other information[edit] darkness visible – comprehensive site for students and others new to Milton: contexts, plot and character summaries, reading suggestions, critical history, gallery of illustrations of Paradise Lost, and much more. By students at Milton's Cambridge college, Christ's College. Selected bibliography at the Milton Reading Room – includes background, biography, criticism. 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en-wikipedia-org-2623	----	Pedanius Dioscorides - Wikipedia Pedanius Dioscorides From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Greco-Roman physician and pharmacologist (AD c.40-90) This article is about the physician, pharmacologist and botanist. For the philosopher, see Dioscorides (Stoic). For the admiral, see Dioscurides (nephew of Antigonus I). Pedanius Dioscorides Dioscorides receives a mandrake root, an illumination from the 6th century Greek Juliana Anicia Codex Born c. 40 AD[1] Anazarbus, Cilicia, Asia Minor Died c. 90 AD Other names Dioscurides Occupation Army physician, pharmacologist, botanist Known for De Materia Medica Pedanius Dioscorides (Greek: Πεδάνιος Διοσκουρίδης, Pedánios Dioskourídēs; c. 40–90 AD) was a Greek physician, pharmacologist, botanist, and author of De materia medica (Περὶ ὕλης ἰατρικῆς, On Medical Material) —a 5-volume Greek encyclopedia about herbal medicine and related medicinal substances (a pharmacopeia), that was widely read for more than 1,500 years. He was employed as a physician in the Roman army. Contents 1 Life 2 De Materia Medica 3 Images 4 Translations 5 In literature 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 Sources 10 External links Life[edit] A native of Anazarbus, Cilicia, Asia Minor, Dioscorides likely studied medicine nearby at the school in Tarsus, which had a pharmacological emphasis, and he dedicated his medical books to Laecanius Arius, a medical practitioner there.[a][3][4] Though he says he served in the Roman army, his pharmacopeia refers almost solely to plants found in the Greek-speaking eastern Mediterranean, making it unlikely that he served in campaigns (or traveled) outside that region.[5] The name Pedanius is Roman, suggesting that an aristocrat of that name sponsored him to become a Roman citizen.[6] De Materia Medica[edit] Blackberry from the 6th-century Vienna Dioscurides manuscript Main article: De Materia Medica Between AD 50 and 70 [7] Dioscorides wrote a five-volume book in his native Greek, Περὶ ὕλης ἰατρικῆς (Perì hylēs íatrikēs), known in Western Europe more often by its Latin title De Materia Medica ("On Medical Material"), which became the precursor to all modern pharmacopeias.[8] Cover of an early printed version of De Materia Medica, Lyon, 1554 In contrast to many classical authors, Dioscorides' works were not "rediscovered" in the Renaissance, because his book had never left circulation; indeed, with regard to Western materia medica through the early modern period, Dioscorides' text eclipsed the Hippocratic corpus.[9] In the medieval period, De Materia Medica was circulated in Greek, as well as Latin and Arabic translation.[10] While being reproduced in manuscript form through the centuries, it was often supplemented with commentary and minor additions from Arabic and Indian sources. Ibn al-Baitar's commentary on Dioscorides' Materia Medica, entitled Tafsīr Kitāb Diāsqūrīdūs : تفسير كتاب دياسقوريدوس, has been used by scholars to identify many of the flora mentioned by Dioscorides.[11] A number of illustrated manuscripts of De Materia Medica survive. The most famous of these is the lavishly illustrated Vienna Dioscurides, produced in Constantinople in 512/513 AD. Densely illustrated Arabic copies survive from the 12th and 13th centuries, while Greek manuscripts survive today in the monasteries of Mount Athos.[12] De Materia Medica is the prime historical source of information about the medicines used by the Greeks, Romans, and other cultures of antiquity. The work also records the Dacian,[13] Thracian,[14] Roman, ancient Egyptian and North African (Carthaginian) names for some plants, which otherwise would have been lost. The work presents about 600 plants in all,[15] although the descriptions are sometimes obscurely phrased, leading to comments such as: "Numerous individuals from the Middle Ages on have struggled with the identity of the recondite kinds",[16] while some of the botanical identifications of Dioscorides' plants remain merely guesses. De Materia Medica formed the core of the European pharmacopeia through the 19th century, suggesting that "the timelessness of Dioscorides' work resulted from an empirical tradition based on trial and error; that it worked for generation after generation despite social and cultural changes and changes in medical theory".[9] The plant genus Dioscorea, which includes the yam, was named after him by Linnaeus.[17] Images[edit] Dioscorides as depicted in a 1240 Arabic edition of De Materia Medica De Materia Medica in Arabic, Spain, 12th-13th century Cumin and dill from an Arabic book of simples (ca. 1334) after Dioscorides (British Museum) Byzantine De Materia Medica, 15th century Later representation of Dioscorides Translations[edit] De Materia Medica: Being an Herbal with many other medicinal materials, Englished by Tess Anne Osbaldeston, year 2000, based on the translation of John Goodyer of year 1655 (see below). (Publisher Ibidis Press: Johannesburg). De Materia Medica, translated by Lily Y. Beck (2005). (Publisher Hildesheim: Olms-Weidmann). The Greek Herbal of Dioscorides... Englished by John Goodyer A. D. 1655, edited by R.T. Gunter (1933). De Materia medica : libri V Eiusdem de Venenis Libri duo. Interprete Iano Antonio Saraceno Lugdunaeo, Medico, translated by Janus Antonius Saracenus (1598). In literature[edit] In Voltaire's Candide, the title character's injuries received at the hands of the Bulgarian army, into which he had been conscripted, are healed using "emollients taught by Dioscorides." See also[edit] Materia medica Notes[edit] ^ The dedication, translated by Scarborough and Nutton,[2] began "At your insistence I have assembled my material into five books, and I dedicate my compendium to you in fulfilment of a debt of gratitude for your sentiments towards me".[3] References[edit] ^ The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2013, September 27). Pedanius Dioscorides. Retrieved July 04, 2020, from https://www.britannica.com/biography/Pedanius-Dioscorides ^ Scarborough and Nutton, 1982 ^ a b Stobart, Anne (2014). Critical Approaches to the History of Western Herbal Medicine: From Classical Antiquity to the Early Modern Period. A&C Black. p. 193. ISBN 978-1-4411-8418-4. ^ Borzelleca, Joseph F.; Lane, Richard W. (2008). "The Art, the Science, and the Seduction of Toxicology: an Evolutionary Development". In Hayes, Andrew Wallace (ed.). Principles and methods of toxicology (5th ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 13. ^ Nutton, Vivian. Ancient medicine. Routledge, 2012. p. 178 ^ Tobyn, Graeme; Denham, Alison; Whitelegg, Midge (2016). The Western Herbal Tradition: 2000 Years of Medicinal Plant Knowledge (illustrated ed.). Singing Dragon. p. 4. ISBN 9780857012593. ^ "Greek Medicine". National Institutes of Health, USA. 16 September 2002. Retrieved 1 July 2013. ^ Rooney, Anne (2012). The History of Medicine. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 121. ISBN 9781448873708. ^ a b De Vos (2010) "European Materia Medica in Historical Texts: Longevity of a Tradition and Implications for Future Use", Journal of Ethnopharmacology 132(1):28–47 ^ Some detail about medieval manuscripts of De Materia Medica at pages xxix–xxxi in Introduction to Dioscorides Materia Medica by TA Osbaldeston, year 2000. ^ Zohar Amar, Agricultural Produce in the Land of Israel in the Middle Ages (Hebrew title: גידולי ארץ-ישראל בימי הביניים), Ben-Zvi Institute: Jerusalem 2000, p. 270 ISBN 965-217-174-3 (Hebrew); Tafsīr Kitāb Diāsqūrīdūs - commentaire de la “Materia Medica” de Dioscoride de Abū Muḥammad ʻAbdallāh ibn Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad ibn al-Bayṭār de Malaga (ed. Ibrahim Ben Mrad), Beirut 1989 (Arabic title: تفسير كتاب دياسقوريدوس) ^ Selin, Helaine (2008). Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures. Springer. p. 1077. ISBN 9781402045592. ^ Nutton, Vivian (2004). Ancient Medicine. Routledge. . Page 177. ^ Murray, J. (1884). The Academy. Alexander and Shephrard. . Page 68. ^ Krebs, Robert E.; Krebs, Carolyn A. (2003). Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Ancient World. Greenwood Publishing Group. . Pages 75–76. ^ Isely, Duane (1994). One hundred and one botanists. Iowa State University Press. ^ Austin, Daniel F. (2004). Florida Ethnobotany (illustrated ed.). CRC Press. p. 267. ISBN 9780203491881. Sources[edit] Allbutt, T. Clifford (1921). Greek medicine in Rome. London: Macmillan. ISBN 1-57898-631-1. Bruins: Codex Constantinopolitanus: Palatii Veteris NO. 1 [3 volume set] Part 1: Reproduction of the Manuscript; Part 2: Greek Text; Part 3: Translation and Commentary Bruins, E. M. (Ed.) Forbes, Andrew; Henley, Daniel; Henley, David (2013). 'Pedanius Dioscorides' in: Health and Well Being: A Medieval Guide. Chiang Mai: Cognoscenti Books. Hamilton, J. S. (1986). "Scribonius Largus on the medical profession". Bulletin of the History of Medicine. 60 (2): 209–216. PMID 3521772. Lazris, J.; Stavros, V. (2013). "L'image paradigmatique: des Schémas anatomiques d'Aristote au De materia medica de Dioscoride". Pallas. 93 (93): 131–164. doi:10.4000/pallas.1400. Lazris, J.; Stavros, V. "The medical illustration in Antiquity". Reality Through Image: 18–23 (abstract). Riddle, John (1980). "Dioscorides" (PDF). Catalogus Translationum et Commentariorum. 4: 1. Retrieved 25 August 2015. Riddle, John M. (1985). Dioscorides on pharmacy and medicine. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-71544-7. Sadek, M. M. (1983). The Arabic materia medica of Dioscorides. Québec, Canada: Les Éditions du sphinx. ISBN 2-920123-02-5. Scarborough, J.; Nutton, V. (1982). "The Preface of Dioscorides' Materia Medica: introduction, translation, and commentary". Transactions & Studies of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia. 4 (3): 187–227. PMID 6753260. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pedanius Dioscorides. Wikisource has original works written by or about: Pedanius Dioscorides Works by Dr. Dioscorides at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Pedanius Dioscorides at Internet Archive Works by Dioscorides Dioscorides Material Medica, in English—the full book downloadable in PDF fileformat. "Dioscurides Neapolitanus: Codex ex Vindobonensis Graecus 1" (in Italian and Latin). Biblioteca Nazionale di Napoli. Retrieved 18 February 2010. "Medic: Catalogue des textes en ligne: Dioscoride/Dioscodirides, Pedanius" (pdf) (in French and Latin). Bibliothèque interuniversitaire de médecine et d'odontologie, Université Paris Descartes. Retrieved 18 February 2010. Pedacio Dioscorides anazarbeo: Acerca de la materia medicinal y de los venenos mortiferos, Antwerp, 1555, digitized at Biblioteca Digital Hispánica, Biblioteca Nacional de España Les VI livres de Ped. Diosc. de la materie medicinale, Lyon (1559), French edition The 1500th Anniversary (512-2012) of the Juliana Anicia Codex: An Illustrated Dioscoridean Recension. Jules Janick and Kim E. Hummer. Chronica horticulturae. 52(3) 2012 pp. 9-15 v t e Ancient anaesthesia Plants / animals Aconitum (aconite) Atropa belladonna (belladonna) Cannabis medical use Castoreum Coca Conium (hemlock) Datura innoxia (thorn-apple) Datura metel (devil's trumpet) Hyoscyamus niger (henbane) Lactucarium Mandragora officinarum (mandrake) Opium Saussurea (saw-wort) Willow People Abulcasis Avenzoar Avicenna Celsus Dioscorides Galen Hippocrates Rhazes Sabuncuoğlu Sushrutha Theophrastus Zhang Compounds Aconitine Atropine Cocaine Coniine Hyoscine Δ9-THC Hyoscyamine Morphine Salicylate v t e Natural history Pioneering naturalists Classical antiquity Aristotle (History of Animals) Theophrastus (Historia Plantarum) Aelian (De Natura Animalium) Pliny the Elder (Natural History) Dioscorides (De Materia Medica) Renaissance Gaspard Bauhin (Pinax theatri botanici) Otto Brunfels Hieronymus Bock Andrea Cesalpino Valerius Cordus Leonhart Fuchs Conrad Gessner (Historia animalium) Frederik Ruysch William Turner (Avium Praecipuarum, New Herball) John Gerard (Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes) Enlightenment Robert Hooke (Micrographia) Marcello Malpighi Antonie van Leeuwenhoek William Derham Hans Sloane Jan Swammerdam Carl Linnaeus (Systema Naturae) Georg Steller Joseph Banks Johan Christian Fabricius James Hutton John Ray (Historia Plantarum) Comte de Buffon (Histoire Naturelle) Bernard Germain de Lacépède Gilbert White (The Natural History of Selborne) Thomas Bewick (A History of British Birds) Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (Philosophie zoologique) 19th century George Montagu (Ornithological Dictionary) Georges Cuvier (Le Règne Animal) William Smith Charles Darwin (On the Origin of Species) Alfred Russel Wallace (The Malay Archipelago) Henry Walter Bates (The Naturalist on the River Amazons) Alexander von Humboldt John James Audubon (The Birds of America) William Buckland Charles Lyell Mary Anning Jean-Henri Fabre Louis Agassiz Philip Henry Gosse Asa Gray William Jackson Hooker Joseph Dalton Hooker William Jardine (The Naturalist's Library) Ernst Haeckel (Kunstformen der Natur) Richard Lydekker (The Royal Natural History) 20th century Abbott Thayer (Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom) Hugh B. Cott (Adaptive Coloration in Animals) Niko Tinbergen (The Study of Instinct) Konrad Lorenz (On Aggression) Karl von Frisch (The Dancing Bees) Ronald Lockley (Shearwaters) Topics Natural history museums (List) Parson-naturalists (List) Natural History Societies List of natural history dealers v t e History of biology Fields, disciplines Agricultural science Anatomy Biochemistry Biotechnology Botany Ecology Evolutionary thought Genetics Geology Immunology Medicine Model organisms Molecular biology Molecular evolution Paleontology Phycology Plant systematics RNA biology Zoology (since 1859) Zoology (through 1859) Institutions Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Laboratory of Molecular Biology Marine Biological Laboratory Max Planck Society Pasteur Institute Rockefeller University Rothamsted Research Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute Theories, concepts Germ theory of disease Central dogma of molecular biology Darwinism Great chain of being Hierarchy of life Lamarckism One gene–one enzyme hypothesis Protocell RNA world Sequence hypothesis Spontaneous generation History Classical antiquity Aristotle Aristotle's biology On Generation and Corruption History of Animals Theophrastus Historia Plantarum Dioscorides De materia medica Galen Renaissance, early modern Conrad Gessner Historia animalium Andreas Vesalius De humani corporis fabrica William Harvey De Motu Cordis Frederik Ruysch Jan Swammerdam Antonie van Leeuwenhoek Regnier de Graaf Marcello Malpighi Robert Hooke Micrographia Francesco Redi Evolution 19th century Linnaeus Systema Naturae Buffon Histoire Naturelle Lamarck Philosophie Zoologique Humboldt Charles Lyell Principles of Geology Charles Darwin On the Origin of Species The Descent of Man Gregor Mendel Alfred Russel Wallace Henry Walter Bates Modern synthesis William Bateson Theodosius Dobzhansky Genetics and the Origin of Species R. 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en-wikipedia-org-2625	----	Philip Francis (translator) - Wikipedia Philip Francis (translator) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Irish priest and translator Philip Francis (19 July 1708 – 5 March 1773) was an Anglo-Irish clergyman and writer, now remembered as a translator of Horace. Life[edit] He was son of Dr. John Francis, rector of St. Mary's, Dublin (from which living he was for a time ejected for political reasons), and dean of Lismore, and was born in 1708. He was sent to Trinity College, Dublin, taking the degree of B.A. in 1728, and was ordained, according to his father's wish, in the Church of Ireland. He held for some time the curacy of St. Peter's parish, Dublin, and while resident in that city published his translation of Horace, besides writing in the interests of ‘the Castle.’ Soon after the death of his wife, Elizabeth Rowe, whom he married in 1739, he crossed to England, and in 1744 obtained the rectory of Skeyton in Norfolk. He shortly was residing for the sake of literature and society in London. In January 1752, when Edward Gibbon became an inmate of his house, Francis was keeping or supposed to be keeping a school at Esher; but the boys' friends quickly found that the nominal instructor preferred the pleasures of London to the instruction of his pupils and in a month or two Gibbon was removed. To maintain himself in the social life of London, Francis tried many expedients, but most of them were failures. Two plays of his were produced on the stage, each time without success. He tried translation, but, except in his rendering of the works of Horace, he was sidelined by other writers. His fortune was made when he secured, through the kindness of Miss Bellamy, who recommended him, the post of private chaplain to Lady Caroline Fox, and lived in her family, where he taught Lady Sarah Lennox to declaim and Charles James Fox to read. At the end of 1757 Fox was sent to Eton, and Francis accompanied him to assist the boy in his studies. The father, Henry Fox found Francis a useful ally. It has sometimes been said that he was the chief writer in the paper called ‘The Con-test,’ which lived from November 1756 to August 1757, but the accuracy of this statement is doubted. He is also said to have contributed to the ‘Gazette’ daily newspaper on behalf of the court interest. When William Pitt the Elder resigned, in 1761, Francis wrote a libel against him under the title of ‘Mr. Pitt's Letter Versified,’ the notes to which, according to Horace Walpole, were supplied by Henry Fox (now Lord Holland), and he followed this with ‘A Letter from the Anonymous Author of “Mr. Pitt's Letter Versified,”’ in which he reflected on Pitt's indifference to the truculent language of Colonel Isaac Barré. In 1764 he attacked Pitt and John Wilkes with great bitterness in the ‘Political Theatre.’ On 22 June 1761 he was inducted to the vicarage of Chilham in Kent, but resigned in the summer of 1762, and through Lord Holland's influence he held from May 1764 to 1768 the chaplaincy at Chelsea Hospital, and the rectory of Barrow, Suffolk, to which he was instituted on 26 February 1762, and which he retained until his death. He was also recommended in January 1764 by George Grenville for a crown pension. Francis was still unsatisfied. He quarrelled with Lord Holland because he had not been made an Irish bishop, and threatened to expose his patron's villainy. In June 1771 he was seized by a paralytic stroke, and after lingering for some years died at Bath 5 March 1773. He was fond of his son Sir Philip Francis, and numerous letters to and from him are in the son's memoir; he resented his son's marriage, but they were later reconciled. Works[edit] Of his rendering of Horace, Samuel Johnson said: ‘The lyrical part of Horace never can be perfectly translated. Francis has done it the best. I'll take his five out of six against them all.’ The first part, consisting of the ‘Odes, Epodes, and Carmen Seculare of Horace in Latin and English,’ in which he was assisted by William Dunkin, was issued at Dublin in two volumes in 1742. It was republished in London in the next year, and in 1746 two more volumes, containing the ‘Satires, Epistles, and Art of Poetry,’ appeared with a dedication in prose to Robert Jocelyn, lord chancellor of Ireland. The whole version was reissued in 1747, and it ran into many subsequent editions, that edited by Edward Dubois being the best. It was also included in the set of poets edited by Alexander Chalmers, the ‘British Poets,’ vols. xcvii–viii., and in Charles Whittingham's ‘Greek and Roman Poets,’ vol. xii. Francis worked in 1751 on his play of ‘Eugenia,’ an adaptation of the French tragedy of ‘Cenie,’ and it was acted at Drury Lane Theatre on 17 February 1752, but was unsuccessful; Lord Chesterfield attributed its failure to the fact that pit and gallery did not like a tragedy without bloodshed. A similar failure attended his play of ‘Constantine,’ which was produced at Covent Garden on 23 February 1754, and expired on the fourth night. Genest styles it ‘a cold and uninteresting play, the plot avowedly taken in part from a French piece.’ Both pieces were printed, the former being dedicated to the Countess of Lincoln, and the latter to Lord Chesterfield. For eight years he was employed in studying the ‘Orations’ of Demosthenes, and his translation appeared in two volumes in 1757–8, but it was thought inferior to that by Thomas Leland. An anonymous volume by John Taylor was printed in 1813 with the title of A Discovery of the Author of the “Letters of Junius,” founded on Evidence and Illustrations. It attributed the authorship of the Letters of Junius to Francis and his son, Sir Philip Francis, and claimed that all the peculiarities of language in the writings of the elder Francis are discernible in some parts of Junius. Contemporary scholarly consensus is that the son was the author. References[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: "Francis, Philip (1708?-1773)". Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885–1900. Authority control BNE: XX4940010 BNF: cb14303901s (data) GND: 137885709 ISNI: 0000 0001 1584 460X LCCN: n78086030 NLI: 000416431 NTA: 075050102 SELIBR: 282312 SNAC: w6vt47dn SUDOC: 118003887 Trove: 1075440 VIAF: 223591 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n78086030 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Philip_Francis_(translator)&oldid=982150865" Categories: 1708 births 1773 deaths 18th-century Irish Anglican priests Irish translators Latin–English translators Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from October 2019 Articles incorporating Cite DNB template Articles incorporating DNB text with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikisource Languages Català Español Français Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 6 October 2020, at 13:02 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2626	----	Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam - Wikipedia Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Persian-English quatrains translations by Edward Fitzgerald This article is about the work by Edward FitzGerald. For poetry attributed to Omar Khayyam, see Omar Khayyam § Poetry. Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám, the Astronomer-Poet of Persia. Rendered into English Verse Front cover of the first American edition (1878) Author Omar Khayyam Translator Edward FitzGerald Genre Poetry Publisher Bernard Quaritch Publication date 1859 Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam by M. V. Dhurandhar Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám is the title that Edward FitzGerald gave to his 1859 translation from Persian to English of a selection of quatrains (rubāʿiyāt) attributed to Omar Khayyam (1048–1131), dubbed "the Astronomer-Poet of Persia". Although commercially unsuccessful at first, FitzGerald's work was popularised from 1861 onward by Whitley Stokes, and the work came to be greatly admired by the Pre-Raphaelites in England. FitzGerald had a third edition printed in 1872, which increased interest in the work in the United States. By the 1880s, the book was extremely popular throughout the English-speaking world, to the extent that numerous "Omar Khayyam clubs" were formed and there was a "fin de siècle cult of the Rubaiyat".[1] FitzGerald's work has been published in several hundred editions and has inspired similar translation efforts in English and in many other languages. Contents 1 Sources 2 Skepticism vs. Sufism debate 3 Editions 4 Character of translation 5 Other translations 5.1 English 5.2 German 5.3 French 5.4 Russian 5.5 Other languages 6 Influence 6.1 Literature 6.2 Cinema 6.3 Music 6.4 Television 6.5 Other media 6.6 Other 6.7 Anniversary events 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Sources[edit] Further information: Omar Khayyam § Poetry Calligraphic manuscript page with three of FitzGerald's Rubaiyat written by William Morris, illustration by Edward Burne-Jones (1870s). Illustration by Adelaide Hanscom (c. 1910). The authenticity of the poetry attributed to Omar Khayyam is highly uncertain. Khayyam was famous during his lifetime not as a poet but as an astronomer and mathematician. The earliest reference to his having written poetry is found in his biography by al-Isfahani, written 43 years after his death. This view is reinforced by other medieval historians such as Shahrazuri (1201) and Al-Qifti (1255). Parts of the Rubaiyat appear as incidental quotations from Omar in early works of biography and in anthologies. These include works of Razi (ca. 1160–1210), Daya (1230), Juvayni (ca. 1226–1283), and Jajarmi (1340).[2]:92[3]:434 Also, five quatrains assigned to Khayyam in somewhat later sources appear in Zahiri Samarqandi's Sindbad-Nameh (before 1160) without attribution.[4]:34 The number of quatrains attributed to him in more recent collections varies from about 1,200 (according to Saeed Nafisi) to more than 2,000. Skeptical scholars point out that the entire tradition may be pseudepigraphic.[4]:11 The extant manuscripts containing collections attributed to Omar are dated much too late to enable a reconstruction of a body of authentic verses. In the 1930s, Iranian scholars, notably Mohammad-Ali Foroughi, attempted to reconstruct a core of authentic verses from scattered quotes by authors of the 13th and 14th centuries, ignoring the younger manuscript tradition. After World War II, reconstruction efforts were significantly delayed by two clever forgeries. De Blois (2004) is pessimistic, suggesting that contemporary scholarship has not advanced beyond the situation of the 1930s, when Hans Heinrich Schaeder commented that the name of Omar Khayyam "is to be struck out from the history of Persian literature".[5] A feature of the more recent collections is the lack of linguistic homogeneity and continuity of ideas. Sadegh Hedayat commented that "if a man had lived for a hundred years and had changed his religion, philosophy, and beliefs twice a day, he could scarcely have given expression to such a range of ideas".[4]:34 Hedayat's final verdict was that 14 quatrains could be attributed to Khayyam with certainty.[6] Various tests have been employed to reduce the quatrains attributable to Omar to about 100.[3]:434 Arthur Christensen states that "of more than 1,200 ruba'is known to be ascribed to Omar, only 121 could be regarded as reasonably authentic".[7]:663 Foroughi accepts 178 quatrains as authentic, while Ali Dashti accepts 36 of them.[3]:96 FitzGerald's source was transcripts sent to him in 1856–57, by his friend and teacher Edward B. Cowell, of two manuscripts, a Bodleian manuscript with 158 quatrains[8] and a "Calcutta manuscript". FitzGerald completed his first draft in 1857 and sent it to Fraser's Magazine in January 1858. He made a revised draft in January 1859, of which he privately printed 250 copies. This first edition became extremely sought after by the 1890s, when "more than two million copies ha[d] been sold in two hundred editions".[9] Skepticism vs. Sufism debate[edit] The extreme popularity of FitzGerald's work led to a prolonged debate on the correct interpretation of the philosophy behind the poems. FitzGerald emphasized the religious skepticism he found in Omar Khayyam.[10] In his preface to the Rubáiyát, he describes Omar's philosophy as Epicurean and claims that Omar was "hated and dreaded by the Sufis, whose practice he ridiculed and whose faith amounts to little more than his own, when stripped of the Mysticism and formal recognition of Islamism under which Omar would not hide".[11] Richard Nelson Frye also emphasizes that Khayyam was despised by a number of prominent contemporary Sufis. These include figures such as Shams Tabrizi, Najm al-Din Daya, Al-Ghazali, and Attar, who "viewed Khayyam not as a fellow-mystic, but a free-thinking scientist".[7]:663–664 The skeptic interpretation is supported by the medieval historian Al-Qifti (ca. 1172–1248), who in his The History of Learned Men reports that Omar's poems were only outwardly in the Sufi style but were written with an anti-religious agenda. He also mentions that Khayyam was indicted for impiety and went on a pilgrimage to avoid punishment.[12] Critics of FitzGerald, on the other hand, have accused the translator of misrepresenting the mysticism of Sufi poetry by an overly literal interpretation. Thus, the view of Omar Khayyam as a Sufi was defended by Bjerregaard (1915).[13] Dougan (1991) likewise says that attributing hedonism to Omar is due to the failings of FitzGerald's translation, arguing that the poetry is to be understood as "deeply esoteric".[14] Idries Shah (1999) similarly says that FitzGerald misunderstood Omar's poetry.[15] The Sufi interpretation is the view of a minority of scholars.[16] Henry Beveridge states that "the Sufis have unaccountably pressed this writer [Khayyam] into their service; they explain away some of his blasphemies by forced interpretations, and others they represent as innocent freedoms and reproaches".[17] Aminrazavi (2007) states that "Sufi interpretation of Khayyam is possible only by reading into his Rubaiyat extensively and by stretching the content to fit the classical Sufi doctrine".[2]:128 FitzGerald's "skepticist" reading of the poetry is still defended by modern scholars. Sadegh Hedayat (The Blind Owl 1936) was the most notable modern proponent of Khayyam's philosophy as agnostic skepticism. In his introductory essay to his second edition of the Quatrains of the Philosopher Omar Khayyam (1922), Hedayat states that "while Khayyam believes in the transmutation and transformation of the human body, he does not believe in a separate soul; if we are lucky, our bodily particles would be used in the making of a jug of wine".[18] He concludes that "religion has proved incapable of surmounting his inherent fears; thus Khayyam finds himself alone and insecure in a universe about which his knowledge is nil". In his later work (Khayyam's Quatrains, 1935), Hedayat further maintains that Khayyam's usage of Sufic terminology such as "wine" is literal, and that "Khayyam took refuge in wine to ward off bitterness and to blunt the cutting edge of his thoughts."[6] Editions[edit] Illustration by Edmund Joseph Sullivan for Quatrain 11 of Fitzgerald's First Version. Illustration by Edmund Joseph Sullivan for Quatrain 12 of Fitzgerald's First Version. Illustration by Edmund Joseph Sullivan for Quatrain 51 of Fitzgerald's First Version. FitzGerald's text was published in five editions, with substantial revisions: 1st edition – 1859 [75 quatrains] 2nd edition – 1868 [110 quatrains] 3rd edition – 1872 [101 quatrains] 1878, "first American edition", reprint of the 3rd ed. 4th edition – 1879 [101 quatrains] 5th edition – 1889 [101 quatrains] Of the five editions published, four were published under the authorial control of FitzGerald. The fifth edition, which contained only minor changes from the fourth, was edited posthumously on the basis of manuscript revisions FitzGerald had left. Numerous later editions were published after 1889, notably an edition with illustrations by Willy Pogany first published in 1909 (George G. Harrap, London). It was issued in numerous revised editions. This edition combined FitzGerald's texts of the 1st and 4th editions and was subtitled "The First and Fourth Renderings in English Verse". A bibliography of editions compiled in 1929 listed more than 300 separate editions.[19] Many more have been published since.[20] Notable editions of the late 19th and early 20th centuries include: Houghton, Mifflin & Co. (1887, 1888, 1894); Doxey, At the Sign of the Lark (1898, 1900), illustrations by Florence Lundborg; The Macmillan Company (1899); Methuen (1900) with a commentary by H.M. Batson, and a biographical introduction by E.D. Ross; Little, Brown, and Company (1900), with the versions of E.H. Whinfield and Justin Huntly McCart; Bell (1901); Routledge (1904); Foulis (1905, 1909); Essex House Press (1905); Dodge Publishing Company (1905); Duckworth & Co. (1908); Hodder and Stoughton (1909), illustrations by Edmund Dulac; Tauchnitz (1910); East Anglian Daily Times (1909), Centenary celebrations souvenir; Warner (1913); The Roycrofters (1913); Hodder & Stoughton (1913), illustrations by René Bull; Dodge Publishing Company (1914), illustrations by Adelaide Hanscom. Sully and Kleinteich (1920). Critical editions have been published by Decker (1997)[21] and by Arberry (2016).[22] Character of translation[edit] FitzGerald's translation is rhyming and metrical, and rather free. Many of the verses are paraphrased, and some of them cannot be confidently traced to his source material at all.[23] Michael Kearney claimed that FitzGerald described his work as "transmogrification".[24] To a large extent, the Rubaiyat can be considered original poetry by FitzGerald loosely based on Omar's quatrains rather than a "translation" in the narrow sense. FitzGerald was open about the liberties he had taken with his source material: My translation will interest you from its form, and also in many respects in its detail: very un-literal as it is. Many quatrains are mashed together: and something lost, I doubt, of Omar's simplicity, which is so much a virtue in him. (letter to E. B. Cowell, 9/3/58) I suppose very few People have ever taken such Pains in Translation as I have: though certainly not to be literal. But at all Cost, a Thing must live: with a transfusion of one's own worse Life if one can’t retain the Original's better. Better a live Sparrow than a stuffed Eagle. (letter to E. B. Cowell, 4/27/59) For comparison, here are two versions of the same quatrain by FitzGerald, from the 1859 and 1889 editions: Quatrain XI (1859) Here with a Loaf of Bread beneath the Bough, A Flask of Wine, a Book of Verse—and Thou Beside me singing in the Wilderness— And Wilderness is Paradise enow. Quatrain XII (1889)[25] A Book of Verses underneath the Bough, A Jug of Wine, a Loaf of Bread—and Thou Beside me singing in the Wilderness— Oh, Wilderness were Paradise enow! This quatrain has a close correspondence in two of the quatrains in the Bodleian Library ms., numbers 149 and 155. In the literal prose translation of Edward Heron-Allen (1898):[26] No. 149 I desire a little ruby wine and a book of verses, Just enough to keep me alive, and half a loaf is needful; And then, that I and thou should sit in a desolate place Is better than the kingdom of a sultan. No. 155 If a loaf of wheaten-bread be forthcoming, a gourd of wine, and a thigh-bone of mutton, and then, if thou and I be sitting in the wilderness, — that would be a joy to which no sultan can set bounds. Other translations[edit] This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. The specific problem is: should become more systematic, perhaps in table form, with fewer random quotations Please help improve this section if you can. (September 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) English[edit] Multilingual edition, published in 1955 by Tahrir Iran Co./Kashani Bros. Two English editions by Edward Henry Whinfield (1836–1922) consisted of 253 quatrains in 1882 and 500 in 1883. This translation was fully revised and some cases fully translated anew by Ali Salami and published by Mehrandish Books. Whinfield's translation is, if possible, even more free than FitzGerald's[dubious – discuss]; Quatrain 84 (equivalent of FitzGerald's quatrain XI in his 1st edition, as above) reads: In the sweet spring a grassy bank I sought And thither wine and a fair Houri brought; And, though the people called me graceless dog, Gave not to Paradise another thought! John Leslie Garner published an English translation of 152 quatrains in 1888. His was also a free, rhyming translation. Quatrain I. 20 (equivalent of FitzGerald's quatrain XI in his 1st edition, as above): Yes, Loved One, when the Laughing Spring is blowing, With Thee beside me and the Cup o’erflowing, I pass the day upon this Waving Meadow, And dream the while, no thought on Heaven bestowing. Justin Huntly McCarthy (1859–1936) (Member of Parliament for Newry) published prose translations of 466 quatrains in 1889.[27] Quatrain 177 (equivalent of FitzGerald's quatrain XI in his 1st edition, as above): In Spring time I love to sit in the meadow with a paramour perfect as a Houri and goodly jar of wine, and though I may be blamed for this, yet hold me lower than a dog if ever I dream of Paradise. Richard Le Gallienne (1866–1947) produced a verse translation, subtitled "a paraphrase from several literal translations", in 1897. In his introductory note to the reader, Le Gallienne cites McCarthy's "charming prose" as the chief influence on his version. Some example quatrains follow: Look not above, there is no answer there; Pray not, for no one listens to your prayer; Near is as near to God as any Far, And Here is just the same deceit as There. (#78, on p. 44) And do you think that unto such as you; A maggot-minded, starved, fanatic crew: God gave the secret, and denied it me?— Well, well, what matters it! Believe that, too. (#85, p. 47) "Did God set grapes a-growing, do you think, And at the same time make it sin to drink? Give thanks to Him who foreordained it thus— Surely He loves to hear the glasses clink!" (#91, p. 48) Edward Heron-Allen (1861–1943) published a prose translation in 1898. He also wrote an introduction to an edition of the translation by Frederick Rolfe (Baron Corvo) into English from Nicolas's French translation. Below is Quatrain 17 translated by E. H. into English:[28] This worn caravanserai which is called the world Is the resting-place of the piebald horse of night and day; It is a pavilion which has been abandoned by a hundred Jamshyds; It is a palace that is the resting-place of a hundred Bahrams. The English novelist and orientalist Jessie Cadell (1844–1884) consulted various manuscripts of the Rubaiyat with the intention of producing an authoritative edition. Her translation of 150 quatrains was published posthumously in 1899.[29] A. J. Arberry in 1959 attempted a scholarly edition of Khayyam, based on thirteenth-century manuscripts. However, his manuscripts were subsequently exposed as twentieth-century forgeries.[30] While Arberry's work had been misguided, it was published in good faith. The 1967 translation of the Rubáiyat by Robert Graves and Omar Ali-Shah, however, created a scandal. The authors claimed it was based on a twelfth-century manuscript located in Afghanistan, where it was allegedly utilized as a Sufi teaching document. But the manuscript was never produced, and British experts in Persian literature were easily able to prove that the translation was in fact based on Edward Heron Allen's analysis of possible sources for FitzGerald's work.[30][2]:155 Quatrains 11 and 12 (equivalent of FitzGerald's quatrain XI in his 1st edition, as above): Should our day's portion be one mancel loaf, A haunch of mutton and a gourd of wine Set for us two alone on the wide plain, No Sultan's bounty could evoke such joy. A gourd of red wine and a sheaf of poems — A bare subsistence, half a loaf, not more — Supplied us two alone in the free desert: What Sultan could we envy on his throne? John Charles Edward Bowen (1909–1989) was a British poet and translator of Persian poetry. He is best known for his translation of the Rubaiyat, titled A New Selection from the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam. Bowen is also credited as being one of the first scholars to question Robert Graves' and Omar Ali-Shah's translation of the Rubaiyat.[31] A modern version of 235 quatrains, claiming to be "as literal an English version of the Persian originals as readability and intelligibility permit", was published in 1979 by Peter Avery and John Heath-Stubbs. Their edition provides two versions of the thematic quatrain, the first (98) considered by the Persian writer Sadeq Hedayat to be a spurious attribution.[citation needed] 98. I need a jug of wine and a book of poetry, Half a loaf for a bite to eat, Then you and I, seated in a deserted spot, Will have more wealth than a Sultan's realm. 234. If chance supplied a loaf of white bread, Two casks of wine and a leg of mutton, In the corner of a garden with a tulip-cheeked girl, There'd be enjoyment no Sultan could outdo. In 1988, the Rubaiyat was translated by an Iranian for the first time.[32] Karim Emami's translation of the Rubaiyat was published under the title The Wine of Nishapour in Paris. The Wine of Nishapour is the collection of Khayyam's poetry by Shahrokh Golestan, including Golestan's pictures in front of each poem.[33] Example quatrain 160 (equivalent[dubious – discuss] to FitzGerald's quatrain XI in his first edition, as above): In spring if a houri-like sweetheart Gives me a cup of wine on the edge of a green cornfield, Though to the vulgar this would be blasphemy, If I mentioned any other Paradise, I'd be worse than a dog. In 1991, Ahmad Saidi (1904–1994) produced an English translation of 165 quatrains grouped into 10 themes. Born and raised in Iran, Saidi went to the United States in 1931 and attended college there. He served as the head of the Persian Publication Desk at the U.S. Office of War Information during World War II, inaugurated the Voice of America in Iran, and prepared an English-Persian military dictionary for the Department of Defense. His quatrains include the original Persian verses for reference alongside his English translations. His focus was to faithfully convey, with less poetic license, Khayyam's original religious, mystical, and historic Persian themes, through the verses as well as his extensive annotations. Two example quatrains follow: Quatrain 16 (equivalent to FitzGerald's quatrain XII in his 5th edition, as above): Ah, would there were a loaf of bread as fare, A joint of lamb, a jug of vintage rare, And you and I in wilderness encamped— No Sultan's pleasure could with ours compare. Quatrain 75: The sphere upon which mortals come and go, Has no end nor beginning that we know; And none there is to tell us in plain truth: Whence do we come and whither do we go. German[edit] Adolf Friedrich von Schack (1815–1894) published a German translation in 1878. Quatrain 151 (equivalent of FitzGerald's quatrain XI in his 1st edition, as above): Gönnt mir, mit dem Liebchen im Gartenrund Zu weilen bei süßem Rebengetränke, Und nennt mich schlimmer als einen Hund, Wenn ferner an's Paradies ich denke! Friedrich Martinus von Bodenstedt (1819–1892) published a German translation in 1881. The translation eventually consisted of 395 quatrains. Quatrain IX, 59 (equivalent of FitzGerald's quatrain XI in his 1st edition, as above): Im Frühling mag ich gern im Grüne weilen Und Einsamkeit mit einer Freundin teilen Und einem Kruge Wein. Mag man mich schelten: Ich lasse keinen andern Himmel gelten. French[edit] The first French translation, of 464 quatrains in prose, was made by J. B. Nicolas, chief interpreter at the French embassy in Persia in 1867. Prose stanza (equivalent of Fitzgerald's quatrain XI in his 1st edition, as above): Au printemps j’aime à m’asseoir au bord d’une prairie, avec une idole semblable à une houri et une cruche de vin, s’il y en a, et bien que tout cela soit généralement blâmé, je veux être pire qu’un chien si jamais je songe au paradis. The best-known version in French is the free verse edition by Franz Toussaint (1879–1955) published in 1924. This translation consisting of 170 quatrains was done from the original Persian text, while most of the other French translations were themselves translations of FitzGerald's work. The Éditions d'art Henri Piazza published the book almost unchanged between 1924 and 1979. Toussaint's translation has served as the basis of subsequent translations into other languages, but Toussaint did not live to witness the influence his translation has had. Quatrain XXV (equivalent of FitzGerald's quatrain XI in his 1st edition, as above): Au printemps, je vais quelquefois m’asseoir à la lisière d’un champ fleuri. Lorsqu’une belle jeune fille m’apporte une coupe de vin, je ne pense guère à mon salut. Si j’avais cette préoccupation, je vaudrais moins qu’un chien. Russian[edit] Many Russian-language translations have been undertaken, reflecting the popularity of the Rubaiyat in Russia since the late 19th century and the increasingly popular tradition of using it for the purposes of bibliomancy. The earliest verse translation (by Vasily Velichko) was published in 1891. The version by Osip Rumer published in 1914 is a translation of FitzGerald's version. Rumer later published a version of 304 rubaiyat translated directly from Persian. A lot of poetic translations (some based on verbatim translations into prose by others) were also written by German Plisetsky, Konstantin Bal'mont, Cecilia Banu, I. I. Tkhorzhevsky (ru), L. Pen'kovsky, and others. Other languages[edit] In Polish, several collections of Rubaiyat have appeared, including ones by Professor Andrzej Gawroński (1933, 1969), regarded as the best. The first translation of nine short poems into Serbo-Croatian was published in 1920, and was the work of Safvet beg Bašagić. In 1932, Jelena Skerlić-Ćorović re-published these nine, alongside 75 more poems. In 1964, noted orientalist Fehim Bajraktarević published his translation of the Rubaiyat.[34] In Icelandic Magnús Ásgeirsson translated the Rubaiyat in 1935. There was an earlier translation by Einar Benediktsson in 1921. Jochum M. Eggertsson (Skuggi) published a translation in 1946. All translations are of FitzGerald's version. First Czech translator is Josef Štýbr. At first he translated from English (from FitzGerald's "translations") (1922), after that from original language (1931). Translation from the original can be found on Czech wikisource (770 poems). Subsequent translators are mentioned here. The poet J. H. Leopold (1865–1925) rendered a number of rubaiyat into Dutch. Eric Hermelin translated the Rubaiyat into Swedish in 1928. Sir John Morris-Jones translated direct from Persian into Welsh in 1928. In Finnish, the first translations were made by Toivo Lyy in 1929. More recently Jaakko Hämeen-Anttila (1999 and 2008) and Kiamars Baghban with Leevi Lehto (2009) have translated Khayyam into Finnish. G. Sankara Kurup produced a translation into Malayalam (1932). Duvvoori Ramireddy translated the Rubaiyat into Telugu in 1935. Thomas Ifor Rees produced a Welsh translation, published in Mexico City in 1939. Kantichandra Ghosh, Muhammad Shahidullah (in 1942), Kazi Nazrul Islam (in 1958) and Shakti Chattopadhyay (in 1978) produced translations into Bengali. The earliest translation in Hungarian consisted of a few stanzas taken from the French version of Nicolas, by Béla Erődi in 1919–20. Lőrinc Szabó finalized his translation of the FitzGerald version in 1943. Fraînque Le Maistre produced a Jèrriais version (based on FitzGerald's 1st edition) during the German occupation of the Channel Islands (1940–1945). Srimadajjada Adibhatla Narayana Das (1864–1945) translated the original Persian quatrains and Edward FitzGerald's English translations into Sanskrit and pure-Telugu. Pandit Narayana Das claimed his translation was more literal than that of FitzGerald. (See Ajjada Adibhatla Narayana Dasu.) Poet Cornelis Jacobus Langenhoven (1873–1932, author of "Die Stem van Suid-Afrika") produced the first translation in Afrikaans. Herman Charles Bosman wrote a translation into Afrikaans published in 1948. In Japan, until 1949, more than 10 poets and/or scholars made translations into Japanese.[35] The first complete translation from Persian into the modern Japanese language was made by Ryosaku Ogawa in 1949, which is still popular and has been published from Iwanami Shoten (it is now in the public domain and also freely available from Aozora Bunko).[36] Historically, the first attempt was six poems translated by Kambara Ariake in 1908.[35] In 1910, Kakise Hikozo translated 110 poems from the 5th edition of FitzGerald's translation.[35] The first translation from Persian into the classical Japanese language was made by a linguist, Shigeru Araki, in 1920.[35] Among various other translations, Ogawa highly evaluates Ryo Mori's (ja:森亮), produced in 1931.[35] D. V. Gundappa translated the work into Kannada as a collection of poems titled "Umarana Osage" in 1952. Robert Bin Shaaban produced a version in Swahili (dated 1948, published 1952). Gopal Chandra Kanungo illustrated and translated the book into Odia in 1954. Devdas Chhotray adapted Edward FitzGerald's work into Oriya and recorded it in musical form in 2011. The first translator into Slovene was Alojz Gradnik, his translation being published in 1955. It was translated again by Slovene translator and poet Bert Pribac in 2007 from the French Toussaint edition.[34] Maithili Sharan Gupt and Harivanshrai Bachchan translated the book into Hindi in 1959. Francesco Gabrieli produced an Italian translation (Le Rubaiyyàt di Omar Khayyàm) in 1944. Alessandro Bausani produced another translation in 1965. It was translated into Latvian by Andrejs Kurcijs in 1970. Christos Marketis translated 120 rubaiyat into Greek in 1975. 172 rubaiyat were translated into Belarusian by Ryhor Baradulin in 1989. Thirunalloor Karunakaran translated the Rubaiyat into Malayalam in 1989. In 1990, Jowann Richards produced a Cornish translation. Scottish poet Rab Wilson published a version in Scots in 2004. In 2015 it was translated into Romanian for the first time by orientalist philologist Gheorghe Iorga. Kerson Huang based a Chinese version on FitzGerald's version.[year needed] Fan Noli produced an Albanian translation in 1927, the melody and poetics of which are highly regarded. At least four versions exist in the Thai language. These translations were made from the text of FitzGerald. Their respective authors are HRH Prince Narathip Prapanpong, Rainan Aroonrungsee (pen name: Naan Gitirungsi), Pimarn Jamjarus (pen name: Kaen Sungkeet), and Suriyachat Chaimongkol.[citation needed] Haljand Udam produced an Estonian translation.[year needed] Ahmed Rami, a famous late Egyptian poet, translated the work into Arabic.[year needed] His translation was sung by Umm Kulthum. The Kurdish poet Hajar translated the Rubaiyat in his Chwar Parchakani Xayam.[year needed] Armenian poet Kevork Emin has translated several verses of the Rubaiyat.[year needed] The Assyrian journalist and poet Naum Faiq translated the Rubaiyat into the Syriac language.[year needed] The Assyrian author Eshaya Elisha Khinno translated the Rubaiyat into Sureth (Assyrian Neo-Aramaic) in 2012[37][38] Hồ Thượng Tuy translated from English into Vietnamese (from FitzGerald's 1st edition) in 1990. Nguyễn Viết Thắng produced a Vietnamese translation of 487 rubaiyat, translated from English and Russian in 1995, published in Hanoi in 2003. Xabier Correa Corredoira published a Galician translation in 2010.[39] Hemendra Kumar Roy translated the Rubaiyat into Bengali.[year needed] Radha Mohan Gadanayak translated the Rubaiyat into Odia[year needed][40] Tadhg Ó Donnchadha (Torna) translated the Rubaiyat from English into Irish in 1920. The Filipino poet and linguist Ildefonso Santos published his Tagalog translation in 1953. Influence[edit] FitzGerald rendered Omar's name as "Omar the Tentmaker",[dubious – discuss] and this name resonated in English-speaking popular culture for a while. Thus, Nathan Haskell Dole published a novel called Omar, the Tentmaker: A Romance of Old Persia in 1898. Omar the Tentmaker of Naishapur is a historical novel by John Smith Clarke, published in 1910. "Omar the Tentmaker" is a 1914 play in an oriental setting by Richard Walton Tully, adapted as a silent film in 1922. US General Omar Bradley was given the nickname "Omar the Tent-Maker" in World War II,[41] and the name has been recorded as a slang expression for "penis".[42] FitzGerald's translations also reintroduced Khayyam to Iranians, "who had long ignored the Neishapouri poet".[43] Literature[edit] This article contains a list of miscellaneous information. Please relocate any relevant information into other sections or articles. (September 2017) The title of Rex Stout's Nero Wolfe novel Some Buried Caesar comes from one of the Tentmaker's quatrains (FitzGerald's XVIII), for example. Eugene O'Neill's drama Ah, Wilderness! derives its title from the first quoted quatrain above. Agatha Christie used The Moving Finger as a story title, as did Stephen King. See also And Having Writ…. Lan Wright used Dawn's Left Hand as the title of a science fiction story serialized in New Worlds Science Fiction (January–March 1963). The title of Allen Drury's science fiction novel The Throne of Saturn comes from a quatrain which appears as the book's epigraph. The title of Nevil Shute Norway's novel The Chequer Board is taken from Stanza LXIX, and that stanza appears as the book's epigraph. Equally noteworthy are these works likewise influenced: The satirist and short story writer Hector Hugh Munro took his pen name of 'Saki' from Edward FitzGerald's translation of the Rubaiyat. The American author O. Henry humorously referred to a book by "Homer KM" with the character "Ruby Ott" in his short story "The Handbook of Hymen.[44] " O. Henry also quoted a quatrain from the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam in "The Rubaiyat of a Scotch Highball". Oliver Herford released a parody of the Rubaiyat called "The Rubaiyat of a Persian Kitten" in 1904, which is notable for its charming illustrations of the kitten in question on his philosophical adventures.[45] The artist/illustrator Edmund Dulac produced some much-beloved illustrations[46] for the Rubaiyat, 1909. The play The Shadow of a Gunman (1923) by Seán O'Casey contains a reference to the Rubaiyat as the character Donal Davoren quotes "grasp this sorry scheme of things entire, and mould life nearer to the heart's desire". The Argentinian writer Jorge Luis Borges discusses The Rubaiyat and its history in an essay, "The Enigma of Edward FitzGerald" ("El enigma de Edward FitzGerald") in his book "Other Inquisitions" ("Otras Inquisiciones", 1952). He also references it in some of his poems, including "Rubaiyat" in "The Praise of the Shadow" ("Elogio de la Sombra", 1969), and "Chess" ("Ajedrez") in "The Maker" ("El Hacedor", 1960). Borges' father Jorge Guillermo Borges was the author of a Spanish translation of the FitzGerald version of The Rubaiyat. Science fiction author Paul Marlowe's story "Resurrection and Life" featured a character who could only communicate using lines from the Rubaiyat. Science fiction author Isaac Asimov quotes The Moving Finger in his time-travel novel The End of Eternity when a character discusses whether history could be changed. Charles Schultz wrote a strip in which Lucy reads the Jug of Wine passage, and Linus asks "No blanket?". Wendy Cope's poem "Strugnell's Rubiyat" is a close parody of the FitzGerald translation, relocated to modern day Tulse Hill. One of the title pages of Principia Discordia (1965), a co-author of which went by the pen-name Omar Khayyam Ravenhurst, features its own spin on the quatrain most quoted above: A jug of wine, A leg of lamb And thou! Beside me, Whistling in the darkness.[47] The Lebanese writer Amin Maalouf based his novel Samarkand (1988) on the life of Omar Khayyam, and the creation of the Rubaiyat. It details the Assassin sect as well, and includes a fictional telling of how the (non-existent) original manuscript came to be on the RMS Titanic. In the opening chapter of his book God is Not Great (2007), Christopher Hitchens quotes from Richard Le Gallienne's translation of Khayyam's famous quatrain: And do you think that unto such as you A maggot-minded, starved, fanatic crew God gave the secret, and denied it me? Well, well—what matters it? Believe that, too! The title of Daphne du Maurier's memoir Myself when Young is a quote from quatrain 27 of Fitzgerald's translation: Myself when young did eagerly frequent Doctor and Saint, and heard great Argument About it and about: but evermore Came out by the same Door as in I went. Cinema[edit] Filmmaker D.W. Griffith planned a film based on the poems as a follow-up to Intolerance in 1916. It was to star Miriam Cooper, but when she left the Griffith company the plans were dropped;[48] he would ultimately film Broken Blossoms instead. Text from the Rubaiyat appeared in intertitles of the lost film A Lover's Oath (1925) The lines "When Time lets slip a little perfect hour, O take it—for it will not come again." appear in the intertitles of Torrent, the 1926 film starring Greta Garbo and Ricardo Cortez. Part of the quatrain beginning "The Moving Finger writes ... " was quoted in Algiers, the 1938 movie starring Charles Boyer and Hedy Lamarr. A canto was quoted and used as an underlying theme of the 1945 screen adaptation of The Picture of Dorian Gray: "I sent my soul through the invisible, some letters of that after-life to spell, and by and by my soul did return, and answered, 'I myself am Heaven and Hell.'" The Rubaiyat was quoted in the 1946 King Vidor Western film Duel in the Sun, which starred Gregory Peck and Jennifer Jones: "Oh threats of hell and hopes of paradise! One thing at least is certain: This life flies. One thing is certain and the rest is Lies; The Flower that once is blown for ever dies." The 1951 film Pandora and the Flying Dutchman, starring James Mason and Ava Gardner, opens with an illuminated manuscript of the quatrain beginning "The moving finger writes...". In the film The Music Man (based on the 1957 musical), town librarian Marian Paroo draws down the wrath of the mayor's wife for encouraging the woman's daughter to read a book of "dirty Persian poetry". Summarizing what she calls the "Ruby Hat of Omar Kayayayayay...I am appalled!!", the mayor's wife paraphrases FitzGerald's Quatrain XII from his 5th edition: "People lying out in the woods eating sandwiches, and drinking directly out of jugs with innocent young girls." The film Omar Khayyam, also known as The Loves Of Omar Khayyam, was released in 1957 by Paramount Pictures and includes excerpts from the Rubaiyat. In Back to the Future the character Lorraine Baines, played by Lea Thompson, is holding a copy of the book in 1955 at the high school when her son Marty McFly is trying to introduce her to his father. The Rubaiyat was quoted in the film 12 Monkeys (1995) around 11 minutes in. In Adrian Lyne's Unfaithful a copy of the text in French is quoted in English: "Drink wine, this is life eternal //This, all that youth will give to you//It is the season for wine, roses//And drunken friends//Be happy for this moment//This moment is your life." The book is a gift given flirtatiously to Diane Lane's character by Olivier Martinez who plays rare book dealer Paul Martel in the film. Music[edit] The British composer Granville Bantock produced a choral setting of FitzGerald's translation 1906–1909. Using FitzGerald's translation, the Armenian-American composer Alan Hovhaness set a dozen of the quatrains to music. This work, The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, Op. 308, calls for narrator, orchestra, and solo accordion. The Rubaiyat have also influenced Arabic music. In 1950 the Egyptian singer Umm Kulthum recorded a song entitled "Rubaiyat Al-Khayyam". The Comedian Harmonists in "Wochenend und Sonnenschein". Woody Guthrie recorded an excerpt of the Rubaiyat set to music that was released on Hard Travelin' (The Asch Recordings Vol. 3). The Human Instinct's album Pins In It (1971) opens with a track called "Pinzinet", the lyrics of which are based on the Rubaiyat. Elektra Records released a compilation album named Rubáiyát in 1990 to commemorate the 40th anniversary of the Elektra Records record label. Coldcut produced an album with a song called "Rubaiyat" on their album Let us Play! (1997). This song contains what appears to be some words from the English translation.[49] Jazz-soul harpist Dorothy Ashby's 1970 album The Rubaiyat of Dorothy Ashby quotes from several of the poem's verses. The famed "skull and roses" poster for a Grateful Dead show at the Avalon Ballroom done by Alton Kelley and Stanley Mouse was adapted from Edmund J. Sullivan's illustrations for The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam.[50] The work influenced the 2004 concept album The Rubaiyyat of Omar Khayyam by the Italian group Milagro acustico [it].[51] The song "Beautiful Feeling" by Australian singer-songwriter Paul Kelly, on 2004 album Ways and Means, includes the lyrics "A jug of wine, a loaf of bread and thee, lying on a blanket underneath that big old spreading tree." This song was used as the theme song in the 2004 Australian television drama, Fireflies. The 1953 Robert Wright-George Forrest musical Kismet, adapted from a play by Edward Knoblock, contains a non-singing character, Omar (it is implied that he is the poet himself), who recites some of the couplets in the Fitzgerald translation. The record label Ruby Yacht gets its namesake, in part, from the Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám. milo's album budding ornithologists are weary of tired analogies features a couple of references to the Rubaiyat. Television[edit] In one 6-episode story arc of The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, Bullwinkle finds the "Ruby Yacht of Omar Khayyam" in the town of Frostbite Falls (on the shores of Veronica Lake). This pun is deemed so bad, the characters groan, and narrator William Conrad quips, "Well, you don't come up with an awful thing like that, and not hit the front page!" In the American television drama, Have Gun - Will Travel, the sixth episode of the sixth season is titled "The Bird of Time". The last lines are the main character, Paladin, quoting from Quatrain VII, "The Bird of Time has but a little way To flutter—and the Bird is on the Wing." A copy of the Rubaiyat plays a role in an episode of the TV series New Amsterdam and is shown to be the inspiration for the name of one of the lead character's children, Omar York. In the Australian 2014 television drama, Anzac Girls, Lieutenant Harry Moffitt reads from the Rubaiyat to his sweetheart, nurse Sister Alice Ross-King. In "The Moving Finger" episode of 'I Dream of Jeannie' Jeannie tries out to be a movie star and her screen test is her reciting the Rubaiyat Other media[edit] In Cyberflix's PC game Titanic: Adventure Out of Time, the object is to save three important items, the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, one of Adolf Hitler's paintings, and a notebook that proves German officials were attempting to gain geo-political advantage by instigating communist revolution. Finding the Rubaiyat will prevent World War I, as the book is used to fund the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Two passages from the book are also included in the game as clues to progress the narrative. Some versions of the computer game Colossal Cave Adventure feature a ruby-covered yacht called "Omar Khayyam" (a pun – the "ruby yacht" of Omar Khayyam). Other[edit] In Australia, a copy of FitzGerald's translation and its closing words, Tamam Shud ("Ended") were major components of the unsolved Tamam Shud case. The Supreme Court of the Philippines, through a unanimous opinion written in 2005 by Associate Justice Leonardo Quisumbing, quoted "The Moving Finger" when it ruled that the widow of defeated presidential candidate Fernando Poe Jr. could not substitute her late husband in his pending election protest against President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, thus leading to the dismissal of the protest. There was a real jewel-encrusted copy of the book on the Titanic. It had been crafted in 1911 by the firm of Sangorski & Sutcliffe in London. It was won at a Sotheby's auction in London on 29 March 1912 for £405 (a bit over $2,000 in 1912) to Gabriel Weis, an American, and was being shipped to New York. The book remains lost at the bottom of the Atlantic to this day. Anniversary events[edit] 2009 marked the 150th anniversary of Fitzgerald's translation, and the 200th anniversary of Fitzgerald's birth. Events marking these anniversaries included: The Smithsonian's traveling exhibition Elihu Vedder's Drawings for the Rubaiyat at the Phoenix Art Museum, 15 November 2008 – 8 February 2009 The exhibition Edward Fitzgerald & The Rubaiyat from the collection of Nicholas B. Scheetz at the Grolier Club, 22 January – 13 March 2009. The exhibition Omar Khayyám. Een boek in de woestijn. 150 jaar in Engelse vertaling at the Museum Meermanno, The Hague, 31 January – 5 April 2009 The exhibition The Persian Sensation: The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam in the West at the Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center at The University of Texas at Austin, 3 February – 2 August 2009 An exhibition at the Cleveland Public Library Special Collections, opening 15 February 2009 The joint conference, Omar Khayyam, Edward FitzGerald and The Rubaiyat, held at Cambridge University and Leiden University, 6–10 July 2009 The Folio Society published a limited edition (1,000 copies) of the Rubáiyát to mark the 150th anniversary.[52] See also[edit] Tamam Shud case Ubi sunt § In Persian poetry References[edit] ^ Yohannan, John D. (1977). Persian Poetry in England and America. Caravan Books. p. 202. ISBN 978-0-88206-006-4. ^ a b c Mehdi, Aminrazavi (2005). The Wine of Wisdom: The Life, Poetry and Philosophy of Omar Khayyam. Oneworld Publications. ISBN 978-1-85168-355-0. ^ a b c Edward Denison Ross, "Omar Khayyam", Bulletin of the School Of Oriental Studies, London Institution (1927) ^ a b c Ali Dashti (translated by L. P. Elwell-Sutton), In Search of Omar Khayyam, Routledge Library Editions: Iran (2012) ^ Francois De Blois, Persian Literature – A Bio-Bibliographical Survey: Poetry of the Pre-Mongol Period (2004), p. 307. ^ a b Bashiri, Iraj. "Sadeq Hedayat's Learning". Blind Owl. Retrieved 3 November 2017. ^ a b The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press (1975): Richard Nelson Frye ^ MS. Ouseley 140, copied in 1460 in Shiraz, Persia, 47 folia. This is the oldest securely dated manuscript of Omar Khayyam's poetry. It belonged to William Ouseley (1767–1842) and was purchased by the Bodleian Library in 1844 ^ Preface to a facsimile of the first edition (no year [c. 1900], "from the fine copy owned by Charles Dana Burrage" [1857–1926]). ^ Davis, Dick. "FitzGerald, Edward". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 15 January 2017. ^ FitzGerald, E. (2010). Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam (p. 12). Champaign, Ill.: Project Gutenberg ^ "Sufis understood his poems outwardly and considered them to be part of their mystical tradition. In their sessions and gatherings, Khayyam's poems became the subject of conversation and discussion. His poems, however, are inwardly like snakes who bite the sharia [Islamic law] and are chains and handcuffs placed on religion. Once the people of his time had a taste of his faith, his secrets were revealed. Khayyam was frightened for his life, withdrew from writing, speaking and such like and traveled to Mecca. Once he arrived in Baghdad, members of a Sufi tradition and believers in primary sciences came to him and courted him. He did not accept them and after performing the pilgrimage returned to his native land, kept his secrets to himself and propagated worshiping and following the people of faith." cited after Aminrazavi (2007)[page needed] ^ "The writings of Omar Khayyam are good specimens of Sufism, but are not valued in the West as they ought to be, and the mass of English-speaking people know him only through the poems of Edward Fitzgerald. It is unfortunate because Fitzgerald is not faithful to his master and model, and at times he lays words upon the tongue of the Sufi which are blasphemous. Such outrageous language is that of the eighty-first quatrain for instance. Fitzgerald is doubly guilty because he was more of a Sufi than he was willing to admit." C. H. A. Bjerregaard, Sufism: Omar Khayyam and E. Fitzgerald, The Sufi Publishing Society (1915), p. 3 ^ "Every line of the Rubaiyat has more meaning than almost anything you could read in Sufi literature". Abdullah Dougan, Who is the Potter?, Gnostic Press 1991 ISBN 0-473-01064-X ^ "FitzGerald himself was confused about Omar. Sometimes he thought that he was a Sufi, sometimes not." Idries Shah, The Sufis, Octagon Press (1999), pp. 165–166 ^ Aminrazavi, Mehdi. "Umar Khayyam". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 3 November 2017. ^ Beveridge, H. (1905). XVIII. "Omar Khayyam". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 37(3), 521–526. ^ Katouzian, H. (1991). Sadeq Hedayat: The life and literature of an Iranian writer (p. 138). London: I.B. Tauris ^ Ambrose George Potter, A Bibliography of the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam (1929). ^ Francois De Blois, Persian Literature – A Bio-Bibliographical Survey: Poetry of the Pre-Mongol Period (2004), p. 312. ^ Christopher Decker (ed.), Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam / a critical edition , Charlottesville : University Press of Virginia, 1997, 2008. ^ A. J. Arberry (ed.), The Romance of the Rubáiyát : Edward Fitzgerald's First Edition reprinted with Introduction and Notes, Routledge, 2016. ^ Fitzgerald, Edward (2007). "Note by W. Aldis Wright". Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam. New Delhi: Rupa & Co. p. 132. ISBN 978-81-7167-439-8. ^ Michael Kearney (1888). "Biographical Preface". Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám in English verse. By Omar Khayyam. Translated by Edward FitzGerald. New York and Boston: Houghton, Mifflin. p. 17. ^ "Arabiannights.org". Arabiannights.org. Archived from the original on 30 June 2015. Retrieved 11 April 2013. ^ The Ruba'iyat of Omar Khayyam : being a facsimile of the manuscript in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, with a transcript into modern Persian characters. Translated, with an introd. and notes, and a bibliography, and some sidelights upon Edward Fitzgerald's poem (1898). ^ Omar Khayyam, Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, translated by Justin Huntly McCarthy MP. [London] : D. Nutt, 1889. (Source: Trinity College Dublin Library) ^ "An Anonymous Quatrain". Notes and Queries. 17 (8): 317–a–317. 1 August 1970. doi:10.1093/nq/17-8-317a. ISSN 1471-6941. ^ Raza, Rosemary Cargill (2004). "Cadell, Jessie Ellen (1844–1884)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/4300. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) ^ a b Irwin, Robert. "Omar Khayyam's Bible for drunkards". The Times Literary Supplement. Archived from the original on 18 March 2007. Retrieved 5 October 2008. ^ http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/001005780 ^ Azarang, Abd-al Hussein. "Emami, Karim". Encyclopædia Iranica. iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 29 June 2012. ^ Emami, Karim. Ups and Downs of Translation, Tehran, 1988, pp. 134–169 ^ a b Rubaije Omera Hajjama (in Serbian) ^ a b c d e Omar Khayyam. Rubaiyat. Translated by Ryosaku Ogawa (小川亮作, Ogawa Ryosaku). Iwanami Shoten, 1949 (revised ed. in 1979), pp. 167–73. ISBN 978-4003278314. ^ "図書カード：ルバイヤート". Aozora.gr.jp. 21 July 2006. Retrieved 11 April 2013. ^ "Logo". Meltha.dk. Retrieved 11 April 2013. ^ Khayyam, Omar; Khinno, Eshaya Elisha (2012). Rubaiyat of Omar Khayam: A Translation Into Assyrian Language Plus Other ... – Omar Khayyam, Eshaya Elisha Khinno – Google Books. ISBN 9780646543147. Retrieved 11 April 2013. ^ "Web of the Galician Culture Council". Culturagalega.org. Retrieved 11 April 2013. ^ "Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam". Odia Book Bazar. 2015. Retrieved 26 September 2015. ^ Jeffrey D. Lavoie, The Private Life of General Omar N. Bradley (2015), p. 13. ^ Michael Kimmel, Christine Milrod, Amanda Kennedy, Cultural Encyclopedia of the Penis (2014), p. 93. ^ Molavi, Afshin, The Soul of Iran, Norton, (2005), p. 110f. ^ "The Handbook of Hymen by O. Henry". Literaturecollection.com. Archived from the original on 11 April 2013. Retrieved 11 April 2013. ^ "Old Fashioned American Humor". Old Fashioned American Humor. 6 March 2013. Retrieved 11 April 2013. ^ "oldfineart.com". oldfineart.com. Archived from the original on 5 October 2011. Retrieved 11 April 2013. ^ "Principia Discordia, the book of Chaos, Discord and Confusion". Principiadiscordia.com. Retrieved 11 April 2013. ^ Cooper, Miriam (1973). Dark Lady of the Silents. Bobbs Merrill. p. 104. ISBN 0672517256. ^ "See album". Retrieved 11 April 2013. ^ Selvin, Joel. "Alton Kelley, psychedelic poster creator, dies". San Francisco Chronicle. 3 June 2008. Retrieved 2008-06-25. ^ "The Rubaiyyat of Omar Khayyam". Valley Entertainment-Hearts of Space Records. Retrieved 23 June 2010. ^ Edward FitzGerald. "Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám | Folio Illustrated Book". Foliosociety.com. Archived from the original on 27 February 2012. Retrieved 11 April 2013. William Mason, Sandra Martin, The Art of Omar Khayyam: Illustrating FitzGerald's Rubaiyat (2007). Further reading[edit] Sharifian, Farzad (2020). "Cultural Linguistics and Poetry: The Case of Khayyām's Rubā'iyyāt". International Journal of Persian Literature. 5: 21–39. doi:10.5325/intejperslite.5.0021. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam Wikisource has original text related to this article: Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam Wikisource has original text related to this article: Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám (Le Gallienne) FitzGerald Bibliography of editions (omarkhayyamnederland.com) List of editions (WorldCat) The Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám public domain audiobook at LibriVox The illustrated Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám, translated by Edward Fitzgerald, at Internet Archive. The Persian Poet, contains the translations by Edward FitzGerald and a biography. Project Gutenberg: etext#246 (translation by Edward FitzGerald) The Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám at Faded Page (Canada) The entire book in DNL E-Book format. The complete four edition translations by Edward FitzGerald, with illustrations by Blanche McManus at Kellscraft.com. Other Database of manuscripts of the Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám (cam.ac.uk) Graves and Ali-Shah. Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam a collection of rubaiyat in Persian, accompanied by several translations into English and German. A comparison between the translations by Heron-Allen and Talbot. 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en-wikipedia-org-2648	----	Talk:Horace - Wikipedia Talk:Horace From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Horace has been listed as a level-4 vital article in People. If you can improve it, please do. This article has been rated as B-Class.           This article is of interest to the following WikiProjects: WikiProject Biography (Rated B-class) Biography portal v t e This article is within the scope of WikiProject Biography, a collaborative effort to create, develop and organize Wikipedia's articles about people. All interested editors are invited to join the project and contribute to the discussion. 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If you need assistance from a classicist, please see our talk page.Classical Greece and RomeWikipedia:WikiProject Classical Greece and RomeTemplate:WikiProject Classical Greece and RomeClassical Greece and Rome articles  B  This article has been rated as B-Class on the project's quality scale.  High  This article has been rated as High-importance on the project's importance scale.   WikiProject Poetry (Rated B-class, High-importance) Poetry portal v t e This article is within the scope of WikiProject Poetry, a collaborative effort to improve the coverage of poetry on Wikipedia. If you would like to participate, please visit the project page, where you can join the discussion and see a list of open tasks.PoetryWikipedia:WikiProject PoetryTemplate:WikiProject PoetryPoetry articles  B  This article has been rated as B-Class on the project's quality scale.  High  This article has been rated as High-importance on the project's importance scale.   A fact from this article was featured on Wikipedia's Main Page in the On this day section on November 27, 2017. Contents 1 Debt to the Greeks 2 carpe diem 3 Stuart Lyons book 4 Link to Jon Corelis translation 5 First English Translation 6 Horace's Villa 7 Page move and merge proposals 8 Rearrangement 9 Horace's sayings 10 New edit 11 bugger the tag 12 Kiernan's Marxist irrelevancies 13 Kipling's "parodies" 14 Amaryllis and Neaera 15 Do-re-mi Debt to the Greeks[edit] horace was a great poet and philosepher, how did he help rome in any way? Hi. I'm still learning here so apologies if I'm not doing things right. The observation that Horace was derivative of the Greeks is true with respect to meter, but that's also true of all Latin poets. The comment could be interpreted as a negative comment on his originality, which I think is transparently unfair and so I deleted it. No Greek poet published an ars poetica like Horace's. With regard to satire, moreover, he took a largely indigenous form created (as best we can tell) by Lucilius, modified it significantly and made it his own. While Horace has many debts to the Greeks, the standard rap on Romans that they stole everything from the Greeks is unfair, and particularly unfair in Horace's case. Thanks for listening! MaggieTMaggieT 14:26, 15 February 2006 (UTC) Maggie T is absolutely right; I edited some of the language to reflect that. I also deleted some inaccurate characterizations of the Odes and Epodes. Ron Kane 3/10/06. "While Horace has many debts to the Greeks, the standard rap on Romans that they stole everything from the Greeks is unfair, and particularly unfair in Horace's case." There seems to be someone who disagrees with you... "Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit et artis intulit agresti Latio." "Conquered Greece took captive her savage conqueror and brought her arts into rustic Latium." Horace, Book II, epistle i, lines 156-157 Lets respect Horace's own words... As for Horace himself, I cannot disagree with your opinion since I have not studied his work on a degree that would allow me to give an informed opinion. --RememberHistory (talk) 22:15, 14 October 2010 (UTC) carpe diem[edit] Isn't carpe diem "pluck the day" or "savor the day"? I thought carpere means "to pluck" or "to savor", as we get the English word carp, to complain. I have a growing suspicion that "seize the day", although popular, is an incorrect translation. Chase 66.141.177.116 22:45, 22 January 2007 (UTC) Transferred, it means "enjoy". Literally carpe does mean "you must pluck", but as a phrase with diem it correctly means "enjoy the day". Amphytrite 18:32, 11 April 2007 (UTC) Actually seize seems exactly right to me, the feeling is 'don't hang about wasting your time, there's not much of it'. Well employed in the film Dead Poets Society. And the Oxford Latin Dictionary, no less, gives "pluck, seize, (things considered as fruits and often transitory in nature)". John Wheater 09:16, 3 June 2007 (UTC) Stuart Lyons book[edit] I removed the reference to Stuart Lyons' book - it's more relevant to the Guido of Arezzo page (where it has also appeared) and, if one wishes to add a bibliography, there are plenty of other books which are of greater significance. Cassian 05:53, 13 May 2007 (UTC) Link to Jon Corelis translation[edit] I am inclined to remove this external link to what seems to me a poor translation. It was added by the mysterious 'Villager' on 20Nov06. I thought of replacing it with a link to Housman's translation of Ode 4.7, Diffugere nives. Does anyone feel the Corelis should be left in? Villager's talk page contains only notifications of auto-removals, so maybe he is inclined to special pleading. John Wheater 09:05, 3 June 2007 (UTC) I agree with you. There's no reason to link to a non-notable translation of a single Ode. Housman's translation could reasonably be included, though I would rather place all links specific to the Odes at Odes (Horace) than here. EALacey 18:11, 28 June 2007 (UTC) I've added a link to James Michie's marvellous translation of 1964. Michie recently died, & surely deserves an article: does anyone feel liking starting one? --NigelG (or Ndsg) | Talk 12:16, 21 November 2007 (UTC) First English Translation[edit] From the wikipedia article on Horace: "Ars Poetica was first translated into English by Queen Elizabeth I." From the wikipedia article Ars Poetica: "Ars Poetica (also known as "The Art of Poetry", Epistula Ad Pisones, or Letters to Piso) was a treatise on poetics. It was first translated into English by Ben Jonson." Which one is it? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 90.208.117.40 (talk) 19:48, 11 January 2008 (UTC) Neither. In 1567 Thomas Drant's was the first English translation to be published. The Queen's translation was presumably not put on sale to the public. NRPanikker (talk) 03:03, 29 January 2012 (UTC) Horace's Villa[edit] has anyone considered writing or creating an article about Horace's villa? There have been extensive excavations which can be read about here, and the remains of which can be seen even in Google maps here. As one can see, they are quite extensive. Surely there is something to be said about them? It isn't often such ruins are properly identified with their owners, especially of such moment as Horace. Just a thought... Cjcaesar (talk) 00:20, 3 July 2008 (UTC) See Horace's Villa. Camenae (talk) 14:29, 18 October 2009 (UTC) Page move and merge proposals[edit] The articles on Horace and his works need quite a lot of attention. As a modest beginning, I have suggested that two names be changed in order to conform with regular English language usage. No one as yet has commented on these proposals, perhaps because few editors watch these articles. I thought I might have better luck here. Horatians: please note the proposals hic and illic. Camenae (talk) 00:41, 12 October 2009 (UTC) I have moved Epistularum liber primus to Epistles (Horace) and merged Sermonum liber primus and secundus under the new name Satires (Horace). Camenae (talk) 14:29, 18 October 2009 (UTC) Rearrangement[edit] Obviously the article needs works, and what is really missing is any in-depth discussion of Horace's works. For this reason, I propose moving the Works section before the Influence section and greatly expanding. Any objections? —Preceding unsigned comment added by Dt barber (talk • contribs) 17:21, 9 February 2010 (UTC) This page needs rewriting as well as rearranging. Half of the sentences make the ones that immediately follow them gibberish. 134.139.21.196 (talk) 23:19, 3 May 2010 (UTC) Horace's sayings[edit] I think an article dedicated simply to Horace's catchy sayings would be a good addition - people might consult such an article when looking for quotes. Generally speaking, it's sad to see Horace in such neglect here at WP. I write this as a passer-by with no intention of doing anything about it myself - at least not yet. Amphitryoniades (talk) 02:03, 10 May 2010 (UTC) Actually, looking at things through new eyes, an article on H's catchy sayings now seems to me premature, bearing in mind the continuing nakedness of the existing articles dedicated to H and his work. Where is everyone? If you saw a beggar this naked you would give him a cloak, but one of the greatest poets of all time gets just a few rags. I'll get round to doing something for him within a year if nobody else does. McCronion (talk) 11:09, 17 July 2011 (UTC) Why bother? The current article here is rated pretty well, compared to many others I've seen: Trustworthy 3 (20 votes) Objective 3.3 (19 votes) Complete 2.6 (20 votes) Well Written 3.4 (21 votes) Eyeless in Gaza (talk) 23:35, 17 December 2011 (UTC) New edit[edit] Time something was done here. I'll start with the reception, which I think should end up being at least half the article, considering H's importance in European literature. Then I'll spread out from from there, like the wisteria in my sainted mother's garden, or the unknown vine that keeps strangling her citrus trees, except I won't be a nuisance. The reception will probably take me a couple of weeks, a bit every day. The rest of the garden will probably be a more chronic project, especially since I have my own life and property to manage, and my tractor's generator has gone phut. Texts so far: Stephen Harrison (ed), A Companion to Latin Literature, Blackwell Publishing (2008) Stephen Harrison (ed), A Cambridge Companion to Horace, Cambridge University Press (2007) V.G.Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and Politics, St Martin's Press (1999) David Mankin (ed), Horace: Epodes, Cambridge University Press (1995) I'll also try to get some older, more 'classic' criticism cheap from the net, and use Google Previews etc. This is another McRap Project project! Eyeless in Gaza (talk) 06:46, 1 January 2012 (UTC) Fed up with this crap now. Gone fishing instead! Eyeless in Gaza (talk) 00:56, 18 January 2012 (UTC) bugger the tag[edit] I removed this tag because I haven't finished editing. People can reinstate it after I'm done, if it's still necessary. Otherwise it invites busy-bodies and leads to edit-conflicts. Thanks. McCnut (talk) 05:30, 2 February 2012 (UTC) {{wikify}} I'm done now. I leave all my work to WP, as Horace left everything to the emperor. Do with it whatever you like. Me and Horace are past caring. McCnut (talk) 13:00, 12 February 2012 (UTC) Kiernan's Marxist irrelevancies[edit] I removed a portion of the following from the section on Horace's education in Athens. Rome's troubles following the assassination of Julius Ceaser were soon to catch up with him. Marcus Junius Brutus came to Athens seeking support for a republican cause that was bereft of ideas – the much-vaunted ideal of liberty was actually irrelevant in a conflict between elites.[26] The Athenians had a tradition of honouring tyrannicides, as types of their own heroes Harmodius and Aristogeiton, beside whose statues Brutus and his colleague Cassius were, by a popular decree, to be immortalized in bronze too. This article draws entirely too much from Kiernan's book, which is more about his political ideas than it is about Horace. I will trim more when I have time. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 155.247.134.188 (talk) 13:30, 29 August 2012 (UTC) Kipling's "parodies"[edit] The sentence " Kipling wrote a famous parody of the Odes ..." : what does it refer to? The "Q. Horatii Flacci Carminum liber quintus" (Oxonii, Blackwell, 1920), a collection of Horatian imitations by a group of friends, is partly (in view of the title, of the pseudo-scholarly preface, etc.) a spoof, but not a "parody" in the sense of mocking or satirizing; and the same seems to me to be true of Kipling's "Horatian" poems in his Debits and Credits.Svato (talk) 17:18, 22 February 2013 (UTC) Amaryllis and Neaera[edit] This may not be the right place to put this question, but I can find no relevant references to Amaryllis (mythology, I presume), apart from citations of Milton's poem, which do not explain who Amaryllis is. References to Neaera are opaque, as regards to Milton's citation. I am a naif in this area. I didn't find google to be particularly helpful. Certainly there are contributors who know this, just off hand. Thank you! Detail guy 18:38, 30 April 2013 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Crbeals (talk • contribs) Do-re-mi[edit] Isn't solfege do-re-mi not from Horace, but from a hymn to St. John? The syllables were originally ut-re-mi-fa-sol-la-si, which are first syllables (or letters) of the hymn's semi-verses: ut queant laxis / resonare fibris / mira gestorum / famuli tuorum / solve polluti / labii reatum / sancte Iohannes (this is sapphic stophe of course). 212.87.13.78 (talk) 13:51, 9 May 2013 (UTC) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Horace&oldid=812463705" Categories: Wikipedia level-4 vital articles in People Wikipedia B-Class vital articles in People Wikipedia B-Class level-4 vital articles B-Class biography articles WikiProject Biography articles B-Class Classical Greece and Rome articles High-importance Classical Greece and Rome articles B-Class Poetry articles High-importance Poetry articles WikiProject Poetry articles Selected anniversaries (November 2017) Hidden categories: All Wikipedia vital articles All Wikipedia level-4 vital articles All Wikipedia vital articles in People All Wikipedia B-Class vital articles Selected anniversaries articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit New section View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages This page was last edited on 28 November 2017, at 00:02 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2650	----	Roman dictator - Wikipedia Roman dictator From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Extraordinary magistrate of the Roman Republic Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e A dictator was a magistrate of the Roman Republic, entrusted with the full authority of the state to deal with a military emergency or to undertake a specific duty. All other magistrates were subordinate to his imperium, and the right of the plebeian tribunes to veto his actions or of the people to appeal from them was extremely limited. In order to prevent the dictatorship from threatening the state itself, severe limitations were placed upon its powers, as a dictator could only act within his intended sphere of authority, and was obliged to resign his office once his appointed task had been accomplished, or at the expiration of six months. Dictators were frequently appointed from the earliest period of the Republic down to the Second Punic War (218–201 BC), but the magistracy then went into abeyance for over a century, until it was revived in a significantly modified form, first by Sulla between 82 and 79 BC, and then by Julius Caesar between 49 and 44 BC. The office was formally abolished after the death of Caesar, and not revived under the Empire.[1][2][3] Contents 1 Origin 2 Nomination 3 Insignia 4 Powers and limitations 5 Magister equitum 6 Decline and disappearance 6.1 Dictatorship revived 6.2 Abolition 7 List of Roman dictators 8 See also 9 Footnotes 10 References 11 Bibliography Origin[edit] With the abolition of the Roman monarchy in 509 BC, the imperium, or executive power, of the king was divided between two annually-elected magistrates, known as praetors. In time they would come to be known as consuls, although probably not until the creation of a third, junior praetor in 367 BC.[4] Neither consul was superior to the other, and the decisions of one could be appealed to the other (provocatio). Their insignia were the toga praetexta and the sella curulis, and each was attended by an escort of twelve lictors, each of whom bore the fasces, a bundle of rods topped by an axe; but by custom the lictors had to remove the axes from their fasces within the pomerium, the sacred boundary of Rome, to signify that the people, and not the consuls, were sovereign.[5] After several years,[i] the fear of impending war with both the Sabines and the Latin League, combined with widespread suspicion that one or both of the consuls favoured the restoration of the monarchy, led to the call for a praetor maximus, or dictator ("one who gives orders"), akin to the supreme magistrate of other Latin towns.[7][2] According to most authorities, the first dictator was Titus Lartius in 501 BC, who appointed Spurius Cassius his magister equitum.[7][ii] Although there are indications that the term praetor maximus may have been used in the earliest period,[iii] the official title of the dictator throughout the history of the Republic was magister populi, or "master of the infantry". His lieutenant, the magister equitum, was the "master of the horse" (that is, of the cavalry[iv]). However, the use of dictator to refer to the magister populi seems to have been widespread from a very early period.[2][11] Nomination[edit] The appointment of a dictator involved three steps: first, the Senate would issue a decree known as a senatus consultum, authorizing one of the consuls to nominate a dictator. Technically, a senatus consultum was advisory, and did not have the force of law, but in practice it was nearly always followed.[v] Either consul could nominate a dictator. If both consuls were available, the dictator was chosen by agreement; if they could not agree, the consuls would draw lots for the responsibility.[13] Finally, the Comitia Curiata would be called upon to confer imperium on the dictator through the passage of a law known as a lex curiata de imperio.[1][2][11] A dictator could be nominated for different reasons, or causa. The three most common were rei gerundae causa, "for the matter to be done", used in the case of dictators appointed to hold a military command against a specific enemy; comitiorum habendorum causa, for holding the comitia, or elections, when the consuls were unable to do so; and clavi figendi causa, an important religious rite involving the driving of a nail into the wall of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, as a protection against pestilence.[vi][2][11] Other reasons included seditionis sedandae causa ("to quell sedition"); ferarium constituendarum causa (to establish a religious holiday in response to a dreadful portent[vii]); ludorum faciendorum causa (to hold the Ludi Romani, or "Roman Games", an ancient religious festival); quaestionibus exercendis, (to investigate certain actions);[16] and in one extraordinary case, senatus legendi causa, to fill up the ranks of the Senate after the Battle of Cannae.[17][18] These reasons could be combined (seditionis sedandae et rei gerundae causa), but are not always recorded or clearly stated in ancient authorities, and must instead be inferred.[19] In the earlier period it was customary to nominate someone whom the consul considered the best available military commander; often this was a former consul, but this was never required. However, from 360 BC onward, the dictators were usually consulares.[2][viii] Normally there was only one dictator at a time, although a new dictator could be appointed following the resignation of another.[ix] A dictator could be compelled to resign his office without accomplishing his task or serving out his term if there were found to be a fault in the auspices under which he had been nominated.[22][23] Insignia[edit] Like other curule magistrates, the dictator was entitled to the toga praetexta and the sella curulis. He received a ceremonial bodyguard that was unique in Roman tradition: "[t]wenty-four lictors indicated his quasi-regal power, which, however, was rather a concentration of the consular authority than a limited revival of the kingship."[2][x] In a notable exception to the Roman reluctance to reconstitute the symbols of the kings, the lictors of the dictator never removed the axes from their fasces, even within the pomerium. Symbolizing their power over life and death, the axes of a dictator's lictors set him apart from all other magistrates.[1] In an extraordinary sign of deference, the lictors of other magistrates could not bear fasces at all when appearing before the dictator.[24] As the kings had been accustomed to appear on horseback, this right was forbidden to the dictator, unless he first received permission from the comitia.[25][26][11] Powers and limitations[edit] Roman Dictator Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus In addition to holding a military command and carrying out the actions decreed by the Senate, a dictator could summon the Senate or convene one of the legislative assemblies of the Roman people. The full extent of the dictatorial power was considerable, but not unlimited. It was circumscribed by the conditions of a dictator's appointment, as well as by the evolving traditions of Roman law, and to a considerable degree depended on the dictator's ability to work together with other magistrates. The precise limitations of this power were not sharply defined, but subject to debate, contention, and speculation throughout Roman history.[27] In the pursuit of his causa, the dictator's authority was nearly absolute. However, as a rule he could not exceed the mandate for which he was appointed; a dictator nominated to hold the comitia could not then take up a military command against the wishes of the Senate.[xi][xii] Some dictators appointed to a military command also performed other duties, such as holding the comitia, or driving a nail into the wall of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus; but presumably they did so with the Senate's consent.[30][31] The imperium of the other magistrates was not vacated by the nomination of a dictator. They continued to perform the duties of their office, although subject to the dictator's authority, and continued in office until the expiration of their year, by which time the dictator had typically resigned.[2][24] It is uncertain whether a dictator's imperium could extend beyond that of the consul by whom he was nominated; Mommsen believed that his imperium would cease together with that of the nominating magistrate, but others have suggested that it could continue beyond the end of the civil year; and in fact there are several examples in which a dictator appears to have entered a new year without any consuls at all, although some scholars doubt the authenticity of these dictator years.[32][33][11] Initially a dictator's power was not subject to either provocatio, the right to appeal from the decision of a magistrate, or intercessio, the veto of the tribunes of the plebs.[34][35][1][2][24] However, the lex Valeria, establishing the right of appeal, was not abrogated by the appointment of a dictator, and by 300 BC even the dictator was subject to provocatio, at least within the city of Rome.[36][2][24] There is also evidence that the power of the plebeian tribunes was not vitiated by the dictator's commands, and 210 BC, the tribunes threatened to prevent elections held by the dictator, Quintus Fulvius Flaccus, unless he agreed to withdraw his name from the list of candidates for the consulship.[37][38][24][xiii] A dictator was expected to resign his office upon the successful completion of the task for which he was appointed, or at the expiration of six months.[1][2] These sharp limitations were intended to prevent the dictatorship from too closely resembling the absolute power of the Roman kings.[2] But the six month limitation may have been dispensed with when the Senate deemed it expedient; no consuls are known for the years 333, 324, 309, and 301, and it is reported that the dictator and magister equitum continued in office without any consuls.[33] Most authorities hold that a dictator could not be held to account for his actions after resigning his office, the prosecution of Marcus Furius Camillus for misappropriating the spoils of Veii being exceptional, as perhaps was that of Lucius Manlius Capitolinus in 362,[xiv] which was dropped only because his son, Titus,[xv] threatened the life of the tribune who had undertaken the prosecution.[40][1] However, some scholars suggest that the dictator was only immune from prosecution during his term of office, and could theoretically be called to answer charges of corruption.[24] Magister equitum[edit] Main article: Magister equitum The dictator's lieutenant was the magister equitum, or "master of the horse". He would be nominated by the dictator immediately upon his own appointment, and unless the senatus consultum specified the name of the person to be appointed, the dictator was free to choose whomever he wished.[1][2] It was customary for the dictator to nominate a magister equitum even if he were appointed for a non-military reason. Before the time of Caesar, the only dictator who refused to nominate a magister equitum was Marcus Fabius Buteo in 216 BC, and he strenuously objected to his own nomination, because there was already a dictator in the field.[17] Like the dictator, the magister equitum was a curule magistrate, entitled to the toga praetexta and the sella curulis. His imperium was equivalent to that of a praetor (in the later use of the term), in that he was accompanied by six lictors, half the number accorded to the consuls. But like the dictator, he could summon the Senate, and probably also the popular assemblies. His authority was not subject to recall, although if the dictator were compelled to resign due to a fault in the auspices, the magister equitum was also expected to resign, and when the dictator laid down his imperium, so would the magister equitum.[27] In theory, the magister equitum was commander of the cavalry, but he was not limited to that role. The dictator and magister equitum did not always take the field together; in some instances the magister equitum was assigned the defense of the city while the dictator took an army into the field, while on other occasions the dictator remained at Rome to see to some important duty, and entrusted the magister equitum with an army in the field.[2] The magister equitum was necessarily subordinate to the dictator, although this did not always prevent the two from disagreeing.[27][xvi] Decline and disappearance[edit] During the first two centuries of the Republic, the dictatorship served as an expedient means by which a powerful magistracy could be created quickly in order to deal with extraordinary situations.[11] Created for military emergencies, the office could also be used to suppress sedition and prevent the growing number of plebeians from obtaining greater political power.[11] In the Conflict of the Orders, the dictator could generally be counted upon to support the patrician aristocracy, since he was always a patrician, and was nominated by consuls who were exclusively patrician. After the lex Licinia Sextia gave plebeians the right to hold one of the annual consulships, a series of dictators were appointed in order to hold elections, with the apparent goal of electing two patrician consuls, in violation of the Licinian law.[41][xvii] After the Second Samnite War, the dictatorship was relegated almost exclusively to domestic activities. No dictator was nominated during the Third Samnite War, and the six-month limitation on its powers made the dictatorship impractical for campaigns beyond the Italian peninsula.[2][27] In 249 BC, Aulus Atilius Calatinus became the only dictator to lead an army outside Italy, when he invaded Sicily, and he was the only dictator to hold a military command during the First Punic War.[42] The last dictators to lead an army in the field were Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus in 217, and Marcus Junius Pera the following year, during the early stages of the Second Punic War.[43] All of the other dictators appointed during that conflict remained at Rome in order to hold the comitia;[xviii] the last dictator named in the traditional manner was Gaius Servilius Geminus, in 202 BC.[46][47][xix] Dictatorship revived[edit] Bust presumed to be that of Roman Dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla For the next century, Rome's ordinary magistrates and promagistrates successfully carried on all Roman campaigns, without the need for a dictator, and the office fell into abeyance. Then, in 82 BC, the dictatorship was suddenly revived by Sulla. Sulla, already a successful general, had previously marched on Rome and taken the city from his political opponents six years earlier; but after he permitted the election of magistrates for 87, and departed to campaign in the east, his enemies returned. In 83 he turned his attention to regaining Rome, and after defeating his opponents decisively the next year, the Senate and the people named him dictator legibus faciendis et rei publicae constituendae, giving Sulla the power to rewrite the Roman constitution, without any time limit.[49][xx] Sulla's reforms of the constitution doubled the size of the Senate from 300 to 600, filling its ranks with his supporters. He then placed severe limits on the tribunician power, limiting the veto and forbidding ex-tribunes from holding higher magistracies. Although he resigned the dictatorship in 81, and held the consulship in 80, before returning to private life, Sulla's actions had weakened the Roman state and set a precedent for the concentration of power without effective limitation.[49] The dictatorial power was then granted to Caesar in 49 BC, when he returned to Rome from his campaigns in Gaul, and put the forces of Pompeius ("Pompey the Great") to flight. He resigned the dictatorship after only eleven days, having held the comitia at which he himself was elected consul for the following year. Late in 48, Caesar was named dictator rei gerundae causa with a term of one year, and granted the tribunician power for an indefinite period. He saw to the impeachment of two tribunes who had tried to obstruct him, and having been granted censorial powers, he filled the depleted numbers of the Senate with his supporters, raising the number of senators to 900. In 47, he was named dictator for a term of ten years. Shortly before his assassination in BC 44, Caesar was named dictator perpetuo rei publicae constituendae, and given the power to appoint magistrates at will.[50][51][52] Abolition[edit] Caesar's murder came at the hands of conspirators who presented themselves as saviours of the Republic. In order to maintain popular support, Caesar's followers took great care to show their own commitment to preserving the Roman state. The month after the assassination, Mark Antony, who had been Caesar's magister equitum in BC 47, proposed a series of laws, confirming Caesar's actions, but allowing appeals and formally abolishing the dictatorship. These were passed, as the leges Antoniae.[53] In 23 BC, when Caesar's nephew and heir Augustus had attained full control of the state, the Senate offered to appoint him dictator, but he declined, while at the same time accepting proconsular imperium and the tribunician power for life. Thus, Augustus preserved the appearance of respecting Republican forms, even as he arrogated most of the powers of the Roman state.[54] Following his example, none of the emperors who succeeded him ever adopted the title of dictator. When Constantine chose to revive the ancient concept of the infantry commander, he pointedly gave the office the name of magister peditum, "master of the foot", rather than magister populi, the official style of a dictator.[55] List of Roman dictators[edit] Main article: List of Roman dictators See also[edit] Constitution of the Roman Republic – The norms, customs, and written laws, which guided the government of the Roman Republic Constitutional dictatorship Dictator – Political leader who possesses absolute power Footnotes[edit] ^ The exact date is uncertain, as are many of the details of this event, but 501 BC is the date generally favoured by historians.[6] ^ An alternative tradition mentioned by Livy is that the first dictator was Manius Valerius Maximus, although Livy thought this improbable, as dictators were supposed to be consulares, that is, men who had already served as consul; and had a Valerius been desired, Manius' brother, Marcus (described by Livy as either the uncle or father of Manius), consul in 505 BC, would have been chosen instead.[7] Modern historians generally share Livy's view, notwithstanding the fact that Manius Valerius was appointed dictator in BC 494, without having first held the consulship.[8] ^ Lintott considers the evidence for praetor maximus as the original name of the magistracy inconclusive, as it depends on the interpretation of an ancient law calling for an official of this title to drive a nail into the wall of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus; the law seems to have dated from the period of the monarchy, and under the Republic was interpreted to mean that this duty should be undertaken by a dictator, as the highest-ranking magistrate; but the first to perform it after the expulsion of the Tarquins was a consul, Marcus Horatius Pulvillus. Nevertheless, the law seems to confirm the existence of such a magistracy in the time of the kings, which might be considered the forerunner of the later magister populi.[9][10] ^ Literally, of the equites, sometimes translated as "knights". ^ A notable exception occurred in BC 431, when the consuls Titus Quinctius Cincinnatus and Gaius Julius Mento were directed to nominate a dictator, probably after having been defeated in an attempt to dislodge the Aequi and Volsci from their fortifications on Mount Algidus. The consuls, who still felt themselves able to hold the military command, refused, until the tribunes of the plebs threatened to have them imprisoned if they did not nominate a dictator.[12] ^ As this was an annual ritual, it must generally have been observed by the consuls; but Livy mentions an ancient law calling for it to be performed by the praetor maximus, apparently a magistrate in the time of the kings; and on at least one occasion when there was a dictator, it was interpreted to mean that the rite must be performed by the dictator, as the magistrate then holding the greatest imperium.[10] ^ In 344 BC, "a shower of stones rained down and darkness spread over the sky in the daytime."[14] This appeared to be a repetition of an omen that occurred during the reign of Tullus Hostilius, the third King of Rome, when a shower of stones fell on the Alban Mount after the war in which Hostilius had destroyed the ancient Latin city of Alba Longa, and transferred its people to Rome. In a response, a nine-day religious festival was decreed, with the intention that it be repeated should such an omen occur again.[15] ^ The major exception was the ill-starred Marcus Claudius Glicia, freedman of Publius Claudius Pulcher, who nominated him dictator in a fit of pique, when the Senate deprived him of his command after he had ignored ill omens and been defeated in the Battle of Drepana. The Senate compelled Glicia to abdicate the office, even before he could name a magister equitum.[20][21] ^ The chief exception occurred in 216 BC, when Marcus Fabius Buteo was nominated dictator in order to fill up the ranks of the Senate following the Battle of Cannae, even as the dictator Marcus Junius Pera held the military command against Hannibal.[17] ^ Lintott suggests only twelve fasces were displayed when the dictator was within the city.[24] ^ For instance, Lucius Manlius Capitolinus was appointed clavi figendi causa, but wished to lead an army against the Hernici. He proceeded to levy troops, but was compelled to resign before he could take the field, and was prosecuted the following year.[28] ^ However, the Senate might request a dictator for a reason other than the one publicly announced; for example Gaius Julius Iulus was ostensibly nominated in BC 352 in order to carry on a war against the Etruscans, but in fact there was no threat from the Etruscans; he was appointed in order to procure the election of two patrician consuls, in violation of the lex Licinia Sextia.[29] ^ In this instance, the parties were deadlocked, and agreed to submit the matter to the Senate for resolution. The Senate decided that it would be better to allow Fulvius to stand for election, given his vast experience (before his dictatorship, he had been consul three times, praetor, censor, and magister equitum).[37] ^ The precise nature of the charges differs according to source; Broughton lists four reasons given by ancient authorities: "1. remaining Dictator when his religious duty was done; 2. remaining in office beyond his legal term; 3. raising a levy with too great severity; 4. mistreatment of his son, the future T. Manlius Torquatus..."[39] ^ The future Titus Manlius Torquatus would himself become dictator three times; in BC 353, 349, and 320, and consul twice, in 344 and 340. This was the Manlius who won his surname from having defeated a giant Gaul in single combat, and taking his torque. Despite his ill-treatment at the hands of his father, so powerful was his respect for paternal discipline, that when his eldest son disobeyed orders by engaging in single combat with the leader of the Latin cavalry (whom he defeated and slew), the consul commanded that his victorious son be scourged and beheaded. ^ In 325 BC, the dictator Lucius Papirius Cursor was so furious when the magister equitum engaged the enemy in battle against his express orders, that he intended to have young Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus scourged and perhaps beheaded, notwithstanding the fact that Fabius had won a famous victory; he was restrained only when Fabius escaped and made his way to Rome, where the entire Roman people interceded on his behalf and begged the dictator to show mercy. A century later, when Fabius' grandson, Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus was dictator, his magister equitum, Marcus Minucius Rufus, defied him openly, and likewise fled to Rome in fear for his life, where he convinced the Senate to grant him imperium equal to that of the dictator's. But in this case, it was the dictator who came to the rescue of his rebellious magister equitum, when Minucius improvidently offered battle and came near to destruction.[27] ^ For example, in BC 352, the dictator Gaius Julius Iulus was nominated, ostensibly to fight a war against the Etruscans, although there was no actual threat from Etruria; however he failed to prevent the election of a plebeian consul. Two years later, the dictator Lucius Furius Camillus succeeded in procuring the election of two patricians.[41] ^ Titus Manlius Torquatus also held the Roman games in 208 BC.[44][45] ^ Despite the impending end of the war, there was a series of unwelcome prodigies in Italy; in Cumae the skies darkened at mid-day, and a shower of stones fell there and on the Palatine Hill at Rome. A similar omen in the time of Tullus Hostilius, the third King of Rome, had led to a nine-day religious festival, and in 344 BC, Publius Valerius Poplicola had been nominated dictator in response to a second occurrence; he also organized a religious festival. For the third occurrence in 202, a nine-day religious festival was held before the dictator Servilius was nominated, since his chief purpose was to hold the comitia.[48] ^ The legislation was introduced by Lucius Valerius Flaccus, who had been appointed interrex at Sulla's request, as both consuls were dead. In turn, Sulla named Flaccus his magister equitum.[49] References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g Harper's Dictionary of Classical Antiquities, p. 509. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Oxford Classical Dictionary, p. 339 ("Dictator"). ^ Lintott, pp. 109–113. ^ Oxford Classical Dictionary, p. 286 ("Consul"). ^ Oxford Classical Dictionary, pp. 429 ("Fasces"), 609 ("Lictores"), 639 ("Magistracy, Roman"), 1080 ("Toga"). ^ Broughton, vol. I, p. 9. ^ a b c Livy, ii. 18. ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 9, 14. ^ Lintott, p. 104 (note 47). ^ a b Livy, vii. 3. ^ a b c d e f g Lintott, p. 110. ^ Livy, iv. 26. ^ Livy, iv. 27. ^ Livy, vii. 28, Betty Radice, trans. ^ Livy, i. 31. ^ Livy, ix. 27. ^ a b c Livy, xxiii. 23. ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 112, 132, 150, 152, 248. ^ Broughton, vol. I, p. 112. ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. II, p. 276. ^ Broughton, vol. I, p. 215. ^ Livy, viii. 15, 17, 23. ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 139, 140, 145. ^ a b c d e f g Lintott, p. 111. ^ Livy, xxiii. 14. ^ Plutarch, "Life of Fabius Maximus", 4. ^ a b c d e Lintott, p. 112. ^ Livy, vii. 3–5. ^ Broughton, vol. I, p. 125. ^ Livy, xxxiii. 14. ^ Broughton, vol. I, p. 248. ^ Mommsen, Römisches Staatsrecht, ii. 133–172. ^ a b Broughton, vol. I, pp. 140, 141, 147–149, 162, 163, 169–171. ^ Livy, ii. 18, iii. 20. ^ Dionysius, vi. 58. ^ Livy, viii. 29–35. ^ a b Livy, xxvii. 6. ^ Plutarch, "Life of Fabius Maximus", 9. ^ Broughton, vol. I, p. 118. ^ Livy, vii. 4, 5. ^ a b Broughton, vol. I, pp. 125, 128. ^ Broughton, vol. I, p. 215. ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 243, 248. ^ Livy, xxvii. 34. ^ Broughton, vol. I, p. 290. ^ Livy, xxx. 39. ^ Broughton, vol. I, p. 316. ^ Livy, xxx. 38. ^ a b c Oxford Classical Dictionary, p. 1022 ("Sulla"). ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. I, pp. 139–155 ("Caesar", no. 18). ^ Oxford Classical Dictionary, pp. 189, 190 ("Caesar"). ^ Lintott, p. 113. ^ Oxford Classical Dictionary, p. 601 ("Lex"). ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. I, p. 428 ("Augustus"). ^ Oxford Classical Dictionary, p. 638 ("Magister Militum"). Bibliography[edit] Titus Livius (Livy), Ab Urbe Condita (History of Rome). Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Romaike Archaiologia. Plutarchus, Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans. Christian Matthias Theodor Mommsen, Römisches Staatsrecht, S. Hirzel, Leipzig (1876). Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities, Second Edition, Harry Thurston Peck, ed., Harper & Brothers Publishers, New York (1898). T. Robert S. Broughton, The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, American Philological Association (1952). Oxford Classical Dictionary, N. G. L. Hammond and H. H. Scullard, eds., Clarendon Press, Oxford (Second Edition, 1970). 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en-wikipedia-org-2654	----	Western Roman Empire - Wikipedia Western Roman Empire From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Independently administered western provinces of the Roman Empire "Western Empire" redirects here. For the Frankish State, see Carolingian Empire. Western Roman Empire Senatus Populusque Romanus Imperium Romanuma 395–476/480b Chi Rho Tremissis depicting Julius Nepos (r. 474–480) The Western Roman Empire in 418 AD, following the abandonment of Britannia and the settlement of the Visigoths, Burgundians and Suebi within imperial territory as foederati Status Western division of the Roman Empire a Capital Mediolanum (286–402)[1] Ravenna (402–455, 473–476) Romec (455–473) Salona/Spalatumd (475–480) Common languages Latin (official) Regional / local languages Religion Polytheistic Roman Religion until 4th century Nicene Christianity (state church) after 380 Government Autocracy Roman Emperor   • 395–423 Honorius • 457–461 Majorian • 474–480 Julius Nepos • 475–476 Romulus Augustulus Legislature Roman Senate Historical era Late antiquity • Death of Emperor Theodosius I 17 January 395 • Deposition of Emperor Romulus Augustulus 4 September 476 • Murder of Emperor Julius Nepos 25 April 480 Area 395[2] 2,000,000 km2 (770,000 sq mi) Currency Roman currency Preceded by Succeeded by Roman Empire Eastern Roman Empire Kingdom of Italy Kingdom of the Visigoths Kingdom of the Vandals Kingdom of the Franks Kingdom of the Suebi Kingdom of the Burgundians Kingdom of the Romans Kingdom of the Moors and Romans Alamannia Armorica Sub-Roman Britain ^ Since the Western Roman Empire was not a distinct state separate from the Eastern Roman Empire, there was no particular official term that designated the Western provinces or their government, which was simply known at the time as the "Roman Empire". Terms such as Imperium Romanum Occidentale and Hesperium Imperium were either never in official usage or invented by later medieval or modern historians long after the Western Roman court had fallen. In the ancient era the Latin term often used was "S.P.Q.R." ("Senatus Populusque Romanus" ["Senate and People of Rome"] Latin) used in documents, on flags and banners and carved/engraved on buildings ^ Whilst the deposition of Emperor Romulus Augustulus in 476 is the most commonly cited end date for the Western Roman Empire, the last Western Roman Emperor Julius Nepos, was assassinated in 480, when the title and notion of a separate Western Empire were abolished. Another suggested end date is the reorganization of the Italian peninsula and abolition of separate Western Roman administrative institutions under Emperor Justinian during the latter half of the 6th century. ^ The Theodosian dynasty emperors Honorius and Valentinian III reigned from Ravenna. In the period between Valentinian and Glycerius (who once again reigned from northern Italy), most emperors appear to have reigned from Rome. Both emperors Petronius Maximus and Anthemius reigned from, and died in, Rome. ^ The de jure last emperor, Julius Nepos, reigned for five years in exile from Salona/Spalatum in Dalmatia.[3][4][5] The Western Roman Empire comprises the western provinces of the Roman Empire at any time during which they were administered by a separate independent Imperial court; in particular, this term is used in historiography to describe the period from 395 to 476, where there were separate coequal courts dividing the governance of the empire in the Western and the Eastern provinces, with a distinct imperial succession in the separate courts. The terms Western Roman Empire and Eastern Roman Empire were coined in modern times to describe political entities that were de facto independent; contemporary Romans did not consider the Empire to have been split into two separate empires but viewed it as a single polity governed by two separate imperial courts as an administrative expediency. The Western Roman Empire collapsed in 476, and the Western imperial court in Ravenna was formally dissolved by Justinian in 554. The Eastern imperial court survived until 1453. Though the Empire had seen periods with more than one Emperor ruling jointly before, the view that it was impossible for a single emperor to govern the entire Empire was institutionalised to reforms to Roman law by emperor Diocletian following the disastrous civil wars and disintegrations of the Crisis of the Third Century. He introduced the system of the tetrarchy in 286, with two separate senior emperors titled Augustus, one in the East and one in the West, each with an appointed Caesar (junior emperor and designated successor). Though the tetrarchic system would collapse in a matter of years, the East–West administrative division would endure in one form or another over the coming centuries. As such, the Western Roman Empire would exist intermittently in several periods between the 3rd and 5th centuries. Some emperors, such as Constantine I and Theodosius I, governed as the sole Augustus across the Roman Empire. On the death of Theodosius I in 395, he divided the empire between his two sons, with Honorius as his successor in the West, governing briefly from Mediolanum and then from Ravenna, and Arcadius as his successor in the East, governing from Constantinople. In 476, after the Battle of Ravenna, the Roman Army in the West suffered defeat at the hands of Odoacer and his Germanic foederati. Odoacer forced the deposition of emperor Romulus Augustulus and became the first King of Italy. In 480, following the assassination of the previous Western emperor Julius Nepos, the Eastern emperor Zeno dissolved the Western court and proclaimed himself the sole emperor of the Roman Empire. The date of 476 was popularized by the 18th century British historian Edward Gibbon as a demarcating event for the end of the Western Empire and is sometimes used to mark the transition from Antiquity to the Middle Ages. Odoacer's Italy, and other barbarian kingdoms, many of them representing former Western Roman allies that had been granted lands in return for military assistance, would maintain a pretence of Roman continuity through the continued use of the old Roman administrative systems and nominal subservience to the Eastern Roman court. In the 6th century, emperor Justinian I re-imposed direct Imperial rule on large parts of the former Western Roman Empire, including the prosperous regions of North Africa, the ancient Roman heartland of Italy and parts of Hispania. Political instability in the Eastern heartlands, combined with foreign invasions and religious differences, made efforts to retain control of these territories difficult and they were gradually lost for good. Though the Eastern Empire retained territories in the south of Italy until the eleventh century, the influence that the Empire had over Western Europe had diminished significantly. The papal coronation of the Frankish King Charlemagne as Roman Emperor in 800 marked a new imperial line that would evolve into the Holy Roman Empire, which presented a revival of the Imperial title in Western Europe but was in no meaningful sense an extension of Roman traditions or institutions. The Great Schism of 1054 between the churches of Rome and Constantinople further diminished any authority the Emperor in Constantinople could hope to exert in the west. Contents 1 Background 1.1 Rebellions and political developments 1.2 Crisis of the Third Century 1.3 Tetrarchy 1.4 Further divisions 2 History 2.1 Reign of Honorius 2.2 Escalating barbarian conflicts 2.3 Internal unrest and Majorian 2.4 Collapse 2.5 Fall of the Empire 3 Political aftermath 3.1 Germanic Italy 3.2 Imperial reconquest 4 Legacy 4.1 Nomenclature 4.2 Attempted restorations of a Western court 4.3 Later claims to the Imperial title in the West 5 List of Western Roman Emperors 5.1 Tetrarchy (286–313) 5.2 Constantinian dynasty (309–363) 5.3 Non-dynastic (363–364) 5.4 Valentinianic dynasty (364–392) 5.5 Theodosian dynasty (392–455) 5.6 Non-dynastic (455–480) 6 References 6.1 Citations 6.2 Sources 6.3 Web sources 7 Further reading 8 External links Background[edit] Further information: History of the Roman Empire and First division of the Roman Empire As the Roman Republic expanded, it reached a point where the central government in Rome could not effectively rule the distant provinces. Communications and transportation were especially problematic given the vast extent of the Empire. News of invasion, revolt, natural disasters, or epidemic outbreak was carried by ship or mounted postal service, often requiring much time to reach Rome and for Rome's orders to be returned and acted upon. Therefore, provincial governors had de facto autonomy in the name of the Roman Republic. Governors had several duties, including the command of armies, handling the taxes of the province and serving as the province's chief judges.[6] Prior to the establishment of the Empire, the territories of the Roman Republic had been divided in 43 BC among the members of the Second Triumvirate: Mark Antony, Octavian and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. Antony received the provinces in the East: Achaea, Macedonia and Epirus (roughly modern Greece, Albania and the coast of Croatia), Bithynia, Pontus and Asia (roughly modern Turkey), Syria, Cyprus, and Cyrenaica.[7] These lands had previously been conquered by Alexander the Great; thus, much of the aristocracy was of Greek origin. The whole region, especially the major cities, had been largely assimilated into Greek culture, Greek often serving as the lingua franca.[8] The Roman Republic before the conquests of Octavian Octavian obtained the Roman provinces of the West: Italia (modern Italy), Gaul (modern France), Gallia Belgica (parts of modern Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg), and Hispania (modern Spain and Portugal).[7] These lands also included Greek and Carthaginian colonies in the coastal areas, though Celtic tribes such as Gauls and Celtiberians were culturally dominant. Lepidus received the minor province of Africa (roughly modern Tunisia). Octavian soon took Africa from Lepidus, while adding Sicilia (modern Sicily) to his holdings.[9] Upon the defeat of Mark Antony, a victorious Octavian controlled a united Roman Empire. The Empire featured many distinct cultures, all experienced a gradual Romanization.[10] While the predominantly Greek culture of the East and the predominantly Latin culture of the West functioned effectively as an integrated whole, political and military developments would ultimately realign the Empire along those cultural and linguistic lines. More often than not, Greek and Latin practices (and to some extent the languages themselves) would be combined in fields such as history (e.g., those by Cato the Elder), philosophy and rhetoric.[11][12][13] Rebellions and political developments[edit] Minor rebellions and uprisings were fairly common events throughout the Empire. Conquered tribes or oppressed cities would revolt, and the legions would be detached to crush the rebellion. While this process was simple in peacetime, it could be considerably more complicated in wartime. In a full-blown military campaign, the legions were far more numerous—as, for example, those led by Vespasian in the First Jewish–Roman War. To ensure a commander's loyalty, a pragmatic emperor might hold some members of the general's family hostage. To this end, Nero effectively held Domitian and Quintus Petillius Cerialis, Governor of Ostia, who were respectively the younger son and brother-in-law of Vespasian. Nero's rule was ended by a revolt of the Praetorian Guard, who had been bribed in the name of Galba. The Praetorian Guard, a figurative "sword of Damocles", was often perceived as being of dubious loyalty, primarily due its role in court intrigues and in overthrowing several emperors, including Pertinax and Aurelian.[14][15] Following their example, the legions at the borders increasingly participated in civil wars. For instance, legions stationed in Egypt and the eastern provinces would see significant participation in the civil war of 218 between Emperor Macrinus and Elagabalus.[16] As the Empire expanded, two key frontiers revealed themselves. In the West, behind the rivers Rhine and Danube, Germanic tribes were an important enemy. Augustus, the first emperor, had tried to conquer them but had pulled back after the disastrous Battle of the Teutoburg Forest.[17] Whilst the Germanic tribes were formidable foes, the Parthian Empire in the East presented the greatest threat to the Empire. The Parthians were too remote and powerful to be conquered and there was a constant Parthian threat of invasion. The Parthians repelled several Roman invasions, and even after successful wars of conquest, such as those implemented by Trajan or Septimius Severus, the conquered territories were forsaken in attempts to ensure a lasting peace with the Parthians. The Parthian Empire would be succeeded by the Sasanian Empire, which continued hostilities with the Roman Empire.[18] Controlling the western border of Rome was reasonably easy because it was relatively close to Rome itself and also because of the disunity among the Germans. However, controlling both frontiers simultaneously during wartime was difficult. If the emperor was near the border in the East, the chances were high that an ambitious general would rebel in the West and vice versa. This wartime opportunism plagued many ruling emperors and indeed paved the road to power for several future emperors. By the time of the Crisis of the Third Century, usurpation became a common method of succession: Philip the Arab, Trebonianus Gallus and Aemilianus were all usurping generals-turned-emperors whose rule would end with usurpation by another powerful general.[19][20][21] Crisis of the Third Century[edit] Main article: Crisis of the Third Century The Roman, Gallic and Palmyrene Empires in 271 AD With the assassination of the Emperor Alexander Severus on 18 March 235, the Roman Empire sank into a 50-year period of civil war, now known as the Crisis of the Third Century. The rise of the bellicose Sasanian Empire in place of Parthia posed a major threat to Rome in the east, as demonstrated by Shapur I's capture of Emperor Valerian in 259. Valerian's eldest son and heir-apparent, Gallienus, succeeded him and took up the fight on the eastern frontier. Gallienus' son, Saloninus, and the Praetorian Prefect Silvanus were residing in Colonia Agrippina (modern Cologne) to solidify the loyalty of the local legions. Nevertheless, Marcus Cassianius Latinius Postumus – the local governor of the German provinces – rebelled; his assault on Colonia Agrippina resulted in the deaths of Saloninus and the prefect. In the confusion that followed, an independent state known in modern historiography as the Gallic Empire emerged.[22] Its capital was Augusta Treverorum (modern Trier), and it quickly expanded its control over the German and Gaulish provinces, all of Hispania and Britannia. It had its own senate, and a partial list of its consuls still survives. It maintained Roman religion, language, and culture, and was far more concerned with fighting the Germanic tribes, fending off Germanic incursions and restoring the security the Gallic provinces had enjoyed in the past, than in challenging the Roman central government.[23] However, in the reign of Claudius Gothicus (268 to 270), large expanses of the Gallic Empire were restored to Roman rule. At roughly the same time, several eastern provinces seceded to form the Palmyrene Empire, under the rule of Queen Zenobia.[24] In 272, Emperor Aurelian finally managed to reclaim Palmyra and its territory for the empire. With the East secure, his attention turned to the West, invading the Gallic Empire a year later. Aurelian decisively defeated Tetricus I in the Battle of Châlons, and soon captured Tetricus and his son Tetricus II. Both Zenobia and the Tetrici were pardoned, although they were first paraded in a triumph.[25][26] Tetrarchy[edit] Main article: Tetrarchy The organization of the Empire under the Tetrarchy Diocletian was the first Emperor to divide the Roman Empire into a Tetrarchy. In 286 he elevated Maximian to the rank of augustus (emperor) and gave him control of the Western Empire while he himself ruled the East.[27][28][29] In 293, Galerius and Constantius Chlorus were appointed as their subordinates (caesars), creating the First Tetrarchy. This system effectively divided the Empire into four major regions, as a way to avoid the civil unrest that had marked the 3rd century. In the West, Maximian made Mediolanum (now Milan) his capital, and Constantius made Trier his. In the East, Galerius made his capital Sirmium and Diocletian made Nicomedia his. On 1 May 305, Diocletian and Maximian abdicated, replaced by Galerius and Constantius, who appointed Maximinus II and Valerius Severus, respectively, as their caesars, creating the Second Tetrarchy.[30] The Tetrarchy collapsed after the unexpected death of Constantius in 306. His son, Constantine the Great, was declared Western Emperor by the British legions,[31][32][33][34] but several other claimants arose and attempted to seize the Western Empire. In 308, Galerius held a meeting at Carnuntum, where he revived the Tetrarchy by dividing the Western Empire between Constantine and Licinius.[35] However, Constantine was more interested in conquering the whole empire than he was in the stability of the Tetrarchy, and by 314 began to compete against Licinius. Constantine defeated Licinius in 324, at the Battle of Chrysopolis, where Licinius was taken prisoner, and later murdered.[36] After Constantine unified the empire, he refounded the city of Byzantium in modern-day Turkey as Nova Roma ("New Rome"), later called Constantinople, and made it the capital of the Roman Empire.[37] The Tetrarchy was ended, although the concept of physically splitting the Roman Empire between two emperors remained. Although several powerful emperors unified both parts of the empire, this generally reverted in an empire divided into East and West upon their deaths, such as happened after the deaths of Constantine and Theodosius I.[38][39] Further divisions[edit] Division of the Roman Empire among the Caesars appointed by Constantine I: from west to east, the territories of Constantine II, Constans I, Dalmatius and Constantius II. After the death of Constantine I (May 337), this was the formal division of the Empire, until Dalmatius was killed and his territory divided between Constans and Constantius. The Roman Empire was under the rule of a single Emperor, but, with the death of Constantine in 337, the empire was partitioned between his surviving male heirs.[38] Constantius, his third son and the second by his wife Fausta (Maximian's daughter)[40] received the eastern provinces, including Constantinople, Thrace, Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, and Cyrenaica; Constantine II received Britannia, Gaul, Hispania, and Mauretania; and Constans, initially under the supervision of Constantine II, received Italy, Africa, Illyricum, Pannonia, Macedonia, and Achaea. The provinces of Thrace, Achaea and Macedonia were shortly controlled by Dalmatius, nephew of Constantine I and a caesar, not an Augustus, until his murder by his own soldiers in 337.[41] The West was unified in 340 under Constans, who was assassinated in 350 under the order of the usurper Magnentius. After Magnentius lost the Battle of Mursa Major and committed suicide, a complete reunification of the whole Empire occurred under Constantius in 353.[40] Constantius II focused most of his power in the East. Under his rule, the city of Byzantium – only recently re-founded as Constantinople – was fully developed as a capital. At Constantinople, the political, economic and military control of the Eastern Empire's resources would remain safe for centuries to come. The city was well fortified and located at the crossroads of several major trade and military routes. The site had been acknowledged for its strategic importance already by emperors Septimius Severus and Caracalla, more than a century prior.[42] In 361, Constantius II became ill and died, and Constantius Chlorus' grandson Julian, who had served as Constantius II's Caesar, assumed power. Julian was killed in 363 in the Battle of Samarra against the Persian Empire and was succeeded by Jovian, who ruled for only nine months.[43] Following the death of Jovian, Valentinian I emerged as Emperor in 364. He immediately divided the Empire once again, giving the eastern half to his brother Valens. Stability was not achieved for long in either half, as the conflicts with outside forces (barbarian tribes) intensified. In 376, the Visigoths, fleeing before the Ostrogoths, who in turn were fleeing before the Huns, were allowed to cross the river Danube and settle in the Balkans by the Eastern government. Mistreatment caused a full-scale rebellion, and in 378 they inflicted a crippling defeat on the Eastern Roman field army in the Battle of Adrianople, in which Emperor Valens also died. The defeat at Adrianople was shocking to the Romans, and forced them to negotiate with and settle the Visigoths within the borders of the Empire, where they would become semi-independent foederati under their own leaders.[44] The division of the Empire after the death of Theodosius I, c. 395 AD, superimposed on modern borders  Western Court under Honorius   Eastern Court under Arcadius More than in the East, there was also opposition to the Christianizing policy of the Emperors in the western part of the Empire. In 379, Valentinian I's son and successor Gratian declined to wear the mantle of Pontifex Maximus, and in 382 he rescinded the rights of pagan priests and removed the Altar of Victory from the Roman Curia, a decision which caused dissatisfaction among the traditionally pagan aristocracy of Rome.[45] Theodosius I later decreed the Edict of Thessalonica, which banned all religions except Christianity.[46] The political situation was unstable. In 383, a powerful and popular general named Magnus Maximus seized power in the West and forced Gratian's half-brother Valentinian II to flee to the East for aid; in a destructive civil war the Eastern Emperor Theodosius I restored him to power.[47] In 392, the Frankish and pagan magister militum Arbogast assassinated Valentinian II and proclaimed an obscure senator named Eugenius as Emperor. In 394 the forces of the two halves of the Empire again clashed with great loss of life. Again Theodosius I won, and he briefly ruled a united Empire until his death in 395. He was the last Emperor to rule both parts of the Roman Empire before the West fragmented and collapsed.[39] Theodosius I's older son Arcadius inherited the eastern half while the younger Honorius got the western half. Both were still minors and neither was capable of ruling effectively. Honorius was placed under the tutelage of the half-Roman/half-barbarian magister militum Flavius Stilicho,[48] while Rufinus became the power behind the throne in the east. Rufinus and Stilicho were rivals, and their disagreements would be exploited by the Gothic leader Alaric I who again rebelled in 408 following the massacre by Roman legions of thousands of barbarian families who were trying to assimilate into the Roman empire.[49] Neither half of the Empire could raise forces sufficient even to subdue Alaric's men, and both tried to use Alaric against the other half. Alaric himself tried to establish a long-term territorial and official base, but was never able to do so. Stilicho tried to defend Italy and bring the invading Goths under control, but to do so he stripped the Rhine frontier of troops and the Vandals, Alans, and Suevi invaded Gaul in large numbers in 406. Stilicho became a victim of court intrigues and was killed in 408. While the East began a slow recovery and consolidation, the West began to collapse entirely. Alaric's men sacked Rome in 410.[50] History[edit] Reign of Honorius[edit] Main article: Honorius (emperor) Solidus of Emperor Honorius Honorius, the younger son of Theodosius I, was declared Augustus (and as such co-emperor with his father) on 23 January in 393. Upon the death of Theodosius, Honorius inherited the throne of the West at the age of ten whilst his older brother Arcadius inherited the East. The western capital was initially Mediolanum, as it had been during previous divisions, but it was moved to Ravenna in 402 upon the entry of the Visigothic king Alaric I into Italy. Ravenna, protected by abundant marshes and strong fortifications, was far easier to defend and had easy access to the imperial fleet of the Eastern Empire but made it more difficult for the Roman military to defend the central parts of Italy from regular barbarian incursions.[51] Ravenna would remain the western capital 74 years until the deposition of Romulus Augustulus and would later be the capital of both the Ostrogothic Kingdom and the Exarchate of Ravenna.[52][53] Despite the moved capital, economic power remained focused on Rome and its rich senatorial aristocracy which dominated much of Italy and Africa in particular. After Emperor Gallienus had banned senators from army commands in the mid-3rd century, the senatorial elite lost all experience of—and interest in—military life.[54] In the early 5th century the wealthy landowning elite of the Roman Senate largely barred its tenants from military service, but it also refused to approve sufficient funding for maintaining a sufficiently powerful mercenary army to defend the entire Western Empire. The West's most important military area had been northern Gaul and the Rhine frontier in the 4th century, when Trier frequently served as a military capital of sorts for the Empire. Many leading Western generals were barbarians.[55] The reign of Honorius was, even by Western Roman standards, chaotic and plagued by both internal and external struggles. The Visigothic foederati under Alaric, magister militum in Illyricum, rebelled in 395. Gildo, the Comes Africae and Magister utriusque militiae per Africam, rebelled in 397 and initiated the Gildonic War. Stilicho managed to subdue Gildo but was campaigning in Raetia when the Visigoths entered Italy in 402.[56] Stilicho, hurrying back to aid in defending Italy, summoned legions in Gaul and Britain with which he managed to defeat Alaric twice before agreeing to allow him to retreat back to Illyria.[57] Barbarian invasions and the invasion of usurper Constantine III in the Western Roman Empire during the reign of Honorius 407–409 The weakening of the frontiers in Britain and Gaul had dire consequences for the Empire. As the imperial government was not providing the military protection the northern provinces expected and needed, numerous usurpers arose in Britain, including Marcus (406–407), Gratian (407), and Constantine III who invaded Gaul in 407.[58] Britain was effectively abandoned by the empire by 410 due to the lack of resources and the need to look after more important frontiers. The weakening of the Rhine frontier allowed multiple barbarian tribes, including the Vandals, Alans and Suebi, to cross the river and enter Roman territory in 406.[59] Honorius was convinced by the minister Olympius that Stilicho was conspiring to overthrow him, and so arrested and executed Stilicho in 408.[60] Olympius headed a conspiracy that successfully orchestrated the deaths of key individuals related to the faction of Stilicho, including his son and the families of many of his federated troops. This led many of the soldiers to instead join with Alaric, who returned to Italy in 409 and met little opposition. Despite attempts by Honorius to reach a settlement and six legions of Eastern Roman soldiers sent to support him,[61] the negotiations between Alaric and Honorius broke down in 410 and Alaric sacked the city of Rome. Though the sack was relatively mild and Rome was no longer the capital of even the Western Empire, the event shocked people across both halves of the Empire as this was the first time Rome (viewed at least as the symbolic heart of the Empire) had fallen to a foreign enemy since the Gallic invasions of the 4th century BC. The Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius II, the successor of Arcadius, declared three days of mourning in Constantinople.[62] Without Stilicho and following the sack of Rome, Honorius' reign grew more chaotic. The usurper Constantine III had stripped Roman Britain of its defenses when he crossed over to Gaul in 407, leaving the Romanized population subject to invasions, first by the Picts and then by the Saxons, Angli, and the Jutes who began to settle permanently from about 440 onwards. After Honorius accepted Constantine as co-emperor, Constantine's general in Hispania, Gerontius, proclaimed Maximus as Emperor. With the aid of general Constantius, Honorius successfully defeated Gerontius and Maximus in 411 and shortly thereafter captured and executed Constantine III. With Constantius back in Italy, the Gallo-Roman senator Jovinus revolted after proclaiming himself Emperor, with the support of the Gallic nobility and the barbarian Burgundians and Alans. Honorius turned to the Visigoths under King Athaulf for support.[63] Athaulf defeated and executed Jovinus and his proclaimed co-emperor Sebastianus in 413, around the same time as another usurper arose in Africa, Heraclianus. Heraclianus attempted to invade Italy but failed and retreated to Carthage, where he was killed.[64] With the Roman legions withdrawn, northern Gaul became increasingly subject to Frankish influence, the Franks naturally adopting a leading role in the region. In 418, Honorius granted southwestern Gaul (Gallia Aquitania) to the Visigoths as a vassal federation. Honorius removed the local imperial governors, leaving the Visigoths and the provincial Roman inhabitants to conduct their own affairs. As such, the first of the "barbarian kingdoms", the Visigothic Kingdom, was formed.[65] Escalating barbarian conflicts[edit] Germanic and Hunnic invasions of the Roman Empire, 100–500 AD Honorius' death in 423 was followed by turmoil until the Eastern Roman government installed Valentinian III as Western Emperor in Ravenna by force of arms, with Galla Placidia acting as regent during her son's minority. Theodosius II, the Eastern Emperor, had hesitated to announce the death of Honorius and in the ensuing interregnum, Joannes was nominated as Western Emperor. Joannes' "rule" was short and the forces of the East defeated and executed him in 425.[66] Boxwood relief depicting the liberation of a besieged city by a relief force, with those defending the walls making a sortie. Western Roman Empire, early 5th century AD After a violent struggle with several rivals, and against Placidia's wish, Aetius rose to the rank of magister militum. Aetius was able to stabilize the Western Empire's military situation somewhat, relying heavily on his Hunnic allies. With their help Aetius undertook extensive campaigns in Gaul, defeating the Visigoths in 437 and 438 but suffering a defeat himself in 439, ending the conflict in a status quo ante with a treaty.[67] Meanwhile, pressure from the Visigoths and a rebellion by Bonifacius, the governor of Africa, induced the Vandals under King Gaiseric to cross from Spain to Tingitana in what is now Morocco in 429. They temporarily halted in Numidia in 435 before moving eastward. With Aetius occupied in Gaul, the Western Roman government could do nothing to prevent the Vandals conquering the wealthy African provinces, culminating in the fall of Carthage on 19 October 439 and the establishment of the Vandal Kingdom. By the 400s, Italy and Rome itself were dependent on the taxes and foodstuffs from these provinces, leading to an economic crisis. With Vandal fleets becoming an increasing danger to Roman sea trade and the coasts and islands of the western and central Mediterranean, Aetius coordinated a counterattack against the Vandals in 440, organizing a large army in Sicily.[68] However, the plans for retaking Africa had to be abandoned due to the immediate need to combat the invading Huns, who in 444 were united under their ambitious king Attila. Turning against their former ally, the Huns became a formidable threat to the Empire. Aetius transferred his forces to the Danube,[68] though Attila concentrated on raiding the Eastern Roman provinces in the Balkans, providing temporary relief to the Western Empire. In 449, Attila received a message from Honoria, Valentinian III's sister, offering him half the western empire if he would rescue her from an unwanted marriage that her brother was forcing her into. With a pretext to invade the West, Attila secured peace with the Eastern court and crossed the Rhine in early 451.[69] With Attila wreaking havoc in Gaul, Aetius gathered a coalition of Roman and Germanic forces, including Visigoths and Burgundians, and prevented the Huns from taking the city of Aurelianum, forcing them into retreat.[70] At the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains, the Roman-Germanic coalition met and defeated the Hunnic forces, though Attila escaped.[71] Attila regrouped and invaded Italy in 452. With Aetius not having enough forces to attack him, the road to Rome was open. Valentinian sent Pope Leo I and two leading senators to negotiate with Attila. This embassy, combined with a plague among Attila's troops, the threat of famine, and news that the Eastern Emperor Marcian had launched an attack on the Hun homelands along the Danube, forced Attila to turn back and leave Italy. When Attila died unexpectedly in 453, the power struggle that erupted between his sons ended the threat posed by the Huns.[72] Internal unrest and Majorian[edit] The Western Roman Empire during the reign of Majorian in 460 AD. During his four-year-long reign from 457 to 461, Majorian successfully restored Western Roman authority in Hispania and most of Gaul. Despite his accomplishments, Roman rule in the west would last less than two more decades. Valentinian III was intimidated by Aetius and was encouraged by the Roman senator Petronius Maximus and the chamberlain Heraclius to assassinate him. When Aetius was at court in Ravenna delivering a financial account, Valentinian suddenly leaped from his seat and declared that he would no longer be the victim of Aetius' drunken depravities. Aetius attempted to defend himself from the charges, but Valentinian drew his sword and struck the weaponless Aetius on the head, killing him on the spot.[73] On 16 March the following year, Valentinian himself was killed by supporters of the dead general, possibly acting for Petronius Maximus. With the end of the Theodosian dynasty, Petronius Maximus proclaimed himself emperor during the ensuing period of unrest.[74] Petronius was not able to take effective control of the significantly weakened and unstable Empire. He broke the betrothal between Huneric, son of the Vandal king Gaiseric, and Eudocia, daughter of Valentinian III. This was seen as a just cause of war by King Gaiseric, who set sail to attack Rome. Petronius and his supporters attempted to flee the city at the sight of the approaching Vandals, only to be stoned to death by a Roman mob. Petronius had reigned only 11 weeks.[75] With the Vandals at the gates, Pope Leo I requested that the King not destroy the ancient city or murder its inhabitants, to which Gaiseric agreed and the city gates were opened to him. Though keeping his promise, Gaiseric looted great amounts of treasure and damaged objects of cultural significance such as the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus. The severity of the Vandal sack of 455 is disputed, though with the Vandals plundering the city for a full fourteen days as opposed to the Visigothic sack of 410, where the Visigoths only spent three days in the city, it was likely more thorough.[76] Avitus, a prominent general under Petronius, was proclaimed emperor by the Visigothic king Theodoric II and accepted as such by the Roman Senate. Though supported by the Gallic provinces and the Visigoths, Avitus was resented in Italy due to ongoing food shortages caused by Vandal control of trade routes, and for using a Visigothic imperial guard. He disbanded his guard due to popular pressure, and the Suebian general Ricimer used the opportunity to depose Avitus, counting on popular discontent. After the deposition of Avitus, the Eastern Emperor Leo I did not select a new western Augustus. The prominent general Majorian defeated an invading force of Alemanni and was subsequently proclaimed Western Emperor by the army and eventually accepted as such by Leo.[77] Majorian was the last Western Emperor to attempt to recover the Western Empire with his own military forces. To prepare, Majorian significantly strengthened the Western Roman army by recruiting large numbers of barbarian mercenaries, among them the Gepids, Ostrogoths, Rugii, Burgundians, Huns, Bastarnae, Suebi, Scythians and Alans, and built two fleets, one at Ravenna, to combat the strong Vandalic fleet. Majorian personally led the army to wage war in Gaul, leaving Ricimer in Italy. The Gallic provinces and the Visigothic Kingdom had rebelled following the deposition of Avitus, refusing to acknowledge Majorian as lawful emperor. At the Battle of Arelate, Majorian decisively defeated the Visigoths under Theoderic II and forced them to relinquish their great conquests in Hispania and return to foederati status. Majorian then entered the Rhone Valley, where he defeated the Burgundians and reconquered the rebel city of Lugdunum. With Gaul back under Roman control, Majorian turned his eyes to the Vandals and Africa. Not only did the Vandals pose a constant danger to coastal Italy and trade in the Mediterranean, but the province they ruled was economically vital to the survival of the West. Majorian began a campaign to fully reconquer Hispania to use it as a base for the reconquest of Africa. Throughout 459, Majorian campaigned against the Suebi in northwestern Hispania.[77] The Vandals began to increasingly fear a Roman invasion. King Gaiseric tried to negotiate a peace with Majorian, who rejected the proposal. In the wake of this, Gaiseric devastated Mauretania, part of his own kingdom, fearing that the Roman army would land there. Having regained control of Hispania, Majorian intended to use his fleet at Carthaginiensis to attack the Vandals. Before he could, the fleet was destroyed, allegedly by traitors paid by the Vandals. Deprived of his fleet, Majorian had to cancel his attack on the Vandals and conclude a peace with Gaiseric. Disbanding his barbarian forces, Majorian intended to return to Rome and issue reforms, stopping at Arelate on his way. Here, Ricimer deposed and arrested him in 461, having gathered significant aristocratic opposition against Majorian. After five days of beatings and torture, Majorian was beheaded near the river Iria.[77] Collapse[edit] See also: Fall of the Western Roman Empire The Western and Eastern Roman Empire by 476 The final collapse of the Empire in the West was marked by increasingly ineffectual puppet Emperors dominated by their Germanic magister militums. The most pointed example of this is Ricimer, who effectively became a "shadow Emperor" following the depositions of Avitus and Majorian. Unable to take the throne for himself due to his barbarian heritage, Ricimer appointed a series of puppet Emperors who could do little to halt the collapse of Roman authority and the loss of the territories re-conquered by Majorian.[78] The first of these puppet emperors, Libius Severus, had no recognition outside of Italy, with the Eastern Emperor Leo I and provincial governors in Gaul and Illyria all refusing to recognize him.[79] Severus died in 465 and Leo I, with the consent of Ricimer, appointed the capable Eastern general Anthemius as Western Emperor following an eighteen-month interregnum. The relationship between Anthemius and the East was good, Anthemius is the last Western Emperor recorded in an Eastern law, and the two courts conducted a joint operation to retake Africa from the Vandals, culminating in the disastrous Battle of Cape Bon in 468. In addition Anthemius conducted failed campaigns against the Visigoths, hoping to halt their expansion.[78] The trial and subsequent execution of Romanus, an Italian senator and friend of Ricimer, on the grounds of treachery in 470 made Ricimer hostile to Anthemius. Following two years of ill feeling, Ricimer successfully deposed and killed Anthemius in 472, elevating Olybrius to the Western throne.[80] During the brief reign of Olybrius, Ricimer died and his nephew Gundobad succeeded him as magister militum. After only seven months of rule, Olybrius died of dropsy. Gundobad elevated Glycerius to Western Emperor. The Eastern Empire had rejected Olybrius and also rejected Glycerius, instead supporting a candidate of their own, Julius Nepos, magister militum in Dalmatia. With the support of Eastern Emperors Leo II and Zeno, Julius Nepos crossed the Adriatic Sea in the spring of 474 to depose Glycerius. At the arrival of Nepos in Italy, Glycerius abdicated without a fight and was allowed to live out his life as the Bishop of Salona.[81] The brief rule of Nepos in Italy ended in 475 when Orestes, a former secretary of Attila and the magister militum of Julius Nepos, took control of Ravenna and forced Nepos to flee by ship to Dalmatia. Later in the same year, Orestes crowned his own young son as Western Emperor under the name Romulus Augustus. Romulus Augustus was not recognised as Western Emperor by the Eastern Court, who maintained that Nepos was the only legal Western Emperor, reigning in exile from Dalmatia.[82] On 4 September 476, Odoacer, leader of the Germanic foederati in Italy, captured Ravenna, killed Orestes and deposed Romulus. Though Romulus was deposed, Nepos did not return to Italy and continued to reign as Western Emperor from Dalmatia, with support from Constantinople. Odoacer proclaimed himself ruler of Italy and began to negotiate with the Eastern Emperor Zeno. Zeno eventually granted Odoacer patrician status as recognition of his authority and accepted him as his viceroy of Italy. Zeno, however, insisted that Odoacer had to pay homage to Julius Nepos as the Emperor of the Western Empire. Odoacer accepted this condition and issued coins in the name of Julius Nepos throughout Italy. This, however, was mainly an empty political gesture, as Odoacer never returned any real power or territories to Nepos. The murder of Nepos in 480 prompted Odoacer to invade Dalmatia, annexing it to his Kingdom of Italy.[83] Fall of the Empire[edit] See also: Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire The city of Ravenna, Western Roman capital, on the Tabula Peutingeriana, a 13th-century medieval map possibly copied from a 4th- or 5th-century Roman original By convention, the Western Roman Empire is deemed to have ended on 4 September 476, when Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustus, but the historical record calls this determination into question. Indeed, the deposition of Romulus Augustus received very little attention in contemporary times. Romulus was a usurper in the eyes of the Eastern Roman Empire and the remaining territories of Western Roman control outside of Italy, with the previous emperor Julius Nepos still being alive and claiming to rule the Western Empire in Dalmatia. Furthermore, the Western court had lacked true power and had been subject to Germanic aristocrats for decades, with most of its legal territory being under control of various barbarian kingdoms. With Odoacer recognising Julius Nepos, and later the Eastern Emperor Zeno, as his sovereign, nominal Roman control continued in Italy.[84] Syagrius, who had managed to preserve Roman sovereignty in an exclave in northern Gaul (a realm today known as the Domain of Soissons) also recognized Nepos as his sovereign and the legitimate Western Emperor.[85] The authority of Julius Nepos as Emperor was accepted not only by Odoacer in Italy, but by the Eastern Empire and Syagrius in Gaul (who had not recognized Romulus Augustulus). Nepos was murdered by his own soldiers in 480, a plot some attribute to Odoacer or the previous, deposed emperor Glycerius,[86] and the Eastern Emperor Zeno chose not to appoint a new western emperor. Zeno, recognizing that no true Roman control remained over the territories legally governed by the Western court, instead chose to abolish the juridical division of the position of Emperor and declared himself the sole emperor of the Roman Empire. Zeno became the first sole Roman emperor since the division after Theodosius I, 85 years prior, and the position would never again be divided. As such, the (eastern) Roman emperors after 480 are the successors of the western ones, albeit only in a juridical sense.[87] These emperors would continue to rule the Roman Empire until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, nearly a thousand years later.[88] As 480 marks the end of the juridical division of the empire into two separate imperial courts, some historians refer to the death of Nepos and abolition of the Western Empire by Zeno as the end of the Western Roman Empire.[85][89] Despite the fall, or abolition, of the Western Empire, many of the new kings of western Europe continued to operate firmly within a Roman administrative framework. This is especially true in the case of the Ostrogoths, who came to rule Italy after Odoacer. They continued to use the administrative systems of Odoacer's kingdom, essentially those of the Western Roman Empire, and administrative positions continued to be staffed exclusively by Romans. The Senate continued to function as it always had, and the laws of the Empire were recognized as ruling the Roman population, though the Goths were ruled by their own traditional laws.[90] Western Roman administrative institutions, in particular those of Italy, thus continued to be used during "barbarian" rule and after the forces of the Eastern Roman empire re-conquered some of the formerly imperial territories. Some historians thus refer to the reorganizations of Italy and abolition of the old and separate Western Roman administrative units, such as the Praetorian prefecture of Italy, during the sixth century as the "true" fall of the Western Roman Empire.[84] Roman cultural traditions continued throughout the territory of the Western Empire for long after its disappearance, and a recent school of interpretation argues that the great political changes can more accurately be described as a complex cultural transformation, rather than a fall.[91] Political aftermath[edit] Map of the Barbarian kingdoms (major kingdoms and the Roman Empire labelled below) of the western Mediterranean in 526, seven years before the campaigns of reconquest under Eastern Emperor Justinian I   The Roman Empire under Justinian   The Vandal Kingdom   The Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy   The Visigothic Kingdom   The Frankish Kingdom After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Germanic kingdoms, often referred to as "barbarian kingdoms", founded during its collapse continued to grow and prosper. Their beginnings, together with the end of the Western Roman Empire, mark the transition from Late Antiquity to the Middle Ages. The practices of the barbarian kingdoms gradually replaced the old Roman institutions, specifically in the praetorian prefectures of Gaul and Italy, during the sixth and seventh centuries.[92] In many places, the Roman institutions collapsed along with the economic stability. In some regions, notably Gaul and Italy, the settlement of barbarians on former Roman lands seems to have caused relatively little disruption, with barbarian rulers using and modifying the Roman systems already in place.[93] The Germanic kingdoms in Italy, Hispania and Gaul continued to recognise the Emperor in Constantinople as a somewhat nominal sovereign, the Visigoths minted coins in their names until the reign of Justinian I in the sixth century.[94] 6th-century Visigothic coin, struck in the name of Emperor Justinian I Some territories under direct Roman control continued to exist in the West even after 480. The Domain of Soissons, a rump state in Northern Gaul ruled by Syagrius, survived until 486 when it was conquered by the Franks under King Clovis I after the Battle of Soissons. Syagrius was known as the "King of the Romans" by the Germanic peoples of the region and repeatedly claimed that he was merely governing a Roman province, not an independent realm.[85] Under Clovis I from the 480s to 511, the Franks would come to develop into a great regional power. After their conquest of Soissons, the Franks defeated the Alemanni in 504 and conquered all Visigothic territory north of the Pyrenees other than Septimania in 507. Relations between the Franks and the Eastern Empire appear to have been positive, with Emperor Anastasius granting Clovis the title of consul following his victory against the Visigoths. At the time of its dissolution in the 800s, the Frankish Kingdom had lasted far longer than the other migration period barbarian kingdoms. Its divided successors would develop into the medieval states of France (initially known as West Francia) and Germany (initially known as East Francia).[95] A Mauro-Roman realm survived in the province of Mauretania Caesariensis until the early 8th century. An inscription on a fortification at the ruined city of Altava from the year 508 identifies a man named Masuna as the king of "Regnum Maurorum et Romanarum", the Kingdom of the Moors and Romans.[96] It is possible that Masuna is the same man as the "Massonas" who allied himself with the forces of the Eastern Roman Empire against the Vandals in 535.[97] This Kingdom was defeated by the Eastern Roman magister militum Gennadius in 578 and its coastal territories were incorporated into the Empire once more.[98] Germanic Italy[edit] Odoacer's Italy in 480 AD, following the annexation of Dalmatia The deposition of Romulus Augustus and the rise of Odoacer as ruler of Italy in 476 received very little attention at the time.[84] Overall, very little changed for the people; there was still a Roman Emperor in Constantinople to whom Odoacer had subordinated himself. Interregna had been experienced at many points in the West before and the deposition of Romulus Augustus was nothing out of the ordinary. Odoacer saw his rule as entirely in the tradition of the Roman Empire, not unlike Ricimer, and he effectively ruled as an imperial "governor" of Italy and was even awarded the title of patricius. Odoacer ruled using the Roman administrative systems already in place and continued to mint coins with the name and portrait of Julius Nepos until 480 and later with the name and portrait of the Eastern Augustus, rather than in his own name.[84] When Nepos was murdered in Dalmatia in 480, Odoacer assumed the duty of pursuing and executing the assassins and established his own rule in Dalmatia at the same time.[99] Odoacer established his power with the loyal support of the Roman Senate, a legislative body that had continued even without an emperor residing in Italy. Indeed, the Senate seems to have increased in power under Odoacer. For the first time since the mid-3rd century, copper coins were issued with the legend S C (Senatus Consulto). These coins were copied by Vandals in Africa and also formed the basis of the currency reform carried out by Emperor Anastasius in the East.[100] Under Odoacer, Western consuls continued to be appointed as they had been under the Western Roman Empire and were accepted by the Eastern Court, the first being Caecina Decius Maximus Basilus in 480. Basilus was made the praetorian prefect of Italy in 483, another traditional position which continued to exist under Odoacer.[101] Eleven further consuls were appointed by the Senate under Odoacer from 480 to 493 and one further Praetorian Prefect of Italy was appointed, Caecina Mavortius Basilius Decius (486–493).[102] Solidus minted under Odoacer with the name and portrait of the Eastern Emperor Zeno Though Odoacer ruled as a Roman governor would have and maintained himself as a subordinate to the remaining Empire, the Eastern Emperor Zeno began to increasingly see him as a rival. Thus, Zeno promised Theoderic the Great of the Ostrogoths, foederati of the Eastern Court, control over the Italian peninsula if he was able to defeat Odoacer.[103] Theoderic led the Ostrogoths across the Julian Alps and into Italy and defeated Odoacer in battle twice in 489. Following four years of hostilities between them, John, the Bishop of Ravenna, was able to negotiate a treaty in 493 between Odoacer and Theoderic whereby they agreed to rule Ravenna and Italy jointly. Theoderic entered Ravenna on 5 March and Odoacer was dead ten days later, killed by Theoderic after sharing a meal with him.[104] Map of the realm of Theodoric the Great at its height in 523, following the annexation of the southern parts of the Burgundian kingdom. Theoderic ruled both the Visigothic and Ostrogothic kingdoms and exerted hegemony over the Burgundians and Vandals. Theoderic inherited Odoacer's role as acting viceroy for Italy and ostensibly a patricius and subject of the emperor in Constantinople. This position was recognized by Emperor Anastasius in 497, four years after Theoderic had defeated Odoacer. Though Theodoric acted as an independent ruler, he meticulously preserved the outward appearance of his subordinate position. Theoderic continued to use the administrative systems of Odoacer's kingdom, essentially those of the Western Roman Empire, and administrative positions continued to be staffed exclusively by Romans. The senate continued to function as it always had and the laws of the Empire were recognized as ruling the Roman population, though the Goths were ruled by their own traditional laws. As a subordinate, Theoderic did not have the right to issue his own laws, only edicts or clarifications.[105] The army and military offices were exclusively staffed by the Goths, however, who largely settled in northern Italy.[106] Though acting as a subordinate in domestic affairs, Theodoric acted increasingly independent in his foreign policies. Seeking to counterbalance the influence of the Empire in the East, Theoderic married his daughters to the Visigothic king Alaric II and the Burgundian prince Sigismund. His sister Amalfrida was married to the Vandal king Thrasamund and he married Audofleda, sister of the Frankish king Clovis I, himself.[107] Through these alliances and occasional conflicts, the territory controlled by Theoderic in the early sixth century nearly constituted a restored Western Roman Empire. Ruler of Italy since 493, Theoderic became king of the Visigoths in 511 and exerted hegemony over the Vandals in North Africa between 521 and 523. As such, his rule extended throughout the western Mediterranean. The Western imperial regalia, housed in Constantinople since the deposition of Romulus Augustulus in 476, were returned to Ravenna by Emperor Anastasius in 497.[108] Theoderic, by now Western Emperor in all but name, could not, however, assume an imperial title, not only because the notion of a separate Western court had been abolished but also due to his "barbarian" heritage, which, like that of Ricimer before him, would have barred him from assuming the throne.[78] With the death of Theodoric in 526, his network of alliances began to collapse. The Visigoths regained autonomy under King Amalaric and the Ostrogoths' relations with the Vandals turned increasingly hostile under the reign of their new king Athalaric, a child under the regency of his mother Amalasuntha.[109] After the collapse of Theoderic's control of the western Mediterranean, the Frankish Kingdom rose to become the most powerful of the barbarian kingdoms, having taken control of most of Gaul in the absence of Roman governance.[95] Amalasuntha continued the policies of conciliation between the Goths and Romans, supporting the new Eastern Emperor Justinian I and allowing him to use Sicily as a staging point during the reconquest of Africa in the Vandalic War. With the death of Athalaric in 534, Amalasuntha crowned her cousin and only relative Theodahad as king, hoping for his support. Instead, Amalasuntha was imprisoned and, even though Theodahad assured Emperor Justinian of her safety, she was executed shortly after. This served as an ideal casus belli for Justinian, who prepared to invade and reclaim the Italian peninsula for the Roman Empire.[109] Imperial reconquest[edit] Further information: Vandalic War and Gothic War (535–554) The Eastern Roman Empire, by reoccupying some of the former Western Roman Empire's lands, enlarged its territory considerably during Justinian's reign from 527 (red) to 565 (orange). With Emperor Zeno having juridically reunified the Empire into one imperial court, the remaining Eastern Roman Empire continued to lay claim to the areas previously controlled by the Western court throughout Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Though military campaigns had been conducted by the Western court prior to 476 with the aim of recapturing lost territory, most notably under Majorian, the reconquests, if successful at all, were only momentary. It was as a result of the campaigns of the generals Belisarius and Narses on behalf of the Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I from 533 to 554 that long-lasting reconquests of Roman lands were witnessed.[110] Despite also suffering from barbarian incursions, the Eastern Empire had survived the fifth century mostly intact. The Western Roman Empire, less urbanized than the Eastern and more thinly populated, may have experienced an economic decline throughout the Late Empire in some provinces.[111] Southern Italy, northern Gaul (except for large towns and cities), and to some extent Spain and the Danubian areas may have suffered. The East fared better economically, especially as Emperors such as Constantine the Great and Constantius II had invested heavily in the eastern economy. As a result, the Eastern Empire could afford large numbers of professional soldiers and to augment them with mercenaries, while the Western Roman Empire could not afford this to the same extent. Even after major defeats, the East could, although not without difficulties, buy off its enemies with a ransom or "protection money".[112] Numbering more than 300,000 soldiers, the Eastern Roman army of Justinian I was among the most powerful in the world.[113] Unlike the Visigoths and Ostrogoths, the Vandals in Africa minted their own coinage and were both de facto and de jure independent, often being enemies of both the Western and Eastern Roman Empires.[114] With the pro-Roman Vandal king Hilderic having been deposed by Gelimer in 530,[115] Justinian prepared an expedition led by Belisarius. It swiftly retook North Africa between June 533 and March 534, returning the wealthy province to Roman rule. Following the reconquest, Justinian swiftly reintroduced the Roman administrations of the province, establishing a new Praetorian Prefecture of Africa and taking measures to decrease Vandal influence, eventually leading to the complete disappearance of the Vandalic people.[116] Justinian I (left) was the first Eastern Emperor to attempt to reconquer the territories of the Western Roman Empire, undertaking successful campaigns in Africa and Italy in the 500s. Manuel I Komnenos (right) was the last, campaigning in southern Italy in the 1150s. Following the execution of the pro-Roman Ostrogoth queen Amalasuntha and the refusal of Ostrogoth King Theodahad to renounce his control of Italy, Justinian ordered the expedition to move on to reconquer Italy, ancient heartland of the Empire. From 534 to 540, the Roman forces campaigned in Italy and captured Ravenna, the Ostrogothic and formerly Western Roman capital, in 540. The Gothic resistance revived under King Totila in 541. They were finally defeated following campaigns by the Roman general Narses, who also repelled invasions into Italy by the Franks and Alemanni, though some cities in northern Italy continued to hold out until the 560s. Justinian promulgated the Pragmatic Sanction to reorganize the governance of Italy and the province was returned to Roman rule. The end of the conflict saw Italy devastated and considerably depopulated, which, combined with the disastrous effects of the Plague of Justinian, made it difficult to retain over the following centuries.[117] At the time of the collapse of the Western Empire in 476–480, the Visigoths controlled large areas of southern Gaul as well as a majority of Hispania. Their increased domain had been partly conquered and partly awarded to them by the Western Emperor Avitus in the 450s–60s.[118] Justinian undertook some limited campaigns against them, recovering portions of the southern coast of the Iberian peninsula. Here, the province of Spania would last until the 620s, when the Visigoths under King Suintila reconquered the south coast.[119] These regions remained under Roman control throughout the reign of Justinian. Three years after his death, the Lombards invaded Italy. The Lombards conquered large parts of the devastated peninsula in the late 500s, establishing the Lombard Kingdom. They were in constant conflict with the Exarchate of Ravenna, a polity established to replace the old Praetorian Prefecture of Italy and enforce Roman rule in Italy. The wealthiest parts of the province, including the cities of Rome and Ravenna, remained securely in Roman hands under the Exarchate throughout the seventh century.[120] Map of the Eastern Roman Empire in 717 AD. Over the course of the seventh and eighth centuries, Islamic expansion had ended Roman rule in Africa and though some bastions of Roman rule remained, most of Italy was controlled by the Lombards. Although other Eastern emperors occasionally attempted to campaign in the West, none were as successful as Justinian. After 600, events conspired to drive the Western provinces out of Constantinople's control, with imperial attention focused on the pressing issues of war with Sasanian Persia and then the rise of Islam. For a while, the West remained important, with Emperor Constans II ruling from Syracuse in Sicily a Roman Empire that still stretched from North Africa to the Caucasus in the 660s. Thereafter, imperial attention declined, with Constantinople itself being besieged in the 670s, renewed war with the Arabs in the 680s, and then a period of chaos between 695 and 717, during which time Africa was finally lost once and for all, being conquered by the Umayyad Caliphate. Through reforms and military campaigns, Emperor Leo III attempted to restore order in the Empire, but his doctrinal reforms, known as the Iconoclastic Controversy, were extremely unpopular in the West and were condemned by Pope Gregory III.[121] The Roman Empire was not the only Christian nation affected by the Islamic conquests, the Visigothic Kingdom finally fell to the Umayyad Caliphate in the 720s.[122][123] The Kingdom of Asturias was founded by Pelagius of Asturias around the same time and was the first Christian realm to be established in Iberia following the defeat of the Visigoths.[124] Asturias would be transformed into the Kingdom of León in 924,[125] which would develop into the predecessors of modern-day Spain.[126] The religious disagreements between Rome and Constantinople eventually led to the breakdown in imperial rule over Rome itself, and the gradual transition of the Exarchate of Ravenna into the independent Papal States, led by the Pope. In an attempt to gain support against the Lombards, the Pope called for aid from the Frankish Kingdom instead of the Eastern Empire, eventually crowning the Frankish king Charlemagne as "Roman Emperor" in 800 AD. Though this coronation was strongly opposed by the Eastern Empire, there was little they could do as their influence in Western Europe decreased. After a series of small wars in the 810s, Emperor Michael I recognized Charlemagne as an "Emperor". He refused to recognize him as a "Roman Emperor" (a title which Michael reserved for himself and his successors), instead recognizing him as the slightly less prestigious "Emperor of the Franks".[127] Imperial rule continued in Sicily throughout the eighth century, with the island slowly being overrun by the Arabs during the course of the ninth century. In Italy, a few strongholds in Calabria provided a base for a later, modest imperial expansion, which reached its peak in the early eleventh century, with most of southern Italy under Roman rule of a sort. This, however, was undone by further civil wars in the Empire, and the slow conquest of the region by the Empire's former mercenaries, the Normans, who finally put an end to imperial rule in Western Europe in 1071 with the conquest of Bari.[128] The last Emperor to attempt reconquests in the West was Manuel I Komnenos, who invaded southern Italy during a war with the Norman Kingdom of Sicily in the 1150s. The city of Bari willingly opened its gates to the Emperor and after successes in taking other cities in the region,[129] Manuel dreamed of a restored Roman Empire and a union between the churches of Rome and Constantinople, separated since the schism of 1054. Despite initial successes and Papal support, the campaign was unsuccessful and Manuel was forced to return east.[130] Legacy[edit] Further information: Legacy of the Roman Empire, Romance languages, Corpus Juris Civilis, Civil law (legal system), Latin alphabet, Literature, Bust (sculpture), Concrete, and Cities On the left: Emperor Honorius on the consular diptych of Anicius Petronius Probus (406) On the right: Consular diptych of Constantius III (a co-emperor with Honorius in 421), produced for his consulate in 413 or 417. As the Western Roman Empire crumbled, the new Germanic rulers who conquered its constituent provinces maintained most Roman laws and traditions. Many of the invading Germanic tribes were already Christianized, although most were followers of Arianism. They quickly changed their adherence to the state church of the Roman Empire. This helped cement the loyalty of the local Roman populations, as well as the support of the powerful Bishop of Rome. Although they initially continued to recognize indigenous tribal laws, they were more influenced by Roman law and gradually incorporated it.[92] Roman law, particularly the Corpus Juris Civilis collected on the orders of Justinian I, is the basis of modern civil law. In contrast, common law is based on Germanic Anglo-Saxon law. Civil law is by far the most widespread system of law in the world, in force in some form in about 150 countries.[131] Romance languages, languages that developed from Latin following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, are spoken in Western Europe to this day and their extent almost reflects the continental borders of the old Empire. Latin as a language did not disappear. Vulgar Latin combined with neighboring Germanic and Celtic languages, giving rise to modern Romance languages such as Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, and a large number of minor languages and dialects. Today, more than 900 million people are native speakers of Romance languages worldwide. In addition, many Romance languages are used as lingua francas by non-native speakers.[132] Latin also influenced Germanic languages such as English and German.[133] It survives in a "purer" form as the language of the Catholic Church; the Catholic Mass was spoken exclusively in Latin until 1969. As such it was also used as a lingua franca by ecclesiasticals. It remained the language of medicine, law, and diplomacy (most treaties were written in Latin[citation needed]), as well as of intellectuals and scholarship, well into the 18th century. Since then the use of Latin has declined with the growth of other lingua francas, especially English and French.[134] The Latin alphabet was expanded due to the split of I into I and J, and of V into U, V, and, in places (especially Germanic languages and Polish), W. It is the most widely used alphabetic writing system in the world today.[citation needed] Roman numerals continue to be used in some fields and situations, though they have largely been replaced by Arabic numerals.[135] A very visible legacy of the Western Roman Empire is the Catholic Church. Church institutions slowly began to replace Roman ones in the West, even helping to negotiate the safety of Rome during the late 5th century.[72] As Rome was invaded by Germanic tribes, many assimilated, and by the middle of the medieval period (c. 9th and 10th centuries) the central, western, and northern parts of Europe had been largely converted to Roman Catholicism and acknowledged the Pope as the Vicar of Christ. The first of the Barbarian kings to convert to the Church of Rome was Clovis I of the Franks; other kingdoms, such as the Visigoths, later followed suit to garner favor with the papacy.[136] When Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne as "Roman Emperor" in 800, he both severed ties with the outraged Eastern Empire and established the precedent that no man in Western Europe would be emperor without a papal coronation.[137] Although the power the Pope wielded changed significantly throughout the subsequent periods, the office itself has remained as the head of the Catholic Church and the head of state of the Vatican City. The Pope has consistently held the title of "Pontifex Maximus" since before the fall of the Western Roman Empire and retains it to this day; this title formerly used by the high priest of the Roman polytheistic religion, one of whom was Julius Caesar.[45][138] The Roman Senate survived the initial collapse of the Western Roman Empire. Its authority increased under the rule of Odoacer and later the Ostrogoths, evident by the Senate in 498 managing to install Symmachus as pope despite both Theodoric of Italy and Emperor Anastasius supporting another candidate, Laurentius.[139] Exactly when the senate disappeared is unclear, but the institution is known to have survived at least into the 6th century, inasmuch as gifts from the senate were received by Emperor Tiberius II in 578 and 580. The traditional senate building, Curia Julia, was rebuilt into a church under Pope Honorius I in 630, probably with permission from the eastern emperor, Heraclius.[140] Nomenclature[edit] Marcellinus Comes, a sixth-century Eastern Roman historian and a courtier of Justinian I, mentions the Western Roman Empire in his Chronicle, which primarily covers the Eastern Roman Empire from 379 to 534. In the Chronicle, it is clear that Marcellinus made a clear divide between East and West, with mentions of a geographical east ("Oriens") and west ("Occidens") and of an imperial east ("Orientale imperium" and "Orientale respublica") and an imperial west ("Occidentalie imperium", "Occidentale regnum", "Occidentalis respublica", "Hesperium regnum", "Hesperium imperium" and "principatum Occidentis"). Furthermore, Marcellinus specifically designates some emperors and consuls as being "Eastern", "Orientalibus principibus" and "Orientalium consulum" respectively.[141] The term Hesperium Imperium, translating to "Western Empire", has sometimes been applied to the Western Roman Empire by modern historians as well.[142] Though Marcellinus does not refer to the Empire as a whole after 395, only to its separate parts, he clearly identifies the term "Roman" as applying to the Empire as a whole. When using terms such as "us", "our generals", and "our emperor", Marcellinus distinguished both divisions of the Empire from outside foes such as the Sasanian Persians and the Huns.[141] This view is consistent with the view that contemporary Romans of the 4th and 5th centuries continued to consider the Empire as a single unit, although more often than not with two rulers instead of one.[89] The first time the Empire was divided geographically was during the reign of Diocletian, but there was precedent for multiple emperors. Before Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, there had been a number of periods where there were co-emperors, such as with Caracalla and Geta in 210–211, who inherited the imperial throne from their father Septimius Severus, but Caracalla ruled alone after the murder of his brother.[143] Attempted restorations of a Western court[edit] Maps of the Exarchates within the Roman Empire in 600 AD. The Exarchates of Ravenna (left) and Africa (right) were established by the Eastern Empire to better administer the reconquered Western territories. The positions of Eastern and Western Augustus, established under Emperor Diocletian in 286 as the Tetrarchy, had been abolished by Emperor Zeno in 480 following the loss of direct control over the western territories. Declaring himself the sole Augustus, Zeno only exercised true control over the largely intact Eastern Empire and over Italy as the nominal overlord of Odoacer.[87] The reconquests under Justinian I would bring back large formerly Western Roman territories into Imperial control, and with them the Empire would begin to face the same problems it had faced under previous periods prior to the Tetrarchy when there had been only one ruler. Shortly after the reconquest of North Africa a usurper, Stotzas, appeared in the province (though he was quickly defeated).[144] As such, the idea of dividing the Empire into two courts out of administrative necessity would see a limited revival during the period that the Eastern Empire controlled large parts of the former West, both by courtiers in the East and enemies in the West.[145][146] The earliest attempt at crowning a new Western Emperor after the abolition of the title occurred already during the Gothic Wars under Justinian. Belisarius, an accomplished general who had already successfully campaigned to restore Roman control over North Africa and large parts of Italy, including Rome itself, was offered the position of Western Roman Emperor by the Ostrogoths during his siege of Ravenna (the Ostrogothic, and previously Western Roman, capital) in 540. The Ostrogoths, desperate to avoid losing their control of Italy, offered the title and their fealty to Belisarius as Western Augustus. Justinian had expected to rule over a restored Roman Empire alone, with the Codex Justinianeus explicitly designating the new Praetorian Prefect of Africa as the subject of Justinian in Constantinople.[147] Belisarius, loyal to Justinian, feigned acceptance of the title to enter the city, whereupon he immediately relinquished it. Despite Belisarius relinquishing the title, the offer had made Justinian suspicious and Belisarius was ordered to return east.[145] At the end of Emperor Tiberius II's reign in 582, the Eastern Roman Empire retained control over relatively large parts of the regions reconquered under Justinian. Tiberius chose two Caesares, the general Maurice and the governor Germanus, and married his two daughters to them. Germanus had clear connections to the western provinces, and Maurice to the eastern provinces. It is possible that Tiberius was planning to divide the empire into western and eastern administrative units once more.[146] If so, the plan was never realized. At the death of Tiberius, Maurice inherited the entire empire as Germanus had refused the throne. Maurice established a new type of administrative unit, the Exarchate, and organized the remaining western territories under his control into the Exarchate of Ravenna and the Exarchate of Africa.[148] Later claims to the Imperial title in the West[edit] See also: Problem of two emperors Denarius of Frankish king Charlemagne, who was crowned as Roman Emperor Karolus Imperator Augustus in the year 800 by Pope Leo III due to, and in opposition to, the Roman Empire in the East being ruled by Irene, a woman. His coronation was strongly opposed by the Eastern Empire. In addition to remaining as a concept for an administrative unit in the remaining Empire, the ideal of the Roman Empire as a mighty Christian Empire with a single ruler further continued to appeal to many powerful rulers in western Europe. With the papal coronation of Charlemagne as "Emperor of the Romans" in 800 AD, his realm was explicitly proclaimed as a restoration of the Roman Empire in Western Europe under the concept of translatio imperii. Though the Carolingian Empire collapsed in 888 and Berengar, the last "Emperor" claiming succession from Charlemagne, died in 924, the concept of a papacy- and Germanic-based Roman Empire in the West would resurface in the form of the Holy Roman Empire in 962. The Holy Roman Emperors would uphold the notion that they had inherited the supreme power and prestige of the Roman Emperors of old until the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806.[149] Charlemagne, and the subsequent Holy Roman Emperors, were not, and did not claim to be, rulers of a restored Western Roman Empire. Pope Leo III and contemporary historians were fully aware of that the notion of a separate Western court had been abolished over three centuries prior and considered the Roman Empire to be "one and indivisible". The ruler of the Roman Empire at the time of Charlemagne's coronation was Irene, the mother of emperor Constantine VI who she had deposed. Leo III considered Irene to be a usurper and illegitimate to rule due to her gender and as such considered the imperial throne to be vacant. Thus, Charlemagne was not crowned as the ruler of the Western Roman Empire and successor to Romulus Augustulus, but rather as the successor of Constantine VI and as sole Roman Emperor. Irene was deposed and replaced by Emperor Nikephoros soon after, and the Eastern Empire refused to recognize the Imperial title of Charlemagne. Following several wars in the 810s Emperor Michael I Rangabe eventually recognized Charlemagne as an "Emperor", but as the slightly humiliating "Emperor of the Franks" rather than "Roman Emperor", a title he reserved for himself.[127] For centuries to come, the "revived" Western court and the Eastern court, in direct succession to the Roman Emperors of old, would make competing claims to be rulers of the whole Roman Empire. With the Eastern Empire terming the Holy Roman Empire as an "Empire of the Franks", the term "Empire of the Greeks" was popularized in the Frankish court as a way to refer to the Empire centered in Constantinople.[150] Following the end of the Eastern Roman Empire after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 and the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the title of "Emperor" became widespread among European monarchs. The Austrian Empire laid claim to be the heir of the Holy Roman Empire as Austria's Habsburgs attempted to unite Germany under their rule.[151] The German Empire, established in 1871, also claimed to be a successor of Rome through the lineage of the Holy Roman Empire.[152] Both of these empires used the imperial title Kaiser (derived from the Latin word "Caesar"), the German word for emperor. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary, successor of the Austrian Empire, would both fall in the aftermath of the First World War along with the Russian and Ottoman Empires who had both claimed succession from the Eastern Roman Empire.[153][154][155] List of Western Roman Emperors[edit] With junior colleagues titled Caesar listed below the reign of each emperor. Tetrarchy (286–313)[edit] Main article: Tetrarchy Bust of Emperor Maximian, the first Western Roman Emperor Maximian: 286–305[156] Constantius Chlorus: 293–305[157] Maximian was elevated to caesar by Diocletian in 285, after Diocletian defeated Carinus.[158] He became Western Emperor in 286, with the establishment of the Tetrarchy. On 1 May 305, both Maximian and Diocletian abdicated, leaving Constantius and Galerius as emperors.[159] Constantius I Chlorus: 305–306[160] Valerius Severus: 305–306[161] Constantius Chlorus was elevated to caesar in 293, under Maximian. Constantius became the Western Emperor in 305, after the abdication of Maximian.[159] Constantius died on 25 July 306, leaving a highly contested succession in his wake.[162] Valerius Severus: 306–307[161] Constantine: 306–307[161] Valerius Severus was elevated to caesar by Constantius in 305, after the abdication of Maximian and Diocletian. After the death of Constantius in 306, Severus became Western Emperor. Severus was forced to deal with the revolt of Maxentius, the son of Maximian. Maxentius invaded in early 307, and successfully captured the Western Empire.[163] He had Severus put to death soon after his capture.[164] Maxentius: 307–312[161] Maxentius was proclaimed emperor in 306, in opposition to Valerius Severus. He succeeded in capturing the Western Empire in 307, and had Severus killed soon after.[165] The Western Empire was invaded in 312 by Constantine, who on 28 October 312 decisively defeated Maxentius, who drowned when his forces were pushed back into the Tiber river.[166] Licinius: 308–313[161] Licinius was made emperor of the Eastern Empire, and parts of the Western Empire, all of which was actually held by Maxentius, at the Council of Carnuntum, which was held in 308 in order to try to end the civil war in the Western Empire. Constantine invaded Licinius' section of the Western Empire in 313, and forced him to sign a treaty in which he forfeited his claim to the Western Empire, and only controlled the Eastern Empire.[167] Constantinian dynasty (309–363)[edit] Main article: Constantinian dynasty Bust of Emperor Constantine I, the founder of the Constantinian dynasty Constantine I: 309–337 (Sole Emperor: 324–337).[161] Constantine I was proclaimed caesar of the Western Empire on 25 July 306. After 309 he proclaimed himself as the Western Emperor, in opposition to Maxentius and Licinius. He was the sole Western Emperor from 312–324, when he became both Western Emperor and Eastern Emperor.[168] Constantine II 337–340 (Emperor of Gaul, Britannia and Hispania: 337–340).[161] Constantine II was proclaimed caesar of the Eastern Empire in late 317. In 335, Constantine I allotted the inheritance his sons would receive after his death, which would take place two years later in 337, giving Constantine II control of Gaul, Britannia and Hispania. Constantine II's relationship with Constans I was tense, and in 340, Constantine took advantage of Constans absence from Italy and invaded it. However, in the same year, he was ambushed by Constans' forces in Aquilea, and was killed.[169] Constans I 337–350 (Emperor of Italy and Africa: 337–340, Western Emperor: 340–350).[161] Constans was proclaimed emperor of Italy and Africa in 337, after the death of Constantine I. After Constantine II was killed in 340, while attempting to invade Constans' territory in Italy, Constans took control of the entire Western Empire. Constans was contemptuous of his army, who as a result proclaimed Magnentius as emperor in 350. Constans fled toward Hispania, but was captured and executed by an agent of Magnentius on the border.[170] Constantius II 351–361 (Eastern Emperor: 337–351, Sole Emperor: 351–361).[161] Julian: 355–361[161] Constantius II was proclaimed caesar in 334, and became Eastern Emperor in 337, after the death of Constantine I. After Constans was killed by the usurper Magnentius, Constantius laid claim to the Western Empire, and after defeating Magnentius in 351, took possession of it, becoming sole emperor. Constantius II died in 361, of a violent fever.[171] Julian: 361–363 (Sole Emperor).[161] Julian was proclaimed caesar in 355, before becoming emperor in 361, after Constantius II died of a violent fever in 361. Julian died in March 363, of wounds sustained during the Battle of Samarra.[172] Non-dynastic (363–364)[edit] Jovian: 363–364 (Sole Emperor).[161] When Julian died in 363, he left no heir, causing a succession crisis. The Roman Army elected Jovian as sole emperor. Jovian reigned only seven months, in which he signed a humiliating peace treaty with the Sasanian Empire, under Shapur II. In this agreement, Rome surrendered five provinces and 18 fortresses to the Sasanians, in exchange for a 30-year truce. Jovian died on 16 February 364, due to either indigestion or charcoal vapour inhalation.[173] Valentinianic dynasty (364–392)[edit] Main article: Valentinianic dynasty Bust of Emperor Valentinian II, a member of the Valentinianic dynasty's second generation of emperors Valentinian I: 364–375[161] Gratian: 367–375[161] After the death of Jovian, Valentinian I was elected. He divided the Empire between himself and his younger brother, Valens, giving himself the West and Valens the East. Valentinian spent much of his reign defending Gaul against repeated attacks by barbarian tribes, only leaving the region in 373. In 375, while meeting with the Quadi, he suffered a stroke brought on by rage.[174] Gratian: 375–383[161] Valentinian II: 375–383[161] Valentinian elevated his son, Gratian, to caesar in 367, however on his deathbed he elevated his much younger son, Valentinian II, to caesar along with Gratian, and Valens who was emperor in the East.[175] Gratian showed a strong preference for the barbarian mercenaries in his army, especially his Alanic guard, which inflamed the Roman population, to the point that in 383, Roman troops in Britain declared Magnus Maximus emperor, in opposition to Gratian. Maximus landed troops in Gaul, and attacked Gratian's troops near Paris. Gratian was defeated, and fled to Lyons, where he was murdered on 25 August 383.[176] Valentinian II: 383–392[161] After the death of Gratian, Valentinian II succeeded him, although he only controlled Italy itself, with all other Western Roman provinces recognizing Maximus. In 387 Maximus invaded Italy, to depose Valentinian. Valentinian fled to the court of Theodosius, where he succeeded in convincing Theodosius to attack Maximus, and to reinstate himself as Western Emperor, which was done after Maximus was defeated in battle near Aquileia.[176] Valentinian continued to rule the Western Empire until 392, when he was murdered by Arbogast.[177] Magnus Maximus: 384–388[178][179] Flavius Victor: 383/387–388[178][180][181] Magnus Maximus was elected emperor by his men in 384, in opposition to Gratian, who defeated him in battle in 383. Maximus was briefly recognized as the Western Emperor by Eastern Emperor Theodosius I, however this recognition was revoked by both when Maximus invaded Italy and deposed Valentinian II in 387. Valentinian II fled to the Eastern Roman Empire, and convinced Theodosius to invade the Western Roman Empire and restore him to the Western Roman throne, which he did in 388. Maximus was defeated in battle near Aquileia, and executed.[176][178][180][181] Theodosian dynasty (392–455)[edit] Main article: Theodosian dynasty Emperor Honorius, as depicted by Jean-Paul Laurens in 1880 Theodosius I: 394–395 (Eastern Roman Emperor: 379–394, sole Emperor: 394–395)[161] Theodosius was proclaimed Eastern Emperor by Gratian on 19 January 379, after securing victory against invading barbarians along the Danube. He became sole emperor in August 394, after defeating the usurper Eugenius. Theodosius died of edema in January 395.[182] Honorius: 395–423[161] Constantine III: 409–411[161] Constans II: 409–411[161] Constantius III: 421.[161] Honorius became Western Emperor in 395, after the death of his father Theodosius. His reign was beset by barbarian invasions, and for much of his early reign, until 408, he was controlled by Stilicho, whose influence over Honorius would create a standard for puppet Western Emperors. Honorius died of edema in 423.[183] Valentinian III: 425–455[161] Valentinian III was designated Honorius' heir in 421, although he was not proclaimed caesar, only given the title of nobilissimus puer. In 423, after the death of Honorius, a usurper named Joannes rose up, forcing Valentinian III to flee with his family to the court of the Eastern Emperor Theodosius II. He was installed as Western Emperor in 425, after Joannes was defeated by Theodosius in Ravenna. Valentinian was killed on 16 March 455, by Optila, a friend of Flavius Aetius, whom Valentinian had killed.[184] Non-dynastic (455–480)[edit] Petronius Maximus: 455 (Not recognized by Eastern Emperor)[161] Palladius: 455.[185] Petronius Maximus became the Western Roman Emperor on 17 March 455, after assassinating Valentinian III.[185] During his short reign, he provoked Gaiseric, the Vandal king, into invading the Western Empire and sacking Rome, by breaking a marriage agreement made between Gaiseric and Valentinian III. Maximus and his son Palladius attempted to flee on 31 May 455, however they were apprehended by a group of peasants, and either killed by them, or by palace servants wishing to curry favor with them.[186][187] Avitus: 455–456 (Not recognized by Eastern Emperor)[161] Avitus was proclaimed Western Emperor on 9 July 455, with the support of the Visigoth King Theodoric II. While he held support from the Visigoths, his rule alienated both the Roman Senate and people. In 456 Ricimer, a senior officer, had Avitus deposed, and ruled the Western Empire through a series of puppet emperors until his death in 472.[188] Majorian: 457–461[161] Majorian was proclaimed Western Emperor 1 April 456, officially by Eastern Emperor Leo I, however in reality Leo's decision was swayed by the influence of Ricimer. On 7 August 461, Majorian was compelled to abdicate, and reportedly died five days later of dysentery, although modern historians have asserted he was likely murdered.[189] Libius Severus: 461–465 (Not recognized by Eastern Emperor)[161] Libius Severus was proclaimed Western Emperor on 19 November 461. His rule, even as a puppet emperor, extended little beyond Italy, with Aegidius splitting off from the Western Empire, and establishing the Kingdom of Soissons. Libius Severus incited the hostility of the Vandals, who invaded Italy and Sicily. During these events, Libius Severus died on 14 November 465, possibly due to being poisoned by Ricimer.[190] Anthemius: 467–472[161] Anthemius was proclaimed Western Emperor on 12 April 467 by Leo I. Under Anthemius, the Western Empire, which had become increasingly isolated from the Eastern Empire, grew closer, although this collaboration came too late to save the Western Empire. Anthemius' friendly attitude towards the Eastern Empire angered Ricimer, who deposed him in March or April of 472.[191] Olybrius: 472 (Not recognized by Eastern Emperor)[161] Olybrius was proclaimed emperor in April 472. His brief reign, lasting only five or six months, was dominated by Gundobad, who had replaced his uncle Ricimer as the true power behind the throne, after the former's death. Olybrius died in October or November 472, of edema.[192] Glycerius: 473–474 (Not recognized by Eastern Emperor)[161] After the death of both Olybrius and Ricimer, Glycerius was proclaimed Western Emperor by the Western Roman Army, on 3 or 5 May 473.[193] He was deposed by Julius Nepos in July 474, and sent to live in a monastery, where he remained until his death.[194] Julius Nepos: 474–475 (In exile 475–480)[195] The Eastern Roman Empire had rejected the coronation of both Olybrius and Glycerius, instead supporting Julius Nepos, magister militum in Dalmatia as Western Roman Emperor. Nepos, with support from the East, deposed Glycerius in the spring of 474.[81] Orestes, magister militum of Nepos, deposed him a year later in 475, forcing Nepos to flee Ravenna to his estates in Dalmatia. Orestes crowned his son Romulus as Western Emperor, though the Eastern Empire and the Western possessions outside of Italy maintained recognition of Nepos as the legitimate Emperor.[82] Nepos continued to rule as "Western Emperor" in exile in Dalmatia until his murder in 480 and would be the last holder of the title.[86] Romulus Augustus: 475–476 (Not recognized by Eastern Emperor)[195] Romulus Augustus was crowned as Western Emperor after his father Orestes deposed Julius Nepos.[82] The rule of Romulus would be brief; in the autumn of 476 the foederati under the control of Odoacer rebelled when their demands for a third of the land of Italy were ignored.[196] Orestes was captured and executed on 28 August the same year and Romulus was deposed by Odoacer a week later. 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"The Code of Justinian – Book 1". droitromain.univ-grenoble-alpes.fr. Archived from the original on 25 February 2018. Retrieved 25 February 2018. Shapur Shahbazi, A. "Sasanian Dynasty – Encyclopedia Iranica". www.iranicaonline.org. Archived from the original on 17 November 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2018. Further reading[edit] Börm, Henning (2018). Westrom: Von Honorius bis Justinian. Kohlhammer. ISBN 978-3-17-033216-4. Heather, Peter (2003). The Visigoths from the Migration Period to the Seventh Century: An Ethnographic Perspective. Boydell & Brewer Ltd. ISBN 978-1843830337. Kolb, Frank (1987). Diocletian und die Erste Tetrarchie : Improvisation oder Experiment in der Organisation monarchischer Herrschaft?. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-010934-4. Merills, Andy; Miles, Richard (2007). The Vandals. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1405160681. 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en-wikipedia-org-2679	----	Priscus - Wikipedia Priscus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Priscus (disambiguation). Priscus (left) with the Roman embassy at the court of Attila the Hun, holding his ΙΣΤΟΡΙΑ (History, which the painter has incorrectly spelled ΙΣΤΩΡΙΑ). (Detail from Mór Than's Feast of Attila.) Priscus of Panium (/ˈprɪskəs/; Greek: Πρίσκος) was a 5th-century Eastern Roman diplomat and Greek historian and rhetorician (or sophist).[1][2][3][4] Contents 1 Biography 1.1 History of Byzantium 1.2 Priscus account of a dinner with Attila the Hun 1.3 Priscus in fiction 2 Remaining works 3 References 3.1 Citations 3.2 Sources 4 Further reading 5 External links Biography[edit] Priscus was born in Panion (located in Thrace) between 410-420 AD.[1][2] In 448/449 AD, he accompanied Maximinus, the head of the Byzantine embassy representing Emperor Theodosius the Younger (r. 408–450), on a diplomatic mission to the court of Attila the Hun.[1][2][4] While there, he met and conversed with a Greek merchant, dressed in "Scythian" (or Hunnic) fashion, who was captured eight years earlier (circa 441–442) when the city of Viminacium (located on the Danube east of modern-day Belgrade) was sacked by the Huns.[5][6] The trader explained to Priscus that after the sack of Viminacium, he was a slave of Onegesius, a Hunnic nobleman, but obtained his freedom and chose to settle among the Huns.[6][7] Priscus ultimately engaged in a debate with the Greek defector regarding the qualities of life and justice in both the Byzantine Empire and in barbarian kingdoms.[1] After an interlude in Rome, Priscus traveled to Alexandria and the Thebaid in Egypt.[1][2] He last appeared in the East, circa 456, attached to the staff of Euphemios as Emperor Marcian's (r. 450–457) magister officiorum.[1] He died after 472 AD.[1] History of Byzantium[edit] Priscus was the author of an eight-volume historical work, written in Greek, entitled the History of Byzantium (Greek: Ἱστορία Βυζαντιακή), which was probably not the original title name.[1][2] The History probably covered the period from the accession of Attila the Hun to the accession of Emperor Zeno (r. 474–475), or from 433 up until 474 AD.[2] Priscus's work currently survives in fragments and was very influential in the Byzantine Empire.[1] The History was used in the Excerpta de Legationibus of Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (r. 913–959), as well as by authors such as Evagrius Scholasticus, Cassiodorus, Jordanes, and the author of the Souda.[1] Priscus's writing style is straightforward and his work is regarded as a reliable contemporary account of Attila the Hun, his court, and the reception of the Roman ambassadors.[2] He is considered a "classicizing" historian to the extent that his work, though written during the Christian era, is almost completely secular and relies on a style and word-choice that are part of an historiographical tradition dating back to the fifth century BC.[8] Priscus account of a dinner with Attila the Hun[edit] Priscus recounted the story of a dinner with Attila the Hun which took place at one of Attila's many houses. This house was said to be greater than the rest (having been made for celebration) due to it being constructed of decorative polished wood, with little thought to making any part of the place for defense. The dinner was at three o’clock; Priscus entered the house bearing gifts to Attila's wife; her name was Kreka and she had three sons. Priscus and the embassy of Eastern Romans were placed at the end of the table farthest from Attila but still in his presence; this was meant to show that he was greater than the Roman guests, and that Attila considered his people to be more important than Priscus and the Roman embassy. As Priscus and the Eastern Roman embassy stood, they followed the cultural tradition of being served tea from the cupbearers; they were to pray and have a drink before having a seat at the table. The seats were arranged parallel to the walls; Attila sat on the middle couch. The right side of Attila was reserved for his honored Chiefs, and everyone else including Priscus and the Roman embassies sat on the left. After being seated, everyone raised a glass to pledge one another with wine. Once the cupbearers left another attendant came in with a platter of meat, followed by bread and other foods of the time. All of the food was served onto plates of silver and gold. Priscus also notes that Attila didn’t use any silver or gold plates but instead used a cup made of wood; also, his attire was not very grand. Once the first round was finished, they stood and drank again to the health of Attila. When evening arrived torches were lit and songs that were about Attila's victories were sung.[7][9][10] Priscus in fiction[edit] Priscus is an important character in Slave of the Huns by Geza Gardonyi. He is depicted as a kindly master and scholar, and part of the novel is based on his account of his visit to Attila. Remaining works[edit] The remaining works of Priscus are currently published in four collections: Given, John (2014). The Fragmentary History of Priscus. Merchantville, New Jersey: Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-935228-14-1. Blockley, Roger C. (2009). The Fragmentary Classicising Historians of the Later Roman Empire. II. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Francis Cairns. ISBN 978-0-905205-51-9. Gordon, Colin Douglas (1966). The Age of Attila: Fifth-century Byzantium and the Barbarians. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. Dindorfius, Ludovicus (1870). Historici Graeci Minores (Volume 1). Leipzig, Germany: B. G. Teubneri. References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h i j Kazhdan 1991, "Priskos", p. 1721. ^ a b c d e f g Chisholm 1911, p. 361. ^ Toynbee & Myers 1948, p. 14: "The renegade Greek business man from Viminacium whom the Greek historian and Roman diplomatist Priscus encountered in Attila's ordu on the Alföld in A.D. 449 has already come to our notice." ^ a b Christophilopoulou 1986, p. 209: "For information about Attila, his court and the organization of life generally in his realm we have the authentic and reliable evidence of contemporary Greek historian Priscus, who accompanied Maximinus, the head of the Byzantine embassy, in 448." ^ Halsall 1996; Kelly 2004, p. 176; Toynbee & Myers 1948, p. 14. ^ a b Jones 1964, p. 866: "Priscus of Panium met one of these in Attila's camp. He was, he said, a Greek who had settled at Viminacium on the Danube and prospered in trade and married a rich wife. He was wealthy enough to be allotted as a special prize to Onegesius, one of the Hunnic nobles, when the town was captured." ^ a b Halsall 1996. ^ Given 2014, p. xvii. ^ Robinson 1905. ^ Ase Berit, Rolf Strandskogen (2 December 2016). Lifelines in World History. Routledge. ISBN 9781317466031. Sources[edit] Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Priscus" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 361.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Christophilopoulou, Aikaterinē (1986). Byzantine History (Volume 1). Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Adolf M. Hakkert. ISBN 90-256-0836-1. Given, John (2014). The Fragmentary History of Priscus. Merchantville, New Jersey: Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-935228-14-1. Halsall, Paul (March 1996). "Priscus at the Court of Attila". Retrieved 4 December 2011 – via Fordham University, Internet Medieval Source Book. Jones, Arnold Hugh Martin (1964). The Later Roman Empire, 284-602 (Volume Two). Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8018-3354-X. Kazhdan, Alexander Petrovich, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. New York, New York and Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6. Kelly, Christopher (2004). Ruling the Later Roman Empire. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01564-9. Robinson, J. H. (1905). "Priscus describes the court of Attila king of the Huns (448)". Readings in European History. Boston: Ginn. pp. 46–49. Retrieved 2 December 2016 – via Fordham University, Internet Medieval Source Book. Toynbee, Arnold Joseph; Myers, Edward DeLos (1948). A Study of History (Volume 8). Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. Further reading[edit] Gordon, Colin Douglas (1964). "Fifth Century Chronology of in the Fragments of Priscus". New Review. IV (2–3). Thompson, E. A. (July–October 1945). "Priscus of Panium, Fragment I b". The Classical Quarterly. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. 39 (3/4): 92–94. doi:10.1017/s0009838800022643. JSTOR 637017. External links[edit] Media related to Priscus at Wikimedia Commons Georgetown University: "Priscus at the Court of Attila" (Translation by J. B. Bury) v t e Byzantine historians 5th century Annianus of Alexandria Eunapius John Rufus Malchus Olympiodorus of Thebes Panodorus of Alexandria Philostorgius Priscus Sabinus of Heraclea Socrates of Constantinople Sozomen Theodoret 6th century Agathias Cyril of Scythopolis Eustathius of Epiphania Evagrius Scholasticus Hesychius of Miletus John Diakrinomenos John of Ephesus John of Epiphania Pseudo-Joshua the Stylite Jordanes John Malalas Liberatus of Carthage Marcellinus Comes Menander Protector Nonnosus Peter the Patrician Procopius Theodorus Lector Theophanes of Byzantium Zacharias Rhetor Zosimus 7th century Chronicon Paschale John of Antioch Trajan the Patrician Theophylact Simocatta 8th century Hippolytus of Thebes 9th century Theophanes the Confessor George Syncellus Nikephoros I of Constantinople George Hamartolos Scriptor Incertus 10th century Chronicle of Monemvasia Constantine VII Joseph Genesius John Kaminiates Leo the Deacon Pseudo-Simeon Symeon the Metaphrast Theophanes Continuatus 11th century Michael Attaleiates George Kedrenos Michael Psellos John Skylitzes John Xiphilinus Yahya of Antioch 12th century Nikephoros Bryennios the Younger Niketas Choniates Eustathius of Thessalonica Michael Glykas Anna Komnene John Kinnamos Constantine Manasses Joannes Zonaras 13th century George Akropolites Theodore Skoutariotes 14th century Nicephorus Gregoras Nikephoros Kallistos Xanthopoulos John VI Kantakouzenos George Kodinos George Pachymeres Michael Panaretos 15th century John Anagnostes John Cananus Laonikos Chalkokondyles Michael Critobulus Doukas George Sphrantzes Authority control BIBSYS: 10016039 BNF: cb11985590w (data) GND: 100537723 ISNI: 0000 0003 7511 4507 LCCN: n84080832 NKC: jo2007376790 NLI: 000107899 NTA: 07004886X RERO: 02-A003712604 SELIBR: 315893 SUDOC: 027916138 VcBA: 495/183162 VIAF: 214797458 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n84080832 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Priscus&oldid=995189893" Categories: Byzantine historians 5th-century historians 5th-century Byzantine people Byzantine diplomats 5th-century Byzantine writers Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from April 2013 CS1 maint: ref=harv Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Беларуская Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Galego Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Қазақша Latina Magyar Nederlands Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Shqip Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 19 December 2020, at 18:44 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2696	----	Nihilism - Wikipedia Nihilism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Philosophy antithetical to concepts of meaningfulness This article is about the philosophical viewpoint. For other uses, see Nihilism (disambiguation). "Nihilist" redirects here. For other uses, see Nihilist (disambiguation). Part of a series on Nihilism The Nihilist by Paul Merwart Origins Fichteanism Nominalism Reductionism Russian nihilism Skepticism Concepts Amorality Anomie Après moi, le déluge God is dead Last man Meaninglessness Nonexistence Nothingness Paradox of nihilism Valuelessness Theories Philosophical nihilism Epistemological Existential Mereological Metaphysical Moral Ontological Other theories Legal National Political Scientific Therapeutic Theoreticians Russian nihilists Mikhail Bakunin Nikolay Chernyshevsky Nikolay Dobrolyubov Sofya Kovalevskaya Sergey Nechayev Dmitry Pisarev Varfolomey Zaytsev Other theoreticians Nihilists Non-nihilists Theodor Adorno Jean Baudrillard Buddha Albert Camus Emil Cioran Gilles Deleuze Fyodor Dostoevsky Gorgias Hegesias of Cyrene Martin Heidegger Friedrich Jacobi Søren Kierkegaard Philipp Mainländer Friedrich Nietzsche Keiji Nishitani Seraphim Rose Jean-Paul Sartre Oswald Spengler Max Stirner Leo Strauss Helmut Thielicke Jun Tsuji Ivan Turgenev Related topics Absurdism Anarchism Antifoundationalism Antinatalism Antinihilistic novel Atheism Egoism Existentialism Misanthropy Nietzschean affirmation Pessimism Philosophy of suicide Postmodernity Solipsism  Philosophy portal  Religion portal v t e Part of a series on Philosophy Plato Kant Nietzsche Buddha Confucius Averroes Branches Aesthetics Epistemology Ethics Legal philosophy Logic Metaphysics Philosophy of language Philosophy of mind Philosophy of science Political philosophy Social philosophy Periods Ancient Pre-Socratic Hellenistic Medieval Modern Early modern Late modern Contemporary Traditions Analytic Neopositivism Ordinary language Continental Existentialism Phenomenology Pragmatism Skepticism Traditions by region African Eastern Chinese Indian Middle-Eastern Egyptian Iranian Western Traditions by school Aristotelian Augustinian Averroist Avicennist Hegelian Kantian Occamist Platonist Neoplatonist Scotist Thomist Traditions by religion Buddhist Christian Humanist Hindu Jain Jewish Judeo-Islamic Islamic Early Islamic Illuminationist Sufi Literature Aesthetics Epistemology Ethics Logic Metaphysics Political philosophy Philosophers Aestheticians Epistemologists Ethicists Logicians Metaphysicians Social and political philosophers Lists Index Outline Years Problems Publications Theories Glossary Philosophers Miscellaneous Philosopher Wisdom Women in philosophy  Philosophy portal v t e Nihilism (/ˈnaɪ(h)ɪlɪzəm, ˈniː-/; from Latin nihil 'nothing') is a philosophy, or family of views within philosophy, expressing some form of negation towards life[1][2] or towards fundamental concepts such as knowledge, existence, and the meaning of life.[3] Different nihilist positions hold variously that human values are baseless, that life is meaningless, that knowledge is impossible, or that some set of entities does not exist.[4][5] The study of nihilism may regard it as merely a label that has been applied to various separate philosophies,[6] or as a distinct historical concept arising out of nominalism, skepticism, and philosophical pessimism, as well as possibly out of Christianity itself.[7] Contemporary understanding of the idea stems largely from the Nietzschean 'crisis of nihilism', from which derives the two central concepts: the destruction of higher values and the opposition to the affirmation of life.[8][4] Earlier forms of nihilism however, may be more selective in negating specific hegemonies of social, moral, political and aesthetic thought.[9] Beyond Europe, elements of Buddhist scripture have been identified as among the earliest discourses and critiques of nihilistic thought. The term is sometimes used in association with anomie to explain the general mood of despair at a perceived pointlessness of existence or arbitrariness of human principles and social institutions. Nihilism has also been described as conspicuous in or constitutive of certain historical periods. For example,[10] Jean Baudrillard[11][12] and others have characterized postmodernity as a nihilistic epoch[13] or mode of thought.[14] Likewise, some theologians and religious figures have stated that postmodernity[15] and many aspects of modernity[16] represent nihilism by a negation of religious principles. Nihilism has, however, been widely ascribed to both religious and irreligious viewpoints.[17] In popular use, the term commonly refers to forms of existential nihilism, according to which life is without intrinsic value, meaning, or purpose.[18] Other prominent positions within nihilism include the rejection of all normative and ethical views (§ Moral nihilism), the rejection of all social and political institutions (§ Political nihilism), the stance that no knowledge can or does exist (§ Epistemological nihilism), and a number of metaphysical positions, which assert that non-abstract objects do not exist (§ Metaphysical nihilism), that composite objects do not exist (§ Mereological nihilism), or even that life itself does not exist. Contents 1 Etymology, terminology and definition 2 History 2.1 Buddhism 2.1.1 Nirvana and nihilism 2.2 Jacobi 2.3 Kierkegaard 2.4 Russian nihilism 2.5 Nietzsche 2.5.1 Heideggerean interpretation of Nietzsche 2.5.2 Deleuzean interpretation of Nietzsche 2.6 Postmodernism 2.6.1 Derrida 2.6.2 Lyotard 2.6.3 Baudrillard 3 Positions 4 In culture and the arts 4.1 Dada 4.2 Literature 5 See also 6 References 7 Sources 7.1 Primary texts 7.2 Secondary texts 8 External links Etymology, terminology and definition[edit] This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2020) The etymological origin of nihilism is the Latin root word nihil, meaning 'nothing', which is similarly found in the related terms annihilate, meaning 'to bring to nothing',[4] and nihility, meaning 'nothingness'.[19] The term nihilism emerged in several places in Europe during the 18th century,[6] notably in the German form Nihilismus,[20] though was also in use during the Middle Ages to denote certain forms of heresy.[21] The concept itself first took shape within Russian and German philosophy, which respectively represented the two major currents of discourse on nihilism prior to the 20th century.[20] The term likely entered English from either the German Nihilismus, Late Latin nihilismus, or French nihilisme.[22] Early examples of the term's use are found in German publication. In 1733, German writer Friedrich Lebrecht Goetz used it as a literary term in combination with noism (German: Neinismus).[23] In the period surrounding the French Revolution, the term was also a pejorative for certain value-destructive trends of modernity, namely the negation of Christianity and European tradition in general.[6] Nihilism first entered philosophical study within a discourse surrounding Kantian and post-Kantian philosophies, notably appearing in the writings of Swiss esotericist Jacob Hermann Obereit in 1787 and German philosopher Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi in 1799.[24] As early as 1824, the term began to take on a social connotation with German journalist Joseph von Görres attributing it to a negation of existing social and political institutions.[25] The Russian form of the word, nigilizm (Russian: нигилизм), entered publication in 1829 when Nikolai Nadezhdin used it synonymously with skepticism. In Russian journalism the word continued to have significant social connotations.[26] From the time of Jacobi, the term almost fell completely out of use throughout Europe until it was revived by Russian author Ivan Turgenev, who brought the word into popular use with his 1862 novel Fathers and Sons, leading many scholars to believe he coined the term.[27] The nihilist characters of the novel define themselves as those who "deny everything", who do "not take any principle on faith, whatever reverence that principle may be enshrined in", and who regard "at the present time, negation is the most useful of all".[28] Despite Turgenev's own anti-nihilistic leanings, many of his readers likewise took up the name of nihilist, thus ascribing the Russian nihilist movement its name.[29] Returning to German philosophy, nihilism was further discussed by German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, who used the term to describe the Western world's disintegration of traditional morality.[30] For Nietzsche, nihilism applied to both the modern trends of value-destruction expressed in the 'death of God', as well as what he saw as the life-denying morality of Christianity.[31][32] Under Nietzsche's profound influence, the term was then further treated within French philosophy and continental philosophy more broadly, while the influence of nihilism in Russia arguably continued well into the Soviet era.[33] Religious scholars such as Altizer have stated that nihilism must necessarily be understood in relation to religion, and that the study of core elements of its character requires fundamentally theological consideration.[34] History[edit] Buddhism[edit] The concept of nihilism was discussed by the Buddha (563 B.C. to 483 B.C.), as recorded in the Theravada and Mahayana Tripiṭaka.[35] The Tripiṭaka, originally written in Pali, refers to nihilism as natthikavāda and the nihilist view as micchādiṭṭhi.[36] Various sutras within it describe a multiplicity of views held by different sects of ascetics while the Buddha was alive, some of which were viewed by him to be morally nihilistic. In the "Doctrine of Nihilism" in the Apannaka Sutta, the Buddha describes moral nihilists as holding the following views:[37] Giving produces no beneficial results; Good and bad actions produce no results; After death, beings are not reborn into the present world or into another world; and There is no one in the world who, through direct knowledge, can confirm that beings are reborn into this world or into another world The Buddha further states that those who hold these views will fail to see the virtue in good mental, verbal, and bodily conduct and the corresponding dangers in misconduct, and will therefore tend towards the latter.[37] Nirvana and nihilism[edit] The culmination of the path that the Buddha taught was nirvana, "a place of nothingness…nonpossession and…non-attachment…[which is] the total end of death and decay."[38] Ajahn Amaro, an ordained Buddhist monk of more than 40 years, observes that in English nothingness can sound like nihilism. However, the word could be emphasized in a different way, so that it becomes no-thingness, indicating that nirvana is not a thing you can find, but rather a state where you experience the reality of non-grasping.[38] In the Alagaddupama Sutta, the Buddha describes how some individuals feared his teaching because they believe that their self would be destroyed if they followed it. He describes this as an anxiety caused by the false belief in an unchanging, everlasting self. All things are subject to change and taking any impermanent phenomena to be a self causes suffering. Nonetheless, his critics called him a nihilist who teaches the annihilation and extermination of an existing being. The Buddha's response was that he only teaches the cessation of suffering. When an individual has given up craving and the conceit of 'I am' their mind is liberated, they no longer come into any state of 'being' and are no longer born again.[39] The Aggi-Vacchagotta Sutta records a conversation between the Buddha and an individual named Vaccha that further elaborates on this. In the sutta, Vaccha asks the Buddha to confirm one of the following, with respect to the existence of the Buddha after death:[40] After death a Buddha reappears somewhere else After death a Buddha does not reappear After death a Buddha both does and does not reappear After death a Buddha neither does nor does not reappear To all four questions, the Buddha answers that the terms "appear," "not appear," "does and does not reappear," and "neither does nor does not reappear" do not apply. When Vaccha expresses puzzlement, the Buddha asks Vaccha a counter question to the effect of: if a fire were to go out and someone were to ask you whether the fire went north, south, east or west, how would you reply? Vaccha replies that the question does not apply and that an extinguished fire can only be classified as 'out'.[40] Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu elaborates on the classification problem around the words 'reappear,' etc. with respect to the Buddha and Nirvana by stating that a "person who has attained the goal [nirvana] is thus indescribable because [they have] abandoned all things by which [they] could be described."[41] The Suttas themselves describe the liberated mind as 'untraceable' or as 'consciousness without feature', making no distinction between the mind of a liberated being that is alive and the mind of one that is no longer alive.[39][42] Despite the Buddha's explanations to the contrary, Buddhist practitioners may, at times, still approach Buddhism in a nihilistic manner. Ajahn Amaro illustrates this by retelling the story of a Buddhist monk, Ajahn Sumedho, who in his early years took a nihilistic approach to Nirvana. A distinct feature of Nirvana in Buddhism is that an individual attaining it is no longer subject to rebirth. Ajahn Sumedho, during a conversation with his teacher Ajahn Chah, comments that he is "determined above all things to fully realize Nirvana in this lifetime…deeply weary of the human condition and…[is] determined not to be born again." To this, Ajahn Chah replies: "what about the rest of us, Sumedho? Don't you care about those who'll be left behind?" Ajahn Amaro comments that Ajahn Chah could detect that his student had a nihilistic aversion to life rather than true detachment.[43] Jacobi[edit] The term nihilism was first introduced by Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi (1743–1819), who used the term to characterize rationalism,[44] and in particular the Spinoza's determinism and the Aufklärung, in order to carry out a reductio ad absurdum according to which all rationalism (philosophy as criticism) reduces to nihilism—and thus it should be avoided and replaced with a return to some type of faith and revelation. Bret W. Davis writes, for example:[45] The first philosophical development of the idea of nihilism is generally ascribed to Friedrich Jacobi, who in a famous letter criticized Fichte's idealism as falling into nihilism. According to Jacobi, Fichte's absolutization of the ego (the 'absolute I' that posits the 'not-I') is an inflation of subjectivity that denies the absolute transcendence of God. A related but oppositional concept is fideism, which sees reason as hostile and inferior to faith. Kierkegaard[edit] Main article: Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard unfinished sketch c. 1840 of Søren Kierkegaard by his cousin Niels Christian Kierkegaard Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855) posited an early form of nihilism, which he referred to as leveling.[46] He saw leveling as the process of suppressing individuality to a point where an individual's uniqueness becomes non-existent and nothing meaningful in one's existence can be affirmed: Levelling at its maximum is like the stillness of death, where one can hear one's own heartbeat, a stillness like death, into which nothing can penetrate, in which everything sinks, powerless. One person can head a rebellion, but one person cannot head this levelling process, for that would make him a leader and he would avoid being levelled. Each individual can in his little circle participate in this levelling, but it is an abstract process, and levelling is abstraction conquering individuality. — The Present Age, translated by Alexander Dru, with Foreword by Walter Kaufmann, 1962, pp. 51–53 Kierkegaard, an advocate of a philosophy of life, generally argued against levelling and its nihilistic consequences, although he believed it would be "genuinely educative to live in the age of levelling [because] people will be forced to face the judgement of [levelling] alone."[47] George Cotkin asserts Kierkegaard was against "the standardization and levelling of belief, both spiritual and political, in the nineteenth century," and that Kierkegaard "opposed tendencies in mass culture to reduce the individual to a cipher of conformity and deference to the dominant opinion."[48] In his day, tabloids (like the Danish magazine Corsaren) and apostate Christianity were instruments of levelling and contributed to the "reflective apathetic age" of 19th century Europe.[49] Kierkegaard argues that individuals who can overcome the levelling process are stronger for it, and that it represents a step in the right direction towards "becoming a true self."[47][50] As we must overcome levelling,[51] Hubert Dreyfus and Jane Rubin argue that Kierkegaard's interest, "in an increasingly nihilistic age, is in how we can recover the sense that our lives are meaningful."[52] Russian nihilism[edit] Main article: Russian nihilist movement Portrait of a nihilist student by Ilya Repin From the period 1860–1917, Russian nihilism was both a nascent form of nihilist philosophy and broad cultural movement which overlapped with certain revolutionary tendencies of the era,[53] for which it was often wrongly characterized as a form of political terrorism.[54] Russian nihilism centered on the dissolution of existing values and ideals, incorporating theories of hard determinism, atheism, materialism, positivism, and rational egoism, while rejecting metaphysics, sentimentalism, and aestheticism.[55] Leading philosophers of this school of thought included Nikolay Chernyshevsky and Dmitry Pisarev.[56] The intellectual origins of the Russian nihilist movement can be traced back to 1855 and perhaps earlier,[57] where it was principally a philosophy of extreme moral and epistemological skepticism.[58] However, it was not until 1862 that the name nihilism was first popularized, when Ivan Turgenev used the term in his celebrated novel Fathers and Sons to describe the disillusionment of the younger generation towards both the progressives and traditionalists that came before them,[59] as well as its manifestation in the view that negation and value-destruction were most necessary to the present conditions.[60] The movement very soon adopted the name, despite the novel's initial harsh reception among both the conservatives and younger generation.[61] Though philosophically both nihilistic and skeptical, Russian nihilism did not unilaterally negate ethics and knowledge as may be assumed, nor did it espouse meaninglessness unequivocally.[62] Even so, contemporary scholarship has challenged the equating of Russian nihilism with mere skepticism, instead identifying it as a fundamentally Promethean movement.[63] As passionate advocates of negation, the nihilists sought to liberate the Promethean might of the Russian people which they saw embodied in a class of prototypal individuals, or new types in their own words.[64] These individuals, according to Pisarev, in freeing themselves from all authority become exempt from moral authority as well, and are distinguished above the rabble or common masses.[65] Later interpretations of nihilism were heavily influenced by works of anti-nihilistic literature, such as those of Fyodor Dostoevsky, which arose in response to Russian nihilism.[66] "In contrast to the corrupted nihilists [of the real world], who tried to numb their nihilistic sensitivity and forget themselves through self-indulgence, Dostoevsky's figures voluntarily leap into nihilism and try to be themselves within its boundaries", writes contemporary scholar Nishitani. "The nihility expressed in 'if there is no God, everything is permitted', or 'après moi, le déluge', provides a principle whose sincerity they try to live out to the end. They search for and experiment with ways for the self to justify itself after God has disappeared."[67] Nietzsche[edit] Main article: Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche Nihilism is often associated with the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, who provided a detailed diagnosis of nihilism as a widespread phenomenon of Western culture. Though the notion appears frequently throughout Nietzsche's work, he uses the term in a variety of ways, with different meanings and connotations. Karen L. Carr describes Nietzsche's characterization of nihilism "as a condition of tension, as a disproportion between what we want to value (or need) and how the world appears to operate."[31]:25 When we find out that the world does not possess the objective value or meaning that we want it to have or have long since believed it to have, we find ourselves in a crisis.[68] Nietzsche asserts that with the decline of Christianity and the rise of physiological decadence,[clarification needed] nihilism is in fact characteristic of the modern age,[69] though he implies that the rise of nihilism is still incomplete and that it has yet to be overcome.[70] Though the problem of nihilism becomes especially explicit in Nietzsche's notebooks (published posthumously), it is mentioned repeatedly in his published works and is closely connected to many of the problems mentioned there. Nietzsche characterized nihilism as emptying the world and especially human existence of meaning, purpose, comprehensible truth, or essential value. This observation stems in part from Nietzsche's perspectivism, or his notion that "knowledge" is always by someone of some thing: it is always bound by perspective, and it is never mere fact.[71] Rather, there are interpretations through which we understand the world and give it meaning. Interpreting is something we can not go without; in fact, it is a condition of subjectivity. One way of interpreting the world is through morality, as one of the fundamental ways that people make sense of the world, especially in regard to their own thoughts and actions. Nietzsche distinguishes a morality that is strong or healthy, meaning that the person in question is aware that he constructs it himself, from weak morality, where the interpretation is projected on to something external. Nietzsche discusses Christianity, one of the major topics in his work, at length in the context of the problem of nihilism in his notebooks, in a chapter entitled "European Nihilism."[72] Here he states that the Christian moral doctrine provides people with intrinsic value, belief in God (which justifies the evil in the world) and a basis for objective knowledge. In this sense, in constructing a world where objective knowledge is possible, Christianity is an antidote against a primal form of nihilism, against the despair of meaninglessness. However, it is exactly the element of truthfulness in Christian doctrine that is its undoing: in its drive towards truth, Christianity eventually finds itself to be a construct, which leads to its own dissolution. It is therefore that Nietzsche states that we have outgrown Christianity "not because we lived too far from it, rather because we lived too close".[73] As such, the self-dissolution of Christianity constitutes yet another form of nihilism. Because Christianity was an interpretation that posited itself as the interpretation, Nietzsche states that this dissolution leads beyond skepticism to a distrust of all meaning.[74][31]:41–2 Stanley Rosen identifies Nietzsche's concept of nihilism with a situation of meaninglessness, in which "everything is permitted." According to him, the loss of higher metaphysical values that exist in contrast to the base reality of the world, or merely human ideas, gives rise to the idea that all human ideas are therefore valueless. Rejecting idealism thus results in nihilism, because only similarly transcendent ideals live up to the previous standards that the nihilist still implicitly holds.[75] The inability for Christianity to serve as a source of valuating the world is reflected in Nietzsche's famous aphorism of the madman in The Gay Science.[76] The death of God, in particular the statement that "we killed him", is similar to the self-dissolution of Christian doctrine: due to the advances of the sciences, which for Nietzsche show that man is the product of evolution, that Earth has no special place among the stars and that history is not progressive, the Christian notion of God can no longer serve as a basis for a morality. One such reaction to the loss of meaning is what Nietzsche calls passive nihilism, which he recognizes in the pessimistic philosophy of Schopenhauer. Schopenhauer's doctrine, which Nietzsche also refers to as Western Buddhism, advocates separating oneself from will and desires in order to reduce suffering. Nietzsche characterizes this ascetic attitude as a "will to nothingness", whereby life turns away from itself, as there is nothing of value to be found in the world. This mowing away of all value in the world is characteristic of the nihilist, although in this, the nihilist appears inconsistent: this "will to nothingness" is still a form of valuation or willing.[77] He describes this as "an inconsistency on the part of the nihilists:" A nihilist is a man who judges of the world as it is that it ought not to be, and of the world as it ought to be that it does not exist. According to this view, our existence (action, suffering, willing, feeling) has no meaning: the pathos of 'in vain' is the nihilists' pathos – at the same time, as pathos, an inconsistency on the part of the nihilists. — Friedrich Nietzsche, KSA 12:9 [60], taken from The Will to Power, section 585, translated by Walter Kaufmann Nietzsche's relation to the problem of nihilism is a complex one. He approaches the problem of nihilism as deeply personal, stating that this predicament of the modern world is a problem that has "become conscious" in him.[78] According to Nietzsche, it is only when nihilism is overcome that a culture can have a true foundation upon which to thrive. He wished to hasten its coming only so that he could also hasten its ultimate departure.[69] He states that there is at least the possibility of another type of nihilist in the wake of Christianity's self-dissolution, one that does not stop after the destruction of all value and meaning and succumb to the following nothingness. This alternate, 'active' nihilism on the other hand destroys to level the field for constructing something new. This form of nihilism is characterized by Nietzsche as "a sign of strength,"[79] a willful destruction of the old values to wipe the slate clean and lay down one's own beliefs and interpretations, contrary to the passive nihilism that resigns itself with the decomposition of the old values. This willful destruction of values and the overcoming of the condition of nihilism by the constructing of new meaning, this active nihilism, could be related to what Nietzsche elsewhere calls a free spirit[31]:43–50 or the Übermensch from Thus Spoke Zarathustra and The Antichrist, the model of the strong individual who posits his own values and lives his life as if it were his own work of art. It may be questioned, though, whether "active nihilism" is indeed the correct term for this stance, and some question whether Nietzsche takes the problems nihilism poses seriously enough.[80] Heideggerean interpretation of Nietzsche[edit] Martin Heidegger's interpretation of Nietzsche influenced many postmodern thinkers who investigated the problem of nihilism as put forward by Nietzsche. Only recently has Heidegger's influence on Nietzschean nihilism research faded.[81] As early as the 1930s, Heidegger was giving lectures on Nietzsche's thought.[82] Given the importance of Nietzsche's contribution to the topic of nihilism, Heidegger's influential interpretation of Nietzsche is important for the historical development of the term nihilism. Heidegger's method of researching and teaching Nietzsche is explicitly his own. He does not specifically try to present Nietzsche as Nietzsche. He rather tries to incorporate Nietzsche's thoughts into his own philosophical system of Being, Time and Dasein.[83] In his Nihilism as Determined by the History of Being (1944–46),[84] Heidegger tries to understand Nietzsche's nihilism as trying to achieve a victory through the devaluation of the, until then, highest values. The principle of this devaluation is, according to Heidegger, the will to power. The will to power is also the principle of every earlier valuation of values.[85] How does this devaluation occur and why is this nihilistic? One of Heidegger's main critiques on philosophy is that philosophy, and more specifically metaphysics, has forgotten to discriminate between investigating the notion of a being (seiende) and Being (Sein). According to Heidegger, the history of Western thought can be seen as the history of metaphysics. Moreover, because metaphysics has forgotten to ask about the notion of Being (what Heidegger calls Seinsvergessenheit), it is a history about the destruction of Being. That is why Heidegger calls metaphysics nihilistic.[86] This makes Nietzsche's metaphysics not a victory over nihilism, but a perfection of it.[87] Heidegger, in his interpretation of Nietzsche, has been inspired by Ernst Jünger. Many references to Jünger can be found in Heidegger's lectures on Nietzsche. For example, in a letter to the rector of Freiburg University of November 4, 1945, Heidegger, inspired by Jünger, tries to explain the notion of "God is dead" as the "reality of the Will to Power." Heidegger also praises Jünger for defending Nietzsche against a too biological or anthropological reading during the Nazi era.[88] Heidegger's interpretation of Nietzsche influenced a number of important postmodernist thinkers. Gianni Vattimo points at a back-and-forth movement in European thought, between Nietzsche and Heidegger. During the 1960s, a Nietzschean 'renaissance' began, culminating in the work of Mazzino Montinari and Giorgio Colli. They began work on a new and complete edition of Nietzsche's collected works, making Nietzsche more accessible for scholarly research. Vattimo explains that with this new edition of Colli and Montinari, a critical reception of Heidegger's interpretation of Nietzsche began to take shape. Like other contemporary French and Italian philosophers, Vattimo does not want, or only partially wants, to rely on Heidegger for understanding Nietzsche. On the other hand, Vattimo judges Heidegger's intentions authentic enough to keep pursuing them.[89] Philosophers who Vattimo exemplifies as a part of this back and forth movement are French philosophers Deleuze, Foucault and Derrida. Italian philosophers of this same movement are Cacciari, Severino and himself.[90] Jürgen Habermas, Jean-François Lyotard and Richard Rorty are also philosophers who are influenced by Heidegger's interpretation of Nietzsche.[91] Deleuzean interpretation of Nietzsche[edit] Gilles Deleuze's interpretation of Nietzsche's concept of nihilism is different - in some sense diametrically opposed - to the usual definition (as outlined in the rest of this article). Nihilism is one of the main topics of Deleuze's early book Nietzsche and Philosophy (1962).[92] There, Deleuze repeatedly interprets Nietzsche's nihilism as "the enterprise of denying life and depreciating existence".[93] Nihilism thus defined is therefore not the denial of higher values, or the denial of meaning, but rather the depreciation of life in the name of such higher values or meaning. Deleuze therefore (with, he claims, Nietzsche) says that Christianity and Platonism, and with them the whole of metaphysics, are intrinsically nihilist. Postmodernism[edit] Postmodern and poststructuralist thought has questioned the very grounds on which Western cultures have based their 'truths': absolute knowledge and meaning, a 'decentralization' of authorship, the accumulation of positive knowledge, historical progress, and certain ideals and practices of humanism and the Enlightenment. Derrida[edit] Jacques Derrida, whose deconstruction is perhaps most commonly labeled nihilistic, did not himself make the nihilistic move that others have claimed. Derridean deconstructionists argue that this approach rather frees texts, individuals or organizations from a restrictive truth, and that deconstruction opens up the possibility of other ways of being.[94] Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, for example, uses deconstruction to create an ethics of opening up Western scholarship to the voice of the subaltern and to philosophies outside of the canon of western texts.[95] Derrida himself built a philosophy based upon a 'responsibility to the other'.[96] Deconstruction can thus be seen not as a denial of truth, but as a denial of our ability to know truth. That is to say, it makes an epistemological claim, compared to nihilism's ontological claim. Lyotard[edit] Lyotard argues that, rather than relying on an objective truth or method to prove their claims, philosophers legitimize their truths by reference to a story about the world that can't be separated from the age and system the stories belong to—referred to by Lyotard as meta-narratives. He then goes on to define the postmodern condition as characterized by a rejection both of these meta-narratives and of the process of legitimation by meta-narratives. This concept of the instability of truth and meaning leads in the direction of nihilism, though Lyotard stops short of embracing the latter.[citation needed] In lieu of meta-narratives we have created new language-games in order to legitimize our claims which rely on changing relationships and mutable truths, none of which is privileged over the other to speak to ultimate truth.[citation needed] Baudrillard[edit] Postmodern theorist Jean Baudrillard wrote briefly of nihilism from the postmodern viewpoint in Simulacra and Simulation. He stuck mainly to topics of interpretations of the real world over the simulations of which the real world is composed. The uses of meaning were an important subject in Baudrillard's discussion of nihilism: The apocalypse is finished, today it is the precession of the neutral, of forms of the neutral and of indifference...all that remains, is the fascination for desertlike and indifferent forms, for the very operation of the system that annihilates us. Now, fascination (in contrast to seduction, which was attached to appearances, and to dialectical reason, which was attached to meaning) is a nihilistic passion par excellence, it is the passion proper to the mode of disappearance. We are fascinated by all forms of disappearance, of our disappearance. Melancholic and fascinated, such is our general situation in an era of involuntary transparency. — Jean Baudrillard, Simulacra and Simulation, "On Nihilism", trans. 1995[page needed] Positions[edit] From the 20th century, nihilism has encompassed a range of positions within various fields of philosophy. Each of these, as the Encyclopædia Britannica states, "denied the existence of genuine moral truths or values, rejected the possibility of knowledge or communication, and asserted the ultimate meaninglessness or purposelessness of life or of the universe."[97] Cosmic nihilism is the position that reality or the cosmos is either wholly or significantly unintelligible and that it provides no foundation for human aims and principles. Particularly, it may regard the cosmos as distinctly hostile or indifferent to humanity.[98] It is often related to both epistemological and existential nihilism, as well as cosmicism. Epistemological nihilism is a form of philosophical skepticism according to which knowledge does not exist, or, if it does exist, it is unattainable for human beings. It should not be confused with epistemological fallibilism, according to which all knowledge is uncertain. Existential nihilism is the position that life has no intrinsic meaning or value. With respect to the universe, existential nihilism posits that a single human or even the entire human species is insignificant, without purpose, and unlikely to change in the totality of existence. The meaninglessness or meaning of life is largely explored in the philosophical school of existentialism. In popular use, "nihilism" now most commonly refers to forms of existential nihilism. Metaphysical nihilism is the position that concrete objects and physical constructs might not exist in the possible world, or that, even if there exist possible worlds that contain some concrete objects, there is at least one that contains only abstract objects. Extreme metaphysical nihilism, also sometimes called ontological nihilism, is the position that nothing actually exists at all.[99][100] The American Heritage Medical Dictionary defines one form of nihilism as "an extreme form of skepticism that denies all existence."[101] A similar skepticism concerning the concrete world can be found in solipsism. However, despite the fact that both views deny the certainty of objects' true existence, the nihilist would deny the existence of self, whereas the solipsist would affirm it.[102] Both of these positions are considered forms of anti-realism. Mereological nihilism, also called compositional nihilism, is the metaphysical position that objects with proper parts do not exist. This position applies to objects in space, and also to objects existing in time, which are posited to have no temporal parts. Rather, only basic building blocks without parts exist, and thus the world we see and experience, full of objects with parts, is a product of human misperception (i.e., if we could see clearly, we would not perceive compositive objects). This interpretation of existence must be based on resolution: The resolution with which humans see and perceive the "improper parts" of the world is not an objective fact of reality, but is rather an implicit trait that can only be qualitatively explored and expressed. Therefore, there is no arguable way to surmise or measure the validity of mereological nihilism. For example, an ant can get lost on a large cylindrical object because the circumference of the object is so large with respect to the ant that the ant effectively feels as though the object has no curvature. Thus, the resolution with which the ant views the world it exists "within" is an important determining factor in how the ant experiences this "within the world" feeling. Moral nihilism, also called ethical nihilism, is the meta-ethical position that no morality or ethics exists whatsoever; therefore, no action is ever morally preferable to any other. Moral nihilism is distinct from both moral relativism and expressivism in that it does not acknowledge socially constructed values as personal or cultural moralities. It may also differ from other moral positions within nihilism that, rather than argue there is no morality, hold that if it does exist, it is a human construction and thus artificial, wherein any and all meaning is relative for different possible outcomes. An alternative scholarly perspective is that moral nihilism is a morality in itself. Cooper writes, "In the widest sense of the word 'morality', moral nihilism is a morality."[103] Passive and active nihilism, the former of which is also equated to philosophical pessimism, refer to two approaches to nihilist thought; passive nihilism sees nihility as an end in itself, whereas active nihilism attempts to surpass it. For Nietzsche, passive nihilism further encapsulates the "will to nothing" and the modern condition of resignation or unawareness towards the dissolution of higher values brought about by the 19th century.[31][104] Political nihilism is the position holding no political goals whatsoever, except for the complete destruction of all existing political institutions—along with the principles, values, and social institutions that uphold them.[105] Though often related to anarchism, it may differ in that it presents no method of social organisation after a negation of the current political structure has taken place. An analysis of political nihilism is further presented by Leo Strauss.[106] Scientific nihilism is the position that scientific study and attempts to apply scientific knowledge are dubious or without merit.[107] Therapeutic nihilism, also called medical nihilism, is the position that the effectiveness of medical intervention is dubious or without merit.[108] Dealing with the philosophy of science as it relates to the contextualized demarcation of medical research, Jacob Stegenga applies Bayes' theorem to medical research and argues for the premise that "even when presented with evidence for a hypothesis regarding the effectiveness of a medical intervention, we ought to have low confidence in that hypothesis."[109][110] In culture and the arts[edit] Dada[edit] The term Dada was first used by Richard Huelsenbeck and Tristan Tzara in 1916.[111] The movement, which lasted from approximately 1916 to 1923, arose during World War I, an event that influenced the artists.[112] The Dada Movement began in the old town of Zürich, Switzerland—known as the "Niederdorf" or "Niederdörfli"—in the Café Voltaire.[113] The Dadaists claimed that Dada was not an art movement, but an anti-art movement, sometimes using found objects in a manner similar to found poetry. The "anti-art" drive is thought[by whom?] to have stemmed from a post-war emptiness.[citation needed] This tendency toward devaluation of art has led many[who?] to claim that Dada was an essentially nihilistic movement.[citation needed] Given that Dada created its own means for interpreting its products, it is difficult to classify alongside most other contemporary art expressions. Due to perceived ambiguity, it has been classified as a nihilistic modus vivendi.[112] Literature[edit] The term "nihilism" was actually popularized in 1862 by Ivan Turgenev in his novel Fathers and Sons, whose hero, Bazarov, was a nihilist and recruited several followers to the philosophy. He found his nihilistic ways challenged upon falling in love.[114] Anton Chekhov portrayed nihilism when writing Three Sisters. The phrase "what does it matter" or variants of this are often spoken by several characters in response to events; the significance of some of these events suggests a subscription to nihilism by said characters as a type of coping strategy. The philosophical ideas of the French author, the Marquis de Sade, are often noted as early examples of nihilistic principles.[115] See also[edit] Absurdism Acosmism Agnosticism Anarchism Anatta Anti-art and Anti-anti-art Anti-humanism Antinatalism Apatheism Apathy Cosmicism Cynicism (philosophy) Dysteleology Egoism Eliminative materialism Existentialism Hedonism U. G. Krishnamurti Legal nihilism Misanthropy Misotheism Moral nihilism National nihilism Nirvana Paradox of nihilism Pessimism Postmodernism Post-structuralism Radical skepticism Russian nihilist movement Solipsism Tao Te Ching Therapeutic nihilism Trivialism Philosophy portal Psychology portal Religion portal References[edit] ^ Crosby, Donald A. (1998). "Nihilism". Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Taylor and Francis. doi:10.4324/9780415249126-N037-1. As its name implies (from Latin nihil, 'nothing'), philosophical nihilism is a philosophy of negation, rejection, or denial of some or all aspects of thought or life. ^ Deleuze, Gilles (1962). Nietzsche and Philosophy. Translated by Tomlinson, Hugh. London: The Athlone Press (published 1983). ISBN 978-0-231-13877-2. Nietzsche calls the enterprise of denying life and depreciating existence nihilism. ^ Crosby, Donald A. (1998). "Nihilism". Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Taylor and Francis. doi:10.4324/9780415249126-N037-1. As its name implies (from Latin nihil, 'nothing'), philosophical nihilism is a philosophy of negation, rejection, or denial of some or all aspects of thought or life. Pratt, Alan. "Nihilism". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 2010-04-12. Nihilism is the belief that all values are baseless and that nothing can be known or communicated. It is often associated with extreme pessimism and a radical skepticism that condemns existence. "Nihilism". Encyclopædia Britannica. In the 20th century, nihilism encompassed a variety of philosophical and aesthetic stances that, in one sense or another, denied the existence of genuine moral truths or values, rejected the possibility of knowledge or communication, and asserted the ultimate meaninglessness or purposelessness of life or of the universe. Harper, Douglas. "nihilism". Online Etymology Dictionary. ^ a b c Pratt, Alan. "Nihilism." Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived 2010-04-12 at the Wayback Machine ^ "The Meaning of Life#Nihilism". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 3 August 2020. ^ a b c ter Borg, Meerten B. (1988). "The Problem of Nihilism: A Sociological Approach". Sociological Analysis. 49 (1): 1–16. doi:10.2307/3711099. JSTOR 3711099. ^ Gillespie, Michael Allen (1996). Nihilism Before Nietzsche. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226293486. Deleuze, Gilles (1983) [1962]. Nietzsche and Philosophy. Translated by Tomlinson, Hugh. London: The Athlone Press. ISBN 978-0-231-13877-2. ^ Gillespie, Michael Allen (1996). Nihilism Before Nietzsche. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226293486. ^ Gillespie, Michael Allen (1996). Nihilism Before Nietzsche. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226293486. Petrov, Kristian (2019). "'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation". Stud East Eur Thought. 71: 73–97. doi:10.1007/s11212-019-09319-4. ^ Cited in Woodward, Ashley. 2002. "Nihilism and the Postmodern in Vattimo's Nietzsche." Minerva 6. ISSN 1393-614X. Archived from the original on 2010-04-05. fn 1. ^ Baudrillard, Jean. 1993. "Game with Vestiges." In Baudrillard Live, edited by M. Gane. ^ Baudrillard, Jean. [1981] 1994. "On Nihilism." In Simulacra and Simulation, translated by S. F. Glasser. ^ See: Toynbee, Arnold J. 1963. A Study of History VIII & IX; Mills, C. Wright. 1959. The Sociological Imagination; Bell, Daniel. 1976. The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism. ^ see: Rose, Gillian. 1984. Dialectic of Nihilism; Carr, Karen L. 1988. The Banalization of Nihilism; Pope John-Paul II. 1995. Evangelium vitae: Il valore e l'inviolabilita delta vita umana. Milan: Paoline Editoriale Libri." ^ Leffel, Jim; Dennis McCallum. "The Postmodern Challenge: Facing the Spirit of the Age". Christian Research Institute. Archived from the original on 2006-08-19. ...the nihilism and loneliness of postmodern culture... ^ Phillips, Robert (1999). "Deconstructing the Mass". Latin Mass Magazine (Winter). Archived from the original on 2004-04-17. For deconstructionists, not only is there no truth to know, there is no self to know it and so there is no soul to save or lose." and "In following the Enlightenment to its logical end, deconstruction reaches nihilism. The meaning of human life is reduced to whatever happens to interest us at the moment... ^ Gillespie, Michael Allen (1996). Nihilism Before Nietzsche. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226293486. Deleuze, Gilles (1983) [1962]. Nietzsche and Philosophy. Translated by Tomlinson, Hugh. London: The Athlone Press. ISBN 978-0-231-13877-2. ^ Pratt, Alan. "Existential Nihilism | Nihilism." Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived 2010-04-12 at the Wayback Machine: Existential nihilism is "the notion that life has no intrinsic meaning or value, and it is, no doubt, the most commonly used and understood sense of the word today." ^ "Nihility". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved November 4, 2020. ^ a b "Nichilismo". Enciclopedia Italiana: Enciclopedia online (in Italian). Treccani: Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana. Retrieved October 30, 2020. ^ "Nihilism". Encyclopædia Britannica. The term is an old one, applied to certain heretics in the Middle Ages. ^ "nihilism". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2003.  (Subscription or participating institution membership required.) ^ Gloy, Karen (2014). "Nihilismus–Pessimismus". Zwischen Glück und Tragik (in German). Wilhelm Fink. pp. 145–200. doi:10.30965/9783846756454_007. ^ Klemme, Heiner F.; Kuehn, Manfred, eds. (2010). "Obereit, Jacob Hermann". The Dictionary of Eighteenth-Century German Philosophers. Continuum. ISBN 9780199797097. di Giovanni, George. "Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of philosophy (Fall 2008 ed.). Archived from the original on 2013-12-02. ^ Harper, Douglas. "nihilism". Online Etymology Dictionary. ^ "Nihilism". Encyclopædia Britannica. In Russian literature, nihilism was probably first used by N.I. Nadezhdin, in an 1829 article in the Messenger of Europe, in which he applied it to Aleksandr Pushkin. Nadezhdin, as did V.V. Bervi in 1858, equated nihilism with skepticism. Mikhail Nikiforovich Katkov, a well-known conservative journalist who interpreted nihilism as synonymous with revolution, presented it as a social menace because of its negation of all moral principles. ^ Gillespie, Michael Allen (1996). Nihilism Before Nietzsche. University of Chicago Press. p. 110. ISBN 9780226293486. ^ Frank, Joseph (1995). Dostoevsky: The Miraculous Years, 1865–1871. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01587-2. For it was Bazarov who had first declared himself to be a "Nihilist" and who announced that, "since at the present time, negation is the most useful of all," the Nihilists "deny—everything." Turgenev, Ivan. "Chapter 5". Fathers and Sons. Translated by Constance Garnett. A nihilist is a man who does not bow down before any authority, who does not take any principle on faith, whatever reverence that principle may be enshrined in. ^ Petrov, Kristian (2019). "'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation". Stud East Eur Thought. 71 (2): 73–97. doi:10.1007/s11212-019-09319-4. S2CID 150893870. ^ "Nihilism". Encyclopædia Britannica. The term was famously used by Friedrich Nietzsche to describe the disintegration of traditional morality in Western society. ^ a b c d e Carr, Karen L. 1992. The Banalisation of Nihilism. Albany: State University of New York Press. ^ Deleuze, Gilles (1983) [1962]. Nietzsche and Philosophy. Translated by Tomlinson, Hugh. London: The Athlone Press. ISBN 978-0-231-13877-2. }} ^ Ramos, Alice (1996). "Triumph of the Will". The Review of Politics. 58 (1): 181–184. doi:10.1017/S0034670500051779. Altizer, Thomas J. J. (1997). "Review: Nihilism before Nietzsche by Michael Allen Gillespie and Metaphysics by Michel Haar & Michael Gendre". The Journal of Religion. University of Chicago Press. 77 (2): 328–330. doi:10.2307/1205805. ^ Altizer, Thomas J. J. (1997). "Review: Nihilism before Nietzsche by Michael Allen Gillespie and Metaphysics by Michel Haar & Michael Gendre". The Journal of Religion. University of Chicago Press. 77 (2): 328–330. doi:10.2307/1205805. ^ Editors, History com. "Buddhists celebrate birth of Gautama Buddha". HISTORY. Archived from the original on September 2, 2019. Retrieved Apr 7, 2020.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) ^ Bhikkhu Bodhi. "Pali-English Glossary" and "Index of Subjects." In The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A New Translation of the Samyutta Nikkaya. ^ a b Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli, and Bhikkhu Bodhi, trans. "Apannaka Sutta." In The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha. note 425 ^ a b Pasanno, Ajahn; Amaro, Ajahn (October 2009). "Knowing, Emptiness and the Radiant Mind" (PDF). Forest Sangha Newsletter (88): 5. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2019. ^ a b Alagaddupama Sutta, The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha (PDF). Translated by Nanamoli, Bikkhu; Bodhi, Bikkhu. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-09-26. Retrieved 2019-06-24. ^ a b Aggi-Vacchagotta Sutta: To Vacchagotta on Fire. Translated by Bhikkhu, Thanissaro. 1997. Archived from the original on 6 June 2019. Retrieved 24 June 2019 – via Accesstoinsight.org. ^ Bhikkhu, Thanissaro (1999). "'This fire that has gone out... in which direction from here has it gone?'". Mind Like Fire Unbound (Fourth ed.). Retrieved 24 June 2019 – via Accesstoinsight.org. ^ Kevatta (Kevaddha) Sutta: To Kevatta. Translated by Bhikkhu, Thanissaro. 1997. Archived from the original on 24 March 2019. Retrieved 24 June 2019 – via Accesstoinsight.org. ^ Amaro, Ajahn (7 May 2015) [2008]. "A Dhamma article by Ajahn Amaro – The View from the Centre". Amaravati Buddhist Monastery. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2019. ^ George di Giovanni, Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi, The Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy (Fall 2008 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). Stanford.edu Archived 2013-12-02 at the Wayback Machine ^ Davis, Bret W. 2004. "Zen After Zarathustra: The Problem of the Will in the Confrontation Between Nietzsche and Buddhism." Journal of Nietzsche Studies 28:89–138. p. 107. ^ Dreyfus, Hubert. 2004. "Kierkegaard on the Internet: Anonymity vs. Commitment in the Present Age." Berkeley.edu. Archived from the original on 2013-12-22. ^ a b Hannay, Alastair. Kierkegaard, p. 289. ^ Cotkin, George. Existential America, p. 59. ^ Kierkegaard, Søren. The Present Age, translated by Alexander Dru with Foreword by Walter Kaufmann ^ Kierkegaard, Søren. 1849. The Sickness Unto Death ^ Barnett, Christopher. Kierkegaard, pietism and holiness, p. 156. ^ Wrathall, Mark, et al. Heidegger, Authenticity, and Modernity. p. 107. ^ "Nihilism". Encyclopædia Britannica. Nihilism, (from Latin nihil, "nothing"), originally a philosophy of moral and epistemological skepticism that arose in 19th-century Russia during the early years of the reign of Tsar Alexander II. Pratt, Alan. "Nihilism". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. In Russia, nihilism became identified with a loosely organized revolutionary movement (C.1860-1917) that rejected the authority of the state, church, and family. Lovell, Stephen (1998). "Nihilism, Russian". Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Taylor and Francis. doi:10.4324/9780415249126-E072-1. ISBN 9780415250696. Nihilism was a broad social and cultural movement as well as a doctrine. ^ "Nihilism". Encyclopædia Britannica. The philosophy of nihilism then began to be associated erroneously with the regicide of Alexander II (1881) and the political terror that was employed by those active at the time in clandestine organizations opposed to absolutism. ^ Petrov, Kristian (2019). "'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation". Stud East Eur Thought. 71: 73–97. doi:10.1007/s11212-019-09319-4. Scanlan, James P. (1999). "The Case against Rational Egoism in Dostoevsky's Notes from Underground". Journal of the History of Ideas. University of Pennsylvania Press. 60 (3): 553–554. JSTOR 3654018. ^ Lovell, Stephen (1998). "Nihilism, Russian". Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Taylor and Francis. doi:10.4324/9780415249126-E072-1. ISBN 9780415250696. The major theorists of Russian Nihilism were Nikolai Chernyshevskii and Dmitrii Pisarev, although their authority and influence extended well beyond the realm of theory. ^ Lovell, Stephen (1998). "Nihilism, Russian". Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Taylor and Francis. doi:10.4324/9780415249126-E072-1. ISBN 9780415250696. Russian Nihilism is perhaps best regarded as the intellectual pool of the period 1855–66 out of which later radical movements emerged Nishitani, Keiji (1990). McCormick, Peter J. (ed.). The Self-Overcoming of Nihilism. Translated by Graham Parkes; with Setsuko Aihara. State University of New York Press. ISBN 0791404382. Nihilism and anarchism, which for a while would completely dominate the intelligentsia and become a major factor in the history of nineteenth-century Russia, emerged in the final years of the reign of Alexander I. ^ "Nihilism". Encyclopædia Britannica. Nihilism, (from Latin nihil, "nothing"), originally a philosophy of moral and epistemological skepticism that arose in 19th-century Russia during the early years of the reign of Tsar Alexander II. ^ Petrov, Kristian (2019). "'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation". Stud East Eur Thought. 71: 73–97. doi:10.1007/s11212-019-09319-4. Even so, the term nihilism did not become popular until Turgenev published F&C in 1862. Turgenev, a sorokovnik (an 1840s man), used the term to describe "the children", the new generation of students and intellectuals who, by virtue of their relation to their fathers, were considered šestidesjatniki. "Nihilism". Encyclopædia Britannica. It was Ivan Turgenev, in his celebrated novel Fathers and Sons (1862), who popularized the term through the figure of Bazarov the nihilist. "Fathers and Sons". Encyclopædia Britannica. Fathers and Sons concerns the inevitable conflict between generations and between the values of traditionalists and intellectuals. Edie, James M.; Scanlan, James; Zeldin, Mary-Barbara (1994). Russian Philosophy Volume II: the Nihilists, The Populists, Critics of Religion and Culture. University of Tennessee Press. p. 3. The "fathers" of the novel are full of humanitarian, progressive sentiments ... But to the "sons," typified by the brusque scientifically minded Bazarov, the "fathers" were concerned too much with generalities, not enough with the specific material evils of the day. ^ Frank, Joseph (1995). Dostoevsky: The Miraculous Years, 1865–1871. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01587-2. For it was Bazarov who had first declared himself to be a "Nihilist" and who announced that, "since at the present time, negation is the most useful of all," the Nihilists "deny—everything." ^ "Fathers and Sons". Encyclopædia Britannica. At the novel's first appearance, the radical younger generation attacked it bitterly as a slander, and conservatives condemned it as too lenient "Fathers and Sons". Novels for Students. Retrieved August 11, 2020 – via Encyclopedia.com. when he returned to Saint Petersburg in 1862 on the same day that young radicals—calling themselves "nihilists"—were setting fire to buildings ^ "Nihilism". Encyclopædia Britannica. originally a philosophy of moral and epistemological skepticism that arose in 19th-century Russia during the early years of the reign of Tsar Alexander II. Petrov, Kristian (2019). "'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation". Stud East Eur Thought. 71: 73–97. doi:10.1007/s11212-019-09319-4. Russian nihilism did not imply, as one might expect from a purely semantic viewpoint, a universal "negation" of ethical normativity, the foundations of knowledge or the meaningfulness of human existence. ^ Gillespie, Michael Allen (1996). Nihilism Before Nietzsche. University of Chicago Press. p. 139. ISBN 9780226293486. This nihilist movement was essentially Promethean"; "It has often been argued that Russian nihilism is little more than skepticism or empiricism. While there is a certain plausibility to this assertation, it ultimately fails to capture the millenarian zeal the characterized Russian nihilism. These nihilists were not skeptics but passionate advocates of negation and liberation. ^ Gillespie, Michael Allen (1996). Nihilism Before Nietzsche. University of Chicago Press. pp. 139, 143–144. ISBN 9780226293486. These nihilists were not skeptics but passionate advocates of negation and liberation."; "While the two leading nihilist groups disagreed on details, they both sought to liberate the Promethean might of the Russian people"; "The nihilists believed that the prototypes of this new Promethean humanity already existed in the cadre of the revolutionary movement itself. Petrov, Kristian (2019). "'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation". Stud East Eur Thought. 71: 73–97. doi:10.1007/s11212-019-09319-4. These "new types", to borrow Pisarev’s designation ^ Frank, Joseph (1995). Dostoevsky: The Miraculous Years, 1865–1871. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01587-2. ^ Petrov, Kristian (2019). "'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation". Stud East Eur Thought. 71: 73–97. doi:10.1007/s11212-019-09319-4. ^ Nishitani, Keiji (1990). McCormick, Peter J. (ed.). The Self-Overcoming of Nihilism. Translated by Graham Parkes; with Setsuko Aihara. State University of New York Press. p. 132. ISBN 0791404382. ^ F. Nietzsche, KSA 12:6 [25] ^ a b Michels, Steven. 2004. "Nietzsche, Nihilism, and the Virtue of Nature." Dogma. Archived from the original on 2004-10-31. ^ F. Nietzsche, KSA 12:10 [142] ^ F. Nietzsche, KSA 13:14 [22] ^ F. Nietzsche, KSA 12:5 [71] ^ F. Nietzsche, KSA 12:2 [200] ^ F. Nietzsche, KSA 12:2 [127] ^ Rosen, Stanley. 1969. Nihilism: A Philosophical Essay. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. xiii. ^ F. Nietzsche, The Gay Science: 125. ^ F. Nietzsche, On the Genealogy of Morals, III:7. ^ F. Nietzsche, KSA 12:7 [8] ^ F. Nietzsche, KSA 12:9 [35] ^ Doomen, J. 2012. "Consistent Nihilism." Journal of Mind and Behavior 33(1/2):103–17. ^ "Heideggers, Aus-einander-setzung' mit Nietzsches hat mannigfache Resonanz gefunden. Das Verhältnis der beiden Philosophen zueinander ist dabei von unterschiedlichen Positionen aus diskutiert worden. Inzwischen ist es nicht mehr ungewöhnlich, daß Heidegger, entgegen seinem Anspruch auf, Verwindung' der Metaphysik und des ihr zugehörigen Nihilismus, in jenen Nihilismus zurückgestellt wird, als dessen Vollender er Nietzsche angesehen hat." Wolfgang Müller-Lauter, Heidegger und Nietzsche. Nietzsche-Interpretationen III, Berlin-New York 2000, p. 303. ^ Cf. both by Heidegger: Vol. I, Nietzsche I (1936-39). Translated as Nietzsche I: The Will to Power as Art by David F. Krell (New York: Harper & Row, 1979); Vol. II, Nietzsche II (1939-46). Translated as "The Eternal Recurrence of the Same" by David F. Krell in Nietzsche II: The Eternal Recurrence of the Same (New York, Harper & Row, 1984). ^ "Indem Heidegger das von Nietzsche Ungesagte im Hinblick auf die Seinsfrage zur Sprache zu bringen sucht, wird das von Nietzsche Gesagte in ein diesem selber fremdes Licht gerückt.", Müller-Lauter, Heidegger und Nietzsche, p. 267. ^ Original German: Die seinsgeschichtliche Bestimmung des Nihilismus. Found in the second volume of his lectures: Vol. II, Nietzsche II (1939-46). Translated as "The Eternal Recurrence of the Same" by David F. Krell in Nietzsche II: The Eternal Recurrence of the Same (New York, Harper & Row, 1984). ^ "Heidegger geht davon aus, daß Nietzsche den Nihilismus als Entwertung der bisherigen obersten Werte versteht; seine Überwindung soll durch die Umwertung der Werte erfolgen. Das Prinzip der Umwertung wie auch jeder früheren Wertsetzung ist der Wille zur Macht.", Müller-Lauter, Heidegger und Nietzsche, p. 268. ^ "What remains unquestioned and forgotten in metaphysics is being; and hence, it is nihilistic.", UTM.edu Archived 2010-06-14 at the Wayback Machine, visited on November 24, 2009. ^ Müller-Lauter, Heidegger und Nietzsche, p. 268. ^ Müller-Lauter, Heidegger und Nietzsche, pp. 272-275. ^ Müller-Lauter, Heidegger und Nietzsche, pp. 301-303. ^ "Er (Vattimo) konstatiert, in vielen europäischen Philosophien eine Hin- und Herbewegung zwischen Heidegger und Nietzsche". Dabei denkt er, wie seine späteren Ausführungen zeigen, z.B. an Deleuze, Foucault und Derrida auf französischer Seite, an Cacciari, Severino und an sich selbst auf italienischer Seite.", Müller-Lauter, Heidegger und Nietzsche, p. 302. ^ Müller-Lauter, Heidegger und Nietzsche, pp. 303–304. ^ Deleuze, Gilles (1983) [1962]. Nietzsche and Philosophy. Translated by Tomlinson, Hugh. London: The Athlone Press. ISBN 978-0-231-13877-2. ^ Deleuze, Nietzsche and Philosophy, p.34. ^ Borginho, Jose Archived 2010-01-07 at the Wayback Machine 1999; Nihilism and Affirmation. Retrieved 05-12-07. ^ Spivak, Chakravorty Gayatri; 1988; Can The Subaltern Speak?; in Nelson, Cary and Grossberg, Lawrence (eds); 1988; Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture; Macmillan Education, Basingstoke. ^ Reynolds, Jack; 2001; The Other of Derridean Deconstruction: Levinas, Phenomenology and the Question of Responsibility Archived 2011-06-14 at the Wayback Machine; Minerva - An Internet Journal of Philosophy 5: 31–62. Retrieved 05-12-07. ^ "Nihilism". Encyclopædia Britannica. In the 20th century, nihilism encompassed a variety of philosophical and aesthetic stances that, in one sense or another, denied the existence of genuine moral truths or values, rejected the possibility of knowledge or communication, and asserted the ultimate meaninglessness or purposelessness of life or of the universe. ^ Crosby, Donald A. (1998). "Nihilism". Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Taylor and Francis. doi:10.4324/9780415249126-N037-1. ^ Turner, Jason. "Ontological Nihilism". Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 2019-12-31. Retrieved 2019-12-31. ^ www.askoxford.com. "AskOxford: nihilism". Archived from the original on 2005-11-22.CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link) ^ "nihilism". The American Heritage Medical Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. 2008. p. 363. ISBN 978-0-618-94725-6. Archived from the original on 2016-09-11. Retrieved 2016-01-27. ^ "Solipsism and the Problem of Other Minds - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy". Archived from the original on 2015-10-31. Retrieved 2015-11-03. ^ Cooper, Neil (1973). "Moral Nihilism". Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society. 74 (1973–1974): 75–90. doi:10.1093/aristotelian/74.1.75. JSTOR 4544850. ^ "Friedrich Nietzsche § Nietzsche's Mature Philosophy". Encyclopædia Britannica. He thought of the age in which he lived as one of passive nihilism, that is, as an age that was not yet aware that religious and philosophical absolutes had dissolved in the emergence of 19th-century positivism. ^ Crosby, Donald A. (1998). "Nihilism". Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Taylor and Francis. doi:10.4324/9780415249126-N037-1. Political nihilism calls for the complete destruction of existing political institutions, along with their supporting outlooks and social structures, but has no positive message of what should be put in their place. ^ Strauss, Leo. 1999. "German Nihilism." Interpretation 26(3):353–378. ^ "Scientific Nihilism". www.sunypress.edu. Archived from the original on December 15, 2019. Retrieved Apr 7, 2020. ^ Stegenga, Jacob (2018). Medical Nihilism. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-19-874704-8. ^ Smith, Richard (June 2018). "The case for medical nihilism and "gentle medicine"". The BMJ. ^ Danaher, John (April 12, 2019). "The Argument for Medical Nihilism". Philosophical Disquisitions. Retrieved September 4, 2019. ^ de Micheli, Mario (2006). Las vanguardias artísticas del siglo XX. Alianza Forma. pp. 135-137. ^ a b Tzara, Tristan (December 2005). Trans/ed. Mary Ann Caws "Approximate Man" & Other Writings. Black Widow Press, p. 3. ^ de Micheli, Mario (2006). Las vanguardias artísticas del siglo XX. Alianza Forma, p. 137. ^ "Nihilism". The University of Tennessee, Martin. April 1, 2012. Archived from the original on January 19, 2018. Retrieved January 16, 2018. ^ "Nihilism: Philosophy of Nothingness". January 5, 2015. Retrieved January 16, 2018. Sources[edit] Primary texts[edit] Brassier, Ray (2007) Nihil Unbound: Enlightenment and Extinction, New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Jacobi, Friedrich Heinrich, Jacobi an Fichte (1799/1816), German Text (1799/1816), Appendix with Jacobi's and Fichte's complementary Texts, critical Apparatus, Commentary, and Italian Translation, Istituto Italiano per gli Studi Filosofici, Naples 2011, ISBN 978-88-905957-5-2. Heidegger, Martin (1982), Nietzsche, Vols. I-IV, trans. F.A. Capuzzi, San Francisco: Harper & Row. Kierkegaard, Søren (1998/1854), The Moment and Late Writings: Kierkegaard's Writings, Vol. 23, ed. and trans. Howard V. Hong and Edna H. Hong, Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-03226-9. Kierkegaard, Søren (1978/1846), The Two Ages : Kierkegaard's Writings, Vol 14, ed. and trans. Howard V. Hong, and Edna H. Hong, Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-07226-5. —— (1995/1850), Works of Love : Kierkegaard's Writings, Vol 16, ed. and trans. Howard V. Hong and Edna H. Hong, Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-03792-9. Nietzsche, Friedrich (2005/1886), Beyond Good and Evil, trans. Helen Zimmern. —— (1974/1887), The Gay Science, trans. Walter Kaufman, Vintage, ISBN 0-394-71985-9. —— (1980), Sämtliche Werken. Kritische Studienausgabe, ed. C. Colli and M. Montinari, Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-007680-2. —— (2008/1885), Thus Spake Zarathustra, trans. Thomas Common. Tartaglia, James (2016), Philosophy in a Meaningless Life: A System of Nihilism, Consciousness and Reality, London: Bloomsbury Publishing. Secondary texts[edit] Arena, Leonardo Vittorio (1997), Del nonsense: tra Oriente e Occidente, Urbino: Quattroventi. —— (2012), Nonsense as the Meaning, ebook. —— (2015), On Nudity. An Introduction to Nonsense, Mimesis International. Barnett, Christopher (2011), Kierkegaard, pietism and holiness, Ashgate Publishing. Carr, Karen (1992), The Banalisation of Nihilism, State University of New York Press. Cattarini, L.S. (2018), Beyond Sartre and Sterility: Surviving Existentialism (Montreal: contact argobookshop.ca) Cunningham, Conor (2002), Genealogy of Nihilism: Philosophies of Nothing & the Difference of Theology, New York, NY: Routledge. Dent, G., Wallace, M., & Dia Center for the Arts. (1992). "Black popular culture" (Discussions in contemporary culture ; no. 8). Seattle: Bay Press. Dod, Elmar (2013), Der unheimlichste Gast. Die Philosophie des Nihilismus. Marburg: Tectum 2013. Dreyfus, Hubert L. (2004), Kierkegaard on the Internet: Anonymity vs. Commitment in the Present Age. Retrieved at December 1, 2009. Fraser, John (2001), "Nihilism, Modernisn and Value", retrieved at December 2, 2009. Galimberti, Umberto (2008), L'ospite inquietante. Il nichilismo e i giovani, Milano: Feltrinelli. ISBN 9788807171437. Gillespie, Michael Allen (1996), Nihilism Before Nietzsche, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Giovanni, George di (2008), "Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Edward N. Zalta (ed.). Retrieved on December 1, 2009. Harper, Douglas, "Nihilism", in: Online Etymology Dictionary, retrieved at December 2, 2009. Harries, Karsten (2010), Between nihilism and faith: a commentary on Either/or, Walter de Gruyter Press. Hibbs, Thomas S. (2000), Shows About Nothing: Nihilism in Popular Culture from The Exorcist to Seinfeld, Dallas, TX: Spence Publishing Company. Kopić, Mario (2001), S Nietzscheom o Europi, Zagreb: Jesenski i Turk. Korab-Karpowicz, W. J. (2005), "Martin Heidegger (1889—1976)", in: Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, retrieved at December 2, 2009. Kuhn, Elisabeth (1992), Friedrich Nietzsches Philosophie des europäischen Nihilismus, Walter de Gruyter. Irti, Natalino (2004), Nichilismo giuridico, Laterza, Roma-Bari. Löwith, Karl (1995), Martin Heidegger and European Nihilism, New York, NY: Columbia UP. Marmysz, John (2003), Laughing at Nothing: Humor as a Response to Nihilism, Albany, NY: SUNY Press. Müller-Lauter, Wolfgang (2000), Heidegger und Nietzsche. Nietzsche-Interpretationen III, Berlin-New York. Parvez Manzoor, S. (2003), "Modernity and Nihilism. Secular History and Loss of Meaning", retrieved at December 2, 2009. Rose, Eugene Fr. Seraphim (1995), Nihilism, The Root of the Revolution of the Modern Age, Forestville, CA: Fr. Seraphim Rose Foundation. Rosen, Stanley (2000), Nihilism: A Philosophical Essay, South Bend, Indiana: St. Augustine's Press (2nd Edition). Severino, Emanuele (1982), Essenza del nichilismo, Milano: Adelphi. ISBN 9788845904899. Slocombe, Will (2006), Nihilism and the Sublime Postmodern: The (Hi)Story of a Difficult Relationship, New York, NY: Routledge. Tigani, Francesco (2010), Rappresentare Medea. Dal mito al nichilismo, Roma: Aracne. ISBN 978-88-548-3256-5. —— (2014), Lo spettro del nulla e il corpo del nichilismo, in La nave di Teseo. Saggi sull'Essere, il mito e il potere, Napoli: Guida. ISBN 9788868660499. Villet, Charles (2009), Towards Ethical Nihilism: The Possibility of Nietzschean Hope, Saarbrücken: Verlag Dr. Müller. Williams, Peter S. (2005), I Wish I Could Believe in Meaning: A Response to Nihilism, Damaris Publishing. External links[edit] Look up nihilism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Nihilism Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nihilism. Nihilist Abyss (in Italian) Friedrich Nietzsche, Thus Spake Zarathustra, translated by Thomas Common "Nihilism" in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Fathers and Sons by Ivan Turgenev "Moral Skepticism", section "Skeptical Hypotheses" in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy "Nihilism" . New International Encyclopedia. 1905. 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en-wikipedia-org-271	----	Valerius Maximus - Wikipedia Valerius Maximus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search early 1st century AD Roman professional rhetorician, historian and author Page from an incunable of Valerius Maximus, Facta et dicta memorabilia, printed in red and black by Peter Schöffer (Mainz, 1471) Valerius Maximus (/vəˈlɪəriəs ˈmæksɪməs/) was a 1st-century Latin writer and author of a collection of historical anecdotes: Factorum ac dictorum memorabilium libri IX ("Nine books of memorable deeds and sayings", also known as De factis dictisque memorabilibus or Facta et dicta memorabilia). He worked during the reign of Tiberius (14 AD to 37 AD). During the Middle Ages, Valerius Maximus was one of the most copied Latin prose authors, second only to Priscian. More than 600 medieval manuscripts of his books have survived as a result.[1] Contents 1 Biography 2 Style 3 Legacy 4 Editions and translations 5 References 6 Bibliography 7 External links Biography[edit] Nothing is known of his life except that his family was poor and undistinguished, and that he owed everything to Sextus Pompeius (consul AD 14),[2] proconsul of Asia, whom he accompanied to the East in 27. Pompeius was the center of a literary circle to which Ovid belonged; he was also an intimate friend of the most literary prince of the imperial family, Germanicus.[3] Although he shared the same name as a prestigious family of the Republic, John Briscoe says "it is unlikely in the extreme" that Valerius Maximus belonged to the patrician Valerii Maximi. He suggests instead that he was either a descendant of the plebeian Valerii Tappones or Triarii, or earned the Roman citizenship thanks to the patronage of a Valerius of the Republic.[4] His attitude towards the imperial household is controversial: he has been represented as a mean flatterer of Tiberius,[5] of the same type as Martial. Chisholm in 1911 argued however that, if the references to the imperial administration are carefully scanned, they will be seen to be extravagant neither in kind nor in number: few will now grudge Tiberius, when his whole action as a ruler is taken into account, such a title as salutaris princeps, which seemed to a former generation a specimen of shameless adulation. A quarter of a century later still, however, H J Rose claimed that Valerius “cares nothing for historical truth if by neglecting it he can flatter Tiberius, which he does most fulsomely”.[6] Chisholm also maintained that the few allusions to Caesar's murderers and to Augustus hardly pass beyond the conventional style of the writer's day; and that the only passage which can fairly be called fulsome is the violently rhetorical tirade against Sejanus.[3] Style[edit] The style of Valerius's writings seems to indicate that he was a professional rhetorician; and his writing represents much of the worst rhetorical tendencies of the Silver Latin age. Direct and simple statement is avoided and novelty pursued at any price, producing a clumsy obscurity.[7] The diction is like that of poetry; the uses of words are strained; metaphors are invented; there are startling contrasts, innuendoes and epithets; variations are played upon grammatical and rhetorical figures of speech.[3] In his preface, Valerius intimates that his work is intended as a commonplace book of historical anecdotes for use in the schools of rhetoric, where the pupils were trained in the art of embellishing speeches by references to history. According to the manuscripts, its title is Factorum ac dictorum memorabilium libri IX (shorter title Facta et dicta memorabilia), "Nine Books of Memorable Deeds and Sayings." The stories are loosely and irregularly arranged, each book being divided into sections, and each section bearing as its title the topic, most commonly some virtue or vice, or some merit or demerit, which the stories in the section are intended to illustrate.[3] Most of the tales are from Roman history, but each section has an appendix consisting of extracts from the annals of other peoples, principally the Greeks. The exposition exhibits strongly the two currents of feeling which are intermingled by almost every Roman writer of the Empire—the feeling that the Romans of the writer's own day are degenerate creatures when confronted with their own republican predecessors, and the feeling that, however degenerate, the latter-day Romans still tower above the other peoples of the world, and in particular are morally superior to the Greeks.[3] The author's chief sources are Cicero, Livy, Sallust and Pompeius Trogus, especially the first two.[8] Valerius's treatment of his material is careless and inaccurate in the extreme;[9] but in spite of his confusions, contradictions and anachronisms, the excerpts are apt illustrations, from the rhetorician's point of view, of the circumstance or quality they were intended to illustrate.[10] And even on the historical side we owe something to Valerius. He often used sources now lost, and where he touches on his own time he affords us some glimpses of the much debated and very imperfectly recorded reign of Tiberius;[3] as well as some fragmentary information on Hellenistic art;[11] and a revealing glimpse into the early imperial consensus on the need for the orderly logic and stability of the ancient Roman religion, in a politically unsettled world.[12] Legacy[edit] Simon de Hesdin presents his translation of Valerius Maximus' 'Facta et dicta memorabilia' to Charles V, king of France The collection of Valerius was much used for school purposes, and its popularity in the Middle Ages is attested by the large number of manuscripts in which it has been preserved: indeed, B. G. Niebuhr went so far as to claim that it was then “the most important book next to the Bible”.[13] Like other schoolbooks it was epitomised: one complete epitome, probably of the 4th or 5th century, bearing the name of Julius Paris, has come down to us; also a portion of another by Januarius Nepotianus [fr].[14] Only in the Renaissance, however, did it enter the central Latin curriculum in unabridged form, and it is then that its influence was arguably at its peak.[15] Dante for example used Valerius for details in his account of the generosity and modesty of Pisistratus.[16]< Although in the manuscripts of Valerius a tenth book is given, which consists of the so-called Liber de Praenominibus, this is the work of some grammarian of a much later date.[17] Editions and translations[edit] Editions by C. Halm (1865), C. Kempf (1888), contain the epitomes of Paris and Nepotianus.[3] New editions have been produced by R. Combès (1995-) with a French translation, J. Briscoe (1998), and D.R. Shackleton Baily (2000) with an English translation. Recent discussions of Valerius' work include W. Martin Bloomer, Valerius Maximus and the Rhetoric of the New Nobility (Chapel Hill, 1992), Clive Skidmore, Practical Ethics for Roman Gentlemen: the Work of Valerius Maximus (Exeter, 1996), and Hans-Friedrich Mueller, Roman Religion in Valerius Maximus (London, 2002). A translation into Dutch was published in 1614,[18] and was read by Rembrandt and other artists (and their patrons), stimulating interest in some new subjects such as Artemisia drinking her husband's ashes.[19] 600 manuscripts of Valerius have survived, 800 when counting epitomes, more than any other Latin prose writer after the grammarian Priscian. Most manuscripts date from the late Middle Ages, but 30 predates the 12th century.[1] The three oldest manuscripts are the authoritative sources for the text: Burgerbibliothek, Bern, Switzerland, n°366 (manuscript A). Laurentian Library, Florence, Italy, Ashburnham 1899 (manuscript L). Both A and L were written in northern France in the 9th century and share a common source. Royal Library, Brussels, Belgium, n°5336 (manuscript G). It was probably written at the Gembloux Abbey (south of Brussels) in the 11th century. Briscoe says that G has a different parent from A and L, as several mistakes shared by A and L are not found in G.[20] References[edit] ^ a b Briscoe, Valerius Maximus, p. 15. ^ H J Rose, A Handbook of Latin Literature (London 1966) p. 356 ^ a b c d e f g Chisholm 1911. ^ Briscoe, Valerius Maximus, p. 1. ^ H Nettleship, A Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (London 1891) p. 664 ^ H J Rose, A Handbook of Latin Literature (London 1966) p. 356 ^ H J Rose, A Handbook of Latin Literature (London 1966) p. 356 ^ H Nettleship, A Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (London 1891) p. 664 ^ H J Rose, A Handbook of Latin Literature (London 1966) p. 356 ^ Reading for the moral in Valerius Maximus ^ J Boardman ed, The Oxford History of the Classical World (1986) p. 495 ^ H-F Mueller, Roman Religion in Valerius Maximus (2002) p. 2 and p. 118 ^ Quoted in M Crab, Exemplary Reading (2015) p. 1 ^ H J Rose, A Handbook of Latin Literature (London 1966) p. 356 ^ M Crab, Exemplary Reading (2015) p. 2-3 ^ Dante, Purgatory (Penguin 1971) p. 187 ^ H J Rose, A Handbook of Latin Literature (London 1966) p. 357 ^ Valerii Maximi Des alder-vermaertsten ende welsprekensten Histori-schryvers Negen Boecken, Van ghedenck-Weerdighe / loflicke woorden / daden ende gheschiedenissen der Romeynen en de uytlansche volcken. Overgheset uyt de Latijnsche in onse Nederduytsche tale door Conradum Mirkinium. Tot Rotterdam, By Jan Leendertsz. Berewout / Boeckverkooper op de Hoogh-straet int Schrijfboeck. 1614. Available at https://books.google.nl/books/about/Des_alder_vermaertsten_ende_wel_sprekens.html?id=sfKtoECJbq8C&redir_esc=y ^ Golahny, Amy, Rembrandt's Reading: The Artist's Bookshelf of Ancient Poetry and History, pp. 129-133, 2003, Amsterdam University Press, ISBN 9053566090, 9789053566091 ^ Briscoe, Valerius Maximus, pp. 15–21. Attribution:  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Valerius Maximus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 860. Bibliography[edit] Bloomer, W. Martin. Valerius Maximus and the Rhetoric of the New Nobility. University of North Carolina Press: Chapel Hill, 1992. Briscoe, John. "Some Notes on Valerius Maximus." Sileno 19: 398–402, 1993. ——, Valerius Maximus, Facta Et Dicta Memorabilia, Book 8: Text, Introduction, and Commentary, Berlin/Boston, de Gruyter, 2019. Farrell, Joseph. "The Poverty of Our Ancestral Speech." Latin Language and Latin Culture from Ancient to Modern Times. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. Guerrini, Roberto. Studi su Valerio Massimo. Pisa, Italy: Giardini, 1981. Holford-Strevens, Leofranc. “Getting Away with Murder: The Literary and Forensic Fortune of Two Roman ‘Exempla.’” International Journal of the Classical Tradition, vol. 7, no. 4, 2001, pp. 489–514. Ker, James. “Roman Repraesentatio.” The American Journal of Philology, vol. 128, no. 3, 2007, pp. 341–365. Koster, Isabel K. “How to Kill a Roman Villain: The Deaths of Quintus Pleminus.” The Classical Journal, vol. 109, no. 3, 2014, pp. 309–332. Lennon, Jack. “Dining and Obligation in Valerius Maximus: The Case of the Sacra Mensae.” The Classical Quarterly, vol. 65, no. 2, 2015, pp. 719–731. Lobur, John Alexander. Consensus, Concordia and the Formation of Roman Imperial Ideology, Routledge, 2008 (chapter six). Mueller, Hans-Friedrich. Roman Religion in Valerius Maximus. Routledge: London, 2002. Nguyen, V. Henry T. Christian Identity in Corinth: A Comparative Study of 2 Corinthians, Epictetus and Valerius Maximus. Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament. 2. Reihe 243. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2008. Skidmore, Clive. Practical Ethics for Roman Gentlemen: The Work of Valerius Maximus. University of Exeter Press: Exeter, 1996. Vorobyova, Nataliya. "Valerius Maximus: Moral Exempla in Kierkegaard’s Writings" in Kierkegaard and the Roman World edited by Jon Bartley Stewart. Ashgate: Farnham, 2009. Wardle, David. “Valerius Maximus and the End of the First Punic War.” Latomus, vol. 64, no. 2, 2005, pp. 377–384. Wardle, David. The Sainted Julius: Valerius Maximus and the Dictator. Classical Philology 92:323–345, 1997. Wardle, David. Valerius Maximus' Memorable Deeds and Sayings: Book 1. Oxford University Press (Clarendon Ancient History Series): Oxford and New York, 1998. Welch, Tara S. "Was Valerius Maximus a Hack?" American Journal of Philology 134:67–82, 2013. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Valerius Maximus. Wikisource has original works written by or about: Valerius Maximus Wikisource has original text related to this article: Translation:Liber de Praenominibus Library resources about Valerius Maximus Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Valerius Maximus Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Works by Valerius Maximus at Perseus Digital Library (in Latin) VALERI MAXIMI FACTORVM ET DICTORVM MEMORABILIVM LIBRI NOVEM at The Latin Library, his most famous work, often quoted by orators of the time. Sheridan, Paul (2015-09-19). "Selected Anecdotes by Valerius Maximus". Anecdotes from Antiquity. Retrieved 2015-09-19. Authority control BNE: XX1142330 BNF: cb12043057z (data) CANTIC: a20064573 CiNii: DA08222913 GND: 118625969 ISNI: 0000 0001 1562 7488 LCCN: n82097560 LNB: 000009682 NKC: ola2002161393 NLA: 36580585 NLG: 79188 NLP: A11861769 NSK: 000085153 NTA: 069823685 RERO: 02-A000169721 RSL: 000008655 SELIBR: 208828 SNAC: w6wm2jbz SUDOC: 028635140 Trove: 1304221 ULAN: 500355327 VIAF: 44316768 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n82097560 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Valerius_Maximus&oldid=993874425" Categories: Latin historians Silver Age Latin writers 1st-century Romans 1st-century historians Valerii Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Commons category link from Wikidata Articles with Latin-language sources (la) Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLP identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with RSL identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages Afrikaans Asturianu Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Español Estremeñu Euskara Français Furlan 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Latina Magyar Nederlands Polski Português Русский Shqip Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 12 December 2020, at 23:21 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2724	----	Roman law - Wikipedia Roman law From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Legal system of Ancient Rome (c. 449 BC – AD 529) Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e Roman law is the legal system of ancient Rome, including the legal developments spanning over a thousand years of jurisprudence, from the Twelve Tables (c. 449 BC), to the Corpus Juris Civilis (AD 529) ordered by Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I. Roman law forms the basic framework for civil law, the most widely used legal system today, and the terms are sometimes used synonymously. The historical importance of Roman law is reflected by the continued use of Latin legal terminology in many legal systems influenced by it, including common law. After the dissolution of the Western Roman Empire, the Roman law remained in effect in the Eastern Roman Empire. From the 7th century onward, the legal language in the East was Greek. Roman law also denoted the legal system applied in most of Western Europe until the end of the 18th century. In Germany, Roman law practice remained in place longer under the Holy Roman Empire (963–1806). Roman law thus served as a basis for legal practice throughout Western continental Europe, as well as in most former colonies of these European nations, including Latin America, and also in Ethiopia. English and Anglo-American common law were influenced also by Roman law, notably in their Latinate legal glossary (for example, stare decisis, culpa in contrahendo, pacta sunt servanda).[1] Eastern Europe was also influenced by the jurisprudence of the Corpus Juris Civilis, especially in countries such as medieval Romania (Wallachia, Moldavia, and some other medieval provinces/historical regions) which created a new system, a mixture of Roman and local law. Also, Eastern European law was influenced by the "Farmer's Law" of the medieval Byzantine legal system. Contents 1 Development 1.1 Twelve Tables 1.2 Early law and jurisprudence 1.3 Pre-classical period 1.4 Classical Roman law 1.5 Post-classical law 2 Substance 2.1 Concept of laws 2.2 Public law 2.3 Private law 2.4 Status 2.5 Litigation 3 Legacy 3.1 In the East 3.2 In the West 3.3 Today 4 See also 5 References 6 Sources 7 Further reading 8 External links Development Before the Twelve Tables (754–449 BC), private law comprised the Roman civil law (ius civile Quiritium) that applied only to Roman citizens, and was bonded to religion; undeveloped, with attributes of strict formalism, symbolism, and conservatism, e.g. the ritual practice of mancipatio (a form of sale). The jurist Sextus Pomponius said, "At the beginning of our city, the people began their first activities without any fixed law, and without any fixed rights: all things were ruled despotically, by kings".[2] It is believed that Roman Law is rooted in the Etruscan religion, emphasizing ritual.[3] Twelve Tables Main article: Twelve Tables The first legal text is the Law of the Twelve Tables, dating from the mid-5th century BC. The plebeian tribune, C. Terentilius Arsa, proposed that the law should be written in order to prevent magistrates from applying the law arbitrarily.[4] After eight years of political struggle, the plebeian social class convinced the patricians to send a delegation to Athens to copy the Laws of Solon; they also dispatched delegations to other Greek cities for like reason.[4] In 451 BC, according to the traditional story (as Livy tells it), ten Roman citizens were chosen to record the laws, known as the decemviri legibus scribundis. While they were performing this task, they were given supreme political power (imperium), whereas the power of the magistrates was restricted.[4] In 450 BC, the decemviri produced the laws on ten tablets (tabulae), but these laws were regarded as unsatisfactory by the plebeians. A second decemvirate is said to have added two further tablets in 449 BC. The new Law of the Twelve Tables was approved by the people's assembly.[4] Modern scholars tend to challenge the accuracy of Roman historians. They generally do not believe that a second decemvirate ever took place. The decemvirate of 451 is believed to have included the most controversial points of customary law, and to have assumed the leading functions in Rome.[4] Furthermore, questions concerning Greek influence on early Roman Law are still much discussed. Many scholars consider it unlikely that the patricians sent an official delegation to Greece, as the Roman historians believed. Instead, those scholars suggest, the Romans acquired Greek legislations from the Greek cities of Magna Graecia, the main portal between the Roman and Greek worlds.[4] The original text of the Twelve Tables has not been preserved. The tablets were probably destroyed when Rome was conquered and burned by the Gauls in 387 BC.[4] The fragments which did survive show that it was not a law code in the modern sense. It did not provide a complete and coherent system of all applicable rules or give legal solutions for all possible cases. Rather, the tables contained specific provisions designed to change the then-existing customary law. Although the provisions pertain to all areas of law, the largest part is dedicated to private law and civil procedure. Early law and jurisprudence Main articles: Lex Canuleia, Lex Hortensia, and Lex Aquilia Many laws include Lex Canuleia (445 BC; which allowed the marriage—ius connubii—between patricians and plebeians), Leges Licinae Sextiae (367 BC; which made restrictions on possession of public lands—ager publicus—and also made sure that one of the consuls was plebeian), Lex Ogulnia (300 BC; plebeians received access to priest posts), and Lex Hortensia (287 BC; verdicts of plebeian assemblies—plebiscita—now bind all people). Another important statute from the Republican era is the Lex Aquilia of 286 BC, which may be regarded as the root of modern tort law. However, Rome's most important contribution to European legal culture was not the enactment of well-drafted statutes, but the emergence of a class of professional jurists (prudentes, sing. prudens, or jurisprudentes) and of a legal science. This was achieved in a gradual process of applying the scientific methods of Greek philosophy to the subject of law, a subject which the Greeks themselves never treated as a science. Traditionally, the origins of Roman legal science are connected to Gnaeus Flavius. Flavius is said to have published around the year 300 BC the formularies containing the words which had to be spoken in court to begin a legal action. Before the time of Flavius, these formularies are said to have been secret and known only to the priests. Their publication made it possible for non-priests to explore the meaning of these legal texts. Whether or not this story is credible, jurists were active and legal treatises were written in larger numbers before the 2nd century BC. Among the famous jurists of the republican period are Quintus Mucius Scaevola who wrote a voluminous treatise on all aspects of the law, which was very influential in later times, and Servius Sulpicius Rufus, a friend of Marcus Tullius Cicero. Thus, Rome had developed a very sophisticated legal system and a refined legal culture when the Roman republic was replaced by the monarchical system of the principate in 27 BC. Pre-classical period In the period between about 201 to 27 BC, we can see the development of more flexible laws to match the needs of the time. In addition to the old and formal ius civile a new juridical class is created: the ius honorarium, which can be defined as "The law introduced by the magistrates who had the right to promulgate edicts in order to support, supplement or correct the existing law."[5] With this new law the old formalism is being abandoned and new more flexible principles of ius gentium are used. The adaptation of law to new needs was given over to juridical practice, to magistrates, and especially to the praetors. A praetor was not a legislator and did not technically create new law when he issued his edicts (magistratuum edicta). In fact, the results of his rulings enjoyed legal protection (actionem dare) and were in effect often the source of new legal rules. A Praetor's successor was not bound by the edicts of his predecessor; however, he did take rules from edicts of his predecessor that had proved to be useful. In this way a constant content was created that proceeded from edict to edict (edictum traslatitium). Thus, over the course of time, parallel to the civil law and supplementing and correcting it, a new body of praetoric law emerged. In fact, praetoric law was so defined by the famous Roman jurist Papinian (142–212 AD): "Ius praetorium est quod praetores introduxerunt adiuvandi vel supplendi vel corrigendi iuris civilis gratia propter utilitatem publicam" ("praetoric law is that law introduced by praetors to supplement or correct civil law for public benefit"). Ultimately, civil law and praetoric law were fused in the Corpus Juris Civilis. Classical Roman law Main articles: Gaius (jurist), Ulpian, Papinian, Julius Paulus Prudentissimus, and Herennius Modestinus The first 250 years of the current era are the period during which Roman law and Roman legal science reached its greatest degree of sophistication. The law of this period is often referred to as the classical period of Roman law. The literary and practical achievements of the jurists of this period gave Roman law its unique shape. The jurists worked in different functions: They gave legal opinions at the request of private parties. They advised the magistrates who were entrusted with the administration of justice, most importantly the praetors. They helped the praetors draft their edicts, in which they publicly announced at the beginning of their tenure, how they would handle their duties, and the formularies, according to which specific proceedings were conducted. Some jurists also held high judicial and administrative offices themselves. The jurists also produced all kinds of legal punishments. Around AD 130 the jurist Salvius Iulianus drafted a standard form of the praetor's edict, which was used by all praetors from that time onwards. This edict contained detailed descriptions of all cases, in which the praetor would allow a legal action and in which he would grant a defense. The standard edict thus functioned like a comprehensive law code, even though it did not formally have the force of law. It indicated the requirements for a successful legal claim. The edict therefore became the basis for extensive legal commentaries by later classical jurists like Paulus and Ulpian. The new concepts and legal institutions developed by pre-classical and classical jurists are too numerous to mention here. Only a few examples are given here: Roman jurists clearly separated the legal right to use a thing (ownership) from the factual ability to use and manipulate the thing (possession). They also established the distinction between contract and tort as sources of legal obligations. The standard types of contract (sale, contract for work, hire, contract for services) regulated in most continental codes and the characteristics of each of these contracts were developed by Roman jurisprudence. The classical jurist Gaius (around 160) invented a system of private law based on the division of all material into personae (persons), res (things) and actiones (legal actions). This system was used for many centuries. It can be recognized in legal treatises like William Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England and enactments like the French Code civil or the German BGB. The Roman Republic had three different branches: Assemblies Senate Consuls The Assemblies could decide whether war or peace. The Senate had complete control over the Treasury, and the Consuls had the highest juridical power.[6] Post-classical law By the middle of the 3rd century, the conditions for the flourishing of a refined legal culture had become less favourable. The general political and economic situation deteriorated as the emperors assumed more direct control of all aspects of political life. The political system of the principate, which had retained some features of the republican constitution, began to transform itself into the absolute monarchy of the dominate. The existence of a legal science and of jurists who regarded law as a science, not as an instrument to achieve the political goals set by the absolute monarch, did not fit well into the new order of things. The literary production all but ended. Few jurists after the mid-3rd century are known by name. While legal science and legal education persisted to some extent in the eastern part of the Empire, most of the subtleties of classical law came to be disregarded and finally forgotten in the west. Classical law was replaced by so-called vulgar law. Substance Play media The basics of Roman law Concept of laws ius civile, ius gentium, and ius naturale – the ius civile ("citizen law", originally ius civile Quiritium) was the body of common laws that applied to Roman citizens and the Praetores Urbani, the individuals who had jurisdiction over cases involving citizens. The ius gentium ("law of peoples") was the body of common laws that applied to foreigners, and their dealings with Roman citizens. The Praetores Peregrini were the individuals who had jurisdiction over cases involving citizens and foreigners. Jus naturale was a concept the jurists developed to explain why all people seemed to obey some laws. Their answer was that a "natural law" instilled in all beings a common sense. ius scriptum and ius non-scriptum – meaning written and unwritten law, respectively. In practice, the two differed by the means of their creation and not necessarily whether or not they were written down. The ius scriptum was the body of statute laws made by the legislature. The laws were known as leges (lit. "laws") and plebiscita (lit. "plebiscites," originating in the Plebeian Council). Roman lawyers would also include in the ius scriptum the edicts of magistrates (magistratuum edicta), the advice of the Senate (Senatus consulta), the responses and thoughts of jurists (responsa prudentium), and the proclamations and beliefs of the emperor (principum placita). Ius non-scriptum was the body of common laws that arose from customary practice and had become binding over time. ius commune and ius singulare – Ius singulare (singular law) is special law for certain groups of people, things, or legal relations (because of which it is an exception from the general rules of the legal system), unlike general, ordinary, law (ius commune). An example of this is the law about wills written by people in the military during a campaign, which are exempt of the solemnities generally required for citizens when writing wills in normal circumstances. ius publicum and ius privatum – ius publicum means public law and ius privatum means private law, where public law is to protect the interests of the Roman state while private law should protect individuals. In the Roman law ius privatum included personal, property, civil and criminal law; judicial proceeding was private process (iudicium privatum); and crimes were private (except the most severe ones that were prosecuted by the state). Public law will only include some areas of private law close to the end of the Roman state. Ius publicum was also used to describe obligatory legal regulations (today called ius cogens—this term is applied in modern international law to indicate peremptory norms that cannot be derogated from). These are regulations that cannot be changed or excluded by party agreement. Those regulations that can be changed are called today ius dispositivum, and they are not used when party shares something and are in contrary. Public law Main articles: Ius publicum, Constitution of the Roman Republic, and Res publica Cicero, author of the classic book The Laws, attacks Catiline for attempting a coup in the Roman Senate. The Roman Republic's constitution or mos maiorum ("custom of the ancestors") was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles passed down mainly through precedent. Concepts that originated in the Roman constitution live on in constitutions to this day. Examples include checks and balances, the separation of powers, vetoes, filibusters, quorum requirements, term limits, impeachments, the powers of the purse, and regularly scheduled elections. Even some lesser used modern constitutional concepts, such as the block voting found in the electoral college of the United States, originate from ideas found in the Roman constitution. The constitution of the Roman Republic was not formal or even official. Its constitution was largely unwritten, and was constantly evolving throughout the life of the Republic. Throughout the 1st century BC, the power and legitimacy of the Roman constitution was progressively eroding. Even Roman constitutionalists, such as the senator Cicero, lost a willingness to remain faithful to it towards the end of the republic. When the Roman Republic ultimately fell in the years following the Battle of Actium and Mark Antony's suicide, what was left of the Roman constitution died along with the Republic. The first Roman Emperor, Augustus, attempted to manufacture the appearance of a constitution that still governed the Empire, by utilising that constitution's institutions to lend legitimacy to the Principate, e.g. reusing prior grants of greater imperium to substantiate Augustus' greater imperium over the Imperial provinces and the prorogation of different magistracies to justify Augustus' receipt of tribunician power. The belief in a surviving constitution lasted well into the life of the Roman Empire. Private law Main articles: Ius privatum, Stipulatio, and Rei vindicatio Stipulatio was the basic form of contract in Roman law. It was made in the format of question and answer. The precise nature of the contract was disputed, as can be seen below. Rei vindicatio is a legal action by which the plaintiff demands that the defendant return a thing that belongs to the plaintiff. It may only be used when plaintiff owns the thing, and the defendant is somehow impeding the plaintiff's possession of the thing. The plaintiff could also institute an actio furti (a personal action) to punish the defendant. If the thing could not be recovered, the plaintiff could claim damages from the defendant with the aid of the condictio furtiva (a personal action). With the aid of the actio legis Aquiliae (a personal action), the plaintiff could claim damages from the defendant. Rei vindicatio was derived from the ius civile, therefore was only available to Roman citizens. Status Main article: Status in Roman legal system To describe a person's position in the legal system, Romans mostly used the expression togeus. The individual could have been a Roman citizen (status civitatis) unlike foreigners, or he could have been free (status libertatis) unlike slaves, or he could have had a certain position in a Roman family (status familiae) either as the head of the family (pater familias), or some lower member—alieni iuris—which lives by someone else's law. Two status types were senator and emperor. Litigation Main article: Roman litigation The history of Roman Law can be divided into three systems of procedure: that of legis actiones, the formulary system, and cognitio extra ordinem. The periods in which these systems were in use overlapped one another and did not have definitive breaks, but it can be stated that the legis actio system prevailed from the time of the XII Tables (c. 450 BC) until about the end of the 2nd century BC, that the formulary procedure was primarily used from the last century of the Republic until the end of the classical period (c. AD 200), and that of cognitio extra ordinem was in use in post-classical times. Again, these dates are meant as a tool to help understand the types of procedure in use, not as a rigid boundary where one system stopped and another began.[7] During the republic and until the bureaucratization of Roman judicial procedure, the judge was usually a private person (iudex privatus). He had to be a Roman male citizen. The parties could agree on a judge, or they could appoint one from a list, called album iudicum. They went down the list until they found a judge agreeable to both parties, or if none could be found they had to take the last one on the list. No one had a legal obligation to judge a case. The judge had great latitude in the way he conducted the litigation. He considered all the evidence and ruled in the way that seemed just. Because the judge was not a jurist or a legal technician, he often consulted a jurist about the technical aspects of the case, but he was not bound by the jurist's reply. At the end of the litigation, if things were not clear to him, he could refuse to give a judgment, by swearing that it wasn't clear. Also, there was a maximum time to issue a judgment, which depended on some technical issues (type of action, etc.). Later on, with the bureaucratization, this procedure disappeared, and was substituted by the so-called "extra ordinem" procedure, also known as cognitory. The whole case was reviewed before a magistrate, in a single phase. The magistrate had obligation to judge and to issue a decision, and the decision could be appealed to a higher magistrate. Legacy German legal theorist Rudolf von Jhering famously remarked that ancient Rome had conquered the world three times: the first through its armies, the second through its religion, the third through its laws. He might have added: each time more thoroughly. — David Graeber, Debt: The First 5,000 Years In the East Main articles: Corpus Juris Civilis and Byzantine law Title page of a late 16th-century edition of the Digesta, part of Emperor Justinian's Corpus Juris Civilis When the centre of the Empire was moved to the Greek East in the 4th century, many legal concepts of Greek origin appeared in the official Roman legislation.[8] The influence is visible even in the law of persons or of the family, which is traditionally the part of the law that changes least. For example, Constantine started putting restrictions on the ancient Roman concept of patria potestas, the power held by the male head of a family over his descendants, by acknowledging that persons in potestate, the descendants, could have proprietary rights. He was apparently making concessions to the much stricter concept of paternal authority under Greek-Hellenistic law.[8] The Codex Theodosianus (438 AD) was a codification of Constantian laws. Later emperors went even further, until Justinian finally decreed that a child in potestate became owner of everything it acquired, except when it acquired something from its father.[8] The codes of Justinian, particularly the Corpus Juris Civilis (529–534) continued to be the basis of legal practice in the Empire throughout its so-called Byzantine history. Leo III the Isaurian issued a new code, the Ecloga,[9] in the early 8th century. In the 9th century, the emperors Basil I and Leo VI the Wise commissioned a combined translation of the Code and the Digest, parts of Justinian's codes, into Greek, which became known as the Basilica. Roman law as preserved in the codes of Justinian and in the Basilica remained the basis of legal practice in Greece and in the courts of the Eastern Orthodox Church even after the fall of the Byzantine Empire and the conquest by the Turks, and, along with the Syro-Roman law book, also formed the basis for much of the Fetha Negest, which remained in force in Ethiopia until 1931. In the West Main articles: Early Germanic law, Anglo-Saxon law, and Medieval Roman Law In the west, Justinian's political authority never went any farther than certain portions of the Italian and Hispanic peninsulas. In Law codes were issued by the Germanic kings, however, the influence of early Eastern Roman codes on some of these is quite discernible. In many early Germanic states, Roman citizens continued to be governed by Roman laws for quite some time, even while members of the various Germanic tribes were governed by their own respective codes. The Codex Justinianus and the Institutes of Justinian were known in Western Europe, and along with the earlier code of Theodosius II, served as models for a few of the Germanic law codes; however, the Digest portion was largely ignored for several centuries until around 1070, when a manuscript of the Digest was rediscovered in Italy. This was done mainly through the works of glossars who wrote their comments between lines (glossa interlinearis), or in the form of marginal notes (glossa marginalis). From that time, scholars began to study the ancient Roman legal texts, and to teach others what they learned from their studies. The center of these studies was Bologna. The law school there gradually developed into Europe's first university. The students who were taught Roman law in Bologna (and later in many other places) found that many rules of Roman law were better suited to regulate complex economic transactions than were the customary rules, which were applicable throughout Europe. For this reason, Roman law, or at least some provisions borrowed from it, began to be re-introduced into legal practice, centuries after the end of the Roman empire. This process was actively supported by many kings and princes who employed university-trained jurists as counselors and court officials and sought to benefit from rules like the famous Princeps legibus solutus est ("The sovereign is not bound by the laws", a phrase initially coined by Ulpian, a Roman jurist). There are several reasons that Roman law was favored in the Middle Ages. Roman law regulated the legal protection of property and the equality of legal subjects and their wills, and it prescribed the possibility that the legal subjects could dispose their property through testament. By the middle of the 16th century, the rediscovered Roman law dominated the legal practice of many European countries. A legal system, in which Roman law was mixed with elements of canon law and of Germanic custom, especially feudal law, had emerged. This legal system, which was common to all of continental Europe (and Scotland) was known as Ius Commune. This Ius Commune and the legal systems based on it are usually referred to as civil law in English-speaking countries. Only England and the Nordic countries did not take part in the wholesale reception of Roman law. One reason for this is that the English legal system was more developed than its continental counterparts by the time Roman law was rediscovered. Therefore, the practical advantages of Roman law were less obvious to English practitioners than to continental lawyers. As a result, the English system of common law developed in parallel to Roman-based civil law, with its practitioners being trained at the Inns of Court in London rather than receiving degrees in Canon or Civil Law at the Universities of Oxford or Cambridge. Elements of Romano-canon law were present in England in the ecclesiastical courts and, less directly, through the development of the equity system. In addition, some concepts from Roman law made their way into the common law. Especially in the early 19th century, English lawyers and judges were willing to borrow rules and ideas from continental jurists and directly from Roman law. The practical application of Roman law, and the era of the European Ius Commune, came to an end when national codifications were made. In 1804, the French civil code came into force. In the course of the 19th century, many European states either adopted the French model or drafted their own codes. In Germany, the political situation made the creation of a national code of laws impossible. From the 17th century, Roman law in Germany had been heavily influenced by domestic (customary) law, and it was called usus modernus Pandectarum. In some parts of Germany, Roman law continued to be applied until the German civil code (Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch, BGB) went into effect in 1900.[10] Colonial expansion spread the civil law system.[11] Today Today, Roman law is no longer applied in legal practice, even though the legal systems of some countries like South Africa and San Marino are still based on the old jus commune. However, even where the legal practice is based on a code, many rules deriving from Roman law apply: no code completely broke with the Roman tradition. Rather, the provisions of the Roman law were fitted into a more coherent system and expressed in the national language. For this reason, knowledge of the Roman law is indispensable to understand the legal systems of today. Thus, Roman law is often still a mandatory subject for law students in civil law jurisdictions. As steps towards a unification of the private law in the member states of the European Union are being taken, the old jus commune, which was the common basis of legal practice everywhere in Europe, but allowed for many local variants, is seen by many as a model. See also Ancient Rome portal Abalienatio (legal transfer of property) Auctoritas (power of the sovereign) Basileus (akin to modern sovereign) Capitis deminutio Certiorari Cessio bonorum (surrender of goods to a creditor) Compascuus (common pasture) Constitution (Roman law) Homo sacer Interregnum Justitium (akin to modern state of exception) Lex Caecilia Didia Lex Duodecim Tabularum Lex Junia Licinia Lex Manciana List of Roman laws Res extra commercium Roman-Dutch law Stipulatio Ancient Greek law References ^ In Germany, Art. 311 BGB ^ Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Roman Law" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. ^ Jenő Szmodis: The Reality of the Law – From the Etruscan Religion to the Postmodern Theories of Law; Ed. Kairosz, Budapest, 2005. ^ a b c d e f g "A Short History of Roman Law", Olga Tellegen-Couperus pp. 19–20. ^ Berger, Adolf (1953). Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law. The American Journal of Philology. 76. pp. 90–93. doi:10.2307/297597. ISBN 9780871694324. JSTOR 291711. ^ "Consul". Livius.org. 2002. Retrieved 19 June 2017. ^ Jolowicz, Herbert Felix; Nicholas, Barry (1967). Historical Introduction to the Study of Roman Law. Cambridge University Press. p. 528. ISBN 9780521082532. ^ a b c Tellegen-Couperus, Olga Eveline (1993). A Short History of Roman Law. Psychology Press. p. 174. ISBN 9780415072502. ^ "Ecloga". Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. 20 July 1998. Retrieved 6 October 2018. ^ Wolff, Hans Julius, 1902-1983. (1951). Roman law : an historical introduction. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 208. ISBN 0585116784. OCLC 44953814.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Rheinstein, Max; Glendon, Mary Ann; Carozza, Paolo. "Civil law (Romano-Germanic)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 6 October 2018. Sources Berger, Adolf, "Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law", Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 43, Part 2., pp. 476. Philadelphia : American Philosophical Society, 1953. (reprinted 1980, 1991, 2002). ISBN 1-58477-142-9 Further reading Bablitz, Leanne E. 2007. Actors and Audience in the Roman Courtroom. London: Routledge. Bauman, Richard A. 1989. Lawyers and Politics in the Early Roman Empire. Munich: Beck. Borkowski, Andrew, and Paul Du Plessis. 2005. A Textbook on Roman Law. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Buckland, William Warwick. 1963. A Textbook of Roman Law from Augustus to Justinian. Revised by P. G. Stein. 3d edition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Daube, David. 1969. Roman Law: Linguistic, Social and Philosophical Aspects. Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press. De Ligt, Luuk. 2007. "Roman Law and the Roman Economy: Three Case Studies." Latomus 66.1: 10–25. du Plessis, Paul. 2006. "Janus in the Roman Law of Urban Lease." Historia 55.1: 48–63. Gardner, Jane F. 1986. Women in Roman Law and Society. London: Croom Helm. Gardner, Jane F. 1998. Family and Familia in Roman Law and Life. Clarendon Press. Harries, Jill. 1999. Law and Empire in Late Antiquity. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. Nicholas, Barry. 1962. An Introduction to Roman Law. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Nicholas, Barry, and Peter Birks, eds. 1989. New Perspectives in the Roman Law of Property. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Powell, Jonathan, and Jeremy Paterson, eds. 2004. Cicero the Advocate. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Rives, James B. 2003. "Magic in Roman Law: The Reconstruction of a Crime." Classical Antiquity 22.2: 313–39. Schulz, Fritz. 1946. History of Roman Legal Science. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Stein, Peter. 1999. Roman Law in European History. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press. Tellegen-Couperus, Olga E. 1993. A Short History of Roman Law. London: Routledge. Wenger, Leopold. 1953. Die Quellen des römischen Rechts. Vienna: Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Roman law. Library resources about Roman law Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries A collection of resources maintained by professor Ernest Metzger The Roman Law Library by Professor Yves Lassard and Alexandr Koptev The Roman Law Articles of Smith's Dictionary Roman Legal Tradition: open access journal devoted to Roman law "Roman Law" . 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en-wikipedia-org-2727	----	Roman legion - Wikipedia Roman legion From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Roman legion (disambiguation). See also: List of Roman legions Ancient heavy infantry unit of 1,000 to 5,000 men This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Roman legion" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (November 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Part of a series on the Military of ancient Rome 753 BC – AD 476 Structural history Army Unit types and ranks Decorations and punishments Legions Auxilia Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Campaign history Wars and battles Technological history Military engineering Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Political history   Strategy and tactics Infantry tactics Frontiers and fortifications Limes Limes Britannicus Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Limes Germanicus Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes Norican Limes Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannonian Limes Limes Alutanus Limes Moesiae Trajan's Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmatiae Limes Arabicus Limes Tripolitanus Limes Mauretaniae  Ancient Rome portal •  War portal v t e The Roman legion was the largest military unit of the Roman army. A legion was roughly of brigade size, composed of 4,200 infantry and 300 cavalry in the republican period, extended to 5,200 infantry and 120 auxilia in the imperial period. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Function and constitution 3 Longevity 4 Overview of typical organization and strength 5 Evolution 6 Size 7 History 7.1 Roman kings (to c. 500 BC) 7.2 Roman Republic (509–107 BC) 7.3 Late Republic (107–30 BC) 7.4 Early Empire (27 BC–AD 284) 7.5 Later Empire (from 284 AD) 8 Legionary ranks 8.1 Senior officers 8.2 Centurions 8.3 Lower ranks 8.4 Special duty posts 9 Pay 10 Symbols 11 Discipline 11.1 Minor punishments 11.2 Major punishments 12 Factors in the legion's success 13 See also 14 References 14.1 Citations 14.2 Bibliography 15 External links Etymology[edit] In the early Roman Kingdom legion may have meant the entire Roman army, but sources on this period are few and unreliable.[1] The subsequent organization of legions varied greatly over time but legions were typically composed of around five thousand soldiers. During much of the republican era, a legion was divided into three lines of ten maniples. In the late republic and much of the imperial period (from about 100 BC), a legion was divided into ten cohorts, each of six (or five) centuries. Legions also included a small ala, or cavalry unit. By the third century AD, the legion was a much smaller unit of about 1,000 to 1,500 men, and there were more of them. In the fourth century AD, East Roman border guard legions (limitanei) may have become even smaller. In terms of organisation and function, the republican era legion may have been influenced by the ancient Greek and Macedonian phalanx.[2] Function and constitution[edit] For most of the Roman Imperial period, the legions formed the Roman army's elite heavy infantry, recruited exclusively from Roman citizens, while the remainder of the army consisted of auxiliaries, who provided additional infantry and the vast majority of the Roman army's cavalry. (Provincials who aspired to citizenship gained it when honourably discharged from the auxiliaries.) The Roman army, for most of the Imperial period, consisted mostly of auxiliaries rather than legions.[3] Longevity[edit] Many of the legions founded before 40 BC were still active until at least the fifth century, notably Legio V Macedonica, which was founded by Augustus in 43 BC and was in Egypt in the seventh century during the Islamic conquest of Egypt. Overview of typical organization and strength[edit] Main article: Structural history of the Roman military Imperial Roman legionaries in tight formation, a relief from Glanum, a Roman town in what is now southern France that was inhabited from 27 BC to 260 AD (when it was sacked by invading Alemanni) Because legions were not permanent units until the Marian reforms (c. 107 BC), and were instead created, used, and disbanded again, several hundred legions were named and numbered throughout Roman history. To date, about 50 have been identified. The republican legions were composed of levied men that paid for their own equipment and thus the structure of the Roman army at this time reflected the society, and at any time there would be four consular legions (with command divided between the two ruling consuls) and in time of war extra legions could be levied. Toward the end of the 2nd century BC, Rome started to experience manpower shortages brought about by property and financial qualifications to join the army. This prompted consul Gaius Marius to remove property qualifications and decree that all citizens, regardless of their wealth or social class, were made eligible for service in the Roman army with equipment and rewards for fulfilling 6 years of service provided by the state. The Roman army became a volunteer, professional and standing army which extended service beyond Roman citizens but also to non-citizens who could sign on as auxillia (auxiliaries) and were rewarded Roman citizenship upon completion of service and all the rights and privileges that entailed. In the time of Augustus, there were nearly 50 upon his succession but this was reduced to about 25–35 permanent standing legions and this remained the figure for most of the empire's history. Evolution[edit] The legion evolved from 3,000 men in the Roman Republic to over 5,200 men in the Roman Empire, consisting of centuries as the basic units. Until the middle of the first century, ten cohorts (about 500 men) made up a Roman legion. This was later changed to nine cohorts of standard size (with six centuries at 80 men each) with the first cohort being of double strength (five double-strength centuries with 160 men each). By the fourth century AD, the legion was a much smaller unit of about 1,000 to 1,500 men, and there were more of them. This had come about as the large formation legion and auxiliary unit, 10,000 men, was broken down into smaller units - originally temporary detachments - to cover more territory. In the fourth century AD, East Roman border guard legions (limitanei) may have become even smaller. In terms of organisation and function, the Republican era legion may have been influenced by the ancient Greek and Macedonian phalanx.[2] Size[edit] The size of a typical legion varied throughout the history of ancient Rome, with complements of 4,200 legionaries and 300 equites (drawn from the wealthier classes – in early Rome all troops provided their own equipment) in the republican period of Rome (the infantry were split into 10 cohorts each of four maniples of 120 legionaries), to 5,200 men plus 120 auxiliaries in the imperial period (split into 10 cohorts, nine of 480 men each, plus the first cohort holding 800 men). History[edit] Main articles: Roman army, Military history of ancient Rome, and Structural history of the Roman military Roman kings (to c. 500 BC)[edit] Main article: Early Roman army In the period before the raising of the legio and the early years of the Roman Kingdom and the Republic, forces are described as being organized into centuries of roughly one hundred men. These centuries were grouped together as required and answered to the leader who had hired or raised them. Such independent organization persisted until the 2nd century BC amongst light infantry and cavalry, but was discarded completely in later periods with the supporting role taken instead by allied troops. The roles of century leader (later formalized as a centurion), second in command and standard bearer are referenced in this early period. Rome's early period is undocumented and shrouded in myths, but those myths tell that during the rule of Servius Tullius, the census (from Latin: censeō – accounting of the people) was introduced. With this all Roman able-bodied, property-owning male citizens were divided into five classes for military service based on their wealth and then organized into centuries as sub-units of the greater Roman army or legio (multitude). Joining the army was both a duty and a distinguishing mark of Roman citizenship; during the entire pre-Marian period the wealthiest land owners performed the most years of military service. These individuals would have had the most to lose should the state have fallen. Roman Republic (509–107 BC)[edit] Main article: Roman army of the mid-Republic At some point, possibly in the beginning of the Roman Republic after the kings were overthrown, the legio was subdivided into two separate legions, each one ascribed to one of the two consuls. In the first years of the Republic, when warfare was mostly concentrated on raiding, it is uncertain if the full manpower of the legions was summoned at any one time. In 494 BC, when three foreign threats emerged, the dictator Manius Valerius Maximus raised ten legions which Livy says was a greater number than had been raised previously at any one time.[4] Also, some warfare was still conducted by Roman forces outside the legionary structure, the most famous example being the campaign in 479 BC by the clan army of gens Fabia against the Etruscan city of Veii (in which the clan was annihilated). Legions became more formally organized in the 4th century BC, as Roman warfare evolved to more frequent and planned operations, and the consular army was raised to two legions each. In the Republic, legions had an ephemeral existence. Except for Legio I to IV, which were the consular armies (two per consul), other units were levied by campaign. Rome's Italian allies were required to provide approximately ten cohorts (auxilia were not organized into legions) to support each Roman Legion. In the middle of the Republic, legions were composed of the following units: Equites (cavalry): The cavalry was originally the most prestigious unit, where wealthy young Roman men displayed their skill and prowess, laying the foundation for an eventual political career. Cavalry equipment was purchased by each of the cavalrymen and consisted of a round shield, helmet, body armour, sword and one or more lances. The cavalry was outnumbered in the legion. In a total of circa 3,000 men, (plus the velites that normally enlarged the number to about 4,200), the legion only had around 300 horsemen, divided into 10 units (turmae) of 30 men. These men were commanded by decurions. In addition to heavy cavalry, there would be the light cavalry levied from poor citizens and wealthy young citizens not old enough to be in the hastati or the equites. In battle, they were used to disrupt and outflank enemy infantry formations and to fight off enemy cavalry. In the latter type of engagement, they would often (though not always) dismount some or all of the horsemen to fight a stationary battle on foot, an unusual tactic for the time, but one that offered significant advantages in stability and agility in a time before stirrups.[5] Velites (light infantry): The velites were mainly poorer citizens who could not afford to equip themselves properly. Their primary function was to act as skirmishers – javelin-throwers, who would engage the enemy early in order either to harass them or to cover the movement of troops behind them. After throwing their javelins, they would retreat through the gaps between the maniples, screened from the attack of the enemy by the heavy infantry lines. With the shortage of cavalry in the army of the early to mid Republican army, the velites were also used as scouts. They did not have a precise formal organization or formation. Heavy infantry: This was the principal unit of the legion. The heavy infantry was composed of citizen legionaries that could afford the equipment composed of an iron helmet, shield, armour and pilum, a heavy javelin whose range was about 30 meters. After 387 BC, the preferred weapon for the hastati and principes was the gladius, a short sword. Their hobnailed sandals (caligae) were also an effective weapon against a fallen enemy. Prior to the Marian reforms (see below), the heavy infantry was subdivided, according to experience, into three separate lines of troops: The hastati (sing. hastatus) consisted of raw or inexperienced soldiers, considered to be less reliable than legionaries of several years' service. The Hastati were placed at the front for several reasons. One reason is the city of Rome could ill-afford to lose experienced soldiers, so they put the greenest soldiers at the front. If they survived, the Hastati/tus would gain invaluable experience. Another reason is if the newest soldiers succumbed to battle nerves and broke and tried to run, then there were experienced soldiers behind them to stiffen their resolve. The principes (sing. princeps) These were the more experienced soldiers, often better equipped than the Hastati, and having more experience on the battlefield, they would take up the second line in the battle in the event the Hastati failed or fled. They were the second wave in an early Republican Legion before the military reforms of Marius. The triarii (sing. triarius) were the veteran soldiers, to be used in battle only in extreme situations; they rested one knee down when not engaged in combat. The triarii served primarily as reserves or barrier troops designed to backstop the hastati and principes, and were equipped with long hastae (spears) rather than the pilum and gladius (the hastati and principes stopped using spears in 387 BC). Thus armed, they fought in a phalanx formation. The sight of an advancing armored formation of triarii legionaries frequently discouraged exultant enemies in pursuit of retreating hastati and principes troops. Ad triarios redisse – To fall back upon the triarii was a Roman idiom – meaning to use one's last resort. Each of these three lines was subdivided into (usually 10) chief tactical units called maniples. A maniple consisted of two centuries and was commanded by the senior of the two centurions. At this time, each century of hastati and principes consisted of 60 men; a century of triarii was 30 men. These 3,000 men (twenty maniples of 120 men, and ten maniples of 60 men), together with about 1,200 velites and 300 cavalry gave the mid Republican ("manipular") legion a nominal strength of about 4,500 men. Late Republic (107–30 BC)[edit] Main article: Roman army of the late Republic Visual representation of the post Marian Reform Legion showing size and disposition for Infantry formations See also List of Roman legions for details of notable late Republican legions See also Sub-Units of the Roman legion The Marian reforms (of Gaius Marius) enlarged the centuries to 80 men, and grouped them into six-century "cohorts" (rather than two-century maniples). Each century had its own standard and was made up of ten units (contubernia) of eight men who shared a tent, a millstone, a mule and cooking pot. Following the reforms of the general Marius in the 2nd century BC, the legions took on the second, narrower meaning that is familiar in the popular imagination as close-order citizen heavy infantry. At the end of the 2nd century BC, Gaius Marius reformed the previously ephemeral legions as a professional force drawing from the poorest classes, enabling Rome to field larger armies and providing employment for jobless citizens of the city of Rome. However, this put the loyalty of the soldiers in the hands of their general rather than the State of Rome itself. This development ultimately enabled Julius Caesar to cross the Rubicon with an army loyal to him personally and effectively end the Republic. The legions of the late Republic and early Empire are often called Marian legions. Following the Battle of Vercellae in 101 BC, Marius granted all Italian soldiers Roman citizenship. He justified this action to the Senate by saying that in the din of battle he could not distinguish Roman from ally. This effectively eliminated the notion of allied legions; henceforth all Italian legions would be regarded as Roman legions, and full Roman citizenship was open to all the regions of Italy. At the same time, the three different types of heavy infantry were replaced by a single, standard type based on the Principes: armed with two heavy javelins called pila (singular pilum), the short sword called gladius, chain mail (lorica hamata), helmet and rectangular shield (scutum). The role of allied legions would eventually be taken up by contingents of allied auxiliary troops, called Auxilia. Auxilia contained specialist units, engineers and pioneers, artillerymen and craftsmen, service and support personnel and irregular units made up of non-citizens, mercenaries and local militia. These were usually formed into complete units such as light cavalry, light infantry or velites, and labourers. There was also a reconnaissance squad of 10 or more light mounted infantry called speculatores who could also serve as messengers or even as an early form of military intelligence service. As part of the Marian reforms, the legions' internal organization was standardized. Each legion was divided into cohorts. Prior to this, cohorts had been temporary administrative units or tactical task forces of several maniples, even more transitory than the legions themselves. Now the cohorts were ten permanent units, composed of 6 centuries and in the case of the first cohort 5 double strength centuries each led by a centurion assisted by an optio. The cohorts came to form the basic tactical unit of the legions. Ranking within the legion was based on length of service, with the senior Centurion commanding the first century of the first cohort; he was called the primus pilus (First Spear), and reported directly to the superior officers (legates and tribuni). All career soldiers could be promoted to the higher ranks in recognition of exceptional acts of bravery or valour. A newly promoted junior Centurion would be assigned to the sixth century of the tenth cohort and slowly progressed through the ranks from there. Every legion had a large baggage train, which included 640 mules (1 mule for every 8 legionaries) just for the soldiers' equipment. To keep these baggage trains from becoming too large and slow, Marius had each infantryman carry as much of his own equipment as he could, including his own armour, weapons and 15 days' rations, for about 25–30 kg (50–60 pounds) of load total. To make this easier, he issued each legionary a cross stick to carry their loads on their shoulders. The soldiers were nicknamed Marius' Mules because of the amount of gear they had to carry themselves. This arrangement allowed for the possibility for the supply train to become temporarily detached from the main body of the legion, thus greatly increasing the army's speed when needed. A typical legion of this period had 5,120 legionaries as well as a large number of camp followers, servants and slaves. Legions could contain as many as 11,000 fighting men when including the auxiliaries. During the Later Roman Empire, the legion was reduced in size to 1,000 to allow for easier provisioning and to expand the regions under surveillance. Numbers would also vary depending on casualties suffered during a campaign; Julius Caesar's legions during his campaign in Gaul often only had around 3,500 men. Tactics were not very different from the past, but their effectiveness was largely improved because of the professional training of the soldiers. A re-enactor as a Roman centurion, c. 70. A re-enactor, showing a Roman miles, (2nd century). After the Marian reforms and throughout the history of Rome's Late Republic, the legions played an important political role. By the 1st century BC, the threat of the legions under a demagogue was recognized. Governors were not allowed to leave their provinces with their legions. When Julius Caesar broke this rule, leaving his province of Gaul and crossing the Rubicon into Italy, he precipitated a constitutional crisis. This crisis and the civil wars which followed brought an end to the Republic and led to the foundation of the Empire under Augustus in 27 BC. The Roman empire under Hadrian (ruled 117–38), showing the legions deployed in 125 Early Empire (27 BC–AD 284)[edit] Main article: Imperial Roman army See List of Roman legions of the early Empire See also Sub-Units of the Roman legion Map of Roman legions by 14 AD. Generals, during the recent Republican civil wars, had formed their own legions and numbered them as they wished. During this time, there was a high incidence of Gemina (twin) legions, where two legions were consolidated into a single organization (and was later made official and put under a legatus and six duces). At the end of the civil war against Mark Antony, Augustus was left with around fifty legions, with several double counts (multiple Legio Xs for instance). For political and economic reasons, Augustus reduced the number of legions to 28 (which diminished to 25 after the Battle of Teutoburg Forest, in which 3 legions were completely destroyed by the Germanics). Beside streamlining the army, Augustus also regulated the soldiers' pay. At the same time, he greatly increased the number of auxiliaries to the point where they were equal in number to the legionaries. He also created the Praetorian Guard along with a permanent navy where served the liberti, or freed slaves. The legions also became permanent at this time, and not recruited for particular campaigns. They were also allocated to static bases with permanent castra legionaria (legionary fortresses). Augustus' military policies proved sound and cost effective, and were generally followed by his successors. These emperors would carefully add new legions, as circumstances required or permitted, until the strength of the standing army stood at around 30 legions (hence the wry remark of the philosopher Favorinus that It is ill arguing with the master of 30 legions). With each legion having 5,120 legionaries usually supported by an equal number of auxiliary troops (according to Tacitus), the total force available to a legion commander during the Pax Romana probably ranged from 11,000 downwards, with the more prestigious legions and those stationed on hostile borders or in restive provinces tending to have more auxiliaries. By the time of the emperor Severus, 193-211, the auxiliaries may have composed 55 to 60% of the army, 250,000 of 447,000. Some legions may have even been reinforced at times with units making the associated force near 15,000–16,000 or about the size of a modern division. Throughout the imperial era, the legions played an important political role. Their actions could secure the empire for a usurper or take it away. For example, the defeat of Vitellius in the Year of the Four Emperors was decided when the Danubian legions chose to support Vespasian. In the empire, the legion was standardized, with symbols and an individual history where men were proud to serve. The legion was commanded by a legatus or legate. Aged around thirty, he would usually be a senator on a three-year appointment. Immediately subordinate to the legate would be six elected military tribunes – five would be staff officers and the remaining one would be a noble heading for the Senate (originally this tribune commanded the legion). There would also be a group of officers for the medical staff, the engineers, record-keepers, the praefectus castrorum (commander of the camp) and other specialists such as priests and musicians. Later Empire (from 284 AD)[edit] Main article: Late Roman army See also: List of Roman legions A re-enactor, portraying a legionary at the end of the 3rd century Map of Roman legions by 212 AD.[6] In the Later Roman Empire, the number of legions was increased and the Roman Army expanded. There is no evidence to suggest that legions changed in form before the Tetrarchy, although there is evidence that they were smaller than the paper strengths usually quoted. The final form of the legion originated with the elite legiones palatinae created by Diocletian and the Tetrarchs. These were infantry units of around 1,000 men rather than the 5,000, including cavalry, of the old Legions. The earliest legiones palatinae were the Lanciarii, Joviani, Herculiani and Divitenses.[citation needed] The 4th century saw a very large number of new, small legions created, a process which began under Constantine II. In addition to the elite palatini, other legions called comitatenses and pseudocomitatenses, along with the auxilia palatina, provided the infantry of late Roman armies. The Notitia Dignitatum lists 25 legiones palatinae, 70 legiones comitatenses, 47 legiones pseudocomitatenses and 111 auxilia palatina in the field armies, and a further 47 legiones in the frontier armies.[7] Legion names such as Honoriani and Gratianenses found in the Notitia suggest that the process of creating new legions continued through the 4th century rather than being a single event. The names also suggest that many new legions were formed from vexillationes or from old legions. In addition, there were 24 vexillationes palatini, 73 vexillationes comitatenses; 305 other units in the Eastern limitanei and 181 in the Western limitanei.[8] A rare instance of apparent direct continuity between the legions of the early Empire and those of the post-6th century army was Legion V Macedonica; created in 43 BC, recorded in the Notitia Dignitatum as a legione comitatense under the title of Quinta Macedonica and surviving in Egypt until the Arab conquest of 637 AD.[9] According to the late Roman writer Vegetius' De Re Militari, each century had a ballista and each cohort had an onager, giving the legion a formidable siege train of 59 Ballistae and 10 Onagers, each manned by 10 libritors (artillerymen) and mounted on wagons drawn by oxen or mules. In addition to attacking cities and fortifications, these would be used to help defend Roman forts and fortified camps (castra) as well. They would even be employed on occasion, especially in the later Empire, as field artillery during battles or in support of river crossings. Despite a number of organisational changes, the Legion system survived the fall of the Western Roman Empire. It was continued within the Eastern Roman Empire until the 7th century, when reforms begun by Emperor Heraclius to counter the increasing need for soldiers resulted in the Theme system. Despite this, the Eastern Roman/Byzantine armies continued to be influenced by the earlier Roman legions, and were maintained with similar levels of discipline, strategic prowess, and organization. Legionary ranks[edit] Aside from the rank and file legionary (who received the base wage of 10 assēs a day or 225 denarii a year), the following list describes the system of officers which developed within the legions from the Marian reforms (104 BC) until the military reforms of Diocletian (c. 290). Senior officers[edit] Legatus Augusti pro praetore, Imperial Legate: The commander of two or more legions. The Imperial Legate also served as the governor of the province in which the legions he commanded were stationed. Of Senatorial rank, the Imperial Legate was appointed by the Emperor and usually held command for 3 or 4 years. In the present time, an Imperial Legate would be called a General. Legatus legionis, Legion Legate: The overall legion commander. The post was usually filled by a senator, appointed by the emperor, who held command for 3 or 4 years, although he could serve for a much longer period. In a Roman province with only one legion, the legatus was also the provincial governor. In such circumstances, the Legatus was dual-hatted as both Legion Legate and Imperial Legate. The Legion Legate also served as commander of the auxiliary units attached to the legion though they were not formally a part of the legion's command structure. Tribunus laticlavius, Broad Band Tribune: Named for the broad striped tunic worn by men of senatorial rank, this tribune was appointed by the emperor or the Senate. Though generally young, he was more experienced than the tribuni angusticlavii, he served as second in command of the legion, behind the legate. Because of his age and inexperience he was not the actual second in command in battle, but if the legate died he would take command of the legion. Praefectus castrorum, Camp Prefect: The Camp Prefect was third in command of the legion. Generally he was a long serving veteran from a lower social status than the tribunii whom he outranked, and who previously had served as primus pilus and finished his 25 years with the legions. He was used as a senior officer in charge of training a legion, though he could also command a cohort of auxiliaires. Tribuni angusticlavii, Narrow Band Tribunes: Each legion had five lower ranking tribunes, who were normally from the equestrian class and had at least some years of prior military experience. They often served the role of administrative officers.[10] This tribunate was often a first, but optional, step in a young man's political career (see cursus honorum).[11] Centurions[edit] The rank of centurion was an officer grade that included many ranks, meaning centurions had very good prospects for promotion. The most senior centurion in a legion was known as the primus pilus (first file or spear), who directly commanded the first century of the first cohort and commanded the whole first cohort when in battle. Within the second to tenth cohorts, the commander of each cohort's first century was known as a pilus prior and was in command of his entire cohort when in battle. The seniority of the pilus prior centurions was followed by the five other century commanders of the first cohort, who were known as primi ordines. A historical reenactor in Roman centurion costume The six centuries of a normal cohort, were, in order of precedence: The forward hastati (forward spears) The rear hastati (rear spears) The forward principes (forward principal line) The rear principes (rear principal line) The forward triarii (forward third line) The rear triarii (rear third line) The centuries took their titles from the old use of the legion drawn up in three lines of battle using three classes of soldier. (Each century would then hold a cross-section of this theoretical line, although these century titles were now essentially nominal.) Each of the three lines is then sub-divided within the century into a more forward and a more rear century. Primus pilus, literally First File: The Primus Pilus was the commanding centurion of the first century, first cohort and the senior-most centurion of the entire legion. (Unlike other cohorts, the first cohort had only one javelin century, instead of a "front spear" and a "back spear" century.) The primus pilus had a chance of later becoming a Praefectus Castrorum. When the primus pilus retired, he would most likely gain entry into the equestrian class. He was paid 60 times the base wage. Primus Pilus were also paid more than an average centurion and like a narrowband tribune. Pilus prior: The "front file" centurions were the commanders of the 10 1st centuries within the legion, making them senior centurions of their respective cohorts. While the legion was in battle formation, the Pilus Prior was given command of their entire cohort. The Primus Pilus was also a Pilus Prior, and the most senior of all the centurions within the legion. These positions were usually held by experienced veteran soldiers who had been moved up within the ranks. This rank is subordinate to the Primus Pilus. Primi ordines: The "ranks of the first [cohort]" were the five centurions of the first cohort, and included the primus pilus. They, excluding the primus pilus, were paid 30 times the base wage. This rank is senior to all other centurions, save the primus pilus and pilus prior. Other centurions: Each legion had 59 or 60 centurions, one to command each century of the 10 cohorts. They were the backbone of the professional army and were the career soldiers who ran the day-to-day life of the soldiers and issued commands in the field. They were generally moved up from the ranks, but in some cases could be direct appointments from the emperor or other higher-ranking officials. The cohorts were ranked from the first to the tenth and the century within each cohort ranked from 1 to 6, with only five centuries in the first cohort (for a total of 59 centurions and the primus pilus). The century that each centurion commanded was a direct reflection of his rank: command of the 1st century of the first cohort was the highest, and the 6th century of the 10th cohort was the lowest. Paid ten times the basic wage. Lower ranks[edit] Optio: One for each centurion (59–60), they were appointed by the centurion from within the ranks to act as his second in command and were paid twice the basic wage. Equivalent to a modern First Sergeant.[12] Tesserarius: (Guard commander) One for each century. They acted as seconds to the Optios and were paid one and a half times the basic wage. Keeper of the watchword, administrative assistant to HQ Staff, third in command of a century. These men fought as normal soldiers when the century they were attached to was not in the vanguard. Equivalent to a modern Staff Sergeant. Decurion: Commanded a cavalry unit (turma) of 10 to 30 eques legionis.[12] Decanus: Commanded a contubernium or ten men tent party, eight soldiers and two non-combatants, equivalent to a Sergeant or Corporal. A group of four soldiers would be referred to as a Quaternion. Special duty posts[edit] Aquilifer: A single position within the legion. The aquilifer was the legion's standard– or Aquila (eagle)– bearer and was an enormously important and prestigious position. Losing the aquila was considered the greatest dishonor a legion could endure. This post therefore had to be filled with steady veteran soldiers, with an excellent understanding of the tactics of the legion. He was paid twice the basic wage. Signifer: Each century had a signifer (thus, there were 59 in a legion) and within each cohort the 1st century's signifer would be the senior. He was standard-bearer for the centurial signum, a spear shaft decorated with medallions and topped with an open hand to signify loyalty, which was a rallying point for the soldiers. In addition to carrying the signum, the signifer also assumed responsibility for the financial administration of the unit and functioned as the legionaries' banker. He was paid twice the basic wage. Cornicen (Horn blower): Worked hand in hand with the signifer drawing the attention of the men to the centurial signum and issuing the audible commands of the officers. He was paid twice the basic wage. Imaginifer: A special position from the time of Augustus onwards. Carried the standard bearing the image of the Emperor as a constant reminder of the troops' loyalty to him. He was paid twice the basic wage. Immunes: Immunes were legionary soldiers who possessed specialized skills, qualifying them for better pay and excusing them from labour and guard work. Engineers, artillerymen, musicians, clerks, quartermasters, drill and weapons instructors, carpenters, hunters, medical staff and military police were all immune soldiers. These men were still fully trained legionaries, however, and were called upon to serve in the battle lines when needed. Evocatus: A veteran of the Roman army who had earned his military diploma for military service, but had chosen to re-enlist. They received double pay and were excluded from regular duties, such as manual labour. Duplicarius: A special pay grade that could also be awarded regardless of rank, received double the basic pay. Pay[edit] From the time of Gaius Marius onwards, legionaries received 225 denarii a year (equal to 900 Sestertii); this basic rate remained unchanged until Domitian, who increased it to 300 denarii. In spite of the steady inflation during the 2nd century, there was no further rise until the time of Septimius Severus, who increased it to 500 denarii a year. However, the soldiers did not receive all the money in cash, as the state deducted a clothing and food tax from their pay. To this wage, a legionary on active campaign would hope to add the booty of war, from the bodies of their enemies and as plunder from enemy settlements. Slaves could also be claimed from the prisoners of war and divided amongst the legion for later sale, which would bring in a sizeable supplement to their regular pay. All legionary soldiers would also receive a praemia (veterans' benefits) on completion of their term of service of 25 years or more: a sizeable sum of money (3,000 denarii from the time of Augustus) and/or a plot of good farmland (good land was in much demand); farmland given to veterans often helped in establishing control of the frontier regions and over rebellious provinces. Later, under Caracalla, the praemia increased to 5,000 denarii. Symbols[edit] From 104 BC onwards, each legion used an aquila (eagle) as its standard symbol. The symbol was carried by an officer known as aquilifer, and its loss was considered to be a very serious embarrassment, and often led to the disbanding of the legion itself. Normally, this was because any legion incapable of regaining its eagle in battle was so severely mauled that it was no longer effective in combat.[13] Reenacters portraying Roman legionaries of Legio XV Apollinaris. In Gallic War (Bk IV, Para. 25), Julius Caesar describes an incident at the start of his first invasion of Britain in 55 BC that illustrated how fear for the safety of the eagle could drive Roman soldiers. When Caesar's troops hesitated to leave their ships for fear of the Britons, the aquilifer of the tenth legion threw himself overboard and, carrying the eagle, advanced alone against the enemy. His comrades, fearing disgrace, 'with one accord, leapt down from the ship' and were followed by troops from the other ships. With the birth of the Roman Empire, the legions created a bond with their leader, the emperor himself. Each legion had another officer, called imaginifer, whose role was to carry a pike with the imago (image, sculpture) of the emperor as pontifex maximus. Each legion, furthermore, had a vexillifer who carried a vexillum or signum, with the legion name and emblem depicted on it, unique to the legion. It was common for a legion to detach some sub-units from the main camp to strengthen other corps. In these cases, the detached subunits carried only the vexillum, and not the aquila, and were called, therefore, vexillationes. A miniature vexillum, mounted on a silver base, was sometimes awarded to officers as a recognition of their service upon retirement or reassignment. Civilians could also be rewarded for their assistance to the Roman legions. In return for outstanding service, a citizen was given an arrow without a head. This was considered a great honour and would bring the recipient much prestige. Discipline[edit] Main article: Roman military decorations and punishments The military discipline of the legions was quite harsh. Regulations were strictly enforced, and a broad array of punishments could be inflicted upon a legionary who broke them. Many legionaries became devotees in the cult of the minor goddess Disciplina, whose virtues of frugality, severity and loyalty were central to their code of conduct and way of life. Minor punishments[edit] Castigatio – being hit by the centurion with his staff or animadversio fustium (Tac. Annals I, 23) – Reduction of rations or to be forced to eat barley instead of the usual grain ration Pecuniaria mulcta – Reduction in pay, fines or deductions from the pay allowance – Flogging in front of the century, cohort or legion – Whipping with the flagrum (flagellum, flagella), or "short whip" – a much more brutal punishment than simple flogging. The "short whip" was used by slave volunteers, volones, who constituted the majority of the army in the later years of the Roman Empire. Gradus deiectio – Reduction in rank Missio ignominiosa – Dishonourable discharge – Loss of time in service advantages Militiae mutatio – Relegation to inferior service or duties. Munerum indictio – Additional duties Major punishments[edit] Fustuarium – a sentence for desertion or dereliction of duty. The legionary would be stoned or beaten to death by cudgels, in front of the assembled troops, by his fellow soldiers or those whose lives had been put in danger. Soldiers under sentence of fustuarium who escaped were not pursued but lived under sentence of banishment from Rome. In the event that a group of legionaries are to be subjected to this punishment, the Tribune would make an alteration in order to spare the majority of the accused. The Tribune would first select a handful of the guilty men, and those selected would be condemned to the original penalty under the Fustuarium. The remainder of the accused would then be driven out of the camp and forced to live in an undefended location for a chosen period of time; they were also limited to eating only barley. [14] Decimation – According to 17th century belief[15][failed verification](possibly folk etymology[citation needed]), the Romans practiced this punishment in which a sentence was carried out against an entire unit that had mutinied, deserted, or shown dereliction of duty. One out of every ten men, chosen by lots, would be beaten to death, usually by the other nine with their bare hands, who would be forced to live outside the camp and in some instances obliged to renew the military oath, the sacramentum.[citation needed] Factors in the legion's success[edit] Play media Reenactment: Training Montesquieu wrote that "the main reason for the Romans becoming masters of the world was that, having fought successively against all peoples, they always gave up their own practices as soon as they found better ones."[16] Examples of ideas that were copied and adapted include weapons like the gladius (Iberians) and warship design (cf. Carthaginians' quinquereme), as well as military units, such as heavy mounted cavalry and mounted archers (Parthians and Numidians). Roman organization was more flexible than those of many opponents. Over time, the legions effectively handled challenges ranging from cavalry, to guerrillas, and to siege warfare. Roman discipline (cf. decimation (Roman army)), organization and systematization sustained combat effectiveness over a longer period. These elements appear throughout the legion in training, logistics, field fortification etc. The Romans were more persistent and more willing to absorb and replace losses over time than their opponents. Wars with Carthage and the Parthians and most notably, the campaigns against Pyrrhus of Epirus, illustrate this. Roman leadership was mixed, but over time it was often effective in securing Roman military success. The influence of Roman military and civic culture, as embodied particularly in the heavy infantry legion, gave the Roman military consistent motivation and cohesion.[citation needed] Strict, and more importantly, uniform discipline made commanding, maintaining, and replacing Roman legionaries a much more consistent exercise. Roman military equipment (cf. Roman military personal equipment), particularly armor, was more withstanding and far more ubiquitous, especially in the late Republican and Early Imperial era, than that of most of their opponents. Soldiers equipped with shields, helmets and highly effective body armor had a major advantage over warriors protected, in many cases, with nothing other than their shields, particularly in a prolonged engagement. Roman engineering skills were second to none in ancient Europe, and their mastery of both offensive and defensive siege warfare, specifically the construction and investiture of fortifications (cf. sudis, castra), was another major advantage for the Roman legions. Roman military training focused on the more effective thrusting of the sword rather than the slash. See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal War portal Auxiliaries (Roman military) Early Roman army Imperial Roman army Late Roman army Legionary List of Roman wars List of Roman battles List of topics related to ancient Rome List of Roman legions List of Roman auxiliary regiments Military history of ancient Rome Marian Roman army Roman army Roman army of the mid-Republic Roman military personal equipment Structural history of the Roman military For a more detailed analysis, as well as the Romans in battle, see the articles Roman infantry tactics and Roman military personal equipment. References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Cornell, T. J. (1995): The Beginnings of Rome ^ a b Manousos Kambouris, Spyros Bakas (2016). "Greco-Macedonian influences in the manipular Legion system". Archaeology and Science. 11 2015: 145–154. ^ Data in: Goldsworthy, Adrian (2003). Complete Roman Army. pp. 95–95; Holder, Paul (1980). Studies in the Auxilia of the Roman Army. pp. 86–96; Elton, Hugh (1996). Frontiers of the Roman empire. pp 123. See table in article "Auxiliaries (Roman military)" for compilation of this data. ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 2.30 ^ Mccall, Jeremiah B. The Cavalry of the Roman Republic: Cavalry Combat and Elite Reputations in the Middle and Late Republic. (New York, Routledge, 2002) pp. 53ff ^ "Map". .hypotheses.org. ^ Totals from summary of Notitia Dignitatum in Richardot, Philippe, La fin de l'armée romaine 284–476 [3rd ed.] Economica, 2005. ISBN 2-7178-4861-4. ^ Jones, Later Roman Empire, pp. 1449–50 ^ Esposito, Gabriele (3 May 2016). The Late Roman Army. p. 77. ISBN 978-0-9963657-9-6. ^ Bowman, Garnsey, Rathbone (eds) The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 11 pp. 326–27 ^ Birley, Anthony R. Septimius Severus: The African Emperor. (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1989) p. 40 ^ a b Caesar's Civil War, Adrian Goldsworthy, p. 20 ^ Several Authors (17 December 2015). History of The Roman Legions: History of Rome. Self-Publish. pp. 1069–. GGKEY:DXPWT430TXP. ^ Edwards, H. J. "The Histories of Polybius: Fragments of Book VI p.357". The University of Chicago. Retrieved April 2, 2020. ^ "It's totally fine to use 'decimate' as a synonym for 'devastate'. This is why". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved October 24, 2018. ^ Montesquieu C., Considerations on the Causes of the Greatness of the Romans and Their Decline, Hacket, 1999, p. 24 Bibliography[edit] The Encyclopedia of Ancient History, Legions, history and location of History of the Art of War. Vol 1. Ancient Warfare, Hans Delbrück Roman Warfare, Adrian Goldsworthy A History of Warfare, John Keegan The Roman Army and Greece and Rome at War, Peter Connolly The Encyclopedia Of Military History: From 3500 B.C. To The Present. (2nd Revised Edition 1986), R. Ernest Dupuy, and Trevor N. Dupuy. War, Gwynne Dyer. The Evolution of Weapons and Warfare, Trevor N. Dupuy. Flavius Vegetius Renatus, De Re Militari (with English translation on-line) Julius Caesar, The Gallic War William Smith, D.C.L., LL.D.: A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, John Murray, London, 1875. The Punic Wars, Adrian Goldsworthy. Carnage and Culture, Victor Davis Hanson The Fall of the Roman Empire: The Military Explanation, by Arther Ferrill, 1988 The Complete Roman Army, by Adrian Goldsworthy The Military System Of The Romans, by Albert Harkness From the Rise of the Republic and the Might of the Empire to the Fall of the West, by Nigel Rodgers The Roman Army at War 100 BC – AD 200 (Oxford, September 1998) by Adrian Goldsworthy The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c.1000-264 BC) (Routledge 1995) by T. J. Cornell "Legion GmbH. Das Unternehmen Römische Armee" (Saarbrücken 2012) by Stefan Zehnter "Roman Infantry Tactics in the mid-Republic: A Reassessment"( Historia 63, 2014) by Michael J. Taylor [1] External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Roman legion. The Roman Army: A Bibliography (Dr. J. P. Adams) Augustan Legionaries – legions and legionaries in the age of Augustus The Last Legion – the legions of the fifth to seventh centuries AD UNRV's Roman Military Legio X – Legio X Gemina (Equites) – "Viri Clarissimi" ^ Addison, Bickham, Diamond, Thompson, Penny, Christian, Anthony, Steve (2008). Humanities Dimensions History. 20 Thrackray Road, Port Melbourne, Victoria 3207: Pearson Education Australia. p. 135. 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en-wikipedia-org-2740	----	List of Roman wars and battles - Wikipedia List of Roman wars and battles From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikimedia list article See also: List of Roman civil wars and revolts Part of a series on the Military of ancient Rome 753 BC – AD 476 Structural history Army Unit types and ranks Decorations and punishments Legions Auxilia Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Campaign history Wars and battles Technological history Military engineering Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Political history   Strategy and tactics Infantry tactics Frontiers and fortifications Limes Limes Britannicus Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Limes Germanicus Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes Norican Limes Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannonian Limes Limes Alutanus Limes Moesiae Trajan's Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmatiae Limes Arabicus Limes Tripolitanus Limes Mauretaniae  Ancient Rome portal •  War portal v t e The following is a List of Roman wars and battles [1] fought by the ancient Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and Roman Empire, organized by date. Contents 1 8th century BC 2 7th century BC 3 6th century BC 4 5th century BC 5 4th century BC 6 3rd century BC 7 2nd century BC 8 1st century BC 9 1st century 10 2nd century 11 3rd century 12 4th century 13 5th century 14 References 15 Sources 16 External links 17 See also 8th century BC[edit] The city of Rome in 753 BC Wars with the Latins and the Sabines War with Fidenae and Veii 7th century BC[edit] Second war with Fidenae and Veii Second Sabine War Roman–Latin wars 6th century BC[edit] 508 BC Siege by Etruscans (forces in blue) of Rome (forces in red). Pometian Revolt (503–502 BC) 502 BC – Battle of Pometia – The Romans put down the revolt of Pometia and Cora. Roman-Sabine wars Roman-Etruscan wars 509 BC – Battle of Silva Arsia – The Romans defeated the forces of Tarquinii and Veii led by the deposed king Lucius Tarquinius Superbus. One of the Roman consuls, Lucius Junius Brutus, is killed in battle. War with the Volsci War with Gabii War with the Rutuli 5th century BC[edit] First Latin War (498–493 BC) 497 BC – Battle of Lake Regillus – Aulus Postumius Albus Regillensis defeats Tarquinius Superbus. 495 BC – Battle of Aricia – consul Publius Servilius Priscus Structus defeats the Aurunci. War with the Volsci and the Aequi 482 BC – Battle of Antium – the Volsci defeat consul Lucius Aemilius Mamercus. 482 BC – Battle of Longula – consul Lucius Aemilius Mamercus defeats the Volsci the day after his defeat in the Battle of Antium. 458 BC – Battle of Mount Algidus – Cincinnatus defeats the Aequi 446 BC – Battle of Corbio – Titus Quinctius Capitolinus Barbatus leads Roman troops to defeat the Aequi and the Volsci. 480 BC – Battle of Veii (480 BC) – Consuls Marcus Fabius Vibulanus and Gnaeus Manlius Cincinnatus win heavy battle against Veians and their Etruscan allies. Gnaeus Manlius Cincinnatus and former consul Quintus Fabius are slain. 477 BC – Battle of the Cremera – All the Fabii except Quintus Fabius Vibulanus are killed in battle with the Veii|Veians Battle of the Temple of Hope – Consul Gaius Horatius Pulvillus fights indecisive battle with the Etruscans Battle of Colline Gate (477 BC) – Consul Gaius Horatius Pulvillus has indecisive victory over the Etruscan civilization|Etruscans soon after the Battle of the Temple of Hope 4th century BC[edit] Roman-Etruscan Wars 396 BC – Battle of Veii – Romans complete conquest of Etruscans Battle of Allia River (390 BC) – Gauls defeat the Romans, then sack Rome. First Samnite War (343–341 BC) 342 BC – Battle of Mount Gaurus – Roman general Marcus Valerius Corvus defeats the Samnites. 341 BC – Battle of Suessula – Roman consul Marcus Valerius Corvus defeats the Samnites once more. Latin War (340–338 BC) 339 BC – Battle of Vesuvius – Romans under P. Decius Mus and T. Manlius Imperiosus Torquatus defeat the rebellious Latins. 338 BC – Battle of Trifanum – Roman general T. Manlius Imperiosus Torquatus decisively defeats the Latins. Second Samnite War (326–304 BC) 321 BC – Battle of the Caudine Forks – Romans under Spurius Postumius Albinus and T. Verturius Calvinus are defeated by the Samnites under Gaius Pontius. 316 BC – Battle of Lautulae – Romans are defeated by the Samnites. 305 BC – Battle of Bovianum – Roman consuls M. Fulvius and L. Postumius decisively defeat the Samnites. 310 BC – Battle of Lake Vadimo – Romans, led by dictator Lucius Papirius Cursor, defeat the Etruscans. 3rd century BC[edit] Roman conquest of Italy through the Latin War (red), Samnite Wars (pink/orange), Pyrrhic War (beige), and Punic Wars (green). Third Samnite War (298–290 BC) 298 BC – Battle of Camerinum – Samnites defeat the Romans under Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus. 297 BC – Battle of Tifernum – Romans under Quintus Fabius Maximus and Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus defeat the Samnite army led by Gellius Statius 295 BC – Battle of Sentinum – Romans under Fabius Rullianus and Publius Decimus Mus defeat the Samnites and their Etruscan and Gallic allies, forcing the Etruscans, Gauls, and Umbrians to make peace 293 BC – Battle of Aquilonia – Romans decisively defeat the Samnites. Wars with Gauls and Etruscans (285–282 BC) 284 BC – Battle of Arretium – A Roman army under Lucius Caecilius is destroyed by the Gauls. 283 BC – Battle of Lake Vadimo – A Roman army under P. Cornelius Dolabella defeats the Etruscans and Gauls. 282 BC – Battle of Populonia – Etruscan resistance to Roman domination of Italy is finally crushed. Pyrrhic War (280–275 BC) [1] 280 BC – Battle of Heraclea – First engagement of Roman and Greek armies, the latter led by Pyrrhus of Epirus, who is victorious, but at great cost. 279 BC – Battle of Asculum – Pyrrhus again defeats the Romans but once again suffers significant casualties in the process. 275 BC – Battle of Beneventum – Inconclusive encounter between Pyrrhus and the Romans under Manius Curius. First Punic War (264–241 BC) [1] 261 BC – Battle of Agrigentum – Carthaginian forces under Hannibal Gisco and Hanno are defeated by the Romans, who attain control of most of Sicily. 260 BC - Battle of the Lipari Islands – A Roman naval force is defeated by the Carthaginians. Battle of Mylae – A Roman naval force under C. Duillius defeats the Carthaginian fleet, giving Rome control of the western Mediterranean. 258 BC – Battle of Sulci – Minor Roman victory against the Carthaginian fleet near Sardinia. 257 BC – Battle of Tyndaris – Naval victory of Rome over Carthage in Sicilian waters. 256 BC – Battle of Cape Ecnomus – A Carthaginian fleet under Hamilcar and Hanno is defeated in an attempt to stop a Roman invasion of Africa by Marcus Atilius Regulus. Battle of Adys – Romans under Regulus defeat the Carthaginians in North Africa 255 BC – Battle of Tunis – Carthaginians under Xanthippus, a Greek mercenary, defeat the Romans under Regulus, who is captured. 251 BC – Battle of Panormus – Carthaginian forces under Hasdrubal are defeated by the Romans under L. Caecilius Metellus. 250 BC - Siege of Lilybaeum - Siege on the Carthaginian city of Lilybaeum by Roman army under Gaius Atilius Regulus Serranus and Lucius Manlius Vulso Longus. Carthaginian victory. 249 BC – Battle of Drepana – Carthage under Adherbal defeat the fleet of Roman admiral Publius Claudius Pulcher. 242 BC – Battle of the Aegates Islands – Roman sea victory over the Carthaginians. First Illyrian War (229–228 BC) [1] Second Illyrian War (220–219 BC) [1] Second Punic War (218–201 BC) [1] 218 BC – Battle of Lilybaeum – First naval clash between the navies of Carthage and Rome during the Second Punic War. Battle of Cissa – Romans defeat Carthaginians near Tarraco and gain control of the territory north of the Ebro River. Battle of the Ticinus – Hannibal defeats the Romans under Publius Cornelius Scipio the elder in a cavalry fight. Battle of the Trebia – Hannibal defeats the Romans under Tiberius Sempronius Longus with the use of an ambush. 217 BC - Battle of Ebro River – In a surprise attack, Romans defeat and capture the Carthaginian fleet in Hispania. Battle of Lake Trasimene – In another ambush, Hannibal destroys the Roman army of Gaius Flaminius, who is killed. Battle of Ager Falernus – Avoiding destruction with deceit, Hannibal escapes Fabius' trap in this small skirmish. 216 BC – Battle of Cannae – Hannibal destroys the main Roman army of Lucius Aemilius Paulus and Publius Terentius Varro in what is considered one of the great masterpieces of the tactical art. First Battle of Nola – Roman general Marcus Claudius Marcellus holds off an attack by Hannibal. 215 BC – Second Battle of Nola – Marcellus again repulses an attack by Hannibal. 214 BC – Third Battle of Nola – Marcellus fights an inconclusive battle with Hannibal. 212 BC – First Battle of Capua – Hannibal defeats the consuls Q. Fulvius Flaccus and Appius Claudius, but the Roman army escapes Battle of the Silarus – Hannibal destroys the army of the Roman praetor M. Centenius Penula. Battle of Herdonia – Hannibal destroys the Roman army of the praetor Gnaeus Fulvius. 211 BC – Battle of the Upper Baetis – Publius and Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio are killed in battle with the Carthaginians under Hasdrubal Barca Second Battle of Capua – Hannibal is not able to break the Roman siege of the city. 210 BC – Second Battle of Herdonia – Hannibal destroys the Roman army of Fulvius Centumalus, who is killed. Battle of Numistro – Hannibal defeats Marcellus once more 209 BC – Battle of Asculum – Hannibal once again defeats Marcellus, in an indecisive battle 208 BC – Battle of Baecula – Romans in Hispania (Iberia) under P. Cornelius Scipio the Younger defeat Hasdrubal Barca. 207 BC – Battle of Grumentum – Roman general Gaius Claudius Nero fights an indecisive battle with Hannibal. Battle of the Metaurus – Hasdrubal is defeated and killed by Nero's Roman army. Battle of Carmona – Romans under Publius Cornelius Scipio besiege the city of Carmona and take it from Hasdrubal Gisco 206 BC – Battle of Ilipa – Scipio again decisively defeats the remaining Carthaginian forces in Hispania. Battle of the Guadalquivir – Roman army under Gaius Lucius Marcius Séptimus defeats a Carthaginian army under Hannón at Guadalquivir. Battle of Carteia – Roman fleet under Gaius Laelius defeats a Carthaginian fleet under Adherbal 204 BC – Battle of Crotona – Hannibal fights a drawn battle against the Roman general Sempronius in Southern Italy. 203 BC – Battle of Bagbrades – Romans under Scipio defeat the Carthaginian army of Hasdrubal Gisco and Syphax. Hannibal is sent to return to Africa. 202 BC, 19 October – Battle of Zama – Scipio Africanus Major decisively defeats Hannibal in North Africa, ending the Second Punic War. First Macedonian War (214–205 BC) [1] Roman-Gallic wars (225–200 BC) 225 BC – Battle of Faesulae – Romans are defeated by the Gauls of Northern Italy. 224 BC – Battle of Telamon – Romans under Aemilius Papus and Gaius Atilius Regulus defeat the Gauls. 222 BC – Battle of Clastidium – Romans under Marcus Claudius Marcellus defeat the Gauls. 200 BC – Battle of Cremona – Roman forces defeat the Gauls of Cisalpine Gaul [1] Expansion of Rome by 200 BC 2nd century BC[edit] Second Macedonian War (200–196 BC) 198 BC – Battle of the Aous – Roman forces under Titus Quinctius Flamininus defeat the Macedonians under Philip V 197 BC – Battle of Cynoscephalae – Romans under Flamininus decisively defeats Philip in Thessaly Roman-Spartan War (195 BC) 195 BC – Battle of Gythium – With some Roman assistance, Philopoemen of the Achaean League defeats the Spartans under Nabis Battle of Placentia (194 BC) – Roman victory over the Boian Gauls Battle of Mutina (193 BC) – Roman victory over the Boii, decisively ending the Boian threat. Roman-Seleucid War (192 BC – 188 BC) [1] 191 BC – Battle of Thermopylae – Romans under Manius Acilius Glabrio defeat Antiochus III the Great and force him to evacuate Greece 190 BC – Battle of the Eurymedon – Roman forces under Lucius Aemilius Regillus defeat a Seleucid fleet commanded by Hannibal, fighting his last battle. Battle of Myonessus – Another Seleucid fleet is defeated by the Romans December, Battle of Magnesia – (near Smyrna) Romans under Lucius Cornelius Scipio and his brother Scipio Africanus Major defeat Antiochus III the Great in the decisive victory of the war. Aetolian War (191–189 BC) Galatian War (189 BC) [1] Battle of Mount Olympus – Romans under Gnaeus Manlius Vulso allied with Attalus II of Pergamum deliver a crushing defeat to an army of Galatian Gauls Battle of Ancyra – Gnaeus Manlius Vulso and Attalus II defeat the Galatian Gauls again before Ancyra, in what was an almost identical repeat of the Battle of Mount Olympus. First Celtiberian War (181–179 BC) 181 BC – Battle of Manlian Pass – Romans under Fulvius Flaccus defeat an army of Celtiberians. Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC) 171 BC – Battle of Callicinus – Perseus of Macedon defeats a Roman army under Publius Licinius Crassus. 168 BC, 22 June – Battle of Pydna – Romans under Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus defeat and capture Macedonian King Perseus. Third Illyrian War (169–167 BC) [1] Lusitanian War (155–139 BC) Numentine\Second Celtiberian War (154–133 BC) 134 BC - Siege of Numantia - Roman forces under Scipio Aemilianus Africanus defeat and raze the Celtiberian city of Numantia. Fourth Macedonian War (150–148 BC) [1] 148 BC – Second battle of Pydna – The forces of the Macedonian pretender Andriscus are defeated by the Romans under Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus. Third Punic War (149–146 BC) [1] 147 BC - Battle of the Port of Carthage - Roman forces under Lucius Hostilius Mancinus are defeated by the Carthaginians. Second Battle of Neferis - Roman forces under Scipio Aemilianus win a decisive victory against Carthage marking the turning point in the Third Punic War. 146 BC – Battle of Carthage ends: Scipio Africanus Minor captures and destroys Carthage. Achaean War (146 BC) 146 BC – Battle of Corinth – Romans under Lucius Mummius defeat the Achaean League forces of Critolaus, who is killed. Corinth is destroyed and Greece comes under direct Roman rule. First Servile War (135–132 BC) Cimbrian War (113–101 BC) 112 BC - Battle of Noreia - Roman force under Gnaeus Papirius Carbo are defeated by the Cimbri 109 BC – Battle of the Rhone River – Roman force under Marcus Junius Silanus are defeated by the Helvetii 107 BC – Battle of Burdigala – Roman forces under Lucius Cassius Longinus are defeated by the Helvetii 105 BC, 6 October – Battle of Arausio – Cimbri inflict a major defeat on the Roman army of Gnaeus Mallius Maximus 102 BC - Battle of Aquae Sextiae - Romans under Gaius Marius defeat Teutons, with mass suicides among the captured women. 101 BC - Battle of Vercellae – Romans under Gaius Marius defeat the Cimbri, who are entirely annihilated. Jugurthine War (112–105 BC) 108 BC – Battle of the Muthul – Roman forces under Caecilius Metellus fight indecisively against the forces of Jugurtha of Numidia Second Servile War (104–103 BC) 1st century BC[edit] Expansion of Rome from 200 BC (green) to 100 BC (orange). Roman holdings in the East (red), clients (pink), and other nations. Social War (91–88 BC)[1] 89 BC – Battle of Fucine Lake – Roman forces under Lucius Porcius Cato are defeated by the Italian rebels. 89 BC – Battle of Asculum – Roman army of C. Pompeius Strabo decisively defeats the rebels. First Mithridatic War (90–85 BC) 87 BC - 86 BC - Siege of Athens and Piraeus - Siege of Athens, which had sided with the Pontic invaders during the First Mithridatic War by Lucius Cornelius Sulla. Roman victory. 86 BC – Battle of Chaeronea – Roman forces of Lucius Cornelius Sulla defeat the Pontic forces of Archelaus in the First Mithridatic War 85 BC – Battle of Orchomenus – Sulla again defeats Archelaus in the decisive battle of the First Mithridatic War. First Marian-Sullan Civil War (88–87 BC)[1] 83 BC – Battle of Mount Tifata – Sulla defeats the popular forces of Caius Norbanus. Second Mithridatic War (83–82 BC) 82 BC – Battle of Halys – Roman general Lucius Licinius Murena fights Mithridates and Gordius after launching several raids, to which the Romans lose. Sertorian War (80–72 BC) 80 BC – Battle of the Baetis River – Rebel forces under Quintus Sertorius defeat the legal Roman forces of Lucius Fulfidias in Hispania. Second Marian-Sullan Civil War (82–81 BC) [1] 82 BC – Battle of the Asio River – Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius defeats a Popular army under Gaius Carrinas. Battle of Sacriporto – Fought between the Optimates under Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix and the Populares under Gaius Marius the Younger, Optimate victory. First Battle of Clusium – Fought between the Optimates under Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix and the Populares under Gnaeus Papirius Carbo, Popular victory. Battle of Faventia – Fought between the Optimates under Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius and the Populares under Gaius Norbanus Balbus, Optimate victory. Battle of Fidentia – Fought between the Optimates under Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus and the Populares under Lucius Quincius, Optimate victory. Second Battle of Clusium – Pompei Magnus defeats a numerically superior Populares army under Gaius Carrinas and Gaius Marcius Censorinus. Battle of Colline Gate – Sulla defeats Samnites allied to the popular party in Rome in the decisive battle of the Civil War. Third Mithridatic War (73–63 BC) [1] 73 BC – Battle of Cyzicus – Roman forces under Lucius Lucullus defeat the forces of Mithridates VI of Pontus 72 BC – Battle of Cabira or the Rhyndacus – Lucullus defeats the retreating forces of Mithridates, opening way to Pontus 69 BC – Battle of Tigranocerta – Lucullus defeats the army of Tigranes II of Armenia, who was harbouring his father-in-law Mithridates VI of Pontus 68 BC – Battle of Artaxata – Lucullus again defeats Tigranes. 66 BC – Battle of the Lycus – Pompey the Great decisively defeats Mithridates VI, effectively ending the Third Mithridatic War Third Servile War (73–71 BC) 73 BC – Battle of Mount Vesuvius – Spartacus defeats Gaius Claudius Glaber 72 BC – Battle of Picenum – Slave Revolt led by Spartacus defeat a Roman army led by Gellius Publicola and Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus 72 BC – Battle of Mutina I – Slave Revolt led by Spartacus defeat another army of Romans. 71 BC – Battle of Campania – Slave Revolt led by Spartacus defeat a Roman army. Battle of Campania II – a Roman army under Marcus Crassus defeats Spartacus's army of slaves. Battle of the Siler River – Marcus Crassus defeats the army of Spartacus. Pompey's Georgian campaign (65 BC) Catilinarian Civil War (63–62 BC) 62 BC, January – Battle of Pistoria – The forces of the conspirator Catiline are defeated by the loyal Roman armies under Gaius Antonius. Gallic Wars (59–51 BC) 58 BC – June – Battle of the Arar (Saône) – Caesar defeats the migrating Helvetii July – Battle of Bibracte – Caesar again defeats the Helvetians, this time decisively. September – Battle of Vosges – Caesar decisively defeats the forces of the Germanic chieftain Ariovistus near modern Belfort 57 BC – Battle of the Axona (Aisne) – Caesar defeats the forces of the Belgae under King Galba of Suessiones. Battle of the Sabis (Sambre) – Caesar defeats the Nervii. Battle of Octodurus (Martigny) – Servius Galba defeats the Seduni and Veragri. 52 BC – Battle of Alesia – Caesar defeats the Gallic rebel Vercingetorix, completing the Roman conquest of Gallia Comata. War with the Parthian Empire (53 BC) 53 BC - Battle of Carrhae – Roman triumvir Crassus is disastrously defeated and killed by the Parthians. Crassus has molten gold poured down his throat by his captors. The extent of the Roman Republic in 40 BC after Caesar's conquests. Caesar's Civil War (49–45 BC) 49 BC, June – Battle of Ilerda – Caesar's army surround Pompeian forces and cause them to surrender. 49 BC, 24 August – Battle of the Bagradas River – Caesar's general Gaius Curio is defeated in North Africa by the Pompeians under Attius Varus and King Juba I of Numidia. Curio commits suicide. 48 BC, 10 July – Battle of Dyrrhachium – Caesar barely avoids a catastrophic defeat by Pompey in Macedonia 48 BC, 9 August – Battle of Pharsalus – Caesar decisively defeats Pompey, who flees to Egypt 47 BC, February – Battle of the Nile – Caesar defeats the forces of the Egyptian king Ptolemy XIII 46 BC, 4 January – Battle of Ruspina – Caesar loses perhaps as much as a third of his army to Titus Labienus 46 BC, 6 February – Battle of Thapsus – Caesar defeats the Pompeian army of Metellus Scipio in North Africa. 45 BC, 17 March – Battle of Munda – In his last victory, Caesar defeats the Pompeian forces of Titus Labienus and Gnaeus Pompey the Younger in Hispania. Labienus is killed in the battle and the Younger Pompey captured and executed. War with Pontus 47 BC, May – Battle of Zela – Caesar defeats Pharnaces II of Pontus. This is the battle where he famously said Veni, vidi, vici. (I came, I saw, I conquered.) Liberators' civil war (44–42 BC) 43 BC, 14 April – Battle of Forum Gallorum – Antony, besieging Caesar's assassin Decimus Brutus in Mutina, defeats the forces of the consul Pansa, who is killed, but is then immediately defeated by the army of the other consul, Hirtius 43 BC, 21 April – Battle of Mutina – Antony is again defeated in battle by Hirtius, who is killed. Although Antony fails to capture Mutina, Decimus Brutus is murdered shortly thereafter. 42 BC, 3 October – First Battle of Philippi – Triumvirs Mark Antony and Octavian fight an indecisive battle with Caesar's assassins Marcus Brutus and Cassius. Although Brutus defeats Octavian, Antony defeats Cassius, who commits suicide. 42 BC, 23 October – Second Battle of Philippi – Brutus's army is decisively defeated by Antony and Octavian. Brutus escapes, but commits suicide soon after. Sicilian revolt (44–36 BC) 36 BC – Battle of Naulochus – Octavian's fleet, under the command of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa defeats the forces of the rebel Sextus Pompeius. Fulvia's civil war (Perusine War) (41–40 BC) 41 BC – Battle of Perugia – Mark Antony's brother Lucius Antonius and his wife Fulvia are defeated by Octavian. Final War of the Roman Republic (32–30 BC) 31 BC, 2 September – Battle of Actium – Octavian decisively defeats Antony and Cleopatra in a naval battle near Greece. Cantabrian Wars (29–19 BC) 25 BC - Battle of Vellica - Roman forces under Augustus against the Cantabri people, Roman victory. 25 BC - Siege of Aracillum - Roman forces under Gaius Antistius Vetus against the Cantabri people, Roman victory. Germanic Battles (16–11 BC) Clades Lolliana (16 BC) – The troops of Consul Marcus Lollius Paulinus are defeated by West Germanic warriors in Gaul. Battle of the Lupia River (11 BC) – Roman forces under Augustus's stepson Drusus win a victory in Germany. 1st century[edit] The Roman Empire under Augustus: The Republic in 31 BC (yellow) and Augustus's conquests (shades of green). Client states are in pink. Battle of the Teutoburg Forest (9) – German leader Arminius ambushes three Roman legions under Publius Quinctilius Varus. Battle of the Weser River (16) - Legions under Germanicus defeat German tribes of Arminius. Roman conquest of Britain (43–96) 43 – Battle of the Medway – Claudius and general Aulus Plautius defeat a confederation of British Celtic tribes. Roman invasion of Britain begins 50 – Battle of Caer Caradoc – British chieftain Caractacus is defeated and captured by the Romans under Ostorius Scapula. 71 – Battle of Scotch Corner 83 – Battle of Mons Graupius. Romans under Gnaeus Julius Agricola defeat the Caledonians. Roman–Parthian War of 58–63 58 – Sack of Artaxata by Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo during the Roman–Parthian War over Armenia 59 – Capture of Tigranocerta by Corbulo. 62 – Battle of Rhandeia – Romans under Lucius Caesennius Paetus are defeated by a Parthian-Armenian army under King Tiridates of Parthia. Boudica's uprising (60–61) 60 – Battle of Camulodunum – Boudica begins her uprising against the Romans by capturing and then sacking Camulodunum then moves on Londinium. 61 – Battle of Watling Street – Boudica is defeated by Suetonius Paullinus First Jewish–Roman War (66–73)[1] 66 – Battle of Beth-Horon – Jewish forces led by Eleazar ben Simon defeat a Roman punitive force led by Cestius Gallus, Governor of Syria 73 – Siege of Masada – The Sicarii are defeated by the Romans under Lucius Flavius Silva, leading them to commit mass suicide Roman Civil War of 68–69 AD 69 – Winter – Battle of 'Forum Julii' – Othonian forces defeat a small group of Vitellianist auxiliaries in Gallia Narbonensis 14 April – First Battle of Bedriacum – Vitellius, commander of the Rhine armies, defeats Emperor Otho and seizes the throne. 24 October – Second Battle of Bedriacum – Forces under Antonius Primus, the commander of the Danube armies, loyal to Vespasian, defeat the forces of Emperor Vitellius. Domitian's Dacian War (86–88) 87 – Dacian King Decebalus crushes the Roman army at Tapae (today Transylvania, Romania), Legio V Alaudae and general Cornelius Fuscus perish in battle. 88 – the Romans return and obtain a victory in the same battleground 2nd century[edit] The extent of the Roman Empire under Trajan (117) The Empire is in red and dependencies are in pink.[2] First Dacian War (101–102) 101 – Second Battle of Tapae – Trajan defeats Decebalus, with heavy losses. 102 – Battle of Adamclisi - Roman forces led by Trajan annihilate a mixed Dacian-Roxolano-Sarmatae army, with heavy casualties on the Roman side. Second Dacian War (105–106) 106 – Battle of Sarmisegetusa – A Roman army led by Trajan conquers and destroys the Dacian capital. Part of Dacia is annexed to the Roman Empire. Roman-Persian Wars [1] 115-117 – Trajan's Parthian campaign – Trajan invades Parthia and occupies Ctesiphon. 161-166 – Roman–Parthian War – Vologases IV invades Armenia, but is pushed back and Ctesiphon is sacked. 198 – Battle of Ctesiphon – Septimus Severus invades, sacks Ctesiphon, and acquires northern Mesopotamia. Kitos War (115–117) Second Jewish Revolt (132–135/136) Marcomannic Wars (166–180) 170 – Battle of Carnuntum – Marcomannic King Ballomar defeats the Roman Army and invade Italy. 178-179 – Praetorian Prefect Teratenius Paternus defeats the Quadi. 179 or 180 – Battle of Laugaricio – Marcus Valerius Maximianus defeats the Quadi in Slovakia. Roman Civil War of 193–197 AD 193 – Battle of Cyzicus – Septimius Severus, the new Emperor, defeats his eastern rival Pescennius Niger 193 – Battle of Nicaea – Severus again defeats Niger 194 – Battle of Issus – Severus finally defeats Niger. 197, 19 February – Battle of Lugdunum – Emperor Septimius Severus defeats and kills his rival Clodius Albinus, securing full control over the Empire. 3rd century[edit] The Empires of Gaul (green), Rome (red), and Palmyra (yellow) in 271. See Crisis of the Third Century Persian wars 217 – Battle of Nisibis – Bloody stalemate between the Parthians and the Roman army under Emperor Macrinus. 231-232 - War between Ardashir I and Severus Alexander; resulted in humiliating Roman defeat and withdrawal. 243 – Battle of Resaena – Roman forces under Gordian III defeat the Persians under Shapur I. 260 – Battle of Edessa – Emperor Shapur I of Persia defeats and captures the Roman Emperor Valerian 296 or 297 – Battle of Carrhae – Romans under the Caesar Galerius are defeated by the Persians under Narseh. 298 – Battle of Satala – Galerius secures a decisive victory against Narseh, following a peace treaty. Civil wars 218, 8 June – Battle of Antioch – Varius Avitus defeats Emperor Macrinus to claim the throne under the name Elagabalus. 238 – Battle of Carthage – Troops loyal to the Roman Emperor Maximinus Thrax defeat and kill his successor Gordian II. 274 – Battle of Châlons – Aurelian defeats the Gallic usurper Tetricus, reestablishing central control of the whole empire. 285 – Battle of the Margus – The usurper Diocletian defeats the army of the Emperor Carinus, who is killed. Gothic and Alemannic wars 235 – Battle at the Harzhorn - Small Roman army defeats a German army while retreating back to Roman territory. 250 – Battle of Philippopolis – King Cniva of the Goths defeats a Roman army. 251, Summer – Battle of Abrittus – Goths defeat and kill the Roman Emperors Decius and Herennius Etruscus 259 – Battle of Mediolanum – Emperor Gallienus decisively defeats the Alemanni that invaded Italy 268 – Battle of Naissus – Emperor Gallienus and his generals Claudius and Aurelian decisively defeat the Goths. 268 or 269 – Battle of Lake Benacus – Romans under Emperor Claudius II defeat the Alemanni 271 – Battle of Placentia – Emperor Aurelian is defeated by the Alemanni forces invading Italy Battle of Fano – Aurelian defeats the Alamanni, who begin to retreat from Italy Battle of Pavia – Aurelian destroys the retreating Alemanni army. 298 – Battle of Lingones – Caesar Constantius Chlorus defeats the Alemanni Battle of Vindonissa – Constantius again defeats the Alamanni Palmyrene war 272 – Battle of Immae – Aurelian defeats the army of Zenobia of Palmyra Battle of Emesa – Aurelian decisively defeats Zenobia. 4th century[edit] The Roman Empire under the Tetrarchy, with the territory of Constantius (yellow), Maximian (green), Galerius (pink), and Diocletian (purple) The Roman Empire in 337, showing the Empire under Constantine (shaded purple) and other Roman dependencies (light purple). The 4th century begins with civil war resulting in the ascendancy of Constantine I, then, after his death, wars with Persia and Germanic tribes, punctuated frequently with more civil wars. Civil Wars of the Tetrarchy (306–324) 312 – Battle of Turin – Constantine I defeats forces loyal to Maxentius. Battle of Verona – Constantine I defeats more forces loyal to Maxentius. 28 October – Battle of Milvian Bridge – Constantine I defeats Maxentius and takes control of Italy. 313, 30 April – Battle of Tzirallum – In the eastern part of the Empire, the forces of Licinius defeat Maximinus. 314, 8 October – Battle of Cibalae – Constantine defeats Licinius 316 or 317 – Battle of Mardia – Constantine again defeats Licinius, who cedes Illyricum to Constantine. 324 – 3 July – Battle of Adrianople – Constantine defeats Licinius, who flees to Byzantium July – Battle of the Hellespont – Flavius Julius Crispus, son of Constantine, defeats the naval forces of Licinius 18 September – Battle of Chrysopolis – Constantine decisively defeats Licinius, establishing his sole control over the empire. Wars with Persia (344–363) 344 – Battle of Singara – Emperor Constantius II fights an indecisive battle against King Shapur II of Persia 359 – Siege of Amida – Sassanids capture Amida from Romans 363, 29 May – Battle of Ctesiphon – Emperor Julian defeats Shapur II of Persia outside the walls of the Persian capital, but is unable to take the city, and his death leads to an ultimate disaster on the retreat back to Roman territory. Civil War (350–353) 351 – Battle of Mursa Major – Emperor Constantius II defeats the usurper Magnentius 353 – Battle of Mons Seleucus – Final defeat of Magnentius by Constantius II Wars with Alemanni (356–368) 356 – Battle of Reims – Caesar Julian is defeated by the Alamanni 357 – Battle of Strasbourg – Julian expels the Alamanni from the Rhineland 368 – Battle of Solicinium – Romans under Emperor Valentinian I defeat yet another Alamanni incursion. Civil War – 366 – Battle of Thyatira – The army of the Roman emperor Valens defeats the usurper Procopius. Gothic War (376–382) 377 – Battle of the Willows – Roman troops fight an inconclusive battle against the Goths 378 – May – Battle of Argentovaria – Western Emperor Gratianus is victorious over the Alamanni, yet again. 9 August – Battle of Adrianople – Thervings under Fritigern defeat and kill the Eastern Emperor Valens 380 – Battle of Thessalonica – The new Eastern Emperor, Theodosius I, is also defeated by the Thervings under Fritigern. Civil War – 388 – Battle of the Save – Emperor Theodosius I defeats the usurper Magnus Maximus. Civil War – 394, 5–6 September – Battle of the Frigidus – Theodosius I defeats and kills the usurper Eugenius and his Frankish magister militum Arbogast. 5th century[edit] Map showing the paths of invasion by various groups into Eastern and Western Roman territory The 5th century involves the final fall of the Western Roman Empire to Goths, Vandals, Alans, Huns, and Franks. Wars with Gothic Tribes (402–419) 402 – 6 April – Battle of Pollentia – Stilicho defeats the Visigoths under Alaric. June – Battle of Verona – Stilicho defeats Alaric, who withdraws from Italy. 406, 31 December – Battle of Mainz – Franks lose to Vandals, Suebi and Alans. 410, 24 August – Sack of Rome – Visigoths under Alaric sack Rome. 419 – Battle of the Nervasos Mountains – Romans and Suebi defeat Vandals and Alans. 468 – Battle of Cap Bon - Failure of the invasion of the kingdom of the Vandals by the Western and Eastern Roman Empires Civil War – 432 – Battle of Ravenna – Bonifacius defeats rival Roman general Flavius Aetius, but is mortally wounded in the process. War with Visigoths – 436 – Battle of Narbonne – Flavius Aetius again defeats the Visigoths led by Theodoric. War with the Huns (447–451) 447 – Battle of the Utus – The Romans in the East fight an indecisive battle with Huns led by Attila. 451, 20 June – Battle of the Catalaunian Plains – The Romans with Flavius Aetius and the Visigoths with Theodoric, defend against Attila the Hun. Fall of the West (450–516) 455 – Sack of Rome by Geiseric, King of the Vandals 463 – Battle of Orleans – Gallo-Roman and Salian Frank forces under the command of Aegidius defeat a force of Visigoths at Orleans. 476 – Odoacer defeats the remnants of the Western Roman army, exiles emperor Romulus Augustulus, and declares himself King of Italy 486 – Battle of Soissons – Clovis I defeats Syagrius, last Roman commander in Gaul, and annexes the Roman rump state into the Frankish realm. 516 – Battle of Mons Badonicus – Romano-British under Ambrosius Aurelianus defeat Anglo-Saxons. References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Jones, Jim. "ROMAN HISTORY TIMELINE". courses.wcupa.edu. West Chester University of Pennsylvania, 2013. Retrieved 29 March 2017. ^ Bennett, J. Trajan: Optimus Princeps. 1997. Fig. 1 Sources[edit] Jones, Jim, (2013). Roman History Timeline. West Chester University of Pennsylvania. http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/Roman History Timeline . External links[edit] Milites. A Visual Analytics tool on Roman battles. Elton, Hugh and Christos Nüssli, "Imperial Battle Map Index". An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors. "Roman Battles" map, platial.com See also[edit] List of Roman civil wars and revolts v t e Ancient Roman wars Wars of the Roman Republic Roman–Etruscan Wars Roman-Aequian wars Roman–Latin wars Roman–Hernician wars Roman-Volscian wars Samnite Wars Pyrrhic War Punic Wars (First, Second, Third) Illyrian Wars (First, Second, Third) Macedonian Wars (First, Second, Third, Fourth) Roman–Seleucid War Aetolian War Galatian War Roman conquest of Hispania (Celtiberian Wars, Lusitanian War, Numantine War, Sertorian War, Cantabrian Wars) Achaean War Jugurthine War Cimbrian War Servile Wars (First, Second, Third) Social War Sulla's civil wars (First, Second) Mithridatic Wars (First, Second, Third) Gallic Wars Invasions of Britain Caesar's Civil War End of the Republic (Post-Caesarian, Liberators', Sicilian, Perusine, Last) Wars of the Roman Empire Germanic wars (Teutoburg, Marcomannic, Alemannic, Gothic, Visigothic) Wars in Britain Boudica's revolt Armenian War Civil War of 69 Jewish–Roman wars Domitian's Dacian War Trajan's Dacian Wars Persian Wars Civil Wars of the Third Century Wars of the Fall of the Western Roman Empire Military history of ancient Rome v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex 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en-wikipedia-org-2750	----	Epicureanism - Wikipedia Epicureanism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Epicurean" redirects here. For other uses, see Epicurean (disambiguation). Roman Epicurus bust Epicureanism is a system of philosophy founded around 307 BC based upon the teachings of the ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus. Epicureanism was originally a challenge to Platonism. Later its main opponent became Stoicism. Some writings by Epicurus have survived. Some scholars consider the epic poem De rerum natura (Latin for On the Nature of Things) by Lucretius to present in one unified work the core arguments and theories of Epicureanism. Many of the scrolls unearthed at the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum are Epicurean texts. At least some are thought to have belonged to the Epicurean philosopher Philodemus. Epicurus was an atomic materialist, following in the steps of Democritus. His materialism led him to a general attack on superstition and divine intervention. Following the Cyrenaic philosopher Aristippus, Epicurus believed that the greatest good was to seek modest, sustainable pleasure in the form of a state of ataraxia (tranquility and freedom from fear) and aponia (the absence of bodily pain) through knowledge of the workings of the world and limiting desires. Correspondingly, Epicurus and his followers shunned politics because it could lead to frustrations and ambitions which can directly conflict with the Epicurean pursuit for peace of mind and virtues.[1] Although Epicureanism is a form of hedonism insofar as it declares pleasure to be its sole intrinsic goal, the concept that the absence of pain and fear constitutes the greatest pleasure, and its advocacy of a simple life, make it very different from "hedonism" as colloquially understood. Epicureanism flourished in the Late Hellenistic era and during the Roman era, and many Epicurean communities were established, such as those in Antiochia, Alexandria, Rhodes, and Herculaneum. By the late 3rd century CE Epicureanism all but died out, being opposed by other philosophies (mainly Neoplatonism) that were now in the ascendant. Interest in Epicureanism was resurrected in the Age of Enlightenment and continues in the modern era. Contents 1 History 2 Philosophy 3 Ethics 4 Politics 5 Religion 6 Epicurean physics 7 Epistemology 8 Tetrapharmakos 9 Notable Epicureans 10 Modern usage and misconceptions 11 Criticism 12 See also 13 References 14 Further reading 15 External links History[edit] In Mytilene, the capital of the island Lesbos, and then in Lampsacus, Epicurus taught and gained followers. In Athens, Epicurus bought a property for his school called "Garden", later the name of Epicurus' school.[2] Its members included Hermarchus, Idomeneus, Colotes, Polyaenus, and Metrodorus. Epicurus emphasized friendship as an important ingredient of happiness, and the school seems to have been a moderately ascetic community which rejected the political limelight of Athenian philosophy. They were fairly cosmopolitan by Athenian standards, including women and slaves. Community activities held some importance, particularly the observance of Eikas, a monthly social gathering. Some members were also vegetarians as, from slender evidence, Epicurus did not eat meat, although no prohibition against eating meat was made.[3][4] The school's popularity grew and it became, along with Stoicism, Platonism, Peripateticism, and Pyrrhonism, one of the dominant schools of Hellenistic philosophy, lasting strongly through the later Roman Empire.[5] Another major source of information is the Roman politician and philosopher Cicero, although he was highly critical, denouncing the Epicureans as unbridled hedonists, devoid of a sense of virtue and duty, and guilty of withdrawing from public life. Another ancient source is Diogenes of Oenoanda, who composed a large inscription at Oenoanda in Lycia. Deciphered carbonized scrolls obtained from the library at the Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum contain a large number of works by Philodemus, a late Hellenistic Epicurean, and Epicurus himself, attesting to the school's enduring popularity. Diogenes reports slanderous stories, circulated by Epicurus' opponents.[2] With growing dominance of Neoplatonism and Peripateticism, and later, Christianity, Epicureanism declined. By the late third century CE, there was little trace of its existence.[6] The early Christian writer Lactantius criticizes Epicurus at several points throughout his Divine Institutes. In Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy, the Epicureans are depicted as heretics suffering in the sixth circle of hell. In fact, Epicurus appears to represent the ultimate heresy.[7] The word for a heretic in the Talmudic literature is "Apiqoros" (אפיקורוס‎).[citation needed] In the 17th century, the French Franciscan priest, scientist and philosopher Pierre Gassendi wrote two books forcefully reviving Epicureanism. Shortly thereafter, and clearly influenced by Gassendi, Walter Charleton published several works on Epicureanism in English. Attacks by Christians continued, most forcefully by the Cambridge Platonists.[citation needed] In the early modern period, scientists adopted atomist theories, while materialist philosophers embraced Epicurus' hedonist ethics and restated his objections to natural teleology.[citation needed] Philosophy[edit] Part of a series on Hedonism Thinkers Ajita Kesakambali Jeremy Bentham Julien Offray de La Mettrie Aristippus Epicurus Fred Feldman Theodorus the Atheist Michel Onfray Aristippus the Younger Hermarchus Lucretius Pierre Gassendi Metrodorus of Lampsacus David Pearce Zeno of Sidon Yang Zhu Torbjörn Tännsjö Esperanza Guisán Schools of hedonism Cārvāka Cyrenaics Epicureanism Christian hedonism Utilitarianism Yangism Key concepts Aponia Ataraxia Eudaimonia Happiness Hedone Pain Pleasure Sensation Suffering Tetrapharmakos Libertine Related articles Paradox of hedonism Hedonic treadmill v t e Epicureanism argued that pleasure was the chief good in life.[8] Hence, Epicurus advocated living in such a way as to derive the greatest amount of pleasure possible during one's lifetime, yet doing so moderately in order to avoid the suffering incurred by overindulgence in such pleasure.[8] Emphasis was placed on pleasures of the mind rather than on physical pleasures.[8] Unnecessary and, especially, artificially produced desires were to be suppressed.[9] Since the political life could give rise to desires that could disturb virtue and one's peace of mind, such as a lust for power or a desire for fame, participation in politics was discouraged.[10][11] Further, Epicurus sought to eliminate the fear of the gods and of death, seeing those two fears as chief causes of strife in life.[12] Epicurus actively recommended against passionate love, and believed it best to avoid marriage altogether. He viewed recreational sex as a natural, but not necessary desire that should be generally avoided.[13] The Epicurean understanding of justice was inherently self-interested. Justice was deemed good because it was seen as mutually beneficial.[14] Individuals would not act unjustly even if the act was initially unnoticed because of possibly being caught and punished.[15] Both punishment and fear of punishment would cause a person disturbance and prevent them from being happy.[15] Epicurus laid great emphasis on developing friendships as the basis of a satisfying life. of all the things which wisdom has contrived which contribute to a blessed life, none is more important, more fruitful, than friendship — quoted by Cicero[16] While the pursuit of pleasure formed the focal point of the philosophy, this was largely directed to the "static pleasures" of minimizing pain, anxiety and suffering. In fact, Epicurus referred to life as a "bitter gift". When we say ... that pleasure is the end and aim, we do not mean the pleasures of the prodigal or the pleasures of sensuality, as we are understood to do by some through ignorance, prejudice or wilful misrepresentation. By pleasure we mean the absence of pain in the body and of trouble in the soul. It is not by an unbroken succession of drinking bouts and of revelry, not by sexual lust, nor the enjoyment of fish and other delicacies of a luxurious table, which produce a pleasant life; it is sober reasoning, searching out the grounds of every choice and avoidance, and banishing those beliefs through which the greatest tumults take possession of the soul. — Epicurus, "Letter to Menoeceus"[17] Epicureanism rejects immortality. It believes in the soul, but suggests that the soul is mortal and material, just like the body.[18] Epicurus rejected any possibility of an afterlife, while still contending that one need not fear death: "Death is nothing to us; for that which is dissolved, is without sensation, and that which lacks sensation is nothing to us."[19] From this doctrine arose the Epicurean Epitaph: Non fui, fui, non sum, non curo ("I was not; I have been; I am not; I do not mind."), which is inscribed on the gravestones of his followers and seen on many ancient gravestones of the Roman Empire. This quotation is often used today at humanist funerals.[20] Ethics[edit] Epicureanism bases its ethics on a hedonistic set of values. In the most basic sense, Epicureans see pleasure as the purpose of life.[21] As evidence for this, Epicureans say that nature seems to command us to avoid pain, and they point out that all animals try to avoid pain as much as possible.[22] Epicureans had a very specific understanding of what the greatest pleasure was, and the focus of their ethics was on the avoidance of pain rather than seeking out pleasure.[23] Epicureanism divided pleasure into two broad categories: pleasures of the body and pleasures of the mind.[23] Pleasures of the body: These pleasures involve sensations of the body, such as the act of eating delicious food or of being in a state of comfort free from pain, and exist only in the present.[23] One can only experience pleasures of the body in the moment, meaning they only exist as a person is experiencing them.[24] Pleasures of the mind: These pleasures involve mental processes and states; feelings of joy, the lack of fear, and pleasant memories are all examples of pleasures of the mind.[23] These pleasures of the mind do not only exist in the present, but also in the past and future, since memory of a past pleasant experience or the expectation of some potentially pleasing future can both be pleasurable experiences.[24] Because of this, the pleasures of the mind are considered to be greater than those of the body.[24] The Epicureans further divided each of these types of pleasures into two categories: kinetic pleasure and katastematic pleasure.[25] Kinetic pleasure: Kinetic pleasure describes the physical or mental pleasures that involve action or change.[26] Eating delicious food, as well as fulfilling desires and removing pain, which is itself considered a pleasurable act, are all examples of kinetic pleasure in the physical sense.[25][27] According to Epicurus, feelings of joy would be an example of mental kinetic pleasure.[25] Katastematic pleasure: Katastematic pleasure describes the pleasure one feels while in a state without pain.[27] Like kinetic pleasures, katastematic pleasures can also be physical, such as the state of not being thirsty, or mental, such as freedom from a state of fear.[25][26] Complete physical katastematic pleasure is called aponia, and complete mental katastematic pleasure is called ataraxia.[25] From this understanding, Epicureans concluded that the greatest pleasure a person could reach was the complete removal of all pain, both physical and mental.[28] The ultimate goal then of Epicurean ethics was to reach a state of aponia and ataraxia.[28] In order to do this an Epicurean had to control their desires, because desire itself was seen as painful.[29] Not only will controlling one's desires bring about aponia, as one will rarely suffer from not being physically satisfied, but controlling one's desires will also help to bring about ataraxia because one will not be anxious about becoming discomforted since one would have so few desires anyway.[30] Epicurus distinguishes three kinds of desires: the natural and necessary, the natural but not necessary, and those that are neither natural nor necessary.[29] Natural and necessary: These desires are limited desires that are innately present in all humans; it is part of human nature to have them.[29] They are necessary for one of three reasons: necessary for happiness, necessary for freedom from bodily discomfort, and necessary for life.[29] Clothing would belong to the first two categories, while something like food would belong to the third.[29] Natural but not necessary: These desires are innate to humans, but they do not need to be fulfilled for their happiness or their survival.[30] Wanting to eat delicious food when one is hungry is an example of a natural but not necessary desire.[30] The main problem with these desires is that they fail to substantially increase a person's happiness, and at the same time require effort to obtain and are desired by people due to false beliefs that they are actually necessary.[30] It is for this reason that they should be avoided.[30] Not natural nor necessary: These desires are neither innate to humans nor required for happiness or health; indeed, they are also limitless and can never be fulfilled.[31] Desires of wealth or fame would fall under this category, and such desires are to be avoided because they will ultimately only bring about discomfort.[31] If one follows only natural and necessary desires, then, according to Epicurus, one would be able to reach aponia and ataraxia and thereby the highest form of happiness.[31] Epicurus was also an early thinker to develop the notion of justice as a social contract. He defined justice as an agreement made by people not to harm each other.[14] The point of living in a society with laws and punishments is to be protected from harm so that one is free to pursue happiness.[32] Because of this, laws that do not contribute to promoting human happiness are not just.[32] He gave his own unique version of the ethic of reciprocity, which differs from other formulations by emphasizing minimizing harm and maximizing happiness for oneself and others: "It is impossible to live a pleasant life without living wisely and well and justly, and it is impossible to live wisely and well and justly without living a pleasant life."[33] ("justly" meaning to prevent a "person from harming or being harmed by another")[33] Epicureanism incorporated a relatively full account of the social contract theory, and in part attempts to address issues with the society described in Plato's Republic.[32] The social contract theory established by Epicureanism is based on mutual agreement, not divine decree.[32] Politics[edit] Epicurean ideas on politics disagree with other philosophical traditions, namely the Stoic, Platonist and Aristotelian traditions.[34] To Epicureans all our social relations are a matter of how we perceive each other, of customs and traditions. No one is inherently of higher value or meant to dominate another.[35] That is because there is no metaphysical basis for the superiority of one kind of person, all people are made of the same atomic material and are thus naturally equal.[35] Epicureans also discourage political participation and other involvement in politics.[35] However Epicureans are not apolitical, it is possible that some political association could be seen as beneficial by some Epicureans.[34] Some political associations could lead to certain benefits to the individual that would help to maximize pleasure and avoid physical or mental distress.[34] The avoidance or freedom from hardship and fear is ideal to the Epicureans.[34] While this avoidance or freedom could conceivably be achieved through political means it was insisted by Epicurus that involvement in politics would not release one from fear and he advised against a life of politics.[34] Epicurus also discouraged contributing to political society by starting a family, as the benefits of a wife and children are outweighed by the trouble brought about by having a family.[34] Instead Epicurus encouraged a formation of a community of friends outside the traditional political state. This community of virtuous friends would focus on internal affairs and justice.[34] However, Epicureanism is adaptable to circumstance as is the Epicurean approach to politics.[34] The same approaches will not always work in protection from pain and fear. In some situations it will be more beneficial to have a family and in other situations it will be more beneficial to participate in politics. It is ultimately up to the Epicurean to analyse their circumstance and take whatever action befits the situation.[34] Religion[edit] Epicureanism does not deny the existence of the gods; rather it denies their involvement in the world. According to Epicureanism, the gods do not interfere with human lives or the rest of the universe in any way[36]-thus, it shuns the idea that frightening weather events are divine retribution.[37] One of the fears the Epicurean ought to be freed from is fear relating to the actions of the gods.[38] The manner in which the Epicurean gods exist is still disputed. Some scholars say that Epicureanism believes that the gods exist outside the mind as material objects (the realist position), while others assert that the gods only exist in our minds as ideals (the idealist position).[36][39][40] The realist position holds that Epicureans understand the gods as existing as physical and immortal beings made of atoms that reside somewhere in reality.[36][40] However, the gods are completely separate from the rest of reality; they are uninterested in it, play no role in it, and remain completely undisturbed by it.[41] Instead, the gods live in what is called the metakosmia, or the space between worlds.[42] Contrarily, the idealist position holds that Epicurus did not actually conceive of the gods as existing in reality. Rather, Epicurus is said to have viewed the gods as just idealized forms of the best human life,[39][43] and it is thought that the gods were emblematic of the life one should aspire towards.[39] The debate between these two positions was revived by A. A. Long and David Sedley in their 1987 book, The Hellenistic Philosophers, in which the two argued in favour of the idealist position.[39][40] While a scholarly consensus has yet to be reached, the realist position remains the prevailing viewpoint at this time.[39][40] Epicureanism also offered arguments against the existence of the gods in the manner proposed by other belief systems. The Riddle of Epicurus, or Problem of evil, is a famous argument against the existence of an all-powerful and providential God or gods. As recorded by Lactantius: God either wants to eliminate bad things and cannot, or can but does not want to, or neither wishes to nor can, or both wants to and can. If he wants to and cannot, then he is weak – and this does not apply to god. If he can but does not want to, then he is spiteful – which is equally foreign to god's nature. If he neither wants to nor can, he is both weak and spiteful, and so not a god. If he wants to and can, which is the only thing fitting for a god, where then do bad things come from? Or why does he not eliminate them? — Lactantius, De Ira Deorum[44] This type of trilemma argument (God is omnipotent, God is good, but Evil exists) was one favoured by the ancient Greek skeptics, and this argument may have been wrongly attributed to Epicurus by Lactantius, who, from his Christian perspective, regarded Epicurus as an atheist.[45] According to Reinhold F. Glei, it is settled that the argument of theodicy is from an academical source which is not only not Epicurean, but even anti-Epicurean.[46] The earliest extant version of this trilemma appears in the writings of the Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus.[47] Parallels may be drawn to Jainism and Buddhism, which similarly emphasize a lack of divine interference and aspects of its atomism. Epicureanism also resembles Buddhism in its temperateness, including the belief that great excess leads to great dissatisfaction.[48][49][50] Some modern Epicureans have argued that Epicureanism is a type of religious identity, arguing that it fulfils Ninian Smart's "seven dimensions of religion", and that the Epicurean practices of feasting on the twentieth and declaring an oath to follow Epicurus, insistence on doctrinal adherence, and the sacredness of Epicurean friendship, make Epicureanism more similar to some non-theistic religions than to other philosophies.[51] Epicurean physics[edit] Epicurean physics held that the entire universe consisted of two things: matter and void.[52] Matter is made up of atoms, which are tiny bodies that have only the unchanging qualities of shape, size, and weight.[53][54] Atoms were felt to be unchanging because the Epicureans believed that the world was ordered and that changes had to have specific and consistent sources, e.g. a plant species only grows from a seed of the same species.[55][56] Epicurus holds that there must be an infinite supply of atoms, although only a finite number of types of atoms, as well as an infinite amount of void.[53] Epicurus explains this position in his letter to Herodotus: Moreover, the sum of things is unlimited both by reason of the multitude of the atoms and the extent of the void. For if the void were infinite and bodies finite, the bodies would not have stayed anywhere but would have been dispersed in their course through the infinite void, not having any supports or counterchecks to send them back on their upward rebound. Again, if the void were finite, the infinity of bodies would not have anywhere to be.[57] Because of the infinite supply of atoms, there are an infinite amount of worlds, or cosmoi.[53] Some of these worlds could be vastly different than our own, some quite similar, and all of the worlds were separated from each other by vast areas of void (metakosmia).[53] Epicureanism states that atoms are unable to be broken down into any smaller parts, and Epicureans offered multiple arguments to support this position.[58] Epicureans argue that because void is necessary for matter to move, anything which consists of both void and matter can be broken down, while if something contains no void then it has no way to break apart because no part of the substance could be broken down into a smaller subsection of the substance.[55] They also argued that in order for the universe to persist, what it is ultimately made up of must not be able to be changed or else the universe would be essentially destroyed.[58][55] Atoms are constantly moving in one of four different ways.[59] Atoms can simply collide with each other and then bounce off of each other.[59] When joined with each other and forming a larger object, atoms can vibrate as they collide into each other while still maintaining the overall shape of the larger object.[59] When not prevented by other atoms, all atoms move at the same speed naturally downwards in relation to the rest world.[59][60] This downwards motion is natural for atoms; however, as their fourth means of motion, atoms can at times randomly swerve out of their usual downwards path.[60] This swerving motion is what allowed for the creation of the universe, since as more and more atoms swerved and collided with each other, objects were able to take shape as the atoms joined together. Without the swerve, the atoms would never have interacted with each other, and simply continued to move downwards at the same speed.[59][60] Epicurus also felt that the swerve was what accounted for humanity's free will.[61] If it were not for the swerve, humans would be subject to a never-ending chain of cause and effect.[61] This was a point which Epicureans often used to criticize Democritus' atomic theory.[61] Epicureans believed that senses also relied on atoms. Every object was continually emitting particles from itself that would then interact with the observer.[62] All sensations, such as sight, smell, or sound, relied on these particles.[62] While the atoms that were emitted did not have the qualities that the senses were perceiving, the manner in which they were emitted caused the observer to experience those sensations, e.g. red particles were not themselves red but were emitted in a manner that caused the viewer to experience the color red.[62] The atoms are not perceived individually, but rather as a continuous sensation because of how quickly they move.[62] Epistemology[edit] Epicurean philosophy employs an empirical epistemology.[63] The Epicureans believed that all sense perceptions were true,[64][65] and that errors arise in how we judge those perceptions.[65] When we form judgments about things (hupolepsis), they can be verified and corrected through further sensory information.[65][66][67][68] For example, if someone sees a tower from far away that appears to be round, and upon approaching the tower they see that it is actually square, they would come to realize that their original judgement was wrong and correct their wrong opinion.[68] Epicurus is said to have proposed three criteria of truth: sensations (aisthêsis), preconceptions (prolepsis), and feelings (pathê).[69] A fourth criterion called "presentational applications of the mind" (phantastikai epibolai tês dianoias) was said to have been added by later Epicureans.[69][70] These criteria formed the method through which Epicureans thought we gained knowledge.[63] Since Epicureans thought that sensations could not deceive, sensations are the first and main criterion of truth for Epicureans.[65] Even in cases where sensory input seems to mislead, the input itself is true and the error arises from our judgments about the input. For example, when one places a straight oar in the water, it appears bent. The Epicurean would argue that image of the oar, that is the atoms travelling from the oar to the observer's eyes, have been shifted and thus really do arrive at the observer's eyes in the shape of a bent oar.[71] The observer makes the error in assuming that the image he or she receives correctly represents the oar and has not been distorted in some way.[71] In order to not make erroneous judgments about perceivable things and instead verify one's judgment, Epicureans believed that one needed to obtain "clear vision" (enargeia) of the perceivable thing by closer examination.[72] This acted as a justification for one's judgements about the thing being perceived.[72] Enargeia is characterized as sensation of an object that has been unchanged by judgments or opinions and is a clear and direct perception of that object.[73] An individual's preconceptions are his or her concepts of what things are, e.g. what someone's idea of a horse is, and these concepts are formed in a person's mind through sensory input over time.[74] When the word that relates to the preconception is used, these preconceptions are summoned up by the mind into the person's thoughts.[75] It is through our preconceptions that we are able to make judgments about the things that we perceive.[68] Preconceptions were also used by Epicureans to avoid the paradox proposed by Plato in the Meno regarding learning.[75] Plato argues that learning requires us to already have knowledge of what we are learning, or else we would be unable to recognize when we had successfully learned the information.[75] Preconceptions, Epicureans argue, provide individuals with that pre-knowledge required for learning.[75] Our feelings or emotions (pathê) are how we perceive pleasure and pain.[70] They are analogous to sensations in that they are a means of perception, but they perceive our internal state as opposed to external things.[70] According to Diogenes Laertius, feelings are how we determine our actions. If something is pleasurable, we pursue that thing, and if something is painful, we avoid that thing.[70] The idea of "presentational applications of the mind" is an explanation for how we can discuss and inquire about things we cannot directly perceive.[76] We receive impressions of such things directly in our minds, instead of perceiving them through other senses.[69] The concept of "presentational applications of the mind" may have been introduced to explain how we learn about things that we cannot directly perceive, such as the gods.[69][76] Tetrapharmakos[edit] Main article: Tetrapharmakos Part of Herculaneum Papyrus 1005 (P.Herc.1005), col. 5. Contains Epicurean tetrapharmakos from Philodemus' Adversus Sophistas. Tetrapharmakos, or "The four-part cure", is Philodemus of Gadara's basic guideline as to how to live the happiest possible life, based on the first four of Epicurus' Principal Doctrines. This poetic doctrine was handed down by an anonymous Epicurean who summed up Epicurus' philosophy on happiness in four simple lines: Don't fear god, Don't worry about death; What is good is easy to get, and What is terrible is easy to endure. — Philodemus, Herculaneum Papyrus, 1005, 4.9–14 Notable Epicureans[edit] De rerum natura manuscript, copied by an Augustinian friar for Pope Sixtus IV, c. 1483, after the discovery of an early manuscript in 1417 by the humanist and papal secretary Poggio Bracciolini One of the earliest Roman writers espousing Epicureanism was Amafinius. Other adherents to the teachings of Epicurus included the poet Horace, whose famous statement Carpe Diem ("Seize the Day") illustrates the philosophy, as well as Lucretius, who wrote the poem De rerum natura about the tenets of the philosophy. The poet Virgil was another prominent Epicurean (see Lucretius for further details). The Epicurean philosopher Philodemus of Gadara, until the 18th century only known as a poet of minor importance, rose to prominence as most of his work along with other Epicurean material was discovered in the Villa of the Papyri. In the second century CE, comedian Lucian of Samosata and wealthy promoter of philosophy Diogenes of Oenoanda were prominent Epicureans. Julius Caesar leaned considerably toward Epicureanism, which led to his plea against the death sentence during the trial against Catiline, during the Catiline conspiracy where he spoke out against the Stoic Cato.[77] His father-in-law, Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus was also an adept of the school. In modern times Thomas Jefferson referred to himself as an Epicurean: If I had time I would add to my little book the Greek, Latin and French texts, in columns side by side. And I wish I could subjoin a translation of Gassendi's Syntagma of the doctrines of Epicurus, which, notwithstanding the calumnies of the Stoics and caricatures of Cicero, is the most rational system remaining of the philosophy of the ancients, as frugal of vicious indulgence, and fruitful of virtue as the hyperbolical extravagances of his rival sects.[78] Other modern-day Epicureans were Gassendi, Walter Charleton, François Bernier, Saint-Evremond, Ninon de l'Enclos, Denis Diderot, Frances Wright and Jeremy Bentham. Christopher Hitchens referred to himself as an Epicurean.[79] In France, where perfumer/restaurateur Gérald Ghislain refers to himself as an Epicurean,[80] Michel Onfray is developing a post-modern approach to Epicureanism.[81] In his recent book titled The Swerve, Stephen Greenblatt identified himself as strongly sympathetic to Epicureanism and Lucretius. Humanistic Judaism as a denomination also claims the Epicurean label. Modern usage and misconceptions[edit] In modern popular usage, an Epicurean is a connoisseur of the arts of life and the refinements of sensual pleasures; Epicureanism implies a love or knowledgeable enjoyment especially of good food and drink. Because Epicureanism posits that pleasure is the ultimate good (telos), it has been commonly misunderstood since ancient times as a doctrine that advocates the partaking in fleeting pleasures such as sexual excess and decadent food. This is not the case. Epicurus regarded ataraxia (tranquility, freedom from fear) and aponia (absence of pain) as the height of happiness. He also considered prudence an important virtue and perceived excess and overindulgence to be contrary to the attainment of ataraxia and aponia.[17] Epicurus preferred "the good", and "even wisdom and culture", to the "pleasure of the stomach".[82] While twentieth-century commentary has generally sought to diminish this and related quotations, the consistency of the lower-case epicureanism of meals with Epicurean materialism overall has more recently been explained.[83] While Epicurus sought moderation at meals, he was also not averse to moderation in moderation, that is, to occasional luxury. Called "The Garden" for being based in what would have been a kitchen garden, his community also became known for its feasts of the twentieth (of the Greek month). Criticism[edit] Francis Bacon wrote an apothegm related to Epicureanism: There was an Epicurean vaunted, that divers of other sects of philosophers did after turn Epicureans, but there was never any Epicurean that turned to any other sect. Whereupon a philosopher that was of another sect, said; The reason was plain, for that cocks may be made capons, but capons could never be made cocks.[84] This echoed what the Academic Skeptic philosopher Arcesilaus had said when asked "why it was that pupils from all the other schools went over to Epicurus, but converts were never made from the Epicureans?" to which he responded: "Because men may become eunuchs, but a eunuch never becomes a man."[85] See also[edit] Philosophy portal Charvaka, a hedonic Indian school Cyrenaics, a sensual hedonist Greek school of philosophy founded in the 4th century BCE Dehellenization Epicurea Epicurean paradox Epikoros Hedonic treadmill List of English translations of De rerum natura Philosophy of happiness Separation of church and state Zeno of Sidon References[edit] ^ 1951-, Wilson, Catherine (2015). Epicureanism : a very short introduction (First ed.). Oxford, United Kingdom. ISBN 9780199688326. OCLC 917374685.CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) ^ a b David Konstan. "Epicurus". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ The Hidden History of Greco-Roman Vegetarianism ^ Dombrowski, Daniel (1984). The Philosophy of Vegetarianism. University of Massachusetts Press. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-87023-431-6. ^ MacGillivray, Erlend D (2012). "The Popularity of Epicureanism in Late-Republic Roman Society". The Ancient World. XLIII: 151–172. ^ Michael Frede (1999). "Epilogue". The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy. pp. 795–96. ^ Trans. Robert Pinsky, The Inferno of Dante, p. 320 n. 11. ^ a b c O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 107–115. ^ O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 125–127. ^ Wilson, Catherine (2015). Epicureanism: A Very Brief Introduction. United States of America: Oxford University. pp. 84–85. ^ O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. p. 145. ^ O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 155–171. ^ Wilson, Catherine (2015). Epicureanism: A Very Short Introduction. United States of America: Oxford University Press. pp. 95–96. ^ a b O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 139–140. ^ a b O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 142–145. ^ On Goals, 1.65 ^ a b Epicurus, "Letter to Menoeceus", contained in Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers, Book X ^ Wilson, Catherine (2015). Epicureanism: A Very Brief Introduction. United States of America: Oxford University Press. p. 52. ^ Russell, Bertrand. A History of Western Philosophy, pp. 239–40 ^ Epicurus (c 341–270 BCE) British Humanist Association ^ Sharples, R. W. (1996). Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy. New York, NY: Routledge. p. 84. ^ Wilson, Catherine (2015). Epicureanism: A Very Short Introduction. United States of America: Oxford University Press. p. 93. ^ a b c d O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 117–121. ^ a b c O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 118–119. ^ a b c d e O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 119–120. ^ a b Sharples, R. W. (1996). Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 91–92. ^ a b Warren, James (2002). Epicurus and Democritean Ethics: An Archaeology of Ataraxia. New York, NY: University of Cambridge. p. 4. ^ a b O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. p. 120. ^ a b c d e O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 124–125. ^ a b c d e O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 126–127. ^ a b c O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 125–126. ^ a b c d O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 139–142. ^ a b "Epicurus Principal Doctrines 5 and 31 transl. by Robert Drew Hicks". 1925. ^ a b c d e f g h i The Cambridge companion to epicureanism. Warren, James, 1974-. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 2009. ISBN 9780521873475. OCLC 297147109.CS1 maint: others (link) ^ a b c 1951-, Wilson, Catherine (2015). Epicureanism : a very short introduction (First ed.). Oxford, United Kingdom. ISBN 9780199688326. OCLC 917374685.CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) ^ a b c O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 155–156. ^ The Cambridge companion to Epicureanism, edited by James Warren, page 124 ^ The Cambridge companion to Epicureanism, edited by James Warren, age 105 ^ a b c d e Sedley, David (2011). "Epicurus' theological innatism". In Fish, Jeffrey; Sanders, Kirk R. (eds.). Epicurus and the Epicurean Tradition. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 29–30. ^ a b c d Konstan, David (2011). "Epicurus on the gods". In Fish, Jeffrey; Sanders, Kirk R. (eds.). Epicurus and the Epicurean Tradition. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 53–54. ^ Mansfeld, Jaap (1993). "Aspects of Epicurean Theology". Mnemosyne. 46 (2): 176–178. doi:10.1163/156852593X00484. ^ Buchheit, Vinzenz (2007). "Epicurus' Triumph of the Mind". In Gale, Monica R. (ed.). Oxford Readings in Classical Studies: Lucretius. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. pp. 110–111. ^ O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 158–159. ^ Lactantius, De Ira Deorum, 13.19 (Epicurus, Frag. 374, Usener). David Hume paraphrased this passage in his Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion: "EPICURUS's old questions are yet unanswered. Is he willing to prevent evil, but not able? then is he impotent. Is he able, but not willing? then is he malevolent. Is he both able and willing? whence then is evil?" ^ Mark Joseph Larrimore, (2001), The Problem of Evil, pp. xix–xxi. Wiley-Blackwell ^ Glei, Reinhold F. (1988). "Et invidus et inbecillus. Das angebliche Epikurfragment bei Laktanz, De ira dei 13, 20–21". Vigiliae Christianae. 42: 47–58. doi:10.2307/1584470. ^ Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism, 175: "those who firmly maintain that god exists will be forced into impiety; for if they say that he [god] takes care of everything, they will be saying that god is the cause of evils, while if they say that he takes care of some things only or even nothing, they will be forced to say that he is either malevolent or weak" ^ Scharfstein, Ben-Ami (1998). A Comparative History of World Philosophy: From the Upanishads to Kant. SUNY Press. p. 202. ISBN 9780791436837. ^ Cooper, David E.; James, Simon P. (2017). Buddhism, Virtue and Environment. Routledge. p. 105. ISBN 9781351954310. ^ Berenice II and the Golden Age of Ptolemaic Egypt, Dee L. Clayman, Oxford University Press, 2014, p.33 ^ "Epicureanism as a Religious Identity". ^ O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 11–13. ^ a b c d Wilson, Catherine (2015). Epicureanism: A Very Short Introduction. United States of America: Oxford University Press. p. 9. ^ O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. p. 21. ^ a b c O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 18–20. ^ Sharples, R. W. (1998). Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 34–35. ^ Diogenes, Laertius (1925). Lives of Eminent Philosophers: Volume II: Books 6-10. Translated by Hicks, R. D. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. pp. 573–575. ^ a b Sharples, R. W. (1996). Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics: An introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 35–37. ^ a b c d e Wilson, Catherine (2015). Epicureanism: A Very Short Introduction. United States of America: Oxford University Press. p. 11. ^ a b c O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 25–28. ^ a b c Sharples, R. W. (1996). Stoics, Epicurus, and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 64–66. ^ a b c d Wilson, Catherine (2015). Epicureanism: A Very Short Introduction. United States of America: Oxford University Press. pp. 54–55. ^ a b O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. p. 85. ^ Asmis, Elizabeth (2009). "Epicurean empiricism". In Warren, James (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Epicureanism. Cambridge University Press. p. 84. ^ a b c d O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Pres. pp. 97–98. ^ Bakalis, Nikolaos (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments. Canada: Trafford Publishing. pp. 193–197. ^ Konstan, David (2011). Fish, Jeffrey; Sanders, Kirk R. (eds.). Epicurus and the Epicurean Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 62–63. ^ a b c O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 103–104. ^ a b c d Sharples, R. W. (1996). Stoics, Epicureans and Sceptics. New York, NY: Routledge. p. 19. ^ a b c d Asmis, Elizabeth (2009). "Epicurean empiricism". In Warren, James (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Epicureanism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 93–94. ^ a b Sharples, R. W. (1996). Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 12–13. ^ a b Sharples, R. W. (1996). Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 12–16. ^ Asmis, Elizabeth (2009). "Epicurean empiricism". In Warren, James (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Epicureanism. Cambridge University Press. p. 85. ^ Sharples, R. W. (1996). Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 18–19. ^ a b c d O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 101–103. ^ a b Tsouna, Voula (2016). "Epicurean Preconceptions". Phronesis. 61 (2): 215. doi:10.1163/15685284-12341304. ^ Cf. Sallust, The War With Catiline, Caesar's speech: 51.29 & Cato's reply: 52.13). ^ "Full text of "The writings of Thomas Jefferson;"". archive.org. Retrieved 6 May 2016. ^ "Townhall.com::Talk Radio Online::Radio Show". Archived from the original on 5 November 2018. Retrieved 5 September 2019. ^ Anon., Gérald Ghislain – Creator of The Scent of Departure. IdeaMensch, 14 July 2011. ^ Michel Onfray, La puissance d'exister: Manifeste hédoniste, Grasset, 2006 ^ Cyril Bailey, Epicurus: The Extant Remains, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1926, p.131 ^ Michael Symons, "Epicurus, the foodies’ philosopher", pp. 13-30, in Fritz Allhoff and Dave Monroe, eds, Food & Philosophy: Eat, think, and be merry, Malden (MA, USA): Blackwell Publishing, 2007 ^ Francis Bacon, Apothegms 280, The Works of Francis Bacon, Volume 1/Apophthegms ^ Diogenes Laertius, Lives of the Eminent Philosophers Book IV, Chapter 6, section 45 http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0258%3Abook%3D4%3Achapter%3D6 Further reading[edit] Dane R. Gordon and David B. Suits, Epicurus. His Continuing Influence and Contemporary Relevance, Rochester, N.Y.: RIT Cary Graphic Arts Press, 2003. Holmes, Brooke & Shearin, W. H. Dynamic Reading: Studies in the Reception of Epicureanism, New York: Oxford University Press, 2012. Jones, Howard. The Epicurean Tradition, New York: Routledge, 1989. Neven Leddy and Avi S. Lifschitz, Epicurus in the Enlightenment, Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 2009. Long, A.A. & Sedley, D.N. The Hellenistic Philosophers Volume 1, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. ( ISBN 0-521-27556-3) Long, Roderick (2008). "Epicureanism". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; Cato Institute. p. 153. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n95. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024. Martin Ferguson Smith (ed.), Diogenes of Oinoanda. The Epicurean inscription, edited with introduction, translation, and notes, Naples: Bibliopolis, 1993. Martin Ferguson Smith, Supplement to Diogenes of Oinoanda. The Epicurean Inscription, Naples: Bibliopolis, 2003. Warren, James (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to Epicureanism, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009. Wilson, Catherine. Epicureanism at the Origins of Modernity, New York: Oxford University Press, 2008. Zeller, Eduard; Reichel, Oswald J., The Stoics, Epicureans and Sceptics, Longmans, Green, and Co., 1892 External links[edit] Library resources about Epicureanism Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Wikimedia Commons has media related to Epicureanism. 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en-wikipedia-org-2756	----	Works attributed to Florus - Wikipedia Works attributed to Florus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Florus) Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd century Roman historian See also: Florus (Roman name) Three main sets of works are attributed to Florus (a Roman cognomen): Virgilius orator an poeta, an Epitome of Roman History and a collection of poems (26 tetrameters, and five hexameters about roses). As to whether these were composed by the same person, or set of people, is unclear, but the works are variously attributed to: Publius Annius Florus, described as a Roman poet and rhetorician Julius Florus, described as an ancient Roman poet, orator, and author who was born around 74 AD and died around 130 AD[1] Florus was born in Africa,[1] but raised in Rome. Lucius Annaeus Florus (circa 74 – 130 AD[2]), a Roman historian, who lived in the time of Trajan and Hadrian and was also born in Africa Contents 1 Virgilius orator an poeta 2 Poems 3 Epitome of Roman History 4 Attribution of the works 5 Tentative biography 6 References 7 Bibliography 8 External links Virgilius orator an poeta[edit] Hadrian The introduction to a dialogue called Virgilius orator an poeta is extant, in which the author (whose name is given as Publius Annius Florus) states that he was born in Africa, and at an early age took part in the literary contests on the Capitol instituted by Domitian. Having been refused a prize owing to the prejudice against African provincials, he left Rome in disgust, and after travelling for some time, set up at Tarraco as a teacher of rhetoric. Here he was persuaded by an acquaintance to return to Rome, for it is generally agreed that he is the Florus who wrote the well-known lines quoted together with Hadrian's answer by Aelius Spartianus (Hadrian I 6). Twenty-six trochaic tetrameters, De qualitate vitae, and five graceful hexameters, De rosis, are also attributed to him. Poems[edit] Florus was also an established poet.[3] He was once thought to have been "the first in order of a number of second-century African writers who exercised a considerable influence on Latin literature, and also the first of the poetae neoterici or novelli (new-fashioned poets) of Hadrian's reign, whose special characteristic was the use of lighter and graceful meters (anapaestic and iambic dimeters), which had hitherto found little favour." Since Cameron's article on the topic, however, the existence of such a school has been widely called into question, in part because the remnants of all poets supposedly involved are too scantily attested for any definitive judgment.[4] The little poems will be found in E. Bahrens, Poëtae Latini minores (1879–1883); for an unlikely identification of Florus with the author of the Pervigilium Veneris see E. H. O. Müller, De P. Anino Floro poéta et de Pervigilio Veneris (1855), and, for the poet's relations with Hadrian, Franz Eyssenhardt, Hadrian und Florus (1882); see also Friedrich Marx in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopädie, i. pt. 2 (1894). Some his better-known poems include “Quality of Life”, “Roses in Springtime”, “Roses”, “The Rose”, “Venus’ Rose-Garden”, and “The Nine Muses”.[3][failed verification] Florus’ better-known poetry is also associated with his smaller poems that he would write to Hadrian out of admiration for the emperor.[5] Epitome of Roman History[edit] The two books of the Epitome of Roman History were written in admiration of the Roman people.[1] The books illuminate many historical events in a favorable tone for the Roman citizens.[6] The book is mainly based on Livy's enormous Ab Urbe Condita Libri. It consists of a brief sketch of the history of Rome from the foundation of the city to the closing of the Temple of Janus by Augustus in 25 BC. The work, which is called Epitome de T. Livio Bellorum omnium annorum DCC Libri duo, is written in a bombastic and rhetorical style – a panegyric of the greatness of Rome, the life of which is divided into the periods of infancy, youth and manhood. It is often wrong in geographical and chronological details. In spite of its faults, the book was much used as a handy epitome of Roman history, in the Middle Ages, and survived as a textbook into the 19th century. Florus is credited with being politically unbiased for almost all of his work.[citation needed] However, many will say[who?] that after reviewing his descriptions of the civil war, he seems to position himself closer to Julius Caesar than Pompeius.[3] Florus starts his books with the founding of Rome and ends them with the reign of Augustus.[6] The first book of the Epitome of Roman History is mainly about the establishment and growth of Rome.[6] The second is mainly about the decline of Rome and its changing morals.[6] Florus has taken some criticism on his writing due to inaccuracies found chronologically and geographically in his stories,[3] but even so, the Epitome of Roman History was vastly popular during the late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, as well as being used as a school book until the 19th century.[7] The use of his writings far beyond his time is a testament to his premier narrative skills.[citation needed] In the manuscripts, the writer is variously named as Julius Florus, Lucius Anneus Florus, or simply Annaeus Florus. From certain similarities of style, he has been identified as Publius Annius Florus, poet, rhetorician and friend of Hadrian, author of a dialogue on the question of whether Virgil was an orator or poet, of which the introduction has been preserved. The most accessible modern text and translation are in the Loeb Classical Library (no. 231, published 1984, ISBN 0-674-99254-7). Christopher Plantin, Antwerp, in 1567, published two Lucius Florus texts (two title pages) in one volume. The titles were roughly as follows: 1) L.IVLII Flori de Gestis Romanorum, Historiarum; 2) Commentarius I STADII L.IVLII Flori de Gestis Romanorum, Historiarum. The first title has 149 pages; the second has 222 pages plus an index in a 12mo-size book. Attribution of the works[edit] Tentative attribution Description Works Dates Other bio Identified with Florus "a Roman historian" Epitome of Roman History circa 74-130 born in Africa; lived in the time of Trajan and Hadrian "In the manuscripts, the writer is variously named as Julius Florus, Lucius Anneus Florus, or simply Annaeus Florus"; "he has been identified as Publius Annius Florus" Julius Florus "an ancient Roman poet, orator, and author" Epitome of Roman History ; poems including “Quality of Life”, “Roses in Springtime”, “Roses”, “The Rose”, “Venus’ Rose-Garden”, and “The Nine Muses” circa 74-130 born in Africa; accompanied Tiberius to Armenia; lost Domitian’s Capital Competition due to prejudice; travelled in the Greek Empire; founded a school in Tarraco, Spain; returned to Rome; a friend of Hadrian "variously identified with Julius Florus, a distinguished orator and uncle of Julius Secundus, an intimate friend of Quintilian (Instit. x. 3, 13); with the leader of an insurrection of the Treviri (Tacitus, Ann. iii. 40); with the Postumus of Horace (Odes, ii. 14) and even with the historian Florus." Publius Annius Florus "Roman poet and rhetorician" Virgilius orator an poeta; 26 trochaic tetrameters, De qualitate vitae, and five graceful hexameters, De rosis born in Africa; accompanied Tiberius to Armenia; lost Domitian’s Capital Competition due to prejudice; travelled; founded a school in Tarraco; returned to Rome; knew Hadrian "identified by some authorities with the historian Florus." "generally agreed that he is the Florus who wrote the well-known lines quoted together with Hadrian's answer by Aelius Spartianus" "for an unlikely identification of Florus with the author of the Pervigilium Veneris see E. H. O. Müller, " Tentative biography[edit] The Florus identified as Julius Florus was one of the young men who accompanied Tiberius on his mission to settle the affairs of Armenia. He has been variously identified with Julius Florus, a distinguished orator and uncle of Julius Secundus, an intimate friend of Quintilian (Instit. x. 3, 13); with the leader of an insurrection of the Treviri (Tacitus, Ann. iii. 40); with the Postumus of Horace (Odes, ii. 14) and even with the historian Florus. Under Domitian’s rule, he competed in the Capital Competition,[3] which was an event in which poets received rewards and recognition from the emperor himself.[3] Although he acquired great applause from the crowds, he was not victorious in the event. Florus himself blamed his loss on favoritism on behalf of the emperor.[7] Shortly after his defeat, Florus departed from Rome to travel abroad.[7] His travels are said to have taken him through the Greek-speaking sections of the Roman Empire, taking in Sicily, Crete, the Cyclades, Rhodes, and Egypt.[7] At the conclusion of his travels, he resided in Tarraco, Spain.[3] In Tarraco, Florus founded a school and taught literature.[7] During this time, he also began to write the Epitome of Roman History.[3] After many years in Spain, he eventually migrated back to Rome during the rule of Hadrian (117-138 AD).[3] Hadrian and Florus became very close friends, and Florus was rumored to be involved in government affairs during the second half of Hadrian's rule.[3] Wikisource has original text related to this article: Florus References[edit] ^ a b c "Epitome of Roman History". ^ Saecula Latina (1962), p. 215 ^ a b c d e f g h i j "LacusCurtius • Florus — Epitome". ^ "Cameron, A. "Poetae Novelli" in Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 84 (1980), pp. 127-175. ^ "Florus: Introduction". Lacus Curtius. 2014. Retrieved 2015-12-09. ^ a b c d Lucius Annaeus, Florus (1929). Epitome of Roman History. London: Heinemann. ^ a b c d e "P. Annius Florus".  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Florus, Publius Annius". Encyclopædia Britannica. 10 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 547.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Florus, Julius". Encyclopædia Britannica. 10 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 547. Bibliography[edit] Jona Lendering. "Publius Annius Florus". Livius.org. José Miguel Alonso-Nuñez (2006). "Floro y los historiadores contemporáneos". Acta Classica Universitatis Scientiarum Debreceniensis. 42: 117–126. W. den Boer (1972). Some Minor Roman Historians. Leiden: Brill. Florus (2005) [c. 120]. Römische Geschichte : lateinisch und deutsch. Eingel., übers. und kommentiert von Günter Laser. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Florus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 10 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 547. External links[edit] Latin and English texts of Florus, Epitome of Roman History, the 1929 Loeb Classical Library translation by E.S. Forster, Bill Thayer's edition at LacusCurtius Authority control BIBSYS: 90589731 BNE: XX835019 BNF: cb11886317b (data) CANTIC: a10779000 CiNii: DA03049174 GND: 100136907 ISNI: 0000 0000 8972 2253 LCCN: n84212566 LNB: 000279979 NKC: jn19990002328 NLA: 35944530 NLG: 217048 NSK: 000084415 NTA: 068190662 RERO: 02-A000063220 SELIBR: 187070 SUDOC: 026656159 Trove: 1157373 VcBA: 495/5059 VIAF: 89604346 WorldCat Identities: viaf-266805890 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Works_attributed_to_Florus&oldid=996640039" Categories: Romans from Africa Roman-era poets Annii 2nd-century poets 2nd-century Romans Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata All articles with failed verification Articles with failed verification from December 2015 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2015 All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from December 2015 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikisource Languages Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara Français Galego Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Magyar Nederlands Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 27 December 2020, at 20:41 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2764	----	Contemporary Latin - Wikipedia Contemporary Latin From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Form of the Latin language used since the 19th century This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize its key points. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (September 2020) Contemporary Latin Latinitas viva A contemporary Latin inscription at Salamanca University commemorating the visit of Prince Akihito and Princess Michiko of Japan in 1985 (MCMLXXXV). Region Europe Era Developed from Neo Latin between 19th and 20th centuries Language family Indo-European Italic Latino-Faliscan Latin Contemporary Latin Early form Neo Latin Writing system Latin alphabet  Language codes ISO 639-1 la ISO 639-2 lat ISO 639-3 lat Glottolog None This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. Contemporary Latin is the form of the Latin language used since the end of the 19th century. Various kinds of contemporary Latin can be distinguished, including the use of single words in taxonomy, and the fuller ecclesiastical use in the Catholic Church – but Living or Spoken Latin (the use of Latin as a language in its own right as a full-fledged means of expression) is the primary subject of this article. Contents 1 Token Latin 1.1 Mottos 1.2 Fixed phrases 1.3 In science 1.4 Vernacular vocabulary 2 Ecclesiastical Latin 3 Academic Latin 4 Living Latin 4.1 Origins 4.2 Pronunciation 4.3 Aims 4.3.1 For Latin instruction 4.3.2 For contemporary communication 4.4 Supporting institutions and publications 4.5 On the Internet 4.6 In public spaces 5 Original production 5.1 Poetry 5.2 Prose 5.3 Music 5.4 Cinema 5.5 Television 5.6 T-shirts 6 Translations 7 Dictionaries, glossaries, and phrase books for contemporary Latin 8 See also 9 Notes and references 10 Further reading 10.1 English 10.2 Spanish 10.3 French 10.4 German Token Latin[edit] As a relic of the great importance of New Latin as the formerly dominant international lingua franca down to the 19th century in a great number of fields, Latin is still present in words or phrases used in many languages around the world, and some minor communities use Latin in their speech. Mottos[edit] The official use of Latin in previous eras has survived at a symbolic level in many mottos that are still being used and even coined in Latin to this day. Old mottos like E pluribus unum, found in 1776 on the Seal of the United States, along with Annuit cœptis and Novus ordo seclorum, and adopted by an Act of Congress in 1782, are still in use. Similarly, current pound sterling coins are minted with the Latin inscription ELIZABETH·II·D·G·REG·F·D (Dei Gratia Regina, Fidei Defensatrix, i.e. Queen by the Grace of God, Defender of the Faith). The official motto of the multilingual European Union, adopted as recently as 2000, is the Latin In varietate concordia. Similarly, the motto on the Canadian Victoria Cross is in Latin, perhaps due to Canada's bilingual status. Fixed phrases[edit] Some common phrases that are still in use in many languages have remained fixed in Latin, like the well-known dramatis personae or habeas corpus. In science[edit] Further information: International scientific vocabulary and English words of Greek origin In fields as varied as mathematics, physics, astronomy, medicine, pharmacy, biology, and philosophy[1] Latin still provides internationally accepted names of concepts, forces, objects, and organisms in the natural world. The most prominent retention of Latin occurs in the classification of living organisms and the binomial nomenclature devised by Carl Linnaeus, although the rules of nomenclature used today allow the construction of names which may deviate considerably from historical norms. Another continuation is the use of Latin names for the constellations and celestial objects (used in the Bayer designations of stars), as well as planets and satellites, whose surface features have been given Latin selenographic toponyms since the 17th century. Symbols for many of those chemical elements of the periodic table known in ancient times reflect and echo their Latin names, like Au for aurum (gold) and Fe for ferrum (iron). Vernacular vocabulary[edit] Latin has also contributed a vocabulary for specialised fields such as anatomy and law which has become part of the normal, non-technical vocabulary of various European languages. Latin continues to be used to form international scientific vocabulary and classical compounds. Separately, more than 56% of the vocabulary used in English today derives ultimately from Latin, either directly (28.24%) or through French (28.30%).[2] Ecclesiastical Latin[edit] Main article: Ecclesiastical Latin The Catholic Church has continued to use Latin. Two main areas can be distinguished. One is its use for the official version of all documents issued by the Holy See, which has remained intact to the present. Although documents are first drafted in various vernaculars (mostly Italian), the official version is written in Latin by the Latin Letters Office. The other is its use for the liturgy, which has diminished after the Second Vatican Council of 1962–65, but to some degree resurged half a century later when Pope Benedict XVI[3] encouraged the Latin Mass. After the Church of England published the Book of Common Prayer in English in 1559, a 1560 Latin edition was published for use at universities such as Oxford and the leading public schools, where the liturgy was still permitted to be conducted in Latin,[4] and there have been several Latin translations since. Most recently a Latin edition of the 1979 USA Anglican Book of Common Prayer has appeared.[5] Academic Latin[edit] Latin has also survived to some extent in the context of classical scholarship. Some classical periodicals, like Mnemosyne and the German Hermes, to this day accept articles in Latin for publication.[6] Latin is used in most of the introductions to the critical editions of ancient authors in the Oxford Classical Texts series, and it is also nearly always used for the apparatus criticus of Ancient Greek and Latin texts. The University Orator at the University of Cambridge makes a speech in Latin marking the achievements of each of the honorands at the annual Honorary Degree Congregations, as does the Public Orator at the Encaenia ceremony at the University of Oxford. Harvard and Princeton also have Latin Salutatory commencement addresses every year.[7] The Charles University in Prague[8] and many other universities around the world conduct the awarding of their doctoral degrees in Latin. Other universities and other schools issue diplomas written in Latin. Brown, Sewanee, and Bard College also hold a portion of their graduation ceremonies in Latin. The song Gaudeamus igitur is sung at university opening or graduation ceremonies throughout Europe.[citation needed] Living Latin[edit] Living Latin (Latinitas viva in Latin itself), also known as Spoken Latin, is an effort to revive Latin as a spoken language and as the vehicle for contemporary communication and publication. Involvement in this Latin revival can be a mere hobby or extend to more serious projects for restoring its former role as an international auxiliary language. Origins[edit] After the decline of Latin at the end of the New Latin era started to be perceived, there were attempts to counteract the decline and to revitalize the use of Latin for international communication. In 1815, Miguel Olmo wrote a booklet proposing Latin as the common language for Europe, with the title Otia Villaudricensia ad octo magnos principes qui Vindobonæ anno MDCCCXV pacem orbis sanxerunt, de lingua Latina et civitate Latina fundanda liber singularis ("Leisure[citation needed] of Villaudric to the eight great princes who ordained world peace at Vienna in 1815, an extraordinary book about the Latin language and a Latin state to be founded").[9] In the late 19th century, Latin periodicals advocating the revived use of Latin as an international language started to appear. Between 1889 and 1895, Karl Heinrich Ulrichs published in Italy his Alaudæ.[10] This publication was followed by the Vox Urbis: de litteris et bonis artibus commentarius,[11] published by the architect and engineer Aristide Leonori from 1898, twice a month, until 1913, one year before the outbreak of World War I. The early 20th century, marked by warfare and by drastic social and technological changes, saw few advances in the use of Latin outside academia. Following the beginnings of the re-integration of postwar Europe, however, Latin revivalism gained some strength. One of its main promoters was the former dean of the University of Nancy (France), Prof. Jean Capelle, who in 1952 published a cornerstone article called "Latin or Babel"[12] in which he proposed Latin as an international spoken language. Capelle was called "the soul of the movement" when in 1956 the first International Conference for Living Latin (Congrès international pour le Latin vivant) took place in Avignon,[13] marking the beginning of a new era of the active use of Latin. About 200 participants from 22 different countries took part in that foundational conference. Pronunciation[edit] The essentials of the classical pronunciation had been defined since the early 19th century (e.g. in K.L. Schneider's Elementarlehre der Lateinischen Sprache, 1819), but in many countries there was strong resistance to adopting it in instruction. In English-speaking countries, where the traditional academic pronunciation diverged most markedly from the restored classical model, the struggle between the two pronunciations lasted for the entire 19th century. The transition between Latin pronunciations was long drawn out;[14] in 1907 the "new pronunciation" was officially recommended by the Board of Education for adoption in schools in England.[15][16] Although the older pronunciation, as found in the nomenclature and terminology of various professions, continued to be used for several decades, and in some spheres prevails to the present day, contemporary Latin as used by the living Latin community has generally adopted the classical pronunciation of Latin as restored by specialists in Latin historical phonology.[17] A similar shift occurred in German-speaking areas: the traditional pronunciation is discussed in Deutsche Aussprache des Lateinischen [de] (in German), while the reconstructed classical pronunciation, which took hold around 1900, is discussed at Schulaussprache des Lateinischen [de]. Aims[edit] Many users of contemporary Latin promote its use as a spoken language, a movement that dubs itself "Living Latin". Two main aims can be distinguished in this movement: For Latin instruction[edit] Main article: Instruction in Latin Among the proponents of spoken Latin, some promote the active use of the language to make learning Latin both more enjoyable and more efficient, drawing upon the methodologies of instructors of modern languages. In the United Kingdom, the Association for the Reform of Latin Teaching (ARLT, still existing as the Association for Latin Teaching), was founded in 1913 by the classical scholar W. H. D. Rouse. It arose from summer schools which Rouse organised to train Latin teachers in the direct method of language teaching, which entailed using the language in everyday situations rather than merely learning grammar and syntax by rote. The Classical Association also encourages this approach. The Cambridge University Press has now published a series of school textbooks based on the adventures of a mouse called Minimus, designed to help children of primary school age to learn the language, as well as its well-known Cambridge Latin Course (CLC) to teach the language to secondary school students, all of which include extensive use of dialogue and an approach to language teaching mirroring that now used for most modern languages, which have brought many of the principles espoused by Rouse and the ARLT into the mainstream of Latin teaching. Outside Great Britain, one of the most accomplished handbooks that fully adopts the direct method for Latin is the well-known Lingua Latina per se illustrata by the Dane Hans Henning Ørberg, first published in 1955 and improved in 1990. It is composed fully in Latin, and requires no other language of instruction, and it can be used to teach pupils whatever their mother tongue. For contemporary communication[edit] Others support the revival of Latin as a language of international communication, in the academic, and perhaps even the scientific and diplomatic, spheres (as it was in Europe and European colonies through the Middle Ages until the mid-18th century), or as an international auxiliary language to be used by anyone. However, as a language native to no people, this movement has not received support from any government, national or supranational. Supporting institutions and publications[edit] A substantial group of institutions (particularly in Europe, but also in North and South America) has emerged to support the use of Latin as a spoken language.[18] The foundational first International Conference for living Latin (Congrès international pour le Latin vivant) that took place in Avignon was followed by at least five others.[19] As a result of those first conferences, the Academia Latinitati Fovendae was then created in Rome. Among its most prominent members are well-known classicists from all over the world,[20] like Prof. Michael von Albrecht or Prof. Kurt Smolak [de]. The ALF held its first international conference in Rome in 1966 bringing together about 500 participants. From then on conferences have taken place every four or five years, in Bucharest, Malta, Dakar, Erfurt, Berlin, Madrid, and many other places. The official language of the ALF is Latin and all acts and proceedings take place in Latin. Also in the year 1966 Clément Desessard published a method with tapes within the series sans peine of the French company Assimil. Desessard's work aimed at teaching contemporary Latin for use in an everyday context, although the audio was often criticized for being recorded with a thick French accent. Assimil took this out of print at the end of 2007 and published another Latin method which focused on the classical idiom only. However, in 2015 Assimil re-published Desessard's edition with new audio CDs in restored classical Latin pronunciation. Desessard's method is still used for living Latin instruction at the Schola Latina Universalis. In 1986 the Belgian radiologist Gaius Licoppe, who had discovered the contemporary use of Latin and learnt how to speak it thanks to Desessard's method, founded in Brussels the Fundatio Melissa for the promotion of Latin teaching and use for communication.[21] In Germany, Marius Alexa and Inga Pessarra-Grimm founded in September 1987 the Latinitati Vivæ Provehendæ Associatio (LVPA, or Association for the Promotion of Living Latin).[22] The first Septimana Latina Amoeneburgensis (Amöneburg Latin Week) was organized in 1989 at Amöneburg, near Marburg in Germany, by Mechtild Hofmann and Robert Maier. Since then the Latin Weeks were offered every year. In addition, members of the supporting association Septimanae Latinae Europaeae (European Latin Weeks) published a text book named Piper Salve that contains dialogues in modern everyday Latin.[23] At the Accademia Vivarium Novum located in Rome, Italy, all classes are taught by faculty fluent in Latin or Ancient Greek, and resident students speak in Latin or Greek at all times outside class. Most students are supported by scholarships from the Mnemosyne foundation and spend one or two years in residence to acquire fluency in Latin.[24] The living Latin movement eventually crossed the Atlantic, where it continues to grow. In the summer of 1996, at the University of Kentucky, Prof. Terence Tunberg established the first Conventiculum, an immersion conference in which participants from all over the world meet annually to exercise the active use of Latin to discuss books and literature, and topics related to everyday life.[25] The success of the Conventiculum Lexintoniense has inspired similar conferences throughout the United States. In October 1996 the Septentrionale Americanum Latinitatis Vivæ Institutum (SALVI, or North American Institute for Living Latin Studies) was founded in Los Angeles, by a group of professors and students of Latin literature concerned about the long-term future of classical studies in the US.[26] In the University of Kentucky, Prof. Terence Tunberg founded the Institutum Studiis Latinis Provehendis (known in English as the Institute of Latin Studies), which awards Graduate Certificates in Latin Studies addressed at those with a special interest gaining "a thorough command of the Latin language in reading, writing and speaking, along with a wide exposure to the cultural riches of the Latin tradition in its totality".[27] This is the only degree-conferring program in the world with courses taught entirely in Latin. There is also a proliferation of Latin-speaking institutions, groups and conferences in the Iberian Peninsula and in Latin America. Some prominent examples of this tendency towards the active use of Latin within Spanish and Portuguese-speaking countries are the annual conferences called Jornadas de Culturaclasica.com, held in different cities of southern Spain, as well as the CAELVM (Cursus Aestivus Latinitatis Vivae Matritensis), a Latin summer program in Madrid. In 2012, the Studium Angelopolitanum was founded in Puebla, Mexico, by Prof. Alexis Hellmer, in order to promote the study of Latin in that country, where only one university grants a degree in Classics. Most of these groups and institutions organise seminars and conferences where Latin is used as a spoken language, both throughout the year and over the summer, in Europe and in America.[28] Less academic summer encounters wholly carried out in Latin are the ones known as Septimanæ Latinæ Europææ (European Latin Weeks), celebrated in Germany and attracting people of various ages from all over Europe.[23] At the present time, several periodicals and social networking web sites are published in Latin. In France, immediately after the conference at Avignon, the publisher Théodore Aubanel launched the magazine Vita Latina, which still exists, associated to the CERCAM (Centre d'Étude et de Recherche sur les Civilisations Antiques de la Méditerranée) of the Paul Valéry University, Montpellier III. Until very recently, it was published in Latin in its entirety.[29] In Germany, the magazine Vox Latina was founded in 1965 by Caelestis Eichenseer (1924–2008) and is to this day published wholly in Latin four times a year in the University of Saarbrücken.[30] In Belgium, the magazine Melissa created in 1984 by Gaius Licoppe is still published six times a year completely in Latin.[31] Hebdomada aenigmatum[32] is a free online magazine of crosswords, quizzes, and other games in Latin language. It is published by the Italian cultural Association Leonardo in collaboration with the online Latin news magazine Ephemeris[33] and with ELI publishing house. From 1989 until 2019, Finnish radio station YLE Radio 1 broadcast a weekly review of world news called Nuntii Latini completely in Latin.[34] The German Radio Bremen also had regular broadcasts in Latin until December 2017.[35] Other attempts have been less successful.[36] Beginning from July 2015 Radio F.R.E.I. from Erfurt (Germany) broadcasts in Latin once a week on Wednesdays for 15 minutes; the broadcast is called Erfordia Latina.[37] In 2015 the Italian startup pptArt launched its catalogue (Catalogus)[38] and its registration form for artists (Specimen ad nomina signanda)[39] in Latin and English. In 2016 ACEM (Enel executives' cultural association) organized with Luca Desiata and Daniel Gallagher the first Business Latin course for managers (Congressus studiorum – Lingua Latina mercatoria).[40][41] The government of Finland, during its presidencies of the European Union, issued official newsletters in Latin on top of the official languages of the Union.[42] On the Internet[edit] The emergence of the Internet on a global scale in the 1990s provided a great tool for the flourishing of communication in Latin, and in February 1996[43] a Polish Latinist from Warsaw (Poland), Konrad M. Kokoszkiewicz, founded what is still today the most populated and successful Latin-only email list on the Internet, the Grex Latine Loquentium [la]. Subsequently, the Nuntii Latini of YLE Radio 1 would also create a discussion list called YLE Colloquia Latina.[44] The Circulus Latinus Panormitanus of Palermo (Italy) went a step further creating the first online chat in Latin called the Locutorium.[45] In February 2003 Konrad M. Kokoszkiewicz published an on-line glossary with his proposals for some computer terms in Latin under the title of Vocabula computatralia.[46] The Internet also allows for the preservation of other contemporary Latin dictionaries that have fallen out of print or have never been printed, like the Latinitas Recens (Speculum)[47] or the Adumbratio Lexici Angli et Latini.[48] In June 2004[49] an on-line newspaper Ephemeris was founded once again from Warsaw by Stanisław Tekieli, and is to this day published wholly in Latin about current affairs.[50] In January 2008 a Schola, (membership 1800) a Latin-only social network service, including a real-time video and/or text chatroom, was founded from London (UK).[51] A number of Latin web portals, websites, and blogs in Latin have developed, like Lingua Latina Æterna from Russia[52] or Verba et facta from somewhere in the US.[53] The Internet also provides tools like Latin spell checkers[54] for contemporary Latin writers, or scansion tools[55] for contemporary Latin poets. Some websites, such as Google and Facebook, provide Latin as a language option. The HiRISE (High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment) camera onboard the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (NASA) has Latin language version of their main site, https://uahirise.org/la, as well as a Latin Twitter account, https://twitter.com/HiRISELatin. https://ai.neocities.org/Abracadabra.html is Mens Latina, an artificial intelligence in Latin. There was a MUD text game in Latin called Labyrinthus Latinus aimed at uniting people interested in the language.[citation needed] In addition, the video games Minecraft, OpenTTD, and The Battle for Wesnoth provide Latin as a language option. There is even a Latin Wikipedia, although discussions are held not only in Latin but in German, English, and other languages as well. Nearly 200 active editors work on the project. There are nearly 100,000 articles on topics ranging from ancient Rome [la] to mathematics [la], Tolkien's fiction [la], and geography [la]. Those in particularly good Latin, currently about 10% of the whole, are marked.[56] In public spaces[edit] The ATM with Latin instructions The signs at Wallsend Metro station are in English and Latin as a tribute to Wallsend's role as one of the outposts of the Roman empire. Although less so than in previous eras, contemporary Latin has also been used for public notices in public spaces: The Wallsend Metro station of the Tyne and Wear Metro has signs in Latin. The Vatican City has an automated teller machine with instructions in Latin.[57] Original production[edit] Some contemporary works have been produced originally in Latin, most overwhelmingly poetry,[58] but also prose, as well as music or cinema. They include: Poetry[edit] 1924. Carminum libri quattuor by Tomás Viñas.[59] 1946. Carmina Latina by A. Pinto de Carvalho.[60] 1954. Vox Humana by Johannes Alexander Gaertner.[61] 1962. Pegasus Tolutarius by Henry C. Snurr aka C. Arrius Nurus [la]. 1966. Suaviloquia by Jan Novák. 1966. Cantus Firmus by Johannes Alexander Gaertner.[61] 1972. Carmina by Traian Lăzărescu.[62] 1991. Periegesis Amatoria by Geneviève Immè [la]. 1992. Harmonica vitrea by Anna Elissa Radke [la]. Prose[edit] 1948. Graecarum Litterarum Historia by Antonio d'Elia.[63] 1952. Latinarum Litterarum Historia by Antonio d'Elia.[64] 1961. De sacerdotibus sacerdotiisque Alexandri Magni et Lagidarum eponymis by Jozef IJsewijn.[65] 1965. Sententiæ by Alain van Dievoet (pen name: Alaenus Divutius) [la]. 1966. Mystagogus Lycius, sive de historia linguaque Lyciorum by Wolfgang Jenniges.[66] 2011. Capti: Fabula Menippeo-Hoffmanniana Americana by Stephen A. Berard (pen name: Stephanus Berard) [la].[67][68] 2019. Hebdomada Aenigmatum by Luca Desiata[69][70][71][72][73] Music[edit] 1927. Oedipus Rex by Igor Stravinsky (an opera-oratorio with libretto, based on Sophocles's tragedy, prepared in French by Jean Cocteau and given its final Latin form by Abbé Jean Daniélou). 1994. Ista?!?! by Latin hip hop band Ista. 1995. The works of Elvis Presley have been translated into Latin by Finnish academic Jukka Ammondt.[74][75] 2008. Super Smash Bros. Brawl Main Theme. 2011. Audio, Video, Disco by French electronic group Justice. Cinema[edit] 1976. Sebastiane by Derek Jarman and Paul Humfress.[76] 2004. The Passion of the Christ by Mel Gibson.[77] 2009. Pacifica by Samohi Latin Media (SLAM). 2010. Barnabus & Bella by SLAM. 2013. Imperator, Emperor by Konrad Łęcki. Television[edit] 2008. O Tempora! by the Kulturzeit team (37:44min special broadcast, 22 August 2008) of the German public channel 3sat.[clarification needed][78][79] T-shirts[edit] A T-shirt with the rhyming motto Multi Frigent, Pauci Rigent, "Many are Cold but Few are Frozen" for the fictional University of Antarctica, with a penguin seal, by artist Janice Bender. The motto's translation puns the Christian motto, "Many are Called but Few are Chosen." Translations[edit] See also: List of Latin translations of modern literature Various texts—usually children's books—have been translated into Latin since the beginning of the living Latin movement in the early fifties for various purposes, including use as a teaching tool or simply to demonstrate the capability of Latin as a means of expression in a popular context. They include: 1884. Rebilius Cruso[80] (Robinson Crusoe) tr. Francis William Newman. 1922. Insula Thesavraria (Treasure Island) tr. Arcadius Avellanus. 1928. Vita discriminaque Robinsonis Crusoei (Robinson Crusoe) tr. Arcadius Avellanus. 1960. Winnie Ille Pu (Winnie-the-Pooh) tr. Alexander Lenard. 1962. Ferdinandus Taurus (Ferdinand the Bull) tr. Elizabeth Chamberlayne Hadas. 1962. Fabula De Petro Cuniculo (The Tale of Peter Rabbit) tr. E. Perot Walker. 1964. Alicia in Terra Mirabili (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland) tr. Clive Harcourt Carruthers. 1965. Fabula de Jemima Anate-Aquatica (The Tale of Jemima Puddle-Duck) tr. Jonathan Musgrave. 1966. Aliciae per Speculum Transitus (Quaeque ibi Invenit) (Through the Looking-Glass, and What Alice Found There) tr. Clive Harcourt Carruthers. 1973–present. Asterix[81] (Asterix) 1978. Fabula de Domino Ieremia Piscatore (The Tale of Mr. Jeremy Fisher) tr. E. Perot Walker. 1983. Alix – Spartaci Filius (The Adventures of Alix) 1985. Regulus, vel Pueri Soli Sapiunt (The Little Prince) tr. Augusto Haury 1987. De Titini et Miluli Facinoribus: De Insula Nigra (Tintin comic The Black Island) 1987. The Classical Wizard / Magus Mirabilis in Oz (The Wonderful Wizard of Oz) tr. C.J. Hinke and George Van Buren. 1990. De Titini et Miluli Facinoribus: De Sigaris Pharaonis (Tintin comic Cigars of the Pharaoh) 1991. Tela Charlottae (Charlotte's Web) tr. Bernice Fox. 1994. Sub rota (Beneath the Wheel) tr. Sigrides C. Albert 1998. Quomodo Invidiosulus Nomine Grinchus Christi Natalem Abrogaverit (How the Grinch Stole Christmas!) tr. Jennifer Morrish Tunberg, Terence O. Tunberg. 1998. Winnie Ille Pu Semper Ludet (The House at Pooh Corner) tr. Brian Staples. 2000. Cattus Petasatus (The Cat in the Hat) tr. Jennifer Morish Tunberg, Terence O. Tunberg. 2002. Arbor Alma (The Giving Tree) tr. Terence O. Tunberg, Jennifer Morrish Tunberg. 2003. Virent Ova, Viret Perna (Green Eggs and Ham) tr. Terence O. Tunberg, Jennifer Morrish Tunberg. 2003. Harrius Potter et Philosophi Lapis (Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone) tr. Peter Needham. 2005. Tres Mures Caeci ("Three Blind Mice") tr. David C. Noe. 2006. Harrius Potter et Camera Secretorum (Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets) tr. Peter Needham. 2007. Olivia: the essential Latin edition tr. Amy High. 2009. Over 265 illustrated children's books in Latin have been published on the Tar Heel Reader website. 2009. Murena, Murex et aurum (Murena, La pourpre et l'or) tr. Claude Aziza and Cathy Rousset. 2009. Mundo Novo[82] – adaptation of "A Whole New World" from Disney's Aladdin 2012. Hobbitus Ille (The Hobbit) tr. Mark Walker. Dictionaries, glossaries, and phrase books for contemporary Latin[edit] 1990. Latin for All Occasions, a book by Henry Beard, attempts to find Latin equivalents for contemporary catchphrases. 1992–97. Neues Latein Lexicon / Lexicon recentis Latinitatis by Karl Egger, containing more than 15,000 words for contemporary everyday life. 1998. Imaginum vocabularium Latinum by Sigrid Albert. 1999. Piper Salve by Robert Maier, Mechtild Hofmann, Klaus Sallmann, Sabine Mahr, Sascha Trageser, Dominika Rauscher, Thomas Gölzhäuser. 2010. Visuelles Wörterbuch Latein-Deutsch by Dorling Kindersley, translated by Robert Maier. 2012. Septimana Latina vol. 1+2 edited by Mechtild Hofmann and Robert Maier (based on Piper Salve). See also[edit] Latin edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Library resources about Contemporary Latin Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Reginald Foster (Latinist) Botanical Latin Latin translations of modern literature Latino sine Flexione Interlingua List of songs with Latin lyrics Notes and references[edit] ^ Yancey, P.H. (March 1944). "Introduction to Biological Latin and Greek". BIOS. 15 (1): 3–14. JSTOR 4604798. ^ According to the computerised survey of about 80,000 words in the old Shorter Oxford Dictionary (3rd ed.) published in Ordered Profusion by Thomas Finkenstaedt and Dieter Wolff, Latin influence in English. ^ "Latin Mass resurgent 50 years after Vatican II". USA TODAY. Retrieved 5 April 2019. ^ "Liber Precum Publicarum – The Book of Common Prayer in Latin (1560)". Justus.anglican.org. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ "Liber Precum Publicarum: the 1979 US Book of Common Prayer in Latin". Justus.anglican.org. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ Konrad M. Kokoszkiewicz, "A. Gellius, Noctes Atticæ, 16.2.6: tamquam si te dicas adulterum negent", Mnemosyne 58 (2005) 132–135; "Et futura panda siue de Catulli carmine sexto corrigendo", Hermes 132 (2004) 125–128. ^ "Harvard's Latin Salutatory Address 2007". YouTube. 12 June 2007. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 30 July 2012. Retrieved 19 November 2009.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ IJsewijn, Jozef, Companion to Neo-Latin Studies. Part I. History and Diffusion of Neo-Latin Literature, Leuven University Press, 1990, p. 112s. ^ Cf. Wilfried Stroh (ed.), Alaudæ. Eine lateinische Zeitschrift 1889–1895 herausgegeben von Karl Heinrich Ulrichs. Nachdruck mit einer Einleitung von Wilfried Stroh, Hamburg, MännerschwarmSkript Verlag, 2004. ^ Cf. Volfgangus Jenniges, "Vox Urbis (1898–1913) quid sibi proposuerit", Melissa, 139 (2007) 8–11. ^ Published on 23 October 1952 in the French Bulletin de l'Éducation Nationale, an English version of the same was published in The Classical Journal and signed by himself and Thomas H. Quigley (The Classical Journal, Vol. 49, No. 1, October 1953, pp. 37–40) ^ Goodwin B. Beach, "The Congress for Living Latin: Another View", The Classical Journal, Vol. 53, No. 3, December 1957, pp. 119–122: ^ F. Brittain (1934). Latin in Church (first ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 60. ISBN 9781107675230. ^ "Recommendations of the Classical Association on the Teaching of Latin". Forgottenbooks.com. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 1 October 2015. ^ The School World: A Monthly Magazine of Educational Work and Progress. 9. Macmillan & Co. 1907. ^ E.g. Prof. Edgar H. Sturtevant (The Pronunciation of Greek and Latin, Chicago Ares Publishers Inc. 1940) and Prof. W. Sidney Allen (Vox Latina, A Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin, Cambridge University Press 1965), who followed in the tradition of previous pronunciation reformers; cf. Erasmus's De recta Latini Græcique sermonis pronuntiatione dialogus and even Alcuin's De orthographia. ^ "Vincula – Circulus Latínus Londiniénsis". Circuluslatinuslondiniensis.co.uk. 28 February 2016. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ The fifth conference took place in Pau, France, from the 1st to 5 April 1975. ^ "Academia Latinitati Fovendae - SODALES". 11 October 2006. Archived from the original on 11 October 2006. Retrieved 9 October 2018. ^ "MELISSA sodalitas perenni Latinitati dicata". Fundatiomelissa.org. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ "Pagina domestica". Latinitati Vivae Provehendae Associatio e.V. (L.V.P.A. e.V). Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ a b Robert Maier. "Septimanae Latinae Europaeae". Septimanalatina.org. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ "Home page". Accademia Vivarium Novum. Archived from the original on 16 November 2011. Retrieved 16 November 2011. ^ "Conventiculum Latinum | Modern & Classical Languages, Literatures & Cultures". Mcl.as.uky.edu. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ "About Us | SALVI: Septentrionale Americanum Latinitatis Vivae Institutum". Latin.org. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ "Graduate Certificate in Latin Studies – Institute for Latin Studies | Modern & Classical Languages, Literatures & Cultures". Mcl.as.uky.edu. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ "Annus Latinus". Latinitati Vivae Provehendae Associatio e.V. (L.V.P.A. e.V.). Archived from the original on 1 January 2009. Retrieved 21 January 2010. ^ "UPVM | Accueil". Recherche.univ-montp3.fr (in French). Archived from the original on 18 July 2011. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ "Vox latina". Voxlatina.uni-saarland.de. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 1 June 2010. Retrieved 29 January 2010.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ "HEBDOMADA AENIGMATUM: The first magazine of Latin crosswords". Mylatinlover.it. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ "EPHEMERIS. Nuntii Latini universi". Alcuinus.net. 27 April 2009. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ "Nuntii Latini | Radio | Areena". Yle.fi. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ "Radio Cicero funkt nicht mehr - Finito". Radiobremen.de. Retrieved 9 October 2018. ^ "Radio Zammù, Università di Catania". Radiozammu.it. 21 July 2007. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ "Radio F.R.E.I. Programm". Radiofrei.de. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ [1] Archived 7 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine ^ [2] Archived 7 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine ^ Murzio, Antonio (22 June 2016), "L'ingegnere che si diverte con le parole latine", La Stampa ^ "EPHEMERIS. Nuntii Latini universi". Ephemeris.alcuinus.net. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ "Newsletters". eu2006.fi – Finland's EU Presidency. Archived from the original on 1 August 2012. Retrieved 21 January 2010. ^ "Victorius Ciarrocchi: De Grege Latine loquentium deque linguae Latinae praestantia". Alcuinus.net. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 24 March 2010. Retrieved 29 January 2010.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 27 January 2010. Retrieved 29 January 2010.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ "Vocabula computatralia". Obta.uw.edu.pl. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ "Latinitas Recens (Speculum)". Latinlexicon.org. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 5 April 2013. Retrieved 12 March 2013.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ "Ephemeris". Ephemeris.alcuinus.net. 26 June 2004. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ "EPHEMERIS. Nuntii Latini universi". Ephemeris.alcuinus.net. 27 April 2009. Archived from the original on 30 August 2019. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ [3] Archived 30 June 2012 at the Wayback Machine ^ "Lingua Latina Aeterna :: Latin – a living language | Lingua Latina Aeterna". Linguaeterna.com. 19 April 2013. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ "Verba et Facta". Nemo-nusquam.blogspot.com. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ "COL – Latin Spellchecker (Microsoft Windows)". Latin.drouizig.org. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ "latin poetry / text-to-speech". Poetaexmachina.net. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ As of August 2013, there are 94,777 pages, of which about a third are marked as stubs. Among the pages whose Latin has been assessed, 9,658 are marked as having good Latin and just over 500 are marked as poor Latin.[better source needed] ^ "Photographic image of ATM" (JPG). Farm3.static.flickr.com. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ "Contemporary Latin Poetry". Suberic.net. ^ IJsewijn, Jozef, Companion to Neo-Latin Studies. Part I. History and Diffusion of Neo-Latin Literature, Leuven University Press, 1990, p. 113. ^ IJsewijn, Jozef, Companion to Neo-Latin Studies. Part I. History and Diffusion of Neo-Latin Literature, Leuven University Press, 1990, p. 123. ^ a b IJsewijn, Jozef, Companion to Neo-Latin Studies. Part I. History and Diffusion of Neo-Latin Literature, Leuven University Press, 1990, p. 293. ^ IJsewijn, Jozef, Companion to Neo-Latin Studies. Part I. History and Diffusion of Neo-Latin Literature, Leuven University Press, 1990, p. 226. ^ "Graecarum Litterarum Historia. By Antonius D'elia S. J.Rome: Angelo signorelli, 1948. Pp.328, with eleven plates and index of writers mentioned. Price: Lire 600. | Greece & Rome | Cambridge Core". Greece and Rome. 18 (54): 141. 1 January 2009. doi:10.1017/S0017383500010688. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ Antonii D'Elia (March 1956). "Review: Latinarum litterarum historia". The Classical Journal. The Classical Association of the Middle West and South, Inc. (CAMWS). 51 (6): 289–290. JSTOR 3292896. ^ IJsewijn, Jozef, Companion to Neo-Latin Studies. Part I. History and Diffusion of Neo-Latin Literature, Leuven University Press, 1990, p. 156. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 29 December 2010. Retrieved 28 December 2009.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ "CAPTI and the Sphinx Heptology by Stephen Berard". Boreoccidentales.com. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ Albert Baca (5 March 2012). Capti: Fabula Menippeo-Hoffmanniana Americana (Latin Edition): Stephani Berard: 9781456759735: Amazon.com: Books. ISBN 978-1456759735. ^ Squires, Nick (12 November 2014), "Can you crack the world's first Latin crossword", The Telegraph, London ^ Kington, Tom (13 November 2014), "Crossword in Latin is clue the language is alive", The Times, London ^ "Cruciverbum", The Times, London, 13 November 2014 ^ "Hebdomada Aenigmatum: First Latin puzzle book launched", BBC, London, 14 November 2014 ^ Murzio, Antonio (22 June 2016), "L'ingegnere che si diverte con le parole latine", La Stampa ^ "Finnish broadcaster ends Latin news bulletins". RTÉ News. 24 June 2019. Retrieved 25 June 2019. Finland has distinguished itself as a bastion of the language of the Romans in other ways and is the home to academic Jukka Ammondt, who translated Elvis Presley's repertoire into Latin. ^ "Finland makes Latin the King". BBC News. 24 October 2006. ^ Sebastiane on IMDb ^ The Passion of the Christ on IMDb ^ ""Kulturzeit extra: O Tempora!" – 3sat.Mediathek". 3sat.de. 19 December 2011. Archived from the original on 9 March 2012. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ "Kulturzeit O Tempora Making Of". YouTube. 2 March 2009. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ Rebilius Cruso: Robinson Crusoe, in Latin: a book to lighten tedium to a learner: Defoe, Daniel, 1661?–1731: Free Download & Streaming: Internet Archive. Archive.org. London : Trübner. 1884. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ "Asterix around the World – the many Languages of Asterix". Asterix-obelix.nl. 13 April 2017. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ TranslatorCarminum (28 July 2009). "Disney's Aladdin – A Whole New World (Latin fandub)" – via YouTube. Further reading[edit] English[edit] Jozef IJzewijn, A companion to neo-Latin studies, 1977. W. H. S. Jones, M.A. Via Nova or The Application of the Direct Method to Latin and Greek, Cambridge University Press 1915. Robin Meyer, "Curtain Call for Latin" in The Linguist vol. 59 no. 1 (2020) pp. 22–23 Spanish[edit] José Juan del Col, ¿Latín hoy?, published by the Instituto Superior Juan XXIII, Bahía Blanca, Argentina, 1998 ("Microsoft Word - LATINHOY.doc" (PDF). Juan23.edu.ar. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 February 2009. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ) French[edit] Guy Licoppe, Pourquoi le latin aujourd'hui ?: (Cur adhuc discenda sit lingua Latina), s.l., 1989 Françoise Waquet, Le latin ou l'empire d'un signe, XVIe–XXe siècle, Paris, Albin Michel, 1998. Guy Licoppe, Le latin et le politique: les avatars du latin à travers les âges, Brussels, 2003. German[edit] Wilfried Stroh, Latein ist tot, es lebe Latein!: Kleine Geschichte einer großen Sprache ( ISBN 9783471788295) v t e Ages of Latin until 75 BC Old Latin 75 BC – 200 AD Classical Latin 200–900 Late Latin 900–1300 Medieval Latin 1300–1500 Renaissance Latin 1500–1900 New Latin 1900–present Contemporary Latin History of Latin Latin literature Vulgar Latin Ecclesiastical Latin Romance languages Latino sine flexione Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum Hiberno-Latin Judeo-Latin Languages portal Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_Latin&oldid=993806786" Categories: Latin language Forms of Latin Language revival Latin-language literature History of literature Languages attested from the 19th century Hidden categories: CS1 maint: archived copy as title Articles containing German-language text Articles containing Latin-language text Articles containing French-language text CS1 French-language sources (fr) Webarchive template wayback links All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from December 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Wikipedia introduction cleanup from September 2020 All pages needing cleanup Articles covered by WikiProject Wikify from September 2020 All articles covered by WikiProject Wikify Use dmy dates from August 2017 Languages without Glottolog code Languages with ISO 639-2 code Languages with ISO 639-1 code Language articles with unreferenced extinction date All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2019 Articles with unsourced statements from April 2017 Articles with German-language sources (de) Articles containing Polish-language text Articles with unsourced statements from January 2020 Articles containing Romanian-language text Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2014 Articles containing Spanish-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Asturianu Čeština Deutsch Español Esperanto Français Interlingua Latina Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Edit links This page was last edited on 12 December 2020, at 16:25 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2769	----	Preface to the Lyrical Ballads - Wikipedia Preface to the Lyrical Ballads From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The preface to the Lyrical Ballads is an essay, composed by William Wordsworth, for the second edition (published in January 1801, and often referred to as the "1800 Edition") of the poetry collection Lyrical Ballads, and then greatly expanded in the third edition of 1802. It has come to be seen as a de facto manifesto of the Romantic movement. The four guidelines of the manifesto include: Ordinary life is the best subject for poetry. (Wordsworth uses common man's language.) Everyday language is best suited for poetry Expression of feeling is more important than action or plot "Poetry is the spontaneous overflow of emotion" that "takes its origin from emotion, recollected in tranquility." - William Wordsworth External links[edit] Wikisource has original text related to this article: Preface to The Lyrical Ballads Preface to Lyrical Ballads 1802 v t e William Wordsworth Topics Early life Lake Poets Lyrical Ballads Preface to the Lyrical Ballads "Anecdote for Fathers" "The Idiot Boy" "Lucy Gray" The Lucy poems "She dwelt among the untrodden ways" "A slumber did my spirit seal" "Strange fits of passion have I known" "Three years she grew in sun and shower" The Matthew poems "Michael, a Pastoral" Lines Written a Few Miles above Tintern Abbey "Poor Susan" "We Are Seven" Later poetry Poems, in Two Volumes Peter Bell The White Doe of Rylstone "Composed upon Westminster Bridge" "Elegiac Stanzas" "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud" The Lucy poems "I travelled among unknown men" "London, 1802" "My Heart Leaps Up" "Ode: Intimations of Immortality" "Resolution and Independence" "The Solitary Reaper" "The World Is Too Much with Us" "To a Butterfly" "Character of the Happy Warrior" The Recluse The Excursion The Prelude Prose Guide to the Lakes People Dora Wordsworth (daughter) Dorothy Wordsworth (sister) Christopher Wordsworth (brother) Samuel Taylor Coleridge Robert Southey Homes Wordsworth House (birthplace and childhood home) Alfoxton House (1797-1798) Dove Cottage (1799-1808) Allan Bank (1808-1811) Rydal Mount (1813-1850) Related Wordsworth Trust This article about a literary essay or essay collection is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e This poetry-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Preface_to_the_Lyrical_Ballads&oldid=975782628" Categories: Works by William Wordsworth 1800 works British poetry Essays in literary theory 1800s essays Essays about poetry Literature book stubs Essay stubs Poetry stubs Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Italiano Edit links This page was last edited on 30 August 2020, at 11:35 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2777	----	View source for Horace - Wikipedia View source for Horace ← Horace Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ==Further reading== * {{cite book|last=Davis|first=Gregson|title=Polyhymnia the Rhetoric of Horatian Lyric Discourse|year=1991|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=0-520-91030-3}} * {{cite book|last=Fraenkel|first=Eduard|title=Horace|year=1957|publisher=Clarendon Press|location=Oxford}} * {{cite book|last=Horace|title=The Complete Works of Horace|year=1983|publisher=Ungar|location=New York|isbn=0-8044-2404-7|others=Charles E. Passage, trans}} * {{cite book|last=Johnson|first=W. R.|title=Horace and the Dialectic of Freedom: Readings in Epistles 1|url=https://archive.org/details/horacedialectico00john|url-access=registration|year=1993|publisher=Cornell University Press|location=Ithaca|isbn=0-8014-2868-8}} * {{cite book|last=Lyne|first=R.O.A.M.|title=Horace: Behind the Public Poetry|year=1995|publisher=Yale Univ. Press|location=New Haven|isbn=0-300-06322-9}} * {{cite book | last = Lyons | first = Stuart | title = Horace's Odes and the Mystery of Do-Re-Mi | publisher = Aris & Phillips | year = 1997 }} * {{cite book | last = Lyons | first = Stuart | title = Music in the Odes of Horace | publisher = Aris & Phillips | year = 2010 }} * {{cite book | last = Michie | first = James | title = The Odes of Horace | publisher = Rupert Hart-Davis | year = 1964 }} * {{cite book|last=Newman|first=J.K.|title=Augustus and the New Poetry|year=1967|publisher=Latomus, revue d’études latines|location=Brussels}} * {{cite book|last=Noyes|first=Alfred|title=Horace: A Portrait|url=https://archive.org/details/horaceportrait0000noye|url-access=registration|year=1947|publisher=Sheed and Ward|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=Perret|first=Jacques|title=Horace|year=1964|publisher=New York University Press|location=New York|others=Bertha Humez, trans}} * {{cite book|last=Putnam|first=Michael C.J.|title=Artifices of Eternity: Horace's Fourth Book of Odes|year=1986|publisher=Cornell University Press|location=Ithaca, NY|isbn=0-8014-1852-6|url=https://archive.org/details/artificesofetern00putn}} * {{cite book|last=Reckford|first=Kenneth J.|title=Horace|year=1969|publisher=Twayne|location=New York}} * {{cite book|editor-last=Rudd|editor-first=Niall|title=Horace 2000: A Celebration&nbsp;– Essays for the Bimillennium|year=1993|publisher=Univ. of Michigan Press|location=Ann Arbor|isbn=0-472-10490-X}} * {{cite book | last = Sydenham | first = Colin | title = Horace: The Odes | publisher = Duckworth | year = 2005 }} *{{cite book | last = West | first = David | title = Horace The Complete Odes and Epodes | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1997 }} * {{cite book|last=Wilkinson|first=L.P.|title=Horace and His Lyric Poetry|year=1951|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge}} Return to Horace. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2780	----	Lyric poetry - Wikipedia Lyric poetry From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Literature Major forms Novel Poetry Drama Short story Novella Genres Adventure Comedy Drama Epic Erotic Nonsense Lyric Mythopoeia Rogue Romance Satire Speculative fiction Tragedy Tragicomedy Media Performance Play Books Techniques Prose Poetry History and lists History modern Outline Glossary of terms Books Writers Literary awards poetry Discussion Criticism Theory (critical theory) Sociology Magazines  Literature portal v t e Henry Oliver Walker's 1896 Lyric Poetry in the Library of Congress's Thomas Jefferson Building Lyric poetry is a formal type of poetry which expresses personal emotions or feelings, typically spoken in the first person.[1] It is not equivalent to song lyrics, though they are often in the lyric mode. The term derives from a form of Ancient Greek literature, the lyric, which was defined by its musical accompaniment, usually on a stringed instrument known as a lyre.[2] The term owes its importance in literary theory to the division developed by Aristotle between three broad categories of poetry: lyrical, dramatic, and epic. Contents 1 Meters 2 History 2.1 Antiquity 2.1.1 Greece 2.1.2 Rome 2.1.3 China 2.2 Medieval verse 2.3 16th century 2.4 17th century 2.5 18th century 2.6 19th century 2.7 20th century 2.8 21st century 3 References 4 Further reading Meters[edit] Much lyric poetry depends on regular meter based either on number of syllables or on stress. The most common meters are as follows: Iambic – two syllables, with the short or unstressed syllable followed by the long or stressed syllable. Trochaic – two syllables, with the long or stressed syllable followed by the short or unstressed syllable. In English, this metre is found almost entirely in lyric poetry.[3] Pyrrhic – Two unstressed syllables Anapestic – three syllables, with the first two short or unstressed and the last long or stressed. Dactylic – three syllables, with the first one long or stressed and the other two short or unstressed. Spondaic – two syllables, with two successive long or stressed syllables. Some forms have a combination of meters, often using a different meter for the refrain. History[edit] Antiquity[edit] Alcaeus and Sappho depicted on an Attic red-figure calathus c. 470 BC[4] Greece[edit] Main article: Greek lyric For the ancient Greeks, lyric poetry had a precise technical meaning: verse that was accompanied by a lyre, cithara, or barbitos. Because such works were typically sung, it was also known as melic poetry. The lyric or melic poet was distinguished from the writer of plays (although Athenian drama included choral odes, in lyric form), the writer of trochaic and iambic verses (which were recited), the writer of elegies (accompanied by the flute, rather than the lyre) and the writer of epic.[5] The scholars of Hellenistic Alexandria created a canon of nine lyric poets deemed especially worthy of critical study. These archaic and classical musician-poets included Sappho, Alcaeus, Anacreon and Pindar. Archaic lyric was characterized by strophic composition and live musical performance. Some poets, like Pindar extended the metrical forms in odes to a triad, including strophe, antistrophe (metrically identical to the strophe) and epode (whose form does not match that of the strophe).[6] Rome[edit] Among the major surviving Roman poets of the classical period, only Catullus (N° 11, 17, 30, 34, 51, 61) and Horace (Odes) wrote lyric poetry, which in the disputed view of some commentators[7] was no longer meant to be sung but instead read or recited. What remained were the forms, the lyric meters of the Greeks adapted to Latin. Catullus was influenced by both archaic and Hellenistic Greek verse and belonged to a group of Roman poets called the Neoteroi ("New Poets") who spurned epic poetry following the lead of Callimachus. Instead, they composed brief, highly polished poems in various thematic and metrical genres. The Roman love elegies of Tibullus, Propertius, and Ovid (Amores, Heroides), with their personal phrasing and feeling, may be the thematic ancestor of much medieval, Renaissance, Romantic, and modern lyric poetry, but these works were composed in elegiac couplets and so were not lyric poetry in the ancient sense.[8] China[edit] Main article: Classical Chinese poetry During China's Warring States period, the Songs of Chu collected by Qu Yuan and Song Yu defined a new form of poetry that came from the exotic Yangtze Valley, far from the Wei and Yellow River homeland of the traditional four-character verses collected in the Book of Songs. The varying forms of the new Chu Ci provided more rhythm and greater latitude of expression.[10] Medieval verse[edit] Originating in 10th-century Persian, a ghazal is a poetic form consisting of couplets that share a rhyme and a refrain. Formally, it consists of a short lyric composed in a single meter with a single rhyme throughout. The central subject is love. Notable authors include Hafiz, Amir Khusro, Auhadi of Maragheh, Alisher Navoi, Obeid e zakani, Khaqani Shirvani, Anvari, Farid al-Din Attar, Omar Khayyam, and Rudaki. The ghazal was introduced to European poetry in the early 19th century by the Germans Schlegel, Von Hammer-Purgstall, and Goethe, who called Hafiz his "twin".[11] Lyric in European literature of the medieval or Renaissance period means a poem written so that it could be set to music—whether or not it actually was. A poem's particular structure, function, or theme might all vary.[12] The lyric poetry of Europe in this period was created by the pioneers of courtly poetry and courtly love largely without reference to the classical past.[13] The troubadors, travelling composers and performers of songs, began to flourish towards the end of the 11th century and were often imitated in successive centuries. Trouvères were poet-composers who were roughly contemporary with and influenced by the troubadours but who composed their works in the northern dialects of France. The first known trouvère was Chrétien de Troyes (fl. 1160s–80s). The dominant form of German lyric poetry in the period was the minnesang, "a love lyric based essentially on a fictitious relationship between a knight and his high-born lady".[14] Initially imitating the lyrics of the French troubadours and trouvères, minnesang soon established a distinctive tradition.[14] There was also a large body of medieval Galician-Portuguese lyric.[15] Hebrew singer-poets of the Middle Ages included Yehuda Halevi, Solomon ibn Gabirol, and Abraham ibn Ezra. In Italy, Petrarch developed the sonnet form pioneered by Giacomo da Lentini and Dante's Vita Nuova. In 1327, according to the poet, the sight of a woman called Laura in the church of Sainte-Claire d'Avignon awoke in him a lasting passion, celebrated in the Rime sparse ("Scattered rhymes"). Later, Renaissance poets who copied Petrarch's style named this collection of 366 poems Il Canzoniere ("The Song Book"). Laura is in many ways both the culmination of medieval courtly love poetry and the beginning of Renaissance love lyric. A bhajan or kirtan is a Hindu devotional song. Bhajans are often simple songs in lyrical language expressing emotions of love for the Divine. Notable authors include Kabir, Surdas, and Tulsidas. Chinese Sanqu poetry was a Chinese poetic genre popular from the 12th-century Jin Dynasty through to the early Ming. Early 14th-century playwrights like Ma Zhiyuan and Guan Hanqing were well-established writers of Sanqu. Against the usual tradition of using Classical Chinese, this poetry was composed in the vernacular.[16] 16th century[edit] In 16th-century Britain, Thomas Campion wrote lute songs and Sir Philip Sidney, Edmund Spenser, and William Shakespeare popularized the sonnet. In France, La Pléiade—including Pierre de Ronsard, Joachim du Bellay, and Jean-Antoine de Baïf—aimed to break with earlier traditions of French poetry—particularly Marot and the grands rhétoriqueurs—and began imitating classical Greek and Roman forms such as the odes. Favorite poets of the school were Pindar, Anacreon, Alcaeus, Horace, and Ovid. They also produced Petrarchan sonnet cycles. Spanish devotional poetry adapted the lyric for religious purposes. Notable examples were Teresa of Ávila, John of the Cross, Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, Garcilaso de la Vega, and Lope de Vega. Although better known for his epic Os Lusíadas, Luís de Camões is also considered the greatest Portuguese lyric poet of the period. In Japan, the naga-uta ("long song") was a lyric poem popular in this era. It alternated five and seven-syllable lines and ended with an extra seven-syllable line. 17th century[edit] Lyrical poetry was the dominant form of 17th-century English poetry from John Donne to Andrew Marvell.[17] The poems of this period were short. Rarely narrative, they tended towards intense expression.[17] Other notable poets of the era include Ben Jonson, Robert Herrick, George Herbert, Aphra Behn, Thomas Carew, John Suckling, Richard Lovelace, John Milton, Richard Crashaw, and Henry Vaughan. A German lyric poet of the period is Martin Opitz; in Japan, this was the era of the noted haiku-writer Matsuo Bashō. 18th century[edit] In the 18th century, lyric poetry declined in England and France. The atmosphere of literary discussion in the English coffeehouses and French salons was not congenial to lyric poetry.[18] Exceptions include the lyrics of Robert Burns, William Cowper, Thomas Gray, and Oliver Goldsmith. German lyric poets of the period include Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Novalis, Friedrich Schiller, and Johann Heinrich Voß. Kobayashi Issa was a Japanese lyric poet during this period. In Diderot's Encyclopédie, Louis chevalier de Jaucourt described lyric poetry of the time as "a type of poetry totally devoted to sentiment; that's its substance, its essential object".[19] 19th century[edit] Benjamin Haydon's 1842 portrait of William Wordsworth In Europe, the lyric emerged as the principal poetic form of the 19th century and came to be seen as synonymous with poetry.[20] Romantic lyric poetry consisted of first-person accounts of the thoughts and feelings of a specific moment; the feelings were extreme but personal.[21] The traditional sonnet was revived in Britain, with William Wordsworth writing more sonnets than any other British poet.[20] Other important Romantic lyric writers of the period include Samuel Taylor Coleridge, John Keats, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and Lord Byron. Later in the century, the Victorian lyric was more linguistically self-conscious and defensive than the Romantic forms had been.[22] Such Victorian lyric poets include Alfred Lord Tennyson and Christina Rossetti. Lyric poetry was popular with the German reading public between 1830 and 1890, as shown in the number of poetry anthologies published in the period.[23] According to Georg Lukács, the verse of Joseph von Eichendorff exemplified the German Romantic revival of the folk-song tradition initiated by Goethe, Herder, and Arnim and Brentano's Des Knaben Wunderhorn.[24] France also saw a revival of the lyric voice during the 19th century.[25] The lyric became the dominant mode of French poetry during this period.[26] For Walter Benjamin, Charles Baudelaire was the last example of lyric poetry "successful on a mass scale" in Europe.[27] In Russia, Aleksandr Pushkin exemplified a rise of lyric poetry during the 18th and early 19th centuries.[28] The Swedish "Phosphorists" were influenced by the Romantic movement and their chief poet Per Daniel Amadeus Atterbom produced many lyric poems.[29] Italian lyric poets of the period include Ugo Foscolo, Giacomo Leopardi, Giovanni Pascoli, and Gabriele D'Annunzio. Spanish lyric poets include Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer, Rosalía de Castro, and José de Espronceda. Japanese lyric poets include Taneda Santoka, Masaoka Shiki, and Ishikawa Takuboku. 20th century[edit] Further information: 20th century lyric poetry Play media Recited Portuguese lyric poetry In the earlier years of the 20th century rhymed lyric poetry, usually expressing the feelings of the poet, was the dominant poetic form in the United States,[30] Europe, and the British colonies. The English Georgian poets and their contemporaries such as A. E. Housman, Walter de la Mare, and Edmund Blunden used the lyric form. The Bengali poet Rabindranath Tagore was praised by William Butler Yeats for his lyric poetry; Yeats compared him to the troubadour poets when the two met in 1912.[31] The relevance and acceptability of the lyric in the modern age was, though, called into question by modernist poets such as Ezra Pound, T. S. Eliot, H.D., and William Carlos Williams, who rejected the English lyric form of the 19th century, feeling that it relied too heavily on melodious language, rather than complexity of thought.[32] After World War II, the American New Criticism returned to the lyric, advocating a poetry that made conventional use of rhyme, meter and stanzas, and was modestly personal in the lyric tradition.[33] Lyric poetry dealing with relationships, sex and domestic life constituted the new mainstream of American poetry in the late 20th century following the confessional poets of the 1950s and '60s such as Sylvia Plath and Anne Sexton.[34] 21st century[edit] With the advancement of internet communication technology, poetry saw a surge in various online media especially podcasts. Kevin Young, poetry editor at The New Yorker, marked that "podcasts connect poetry to a living thing".[35][36][37] References[edit] ^ Scott,Clive, Vers libre : the emergence of free verse in France, 1886–1914 Clarendon Press, Oxford ISBN 9780198151593 ^ Miller, Andrew. Greek Lyric: An Anthology in Translation/books?id=80MpjrOfTH8C&pg=PR12 pp. xii ff]. Hackett Publishing (Indianapolis), 1996. ISBN 978-0872202917. ^ Stephen Adams, Poetic Designs: an introduction to meters, verse forms, and figures of speech, Broadview Press, 1997, p55. ISBN 1-55111-129-2 ^ Staatliche Antikensammlungen (Inv. 2416) ^ Bowra, Cecil. Greek Lyric Poetry: From Alcman to Simonides, p. 3. Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1961. ^ Halporn, James & al. The Meters of Greek and Latin Poetry, p. 16. Hackett Publishing, 1994. ISBN 0-87220-243-7. ^ S Lyons 'Music in the Odes of Horace (2010) provides evidence to the contrary. ^ Bing, Peter & al. Games of Venus: An Anthology of Greek and Roman Erotic Verse from Sappho to Ovid. Routledge (New York), 1991. ^ a b 袁行霈 [Yuán Xíngpèi] & al. 《中国文学史》 [Zhōngguó Wénxué Shǐ, A History of Chinese Literature], Vol. 1, p. 632 Archived 4 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine. 高等教育出版社 [Gāoděng Jiàoyù Chūbǎn Shè] (Beijing), 1992. ISBN 9787040164794. Accessed 14 July 2013. (in Chinese) ^ 「《史记·屈原贾生列传》…形成悲愤深沉之风格特征。」[9] ^ Thym, Jurgen & al. Of Poetry and Song: Approaches to the Nineteenth-Century Lied, p. 221. University of Rochester Press (Rochester), 2010. ^ Shaw, Mary. The Cambridge Introduction to French Poetry, pp. 39–40. Cambridge University Press (Cambridge), 2003. ISBN 0-521-00485-3. ^ Kay, Sarah & al. A Short History of French Literature, pp. 15–16. Oxford University Press (Oxford), 2006. ISBN 0-19-815931-5. ^ a b Johnson, Sidney & al. Medieval German Literature: A Companion, p. 224–25. Routledge, 2000. ISBN 0-415-92896-6. ^ Tavani, Giuseppe. Trovadores e Jograis: Introdução à poesia medieval galego-portuguesa. Caminho (Lisbon), 2002. (in Portuguese) ^ 「抒情性文学…的创作开创了元代理学家诗文创作的先河。」[9] ^ a b Corns, Thomas. The Cambridge Companion to English Poetry, Donne to Marvell, p. xi. Cambridge University Press (Cambridge), 1993. ISBN 0-521-42309-0. ^ Sir Albert Wilson in J. O. Lindsay's The New Cambridge Modern History, p. 73. Cambridge University Press (Cambridge), 1957. ISBN 0-521-04545-2. ^ "Lyric Poetry". Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert – Collaborative Translation Project. University of Michigan Library. 20 December 2004. Retrieved 1 April 2015. ^ a b Christopher John Murray, Encyclopedia of the Romantic Era, 1760–1850, Taylor & Francis, 2004, p700. ISBN 1-57958-422-5 ^ Stephen Bygrave, Romantic Writings, Routledge, 1996, pix. ISBN 0-415-13577-X ^ E. Warwick Slinn in Joseph Bristow, The Cambridge Companion to Victorian Poetry, Cambridge University Press, p56. ISBN 0-521-64680-4 ^ Eda Sagarra and Peter Skrine, A Companion to German Literature: From 1500 to the Present, Blackwell Publishing, 1997, p149. ISBN 0-631-21595-6 ^ Lukács, György. German Realists in the Nineteenth Century, p. 56. MIT Press (Cambridge), 1993. ISBN 0-262-62143-6. ^ Prendergast, Christopher. Nineteenth-Century French Poetry: Introductions to Close Reading, p. 3. Cambridge University Press (Cambridge), 1990. ISBN 0-521-34774-2. ^ Prendergast (1990), p. 15. ^ Pensky, Max. Melancholy Dialectics: Walter Benjamin and the Play of Mourning, p. 155. University of Massachusetts Press (Boston), 1993. ISBN 1-55849-296-8. ^ Jakobson, Roman. Selected Writings, p. 282. Walter de Gruyter, 1981. ISBN 90-279-7686-4. ^ Richardson, William & al. Literature of the World: An Introductory Study, p. 348. Kessinger Publishing, 2005. ISBN 1-4179-9433-9. ^ MacGowan, Christopher. Twentieth-Century American Poetry, p. 9. Blackwell Publishing, 2004. ISBN 0-631-22025-9. ^ Foster, Robert. W.B. Yeats: A Life, p. 496. Oxford University Press (Oxford). ISBN 0-19-288085-3. ^ Beach, Christopher. The Cambridge Introduction to Twentieth-Century American Poetry, p. 49. Cambridge University Press (Cambridge), 2003. ISBN 0-521-89149-3. ^ Fredman, Stephen. A Concise Companion To Twentieth-Century American Poetry, p. 63. Blackwell Publishing, 2005. ISBN 1-4051-2002-9. ^ Beach (2003), p. 155. ^ VERMA, JEEVIKA (29 June 2019). "Podcasts Are Providing A New Way Into Poetry". NPR. Retrieved 14 May 2020. ^ "Omer's Poetry Podcast". Retrieved 14 May 2020. ^ Toledano, Omer (30 April 2020). OM, THE UNIVERSE AND I: A Poetry Collection. Independently published. ISBN 979-8619332391. Further reading[edit] Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Lyrical poetry. Wilhelm, James J., (editor), Lyrics of the Middle Ages : an anthology, New York : Garland Pub., 1990. ISBN 0-8240-7049-6 v t e Lists of poets By language Afrikaans Albanian Arabic Armenian Azerbaijani Assamese Awadhi Belarusian Bengali Bosnian Bulgarian Catalan Chinese Croatian Danish Dutch English French German Greek (Ancient) Gujarati Hebrew Hindi Icelandic Indonesian Irish Italian Japanese Kashmiri Konkani Kannada Korean Kurdish Latin Maithili Malayalam Maltese Manipuri Marathi Nepali Oriya Pashto Pennsylvania Dutch Persian Polish Portuguese Punjabi Rajasthani Romanian Russian Sanskrit Sindhi Slovak Slovenian Sorbian Spanish Swedish Syriac Tamil Telugu Turkic Ukrainian Urdu Uzbek Welsh Yiddish By nationality or culture Afghan American Argentine Australian Austrian Bangladeshi Bosniak Brazilian Breton Bulgarian Canadian Chicano Estonian Finnish Ghanaian Greek Indian Iranian Iraqi Irish Israeli Mexican Nepalese New Zealander Nicaraguan Nigerian Ottoman Pakistani Peruvian Romani Romanian Somali South African Swedish Swiss Syrian Turkish By type Anarchist Early-modern women (UK) Feminist Lyric Modernist National Performance Romantic Speculative Surrealist War Women Authority control GND: 4036774-5 LCCN: sh85079180 NDL: 00575071 NKC: fd132781 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lyric_poetry&oldid=996632944" Categories: Genres of poetry Hidden categories: Articles containing Chinese-language text Webarchive template wayback links Articles with Chinese-language sources (zh) Articles with Portuguese-language sources (pt) Use dmy dates from April 2020 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Articles containing video clips Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Արեւմտահայերէն Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Boarisch Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Frysk 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русиньскый Русский Shqip Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska తెలుగు Türkçe Українська 吴语 Žemaitėška 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 27 December 2020, at 19:50 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2781	----	Fulgentius - Wikipedia Fulgentius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Fulgentius is a Latin male given name which means "bright, brilliant". It may refer to: Fabius Planciades Fulgentius (5th–6th century), Latin grammarian Saint Fulgentius of Ruspe (5th–6th century), bishop of Ruspe, North Africa, possibly related to the above; some authorities believe them to be the same person Fulgentius Ferrandus (6th century), deacon of Carthage, Fulgentius of Ruspe's pupil and biographer Saint Fulgentius of Cartagena (6th–7th century), bishop of Écija, Hispania Gottschalk of Orbais, nicknamed Fulgentius (9th century), monk, theologian and poet See also[edit] Fulgencio Name list This page or section lists people that share the same given name. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change that link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fulgentius&oldid=699067497" Categories: Latin masculine given names Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata All set index articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Español Nederlands Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 10 January 2016, at 01:46 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2801	----	Procopius - Wikipedia Procopius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the historian and author of the Secret History. For other uses, see Procopius (disambiguation). Procopius of Caesarea Born c. AD 500 Caesarea, Palaestina Prima (Eastern Roman Empire) Died c. AD 570 Occupation Barrister and legal adviser Subject Secular history Notable works History of the Wars Buildings Secret History Procopius of Caesarea (Greek: Προκόπιος ὁ Καισαρεύς Prokópios ho Kaisareús; Latin: Procopius Caesariensis; c. 500 – c. after 565) was a prominent late antique Byzantine scholar from Palaestina Prima.[a] Accompanying the Byzantine general Belisarius in Emperor Justinian's wars, Procopius became the principal Byzantine historian of the 6th century, writing the History of the Wars, the Buildings, and the Secret History. He is commonly classified as the last major historian of the ancient Western world. Contents 1 Life 2 Writings 2.1 History of the Wars 2.2 Secret History 2.3 The Buildings 3 Style 4 Legacy 5 List of selected works 6 Notes 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links 9.1 Texts of Procopius 9.2 Secondary material Life[edit] Apart from his own writings, the main source for Procopius's life was an entry in the Suda,[2] a Byzantine Greek encyclopaedia written sometime after 975, which discusses his early life. He was a native of Caesarea in the province of Palaestina Prima.[3] He would have received a conventional elite education in the Greek classics and rhetoric,[4] perhaps at the famous school at Gaza.[5] He may have attended law school, possibly at Berytus (present-day Beirut) or Constantinople (now Istanbul),[6][b] and became a lawyer (rhetor).[2] He evidently knew Latin, as was natural for a man with legal training.[c] In 527, the first year of the reign of the emperor Justinian I, he became the legal adviser (adsessor) for Belisarius, a general whom Justinian made his chief military commander in a great attempt to restore control over the lost western provinces of the empire.[d] Procopius was with Belisarius on the eastern front until the latter was defeated at the Battle of Callinicum in 531[10] and recalled to Constantinople.[11] Procopius witnessed the Nika riots of January, 532, which Belisarius and his fellow general Mundus repressed with a massacre in the Hippodrome.[12] In 533, he accompanied Belisarius on his victorious expedition against the Vandal kingdom in North Africa, took part in the capture of Carthage, and remained in Africa with Belisarius's successor Solomon the Eunuch when Belisarius returned east to the capital. Procopius recorded a few of the extreme weather events of 535–536, although these were presented as a backdrop to Byzantine military activities, such as a mutiny in and around Carthage.[13][e] He rejoined Belisarius for his campaign against the Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy and experienced the Gothic siege of Rome that lasted a year and nine days, ending in mid-March 538. He witnessed Belisarius's entry into the Gothic capital, Ravenna, in 540. Both the Wars[14] and the Secret History suggest that his relationship with Belisarius cooled thereafter. When Belisarius was sent back to Italy in 544 to cope with a renewal of the war with the Goths, now led by the able king Totila, Procopius appears to have no longer been on Belisarius's staff. As magister militum, Belisarius was an "illustrious man" (Latin: vir illustris; Greek: ἰλλούστριος, illoústrios); being his adsessor, Procopius must therefore have had at least the rank of a "visible man" (vir spectabilis). He thus belonged to the mid-ranking group of the senatorial order (ordo senatorius). However, the Suda, which is usually well informed in such matters, also describes Procopius himself as one of the illustres. Should this information be correct, Procopius would have had a seat in Constantinople's senate, which was restricted to the illustres under Justinian. He also wrote that under Justinian's reign in 560, a major Christian church dedicated the Virgin Mary was built on the site of the Temple Mount.[15] It is not certain when Procopius died. Many historians—including Howard-Johnson, Cameron, and Greatrex—date his death to 554, but there was an urban prefect of Constantinople (praefectus urbi Constantinopolitanae) called Procopius in 562. In that year, Belisarius was implicated in a conspiracy and was brought before this urban prefect. In fact, some scholars have argued that Procopius died at least a few years after 565 as he unequivocally states in the beginning of his Secret History that he planned to publish it after the death of Justinian for fear he would be tortured and killed by the emperor (or even by general Belisarius) if the emperor (or the general) learned about what Procopius wrote (his scathing criticism of the emperor, of his wife, of Belisarius, of the general's wife, Antonia: calling the former "demons in human form" and the latter incompetent and treacherous) in this later history. However, most scholars believe that the Secret History was written in 550 and remained unpublished during Procopius' lifetime. Writings[edit] Emperor Justinian The writings of Procopius are the primary source of information for the rule of the emperor Justinian I. Procopius was the author of a history in eight books on the wars prosecuted by Justinian, a panegyric on the emperor's public works projects throughout the empire, and a book known as the Secret History that claims to report the scandals that Procopius could not include in his officially sanctioned history for fear of angering the emperor, his wife, Belisarius, and the general's wife and had to wait until all of them were dead to avoid retaliation. History of the Wars[edit] Procopius's Wars or History of the Wars (Greek: Ὑπὲρ τῶν Πολέμων Λόγοι, Hypèr tōn Polémon Lógoi, "Words on the Wars"; Latin: De Bellis, "On the Wars") is his most important work, although less well known than the Secret History. The first seven books seem to have been largely completed by 545 and may have been published as a unit. They were, however, updated to mid-century before publication, with the latest mentioned event occurring in early 551. The eighth and final book brings the history to 553. The first two books—often known as The Persian War (Latin: De Bello Persico)—deal with the conflict between the Romans and Sassanid Persia in Mesopotamia, Syria, Armenia, Lazica, and Iberia (present-day Georgia).[f] It details the campaigns of the Sassanid shah Kavadh I, the 532 'Nika' revolt, the war by Kavadh's successor Khosrau I in 540, his destruction of Antioch and deportation of its inhabitants to Mesopotamia, and the great plague that devastated the empire from 542. The Persian War also covers the early career of Procopius's patron Belisarius in some detail. The Wars’ next two books—known as The Vandal War or Vandalic War (Latin: De Bello Vandalico)—cover Belisarius's successful campaign against the Vandal kingdom that had occupied Rome's provinces in northwest Africa for the last century. The final four books—known as The Gothic War (Latin: De Bello Gothico)—cover the Italian campaigns by Belisarius and others against the Ostrogoths. Procopius includes accounts of the 1st and 2nd sieges of Naples and the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd sieges of Rome. He also includes an account of the rise of the Franks (see Arborychoi). The last book describes the eunuch Narses's successful conclusion of the Italian campaign and includes some coverage of campaigns along the empire's eastern borders as well. The Wars proved influential on later Byzantine historiography.[17] In the 570s Agathias wrote Histories, a continuation of Procopius's work in a similar style. Secret History[edit] Belisarius may be this bearded figure on the right of Emperor Justinian I in the mosaic in the Church of San Vitale, Ravenna, which celebrates the reconquest of Italy by the Roman army under the skillful leadership of Belisarius. Procopius's now famous Anecdota also known as Secret History (Greek: Ἀπόκρυφη Ἱστορία, Apókryphe Historía; Latin: Historia Arcana) was discovered centuries later at the Vatican Library in Rome[18] and published in Lyon by Niccolò Alamanni in 1623. Its existence was already known from the Suda, which referred to it as Procopius's "unpublished works" containing "comedy" and "invective" of Justinian, Theodora, Belisarius and Antonina. The Secret History covers roughly the same years as the first seven books of The History of the Wars and appears to have been written after they were published. Current consensus generally dates it to 550, or less commonly, 558. In the eyes of many scholars, the Secret History reveals an author who had become deeply disillusioned with Emperor Justinian, his wife Theodora, the general Belisarius, and his wife Antonina. The work claims to expose the secret springs of their public actions, as well as the private lives of the emperor and his entourage. Justinian is portrayed as cruel, venal, prodigal, and incompetent. In one passage, it is even claimed that he was possessed by demonic spirits or was himself a demon: And some of those who have been with Justinian at the palace late at night, men who were pure of spirit, have thought they saw a strange demoniac form taking his place. One man said that the Emperor suddenly rose from his throne and walked about, and indeed he was never wont to remain sitting for long, and immediately Justinian's head vanished, while the rest of his body seemed to ebb and flow; whereat the beholder stood aghast and fearful, wondering if his eyes were deceiving him. But presently he perceived the vanished head filling out and joining the body again as strangely as it had left it.[19] Similarly, the Theodora of the Secret History is a garish portrait of vulgarity and insatiable lust juxtaposed with cold-blooded self-interest, shrewishness, and envious and fearful mean-spiritedness. Among the more titillating (and dubious) revelations in the Secret History is Procopius's account of Theodora's thespian accomplishments: Often, even in the theatre, in the sight of all the people, she removed her costume and stood nude in their midst, except for a girdle about the groin: not that she was abashed at revealing that, too, to the audience, but because there was a law against appearing altogether naked on the stage, without at least this much of a fig-leaf. Covered thus with a ribbon, she would sink down to the stage floor and recline on her back. Slaves to whom the duty was entrusted would then scatter grains of barley from above into the calyx of this passion flower, whence geese, trained for the purpose, would next pick the grains one by one with their bills and eat.[20] Furthermore, Secret History portrays Belisarius as a weak man completely emasculated by his wife, Antonina, who is portrayed in very similar terms to Theodora. They are both said to be former actresses and close friends. Procopius claimed Antonina worked as an agent for Theodora against Belisarius, and had an ongoing affair with Belisarius' godson, Theodosius. On the other hand, it has been argued that Procopius prepared the Secret History as an exaggerated document out of fear that a conspiracy might overthrow Justinian's regime, which—as a kind of court historian—might be reckoned to include him. The unpublished manuscript would then have been a kind of insurance, which could be offered to the new ruler as a way to avoid execution or exile after the coup. If this hypothesis were correct, the Secret History would not be proof that Procopius hated Justinian or Theodora.[21] The Buildings[edit] Triumphal arch at the entrance to the Sangarius Bridge The Buildings (Greek: Περὶ Κτισμάτων, Perì Ktismáton; Latin: De Aedificiis, "On Buildings") is a panegyric on Justinian's public works projects throughout the empire.[22] The first book may date to before the collapse of the first dome of Hagia Sophia in 557, but some scholars think that it is possible that the work postdates the building of the bridge over the Sangarius in the late 550s.[23] Historians consider Buildings to be an incomplete work due to evidence of the surviving version being a draft with two possible redactions.[22][24] Buildings was likely written at Justinian's behest, and it is doubtful that its sentiments expressed are sincere. It tells us nothing further about Belisarius, and it takes a sharply different attitude towards Justinian. He is presented as an idealised Christian emperor who built churches for the glory of God and defenses for the safety of his subjects. He is depicted showing particular concern for the water supply, building new aqueducts and restoring those that had fallen into disuse. Theodora, who was dead when this panegyric was written, is mentioned only briefly, but Procopius's praise of her beauty is fulsome. Due to the panegyrical nature of Procopius's Buildings, historians have discovered several discrepancies between claims made by Procopius and accounts in other primary sources. A prime example is Procopius's starting the reign of Justinian in 518, which was actually the start of the reign of his uncle and predecessor Justin I. By treating the uncle's reign as part of his nephew's, Procopius was able to credit Justinian with buildings erected or begun under Justin's administration. Such works include renovation of the walls of Edessa after its 525 flood and consecration of several churches in the region. Similarly, Procopius falsely credits Justinian for the extensive refortification of the cities of Tomis and Histria in Scythia Minor. This had actually been carried out under Anastasius I, who reigned before Justin.[25] Style[edit] Procopius belongs to the school of late antique historians who continued the traditions of the Second Sophistic. They wrote in Attic Greek; their models were Herodotus, Polybius and—particularly—Thucydides; and their subject matter was secular history. They avoided vocabulary unknown to Attic Greek and inserted an explanation when they had to use contemporary words. Thus Procopius includes glosses of monks ("the most temperate of Christians") and churches (as equivalent to a "temple" or "shrine"), since monasticism was unknown to the ancient Athenians and their ekklesía had been a popular assembly.[26] The secular historians eschewed the history of the Christian church; ecclesiastical history was left to a separate genre after Eusebius. However, Cameron has argued convincingly that Procopius's works reflect the tensions between the classical and Christian models of history in 6th-century Constantinople. This is supported by Whitby's analysis of Procopius's depiction of the capital and its cathedral in comparison to contemporary pagan panegyrics.[27] Procopius can be seen as depicting Justinian as essentially God's vicegerent, making the case for buildings being a primarily religious panegyric.[28] Procopius indicates that he planned to write an ecclesiastical history himself[29] and, if he had, he would probably have followed the rules of that genre. As far as known, however, such an ecclesiastical history was never written. Legacy[edit] A number of historical novels based on Procopius's works (along with other sources) have been written. Count Belisarius was written by poet and novelist Robert Graves in 1938. Procopius himself appears as a minor character in Felix Dahn's A Struggle for Rome and in L. Sprague de Camp's alternate history novel Lest Darkness Fall. The novel's main character, archaeologist Martin Padway, derives most of his knowledge of historical events from the Secret History.[30] The narrator in Herman Melville's novel Moby Dick cites Procopius's description of a captured sea monster as evidence of the narrative's feasibility.[31] List of selected works[edit] Procopii Caesariensis opera omnia. Edited by J. Haury; revised by G. Wirth. 3 vols. Leipzig: Teubner, 1962–64. Greek text. Procopius. Edited by H. B. Dewing. 7 vols. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press and London, Hutchinson, 1914–40. Greek text and English translation. Procopius, The Secret History, translated by G. A. Williamson. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1966. A readable and accessible English translation of the Anecdota. Recently re-issued by Penguin (2007) with an updated and livelier translation by Peter Sarris, who has also provided a new commentary and notes. Prokopios, The Secret History, translated by Anthony Kaldellis. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 2010. This edition includes related texts, an introductory essay, notes, maps, a timeline, a guide to the main sources from the period and a guide to scholarship in English. The translator uses blunt and precise English prose in order to adhere to the style of the original text. Notes[edit] ^ "Like many Byzantine scholars, Procopius affected a remarkable traditional form of writing".[1] ^ For an alternative reading of Procopius as a trained engineer, see Howard-Johnson.[7] ^ Procopius uses and translates a number of Latin words in his Wars. Börm suggests a possible acquaintance with Vergil and Sallust.[8] ^ Procopius speaks of becoming Belisarius's advisor (symboulos) in that year.[9] ^ Before modern times, European and Mediterranean historians, as far as weather is concerned, typically recorded only the extreme or major weather events for a year or a multi-year period, preferring to focus on the human activities of policy makers and warriors instead. ^ Börm provides a detailed analysis.[16] References[edit] ^ "Procopius", John Moorhead, Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing: M–Z, Vol. II, Kelly Boyd, (Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, 1999), 962. ^ a b Suda pi.2479. See under 'Procopius' on Suda On Line. ^ Procopius, Wars of Justinian I.1.1; Suda pi.2479. See under 'Procopius' on Suda On Line. ^ Cameron, Averil: Procopius and the Sixth Century, London: Duckworth, 1985, p.7. ^ Evans, James A. S.: Procopius. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1972, p. 31. ^ Cameron, Procopius and the Sixth Century, p. 6. ^ Howard-Johnson, James: 'The Education and Expertise of Procopius'; in Antiquité Tardive 10 (2002), 19–30. ^ Börm, Henning (2007) Prokop und die Perser, p.46. Franz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart. ISBN 978-3-515-09052-0 ^ Procopius, Wars, 1.12.24. ^ Wars, I.18.1-56 ^ Wars, I.21.2 ^ Wars, I.24.1-58 ^ 1. ^ Wars, VIII. ^ Dolphin, Lambert. "Visiting the Temple Mount". Temple Mount.org. Retrieved February 5, 2020. ^ Börm, Henning. Prokop und die Perser. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2007. ^ Cresci, Lia Raffaella. "Procopio al confine tra due tradizioni storiografiche". Rivista di Filologia e di Istruzione Classica 129.1 (2001) 61–77. ^ https://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2011/01/03/110103fa_fact_mendelsohn ^ Procopius, Secret History 12.20–22, trans. Atwater. ^ Procopius Secret History 9.20–21, trans. Atwater. ^ Cf. Börm (2015). ^ a b Downey, Glanville: "The Composition of Procopius, De Aedificiis", in Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 78: pp. 171–183; abstract from JSTOR ^ Whitby, Michael: "Procopian Polemics: a review of A. Kaldellis Procopius of Caesarea. Tyranny, History, and Philosophy at the End of Antiquity", in The Classical Review 55 (2006), pp. 648– ^ Cameron, Averil. Procopius and the Sixth Century. London: Routledge, 1985. ^ Croke, Brian and James Crow: "Procopius and Dara", in The Journal of Roman Studies 73 (1983), 143–159. ^ Wars, 2.9.14 and 1.7.22. ^ Buildings, Book I. ^ Whitby, Mary: "Procopius' Buildings Book I: A Panegyrical Perspective", in Antiquité Tardive 8 (2000), 45–57. ^ Secret History, 26.18. ^ de Camp, L. Sprague (1949). Lest Darkness Fall. Ballantine Books. p. 111. ^ Melville, Herman (1851). Moby-Dick, or, the Whale. London: Harper & Brothers. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.62077. This article is based on an earlier version by James Allan Evans, originally posted at Nupedia. Further reading[edit] Adshead, Katherine: Procopius' Poliorcetica: continuities and discontinuities, in: G. Clarke et al. (eds.): Reading the past in late antiquity, Australian National UP, Rushcutters Bay 1990, pp. 93–119 Alonso-Núñez, J. M.: Jordanes and Procopius on Northern Europe, in: Nottingham Medieval Studies 31 (1987), 1–16. Amitay, Ory: Procopius of Caesarea and the Girgashite Diaspora, in: Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha 20 (2011), 257–276. Anagnostakis, Ilias: Procopius's dream before the campaign against Libya: a reading of Wars 3.12.1-5, in: C. Angelidi and G. Calofonos (eds.), Dreaming in Byzantium and Beyond, Farnham: Ashgate Publishing 2014, 79–94. Bachrach, Bernard S.: Procopius, Agathias and the Frankish Military, in: Speculum 45 (1970), 435–441. Bachrach, Bernard S.: Procopius and the chronology of Clovis's reign, in: Viator 1 (1970), 21–32. Baldwin, Barry: An Aphorism in Procopius, in: Rheinisches Museum für Philologie 125 (1982), 309–311. Baldwin, Barry: Sexual Rhetoric in Procopius, in: Mnemosyne 40 (1987), pp. 150–152 Belke, Klaus: Prokops De aedificiis, Buch V, zu Kleinasien, in: Antiquité Tardive 8 (2000), 115–125. Börm, Henning: Prokop und die Perser. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2007. (Review in English by G. Greatrex and Review in English by A. Kaldellis) Börm, Henning: Procopius of Caesarea, in Encyclopaedia Iranica Online, New York 2013. Börm, Henning: Procopius, his predecessors, and the genesis of the Anecdota: Antimonarchic discourse in late antique historiography, in: H. Börm (ed.): Antimonarchic discourse in Antiquity. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag 2015, 305–346. Braund, David: Procopius on the Economy of Lazica, in: The Classical Quarterly 41 (1991), 221–225. Brodka, Dariusz: Die Geschichtsphilosophie in der spätantiken Historiographie. Studien zu Prokopios von Kaisareia, Agathias von Myrina und Theophylaktos Simokattes. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2004. Burn, A. R.: Procopius and the island of ghosts, in: English Historical Review 70 (1955), 258–261. Cameron, Averil: Procopius and the Sixth Century. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985. Cameron, Averil: The scepticism of Procopius, in: Historia 15 (1966), 466–482. Colvin, Ian: Reporting Battles and Understanding Campaigns in Procopius and Agathias: Classicising Historians' Use of Archived Documents as Sources, in: A. Sarantis (ed.): War and warfare in late antiquity. Current perspectives, Leiden: Brill 2013, 571–598. Cresci, Lia Raffaella: Procopio al confine tra due tradizioni storiografiche, in: Rivista di Filologia e di Istruzione Classica 129 (2001), 61–77. Cristini, Marco: Il seguito ostrogoto di Amalafrida: confutazione di Procopio, Bellum Vandalicum 1.8.12, in: Klio 99 (2017), 278–289. Croke, Brian and James Crow: Procopius and Dara, in: The Journal of Roman Studies 73 (1983), 143–159. Downey, Glanville: The Composition of Procopius, De Aedificiis, in: Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 78 (1947), 171–183. Evans, James A. S.: Justinian and the Historian Procopius, in: Greece & Rome 17 (1970), 218–223. Evans, James A. S.: Procopius. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1972. Gordon, C. D.: Procopius and Justinian's Financial Policies, in: Phoenix 13 (1959), 23–30. Greatrex, Geoffrey: Procopius and the Persian Wars, D. Phil. thesis, Oxford, 1994. Greatrex, Geoffrey: The dates of Procopius' works, in: BMGS 18 (1994), 101–114. Greatrex, Geoffrey: The Composition of Procopius' Persian Wars and John the Cappadocian, in: Prudentia 27 (1995), 1–13. Greatrex, Geoffrey: Rome and Persia at War, 502–532. London: Francis Cairns, 1998. Greatrex, Geoffrey: Recent work on Procopius and the composition of Wars VIII, in: BMGS 27 (2003), 45–67. Greatrex, Geoffrey: Perceptions of Procopius in Recent Scholarship, in: Histos 8 (2014), 76–121 and 121a–e (addenda). Howard-Johnson, James: The Education and Expertise of Procopius, in: Antiquité Tardive 10 (2002), 19–30 Kaegi, Walter: Procopius the military historian, in: Byzantinische Forschungen. 15, 1990, ISSN 0167-5346, 53–85 (online (PDF; 989 KB)). Kaldellis, Anthony: Classicism, Barbarism, and Warfare: Prokopios and the Conservative Reaction to Later Roman Military Policy, American Journal of Ancient History, n.s. 3-4 (2004-2005 [2007]), 189–218. Kaldellis, Anthony: Identifying Dissident Circles in Sixth-Century Byzantium: The Friendship of Prokopios and Ioannes Lydos, Florilegium, Vol. 21 (2004), 1-17. Kaldellis, Anthony: Procopius of Caesarea: Tyranny, History and Philosophy at the End of Antiquity. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004. Kaldellis, Anthony: Prokopios’ Persian War: A Thematic and Literary Analysis, in: R. Macrides, ed., History as Literature in Byzantium, Aldershot: Ashgate, 2010, 253–273. Kaldellis, Anthony: Prokopios’ Vandal War: Thematic Trajectories and Hidden Transcripts, in: S. T. Stevens & J. Conant, eds., North Africa under Byzantium and Early Islam, Washington, D.C: Dumbarton Oaks, 2016, 13–21. Kaldellis, Anthony: The Date and Structure of Prokopios’ Secret History and his Projected Work on Church History, in: Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies, Vol. 49 (2009), 585–616. Kruse, Marion: The Speech of the Armenians in Procopius: Justinian's Foreign Policy and the Transition between Books 1 and 2 of the Wars, in: The Classical Quarterly 63 (2013), 866–881. Kovács, Tamás: "Procopius's Sibyl - the fall of Vitigis and the Ostrogoths", Graeco-Latina Brunensia 24.2 (2019), 113–124. Lillington-Martin, Christopher, 2007–2017: 2007, "Archaeological and Ancient Literary Evidence for a Battle near Dara Gap, Turkey, AD 530: Topography, Texts and Trenches" in BAR –S1717, 2007 The Late Roman Army in the Near East from Diocletian to the Arab Conquest Proceedings of a colloquium held at Potenza, Acerenza and Matera, Italy edited by Ariel S. Lewin and Pietrina Pellegrini, pp. 299–311; 2009, "Procopius, Belisarius and the Goths" in Journal of the Oxford University History Society,(2009) Odd Alliances edited by Heather Ellis and Graciela Iglesias Rogers. ISSN 1742-917X, pages 1– 17, https://sites.google.com/site/jouhsinfo/issue7specialissueforinternetexplorer; 2011, "Secret Histories", http://classicsconfidential.co.uk/2011/11/19/secret-histories/; 2012, "Hard and Soft Power on the Eastern Frontier: a Roman Fortlet between Dara and Nisibis, Mesopotamia, Turkey: Prokopios’ Mindouos?" in The Byzantinist, edited by Douglas Whalin, Issue 2 (2012), pp. 4–5, http://oxfordbyzantinesociety.files.wordpress.com/2012/06/obsnews2012final.pdf; 2013, Procopius on the struggle for Dara and Rome, in A. Sarantis, N. Christie (eds.): War and Warfare in Late Antiquity: Current Perspectives (Late Antique Archaeology 8.1–8.2 2010–11), Leiden: Brill 2013, pp. 599–630, ISBN 978-90-04-25257-8; 2013 “La defensa de Roma por Belisario” in: Justiniano I el Grande (Desperta Ferro) edited by Alberto Pérez Rubio, no. 18 (July 2013), pages 40–45, ISSN 2171-9276; 2017, Procopius of Caesarea: Literary and Historical Interpretations (editor), Routledge (July 2017), www.routledge.com/9781472466044; 2017, "Introduction" and chapter 10, “Procopius, πάρεδρος / quaestor, Codex Justinianus, I.27 and Belisarius’ strategy in the Mediterranean” in Procopius of Caesarea: Literary and Historical Interpretations above. Maas, Michael Robert: Strabo and Procopius: Classical Geography for a Christian Empire, in H. Amirav et al. (eds.): From Rome to Constantinople. Studies in Honour of Averil Cameron, Leuven: Peeters, 2007, 67–84. Martindale, John: The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire III, Cambridge 1992, 1060–1066. Meier, Mischa: Prokop, Agathias, die Pest und das ′Ende′ der antiken Historiographie, in Historische Zeitschrift 278 (2004), 281–310. Pazdernik, Charles F.: Xenophon’s Hellenica in Procopius’ Wars: Pharnabazus and Belisarius, in: Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies 46 (2006) 175–206. Rance, Philip: Narses and the Battle of Taginae (552 AD): Procopius and Sixth-Century Warfare, in: Historia. Zeitschrift für alte Geschichte 30.4 (2005) 424–472. Rubin, Berthold: Prokopios, in Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft 23/1 (1957), 273–599. Earlier published (with index) as Prokopios von Kaisareia, Stuttgart: Druckenmüller, 1954. Stewart, Michael, Contests of Andreia in Procopius’ Gothic Wars, Παρεκβολαι 4 (2014), pp. 21–54. Stewart, Michael, The Andreios Eunuch-Commander Narses: Sign of a Decoupling of martial Virtues and Hegemonic Masculinity in the early Byzantine Empire?, Cerae 2 (2015), pp. 1–25. Stewart, Michael, Masculinity, Identity, and Power Politics in the Age of Justinian: A Study of Procopius, Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2020:https://www.aup.nl/en/book/9789462988231/masculinity-identity-and-power-politics-in-the-age-of-justinian Treadgold, Warren: The Early Byzantine Historians, Basingstoke: Macmillan 2007, 176–226. The Secret History of Art by Noah Charney on the Vatican Library and Procopius. An article by art historian Noah Charney about the Vatican Library and its famous manuscript, Historia Arcana by Procopius. Whately, Conor, Battles and Generals: Combat, Culture, and Didacticism in Procopius' Wars. Leiden, 2016. Whitby, L. M. "Procopius and the Development of Roman Defences in Upper Mesopotamia", in P. Freeman and D. Kennedy (ed.), The Defence of the Roman and Byzantine East, Oxford, 1986, 717–35. External links[edit] Wikisource has original works written by or about: Procopius Texts of Procopius[edit] Complete Works, Greek text (Migne Patrologia Graeca) with analytical indexes The Secret History, English translation (Atwater, 1927) at the Internet Medieval Sourcebook The Secret History, English translation (Dewing, 1935) at LacusCurtius The Buildings, English translation (Dewing, 1935) at LacusCurtius The Buildings, Book IV Greek text with commentaries, index nominum, etc. at Sorin Olteanu's LTDM Project Works by Procopius at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Procopius at Internet Archive Procopius on LibriVox H. B. Dewing's Loeb edition of the works of Procopius: vols. I–VI at the Internet Archive (History of the Wars, Secret History) Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society (1888): Of the buildings of Justinian by Procopius, (ca 560 A.D) Complete Works 1, Greek ed. by K. W. Dindorf, Latin trans. by Claude Maltret in Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae Pars II Vol. 1, 1833. (Persian Wars I–II, Vandal Wars I–II) Complete Works 2, Greek ed. by K. W. Dindorf, Latin trans. by Claude Maltret in Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae Pars II Vol. 2, 1833. (Gothic Wars I–IV) Complete Works 3, Greek ed. by K. W. Dindorf, Latin trans. by Claude Maltret in Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae Pars II Vol. 3, 1838. (Secret History, Buildings of Justinian) Secondary material[edit] Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Procopius of Caesarea" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Entry for Procopius from the Suda. v t e Byzantine historians 5th century Annianus of Alexandria Eunapius John Rufus Malchus Olympiodorus of Thebes Panodorus of Alexandria Philostorgius Priscus Sabinus of Heraclea Socrates of Constantinople Sozomen Theodoret 6th century Agathias Cyril of Scythopolis Eustathius of Epiphania Evagrius Scholasticus Hesychius of Miletus John Diakrinomenos John of Ephesus John of Epiphania Pseudo-Joshua the Stylite Jordanes John Malalas Liberatus of Carthage Marcellinus Comes Menander Protector Nonnosus Peter the Patrician Procopius Theodorus Lector Theophanes of Byzantium Zacharias Rhetor Zosimus 7th century Chronicon Paschale John of Antioch Trajan the Patrician Theophylact Simocatta 8th century Hippolytus of Thebes 9th century Theophanes the Confessor George Syncellus Nikephoros I of Constantinople George Hamartolos Scriptor Incertus 10th century Chronicle of Monemvasia Constantine VII Joseph Genesius John Kaminiates Leo the Deacon Pseudo-Simeon Symeon the Metaphrast Theophanes Continuatus 11th century Michael Attaleiates George Kedrenos Michael Psellos John Skylitzes John Xiphilinus Yahya of Antioch 12th century Nikephoros Bryennios the Younger Niketas Choniates Eustathius of Thessalonica Michael Glykas Anna Komnene John Kinnamos Constantine Manasses Joannes Zonaras 13th century George Akropolites Theodore Skoutariotes 14th century Nicephorus Gregoras Nikephoros Kallistos Xanthopoulos John VI Kantakouzenos George Kodinos George Pachymeres Michael Panaretos 15th century John Anagnostes John Cananus Laonikos Chalkokondyles Michael Critobulus Doukas George Sphrantzes Authority control BIBSYS: 90741303 BNE: XX1380608 BNF: cb121468212 (data) CiNii: DA01455152 GND: 118741985 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CUBV\041039 ISNI: 0000 0003 8524 5527 LCCN: n50025184 LNB: 000185887 NDL: 001223646 NKC: kup19970000079796 NLG: 28166 NLI: 000107946 NSK: 000029578 NTA: 069343160 RERO: 02-A000133160 SELIBR: 196713 SNAC: w66d5zc7 SUDOC: 029951992 Trove: 1305632 VcBA: 495/37127 VIAF: 100172302 WorldCat Identities: viaf-89376420 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Procopius&oldid=996456163" Categories: 500 births 565 deaths 6th-century Byzantine people 6th-century Byzantine writers 6th-century historians Byzantine historians Historians of Justinian I Secret histories Sources on Germanic paganism Vandalic War People of the Roman–Sasanian Wars Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Latin-language text Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages العربية تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Latviešu Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Polski Português Română Русиньскый Русский Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 26 December 2020, at 18:46 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2803	----	Lugdunum - Wikipedia Lugdunum From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Roman city on the site of modern Lyon, France This article is about the city in Gaul. For other uses, see Lugdunum (disambiguation). Lugdunum Colonia Copia Claudia Augusta Lugdunum Location within France Location Lyon, France Region Gallia Lugdunensis Coordinates 45°45′35″N 4°49′10″E / 45.75972°N 4.81944°E / 45.75972; 4.81944Coordinates: 45°45′35″N 4°49′10″E / 45.75972°N 4.81944°E / 45.75972; 4.81944 Type Roman city Area 200 hectares History Builder Lucius Munatius Plancus Founded 43 BC Periods Roman Republic to Roman Empire Colonia Copia Claudia Augusta Lugdunum (modern Lyon, France) was an important Roman city in Gaul, established on the current site of Lyon. The city was founded in 43 BC by Lucius Munatius Plancus. It served as the capital of the Roman province of Gallia Lugdunensis and was an important city in the western half of the Roman Empire for centuries. Two emperors, Claudius and Caracalla, were born in Lugdunum. In the period  AD 69–192 the city's population may have numbered 50,000 to 100,000, and possibly up to 200,000 inhabitants.[1][2][3][4] The original Roman city was situated west of the confluence of the Rhône and Saône, on the Fourvière heights. By the late centuries of the empire much of the population was located in the Saône River valley at the foot of Fourvière. Contents 1 Name 2 Pre-Roman settlements and the area before the founding of the city 3 Founding of the Roman city 4 Attention from the Emperors 5 Growth and prosperity in the first centuries of the Empire 6 Christianity and the first martyrs 7 Battle of Lugdunum 8 Decline of Lugdunum and the Empire 9 See also 10 References 11 Sources 12 External links Name[edit] The Roman city was founded as Colonia Copia Felix Munatia, a name invoking prosperity and the blessing of the gods. The city became increasingly referred to as Lugdunum (and occasionally Lugudunum[5]) by the end of the 1st century AD. During the Middle Ages, Lugdunum was transformed to Lyon by natural sound change. Lugdunum is a latinization of the Gaulish *Lugudunon, meaning "Fortress (or hill) of (the god) Lugus" or, alternately "Fortress of the champion" (if *lugus is a common noun cognate with Old Irish lug "warrior, hero, fighter"). The Celtic god Lugus was apparently popular in Ireland and Britain as is found in medieval Irish literature as Lug(h) and in medieval Welsh literature as Lleu (also spelled Llew). According to Pseudo-Plutarch, Lugdunum takes its name from an otherwise unattested Gaulish word lugos, that he says means "raven" (κόρακα), and the Gaulish word for an eminence or high ground (τόπον ἐξέχοντα), dunon.[6] An early interpretation of Gaulish Lugduno as meaning "Desired Mountain" is recorded in a gloss in the 9th-century Endlicher's Glossary,[7] but this may in fact reflect a native Frankish speaker's folk-etymological attempt at linking the first element of the name, Lugu- (which, by the time this gloss was composed, would have been pronounced lu'u, the -g- having become silent) with the similar-sounding Germanic word for "love", *luβ.[8] Another early medieval folk-etymology of the name, found in gloss on the Latin poet Juvenal, connects the element Lugu- to the Latin word for "light", lux (luci- in compounds) and translates the name as "Shining Hill" (lucidus mons).[9] Pre-Roman settlements and the area before the founding of the city[edit] Archeological evidence[10] shows Lugdunum was a pre-Gallic settlement as far back as the neolithic era, and a Gallic settlement with continuous occupation from the 4th century BC. It was situated on the Fourvière heights above the Saône river. There was trade with Campania for ceramics and wine, and use of some Italic-style home furnishings before the Roman conquest. Gaul was conquered for the Romans by Julius Caesar between 58 and 53 BC. His description, De Bello Gallico, is our principal written source of knowledge of pre-Roman Gaul, but there is no specific mention of this area. Founding of the Roman city[edit] In 44 BC, ten years after the conquest of Gaul, Julius Caesar was assassinated and civil war erupted. According to the historian Cassius Dio, in 43 BC, the Roman Senate ordered Munatius Plancus and Lepidus, governors of central and Transalpine Gaul respectively, to found a city for a group of Roman refugees who had been expelled from Vienne (a town about 30 km or 20 miles to the south) by the Allobroges and were encamped at the confluence of the Saône and Rhône rivers. Dio Cassius says this was to keep them from joining Mark Antony and bringing their armies into the developing conflict.[5] Epigraphic evidence suggests Munatius Plancus was the principal founder of Lugdunum.[citation needed] Lugdunum seems to have had a population of several thousand at the time Roman foundation. The citizens were administratively assigned to the Galerian tribe. The aqueduct of the Monts d'Or, completed around 20BC, was the first of at least four aqueducts supplying water to the city. Within 50 years Lugdunum increased greatly in size and importance, becoming the administrative centre of Roman Gaul and Germany. By the end of the reign of Augustus, Strabo described Lugdunum as the junction of four major roads (the Via Agrippa): south to Narbonensis, Massilia and Italy, north to the Rhine river and Germany, northwest to the sea (the English Channel), and west to Aquitania. Antoninianus struck under Florianus in Lugdunum mint. The proximity to the frontier with Germany made Lugdunum strategically important for the next four centuries, as a staging ground for further Roman expansion into Germany, as well as the "de facto" capital city and administrative centre of the Gallic provinces. Its large and cosmopolitan population made it the commercial and financial heart of the northwestern provinces as well. The imperial mint established a branch in 15 BC, during the reign of Augustus, and produced coinage for the next three centuries (see picture). Attention from the Emperors[edit] Ancient Theatre of Fourvière In its 1st century, Lugdunum was many times the object of attention or visits by the emperors or the imperial family. Agrippa, Drusus, Tiberius, and Germanicus (born himself in Lugdunum) were among the gubernatorial generals who served in Lugdunum. Augustus is thought to have visited at least three times between 16 and 8 BC. Drusus lived in Lugdunum between 13 and 9 BC. In 10 BC his son Claudius (the future emperor) was born there. Tiberius stopped in Lugdunum in 5–4 BC, on his way to the Rhine, and again in 21 AD, campaigning against the Andecavi. Caligula's visit in 39–40 was longer, stranger, and better documented by Suetonius. Claudius and Nero also contributed to the city's importance and growth. In 12 BC, Drusus completed an administrative census of the area and dedicated an altar to his stepfather Augustus at the junction of the two rivers. Perhaps to promote a policy of conciliation and integration, all the notable men of the three parts of Gaul were invited. Caius Julius Vercondaridubnus, a member of the Aedui tribe, was installed as the first priest of the new imperial cult sanctuary, which was subsequently known as the Junction Sanctuary or the Sanctuary of the Three Gauls. The altar, with its distinctive vertical end poles, was engraved with the names of 60 Gallic tribes, and was featured prominently on coins from the Lugdunum mint for many years. The "council of the three Gauls" continued to be held annually for nearly three centuries, even after Gaul was divided into provinces. Amphithéâtre des Trois-Gaules in Lyon Southeastern Gaul became increasingly Romanized. By 19 AD at least one temple, and the first amphitheater in Gaul (now known as the Amphithéâtre des Trois-Gaules) had been built on the slopes of the Croix-Rousse hill. In 48 AD, emperor Claudius asked the Senate to grant the notable men of the three Gauls the right to accede to the Senate. His request was granted and an engraved bronze plaque of the speech (the Claudian Tables) was erected in Lugdunum. Today, the pieces of the huge plaque are the pride of the Gallo-Roman Museum in Lyon. Suetonius reported Caligula's visit to Lugdunum in 39–40 AD at the beginning of his third consulate as characteristic of his reign. Spectacles were staged at the amphitheater to honor and entertain him and his guest, Ptolemy, king of Mauretania (whom Caligula later had murdered). A rhetoric contest was held in which the losers were required to expunge their work with their tongues. He auctioned furniture brought from the palace in Rome, assigning prices and purchasers. When Caligula wanted to get rid of Herod Antipas, King of Judaea, he sent him to exile in Lugdunum. Claudius was born in Lugdunum in 10 BC and lived there for at least two years. As emperor, he returned in 43 AD en route to his conquest of Britain and stopped again after its victorious conclusion in 47. A fountain honoring his victory has been uncovered. He continued to take a supportive interest in the town, making the notables of the town eligible to serve in the Roman Senate, as described above. During Claudius' reign, the city's strategic importance was enhanced by the bridging of the Rhône river. Its depth and swampy valley had been an obstacle to travel and communication to the east. The new route, termed the compendium, shortened the route south to Vienne and made the roads from Lugdunum to Italy and Germany more direct. By the end of his reign, the city's official name had become Colonia Copia Claudia Augusta Lugudunenisium, abbreviated CCC AVG LVG. Nero also took an interest in the city. Citizens of Lugdunum contributed four million sesterces to the recovery after the Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD. In reciprocal appreciation, Nero contributed the same amount to the rebuilding of Lugdunum after a similarly devastating fire a few years later. Although the destructiveness of the fire is described in a letter from Seneca to Lucilius,[11] archeologists have not been able to uncover a confirmatory layer of ash. The Lyonnais admiration of Nero was not universally shared; tyranny, extravagance, and negligence fostered resentment, and coups were planned. In March 68 AD, a Romanized Aquitainian named Caius Julius Vindex, who was governor of Gallia Lugdunensis led an uprising intended to replace Nero with Galba, a Roman governor of Spain. The citizens of Vienne, however, responded more enthusiastically than the Lyonnais, most of whom remained loyal to Nero. A small force from Vienne briefly besieged Lugdunum, but withdrew when Vindex was defeated by the Rhine legions a few weeks later at Vesontio. Despite the defeat of Vindex, rebellion grew. Nero committed suicide in June and Galba was proclaimed emperor. The loyalty of Lugdunum to Nero was not appreciated by his successor, Galba, who punished some of Nero's supporters by confiscations of property. In another turnabout for Lugdunum, Galba's policies were immediately unpopular, and in January, 69 AD, the Rhine legions quickly threw their support to Vitellius as emperor. They arrived at friendly Lugdunum, where they were persuaded by the Lyonnais to punish nearby Vienne. Vienne quickly laid down weapons and paid a "ransom" to forestall plundering. Meanwhile, Vitellius arrived in Lugdunum, where, according to Tacitus, he formally declared himself Imperator, punished unreliable soldiers, and celebrated with feasts, and with games in the amphitheater. Fortunately for Lugdunum, the would-be emperor and his army hurried into Italy, defeated Otho, and was in turn defeated by Vespasian and the army of the East, bringing the chaos of the Year of the Four Emperors to an end. Despite a lack of imperial visits for most of the next century, Lugdunum prospered, until Septimius Severus and the Battle of Lugdunum (see below) brought devastation in 197 AD. Growth and prosperity in the first centuries of the Empire[edit] Aqueduct of the Gier In the 2nd century, Lugdunum prospered and grew to a population of 40,000 to 200,000 persons.[12] Four aqueducts brought water to the city's fountains, public baths, and wealthy homes. The aqueducts were well engineered and included several siphons. This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in French. (June 2016) Click [show] for important translation instructions. View a machine-translated version of the French article. Machine translation like DeepL or Google Translate is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Wikipedia. Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article. You must provide copyright attribution in the edit summary accompanying your translation by providing an interlanguage link to the source of your translation. A model attribution edit summary Content in this edit is translated from the existing French Wikipedia article at [[:fr:Aqueducs antiques de Lyon]]; see its history for attribution. You should also add the template {{Translated|fr|Aqueducs antiques de Lyon}} to the talk page. For more guidance, see Wikipedia:Translation. It continued to be a provincial capital with additional government functions and services such as the mint and customs service. Lugdunum had at least two banks and became the principal manufacturing center for pottery, metal working, and weaving in Gaul. Lyonnais terra cotta, pottery and wine were traded throughout Gaul, and many other items were crafted for export. The city itself was run by a "senate" of decurions (the ordo decurionum) and a hierarchy of magistrates: quaestors, aediles, and duumvirs. The social classes of the time consisted of the decurions at the top, who could aspire to Senate status, followed by the knights (equites), and the Augustales, six of whom were in charge of the municipal imperial cult. This latter status was the highest distinction to which a wealthy freedman could aspire. Many of the wealthy merchants and craftsmen were freedmen. Below them were the workmen and slaves. The Rhône and Saône rivers were navigable, as were most of the rivers of Gaul, and river traffic was heavy. The Lyonnais company of boatmen (nautae) was the largest and "most honored" in Gaul. Archeological evidence suggests the right bank of the Saône had the largest concentration of wharves, quays and warehouses. Lyonnais boatmen dominated the wine trade from Narbonensis and Italy, as well as oil from Spain, to the rest of Gaul. The heavy concentration of trade made Lugdunum one of the most cosmopolitan cities of Gaul, and inscriptions attest to a large foreign-born population, especially Italians, Greeks, and immigrants from the oriental provinces of Asia Minor and Syria-Palestine. There is evidence of numerous temples and shrines in Lugdunum. Traditional Gallic gods like mallet-bearing Sucellus and the mother goddesses called the Matres (depicted with cornucopiae) continued to be worshiped somewhat syncretistically along with the Roman gods. Additional religious cults came with the oriental immigrants, who brought the eastern mystery religions to the Rhône valley. A major shrine of the Phrygian goddess Cybele was built in nearby Vienne, and she also seems to have found special favor in Lugdunum in the late 1st century and 2nd century. Christianity and the first martyrs[edit] The cosmopolitan hospitality to eastern religions may have allowed the first attested Christian community in Gaul to be established in Lugdunum in the 2nd century, led by a bishop Pothinus—who probably was Greek. In 177 it also became the first in Gaul to suffer persecution and martyrdom. The event was described in a letter from the Christians in Lugdunum to counterparts in Asia, later retrieved and preserved by Eusebius. There is no record of a cause or a triggering event but mob violence against the Christians in the streets culminated in a public interrogation in the forum by the tribune and town magistrates. The Christians publicly confessed their faith and were imprisoned until the arrival of Legate of Lugdonensis, who gave his authority to the persecution. About 40 of the Christians were martyred—dying in prison, beheaded, or killed by beasts in the arena as a public spectacle. Among the latter were Bishop Pothinus, Blandina, Doctor Attalus, Ponticus, and the deacon Sanctus of Vienne. Their ashes were thrown into the Rhône. Nevertheless, the Christian community either survived or was reconstituted, and under Bishop Irenaeus it continued to grow in size and influence. Battle of Lugdunum[edit] Main article: Battle of Lugdunum The 2nd century ended with another struggle for imperial succession. The emperor Pertinax was murdered in 193, and four generals again "contended for the purple". Two of the rivals, Clodius Albinus and Septimius Severus, initially formed a political alliance. Albinus was a former legate of Britannia and commanded legions in Britain and Gaul. Septimius Severus commanded the Pannonian legions, and led them successfully against Didius Julianus near Rome in 193, and defeated Pescennius Niger in 194. Severus consolidated his power in Rome and broke his alliance with Albinus. The Senate supported Severus and declared Albinus a public enemy. Clodius Albinus had settled with his army near Lugdunum early in 195. There, he had himself proclaimed Augustus and made plans to counter Severus. Under his control, the Lugdunum mint issued coins celebrating his "clemency", as well as one dedicated to the "Genius of Lugdunum." He was joined by an army under Lucius Novius Rufus, the governor of Hispania Tarraconensis. They successfully attacked the German troops of Virius Lupus but were unable to deter them from supporting Severus. Severus brought his army from Italy and Germany toward the end of 196. The armies fought an initial, inconclusive engagement at Tinurtium (Tournus), about 60 km (35 miles) up the Saône from Lugdunum. Albinus retreated with his forces toward Lugdunum. On the 19th of February, 197, Severus again attacked Clodius Albinus to the northwest of the city. Albinus' army was defeated in the bloody and decisive Battle of Lugdunum. Dio Cassius described 300,000 men involved in the battle: although this was one of the largest battles involving Roman armies known, this number is assumed to be an exaggeration. Albinus committed suicide in a house near the Rhône; his head was sent to Rome as a warning to his supporters. His defeated cohorts were dissolved and the victorious legions punished those in Lugdunum who had supported Albinus, by confiscation, banishment, or execution. The city was plundered or at least severely damaged by the battle. Legio I Minervia remained camped in Lugdunum from 198 to 211. Decline of Lugdunum and the Empire[edit] Historical and archeological evidence indicates that Lugdunum never fully recovered from the devastation of this battle. A major reorganization of imperial administration begun at the end of the 3rd century during the reign of Diocletian and completed a few decades later by Constantine further reduced the importance of Lugdunum. This reorganization standardized size and status of provinces, splitting many of the larger. The new provinces were grouped in larger administrative districts. Lugdunum became the capital of a much smaller region containing only two cities besides Lugdunum: Autun and Langres. The new governor bore the title of consularis. The mint was retained at Lugdunum, as was an administrative tax office and a state-run wool clothing factory. Lugdunum was no longer the chief city and administrative capital of Gaul. Although the city continued, there seems to have been a population shift from the Fourviere heights where the original Roman city was situated to the river valley below. Other evidence suggests other cities surpassed Lugdunum as trading centers. Though the Western Empire persisted another century and a half, the border regions extending along the Rhine River in Germany to the Danube River in Dacia became far more important from a military and strategic standpoint. Cities like Augusta Treverorum (Trier) eclipsed Lugdunum in importance. The status of the western provinces declined further when Constantine made Byzantium (later named Constantinople after his death) the capital of the Eastern part of the Empire. As the Western Empire disintegrated in the 5th century, Lugdunum became the principal city of the Burgundian kingdom. See also[edit] History of Lyon Abascantus References[edit] ^ Travel Lyon, France: Illustrated Guide, Phrasebook & Maps, p. 9, at Google Books. ^ The Roman Remains of Northern and Eastern France: A Guidebook, p. 388, at Google Books. ^ Roman Cities, p. 176, at Google Books. ^ Roman Cities, p. 335, at Google Books. ^ a b Cassius Dio, Roman History, 46.50.4. ^ Delattre, Charles (ed.), Pseudo-Plutarque. De fluviorum et montium nominibus et de iis quae in illis inveniuntur, Presses Univ. Septentrion, 2011, pp. 109–111 (in Latin). ^ Lugduno desiderato monte: dunum enim montem Lugduno: "desired mountain"; because dunum is mountain" in Endlicher Glossary. ^ Toorians, Lauran, "Endlicher’s Glossary, an attempt to write its history", in: García Alonso (Juan Luis) (ed.), Celtic and other languages in ancient Europe (2008), pp. 153–184. ^ "Lugdunum est civitas Gallie quasi lucidum dunam, id est lucidus mons, dunam enim in Greco mons." in Andreas Hofeneder, Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen: Sammlung, Übersetzung und Kommentierung, Volume 2, Austrian Academy of Sciences Press, 2008, pp. 571–572 (in German). ^ Mathieu Poux, Hugues Savay-Guerraz, Lyon avant Lugdunum, Infolio éditions, 2003, p. 151 (in French), ISBN 2-88474-106-2. ^ Epistulae ad Lucilium, 91. ^ L'Express. No. 3074 (in French). Sources[edit] Cassius Dio. Roman History. XLVI, 50. André Pelletier. Histoire de Lyon: de la capitale les Gaules à la métropole européene. Editions Lyonnaises d'Art et d'Histoire. Lyon: 2004. ISBN 2-84147-150-0 Seneca. Apocolocyntosis. VII. 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en-wikipedia-org-2806	----	Classical Latin - Wikipedia Classical Latin From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Standard form of the Latin language in the Roman Republic and Empire This article is about written Classical Latin. For spoken language, see Latin. Classical Latin LINGVA LATINA, lingua latīna Latin inscription in the Colosseum Pronunciation [laˈtiːnɪtaːs] Native to Roman Republic, Roman Empire Region Mare Nostrum region Era 75 BC to AD 3rd century, when it developed into Late Latin Language family Indo-European Italic Latino-Faliscan Latin Classical Latin Early form Old Latin Writing system Classical Latin alphabet  Official status Official language in Roman Republic, Roman Empire Regulated by Schools of grammar and rhetoric Language codes ISO 639-3 – Linguist List lat-cla Glottolog None Linguasphere 51-AAB-aaa The range of Latin, AD 60 Classical Latin is the form of Latin language recognized as a standard by writers of the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire. It was used from 75 BC-3rd century AD when it developed into Late Latin. In some later periods, it was regarded as good or proper Latin, with following versions viewed as debased, degenerate, vulgar, or corrupted. The word Latin is now understood by default to mean "Classical Latin"; for example, modern Latin textbooks almost exclusively teach Classical Latin. Cicero and his contemporaries of the late republic used lingua latina and sermo latinus versions of the Latin language. Conversely, the Greeks used Vulgar Latin (sermo vulgaris and sermo vulgi) in their vernacular, written as latinitas,[note 1] or "Latinity" (which implies "good") when combined. It was also called sermo familiaris ("speech of the good families"), sermo urbanus ("speech of the city"), and in rare cases sermo nobilis ("noble speech"). Besides latinitas, it was mainly called latine (adverb for "in good Latin"), or latinius (comparative adverb for "in better Latin"). Latinitas was spoken and written. It was the language taught in schools. Prescriptive rules therefore applied to it, and when special subjects like poetry or rhetoric were taken into consideration, additional rules applied. Since spoken Latinitas has become extinct (in favor of subsequent registers), the rules of politus (polished) texts may give the appearance of an artificial language. However, Latinitas was a form of sermo (spoken language), and as such, retains spontaneity. No texts by Classical Latin authors are noted for the type of rigidity evidenced by stylized art, with the exception of repetitious abbreviations and stock phrases found on inscriptions. The best known example, "IESVS NAZARENVS REX IVDAEORVM" ("Jesus Nazarenus Rex Judaeorum", "Jesus The Nasarean - The King Of The Judeans") was the titulus written on the placard above Jesus' head on the Cross, is possibly the most famous example of Classical Latin. Contents 1 Philological constructs 1.1 Classical 1.2 Canonical 1.3 Ages of Latin 2 Authors of the Golden Age 2.1 Republican 2.2 Augustan 3 Authors of the Silver Age 3.1 From the Ides of March to Trajan 3.2 Through the death of Marcus Aurelius, 180 AD 4 Stylistic shifts 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 7.1 Citations 7.2 General sources 8 Further reading 9 External links Philological constructs[edit] Classical[edit] "Good Latin" in philology is known as "classical" Latin literature. The term refers to the canonical relevance of literary works written in Latin in the late Roman Republic, and early to middle Roman Empire. "[T]hat is to say, that of belonging to an exclusive group of authors (or works) that were considered to be emblematic of a certain genre."[1] The term classicus (masculine plural classici) was devised by the Romans to translate Greek ἐγκριθέντες (encrithentes), and "select" which refers to authors who wrote in a form of Greek that was considered model. Before then, the term classis, in addition to being a naval fleet, was a social class in one of the diachronic divisions of Roman society in accordance with property ownership under the Roman constitution.[2] The word is a transliteration of Greek κλῆσις (clēsis, or "calling") used to rank army draftees by property from first to fifth class. Classicus refers to those in the primae classis ("first class"), such as the authors of polished works of Latinitas, or sermo urbanus. It contains nuances of the certified and the authentic, or testis classicus ("reliable witness"). It was under this construct that Marcus Cornelius Fronto (an African-Roman lawyer and language teacher) used scriptores classici ("first-class" or "reliable authors") in the second century AD. Their works were be viewed as models of good Latin.[3] This is the first known reference (possibly innovated during this time) to Classical Latin applied by authors, evidenced in the authentic language of their works.[4] Canonical[edit] David Ruhnken Imitating Greek grammarians, Romans such as Quintilian drew up lists termed indices or ordines modeled after the ones created by the Greeks, which were called pinakes. The Greek lists were considered classical, or recepti scriptores ("select writers"). Aulus Gellius includes authors like Plautus, who are considered writers of Old Latin and not strictly in the period of classical Latin. The classical Romans distinguished Old Latin as prisca Latinitas and not sermo vulgaris. Each author's work in the Roman lists was considered equivalent to one in the Greek. In example, Ennius was the Latin Homer, Aeneid was the equivalent of Iliad, etc. The lists of classical authors were as far as the Roman grammarians went in developing a philology. The topic remained at that point while interest in the classici scriptores declined in the medieval period as the best form of the language yielded to medieval Latin, inferior to classical standards. The Renaissance saw a revival in Roman culture, and with it, the return of Classic ("the best") Latin. Thomas Sébillet's Art Poétique (1548), "les bons et classiques poètes françois", refers to Jean de Meun and Alain Chartier, who the first modern application of the words.[citation needed] According to Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, the term classical (from classicus) entered modern English in 1599, some 50 years after its re-introduction to the continent. In Governor William Bradford's Dialogue (1648), he referred to synods of a separatist church as "classical meetings", defined by meetings between "young men" from New England and "ancient men" from Holland and England.[5] In 1715, Laurence Echard's Classical Geographical Dictionary was published.[6] In 1736, Robert Ainsworth's Thesaurus Linguae Latinae Compendarius turned English words and expressions into "proper and classical Latin."[7] In 1768, David Ruhnken's Critical History of the Greek Orators recast the molded view of the classical by applying the word "canon" to the pinakes of orators after the Biblical canon, or list of authentic books of the Bible. In doing so, Ruhnken had secular catechism in mind.[8] Ages of Latin[edit] Wilhelm Sigismund Teuffel In 1870, Wilhelm Sigismund Teuffel's Geschichte der Römischen Literatur (A History of Roman Literature) defined the philological notion of classical Latin based on the metaphoric uses of the ancient myth, Ages of Man. It was viewed as a universal standard, marking the Golden and Silver Ages of classical Latin. Shortly after Wilhem Wagner published Teuffel's work in German, he translated it to English (1873). Teuffel's classification divides the chronology of classical Latin authors into several periods according to political events rather than by style. His work (with modifications) is still in use today. Teuffel went on to publish other editions, but the English translation of A History of Roman Literature gained immediate success. In 1877, Charles Thomas Cruttwell produced a similar work in English. In his preface, Cruttwell notes, "Teuffel's admirable history, without which many chapters in the present work could not have attained completeness." He also credits Wagner. Cruttwell adopts the time periods found in Teuffel's work, but he presents a detailed analysis of style, whereas Teuffel was more concerned with history. Like Teuffel, Cruttwell encountered issues while attempting to condense the voluminous details of time periods in an effort to capture the meaning of phases found in their various writing styles. Like Teuffel, he has trouble finding a name for the first of the three periods (the current Old Latin phase), calling it "from Livius to Sulla." He says the language "is marked by immaturity of art and language, by a vigorous but ill-disciplined imitation of Greek poetical models, and in prose by a dry sententiousness of style, gradually giving way to a clear and fluent strength..." These abstracts have little meaning to those not well-versed in Latin literature. In fact, Cruttwell admits "The ancients, indeed, saw a difference between Ennius, Pacuvius, and Accius, but it may be questioned whether the advance would be perceptible by us." In time, some of Cruttwell's ideas become established in Latin philology. While praising the application of rules to classical Latin (most intensely in the Golden Age, he says "In gaining accuracy, however, classical Latin suffered a grievous loss. It became cultivated as distinct from a natural language... Spontaneity, therefore, became impossible and soon invention also ceased... In a certain sense, therefore, Latin was studied as a dead language, while it was still a living."[9] Also problematic in Teuffel's scheme is its appropriateness to the concept of classical Latin. Cruttwell addresses the issue by altering the concept of the classical. The "best" Latin is defined as "golden" Latin, the second of the three periods. The other two periods (considered "classical") are left hanging. By assigning the term "pre-classical" to Old Latin and implicating it to post-classical (or post-Augustan) and silver Latin, Cruttwell realized that his construct was not accordance with ancient usage and assertions: "[T]he epithet classical is by many restricted to the authors who wrote in it [golden Latin]. It is best, however, not to narrow unnecessarily the sphere of classicity; to exclude Terence on the one hand or Tacitus and Pliny on the other, would savour of artificial restriction rather than that of a natural classification." The contradiction remains—Terence is, and is not a classical author, depending on context.[10] Authors of the Golden Age[edit] At Maecenas' Reception, oil, Stepan Bakalovich, 1890. An artist's view of the classical. Maecenas knew and entertained everyone literary in the Golden Age, especially Augustus. Teuffel's definition of the "First Period" of Latin was based on inscriptions, fragments, and the literary works of the earliest known authors. Though he does use the term "Old Roman" at one point, most of these findings remain unnamed. Teuffel presents the Second Period in his major work, das goldene Zeitalter der römischen Literatur (Golden Age of Roman Literature), dated 671–767 AUC (83 BC – 14 AD), according to his own recollection. The timeframe is marked by the dictatorship of Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix and the death of the emperor Augustus.[11][12] Wagner's translation of Teuffel's writing is as follows: The golden age of the Roman literature is that period in which the climax was reached in the perfection of form, and in most respects also in the methodical treatment of the subject-matters. It may be subdivided between the generations, in the first of which (the Ciceronian Age) prose culminated, while poetry was principally developed in the Augustan Age. The Ciceronian Age was dated 671–711 AUC (83–43 BC), ending just after the death of Marcus Tullius Cicero. The Augustan 711–67 AUC (43 BC – 14 AD) ends with the death of Augustus. The Ciceronian Age is further divided by the consulship of Cicero in 691 AUC (63 BC) into a first and second half. Authors are assigned to these periods by years of principal achievements. The Golden Age had already made an appearance in German philology, but in a less-systematic way. In a translation of Bielfeld's Elements of universal erudition (1770): The Second Age of Latin began about the time of Caesar [his ages are different from Teuffel's], and ended with Tiberius. This is what is called the Augustan Age, which was perhaps of all others the most brilliant, a period at which it should seem as if the greatest men, and the immortal authors, had met together upon the earth, in order to write the Latin language in its utmost purity and perfection...[13] and of Tacitus, his conceits and sententious style is not that of the golden age...[14] Evidently, Teuffel received ideas about golden and silver Latin from an existing tradition and embedded them in a new system, transforming them as he thought best. In Cruttwell's introduction, the Golden Age is dated 80 BC – 14 AD (from Cicero to Ovid), which corresponds to Teuffel's findings. Of the "Second Period," Cruttwell paraphrases Teuffel by saying it "represents the highest excellence in prose and poetry." The Ciceronian Age (known today as the "Republican Period") is dated 80–42 BC, marked by the Battle of Philippi. Cruttwell omits the first half of Teuffel's Ciceronian, and starts the Golden Age at Cicero's consulship in 63 BC—an error perpetuated in Cruttwell's second edition. He likely meant 80 BC, as he includes Varro in Golden Latin. Teuffel's Augustan Age is Cruttwell's Augustan Epoch (42 BC – 14 AD). Republican[edit] Marcus Tullius Cicero, after whom Teuffel named his Ciceronian period of the Golden Age Julius Caesar The literary histories list includes all authors from Canonical to the Ciceronian Age—even those whose works are fragmented or missing altogether. With the exception of a few major writers, such as Cicero, Caesar, Virgil and Catullus, ancient accounts of Republican literature praise jurists and orators whose writings, and analyses of various styles of language cannot be verified because there are no surviving records. The reputations of Aquilius Gallus, Quintus Hortensius Hortalus, Lucius Licinius Lucullus, and many others who gained notoriety without readable works, are presumed by their association within the Golden Age. A list of canonical authors of the period whose works survived in whole or in part is shown here: Marcus Terentius Varro (116–27 BC), highly influential grammarian Titus Pomponius Atticus (112/109 – 35/32), publisher and correspondent of Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43 BC), orator, philosopher, essayist, whose works define golden Latin prose and are used in Latin curricula beyond the elementary level Servius Sulpicius Rufus (106–43 BC), jurist, poet Decimus Laberius (105–43 BC), writer of mimes Marcus Furius Bibaculus (1st century BC), writer of ludicra Gaius Julius Caesar (103–44 BC), general, statesman, historian Gaius Oppius (1st century BC), secretary to Julius Caesar, probable author under Caesar's name Gaius Matius (1st century BC), public figure, correspondent with Cicero Cornelius Nepos (100–24 BC), biographer Publilius Syrus (1st century BC), writer of mimes and maxims Quintus Cornificius (1st century BC), public figure and writer on rhetoric Titus Lucretius Carus (Lucretius; 94–50 BC), poet, philosopher Publius Nigidius Figulus (98–45 BC), public officer, grammarian Aulus Hirtius (90–43 BC), public officer, military historian Gaius Helvius Cinna (1st century BC), poet Marcus Caelius Rufus (87–48 BC), orator, correspondent with Cicero Gaius Sallustius Crispus (86–34 BC), historian Marcus Porcius Cato Uticensis (Cato the Younger; 95–46 BC), orator Publius Valerius Cato (1st century BC), poet, grammarian Gaius Valerius Catullus (Catullus; 84–54 BC), poet Gaius Licinius Macer Calvus (82–47 BC), orator, poet Augustan[edit] Main article: Augustan literature (ancient Rome) The Golden Age is divided by the assassination of Julius Caesar. In the wars that followed, a generation of Republican literary figures were lost. Marcus Tullius Cicero was beheaded in the streets as he inquired among his litter about a disturbance.[citation needed] Cicero and his contemporaries were replaced by a new generation who spent their formidable years under the old constructs, and forced to make their mark under the watchful eye of a new emperor. The demand for great orators had ceased,[15] shifting to an emphasis on poetry. Other than the historian Livy, the most remarkable writers of the period were the poets Virgil, Horace, and Ovid. Although Augustus evidenced some toleration to republican sympathizers, he exiled Ovid, and imperial tolerance ended with the continuance of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Augustan writers include: Publius Vergilius Maro (Virgil, spelled also as Vergil; 70–19 BC), Quintus Horatius Flaccus (Horace; 65–8 BC), known for lyric poetry and satires Sextus Aurelius Propertius (50–15 BC), poet Albius Tibullus (54–19 BC), elegiac poet Publius Ovidius Naso (Ovid; 43 BC – AD 18), poet Titus Livius (Livy; 64 BC – AD 12), historian Grattius Faliscus (a contemporary of Ovid), poet Marcus Manilius (1st century BC and AD), astrologer, poet Gaius Julius Hyginus (64 BC – AD 17), librarian, poet, mythographer Marcus Verrius Flaccus (55 BC – AD 20), grammarian, philologist, calendarist Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (80-70 BC — after 15 BC), engineer, architect Marcus Antistius Labeo (d. AD 10 or 11), jurist, philologist Lucius Cestius Pius (1st century BC & AD), Latin educator Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus (1st century BC), historian, naturalist Marcus Porcius Latro (1st century BC), rhetorician Gaius Valgius Rufus (consul 12 BC), poet Authors of the Silver Age[edit] The frowning second emperor, Tiberius, limited free speech, precipitating the rise of Silver Latin, with its emphasis on mannerism rather than on solid content, according to Teuffel's model In his second volume, Imperial Period, Teuffel initiated a slight alteration in approach, making it clear that his terms applied to Latin and not just to the period. He also changed his dating scheme from AUC to modern BC/AD. Though he introduces das silberne Zeitalter der römischen Literatur, (The Silver Age of Roman Literature)[16] from the death of Augustus to the death of Trajan (14–117 AD), he also mentions parts of a work by Seneca the Elder, a wenig Einfluss der silbernen Latinität (a slight influence of silver Latin). It's clear that his mindset had shifted from Golden and Silver Ages to Golden and Silver Latin, also to include Latinitas, which at this point must be interpreted as Classical Latin. He may have been influenced in that regard by one of his sources E. Opitz, who in 1852 had published specimen lexilogiae argenteae latinitatis, which includes Silver Latinity.[17] Though Teuffel's First Period was equivalent to Old Latin and his Second Period was equal to the Golden Age, his Third Period die römische Kaiserheit encompasses both the Silver Age and the centuries now termed Late Latin, in which the forms seemed to break loose from their foundation and float freely. That is, men of literature were confounded about the meaning of "good Latin." The last iteration of Classical Latin is known as Silver Latin. The Silver Age is the first of the Imperial Period, and is divided into die Zeit der julischen Dynastie (14–68); die Zeit der flavischen Dynastie (69–96), and die Zeit des Nerva und Trajan (96–117). Subsequently, Teuffel goes over to a century scheme: 2nd, 3rd, etc., through 6th. His later editions (which came about towards the end of the 19th century) divide the Imperial Age into parts: 1st century (Silver Age), 2nd century ( the Hadrian and the Antonines), and the 3rd through 6th centuries. Of the Silver Age proper, Teuffel points out that anything like freedom of speech had vanished with Tiberius:[18] ...the continual apprehension in which men lived caused a restless versatility... Simple or natural composition was considered insipid; the aim of language was to be brilliant... Hence it was dressed up with abundant tinsel of epigrams, rhetorical figures and poetical terms... Mannerism supplanted style, and bombastic pathos took the place of quiet power. The content of new literary works was continually proscribed by the emperor, who exiled or executed existing authors and played the role of literary man, himself (typically badly). Artists therefore went into a repertory of new and dazzling mannerisms, which Teuffel calls "utter unreality." Cruttwell picks up this theme:[19] The foremost of these [characteristics] is unreality, arising from the extinction of freedom... Hence arose a declamatory tone, which strove by frigid and almost hysterical exaggeration to make up for the healthy stimulus afforded by daily contact with affairs. The vein of artificial rhetoric, antithesis and epigram... owes its origin to this forced contentment with an uncongenial sphere. With the decay of freedom, taste sank... Marcus Aurelius, emperor over the last generation of classicists and himself a classicist. In Cruttwell's view (which had not been expressed by Teuffel), Silver Latin was a "rank, weed-grown garden," a "decline."[20] Cruttwell had already decried what he saw as a loss of spontaneity in Golden Latin. Teuffel regarded the Silver Age as a loss of natural language, and therefore of spontaneity, implying that it was last seen in the Golden Age. Instead, Tiberius brought about a "sudden collapse of letters." The idea of a decline had been dominant in English society since Edward Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Once again, Cruttwell evidences some unease with his stock pronouncements: "The Natural History of Pliny shows how much remained to be done in fields of great interest." The idea of Pliny as a model is not consistent with any sort of decline. Moreover, Pliny did his best work under emperors who were as tolerant as Augustus had been. To include some of the best writings of the Silver Age, Cruttwell extended the period through the death of Marcus Aurelius (180 AD). The philosophic prose of a good emperor was in no way compatible with either Teuffel's view of unnatural language, or Cruttwell's depiction of a decline. Having created these constructs, the two philologists found they could not entirely justify them. Apparently, in the worst implication of their views, there was no such thing as Classical Latin by the ancient definition, and some of the very best writing of any period in world history was deemed stilted, degenerate, unnatural language. The Silver Age furnishes the only two extant Latin novels: Apuleius's The Golden Ass and Petronius's Satyricon. Perhaps history's best-known example of Classical Latin was written by Pontius Pilate on the placard placed above Jesus' Cross: Iesus Nazarenus Rex Iudaeorum, which translates to Jesus the Nazarean the King of the Judeans (Jesus of Nazareth the King of the Jews). Writers of the Silver Age include: From the Ides of March to Trajan[edit] Germanicus Caesar Ancient bust of Seneca, part of a double herm (Antikensammlung Berlin) Aulus Cremutius Cordus (died AD 25), historian Marcus Velleius Paterculus (19 BC – 31 AD), military officer, historian Valerius Maximus (1st century AD), rhetorician Masurius Sabinus (1st century AD), jurist Phaedrus (15 BC – AD 50), fabulist Germanicus Julius Caesar (15 BC – AD 19), royal family, imperial officer, translator Aulus Cornelius Celsus (25 BC – AD 50), physician, encyclopedist Quintus Curtius Rufus (1st century AD), historian Cornelius Bocchus (1st century AD), natural historian Pomponius Mela (d. AD 45), geographer Lucius Annaeus Seneca (4 BC – AD 65), educator, imperial advisor, philosopher, man of letters Titus Calpurnius Siculus (1st century AD or possibly later), poet Marcus Valerius Probus (1st century AD), literary critic Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (10 BC – AD 54), emperor, man of letters, public officer Gaius Suetonius Paulinus (1st century AD), general, natural historian Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella (AD 4 – 70), military officer, agriculturalist Quintus Asconius Pedianus (9 BC – 76 AD), historian, Latinist Gaius Musonius Rufus (AD 20 – 101), stoic philosopher Quintus Marcius Barea Soranus (1st century AD), imperial officer and public man Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23 – 79), imperial officer and encyclopedist Gaius Valerius Flaccus (1st century AD), epic poet Tiberius Catius Silius Italicus (AD 28 – 103), epic poet Gaius Licinius Mucianus (d. AD 76), general, man of letters Lucilius Junior (1st century AD), poet Aulus Persius Flaccus (34–62 AD), poet and satirist Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (35–100 AD), rhetorician Sextus Julius Frontinus (AD 40 – 103), engineer, writer Marcus Annaeus Lucanus (AD 39 – 65), poet, historian Publius Juventius Celsus Titus Aufidius Hoenius Severianus (1st and early 2nd centuries AD), imperial officer, jurist Aemilius Asper (1st and 2nd centuries AD), grammarian, literary critic Marcus Valerius Martialis (AD 40 – 104), poet, epigrammatist Publius Papinius Statius (AD 45 – 96), poet Decimus Junius Juvenalis (1st and 2nd centuries AD), poet, satirist Publius Annaeus Florus (1st and 2nd centuries AD), poet, rhetorician and probable author of the epitome of Livy Velius Longus (1st and 2nd centuries AD), grammarian, literary critic Flavius Caper (1st and 2nd centuries AD), grammarian Publius or Gaius Cornelius Tacitus (AD 56 − 120), imperial officer, historian and in Teuffel's view "the last classic of Roman literature." Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus (AD 62 – 114), historian, imperial officer and correspondent Through the death of Marcus Aurelius, 180 AD[edit] Sketch of Apuleius Of the additional century granted by Cruttwell to Silver Latin, Teuffel says: "The second century was a happy period for the Roman State, the happiest indeed during the whole Empire... But in the world of letters the lassitude and enervation, which told of Rome's decline, became unmistakeable... its forte is in imitation."[21] Teuffel, however, excepts the jurists; others find other "exceptions", recasting Teuffels's view.[clarification needed] Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus (70/75 – after 130 AD), biographer Marcus Junianus Justinus (2nd century AD), historian Lucius Octavius Cornelius Publius Salvius Julianus Aemilianus (AD 110–170), imperial officer, jurist Sextus Pomponius (2nd century AD), jurist Quintus Terentius Scaurus (2nd century AD), grammarian, literary critic Aulus Gellius (AD 125 – after 180), grammarian, polymath Lucius Apuleius Platonicus (123/125–180 AD), novelist Marcus Cornelius Fronto (AD 100–170), advocate, grammarian Gaius Sulpicius Apollinaris (2nd century AD), educator, literary commentator Granius Licinianus (2nd century AD), writer Lucius Ampelius (2nd century AD), educator Gaius (AD 130–180), jurist Lucius Volusius Maecianus (2nd century AD), educator, jurist Marcus Minucius Felix (d. AD 250), apologist of Christianity, "the first Christian work in Latin" (Teuffel) Sextus Julius Africanus (2nd century AD), Christian historian Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (121–180 AD, stoic philosopher, Emperor in Latin, essayist in ancient Greek, role model of the last generation of classicists (Cruttwell) Stylistic shifts[edit] Style of language refers to repeatable features of speech that are somewhat less general than the fundamental characteristics of a language. The latter provides unity, allowing it to be referred to by a single name. Thus Old Latin, Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin, etc., are not considered different languages, but are all referred to by the term, Latin. This is an ancient practice continued by moderns rather than a philological innovation of recent times. That Latin had case endings is a fundamental feature of the language. Whether a given form of speech prefers to use prepositions such as ad, ex, de, for "to," "from" and "of" rather than simple case endings is a matter of style. Latin has a large number of styles. Each and every author has a style, which typically allows his prose or poetry to be identified by experienced Latinists. Problems in comparative literature have risen out of group styles finding similarity by period, in which case one may speak of Old Latin, Silver Latin, Late Latin as styles or a phase of styles. The ancient authors themselves first defined style by recognizing different kinds of sermo, or "speech". By valuing Classical Latin as "first class", it was better to write with Latinitas selected by authors who were attuned to literary and upper-class languages of the city as a standardized style. All sermo that differed from it was a different style. Thus, in rhetoric, Cicero was able to define sublime, intermediate, and low styles within Classical Latin. St. Augustine recommend low style for sermons.[22] Style was to be defined by deviation in speech from a standard. Teuffel termed this standard "Golden Latin". John Edwin Sandys, who was an authority in Latin style for several decades, summarizes the differences between Golden and Silver Latin as follows:[23] Silver Latin is to be distinguished by: "an exaggerated conciseness and point" "occasional archaic words and phrases derived from poetry" "increase in the number of Greek words in ordinary use" (the Emperor Claudius in Suetonius refers to "both our languages," Latin and Greek[24]) "literary reminiscences" "The literary use of words from the common dialect" (dictare and dictitare as well as classical dicere, "to say") See also[edit] Languages portal Classic Classical antiquity Classics Late Latin Latin Latin literature Medieval Latin New Latin Social class in ancient Rome Notes[edit] ^ When rarely used in English, the term is capitalized: Latinitas. In Latin it was written all in uppercase: LATINITAS, as were all words in Latin. References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Citroni 2006, p. 204. ^ Citroni 2006, p. 205. ^ Citroni 2006, p. 206, reported in Aulus Gellius, 9.8.15. ^ Citroni 2006, p. 207. ^ Bradford, William (1855) [1648]. "Gov. Bradford's Dialogue". In Morton, Nathaniel (ed.). New England's Memorial. Boston: Congregational Board of Publication. p. 330. ^ Littlefield 1904, p. 301. ^ Ainsworth, Robert (January 1736). "Article XXX: Thesaurus Linguae Latinae Compendarius". The Present State of the Republic of Letters. London: W. Innys and R. Manby. XVII. ^ Gorak, Jan (1991). The making of the modern canon: genesis and crisis of a literary idea. London: Athlone. p. 51. ^ Cruttwell 1877, p. 3. ^ Cruttwell 1877, p. 142. ^ Teuffel 1873, p. 216. ^ Teuffel 1873, p. 226. ^ Bielfeld 1770, p. 244. ^ Bielfeld 1770, p. 345. ^ Teuffel 1873, p. 385, "Public life became extinct, all political business passed into the hands of the monarch..." ^ Teuffel 1873, p. 526. ^ Teuffel 1873, p. 530. ^ Teuffel & Schwabe 1892, pp. 4–5. ^ Cruttwell 1877, p. 6. ^ Cruttwell 1877, p. 341. ^ Teuffel & Schwabe 1892, p. 192. ^ Auerbach, Erich; Mannheim, Ralph (Translator) (1965) [1958]. Literary Language and its Public in Late Latin Antiquity and in the Middle Ages. Bollingen Series LXXIV. Pantheon Books. p. 33. ^ Sandys, John Edwin (1921). A Companion to Latin Studies Edited for the Syndics of the University Press (3rd ed.). Cambridge: University Press. pp. 824–26. ^ Suetonius, Claudius, 24.1. General sources[edit] Bielfeld, Baron (1770), The Elements of Universal Erudition, Containing an Analytical Abridgement of the Science, Polite Arts and Belles Lettres, III, translated by Hooper, W., London: G Scott Citroni, Mario (2006), "The Concept of the Classical and the Canons of Model Authors in Roman Literature", in Porter, James I. (ed.), The Classical Tradition of Greece and Rome, translated by Packham, RA, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, pp. 204–34 Cruttwell, Charles Thomas (1877), A History of Roman Literature from the Earliest Period to the Death of Marcus Aurelius, London: Charles Griffin & Co. Littlefield, George Emery (1904), Early Schools and School-books of New England, Boston, MA: Club of Odd Volumes Settis, Salvatore (2006), The Future of the "Classical", translated by Cameron, Allan, Cambridge, UK; Malden, MA: Polity Press Teuffel, Wilhelm Sigismund (1873), A History of Roman Literature, translated by Wagner, Wilhelm, London: George Bell & Sons Teuffel, Wilhelm Sigismund; Schwabe, Ludwig (1892), Teuffel's History of Roman Literature Revised and Enlarged, II, The Imperial Period, translated by Warr, George C.W. (from the 5th German ed.), London: George Bell & Sons Further reading[edit] Library resources about Classical Latin Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Allen, William Sidney. 1978. Vox Latina: A Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cruttwell, Charles Thomas (2005) [1877]. A History of Roman Literature from the Earliest Period to the Death of Marcus Aurelius. London: Charles Griffin and Company, Project Gutenberg. Retrieved 26 September 2009. Dickey, Eleanor. 2012. "How to Say 'Please' in Classical Latin". The Classical Quarterly 62, no. 2: 731–48. doi:10.1017/S0009838812000286. Getty, Robert J. 1963. "Classical Latin meter and prosody, 1935–1962". Lustrum 8: 104–60. Levene, David. 1997. "God and man in the Classical Latin panegyric". Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society 43: 66–103. Lovric, Michelle, and Nikiforos Doxiadis Mardas. 1998. How to Insult, Abuse & Insinuate In Classical Latin. London: Ebury Press. Rosén, Hannah. 1999. Latine Loqui: Trends and Directions In the Crystallization of Classical Latin. München: W. Fink. Spevak, Olga. 2010. Constituent Order In Classical Latin Prose. Amsterdam: J. Benjamins. Teuffel, W. S. (2001) [1870]. Geschichte der Römischen Literatur (in German). Leipzig: B.G. Teubner. Retrieved 25 September 2009. 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en-wikipedia-org-2810	----	Roman currency - Wikipedia Roman currency From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Roman Imperial currency) Jump to navigation Jump to search Denarius of Marcus Aurelius. Legend: IMP. M. ANTONINVS AVG. TR. P. XXV. Numismatics Currency Coins Banknotes Forgery List ISO Circulating currencies Africa The Americas Europe Asia Oceania Local currencies Company scrip LETS Time dollars Fictional currencies Proposed currencies History Historical currencies Greek Roman China India Persian Tibetan Thai Filipino Malay Byzantine Medieval currencies Production Mint Designers Coining Milling Hammering Cast Exonumia Credit cards Medals Tokens Cheques Notaphily Banknotes Scripophily Stocks Bonds Glossary of numismatics  Numismatics portal  Money portal v t e Roman currency for most of Roman history consisted of gold, silver, bronze, orichalcum and copper coinage[1] (see: Roman metallurgy). From its introduction to the Republic, during the third century BC, well into Imperial times, Roman currency saw many changes in form, denomination, and composition. A persistent feature was the inflationary debasement and replacement of coins over the centuries. Notable examples of this followed the reforms of Diocletian. This trend continued into Byzantine times. Due to the economic power and longevity of the Roman state, Roman currency was widely used throughout western Eurasia and northern Africa from classical times into the Middle Ages. It served as a model for the currencies of the Muslim caliphates and the European states during the Middle Ages and the Modern Era. Roman currency names survive today in many countries (e.g., the Arabic dinar (from the denarius coin), the British pound and Mexican peso (both translations of the Roman libra)). Contents 1 Authority to mint coins 1.1 Roman Republic: c. 500 – 27 BC 2 Iconography and design 2.1 Imperial iconography 3 Value and composition 3.1 Debasement 3.2 Equivalences 4 See also 5 References 5.1 Footnotes 5.2 Bibliography 6 External links Authority to mint coins[edit] The manufacture of coins in the Roman culture, dating from about the 4th century BC, significantly influenced later development of coin minting in Europe. The origin of the word "mint" is ascribed to the manufacture of silver coin at Rome in 269 BC near the temple of Juno Moneta. This goddess became the personification of money, and her name was applied both to money and to its place of manufacture. Roman mints were spread widely across the Empire, and were sometimes used for propaganda purposes. The populace often learned of a new Roman Emperor when coins appeared with the new Emperor's portrait. Some of the emperors who ruled only for a short time made sure that a coin bore their image[citation needed]; Quietus, for example, ruled only part of the Roman Empire from 260 to 261 AD, and yet he issued two coins bearing his image. The Romans cast their larger copper coins in clay moulds carrying distinctive markings, not because they did not know about striking, but because it was not suitable for such large masses of metal. Roman Republic: c. 500 – 27 BC[edit] Main article: Roman Republican currency Bronze aes signatum produced by the Roman Republic after 450 BC. Roman adoption of metallic commodity money was a late development in monetary history. Bullion bars and ingots were used as money in Mesopotamia since the 7th millennium BC; and Greeks in Asia Minor had pioneered the use of coinage (which they employed in addition to other more primitive, monetary mediums of exchange) as early as the 7th century BC.[2] Coinage proper was only introduced by the Roman Republican government c. 300 BC. The greatest city of the Magna Graecia region in southern Italy, and several other Italian cities, already had a long tradition of using coinage by this time and produced them in large quantities during the 4th century BC to pay for their wars against the inland Italian groups encroaching on their territory. For these reasons, the Romans would have certainly known about coinage systems long before their government actually introduced them. The reason behind Rome's adoption of coinage was likely cultural. The Romans had no pressing economic need, but they wanted to emulate Greek culture; they considered the institution of minted money a significant feature of that culture. However, Roman coinage initially saw very limited use.[3] The type of money introduced by Rome was unlike that found elsewhere in the ancient Mediterranean. It combined a number of uncommon elements. One example is the large bronze bullion, the aes signatum (Latin for signed bronze). It measured about 160 by 90 millimetres (6.3 by 3.5 in) and weighed around 1,500 to 1,600 grams (53 to 56 oz), being made out of a highly leaded tin bronze. Although similar metal currency bars had been produced in Italy and northern Etruscan areas, these had been made of Aes grave, an unrefined metal with a high iron content.[4] Along with the aes signatum, the Roman state also issued a series of bronze and silver coins that emulated the styles of those produced in Greek cities.[5] Produced using the manner of manufacture then utilised in Greek Naples, the designs of these early coins were also heavily influenced by Greek designs.[6] The designs on the coinage of the Republican period displayed a "solid conservatism", usually illustrating mythical scenes or personifications of various gods and goddesses.[7] Iconography and design[edit] Imperial iconography[edit] The most commonly used coin denominations and their relative sizes during Roman times. Coins of the Roman Republic and Empire - from Cassell's History of England, Vol. I - anonymous author and artists The imagery on coins took an important step when Julius Caesar issued coins bearing his own portrait. While moneyers had earlier issued coins with portraits of ancestors, Caesar's was the first Roman coinage to feature the portrait of a living individual. The tradition continued following Caesar's assassination, although the imperators from time to time also produced coins featuring the traditional deities and personifications found on earlier coins. The image of the Roman emperor took on a special importance in the centuries that followed, because during the empire, the emperor embodied the state and its policies. The names of moneyers continued to appear on the coins until the middle of Augustus' reign. Although the duty of moneyers during the Empire is not known, since the position was not abolished, it is believed that they still had some influence over the imagery of the coins. The main focus of the imagery during the empire was on the portrait of the emperor. Coins were an important means of disseminating this image throughout the empire. Coins often attempted to make the emperor appear god-like through associating the emperor with attributes normally seen in divinities, or emphasizing the special relationship between the emperor and a particular deity by producing a preponderance of coins depicting that deity. During his campaign against Pompey, Caesar issued a variety of types that featured images of either Venus or Aeneas, attempting to associate himself with his divine ancestors. An example of an emperor who went to an extreme in proclaiming divine status was Commodus. In 192 A.D., he issued a series of coins depicting his bust clad in a lion-skin (the usual depiction of Hercules) on the obverse, and an inscription proclaiming that he was the Roman incarnation of Hercules on the reverse. Although Commodus was excessive in his depiction of his image, this extreme case is indicative of the objective of many emperors in the exploitation of their portraits. While the emperor is by far the most frequent portrait on the obverse of coins, heirs apparent, predecessors, and other family members, such as empresses, were also featured. To aid in succession, the legitimacy of an heir was affirmed by producing coins for that successor. This was done from the time of Augustus till the end of the empire. Featuring the portrait of an individual on a coin, which became legal in 44 BC, caused the coin to be viewed as embodying the attributes of the individual portrayed. Dio wrote that following the death of Caligula the Senate demonetized his coinage, and ordered that they be melted. Regardless of whether or not this actually occurred, it demonstrates the importance and meaning that was attached to the imagery on a coin. The philosopher Epictetus jokingly wrote: "Whose image does this sestertius carry? Trajan's? Give it to me. Nero's? Throw it away, it is unacceptable, it is rotten." Although the writer did not seriously expect people to get rid of their coins, this quotation demonstrates that the Romans attached a moral value to the images on their coins. Unlike the obverse, which during the imperial period almost always featured a portrait, the reverse was far more varied in its depiction. During the late Republic there were often political messages to the imagery, especially during the periods of civil war. However, by the middle of the Empire, although there were types that made important statements, and some that were overtly political or propagandistic in nature, the majority of the types were stock images of personifications or deities. While some images can be related to the policy or actions of a particular emperor, many of the choices seem arbitrary and the personifications and deities were so prosaic that their names were often omitted, as they were readily recognizable by their appearance and attributes alone. It can be argued that within this backdrop of mostly indistinguishable types, exceptions would be far more pronounced. Atypical reverses are usually seen during and after periods of war, at which time emperors make various claims of liberation, subjugation, and pacification. Some of these reverse images can clearly be classified as propaganda. An example struck by emperor Philip in 244 features a legend proclaiming the establishment of peace with Persia; in truth, Rome had been forced to pay large sums in tribute to the Persians. Although it is difficult to make accurate generalizations about reverse imagery, as this was something that varied by emperor, some trends do exist. An example is reverse types of the military emperors during the second half of the third century, where virtually all of the types were the common and standard personifications and deities. A possible explanation for the lack of originality is that these emperors were attempting to present conservative images to establish their legitimacy, something that many of these emperors lacked. Although these emperors relied on traditional reverse types, their portraits often emphasized their authority through stern gazes,[8][citation needed] and even featured the bust of the emperor clad in armor.[9] Value and composition[edit] Unlike most modern coins, Roman coins had (at least in the early centuries) significant intrinsic value. However, while the gold and silver issues contained precious metals, the value of a coin could be slightly higher than its precious metal content, so they were not, strictly speaking, equivalent to bullion. Also, over the course of time the purity and weight of the silver coins were reduced. Estimates of the value of the denarius range from 1.6 to 2.85 times its metal content,[citation needed] thought to equal the purchasing power of 10 modern British Pound Sterling at the beginning of the Roman Empire to around 18 Pound Sterling by its end (comparing bread, wine and meat prices) and, over the same period, around one to three days' pay for a Legionary.[10] The coinage system that existed in Egypt until the time of Diocletian's monetary reform was a closed system based upon the heavily debased tetradrachm. Although the value of these tetradrachms can be reckoned as being equivalent to that of the denarius, their precious metal content was always much lower. Elsewhere also, not all coins that circulated contained precious metals, as the value of these coins was too great to be convenient for everyday purchases. A dichotomy existed between the coins with an intrinsic value and those with only a token value. This is reflected in the infrequent and inadequate production of bronze coinage during the Republic, where from the time of Sulla till the time of Augustus no bronze coins were minted at all; even during the periods when bronze coins were produced, their workmanship was sometimes very crude and of low quality. Debasement[edit] The rapid decline in silver purity of the antoninianus The type of coins issued changed under the coinage reform of Diocletian, the heavily debased antoninianus (double denarius) was replaced with a variety of new denominations, and a new range of imagery was introduced that attempted to convey different ideas. The new government set up by Diocletian was a tetrarchy, or rule by four, with each emperor receiving a separate territory to rule. The new imagery includes a large, stern portrait that is representative of the emperor. This image was not meant to show the actual portrait of a particular emperor, but was instead a character that embodied the power that the emperor possessed. The reverse type was equally universal, featuring the spirit (or genius) of the Romans. The introduction of a new type of government and a new system of coinage represents an attempt by Diocletian to return peace and security to Rome, after the previous century of constant warfare and uncertainty. Diocletian characterizes the emperor as an interchangeable authority figure by depicting him with a generalized image. He tries to emphasize unity amongst the Romans by featuring the spirit of Romans (Sutherland 254). The reverse types of coins of the late Empire emphasized general themes, and discontinued the more specific personifications depicted previously. The reverse types featured legends that proclaimed the glory of Rome, the glory of the army, victory against the "barbarians", the restoration of happy times, and the greatness of the emperor. These general types persisted even after the adoption of Christianity as the state religion of the Roman Empire. Muted Christian imagery, such as standards that featured Christograms (the chi-rho monogram for Jesus Christ's name in Greek) were introduced, but with a few rare exceptions, there were no explicitly Christian themes. From the time of Constantine until the "end" of the Roman Empire, coins featured almost indistinguishable idealized portraits and general proclamations of greatness. Although the denarius remained the backbone of the Roman economy from its introduction in 211 BC until it ceased to be normally minted in the middle of the third century, the purity and weight of the coin slowly, but inexorably, decreased. The problem of debasement in the Roman economy appears to be pervasive, although the severity of the debasement often paralleled the strength or weakness of the Empire. While it is not clear why debasement was such a common occurrence for the Romans, it's believed that it was caused by several factors, including a lack of precious metals and inadequacies in state finances. When introduced, the denarius contained nearly pure silver at a theoretical weight of approximately 4.5 grams, but from the time of Nero onwards the tendency was nearly always for its purity to be decreased. The theoretical standard, although not usually met in practice, remained fairly stable throughout the Republic, with the notable exception of times of war. The large number of coins required to raise an army and pay for supplies often necessitated the debasement of the coinage. An example of this is the denarii that were struck by Mark Antony to pay his army during his battles against Octavian. These coins, slightly smaller in diameter than a normal denarius, were made of noticeably debased silver. The obverse features a galley and the name Antony, while the reverse features the name of the particular legion that each issue was intended for (hoard evidence shows that these coins remained in circulation over 200 years after they were minted, due to their lower silver content). The coinage of the Julio-Claudians remained stable at 4 grams of silver, until the debasement of Nero in 64, when the silver content was reduced to 3.8 grams, perhaps due to the cost of rebuilding the city after fire consumed a considerable portion of Rome. The denarius continued to decline slowly in purity, with a notable reduction instituted by Septimius Severus. This was followed by the introduction of a double denarius piece, differentiated from the denarius by the radiate crown worn by the emperor. The coin is commonly called the antoninianus by numismatists after the emperor Caracalla, who introduced the coin in early 215. Although nominally valued at two denarii, the antoninianus never contained more than 1.6 times the amount of silver of the denarius. The profit of minting a coin valued at two denarii, but weighing only about one and a half times as much is obvious; the reaction to these coins by the public is unknown. As the number of antoniniani minted increased, the number of denarii minted decreased, until the denarius ceased to be minted in significant quantities by the middle of the third century. Again, coinage saw its greatest debasement during times of war and uncertainty. The second half of the third century was rife with this war and uncertainty, and the silver content of the antonianus fell to only 2%, losing almost any appearance of being silver. During this time the aureus remained slightly more stable, before it too became smaller and more base (lower gold content and higher base metal content) before Diocletian's reform. The decline in the silver content to the point where coins contained virtually no silver at all was countered by the monetary reform of Aurelian in 274. The standard for silver in the antonianus was set at twenty parts copper to one part silver, and the coins were noticeably marked as containing that amount (XXI in Latin or KA in Greek). Despite the reform of Aurelian, silver content continued to decline, until the monetary reform of Diocletian. In addition to establishing the tetrarchy, Diocletian devised the following system of denominations: an aureus struck at the standard of 60 to the pound, a new silver coin struck at the old Neronian standard known as the argenteus, and a new large bronze coin that contained two percent silver. Diocletian issued an Edict on Maximum Prices in 301, which attempted to establish the legal maximum prices that could be charged for goods and services. The attempt to establish maximum prices was an exercise in futility as maximum prices were impossible to enforce. The Edict was reckoned in terms of denarii, although no such coin had been struck for over 50 years (it is believed that the bronze follis was valued at ​12 1⁄2 denarii). Like earlier reforms, this too eroded and was replaced by an uncertain coinage consisting mostly of gold and bronze. The exact relationship and denomination of the bronze issues of a variety of sizes is not known, and is believed to have fluctuated heavily on the market. The exact reason that Roman coinage sustained constant debasement is not known, but the most common theories involve inflation, trade with India, which drained silver from the Mediterranean world, and inadequacies in state finances. It is clear from papyri that the pay of the Roman soldier increased from 900 sestertii a year under Augustus to 2000 sestertii a year under Septimius Severus and the price of grain more than tripled indicating that fall in real wages and a moderate inflation occurred during this time.[11] Another reason for debasement was lack of raw metal with which to produce coins. Italy itself contains no large or reliable mines for precious metals; therefore the precious metals for coinage had to be obtained elsewhere. The majority of the precious metals that Rome obtained during its period of expansion arrived in the form of war booty from defeated territories, and subsequent tribute and taxes by new-conquered lands. When Rome ceased to expand, the precious metals for coinage then came from newly mined silver, such as from Greece and Spain, and from melting older coins. Without a constant influx of precious metals from an outside source, and with the expense of continual wars, it would seem reasonable that coins might be debased to increase the amount that the government could spend. This explanation for the debasement of coinage is that it allowed the state to spend more than it had. By decreasing the amount of silver in its coins, Rome could produce more coins and "stretch" its budget. As time progressed, the trade deficit of the west, because of its buying of grain and other commodities, led to a currency drainage in Rome. Equivalences[edit] The first rows show the values of each boldface coin in the first column in relation to the coins in the following columns: Early Republic values[12][13] (after 211 BC) Denarius Sestertius Dupondius As Semis Quincunx Triens Quadrans Uncia Denarius 1 4 5 10 20 24 30 40 120 Sestertius ​1⁄4 1 ​1  1⁄4 ​2  1⁄2 5 6 ​7  1⁄2 10 30 Dupondius ​1⁄5 ​4⁄5 1 2 4 ​4  4⁄5 6 8 24 As ​1⁄10 ​2⁄5 ​1⁄2 1 2 ​2  2⁄5 3 4 12 Semis ​1⁄20 ​1⁄5 ​1⁄4 ​1⁄2 1 ​1  1⁄5 ​1  1⁄2 2 6 Quincunx ​1⁄24 ​1⁄6 ​5⁄24 ​5⁄12 ​5⁄6 1 ​1  1⁄4 ​1  2⁄3 5 Triens ​1⁄30 ​2⁄15 ​1⁄6 ​1⁄3 ​2⁄3 ​4⁄5 1 ​1  1⁄3 4 Quadrans ​1⁄40 ​1⁄10 ​1⁄8 ​1⁄4 ​1⁄2 ​3⁄5 ​3⁄4 1 3 Uncia ​1⁄120 ​1⁄30 ​1⁄24 ​1⁄12 ​1⁄6 ​1⁄5 ​1⁄4 ​1⁄3 1 Augustan values (27 BC – AD 301) Aureus Quinarius Aureus Denarius Quinarius Sestertius Dupondius As Semis Quadrans Aureus 1 2 25 50 100 200 400 800 1600 Quinarius Aureus ​1⁄2 1 ​12  1⁄2 25 50 100 200 400 800 Denarius ​1⁄25 ​2⁄25 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 Quinarius Argenteus ​1⁄50 ​1⁄25 ​1⁄2 1 2 4 8 16 32 Sestertius ​1⁄100 ​1⁄50 ​1⁄4 ​1⁄2 1 2 4 8 16 Dupondius ​1⁄200 ​1⁄100 ​1⁄8 ​1⁄4 ​1⁄2 1 2 4 8 As ​1⁄400 ​1⁄200 ​1⁄16 ​1⁄8 ​1⁄4 ​1⁄2 1 2 4 Semis ​1⁄800 ​1⁄400 ​1⁄32 ​1⁄16 ​1⁄8 ​1⁄4 ​1⁄2 1 2 Quadrans ​1⁄1600 ​1⁄800 ​1⁄64 ​1⁄32 ​1⁄16 ​1⁄8 ​1⁄4 ​1⁄2 1 Diocletian values (301–305) Solidus Argenteus Nummus Radiate Laureate Denarius Solidus 1 10 40 200 500 1000 Argenteus ​1⁄10 1 4 20 50 100 Nummus ​1⁄40 ​1⁄4 1 5 ​12  1⁄2 25 Radiate ​1⁄200 ​1⁄20 ​1⁄5 1 ​2  1⁄2 5 Laureate ​1⁄500 ​1⁄50 ​2⁄25 ​2⁄5 1 2 Denarius ​1⁄1000 ​1⁄100 ​1⁄25 ​1⁄5 ​1⁄2 1 Late Empire coin values (337–476) Solidus Miliarense Siliqua Follis Nummus Solidus 1 12 24 180 7200 Miliarense ​1⁄12 1 2 15 600 Siliqua ​1⁄24 ​1⁄2 1 ​7  1⁄2 300 Follis ​1⁄180 ​1⁄15 ​2⁄15 1 40 Nummus ​1⁄7200 ​1⁄600 ​1⁄300 ​1⁄40 1 See also[edit] Numismatics portal Money portal Cupellation List of historical currencies Roman economy Roman Republican coinage Roman provincial currency Byzantine coinage Visigothic coinage Sasanian coinage Roman Republican moneyers Tessera Spintria Ancient Symbols (Unicode block) References[edit] Footnotes[edit] ^ "Blanchard and Company, Inc. - The Twelve Caesars". Retrieved February 8, 2017. ^ Metcalf 2012, p. 33. ^ Burnett 1987. pp. 15–16. ^ Burnett 1987. p. 3. ^ Burnett 1987. pp. 4–5. ^ Burnett 1987. p. 16. ^ Reece 1970. p. 19. ^ Trentinella, Rosemarie (October 2003). "Roman Portrait Sculpture: The Stylistic Cycle". www.metmuseum.org. Retrieved 2019-08-13. ^ "Probus". www.forumancientcoins.com. Retrieved 2019-05-06. ^ "Buying Power of Ancient Coins". Archived from the original on February 10, 2013. Retrieved 2013-02-10. ^ ancientcoins.biz ^ W.G. Sayles, Ancient Coin Collecting III: The Roman World-Politics and Propaganda, Iola, 1997, p. 20. ^ William Boyne, A Manual of Roman Coins: from the earliest period to the extinction of the empire, W. H. Johnston, 1865, p. 7. Available online. Bibliography[edit] Burnett, Andrew (1987). Coinage in the Roman World. London: Seaby. ISBN 978-0-900652-84-4. Cohen, Henry, Description historiques des monnaies frappées sous l'Empire romain, Paris, 1882, 8 vols. There exists online version of this Cohen's catalogue Greene, Kevin. Archaeology of the Roman Economy. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1986. Howgego, Christopher. Ancient History from Coins. London: Routledge, 1995. Jones, A. H. M. The Roman Economy: Studies in Ancient Economic and Administrative History. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1974. Melville Jones, John R., 'A Dictionary of Ancient Roman Coins', London, Spink 2003. Metcalf, William E. (2012). The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195305746. Reece, Richard (1970). Roman Coins. London: Ernest Benn Limited. ISBN 978-0-510-06151-7. Salmon, E. Togo. Roman Coins and Public Life under the Empire. Ann Arbor, Michigan: The University of Michigan Press, 1999. Suarez, Rasiel. The Encyclopedia of Roman Imperial Coins. Dirty Old Books, 2005. Sutherland, C. H. V. Roman Coins. New York: G. P. (Also published by Barrie and Jenkins in London in 1974 with ISBN 0-214-66808-8) Van Meter, David. The Handbook of Roman Imperial Coins. Laurion Press, 1990. Vecchi, Italo. Italian Cast Coinage. A descriptive catalogue of the cast coinage of Rome and Italy. London Ancient Coins, London 2013. Hard bound in quarto format, 84 pages, 92 plates. ISBN 978-0-9575784-0-1 External links[edit] A Collection of Flavian coins Wikimedia Commons has media related to Roman currency. 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en-wikipedia-org-2830	----	Anthony Alsop - Wikipedia Anthony Alsop From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Anthony Alsop was born about 1670 and died in Winchester on 10 June 1726. He was a clergyman and Neo-Latin poet who sided with the Tory Party at the end of the Stuart era. His poetry was admired at the time but was eventually forgotten until a recent interest in such work brought him to notice again. Contents 1 Life 2 Poetry 3 References 4 External links Life[edit] Alsop was born at Darley Dale in Derbyshire and educated at Westminster School. Going on to Christ Church, Oxford, in 1690, he took the degrees of Bachelor of Arts in 1695 and Master of Arts in 1697. While there he gained a reputation for his elegant Latin verse, some of it produced for public university occasions, some for private circulation, and some Jacobite in spirit. His speciality was the witty verse epistle, most often using the Sapphic stanza. In 1698 Alsop edited a selection of Aesop’s Fables in Latin verse, Fabularum Aesopicarum Delectus.[1] It contains 237 fables in Latin, with the original Greek of the first 158, the Hebrew of the next 10, the Arabic of the next 8, whilst the other 60 are in Latin only. Two of his satirical epistles on Oxford figures were printed in broadsheet form in 1706, the year in which he gained the degree of Bachelor of Divinity and through patronage was made a prebendary at Winchester Cathedral, with the rectory of Brightwell in Berkshire. After Alsop married in 1716, he was sued for breach of promise by his mistress and, having lost the case, had to flee abroad for a while. He died in an accident at his home in 1726 with the reputation of an agreeable and witty companion, a learned preacher and a fine lyric poet, although his loose manner of living and sometimes bawdy verse had kept him confined to a small circle of admirers. Poetry[edit] Alsop left many Latin odes in manuscript which were published in 1752 by his stepson Francis Bernard as Antonii Alsopi, Aedis Christi Olim Alumni, Odarum Libri Duo. In the introduction it is claimed that the author was "esteemed inferior only to his master Horace," a judgment that Alexander Pope seems to second in his line in the Dunciad, "[Let] Alsop never but like Horace joke" (IV.224). In addition Alsop published some slight poems in English in magazines, of which four addresses to "Chlorinda" appeared in Robert Dodsley’s Collection of Poems in Six Volumes (1782).[2] The humorous nature of his Latin writing can be gained from some of the personal epistles he wrote. That written to the aristocratic archdeacon Henry Bridges in 1721 contains the satirical advice to trim his High church religious views to those of the new Hanoverian establishment: Be wise at last, and learn those skills by which to be accounted great and good. Let the pattern of worship be everywhere free, unconfined by law; let each have his own faith and mind, under no leader or guidance, for who can bear the imperious yoke of the clergy, or priestly control?"[3] Another to the lawyer Joseph Taylor begins with a Horatian invitation to supper but then playfully adapts the Latin to the contemporary situation of enjoying smuggled goods: "I have a little bottle of wine (vasculum Bacchi), brought by a friendly ship, without the knowledge of the customs officer (clam quaestore)."[4] Another poem warns him of the tedious and expensive process of bribing his way into Parliament, when "you must furrow your way through a great ocean of liquor, many clouds of smoke must pour out and a perpetual flow of ale."[5] The two books of Alsop's odes was not reprinted and he was forgotten until a biographical and critical study of him, with a modern edition of the Latin and English poems, was published in 1998.[6] References[edit] ^ Google Books ^ vol.6, pp.256-268 ^ Lines 17-24 ^ Lines 7-8 ^ The Oxford Handbook of Neo-Latin (2015), pp.83-4 ^ D. K. Money, The English Horace: Anthony Alsop and the Tradition of British Latin Verse, Oxford University 1998. Biographical details are chiefly taken from two sources. "Alsop, Anthony" in the Dictionary of National Biography (1885–1900). "Anthony Alsop" in The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Eighteenth-Century Writers and Writing, (Oxford 2011) External links[edit] Anthony Alsop at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA) Authority control BNF: cb144570213 (data) GND: 121033031 ISNI: 0000 0000 1275 2120 LCCN: n85017826 NKC: jx20090417001 NTA: 168141558 SNAC: w6c251f2 VIAF: 71615658 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n85017826 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anthony_Alsop&oldid=948883582" Categories: 1726 deaths 18th-century English people Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford English male poets People from Brightwell-cum-Sotwell Hidden categories: EngvarB from April 2014 Use dmy dates from April 2014 Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Place of birth missing Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español Edit links This page was last edited on 3 April 2020, at 15:36 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2860	----	Garcilaso de la Vega (poet) - Wikipedia Garcilaso de la Vega (poet) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the Spanish Peruvian writer, see Garcilaso de la Vega (chronicler). Spanish poet Garcilaso de la Vega KOS Portrait at the New Gallery, Kassel Born García Laso de la Vega 15 February 1498–1503 Toledo, Spain Died (1536-10-14)14 October 1536 (aged 33–38) Nice, Duchy of Savoy (present-day France) Garcilaso de la Vega, KOS (c. 1501 – 14 October 1536) was a Spanish soldier and poet. Although not the first or the only one to do so, he was the most influential poet to introduce Italian Renaissance verse forms, poetic techniques, and themes to Spain. He was well known in poetic circles during his lifetime, and his poetry has continued to be popular without interruption until the present. His poetry was published posthumously by Juan Boscán in 1543, and it has been the subject of several annotated editions, the first and most famous of which appeared in 1574. Contents 1 Biography 2 Works 3 Literary references 4 Modern translations 5 Further reading 6 References 7 External links Biography[edit] Garcilaso was born in the Spanish city of Toledo between 1498 and 1503.[1] Clavería Boscán affirms he was born between 1487 and 1492,[2] and another sources affirms he was born in 1501.[3] His father Garcilaso de la Vega, the third son of Pedro Suárez de Figueroa, was a nobleman and ambassador in the royal court of the Catholic Monarchs.[4] His mother's name was Sancha de Guzmán.[5] Garcilaso was the second son which meant he did not receive the mayorazgo (entitlement) to his father's estate. However, he spent his younger years receiving an extensive education, mastered five languages (Spanish, Greek, Latin, Italian and French), and learned how to play the zither, lute and the harp. When his father died in 1509, Garcilaso received a sizeable inheritance. Cover of The works of Boscán and Garcilaso de la Vega in 4 books, 1543 After his schooling, he joined the military in hopes of joining the royal guard. He was named "contino" (imperial guard) of Charles V in 1520, and he was made a member of the Order of Santiago in 1523. There were a few women in the life of this poet. His first lover was Guiomar Carrillo, with whom he had a child. He had another suspected lover named Isabel Freire, who was a lady-in-waiting of Isabel of Portugal, but this is today regarded as mythical.[6] In 1525, Garcilaso married Elena de Zúñiga, who served as a lady-in-waiting for the King's favorite sister, Leonor. Their marriage took place in Garcilaso's hometown of Toledo in one of the family's estates. He had six children: Lorenzo, an illegitimate child with Guiomar Carrillo, Garcilaso, Íñigo de Zúñiga, Pedro de Guzmán, Sancha, and Francisco. Garcilaso's military career meant that he took part in the numerous battles and campaigns conducted by Charles V across Europe. His duties took him to Italy, Germany, Tunisia and France. In 1532 for a short period he was exiled to a Danube island where he was the guest of the Count György Cseszneky, royal court judge of Győr. Later in France, he would fight his last battle. The King desired to take control of Marseille and eventually control of the Mediterranean Sea, but this goal was never realized. Garcilaso de la Vega died on 14 October 1536 in Nice, after suffering 25 days from an injury sustained in a battle at Le Muy. His body was first buried in the Church of St. Dominic in Nice, but two years later his wife had his body moved to the Church of San Pedro Martir in Toledo. Works[edit] Garcilaso de la Vega is best known for his tragic love poetry that contrasts the playful poetry of his predecessors. He seemed to progress through three distinct episodes of his life which are reflected in his works. During his Spanish period, he wrote the majority of his eight-syllable poems; during his Italian or Petrarchan period, he wrote mostly sonnets and songs; and during his Neapolitan or classicist period, he wrote his other more classical poems, including his elegies, letters, eclogues and odes. Influenced by many Italian Renaissance poets, Garcilaso adapted the eleven-syllable line to the Spanish language in his sonetos (sonnets), mostly written in the 1520s, during his Petrarchan period. Increasing the number of syllables in the verse from eight to eleven allowed for greater flexibility. In addition to the sonetos, Garcilaso helped to introduce several other types of stanzas to the Spanish language. These include the estancia, formed by eleven- and seven-syllable lines; the "lira", formed by three seven-syllable and two eleven-syllable lines; and endecasílabos sueltos, formed by unrhymed eleven-syllable lines. Dramatized lecture of Garcilaso's Apollo and Daphne Throughout his life, Garcilaso de la Vega wrote various poems in each of these types. His works include: forty Sonetos (Sonnets), five Canciones (Songs), eight Coplas (Couplets), three Églogas (Eclogues), two Elegías (Elegies), and the Epístola a Boscán (Letter to Boscán). Allusions to classical myths and Greco-Latin figures, great musicality, alliteration, rhythm and an absence of religion characterize his poetry. It can be said that Spanish poetry was never the same after Garcilaso de la Vega. His works have influenced the majority of subsequent Spanish poets, including other major authors of the period like Jorge de Montemor, Luis de León, John of the Cross, Miguel de Cervantes, Lope de Vega, Luis de Góngora and Francisco Quevedo. For example: (égloga Tercera): Más a las veces son mejor oídos el puro ingenio y lengua casi muda, testigos limpios de ánimo inocente, que la curiosidad del elocuente. He was very good at transmitting the sense of life into writing, in many poems including his «dolorido sentir»: No me podrán quitar el dolorido sentir, si ya del todo primero no me quitan el sentido. We see the shift in traditional belief of Heaven as influenced by the Renaissance, which is called "neo-Platonism," which tried to lift love to a spiritual, idealistic plane, as compared to the traditional Catholic view of Heaven. (Égloga primera): Contigo mano a mano busquemos otros prados y otros ríos, otros valles floridos y sombríos, donde descanse, y siempre pueda verte ante los ojos míos, sin miedo y sobresalto de perderte. (Égloga primera) He has enjoyed a revival of influence among 21st century pastoral poets such as Seamus Heaney, Dennis Nurkse, and Giannina Braschi. Literary references[edit] Monument to Garcilaso in Toledo, Spain Garcilaso is mentioned in multiple works by Miguel de Cervantes. In the second volume of Don Quixote, the protagonist quotes one of the poet's sonnets.[7] In El licenciado Vidriera, Tomás Rodaja carries a volume of Garcilaso on his journey across Europe. The title of Pedro Salinas's sequence of poems La voz a ti debida is taken from Garcilaso's third eclogue. In the novel Of Love and Other Demons by Gabriel García Márquez, one of the main characters, Father Cayetano Delaura, is an admirer of Garcilaso de la Vega. In the novel, which takes place in 18th-century colonial Colombia, Delaura is forced to give up being a priest because of his tragic love affair. Puerto Rican poet Giannina Braschi wrote both a poetic treatise on Garcilaso de la Vega's Eclogues, as well as a book of poems in homage to the Spanish master, entitled Empire of Dreams. Modern translations[edit] The Odes and Sonnets of Garcilaso de la Vega, trans James Cleugh, (London: Aquila, 1930) Further reading[edit] Creel, Bryant. "Garcilaso de la Vega". Dictionary of Literary Biography, Volume 318: Sixteenth-Century Spanish Writers. A Bruccoli Clark Layman Book. Edited by Gregory B. Kaplan, University of Tennessee. Gale, 2005. pp. 62–82. Braschi, Giannina. “La metamorfosis del ingenio en la Egloga III de Garcilaso." Revista Canadiense de Estudios Hispanicos, 4.1, 1979. References[edit] ^ Vallvey, Angela (15 July 2015). El arte de amar la vida. Kailas Editorial. p. 49. ISBN 9788416023776. ^ Pérez López, José Luis (2000). "La fecha de nacimiento de Garcilaso de la Vega a la luz de un nuevo documento biográfico" (PDF). Criticón. Centro Virtual Cervantes. 78: 45–57. ISBN 84-690-3363-8. ISSN 0247-381X. ^ "Garcilaso de la Vega" (PDF). Consellería de Cultura, Educación e Ordenación Universitaria (in Spanish). Xunta de Galicia. Retrieved 10 August 2018. ^ Mazo Romero, Fernando. "Los Suárez de Figueroa y el señorío de Feria" (PDF) (in Spanish). Universidad de Sevilla: 113–164. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ "Garcilaso de la Vega". Litoral. Revista Litoral S.A. (61/63): 63–67. 1976–1977. JSTOR 43398752. ^ Darst, David H. (1979). "Garcilaso´s Love for Isabel Freire: The Creation of a Myth". Journal of Hispanic Philology. 3: 261–268. ^ Herreid, Grant. "The Musical World of Don Quixote" (PDF). Retrieved October 16, 2017. External links[edit] Works by Garcilaso de la Vega at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Garcilaso de la Vega at Internet Archive Works by Garcilaso de la Vega at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Page about Garcilaso de la Vega "La Página de Garcilaso en Internet." 2006. La Asociación de Amigos de Garcilaso de la Vega (Toledo, España). (in Spanish) "Multiculturalism Gone Wrong: Spain in the Renaissance", Alix Ingber, (adapted from a lecture). <http://www.dean.sbc.edu/ingber.html>. [Last updated: January 19, 1998]. "Spanish Literature (Archived 2009-11-01)," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006. Authority control BNE: XX931941 BNF: cb11927820s (data) CANTIC: a10429098 CiNii: DA02158957 GND: 118716344 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CNCV\001220 ISNI: 0000 0001 2283 4303 LCCN: n80005055 LNB: 000164654 NKC: jn20000402501 NLI: 000613816 NLK: KAC201008761 NLP: A11837676 NSK: 000214451 NTA: 069396043 RERO: 02-A000069378 SELIBR: 237501 SNAC: w6gt6p91 SUDOC: 027179214 VcBA: 495/21238 VIAF: 100186624 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n80005055 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Garcilaso_de_la_Vega_(poet)&oldid=990908551" Categories: 1500s births 1536 deaths Military personnel killed in action People from Toledo, Spain Spanish poets Spanish soldiers 16th-century soldiers 16th-century Spanish poets 16th-century Spanish writers 16th-century male writers 16th-century Spanish military personnel Hidden categories: CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) CS1 errors: missing periodical Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with LibriVox links Articles with Spanish-language sources (es) Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLP identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés Azərbaycanca Български Bosanski Català Čeština Corsu Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano Latina Latviešu Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Malti Nederlands Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русский Simple English Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska Tagalog Türkçe اردو Winaray 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 27 November 2020, at 05:31 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2875	----	View source for Template:Horace - Wikipedia View source for Template:Horace ← Template:Horace Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 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en-wikipedia-org-2897	----	Lactantius - Wikipedia Lactantius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Early Christian author For the 4th-century author, see Lactantius Placidus. Mural likely depicting Lactantius. Lucius Caecilius Firmianus Lactantius (c. 250 – c. 325) was an early Christian author who became an advisor to the first Christian Roman emperor, Constantine I, guiding his religious policy as it developed,[1] and a tutor to his son Crispus. His most important work is the Institutiones Divinae ("The Divine Institutes"), an apologetic treatise intended to establish the reasonableness and truth of Christianity to pagan critics. He is best known for his apologetic works, widely read during the Renaissance by humanists who called Lactantius the "Christian Cicero". Also widely attributed to Lactantius is the poem The Phoenix, which is based on the myth of the phoenix from Oriental mythology. Though the poem is not clearly Christian in its motifs, modern scholars have found some literary evidence in the text to suggest the author had a Christian interpretation of the eastern myth as a symbol of resurrection.[2] Contents 1 Biography 2 Writing 3 Prophetic exegesis 4 Works 5 See also 6 References 7 Sources 8 External links Biography[edit] Lactantius, a Latin-speaking North African of Berber origin,[3][4][5][6] was not born into a Christian family. He was a pupil of Arnobius who taught at Sicca Veneria, an important city in Numidia. In his early life, he taught rhetoric in his native town, which may have been Cirta in Numidia, where an inscription mentions a certain "L. Caecilius Firmianus".[7] Lactantius had a successful public career at first. At the request of the Roman Emperor Diocletian, he became an official professor of rhetoric in Nicomedia; the voyage from Africa is described in his poem Hodoeporicum (now lost[8]). There, he associated in the imperial circle with the administrator and polemicist Sossianus Hierocles and the pagan philosopher Porphyry; he first met Constantine, and Galerius, whom he cast as villain in the persecutions.[9] Having converted to Christianity, he resigned his post[10] before Diocletian's purging of Christians from his immediate staff and before the publication of Diocletian's first "Edict against the Christians" (February 24, 303).[11] As a Latin rhetor in a Greek city, he subsequently lived in poverty according to Saint Jerome and eked out a living by writing until Constantine I became his patron. The persecution forced him to leave Nicomedia, perhaps re-locating to North Africa. The Emperor Constantine appointed the elderly Lactantius Latin tutor to his son Crispus in 309-310 who was probably 10-15 years old at the time.[12] Lactantius followed Crispus to Trier in 317, when Crispus was made Caesar (lesser co-emperor) and sent to the city. Crispus was put to death by order of his father Constantine I in 326, but when Lactantius died and under what circumstances are unknown.[13] Writing[edit] Like so many of the early Christian authors, Lactantius depended on classical models. The early humanists called him the "Christian Cicero" (Cicero Christianus).[13] A translator of the Divine Institutes wrote: "Lactantius has always held a very high place among the Christian Fathers, not only on account of the subject-matter of his writings, but also on account of the varied erudition, the sweetness of expression, and the grace and elegance of style, by which they are characterized."[14] He wrote apologetic works explaining Christianity in terms that would be palatable to educated people who still practiced the traditional religions of the Empire. He defended Christian beliefs against the criticisms of Hellenistic philosophers. His Divinae Institutiones ("Divine Institutes") were an early example of a systematic presentation of Christian thought. He was considered somewhat heretical after his death, but Renaissance humanists took a renewed interest in him, more for his elaborately rhetorical Latin style than for his theology. His works were copied in manuscript several times in the 15th century and were first printed in 1465 by the Germans Arnold Pannartz and Konrad Sweynheim at the Abbey of Subiaco. This edition was the first book printed in Italy to have a date of printing, as well as the first use of a Greek alphabet font anywhere, which was apparently produced in the course of printing, as the early pages leave Greek text blank. It was probably the fourth book ever printed in Italy. A copy of this edition was sold at auction in 2000 for more than $1 million.[15] Prophetic exegesis[edit] Beginning of Lactantius’ Divinae institutiones in a Renaissance manuscript written in Florence ca. 1420–1430 by Guglielmino Tanaglia Like many writers in the first few centuries of the early church, Lactantius took a premillennialist view, holding that the second coming of Christ will precede a millennium or a thousand-year reign of Christ on earth. According to Charles E. Hill, "With Lactantius in the early fourth century we see a determined attempt to revive a more “genuine” form of chiliasm."[16] Lactantius quoted the Sibyls extensively (although the Sibylline Oracles are now considered to be pseudepigrapha). Book VII of The Divine Institutes indicates a familiarity with Jewish, Christian, Egyptian and Iranian apocalyptic material.[17] None of the fathers thus far had been more verbose on the subject of the millennial kingdom than Lactantius or more particular in describing the times and events preceding and following. He held to the literalist interpretation of the millennium, that the millennium originates with the second advent of Christ and marks the destruction of the wicked, the binding of the devil and the raising of the righteous dead.[18] He depicted Jesus reigning with the resurrected righteous on this earth during the seventh thousand years prior to the general judgment. In the end, the devil, having been bound during the thousand years, is loosed; the enslaved nations rebel against the righteous, who hide underground until the hosts, attacking the Holy City, are overwhelmed by fire and brimstone and mutual slaughter and buried altogether by an earthquake: rather unnecessarily, it would seem, since the wicked are thereupon raised again to be sent into eternal punishment. Next, God renews the earth, after the punishment of the wicked, and the Lord alone is thenceforth worshiped in the renovated earth.[19] Lactantius confidently stated that the beginning of the end would be the fall, or breakup, of the Roman Empire.[20] However, this view fell out of favor with the conversion of Constantine and the improved lot of Christians: "Many Christians felt that any expectation of the downfall of the empire was as disloyal to God as it was to Rome."[17] Attempts to determine the time of the End were viewed as in contradiction to Acts 1:7: "It is not for you to know the times or seasons that the Father has established by his own authority,"[17] and Mark 13:32: "But of that day or hour, no one knows, neither the angels in heaven, nor the Son, but only the Father." Works[edit] De opificio Dei ("The Works of God"), an apologetic work, written in 303 or 304 during Diocletian's persecution and dedicated to a former pupil, a rich Christian named Demetrianius. The apologetic principles underlying all the works of Lactantius are well set forth in this treatise.[13] Institutiones Divinae ("The Divine Institutes"), written between 303 and 311.[13] This is the most important of the writings of Lactantius. It was "one of the first books printed in Italy and the first dated Italian imprint."[21] As an apologetic treatise, it was intended to point out the futility of pagan beliefs and to establish the reasonableness and truth of Christianity as a response to pagan critics. It was also the first attempt at a systematic exposition of Christian theology in Latin and was planned on a scale sufficiently broad to silence all opponents.[22] Patrick Healy notes, "The strengths and the weakness of Lactantius are nowhere better shown than in his work. The beauty of the style, the choice and aptness of the terminology, cannot hide the author's lack of grasp on Christian principles and his almost utter ignorance of Scripture."[13] Included in this treatise is a quote from the nineteenth of the Odes of Solomon, one of only two known texts of the Odes until the early twentieth century.[23] However, his mockery of the idea of a round earth[24] was criticised by Copernicus as "childish".[25] Page from the Opera, a manuscript from 1465, featuring various colours of pen-work An Epitome of the Divine institutes is a summary treatment of the subject.[14] De ira Dei ("On the Wrath of God" or "On the Anger of God"), directed against the Stoics and Epicureans.[14] De mortibus persecutorum ("On the Deaths of the Persecutors") has an apologetic character but has been treated as a work of history by Christian writers. The point of the work is to describe the deaths of the persecutors of Christians before Lactantius (Nero, Domitian, Decius, Valerian, Aurelian) and the contemporaries of Lactantius himself: Diocletian, Maximian, Galerius, Maximinus. This work is taken as a chronicle of the last and greatest of the persecutions in spite of the moral point that each anecdote has been arranged to tell. Here, Lactantius preserves the story of Constantine's vision of the Chi Rho before his conversion to Christianity. The full text is found in only one manuscript, which bears the title Lucii Caecilii liber ad Donatum Confessorem de Mortibus Persecutorum.[13] Widely attributed to Lactantius although it shows only cryptic signs of Christianity, the poem The Phoenix (de Ave Phoenice) tells the story of the death and rebirth of that mythical bird. That poem in turn appears to have been the principal source for the famous Old English poem to which the modern title The Phoenix is given. Opera ("Works") A second edition printed in the monastery at Subiaco, Lazio, is still extant. It remained in Italy until the late eighteenth century, when it was known to be in the library of Prince Vincenzo Maria Carafa in Messina. The Bodleian Library in Oxford, England, acquired this volume in 1817.[26] See also[edit] Problem of evil References[edit] ^ His role is examined in detail in Elizabeth DePalma Digeser, The Making of a Christian Empire: Lactantius and Rome, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2000. ^ White, Carolinne. Early Christian Latin Poets. ^ Serralda, Vincent; Huard, André (1984). Le Berbère-- lumière de l'Occident (in French). Nouvelles Editions Latines. p. 56. ISBN 9782723302395. ^ Annales de la Société d'histoire et d'archéologie de l'arrondissement de Saint-Malo (in French). 1957. p. 83. ^ Manceron, Gilles; Aïssani, Farid (1996). Algérie: comprendre la crise (in French). Editions Complexe. p. 161. ISBN 9782870276617. ^ Dérives (in French). 1985. p. 15. ^ Harnack, Chronologie d. altchr. Lit., II,416 ^ Conte, Gian Biagio (1999). Latin Literature: A History. Baltimore: JHU Press. p. 640. ISBN 0-8018-6253-1. Retrieved August 29, 2016. ^ Paul Stephenson, Constantine, Roman Emperor, Christian Victor, 2010:104. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica. 7 (15th ed.). 1993. ^ Stephenson 2010:106. ^ Barnes, Timothy, Constantine: Dynasty, Religion and Power in the Later Roman Empire, 2011, p. 177-8. ^ a b c d e f  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Healy, Patrick (1910). "Lucius Caecilius Firmianus Lactantius". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. 8. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 26 February 2016. ^ a b c W. Fletcher (1871). The Works of Lactantius. ^ "Lot 65 Sale 6417 LACTANTIUS, Lucius Coelius Firmianus (c. 240–c. 320). Opera". Retrieved 2010-12-29. ^ Hill, Charles E., "Why the Early Church Finally Rejected Premillennialism", Modern Reformation, Jan/Feb 1996, p. 16 ^ a b c McGinn, Bernard. Visions of the End, Columbia University Press, 1998 ISBN 9780231112574 ^ Froom 1950, pp. 357-358. ^ Froom 1950, pp. 358. ^ Froom 1950, pp. 356-357. ^ "The Rubrics of the First Book of Lactantius Firmianus's On the Divine Institutes Against the Pagans Begin". World Digital Library. 2011-10-17. Retrieved 2014-03-01. ^ Lactantius The Divine Institutes, translated by Mary Francis McDonald Catholic University of America Press (1964) ^ Charlesworth, James Hamilton. The Odes of Solomon. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1973, pp. 1, 82 ^ Lactantius, Divine Institutes, Book III Chapter XXIV ^ Nicholas Copernicus (1543), The Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres ^ Polonsky Foundation Digitization Project: full scan of Lucius Coelius Firmianus Lactantius, Opera Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine hosted by the Bodleian Libraries (bodleian.ox.ac.uk) Provenance information: http://incunables.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/record/L-002 Accessed 13 July 2015. Sources[edit] Froom, LeRoy (1950). The Prophetic Faith of our Fathers. 1. Archived from the original (DjVu and PDF) on 2014-11-06. Retrieved 2014-03-05. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Lactantius Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lucius Caecilius Firmianus Lactantius. 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en-wikipedia-org-2901	----	Juvenal - Wikipedia Juvenal From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Juvenal (disambiguation). ancient Roman poet This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (February 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Juvenal Frontispiece from John Dryden, The Satires of Decimus Junius Juvenalis: And of Aulus Persius Flaccus Born 1st century AD Aquinum (modern Aquino) Died 2nd century AD Occupation Poet Nationality Roman Genre Satire Decimus Junius Juvenalis (Latin: [ˈdɛkɪmʊs ˈjuːnɪ.ʊs jʊwɛˈnaːlɪs]), known in English as Juvenal (/ˈdʒuːvənəl/ JOO-vən-əl), was a Roman poet active in the late first and early second century AD. He is the author of the collection of satirical poems known as the Satires. The details of the author's life are unclear, although references within his text to known persons of the late first and early second centuries AD fix his earliest date of composition. One recent scholar argues that his first book was published in 100 or 101.[1] Because of a reference to a recent political figure, his fifth and final surviving book must date from after 127. Juvenal wrote at least 16 poems in the verse form dactylic hexameter. These poems cover a range of Roman topics. This follows Lucilius—the originator of the Roman satire genre, and it fits within a poetic tradition that also includes Horace and Persius. The Satires are a vital source for the study of ancient Rome from a number of perspectives, although their comic mode of expression makes it problematic to accept the content as strictly factual. At first glance the Satires could be read as a critique of pagan Rome. That critique may have ensured their survival in the Christian monastic scriptoria although the majority of ancient texts did not survive.[further explanation needed] Contents 1 Life 2 The Satires and their genre 3 Modern criticism and historical context of the Satires 4 Literary and cultural influence 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links Life[edit] Juvenal, S. H. Gimber, 1837 Details of the author's life cannot be reconstructed definitively. The Vita Iuvenalis (Life of Juvenal), a biography of the author that became associated with his manuscripts no later than the tenth century, is little more than an extrapolation from the Satires. Traditional biographies, including the Vita Iuvenalis, give us the writer's full name and also tell us that he was either the son, or adopted son, of a rich freedman. He is supposed to have been a pupil of Quintilian, and to have practised rhetoric until he was middle-aged, both as amusement and for legal purposes. The Satires do make frequent and accurate references to the operation of the Roman legal system. His career as a satirist is supposed to have begun at a fairly late stage in his life. Biographies agree in giving his birthplace as the Volscian town of Aquinum[2] and also, in allotting to his life a period of exile, which supposedly was due to his insulting an actor who had high levels of court influence. The emperor who is said to have banished him is given variously, as either Trajan or Domitian. A preponderance of the biographies place his exile in Egypt, with the exception of one, that opts for Scotland.[3] Only one of these traditional biographies supplies a date of birth for Juvenal: it gives 55 AD, which most probably is speculation, but accords reasonably well with the rest of the evidence. Other traditions have him surviving for some time past the year of Hadrian's death (138 AD). Some sources place his death in exile, others have him being recalled to Rome (the latter of which is considered more plausible by contemporary scholars). If he was exiled by Domitian, then it is possible that he was one of the political exiles recalled during the brief reign of Nerva.[3] It is impossible to tell how much of the content of these traditional biographies is fiction and how much is fact. Large parts clearly are mere deduction from Juvenal's writings, but some elements appear more substantial. Juvenal never mentions a period of exile in his life, yet it appears in every extant traditional biography. Many scholars think the idea to be a later invention; the Satires do display some knowledge of Egypt and Britain, and it is thought that this gave rise to the tradition that Juvenal was exiled. Others, however - particularly Gilbert Highet - regard the exile as factual, and these scholars also supply a concrete date for the exile: 93 AD until 96, when Nerva became emperor. They argue that a reference to Juvenal in one of Martial's poems, which is dated to 92, is impossible if, at this stage Juvenal was already in exile, or, had served his time in exile, since in that case, Martial would not have wished to antagonise Domitian by mentioning such a persona non grata as Juvenal. If Juvenal was exiled, he would have lost his patrimony, and this may explain the consistent descriptions of the life of the client he bemoans in the Satires. The only other biographical evidence available is a dedicatory inscription said to have been found at Aquinum in the nineteenth century, which consists of the following text:[4] ...]RI·SACRVM ...]NIVS·IVVENALIS ...] COH·[.]·DELMATARVM II·VIR·QVINQ·FLAMEN DIVI·VESPASIANI VOVIT·DEDICAV[...]UE SVA PEC [CERE]RI·SACRVM [D(ECIMVS) IV]NIVS·IVVENALIS [TRIB(VNVS)] COH(ORTIS)·[I]·DELMATARVM II·VIR·QVINQ(VENNALIS)·FLAMEN DIVI·VESPASIANI VOVIT·DEDICAV[ITQ]VE SVA PEC(VNIA) To Ceres (this) sacred (thing) (Decimus Junius?) Juvenalis military tribune of the first cohort of the Dalmatian[2] (legions) Duovir, Quinquennalis, Flamen of the Divine Vespasian vowed and dedicated at his own expense (Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum X.5382) Scholars usually are of the opinion that this inscription does not relate to the poet: a military career would not fit well with the pronounced anti-militarism of the Satires and, moreover, the Dalmatian legions do not seem to have existed prior to 166 AD. Therefore, it seems likely that this reference is to a Juvenal who was a later relative of the poet, however, as they both came from Aquinum and were associated with the goddess Ceres (the only deity the Satires shows much respect for). If the theory that connects these two Juvenals is correct, then the inscription does show that Juvenal's family was reasonably wealthy, and that, if the poet really was the son of a foreign freedman, then his descendants assimilated into the Roman class structure more quickly than typical. Green thinks it more likely that the tradition of the freedman father is false and, that Juvenal's ancestors had been minor nobility of Roman Italy of relatively ancient descent.[5] The Satires and their genre[edit] Main article: Satires (Juvenal) Saturae, 1535 Juvenal is credited with sixteen known poems divided among five books; all are in the Roman genre of satire, which, at its most basic in the time of the author, comprised a wide-ranging discussion of society and social mores in dactylic hexameter.[6] In Satire I, concerning the scope and content of his work, Juvenal says: ex quo Deucalion nimbis tollentibus aequor nauigio montem ascendit sortesque poposcit paulatimque anima caluerunt mollia saxa et maribus nudas ostendit Pyrrha puellas, quidquid agunt homines, uotum, timor, ira, uoluptas, gaudia, discursus, nostri farrago libelli est. Back from when Deucalion climbed a mountain in a boat as the clouds lifted the waters, and then asked for an oracle, and then little by little spirit warmed the soft stones and Pyrrha showed naked girls to their husbands, whatever men do—prayer, fear, rage, pleasure, joy, running about—is the gist of my little book. —(1.81–86) Juvenal claims as his purview, the entire gamut of human experience since the dawn of history. Quintilian—in the context of a discussion of literary genres appropriate for an oratorical education—claimed that, unlike so many literary and artistic forms adopted from Greek models, “satire at least is all ours” (satura quidem tota nostra est).[7] At least in the view of Quintillian, earlier Greek satiric verse (e.g. that of Hipponax) or even Latin satiric prose (e.g. that of Petronius) did not constitute satura, per se. Roman Satura was a formal literary genre rather than being simply clever, humorous critique in no particular format. Book I: Satires 1–5 Book II: Satire 6 Book III: Satires 7–9 Book IV: Satires 10–12 Book V: Satires 13–16 (although Satire 16 is incomplete) The individual Satires (excluding Satire 16) range in length from 130 (Satire 12) to c. 695 (Satire 6) lines. The poems are not entitled individually, but translators often have added titles for the convenience of readers. Modern criticism and historical context of the Satires[edit] While Juvenal's mode of satire has been noted from antiquity for its wrathful scorn toward all representatives of social deviance, some politically progressive scholars such as, W. S. Anderson and later S. M. Braund, have attempted to defend his work as that of a rhetorical persona (mask), taken up by the author to critique the very attitudes he appears to be exhibiting in his works.[8] In any case it would be an error to read the Satires as a literal account of normal Roman life and thought in the late first and early second centuries AD, just as it would be an error to give credence to every slander recorded in Suetonius against the members of prior imperial dynasties. Themes similar to those of the Satires are present in authors spanning the period of the late Roman Republic and early empire ranging from Cicero and Catullus to Martial and Tacitus; similarly, the stylistics of Juvenal's text fall within the range of post-Augustan literature, as represented by Persius, Statius, and Petronius.[9] Juvenal's Satires, giving several accounts of Jewish life in first-century Rome, have been regarded by scholars, such as J. Juster and, more recently, Peter Nahon, as a valuable source about early Judaism.[10] Literary and cultural influence[edit] The Satires have inspired many authors, including Samuel Johnson, who modeled his “London” on Satire III and “The Vanity of Human Wishes” on Satire X. Alexander Theroux, whose novels are rife with vicious satire, identified Juvenal as his most important influence.[11] Juvenal also provided a source for the name for a forensically important beetle, Histeridae. Juvenal is the source of many well-known maxims, including: that the common people—rather than caring about their freedom—are only interested in “bread and circuses” (panem et circenses 10.81; i.e. food and entertainment), that—rather than for wealth, power, eloquence, or children—one should pray for a “sound mind in a sound body” (mens sana in corpore sano 10.356), that a perfect wife is a “rare bird” (rara avis in terris nigroque simillima cycno 6.165; a rare bird in the earth and most similar to a black swan)[12] that "honesty is praised and left out in the cold" Probitas laudatur et alget (I, line 74). and the troubling question of who can be trusted with power—“who will watch the watchers?” or "who will guard the guardians themselves?" (quis custodiet ipsos custodes 6.347–48). ASICS, the footwear and sports equipment manufacturing company, is named after the acronym of the Latin phrase "anima sana in corpore sano" (a sound mind in a sound body) from Satire X by Juvenal (10.356).[13] In his autobiography, the German writer Heinrich Böll notes that in the high school he attended when growing up under Nazi rule, an anti-Nazi teacher paid special attention to Juvenal: "Mr. Bauer realized how topical Juvenal was, how he dealt at length with such phenomena as arbitrary government, tyranny, corruption, the degradation of public morals, the decline of the Republican ideal and the terrorizing acts of the Praetorian Guards. (...) In a second-hand bookshop I found an 1838 translation of Juvenal with an extensive commentary, twice the length of the translated text itself, written at the height of the Romantic period. Though its price was more than I could really afford, I bought it. I read all of it very intensely, as if it was a detective novel. It was one of the few books to which I persistently held on throughout the war (WWII) and beyond, even when most of my other books were lost or sold on the black market".[14] See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal Literature portal Junia (gens) Panem et circenses Satires (Juvenal) Satire VI Notes[edit] ^ Uden, J. The Invisible Satirist: Juvenal and Second-Century Rome (Oxford, 2015), pp. 219–226 ^ a b Sellar, William; Postgate, John (1911). "Juvenal" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 610–613. ^ a b Peter Green: Introduction to Penguin Classics edition of the Satires, 1998 edition: pp. 15 ff ^ (From L to R: the inscription as preserved, the restored inscription, and the translation of the restored inscription.) ^ Peter Green: Introduction to Penguin Classics edition of the Satires, 1998 edition: pp. 23–24 ^ Lucilius experimented with other meters before settling on dactylic hexameter. ^ Quintilian (10 January 95). Institutio Oratoria. Check date values in: |date= (help) ^ According to Braund (1988 p. 25), Satire 7 – the opening poem of Book III – represents a “break” with satires one through six – Books I and II – where Juvenal relinquishes the indignatio of the “angry persona” in favor of the irony of a “much more rational and intelligent” persona. ^ Amy Richlin identifies oratorical invective as a source for both satire and epigram. 1992 p. 127. ^ Peter Nahon, 2014. Idées neuves sur un vieux texte : Juvénal, Saturae, 6, 542–547. In: Revue des études latines 92:1–6 ^ "Theroux Metaphrastes: An Essay on Literature," in Three Wogs (Boston: David Godine, 195), p. 23. ^ Though in fact the description of a good wife as rara avis is not Juvenal's coining but dates back to Seneca de Matr. 56. (Ferguson (1979) Juvenal: The Satires, on line 6.165). ^ "About ASICS". ASICS America. Retrieved 2015-08-31. ^ Heinrich Boll, "What will become of this kid? Or: About Books", Ch, 17 References[edit] Anderson, William S. (1982) Essays on Roman Satire, Princeton: Princeton University Press. Braund, Susanna M. (1988) Beyond Anger: A Study of Juvenal’s Third Book of Satires, Cambridge: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. Braund, Susanna (1996) Juvenal Satires Book I, Cambridge: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. Braund, Susanna (1996) The Roman Satirists and their Masks, London: Bristol Classical Press. Courtney, E. (1980) A Commentary of the Satires of Juvenal, London: Athlone Press. Edwards, Catherine (1993) The Politics of Immorality in Ancient Rome, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Gleason, Maud W. (1995) Making Men: Sophists and Self-Presentation in Ancient Rome, Princeton: Princeton University Press. Gowers, Emily (1993) The Loaded Table: Representations of Food in Roman Literature, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Green, Peter (1989). "Juvenal Revisited". Grand Street, Vol. 9, No. 1 (Autumn, 1989), pp. 175–196. Green, Peter (trans.) (1998): Juvenal. The Sixteen Satires. London: Penguin Books. (3rd revised edn; first edn published 1967). Highet, Gilbert (1961) Juvenal the Satirist, New York: Oxford University Press. Juvenal (1992) The Satires, Trans. Niall Rudd, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Juvenal (1992) Persi et Juvenalis Saturae, ed. W. V. Clausen. London: Oxford University Press. Kelk, Christopher (2010), The Satires of Juvenal: A Verse Translation, Edwin Mellen Press. Macleane, Arthur J. (1867). Decii Junii Juvenalis et A. Persii Flacci Satirae. With a commentary. The Oxford Classical Dictionary 3rd ed., 1996, New York: Oxford University Press. Richlin, Amy (1992) The Garden of Priapus, New York : Oxford University Press. Rudd, Niall (1982) Themes in Roman Satire, Los Angeles: University of California Press. Rudd, Niall (tr.) (1991): Juvenal Juvenal: The Satires, with an Introduction and Notes by William Barr. Oxford. Syme, Ronald (1939) The Roman Revolution, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Uden, James (2015) The Invisible Satirist: Juvenal and Second-Century Rome. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Stramaglia, Antonio; Grazzini, Stefano; Dimatteo, Giuseppe (2015): Giovenale tra storia, poesia e ideologia, Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter. External links[edit] Wikisource has original works written by or about: Juvenal Wikiquote has quotations related to: Juvenal Library resources about Juvenal Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Juvenal Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Latin text of The Satires of Juvenal at The Latin Library English translations of all 16 satires at the Tertullian Project. Together with a survey of the manuscript transmission. Works by Juvenal at Perseus Digital Library English translations of Satires 1, 2, 3, 6, 8 and 9 Juvenal's first 3 "Satires" in English SORGLL: Juvenal, Satire I.1–30, read by Mark Miner Lessons From Juvenal Works by or about Juvenal at Internet Archive Works by Juvenal at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Juvenal and Persius, G. G. Ramsay (ed.), Loeb, London: William Heinemann, New York: G. P. 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en-wikipedia-org-2907	----	Russian State Library - Wikipedia Russian State Library From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from RSL (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Not to be confused with National Library of Russia. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Russian State Library" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (June 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Russian State Library Российская государственная библиотека Main building of the library Established 1862 (158 years ago) (1862)[1] Location Moscow, Russia Branches 3 Collection Size 59,800,000 (2019) Access and use Population served 93,100 (2012) Other information Budget 2,740,000,000 (2019) Director Alexander I. Visly (General Director), Vladimir I. Gnezdilov (Executive Director), Viktor V. Fiodorov (President) [1] Staff 1830 (2012) Website www.rsl.ru/en Map The Russian State Library (Russian: Российская государственная библиотека) is the national library of Russia, located in Moscow. It is the largest in the country and the fifth largest in the world for its collection of books (17.5 million).[2] It was named the V. I. Lenin State Library of the USSR from 1925 until it was renamed in 1992 as the Russian State Library. The library has over 275 km of shelves with more than 43 million items,[1] including over 17 million books and serial volumes, 13 million journals, 350 thousand music scores and sound records, 150,000 maps and others. There are items in 247 languages of the world, the foreign part representing about 29 percent of the entire collection. Between 1922 and 1991 at least one copy of every book published in the USSR was deposited with the library, a practice which continues in a similar method today, with the library designated by law as a legal deposit library. Contents 1 History 2 Footnotes 3 Further reading 4 External links History[edit] See also: Rumyantsev Museum The library was founded on July 1, 1862, as Moscow's first free public library named The Library of the Moscow Public Museum and Rumiantsev Museum, or The Rumiantsev Library. It is nicknamed the "Leninka."[3] Rumyantsev Museum part of the complex was Moscow's first public museum, and housed the Art collection of count Nikolai Petrovich Rumyantsev, which had been given to the Russian people and transferred from St. Petersburg to Moscow. Its donation covered above all books and manuscripts as well as an extensive numismatic and an ethnographic collection. These, as well as approximately 200 paintings and more than 20,000 prints, which had been selected from the collection of the Hermitage in St. Petersburg, could be seen in the so-called Pashkov House (a palace, established between 1784 and 1787, in the proximity of the Kremlin). Tsar Alexander II of Russia donated the painting The Appearance of Christ before the People by Alexander Andreyevich Ivanov for the opening of the museum. 19th-century postcard of Pashkov House, old building of the Russian State Library, overlooking the Kremlin The citizens of Moscow, deeply impressed by the count's altruistic donation, named the new museum after its founder and had the inscription "from count Rumyantsev for the good Enlightenment" carved above its entrance. In the subsequent years, the collection of the museum grew by numerous further donations of objects and money, so that the museum soon housed a yet more important collection of Western European paintings, an extensive antique collection and a large collection of icons. Indeed, the collection grew so much that soon the premises of the Pashkov House became insufficient, and a second building was built beside the museum shortly after the turn of the 20th century to house the paintings in particular. After the October Revolution the contents again grew enormously, and again lack of space became an urgent problem. Acute financial problems also arose, for most of the money to finance the Museum flowed into the Pushkin Museum, which had only been finished a few years before and was assuming the Rumyantsev Museum's role. Therefore, it was decided in 1925 to dissolve the Rumyantsev Museum and to spread its collections over other museums and institutions in the country. Part of the collections, in particular the Western European art and antiques, were thus transferred to the Pushkin Museum. Pashkov House (at 3 Mokhovaya Street) was renamed the Old Building of the Russian State Library. The old state archive building on the corner of Mokhovaya and Vozdvizhenka Streets was razed and replaced by the new buildings. Main building of the library, in front is the monument to Dostoevsky Construction of the first stage, designed by Vladimir Shchuko and Vladimir Gelfreikh in 1927–1929, was authorized in 1929 and commenced in 1930.[4] The first stage was largely complete in 1941. In the process, the building acquired the modernized neoclassicism exterior features of the Palace of Soviets (co-designed by Shchuko and Gelfreikh), departing from the stern modernism of the 1927 drafts.[5] The last component of Shchuko's plan, a 250-seat reading hall, was opened in 1945; further additions continued until 1960.[6] In 1968 the building reached its capacity, and the library launched construction of a new depository in Khimki, earmarked for storing newspapers, scientific works and low-demand books from the main storage areas. The first stage of Khimki library was complete in 1975.[6] In 1925 the complex was renamed the V. I. Lenin State Library of the USSR. In 1992, it was renamed the Russian State Library by order of a decree from President Boris Yeltsin.[7] Entrance hall One of the reading rooms One of the reading rooms Statue of Dostoevsky in front of the library The postage stamp (1939) Russian State Library stamp (Soviet times) The wedding of tsar Michael I Tver manuscript of George Hamartolus Footnotes[edit] ^ a b c "Russian State Library". Official library website. Retrieved 20 November 2010. ^ http://leninka.ru/index.php?doc=2661 ^ "Russian State Library". Retrieved 2 April 2014. ^ "History of the Russian State Library (in Russian). 1917–1941, p. 4". Archived from the original on 2008-02-09. Retrieved 2008-12-10. ^ Ikonnikov, A. V. (1984). Architecture of Moscow, 20th Century. [Arkhitektura Moskvy. XX vek] (in Russian). Moskovsky Rabochy. pp. 98–99. ^ a b "History of the Russian State Library (in Russian). 1945–1992, p. 1". Archived from the original on 2008-02-24. Retrieved 2008-12-10. ^ Stuart, Mary (April 1994). "Creating a National Library for the Workers' State: The Public Library in Petrograd and the Rumiantsev Library under Bolshevik Rule". The Slavonic and East European Review. 72 (2): 233–258. JSTOR 4211475. Further reading[edit] Edward Kasinec, "A Soviet Research Library Remembered," Libraries & Culture, vol. 36, no. 1 (Winter 2001), pp. 16–26. In JSTOR. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Russian State Library. Wikidata has the properties: RSL ID (person) (P947) (see uses) RSL scanned books identifier (P1815) (see uses) RSL editions (P1973) (see uses) Official website Satellite image of the Russian State Library, centered on the main entrance Made in Russia: Russian State Library v t e Authority control files AAG • ACM DL • ADB • AGSA • autores.uy • AWR • BALaT • BIBSYS • Bildindex • BNC • BNE • BNF • Botanist • BPN • CANTIC • CiNii • CWGC • DAAO • DBLP • DSI • FNZA • GND • HDS • IAAF • ICCU • ICIA • ISNI • Joconde • KulturNav • LCCN • LIR • LNB • Léonore • MBA • MGP • NARA • NBL • NDL • NGV • NKC • NLA • NLG • NLI • NLK • NLP • NLR • NSK • NTA • ORCID • PIC • ResearcherID • RERO • RKD • RKDimages ID • RSL • SELIBR • SIKART • SNAC • SUDOC • S2AuthorId • TA98 • TDVİA • TE • TePapa • TH • TLS • Trove • UKPARL • ULAN • US Congress • VcBA • VIAF • WorldCat Identities v t e Museums and galleries in Moscow General museums ART4.RU Contemporary Art Museum Bakhrushin Museum Bulgakov Museum in Moscow Diamond Fund Fersman Mineralogical Museum Galeyev Gallery Gulag Museum Institute of Russian Realist Art Ivan the Great Bell Tower Jewish Museum and Tolerance Center Kuskovo The Lumiere Brothers Center for Photography The Lumiere Brothers Gallery Moscow Cat Museum Moscow Design Museum Moscow House of Photography Moscow Museum of Modern Art Multimedia Art Museum, Moscow Museum of Calligraphy Moscow Paleontological Museum Museum of Moscow Museum of the Moscow Railway National Centre for Contemporary Arts Ostankino Palace Poklonnaya Hill Polytechnic Museum Pushkin Museum RKK Energiya museum Rumyantsev Museum Russian State Library Ryabushinsky Museum of Icons and Paintings Shchusev Museum of Architecture State Historical Museum Tretyakov Gallery Tsaritsyno Palace Vernadsky State Geological Museum Vlakhernskoye-Kuzminki Zoological Museum of Moscow University Religious museums Cathedral of the Annunciation Church of the Deposition of the Robe Church of the Twelve Apostles War and space museums Central Armed Forces Museum Kremlin Armoury Kremlin Arsenal Memorial Museum of Cosmonautics Museum of the Great Patriotic War, Moscow Tagansky Protected Command Point Authority control BNF: cb11989976d (data) GND: 2125990-2 ISNI: 0000 0001 2288 3180 LCCN: nr93003248 NKC: kn20010710293 NLA: 35249610 SELIBR: 116840 SUDOC: 080267092 VcBA: 494/5911 VIAF: 123850266 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n94021537 Coordinates: 55°45′07″N 37°36′35″E / 55.75194°N 37.60972°E / 55.75194; 37.60972 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russian_State_Library&oldid=995819394" Categories: 1862 establishments in the Russian Empire Buildings and structures in Moscow Culture in Moscow Education in Moscow Libraries in Moscow Museums in Moscow National libraries World Digital Library partners Libraries established in 1862 Deposit libraries Arbat District Library buildings completed in 1941 Library buildings completed in 1945 Library buildings completed in 1960 Library buildings completed in 1975 Hidden categories: CS1 Russian-language sources (ru) Articles needing additional references from June 2011 All articles needing additional references Articles containing Russian-language text Infobox mapframe without OSM relation ID on Wikidata Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Coordinates on Wikidata Pages using the Kartographer extension Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Башҡортса भोजपुरी Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Magyar Македонски മലയാളം مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پښتو Português Русский Simple English Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 23 December 2020, at 01:39 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2879	----	Roman Republic - Wikipedia Roman Republic From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Period of ancient Roman civilization (509–27 BC) For other uses, see Roman Republic (disambiguation). Roman Republic Official name (as on coins): Roma after c. 100 BC: Senatus Populusque Romanus  (Latin) (SPQR) (The Roman Senate and People) 509 BC–27 BC Denarius of 54 BC, showing the first Roman consul, Lucius Junius Brutus, surrounded by two lictors and preceded by an accensus[1] Roman provinces on the eve of the assassination of Julius Caesar, 44 BC Capital Rome Common languages Latin (official) Etruscan, Greek, Osco-Umbrian, Venetic, Ligurian, Rhaetian, Nuragic, Sicel, Hebrew, Aramaic, Syriac, Punic, Berber, Coptic, Illyrian, Iberian, Lusitanian, Celtiberian, Gaulish, Gallaecian, Aquitanian (unofficial, but commonly spoken) Religion Roman polytheism Government Diarchic republic Consuls   • 509 BC (first) Lucius Junius Brutus Lucius Collatinus • 27 BC (last) Octavian Marcus Agrippa Legislature Assemblies Roman Senate Historical era Classical antiquity • Overthrow of the monarchy 509 BC • Dissolution of the Latin League 338 BC[2] • Julius Caesar named dictator 49 BC • Assassination of Julius Caesar 15 March 44 BC • Battle of Actium 2 September 31 BC • Octavian proclaimed Augustus 16 January 27 BC Area 326 BC[3] 10,000 km2 (3,900 sq mi) 50 BC[3] 1,950,000 km2 (750,000 sq mi) Preceded by Succeeded by Roman Kingdom Roman Empire Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e The Roman Republic (Latin: Rēs pūblica Rōmāna [ˈreːs ˈpuːblɪka roːˈmaːna]) was the era of classical Roman civilization, led by the Roman people, beginning with the overthrow of the Roman Kingdom, traditionally dated to 509 BC, and ending in 27 BC with the establishment of the Roman Empire. During this period, Rome's control expanded from the city's immediate surroundings to hegemony over the entire Mediterranean world. Roman society under the Republic was primarily a cultural mix of Latin and Etruscan societies, as well as of Sabine, Oscan, and Greek cultural elements, which is especially visible in the Roman Pantheon. Its political organization developed at around the same time direct democracy did in Ancient Greece, with collective and annual magistracies, overseen by a senate.[4] The top magistrates were the two consuls, who had an extensive range of executive, legislative, judicial, military, and religious powers. Even though a small number of powerful families (called gentes) monopolised the main magistracies, the Roman Republic is generally considered one of the earliest examples of representative democracy.[5][6][7] Roman institutions underwent considerable changes throughout the Republic to adapt to the difficulties it faced, such as the creation of promagistracies to rule its conquered provinces, or the composition of the senate. Unlike the Pax Romana of the Roman Empire, the Republic was in a state of quasi-perpetual war throughout its existence. Its first enemies were its Latin and Etruscan neighbours as well as the Gauls, who even sacked the city in 387 BC. The Republic nonetheless demonstrated extreme resilience and always managed to overcome its losses, however catastrophic. After the Gallic Sack, Rome conquered the whole Italian peninsula in a century, which turned the Republic into a major power in the Mediterranean. The Republic's greatest enemy was doubtless Carthage, against which it waged three wars. The Punic general Hannibal famously invaded Italy by crossing the Alps and inflicted on Rome two devastating defeats at Lake Trasimene and Cannae, but the Republic once again recovered and won the war thanks to Scipio Africanus at the Battle of Zama in 202 BC. With Carthage defeated, Rome became the dominant power of the ancient Mediterranean world. It then embarked on a long series of difficult conquests, after having notably defeated Philip V and Perseus of Macedon, Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire, the Lusitanian Viriathus, the Numidian Jugurtha, the Pontic king Mithridates VI, the Gaul Vercingetorix, and the Egyptian queen Cleopatra. At home, the Republic similarly experienced a long streak of social and political crises, which ended in several violent civil wars. At first, the Conflict of the Orders opposed the patricians, the closed oligarchic elite, to the far more numerous plebs, who finally achieved political equality in several steps during the 4th century BC. Later, the vast conquests of the Republic disrupted its society, as the immense influx of slaves they brought enriched the aristocracy, but ruined the peasantry and urban workers. In order to solve this issue, several social reformers, known as the Populares, tried to pass agrarian laws, but the Gracchi brothers, Saturninus, or Clodius Pulcher were all murdered by their opponents, the Optimates, keepers of the traditional aristocratic order. Mass slavery also caused three Servile Wars; the last of them was led by Spartacus, a skilful gladiator who ravaged Italy and left Rome powerless until his defeat in 71 BC. In this context, the last decades of the Republic were marked by the rise of great generals, who exploited their military conquests and the factional situation in Rome to gain control of the political system. Marius (between 105 and 86 BC), then Sulla (between 82 and 78 BC) dominated in turn the Republic; both used extraordinary powers to purge their opponents. These multiple tensions led to a series of civil wars; the first between the two generals Julius Caesar and Pompey. Despite his victory and appointment as dictator for life, Caesar was murdered in 44 BC. Caesar's heir Octavian and lieutenant Mark Antony defeated Caesar's assassins Brutus and Cassius in 42 BC, but then turned against each other. The final defeat of Mark Antony alongside his ally and lover Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, and the Senate's grant of extraordinary powers to Octavian as Augustus in 27 BC – which effectively made him the first Roman emperor – thus ended the Republic. Contents 1 History 1.1 Foundation (509 BC) 1.2 Rome in Latium (509–387 BC) 1.2.1 Early campaigns 1.2.2 Plebeians and patricians 1.2.3 Celtic invasion of Italy (390–387 BC) 1.3 Roman expansion in Italy (387–272 BC) 1.3.1 Wars against Italian neighbours 1.3.2 Rise of the plebeian nobility 1.3.3 Pyrrhic War (280–275 BC) 1.4 Punic Wars and expansion in the Mediterranean (264–146 BC) 1.4.1 First Punic War (264–241 BC) 1.4.2 Second Punic War (218–201 BC) 1.4.3 Roman supremacy in the Greek East (200–188 BC) 1.4.4 Conquest of Greece (172–146 BC) 1.4.5 Third Punic War (149–146 BC) 1.5 Social troubles and first civil war (146–60 BC) 1.5.1 The Gracchi (133–121 BC) 1.5.2 Rise of Marius 1.5.3 Sulla's Civil Wars 1.5.4 Pompey's dominance 1.6 Triumvirates and end of the Republic (60–27 BC) 1.6.1 First Triumvirate (60–50 BC) 1.6.2 Caesar's Civil War and dictatorship (49–44 BC) 1.6.3 Second Triumvirate 2 Constitutional system 2.1 Senate 2.2 Legislative assemblies 2.3 Magistrates 3 Military 3.1 Hoplite armies (509–c. 315 BC) 3.2 Manipular legion (c. 315–107 BC) 3.3 Legion after the reforms of Gaius Marius (107–27 BC) 4 Social structure 5 Trade and economy 5.1 Farming 6 Religion 6.1 Priesthoods 6.2 Temples and festivals 6.3 In the military 7 Cities, towns and villas 7.1 City of Rome 8 Culture 8.1 Clothing 8.2 Food and dining 8.3 Education and language 8.4 Arts 8.5 Literature 8.6 Sports and entertainment 9 See also 10 Footnotes 11 References 12 Ancient sources 13 Works cited 13.1 General history of the Roman Republic (ordered chronologically) 13.2 Specific subjects 14 External links History[edit] Foundation (509 BC)[edit] Main article: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy Since the foundation of Rome, its rulers had been monarchs, elected for life by the patrician noblemen who made up the Roman Senate. The last Roman king was Lucius Tarquinius Superbus ("Tarquin the Proud"). In the traditional histories, Tarquin was expelled in 509 because his son Sextus Tarquinius had raped the noblewoman Lucretia, who afterwards took her own life. Lucretia's father, her husband Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, and Tarquin's nephew Lucius Junius Brutus mustered support from the Senate and army, and forced Tarquin into exile in Etruria.[8][9][10] The Senate agreed to abolish kingship. Most of the king's former functions were transferred to two consuls, who were elected to office for a term of one year. Each consul had the capacity to act as a check on his colleague, if necessary through the same power of veto that the kings had held. If a consul abused his powers in office, he could be prosecuted when his term expired. Brutus and Collatinus became Republican Rome's first consuls. Despite Collatinus' role in the creation of the Republic, he belonged to the same family as the former king, and was forced to abdicate his office and leave Rome. He was replaced as co-consul by Publius Valerius Publicola.[11] Most modern scholarship describes these events as the quasi-mythological detailing of an aristocratic coup within Tarquin's own family, not a popular revolution. They fit a narrative of a personal vengeance against a tyrant leading to his overthrow, which was common among Greek cities and even theorised by Aristotle.[12][13][14] Rome in Latium (509–387 BC)[edit] Early campaigns[edit] According to Rome's traditional histories, Tarquin made several attempts to retake the throne, including the Tarquinian conspiracy, which involved Brutus' own sons, the war with Veii and Tarquinii and finally the war between Rome and Clusium; but none succeeded.[15] The "Capitoline Brutus", a bust possibly depicting Lucius Junius Brutus, who led the revolt against Rome's last king and was a founder of the Republic The first Roman republican wars were wars of both expansion and defence, aimed at protecting Rome itself from neighbouring cities and nations and establishing its territory in the region.[16] Initially, Rome's immediate neighbours were either Latin towns and villages, or else tribal Sabines from the Apennine hills beyond. One by one Rome defeated both the persistent Sabines and the local cities, both those under Etruscan control and those that had cast off their Etruscan rulers. Rome defeated the Latin cities in the Battle of Lake Regillus in 496, the Battle of Mount Algidus in 458, the Battle of Corbio in 446, the Battle of Aricia, however it suffered a significant defeat at the Battle of the Cremera in 477 wherein it fought against the most important Etruscan city of Veii.[17][18] v t e Rome's early Italian campaigns Lake Regillus The Cremera Mount Algidus Corbio Fidenae Veii By the end of this period, Rome had effectively completed the conquest of their immediate Etruscan and Latin neighbours, and also secured their position against the immediate threat posed by the nearby Apennine hill tribes.[19] Plebeians and patricians[edit] Main article: Conflict of the Orders Beginning with their revolt against Tarquin, and continuing through the early years of the Republic, Rome's patrician aristocrats were the dominant force in politics and society. They initially formed a closed group of about 50 large families, called gentes, who monopolised Rome's magistracies, state priesthoods and senior military posts. The most prominent of these families were the Cornelii,[i] followed by the Aemilii, Claudii, Fabii, and Valerii. The power, privilege and influence of leading families derived from their wealth, in particular from their landholdings, their position as patrons, and their numerous clients.[20] The vast majority of Roman citizens were commoners of various social degrees. They formed the backbone of Rome's economy, as smallholding farmers, managers, artisans, traders, and tenants. In times of war, they could be summoned for military service. Most had little direct political influence over the Senate's decisions or the laws it passed, including the abolition of the monarchy and the creation of the consular system. During the early Republic, the plebs (or plebeians) emerged as a self-organised, culturally distinct group of commoners, with their own internal hierarchy, laws, customs, and interests.[21] Plebeians had no access to high religious and civil office,[ii] and could be punished for offences against laws of which they had no knowledge.[22] For the poorest, one of the few effective political tools was their withdrawal of labour and services, in a "secessio plebis"; they would leave the city en masse, and allow their social superiors to fend for themselves. The first such secession occurred in 494, in protest at the abusive treatment of plebeian debtors by the wealthy during a famine.[23] The Senate was compelled to give them direct access to the written civil and religious laws, and to the electoral and political process. To represent their interests, the plebs elected tribunes, who were personally sacrosanct, immune to arbitrary arrest by any magistrate, and had veto power over the passage of legislation.[24] Celtic invasion of Italy (390–387 BC)[edit] v t e Roman–Gallic wars Allia River Anio River Pedum Arretium Lake Vadimo Faesulae Telamon Clastidium Silva Litana Cremona Placentia Mutina By 390, several Gallic tribes were invading Italy from the north. The Romans were alerted to this when a particularly warlike tribe, the Senones,[25] invaded two Etruscan towns close to Rome's sphere of influence. These towns, overwhelmed by the enemy's numbers and ferocity, called on Rome for help. The Romans met the Gauls in pitched battle at the Battle of Allia River around 390–387 BC. The Gauls, led by the chieftain Brennus, defeated the Roman army of approximately 15,000 troops, pursued the fleeing Romans back to Rome, and sacked the city before being either driven off or bought off. Roman expansion in Italy (387–272 BC)[edit] Wars against Italian neighbours[edit] Map showing Roman expansion in Italy v t e Ancient unification of Italy Roman–Etruscan Wars Roman–Latin wars Roman–Volscian wars Roman conquest of the Hernici Samnite Wars Pyrrhic War Social War v t e Samnite Wars First Samnite War Mons Gaurus Saticula Suessula Second Samnite War Neapolis Imbrinium Caudine Forks Lautulae Lake Vadimo Bovianum Third Samnite War Camerinum Tifernum Sentinum Aquilonia From 343 to 341, Rome won two battles against their Samnite neighbours, but were unable to consolidate their gains, due to the outbreak of war with former Latin allies. In the Latin War (340–338), Rome defeated a coalition of Latins at the battles of Vesuvius and the Trifanum. The Latins submitted to Roman rule.[26] A Second Samnite War began in 327.[27] The fortunes of the two sides fluctuated, but from 314, Rome was dominant, and offered progressively unfavourable terms for peace. The war ended with Samnite defeat at the Battle of Bovianum (305). By the following year, Rome had annexed most Samnite territory and began to establish colonies there; but in 298 the Samnites rebelled, and defeated a Roman army, in a Third Samnite War. Following this success they built a coalition of several previous enemies of Rome.[28] At the Battle of Populonia in 282 Rome finished off the last vestiges of Etruscan power in the region. Rise of the plebeian nobility[edit] In the 4th century, plebeians gradually obtained political equality with patricians. The starting point was in 400, when the first plebeian consular tribunes were elected; likewise, several subsequent consular colleges counted plebeians (in 399, 396, 388, 383, and 379). The reason behind this sudden gain is unknown,[29] but it was limited as patrician tribunes retained preeminence over their plebeian colleagues.[30] In 385, the former consul and saviour of the besieged Capitol Marcus Manlius Capitolinus is said to have sided with the plebeians, ruined by the Sack and largely indebted to patricians. The issue of debt relief for the plebs remained indeed pressing throughout the century. Livy tells that Capitolinus sold his estate to repay the debt of many of them, and even went over to the plebs, the first patrician to do so. Nevertheless, the growing unrest he had caused led to his trial for seeking kingly power; he was sentenced to death and thrown from the Tarpeian Rock.[31][32] Between 376 and 367, the tribunes of the plebs Gaius Licinius Stolo and Lucius Sextius Lateranus continued the plebeian agitation and pushed for an ambitious legislation, known as the Leges Liciniae Sextiae. Two of their bills attacked patricians' economic supremacy, by creating legal protection against indebtedness and forbidding excessive use of public land, as the Ager publicus was monopolised by large landowners. The most important bill opened the consulship to plebeians.[33] Other tribunes controlled by the patricians vetoed the bills, but Stolo and Lateranus retaliated by vetoing the elections for five years while being continuously re-elected by the plebs, resulting in a stalemate.[34] In 367, they carried a bill creating the Decemviri sacris faciundis, a college of ten priests, of whom five had to be plebeians, therefore breaking patricians' monopoly on priesthoods. Finally, the resolution of the crisis came from the dictator Camillus, who made a compromise with the tribunes; he agreed to their bills, while they in return consented to the creation of the offices of praetor and curule aediles, both reserved to patricians. Lateranus also became the first plebeian consul in 366; Stolo followed in 361.[35][36][37] Soon after, plebeians were able to hold both the dictatorship and the censorship, since former consuls normally filled these senior magistracies. The four time consul Gaius Marcius Rutilus became the first plebeian dictator in 356 and censor in 351. In 342, the tribune of the plebs Lucius Genucius passed his Leges Genuciae, which abolished interest on loans, in a renewed effort to tackle indebtedness, required the election of at least one plebeian consul each year, and prohibited a magistrate from holding the same magistracy for the next ten years or two magistracies in the same year.[38][33][39] In 339, the plebeian consul and dictator Quintus Publilius Philo passed three laws extending the powers of the plebeians. His first law followed the Lex Genucia by reserving one censorship to plebeians, the second made plebiscites binding on all citizens (including patricians), and the third stated that the Senate had to give its prior approval to plebiscites before becoming binding on all citizens (the Lex Valeria-Horatia of 449 had placed this approval after the vote).[40] Two years later, Publilius ran for the praetorship, probably in a bid to take the last senior magistracy closed to plebeians, which he won.[41] The Temple of Hercules Victor, Rome, built in the mid 2nd century BC, most likely by Lucius Mummius Achaicus, who won the Achaean War During the early republic, senators were chosen by the consuls among their supporters. Shortly before 312, the Lex Ovinia transferred this power to the censors, who could only remove senators for misconduct, thus appointing them for life. This law strongly increased the power of the Senate, which was by now protected from the influence of the consuls and became the central organ of government.[42][43] In 312, following this law, the patrician censor Appius Claudius Caecus appointed many more senators to fill the new limit of 300, including descendants of freedmen, which was deemed scandalous. He also incorporated these freedmen in the rural tribes.[iii][iv] His tribal reforms were nonetheless cancelled by the next censors, Quintus Fabius Maximus and Publius Decius Mus, his political enemies.[44] Caecus also launched a vast construction program, building the first aqueduct (Aqua Appia), and the first Roman road (Via Appia).[45] In 300, the two tribunes of the plebs Gnaeus and Quintus Ogulnius passed the Lex Ogulnia, which created four plebeian pontiffs, therefore equalling the number of patrician pontiffs, and five plebeian augurs, outnumbering the four patricians in the college.[46] Eventually the Conflict of the Orders ended with the last secession of the plebs in about 287. The details are not known precisely as Livy's books on the period are lost. Debt is once again mentioned by ancient authors, but it seems that the plebs revolted over the distribution of the land conquered on the Samnites.[47] A dictator named Quintus Hortensius was appointed to negotiate with the plebeians, who had retreated to the Janiculum hill, perhaps to dodge the draft in the war against the Lucanians. Hortensius passed the Lex Hortensia which re-enacted the law of 339, making plebiscites binding on all citizens, but also removed the Senate's prior approval to plebiscites. Popular assemblies were by now sovereign; this put an end to the crisis, and to plebeian agitation for 150 years.[48] These events were a political victory of the wealthy plebeian elite who exploited the economic difficulties of the plebs for their own gain, hence why Stolo, Lateranus, and Genucius bound their bills attacking patricians' political supremacy with debt-relief measures. They had indeed little in common with the mass of plebeians; Stolo was noteworthy fined for having exceeded the limit on land occupation he had fixed in his own law.[49] As a result of the end of the patrician monopoly on senior magistracies, many small patrician gentes faded into history during the 4th and 3rd centuries due to the lack of available positions; the Verginii, Horatii, Menenii, Cloelii all disappear, even the Julii entered a long eclipse. They were replaced by plebeian aristocrats, of whom the most emblematic were the Caecilii Metelli, who received 18 consulships until the end of the Republic; the Domitii, Fulvii, Licinii, Marcii, or Sempronii were as successful. About a dozen remaining patrician gentes and twenty plebeian ones thus formed a new elite, called the nobiles, or Nobilitas.[50] Pyrrhic War (280–275 BC)[edit] Route of Pyrrhus in Italy and Sicily Bust of Pyrrhus, found in the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum, now in the Naples Archaeological Museum. Pyrrhus was a brave and chivalrous general who fascinated the Romans, hence his presence in a Roman house.[51] By the beginning of the 3rd century, Rome had established itself as the major power in Italy, but had not yet come into conflict with the dominant military powers of the Mediterranean: Carthage and the Greek kingdoms.[52] In 282, several Roman warships entered the harbour of Tarentum, thus breaking a treaty between the Republic and the Greek city, which forbade the Gulf to Roman navy. It triggered a violent reaction from the Tarentine democrats, who sank some of the ships; they were in fact worried that Rome could favour the oligarchs in the city, as it had done with the other Greek cities under its control. The Roman embassy sent to investigate the affair was insulted and war was promptly declared.[53] Facing a hopeless situation, the Tarentines (together with the Lucanians and Samnites) appealed for military aid to Pyrrhus, the very ambitious king of Epirus. A cousin of Alexander the Great, he was eager to build an empire for himself in the western Mediterranean, and saw Tarentum's plea as a perfect opportunity towards this goal.[54][55] v t e Pyrrhic War Heraclea Asculum Venusia Rhegium Syracuse Eryx Cranita Lilybaeum Messina Beneventum Pyrrhus and his army of 25,500 men (and 20 war elephants) landed in Italy in 280; he was immediately named Strategos Autokrator by the Tarentines. Publius Valerius Laevinus, the consul sent to face him, rejected the king's negotiation offer, as he had more troops and hoped to cut the invasion short. The Romans were nevertheless defeated at Heraclea, as their cavalry were afraid of the elephants of Pyrrhus, who lost a large portion of his army. Pyrrhus then marched on Rome, but could not take any Roman city on his way; facing the prospect of being flanked by the two consular armies, he moved back to Tarentum. His adviser, the orator Cineas, made a peace offer before the Roman Senate, asking Rome to return the land it took from the Samnites and Lucanians, and liberate the Greek cities under its control. The offer was rejected after Appius Caecus (the old censor of 312) spoke against it in a celebrated speech, which was the earliest recorded by the time of Cicero.[56][57][58] In 279, Pyrrhus met the consuls Publius Decius Mus and Publius Sulpicius Saverrio at the Battle of Asculum, which remained undecided for two days, as the Romans had prepared some special chariots to counter his elephants. Finally, Pyrrhus personally charged into the melee and won the battle, but at the cost of an important part of his troops; he allegedly said "If we are victorious in one more battle with the Romans, we shall be utterly ruined."[59][60][61][v] He escaped the Italian deadlock by answering a call for help from Syracuse, which tyrant Thoenon was desperately fighting an invasion from Carthage. Pyrrhus could not let them take the whole island as it would have compromised his ambitions in the western Mediterranean and so declared war on them. At first, his Sicilian campaign was an easy triumph; he was welcomed as a liberator in every Greek city on his way, even receiving the title of king (basileus) of Sicily. The Carthaginians lifted the siege of Syracuse before his arrival, but he could not entirely oust them from the island as he failed to take their fortress of Lilybaeum.[62] His harsh rule, especially the murder of Thoenon, whom he did not trust, soon led to a widespread antipathy among the Sicilians; some cities even defected to Carthage. In 275, Pyrrhus left the island before he had to face a full-scale rebellion.[63] He returned to Italy, where his Samnite allies were on the verge of losing the war, despite their earlier victory at the Cranita hills. Pyrrhus again met the Romans at the Battle of Beneventum; this time the consul Manius Dentatus was victorious, and even captured eight elephants. Pyrrhus then withdrew from Italy, but left a garrison in Tarentum, and waged a new campaign in Greece against Antigonos Gonatas. His death in battle at Argos in 272 forced Tarentum to surrender to Rome. Since it was the last independent city of Italy, Rome now dominated the entire Italian peninsula, and won an international military reputation.[64] Punic Wars and expansion in the Mediterranean (264–146 BC)[edit] First Punic War (264–241 BC)[edit] Main article: Punic Wars v t e First Punic War Treaties Messana Agrigentum 1st Mytistratus Lipari Islands Mylae Thermae 2nd Mytistratus Sulci Tyndaris Cape Ecnomus Aspis Adys Bagradas (Tunis) Cape Hermaeum Panormus Lilybaeum Drepana Phintias Drepana (siege) 1st Mt Eryx 2nd Mt Eryx Aegates Islands Treaty of Lutatius Coin of Hiero II of Syracuse Rome and Carthage were initially on friendly terms; Polybius details three treaties between them, the first dating from the first year of the Republic, the second from 348. The last one was an alliance against Pyrrhus.[65][66][67] However, tensions rapidly built on after the departure of the Epirote king. Between 288 and 283, Messina in Sicily was taken by the Mamertines, a band of mercenaries formerly employed by Agathocles. They plundered the surroundings until Hiero II, the new tyrant of Syracuse, defeated them (in either 269 or 265). Carthage could not let him take Messina, as he would have controlled its Strait, and garrisoned the city. In effect under a Carthaginian protectorate, the remaining Mamertines appealed to Rome to regain their independence. Senators were divided on whether to help them or not, as it would have meant war with Carthage, since Sicily was in its sphere of influence (the treaties furthermore forbade the island to Rome), and also Syracuse. A supporter of the war, the consul Appius Claudius Caudex (Caecus' brother) turned to the Tribal Assembly to get a favourable vote, by notably promising booty to voters.[68] Caudex first secured control of the city with ease. However, Syracuse and Carthage, at war for centuries, made an alliance to counter the invasion and blockaded Messina, but Caudex defeated Hiero and Carthage separately.[69][70] His successor Manius Valerius Corvinus Messalla landed with a strong 40,000 men army that conquered eastern Sicily, which prompted Hiero to shift his allegiance and forge a long lasting alliance with Rome. In 262, the Romans moved to the southern coast and besieged Akragas. In order to raise the siege, Carthage sent reinforcements, including 60 elephants – the first time they used them, but still lost the battle.[71] Nevertheless, as Pyrrhus before, Rome could not take all of Sicily because Carthage's naval superiority prevented them from effectively besieging coastal cities, which could receive supplies from the sea. Using a captured Carthaginian ship as blueprint, Rome therefore launched a massive construction program and built 100 quinqueremes in only two months, perhaps through an assembly line organisation. They also invented a new device, the corvus, a grappling engine which enabled a crew to board on an enemy ship.[72] The consul for 260 Scipio Asina lost the first naval skirmish of the war against Hannibal Gisco at Lipara, but his colleague Gaius Dullius won a great victory at Mylae. He destroyed or captured 44 ships, and was the first Roman to receive a naval triumph, which also included captive Carthaginians for the first time.[73] Although Carthage was victorious on land at Thermae in Sicily, the corvus made Rome invincible on the waters. The consul Lucius Cornelius Scipio (Asina's brother) captured Corsica in 259; his successors won the naval battles of Sulci in 258, Tyndaris in 257, and Cape Ecnomus in 256.[74] Diagram of a corvus In order to hasten the end of the war, the consuls for 256 decided to carry the operations to Africa, on Carthage's homeland. The consul Marcus Atilius Regulus landed on the Cap Bon peninsula with about 18,000 soldiers. He captured the city of Aspis, then repulsed Carthage's counter-attack at Adys, and took Tunis. The Carthaginians supposedly sued him for peace, but his conditions were so harsh that they continued the war instead. They hired Spartan mercenaries, led by Xanthippus, to command their troops.[75] In 255, the Spartan general marched on Regulus, still encamped at Tunis, who accepted the battle to avoid sharing the glory with his successor. However, the flat land near Tunis favoured the Punic elephants, which crushed the Roman infantry on the Bagradas plain; only 2,000 soldiers escaped, and Regulus was captured. The consuls for 255 nonetheless won a new sounding naval victory at Cape Hermaeum, where they captured 114 warships. This success was spoilt by a storm that annihilated the victorious navy: 184 ships of 264 sank, 25,000 soldiers and 75,000 rowers drowned. The corvus considerably hindered ships' navigation, and made them vulnerable during tempest. It was abandoned after another similar catastrophe took place in 253 (150 ships sank with their crew). These disasters prevented any significant campaign between 254 and 252.[76] Denarius of C. Caecilius Metellus Caprarius, 125 BC. The reverse depicts the triumph of his great-grandfather Lucius, with the elephants he had captured at Panormos. The elephant had thence become the emblem of the powerful Caecilii Metelli.[77] Hostilities in Sicily resumed in 252, with the taking of Thermae by Rome. Carthage countered the following year, by besieging Lucius Caecilius Metellus, who held Panormos (now Palermo). The consul had dug trenches to counter the elephants, which once hurt by missiles turned back on their own army, resulting in a great victory for Metellus, who exhibited some captured beasts in the Circus. Rome then besieged the last Carthaginian strongholds in Sicily, Lilybaeum and Drepana, but these cities were impregnable by land. Publius Claudius Pulcher, the consul of 249, recklessly tried to take the latter from the sea, but he suffered a terrible defeat; his colleague Lucius Junius Pullus likewise lost his fleet off Lilybaeum. Without the corvus, Roman warships had lost their advantage. By now, both sides were drained and could not undertake large scale operations; the number of Roman citizens who were being called up for war had been reduced by 17% in two decades, a result of the massive bloodshed. The only military activity during this period was the landing in Sicily of Hamilcar Barca in 247, who harassed the Romans with a mercenary army from a citadel he built on Mt. Eryx.[78] Finally, unable to take the Punic fortresses in Sicily, Rome tried to win the decision at sea and built a new navy, thanks to a forced borrowing on the rich. In 242, the 200 quinqueremes of the consul Gaius Lutatius Catulus blockaded Drepana. The rescue fleet from Carthage arrived the next year, but was largely undermanned and soundly defeated by Catulus. Exhausted and unable to bring supplies to Sicily, Carthage sued for peace. Catulus and Hamilcar negotiated a treaty, which was somewhat lenient to Carthage, but the Roman people rejected it and imposed harsher terms: Carthage had to pay 1000 talents immediately and 2200 over ten years, and evacuate Sicily. The fine was so high that Carthage could not pay Hamilcar's mercenaries, who had been shipped back to Africa. They revolted during the Mercenary War, which Carthage had enormous difficulties to suppress. Meanwhile, Rome took advantage of a similar revolt in Sardinia to seize the island from Carthage, in violation of the peace treaty. This stab-in-the-back led to permanent bitterness in Carthage, and revanchism.[79] Second Punic War (218–201 BC)[edit] v t e Second Punic War Prelude Saguntum Rhone Crossing of the Alps Italy Ticinus Trebia Lake Trasimene Umbrian Lake Ager Falernus Geronium Cannae Silva Litana 1st Nola 1st Casilinum Hamae 1st Petelia 2nd Nola 3rd Nola 1st Beneventum 2nd Casilinum Lucania Arpi 1st Tarentum 2nd Beneventum Campi Veteres 1st Capua Silarus 1st Herdonia 2nd Capua Sapriportis 2nd Herdonia Numistro Canusium Manduria Caulonia 2nd Tarentum 2nd Petelia Venusia Grumentum Metaurus Crotona Insubria Iberia Cissa Ebro River Ibera Upper Baetis 1st New Carthage Baecula Carmona Ilipa Sucro Carteia 2nd New Carthage Sicily and Sardinia Lilybaeum Malta Decimomannu Leontini Syracuse Himera Agrigentum North Africa Clupea 1st Utica 2nd Utica Great Plains (Bagradas) Cirta Zama After its victory, the Republic shifted its attention to its northern border as the Insubres and Boii were threatening Italy.[80] Meanwhile, Carthage compensated the loss of Sicily and Sardinia with the conquest of Southern Hispania (up to Salamanca), and its rich silver mines.[81] This enterprise was the work of the Barcid family, headed by Hamilcar, the former commander in Sicily. Hamilcar nonetheless died against the Oretani in 228; his son-in-law Hasdrubal the Fair – the founder of Carthago Nova – and his three sons Hannibal, Hasdrubal, and Mago, succeeded him.[82] This rapid expansion worried Rome, which concluded a treaty with Hasdrubal in 226, stating that Carthage could not cross the Ebro river.[83][84] However, the city of Saguntum, located in the south of the Ebro, appealed to Rome in 220 to act as arbitrator during a stasis. Hannibal dismissed Roman rights on the city, and took it in 219.[85] At Rome, the Cornelii and the Aemilii considered the capture of Saguntum a casus belli,[86] and won the debate against Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, who wanted to negotiate. An embassy carrying an ultimatum was sent to Carthage, asking its senate to condemn Hannibal's deeds. The Carthaginian refusal started the Second Punic War.[87] Principal offensives of the war: Rome (red), Hannibal (green), Hasdrubal (purple) Initially, the plan of the Republic was to carry war outside Italy, by sending the consuls Publius Cornelius Scipio to Hispania, and Sempronius Longus to Africa, while their naval superiority prevented Carthage from attacking from the sea.[88] This plan was thwarted by Hannibal's bold move to Italy. In May 218, he indeed crossed the Ebro with a large army of about 100,000 soldiers and 37 elephants.[89] He passed in Gaul, crossed the Rhone, then the Alps, possibly through the Col de Clapier (2,491 meters high).[90] This famous exploit cost him almost half of his troops,[91] but he could now rely on the Boii and Insubres, still at war with Rome.[92] Publius Scipio, who had failed to block Hannibal on the Rhone, sent his elder brother Gnaeus with the main part of his army in Hispania according to the initial plan, and went back to Italy with the rest to resist Hannibal in Italy, but he was defeated and wounded near Pavia. Hannibal then marched south and won three outstanding victories. The first one was on the banks of the Trebia in December 218, where he defeated the other consul Sempronius Longus thanks to his brother Mago, who had concealed some elite troops behind the legions and attacked them from the rear once fighting Hannibal. More than half of the Roman army was lost. Hannibal then ravaged the country around Arretium to lure the new consul Gaius Flaminius into a trap, at the Lake Trasimene. He had hidden his troops in the hills surrounding the lake and attacked Flaminius when he was cornered on the shore. This clever ambush resulted in the death of the consul and the complete destruction of his army of 30,000 men. In 216, the new consuls Aemilius Paullus and Terentius Varro mustered the biggest army possible, with eight legions (more than 80,000 soldiers) – twice as many as the Punic army – and confronted Hannibal, who was encamped at Cannae, in Apulia. Despite his numerical disadvantage, Hannibal used his heavier cavalry to rout the Roman wings and envelop their infantry, whom he annihilated. In terms of casualties, the Battle of Cannae was the worst defeat in the history of Rome: only 14,500 soldiers escaped; Paullus was killed as well as 80 senators.[93] Soon after, the Boii ambushed the army of the consul-elect for 215, Postumius Albinus, who died with all his army of 25,000 men in the Forest of Litana. A quarter shekel of Carthage, perhaps minted in Spain. The obverse may depict Hannibal under the traits of young Melqart. The reverse features one of his famous war elephants.[94] These disasters triggered a wave of defection among Roman allies, with the rebellions of the Samnites, Oscans, Lucanians, and Greek cities of Southern Italy.[95] In Macedonia, Philip V also made an alliance with Hannibal in order to take Illyria and the area around Epidamnus, occupied by Rome. His attack on Apollonia started the First Macedonian War. In 215, Hiero II of Syracuse died of old age, and his young grandson Hieronymus broke the long alliance with Rome to side with Carthage. At this desperate point, the aggressive strategy against Hannibal advocated by the Scipiones was abandoned in favour of delaying tactics that avoided direct confrontation with him. Its main proponents were the consuls Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, nicknamed Cunctator ("the delayer"), Claudius Marcellus, and Fulvius Flaccus. The "Fabian Strategy" favoured a slow reconquest of the lost territories, since Hannibal could not be everywhere to defend them.[96] Although he remained invincible on the battlefield, defeating all the Roman armies on his way, he could not prevent Claudius Marcellus from taking Syracuse in 212 after a long siege, nor the fall of his bases of Capua and Tarentum in 211 and 209. However, in 208 the consuls Claudius Marcellus and Quinctius Crispinus were ambushed and killed near Venusia. In Hispania, the situation was overall much better for Rome. This theatre was mostly commanded by the brothers Publius and Gnaeus Scipio, who won the battles of Cissa in 218, soon after Hannibal's departure, and Dertosa against his brother Hasdrubal in 215, which enabled them to conquer the eastern coast of Hispania. In 211 however, Hasdrubal and Mago Barca successfully returned the Celtiberian tribes that supported the Scipiones, and attacked them simultaneously at the Battle of the Upper Baetis, in which the Scipiones brothers died.[97] Publius' son, the future Scipio Africanus, was then elected with a special proconsulship to lead the Hispanic campaign. He soon showed outstanding skills as a commander, by winning a series of battles with ingenious tactics. In 209, he took Carthago Nova, the main Punic base in Hispania, then defeated Hasdrubal at the Battle of Baecula (208).[98] After his defeat, Hasdrubal was ordered by Carthage to move to Italy. Since he could not use ships, he followed the same route as his brother through the Alps, but this time the surprise effect was gone. The consuls Livius Salinator and Claudius Nero were awaiting him and won the Battle of the Metaurus, where Hasdrubal died.[99] It was the turning point of the war. The attrition campaign had indeed worked well: Hannibal's troops were now depleted; he only had one elephant left (Surus) and retreated to Bruttium, on the defensive. In Greece, Rome contained Philip V without devoting too many forces, by setting an alliance with the Aetolian League, Sparta, and Pergamon, which also prevented Philip from aiding Hannibal. The war resulted in a stalemate, with the Treaty of Phoenice signed in 205. v t e First Macedonian War Apollonia 1st Lamia 2nd Lamia Mantinea In Hispania, Scipio continued his triumphal campaign at the battles of Carmona in 207, and Ilipa (now Seville) in 206, which ended the Punic threat on the peninsula.[100] Elected consul in 205, he convinced the Senate to cancel the Fabian Strategy, and instead to invade Africa by using the support of the Numidian king Massinissa, who had defected to Rome. Scipio landed in Africa in 204. He took Utica, then won the Battle of the Great Plains, which prompted Carthage to recall Hannibal from Italy and open peace negotiations with Rome. The talks nevertheless failed because Scipio wanted to impose harsher terms on Carthage, in order to avoid it from rising again as a threat to Rome. Hannibal was therefore sent to face Scipio at Zama. Scipio could now use the heavy Numidian cavalry of Massinissa – which had hitherto been so successful against Rome – to rout the Punic wings, then flank the infantry, as Hannibal had done at Cannae. Defeated for the first time, Hannibal convinced the Carthaginian Senate to pay the war indemnity, which was even harsher than that of 241: 10,000 talents in 50 instalments. Carthage furthermore had to give up all its elephants, all its fleet but ten triremes, all its possessions outside its core territory in Africa (what is now Tunisia), and could not declare war without the authorisation of Rome. In effect, Carthage was condemned to be a minor power, while Rome recovered from a desperate situation to dominate the Western Mediterranean. Roman supremacy in the Greek East (200–188 BC)[edit] Macedonian Wars Macedonia, Greece and Asia at the outbreak of the Second Macedonian War, 200 BC v t e Macedonian Wars First Second Third Fourth v t e Second Macedonian War Aous Cynoscephalae v t e Roman–Seleucid War Thermopylae Corycus Eurymedon Myonessus Magnesia v t e Third Macedonian War Callinicus Pydna v t e Fourth Macedonian War Pydna (148 BC) Rome's preoccupation with its war with Carthage provided an opportunity for Philip V of the kingdom of Macedonia, located in the north of the Greek peninsula, to attempt to extend his power westward. Philip sent ambassadors to Hannibal's camp in Italy, to negotiate an alliance as common enemies of Rome.[101][102] However, Rome discovered the agreement when Philip's emissaries were captured by a Roman fleet.[101] The First Macedonian War saw the Romans involved directly in only limited land operations, but they ultimately achieved their objective of preoccupying Philip and preventing him from aiding Hannibal. The past century had seen the Greek world dominated by the three primary successor kingdoms of Alexander the Great's empire: Ptolemaic Egypt, Macedonia and the Seleucid Empire. In 202, internal problems led to a weakening of Egypt's position, thereby disrupting the power balance among the successor states. Macedonia and the Seleucid Empire agreed to an alliance to conquer and divide Egypt.[103] Fearing this increasingly unstable situation, several small Greek kingdoms sent delegations to Rome to seek an alliance.[104] The delegation succeeded, even though prior Greek attempts to involve Rome in Greek affairs had been met with Roman apathy. Our primary source about these events, the surviving works of Polybius, do not state Rome's reason for getting involved. Rome gave Philip an ultimatum to cease his campaigns against Rome's new Greek allies. Doubting Rome's strength (a reasonable doubt, given Rome's performance in the First Macedonian War) Philip ignored the request, and Rome sent an army of Romans and Greek allies, beginning the Second Macedonian War.[105] Despite his recent successes against the Greeks and earlier successes against Rome, Philip's army buckled under the pressure from the Roman-Greek army. In 197, the Romans decisively defeated Philip at the Battle of Cynoscephalae, and Philip was forced to give up his recent Greek conquests.[106] The Romans declared the "Peace of the Greeks", believing that Philip's defeat now meant that Greece would be stable. They pulled out of Greece entirely, maintaining minimal contacts with their Greek allies.[107] With Egypt and Macedonia weakened, the Seleucid Empire made increasingly aggressive and successful attempts to conquer the entire Greek world.[108] Now not only Rome's allies against Philip, but even Philip himself, sought a Roman alliance against the Seleucids.[109] The situation was made worse by the fact that Hannibal was now a chief military advisor to the Seleucid emperor, and the two were believed to be planning an outright conquest not just of Greece, but of Rome itself.[110] The Seleucids were much stronger than the Macedonians had ever been, because they controlled much of the former Persian Empire, and by now had almost entirely reassembled Alexander the Great's former empire.[110] Roman bronze bust of Scipio Africanus, dated mid 1st century BC, and found in the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum[111] Fearing the worst, the Romans began a major mobilization, all but pulling out of recently pacified Spain and Gaul.[110] They even established a major garrison in Sicily in case the Seleucids ever got to Italy.[110] This fear was shared by Rome's Greek allies, who had largely ignored Rome in the years after the Second Macedonian War, but now followed Rome again for the first time since that war.[110] A major Roman-Greek force was mobilized under the command of the great hero of the Second Punic War, Scipio Africanus, and set out for Greece, beginning the Roman-Syrian War. After initial fighting that revealed serious Seleucid weaknesses, the Seleucids tried to turn the Roman strength against them at the Battle of Thermopylae (as they believed the 300 Spartans had done centuries earlier).[109] Like the Spartans, the Seleucids lost the battle, and were forced to evacuate Greece.[109] The Romans pursued the Seleucids by crossing the Hellespont, which marked the first time a Roman army had ever entered Asia.[109] The decisive engagement was fought at the Battle of Magnesia, resulting in a complete Roman victory.[109][112] The Seleucids sued for peace, and Rome forced them to give up their recent Greek conquests. Although they still controlled a great deal of territory, this defeat marked the decline of their empire, as they were to begin facing increasingly aggressive subjects in the east (the Parthians) and the west (the Greeks). Their empire disintegrated into a rump over the course of the next century, when it was eclipsed by Pontus. Following Magnesia, Rome again withdrew from Greece, assuming (or hoping) that the lack of a major Greek power would ensure a stable peace. In fact, it did the opposite.[113] Conquest of Greece (172–146 BC)[edit] Scene of the Battle of Corinth (146 BC): last day before the Roman legions looted and burned the Greek city of Corinth. The last day on Corinth, Tony Robert-Fleury, 1870 In 179 Philip died.[114] His talented and ambitious son, Perseus, took the throne and showed a renewed interest in conquering Greece.[115] With her Greek allies facing a major new threat, Rome declared war on Macedonia again, starting the Third Macedonian War. Perseus initially had some success against the Romans. However, Rome responded by sending a stronger army. This second consular army decisively defeated the Macedonians at the Battle of Pydna in 168[114][116] and the Macedonians duly capitulated, ending the war.[117] Convinced now that the Greeks (and therefore the rest of the region) would not have peace if left alone, Rome decided to establish its first permanent foothold in the Greek world, and divided the Kingdom of Macedonia into four client republics. Yet, Macedonian agitation continued. The Fourth Macedonian War, 150 to 148 BC, was fought against a Macedonian pretender to the throne who was again destabilizing Greece by trying to re-establish the old kingdom. The Romans swiftly defeated the Macedonians at the Second battle of Pydna. The Achaean League chose this moment to fight Rome but was swiftly defeated. In 146 (the same year as the destruction of Carthage), Corinth was besieged and destroyed in the Battle of Corinth (146 BC), which led to the league's surrender.[118] After nearly a century of constant crisis management in Greece, which always led back to internal instability and war when she withdrew, Rome decided to divide Macedonia into two new Roman provinces, Achaea and Macedonia. Third Punic War (149–146 BC)[edit] v t e Third Punic War Lake Tunis 1st Nepheris Port of Carthage 2nd Nepheris Carthage Carthage never recovered militarily after the Second Punic War,[119] but quickly did so economically and the Third Punic War that followed was in reality a simple punitive mission after the neighbouring Numidians allied to Rome robbed/attacked Carthaginian merchants. Treaties had forbidden any war with Roman allies, and defence against robbing/pirates was considered as "war action": Rome decided to annihilate the city of Carthage.[120] Carthage was almost defenceless, and submitted when besieged.[121] However, the Romans demanded complete surrender and removal of the city into the (desert) inland far off any coastal or harbour region, and the Carthaginians refused. The city was besieged, stormed, and completely destroyed. Ultimately, all of Carthage's North African and Iberian territories were acquired by Rome. Note that "Carthage" was not an 'empire', but a league of Punic colonies (port cities in the western Mediterranean) like the 1st and 2nd Athenian ("Attic") leagues, under leadership of Carthage. Punic Carthage was gone, but the other Punic cities in the western Mediterranean flourished under Roman rule. Social troubles and first civil war (146–60 BC)[edit] Rome's rapid expansion destabilized its social organization and triggered unrest in the heart of the Republic, which ultimately led to political violence, unrest in the provinces, and ultimately a breakdown in the traditional social relations of Rome that created the Augustan Empire. The period is marked by the rise of strongmen (Marius, Sulla, Pompey, Crassus, and Julius Caesar), who turned military success into political power. The Gracchi (133–121 BC)[edit] v t e Roman Servile Wars First Second Third Main article: Gracchi In 135, the first slave uprising, known as the First Servile War, broke out in Sicily. After initial successes, the slaves led by Eunus and Cleon were annihilated by the consul Publius Rupilius in 132 BC. In this context, Tiberius Gracchus was elected tribune in 133 BC. He attempted to enact a law which would have limited the amount of land that any individual could own. The aristocrats, who stood to lose an enormous amount of money, were bitterly opposed to this proposal. Tiberius submitted this law to the Plebeian Council, but the law was vetoed by a tribune named Marcus Octavius. Tiberius then used the Plebeian Council to impeach Octavius. The theory, that a representative of the people ceases to be one when he acts against the wishes of the people, was counter to Roman constitutional theory. If carried to its logical end, this theory would remove all constitutional restraints on the popular will, and put the state under the absolute control of a temporary popular majority.[122] His law was enacted, but Tiberius was murdered with 300 of his associates[123] when he stood for reelection to the tribunate. Tiberius' brother Gaius was elected tribune in 123. Gaius Gracchus' ultimate goal was to weaken the senate and to strengthen the democratic forces.[124] In the past, for example, the senate would eliminate political rivals either by establishing special judicial commissions or by passing a senatus consultum ultimum ("ultimate decree of the senate"). Both devices would allow the Senate to bypass the ordinary due process rights that all citizens had. Gaius outlawed the judicial commissions, and declared the senatus consultum ultimum to be unconstitutional. Gaius then proposed a law which would grant citizenship rights to Rome's Italian allies. This last proposal was not popular with the plebeians and he lost much of his support.[125] He stood for election to a third term in 121, but was defeated and then murdered by representatives of the senate with 3,000 of his supporters on Capitoline Hill in Rome.[123] In 121, the province of Gallia Narbonensis was established after the victory of Quintus Fabius Maximus over a coalition of Arverni and Allobroges in southern Gaul in 123. The city of Narbo was founded there in 118 by Lucius Licinius Crassus. Rise of Marius[edit] v t e Jugurthine War Cirta Suthul Muthul Zama Thala Muluccha 2nd Cirta Bust of Gaius Marius, instigator of the Marian reforms The Jugurthine War of 111–104 was fought between Rome and Jugurtha of the North African kingdom of Numidia. It constituted the final Roman pacification of Northern Africa,[126] after which Rome largely ceased expansion on the continent after reaching natural barriers of desert and mountain. Following Jugurtha's usurpation of the throne of Numidia,[127] a loyal ally of Rome since the Punic Wars,[128] Rome felt compelled to intervene. Jugurtha impudently bribed the Romans into accepting his usurpation. Jugurtha was finally captured not in battle but by treachery. Denarius of Faustus Cornelius Sulla, 56 BC. It shows Diana on the obverse, while the reverse depicts Sulla being offered an olive branch by his ally Bocchus I. Jugurtha is shown captive on the right.[129] In 118, King Micipsa of Numidia (current-day Algeria and Tunisia) died. He was succeeded by two legitimate sons, Adherbal and Hiempsal, and an illegitimate son, Jugurtha. Micipsa divided his kingdom between these three sons. Jugurtha, however, turned on his brothers, killing Hiempsal and driving Adherbal out of Numidia. Adherbal fled to Rome for assistance, and initially Rome mediated a division of the country between the two brothers. Eventually, Jugurtha renewed his offensive, leading to a long and inconclusive war with Rome. He also bribed several Roman commanders, and at least two tribunes, before and during the war. His nemesis, Gaius Marius, a legate from a virtually unknown provincial family, returned from the war in Numidia and was elected consul in 107 over the objections of the aristocratic senators. Marius invaded Numidia and brought the war to a quick end, capturing Jugurtha in the process. The apparent incompetence of the Senate, and the brilliance of Marius, had been put on full display.[130] The populares party took full advantage of this opportunity by allying itself with Marius. v t e Cimbrian War Noreia Burdigala Arausio Tridentum Aquae Sextiae Vercellae The Cimbrian War (113–101) was a far more serious affair than the earlier clashes of 121. The Germanic tribes of the Cimbri and the Teutons[131] migrated from northern Europe into Rome's northern territories,[132] and clashed with Rome and her allies.[133] At the Battle of Aquae Sextiae and the Battle of Vercellae both tribes were virtually annihilated, which ended the threat. Sulla's Civil Wars[edit] v t e Ancient unification of Italy Roman–Etruscan Wars Roman–Latin wars Roman–Volscian wars Roman conquest of the Hernici Samnite Wars Pyrrhic War Social War v t e First Mithridatic War Amnias Protopachium Mount Scorobas Rhodes Athens and Piraeus Chaeronea Tenedos Orchomenus v t e Sulla's second civil war Mount Tifata Asio River Sacriporto Sena Gálica Saturnia Glanis River Espolecio 1 Clusium 1 Espolecio 2 Faventia Fidentia Clusium 2 Colline Gate Praeneste Neápolis Utica Norba Caesarina Nola Volterras In 91 the Social War broke out between Rome and its former allies in Italy when the allies complained that they shared the risk of Rome's military campaigns, but not its rewards. Although they lost militarily, the allies achieved their objectives with legal proclamations which granted citizenship to more than 500,000 Italians. The internal unrest reached its most serious state, however, in the two civil wars that were caused by the clash between generals Gaius Marius and Lucius Cornelius Sulla starting from 88. In the Battle of the Colline Gate[134] at the very door of the city of Rome, a Roman army under Sulla bested an army of the Marius supporters and entered the city. Sulla's actions marked a watershed in the willingness of Roman troops to wage war against one another that was to pave the way for the wars which ultimately overthrew the Republic, and caused the founding of the Roman Empire. Several years later, in 88, a Roman army was sent to put down an emerging Asian power, king Mithridates of Pontus. The army, however, was not defeated and won. One of Marius' old quaestors, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, had been elected consul for the year, and was ordered by the senate to assume command of the war against Mithridates. Marius, a member of the "populares" party, had a tribune revoke Sulla's command of the war against Mithridates. Sulla, a member of the aristocratic ("optimates") party, brought his army back to Italy and marched on Rome. Sulla was so angry at Marius' tribune that he passed a law intended to permanently weaken the tribunate.[135] He then returned to his war against Mithridates. With Sulla gone, the populares under Marius and Lucius Cornelius Cinna soon took control of the city. During the period in which the populares party controlled the city, they flouted convention by re-electing Marius consul several times without observing the customary ten-year interval between offices.[136] They also transgressed the established oligarchy by advancing unelected individuals to magisterial office, and by substituting magisterial edicts for popular legislation. Sulla soon made peace with Mithridates. In 83, he returned to Rome, overcame all resistance, and recaptured the city. Sulla and his supporters then slaughtered most of Marius' supporters. Sulla, having observed the violent results of radical popular reforms, was naturally conservative. As such, he sought to strengthen the aristocracy, and by extension the senate.[137] Sulla made himself dictator, passed a series of constitutional reforms, resigned the dictatorship, and served one last term as consul. He died in 78. v t e Second Mithridatic War Magnesia on the Maeander Amasra Halys v t e Roman–Parthian Wars Carrhae Campaign (53 BC) Caesar's planned invasion (44 BC) Pompeian–Parthian invasion (40–38 BC) Antony's Parthian War (40–33 BC) War over Armenia (58–63) Trajan's Parthian campaign (115–117) War of 161–166 Campaign of Septimius Severus (198) Caracalla's Parthian War (216–217) Pompey's dominance[edit] See also: Second Catilinarian conspiracy The third and final slave uprising was the most serious,[138] involving ultimately between 120,000[139] and 150,000[140] slaves under the command of the gladiator Spartacus. v t e Third Mithridatic War Chalcedon Cyzicus Rhyndacus Lemnos Heraclea Cabira Tigranocerta Artaxata Zela Lycus Pelorus Abas Jerusalem Mithridates the Great was the ruler of Pontus,[141] a large kingdom in Asia Minor (modern Turkey), from 120 to 63. Mithridates antagonised Rome by seeking to expand his kingdom,[141] and Rome for its part seemed equally eager for war and the spoils and prestige that it might bring.[141][142] In 88, Mithridates ordered the killing of a majority of the 80,000 Romans living in his kingdom.[143] The massacre was the official reason given for the commencement of hostilities in the First Mithridatic War. The Roman general Lucius Cornelius Sulla forced Mithridates out of Greece proper, but then had to return to Italy to answer the internal threat posed by his rival, Gaius Marius. A peace was made between Rome and Pontus, but this proved only a temporary lull. The Second Mithridatic War began when Rome tried to annex a province that Mithridates claimed as his own. In the Third Mithridatic War, first Lucius Licinius Lucullus and then Pompey the Great were sent against Mithridates and his Armenian ally Tigranes the Great.[144] Mithridates was finally defeated by Pompey in the night-time Battle of the Lycus.[145] v t e Rome against the Cilician pirates Korakesion The Mediterranean had at this time fallen into the hands of pirates,[145] largely from Cilicia.[146] The pirates not only strangled shipping lanes but also plundered many cities on the coasts of Greece and Asia. Pompey was nominated as commander of a special naval task force to campaign against the pirates.[144][145] It took Pompey just forty days to clear the western portion of the sea of pirates and restore communication between Iberia (Spain), Africa, and Italy. In 77, the senate sent one of Sulla's former lieutenants, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus ("Pompey the Great"), to put down an uprising in Hispania. By 71, Pompey returned to Rome after having completed his mission. Around the same time, another of Sulla's former lieutenants, Marcus Licinius Crassus, had just put down the Spartacus-led gladiator/slave revolt in Italy. Upon their return, Pompey and Crassus found the populares party fiercely attacking Sulla's constitution.[147] They attempted to forge an agreement with the populares party. If both Pompey and Crassus were elected consul in 70, they would dismantle the more obnoxious components of Sulla's constitution. The two were soon elected, and quickly dismantled most of Sulla's constitution.[148] A Roman marble bust of Marcus Tullius Cicero, Musei Capitolini, Rome Around 66, a movement to use constitutional, or at least peaceful, means to address the plight of various classes began.[149] After several failures, the movement's leaders decided to use any means that were necessary to accomplish their goals. The movement coalesced under an aristocrat named Lucius Sergius Catilina. The movement was based in the town of Faesulae, which was a natural hotbed of agrarian agitation.[150] The rural malcontents were to advance on Rome,[151] and be aided by an uprising within the city. After assassinating the consuls and most of the senators, Catiline would be free to enact his reforms. The conspiracy was set in motion in 63. The consul for the year, Marcus Tullius Cicero, intercepted messages that Catiline had sent in an attempt to recruit more members. As a result, the top conspirators in Rome (including at least one former consul) were executed by authorisation (of dubious constitutionality) of the senate, and the planned uprising was disrupted. Cicero then sent an army, which cut Catiline's forces to pieces. The most important result of the Catilinarian conspiracy was that the populares party became discredited. The prior 70 years had witnessed a gradual erosion in senatorial powers. The violent nature of the conspiracy, in conjunction with the senate's skill in disrupting it, did a great deal to repair the senate's image.[151] Triumvirates and end of the Republic (60–27 BC)[edit] First Triumvirate (60–50 BC)[edit] Part of a series on Ancient Rome and the fall of the Republic People Mark Antony Augustus Brutus Cato Cicero Cleopatra Clodius Pulcher Crassus Lepidus Pompey Sextus Pompey Events First Triumvirate Caesar's Civil War Assassination of Caesar Second Triumvirate Liberators' Civil War Sicilian Revolt Final War of the Roman Republic Places Caesareum Comitium Curia Julia Curia Hostilia Rostra Theatre of Pompey v t e Main article: First Triumvirate A Roman marble head of Pompey (now in the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek) In 62, Pompey returned victorious from Asia. The Senate, elated by its successes against Catiline, refused to ratify the arrangements that Pompey had made. Pompey, in effect, became powerless. Thus, when Julius Caesar returned from a governorship in Spain in 61, he found it easy to make an arrangement with Pompey. Caesar and Pompey, along with Marcus Licinius Crassus, established a private agreement, now known as the First Triumvirate. Under the agreement, Pompey's arrangements would be ratified. Caesar would be elected consul in 59, and would then serve as governor of Gaul for five years. Crassus was promised a future consulship.[152][153] Caesar's consular colleague in 59, Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, was an extreme aristocrat. Caesar submitted the laws that he had promised Pompey to the assemblies. Bibulus attempted to obstruct the enactment of these laws, and so Caesar used violent means to ensure their passage.[152] Caesar was then made governor of three provinces. He facilitated the election of the former patrician Publius Clodius Pulcher to the tribunate for 58. Clodius set about depriving Caesar's senatorial enemies of two of their more obstinate leaders in Cato and Cicero. Clodius was a bitter opponent of Cicero because Cicero had testified against him in a sacrilege case. Clodius attempted to try Cicero for executing citizens without a trial during the Catiline conspiracy, resulting in Cicero going into self-imposed exile and his house in Rome being burnt down. Clodius also passed a bill that forced Cato to lead the invasion of Cyprus which would keep him away from Rome for some years. Clodius also passed a law to expand the previous partial grain subsidy to a fully free grain dole for citizens.[154] Map of the Gallic Wars v t e Gallic Wars Magetobriga (63 BC) Arar (58 BC) Bibracte (58 BC) Vosges (58 BC) Axona (57 BC) Sabis (57 BC) Atuatuci (57 BC) Octodurus (57–56 BC) Britain (55-54 BC) Ambiorix's revolt (54–53 BC) Avaricum (52 BC) Gergovia (52 BC) Lutetia (52 BC) Alesia (52 BC) Uxellodunum (51 BC) During his term as praetor in the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal and Spain), Pompey's contemporary Julius Caesar defeated two local tribes in battle.[155] After his term as consul in 59, he was appointed to a five-year term as the proconsular Governor of Cisalpine Gaul (part of current northern Italy), Transalpine Gaul (current southern France) and Illyria (part of the modern Balkans).[155][156] Not content with an idle governorship, Caesar strove to find reason to invade Gaul (modern France and Belgium), which would give him the dramatic military success he sought. When two local tribes began to migrate on a route that would take them near (not into) the Roman province of Transalpine Gaul, Caesar had the barely sufficient excuse he needed for his Gallic Wars, fought between 58 and 49. Caesar defeated large armies at major battles 58 and 57. In 55 and 54 he made two expeditions into Britain, the first Roman to do so. Caesar then defeated a union of Gauls at the Battle of Alesia,[157] completing the Roman conquest of Transalpine Gaul. By 50, all of Gaul lay in Roman hands. Clodius formed armed gangs that terrorised the city and eventually began to attack Pompey's followers, who in response funded counter-gangs formed by Titus Annius Milo. The political alliance of the triumvirate was crumbling. Domitius Ahenobarbus ran for the consulship in 55 promising to take Caesar's command from him. Eventually, the triumvirate was renewed at Lucca. Pompey and Crassus were promised the consulship in 55, and Caesar's term as governor was extended for five years. Beginning in the summer of 54, a wave of political corruption and violence swept Rome.[158] This chaos reached a climax in January of 52 BC, when Clodius was murdered in a gang war by Milo. In 53, Crassus launched a Roman invasion of the Parthian Empire (modern Iraq and Iran). After initial successes,[159] he marched his army deep into the desert;[160] but here his army was cut off deep in enemy territory, surrounded and slaughtered at the Battle of Carrhae in which Crassus himself perished. The death of Crassus removed some of the balance in the Triumvirate and, consequently, Caesar and Pompey began to move apart. While Caesar was fighting in Gaul, Pompey proceeded with a legislative agenda for Rome that revealed that he was at best ambivalent towards Caesar[161] and perhaps now covertly allied with Caesar's political enemies. Pompey's wife, Julia, who was Caesar's daughter, died in childbirth. This event severed the last remaining bond between Pompey and Caesar. In 51, some Roman senators demanded that Caesar not be permitted to stand for consul unless he turned over control of his armies to the state, which would have left Caesar defenceless before his enemies. Caesar chose civil war over laying down his command and facing trial. Caesar's Civil War and dictatorship (49–44 BC)[edit] v t e Caesar's Civil War Corfinium Brundisium Curicta Massilia (land) Ilerda Massilia (naval) Tauroento Utica Bagradas Salona Dyrrhachium Gomphi Pharsalus Nicopolis Alexandria Tauris Nile Zela Ruspina Thapsus Hippo Regius Carteia Munda Corduba Lauro Apamea Baetis The Curia Julia, the Roman Senate house established by Julius Caesar in 44 BC and completed by Octavian in 29 BC, replacing the Curia Cornelia as the meeting place of the Senate Main article: Assassination of Julius Caesar On 1 January 49, an agent of Caesar presented an ultimatum to the senate. The ultimatum was rejected, and the senate then passed a resolution which declared that if Caesar did not lay down his arms by July of that year, he would be considered an enemy of the Republic.[162] Meanwhile, the senators adopted Pompey as their new champion against Caesar. On 7 January of 49, the senate passed a senatus consultum ultimum, which vested Pompey with dictatorial powers. Pompey's army, however, was composed largely of untested conscripts. On 10 January, Caesar with his veteran army crossed the river Rubicon, the legal boundary of Roman Italy beyond which no commander might bring his army, in violation of Roman laws, and by the spring of 49 swept down the Italian peninsula towards Rome. Caesar's rapid advance forced Pompey, the consuls and the senate to abandon Rome for Greece. Caesar entered the city unopposed. Afterwards Caesar turned his attention to the Pompeian stronghold of Hispania (modern Spain)[163] but decided to tackle Pompey himself in Greece.[164] Pompey initially defeated Caesar, but failed to follow up on the victory, and was decisively defeated at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48,[165] despite outnumbering Caesar's forces two to one, albeit with inferior quality troops.[166] Pompey fled again, this time to Egypt, where he was murdered. Pompey's death did not end the civil war, as Caesar's many enemies fought on. In 46 Caesar lost perhaps as much as a third of his army, but ultimately came back to defeat the Pompeian army of Metellus Scipio in the Battle of Thapsus, after which the Pompeians retreated yet again to Hispania. Caesar then defeated the combined Pompeian forces at the Battle of Munda. The Tusculum portrait, a Roman sculpture of Julius Caesar, Archaeological Museum of Turin, Italy With Pompey defeated and order restored, Caesar wanted to achieve undisputed control over the government. The powers which he gave himself were later assumed by his imperial successors.[167] His assumption of these powers decreased the authority of Rome's other political institutions. Caesar held both the dictatorship and the tribunate, and alternated between the consulship and the proconsulship.[167] In 48, Caesar was given permanent tribunician powers. This made his person sacrosanct, gave him the power to veto the senate, and allowed him to dominate the Plebeian Council. In 46, Caesar was given censorial powers,[168] which he used to fill the senate with his own partisans. Caesar then raised the membership of the Senate to 900.[169] This robbed the senatorial aristocracy of its prestige, and made it increasingly subservient to him. While the assemblies continued to meet, he submitted all candidates to them for election, as well as all bills for enactment. Thus, the group became powerless and were unable to oppose him.[clarification needed][170] Near the end of his life, Caesar began to prepare for a war against the Parthian Empire. Since his absence from Rome would limit his ability to install his own consuls, he passed a law before his death which allowed him to appoint all magistrates, and later all consuls and tribunes. This transformed the magistrates from representatives of the people to representatives of the dictator.[169] Caesar was now the primary figure of the Roman state, enforcing and entrenching his powers. His enemies feared that he had ambitions to become an autocratic ruler. Arguing that the Roman Republic was in danger, a group of senators led by Gaius Cassius and Marcus Brutus hatched a conspiracy and assassinated Caesar at a meeting of the Senate on 15 March 44.[171] Most of the conspirators were senators, who had a variety of economic, political, or personal motivations for carrying out the assassination. Many were afraid that Caesar would soon resurrect the monarchy and declare himself king. Others feared loss of property or prestige as Caesar carried out his land reforms in favor of the landless classes. Virtually all the conspirators fled the city after Caesar's death in fear of retaliation. The civil war that followed destroyed what was left of the Republic.[172] Second Triumvirate[edit] This mid-1st-century-BC Roman wall painting in Pompeii is probably a depiction of Cleopatra VII as Venus Genetrix, with her son Caesarion as Cupid. Its owner Marcus Fabius Rufus most likely ordered its concealment behind a wall in reaction to the execution of Caesarion on orders of Octavian in 30 BC.[173][174] After the assassination, Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony) formed an alliance with Caesar's adopted son and great-nephew, Gaius Octavianus (Octavian), along with Marcus Lepidus. Known as the Second Triumvirate,[175] they held powers that were nearly identical to the powers that Caesar had held under his constitution. As such, the Senate and assemblies remained powerless, even after Caesar had been assassinated. The conspirators were then defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42. Although Brutus defeated Octavian, Antony defeated Cassius, who committed suicide. Brutus did likewise soon afterwards. However, civil war flared again when the alliance failed. The ambitious Octavian built a power base of patronage and then launched a campaign against Mark Antony.[171] At the naval Battle of Actium in 31 off the coast of Greece, Octavian decisively defeated Antony and Cleopatra of Ptolemaic Egypt. Octavian was granted a series of special powers including sole "imperium" within the city of Rome, permanent consular powers and credit for every Roman military victory, since all future generals were assumed to be acting under his command. In 27 Octavian was granted the use of the names "Augustus", indicating his primary status above all other Romans, "Princeps", which he used to refer to himself as in public, and he adopted the title "Imperator Caesar" making him the first Roman Emperor.[176] Constitutional system[edit] Main article: Constitution of the Roman Republic Main article: History of the Constitution of the Roman Republic Further information: Elections in the Roman Republic The constitutional history of the Roman Republic began with the revolution which overthrew the monarchy in 509 BC, and ended with constitutional reforms that transformed the Republic into what would effectively be the Roman Empire, in 27 BC. The Constitution of the Roman Republic was a constantly-evolving, unwritten set of guidelines and principles passed down mainly through precedent, by which the government and its politics operated.[177] Throughout the history of the Republic, changes in the constitution were driven by conflicts of interest between the aristocracy and ordinary citizens. Senate[edit] Main article: Senate of the Roman Republic The senate's ultimate authority derived from the esteem and prestige of the senators.[178] This esteem and prestige was based on both precedent and custom, as well as the caliber and reputation of the senators. The senate passed decrees, which were called senatus consulta. These were officially "advice" from the senate to a magistrate. In practice, however, they were usually followed by the magistrates.[179] The focus of the Roman senate was usually directed towards foreign policy. Though it technically had no official role in the management of military conflict, the senate ultimately was the force that oversaw such affairs. This was due to the senate's explicit power over the state's budget and in military affairs.[180] The power of the senate expanded over time as the power of the legislative assemblies declined, and the senate took a greater role in ordinary law-making. Its members were usually appointed by Roman Censors, who ordinarily selected newly elected magistrates for membership in the senate, making the senate a partially elected body. During times of military emergency, such as the civil wars of the 1st century, this practice became less prevalent, as the Roman Dictator, Triumvir or the senate itself would select its members. Towards the end of the Republic, the senate could enact a senatus consultus ultimum in times of emergency, instead of appointing a dictator.[citation needed] Legislative assemblies[edit] The Roman Forum, the commercial, cultural, religious, and political center of the city and the Republic which housed the various offices and meeting places of the government Main article: Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic The legal status of Roman citizenship was limited and was a vital prerequisite to possessing many important legal rights such as the right to trial and appeal, to marry, to vote, to hold office, to enter binding contracts, and to special tax exemptions. An adult male citizen with the full complement of legal and political rights was called "optimo jure." The optimo jure elected their assemblies, whereupon the assemblies elected magistrates, enacted legislation, presided over trials in capital cases, declared war and peace, and forged or dissolved treaties. There were two types of legislative assemblies. The first was the comitia ("committees"),[181] which were assemblies of all optimo jure. The second was the concilia ("councils"), which were assemblies of specific groups of optimo jure.[182] Citizens were organized on the basis of centuries and tribes, which would each gather into their own assemblies. The Comitia Centuriata ("Centuriate Assembly") was the assembly of the centuries (i.e., soldiers). The president of the Comitia Centuriata was usually a consul. The centuries would vote, one at a time, until a measure received support from a majority of the centuries. The Comitia Centuriata would elect magistrates who had the imperium powers (consuls and praetors). It also elected censors. Only the Comitia Centuriata could declare war, and ratify the results of a census.[183] It also served as the highest court of appeal in certain judicial cases. The assembly of the tribes (i.e., the citizens of Rome), the Comitia Tributa, was presided over by a consul, and was composed of 35 tribes. The tribes were not ethnic or kinship groups, but rather geographical subdivisions.[184] The order that the thirty-five tribes would vote in was selected randomly by lot.[185] Once a measure received support from a majority of the tribes, the voting would end. While it did not pass many laws, the Comitia Tributa did elect quaestors, curule aediles, and military tribunes.[186] The Plebeian Council[187] was identical to the assembly of the tribes, but excluded the patricians. They elected their own officers, plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles. Usually a plebeian tribune would preside over the assembly. This assembly passed most laws, and could also act as a court of appeal. Magistrates[edit] Main article: Executive magistrates of the Roman Republic Each republican magistrate held certain constitutional powers. Each was assigned a provincia by the Senate. This was the scope of that particular office holder's authority. It could apply to a geographic area or to a particular responsibility or task.[188] The powers of a magistrate came from the people of Rome (both plebeians and patricians).[189] The imperium was held by both consuls and praetors. Strictly speaking, it was the authority to command a military force. In reality, however, it carried broad authority in the other public spheres such as diplomacy, and the justice system. In extreme cases, those with the imperium power were able to sentence Roman Citizens to death. All magistrates also had the power of coercitio (coercion). This was used by magistrates to maintain public order by imposing punishment for crimes.[190] Magistrates also had both the power and the duty to look for omens. This power could also be used to obstruct political opponents. One check on a magistrate's power was called Collega (collegiality). Each magisterial office would be held concurrently by at least two people. Another such check was provocatio. While in Rome, all citizens were protected from coercion, by provocatio, which was an early form of due process. It was a precursor to habeas corpus. If any magistrate tried to use the powers of the state against a citizen, that citizen could appeal the decision of the magistrate to a tribune. In addition, once a magistrate's one-year term of office expired, he would have to wait ten years before serving in that office again. This created problems for some consuls and praetors, and these magistrates would occasionally have their imperium extended. In effect, they would retain the powers of the office (as a promagistrate), without officially holding that office.[191] The consuls of the Roman Republic were the highest ranking ordinary magistrates. Each served for one year.[192] They retained several elements of the former kingly regalia, such as the toga praetexta, and the fasces, which represented the power to inflict physical punishment. Consular powers included the kings' former "power to command" (imperium) and appointment of new senators. Consuls had supreme power in both civil and military matters. While in the city of Rome, the consuls were the head of the Roman government. They would preside over the senate and the assemblies. While abroad, each consul would command an army.[193] His authority abroad would be nearly absolute. Praetors administered civil law[194] and commanded provincial armies. Every five years, two censors were elected for an 18-month term, during which they would conduct a census. During the census, they could enroll citizens in the senate, or purge them from the senate.[195] Aediles were officers elected to conduct domestic affairs in Rome, such as managing public games and shows. The quaestors would usually assist the consuls in Rome, and the governors in the provinces. Their duties were often financial. Since the tribunes were considered to be the embodiment of the plebeians, they were sacrosanct. Their sacrosanctity was enforced by a pledge, taken by the plebeians, to kill any person who harmed or interfered with a tribune during his term of office. It was a capital offense to harm a tribune, to disregard his veto, or to otherwise interfere with him.[196] In times of military emergency, a dictator would be appointed for a term of six months.[197] Constitutional government would be dissolved, and the dictator would be the absolute master of the state. When the dictator's term ended, constitutional government would be restored. Military[edit] Part of a series on the Military of ancient Rome 753 BC – AD 476 Structural history Army Unit types and ranks Decorations and punishments Legions Auxilia Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Campaign history Wars and battles Technological history Military engineering Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Political history   Strategy and tactics Infantry tactics Frontiers and fortifications Limes Limes Britannicus Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Limes Germanicus Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes Norican Limes Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannonian Limes Limes Alutanus Limes Moesiae Trajan's Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmatiae Limes Arabicus Limes Tripolitanus Limes Mauretaniae  Ancient Rome portal •  War portal v t e Main article: Structural history of the Roman military Rome's military secured Rome's territory and borders, and helped to impose tribute on conquered peoples. Rome's armies had a formidable reputation; but Rome also "produced [its] share of incompetents"[198] and catastrophic defeats. Nevertheless, it was generally the fate of Rome's greatest enemies, such as Pyrrhus and Hannibal,[199] to win early battles but lose the war. Hoplite armies (509–c. 315 BC)[edit] Main article: Phalanx During this period, Roman soldiers seem to have been modelled after those of the Etruscans to the north,[200] who themselves are believed to have copied their style of warfare from the Greeks. Traditionally, the introduction of the phalanx formation into the Roman army is ascribed to the city's penultimate king, Servius Tullius (ruled 578–534).[201] According to Livy[202] and Dionysius of Halicarnassus,[203] the front rank was composed of the wealthiest citizens, who were able to purchase the best equipment. Each subsequent rank consisted of those with less wealth and poorer equipment than the one before it. The phalanx was effective in large, open spaces, but not on the hilly terrain of the central Italian peninsula. In the 4th century, the Romans replaced it with the more flexible manipular formation. This change is sometimes attributed to Marcus Furius Camillus and placed shortly after the Gallic invasion of 390; more likely, it was copied from Rome's Samnite enemies to the south,[204] following the Second Samnite War (326–304).[205] Manipular legion (c. 315–107 BC)[edit] Detail from the Ahenobarbus relief showing (centre-right) two Roman foot-soldiers c. 122 BC. Note the Montefortino-style helmets with horsehair plume, chain mail cuirasses with shoulder reinforcement, oval shields with calfskin covers, gladius and pilum. During this period, an army formation of around 5,000 men (of both heavy and light infantry) was known as a legion. The manipular army was based upon social class, age and military experience.[206] Maniples were units of 120 men each drawn from a single infantry class. They were typically deployed into three discrete lines based on the three heavy infantry types: The first line maniple were the hastati, leather-armoured infantry soldiers who wore a bronze breastplate and a bronze helmet adorned with 3 feathers approximately 30 cm (12 in) in height and carried an iron-clad wooden shield. They were armed with a sword and two throwing spears. The second line were the principes. They were armed and armoured in the same manner as the hastati, but wore a lighter coat of mail rather than a solid brass breastplate. The triarii formed the third line. They were the last remnant of the hoplite-style troops in the Roman army. They were armed and armoured like the principes, with the exception that they carried a lighter spear.[207] The three infantry classes[208] may have retained some slight parallel to social divisions within Roman society, but at least officially the three lines were based upon age and experience rather than social class. Young, unproven men would serve in the first line, older men with some military experience would serve in the second line, and veteran troops of advanced age and experience would serve in the third line. The heavy infantry of the maniples were supported by a number of light infantry and cavalry troops, typically 300 horsemen per manipular legion.[208] The cavalry was drawn primarily from the richest class of equestrians. There was an additional class of troops who followed the army without specific martial roles and were deployed to the rear of the third line. Their role in accompanying the army was primarily to supply any vacancies that might occur in the maniples. The light infantry consisted of 1,200 unarmoured skirmishing troops drawn from the youngest and lower social classes. They were armed with a sword and a small shield, as well as several light javelins. Rome's military confederation with the other peoples of the Italian peninsula meant that half of Rome's army was provided by the Socii, such as the Etruscans, Umbrians, Apulians, Campanians, Samnites, Lucani, Bruttii, and the various southern Greek cities. Polybius states that Rome could draw on 770,000 men at the beginning of the Second Punic War, of which 700,000 were infantry and 70,000 met the requirements for cavalry. Rome's Italian allies would be organized in alae, or wings, roughly equal in manpower to the Roman legions, though with 900 cavalry instead of 300. The "Togatus Barberini", depicting a Roman senator holding the imagines (effigies) of deceased ancestors in his hands; marble, late 1st century BC; head (not belonging): mid 1st century BC A small navy had operated at a fairly low level after about 300, but it was massively upgraded about forty years later, during the First Punic War. After a period of frenetic construction, the navy mushroomed to a size of more than 400 ships on the Carthaginian ("Punic") pattern. Once completed, it could accommodate up to 100,000 sailors and embarked troops for battle. The navy thereafter declined in size.[209] The extraordinary demands of the Punic Wars, in addition to a shortage of manpower, exposed the tactical weaknesses of the manipular legion, at least in the short term.[210] In 217, near the beginning of the Second Punic War, Rome was forced to effectively ignore its long-standing principle that its soldiers must be both citizens and property owners. During the 2nd century, Roman territory saw an overall decline in population,[211] partially due to the huge losses incurred during various wars. This was accompanied by severe social stresses and the greater collapse of the middle classes. As a result, the Roman state was forced to arm its soldiers at the expense of the state, which it did not have to do in the past. The distinction between the heavy infantry types began to blur, perhaps because the state was now assuming the responsibility of providing standard-issue equipment. In addition, the shortage of available manpower led to a greater burden being placed upon Rome's allies for the provision of allied troops.[212] Eventually, the Romans were forced to begin hiring mercenaries to fight alongside the legions.[213] Legion after the reforms of Gaius Marius (107–27 BC)[edit] Main article: Roman army of the late Republic In a process known as the Marian reforms, Roman consul Gaius Marius carried out a programme of reform of the Roman military.[214] In 107, all citizens, regardless of their wealth or social class, were made eligible for entry into the Roman army. This move formalised and concluded a gradual process that had been growing for centuries, of removing property requirements for military service.[215] The distinction among the three heavy infantry classes, which had already become blurred, had collapsed into a single class of heavy legionary infantry. The heavy infantry legionaries were drawn from citizen stock, while non-citizens came to dominate the ranks of the light infantry. The army's higher-level officers and commanders were still drawn exclusively from the Roman aristocracy.[216] Unlike earlier in the Republic, legionaries were no longer fighting on a seasonal basis to protect their land. Instead, they received standard pay, and were employed by the state on a fixed-term basis. As a consequence, military duty began to appeal most to the poorest sections of society, to whom a salaried pay was attractive. A destabilising consequence of this development was that the proletariat "acquired a stronger and more elevated position"[217] within the state. The legions of the late Republic were almost entirely heavy infantry. The main legionary sub-unit was a cohort of approximately 480 infantrymen, further divided into six centuries of 80 men each.[218] Each century comprised 10 "tent groups" of 8 men. Cavalry were used as scouts and dispatch riders, rather than as battlefield forces.[219] Legions also contained a dedicated group of artillery crew of perhaps 60 men. Each legion was normally partnered with an approximately equal number of allied (non-Roman) troops.[220] The army's most obvious deficiency lay in its shortage of cavalry, especially heavy cavalry.[221] Particularly in the East, Rome's slow-moving infantry legions were often confronted by fast-moving cavalry-troops, and found themselves at a tactical disadvantage. A Roman naval bireme depicted in a relief from the Temple of Fortuna Primigenia in Praeneste,[222] c. 120 BC;[223] now in the Museo Pio-Clementino in the Vatican Museums Temple of Janus as seen in the present church of San Nicola in Carcere, in the Forum Holitorium of Rome, Italy, dedicated by Gaius Duilius after his naval victory at the Battle of Mylae in 260 BC[224] Following Rome's subjugation of the Mediterranean, its navy declined in size although it would undergo short-term upgrading and revitalisation in the late Republic to meet several new demands. Julius Caesar assembled a fleet to cross the English Channel and invade Britannia. Pompey raised a fleet to deal with the Cilician pirates who threatened Rome's Mediterranean trading routes. During the civil war that followed, as many as a thousand ships were either constructed or pressed into service from Greek cities.[209] Social structure[edit] Main article: Social class in ancient Rome Citizen families were headed by the family's oldest male, the pater familias, who was lawfully entitled to exercise complete authority (patria potestas) over family property and all family members. Brutus, co-founder of the Republic, is supposed to have exercised the extreme form of this right when he executed his own sons for treachery.[225] Citizenship offered legal protection and rights, but citizens who offended Rome's traditional moral code could be declared infamous, and lose certain legal and social privileges.[226] Citizenship was also taxable, and undischarged debt was potentially a capital offence. A form of limited, theoretically voluntary slavery (debt bondage, or nexum) allowed wealthy creditors to negotiate payment of debt through bonded service. Poor, landless citizens of the lowest class (proletarii) might contract their sons to a creditor, patron or third party employer to obtain an income, or to pay off family debts. Nexum was only abolished when slave labour became more readily available, most notably during the Punic wars.[227][228][229] An inscribed funerary relief of Aurelius Hermia and his wife Aurelia Philematum, former slaves who married after their manumission, 80 BC, from a tomb along the Via Nomentana in Rome Slaves were simultaneously family members and family property. They could be bought, sold, acquired through warfare, or born and raised within their master's household,. They could also buy their freedom with money saved or the offer of future services as a freedman or woman, and their sons could be eligible for citizenship; this degree of social mobility was unusual in the ancient world. Freed slaves and the master who freed them retained certain legal and moral mutual obligations. This was the bottom rung of one of Rome's fundamental social and economic institutions, the client-patron relationship. At the top rung were the senatorial families of the landowning nobility, both patrician and plebeian, bound by shifting allegiances and mutual competition. A plebiscite of 218 forbade senators and their sons to engage in substantial trade or money-lending.[230][231] A wealthy equestrian class emerged, not subject to the same trading constraints as the senate.[232] Citizen men and citizen women were expected to marry, produce as many children as possible, and improve – or at worst, conserve – their family's wealth, fortune, and public profile. Marriage offered opportunities for political alliance and social advancement. Patricians usually married in a form known as confarreatio, which transferred the bride from her father's absolute control or "hand" (manus) to that of her husband.[233] Patrician status could only be inherited through birth; an early law, introduced by the reactionary Decemviri but rescinded in 445, sought to prevent marriages between patricians and plebeians; any resulting offspring may not have been legally recognised.[234] Among ordinary plebeians, different marriage forms offered married women considerable more freedom than their patrician counterparts, until manus marriage was replaced by free marriage, in which the wife remained under the legal authority of her absent father, not her husband.[235] Infant mortality was high. Towards the end of the Republic, the birthrate began to fall among the elite. Some wealthy, childless citizens resorted to adoption to provide male heirs for their estates, and to forge political alliances. Adoption was subject to the senate's approval; the notoriously unconventional patrician politician Publius Clodius Pulcher had himself and his family adopted into a plebeian clan, so that he could hold a plebeian tribunate. Trade and economy[edit] Farming[edit] Main article: Roman agriculture The Republic was created during a time of warfare, economic recession, food shortages, and plebeian debt. In wartime, plebeian farmers were liable to conscription. In peacetime, most depended on whatever cereal crops they could produce on small farming plots, allotted to them by the state, or by patrons. Soil fertility varied from place to place, and natural water sources were unevenly distributed throughout the landscape. In good years, a pleb small-holder might trade a small surplus, to meet his family's needs, or to buy the armatures required for his military service. In other years, crop failure through soil exhaustion, adverse weather, disease or military incursions could lead to poverty, unsupported borrowing, and debt. Nobles invested much of their wealth in ever-larger, more efficient farming units, exploiting a range of soil conditions though mixed farming techniques. As farming was labour-intensive, and military conscription reduced the pool of available manpower, over time the wealthy became ever more reliant upon the increasingly plentiful slave-labour provided by successful military campaigns.[236][237][238] Well managed agricultural estates helped provide for clients and dependents, support an urban family home, and fund the owner's public and military career. Large estates yielded cash for bribes, and security for borrowing. Later Roman moralists idealised farming as an intrinsically noble occupation: Cincinnatus left off his ploughing reluctantly, to serve as dictator, and returned once his state duties were done.[239][240][241] In law, land taken by conquest was ager publicus (public land). In practise, much of it was exploited by the nobility, using slaves rather than free labour. Rome's expansionist wars and colonisations were at least partly driven by the land-hunger of displaced peasants, who must otherwise join the swelling, dependent population of urban plebs.[242] At the end of the second Punic War, Rome added the fertile ager Campanus, suitable for intense cultivation of vines, olives and cereals. Like the grain-fields of Sicily – seized after the same conflict – it was likely farmed extra-legally by leading landowners, using slave-gangs. A portion of Sicily's grain harvest was sent to Rome as tribute, for redistribution by the aediles.[243][244] The urban plebs increasingly relied on firstly subsidised, then free grain.[245] Ruins of the Aqua Anio Vetus, a Roman aqueduct built in 272 BC With the introduction of aqueducts (from 312), suburban market-farms could be supplied with run-off or waste aqueduct water. Perishable commodities such as flowers (for perfumes, and festival garlands), fresh grapes, vegetables and orchard fruits, and small livestock such as pigs and chickens, could be farmed close to municipal and urban markets.[237] In the early 2nd century Cato the Elder tried to block the illicit tapping of rural aqueducts by the elite, who thus exploited the increased productivity of cheaply bought, formerly "dry" farmland; a law was duly passed, but fines for abuses, and taxes on profits, proved more realistic solutions than an outright ban. Food surpluses, no matter how obtained, kept prices low.[246][247] Faced with increasing competition from provincial and allied grain suppliers, many Roman farmers turned to more profitable crops, especially grapes for wine production. By the late Republican era, Roman wine had been transformed from an indifferent local product for local consumption, to a major domestic and export commodity.[248][249] Roman writers have little to say about large-scale stock-breeding, but make passing references to its profitability. Drummond speculates that this might reflect elite preoccupations with historical grain famines, or long-standing competition between agriculturalists and pastoralists. While agriculture was a seasonal practise, pasturage was a year-round requirement. Some of Republican Rome's early agricultural legislation sought to balance the competing public grazing rights of small farmers, the farming elite, and transhumant pastoralists, who maintained an ancient right to herd, graze and water their animals between low-lying winter pastures and upland summer pastures. From the early second century, transhumance was practised on a vast scale, as an investment opportunity.[250][251] Though meat and hides were valuable by products of stock-raising, cattle were primarily reared to pull carts and ploughs, and sheep were bred for their wool, the mainstay of the Roman clothing industry. Horses, mules and donkeys were bred as civil and military transport. Pigs bred prolifically, and could be raised at little cost by any small farmer with rights to pannage. Their central dietary role is reflected by their use as sacrificial victims in domestic cults, funerals, and cults to agricultural deities.[250] Religion[edit] Main article: Religion in ancient Rome Further information: List of ancient Roman deities and List of Roman agricultural deities The Temple of Portunus, god of grain storage, keys, livestock and ports.[252] Rome, built between 120 and 80 BC The tomb of the Flavii, a necropolis outside the Nucerian gate (Porta Nocera) of Pompeii, Italy, constructed 50–30 BC Republican Rome's religious practises harked back to Rome's quasi-mythical history.[253][254] Romulus, a son of Mars, founded Rome after Jupiter granted him favourable bird-signs regarding the site.[255] Numa Pompilius, second king of Rome, had established Rome's basic religious and political institutions after direct instructions from the gods, given through augury, dreams and oracle. Each king thereafter was credited with some form of divinely approved innovation, adaptation or reform.[256] An Imperial-era source claims that the Republic's first consul, Brutus, effectively abolished human sacrifice to the goddess Mania, instituted by the last king, Tarquinius.[257] Romans acknowledged the existence of innumerable deities who controlled the natural world and human affairs. Every individual, occupation and location had a protective tutelary deity, or sometimes several. Each was associated with a particular, highly prescriptive form of prayer and sacrifice. Piety (pietas) was the correct, dutiful and timely performance of such actions. The well-being of each Roman household was thought to depend on daily cult to its Lares and Penates (guardian deities, or spirits), ancestors, and the divine generative essence embodied within its pater familias. A family which neglected its religious responsibilities could not expect to prosper.[258] The well-being of the Roman state depended on its state deities, whose opinions and will could be discerned by priests and magistrates, trained in augury, haruspicy, oracles and the interpretation of omens. Impieties in state religion could produce expressions of divine wrath such as social unrest, wars, famines and epidemics, vitiate the political process, render elections null and void, and lead to the abandonment of planned treaties, wars and any government business. Accidental errors could be remedied by repeating the rite correctly, or by an additional sacrifice; outright sacrilege threatened the bonds between the human and divine, and carried the death penalty. As divine retribution was invoked in the lawful swearing of oaths and vows, oath-breakers forfeited their right to divine protection, and might be killed with impunity.[259] Roman religious authorities were unconcerned with personal beliefs or privately funded cults, unless they offended natural or divine laws, or undermined the mos maiorum (roughly, "the way of the ancestors"); the relationship between gods and mortals should be sober, contractual, and of mutual benefit. Undignified grovelling, excessive enthusiasm (superstitio) and secretive practises were "weak minded" and morally suspect.[260] Magical practises were officially banned, as attempts to subvert the will of the gods for personal gain, but were probably common among all classes. Private cult organisations that seemed to threaten Rome's political and priestly hierarchy were investigated by the Senate, with advice from the priestly colleges. The Republic's most notable religious suppression was that of the Bacchanalia, a widespread, unofficial, enthusiastic cult to the Greek wine-god Bacchus. The cult organisation was ferociously suppressed, and its deity was absorbed within the official cult to Rome's own wine-god, Liber.[261] The official recognition, adoption and supervision of foreign deities and practices, whether Etruscan, Sabine, Latin or colonial Greek, had been an important unitary feature in Rome's territorial expansion and dominance since the days of the kings. For example, king Servius Tullius had established an Aventine temple to Diana as a Roman focus for the Latin League.[253][254] The gods were thought to communicate their wrath (ira deorum) through prodigies (unnatural or aberrant phenomena). During the crisis of the Second Punic War an unprecedented number of reported prodigies were expiated, in more than twenty days of public ritual and sacrifices. In the same period, Rome recruited the "Trojan" Magna Mater (Great Mother of the Gods) to the Roman cause, "Hellenised" the native Roman cult to Ceres; and took control of the Bacchanalia festival in Rome and its allied territories. Following Rome's disastrous defeat at Cannae, the State's most prominent written oracle recommended the living burial of human victims in the Forum Boarium to placate the gods.[262][263] Livy describes this "bloodless" human sacrifice as an abhorrent but pious necessity; Rome's eventual victory confirmed the gods' approval.[264] Starting in the mid-Republican era, some leading Romans publicly displayed special, sometimes even intimate relationships with particular deities. For instance, Scipio Africanus claimed Jupiter as a personal mentor. Some gentes claimed a divine descent, often thanks to a false etymology of their name; the Caecilii Metelli pretended to descend from Vulcan through his son Caeculus, the Mamilii from Circe through her granddaughter Mamilia, the Julii Caesares and the Aemilii from Venus through her grandsons Iulus and Aemylos. In the 1st century, Sulla, Pompey, and Caesar made competing claims for Venus' favour.[265][266][267] Priesthoods[edit] With the abolition of monarchy, some of its sacral duties were shared by the consuls, while others passed to a Republican rex sacrorum (king of the sacred rites"), a patrician "king", elected for life, with great prestige but no executive or kingly powers.[268] Rome had no specifically priestly class or caste. As every family's pater familias was responsible for his family's cult activities, he was effectively the senior priest of his own household. Likewise, most priests of public cult were expected to marry, produce children, and support their families.[269] In the early Republic the patricians, as "fathers" to the Roman people, claimed the right of seniority to lead and control the state's relationship with the divine. Patrician families, in particular the Cornelii, Postumii and Valerii, monopolised the leading state priesthoods: the flamines of Jupiter, Mars and Quirinus, as well as the pontifices. The patrician Flamen Dialis employed the "greater auspices" (auspicia maiora) to consult with Jupiter on significant matters of State. Twelve "lesser flaminates" (Flamines minores), were open to plebeians, or reserved to them. They included a Flamen Cerealis in service of Ceres, goddess of grain and growth, and protector of plebeian laws and tribunes.[270] The plebs had their own forms of augury, which they credited to Marsyas, a satyr or silen in the entourage of Liber, plebeian god of grapes, wine, freedom and male fertility.[271] The priesthoods of local urban and rustic Compitalia street-festivals, dedicated to the Lares of local communities, were open to freedmen and slaves, to whom "even the heavy-handed Cato recommended liberality during the festival"; so that the slaves, "being softened by this instance of humanity, which has something great and solemn about it, may make themselves more agreeable to their masters and be less sensible of the severity of their condition".[272] Denarius of Lucius Caesius, 112–111 BC. On the obverse is Apollo, as written on the monogram behind his head, who also wears the attributes of Vejovis, an obscure deity. The obverse depicts a group of statues representing the Lares Praestites, which was described by Ovid.[273][274] The Lex Ogulnia (300) gave patricians and plebeians more-or-less equal representation in the augural and pontifical colleges;[275] other important priesthoods, such as the Quindecimviri ("The Fifteen"), and the epulones[276] were opened to any member of the senatorial class.[277] To restrain the accumulation and potential abuse of priestly powers, each gens was permitted one priesthood at any given time, and the religious activities of senators were monitored by the censors.[277] Magistrates who held an augurate could claim divine authority for their position and policies.[278][279] In the late Republic, augury came under the control of the pontifices, whose powers were increasingly woven into the civil and military cursus honorum. Eventually, the office of pontifex maximus became a de facto consular prerogative.[280] Some cults may have been exclusively female; for example, the rites of the Good Goddess (Bona Dea). Towards the end of the second Punic War, Rome rewarded priestesses of Demeter from Graeca Magna with Roman citizenship for training respectable, leading matrons assacerdotes of "Greek rites" to Ceres.[281] Every matron of a family (the wife of its pater familias) had a religious duty to maintain the household fire, which was considered an extension of Vesta's sacred fire, tended in perpetuity by the chaste Vestal Virgins. The Vestals also made the sacrificial mola salsa employed in many State rituals, and represent an essential link between domestic and state religion. Rome's survival was thought to depend on their sacred status and ritual purity. Vestals found guilty of inchastity were "willingly" buried alive, to expiate their offence and avoid the imposition of blood-guilt on those who inflicted the punishment.[282][283] Temples and festivals[edit] Further information: Roman temple, Roman festival, Roman calendar, and Fasti Inside the "Temple of Mercury" or Temple of Echo at Baiae, containing one of the largest domes in the world before the building of the Pantheon, Rome in the 2nd century AD Rome's major public temples were contained within the city's sacred, augural boundary (pomerium), which had supposedly been marked out by Romulus, with Jupiter's approval. The Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus ("Jupiter, Best and Greatest") stood on the Capitoline Hill. Among the settled areas outside the pomerium was the nearby Aventine Hill. It was traditionally associated with Romulus' unfortunate twin, Remus, and in later history with the Latins, and the Roman plebs. The Aventine seems to have functioned as a place for the introduction of "foreign" deities.[284] In 392, Camillus established a temple there to Juno Regina, Etruscan Veii's protective goddess. Later introductions include Summanus, c. 278, Vortumnus c. 264, and at some time before the end of the 3rd century, Minerva.[285] While Ceres' Aventine temple was most likely built at patrician expense, to mollify the plebs, the patricians brought the Magna Mater ("Great mother of the Gods") to Rome as their own "Trojan" ancestral goddess, and installed her on the Palatine, along with her distinctively "un-Roman" Galli priesthood.[286] Romulus was said to have pitched his augural tent atop the Palatine. Beneath its southern slopes ran the sacred way, next to the former palace of the kings (Regia), the House of the Vestals and Temple of Vesta. Close by were the Lupercal shrine and the cave where Romulus and Remus were said to have been suckled by the she-wolf. On the flat area between the Aventine and Palatine was the Circus Maximus, which hosted chariot races and religious games. Its several shrines and temples included those to Rome's indigenous sun god, Sol, the moon-goddess Luna, the grain-storage god, Consus, and the obscure goddess Murcia. A temple to Hercules stood in the Forum Boarium, near the Circus starting gate. Every district (Vicus) of the city had a crossroads shrine to its own protective Lares. Whereas Republican (and thereafter, Imperial) Romans marked the passage of years with the names of their ruling consuls, their calendars marked the anniversaries of religious foundations to particular deities, the days when official business was permitted (fas), and those when it was not (nefas). The Romans observed an eight-day week; markets were held on the ninth day. Each month was presided over by a particular, usually major deity. The oldest calendars were lunar, structured around the most significant periods in the agricultural cycle, and the religious duties required to yield a good harvest. In the military[edit] Denarius of Caesar, minted just before his murder, in 44 BC. It was the first Roman coin bearing the portrait of a living person. The lituus and culullus depicted behind his head refer to his augurate and pontificate. The reverse with Venus alludes to his claimed descent from the goddess.[287] Before any campaign or battle, Roman commanders took auspices, or haruspices, to seek the gods' opinion regarding the likely outcome. Military success was achieved through a combination of personal and collective virtus (roughly, "manly virtue") and divine will. Triumphal generals dressed as Jupiter Capitolinus, and laid their victor's laurels at his feet. Religious negligence, or lack of virtus, provoked divine wrath and led to military disaster.[288][289] Military oaths dedicated the oath-takers life to Rome's gods and people; defeated soldiers were expected to take their own lives, rather than survive as captives. Examples of devotio, as performed by the Decii Mures, in which soldiers offered and gave their lives to the Di inferi (gods of the underworld) in exchange for Roman victory were celebrated as the highest good. Some of Republican Rome's leading deities were acquired through military actions. In the earliest years of the Republic, Camillus promised Veii's goddess Juno a temple in Rome as incentive for her desertion (evocatio). He conquered the city in her name, brought her cult statue to Rome "with miraculous ease" and dedicated a temple to her on the Aventine Hill.[290] The first known temple to Venus was built to fulfil a vow made by Q. Fabius Gurges during battle against the Samnites.[291][292] Following Rome's disastrous defeat by Carthage in the Battle of Lake Trasimene (217), Rome laid siege to Eryx, a Sicillian ally of Carthage. The city's patron deity, whom the Romans recognised as a warlike version of Venus, was "persuaded" to change her allegiance and was rewarded with a magnificent temple on the Capitoline Hill, as one of Rome's twelve Dii consentes. Venus Victrix was thought to grant her favourites a relatively easy victory, worthy of an ovation and myrtle crown.[293][294] Cities, towns and villas[edit] City of Rome[edit] The ruins of the Servian Wall, built during the 4th century BC, one of the earliest ancient Roman defensive walls Life in the Roman Republic revolved around the city of Rome, and its seven hills. The most important governing, administrative and religious institutions were concentrated at its heart, on and around the Capitoline and Palatine Hills. The city rapidly outgrew its original sacred boundary (pomerium), and its first city walls. Further growth was constrained by an inadequate fresh-water supply. Rome's first aqueduct (312) built during the Punic wars crisis, provided a plentiful, clean supply. The building of further aqueducts led to the city's expansion and the establishment of public baths (thermae) as a central feature of Roman culture.[295][296] The city also had several theatres,[297] gymnasiums, and many taverns and brothels. Living space was at a premium. Some ordinary citizens and freedmen of middling income might live in modest houses but most of the population lived in apartment blocks (insulae, literally "islands"), where the better-off might rent an entire ground floor, and the poorest a single, possibly windowless room at the top, with few or no amenities. Nobles and rich patrons lived in spacious, well-appointed town houses; they were expected to keep "open house" for their peers and clients. A semi-public atrium typically functioned as a meeting-space, and a vehicle for display of wealth, artistic taste, and religious piety. Noble atria were also display areas for ancestor-masks (imagines).[298] Most Roman towns and cities had a forum and temples, as did the city of Rome itself. Aqueducts brought water to urban centres.[299] Landlords generally resided in cities and left their estates in the care of farm managers. Culture[edit] Clothing[edit] Main article: Clothing in ancient Rome The Orator, c. 100 BC, an Etrusco-Roman statue of a Republican senator, wearing toga praetexta and senatorial shoes; compared to the voluminous, costly, impractical togas of the Imperial era, the Republican-era type is frugal and "skimpy" (exigua).[300] The basic Roman garment was the Greek-style tunic, worn knee-length and short-sleeved (or sleeveless) for men and boys, and ankle-length and long-sleeved for women and girls. The toga was distinctively Roman. It was thought to have begun during the early Roman kingdom, as a plain woolen "shepherd's wrap", worn by both sexes, all classes, and all occupations, including the military.[301] By the middle to late Republic, citizen women had abandoned it for the less bulky, Greek-style stola, and the military used it only for off-duty ceremonies.[302] The toga became a mark of male citizenship, a statement of social degree.[303] Convention also dictated the type, colour and style of calcei (ankle-boots) appropriate to each level of male citizenship; red for senators, brown with crescent-shaped buckles for equites, and plain tanned for plebs. The whitest, most voluminous togas were worn by the senatorial class. High ranking magistrates, priests and citizen's children were entitled to a purple-bordered toga praetexta. Triumphal generals wore an all-purple, gold-embroidered toga picta, associated with the image of Jupiter and Rome's former kings – but only for a single day; Republican mores simultaneously fostered competitive display and attempted its containment, to preserve at least a notional equality between peers, and reduce the potential threats of class envy.[304] Togas, however, were impractical for physical activities other than sitting in the theatre, public oratory, and attending the salutiones ("greeting sessions") of rich patrons. Most Roman citizens, particularly the lower class of plebs, seem to have opted for more comfortable and practical garments, such as tunics and cloaks. Luxurious and highly coloured clothing had always been available to those who could afford it, particularly women of the leisured classes. There is material evidence for cloth-of-gold (lamé) as early as the 7th century.[305] By the 3rd century, significant quantities of raw silk was being imported from China.[306] The Lex Oppia (215), which restricted personal expenditure on such luxuries as purple clothing, was repealed in 195, after a mass public protest by wealthy Roman matrons.[307] Tyrian purple, as a quasi-sacred colour, was officially reserved for the border of the toga praetexta and for the solid purple toga picta;[308][309] but towards the end of the Republic, the notorious Verres was wearing a purple pallium at all-night parties, not long before his trial, disgrace and exile for corruption.[310] For most Romans, even the simplest, cheapest linen or woolen clothing represented a major expense. Worn clothing was passed down the social scale until it fell to rags, and these in turn were used for patchwork.[311] Wool and linen were the mainstays of Roman clothing, idealised by Roman moralists as simple and frugal.[312] Landowners were advised that female slaves not otherwise occupied should be producing homespun woolen cloth, good enough for clothing the better class of slave or supervisor. Cato the Elder recommended that slaves be given a new cloak and tunic every two years; coarse rustic homespun would likely be "too good" for the lowest class of slave, but not good enough for their masters.[313] For most women, the carding, combing, spinning and weaving of wool were part of daily housekeeping, either for family use or for sale. In traditionalist, wealthy households, the family's wool-baskets, spindles and looms were positioned in the semi-public reception area (atrium), where the mater familias and her familia could thus demonstrate their industry and frugality; a largely symbolic and moral activity for those of their class, rather than practical necessity.[314] As the Republic wore on, its trade, territories and wealth increased. Roman conservatives deplored the apparent erosion of traditional, class-based dress distinctions, and an increasing Roman appetite for luxurious fabrics and exotic "foreign" styles among all classes, including their own. Towards the end of the Republic, the ultra-traditionalist Cato the Younger publicly protested the self-indulgent greed and ambition of his peers, and the loss of Republican "manly virtues", by wearing a "skimpy" dark woolen toga, without tunic or footwear.[312][315] Food and dining[edit] Main article: Ancient Roman cuisine Banquet scene, fresco, Herculaneum, Italy, c. 50 BC Modern study of the dietary habits during the Republic are hampered by various factors. Few writings have survived, and because different components of their diet are more or less likely to be preserved, the archaeological record cannot be relied on.[316] Cato the Elder's De Agri Cultura includes several recipes and his suggested "Rations for the hands". The list of ingredients includes cheese, honey, poppy seeds, coriander, fennel, cumin, egg, olives, bay leaves, laurel twig, and anise. He gives instructions for kneading bread, making porridge, Placenta cake, brine, various wines, preserving lentils, planting asparagus, curing ham, and fattening geese and squab.[317] The Roman poet Horace mentions another Roman favorite, the olive, in reference to his own diet, which he describes as very simple: "As for me, olives, endives, and smooth mallows provide sustenance."[318] Meat, fish and produce were a part of the Roman diet at all levels of society.[319] Romans valued fresh fruit, and had a diverse variety available to them.[320] Wine was considered the basic drink,[321] consumed at all meals and occasions by all classes and was quite inexpensive. Cato once advised cutting his rations in half to conserve wine for the workforce.[322] Many types of drinks involving grapes and honey were consumed as well. Drinking on an empty stomach was regarded as boorish and a sure sign for alcoholism, the debilitating physical and psychological effects of which were known to the Romans. Accusations of alcoholism were used to discredit political rivals. Prominent Roman alcoholics included Marcus Antonius,[323] and Cicero's own son Marcus (Cicero Minor). Even Cato the Younger was known to be a heavy drinker.[324] Education and language[edit] Main articles: Roman school and Latin Rome's original native language was early Latin, the language of the Italic Latins. Most surviving Latin literature is written in Classical Latin, a highly stylised and polished literary language which developed from early and vernacular spoken Latin, from the 1st century. Most Latin speakers used Vulgar Latin, which significantly differed from Classical Latin in grammar, vocabulary, and eventually pronunciation.[citation needed] Following various military conquests in the Greek East, Romans adapted a number of Greek educational precepts to their own fledgling system.[325] Strenuous, disciplined physical training helped prepare boys of citizen class for their eventual citizenship and a military career. Girls generally received instruction[326] from their mothers in the art of spinning, weaving, and sewing. Schooling in a more formal sense was begun around 200. Education began at the age of around six, and in the next six to seven years, boys and girls were expected to learn the basics of reading, writing and counting. By the age of twelve, they would be learning Latin, Greek, grammar and literature, followed by training for public speaking. Effective oratory and good Latin were highly valued among the elite, and were essential to a career in law or politics.[327] Arts[edit] Main articles: Roman Republican art, Latin literature, and Music of ancient Rome In the 3rd century, Greek art taken as the spoils of war became popular, and many Roman homes were decorated with landscapes by Greek artists.[328] Over time, Roman architecture was modified as their urban requirements changed, and the civil engineering and building construction technology became developed and refined. The architectural style of the capital city was emulated by other urban centers under Roman control and influence.[citation needed] Literature[edit] Main articles: Classical Latin § Republican, and Latin Literature § The Age of Cicero Early Roman literature was influenced heavily by Greek authors. From the mid-Republic, Roman authors followed Greek models, to produce free-verse and verse-form plays and other in Latin; for example, Livius Andronicus wrote tragedies and comedies. The earliest Latin works to have survived intact are the comedies of Plautus, written during the mid-Republic. Works of well-known, popular playwrights were sometimes commissioned for performance at religious festivals; many of these were Satyr plays, based on Greek models and Greek myths. The poet Naevius may be said to have written the first Roman epic poem, although Ennius was the first Roman poet to write an epic in an adapted Latin hexameter. However, only fragments of Ennius' epic, the Annales, have survived, yet both Naevius and Ennius influenced later Latin epic, especially Virgil's Aeneid. Lucretius, in his On the Nature of Things explicated the tenets of Epicurean philosophy. The politician, poet and philosopher Cicero's literary output was remarkably prolific and so influential on contemporary and later literature that the period from 83BC to 43BC has been called the 'Age of Cicero'. His oratory set new standards for centuries, and continue to influence modern speakers, while his philosophical works, which were, for the most part, Cicero's Latin adaptations of Greek Platonic and Epicurean works influenced many later philosophers.[329][330] Other prominent writers of this period include the grammarian and historian of religion Varro, the politician, general and military commentator Julius Caesar, the historian Sallust and the love poet Catullus. Sports and entertainment[edit] The Amphitheatre of Pompeii, built around 70 BC and buried by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius 79 AD, once hosted spectacles with gladiators. The city of Rome had a place called the Campus Martius ("Field of Mars"), which was a sort of drill ground for Roman soldiers. Later, the Campus became Rome's track and field playground. In the campus, the youth assembled to play and exercise, which included jumping, wrestling, boxing and racing.[citation needed] Equestrian sports, throwing, and swimming were also preferred physical activities.[citation needed] In the countryside, pastimes included fishing and hunting.[citation needed] Board games played in Rome included dice (Tesserae or Tali), Roman Chess (Latrunculi), Roman Checkers (Calculi), Tic-tac-toe (Terni Lapilli), and Ludus duodecim scriptorum and Tabula, predecessors of backgammon.[331] Other activities included chariot races, and musical and theatrical performances.[citation needed] See also[edit] Democratic empire History of the Roman Empire – Occurrences and people in the Roman Empire Roman commerce Roman conceptions of citizenship – aspect of history Roman economy Footnotes[edit] ^ Throughout the Republic, the Cornelii held 75 consulships and 27 consular tribuneships, almost 10% of all the consulships of the period. ^ Several historians, notably Tim Cornell, have challenged this view, saying that in the early Republic the Fasti Consulares bear names that are distinctively plebeian. Therefore, they claim that the plebeians were only excluded from higher offices by the Decemvirate in 451 BC. More recently, Corey Brennan has dismissed this theory, arguing that the consular plebeians would not have let the Decemvirs take their power away that easily (cf. The Praetorship, pp. 24, 25). He explains the "plebeian" names in the Fasti by some patrician gentes who later died out, or lost their status. Consequently, this article follows the traditional narrative that the plebeians were excluded from the start. ^ The urban poor were registered in the four urban tribes, whilst the 31 other tribes were composed of landowners, who therefore had the majority in the Tribal Assembly. Humm thinks that Caecus actually did not appointed "freedmen" in the Senate, but chose new Roman citizens from the recently conquered cities in Italy. ^ Appius Caecus is a complex character whose reforms are difficult to interpret. For example, Mommsen considered he was a revolutionary, but was puzzled by his opposition to the Lex Ogulnia, which contradicts his previous "democratic" policies. Taylor on the contrary thought he defended patricians' interests, as freedmen remained in the clientele of their patrons. More recently, Humm described his activity as the continuation of the reforms undertaken since Stolo and Lateranus. ^ There are significant differences between the accounts of Cassius Dio, Dionysius, and Plutarch, but the latter's is traditionally followed in the academic literature. References[edit] ^ Crawford, Roman Republican Coinage, pp. 455, 456. ^ "Latin League". Encyclopaedia Britannica. ^ a b Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth–Decline Curves, 600 BC to 600 AD". Social Science History. 3 (3/4): 115–138 [125]. doi:10.2307/1170959. JSTOR 1170959. ^ Arnaldo Momigliano, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. VII part 2, pp. 110, 111. ^ Society, National Geographic (6 July 2018). "Roman Republic". National Geographic Society. Retrieved 5 November 2020. ^ "Roman Republic | History, Government, Map, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 5 November 2020. ^ "Roman Government". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 5 November 2020. ^ Cornell, The beginnings of Rome, pp. 215–218: Cornell offers a summary of "Livy's prose narrative" and derived literary works relating to the expulsion of the kings. ^ Dionysius, iv. 64–85.[1] ^ Livy, i. 57–60 ^ Cornell, Beginnings of Rome, pp. 226–228. ^ Aristotle, Politics, 5.1311a. ^ Cornell, Beginnings of Rome, pp. 215–218, 377–378. ^ Drummond, Cambridge Ancient History, VII, part 2, p. 178. ^ Cornell, Beginnings of Rome, pp. 215–217. ^ Grant, The History of Rome, p. 33 ^ Florus, Epitome, i. 11–12. ^ Grant, The History of Rome, pp. 37–41. ^ Pennell, Ancient Rome, Ch. II ^ Cornell, Beginnings of Rome, pp. 289–291. ^ Cornell, Beginnings of Rome, pp. 256–259: Plebs ("the mass") was originally a disparaging term, but was adopted as a badge of pride by those whom it was meant to insult. It might not have referred to wealthier commoners. ^ Orlin, A Companion to Roman Religion, pp. 59–60. ^ The traditional date for the first secession is given by Livy as 494; many other dates have been suggested, and several such events probably took place: see Cornell, Beginnings of Rome, pp. 215–218, 256–261, 266. ^ For a discussion of the duties and legal status of plebeian tribunes and aediles, see Andrew Lintott, Violence in Republican Rome, Oxford University Press, 1999, pp. 92–101. ^ Florus, Epitome, i. 13. ^ Grant, The History of Rome, pp. 48–49. ^ Grant, The History of Rome, p. 52. ^ Grant, The History of Rome, p. 53. ^ It has nevertheless been speculated that Lucius Atilius Luscus in 444, and Quintus Antonius Meranda in 422 were also plebeian. cf. Brennan, The Praetorship, p. 50. ^ Cornell, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7-2, p. 338. ^ Livy, vi. 11, 13–30. ^ Cornell, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7-2, pp. 331, 332. ^ a b Cornell, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7-2, p. 337. Cornell explains that Livy confused the contents of the Lex Licinia Sextia of 366 the Lex Genucia of 342. ^ Livy mentions at least two patricians favourable to the tribunes: Marcus Fabius Ambustus, Stolo's father-in-law, and the dictator for 368 Publius Manlius Capitolinus, who appointed the first plebeian magister equitum, Gaius Licinius Calvus. ^ Livy, vi. 36–42. ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 108–114. ^ Brennan, The Praetorship, pp. 59–61. ^ Livy, vii. 42. ^ Brennan, The Praetorship, pp. 65–67, where he shows that the ten-year rule was only temporary at this time. ^ Cornell, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7-2, pp. 342, 343. ^ Brennan, The Praetorship, pp. 68, 69. ^ Cornell, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7-2, pp. 393, 394. Cornell gives an earlier date, before 318. ^ Humm, Appius Claudius Caecus, pp. 185–226. ^ Taylor, Voting Districts, pp. 132–138. ^ Bruce MacBain, "Appius Claudius Caecus and the Via Appia", in The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 30, No. 2 (1980), pp. 356–372. ^ Cornell, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7-2, p. 343. ^ Graham Maddox, "The Economic Causes of the Lex Hortensia", in Latomus, T. 42, Fasc. 2 (Apr.–Jun. 1983), pp. 277–286. ^ R. Develin, "'Provocatio" and Plebiscites'. Early Roman Legislation and the Historical Tradition", in Mnemosyne, Fourth Series, Vol. 31, Fasc. 1 (1978), pp. 45–60. ^ Cornell, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7-2, pp. 340, 341. ^ Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome, p. 342 ^ Franke, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7, part 2, p. 484. ^ Grant, The History of Rome, p. 78. ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus, xix. 5, 6. ^ Plutarch, Pyrrhus, 14. ^ Franke, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7, part 2, pp. 456, 457. ^ Cicero, Cato Maior de Senectute, 6. ^ Plutarch, Pyrrhus, 18, 19. ^ Franke, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7, part 2, pp. 466–471. ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus, xx. 3. ^ Plutarch, Pyrrhus, 21 § 9. ^ Cassius Dio, x. 5. ^ Franke, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7, part 2, pp. 473–480. ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus, xx. 8. ^ Grant, The History of Rome, p. 80 ^ Polybius, iii. 22–26. ^ Livy, vii. 27. ^ Scullard, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7, part 2, pp. 517–537. ^ Which assembly was consulted has led to many discussions in the academic literature. Goldsworthy favours the Centuriate Assembly, cf. The Punic Wars, p. 69. ^ Polybius, i. 11, 12. ^ H. H. Scullard thinks that Caudex was not successful, since he did not receive a triumph and was succeeded in command by Messalla, his political enemy. Cf. Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7, part 2, p. 545. ^ Scullard, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7, part 2, p. 547. ^ Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 113 ^ Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 84. ^ Scullard, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7, part 2, pp. 548–554. ^ Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 88. ^ Scullard, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7, part 2, pp. 554–557. ^ Crawford, Roman Republican Coinage, pp. 292, 293. ^ Scullard, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7, part 2, pp. 559–564. ^ Scullard, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7, part 2, pp. 565–569. ^ Hoyos, Companion to the Punic Wars, p. 217. ^ Hoyos, Companion to the Punic Wars, p. 215. ^ Carthage was an oligarchy at the time, dominated by the Barcids. The Roman historian Fabius Pictor thought that the Barcids conquered Spain without approval from the Carthaginian government; a view rejected by Polybius. cf. Hoyos, Companion to the Punic Wars, pp. 212–213. ^ Scullard, Cambridge Ancient History, pp. 28–31. ^ Hoyos, Companion to the Punic Wars, pp. 216–219. ^ Scullard, Cambridge Ancient History, pp. 33–36. ^ Scullard, Cambridge Ancient History, p. 37. These gentes had interests in Massalia and other Greek cities of the western Mediterranean. Massalia was concerned by the Carthaginian growing influence in Spain. ^ Scullard, Cambridge Ancient History, p. 39. ^ Briscoe, Cambridge Ancient History, p. 46. ^ Fronda, Companion to the Punic Wars, pp. 251, 252. ^ Briscoe, Cambridge Ancient History, p. 47. ^ Livy, xxi. 38, quoting Cincius Alimentus who reported a personal discussion with Hannibal, in which he said he lost 38,000 men by crossing the Alps. ^ Briscoe, Cambridge Ancient History, p. 48. ^ Polybius (iii. 117) gives 70,000 dead. Livy (xxii. 49) gives 47,700 dead and 19,300 prisoners. ^ Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum, Great Britain, Volume IX, British Museum, Part 2: Spain, London, 2002, n° 102. ^ Briscoe, Cambridge Ancient History, pp. 52, 53. ^ Briscoe, Cambridge Ancient History, pp. 49, 50. ^ Briscoe, Cambridge Ancient History, p. 57. ^ Briscoe, Cambridge Ancient History, p. 59. ^ Briscoe, Cambridge Ancient History, p. 55. ^ Briscoe, Cambridge Ancient History, p. 60. ^ a b Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 47 ^ Grant, The History of Rome, p. 115 ^ Eckstein, Rome Enters the Greek East, p. 42. ^ Eckstein, Arthur. "Rome Enters the Greek East". p. 43 ^ Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 49 ^ Grant, The History of Rome, p. 117 ^ Eckstein, Arthur. "Rome Enters the Greek East". p. 48 ^ Eckstein, Arthur. "Rome Enters the Greek East". p51 ^ a b c d e Grant, The History of Rome, p. 119 ^ a b c d e Eckstein, Arthur. "Rome Enters the Greek East". p. 52 ^ Naples National Archaeological Museum (Inv. No. 5634). ^ Lane Fox, The Classical World, p. 326 ^ Eckstein, Arthur. "Rome Enters the Greek East". p. 55 ^ a b Grant, The History of Rome, p. 120 ^ Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 75 ^ Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 92 ^ Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 53 ^ History of Rome – The republic, Isaac Asimov. ^ Pennell, Ancient Rome, Ch. XV, para. 24 ^ Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 338 ^ Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 339 ^ Abbott, 96 ^ a b Bishop, Paul. "Rome: Transition from Republic to Empire" (PDF). Hillsborough Community College. Retrieved 19 February 2014. ^ Abbott, 97 ^ Stobart, J.C. (1978). "III". In Maguinness, W.S; Scullard, H.H. The Grandeur That was Rome (4th ed.). Book Club Associates. pp. 75–82. ^ Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 29 ^ Sallust, The Jugurthine War, XII ^ Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 64 ^ Crawford, Roman Republican Coinage, pp. 449–451. ^ Abbott, 100 ^ Appian, History of Rome, §6 ^ Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 75 ^ Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 6 ^ Grant, The History of Rome, p. 161 ^ Abbott, 103 ^ Abbott, 106 ^ Abbott, 104 ^ Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 77 ^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1, 117 ^ Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 43 ^ a b c Florus, The Epitome of Roman history, Book 3, ch. 5 ^ Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 76 ^ Grant, The History of Rome, p. 158 ^ a b Lane Fox, The Classical World, p. 363 ^ a b c Plutarch, Lives, Pompey ^ Florus, The Epitome of Roman history, Book 3, ch. 6 ^ Abbott, 108 ^ Abbott, 109 ^ Abbott, 109–110 ^ Abbott, 110 ^ a b Abbott, 111 ^ a b Abbott, 112 ^ Cantor, Antiquity, p. 168 ^ Abbott, 113 ^ a b Plutarch, Lives, Caesar ^ Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 58 ^ Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 62 See also: Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 212 ^ Abbott, 114 ^ Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 133 ^ Plutarch, Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans, p. 266 ^ Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 214 ^ Abbott, 115 ^ Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 217 ^ Julius Caesar, The Civil War, 81–92 See also: Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 218 ^ Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 227 See also: Lane Fox, The Classical World, p. 403 ^ Holland, Rubicon, p. 312 ^ a b Abbott, 134 ^ Abbott, 135 ^ a b Abbott, 137 ^ Abbott, 138 ^ a b Cantor, Antiquity, p. 170 ^ Abbott, 133 ^ Roller, Duane W. (2010). Cleopatra: a biography. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195365535, p. 175. ^ Walker, Susan. "Cleopatra in Pompeii?" in Papers of the British School at Rome, 76 (2008): 35–46 and 345–348 (pp. 35, 42–44). ^ Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 237 ^ Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 7 ^ Byrd, 161 ^ Byrd, 96 ^ Byrd, 44 ^ Bleiken, Jochen (1995). Die Verfassung der römischen Republik (6th ed.). Schöningh: UTB. ^ Lintott, 42 ^ Abbott, 251 ^ Abbott, 257 ^ Lintott, 51 ^ Taylor, 77 ^ Taylor, 7 ^ Abbott, 196 ^ Lintott, Constitution of the Roman Republic, p. 101. ^ Lintott, Constitution of the Roman Republic, p. 95. ^ Lintott, Constitution of the Roman Republic, p. 97. ^ Lintott, 113 ^ Byrd, 20 ^ Byrd, 179 ^ Byrd, 32 ^ Byrd, 26 ^ Byrd, 23 ^ Byrd, 24 ^ Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 15 ^ Lane Fox, The Classical World, p. 312 ^ Nicholas V Sekunda, Early Roman Armies, p. 17. ^ Nicholas V Sekunda, Early Roman Armies, p. 18. ^ Livy, i. 43. ^ Roman Antiquities, 4.16–18 ^ Early Roman Armies, pp. 37–38. ^ "Rome, The Samnite Wars". History-world.org. Retrieved 3 October 2010. ^ Boak, A History of Rome to 565 A.D., p. 87 ^ PolybiusB6 ^ a b Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 18 ^ a b Webster, The Roman Imperial Army, p. 156 ^ Smith, Service in the Post-Marian Roman Army, p. 2 ^ Gabba, Republican Rome, The Army and The Allies, p. 9 ^ Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 11 ^ Webster, The Roman Imperial Army, p. 143 ^ Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 10 ^ Gabba, Republican Rome, The Army And the Allies, p. 1 ^ Santosuosso, p. 29 ^ Gabba, Republican Rome, The Army and The Allies, p. 25 ^ Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 14 ^ Webster, The Roman Imperial Army, p. 116 ^ Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 15 ^ Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 43 ^ D.B. Saddington (2011) [2007]. "Classes: the Evolution of the Roman Imperial Fleets," in Paul Erdkamp (ed), A Companion to the Roman Army, 201–217. Malden, Oxford, Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-2153-8. Plate 12.2 on p. 204. ^ Coarelli, Filippo (1987), I Santuari del Lazio in età repubblicana. NIS, Rome, pp 35–84. ^ Tacitus. Annales. II.49. ^ Cornell, Beginnings of Rome, pp. 215–216. ^ Thomas A.J. McGinn, Prostitution, Sexuality and the Law in Ancient Rome (Oxford University Press, 1998), pp. 65ff. ^ Drummond, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7, part 2, p. 126. ^ Cornell, Beginnings of Rome, pp. 238, 379–380, citing Livy, 9. 46. 13–14 for the poorest citizens as forensis facto... humillimi (the "lowest of the low"). ^ Alföldy, Geza, The Social History of Rome, p. 17. ^ Cornell, Beginnings of Rome, pp. 288–291. ^ Flower, Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, pp. 173–175; Flower is describing the restrictions placed on Senatorial business activity by the plebiscitum Claudianum of 218 BC, and related legislation: it may have been intended to reduce opportunity for bribery and corruption, or to help Senators focus exclusively on their tasks in government. ^ D'Arms, J. B., "Senators' Involvement in Commerce in the Late Republic: Some Ciceronian Evidence", Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome, Vol. 36, The Seaborne Commerce of Ancient Rome: Studies in Archaeology and History (1980), pp. 77–89, University of Michigan Press for the American Academy in Rome. ^ David Johnston, Roman Law in Context (Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 33–34. ^ The plebeian involved in such a marriage would likely have been wealthy: see Cornell, The beginnings of Rome, p. 255. ^ Bruce W. Frier and Thomas A.J. McGinn, A Casebook on Roman Family Law (Oxford University Press, 2004), pp. 20, 53, 54. Plebeian marriage forms include coemptio (marriage "by purchase" – a form of dowry), and usus (marriage recognised through the couple's "habitual cohabitation") ^ Cornell, Beginnings of Rome, pp. 265–268, 283. ^ a b Bannon, Gardens and Neighbors, pp. 5–10. ^ Drummond, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7, part 2, pp. 118–122, 135, 136. ^ Livy, iii. 26–29. ^ Cornell, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7, part 2, pp. 412–413: Cato the Elder dwelt upon the probably mythical poverty of leading Romans such as Manius Dentatus, and the incorruptible Gaius Fabricius Luscinus. ^ Rosenstein, Nathan, "Aristocrats and Agriculture in the Middle and Late Republic", The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 98 (2008), pp. 1–3. ^ Cornell, Beginnings of Rome, pp. 265–268. ^ Gabba, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 8, pp. 197–198. ^ Lintott, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 9, p. 55: A later consular investigation into similar land-encroachments is dated to 175. ^ Cornell, Beginnings of Rome, pp. 328–329. ^ Bannon, Gardens and Neighbors, pp. 5–10; citing Hodge, Roman Aqueducts, p. 219 for Cato's diatribe against the misuse of aqueduct water by L. Furius Purpureus, consul in 196. ^ Nicolet, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 9, p. 619. ^ Rosenstein, Nathan, "Aristocrats and Agriculture in the Middle Republic", The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 98 (2008), pp. 2–16. ^ Nicolet, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 9, pp. 612–615: up to this time, the Roman elite had favoured Greek imported wine over any of Rome's homegrown versions. ^ a b Drummond, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7, part 2, pp. 118–122. ^ Gabba, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 8, pp. 237–239. ^ Fowler, W. Warde (1899). Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic. Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press. pp. 202–204. ^ a b Rüpke, Companion to Roman Religion, p. 4. ^ a b Beard, North, Price, Religions of Rome, Vol. I, pp. 30–35. ^ Robert Schilling, "The Decline and Survival of Roman Religion", Roman and European Mythologies University of Chicago Press, 1992, p. 115 ^ King Numa Pompilius was also said to have consorted with the nymph Egeria. The myths surrounding king Servius Tullius include his divine fathering by a Lar of the royal household, or by Vulcan, god of fire; and his love-affair with the goddess Fortuna. ^ Macrobius describes the woolen figurines (maniae) hung at crossroad shrines during the popular Compitalia festival as substitutions for ancient human sacrifice once held at the same festival and suppressed by Rome's first consul, L. Junius Brutus. Whatever the truth regarding this sacrifice and its abolition, the Junii celebrated their ancestor cult during Larentalia rather than the usual Parentalia even in the 1st century BC; see Taylor, Lilly Ross, "The Mother of the Lares", in American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 29, 3, (July–Sept. 1925), pp. 302 ff. ^ Orr, D. G., Roman domestic religion: the evidence of the household shrines, Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt, II, 16, 2, Berlin, 1978, 1557–1591. ^ Halm, Companion to Roman Religion, pp. 241, 242. ^ Rüpke, Companion to Roman Religion, p. 5. ^ Erich S. Gruen, Erich S., "The Bacchanalia affair", in Studies in Greek Culture and Roman Policy, University of California Press, 1996, pp. 34 ff. ^ Rosenberger, Companion to Roman Religion, pp. 295–298; the discovery of a hermaphroditic four-year-old child was expiated by the state haruspex, who set the child to drown in the sea. Its survival for four years after its birth would have been regarded as extreme dereliction of religious duty. ^ Livy, xxvii. 37, cited by Halm, Companion to Roman Religion, p. 244; see also Rosenberger, p. 297. ^ For Livy's use of prodigies and portents as markers of Roman impiety and military failure, see Feeney, Companion to Roman Religion, pp. 138, 139. For prodigies in the context of political decision-making, see Rosenberger, pp. 295–298. ^ Festus, "Caeculus", "Aemilia" and others. ^ T. P. Wiseman, "Legendary Genealogies in Late-Republican Rome", Greece & Rome, Second Series, Vol. 21, No. 2 (Oct. 1974), pp. 153–164. ^ Orlin, Companion to Roman Religion, pp. 67–69. ^ Jörg Rüpke, Religion of the Romans (Polity Press, 2007, originally published in German 2001), p. 223. ^ The Vestal Virgins were the major exception. The Galli, mendicant eunuch priets of the Magna Mater, were forbidden Roman citizenship. ^ Cornell, The beginnings of Rome, p. 264. ^ Barbette Stanley Spaeth, "The Goddess Ceres and the Death of Tiberius Gracchus", Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, Vol. 39, No. 2 (1990), pp. 185–186. ^ Lott, John. B., The Neighborhoods of Augustan Rome, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2004, ISBN 0-521-82827-9, pp. 31, 35, citing Cato, On agriculture, 5.3., and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, 4.14.2–4 (excerpt), Trans. Cary, Loeb, Cambridge, 1939. ^ Ovid, Fasti, v, 129–145 ^ Crawford, Roman Republican Coinage, p. 312. ^ Cornell, The beginnings of Rome, p. 342 ^ Established in 196 to take over the running of a growing number of ludi and festivals from the pontifices ^ a b Lipka, M., Roman Gods: a conceptual approach, Versnel, H., S., Frankfurter, D., Hahn, J., (Editors), Religions in the Graeco-Roman world, Brill, 2009, pp. 171–172 ^ Rosenberger, Companion to Roman Religion, p. 299. ^ Auctoritas (authority) is etymologically linked to augur: See Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome, p. 341 ^ Brent, A. The imperial cult and the development of church order: Concepts and images of authority in paganism and early Christianity before the Age of Cyprian, Brill, 1999, pp. 19–20, 21–25: citing Cicero, De Natura Deorum, 2.4. ^ Spaeth, Barbette Stanley, The Roman goddess Ceres, University of Texas Press, 1996, pp. 4, 6–13. ISBN 0-292-77693-4 ^ Cunham, Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, p. 155. ^ Beard, Mary, "The Sexual Status of Vestal Virgins," The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70, (1980), pp. 12–27; and Parker, Holt N. "Why Were the Vestals Virgins? Or the Chastity of Women and the Safety of the Roman State", American Journal of Philology, Vol. 125, No. 4. (2004), pp. 563–601. ^ Cornell, Beginnings of Rome, p. 264. ^ Orlin, Eric M., Foreign Cults in Republican Rome: Rethinking the Pomerial Rule, Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome, Vol. 47 (2002), pp. 4–5. For Camillus and Juno, see Stephen Benko, The virgin goddess: studies in the pagan and Christian roots of mariology, Brill, 2004, p. 27. ^ Roller, Lynn Emrich (1999). In Search of God the Mother: The Cult of Anatolian Cybele, Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, pp. 282–285. ISBN 0-520-21024-7 ^ Crawford, Roman Republican Coinage, pp. 487–495. ^ Orlin, Companion to Roman Religion, p. 58. ^ Beard, North, Price, Religions of Rome, Vol. I, pp. 44, 59, 60, 143. ^ Cornell, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7, part 2, p. 299, citing Livy xxi. 8–9 and xxii. 3–6. Livy describes this as evocatio (a "calling forth") initiated by Roman soldiers who snatched the goddess's sacrificial portion during her Veiian rites; the Veiian priest had announced that whoever possessed the sacred entrails would win the coming battle. ^ Eden, P. T., "Venus and the Cabbage" Hermes, 91, (1963) p. 456. ^ Schilling, R. La Religion romaine de Venus, BEFAR, Paris, 1954, p. 87, suggests that Venus began as an abstraction of personal qualities, later assuming Aphrodite's attributes. ^ See Mary Beard, The Roman Triumph, The Belknap Press, 2007, pp. 62–63. ^ Brouwer, Henrik H. J., Bona Dea, The Sources and a Description of the Cult, Études préliminaires aux religions orientales dans l'Empire romain, 110, Brill, 1989: citing Pliny the Elder, Natural History, Book 23, 152–158, and Book 15, 125. ^ Gargarin, M. and Fantham, E. (editors). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome, Volume 1. p. 145. ^ For the earliest likely development of Roman public bathing, see Fagan, Garrett T., Bathing in Public in the Roman World, University of Michigan Press, 1999, pp. 42–44. ^ Jones, Mark Wilson Principles of Roman Architecture. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000. ^ "The architecture of the ancient Romans was, from first to last, an art of shaping space around ritual:" Lott, John. B., The Neighborhoods of Augustan Rome, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2004, p. 1, citing Frank E. Brown, Roman Architecture, (New York, 1961, p. 9. Some Roman ritual includes activities which might be called, in modern terms, religious; some is what might be understood in modern terms as secular – the proper and habitual way of doing things. For Romans, both activities were matters of lawful custom (mos maiorum) rather than religious as opposed to secular. ^ Kevin Greene, "Technological Innovation and Economic Progress in the Ancient World: M.I. Finley Re-Considered", The Economic History Review, New Series, Vol. 53, No. 1. (February 2000), pp. 29–59 (39) ^ Ceccarelli, L., in Bell, S., and Carpino, A., A, (Editors) A Companion to the Etruscans (Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World), Blackwell Publishing, 2016, p. 33 ^ According to Roman tradition, soldiers had once worn togas to war, hitching them up with what was known as a "Gabine cinch". See Stone, The World of Roman Costume, p. 13. ^ An equestrian statue, described during the Imperial era by Pliny the Elder as "ancient", showed the early, legendary Republican heroine Cloelia on horseback, wearing a toga: see Olson, Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, p. 151 (note 18). ^ Vout, Caroline, "The Myth of the Toga: Understanding the History of Roman Dress", Greece & Rome, 43, No. 2 (Oct. 1996), p. 215: Vout cites Servius, In Aenidem, 1.281 and Nonius, 14.867L for the former wearing of togas by women other than prostitutes and adulteresses. ^ Flower, Harriet F., Ancestor Masks and Aristocratic Power in Roman Culture, Oxford University Press, 1996, p. 118: "The best model for understanding Roman sumptuary legislation is that of aristocratic self-preservation within a highly competitive society which valued overt display of prestige above all else." ^ Sebesta, The World of Roman Costume, pp. 62–68. ^ Gabucci, Ada (2005). Dictionaries of Civilization: Rome. University of California Press. p. 168. ^ Astin, Rawson, Morel, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 9, pp. 181–185, 439, 453, 495. ^ Bradley, Mark, Colour and Meaning in Ancient Rome, Cambridge Classical Studies, Cambridge University Press, 2011, pp. 189, 194–195 ^ Edmondson, Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, pp. 28–30; Keith, p. 200. ^ Sebesta, The World of Roman Costume, pp. 54–56. ^ Vout, Caroline, "The Myth of the Toga: Understanding the History of Roman Dress", Greece & Rome, 43, No. 2 (Oct. 1996), pp. 211, 212. ^ a b Edmondson, Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, p. 33. ^ Sebesta, The World of Roman Costume, p. 70, citing Columella, 12, praef. 9–10, 12.3.6. ^ In reality, she was the female equivalent of the romanticised citizen-farmer: see Flower, Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, pp. 153, 195–197. ^ Appian's history of Rome finds its strife-torn Late Republic tottering at the edge of chaos; most seem to dress as they like, not as they ought: "For now the Roman people are much mixed with foreigners, there is equal citizenship for freedmen, and slaves dress like their masters. With the exception of the Senators, free citizens and slaves wear the same costume." See Rothfus, MA, "The Gens Togata: Changing Styles and Changing Identities", American Journal of Philology, 2010, p. 1, citing Appian, 2.17.120 ^ Witcher, R.E. (2016) Agricultural production in Roman Italy (see page 8) from A companion to Roman Italy. (Wiley-Blackwell). Blackwell companions to the ancient world. pp. 459–482. ^ Cato, De Agri Cultura ch. 74–90, 104–125, 156–157, 158–162. ^ "Me pascunt olivae, me cichorea levesque malvae." Horace, Odes 1.31.15, c. 30 BC ^ Kron, Geoffrey (2012), Scheidel, W. (ed.), Food Production (see p. 8, fn 72) from The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Economy Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 156–174 ^ Kron, Food Production (see p. 16) ^ Phillips pp. 46–56 ^ Phillips pp. 35–45 ^ Phillipa pp. 57–63 ^ "Af first, he would drink once after supper and then leave the table; but as time went on he would allow himself to drink very generously, so that he often tarried at his wine till early morning." Plutarch, Cato the Younger, 6. ^ Nanette R. Pacal, "The Legacy of Roman Education (in the Forum)", in The Classical Journal, Vol. 79, No. 4. (April–May 1984) ^ Oxford Classical Dictionary, Edited by Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth, Third Edition. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 1996 ^ Joseph Farrell, Latin Language and Latin Culture (Cambridge University Press, 2001), pp. 74–75; Richard A. Bauman, Women and Politics in Ancient Rome (Routledge, 1992, 1994), pp. 51–52. ^ Toynbee, J.M.C. (December 1971). "Roman Art". The Classical Review. 21 (3): 439–442. doi:10.1017/S0009840X00221331. JSTOR 708631. ^ Zauzmer, Julie. "Donald Trump, the Cicero of 2016". The Washington Post (WP Company LLC) [US]. Retrieved 4 July 2019. ^ Griffin, Miriam (1986). "Cicero and Rome". In Boardman, John; Griffin, Jasper; Murray, Oswyn (eds.). The Oxford History of the Classical World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 454–459. ISBN 0-19-285236-1. ^ Austin, Roland G. "Roman Board Games. I", Greece & Rome 4:10, October 1934. pp. 24–34. Ancient sources[edit] Appianus Alexandrinus (Appian), Bella Mithridatica (The Mithridatic Wars), Bellum Civile (The Civil War). Aristotle, Politiká (Politics). Gaius Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Civili (Commentaries on the Civil War). Marcus Tullius Cicero, Brutus, De Divinatione, De Oratore, In Verrem, Philippicae. Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus (Cassius Dio), Roman History. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Romaike Archaiologia (Roman Antiquities). Titus Livius (Livy), History of Rome. Plutarchus, Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans. Polybius, Historiae (The Histories). Publius Cornelius Tacitus, Annales, Historiae. Works cited[edit] General history of the Roman Republic (ordered chronologically)[edit] Barthold Georg Niebuhr, The History of Rome, Julius Charles Hare and Connop Thirlwall, trans., John Smith, Cambridge, 1828. Theodor Mommsen, Römische Geschichte, Leipzig, 1854–1856. Frank Frost Abbott, A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions, Elibron Classics, 1901. ISBN 0-543-92749-0 Cyril E. Robinson, A History of the Roman Republic, London, Methuen, 1932. F. W. Walbank, A. E. Astin, M. W. Frederiksen, R. M. Ogilvie (editors), The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. VII, part 2, The Rise of Rome to 220 B.C., Cambridge University Press, 1989. J. A. Crook, F. W. Walbank, M. W. Frederiksen, R. M. Ogilvie (editors), The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. VIII, Rome and the Mediterranean to 133 B.C., Cambridge University Press, 1989. A. E. Astin, Andrew Lintott, Elisabeth Rawson (editors), The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. IX, The Last Age of the Roman Republic, 146–43 B.C., Cambridge University Press, 1992. Tim Cornell, The beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000 – 264 BC), Oxford, Routledge, 1995. ISBN 978-0-415-01596-7 Nathan S. Rosenstein & Robert Morstein-Marx (editors), A companion to the Roman Republic, Oxford, Blackwell, 2006. Klaus Bringmann, A History of the Roman Republic, Polity Press, Cambridge, 2007. Specific subjects[edit] Byrd, Robert (1995). The Senate of the Roman Republic. U.S. Government Printing Office Senate Document 103-23. Eck, Werner (2003). The Age of Augustus. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0-631-22957-5. Flower, Harriet I. (2009). Roman Republics. Princeton. Goldsworthy, Adrian (2003). The Complete Roman Army. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-05124-5. Holland, Tom (2005). Rubicon : the last years of the Roman Republic. Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-50313-6. Lintott, Andrew (1999). The Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926108-6. MacDonald, W. L. (1982). The Architecture of the Roman Empire. Yale University Press, New Haven. Matyszak, Philip (2004). The Enemies of Rome. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-25124-9. Owen, Francis (1993). The Germanic people; their Origin Expansion & Culture. Barnes & Noble Books. ISBN 978-0-19-926108-6. Palmer, L. R. (1954). The Latin Language. Univ. Oklahoma. ISBN 978-0-8061-2136-9. Taylor, Lily Ross (1966). Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar. The University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-08125-7. Alföldy, Geza, The Social History of Rome, Routledge Revivals, 2014, (English translation of German original, 1975). Badian, E. 1968. Roman imperialism in the late Republic. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press. Bannon, Cynthia, Gardens and Neighbors: Private Water Rights in Roman Italy, University of Michigan Press, 2009. Beard, Mary, John North, & Simon Price, Religions of Rome, Volume I, illustrated, reprint, Cambridge University Press, 1998 Boardman, John; Griffin, Jasper; Murray, Oswyn (eds.), The Oxford History of the Classical World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-285236-1 Broughton, T. Robert S., The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, American Philological Association (1952–1986). Brunt, Peter A. 1988. The fall of the Roman Republic and related essays. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Crawford, Michael 1974, Roman Republican Coinage. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Develin, Robert. 1985. The practice of politics at Rome, 366–167 BC. Brussels: Latomus. Edmondson, J. C., and Keith, A., (Editors), Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, University of Toronto Press, 2008. Flower, Harriet I (editor), The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, Cambridge University Press, 2004. Gruen, Erich S. 1992. Culture and national identity in Republican Rome. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press. — —. 1995. The last generation of the Roman Republic. 2d ed. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press. Harris, William V. 1979. War and imperialism in Republican Rome, 327–70 B.C. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Dexter Hoyos (editor), A Companion to the Punic Wars, Chichester, Wiley-Blackwell, 2011. Michel Humm, Appius Claudius Caecus, La République accomplie, Rome, Publications de l'École française de Rome (2005). Raaflaub, Kurt A., ed. 2004. Social struggles in Archaic Rome: New perspectives on the conflict of the orders. 2d ed. Oxford: Blackwell. Rawson, Elizabeth. 1985. Intellectual life in the late Roman Republic. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press. Rich, John. 1993. "Fear, greed, and glory: The causes of Roman war-making in the middle Republic." In War and society in the Roman world. Edited by John Rich and Graham Shipley, 38–68. London: Routledge. Rüpke, Jörg (Editor), A Companion to Roman Religion, Wiley-Blackwell, 2007. ISBN 978-1-4051-2943-5 Salmon, Edward Togo. 1969. Roman colonization under the Republic. London: Thames and Hudson. Sebesta, Judith Lynn, & Larissa Bonfante (editors), The World of Roman Costume: Wisconsin Studies in Classics, The University of Wisconsin Press, 1994. Walbank, F. W., Polybius, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1972. Walsh, P. G., Livy: His historical aims and methods. Cambridge University Press, 1963. Vishnia, Rachel Feig, State, society, and popular leaders in mid-Republican Rome, 241–167 BC, London, Routledge, 1996. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Roman Republic. 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en-wikipedia-org-2912	----	List of Roman praetors - Wikipedia List of Roman praetors From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This list is incomplete; you can help by adding missing items with reliable sources. The following is a list of Roman praetors as reported by ancient sources. A praetor in ancient Rome was a person who held an annual office below the level of a consul but who still received a grant of imperium, allowing him to command armed forces. Two praetors each year had specific duties in Rome: the praetor urbanus (who presided in civil cases between citizens) and the praetor peregrinus (who administered justice among foreigners). Unless otherwise noted all dates are reported in BC. Contents 1 List of Praetors of the Roman Republic 1.1 4th Century BC 1.2 3rd Century BC 1.3 2nd Century BC 1.4 1st Century BC 2 References 3 Bibliography 4 External links List of Praetors of the Roman Republic[edit] The following individuals held the position of Praetor during the Roman Republic, starting with the creation of the office in 366 BC. 4th Century BC[edit] Date (BC) Name 366 Spurius Furius (M. f. L. n.) Camillus[1] 350 Publius Valerius (P. f. L. n.) Poplicola[2] 349 Lucius Pinarius (Natta?)[3][4] 347? Marcus Valerius M. f. M. n. Maximus Corvus[5] 341 Titus(?) Aemilius Mamercinus[6][7] 340 Lucius Papirius L. f. L. n. Crassus[8] 336 Quintus Publilius Philo[9] 332 Lucius Papirius (L. f. L. n. Crassus?)[10][11] 322 Lucius Plautius L. f. L. n. Venno[12] 318 Lucius Furius[13] 308 Marcus Valerius M. f. M. n. Maximus Corvus[14][15] 3rd Century BC[edit] Date (BC) Name 297? Appius Claudius (C. f. Ap. n. Caecus)[16] 296 Publius Sempronius (Sophus)[17][18] 295 Appius Claudius (C. f. Ap. n. Caecus)[19] 293 Marcus Atilius (M. f. M. n. Regulus)[20] 292 Lucius Papirius L. f. Sp. n. Cursor[21] 283 Lucius Caecilius (Metellus Denter)[22][23] 280? Quintus Marcius Philippus[24] 257 Aulus Atilius A. f. C. n. Caiatinus[25] 253 Lucius Postumius Megellus[26] 242 Quintus Valerius Falto[27] 234 Publius Cornelius[28][29] 233? Lucius Postumius A. f. A. n. Albinus[30][31] 227 Gaius Flaminius[32] 227 Marcus Valerius (Laevinus?)[32] 224? Marcus Claudius Marcellus[30] 224? Publius Furius Philus[30] 219? Lucius Furius Bibaculus[33][34] 218 Marcus Aemilius Lepidus[35] 218 Gaius Atilius Serranus[36] 218? Lucius Manlius Vulso[37] 218 Gaius Terentius Varro[38] 217 Marcus Aemilius (Regulus?)[39] 217 Aulus Cornelius Mammula[38] 217 Titus Otacilius Crassus[38] 217 Marcus Pomponius (Matho?)[40][41] 216 Marcus Claudius Marcellus[30] 216 Publius Furius Philus[30] 216 Marcus Pomponius Matho[30] 216 Lucius Postumius Albinus[30] 216? Marcus Aemilius Lepidus[42][43] 215 Appius Claudius Pulcher[44] 215 Quintus Fulvius Flaccus[44] 215 Quintus Mucius Scaevola[44] 215 Marcus Valerius Laevinus[44] 214 Publius Cornelius Lentulus[45] 214 Quintus Fabius Maximus[45] 214 Quintus Fulvius Flaccus[45] 214 Titus Otacilius Crassus[45] 213 Marcus Aemilius (Lepidus?)[46][47] 213 Marcus Atilius (Regulus?)[46][47] 213 Gnaeus Fulvius Centumalus[46] 213 Publius Sempronius Tuditanus[46] 212 Gaius Claudius Nero[48] 212 Publius Cornelius Sulla[48] 212 Gnaeus Fulvius Flaccus[48] 212 Marcus Iunius Silanus[48] 211 Gaius Calpurnius Piso[49] 211 Marcus Cornelius Cethegus[49] 211 Lucius Cornelius (Lentulus)[49] 211 Gaius Sulpicius[49] 210 Lucius Cincius Alimentus[50] 210 Gaius Laetorius[50] 210 Lucius Manlius Acidinus[50] 210 Publius Manlius Vulso[50] 209 Gaius Aurunculeius[51] 209 Gaius Hostilius Tubulus[51] 209 Titus Quinctius Crispinus[51] 209 Lucius Veturius Philo[51] 208 Quintus Claudius (Flamen?)[52][53] 208 Sextus Iulius Caesar[52] 208 Publius Licinius Crassus Dives[52] 208 Publius Licinius Varus[52] 207 Aulus Hostilius Cato[54] 207 Gaius Hostilius Cato[54] 207 Gaius Mamilius Vitulus[54] 207 Lucius Porcius Licinus[54] 206 Marcus Caecilius Metellus[55] 206 Tiberius Claudius Asellus[55] 206 Quintus Mamilius Turrinus[55] 206 Gaius Servilius (Geminus)[55] 205 Lucius Aemilius Papus[56] 205 Spurius Lucretius[56] 205 Gnaeus Octavius[56] 205 Gnaeus Servilius Caepio[56] 204 Tiberius Claudius Nero[57] 204 Marcus Marcius Ralla[57][58] 204 Marcus Pomponius Matho[57] 204 Lucius Scribonius Libo[57] 203 Publius Aelius Paetus[59] 203 Publius Cornelius Lentulus (Caudinus)[59] 203 Publius Quinctilius Varus[59] 203 Publius Villius Tappulus[59] 202 Gaius Aurelius Cotta[60] 202 Gaius Livius Salinator[60] 202 Marcus Sextius Sabinus[60] 202 Gnaeus Tremellius Flaccus[60] 201 Publius Aelius Tubero[61] 201 Marcus Fabius Buteo[61] 201 Marcus Junius Pennus[61] 201 Marcus Valerius Falto[61] 2nd Century BC[edit] Date (BC) Names 200[62] Quintus Fulvius Gillo Lucius Furius Purpurio Quintus Minucius Rufus Gaius Sergius Plautus[63] 199[64] Gnaeus Baebius Tamphilus Lucius Quinctius Flamininus Lucius Valerius Flaccus Lucius Villius Tappulus 198[65] Marcus Claudius Marcellus Lucius Cornelius Merula Gaius Helvius Marcus Porcius Cato 197[66] Lucius Atilius Marcus Helvius Lucius Manlius Vulso Marcus Minucius Rufus Gaius Sempronius Tuditanus Marcus Sergius Silus 196[67] Manius Acilius Glabrio Lucius Apustius Fullo Quintus Fabius Buteo Gaius Laelius Quintus Minucius Thermus Tiberius Sempronius Longus 195[68] Gaius Atinius Labeo Appius Claudius Nero Gaius Fabricius Luscinus Gnaeus Manlius Vulso Publius Manlius (Vulso?) Publius Porcius Laeca 194[69] Gnaeus Cornelius Blasio Gnaeus Cornelius Merenda Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Sextus Digitius Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus Titus Iuventius Thalna 193[70] Lucius Cornelius Scipio (Asiaticus) Gaius Flaminius Marcus Fulvius Nobilior Lucius Porcius Licinus Gaius Scribonius (Curio) Lucius Valerius Messalla 192[71] Aulus Atilius Serranus Marcus Baebius Tamphilus Marcus Fulvius Centumalus< Quintus Salonius Sarra Lucius Scribonius Libo Lucius Valerius Tappo 191[72] Marcus Aemilius Lepidus Lucius Aemilius Paullus (Macedonicus) Aulus Cornelius Mammula Marcus Iunius Brutus Gaius Livius Salinator Lucius Oppius Salinator 190[73] Lucius Aemilius Regulus Gaius Atinius Labeo Lucius Aurunculeius Gnaeus Fulvius Publius Iunius Brutus Marcus Tuccius 189[74] Lucius Baebius Dives Quintus Fabius Labeo Quintus Fabius Pictor Lucius Plautius Hypsaeus Spurius Postumius Albinus Marcus Sempronius Tuditanus ? Aulus Manlius Vulso (suff.)[75] 188[76] Gaius Atinius Marcus Claudius Marcellus Appius Claudius Pulcher[77] Lucius Manlius Acidinus Fulvianus Quintus Marcius Philippus Gaius Stertinius 187[78] Publius Claudius Pulcher Quintus Fulvius Flaccus Marcus Furius Crassipes Servius Sulpicius Galba Quintus Terentius Culleo Lucius Terentius Massaliota 186[79] Gaius Aurelius Scaurus Gaius Calpurnius Piso Publius Cornelius Sulla Marcus Licinius Lucullus Titus Maenius Lucius Quinctius Crispinus 185[80] Gaius Afranius Stellio Gaius Atilius Serranus Marcus Claudius Marcellus Publius Cornelius Cethegus Aulus Postumius Albinus Luscus Lucius Postumius Tempsanus 184[81] Publius Cornelius Cethegus Gaius Decimius Flavus Quintus Naevius Matho Gaius Sempronius Blaesus Publius Sempronius Longus Aulus Terentius Varro 183[82] Publius Cornelius Sisenna Lucius Julius (Caesar?) Spurius Postumius Albinus Lucius Pupius Gnaeus Sicinius Gaius Valerius Flaccus 182[83] Lucius Caecilius Denter Quintus Fulvius Flaccus Publius Manlius (Vulso?)[84][85] Marcus Ogulnius Gallus Gaius Terentius Istra Marcus Valerius Laevinus 181[86] Tiberius Claudius Nero Lucius Duronius Quintus Fabius Buteo Quintus Fabius Maximus Quintus Petilius Spurinus Marcus Pinarius Rusca[87] 180[88] Publius Cornelius Mammula Aulus Hostilius Mancinus Gaius Maenius Tiberius Minucius Molliculus Lucius Postumius Albinus Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus Gaius Claudius Pulcher 179[89] Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Hispallus Publius Mucius Scaevola Quintus Mucius Scaevola Gaius Valerius Laevinus 178[90] Titus Aebutius Parrus Tiberius Claudius Nero Titus Fonteius Capito Marcus Titinius Curvus Marcus Titinius ?Gaius Cluvius Saxula[91] 177[92] Publius Aelius Tubero Lucius Mummius Gaius Numisius Gaius Quinctius Flamininus Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Gaius Valerius Laevinus 176[93] Marcus Aburius Lucius Aquillius Gallus Marcus Cornelius Scipio Maluginensis Publius Licinius Crassus Lucius Papirius Maso Marcus Popilius Laenas 175[94] Publius Aelius Ligus Appius Claudius Centho Gaius Popilius Laenas ? Quintus Baebius Sulca ? Servius Cornelius Sulla ? Gnaeus Lutatius Cerco 174[95] Marcus Atilius Serranus Gaius Cassius Longinus Lucius Claudius Lucius Cornelius Scipio Publius Furius Philus Gnaeus Servilius Caepio 173[96] Aulus Atilius Serranus Gaius Cicereius Gaius Cluvius Saxula Numerius Fabius Buteo Marcus Furius Crassipes Marcus Matienus 172[97] Spurius Cluvius Marcus Iunius Pennus Gaius Licinius Crassus Spurius Lucretius Gaius Memmius Gnaeus Sicinius 171[98] Gaius Caninius Rebilus Lucius Canuleius Dives Lucius Furius Philus Gaius Lucretius Gallus Gaius Sulpicius Galba Lucius Villius Annalis 170[99] Quintus Aelius Paetus ? Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus Lucius Hortensius Quintus Maenius ? Titus Manlius Torquatus Marcus Raecius ? Gaius Tremellius 169[100] Marcus Claudius Marcellus Servius Cornelius Lentulus Gaius Decimius Publius Fonteius Capito Gaius Marcius Figulus Gaius Sulpicius Gallus 168[101] Marcus Aebutius Helva Lucius Anicius Gallus Gnaeus Baebius Tamphilus Publius Fonteius Balbus Gnaeus Octavius Gaius Papirius Carbo 167[102] Quintus Cassius Longinus Tiberius Claudius Nero Gnaeus Fulvius Manius Iuventius Thalna Gaius Licinius Nerva Aulus Manlius Torquatus 166[103] Lucius Appuleius Saturninus Marcus Fonteius Lucius Julius Caesar Aulus Licinius Nerva Publius Quinctilius Varus Publius Rutilius Calvus 165[104] Publius Cornelius Blasio? Publius Cornelius Lentulus Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Corculum 164[105] Quintus Minucius? Marcus Valerius Messalla? Gaius Fannius Strabo? 163[106] Marcus Cornelius Cathegus? 162[107] Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella? Marcus Fulvius Nobilior? 161[108] Marcus Aemilius Lepidus? Marcus Pomponius 160[109] Lucius Aurelus Orestes? Sextus Iulius Caesar? 159[110] Lucius Cornelius Cn. f. L. n. Lentulus Lupus Gnaeus Tremellius[111] 157[112] Manius Acilius Glabrio? Quintus Opimius? Lucius Postumius Albinus? 156[113] Titus Annius Luscus? Quintus Fulvius Nobilior? 155[114] Manius Manilius? Aulus Postumius Albinus Lucius Valerius Flaccus? 154[115] Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus Lucius Licinius Lucullus 153[116] Manius Acilius Balbus? Titus Quinctius Flamininus? Lucius Mummius 152[117] Marcus Atilius Serranus Lucius Marcius Censorinus? 151[118] Spurius Postumius Albinus Magnus? Servius Sulpicius Galba 150[119] Gaius Livius M. Aemiliani f. M. n. Drusus? 149[120] Quintus Fabius Maximus Aemilianus[121] Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus? Publius Iuventius Thalna Lucius Hostilius Mancinus? 148[122] Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus[123] 147[124] Lucius Aurelius Cotta? Lucius Licinius Murena? Gaius Sempronius Tuditanus? Gaius Vetilius 146[125] Appius Claudius Pulcher? ? Claudius Unimanus ? Oppius? Gaius Plautius Hypsaeus 145[126] Lucius Caecilius Metellus Calvus? Quintus Fabius Maximus Servilianus? Gaius Laelius Sapiens Gaius Nigidius? 144[127] Quintus Marcius Rex Quintus Pompeius? Gnaeus Servilius Caepio? 143[128] Marcus Aemilius Lepidus Porcina? Aulus Licinius Nerva ? Quinctius ?[129] Quintus Servilius Cn. f. Cn. n. Caepio? 142[130] Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso? Lucius Hostilius Tubulus Marcus Popillius Laenas? 141[131] Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Serapio? Decimus Iunius Brutus Callaicus? Decimus Iunius Silanus Manlianus? 140[132] Lucius Cornelius Lentulus? Gaius Hostilius Mancinus? Marcus Iunius Brutus? 139[133] Sextus Atilius Serranus? Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Hispanus Lucius Furius Philus? Lucius Plautius Hypsaeus? 138[134] Quintus Calpurnius Piso? Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi? Servius Fulvius Flaccus? 137[135] Marcus Claudius Marcellus ? Cornelius Lentulus? Gaius Fulvius Flaccus? 136[136] Manlius Publius Mucius Scaevola Lucius Tremellius Scrofa? 135[137] Marcus Cosconius Publius Popillius Laenas? Publius Rupilius? 134[138] Publius Licinius Dives Crassus Mucianus? Lucius Valerius Flaccus? 133[139] Appius Claudius? Marcus Perperna? Lucius Rupilius? Gaius Popillius C. f. 132[140] Gaius Sempronius Tuditanus Manius Aquillius? 131[141] Titus Annius Rufus? Gnaeus Octavius? 130[142] Lucius Cassius Longinus Ravilla? Lucius Cornelius Cinna? Gaius Marcius Figulus? 129[143] Marcus Aemilius Lepidus? Lucius Aurelius Orestes? Tiberius (Latinius?) Pandusa?[144] 128[145] Publius Cornelius P. f. Lentulus? Marcus Fulvius Flaccus? Marcus Plautius Hypsaeus? 127[146] Gaius Cassius Longinus? Gaius Sextius Calvinus? 126[147] Quintus Caecilius Metellus Balearicus? Titus Quinctius Flamininus? Gaius Fannius M. f.? Marcus Licinius Crassus Agelastus? 125[148] Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus? Lucius Opimius Aebutius? 124[149] Quintus Fabius Maximus Allobrogicus? 123[150] Sextus Iulius Caesar Publius Manilius? Gaius Papirius Carbo? 122[151] Lucius Aurelius Cotta? Lucius Caecilius Metellus Dalmaticus? 121[152] Quintus Marcius Rex? Marcus Porcius Cato? Gaius Scribonius Curio 120[153] Lucius Caecilius Metellus Diadematus? Quintus Mucius Scaevola Augur? 119[154] Marcus Aemilius Scaurus? Gnaeus Cornelius Sisenna? Quintus Fabius Maximus Eburnus Gaius Licinius Geta? Sextus Pompeius? 118[155] Marcus Caecilius Metellus? Publius Rutilius Rufus? 117[156] Marcus Acilius Balbus? Gaius Caecilius Metellus Caprarius? Gaius Porcius Cato? 116[157] Gnaeus Papirius Carbo? 115[158] Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus? Publius Decius Marcus Livius Drusus? Gaius Marius? 114[159] Lucius Calpurnius Bestia? Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica? Marcus Papirius Carbo? 113[160] Marcus Iunius Silanus? Lucius Memmius? Marcus Minucius Rufus? Spurius Postumius Albinus? 112[161] Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus? Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi? Marcius Iunius Silanus? 111[162] Marcus Aemilius Scaurus? Lucius Cassius Longinus Lucius (or Quintus) Hortensius? Servius Sulpicius Galba? 109[163] Gaius Atilius Serranus? Quintus Lutatius Catulus? Quintus Servilius Caepio Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio? 108[164] Gnaeus Mallius Maximus 107[165] Gnaeus Aufidius? Gaius Billienus? Gaius Flavius Fimbria? 106[166] Lucius Aurelius Orestes? 105[167] Titus Albucius? Lucius (Annius?) Bellienus Lucius ...onius[168] 104[169] Manius Aquillius? Titus Flaminius? Lucius Licinius Lucullus Publius Licinius Nerva? Gaius Memmius? 103[170] Glaucia? Lucius Valerius Flaccus? Vibius? 102[171] Marcus Antonius Marcus Marius? Aulus Postumius Albinus? Gaius Servilius[172][173] 101[174] Quintus Caecilius Metellus Nepos? Titus Didius? Lucius Licinius L. f. Murena? 1st Century BC[edit] Date (BC) Names 100[175] Lucius Cornelius P. f. L. n. Dolabella? Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus? Publius Licinius Crassus? Gaius Servilius Glaucia Tremellius? 99[176] Gaius Cassius Longinus? Gaius Coelius Caldus? Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus? 98[177] Lucius Licinius Crassus? Quintus Mucius Scaevola? 97[178] Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus? Marcus Herennius? 96[179] Lucius Marcius Philippus? Lucius (Sempronius) Asellio? Gaius Valerius Flaccus? 95[180] Lucius Aurelius Cotta? Gaius Claudius Pulcher Lucius Julius Caesar Marcus Perperna? 94[181] Lucius Gellius Poplicola Sextus Julius Caesar? Gaius Sentius 93[182] Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica? Lucius Cornelius Sulla (Felix) Publius Rutilius Lupus? Lucius Valerius Flaccus? 92[183] Gaius Julius Caesar? Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo? Lucius Porcius Cato? Marcus Porcius Cato? Gaius Sextius Calvinus? 91[184] Lucius Lucilius L. f.? Gnaeus Octavius (Ruso?)? Gaius Perperna? Quintus Pompeius Rufus Quintus Servilius Quintus Servilius Caepio? Servius Sulpicius Galba? 90[185] Gaius Caelius? M. (Caecilius) Cornutus? Gaius Cassius? Lucius Cornelius Cinna? Lucius Cornelius Merula? Gnaeus Octavius? Lucius Postumius Publius Servilius Vatia (Isauricus)? 89[186] Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius Appius Claudius Pulcher Gaius Cosconius? Publius Gabinius Quintus Oppius? (Gnaeus Papirius?) Carbo? Aulus Sempronius Asellio Publius Sextilius? 88[187] Quintus Ancharius? Marcus Iunius Brutus Lucius Licinius Murena? Gaius Norbanus? ?Servilius? Publius Sextilius?[188] 86[189] Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiagenus (Asiaticus)? 85[190] Marcus Marius Gratidianus? 84[191] Marcus Marius Gratidianus? Gaius Fabius Hadrianus 83[192] Publius? Burrienus Gaius Papirius Carbo (Arvina)? Quintus Sertorius 82[193] Lucius Iunius Brutus Damasippus Quintus Antonius Balbus Gaius Carrinus ? Magius Marcus Perperna (Vento) 81[194] Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella Mamercus Aemilius Lepidus Livianus ? Marcus Aemelius Lepidus ? Gaius Claudius P. f. Nero ? Lucius Fufidius ? Quintus Lutatius Catulus ? Marcus Minucius Thermus Sextus Nonius Sufenas Gaius Papirius Carbo ? 80[195] Gaius Claudius Marcellus Marcus Domitius Calvinus Marcus Fannius Decimus Iunius Brutus ? Gaius Scribonius Curio ? 32[196] Marcus Valerius Messalla Potitus?[197] References[edit] ^ Livy, 7.1 ^ Livy, 7.23 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 129 ^ Livy, 7.25 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 130 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 135 ^ Livy, 8.2 ^ Livy, 8.12 ^ Livy, 8.15 ^ Livy, 8.17 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 142 ^ Livy, 8.40 ^ Livy, 9.20 ^ Livy, 9.41 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 164 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 175 ^ Livy, 10.21 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 176 ^ Livy, 10.22 ^ Livy, 10.45 ^ Livy, 10.47 ^ Livy, Periochae 12 ^ Polybius, 2.19.8 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 191 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 208 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 211 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 218 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 224 ^ Zonaras, 8.18 ^ a b c d e f g Livy, 22.35 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 225 ^ a b Broughton, 1. p. 229 ^ Valerius Maximus, 1.1.9 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 237 ^ Livy, 21.49 ^ Livy, 21.62 ^ Livy, 21.62 ^ a b c Livy, 22.25 ^ Livy, 22.9 ^ Livy, 22.7 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 246n. ^ Livy, 23.20 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 249 ^ a b c d Livy, 23.24 ^ a b c d Livy, 24.9 ^ a b c d Livy, 24.43 ^ a b Broughton, 1. p. 263 ^ a b c d Livy, 25.2 ^ a b c d Livy, 25.41 ^ a b c d Livy, 26.23 ^ a b c d Livy, 27.6 ^ a b c d Livy, 27.21 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 294 ^ a b c d Livy, 27.35 ^ a b c d Livy, 28.10 ^ a b c d Livy, 28.38 ^ a b c d Livy, 29.11 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 310 ^ a b c d Livy, 29.38 ^ a b c d Livy, 30.26 ^ a b c d Livy, 30.40 ^ Livy, 31.4 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 123 ^ Livy, 31.49 ^ Livy, 32.7 ^ Livy, 32.27 ^ Livy, 33.24 ^ Livy, 33.42 ^ Livy, 34.42 ^ Livy, 34.54 ^ Livy, 35.10 ^ Livy, 35.24 ^ Livy, 36.45 ^ Livy, 37.47 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 361 ^ Livy, 38.35 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 365 ^ Livy, 38.42 ^ Livy, 39.6 ^ Livy, 39.23 ^ Livy, 39.32 ^ Livy, 39.45 ^ Livy, 39.51 ^ Livy, 40.1 and 40.16 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 382 ^ Livy, 40.18 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 387 ^ Livy, 40.35 ^ Livy, 40.44 ^ Livy, 41.6 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 395 ^ Livy, 41.8 ^ Livy, 41.14 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 402 ^ Livy, 41.21 ^ Livy, 41.28 ^ Livy, 42.9 ^ Livy, 42.28 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 420 ^ Livy, 43.11 ^ Livy, 44.17 ^ Livy, 45.16 ^ Livy, 45.44 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 438 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 439 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 440 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 442 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 443 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 445 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 446 ^ Livy, Periochae 47 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 447 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 447 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 448 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 450 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 452 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 453 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 455 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 456 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 458 ^ Polybius 36.5.8-9 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 461 ^ Polybius 36.10.1-7 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 463 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 466 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 469 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 471 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 472 ^ Appian, Ib. 66 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 475 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 477 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 479 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 481 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 483 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 485 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 486 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 489 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 490 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 492 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 498 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 500 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 502 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 504 ^ Appian, Illyr. 10 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 506 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 507 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 508 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 510 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 512 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 513 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 516 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 521 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 523 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 526 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 527 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 529 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 530 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 532 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 534 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 535 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 538 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 540 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 545 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 549 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 551 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 553 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 556 ^ IG 12.3.173--IGRP 4.1028 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 559 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 563 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 568 ^ Cic. Verr. 2.4.147 ^ Diod. 36.9 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 571 ^ Broughton, vol. I, p. 574. ^ Broughton, vol. II, p. 1. ^ Broughton, vol. II, p. 4. ^ Broughton, vol. II, p. 7. ^ Broughton, vol. II, p. 9. ^ Broughton, vol. II, p. 11. ^ Broughton, vol. II, p. 12. ^ Broughton, vol. II, p. 14. ^ Broughton, vol. II, p. 17. ^ Broughton, vol. II, p. 20. ^ Broughton, vol. II, p. 25. ^ Broughton, vol. II, p. 33. ^ Broughton, vol. II, p. 40. ^ Plutarch, Marius 40.3-4 ^ Broughton, vol. II, p. 54. ^ Broughton, vol. II, p. 57. ^ Broughton, vol. II, p. 60. ^ Broughton, vol. II, p. 62. ^ Broughton, vol. II, p. 65. ^ Broughton, vol. II, p. 76. ^ Broughton, vol. II, p. 79. ^ Broughton, vol. II, p. 418. ^ CIL VI, 37075 Bibliography[edit] Broughton, T. Robert S., The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, American Philological Association (1952–1986), Volumes 1, 2, and Supplemental. Titus Livius Patavinus (Livy), Ab Urbe Condita (History of Rome). Polybius, Ἱστορίαι (The Histories). Valerius Maximus, Factorum ac dictorum memorabilium libri IX ("Nine books of memorable deeds and sayings". Zonaras, Ἐπιτομὴ Ἱστοριῶν (Extracts of History). External links[edit] v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Roman_praetors&oldid=996812859" Categories: Ancient Roman titles Lists of office-holders in ancient Rome Hidden categories: Incomplete lists from May 2020 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español Italiano Edit links This page was last edited on 28 December 2020, at 19:03 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2927	----	Founding of Rome - Wikipedia Founding of Rome From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Mythical tale Capitoline Wolf, sculpture of the she-wolf feeding the twins Romulus and Remus, the most famous image associated with the founding of Rome Romulus and Remus on the House of the She-wolf at the Grand Place of Brussels. The tale of the founding of Rome is recounted in traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves as the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth. The most familiar of these myths, and perhaps the most famous of all Roman myths, is the story of Romulus and Remus, twins who were suckled by a she-wolf as infants in the 8th century BC.[1] Another account, set earlier in time, claims that the Roman people are descended from Trojan War hero Aeneas, who escaped to Italy after the war, and whose son, Iulus, was the ancestor of the family of Julius Caesar.[2] The archaeological evidence of human occupation of the area of modern-day Rome, Italy dates from about 14,000 years ago.[citation needed][3] Contents 1 Founding myths and sources 1.1 Aeneas 1.2 Romulus and Remus 1.3 Strabo 1.4 Dionysius of Halicarnassus 1.5 Other myths 2 Date 3 The name of Rome 4 Archaeology 5 Later commemoration 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Founding myths and sources[edit] Aeneas[edit] Aeneas flees burning Troy, Federico Barocci, 1598. Galleria Borghese, Rome. The national epic of mythical Rome, the Aeneid of Virgil, tells the story of how Trojan prince Aeneas came to Italy. The Aeneid was written under Augustus, who claimed ancestry through Julius Caesar to Aeneas and his mother Venus. According to the Aeneid, the survivors from the fallen city of Troy banded together under Aeneas and underwent a series of adventures around the Mediterranean Sea, including a stop at newly founded Carthage under the rule of Queen Dido, eventually reaching the Italian coast. The Trojans were thought to have landed in an area between modern Anzio and Fiumicino, southwest of Rome, probably at Laurentum or, in other versions, at Lavinium, a place named for Lavinia, the daughter of King Latinus whom Aeneas married. This started a series of armed conflicts with Turnus over the marriage of Lavinia.[4] Before the arrival of Aeneas, Turnus was betrothed to Lavinia, who then married Aeneas, starting the war.[4] Aeneas won the war and killed Turnus.[4] The Trojans won the right to stay and to assimilate with the local peoples. The young son of Aeneas, Ascanius, also known as Iulus, went on to found Alba Longa and the line of Alban kings who filled the chronological gap between the Trojan saga and the traditional founding of Rome in the 8th century BC. Toward the end of this line, King Procas was the father of Numitor and Amulius. At Procas' death, Numitor became king of Alba Longa, but Amulius captured him and sent him to prison; he also forced Numitor's daughter Rhea Silvia to become a virgin priestess among the Vestals.[1] Forests have a prominent role in the founding myth – when Aeneas arrives at the site that would become Rome, it is still forest: These woodland places Once were homes of local fauns and myths Together with a race of men that came From tree trunks, from hard oak: they had no way Of settled life, no arts of life, no skill At yoking oxen, gathering provisions Practising husbandry, but got their food From oaken bough and wild game hunted down. —Aeneid 8.415–429, trans. Harrison Forests: The Shadow of Civilization p.1 Evander goes on to explain that from that "first time" the god Saturn brings these scattered people laws and bestows upon them the name Latium.[5] Romulus and Remus[edit] Main articles: Romulus and Remus and Romulus The myth of Aeneas was of Greek origin and had to be reconciled with the Italian myth of Romulus and Remus. They were purported to be sons of Rhea Silvia and either Mars, the god of war, or the demigod hero Hercules. They were abandoned at birth, in the manner of many mythological heroes, because of a prophecy that they would overthrow their great-uncle Amulius, who had overthrown Silvia's father Numitor. The twins were abandoned on the river Tiber by servants who took pity on the infants, despite their orders. The twins were nurtured by a she-wolf until a shepherd named Faustulus found the boys and took them as his sons. Faustulus and his wife Acca Larentia raised the children. When Remus and Romulus became adults, they killed Amulius and restored Numitor. They decided to establish a city; however, they quarreled, as Romulus was on Palatine Hill, while Remus wanted to found the city on Aventine Hill, until Remus and his followers attacked, and Romulus killed his brother.[1] Thus, Rome began with a fratricide, a story that was later taken to represent the city's history of internecine political strife and bloodshed. Strabo[edit] Strabo writes that there is also an older story, about the founding of Rome, than the previous legends that he had mentioned. The city was an Arcadian colony and was founded by Evander. Strabo also writes that Lucius Coelius Antipater believed that Rome was founded by Greeks.[6][7] Dionysius of Halicarnassus[edit] Dionysius of Halicarnassus writes that the people who came to the lands that later became the city of Rome were first the Aborigines, who drove the Sicels out of these lands, and were from the Arcadia, then the Pelasgians, who came from Thessaly. Third came those who accompanied Evander into Italy from the city of Pallantium in Arcadia; next the Epeans from Elis and Pheneats from Pheneus, who were part of the army commanded by Heracles which decided to stay there while they were returning from the expedition at the Erytheia, with whom a Trojan element also was commingled. Last of all came Trojans who had escaped with Aeneas from Ilium, Dardanus, and the other Trojan cities. Dionysius mentions that the Trojans were also Greek people who were originally from the Peloponnesus.[8] He also adds that even Romans say that the Pallantium was founded by Greeks from Pallantium of Arcadia, about sixty years before the Trojan War and the leader was Evander.[9] Later at the sixteenth generation after the Trojan War the Albans united these places into one settlement, surrounding them with a wall and a ditch. The Albans were a mixed nation composed of all the above people. Dionysius adds that it is possible that a barbarian element from among the neighboring people or a remnant of the ancient inhabitants of the place were mixed with the Greek. But all these people, having lost their tribal past came to be called by one common name, Latins, after Latinus, who had been the king of the country. The leaders of the colony were the twin brothers Romulus and Remus.[10] Other myths[edit] Another story told how Romos, a son of Odysseus and Circe, was the one who founded Rome.[11] Martin P. Nilsson speculates that this older story was becoming a bit embarrassing as Rome became more powerful and tensions with the Greeks grew. Being descendants of the Greeks was no longer preferable, so the Romans settled on the Trojan foundation myth instead. Nilsson further speculates that the name of Romos was changed by the Romans to the native name Romulus, but the name Romos (later changed to the native Remus) was never forgotten by the people, and so these two names came to stand side by side as founders of the city.[12] Furthermore, Emperor Julian in his satire called "The Caesars", which describes a contest between the previous Roman emperors with Alexander the Great called in as an extra contestant in the presence of the assembled gods, made Alexander say: "I am aware that you Romans are yourselves descended from the Greeks,..."[13] Date[edit] The ancient Romans were certain of the day Rome was founded: April 21, the day of the festival sacred to Pales, goddess of shepherds, on which date they celebrated the Par ilia (or Palilia). However they did not know, or they were uncertain of, the exact year the city had been founded; this is one reason they preferred to date their years by the presiding consuls rather than using the formula A.U.C. or Ab Urbe Condita. Several dates had been proposed by ancient authorities, and Dionysius of Halicarnassus records these: The Greek historian Timaeus, one of the first to write a history to include the Romans, stated that Rome was founded in the 38th year prior to the first Olympiad, or 814/3 BC; Quintus Fabius Pictor, the first Roman to write the history of his people, in Greek, stated Rome was founded in the first year of the eighth Olympiad, or 748/7 BC; Lucius Cincius Alimentus claimed Rome was founded in the fourth year of the twelfth Olympiad, or 729/8 BC; and Cato the Elder calculated that Rome was founded 432 years after the Trojan War, which Dionysius states was equivalent to the first year of the seventh Olympiad, or 752/1 BC.[14] Dionysius himself provided calculations showing that Rome was founded in 751 BC, starting with the Battle of the Allia, which he dated to the first year of the ninety-eighth Olympiad, 388/7 BC, then added 120 years to reach the date of the first consuls, Junius Brutus and Tarquinius Collatinus, 508/7 BC, then added the combined total of the reigns of the Kings of Rome (244 years) to arrive at his own date, 751 BC.[15] Even the official Fasti Capitolini offers its own date, 752 BC. The most familiar date given for the foundation of Rome, 753 BC, was derived by the Roman antiquarian Titus Pomponius Atticus, and adopted by Marcus Terentius Varro, having become part of what has come to be known as the Varronian chronology.[16] An anecdote in Plutarch where the astrologer Lucius Tarrutius of Firmum provides an argument based on a non-existent eclipse and other erroneous astronomical details that Rome was founded in 753 BC suggests that this had become the most commonly accepted date.[17] Through its use by the third-century writer Censorinus, whose De Die Natali was the ultimate influence of Joseph Justus Scaliger's work to establish a scientific basis of ancient chronology, it became familiar.[17] Recent discoveries by Andrea Carandini on Rome's Palatine Hill have also yielded evidence of a series of fortification walls on the north slope that can be dated to the middle of the 8th century BC.[citation needed] According to the legend, Romulus plowed a furrow (sulcus) around the hill in order to mark the boundary of his new city. The name of Rome[edit] Further information: History of Rome There is no consensus on the etymology of the city's name. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) suggested Greek "ῥώμη" (rhōmē), meaning "strength, vigor".[18] A modern theory of etymology holds that the name of the city is of Etruscan origin (and perhaps the city itself, though this cannot be proven), derived from rumon, "river".[19] Archaeology[edit] There is archaeological evidence of human occupation of the Rome area from about 14,000 years ago, but the dense layer of much younger debris obscures Palaeolithic and Neolithic sites.[20] Several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the Bronze Age and the beginning of the Iron Age, each hill between the sea and the Capitol was topped by a village (on the Capitol Hill, a village is attested since the end of the 14th century BC).[21] In any case, the location that became the city of Rome was inhabited by Latin settlers from various regions, farmers and pastoralists, as evidenced by differences in pottery and burial techniques.[19] The historical Latins were originally an Italic tribe who inhabited the Alban Hills.[when?] They later moved down into the valleys, which provided better land for agriculture. The island Isola Tiberina was the site of an important ancient ford. The area around the Tiber was particularly advantageous and offered notable strategic resources: the river was a natural border on one side, and the hills could provide a safe defensive position on the other side. This position would also have enabled the Latins to control the river and the commercial and military traffic on it from the natural observation point at Isola Tiberina. Moreover, road traffic could be controlled, since Rome was at the intersection of the principal roads to the sea coming from Sabinum (in the northeast) and Etruria (to the northwest).[citation needed] There is a wide consensus that the city developed gradually through the aggregation ("synoecism") of several villages around the largest one on the Palatine. This aggregation, signalling the transition from a proto-urban to an urban settlement, was made possible by the increase in agricultural productivity above the subsistence level, which allowed the establishment of secondary and tertiary activities[clarification needed]: in turn, these boosted the development of trade with the Greek colonies of southern Italy (mainly Ischia and Cumae). All these events, which according to the archeological excavations occurred around the mid 8th century BC, can be considered as the origin of the city.[21] Recent studies suggest that the Quirinal hill was very important in ancient times, although the first hill to be inhabited seems to have been the Palatine (thus confirming the legend), which is also at the centre of ancient Rome.[citation needed] Its three peaks, the minor hills Cermalus or Germalus, Palatium, and Velia, were united with the three peaks of the Esquiline (Cispius, Fagutal, and Oppius), and then villages on the Caelian Hill and Suburra. Recent discoveries revealed that the Germalus on the northern part of the Palatine was the site of a village (dated to the 9th century BC) with circular or elliptical dwellings. It was protected by a clay wall (perhaps reinforced with wood), and it is likely that this is the particular location on the Palatine hill where Rome was actually founded.[citation needed] The territory of this federation was surrounded by a sacred border called the pomerium, which enclosed the so-called Servian[clarification needed] expansion of Rome. Festivals for the Septimontium (literally "of the seven hills") on December 11 were previously considered to be related to the foundation of Rome. However, April 21 is the only date for Rome's foundation upon which all the legends agree, and it has recently been argued that Septimontium celebrated the first federations among Roman hills. A similar federation was, in fact, celebrated by the Latins at Cave or at Monte Cavo (in Castelli).[citation needed] Later commemoration[edit] During the Italian Renaissance, a group of humanists affiliated with the Roman Academy formed a sodality to pursue antiquarian interests, celebrating the "birthday of Rome" annually on April 20. In 1468, the Academy was suppressed by Pope Paul II for fomenting "republicanism, paganism, and conspiracy", but the sodality was reinstated about ten years later under Sixtus IV as the Societas Literatorum S. Victoris in Esquiliis ("Literary Society of Saint Victor on the Esquiline"). The reformed group placed itself under the new patronage of saints Victor, Fortunatus, and Genesius, "whose feast day was conveniently proven to coincide with the Palilia". Their "Palilia" was organized by Pomponio Leto and featured speeches, a communal meal, and a poetry competition.[22] References[edit] ^ a b c Livy (1905). "The Earliest Legends". From the Founding of the City . Translated by Canon Roberts. Book 1.3–1.7  – via Wikisource. ^ Livy (2005). The Early History of Rome. Penguin Books Ltd. ISBN 978-0-14-196307-5. ^ "The Capitoline Wolf". Joy of Museums. Retrieved 21 September 2020. ^ a b c "Turnus". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2013-09-13. ^ Harrison, Robert Pogue (1993). Forests: The Shadow of Civilization. University of Chicago Press. p. 2. ^ Strabo, Geography, 5.3.3 – GR ^ Strabo, Geography, 5.3.3 – EN ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, 1.60.3–1.61.1 This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, 1.45.1 ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, 2.2 ^ Goldberg, Epic in Republican Rome, 1995, p. 50-51. ^ Nilsson, Olympen, 1964, p. 264. ^ Julian : The Caesars, 324 ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities 1.74 ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities 1.75 ^ Gary Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome (Berkeley: University of California, 2005), p. 94 ^ a b Anthony Grafton and Noel Swerdlow, "Technical Chronology and Astrological History in Varro, Censorinus, and Others", Classical Quarterly, N.S. 35 (1985), p. 454-65 ^ Cf. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract, Book IV, Chapter IV, written in 1762, where he writes in a footnote that the word for Rome is Greek in origin and means force. "There are writers who say that the name 'Rome' is derived from 'Romulus'. It is in fact Greek and means force." ^ a b Baldi, Philip (2002). The Foundations of Latin. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 106–7. ^ Heiken, G., Funiciello, R. and De Rita, D. (2005), The Seven Hills of Rome: A Geological Tour of the Eternal City. Princeton University Press ^ a b Coarelli (1984) p. 9 ^ Angela Fritsen, "Ludovico Lazzarelli's Fasti Christianae religionis: Recipient and Context of an Ovidian Poem," in Myricae: Essays on Neo-Latin Literature in Memory of Jozef Ijsewijn (Leuven University Press, 2000), pp. 121–122. Further reading[edit] Coarelli, F. 1974. Guida archeologica di Roma. 1. ed. Varia Grandi opere. [Milano]: A. Mondadori. Caradini, Andrea. 2011. Rome: Day One. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Forsythe, Gary. 2005. A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War. Berkeley: University of California Press. Fromentin, Valérie and Sophie Gotteland, ed. 2001. Origines Gentium, Collection Etudes 7. Bordeaux: Editions Ausonius. Lintott, Andrew. 2010. The Romans in the Age of Augustus. The Peoples of Europe. Chichester/Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. Raaflaub, Kurt A, and Tim Cornell. 1986. Social Struggles In Archaic Rome : New Perspectives On the Conflict of the Orders. Berkeley: University of California Press. Schultze, C. E. 1995. "Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Roman Chronology." Cambridge Classical Journal 41:192–214. Serres, Michel. 1991. Rome: The Book of Foundations. Trans. Felicia McCarren. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Slayman, Andrew. 2007. "Fact or Legend? Debate Over the Origins of Rome – Were Romulus and Remus Historical Figures?." Archaeology 60.4:22–27. Wiseman, T.P. 1995. Remus: A Roman Myth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wiseman, T. P. 2004. The Myths of Rome. Exeter: University of Exeter Press. 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en-wikipedia-org-2933	----	Master of the Horse - Wikipedia Master of the Horse From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (March 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Lord Vestey, Master of the Horse (UK) 1999–2018, riding to the Queen's Birthday Parade in 2009. The Master of the Horse was (and in some cases, still is) a position of varying importance in several European nations. Contents 1 Magister Equitum (Ancient Rome) 2 Master of the Horse (United Kingdom) 3 Grand Squire of France 4 Oberststallmeister (Germany) 5 Caballerizo mayor (Spain) 6 Papal Master of the Horse 7 Riksstallmästare/Överhovstallmästare (Sweden) 8 Equerry (Russia) 9 Koniuszy (Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania) 10 Georgia 11 Hungary 12 Asia 13 See also 14 References Magister Equitum (Ancient Rome)[edit] Main article: Magister equitum The original Master of the Horse (Latin Magister Equitum) in the Roman Republic was an office appointed and dismissed by the Roman Dictator, as it expired with the Dictator's own office, typically a term of six months in the early and mid-republic. The Magister Equitum served as the Dictator's main lieutenant. The nomination of the Magister Equitum was left to the choice of the Dictator, unless a senatus consultum specified, as was sometimes the case, the name of the person who was to be appointed. The Dictator could not be without a Magister Equitum to assist him, and, consequently, if the first Magister Equitum either died or was dismissed during the Dictator's term, another had to be nominated in his stead. The Magister Equitum was granted a form of imperium, but at the same level as a praetor, and thus was subject to the imperium of the Dictator and was not superior to that of a Consul. In the Dictator's absence, the Magister Equitum became his representative, and exercised the same powers as the Dictator. It was usually but not always necessary for the man nominated as Magister Equitum to have already held the office of Praetor. Accordingly, the Magister Equitum had the insignia of a praetor: the toga praetexta and an escort of six lictors. The most famous Master of the Horse is Mark Antony, who served during Julius Caesar's first dictatorship. After the constitutional reforms of Augustus, the office of Dictator fell into disuse, along with that of the Magister Equitum. The title magister equitum was revived in the late Empire, when Constantine I established it as one of the supreme military ranks, alongside the Magister Peditum ("Master of the Foot"). Eventually, the two offices would be amalgamated into that of the Magister Militum ("Master of the Soldiers"). The title Constable, from the Latin comes stabuli or count of the stables, has a similar history. Master of the Horse (United Kingdom)[edit] See also: List of Masters of the Horse and List of Masters of the Horse to British royal consorts Dress uniform of the Master of the Horse. The Master of the Horse in the United Kingdom was once an important official of the sovereign's household, though the role is largely ceremonial today. The master of the horse is the third dignitary of the court, and was always a member of the ministry (before 1782 the office was of cabinet rank), a peer and a privy councillor. All matters connected with the horses and formerly also the hounds of the sovereign, as well as the stables and coachhouses, the stud, mews and previously the kennels, are within his jurisdiction. The practical management of the Royal Stables and stud devolves on the chief or Crown Equerry, formerly called the Gentleman of the Horse, whose appointment was always permanent. The Clerk Marshal had the supervision of the accounts of the department before they are submitted to the Board of Green Cloth, and was in waiting on the Sovereign on state occasions only. Exclusive of the Crown Equerry there were seven regular equerries, besides extra and honorary equerries, one of whom was always in attendance on the Sovereign and rode at the side of the royal carriage. They were always officers of the army, and each of them was on duty for about the same time as the lords and grooms in waiting. There are still several pages of honour who are nominally in the master of the horse's department, who must not be confounded with the pages of various kinds who are in the department of the Lord Chamberlain. They are youths aged from twelve to sixteen, selected by the sovereign in person, to attend on him at state ceremonies. At the Coronation they assisted the groom of the stole in carrying the royal train. The current Master of the Horse is Lord de Mauley.[1] Today the Master of the Horse has a primarily ceremonial office, and rarely appears except on state occasions, and especially when the Sovereign is mounted. The Crown Equerry has daily oversight of the Royal Mews, which provides vehicular transport for the Sovereign, both cars and horse-drawn carriages. Train travel is arranged by the Royal Travel Office, which also co-ordinates air transport. The Pages of Honour, who appear only on ceremonial occasions, and the Equerries, were nominally under the authority of the Master of the Horse. The former are now controlled by the Keeper of the Privy Purse. The latter are effectively independent, and are functionally closer to the Private Secretary's Office. There are now three equerries to the Sovereign, and a larger number of extra equerries - usually retired officers with some connection to the Royal Household. The extra equerries are rarely if ever required for duty, but the Equerries are in attendance on the Sovereign on a daily basis. For some years the senior Equerry has also held the position of Deputy Master of the Household. The permanent equerry is an officer of major rank or equivalent, recruited from the three armed services in turn. Many previous equerries have gone on to reach high rank. The temporary equerry is a Captain of the Coldstream Guards, who provides part-time attendance. When not required for duty he has additional regimental or staff duties. Senior members of the Royal Family also have one or two equerries. Grand Squire of France[edit] Main article: Grand Squire of France In France the master of the horse, known as the Grand Squire of France (Grand Écuyer, or more usually Monsieur le grand) was one of the seven Great Officers of the Crown of France from 1595. As well as the superintendence of the royal stables, he had that of the retinue of the sovereign, also the charge of the funds set aside for the religious functions of the court, coronations, etc. On the death of a sovereign he had the right to all the horses and their equipment in the royal stables. He oversaw personally the "Great Stable" ("grande écurie"). Distinct from this officer and independent of him, was the first equerry (Premier Ecuyer), who had charge of the horses which the sovereign used personally (La petite écurie), and who attended on him when he rode out. The office of master of the horse existed down to the reign of Louis XVI. Under Louis XVIII and Charles X the duties were discharged by the first equerry, but under Napoleon I and Napoleon III the office was revived with much of its old importance. Oberststallmeister (Germany)[edit] In Germany the master of the horse (Oberststallmeister) was a high court dignitary; but his office was merely titular, the superintendence of the Emperor's stables having been carried out by the Oberstallmeister, an official corresponding to the crown equerry in England. Caballerizo mayor (Spain)[edit] Main article: Caballerizo mayor The Caballerizo mayor was the Officer of the Royal Household and Heritage of the Crown of Spain in charge of the trips, the mews and the hunt of the King of Spain. The Office of "Caballerizo mayor" was one of the main Offices of the Royal Household in charge of the Royal Stables and everything related to the transportation of the Monarch. When the King sorted out from the Royal Palace, the Caballerizo had the main position behind him and the major rang over the other Court Officials. He managed as well the stables, the carriages and the horses. He was assisted by the "Primeros Caballerizos" (First Equerries) who were nominated by him. He was in charge of the Royal hunt as "Montero mayor" (Great Hunter) holding, in many cases, the "Alcaldías" (Majorships) of the Spanish royal sites. Papal Master of the Horse[edit] The Master of the Horse, Cavallerizzo Maggiore, or Hereditary Superintendent of the Stables of the Palaces, was a hereditary position held by the Marquess Serlupi Crescenzi. The office was a Participating Privy Chamberlain of the Sword and Cape, in the papal household. It was abolished in the reforms of the Papal Curia of 1968. Riksstallmästare/Överhovstallmästare (Sweden)[edit] The holder of the title Master of the Horse of the Realm (Riksstallmästare) in Sweden was not one of the Great Officers of the Realm, but rather one of the Lesser Officers of the Realm. He was the superintendent of the Royal Stables and of the realm's stud farms. As such he was important in military matters, and often he had a tight connection with the army, and then especially with the army's cavalry units. His duties were partly taken over by the Master of the Horse (Överhovstallmästare). Equerry (Russia)[edit] Konyushy (Russian: Конюший) is literally translated as Master of the Horse or Equerry. Konyushy was a boyar in charge of the stables of Russian rulers. It was a high title at the court of Russian rulers until the 17th century. By the end of the 15th century a special Equerry Office (конюшенный приказ, "konyushenny prikaz") was introduced, headed by the Konyushy. It was in charge of the Tsar's stables, parade equipage, ceremonies of court ride-offs, and military horse breeding. At one point Boris Godunov was konyushy. The Equerry Office handled a significant amount of Tsar's treasures, related to harness and horse/horseman armor, which were transferred to the Kremlin Armoury in 1736. Koniuszy (Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania)[edit] "Koniuszy" (corresponding to the English-language "Equerry" or "Master of the Horse") was a position of nobility known in the Kingdom of Poland from the 11th century, and in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from the 15th. A koniuszy had charge of the stables and herds of a Grand Duke or King; in reality, it was a podkoniuszy (sub-equerry), subordinate to the koniuszy, who had the more direct responsibility. From the 14th to 16th centuries, a "koniuszy" was a dignitary (dygnitarz) in the Polish Kingdom and in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Georgia[edit] In the Kingdom of Georgia, the similar post was known under the name of amilakhvari (amir-akhori, lit.: Prince-Master of the Horse), derived from Arabic. It was a deputy to the commander-in-chief (amir-spasalari) and a member of the royal council. From the 1460s to the Russian annexation of Georgia (1801), the office was hereditary in the Zevdginidze-Amilakhvari family. Hungary[edit] Main article: Master of the horse (Kingdom of Hungary) In the Kingdom of Hungary the master of the horse (Hungarian: főlovászmester) was one of the high officials of the royal household. Asia[edit] Main article: Sima (office) Similar posts were common in the imperial courts of China and Japan, the royal courts of Korea, and elsewhere in East Asia. The position, known as "Sima" in Chinese (司马), literally means "Master of the Horse". It was first created in the Western Zhou dynasty, with responsibility for military administration and conscription. The position was below the Three Grand Offices and equivalent in status to the six ministers. It was often grouped with four other positions also named with the "Si-" (control, administer) prefix as the "five officials" (五官). The title was used in different ways in subsequent dynasties. The Han Dynasty awarded "Grand Sima" as an additional title to high generals, in which context it is often translated into English as "Marshal". "Sima" also became a Chinese surname, adopted by descendants of one occupant of the office. The Sima family became emperors in the Jin dynasty, as a result of which "Sima" ceased to exist as an official position in the central bureaucracy. However, in later dynasties it was used as the name of various relatively minor positions in the military and local administration. However, "Sima" was also used informally to refer to the Minister of War. The Siamese kingdom of Ayutthaya had a Master of the Royal Elephants. See also[edit] Constitution of the Roman Republic Constable Equerry Cursus honorum List of British ministries Marshal References[edit] ^ "Appendix To Court Circular". Court Circular. 26 July 2018. Retrieved 28 July 2018.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Master of the Horse". Encyclopædia Britannica. 17 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 872–873. v t e Royal Household in England Household officials Lord Steward of the Household The Earl of Dalhousie Lord Chamberlain of the Household The Earl Peel Master of the Horse The Lord de Mauley Treasurer of the Household Stuart Andrew Comptroller of the Household Mike Freer Vice-Chamberlain of the Household Marcus Jones Justiciar (1102–1261) Mareschal Knight Marshal Lord High Steward Keeper of the Privy Seal Lord Chancellor Keeper (or Treasurer) of the Wardrobe Comptroller of the Wardrobe Cofferer of the Wardrobe Keeper of the Great Wardrobe Master of the Jewel Office Clerk of the Green Cloth Treasurer of the Chamber Keeper of the Privy Purse Master of the Household Master of the Buckhounds Master of the Staghounds (1738–1782) Lord of the Bedchamber Gentleman of the Bedchamber Groom of the Chamber Mistress of the Robes Lady of the Bedchamber Woman of the Bedchamber Page of Honour Master of the Robes Groom of the Robes Groom of the Stool (1509–1901) Gold Stick-in-Waiting Silver Stick-in-Waiting Dean of the Chapel Royal Clerk of the Closet Deputy Clerk of the Closet Lord High Almoner Warden of the Mint (1216–1829) Master of the Revels Master of the Hawks Master of the Ceremonies Master of the Queen's Music Surveyor of the Queen's Pictures Queen's Bargemaster Yeomen Warders Bold: Title active Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Master_of_the_Horse&oldid=976226315" Categories: Ceremonial officers in the United Kingdom Ancient Roman titles Military ranks Positions within the British Royal Household Equestrianism Ancient Roman Masters of the Horse Cursus honorum Papal household Hidden categories: Articles lacking in-text citations from March 2012 All articles lacking in-text citations Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Italiano Lietuvių Polski Русский Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 1 September 2020, at 21:12 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-290	----	Victorian era - Wikipedia Victorian era From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Victorian Age) Jump to navigation Jump to search Period of British history encompassing Queen Victoria's reign (1837–1901) Victorian era 1837–1901 Queen Victoria in 1859 by Winterhalter Preceded by Regency era Followed by Edwardian era Monarch(s) Victoria Leader(s) The Viscount Melbourne Sir Robert Peel Lord John Russell The Earl of Derby The Earl of Aberdeen The Viscount Palmerston Benjamin Disraeli William Ewart Gladstone The Marquess of Salisbury The Earl of Rosebery Part of a series on the History of the United Kingdom Timeline Georgian period Napoleonic Wars Regency period Victorian period Edwardian period First World War Interwar period Second World War Post-war period (political) Post-war period (Social) Modern history (political) Modern History (social) Topics History of women Military history  United Kingdom portal v t e Periods in English history   Prehistoric Britain until c. 43 Roman Britain c. 43–410 Anglo-Saxon c. 500–1066 Norman 1066–1154 Plantagenet 1154–1485 Tudor 1485–1603 Elizabethan 1558–1603 Stuart 1603–1714 Jacobean 1603–1625 Caroline 1625–1649 (Interregnum) 1649–1660 Restoration 1660–1714 Georgian Britain 1714–1837 Regency Britain 1811–1820 Victorian Britain 1837–1901 Edwardian Britain 1901–1914 First World War 1914–1918 Interwar Britain 1919–1939 Second World War 1939–1945 Postwar Britain (Political) 1945–1979 Postwar Britain (Social) 1945–1979 See also Political history (1979–present) Social history (1979–present) Timeline v t e Part of a series on the History of Scotland Eras Prehistoric (timeline) During the Roman Empire Middle Ages Early High Late Early Modern Modern History (timeline) Rule House of Alpin (843–878; 889–1040) House of Moray (1040–1058) House of Dunkeld (1058–1286) House of Balliol (1292–1296) House of Bruce (1306–1371) House of Stuart (1371–1652) (1660–1707) Commonwealth (1652–1660) Acts of Union 1707 Topics Scandinavian Scotland Wars of independence Renaissance Reformation Restoration Glorious Revolution Colonization of the Americas Enlightenment Romanticism Clans The Scots language Economics Education Military Maritime Historiography Demography Natural history Culture Architecture Art The Kilt Literature Politics Devolution Local government Scottish National Party Scottish Socialist Party Sport Football Rugby union National football team Golf Religion Christianity Scottish Reformation Scottish Episcopal Church Great Disruption Jews and Judaism Islam and Muslims By Region Edinburgh timeline Glasgow timeline  Scotland portal v t e In the history of the United Kingdom, the Victorian era was the period of Queen Victoria's reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. The era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edwardian period, and its later half overlaps with the first part of the Belle Époque era of Continental Europe. Morally and politically, this period began with the passage of the Reform Act 1832. There was a strong religious drive for higher moral standards led by the nonconformist churches, such as the Methodists, and the Evangelical wing of the established Church of England. Ideologically, the Victorian era witnessed resistance to the rationalism that defined the Georgian period and an increasing turn towards romanticism and even mysticism with regard to religion, social values, and arts.[1] Technologically, this era saw a staggering amount of innovations that proved key to Britain's power and prosperity.[2][3] Doctors started moving away from tradition and mysticism towards a science-based approach; modern medicine saw the light of day thanks to the adoption of the germ theory of disease and pioneering research in epidemiology.[4] Multiple studies suggest that on the per-capita basis, the numbers of significant innovations in science and technology and of scientific geniuses peaked during the Victorian era and have been on the decline ever since.[5] Domestically, the political agenda was increasingly liberal, with a number of shifts in the direction of gradual political reform, social reform, and the widening of the franchise. There were unprecedented demographic changes: the population of England and Wales almost doubled from 16.8 million in 1851 to 30.5 million in 1901,[6] and Scotland's population also rose rapidly, from 2.8 million in 1851 to 4.4 million in 1901. However, Ireland's population decreased sharply, from 8.2 million in 1841 to less than 4.5 million in 1901, mostly due to emigration and the Great Famine.[7] Between 1837 and 1901 about 15 million emigrated from Great Britain, mostly to the United States, Canada, South Africa, New Zealand, and Australia.[8] Thanks to educational reforms, the British population not only approached universal literacy towards the end of the era but also became increasingly well-educated; the market for reading materials of all kinds boomed.[9][10][11] Britain's relations with the other Great Powers were driven by the colonial antagonism of the Great Game with Russia, climaxing during the Crimean War; a Pax Britannica of international free trade was maintained by the country's naval and industrial supremacy. Britain embarked on global imperial expansion, particularly in Asia and Africa, which made the British Empire the largest empire in history. National self-confidence peaked.[12][13] Britain granted political autonomy to the more advanced colonies of Australia, Canada, and New Zealand,[14] and avoided war with the United States.[15] Apart from the Crimean War, Britain was not involved in any armed conflict with another major power.[14][16] The two main political parties during the era remained the Whigs/Liberals and the Conservatives; by its end, the Labour Party had formed as a distinct political entity. These parties were led by such prominent statesmen as Lord Melbourne, Sir Robert Peel, Lord Derby, Lord Palmerston, Benjamin Disraeli, William Gladstone, and Lord Salisbury. The unsolved problems relating to Irish Home Rule played a great part in politics in the later Victorian era, particularly in view of Gladstone's determination to achieve a political settlement in Ireland. Contents 1 Terminology and periodisation 2 Political and diplomatic history 2.1 Early 2.2 Middle 2.3 Late 3 Society and culture 3.1 Common culture 3.2 Evangelicals, utilitarians, and reform 3.3 Religion 3.3.1 Status of Nonconformist churches 3.3.2 Agnostics and freethinkers 3.4 Marriage and family 3.5 Education and literacy 3.6 Reading culture 3.7 Entertainment 3.7.1 Sports 3.8 High culture 3.8.1 Gallery of selected Victorian paintings 3.8.2 Journalism 3.8.3 Leisure 4 Demographics 4.1 Demographic transition 4.2 Fertility rates and mortality rates 5 Economy, industry, and trade 5.1 Progress 5.2 Housing 5.3 Poverty 5.4 Child labour 6 Mathematics, science, technology, and engineering 6.1 Professionalisation of science 6.2 Ease of discovery and rate of progress 6.3 Mathematics and statistics 6.4 Theoretical mechanics and optics 6.5 Thermodynamics, heat engines, and refrigerators 6.6 Natural history 6.7 Electricity, magnetism, and electrification 6.8 Computer science and logic 6.9 Communication and transportation 6.9.1 Steam ships 6.9.2 Telegraphy, telephony, the wireless, and photography 6.9.3 Railways 6.10 Public safety, health and medicine 7 Moral standards 7.1 Crime, police and prisons 7.2 Prostitution 8 Events 9 See also 10 Citations 11 Further reading 11.1 General 11.2 Daily life and culture 11.3 Literature 11.4 Politics 11.5 Crime and punishment 11.6 Historiography 11.7 Primary sources 12 External links Terminology and periodisation See also: Periodisation In the strictest sense, the Victorian era covers the duration of Victoria's reign as Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, from her accession on 20 June 1837—after the death of her uncle, William IV—until her death on 22 January 1901, after which she was succeeded by her eldest son, Edward VII. Her reign lasted for 63 years and seven months, a longer period than any of her predecessors. The term 'Victorian' was in contemporaneous usage to describe the era.[17] The era has also been understood in a more extensive sense as a period that possessed sensibilities and characteristics distinct from the periods adjacent to it, in which case it is sometimes dated to begin before Victoria's accession—typically from the passage of or agitation for (during the 1830s) the Reform Act 1832, which introduced a wide-ranging change to the electoral system of England and Wales. Definitions that purport a distinct sensibility or politics to the era have also created scepticism about the worth of the label "Victorian", though there have also been defences of it.[18] Michael Sadleir was insistent that "in truth, the Victorian period is three periods, and not one".[19] He distinguished early Victorianism – the socially and politically unsettled period from 1837 to 1850[20] – and late Victorianism (from 1880 onwards), with its new waves of aestheticism and imperialism,[21] from the Victorian heyday: mid-Victorianism, 1851 to 1879. He saw the latter period as characterized by a distinctive mixture of prosperity, domestic prudery, and complacency[22] – what G. M. Trevelyan similarly called the "mid-Victorian decades of quiet politics and roaring prosperity".[23] Political and diplomatic history Main articles: United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919) Early In 1832, after much political agitation, the Reform Act was passed on the third attempt. The Act abolished many borough seats and created others in their place, as well as expanding the franchise in England and Wales (a Scottish Reform Act and Irish Reform Act were passed separately). Minor reforms followed in 1835 and 1836. On 20 June 1837, Victoria became Queen of the United Kingdom on the death of her uncle, William IV, just weeks after reaching the age of eighteen.[24] Her government was led by the Whig prime minister Lord Melbourne, to whom she was close.[24] But within two years he had resigned, and the Tory politician Sir Robert Peel attempted to form a new ministry. Peel said he was willing to become prime minister provided the Queen replaced her Whig ladies-in-waiting with Tory ones. She refused and re-appointed Lord Melbourne, a decision criticised as unconstitutional.[24] She regularly recorded the events of the rebellions on Upper and Lower Canada as these reminded her of the American Revolution, which took place during the reign of her grandfather King George III.[25] London sent Lord Durham to resolve the issue and his 1839 report opened the way for "responsible government" (that is, self-government).[14][16] In the same year, a seizure of British opium exports to China prompted the First Opium War against the Qing dynasty, and British imperial India initiated the First Anglo-Afghan War—one of the first major conflicts of the Great Game between Britain and Russia.[26] In In South Africa, the Dutch Boers made their "Great Trek to found Natal, the Transvaal, and the Orange Free State, defeating the Zulus in the process, 1835–1838; London annexed Natal in 1843 but recognized the independence of the Transvaal in 1852 in the Orange Free State in 1854.[14][16] Queen Victoria, Prince Albert, and five of their children in 1846. Painting by Franz Xaver Winterhalter. In 1840, Queen Victoria married her German cousin Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfield. It proved a passionate marriage, whose children were much sought after by royal families across Europe. An astute diplomat, the Queen was only too willing to arrange such marriages. Indeed, she became the "Grandmother of Europe" thanks to the nine children she had with Prince Albert in just sixteen years despite suffering from postnatal depression and her dislike of childbirth. Unfortunately, she carried the gene for haemophilia, which affected ten of her male descendants, one of whom was the heir apparent of Tsar Nicholas II.[24][27] In Australia, new provinces were founded with Victoria in 1835 and South Australia in 1842. The focus shifted from transportation of criminals to voluntary immigration. New Zealand became a British colony in 1839; in 1840 Maori chiefs ceded sovereignty to Britain in Treaty of Waitangi. In 1841 New Zealand became an autonomous colony.[14][16] The signing of the Treaty of Nanking in 1842 ended the First Opium War and gave Britain control over Hong Kong Island.[16] However, a disastrous retreat from Kabul in the same year led to the annihilation of a British army column in Afghanistan. In 1845, the Great Famine began to cause mass starvation, disease and death in Ireland, sparking large-scale emigration.[28] To allow more cheap food into Ireland, the Peel government repealed the Corn Laws. Peel was replaced by the Whig ministry of Lord John Russell.[29] In 1853, Britain fought alongside France in the Crimean War against Russia. The goal was to ensure that Russia could not benefit from the declining status of the Ottoman Empire,[30] a strategic consideration known as the Eastern Question. The conflict marked a rare breach in the Pax Britannica, the period of relative peace (1815–1914) that existed among the Great Powers of the time, and especially in Britain's interaction with them. On its conclusion in 1856 with the Treaty of Paris, Russia was prohibited from hosting a military presence in Crimea. In October of the same year, the Second Opium War saw Britain overpower the Qing dynasty in China. Along with other major powers, Britain took steps in obtaining special trading and legal rights in a limited number of treaty ports.[16] It was during the Crimean War that the Queen introduced the Victoria Cross, awarded on the basis of valour and merit regardless of rank. The first Crosses were handed out to 62 men in a ceremony at Hyde Park in 1857, the first time officers and men were decorated together.[24] During 1857–58, an uprising by sepoys against the East India Company was suppressed, an event that led to the end of Company rule in India and the transferral of administration to direct rule by the British government. The princely states were not affected and remained under British guidance.[31] English was imposed as the medium of education.[16] Middle In 1861, Prince Albert died.[26] Queen Victoria went into mourning and withdrew from public life.[27] Whilst the cabinet leaned toward recognition of the Confederacy during the American Civil War, public opinion was split.[32] Confederate foreign policy planners had hoped that the value of their cotton exports would encourage European powers to intervene in their favour. It was not to be, and the British attitude might have been decisive. Being cut off from cotton did not affect the British economy as much as the Confederates had expected. A considerable supply was available to Great Britain when the American Civil War erupted and she was able to turn to India and Egypt as alternatives when that ran out.[15] In the end, the government decided to remain neutral upon realising that war with the United States would be highly dangerous, for that country provided much of Britain's food supply (especially wheat) and its navy could sink much of the merchant fleet.[32][15] U.S. ambassador to Britain Charles Francis Adams Sr. succeeded in resolving thorny problems that could have driven the two powers into war. But once it was clear that the United States had the upper hand on the battlefield, the possibility of an Anglo-American war vanished.[15] Fathers of Canadian Confederation by Robert Harris (1885). Her diary entries suggest the Queen had contemplated the possibility of a union of her North American colonies as early as February 1865. She wrote, "...we must struggle for it, and far the best it would be to let it go as an Independent Kingdom, under an English Prince!" She also mentioned how her late husband Prince Albert had hoped that one day, their sons would rule over the British colonies. In February 1867, the Queen received a copy of the British North America Act (also known as the Constitution Act 1867). A fortnight later she hosted delegates coming to discuss the question of confederation "under the name of Canada," including the future Prime Minister John A. Macdonald. On 29 March 1867, the Queen granted royal ascent to the Act, which was to become effective on 1 July 1867, allowing the delegates time to return home for celebrations.[25] In fact, the Queen maintained strong ties with Canada. Victoria in British Columbia and Victoria County in Nova Scotia were named after her, Regina in Saskatchewan in her honour, Prince Edward Island her father, and Alberta her daughter. Her birthday, Victoria Day, is an official public holiday in Canada. In addition, her daughter Princess Louise was chatelaine of Rideau Hall from 1878 to 1883 and her son the Duke of Connaught served as Governor-General of Canada between 1911 and 1916.[25] In 1867, the second Reform Act was passed, expanding the franchise. In 1871, just a year after the French Third Republic was founded, republican sentiments grew in Britain. After Prince Edward recovered from typhoid, the Queen decided to give a public thanksgiving service and appear on the balcony of Buckingham Palace. This was the start of her return to public life.[24] In 1878, Britain was a plenipotentiary at the Treaty of Berlin, which gave de jure recognition to the independent states of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro. Late Map of the British Empire in 1898 Key leaders included Conservatives Benjamin Disraeli, and Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury, and Liberals William Ewart Gladstone, the Earl of Rosebery and William Harcourt.[33] They introduced various reforms aimed at strengthening the political autonomy of large industrial cities and increasing British involvement in the international stage. Labour movements were recognised and integrated in order to combat extremism. Both Queen Victoria and Prince Albert favoured moderate improvements to conditions of workers.[27] Queen Victoria found in Disraeli a trustworthy adviser. She approved of his policies which helped elevated Britain's status to global superpower. In her later years, her popularity soared as she became a symbol of the British Empire.[24] The major new policies included rapid succession, the complete abolition of slavery in the West Indies and African possessions, the end of transportation of convicts to Australia, loosening restrictions on colonial trade, and introducing responsible government.[16][14] David Livingstone led famous expeditions in central Africa, positioning Britain for favorable expansion of its colonial system in the Scramble for Africa during the 1880s. There were numerous revolts and violent conflicts in the British Empire, but there were no wars with other major nations.[16][14] In South Africa tensions escalated, especially with the discovery of gold. The result was the First Boer War in 1880–1881 and the intensely bitter Second Boer War in 1899–1902. The British finally prevailed, but lost prestige at home and abroad.[14][16] After weeks of illness, Queen Victoria died on 22 January 1901. By her bedside were her son and heir Edward VII and grandson Kaiser Wilhelm II.[24] Australia received dominion status in the same year.[34] Despite their difficult relations, Edward VII never severed ties with the Queen. Like her, he modernised the British monarchy and ensured its survival when so many European royal families collapsed as a result of the First World War.[35] Society and culture Common culture The rise of the middle class during the era had a formative effect on its character; the historian Walter E. Houghton reflects that "once the middle class attained political as well as financial eminence, their social influence became decisive. The Victorian frame of mind is largely composed of their characteristic modes of thought and feeling".[36] Industrialisation brought with it a rapidly growing middle class whose increase in numbers had a significant effect on the social strata itself: cultural norms, lifestyle, values and morality. Identifiable characteristics came to define the middle-class home and lifestyle. Previously, in town and city, residential space was adjacent to or incorporated into the work site, virtually occupying the same geographical space. The difference between private life and commerce was a fluid one distinguished by an informal demarcation of function. In the Victorian era, English family life increasingly became compartmentalised, the home a self-contained structure housing a nuclear family extended according to need and circumstance to include blood relations. The concept of "privacy" became a hallmark of the middle-class life. The English home closed up and darkened over the decade (1850s), the cult of domesticity matched by a cult of privacy. Bourgeois existence was a world of interior space, heavily curtained off and wary of intrusion, and opened only by invitation for viewing on occasions such as parties or teas. "The essential, unknowability of each individual, and society's collaboration in the maintenance of a façade behind which lurked innumerable mysteries, were the themes which preoccupied many mid-century novelists."[37] — Kate Summerscale quoting historian Anthony S. Wohl Evangelicals, utilitarians, and reform The central feature of Victorian-era politics is the search for reform and improvement, including both the individual personality and society.[38] Three powerful forces were at work. First was the rapid rise of the middle class, in large part displacing the complete control long exercised by the aristocracy. Respectability was their code—a businessman had to be trusted and must avoid reckless gambling and heavy drinking. Second, the spiritual reform closely linked to evangelical Christianity, including both the Nonconformist sects, such as the Methodists, and especially the evangelical or Low Church element in the established Church of England, typified by Lord Shaftesbury (1801–1885).[39] It imposed fresh moralistic values on society, such as Sabbath observance, responsibility, widespread charity, discipline in the home, and self-examination for the smallest faults and needs of improvement. Starting with the anti-slavery movement of the 1790s, the evangelical moralizers developed highly effective techniques of enhancing the moral sensibilities of all family members and reaching the public at large through intense, very well organized agitation and propaganda. They focused on exciting a personal revulsion against social evils and personal misbehavior.[40] Asa Briggs points out, "There were as many treatises on 'domestic economy' in mid-Victorian England as on political economy"[41] The third effect came from the liberalism of philosophical utilitarians, led by intellectuals Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832), James Mill (1773–1836) and his son John Stuart Mill (1806–1873).[42] They were not moralistic but scientific. Their movement, often called "Philosophic Radicalism," fashioned a formula for promoting the goal of "progress" using scientific rationality, and businesslike efficiency, to identify, measure, and discover solutions to social problems. The formula was an inquiry, legislation, execution, inspection, and report.[43] In public affairs, their leading exponent was Edwin Chadwick (1800–1890). Evangelicals and utilitarians shared a basic middle-class ethic of responsibility and formed a political alliance. The result was an irresistible force for reform.[44] Social reforms focused on ending slavery, removing the slavery-like burdens on women and children, and reforming the police to prevent crime, rather than emphasizing the very harsh punishment of criminals. Even more important were political reforms, especially the lifting of disabilities on nonconformists and Roman Catholics, and above all, the reform of Parliament and elections to introduce democracy and replace the old system whereby senior aristocrats controlled dozens of seats in parliament.[45] The long-term effect of the reform movements was to tightly link the nonconformist element with the Liberal party. The dissenters gave significant support to moralistic issues, such as temperance and sabbath enforcement. The nonconformist conscience, as it was called, was repeatedly called upon by Gladstone for support for his moralistic foreign policy.[46] In election after election, Protestant ministers rallied their congregations to the Liberal ticket. In Scotland, the Presbyterians played a similar role to the Nonconformist Methodists, Baptists and other groups in England and Wales.[47] The political strength of Dissent faded sharply after 1920 with the secularization of British society in the 20th century.[citation needed] Religion The restoration of the Catholic hierarchy in 1850 provoked a strong reaction. This sketch is from an issue of Punch, printed in November that year. Religion was a battleground during this era, with the Nonconformists fighting bitterly against the established status of the Church of England, especially regarding education and access to universities and public office. Penalties on Roman Catholics were mostly removed. The Vatican restored the English Catholic bishoprics in 1850 and numbers grew through conversions and immigration from Ireland.[48] The Oxford Movement was also occurring around this time, which would draw in new converts to the Catholic Church; among these was John Henry Newman. Secularism and doubts about the accuracy of the Old Testament grew as the scientific outlooked rapidly gained ground among the better educated. Walter E. Houghton argues, "Perhaps the most important development in 19th-century intellectual history was the extension of scientific assumptions and methods from the physical world to the whole life of man."[49] During the mid-nineteenth century, there were two distinct religious mentalities among British academics. The North British school was religiously conservative and commercially engaged thanks to the influence of Presbyterianism and Calvinism. Northern English and Scottish researchers played a key role in the development of thermodynamics, which was motivated by the desire to design ever more efficient engines. By contrast, in the South, mentalities of Anglicanism, agnosticism, and even atheism were more common. Academics such as the biologist Thomas Huxley promoted "scientific naturalism."[50] Status of Nonconformist churches Nonconformist conscience describes the moral sensibility of the Nonconformist churches—those which dissent from the established Church of England—that influenced British politics in the 19th and early 20th centuries.[51][52] In the 1851 census of church attendance, non-conformists who went to chapel comprised half the attendance of Sunday services.[53] Nonconformists were focused in the fast-growing urban middle class.[54] The two categories of this group were in addition to the evangelicals or "Low Church" element in the Church of England: "Old Dissenters," dating from the 16th and 17th centuries, included Baptists, Congregationalists, Quakers, Unitarians, and Presbyterians outside Scotland; "New Dissenters" emerged in the 18th century and were mainly Methodists. The "Nonconformist conscience" of the Old group emphasized religious freedom and equality, the pursuit of justice, and opposition to discrimination, compulsion, and coercion. The New Dissenters (and also the Anglican evangelicals) stressed personal morality issues, including sexuality, temperance, family values, and Sabbath-keeping. Both factions were politically active, but until the mid-19th century, the Old group supported mostly Whigs and Liberals in politics, while the New—like most Anglicans—generally supported Conservatives. In the late 19th century, the New Dissenters mostly switched to the Liberal Party. The result was a merging of the two groups, strengthening their great weight as a political pressure group. They joined together on new issues especially regarding schools and temperance, with the latter of special interest to Methodists.[55][56] By 1914 the linkage was weakening and by the 1920s it was virtually dead.[57] Parliament had long imposed a series of political disabilities on Nonconformists outside Scotland. They could not hold most public offices, they had to pay local taxes to the Anglican church, be married by Anglican ministers, and be denied attendance at Oxford or degrees at Cambridge. Dissenters demanded the removal of political and civil disabilities that applied to them (especially those in the Test and Corporation Acts). The Anglican establishment strongly resisted until 1828.[58] Dissenters organized into a political pressure group and succeeded in 1828 in the repeal of some restrictions. It was a major achievement for an outside group, but the Dissenters were not finished and the early Victorian period saw them even more active and successful in eliminating their grievances.[59] Next on the agenda was the matter of church rates, which were local taxes at the parish level for the support of the parish church building in England and Wales. Only buildings of the established church received the tax money. Civil disobedience was attempted but was met with the seizure of personal property and even imprisonment. The compulsory factor was finally abolished in 1868 by William Ewart Gladstone, and payment was made voluntary.[60] While Gladstone was a moralistic evangelical inside the Church of England, he had strong support in the Nonconformist community.[61][62] The Marriage Act 1836 allowed local government registrars to handle marriages. Nonconformist ministers in their chapels were allowed to marry couples if a registrar was present. Also in 1836, civil registration of births, deaths, and marriages was taken from the hands of local parish officials and given to local government registrars. Burial of the dead was a more troubling problem, for urban chapels had no graveyards, and Nonconformists sought to use the traditional graveyards controlled by the established church. The Burial Laws Amendment Act 1880 finally allowed that.[63] Oxford University required students seeking admission to subscribe to the 39 Articles of the Church of England. Cambridge required that for a diploma. The two ancient universities opposed giving a charter to the new University of London in the 1830s because it had no such restriction. The university, nevertheless, was established in 1837, and by the 1850s Oxford dropped its restrictions. In 1871 Gladstone sponsored the Universities Tests Act 1871 that provided full access to degrees and fellowships. Nonconformists (especially Unitarians and Presbyterians) played major roles in founding new universities in the late 19th century at Manchester, as well as Birmingham, Liverpool and Leeds.[64] Agnostics and freethinkers T. H. Huxley's famous debate in 1860 with Samuel Wilberforce was a key moment in the wider acceptance of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution The abstract theological or philosophical doctrine of agnosticism, whereby it is theoretically impossible to prove whether or not God exists, suddenly became a popular issue around 1869, when T. H. Huxley coined the term. It was much discussed for several decades, and had its journal edited by William Stewart Ross (1844–1906) the Agnostic Journal and Eclectic Review. Interest petered out by the 1890s, and when Ross died the Journal soon closed. Ross championed agnosticism in opposition not so much to Christianity, but to atheism, as expounded by Charles Bradlaugh[65] The term "atheism" never became popular. Blasphemy laws meant that promoting atheism could be a crime and was vigorously prosecuted.[66] Charles Southwell was among the editors of an explicitly atheistic periodical, Oracle of Reason, or Philosophy Vindicated, who were imprisoned for blasphemy in the 1840s.[67] Disbelievers call themselves "freethinkers" or "secularists". They included John Stuart Mill, Thomas Carlyle, George Eliot and Matthew Arnold.[68] They were not necessarily hostile to Christianity, as Huxley repeatedly emphasized. The literary figures were caught in something of a trap – their business was writing and their theology said there was nothing for certain to write. They instead concentrated on the argument that it was not necessary to believe in God to behave in moral fashion.[69] The scientists, on the other hand, paid less attention to theology and more attention to the exciting issues raised by Charles Darwin in terms of evolution. The proof of God's existence that said he had to exist to have a marvelously complex world was no longer satisfactory when biology demonstrated that complexity could arise through evolution.[70] Marriage and family Further information: Separate spheres and Women in the Victorian era George William Joy's painting The Bayswater Omnibus, 1895, depicts middle-class social life in this English late Victorian-era scene. A daguerreotype of a Victorian couple, 1840s or 1850s The centrality of the family was a dominant feature for all classes. Worriers repeatedly detected threats that had to be dealt with: working wives, overpaid youths, harsh factory conditions, bad housing, poor sanitation, excessive drinking, and religious decline. The licentiousness so characteristic of the upper class of the late 18th and early 19th centuries dissipated. The home became a refuge from the harsh world; middle-class wives sheltered their husbands from the tedium of domestic affairs. The number of children shrank, allowing much more attention to be paid to each child. Extended families were less common, as the nuclear family became both the ideal and the reality.[71] The emerging middle-class norm for women was separate spheres, whereby women avoid the public sphere – the domain of politics, paid work, commerce, and public speaking. Instead, they should dominate in the realm of domestic life, focused on the care of the family, the husband, the children, the household, religion, and moral behavior.[72] Religiosity was in the female sphere, and the Nonconformist churches offered new roles that women eagerly entered. They taught in Sunday schools, visited the poor and sick, distributed tracts, engaged in fundraising, supported missionaries, led Methodist class meetings, prayed with other women, and a few were allowed to preach to mixed audiences.[73] The long 1854 poem The Angel in the House by Coventry Patmore (1823–1896) exemplified the idealized Victorian woman who is angelically pure and devoted to her family and home. The poem was not a pure invention but reflected the emerging legal economic social, cultural, religious and moral values of the Victorian middle-class. Legally women had limited rights to their bodies, the family property, or their children. The recognized identities were those of daughter, wife, mother, and widow. Rapid growth and prosperity meant that fewer women had to find paid employment, and even when the husband owned a shop or small business, the wife's participation was less necessary. Meanwhile, the home sphere grew dramatically in size; women spent the money and decided on the furniture, clothing, food, schooling, and outward appearance the family would make. Patmore's model was widely copied – by Charles Dickens, for example.[74] Literary critics of the time suggested that superior feminine qualities of delicacy, sensitivity, sympathy, and sharp observation gave women novelists a superior insight into stories about home family and love. This made their work highly attractive to the middle-class women who bought the novels and the serialized versions that appeared in many magazines. However, a few early feminists called for aspirations beyond the home. By the end of the century, the "New Woman" was riding a bicycle, wearing bloomers, signing petitions, supporting worldwide mission activities, and talking about the vote.[75] In Great Britain, elsewhere in Europe, and in the United States, the notion that marriage should be based on romantic love and companionship rather than convenience, money, or other strategic considerations grew in popularity during the Victorian period. Cheaper paper and printing technology made it easier for humans to attract mates this way, hence the birth of the Valentine card.[76] Education and literacy Further information: History of education in England § Nineteenth century, and Public school (United Kingdom) A cartoon from the humorous British magazine Punch about a Senior Wrangler and a student at Girton College from "December 20, 1884" (see upper-right corner). The Industrial Revolution incentivised people to think more scientifically and to become more educated and informed in order to solve novel problems. As a result, cognitive abilities were pushed to their genetic limits, making people more intelligent and innovative than their predecessors.[77][78] Formal education thus became vital. According to intelligence researcher James R. Flynn, these changes echoed down to the twentieth century before leveling off in the early twenty-first.[78] The era saw a reform and renaissance of public schools, inspired by Thomas Arnold at Rugby. The public school became a model for gentlemen and public service.[79] Sunday schools and charity schools helped reduce illiteracy. In fact, throughout the course of the nineteenth century, there was a clear movement towards universal literacy, culminating in the Elementary Education Act of 1870. By 1876, attending elementary schools was made compulsory.[9] As a consequence of various education reforms, literacy rates steadily rose. One way to determine the literacy rate is to count those who could sign their names on their marriage registers. Using this method, it was established that literacy in England and Wales reached roughly 90% by the late nineteenth century. Statistics of literacy from this era are likely underestimates because they were based on the number of people who could write, but throughout most of the nineteenth century, people were typically taught to read before they were taught to write. Literacy rates were higher in urban than rural areas. Rising literacy and urbanization provided an expanding market for printed materials, from cheap books to magazines.[10] A key component of the curriculum at Cambridge since the mid-eighteenth century had been the "Mathematical Tripos," providing not just intensive training for mathematicians and scientists but also general education for future civil servants, colonial administrators, lawyers, and clergymen.[50] Named after the three-legged stool students had been sitting on since the fifteenth century, the Tripos included extremely challenging and highly prestigious exams whose most successful candidate for a given year was called the "Senior Wrangler." Below the Senior and Second Wranglers were the Optimes.[80] The exams concerned not just pure but also "mixed" or applied mathematics. Starting from the 1830s, under the influence of Master of Trinity College William Whewell, the "mixed" portion included only branches of applied mathematics deemed stable, such as mechanics and optics, rather those amenable to mathematical analysis but remained unfinished at the time, such as electricity and magnetism. Following recommendations from the Royal Commission of 1850–51, science education at Oxford and Cambridge underwent significant reforms. In 1851, a new Tripos was introduced, providing a broader and less mathematical program in "natural philosophy," or what science was still commonly called back then.[50] By 1890, the Tripos had evolved into a rigorous test of not just mathematical ingenuity but also mental stamina. Topics ranged widely, from number theory to mathematical physics. Candidates needed to have a firm grasp of the works of Sir Isaac Newton and Euclid of Alexandria, trigonometric identities, conic sections, compounded interest, eclipses and more. They usually sat for five and a half hours each day for eight days for a total of a dozen papers featuring increasingly difficult questions.[80] In general, while the first colleges for women opened in the 1870s, it was not until the 1890s that they started to be permitted to study side-by-side with men and to sit for the same exams as men.[80] The first college for women at the University of Cambridge, Girton, opened in 1873. However, women were only allowed to take exams; it was not until 1948 that they were able to receive degrees.[50] They were marked and scored separately, however, and the results of female candidates were enunciated in comparison to men's, for instance, "between the 20th and 21st Optimes." Exam results from the 1860s onward suggested that women broadly did as well as men, though with the notable exception of mathematics. At that time, it was commonly thought that women were emotional creatures lacking the mental faculty to master mathematics. Thus it was big news when Philippa Fawcett was ranked "above the Senior Wranger" in 1890, scoring thirteen percent higher than the top male that year, Geoffrey Thomas Bennett. She was the first, and last, woman to score the highest on the Tripos.[80] While women were not welcomed in the world of medicine, this was not the case in nursing. In fact, nursing became even more respected after the brilliant exploits of Florence Nightingale during the Crimean War. Her nursing school at St Thomas' Hospital became a model for others. Consequently, for many middle-class young women, the prospects of being a nurse, one of the few career options open to them at the time, became much more appealing.[4] Reading culture See also: Victorian literature and List of 19th-century British children's literature titles Cover illustration for Lewis Carroll's The Nursery "Alice" by E. Gertrude Thomson published by Macmillan in 1890 in London The 1887 edition of Beeton's Christmas Annual contains Arthur Conan Doyle's A Study in Scarlet, the first appearance of the fictional detective Sherlock Holmes. Page 157 from Somerville's Mechanism discussing Kepler's laws During the nineteenth century, the publishing industry found itself catching up with the momentous changes to society brought about by the Industrial Revolution. It benefited from the introduction of electrical power, rail transport, and telegraphy.[10] Sales of books and periodicals were fuelled by the seemingly insatiable demand for knowledge, self-improvement, and entertainment from the rapidly growing middle-class.[11] Initially, while book prices were too high for the average reader, they were sufficient to cover the costs of the publisher and to pay reasonable amounts to the authors. But as free-to-use libraries sprang up all around the country, people started flocking to them. Authors and publishers looked for ways to cut prices and increase sales. Serialisation in periodicals, especially literary magazines though not newspapers, became popular. Quality illustrations were commissioned from the reputable artists of the time as an incentive to purchase. Income from writing increased for some writers, and many became professional novelists.[81] In the early 1800s, the market for children's literature was dominated by religious groups. Stories from this period often included strong a moral message.[9] But it showed signs of growth and some writers decided to seize the opportunity.[82] By the middle of the century, commercial publishers came to recognise the great potential of this market and signed deals with gifted authors to provide a plethora of reading materials to children. They also took advantage of innovations such as those that enable the printing of coloured illustrations. As the middle class boomed, people had more money to spend on entertaining their children. Moral messaging was de-emphasised in favor of fun. Classics like the tales of the Brothers Grimm and the fairy tales of Hans Christian Andersen made their way to the printing press. But it was Alice's Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll that proved to be the most popular, alongside the works of William Makepeace Thackeray, Charles Kingsley, Jean Ingelow, and George Macdonald. By the 1880s, juvenile fiction packed with action and adventure became commonplace.[9] Fantasy did not have a monopoly on the market for children's literature, however. Tom Brown's School Days (1857) by Thomas Hughes was a noteworthy example of realistic writing and school stories while Black Beauty (1877) by Anna Sewell was the start of the blooming of animal tales. As a matter of fact, the market grew so large that most of the top writers of the era wrote at least one book for children. Children's magazines and poetry for children (especially the nonsensical variety) blossomed during the Victorian age.[83] In prose, the novel rose from a position of relative neglect during the 1830s to become the leading literary genre by the end of the era.[17][84] In the 1830s and 1840s, the social novel (also "Condition-of-England novels") responded to the social, political and economic upheaval associated with industrialisation.[81] Though it remained influential throughout the period, there was a notable resurgence of Gothic fiction in the fin de siècle, such as in Robert Louis Stevenson's novella Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde (1886) and Oscar Wilde's The Picture of Dorian Gray (1891). Following the bicentenary of William Shakespeare in 1769, the popularity of his works steadily grew, reaching a peak in the nineteenth century. Charles and Mary Lamb appeared to have anticipated this with their Tales from Shakespeare (1807). Intended as an introduction for apprentice readers to the works of the great playwright, the book became one of the best-selling titles in literature of the century,[85] being republished multiple times.[82] As early as 1830, astronomer John Herschel had already recognised the need for the genre of popular science. In a letter to philosopher William Whewell, he wrote that the general public needed "digests of what is actually known in each particular branch of science... to give a connected view of what has been done, and what remains to be accomplished."[86] Indeed, as the British population became not just increasingly literate but also well-educated, there was growing demand for science titles. Mary Somerville became an early and highly successful science writer of the nineteenth century. Her On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences (1834), intended for the mass audience, sold quite well.[87][88] Arguably one of the first books in the genre of popular science, it contained few diagrams and very little mathematics. It had ten editions and was translated to multiple languages. As its name suggests, it offered readers a broad overview of the physical sciences at a time when these studies were becoming increasingly distinct and specialised. It was the most popular science title from the publisher John Murray until Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species (1859).[86] Although Somerville's rendition of Pierre-Simon de Laplace's masterpiece Mécanique Céleste, The Mechanism of the Heavens (1831), was intended to inform the masses of the latest advances in Newtonian mechanics and gravitation, it was also used as a textbook for students at the University of Cambridge till the 1880s.[87][89] The abolition of the newspaper stamp duty in 1855 and the advertising tax in 1858 paved the way for not only cheaper magazines but also those catering to a variety of interests. During the final three decades of the Victorian era, women's newspapers and magazines flourished and increasingly covered topics other than domestic issues, reflecting the trend among women at the time.[11] The professional police force dedicated to not just the prevention but also the investigation of crime took shape during the mid-nineteenth century. This development inspired Charles Dickens to write the crime novel Bleak House (1852–3), creating the first fictional detective, Mr. Bucket, based on a real-life character by the name of Charles Field.[90] But it was Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes who proved to be the most popular fictional detective of the Victorian age, and indeed, of all times.[91] By the 1860s, there was strong demand for adventure, detective, sensational, and science-fiction novels.[81] Indeed, the late nineteenth century saw a tremendous amount of technological progress, which inspired authors to write in the genre of science fiction. Herbert George Wells' The Time Machine (1895) was a commercial success; in it, he introduced the notion of time travel. In some instances, science fiction inspired new technology and scientific research. Explorer Ernest Shackleton acknowledged that the novel Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea by Jules Vernes was an inspiration.[92] A 2015 study investigated the frequency at which difficult vocabulary from the WORDSUM test were employed in about 5.9 million English-language texts published between 1850 and 2005. The researchers found that the more difficult of words were in declining usage and a negative correlation between the use of such words and completed fertility. On the other hand, simpler words entered increasingly common use, an effect of rising literacy.[93][94] In another study, from 2017, researchers employed Google's Ngram Viewer, an enormous archive of scanned books, periodicals, and other printed materials dating back to the sixteenth century. They found that the use of difficult vocabulary increased substantially between the mid-1700s and mid-1800s before declining steadily till the present day.[94] Entertainment Pablo Fanque performing at Astley's Amphitheatre, 1847 Llandudno, 1856. With the arrival of the railway network, seaside towns became popular destinations for Victorian holiday makers The Epsom Derby; painting by James Pollard, c. 1840 Popular forms of entertainment varied by social class. Victorian Britain, like the periods before it, was interested in literature, theatre and the arts (see Aesthetic movement and Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood), and music, drama, and opera were widely attended. Michael Balfe was the most popular British grand opera composer of the period, while the most popular musical theatre was a series of fourteen comic operas by Gilbert and Sullivan, although there was also musical burlesque and the beginning of Edwardian musical comedy in the 1890s. Drama ranged from low comedy to Shakespeare (see Henry Irving). Melodrama—literally 'musical drama'—was introduced in Revolutionary France and reached Great Britain from there during the Victorian era. It was a particularly widespread and influential theatrical genre thanks to its appeal to the working-class and artisans. However, its popularity decline in the late nineteenth century. Even so, it continued to influence the novels of the era.[95] Gentlemen went to dining clubs, like the Beefsteak Club or the Savage Club. Gambling at cards in establishments popularly called casinos was wildly popular during the period: so much so that evangelical and reform movements specifically targeted such establishments in their efforts to stop gambling, drinking, and prostitution.[96] Brass bands and 'The Bandstand' became popular in the Victorian era. The bandstand was a simple construction that not only created an ornamental focal point but also served acoustic requirements whilst providing shelter from the changeable British weather. It was common to hear the sound of a brass band whilst strolling through parklands. At this time musical recording was still very much a novelty.[97] The Victorian era marked the golden age of the British circus.[98] Astley's Amphitheatre in Lambeth, London, featuring equestrian acts in a 42-foot wide circus ring, was the center of the 19th-century circus. The permanent structure sustained three fires but as an institution lasted a full century, with Andrew Ducrow and William Batty managing the theatre in the middle part of the century. William Batty would also build his 14,000-person arena, known commonly as Batty's Hippodrome, in Kensington Gardens, and draw crowds from the Crystal Palace Exhibition. Traveling circuses, like Pablo Fanque's, dominated the British provinces, Scotland, and Ireland (Fanque would enjoy fame again in the 20th century when John Lennon would buy an 1843 poster advertising his circus and adapt the lyrics for The Beatles song, Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite!). Fanque also stands out as a black man who achieved great success and enjoyed great admiration among the British public only a few decades after Britain had abolished slavery.[99] Edinburgh Ale, 1844 by David Octavius Hill and Robert Adamson. Another form of entertainment involved "spectacles" where paranormal events, such as mesmerism, communication with the dead (by way of mediumship or channeling), ghost conjuring and the like, were carried out to the delight of crowds and participants. Such activities were more popular at this time than in other periods of recent Western history.[100] Natural history became increasingly an "amateur" activity. Particularly in Britain and the United States, this grew into specialist hobbies such as the study of birds, butterflies, seashells (malacology/conchology), beetles and wildflowers. Amateur collectors and natural history entrepreneurs played an important role in building the large natural history collections of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.[101][102] Middle-class Victorians used the train services to visit the seaside, helped by the Bank Holiday Act of 1871, which created many fixed holidays. Large numbers traveling to quiet fishing villages such as Worthing, Morecambe and Scarborough began turning them into major tourist centers, and people like Thomas Cook saw tourism and even overseas travel as viable businesses.[103] Sports Main article: Sport in the United Kingdom § History Rugby football match between England and Scotland, c. 1880 The Victorian era saw the introduction and development of many modern sports.[104] Often originating in the public schools, they exemplified new ideals of manliness.[105] Cricket,[106] cycling, croquet, horse-riding, and many water activities are examples of some of the popular sports in the Victorian era.[107] The modern game of tennis originated in Birmingham, England, between 1859 and 1865. The world's oldest tennis tournament, the Wimbledon championships, was first played in London in 1877. Britain was an active competitor in all the Olympic Games starting in 1896. High culture See also: Victorian architecture, Victorian decorative arts, Victorian fashion, Victorian literature, and Victorian painting A picture of Leadenhall Street, London, c. 1837 The Poultry Cross, Salisbury, painted by Louise Rayner, c. 1870 Gothic Revival architecture became increasingly significant during the period, leading to the Battle of the Styles between Gothic and Classical ideals. Charles Barry's architecture for the new Palace of Westminster, which had been badly damaged in an 1834 fire, was built in the medieval style of Westminster Hall, the surviving part of the building. It constructed a narrative of cultural continuity, set in opposition to the violent disjunctions of Revolutionary France, a comparison common to the period, as expressed in Thomas Carlyle's The French Revolution: A History and Charles Dickens' Great Expectations and A Tale of Two Cities. Gothic was also supported by critic John Ruskin, who argued that it epitomised communal and inclusive social values, as opposed to Classicism, which he considered to epitomise mechanical standardisation.[citation needed] The middle of the 19th century saw The Great Exhibition of 1851, the first World's Fair, which showcased the greatest innovations of the century. At its centre was the Crystal Palace, a modular glass and iron structure – the first of its kind. It was condemned by Ruskin as the very model of mechanical dehumanisation in design but later came to be presented as the prototype of Modern architecture. The emergence of photography, showcased at the Great Exhibition, resulted in significant changes in Victorian art with Queen Victoria being the first British monarch to be photographed. In general, various styles of painting were popular during the Victorian period, Classicism, Neoclassicism, Romanticism, Impressionism, and Post-impressionism. In 1848, Dante Rossetti and William Holman Hunt created the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood whose stated aim was to produce paintings of photographic quality, taking inspiration from a variety of sources, from the works of William Shakespeare to Mother Nature herself.[108] The growing popularity of romantic love spilled over into literature and fine arts.[76] Gallery of selected Victorian paintings The Hireling Shepherd (1851) by William Holman Hunt Monarch of the Glen (1851) by Edwin Landseer Prosperpine (1874) by Dante Rossetti. Miranda (1875) by John William Waterhouse Biondina (1879) by Frederick Leighton A Hopeless Dawn (1888) by Frank Bramley. Titania Sleeping in the Moonlight Protected by Her Fairies by John Simmons, inspired by Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream. God Speed! (1900) by Edmund Leighton A wounded British officer reading The Times's report of the end of the Crimean War Journalism Main article: History of journalism in the United Kingdom In 1817, Thomas Barnes became general editor of The Times; he was a political radical, a sharp critic of parliamentary hypocrisy and a champion of freedom of the press.[109] Under Barnes and his successor in 1841, John Thadeus Delane, the influence of The Times rose to great heights, especially in politics and in the financial district (the City of London). It spoke of reform.[110] The Times originated the practice of sending war correspondents to cover particular conflicts. W. H. Russell wrote immensely influential dispatches on the Crimean War of 1853–1856; for the first time, the public could read about the reality of warfare. Russell wrote one dispatch that highlighted the surgeons' "inhumane barbarity" and the lack of ambulance care for wounded troops. Shocked and outraged, the public reacted in a backlash that led to major reforms especially in the provision of nursing, led by Florence Nightingale.[111] The Manchester Guardian was founded in Manchester in 1821 by a group of non-conformist businessmen. Its most famous editor, Charles Prestwich Scott, made the Guardian into a world-famous newspaper in the 1890s. The Daily Telegraph in 1856 became the first penny newspaper in London. It was funded by advertising revenue based on a large audience. Leisure Opening of the Royal Albert Hall in 1871 Ramsgate beach in 1899 At mid-century, the idea of a large amphitheatre for musical performances and conferences for the learned captured the imagination of not just Henry Cole, Secretary of the Science and Art Department, but also Prince Albert. By 1857, Cole planned to build one with "due regard to the principles of sound." After the Prince's death in 1861, this project had the additional goal of commemorating him. The Royal Albert Hall opened on 29 March 1871. Lieutenant-Colonel Henry Scott, R.E., who managed the construction, estimated there was enough space for 7,165 people plus 1,200 performers; the theoretical limit was 10,000. As desired by the Prince, it did not rely on public funds but was purely privately funded.[112] Opportunities for leisure activities increased dramatically as real wages continued to grow and hours of work continued to decline. In urban areas the nine-hour workday became increasingly the norm; the Factory Act 1874 limited the working week to 56.5 hours, encouraging the movement towards an eventual eight-hour workday. Furthermore, a system of routine annual holidays came into play, starting with white-collar workers and moving into the working-class.[113][114] Some 200 seaside resorts emerged thanks to cheap hotels and inexpensive railway fares, widespread bank holidays and the fading of many religious prohibitions against secular activities on Sundays.[115] By the late Victorian era the leisure industry had emerged in all cities. It provided scheduled entertainment of suitable length at convenient locales at inexpensive prices. These included sporting events, music halls, and popular theatre. By 1880 football was no longer the preserve of the social elite, as it attracted large working-class audiences. Average attendance was 5000 in 1905, rising to 23,000 in 1913. That amounted to 6 million paying customers with a weekly turnover of £400,000. Sports by 1900 generated some three percent of the total gross national product. Professional sports were the norm, although some new activities reached an upscale amateur audience, such as lawn tennis and golf. Women were now allowed in some sports, such as archery, tennis, badminton and gymnastics.[116] Demographics Demographic transition 1880 London magazine ad links prosperity to temperance. Britain had the lead in rapid economic and population growth. At the time, Thomas Malthus believed this lack of growth outside Britain was due the carrying capacity of their local environments. That is, the tendency of a population to expand geometrically while resources grew more slowly, reaching a crisis (such as famine, war, or epidemic) which would reduce the population to a more sustainable size.[117] Great Britain escaped the 'Malthusian trap' because the scientific and technological breakthroughs of the Industrial Revolution dramatically improved living standards, reducing mortality and increasing longevity.[5] The Victorian era was a time of unprecedented population growth in Britain. The population rose from 13.9 million in 1831 to 32.5 million in 1901. Two major contributory factors were fertility rates and mortality rates. Britain was the first country to undergo the demographic transition and the Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions. Economist Gary Becker argued that at first, falling fertility is due to urbanisation and lower infant mortality rates, which diminished the benefits and increased the costs of raising children. In other words, it became more economically sensible to invest more in fewer children. This is known as the first demographic transition. This trend continued till around 1950. (The second demographic transition occurred due to the significant cultural shifts of the 1960s, leading to the decline in the desire for children.)[118] Fertility rates and mortality rates The demographic transition is when a population shifts from being one of high child mortality rates and high fertility rates to one that is low in both. Western nations completed this transition by the early 1900s. It occurred in two stages. Initially, child mortality rates dropped significantly due to improved healthcare and sanitation and better nutrition, yet fertility rates remained high, leading to a population boom. Gradually, fertility rates fell as people became more affluent and had better access to contraception. By 1900, the infant mortality rate in England was 10%, down from about half in the Middle Ages.[2] There was no catastrophic epidemic or famine in England or Scotland in the nineteenth century—it was the first century in which a major epidemic did not occur throughout the whole country, and deaths per 1000 of population per year in England and Wales fell from 21.9 from 1848 to 1854 to 17 in 1901 (cf, for instance, 5.4 in 1971).[119] Social class had a significant effect on mortality rates: the upper classes had a lower rate of premature death early in the nineteenth century than poorer classes did.[120] In the Victorian era, fertility rates increased in every decade until 1901, when the rates started evening out.[121] There were several reasons for this. One is biological: with improving living standards, a higher proportion of women were biologically able to have children. Another possible explanation is social. In the 19th century, the marriage rate increased, and people were getting married at a very young age until the end of the century, when the average age of marriage started to increase again slowly. The reasons why people got married younger and more frequently are uncertain. One theory is that greater prosperity allowed people to finance marriage and new households earlier than previously possible. With more births within marriage, it seems inevitable that marriage rates and birth rates would rise together. Birth rates were originally measured by the 'crude birth rate' – births per year divided by total population. This is indeed a crude measure, as key groups and their fertility rates are not clear. It is likely to be affected mainly by changes in the age distribution of the population. The Net Reproduction Rate was then introduced as an alternative measure: it measures the average fertility rate of women of child-bearing ages. High rates of birth also occurred because of a lack of birth control. Mainly because women lacked knowledge of birth control methods and the practice was seen as unrespectable.[122] The evening out of fertility rates at the beginning of the 20th century was mainly the result of a few big changes: availability of forms of birth control, and changes in people's attitude towards sex.[123] In the olden days, people typically had had as many children as they could afford in order to ensure at least a few of them would survive to adulthood and have children of their own due to high child mortality rates. Moreover, it was the poor who had had an incentive to curb their fertility whereas the rich had lacked such a need due to greater wealth and lower child mortality rates. This changed due to the Industrial Revolution. Standards of living improved and mortality rates fell. People no longer needed to have as many children as before to ensure the propagation of their genes. The link between poverty and child mortality weakened. In addition, societal attitude towards contraception warmed, leading to the negative correlation between intelligence and fertility.[2][77] Factors linked to general intelligence, such as socioeconomic status and educational attainment, were also found to be negatively correlated with fertility starting from the nineteenth century.[124] Environmental and health standards rose throughout the Victorian era. Improvements in nutrition may also have played a role, though its importance is still debated.[119] Economy, industry, and trade Further information: Industrial revolution and Second industrial revolution Progress The most obvious and the most distinctive feature of the History of Civilisation, during the last fifty years [1837–87], is the wonderful increase of industrial production by the application of machinery, the improvement of old technical processes and the invention of new ones, accompanied by an even more remarkable development of old and new means of locomotion and intercommunication. —Thomas Henry Huxley[125] Life in the late 1700s had been little different from life in the late Middle Ages. But the nineteenth century saw dramatic technological development. Someone alive in 1804 would know about the electric telegraph, the steam ship, the circular saw, the bicycle, and the steam-powered locomotive. If this person lived to 1870, he or she would have heard of the invention of the electric light bulb, the typewriter, the calculator, the rubber tyre, the washing machine, the internal combustion engine, plastic, and dynamite.[2] Engineering prowess, especially in communication and transportation, made Great Britain the leading industrial powerhouse and trading nation of the world at that time.[3] Schematic diagram of the Kondratiev wave Historians have characterised the mid-Victorian era (1850–1870) as Britain's "Golden Years".[126][127] It was not till the two to three decades following the Second World War that substantial economic growth was seen again. In the long-term view, the mid-Victorian boom was one upswing in the Kondratiev cycle (see figure).[127] There was prosperity, as the national income per person grew by half. Much of the prosperity was due to the increasing industrialisation, especially in textiles and machinery, as well as to the worldwide network of exports that produced profits for British merchants. British entrepreneurs built railways in India and many independent nations. There was peace abroad (apart from the short Crimean War, 1854–56), and social peace at home. Opposition to the new order melted away, says Porter. The Chartist movement peaked as a democratic movement among the working class in 1848; its leaders moved to other pursuits, such as trade unions and cooperative societies. The working class ignored foreign agitators like Karl Marx in their midst, and joined in celebrating the new prosperity. Employers typically were paternalistic and generally recognised the trade unions.[128] Companies provided their employees with welfare services ranging from housing, schools and churches, to libraries, baths, and gymnasia. Middle-class reformers did their best to assist the working classes' aspirations to middle-class norms of "respectability". There was a spirit of libertarianism, says Porter, as people felt they were free. Taxes were very low, and government restrictions were minimal. There were still problem areas, such as occasional riots, especially those motivated by anti-Catholicism. Society was still ruled by the aristocracy and the gentry, who controlled high government offices, both houses of Parliament, the church, and the military. Becoming a rich businessman was not as prestigious as inheriting a title and owning a landed estate. Literature was doing well, but the fine arts languished as the Great Exhibition of 1851 showcased Britain's industrial prowess rather than its sculpture, painting or music. The educational system was mediocre; the main universities (outside Scotland) were likewise mediocre.[129] Historian Llewellyn Woodward has concluded:[130] For leisure or work, for getting or for spending, England was a better country in 1879 than in 1815. The scales were less weighted against the weak, against women and children, and against the poor. There was greater movement, and less of the fatalism of an earlier age. The public conscience was more instructed, and the content of liberty was being widened to include something more than freedom from political constraint ... Yet England in 1871 was by no means an earthly paradise. The housing and conditions of life of the working class in town & country were still a disgrace to an age of plenty. In December 1844, Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers founded what is considered the first cooperative in the world. The founding members were a group of 28, around half of which were weavers, who decided to band together to open a store owned and managed democratically by the members, selling food items they could not otherwise afford. Ten years later, the British co-operative movement had grown to nearly 1,000 co-operatives. The movement also spread across the world, with the first cooperative financial institution founded in 1850 in Germany. From Street Life in London, 1877, by John Thomson and Adolphe Smith. "...the inhabitants of Church Lane were nearly all what I may term “street folks” – living, buying, selling, transacting all their business in the open street. It was a celebrated resort for tramps and costers of every description." A street stall in London during the 1870s Many European companies, such as steam-machine producer J. Kemna, modeled themselves on English industry. Housing Part of Charles Booth's poverty map showing the Old Nichol, a slum in the East End of London. Published 1889 in Life and Labour of the People in London. The red areas are "middle class, well-to-do", light blue areas are "poor, 18s to 21s a week for a moderate family", dark blue areas are "very poor, casual, chronic want", and black areas are the "lowest class...occasional labourers, street sellers, loafers, criminals and semi-criminals". Working class life in Victorian Wetherby, West Yorkshire Girl pulling a coal tub in mine. From official report of the parliamentary commission in the mid-19th century.[131] The very rapid growth in population in the 19th century in the cities included the new industrial and manufacturing cities, as well as service centres such as Edinburgh and London. The critical factor was financing, which was handled by building societies that dealt directly with large contracting firms.[132][133] Private renting from housing landlords was the dominant tenure. P. Kemp says this was usually of advantage to tenants.[134] People moved in so rapidly that there was not enough capital to build adequate housing for everyone, so low income newcomers squeezed into increasingly overcrowded slums. Clean water, sanitation, and public health facilities were inadequate; the death rate was high, especially infant mortality, and tuberculosis among young adults. Cholera from polluted water and typhoid were endemic. Unlike rural areas, there were no famines such as the one which devastated Ireland in the 1840s.[135][136][137] Poverty 19th-century Britain saw a huge population increase accompanied by rapid urbanisation stimulated by the Industrial Revolution. Wage rates improved steadily; real wages (after taking inflation into account) were 65 percent higher in 1901, compared to 1871. Much of the money was saved, as the number of depositors in savings banks rose from 430,000 in 1831, to 5.2 million in 1887, and their deposits from £14 million to over £90 million.[138] People flooded into industrial areas and commercial cities faster than housing could be built, resulting in overcrowding and lagging sanitation facilities such as fresh water and sewage. These problems were magnified in London, where the population grew at record rates. Large houses were turned into flats and tenements, and as landlords failed to maintain these dwellings, slum housing developed. Kellow Chesney described the situation as follows: "Hideous slums, some of them acres wide, some no more than crannies of obscure misery, make up a substantial part of the metropolis... In big, once handsome houses, thirty or more people of all ages may inhabit a single room."[139] Significant changes happened in the British Poor Law system in England and Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. These included a large expansion in workhouses (or poorhouses in Scotland), although with changing populations during the era. Child labour The early Victorian era before the reforms of the 1840s became notorious for the employment of young children in factories and mines and as chimney sweeps.[140][141] Child labour played an important role in the Industrial Revolution from its outset: novelist Charles Dickens, for example, worked at the age of 12 in a blacking factory, with his family in a debtors' prison. Reformers wanted the children in school: in 1840 only about 20 percent of the children in London had any schooling. By 1860 about half of the children between 5 and 15 were in school (including Sunday school).[142] The children of the poor were expected to help towards the family budget, often working long hours in dangerous jobs for low wages.[139] Agile boys were employed by the chimney sweeps; small children were employed to scramble under machinery to retrieve cotton bobbins; and children were also employed to work in coal mines, crawling through tunnels too narrow and low for adults. Children also worked as errand boys, crossing sweepers, shoe blacks, or sold matches, flowers, and other cheap goods.[139] Some children undertook work as apprentices to respectable trades, such as building, or as domestic servants (there were over 120,000 domestic servants in London in the mid 19th century). Working hours were long: builders might work 64 hours a week in summer and 52 in winter, while domestic servants were theoretically on duty 80-hours a week. Mother bides at home, she is troubled with bad breath, and is sair weak in her body from early labour. I am wrought with sister and brother, it is very sore work; cannot say how many rakes or journeys I make from pit's bottom to wall face and back, thinks about 30 or 25 on the average; the distance varies from 100 to 250 fathom. I carry about 1 cwt. and a quarter on my back; have to stoop much and creep through water, which is frequently up to the calves of my legs. — Isabella Read, 12 years old, coal-bearer, testimony gathered by Ashley's Mines Commission 1842[131] As early as 1802 and 1819, Factory Acts were passed to limit the working hours of children in factories and cotton mills to 12 hours per day. These acts were largely ineffective and after radical agitation, by for example the "Short Time Committees" in 1831, a Royal Commission recommended in 1833 that children aged 11–18 should work a maximum of 12 hours per day, children aged 9–11 a maximum of eight hours, and children under the age of nine should no longer be permitted to work. This act, however, only applied to the textile industry, and further agitation led to another act in 1847 limiting both adults and children to 10-hour working days.[142] Mathematics, science, technology, and engineering Professionalisation of science Painting of the Royal Institution by Thomas Hosmer Shepherd circa 1838. Founded in 1799 with the stated purpose of "diffusing the Knowledge, and facilitating the general Introduction, of Useful Mechanical Inventions and Improvements; and for teaching, by Courses of Philosophical Lectures and Experiments, the application of Science to the common Purposes of Life," the Royal Institution was a proper scientific institution with laboratories, a lecture hall, libraries, and offices. In its first years, the Institution was dedicated to the improvement of agriculture using chemistry, prompted by trade restrictions with Europe. Such practical concerns continued through the next two centuries. However, it soon became apparent that additional funding was required in order for the Institution to continue. Some well-known experts were hired as lecturers and researchers. The most successful of them all was Sir Humphry Davy, whose lectures concerned a myriad of topics and were so popular that the original practical purpose of the Institution faded away. It became increasingly dominated by research in basic science.[143] The professionalisation of science began in the aftermath of the French Revolution and soon spread to other parts of the Continent, including the German lands. It was slow to reach Britain, however. Master of Trinity College William Whewell coined the term scientist in 1833 to describe the new professional breed specialists and experts studying what was still commonly known as natural philosophy.[50] In 1840, Whewell wrote, "We need very much a name to describe a cultivator of science in general. I should incline to call him a Scientist." The new term signaled the recognition of the importance of empiricism and inductive reasoning.[144] But this term was slow to catch on. As biologist Thomas Huxley indicated in 1852, the prospect of earning a decent living as a scientist remained remote despite the prestige of the occupation. It was possible for a scientist to "earn praise but not pudding," he wrote. Since its birth, the Royal Society of London had been a club of gentlemanly amateurs, though some of whom were the very best in their fields, people like Charles Darwin and James Prescott Joule. But the Society reformed itself in the 1830s and 1840s. By 1847, it only admitted the new breed of professionals.[50] The Victorians were impressed by science and progress and felt that they could improve society in the same way as they were improving technology. Britain was the leading world centre for advanced engineering and technology. Its engineering firms were in worldwide demand for designing and constructing railways.[145][146] Ease of discovery and rate of progress A necessary part of understanding scientific progress is the ease of scientific discovery. In many cases, from planetary science to mammalian biology, the ease of discovery since the 1700s and 1800s can be fitted to an exponentially decaying curve. But the rate of progress is also dependent on other factors, such as the number of researchers, the level of funding, and advances in technology. Thus the number of new species of mammals discovered between the late 1700s and late 1800s followed grew exponentially before leveling off in the 1900s; the general shape is known as the logistic curve. In other cases, a branch of study reached the point of saturation. For instance, the last major internal human organ, the paraythyroid gland, was discovered in 1880 by Ivar Viktor Sandström.[147] This does not mean that basic science was coming an end. Despite the despondency of many Victorian-era scientists, who thought that all that remained was measuring quantities to the next decimal place and that new discoveries would not change the contemporary scientific paradigm, as the nineteenth century became the twentieth, science witnessed truly revolutionary discoveries, such as radioactivity, and basic science continued its advance, though a number of twentieth-century scientists shared the same pessimism as their late-Victorian counterparts.[148] Mathematics and statistics Nightingale's mortality charts from the Crimean War In the field of statistics, the nineteenth century saw significant innovations in data visualisation. William Playfair, who created charts of all sorts, justified it thus, "a man who has carefully investigated a printed table, finds, when done, that he has only a very faint and partial idea of what he has read; and that like a figure imprinted on sand, is soon totally erased and defaced." For example, in a chart showing the relationship between population and government revenue of some European nations, he used the areas of circles to represent the geographical sizes of those nations. In the same graph he used the slopes of lines to indicate the tax burden of a given population. While serving as nurse during the Crimean War, Florence Nightingale drew the first pie charts representing the monthly fatality rates of the conflict, distinguishing deaths due to battle wounds (innermost section), those due to infectious disease (outer section), and to other causes (middle section). (See figure.) Her charts clearly showed that most deaths resulted from disease, which led the general public to demand improved sanitation at field hospitals. Although bar charts representing frequencies were first used by the Frenchman A. M. Guerry in 1833, it was the statistician Karl Pearson who gave them the name histograms. Pearson used them in an 1895 article mathematically analyzing biological evolution. One such histogram showed that buttercups with large numbers of petals were rarer.[149] Normal distributions, expressible in the form y = A e − k x 2 {\displaystyle y=Ae^{-kx^{2}}} , arose in various works on probability and the theory of errors. Belgian sociologist and statistician Adolphe Quetelet discovered that its extremely wide applicability in his analysis of vast amounts of statistics of human physical characteristics such as height and other traits such as criminality and alcoholism. Queletet derived the concept of the "average man" from his studies. Sir Francis Galton employed Quetelet's ideas in his research on mathematical biology. In his experiments with sweet peas in the 1870s, Galton discovered that the spread of the distributions of a particular trait did not change over the generations. He invented what he called the "quincunx" to demonstrate why mixtures of normal distributions were normal. Galton noticed that the means of a particular trait in the offspring generation differed from those of the parent generation, a phenomenon now known as regression to the mean. He found that the slopes of the regression lines of two given variables were the same if the two data sets were scaled by units of probable error and introduced the notion of the correlation coefficient, but noted that correlation does not imply causation.[149] During the late nineteenth century, British statisticians introduced a number of methods to relate and draw conclusions from statistical quantities. Francis Edgeworth developed a test for statistical significance that estimated the "fluctuations"—twice the variance in modern language—from two given means. By modern standards, however, he was extremely conservative when it comes to drawing conclusions about the significance of an observation. For Edgeworth, an observation was significant if it was at the level of 0.005, which is much stricter than the requirement of 0.05 to 0.01 commonly used today. Pearson defined the standard deviation and introduced the χ 2 {\displaystyle \chi ^{2}} -statistic (chi-squared). Pearson's student, George Udney Yule, demonstrated that one could compute the regression equation of a given data set using the method of least squares.[149] In 1828, miller and autodidactic mathematician George Green published An Essay on the Application of Mathematical Analysis to the Theories of Electricity and Magnetism, making use of the mathematics of potential theory developed by Continental mathematicians. But this paper fell on deaf ears until William Thomson read it, realised its significance, and had it re-printed in 1850. Green's work became a source of inspiration for the Cambridge school of mathematical physicists, which included Thomson himself, George Gabriel Stokes, and James Clerk Maxwell. Green's Essay contained what became known as Green's theorem, a basic result in vector calculus, Green's identities, and the notion of Green's functions, which appears in the study of differential equations.[150][151] Thomson went on to prove Stokes' theorem, which earned that name after Stokes asked students to prove in the Smith's Prize exam in 1854. Stokes learned it from Thomson in a letter in 1850. Stokes' theorem generalises Green's theorem, which itself is a higher-dimensional version of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.[151][152] Research in physics—in particular elasticity, heat conduction, hydrodynamics, and electromagnetism—motivated the development of vector calculus in the nineteenth century.[150][152] Arthur Cayley is credited with the creation of the theory of matrices—rectangular arrays of numbers—as distinct objects from determinants, studied since the mid-eighteenth century. The term matrix was coined by James Joseph Sylvester, a major contributor to the theory of determinants. It is difficult to overestimate the value of matrix theory to modern theoretical physics. Peter Tait wrote, prophetically, that Cayley was "forging the weapons for future generations of physicists."[153] Theoretical mechanics and optics Unsolved problem in physics: Under what conditions do solutions to the Navier–Stokes equations exist and are smooth? This is a Millennium Prize Problem in mathematics. (more unsolved problems in physics) Early contributions study of elasticity—how objects behave under stresses, pressures, and loads— employed ad hoc hypotheses to solve specific problems. It was during the nineteenth century that scientists began to work out a thorough theory. In 1821, using an analogy with elastic bodies, French professor of mechanics Claude-Louis Navier arrived at the basic equations of motion for viscous fluids. George Gabriel Stokes re-derived them in 1845 using continuum mechanics in a paper titled "On the Theories of Internal Friction of Fluids in Motion." In it, Stokes sought to develop a mathematical description for all known fluids that take into account viscosity, or internal friction. These are now referred to as the Navier–Stokes equations.[154] In 1852, Stokes showed that light polarisation can be described in terms of what are now known as the Stokes parameters. The Stokes parameters for a given wave may be viewed as a vector.[155] Founded in the eighteenth century, the calculus of variations grew into a much favored mathematical tool among physicists. Scientific problems thus became the impetus for the development of the subject. William Rowan Hamilton advanced it in his course to construct a deductive framework for optics; he then applied the same ideas to mechanics.[156] With an appropriate variational principle, one could deduce the equations of motion for a given mechanical or optical system. Soon, scientists worked out the variational principles for the theory of elasticity, electromagnetism, and fluid mechanics (and, in the future, relativity and quantum theory). Whilst variational principles did not necessarily provide a simpler way to solve problems, they were of interest for philosophical or aesthetic reasons, though scientists at this time were not as motivated by religion in their work as their predecessors.[156] Hamilton's work in physics was great achievement; he was able to provide a unifying mathematical framework for wave propagation and particle motion.[157] In light of this description, it becomes clear why the wave and corpuscle theories of light were equally able to account for the phenomena of reflection and refraction.[158] Hamilton's equations also proved useful in calculating planetary orbits.[157] In 1845, John James Waterson submitted to the Royal Society a paper on the kinetic theory of gases that included a statement of the equipartition theorem and a calculation of the ratio of the specific heats of gases. Although the paper was read before the Society and its abstract published, Waterson's paper faced antipathy. At this time, the kinetic theory of gases was considered highly speculative as it was based on the then not-accepted atomic hypothesis.[159] But by the mid-1850s, interest was revived. In the 1860s, James Clerk Maxwell published a series of papers on the subject. Unlike those of his predecessors, who were only using averages, Maxwell's papers were explicitly statistical in nature. He proposed that the speeds of molecules in a gas followed a distribution. Although the speeds would cluster around the average, some molecules were moving faster or slower than this average. He showed that this distribution is a function of temperature and mathematically described various properties of gases, such as diffusion and viscosity. He predicted, surprisingly, that the viscosity of a gas is independent of its density. This was verified at once by a series of experiments Maxwell conducted with his wife, Katherine. Experimental verification of the Maxwell distribution was not obtained till 60 years later, however. In the meantime, the Austrian Ludwig Boltzmann developed Maxwell's statistics further and proved, in 1872, using the " H {\displaystyle H} -function," that the Maxwellian distribution is stable and any non-Maxwellian distribution would morph into it.[160] In his Dynamics of Rigid Bodies (1877), Edward John Routh noted the importance of what he called "absent coordinates," also known as cyclic coordinates or ignorable coordinates (following the terminology of E. T. Whittaker). Such coordinates are associated with conserved momenta and as such are useful in problem solving.[161] Routh also devised a new method for solving problems in mechanics. Although Routh's procedure does not add any new insights, it allows for more systematic and convenient analysis, especially in problems with many degrees of freedom and at least some cyclic coordinates.[162][163] In 1899, at the request the British Association for the Advancement of Science from the year before, Edmund Taylor Whittaker submitted his Report on the Progress of Solution to the Problem of Three Bodies. At that time, classical mechanics in general and the three-body problem in particular captured the imagination of many talented mathematicians, whose contributions Whittaker covered in his Report. Whittaker later incorporated the Report into his textbook titled Analytical Dynamics of Particles and Rigid Bodies (first edition 1907). It helped provide the scientific basis for the aerospace industry in the twentieth century. Despite its age, it remains in print in the early twenty-first century.[164] Thermodynamics, heat engines, and refrigerators William Thomson, knighted by Queen Victoria in 1866 and elevated to Lord Kelvin of Largs in 1892, was one of the top physicists of his day. During the 1830s and 1840s, traditional caloric theory of heat began losing favour to "dynamical" alternatives, which posit that heat is a kind of motion. Brewer and amateur scientist James Prescott Joule was one of the proponents of the latter. Joule's intricate experiments—the most successful of which involved heating water with paddle wheels—making full use of his skill in temperature control as a brewer, demonstrated decisively the reality of the "mechanical equivalent of heat." What would later become known as the "conservation of energy" was pursued by many other workers approaching the subject from a variety of backgrounds, from medicine and physiology to physics and engineering. Another notable contributor to this development was the German researcher Hermann von Helmholtz, who gave an essentially Newtonian, that is, mechanical, account. William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin) received the works of Joule and Helmholtz positively, embracing them as providing support for the emerging "science of energy."[159] In the late 1840s to the 1850s, Kelvin, his friend William John Macquorn Rankine, and the German Rudolf Clausius published a steady stream of papers concerning heat engines and an absolute temperature scale. Indeed, the commercial value of new science had already become apparent by this time; some businessmen were quite willing to offer generous financial support for researchers. Rankine spoke confidently of the new science of thermodynamics, a term Kelvin coined in 1854, whose fundamental principles came to be known as the First and Second Laws and whose core concepts were "energy" and "entropy."[50] Kelvin and Peter Guthrie Tait's Treatise on Natural Philosophy (1867) was an attempt to reformulate physics in terms of energy. Here, Kelvin and Tait introduced the phrase kinetic energy (instead of 'actual'), now in standard usage. The phrase potential energy was promoted by Rankine.[50] On the practical side, the food-preserving effect of low temperatures had long been recognised. Natural ice was vigorously traded in the early nineteenth century, but it was inevitably in short supply, especially in Australia. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, there was considerable commercial incentive to develop ever more effective refrigerators thanks to the expansion of agriculture in the Americas, Australia, and New Zealand and rapid urbanization in Western Europe. From the 1830s onward, refrigerators relied on the expansion of compressed air or the evaporation of a volatile liquid; evaporation became the basis of all modern refrigerator designs. Long-distance shipping of perishable foods, such as meat, boomed in the late 1800s.[165] On the theoretical side, new refrigeration techniques were also of great value. From his absolute temperature scale, Lord Kelvin deduced the existence of absolute zero occurring at −273.15°C. Scientists began trying to reach ever lower temperatures and to liquefy every gas they encountered. This paved the way for the development of low-temperature physics and the Third Law of Thermodynamics.[165] Natural history This study of natural history was most powerfully advanced by Charles Darwin and his theory of evolution first published in his book On the Origin of Species in 1859. Research in geology and evolutionary biology naturally led to the question of how old the Earth was. Indeed, between the mid-1700s to the mid-1800s, this was the topic of increasingly sophisticated intellectual discussions. With the advent of thermodynamics, it became clear that the Earth and the Sun must have an old but finite age. Whatever the energy source of the Sun, it must be finite, and since it is constantly dissipating, there must be a day when the Sun runs out of energy. Lord Kelvin wrote in 1852, "...within a finite period of time past the earth must have been, and within a finite period of time to come the earth must again be, unfit for the habitation of man as at present constituted, unless operations have been, or are to be performed, which are impossible under the laws to which the known operations going on are subject." In the 1860s, Kelvin employed a mathematical model by von Helmholtz suggesting that the energy of the Sun is released via gravitational collapse to calculate the age of the Sun to be between 50 and 500 million years. He reached comparable figures for the Earth. The missing ingredient here was radioactivity, which was not known to science till the end of the nineteenth century.[50] Electricity, magnetism, and electrification Michael Faraday delivering a Christmas Lecture at the Royal Institution After the Dane Hans Christian Orsted demonstrated that it was possible to deflect a magnetic needle by closing or opening an electric circuit nearby, a deluge of papers attempting explain the phenomenon was published. Michael Faraday set himself to the task of clarifying the nature of electricity and magnetism by experiments. In doing so, he devised what could be described as the first electric motor (though it does not resemble a modern one), a transformer (now used to step up the voltage and step down the current or vice versa), and a dynamo (which contains the basics of all electric turbine generators).[166] The practical value of Faraday's research on electricity and magnetism was nothing short of revolutionary. A dynamo converts mechanical energy into an electrical current whilst a motor does the reverse. The world's first power plants entered service in 1883, and by the following year, people realized the possibility of using electricity to power a variety of household appliances. Inventors and engineers soon raced to develop such items, starting with affordable and durable incandescent light bulbs, perhaps the most important of the early applications of electricity.[166] As the foremost expert on electricity and magnetism at the time, Lord Kelvin oversaw the laying of the trans-Atlantic telegraphic cable, which became successful in 1866.[50] Drawing on the work of his predecessors, especially the experimental research of Michael Faraday, the analogy with heat flow by Lord Kelvin, and the mathematical analysis of George Green, James Clerk Maxwell synthesized all that was known about electricity and magnetism into a single mathematical framework, Maxwell's equations.[167] Maxwell used his equations to predict the existence of electromagnetic waves, which travel at the speed of light. In other words, light is but one kind of electromagnetic wave. Maxwell's theory predicted there ought to be other types, with different frequencies. After some ingenious experiments, Maxwell's prediction was confirmed by German physicist Heinrich Hertz. In the process, Hertz generated and detected what are now called radio waves and built crude radio antennas and the predecessors of satellite dishes.[168] Dutch physicist Hendrik Lorentz derived, using suitable boundary conditions, Fresnel's equations for the reflection and transmission of light in different media from Maxwell's equations. He also showed that Maxwell's theory succeeded in illuminating the phenomenon of light dispersion where other models failed. John William Strutt (Lord Rayleigh) and the American Josiah Willard Gibbs then proved that the optical equations derived from Maxwell's theory are the only self-consistent description of the reflection, refraction, and dispersion of light consistent with experimental results. Optics thus found a new foundation in electromagnetism.[167] But it was Oliver Heaviside, an enthusiastic supporter of Maxwell's electromagnetic theory, who deserves most of the credit for shaping how people understood and applied Maxwell's work for decades to come.[169] Maxwell originally wrote down a grand total of 20 equations for the electromagnetic field, which he later reduced to eight. Heaviside rewrote them in the form commonly used today, just four expressions. In addition, Heaviside was responsible for considerable progress in electrical telegraphy, telephony, and the study of the propagation of electromagnetic waves. Independent of Gibbs, Heaviside assembled a set of mathematical tools known as vector calculus to replace the quaternions, which were in vogue at the time but which Heaviside dismissed as "antiphysical and unnatural."[169] Faraday also investigated how electrical currents affected chemical solutions. His experiments led him to the two laws of electrochemistry. Together with Whewell, Faraday introduced the basic vocabulary for the subject, the words electrode, anode, cathode, electrolysis, electrolyte, ion, anion, and cation. They remain in standard usage. But Faraday's work was of value to more then just chemists. In his Faraday Memorial Lecture in 1881, the German Hermann von Helmholtz asserted that Faraday's laws of electrochemistry hinted at the atomic structure of matter. If the chemical elements were distinguishable from one another by simple ratios of mass, and if the same amounts of electricity deposited amounts of these elements upon the poles in ratios, then electricity must also come in as discrete units, later named electrons.[166] In the late nineteenth century, the nature of the energy emitted by the discharge between high-voltage electrodes inside an evacuated tube—cathode rays—attracted the attention of many physicists. While the Germans thought cathode rays were waves, the British and the French believed they were particles. Working at the Cavendish Laboratory, established by Maxwell, J. J. Thompson directed a dedicate experiment demonstrating that cathode rays were in fact negatively charged particles, now called electrons. The experiment enabled Thompson to calculate the ratio between the magnitude of the charge and the mass of the particle ( q / m {\displaystyle q/m} ). In addition, because the ratio was the same regardless of the metal used, Thompson concluded that electrons must be a constituent of all atoms. Although the atoms of each chemical elements have different numbers of electrons, all electrons are identical.[170] Computer science and logic Inspired by the explorations in abstract algebra of George Peacock and Augustus de Morgan, George Boole published a book titled An Investigation of the Laws of Thought (1854), in which he brought the study of logic from philosophy and metaphysics to mathematics. His stated goal was to "investigate the fundamental laws of those operations of the mind by which reasoning is performed; to give expression to them in the symbolical language of a Calculus, and upon this foundation to establish the science of logical and construct its methods." Although ignored at first, Boolean algebra, as it is now known, became central to the design of circuits and computers in the following century.[171] The desire to construct calculating machines is not new. In fact, it can be traced all the way back to the Hellenistic Civilization. While people have devised such machines over the centuries, mathematicians continued to perform calculations by hand, as machines offered little advantage in speed. For complicated calculations, they employed tables, especially of logarithmic and trigonometric functions, which were computed by hand. But right in the middle of the Industrial Revolution in England, Charles Babbage thought of using the all-important steam engine to power a mechanical computer, the Difference Engine. Unfortunately, whilst Babbage managed to secure government funds for the construction of the machine, the government subsequently lost and interest and Babbage faced considerable troubles developing the necessary machine components. He abandoned the project to pursue a new one, his Analytical Engine. By 1838, he had worked out the basic design. Like a modern computer, it consisted of two basic parts, one that stores the numbers to be processed (the store), and one that performed the operations (the mill). Babbage adopted the concept of punch cards from the French engineer Joseph Jacquard, who had used it to automate the textile industry in France, to control the operations of his Analytical Engine. Unfortunately, he again lacked the financial resources to build it, and so it remained a theoretical construct. But he did leave behind detailed notes and engineering drawings, from which modern experts conclude that the technology of the time was advanced enough to actually build it, even if he never had enough money to do so.[172] In 1840, Babbage went to Turin to give lectures on his work designing the Analytical Engine to Italian scientists. Ada Lovelace translated the notes published by one of the attendees into English and heavily annotated it. She wrote down the very first computer program, in her case one for computing the Bernoulli numbers. She employed what modern computer programmers would recognise as loops and decision steps, and gave a detailed diagram, possibly the first flowchart ever created.[172] She noted that a calculating machine could perform not just arithmetic operations but also symbolic manipulations. On the limitations and implications of the computer, she wrote,[172] ...the Analytical Engine has no pretensions whatever to originate anything. It can do whatever we know how to order it to perform. It can follow analysis; but it has no power of anticipating any analytical relations or truths. Its province is to assist us in making available what we are already acquainted with... But it is likely to exert an indirect and reciprocal influence on science itself in another manner. For, in so distributing and combining the truths and the formulas of analysis, that they may become most easily and rapidly amendable to the mechanical combinations of the engine, the relations and the nature of many subjects in that science are necessarily thrown into new lights, and more profoundly investigated... It is however pretty evident, on general principles, that in devising for mathematical truths a new form in which to record and throw themselves out for actual use, views are likely to be induced, which should again react on the more theoretical phase of the subject. Communication and transportation Steam ships The SS Great Britain is now a museum ship in Bristol. Steam ships were one of the keys to Britain's prosperity in the nineteenth century. This technology, which predates the Victorian era, had a long a rich history. Starting in the late 1700s, people had begun building steam-powered ships with ever increasing size, operational range, and speed, first to cross the English Channel and then the Atlantic and finally to reach places as far away as India and Australia without having to refuel mid-route. International trade and travel boosted demand, and there was intense competition among the shipping companies.[3] Steam ships such as the SS Great Britain and SS Great Western made international travel more common but also advanced trade, so that in Britain it was not just the luxury goods of earlier times that were imported into the country but essentials and raw materials such as corn and cotton from the United States and meat and wool from Australia. At 693 feet long, 120 feet wide and weighing over 18,900 tons, the SS Great Eastern was the largest ship built at the time, capable of transporting 4,000 passengers from Britain to Australia without having to refuel along the way. Even when she was finally broken up for scraps in 1888, she was still the largest ship in the world. Her record was not broken till the Edwardian era with super liners like the Lusitania in 1907, the Titanic in 1912. Yet despite being a remarkable feat of engineering, the Great Eastern became more and more of a white elephant as smaller and faster ships were in greater demand. Nevertheless, she gained a new lease of life when she was chartered to lay telegraphic cables across the Atlantic, and then to India. Her size and range made her ideally suited for the task.[3] The British government had long realised that national prosperity depended on trade. For that reason, it deployed the Royal Navy to protect maritime trade routes and financed the construction of many steam ships.[3] Telegraphy, telephony, the wireless, and photography The Louth-London Royal Mail Travelling by Train from Peterborough East, Northamptonshire (1845) by James Pollard. The British Empire's submarine telegraphic cable network eventually connected all of its major possessions. Although the idea of transmitting messages via electrical signals dated back to the eighteenth century, it was not until the 1820s that advances in the study of electricity and magnetism made that a practical reality. In 1837, William Fothergill Cooke and Charles Wheatstone invented a telegraphic system that used electrical currents to deflect magnetic needles, thus transmitting coded messages. This design soon made its way all across Britain, appearing in every town and post office. By the mid-1800s, a telegraphic cable was laid across the English Channel, the Irish Sea, and the North Sea. In 1866, the SS Great Eastern successfully laid the transatlantic telegraphic cable. A global network boomed towards the end of the century.[3] In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell patented the telephone. Like the telegraph, the telephone enabled rapid personal communication. A little over a decade later, 26,000 telephones were in service in Britain (and 150,000 in America) had telephones. Multiple switchboards were installed in every major town and city.[3] Hertz's experimental work in electromagnetism stimulated interest in the possibility of wireless communication, which did not require long and expensive cables and was faster than even the telegraph. Receiving little support in his native Italy, Guglielmo Marconi moved to England and adapted Hertz's equipment for this purpose in the 1890s. He achieved the first international wireless transmission between England and France in 1900 and by the following year, he succeeded in sending messages in Morse code across the Atlantic. Seeing its value, the shipping industry adopted this technology at once. Radio broadcasting became extremely popular in the twentieth century and remains in common use in the early twenty-first.[168] In fact, the global communications network of the twenty-first century has its roots in the Victorian era.[3] Photography was realised in 1839 by Louis Daguerre in France and William Fox Talbot in Britain. By 1889, hand-held cameras were available.[173] Another important innovation in communications was the Penny Black, the first postage stamp, which standardised postage to a flat price regardless of distance sent. Railways Brunel's Clifton Suspension Bridge in Bristol The railways changed communications and society dramatically Crossing the Lagan Canal by the Ulster Railway near Moira, Northern Ireland, a legacy of the Victorian era. Frith's depiction of Paddington railway station in London. Construction of the Metropolitan Railway (1861) A central development during the Victorian era was the rise of rail transport. The new railways all allowed goods, raw materials, and people to be moved about, rapidly facilitating trade and industry. The financing of railways became an important specialty of London's financiers.[174] They retained an ownership share even while turning over management to locals; that ownership was largely liquidated in 1914–1916 to pay for the World War. Railroads originated in England because industrialists had already discovered the need for inexpensive transportation to haul coal for the new steam engines, to supply parts to specialized factories, and to take products to market. The existing system of canals was inexpensive but was too slow and too limited in geography.[175] The railway system led to a reorganisation of society more generally, with "railway time" being the standard by which clocks were set throughout Britain; the complex railway system setting the standard for technological advances and efficiency. The engineers and businessmen needed to create and finance a railway system were available; they knew how to invent, to build, and to finance a large complex system. The first quarter of the 19th century involved numerous experiments with locomotives and rail technology. By 1825 railways were commercially feasible, as demonstrated by George Stephenson (1791–1848) when he built the Stockton and Darlington. On his first run, his locomotive pulled 38 freight and passenger cars at speeds as high as 12 miles per hour. Stephenson went on to design many more railways and is best known for standardizing designs, such as the "standard gauge" of rail spacing, at 4 feet 8½ inches.[176] Thomas Brassey (1805–70) was even more prominent, operating construction crews that at one point in the 1840s totalled 75,000 men throughout Europe, the British Empire, and Latin America.[177] Brassey took thousands of British engineers and mechanics across the globe to build new lines. They invented and improved thousands of mechanical devices, and developed the science of civil engineering to build roadways, tunnels and bridges.[178] Britain had a superior financial system based in London that funded both the railways in Britain and also in many other parts of the world, including the United States, up until 1914. The boom years were 1836 and 1845–47 when Parliament authorised 8,000 miles of lines at a projected cost of £200 million, which was about the same value as the country's annual Gross Domestic Product (GDP) at that time. A new railway needed a charter, which typically cost over £200,000 (about $1 million) to obtain from Parliament, but opposition could effectively prevent its construction. The canal companies, unable or unwilling to upgrade their facilities to compete with railways, used political power to try to stop them. The railways responded by purchasing about a fourth of the canal system, in part to get the right of way, and in part to buy off critics. Once a charter was obtained, there was little government regulation, as laissez-faire and private ownership had become accepted practices.[179] The different lines typically had exclusive territory, but given the compact size of Britain, this meant that multiple competing lines could provide service between major cities. George Hudson (1800–1871) became the "railway king" of Britain. He merged various independent lines and set up a "Clearing House" in 1842 which rationalized interconnections by establishing uniform paperwork and standard methods for transferring passengers and freight between lines, and rates when one system used freight cars owned by another. By 1850, rates had fallen to a penny a ton mile for coal, at speeds of up to fifty miles an hour. Britain now had had the model for the world in a well integrated, well-engineered system that allowed fast, cheap movement of freight and people, and which could be replicated in other major nations. The railways directly or indirectly employed tens of thousands of engineers, mechanics, repairmen and technicians, as well as statisticians and financial planners. They developed new and more efficient and less expensive techniques. Most important, they created a mindset of how technology could be used in many different forms of business. Railways had a major impact on industrialization. By lowering transportation costs, they reduced costs for all industries moving supplies and finished goods, and they increased demand for the production of all the inputs needed for the railroad system itself. By 1880, there were 13,500 locomotives which each carried 97,800 passengers a year, or 31,500 tons of freight.[180] Member of Parliament and Solicitor to the City of London Charles Pearson campaigned for an underground rail service in London. Parts of the first such railway, the Metropolitan Line, opened to the public in 1863, thereby becoming the first subway line in the world. Trains were originally steam-powered, but in 1890, the first electric trains entered service. That same year, the whole system became officially known as the Tube after the shape of the rail tunnels. (It was not until 1908 that the name London Underground was introduced.)[181] India provides an example of the London-based financiers pouring money and expertise into a very well built system designed for military reasons (after the Mutiny of 1857), and with the hope that it would stimulate industry. The system was overbuilt and much too elaborate and expensive for the small amount of freight traffic it carried. However, it did capture the imagination of the Indians, who saw their railways as the symbol of an industrial modernity—but one that was not realized until a century or so later.[182] Public safety, health and medicine A gas network for lighting and heating was introduced in the 1880s.[183] The model town of Saltaire was founded, along with others, as a planned environment with good sanitation and many civic, educational and recreational facilities, although it lacked a pub, which was regarded as a focus of dissent. Although initially developed in the early years of the 19th century, gas lighting became widespread during the Victorian era in industry, homes, public buildings and the streets. The invention of the incandescent gas mantle in the 1890s greatly improved light output and ensured its survival as late as the 1960s. Hundreds of gasworks were constructed in cities and towns across the country. In 1882, incandescent electric lights were introduced to London streets, although it took many years before they were installed everywhere. Medicine progressed during Queen Victoria's reign. In fact, medicine at the start of the nineteenth century was little different from that in the medieval era whereas by the end of the century, it became a lot closer to twenty-first century practice thanks to advances in science, especially microbiology, paving the way for the germ theory of disease. This was during the height of the Industrial Revolution, and urbanisation occurred at a frantic pace. As the population density of the cities grew, epidemics of cholera, smallpox, tuberculosis, and typhus were commonplace.[4] After studying previous outbreaks, physician John Snow drew the conclusion that cholera was a water-borne disease. When the 1854 broke out, Snow mapped the locations of the cases in Soho, London, and found that they centered around a well he deemed contaminated. He asked that the pump's handle be replaced, after which the epidemic petered out. Snow also discovered that households whose water supplies came from companies that used the Thames downstream, after many sewers had flown into the river, were fourteen times more likely to die from cholera. He thus recommended boiling water before use.[4] Sanitation reforms, prompted by the Public Health Acts 1848 and 1869, were made in the crowded, dirty streets of the existing cities, and soap was the main product shown in the relatively new phenomenon of advertising. A great engineering feat in the Victorian Era was the sewage system in London. It was designed by Joseph Bazalgette in 1858. He proposed to build 82 mi (132 km) of sewer system linked with over 1,000 mi (1,600 km) of street sewers. Many problems were encountered but the sewers were completed. After this, Bazalgette designed the Thames Embankment which housed sewers, water pipes and the London Underground. During the same period, London's water supply network was expanded and improved.[183] John Simon, as chief medical officer of the General Board of Health, secured funds for research into various common infectious diseases at the time, including cholera, diphtheria, smallpox, and typhus. Using his political influence, he garnered support for the Public Health Act of 1875, which focused on preventative measures in housing, the water supply, sewage and drainage, providing Britain with an extensive public health system.[4] Joseph Thomas Clover demonstrating the Chloroform apparatus he invented in 1862 By mid-century, the stethoscope became an oft-used device and designs of the microscope had advanced enough for scientists to closely examine pathogens. The pioneering work of French microbiologist Louis Pasteur from the 1850s earned widespread acceptance for the germ theory of disease.[4] It led to the introduction antiseptics by Joseph Lister in 1867 in the form of carbolic acid (phenol).[184] He instructed the hospital staff to wear gloves and wash their hands, instruments, and dressings with a phenol solution and in 1869, he invented a machine that would spray carbolic acid in the operating theatre during surgery.[184] Infection-related deaths fell noticeably as a result.[4] As the British Empire expanded, Britons found themselves facing novel climates and contagions; there was active research into tropical diseases. In 1898, Ronald Ross proved that the mosquito was responsible for spreading malaria.[4] Although nitrous oxide, or laughing gas, had been proposed as an anaesthetic as far back as 1799 by Humphry Davy, it was not until 1846 when an American dentist named William Morton started using ether on his patients that anaesthetics became common in the medical profession.[185] In 1847 chloroform was introduced as an anaesthetic by James Young Simpson.[186] Chloroform was favoured by doctors and hospital staff because it is much less flammable than ether, but critics complained that it could cause the patient to have a heart attack.[186] Chloroform gained in popularity in England and Germany after John Snow gave Queen Victoria chloroform for the birth of her eighth child (Prince Leopold).[187] By 1920, chloroform was used in 80 to 95% of all narcoses performed in the UK and German-speaking countries.[186] A combination of antiseptics and anaesthetics helped surgeons operate more carefully and comfortably on their patients.[4] Anaesthetics made painless dentistry possible. At the same time sugar consumption in the British diet increased, greatly increasing instances of tooth decay.[188] As a result, more and more people were having teeth extracted and needing dentures. This gave rise to "Waterloo Teeth", which were real human teeth set into hand-carved pieces of ivory from hippopotamus or walrus jaws.[188][189] The teeth were obtained from executed criminals, victims of battlefields, from grave-robbers, and were even bought directly from the desperately impoverished.[188] News of the discovery of X-rays in 1895 spread like wildfire. Its medical value was realised immediately, and within a year, doctors were prescribing X-rays for diagnosis, in particular to locate bone fractures and foreign objects inside the patient's body. Radioactivity was discovered 1896, and was later to used to treat cancer.[4] During the second half of the nineteenth century, British medical doctors became increasingly specialised, following the footsteps of their German counterparts, and more hospitals were built. Surgeons began wearing gowns in the operating room and doctors white coats and stethoscopes, sights that are common in the early twenty-first century.[4] Yet despite all the aforementioned medical advances, the mortality rate fell only marginally, from 20.8 per thousand in 1850 to 18.2 by the end of the century. Urbanisation aided the spread of diseases and squalid living conditions in many places exacerbated the problem. Moreover, while some diseases, such as cholera, were being driven out, others, such as sexually transmitted diseases, made themselves felt.[4] Moral standards See also: Victorian morality and Women in the Victorian era Victorian morality was a surprising new reality. The changes in moral standards and actual behaviour across the British were profound. Historian Harold Perkin wrote: Between 1780 and 1850 the English ceased to be one of the most aggressive, brutal, rowdy, outspoken, riotous, cruel and bloodthirsty nations in the world and became one of the most inhibited, polite, orderly, tender-minded, prudish and hypocritical.[190] Historians continue to debate the various causes of this dramatic change. Asa Briggs emphasizes the strong reaction against the French Revolution, and the need to focus British efforts on its defeat and not be diverged by pleasurable sins. Briggs also stresses the powerful role of the evangelical movement among the Nonconformists, as well as the Evangelical faction inside the established Church of England. The religious and political reformers set up organizations that monitored behaviour, and pushed for government action.[191] Among the higher social classes, there was a marked decline in gambling, horse races, and obscene theatres; there was much less heavy gambling or patronage of upscale houses of prostitution. The highly visible debauchery characteristic of aristocratic England in the early 19th century simply disappeared.[192] Historians agree that the middle classes not only professed high personal moral standards, but actually followed them. There is a debate whether the working classes followed suit. Moralists in the late 19th century such as Henry Mayhew decried the slums for their supposed high levels of cohabitation without marriage and illegitimate births. However new research using computerized matching of data files shows that the rates of cohabitation were quite low—under 5%—for the working class and the poor. By contrast, in 21st-century Britain nearly half of all children are born outside marriage, and nine in ten newlyweds have been cohabitating.[193] Crime, police and prisons Crime was getting exponentially worse. There were 4,065 arrests for criminal offenses in 1805, tripling to 14,437 in 1835 and doubling to 31,309 in 1842 in England and Wales.[194] 18th-century British criminology had emphasized severe punishment. Slowly capital punishment was replaced by transportation, first to the American colonies and then to Australia,[195] and, especially, by long-term incarceration in newly built prisons. As one historian points out, "Public and violent punishment which attacked the body by branding, whipping, and hanging was giving way to reformation of the mind of the criminal by breaking his spirit, and encouraging him to reflect on his shame, before labour and religion transformed his character."[196] Crime rates went up, leading to calls for harsher measures ito stop the 'flood of criminals' released under the penal servitude system. The reaction from the committee set up under the commissioner of prisons, Colonel Edmund Frederick du Cane, was to increase minimum sentences for many offences with deterrent principles of 'hard labour, hard fare, and a hard bed'.[197] As the prisons grew more numerous, they became more depraved. Historian S. G. Checkland says, "It was sunk in promiscuity and squalor, jailers' tyranny and greed, and administrative confusion."[198] In 1877 du Cane encouraged Disraeli's government to remove all prisons from local government; he held a firm grip on the prison system till his forced retirement in 1895. By the 1890s, the prison population was over 20,000. By the Victorian era, penal transportation to Australia was falling out of use since it did not reduce crime rates.[199] The British penal system underwent a transition from harsh punishment to reform, education, and training for post-prison livelihoods. The reforms were controversial and contested. In 1877–1914 era a series of major legislative reforms enabled significant improvement in the penal system. In 1877, the previously localized prisons were nationalized in the Home Office under a Prison Commission. The Prison Act of 1898 enabled the Home Secretary to impose multiple reforms on his own initiative, without going through the politicized process of Parliament. The Probation of Offenders Act of 1907 introduced a new probation system that drastically cut down the prison population, while providing a mechanism for transition back to normal life. The Criminal Justice Administration Act of 1914 required courts to allow a reasonable time before imprisonment was ordered for people who did not pay their fines. Previously tens of thousands of prisoners had been sentenced solely for that reason. The Borstal system after 1908 was organized to reclaim young offenders, and the Children Act of 1908 prohibited imprisonment under age 14, and strictly limited that of ages 14 to 16. The principal reformer was Sir Evelyn Ruggles-Brise, the chair of the Prison Commission.[200][201] Prostitution Further information: Victorian morality § Prostitution, and Prostitution in the United Kingdom § 19th century During Victorian England, prostitution was seen as a "great social evil" by clergymen and major news organizations, but many feminists viewed prostitution as a means of economic independence for women. Estimates of the number of prostitutes in London in the 1850s vary widely, but in his landmark study, Prostitution, William Acton reported an estimation of 8,600 prostitutes in London alone in 1857.[202] The differing views on prostitution have made it difficult to understand its history. Judith Walkowitz has multiple works focusing on the feminist point of view on the topic of prostitution. Many sources blame economic disparities as leading factors in the rise of prostitution, and Walkowitz writes that the demographic within prostitution varied greatly. However, women who struggled financially were much more likely to be prostitutes than those with a secure source of income. Orphaned or half-orphaned women were more likely to turn to prostitution as a means of income.[203] While overcrowding in urban cities and the amount of job opportunities for females were limited, Walkowitz argues that there were other variables that lead women to prostitution. Walkowitz acknowledges that prostitution allowed for women to feel a sense of independence and self-respect.[203] Although many assume that pimps controlled and exploited these prostitutes, some women managed their own clientele and pricing. It is evident that women were exploited by this system, yet Walkowitz says that prostitution was often their opportunity to gain social and economic independence.[203] Prostitution at this time was regarded by women in the profession to be a short-term position, and once they earned enough money, there were hopes that they would move on to a different profession.[204] As previously stated, the arguments for and against prostitution varied greatly from it being perceived as a mortal sin or desperate decision to an independent choice. While there were plenty of people publicly denouncing prostitution in England, there were also others who took opposition to them. One event that sparked a lot of controversy was the implementation of the Contagious Diseases Acts. This was a series of three acts in 1864, 1866 and 1869 that allowed police officers to stop women whom they believed to be prostitutes and force them to be examined.[203] If the suspected woman was found with a venereal disease, they placed the woman into a Lock Hospital. Arguments made against the acts claimed that the regulations were unconstitutional and that they only targeted women.[205] In 1869, a National Association in opposition of the acts was created. Because women were excluded from the first National Association, the Ladies National Association was formed. The leader of that organization was Josephine Butler.[203] Butler was an outspoken feminist during this time who fought for many social reforms. Her book Personal Reminiscences of a Great Crusade describes her oppositions to the C.D. acts.[206] Along with the publication of her book, she also went on tours condemning the C.D. acts throughout the 1870s.[207] Other supporters of reforming the acts included Quakers, Methodists and many doctors.[205] Eventually the acts were fully repealed in 1886.[205] The book Prostitution-Action by Dr. William Acton included detailed reports on his observations of prostitutes and the hospitals they would be placed in if they were found with a venereal disease.[202] Acton believed that prostitution was a poor institution but it is a result of the supply and demand for it. He wrote that men had sexual desires and they sought to relieve them, and for many, prostitution was the way to do it.[202] While he referred to prostitutes as wretched women, he did note how the acts unfairly criminalized women and ignored the men involved.[202][204] Events The 1843 launch of the Great Britain, the revolutionary ship of Isambard Kingdom Brunel First Opium War: British ships approaching Canton in May 1841 The last of the mail coaches at Newcastle upon Tyne, 1848 Governor-General of India Lord Canning meets Maharaja Ranbir Singh of Jammu and Kashmir, 1860 The defence of Rorke's Drift during the Anglo-Zulu War of 1879 Following the Fourth Anglo-Ashanti War in 1896, the British proclaimed a protectorate over the Ashanti Kingdom. The author Constance Wilde, wife of Oscar Wilde, pictured with son Cyril, 1889 Daimler Wagonette, Ireland, c. 1899 British and Australian officers in South Africa during the Second Boer War Workmen leaving Platt's Works, Oldham, 1900 1850 Restoration of the Roman Catholic hierarchy in England and Wales. (Scotland did not follow until 1878.) 1832 Passage of the first Reform Act.[208] 1833 The first Tract for the Times is written by John Henry Newman, starting the Oxford Movement in the Church of England. 1837 Ascension of Queen Victoria to the throne.[208] 1838 Treaty of Balta Liman (Great Britain trade alliance with the Ottoman Empire). 1839 First Opium War (1839–42) fought between Britain and China. 1840 Queen Victoria marries Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfield. He had been naturalised and granted the British style of Royal Highness beforehand. For the next 17 years, he was known as HRH Prince Albert. 1840 New Zealand becomes a British colony, through the Treaty of Waitangi. No longer part of New South Wales 1842 Treaty of Nanking. The Massacre of Elphinstone's Army by the Afghans in Afghanistan results in the death or incarceration of 16,500 soldiers and civilians.[209] The Mines Act of 1842 banned women/children from working in coal, iron, lead and tin mining.[208] The Illustrated London News was first published.[210] 1845 The Irish famine begins. Within 5 years it would become the UK's worst human disaster, with starvation and emigration reducing the population of Ireland itself by over 50%. The famine permanently changed Ireland's and Scotland's demographics and became a rallying point for nationalist sentiment that pervaded British politics for much of the following century. 1846 Repeal of the Corn Laws.[208] 1848 Death of around 2,000 people a week in a cholera epidemic. 1851 The Great Exhibition (the first World's Fair) is held at the Crystal Palace,[208] with great success and international attention. The Victorian gold rush. In ten years the Australian population nearly tripled.[211] 1854 Crimean War: Britain, France and Turkey declare limited war on Russia. Russia loses. 1857 The Indian Mutiny, a concentrated revolt in northern India against the rule of the privately owned British East India Company, is sparked by sepoys (native Indian soldiers) in the Company's army. The rebellion, involving not just sepoys but many sectors of the Indian population as well, is largely quashed within a year. The East India Company is replaced by the British government beginning the period of the British Raj. 1858 The Prime Minister, Lord Palmerston, responds to the Orsini plot against French Emperor Napoleon III, the bombs for which were purchased in Birmingham, by attempting to make such acts a felony; the resulting uproar forces him to resign. 1859 Charles Darwin publishes On the Origin of Species, which leads to various reactions.[208] Victoria and Albert's first grandchild, Prince Wilhelm of Prussia, is born – he later became William II, German Emperor. John Stuart Mill publishes On Liberty, a defence of the famous harm principle. 1861 Death of Prince Albert;[208] Queen Victoria refuses to go out in public for many years, and when she did she wore a widow's bonnet instead of the crown. 1865 Lewis Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland is published. 1866 An angry crowd in London, protesting against John Russell's resignation as Prime Minister, is barred from Hyde Park by the police; they tear down iron railings and trample on flower beds. Disturbances like this convince Derby and Disraeli of the need for further parliamentary reform. 1867 The Constitution Act, 1867 passes and British North America becomes Dominion of Canada. 1875 Britain purchased Egypt's shares in the Suez Canal[208] as the African nation was forced to raise money to pay off its debts. 1876 Scottish-born inventor Alexander Graham Bell patents the telephone. 1878 Treaty of Berlin. Cyprus becomes a Crown colony. 1879 The Battle of Isandlwana is the first major encounter in the Anglo-Zulu War. 1881 The British suffer defeat at the Battle of Majuba Hill, leading to the signing of a peace treaty and later the Pretoria Convention, between the British and the reinstated South African Republic, ending the First Boer War. Sometimes claimed to mark the beginning of the decline of the British Empire.[212] 1882 British troops begin the occupation of Egypt by taking the Suez Canal, to secure the vital trade route and passage to India, and the country becomes a protectorate. 1884 The Fabian Society is founded in London by a group of middle-class intellectuals, including Quaker Edward R. Pease, Havelock Ellis and E. Nesbit, to promote socialism.[213] Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany dies. 1885 Blackpool Electric Tramway Company starts the first electric tram service in the United Kingdom. 1886 Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone and the Liberal Party tries passing the First Irish Home Rule Bill, but the House of Commons rejects it. 1888 The serial killer known as Jack the Ripper murders and mutilates five (and possibly more) prostitutes on the streets of London. 1889 Emily Williamson founds the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds. 1870–1891 Under the Elementary Education Act 1870, basic State Education becomes free for every child under the age of 10.[214] 1898 British and Egyptian troops led by Horatio Kitchener defeat the Mahdist forces at the battle of Omdurman, thus establishing British dominance in the Sudan. Winston Churchill takes part in the British cavalry charge at Omdurman. 1899 The Second Boer War is fought between the British Empire and the two independent Boer republics. The Boers finally surrendered and the British annexed the Boer republics. 1901 The death of Victoria sees the end of this era. The ascension of her eldest son, Edward, begins the Edwardian era. See also History portal United Kingdom portal Victorian era portal Wikimedia Commons has media related to Victorian era. United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland covers politics and diplomacy Historiography of the United Kingdom Historiography of the British Empire International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919) Imperialism Pax Britannica Victorian decorative arts Victorian fashion Victorian morality Victorian literature Neo-Victorian Social history of England Women in the Victorian era Victoriana Horror Victorianorum Victorian cemeteries Gilded Age, in the United States Belle Époque, in France Citations ^ Dixon, Nicholas (2010). "From Georgian to Victorian". History Review. 2010 (68): 34–38. Archived from the original on 27 January 2013. 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ISBN 0-19-506136-5. ^ Hecht, Eugene (2017). "8.13: A Mathematical Description of Polarization". Optics (5th ed.). Pearson. pp. 379–81. ISBN 978-0-133-97722-6. ^ a b Kline, Morris (1972). "Chapter 30: The Calculus of Variations in the Nineteenth Century". Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-506136-5. ^ a b Gribbin, John (2012). "Chapter 6: Matrices and Waves". In Search of Schrodinger's Cat: Quantum Physics and Reality. Great Britain: Penguin Random House. pp. 147, 155–6. ISBN 978-0-552-12555-0. ^ Herbert, Goldstein (1980). "10.2: Geometrical Optics and Wave Mechanics". Classical Mechanics (2nd ed.). Addison-Wesley. p. 489. ISBN 0-201-02918-9. ^ a b Lewis, Christopher (2007). "Chapter 4: The Mechanical Equivalent of Heat". Heat and Thermodynamics: A Historical Perspective. United States of America: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-33332-3. ^ Lewis, Christopher (2007). Heat and Thermodynamics: A Historical Perspective. Greenwood Press. pp. 79, 124–7. ISBN 978-0-313-33332-3. ^ Lanczos, Cornelius (1970). The Variational Principles of Mechanics. Dover Publications. p. 125. ISBN 978-0-486-65067-8. ^ Goldstein, Herbert (1980). "8.3: Routh's Procedure and Oscillations About Steady Motion". Classical Mechanics (2nd ed.). Addison-Wesley. p. 356. ISBN 0-201-02918-9. ^ Landau, Lev; LIfshitz, Evgeny (1976). "41: The Routhian". Course of Theoretical Physics Volume 1: Mechanics. Translated by Sykes, J.B.; Bell, J.S. (3rd ed.). Elsevier. pp. 133–4. ISBN 0-7506-2896-0. ^ Coutinho, S. C. (1 May 2014). "Whittaker's analytical dynamics: a biography". Archive for History of Exact Sciences. 68 (3): 355–407. ^ a b Lewis, Christoper (2007). "Chapter 7: Black Bodies, Free Energy, and Absolute Zero". Heat and Thermodynamics: A Historical Perspective. United States of America: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-33332-3. ^ a b c Baigrie, Brian (2007). "Chapter 8: Forces and Fields". Electricity and Magnetism: A Historical Perspective. United States of America: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-33358-0. ^ a b Baigrie, Brian (2007). "Chapter 9: The Science of Electromagnetism". Electricity and Magnetism: A Historical Perspective. United States of America: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-33358-0. ^ a b Baigrie, Brian (2007). "Chapter 10: Electromagnetic Waves". Electricity and Magnetism: A Historical Perspective. United States of America: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-33358-0. ^ a b Hunt, Bruce (1 November 2012). "Oliver Heaviside: A first-rate oddity". Physics Today. 65 (11). ^ Gribbin, John (2012). "Chapter 2: Atoms". In Search of Schrodinger's Cat: Quantum Physics and Reality. Great Britain: Transworld Publishers. pp. 45–6. ISBN 978-0-552-12555-0. ^ Katz, Victor (2009). "21.3: Symbolic Algebra". A History of Mathematics: An Introduction. Addison-Wesley. pp. 738–9. ISBN 0-321-38700-7. ^ a b c Katz, Victor (2009). "25.5: Computers and Applications". A History of Mathematics: An Introduction. Addison-Wesley. pp. 908–13. ISBN 0-321-38700-7. ^ Tom Standage, The Victorian Internet: The remarkable story of the telegraph and the nineteenth century's online pioneers (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1998). ^ John R. Kellett, The impact of railways on Victorian cities (Routledge, 2007). ^ Jack Simmons and Gordon Biddle, eds., The Oxford Companion to British Railway History: From 1603 to the 1990s (2nd ed. 1999) ^ L.T.C. Rolt, George & Robert Stephenson: The Railway Revolution (1960). ^ For example see John H. Jensen and Gerhard Rosegger. "British Railway Builders along the Lower Danube, 1856–1869." Slavonic and East European Review 46#106 (1968): 105–128; H. R. Stones, British railways in Argentina 1860–1948 (1993) ^ Charles Walker, Thomas Brassey: railway builder (1969). ^ Mark Casson, The World's First Railway System: Enterprise, Competition, and Regulation on the Railway Network in Victorian Britain (2009). ^ R. S Joby, The Railway Builders: Lives and Works of the Victorian Railway Contractors (1983) ^ Attwooll, Jolyon (9 January 2017). "150 London Underground facts (including the birth of Jerry Springer in East Finchley station)". The Telegraph. Retrieved 11 November 2020. ^ Ian J. Kerr, Building the Railways of the Raj, 1850–1900 (1995). ^ a b Anthony S. Wohl, Endangered lives: public health in Victorian Britain (JM Dent and Sons, 1983) ^ a b "Joseph Lister". Web.ukonline.co.uk. 10 February 1912. Archived from the original on 31 August 2010. Retrieved 10 August 2010. ^ "Dr William Green Morton (1819–68)". General-anaesthesia.com. Archived from the original on 21 August 2010. Retrieved 10 August 2010. ^ a b c "History of chloroform anaesthesia". General-anaesthesia.com. Archived from the original on 22 February 2010. Retrieved 10 August 2010. ^ Ralph R. Frerichs. "Anesthesia and Queen Victoria". Ph.ucla.edu. Archived from the original on 16 July 2012. Retrieved 10 August 2010. ^ a b c "h2g2 – Waterloo Teeth: A History of Dentures". BBC. 24 August 2005. Archived from the original on 17 March 2011. Retrieved 10 August 2010. ^ "Waterloo Teeth". Historyhome.co.uk. Archived from the original on 24 November 2010. Retrieved 10 August 2010. ^ Harold Perkin, The Origins of Modern English Society (1969) p. 280. ^ Asa Briggs, The Age of Improvement: 1783–1867 (1959), pp. 66–74, 286–87, 436 ^ Ian C. Bradley, The Call to Seriousness: The Evangelical Impact on the Victorians (1976) pp. 106–109 ^ Rebecca Probert, "Living in Sin", BBC History Magazine (September 2012); G. Frost, Living in Sin: Cohabiting as Husband and Wife in Nineteenth-Century England (Manchester U.P. 2008) ^ Frederick Engels (2014). The Condition of the Working-Class in England in 1844. p. 240. ISBN 9783730964859. ^ Hamish. Maxwell-Stewart, "Convict Transportation from Britain and Ireland 1615–1870", History Compass 8#11 (2010): 1221–42. ^ Martin Daunton, Progress and Poverty: An Economic and Social History of Britain 1700–1850 (1995) p 491. ^ Lionel W. Fox (1998). The English Prison and Borstal Systems. p. 46. ISBN 9780415177382. ^ S. G. Checkland, The rise of industrial society in England, 1815–1885 (1966) p 277. ^ Hamish Maxwell-Stewart, "Transportation from Britain and Ireland 1615–1870", History Compass 8#11 (2010): 1221–42. ^ R.C.K. Ensor. England 1870–1914 (1937) pp 520–21. ^ J. W. Fox, "The Modern English Prison" (1934). ^ a b c d Acton, William (1857). Prostitution Considered in its Moral, Social, and Sanitary Aspects (Reprint of the Second Edition with new biographical note ed.). London: Frank Cass (published 1972). ISBN 0-7146-2414-4. ^ a b c d e Walkowitz, Judith (1980). Prostitution and Victorian Society. Cambridge University Press. ^ a b Flanders, Judith (2014). "Prostitution". British Library. Archived from the original on 7 March 2016. ^ a b c Hamilton, Margaret (1978). "Opposition to the Contagious Diseases Acts 1864–1886". Albion. The North American Conference on British Studies. Vol.10, No. 1 (1): 14–27. doi:10.2307/4048453. JSTOR 4048453. ^ Butler, Josephine (1976). Personal Reminiscences of a Great Crusade (Hyperion Reprint ed.). Westport, Connecticut: Hyperion Reprint Press. ISBN 0-88355-257-4. ^ Nield, Keith (1973). "Introduction". Prostitution in the Victorian Age – Debates on the Issue From 19th Century Critical Journals. England: Gregg International Publishers Limited. ISBN 0576532517. ^ a b c d e f g h Swisher, Clarice, ed. Victorian England. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 2000. pp. 248–250 ^ Vallely, Paul (25 April 2006). "1841: A window on Victorian Britain". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 17 June 2015. Retrieved 10 August 2010. ^ "Illustrated London News". Iln.org.uk. Archived from the original on 7 October 2010. Retrieved 10 August 2010. ^ California Gold Rush Archived 24 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Robert Whaples, Wake Forest University. ^ Farwell, Byron (2009). Queen Victoria's Little Wars. Pen & Sword Books. ISBN 9781848840157. ^ "Is this what Labour's next Clause four should say?". Fabians.org.uk. Archived from the original on 22 June 2011. Retrieved 10 August 2010. ^ "1870 Education Act". Archived from the original on 11 September 2009. Retrieved 27 September 2009. Further reading General Adams, James Eli, ed. Encyclopedia of the Victorian Era (4 Vol. 2004), short essays on a wide range of topics by experts Bailey, Peter. Leisure and class in Victorian England: Rational recreation and the contest for control, 1830–1885 (Routledge, 2014). Bourne, Kenneth. The foreign policy of Victorian England, 1830-1902 (1970) online, survey plus primary documents Briggs, Asa. The Age of Improvement 1783–1867 (1959), Wide-ranging older survey emphasizing the reforms. online Cevasco, G. A. ed. The 1890s: An Encyclopedia of British Literature, Art, and Culture (1993) 736pp; short articles by experts Chadwick, Owen. The Victorian Church (2 vol 1966), covers all denominations online Clark, G. Kitson The making of Victorian England (1963). online Ensor, R. C. K. England, 1870–1914 (1936) https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.49856 online] influential scholarly survey Gregg, Pauline. A Social and Economic History of Britain: 1760–1950 (1950) online Harrison, J.F.C. Late Victorian Britain 1875–1901 (Routledge, 2013). Heffer, Simon. High Minds: The Victorians and the Birth of Modern Britain (2014), survey to 1880. Heffer, Simon. The Age of Decadence: Britain 1880 to 1914 (2017), wide-ranging scholarly survey. Heilmann, Ann, and Mark Llewellyn, eds. Neo-Victorianism: The Victorians in the Twenty-First Century, 1999–2009 (Palgrave Macmillan; 2011) 323 pages; looks at recent literary & cinematic, interest in the Victorian era, including magic, sexuality, theme parks, and the postcolonial Hilton, Boyd. A Mad, Bad, and Dangerous People?: England 1783–1846 (New Oxford History of England. 2006); in-depth scholarly survey, 784pp. Hobsbawm, Eric (1997). The Age of Capital, 1848–1875. London: Abacus. McCord, Norman and Bill Purdue. British History, 1815–1914 (2nd ed. 2007), 612 pp online, university textbook Paul, Herbert. History of Modern England, 1904-6 (5 vols) online free Perkin, Harold. The Origins of Modern English Society: 1780–1880 (1969) online Hoppen, K. Theodore. The Mid-Victorian Generation 1846–1886 (New Oxford History of England) (2000), comprehensive scholarly history excerpt and text search Roberts, Clayton and David F. Roberts. A History of England, Volume 2: 1688 to the present (2013) university textbook; 1985 edition online Somervell, D. C. English thought in the nineteenth century (1929) online Steinbach, Susie L. Understanding the Victorians: Politics, Culture and Society in Nineteenth-Century Britain (2012) excerpt and text search Swisher, Clarice, ed. Victorian England (2000) 20 excerpts from leading primary and secondary sources regarding literary, cultural, technical, political, and social themes. online free Daily life and culture Flanders, Judith. Inside the Victorian Home: A Portrait of Domestic Life in Victorian England. W.W. Norton & Company: 2004. ISBN 0-393-05209-5. Houghton, Walter E. (1957). The Victorian frame of mind, 1830–1870. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-300-00122-8. Mitchell, Sally. Daily Life in Victorian England. Greenwood Press: 1996. ISBN 0-313-29467-4. O'Gorman, Francis, ed. The Cambridge companion to Victorian culture (2010) Roberts, Adam Charles, ed. Victorian culture and society: the essential glossary (2003). Thompson, F. M. L. Rise of Respectable Society: A Social History of Victorian Britain, 1830–1900 (1988) Strong on family, marriage, childhood, houses, and play. Weiler, Peter. The New Liberalism: Liberal Social Theory in Great Britain, 1889–1914 (Routledge, 2016). Wilson, A. N. The Victorians. Arrow Books: 2002. ISBN 0-09-945186-7 Young, Gerard Mackworth, ed. Early Victorian England 1830-1865 (2 vol 1934) scholarly surveys of cultural history. vol 2 online Literature Altick, Richard Daniel. Victorian People and Ideas: A Companion for the Modern Reader of Victorian Literature. (1974) online free Felluga, Dino Franco, et al. The Encyclopedia of Victorian Literature (2015). Flint, Kay. The Cambridge History of Victorian Literature (2014). Horsman, Alan. The Victorian Novel (Oxford History of English Literature, 1991) Politics Aydelotte, William O. “Parties and Issues in Early Victorian England.” Journal of British Studies, 5#2 1966, pp. 95–114. online Bourne, Kenneth. The foreign policy of Victorian England, 1830–1902 (Oxford UP, 1970), contains a short narrative history and 147 "Selected documents" on pp 195–504. Boyd, Kelly and Rohan McWilliam, eds. The Victorian Studies Reader (2007) 467pp; articles and excerpts by scholars excerpts and text search Bright, J. Franck. A History of England. Period 4: Growth of Democracy: Victoria 1837–1880 (1902) online 608pp; highly detailed older political narrative A History of England: Period V. Imperial Reaction, Victoria, 1880‒1901 (1904) online Brock, M. G. "Politics at the Accession of Queen Victoria" History Today (1953) 3#5 pp 329–338 online. Brown, David, Robert Crowcroft, and Gordon Pentland, eds. The Oxford Handbook of Modern British Political History, 1800–2000 (2018) excerpt Burton, Antoinette, ed. Politics and Empire in Victorian Britain: A Reader. Palgrave Macmillan: 2001. ISBN 0-312-29335-6 Marriott, J. A. R. England Since Waterloo (1913); focus on politics and diplomacy; online Martin, Howard.Britain in the 19th Century (Challenging History series, 2000) 409pp; textbook; emphasizing politics, diplomacy and use of primary sources Trevelyan, G. M. British History in the Nineteenth Century and After (1782–1901) (1922). online very well written scholarly survey Walpole, Spencer. A History of England from the Conclusion of the Great War in 1815 (6 vol. 1878–86), very well written political narrative to 1855; online Walpole, Spencer. History of Twenty-Five Years (4 vol. 1904–1908) covers 1856–1880; online Woodward, E. L. The Age of Reform: 1815–1870 (1954) comprehensive survey online Young, G. M. "Mid-Victorianism" History Today (1951) 1#1 pp 11–17, online. Crime and punishment Auerbach, Sascha. "'Beyond the pale of mercy': Victorian penal culture, police court missionaries, and the origins of probation in England." Law and History Review 33.3 (2015): 621–663. Bailey, Victor. Policing and punishment in nineteenth century Britain (2015). Churchill, David. Crime Control and Everyday Life in the Victorian City (Oxford UP, 2018) Emsley, Clive. Crime and society in England: 1750–1900 (2013). Emsley, Clive. "Crime in 19th Century Britain." History Today 38 (1988): 40+ Emsley, Clive. The English Police: A Political and Social History (2nd ed. 1996) also published as The Great British Bobby: A History of British Policing from the 18th Century to the Present (2010)excerpt Fox, Lionel W. (1998). The English Prison and Borstal Systems. p. 46. ISBN 9780415177382. Gatrell, V. A. C. "Crime, authority and the policeman-state." in E.M.L. Thompson, ed., The Cambridge social history of Britain 1750-1950: Volume 3 (1990). 3:243-310 Hay, Douglas. "Crime and justice in eighteenth-and nineteenth-century England." Crime and Justice 2 (1980): 45–84. online Kilday, Anne-Marie. "Women and crime." Women's History, Britain 1700–1850 ed. Hannah Barker and Elaine Chalus, (Routledge, 2004) pp. 186–205. May, Margaret. "Innocence and experience: the evolution of the concept of juvenile delinquency in the mid-nineteenth century." Victorian Studies 17.1 (1973): 7–29. online Radzinowicz, Leon. A History of English Criminal Law and Its Administration from 1750 (5 vol. 1948–1976) Radzinowicz, Leon and Roger Hood The Emergence of Penal Policy in Victorian and Edwardian England (1990) Shore, Heather. "The Idea of Juvenile Crime in 19Th Century England." History Today 50.6 (2000): 21–27. Shore, Heather. "Crime, policing and punishment." in Chris Williams, ed., A companion to nineteenth-century Britain (2007): 381–395. excerpt Storch, R. D. "Crime And Justice in 19th-Century England." History Today vol 30 (Sep 1980): 32–37. Taylor, James. "White-collar crime and the law in nineteenth-century Britain." Business History (2018) 60#3 pp 343–360. Tobias, J. J. Crime and Industrial Society in the Nineteenth Century (1967) . Tobias, J.J. ed, Nineteenth-century crime: prevention and punishment (1972) primary sources. Taylor, Howard. "Rationing crime: the political economy of criminal statistics since the 1850s." Economic history review (1998) 51#3 569–590. online Historiography Burton, Antoinette. "Victorian History: Some Experiments with Syllabi." Victorian Studies 54.2 (2012): 305–311. Elton, G. R. Modern Historians on British History 1485–1945: A Critical Bibliography 1945–1969 (1969), annotated guide to 1000 history books on every major topic, plus book reviews and major scholarly articles. online Gooch, Brison D. Recent Literature on Queen Victoria's Little Wars" Victorian Studies, 17#2 (1973): 217–224 online. Goodlad, Lauren M. E. "'A Middle Class Cut into Two': Historiography and Victorian National Character." ELH 67.1 (2000): 143–178. Homans, Margaret, and Adrienne Munich, eds. Remaking Queen Victoria (Cambridge University Press, 1997) Kent, Christopher. "Victorian social history: post-Thompson, post-Foucault, postmodern." Victorian Studies (1996): 97–133. in JSTOR Mays, Kelly J. "Looking backward, looking forward: the Victorians in the rear-view mirror of future history." Victorian Studies 53.3 (2011): 445–456. Moore, D. C. "In Search of a New Past: 1820 – 1870," in Richard Schlatter, ed., Recent Views on British History: Essays on Historical Writing since 1966 (Rutgers UP, 1984), pp 255 – 298 Parry, J. P. "The State of Victorian Political History." Historical Journal (1983) 26#2 pp. 469–484 online Sandiford, Keith A. P. "The Victorians at play: Problems in historiographical methodology." Journal of Social History (1981): 271–288. in JSTOR Stansky, Peter. "British History: 1870 – 1914," in Richard Schlatter, ed., Recent Views on British History: Essays on Historical Writing since 1966 (Rutgers UP, 1984), pp. 299 – 326 Taylor, Miles. "The Bicentenary of Queen Victoria." Journal of British Studies 59.1 (2020): 121–135. https://doi.org/10.1017/jbr.2019.245 Vernon, James. "Historians and the Victorian Studies Question." Victorian Studies 47.2 (2005): 272–79 Webb, R. K. Modern England: from the 18th century to the present (1968) online widely recommended university textbook Primary sources Black, E.C. ed. British politics in the nineteenth century (1969) online Bourne, Kenneth. The foreign policy of Victorian England, 1830–1902 (Oxford UP, 1970.) pp 195–504 are 147 selected documents Hicks, Geoff, et al. eds. Documents on Conservative Foreign Policy, 1852–1878 (2013), 550 documents excerpt Temperley, Harold and L.M. Penson, eds. Foundations of British Foreign Policy: From Pitt (1792) to Salisbury (1902) (1938), 608pp of primary sources online External links books on Victorian era; online free Victorians British Library website exploring the Victorian period. Victorians.co.uk Victorian Era History Guide. Mostly-Victorian.com A collection of primary-source documents drawn from Victorian periodicals. The Victorian Dictionary The Victorian Web The Twilight City An exploration of vagrancy and streetwalkers in late Victorian London Victorians British Library history resources about the Victorian era, featuring collection material and text by Liza Picard. Timelines: Sources from history – British Library interactive Notable Victorian Scientists and Inventors Collection: "Victorian Studies" from the University of Michigan Museum of Art "What Happened During the Victorian Era?" resources from the Royal Museums Greenwich v t e United Kingdom articles History Chronology Formation Georgian era Victorian era Edwardian era First World War Interwar Second World War Civilian Military Postwar Political Social Since 1979 Political Social By topic Economic Empire Foreign relations 1814–1919 Maritime Military Geography Administrative Counties of the United Kingdom Countries of the United Kingdom Crown dependencies Overseas territories City status Towns Former colonies Physical British Isles terminology Great Britain Coastline Geology Lakes and lochs Mountains Rivers Volcanoes Resources Agriculture Energy/Renewable energy Biodiesel Coal Geothermal Hydraulic frac. 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to Manchester Foreign visits Funeral Mausoleum Family Albert, Prince Consort (husband) Victoria, Princess Royal (daughter) Edward VII (son) Princess Alice of the United Kingdom (daughter) Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (son) Princess Helena of the United Kingdom (daughter) Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll (daughter) Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn (son) Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany (son) Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom (daughter) Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn (father) Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (mother) Grandchildren Royal descendants Princess Feodora of Leiningen (half-sister) Carl, 3rd Prince of Leiningen (half-brother) Early life Kensington System John Conroy Victoire Conroy Louise Lehzen Lady Flora Hastings Charlotte Percy George Davys Legitimacy Honours Places Empire Day Royal Family Order Victoria Day Victoria Day (Scotland) Victoria Cross Victoria (plant) Depictions Film Sixty Years a Queen (1913) Victoria in Dover (1936) Victoria the Great (1937) Sixty Glorious Years (1938) Victoria in Dover (1954) Mrs Brown (1997) The Young Victoria (2009) Victoria & Abdul (2017) The Black Prince (2017) Dolittle (2020) Television Happy and Glorious (1952) Victoria Regina (1961) The Young Victoria (1963) Victoria & Albert (2001) Looking for Victoria (2003) Royal Upstairs Downstairs (2011) Victoria (2016–2019) Stage Victoria and Merrie England (1897) Victoria Regina (1934) I and Albert (1972) Statues and Memorials List of statues London Memorial Statue Square Leeds St Helens Lancaster Bristol Weymouth Chester Reading Liverpool Birmingham Birkenhead Dundee Balmoral cairns Guernsey Isle of Man Valletta Statue Gate Winnipeg Montreal Square Victoria, British Columbia Toronto Regina Bangalore Hong Kong Kolkata Visakhapatnam Penang Sydney Building Square Adelaide Brisbane Melbourne Christchurch Poetry "The Widow at Windsor" (1892) "Recessional" (1897) Songs Victoria Choral Songs Stamps British Penny Black VR official 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en-wikipedia-org-2944	----	Marriage in ancient Rome - Wikipedia Marriage in ancient Rome From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman couple joining hands; the bride's belt may show the knot symbolizing that the husband was "belted and bound" to her, which he was to untie in their bed (4th century sarcophagus)[1] Marriage in ancient Rome (conubium) was a strictly monogamous institution: a Roman citizen by law could have only one spouse at a time. The practice of monogamy distinguished the Greeks and Romans from other ancient civilizations, in which elite males typically had multiple wives. Greco-Roman monogamy may have arisen from the egalitarianism of the democratic and republican political systems of the city-states. It is one aspect of ancient Roman culture that was embraced by early Christianity, which in turn perpetuated it as an ideal in later Western culture.[2] Marriage had mythical precedents, starting with the abduction of the Sabine Women, which may reflect the archaic custom of bride abduction. Romulus and his band of male immigrants were rejected conubium, the legal right to intermarriage, from the Sabines. According to Livy, Romulus and his men abducted the Sabine maidens, but promised them an honorable marriage, in which they would enjoy the benefits of property, citizenship, and children. These three benefits seem to define the purpose of marriage in ancient Rome.[3] The word matrimonium, the root for the English word "matrimony", defined the institution's main function. Involving the mater (mother), it carried with it the implication of the man taking a woman in marriage to have children. This was the idea conventionally shared by Romans as to the purpose of marriage, which would be to produce legitimate children; citizens producing new citizens.[3] Consortium is a word used for the sharing of property, usually used in a technical sense for the property held by heirs, but could also be used in the context of marriage. Such usage was commonly seen in Christian writings. However, the sharing of water and fire (aquae et ignis communiciatio) was symbolically more important. It refers to the sharing of natural resources. Worldly possessions transferred automatically from the wife to the husband in archaic times, whereas the classical marriage kept the wife's property separate.[3] In order for the union of a man and woman to be legitimate, there needed to be consent legally and morally. Both parties, or their fathers had to consent to the marriage in order for the marriage to happen. During the reign of Augustus the father had to give a valid reason for not consenting to the marriage.[4] Contents 1 Conventions of Roman marriage 1.1 Marriage laws 1.2 Wedding ceremonies 1.3 Dowry 1.4 Divorce 1.5 Remarriage 1.6 Adultery 2 Same-sex marriage 3 Other forms of unions 3.1 Concubinage 3.2 Contubernium 4 See also 5 References 6 Bibliography 7 Further reading 8 External links Conventions of Roman marriage[edit] Detail of a gold glass medallion with a portrait of a family, from Alexandria (Roman Egypt), 3rd–4th century (Brescia, Museo di Santa Giulia)[5] Under early Roman law, the oldest living male was the head of a family, or pater familias, and had absolute authority (patria potestas) over his children and, to a lesser extent, his wife. His household was thus understood to be under his manus (literally, "hand").[6] He had the right and duty to seek a good and useful match for his children, and might arrange a child's betrothal long before he or she came of age.[7] To further the interests of their birth families, sons of the elite should follow their fathers into public life.[8] and daughters should marry into respectable families. If a daughter could prove the proposed husband to be of bad character, she could legitimately refuse the match.[9] The age of lawful consent to a marriage was 12 for girls and 14 for boys.[10] Most Roman women seem to have married in their late teens to early twenties, but noble women married younger than those of the lower classes, and an aristocratic girl was expected to be virgin until her first marriage.[11] Roman mores idealised a married daughter's relationship to her father as deferential and obedient, even at her husband's expense.[12] "Deference" was not always absolute. After arranging his daughter's first two marriages, Marcus Tullius Cicero disapproved — rightly, as it turned out — of her choice to marry Dolabella, but found himself unable to prevent it.[13] A daughter kept her own birth-family name (nomen) for life; and although children usually took the father's name, some might take their mother's family name as part of theirs.[14] In the early Empire, the legal standing of daughters differed little, if at all, from that of sons; either could inherit a share of the family estate if their father died intestate.[15] Marriage laws[edit] Early Roman law recognised three kinds of marriage: confarreatio, symbolized by the sharing of spelt bread (panis farreus);[16] coemptio, "by purchase"; and by usus (habitual cohabitation). Patricians always married by confarreatio, while plebeians married by coemptio or usus: in the latter, a woman could avoid her husband's legal control simply by being absent from their shared home for three consecutive nights, once a year. Among elite families of the early Republic, manus marriage was the norm;[17] the bride passed from the manus ("hand") of her father to the manus of her husband, remaining under one or another form of male potestas (power).[18] Manus marriage was an institutionally unequal relationship. By the time of Julius Caesar, it was largely abandoned in favour of "free" marriage;[19] when a wife moved into her husband's home, she remained under her father's lawful authority; but she did not conduct her daily life under his direct scrutiny.[20] and her husband had no legal power over her.[21] This was one of the factors in the independence Roman women enjoyed, relative to those of many other ancient cultures and up to the modern period:[22] Free marriage usually involved two citizens of equal or near-equal status, or a citizen and a person who held Latin rights. In the later Imperial period and with official permission, soldier-citizens and non-citizens could marry. So total was the law's separation of property that gifts between spouses were recognised as conditional loans; if a couple divorced or even lived apart, the giver could reclaim the gift.[23] Inscription (CIL 14.5326) from Ostia Antica recording a decree that newlyweds are to pray and sacrifice before the altar to the imperial couple Antoninus Pius and Faustina as exemplifying Concordia, marital harmony[24] Following the collapse of the Republic, laws pertaining to marriage, parenting, and adultery were part of Augustus' program to restore the mos maiorum (traditional social norms), while consolidating his power as princeps and paterfamilias of the Roman state.[25] Marriage and remarriage had become less frequent; and the citizen birth-rate had fallen, particularly among the wealthier, more leisured classes. Augustan law pertaining to marriage and family life encouraged marriage and having children, and punished adultery as a crime.[26] The new legislation formalized and enforced what had been considered a traditional, moral duty to family and the State; all men between 25 and 60 years of age, and all women between 20 and 50 were to marry and have children, or pay extra tax in proportion to their wealth. Members of the upper classes thus had most to lose. Citizens who had already produced three children, and freed persons who had produced four, were exempt. Marriages between senators and freed women, and slaves and citizens, were declared legally void. Children born to such liaisons were illegitimate, non-citizen and unable to inherit.[27] A married woman who bore three children or more could be granted legal independence under the ius liberorum.[28] These laws were badly received; they were modified in AD 9 by the Lex Papia Poppaea;[clarification needed] eventually they were nearly all repealed or fell into disuse under Constantine and later emperors, including Justinian.[26] Wedding ceremonies[edit] Main article: Weddings in Ancient Rome A groom encourages his demure bride while a servant looks on (wall painting, Casa della Farnesina, ca. 19 BCE) A confarreatio wedding ceremony was a rare event, reserved for the highest echelons of Rome's elite. The Flamen Dialis and Pontifex Maximus presided, with ten witnesses present, and the bride and bridegroom shared a cake of spelt (in Latin far or panis farreus), hence the rite's name.[29] A more typical upper-middle class wedding in the classical period was less prestigious than a confarreatio, but could be equally lavish. It would have been carefully planned. Sometimes the bride and groom exchanged gifts before the wedding.[3] The lighting of a sacred torch in honor of Ceres was part of the celebration, in hopes of imparting fertility upon the couple[30] A wedding sacrifice was also offered, with a sow being the most likely victim.[31][32] The day after the wedding, the husband would hold a dinner party, and the bride made an offering to the Lares and other domestic deities of her new home.[3][33] Dowry[edit] Heracles and Omphale, Roman fresco, Pompeian Fourth Style (45–79 AD), Naples National Archaeological Museum, Italy Dowry (Latin dos, a gift) was the payment made by a wife's family to her husband, nominally to cover the expenses of their household. It was more customary than compulsory. Ancient papyrus texts show that dowries typically included land and slaves but could also include jewelry, toiletries, mirrors, and clothing. While a marriage lasted, the dowry was the husband's property but his use of it was restricted; if the marriage ended through divorce, it was returned to either the wife or her family.[34][35] If the husband committed offenses which led to divorce, he lost claim to any share in the dowry. If a wife was blameless for the ending of her marriage, the dowry was restored to her. If a wife or husband with children initiated a divorce, their partner could claim a share of dowry on behalf of the children, to meet their needs and later inheritance.[36] A dowry of dos recepticia was one in which agreements were made in advance about its disposal and recovery. A dowry of dos profecticia was one given by the bride's father or her paterfamilias; it could be recovered by the donor or by the divorced woman herself. A dowry of dos adventicia was more flexible; it might be given by the wife, though it came from her father, and used to settle a debt incurred by the husband. If she divorced, a wife could reclaim this dowry; if she died, the husband kept it.[37] Divorce[edit] Lawful divorce was relatively informal; the wife simply took back her dowry and left her husband's house. Roman men had always held the right to divorce their wives; a pater familias could order the divorce of any couple under his manus.[38] According to the historian Valerius Maximus, divorces were taking place by 604 BCE or earlier, and the early Republican law code of the Twelve Tables provided for it. Divorce was socially acceptable if carried out within social norms (mos maiorum). By the time of Cicero and Julius Caesar, divorce was relatively common and "shame-free," the subject of gossip rather than a social disgrace.[39] Valerius says that Lucius Annius was disapproved of because he divorced his wife without consulting his friends; that is, he undertook the action for his own purposes and without considering its effects on his social network (amicitia and clientela). The censors of 307 BCE thus expelled him from the Senate for moral turpitude. Elsewhere, however, it is claimed that the first divorce took place only in 230 BCE, at which time Dionysius of Halicarnassus notes[40] that "Spurius Carvilius, a man of distinction, was the first to divorce his wife" on grounds of infertility. This was most likely the Spurius Carvilius Maximus Ruga who was consul in 234 and 228 BCE. The evidence is confused.[41] A man could also divorce his wife for adultery, drunkenness, or making copies of the household keys.[42] Around the 2nd century, married women gained the right to divorce their husbands.[43] Divorce by either party severed the lawful family alliance that had been formed through the marriage; and remarriage might create an entirely new set of economically or politically useful alliances. Among the elite, husbands and wives might remarry several times.[42] Only one spouse's will was required for any divorce, even if the divorced party was not informed. A spouse who had entered marriage sane and healthy, but became incapable of sound judgment (insane) was not competent and could not divorce their partner; they could be divorced without their knowledge or legal notice. Divorce, like marriage, was considered a family affair. It was discussed and agreed in private, in an informal family gathering of the parties most affected; the husband, wife, and senior members of both families. No public record was kept of the proceedings. Official registration of divorce was not required until 449 CE.[43] Remarriage[edit] The frequency of remarriage among the elite was high. Speedy remarriage was not unusual, and perhaps even customary, for aristocratic Romans after the death of a spouse.[44] While no formal waiting period was dictated for a widower, it was customary for a woman to remain in mourning for ten months before remarrying.[45] The duration may allow for pregnancy: if a woman had become pregnant just before her husband's death, the period of ten months ensures that no question of paternity, which might affect the child's social status and inheritance, would attach to the birth.[46] No law prohibited pregnant women from marrying, and there are well-known instances: Augustus married Livia when she was carrying her former husband's child, and the College of Pontiffs ruled that it was permissible as long as the child's father was determined first. Livia's previous husband even attended the wedding.[47] Because elite marriages often occurred for reasons of politics or property, a widow or divorcée with assets in these areas faced few obstacles to remarrying. She was far more likely to be legally emancipated than a first-time bride, and to have a say in the choice of husband. The marriages of Fulvia, who commanded troops during the last civil war of the Republic and who was the first Roman woman to have her face on a coin, are thought to indicate her own political sympathies and ambitions: she was married first to the popularist champion Clodius Pulcher, who was murdered in the street after a long feud with Cicero; then to Scribonius Curio, a figure of less ideological certitude who at the time of his death had come over to Julius Caesar; and finally to Mark Antony, the last opponent to the republican oligarchs and to Rome's future first emperor. Most wives were encouraged to remarry after either the death of the husband or a divorce; and a high death rate, low average life expectancy and high divorce rate meant frequent or multiple remarriages.[48] Since children were expected in marriage, each spouse usually brought at least one child to the new marriage. Remarriages thus created a new blending of the family in ancient Roman society, where children were influenced by stepparents and some instances where stepmothers were younger than their stepchildren.[48] Ancient physicians believed that a woman was liable to get very sick if she was deprived of sexual activity and it could even lead to a woman getting ‘'hysteric uterine constriction.’'[49] There was even legislation passed during the rule of Augustus that required widows and widowers to remarry to be able to fully inherit from people outside of their immediate family.[49] Adultery[edit] Dido embracing Aeneas, from a Roman fresco in the House of Citharist in Pompeii, Italy; Pompeian Third Style (10 BC – 45 AD) Adultery was a sexual offense committed by a man with a woman who was neither his wife nor a permissible partner such as a prostitute or slave.[50] A married man committed adultery mainly when his female partner was another man's wife or unmarried daughter.[51] The punishment varied at different periods of Roman history and depending on the circumstances. Although prohibitions against adultery and harsh punishments are mentioned during the Republic (509–27 BC), historical sources suggest that they were regarded as archaic survivals, and should not be interpreted as accurate representations of behavior. Adultery was normally considered a private matter for families to deal with, not a serious criminal offense requiring the attention of the courts,[52][53] though there were some cases when adultery and sexual transgressions by women had been brought to the aediles for judgment.[54] According to Cato (2nd century BC), a husband had an ancient right (ius) to kill his wife if he caught her in the act of adultery. The existence of this "right" has been questioned; if it did exist, it was a matter of custom and not statute law,[55] and probably only applied to those in the manus form of marriage, which had become vanishingly rare by the Late Republic (147–27 BC), when a married woman always remained legally a part of her own family. No source records the justified killing of a woman for adultery by either a father or husband during the Republic.[56] Adultery was sufficient grounds for divorce, however, and if the wife was at fault, the wronged husband got to keep a portion of her dowry, though not much more than if he had repudiated her for less serious forms of misconduct.[57] As part of the moral legislation of Augustus in 18 BC, the Lex Iulia de adulteriis ("Julian Law concerning acts of adultery") was directed at punishing married women who engaged in extra-marital affairs. The implementation of punishment was the responsibility of the paterfamilias, the male head of household to whose legal and moral authority the adulterous party was subject. If a father discovered that his married daughter was committing adultery in either his own house or the house of his son-in-law, he was entitled to kill both the woman and her lover; if he killed only one of the adulterers, he could be charged with murder. While advertising the father's power, the extremity of the sentence seems to have led to its judicious implementation, since cases in which this sentence was carried out are infrequently recorded — most notoriously, by Augustus himself against his own daughter.[58] A wronged husband was entitled to kill his wife's lover if the man was either a slave or infamis, a person who, though perhaps technically free, was excluded from the normal legal protections extended to Roman citizens. Among the infames were convicted criminals, entertainers such as actors and dancers, prostitutes and pimps, and gladiators.[59] He was not allowed to kill his wife, who was not under his legal authority.[57] If he chose to kill the lover, however, the husband was required to divorce his wife within three days and to have her formally charged with adultery.[60] If a husband was aware of the affair and did nothing, he himself could be charged with pandering (lenocinium, from leno, "pimp").[61] If no death penalty was carried out and charges for adultery were brought, both the married woman and her lover were subject to criminal penalties, usually including the confiscation of one-half of the adulterer's property, along with one third of the woman's property and half her dowry; any property brought by a wife to the marriage or gained during marriage normally remained in her possession following a divorce. A woman convicted of adultery was barred from remarrying.[50] Scholars have often assumed that the Lex Iulia was meant to address a virulent outbreak of adultery in the Late Republic. An androcentric perspective in the early 20th century held that the Lex Iulia had been "a very necessary check upon the growing independence and recklessness of women."[62] A gynocentric view in the late 20th to early 21st century saw love affairs as a way for the intelligent, independent women of the elite to form emotionally meaningful relationships outside marriages arranged for political purposes.[63] It is possible, however, that no such epidemic of adultery even existed; the law should perhaps be understood not as addressing a real problem that threatened society, but as one of the instruments of social control exercised by Augustus that cast the state, and by extension himself, in the role of paterfamilias to all Rome.[64] Humiliating or violent punishments for adultery are prescribed by law and described by poets, but are absent in the works of Roman historians or the letters of Cicero: "The men who people the pages of Cicero and Tacitus do not burst into their wives' bedrooms to take violent revenge (even when license was granted by the law)."[65] Augustus himself, however, had frequent recourse to his moral laws in choosing to banish potential enemies and rivals from Rome, and the effect of the legislation seems to have been primarily political.[66][67] Same-sex marriage[edit] Main article: Homosexuality in ancient Rome It is unknown whether or not same-sex marriages were legal in Rome. The sources that refer to same-sex marriages could refer to concubinage. The emperor Nero is known to have married a male slave named Sporus. Nero castrated Sporus, and treated him like a woman. Nero did legitimately marry Sporus, even assigning him a Dowry. Nero also married a slave named Pythagoras. However, sources disagree on whether or not those marriages were legitimate.[clarification needed] In Juvenal's Satire No. 2, two men have a homosexual relationship, with one man taking the role of the woman and wearing the bridal garb. However, it is uncertain whether this reflected a contemporary practice, or was merely a work of fiction.[68] There are notable examples of same-sex relationships in Rome. The emperor Elagabalus is said to have married either an enslaved chariot-driver named Hierocles, or a Smyrnaean athlete named Zoticus. Elagabalus was named wife, mistress, and queen. It is unlikely Elagabalus legitimately married.[clarification needed] There is evidence of same-sex marriages from the constitution of Constantine and Constans in the Codex Theodosianus. The Codex states, [c]um vir nubit in feminam viro porrecturam quod cupiat, ubi sexus perdidit locum, ubi scelus est id, quod non proficit scire, ubi venus mutatur in alteram formam, ubi amor quaeritur nec videtur, iubemus insurgere leges, armari iura gladio ultore, ut exquisitis poenis subdantur infames, qui sunt vel qui futuri sunt rei. This quote refers to a man marrying in the manner of a bride. The context is unclear: it could be describing either a same-sex relationship, or a law banning same-sex relationships. Other forms of unions[edit] Concubinage[edit] Main article: Concubinatus A concubinatus (Latin for "concubinage" – see also concubina, "concubine", considered milder than paelex, and concubinus, "bridegroom") was an institution of quasi-marriage between Roman citizens who for various reasons did not want to enter into a full marriage.[69][70] The institution was often found in unbalanced couples, where one of the members belonged to a higher social class or where one of the two was freed and the other one was freeborn.[71] However it differed from a contubernium, where at least one of the partners was a slave (see below).[72][73] Contubernium[edit] Main article: Contubernium The relationship between a free citizen and a slave or between slaves was known as contubernium.[72] The term describes a wide range of situations, from simple sexual slavery to quasi-marriage. For instance, according to Suetonius, Caenis, a slave and secretary of Antonia Minor, was Vespasian's wife "in all but name", until her death in AD 74. It was also not uncommon for slaves to create family-like unions, allowed but not protected by the law. See also[edit] Ancient Greek wedding customs Sexuality in ancient Rome References[edit] ^ Cinctus vinctusque, according to Festus 55 (edition of Lindsay); Karen K. Hersch, The Roman Wedding: Ritual and Meaning in Antiquity (Cambridge University Press, 2010), pp. 101, 110, 211 . ^ Scheidel, Walter (2006) "Population and Demography," Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics, p. 7. ^ a b c d e Treggiari, Susan (1991). Roman Marriage. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814890-9 ^ Johnston, Harold Whetstone (2012). The Private Life of the Romans. Chicago: Robt. O. Law Co., Printers And Binders. ^ Jás Elsner (2007). "The Changing Nature of Roman Art and the Art Historical Problem of Style," in Eva R. Hoffbeans (ed), Late Antique and Medieval Art of the Medieval World, 11–18. Oxford, Malden & Carlton: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4051-2071-5, p. 17, Figure 1.3 on p. 18. ^ Bruce W. Frier and Thomas A.J. McGinn, A Casebook on Roman Family Law (Oxford University Press, 2004), p. 20. ^ Frier, A Casebook on Roman Family Law, p. 66. ^ Beryl Rawson, "The Roman Family," in The Family in Ancient Rome: New Perspectives (Cornell University Press, 1986), p. 18. ^ Rawson, "The Roman Family", p. 21. ^ Beryl Rawson, "The Roman Family in Italy" (Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 21. ^ Judith P. Hallett, Fathers and Daughters in Roman Society: Women and the Elite Family (Princeton University Press, 1984), 142. ^ Hallett, 139. ^ Rawson, The Roman Family, p. 21. ^ Rawson, "The Roman Family," p. 18. ^ Frier, A Casebook on Roman Family Law, pp. 19–20. ^ Karen K. Hersch (24 May 2010). The Roman Wedding: Ritual and Meaning in Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. pp. 26–. ISBN 978-0-521-12427-0. ^ The late Imperial Roman jurist Gaius writes of manus marriage as something that used to happen. Frier and McGinn, Casebook, p. 54. ^ Frier and McGinn, Casebook, p. 53. ^ David Johnston, Roman Law in Context (Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 33–34. ^ "If adults sons or daughters and their children had lived in the same household as the paterfamilias," notes Rawson, "they may well have found the constant awareness of his powers and position a great strain" ("The Roman Family," p. 15). ^ Frier and McGinn, Casebook, pp. 19–20. ^ Eva Cantarella, Pandora's Daughters: The Role and Status of Women in Greek and Roman Antiquity (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987), pp. 140–141 ^ Frier and McGinn, Casebook, pp. 49, 52, citing Ulpian, D. 24.1.3.1. If the donor died first, however, the gift to the surviving spouse was valid. ^ Paul Zanker and Björn C. Ewald, Living with Myths: The Imagery of Sarcophagi (Oxford University Press, 2012), p. 190; Maud Gleason, "Making Space for Bicultural Identity: Herodes Atticus Commemorates Regilla," in Local Knowledge and Microidentities in the Imperial Greek World (Cambridge University Press, 2010), p. 138. ^ Edwards, pp. 34ff., 41–42 et passim; and "Unspeakable Professions: Public Performance and Prostitution in Ancient Rome," in Roman Sexualities (Princeton University Press, 1997), pp. 67, 89–90 et passim. ^ a b Lefkowitz, p. 102. ^ Frank, Richard I., "Augustus' Legislation on Marriage and Children," California Studies in Classical Antiquity, Vol. 8, 1975, pp. 44–45 University of California Press DOI: 10.2307/25010681  – via JSTOR (subscription required) ^ Thomas, "The Division of the Sexes," p. 133. ^ Goran Lind (23 July 2008). Common Law Marriage : A Legal Institution for Cohabitation: A Legal Institution for Cohabitation. Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 38–. ISBN 978-0-19-971053-9. ^ "The most auspicious wood for wedding torches came from the spina alba, the may tree, which bore many fruits and hence symbolised fertility": Spaeth, Barbette Stanley, The Roman goddess Ceres, University of Texas Press, 1996. ISBN 0-292-77693-4. Spaeth is citing Pliny the Elder, Historia Naturalis, 30.75. ^ Varro, Rerum Rusticarum, 2.4.10 describes the sacrifice of a pig as "a worthy mark of weddings" because "our women, and especially nurses" call the female genitalia porcus (pig). Ceres may have been included in the sacrificial dedication, because she is closely identified with Tellus and, as Ceres legifera (law-bearer), she "bears the laws" of marriage; see Spaeth, 1996, pp. 5, 6, 44–47 ^ Servius, On Vergil's Aeneid, 4.58, "implies that Ceres established the laws for weddings as well as for other aspects of civilized life." For more on Roman attitudes to marriage and sexuality, Ceres' role at marriages and the ideal of a "chaste married life" for Roman matrons, see Staples, Ariadne, From Good Goddess to vestal virgins: sex and category in Roman religion, Routledge, 1998, pp. 84–93. ^ Orr, D. G., Roman domestic religion: the evidence of the household shrines, pp. 15–16 in Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt, II, 16, 2, Berlin, 1978, 1557‑91. ^ Gardner, p. 97. ^ Gardner, p. 102. ^ Treggiari, Susan. (1991). "Divorce Roman Style: How easy and how Frequent was it?" In Marriage, Divorce, and Children in Ancient Rome, eds. Beryl Rawson, pp. 31–46. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814918-2. ^ Gardner, p. 105. ^ He had no power over daughters given in manus marriage to another; see Treggiari, Susan, "Divorce Roman Style: How easy and how Frequent was it?" In Rawson, B., (editor), Marriage, Divorce, and Children in Ancient Rome, Oxford University Press, 1991, p.37. ISBN 0-19-814918-2 ^ Suzanne Dixon, "From Ceremonial to Sexualities: A Survey of Scholarship on Roman Marriage" in A Companion to Families in the Greek and Roman Worlds (Wiley-Blackwell, 2011), p. 248. ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Antiquitates Romanae, 2.25 ^ Aulus Gellius (Noctes Atticae 4.3.1) places the divorce in 227 BCE, but fudges the date and his sources elsewhere. ^ a b Holland, Barbara and Yerkes, Lane (March 1998) "The long good-bye", Smithsonian 28, no. 12: 86. ^ a b Treggiari, Susan, "Divorce Roman Style: How easy and how Frequent was it?" in Rawson, Beryl (Editor) Marriage, Divorce, and Children in Ancient Rome, Oxford University Press, 1991, pp. 37, 38 , ISBN 0-19-814918-2 ^ Susan Treggiari, Roman Marriage: Iusti Coniuges from the Time of Cicero to the Time of Ulpian (Oxford University Press, 1991), pp. 258–259, 500–502 et passim. ^ Karen K. Hersch, The Roman Wedding: Ritual and Meaning in Antiquity, p. 48. ^ In Roman inclusive counting, a pregnancy was counted as lasting ten months. ^ Eva Cantarella, "Marriage and Sexuality in Republican Rome: A Roman Conjugal Love Story," in The Sleep of Reason: Erotic Experience and Sexual Ethics in Ancient Greece and Rome (University of Chicago Press, 2002), p. 276. ^ a b Bradley, K. R. (1991) "Remarriage and the Structure of the Upper-Class Roman Family." in Marriage, Divorce, and Children in Ancient Rome, eds. Beryl Rawson, pp. 79–98. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ^ a b Corbier, Mireille (1991) "Divorce and Adoption as Roman Familial Strategies." in Marriage, Divorce, and Children in Ancient Rome, eds. Beryl Rawson, pp. 47–78. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ^ a b McGinn, Thomas A. J. (1991). "Concubinage and the Lex Iulia on Adultery". Transactions of the American Philological Association. 121: 335–375 (341–342). doi:10.2307/284457. JSTOR 284457. ^ Nussbaum, p. 305. ^ Edwards, pp. 34–35 ^ Nussbaum, p. 305, noting that custom "allowed much latitude for personal negotiation and gradual social change." ^ Susan Dixon, The Roman Family (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), p. 79. ^ Dixon, The Roman Family, p. 202. ^ Edwards, p. 41. ^ a b Edwards, p. 38. ^ Edwards, pp. 61ff. ^ Edwards, p. 38, citing the jurist Paulus, Sententiae 2.26.4. ^ Edwards, pp. 38–39. ^ Edwards, p. 39, citing Ulpian, Digest 48.5.2.2; 48.5.2.6. ^ P.E. Corbett, The Roman Law of Marriage (1930), as cited by Edwards, p. 35; see also discussion in Nussbaum, pp. 305–306. ^ Beryl Rawson, The Family in Ancient Rome (Cornell University Press, 1987), p. 27, as cited by Edwards, pp. 35–36. ^ Edwards, pp. 34–36. ^ Edwards, pp. 55–56. ^ Edwards, p. 62 ^ Elaine Fantham, "Stuprum: Public Attitudes and Penalties for Sexual Offences in Republican Rome," in Roman Readings: Roman Response to Greek Literature from Plautus to Statius and Quintilian (Walter de Gruyter, 2011), p. 142. ^ Gellérfi, Gergő (2020). Nubit amicus: Same-sex weddingsin Imperial Rome. Hungary: University of Szeged. ^ Stocquart 1907, p. 304. ^ Treggiari 1981, p. 58, note #42: "Marriage existed if there was affectio maritalis on the part of both parties. For the difficulty of determining whether a relationship was marriage, see for example Cic. de Or. 1.183, Quint. Decl. 247 (Ritter 11.15), Dig. 23.2.24, Mod. 24.1.32.13, Ulp.; 39.5.31 pr., Pap." ^ Rawson 1974, p. 288: "Concubinage seems to have been most frequent amongst freed persons." ^ a b Stocquart 1907, p. 305: "From matrimonium, we should distinguish; First, concubinatus, a union authorized under Augustus from the leges Julia et Papia, between persons of unequal condition, provided the man had no uxor. The concubina was neither uxor nor pellex, but uxoris loco. The children, issue of such a union, are neither legitimi nor spurii, but naturales. (Cod. 5, 27.) Second, contubernium is the perfectly regular and valid relation between a free man and a slave, or between two slaves. Through the civil law, it produced all the effects arising from the natural law. ^ Treggiari 1981, p. 53. Bibliography[edit] Edwards, Catharine (1993). The Politics of Immorality in Ancient Rome. Cambridge University Press. Gardner, Jane F. (1991). Women in Roman Law and Society. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-20635-9. Lefkowitz, Mary R. and Fant, Maureen B. (2005). Women's Life in Greece and Rome. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-4474-6.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Nussbaum, Martha C. (2002). "The Incomplete Feminism of Musonius Rufus, Platonist, Stoic, and Roman". The Sleep of Reason: Erotic Experience and Sexual Ethics in Ancient Greece and Rome. University of Chicago Press. Stocquart, Emile (March 1907). Sherman, Charles Phineas (ed.). Translated by Bierkan, Andrew T. "Marriage in Roman law". Yale Law Journal. 16 (5): 303–327. doi:10.2307/785389. Retrieved 2020-09-15. Treggiari, Susan (1981). "Contubernales". Phoenix. CAC. 35 (1): 42–69. doi:10.2307/1087137. Rawson, Beryl (1974). "Roman Concubinage and Other De Facto Marriages". Transactions of the American Philological Association. JHUP. 104: 279–305. doi:10.2307/2936094. Further reading[edit] Corbier, Mireille. 1991. "Divorce and Adoption as Roman Familial Strategies", In Marriage, Divorce, and Children in Ancient Rome, eds. Beryl Rawson, 47–78. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814918-2 Bradley, K.R. 1991. "Remarriage and the Structure of the Upper-Class Roman Family", In Marriage, Divorce, and Children in Ancient Rome, eds. Beryl Rawson, 79–98. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814918-2 Holland, Barbara, and Lane Yerkes. "The long good-bye." Smithsonian 28, no. 12 (March 1998):86. Parkin, Tim G. 2003. Old Age in the Roman World: A Cultural and Social History, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-7128-X Saller, Richard P. 1994. Patriarchy, Property, and Death in the Roman Family, New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-32603-6 The Age of Marriage in Ancient Rome by Arnold A. Lelis, William A. Percy, Beert C. Verstraete. The Edwin Mellen Press, 2003. ISBN 0-7734-6665-7 Debating Roman Demography Walter Scheidel (ed.) Brill Academic Publishers, 2000. ISBN 90-04-11525-0 Patriarchy, Property and Death in the Roman Family (Cambridge Studies in Population, Economy and Society in Past Time) by Richard P. Saller. Cambridge University Press, 1996. ISBN 0-521-59978-4 I Clavdia II: Women in Roman Art and Society. Edited by Diana E. E. Kleiner and Susan B. Matheson Yale University Art Gallery. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2000. Kiefer, O. (12 November 2012). Sexual Life In Ancient Rome. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-18198-6. 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en-wikipedia-org-2969	----	Basilicata - Wikipedia Basilicata From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Region of Italy Region of Italy Basilicata Lucania Region of Italy Flag Coat of arms Country Italy Capital Potenza Government  • President Vito Bardi (FI) Area  • Total 9,995 km2 (3,859 sq mi) Population (3 October 2012)  • Total 575,902  • Density 58/km2 (150/sq mi) Demonym(s) English: Lucanian Italian: Lucano (man) Italian: Lucana (woman) Time zone UTC+1 (CET)  • Summer (DST) UTC+2 (CEST) ISO 3166 code IT-77 GDP (nominal) €12.6 billion (2018)[1] GDP per capita €22,200 (2018)[2] HDI (2018) 0.853[3] very high · 17th of 21 NUTS Region ITF Website www.regione.basilicata.it Basilicata (UK: /bəˌsɪlɪˈkɑːtə/,[4] US: /-ˌzɪl-/,[5] Italian: [baziliˈkaːta]), also known by its ancient name Lucania (/luːˈkeɪniə/, also US: /luːˈkɑːnjə/,[6][7] Italian: [luˈkaːnja]), is an administrative region in Southern Italy, bordering on Campania to the west, Apulia to the north and east, and Calabria to the south. It has two coastlines: a 30-km stretch on the Tyrrhenian Sea between Campania and Calabria, and a longer coastline along the Gulf of Taranto between Calabria and Apulia. The region can be thought of as the "instep" of Italy, with Calabria functioning as the "toe" and Apulia the "heel". The region covers about 10,000 km2 (3,900 sq mi). In 2010 the population was slightly under 600,000. The regional capital is Potenza. The region is divided into two provinces: Potenza and Matera.[8][9] Its inhabitants are generally known as Lucanians, although this ethnonym should properly refer to ancient Lucania's populations. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Geography 3 History 3.1 Prehistory 3.2 Ancient history 3.3 Middle Ages 3.4 Modern and contemporary ages 4 Demographics 5 Government and politics 6 Administrative divisions 7 Economy 8 Tourism 8.1 Archeological sites 8.2 Religious buildings 8.3 Castles 8.4 Other sights 9 Culture 9.1 Music 9.2 Cinema 9.3 Cuisine 10 References 11 External links Etymology[edit] The name probably derives from "basilikos" (Greek: βασιλικός), which refers to the basileus, the Byzantine emperor, who ruled the region for 200 years, from 536/552 to 571/590 and from 879 to 1059. Others argue that the name may refer to the Basilica of Acerenza, which held judicial power in the Middle Ages. During the Greek and Roman Ages, Basilicata was known as Lucania. This was possibly derived from "leukos" (Greek: λευκός), meaning "white", from "lykos" (Greek: λύκος), meaning "wolf", or from Latin "lūcus", meaning "sacred wood". Geography[edit] Dolomiti lucane and Pietrapertosa Basilicata covers an extensive part of the southern Apennine Mountains, between the Ofanto river in the north and the Pollino massif in the south. It is bordered on the east by a large part of the Bradano river depression, which is traversed by numerous streams and declines to the southeastern coastal plains on the Ionian Sea. The region also has a short coastline to the southwest on the Tyrrhenian Sea side of the peninsula. Basilicata is the most mountainous region in the south of Italy, with 47% of its area of 9,992 km2 (3,858 sq mi) covered by mountains. Of the remaining area, 45% is hilly, and 8% is made up of plains. Notable mountains and ranges include the Pollino massif, the Dolomiti lucane, Monte Vulture, Monte Alpi, Monte Carmine, Monti Li Foj and Toppa Pizzuta. Badlands in Aliano Geological features of the region include the volcanic formations of Monte Vulture, and the seismic faults in the Melfi and Potenza areas in the north, and around Pollino in the south. Much of the region was devastated in the 1857 Basilicata earthquake. More recently, the 1980 Irpinia earthquake destroyed many towns in the northwest of the region. The mountainous terrain combined with weak rock and soil types makes landslides prevalent. The lithological structure of the substratum and its chaotic tectonic deformation predispose the slope to landslides, and this problem is compounded by the lack of forested land. In common with many another Mediterranean region, Basilicata was once rich in forests, but they were largely felled and made barren during the time of Roman rule. The variable climate is influenced by three coastlines (Adriatic, Ionian and Tyrrhenian) and the complexity of the region's physical features. In general, the climate is continental in the mountains and Mediterranean along the coasts. History[edit] Prehistory[edit] The first traces of human presence in Basilicata date to the late Paleolithic, with findings of Homo erectus. Late Cenozoic fossils, found at Venosa and other locations, include elephants, rhinoceros and species now extinct such as a saber-toothed cat of the genus Machairodus. Examples of rock art from the Mesolithic have been discovered near Filiano. From the fifth millennium, people stopped living in caves and built settlements of huts up to the rivers leading to the interior (Tolve, Tricarico, Aliano, Melfi, Metaponto). In this period, anatomically modern humans lived by cultivating cereals and animal husbandry (Bovinae and Caprinae). Chalcolithic sites include the grottoes of Latronico and the funerary findings of the Cervaro grotto near Lagonegro. The first known stable market center of the Apennine culture on the sea, consisting of huts on the promontory of Capo la Timpa [it], near to Maratea, dates to the Bronze Age. The first indigenous Iron Age communities lived in large villages in plateaus located at the borders of the plains and the rivers, in places fitting their breeding and agricultural activities. Such settlements include that of Anglona, located between the fertile valleys of Agri and Sinni, of Siris and, on the coast of the Ionian Sea, of Incoronata-San Teodoro. The first presence of Greek colonists, coming from the Greek islands and Anatolia, date from the late eighth century BC. There are virtually no traces of survival of the 11th–8th century BC archaeological sites of the settlements (aside from a necropolis at Castelluccio on the coast of the Tyrrhenian Sea): this was perhaps caused by the increasing presence of Greek colonies, which changed the balance of the trades. Ancient history[edit] The ancient region of Lucania In ancient historical times the region was originally known as Lucania, named for the Lucani, an Oscan-speaking population from central Italy. Their name might be derived from Greek leukos meaning "white", lykos ("gray wolf"), or Latin lucus ("sacred grove"). Or more probably Lucania, as much as the Lucius forename (praenomen) derives from the Latin word Lux (gen. lucis), meaning "light" (<PIE *leuk- "brightness", Latin verb lucere "to shine"), and is a cognate of name Lucas. Another etymology proposed is a derivation from Etruscan Lauchum (or Lauchme) meaning "king", which however was transferred into Latin as Lucumo.[10] Starting from the late eighth century BC, the Greeks established a settlement first at Siris, founded by fugitives from Colophon. Then with the foundation of Metaponto from Achaean colonists, they started the conquest of the whole Ionian coast. There were also indigenous Oenotrian foundations on the coast, which exploited the nearby presence of Greek settlements, such as Velia and Pyxous, for their maritime trades. The first contacts between the Lucanians and the Romans date from the latter half of the fourth century BC. After the conquest of Taranto in 272, Roman rule was extended to the whole region: the Appian Way reached Brindisi and the colonies of Potentia (modern Potenza) and Grumentum were founded. Middle Ages[edit] Pope Nicholas II investing Robert Guiscard as duke in Melfi After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476, Basilicata fell to Germanic rule, which ended in the mid-6th century when the Byzantines reconquered it from the Ostrogoths between 536 and 552 during the apocalyptic Byzantine-Gothic war under the leadership of Byzantine generals Belisarius and Narses. The region, deeply Christianized since as early as the 5th century, became part of the Lombard Duchy of Benevento founded by the invading Lombards between 571 and 590. In the following centuries, Saracen raids led part of the population to move from the plain and coastal settlements to more protected centers located on hills. The towns of Tricarico and Tursi were under Muslim rule for a short period: later the "Saracen" population would be expelled.[11] The region was conquered once more for Byzantium from the Saracens and the Lombards in the late 9th century, with the campaigns of Nikephoros Phokas the Elder and his successors, and became part of the theme of Longobardia. In 968 the theme of Lucania was established, with the capital at Tursikon (Tursi). In the XI century, Basilicata, together with the rest of much of southern Italy, was conquered by the Normans. Melfi became the first capital of the County of Apulia (later County of Apulia and Calabria) in 1043, where Robert Guiscard was named "Duke" by Pope Nicholas II. Venosa also gained importance under the Norman dominion, chosen by Robert Guiscard as the Hauteville family's burial (and he himself will be later buried there too).[12] Inherited by the Hohenstaufen, Frederick II reorganized the administrative structure of his predecessors and the Justiciarate of Basilicata, whose borders coincided almost entirely with the actual region, was created. In Melfi, the Emperor promulgated the Liber Augustalis (commonly known as Constitutions of Melfi), code of laws for the Kingdom of Sicily. The Swabians were ousted in the 13th century by the Capetian House of Anjou. Since then, Basilicata began to lose importance and was marked by an irreversible socio-political decline. Modern and contemporary ages[edit] Band of brigands from Basilicata, c. 1860 In 1485, Basilicata was the seat of plotters against King Ferdinand I of Naples, the so-called conspiracy of the Barons, which included the Sanseverino of Tricarico, the Caracciolo of Melfi, the Gesualdo of Caggiano, the Orsini Del Balzo [it] of Altamura and Venosa and other anti-Aragonese families. Later, Charles V stripped most of the barons of their lands, replacing them with the Carafa, Revertera, Pignatelli and Colonna among others. After the formation of the Neapolitan Republic (1647), Basilicata also rebelled, but the revolt was suppressed. In 1663 a new province was created in Basilicata with its capital in Matera. The region came under the dominion of the House of Bourbon in 1735. Basilicata autonomously declared its annexation to the Kingdom of Italy on August 18, 1860 with the Potenza insurrection. It was during this period that the State confiscated and sold off vast tracts of Basilicata's territory formerly owned by the Catholic Church. As the new owners were a handful of wealthy aristocratic families, the average citizen did not see any immediate economic and social improvements after unification, and poverty continued unabated. This gave rise to the phenomenon of brigandage, which actually turned into a civil war in the form of a guerrilla fighting, whereby the Bourbon in exile and the Church encouraged the peasants to rise up against the Kingdom of Italy. This strong opposition movement continued for many years. The revolt in Basilicata was led by Carmine Crocco was the most important chief in the region and the most impressive band leader in southern Italy.[13] It was only really after World War II that things slowly began to improve thanks to land reform. In 1952, the inhabitants of the Sassi di Matera were rehoused by the State, but many of Basilicata's population had emigrated or were in the process of emigrating, which led to a demographic crisis from which it is still recovering. Demographics[edit] Historical population Year Pop. ±% 1861 509,000 —     1871 524,000 +2.9% 1881 539,000 +2.9% 1901 492,000 −8.7% 1911 486,000 −1.2% 1921 492,000 +1.2% 1931 514,000 +4.5% 1936 543,000 +5.6% 1951 628,000 +15.7% 1961 644,000 +2.5% 1971 603,000 −6.4% 1981 610,000 +1.2% 1991 611,000 +0.2% 2001 598,000 −2.1% 2010 (estimate) 587,000 −1.8% 2017 570,365 −2.8% Source: ISTAT, 2001 Although Basilicata has never had a large population, there have nevertheless been quite considerable fluctuations in the demographic pattern of the region. In 1881, there were 539,258 inhabitants but by 1911 the population had decreased by 11% to 485,911, mainly as a result of emigration overseas. There was a slow increase in the population until World War II, after which there was a resurgence of emigration to other countries in Europe, which continued until 1971 and the start of another period of steady increase until 1993 (611,000 inhabitants). However, in recent years the population has decreased as a result of a new wave of migration, both towards northern Italy and to other countries in Europe, and a reduction in the birth rate.[14] The population density is very low compared to that of Italy as a whole: 59.1 inhabitants per km² compared to 200.4 nationwide in 2010. There is not a great difference between the population densities of the provinces of Matera and Potenza.[14] Government and politics[edit] Main article: Politics of Basilicata Administrative divisions[edit] Basilicata is divided into two provinces: Province Area (km2) Population Density (inh./km2) Province of Matera 3,447 203,837 59.1 Province of Potenza 6,545 387,107 59.1 Economy[edit] FIAT plant in Melfi Cultivation consists mainly of sowables (especially wheat), which represent 46% of the total land. Potatoes and maize are produced in the mountain areas. Olives and vine production is relatively small with about 31,000 hectares (77,000 acres) under cultivation.[15] The terrain is mountainous and hilly with poor transportation routes that hinders harvesting. Most oils are sold unbranded and only 3% is exported. The main olive cultivars are Ogliarola del Vulture, Ogliarola del Bradano, Majatica di Ferrandina and Farasana with only Ogliarola del Vulture having the Protected Designation of Origin (PDO).[16] Other varieties are the Arnasca, Ascolana, Augellina, Cellina, Frantoio, Leccino, Majatica, Nostrale, Ogliarola (Ogliarola Barese), Palmarola or Fasolina, Rapolese di Lavello, and Sargano (Sargano di Fermo and Sargano di San Benedetto).[17] Among industrial activities, the manufacturing sector contributes to the gross value added of the secondary sector with 64% of the total, while the building sector contributes 24%. Within the services sector, the main activities in terms of gross value added are business activities, distributive trade, education and public administration. In the last few years, new productive sectors have developed: manufacturing, automotive, and especially oil extraction. In 2009, Eni employed 230 people in this area (of whom over 50% were from Basilicata), and about 1,800 were employed in activities directly generated by Eni's operations, distributed in 80 companies of which over 50% were from Basilicata.[18] The region produced about 100,000 bbl/d (16,000 m3/d), meeting 11 percent of Italy's domestic oil demand.[19] The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the region was 12.6 billion euros in 2018, accounting for 0.7% of Italy's economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 22,200 euros or 74% of the EU27 average in the same year. The GDP per employee was 95% of the EU average.[20] Tourism[edit] Difficult accessibility and lack of extended promotion make Basilicata one of the most remote and least visited regions of Italy. However, tourism is slowly growing since the early 2000's. Matera, once dubbed "national disgrace" by prime minister Alcide De Gasperi who urged to take strict development measures due to its extreme poverty,[21] is now Basilicata's main attraction and has gained fame worldwide for its historical center, the Sassi, designated in 1993 as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[22] In 2019, Matera was designated as the European Capital of Culture.[23] Seaside tourism is mainly concentrated in Maratea, nicknamed "The Pearl of Tyrrhenian Sea",[24] but also the Ionian coast (Policoro, Pisticci, Bernalda, Nova Siri) is fairly developed. Naturalistic attractions include Pollino, that hosts the largest national park in Italy,[25] Dolomiti lucane and Vulture. The New York Times ranked Basilicata third in its list of "52 Places to Go in 2018", describing it as "Italy’s best-kept secret".[26] Sassi di Matera Maratea Pollino Archeological sites[edit] Tavole Palatine, Metaponto Basilicata has a variety of archeological sites containing traces of Prehistoric, Greek, Roman and Jewish heritage: Civita, Tricarico Grumentum Heraclea Metapontum Jewish catacombs of Venosa Notarchirico Petre de la Mola Serra di Vaglio Venusia Religious buildings[edit] Abbey of Santissima Trinità Acerenza Cathedral Among the religious buildings, the most relevant are: Abbey of Santissima Trinità, Venosa Acerenza Cathedral Irsina Cathedral Matera Cathedral Melfi Cathedral Pierno Abbey, San Fele Potenza Cathedral Rapolla Cathedral San Michele Abbey, Monticchio San Pietro Caveoso Church, Matera Sanctuary of Anglona, Tursi Tricarico Cathedral Venosa Cathedral Castles[edit] Melfi castle The best preserved castles of the region are: Bernalda castle Lagopesole castle Laurenzana castle Malconsiglio castle, Miglionico Melfi castle Muro Lucano castle Tramontano Castle Venosa castle Other sights[edit] Castelmezzano Craco Basilicata has many small and pictoresque villages, seven of them have been selected by the The most beautiful villages in Italy association.[27] However, they have to face depopulation problems, while others (Craco, Campomaggiore) were abandoned due to natural disasters. Some of the most historical and distinctive villages are: Accettura Acerenza Aliano Campomaggiore Castelmezzano Craco Guardia Perticara Pietrapertosa Rivello Rotondella Satriano di Lucania Valsinni Viggianello Culture[edit] Music[edit] Main article: Music of Basilicata I Viggianesi, by Filippo Palizzi, 1853 Although Basilicata hosted classical composers such as Carlo Gesualdo and Egidio Romualdo Duni, the region is primarily identified in popular music, which reflects the humble living conditions of its inhabitants. The arpa viggianese (commonly known as arpicedda) is a typical harp from Viggiano of average size, with a thin and light structure that make it easier to carry; it was the distinctive instrument of street musicians from the Val d'Agri area in the past centuries, who wandered around the world and many of whom were admitted to symphony orchestras. Today, Viggiano is remembered as the "City of Harp and Music".[28] Other traditional instruments are cupa cupa, zampogna and ciaramella. During the emigration wave of the late 19th century, some composers gained recognition in North America: Leonardo De Lorenzo, flautist of several American philharmonic orchestras and professor at the Eastman School of Music, regarded as one of the most eminent flute pedagogues of the 1900s; Carlo Curti, who helped to popularize the mandolin in the United States and Mexico, and founder of the Orquestra Típica Mexicana, considered the "predecessor of the Mariachi bands."[29] Comedy duo Lyons and Yosco became popular for their million-selling ragtime piece "Spaghetti Rag".[30] Modern pop artists such as Mango and Arisa achieved great success in the Italian music scene. Since the mid 1990s, Basilicata hosts the Agglutination Metal Festival, one of the most long-lived heavy metal events in Europe.[31][32] Cinema[edit] Since the post–World War II era, Basilicata has become a set for many national and international film productions. Matera is the most coveted film location, especially for biblical-themed movies, being often compared with the ancient Jerusalem.[33] Other locations include the ghost town of Craco, Melfi and Maratea. The region hosted, among the others, the filming of The Gospel According to St. Matthew (1964), Christ Stopped at Eboli (1979), I'm Not Scared (2003), The Passion of the Christ (2004), The Omen (2006), Quantum of Solace (2008), Wonder Woman (2017), No Time to Die (2021). Some film directors are from Basilicata, most notably Robert G. Vignola, a prominent figure of the silent era, Pasquale Festa Campanile, associated with the commedia all'italiana genre, and Ruggero Deodato, known for his horror films such as the controversial Cannibal Holocaust. Cuisine[edit] Peperone crusco, a staple of the cuisine of Basilicata The local cuisine is mostly based on pork and sheep meat, legumes, cereals, vegetables and tubers. It is commonly referred to as "cucina povera" (peasant food), deeply anchored in peasant traditions. Bread crumb is considered a poor-man’s cheese substitute, sprinkled over pasta dishes and used as a seasoning for meat and vegetables. Horseradish is often used as a spice and condiment, which is referred to as "poor man’s truffle".[34] The peperone crusco (PAT) is a specialty of the regional cuisine, sometimes labeled as "the red gold of Basilicata".[35] It is the dried form of the peperone di Senise (PGI), one of the most popular Italian pepper varieties.[36] Traditional recipes include pasta dishes like pasta con i peperoni cruschi and tumacë me tulë, and main courses such as rafanata, acquasale and pastizz. Basilicata is best-known for the Lucanica di Picerno (PGI) pork sausage that derives from lucanica, an ancient recipe originated before the Roman empire.[34] Pane di Matera (PGI) is a type of bread recognizable for its intense flavour and conical shape, as well as long preservation.[37] Other principal products are cheeses like pecorino di Filiano (PDO), canestrato di Moliterno (PGI), padraccio (PAT) and treccia dura (PAT); vegetables like melanzana rossa di Rotonda (PDO); and legumes like fagiolo di Sarconi (PGI) and fagiolo bianco di Rotonda (PDO). The region is also known for its naturally sparkling mineral water that springs from the streams of Mount Vulture.[38] Alcoholic beverages include Aglianico del Vulture, considered one of Italy’s top red wines,[39][34] and Amaro Lucano liqueur. References[edit] ^ "Eurostat – Tables, Graphs and Maps Interface (TGM) table". Epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu. 14 June 2013. Retrieved 26 July 2013. ^ "Regional GDP per capita ranged from 30% to 263% of the EU average in 2018" (Press release). ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 1 September 2020. ^ "Sub-national HDI – Area Database – Global Data Lab". hdi.globaldatalab.org. Retrieved 13 September 2018. ^ "Basilicata". Oxford Dictionaries UK Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 6 May 2019. ^ "Basilicata". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (5th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Retrieved 6 May 2019. ^ "Basilicata". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved 6 May 2019. ^ "Lucania". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Retrieved 6 May 2019. ^ "Basilicata nell'Enciclopedia Treccani". www.treccani.it. ^ "lucano in Vocabolario – Treccani". www.treccani.it. ^ Bonfante G., Bonfante L, The Etruscan Language: An Introduction, 1983, p. 59. ^ Archivio storico per le province napoletane. Società napoletana di storia patria. 1876. ^ "The Most Holy Trinity Complex in Venosa". portacoeli.it. Retrieved 17 November 2020. ^ Eric Hobsbawm, Bandits, Penguin, 1985, p. 25. ^ a b "Eurostat". Circa.europa.eu. Archived from the original on 3 March 2012. Retrieved 26 July 2013. ^ FAO.org: Olive production: Olive Production: Extension, Consumption, and Exportation (pp.14)- Retrieved 2018-07-03 ^ Olive oil Times: Basilicata- Retrieved 2018-07-03 ^ Italian olives- Retrieved 2018=07-03 ^ [1] Archived 11 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine ^ "Oil Exploration in Basilicata, Italy". Fossilfreeeib.org. Archived from the original on 26 July 2011. ^ "Regional GDP per capita ranged from 30% to 263% of the EU average in 2018". Eurostat. ^ "The miracle of Matera: from city of poverty and squalor to hip hub for cave-dwellers". theguardian.com. 18 June 2017. Retrieved 19 November 2020. ^ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "The Sassi and the Park of the Rupestrian Churches of Matera". whc.unesco.org. Retrieved 4 June 2018. ^ "Plovdiv and Matera: European Capitals of Culture in 2019". europarl.europa.eu. 7 January 2019. Retrieved 20 November 2020. ^ "Maratea, the Pearl of Tyrrhenian Sea". italiaslowtour.com. 18 June 2017. Retrieved 19 November 2020. ^ "Visit Italy's largest park - Parco del Pollino". italymagazine.com. 23 July 2009. Retrieved 19 November 2020. ^ "52 Places to Go in 2018". The New York Times. 10 January 2018. Retrieved 21 January 2018. ^ "Portfolio Archives: Basilicata". borghipiubelliditalia.it. Retrieved 19 November 2020. ^ "From local traditions to "augmented reality". The MUVIG museum of Viggiano (Italy)" (PDF). core.ac.uk. Retrieved 16 November 2020. ^ Castillo, Manuel M. (2014). "Italian and Spanish works of Mexican composers: Maria Grever, Ignacio Fernandez Esperon "Tata Nacho," and Agustin Lara". The University of Kentucky UKnowledge, Thesis and Dissertations, Music. The University of Kentucky: 20. Retrieved 8 September 2015. The Orquesta Típica is the predecessor of the Mariachi bands and is the same orchestra that Tata Nacho conducted from 1960-1968. ^ Jasen, David A (1986). Ragtime gems: original sheet music for 25 ragtime classics. New York: Dover Publications. p. iii. ISBN 978-0-486-25248-3. ^ "AGGLUTINATION METAL FESTIVAL 2018: meet & greet esclusivo con i DEATH SS". metalitalia.com (in Italian). 19 July 2018. Retrieved 2 November 2018. ^ "XXIV AGGLUTINATION METAL FESTIVAL: il programma completo del festival". metalpit.it (in Italian). 12 June 2018. Retrieved 2 November 2018. ^ "Basilicata Blockbusters: What To Watch Before Visiting". italymagazine.com. Retrieved 16 November 2020. ^ a b c "The complete foodie guide to Basilicata". greatitalianchefs.com. 8 August 2019. Retrieved 16 November 2020. ^ "Crusco Peppers: the Red Necklaces of Basilicata Towns". lacucinaitaliana.com. 16 September 2019. Retrieved 30 August 2020. ^ "Top 3 most popular Italian peppers". tasteatlas.com. 19 November 2020. Retrieved 19 November 2020. ^ "Bread of Matera, a world patrimony". italianfoodexcellence.com. 14 November 2016. Retrieved 16 November 2020. ^ "Rionero in Vulture (PZ) - Vulture Mineral Waters". aptbasilicata.it. Retrieved 16 November 2020. ^ "Aglianico del Vulture: The Basilicata Region Produces One of the Great Undiscovered Wines of Italy". intowine.com. Retrieved 4 March 2016. External links[edit] Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Basilicata. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Basilicata. 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en-wikipedia-org-3009	----	Biblioteca Nacional de España - Wikipedia Biblioteca Nacional de España From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from BNE (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Public library in Madrid, Spain This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Biblioteca Nacional de España" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) National Library of Spain Biblioteca Nacional de España Country Spain Established 1712 (308 years ago) (1712) Reference to legal mandate Royal Decree 1581/1991 on 31 October Location Madrid Collection Items collected books, journals, newspapers, magazines, sound and music recordings, patents, databases, maps, stamps, prints, drawings and manuscripts Size 26,000,000 items, including 15,000,000 books and other printed materials, 30,000 manuscripts, 143,000 newspapers and serials, 4,500,000 graphic materials, 510,000 music scores, etc. Legal deposit Yes, by Decree on 23 December 1957 Access and use Access requirements Access to reproductions and post-1958 materials is open to Biblioteca Nacional library card holders. Access to pre-1958 materials is only allowed with a researcher card.[1] Materials in exceptional circumstances are subject to special restrictions.[2] Members 115,707 readers in 2007. The web users in the same year were 1,800,935. Other information Budget €47,380,860 Director Ana Santos Aramburo (since 2013) Staff 1025 (including external employees) Website http://www.bne.es/ Map National Library of Spain Native name Spanish: Biblioteca Nacional de España Location Madrid, Spain Spanish Property of Cultural Interest Official name Biblioteca Nacional de España Type Non-movable Criteria Monument Designated 1983 Reference no. RI-51-0004908 Location of National Library of Spain in Spain The Biblioteca Nacional de España (National Library of Spain) is a major public library, the largest in Spain, and one of the largest in the world. It is located in Madrid, on the Paseo de Recoletos. Contents 1 History 2 The library today 3 See also 4 References 5 External links History[edit] The library was founded by King Philip V in 1712 as the Palace Public Library (Biblioteca Pública de Palacio). The Royal Letters Patent that he granted, the predecessor of the current legal deposit requirement, made it mandatory for printers to submit a copy of every book printed in Spain to the library. In 1836, the library's status as Crown property was revoked and ownership was transferred to the Ministry of Governance (Ministerio de la Gobernación). At the same time, it was renamed the Biblioteca Nacional. During the 19th century, confiscations, purchases and donations enabled the Biblioteca Nacional to acquire the majority of the antique and valuable books that it currently holds. In 1892 the building was used to host the Historical American Exposition.[3] On 16 March 1896, the Biblioteca Nacional opened to the public in the same building in which it is currently housed and included a vast Reading Room on the main floor designed to hold 320 readers. In 1931 the Reading Room was reorganised, providing it with a major collection of reference works, and the General Reading Room was created to cater for students, workers and general readers. During the Spanish Civil War close to 500,000 volumes were collected by the Confiscation Committee (Junta de Incautación) and stored in the Biblioteca Nacional to safeguard works of art and books held until then in religious establishments, palaces and private houses. During the 20th century numerous modifications were made to the building to adapt its rooms and repositories to its constantly expanding collections, to the growing volume of material received following the modification to the Legal Deposit requirement in 1958, and to the numerous works purchased by the library. Among this building work, some of the most noteworthy changes were the alterations made in 1955 to triple the capacity of the library's repositories, and those started in 1986 and completed in 2000, which led to the creation of the new building in Alcalá de Henares and complete remodelling of the building on Paseo de Recoletos, Madrid. In 1986, when Spain's main bibliographic institutions - the National Newspaper Library (Hemeroteca Nacional), the Spanish Bibliographic Institute (Instituto Bibliográfico Hispánico) and the Centre for Documentary and Bibliographic Treasures (Centro del Tesoro Documental y Bibliográfico) - were incorporated into the Biblioteca Nacional, the library was established as the State Repository of Spain's Cultural Memory (Centro Estatal Depositario de la Memoria Cultural Española), making all of Spain's bibliographic output on any media available to the Spanish Library System and national and international researchers and cultural and educational institutions. In 1990 it was made an Autonomous Entity attached to the Ministry of Culture (Ministerio de Cultura). The Madrid premises are shared with the National Archaeological Museum. The library today[edit] The Biblioteca Nacional is Spain's highest library institution and is head of the Spanish Library System. As the country's national library, it is the centre responsible for identifying, preserving, conserving, and disseminating information about Spain's documentary heritage, and it aspires to be an essential point of reference for research into Spanish culture. In accordance with its Articles of Association, passed by Royal Decree 1581/1991 (R.D. 1581/1991) of 31 October 1991, its principal functions are to: Compile, catalogue, and conserve bibliographic archives produced in any language of the Spanish state, or any other language, for the purposes of research, culture, and information. Promote research through the study, loan, and reproduction of its bibliographic archive. Disseminate information on Spain's bibliographic output based on the entries received through the legal deposit requirement. The library's collection consists of more than 26,000,000 items, including 15,000,000 books and other printed materials, 4,500,000 graphic materials, 600,000 sound recordings, 510,000 music scores, more than 500,000 microforms, 500,000 maps, 143,000 newspapers and serials, 90,000 audiovisuals, 90,000 electronic documents, and 30,000 manuscripts. The current director of the Biblioteca Nacional is Ana Santos Aramburo, appointed in 2013. Former directors include her predecessors Glòria Pérez-Salmerón (2010–2013) and Milagros del Corral (2007-2010) as well as historian Juan Pablo Fusi (1996–2000) and author Rosa Regàs (2004–2007). Given its role as the legal deposit for the whole of Spain, since 1991 it has kept most of the overflowing collection at a secondary site in Alcalá de Henares, near Madrid. The Biblioteca Nacional provides access to its collections through the following library services: Guidance and general information on the institution and other libraries. Bibliographic information about its collection and those held by other libraries or library systems. Access to its automated catalogue, which currently contains close to 3,000,000 bibliographic records encompassing all of its collections. Archive consultation in the library's reading rooms. Interlibrary loans. Archive reproduction. Stairs and main entrance with monuments to San Isidoro, Alonso Berruguete, Alfonso X el Sabio by José Alcoverro Statue of Hispania by Agustí Querol above the library A page from the manuscript of The Lay of the Cid Statue of Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo in the lobby of the B.N.E. Building of the National Library of Spain in Alcalá de Henares See also[edit] Biblioteca Digital Hispánica [es], digital library launched in 2008 by the Biblioteca Nacional de España List of libraries in Spain References[edit] ^ "Carnés de la Biblioteca". www.bne.es (in Spanish). 20 March 2012. Retrieved 4 February 2017. ^ "Carné de investigador. Biblioteca Nacional de España". www.bne.es (in Spanish). 12 December 2011. Retrieved 4 February 2017. ^ "Cronología. National Library of Spain". 2014-08-11. Retrieved 5 May 2017. 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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3026	----	Intaglio (printmaking) - Wikipedia Intaglio (printmaking) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Copperplate engraving) Jump to navigation Jump to search Family of printing and printmaking techniques Depressions are engraved or etched into a flat printing plate. Likely not to scale: grooves can be less than a millimetre wide. The plate is covered in ink. The ink is wiped off the surface of the plate, but remains in the grooves. Paper is placed on the plate and compressed, such as by a heavy roller. The paper is removed, and the ink has been transferred from the plate to the paper. Micro-topography of an ordinary French post stamp (detail) showing the thickness of ink obtained by intaglio. The words la Poste appeared in white on red background and hence corresponds to areas with a lack of ink. Banknote portrait pattern made with intaglio printing. Denomination: 1000 Hungarian forint. Depicted area: 18.1 by 13.5 millimetres (0.71 in × 0.53 in). Intaglio (/ɪnˈtælioʊ/ in-TAL-ee-oh; Italian: [inˈtaʎʎo]) is the family of printing and printmaking techniques in which the image is incised into a surface and the incised line or sunken area holds the ink.[1] It is the direct opposite of a relief print, where the parts of the matrix that make the image stand above the main surface. Normally, copper or in recent times zinc sheets, called plates, are used as a surface or matrix, and the incisions are created by etching, engraving, drypoint, aquatint or mezzotint, often in combination.[2] Collagraphs may also be printed as intaglio plates.[3] After the decline of the main relief technique of woodcut around 1550, the intaglio techniques dominated both artistic printmaking as well as most types of illustration and popular prints until the mid 19th century. Contents 1 Process 2 Brief history 3 Current usage 4 Intaglio artists 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Process[edit] In intaglio printing, the lines to be printed are cut into a metal (e.g. copper) plate by means either of a cutting tool called a burin, held in the hand – in which case the process is called engraving; or through the corrosive action of acid – in which case the process is known as etching.[4] In etching, for example, the plate is pre-covered in a thin, acid-resistant resin or wax ground. Using etching needles or burins, the artist or writer (etcher) engraves their image (therefore to be only where the plate beneath is exposed). The plate's ground side is then dipped into acid, or the acid poured onto it. The acid bites into the surface of the plate where it was exposed. Biting is a printmaking term to describe the acid's etching, or incising, of the image; its duration depends on the acid strength, metal's reactivity, temperature, air pressure and the depth desired.[5] After the plate is sufficiently bitten it is removed from the acid bath, the ground is removed gently and the plate is usually dried or cleaned.[6] To print an intaglio plate, ink or inks are painted, wiped and/or dabbed into the recessed lines (such as with brushes/rubber gloves/rollers). The plate is then rubbed with tarlatan cloth to remove most of its waste (surface ink) and a final smooth wipe is often done with newspaper or old public phone book pages, leaving it in the incisions. Dampened paper will usually be fed against the plate, covered by a blanket, so when pressed by rolling press it is squeezed into the plate's ink-filled grooves with uniform very high pressure.[7] The blanket is then lifted, revealing the paper and printed image. The final stages repeat for each copy needed. Brief history[edit] Main articles: old master print and line engraving Intaglio printmaking emerged in Europe well after the woodcut print, with the earliest known surviving examples being undated designs for playing cards made in Germany, using drypoint technique, probably in the late 1430s.[8] Engraving had been used by goldsmiths to decorate metalwork, including armor, musical instruments and religious objects since ancient times, and the niello technique, which involved rubbing an alloy into the lines to give a contrasting color, also goes back to late antiquity. Scholars and practitioners of printmaking have suggested that the idea of making prints from engraved plates may well have originated with goldsmiths' practices of taking an impression on paper of a design engraved on an object, in order to keep a record of their work, or to check the quality.[9][10][8] Martin Schongauer was one of the most significant early artists in the engraving technique, and Albrecht Dürer is one of the most famous intaglio artists. Italian and Dutch engraving began slightly after the Germans, but were well developed by 1500. Drypoint and etching were also German inventions of the fifteenth century, probably by the Housebook Master and Daniel Hopfer respectively.[11][12] In the nineteenth century, Viennese printer Karel Klíč introduced a combined intaglio and photographic process. Photogravure retained the smooth continuous tones of photography but was printed using a chemically-etched copper plate. This permitted a photographic image to be printed on regular paper, for inclusion in books or albums.[13] In the 1940s and 1950s the Italian security printer Gualtiero Giori brought intaglio printing into the era of high-technology by developing the first ever six-colour intaglio printing press, designed to print banknotes which combined more artistic possibilities with greater security.[14] Current usage[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Intaglio" printmaking – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) At one time, intaglio printing was used for all mass-printed materials including banknotes, stock certificates, newspapers, books, maps and magazines, fabrics, wallpapers and sheet music. Today, intaglio engraving is used largely for paper or plastic currency, banknotes, passports and occasionally for high-value postage stamps. The appearance of engraving is sometimes mimicked for items such as wedding invitations by producing an embossment around lettering printed by another process (such as lithography or offset) to suggest the edges of an engraving plate. Intaglio artists[edit] William Blake Albrecht Dürer M. C. Escher Helen Frank Francisco Goya Michael Hafftka Stanley William Hayter Edward Hopper William Kentridge Max Klinger Käthe Kollwitz Mauricio Lasansky Martin Lewis evan k mwendwa Lucas van Leyden Cheryl Anne Lorance [[Lothar Osterburg] Gabor Peterdi Pablo Picasso Anton Pieck Krishna Reddy Rembrandt Félicien Rops Ludwig von Siegen Diane Victor James Abbott McNeill Whistler See also[edit] History of printing Rotogravure Viscosity printing References[edit] ^ Strauss, Victor (1967). The printing industry: an introduction to its many branches, processes, and products. Washington: Printing Industries of America. ISBN 0835202720. ^ Mustalish, Rachel (2003). "Printmaking Techniques of the WPA Printmakers". In Lisa Mintz Messinger (ed.). African American Artists, 1929–1945: Prints, Drawings and Paintings in the Metropolitan of Museum of Art (Metropolitan Museum of Art). Yale University Press. pp. 86–88. ISBN 0300098774. ^ Mueller White, Lucy (2002). "Intaglio Processes". Printmaking as Therapy: Frameworks for Freedom. Jessica Kingsley. pp. 108–109. ISBN 1843107082. ^ Ellis, Margaret Holben (1987). The Care of Prints and Drawings. Nashville: The American Association for State and Local History, 1987. p. 64. ^ "Glossary – Magical-Secrets: A Printmaking Community". magical-secrets.com. Retrieved 5 June 2016. ^ "Intaglio Printmaking – artelino". artelino.com. Retrieved 5 June 2016. ^ "intaglio – printing". britannica.com. Retrieved 5 June 2016. ^ a b Harrison, Charles (2006). "The printed picture in the Renaissance." In Kim Woods (Ed.), Making Renaissance Art. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 219. ^ Ross, John (1990). Complete Printmaker. Revised and expanded edition. New York: The Free Press. p. 65. ^ Griffiths, Antony (1996). Prints and Printmaking: An introduction to the history and techniques. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. p. 39. ^ "Parshall": David Landau & Peter Parshall, The Renaissance Print, Yale, 1996, pp5&23 ISBN 0-300-06883-2 ^ Cohen, Brian D. "Freedom and Resistance in the Act of Engraving (or, Why Dürer Gave up on Etching)," Art in Print Vol. 7 No. 3 (September-October 2017), 18. ^ "Photogravure". Notes on Photographs. George Eastman House. Retrieved 24 October 2015. [permanent dead link] ^ K. M. M. de Leeuw, Jan Bergstra, The History of Information Security: a Comprehensive Handbook (2007), p. 214 External links[edit] The dictionary definition of intaglio at Wiktionary Media related to Intaglio (printmaking) at Wikimedia Commons v t e Writing and writing material Enduring Plant-based Palm leaf (Borassus) Ola leaf (Corypha umbraculifera) Birch bark (Betula) Papyrus (Cyperus papyrus) Bamboo and wooden slips Paper Amate Trema micrantha Ficus aurea Parabaik (Streblus asper) Samut khoi (S. asper) Kraing (Morus bark) Other materials Clay tablet Wax tablet Metals Stamping Intaglio Stone Animal skin Parchment Vellum Oracle bone Silk text Textile printing Geoglyph Ink Photographic film Impermanent Electronic paper Screen Skywriting Carrier objects Inscription Bas-relief Scroll Manuscript Palimpsest Codex Book Sign Microform Electronic media Related topics Writing systems History of writing List of writing systems Authority control GND: 4060053-1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intaglio_(printmaking)&oldid=994199050" Categories: Printmaking Printing Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from January 2020 Articles with permanently dead external links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing French-language text Articles needing additional references from September 2020 All articles needing additional references Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Čeština Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Gaeilge 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia עברית Қазақша Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 December 2020, at 15:44 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3033	----	Alcaic stanza - Wikipedia Alcaic stanza From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Alcaic) Jump to navigation Jump to search The Alcaic stanza is a Greek lyrical meter, an Aeolic verse form traditionally believed to have been invented by Alcaeus, a lyric poet from Mytilene on the island of Lesbos, about 600 BC.[1] The Alcaic stanza and the Sapphic stanza named for Alcaeus' contemporary, Sappho, are two important forms of Classical poetry. The Alcaic stanza consists of two Alcaic hendecasyllables, followed by an Alcaic enneasyllable and an Alcaic decasyllable. Contents 1 In Sappho's and Alcaeus' poetry 2 In Latin poetry 3 Imitations in other languages 4 Notes In Sappho's and Alcaeus' poetry[edit] The Alcaic stanza as used by Sappho and Alcaeus has the scheme ( where "–" is a longum, "u" a breve, and "×" an anceps): × – u – × – u u – u – || (alc11) × – u – × – u u – u – || (alc11) × – u – × – u – – || (alc9 ) – u u – u u – u – – ||| (alc10) In Latin poetry[edit] One stanza consists of four lines; the first two lines are divided into two parts by a caesura after the fifth syllable. The metrical pattern of an Alcaic stanza would look like this: – – u – – : – u u – u – – – u – – : – u u – u – – – u – – – u – – – u u – u u – u – – (An "–" denotes a long syllable, "u" a short one, and ":" is the caesura.) Horace frequently used the Alcaic stanza in his Odes, as can be seen from this example : – – u – – – u u – u – Antehac nefas, depromere Caecubum – – u – – : – u u – u– cellis avitis, dum Capitolio – – u – – – u– – Regina dementis ruinas – u u – u u– u – – funus et Imperio parabat. (Odes 1.37, lines 5-8) An English translation, which suggests the metre, is : –– u – – : – u u – u – Prior to this, 'twas | irreligious to waste – – u – – : – u u – u – Old Caecuban wine | whilst, for the Capitol – –u – – – u – – Mad ruination plots the Queen, and – u u – u u – u – – Even a funeral for the Empire. Imitations in other languages[edit] A famous example of English Alcaics is Tennyson's "Milton": O mighty-mouth'd inventor of harmonies, O skill'd to sing of Time or Eternity,      God-gifted organ-voice of England,           Milton, a name to resound for ages![2] The Alcaic stanza was adapted to use in English and French during the Renaissance. It was very frequently used in Italian poetry of the 19th century, especially by Giosuè Carducci. As in English, the meter is accentual rather than quantitative. Poi che un sereno vapor d’ambrosia da la tua còppa diffuso avvolsemi,      o Ebe con passo di dea           trasvolata sorridendo via; (Giosuè Carducci, "Ideale", from: Odi barbare) It was an historically important form in Hungarian poetry.[3] In Polish poetry (in contrast to the Sapphic stanza which was extremely popular since the 16th century) Alcaics were used very rarely. Even in translation Horace's Alcaic stanzas were usually turned into different forms. An example (perhaps the only) of an Alcaic stanza in Polish original literature is Stanisław Trembecki's Ode to Adam Naruszewicz:[4] O ty, kapłanie Delijskiego świętny, Przeszłego wiadom, przyszłości pojętny      Wieńcz twe skronie, wieszczą bierz laskę,           Śnieżny ubiór i złotą przepaskę. Trembecki's verse is syllabic (11/11/9/10). There is no accentual metrical pattern. German has also used alcaics with some success. They were introduced by Klopstock, and used by Hölderlin, by Johann Heinrich Voss in his translations of Horace, by August Kopisch and other 19th century German poets.[2] Notes[edit] ^ Cuddon, John Anthony (1998). A Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory. Wiley. p. 18. ISBN 9780631202714. ^ a b Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Alcaics" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 517. ^ See [1][permanent dead link] and [2] Archived 2006-06-23 at the Wayback Machine ^ Adam Ważyk, Mickiewicz i wersyfikacja narodowa, Warszawa 1951 (in Polish). Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alcaic_stanza&oldid=949255631" Categories: Stanzaic form Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2018 Articles with permanently dead external links Webarchive template wayback links Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Estremeñu Français Italiano Latina Magyar 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Русский Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 5 April 2020, at 12:54 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3038	----	National Library of the Czech Republic - Wikipedia National Library of the Czech Republic From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from NKC (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Central library of the Czech Republic National Library of the Czech Republic Baroque library hall in the National Library of the Czech Republic Country Czech Republic Type National library Established 1777 (243 years ago) (1777) Location Clementinum, Prague Coordinates 50°5′14.62″N 14°25′2.58″E / 50.0873944°N 14.4173833°E / 50.0873944; 14.4173833Coordinates: 50°5′14.62″N 14°25′2.58″E / 50.0873944°N 14.4173833°E / 50.0873944; 14.4173833 Collection Size 7,358,308 total items[1] 21,271 manuscripts[1] c. 4,200 incunabula[2] Other information Director Martin Kocanda Website www.nkp.cz Map The National Library of the Czech Republic (Czech: Národní knihovna České republiky) is the central library of the Czech Republic. It is directed by the Ministry of Culture. The library's main building is located in the historical Clementinum building in the centre of Prague, where approximately half of its books are kept. The other half of the collection is stored in the district of Hostivař.[3] The National Library is the biggest library in the Czech Republic, housing around 6 million documents. The library currently has around 20,000 registered readers.[1] Although comprising mostly Czech texts, the library also stores older material from Turkey, Iran and India.[4] The library also houses books for Charles University in Prague.[5] Contents 1 History 2 Collections 3 Digitisation 4 Proposed new building 5 Incidents 6 See also 7 References 8 External links History[edit] In the 13th century, the Studium generale school was founded in the Dominican monastery in Prague's Old Town. This school, including its library, merged with the university in the 14th century. In 1556, monks of the Jesuit Order erected a boarding school, named Clementinum, on the remains of the Dominican monastery. From 1622 on, the Jesuits also administrated the Charles University, and all their libraries were accommodated in the Clementinum. East entrance of the Clementinum After the suppression of the Jesuits, the university became a state institution in 1773, and in 1777 its library was declared "Imperial-Royal Public and University Library" by Maria Theresa. Even after the splitting of the university into a Czech and a German university in 1882, the library remained as a joint institution. In 1918, the Public and University Library was taken over by the government of the newly founded Czechoslovakia. In 1924, the Slavonic Library (Slovanská knihovna) was founded, and moved to the Clementinum in 1929; it is still an autonomous part of the National Library. In 1935, the library was renamed "National and University Library" (Národní a univerzitní knihovna). In the same year, a law on the legal deposit copy duty was introduced – a practice dating back to 1781, when Prague printers had to hand in legal deposit copies of their prints to the library. Although Czech universities and colleges were closed after the German occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1939, the library remained open under the name of "Municipal and University Library" (Zemská a univerzitní knihovna). In 1958, all large Prague libraries were merged into the single centralized State Library of the Czechoslovak Republic (Státní knihovna CSR). In 1990, the hitherto last renaming of the library resulted in its current name: National Library of the Czech Republic. A new storage building, the Central Depository in Hostivař, was inaugurated in 1996.[6] Collections[edit] The most precious medieval manuscripts preserved in the National Library are the Codex Vyssegradensis and the Passional of Abbes Kunigunde. Digitisation[edit] The National Library of the Czech Republic began with their digitisation efforts in 1992 in collaboration with the Czech company AiP Beroun. In these efforts, the National Library conducted pioneer work on a global scale in the creation of digitization standards. Later, it got involved in a number of European projects, in which it came to additional developments particularly standards regarding manuscripts and old prints. It also supported several pilot projects at the time of their creation and the first years of the UNESCO Memory of the World Programme (with the programme's first pilot project being from the National Library of the Czech Republic in 1993). The library won international recognition in 2005 as it received the inaugural Jikji Prize from UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme for its efforts in digitising old texts.[7][8] In its first 13 years since 1992, the project accomplished the digitisation of 1,700 documents and made them publicly available.[4] The National Library makes its digital content available in the digital libraries Manuscriptorium (http://www.manuscriptorium.com/en) and Kramerius (http://kramerius5.nkp.cz). Manuscriptorium comprises more than 111,000 manuscripts and old prints, with almost 84,000 of them contributed by the National Library and the remainder from 138 partners from 24 countries.[citation needed] Since 2008, when Europeana, the European Union's digital platform for cultural heritage, came into existence, Manuscriptorium contributes manuscripts and old prints digitised by libraries all over the Czech Republic and by other partners to the Europeana platform and several other specialised portals, including professional academic Resource Discovery services, e.g. of EBSCO, ProQuest and ExLibris. In a collaborative project with Google, additional old prints and early 19th century books from the Slavonic Library have been digitised, with altogether more than 177,000 books digitised by Google (as of October 2018).[citation needed] These books are accessible through the Google Books digital library as well as through the National Library's Catalogue of Old Prints and the Catalogue of the Slavonic Library, and the old prints gradually also through Manuscriptorium. The Kramerius digital library contains digitised documents published after the year 1800. So far, more than 2,000 periodical series have been digitised. The number of digitized books continues to grow, especially after mass digitization of modern prints in context of the National Digital Library project.[citation needed] Proposed new building[edit] General reading room (former refectory of the Jesuit residence in Clementinum) In 2006 the Czech parliament approved funding for the construction of a new library building on Letna plain, between Hradčanská metro station and Sparta Prague's football ground, Letná stadium.[9][10] In March 2007, following a request for tender, Czech architect Jan Kaplický was selected by a jury to undertake the project, with a projected completion date of 2011.[11] Later in 2007 the project was delayed following objections regarding its proposed location from government officials including Prague Mayor Pavel Bém and President Václav Klaus.[10][12] Plans for the building had still not been decided in February 2008, with the matter being referred to the Office for the Protection of Competition in order to determine if the tender had been won fairly.[13] Later in 2008, Minister of Culture Václav Jehlička announced the end of the project, following a ruling from the European Commission that the tender process had not been carried out legally.[14] Incidents[edit] The library was affected by the 2002 European floods, with some documents moved to upper levels to avoid the excess water.[15] Over 4,000 books were removed from the library in July 2011 following flooding in parts of the main building.[16] There was a fire at the library in December 2012, but nobody was injured in the event.[17] See also[edit] List of national and state libraries References[edit] ^ a b c Výroční zpráva Národní knihovny České republiky 2018 (PDF). Výroční Zpráva (in Czech). 2019. ISBN 978-80-7050-711-7. ISSN 1804-8625. Retrieved 30 October 2019. ^ "Incunabula". www.nlp.cz. National Library of the Czech Republic. Retrieved 29 June 2014. ^ "Need for new library intensifies". The Prague Post. 28 May 2008. Archived from the original on 9 May 2014. Retrieved 8 May 2014. ^ a b "National Library's rare prints and manuscripts at the click of a mouse". Radio Prague. 2005-11-24. Retrieved 2019-12-18. ^ Tucker, Aviezer (18–24 February 2009). "Opinion" (PDF). The Prague Post. Prague. p. A4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 May 2014. Retrieved 8 May 2014. ^ "From Klementinum's History". National Library of the Czech Republic, Prague. 2012. Retrieved 2019-09-16. ^ "National Library wins UNESCO award for pioneering digitisation work". Radio Prague. 2005-09-07. Retrieved 2019-12-18. ^ "2005 - The National Library of the Czech Republic". UNESCO. Retrieved 2019-12-18. ^ "National Library to get major new building while Clementinum will undergo extensive renovations". Radio Prague. 30 March 2006. Retrieved 8 May 2014. ^ a b "Plans to build modern "blob" building on Letna Plain meet resistance from Prague politicians". Radio Prague. 12 October 2007. Retrieved 8 May 2014. ^ "Changes ahead for the Czech National Library". Radio Prague. 11 March 2007. Retrieved 8 May 2014. ^ "'Octopus' library stirs up Czechs". BBC News. 14 May 2007. Retrieved 8 May 2014. ^ "Still no final decision on National Library building". Radio Prague. 27 February 2008. Retrieved 8 May 2014. ^ "Head of National Library sacked over 'Blob' dispute". Radio Prague. 10 September 2008. Retrieved 8 May 2014. ^ "Art saved from European floods". BBC News. 15 August 2002. Retrieved 8 May 2014. ^ "Water accident in National Library". Radio Prague. 21 July 2011. Retrieved 8 May 2014. ^ "No injuries in Czech National Library fire". Radio Prague. 4 December 2012. Retrieved 8 May 2014. External links[edit] Official website v t e National libraries of Europe Sovereign states Albania Andorra Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Belarus Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Kazakhstan Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Moldova Monaco Montenegro Netherlands North Macedonia Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia San Marino Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom Vatican City States with limited recognition Abkhazia Artsakh Kosovo Northern Cyprus South Ossetia Transnistria Dependencies and other entities Åland Faroe Islands Gibraltar Guernsey Isle of Man Jersey Svalbard Other entities European Union v t e Authority control files AAG • ACM DL • ADB • AGSA • autores.uy • AWR • BALaT • BIBSYS • Bildindex • BNC • BNE • BNF • Botanist • BPN • CANTIC • CiNii • CWGC • DAAO • DBLP • DSI • FNZA • GND • HDS • IAAF • ICCU • ICIA • ISNI • Joconde • KulturNav • LCCN • LIR • LNB • Léonore • MBA • MGP • NARA • NBL • NDL • NGV • NKC • NLA • NLG • NLI • NLK • NLP • NLR • NSK • NTA • ORCID • PIC • ResearcherID • RERO • RKD • RKDimages ID • RSL • SELIBR • SIKART • SNAC • SUDOC • S2AuthorId • TA98 • TDVİA • TE • TePapa • TH • TLS • Trove • UKPARL • ULAN • US Congress • VcBA • VIAF • WorldCat Identities Authority control GND: 5245820-9 ISNI: 0000 0001 1956 5296 NKC: kn20010709069 SELIBR: 303024 SUDOC: 13149466X VIAF: 135195765 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n96020113 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=National_Library_of_the_Czech_Republic&oldid=990563032" Categories: National Library of the Czech Republic 1777 establishments in Europe Organizations established in 1777 National libraries Libraries in the Czech Republic Buildings and structures in Prague Culture in Prague History of Prague Hidden categories: CS1 Czech-language sources (cs) Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Coordinates not on Wikidata Infobox mapframe without OSM relation ID on Wikidata Articles containing Czech-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2019 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Pages using the Kartographer extension Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca भोजपुरी Български Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia עברית Latina Magyar Македонски مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Nordfriisk Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 25 November 2020, at 05:46 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3040	----	None 
en-wikipedia-org-3041	----	Pompeii - Wikipedia Pompeii From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the classical Roman city. For the modern Italian city, see Pompei. For the Classical Roman leader, see Pompey. For the Roman family, see Pompeia gens. For the Pacific island, see Pohnpei. For other uses, see Pompeii (disambiguation). Ancient Roman city near modern Naples, Italy Pompeii View of Pompeii and Mount Vesuvius Shown within Italy Location Pompei, Province of Naples, Campania, Italy Coordinates 40°45′0″N 14°29′10″E / 40.75000°N 14.48611°E / 40.75000; 14.48611Coordinates: 40°45′0″N 14°29′10″E / 40.75000°N 14.48611°E / 40.75000; 14.48611 Type Settlement Area 64 to 67 ha (170 acres) History Founded 6th–7th century BC Abandoned AD 79 Site notes Website www.pompeiisites.org UNESCO World Heritage Site Official name Archaeological Areas of Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Torre Annunziata Type Cultural Criteria iii, iv, v Designated 1997 (21st session) Reference no. 829 Region Europe Pompeii (/pɒmˈpeɪ(i)/, Latin: [pɔmˈpeːjjiː]) was an ancient city located in what is now the comune of Pompei near Naples in the Campania region of Italy. Pompeii, along with Herculaneum and many villas in the surrounding area (e.g. at Boscoreale, Stabiae), was buried under 4 to 6 m (13 to 20 ft) of volcanic ash and pumice in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79. Largely preserved under the ash, the excavated city offered a unique snapshot of Roman life, frozen at the moment it was buried,[1] and an extraordinarily detailed insight into the everyday life of its inhabitants, although much of the evidence was lost in the early excavations. It was a wealthy town, enjoying many fine public buildings and luxurious private houses with lavish decorations, furnishings and works of art which were the main attractions for the early excavators. Organic remains, including wooden objects and human bodies, were entombed in the ash. Over time, they decayed, leaving voids which archaeologists found could be used as moulds to make plaster casts of unique — and often gruesome — figures in their final moments of life. The numerous graffiti carved on the walls and inside rooms provide a wealth of examples of the largely lost Vulgar Latin spoken colloquially at the time, contrasting with the formal language of the classical writers. Pompeii is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is one of the most popular tourist attractions in Italy, with approximately 2.5 million visitors annually.[2] After many excavations prior to 1960 that had uncovered most of the city but left it in decay,[3] further major excavations were banned and instead they were limited to targeted, prioritised areas. In 2018, these led to new discoveries in some previously unexplored areas of the city.[4][5][6][7] Contents 1 Name 2 Geography 3 History 3.1 Early history 3.2 The Samnite period 3.3 The Roman period 3.3.1 AD 62–79 3.4 Eruption of Vesuvius 3.5 Rediscovery and excavations 3.6 Modern archaeology 3.7 Conservation 3.7.1 House of the Gladiators collapse 4 Roman city development 4.1 Buildings 4.2 Erotic art 5 Tourism 6 In popular culture 7 Documentaries 8 Gallery 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Name Pompeii (pronounced [pɔmˈpɛjjiː]) in Latin is a second declension plural noun (Pompeiī, -ōrum). According to Theodor Kraus, "The root of the word Pompeii would appear to be the Oscan word for the number five, pompe, which suggests that either the community consisted of five hamlets or perhaps it was settled by a family group (gens Pompeia)."[8] The Forum with Vesuvius in the distance Geography Pompeii was built about 40 metres (130 ft) above sea level on a coastal lava plateau created by earlier eruptions of Mount Vesuvius, (8 km (5.0 mi) distant). The plateau fell steeply to the south and partly the west and into the sea. Three sheets of sediment from large landslides lie on top of the lava, perhaps triggered by extended rainfall.[9] The city bordered the coastline, though today it is 700 metres (2,300 ft) away. The mouth of the navigable Sarno River, adjacent to the city, was protected by lagoons and served early Greek and Phoenician sailors as a safe haven and port which was developed further by the Romans. Pompeii covered a total of 64 to 67 hectares (160 to 170 acres) and was home to 11,000 to 11,500 people, based on household counts.[10] History Although best known for its Roman remains visible today dating from AD 79, it was built upon a substantial city dating from much earlier times. Expansion of the city from an early nucleus (the old town) accelerated already from 450 BC under the Greeks after the battle of Cumae.[11] Early history Settlement phases of Pompeii red: 1st (Samnite) town blue: 1st expansion, 4th c. BC green: 2nd expansion yellow: Roman expansion, from 89 BC The first stable settlements on the site date back to the 8th century BC when the Oscans,[12] a people of central Italy, founded five villages in the area. With the arrival of the Greeks in Campania from around 740 BC, Pompeii entered the orbit of the Hellenic people and the most important building of this period is the Doric Temple, built away from the centre in what would later become the Triangular Forum.[13]:62 At the same time the cult of Apollo was introduced.[14] Greek and Phoenician sailors used the location as a safe port. In the early 6th century BC, the settlement merged into a single community centred on the important crossroad between Cumae, Nola, and Stabiae and was surrounded by a tufa city wall (the pappamonte wall).[15][16] The first wall (which was also used as a base for the later wall) unusually enclosed a much greater area than the early town together with much agricultural land.[17] That such an impressive wall was built at this time indicates that the settlement was already important and wealthy. The city began to flourish and maritime trade started with the construction of a small port near the mouth of the river.[13] The earliest settlement was focused in regions VII and VIII of the town (the old town) as identified from stratigraphy below the Samnite and Roman buildings, as well as from the different and irregular street plan. In 524 BC, the Etruscans arrived and settled in the area, including Pompeii, finding in the River Sarno a communication route between the sea and the interior. Like the Greeks, the Etruscans did not conquer the city militarily, but simply controlled it and Pompeii enjoyed a sort of autonomy.[13]:63 Nevertheless, Pompeii became a member of the Etruscan League of cities.[18] Excavations in 1980–1981 have shown the presence of Etruscan inscriptions and a 6th-century BC necropolis.[19] Under the Etruscans a primitive forum or simple market square was built, as well as the Temple of Apollo, in both of which objects including fragments of bucchero were found by Maiuri.[20] Several houses were built with the so-called Tuscan atrium, typical of this people.[13]:64 The city wall was strengthened in the early-5th century BC with two façades of relatively thin, vertically set, slabs of Sarno limestone some four metres apart filled with earth (the orthostate wall).[21] In 474 BC the Greek city of Cumae, allied with Syracuse, defeated the Etruscans at the Battle of Cumae and gained control of the area. The Samnite period City walls south of the Nocera gate The period between about 450–375 BC witnessed large areas of the city being abandoned while important sanctuaries such as the Temple of Apollo show a sudden lack of votive material remains.[22] The Samnites, people from the areas of Abruzzo and Molise, and allies of the Romans, conquered Greek Cumae between 423 and 420 BC and it is likely that all the surrounding territory, including Pompeii, was already conquered around 424 BC. The new rulers gradually imposed their architecture and enlarged the town. From 343–341 BC in the Samnite Wars, the first Roman army entered the Campanian plain bringing with it the customs and traditions of Rome, and in the Roman Latin War from 340 BC the Samnites were faithful to Rome. Pompeii, although governed by the Samnites, entered the Roman orbit, to which it remained faithful even during the third Samnite war and in the war against Pyrrhus. In the late 4th century BC the city began to expand from its nucleus and into the open walled area. The street plan of the new areas was more regular and more conformal to Hippodamus's street plan. The city walls were reinforced in Sarno stone in the early 3rd century BC (the limestone enceinte, or the "first Samnite wall"). It formed the basis for the currently visible walls with an outer wall of rectangular limestone blocks as a terrace wall supporting a large agger, or earth embankment, behind it. After the Samnite Wars from 290 BC, Pompeii was forced to accept the status of socii of Rome, maintaining, however, linguistic and administrative autonomy. The Temple of Jupiter From the outbreak of the Second Punic War (218–201 BC) in which Pompeii remained faithful to Rome, an additional internal wall was built of tufa and the internal agger and outer façade raised resulting in a double parapet with wider wall-walk.[13] Despite the political uncertainty of these events and the progressive migration of wealthy men to quieter cities in the eastern Mediterranean, Pompeii continued to flourish due to the production and trade of wine and oil with places like Provence and Spain,[23] as well as to intensive agriculture on farms around the city. In the 2nd century BC, Pompeii enriched itself by taking part in Rome's conquest of the east as shown by a statue of Apollo in the Forum erected by Lucius Mummius in gratitude for their support in the sack of Corinth and the eastern campaigns. These riches enabled Pompeii to bloom and expand to its ultimate limits. The forum and many public and private buildings of high architectural quality were built, including Teatro Grande, the Temple of Jupiter, the Basilica, the Comitium, the Stabian Baths and a new two-story portico.[24] The Roman period Annotated map of Pompeii Pompeii was one of the towns of Campania that rebelled against Rome in the Social Wars and in 89 BC it was besieged by Sulla, who targeted the strategically vulnerable Porta Ercolano with his artillery as can still be seen by the impact craters of thousands of ballista shots in the walls. Many nearby buildings inside the walls were also destroyed.[25] Although the battle-hardened troops of the Social League, headed by Lucius Cluentius, helped in resisting the Romans, Pompeii was forced to surrender after the conquest of Nola. The result was that Pompeii became a Roman colony with the name of Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompeianorum. Many of Sulla's veterans were given land and property in and around the city, while many of those who opposed Rome were dispossessed of their property. Despite this, the Pompeians were granted Roman citizenship and they were quickly assimilated into the Roman world. The main language in the city became Latin,[26] and many of Pompeii's old aristocratic families Latinized their names as a sign of assimilation.[27] Fresco depicting the fight in the amphitheatre between Pompeians and Nucerians The city became an important passage for goods that arrived by sea and had to be sent toward Rome or Southern Italy along the nearby Appian Way. Many public buildings were built or refurbished and improved under the new order; new buildings included the Amphitheatre of Pompeii in 70 BC, the Forum Baths, and the Odeon, while the forum was embellished with the colonnade of Popidius before 80 BC.[28] These buildings raised the status of Pompeii as a cultural centre in the region as it outshone its neighbours in the number of places for entertainment which significantly enhanced the social and economic development of the city. Under Augustus, from about 30 BC a major expansion in new public buildings, as in the rest of the empire, included the Eumachia Building, the Sanctuary of Augustus and the Macellum. From about 20 BC, Pompeii was fed with running water by a spur from the Serino Aqueduct, built by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. In AD 59, there was a serious riot and bloodshed in the amphitheatre between Pompeians and Nucerians (which is recorded in a fresco) and which led the Roman senate to send the Praetorian Guard to restore order and to ban further events for a period of ten years.[29][30] AD 62–79 The inhabitants of Pompeii had long been used to minor earthquakes (indeed, the writer Pliny the Younger wrote that earth tremors "were not particularly alarming because they are frequent in Campania"), but on 5 February 62[31] a severe earthquake did considerable damage around the bay, and particularly to Pompeii. It is believed that the earthquake would have registered between about 5 and 6 on the Richter magnitude scale.[32] On that day in Pompeii, there were to be two sacrifices, as it was the anniversary of Augustus being named "Father of the Nation" and also a feast day to honour the guardian spirits of the city. Chaos followed the earthquake; fires caused by oil lamps that had fallen during the quake added to the panic. The nearby cities of Herculaneum and Nuceria were also affected.[32] Between 62 and the eruption in 79 most rebuilding was done in the private sector and older, damaged frescoes were often covered with newer ones, for example. In the public sector the opportunity was taken to improve buildings and the city plan e.g. in the forum.[33] An important field of current research concerns structures that were restored between the earthquake of 62 and the eruption. It was thought until recently that some of the damage had still not been repaired at the time of the eruption but this has been shown to be doubtful as the evidence of missing forum statues and marble wall-veneers are most likely due to robbers after the city's burial.[34][35] The public buildings on the east side of the forum were largely restored and were even enhanced by beautiful marble veneers and other modifications to the architecture.[36] Some buildings like the Central Baths were only started after the earthquake and were built to enhance the city with modern developments in their architecture, as had been done in Rome, in terms of wall-heating and window glass, and with well-lit spacious rooms. The new baths took over a whole insula by demolishing houses, which may have been made easier by the earthquake that had damaged these houses. This shows that the city was still flourishing rather than struggling to recover from the earthquake.[37] In about 64, Nero and his wife Poppaea visited Pompeii and made gifts to the temple of Venus (the city's patron deity),[38] probably when he performed in the theatre of Naples.[39] By 79, Pompeii had a population of 20,000,[40] which had prospered from the region's renowned agricultural fertility and favourable location. Eruption of Vesuvius Main article: Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79 Pompeii and other cities affected by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. The black cloud represents the general distribution of ash and cinder. Modern coast lines are shown. Illustrated reconstruction, from a CyArk/University of Ferrara research partnership, of how the Temple of Apollo may have looked before Mt. Vesuvius erupted The same location today. The eruption lasted for two days.[41] The first phase was of pumice rain (lapilli) lasting about 18 hours, allowing most inhabitants to escape. That only approximately 1,150 bodies[42] have so far been found on site seems to confirm this theory and most escapees probably managed to salvage some of their most valuable belongings; many skeletons were found with jewellery, coins and silverware. At some time in the night or early the next day, pyroclastic flows began near the volcano, consisting of high speed, dense, and very hot ash clouds, knocking down wholly or partly all structures in their path, incinerating or suffocating the remaining population and altering the landscape, including the coastline. By evening of the second day, the eruption was over, leaving only haze in the atmosphere through which the sun shone weakly. A multidisciplinary volcanological and bio-anthropological study[43] of the eruption products and victims, merged with numerical simulations and experiments, indicates that at Pompeii and surrounding towns heat was the main cause of death of people, previously believed to have died by ash suffocation. The results of the study, published in 2010, show that exposure to at least 250 °C (480 °F) hot pyroclastic flows at a distance of 10 kilometres (6 miles) from the vent was sufficient to cause instant death, even if people were sheltered within buildings. The people and buildings of Pompeii were covered in up to twelve different layers of tephra, in total up to 6 metres (19.7 ft) deep. Pliny the Younger provided a first-hand account of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius from his position across the Bay of Naples at Misenum but written 25 years after the event.[44] His uncle, Pliny the Elder, with whom he had a close relationship, died while attempting to rescue stranded victims. As admiral of the fleet, Pliny the Elder had ordered the ships of the Imperial Navy stationed at Misenum to cross the bay to assist evacuation attempts. Volcanologists have recognised the importance of Pliny the Younger's account of the eruption by calling similar events "Plinian". It had long been thought that the eruption was an August event based on one version of the letter but another version[45] gives a date of the eruption as late as 23 November. A later date is consistent with a charcoal inscription at the site, discovered in 2018, which includes the date of 17 October and which must have been recently written.[46] Clear support for an October/November eruption is found in the fact that people buried in the ash appear to have been wearing heavier clothing than the light summer clothes typical of August. The fresh fruit and vegetables in the shops are typical of October – and conversely the summer fruit typical of August was already being sold in dried, or conserved form. Nuts from chestnut trees were found at Oplontis which would not have been mature before mid-September.[47] Wine fermenting jars had been sealed, which would have happened around the end of October. Coins found in the purse of a woman buried in the ash include one with a 15th imperatorial acclamation among the emperor's titles. These coins could not have been minted before the second week of September.[45] Rediscovery and excavations Periods/areas of excavations Titus appointed two ex-consuls to organise a relief effort, while donating large amounts of money from the imperial treasury to aid the victims of the volcano.[48] He visited Pompeii once after the eruption and again the following year[49] but no work was done on recovery. Soon after the burial of the city, survivors and possibly thieves came to salvage valuables, including the marble statues from the forum and other precious materials from buildings. There is wide evidence of post-eruption disturbance, including holes made through walls. The city was not completely buried, and tops of larger buildings would have been above the ash making it obvious where to dig or salvage building material.[50] The robbers left traces of their passage, as in a house where modern archaeologists found a wall graffito saying "house dug".[51] Over the following centuries, its name and location were forgotten, though it still appeared on the Tabula Peutingeriana of the 4th century. Further eruptions particularly in 471–473 and 512 covered the remains more deeply. The area became known as the La Civita (the city) due to the features in the ground.[52] Plan of Fontana's aqueduct through Pompeii The next known date that any part was unearthed was in 1592, when architect Domenico Fontana while digging an underground aqueduct to the mills of Torre Annunziata ran into ancient walls covered with paintings and inscriptions. His aqueduct passed through and under a large part of the city[53] and would have had to pass though many buildings and foundations, as still can be seen in many places today, but he kept quiet and nothing more came of the discovery. In 1689, Francesco Picchetti saw a wall inscription mentioning decurio Pompeiis ("town councillor of Pompeii"), but he associated it with a villa of Pompey. Franceso Bianchini pointed out the true meaning and he was supported by Giuseppe Macrini, who in 1693 excavated some walls and wrote that Pompeii lay beneath La Civita.[54] Herculaneum itself was rediscovered in 1738 by workmen digging for the foundations of a summer palace for the King of Naples, Charles of Bourbon. Due to the spectacular quality of the finds, the Spanish military engineer Rocque Joaquin de Alcubierre made excavations to find further remains at the site of Pompeii in 1748, even if the city was not identified.[55] Charles of Bourbon took great interest in the finds, even after leaving to become king of Spain, because the display of antiquities reinforced the political and cultural prestige of Naples.[56] On 20 August 1763, an inscription [...] Rei Publicae Pompeianorum [...] was found and the city was identified as Pompeii.[57] "Garden of the Fugitives". Plaster casts of victims still in situ; many casts are in the Archaeological Museum of Naples. Karl Weber directed the first scientific excavations.[58] He was followed in 1764 by military engineer Franscisco la Vega, who was succeeded by his brother, Pietro, in 1804.[59] There was much progress in exploration when the French occupied Naples in 1799 and ruled over Italy from 1806 to 1815. The land on which Pompeii lies was expropriated and up to 700 workers were used in the excavations. The excavated areas in the north and south were connected. Parts of the Via dell'Abbondanza were also exposed in west–east direction and for the first time an impression of the size and appearance of the ancient town could be appreciated. In the following years, the excavators struggled with lack of money and excavations progressed slowly, but with significant finds such as the houses of the Faun, of Menandro, of the Tragic Poet and of the Surgeon. Giuseppe Fiorelli took charge of the excavations in 1863 and made greater progress.[60] During early excavations of the site, occasional voids in the ash layer had been found that contained human remains. It was Fiorelli who realised these were spaces left by the decomposed bodies and so devised the technique of injecting plaster into them to recreate the forms of Vesuvius's victims. This technique is still in use today, with a clear resin now used instead of plaster because it is more durable, and does not destroy the bones, allowing further analysis.[61] Fiorelli also introduced scientific documentation. He divided the city into the present nine areas (regiones) and blocks (insulae) and numbered the entrances of the individual houses (domus), so that each is identified by these three numbers. Fiorelli also published the first periodical with excavation reports. Under Fiorelli's successors the entire west of the city was exposed. Modern archaeology Via dell'Abbondanza, the main street in Pompeii. Excavations conducted by Gennaro Matrone at Torre Annunziata between July 1899 and February 1901 uncovered a portion of Pompeii which had been situated on the seashore. Discoveries included a row of shops, a large amount of jewelry, vases, statuettes, coins of gold, silver, and bronze, and more than 70 skeletons.[62] Antonio Sogliano was Director of Archeological Works at Pompeii from 1905 until 1910.[63] During this time, he was also curator at the National Archaeological Museum of Naples and Professor of Antiquities at the University of Naples Federico II. He oversaw the restoration of the House of the Vettii during that time. In the 1920s, Amedeo Maiuri excavated for the first time in older layers than that of 79 AD in order to learn about the settlement history. Maiuri made the last excavations on a grand scale in the 1950s, and the area south of the Via dell'Abbondanza and the city wall was almost completely uncovered, but they were poorly documented scientifically. Preservation was haphazard and presents today's archaeologists with great difficulty. Questionable reconstruction was done in the 1980s and 1990s after the severe earthquake of 1980, which caused great destruction. Since then, except for targeted soundings and excavations, work was confined to the excavated areas. Further excavations on a large scale are not planned and today archaeologists are engaged in reconstructing, documenting and slowing the decay of the ruins. Under the 'Great Pompeii Project' over 2.5 km of ancient walls are being relieved of danger of collapse by treating the unexcavated areas behind the street fronts in order to increase drainage and reduce the pressure of groundwater and earth on the walls, a problem especially in the rainy season. As of August 2019, these excavations have resumed on unexcavated areas of Regio V.[64] Archaeological park officials said on 21 November 2020 that the remains of two men — thought to be a rich man and his slave — were found in a 2-meter thick layer of ash. They appeared to have escaped the first eruption but were killed by a second blast the next day. A study of the bones showed that one was younger and appeared to have done manual labour, and the other was older.[65] Conservation Main article: Conservation issues of Pompeii and Herculaneum See also: Conservation and restoration of Pompeian frescoes Objects buried beneath Pompeii were well-preserved for almost 2,000 years as the lack of air and moisture allowed little to no deterioration. However, once exposed, Pompeii has been subject to both natural and man-made forces, which have rapidly increased deterioration. The buildings on the left show signs of decay due to the infestation of various plants, while the debris accumulating on the footpath indicates erosion of the infrastructure. The footpaths and road have also been worn down by pedestrian activity since excavation. Weathering, erosion, light exposure, water damage, poor methods of excavation and reconstruction, introduced plants and animals, tourism, vandalism and theft have all damaged the site in some way. The lack of adequate weather protection of all but the most interesting and important buildings has allowed original interior decoration to fade or be lost. Two-thirds of the city has been excavated, but the remnants of the city are rapidly deteriorating.[66] Furthermore, during World War II many buildings were badly damaged or destroyed by bombs dropped in several raids by the Allied forces.[67] The concern for conservation has continually troubled archaeologists. The ancient city was included in the 1996 World Monuments Watch by the World Monuments Fund, and again in 1998 and in 2000. In 1996 the organisation claimed that Pompeii "desperately need[ed] repair" and called for the drafting of a general plan of restoration and interpretation.[68] The organisation supported conservation at Pompeii with funding from American Express and the Samuel H. Kress Foundation.[69] Today, funding is mostly directed into conservation of the site; however, due to the expanse of Pompeii and the scale of the problems, this is inadequate in halting the slow decay of the materials. A 2012 study recommended an improved strategy for interpretation and presentation of the site as a cost-effective method of improving its conservation and preservation in the short term.[70] In June 2013, UNESCO declared: If restoration and preservation works "fail to deliver substantial progress in the next two years," Pompeii could be placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger.[71] House of the Gladiators collapse The 2,000-year-old Schola Armatorum ('House of the Gladiators') collapsed on 6 November 2010. The structure was not open to visitors, but the outside was visible to tourists. There was no immediate determination as to what caused the building to collapse, although reports suggested water infiltration following heavy rains might have been responsible. There has been fierce controversy after the collapse, with accusations of neglect.[72][73] Roman city development The Macellum Under the Romans after the conquest by Sulla in 89 BC, Pompeii underwent a process of urban development which accelerated in the Augustan period from about 30 BC. New public buildings include the amphitheatre with palaestra or gymnasium with a central natatorium (cella natatoria) or swimming pool, two theatres, the Eumachia Building and at least four public baths. The amphitheatre has been cited by scholars as a model of sophisticated design, particularly in the area of crowd control.[74] Other service buildings were the Macellum ("meat market"); the Pistrinum ("mill"); the Thermopolium (a fast food place that served hot and cold dishes and beverages), and cauponae ("cafes" or "dives" with a seedy reputation as hangouts for thieves and prostitutes). At least one building, the Lupanar, was dedicated to prostitution.[75] A large hotel or hospitium (of 1,000 square metres) was found at Murecine, a short distance from Pompeii, when the Naples-Salerno motorway was being built, and the Murecine Silver Treasure and the Tablets providing a unique record of business transactions were discovered.[76][77] An aqueduct provided water to the public baths, to more than 25 street fountains, and to many private houses (domūs) and businesses. The aqueduct was a branch of the great Serino Aqueduct built to serve the other large towns in the Bay of Naples region and the important naval base at Misenum. The castellum aquae is well preserved, and includes many details of the distribution network and its controls.[78] View of the Forum Modern archaeologists have excavated garden sites and urban domains to reveal the agricultural staples of Pompeii's economy. Pompeii was fortunate to have had fertile soil for crop cultivation. The soils surrounding Mount Vesuvius preceding its eruption have been revealed to have had good water-retention capabilities, implying productive agriculture. The Tyrrhenian Sea's airflow provided hydration to the soil despite the hot, dry climate.[79] Barley, wheat, and millet were all produced along with wine and olive oil, in abundance for export to other regions.[80] Evidence of wine imported nationally from Pompeii in its most prosperous years can be found from recovered artefacts such as wine bottles in Rome.[80] For this reason, vineyards were of utmost importance to Pompeii's economy. Agricultural policymaker Columella suggested that each vineyard in Rome produced a quota of three cullei of wine per jugerum, otherwise the vineyard would be uprooted. The nutrient-rich lands near Pompeii were extremely efficient at this and were often able to exceed these requirements by a steep margin, therefore providing the incentive for local wineries to establish themselves.[80] While wine was exported for Pompeii's economy, the majority of the other agricultural goods were likely produced in quantities sufficient for the city's consumption. Remains of large formations of constructed wineries were found in the Forum Boarium, covered by cemented casts from the eruption of Vesuvius.[80] It is speculated that these historical vineyards are strikingly similar in structure to the modern day vineyards across Italy. Carbonised food plant remains, roots, seeds and pollens, have been found from gardens in Pompeii, Herculaneum, and from the Roman villa at Torre Annunziata. They revealed that emmer wheat, Italian millet, common millet, walnuts, pine nuts, chestnuts, hazel nuts, chickpeas, bitter vetch, broad beans, olives, figs, pears, onions, garlic, peaches, carob, grapes, and dates were consumed. All but the dates could have been produced locally.[81] Buildings Public buildings: Amphitheatre of Pompeii Eumachia Building Macellum of Pompeii Suburban Baths (Pompeii) Temple of Apollo (Pompeii) Temple of Isis (Pompeii) Temple of Jupiter (Pompeii) Theatre Area of Pompeii Town houses: House of the Centenary House of the Faun House of Julia Felix House of Loreius Tiburtinus House of Menander House of the Prince of Naples House of Sallust House of the Silver Wedding House of the surgeon House of the Tragic Poet House of the Vettii Exterior villas: Villa of Diomedes Villa of the Mysteries Other: Lupanar (Pompeii) Erotic art Fresco from the Casa del Centenario bedroom The discovery of erotic art in Pompeii and Herculaneum left the archaeologists with a dilemma stemming from the clash of cultures between the mores of sexuality in ancient Rome and in Counter-Reformation Europe. An unknown number of discoveries were hidden away again. A wall fresco depicting Priapus, the ancient god of sex and fertility, with his grotesquely enlarged penis, was covered with plaster. An older reproduction was locked away "out of prudishness" and opened only on request – and only rediscovered in 1998 due to rainfall.[82] In 2018, an ancient fresco depicting an erotic scene of "Leda and the Swan" was discovered at Pompeii.[83] Many artefacts from the buried cities are preserved in the Naples National Archaeological Museum. In 1819, when King Francis visited the Pompeii exhibition there with his wife and daughter, he was so embarrassed by the erotic artwork that he had it locked away in a "secret cabinet" (gabinetto segreto), a gallery within the museum accessible only to "people of mature age and respected morals". Re-opened, closed, re-opened again and then closed again for nearly 100 years, the Naples "Secret Museum" was briefly made accessible again at the end of the 1960s (the time of the sexual revolution) and was finally re-opened for viewing in 2000. Minors are still allowed entry only in the presence of a guardian or with written permission.[84] Tourism The Forum Pompeii has been a popular tourist destination for over 250 years;[85] it was on the Grand Tour. By 2008, it was attracting almost 2.6 million visitors per year, making it one of the most popular tourist sites in Italy.[86] It is part of a larger Vesuvius National Park and was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1997. To combat problems associated with tourism, the governing body for Pompeii, the 'Soprintendenza Archeologica di Pompei', have begun issuing new tickets that allow tourists to visit cities such as Herculaneum and Stabiae as well as the Villa Poppaea, to encourage visitors to see these sites and reduce pressure on Pompeii. Pompeii is a driving force behind the economy of the nearby town of Pompei. Many residents are employed in the tourism and hospitality industry, serving as taxi or bus drivers, waiters, or hotel staff.[citation needed] Excavations at the site have generally ceased due to a moratorium imposed by the superintendent of the site, Professor Pietro Giovanni Guzzo. The site is generally less accessible to tourists than in the past, with less than a third of all buildings open in the 1960s being available for public viewing today. In popular culture Main article: Pompeii in popular culture Karl Brullov, The Last Day of Pompeii (1830–1833) The 1954 film Journey to Italy, starring George Sanders and Ingrid Bergman, includes a scene at Pompeii in which they witness the excavation of a cast of a couple who perished in the eruption. Pompeii was the setting for the British comedy television series Up Pompeii! and the movie of the series. Pompeii also featured in the second episode of the fourth season of revived BBC science fiction series Doctor Who, named "The Fires of Pompeii",[87] which featured Caecilius as a character. The rock band Pink Floyd filmed a 1971 live concert, Pink Floyd: Live at Pompeii, in which they performed six songs in the city's ancient Roman amphitheatre. The audience consisted only of the film's production crew and some local children. Siouxsie and the Banshees wrote and recorded the punk-inflected dance song "Cities in Dust", which describes the disaster that befell Pompeii and Herculaneum in AD 79. The song appears on their album 1985 Tinderbox. The jacket of the single remix of the song features the plaster cast of a chained dog killed in Pompeii. Pompeii is a 2003 Robert Harris novel featuring an account of the aquarius's race to fix the broken aqueduct in the days before the eruption of Vesuvius. The novel was inspired by actual events and people. "Pompeii" is a 2013 song by the British band Bastille. The lyrics refer to the city and the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. Pompeii is a 2014 German-Canadian historical disaster film produced and directed by Paul W. S. Anderson.[88] 45 years after the Pink Floyd recordings, guitarist David Gilmour returned to the Pompeii amphitheatre in 2016 to perform a live concert for his Rattle That Lock Tour. This event was considered the first in the amphitheatre to feature an audience since the AD 79 eruption of Vesuvius.[89][90] Documentaries In Search of...'s episode No. 82 focuses entirely on Pompeii; it premiered on November 29, 1979. The National Geographic special In the Shadow of Vesuvius (1987) explores the sites of Pompeii and Herculaneum, interviews (then) leading archaeologists, and examines the events leading up to the eruption of Vesuvius.[91] Ancient Mysteries: Pompeii: Buried Alive (1996), an A&E television documentary narrated by Leonard Nimoy.[92] Pompeii: The Last Day (2003), an hour-long drama produced for the BBC that portrays several characters (with historically attested names, but fictional life-stories) living in Pompeii, Herculaneum and around the Bay of Naples, and their last hours, including a fuller and his wife, two gladiators, and Pliny the Elder. It also portrays the facts of the eruption. Pompeii and the AD 79 eruption (2004), a two-hour Tokyo Broadcasting System documentary. Pompeii Live (June 28, 2006), a Channel 5 production featuring a live archaeological dig at Pompeii and Herculaneum[93][94] Pompeii: The Mystery of the People Frozen in Time (2013), a BBC One drama documentary presented by Dr. Margaret Mountford.[95] The Riddle of Pompeii (May 23, 2014), Discovery Channel.[96] Pompeii: The Dead Speak (August 8, 2016), Smithsonian Channel.[97] Pompeii's People (September 3, 2017), a CBC Gem documentary presented by David Suzuki.[98] Gallery The Basilica Fresco from the Villa dei Misteri The Forum The Temple of Apollo The House of the Faun The Forum See also Mastroberardino, a project with the Italian winery Mastroberardino to replant the vineyards of Pompeii Robert Rive, 1850s photographer of Pompeii Luigi Bazzani: Watercolours of Pompeii when first excavated. Volcanic destruction Armero tragedy, a city in Colombia that suffered a similar fate in 1985 Akrotiri, in Santorini, Greece, excavated ruins of a city that suffered a similar fate to Pompeii more than 3000 years ago Joya de Cerén, a pre-Columbian farming village in El Salvador known as the "Pompeii of the Americas" Plymouth, Montserrat, former capital city buried by volcanic ash from the Soufrière Hills volcano in the 1990s Saint-Pierre, Martinique, town similarly destroyed by the volcanic eruption of Mount Pelee, in 1902 Other Dura-Europos, also known as the "Pompeii of the desert" Aeclanum Cumae References ^ De Carolis & Patricelli 2003, p. 83 ^ "Dossier Musei 2008" (PDF). Touring Club Italiano (in Italian). Archived from the original (PDF) on March 18, 2009. Retrieved September 30, 2012. ^ Giovanni Longobardi, Sustainable Pompeii, Rome, L'Erma di Bretschneider, 2002. ISBN 88-8265-189-4 ^ "Homepage – Pompeii Sites Portale Ufficiale Parco Archeologico di Pompei". Pompeii Sites. ^ "Pompeii victim crushed by boulder while fleeing eruption". BBC. May 30, 2018. Retrieved June 13, 2018. ^ Squires, Nick (April 25, 2018). "Skeleton of child trying to shelter from Vesuvius eruption uncovered in Pompeii". The Telegraph. Retrieved June 13, 2018. ^ Squires, Nick (May 11, 2018). "Remains of ancient Roman horse found at Pompeii in dig started by tomb raiders". The Telegraph. Retrieved June 13, 2018. ^ Kraus 1975, p. [page needed] ^ Senatore, Stanley & Pescatore 2004, p. [page needed] ^ Wilson, Andrew (2011). "City Sizes and Urbanization in the Roman Empire". In Bowman, Alan; Wilson, Andrew (eds.). Settlement, Urbanization, and Population. Oxford Studies on the Roman Economy. 2. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 171–172. ISBN 978-0-19-960235-3. ^ The World of Pompeii, Edited by John J. Dobbins and Pedar W. Foss, ISBN 0-203-86619-3, p. 377 ^ Arnold De Vos; Mariette De Vos (1982). Pompeii, Herculaneum, Stabia, Rome: Giuseppe Laterza & figli Publishing House. ISBN 88-420-2001-X ^ a b c d e Etienne, Robert (1992). Daily Life in Pompeii. Milan: Arnoldo Mondadori Editore. ISBN 88-04-35466-6. ^ Paul Zanker (1993). Pompeii: society, urban images and forms of living, Turin: Giulio Einaudi Editore. ISBN 88-06-13282-2 p. 60 ^ The World of Pompeii, Edited by John J. Dobbins and Pedar W. Foss, ISBN 0-203-86619-3, p. 84 ^ Touring Club Italiano, Guida d'Italia – Naples and surroundings, Milan, Touring Club Editore, 2008. ISBN 978-88-365-3893-5 ^ P. G. Guzzo, "Alla ricerca della Pompei sannitica," in Studi sull’Italia dei Sanniti, Milan, 2000, pp. 107–117. See also the discussion in Guzzo (ed.), Pompei. Scienza e Società, p. 159 (F. Coarelli) and p. 161 (H. Geertman) ^ W. Keller: The Etruscans ISBN 978-0224010719 ^ Arthur, P. (1986) "Problems of the urbanization of Pompeii: excavations 1980–1981". Antiquaries Journal 66: 29–44. ^ Arnold De Vos ; Mariette De Vos, Pompeii, Herculaneum, Stabia, Rome, Giuseppe Laterza & Figli Publishing House, 1982. ISBN 88-420-2001-X p. 8 ^ Chiaramonte Treré: "The Walls and Gates", in Dobbins & Foss, eds., The World of Pompeii (Routledge 2007) ISBN 0-203-86619-3 ^ The City Walls of Pompeii: Perceptions and Expressions of a Monumental Boundary by Ivo van der Graaff, M.A. Dissertation. Graduate School of The University of Texas, p. 56 ^ Paul Zanker, Pompeii: society, urban images and forms of living, Turin, Giulio Einaudi Editore, 1993. ISBN 88-06-13282-2 p. 60 ^ ecolo a.C." In Sicilia ellenistica, consuetudo italica. Alle origini dell’architettura ellenistica d’occidente. Spoleto, complesso monumentale di S. Nicolò, 5–7 Novembre 2004, edited by M. Osanna and M. Torelli (Pisa, 2006), 227–241. ^ The World of Pompeii, Edited by John J. Dobbins and Pedar W. Foss, ISBN 0-203-86619-3, p. 396 ^ Beard, Mary (2008). Pompeii. Profile Books LTD. ISBN 978-1-86197-596-6. ^ Butterworth, Alex (2005). Pompeii – The Living City. St Martin's Press; 1st edition. ISBN 978-0-312-35585-2. ^ The World of Pompeii, Edited by John J. Dobbins and Pedar W. Foss, ISBN 0-203-86619-3, p. 172 ^ Tacitus: Ann. 14.17 ^ See W. O. Moeller, "The Riot of AD 59 at Pompeii," Historia, 1970, vol. 19, pp. 84–95 ^ "Patterns of Reconstruction at Pompeii". University of Virginia. Retrieved September 30, 2012. ^ a b "Visiting Pompeii". Current Archaeology. p. 3. Archived from the original on August 20, 2008. Retrieved September 30, 2012. ^ The World of Pompeii, Edited by John J. Dobbins and Pedar W. Foss, ISBN 0-203-86619-3, p. 173 ^ Dobbins, J. J., "Problems of chronology, decoration, and urban design in the forum at Pompeii", AJA, 1994, vol. 98, pp. 629–694 ^ Wallat, K., Die Ostseite des Forums von Pompeji, Frankfurt am Main, 1997. ^ "Der Zustand des Forums von Pompeji am Vorabend des Vesuvausbruchs 79 n.Chr", in T. Fröhlich and L. Jacobelli (eds), Archäologie und Seismologie. La regione vesuviana dal 62 at 79 d.C. Problemi archeologici e sismologici (Colloquium Boscoreale, 26–27 November 1993), Munich, 1995, pp. 75–92. ^ John J. Dobbins, Pedar W. Foss, The World of Pompeii, ISBN 0-415-17324-8 (hbk), p. 126 ^ Carroll, Maureen (2010). "Exploring the sanctuary of Venus and its sacred grove: politics, cult and identity in Roman Pompeii". Papers of the British School at Rome. 78: 63–106, 347–351. doi:10.1017/S0068246200000817. JSTOR 41725289. ^ M. Mastroroberto, "Una visita di Nerone a Pompei: le deversoriae tabernae di Moregine," in A. D’Ambrosio, P. G. Guzzo and M. Mastroroberto (eds), Storie da un’eruzione. Exhib. Catalogue Naples–Bruxelles 2003–2004, 2003, pp. 479–523, who convincingly argues that the splendidly decorated hospitium south of Pompeii was built for this occasion. ^ A. Maiuri, "Pompeii,"Scientific American 198.4 (1958) 70; A. Maiuri, Herculaneum(Rome 1977) p 13 ^ The Eruption of Vesuvius in A. D. 79: Reconstruction from Historical and VolcanologicalEvidenceAuthor(s): Haraldur Sigurdsson, Stanford Cashdollar and Stephen R. J. SparksSource: American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 86, No. 1 (Jan., 1982), pp. 39–5 ^ E. De Carolis, G. Patricelli and A. Ciarallo, ‘Rinvenimenti di corpi umani nell’area urbana di Pompei’, RStPomp, 1998, vol. 9, pp. 75–123. ^ Mastrolorenzo et al. 2010, p. e11127. ^ Gabi Laske. "The A.D. 79 Eruption at Mt. Vesuvius". Lecture notes for UCSD-ERTH15: "Natural Disasters". Archived from the original on 2008-12-29. Retrieved 2008-07-28. ^ a b Stefani 2006, pp. 10–14. ^ "Pompeii's destruction date could be wrong". BBC News. October 16, 2018. ^ Clarke, John R. 1945–. Oplontis: Villa A ("of Poppaea") at Torre Annunziata, Italy, 2014. 811 http://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.90048.0001.001 ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Titus 8 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.24 ^ John J. Dobbins, Pedar W. Foss, The World of Pompeii, ISBN 0-415-17324-8, p. 125 ^ Mary Beard, Pompeii; The life of a Roman city, Seuil, 2012 p. 24 ^ Amery, Colin; Curran, Brian (2002). The Lost World of Pompeii. Getty Publications. p. 31. ISBN 0711225036. ^ Morano, D. (1882). Intorno alla dinamica delle acque della force ed al canale regolato di Sarno: studii (in Italian). Naples – via Internet Archive. ^ Josephi Macrini, I. C. Neapolitani De Vesuvio. 1693, p 33 ^ Ozgenel 2008, p. 13. ^ Ozgenel 2008, p. 19 ^ Giuseppe Fiorelli: Pompeianarum Antiquitatum Historia. Volume Primum, p. 153 ^ Parslow 1995, p. [page needed] ^ Pagano 1997, p. [page needed] ^ Nappo, Salvatore Ciro (February 17, 2011). "Pompeii: Its Discovery and Preservation". BBC. Retrieved March 2, 2013. Giuseppe Fiorelli directed the Pompeii excavation from 1863 to 1875 ^ Gracco, Tiberio (28 April 2017). "Orto dei Fuggiaschi". Pompei Online. Retrieved 23 June 2017. ^ Fowler, Harold N. (1902). "Archaeological News:Pompeii (Torre Annunziata) - Results of Excavation". American Journal of Archaeology. 6 (3): 343–85. doi:10.2307/496796. JSTOR 496796. ^ Jennifer F. Stephens & Arthur E. Stephens (2016). "The Excavation History of via dell'Abbondanza - 1900 to 1949". Pompeii:a Different Perspective. Retrieved December 26, 2020.CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link) ^ "Discoveries Continue at the Regio V Site". Archaeological Park of Pompeii. 2018-08-23. Retrieved August 20, 2019. ^ D'Emilio, Frances (2010-11-21). "Bodies of man and his slave unearthed from ashes at Pompeii". Associated Press. Retrieved 2020-11-23. ^ Popham, Peter (May 2010). "Ashes to ashes: the latter-day ruin of Pompeii". Prospect Magazine. London. Retrieved 23 June 2017. ^ "The Last Days of Pompeii: Destruction in World War II". The J. Paul Getty Museum. Retrieved August 27, 2019. ^ "List of 100 Most Endangered Sites" (PDF). New York: World Monuments Fund. 1996. p. 31. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-03-20. Retrieved 2012-07-07. ^ World Monuments Fund (2017). "Ancient Pompeii". Retrieved 23 June 2017. ^ Wallace, Alia (2012). "Presenting Pompeii: Steps towards Reconciling Conservation and Tourism at an Ancient Site". Papers from the Institute of Archaeology. Ubiquity Press. 22: 115–136. doi:10.5334/pia.406. ^ Hammer, Joshua. "The Fall and Rise and Fall of Pompeii". Retrieved 2015-07-01. ^ "World News – Breaking International Headlines & Exclusives | Toronto Sun". Archived from the original on 2019-07-11. Retrieved 2019-07-11. ^ "Pompeii Gladiator Training Centre Collapses". [not specific enough to verify] ^ Berinato, Scott (May 18, 2007). "Crowd Control in Ancient Pompeii". CSO. Retrieved September 30, 2012. ^ Day, Michael (November 16, 2015). "Prostitution in Pompeii: 2,000 years after explosion, sex-for-cash is still rife". The Independent. the city's most extravagant brothel, the Lupanare – from the Latin word lupa for 'prostitute' ^ Clements, Peter and Michael. "Murecine". AD79eruption. Retrieved August 18, 2019. ^ "Esplora murecine". Ermes Multimedia. Retrieved August 18, 2019. ^ Lorenz, Wayne (June 2011). "Pompeii (and Rome) Water Supply Systems" (PDF). Wright Paleohydrological Institute. p. 26. Retrieved 23 June 2017. ^ Meyer, Frederick G (edited by Wilhelmina Feemster Jashemski) (2002). The natural history of Pompeii (1. publ. ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 65. ISBN 978-0521800549. ^ a b c d Bernick, Christie. "Agriculture in Pompeii". Wall Paintings of the Pompeii Forum. Retrieved 3 August 2014. ^ Meyer, Frederick G. (October–December 1980). "Carbonized Food Plants of Pompeii, Herculaneum, and the Villa at Torre Annunziata". New York Botanical Garden: Economic Botany. 34 (4): 419. JSTOR 4254221. ^ As reported by the Evangelist pressedienst press agency in March, 1998. ^ "Ancient erotic fresco uncovered in Pompeii ruins". CNN Style. 2018-11-20. Retrieved 2018-11-21. ^ Karl Schefold (2003), Die Dichtung als Führerin zur Klassischen Kunst. Erinnerungen eines Archäologen (Lebenserinnerungen Band 58), edd. M. Rohde-Liegle et al., Hamburg. p. 134 ISBN 3-8300-1017-6. ^ Rowland 2014. ^ Nadeau, Barbie Selling Pompeii, Newsweek, April 14, 2008. ^ "Doctor Who – News – Rome Sweet Rome". BBC. Retrieved 2010-10-16. ^ Sandy Schaefer (September 18, 2012). "Paul W.S. Anderson To Helm 'Pompeii'". Screenrant. Retrieved 2014-02-27. ^ Kreps, Daniel (March 16, 2016). "David Gilmour Sets First Pompeii Shows Since Pink Floyd's Concert Film". Rolling Stone. Retrieved October 11, 2017. ^ "David Gilmour live at Pompeii – a photo essay". The Guardian. July 14, 2016. Retrieved October 11, 2017. ^ "In the Shadow of Vesuvius". National Geographic. Retrieved August 1, 2014. ^ "Ancient Mysteries: Season 3, Episode 22". A&E. February 2, 1996. Retrieved February 17, 2016. ^ Shelley Hales; Joanna Paul (2011). Pompeii in the Public Imagination from Its Rediscovery to Today. Oxford University Press. p. 367. doi:10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199569366.001.0001. ISBN 978-0199569366. The recent UK Channel 5 programme, transmitted live from Herculaneum on 29 June 2006... ^ "Shows". Five. Archived from the original on 2006-06-03. ^ "Pompeii: The Mystery of the People Frozen in Time". BBC. Retrieved April 6, 2013. ^ The Riddle of Pompeii. 23 May 2014 – via YouTube. ^ "Pompeii: The Dead Speak". Smithsonian Channel. Retrieved 2020-01-26. ^ Pompeii's People. cbc.ca. 3 Sep 2017. Further reading Beard, Mary (2008). Pompeii: The Life of a Roman Town. Profile Books. ISBN 978-1-86197-596-6. Butterworth, Alex; Laurence, Ray (2005). Pompeii: The Living City. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-35585-2. Cioni, Rafaello; Gurioli, L; Lanza, R; Zanella, E (2004). "Temperatures of the A.D. 79 pyroclastic density current deposits (Vesuvius, Italy)". Journal of Geophysical Research. 109 (B2): 2207. Bibcode:2004JGRB..109.2207C. doi:10.1029/2002JB002251. Clarke, John (2006). Visual Representation and Non-Elite Viewers in Italy, 100 BC – AD 315. University of California. ISBN 978-0-520-24815-1. De Carolis, Ernesto; Patricelli, Giovanni (2003). Vesuvius, A.D. 79: the destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum. L'erma Di Bretschneider. ISBN 978-88-8265-199-2. Fletcher, John (1835). The whole works of...John Flecter. Oxford University. *Grant, Michael (2001). Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii and Herculaneum. Phoenix. ISBN 978-1842122198. Hodge, Trevor (2001). Roman Aqueducts & Water Supply. Duckworth. ISBN 978-0715631713. Kraus, Theodor (1975). Pompeii and Herculaneum: The Living Cities of the Dead. H.N. Abrams. ISBN 978-0810904187. Maiuri, Amedeo (1994). "Pompeii". Scientific American. Mastrolorenzo, Giuseppe; Petrone, Pierpaolo; Pappalardo, Lucia; Guarino, Fabio (2010). Langowski, Jörg (ed.). "Lethal Thermal Impact at Periphery of Pyroclastic Surges: Evidences at Pompeii". PLOS ONE. 5 (6): e11127. Bibcode:2010PLoSO...511127M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0011127. PMC 2886100. PMID 20559555. Ozgenel, Lalo (15 April 2008). "A Tale of Two Cities: In Search of Ancient Pompeii and Herculaneum" (PDF). Journal of the Faculty of Archaeology. Ankara: Middle East Technical University. 25 (1): 1–25. Retrieved 26 January 2018. Pagano, Mario (1997). I Diari di Scavo di Pompeii, Ercolano e Stabiae di Francesco e Pietro la Vega (1764–1810) (in Italian). L'Erma di Bretschneidein. ISBN 88-7062-967-8. Parslow, Christopher (1995). Rediscovering antiquity: Karl Weber and the excavation of Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Stabiae. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-47150-8. Perring, Stefania (1991). Pompeii: The Wonders of the Ancient World Brought to Life in Vivid See-Through Reconstructions: Then and Now. Macmillan Books. ISBN 0-02-599461-1. Rodríguez, Cristina (2008). Les mystères de Pompéi (in French). Éditions du Masque. ISBN 978-2-702-43404-8. Rowland, Ingrid D. (2014). From Pompeii: The Afterlife of a Roman Town. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press. ISBN 978-0674047938. Senatore, Maria; Stanley, Jean-Daniel; Pescatore, Tullio (November 7–10, 2004). "Avalanche-associated mass flows damaged Pompeii several times before the Vesuvius catastrophic eruption in the 79 CE". 2004 Denver Annual Meeting. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Stefani, Grete (October 2006). La vera data dell'eruzione. Archeo. Steven, Ellis (2004). "The distribution of bars at Pompeii: Archaeological, spatial and viewshed analyses". Journal of Roman Archaeology. 17 (1). ISSN 1047-7594. Zarmati, Louise (2005). Heinemann ancient and medieval history: Pompeii and Herculaneum. Heinemann. ISBN 1-74081-195-X. External links Pompeiiat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Travel guide from Wikivoyage Resources from Wikiversity Library resources about Pompeii Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Official website Pompeii at Curlie Data on new excavations from the International Association for Classical Archaeology (AIAC) Ancient History Encyclopedia – Pompeii Archaeological Park of Pompeii on Google Arts and Culture platform Forum of Pompeii Digital Media Archive (creative commons-licensed photos, laser scans, panoramas), data from a University of Ferrara/CyArk research partnership N. Purcell; R. Talbert; T. Elliott; S. Gillies. "Places: 433032 (Pompeii)". Pleiades. Retrieved March 8, 2012. v t e Archaeological sites in Campania Province of Avellino Aeclanum Aequum Tuticum Compsa Province of Benevento Benevento Arch of Trajan Roman Theatre Caudium Ligures Baebiani Saticula Province of Caserta Allifae Ausona Calatia Cales Santa Maria Capua Vetere Arch of Hadrian (Capua) Amphitheatre of Capua Casilinum Sant'Angelo in Formis Sinuessa Trebula Balliensis Vescia Province of Naples Atella Baiae Cumae Grotta di Cocceio Herculaneum Villa of the Papyri Liternum Miseno Piscina Mirabilis Naples Aqua Augusta Bourbon Tunnel Catacombs of San Gaudioso Catacombs of San Gennaro Crypta Neapolitana Virgil's tomb Macellum of Naples Oplontis Villa Poppaea Palazzo a Mare Pompeii Pozzuoli Flavian Amphitheater (Pozzuoli) Lucrinus Lacus Lake Avernus Macellum of Pozzuoli Portus Julius Stabiae Suessula Castello Barbarossa Villa Jovis Villa Boscoreale Province of Salerno Monte Pruno Paestum Heraion at the mouth of the Sele Temple of Athena Second Temple of Hera Tomb of the Diver Pertosa Caves Velia Villa Romana of Minori v t e Pompeii History Pompei Mount Vesuvius 62 Pompeii earthquake Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 Villas of Pompeii‎ Villa of Diomedes Villa of the Mysteries Domus of Pompeii‎ House of the Faun House of Sallust House of the Centenary House of Julia Felix House of Loreius Tiburtinus House of Menander House of the Surgeon House of the Silver Wedding House of the Tragic Poet House of the Vettii Public buildings of Pompeii‎ Aqua Augusta Macellum of Pompeii Recreational buildings of Pompeii‎ Amphitheatre Lupanar Suburban Baths Temples of Pompeii Temple of Apollo Temple of Isis Temple of Jupiter Other sites destroyed in the 79 Eruption Herculaneum Villa of the Papyri Oplontis Villa Poppaea Stabiae Villa Boscoreale Archaeological Museum Naples National Archaeological Museum Art in Pompeii Achilles and Briseis Alexander Mosaic Plato's Academy mosaic Portrait of Paquius Proculo Erotic art in Pompeii and Herculaneum Pompeian Styles Conservation issues of Pompeii and Herculaneum Pompeian frescoes Pompeii in popular culture v t e World Heritage Sites in Italy Northwest Crespi d'Adda Genoa Ivrea Mantua and Sabbioneta Monte San Giorgio1 Porto Venere, Palmaria, Tino and Tinetto, Cinque Terre Corniglia Manarola Monterosso al Mare Riomaggiore Vernazza Residences of the Royal House of Savoy Castle of Moncalieri Castle of Racconigi Castle of Rivoli Castello del Valentino Royal Palace of Turin Palazzo Carignano Palazzo Madama, Turin Palace of Venaria Palazzina di caccia of Stupinigi Villa della Regina Rhaetian Railway in the Albula / Bernina Landscapes1 Rock Drawings in Valcamonica Sacri Monti of Piedmont and Lombardy Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan Vineyard Landscape of Piedmont: Langhe-Roero and Monferrato Northeast Aquileia The Dolomites Ferrara Le Colline del Prosecco di Conegliano e Valdobbiadene Modena Cathedral, Torre della Ghirlandina and Piazza Grande, Modena Orto botanico di Padova Ravenna Venice Verona City of Vicenza and the Palladian Villas of the Veneto Central Assisi Basilica of Saint Francis of Assisi Etruscan Necropolises of Cerveteri and Tarquinia Florence Hadrian's Villa Medici villas Piazza del Duomo, Pisa Pienza Rome2 San Gimignano Siena Urbino Val d'Orcia Villa d'Este South Alberobello Amalfi Coast Castel del Monte, Apulia Cilento and Vallo di Diano National Park, Paestum and Velia, Certosa di Padula Herculaneum Oplontis and Villa Poppaea Naples Royal Palace of Caserta, Aqueduct of Vanvitelli and San Leucio Complex Pompeii Sassi di Matera Islands Aeolian Islands Arab-Norman Palermo and the Cathedral Churches of Cefalù and Monreale Archaeological Area of Agrigento Barumini nuraghes Mount Etna Syracuse and Necropolis of Pantalica Val di Noto Caltagirone Catania Militello in Val di Catania Modica Noto Palazzolo Acreide Ragusa Scicli Villa Romana del Casale Countrywide Longobards in Italy, Places of Power (568–774 A.D.) Brescia Cividale del Friuli Castelseprio Spoleto Temple of Clitumnus located at Campello sul Clitunno Santa Sofia located at Benevento Sanctuary of Monte Sant'Angelo located at Monte Sant'Angelo Prehistoric pile dwellings around the Alps3 Primeval Beech Forests of Europe4 Venetian Works of Defence between 15th and 17th centuries5 Bergamo Palmanova Peschiera del Garda 1 Shared with Switzerland 2 Shared with the Holy See 3 Shared with Austria, France, Germany, Slovenia, and Switzerland 4 Shared with Albania, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Germany, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain and Ukraine 5 Shared with Croatia and Montenegro v t e Landmarks of Campania Aeclanum Amalfi Cathedral Ancient remains of Capua Cumae Caserta Palace Cilento and Vallo di Diano National Park Faraglioni Herculaneum Paestum Pompeii Santa Sofia, Benevento Solfatara Sorrento Peninsula Stabiae Trinità della Cava Vesuvius National Park Villa Poppaea v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation 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en-wikipedia-org-3066	----	Golden mean (philosophy) - Wikipedia Golden mean (philosophy) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The golden mean or golden middle way is the desirable middle between two extremes, one of excess and the other of deficiency. It appeared in Greek thought at least as early as the Delphic Maxim nothing to excess and emphasized in later Aristotelian philosophy, [1] For example, in the Aristotelian view, courage is a virtue, but if taken to excess would manifest as recklessness, and, in deficiency, cowardice. Contents 1 History 1.1 Western philosophy 1.1.1 Crete 1.1.2 Delphi 1.1.3 Cleobulus 1.1.4 Socrates 1.1.5 Plato 1.1.6 Aristotle 1.2 Eastern philosophy 1.3 Judaism 1.4 Christianity 1.5 Islam 1.6 Hinduism 1.7 Modernity 2 Quotations 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References 6 Bibliography History[edit] Western philosophy[edit] Crete[edit] The earliest representation of this idea in culture is probably in the mythological Cretan tale of Daedalus and Icarus. Daedalus, a famous artist of his time, built feathered wings for himself and his son so that they might escape the clutches of King Minos. Daedalus warns his beloved son whom he loved so much to "fly the middle course", between the sea spray and the sun's heat. Icarus did not heed his father; he flew up and up until the sun melted the wax off his wings. For not heeding the middle course, he fell into the sea and drowned. Delphi[edit] Another early elaboration is the Doric saying carved on the front of the temple at Delphi: "Nothing in Excess" ("Meden Agan"). Cleobulus[edit] To Cleobulus is attributed the maxim: Mέτρον ἄριστον "Moderation is best"[2] Socrates[edit] Socrates teaches that a man must know "how to choose the mean and avoid the extremes on either side, as far as possible."[3] In education, Socrates asks us to consider the effect of either an exclusive devotion to gymnastics or an exclusive devotion to music. It either "produced a temper of hardness and ferocity, (or) the other of softness and effeminacy."[citation needed] Having both qualities, he believed, produces harmony; i.e., beauty and goodness.[citation needed] He additionally stresses the importance of mathematics in education for the understanding of beauty and truth.[citation needed] Plato[edit] Proportion's relation to beauty and goodness is stressed throughout Plato's dialogues, particularly in the Republic and Philebus. He writes: SOCRATES: That any kind of mixture that does not in some way or other possess measure of the nature of proportion will necessarily corrupt its ingredients and most of all itself. For there would be no blending in such a case at all but really an unconnected medley, the ruin of whatever happens to be contained in it. PROTARCHUS: Very true. SOCRATES: But now we notice that the force of the good has taken up refuge in an alliance with the nature of the beautiful. For measure and proportion manifest themselves in all areas of beauty and virtue. PROTARCHUS: Undeniably. SOCRATES: But we said that truth is also inclined along with them in our mixture? PROTARCHUS: Indeed. SOCRATES: Well, then, if we cannot capture the good in one form, we will have to take hold of it in a conjunction of three: beauty, proportion and truth. Let us affirm that these should by right be treated as a unity and be held responsible for what is in the mixture, for goodness is what makes the mixture good in itself. (Phlb. 64d–65a) In the Laws, Plato applies this principle to electing a government in the ideal state: "Conducted in this way, the election will strike a mean between monarchy and democracy …" Aristotle[edit] In the Eudemian Ethics, Aristotle writes on the virtues. Aristotle’s theory on virtue ethics is one that does not see a person’s actions as a reflection of their ethics but rather looks into the character of a person as the reason behind their ethics. His constant phrase is, "… is the Middle state between …". His psychology of the soul and its virtues is based on the golden mean between the extremes. In the Politics, Aristotle criticizes the Spartan Polity by critiquing the disproportionate elements of the constitution; e.g., they trained the men and not the women, and they trained for war but not peace. This disharmony produced difficulties which he elaborates on in his work. See also the discussion in the Nicomachean Ethics of the golden mean, and Aristotelian ethics in general. Eastern philosophy[edit] Gautama Buddha (fl. 6th century BC) taught of the Middle Way, a path between the extremes of religious asceticism and worldly self-indulgence. Confucius in The Analects,[4] written through the Warring States period of Ancient China (c. 479 BC – 221 BC), taught excess is similar to deficiency. A way of living in the mean is the way of Zhongyong. Zhuangzi was the Tao's most famous commentator (369–286 BC).[5] Tiruvalluvar (2nd century BC and the 8th century AD; date disputed) in his Tirukkural of the Sangam period of Tamizhagam writes of the middle state which is to preserve equity. He emphasises this principle and suggests that the two ways of preserving equity is to be impartial and avoid excess. Parimelazhagar was the historical commentator of the Tirukkural. Judaism[edit] Main article: Golden mean (Judaism) Rambam in Mishneh Torah attributes this method to the first scholars (Chazal), and to Abraham. Indeed, a similar concept exists even in the Rabbinic literature, Tosefta and the Yerushalmi. Yitzhak Arama finds references even in the Bible. One such instance is Eccl. 7:16-17, where the preacher admonishes his audience to "be not righteous over much" and to "be not over much wicked." Adam Clarke takes the phrase "righteous over much" to mean indulging in too much "austerity and hard study," [6] and concludes that “there is no need of all this watching, fasting, praying, self-denial, etc., you carry things to extremes. Why should you wish to be reputed singular and precise?” [7] Thus, the ideal of the golden mean may have existed as long as six hundred years before Aristotle. However, some scholars, such as Albert Barnes, hold a slightly different interpretation of Ecclesiastes 7:16-17.[8] Ahead of the times Rambam, 1133-1204 AD (probably due to Plato's and Aristotle’s engagement with Ethics), determined that a person has to take care of his soul as well as his body, and just as a person who is sick in his body turns to the doctor, a person who has mental illness needs to go to the doctor of the soul, which is, according to him, the philosopher or the sage. Rambam opposed the deterministic approach, arguing that a person has free will and the ability to change its properties. Christianity[edit] Saint Thomas Aquinas, OP, the medieval Catholic philosopher and theologian, in his Summa Theologiae, Prima Secundæ Partis, Question 64, argued that Christian morality is consistent with the mean: "evil consists in discordance from their rule or measure. Now this may happen either by their exceeding the measure or by their falling short of it[.] ... Therefore it is evident that moral virtue observes the mean." Islam[edit] Islam promotes the golden mean in many instances. The Quran states an example in finance, in that a person should not spend all he makes as not to be caught needing, and not to be stingy as to not live a comfortable life. Muhammad also had a saying "خير الأمور أوسطها" meaning the best choice is the middle ground/golden mean one. In Quran (Chapter 'The Cow', verse number 143) it is said that, "We have made you a balanced, moderate nation". Quran quotes the example of two groups of people, calling one of them extremely greedy (Chasing the wealth of the world) in Chapter 'The Cow' verse 96 and to the others as inventors of monasticism (over-zealousness in religion) in Chapter Al-Hadeed verse number 27. Islam councils its followers to abstain from both these paths of extremities and adopt moderation in chasing the world and practicing religion alike. Not the least the Quran emphasises that the Muslim community ( Umma) is a ’middle nation’ / a 'just community' / an Umma justly balanced / a moderate nation / a midmost nation (ummatan wasaTan) in verse 2-143: a middle between extremism and sloppiness. Hinduism[edit] Many Hindu texts emphasize middle path. For example in verse 6:16 of Gita warrior Arjuna is told by Sri Krishna that "Yoga is not for one who eats too much, or eats too little, sleeps too much or does not sleep enough. Modernity[edit] Jacques Maritain, throughout his Introduction to Philosophy (1930),[9] uses the idea of the golden mean to place Aristotelian-Thomist philosophy between the deficiencies and extremes of other philosophers and systems. Quotations[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) "In many things the middle have the best / Be mine a middle station." — Phocylides "When Coleridge tried to define beauty, he returned always to one deep thought; beauty, he said, is unity in variety! Science is nothing else than the search to discover unity in the wild variety of nature,—or, more exactly, in the variety of our experience. Poetry, painting, the arts are the same search, in Coleridge’s phrase, for unity in variety." — Jacob Bronowski "…but for harmony beautiful to contemplate, science would not be worth following." — Henri Poincaré. "If a man finds that his nature tends or is disposed to one of these extremes..., he should turn back and improve, so as to walk in the way of good people, which is the right way. The right way is the mean in each group of dispositions common to humanity; namely, that disposition which is equally distant from the two extremes in its class, not being nearer to the one than to the other." — Maimonides "What is wanted is a balance between extravagance and miserliness through moderation, with the goal of distance between both extremes." — al-Ghazali See also[edit] Frugality Centrism Neutrality Argument to moderation (logical fallacy) Averageness Doctrine of the Mean (Confucian analog) Golden ratio (golden mean applied to aesthetics, mathematics, geometry) Mathematical optimization Goldilocks principle Sweet spot Horseshoe theory Middle Way (Buddhist analog) Third Way Molinism (Middle Knowledge) Welfare in Sweden Sweden: the Middle Way Lagom Notes[edit] ^ Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics II.1 ^ "Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers, BOOK I, Chapter 6 CLEOBULUS (c 600 B.C.)". Retrieved 10 August 2020. ^ Plato, Republic 10.619a ^ Confucius (2006). The Analects. Filiquarian Publishing, LLC. ISBN 978-1-59986-974-2. ^ Watts, Alan with Huan, Al Chungliang (1975). Tao: The Watercourse Way. Pantheon Books. ISBN 0-394-73311-8.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Clarke, Adam (n.d.). "Adam Clarke's Commentary on the Bible". J. Emory and B Waugh. Retrieved May 30, 2018. “austerity and hard study” ^ Clarke, Adam (n.d.). "Adam Clarke's Commentary on the Bible". J. Emory and B Waugh. Retrieved May 30, 2018. “There is no need of all this watching, fasting, praying, self-denial, etc., you carry things to extremes. Why should you wish to be reputed singular and precise?” ^ Barnes, Albert (n.d.). "Albert Barnes' Notes on the Whole Bible". Estes and Lauriate; John Murray; Blackie & Son; Funk & Wagnalls. Retrieved May 30, 2018. ^ Jacques Maritain (2005) [1st ed. 1930]. Introduction to Philosophy. Continuum. ISBN 0-8264-7717-8. References[edit] Eudemian Ethics, 1233b15 Laws, 691c, 756e–757a Nicomachean Ethics, 1106a–b Politics, 1270a and 1271b Republic (Plato), 619 Bibliography[edit] The Greek Way, Edith Hamilton, W. W. Norton & Co., NY, 1993. Sailing the Wine-Dark Sea, Why the Greeks Matter, Thomas Cahill, Nan A. Talese an imprint of Doubleday, NY, 2003. v t e Aristotelianism Overview Aristotle Lyceum Peripatetic school Physics Biology Ethics Logic Theology (unmoved mover) Ideas and interests Active intellect Antiperistasis Arete Category of being Catharsis Classical unities Correspondence theory of truth Essence–accident Eudaimonia Four causes Future contingents Genus–differentia Hexis Hylomorphism Intromission theory of vision Ignoratio elenchi Lexis Magnanimity Mimesis Minima naturalia Moderate realism Aristotle's theory of universals (substantial form) Mythos Philosophy of nature (sublunary sphere) Philia Plenism Rational animal Phronesis Potentiality and actuality Sensus communis Substance theory (hypokeimenon, ousia) Syllogism Telos Temporal finitism To ti en einai/to ti esti Use value/exchange value Virtue ethics Corpus Aristotelicum Physics Organon Nicomachean Ethics Politics Metaphysics On the Soul Rhetoric Poetics Followers Alexander the Great Lyceum Aristoxenus Clearchus of Soli Dicaearchus Eudemus of Rhodes Theophrastus Strato of Lampsacus Lyco of Troas Aristo of Ceos Critolaus Diodorus of Tyre Erymneus Andronicus of Rhodes Islamic Golden Age Al-Kindi Al-Farabi Avicenna Averroes Jewish Maimonides Scholastics Peter Lombard Albertus Magnus Thomas Aquinas Duns Scotus Peter of Spain Jacopo Zabarella Pietro Pomponazzi Cesar Cremonini Modern Newman Trendelenburg Brentano Adler Foot MacIntyre Smith Hursthouse Nussbaum Related topics Platonism Commentaries on Aristotle Recovery of Aristotle Scholasticism Thomism Conimbricenses Pseudo-Aristotle Views on women Aristotle's wheel paradox Aristotle's razor Metabasis paradox Related categories ► Aristotle  Philosophy portal Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Golden_mean_(philosophy)&oldid=990118311" Categories: Theories in ancient Greek philosophy Pythagorean philosophy Concepts in ancient Greek ethics Hidden categories: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2013 Articles needing additional references from May 2014 All articles needing additional references Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Asturianu Català Deutsch Español Esperanto Français 한국어 हिन्दी Italiano 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Русский Sardu Shqip Slovenčina Suomi Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 22 November 2020, at 22:35 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3071	----	Sextus Pompeius Festus - Wikipedia Sextus Pompeius Festus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sextus Pompeius Festus, usually known simply as Festus, was a Roman grammarian who probably flourished in the later 2nd century AD, perhaps at Narbo (Narbonne) in Gaul. Contents 1 Work 2 Manuscript 3 References 3.1 Citations 3.2 Bibliography 4 Further reading 5 External links Work[edit] He made a 20-volume epitome of Verrius Flaccus's voluminous and encyclopedic treatise De Verborum Significatione. Flaccus had been a celebrated grammarian who flourished in the reign of Augustus. Festus gives the etymology as well as the meaning of many words, and his work throws considerable light on the language, mythology and antiquities of ancient Rome. He made a few alterations, and inserted some critical remarks of his own. He also omitted such ancient Latin words as had long been obsolete; these he apparently discussed in a separate work now lost, entitled Priscorum verborum cum exemplis. Even incomplete, Festus' lexicon reflects at second hand the enormous intellectual effort that had been made in the Augustan Age to put together information on the traditions of the Roman world, which was already in a state of flux and change. Of Flaccus' work only a few fragments remain; of Festus' epitome, only one damaged, fragmentary manuscript. The rest is further abridged in a summary made at the close of the 8th century, by Paul the Deacon. The Festus Lexicon Project has summed up Paul's epitome of Festus' De Verborum Significatu as follows: The text, even in its present mutilated state, is an important source for scholars of Roman history. It is a treasury of historical, grammatical, legal and antiquarian learning, providing sometimes unique evidence for the culture, language, political, social and religious institutions, deities, laws, lost monuments, and topographical traditions of ancient Italy.[1] Manuscript[edit] The 11th-century Codex Farnesianus at Naples is the sole surviving manuscript of Festus. It was rediscovered in 1436 at Speyer by the Venetian humanist and bishop Pietro Donato.[2] When he found it, half of the manuscript was already missing, so that it only contains the alphabetized entries M-V, and not in perfect condition. It has been scorched by fire and disassembled. Collating these fragmentary abridgments, and republishing them with translations, is a project being coordinated at University College London, with several objectives: to make this information available in usable form, to stimulate debate on Festus and on the Augustan antiquarian tradition upon which he drew, and to enrich and to renew studies on Roman life, about which Festus provides essential information. References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Festus Lexicon Project, Department of History - University College London (archived from the original) ^ Stinger, Charles L (1998). The Renaissance in Rome. Indiana University Press. p. 64. ISBN 0253212081 – via Google Books. Bibliography[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Festus, Sextus Pompeius". Encyclopædia Britannica. 10 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 294. Further reading[edit] Acciarino, D. 2016. "The Renaissance Editions of Festus: Fulvio Orsini's Version." Acta Classica 59: 1-22. Cornell, Timothy J. 2014. "Festus." In The Fragments of the Roman Historians. Vol. 1, Introduction. Edited by Timothy J. Cornell, 67–68. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Dahm, Murray K. 1999. "A Hendiadys in the Breviarum of Festus: A Literary Festus?" Prudentia: A Journal Devoted to the Intellectual History of the Ancient World. 31.1: 15–22. Glinister, Fay, and Clare Woods, with John A. North and Michael H. Crawford. 2007. Verrius, Festus, and Paul: Lexicography, Scholarship, and Society. Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies of the University of London Supplement 93. London: Institute of Classical Studies. Lamers, Han. 2013. "Creating Room for Doubt: A Reexamination of the editorship of Festus’ “Collectanea” (Rome, 1475)." Philologus 157:374–378. Lindsay, Wallace Martin. 1996. Studies in Early Mediaeval Latin Glossaries. Edited by Michael Lapidge. Variorum Collected Studies Series 467. Aldershot, UK: Variorum. Loew, Elias Avery. 1911. "The Naples MS. of Festus: Its Home and Date." Berliner Philologische Wochenschrift 31:917–918. Marshall, Peter K. 1983. "Sex. Pompeius Festus." In Texts and transmission: A Survey of the Latin Classics. Edited by Leighton D. Reynolds, 162–164. Oxford: Clarendon. North, John. 2008. "Restoring Festus from Paul’s Epitome." Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 48.1–2: 157–170. Schmidt, Peter Lebrecht. 2004. "Festus." In Brill's New Pauly: Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World. Vol. 5, Equ–Has. Edited by Hubert Cancik and Helmuth Schneider, 407. Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Brill. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sextus Pompeius Festus. Library resources about Sextus Pompeius Festus Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Sextus Pompeius Festus Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries (in French) Partial translations of De Verborum Significatione Wallace Martin Lindsay, ed. (1913). Sexti Pompei Festi De Verborum Significatu quae Supersunt cum Pauli Epitome. Leipzig: Teubner. reprint. Hildesheim: Olms. 1965. Karl Otfried Müller, ed. (1880) [1839]. Sexti Pompei Festi De Verborum Significatione quae Supersunt cum Pauli Epitome. Leipzig. reprint. Hildesheim: Olms. 1975. Emil Thewrewk, ed. (1889). De Verborum Significatu quae Supersunt cum Pauli Epitome, Part I. Budapest: Acad. litt. Hungarica. Authority control BIBSYS: 95001701 BNE: XX1269821 BNF: cb12466640q (data) CANTIC: a10908353 CiNii: DA07606589 GND: 118683489 ISNI: 0000 0001 3897 3519 LCCN: n92044943 NKC: ola2002153683 NTA: 070106681 SELIBR: 186823 SUDOC: 033851050 ULAN: 500055998 VIAF: 89123645 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n92044943 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sextus_Pompeius_Festus&oldid=994777025" Categories: Grammarians of Latin Silver Age Latin writers Lexicographers 2nd-century writers 2nd-century Romans Pompeii (gens) Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Commons category link from Wikidata Articles with French-language sources (fr) Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Asturianu Български Català Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara Français Italiano Latina Magyar Nederlands Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 17 December 2020, at 13:56 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3097	----	Roman military personal equipment - Wikipedia Roman military personal equipment From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Further information: Equipment Roman ensigns, standards, trumpets etc. Roman military personal equipment was produced in small numbers to established patterns, and it was used in an established manner. These standard patterns and uses were called the res militaris or disciplina. Its regular practice during the Roman Republic and Roman Empire led to military excellence and victory. The equipment gave the Romans a very distinct advantage over their barbarian enemies, especially so in the case of armour.[1] This does not mean that every Roman soldier had better equipment than the richer men among his opponents. According to Edward Luttwak, Roman equipment was not of a better quality than that used by the majority of Rome's adversaries.[2] Other historians and writers have stated that the Roman army's need for large quantities of "mass produced" equipment after the Marian Reforms and subsequent civil wars led to a decline in the quality of Roman equipment compared to the earlier Republican era: "The production of these kings of helmets of Italic tradition decreased in quality because of the demands of equipping huge armies, especially during civil wars...The bad quality of these helmets is recorded by the sources describing how sometimes they were covered by wicker protections (viminea tegimenta), like those of Pompeius' soldiers during the siege of Dyrrachium in 48 BC, which were seriously damaged by the missles of Caesar's slingers and archers." [3] "It would appear that armour quality suffered at times when mass production methods were being used to meet the increased demand (from the Civil and Social Wars, and following the Marian and Augustan reforms)..." and "...the reduced size curiasses would also have been quicker and cheaper to produce, which may have been a deciding factor at times of financial crisis, or where large bodies of men were required to be mobilized at short notice, possibly reflected in the poor-quality, mass produced iron helmets of Imperial Italic type C, as found, for example, in the River Po at Cremona, associated with the Civil Wars of AD 69 AD; Russel-Robinson, 1975, 67" [4] "Up until then, the quality of helmets had been fairly consistent and the bowls well decorated and finished. However, after the Marian Reforms, with their resultant influx of the poorest citizens into the army, there must inevitably have been a massive demand for cheaper equipment, a situation which can only have been exacerbated by the Civil Wars..." [5] Initially, they used weapons based on Greek and Etruscan models. On encountering the Celts, they based new varieties on Celtic equipment. To defeat the Carthaginians, they constructed an entire fleet de novo based on the Carthaginian model. Once a weapon was adopted, it became standard. The standard weapons varied somewhat during Rome's long history, but the equipment and its use were never individual. Contents 1 Personal weapons of a roman legionary 1.1 Pugio 1.2 Gladius 1.3 Spatha 1.4 Spears and javelins (hastae) 1.4.1 Hasta 1.4.2 Javelin 1.4.3 Pilum 1.5 Projectile weapons 1.5.1 Bow 1.5.2 Crossbow 1.5.3 Plumbatae 2 Entrenching tools 2.1 Dolabra 2.2 Ligo 2.3 Falx 3 Torso armor 3.1 Lorica segmentata 3.2 Lorica hamata 3.3 Lorica squamata 4 Shields 4.1 Scutum 4.2 Parma 4.3 Caetra 5 Helmets 6 Limb armour 6.1 Manica 6.2 Greave 7 Clothing 8 Sarcina 9 Other 9.1 Ballista 9.2 Scorpio 9.3 Catapult 9.4 Buccina 9.5 Tribulus 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 External links Personal weapons of a roman legionary[edit] Pugio[edit] Main article: Pugio Reconstruction of a pugio: a Roman soldier from a northern province A pugio was a dagger used by Roman soldiers, likely as a sidearm. Like other items of legionary equipment, the dagger underwent some changes during the 1st century. Generally, it had a large, leaf-shaped blade 18 to 28 cm long and 5 cm or more in width. A raised midrib ran the length of each side, either simply standing out from the face or defined by grooves on either side. It was changed by making the blade a little thinner, about 3 mm, and the handle was also made out of metal. The tang was wide and flat initially, and the grip was riveted through it, as well as through the shoulders of the blade. Around 50 AD, a rod tang was introduced, and the hilt was no longer riveted through the shoulders of the blade. This in itself caused no great change to the pugio's appearance, but some of these later blades were narrower (under 3.5 cm wide), and/or had little or no waisting, and/or had reduced or vestigial midribs. Throughout the period, the outline of the hilt remained approximately the same. It was made with two layers of horn, wood or bone sandwiching the tang, each overlaid with a thin metal plate. Often the hilt was decorated with inlaid silver. The hilt was 10–12 cm long overall and the grip was quite narrow; which produced a very secure grip. An expansion or lump in the middle of the handle made the user's grip even more secure. Gladius[edit] Main article: Gladius Re-enactor with Pompeii-type gladius Gladius is the general Latin word for "sword". In the Roman Republic, the term gladius Hispaniensis (Spanish sword) referred (and still refers) specifically to the short sword, 60 cm (24 inches) long, used by Roman legionaries from the 3rd century BC. Several different better-known designs followed; among collectors and historical reenactors, the two primary kinds of swords are known as the Mainz gladius, and the Pompeii gladius which follows the Mainz type, which had itself followed the 'Hispaniensis' (these names refer to where or how the canonical example was found). More recent archaeological finds have confirmed the appearance of the earlier version, the gladius Hispaniensis. The legionaries wore their gladii on their right hips. Spatha[edit] Main article: Spatha A spatha could be any sword (in late Latin), but most often one of the longer swords characteristic of the middle and late Roman Empire. In the 1st century, Roman cavalry started using these longer swords, and in the late 2nd or early 3rd century, Roman infantry also switched to longer swords, as well as mostly changing from carrying javelins to carrying spears.[6][7] Shorter weapons (short swords and possibly sometimes daggers) were known as semispathae or half-swords. A large 3rd-century hoard from Künzing included one triangular-bladed short sword and several narrow-bladed short swords (with 23–39 cm blades). Bishop and Coulston suggest that some or all were made from broken spathae.[8][9] Spears and javelins (hastae)[edit] Hasta[edit] Main article: Hasta (spear) Hasta is a Latin word meaning a thrusting spear. Hastae were carried by early Roman legionaries (camillan); in particular, they were carried by and gave their name to those Roman soldiers known as hastati. However, during republican times, the hastati were re-armed with pila and gladii, and only the triarii still used hastae. A hasta was about 1.8 meters (six feet) in length. The shaft was generally made from ash while the head was usually of iron, although early republican hastae also had a tip made of bronze. Javelin[edit] Main article: Javelin Although Romans often used the word pila to refer to all thrown javelins, the term pilum also means specifically the heavy Roman throwing javelin of the legions. Lighter, shorter javelins existed, such as those used by the velites and the early legions. Pilum[edit] Main article: Pilum The pilum (plural pila) was a heavy javelin commonly used by the Roman army in ancient times. It was generally somewhat less than two metres (6 ft 7 in) long overall, consisting of a wooden shaft from which projected an iron shank about 7 mm (0.28 inches) in diameter and 60 cm (23.6 in) long with a pyramidal head. The iron shank was socketed or, more usually, widened to a flat tang. A pilum usually weighed between two and four kilograms (4.4 and 8.8 lb), with the versions produced during the empire era being somewhat lighter. Pila were designed to penetrate both shield and armour, wounding the wearer; but, if they simply stuck in a shield, they could not easily be removed. Some believed that the iron shank would bend upon impact, weighing down the enemy's shield and also preventing the pilum from being immediately re-used. Some versions of the shaft may have fallen off on impact, leaving the enemy with a bent shank in their shield. However, recent evidence suggests that many types of pilum did not bend at all, but reduced the effectiveness of enemy shields by simply getting stuck due to the shape of its larger head and thin shank. In fact, there were many cases where the whole shank was hardened, making the pilum more suitable as a close quarters melee weapon, while also rendering it usable by enemy soldiers.[10] Newer work by M. C. Bishop states that the pilum is "unlikely to bend under their own weight when thrown and striking a target or ground" - rather, it is human intervention [e.g., improper removal of a pilum stuck in a target] that is responsible in some way, and that Caesar's writings should be interpreted as the pilum bent when soldiers tried to remove them.[11] A sturdy pilum that does not bend upon impact would be in line with the numerous historical Roman writings that state the pilum was often used as a weapon in melee combat: For example, in "The Gallic Wars" Caesar writes that at Alesia his troops used the pila as spears or pikes. In the "Life of Pompey" and "Life of Antony", Plutarch describes Caesar's men at Pharsalus jabbing upwards at the faces of Pompey's cavalry with their javelins and Marc Antony's men stabbing at Parthian cavalry with theirs.[12][13] In Arrian in Array against the Alans, Arrian writes that the first four ranks of the formation should use their pila like spearmen, while the rest should use them like javelins.[14] Projectile weapons[edit] Bow[edit] Main article: Sagittarii The sagittarius was armed with a composite bow (arcus), shooting an arrow (sagitta),[15] made of horn, wood, and sinew held together with hide glue. However, Vegetius recommended training recruits "arcubus ligneis", with wooden bows. The reinforcing laths for the composite bows were found throughout the empire, even in the western provinces where wooden bows were traditional.[16] Crossbow[edit] Main article: Cheiroballistra Roman crossbow The cheiroballistra, also known as the manuballista, was a crossbow that was occasionally used by the Romans. The ancient world knew a variety of mechanical hand-held weapons similar to the later medieval crossbow. The exact terminology is a subject of continuing scholarly debate. Roman authors like Vegetius (fl. 4th century) note repeatedly the use of arrow shooting weapons such as arcuballista and manuballista respectively cheiroballista. While most scholars agree that one or more of these terms refer to handheld mechanical weapons, there is disagreement whether these were flexion bows or torsion powered like the recent Xanten find.[17] The Roman commander Arrian (c. 86 – after 146) records in his Tactica Roman cavalry training for shooting some mechanical handheld weapon from horseback.[18] Sculptural reliefs from Roman Gaul depict the use of crossbows in hunting scenes. These are remarkably similar to the later medieval crossbow.[19] Plumbatae[edit] Main article: Plumbata Late infantrymen often carried half-dozen lead-weighted throwing-darts called plumbatae (from plumbum, meaning "lead"), with an effective range of c. 30 m, well beyond that of a javelin. The darts were carried clipped to the back of the shield.[20] Entrenching tools[edit] Ancient writers, including Julius Caesar, documented the use of spades and other digging implements as important tools of war. A Roman legion when on the march would dig a ditch and rampart around their camps every night where established camps were not available. They were also useful as improvised weapons. Dolabra[edit] Main article: Dolabra The dolabra was an Italian pickaxe used as an entrenching tool. Ligo[edit] Main article: Mattock Falx[edit] Main article: Falx The falx was a curved blade that was sharp on the inside edge such as a sickle or a scythe. It was used to clear overgrowth. Torso armor[edit] Scale armour Not all troops wore torso armor. Light infantry, especially in the early republic, wore little or no armor. This was both to allow swifter movement for light troops and also as a matter of cost. Legionary soldiers of the 1st and 2nd centuries used a variety of armour types. Some wore mail shirts, while others wore scale armor or lorica segmentata or laminated-strip cuirass. This last type was a complex piece of armor which in certain circumstances provided superior protection to the other types of Roman armour, mail armour (lorica hamata) and scale armour (lorica squamata). The testing of modern replicas has demonstrated that this kind of armour was impenetrable to most direct hits and missile strikes. It was, however, uncomfortable without padding: re-enactors have confirmed that wearing a padded undergarment known as a subarmalis relieves the wearer from bruising both from prolonged wear and from shock produced by weapon blows against the armour. It was also expensive to produce and difficult to maintain.[21] In the 3rd century, the segmentata appears to have been dropped and troops are depicted wearing mail armour (mainly) or scale, the standard armour of the 2nd-century auxilia. The artistic record shows that most late soldiers wore metal armour, despite Vegetius' statement to the contrary. For example, illustrations in the Notitia show that the army's fabricae (arms factories) were producing mail armour at the end of the 4th century.[22] Actual examples of both scale armour and quite large sections of mail have been recovered, at Trier and Weiler-La-Tour respectively, within 4th-century contexts.[23] Officers generally seem to have worn bronze or iron cuirasses, as in the days of the principate, together with traditional pteruges.[24] Lorica segmentata[edit] Main article: Lorica segmentata A reenactor dressed as a Roman soldier in lorica segmentata Lorica segmentata was a type of body armour primarily used in the early Roman Empire, but the Latin name was first used in the 16th century (the ancient form is unknown). The armour itself consisted of broad ferrous strips ('girth hoops') fastened to internal leather straps. The strips were arranged horizontally on the body, overlapping downwards, and they surrounded the torso in two halves, being fastened at the front and back by means of brass hooks, which were joined by leather laces. The upper body and shoulders were protected by additional strips ('shoulder guards') and breast- and backplates. The form of the armour allowed it to be stored very compactly, since it was possible to separate it into four sections. During the time of its use, it was modified several times, the currently recognised types being the Kalkriese (c. 20 BC to 50), Corbridge (c. 40 to 120), and Newstead (c. 120 to possibly the early 4th century) types. There is also a little-known fourth type, known only from a statue found at Alba Julia in Romania, where there appears to have been a hybrid form, the shoulders being protected by scale armour and the torso hoops being fewer in number and deeper. The earliest evidence of the lorica segmentata being worn is around 9 BC (Dangstetten), and the armour was evidently quite common in service until the 2nd century AD, judging from the number of finds throughout this period (over 100 sites are known, many of them in Britain). However, even during the 2nd century AD, the segmentata never replaced the lorica hamata - thus the hamata mail was still standard issue for both heavy infantry and auxiliaries alike. The last recorded use of this armour seems to have been for the last quarter of the 3rd century AD (Leon, Spain). There are two opinions as to who used this form of armour. One is that only legionaries (heavy infantry of the Roman legions) and praetorians were issued lorica segmentata. Auxiliary forces would more commonly wear the lorica hamata, or lorica squamata. The second viewpoint is that both legionaries and auxiliary soldiers used the segmentata armour and this latter view is supported, to some degree, by archaeological findings. The lorica segmentata offered greater protection than the lorica hamata for about half of the weight, but was also more difficult to produce and repair. The expenses attributed to the segmentata may account for the reversion to ring-mail after the 3rd to 4th century. Alternatively, all forms of armour may have fallen into disuse as the need for heavy infantry waned in favour of the speed of mounted troops. Lorica hamata[edit] Main article: Lorica hamata Detail of mail (replica) with 4-in-1 scheme, typical of Roman hamatas, and alternation of rows of solid rings with rows of riveted rings Lorica hamata was a type of mail armour used during the Roman Republic continuing throughout the Roman Empire as a standard-issue armour for the primary heavy infantry legionaries and secondary troops (auxilia). They were mostly manufactured out of iron, though sometimes bronze was used instead. The rings were linked together, alternating closed washer-like rings with riveted rings. This produced a very flexible, reliable and strong armour. Each ring had an inside diameter of between 5 and 7 mm, and an outside diameter of 7 to 9 mm. The shoulders of the lorica hamata had flaps that were similar to those of the Greek linothorax; they ran from about mid-back to the front of the torso, and were connected by brass or iron hooks which connected to studs riveted through the ends of the flaps. Several thousand rings would have gone into one lorica hamata. Although labour-intensive to manufacture, it is thought that, with good maintenance, they could be continually used for several decades. Its utility was such that the later appearance of the famous lorica segmentata—which afforded greater protection for a third of the weight—never led to the disappearance of the ubiquitous mail, and, in fact, the army of the late empire reverted to the lorica hamata once the segmentata had fallen out of fashion. Lorica squamata[edit] Main article: Lorica squamata Roman scale armour fragment Detail of a fragment. Each plate has six holes and the scales are linked in rows. Only the lower most holes are visible on most scales, while a few show the pair above and the ring fastener passing through them. Lorica squamata was a type of scale armour used during the Roman Republic and at later periods. It was made from small metal scales sewn to a fabric backing. It is typically seen on depictions of standard bearers, musicians, centurions, cavalry troops, and even auxiliary infantry, but could be worn by regular legionaries as well. A shirt of scale armour was shaped in the same way as a lorica hamata, mid-thigh length with the shoulder doublings or cape.[25] The individual scales (squamae) were either iron or bronze, or even alternating metals on the same shirt. They could be tinned as well, one surviving fragment showing bronze scales that were alternately tinned and plain. The metal was generally not very thick, 0.5 mm to 0.8 mm (0.02 to 0.032 in) perhaps being a common range. Since the scales overlapped in every direction, however, the multiple layers gave good protection. The size ranged from as small as 6 mm (0.25 in) wide by 1.2 cm tall up to about 5 cm (2 in) wide by 8 cm (3 in) tall, with the most common sizes being roughly 1.25 by 2.5 cm (0.5 by 1 in). Many had rounded bottoms, while others were pointed or had flat bottoms with the corners clipped off at an angle. The scales could be flat, slightly domed, or have a raised midrib or edge.[25] All the scales in a shirt were generally of the same size; however, scales from different shirts varied significantly. The scales were wired together in horizontal rows that were then laced or sewn to the backing. Therefore, each scale had from four to 12 holes: two or more at each side for wiring to the next in the row, one or two at the top for fastening to the backing, and sometimes one or two at the bottom to secure the scales to the backing or to each other.[25] It is possible that the shirt could be opened either at the back or down one side so that it was easier to put on, the opening being closed by ties. Much has been written about scale armour's supposed vulnerability to an upward thrust, but this is probably exaggerated.[25] No examples of an entire lorica squamata have been found, but there have been several archaeological finds of fragments of such shirts and individual scales are quite common finds—even in non-military contexts. Shields[edit] Scutum[edit] Main article: Scutum (shield) Parma[edit] Main article: Parma (shield) The parma was a circular shield, three Roman feet across. It was smaller than most shields, but was strongly made and regarded as effective protection. This may have been due to the use of iron in its frame.[26] It had a handle and a shield boss (umbo). The parma was used in the Roman army of the mid-Republic, by the lowest class division of the army — the velites. The velites' equipment consisted of a parma, javelin, sword and helmet. Later, the parma was replaced by the scutum. Caetra[edit] A light shield of wood and leather, the name from Greek (καίτρεα, Hesych.). Used by tribesmen from Hispania, Mauretania, and Britannia.[27] Helmets[edit] Main article: Galea (helmet) Cavalry parade helmet, latter half of the 2nd century AD, from the German limes. Roman helmets, galea or cassis, varied greatly in form. One of the earliest types was the Montefortino helmet used by the Republic armies up to the 1st century BC. This was replaced directly by the Coolus helmet, which "raised the neck peak to eye level and set a sturdy frontal peak to the brow of the helmet".[28] Limb armour[edit] Manica[edit] Main article: Manica (armguard) From early imperial times to after the fall of the Western Empire, some troops wore segmented armour on one or both arms. Greave[edit] Main article: Greave Greaves, sheet metal protecting the legs, were widely used in the late republic, and by some troops in the imperial army. Clothing[edit] Tunic: a basic garment worn under the armour by all soldiers in the republic and early empire. Normally made of wool. Tunics originally consisted simply of a piece of rectangular cloth sewed to an identical piece, with holes for the arms and head left unsewn. Later, it became fashionable for tunics to be produced with sleeves, and worn with braccae. Focale: a scarf worn by legionaries to protect the neck from chafing caused by constant contact with the soldier's armour (typically lorica hamata or lorica segmentata) and helmet Balteus: a sword belt Cingulum militare: a type of decorated belt denoting rank Braccae: woollen trousers Subligaria: underpants. Their existence was confirmed by one of the Vindolanda tablets. Cloak: two types of cloaks were used, the sagum and the paenula. Both were made from wool, which insulated and also contained natural oil to repel water. They were fastened with a fibula. The paenula was hooded in colder climates. Since every common soldier slept in the open, it was important that he have a warm full-length wrap, but necessary that he carry it with him each day regardless of his activities. This was accomplished by a cloak of more than body length, double-folded so that it did not fall beneath the knees when worn. An excellent illustration of this is the statue of Caesar Augustus atop the theater in the Roman city of Orange, in what is now France. Caligae: military boots worn by legionaries and auxiliaries throughout the history of the Roman Republic and Empire. The boots were made from leather and laced up the center of the foot and onto the top of the ankle. Iron hobnails were hammered into the sole for added strength. Similar to the modern cleat. Pteruges: a skirt of leather or fabric strips that was worn around the waist to protect the upper legs. Pteruges could be fitted with small metal studs and plates to provide additional protection. Sarcina[edit] Marching packs of two soldiers illustrated on Trajan's Column showing loculus, cloak bag, patera, cooking pot and "netted object" Main article: Sarcina A military pack carried by legionaries. The pack included a number of items suspended from a furca or carrying pole. Items carried in the pack included: Loculus: a leather satchel Waterskin: Roman camps would typically be built near water sources, but each soldier would have to carry his water for the day's march in a waterskin. Food: each legionary would carry some of his food. Although a Roman army on the move would typically have a baggage train of mules or similar to carry supplies such as food, after the Marian reforms legionaries were required to carry about 15 days worth of basic food supplies with them. Cooking equipment: including a patera, cooking pot and skewer. A patera was a broad, shallow dish used for drinking, primarily in ritual contexts such as a libation. Entrenching tools: Carried by legionaries to construct fortifications and dig latrines etc. Each legionary would typically carry either a shovel (batillum) or dolabra (mattock) for digging, a turf cutting tool or a wicker basket for hauling earth. Sudis: stakes for construction of camps Other[edit] Buccina Roman iron caltrop Ballista[edit] Main article: Ballista The ballista was a powerful crossbow, powered by torsion in bundles of sinew, rather than torsion in the arms. Early versions projected heavy darts called bolts, or spherical stone projectiles of various sizes. Scorpio[edit] Main article: Scorpio (weapon) The scorpio was a torsion-powered catapult-type weapon used for precision fire and also for parabolic shooting. It fired bolts capable of piercing enemy shields and armour. The Roman army supplied 60 to each legion. Catapult[edit] Main article: Catapult A catapult is a siege engine which used an arm to hurl a projectile. The Roman version was called an onager. Projectiles included both arrows and (later) stones. Buccina[edit] Main article: Buccina A brass instrument used in the ancient Roman army. It was originally designed as a tube measuring some 11 to 12 feet in length, of narrow cylindrical bore, and played by means of a cup-shaped mouthpiece. The tube was bent around upon itself from the mouthpiece to the bell in the shape of a broad C and was strengthened by means of a bar across the curve, which the performer grasped while playing, in order to steady the instrument; the curves over his head or shoulder. The buccina was used for the announcement of night watches and various other announcements in the camp. The instrument is the ancestor of both the trumpet and the trombone. The German word for trombone, Posaune, is derived from buccina. Tribulus[edit] A tribulus (caltrop) was a weapon made up of four sharp nails or spines arranged in such a manner that one of them always pointed upward from a stable base (for example, a tetrahedron). Caltrops served to slow down the advance of horses, war elephants, and human troops. It was said to be particularly effective against the soft feet of camels.[29] The late-Roman writer Vegetius, in his work De Re Militari, wrote: The scythed chariots used in war by Antiochus and Mithridates at first terrified the Romans, but they afterwards made a jest of them. As a chariot of this sort does not always meet with plain and level ground, the least obstruction stops it. And if one of the horses be either killed or wounded, it falls into the enemy's hands. The Roman soldiers rendered them useless chiefly by the following contrivance: at the instant the engagement began, they strewed the field of battle with caltrops, and the horses that drew the chariots, running full speed on them, were infallibly destroyed. A caltrop is a machine composed of four spikes or points arranged so that in whatever manner it is thrown on the ground, it rests on three and presents the fourth upright.[30] See also[edit] Roman siege machines Military of ancient Rome Technological history of the Roman military Notes[edit] ^ Elton, Hugh, 1996, Warfare in Roman Europe, AD 350-425, p. 110 ^ In Luttwak, E., The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, JHUP, 1979, Luttwak states that "Roman weapons, far from being universally more advanced, were frequently inferior to those used by... enemies" ^ D’Amato 2009. ^ Travis 2014. sfn error: no target: CITEREFTravis2014 (help) ^ Bishop 1985, p. 145. ^ Stephenson, I.P., 2001, Roman Infantry Equipment: The Later Empire, Tempus, pp. 58 & 60-75. ^ M.C. Bishop & J.C.N. Coulston, 2006, Roman Military Equipment: From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome, Oxbow Books, pp. 82-83, 130, 154-157 & 202. ^ Stephenson, I.P., 2001, Roman Infantry Equipment: The Later Empire, Tempus, p. 79. ^ M.C. Bishop & J.C.N. Coulston, 2006, Roman Military Equipment: From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome, Oxbow Books, p. 157. ^ Cowan, Ross (2003). "Equipment". Roman legionary: 58 BC - AD 69. Osprey Publishing. pp. 25–26. ISBN 978-1-84176-600-3. Retrieved 8 February 2012. ^ Bishop, M.C. (2017). The Pilum: The Roman Heavy Javelin. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1472815882. ^ http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Pompey*.html ^ http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Antony*.html ^ http://members.tripod.com/~S_van_Dorst/Ancient_Warfare/Rome/Sources/ektaxis.html ^ Roman Military Equipment from the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome (Paperback). M.C. Bishop, J.C. Coulston. Oxbow Books 2005. ISBN 1-84217-159-3 ISBN 978-1842171592 ^ Coulston, J.C. "Roman Archery Equipment. The Production and Distribution of Roman Military Equipment". Ed. M.C. Bishop. Oxford: B.A.R. International Series, 1985. pp. 202-366. ^ Romanhideout.com: Manuballista found near Xanten ^ Arrian Tact. 43.1; Baatz 1999, pp. 11–15 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBaatz1999 (help); Campbell 1986, pp. 117–132 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFCampbell1986 (help) ^ Dictionnaire des antiquites grecques et romaines: Arcuballista, Manuballista ^ Goldsworthy (2000) 167; (2003) 205 ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 129 ^ Notitia Oriens.XI ^ Bishop and Coulston (2006) 208 ^ Elton (1996) 111 ^ a b c d "Lorica Squamta ATA". www.larp.com. Retrieved 2020-01-22. ^ http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Parma.html Parma, in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, at LacusCurtius ^ Cetra. Article by James Yates, M.A., F.R.S., on pp269‑270 of: William Smith, D.C.L., LL.D.: A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, John Murray, London, 1875. http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Cetra.html ^ Santosuosso, A., Soldiers, Emperors and Civilians in the Roman Empire, Westview, 2001, p.131 ^ Rawlinson, George. The Seven Great Monarchies Of The Ancient Eastern World, Vol 6. (of 7): Parthia. ^ Vegetius. "ARMED CHARIOTS AND ELEPHANTS". The Military Institutions of the Romans Book III: Dispositions for Action. Archived from the original on 2005-12-24. References[edit] Ammianus Marcellinus, Roman History (late 4th century) Goldsworthy, Adrian (2003). Complete Roman Army. D’Amato, Raffaele (2009). Arms and Armour of the Imperial Roman Soldier From Marius to Commodus, 112 BC–AD 192. Travis, Hilary; Travis, John (2014). Roman Helmets. ISBN 978-1445638423. Bishop, M.C. (1985). The Production and Distribution of Roman Military Equipment Proceedings of the Second Roman Military Equipment Research Seminar. 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en-wikipedia-org-3101	----	List of Roman emperors - Wikipedia List of Roman emperors From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikipedia list article Augustus, the first Roman emperor The Roman emperors were the rulers of the Roman Empire dating from the granting of the title of Augustus to Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus by the Roman Senate in 27 BC, after major roles played by the populist dictator and military leader Julius Caesar. Augustus maintained a facade of Republican rule, rejecting monarchical titles but calling himself princeps senatus (first man of the council)[1] and princeps civitatis (first citizen of the state). The title of Augustus was conferred on his successors to the imperial position. The style of government instituted by Augustus is called the Principate and continued until reforms by Diocletian. The modern word 'emperor' derives from the title imperator, which was granted by an army to a successful general; during the initial phase of the empire, the title was generally used only by the princeps. For example, Augustus' official name was Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus. The territory under command of the emperor had developed under the period of the Roman Republic as it invaded and occupied most of Europe and portions of northern Africa and western Asia. Under the republic, regions of the empire were ruled by provincial governors answerable to and authorised by the Senate and People of Rome. During the republic, the chief magistrates of Rome were two consuls elected each year; consuls continued to be elected in the imperial period, but their authority was subservient to that of the emperor, and the election was controlled by the emperor. In the late 3rd century, after the Crisis of the Third Century, Diocletian formalised and embellished the recent manner of imperial rule, establishing the so-called Dominate period of the Roman Empire. This was characterised by the explicit increase of authority in the person of the emperor, and the use of the style dominus noster 'our lord'. The rise of powerful Barbarian tribes along the borders of the empire and the challenge they posed to defense of far-flung borders and unstable imperial succession led Diocletian to divide the administration geographically of the Empire in 286 with a co-Augustus. In 313, Constantine the Great, the first Christian emperor, issued the Edict of Milan along with Licinius that granted freedom in the worship of Christianity. In 330, he established a second capital in Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople. For most of the period from 286 to 480, there was more than one recognised senior emperor, with the division usually based in geographic terms. This division was consistently in place after the death of Theodosius I in 395, which historians have dated as the division between the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire.[2] However, formally the Empire remained a single polity, with separate co-emperors in the separate courts. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, and so the end of a separate list of emperors below, is dated either from the de facto date of 476 when Romulus Augustulus was deposed by the Germanic Herulians led by Odoacer or the de jure date of 480, on the death of Julius Nepos, when Eastern emperor Zeno ended recognition of a separate Western court. In the period that followed, the Empire is usually treated by historians as the Byzantine Empire governed by the Byzantine emperors, although this designation is not used universally, and continues to be a subject of specialist debate today.[3] In the 7th century reign of Heraclius, the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 saw much of Rome's eastern territory lost to the Sasanian Empire, recovered by Heraclius, and then lost permanently to Arab Muslim conquests after the death of Muhammad and establishment of Islam. The Sasanian Empire was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate, ending the Byzantine-Sasanian Wars. The line of emperors continued until the death of Constantine XI Palaiologos during the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, when the remaining territories were captured by the Ottoman Empire under Mehmed II.[4] The Ottoman dynasty carried on using the title of Caesar of Rome. Counting all individuals to have possessed the full imperial title, including those who did not technically rule in their own right (e.g. co-emperors or minors during regencies), this list contains 194 emperors and 3 ruling empresses, for a total of 197 monarchs. Contents 1 Legitimacy 1.1 Emperors after 395 2 The Principate 2.1 27 BC–68 AD: Julio-Claudian dynasty 2.2 68–96: Year of the Four Emperors and Flavian dynasty 2.3 96–192: Nerva–Antonine dynasty 2.4 193–235: Year of the Five Emperors and Severan dynasty 2.5 235–285: Crisis of the Third Century 3 The Dominate 3.1 284–364: Tetrarchy and Constantinian dynasty 3.2 364–395: Valentinianic dynasty 4 Western emperors 4.1 395–455: Theodosian dynasty 4.2 455–476: Last western emperors 5 Eastern emperors 5.1 395–457: Theodosian dynasty 5.2 457–518: Leonid dynasty 5.3 518–602: Justinian dynasty 5.4 610–695: Heraclian dynasty 5.5 695–717: Twenty Years' Anarchy 5.6 717–802: Isaurian dynasty 5.7 802–813: Nikephorian dynasty 5.8 820–867: Amorian dynasty 5.9 867–1056: Macedonian dynasty 5.10 1059–1081: Doukid dynasty 5.11 1081–1185: Komnenid dynasty 5.12 1185–1204: Angelid dynasty 5.13 1204–1261: Laskarid dynasty 5.14 1261–1453: Palaiologan dynasty 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links Legitimacy[edit] This article is about legitimate Roman emperors. For other individuals claiming the title of Emperor, see List of Roman usurpers. The emperors listed in this article are those generally agreed to have been 'legitimate' emperors, and who appear in published regnal lists.[5][6][7] The word 'legitimate' is used by most authors, but usually without clear definition, perhaps not surprisingly, since the emperorship was itself rather vaguely defined legally. In Augustus' original formulation, the princeps was selected by either the Senate or "the people" of Rome, but quite quickly the legions became an acknowledged stand-in for "the people." A person could be proclaimed as emperor by their troops or by "the mob" in the street, but in theory needed to be confirmed by the Senate. The coercion that frequently resulted was implied in this formulation. Furthermore, a sitting emperor was empowered to name a successor and take him on as apprentice in government and in that case the Senate had no role to play, although it sometimes did when a successor lacked the power to inhibit bids by rival claimants. By the medieval (or Byzantine) period, the very definition of the Senate became vague as well, adding to the complication.[8] Lists of legitimate emperors are therefore partly influenced by the subjective views of those compiling them, and also partly by historical convention. Many of the 'legitimate' emperors listed here acceded to the position by usurpation, and many 'illegitimate' claimants had a legitimate claim to the position. Historically[by whom?], the following criteria have been used to derive emperor lists: Any individual who undisputedly ruled the whole Empire, at some point, is a 'legitimate emperor'(1). Any individual who was nominated as heir or co-emperor by a legitimate emperor (1), and who succeeded to rule in his own right, is a legitimate emperor (2). Where there were multiple claimants, and none were legitimate heirs, the claimant accepted by the Roman Senate as emperor is the legitimate emperor (3), at least during the Principate. So for instance, Aurelian, though acceding to the throne by usurpation, was the sole and undisputed monarch between 270 and 275, and thus was a legitimate emperor. Gallienus, though not in control of the whole Empire, and plagued by other claimants, was the legitimate heir of (the legitimate emperor) Valerian. Claudius Gothicus, though acceding illegally, and not in control of the whole Empire, was the only claimant accepted by the Senate, and thus, for his reign, was the legitimate emperor. Equally, during the Year of the Four Emperors, all claimants, though not undisputed, were at some point accepted by the Senate and are thus included; conversely, during the Year of the Five Emperors neither Pescennius Niger nor Clodius Albinus were accepted by the Senate, and are thus not included. There are a few examples where individuals were made co-emperor, but never wielded power in their own right (typically the child of an emperor); these emperors are legitimate, but are not included in regnal lists, and in this article are listed together with the senior emperor. Emperors after 395[edit] After 395, the list of emperors in the East is based on the same general criteria, with the exception that the emperor only had to be in undisputed control of the Eastern part of the empire, or be the legitimate heir of the Eastern emperor. The situation in the West is more complex. Throughout the final years of the Western Empire (395–480) the Eastern emperor was considered the senior emperor, and a Western emperor was only legitimate if recognized as such by the Eastern emperor. Furthermore, after 455 the Western emperor ceased to be a relevant figure and there was sometimes no claimant at all. For the sake of historical completeness, all Western Emperors after 455 are included in this list, even if they were not recognized by the Eastern Empire;[9] some of these technically illegitimate emperors are included in regnal lists, while others are not. For instance, Romulus Augustulus was technically a usurper who ruled only the Italian peninsula and was never legally recognized. However, he was traditionally considered the "last Roman Emperor" by 18th and 19th century western scholars and his overthrow by Odoacer used as the marking point between historical epochs, and as such he is usually included in regnal lists. However, modern scholarship has confirmed that Romulus Augustulus' predecessor, Julius Nepos continued to rule as emperor in the other Western holdings and as a figurehead for Odoacer's rule in Italy until Nepos' death in 480. Since the question of what constitutes an emperor can be ambiguous, and dating the "fall of the Western Empire" arbitrary, this list includes details of both figures. The Principate[edit] Main article: Principate 27 BC–68 AD: Julio-Claudian dynasty[edit] Main article: Julio-Claudian dynasty Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details Augustus Imperator Caesar Augustus 16 January 27 BC – 19 August AD 14 (40 years, 7 months and 3 days) Grandnephew and adopted son of Julius Caesar, became emperor as a result of settlement with the Roman Senate 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14 (aged 75)[10] Died of natural causes Tiberius Tiberius Caesar Augustus 18 September 14 – 16 March 37 (22 years, 5 months and 26 days) Stepson, former son-in-law and adopted son of Augustus 16 November 42 BC – 16 March AD 37 (aged 77)[11] Died probably of natural causes, possibly murdered at the instigation of Caligula Caligula (formally Gaius) Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus 18 March 37 – 24 January 41 (3 years, 10 months and 6 days) Grandnephew and adoptive grandson of Tiberius, great-grandson of Augustus 31 August 12 – 24 January 41 (aged 28)[12] Murdered in a conspiracy involving the Praetorian Guard, senators and freedmen Claudius Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus 24 January 41 – 13 October 54 (13 years, 8 months and 19 days) Uncle of Caligula, grandnephew of Augustus, proclaimed emperor by the Praetorian Guard and accepted by the Senate 1 August 10 BC – 13 October AD 54 (aged 63)[13] Probably poisoned by his wife Agrippina, in favor of her son Nero Nero Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus 13 October 54 – 9 June 68 (13 years, 7 months and 27 days) Grandnephew, stepson, son-in-law and adopted son of Claudius, great-great-grandson of Augustus 15 December 37 – 9 June 68 (aged 30)[14] Committed suicide after being declared a public enemy by the Senate 68–96: Year of the Four Emperors and Flavian dynasty[edit] Main articles: Year of the Four Emperors and Flavian dynasty Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details Galba Servius Galba Caesar Augustus[15] 8 June 68 – 15 January 69 (7 months and 7 days) Revolted against Nero and seized power after his suicide 24 December 3 BC – 15 January AD 69 (aged 72)[16] Murdered by the Praetorian Guard in coup led by Otho Otho Marcus Otho Caesar Augustus[15] 15 January – 16 April 69 (3 months and 1 day) Seized the purple in a coup against Galba 28 April 32 – 16 April 69 (aged 36) Committed suicide after losing the Battle of Bedriacum to Vitellius[17] Vitellius Aulus Vitellius Germanicus Augustus 18 April – 20 December 69 (8 months and 2 days) Seized power with support of Rhine legions, in opposition to Galba and Otho 24 September 15 – 20 December 69 (aged 54)[18] Tortured and murdered by Vespasian's troops Vespasian Caesar Vespasianus Augustus[15] 21 December 69 – 24 June 79 (9 years, 6 months and 3 days) Seized power with the support of the eastern legions 17 November 9 – 23/24 June 79 (aged 69) Died of natural causes[19] Titus Titus Caesar Vespasianus Augustus[15] 24 June 79 – 13 September 81 (2 years, 2 months and 20 days) Son of Vespasian 30 December 39 – 13 September 81 (aged 41) Died of natural causes[20] Domitian Caesar Domitianus Augustus[15] 14 September 81 – 18 September 96 (15 years and 4 days) Brother of Titus and son of Vespasian, was accepted as emperor by the Praetorian Guard and the Senate 24 October 51 – 18 September 96 (aged 44) Assassinated in a palace conspiracy[21] 96–192: Nerva–Antonine dynasty[edit] Main article: Nerva–Antonine dynasty Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details Nerva Nerva Caesar Augustus[15] 18 September 96 – 27 January 98 (1 year, 4 months and 9 days) Proclaimed emperor after the murder of Domitian. First of the "Five Good Emperors". 8 November 30 – 27 January 98 (aged 67) Died after suffering a stroke[22] Trajan Caesar Nerva Traianus Augustus[15] 28 January 98 – 8 August 117 (19 years, 6 months and 11 days) Adopted son and heir of Nerva. His reign marked the geographical peak of the empire. 18 September 53 – 8 August 117 (aged 63) Died of natural causes[23] Hadrian Caesar Traianus Hadrianus Augustus[15] 11 August 117 – 10 July 138 (20 years, 10 months and 29 days) Supposedly adopted by Trajan 24 January 76 – 10 July 138 (aged 62) Died of natural causes[24] Antoninus Pius Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Augustus Pius 10 July 138 – 7 March 161 (22 years, 7 months and 25 days) Adopted son and heir of Hadrian 19 September 86 – 7 March 161 (aged 74) Died of natural causes[25] Marcus Aurelius Marcus Aurelius Antoninus[26] 7 March 161 – 17 March 180 (19 years and 10 days) Adopted son and son-in-law of Antoninus Pius. Adoptive brother and co-emperor of Lucius Verus. Last of the "Five Good Emperors". 26 April 121 – 17 March 180 (aged 58) Died of natural causes[27] Lucius Verus Lucius Aurelius Verus 7 March 161 – 23 January 169 (7 years, 10 months and 15 days) Adopted son and heir of Antoninus Pius and son-in-law of Marcus Aurelius; Co-emperor with Marcus Aurelius until his death 15 December 130 – 23 January 169 (aged 38) Died of natural causes (Antonine Plague)[28] Commodus Lucius Aelius Aurelius Commodus 17 March 180 – 31 December 192 (12 years, 9 months and 14 days) Son of Marcus Aurelius 31 August 161 – 31 December 192 (aged 31) Strangled to death in his bath[29] 193–235: Year of the Five Emperors and Severan dynasty[edit] Main articles: Year of the Five Emperors and Severan dynasty Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details Pertinax Publius Helvius Pertinax 31 December 192 – 28 March 193 (2 months and 28 days) Proclaimed emperor after the murder of Commodus 1 August 126 – 28 March 193 (aged 66) Murdered by the Praetorian Guard[30] Didius Julianus Marcus Didius Severus Julianus 28 March – 1 June 193 (2 months and 4 days) Won auction held by the Praetorian Guard for the position of emperor 29 January 137 – 1 June 193 (aged 56) Executed on orders of the Senate[31] Septimius Severus Lucius Septimius Severus Pertinax 9 April 193 – 4 February 211 (17 years, 9 months and 26 days) Proclaimed emperor by the Pannonian legions 11 April 145 – 4 February 211 (aged 65) Died of natural causes[32] Caracalla (formally Antoninus) Marcus Aurelius Antoninus 4 February 211 – 8 April 217 (6 years, 2 months and 4 days) Son and heir of Septimius Severus, ruled jointly with his brother, Geta 4 April 188 – 8 April 217 (aged 29) Murdered by a soldier in a conspiracy possibly involving Macrinus[33] Geta Publius Septimius Geta 4 February 211 – 2 February 212 (11 months and 29 days) Son and heir of Septimius Severus, ruled jointly with his brother, Caracalla 7 March 189 – 2 February 212 (aged 22) Murdered on the orders of Caracalla Macrinus Marcus Opellius Severus Macrinus 11 April 217 – 8 June 218 (1 year, 1 month and 28 days) Praetorian prefect to Caracalla, whom he possibly conspired to have murdered, and afterwards became himself emperor with consent of the army 164 or 166 – mid-218 (aged c. 53) Executed in favor of Elagabalus[34] Diadumenian Marcus Opellius Antoninus Diadumenianus Late May – June 218 Son of Macrinus, named emperor by his father after the eruption of a rebellion in favor of Elagabalus 14 September 208 – June 218 (aged 9) Caught in flight and executed in favor of Elagabalus[35] Elagabalus (formally Antoninus) Marcus Aurelius Antoninus 16 May 218 – 11 March 222 (3 years, 9 months and 23 days) Cousin and alleged illegitimate son of Caracalla, grandnephew of Septimius Severus, proclaimed emperor by the army, in opposition to Macrinus 203 or 204 – 11 March 222 (aged around 18) Murdered, thrown into the Tiber[36] Severus Alexander Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander 13 March 222 – 19 March 235 (13 years and 6 days) Cousin and adopted heir of Elagabalus, grandnephew of Septimius Severus, proclaimed emperor by the troops 1 October 208 – 19 March 235 (aged 26) Lynched by mutinous troops alongside his mother[37] 235–285: Crisis of the Third Century[edit] Main articles: Crisis of the Third Century and Year of the Six Emperors Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details Maximinus Thrax Gaius Julius Verus Maximinus 20 March 235 – 24 June 238 (3 years, 3 months and 4 days) Proclaimed emperor by Germanic legions after the murder of Severus Alexander c. 173 – 24 June 238 (aged c. 65) Murdered by his men during the siege of Aquileia[38] Gordian I Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus Africanus 22 March – 12 April 238 (21 days) Proclaimed emperor alongside his son, Gordian II, while serving as governor of Africa, in a revolt against Maximinus, and recognized by the Senate Committed suicide upon hearing of the death of his son, Gordian II[39] Gordian II Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus Africanus 22 March – 12 April 238 (21 days) Proclaimed emperor alongside father Gordian I, during revolt in Africa against Maximinus Killed outside Carthage in battle against an army loyal to Maximinus[39] Pupienus Marcus Clodius Pupienus Maximus 22 April – 29 July 238 (3 months and 7 days) Proclaimed emperor jointly with Balbinus by the Senate after death of Gordian I and II, in opposition to Maximinus Tortured and murdered by the Praetorian Guard[40] Balbinus Decimus Caelius Calvinus Balbinus 22 April – 29 July 238 (3 months and 7 days) Proclaimed emperor jointly with Pupienus by the Senate after death of Gordian I and II, in opposition to Maximinus Tortured and murdered by the Praetorian Guard[40] Gordian III Marcus Antonius Gordianus 29 July 238 – c. February 244 (5​1⁄2 years) Grandson of Gordian I, appointed as heir by Pupienus and Balbinus, upon whose deaths he succeeded as emperor 20 January 225 – c. February 244 (aged 19) Died during campaign against Persia, possibly in a murder plot instigated by his successor, Philip the Arab[41] Philip the Arab Marcus Julius Philippus c. February 244 – c. September 249 (5 years and 7 months) Praetorian prefect to Gordian III, took power after his death Killed at the Battle of Verona against Decius Philip II Marcus Julius Severus Philippus Summer 247 – c. September 249 (2 years) Son of Philip the Arab, named co-emperor in 247 Murdered by the Praetorian Guard[42] Decius Gaius Messius Quintus Traianus Decius c. September 249 – June 251 (1 year and c. 9 months) Proclaimed emperor by the troops in Moesia, then defeated Philip the Arab in battle c. 201 – June 251 (aged c. 50) Killed at the Battle of Abrittus against the Goths[43] Herennius Etruscus Quintus Herennius Etruscus Messius Decius c. June 251 Son of Decius, appointed joint emperor Killed in battle against the Goths alongside his father, Decius[44] Hostilian Gaius Valens Hostilianus Messius Quintus June – c. November 251 (c. 5 months) Son and heir of Decius, accepted as emperor by Trebonianus Gallus Probably died of the plague, possibly killed by Trebonianus Gallus[45] Trebonianus Gallus Gaius Vibius Trebonianus Gallus June 251 – c. August 253 (2 years and 2 months) Proclaimed emperor by the army after Decius's death c. 206 – c. August 253 Murdered by his own troops, in favour of Aemilian[46] Volusianus Gaius Vibius Afinius Gallus Veldumnianus Volusianus c. August 251 – c. August 253 (2 years) Son of Trebonianus Gallus, appointed joint emperor c. 230 – c. August 253 Murdered by the soldiers, alongside his father[47] Aemilian Marcus Aemilius Aemilianus c. July – September 253 (2–3 months) Commander of the army in Moesia, proclaimed emperor by the soldiers after defeating barbarians, and in opposition to Gallus Murdered by his own troops, in favor of Valerian[48] Valerian Publius Licinius Valerianus September 253 – c. June 260 (6 years and c. 9 months) Army commander in Raetia and Noricum, proclaimed emperor by the legions in opposition to Aemilian Captured at Edessa by the Persian king Shapur I, died in captivity[49] Gallienus Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus September 253 – c. September 268 (15 years) Son of Valerian, appointed joint emperor c. 218 – c. September 268 (aged 50) Murdered in a conspiracy of army officers, involving his successors Claudius and Aurelian[50] Saloninus (Publius Licinius Cornelius) Saloninus Valerianus January 260 – fall 260 Son of Gallienus, briefly co-emperor Murdered in 260 by the soldiers of Postumus[51] Claudius Gothicus Marcus Aurelius Claudius September 268 – c. April 270[52] (1 year and c. 7 months) Victorious general at Battle of Naissus, seized power after Gallienus's death 10 May 214 – 270 (aged 55) Died of disease, possibly the plague of Cyprian Quintillus Marcus Aurelius Claudius Quintillus c. April–May 270 (17 days or more) Brother of Claudius Gothicus, proclaimed emperor after his death Committed suicide or killed at the behest of Aurelian[53] Aurelian Lucius Domitius Aurelianus c. May 270 – c. October 275 (5 years and c. 5 months)[54] Supreme commander of the Roman cavalry, proclaimed emperor by Danube legions after Claudius's death, in opposition to Quintillus 9 September 214 – c. October 275 (aged 61) Murdered by the troops[55] Tacitus Marcus Claudius Tacitus c. December 275 – c. June 276 (6–7 months) Elected by the Senate to replace Aurelian Died of an illness or killed by his own troops[56] Florianus Marcus Annius Florianus c. June–September 276 (2–3 months) Likely half-brother of Tacitus, proclaimed emperor by the troops after Tacitus's death Murdered by his own troops, in favour of Probus[57] Probus Marcus Aurelius Probus c. June 276 – c. September 282 (6 years and c. 3 months)[58] Proclaimed emperor by eastern legions, in opposition to Florianus 19 August 232 – c. September 282 (aged 50) Murdered by his troops, in favour of Carus[59] Carus Marcus Aurelius Carus c. September 282 – c. July 283 (10 months)[60] Praetorian prefect to Probus, seized power before or after Probus's murder Died during a campaign against Persia, likely of illness, or possibly killed by lightning[61] Carinus Marcus Aurelius Carinus 283–285 (2 years) Eldest son of Carus, who appointed him joint emperor Probably died in battle against Diocletian, likely betrayed by his men[62] Numerian Marcus Aurelius Numerianus c. July 283 – November 284 (1 year and 4 months) Younger son and heir of Carus, reigned jointly with his older brother, Carinus Died during army march to Europe, probably of disease, possibly assassinated[63] The Dominate[edit] Main article: Dominate 284–364: Tetrarchy and Constantinian dynasty[edit] Main articles: Tetrarchy and Constantinian dynasty Note: To maintain control and improve administration, various schemes to divide the work of the Roman Emperor by sharing it between individuals were tried after 285. The "Tetrarchy" proclaimed by Diocletian in 293 split the empire into two halves each to be ruled separately by two emperors, a senior "Augustus", and a junior "Caesar". Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details Diocletian Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus 20 November 284 – 1 May 305 (20 years, 5 months and 11 days) Proclaimed emperor by army after death of Numerian, and in opposition to Carinus[64] 22 December 244 – 3 December 311 (aged 66) Abdicated, died of natural causes in Aspalatos Maximian Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus 1 April 286 – 1 May 305; Late 306 - 11 November 308 (19 years and 1 month) Appointed Caesar in 285 by Diocletian, and raised to rank of Augustus in 286 6 March 250 – 17 July 310 (aged 60) Abdicated with Diocletian, later tried to regain the purple with, and then from, Maxentius, twice, before being finally killed (possibly by suicide) on orders of Constantine I[65] Galerius Galerius Valerius Maximianus 1 May 305 – May 311 (6 years) Appointed Caesar in 293 by Diocletian, upon whose abdication he succeeded as Augustus Died in May 311, of natural causes[66] Constantius I Flavius Valerius Constantius 1 May 305 – 25 July 306 (1 year, 2 months and 24 days) Appointed Caesar to Maximian in 293, upon whose abdication he succeeded as Augustus 31 March c. 250 – 25 July 306 Died of natural causes[67] Constantine I Flavius Valerius Constantinus 25 July 306 – 22 May 337 (30 years, 9 months and 27 days) Son of Constantius I, proclaimed emperor by his father's troops. Accepted as Caesar by Galerius in 306, promoted to Augustus in 307 by Maximian, refused demotion to Caesar in 309. 27 February 272 – 22 May 337 (aged 65) Died of natural causes Severus Flavius Valerius Severus August 306 – c. April 307 Appointed Caesar in 305, raised to rank of Augustus by Galerius upon Constantius I's death Murdered or forced to commit suicide on 16 September 307 after surrendering to Maximian and Maxentius[68] Maxentius Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius 28 October 306 – 28 October 312 (6 years) Son of Maximian, seized power after being initially passed over in the succession Died on 28 October 312 at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, against Constantine I[69] Licinius Valerius Licinianus Licinius 11 November 308 – 19 September 324 (15 years, 10 months and 8 days) Appointed emperor by Galerius as replacement to Severus, in opposition to Maxentius. Defeated Maximinus Daia in a civil war to become sole emperor of the East in 313. c. 265 – 325 (aged around 60) Defeated, deposed and put to death by Constantine I[70] Maximinus Daia Galerius Valerius Maximinus 1 May 310 – July/August 313 (3 years) Nephew of Galerius, adopted as Caesar and his heir in 305; succeeded as Augustus (shared with Licinius I) in 311 20 November c. 270 – July/August 313 Defeated in civil war against Licinius; probably committed suicide thereafter Valerius Valens Aurelius Valerius Valens Late 316 – 1 March 317 Appointed western Augustus, in opposition to Constantine, being executed within weeks Died 1 March 317 Martinian Sextus Marcius Martinianus July – 19 September 324 (2 months) Appointed Augustus by Licinius in 324, in opposition to Constantine Executed by Constantine in 325 Constantine II Flavius Claudius Constantinus 9 September 337 – April 340 (2 years and 7 months) Son and heir of Constantine I, whom he succeeded jointly with his brothers Constantius II and Constans 7 August 316 – April 340 (aged 23) Died in battle against his brother, Constans[71] Constantius II Flavius Julius Constantius 9 September 337 – 3 November 361 (24 years, 1 month and 25 days) Son and heir of Constantine I, whom he succeeded jointly with his brothers Constantine II and Constans 7 August 317 – 3 November 361 (aged 44) Died of natural causes[71] Constans Flavius Julius Constans 9 September 337 – 18 January 350 (12 years, 4 months and 9 days) Son and heir of Constantine I, whom he succeeded jointly with his brothers Constantine II and Constantius II c. 323 – 350 (aged 27) Killed by the usurper Magnentius[71] Vetranio 1 March – 25 December 350 (9 months and 24 days) General of Constans, proclaimed emperor against Magnentius and temporarily recognized by Constantius II Compelled by Constantius II to abdicate and retire, and died 6 years later Julian ("the Apostate") Flavius Claudius Julianus 3 November 361 – 26 June 363 (1 year, 7 months and 23 days) Appointed Caesar in 355 by his cousin Constantius II. Proclaimed Augustus by his troops in early 360. Sole emperor after the death of Constantius. 331 – 26 June 363 (aged 31) Last non-Christian emperor of Rome. Mortally wounded in battle against Persia.[72] Jovian Flavius Jovianus 27 June 363 – 17 February 364 (7 months and 21 days) General in Julian's army, proclaimed emperor by the troops upon Julian's death 331 – 17 February 364 Died of natural causes[73] 364–395: Valentinianic dynasty[edit] Main article: Valentinianic dynasty Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details Valentinian I Flavius Valentinianus 26 February 364 – 17 November 375 (11 years, 8 months and 22 days) Elected by the army to replace Jovian 321 – 17 November 375 (aged 54) Died of natural causes Valens Flavius Valens 28 March 364 – 9 August 378 (14 years, 4 months and 12 days) Brother of Valentinian I, appointed emperor over the eastern provinces c. 328 – 9 August 378 Killed at the Battle of Adrianople against the Goths Gratian Flavius Gratianus 24 August 367 – 25 August 383 (16 years and 1 day) Son of Valentinian I, appointed junior Augustus by him in 367, became senior Augustus (for the west) after Valentinian's death. 18 April or 23 May 359 – 25 August 383 (aged 24) Murdered by rebellious army faction Valentinian II Flavius Valentinianus 22 November 375 – 15 May 392 (16 years, 5 months and 23 days) Son of Valentinian I, proclaimed emperor by Pannonian army, accepted as co-emperor for the west by Gratian 371 – 15 May 392 Found hanged, probably committed suicide at the instigation of Arbogast Theodosius I Flavius Theodosius 19 January 379 – 17 January 395 (15 years, 11 months and 29 days) Son-in-law of Valentinian I, appointed as Augustus for the east by Gratian to replace Valens 11 January 347 – 17 January 395 (aged 48) Died of natural causes Magnus Maximus 383/384 – 28 August 388 Usurper in the West; legitimized by Theodosius I as emperor of Britain and Gaul Died on 28 August 388 (aged 53) Executed by Theodosius I in Aquileia after the Battle of the Save Victor Flavius Victor 384 or 387 – August 388 Son of Magnus Maximus, recognized as emperor by Theodosius I Executed by Arbogast at the behest of Theodosius I Eugenius 22 August 392 – 6 September 394 (2 years and 15 days) Raised to the purple by the magister militum Arbogast to replace Valentinian II, against the wish of Theodosius I Executed (6 September 394) as a criminal by Theodosius I after the Battle of the Frigidus Western emperors[edit] Main article: Western Roman Empire 395–455: Theodosian dynasty[edit] Main article: Theodosian dynasty Note: Theodosius I was the last person to rule both halves of the Roman Empire, dividing the administration between his sons Arcadius and Honorius on his death. Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details Honorius 17 January 395 – 15 August 423 (28 years, 6 months and 29 days) Son of Theodosius I; appointed as junior Augustus for the west by Theodosius on January 23, 393 (after the death of Valentinian II); became senior Augustus for the west after his father's death 9 September 384 – 15 August 423 (aged 38) Died of edema Constantine III Flavius Claudius Constantinus 407/409 - August or September 411 2 years Usurper who declared himself emperor in the west in 407, recognized as co-emperor by Honorius in 409. Not recognized by the Eastern Empire. Died August or September 411 Executed by Constantius III Constans II 409–411 Elevated by his father, Constantine III, to rank of co-emperor in 409. Not recognized by Honorius nor the Eastern Empire. Killed in 411 Constantius III 8 February – 2 September 421 (6 months and 25 days) Married to Theodosius I's daughter Galla Placidia, elevated to co-Augustus for the west by Honorius; not recognized by the Eastern Empire Died on 2 September 421, of natural causes Joannes 27 August 423 – May 425 (1 year and 9 months) A senior civil servant under Honorius, proclaimed emperor by Castinus; not recognized by the Eastern Empire Died in June or July 425 Defeated in battle by Theodosius II and Valentinian III, captured and executed Valentinian III Placidus Valentinianus 23 October 425 – 16 March 455 (29 years, 4 months and 21 days) Son of Constantius III, appointed Caesar for the west by Theodosius II after the death of Honorius, in opposition to the regime of Joannes; became Augustus for the west after the defeat of Joannes 2 July 419 – 16 March 455 (aged 35) Assassinated, possibly at the behest of Petronius Maximus 455–476: Last western emperors[edit] Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details Petronius Maximus 17 March – 31 May 455 (2 months and 14 days) Son-in-law of Theodosius II, proclaimed himself emperor with the support of the army, after the death of Valentinian III. Not recognized by the Eastern Empire. He appointed his son Palladius as caesar. c. 397 – 31 May 455 Murdered, probably stoned to death by the Roman mob Avitus Eparchius Avitus 9 July 455 – 17 October 456 (1 year, 3 months and 8 days) Magister militum under Petronius Maximus, proclaimed emperor by the Visigoth king Theoderic II after Petronius's death. Not recognized by the Eastern Empire. Died after 17 October 456 Deposed by his Magister militum, Ricimer; became bishop of Placentia; murdered at some point afterwards Majorian Julius Valerius Maiorianus 1 April 457 – 2 August 461 (4 years, 4 months and 1 day) Proclaimed emperor by his troops. Recognized by the Eastern Empire at the behest of Ricimer. November 420 – 7 August 461 (aged 40) Deposed and beheaded on the orders of Ricimer. Libius Severus November 461 – August 465 4 years Appointed emperor by Ricimer. Not recognized by the Eastern Empire. Died in August 465 (aged 45) Probably poisoned by Ricimer Anthemius Procopius Anthemius 12 April 467 – 11 July 472 (5 years, 2 months and 29 days) Son-in-law of Marcian, appointed emperor by Leo I, with the consent of Ricimer. c. 420 – 11 July 472 (aged 52) Executed by Ricimer or Gundobad (Ricimer's nephew). Olybrius Anicius Olybrius July 11, 472 – November 2, 472 3 months and 22 days Son-in-law of Valentinian III; appointed emperor by Ricimer. Not recognized by the Eastern Empire. c. 420 – November 2, 472 (aged 41) Died of natural causes Glycerius 3/5 March 473 – 24 June 474 (1 year and 3 months) Appointed emperor by Gundobad (Ricimer's successor). Not recognized by the Eastern Empire. Deposed by Julius Nepos, who appointed him Bishop of Salona Julius Nepos June 474 – 28 August 475 (in Italy); – spring 480 (in Gaul and Dalmatia) Nephew-in-law of the eastern emperor Leo I (and nephew of Marcellinus) appointed emperor in opposition to Glycerius c. 430 – 480 (aged 50) Deposed in Italy by Orestes, ruled in balance of Western Empire until assassination in 480. Maintained as figurehead in Italy by Odoacer to his death in 480. Romulus Augustus ("Augustulus") 31 October 475 – 4 September 476 (10 months and 4 days) Appointed by his father, Orestes. Listed as an emperor by historical convention. His rule never extended beyond portions of the Italian peninsula. Not recognized by Eastern Emperor Zeno. Deposed by Odoacer, who then ruled in the name of Julius Nepos until the latter's death in 480, which formally ended the separate Western Empire; most likely lived out his life in obscurity on a private villa. Note: The classical Roman Empire is usually said to have ended with the deposition of Romulus Augustulus, with its continuation in the East referred to by modern scholars as the Byzantine Empire. Eastern emperors[edit] Main article: List of Byzantine emperors 395–457: Theodosian dynasty[edit] Note: Theodosius I was the last person to rule both halves of the Roman Empire, dividing the administration between his sons Arcadius and Honorius on his death. Portrait Name Reign Succession Death Arcadius 17 January 395 – 1 May 408 (13 years, 3 months and 14 days) Son of Theodosius I; appointed as junior Augustus for the east by Theodosius in January 383; became senior Augustus for the east after his father's death 1 January 377 – 1 May 408 (aged 31) Died of natural causes Theodosius II 1 May 408 – 28 July 450 (42 years, 2 months and 27 days) Son of Arcadius; appointed as junior Augustus by Arcadius in 402; became senior Augustus for the east after his father's death 10 April 401 – 28 July 450 (aged 49) Died of injuries suffered during a hunting accident Marcian Marcianus 25 August 450 – 26 January 457 (6 years, 5 months and 1 day) Nominated as successor (and husband) by Pulcheria, ruled alongside her 450-453 and later alone c. 392 – 26 January 457 Died of gout 457–518: Leonid dynasty[edit] See also: House of Leo Portrait Name Reign Succession Death Leo I "the Thracian" 7 February 457 – 18 January 474 (16 years, 11 months and 11 days) Chosen by the army c. 401 – 18 January 474 (aged 73) Died of dysentery Leo II 18 January – 10 November 474 (9 months and 23 days) Grandson of Leo I c. 467 – 10 November 474 (aged 7) Cause unknown, possibly poisoned Zeno 17 November 474 – 9 April 491 (17 years) Named co-emperor by his son Leo II on 9 February 474. c. 425 – 9 April 491 (aged 66) Died of dysentery or epilepsy Basiliscus 9 January 475 – August 476 (1 year, 7 months) Seized throne from Zeno Starved to death in Limnae (in Cappadocia) by Zeno Marcus 475 – August 476 Son of Basiliscus, appointed co-emperor at some point in 475 Starved to death alongside his father, Basiliscus Anastasius I "Dicorus" 11 April 491 – 9 July 518 (27 years, 2 months and 28 days) Son-in-law of Leo I c. 430 – 9 July 518 (aged 87) Died of natural causes 518–602: Justinian dynasty[edit] See also: Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty Portrait Name Succession Reign Life details Justin I Iustinus Elected by army 10 July 518 – 1 August 527 (9 years and 22 days) c. 450 – 1 August 527 (aged 77) Natural causes Justinian I Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus Nephew of Justin I 1 April 527 – 14 November 565 (38 years, 7 months and 13 days) c. 482 – 13/14 November 565 (aged 83) Natural causes Justin II Iustinus Nephew of Justinian I 14 November 565 – 5 October 578 13 years c. 520 – 5 October 578 (aged 58) Natural causes, after insanity Tiberius II Constantine Tiberius Constantinus Adopted son of Justin II, regent from 574 5 October 578 – 14 August 582 3 years, 10 months c. 535 – 14 August 582 (aged 62) Natural causes Maurice Mauricius Tiberius Son-in-law of Tiberius II 14 August 582 – 22 November 602 20 years 539 – 27 November 602 (aged 63) Executed by Phocas Theodosius Son of Maurice 590 – late 602 born 4 August 583–585, died 602 Executed by supporters of Phocas Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Time in office Death Phocas IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS FOCAS AVGVSTVS 547 Seized throne 23 November 602 – 4 October 610 8 years 5 October 610 Executed 610–695: Heraclian dynasty[edit] See also: Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Time in office Death Heraclius (Φλάβιος Ἡράκλειος Αὔγουστος) IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS HERACLIVS AVGVSTVS c. 575, Cappadocia Revolt 5 October 610 – 11 February 641 30 years 11 February, 641 (aged 65 or 66) Natural causes Constantine III (Ἡράκλειος νέος Κωνσταντῖνος Αὔγουστος) IMPERATOR CAESAR HERACLIVS NOVVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVS 3 May 612, Constantinople Son of Heraclius 11 February – 24/26 May 641 3 months 24/26 May 641 (aged 28) Tuberculosis Heraklonas (Φλάβιος Κωνσταντῖνος Ἡράκλειος Αὔγουστος) IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CONSTANTINVS HERACLIVS AVGVSTVS with Tiberius (Φλάβιος Τιβέριος Αὔγουστος) FLAVIVS TIBERIVS AVGVSTVS and Martinus (Φλάβιος Μαρτίνος Αὔγουστος) FLAVIVS MARTINVS AVGVSTVS 3 May 626, Constantinople Son of Heraclius; his brothers Tiberius and Martinus briefly served as co-emperors. 11 February 641 – September 641 7 months unknown, but probably before 642 Constans II (Φλάβιος Κωνσταντῖνος Αὔγουστος) IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVS 7 November 630 Son of Constantine III. succeeded his uncle Heraklonas after he was deposed as emperor. September 641 – 15 September 668 27 years 15 September 668 (aged 37) Assassinated Constantine IV (Φλάβιος Κωνσταντῖνος Αὔγουστος) IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVS with Heraclius (Φλάβιος Ἡράκλειος Αὔγουστος) FLAVIVS HERACLIVS AVGVSTVS and Tiberius (Φλάβιος Τιβέριος Αὔγουστος) FLAVIVS TIBERIVS AVGVSTVS 652, Constantinople Oldest son of Constans II, co-emperor since 654. His brothers Heraclius and Tiberius, co-emperors since 659, served as co-emperors until they were mutilated and deposed by Constantine in 681. 15 September 668 – 14 September 685 659 – 681 (Heraclius & Tiberius) 17 years 22 years (Heraclius & Tiberius) 14 September 685 (aged 33) Dysentery Justinian II (Φλάβιος Ἰουστινιανὸς Αὔγουστος) FLAVIVS IVSTINIANVS AVGVSTVS 668 or 669, Constantinople Son of Constantine IV, co-emperor since 681 14 September 685–695 10 years (1st reign) 11 December 711 (aged 42) Killed by the army 695–717: Twenty Years' Anarchy[edit] Main article: Twenty Years' Anarchy Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Time in office Death Leontios (Λεόντιος Αὔγουστος) LEONTIVS AVGVSTVS[74] Isauria Revolt 695–698 3 years Executed in February 706 Tiberios III Apsimaros (Τιβέριος Αὔγουστος) TIBERIVS AVGVSTVS Pamphylia Revolt 698–705 7 years Executed in February 706 Justinian II (Φλάβιος Ἰουστινιανὸς Αὔγουστος) FLAVIVS IVSTINIANVS AVGVSTVS (second reign) with Tiberius (Τιβέριος Αὔγουστος) TIBERIVS AVGVSTVS[75] 668 or 669, Constantinople Returned on the throne with Bulgar support. Named son Tiberius as co-emperor in 706. August 705 – December 711 6 years (2nd reign) 11 December 711 (aged 42) Both killed by the army Philippikos Bardanes (Φιλιππικὸς Αὔγουστος) FILEPICVS AVGVSTVS[76] Pergamon Revolt December 711 – 3 June 713 1 year, 6 months 713 Anastasios II (Αρτέμιος Ἀναστάσιος Αὔγουστος) ARTEMIVS ANASTASIVS AVGVSTVS[77] ? Bureaucrat and secretary under Philippikos, he was raised to the purple by the soldiers June 713 – November 715 2 years, 5 months 718, during attempt to regain the throne Theodosius III (Θεοδόσιος Αὔγουστος) THEODOSIVS AVGVSTVS[78] ? Chosen by troops May 715 – 25 March 717 2 years Unknown. Became a monk 717–802: Isaurian dynasty[edit] See also: Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian dynasty Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Time in office Death Leo III the Isaurian (Λέων) c. 685, Germanikeia, Commagene Rebellion 25 March 717 – 18 June 741 24 years June 741 (age 56) Edema Constantine V (Κωνσταντῖνος) July 718, Constantinople Son of Leo III 18 June 741 – 14 September 775 34 years 14 September 775 (aged 57) Carbuncle Artabasdos (Ἀρτάβασδος) with Nikephoros (Νικηφόρος) ? Son-in-law of Leo III. Usurped throne. Proclaimed his son Nikephoros as co-emperor in 741/742 June 741/742 – 2 November 743 1 year, 4 months Unknown Leo IV the Khazar (Λέων) 750, Constantinople Son of Constantine V 14 September 775 – 8 September 780 5 years 780 (age 30) Tuberculosis Constantine VI (Κωνσταντῖνος) 771, Constantinople Son of Leo IV 8 September 780 – August 797 17 years 797 (age 26) After blinding by Irene Irene of Athens (Εἰρήνη) c. 752, Athens Regent during minority of Constantine VI. Seized throne from son in 797. First Byzantine empress regnant. August 797 – 31 October 802 5 years 9 August 803 (aged 51) 802–813: Nikephorian dynasty[edit] Main article: Byzantine Empire under the Nikephorian dynasty Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Time in office Death Nikephoros I (Νικηφόρος) ? Rebellion 31 October 802 – 26 July 811 9 years 26 July 811 After the Battle of Pliska Staurakios (Σταυράκιος) After 778 Son of Nikephoros I 26 July 811 – 2 October 811 4 months January 11 812 (age ~30) Gangrene Michael I Rangabe (Μιχαὴλ Ῥαγγαβέ) with Theophylact (Θεοφύλακτος) c. 770 Son-in-law of Nikephoros I, appointed his son Theophylact (born c. 793) as co-emperor on 25 December 811 2 October 811 – 22 June 813 1 year, 8 months January 11 844 (age ~74) In a monastery on Prote Island, Theophylact died in a monastery on Plate Island on January 15 849 Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Time in office Death Leo V the Armenian (Λέων) with Constantine (Κωνσταντῖνος) c. 775 Rebellion, appointed his son Symbatios as co-emperor under the name Constantine on Christmas 813 11 July 813 – 25 December 820 7 years 25 December 820 (age ~45) Murdered by successor's conspirators, Constantine died in exile in monastery on Prote Island at a later date 820–867: Amorian dynasty[edit] See also: Byzantium under the Amorian dynasty Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Time in office Death Michael II (Μιχαὴλ) c. 775 Chosen after murder of predecessor 25 December 820 – 2 October 829 9 years 2 October 829 (age ~54) Theophilos (Θεόφιλος) 805 Only son of Michael II and co-emperor since 821 2 October 829 – 20 January 842 13 years 20 January 842 (age 37) Unknown disease Michael III (Μιχαὴλ) 19 January 840, Constantinople Son of Theophilos 20 January 842 – 23 September 867 25 years 23 September 867 Assassinated by successor 867–1056: Macedonian dynasty[edit] See also: Macedonian dynasty and Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Time in office Death Basil I the Macedonian (Βασίλειος) 811, Macedonia Previous co-emperor, full emperor upon death of predecessor. 867 – 29 August 886 19 years 29 August 886 (age 75) Leo VI the Wise (Λέων 19 September 866, Constantinople Son of Basil I (potentially in reality the son of Michael III), co-emperor since 870. 886 – 11 May 912 26 years 11 May 912 (age 45) Alexander (Ἀλέξανδρος) 23 November 870 Son of Basil I, co-emperor since 879. 11 May 912 – 6 June 913 1 year, 1 month 6 June 913 (age 42) Exhaustion after a game of tzykanion Constantine VII (Κωνσταντῖνος) 17/18 May 905 Son of Leo VI, co-emperor since 908. 6 June 913 – 9 November 959 46 years 9 November 959 (age 54), Constantinople Possibly poisoned by his son Romanos II Romanos I Lekapenos (Ῥωμανὸς Λεκαπηνός) with Christopher Lekapenos (Χριστόφορος Λακαπηνός) and Stephen Lekapenos (Στέφανος Λακαπηνός) and Constantine Lekapenos (Κωνσταντίνος Λακαπηνός) c. 870, Lakape Regent for the young Constantine VII, crowned himself senior emperor during Constantine VII's minority. Proclaimed his three sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as co-emperors. Was overthrown by Stephen in 944, who briefly ruled as senior emperor (for a few weeks) until he himself was overthrown by Constantine VII. 17 December 920 – 16 December 944 20 May 921 – August 931 (Christopher) 924–945 (Stephen & Constantine) 24 years 10 years (Christopher) 21 years (Stephen & Constantine) 15 June 948 (age 77-78) In a monastery as a monk after having been overthrown. Christopher died in August of 931. Both Stephen and Constantine died in exile as monks; Stephen on Easter 963 on Lesbos and Constantine in 946-948 on Samothrace trying to escape exile and reclaim imperial power Romanos II (Ῥωμανὸς ὁ Πορφυρογέννητος) c. 938 Son of Constantine VII 9 November 959 – 15 March 963 4 years 15 March 963 (age 24-25) Possibly poisoned Nikephoros II Phokas (Νικηφόρος Φωκᾶς) c. 912 Chosen by the army, acted as senior emperor during the regency of young emperors Basil II and Constantine VIII 16 August 963 – 11 December 969 6 years 11 December 969 (age 56-57), Constantinople Assassinated by successor John I Tzimiskes John I Tzimiskes (Ἰωάννης Τζιμισκής) c. 925 Nephew of Nikephoros II Phokas, succeeded as senior emperor and regent for the young emperors Basil II and Constantine VIII 11 December 969 – 10 January 976 7 years 10 January 976 (age 50-51), Constantinople Poisoned by Imperial chamberlain Basil Lekapenos Basil II (Βασίλειος) 958, Constantinople Eldest son of Romanos II 10 January 976 – 15 December 1025 49 years 15 December 1025 (age 67-68), Constantinople Constantine VIII (Κωνσταντῖνος ὁ Πορφυρογέννητος) 960, Constantinople Second son of Romanos II, co-emperor since 962. 15 December 1025 – 15 November 1028 3 years 15 November 1028 (age 68), Constantinople Zoe Porphyrogenita (Ζωὴ ἡ Πορφυρογέννητη) c. 978, Constantinople Daughter of Constantine VIII, succeeded on her father's death along with her sister Theodora. Her three husbands, Romanos III (1028–1034), Michael IV (1034–1041) and Constantine IX (1042–1050) ruled alongside her. 15 November 1028 – June 1050 22 years June 1050 (age 72), Constantinople Romanos III Argyros (Ῥωμανὸς Ἀργυρός) 968 Chosen by Constantine VIII to marry his daughter Zoe and succeed him as emperor. 15 November 1028 – 11 April 1034 6 years 11 April 1034 (age 65-66), Constantinople Allegedly murdered Michael IV the Paphlagonian (Μιχαὴλ ὁ Παφλαγών) 1010 Succeeded Romanos III as Zoe's husband and emperor. 11 April 1034 – 10 December 1041 7 years 10 December 1041 (age 31), Constantinople Died after a long illness. Michael V Kalaphates (Μιχαὴλ ὁ Καλαφάτης) 1015 Nephew and adopted son of Michael IV. 10 December 1041 – 20 April 1042 5 months 24 August, 1042 (age 27), Constantinople Deposed, blinded, castrated and tonsured after attempting to sideline Zoe and her sister Theodora. Theodora Porphyrogenita (Θεοδώρα ἡ Πορφυρογέννητος) c. 980 Younger sister of Zoe, raised to co-empress in 1042. 19 April 1042 – 31 August 1056 14 years 31 August 1056 (age 75-76), Constantinople Died after sudden illness. Constantine IX Monomachos (Κωνσταντῖνος Μονομάχος) c. 1000 Zoe's third husband 11 June 1042 – 11 January 1055 13 years 11 January 1055 (age ~55), Constantinople Died after illness. Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Time in office Death Michael VI Bringas (Μιχαὴλ Βρίγγας) ? Chosen as successor by Empress Theodora September 1056 – 31 August 1057 1 year 1059, confined to a monastery after having been deposed by successor. Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Time in office Death Isaac I Komnenos (Ἰσαάκιος Κομνηνός) c. 1005 Rebellion 5 June 1057 – 22 November 1059 2 years c. 1061 after having voluntarily abdicated. 1059–1081: Doukid dynasty[edit] See also: Doukas Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Time in office Death Constantine X Doukas (Κωνσταντῖνος Δούκας) 1006 Chosen successor of Isaac I Komnenos 24 November 1059 – 22 May 1067 8 years 22 May 1067 (aged 61) Michael VII Doukas (Μιχαὴλ Δούκας) with Andronikos Doukas (Ἀνδρόνικος Δούκας) and Konstantios Doukas (Κωνστάντιος Δούκας) and Constantine Doukas (Κωνσταντίνος Δούκας) 1050 Son of Constantine X Doukas and co-emperor since 1059, resigned the throne in 1078. Reigned alongside his brothers Andronikos and Konstantios as co-emperors. Andronikos died in the 1070s while Konstantios briefly succeeded Michael as senior emperor before being handed over to the usurper Nikephoros III and exiled. Michael's son Constantine was also raised to co-emperor in 1074. 22 May 1067 – 31 March 1078 1068 – 1070s (Andronikos) 1060–1078 (Konstantios) 1074–1078 (Constantine) 11 years 18 years (Konstantios) 4 years (Constantine) 1090 (aged ~40), Constantinople, Konstantios died in the Battle of Dyrrhachium on 18 October 1081, having been recalled as a general by Alexios I. Constantine was later raised to co-emperor again under Alexios I and died in 1095 Romanos IV Diogenes (Ῥωμανὸς Διογένης) 1032 Married to Constantine X's widow and senior emperor as guardian of her sons by Constantine X 1 January 1068 – 24 October 1071 3 years 1072 (age 42), after having been deposed, blinded and exiled Nikephoros III Botaneiates (Νικηφόρος Βοτανειάτης) 1001 Rebellion 31 March 1078 – 4 April 1081 3 years 10 December 1081 (age 80), after having been deposed and exiled to a monastery 1081–1185: Komnenid dynasty[edit] See also: Komnenos and Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Time in office Death Alexios I Komnenos (Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός) with Constantine Doukas (Κωνσταντίνος Δούκας) (second co-emperorship) 1056 Rebellion, nephew of Isaac I Komnenos, appointed Constantine Doukas (a previous co-emperor under Michael VII) as co-emperor in 1081. Replaced Constantine with his own son John II in 1087. 4 April 1081 – 15 August 1118 1081 – 1087 (Constantine) 37 years 6 years (Constantine, 2nd co-emperorship) 15 August 1118 (age 70) John II Komnenos (Ἰωάννης Κομνηνός) with Alexios Komnenos (Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός) 13 September 1087, Constantinople Son of Alexios I, co-emperor since 1087, appointed his son Alexios co-emperor in 1122 15 August 1118 – 8 April 1143 1122 – 1142 (Alexios) 25 years 20 years (Alexios) 8 April 1143 (age 55), Cilicia Accidentally cut himself on a poisoned arrow. Alexios died in Attaleia on 2 August 1142 of a fever Manuel I Komnenos (Μανουὴλ Κομνηνός) 28 November, 1118, Constantinople Son of John II 1143 – 24 September 1180 37 years 24 September 1180 (age 61) Alexios II Komnenos (Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός) 14 September 1169, Constantinople Son of Manuel I 24 September 1180 – October 1183 3 years October 1183 (age 14), Constantinople Deposed and killed by successor Andronikos I Komnenos (Ἀνδρόνικος Κομνηνός) with John Komnenos (Ἰωάννης Κομνηνός) c. 1118 Nephew of John II (son of his brother Isaac), uncle of Alexios II, appointed his son John as co-emperor in November 1183 October 1183 – 12 September 1185 2 years 12 September 1185 (age 66-67), Constantinople Overthrown and lynched in a popular uprising, John also seized and probably killed 1185–1204: Angelid dynasty[edit] See also: Angelos and Byzantine Empire under the Angelos dynasty Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Time in office Death Isaac II Angelos (Ἰσαάκιος Ἄγγελος) September 1156 Rebellion 1185–1195 10 years 25 January 1204 (age 47), Constantinople Possibly shock or poison Alexios III Angelos (Ἀλέξιος Ἄγγελος) c. 1153 Rebellion, elder brother of Isaac II 1195 – 17/18 July 1203 8 years 1211 (age 58), in captivity in the Empire of Nicaea Isaac II Angelos (Ἰσαάκιος Ἄγγελος) (second reign) September 1156 Restored to the throne by the Fourth Crusade alongside his son Alexios IV 18 July 1203 – 27/28 January 1204 6 months 25 January 1204 (age 47), Constantinople Possibly shock or poison Alexios IV Angelos (Ἀλέξιος Ἄγγελος) c. 1182 Raised to the throne by the Fourth Crusade alongside his father Isaac II 1 August 1203 – 27/28 January 1204 6 months 8 February 1204 (age 21-22), Constantinople Strangled by successor Alexios V Doukas (Ἀλέξιος Δούκας ὁ Μούρτζουφλος) c. 1140 Coup in the Imperial Palace, son-in-law of Alexios III 5 February 1204 – 13 April 1204 5 months December 1204 (age 64), Constantinople Captured by crusaders of the newly founded Latin Empire and publicly executed 1204–1261: Laskarid dynasty[edit] See also: Laskaris and Empire of Nicaea Note: Between 1204 and 1261 there was an interregnum when Constantinople was occupied by the crusaders of the Fourth Crusade and the Empire was divided into the Empire of Nicaea, the Empire of Trebizond and the Despotate of Epirus, which were all contenders for rule of the Empire. The Laskarid dynasty of the Empire of Nicaea is considered the legitimate continuation of the Roman Empire because they had the support of the (Orthodox) Patriarch of Constantinople and managed to re-take Constantinople. Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Time in office Death Theodore I Laskaris (Θεόδωρος Λάσκαρις) c. 1174, Constantinople His brother Constantine Laskaris was elected emperor by the citizens of Constantinople on the day the city fell to the Crusaders; he later fled to Nicaea, where Theodore organized the Greek resistance to the Latins. Proclaimed emperor after Constantine's death in 1205, Theodore was crowned only in 1208. 1205– November 1221 21 years November 1221 (age 48) John III Doukas Vatatzes (Ἰωάννης Δούκας Βατάτζης) c. 1192, Didymoteicho Son-in-law of Theodore I 15 December 1221 – 3 November 1254 33 years 3 November 1254 (age 62), Nymphaion Theodore II Laskaris (Θεόδωρος Λάσκαρις) c. 1222, Nicaea Son of John III 3 November 1254– 18 August 1258 4 years 18 August 1258 (age 36), Magnesia Epilepsy John IV Laskaris (Ἰωάννης Λάσκαρις) 25 December 1250 Son of Theodore II 18 August 1258– 25 December 1261 3 years c. 1305 (age 55), Constantinople Blinded and imprisoned by successor in 1261, died in captivity 1261–1453: Palaiologan dynasty[edit] See also: Palaiologos and Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Time in office Death Michael VIII Palaiologos (Μιχαὴλ Παλαιολόγος) 1223 Senior emperor and regent of John IV Laskaris, grandnephew of John III by marriage and great-grandson of Alexios III January 1, 1259– December 11, 1282 23 years, 11 months December 11, 1282 (age 58), Pachomion, near Lysimachia Andronikos II Palaiologos (Ἀνδρόνικος Παλαιολόγος) 25 March 1259, Nicaea Son of Michael VIII 11 December 1282– 24 May 1328 45 years, 5 months 13 February 1332 (age 72), Constantinople Michael IX Palaiologos (Μιχαήλ Παλαιολόγος) 17 April 1277, Constantinople Son of Andronikos II, reigned alongside him as co-emperor with full imperial style 1295– 12 October 1320 25 years 12 October 1320 (age 43), Thessaloniki Andronikos III Palaiologos (Ἀνδρόνικος Παλαιολόγος) 25 March 1297, Constantinople Son of Michael IX, named co-emperor in 1316 and rival emperor since 1321. Deposed his grandfather Andronikos II in 1328 and reigned as sole emperor 24 May 1328– 15 June 1341 13 years 15 June 1341 (age 44), Constantinople Possibly chronic malaria John V Palaiologos (Ἰωάννης Παλαιολόγος) 18 June 1332, Didymoteicho Son of Andronikos III 15 June 1341– 12 August 1376 38 years (1st reign) 16 February 1391 (aged 58), Constantinople John VI Kantakouzenos (Ἰωάννης Καντακουζηνός) with Matthew Kantakouzenos (Ματθαίος Ασάνης Καντακουζηνός) 1292, Constantinople Maternal relative of the Palaiologi, declared co-emperor by John V in 1341 and recognized as senior emperor in 1347 following a civil war. Appointed his son Matthew as co-emperor in 1353 8 February 1347– 4 December 1354 1353 – 1357 (Matthew) 7 years 4 years (Matthew) 15 June 1383 (aged 90 or 91), deposed and in exile as a monk in the Peloponnese, Matthew was defeated in 1357 and later served as the governor of the Morea until his death on the same day as his father Andronikos IV Palaiologos (Ἀνδρόνικος Παλαιολόγος) 11 April 1348, Constantinople Son of John V, co-emperor since 1352, deposed his father John V in 1376 12 August 1376– 1 July 1379 3 years 28 June 1385 (age 37), Selymbria John V Palaiologos (Ἰωάννης Παλαιολόγος) (second reign) 18 June 1332, Didymoteicho Restored to the throne after overthrowing his son Andronikos IV 1 July 1379– 14 April 1390 11 years (2nd reign) 16 February 1391 (aged 58), Constantinople John VII Palaiologos (Ἰωάννης Παλαιολόγος) 1370 Rebellion, son and co-emperor of Andronikos IV, deposed his grandfather John V 14 April 1390– 17 September 1390 5 months 22 September 1408 (aged 38), Thessaloniki John V Palaiologos (Ἰωάννης Παλαιολόγος) (third reign) 18 June 1332, Didymoteicho Restored to the throne after overthrowing his grandson John VII 17 September 1390– 16 February 1391 5 months (3rd reign) 16 February 1391 (aged 58), Constantinople Manuel II Palaiologos (Μανουὴλ Παλαιολόγος) with John VII Palaiologos (Ἰωάννης Παλαιολόγος) and Andronikos V Palaiologos (Ἀνδρόνικος Παλαιολόγος) 27 June 1350, Constantinople Son of John V, co-emperor since 1373. John VII Palaiologos, who previously usurped the throne in 1390, was proclaimed co-emperor in 1403, keeping the title until his death in 1408. John VII also proclaimed his son, Andronikos V, co-emperor but Andronikos died before his father, in 1407. The imperial status of John and Andronikos was purely honorary. 16 February 1391– 21 July 1425 1403 – 1408 (John VII) 1403 – 1407 (Andronikos V) 34 years 5 years (John VII) 4 years (Andronikos V) 21 July 1425 (age 75), Constantinople John died 22 September 1408 at Thessaloniki, Andronikos died aged 7 on September 24th, 1407. John VIII Palaiologos (Ἰωάννης Παλαιολόγος) 18 December 1392 Son of Manuel II, co-emperor since 1416 21 July 1425– 31 October 1448 23 years 31 October 1448 (age 55), Constantinople Constantine XI Palaiologos (Κωνσταντῖνος Δραγάσης Παλαιολόγος) February 8, 1405, Constantinople Son of Manuel II January 6, 1449– May 29, 1453 4 years, 4 months, 23 days May 29, 1453 (age 48), Constantinople Refused to surrender Constantinople to the Ottoman sultan Mehmed II and died fighting during the final Ottoman attack See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal Monarchy portal List of Byzantine emperors List of condemned Roman emperors List of Roman consuls List of Roman dictators List of Roman usurpers Roman Emperors family tree Pretenders to the Byzantine throne On Weights and Measures –- contains chronology of Roman emperors Notes[edit] ^ Rubicon. Holland, T. Abacus, 978-0349115634 ^ Chester G. Starr, A History of the Ancient World, Second Edition. Oxford University Press, 1974. pp. 670–678. ^ Herrin, Judith (2011-03-12). "The Glories of Byzantium". Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 2017-12-10. ^ Asimov, [title?], p. 198. ^ Lee, pp. 163–164. ^ Goldsworthy, pp. 425–440 ^ Breeze & Dobson, pp. 251–255 ^ Moss, Henry, The Birth of the Middle Ages Clarendon Press (London) 1935; Folio Society reprint (London) 1998; pp. 24-28, 281-284. ^ "Roman Emperors After Theodosius I". Retrieved 30 September 2014. ^ DIR, "Augustus"; Kienast, pp. 61, 63. ^ Kienast, p. 76; DIR, "Tiberius". ^ Kienast, p. 85; DIR, "Gaius (Caligula)". ^ Kienast, p. 90; DIR, "Claudius". ^ Kienast, pp. 96–97. ^ a b c d e f g h Encyclopædia Britannica ^ Hammond, p. 24; Kienast, p. 102; DIR, "Galba". ^ Hammond, pp. 24–25; Kienast, p. 105; DIR, "Otho". ^ Kienast, p. 106; DIR, "Vitellius". ^ Cooley, p. 490; Kienast, p. 108; DIR, "Vespasian", "Titus". ^ Hammond, p. 27; Kienast, p. 111; DIR, "Titus". ^ Hammond, p. 27; Kienast, p. 115; DIR, "Domitian". ^ Hammond, p. 27; Kienast, p. 120; DIR, "Nerva". ^ Kienast, p. 122; Hammond, pp. 28, 39; DIR, "Hadrian". ^ DIR, "Hadrian"; Kienast, p. 28; Hammond, p. 29. ^ Kienast, p. 134; Hammond, pp. 30–31. ^ With Lucius Aelius and Marcus Aurelius, Caesar stopped being an inheritable name and became a title to identify the heir apparent of the empire. Hammond, pp. 29–31. The suffix Augustus becomes a device to denote the holder of the imperial office. ^ Kienast, pp. 137–138; Hammond, p. 32. ^ Hammond, p. 32. ^ Hammond, pp. 32–33; Kienast, pp. 147–148; DIR, "Commodus". ^ Hammond, p. 33; DIR, "Pertinax". ^ Hammond, p. 33; DIR, "Didius Julianus". ^ Hammond, p. 34; DIR, "Septimius Severus". ^ Hammond, pp. 35, 36; DIR, "Caracalla"; Cooley, p. 475. ^ Kienast, p. 169; DIR, "Macrinus"; Cooley, p. 476. ^ Hammond, pp. 36–37; Kienast, pp. 170–171; DIR, "Macrinus". ^ DIR, "Elagabalus"; Kienast, p. 172; Cooley, p. 476. ^ Cooley, p. 476; DIR, "Alexander Severus". ^ DIR, "Pupienus and Balbinus". ^ a b DIR, 'Gordian I', 'Pupienus and Balbinus'. ^ a b DIR, 'Pupienus and Balbinus', 'Gordian III'. ^ DIR, 'Gordian III'; Kienast, p. 195. ^ DIR, "Philip the Arab". ^ DIR, 'Decius'; Kienast, p. 204. ^ Kienast, p. 206; Peachin, p. 33. ^ Kienast, p. 207; Peachin, p. 34. ^ DIR, 'Trebonianus Gallus and Gaius Vibius Volusianus'; Kienast, p. 209. ^ Kienast, p. 210; Peachin, p. 36. ^ DIR, 'Aemilius Aemilianus'; Peachin, pp. 36–37. ^ DIR, 'Valerian and Gallienus'; Peachin, pp. 37–38. ^ DIR, 'Valerian and Gallienus'; Peachin, pp. 39–40. ^ Kienast, p. 221. ^ Stein, pp. 45, 50. Claudius's death has also been dated to c. August, based on evidence from Egyptian coin issues. Weigel in DIR, 'Claudius II Gothicus', wrote that "this view was raised over a century ago and has not generally prevailed". DIR, 'Aurelian', says that literary sources all favor a death date early in the year, but nonetheless dates Claudius's death to September without any explanation. ^ DIR, 'Quintillus'; Stein, pp. 46, 50. ^ For the dates, Stein, pp. 46, 50; PLRE I, p. 130. The date of Aurelian's acclamation, variably said to have been May or September 270, presents the same problem as the date of Claudius's death. The literary sources of antiquity say that Aurelian's reign lasted 5​1⁄2 years, matching with the earlier date. Some modern sources (e.g. Peachin, pp. 43–44) argue in favor of September based on Egyptian documents, but, according to Weigel in DIR, "Claudius II Gothicus", these are unreliable. According to Stein, p. 46, the earliest document attesting Aurelian as emperor is dated 25 May. ^ DIR, 'Aurelian'; Stein, pp. 46, 50; Kienast, p. 234; Peachin, pp. 43–44. ^ DIR, 'Tacitus', 'Probus'; Watson, pp. 110, 225, 250 (n. 46). ^ DIR, 'Florian'; Peachin, pp. 46–47. ^ Chronograph of 354; Eutropius, Breviarium Historiae Romanae 9.17. ^ DIR, 'Probus'; Peachin, p. 47. ^ Chronograph of 354 ^ DIR, 'Carus'; Peachin, p. 49; Kienast, p. 258. ^ DIR, 'Carinus'; Kienast, p. 161. ^ DIR, 'Numerian'; Peachin, pp. 49–50; Kienast, p. 260. ^ Cooley, p. 501; DIR, "Diocletian". ^ Cooley, p. 501; DIR, "Maximianus Herculius". ^ PLRE I, pp. 574–575; Cooley, p. 502. ^ Barnes, p. 4; Kienast, p. 280. ^ Kienast, p. 290; DIR, "Severus II". ^ Kienast, p. 291; DIR, "Maxentius". ^ PLRE I, p. 509; DIR, "Licinius". ^ a b c Kienast, pp. 310, 312, 314; Barnes, p. 8. ^ DIR, Julian the Apostate. ^ DIR, Jovian; PLRE I, p. 461. ^ "(138) Leontius". www2.lawrence.edu. Retrieved 2019-04-17. ^ "Justinian II - Byzantine Coinage - WildWinds.com". www.wildwinds.com. Retrieved 2019-04-17. ^ "Philippicus - Byzantine Coinage - WildWinds.com". www.wildwinds.com. Retrieved 2019-04-17. ^ "Anastasius II - Byzantine Coinage - WildWinds.com". www.wildwinds.com. Retrieved 2019-04-17. ^ "Theodosius III - Byzantine Coinage - WildWinds.com". www.wildwinds.com. Retrieved 2019-04-17. References[edit] Barnes, Timothy D. (1982). The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-28066-0. David J. Breeze, Brian Dobson Hadrian's Wall 4th Edition, Penguin, 2000, ISBN 0-14-027182-1 Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. Degrassi, Attilio (1952). I fasti consolari dell'impero romano dal 30 avanti Cristo al 613 dopo Cristo (in Italian). Roma. Dessau, Hermann, ed. (1916). "Imperatores et Domus Eorum". Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae [ILS]. 3. Berolini apud Weidmannos. pp. 257–315. DIR – De Imperatoribus Romanis Adrian Goldsworthy, The Fall of the West, Phoenix, 2010, ISBN 978-0-7538-2692-8 Hammond, Mason (1957). "Imperial Elements in the Formula of the Roman Emperors during the First Two and a Half Centuries of the Empire". Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome. 25: 19–64. JSTOR 4238646. Min Lee (editor), Larousse Pockect Guide Kings and Queens, Larousse, 1995 ISBN 0-7523-0032-6 Keppie, Lawrence (1991). Understanding Roman Inscriptions (PDF). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 136–137. ISBN 0-8018-4322-7. Kienast, Dietmar (1996). Römische Kaisertabelle: Grundzüge einer römischen Kaiserchronologie (in German). Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. ISBN 3-534-13289-0. Mastino, Attilio (1981). Le Titolature di Caracalla e Geta attraverso le iscrizioni (indici) (PDF). Studi di storia antica (in Italian). 5. Bologna: Editrice CLUEB. ISBN 978-88-491-0255-0. McFayden, Donald (1920). The History of the Title Imperator under the Roman Empire. University of Chicago Press. Peachin, Michael (1990). Roman Imperial Titulature and Chronology, A.D. 235–284. Amsterdam: Gieben. ISBN 90-5063-034-0. PLRE I – The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire Volume 1: A.D. 260–395. A.H.M. Jones & J.R. Martindale & J. Morris eds. Cambridge University Press (1971). ISBN 0-521-07233-6. Stein, Arthur (1924). "Zur Chronologie der römischen Kaiser von Decius bis Diocletian". Archiv für Papyrusforschung und verwandte Gebiete. 7 (1–2): 30–51. doi:10.1515/apf.1924.7.1-2.30. Watson, Alaric (1999). Aurelian and the Third Century (PDF). London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-07248-4. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Roman emperors. The Imperial Index: The Rulers of the Roman Empire From Augustus to Constantine XI Palaeologus. List of the Roman Emperors 27 BC – 395 AD List of Roman Emperors The Roman Law Library by Yves Lassard and Alexandr Koptev. Timeline of Roman Emperors and Empresses v t e Roman emperors by epoch List of Roman emperors Roman Empire Family tree Early Principate Crisis of the Third Century Dominate Western Roman Empire and the Middle Ages Julio-Claudian dynasty (27 BC–68 AD) Year of the 4 Emperors (68–69) Flavian dynasty (69–96) Nerva–Antonine dynasty (96–192) Year of the 5 Emperors (192–193) Severan dynasty (193–235) Year of the 6 Emperors (238) Gordian dynasty (238–244) Illyrian emperors (268–284) Gallic emperors (260–274) Britannic emperors (286–297) Tetrarchies (293–313) Constantinian dynasty (305–363) Valentinianic dynasty (364–392) Theodosian dynasty (378–455) Western Roman emperors (395–476) Eastern Roman/Byzantine emperors (395–1453) Emperors of Nicaea (1204–1261) Emperors of Trebizond (1204–1461) Emperors/Despots of Thessalonica (1224–1246) Latin emperors (1204–1261) Holy Roman emperors (800–1806) v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–284 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic Emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius Chlorus Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daia (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo the Thracian Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian the Great Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-3117	----	Battle of Actium - Wikipedia Battle of Actium From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search decisive confrontation of the Final War of the Roman Republic Battle of Actium Part of the last war of the Roman Republic Anachronistic baroque painting of the battle of Actium by Laureys a Castro, 1672 Date 2 September 31 BC Location Ionian Sea, near the promontory of Actium in Greece 38°56′04″N 20°44′19″E / 38.93444°N 20.73861°E / 38.93444; 20.73861Coordinates: 38°56′04″N 20°44′19″E / 38.93444°N 20.73861°E / 38.93444; 20.73861 Result Decisive victory for Octavian Belligerents Rome supporting Octavian Rome supporting Mark Antony Ptolemaic Egypt Commanders and leaders Octavian Marcus Agrippa Lucius Arruntius Marcus Lurius Mark Antony Gaius Sosius Lucius Gellius Poplicola Cleopatra Strength 400 galleys [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] 3,000 archers 16,000 infantry on ships 350 larger galleys [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] 30–50 transports 20,000 infantry on ships 2,000 archers Casualties and losses About 2,500 killed Over 5,000 killed 250 ships sunk or captured Location within Greece The Battle of Actium was a naval battle in the last war of the Roman Republic, fought between the fleet of Octavian and the combined forces of Mark Antony and Queen Cleopatra of Egypt. It took place on 2 September 31 BC in the Ionian Sea near the promontory of Actium in Greece. Octavian's victory enabled him to consolidate his power over Rome and its dominions. He adopted the title of Princeps ("first citizen") and in 27 BC was awarded the title of Augustus ("revered") by the Roman Senate. This became the name by which he was known in later times. As Augustus, he retained the trappings of a restored Republican leader, but historians generally view his consolidation of power and the adoption of these honorifics as the end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of the Roman Empire.[8] Contents 1 Prelude 2 Battle 2.1 Order of battle 2.2 Combat 2.3 Alternative Theories 3 Aftermath 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Prelude[edit] Further information: Early life of Cleopatra and Reign of Cleopatra A Roman bust of the consul and triumvir Mark Antony, Vatican Museums A reconstructed statue of Augustus as a younger Octavian, dated c. 30 BC The alliance among Octavian, Mark Antony and Marcus Lepidus, commonly known as the Second Triumvirate, was renewed for a five-year term in 38 BC. But the triumvirate broke down when Octavian saw Caesarion, the professed son of Julius Caesar[9] and Queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt, as a major threat to his power.[10] This occurred when Mark Antony, the other most influential member of the triumvirate, abandoned his wife, Octavian's sister Octavia Minor. Afterward he moved to Egypt to start a long-term romance with Cleopatra, becoming Caesarion's de facto stepfather. Octavian and the majority of the Roman Senate saw Antony as leading a separatist movement that threatened to break the Roman Republic's unity.[citation needed] Ballistae on a Roman ship Octavian's prestige and, more importantly, his legions' loyalty had been boosted by Julius Caesar's legacy of 44 BC, by which he was officially adopted as Caesar's only son and the sole legitimate heir of his enormous wealth. Antony had been the most important and most successful senior officer in Caesar's army (magister equitum) and, thanks to his military record, claimed a substantial share of the political support of Caesar's soldiers and veterans. Both Octavian and Antony had fought against their common enemies in the Liberators' civil war that followed the assassination of Caesar. After years of loyal cooperation with Octavian, Antony started to act independently, eventually arousing his rival's suspicion that he was vying to become sole master of Rome. When he left Octavia Minor and moved to Alexandria to become Cleopatra's official partner, many Roman politicians suspected that he was trying to become the unchecked ruler of Egypt and other eastern kingdoms while still maintaining his command over the many Roman legions in the East.[citation needed] As a personal challenge to Octavian's prestige, Antony tried to get Caesarion accepted as a true heir of Caesar, even though the legacy did not mention him. Antony and Cleopatra formally elevated Caesarion, then 13, to power in 34 BC, giving him the title "King of the Kings" (Donations of Alexandria).[11][12] Such an entitlement was seen as a threat to Roman republican traditions.[citation needed] It was widely believed that Antony had once offered Caesarion a diadem.[citation needed] Thereafter, Octavian started a propaganda war, denouncing Antony as an enemy of Rome and asserting that he intended to establish a monarchy over the Roman Empire on Caesarion's behalf, circumventing the Roman Senate.[citation needed] It was also said that Antony intended to move the imperial capital to Alexandria.[13][14] As the Second Triumvirate formally expired on the last day of 33 BC, Antony wrote to the Senate that he did not wish to be reappointed. He hoped that it might regard him as its champion against the ambition of Octavian, whom he presumed would not be willing to abandon his position in a similar manner.[citation needed] The causes of mutual dissatisfaction between the two had been accumulating. Antony complained that Octavian had exceeded his powers in deposing Lepidus, in taking over the countries held by Sextus Pompeius and in enlisting soldiers for himself without sending half to him. Octavian complained that Antony had no authority to be in Egypt; that his execution of Sextus Pompeius was illegal; that his treachery to the king of Armenia disgraced the Roman name; that he had not sent half the proceeds of the spoils to Rome according to his agreement; and that his connection with Cleopatra and acknowledgment of Caesarion as a legitimate son of Caesar were a degradation of his office and a menace to himself.[15] In 32 BC, one-third of the Senate and both consuls, Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Gaius Sosius, allied with Antony. The consuls had determined to conceal the extent of Antony's demands. Ahenobarbus seems to have wished to keep quiet, but on 1 January Sosius made an elaborate speech in favor of Antony, and would have proposed the confirmation of his act had it not been vetoed by a tribune. Octavian was not present, but at the next meeting made a reply that provoked both consuls to leave Rome to join Antony; Antony, when he heard of it, after publicly divorcing Octavia, went at once to Ephesus with Cleopatra, where a vast fleet was gathered from all parts of the East, of which Cleopatra furnished a large proportion.[15] After staying with his allies at Samos, Antony moved to Athens. His land forces, which had been in Armenia, came down to the coast of Asia and embarked under Publius Canidius Crassus.[16] Octavian kept up his strategic preparations. Military operations began in 32 BC, when his general Agrippa captured Methone, a Greek town allied to Antony. But by the publication of Antony's will, which Lucius Munatius Plancus had put into Octavian's hands, and by carefully letting it be known in Rome what preparations were going on at Samos and how Antony was effectively acting as the agent of Cleopatra, Octavian produced such a violent outburst of feeling that he easily obtained Antony's deposition from the consulship of 31 BC, for which Antony had been designated. In addition to the deposition, Octavian procured a proclamation of war against Cleopatra. This was well understood to mean against Antony, though he was not named.[16] In issuing a war declaration, the Senate deprived Antony of any legal authority. Battle[edit] Antony meant to anticipate an attack by a descent upon Italy toward the end of 32 BC, and went as far as Corcyra. Finding the sea guarded by a squadron of Octavian's ships, he retired to winter at Patrae while his fleet for the most part lay in the Ambracian Gulf and his land forces encamped near the promontory of Actium, while the opposite side of the narrow strait into the Ambracian Gulf was protected by a tower and troops.[16] After Octavian's proposals for a conference with Antony were scornfully rejected, both sides prepared for the struggle the next year. The early months passed without any notable events, other than some successful forays by Agrippa along the coasts of Greece, primarily designed to divert Antony's attention. In August, troops landed near Antony's camp on the north side of the strait. Still, Antony could not be tempted out. It took some months for his full strength to arrive from the various places in which his allies or his ships had wintered. During these months Agrippa continued his attacks upon Greek towns along the coast, while Octavian's forces engaged in various successful cavalry skirmishes, so that Antony abandoned the strait's north side between the Ambracian Gulf and the Ionian Sea and confined his soldiers to the southern camp. Cleopatra now advised that garrisons be put into strong towns and that the main fleet return to Alexandria. The large contingent furnished by Egypt gave her advice as much weight as her personal influence over Antony, and it appears that this movement was agreed to.[16] Octavian learned of this and debated how to prevent it. At first of a mind to let Antony sail and then attack him, he was prevailed upon by Agrippa to give battle.[17] On 1 September he addressed his fleet, preparing them for battle. The next day was wet and the sea was rough. When the trumpet signal for the start rang out, Antony's fleet began issuing from the straits and the ships moved into line and remained quiet. Octavian, after a short hesitation, ordered his vessels to steer to the right and pass the enemy's ships. For fear of being surrounded, Antony was forced to give the word to attack.[16] Order of battle[edit] Order of battle. The two fleets met outside the Gulf of Actium (today Preveza) on the morning of 2 September. Antony's fleet numbered 500,[16] of which 230 were large war galleys with towers full of armed men. He led them through the straits towards the open sea. Octavian had about 250 warships.[18] His fleet was waiting beyond the straits, led by the experienced admiral Agrippa, commanding from the left wing of the fleet, Lucius Arruntius the centre[19] and Marcus Lurius the right.[20] Titus Statilius Taurus[20] commanded Octavian's armies, and observed the battle from shore to the north of the straits. Antony and Lucius Gellius Poplicola commanded the Antonian fleet's right wing, while Marcus Octavius and Marcus Insteius commanded the centre,[19] with Cleopatra's squadron behind them. Sosius launched the initial attack from the fleet's left wing while Antony's chief lieutenant Publius Canidius Crassus commanded the triumvir's land forces.[20] Pelling notes that the two former consuls on Antony's side commanding the wings indicates that it was there that the major action was expected to take place. Octavius and Insteius, commanding Antony's center, were lower-profile figures.[21] Combat[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) It is estimated that Antony had around 140 ships,[22] to Octavian's 260. What Antony lacked in quantity was made up for in quality: his ships were mainly the standard Roman warship, quinqueremes with smaller quadriremes, heavier and wider than Octavian's, making them ideal weapon platforms.[23] Antony's personal flagship, like his admirals', was a "ten". An "eight" war galley had around 200 heavy marines, archers and at least six ballista catapults. Larger than Octavian's ships, Antony's war galleys were very difficult to board in close combat and his troops were able to rain missiles onto smaller and lower ships. The galleys' bows were armoured with bronze plates and square-cut timbers, making a successful ramming attack with similar equipment difficult. The only way to disable such a ship was to smash its oars, rendering it immobile and isolated from the rest of its fleet. Antony's ships' main weakness was lack of maneuverability; such a ship, once isolated from its fleet, could be swamped with boarding attacks. Also, many of his ships were undermanned with rowing crews; there had been a severe malaria outbreak while they were waiting for Octavian's fleet to arrive.[24] Octavian's fleet was largely made up of smaller "Liburnian" vessels.[16] His ships, though smaller, were still manageable in the heavy surf and could outmanoeuvre Antony's ships, get in close, attack the above-deck crew with arrows and ballista-launched stones, and retreat.[25] Moreover, his crews were better-trained, professional, well-fed and rested. A medium ballista could penetrate the sides of most warships at close range and had an effective range of around 200 yards. Most ballistas were aimed at the marines on the ships' fighting decks. Before the battle one of Antony's generals, Quintus Dellius, defected to Octavian, bringing with him Antony's battle plans.[26] Shortly after midday, Antony was forced to extend his line from the protection of the shore and finally engage the enemy. Seeing this, Octavian's fleet put to sea. Antony had hoped to use his biggest ships to drive back Agrippa's wing on the north end of his line, but Octavian's entire fleet, aware of this strategy, stayed out of range. By about noon the fleets were in formation but Octavian refused to be drawn out, so Antony was forced to attack. The battle raged all afternoon without decisive result. Cleopatra's fleet, in the rear, retreated to the open sea without engaging. A breeze sprang up in the right direction and the Egyptian ships were soon out of sight.[16] Lange argues that Antony would have had victory within reach were it not for Cleopatra's retreat.[27] Antony had not observed the signal, and believing that it was mere panic and all was lost, followed the flying squadron. The contagion spread fast; everywhere sails unfurled and towers and other heavy fighting gear went by the board. Some fought on, and only long after nightfall, when many a ship was blazing from the firebrands thrown upon them, was the work done.[16] Making the best of the situation, Antony burned the ships he could no longer man while clustering the remainder tightly together. With many oarsmen dead or unfit to serve, the powerful, head-on ramming tactic for which the Octaries had been designed was now impossible. Antony transferred to a smaller vessel with his flag and managed to escape, taking a few ships with him as an escort to help break through Octavian's lines. Those left behind were captured or sunk. J. M. Carter gives a differing account of the battle. He postulates that Antony knew he was surrounded and had nowhere to run. To turn this to his advantage, he gathered his ships around him in a quasi-horseshoe formation, staying close to the shore for safety. Then, should Octavian's ships approach his, the sea would push them into the shore. Antony foresaw that he would not be able to defeat Octavian's forces, so he and Cleopatra stayed in the rear of the formation. Eventually Antony sent the ships on the northern part of the formation to attack. He had them move out to the north, spreading out Octavian's ships, which until this point were tightly arranged. He sent Sosius to spread the remaining ships to the south. This left a hole in the middle of Octavian's formation. Antony seized the opportunity and, with Cleopatra on her ship and him on a different ship, sped through the gap and escaped, abandoning his entire force. With the end of the battle, Octavian exerted himself to save the crews of the burning vessels and spent the whole night on board. The next day, as much of the land army had not escaped to their own lands, submitted, or were followed in their retreat to Macedonia and forced to surrender, Antony's camp was occupied, bringing an end to the war.[16] Alternative Theories[edit] Scientists researching the "dead water" phenomenon are investigating whether the Egyptian fleet may have been trapped in dead water, which can reduce a ship to "traveling at perhaps as little as 20% of its normal speed."[28][29] Aftermath[edit] Further information: Death of Cleopatra A (restructured) Roman statue of Cleopatra wearing a diadem and 'melon' hairstyle similar to coinage portraits, marble, found near the Tomba di Nerone, Rome along the Via Cassia, Museo Pio-Clementino[30][31][32] The battle had extensive political consequences. Under cover of darkness some 19 legions and 12,000 cavalry fled before Antony was able to engage Octavian in a land battle. Thus, after Antony lost his fleet, his army, which had been equal to Octavian's, deserted. Though he had not laid down his imperium, Antony was a fugitive and a rebel without that shadow of a legal position the presence of the consuls and senators had given him in the previous year. Some of the victorious fleet went in pursuit of him, but Octavian visited Greece and Asia and spent the winter at Samos, though he had to briefly visit Brundisium to settle a mutiny and arrange for assignations of land.[16] At Samos Octavian received a message from Cleopatra with the present of a gold crown and throne, offering to abdicate in favor of her sons. She was allowed to believe that she would be well treated, for Octavian was anxious to secure her for his triumph. Antony, who had found himself generally deserted, after vainly attempting to secure the army stationed near Paraetonium under Pinarius and sending his eldest son Antyllus with money to Octavian and an offer to live at Athens as a private citizen, found himself in the spring attacked on two sides. Cornelius Gallus was advancing from Paraetonium and Octavian landed at Pelusium, with the connivance, it was believed, of Cleopatra. Antony was defeated by Gallus and, returning to Egypt, advanced on Pelusium. Despite a victory at Alexandria on 31 July 30 BC, more of Antony's men deserted, leaving him with insufficient forces to fight Octavian. A slight success over Octavian's tired soldiers encouraged him to make a general attack, in which he was decisively beaten. Failing to escape by ship, he stabbed himself in the stomach upon mistakenly believing false rumours propagated by Cleopatra claiming that she had committed suicide.[33][34] He did not die at once, and when he found out that Cleopatra was still alive, he insisted on being taken to the mausoleum where she was hiding, and died in her arms. She was soon brought to the palace and vainly attempted to move Octavian to pity.[16] Cleopatra killed herself on 12 August 30 BC. Most accounts say she put an end to her life by the bite of an asp conveyed to her in a basket of figs.[16] Octavian had Caesarion killed later that month, finally securing his legacy as Caesar's only 'son'. Octavian's victory at Actium gave him sole, uncontested control of "Mare Nostrum" ("Our Sea", i.e., the Roman Mediterranean) and he became "Augustus Caesar" and the "first citizen" of Rome. The victory, consolidating his power over every Roman institution, marked Rome's transition from republic to empire. Egypt's surrender after Cleopatra's death marked the demise of both the Hellenistic Period and the Ptolemaic Kingdom,[35] turning it into a Roman province. See also[edit] Antony and Cleopatra Nicopolis Notes[edit] ^ a b Tarn, W. W. (1931). "The Battle of Actium". Journal of Roman Studies. 21 (2): 173–199. doi:10.2307/296516. JSTOR 296516. ^ a b Bowman, Craig (12 May 2019). "150,000 Men, 900 Ships: Excavation Reveals Size of Antony & Cleopatra's Fleet". War History Online. Retrieved 16 October 2020. ^ a b Keys, David (28 March 2019). "Secrets of horrific battle with Cleopatra that gave birth to Roman Empire revealed by ancient monument". The Independent. Retrieved 16 October 2020. ^ a b Lendering, Jona (10 October 2020). "Actium (31 BCE)". Livius.org. Retrieved 16 October 2020. ^ a b Whipps, Heather (March 24, 2008). "How the Battle of Actium Changed the World". Live Science. Retrieved 16 October 2020. ^ a b Kellum, Barbara (September 2010). "Representations and Re-presentations of the Battle of Actium". Oxford Scholarship Online. Retrieved 16 October 2020. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195389579.003.0012 ^ a b Migiro, Geoffrey (31 December 2017). "What Was the Battle of Actium?". WorldAtlas. Retrieved 16 October 2020. ^ Davis, Paul K. (1999). 100 decisive battles: From ancient times to the present. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-0195143669. OCLC 45102987. ^ Roller, Duane W. (2010). Cleopatra: A Biography. US: Oxford University Press. pp. 70–73. ^ Fowler, Paul; Grocock, Christopher; Melville, James (2017). OCR Ancient History GCSE Component 2 : Rome. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 192. ISBN 978-1-350-01520-3. OCLC 999629260. ^ David & David 2002, p. 35. ^ Kebric 2005, p. 109. ^ Potter 2009, p. 161. ^ Scullard 2013, p. 150. ^ a b Shuckburgh 1917, pp. 775–79. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Shuckburgh 1917, pp. 780–84. ^ Dio Cassius 50:31 [1] ^ Shuckburgh 1917, p. 781. ^ a b Plutarch, Antony, 65–66; ^ a b c Velleius Paterculus, History of Rome, ii.85. ^ Pelling 1988, p. 281. ^ Shuckburgh 1917, pp. 780–84, says 500. ^ Plutarch, The Life of Antony, 61 ^ Dio Cassius 50:13 [2] ^ Dio, Roman History 50.32 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History 50.23.1–3 ^ Lange, Carsten (December 2011). "The Battle of Actium: A reconsideration". Classical Quarterly. New Series, 61 (2): 608–623. doi:10.1017/S0009838811000139. JSTOR 41301557. Retrieved 28 November 2017. ^ CNRS (6 July 2020). "Behind the dead-water phenomenon". phys.org. Retrieved 16 October 2020. ^ "Scientists find clue to mysterious 'dead water' effect that stops a ship". The Week. July 15, 2020. Retrieved 18 September 2020. ^ Raia, Ann R.; Sebesta, Judith Lynn (September 2017). "The World of State". College of New Rochelle. Archived from the original on 6 March 2018. Retrieved 2 April 2018. ^ Lippold, Georg (1936). Die Skulpturen des Vaticanischen Museums (in German). 3. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co. pp. 169–71. ^ Curtius, L. (1933). "Ikonographische Beitrage zum Portrar der romischen Republik und der Julisch-Claudischen Familie". RM (in German). 48: 184 ff. Abb. 3 Taf. 25–27. ^ "Marc Antony and Cleopatra". biography.com. A&E Television Networks. Retrieved July 4, 2017. ^ Plutarch, Antony, pp. 311–12; ^ Actium – the solution Archived March 6, 2007, at the Wayback Machine References[edit] Carter, John M. (1970). The Battle of Actium: The Rise & Triumph of Augustus Caesar. Hamilton. ISBN 0241015162. OCLC 77602. David, Rosalie; David, Anthony E. (2002). A Biographical Dictionary of Ancient Egypt. Routledge. ISBN 978-1135377045. Everitt, Anthony (2006), Augustus: The Life of Rome's First Emperor, New York: Random House, ISBN 1-4000-6128-8 Kebric, Robert B. (2005). Roman People. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0072869040. Pelling, C.B.R., ed. (1988). Plutarch: Life of Antony. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24066-2. Potter, D.S. (2009). Rome in the Ancient World: From Romulus to Justinian. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0500251522. Scullard, H. H. (2013). From the Gracchi to Nero: A History of Rome 133 BC to AD 68. Routledge. ISBN 978-1136783876. Shuckburgh, Evelyn Shirley (1917). A History of Rome to the Battle of Actium. New York: Macmillan and Company. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Further reading[edit] Military Heritage published a feature about the Battle of Actium (Joseph M. Horodyski, August 2005, Volume 7, No. 1, pp. 58–63, 78), ISSN 1524-8666. Califf, David J. (2004). Battle of Actium. Chelsea House Publishers. ISBN 0791074404. OCLC 52312409. Green, Peter (1990). Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age. University of California Press. ISBN 0520056116. OCLC 13332042. Gurval, Robert Alan (1995). Actium and Augustus: The Politics and Emotions of Civil War. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0472105906. OCLC 32093780. Sheppard, Si (2009). Actium 31 BC: Downfall of Antony and Cleopatra (PDF). Oxford: Osprey Publishing (published 2009-06-10). ISBN 978-1-84603-405-3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-12-23. Library resources about Battle of Actium Resources in your library Resources in other libraries External links[edit] Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Actium. 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en-wikipedia-org-3132	----	Epicureanism - Wikipedia Epicureanism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Epicureans) Jump to navigation Jump to search "Epicurean" redirects here. For other uses, see Epicurean (disambiguation). Roman Epicurus bust Epicureanism is a system of philosophy founded around 307 BC based upon the teachings of the ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus. Epicureanism was originally a challenge to Platonism. Later its main opponent became Stoicism. Some writings by Epicurus have survived. Some scholars consider the epic poem De rerum natura (Latin for On the Nature of Things) by Lucretius to present in one unified work the core arguments and theories of Epicureanism. Many of the scrolls unearthed at the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum are Epicurean texts. At least some are thought to have belonged to the Epicurean philosopher Philodemus. Epicurus was an atomic materialist, following in the steps of Democritus. His materialism led him to a general attack on superstition and divine intervention. Following the Cyrenaic philosopher Aristippus, Epicurus believed that the greatest good was to seek modest, sustainable pleasure in the form of a state of ataraxia (tranquility and freedom from fear) and aponia (the absence of bodily pain) through knowledge of the workings of the world and limiting desires. Correspondingly, Epicurus and his followers shunned politics because it could lead to frustrations and ambitions which can directly conflict with the Epicurean pursuit for peace of mind and virtues.[1] Although Epicureanism is a form of hedonism insofar as it declares pleasure to be its sole intrinsic goal, the concept that the absence of pain and fear constitutes the greatest pleasure, and its advocacy of a simple life, make it very different from "hedonism" as colloquially understood. Epicureanism flourished in the Late Hellenistic era and during the Roman era, and many Epicurean communities were established, such as those in Antiochia, Alexandria, Rhodes, and Herculaneum. By the late 3rd century CE Epicureanism all but died out, being opposed by other philosophies (mainly Neoplatonism) that were now in the ascendant. Interest in Epicureanism was resurrected in the Age of Enlightenment and continues in the modern era. Contents 1 History 2 Philosophy 3 Ethics 4 Politics 5 Religion 6 Epicurean physics 7 Epistemology 8 Tetrapharmakos 9 Notable Epicureans 10 Modern usage and misconceptions 11 Criticism 12 See also 13 References 14 Further reading 15 External links History[edit] In Mytilene, the capital of the island Lesbos, and then in Lampsacus, Epicurus taught and gained followers. In Athens, Epicurus bought a property for his school called "Garden", later the name of Epicurus' school.[2] Its members included Hermarchus, Idomeneus, Colotes, Polyaenus, and Metrodorus. Epicurus emphasized friendship as an important ingredient of happiness, and the school seems to have been a moderately ascetic community which rejected the political limelight of Athenian philosophy. They were fairly cosmopolitan by Athenian standards, including women and slaves. Community activities held some importance, particularly the observance of Eikas, a monthly social gathering. Some members were also vegetarians as, from slender evidence, Epicurus did not eat meat, although no prohibition against eating meat was made.[3][4] The school's popularity grew and it became, along with Stoicism, Platonism, Peripateticism, and Pyrrhonism, one of the dominant schools of Hellenistic philosophy, lasting strongly through the later Roman Empire.[5] Another major source of information is the Roman politician and philosopher Cicero, although he was highly critical, denouncing the Epicureans as unbridled hedonists, devoid of a sense of virtue and duty, and guilty of withdrawing from public life. Another ancient source is Diogenes of Oenoanda, who composed a large inscription at Oenoanda in Lycia. Deciphered carbonized scrolls obtained from the library at the Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum contain a large number of works by Philodemus, a late Hellenistic Epicurean, and Epicurus himself, attesting to the school's enduring popularity. Diogenes reports slanderous stories, circulated by Epicurus' opponents.[2] With growing dominance of Neoplatonism and Peripateticism, and later, Christianity, Epicureanism declined. By the late third century CE, there was little trace of its existence.[6] The early Christian writer Lactantius criticizes Epicurus at several points throughout his Divine Institutes. In Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy, the Epicureans are depicted as heretics suffering in the sixth circle of hell. In fact, Epicurus appears to represent the ultimate heresy.[7] The word for a heretic in the Talmudic literature is "Apiqoros" (אפיקורוס‎).[citation needed] In the 17th century, the French Franciscan priest, scientist and philosopher Pierre Gassendi wrote two books forcefully reviving Epicureanism. Shortly thereafter, and clearly influenced by Gassendi, Walter Charleton published several works on Epicureanism in English. Attacks by Christians continued, most forcefully by the Cambridge Platonists.[citation needed] In the early modern period, scientists adopted atomist theories, while materialist philosophers embraced Epicurus' hedonist ethics and restated his objections to natural teleology.[citation needed] Philosophy[edit] Part of a series on Hedonism Thinkers Ajita Kesakambali Jeremy Bentham Julien Offray de La Mettrie Aristippus Epicurus Fred Feldman Theodorus the Atheist Michel Onfray Aristippus the Younger Hermarchus Lucretius Pierre Gassendi Metrodorus of Lampsacus David Pearce Zeno of Sidon Yang Zhu Torbjörn Tännsjö Esperanza Guisán Schools of hedonism Cārvāka Cyrenaics Epicureanism Christian hedonism Utilitarianism Yangism Key concepts Aponia Ataraxia Eudaimonia Happiness Hedone Pain Pleasure Sensation Suffering Tetrapharmakos Libertine Related articles Paradox of hedonism Hedonic treadmill v t e Epicureanism argued that pleasure was the chief good in life.[8] Hence, Epicurus advocated living in such a way as to derive the greatest amount of pleasure possible during one's lifetime, yet doing so moderately in order to avoid the suffering incurred by overindulgence in such pleasure.[8] Emphasis was placed on pleasures of the mind rather than on physical pleasures.[8] Unnecessary and, especially, artificially produced desires were to be suppressed.[9] Since the political life could give rise to desires that could disturb virtue and one's peace of mind, such as a lust for power or a desire for fame, participation in politics was discouraged.[10][11] Further, Epicurus sought to eliminate the fear of the gods and of death, seeing those two fears as chief causes of strife in life.[12] Epicurus actively recommended against passionate love, and believed it best to avoid marriage altogether. He viewed recreational sex as a natural, but not necessary desire that should be generally avoided.[13] The Epicurean understanding of justice was inherently self-interested. Justice was deemed good because it was seen as mutually beneficial.[14] Individuals would not act unjustly even if the act was initially unnoticed because of possibly being caught and punished.[15] Both punishment and fear of punishment would cause a person disturbance and prevent them from being happy.[15] Epicurus laid great emphasis on developing friendships as the basis of a satisfying life. of all the things which wisdom has contrived which contribute to a blessed life, none is more important, more fruitful, than friendship — quoted by Cicero[16] While the pursuit of pleasure formed the focal point of the philosophy, this was largely directed to the "static pleasures" of minimizing pain, anxiety and suffering. In fact, Epicurus referred to life as a "bitter gift". When we say ... that pleasure is the end and aim, we do not mean the pleasures of the prodigal or the pleasures of sensuality, as we are understood to do by some through ignorance, prejudice or wilful misrepresentation. By pleasure we mean the absence of pain in the body and of trouble in the soul. It is not by an unbroken succession of drinking bouts and of revelry, not by sexual lust, nor the enjoyment of fish and other delicacies of a luxurious table, which produce a pleasant life; it is sober reasoning, searching out the grounds of every choice and avoidance, and banishing those beliefs through which the greatest tumults take possession of the soul. — Epicurus, "Letter to Menoeceus"[17] Epicureanism rejects immortality. It believes in the soul, but suggests that the soul is mortal and material, just like the body.[18] Epicurus rejected any possibility of an afterlife, while still contending that one need not fear death: "Death is nothing to us; for that which is dissolved, is without sensation, and that which lacks sensation is nothing to us."[19] From this doctrine arose the Epicurean Epitaph: Non fui, fui, non sum, non curo ("I was not; I have been; I am not; I do not mind."), which is inscribed on the gravestones of his followers and seen on many ancient gravestones of the Roman Empire. This quotation is often used today at humanist funerals.[20] Ethics[edit] Epicureanism bases its ethics on a hedonistic set of values. In the most basic sense, Epicureans see pleasure as the purpose of life.[21] As evidence for this, Epicureans say that nature seems to command us to avoid pain, and they point out that all animals try to avoid pain as much as possible.[22] Epicureans had a very specific understanding of what the greatest pleasure was, and the focus of their ethics was on the avoidance of pain rather than seeking out pleasure.[23] Epicureanism divided pleasure into two broad categories: pleasures of the body and pleasures of the mind.[23] Pleasures of the body: These pleasures involve sensations of the body, such as the act of eating delicious food or of being in a state of comfort free from pain, and exist only in the present.[23] One can only experience pleasures of the body in the moment, meaning they only exist as a person is experiencing them.[24] Pleasures of the mind: These pleasures involve mental processes and states; feelings of joy, the lack of fear, and pleasant memories are all examples of pleasures of the mind.[23] These pleasures of the mind do not only exist in the present, but also in the past and future, since memory of a past pleasant experience or the expectation of some potentially pleasing future can both be pleasurable experiences.[24] Because of this, the pleasures of the mind are considered to be greater than those of the body.[24] The Epicureans further divided each of these types of pleasures into two categories: kinetic pleasure and katastematic pleasure.[25] Kinetic pleasure: Kinetic pleasure describes the physical or mental pleasures that involve action or change.[26] Eating delicious food, as well as fulfilling desires and removing pain, which is itself considered a pleasurable act, are all examples of kinetic pleasure in the physical sense.[25][27] According to Epicurus, feelings of joy would be an example of mental kinetic pleasure.[25] Katastematic pleasure: Katastematic pleasure describes the pleasure one feels while in a state without pain.[27] Like kinetic pleasures, katastematic pleasures can also be physical, such as the state of not being thirsty, or mental, such as freedom from a state of fear.[25][26] Complete physical katastematic pleasure is called aponia, and complete mental katastematic pleasure is called ataraxia.[25] From this understanding, Epicureans concluded that the greatest pleasure a person could reach was the complete removal of all pain, both physical and mental.[28] The ultimate goal then of Epicurean ethics was to reach a state of aponia and ataraxia.[28] In order to do this an Epicurean had to control their desires, because desire itself was seen as painful.[29] Not only will controlling one's desires bring about aponia, as one will rarely suffer from not being physically satisfied, but controlling one's desires will also help to bring about ataraxia because one will not be anxious about becoming discomforted since one would have so few desires anyway.[30] Epicurus distinguishes three kinds of desires: the natural and necessary, the natural but not necessary, and those that are neither natural nor necessary.[29] Natural and necessary: These desires are limited desires that are innately present in all humans; it is part of human nature to have them.[29] They are necessary for one of three reasons: necessary for happiness, necessary for freedom from bodily discomfort, and necessary for life.[29] Clothing would belong to the first two categories, while something like food would belong to the third.[29] Natural but not necessary: These desires are innate to humans, but they do not need to be fulfilled for their happiness or their survival.[30] Wanting to eat delicious food when one is hungry is an example of a natural but not necessary desire.[30] The main problem with these desires is that they fail to substantially increase a person's happiness, and at the same time require effort to obtain and are desired by people due to false beliefs that they are actually necessary.[30] It is for this reason that they should be avoided.[30] Not natural nor necessary: These desires are neither innate to humans nor required for happiness or health; indeed, they are also limitless and can never be fulfilled.[31] Desires of wealth or fame would fall under this category, and such desires are to be avoided because they will ultimately only bring about discomfort.[31] If one follows only natural and necessary desires, then, according to Epicurus, one would be able to reach aponia and ataraxia and thereby the highest form of happiness.[31] Epicurus was also an early thinker to develop the notion of justice as a social contract. He defined justice as an agreement made by people not to harm each other.[14] The point of living in a society with laws and punishments is to be protected from harm so that one is free to pursue happiness.[32] Because of this, laws that do not contribute to promoting human happiness are not just.[32] He gave his own unique version of the ethic of reciprocity, which differs from other formulations by emphasizing minimizing harm and maximizing happiness for oneself and others: "It is impossible to live a pleasant life without living wisely and well and justly, and it is impossible to live wisely and well and justly without living a pleasant life."[33] ("justly" meaning to prevent a "person from harming or being harmed by another")[33] Epicureanism incorporated a relatively full account of the social contract theory, and in part attempts to address issues with the society described in Plato's Republic.[32] The social contract theory established by Epicureanism is based on mutual agreement, not divine decree.[32] Politics[edit] Epicurean ideas on politics disagree with other philosophical traditions, namely the Stoic, Platonist and Aristotelian traditions.[34] To Epicureans all our social relations are a matter of how we perceive each other, of customs and traditions. No one is inherently of higher value or meant to dominate another.[35] That is because there is no metaphysical basis for the superiority of one kind of person, all people are made of the same atomic material and are thus naturally equal.[35] Epicureans also discourage political participation and other involvement in politics.[35] However Epicureans are not apolitical, it is possible that some political association could be seen as beneficial by some Epicureans.[34] Some political associations could lead to certain benefits to the individual that would help to maximize pleasure and avoid physical or mental distress.[34] The avoidance or freedom from hardship and fear is ideal to the Epicureans.[34] While this avoidance or freedom could conceivably be achieved through political means it was insisted by Epicurus that involvement in politics would not release one from fear and he advised against a life of politics.[34] Epicurus also discouraged contributing to political society by starting a family, as the benefits of a wife and children are outweighed by the trouble brought about by having a family.[34] Instead Epicurus encouraged a formation of a community of friends outside the traditional political state. This community of virtuous friends would focus on internal affairs and justice.[34] However, Epicureanism is adaptable to circumstance as is the Epicurean approach to politics.[34] The same approaches will not always work in protection from pain and fear. In some situations it will be more beneficial to have a family and in other situations it will be more beneficial to participate in politics. It is ultimately up to the Epicurean to analyse their circumstance and take whatever action befits the situation.[34] Religion[edit] Epicureanism does not deny the existence of the gods; rather it denies their involvement in the world. According to Epicureanism, the gods do not interfere with human lives or the rest of the universe in any way[36]-thus, it shuns the idea that frightening weather events are divine retribution.[37] One of the fears the Epicurean ought to be freed from is fear relating to the actions of the gods.[38] The manner in which the Epicurean gods exist is still disputed. Some scholars say that Epicureanism believes that the gods exist outside the mind as material objects (the realist position), while others assert that the gods only exist in our minds as ideals (the idealist position).[36][39][40] The realist position holds that Epicureans understand the gods as existing as physical and immortal beings made of atoms that reside somewhere in reality.[36][40] However, the gods are completely separate from the rest of reality; they are uninterested in it, play no role in it, and remain completely undisturbed by it.[41] Instead, the gods live in what is called the metakosmia, or the space between worlds.[42] Contrarily, the idealist position holds that Epicurus did not actually conceive of the gods as existing in reality. Rather, Epicurus is said to have viewed the gods as just idealized forms of the best human life,[39][43] and it is thought that the gods were emblematic of the life one should aspire towards.[39] The debate between these two positions was revived by A. A. Long and David Sedley in their 1987 book, The Hellenistic Philosophers, in which the two argued in favour of the idealist position.[39][40] While a scholarly consensus has yet to be reached, the realist position remains the prevailing viewpoint at this time.[39][40] Epicureanism also offered arguments against the existence of the gods in the manner proposed by other belief systems. The Riddle of Epicurus, or Problem of evil, is a famous argument against the existence of an all-powerful and providential God or gods. As recorded by Lactantius: God either wants to eliminate bad things and cannot, or can but does not want to, or neither wishes to nor can, or both wants to and can. If he wants to and cannot, then he is weak – and this does not apply to god. If he can but does not want to, then he is spiteful – which is equally foreign to god's nature. If he neither wants to nor can, he is both weak and spiteful, and so not a god. If he wants to and can, which is the only thing fitting for a god, where then do bad things come from? Or why does he not eliminate them? — Lactantius, De Ira Deorum[44] This type of trilemma argument (God is omnipotent, God is good, but Evil exists) was one favoured by the ancient Greek skeptics, and this argument may have been wrongly attributed to Epicurus by Lactantius, who, from his Christian perspective, regarded Epicurus as an atheist.[45] According to Reinhold F. Glei, it is settled that the argument of theodicy is from an academical source which is not only not Epicurean, but even anti-Epicurean.[46] The earliest extant version of this trilemma appears in the writings of the Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus.[47] Parallels may be drawn to Jainism and Buddhism, which similarly emphasize a lack of divine interference and aspects of its atomism. Epicureanism also resembles Buddhism in its temperateness, including the belief that great excess leads to great dissatisfaction.[48][49][50] Some modern Epicureans have argued that Epicureanism is a type of religious identity, arguing that it fulfils Ninian Smart's "seven dimensions of religion", and that the Epicurean practices of feasting on the twentieth and declaring an oath to follow Epicurus, insistence on doctrinal adherence, and the sacredness of Epicurean friendship, make Epicureanism more similar to some non-theistic religions than to other philosophies.[51] Epicurean physics[edit] Epicurean physics held that the entire universe consisted of two things: matter and void.[52] Matter is made up of atoms, which are tiny bodies that have only the unchanging qualities of shape, size, and weight.[53][54] Atoms were felt to be unchanging because the Epicureans believed that the world was ordered and that changes had to have specific and consistent sources, e.g. a plant species only grows from a seed of the same species.[55][56] Epicurus holds that there must be an infinite supply of atoms, although only a finite number of types of atoms, as well as an infinite amount of void.[53] Epicurus explains this position in his letter to Herodotus: Moreover, the sum of things is unlimited both by reason of the multitude of the atoms and the extent of the void. For if the void were infinite and bodies finite, the bodies would not have stayed anywhere but would have been dispersed in their course through the infinite void, not having any supports or counterchecks to send them back on their upward rebound. Again, if the void were finite, the infinity of bodies would not have anywhere to be.[57] Because of the infinite supply of atoms, there are an infinite amount of worlds, or cosmoi.[53] Some of these worlds could be vastly different than our own, some quite similar, and all of the worlds were separated from each other by vast areas of void (metakosmia).[53] Epicureanism states that atoms are unable to be broken down into any smaller parts, and Epicureans offered multiple arguments to support this position.[58] Epicureans argue that because void is necessary for matter to move, anything which consists of both void and matter can be broken down, while if something contains no void then it has no way to break apart because no part of the substance could be broken down into a smaller subsection of the substance.[55] They also argued that in order for the universe to persist, what it is ultimately made up of must not be able to be changed or else the universe would be essentially destroyed.[58][55] Atoms are constantly moving in one of four different ways.[59] Atoms can simply collide with each other and then bounce off of each other.[59] When joined with each other and forming a larger object, atoms can vibrate as they collide into each other while still maintaining the overall shape of the larger object.[59] When not prevented by other atoms, all atoms move at the same speed naturally downwards in relation to the rest world.[59][60] This downwards motion is natural for atoms; however, as their fourth means of motion, atoms can at times randomly swerve out of their usual downwards path.[60] This swerving motion is what allowed for the creation of the universe, since as more and more atoms swerved and collided with each other, objects were able to take shape as the atoms joined together. Without the swerve, the atoms would never have interacted with each other, and simply continued to move downwards at the same speed.[59][60] Epicurus also felt that the swerve was what accounted for humanity's free will.[61] If it were not for the swerve, humans would be subject to a never-ending chain of cause and effect.[61] This was a point which Epicureans often used to criticize Democritus' atomic theory.[61] Epicureans believed that senses also relied on atoms. Every object was continually emitting particles from itself that would then interact with the observer.[62] All sensations, such as sight, smell, or sound, relied on these particles.[62] While the atoms that were emitted did not have the qualities that the senses were perceiving, the manner in which they were emitted caused the observer to experience those sensations, e.g. red particles were not themselves red but were emitted in a manner that caused the viewer to experience the color red.[62] The atoms are not perceived individually, but rather as a continuous sensation because of how quickly they move.[62] Epistemology[edit] Epicurean philosophy employs an empirical epistemology.[63] The Epicureans believed that all sense perceptions were true,[64][65] and that errors arise in how we judge those perceptions.[65] When we form judgments about things (hupolepsis), they can be verified and corrected through further sensory information.[65][66][67][68] For example, if someone sees a tower from far away that appears to be round, and upon approaching the tower they see that it is actually square, they would come to realize that their original judgement was wrong and correct their wrong opinion.[68] Epicurus is said to have proposed three criteria of truth: sensations (aisthêsis), preconceptions (prolepsis), and feelings (pathê).[69] A fourth criterion called "presentational applications of the mind" (phantastikai epibolai tês dianoias) was said to have been added by later Epicureans.[69][70] These criteria formed the method through which Epicureans thought we gained knowledge.[63] Since Epicureans thought that sensations could not deceive, sensations are the first and main criterion of truth for Epicureans.[65] Even in cases where sensory input seems to mislead, the input itself is true and the error arises from our judgments about the input. For example, when one places a straight oar in the water, it appears bent. The Epicurean would argue that image of the oar, that is the atoms travelling from the oar to the observer's eyes, have been shifted and thus really do arrive at the observer's eyes in the shape of a bent oar.[71] The observer makes the error in assuming that the image he or she receives correctly represents the oar and has not been distorted in some way.[71] In order to not make erroneous judgments about perceivable things and instead verify one's judgment, Epicureans believed that one needed to obtain "clear vision" (enargeia) of the perceivable thing by closer examination.[72] This acted as a justification for one's judgements about the thing being perceived.[72] Enargeia is characterized as sensation of an object that has been unchanged by judgments or opinions and is a clear and direct perception of that object.[73] An individual's preconceptions are his or her concepts of what things are, e.g. what someone's idea of a horse is, and these concepts are formed in a person's mind through sensory input over time.[74] When the word that relates to the preconception is used, these preconceptions are summoned up by the mind into the person's thoughts.[75] It is through our preconceptions that we are able to make judgments about the things that we perceive.[68] Preconceptions were also used by Epicureans to avoid the paradox proposed by Plato in the Meno regarding learning.[75] Plato argues that learning requires us to already have knowledge of what we are learning, or else we would be unable to recognize when we had successfully learned the information.[75] Preconceptions, Epicureans argue, provide individuals with that pre-knowledge required for learning.[75] Our feelings or emotions (pathê) are how we perceive pleasure and pain.[70] They are analogous to sensations in that they are a means of perception, but they perceive our internal state as opposed to external things.[70] According to Diogenes Laertius, feelings are how we determine our actions. If something is pleasurable, we pursue that thing, and if something is painful, we avoid that thing.[70] The idea of "presentational applications of the mind" is an explanation for how we can discuss and inquire about things we cannot directly perceive.[76] We receive impressions of such things directly in our minds, instead of perceiving them through other senses.[69] The concept of "presentational applications of the mind" may have been introduced to explain how we learn about things that we cannot directly perceive, such as the gods.[69][76] Tetrapharmakos[edit] Main article: Tetrapharmakos Part of Herculaneum Papyrus 1005 (P.Herc.1005), col. 5. Contains Epicurean tetrapharmakos from Philodemus' Adversus Sophistas. Tetrapharmakos, or "The four-part cure", is Philodemus of Gadara's basic guideline as to how to live the happiest possible life, based on the first four of Epicurus' Principal Doctrines. This poetic doctrine was handed down by an anonymous Epicurean who summed up Epicurus' philosophy on happiness in four simple lines: Don't fear god, Don't worry about death; What is good is easy to get, and What is terrible is easy to endure. — Philodemus, Herculaneum Papyrus, 1005, 4.9–14 Notable Epicureans[edit] De rerum natura manuscript, copied by an Augustinian friar for Pope Sixtus IV, c. 1483, after the discovery of an early manuscript in 1417 by the humanist and papal secretary Poggio Bracciolini One of the earliest Roman writers espousing Epicureanism was Amafinius. Other adherents to the teachings of Epicurus included the poet Horace, whose famous statement Carpe Diem ("Seize the Day") illustrates the philosophy, as well as Lucretius, who wrote the poem De rerum natura about the tenets of the philosophy. The poet Virgil was another prominent Epicurean (see Lucretius for further details). The Epicurean philosopher Philodemus of Gadara, until the 18th century only known as a poet of minor importance, rose to prominence as most of his work along with other Epicurean material was discovered in the Villa of the Papyri. In the second century CE, comedian Lucian of Samosata and wealthy promoter of philosophy Diogenes of Oenoanda were prominent Epicureans. Julius Caesar leaned considerably toward Epicureanism, which led to his plea against the death sentence during the trial against Catiline, during the Catiline conspiracy where he spoke out against the Stoic Cato.[77] His father-in-law, Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus was also an adept of the school. In modern times Thomas Jefferson referred to himself as an Epicurean: If I had time I would add to my little book the Greek, Latin and French texts, in columns side by side. And I wish I could subjoin a translation of Gassendi's Syntagma of the doctrines of Epicurus, which, notwithstanding the calumnies of the Stoics and caricatures of Cicero, is the most rational system remaining of the philosophy of the ancients, as frugal of vicious indulgence, and fruitful of virtue as the hyperbolical extravagances of his rival sects.[78] Other modern-day Epicureans were Gassendi, Walter Charleton, François Bernier, Saint-Evremond, Ninon de l'Enclos, Denis Diderot, Frances Wright and Jeremy Bentham. Christopher Hitchens referred to himself as an Epicurean.[79] In France, where perfumer/restaurateur Gérald Ghislain refers to himself as an Epicurean,[80] Michel Onfray is developing a post-modern approach to Epicureanism.[81] In his recent book titled The Swerve, Stephen Greenblatt identified himself as strongly sympathetic to Epicureanism and Lucretius. Humanistic Judaism as a denomination also claims the Epicurean label. Modern usage and misconceptions[edit] In modern popular usage, an Epicurean is a connoisseur of the arts of life and the refinements of sensual pleasures; Epicureanism implies a love or knowledgeable enjoyment especially of good food and drink. Because Epicureanism posits that pleasure is the ultimate good (telos), it has been commonly misunderstood since ancient times as a doctrine that advocates the partaking in fleeting pleasures such as sexual excess and decadent food. This is not the case. Epicurus regarded ataraxia (tranquility, freedom from fear) and aponia (absence of pain) as the height of happiness. He also considered prudence an important virtue and perceived excess and overindulgence to be contrary to the attainment of ataraxia and aponia.[17] Epicurus preferred "the good", and "even wisdom and culture", to the "pleasure of the stomach".[82] While twentieth-century commentary has generally sought to diminish this and related quotations, the consistency of the lower-case epicureanism of meals with Epicurean materialism overall has more recently been explained.[83] While Epicurus sought moderation at meals, he was also not averse to moderation in moderation, that is, to occasional luxury. Called "The Garden" for being based in what would have been a kitchen garden, his community also became known for its feasts of the twentieth (of the Greek month). Criticism[edit] Francis Bacon wrote an apothegm related to Epicureanism: There was an Epicurean vaunted, that divers of other sects of philosophers did after turn Epicureans, but there was never any Epicurean that turned to any other sect. Whereupon a philosopher that was of another sect, said; The reason was plain, for that cocks may be made capons, but capons could never be made cocks.[84] This echoed what the Academic Skeptic philosopher Arcesilaus had said when asked "why it was that pupils from all the other schools went over to Epicurus, but converts were never made from the Epicureans?" to which he responded: "Because men may become eunuchs, but a eunuch never becomes a man."[85] See also[edit] Philosophy portal Charvaka, a hedonic Indian school Cyrenaics, a sensual hedonist Greek school of philosophy founded in the 4th century BCE Dehellenization Epicurea Epicurean paradox Epikoros Hedonic treadmill List of English translations of De rerum natura Philosophy of happiness Separation of church and state Zeno of Sidon References[edit] ^ 1951-, Wilson, Catherine (2015). Epicureanism : a very short introduction (First ed.). Oxford, United Kingdom. ISBN 9780199688326. OCLC 917374685.CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) ^ a b David Konstan. "Epicurus". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ The Hidden History of Greco-Roman Vegetarianism ^ Dombrowski, Daniel (1984). The Philosophy of Vegetarianism. University of Massachusetts Press. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-87023-431-6. ^ MacGillivray, Erlend D (2012). "The Popularity of Epicureanism in Late-Republic Roman Society". The Ancient World. XLIII: 151–172. ^ Michael Frede (1999). "Epilogue". The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy. pp. 795–96. ^ Trans. Robert Pinsky, The Inferno of Dante, p. 320 n. 11. ^ a b c O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 107–115. ^ O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 125–127. ^ Wilson, Catherine (2015). Epicureanism: A Very Brief Introduction. United States of America: Oxford University. pp. 84–85. ^ O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. p. 145. ^ O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 155–171. ^ Wilson, Catherine (2015). Epicureanism: A Very Short Introduction. United States of America: Oxford University Press. pp. 95–96. ^ a b O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 139–140. ^ a b O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 142–145. ^ On Goals, 1.65 ^ a b Epicurus, "Letter to Menoeceus", contained in Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers, Book X ^ Wilson, Catherine (2015). Epicureanism: A Very Brief Introduction. United States of America: Oxford University Press. p. 52. ^ Russell, Bertrand. A History of Western Philosophy, pp. 239–40 ^ Epicurus (c 341–270 BCE) British Humanist Association ^ Sharples, R. W. (1996). Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy. New York, NY: Routledge. p. 84. ^ Wilson, Catherine (2015). Epicureanism: A Very Short Introduction. United States of America: Oxford University Press. p. 93. ^ a b c d O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 117–121. ^ a b c O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 118–119. ^ a b c d e O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 119–120. ^ a b Sharples, R. W. (1996). Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 91–92. ^ a b Warren, James (2002). Epicurus and Democritean Ethics: An Archaeology of Ataraxia. New York, NY: University of Cambridge. p. 4. ^ a b O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. p. 120. ^ a b c d e O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 124–125. ^ a b c d e O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 126–127. ^ a b c O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 125–126. ^ a b c d O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 139–142. ^ a b "Epicurus Principal Doctrines 5 and 31 transl. by Robert Drew Hicks". 1925. ^ a b c d e f g h i The Cambridge companion to epicureanism. Warren, James, 1974-. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 2009. ISBN 9780521873475. OCLC 297147109.CS1 maint: others (link) ^ a b c 1951-, Wilson, Catherine (2015). Epicureanism : a very short introduction (First ed.). Oxford, United Kingdom. ISBN 9780199688326. OCLC 917374685.CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) ^ a b c O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 155–156. ^ The Cambridge companion to Epicureanism, edited by James Warren, page 124 ^ The Cambridge companion to Epicureanism, edited by James Warren, age 105 ^ a b c d e Sedley, David (2011). "Epicurus' theological innatism". In Fish, Jeffrey; Sanders, Kirk R. (eds.). Epicurus and the Epicurean Tradition. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 29–30. ^ a b c d Konstan, David (2011). "Epicurus on the gods". In Fish, Jeffrey; Sanders, Kirk R. (eds.). Epicurus and the Epicurean Tradition. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 53–54. ^ Mansfeld, Jaap (1993). "Aspects of Epicurean Theology". Mnemosyne. 46 (2): 176–178. doi:10.1163/156852593X00484. ^ Buchheit, Vinzenz (2007). "Epicurus' Triumph of the Mind". In Gale, Monica R. (ed.). Oxford Readings in Classical Studies: Lucretius. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. pp. 110–111. ^ O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 158–159. ^ Lactantius, De Ira Deorum, 13.19 (Epicurus, Frag. 374, Usener). David Hume paraphrased this passage in his Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion: "EPICURUS's old questions are yet unanswered. Is he willing to prevent evil, but not able? then is he impotent. Is he able, but not willing? then is he malevolent. Is he both able and willing? whence then is evil?" ^ Mark Joseph Larrimore, (2001), The Problem of Evil, pp. xix–xxi. Wiley-Blackwell ^ Glei, Reinhold F. (1988). "Et invidus et inbecillus. Das angebliche Epikurfragment bei Laktanz, De ira dei 13, 20–21". Vigiliae Christianae. 42: 47–58. doi:10.2307/1584470. ^ Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism, 175: "those who firmly maintain that god exists will be forced into impiety; for if they say that he [god] takes care of everything, they will be saying that god is the cause of evils, while if they say that he takes care of some things only or even nothing, they will be forced to say that he is either malevolent or weak" ^ Scharfstein, Ben-Ami (1998). A Comparative History of World Philosophy: From the Upanishads to Kant. SUNY Press. p. 202. ISBN 9780791436837. ^ Cooper, David E.; James, Simon P. (2017). Buddhism, Virtue and Environment. Routledge. p. 105. ISBN 9781351954310. ^ Berenice II and the Golden Age of Ptolemaic Egypt, Dee L. Clayman, Oxford University Press, 2014, p.33 ^ "Epicureanism as a Religious Identity". ^ O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 11–13. ^ a b c d Wilson, Catherine (2015). Epicureanism: A Very Short Introduction. United States of America: Oxford University Press. p. 9. ^ O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. p. 21. ^ a b c O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 18–20. ^ Sharples, R. W. (1998). Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 34–35. ^ Diogenes, Laertius (1925). Lives of Eminent Philosophers: Volume II: Books 6-10. Translated by Hicks, R. D. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. pp. 573–575. ^ a b Sharples, R. W. (1996). Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics: An introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 35–37. ^ a b c d e Wilson, Catherine (2015). Epicureanism: A Very Short Introduction. United States of America: Oxford University Press. p. 11. ^ a b c O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 25–28. ^ a b c Sharples, R. W. (1996). Stoics, Epicurus, and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 64–66. ^ a b c d Wilson, Catherine (2015). Epicureanism: A Very Short Introduction. United States of America: Oxford University Press. pp. 54–55. ^ a b O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. p. 85. ^ Asmis, Elizabeth (2009). "Epicurean empiricism". In Warren, James (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Epicureanism. Cambridge University Press. p. 84. ^ a b c d O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Pres. pp. 97–98. ^ Bakalis, Nikolaos (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments. Canada: Trafford Publishing. pp. 193–197. ^ Konstan, David (2011). Fish, Jeffrey; Sanders, Kirk R. (eds.). Epicurus and the Epicurean Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 62–63. ^ a b c O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 103–104. ^ a b c d Sharples, R. W. (1996). Stoics, Epicureans and Sceptics. New York, NY: Routledge. p. 19. ^ a b c d Asmis, Elizabeth (2009). "Epicurean empiricism". In Warren, James (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Epicureanism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 93–94. ^ a b Sharples, R. W. (1996). Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 12–13. ^ a b Sharples, R. W. (1996). Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 12–16. ^ Asmis, Elizabeth (2009). "Epicurean empiricism". In Warren, James (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Epicureanism. Cambridge University Press. p. 85. ^ Sharples, R. W. (1996). Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 18–19. ^ a b c d O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 101–103. ^ a b Tsouna, Voula (2016). "Epicurean Preconceptions". Phronesis. 61 (2): 215. doi:10.1163/15685284-12341304. ^ Cf. Sallust, The War With Catiline, Caesar's speech: 51.29 & Cato's reply: 52.13). ^ "Full text of "The writings of Thomas Jefferson;"". archive.org. Retrieved 6 May 2016. ^ "Townhall.com::Talk Radio Online::Radio Show". Archived from the original on 5 November 2018. Retrieved 5 September 2019. ^ Anon., Gérald Ghislain – Creator of The Scent of Departure. IdeaMensch, 14 July 2011. ^ Michel Onfray, La puissance d'exister: Manifeste hédoniste, Grasset, 2006 ^ Cyril Bailey, Epicurus: The Extant Remains, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1926, p.131 ^ Michael Symons, "Epicurus, the foodies’ philosopher", pp. 13-30, in Fritz Allhoff and Dave Monroe, eds, Food & Philosophy: Eat, think, and be merry, Malden (MA, USA): Blackwell Publishing, 2007 ^ Francis Bacon, Apothegms 280, The Works of Francis Bacon, Volume 1/Apophthegms ^ Diogenes Laertius, Lives of the Eminent Philosophers Book IV, Chapter 6, section 45 http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0258%3Abook%3D4%3Achapter%3D6 Further reading[edit] Dane R. Gordon and David B. Suits, Epicurus. His Continuing Influence and Contemporary Relevance, Rochester, N.Y.: RIT Cary Graphic Arts Press, 2003. Holmes, Brooke & Shearin, W. H. Dynamic Reading: Studies in the Reception of Epicureanism, New York: Oxford University Press, 2012. Jones, Howard. The Epicurean Tradition, New York: Routledge, 1989. Neven Leddy and Avi S. Lifschitz, Epicurus in the Enlightenment, Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 2009. Long, A.A. & Sedley, D.N. The Hellenistic Philosophers Volume 1, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. ( ISBN 0-521-27556-3) Long, Roderick (2008). "Epicureanism". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; Cato Institute. p. 153. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n95. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024. Martin Ferguson Smith (ed.), Diogenes of Oinoanda. The Epicurean inscription, edited with introduction, translation, and notes, Naples: Bibliopolis, 1993. Martin Ferguson Smith, Supplement to Diogenes of Oinoanda. The Epicurean Inscription, Naples: Bibliopolis, 2003. Warren, James (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to Epicureanism, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009. Wilson, Catherine. Epicureanism at the Origins of Modernity, New York: Oxford University Press, 2008. 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en-wikipedia-org-3133	----	Francisco de Sá de Miranda - Wikipedia Francisco de Sá de Miranda From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Sá de Miranda) Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the 16th century poet. For other people with the same name, see Francisco de Miranda. Francisco de Sá de Miranda Born 28 August 1481 Coimbra, Kingdom of Portugal Died 17 May 1558 (1558-05-18) (aged 76) Amares, Kingdom of Portugal Nationality Portuguese Occupation Poet Francisco de Sá de Miranda (28 August 1481 – 17 May 1558; Portuguese pronunciation: [fɾɐ̃ˈsiʃku dɨ ˈsa dɨ miˈɾɐ̃ðɐ]) was a Portuguese poet of the Renaissance. Contents 1 Life 2 Work 3 References 4 Bibliography 5 External links Life[edit] Sá de Miranda was born in Coimbra, the son of a canon Gonçalo Mendes de Sá[1] belonging to the ancient and noble family of Sá and Inês de Melo.[1] His brother, Mem de Sá, was the third governor of the Portuguese colony of Brazil. Sá de Miranda passed his early years by the banks of the river Mondego, considered a source of inspiration to many other poets. He made his first studies of Greek, Latin and philosophy in the college of the Santa Cruz Monastery, and in 1505 went to University of Lisbon[1] (the University of Coimbra had moved to Lisbon in 1380) to study law, beginning at the same time to attend the Portuguese court and write poems in the mediaeval style still dominant in Portugal. He travelled to Italy in 1521, where he was able to make contact with many writers and artists of the Renaissance, including Vittoria Colonna[1] (who was his relative), Pietro Bembo,[1] Sannazzaro and Ariosto. On his way home, in 1526, he visited Spain, meeting classical writers Juan Boscan and Garcilaso de la Vega. Back in Portugal in 1526 or 1527, he was again received in the court, where he became a friend to King John III and other nobles. Four years after his return he decided to move to the Minho province, in the North of the country, where he purchased land. Around 1530 he married[1] Briolanja de Azevedo,[2] a lady of noble birth. In 1552 he moved to the Quinta da Tapada, near Amares, where he died in 1558, aged 76.[3] Work[edit] Like many Portuguese writers of his time, Sá de Miranda often wrote in Castilian[1] apart from Portuguese. His early work is all in the form of the typical 15th-century Portuguese poetry (the vilancete, the cantiga, the esparsa and the trova). Influenced by his travels in Italy and Spain, Sá de Miranda introduced a new aesthetics in Portugal.[4] He introduced the sonnet,[1] the elegy, the eclogue, the ottava rima[2] and other classical poetic forms, adapting the Portuguese language to the Italian hendecasyllable verse. These forms, especially sonnet and ottava rima were later used by many Portuguese poets including Luís Vaz de Camões.[5] Apart from poems, Sá de Miranda wrote two theatrical comedies following classical forms: Estrangeiros (staged in Coimbra in 1528 and published in 1559) and Vilhalpandos (written around 1530 and published in 1560). His tragedy Cleópatra[6] has only survived in fragments. He also left several letters in verse, addressed to people like King John III and his brother Mem de Sá. References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h "Francisco de Sa de Miranda | Portuguese author". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 29 September 2016. ^ a b Prestage, Edgar (1911). "Sá de Miranda, Francisco de" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 23 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 990–992. ^ Sá de Miranda – Biografia e obras. ^ Miranda, Francisco de Sá de. ^ Luis de Camões at Sonnet central. ^ Sá de Miranda st Projecto Vercial. Bibliography[edit] Lusitania illustrata. Notices on the history, antiquities, literature &c, by John Adamson, Newcastle on Tyne 1842. Dreams of Waking: An Anthology of Iberian Lyric Poetry 1400-1700. Edited and Translated by Vincent Barletta, Mark L. Bajus, Cici Malik, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago 2013. External links[edit] Poems by Francisco de Sá de Miranda at Portuguese Wikisource. Francisco de Sá de Miranda's Versos portuguêses at Archive.org. Authority control BIBSYS: 98033424 BNE: XX1103186 BNF: cb11998162g (data) CANTIC: a20100371 CiNii: DA02216011 GND: 118784218 ISNI: 0000 0001 2281 8223 LCCN: n80138985 NKC: kup20030000118255 NLK: KAC200704994 NSK: 000214483 NTA: 069887020 SELIBR: 77275 SNAC: w6bw15h2 SUDOC: 027515133 VcBA: 495/247718 VIAF: 73862905 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n80138985 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Francisco_de_Sá_de_Miranda&oldid=980519611" Categories: 1481 births 1558 deaths 16th-century Portuguese poets Portuguese male poets Portuguese Renaissance writers People from Coimbra University of Coimbra alumni 15th-century Portuguese people Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Death-date and age transclusions with invalid parameters Articles with hCards Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Use dmy dates from April 2017 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages العربية Беларуская Български Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara Français Galego Italiano Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 27 September 2020, at 00:06 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3144	----	Horatia gens - Wikipedia Horatia gens From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Horatia (gens)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Roman family Horatius Cocles defending the Bridge (1642–43) by Charles Le Brun The gens Horatia was a patrician family at ancient Rome. In legend, the gens dates back to the time of Tullus Hostilius, the third King of Rome. One of its members, Marcus Horatius Pulvillus, was consul suffectus in 509 BC, the first year of the Republic, and again in 507. The most famous of the Horatii was his nephew, Publius Horatius Cocles, who held the Sublician bridge against the army of Lars Porsena circa 508 BC.[1] Contents 1 Origin 2 Praenomina 3 Branches and cognomina 4 Members 4.1 Horatii Pulvilli 4.2 Horatii Barbati 5 See also 6 References 7 Bibliography Origin[edit] The nomen Horatius is said to have been derived from the hero Horatus, to whom an oak wood was dedicated. The gens was certainly of Latin origin, although there was some uncertainty as to when they arrived at Rome. A legend relates that in the reign of Tullus Hostilius, the fate of the ancient city of Alba Longa was decided by combat between three brothers from that city and three from Rome. The historian Livy states that most sources assigned the Horatii to Rome, and their opponents, the Curiatii, to Alba Longa. The victory of the Horatii was a pretext for the destruction of Alba Longa, and the transfer of its noble families to Rome.[2][3] Praenomina[edit] The Horatii favored the praenomina Publius, Marcus, Lucius, and Gaius. Branches and cognomina[edit] The Horatii of the Republic bore the surnames Barbatus, Cocles, and Pulvillus.[1] Of these, Barbatus and Pulvillus were family names, while Cocles appears to have been a personal cognomen, given to the hero of the Sublician bridge. Plutarch supposes that it was derived from the Greek cyclops, because he had lost an eye, or because the shape of his face made it appear as if he had but one eye.[4][5] Cocles is said to have been the nephew of Marcus Horatius Pulvillus, and if he left any issue, they do not seem to have carried on his surname. Other surnames appearing amongst the Horatii in later times may have been adopted by freedmen of the gens; the poet Horace was the son of a libertinus, and the cognomen Flaccus is not otherwise found amongst the Horatii.[1] Members[edit] This list includes abbreviated praenomina. For an explanation of this practice, see filiation. Publius Horatius, father of the Horatii who fought against the Curiatii, absolved his son of guilt in the death of his sister. In some versions of the story, his praenomen is Marcus.[6][7][8][9] Publius Horatius, one of the Horatii, three brothers who fought against the three Curiatii in the reign of Tullus Hostilius; and the sole survivor of the combat. Enraged by his sister's grief for one of the slain Curiatii, to whom she had been betrothed, he slew her as well, and by custom his life was forfeit; but their father decreed that in light of his service to his country, his penance was to pass under the yoke.[2][3] Horatia, sister of the Horatii, was betrothed to one of the Curiatii, and because of her display of grief was slain by her victorious brother. An ancient tomb near the Porta Capena was said to have been hers.[10][11][12] Publius Horatius Cocles, one of the heroes of the Republic, defended the Sublician bridge against the army of Lars Porsena, circa 508 BC.[13][14][15][16][17][4][18] Quintus Horatius Flaccus, a poet during the time of Augustus. Horatii Pulvilli[edit] Marcus Horatius Pulvillus, father of the consul of 509, and according to legend, grandfather of Publius Horatius Cocles.[19] Marcus Horatius M. f. Pulvillus, consul suffectus in 509 BC, the first year of the Republic; he was consul again in 507.[20][21][22] Gaius Horatius M. f. M. n. Pulvillus, consul in 477 and 457 BC; he defeated the Aequi.[23][24][25] Publius Horatius (Pulvillus), according to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, one of the consuls in 453 BC; other sources give Publius Curiatius Fistus Trigeminus.[26][27][28] Lucius Horatius Pulvillus, consular tribune in 386 BC.[29][30] Marcus Horatius Pulvillus, consular tribune in 378 BC.[31][32] Horatii Barbati[edit] Marcus Horatius M. f. L. n. Barbatus, with Lucius Valerius Potitus, helped to abolish the decemvirate in 449 BC; the two elected consuls for the same year; Horatius triumphed over the Sabines.[33][34][35][36][37] Lucius Horatius M. f. M. n. Barbatus, consular tribune in 425 BC.[38][39][40] See also[edit] List of Roman gentes References[edit] ^ a b c Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. II, p. 518 ("Horatia Gens"). ^ a b Livy, i. 24–26. ^ a b Dionysius, iii. 12–22, 28–32; v. 14. ^ a b Plutarch, "The Life of Poplicola", 16. ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. I, pp. 809, 810 ("Cocles, Horatius"). ^ Livy, i. 26. ^ Zonaras, vii. 6. ^ Dionysius, iii. 28–32. ^ Cicero, Pro Milone, 3. ^ Dionysius, iii. 21. ^ Livy, i. 26. ^ Florus, i. 3. ^ Livy, i. 10. ^ Dionysius, v. 24, 25. ^ Valerius Maximus, iii. 2. § 1. ^ Florus, i. 10. ^ Aurelius Victor, De Viris Illustribus, 11. ^ Seneca the Younger, Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium, 120 ff. ^ Fasti Capitolini, AE 1900, 83; 1904, 114. ^ Livy, ii. 8. ^ Dionysius, v. 19, 21. ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 3, 6. ^ Livy, ii. 51, iii. 30. ^ Diodorus, xi. 53, 91. ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 26, 27 (and note 1), 41 (and note 1). ^ Dionysius, x. 53. ^ Livy, iii. 32. ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 43, 44 (and note 1). ^ Livy, vi. 6. ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 100, 101. ^ Livy, vi. 31. ^ Broughton, vol. I, p. 107 (and note 1). ^ Livy, iii. 55. ^ Dionysius, xi. 5. ^ Diodorus, xii. 26. ^ Cicero, De Republica, ii. 54. ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 47–50 (and note 1). ^ Livy, iv. 35. ^ Diodorus, xii. 81. ^ Broughton, vol. I, p. 67 (and note 1). Bibliography[edit] Marcus Tullius Cicero, De Republica, Pro Milone. Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica (Library of History). Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Romaike Archaiologia (Roman Antiquities). Titus Livius (Livy), History of Rome. Valerius Maximus, Factorum ac Dictorum Memorabilium (Memorable Facts and Sayings). Lucius Annaeus Seneca (Seneca the Younger), Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium (Moral Letters to Lucilius). Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus (Plutarch), Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans. Lucius Annaeus Florus, Epitome de T. Livio Bellorum Omnium Annorum DCC (Epitome of Livy: All the Wars of Seven Hundred Years). Sextus Aurelius Victor, De Viris Illustribus (On Famous Men). Joannes Zonaras, Epitome Historiarum (Epitome of History). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, William Smith, ed., Little, Brown and Company, Boston (1849). T. Robert S. Broughton, The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, American Philological Association (1952–1986).  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Donne, William Bodham (1870). "Horatia Gens". In Smith, William (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 2. p. 518. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horatia_gens&oldid=996045586" Categories: Horatii Roman gentes Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM without a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Català Čeština Deutsch Español Français Italiano Nederlands 日本語 Português Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 24 December 2020, at 06:23 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-314	----	Roman roads - Wikipedia Roman roads From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the British television film, see Roman Road (TV film). Roads built in service of the Roman Empire A Roman street in Pompeii Roman roads (Latin: viae Romanae [ˈwɪ.ae̯ roːˈmaːnae̯]; singular: via Romana [ˈwɪ.a roːˈmaːna]; meaning "Roman way") were physical infrastructure vital to the maintenance and development of the Roman state, and were built from about 300 BC through the expansion and consolidation of the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire.[1] They provided efficient means for the overland movement of armies, officials, civilians, inland carriage of official communications, and trade goods.[2] Roman roads were of several kinds, ranging from small local roads to broad, long-distance highways built to connect cities, major towns and military bases. These major roads were often stone-paved and metaled, cambered for drainage, and were flanked by footpaths, bridleways and drainage ditches. They were laid along accurately surveyed courses, and some were cut through hills, or conducted over rivers and ravines on bridgework. Sections could be supported over marshy ground on rafted or piled foundations.[3][4] At the peak of Rome's development, no fewer than 29 great military highways radiated from the capital, and the late Empire's 113 provinces were interconnected by 372 great roads.[3][5] The whole comprised more than 400,000 kilometres (250,000 miles) of roads, of which over 80,500 kilometres (50,000 mi) were stone-paved.[6][7] In Gaul alone, no less than 21,000 kilometres (13,000 mi) of roadways are said to have been improved, and in Britain at least 4,000 kilometres (2,500 mi).[3] The courses (and sometimes the surfaces) of many Roman roads survived for millennia; some are overlaid by modern roads. Contents 1 Roman systems 2 Laws and traditions 3 Types 3.1 Viae publicae, consulares, praetoriae and militares 3.2 Viae privatae, rusticae, glareae and agrariae 3.3 Viae vicinales 3.4 Governance and financing 3.5 Costs and civic responsibilities 3.6 Official bodies 3.7 Changes under Augustus 3.8 Other curatores 4 Construction and engineering 4.1 Practices and terminology 4.2 Materials and methods 4.2.1 Via terrena 4.2.2 Via glareata 4.2.3 Via munita 4.3 Obstacle crossings 4.4 Bridges and causeways 5 Military and citizen utilization 5.1 Milestones and markers 5.2 Itinerary maps and charts 5.3 Vehicles and transportation 5.4 Way stations and traveler inns 5.5 Post offices and services 6 Locations 6.1 Italian areas 6.2 Other areas 7 See also 8 References 8.1 Footnotes 8.2 General information 8.3 Primary sources 9 Further reading 10 External links Roman systems[edit] "The extraordinary greatness of the Roman Empire manifests itself above all in three things: the aqueducts, the paved roads, and the construction of the drains." Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Ant. Rom. 3.67.5[8] Livy mentions some of the most familiar roads near Rome, and the milestones on them, at times long before the first paved road—the Appian Way.[9] Unless these allusions are just simple anachronisms, the roads referred to were probably at the time little more than levelled earthen tracks.[9] Thus, the Via Gabina (during the time of Porsena) is mentioned in about 500 BC; the Via Latina (during the time of Gaius Marcius Coriolanus) in about 490 BC; the Via Nomentana (also known as "Via Ficulensis"), in 449 BC; the Via Labicana in 421 BC; and the Via Salaria in 361 BC.[9] In the Itinerary of Antoninus, the description of the road system, after the death of Julius Caesar and during the tenure of Augustus, is as follows: With the exception of some outlying portions, such as Britain north of the Wall, Dacia, and certain provinces east of the Euphrates, the whole Empire was penetrated by these itinera (plural of iter). There is hardly a district to which we might expect a Roman official to be sent, on service either civil or military, where we do not find roads. They reach the Wall in Britain; run along the Rhine, the Danube, and the Euphrates; and cover, as with a network, the interior provinces of the Empire.[9] A road map of the empire reveals that it was generally laced with a dense network of prepared viae.[9] Beyond its borders there were no paved roads; however, it can be supposed that footpaths and dirt roads allowed some transport.[9] There were, for instance, some pre-Roman ancient trackways in Britain, such as the Ridgeway and the Icknield Way.[10] For specific roads, see Roman road locations below. Laws and traditions[edit] The Laws of the Twelve Tables, dated to about 450 BC, required that any public road (Latin via) be 8 Roman feet (perhaps about 2.37 m) wide where straight and twice that width where curved. These were probably the minimum widths for a via; in the later Republic, widths of around 12 Roman feet were common for public roads in rural regions, permitting the passing of two carts of standard (4 foot) width without interference to pedestrian traffic.[11] Actual practices varied from this standard. The Tables command Romans to build public roads and give wayfarers the right to pass over private land where the road is in disrepair. Building roads that would not need frequent repair therefore became an ideological objective, as well as building them as straight as practicable to construct the shortest possible roads, and thus save on material. Roman law defined the right to use a road as a servitus, or liability. The ius eundi ("right of going") established a claim to use an iter, or footpath, across private land; the ius agendi ("right of driving"), an actus, or carriage track. A via combined both types of servitutes, provided it was of the proper width, which was determined by an arbiter. The default width was the latitudo legitima of 8 feet. Roman law and tradition forbade the use of vehicles in urban areas, except in certain cases. Married women and government officials on business could ride. The Lex Iulia Municipalis restricted commercial carts to night-time access in the city within the walls and within a mile outside the walls. Types[edit] Old Roman road, leading from Jerusalem to Beit Gubrin, adjacent to regional highway 375 in Israel Roman roads varied from simple corduroy roads to paved roads using deep roadbeds of tamped rubble as an underlying layer to ensure that they kept dry, as the water would flow out from between the stones and fragments of rubble, instead of becoming mud in clay soils. According to Ulpian, there were three types of roads:[9] Viae publicae, consulares, praetoriae or militares Viae privatae, rusticae, glareae or agrariae Viae vicinales Viae publicae, consulares, praetoriae and militares[edit] The first type of road included public high or main roads, constructed and maintained at the public expense, and with their soil vested in the state. Such roads led either to the sea, or to a town, or to a public river (one with a constant flow), or to another public road. Siculus Flaccus, who lived under Trajan (98–117), calls them viae publicae regalesque,[9] and describes their characteristics as follows: They are placed under curatores (commissioners), and repaired by redemptores (contractors) at the public expense; a fixed contribution, however, being levied from the neighboring landowners.[9] These roads bear the names of their constructors (e.g. Via Appia, Cassia, Flaminia).[9] The central road of Aeclanum. Roman roads were named after the censor who had ordered their construction or reconstruction. The same person often served afterwards as consul, but the road name is dated to his term as censor. If the road was older than the office of censor or was of unknown origin, it took the name of its destination or of the region through which it mainly passed. A road was renamed if the censor ordered major work on it, such as paving, repaving, or rerouting. With the term viae regales compare the roads of the Persian kings (who probably organized the first system of public roads) and the King's highway.[9] With the term viae militariae compare the Icknield Way (e.g., Icen-hilde-weg, or "War-way of the Iceni").[9] However, there were many other people, besides special officials, who from time to time, and for a variety of reasons, sought to connect their names with a great public service like that of the roads.[9] Gaius Gracchus, when Tribune of the People (123–122 BC), paved or gravelled many of the public roads, and provided them with milestones and mounting-blocks for riders. Again, Gaius Scribonius Curio, when Tribune (50 BC), sought popularity by introducing a Lex Viaria, under which he was to be chief inspector or commissioner for five years. Dio Cassius mentions as one of the forcible acts of the triumvirs of 43 BC (Octavianus, Antony, and Lepidus), that they obliged the senators to repair the public roads at their own expense. Viae privatae, rusticae, glareae and agrariae[edit] The second category included private or country roads, originally constructed by private individuals, in whom their soil was vested, and who had the power to dedicate them to the public use.[9] Such roads benefited from a right of way, in favor either of the public or of the owner of a particular estate. Under the heading of viae privatae were also included roads leading from the public or high roads to particular estates or settlements. These Ulpian considers to be public roads in themselves.[9] Features off the via were connected to the via by viae rusticae, or secondary roads.[9] Both main or secondary roads might either be paved, or left unpaved, with a gravel surface, as they were in North Africa. These prepared but unpaved roads were viae glareae or sternendae ("to be strewn"). Beyond the secondary roads were the viae terrenae, "dirt roads". Viae vicinales[edit] The third category comprised roads at or in villages, districts, or crossroads, leading through or towards a vicus or village.[9] Such roads ran either into a high road, or into other viae vicinales, without any direct communication with a high road. They were considered public or private, according to the fact of their original construction out of public or private funds or materials. Such a road, though privately constructed, became a public road when the memory of its private constructors had perished.[9] Siculus Flaccus describes viae vicinales as roads "de publicis quae divertunt in agros et saepe ad alteras publicas perveniunt" (which turn off the public roads into fields, and often reach to other public roads). The repairing authorities, in this case, were the magistri pagorum or magistrates of the cantons. They could require the neighboring landowners either to furnish laborers for the general repair of the viae vicinales, or to keep in repair, at their own expense, a certain length of road passing through their respective properties.[9] Governance and financing[edit] With the conquest of Italy, prepared viae were extended from Rome and its vicinity to outlying municipalities, sometimes overlying earlier roads. Building viae was a military responsibility and thus came under the jurisdiction of a consul. The process had a military name, viam munire, as though the via were a fortification. Municipalities, however, were responsible for their own roads, which the Romans called viae vicinales. The beauty and grandeur of the roads might tempt us to believe that any Roman citizen could use them for free, but this was not the case. Tolls abounded, especially at bridges. Often they were collected at the city gate. Freight costs were made heavier still by import and export taxes. These were only the charges for using the roads. Costs of services on the journey went up from there. Financing road building was a Roman government responsibility. Maintenance, however, was generally left to the province. The officials tasked with fund-raising were the curatores viarum. They had a number of methods available to them. Private citizens with an interest in the road could be asked to contribute to its repair. High officials might distribute largesse to be used for roads. Censors, who were in charge of public morals and public works, were expected to fund repairs suâ pecuniâ (with their own money). Beyond those means, taxes were required. A via connected two cities. Viae were generally centrally placed in the countryside.[clarification needed] The construction and care of the public roads, whether in Rome, in Italy, or in the provinces, was, at all periods of Roman history, considered to be a function of the greatest weight and importance. This is clearly shown by the fact that the censors, in some respects the most venerable of Roman magistrates, had the earliest paramount authority to construct and repair all roads and streets. Indeed, all the various functionaries, not excluding the emperors themselves, who succeeded the censors in this portion of their duties, may be said to have exercised a devolved censorial jurisdiction.[9] Costs and civic responsibilities[edit] The devolution to the censorial jurisdictions soon became a practical necessity, resulting from the growth of the Roman dominions and the diverse labors which detained the censors in the capital city. Certain ad hoc official bodies successively acted as constructing and repairing authorities. In Italy, the censorial responsibility passed to the commanders of the Roman armies, and later to special commissioners – and in some cases perhaps to the local magistrates. In the provinces, the consul or praetor and his legates received authority to deal directly with the contractor.[9] The care of the streets and roads within the Roman territory was committed in the earliest times to the censors. They eventually made contracts for paving the street inside Rome, including the Clivus Capitolinus, with lava, and for laying down the roads outside the city with gravel. Sidewalks were also provided. The aediles, probably by virtue of their responsibility for the freedom of traffic and policing the streets, co-operated with the censors and the bodies that succeeded them.[9] It would seem that in the reign of Claudius (AD 41–54) the quaestors had become responsible for the paving of the streets of Rome, or at least shared that responsibility with the quattuorviri viarum.[9] It has been suggested that the quaestors were obliged to buy their right to an official career by personal outlay on the streets. There was certainly no lack of precedents for this enforced liberality, and the change made by Claudius may have been a mere change in the nature of the expenditure imposed on the quaestors. Official bodies[edit] The official bodies which first succeeded the censors in the care of the streets and roads were two in number. They were:[9] Quattuorviri viis in urbe purgandis, with jurisdiction inside the walls of Rome; Duoviri viis extra urbem purgandis, with jurisdiction outside the walls. Both these bodies were probably of ancient origin, but the true year of their institution is unknown.[9] Little reliance can be placed on Pomponius, who states that the quattuorviri were instituted eodem tempore (at the same time) as the praetor peregrinus (i.e. about 242 BC) and the Decemviri litibus iudicandis[12] (time unknown).[9] The first mention of either body occurs in the Lex Julia Municipalis of 45 BC. The quattuorviri were afterwards called Quattuorviri viarum curandarum. The extent of jurisdiction of the Duoviri is derived from their full title as Duoviri viis extra propiusve urbem Romam passus mille purgandis.[9][13] Their authority extended over all roads between their respective gates of issue in the city wall and the first milestone beyond.[9] In case of an emergency in the condition of a particular road, men of influence and liberality were appointed, or voluntarily acted, as curatores or temporary commissioners to superintend the work of repair.[9] The dignity attached to such a curatorship is attested by a passage of Cicero. Among those who performed this duty in connection with particular roads was Julius Caesar, who became curator (67 BC) of the Via Appia, and spent his own money liberally upon it. Certain persons appear also to have acted alone and taken responsibility for certain roads. In the country districts, as has been stated, the magistri pagorum had authority to maintain the viae vicinales.[9] In Rome itself each householder was legally responsible for the repairs to that portion of the street which passed his own house.[9] It was the duty of the aediles to enforce this responsibility. The portion of any street which passed a temple or public building was repaired by the aediles at the public expense. When a street passed between a public building or temple and a private house, the public treasury and the private owner shared the expense equally. No doubt[speculation?], if only to secure uniformity, the personal liability of householders to execute repairs of the streets was commuted for a paving rate payable to the public authorities who were responsible from time to time. Changes under Augustus[edit] The governing structure was changed by Augustus, who in the course of his reconstitution of the urban administration, both abolished and created new offices in connection with the maintenance of public works, streets and aqueducts in and around Rome. The task of maintaining the roads had previously been administered by two groups of minor magistrates, the quattuorviri (a board of four magistrates to oversee the roads inside the city) and the duoviri (a board of two to oversee the roads outside the city proper) who were both part of the collegia known as the vigintisexviri (literally meaning "Twenty-Six Men").[9] Augustus, finding the collegia ineffective, especially the boards dealing with road maintenance, reduced the number of magistrates from 26 to 20. Completely abolishing the duoviri and later being granted the position as superintendent (according to Dio Cassius) of the road system connecting Rome to the rest of Italy and provinces beyond. In this capacity he had effectively given himself and any following Emperors a paramount authority which had originally belonged to the city censors. The quattuorviri board was kept as it was until at least the reign of Hadrian between 117–138 AD.[9] Furthermore, he appointed praetorians to the offices of "road-maker" and assigning each one with two lictors. Also making the office of curator of each of the great public roads a perpetual magistracy rather than a temporary commission. The persons appointed under the new system were of senatorial or equestrian rank, depending on the relative importance of the roads assigned to them. It was the duty of each curator to issue contracts for the maintenance of his road and to see that the contractor who undertook said work performed it faithfully, as to both quantity and quality. Augustus also authorized the construction of sewers and removed obstructions to traffic, as the aediles did in Rome.[9] It was in the character of an imperial curator (though probably armed with extraordinary powers) that Corbulo denounced the magistratus and mancipes of the Italian roads to Tiberius.[9] He pursued them and their families with fines and imprisonment for 18 years (21–39 AD) and was later rewarded with a consulship by Caligula, who also shared the habit of condemning well-born citizens to work on the roads. It is worth noting that under the rule of Claudius, Corbulo was brought to justice and forced to repay the money which had been extorted from his victims. Other curatores[edit] Special curatores for a term seem to have been appointed on occasion, even after the institution of the permanent magistrates bearing that title.[9] The Emperors who succeeded Augustus exercised a vigilant control over the condition of the public highways. Their names occur frequently in the inscriptions to restorers of roads and bridges. Thus, Vespasian, Titus, Domitian, Trajan, and Septimius Severus were commemorated in this capacity at Emérita.[9] The Itinerary of Antoninus, which was probably a work of much earlier date, republished in an improved and enlarged form, under one of the Antonine emperors, remains as standing evidence of the minute care which was bestowed on the service of the public roads. Construction and engineering[edit] Road construction shown on Trajan's Column in Rome See also: History of infrastructure Ancient Rome boasted impressive technological feats, using many advances that would be lost in the Middle Ages. These accomplishments would not be rivaled until the Modern Age. Many practical Roman innovations were adopted from earlier designs. Some of the common, earlier designs incorporated arches. Practices and terminology[edit] Main article: Roman engineering See also: Roman military engineering Roman road builders aimed at a regulation width (see Laws and traditions above), but actual widths have been measured at between 3.6 feet (1.1 metres) and more than 23 feet (7.0 metres). Today, the concrete has worn from the spaces around the stones, giving the impression of a very bumpy road, but the original practice was to produce a surface that was no doubt much closer to being flat. Many roads were built to resist rain, freezing and flooding. They were constructed to need as little repair as possible. Section of the Via delle Gallie (Valle d'Aosta), built by digging the steep rock slope Roman construction took a directional straightness. Many long sections are ruler-straight, but it should not be thought that all of them were. Some links in the network were as long as 55 miles (89 km). Gradients of 10%–12% are known in ordinary terrain, 15%–20% in mountainous country. The Roman emphasis on constructing straight roads often resulted in steep slopes relatively impractical for most commercial traffic; over the years the Romans themselves realized this and built longer, but more manageable, alternatives to existing roads. Roman roads generally went straight up and down hills, rather than in a serpentine pattern of switchbacks. As to the standard Imperial terminology that was used, the words were localized for different elements used in construction and varied from region to region. Also, in the course of time, the terms via munita and vía publica became identical.[9] Materials and methods[edit] Viae were distinguished not only according to their public or private character, but according to the materials employed and the methods followed in their construction. Ulpian divided them up in the following fashion:[9] Via terrena: A plain road of leveled earth. Via glareata:[14] An earthed road with a graveled surface. Via munita:[15] A regular built road, paved with rectangular blocks of the stone of the country, or with polygonal blocks of lava. The Romans, though certainly inheriting some of the art of road construction from the Etruscans, borrowed the knowledge of construction of viae munitae from the Carthaginians according to Isidore of Sevilla.[9] Via terrena[edit] The Viae terrenae were plain roads of leveled earth. These were mere tracks worn down by the feet of humans and animals, and possibly by wheeled carriages.[16] Via glareata[edit] The Viae glareatae were earthed roads with a graveled surface or a gravel subsurface and paving on top. Livy speaks of the censors of his time as being the first to contract for paving the streets of Rome with flint stones, for laying gravel on the roads outside the city, and for forming raised footpaths at the sides.[17] In these roads, the surface was hardened with gravel, and although pavements were introduced shortly afterwards, the blocks were allowed to rest merely on a bed of small stones.[16][18] An example of this type is found on the Praenestine Way. Another example is found near the Via Latina.[18] Via munita[edit] The best sources of information as regards the construction of a regulation via munita are:[9] The many existing remains of viae publicae. These are often sufficiently well preserved to show that the rules of construction were, as far as local material allowed, minutely adhered to in practice. The directions for making pavements given by Vitruvius. The pavement and the via munita were identical in construction, except as regards the top layer, or surface. This consisted, in the former case, of marble or mosaic, and, in the latter, of blocks of stone or lava. A passage in Statius describing the repairs of the Via Domitiana, a branch road of the Via Appia, leading to Neapolis. After the civil engineer looked over the site of the proposed road and determined roughly where it should go, the agrimensores went to work surveying the road bed. They used two main devices, the rod and a device called a groma, which helped them obtain right angles. The gromatici, the Roman equivalent of rod men, placed rods and put down a line called the rigor. As they did not possess anything like a transit, a civil engineering surveyor tried to achieve straightness by looking along the rods and commanding the gromatici to move them as required. Using the gromae they then laid out a grid on the plan of the road. The libratores then began their work using ploughs and, sometimes with the help of legionaries, with spades excavated the road bed down to bedrock or at least to the firmest ground they could find. The excavation was called the fossa, the Latin word for ditch. The depth varied according to terrain. The general appearance of such a metalled road and footway is shown in an existing street of Pompeii. Native earth, leveled and, if necessary, rammed tight. Statumen: stones of a size to fill the hand. Audits: rubble or concrete of broken stones and lime. Nucleus: kernel or bedding of fine cement made of pounded potshards and lime. Dorsum or agger viae: the elliptical surface or crown of the road (media stratae eminentia) made of polygonal blocks of silex (basaltipositionc lava) or rectangular blocks of saxum quadratum (travertine, peperino, or other stone of the country). The upper surface was designed to cast off rain or water like the shell of a tortoise. The lower surfaces of the separate stones, here shown as flat, were sometimes cut to a point or edge in order to grasp the nucleus, or next layer, more firmly. Crepido, margo or semita: raised footway, or sidewalk, on each side of the via. Umbones or edge-stones. The method varied according to geographic locality, materials available and terrain, but the plan, or ideal at which the engineer aimed was always the same. The roadbed was layered. The road was constructed by filling the ditch. This was done by layering rock over other stones. Into the ditch was dumped large amounts of rubble, gravel and stone, whatever fill was available. Sometimes a layer of sand was put down, if it could be found. When it came to within 1 yd (1 m) or so of the surface it was covered with gravel and tamped down, a process called pavire, or pavimentare. The flat surface was then the pavimentum. It could be used as the road, or additional layers could be constructed. A statumen or "foundation" of flat stones set in cement might support the additional layers. The final steps utilized lime-based concrete, which the Romans had discovered.[19] They seem to have mixed the mortar and the stones in the ditch. First a small layer of coarse concrete, the rudus, then a little layer of fine concrete, the nucleus, went onto the pavement or statumen. Into or onto the nucleus went a course of polygonal or square paving stones, called the summa crusta. The crusta was crowned for drainage. An example is found in an early basalt road by the Temple of Saturn on the Clivus Capitolinus. It had travertine paving, polygonal basalt blocks, concrete bedding (substituted for the gravel), and a rain-water gutter.[20] The remains of Emperor Trajan's route along the Danube (see Roman Serbia) Roman auxiliary infantry crossing a river, probably the Danube, on a pontoon bridge during the emperor Trajan's Dacian Wars (101–106) Obstacle crossings[edit] Romans preferred to engineer solutions to obstacles rather than circumvent them. Outcroppings of stone, ravines, or hilly or mountainous terrain called for cuttings and tunnels. An example of this is found on the Roman road from Căzănești near the Iron Gates. This road was half carved into the rock, about 5 ft to 5 ft 9 in (1.5 to 1.75 m), the rest of the road, above the Danube, was made from wooden structure, projecting out of the cliff. The road functioned as a towpath, making the Danube navigable. Tabula Traiana memorial plaque in Serbia is all that remains of the now-submerged road. Bridges and causeways[edit] Main article: Roman bridge See also: List of Roman bridges Roman bridges, built by ancient Romans, were the first large and lasting bridges built.[citation needed] River crossings were achieved by bridges, or pontes. Single slabs went over rills. A bridge could be of wood, stone, or both. Wooden bridges were constructed on pilings sunk into the river, or on stone piers. Larger or more permanent bridges required arches. These larger bridges were built with stone and had the arch as its basic structure (see arch bridge). Most also used concrete, which the Romans were the first to use for bridges. Roman bridges were so well constructed that a number remain in use today. Causeways were built over marshy ground. The road was first marked out with pilings. Between them were sunk large quantities of stone so as to raise the causeway to more than 5 feet (1.5 metres) above the marsh. In the provinces, the Romans often did not bother with a stone causeway, but used log roads (pontes longi). Military and citizen utilization[edit] The public road system of the Romans was thoroughly military in its aims and spirit.[9] It was designed to unite and consolidate the conquests of the Roman people, whether within or without the limits of Italy proper. A legion on the march brought its own baggage train (impedimenta) and constructed its own camp (castra) every evening at the side of the road. Milestones and markers[edit] Main article: Milestone Milestones divided the via Appia even before 250 BC into numbered miles, and most viae after 124 BC. The modern word "mile" derives from the Latin milia passuum, "one thousand paces", which amounted to 5 Roman feet, or a modern measurement 4,841 feet (1,476 metres). A milestone, or miliarium, was a circular column on a solid rectangular base, set for more than 2 feet (0.61 metres) into the ground, standing 5 feet (1.5 metres) tall, 20 inches (51 centimetres) in diameter, and weighing more than 2 tons. At the base was inscribed the number of the mile relative to the road it was on. In a panel at eye-height was the distance to the Roman Forum and various other information about the officials who made or repaired the road and when. These miliaria are valuable historical documents now. Their inscriptions are collected in the volume XVII of the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Examples of Roman Milestones Rome, Campidoglio: the Miliarium (milestone), point of departure of the consular roads by the Capitoline Wolf. Turda, Romania: 1993 copy of the Milliarium of Aiton, dating from 108 and showing the construction of the road from Potaissa to Napoca built by Cohors I Hispanorum miliaria in Roman Dacia, by demand of the Emperor Trajan Remains of the miliarium aureum in the Roman Forum A provincial Roman milestone, at Alto Rabagão, Portugal (road from Bracara Augusta to Asturias) The Romans had a preference for standardization wherever possible, so Augustus, after becoming permanent commissioner of roads in 20 BC, set up the miliarium aureum ("golden milestone") near the Temple of Saturn. All roads were considered to begin from this gilded bronze monument. On it were listed all the major cities in the empire and distances to them. Constantine called it the umbilicus Romae ("navel of Rome"), and built a similar—although more complex—monument in Constantinople, the Milion. Milestones permitted distances and locations to be known and recorded exactly. It was not long before historians began to refer to the milestone at which an event occurred. Itinerary maps and charts[edit] Main article: Itinerarium Tabula Peutingeriana (Southern Italy centered). Combined topographical and road-maps may have existed as specialty items in some Roman libraries, but they were expensive, hard to copy and not in general use. Travelers wishing to plan a journey could consult an itinerarium, which in its most basic form was a simple list of cities and towns along a given road, and the distances between them.[21] It was only a short step from lists to a master list, or a schematic route-planner in which roads and their branches were represented more or less in parallel, as in the Tabula Peutingeriana. From this master list, parts could be copied and sold on the streets. The most thorough used different symbols for cities, way stations, water courses, and so on. The Roman government from time to time would produce a master road-itinerary. The first known were commissioned in 44 BC by Julius Caesar and Mark Antony. Three Greek geographers, Zenodoxus, Theodotus and Polyclitus, were hired to survey the system and compile a master itinerary; the task required over 25 years and the resulting stone-engraved master itinerary was set up near the Pantheon. Travelers and itinerary sellers could make copies from it. Vehicles and transportation[edit] Roman carriage (reconstruction) Outside the cities, Romans were avid riders and rode on or drove quite a number of vehicle types, some of which are mentioned here. Carts driven by oxen were used. Horse-drawn carts could travel up to 40 to 50 kilometres (25 to 31 mi) per day,[22] pedestrians 20 to 25 kilometres (12 to 16 mi). For purposes of description, Roman vehicles can be divided into the car, the coach, and the cart. Cars were used to transport one or two individuals, coaches were used to transport parties, and carts to transport cargo. Of the cars, the most popular was the carrus, a standard chariot form descending to the Romans from a greater antiquity. The top was open, the front closed. One survives in the Vatican. It carried a driver and a passenger. A carrus with two horses was a biga; three horses, a triga; and four horses a quadriga. The tyres were of iron. When not in use, its wheels were removed for easier storage. A more luxurious version, the carpentum, transported women and officials. It had an arched overhead covering of cloth and was drawn by mules. A lighter version, the cisium, equivalent to a gig, was open above and in front and had a seat. Drawn by one or two mules or horses, it was used for cab work, the cab drivers being called cisiani. The builder was a cisarius. Of the coaches, the mainstay was the raeda or reda, which had four wheels. The high sides formed a sort of box in which seats were placed, with a notch on each side for entry. It carried several people with baggage up to the legal limit of 1000 Roman librae (pounds), modern equivalent 328 kilograms (723 pounds). It was drawn by teams of oxen, horses or mules. A cloth top could be put on for weather, in which case it resembled a covered wagon. The raeda was probably the main vehicle for travel on the roads. Raedae meritoriae were hired coaches. The fiscalis raeda was a government coach. The driver and the builder were both referred to as a raedarius. Of the carts, the main one was the plaustrum or plostrum. This was simply a platform of boards attached to wheels and a cross-tree. The wheels, or tympana, were solid and were several centimetres (inches) thick. The sides could be built up with boards or rails. A large wicker basket was sometimes placed on it. A two-wheel version existed along with the normal four-wheel type called the plaustrum maius. The military used a standard wagon. Their transportation service was the cursus clabularis, after the standard wagon, called a carrus clabularius, clabularis, clavularis, or clabulare. It transported the impedimenta (baggage) of a military column. Way stations and traveler inns[edit] See also: Mansio Remains of the mansio at Letocetum, Wall, Staffordshire, England Non-military officials and people on official business had no legion at their service and the government maintained way stations, or mansiones ("staying places"), for their use. Passports were required for identification. Mansiones were located about 25 to 30 kilometres (16 to 19 mi) apart. There the official traveller found a complete villa dedicated to his use. Often a permanent military camp or a town grew up around the mansio. For non-official travelers in need of refreshment, a private system of "inns" or cauponae were placed near the mansiones. They performed the same functions but were somewhat disreputable, as they were frequented by thieves and prostitutes. Graffiti decorate the walls of the few whose ruins have been found. Genteel travelers needed something better than cauponae. In the early days of the viae, when little unofficial provision existed, houses placed near the road were required by law to offer hospitality on demand. Frequented houses no doubt became the first tabernae, which were hostels, rather than the "taverns" we know today. As Rome grew, so did its tabernae, becoming more luxurious and acquiring good or bad reputations as the case may be. One of the best hotels was the Tabernae Caediciae at Sinuessa on the Via Appia. It had a large storage room containing barrels of wine, cheese and ham. Many cities of today grew up around a taberna complex, such as Rheinzabern in the Rhineland, and Saverne in Alsace. A third system of way stations serviced vehicles and animals: the mutationes ("changing stations"). They were located every 20 to 30 kilometres (12 to 19 mi). In these complexes, the driver could purchase the services of wheelwrights, cartwrights, and equarii medici, or veterinarians. Using these stations in chariot relays, the emperor Tiberius hastened 296 kilometres (184 mi) in 24 hours to join his brother, Drusus Germanicus,[23][24] who was dying of gangrene as a result of a fall from a horse. Post offices and services[edit] Two postal services were available under the empire, one public and one private. The Cursus publicus, founded by Augustus, carried the mail of officials by relay throughout the Roman road system. The vehicle for carrying mail was a cisium with a box, but for special delivery, a horse and rider was faster. On average, a relay of horses could carry a letter 80 kilometres (50 mi)[25] in a day. The postman wore a characteristic leather hat, the petanus. The postal service was a somewhat dangerous occupation, as postmen were a target for bandits and enemies of Rome. Private mail of the well-to-do was carried by tabellarii, an organization of slaves available for a price. Locations[edit] The Roman empire in the time of Hadrian (ruled 117–138), showing the network of main Roman roads. There are many examples of roads that still follow the route of Roman roads. Italian areas[edit] Italian and Sicilian roads in the time of ancient Rome. Major roads Via Aemilia, from Rimini (Ariminum) to Placentia Via Appia, the Appian way (312 BC), from Rome to Apulia Via Aurelia (241 BC), from Rome to France Via Cassia, from Rome to Tuscany Via Flaminia (220 BC), from Rome to Rimini (Ariminum) Via Raetia, from Verona north across the Brenner Pass Via Salaria, from Rome to the Adriatic Sea (in the Marches) Others Via Aemilia Scauri (109 BC) Via Aquillia, branches off the Appia at Capua to the sea at Vibo Via Amerina, from Rome to Amelia and Perusia Via Canalis, from Udine, Gemona and Val Canale to Villach in Carinthia and then over Alps to Salzburg or Vienna Via Claudia Julia Augusta (13 BC) Via Claudia Nova (47 AD) Via Clodia, from Rome to Tuscany forming a system with the Cassia Via Domitiana, coast road from Naples to Formia Via Flavia, from Trieste (Tergeste) to Dalmatia Via Gemina, from Aquileia and Trieste through the Karst to Materija, Obrov, Lipa and Klana, from where, near Rijeka, descending towards Trsat (Tersatica) to continue along the Dalmatian coast Via Julia Augusta (8 BC), exits Aquileia Via Labicana, southeast from Rome, forming a system with the Praenestina Via Ostiensis, from Rome to Ostia Via Postumia (148 BC), from Aquileia through Verona across the Apennines to Genoa Via Popilia (132 BC), two distinct roads, one from Capua to Rhegium and the other from Ariminum through the later Veneto region Via Praenestina, from Rome to Praeneste Via Schlavonia, from Aquileia across northern Istria to Senj and into Dalmatia Via Severiana, Terracina to Ostia Via Tiburtina, from Rome to Aternum Via Traiana, a branch of Via Appia, from Benevento to Brindisi Via Traiana Nova (Italy), from Lake Bolsena to the Via Cassia. Known by archaeology only Other areas[edit] A road in Histria (Sinoe) presumed to be of Roman origin (the rectangular blocks are not true Roman construction)[26] Major Roman roads in Germania Inferior Roman roads along the Danube Roman roads in Hispania, or Roman Iberia Roman road in the urban fabric of Tarsus, Mersin Province in Turkey Africa Main article: Roman roads in Africa Main road: from Sala Colonia to Carthage to Alexandria. In Egypt: Via Hadriana In Mauretania Tingitana from Tingis southward (see: Roman roads in Morocco) Albania / North Macedonia / Greece / Turkey Via Egnatia (146 BC) connecting Dyrrhachium (on Adriatic Sea) to Byzantium via Thessaloniki Austria / Serbia / Bulgaria / Turkey Via Militaris (Via Diagonalis, Via Singidunum), connecting Middle Europe and Byzantium Roman road in Cilicia in south Turkey Roman Road of Ankara France In France, a Roman road is called voie romaine in vernacular language. Via Agrippa Via Aquitania, from Narbonne, where it connected to the Via Domitia, to the Atlantic Ocean across Toulouse and Bordeaux Via Domitia (118 BC), from Nîmes to the Pyrenees, where it joins to the Via Augusta at the Col de Panissars Roman road (Nord), extending from Dunkirk to Cassel in Nord Département Germania Inferior (Germany, Belgium, Netherlands) Roman road from Trier to Cologne Via Belgica (Boulogne-Cologne) Lower Limes Germanicus Interconnections between Lower Limes Germanicus and Via Belgica Middle East Via Maris Via Traiana Nova Petra Roman Road 1st-century Petra, Jordan Romania Trajan's bridge and Iron Gates road. Via Traiana: Porolissum Napoca Potaissa Apulum road. Via Pontica: Troesmis Piroboridava Caput Stenarum Apulum Partiscum Lugio Romania / Bulgaria Via Pontica Spain and Portugal Iter ab Emerita Asturicam, from Sevilla to Gijón. Later known as Vía de la Plata (plata means "silver" in Spanish, but in this case it is a false cognate of an Arabic word balata), part of the fan of the Way of Saint James. Now it is the A-66 freeway. Via Augusta, from Cádiz to the Pyrénées, where it joins to the Via Domitia at the Coll de Panissars, near La Jonquera. It passes through Valencia, Tarragona (anciently Tarraco), and Barcelona. Camiño de Oro, ending in Ourense, capital of the Province of Ourense, passing near the village of Reboledo. Syria Road connecting Antioch and Chalcis. Strata Diocletiana, along the Limes Arabicus, going through Palmyra and Damascus, and south to Arabia. Trans-Alpine roads These roads connected modern Italy and Germany Via Claudia Augusta (47) from Altinum (now Quarto d'Altino) to Augsburg via the Reschen Pass Via Mala from Milan to Lindau via the San Bernardino Pass Via Decia Trans-Pyrenean roads Connecting Hispania and Gallia: Ab Asturica Burdigalam United Kingdom High Street, a fell in the English Lake District, named after the apparent Roman road which runs over the summit, which is claimed to be the highest Roman road in Britain. Its status as a Roman road is problematic, as it appears to be a holloway or sunken lane, whereas the Romans built their roads on an agger or embankment.[27] Main article: Roman roads in Britannia Akeman Street Camlet Way Dere Street Ermine Street Fen Causeway Fosse Way King Street London-West of England Roman Roads Peddars Way Pye Road Roman road from Silchester to Bath Stane Street (Chichester) Stane Street (Colchester) Stanegate Via Devana Watling Street See also[edit] Historic roads and trails Legacy of the Roman Empire Roman military engineering References[edit] Footnotes[edit] ^ Forbes, Robert James (1993). Studies in ancient technology, Volume 2. Brill. p. 146. ISBN 978-90-04-00622-5. ^ Kaszynski, William. The American Highway: The History and Culture of Roads in the United States. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2000. Page 9 ^ a b c Bailey, L. H., and Wilhelm Miller. Cyclopedia of American Horticulture, Comprising Suggestions for Cultivation of Horticultural Plants, Descriptions of the Species of Fruits, Vegetables, Flowers, and Ornamental Plants Sold in the United States and Canada, Together with Geographical and Biographical Sketches. New York [etc.]: The Macmillan Co, 1900. Page 320. ^ Corbishley, Mike: "The Roman World", page 50. Warwick Press, 1986. ^ Duducu, Jem (2015). The Romans in 100 Facts. GL5 4EP UK: Amberley Publishing. ISBN 9781445649702.CS1 maint: location (link) ^ Gabriel, Richard A. The Great Armies of Antiquity. Westport, Conn: Praeger, 2002. Page 9. ^ Michael Grant, History of Rome (New York: Charles Scribner, 1978), 264. ^ Quilici, Lorenzo (2008): "Land Transport, Part 1: Roads and Bridges", in: Oleson, John Peter (ed.): The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World, Oxford University Press, New York, ISBN 978-0-19-518731-1, pp. 551–579 (552) ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap Smith (1890). ^ Timothy Darvill, Oxford Archaeological Guides: England (2002) pp. 297–298 ^ Laurence, Ray (1999). The roads of Roman Italy: mobility and cultural change. Routedge. pp. 58–59. ISBN 978-0-415-16616-4. ^ The ten men who judge lawsuits. ^ Subordinate officers under the aediles, whose duty it was to look after those streets of Rome which were outside the city walls. ^ also, glarea strata ^ also lapide quadrato strata or sílice strata ^ a b Great Britain, and Royal Engineers' Institute (Great Britain). Professional Papers of the Corps of Royal Engineers: Royal Engineer Institute, Occasional Papers. Chatham: Royal Engineer Institute, 1877. Page 57–92. ^ Graham, Alexander. Roman Africa; An Outline of the History of the Roman Occupation of North Africa, Based Chiefly Upon Inscriptions and Monumental Remains in That Country. London: Longmans, Green, and co, 1902. Page 66. ^ a b Ancient Roman Street re-emerges close to Colleferro. thinkarchaeology.net. October 10, 2007. ^ de Camp, L. Sprague (1974) [First published 1960]. The Ancient Engineers. Toronto, Canada: Random House. pp. 182–183. ISBN 978-0-345-32029-2. ^ Middleton, J. H. The Remains of Ancient Rome. London: A. and C. Black, 1892. Page 251. ^ Jaś Elsner, "The Itinerarium Burdigalense: politics and salvation in the geography of Constantine's Empire", Journal of Roman Studies, (2000), pp. 181–195, p. 184. ^ Travel in the Ancient World, Lionel Casson, p. 189 ^ Naturalis Historia by Gaius Plinius Secundus, Liber VII, 84. ^ The General History of the Highways by Nicolas Bergier, page 156. ^ C.W.J.Eliot, New Evidence for the Speed of the Roman Imperial Post. Phoenix 9, 2, 1955, 76ff. ^ The Archaeological Site of Histria, archweb.cimec.ro. ^ http://www.romanroads.org General information[edit] Laurence, Ray (1999). The roads of Roman Italy: mobility and cultural change. Routledge. Von Hagen, Victor W. (1967). The Roads That Led to Rome. The World Publishing Company, Cleveland and New York. Codrington, Thomas (1905). Roman Roads in Britain. London [etc.]: Society for promoting Christian knowledge. Forbes, Urquhart A., and Arnold C. Burmester (1904). Our Roman Highways. London: F.E. Robinson & co. Roby, Henry John (1902). Roman Private Law in the Times of Cicero and of the Antonines. Cambridge: C.U.P. Smith, William, William Wayte, and G. E. Marindin (1890). A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. London: J. Murray. pp. 946–954. Smith, William (1858). A School Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities; Abridged from the Larger Dictionary by William Smith, with Corrections and Improvements by Charles Anthon. N.Y.: [s.n.]. pp. 354–355. Cresy, Edward (1847). An Encyclopædia of Civil Engineering, Historical, Theoretical, and Practical. London: Printed for Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, Paternoster-Row. Primary sources[edit] Siculus Flaccus, De condicionibus agrorum cap. XIX Isidori Hispalensis Episcopi Etymologiarum sive Originum Liber XV, 15–16 Codex Theodosianus: 8.5 De cursu publico angariis et parangariis; 15.3 De itinere muniendo Corpus Iuris Civilis C.12.50 De cursu publico angariis et parangariis D.8.3.0 De servitutibus praediorum rusticorum. D.8.6.2 D.43.7 De locis et itineribus publicis D.43.8 Ne quid in loco publico vel itinere fiat. D.43.10 De via publica et si quid in ea factum esse dicatur. D.43.11 De via publica et itinere publico reficiendo. D.43.19 De itinere actuque privato. Further reading[edit] Adams, Colin. 2007. Land transport in Roman Egypt 30 BC–AD 300: A study in administration and economic history. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Coarelli, Filippo. 2007. Rome and environs: An archaeological guide. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press. Davies, Hugh, E. H. 1998. "Designing Roman roads." Britannia: Journal of Romano-British and Kindred Studies 29: 1–16. Erdkamp, Peter. Hunger and the Sword: Warfare and Food Supply in Roman Republican Wars (264–30 B.C.). Amsterdam: Gieben, 1998. Isaac, Benjamin. 1988. "The meaning of 'Limes' and 'Limitanei' in ancient sources." Journal of Roman Studies 78: 125–47. MacDonald, William L. 1982–1986. The architecture of the Roman Empire. 2 vols. Yale Publications in the History of Art 17, 35. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press. Meijer, Fik J., and O. Van Nijf. 1992. Trade, transport and society in the ancient world: A sourcebook. London: Routledge. O’Connor, Colin. 1993. Roman bridges. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Laurence, Ray. 1999. The roads of Roman Italy. Mobility and cultural change. London: Routledge. Lewis, Michael J. T. 2001. Surveying instruments of Greece and Rome. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Quilici, Lorenzo. 2008. "Land transport, Part 1: Roads and bridges." In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 551–79. New York: Oxford Univ. Press. Talbert, Richard J. A., et al. 2000. Barrington atlas of the Greek and Roman world. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press. Wiseman, T. P. 1970. "Roman Republican road-building." Papers of the British School at Rome 38: 122–52. External links[edit] Roman roadsat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Library resources about Roads, Roman Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Maps Orbis maps of the Roman world The Antiquity À-la-carte interactive digital atlas of the Ancient Mediterranean World General articles Roman Roads Omnes Viae: Roman route planner based on Tabula Peutingeriana Viae Romanae Road Map "Viae"—article by William Ramsay Traianus: Technical investigation of Roman public works Road descriptions Vias Romanas em Portugal (in Portuguese) Itineraires Romains en France (in French) Augustine's Africa Pictures of Roman roads in the province of Raetia (German captions) Roman law regarding public and private domain Servitutes Road construction Roman Road Construction Construction of Roman Roads Design and 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en-wikipedia-org-3165	----	Category:Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers - Wikipedia Help Category:Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This category is for articles with CANTIC identifiers. Please do not add subcategories. For more information, see Wikipedia:Authority control. Administrators: Please do not delete this category even if it is empty! This category may be empty occasionally or even most of the time. This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a tracking category. It builds and maintains a list of pages primarily for the sake of the list itself. They are not part of the encyclopedia's categorization scheme. 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Adams Jeffrey Adams (mathematician) John Adams John Adams (educationist) John Adams (composer) (previous page) (next page) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Wikipedia_articles_with_CANTIC_identifiers&oldid=923285705" Categories: Pages with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with authority control information Hidden categories: Hidden categories Tracking categories Template Large category TOC via CatAutoTOC on category with over 20,000 pages CatAutoTOC generates Large category TOC Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans Asturianu Català Español Euskara 한국어 Ilokano עברית 日本語 Sardu Scots Suomi Svenska Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 27 October 2019, at 15:42 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3166	----	Name and Title Authority File of Catalonia - Wikipedia Name and Title Authority File of Catalonia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from CANTIC (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search The Name and Title Authority File of Catalonia (CANTIC) is an authority union catalogue within the Union Catalogue of Universities of Catalonia (CCUC), that it is led by the Biblioteca de Catalunya. Its goals are to standardize the access points in bibliographic catalogues, to improve communication among catalogues and mainly, to make easier the information research and retrieval. CANTIC gives a special treatment to name and title authorities related with Catalan culture. These authorities receive a complete authority work and provide, eventually, access to the Enciclopèdia Catalana. Contents 1 Definition and aims 2 History and evolution 3 Participants 4 Maintenance and updating 5 References 6 External links Definition and aims[edit] CANTIC has the aim[1] to be the catalogue of authority records created cooperatively by Catalan libraries. These records have to be generated from the authority control of name, name-title and title access points of Catalan bibliographic records. This guarantees the standardization and uniqueness of access points of catalogues, which makes it easier the exchange and a more efficient communication of bibliographic records and, in the end, enables users to carry out assisted, precise and exhaustive searches. CANTIC is a national service that allows to standardize and give consistency to the catalogues of the Catalan library system; it is the tool that facilitates the creation of the future Unique Catalogue of Catalonia (CUC), devised in the frame of the Agreement of the Catalan Government of 20 July 2004, for the improvement and modernization of Catalan Library System.[2] History and evolution[edit] At a meeting held on 16 September 2002, the Advisory Commission of Cataloguing, the advisory body of the Biblioteca de Catalunya in terms of cataloguing, talked about the need of creating a list of authorities in Catalonia. It was decided to establish a subcommittee to study the technical feasibility of the project and to prepare the requirements and functionality of the list of name and title authorities, taking into account the real needs of the Catalan Library System. The Subcommittee met for the first time on 27 March 2003 and finished the job in October 2003. In the report prepared by them[3] are presented: The definition and aims of the list. It provides an overview of the state of art in and out Catalonia, and ascertains that the current situation of the authority control of the Catalan Library System does not satisfy the existent needs neither avoids the duplication of tasks, efforts and costs. Following the model of other international experiences, it is stated that a unique authority list in Catalonia, prepared cooperatively, is a feasible project that favours the exchange of bibliographic records and the information research and retrieval. They give the bases for the creation of the Catalan Name and Title Authority List, and comment in brief the cooperative model of a subject authority list, since its operation and organization differ substantially of the name and title list. They specify the requirements and functionalities of the software of Catalan Name and Title Authority List. The Name and Title Authority File of Catalonia was created following the Catalan Library System Act, Llei 4/1993 “La Biblioteca de Catalunya supervisa, valida i unifica en un sol llistat el catàleg d’autoritats"[4] Participants[edit] The participants are the Biblioteca de Catalunya, the Casa Àsia, the Centre de Lectura (Reus), the Consorci de Bibliothèques de les Universitats de Catalunya, the Il•lustre Col•legi d'Advocats de Barcelona, the Museu d'Art Contemporani de Barcelona, the Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya, the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, the Universitat de Barcelona, the Universitat de Girona, the Universitat de Lleida, the Universitat de Vic, the Universitat Jaume I, the Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, the Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, the Universitat Pompeu Fabra and the Universitat Rovira i Virgili. Maintenance and updating[edit] The authority records of CANTIC are created following the international cataloguing principles[5] and the specifications of the Biblioteca de Catalunya, which were approved by the CCUC.[6] Records are encoded with MARC 21.[7] There is also a CANTIC guide with the procedure for elaborating the authority records by the entities involved.[8] The Bibliographic Standardization Service is responsible for providing training and support to all participants while ensuring the quality of authority records. The constant introduction of new authority records turns CANTIC into a living organism in a permanent process of transformation and change. Updating the content of the database is done monthly and is available on the website of the Biblioteca de Catalunya. References[edit] ^ FERRAN, Imma. «El Catàleg d'autoritats de noms i títols de Catalunya (CÀNTIC) ». BiD : textos universitaris de biblioteconomia i documentació, Núm. 22 (juny 2009) [Consulta: 1 gener 2013]. ^ Acord per a la millora i modernització del Sistema Bibliotecari de Catalunya en el període 2004-2007, aprovat pel Govern de la Generalitat de Catalunya el 20 de juliol de 2004.<"Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-04-12. Retrieved 2012-04-12.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)>. [Consulta: 21 gener 2013]. ^ Informe per a la creació de la Llista d’Autoritats de Catalunya de noms i títols: requeriments i funcionalitats, octubre 2003 ^ 4_1993, de 18 de març, del sistema bibliotecari de Catalunya.pdf Llei 4/1193, de 18 de març, del sistema bibliotecari de Catalunya[permanent dead link] ^ Regles angloamericanes de catalogació. 2a ed. rev. de 2002, actualització de 2005. Barcelona : Biblioteca de Catalunya, cop. 2008 ^ Concrecions a les AACR2 Part II (Encapçalaments, títols uniformes, referències), Ed. 2008. Barcelona : Biblioteca de Catalunya, 2008- ^ Format Marc 21 per a dades d’autoritat Ed. anglesa, Ed. concisa catalana ^ Manual CANTIC, actualització 2010 External links[edit] Biblioteca de Catalunya. Serveis professionals. Servei de Normalització Bibliogràfica. "Cantic" Cataleg d'Autoritats de Noms y Titols de Catalunya: Cerca basica. v t e Authority control files AAG • ACM DL • ADB • AGSA • autores.uy • AWR • BALaT • BIBSYS • Bildindex • BNC • BNE • BNF • Botanist • BPN • CANTIC • CiNii • CWGC • DAAO • DBLP • DSI • FNZA • GND • HDS • IAAF • ICCU • ICIA • ISNI • Joconde • KulturNav • LCCN • LIR • LNB • Léonore • MBA • MGP • NARA • NBL • NDL • NGV • NKC • NLA • NLG • NLI • NLK • NLP • NLR • NSK • NTA • ORCID • PIC • ResearcherID • RERO • RKD • RKDimages ID • RSL • SELIBR • SIKART • SNAC • SUDOC • S2AuthorId • TA98 • TDVİA • TE • TePapa • TH • TLS • Trove • UKPARL • ULAN • US Congress • VcBA • VIAF • WorldCat Identities Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Name_and_Title_Authority_File_of_Catalonia&oldid=923370054" Categories: Libraries in Spain Catalonia Library cataloging and classification Hidden categories: CS1 maint: archived copy as title All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from February 2018 Articles with permanently dead external links Spain articles missing geocoordinate data All articles needing coordinates AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans Català Español Français Galego עברית مصرى Nederlands Português Edit links This page was last edited on 28 October 2019, at 03:02 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3186	----	Conflict of the Orders - Wikipedia Conflict of the Orders From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e The Conflict or Struggle of the Orders was a political struggle between the Plebeians (commoners) and Patricians (aristocrats) of the ancient Roman Republic lasting from 500 BC to 287 BC, in which the Plebeians sought political equality with the Patricians. It played a major role in the development of the Constitution of the Roman Republic. Shortly after the founding of the Republic, this conflict led to a secession from Rome by Plebeians to the Sacred Mount at a time of war. The result of this first secession was the creation of the office of Plebeian Tribune, and with it the first acquisition of real power by the Plebeians. At first only Patricians were allowed to stand for election to political office, but over time these laws were revoked, and eventually all offices were opened to the Plebeians. Since most individuals who were elected to political office were given membership in the Roman Senate, this development helped to transform the senate from a body of Patricians into a body of Plebeian and Patrician aristocrats. This development occurred at the same time that the Plebeian legislative assembly, the Plebeian Council, was acquiring additional power. At first, its acts ("plebiscites") applied only to Plebeians, although after 339 BC, with the institution of laws by the first Plebeian dictator Q. Publilius Philo, these acts began to apply to both Plebeians and Patricians, with a senatorial veto of all measures approved by the council. It was not until 287 BC that the Patrician senators lost their last check over the Plebeian Council. However, the Patricio-Plebeian aristocracy in the senate still retained other means by which to control the Plebeian Council, in particular the closeness between the Plebeian Tribunes and the senators. While this conflict would end in 287 BC with the Plebeians having acquired political equality with the Patricians, the plight of the average Plebeian had not changed. A small number of aristocratic Plebeian families had emerged, and most Plebeian politicians came from one of these families. Contents 1 The Patrician era (494–367 BC) 2 The end of the Conflict of the Orders (367–287 BC) 3 Historicity 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 Further reading 7.1 Primary sources 7.2 Secondary sources The Patrician era (494–367 BC)[edit] The Conflict of the Orders began less than 20 years after the Republic was founded. Under the existing system, the poorer plebeians made up the bulk of the Roman army. During their military service, the farms on which their livelihood depended were left abandoned. Unable to earn a sufficient income, many turned to the patricians for aid, which left them open to abuse and even enslavement. As the patricians controlled Roman politics, the plebeians found no help from within the existing political system. Their solution was to go on strike. In 494 BC Rome was at war with three Italic tribes (the Aequi, Sabine and Volsci),[1] but the Plebeian soldiers advised by Lucius Sicinius Vellutus, refused to march against the enemy, and instead seceded to the Sacred Mount outside Rome. A settlement was negotiated and the patricians agreed that the plebs be given the right to meet in their own assembly, the Plebeian Council (Con cilium Plebs), and to elect their own officials to protect their rights, the Plebeian Tribunes (Tribune Plebs). [1][2] During the 5th century BC, there were a number of unsuccessful attempts to reform Roman agrarian laws to distribute newly conquered territories amongst the plebs. In a number of instances, these reforms were advocated by the plebeian tribunes. In 471 BC the Lex Publilia was passed. It was an important reform shifting practical power from the patricians to the plebeians. The law transferred the election of the tribunes of the plebs to the commit tribute, thereby freeing their election from the influence of the patrician clients. During the early years of the republic, the Plebeians were not allowed to hold magisterial office. Neither Tribunes nor Aediles were technically magistrates, since they were both elected solely by the Plebeians, rather than by both the Plebeians and the Patricians. While the Plebeian Tribunes regularly attempted to block legislation unfavorable to their order, the Patricians frequently tried to thwart them by gaining the support of one or another of the tribunes. One example of this occurred in 448 BC, when only five tribunes were elected to fill ten positions; following tradition and pressured by the Patricians, they co-opted five colleagues, two of whom were Patricians. Concerns that the Patricians would attempt to influence future elections in this manner, or by obtaining the office themselves prevent the Plebeian Tribunes from exercising their powers, led to the passage of the Lex Trebonia, forbidding the Plebeian Tribunes from co-opting their colleagues in the future.[3] In 445 BC, the Plebeians demanded the right to stand for election as consul (the chief-magistrate of the Roman Republic),[4] but the Roman senate refused to grant them this right. Ultimately, a compromise was reached, and while the Consulship remained closed to the Plebeians, Consular command authority (imperium) was granted to a select number of Military Tribunes. These individuals, the so-called Consular Tribunes ("Military Tribunes with Consular powers" or tribune militates consular potentate) were elected by the Centuriate Assembly (the assembly of soldiers), and the senate had the power to veto any such election.[4] This was the first of many attempts by the Plebeians to achieve political equality with the Patricians. Starting around the year 400 BC, a series of wars were fought against several neighboring tribes (in particular the Aequi, the Volsci, the Latins, and the Vii). The disenfranchised Plebeians fought in the army, while the Patrician aristocracy enjoyed the fruits of the resulting conquests.[4] The Plebeians, by now exhausted and bitter, demanded real concessions, so the Tribunes Gaius Licinius Stolo and Lucius Sextius Lateranus passed a law in 367 BC (the Lex Licinia Sextia),[5] which dealt with the economic plight of the Plebeians. However, the law also required the election of at least one Plebeian Consul each year. The opening of the Consulship to the Plebeians was probably the cause behind the concession of 366 BC, in which the Praetorship and Curule aedile were both created, but opened only to Patricians.[6][7] Shortly after the founding of the republic, the Centurion Assembly became the principal Roman assembly in which magistrates were elected, laws were passed, and trials occurred. Also around this time, the Plebeians assembled into an informal Plebeian Curiae Assembly, which was the original Plebeian Council. Since they were organized on the basis of the Curia (and thus by clan), they remained dependent on their Patrician patrons. In 471 BC, a law was passed due to the efforts of the Tribune Volero Publilius,[8] which allowed the Plebeians to organize by Tribe, rather than by Curia. Thus, the Plebeian Curiae Assembly became the Plebeian Tribal Assembly, and the Plebeians became politically independent.[8] During the regal period, the king nominated two equestrians to serve as his assistants, and after the overthrow of the monarchy, the Consuls retained this authority. However, in 447 BC, Cicero tells us that the Equators began to be elected by a tribal assembly that was presided over by a magistrate.[9] It seems as though this was the first instance of a joint Patricia-Plebeian Tribal Assembly, and thus was probably an enormous gain for the Plebeians. While Patricians were able to vote in a joint assembly, there were never very many Patricians in Rome. Thus, most of the electors were Plebeians, and yet any magistrate elected by a joint assembly had jurisdiction over both Plebeians and Patricians. Therefore, for the first time, the Plebeians seemed to have indirectly acquired authority over Patricians.[9] Most contemporary accounts of an assembly of the Tribes refer specifically to the Plebeian Council. The distinction between the joint Tribal Assembly (composed of both Patricians and Plebeians) and the Plebeian Council (composed only of Plebeians) is not well defined in the contemporary accounts, and because of this, the very existence of a joint Tribal Assembly can only be assumed through indirect evidence.[9] During the 5th century BC, a series of reforms were passed (the leges Valeria Horatio or the "laws of the Consul Lucius Valerius Potitus and Marcus Horatius Barbatus"), which ultimately required that any law passed by the Plebeian Council have the full force of law over both Plebeians and Patricians. This gave the Plebeian Tribunes, who presided over the Plebeian Council, a positive character for the first time. Before these laws were passed, Tribunes could only interpose the sacrosanct of their person (intercession) to veto acts of the senate, assemblies, or magistrates. It was a modification to the Valerian law in 449 BC which first allowed acts of the Plebeian Council to have the full force of law over both Plebeians and Patricians, but eventually the final law in the series was passed (the "Shortening Law"), which removed the last check that the Patricians in the senate had over this power. The end of the Conflict of the Orders (367–287 BC)[edit] In the decades following the passage of the Licinio-Sextian law of 367 BC, a series of laws were passed which ultimately granted Plebeians political equality with Patricians.[10][11] The Patrician era came to a complete end in 287 BC, with the passage of the Hortensian law.[11] When the Curule Aedileship had been created, it had only been opened to Patricians. However, an unusual agreement was ultimately secured between the Plebeians and the Patricians. One year, the Curule Aedileship was to be open to Plebeians, and the next year, it was only to be open to Patricians.[12] Eventually, however, this agreement was abandoned and the Plebeians won full admission to the Curule Aedileship. In addition, after the Consulship had been opened to the Plebeians, the Plebeians acquired a de facto right to hold both the Roman Dictatorship and the Roman Censorship [6] since only former Consuls could hold either office. 356 BC saw the appointment of the first Plebeian Dictator,[13] and in 339 BC the Plebeians facilitated the passage of a law (the lex Publilia), which required the election of at least one Plebeian Censor for each five-year term.[13] In 337 BC, the first Plebeian Praetor (Q. Publilius Philo) was elected.[13] In addition, during these years, the Plebeian Tribunes and the senators grew increasingly close.[14] The senate realized the need to use Plebeian officials to accomplish desired goals,[14] and so to win over the Tribunes, the senators gave the Tribunes a great deal of power, and unsurprisingly, the Tribunes began to feel obligated to the senate. As the Tribunes and the senators grew closer, Plebeian senators were often able to secure the Tribunate for members of their own families.[15] In time, the Tribunate became a stepping stone to higher office.[15] During the era of the kingdom, the Roman King appointed new senators through a process called lectio senatus, but after the overthrow of the kingdom, the Consuls acquired this power. Around the middle of the 4th century BC, however, the Plebeian Council enacted the "Ovinian Plebiscite" (plebiscitum Ovinium),[16] which gave the power to appoint new senators to the Roman Censors. It also codified a commonplace practice, which all but required the Censor to appoint any newly elected magistrate to the senate.[16] While this was not an absolute requirement, the language in the law was so strict that the Censors rarely disobeyed it. It is not known what year this law was passed, although it was probably passed between the opening of the Censorship to Plebeians (in 339 BC) and the first known lectio senatus by a Censor (in 312 BC).[17] By this point, Plebeians were already holding a significant number of magisterial offices, and so the number of Plebeian senators probably increased quickly.[17] It was, in all likelihood, simply a matter of time before the Plebeians came to dominate the senate. Under the new system, newly elected magistrates were awarded with automatic membership in the senate, although it remained difficult for a Plebeian from an unknown family to enter the senate. On the rare occasion that an individual of an unknown family (ignobilis) was elected to high office, it was usually due to the unusual character of that individual, as was the case for both Gaius Marius and Marcus Tullius Cicero.[17] Several factors made it difficult for individuals from unknown families to be elected to high office, in particular the very presence of a long-standing nobility, as this appealed to the deeply rooted Roman respect for the past.[17] In addition, elections were expensive, neither senators nor magistrates were paid, and the senate often did not reimburse magistrates for expenses associated with their official duties. Therefore, an individual usually had to be independently wealthy before seeking high office.[17] Ultimately, a new Patricio-Plebeian aristocracy (nobilitas) emerged,[17] which replaced the old Patrician nobility. It was the dominance of the long-standing Patrician nobility which ultimately forced the Plebeians to wage their long struggle for political power. The new nobility, however, was fundamentally different from the old nobility.[18] The old nobility existed through the force of law, because only Patricians were allowed to stand for high office, and it was ultimately overthrown after those laws were changed. Now, however, the new nobility existed due to the organization of society, and as such, it could only be overthrown through a revolution.[18] The Conflict of the Orders was finally coming to an end, since the Plebeians had achieved political equality with the Patricians.[18][19] A small number of Plebeian families had achieved the same standing that the old aristocratic Patrician families had always had, but these new Plebeian aristocrats were as uninterested in the plight of the average Plebeian as the old Patrician aristocrats had always been.[18] During this time period, the Plebeian plight had been mitigated due to the constant state of war that Rome was in.[20] These wars provided employment, income, and glory for the average Plebeian, and the sense of patriotism that resulted from these wars also eliminated any real threat of Plebeian unrest. The lex Publilia, which had required the election of at least one Plebeian Censor every five years, contained another provision. Before this time, any bill passed by an assembly (either by the Plebeian Council, the Tribal Assembly, or the Centuriate Assembly) could only become a law after the Patrician senators gave their approval. This approval came in the form of an auctoritas patrum ("authority of the fathers" or "authority of the Patrician senators"). The lex Publilia modified this process, requiring the auctoritas patrum to be passed before a law could be voted on by one of the assemblies, rather than after the law had already been voted on.[21] It is not known why, but this modification seems to have made the auctoritas patrum irrelevant.[22] By 287 BC, the economic condition of the average Plebeian had become poor. The problem appears to have centered around widespread indebtedness,[23] and the Plebeians quickly demanded relief. The senators, most of whom belonged to the creditor class, refused to abide by the demands of the Plebeians, and the result was the final Plebeian secession. The Plebeians seceded to the Janiculum hill, and to end the secession, a Dictator named Quintus Hortensius was appointed. Hortensius, a Plebeian, passed a law called the "Hortensian Law" (lex Hortensia), which ended the requirement that an auctoritas patrum be passed before any bill could be considered by either the Plebeian Council or the Tribal Assembly.[23] The requirement was not changed for the Centuriate Assembly. The Hortensian Law also reaffirmed the principle that an act of the Plebeian Council have the full force of law over both Plebeians and Patricians, which it had originally acquired as early as 449 BC.[22] The importance of the Hortensian Law was in that it removed from the Patrician senators their final check over the Plebeian Council.[24] It should therefore not be viewed as the final triumph of democracy over aristocracy,[24] since, through the Tribunes, the senate could still control the Plebeian Council.[example needed] Thus, the ultimate significance of this law was in the fact that it robbed the Patricians of their final weapon over the Plebeians. The result was that the ultimate control over the state fell, not onto the shoulders of democracy, but onto the shoulders of the new Patricio-Plebeian aristocracy.[24] Historicity[edit] The traditional account was long accepted as factual, but it has a number of problems and inconsistencies, and almost every element of the story is controversial today; some scholars, such as Richard E. Mitchell, have even argued that there was no conflict at all, the Romans of the late Republic having interpreted events of their distant past as if they were comparable to the class struggles of their own time. The crux of the problem is that there is no contemporaneous account of the conflict; writers such as Polybius, who might have met persons whose grandparents participated in the conflict, do not mention it (which may not be surprising, since Polybius' history covered a period after the conflict), while the writers who do speak of the conflict, such as Livy or Cicero, are sometimes thought to have reported fact and fable equally readily, and sometimes assume that there were no fundamental changes in Roman institutions in nearly 500 years. However, there are numerous Roman and Greek authors who record the events which form part of the conflict of the orders, and they each rely on more ancient sources, and if the story were false it could only be because there were some great collusion between them to distort history or some deliberate fabrication of history, which seems unlikely.[25] For instance, the fasti report a number of consuls with plebeian names during the 5th century, when the consulate was supposedly only open to patricians, and explanations to the effect that previously patrician gentes somehow became plebeians later are difficult to prove. Another point of difficulty is the apparent absence of armed revolt; as the history of the late Republic shows, similar types of grievances tended to lead to bloodshed rather quickly, yet Livy's account seems to entail debate mostly, with the occasional threat of secessio. None of this is helped by our basic uncertainty as to who the plebs actually were; many of them are known to have been wealthy landowners, and the "lower class" label dates from the late Republic.[25] See also[edit] ‹ The template below (Columns) is being considered for deletion. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus. › Roman Kingdom Roman Republic Roman Empire Roman Law Plebeian Council Centuria Curia Roman consul Praetor Roman censor Quaestor Aedile Roman Dictator Master of the Horse Senate Cursus honorum Pontifex Maximus Princeps senatus Interrex Procurator Acta Senatus Notes[edit] ^ a b Abbott, 28 ^ Gwyn, David (2012). The Roman Republic: A Very Short Introduction. Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX 2 DP, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. p. 18. ISBN 9780199595112.CS1 maint: location (link) ^ Livy, Ab Urbe Condita, iii. 65. ^ a b c Abbott, 35 ^ Abbott, 36, 41 ^ a b Abbott, 37 ^ Abbott, 38 ^ a b Abbott, 29 ^ a b c Abbott, 33 ^ Shindler, Michael. "Patrician and Plebeian Sociopolitical Dynamics in Early Rome". The Apollonian Revolt. The Apollonian Revolt. Archived from the original on 20 May 2015. Retrieved 2 April 2015. ^ a b Abbott, 41 ^ Abbott, 42-43 ^ a b c Abbott, 42 ^ a b Abbott, 44 ^ a b Abbott, 45 ^ a b Abbott, 46 ^ a b c d e f Abbott, 47 ^ a b c d Abbott, 48 ^ Shindler, Michael (2014). "Patrician and Plebeian Sociopolitical Dynamics in Early Rome". The Apollonian Revolt. Archived from the original on 20 May 2015. Retrieved 2 April 2015. ^ Abbott, 49 ^ Abbott, 50 ^ a b Abbott, 51 ^ a b Abbott, 52 ^ a b c Abbott, 53 ^ a b Raaflaub References[edit] Abbott, Frank Frost (1901). A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. Elibron Classics ( ISBN 0-543-92749-0). Byrd, Robert (1995). The Senate of the Roman Republic. U.S. Government Printing Office, Senate Document 103-23. Cicero, Marcus Tullius (1841). The Political Works of Marcus Tullius Cicero: Comprising his Treatise on the Commonwealth; and his Treatise on the Laws. Translated from the original, with Dissertations and Notes in Two Volumes. By Francis Barham, Esq. London: Edmund Spettigue. Vol. 1. Lintott, Andrew (1999). The Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press ( ISBN 0-19-926108-3). Polybius (1823). The General History of Polybius: Translated from the Greek. By James Hampton. Oxford: Printed by W. Baxter. Fifth Edition, Vol 2. Taylor, Lily Ross (1966). Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar. The University of Michigan Press ( ISBN 0-472-08125-X). Kurt Raaflaub, ed. Social Struggles in Archaic Rome: New Perspectives on the Conflict of Orders (University of California Press, 1986) ISBN 0-520-05528-4 Shindler, Michael (2014). Patrician and Plebeian Sociopolitical Dynamics in Early Rome. The Apollonian Revolt. Further reading[edit] Library resources about Conflict of the Orders Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Ihne, Wilhelm. Researches Into the History of the Roman Constitution. William Pickering. 1853. Johnston, Harold Whetstone. Orations and Letters of Cicero: With Historical Introduction, An Outline of the Roman Constitution, Notes, Vocabulary and Index. Scott, Foresman and Company. 1891. Mommsen, Theodor. Roman Constitutional Law. 1871-1888 Tighe, Ambrose. The Development of the Roman Constitution. D. Apple & Co. 1886. Von Fritz, Kurt. The Theory of the Mixed Constitution in Antiquity. Columbia University Press, New York. 1975. The Histories by Polybius Cambridge Ancient History, Volumes 9–13. A. Cameron, The Later Roman Empire, (Fontana Press, 1993). M. Crawford, The Roman Republic, (Fontana Press, 1978). E. S. Gruen, "The Last Generation of the Roman Republic" (U California Press, 1974) F. Millar, The Emperor in the Roman World, (Duckworth, 1977, 1992). A. Lintott, "The Constitution of the Roman Republic" (Oxford University Press, 1999) Primary sources[edit] Cicero's De Re Publica, Book Two Rome at the End of the Punic Wars: An Analysis of the Roman Government; by Polybius Secondary sources[edit] Considerations on the Causes of the Greatness of the Romans and their Decline, by Montesquieu The Roman Constitution to the Time of Cicero What a Terrorist Incident in Ancient Rome Can Teach Us v t e Roman Constitution Ancient Rome History Constitution Senate Assemblies Curiate Century Tribal Plebeian Magistrates Roman Kingdom History Constitution Senate Assemblies Magistrates Roman Republic History Constitution (reforms of Sulla • reforms of Caesar • reforms of Augustus) Senate Assemblies Magistrates Roman Empire History (post Diocletian) Constitution (post Diocletian) Senate Assemblies Magistrates Miscellaneous Sulla's Constitutional Reforms Caesar's Constitutional Reforms Conflict of the Orders Roman law v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline 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en-wikipedia-org-318	----	Category:AC with 30 elements - Wikipedia Help Category:AC with 30 elements From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a tracking category. It builds and maintains a list of pages primarily for the sake of the list itself. They are not part of the encyclopedia's categorization scheme. This category is hidden on its member pages—unless the corresponding user preference (appearance → show hidden categories) is set. These categories are used to track, build and organize lists of pages needing "attention en masse" (for example, pages using deprecated syntax), or that may need to be edited at someone's earliest convenience. These categories also serve to aggregate members of several lists or sub-categories into a larger, more efficient list (discriminated by classifications). Administrators: Please do not delete this category even if it is empty! This category may be empty occasionally or even most of the time. 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 {{Authority control}} with 30 elements. Pages in category "AC with 30 elements" The following 66 pages are in this category, out of 66 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). A John Adams Louis Agassiz Leon Battista Alberti Aristotle B Francis Bacon Robert Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-Powell Honoré de Balzac Henri Bergson Hector Berlioz Giovanni Boccaccio Sandro Botticelli André Breton Elizabeth Barrett Browning Ivan Bunin C Miguel de Cervantes Paul Cézanne Marc Chagall Charlemagne Frédéric Chopin Colette Christopher Columbus Pierre Corneille Gustave Courbet D Gabriele D'Annunzio Jacques-Louis David Claude Debussy Emily Dickinson E Umberto Eco Erasmus M. C. Escher Leonhard Euler G Federico García Lorca Charles de Gaulle Allen Ginsberg Nikolai Gogol Günter Grass H George Frideric Handel Thor Heyerdahl Horace J Henry James Julius Caesar L Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz M Niccolò Machiavelli Herman Melville N Isaac Newton Friedrich Nietzsche Don Norman O George Orwell P Luigi Pirandello Plato Alexander Pushkin R Charles Ferdinand Ramuz Rainer Maria Rilke Arthur Rimbaud S Joseph Victor von Scheffel Arthur Schopenhauer Robert Falcon Scott Walter Scott Susan Sontag Robert Louis Stevenson T J. M. W. Turner V Diego Velázquez Paul Verlaine Eugène Viollet-le-Duc W Oscar Wilde Z Stefan Zweig Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:AC_with_30_elements&oldid=912797945" Categories: Wikipedia articles with authority control information Hidden categories: Hidden categories Tracking categories Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans অসমীয়া Español Euskara 한국어 Ilokano עברית Português Scots Simple English Српски / srpski 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 27 August 2019, at 22:58 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3192	----	Jeremiah - Wikipedia Jeremiah From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the prophet. For other uses, see Jeremiah (disambiguation). Biblical prophet Jeremiah Jeremiah, as depicted by Michelangelo from the Sistine Chapel ceiling Born c. 650 BC Anathoth Died c. 570 BC Egypt Occupation Prophet Parent(s) Hilkiah Jeremiah[a] (probably after 650 – c. 570 BC),[2] also called the "weeping prophet",[3] was one of the major prophets of the Hebrew Bible (source of the Old Testament of Christian Bibles). According to Jewish tradition, Jeremiah authored the Book of Jeremiah, the Books of Kings and the Book of Lamentations,[4] with the assistance and under the editorship of Baruch ben Neriah, his scribe and disciple. In addition to proclaiming many prophecies of the God of Israel, the Book of Jeremiah goes into detail regarding the prophet's private life (e.g., the purchase of a field belonging to his uncle as a part of the right of redemption[Jeremiah 32:6–25]) and his experiences (e.g., imprisonment[Jeremiah 37:15–18][38:6]), which are thus better known than those of any other prophet. Judaism considers the Book of Jeremiah part of its canon, and regards Jeremiah as the second of the major prophets. Christianity and Islam also regard Jeremiah as a prophet. His words are quoted in the New Testament[Matthew 2:18][Hebrews 8:8–12][10:16–17] and his narrative is recounted in Islamic tradition.[5] Contents 1 Chronology 2 Biblical narrative 2.1 Lineage and early life 2.2 Calling 2.3 Persecution 2.4 Conflicts with false prophets 2.5 Relationship with the Northern Kingdom (Samaria) 2.6 Babylon 2.7 Egypt 3 Religious views 3.1 Judaism 3.2 Christianity 3.3 Islam 4 Historicity 5 Archaeology 5.1 Nebo-Sarsekim tablet 5.2 Seals 5.3 Tel Arad ostraca 6 Cultural influence 7 References 7.1 Notes 7.2 Citations 7.3 Works cited 8 Further reading 9 External links Chronology[edit] Jeremiah by Enrico Glicenstein Jeremiah's ministry was active from the thirteenth year of Josiah, king of Judah (626 BC[6]), until after the fall of Jerusalem and the destruction of Solomon's Temple in 587 BC.[7] This period spanned the reigns of five kings of Judah: Josiah, Jehoahaz, Jehoiakim, Jehoiachin, and Zedekiah.[6] Biblical narrative[edit] Main article: Book of Jeremiah Lineage and early life[edit] Jeremiah was the son of Hilkiah, a kohen (Jewish priest) from the Benjamite village of Anathoth.[Jeremiah 1:1] The difficulties he encountered, as described in the books of Jeremiah and Lamentations, have prompted scholars to refer to him as "the weeping prophet".[8] Jeremiah was called to prophetic ministry c. 626 BC[9] by YHWH to give prophecy of Jerusalem's coming destruction[Jeremiah 1:14–16] by invaders from the north.[Jeremiah 4] This was because Israel had forsaken God by worshiping the idols of Baal[Jeremiah 2][3][5][9] and burning their children as offerings to Moloch.[Jeremiah 19:4–5] The nation had deviated so far from God's laws that they had broken the covenant, causing God to withdraw his blessings. Jeremiah was guided by God to proclaim that the nation of Judah would suffer famine, foreign conquest, plunder, and captivity in a land of strangers.[Jeremiah 10][11] The prophetess Huldah was a relative and contemporary of Jeremiah while the prophet Zephaniah was his mentor.[10] Calling[edit] Horace Vernet, Jeremiah on the ruins of Jerusalem (1844) According to Jeremiah 1:2–3, Yahweh called Jeremiah to prophetic ministry in about 626 BC,[9] about five years before Josiah king of Judah turned the nation toward repentance from idolatrous practices.[2 Kings 22:3-13] According to the Books of Kings and Jeremiah, Josiah's reforms were insufficient to save Judah and Jerusalem from destruction, because of the sins of Manasseh, Josiah's grandfather,[2 Kings 23:26–27] and Judah's lustful return to the idolatry of foreign gods after Josiah's death.[Jeremiah 11:10][2 Kings 23:32] Jeremiah was said to have been appointed to reveal the sins of the people and the punishment to come.[Jeremiah 1:1–2:37][11] Jeremiah resisted the call by complaining that he was only a child and did not know how to speak,[12] but the Lord placed the word in Jeremiah's mouth,[Jeremiah 1:6–9] commanding "Get yourself ready!"[Jeremiah 1:17] The qualities of a prophet listed in Jeremiah 1 include not being afraid, standing up to speak, speaking as told, and going where sent.[Jeremiah 1:4–10][Jeremiah 1:17–19] Since Jeremiah is described as emerging well trained and fully literate from his earliest preaching, his relationship with the Shaphan family has been used to suggest that he may have trained at the scribal school in Jerusalem over which Shaphan presided.[2 Kings 22:8–10][13] In his early ministry, Jeremiah was primarily a preaching prophet,[Jeremiah 1:7] preaching throughout Israel.[13] He condemned idolatry,[Jeremiah 3:12–23],[Jeremiah 4:1–4] the greed of priests, and false prophets.[Jeremiah 6:13–14]. Many years later, God instructed Jeremiah to write down these early oracles and his other messages.[Jeremiah 36:1–10] Persecution[edit] Rembrandt van Rijn, Jeremiah Lamenting the Destruction of Jerusalem, c. 1630 Jeremiah's ministry prompted plots against him.[Jeremiah 11:21–23] Unhappy with Jeremiah's message, possibly from concern that it would shut down the Anathoth sanctuary, his priestly kin and the men of Anathoth conspired to kill him. However, the Lord revealed the conspiracy to Jeremiah, protected his life, and declared disaster for the men of Anathoth.[13][Jeremiah 11:18–2:6] When Jeremiah complains to the Lord about this persecution, he is told that the attacks on him will become worse.[14] A priest, Pashur the son of ben Immer, a temple official in Jerusalem, had Jeremiah beaten and put in the stocks at the Upper Gate of Benjamin for a day. After this, Jeremiah laments the travails and mockery that speaking God's word have caused him.[Jeremiah 20:7] He recounts how if he tries to shut God's word inside, it burns in his heart and he is unable to hold it in.[Jeremiah 20:9] Conflicts with false prophets[edit] While Jeremiah was prophesying the coming destruction, he denounced a number of other prophets who were prophesying peace.[Jeremiah 6:13–15][14:14–16][23:9–40][27:1–28:17][2:14] According to the book of Jeremiah, during the reign of King Zedekiah, The Lord instructed Jeremiah to make a yoke with the message that the nation would be subject to the king of Babylon. The prophet Hananiah took the yoke off Jeremiah's neck and broke it, prophesying that within two years the Lord would break the yoke of the king of Babylon, but Jeremiah prophesied in return: "You have broken the yoke of wood, but you have made instead a yoke of iron."[Jeremiah 28:13] Relationship with the Northern Kingdom (Samaria)[edit] Jeremiah was sympathetic to, as well as descended from, the Northern Kingdom. Many of his first reported oracles are about, and addressed to, the Israelites at Samaria. He resembles the northern prophet Hosea in his use of language and examples of God's relationship to Israel. Hosea seems to have been the first prophet to describe the desired relationship as an example of ancient Israelite marriage, where a man might be polygynous, while a woman was only permitted one husband. Jeremiah often repeats Hosea's marital imagery.[Jeremiah 2:2][2:3][3:1–5][3:19–25][4:1–2][15] Babylon[edit] The Biblical narrative portrays Jeremiah as being subject to additional persecutions. After Jeremiah prophesied that Jerusalem would be handed over to the Babylonian army, the king's officials, including Pashur the priest, tried to convince King Zedekiah that Jeremiah should be put to death for disheartening the soldiers and the people. Zedekiah allowed them, and they cast Jeremiah into a cistern, where he sank down into the mud. The intent seemed to be to kill Jeremiah by starvation, while allowing the officials to claim to be innocent of his blood.[16] A Cushite rescued Jeremiah by pulling him out of the cistern, but Jeremiah remained imprisoned until Jerusalem fell to the Babylonian army in 587 BC.[Jeremiah 38] The Babylonians released Jeremiah, and showed him great kindness, allowing him to choose the place of his residence, according to a Babylonian edict. Jeremiah accordingly went to Mizpah in Benjamin with Gedaliah, who had been made governor of Judea.[Jeremiah 40:5–6] Egypt[edit] Johanan succeeded Gedaliah, who had been assassinated by an Israelite prince in the pay of Ammon "for working with the Babylonians." Refusing to listen to Jeremiah's counsel, Johanan fled to Egypt, taking with him Jeremiah and Baruch, Jeremiah's faithful scribe and servant, and the king's daughters.[Jeremiah 43:1–13] There, the prophet probably spent the remainder of his life, still seeking in vain to turn the people back to God.[Jeremiah 43:1–13] There is no authentic record of his death. Religious views[edit] Judaism[edit] In Jewish rabbinic literature, especially the aggadah, Jeremiah and Moses are often mentioned together;[17] their life and works being presented in parallel lines. The following ancient midrash is especially interesting, in connection with Deuteronomy 18:18, in which "a prophet like Moses" is promised: "As Moses was a prophet for forty years, so was Jeremiah; as Moses prophesied concerning Judah and Benjamin, so did Jeremiah; as Moses' own tribe [the Levites under Korah] rose up against him, so did Jeremiah's tribe revolt against him; Moses was cast into the water, Jeremiah into a pit; as Moses was saved by a slave (the slave of Pharaoh's daughter); so, Jeremiah was rescued by a slave (Ebed-melech); Moses reprimanded the people in discourses; so did Jeremiah."[18] The prophet Ezekiel was a son of Jeremiah according to rabbinic literature.[19] In 2 Maccabees 2:4ff the subject is credited with hiding the Ark, incense altar, and tabernacle on the mountain of Moses.[20] Christianity[edit] This section relies too much on references to primary sources. Please improve this section by adding secondary or tertiary sources. (May 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Book of Jeremiah plays a foundational role in Christian thought as it presages the inauguration of a new covenant,[Jeremiah 31:31] to which the New Testament testifies. There are about forty direct quotations of the book in the New Testament, most in Revelation in connection with the destruction of Babylon.[21] Jeremiah 50:8 in Revelation 18:4 Jeremiah 50:32 in Revelation 18:8; Jeremiah 51:49-50 in Revelation 18:24 Of the Gospel writers, Matthew is especially mindful of how the events in the life, death and resurrection of Jesus fulfill Jeremianic prophecies.[Matthew 2:17][27:9–10] The letter to the Hebrews also picks up the fulfilment of the prophetic expectation of the new covenant.[Hebrews 8:8-12][10:16–17]) Islam[edit] Jeremiah in the wilderness (top left); Jonah and the fish; Uzeyr awakened after the destruction of Jerusalem. Ottoman Turkish miniature, 16th century.[22] As with many other prophets of the Hebrew Bible, Jeremiah is also regarded as a prophet in Islam. Although Jeremiah is not mentioned in the Quran, Muslim exegesis and literature narrates many instances from the life of Jeremiah and fleshes out his narrative, which closely corresponds with the account given in the Hebrew Bible. In Arabic, Jeremiah's name is usually vocalised Irmiyā, Armiyā or Ūrmiyā,.[23] Classical historians such as Wahb ibn Munabbih gave accounts of Jeremiah which turned "upon the main points of the Old Testament story of Jeremiah: his call to be a prophet, his mission to the king of Judah, his mission to the people and his reluctance, the announcement of a foreign tyrant who is to rule over Judah."[5] Moreover, some hadiths and tafsirs narrate that the Parable of the Hamlet in Ruins is about Jeremiah.[24] Also, in Sura 17(Al-Isra), Ayah 4–7, that is about the two corruptions of children of Israel on the earth, some hadith and tafsir cite that one of these corruptions is the imprisonment and persecution of Jeremiah. Muslim literature narrates a detailed account of the destruction of Jerusalem, which parallels the account given in the Book of Jeremiah.[25] Historicity[edit] The consensus is that there was a historical prophet named Jeremiah and that portions of the book probably were written by Jeremiah and/or his scribe Baruch. Views range from the belief that the narratives and poetic sections in Jeremiah are contemporary with his life (W.L. Holladay), to the view that the work of the original prophet is beyond identification or recovery (R. P. Carroll).[26][27] See the extensive analysis in Albertz 2003, pp. 302–344 First there were early collections of oracles, including material in ch. 2-6, 8-10, 13, 21-23, etc. Then there was an early Deuteronomistic redaction which Albertz dates to around 550 BC, with the original ending to the book at 25:13. There was a second redaction around 545-540 BC which added much more material, up to about ch. 45. Then there was a third redaction around 525–520 BC, expanding the book up to the ending at 51:64. Then there were further post-exilic redactions adding ch. 52 and editing content throughout the book. Although Jeremiah was often thought of traditionally as the author of the Book of Lamentations, this is probably a collection of individual and communal laments composed at various times throughout the Babylonian captivity. Albertz considers ch. 2 as the oldest, dating shortly after the Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC) and ch. 5 after the assassination of Gedaliah, with the other chapters added later (p. 160). Archaeology[edit] Nebo-Sarsekim tablet[edit] In July 2007, Assyrologist Michael Jursa translated a cuneiform tablet dated to 595 BC, as describing a Nabusharrussu-ukin as "the chief eunuch" of Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon. Jursa hypothesized that this reference might be to the same individual as the Nebo-Sarsekim mentioned in Jeremiah 39:3.[28][29] Seals[edit] A 7th-century BCE seal of Jehucal, son of Shelemiah and another of Gedaliah, son of Pashhur (mentioned together in Jeremiah 38:1; Jehucal also mentioned in Jeremiah 37:3) were found during excavation by Eilat Mazar in the city of David, Jerusalem, in 2005 and 2008, respectively.[30] Tel Arad ostraca[edit] Pottery shards at Tel Arad were unearthed in the 1970s that mention Pashhur, and this reference may be the same individual mentioned in Jeremiah 20:1[31] Cultural influence[edit] Jeremiah inspired the French noun jérémiade, and subsequently the English jeremiad, meaning "a lamentation; mournful complaint,"[32] or further, "a cautionary or angry harangue."[33] Jeremiah has periodically been a popular first name in the United States, beginning with the early Puritan settlers, who often took the names of biblical prophets and apostles. Jeremiah was substituted for the Irish Diarmuid/Diarmaid (also anglicised as Dermot), with which it has no etymological connection, when Gaelic names were frowned upon in official records. The name Jeremy also derives from Jeremiah. References[edit] Notes[edit] ^ /ˌdʒɛrɪˈmaɪ.ə/;[1] Hebrew: יִרְמְיָהוּ‎, Modern: Yīrməyahū  [jiʁmiˈjahu], Tiberian: Yīrəməyāhū; Greek: Ἰερεμίας, romanized: Ieremíās; meaning "Yah Exalts" Citations[edit] ^ Wells 1990, p. 383. ^ "Jeremiah". Encyclopedia Britannica. ^ Hillers 1993, p. 419. ^ Hillers 1972, pp. xix–xxiv. ^ a b Wensinck 1913–1936. ^ a b Douglas 1987, p. 559–560. ^ Sweeney 2004, p. 917. ^ Henderson 2002, pp. 191–206. ^ a b Longman 2008, p. 6. ^ Singer 1926, p. 100. ^ Ryken 2001, p. 19-36. ^ Freedman 1992, p. 686. sfn error: no target: CITEREFFreedman1992 (help) ^ a b c Freedman 1992, p. 687. sfn error: no target: CITEREFFreedman1992 (help) ^ Sweeney 2004, p. 950. ^ Anon. 1971, p. 126. ^ Barker, Youngblood & Stek 1995, p. 1544. ^ This article incorporates text from the 1901–1906 Jewish Encyclopedia, a publication now in the public domain. ^ Pesiqta, ed. Buber, xiii. 112a. ^ "EZEKIEL – JewishEncyclopedia.com". jewishencyclopedia.com. ^ Collins 1972, pp. 101–. ^ Dillard & Longman 1994, p. 339. ^ Renda 1978. ^ see Tād̲j̲ al-ʿArūs, x. 157. ^ Tafsir al-Qurtubi, vol. 3, p. 188; Tafsir al-Qummi, vol. 1, p. 117. ^ Tabari, i, 646ff. ^ Anon. 1971, p. 125. ^ Marsh 2018. ^ Reynolds 2007. ^ Hobbins 2007. ^ Kantrowitz 2012. ^ "Arad-Canaanite city and Israelite citadel in the Negev – Site No. 6". Israeli Foreign Ministry. 20 Nov 2000. Retrieved 2019-07-08. ^ Anon. 1989, p. 766. ^ "jeremiad". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Merriam-Webster, Inc. 2008. Retrieved 2008-09-23. Works cited[edit] Albertz, Rainer (2003). Israel in Exile: The History and Literature of the Sixth Century B.C.E. Society of Biblical Lit. ISBN 978-1-58983-055-4. Anon. (1971). "Levirate Marriage and Halizah". Encyclopedia Judaica. Volume 11 (2nd ed.). MacMillan. Anon. (1989). Webster's Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language. New York: Portland House. ISBN 978-0-517-68781-9. Barker, Kenneth L.; Youngblood, Ronald F.; Stek, John H., eds. (1995). "Commentary of Jeremiah". The NIV Study Bible. Zondervan. Collins, Marilyn F. (1972). "The Hidden Vessels in Samaritan Traditons". Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman Period. 3 (2): 97–116. doi:10.1163/157006372X00018. JSTOR 24656260. Coogan, Michael David (2012). A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament: The Hebrew Bible in Its Context. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-983011-4. Dillard, Raymond B.; Longman, Tremper (1994). An Introduction to the Old Testament (2nd ed.). Zondervan. ISBN 978-0-310-43250-0. Douglas, James D. (1987). The New Bible Dictionary (2nd ed.). Tyndale Press. ISBN 978-0-85110-820-9. Henderson, Joseph (2002). "Who Weeps In Jeremiah VIII 23 (IX 1)? Identifying Dramatic Speakers In The Poetry Of Jeremiah". Vetus Testamentum. 52 (2): 191–206. doi:10.1163/156853302760013857. ISSN 0042-4935. Hillers, Delbert R. (1972). The Anchor Bible. Lamentations. Hillers, Delbert R. (1993). "The Lamentations of Jeremiah". In Bruce M. Metzger; Michael David Coogan (eds.). The Oxford Companion to the Bible. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-974391-9. Hobbins, John (2007). "Jeremiah 39:3 and History: A New Find Clarifies a Mess of a Text – Ancient Hebrew Poetry". ancienthebrewpoetry.typepad.com. Kantrowitz, Jonathan (3 January 2012). "Archaeology News Report: Seals of Jeremiah's Captors Discovered!". Retrieved 8 December 2016. Longman, Tremper (2008). Jeremiah, Lamentations. Hendrickson. ISBN 9781853647352. Marsh, Allen Bythel (April 2018). HOW ובּש ׁAND םַחָנ CONTRIBUTE TO UNDERSTANDING THE MEANING OF JEREMIAH 4:28, 15:6-7, 18:7-10 AND 26:3, 13 AND 19 (PDF) (Ph.D). Retrieved 7 April 2020. Renda, G’nsel (1978). "The Miniatures of the Zubdat Al- Tawarikh". Turkish Treasures Culture /Art / Tourism Magazine. Reynolds, Nigel (11 July 2007). "Ancient Document Confirms Existence Of Biblical Figure". The New York Sun. Retrieved 26 March 2020. Ryken, Philip Graham (2001). Jeremiah and Lamentations: From Sorrow to Hope. Crossway Books. ISBN 978-1-58134-167-6. Singer, Isadore, ed. (1926). "Jeremiah". Jewish Encyclopaedia: A Descriptive Record of the History, Religion, Literature, and Customs of the Jewish People from the Earliest Times to the Present Day. VII. New York: Funk & Wagnall. OCLC 426865. Sweeney, Marvin A. (2004). "Introduction to Jeremiah". In Adele Berlin; Marc Zvi Brettler (eds.). The Jewish Study Bible. Oxford University Press. p. 917. ISBN 978-0-19-529751-5 – via Jewish Publication Society Tanakh Translation. Sweeney, Marvin A. (2016). "Contemporary Jewish Readings of the Prophets". In Carolyn Sharp (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of the Prophets. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-985956-6. Wells, John C. (1990). Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. Pearson Longman. ISBN 978-1-4058-8117-3. Wensinck, A. J. (1913–1936). "Jeremiah". In M. Th. Houtsma; T. W. Arnold; R. Basset; R. Hartmann (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (First ed.). Further reading[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Easton, Matthew George (1897). Easton's Bible Dictionary (New and revised ed.). T. Nelson and Sons. Missing or empty |title= (help) Ackroyd, Peter R. (1968). Exile and Restoration: A Study of Hebrew Thought in the Sixth Century BC. Philadelphia: Westminster Press. Bright, John (1965). The Anchor Bible: Jeremiah (2nd ed.). New York: Doubleday. Friedman, Richard E. (1987). Who Wrote the Bible? New York: Harper and Row. Heschel, Abraham Joshua (1975). The Prophets. HarperCollins Paperback. ISBN 978-0-06-131421-6 Howard, Reggie (2019). Indomitable Spokesperson for Deity – Prophet Jeremiah. Wewak, Papua New Guinea. ISBN 978-1-5439-5739-6. Meyer, F.B. (1980). Jeremiah, Priest and Prophet (Revised ed.). Fort Washington, PA: Christian Literature Crusade. ISBN 0-87508-355-2. Perdue, Leo G.; Kovacs, Brian W., eds. (1984). A Prophet to the Nations: Essays in Jeremiah Studies. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns. ISBN 0-931464-20-X. Rosenberg, Joel (1987). "Jeremiah and Ezekiel". In Alter, Robert; Kermode, Frank (eds.). The Literary Guide to the Bible. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-87530-3. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Jeremiah (Biblical figure). Cheyne, Thomas Kelly (1911). "Jeremiah" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 15 (11th ed.). pp. 323–325. Faulhaber, Michael (1910). "Jeremias (the Prophet)" . Catholic Encyclopedia. 8. Hirsch, Emil G.; et al., "Jeremiah" Jewish Encyclopedia (1906). v t e Prophets in the Hebrew Bible Pre-Patriarchal Abel Kenan Enoch Noah (in rabbinic literature) Patriarchs / Matriarchs Abraham Isaac Jacob Levi Joseph Sarah Rebecca Rachel Leah Israelite prophets in the Torah Moses (in rabbinic literature) Aaron Miriam Eldad and Medad Phinehas Mentioned in the Former Prophets Joshua Deborah Gideon Eli Elkanah Hannah Abigail Samuel Gad Nathan David Solomon Jeduthun Ahijah Shemaiah Elijah Elisha Iddo Hanani Jehu Micaiah Jahaziel Eliezer Zechariah ben Jehoiada Huldah Major Isaiah (in rabbinic literature) Jeremiah Ezekiel Daniel (in rabbinic literature) Minor Hosea Joel Amos Obadiah Jonah (in rabbinic literature) Micah Nahum Habakkuk Zephaniah Haggai Zechariah Malachi Noahide Beor Balaam Job (in rabbinic literature) Other Amoz Beeri Baruch Agur Uriah Buzi Mordecai Esther (in rabbinic literature) Oded Azariah Italics indicate persons whose status as prophets is not universally accepted. v t e Extra-Quranic Prophets of Islam In Stories of the Prophets Enoch Eber Khidr Joshua Samuel Saul Gideon Isaiah Jeremiah Ezekiel Ezra Daniel In Islamic tradition Amos Seth Shem Eli Ahijah Shemaiah Iddo Haggai Hanani Jehu Melchizedek Micaiah Nahum Eliezer Zechariah ben Jehoiada Uriah Hananiah, Mishael and Azariah Berechiah Joel Obadiah Micah Habakkuk Zephaniah Malachi Hanzalah Khaled bin Sinan In Quranic exegesis Abel Saduq, Masduq, and Shalum Hosea Zechariah, son of Berechiah Italics = While the figure has been revered by many Muslims as a saint, status as a prophet is not accepted by all. v t e Gospel of Matthew Bible (New Testament) Chapter Matthew 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Verse Matthew 1:1-25 2:1-23 3:1-17 4:1-25 5:1-48 6:1-34 7:1-24 8:1-7 16:2b–3,19 27:1-12; 52-66 28:1-20 Events and phrases Jesus' Birth Star of Bethlehem Magi Flight into Egypt Massacre of the Innocents Return to Nazareth Baptism Temptation Galilean ministry Fishers of men Behold the bridegroom Sermon on the Mount Lord's Prayer Golden rule Calming the storm Feeding the multitude Walking on water Transfiguration Great Commandment Olivet Discourse Ten Virgins Anointing Passion of Jesus Last Supper Crucifixion of Jesus Burial Empty tomb Resurrection Great Commission People Andrew Caiaphas Herod James Jeremiah Jesus Christ John John the Baptist Joseph Judas Iscariot Mary Mary Magdalene Matthew Philip Pontius Pilate Rachel Simon Peter Thomas Zebedee Groups Angels Pharisees Sadducees Sanhedrin Places Bethany Bethlehem Bethsaida Capernaum Egypt Galilee Jerusalem Jordan River Judea Samaria Sea of Galilee Related Q source M Source Gospel of Mark Textual variants Augustinian hypothesis Two-gospel hypothesis Genealogy of Jesus Five Discourses of Matthew Sources Greek Text Latin Vulgate Wycliffe Version King James Version American Standard Version World English Version In popular culture The Gospel According to St. Matthew (1964 film) Godspell (1971 musical) Godspell (1973 film) The Visual Bible: Matthew (1993 film) ← Book of Malachi (chapter 4) Bible portal Gospel of Mark (chapter 1) → v t e Saints of the Catholic Church Stages of canonization: Servant of God   →   Venerable   →   Blessed   →   Saint Virgin Mary Mother of God (Theotokos) Immaculate Conception Perpetual virginity Assumption Marian apparition Titles of Mary Joseph (husband) Apostles Andrew Barnabas Bartholomew James of Alphaeus James the Great John Jude Matthew Matthias Paul Peter Philip Simon Thomas Archangels Gabriel Michael Raphael Confessors Anatolius Anthony of Kiev Athanasius the Confessor Chariton the Confessor Dominic Edward the Confessor Francis of Assisi Francis Borgia Louis Bertrand Maximus the Confessor Michael of Synnada Paphnutius the Confessor Paul I of Constantinople Peter Claver Salonius Seraphim of Sarov Theophanes the Confessor Disciples Apollos Mary Magdalene Priscilla and Aquila Silvanus Stephen Timothy Titus Seventy disciples Doctors Gregory the Great 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en-wikipedia-org-3198	----	Military establishment of the Roman Republic - Wikipedia Military establishment of the Roman Republic From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Military establishment of the Roman Republic" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (November 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Part of a series on the Military of ancient Rome 753 BC – AD 476 Structural history Army Unit types and ranks Decorations and punishments Legions Auxilia Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Campaign history Wars and battles Technological history Military engineering Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Political history   Strategy and tactics Infantry tactics Frontiers and fortifications Limes Limes Britannicus Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Limes Germanicus Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes Norican Limes Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannonian Limes Limes Alutanus Limes Moesiae Trajan's Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmatiae Limes Arabicus Limes Tripolitanus Limes Mauretaniae  Ancient Rome portal •  War portal v t e Main article: Military history of ancient Rome As the Roman kingdom successfully overcame opposition from the Italic hill tribes, and became a larger state, the age of tyranny in the eastern Mediterranean began to subside. Inspired by the idea of new constitutions arising there, the Roman populace threw off the yoke of tyranny and established a republic. The army was now facing threats from all of Europe and could only respond through change. This article covers the military establishment of the Roman Republic. For previous changes in the Roman army, see military establishment of the Roman kingdom. The historian Polybius gives us a clear picture of the republican army at what is arguably its height in 160 BC. Serving in the army was part of Roman civic duty. To serve in the armies of Rome, one had to purchase one's own equipment, and soldiers were sorted into different classes according to wealth. Velites made up the lower class soldiers; it was this class which made up the majority of the heavy infantry legions characteristic to Rome. The Equites, or Equestrians, were the higher class citizens so named because they could afford to maintain at least one horse; this class made up the Roman Citizen Cavalry, which, through its evolution, transformed into one of the prizes of the late Republic, only to disappear by the time of the Empire. Contents 1 Pre-Marian military 1.1 The draft 1.2 The Standard Legion 1.3 The Legion in battle 2 Marian reforms 2.1 Problems in the military 2.2 Marius takes a hand 2.3 Professional army 2.4 Evaluation 3 External links Pre-Marian military[edit] In the late republic, the army became an instrument for successful international warfare, due to the reforms of one of Rome's greatest generals, Gaius Marius, a man admired and imitated by Julius Caesar. His changes were so critical to the success of Roman legions that the army is characterized in history as "pre-Marian" and "post-Marian" or just "Marian". The draft[edit] The highest officers of the military were the two consuls for that year, who were also the leaders of the senate at Rome. Each of them ordinarily commanded an army group of two legions: they also had responsibility for raising these troops. In militaristic Rome, the highest civilian officers were also the military chiefs of staff and the commanding generals in battle. They answered only to the Roman Senate. Raising the legions was an annual affair. The term of service was one year, although many candidates no doubt were picked year after year. The magistrates decided who in the tribes were eligible for selection. The word we translate as "magistrate" was the title of a tribal official, a tribunus ("of the tribes"). Here a basic division of the military and civilian branches applied, as well as the subjection of the military to the civilian. The working organizations of the tribe were called comitia (committees). They elected tribunes of plebs, "tribunes of the people", as well as 24 tribune militaries — 6 per legion — who were careerists with at least 5 or 6 years' service experience. A career would include both military and civilian offices. The 6 military tribunes were to be the senior staff of the legion. On election day, the presiding tribune sent the men of the tribe to appear before the military tribunes in groups of four. The four senior staffs of the future legions observed a priority of selection, which rotated. Each staff would take its pick, man by man until each had selected 4200 men, the complements of four legions. The selection of 16,800 men must have taken several days. If the circumstances of the state required it, the complement could be expanded to include more men, or the consuls could draft as many as four legions each. Additional forces could be drafted under ad hoc commanders called proconsules, who served "in place of consuls." In the later republic, the relatively small number of legions commanded by the consuls (2-4) resulted in their power being overshadowed by the proconsuls, the provincial governors. Provincial governors often would command more loyalty from their troops than their consular counterparts did, and governors were able to raise vast numbers of troops. While provincial armies technically were supposed to stay within the provinces over which their governors had jurisdiction, by the middle of the 1st century BC this rule was ignored. By the end of the Republic, the various commanders participating in Rome's civil wars had raised the number of legions throughout the provinces to more than fifty, many under the command of a single man. The necessity of raising legions quickly, to offset battle losses, resulted in an abbreviation of the recruitment process. The government appointed two boards, of three military tribunes each, empowered to enter any region in the Roman jurisdiction for the purpose of enlisting men. These tribunes were not elected. The experience requirement was dropped in the case of aristocratic appointees. Some were as young as 18, although this age was considered acceptable for a young aristocrat on his way up the cursus honorum, or ladder of offices. The appointed tribunes conducted an ad hoc draft, or dialects, to recruit men. They tended to select the youngest and most capable-looking. It was similar to later naval press gangs, except that Roman citizens were entitled to some process, no matter how abbreviated. If they had to, the appointed tribunes drafted slaves, as they did after the Battle of Cannae. Soldiers who had served out their time and had obtained their discharge (mission), but had voluntarily re-enlisted, were called evocati. The Standard Legion[edit] A standard Republican legion before the reforms of Gaius Marius (“the early Republic”) contained about 4500 men divided into the velites, the principes, and the hastati — of 1200 men each — also the triarii, of 600 men, and the equities, of 300 men. The first three types stood forward in battle; the triarii stood back. The velites and the equites were used mainly for various kinds of support. The class system of Servius Tullius already had organized society to support the military. He practically had created a "store" in which officers could "shop" for the resources they needed. Officers were elected by the civilian centuries, usually from the classic, or from the patricii if the latter were not included in the classic (there is some question about how this worked). There were available 80 centuries of wealthy classic, 40 of young men ages 17 to 45, and 40 of men 45 and older. These citizens could afford whatever arms and armor the officers thought they needed. The classic could go into any branch of the legion, but generally, veterans were preferred for the triarii, and young men for the velites. The rest was filled out from the young 40 centuries. The older 40 were kept for emergencies, which occurred frequently. These older men were roughly equivalent to the United States Army Reserve. If the arms requirement was less severe, or the expensive troops were in short supply, the recruiters selected from Classes 2 through 4, which again offered either older or younger men. Class 5 were centuries of specialists, such as carpenters. The Romans preferred not to use Class 6, but if the need was very great they were known to recruit even from slaves and the poor, who would have to be equipped with the state. The full equipage of arms and armor were the helmet with colored crest and face protectors, breastplates or chain mail (if a soldier could afford it), greaves, the parma (a round shield), the scutum (an oblong wrap-around of hiding on a wood frame, edged with metal, with the insignia of the legion painted on it), the pilum (the hasta veligers, a light javelin of about 3 feet with a 9-inch metal head), and a short sword they borrowed from Spanish tribes, the gladius. The gladius was both pointed for thrusting and edged for slashing. These arms could be combined in various ways, except that one battle-line had to be armed in the same way. Most typical was a line of principes armed with pole and gladii and defended by the scuti. The hastati could be armed the same way, or with the hasta and parma. The velites bore the hasta veligers and depended on running to get them away after a throw, which is why only the young were chosen for that job. The basic unit of the army was the company-sized century of 60 men commanded by a centurion. He had under him two junior officers, the options, each of whom had a standard-bearer, or vexillarius. Presumably, he used the two officers to form two squads. In addition, a squad of 20 elites was attached to the century, probably instructed ad hoc by the centurion. Two centuries made up a manipulandum of 120 men. Each line of battle contained 10 maniples, 1200 men, except that the triarii numbered only 600. The legion of 4200 infantry created in this way was supported by 300 equities, or cavalry, organized in 10 Turmae (squadrons) of 30 horse each, under a master of horse (magister equisetum), who took orders from the legion commander. Cavalry was used for scouting, skirmishing and various sorts of clean-up — they also constituted another reserve that could be thrown into the battle. The Republic was ignorant of armies on horseback, which, coming off the steppes of Central Asia in blitzkrieg operations, were to trouble the later empire. The Legion in battle[edit] Servius Tullius, who most like originally was an Etruscan soldier of fortune, identified the disadvantages of an army recruited from landowners: such an army depended heavily on a large farmer-class of citizens to provide troops. So Tullius pressed for reforms that granted veterans land. Although he was assassinated he did establish the precedent of granting land to veterans. The army at first was not overly successful, partly because it faced superior generals, and partly because of its inexperience. Roman commanders gave up trying to defeat Hannibal, the Carthaginian general, by direct combat as he ravaged Italy. The most successful Roman general at that time, Quintus Vabius Maximus Verrucosus, surnamed Cunctator (“the delayer”), camped at a distance and watched the doings of the Carthaginians, while his troops harassed the Carthaginian army on its fringes. Later, though, the army came into the hands of a family of careerists and professional soldiers, the Cornelii, a gens of the most ancient stock, patrician in the best sense of the word. They were the first real successors to Servius. After much trial and error, suffering personal losses, they produced one of the best and most influential generals Rome ever had, Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus. He built the Servian army into a victorious fighting machine. Let the Carthaginians ravage Italy, Scipio declared — he took the war to Carthage, landing in North Africa with a republican army. The strategy succeeded: Hannibal was recalled at once — he came home immediately, with a disrupted army, and he was beaten by Scipio at the Battle of Zama, in 202 BC. Using the tactics developed by Scipio — now entitled Africanus — plus good generalship, the army, at last, lived up to the potential imparted to it by King Servius. Roman army tactics worked as follows. The general first picked his ground. The Roman military now understood fairly well the importance of taking the initiative and picking its own ground, with some infamous exceptions. If the terrain was not right, the army remained within its fortified camp (which was virtually unassailable) until the enemy moved on, and then followed, waiting for an opportunity to engage. The ideal terrain was a gently sloping hill with a stream at the bottom. The enemy would have to ford the stream and move up the slope. The film, Spartacus, recreates this scenario. The legion was drawn up in three lines of battle, with the thermae and the velites placed as the situation required. The hastati in front and the principles behind were stationed in a line of maniples like chess pieces, 10 per line, separated from each other. The two centuries of a maniple fought side-by-side. The line of principes was offset so as to cover the gaps in the hastati, and the triarii, somewhat more thinly-spread, covered the principes. Roman soldiers fought in long thin lines. Such open formations allowed the Romans, often outnumbered, to outflank an enemy using a deep formation. The last thing they wanted was to be crushed together and cut down without being able to use their weapons, as they had been so many times before, and as so many armies who never studied Roman warfare were to be later. For the Romans, every man by regulation was allowed one square yard in which to fight, and square yards were separated by gaps of three feet. Now came the moment of battle... The thermae and the bands of velites (skirmishers) made forays opportunistically, trying to disrupt the ranks of the enemy or prevent them from crossing the stream if there was one. While they were doing this, the rest of the legion advanced. At a signal, the skirmishers retired through or around Roman ranks — there probably were trumpet calls, but we know little about them. Picking up speed, the first and second ranks launched spears, the second rank over the heads of the first using light lance with launchers, the first rank at the last moment with pale, or javelins. On impact, the heavy iron points drove through shields and armor both, pinning men together and disrupting the line. The hastati then drew gladii and closed. So great was the impact, we hear from Caesar, that sometimes the men would jump up on the enemy shields to cut downward. What happened next depended on the success of the hastati. If they were victorious, they were joined by the principles, who merged into their line to fill the gaps and make up the losses. The triarii moved to the flanks to envelop the enemy. If the hastati were not victorious, they merged backward into the principles. The third line remained in reserve unless the other two failed, in which case the front two merged into the third. As Roman Legions were composed primarily of heavy infantry, they displayed the advantages and drawbacks of classical heavy infantry. It is notable that three of the biggest defeats (Battle of Carrhae, Battle of Teutoburg Forest, Battle of Ctesiphon) all came at the hands of light infantry or light cavalry forces. Marian reforms[edit] Problems in the military[edit] By the end of the 2nd century BC, the Republican army was experiencing a severe manpower shortage. Soldiers also were having to serve for longer periods, and fight wars further away from their homes. For more information see Marian reforms Marius takes a hand[edit] The Gracchi had attempted to resolve the former problem by redistributing public land to the lower classes, thereby increasing the number of men eligible for military service. But they were assassinated before they could achieve this social reform. Rome instead followed the opposite but logical path of making any able-bodied citizen eligible to enlist. The popular Gaius Marius, at the end of the 2nd century, used his popularity to reorganize the Republican army. He took liberties with the letter of the law, to which few objected, and which later were ratified. First, he recruited men from the lower classes who did not meet the official property requirement. Then he reorganized the legions into the cohort system, doing away with the manipular system. The new legions were made up of 10 cohorts, each with 6 centuries of 80 men. The first cohort carried the new legionary standard, a silver or gold eagle called the aquila. This cohort contained only 5 centuries, but each century had double the number of men in the normal centuries. Altogether, each legion contained approximately 4,800 men. Professional army[edit] The Marian reforms had great political fallout. Although the officer corps still was composed largely of Roman aristocrats, the rank-and-file troops all were lower-class men — serving in the legions became less every citizen's traditional civic duty to Rome, and more a means of rising in society. This trend was accelerated by Rome's wars of conquest, which resulted in huge influxes of slaves. Freemen with or without land could not compete with free labor. Signing up with a legion allowed the possibility of loot and land enfranchisement. The reforms also meant that legions were now more-or-less permanent formations, not just temporary armies deployed according to need (the Latin word 'legion' is actually their word for 'levy'). As enduring units, they were able to become more effective fighting forces; more importantly, they could form lasting loyalties to their commanders, rather than keeping loyalties to Rome. The 1-year consular system began to break down, and generals served for longer durations. This, in turn, meant that troops were more loyal to their commanders, which served as a catalyst for the oppressive and corrupt rule that the Roman military played in the later years under the Emperors. Evaluation[edit] On the one hand, the reforms of Marius created a professional army for extended service abroad. On the other, it increased the stature of the generals and encouraged competition between them, which is what made the civil wars possible, and it is why scholars often cite the Marian Reforms as the beginning of the end for the Roman Republic. The subsequent emperors ruthlessly eliminated powerful men and potential successors. 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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3209	----	Justin (historian) - Wikipedia Justin (historian) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Justin (Latin: Marcus Junianus Justinus Frontinus;[n 1] c. second century) was a Latin writer who lived under the Roman Empire. Epitome historiarum Trogi Pompeii Contents 1 Life 2 Works 3 Legacy 4 Notes 5 References 6 Bibliography 7 External links Life[edit] Almost nothing is known of Justin's personal history, his name appearing only in the title of his work. He must have lived after Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus, whose work he excerpted, and his references to the Romans and Parthians' having divided the world between themselves would have been anachronistic after the rise of the Sassanians in the third century. His Latin appears to be consistent with the style of the second century. Ronald Syme, however, argues for a date around AD 390, immediately before the compilation of the Augustan History, and dismisses anachronisms and the archaic style as unimportant, as he asserts readers would have understood Justin's phrasing to represent Trogus' time, and not his own.[1] Works[edit] Justin was the author of an epitome of Trogus' expansive Liber Historiarum Philippicarum, or Philippic Histories, a history of the kings of Macedonia, compiled in the time of Augustus. Due to its numerous digressions, this work was retitled by one of its editors, Historia Philippicae et Totius Mundi Origines et Terrae Situs, or Philippic History and Origins of the Entire World and All of its Lands. Justin's preface explains that he aimed to collect the most important and interesting passages of that work, which has since been lost. Some of Trogus' original arguments (prologi) are preserved in various other authors, such as Pliny the Elder. Trogus' main theme was the rise and history of the Macedonian Empire, and like him, Justin permitted himself considerable freedom of digression, producing an idiosyncratic anthology rather than a strict epitome. Legacy[edit] Justin's history was much used in the Middle Ages, when its author was sometimes mistakenly conflated with Justin Martyr.[2] Notes[edit] ^ Justin's name is given only in manuscripts of his own history, the majority of which simply identify him as Justinus. One manuscript identifies him as Justinus Frontinus, the other as Marcus Junianus Justinus. The accuracy of these names is uncertain. References[edit] ^ Syme (1988). ^ EB (1911). sfnp error: no target: CITEREFEB1911 (help) Bibliography[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Justin". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Borgna, Alice (2018), "Ripensare la storia universale. Giustino e l'Epitome delle Storie Filippiche di Pompeo Trogo", Spudasmata . Syme, Ronald (1988), "The Date of Justin and the Discovery of Trogus", Historia, No. 37, pp. 358–371 . External links[edit] An early edition (Milan, 1476) of the Epitome from the Bavarian State Library Justin's Epitome at The Latin Library, Corpus Scriptorum Latinorum, & Itinera Electronica (in Latin) Watson's 1853 translation at CSL, the Tertullian Project, & Attalus (in English) Arnaud-Lindet's 2003 translation at CSL (in French) Correa's 2003 partial translation at CSL (in Spanish) Prologi of Pompeius Trogus's work at the Tertullian Project Authority control BIBSYS: 95002665 BNE: XX875329 BNF: cb120317576 (data) CANTIC: a11326712 CiNii: DA06678369 GND: 11871435X ISNI: 0000 0001 2124 4766 LCCN: n82043687 NDL: 00671642 NKC: ola2002158752 NLA: 35945453 NLI: 000072670 NSK: 000384088 NTA: 069116431 RERO: 02-A000096264 SELIBR: 192057 SUDOC: 028492528 Trove: 1157676 VcBA: 495/24211 VIAF: 24616821 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n82043687 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Justin_(historian)&oldid=993090404" Categories: 2nd-century Romans 2nd-century historians Latin historians Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles containing Latin-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica CS1: long volume value Articles with Latin-language sources (la) Articles with French-language sources (fr) Articles with Spanish-language sources (es) Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of death unknown Year of birth unknown Place of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages Asturianu Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 8 December 2020, at 18:58 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3211	----	Roman Republican currency - Wikipedia Roman Republican currency From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Numismatics Currency Coins Banknotes Forgery List ISO Circulating currencies Africa The Americas Europe Asia Oceania Local currencies Company scrip LETS Time dollars Fictional currencies Proposed currencies History Historical currencies Greek Roman China India Persian Tibetan Thai Filipino Malay Byzantine Medieval currencies Production Mint Designers Coining Milling Hammering Cast Exonumia Credit cards Medals Tokens Cheques Notaphily Banknotes Scripophily Stocks Bonds Glossary of numismatics  Numismatics portal  Money portal v t e Roman Republican currency refers to the Coinage struck by the various magistrates of the Roman Republic, to be used as legal tender. In modern times, the abbreviation RRC, "Roman Republican Coinage" originally the name of a reference work on the topic by Michael H. Crawford, has come to be used as an identifying tag for coins assigned a number in that work, such as RRC 367. Coins came late to the Republic compared with the rest of the Mediterranean, especially Greece and Asia Minor where coins were invented in the 7th century BC. The currency of central Italy was influenced by its natural resources, with bronze being abundant (the Etruscans were famous metal workers in bronze and iron) and silver ore being scarce. The coinage of the Roman Republic started with a few silver coins apparently devised for trade with the Greek colonies in Southern Italy, and heavy cast bronze pieces for use in Central Italy. During the Second Punic war a flexible system of coins in bronze, silver and (occasionally) gold was created. This system was dominated by the silver denarius, a denomination which remained in circulation for 450 years. The coins of the republic (especially the denarii) are of particular interest because they were produced by "mint magistrates", junior officials who choose the designs and legends. This resulted in the production of coins advertising the officials' families for political purposes; most of the messages on these coins can still be understood today. Contents 1 Before coinage 2 Cast bronze coinage 3 Introduction of Greek-style silver coinage 4 The denarius system 4.1 As introduced 4.2 Evolution: weights and fineness 4.3 Evolution: silver vs bronze 4.4 Evolution: gold 5 Coinage and political messages 6 Sources of evidence 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links Before coinage[edit] Before the introduction of coinage in Italy the two important forms of value in the economy were sheep (pecus), from which the Latin word for money (pecunia) is believed by some to have been derived, and irregularly shaped pieces of bronze known as aes rude (rough bronze) which needed to be weighed for each transaction. It is unclear when money became commonly used, but Roman tradition recorded that pay of the army began during the siege of Veii in 406 BC and it appears that Aes rude was the currency well before this. Toward the end of the 4th century BC bronze began to be cast in flat bars which are known today, without any historical authority, as aes signatum (signed bronze). These bars were heavily leaded, of varying weights although generally on the order of five Roman pounds, and usually had a design on one and later both sides. The actual function of aes signatum has been variously interpreted; although a form of currency they were not coins since they did not adhere to a weight standard. Rome produced its own aes signatum around 300 BC which are distinguished by the inscription "ROMANOM" (of the Romans) and production continued to about the end of the first Punic war in 240 BC,[1] overlapping some of the developments described below. Cast bronze coinage[edit] O: Bearded head of Janus, I horizontally below; on a raised disk. R: Prow of galley right; I above; all on a raised disk. Anonymous Æ Aes Grave As (259.53 g). c 225-217 BC. RRC 35/1; Vecchi 75 According to Pomponius, a lawyer who lived during the 2nd century AD, the group of three mint magistrates tresviri monetales was established in 289 BC, but this date seems to be far too early, and if they did not come into existence during the Second Punic War, the formation of a formal college may not have occurred until some time after 200 BC. The three members of this committee were officially known as the "tres viri aere argento auro flando feriundo" ("the three men responsible for casting and striking bronze, silver and gold"), a lengthy title that was almost always abbreviated to "III.V.A.A.A.F.F.". Julius Caesar briefly raised their number to four. According to Suidas, the mint was located in (or at least near) the temple of Juno Moneta on the Capitoline Hill. By this time Rome was familiar with coinage, as it had been introduced to Italy in the Greek colonies of Metapontum, Croton, and Sybaris before 500 BC and Neapolis ca 450 BC.[2] Rome had conquered a large portion of central Italy, giving it large quantities of bronze, but little silver. A system of heavy cast leaded bronze coinage was introduced; these issues are known as aes grave (heavy bronze) by numismatists. Stylistically the coins were distinctly Roman and, due to both their size and their being cast rather than struck, crude compared to the coinage elsewhere around the Mediterranean at the time. The standard coin was the as; the word as referred to a coin and also to a unit of weight – in fact, as could also mean any unit – of length, area, and sometimes just the number one.[3] The bronze coinage was initially a more or less full value currency rather than a token currency, based on the "libral standard" where the as weighed one Roman pound (libra) with fractions in units of Roman ounces (unciae), with 12 unciae in a libra. The "uncia" was thus also both a weight and a coin of the same weight. This changed when the weight of the aes grave was decreased to approximately 10 unciae ca 270 BC (the "light libral standard", remaining at that level until 225 BC, then suddenly to 5 unciae (the "semi-libral standard") c. the start of the second Punic war in 218 BC, finally falling to 1.5–1 unciae around 211 BC.[4] In addition to the as and its fractions, multiples of the as were also produced. Fractions were much more common than asses and their multiples during the period of aes grave.[5] By the time of the semi-libral standard, the smaller denominations such as the uncia and semuncia were struck rather than cast. A variety of less common denominations were minted over time; those found in Crawford (1974) are listed here. Bronze Denominations in Crawford (1974) Coin Mark Earliest Example Date Value (Asses) Value (Unciae) Decussis X RRC 41/1 215–212 BC 10  120 Quincussis V RRC 41/2 215–212 BC 5  60 Tressis III RRC 41/3 215–212 BC 3 36 Dupondius II RRC 41/4 215–212 BC 2 24 As I RRC 14/1 280–276 BC 1 12 Dextans S𐆐𐆐 RRC 97/23 211–208 BC 5/6 10 Dodrans S𐆐𐆑 RRC 266/2 126 BC 3/4 9 Bes S𐆐 RRC 266/3 126 BC 2/3 8 Semis S RRC 14/2 280–276 BC 1/2 6 Quincunx 𐆐𐆐𐆑 RRC 97/11 211–208 BC 5/12 5 Triens 𐆐𐆐 RRC 14/3 280–276 BC 1/3 4 Quadrans 𐆐𐆑 RRC 14/4 280–276 BC 1/4 3 Sextans 𐆐 RRC 14/5 280–276 BC 1/6 2 Uncia 𐆑 RRC 14/6 280–276 BC 1/12 1 Semuncia 𐆒 RRC 14/7 280–276 BC 1/24 1/2 Quartuncia 𐅀 RRC 38/8 217–215 BC 1/48 1/4 Introduction of Greek-style silver coinage[edit] Greek-style struck bronze coins were produced in small quantity with the inscription ΡΩΜΑΙΩΝ around 300 BC; only a handful of examples exist today. They are believed to have been produced on behalf of Rome by Neapolis, based on the similar style and weight with Neapolis' own coinage, and used to facilitate trade in the wake of the construction of the Appian Way, started in 312 BC. O: Bearded head of Mars with Corinthian helmet left. R: Horse head right, grain ear behind. The first Roman silver coin, 281 BC. RRC 13/1 Rome entered into a war against Tarentum in 281 BC; the Tarentines enlisted the support of Pyrrhus of Epirus. It was in this context that Rome produced its first Greek-style silver didrachm (RRC 13/1) with the head of Mars wearing a Corinthian helmet on one side and the head of a horse with the inscription ROMANO (worn off on the example shown) and a grain ear behind. This coinage may have predated the aes grave discussed above, but was minted and used largely in Magna Graecia and Campania. It was clearly part of a broader trend; payment of Roman and allied troops fighting in the Pyrrhic war appears to have been crucial in spreading the use of Greek-style coinage throughout the southern Apennine areas of Italy.[6] This issue is today thought to have been minted in Neapolis because it was minted on that weight standard (7.3 g), not that of Metapontum, Tarentum, and other South Italian cities (which was 7.9 g at the start of the war but fell to 6.6 g during its course).[7] This issue was thought earlier to have been minted in Metapontum because the grain-ear is the most common type on Metapontine coins and the Mars head is very similar to the head of Leucippus (a local hero, the Messenian king who re-founded Metapontum, not the philosopher) on an earlier coin produced there.[8] O: Diademed head Hercules right, club on shoulder. R: Wolf suckling twins, ROMANO in. ex. The first Roman silver coin minted at Rome, 269 BC. RRC 20/1 A number of different coins were minted in increasing volumes over the next few years, but the first silver coin now thought to have been minted in Rome itself is the Hercules/She-wolf didrachm (Crawford 20/1). The date of this issue is likely 269 BC, as the devices on this coin refer to that year's consuls Q. Ogulnius L.f A.n. Gallus and C. Fabius C.f. M.n. Pictor. Hercules, shown on the obverse his club (shown undersized above his shoulder) and a lion skin tied around his neck, was the divine patron of the Fabii.[9] Quintus and his brother Cnaeus Ogulnius had, as curule aediles, prosecuted moneylenders; part of the proceeds were used to set up near the Ficus Ruminalis a statue of Romulus and Remus being suckled by the she-wolf as shown on the reverse.[10] Some historians believe that these coins were valued at 10 asses making them denarii, this assertion is based on the account of Pliny in the 1st century AD, where he states that the denarius was introduced in 269 BC. Most historians today, however, do not see this as a denarius, but another didrachm. This last and most other Roman coins were produced in small numbers until the introduction of the didrachm we refer to as the quadrigatus. The quadrigatus, produced in large quantity starting around 235 BC, was named after the reverse image of Victory driving a quadriga and was produced for about 2 decades, becoming more and more debased (to as little as 30% silver) during the second Punic war. The denarius system[edit] As introduced[edit] O: Head Roma Right. IIS R: Caped Dioscuri riding right with couched lances, stars above. Sestertius, Anonymous, Rome, 211 BC. RRC 44/7 The denarius, which became the main silver coin of Rome for over four centuries, was introduced in 211 BC or a few years earlier, and produced in enormous quantity from the silver captured in the sack of Syracuse. The denarius (RRC 44/5), valued at 10 asses as indicated by the mark X and weighing about 4.5 grams (72 to a Roman pound), was introduced as part of a complex multi-metallic coinage. Also in silver was the half denarius, the quinarius (RRC 44/6, marked V), and the quarter denarius, the sestertius (RRC 44/7, marked IIS and shown on the left), all bearing a head of Roma on the obverse and a reverse of the dioscuri riding with their capes behind (a reference to their supposed assistance to Rome at the battle of Lake Regillus). Bronze asses and their fractions (all now struck rather than cast) continued to be produced to a standard of about 55 grams; this was very quickly reduced to a sextantal standard and finally an uncial standard of roughly 32 gms. By this time, asses outnumbered their fractions, perhaps because legionary pay was increased to the point where the as could become the principal component.[11] In gold, there were three pieces worth 60 asses (RRC 44/2, marked ↆX), 40 asses (RRC 44/3, marked XXXX) and 20 asses (RRC 44/4, marked XX). All featured a head of Mars on the obverse and an eagle with outspread wings standing on a thunderbolt on the reverse.[12] The eagle is somewhat reminiscent of the eagle that had consistently been a symbol on Ptolemaic coinage since the very beginning of the century, and it has been suggested that Ptolemy IV Philopator may have provided gold for this issue to act as a counterweight to the involvement of Philip V of Macedon on the side of Carthage.[13] The victoriatus, another silver coin (RRC 44/1), was also introduced in large quantity at the same time. It seems to have been quite separate from the denarius system proper as X-ray fluorescence spectrometry has shown that these were produced to an entirely different standard of fineness. While an analysis of 52 early denarii, quinarii, and sestertii showed a silver concentration of 96.2 ± 1.09%, 19 victoriati from the same period have highly variable fineness ranging from 72 to 93%.[14] Early finds of victoriati are primarily in Southern Italy and Sicily and it is thought that the victoriati with a weight of 3/4 of a denarius were used to pay non-citizens with experience of the Greek coinage system in the drachma format to which they were accustomed, but with debased/overvalued coins. The quadrigatus didrachm, which had been retariffed to 15 asses (1.5 denarii), was removed from circulation almost immediately. Evolution: weights and fineness[edit] Over the next 40 years, the denarius slowly lost weight. The reason for this is unclear, but in the early days it may have been the ongoing pressure of the Second Punic War. Afterwards the Roman state had a debt equivalent to 25 years direct taxation on Roman citizens (~1 million denarii); this was not fully repaid until Cn. Manlius Vulso returned with the spoils of Asia after the Treaty of Apamea, (188 BC).[15] The weight was officially changed from 72 to the pound (6 scruples) to 84 to the pound at that time; it remained relatively stable thereafter.[16] O: ANT AVG III VIR R P C, galley right. R: LEG III, aquila and two legionary standards. Legionary denarius of Mark Anthony, 32 BC. RRC 544/15 Date Weight 211 4.5 g 206 4.2 g 190–199 3.9 g 170–179 3.7 g The silver content during republican times remained well above 90%, usually above 95% with the exception of Marcus Antonius's later coinage, especially the massive "legionary" issue of coinage of 32–31 BC just prior to the Battle of Actium (an example is shown on the right), rumored to be silver from Egypt provided by Cleopatra.[17] Evolution: silver vs bronze[edit] Obverse, RRC 224/1, 141 BC. Obverse, RRC 243/1, 134 BC. Two denarius obverses showing alternate indications they were worth 16 asses. By about 140 BC (the exact date is unclear) the denarius was retariffed to 16 asses, indicated by XVI on the obverse of the denarius. This appears first on the coinage marked L.IVLI (RRC 224/1), commonly dated to 141 BC. The clear marking with the number XVI was soon again replaced with an X, but often now with a horizontal bar through the centre as shown in the second example on the left (RRC 243/1); this is sometimes read as a monogram of XVI with all the letters superimposed. The re-tariffing is thought to have been a recognition of a relationship that had developed because of decreased as weights, both due to wear of old asses and to decreasing mint weights of newer ones. This meant that the quinarius was worth eight asses, and the sestertius four asses. The new denarius-to-as ratio lasted for hundreds of years. At about the same time the unit of account changed from asses to sestertii (HS). This may well be an indicator of inflation.[18] The victoriatus continued to circulate well into the 2nd century BC. Victoriati were later popular in places such as Cisalpine Gaul where they circulated alongside drachmae of Massalia (Marseille). Evolution: gold[edit] The gold 60, 40, and 20 as coins were only minted for a few years; gold in general appears to have been used at first only as an emergency coinage. Gold coins reappeared in 82 BC when Sulla was gathering funds for the war against Mithridates VI of Pontus immediately after the financial strains of the Social War. Sulla's coinage is commonly considered the first for which the name (denarius) aureus was used. Aureii were minted in large numbers by Julius Caesar in preparation for a proposed war against Parthia and issuing of the aureus continued to increase after the fall of the republic. Coinage and political messages[edit] New denarius reverse design: Luna driving a biga, 169–158 BC. RRC 187/1 Eventually a new reverse appeared, first Luna driving a biga (two horse chariot) in 194–190 BC, and then Victory driving a biga in 157 BC – thought to refer to the final defeat of Perseus of Macedon at the battle of Pydna by Lucius Aemilius Paulus in 168 BC.[19] These Victory "bigati" became the most common type of denarius. Denarii were marked with special symbols (such as a star or an anchor) from very shortly after their introduction and soon monograms indicating the tresviri monetales (mint masters, often called moneyers, that were responsible for the issue) were on the coins. In some cases the symbols are "punning". The example reverse shown to the left (RRC 187/1 showing Luna driving a biga) is one such; a shell symbol appears above the horses along with the letters "PVR" below. The shell is thought to be a murex shell; this was the source of Tyrian purple (in Latin: purpureo) and this, along with the letters, is thought to refer to a Furius Purpureo.[20] This type of reference to the moneyers became more and more explicit, and eventually developed into self-advertising to further the political career of the moneyers. Denarius reverse celebrating ancestor of N. Fabius Pictor, RRC 268/1b Families who had already had members in the Senate were more likely to have further family members elected to political office (and thus become senators). This was so much more likely that only a few consular novi homines (new men) are known to history. Advertising on coins was thus often about the moneyer's family. In the coin reverse shown on the right (RRC 268/1b), the legend around the outside indicates that moneyer was N. Fabius Pictor. The seated individual is wearing a cuirass, holding a spear in his left hand and an apex, the characteristic hat worn by the flamines, in his right. At his side there is a shield inscribed QUIRIN. This is taken to refer to Q. Fabius Pictor (probably the son of Quintus Fabius Pictor the annalist) who was elected praetor in 189 BC and assigned the province of Sardinia by lot (Livy 37.50.8). He was also the flamen Quirinalis and because of this, P. Licinius Crassus, the pontifex maximus of the day did not allow him to take the Sardinian office because of various taboos surrounding the flamen's person, and the need for the flamen to perform certain rites in Rome (Livy 37.51.3–7).[21] The Sardinian praetorship was exchanged for both the urban and peregrine praetorships, and N. Fabius Pictor remained in Rome.[22][23] The entire incident was part of the political manoeuvring of Scipio Africanus against his attackers, which included the Fabii.[24] O: Head Lucius Junius Brutus right, BRVTVS. R: Head Gaius Servilius Ahala right, AHALA. Denarius of Marcus Junius Brutus celebrating his ancestors, 54 BC. RRC 433/2 Over time, the politics of the day became more and more visible in the coinage. In 54 BC, the first triumvirate had control of Rome, and Pompey was its preeminent member. There were rumours that Pompey was to be made dictator. In this context, the coin on the left (Crawford 433/2) was a powerful political message. The moneyer, Marcus Junius Brutus, placed on the coin two figures from Roman history that he claimed as ancestors: Lucius Junius Brutus of the Junius Gens, who was made the first consul of the republic of Rome in 509 BC after he expelled Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the last of the Roman kings, and Gaius Servilius Ahala, who killed Spurius Maelius – a knight who endeared himself to the populace of Rome by providing free grain during a famine – reputedly in a bid for seeking kingship – in 439 BC. Marcus Brutus was also known as Quintus Servilius Caepio Brutus, as he had been adopted into the gens Servilia, from which he was descended on his mother's side. In the face of famine in 57 BC Pompey had been made a special commissioner to control the supply of grain; this included the control of all ports and trading centres for five years. There was earlier bad blood between them; Pompey had put down an earlier insurrection by Marcus Aurelius Lepidus in which Brutus's father had been involved; Pompey had had him executed. It was the opposition of Cato the Younger, Brutus's half brother on his adopted family's side, to Pompey's requests for land for his veterans of the war against Mithradates that gave Pompey the incentive to be part of the triumvirate. M. Brutus was clearly making a pointed, uncompromising statement of opposition to Pompey and the triumvirate while praising his ancestors.[25] O: Head Caesar right, CAESAR. IM P M R: Venus standing holding Victory in right hand and sceptre in left. L. AEMILIVS BVC. Denarius minted in the name of Caesar by L. Aemilius Buca 44 BC. RRC 480/4 In 44 BC, Julius Caesar was preparing for war with Parthia to avenge the defeat inflicted by the Parthians on Crassus at the Battle of Carrhae. To this end, an enormous variety of denarii and aureii were being minted in large numbers. The coin on the right is from January–February 44 BC. The Venus holding Victory and a sceptre on the reverse was a reference to the claim of the gens Julia to descend from Aeneas and thus Anchises and the goddess Venus. This was innocuous to Romans, but the obverse showing Caesar himself wearing the gold laurel wreath that the Senate had voted for him was an enormous departure from tradition and deeply offensive. While the coinage had been used to show ancestors, this is the first time that the head of a living Roman had been displayed on Roman coinage. It was widely perceived as part of a larger series of moves by Caesar to make himself king – and kings were anathema in Rome ever since the foundation of the republic. Other coins minted at the same time bore the text "DICT QVART", indicating that Caesar had been dictator for four years running. A later version (RRC 480/10, February–March 44 BC) showed "DICT PERPET"; Caesar had been made dictator for life.[26][27] He was assassinated, by Brutus among others, on the Ides of March, 44 BC. Head Brutus Right. BRVT IMP, L.PLAET.CEST Two daggers flanking pileus. EID.MAR Modern forgery of denarius of L. Plaetorius Cestianus celebrating Brutus and his action on the Ides of March. 43–42 BC. RRC 508/3 The assassination could not revive the republic. Two years later, just prior to the Battle of Philippi, Brutus produced a coin (RRC 508/3, modern forgery shown to the left) celebrating the freeing of the republic from Caesar's tyranny. The reverse showed two daggers flanking a pileus (a cap used in the ceremony freeing slaves) and the legend "EID MAR". On the obverse, Brutus, the "noblest Roman", had placed his own head. The republic survived, by convention more than reality, until Octavian, Caesar's nephew and heir was declared Augustus in 27 BC. Sources of evidence[edit] The dates on all the coins mentioned above can not be known with absolute certainty. Sometimes particular coins can be linked to a well defined event in history, e.g. the "dict perpet" denarii of Caesar can be dated very closely to his assassination, but this is rarely the case. Much dating of the coinage is based on evidence from coin hoards. The hoarding of coins, especially by burial, was a "banking system" often used in ancient times, particularly in times of crisis; hoarding during the civil war between Caesar and Pompey was so extensive that it resulted in a liquidity crisis.[28] Hoards can present evidence in several ways The location of the hoard can speak to where the coins in question circulated. The archaeological context of a coin hoard can set an approximate date for the production of the coinage. As an example, excavations of the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus uncovered coins beneath the temple; the date the temple was built is known and so a terminus ante quem for the period of their production can be deduced. The differential wear of coins in a hoard can be used to establish a relative chronology. Coins that had circulated longer prior to burial should show more wear. The composition of the hoard in terms of coin types can speak to what sorts of coins circulated in the same place at the same time and their relative abundance. From this, relative chronologies can sometimes be extracted. Comparison of multiple coin hoards can help to establish relative chronologies; if a series of coins is well represented in one large coin hoard and some are missing from a second large hoard, it is likely that they were minted after that hoard was buried. Despite all of this, the evidence remains unclear. In this case, numismatic scholars attempt to make their best estimate of the absolute and relative chronology. In English, the current standard work is Crawford 1974 which built on and superseded the work of Sydenham 1952, Grueber 1910, Babelon 1886, and Mommsen 1850.[29] The chronology used by this article and the identification of coins by the label RRC xx/yy identifies a particular item in that catalogue. There is however newer evidence, particularly in the period 170–149 BC, where analysis of the recently discovered Mesagne hoard has led to the alternate chronologies of Hersh & Walker 1984, and Harlan 1995. An alternate naming of the coinage of the form "gens ##" (e.g. "Fabia 11" for the 11th coin minted by a moneyer of the gens Fabia; i.e. RRC 268/1) is also sometimes still used. This was devised by Babelon and used by Grueber, Sydenham, and many newer books. See also[edit] List of historical currencies Roman Republic Roman currency Roman provincial coins List of Roman moneyers during the Republic Notes[edit] ^ Thurlow-Vecchi 1979:17,18, Plates 11–23 ^ Rutter 2001:10,68 ^ Willis 1972 ^ Crawford 1974:131–236 ^ Crawford 1985:23,60 ^ Crawford 1985:36 ^ Rutter 2001:8,44 ^ Rutter 1997:93 ^ Thomsen 1974:III:119 ^ Thomsen 1974:III:117,153 ^ Crawford 1985:60 ^ Crawford 1974:154 ^ Meadows 1998 ^ Walker 1980 ^ Harris 1979:70 ^ Crawford 1974:594–5 ^ Crawford 1974:570–1 ^ Crawford 1985:143–151 ^ Burnett 1987:22 ^ Crawford 1974:238 ^ Smith 1875:Flamen ^ Feig Vishnia 1996:118–9 ^ Broughton 1951:I:361 ^ Scullard 1973:136–7 ^ Harlan 1995 ^ Sear 1998:72–3 ^ Alföldi 1985 ^ Burnett 1991:52 ^ Kroh 1993 References[edit] Alföldi, Andreas (1985). Caesar in 44 v. Chr. 2 Volumes, Das Zeugnis der Münzen, Vol 2, 1974 ISBN 3-7749-1212-2 and Studien zu Caesar's Monarchie und ihren Würzeln, Vol 1, 1985, Dr. Rudolph Habelt Verlag Gmbh, Bonn. ISBN 3-7749-1390-0 Babelon, Ernest (1885–6). Description historique et chronologique des monnaies de la république romaine, 2 Volumes Broughton, T. Robert S. (1951). The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, American Philological Association, 3 Volumes. Volume I (509 B.C. - 100 B.C.) ISBN 0-89130-706-0. Volume II (99 B.C. – 31 B.C.) Philological Monographs Number XV, 1952. Volume III (Supplement) ISBN 0-89130-811-3. Burnett, Andrew (1987). Coinage in the Roman World, Seaby, ISBN 0-900652-85-3 Burnett, Andrew & Wartenberg, Ute & Witschonke, Richard eds, (1998), Coins of Macedonia and Rome: Essays in honour of Charles Hersh, Spink & Son Ltd. ISBN 1-902040-02-3 Crawford, Michael H. (1974). Roman Republican Coinage, Cambridge University Press, 2 Volumes. ISBN 0-521-07492-4 Crawford, Michael H. (1985). Coinage and Money under the Roman Republic, Methuen & Co. ISBN 0-416-12300-7 Feig Vishnia, Rachel (1996). State, Society, and Popular Leaders in Mid-Republican Rome 241–167 B.C., Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10512-9 Grueber, H.A. (1910). Coins of the Roman Republic in the British Museum, 3 Volumes, The Trustees of the British Museum. Harl, Kenneth W. (1996). Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700, Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-5291-9 Harlan, Michael (1995). Roman Republican Moneyers and their Coins 63 BC–49 BC, Seaby. ISBN 0-7134-7672-9 Harris, William V. (1979). War and Imperialism in Republican Rome 327–70 B.C. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814866-6 Hersh, Charles & Walker, Alan (1984) The Mesagne Hoard, Museum Notes, American Numismatic Society 29 pp. 103–134 Kroh, Dennis J. (1993), Ancient Coin Reference Reviews, Empire Coins, Florida. ISBN 0-9638751-0-8 Meadows, A.R. (1998). The Mars/eagle and thunderbolt gold and Ptolemaic involvement in the Second Punic War in Burnett 1998:125–134, plate 12 Melville Jones, John R., 'A Dictionary of Ancient Roman Coins', London, Spink 2003 Metcalf, D.M. & Oddy, W.A. (1980). eds, Metallurgy in Numismatics, Volume 1, Royal Numismatic Society Special Publication No. 13, London. ISBN 0-901405-14-0 Mommsen, Theodore (1850). Das Römische Münzwesen, Leipzig Rutter, N.K. (1997). The Greek Coinages of Southern Italy and Sicily, Spink. ISBN 0-907605-82-6 Rutter, N.K. (2001). ed Historia Numorum: Italy, The Trustees of the British Museum. ISBN 0-7141-1801-X Sear, David R. (1998). The History and Coinage of the Roman Imperators 49–27 B.C., Spink & Son. ISBN 0-907605-98-2 Scullard, H.H. (1973). Roman Politics 220-150 B.C., second edition. Oxford at the Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-814816-X Smith, William (1875). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities Sutherland, C.H.V. (1974). Roman Coins, G.P. Putnam's Sons. ISBN 0-399-11239-1 Sydenham, Edward A. (1952). The Coinage of the Roman Republic, Spink & Son Ltd Thomsen, Rudi (1974). Early Roman Coinage, a Study of the Chronology, 3 Volumes, 1961, 1961, 1974, Nationalmuseet, Stockholm. ISBN 87-480-0038-8 Vecchi, Italo (2013). Italian Cast Coinage. A descriptive catalogue of the cast coinage of Rome and Italy. London Ancient Coins, London 2013. Hard bound in quarto format, 84 pages, 92 plates. ISBN 978-0-9575784-0-1 Walker, D.R. (1980). The silver contents of Roman Republican coinage, in Metcalf 1980:55–72 Willis, James A. (1972). The multiples of the as. Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 76: 233–244 Further reading[edit] Collectors price guides: Fernández Molina, José & Fernández Carrera, Manuel & Calico Estivill, Xavier (2002). A Guide to the Denarii of the Roman Republic to Augustus, ISBN 84-607-5776-5 Sear, David R. (2000). Roman Coins and their Values; The Millennium edition. Volume I, The Republic and the Twelve Caesars. Spink ISBN 1-902040-35-X Politics, economics, and coinage: Crawford, Michael H. (1985). Coinage and Money under the Roman Republic, Methuen & Co. ISBN 0-416-12300-7 Harlan, Michael (1996). Roman Republican Moneyers and their Coins 63 BC-49 BC, Seaby. ISBN 0-7134-7672-9 Harlan, Michael (2012). Roman Republican Moneyers and their Coins 81 BCE-64 BCE, Moneta Publications. ISBN 978-0-9654567-0-8 Sear, David R. (1998). The History and Coinage of the Roman Imperators 49–27 B.C., Spink & Son. ISBN 0-907605-98-2 Vecchi, Italo (2013). Italian Cast Coinage. A descriptive catalogue of the cast coinage of Rome and Italy. London Ancient Coins. ISBN 978-0-9575784-0-1 Wiercinska, Janina (1996). Coins of the Roman Republic: Catalogue of Ancient Coins in the National Museum in Warsaw, National Museum in Warsaw. ISBN 8-3710-0162-2 External links[edit] University of Saskatchewan Roman Coins Doug Smith's Ancient Greek and Roman Coins: Roman coins database Complete description of republican coinage with the most beautiful coins on the web v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_Republican_currency&oldid=987862787" Categories: Coins of ancient Rome Roman Republic Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Italiano Latina Magyar Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 9 November 2020, at 18:07 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-323	----	Anna Seward - Wikipedia Anna Seward From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Anna Seward Seward by Tilly Kettle, 1762 Born 12 December 1742[1] Eyam, Derbyshire Died 25 March 1809(1809-03-25) (aged 66) Lichfield, Staffordshire Resting place Lichfield Cathedral Nationality English Occupation Writer, botanist Notable work Louisa (1784) Parent(s) Thomas Seward (1708–4 March 1790) Elizabeth Hunter (d. 4 July 1780) (m. 27 October 1741)[2] Relatives Sarah ("Sally") (sister) (b. 17 March 1744–d. 1764)[1] Anna Seward, engraving 1799 Anna Seward[3] (12 December 1742[4][notes 1] – 25 March 1809) was an 18th–19th-century English Romantic poet, often called the Swan of Lichfield. Contents 1 Life 1.1 Family life 1.2 Anecdotes 1.3 Education and career 1.4 Relationships 2 Work 2.1 Poetry 2.2 Correspondence and biography 2.3 Science 3 Selected works 4 Legacy 5 Archives 6 Notes 7 References 8 Bibliography 8.1 Historical sources 8.2 Literary surveys 8.3 Anna Seward 8.4 Botany 8.5 Sexuality 8.6 Works by Seward 8.7 Reference materials 9 Further reading 10 External links Life[edit] Family life[edit] Bishop's Palace Seward was the elder of two surviving daughters of Thomas Seward (1708–1790), a prebendary of Lichfield and Salisbury and author, and his wife Elizabeth.[5][2] Elizabeth Seward later had three further children (John, Jane and Elizabeth), who all died in infancy, and two stillbirths.[1] Anna Seward mourned their loss in her poem Eyam (1788).[6] Born in 1742 at Eyam, a small mining village in the Peak District of Derbyshire, where her father was the Rector,[5] she and her sister Sarah, some 16 months younger, passed nearly all their life in that relatively small area of the Peak District of Derbyshire and in Lichfield, a cathedral city in the adjacent county of Staffordshire.[7][5] In 1749, Anna's father was appointed a Canon-Residentiary at Lichfield Cathedral. The family moved there, where her father educated her at home. In 1754 they moved into the Bishop's Palace in Cathedral Close. When a family friend, Mrs Edward Sneyd, died in 1756,[4] the Sewards took in one of her daughters, Honora Sneyd, who became an adopted foster sister to Anna.[8] Honora was nine years younger. Anna Seward described in her poem The Anniversary (1769) how she and her sister first met Honora, on returning from a walk.[9] Sarah (known as Sally) died suddenly of typhus at the age of 19 in 1764.[10] Sarah was said to have an admirable character, though less talented than her sister.[11] Anna consoled herself with affection for Honora Sneyd, as she describes in Visions, written a few days after her sister's death, where she expresses a hope that Honora ("this transplanted flower") would replace her sister (referred to as Alinda) in her and her parents affections.[12][notes 2] Anna Seward cared for her father in the last ten years of his life, after he had suffered a stroke. When he died in 1790, he left her financially independent with an income of £400 per annum. She spent the rest of her life at the Bishop's Palace until she died in 1809.[7] Anecdotes[edit] As a long-term friend of the Levett family of Lichfield, Seward noted in her Memoirs of the Life of Dr. Darwin (Erasmus) that three of the town's foremost citizens were thrown from their carriages and injured their knees in the same year. "No such misfortune," Seward wrote, "was previously remembered in that city, nor has it recurred through all the years which since elapsed."[notes 3] Education and career[edit] Anna, a precocious, sensitive redhead, showed a bent for learning from early childhood. Canon Seward held progressive views on female education, having authored The Female Right to Literature (1748).[13] Encouraged by her father, she was said to be able to recite works of Milton by the age of three.[5] Her gift for writing was clear at the age of seven, when the family moved to Lichfield. The family home in the Bishop's Palace became the centre of a literary circle that included Erasmus Darwin, Samuel Johnson and James Boswell, in which Anna was encouraged to join, as she later relates.[notes 4][14][11] Canon Seward's (if not his wife's) attitudes to educating girls was progressive for the time, but not excessively so. He was a poet himself, yet tried to curb Anna's passion for poetry, although she chose the composition of it for her own studies.[15] Among the subjects he taught were theology and numeracy, how to read and appreciate poetry, and how to write and recite it, although these deviated from the conventional drawing room accomplishments of the time. The omissions were also notable, including languages and science, although they could pursue then alone if they felt inclined.[16] However, Anna was not unskilled in the domestic sphere.[17] Among the many literary figures she conversed with was Sir Walter Scott, who later published her poetry posthumously. Her circle included writers such as Thomas Day, Francis Noel Clarke Mundy, Sir Brooke Boothby and Willie Newton (the Peak Minstrel).[18] She came to be seen as heading a coterie of regional poets, influenced by writers such as Thomas Whalley, William Hayley, Robert Southey, Helen Maria Williams, Hannah More and the Ladies of Llangollen.[18][7] She was also involved in the Lunar Society in nearby Birmingham, which would sometimes meet at their home.[19] Both Darwin and Day belonged to it. Seward corresponded with other members such as Josiah Wedgwood and Richard Lovell Edgeworth.[18] Between 1775 and 1781, Seward was a guest and participant at the much-mocked salon held by Anna Miller at Batheaston, near Bath. However, it was here that Seward's talent was recognised. Her work was published in the yearbook of poems from the gatherings, a debt that Seward acknowledged in "Poem to the Memory of Lady Miller" (1782).[20] Relationships[edit] Seward remained resolutely single throughout her life, despite many offers and friendships. She was outspoken about the institution of marriage,[14][5] not unlike her heroine in Louisa,[21] a position that would later be echoed in the novels of her step-niece, Maria Edgeworth. She shunned both marriage and sexual love as inferior to the equality and virtue of Aristotelian friendship. However she had friends of both genders, although only seeking romantic relationships with women.[22] In 1985 Lillian Faderman suggested that her orientation was lesbian,[23] but there is little known evidence of the erotic or sexual in her relationships, though the term relates more to 20th than to 18th-century concepts of identity. Since 1985 Seward remains within the lesbian poetic canon,[22] but Teresa Barnard argues against this, based more on examination of her correspondence than her poetry,[14] while more recently Barrett has argued for it, based on other sources.[22] Much of the literature on Seward's relationships focuses on her childhood friend Honora Sneyd, the sonnets revealing her passion for her when they were together and her despair when Sneyd married Richard Edgeworth. Compared to the correspondence, her sonnets display more intense emotion, such as Sonnet 10 ("Honora, shou'd that cruel time arrive") describing her feelings of betrayal. When the Edgeworths returned to Ireland, despair turned to rage, as in Sonnet 14 ("Ingratitude, how deadly is thy smart").[22] Work[edit] Anna Seward: bottom row, 2nd from left; Writers:twenty portraits. Engraving by J.W. Cook, 1825. Wellcome V0006820 Poetry[edit] Seward began to write poetry at an early age with encouragement from her father, a published poet, but against the wishes of her mother. When Anna was 16, her father revised his position, fearing she might become a "learned lady".[13][14] Later she received encouragement from Dr Erasmus Darwin, who set up a practice in Lichfield in 1756,[24] although their relations were complex with frequent conflicts.[14] Her verses, which date from at least 1759,[14] include elegies and sonnets, and a poetical novel, Louisa (1784), of which five editions were published. However, she did not publish her first poem until 1780, at the age of 38. Seward's writings, which include many letters, have been called "commonplace". Horace Walpole said she had "no imagination, no novelty",[25] although she was praised by Mary Scott,[26] who had written admiringly of her father's attitude to female education.[27] Several poems, particularly Lichfield ones, concerned her friend and adopted sister Honora Sneyd, in a tradition described as "female friendship poetry".[18] Seward struck a middle path in a period when women had to tread carefully. Her work could also be arch and teasing, as in her poem Portrait of Miss Levett, on a Lichfield beauty later married to Rev. Richard Levett.[28] She contributed to Boswell's Life of Samuel Johnson (1791), but was less than happy with the way Boswell treated her material.[14] Her work circulated widely.[29] Authorship has been a continuing problem with assessing her work.[14] She was known to suggest others had used her work as their own: "a charge of plagiarism must rest somewhere."[30] Correspondence and biography[edit] Seward was a prodigious correspondent. A vast six volumes of her letters appeared after her death (1811)[31] revealing a broad knowledge of English literature and casting light on Midland literary culture in her day.[18] Early in life (1762–1768) she used an imaginary friend, Emma, to express her thoughts, writing 39 letters to her.[32] She was seen to varying degrees as an authority on English literature by contemporaries such as Walter Scott, Samuel Johnson and Robert Southey.[18] She also wrote a biography: Memoirs of the Life of Dr. Darwin (1804).[33] Science[edit] Keenly interested in botany, she associated closely with the Lichfield Botanical Society (despite the name, composed of only three men: Erasmus Darwin, Sir Brooke Boothby and John Jackson) and published anonymously in the Society's name.[34] Encouraged by Darwin she rejected the conservative backlash to the revelations of Carl Linnaeus's sexual system of plant classification. This was seen as unfitting for ladies, whose modesty had to be protected.[35] "I had heard it was not fit for the female eye. It can only be unfit for the perusal of such females as still believe the legend of their nursery that children are dug out of a parsley-bed; who have never been at church, or looked into a Bible, – and are totally ignorant that in the present state of the world, two sexes are necessary to the production of animals."[36][notes 5] This attitude, still prevalent through most of the 19th century, was typified by writers such as the Rev. Richard Polwhele, in his poem The Unsex'd Females (1798), although she escaped his personal criticism, being considered to have the proper attitude. Selected works[edit] Main article: Bibliography of Anna Seward Selected works include;[14][37] The Visions, an Elegy (1764)[12] The Anniversary (1769)[9] Lichfield, an elegy (May 1781)[38] Poem to the Memory of Lady Miller (1782) Eyam. (August 1788)[39] Louisa, A Poetical Novel in Four Epistles (1784) Memoirs of the Life of Dr. Darwin (1804) Original Sonnets on Various Subjects: And Odes Paraphrased from Horace (1799) Sonnet 10. To Honora Sneyd. [Honora, shou'd that cruel time arrive] Sonnet 14 [Ingratitude, how deadly is thy smart] Legacy[edit] After Seward's death, Sir Walter Scott edited her Poetical Works in three volumes (Edinburgh, 1810).[28] To these he prefixed a memoir of the author and extracts from her correspondence. Scott's editing shows considerable censorship[40] and he declined to edit the bulk of her letters, which later appeared in six volumes from Archibald Constable as Letters of Anna Seward 1784–1807 (1811).[25][31] Her reputation barely outlived her, but interest has revived in the 21st century, after some dismissive views among early 20th-century critics.[41] Later, feminist scholars in particular have seen Seward as a valuable observer of gendered relationships in late 18th-century society, playing a transitional role in its principles and emerging romanticism. Her engagement with the political, cultural and literary issues of the time likewise reflects the responses of society to such issues.[7][42] Kairoff sees her as "one of the — in a literal sense — ultimate eighteenth-century poets".[43] There is a plaque to Anna Seward (spelled "Ann") in Lichfield Cathedral. There is a plaque to Anna Seward (spelt "Ann") in Lichfield Cathedral. The epitaph was written by her friend Walter Scott.[notes 6] Seward appears as a character in the novel The Ladies by Doris Grumbach (1984).[44] Archives[edit] A collection of letters relating to Seward can be found in the Cadbury Research Library, University of Birmingham.[45] Notes[edit] ^ Often wrongly given as 1747. ^ Scott chose to open his collection of Seward's poetry with this poem. ^ The three victims Dr Erasmus Darwin, Lichfield town clerk Theophilus Levett, and Anna Seward herself.(Seward 1804) ^ "And being canon of this cathedral, his daughter necessarily converses on terms of equality with the proudest inhabitants of our little city." (Scott 1810, Letter February 1763. vol. I p. lxxiii) ^ Seward defends Erasmus Darwin against attacks on his Temple of Nature (1803) as indecent. ^ See extracts from Seward's will in The Lady's Monthly Museum (Lady's Monthly 1812, Miss Seward's Will Wednesday 1 April 1812 pp. 190–195) References[edit] ^ a b c Barnard 2013, p. 26. ^ a b Bancroft 2015. ^ Williams 1861, Anne Seward pp. 239–255. ^ a b Williams 1861, Anne Seward pp. 239–255. ^ a b c d e Roberts 2012. ^ Scott 1810, Eyam, vol. III p. 1. ^ a b c d Roberts 2010. ^ Edgeworth & Edgeworth 1821a, p. 233. ^ a b Scott 1810, The Anniversary, vol. I p. 68. ^ Macdonald & McWhir 2010, Anna Seward 1742–1809 pp. 82–84. ^ a b Edgeworth & Edgeworth 1821a, p. 232. ^ a b Scott 1810, The Visions, vol. I p. 1. ^ a b Dodsley 1765, Seward, T. The Female Right to Literature Volume 2, pp. 309–315. ^ a b c d e f g h i Barnard 2004. ^ Rowton, Frederic (1848). The Female Poets of Great Britain, Chronologically Arranged: With Copious Selections and Critical Remarks. London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans. p. 195. Retrieved 15 October 2018. ^ Barnard 2013, p. 36. ^ Barnard 2013, p. 95. ^ a b c d e f deLucia 2013. ^ Schofield 1963. ^ Bowerbank 2015. ^ Barnard 2013, p. 14. ^ a b c d Barrett 2012. ^ Faderman 1985. ^ Moore et al. 2012, Anna Seward pp. 319–322. ^ a b Chisholm 1911. ^ Radcliffe 2015, Mary Scott, "Verses addressed to Miss Seward, on the Publication of her Monody on Major Andre" Gentleman's Magazine 53 (June 1783) 519. ^ Scott 1775, p. 38. ^ a b Scott 1810. ^ Foster 2007, Lisa Moore: The Swan of Lichfield pp. 259–264. ^ Constable 1811, Letter to Mrs. Jackson August 3 1792 Vol.3 p. 156. ^ a b Constable 1811. ^ Barnard 2013, 1. 'My Dear Emma': The Juvenile Letters, 1762–1768 pp. 9–38. ^ Seward 1804. ^ George 2014. ^ Shteir 1996, p. 28. ^ Constable 1811, Letter to Dr. Lister, June 20 1803. vi. 83. ^ Moore 2015. ^ Scott 1810, Lichfield, an Elegy May 1781, vol. I p. 89. ^ Scott 1810, Eyam, vol. III, p. 1. ^ Barnard 2013. ^ Clarke 2005. ^ Kairoff 2012, Preface p. ix–xi. ^ Kairoff 2012, p. 11. ^ Grumbach 1984. ^ "UoB CALMVIEW2: Overview". calmview.bham.ac.uk. Retrieved 1 December 2020. Bibliography[edit] Bowerbank, Sylvia (2004). Speaking for nature: women and ecologies of early modern England. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 9780801878725.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Foster, Thomas A., ed. (2007). Histories of same-sex sexuality in early America. New York: New York Univ. Press. ISBN 9780814727508.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Gottlieb, Evan; Shields, Juliet, eds. (2013). Representing place in British literature and culture, 1660–1830 : from local to global. Farnham. ISBN 9781409419303.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) DeLucia, JoEllen. Mundy's Needwood Forest and Anna Seward's Lichfield Poems. pp. 155–172. in Gottlieb & Shields (2013) Money, John (1977). Experience and Identity: Birmingham and the West Midlands, 1760-1800. Manchester: Manchester University Press. ISBN 9780773593428. Moore, Lisa L.; Brooks, Joanna; Wigginton, Caroline, eds. (2012). Transatlantic feminisms in the age of revolutions. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199743490. Priestman, Martin (2014). The Poetry of Erasmus Darwin: Enlightened Spaces, Romantic Times. Ashgate. ISBN 9781472419569. Radcliffe, David Hill (2015). "Welcome". English Poetry 1579-1830: Spenser and the tradition. Virginia Tech. Retrieved 26 February 2015.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Anna Seward Rounce, Adam (2013). Fame and failure 1720–1800 : the unfulfilled literary life. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107042223. Schofield, R. E. (1963). The Lunar Society, A Social History of Provincial Science and Industry in Eighteenth Century England. Oxford: Clarendon Press.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Stafford, William (2002). English Feminists and Their Opponents in the 1790s: Unsex'd and Proper Females. Manchester University Press. ISBN 9780719060823. Retrieved 9 March 2015.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Uglow, Jenny (2002a). The lunar men: five friends whose curiosity changed the world. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. ISBN 9780374194406.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Uglow, Jenny (5 October 2002b). "Educating Sabrina". The Guardian. Retrieved 18 March 2015. Historical sources[edit] Blackman, John (1862). A Memoir of the Life and Writings of Thomas Day, author of "Sandford and Merton.". London: Leno.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) *Dodsley, Robert, ed. (1765) [1748]. A collection of Poems in six volumes by Several Hands. London: Dodsley. Retrieved 23 March 2015.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Edgeworth, Richard Lovell; Edgeworth, Maria (1821a). The Memoirs of Richard Lovell Edgeworth. 1 (2nd ed.). London: Hunter, Cradock & Joy.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) ——; ——— (1821b). The Memoirs of Richard Lovell Edgeworth. 2 (2nd ed.). London: Hunter, Cradock & Joy.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Lysons, Daniel; Amott, John (1865). Origin and progress of the meeting of the Three Choirs ... Commenced by ... D. Lysons and continued down to the present time by J. Amott. To which is prefixed a view of the condition of the parochial clergy of this kingdom, from the earliest times. London: Cooks & Co.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Scott, Mary (1775). The Female Advocate; a poem occasioned by reading Mr. Duncombe's Feminead. London: Joseph Johnson.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) A Society of Ladies, ed. (1812). "Polite Repository of Amusement and Instruction". The Lady's Monthly Museum, New Series. 12. Literary surveys[edit] Batchelor, Jennie; Kaplan, Cora, eds. (2005). British women's writing in the long eighteenth century : authorship, politics and history. Houndmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9781403949318.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Clarke, Norma. Anna Seward: Swan, Duckling or Goose?. pp. 34–47. In Batchelor & Kaplan (2005) Backscheider, Paula R., ed. (2002). Revising women: eighteenth-century "women's fiction" and social engagement. Baltimore, MD, USA: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 9780801870958. Retrieved 21 March 2015.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Backscheider, Paula R.; Ingrassia, Catherine E., eds. (2009). British women poets of the long eighteenth century : an anthology. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 9780801892776. Retrieved 11 March 2015.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Behrendt, Stephen C. (2009). British women poets and the romantic writing community. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 9780801895081.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Brewer, John (2013) [1997]. The pleasures of the imagination : English culture in the eighteenth century. Chicago, Ill.: Univ. of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226074191.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Clarke, Norma (2004). The Rise And Fall of the Woman of Letters. London: Random House. ISBN 9781446444986.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Fay, Elizabeth. "The Bluestocking Archive". English Department, UM Boston. Retrieved 22 March 2015. Jennings, Judith (2006). Gender, religion, and radicalism in the long eighteenth century : the 'Ingenious Quaker' and her connections. Aldershot: Ashgate. ISBN 9780754655008.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Lonsdale, Roger, ed. (1990) [1989]. Eighteenth century women poets : an Oxford anthology (Paperback ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780192827753.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Macdonald, D.L.; McWhir, Anne, eds. (2010). The Broadview anthology of literature of the Revolutionary period, 1770–1832. Peterborough, Ont.: Broadview Press. ISBN 9781551110516.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Mark Ockerbloom, Mary (2012). "A Celebration of Women Writers". University of Pennsylvania. Retrieved 6 March 2015.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Sitter, John, ed. (2001). The Cambridge Companion to Eighteenth-Century Poetry. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521658850. Retrieved 3 March 2015.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Stafford, William (2002). English feminists and their opponents in the 1790s : unsex'd and proper females. Manchester: Manchester University Press. ISBN 9780719060823.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Staves, Susan (2006). A Literary History of Women's Writing in Britain, 1660–1789. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781139458580. Retrieved 2 March 2015.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Williams, Jane (1861). The Literary Women of England: Including a Biographical Epitome of All the Most Eminent to the Year 1700; & Sketches of the Poetesses to the Year 1850; with Extracts from Their Works, and Critical Remarks. London: Sunders, Otley and Co. Retrieved 4 March 2015.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Wu, Duncan, ed. (2012). Romanticism : an anthology (4th ed.). Wiley Blackwell. ISBN 9781118256572. Anna Seward[edit] "People, Places, and Contexts in Anna Seward's Elegy on Captain Cook". University of Pittsburgh at Greensburg. 2012. Retrieved 6 March 2015. Ashmun, M. (1931). The Singing Swan: An Account of Anna Seward and her Acquaintance with Dr Johnson, Boswell and Others of Their Time. New Haven: Yale University Press.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Bailes, Melissa (2009). "The Evolution of the Plagiarist: Natural History in Anna Seward's Order of Poetics". Eighteenth-Century Life. 33 (3): 105–126. doi:10.1215/00982601-2009-005. S2CID 142761824. Retrieved 11 March 2015.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Barnard, Teresa (2004). "Anna Seward and the Battle for Authorship". Corvey Women Writers on the Web 1796–1834 (1 Summer). Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 28 February 2015.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Barnard, Teresa (2013). Anna Seward: A Constructed Life: A Critical Biography. Farnham: Ashgate. ISBN 9781409475330.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Grundy, Isobel (4 February 2010). "Anna Seward: A Constructed Life, A Critical Biography" (review). Times Higher Education Book Reviews. Retrieved 24 February 2015.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Clifford, J. L. (1941). "The authenticity of Anna Seward's published correspondence". Modern Philology. 39 (2): 113–122. doi:10.1086/388516. S2CID 161278303. (1941–1942) Dick, M. "A Portrait of Anna Seward". Revolutionary Players. Museums, Libraries and Archives – West Midlands. Archived from the original on 29 September 2007. Retrieved 5 February 2008. Grumbach, Doris (1984). The Ladies: A Novel. Open Media. ISBN 9781497676695.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Kairoff, Claudia Thomas (2012). Anna Seward and the end of the eighteenth century. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 9781421403281.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Landseer, Henry. "Possibly Anna Seward, after John Downman" (Portrait). National Portrait Gallery. Retrieved 24 March 2015. Lucas, E. V. (1907). A Swan and her Friends. London: Methuen. Martin, Stapleton (1909). Anna Seward and Classic Lichfield. Deighton and Co. Retrieved 1 March 2015.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) North, Alix (2007). "Anna Seward 1747–1809". Isle of Lesbos. Retrieved 4 March 2015.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Pearson, H. (ed.) (1936) The Swan of Lichfield. Being a Selection from the Correspondence of Anna Seward Roberts, M. (Winter 2005). "Anna Seward – 'The Queen Muse of Britain'". The Female Spectator, Chawton House Library. 9 (2): 1–4.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Roberts, Marion (December 2010). Close encounters: Anna Seward, 1742–1809, A Woman in provincial cultural life (Master of Letters Thesis, School of Humanities, University of Birmingham). University of Birmingham.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Roberts, Marion (2012). "Anna Seward" (PDF). Biographies of Women Writers. Chawton House Library. Retrieved 1 March 2015.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Botany[edit] Fara, Patricia (2012). Erasmus Darwin : sex, science, and serendipity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199582662.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) George, Sam (June 2005). "'Not Strictly Proper for a Female Pen': Eighteenth-Century Poetry and the Sexuality of Botany". Comparative Critical Studies. 2 (2): 191–210. doi:10.3366/ccs.2005.2.2.191.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) George, Sam (30 January 2014). "Carl Linnaeus, Erasmus Darwin and Anna Seward: Botanical Poetry and Female Education". Science & Education. 23 (3): 673–694. doi:10.1007/s11191-014-9677-y. S2CID 142994653.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Shteir, Ann B. (1996). Cultivating women, cultivating science: Flora's daughters and botany in England, 1760-1860. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-6175-8.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Sexuality[edit] Barrett, Redfern Jon (2012). ""My Stand": Queer Identities in the Poetry of Anna Seward and Thomas Gray". Gender Forum (39). Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 17 March 2015.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Castle, Terry, ed. (2003). The literature of lesbianism : a historical anthology from Ariosto to Stonewall. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231125109. Faderman, Lillian (1985). Surpassing the love of men: romantic friendship and love between women from the Renaissance to the present. London: Women's Press. ISBN 9780704339774.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Summers, Claude J., ed. (2013) [2002]. The gay and lesbian literary heritage : a reader's companion to the writers and their works, from antiquity to the present (2 ed.). Abingdon: Routledge. ISBN 9781135303990. Works by Seward[edit] Constable, Archibald, ed. (1811). Letters of Anna Seward: written between the years 1784 and 1807 (6 vols.). Edinburgh: Ramsay.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Volume 1 Volume 2 Volume 3 Volume 4 Volume 5 Volume 6 Heiland, D. (1992). "Swan songs: the correspondence of Anna Seward and James Boswell". Modern Philology. 90 (3): 381–91. doi:10.1086/392085. S2CID 162041058. (1992–1993) Moore, Lisa L., ed. (2015). The Collected Poems of Anna Seward (forthcoming July, 2 volumes). Pickering and Chatto. ISBN 978-1848935631.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Scott, Walter, ed. (1810). The Poetical Works of Anna Seward with Extracts from her Literary Correspondence (3 vols.). Edinburgh: James Ballantyne.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Volume 1 Volume 2 Volume 3 Seward, Anna (1804). Memoirs of the Life of Dr. Darwin: Chiefly During His Residence in Lichfield: With Anecdotes of His Friends, and Criticisms on His Writing. Philadelphia: W. M. Poyntell. Retrieved 24 February 2015.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Reference materials[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Seward, Anna". Encyclopædia Britannica. 24 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 733. Bowerbank, S. "Seward, Anna (1742–1809)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/25135. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) Bancroft, Pat. "Seward, Thomas (1708–1790)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/25136. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) Further reading[edit] Teresa Barnard: Anna Seward : a constructed life; a critical biography, Farnham [u.a.] : Ashgate, 2009, ISBN 978-0-7546-6616-5 External links[edit] Wikisource has original works written by or about: Anna Seward Wikimedia Commons has media related to Anna Seward. Anna Seward at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA) "Archival material relating to Anna Seward". UK National Archives. Works by Anna Seward at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Anna Seward at Internet Archive Works by Anna Seward at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) The poetical works of Anna Seward; with extracts from her literary correspondence, Volume 1 The poetical works of Anna Seward; with extracts from her literary correspondence. 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en-wikipedia-org-3240	----	Satires (Horace) - Wikipedia Satires (Horace) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (October 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Satires (Latin: Satirae or Sermones) is a collection of satirical poems written by the Roman poet, Horace. Composed in dactylic hexameters, the Satires explore the secrets of human happiness and literary perfection. Published probably in 35 BC and at the latest, by 33 BC,[1] the first book of Satires represents Horace's first published work. It established him as one of the great poetic talents of the Augustan Age.[citation needed] The second book was published in 30 BC as a sequel.[2] In his Sermones (Latin for "conversations") or Satires (Latin for "miscellaneous poems"), Horace combines Epicurean, that is, originally Greek, philosophy with Roman good sense to convince his readers of the futility and silliness of their ambitions and desires. As an alternative, he proposes a life that is based on the Greek philosophical ideals of autarkeia (Greek for "inner self-sufficiency") and metriotes (Greek for "moderation" or sticking to the Just Mean).[3] In S. 1.6.110–131, Horace illustrates what he means by describing a typical day in his own simple, but contented life. The second book also addresses the fundamental question of Greek Hellenistic philosophy, the search for a happy and contented life. In contrast to Satires I, however, many of this book's poems are dialogues in which the poet allows a series of pseudo-philosophers, such as the bankrupt art-dealer turned Stoic philosopher Damasippus, the peasant Ofellus, the mythical seer Teiresias, and the poet's own slave, Dama, to espouse their philosophy of life, in satiric contrast to that of the narrator.[4] Although the Satires are considered to be inferior to the Odes, they have been received positively in recent decades.[5] Contents 1 Poetic models 2 Content 3 Literary success 4 See also 5 Notes 6 Selected bibliography 6.1 Critical editions of the Latin text 6.2 On-line editions of Horace's Satires, Latin 6.3 Horace's Satires, in English translation 6.4 Commentary 6.5 Short surveys 6.6 More specialized literature 7 External links Poetic models[edit] Horace's direct predecessor as writer of satires was Lucilius.[6] Horace inherits from Lucilius the hexameter, the conversational and sometimes even "prosaic" tone of his poetry, and the tradition of personal attack. In contrast to Lucilius, although, the victims of Horace's mockery are not members of the nobility, but overly ambitious freedmen, anonymous misers, courtesans, street philosophers, hired buffoons, and bad poets. In accordance with the Epicurean principle Lathe biosas (Greek for "Live unnoticed"), Horace consciously does not get involved in the complicated politics of his times, but advocates instead a life that focuses on individual happiness and virtue.[7] Probably equally important is the influence of Greek diatribe in the tradition of the philosopher Bion of Borysthenes (c. 335–245 BC).[8] Horace's Satires share with this genre some of their themes, typical imagery, and similes, and the fiction of an anonymous interlocutor whose objections the speaker easily refutes. In addition, Horace alludes to another inspiration, the poet Lucretius whose didactic epic De rerum natura ("On the Nature of Things"), also written in hexameters, popularized Epicurean physics in Rome.[9] For example, Horace's comparison of his satires with cookies that a teacher uses to encourage his students to learn their letters,[10] reminds of Lucretius' more traditional comparison of his poetry with the sugar that sweetens the bitter medicine of philosophy. Moreover, Lucretian stock phrases such as nunc ad rem redeo ("now I return to the matter at hand") give Horace's philosophical "conversations" (Sermones) a subtly Lucretian flavor. Content[edit] Satire 1.1, Qui fit, Maecenas ("How come, Maecenas"), targets avarice and greed. Most people, the satirist argues, complain about their lot yet do not really want to change it. Our insatiable greed for material wealth is just as silly. The true basic human needs, food and water, are easily satisfied. A person who recognizes the natural limit (modus) set for our desires, the Just Mean between the extremes, will in the end, leave the Banquet of Life like a satisfied guest, full, and content. Satire 1.2, Ambubaiarum collegia ("The trade unions of singing Syrian courtesans"), deals with adultery and other unreasonable behaviour in sexual matters. The satirist claims that there is also a natural mean with regard to sex. Our basic sexual urges are easily satisfied (any partner will do), so it seems silly to run after married noblewomen instead. Satire 1.3, Omnibus hoc vitium est ("Everyone has this flaw"), demands fairness when we criticize other people’s flaws. In the case of friends, we should be especially lenient. Satire 1.4, Eupolis atque Cratinus ("Eupolis and Cratinus"), in a programmatic declaration of Horace's poetic views, he applies these same critical principles to poetry and shows that his own satires follow them. Satire 1.5, Egressum magna ... Roma ("Having left great Rome"), describes a journey from Rome to Brundisium. It is thus, also known as the Iter Brundisium or Iter ad Brundisium. Alluding to a famous satire in which Horace’s poetic model, Lucilius, described a trip to his knightly estates near Tarentum, this satire offers a comic self-portrait of Horace as an insignificant member in the retinue of his powerful friend Maecenas when the latter negotiated one last truce between Antony and Octavian, the Peace of Brundisium (36 BC). A highpoint of the satire is the central verbal contest that again, just as in S. 1.4, distinguishes scurrility from satire. Here, Horace pitches a ‘’scurra’’ (buffoon) from the capital, the freedman Sarmentus, against his ultimately victorious local challenger, Messius Cicirrus (“the Fighting Cock”). Satire 1.6, Non quia, Maecenas ("Not because, Maecenas"), rejects false ambition. With the same modesty, with which he just depicted himself in Satire 1.5, Horace explains why he is not interested in a career in politics even though he once, during the Civil War, served as the tribune of a Roman legion (48). People would jeer at him because of his freedman father, and his father taught him to be content with his status in life (85–87) even though he made sure that his son could enjoy the same education as an aristocrat (76–80). Satire 1.7, Proscripti Regis Rupili pus atque venenum ("The pus and poison of the proscribed Rupilius Rex"), deals with a trial that Persius, a Greek merchant of dubious birth (hybrida, 2), won against the Roman Rupilius Rex. Following the account of Horace's youth in S. 1.6, this satire tells a story from his service under Brutus during the Civil War. Just as in S. 1.5, it features a verbal contest in which two different kinds of invective are fighting against each other. Initially, Greek verbosity seems to succumb to Italian acidity, but in the end, the Greek wins with a clever turn of phrase, calling on the presiding judge, Brutus the Liberator, to do his duty and dispose of the "king" (Latin: 'rex') Rupilius Rex (33–35). Satire 1.8, Olim truncus eram ("Once I was a tree trunk"), describes a funny victory over witchcraft and superstition. Another hybrida like Persius in S. 1.7, Priapus, half garden god, half still a barely shaped piece of wood, narrates the visit of two terrible witches to Maecenas' garden that he is supposed to protect against trespassers and thieves. Maecenas' garden on the Esquiline Hill used to be a cemetery for executed criminals and the poor, and so it attracts witches that dig for magic bones and harmful herbs. The god is powerless until the summer heat makes the figwood that he is made of explode, and this divine "fart" chases the terrified witches away. Satire 1.9, Ibam forte Via Sacra ("I happened to be walking on the Sacred Way"), the famous encounter between Horace and the Boor, relates another funny story of a last-minute delivery from an overpowering enemy. Horace is accosted by an ambitious flatterer and would-be poet who hopes that Horace will help him to worm his way into the circle of Maecenas' friends. Horace tries in vain to get rid of the Boor. He assures him that this is not how Maecenas and his friends operate. Yet he only manages to get rid of him, when finally a creditor of the Boor appears and drags him off to court, with Horace offering to serve as a witness (74–78). Satire 1.10, Nempe incomposito ("I did indeed say that Lucilius' verses hobble along"), functions as an epilogue to the book. Here Horace clarifies his criticism of his predecessor Lucilius, jokingly explains his choice of the genre ("nothing else was available") in a way that groups him and his Satires among the foremost poets of Rome, and lists Maecenas and his circle as his desired audience. Literary success[edit] Both in antiquity and in the Middle Ages, Horace was much better known for his Satires and the thematically-related Epistles than for his lyric poetry. In the century after his death, he finds immediate successors in Persius and Juvenal, and even Dante still refers to him simply as "Orazio satiro" (Inferno 4.89). Conte (1994: 318) writes, "Over 1,000 medieval quotations from his Satires and Epistles have been traced, only about 250 from his Carmina." See also[edit] Prosody (Latin) Notes[edit] ^ Brown 1993: 3 ^ Brown 1993: 3; Muecke 1997: 1 ^ Horace himself later coins the phrase aurea mediocritas (Latin for the "Golden Mean" in Carm. 2.10.5.) ^ Muecke 1997: 6-7 ^ Sharland, Suzanne (2003). "Priapus' Magic Marker: Literary Aspects of Horace, "Satire" 1.8". Acta Classica. 46: 97–109. JSTOR 24595344. ^ Brown 1993: 7-8; Muecke 1997: 2-5 ^ Scholars often point out that Horace, only the son of a freedman, could not afford to make powerful enemies, and that is why he, in contrast to Lucilius, who was a Roman knight, did not dare to attack Roman aristocrats by name (cf. Freudenburg 2005: 10–11). Yet at the time he published the Satires, Horace already was affiliated with the powerful Maecenas (cf. S. 1.4 and 6), and if he had wanted to, he could easily have ingratiated himself with the young ruler, Octavian, by attacking Octavian's enemies, such as Sextus Pompeius and later Mark Antony. ^ Brown 1993: 4–5; Muecke 1997: 6 ^ Brown 1993: 91–92 ^ S. 1.1.14–25; elementa can refer both to the letters of the ABC and to the beginnings of philosophy. Selected bibliography[edit] Critical editions of the Latin text[edit] Borzsák, Stephan. Q. Horati Flacci Opera. Leipzig: Teubner, 1984. Shackleton Bailey, D. R. Q. Horati Flacci Opera. Stuttgart: Teubner, 1995. ISBN 3-519-21436-9. Makes more use of conjectural emendation than Borzsák. On-line editions of Horace's Satires, Latin[edit] Sermones (Horatius), Wikisource (Latin). All satires book I and II, in Latin. (With notes, also in Latin) Orelli rev. Baiter 5th ed. 1868. Retrieved 20 September 2010. Satirae, Peerlkamp 1863. Carminum, Satirarum I et II, Epodon, Epistolarum, Ars poetica, etc., Long and MacLeane 1853. Satirarum Liber I & II , Desprez 1828 in usum Delphini. Sermonum Liber I , Zeune 1825 in usum Delphini. Satires 1.5, 1.6, and 1.9 (in Latin) with vocabulary lists (in English). 'The Dickinson College Wiki', Retrieved 20 September 2010. Bibliotheca Augustana [1] The Latin Library (Latin) [2] IntraText (Latin) [3] Perseus Project (Latin) [4] Horace's Satires, in English translation[edit] Satires, Epistles, and Art of Poetry (Engl.). Translated into English verse by John Conington, m.a. corpus professor of Latin at the University of Oxford. Project Gutenberg. Retrieved 20 September 2010. N.B. Satire I-2 is excluded. First book of Satires, with notes (all in English). R. M. Millington 1869. Retrieved 20 September 2010. Epodes, Satires and Epistles, in English. Also an introduction (of 5 pages). Rev. Francis Howes 1845. Retrieved 20 September 2010. Alexander, Sidney. The complete Odes and Satires of Horace. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-691-00428-5. Juster, A.M. The Satires of Horace. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0-8122-4090-0. Rudd, Niall. Horace, Satires and Epistles; Persius, Satires. London : Penguin, 2005. ISBN 0-14-045508-6 (verse translation with introduction and notes). Commentary[edit] Brown, P. Michael. Horace, Satires I. Warminster, England: Aris & Phillips, 1993. ISBN 0-85668-530-5 (introduction, text, translation and commentary) Gowers, Emily. Satires. Book 1. Cambridge University Press, 2012. ISBN 978-0521458511 (introduction, text and commentary) Muecke, Frances. Horace, Satires II. Warminster, England: Aris & Phillips, 1993, repr. with corr. 1997. ISBN 0-85668-531-3 (hb). ISBN 0-85668-532-1 (pb) (introduction, text, translation and extensive scholarly commentary) Short surveys[edit] Conte, Gian Biagio. Latin Literature. A History. Translated by Joseph Solodow. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994. ISBN 0-8018-4638-2. Braund, Susan H. Roman Verse Satire. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992. ISBN 0-19-922072-7. Freudenburg, Kirk. Satires of Rome: Threatening Poses from Lucilius to Juvenal. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-521-00621-X. Hooley, Daniel M. Roman Satire. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub., 2007. ISBN 1-4051-0689-1. More specialized literature[edit] Anderson, William S. "Ironic Preambles and Satiric Self-Definition in Horace Satire 2.1." Pacific Coast Philology 19 (1984) 36–42. Bernstein, Michael André. "O Totiens Servus: Saturnalia and Servitude in Augustan Rome." Critical Inquiry 13 (1986-1987) 450–74. Braund, Susan H. "City and Country in Roman Satire." In: Braund, S. H., ed. Satire and Society in Ancient Rome. Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 1989, 23–47. Clauss, James J. "Allusion and structure in Horace Satire 2.1. The Callimachean response." Transactions of the American Philological Association 115 (1985) 197–206. Classen, Carl Joachim. "Horace – A Cook?" Classical Quarterly 72 (1978) 333–48. Cucchiarelli, Andrea. La satira e il poeta : Orazio tra Epodi e Sermones. Pisa: Giardini, 2001. ISBN 88-427-0300-1. Freudenburg, Kirk. "Horace's Satiric Program and the Language of Contemporary Theory in Satires 2.1." American Journal of Philology 111 (1990) 187–203. Freudenburg, Kirk. The Walking Muse: Horace on the Theory of Satire. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-691-03166-5. Freudenburg, Kirk. The Cambridge Companion to Roman Satire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 978-0-521-00627-9. Hudson, Nicola A. "Food in Roman Satire," in: Braund, Susan H., ed. Satire and Society in Ancient Rome. Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 1989, 69–87. Knorr, Ortwin. Verborgene Kunst : Argumentationsstruktur und Buchaufbau in den Satiren des Horaz. Hildesheim: Olms-Weidmann, 2004. ISBN 3-487-12539-0. Lowrie, Michèle, “Slander and Horse Law in Horace, Sermones 2.1,” Law and Literature 17 (2005) 405-31. Muecke, Frances. "Law, Rhetoric, and Genre in Horace, Satires 2.1." In: Harrison, Stephen J., ed. Homage to Horace. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995, 203–218. Rudd, Niall. The Satires of Horace. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966 (2nd. ed., 1982). ISBN 0-520-04718-4. Roberts, Michael. "Horace Satires 2.5: Restrained Indignation," American Journal of Philology 105 (1984) 426–33. Rothaus Caston, Ruth. "The Fall of the Curtain (Horace S. 2.8)." Transactions of the American Philological Association 127 (1997) 233–56. Sallmann, Klaus. "Satirische Technik in Horaz' Erbschleichersatire (s. 2, 5)." Hermes 98 (1970) 178–203. Schlegel, Catherine. Satire and the Threat of Speech: Horace's Satires, Book 1. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2005. ISBN 0-299-20950-4. External links[edit] Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: Sermones Scholarly bibliography selected by Wilfried Stroh (in German), Munich, archived from the original on 2008-04-10 v t e Works by Horace Poetry Satires Epodes Odes Epistles Carmen Saeculare Ars Poetica Collections Satires 2.5 Quote Ut pictura poesis Related Spring of Bandusium Authority control VIAF: 177408390 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 177408390 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Satires_(Horace)&oldid=964720771" Categories: Poetry by Horace 1st-century BC Latin books Satirical poems Hidden categories: Articles lacking in-text citations from October 2012 All articles lacking in-text citations Articles containing Latin-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from November 2016 CS1 German-language sources (de) Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikisource Languages Català Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 27 June 2020, at 05:33 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3261	----	Constitution of the Late Roman Empire - Wikipedia Constitution of the Late Roman Empire From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Unwritten set of guidelines and principles passed down mainly through precedent Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e The constitution of the late Roman Empire was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles passed down, mainly through precedent, which defined the manner in which the late Roman Empire was governed.[1] As a matter of historical convention, the late Roman Empire emerged from the Roman Principate (the early Roman Empire), with the accession of Diocletian in AD 284, his reign marking the beginning of the Tetrarchy.[2] The constitution of the Dominate ultimately recognized monarchy as the true source of power, and thus ended the fiction of dyarchy, in which emperor and Senate governed the empire together.[3] Diocletian's reforms to the imperial government finally ended the ruse that the old republican magistracies (e.g. consuls and praetors) were anything more than municipal officials with powers beyond Rome itself. By the late Empire, the consuls had no real duties beyond that of presiding at Senate meetings and the duties of the lesser magistrates were effectively just the organisation of various games.[3] Most other magistracies simply disappeared. Diocletian attempted to reform the imperial system itself into a structure in which four emperors, consisting of two Augusti and two Caesares, each governed one fourth of the Empire.[4] Known as the Tetrarchy, this constitutional structure, however, failed to even outlast Diocletian, who lived to see the collapse of his system and the civil wars that followed in his retirement after abdication in AD 305. He also enacted major administrative reforms to the Empire. His division of the Empire into east and west, with each half under the command of a separate emperor, remained with brief interruptions of political unity.[5] Although it remained the sole capital until Constantinople was elevated to that status in 359, the city of Rome ceased to be the seat of the imperial government which in the West was usually in Milan, or sometimes in Trier if an emperor was resident there, or wherever the emperor happened to be since 4th century emperors moved about their realms. The Urban Prefect an imperial appointee was head of city's administration. A vicar of the Prefect of Italy headed the imperial administration of Italy south of the Apennines and the Islands. The Senate and executive magistrates continued to function as Diocletian's constitution had originally specified. Diocletian's civil and military divisions of the empire remained in effect with little change though Upper Egypt from the mid-fifth was governed by a general, the dux, who also exercised civilian authority over the population. Later emperors Constantine would modify Diocletian's constitution[6] by changing the roles of officials somewhat but not the administrative framework. It was not until Justinian I 527-565 that major changes that saw the near abolition of the regional tier of officials, and severe weakening of the Treasury (sacrae largitones) and Crown Estates. Contents 1 Augusti and Caesares 2 Administration of the Empire 2.1 The Imperial Court 2.2 Provincial Government 2.3 Counts 2.4 Military structure 3 Senate and Magistrates 4 See also 5 References 6 Notes 7 Further reading 7.1 Primary sources 7.2 Secondary source material Augusti and Caesares[edit] Roman Emperor Diocletian, who framed the constitution of the Tetrarchy Under Diocletian's new constitution, power was shared between two emperors called Augusti. The establishment of two co-equal Augusti marked a rebirth of the old republican principle of collegiality, as all laws, decrees, and appointments that came from one of the Augusti, were to be recognized as coming from both conjointly. One Augustus was to rule the western half of the Empire, and the other Augustus was to rule the eastern half of the Empire. Diocletian made Maximian his co-Augustus, and gave him the Western Empire, while Diocletian took the Eastern Empire. Diocletian made Nicomedia his capital, and Maximian made Milan his capital. To make the two halves symbolically appear to be one, Diocletian called his territory patres Orientis, while Maximian called his territory patres Occidentis. The Augusti were legally distinct from the old Princeps (Roman Emperors under the Principate), because under the Principate, the Princeps took the place of the old republican magistrates. When a Princeps issued a decree, that decree was only valid so long as that Princeps was Emperor, whereas in contrast, under the Republic, any decree issued by a magistrate was only good so long as that magistrate was in office. Under the Republic and the Principate, only the Senate and legislative assemblies were continuous institutions, and thus only they could pass laws that remained in effect indefinitely. Under Diocletian's new Tetrarchy, the Augusti took the place of the Senate and the assemblies, and thus any decree of an Augustus remained in force even after that particular emperor left office. Such an act could only be invalidated by a future Emperor. The logical extension of this concept meant that neither a magistrate, the assemblies, nor the senate, could legally restrain the Emperor. The old republican magistrates, as well as the Princeps, both had legal status. Under the Republic, the state gave the magistrates the authorization to hold their office, while under the Principate, the state gave the Princeps the legal authorization to be emperor. Any Augusti, in contrast, did not need authorization from the state to be emperor, because the Augusti became the state. The higher authority of the Augusti was illustrated by their robes (which were trimmed with precious stones) and the imperial diadem, as well as the elaborate ceremony required of anyone who approached them. Unlike the old Princeps, the Augusti were viewed as being more than mortal, which was illustrated by the honors that they received. These honors had, in the past, been reserved only for the Gods. While emperors had received such honors in the past, they only received these honors after their death, and yet, the Augusti could receive such honors while they were still alive. In 293, Diocletian and Maximian appointed two Caesares, which resulted in an arrangement known as the "Tetrarchy" ("rule by four"). The Caesares were subordinate to their Augusti, and the only authority that they had was that which had been given to them by their Augusti. Their status was so inferior to the Augusti that they received a fixed salary. The powers that were delegated to them usually included the right to hear appeals, and a set of provinces were often assigned to them so that they could supervise the governors of those provinces. The reason why Diocletian created the office of Caesar was to create a method by which orderly successions could occur, so that when one Augustus died, one of the two Caesares replaced that Augustus. When a new Caesar was appointed, his Augustus adopted him. Diocletian had hoped that the Augusti would jointly resign at a given point in time, and allow their Caesares to replace them. Administration of the Empire[edit] Diocletian separated the civil administrative apparatus and the military administrative apparatus in order to mitigate the risk that future generals might attempt to seize the throne through force, and then he reorganized both of them. While changes were made by subsequent Emperors, the basic structure established by Diocletian would govern the Empire until its eventual fall in the West during the 5th century. The government of the Empire was divided (in both civil and military structures) between central and provincial levels. The central government general refers to those civil officials directly associated with the Emperor's court and the highest-ranking military officers. The provincial government includes all levels of provincial governors and local military commanders. The Imperial Court[edit] The central government of the Roman Empire consisted of the Imperial Court. At the top of the central government was the Emperor himself. From his presence all imperial authority flowed, both civil and military. The edicts of the Emperor were binding upon all persons throughout the Empire. To support the Emperor in the administration of the Empire, the Emperor was attended by numerous Court officials ("comes" or "counts"). Chief among these court officials was the Imperial Chancellor ("magister officiorum"). He was a kind of Interior Minister for State Security. His post had started out rather lowly as a tribune of the Palace Guard who was elevated by Constantine the Great in 320 AD to oversee the imperial secretariats. He functioned as a watchdog head of administration, although not able to order other branches of the administration such as the prefectures, Treasury and Crown Estates what to do without direct orders from the emperor. Ranked as a Count of the Empire, the Chancellor oversaw the entire civil service, the officia (however, the prefects and his subordinates had jurisdiction over staffs in civil and criminal suits). They were "the emperors' eyes" according to the orator, Libanius. The Chancellor's portfolio include a significant number of functions handled by modern government officials. The Chancellor was responsible for conducting court ceremonies and regulated audiences with the Emperor. All correspondences with foreign powers were sent by and embassies of foreign powers to the Emperor were received by the Chancellor. The Chancellor commanded the Imperial Intelligence Service corps of ("Agentes in rebus"), 'men of state affairs,' who handled communications between the Emperor and provincial governments as well as gathering intelligence as the Emperor's administrative policing force. They were courier/bureaucrats often deputed to other departments on special assignments. From the early 340s senior agentes in rebus were appointed as heads of the offices, principes, of prefects, vicars and two of three proconsulates (not of Asia). All business coming in and out of these offices were vetted by this officials; the wrote confidential reports the chancellor.[7] Nothing could be issued without their counter-signature. Their small personal staffs were not part of the office staffs they whose activity they monitored. It has debated to what degree vicars had control over the principes. Their presence in the prefectures and proconsular offices connected them directly to the palatine administration headed by the masters of the offices, but also to the prefects and indirectly to the regional comptrollers of the Treasury and Managers of the Crown Estates whose offices were almost all located in diocesan see cities which were destination points for masses of information for processing for the upper administration echelon with the emperors.[8][9][10] The Chancellors oversaw the Imperial Transportation Service ("Cursus publicus"). This was maintained by the prefecture and funded by provincials. Despite the name of State Post, it was privately operated under State direction.[11][12] From the 340s its use was under the inspection of agentes in rebus deputed to and stationed the provinces with the governors. The system was made up of 'stationes,' guard stations, 'mutationes,' changing stations, and 'mansiones', larger facilities for overnight stays equipped often dining rooms and baths. these spread along the major road systems connecting the regions of the Roman world. The changing stations were 8–12 miles apart and the hotel/stables were generally 25–30 miles apart. These served as relay points and provided horses to dispatch riders (usually soldiers) and vehicles for Court officials. The Imperial Guard corps ("Scholae Palatinae") was under the Chancellor's command. The imperial armories, fabricae, were under the praetorian prefects and cloth/dye manufactories managed by the Treasury (oddly 3 of them were managed by the Crown Estate (69 in the West are listed; the list in the East is incomplete). The armories passed under the control of the magister officiorum by 390. In 442 he was made inspector-general of the frontier army units, a responsibility which had been the prefects and their vicars.[13] The Chancellor had direct control over the Imperial Chancellory, the central administrative organ of the Empire which coordinated the civilian functions of the Empire and provided direct support to the Emperor. The Imperial Chancellory was divided into four bureaus (the "sacra scrinia"): the Clerical Bureau ("scrinium memoriae"), the Correspondence Bureau ("scrinium epistularum"), the Legal Bureau ("scrinium libellorum"), and the Arrangement Bureau ("scrinium dispositionum"). Each of these bureaus supported a Bureau Director ("magistri scriniorum") who reported to the Chancellor, but were not totally under his control until the early 5th century. The Clerical Bureau drafted official documents for the Emperor's approval, such as imperial decrees and appointments, and served as the central Imperial Archive The Correspondence Bureau received and responded to correspondence from public officials to the Emperor, managed representation with foreign powers, and served as the imperial translation service The Legal Bureau handled the various legal petitions the Emperor received, such as appeals from lower courts The Arrangement Bureau oversaw the administrative matters the Emperor faced while traveling The Judge of the Imperial Court ("Quaestor sacri palatii") was the Empire's top legal official and was responsible for the administration of the justice throughout the Empire. Selected from those with significant legal training, the Judge served as the Emperor's chief legal advisor and was responsible for overseeing the enactment of legislation and for drafting imperial decrees. Beginning in early 5th century, he presided over the Empire's supreme tribunal, which heard appeals from the various lower courts of the Empire. One of the highest ranking court official was the Imperial Chamberlain ("Praepositus sacri cubiculi"). The Chamberlain, usually a eunuch, managed the daily operations of the Imperial Palace. He oversaw the palace servants ("cubicularii"), also eunuchs, and was responsible for the imperial bedchamber, wardrobe and receptions. While the Chamberlain technically possessed no administrative authority outside of managing the imperial household, his daily and intimate contact with the Emperor granted him great influence over other Court officials, allowing him de facto coordinating authority over all Court officials. In the case of weak Emperors, the Chamberlain's influence made him the most powerful man in the Empire. However, should the Emperor be a powerful force, the Chamberlain's role in the administration of the Empire was minimal. Fiscal administration lay with the Count of the Imperial Treasury ("Comes sacrarum largitionum") who oversaw the collection and distribution of Imperial money taxes, managed the Imperial Treasury, and controlled Imperial mints, state-run mills and textile factories, and state-run mining facilities. He was the chief financial officer until Constantine displaced him with the praetorian prefects. The Count also exercised judicial functions as they related to fiscal matters under his supervision, with no appeal of his decision. The other key financial officer was the Count of the Imperial Estates ("Comes rerum privatarum") who administered the private property of the Emperor and managed all Imperial estates, including the collection of rent derived therefrom. The praetorian prefects, vice-regents, however, had control over taxes paid in kind and the separate military Annona tax, ta assessments and revisions, censuses the overall budgets composed on a diocesan basis subdivided by province and municipality or other local unit. They alone as for emperors could render final verdicts. From the late 320s fiscal appeal cases of the SL and RP were taken by the prefects, the vicars, proconsuls and urban prefects from their respective lower provincial and regional administrative courts. In 385 the two counts were allowed once again to receive appeals directly from their own lower-rung administrative courts after 60. Until then they had acted solely in an advisory capacity to the emperors to whom they represented their own interests as did the SL comptrollers and RP managers before the vicars and the other above-named officials, in regard to the restoration of authority.[14] The first tetrarchs of the constitution of the Tetrarchy Provincial Government[edit] When Diocletian reformed the administrative machinery of the Empire, he stripped the civilian administrators of their military powers (granting them instead to distinct offices). Additionally, he further divided the various provinces into smaller units, effectively doubled the number of provinces from fifty to over a hundred. To this new organization he imposed two new bureaucratic levels between the Emperors and the provinces: the Prefectures and the Dioceses. Diocletian grouped these hundred provinces into twelve Dioceses, which were then grouped into four Prefectures. The result was that the units of government were much smaller, and thus more manageable, than they had been before Diocletian's reforms. This not only made administration of the Empire easier but also helped to minimize the risk of revolt. The four Prefectures, each led by a civilian Praetorian Prefect ("praefecti praetorio"), served as the highest level of provincial government. The Prefects were the Emperor's top administrators, ranking just below the Emperor himself in dignity. While initially serving as the Emperor's second in command in all matters of imperial administration (military, civil, judicial, taxation, etc.), the Prefects gradually had portions of their authority stripped from them and given to other offices: the Masters of the Soldiers for military affairs and the Imperial Chancellor for central civilian administration. These reforms were the result of both the lack of officials suitable for the prefect's wide-ranging tasks, and of the desire to reduce the potential challenge to the Emperor's authority posed by a power Prefect. The civilian powers of the Prefects were still vast, however, as they could nominate individuals to fill a gubernatorial vacancy, supervise the conduct of the governors, or even dismiss a governor. Prefects could also interpret the law, hear appeals, control finances, and some were even assigned military responsibilities. The powers of the Prefects were so extensive that Diocletian only allowed each Prefect to remain in office for a short period of time. The four Prefectures were called Orientis, Illyrici, Italiae, and Galliarum, with Constantinople, Sirmium, Milan, and Treves constituting the capitals of the respective Prefectures. The cities of Rome and Constantinople both were exempt from the control of a Praetorian Prefect and instead were controlled by their own civilian governors answering directly to the Emperor. These two Prefects of the City ("Praefectus urbi") were responsible for the civilian administration of their respect city, presided over their respective Senate, and served as the chief judge for civil and criminal cases within the City. The Prefects commanded the Urban Cohorts ("Cohortes urbanae") and the City Watchmen ("Vigiles") in order to maintain order and security within the city. The Prefect also oversaw maintenance of the city's aqueducts and supervised the markets. One of his most important duties was to oversee his respective City's grain supply. Ranking between the Prefectures and the provinces were the Dioceses. Each Dioceses was led by a civilian governor known as a Vicar ("Vicarius" meaning "deputy [of the Praetorian Prefect]"). Each Vicar was appointed by the Emperor upon the recommendation of the respective Prefect, and held the rank of Count Second Class. Ranking directly below the Vicar were the provincial governors, who were appointed by the Emperor and held various titles. All provincial governors were Counts Third Class. The highest ranking provincial governors were the Proconsuls who governed the provinces of Africa, Asia, and Archaea. These three provincial governors reported directly to the Emperor due to their strategic value. All other provinces were administered by governors called Presidents ("Praeses"), judges (iudices) or moderators. The primary duties of the provincial governors were administrative, judicial and financial. The governor could issues decrees that, if approved by the Emperor, would become binding upon the province. The governor was also the highest judicial official of the province, with appeals heard by the vicar of the diocese or in dioceses governed by prefects. Counts[edit] Civilian and military administrators of the late Empire were generally ranked as Counts ("comes" meaning "companion [of the Emperor]"). The rank of Count began as title given to the Emperor's trusted officials as a mark of imperial confidence, and later developing into a formal rank. "Count" was not a hereditary title as was found in feudalism, but rather a rank associated within a distinct position within the imperial administration. All Counts were automatically members of the Senatorial Order. As the imperial system expanded, however, new offices were needed which resulted in the development of three classes within the rank of Count: Vir illustris – The "Illustrious Men", Counts First Class Vir spectabilis – The "Admirable Men", Counts Second Class Vir clarissimus – The "Most Notable Men", Counts Third Class The most important Imperial Court positions, the highest-ranking military commanders, and the Imperial Chamberlain were all Counts First Class. Counts Second Class were the various Proconsuls, Vicars of the Dioceses, provincial military commanders, and others. Counts Third Class was the basic qualification to obtain entrance into the Senate and including the governorship of a province and other lower offices. Military structure[edit] Roman Emperor Constantine, who reformed the constitution of the Tetrarchy To a reformed civilian structure, Diocletian added a reorganized supreme military command. Two significant parts of the reform are apparent: the separation of military commanders from civil administration and the division of the army into two classes: the Field Armies ("comitatenses") and the Frontier Troops ("limitanei"). The Field Armies served as the Empire's strategic reserve to respond to crisis where it may arise whereas the Frontier Troops were permanently stationed along the Empire's borders ("limes"). Recruited from the ranks of the Field Armies were the Palace Troops units ("Palatini"), who accompanied the Emperor as he traveled around the Empire as were the successor of the Principate Praetorian Guard. The supreme military commanders of the Late Empire was the Master of the Soldiers ("Magister Militum"). There were seven such Masters throughout the Empire (two in the West and five in the East). The establishment of solely military officials provided for a more professional military leadership. The Masters were all Counts First Class. Within the East, there were Masters of the Soldiers in Illyria, Thrace, and the East. Each of these three Masters exercised independent command over one of the three Field Armies of the Eastern Empire. There were also two Masters of the Soldiers in the Presence who accompanied the Eastern Emperor and who each commanded half of the Palace Troops. Each of the five Masters were coequally ranked among themselves. Within the West, there was a Master of Both Services (magister utriusque militiae) and a Master of the Horse. The Master of Both Services was the supreme military commander of the West, ranking only below the Emperor and above all other military commanders, and commander of half the Palace Troops. The Master of the Horse held command over half the Palace Troops and the Field Army of Gaul, but still under the command of the Master of Both Services. To support the Masters of the Soldiers, the Empire established several Military Counts ("Comes rei militaris"). There were six such Military Counts throughout the Empire. The Military Counts were all Counts Second Class. Within the East, there was only one Military Count: the Military Count of Egypt ("Comes rei militaris Aegypti"). Unlike the Military Counts of the West, this Count commanded the Frontier Troops stationed in Egypt and reported directly to the Eastern Emperor. Within the West, there were six such Military Counts, one for each of the five Field Armies in Illyria, Africa, Tingitania, Hispania, and Britannia. The sixth military count, the Count of the Saxon Shore ("comes littoris Saxonici per Britanniam"), commanded Frontier Troops along both sides of the English Channel and reported to the Count of Britannia. The five regular Military Counts reported to the Master of Both Services The various Frontier Troops were under the command of Dukes ("duces limitis" or "border commanders"). These commanders were the spiritual successor of the Imperial Legates ("Legatus Augusti pro praetore") of the Principate. Most Dukes were given command of forces in a single province, but a few controlled more than one province. In the East, the Dukes reported to the Master of the Soldiers of their district whereas in the West they reported to their respective Military Count. Senate and Magistrates[edit] The removal of the seat of government from Rome reduced the Roman Senate to a municipal body, an image that was reinforced when the emperor Constantine later created a similar body in Constantinople. Diocletian also discontinued the practice of having the Senate ratify the Imperial powers of a new emperor[citation needed]. Going back to the founding of the city, control of the state was considered to return to the Senate whenever the chief magistracy became vacant, and so this particular reform robbed the Senate of its status as the depository of supreme power. Diocletian's reforms also ended whatever fiction had remained that the Senate had substantive legislative powers, and since the magistracies had become meaningless, the electoral powers of the Senate had no real meaning. The Senate did retain its legislative powers over public games and the senatorial order, as well as the power to try cases, especially treason, if the Emperor gave permission. The executive magistrates had been little more than municipal officials since long before Diocletian became Emperor, and so Diocletian's reforms simply declared this openly. The Consul now could only preside over the senate, and the Praetor and Quaestor could only manage public games, although the Praetor did retain some limited judicial authority. All other magisterial offices disappeared. The first two "Roman Consuls" in a given year, the consules ordinarii, were appointed by the Emperor, and their term now ended on April 21, while all other Consuls in a given year (the less-prestigious consules suffecti) were elected by the Senate. The Senate also elected "Praetors" and "Quaestors"', although the approval of the Emperor was required before any election could be certified. See also[edit] Roman Kingdom Roman Republic Roman Empire Roman Law Principate Tetrarchy Curia Roman consul Praetor Roman censor Quaestor Aedile Roman Dictator Master of the Horse Roman Senate Cursus honorum Byzantine Senate Pontifex Maximus Princeps senatus Interrex Promagistrate Acta Senatus Plebeian Council Centuria Fall of the Western Roman Empire Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire References[edit] Abbott, Frank Frost (1901). A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. Elibron Classics (ISBN 0-543-92749-0). Byrd, Robert (1995). The Senate of the Roman Republic. U.S. Government Printing Office, Senate Document 103-23. Cicero, Marcus Tullius (1841). The Political Works of Marcus Tullius Cicero: Comprising his Treatise on the Commonwealth; and his Treatise on the Laws. Translated from the original, with Dissertations and Notes in Two Volumes. By Francis Barham, Esq. London: Edmund Spettigue. Vol. 1. Lintott, Andrew (1999). The Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press ( ISBN 0-19-926108-3). Polybius (1823). The General History of Polybius: Translated from the Greek. By James Hampton. Oxford: Printed by W. Baxter. Fifth Edition, Vol 2. Taylor, Lily Ross (1966). Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar. The University of Michigan Press ( ISBN 0-472-08125-X). Notes[edit] ^ Byrd, Robert (1995). The Senate of the Roman Republic. U.S. Government Printing Office Senate Document 103-23. p. 161. ^ Abbott, Frank Frost (1963). A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. New York: Biblo and Tannen. p. 334. ^ a b Abbott 1963, p. 337. ^ Abbott 1963, pp. 335-336. ^ Abbott 1963, pp. 335-339. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 340. ^ Piganiol, André; Chastagnol, André (1973). L'empire chrétien. Presses Universitaires de France. doi:10.3917/puf.piga.1973.01. ISBN 978-2-13-032125-5. ^ Boak, Arthur (1924). Two Studies in Later Roman and Byzantine Administration. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. doi:10.3998/mpub.9690323. ISBN 978-0-472-75038-2. ^ Centamore, Giulio (2020-06-30). Contrattazione collettiva e pluralità di categorie. Seminario giuridico della Università di Bologna. Bononia University Press. doi:10.30682/sg301. ISBN 978-88-6923-567-2. ^ Sinnigen, William G. (1959). "Two Branches of the Late Roman Secret Service". The American Journal of Philology. 80 (3): 238–254. doi:10.2307/291793. ISSN 0002-9475. JSTOR 291793. ^ Adams, Colin (2012-12-06). Travel and Geography in the Roman Empire. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203995594. ISBN 978-0-203-99559-4. ^ Black, E.W. (1995). Cursus Publicus: The Infrastructure of government in Roman Britain. Oxford, UK: British Archaeological Reports. doi:10.30861/9780860547815. ISBN 978-0-86054-781-5. ^ Garnsey, Peter (2010), McGill, Scott; Sogno, Cristiana; Watts, Edward (eds.), "Roman patronage", From the Tetrarchs to the Theodosians, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 33–54, doi:10.1017/cbo9780511712296.003, ISBN 978-0-511-71229-6 ^ Talbert, Richard J. A. (November 1991). "R. Delmaire, Largesses sacrées et res privata. L'Aerarium impérial et son Administration du IVe au VIe Siècle (Collection de l'École française de Rome CXXI). Rome: École Française de Rome, 1989. Pp. xvii + 759. ISBN 2-7283-0163-8. Fr. 600. - R. Delmaire, Les Responsables des finances impériales au bas-empire romain (IVe–VIe S.): Études Prosopographiques (Collection Latomus CCIII). Brussels: Latomus, 1989. Pp. 323. ISBN 2-87031-143-5. Fr.b. 1500". Journal of Roman Studies. 81: 235–236. doi:10.2307/300549. ISSN 0075-4358. JSTOR 300549. Further reading[edit] Ihne, Wilhelm. Researches Into the History of the Roman Constitution. William Pickering. 1853. Johnston, Harold Whetstone. Orations and Letters of Cicero: With Historical Introduction, An Outline of the Roman Constitution, Notes, Vocabulary and Index. Scott, Foresman and Company. 1891. Mommsen, Theodor. Roman Constitutional Law. 1871-1888 Tighe, Ambrose. The Development of the Roman Constitution. D. Apple & Co. 1886. Von Fritz, Kurt. The Theory of the Mixed Constitution in Antiquity. Columbia University Press, New York. 1975. The Histories by Polybius Cambridge Ancient History, Volumes 9–13. A. Cameron, The Later Roman Empire, (Fontana Press, 1993). M. Crawford, The Roman Republic, (Fontana Press, 1978). E. S. Gruen, "The Last Generation of the Roman Republic" (U California Press, 1974) F. Millar, The Emperor in the Roman World, (Duckworth, 1977, 1992). A. Lintott, "The Constitution of the Roman Republic" (Oxford University Press, 1999) Primary sources[edit] Cicero's De Re Publica, Book Two Rome at the End of the Punic Wars: An Analysis of the Roman Government; by Polybius Secondary source material[edit] Considerations on the Causes of the Greatness of the Romans and their Decline, by Montesquieu The Roman Constitution to the Time of Cicero What a Terrorist Incident in Ancient Rome Can Teach Us v t e Roman Constitution Ancient Rome History Constitution Senate Assemblies Curiate Century Tribal Plebeian Magistrates Roman Kingdom History Constitution Senate Assemblies Magistrates Roman Republic History Constitution (reforms of Sulla • reforms of Caesar • reforms of Augustus) Senate Assemblies Magistrates Roman Empire History (post Diocletian) Constitution (post Diocletian) Senate Assemblies Magistrates Miscellaneous Sulla's Constitutional Reforms Caesar's Constitutional Reforms Conflict of the Orders Roman law v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_Late_Roman_Empire&oldid=992200942" Categories: Government of the Roman Empire Constitutions of ancient Rome Hidden categories: Pages using ISBN magic links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from November 2009 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español Português Edit links This page was last edited on 4 December 2020, at 01:15 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3266	----	Help:Contents - Wikipedia Help:Contents From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Main page of the help namespace This page provides help with the most common questions about Wikipedia. You can also search all Wikipedia's help pages using the search box below, or browse the Help menu or the Help directory. Help Wikipedia Read or find an article The Readers' FAQ and our about page contain the most commonly sought information about Wikipedia. For simple searches, there is a search box at the top of every page. Type what you are looking for in the box. Partial matches will appear in a dropdown list. Select any page in the list to go to that page. Or, select the magnifying glass "Go" button, or press ↵ Enter, to go to a full search result. For advanced searches, see Help:Searching. There are other ways to browse and explore Wikipedia articles; many can be found at Wikipedia:Contents. 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en-wikipedia-org-3279	----	National Library of Israel - Wikipedia National Library of Israel From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from NLI (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search National Library of Israel הספרייה הלאומית Country Israel Established 1892; 128 years ago (1892) Reference to legal mandate The Legal Deposit of generally available documents Location Jerusalem Coordinates 31°46′34.2″N 35°11′48.5″E / 31.776167°N 35.196806°E / 31.776167; 35.196806Coordinates: 31°46′34.2″N 35°11′48.5″E / 31.776167°N 35.196806°E / 31.776167; 35.196806 Collection Items collected Unique collections of manuscripts, special collections of books, music, radio and TV programmes, film, theatre, maps, posters, pictures, photographs, electronic documents and newspapers. Size 5 million volumes Other information Budget Approximately 100 million NIS (₪) Director Oren Weinberg Staff 300 Website nli.org.il Map The National Library of Israel (NLI; Hebrew: הספרייה הלאומית‎, romanized: HaSifria HaLeumit; Arabic: المكتبة الوطنية في إسرائيل‎), formerly Jewish National and University Library (JNUL; Hebrew: בית הספרים הלאומי והאוניברסיטאי‎, romanized: Beit Ha-Sfarim Ha-Le'umi ve-Ha-Universita'i), is the library dedicated to collecting the cultural treasures of Israel and of Jewish heritage. The library holds more than 5 million books, and is located on the Givat Ram campus of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. The National Library owns the world's largest collections of Hebraica and Judaica, and is the repository of many rare and unique manuscripts, books and artifacts. In August 2020, it closed for two weeks due to the financial and national government crisis associated with the COVID-19 pandemic. Contents 1 History 1.1 B'nai Brith library (1892-1925) 1.2 Hebrew University library (1925-2007) 1.3 National Library status (2007) 1.4 Online library (2011) 1.5 New building 1.6 Closure (2020) 2 Goals and objectives 3 Special collections 4 See also 5 References 6 External links History[edit] B'nai Brith library (1892-1925)[edit] B'nai Brith library, Jerusalem The establishment of a Jewish National Library in Jerusalem was the brainchild of Joseph Chazanovitz (1844-1919). His idea was creating a "home for all works in all languages and literatures which have Jewish authors, even though they create in foreign cultures." Chazanovitz collected some 15,000 volumes which later became the core of the library.[1] The B'nai Brith library, founded in Jerusalem in 1892, was the first public library in Palestine to serve the Jewish community. The library was located on B'nai Brith street, between the Meah Shearim neighborhood and the Russian Compound.[2] Ten years later, the Bet Midrash Abrabanel library, as it was then known, moved to Ethiopia Street.[3] Hebrew University library (1925-2007)[edit] In 1920, when plans were drawn up for the Hebrew University, the B'nai Brith collection became the basis for a university library. The books were moved to Mount Scopus when the university opened five years later.[2] In 1948, when access to the university campus on Mount Scopus was blocked, most of the books were moved to the university's temporary quarters in the Terra Sancta building in Rehavia. By that time, the university collection included over one million books. For lack of space, some of the books were placed in storerooms around the city. In 1960, they were moved to the new JNUL building in Givat Ram.[2] In the late 1970s, when the new university complex on Mount Scopus was inaugurated and the faculties of Law, Humanities and Social Science returned there, departmental libraries opened on that campus and the number of visitors to the Givat Ram library dropped. In the 1990s, the building suffered from maintenance problems such as rainwater leaks and insect infestation.[2] National Library status (2007)[edit] In 2007 the library was officially recognized as The National Library of the State of Israel after the passage of the National Library Law.[2] The law, which came into effect on 23 July 2008, changed the library's name to "National Library of Israel" and turned it temporarily to a subsidiary company of the University, later to become a fully independent community interest company, jointly owned by the Government of Israel (50%), the Hebrew University (25%) and other organizations. Online library (2011)[edit] In 2011, the library launched a website granting public access to books, periodicals, maps, photos and music from its collections.[4] New building[edit] In 2014, the project for a new home of the Library in Jerusalem was unveiled.[5] The 34,000 square meters building, designed by the Basel-based architecture firm Herzog & de Meuron, is scheduled for full completion in 2021.[6][7] Closure (2020)[edit] In August, 2020, the National Library announced its immediately forthcoming closure "until further notice" due to the ongoing financial and government crisis.[8][9] The closure lasted for two weeks and the Library subsequently re-opened.[citation needed] Goals and objectives[edit] Ardon windows in the library lobby The library's mission is to secure copies of all material published in Israel, in any language; all publications on the subject of Israel, the Land of Israel, Judaism and the Jewish people, published in any language, in any country in the world; and all material published in Hebrew or any of the languages spoken in the Jewish Diaspora (such as Yiddish and Ladino). By law, two copies of all printed matter published in Israel must be deposited in the National Library. In 2001, the law was amended to include audio and video recordings, and other non-print media.[10] Many manuscripts, including some of the library's unique volumes such the 13th century Worms Mahzor, have been scanned and are now available on the Internet. Special collections[edit] Reading room Among the library's special collections are the personal papers of hundreds of outstanding Jewish figures, the National Sound Archives, the Laor Map Collection and numerous other collections of Hebraica and Judaica. The library also possesses some of Isaac Newton's manuscripts dealing with theological subjects.[11] The collection, donated by the family of the collector Abraham Yahuda, includes many works by Newton about mysticism, analyses of holy books, predictions about the end of days and the appearance of the ancient Temple in Jerusalem. It also contains maps that Newton sketched about mythical events to assist him in his end of days calculations.[12] The library houses the personal archives of Martin Buber and Gershom Scholem.[13] Following the occupation of West Jerusalem by Haganah forces in May 1948, the libraries of a number Palestinians who fled the country as well as of other well-to-do Palestinians were transferred to the National Library.[14] These collections included those of Henry Cattan, Khalil Beidas, Khalil al-Sakakini and Aref Hikmet Nashashibi.[15] About 30,000 books were removed from homes in West Jerusalem, with another 40,000 taken from other cities in Mandatory Palestine. It is unclear whether the books were being kept and protected or if they were looted from the abandoned houses of their owners.[16] About 6,000 of these books are in the library today indexed with the label AP – "Abandoned Property".[17] The books are cataloged, can be viewed from the Library's general catalog and are regularly consulted by the public, including Arab scholars from all over the world. The National Library of Israel completed its collection of the Max Brod archive in August 2019.[18] See also[edit] List of national and state libraries Union List of Israel, combined library catalog with over 5 million entries Judaica Archival Project References[edit] ^ Melancholy Pride: Nation, Race and Gender in the German Literature of Cultural Zionism, Mark Gelber ^ a b c d e Aryeh Dayan. "New chapter in a sad saga". Haaretz. Retrieved 29 May 2017. ^ "Hebrew University Hails 'Landmark Legislation' for the Establishment of the National Library". Canadian Friends of the Hebrew University. 27 November 2007. Archived from the original on 17 September 2017. Retrieved 1 October 2008. ^ Israel's National Library puts collection online ^ Herzog & de Meuron to Design the National Library of Israel, ArchDaily, 29 April 2013 ^ "herzog & de meuron reveals designs for national library of israel". Designboom. Retrieved 9 December 2014. ^ Herzog & de Meuron Share New Images of the National Library of Israel, ArchDaily, 14 April 2016 ^ Hen, Yitzhak, Israel's National Library Is Closing Down. How Much Do You Care?, Haaretz, 18 August 2020 ^ Oster, Marcy, National Library of Israel to suspend services, put 300 workers on unpaid leave, Times of Israel, 6 August 2020 ^ Jewish National & University Library History Archived 21 April 2007 at the Wayback Machine (in English) ^ Newton Collection Archived 24 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine (in English) ^ Israeli National Library uploads trove of Newton's theological tracts ^ National Library, Germany partner to put papers online ^ The Looting of the Palestinian Books Archived 13 May 2014 at the Wayback Machine Mitaam: a Review for radical thought 8 (December 2006), pp. 12-22, by Gish Amit ^ Israel State Archive, Jerusalem, 1429/3 ^ Preserving or looting Palestinian books in Jerusalem ^ Overdue Books: Returning Palestine’s “Abandoned Property” of 1948 by Hannah Mermelstein, Jerusalem Quarterly, Autumn 2011 ^ "Israel Gets Missing Kafka Papers, Ending Long Legal Battle". 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en-wikipedia-org-3282	----	Alexandria - Wikipedia Alexandria From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the city in Egypt. For other uses, see Alexandria (disambiguation). Metropolis in Egypt Alexandria الإسكندرية (Arabic) Standard Arabic: al-ʾIskandariyya Egyptian Arabic: Eskenderiyya ⲁⲗⲉⲝⲁⲛⲇⲣⲓⲁ, ⲣⲁⲕⲟϯ (Coptic) ⲁⲗⲉⲝⲁⲛⲇⲣⲓⲁ: Alexandria ⲣⲁⲕⲟϯ: Rakodī Αλεξάνδρεια (Greek) Αλεξάνδρεια: Alexandria Ρακώτις: Rhakotis Metropolis Clockwise from top: View of Shatby district and Suez Canal street, skyline of the eastern district (Sharq), Stanley Bridge, Montaza Palace, Bibliotheca Alexandrina and the statue of Ptolemy II Philadelphus, Planetarium Science Center (with corniche in the background). Flag Emblem Nicknames: Mediterranean's Bride, Pearl of the Mediterranean, Aleks Alexandria Location in Egypt Coordinates: 31°12′N 29°55′E / 31.200°N 29.917°E / 31.200; 29.917Coordinates: 31°12′N 29°55′E / 31.200°N 29.917°E / 31.200; 29.917 Country  Egypt Governorate Alexandria Founded 331 BC Founded by Alexander the Great Government  • Governor Elsherif[1] Area  • Total 2,679 km2 (1,034 sq mi) Elevation 5 m (16 ft) Population (October 2018[2])  • Total 5,200,000  • Density 1,900/km2 (5,000/sq mi) Demonym(s) Alexandrian, Alexandrine (Arabic: إسكندراني‎) Time zone UTC+2 (EST) Postal code 21500 Area code(s) (+20) 3 Website Alexandria.gov.eg r-ꜥ-qd(y)t (Alexandria)[3][4] in hieroglyphs Alexandria (/ˌælɪɡˈzændriə/ or /-ˈzɑːnd-/;[5] Arabic: الإسكندرية‎ al-ʾIskandariyya;[6] Egyptian Arabic: اسكندرية‎ Eskendereyya; Coptic: ⲣⲁⲕⲟϯ Rakodī;[7] Greek: Αλεξάνδρεια Alexandria)[7][8] is the second-largest city in Egypt and a major economic centre. With a population of 5,200,000, Alexandria is the largest city on the Mediterranean - also called the Bride of the Mediterranean by locals - the sixth-largest city in the Arab world and the ninth-largest in Africa. The city extends about 40 km (25 mi) at the northern coast of Egypt along the Mediterranean Sea. Alexandria is a popular tourist destination, and also an important industrial centre because of its natural gas and oil pipelines from Suez. Alexandria was founded in c. 331 BC by Alexander the Great,[9] king of Macedon and leader of the Greek League of Corinth, during his conquest of the Achaemenid Empire. An Egyptian village named Rhacotis existed at the location and grew into the Egyptian quarter of Alexandria. Alexandria grew rapidly to become an important centre of Hellenistic civilization and remained the capital of Ptolemaic Egypt and Roman and Byzantine Egypt for almost 1,000 years, until the Muslim conquest of Egypt in AD 641, when a new capital was founded at Fustat (later absorbed into Cairo). Hellenistic Alexandria was best known for the Lighthouse of Alexandria (Pharos), one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World; its Great Library (the largest in the ancient world); and the Necropolis, one of the Seven Wonders of the Middle Ages. Alexandria was the intellectual and cultural centre of the ancient Mediterranean world for much of the Hellenistic age and late antiquity.[9] It was at one time the largest city in the ancient world before being eventually overtaken by Rome. The city was a major centre of early Christianity and was the centre of the Patriarchate of Alexandria, which was one of the major centres of Christianity in the Eastern Roman Empire. In the modern world, the Coptic Orthodox Church and the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria both lay claim to this ancient heritage. By the time of the Arab conquest of Egypt in 641 AD, the city had already been largely plundered and lost its significance before re-emerging in the modern era.[10] From the late 18th century, Alexandria became a major centre of the international shipping industry and one of the most important trading centres in the world, both because it profited from the easy overland connection between the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea, and the lucrative trade in Egyptian cotton. Contents 1 History 1.1 Ancient era 1.2 Islamic era 1.3 Ibn Battuta in Alexandria 1.4 Timeline 2 Ancient layout 3 Geography 3.1 Climate 4 Cityscape 4.1 Temple of Taposiris Magna 5 Places of worship 5.1 Islam 5.2 Christianity 5.3 Judaism 6 Education 6.1 Colleges and universities 6.2 Schools 6.3 Women 7 Transport 7.1 Airports 7.2 Port 7.3 Highways 7.4 Rail 7.5 Trams 7.6 Metro 7.7 Taxis and minibuses 8 Culture 8.1 Libraries 8.2 Museums 8.3 Theaters 9 Architecture 10 Sports 11 Twin towns – sister cities 12 See also 13 References 14 Further reading 15 External links History[edit] Main articles: History of Alexandria and Timeline of Alexandria Alexander The Great Plan of Alexandria c. 30 BC Ancient era[edit] Recent radiocarbon dating of seashell fragments and lead contamination show human activity at the location during the period of the Old Kingdom (27th-21st centuries BC) and again in the period 1000-800 BC, followed by the absence of activity thereafter.[11] From ancient sources it is known there existed a trading post at this location during the time of Rameses the Great for trade with Crete, but it had long been lost by the time of Alexander's arrival.[9] A small Egyptian fishing village named Rhakotis (Egyptian: rꜥ-qdy.t, 'That which is built up') existed since the 13th century BC in the vicinity and eventually grew into the Egyptian quarter of the city.[9] Just east of Alexandria (where Abu Qir Bay is now), there was in ancient times marshland and several islands. As early as the 7th century BC, there existed important port cities of Canopus and Heracleion. The latter was recently rediscovered under water. Alexandria was founded by Alexander the Great in April 331 BC as Ἀλεξάνδρεια (Alexandreia). Passing through Egypt, Alexander wanted to build a large Greek city on Egypt's coast that would bear his name. He chose the site of Alexandria, envisioning the building of a causeway to the nearby island of Pharos that would generate two great natural harbours.[9] Alexandria was intended to supersede the older Greek colony of Naucratis as a Hellenistic centre in Egypt, and to be the link between Greece and the rich Nile valley. A few months after the foundation, Alexander left Egypt and never returned to the city during his life. After Alexander's departure, his viceroy Cleomenes continued the expansion. The architect Dinocrates of Rhodes designed the city, using a Hippodamian grid plan. Following Alexander's death in 323 BC, his general Ptolemy Lagides took possession of Egypt and brought Alexander's body to Egypt with him.[12] Ptolemy at first ruled from the old Egyptian capital of Memphis. In 322/321 BC he had Cleomenes executed. Finally, in 305 BC, Ptolemy declared himself Pharaoh as Ptolemy I Soter ("Savior") and moved his capital to Alexandria. Although Cleomenes was mainly in charge of overseeing Alexandria's early development, the Heptastadion and the mainland quarters seem to have been primarily Ptolemaic work. Inheriting the trade of ruined Tyre and becoming the centre of the new commerce between Europe and the Arabian and Indian East, the city grew in less than a generation to be larger than Carthage. In a century, Alexandria had become the largest city in the world and, for some centuries more, was second only to Rome. It became Egypt's main Greek city, with Greek people from diverse backgrounds.[13] The Lighthouse of Alexandria on coins minted in Alexandria in the second century (1: reverse of a coin of Antoninus Pius, and 2: reverse of a coin of Commodus). Alexandria was not only a centre of Hellenism, but was also home to the largest urban Jewish community in the world. The Septuagint, a Greek version of the Tanakh, was produced there. The early Ptolemies kept it in order and fostered the development of its museum into the leading Hellenistic centre of learning (Library of Alexandria), but were careful to maintain the distinction of its population's three largest ethnicities: Greek, Jewish, and Egyptian.[14] By the time of Augustus, the city walls encompassed an area of 5.34 km2, and the total population during the Roman principate was around 500,000–600,000, which would wax and wane in the course of the next four centuries under Roman rule.[15] According to Philo of Alexandria, in the year 38 of the Common era, disturbances erupted between Jews and Greek citizens of Alexandria during a visit paid by the Jewish king Agrippa I to Alexandria, principally over the respect paid by the Jewish nation to the Roman emperor, and which quickly escalated to open affronts and violence between the two ethnic groups and the desecration of Alexandrian synagogues. The violence was quelled after Caligula intervened and had the Roman governor, Flaccus, removed from the city.[16] In AD 115, large parts of Alexandria were destroyed during the Kitos War, which gave Hadrian and his architect, Decriannus, an opportunity to rebuild it. In 215, the emperor Caracalla visited the city and, because of some insulting satires that the inhabitants had directed at him, abruptly commanded his troops to put to death all youths capable of bearing arms. On 21 July 365, Alexandria was devastated by a tsunami (365 Crete earthquake),[17] an event annually commemorated years later as a "day of horror".[18] Islamic era[edit] Alexandria in the late 18th century, by Luigi Mayer Entry of General Bonaparte into Alexandria, oil on canvas, 365 cm × 500 cm (144 in × 197 in), c. 1800, Versailles The Battle of Abukir, by Antoine-Jean Gros 1806. Alexandria: bombardment by British naval forces In 619, Alexandria fell to the Sassanid Persians. Although the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius recovered it in 629, in 641 the Arabs under the general 'Amr ibn al-'As invaded it during the Muslim conquest of Egypt, after a siege that lasted 14 months. The first Arab governor of Egypt recorded to have visited Alexandria was Utba ibn Abi Sufyan, who strengthened the Arab presence and built a governor's palace in the city in 664–665.[19][20] After the Battle of Ridaniya in 1517, the city was conquered by the Ottoman Turks and remained under Ottoman rule until 1798. Alexandria lost much of its former importance to the Egyptian port city of Rosetta during the 9th to 18th centuries, and only regained its former prominence with the construction of the Mahmoudiyah Canal in 1807. Alexandria figured prominently in the military operations of Napoleon's expedition to Egypt in 1798. French troops stormed the city on 2 July 1798, and it remained in their hands until the arrival of a British expedition in 1801. The British won a considerable victory over the French at the Battle of Alexandria on 21 March 1801, following which they besieged the city, which fell to them on 2 September 1801. Muhammad Ali, the Ottoman governor of Egypt, began rebuilding and redevelopment around 1810, and by 1850, Alexandria had returned to something akin to its former glory.[21] Egypt turned to Europe in their effort to modernize the country. Greeks, followed by other Europeans and others, began moving to the city. In the early 20th century, the city became a home for novelists and poets.[10] In July 1882, the city came under bombardment from British naval forces and was occupied.[22] In July 1954, the city was a target of an Israeli bombing campaign that later became known as the Lavon Affair. On 26 October 1954, Alexandria's Mansheya Square was the site of a failed assassination attempt on Gamal Abdel Nasser.[23] Europeans began leaving Alexandria following the 1956 Suez Crisis that led to an outburst of Arab nationalism. The nationalization of property by Nasser, which reached its highest point in 1961, drove out nearly all the rest.[10] Ibn Battuta in Alexandria[edit] Map of the city in the 1780s, by Louis-François Cassas. In reference to Alexandria, Egypt, Ibn Battuta speaks of great saints that resided here. One of them being Imam Borhan Oddin El Aaraj. He was said to have the power of working miracles. He told Ibn Battuta that he should go find his three brothers, Farid Oddin, who lived in India, Rokn Oddin Ibn Zakarya, who lived in Sindia, and Borhan Oddin, who lived in China. Battuta then made it his purpose to find these people and give them his compliments. Sheikh Yakut was another great man. He was the disciple of Sheikh Abu Abbas El Mursi, who was the disciple of Abu El Hasan El Shadali, who is known to be a servant of God. Abu Abbas was the author of the Hizb El Bahr and was famous for piety and miracles. Abu Abd Allah El Murshidi was a great interpreting saint that lived secluded in the Minyat of Ibn Murshed. He lived alone but was visited daily by emirs, viziers, and crowds that wished to eat with him. The Sultan of Egypt (El Malik El Nasir) visited him, as well. Ibn Battuta left Alexandria with the intent of visiting him.[24] Ibn Battuta also visited the Pharos lighthouse on 2 occasions; in 1326 he found it to be partly in ruins and in 1349 it had deteriorated further, making entrance to the edifice impossible. [25] Timeline[edit] The most important battles and sieges of Alexandria include: Siege of Alexandria (47 BC), Julius Caesar's civil war Battle of Alexandria (30 BC), final war of the Roman Republic Siege of Alexandria (619), Byzantine-Persian Wars Siege of Alexandria (641), Rashidun conquest of Byzantine Egypt Alexandrian Crusade (1365), a crusade led by Peter de Lusignan of Cyprus which resulted in the defeat of the Mamluks and the sack of the city. Battle of Alexandria (1801), Napoleonic Wars Siege of Alexandria (1801), Napoleonic Wars Alexandria expedition (1807), Napoleonic Wars Ancient layout[edit] Greek Alexandria was divided into three regions: Macedonian Army, shown on the Alexander Sarcophagus. Brucheum Brucheum is the Royal or Greek quarter and forms the most magnificent portion of the city. In Roman times Brucheum was enlarged by the addition of an official quarter, making four regions in all. The city was laid out as a grid of parallel streets, each of which had an attendant subterranean canal; The Jewish quarter This quarter is the northeast portion of the city; Rhakotis Rhakotis is the old city that was absorbed into Alexandria. It was occupied chiefly by Egyptians. (from Coptic Rakotə "Alexandria"). Engraving by L F Cassas of the Canopic Street in Alexandria, Egypt made in 1784. Two main streets, lined with colonnades and said to have been each about 60 meters (200 ft) wide, intersected in the centre of the city, close to the point where the Sema (or Soma) of Alexander (his Mausoleum) rose. This point is very near the present mosque of Nebi Daniel; and the line of the great East–West "Canopic" street, only slightly diverged from that of the modern Boulevard de Rosette (now Sharia Fouad). Traces of its pavement and canal have been found near the Rosetta Gate, but remnants of streets and canals were exposed in 1899 by German excavators outside the east fortifications, which lie well within the area of the ancient city. Alexandria consisted originally of little more than the island of Pharos, which was joined to the mainland by a 1,260-metre-long (4,130 ft) mole and called the Heptastadion ("seven stadia"—a stadium was a Greek unit of length measuring approximately 180 metres or 590 feet). The end of this abutted on the land at the head of the present Grand Square, where the "Moon Gate" rose. All that now lies between that point and the modern "Ras al-Tin" quarter is built on the silt which gradually widened and obliterated this mole. The Ras al-Tin quarter represents all that is left of the island of Pharos, the site of the actual lighthouse having been weathered away by the sea. On the east of the mole was the Great Harbour, now an open bay; on the west lay the port of Eunostos, with its inner basin Kibotos, now vastly enlarged to form the modern harbour. In Strabo's time, (latter half of the 1st century BC) the principal buildings were as follows, enumerated as they were to be seen from a ship entering the Great Harbour. The Royal Palaces, filling the northeast angle of the town and occupying the promontory of Lochias, which shut in the Great Harbour on the east. Lochias (the modern Pharillon) has almost entirely disappeared into the sea, together with the palaces, the "Private Port," and the island of Antirrhodus. There has been a land subsidence here, as throughout the northeast coast of Africa. The Great Theater, on the modern Hospital Hill near the Ramleh station. This was used by Julius Caesar as a fortress, where he withstood a siege from the city mob after he took Egypt after the battle of Pharsalus[citation needed][clarification needed] The Poseidon, or Temple of the Sea God, close to the theater The Timonium built by Marc Antony The Emporium (Exchange) The Apostases (Magazines) The Navalia (Docks), lying west of the Timonium, along the seafront as far as the mole Behind the Emporium rose the Great Caesareum, by which stood the two great obelisks, which become known as "Cleopatra's Needles," and were transported to New York City and London. This temple became, in time, the Patriarchal Church, though some ancient remains of the temple have been discovered. The actual Caesareum, the parts not eroded by the waves, lies under the houses lining the new seawall. The Gymnasium and the Palaestra are both inland, near the Boulevard de Rosette in the eastern half of the town; sites unknown. The Temple of Saturn; alexandria west. The Mausolea of Alexander (Soma) and the Ptolemies in one ring-fence, near the point of intersection of the two main streets. The Musaeum with its famous Library and theater in the same region; site unknown. The Serapeum of Alexandria, the most famous of all Alexandrian temples. Strabo tells us that this stood in the west of the city; and recent discoveries go far as to place it near "Pompey's Pillar," which was an independent monument erected to commemorate Diocletian's siege of the city. The names of a few other public buildings on the mainland are known, but there is little information as to their actual position. None, however, are as famous as the building that stood on the eastern point of Pharos island. There, The Great Lighthouse, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, reputed to be 138 metres (453 feet) high, was situated. The first Ptolemy began the project, and the second Ptolemy (Ptolemy II Philadelphus) completed it, at a total cost of 800 talents. It took 12 years to complete and served as a prototype for all later lighthouses in the world. The light was produced by a furnace at the top and the tower was built mostly with solid blocks of limestone. The Pharos lighthouse was destroyed by an earthquake in the 14th century, making it the second longest surviving ancient wonder, after the Great Pyramid of Giza. A temple of Hephaestus also stood on Pharos at the head of the mole. In the 1st century, the population of Alexandria contained over 180,000 adult male citizens,[26] according to a census dated from 32 CE, in addition to a large number of freedmen, women, children and slaves. Estimates of the total population range from 216,000[27] to 500,000[28] making it one of the largest cities ever built before the Industrial Revolution and the largest pre-industrial city that was not an imperial capital.[citation needed] Geography[edit] Skyline from Qaitbay Citadel Satellite image of Alexandria and other cities show its surrounding coastal plain Lake Mariout Alexandria is located in the country of Egypt, on the southern coast of the Mediterranean. Climate[edit] Alexandria has a borderline hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification: BWh),[29] approaching a hot semi-arid climate (BSh). As the rest of Egypt's northern coast, the prevailing north wind, blowing across the Mediterranean, gives the city a less severe climate from the desert hinterland.[30] Rafah and Alexandria[31] are the wettest places in Egypt; the other wettest places are Rosetta, Baltim, Kafr el-Dawwar, and Mersa Matruh. The city's climate is influenced by the Mediterranean Sea, moderating its temperatures, causing variable rainy winters and moderately hot and slightly prolonged summers that, at times, can be very humid; January and February are the coolest months, with daily maximum temperatures typically ranging from 12 to 18 °C (54 to 64 °F) and minimum temperatures that could reach 5 °C (41 °F). temperature sometimes gets lower than 5 and it sometimes rains snow. Alexandria experiences violent storms, rain and sometimes sleet and hail during the cooler months; these events, combined with a poor drainage system, have been responsible for occasional flooding in the city in the past though they rarely occur anymore.[32] July and August are the hottest and driest months of the year, with an average daily maximum temperature of 30 °C (86 °F). The average annual rainfall is around 200 mm (7.9 in) but has been as high as 417 mm (16.4 in)[33] Port Said, Kosseir, Baltim, Damietta and Alexandria have the least temperature variation in Egypt. The highest recorded temperature was 45 °C (113 °F) on 30 May 1961, and the coldest recorded temperature was 0 °C (32 °F) on 31 January 1994.[34] Climate data for Alexandria Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 33.3 (91.9) 32.9 (91.2) 40.0 (104.0) 41.0 (105.8) 45.0 (113.0) 43.8 (110.8) 43.0 (109.4) 38.6 (101.5) 41.4 (106.5) 38.2 (100.8) 35.7 (96.3) 31.0 (87.8) 45.0 (113.0) Average high °C (°F) 18.4 (65.1) 19.3 (66.7) 20.9 (69.6) 24.0 (75.2) 26.5 (79.7) 28.6 (83.5) 29.7 (85.5) 30.4 (86.7) 29.6 (85.3) 27.6 (81.7) 24.1 (75.4) 20.1 (68.2) 24.9 (76.8) Daily mean °C (°F) 13.4 (56.1) 13.9 (57.0) 15.7 (60.3) 18.5 (65.3) 21.2 (70.2) 24.3 (75.7) 25.9 (78.6) 26.3 (79.3) 25.1 (77.2) 22.0 (71.6) 18.7 (65.7) 14.9 (58.8) 20.0 (68.0) Average low °C (°F) 9.1 (48.4) 9.3 (48.7) 10.8 (51.4) 13.4 (56.1) 16.6 (61.9) 20.3 (68.5) 22.8 (73.0) 23.1 (73.6) 21.3 (70.3) 17.8 (64.0) 14.3 (57.7) 10.6 (51.1) 15.8 (60.4) Record low °C (°F) 0.0 (32.0) 0.0 (32.0) 2.3 (36.1) 3.6 (38.5) 7.0 (44.6) 11.6 (52.9) 17.0 (62.6) 17.7 (63.9) 14 (57) 10.7 (51.3) 1.0 (33.8) 1.2 (34.2) 0.0 (32.0) Average rainfall mm (inches) 52.8 (2.08) 29.2 (1.15) 14.3 (0.56) 3.6 (0.14) 1.3 (0.05) 0.0 (0.0) 0.0 (0.0) 0.1 (0.00) 0.8 (0.03) 9.4 (0.37) 31.7 (1.25) 52.7 (2.07) 195.9 (7.7) Average rainy days (≥ 0.01 mm) 11.0 8.9 6.0 1.9 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 2.9 5.4 9.5 46.8 Average relative humidity (%) 69 67 67 65 66 68 71 71 67 68 68 68 67.92 Mean monthly sunshine hours 192.2 217.5 248.0 273.0 316.2 354.0 362.7 344.1 297.0 282.1 225.0 195.3 3,307.1 Source 1: World Meteorological Organization (UN),[35] Hong Kong Observatory for sunshine and mean temperatures,[36] Climate Charts for humidity[37] Source 2: Voodoo Skies[34] and Bing Weather[38] for record temperatures Alexandria mean sea temperature[39] Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 18 °C (64 °F) 17 °C (63 °F) 17 °C (63 °F) 18 °C (64 °F) 20 °C (68 °F) 23 °C (73 °F) 25 °C (77 °F) 26 °C (79 °F) 26 °C (79 °F) 25 °C (77 °F) 22 °C (72 °F) 20 °C (68 °F) Cityscape[edit] Egypt – Obelisk, Alexandria. Brooklyn Museum Archives, Goodyear Archival Collection. Roman Amphitheater Roman Pompey's Pillar Due to the constant presence of war in Alexandria in ancient times, very little of the ancient city has survived into the present day. Much of the royal and civic quarters sank beneath the harbour and the rest has been built over in modern times. Catacombs of Kom El Shoqafa "Pompey's Pillar", a Roman triumphal column, is one of the best-known ancient monuments still standing in Alexandria today. It is located on Alexandria's ancient acropolis—a modest hill located adjacent to the city's Arab cemetery—and was originally part of a temple colonnade. Including its pedestal, it is 30 m (99 ft) high; the shaft is of polished red granite, 2.7 m (8.9 ft) in diameter at the base, tapering to 2.4 m (7.9 ft) at the top. The shaft is 88 feet (27 m) high, and made out of a single piece of granite. Its volume is 132 cubic meters (4,662 cubic feet) and weight approximately 396 tons.[40] Pompey's Pillar may have been erected using the same methods that were used to erect the ancient obelisks. The Romans had cranes but they were not strong enough to lift something this heavy. Roger Hopkins and Mark Lehrner conducted several obelisk erecting experiments including a successful attempt to erect a 25-ton obelisk in 1999. This followed two experiments to erect smaller obelisks and two failed attempts to erect a 25-ton obelisk.[41][42] The structure was plundered and demolished in the 4th century when a bishop decreed that Paganism must be eradicated. "Pompey's Pillar" is a misnomer, as it has nothing to do with Pompey, having been erected in 293 for Diocletian, possibly in memory of the rebellion of Domitius Domitianus. Beneath the acropolis itself are the subterranean remains of the Serapeum, where the mysteries of the god Serapis were enacted, and whose carved wall niches are believed to have provided overflow storage space for the ancient Library. In more recent years, many ancient artifacts have been discovered from the surrounding sea, mostly pieces of old pottery. Alexandria's catacombs, known as Kom El Shoqafa, are a short distance southwest of the pillar, consist of a multi-level labyrinth, reached via a large spiral staircase, and featuring dozens of chambers adorned with sculpted pillars, statues, and other syncretic Romano-Egyptian religious symbols, burial niches, and sarcophagi, as well as a large Roman-style banquet room, where memorial meals were conducted by relatives of the deceased. The catacombs were long forgotten by the citizens until they were discovered by accident in 1900.[43] The most extensive ancient excavation currently being conducted in Alexandria is known as Kom El Deka. It has revealed the ancient city's well-preserved theater, and the remains of its Roman-era baths. Persistent efforts have been made to explore the antiquities of Alexandria. Encouragement and help have been given by the local Archaeological Society, and by many individuals, notably Greeks proud of a city which is one of the glories of their national history. Excavations were performed in the city by Greeks seeking the tomb of Alexander the Great without success. The past and present directors of the museum have been enabled from time to time to carry out systematic excavations whenever opportunity is offered; D. G. Hogarth made tentative researches on behalf of the Egypt Exploration Fund and the Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies in 1895; and a German expedition worked for two years (1898–1899). But two difficulties face the would-be excavator in Alexandria: lack of space for excavation and the underwater location of some areas of interest. Side view of The Temple of Taposiris Magna. Since the great and growing modern city stands immediately over the ancient one, it is almost impossible to find any considerable space in which to dig, except at enormous cost. Cleopatra VII's royal quarters were inundated by earthquakes and tsunami, leading to gradual subsidence in the 4th century AD.[44] This underwater section, containing many of the most interesting sections of the Hellenistic city, including the palace quarter, was explored in 1992 and is still being extensively investigated by the French underwater archaeologist Franck Goddio and his team.[45] It raised a noted head of Caesarion. These are being opened up to tourists, to some controversy.[46] The spaces that are most open are the low grounds to northeast and southwest, where it is practically impossible to get below the Roman strata. The most important results were those achieved by Dr. G. Botti, late director of the museum, in the neighborhood of "Pompey's Pillar", where there is a good deal of open ground. Here, substructures of a large building or group of buildings have been exposed, which are perhaps part of the Serapeum. Nearby, immense catacombs and columbaria have been opened which may have been appendages of the temple. These contain one very remarkable vault with curious painted reliefs, now artificially lit and open to visitors. The objects found in these researches are in the museum, the most notable being a great basalt bull, probably once an object of cult in the Serapeum. Other catacombs and tombs have been opened in Kom El Shoqafa (Roman) and Ras El Tin (painted). The German excavation team found remains of a Ptolemaic colonnade and streets in the north-east of the city, but little else. Hogarth explored part of an immense brick structure under the mound of Kom El Deka, which may have been part of the Paneum, the Mausolea, or a Roman fortress. The making of the new foreshore led to the dredging up of remains of the Patriarchal Church; and the foundations of modern buildings are seldom laid without some objects of antiquity being discovered. The wealth underground is doubtlessly immense; but despite all efforts, there is not much for antiquarians to see in Alexandria outside the museum and the neighborhood of "Pompey's Pillar". Temple of Taposiris Magna[edit] The temple was built in the Ptolemy era and dedicated to Osiris, which finished the construction of Alexandria. It is located in Abusir, the western suburb of Alexandria in Borg el Arab city. Only the outer wall and the pylons remain from the temple. There is evidence to prove that sacred animals were worshiped there. Archaeologists found an animal necropolis near the temple. Remains of a Christian church show that the temple was used as a church in later centuries. Also found in the same area are remains of public baths built by the emperor Justinian, a seawall, quays and a bridge. Near the beach side of the area, there are the remains of a tower built by Ptolemy II Philadelphus. The tower was an exact scale replica of the destroyed Alexandrine Pharos Lighthouse.[47] Places of worship[edit] Among the places of worship, there are Muslim mosques.[48] Coptic Christian churches are most common churches .There are also other Christian churches as: Greek, Latin and Armenian . Orthodox Christian churches are most common but Catholic, Anglican and Evangelical churches are present. Also there is a Jewish synagogue Places of worship in Alexandria El-Mursi Abul Abbas Mosque Latin Catholic church of Saint Catherine in Mansheya Eliyahu Hanavi Synagogue Islam[edit] See also: List of mosques in Alexandria The most famous mosque in Alexandria is Abu al-Abbas al-Mursi Mosque in Bahary. Other notable mosques in the city include Ali ibn Abi Talib mosque in Somouha, Bilal mosque, al-Gamaa al-Bahari in Mandara, Hatem mosque in Somouha, Hoda el-Islam mosque in Sidi Bishr, al-Mowasah mosque in Hadara, Sharq al-Madina mosque in Miami, al-Shohadaa mosque in Mostafa Kamel, Al Qa'ed Ibrahim Mosque, Yehia mosque in Zizinia, Sidi Gaber mosque in Sidi Gaber, Sidi B esher mosque, Rokay el-Islam mosque in Elessway, Elsadaka Mosque in Sidibesher Qebly, Elshatbi mosque and Sultan mosque. Alexandria is the base of the Salafi movements in Egypt. Al-Nour Party, which is based in the city and overwhelmingly won most of the Salafi votes in the 2011–12 parliamentary election, supports the president Abdel Fattah el-Sisi.[10] Christianity[edit] After Rome and Constantinople, Alexandria was considered the third-most important seat of Christianity in the world. The Pope of Alexandria was second only to the bishop of Rome, the capital of the Roman Empire until 430. The Church of Alexandria had jurisdiction over most of the continent of Africa. After the Council of Chalcedon in AD 451, the Church of Alexandria was split between the Miaphysites and the Melkites. The Miaphysites went on to constitute what is known today as the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria. The Melkites went on to constitute what is known today as the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria. In the 19th century, Catholic and Protestant missionaries converted some of the adherents of the Orthodox churches to their respective faiths. Today, the Patriarchal seat of the Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church is Saint Mark Cathedral . The most important Coptic Orthodox churches in Alexandria include Pope Cyril I Church in Cleopatra, Saint Georges Church in Sporting, Saint Mark & Pope Peter I Church in Sidi Bishr, Saint Mary Church in Assafra, Saint Mary Church in Gianaclis, Saint Mina Church in Fleming, Saint Mina Church in Mandara and Saint Takla Haymanot's Church in Ibrahimeya. The most important Eastern Orthodox churches in Alexandria are Agioi Anárgyroi Church, Church of the Annunciation, Saint Anthony Church, Archangels Gabriel & Michael Church, Taxiarchon Church, Saint Catherine Church, Cathedral of the Dormition in Mansheya, Church of the Dormition, Prophet Elijah Church, Saint George Church, Saint Joseph Church in Fleming, Saint Joseph of Arimathea Church, Saint Mark & Saint Nektarios Chapel in Ramleh, Saint Nicholas Church, Saint Paraskevi Church, Saint Sava Cathedral in Ramleh, Saint Theodore Chapel and the Russian church of Saint Alexander Nevsky in Alexandria, which serves the Russian speaking community in the city. The Apostolic Vicariate of Alexandria in Egypt-Heliopolis-Port Said has jurisdiction over all Latin Church Catholics in Egypt. Member churches include Saint Catherine Church in Mansheya and Church of the Jesuits in Cleopatra. The city is also the nominal see of the Melkite Greek Catholic titular Patriarchate of Alexandria (generally vested in its leading Patriarch of Antioch) and the actual cathedral see of its Patriarchal territory of Egypt, Sudan and South Sudan, which uses the Byzantine Rite, and the nominal see of the Armenian Catholic Eparchy of Alexandria (for all Egypt and Sudan, whose actual cathedral is in Cairo), a suffragan of the Armenian Catholic Patriarch of Cilicia, using the Armenian Rite. The Saint Mark Church in Shatby, founded as part of Collège Saint Marc, is multi-denominational and holds liturgies according to Latin Catholic, Coptic Catholic and Coptic Orthodox rites. In antiquity, Alexandria was a major centre of the cosmopolitan religious movement called Gnosticism (today mainly remembered as a Christian heresy). Judaism[edit] Jewish girls during Bat Mitzva in Alexandria See also: History of the Jews in Egypt Alexandria's once-flourishing Jewish community declined rapidly following the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, after which negative reactions towards Zionism among Egyptians led to Jewish residents in the city, and elsewhere in Egypt, being perceived as Zionist collaborators. Most Jewish residents of Egypt fled to the newly established Israel, France, Brazil and other countries in the 1950s and 1960s. The community once numbered 50,000 but is now estimated at below 50.[49] The most important synagogue in Alexandria is the Eliyahu Hanavi Synagogue. Education[edit] Colleges and universities[edit] Collège Saint Marc Alexandria has a number of higher education institutions. Alexandria University is a public university that follows the Egyptian system of higher education. Many of its faculties are internationally renowned, most notably its Faculty of Medicine & Faculty of Engineering. In addition, the Egypt-Japan University of Science and Technology in New Borg El Arab city is a research university set up in collaboration between the Japanese and Egyptian governments in 2010. The Arab Academy for Science, Technology & Maritime Transport is a semi-private educational institution that offers courses for high school, undergraduate level, and postgraduate students. It is considered the most reputable university in Egypt after the AUC American University in Cairo because of its worldwide recognition from board of engineers at UK & ABET in US. Université Senghor is a private French university that focuses on the teaching of humanities, politics and international relations, which mainly recruits students from the African continent. Other institutions of higher education in Alexandria include Alexandria Institute of Technology (AIT) and Pharos University in Alexandria. Schools[edit] Lycée Français d'Alexandrie Alexandria has a long history of foreign educational institutions. The first foreign schools date to the early 19th century, when French missionaries began establishing French charitable schools to educate the Egyptians. Today, the most important French schools in Alexandria run by Catholic missionaries include Collège de la Mère de Dieu, Collège Notre Dame de Sion, Collège Saint Marc, Ecoles des Soeurs Franciscaines (four different schools), École Girard, École Saint Gabriel, École Saint-Vincent de Paul, École Saint Joseph, École Sainte Catherine, and Institution Sainte Jeanne-Antide. As a reaction to the establishment of French religious institutions, a secular (laic) mission established Lycée el-Horreya, which initially followed a French system of education, but is currently a public school run by the Egyptian government. The only school in Alexandria that completely follows the French educational system is Lycée Français d'Alexandrie (École Champollion). It is usually frequented by the children of French expatriates and diplomats in Alexandria. The Italian school is the Istituto "Don Bosco". English schools in Alexandria are becoming the most popular. English-language schools in the city include: Riada American School, Riada Language School, Alexandria Language School, Future Language School, Future International Schools (Future IGCSE, Future American School and Future German school), Alexandria American School, British School of Alexandria, Egyptian American School, Pioneers Language School, Egyptian English Language School, Princesses Girls' School, Sidi Gaber Language School, Taymour English School, Sacred Heart Girls' School, Schutz American School, Victoria College, El Manar Language School for Girls (previously called Scottish School for Girls), Kawmeya Language School, El Nasr Boys' School (previously called British Boys' School), and El Nasr Girls' College. There are only two German schools in Alexandria which are Deutsche Schule der Borromärinnen (DSB of Saint Charles Borromé) and Neue Deutsche Schule Alexandria, which is run by Frau Sally Hammam. The Montessori educational system was first introduced in Alexandria in 2009 at Alexandria Montessori. The most notable public schools in Alexandria include El Abbassia High School and Gamal Abdel Nasser High School. Women[edit] This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (July 2019) Circa the 1890s, twice the percentage of women in Alexandria knew how to read compared to the same percentage in Cairo. As a result, specialist women's publications like al-Fatāh by Hind Nawal, the country's first women's journal, appeared.[50] Transport[edit] Airports[edit] Borg El Arab International Airport The city's principal airport is currently Borg El Arab Airport, which is located about 25 km (16 mi) away from the city centre. From late 2011, El Nouzha Airport (Alexandria International Airport) was to be closed to commercial operations for two years as it underwent expansion, with all airlines operating out of Borg El Arab Airport from then onwards, where a brand new terminal was completed there in February 2010.[51] In 2017, the government announced that Alexandria International Airport will shut down permanently for operational reasons. Port[edit] Main article: Alexandria Port Alexandria port Alexandria has four ports; namely the Western Port also known as(Alexandria Port), which is the main port of the country that handles about 60% of the country's exports and imports, Dekhela Port west of the Western Port, the Eastern Port which is a yachting harbour, and Abu Qir Port at the northern east of the governorate. It is a commercial port for general cargo and phosphates. Highways[edit] International Coastal Road (Mersa Matruh – Alexandria – Port Said) Cairo–Alexandria Desert Road (Alexandria – Cairo – 220 km (137 mi), 6–8 lanes) Cairo-Alexandria Agriculture Road (Alexandria – Cairo) Mehwar El Ta'meer – (Alexandria – Borg El Arab) Rail[edit] Misr Railway Station Alexandria's intracity commuter rail system extends from Misr Station (Alexandria's primary intercity railway station) to Abu Qir, parallel to the tram line. The commuter line's locomotives operate on diesel, as opposed to the overhead-electric tram. Alexandria plays host to two intercity railway stations: the aforementioned Misr Station (in the older Manshia district in the western part of the city) and Sidi Gaber railway station (in the district of Sidi Gaber in the centre of the eastern expansion in which most Alexandrines reside), both of which also serve the commuter rail line. Intercity passenger service is operated by Egyptian National Railways. Trams[edit] Main article: Trams in Alexandria An Alexandria tram An extensive tramway network was built in 1860 and is the oldest in Africa. The network begins at the El Raml district in the west and ends in the Victoria district in the east. Most of the vehicles are blue in colour. Some smaller yellow-coloured vehicles have further routes beyond the two main endpoints. The tram routes have one of four numbers: 1, 2, 5, and 6. All four start at El Raml, but only two (1 and 2) reach Victoria. There are two converging and diverging points. The first starts at Bolkly (Isis) and ends at San Stefano. The other begins at Sporting and ends at Mostafa Kamel. Route 5 starts at San Stefano and takes the inner route to Bolkly. Route 6 starts at Sidi Gaber El Sheikh in the outer route between Sporting and Mustafa Kamel. Route 1 takes the inner route between San Stefano and Bolkly and the outer route between Sporting and Mustafa Kamel. Route 2 takes the route opposite to Route 1 in both these areas. The tram fares used to be 50 piastres (0.50 pounds), and 100 piastres (1.00 pounds) for the middle car, but have been doubled sometime in 2019. Some trams (that date back the 30s) charge a pound. The tram is considered the cheapest method of public transport. A café operates in the second floor of the first car of tram 1 (a women-only car) which costs 5 L.E per person, also offering a WiFi service. A luxury light blue tram car operates from San Stefano to Ras El Tin, with free WiFi and movies and songs played inside for 5 L.E per ticket. Stations: Baccos – Victoria (Number 1) Al Seyouf Sidi Beshr El Saraya Laurent Louran Tharwat San Stefano Gianaklis Schutz Safar Abou Shabana (Baccos) Al Karnak (Fleming) Al Wezara (The Ministry) Isis Bolkly Bulkley Roushdy Mohammed Mahfouz Mustafa Kamil Sidi Gaber Al-Sheikh Cleopatra Hammamat (Cleopatra Baths) Cleopatra El Soghra El Reyada El Kobra (Sporting El Kobra) El Reyada El Soghra (Sporting Al Soghra) Al Ibrahimiyya El Moaskar (Camp Caesar) Al Gamaa (The University) Al Shatby El Shobban El Moslemin El Shahid Moustafa Ziean Hassan Rasim (Azarita) Gamea' Ibrahim (Mosque of Ibrahim) Mahattet Al Ramleh (Ramlh Station) Route 2 serves: El Nasr – Victoria (Number 2) Al Seyouf Sidi Beshr El Saraya Louran Tharwat San Stefano Kasr El Safa (Zizini Al Safa Palace) Al Fonoun Al Gamella (The Fine Arts) Ramsis (Glym or Gleem) El Bostan (Saba Pasha) Al Hedaya (The Guidance) Isis Bolkly Roushdy Mohammed Mahfouz Mustafa Kamil Sidi Gaber El Mahata (Railway station) Cleopatra (Zananere) El Reyada El Kobra (Sporting El Kobra) El Reyada El Soghra (Sporting Al Soghra) Al Ibrahimiyya El Moaskar (Camp Chezar) Al Gamaa (The University) Al Shatby El Shobban El Moslemin El Shahid Moustafa Ziean Hassan Rasim (Azarita) Gamea' Ibrahim (Mosque of Ibrahim) Mahattet Al Ramlh (Ramlh Station) Metro[edit] Construction of the Alexandria Metro is due to begin in 2020 at a cost of $1.05 billion.[52] Taxis and minibuses[edit] See also: Taxicabs by country § Egypt Taxis in Alexandria sport a yellow-and-black livery and are widely available. While Egyptian law requires all cabs to carry meters, these generally do not work and fares must be negotiated with the driver on either departure or arrival. Play media Share taxis in Alexandria The minibus share taxi system, or mashrū' operates along well-known traffic arteries. The routes can be identified by both their endpoints and the route between them: Corniche routes: El Mandara – Bahari El Mandara – El Mansheya Asafra – Bahari Asafra – El Mansheya El Sa'aa – El Mansheya Abu Qir routes: El Mandara – El Mahata (lit. "the Station", i.e. Misr Railway Station) Abu Qir – El Mahata Victoria – El Mahata El Mandara – Victoria Interior routes: Cabo – Bahari El Mansheya – El Awayid El Mansheya – El Maw'af El Gedid (the New Bus Station) Hadara – El Mahata The route is generally written in Arabic on the side of the vehicle, although some drivers change their route without changing the paint. Some drivers also drive only a segment of a route rather than the whole path; such drivers generally stop at a point known as a major hub of the transportation system (for example, Victoria) to allow riders to transfer to another car or to another mode of transport. Fare is generally L.E. 3.00 to travel the whole route. Shorter trips may have a lower fare, depending on the driver and the length of the trip. Culture[edit] Libraries[edit] The Bibliotheca Alexandrina The Royal Library of Alexandria, in Alexandria, Egypt, was once the largest library in the world. It is generally thought to have been founded at the beginning of the 3rd century BC, during the reign of Ptolemy II of Egypt. It was likely created after his father had built what would become the first part of the library complex, the temple of the Muses—the Museion, Greek Μουσείον (from which the Modern English word museum is derived). It has been reasonably established that the library, or parts of the collection, were destroyed by fire on a number of occasions (library fires were common and replacement of handwritten manuscripts was very difficult, expensive, and time-consuming). To this day the details of the destruction (or destructions) remain a lively source of controversy.[53] The Bibliotheca Alexandrina was inaugurated in 2002, near the site of the old Library.[54] Museums[edit] The Alexandria National Museum Graeco-Roman Museum Royal Jewelry Museum The Alexandria National Museum was inaugurated 31 December 2003. It is located in a restored Italian style palace in Tariq El Horreya Street (formerly Rue Fouad), near the centre of the city. It contains about 1,800 artifacts that narrate the story of Alexandria and Egypt. Most of these pieces came from other Egyptian museums. The museum is housed in the old Al-Saad Bassili Pasha Palace, who was one of the wealthiest wood merchants in Alexandria. Construction on the site was first undertaken in 1926. Cavafy Museum The Graeco-Roman Museum The Museum of Fine Arts The Royal Jewelry Museum Theaters[edit] Alexandria Opera House, where classical music, Arabic music, ballet, and opera are performed and bearm basha theatre in elshatby. Architecture[edit] Throughout Alexandria, there is art that resembles some of the oldest architectural styles of the Hellenic city, and its ancient decorations, especially in the Bibliotheca Alexandrina, is based on reviving the ancient Library of Alexandria. The Kom el shoqafa Catacombs are considered one of the Seven Wonders of the Middle Ages and date back to the 2nd century. The remnants of Pompey's Pillar still remain today. This single pillar represents the elaborate temple which once stood in Alexandria. It remains at the site of the Serapeum, Alexandria's acropolis. The Serapeum, which stood for ancient tradition, conflicted with the rise of Christianity. It is a large tourist destination, today. the Roman Amphitheatre of Alexandria is another popular destination. Here, there remains a stage with around seven hundred to eight hundred seats. They also have numerous galleries of statues and details leftover form this time. Alexandria's tourism office announced plans to reserve some beaches for tourists in July 2018.[55] Shalalat Gardens Montaza Garden Alexandria Art Centre Alexandria Opera House Fawzia Fahmy Palace Alexander the Great's statue Monument of the Unknown Navy Soldier Montaza Palace Sports[edit] Alexandria Stadium The main sport that interests Alexandrians is football, as is the case in the rest of Egypt and Africa. Alexandria Stadium is a multi-purpose stadium in Alexandria, Egypt. It is currently used mostly for football matches, and was used for the 2006 African Cup of Nations. The stadium is the oldest stadium in Egypt, being built in 1929. The stadium holds 20,000 people. Alexandria was one of three cities that participated in hosting the African Cup of Nations in January 2006, which Egypt won. Sea sports such as surfing, jet-skiing and water polo are practiced on a lower scale. The Skateboarding culture in Egypt started in this city. The city is also home to the Alexandria Sporting Club, which is especially known for its basketball team, which traditionally provides the country's national team with key players. The city hosted the AfroBasket, the continent's most prestigious basketball tournament, on four occasions (1970, 1975, 1983, 2003). Alexandria has four stadiums: Alexandria Stadium Borg El Arab Stadium El Krom Stadium Harras El Hodoud Stadium Other less popular sports like tennis and squash are usually played in private social and sports clubs, like: Acacia Country Club Alexandria Sporting Club – in "Sporting" Alexandria Country club Al Ittihad Alexandria Club Olympic Club Haras El Hodoud SC Club Koroum Club Lagoon Resort Courts Smouha SC – in "Smouha" Started in 2011, Cross Egypt Challenge is an international cross-country motorcycle and scooter rally conducted throughout the most difficult tracks and roads of Egypt. Alexandria is known as the yearly starting point of Cross Egypt Challenge and a huge celebration is conducted the night before the rally starts after all the international participants arrive to the city. Twin towns – sister cities[edit] The Italian consulate in Saad Zaghloul Square See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Egypt Alexandria is twinned with: Almaty, Kazakhstan[citation needed] Baltimore, United States[56] Bratislava, Slovakia[57] Catania, Italy[58] Cleveland, United States[59] Constanța, Romania[60] Durban, South Africa[61] Incheon, South Korea[62] Kazanlak, Bulgaria[63] Limassol, Cyprus[64] Odessa, Ukraine[65] Paphos, Cyprus[66] Port Louis, Mauritius[67] Saint Petersburg, Russia[68] Shanghai, China[69] Thessaloniki, Greece[70] See also[edit] Baucalis Cultural tourism in Egypt List of cities and towns in Egypt List of cities founded by Alexander the Great Of Alexandria References[edit] ^ "Alexandria Governor". Archived from the original on 12 February 2018. ^ "الجهاز المركزي للتعبئة العامة والإحصاء". www.capmas.gov.eg. Archived from the original on 1 October 2018. Retrieved 27 October 2018. ^ Erman, Adolf, and Hermann Grapow, eds. 1926–1953. Wörterbuch der aegyptischen Sprache im Auftrage der deutschen Akademien. 6 vols. Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs'schen Buchhandlungen. (Reprinted Berlin: Akademie-Verlag GmbH, 1971). ^ John Baines, "Possible implications of the Egyptian word for Alexandria", Journal of Roman Archaeology, Vol. 16 (2003), pp. 61–63. (Appendix to Judith McKenzie, "Glimpsing Alexandria from archaeological evidence".) ^ "Alexandria". Collins Dictionary. n.d. Archived from the original on 11 June 2015. Retrieved 24 September 2014. ^ "Travel in Egypt: Alexandria". Arab Academy. 10 August 2016. Retrieved 19 May 2020. ; Fideler, David (1 January 1993). Alexandria 2. Red Wheel/Weiser. ISBN 978-0-933999-97-8. ^ a b Michael Haag (2004). Alexandria: City of Memory. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-10415-8. ^ Fowden, Garth (26 February 2019). "Alexandria between Antiquity and Islam". Apollo-University of Cambridge Repository, Apollo-University of Cambridge Repository. doi:10.17863/CAM.37202. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ a b c d e Justin Pollard; Howard Reid (30 October 2007). The Rise and Fall of Alexandria: Birthplace of the Modern World. Viking. p. 2-7. ISBN 978-0-14-311251-8. ^ a b c d "The Lighthouse Dims". Foreign Policy. 23 December 2014. Archived from the original on 9 March 2017. Retrieved 5 March 2017. ^ Véron, A.; Goiran, J. P.; Morhange, C.; Marriner, N.; Empereur, J. Y. (2006). "Pollutant lead reveals the pre-Hellenistic occupation and ancient growth of Alexandria, Egypt". Geophysical Research Letters. 33 (6). doi:10.1029/2006GL025824. ISSN 0094-8276. ^ O'Connor, Lauren (2009) "The Remains of Alexander the Great: The God, The King, The Symbol," Constructing the Past: Vol. 10: Iss. 1, Article 8 ^ Erskine, Andrew (April 1995). "Greece & Rome, 2nd Ser". Culture and Power in Ptolemaic Egypt: The Museum and Library of Alexandria. 42 (1): 38–48 [42]. One effect of the newly created Hellenistic kingdoms was the imposition of Greek cities occupied by Greeks on an alien landscape. In Egypt, there was a native Egyptian population with its own culture, history, and traditions. The Greeks who came to Egypt, to the court or to live in Alexandria, were separated from their original cultures. Alexandria was the main Greek city of Egypt and within it there was an extraordinary mix of Greeks from many cities and backgrounds. ^ Erskine, Andrew (April 1995). "Culture and Power in Ptolemaic Egypt: the Museum and Library of Alexandria". Greece & Rome. 42 (1): 38–48. doi:10.1017/S0017383500025213. The Ptolemaic emphasis on Greek culture establishes the Greeks of Egypt with an identity for themselves. [...] But the emphasis on Greek culture does even more than this – these are Greeks ruling in a foreign land. The more Greeks can indulge in their own culture, the more they can exclude non-Greeks, in other words Egyptians, the subjects whose land has been taken over. The assertion of Greek culture serves to enforce Egyptian subjection. So the presence in Alexandria of two institutions devoted to the preservation and study of Greek culture acts as a powerful symbol of Egyptian exclusion and subjection. Texts from other cultures could be kept in the library, but only once they had been translated, that is to say Hellenized. [...] A reading of Alexandrian poetry might easily give the impression that Egyptians did not exist at all; indeed Egypt itself is hardly mentioned except for the Nile and the Nile flood, [...] This omission of the Egypt and Egyptians from poetry masks a fundamental insecurity. It is no coincidence that one of the few poetic references to Egyptians presents them as muggers. ^ Delia, Diana (1988). "The Population of Roman Alexandria". Transactions of the American Philological Association. 118: 275–292. doi:10.2307/284172. JSTOR 284172. ^ Philo of Alexandria, Against Flaccus. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, "Res Gestae", 26.10.15–19 Archived 17 March 2008 at the Wayback Machine ^ Stiros, Stathis C.: "The AD 365 Crete earthquake and possible seismic clustering during the fourth to sixth centuries AD in the Eastern Mediterranean: a review of historical and archaeological data", Journal of Structural Geology, Vol. 23 (2001), pp. 545–562 (549 & 557) ^ Kennedy, Hugh (1998). "Egypt as a Province in the Islamic Caliphate, 641–868". In Petry, Carl F. (ed.). Cambridge History of Egypt, Volume One: Islamic Egypt, 640–1517. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 62–85 [69]. ISBN 0-521-47137-0. ^ Bruning, Jelle (2018). The Rise of a Capital: Al-Fusṭāṭ and Its Hinterland, 18-132/639-750. Leiden and Boston: Brill. pp. 50–52. ISBN 978-90-04-36635-0. ^ "Modern""The History of Alexandria". Archived from the original on 24 May 2013. Retrieved 24 May 2013. ^ "Bombardment of Alexandria". Archived from the original on 13 November 2012. Retrieved 11 September 2017. ^ Ted Thornton, "Nasser Assassination Attempt, 26 October 1954," Middle East History Database"Nasser Assassination Attempt, October 26, 1954". Archived from the original on 5 January 2010. Retrieved 24 May 2013. ^ Ibn Batuta (2009). The travels of Ibn Battuta in the Near East, Asia and Africa 1304–1377. Translated by Lee, Samuel. New York: Cosimo. ISBN 9781605206219. OCLC 502998972. ^ Clayton, Peter A.; Price, Martin (21 August 2013). The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Routledge. ISBN 9781136748103 – via Google Books. ^ Rostovtzeff 1941: (1138–39) ^ Josiah Russell, 1958, "Late Ancient and Medieval Population," pp. 67 and 79. ^ Elio Lo Cascio, 2009, "Urbanization as a Proxy of Growth," p. 97 citing Bagnall and Frier. ^ "Koeppen-Geiger.vu-wien.ac.at". Archived from the original on 17 October 2011. Retrieved 30 November 2009. ^ "Alexandria". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 29 May 2010. Retrieved 1 December 2009. ^ "Egypt Climate Index". Climate Charts. Archived from the original on 23 June 2012. Retrieved 20 June 2013. ^ "Deadly flash floods hit Egypt's Alexandria". aljazeera.com. Archived from the original on 12 October 2016. Retrieved 12 October 2016. ^ "Clima en Alexandria / Nouzha – Históricos el tiempo". Tutiempo.net. Archived from the original on 15 June 2013. Retrieved 12 March 2013. ^ a b "Alexandria, Egypt". Voodoo Skies. Archived from the original on 5 September 2015. Retrieved 3 August 2015. ^ "Weather Information for Alexandria". Archived from the original on 10 February 2018. Retrieved 21 August 2017. ^ "Climatological Information for Alexandria, Egypt" (1961–1990)". Hong Kong Observatory. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 31 August 2010. ^ "Alexandria, Egypt: Climate, Global Warming, and Daylight Charts and Data". Archived from the original on 1 January 2011. Retrieved 20 June 2013. ^ Alexandria, Egypt Monthly Averages Archived 20 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine – Bing Weather[You must have an IP from the United States of America to see the page] ^ "Alexandria Climate and Weather Averages, Egypt". Weather2Travel. Archived from the original on 5 January 2014. Retrieved 20 January 2014. ^ The Pyramids and Sphinx by Desmond Stewart and editors of the Newsweek Book Division 1971 p. 80-81 ^ "NOVA Online | Mysteries of the Nile | 27 August 1999: The Third Attempt". Pbs.org. 27 August 1999. Archived from the original on 30 April 2009. Retrieved 5 May 2009. ^ Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Ramses II: Magnificence on the Nile (1993)p. 56-57 ^ Planet, Lonely. "Catacombs of Kom ash-Suqqafa – Lonely Planet". lonelyplanet.com. Archived from the original on 6 February 2016. Retrieved 6 February 2016. ^ "Fgs Project Alexandria". Underwaterdiscovery.org. Archived from the original on 7 March 2010. Retrieved 14 June 2010. ^ "Divers probe underwater palace". BBC News. 28 October 1998. Archived from the original on 18 March 2007. Retrieved 19 January 2009. ^ "New underwater tourist attraction in Egypt". BBC News. 24 September 2000. Archived from the original on 18 March 2007. Retrieved 19 January 2009. ^ Judith McKenzie et al., The Architecture of Alexandria and Egypt, C. 300 B.C. to A.D. 700 New Haven CT: Yale University Press, 2007. 41-48. https://books.google.com/books?id=KFNCaZEZKYAC ISBN 9780300115550 ^ Britannica, Egypt Archived 8 July 2019 at the Wayback Machine, britannica.com, USA, accessed on 7 July 2019 ^ Egypt to restore Alexandria's historic synagogue, (20 December 2010) Archived 24 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine ^ Kendall, Elisabeth. "Between Politics and Literature: Journals in Alexandria and Istanbul at the End of the Nineteenth Century" (Chapter 15). In: Fawaz, Leila Tarazi and C. A. Bayly (editors) and Robert Ilbert (collaboration). Modernity and Culture: From the Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean. Columbia University Press, 2002. ISBN 0231114273, 9780231114271. Start: p. 330. CITED: p. 340. ^ "A new gateway for Alexandria". Al-Ahram Weekly. Archived from the original on 4 September 2009. ^ "Egypt's $1bn Alexandria Metro to start construction in Q1 2020". Middle East Construction News. 10 November 2019. Retrieved 12 November 2019. ^ Raven, James (2004). Lost Libraries: The Destruction of Great Book Collections Since Antiquity. Springer. p. 12. ISBN 0230524257. ^ Long, Tony (16 October 2009). "Oct. 16, 2002: Second Great Library Opens in Alexandria" – via www.wired.com. ^ "Egypt's Alexandria to create private tourist-only beaches". Egypt's Alexandria to create private tourist-only beaches (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 30 July 2018. Retrieved 30 July 2018. ^ "Baltimore Sister Cities". baltimoresistercities.org. Baltimore Sister Cities, Inc. Retrieved 21 October 2020. ^ "Partner (twin) towns of Bratislava". bratislava-city.sk. Retrieved 21 October 2020. ^ "Catania Amica Del Mondo, Ecco Tutti I Gemellaggi Della Città Etnea". cataniaup.it (in Italian). Catania Up. 15 July 2019. Retrieved 21 October 2020. ^ "Cleveland's Sister Cities". city.cleveland.oh.us. City of Cleveland. Retrieved 21 October 2020. ^ "Orașe înfrățite". primaria-constanta.ro (in Romanian). Constanța. Retrieved 21 October 2020. ^ "Sister Cities". durban.gov.za. eThekwini Municipality. Retrieved 21 October 2020. ^ "Sister Cities & Affiliated Cities". incheon.go.kr. Incheon Metropolitan City. Retrieved 21 October 2020. ^ "Побратимени градове". kazanlak.bg (in Bulgarian). Kazanlak. Retrieved 21 October 2020. ^ "Twinned Cities". limassolmunicipal.com.cy. Limassol. Retrieved 21 October 2020. ^ "Міста-побратими". omr.gov.ua (in Ukrainian). Odessa. Retrieved 21 October 2020. ^ "Governor of Alexandria Meets Mayor of Paphos to Reinforce Cooperation Agreement Between the Two Sides and to Discuss Repercussions of Corona Virus Via Video Conference". alexandria.gov.eg. Alexandria. 13 May 2020. Retrieved 21 October 2020. ^ "International links". mccpl.mu. City Council of Port Louis. Retrieved 21 October 2020. ^ "Международные и межрегиональные связи". gov.spb.ru (in Russian). Federal city of Saint Petersburg. Retrieved 21 October 2020. ^ "市级友好城市". sh.gov.cn (in Chinese). Shanghai. Retrieved 21 October 2020. ^ "Twin Towns". thessaloniki.gr. Thessaloniki. Retrieved 21 October 2020. Further reading[edit] A. Bernand, Alexandrie la Grande (1966) A. J. Butler, The Arab Conquest of Egypt (2nd. ed., 1978) P.-A. Claudel, Alexandrie. Histoire d'un mythe (2011) A. De Cosson, Mareotis (1935) J.-Y. Empereur, Alexandria Rediscovered (1998) E. M. Forster, Alexandria A History and a Guide (1922) (reprint ed. M. Allott, 2004) P. M. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria (1972) M. Haag, Alexandria: City of Memory (2004) [20th-century social and literary history] M. Haag, Vintage Alexandria: Photographs of the City 1860–1960 (2008) M. Haag, Alexandria Illustrated R. Ilbert, I. Yannakakis, Alexandrie 1860–1960 (1992) R. Ilbert, Alexandrie entre deux mondes (1988) Judith McKenzie et al., The Architecture of Alexandria and Egypt, 300 B.C.–A.D. 700. (Pelican History of Art, Yale University Press, 2007) Philip Mansel, Levant: Splendour and Catastrophe on the Mediterranean, London, John Murray, 11 November 2010, hardback, 480 pages, ISBN 978-0-7195-6707-0, New Haven, Yale University Press, 24 May 2011, hardback, 470 pages, ISBN 978-0-300-17264-5 Don Nardo, A Travel Guide to Ancient Alexandria, Lucent Books. (2003) V. W. Von Hagen, The Roads that Led to Rome (1967) External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Alexandria (category) Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Alexandria. "Alexandria". Egyptian government, Ministry of state For Administrative Development. 2014. "Greek Community of Alexandria". 2015. Details on the archaïc port with a pdf of Gaston Jondet's report, 1916 Map of Alexandria, ca.1930, Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, The National Library of Israel. Preceded by Sebennytos Capital of Egypt 331 BC – AD 641 Succeeded by Fustat v t e List of cities and towns in Egypt Cairo Governorate Cairo Giza Governorate Giza, 6th of October City, Sheikh Zayed City, El Hawamdeya, El Badrashein, El Saff, Atfih, El Ayyat, Bawiti, Manshiyat al Qanater, Awsim, Kerdasa, Abu El Namras Qalyubia Governorate Benha, Qalyub, Shubra El Kheima, El Qanater El Khayreya, Khanka, Kafr Shukr, Toukh, Qaha, Obour City, Khusus, Shibin El Qanater Alexandria Governorate Alexandria, Borg El Arab, New Borg El Arab Beheira Governorate Damanhur, Kafr El Dawwar, Rosetta, Edku, Abu El Matamir, Abu Hummus, El Delengat, El Mahmoudiyah, El Rahmaniya, Itay El Barud, Hosh Issa, Shubrakhit, Koum Hamada, Badr, Wadi El Natrun, New Nubariya Matrouh Governorate Mersa Matruh, El Hamam, El Alamein, El Dabaa, El Negaila, Sidi Barrani, Sallum, Siwa Oasis Damietta Governorate Damietta, New Damietta, Ras El Bar, Faraskur, Kafr Saad, El Zarqa, Assarw, Arrawda, Kafr El Battikh, Ezbet El Borg, Mit Abu Ghaleb Dakahlia Governorate Mansoura, Talkha, Mit Ghamr, Dekernes, Aga, Minyat An-Nasr, El Senbellawein, El Kurdi, Bani Ebaid, El Manzala, Temay El Amdeed, El Gammalia, Sherbin, El Matareya, Belqas, Mit Salsil, Gamasa, Mahallat Damana, Nabaruh Kafr El Sheikh Governorate Kafr El Sheikh, Desouk, Fuwwah, Metoubes, Baltim, El Hamool, Biyala, El Reyad, Sidi Salem, Qallin, Sidi Ghazi, Borg El Burulus Gharbia Governorate Tanta, El Mahalla El Kubra, Kafr Az-Zayyat, Zefta, As-Santa, Qutur, Basyoun, Sebennytos Monufia Governorate Shibin El Kom, Sadat (city), Menouf, Sirs Al-Layyan, Ashmoun, El Bagour, Quesna, Birket El Sab, Tala, Shuhada Sharqia Governorate Zagazig, 10th of Ramadan (city), Minya El Qamh, Bilbeis, Mashtool El Souk, Al-Qinayat, Abu Hammad, El Qurein, Hihya, Abu Kebir, Faqous, El Salheya El Gedida, El Ibrahimiya, Diyarb Negm, Kafr Saqr, Awlad Saqr, El Husseiniya, Tanis, Minshat Abu Omar Port Said Governorate Port Said, Port Fuad Ismailia Governorate Ismailia, Fayed, El Qantara, Tell El Kebir, Abu Suwir, Kassassin Suez Governorate Suez North Sinai Governorate Arish, Sheikh Zuweid, Rafah, Bir al-Abd, El Hasana, Nekhel South Sinai Governorate El Tor, Sharm El Sheikh, Dahab, Nuweiba, Taba, Saint Catherine, Abou Redis, Abu Zenima, Ras Sedr Beni Suef Governorate Beni Suef, New Beni Suef, Al Wasta, Nasser, Heracleopolis Magna, Biba, Sumusta, El Fashn Faiyum Governorate Faiyum, New Faiyum, Tamiya, Sinnuris, Itsa, Ibsheway, Yousef El Seddik Minya Governorate Minya, New Minya, El Idwa, Maghagha, Beni Mazar, Matai, Samalut, Al Madinah Al Fikriyyah, Mallawi, Dir Mawas Asyut Governorate Asyut, New Asyut, Dairut, Dayrut al-Sharif, Manfalut, El Quseyya, Abnub, Abu Tig, El Ghanayem, Sahel Selim, El Badari, Sidfa New Valley Governorate El Kharga, Baris, Mut, Farafra, Balat Red Sea Governorate Hurghada, Ras Ghareb, Safaga, El Qoseir, Marsa Alam, Shalateen, Halayeb Sohag Governorate Sohag, New Sohag, Akhmim, New Akhmim, El Balyana, El Maragha, Ptolemais Hermiou, Dar El Salam, Girga, West Juhayna, Saqultah, Tima, Tahta Qena Governorate Qena, New Qena, Abu Tesht, Nag Hammadi, Dishna, El Waqf, Qift, Naqada, Qus, Farshut Luxor Governorate Luxor, New Luxor, New Thebes, Zainiya, Bayadiya, Kurna, Armant, El-Tod, Esna Aswan Governorate Aswan, New Aswan, Daraw, Kom Ombo, Nasr Al-Nuba, Kalabsha, Edfu, Radisia, Busylia, Sebaiya, Abu Simbel Capital cities are in bold font. v t e Neighborhoods in Alexandria Amreya Anfoushi Asafra Azarita Bahary Bakos Bolkly Camp Shezar Cleopatra El Atareen El Gomrok El Ibrahimiya El Labban El Maamora El Mandara El Mansheya El Max El Qabary El Saraya El Soyof Dekhela Downtown Fleming Gianaclis Glim Hadara Kafr Abdu Karmoz Kom El Deka Louran Mahatet El Raml Miami Moharam Bek Roshdy Saba Pasha Safar San Stefano Smouha Shatby Shods Sidi Bishr Sidi Gaber Sporting Stanley Tharwat Victoria Wardeyan Zezenia v t e Governorates capitals of Egypt Governorate (capital) Alexandria (Alexandria) Aswan (Aswan) Asyut (Asyut) Beheira (Damanhur) Beni Suef (Beni Suef) Cairo (Cairo) Dakahlia (Mansoura) Damietta (Damietta) Faiyum (Faiyum) Gharbia (Tanta) Giza (Giza) Ismailia (Ismailia) Kafr El Sheikh (Kafr El Sheikh) Luxor (Luxor) Matrouh (Mersa Matrouh) Minya (Minya) Monufia (Shibin El Kom) New Valley (Kharga) North Sinai (Arish) Port Said (Port Said) Qalyubia (Benha) Qena (Qena) Red Sea (Hurghada) Sharqia (Zagazig) Sohag (Sohag) South Sinai (El Tor) Suez (Suez) v t e Egyptian cities and towns by population 1,000,000 and more Alexandria Cairo Giza Shubra El Kheima 300,000–999,999 Asyut Bilbeis Damietta Faiyum Imbaba Ismailia El Mahalla El Kubra Kom Ombo Mansoura Luxor Port Said Suez Tanta Zagazig 100,000–299,999 6th of October Arish Aswan Benha Beni Suef Damanhur Desouk Edfu Hurghada Kafr El Dawwar Kafr El Sheikh Mallawi Minya New Borg El Arab New Cairo Obour Qena Shibin El Kom Sohag <99,999 Abydos Ain Sokhna Akhmim Dahab Dakhla Dendera Dekernes El Alamein El Gouna Esna Port Fuad Hamrah Dom Hala'ib Kharga Marsa Alam Marsa Matruh 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t e Hellenistic/Macedonian colonies Africa Alexandria Ptolemais Hermiou Asia Alexandretta Antioch Apamea Alexandria Arachosia Alexandria Eschate Alexandria on the Caucasus Alexandria on the Indus Alexandria on the Oxus Alexandria Prophthasia Attalia Edessa Laodicea Paralos Laodicea in Phoenicia Nicaea Philadelphia Seleucia Seleucia Pieria Serraepolis Europe Antigonia (Paeonia) Alexandropolis Maedica v t e Ancient Egypt topics Index Major topics Glossary of artifacts Agriculture Architecture (Egyptian Revival architecture) Art Portraiture Astronomy Chronology Cities (list) Clothing Cuisine Dance Dynasties Funerary practices Geography Great Royal Wives (list) Hieroglyphs History Language Literature Mathematics Medicine Military Music Mythology People Pharaohs (list) Philosophy Religion Sites Technology Trade Writing Egyptology Egyptologists Museums Book Category Portal WikiProject Commons Outline v t e Mediterranean Games Alexandria 1951 Barcelona 1955 Beirut 1959 Naples 1963 Tunis 1967 İzmir 1971 Algiers 1975 Split 1979 Casablanca 1983 Latakia 1987 Athens 1991 Languedoc-Roussillon 1993 Bari 1997 Tunis 2001 Almería 2005 Pescara 2009 Mersin 2013 Tarragona 2018 Oran 2021 Taranto 2026 Authority control BNF: cb11865912m (data) GND: 4001138-0 ISNI: 0000 0001 2111 630X LCCN: n80067694 MBAREA: 519fb127-912a-43ab-b5f7-68ba2ce7253d NARA: 10044594 NDL: 00628179 NKC: ge134011 NLI: 000979755 SUDOC: 069889481 VIAF: 129002681 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n80067694 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexandria&oldid=996144127" Categories: Alexandria Governorate capitals in Egypt Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Egypt Populated places in Alexandria Governorate Populated coastal places in Egypt Historic Jewish communities Metropolitan areas of Egypt Roman towns and cities in Egypt Mediterranean port cities and towns in Egypt Populated places along the Silk Road Cities in Egypt Cities founded by Alexander the Great 330s BC establishments 330s BC 4th-century BC 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en-wikipedia-org-3285	----	Roman military engineering - Wikipedia Roman military engineering From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Part of a series on the Military of ancient Rome 753 BC – AD 476 Structural history Army Unit types and ranks Decorations and punishments Legions Auxilia Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Campaign history Wars and battles Technological history Military engineering Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Political history   Strategy and tactics Infantry tactics Frontiers and fortifications Limes Limes Britannicus Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Limes Germanicus Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes Norican Limes Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannonian Limes Limes Alutanus Limes Moesiae Trajan's Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmatiae Limes Arabicus Limes Tripolitanus Limes Mauretaniae  Ancient Rome portal •  War portal v t e The military engineering of Ancient Rome's armed forces was of a scale and frequency far beyond that of any of its contemporaries. Indeed, military engineering was in many ways institutionally endemic in Roman military culture, as demonstrated by the fact that each Roman legionary had as part of his equipment a shovel, alongside his gladius (sword) and pila (spears). Fabri were workers, craftsmen or artisans in Roman society and descriptions of early Roman army structure (Phalanx, the Legion came around the conquest of Greece) attributed to king Servius Tullius describe there being two centuriae of fabri under an officer, the praefectus fabrum. Roman military engineering took both routine and extraordinary forms, the former a proactive part of standard military procedure, and the latter of an extraordinary or reactionary nature. Contents 1 Proactive and routine military engineering 1.1 The Roman legionary fortified camp 1.2 Bridge building 1.3 Engineering siege machines 1.4 Road making 1.5 Civilian engineering by military troops 1.6 Mining operations 2 Reactive and extraordinary engineering 3 See also 4 Notes 5 External links Proactive and routine military engineering[edit] The Roman legionary fortified camp[edit] Further information: Castra Each Roman legion had a military legionary fort as its permanent base. However, when on the march, particularly in enemy territory, the legion would, after a day's marching, construct a fortified camp or castra, requiring as raw materials only earth, turf and timber. Camp construction was the responsibility of special engineering units to which specialists of many types belonged, officered by architecti (engineers), from a class of troops known as immunes since they were excused from or, literally, immune from, regular duties. These engineers would requisition manual labor from the soldiers at large as required. A legion could throw up a camp under enemy attack in as little as a few hours. Judging from the names, they probably used a repertory of camp plans from a set textbook, selecting the one appropriate to the length of time a legion would spend in it: tertia castra, quarta castra: "a camp of three days", "four days", etc. The remains of Vercovicium on Hadrian's Wall near Housesteads, England Bridge building[edit] Trajan's Bridge across the Danube, the longest bridge for over a millennium Roman Legionaries crossing the Danube River by pontoon bridge during the Marcomannic Wars, as depicted in relief on the column of Emperor Marcus Aurelius (r. 161-180 AD) in Rome, Italy Further information: Roman bridge The engineers also built bridges from both timber and stone depending on required permanence, time available etc. Some Roman stone bridges survive to this day. Stone bridges were made possible by the innovative use of the keystone to allow an arch construction. One of the most notable examples of military bridge-building in the Roman Empire was Julius Caesar's Bridge over the Rhine River. This bridge was completed in only ten days and is conservatively estimated to have been more than 100 m (300 feet) long.[1][2] The construction was deliberately over-engineered for Caesar's stated purpose of impressing the Germanic tribes,[3] who had little experience of engineering, and to emphasise that Rome could travel wherever she wished. Caesar was able to cross over the completed bridge and explore the area uncontested, before crossing back over and dismantling the bridge. Caesar relates in his War in Gaul that he "sent messengers to the Sugambri to demand the surrender of those who had made war on me and on Gaul, they replied that the Rhine was the limit of Roman power". The bridge was intended to show otherwise. Engineering siege machines[edit] Roman carroballista on Trajan's Column, early 2nd century AD Although most Roman siege engines were adaptations from earlier Greek designs, the Romans were adept at engineering them swiftly and efficiently, as well as innovating variations such as the repeating ballista. The 1st century BC army engineer Vitruvius describes in detail many of the Roman siege machines in his manuscript De Architectura. Road making[edit] Further information: Roman road When invading enemy territories, the Roman army would often construct roads as they went, to allow swift reinforcement and resupply, as well as a path for easy retreat if necessary. Roman road-making skills are such that some Roman roads survive to this day. Michael Grant credits the Roman building of the Via Appia with winning them the Second Samnite War.[4] Civilian engineering by military troops[edit] Greco-Roman Pentaspastos ("Five-pulley-crane"), a medium-sized variant (ca. 450 kg load) Further information: Roman engineering The Roman army also took part in building projects for civilian use. There were sound reasons for the use of the army in building projects: primarily, that if they weren't directly engaged in military campaigns, the legions were largely unproductive, costing the Roman state large sums of money. But the involvement of the soldiers in building works, kept them not only well accustomed to hard physical labour, but also kept them busy, since it was the widely held belief that busy armies weren't plotting to mutiny, whereas idle armies were. Of both military and civilian use was the construction of roads within the boundaries of the Empire, in which the army was heavily involved. But so too were soldiers put to use in the construction of town walls, the digging of shipping canals, the drainage of land, aqueducts, harbours, even in the cultivation of vineyards. In some rare cases soldiers were even used in mining work. Mining operations[edit] Further information: Roman mining They were also skilled in conducting mining operations such as building the many aqueducts needed for prospecting for metal veins, in methods like hydraulic mining, and the building of reservoirs to hold the water at the minehead. It is likely that they were also capable of building and operating mine equipment such as water mills, stamp mills and dewatering machines. It is likely that they were closely involved in exploiting gold resources such as those at Dolaucothi in south west Wales. It was developed soon after conquest of the region under Frontinus, and the local auxiliary troop came from north-west Spain, a country where gold mining developed on a very large scale in the early part of the first century AD. Reactive and extraordinary engineering[edit] The knowledge and experience learned through such routine engineering lent itself readily to any extraordinary engineering foot projects required by the army, and it is here that the scale of Roman military engineering exceeded that of any of its contemporaries in both imagination and scope. One of the most famous of such extraordinary constructions was the circumvallation of the entire city of Alesia and its Celtic leader Vercingetorix, within a massive length of double-wall – one inward-facing to prevent escape or offensive sallies from the city, and one outward-facing to prevent attack by Celtic reinforcements. This wall is estimated to have been over 20 km (12 mi) long. A second example would be the massive ramp built using thousands of tons of stones and beaten earth up to the invested city of Masada in the Jewish Revolt. The siege works and the ramp remain in a remarkable state of preservation today. See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal War portal Technological history of the Roman military List of Roman Pontoon bridges Roman architecture Roman aqueducts Roman engineering Trajan's column Notes[edit] ^ Nebel, B. Julius Cäsars Brücke über den Rhein ^ Voggenreiter, A., Historischer Rückblick ^ Caesar writes in his War in Gaul that he rejected the idea of simply crossing in boats because it "would not be fitting for my own prestige and that of Rome" - at the time, he did not know that the Germanic tribes had already in fact withdrawn from the area upon his arrival ^ Michael Grant, The History of Rome, p. 52 External links[edit] Traianus - Technical investigation of Roman public works v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_military_engineering&oldid=984734584" Categories: Ancient Roman military technology Military engineering Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Français Italiano Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 21 October 2020, at 19:50 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3300	----	Statius - Wikipedia Statius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman poet of the 1st century AD (Silver Age of Latin literature) For the personal name, see Statius (praenomen). For other uses, see Statius (disambiguation). Statius Born c. 45AD Naples Died c. 96AD Naples Occupation Poet Nationality Roman Publius Papinius Statius (/ˈsteɪʃiəs/; c. 45—c. 96) was a Roman poet of the 1st century AD. His surviving Latin poetry includes an epic in twelve books, the Thebaid; a collection of occasional poetry, the Silvae; and an unfinished epic, the Achilleid. He is also known for his appearance as a guide in the Purgatory section of Dante's epic poem, the Divine Comedy. Contents 1 Life 1.1 Family background 1.2 Birth and career 1.3 Later years at Naples 2 Works 2.1 The Thebaid 2.2 The Silvae 2.3 The Achilleid 3 Statius' influence and literary afterlife 4 References 5 Sources 5.1 Editions 5.2 Studies 6 External links Life[edit] Family background[edit] Information about Statius' life is almost entirely drawn from his Silvae and a mention by the satirist Juvenal. He was born to a family of Graeco-Campanian origin; his Roman cognomen suggests that at some time an ancestor of his was freed and adopted the name of his former master, although neither Statius nor his father were slaves. The poet's father (whose name is unknown) was a native of Velia but later moved to Naples and spent time in Rome where he taught with marked success. From boyhood to adulthood, Statius' father proved himself a champion in the poetic contests at Naples in the Augustalia and in the Nemean, Pythian, and Isthmian games, which served as important events to display poetic skill during the early empire. Statius declares in his lament for his father (Silv. 5.3) that his father was in his time equal to any literary task, whether in prose or verse. He mentioned Mevania, and may have spent time there, or been impressed by the confrontation of Vitellius and Vespasian in 69. Statius' father was a Roman eques, but may have lost his status because of money troubles. At Naples, he was a teacher of Greek and Roman literature who attracted many pupils who were destined for religious offices in Rome. He died in 79 AD. From Pliny the Younger's Letters, it has recently been deduced that Statius also wrote under the pseudonym of Propertius. Birth and career[edit] Less is known of the events of Statius' life. He was born c. 45 AD. From his boyhood he was victorious in poetic contests many times at his native Naples and three times at the Alban Festival, where he received the golden crown from the hand of the emperor Domitian who had instituted the contest. For the Alban Festival, Statius composed a poem on the German and Dacian campaigns of Domitian which Juvenal lampoons in his seventh satire. Statius is thought to have moved to Rome c. 90 after his father's death where he published his acclaimed epic poem the Thebaid c. 92. In the capital, Statius seems to have made many connections among the Roman aristocracy and court, and he was probably supported through their patronage. Statius produced the first three books of occasional poetry, his Silvae, which were published in 93, which sketch his patrons and acquaintances of this period and mention his attendance at one of Domitian's Saturnalia banquets. He competed in the great Capitoline competition, although it is not known in what year, although 94 has been suggested. Statius failed to win the coveted prize, a loss he took very hard. The disappointment may have prompted his return to Naples around 94, the home of his youth. In existence is a poem he addressed to his wife, Claudia, the widow of a famous singer who had a musically talented daughter by her first husband, on this occasion (Silv. 3.5). Later years at Naples[edit] Statius' first three books of the Silvae seem to have received some criticism, and in response he composed a fourth book' at Naples, which was published in 95. During this period at Naples, Statius maintained his relations with the court and his patrons, earning himself another invitation to a palace banquet (Silv. 4.2). He seems to have taken an interest in the marriage and career of his stepdaughter and he also took a young slave boy under his wing, as he was childless, who died c. 95. In that same year Statius embarked on a new epic, the Achilleid, giving popular recitations of his work (Juv. 7.83) only to complete a book and a half before dying in 95, leaving the poem unfinished. His fifth book of Silvae were published after his death c. 96. Works[edit] As a poet, Statius was versatile in his abilities and contrived to represent his work as otium. Taught by his educated father, Statius was familiar with the breadth of classical literature and displayed his learning in his poetry which is densely allusive and has been described as elaborate and mannerist. He was able to compose in hexameter, hendecasyllable, Alcaic and Sapphic meters, to produce deeply researched and highly refined epic and polished impromptu pieces, and to treat a variety of themes with the dazzling rhetorical and poetic skill that inspired the support of his patrons and the emperor. Some of Statius' works, such as his poems for his competitions, have been lost; he is recorded as having written an Agave mime, and a four line fragment remains of his poem on Domitian's military campaigns, the De Bello Germanico composed for the Alban Games in the scholia to Juvenal 4.94.[1] The Thebaid[edit] Main article: Thebaid (Latin poem) Based on Statius' own testimony, the Thebaid was written c. 80 – c. 92 AD, beginning when the poet was around 35, and the work is thought to have been published in 91 or 92.[2] The poem is divided into twelve books in imitation of Virgil's Aeneid and is composed in dactylic hexameter.[3] In the Silvae, Statius speaks of his extensive work in polishing and revising the Thebaid and his public recitations of the poem.[4] From the epilogue it seems clear that Statius considered the Thebaid to be his magnum opus and believed that it would secure him fame for the future. In the poem, Statius follows Virgil closely as a model (in the epilogue he acknowledges his debt to Virgil), but he also refers to a wide range of sources in his handling of meter and episodes. The Thebaid describes the siege of Thebes by the seven Argive champions. The poem's theme is the myth of the Seven against Thebes, the story of the battle between the sons of Oedipus for the throne of Thebes. The poem opens (Book 1) with the disgraced Oedipus' curse on his two sons, Eteocles and Polyneices, who have decided to hold the throne of Thebes in alternate years, one ruling, the other in exile. Jupiter plans a war between Thebes and Argos, although Juno begs him not to incite it. Polyneices in exile fights with Tydeus, another exile at Adrastus' palace; the two are entertained and marry Adrastus' daughters. In Book 2, Tydeus goes to Eteocles to ask him to lay down the throne and yield power, but he refuses and tries to kill Tydeus with an ambush. Tydeus slaughters the Thebans and escapes to Argos, causing Adrastus and Polyneices to declare war on Thebes (Book 3). In the fourth book the Argive forces gather, commanded by the seven champions Adrastus, Polyneices, Amphiaraus, Capaneus, Parthenopaeus, Hippomedon and Tydeus, and march to Thebes, but at Nemea, Bacchus causes a drought. The army meets Hypsipyle who shows them a spring then tells them the story of the Women of Lemnos (Book 5). While she is speaking, her ward, Opheltes, is killed by a snake; in Book 6, the Argives perform games for the dead child, instituting the Nemean Games. In 7, Jupiter urges the Argives to march on Thebes where battle breaks out during which Amphiaraus is swallowed in the earth. In 8, Tydeus, wounded and dying, kills Melanippus and eats his head; a battle over his body leads to the death of Hippomedon and Parthenopaeus (Book 9). In 10, Juno causes sleep to overcome the Thebans and the Argives slaughter many in the camp; Menoeceus sacrifices himself to save Thebes and Jupiter kills the wicked Capaneus with a thunderbolt. In 11, Polyneices and Eteocles join in single combat and kill each other; Jocasta kills herself and Creon assumes power, forbidding burial of the Argive dead. In the final book, the Argive widows go to Athens to ask Theseus to force Creon to allow their husbands' burial while Argia, Polyneices' wife, burns him illicitly. Theseus musters an army and kills Creon. The Thebaid ends with an epilogue in which the poet prays that his poem will be successful, cautions it not to rival the Aeneid, and hopes that his fame will outlive him. Modern critics of the Thebaid have been divided over interpretations of the epic's tone. Earlier critics in the 19th and 20th century considered the poem a piece of elaborate flattery that vindicated the regime of Domitian; however, more recent scholars have viewed the poem as a subversive work that criticizes the authoritarianism and violence of the Flavians by focusing on extreme violence and social chaos.[5] Statius' use of allegory in the Thebaid and his abstract treatment of the gods has been seen as an important innovation in the tradition of classical poetry which ushered in Medieval conventions.[6] Finally, although earlier scholars criticized the style of the poem as episodic, current scholars have noted the subtlety and skill with which Statius organizes and controls his narrative and description.[7] The Silvae[edit] Main article: Silvae The Silvae were probably composed by Statius between 89–96 AD. The first three books seem to have been published together after 93 AD, Book 4 was probably released in 95 AD, and Book 5 is thought to have been released posthumously c. 96.[8] The title of the collection (silvae meaning "forest" or "raw material") was used to describe the draft of a poet's work which was composed impromptu in a moment of strong inspiration and which was then revised into a polished, metrical poem.[9] This suggests that the Silvae are revised, impromptu pieces of occasional poetry which were composed in the space of a few days' time. There are thirty-two poems in the collection (almost all with a dedicatee), divided into five books, each with a dedicatory epistle. Of nearly four thousand lines which the books contain, more than five-sixths are hexameters. Four of the pieces are written in the hendecasyllabic metre, and there is one Alcaic and one Sapphic ode. Subjects of the Silvae vary widely. Five poems are devoted to the emperor and his favorites, including a description of Domitian's equestrian statue in the Forum (1.1), praise for his construction of the Via Domitiana (4.3), and a poem on the dedication of the hair of Earinus, a eunuch favorite of Domitian's, to a shrine of Aesculapius (3.4). Six are lamentations for deaths or consolations to survivors, including the highly personal poems on the death of Statius' father and his foster-son (5.3,5). The poems on loss are particularly notable in the collection and range from consolations on the death of wives (3.3) to pieces on the death of a favorite parrot (2.4) and a lion in the arena (2.5). Another group of the Silvae give picturesque descriptions of the villas, gardens, and artworks of the poet's friends. In these we have a more vivid representation than elsewhere of the surroundings Roman aristocrats of the empire lived in the country. Important examples include a piece on Pollius' temple to Hercules (3.1), the aetiology of the tree at Atedius' villa (2.3), an antique statue of Lysippus' Heracles (4.6) and a description of Pollius' villa at Surrentum (2.2). The rest of the Silvae consist of congratulatory addresses to friends, and poems for special occasions such as the wedding poem for Stella and Violentilla (2.2), the poem commemorating the poet Lucan's birthday (2.7), and a joking piece to Plotius Grypus on a Saturnalia gift (4.9). As with the Thebaid, Statius' relationship to Domitian and his court caused him to fall out of favor with critics and readers, but in recent times, the Silvae have been rehabilitated by scholars.[10] Domitian is an important presence in the Silvae, and many of the poems appear to flatter the emperor and court. The content of the Silvae is primarily dictated by the needs of Statius' patrons, and many of the addressees come from the wealthy, privileged class of landowners and politicians. Statius' flattery of these elites has been interpreted in two ways by scholars; some maintain that the collection is highly subversive and is a subtle criticism of Domitian and the Roman aristocracy.[11] Others urge a reading of the Silvae as individual pieces that respond to specific circumstances with their own unique viewpoints.[12] The Achilleid[edit] Main article: Achilleid A fragment of his epic poem on the life of Achilles—the Achilleid—is also extant, consisting of one book and a few hundred lines of a second.[13] What was completed of this poem was composed between 94–95 AD based on Silvae 4.7.21ff. Statius records that there were recitations of the poem.[14] It is thought that Statius' death in 95 is the reason that the poem remains unfinished. In the first book, Thetis, having foreknowledge of her son's death in the Trojan War, attempts to hide Achilles on the island of Scyros by dressing him up as a girl. On the island, Achilles falls in love with Deidamia and forces her to have sex with him. Ulysses arrives to recruit Achilles for the war effort and reveals his identity. In the second book, Ulysses and Achilles depart and Achilles gives an account of his early life and tutelage by the centaur Chiron. The poem breaks off at the end of his speech. In general, scholars have remarked on the markedly different tone of the Achilleid in comparison with the Thebaid, equating it more to the style of Ovid than Virgil.[15] Some have also noted the predominance of feminine themes and feminine power in the fragment and focus on the poem's perspectives on gender relations.[16] Statius' influence and literary afterlife[edit] Statius' poetry was very popular in his lifetime, although he was not without his critics who apparently had problems with his ex tempore style.[17] Juvenal is thought to extensively lampoon Statius' type of court poetry in his fourth satire on the turbot of Domitian, but he also mentions the immense popularity of Statius' recitations in Satire 7.82ff.[18] In late antiquity, the Thebaid which was by then a classic received a commentary by a Lactantius Placidus. Throughout the Middle Ages, the Thebaid remained a popular text, inspiring a 12th-century French romance and works by Boccaccio and Chaucer. Statius' development of allegory helped establish the importance of that technique in Medieval poetry. In the Renaissance, the Silvae, thanks to Poliziano, helped inspire an entire genre of collections of miscellaneous, occasional poetry called Sylvae which remained popular throughout the period, inspiring works by Hugo Grotius and John Dryden.[19] Dante mentions Statius in De vulgari eloquentia along with Ovid, Virgil and Lucan as one of the four regulati poetae (ii, vi, 7). In the Divina Commedia, Dante and Virgil are caught up with Statius as they leave the Fifth Terrace (reserved for the avaricious and the prodigal) and enter the Sixth (reserved for the gluttonous). Statius' redemption is heard in Canto XX (the mountain trembles and the penitent souls cry out "Gloria in excelsis Deo") and he joins Dante and Virgil in Canto XXI. He then ascends Mount Purgatory with them and stays with Dante in the Earthly Paradise at the mountain's summit, after Virgil has returned to Limbo. He is last mentioned in Canto XXXIII, making him one of the longest recurring characters in the comedy, fourth to Dante, Virgil and Beatrice. He is not mentioned in Paradise, though he presumably ascends like Dante. Dante appears to claim that Statius was a secret convert to Christianity as a result of his reading of Virgil, although his conversion is not attested in any historical source. A 2012 study dedicated to Dante's writing of Statius's relation to Christianity has shown the significance of the fact that Dante does not state that Statius ever converted to Christianity, but that his Neapolitan predecessor let himself be "baptized" by Christians.[20] In Restoration England, John Dryden wrote a poem entitled "To Sir Robert Howard" that refers to Statius' Achilleid; Dryden criticizes Statius' unfinished epic, calling it "too bold." References[edit] ^ lumina; Nestorei mitis prudentia Crispi/et Fabius Veiento (pontentem signat utrumque/purpura, ter memores implerunt nomine fastos/et prope Caesareae confinis Acilius alvae) ("lights; the gentle wisdom of Nestor-like Crispinus, and Fabius Veiento, the purple masks of each as eminent, three times have filled the recording annals with their names, and Acilius, near neighbor of Caesar's palace. trans. Braund, S. M. Juvenal Satires Book 1 (Cambridge, 1996) pg. 251 ^ Feeney, Dennis The Oxford Classical Dictionary (Oxford, 1996) pg.1439 ^ Shackleton Bailey, D.R. Statius' Thebaid 1–7 (Cambridge, 2003) pg.3 ^ Silv. 5.2.161 ^ Hardie, P. The Epic Successors of Virgil: A Study in the Dynamics of a Tradition (Cambridge, 1993). ^ Lewis, C. S. The Allegory of Love (1936) pp.48–56 ^ Coleman in Bailey, pg.13–18 ^ Shackleton Bailey, D. R. Statius Silvae (Cambridge, 2003) pg.5 ^ Quintilian 10.3.17 ^ Coleman in Bailey, pp.11–17 ^ Newlands, C. E. Statius' Silvae and the Poetics of Empire (Cambridge, 2002) ^ Nauta, R. R. Poetry for Patrons: Literary Communication in the Age of Domitian (Leiden, 2002) ^ The best text for both epics is provided by the ninth-century Codex Puteaneus, from the Abbey of Corbie, a manuscript in the Bibliothèque Nationale (BN 8051) that was once the property of the humanist Claude Dupuy. The best recent edition is O.A.W. Dilke, (Cambridge 1954), which has more recently been reprinted with a new introduction (Bristol 2005). A new translation in the Loeb Classical Library is by D. R. Shackleton Bailey. ^ Silv. 5.2.161ff. ^ Elaine Fantham in "Statius' Achilles and His Trojan Model" The Classical Quarterly New Series, 29.2 (1979, pp. 457–462) p 457 describes it as "a more varied and charming work than readers of the Thebaid could ever have imagined and is perhaps the most attractive approach to the imitative and professional poet.". ^ Shackleton Bailey, D. R. Statius' Thebaid 1–7 (Cambridge, 2003) pg.7, 26–8 ^ Prologue to Silvae 4 ^ Juvenal 7.82–87: "They run to his pleasant voice and the poetry of his dear Thebaid when Statius has made the city happy and set a day. Their hearts are captured with sheer sweetness and the crowd is inspired by immense pleasure. But once he has broken the benches, he'll starve unless he sells his virgin Agave to Paris. ^ Van Dam, H. "Wandering Woods Again: From Poliziano to Grotius" in The Poetry of Statius ed. Smolenaars, J., Van Dam, H., and Nauta, R. (Leiden, 2008) ^ Marco Andreacchio, "Dante's Statius and Christianity: A Reading of Purgatorio XXI and XXII in their Poetic Context," in Interpretation: A Journal of Political Philosophy (Vol. 39:1); pp. 55–82. Sources[edit] Newlands, Carol. (2012). Statius, Poet between Rome and Naples. Classical literature and society. London: Bristol Classical Press. Vessey, David. (1973). Statius and the Thebaid. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Editions[edit] David R. Slavitt (tr.), Broken Columns: Two Roman Epic Fragments: The Achilleid of Publius Papinius Statius and The Rape of Proserpine of Claudius Claudianus, with an Afterword by David Konstan (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997). Betty Rose Nagle, The Silvae of Statius. Translated with Notes and Introduction (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2004). Karla F.L. Pollmann, Statius, Thebaid 12: Introduction, Text, and Commentary, Studien zur Geschichte und Kultur des Altertums. Neue Folge. 1. Reihe, Band 25 (Paderborn: Ferdinand Schoeningh, 2004). Gibson, Bruce, Statius. Silvae 5. Edited with Introduction, Translation and Commentary, Oxford Classical Monographs (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2006). Jane Wilson Joyce (ed.), Statius. Thebaid: A Song of Thebes (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2008) (Masters of Latin Literature). Pavan, Alberto (ed., trans., comm.), La gara delle quadrighe e il gioco della guerra: Saggio di commento a P. Papinii Statii Thebaidos liber VI 238–549, Minima philologica 6 (Alessandria, Edizioni dell'Orso, 2009). Studies[edit] Andreacchio, M. "Dante's Statius and Christianity: A Reading of Purgatorio XXI and XXII in their Poetic Context." Interpretation: A Journal of Political Philosophy (Vol. 39:1, 2012); pp. 55–82. Fantham, E. "Chironis Exemplum: on teachers and surrogate fathers in Achilleid and Silvae", Hermathena 167 (1999), 59–70. Feeney, D. "Tenui... latens discrimine: spotting the differences in Statius' Achilleid, Materiali e discussioni per l'analisi dei testi classici 52 (2004), 85–106. Ganiban, Randall T. (2007). Statius and Virgil: The Thebaid and the Reinterpretation of the Aeneid. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Hardie, A. Statius and the Silvae (Liverpool, 1983). Heslin, P.J. The Transvestite Achilles: Gender and Genre in Statius' Achilleid (Cambridge, 2005). Johannsen, N. Dichter ueber ihre Gedichte: Die Prosavorreden in den 'Epigrammaton libri' Martials und in den 'Silvae' des Statius, Hypomnemata, 166 (Goettingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2006). Lewis, C.S. "Dante's Statius." Studies in Medieval and Renaissance Literature (Cambridge, 1966). Lovatt, H. Statius and Epic Games: Sport, Politics, and Poetics in the Thebaid, Cambridge Classical Studies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005). McNelis, Charles. (2002). "Greek Grammarians and Roman Society During the Early Empire: Statius' Father and his Contemporaries." Classical Antiquity 21: 67–94. McNelis, Charles. (2007). Statius' Thebaid and the Poetics of Civil War. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Mendelsohn, D. "Empty Nest, Abandoned Cave: maternal anxiety in Achilleid 1", ClAnt 9.2 (1990), 295–308. Newlands, Carol. (2012). Statius, Poet between Rome and Naples. Classical literature and society. London: Bristol Classical Press. Newlands, C. Statius' Silvae and the Poetics of Empire (Cambridge, 2002). Shackleton Bailey, D. R. Statius Silvae (Cambridge, Mass.; London, 2003). Vessey, David. (1973). Statius and the Thebaid. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Statius Library resources about Statius Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Statius Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Works by Statius at Perseus Digital Library Statius, J. H. Mozley (ed.), 2 voll., London, William Heinemann Ltd - New York, G. P. Putnam's sons, 1928: vol. 1, vol. 2.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Statius, Publius Papinius". Encyclopædia Britannica. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 811–812. Lactantius Placidus in Statii Thebaida commentum, vol. 1, R. D. Sweeney (ed.), Stutgardiae et Lipsiae, in aedibus B. G. Teubneri, 1997. Online text: Statius, Thebaid & Achilleid translated by J.H. Mozley Online text: Statius, Thebaid, Achilleid & Silvae (Latin) SORGLL: Statius, Thebes I.46–87; read by Stephen Daitz v t e Dante's Divine Comedy Characters and locations Inferno Acheron Alichino Barbariccia Ciampolo Cocytus Dis Ugolino della Gherardesca Malacoda Paolo Malatesta Malebranche Malebolge Minos Odysseus Phlegethon Francesca da Rimini Satan Scarmiglione Styx Virgil Purgatorio Cato the Younger Forese Donati Eunoe Beatrice Portinari Statius Paradiso Adam Thomas Aquinas Bernard of Clairvaux Bonaventure Cacciaguida Charles Martel of Anjou David Empyrean Justinian I Peter Lombard Piccarda Verses "Papé Satàn, papé Satàn aleppe" "Raphèl mai amècche zabì almi" Adaptations Classical music Après une Lecture de Dante: Fantasia quasi Sonata (Liszt, 1849) Dante Symphony (Liszt, 1857) Francesca da Rimini (Tchaikovsky, 1876) Francesca da Rimini (Rachmaninoff, 1904) Francesca da Rimini (Zandonai, 1914) Gianni Schicchi (Puccini, 1918) The Divine Comedy (Smith, 1996) Paintings The Barque of Dante (Delacroix, 1822) The Wood of the Self-Murderers: The Harpies and the Suicides (Blake, 1827) Francesca da Rimini and Paolo Malatesta Appraised by Dante and Virgil (Scheffer, 1835) Dante in Hell (Flandrin, 1835) The Barque of Dante (1850s, Manet) Pia de' Tolomei (Rossetti, 1868) Paolo and Francesca da Rimini (Rossetti, 1885) La barca de Aqueronte (Hidalgo, 1887) La Laguna Estigia (Hidalgo, 1887) Sculptures The Kiss (Rodin, 1882) The Thinker (Rodin, 1904) The Gates of Hell (Rodin, 1917) Architecture Danteum (Terragni, 1938) Modern music Inferno (1973 album) "Dante's Inferno" (1995 song) Dante XXI (2006 album) A Place Where the Sun Is Silent (2011 album) Film L'Inferno (1911) Dante's Inferno (1924) Dante's Inferno (1935) The Dante Quartet (1987) A TV Dante (1989) Dante's Inferno (2007) Dante's Inferno: An Animated Epic (2010) Dante's Hell Animated (2013) Literature The Story of Rimini (1816) La Comédie humaine (1830–1850) Earth Inferno (1905) The Cantos (1917–1962) As I Was Going Down Sackville Street (1937) The System of Dante's Hell (1965) Demon Lord Dante (1971) Inferno (1976) The Dante Club (2003) Jimbo's Inferno (2006) Inferno (2013) Video games Devil May Cry series (2001) Bayonetta series (2009) Dante's Inferno (2010) The Lost (cancelled) Related Cultural references in the Divine Comedy Dante Alighieri and the Divine Comedy in popular culture English translations Divine Comedy Illustrated by Botticelli Botticelli Inferno (2016 documentary) Hell in popular culture Category Authority control BIBSYS: 90133502 BNE: XX1039958 BNF: cb12031656k (data) CANTIC: a11347715 CiNii: DA01389105 GND: 118798502 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\054875 ISNI: 0000 0001 1856 6297 LCCN: n79108865 NKC: jn19981002158 NLA: 35520925 NLG: 93836 NLI: 000126280 NLP: A12125726 NSK: 000086331 NTA: 068776039 RERO: 02-A000155445 SELIBR: 247164 SNAC: w6b288zh SUDOC: 028491254 Trove: 982880 VcBA: 495/16619 VIAF: 100904338 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79108865 Retrieved from 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en-wikipedia-org-3349	----	John Pine - Wikipedia John Pine From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For those of a similar name, see John Pyne (disambiguation). Portrait of John Pine by William Hogarth John Pine (1690–1756) was an English designer, engraver, and cartographer notable for his artistic contribution to the Augustan style and Newtonian scientific paradigm that flourished during the British Enlightenment. Contents 1 Early life and apprenticeships 2 Career 3 Legacy 4 Selected works 5 References Early life and apprenticeships[edit] Little is known of Pine's parents or ancestry. Biographical sketches frequently refer to him as black or of African ancestry, especially in the lore of Freemasonry, a society with which he became affiliated. However, the United Grand Lodge of England has not been able to verify such claims.[1] Pine began his career as an apprentice goldsmith. He also apprenticed with the French engraver Bernard Picart (1673–1733), who was associated with a movement described by historian Margaret Jacob as the "Radical Enlightenment."[2][3] Career[edit] Pine was a close friend of William Hogarth, who also began his career as an engraver. It appears likely that their careers were mutually reinforcing, even though Pine remained principally in the field of engraving while Hogarth became a famous painter. Hogarth painted Pine several times; once, in his 1749 engraving The Gate of Calais, depicting him as a fat friar.[4] Both men served as governors of the Foundling Hospital,[4] and both were Freemasons, a social affiliation that was also a means of marketing their talents. Pine was a member of the Lodge that met at the Horn Tavern in Westminster and joined with other Lodges to form the Grand Lodge in 1717. Pine engraved the frontispiece of the 1723 Constitutions of the Free-Masons, which elevated his status as an artist and secured his position as principal engraver for the Grand Lodge. Subsequent work for the Grand Lodge included annual engraved lists of member Lodges, which provided details about the time and place of their meetings. These engravings included miniature signs for each Lodge symbolizing their meeting place, usually a tavern. Pine's work is an essential part of the record of early Freemasonry. In 1731, Pine worked with James Oglethorpe and the Trustees for the Establishment of the Colony of Georgia in America on the first conceptual map of the colony, illustrating many of its design principles. He may have prepared the more detailed plan for the town of Savannah, the source of which remains an intriguing mystery to town planners (see the Oglethorpe Plan). In 1733, Pine began work on an edition of the works of Horace, considered a masterpiece of 18th-century book art.[5] He engraved the text and illustrations for the entire work, which consisted of hundreds of pages. Subscribers who underwrote the project included the Prince of Wales, Handel, Alexander Pope, and Hogarth.[1] In 1735, Pine successfully collaborated with Hogarth and George Vertue in obtaining passage of a law enacted by Parliament securing copyrights for artists. This law granted specifically to him copyright on some works not otherwise original enough to receive copyright under it. In 1755 he was among those who attempted to form a royal academy for the arts, but he did not live to see it established.[3] Pine collaborated with surveyor John Rocque on the first detailed map of London, published in 1746. Legacy[edit] Pine's achievements were recognized in 1743, when he became Engraver of His Majesty's Signet and Seals, and subsequently Bluemantle Pursuivant of Arms in Ordinary. His son, Robert Edge Pine (1730–1788), became a notable portrait painter of the late eighteenth century in both England and America. He painted George II and the famous actor David Garrick before emigrating to America where he painted Washington and other figures of the Revolutionary Era. Another son, Simon, became a miniature-painter in Bath. Pine's daughter, Charlotte, married the painter Alexander Cozens.[3][6] Selected works[edit] The "Armada 1588. 22 July: the burning and capture of Miguel de Oquendo's ship San Salvador" (Plate V, The Tapestry Hangings of the House of Lords)", published by Pine in 1739 Frontispiece, Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe, 1719 (collaboration with John Clark) Illustrations, Edward Ward's Nuptial Dialogues and Debates, 1722 Frontispiece, Constitutions of the Free-Masons, 1723 Illustrations, King George I at ceremonies restoring the Order of the Bath, 1725 Illustrations, Henry Pemberton’s View of Newton’s Philosophy, 1728 Reproduction of "The Magna Carta," 1731 Frontispiece, "Some Account of the Design of the Trustees for the Establishment of the Colony of *Georgia in America," 1732 Reproduction of tapestries in the House of Lords depicting "Destruction of the Spanish Armada," 1739 "Plan of London,” 1746, in 24 sheets (a collaboration with surveyor John Roque) "A View of the House of Commons," 1749 "Virgil," containing the Bucolics and Georgics, 1753 References[edit] ^ a b Prescott, Andrew. "John Pine: A Sociable Craftsman." MQ Magazine. Issue 10, July, 2004 ^ Jacob, Margaret C. The Radical Enlightenment: Pantheists, Freemasons and Republicans. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1981. Pages 164-6. ^ a b c Lee, Sidney, ed. (1896). "Pine, John" . Dictionary of National Biography. 45. London: Smith, Elder & Co. ^ a b "The 'Tapestry Hangings of the House of Lords'". The National Maritime Museum. Archived from the original on 21 August 2013. Retrieved 8 December 2012. ^ Suarez, Michael. "The Reach of Bibliography: 2015 Lyell Lectures". Livestream. Oxford University. Retrieved 23 July 2015. ^ Stewart, Robert G. Robert Edge Pine: A British Portrait Painter in America, 1784-1788. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1979. 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en-wikipedia-org-3368	----	Social War (91–87 BC) - Wikipedia Social War (91–87 BC) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Social War (91–88 BC)) Jump to navigation Jump to search War between the Roman Republic and Italic allies For other uses, see Social War. Social War Map of the Roman confederation in 100 BC, on the eve of the Social War. The Roman possessions (in green) straddle the strategic centre of the Italian peninsula and the Tyrrhenian coastal plain. Latin colonies (dark red) are scattered in strategic locations. Other socii (pink) are concentrated in the mountainous interior. Date 91–87 BC Location Roman Italy Result • Roman military victory • Status quo ante bellum • Roman citizenship granted to the socii and thus extended to all of peninsular Italy Belligerents Roman Republic Pro-Roman Italians Anti-Roman Italians   Marsic Group: Marsi Paeligni Vestini Marrucini Picentes Frentani Samnite Group: Samnites Campanians Iapygii Lucanians Hirpini Venusia Commanders and leaders Publius Rutilius Lupus † Gaius Marius Pompeius Strabo Lucius Julius Caesar Lucius Cornelius Sulla Titus Didius † Lucius Porcius Cato † Quintus Poppaedius Silo † Gaius Papius Mutilus Strength 90 BC: ~75,000 men[1] 89 BC: ~150,000 men[2] 88 BC: ~36,000 men[3] Total mobilized: 175,000 men[3] Total mobilized: 130,000 men[3] Casualties and losses 50,000 killed[3] 50,000 killed[3] ~100,000 killed in total[3] v t e Social War (91–88 BC) Acerrae Aesernia Taenum Asculum Canusium Mount Falernus Firmum Fucine Lake Nola v t e Ancient unification of Italy Roman–Etruscan Wars Roman–Latin wars Roman–Volscian wars Roman conquest of the Hernici Samnite Wars Pyrrhic War Social War v t e Roman Republican civil wars 1st Servile 2nd Servile Social Sulla's 1st Sulla's 2nd Sertorian 3rd Servile Catilinarian conspiracy Caesar's Mutina Liberators' Sicilian Perusine Last The Social War (from Latin bellum sociale, properly 'war of the allies'), also called the Italian or Marsic War, was waged from 91 to 87 BC between the Roman Republic and other cities and tribes in Italy which had hitherto been allies (socii) of Rome for centuries. The Italian allies wanted Roman citizenship, not only for the status and influence that came with it, but also for the right to vote in the Roman Republic. [4] They believed that they should be treated equally to the Romans, given that they had formed cultural and linguistic connections with the Roman civilization, and had been loyal allies for over two centuries. The Romans strongly opposed their demands and refused to grant them citizenship, thus leaving the Italian groups with fewer rights and privileges. The situation led in 91 BC to the outbreak of a devastating war, in which the Samnites and the Marsi led a revolt against Roman rule for four years. Most of the Etruscans, Umbrians and Latins did not join the rebellion. In order to avoid a future conflict of the same kind, Rome decreed a series of laws (Lex Iulia in 90 BC, Lex Plautia Papiria in 89 BC) by which the peoples and cities who remained loyal or surrendered were awarded Roman citizenship. By 87 BC, Roman victory was complete and citizenship extended to all of peninsular Italy.[4] This war also led to a complete Romanization of Italy. The Etruscans and the Italic peoples quickly integrated themselves into the Roman world, after gaining Roman citizenship. Their own languages and cultures became extinct in the process, and the term "Roman" came to refer to all inhabitants of Italy.[5][6][7] The Romans did not consider Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica part of Italy during this period. Cisalpine Gaul was also not legally considered Italian territory until 42 BC, when it was merged into Roman Italy as indicated in Caesar's unpublished acts (Acta Caesaris).[8][9] Contents 1 Origins 2 War 2.1 Events in 91 BC 2.2 Events in 90 BC 2.3 Events in 89 BC 3 Aftermath in 88–87 BC: another war 4 Roman concessions to the Allies 5 See also 6 Citations 7 References Origins[edit] Roman victory in the Samnite Wars ( 343-290 BC ) resulted in effective Roman dominance of the Italian peninsula. This dominance was expressed in a collection of alliances between Rome and the cities and communities of Italy, on more or less favorable terms depending on whether a given city had voluntarily allied with Rome or been defeated in war. These cities were theoretically independent, but in practice Rome had the right to demand from them tribute money and a certain number of soldiers: by the 2nd century BC the Italian allies contributed between one half and two-thirds of the soldiers in Roman armies. Rome also had virtual control over the allies' foreign policy, including their interaction with one another. Aside from the Second Punic War, where Hannibal had limited success in turning some Italian communities against Rome, for the most part the Italian communities were content to remain as client states of Rome in return for local autonomy. The Romans' policy of land distribution had led to great inequality of land-ownership and wealth.[10] This led to the "Italic people declining little by little into pauperism and paucity of numbers without any hope of remedy."[11] A number of political proposals had attempted to address the growing discrepancy whereby Italians made a significant contribution to Rome's military force, while receiving disproportionately small shares of land and citizenship rights. These efforts came to a head under the impetus of Marcus Livius Drusus in 91 BC. His reforms would have granted the Italian allies Roman citizenship, giving them a greater say in the external policy of the Roman Republic. Most local affairs came under local governance and were not as important to the Romans as, for example, when the alliance would go to war or how they would divide the plunder. The response of the Roman senatorial elite to Drusus' proposals was to reject his ideas and assassinate him. This brusque dismissal of the granting of rights that the Italians considered to be long overdue greatly angered them, and communities throughout Italy attempted to declare independence from Rome in response, sparking a war. War[edit] The Social War began in 91 BC when the Italian allies revolted. The Latins as a whole remained largely loyal to Rome, with the one exception of Venusia. The Etruscans and Umbrians, who were the most powerful people amongst Socii, mostly stayed neutral at the beginning. They were soon offered citizenship by Rome to prevent them from joining the rebellion.[12] The rebellious allies not only planned a formal separation from Rome, but also the re-organisation of Italia (the Roman term for the peninsula) as its own independent federation, with its own capital at Corfinium (in modern Abruzzo) that was renamed Italica.[13] To pay for the troops, they created their own coinage that was used as propaganda against Rome. The coins depict eight warriors taking an oath, probably representing the Marsi, Picentines, Paeligni, Marrucini, Vestini, Frentani, Samnites and Hirpini.[14] The Italian soldiers were battle-hardened, most of them having served in the Roman armies. The allies of Italia were originally able to field 120,000 men. The Italians divided this force according to their positions within Italy.[15] Quintus Poppaedius Silo had overall command of the "Marsic Group", as consul. Gaius Papius Mutilus had overall command of the "Samnite Group", as consul. Titus Lafrenius commanded the Marsi in 90 BC, when he was killed in action. He was succeeded by Fraucus. Titus Vettius Scato commanded the Paeligni to 88 BC, when he was captured by the Romans and killed by his slave.[16] Gaius Pontidius probably commanded the Vestini, probably at least until 89 BC. Herius Asinius commanded the Marrucini until 89 BC, when he was killed in action. He was succeeded by Obsidius who was also killed in action. Gaius Vidacilius commanded the Picentes until 89 BC, when he committed suicide. Publius Praesentius probably commanded the Frentani, probably throughout the war. Numerius Lucilius probably commanded the Hirpini until 89 BC, when he seems to have been succeeded by Minatus Iegius (or Minius Iegius). Lucius Cluentius commanded the Pompeiani in 89 BC when he was killed in action. Titus Herennius probably commanded the Venusini throughout the war. Trebatius may have commanded the Iapygii throughout the war. Marcus Lamponius commanded the Lucani throughout the war. Marius Egnatius commanded the Samnites until 88 BC when he was killed in action. He was succeeded by Pontius Telesinus who was also killed in action that year. The Roman strategy focused on surviving the first onslaught, while simultaneously trying to entice other Italian clients to remain loyal or refrain from defection, and then meet the threat of the revolt with troops raised from provinces as well as from client kingdoms. One of the two separate theatres of war was assigned to each of the consuls of 90 BC. In the north, the consul Publius Rutilius Lupus was advised by Gaius Marius and Pompeius Strabo; in the south the consul Lucius Julius Caesar had Lucius Cornelius Sulla and Titus Didius. Events in 91 BC[edit] Marcus Livius Drusus, a champion of the Italian cause, was assassinated by an unknown assailant. Drusus's death meant the end of his enfranchisement policy.[17] When news of Drusus's assassination reached the Marsi they decided on a show of force.[17] Quintus Poppaedius Silo, a leader of the Marsi and a good friend of Drusus, led a march on Rome.[17] They were met by Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, the Pontifex Maximus, who persuaded them to go back.[18] When Ahenobarbus returned to Rome he informed the Senate something had to be done quickly or there would be war.[18] By mid-autumn, the peace had irrevocably broken down. Diplomacy and negotiations had failed; the Social War started.[19] The first to rebel and take up arms were the Marsi.[20] They were joined by the Vestini (a Sabine tribe), the Peligni (an Apennine mountain tribe) and the Marruncini.[21] The second major group of Italians to rebel were the Samnites. They were quickly joined by more Italian tribes including the Hirpini, the Lucanians, Apulia and the Frentani.[22] The Italian rebels chose two consuls to take command of the war. Quintus Poppaedius Silo commanded the 'northern' group, while Gaius Papius Mutilus commanded the 'southern' group.[23] The Roman colonies of Alba Fucensis and Aesernia, which were in Italian territory, came under siege.[24] When the rebels took Asculum, the first city to fall to them, they slaughtered every Roman they could find. The wives of the men who refused to join them were tortured and scalped.[25] While marching his legions south through Picentum, Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo, who had recruited troops (3–4 legions) on Rome's behalf in his native Picenum, was suddenly attacked by a large force of Picentes, Vestini and Marsi led by the rebel general Scato. Although the battle favoured neither side Pompeius Strabo was heavily outnumbered and he decided to withdraw. Eventually he found himself blockaded in Picenum.[26] The Romans elected Lucius Julius Caesar and Publius Rutilius Lupus as consuls for the following year. Caesar was to command the southern front against the Samnites and their allies while Lupus was to command the northern front against the Marsi and their allies. Caesar was allocated Gaius Marius as senior legate (second-in-command) while Lupus was allocated Lucius Cornelius Sulla. Marius and Sulla were considered Rome's best military commanders.[27] Events in 90 BC[edit] In central Italy, Gaius Perpenna, a lieutenant of the consul Publius Rutilius Lupus, suffered a defeat at the hands of the Italian general Presentius. Perpenna lost 4,000 men. The remnant of his force was transferred to the army of Marius.[28] In Lucania, a lieutenant of the consul Lucius Julius Caesar, lost 800 men when the Italians set fire to his camp.[28] Sextus Julius Caesar attempted to head off Italian reinforcements going to the siege of Aesernia, but was beaten back with the loss of 2,000 men.[29] Aesernia was taken by the Italians.[29] The Italian 'consul' Mutilus invaded Campania and took the city of Nola (by betrayal). Afterwards, he starved his Roman prisoners (including the praetor Lucius Postumus) to death.[30] Mutilus attacked Lucius Caesar's camp, but Caesar fought off the assault and killed 6,000 rebels. This was the first substantial defeat of the Italian rebels. The news of the victory caused the Senate to decree that the population should resume wearing togas again (they had stopped doing so as a sign their country was struggling at war).[31] On 11 July, the consul Rutilius was ambushed by the Marsi led by Vettius Scato while crossing the River Tolenus. The Rebels killed 8,000 of Rutilius's men, including the consul himself.[32] Gaius Marius, in command of a separate division of Rutilius' army, arrived during the aftermath of the Marsi ambush captured their camp and then attacked the Marsi from the rear routing them with heavy losses.[33] Quintus Servilius Caepio defeated the Paeligni, a rebel tribe related to the Marruncini.[34] The Senate then decided to give joint command to Marius and Caepio. Marius had expected sole command and he did not get along with Caepio with disastrous results.[35] After having dealt with a raiding party of Marsi at Varnia, Caepio attempted to give Marius instructions, but Marius ignored them.[36] Caepio left on his own was then obliged to move his legions back towards Caeoli. Once they reached the Arno at Sublaqueum they were attacked by the Marsi. Caepio's column was massacred.[37] It is said he was killed by Quintus Poppaedius Silo himself.[36] The Marsi and Marruncini were defeated in battle by Marius working in tandem with Sulla, his old subordinate from the Jugurthine and Cimbri wars. Together they killed 6,000 rebels and the Marruncini general Herius Asinus.[38] In the Volturnus valley (at the Melfa Gorge) the Samnites under Marius Egnatius ambushed Lucius Caesar who still managed to fight his way through to Teanum where he took up a defensive position. Lucius Caesar lost 8,000 of his 30,000 men in the ambush.[39] Pompeius Strabo succeeded in breaking out of Picenum and drove the rebels all the way back to Asculum. He then started to besiege the city.[40] The consul Lucius Caesar returned to Rome and pushed through the Lex Julia de civitate Latinis et sociis danda which gave Roman citizenship to any Italian with Latin Rights, and made eligible for citizenship any Italian who had not taken up arms against the Romans. This marked the turning point of the war. Many Italians flocked to the Roman standards depriving the rebels of manpower.[41] Pompeius Strabo, who by now had been elected one of the consul for the next year, attacked and defeated a rebel column trying to march into Etruria killing 5,000 rebels. Another 5,000 died while trying to get back across the Apennines.[42] Events in 89 BC[edit] Lucius Porcius Cato Licinianus, who had been elected junior consul for 89 BC, took over the southern command from Lucius Caesar.[43] Vidacilius, the leader of the rebels in southern Picenum, and his men (ca. 4,000) managed to fight their way through the siege lines and reinforced Asculum. However, upon seeing the hopelessness of their cause he and his followers committed suicide.[44] Sextus Caesar, now a lieutenant of the Senior Consul Pompeius Strabo, caught the rebels shifting camp outside Asculum and fell upon them, killing 8,000 and scattering the rest.[45] The consul Cato engaged the Marsi in battle near Fucine Lake (close to Alba Fucensis). He died in an attempt to storm the enemy camp. Sulla then took command of the southern front.[46] In a huge battle near Asculum Pompeius Strabo defeated an Italian relief army of 60,000 men. The city capitulated soon after.[47] In the south Sulla, now a praetor, moved on the offensive. He started to besiege Pompeii and Herculaneum. When the rebel general Cleuntius tried to reinforce the city, Sulla routed the rebel army, chased them to Nola and there massacred 20,000 rebels in battle right in front of the walls.[48] After his victory at Nola, Sulla turned on the Hirpini to the north. He quickly forced them to surrender. He then marched on Samnium.[49] Sulla invaded Samnium by a circuitous route and hereby surprised and defeated Mutilus (the Samnite commander) attacking him from an unsuspected direction. With the Samnite army routed he marched on Bovianum, the Samnite capital, and stormed it in a three-hour assault.[50] The praetor Gaius Cosconius caught the rebel general Trebatius and a Samnite army in mid-crossing at the Aufidius near Cannae killing 15,000 rebels.[51] Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius captured Venusia, along with 3,000 rebel soldiers.[52] After Sulla had returned to his sieges in Campania, Poppaedius Silo recaptured Bovianum. Silo then tried to eject Metellus from Apulia, but failed and died in the attempt.[53] Herculaneum, Pompeii and several rebel cities in Campania surrendered to Sulla. Only Nola and Aesernia remained defiant.[54] By the end of 89 BC most of the rebel leaders were dead. In the north the last pockets of resistance were being mopped up by Pompeius Strabo and in the south only the Samnites remained a threat. Aftermath in 88–87 BC: another war[edit] At the beginning of 88 BC, the war was largely over except for the Samnites, the old rivals of Rome, who still held out. It is likely that the war would have continued for some time had Rome not made concessions to their allies. Rome could now return their focus on the rest of their empire. In the East a new threat loomed; Mithridates, the king of Pontus, invaded the Roman province of Asia and slaughtered Romans and Italians alike.[55] Rome's generals contended for the honour (and profit) of commanding the war against the eastern king.[56] Unfortunately for the Republic, this led to a new civil war. Eventually the Samnites would become major players in the second round of that civil war. The Samnites and Lucanians held out at Nola and Bruttium until 87 BC, when the conflict subsumed into the Roman civil war that broke out that year.[57] Roman concessions to the Allies[edit] Lucius Julius Caesar sponsored the Lex Julia during his consulship, which he carried out before his office ended. The law offered full citizenship to all Latin and Italian communities who had not revolted. This was mainly done to prevent the Etruscans and Umbrians from joining the rebellion. However, the law offered the option of citizenship to whole communities and not to individuals. This meant that each individual community had to pass the law, most likely by a vote in assembly, before it could take effect. It was also possible under the Lex Julia for citizenship to be granted as a reward for distinguished military service in the field. It is assumed that the Lex Julia was closely followed by a supplementary statute, the Lex Plautia Papiria, which stated that a registered male of an allied Italian state could obtain Roman citizenship by presenting himself to a Roman praetor within 60 days of the passing of the law. This law granted Roman citizenship to Italians who had rebelled against Rome. See also[edit] Coinage of the Social War Citations[edit] ^ Brunt 1971, p. 437. ^ Brunt 1971, p. 438. ^ a b c d e f Brunt 1971, p. 439. ^ a b Beard, Mary (2008). Pompeii. Profile Books LTD. ISBN 978-1-86197-596-6. ^ Keaveney, Arthur (1987). Rome and the Unification of Italy. London: Croom Helm. ISBN 9781904675372. ^ Suetonius, Life of Claudius, section 42.2. ^ "Oscan". Ancient Scripts. Retrieved 30 January 2019. ^ Williams, J. H. C. (July 24, 2001). Beyond the Rubicon: Romans and Gauls in Republican Italy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198153009 – via Google Books. ^ Long, George (1866). Decline of the Roman republic: Volume 2. London. ^ Appian, Civil Wars, p. 1.7 . ^ Appian, Civil Wars, p. 1.9 . ^ Brunt, P.A. (1965). The Journal of Roman Studies. ^ Tom Holland, Rubicon, pp 54–55. ^ Scullard, HH (1970), From the Gracchi to Nero, London: Methuen & Co. Ltd ^ Salmon, ET (1958), "Notes on the Social War", Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association (89), pp. 159–84 ^ Smith, William (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology. 3. Boston, Little. p. 735. ^ a b c Lynda Telford, Sulla, p.84. ^ a b Lynda Telford, Sulla, p.85. ^ Philip Matyszak, Cataclysm 90 BC, p.77. ^ Philip Matyszak, Cataclysm 90 BC, p.71. ^ Philip Matyszak, Cataclysm 90 BC, p.72. ^ Philip Matyszak, Cataclysm 90 BC, p.73. ^ Philip Matyszak, Cataclysm 90 BC, pp 80–81. ^ Philip Matyszak, Cataclysm 90 BC, p. 77. ^ Tom Holland, Rubicon, p. 53. ^ Lynda Telford, Sulla, p. 86; Philip Matyszak, Cataclysm 90 BC, p. 89. ^ Philip Matyszak, Cataclysm 90 BC, p. 81; Lynda Telford, Sulla, p. 86. ^ a b Philip Matyszak, Cataclysm 90 BC, p. 85. ^ a b Philip Matyszak, Cataclysm 90 BC, p. 86. ^ Philip Matyszak, Cataclysm 90 BC, pp 86–87. ^ Philip Matyszak, Cataclysm 90 BC, pp 87–88. ^ Philip Matyszak, Cataclysm 90 BC, pp 86.90–92; Lynda Telford, Sulla, pp 87–88. ^ Philip Matyszak, Cataclysm 90 BC, pp 92–93; Lynda Telford, Sulla, p. 88. ^ Philip Matyszak, Cataclysm 90 BC, p. 94; Livy, Periochae, 73.5. ^ Philip Matyszak, Cataclysm 90 BC, p. 94; Lynda Telford, Sulla, p. 88. ^ a b Lynda Telford, Sulla, p. 89. ^ Philip Matyszak, Cataclysm 90 BC, pp 94–95; Lynda Telford, Sulla, p. 89; Appian, Civil Wars, 1.44. ^ Philip Matyszak, Cataclysm 90 BC, pp 95–96; Lynda Telford, Sulla, p. 89. ^ Philip Matyszak, Cataclysm 90 BC, p. 96; Lynda Telford, Sulla, p. 89. ^ Philip Matyszak, Cataclysm 90 BC, p. 97. ^ Philip Matyszak, Cataclysm 90 BC, p. 99; Lynda Telford, Sulla, p. 90; Tom Holland, Rubicon, p. 58. ^ Philip Matyszak, Cataclysm 90 BC, p. 100. ^ Philip Matyszak, Cataclysm 90 BC, p. 102; Lynda Telford, Sulla, p. 91. ^ Philip Matyszak, Cataclysm 90 BC, p. 103. ^ Philip Matyszak, Cataclysm 90 BC, pp 103–104. ^ Philip Matyszak, Cataclysm 90 BC, p. 105. ^ John Leach, Pompey the Great, p.15; Velleius Paterculus, Historia Romana, II. 21. ^ Philip Matyszak, Cataclysm 90 BC, p. 107; Lynda Telford, Sulla, p. 93. ^ Philip Matyszak, Cataclysm 90 BC, p. 107; Lynda Telford, Sulla, p. 94. ^ Philip Matyszak, Cataclysm 90 BC, pp 107–108; Tom Holland, Rubicon, p. 65. ^ Philip Matyszak, Cataclysm 90 BC, p. 108; Lynda Telford, Sulla, p. 95. ^ Philip Matyszak, Cataclysm 90 BC, p. 108. ^ Philip Matyszak, Cataclysm 90 BC, p. 108; Broughton, The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, II p. 42; Brennan, The Praetorship in the Roman Republic, II p. 378; Diod. XXXVII 2, 9–11; App. BC I 53; Auc. Vir. Ill. 63, 1. ^ Philip Matyszak, Cataclysm 90 BC, p. 109; Tom Holland, Rubicon, p. 65. ^ Philip Matyszak, Cataclysm 90 BC, pp 110–112. ^ Philip Matyszak, Cataclysm 90 BC, p. 116. ^ Keaveney, p. 158, 181–182, 183–184. References[edit] Brunt, P.A. (1965). "Italian Aims at the Time of the Social War". The Journal of Roman Studies. 55 (1/2): 90–109. doi:10.2307/297433. JSTOR 297433. Brunt, P.A. (1971). Italian Manpower 225 B.C.–A.D. 14. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-814283-8. Dart, Christopher J. (2009). "The 'Italian Constitution' in the Social War: A Reassessment (91 to 88 BCE)". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 58 (2): 215–224. JSTOR 25598463. Dart, Christopher J. (2014). The Social War, 91 to 88 BCE: A History of the Italian Insurgency against the Roman Republic. Farnham: Ashgate. ISBN 978-1-4724-1676-6. Keaveney, Arthur (2005) [1987]. Rome and the Unification of Italy (2nd ed.). Liverpool University Press. ISBN 1-904675-37-9. Matyszak, Philip (2014). Cataclysm 90 BC: The Forgotten War that Almost Destroyed Rome. Barnsley: Pen & Sword Military. ISBN 978-1-84884-789-7. Salmon, E.T. (1958). "Notes on the Social War". Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association. 89: 159–184. doi:10.2307/283674. JSTOR 283674. v t e Ancient Roman wars Wars of the Roman Republic Roman–Etruscan Wars Roman-Aequian wars Roman–Latin wars Roman–Hernician wars Roman-Volscian wars Samnite Wars Pyrrhic War Punic Wars (First, Second, Third) Illyrian Wars (First, Second, Third) Macedonian Wars (First, Second, Third, Fourth) Roman–Seleucid War Aetolian War Galatian War Roman conquest of Hispania (Celtiberian Wars, Lusitanian War, Numantine War, Sertorian War, Cantabrian Wars) Achaean War Jugurthine War Cimbrian War Servile Wars (First, Second, Third) Social War Sulla's civil wars (First, Second) Mithridatic Wars (First, Second, Third) Gallic Wars Invasions of Britain Caesar's Civil War End of the Republic (Post-Caesarian, Liberators', Sicilian, Perusine, Last) Wars of the Roman Empire Germanic wars (Teutoburg, Marcomannic, Alemannic, Gothic, Visigothic) Wars in Britain Boudica's revolt Armenian War Civil War of 69 Jewish–Roman wars Domitian's Dacian War Trajan's Dacian Wars Persian Wars Civil Wars of the Third Century Wars of the Fall of the Western Roman Empire Military history of ancient Rome Authority control BNE: XX4358883 BNF: cb12111302k (data) GND: 4146948-3 LCCN: sh85115118 SUDOC: 029498554 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Social_War_(91–87_BC)&oldid=996361808" Categories: 90s BC conflicts 80s BC conflicts 1st century BC in the Roman Republic Roman citizenship Roman Republican civil wars Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara Français 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 26 December 2020, at 03:48 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3380	----	Edward Bulwer-Lytton - Wikipedia Edward Bulwer-Lytton From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search British statesman and author (1803–1873) Not to be confused with his son, Robert Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Earl of Lytton, Governor-General of India. For the British general, see Edward Bulwer (British Army officer). The Right Honourable The Lord Lytton PC Secretary of State for the Colonies In office 5 June 1858 – 11 June 1859 Monarch Victoria Prime Minister The Earl of Derby Preceded by Lord Stanley Succeeded by The Duke of Newcastle Personal details Born Edward George Earle Lytton Bulwer[1] (1803-05-25)25 May 1803 London, England Died 18 January 1873(1873-01-18) (aged 69) Torquay, England Nationality British Political party Whig (1831–1841) Conservative (1851–1866) Spouse(s) Rosina Doyle Wheeler ​ ​ (m. 1827)​ Children 2, including Robert Parents William Earle Bulwer Elizabeth Barbara Warburton-Lytton Alma mater Trinity College, Cambridge Trinity Hall, Cambridge Edward George Earle Lytton Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Baron Lytton, PC (25 May 1803 – 18 January 1873) was an English writer and politician. He served as a Whig member of Parliament from 1831 to 1841 and a Conservative from 1851 to 1866. He was Secretary of State for the Colonies from June 1858 to June 1859, choosing Richard Clement Moody as founder of British Columbia. He declined the Crown of Greece in 1862 after King Otto abdicated. He was created Baron Lytton of Knebworth in 1866.[1][2] His marriage to the writer Rosina Bulwer Lytton broke down. Her detention in an insane asylum provoked a public outcry. Bulwer-Lytton's works sold and paid him well. He coined the phrases "the great unwashed", "pursuit of the almighty dollar", "the pen is mightier than the sword", and "dweller on the threshold", and the opening phrase "It was a dark and stormy night." Yet his standing declined and he is little read today. The sardonic Bulwer-Lytton Fiction Contest, held annually since 1982, claims to seek the "opening sentence of the worst of all possible novels".[3][4][5][6] Contents 1 Life 2 Political career 2.1 British Columbia 3 Literary works 4 Legacy 4.1 Quotations 4.2 Theosophy 4.3 Contest 4.4 Operas 4.5 Magazines 4.6 Translations 4.7 Place names 4.8 Portrayal on television 5 Works by Bulwer-Lytton 5.1 Novels 5.2 Series 5.3 Verse 5.4 Plays 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links Life[edit] Bulwer was born on 25 May 1803 to General William Earle Bulwer of Heydon Hall and Wood Dalling, Norfolk and Elizabeth Barbara Lytton, daughter of Richard Warburton Lytton of Knebworth House, Hertfordshire. He had two older brothers, William Earle Lytton Bulwer (1799–1877) and Henry (1801–1872), later Lord Dalling and Bulwer.[7] His father died and his mother moved to London when he was four years old. When he was 15, a tutor named Wallington, who tutored him at Ealing, encouraged him to publish an immature work: Ishmael and Other Poems. Around this time, Bulwer fell in love, but the woman's father induced her to marry another man. She died about the time that Bulwer went to Cambridge and he stated that her loss affected all his subsequent life.[7] In 1822 Bulwer-Lytton entered Trinity College, Cambridge, where he met John Auldjo, but soon moved to Trinity Hall. In 1825 he won the Chancellor's Gold Medal for English verse.[8] In the following year he took his BA degree and printed for private circulation a small volume of poems, Weeds and Wild Flowers.[7] He purchased an army commission in 1826, but sold it in 1829 without serving.[9] Edward Bulwer-Lytton. His Harold, the Last of the Saxons (1848) was the source for Verdi's opera Aroldo. In August 1827, he married Rosina Doyle Wheeler (1802–1882), a noted Irish beauty, but against the wishes of his mother, who withdrew his allowance, forcing him to work for a living.[7] They had two children, Emily Elizabeth Bulwer-Lytton (1828–1848), and (Edward) Robert Lytton Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Earl of Lytton (1831–1891) who became Governor-General and Viceroy of British India (1876–1880). His writing and political work strained their marriage and his infidelity embittered Rosina.[10] In 1833 they separated acrimoniously and in 1836 the separation became legal.[10] Three years later, Rosina published Cheveley, or the Man of Honour (1839), a near-libellous fiction satirising her husband's alleged hypocrisy.[10] In June 1858, when her husband was standing as parliamentary candidate for Hertfordshire, she denounced him at the hustings. He retaliated by threatening her publishers, withholding her allowance and denying her access to their children.[10] Finally he had her committed to a mental asylum,[10] but she was released a few weeks later after a public outcry.[10] This she chronicled in a memoir, A Blighted Life (1880).[11][12] She continued attacking her husband's character for several years.[13] Bulwer-Lytton in later life The death of Bulwer's mother in 1843 meant his "exhaustion of toil and study had been completed by great anxiety and grief," and by "about the January of 1844, I was thoroughly shattered."[14][15] In his mother's room at Knebworth House, which he inherited, he "had inscribed above the mantelpiece a request that future generations preserve the room as his beloved mother had used it." It remains hardly changed to this day.[16] On 20 February 1844, in accordance with his mother's will, he changed his surname from Bulwer to Bulwer-Lytton and assumed the arms of Lytton by royal licence.[13] His widowed mother had done the same in 1811. His brothers remained plain "Bulwer". By chance Bulwer-Lytton encountered a copy of "Captain Claridge's work on the "Water Cure", as practised by Priessnitz, at Graefenberg", and "making allowances for certain exaggerations therein", pondered the option of travelling to Graefenberg, but preferred to find something closer to home, with access to his own doctors in case of failure: "I who scarcely lived through a day without leech or potion!".[14][15] After reading a pamphlet by Doctor James Wilson, who operated a hydropathic establishment with James Manby Gully at Malvern, he stayed there for "some nine or ten weeks", after which he "continued the system some seven weeks longer under Doctor Weiss, at Petersham", then again at "Doctor Schmidt's magnificent hydropathic establishment at Boppart" (at the former Marienberg Convent at Boppard), after developing a cold and fever upon his return home.[14] When Otto, King of Greece abdicated in 1862, Bulwer-Lytton was offered the Greek Crown, but declined.[17] The English Rosicrucian society, founded in 1867 by Robert Wentworth Little, claimed Bulwer-Lytton as their "Grand Patron", but he wrote to the society complaining that he was "extremely surprised" by their use of the title, as he had "never sanctioned such."[18] Nevertheless, a number of esoteric groups have continued to claim Bulwer-Lytton as their own, chiefly because some of his writings – such as the 1842 book Zanoni – have included Rosicrucian and other esoteric notions. According to the Fulham Football Club, he once resided in the original Craven Cottage, today the site of their stadium. Bulwer-Lytton had long suffered from a disease of the ear, and for the last two or three years of his life lived in Torquay nursing his health.[19] After an operation to cure deafness, an abscess formed in the ear and burst; he endured intense pain for a week and died at 2 am on 18 January 1873, just short of his 70th birthday.[19] The cause of death was unclear but it was thought the infection had affected his brain and caused a fit.[19] Rosina outlived him by nine years. Against his wishes, Bulwer-Lytton was honoured with a burial in Westminster Abbey.[20] His unfinished history Athens: Its Rise and Fall was published posthumously. Political career[edit] Caricature by Ape published in Vanity Fair in 1870 Bulwer began his political career as a follower of Jeremy Bentham. In 1831 he was elected member for St Ives, Cornwall, after which he was returned for Lincoln in 1832, and sat in Parliament for that city for nine years. He spoke in favour of the Reform Bill and took the lead in securing the reduction, after vainly essaying the repeal, of the newspaper stamp duties. His influence was perhaps most keenly felt when, on the Whigs' dismissal from office in 1834, he issued a pamphlet entitled A Letter to a Late Cabinet Minister on the Crisis.[21] Lord Melbourne, then Prime Minister, offered him a lordship of the Admiralty, which he declined as likely to interfere with his activity as an author.[13] Bulwer was created a baronet, of Knebworth House in the County of Hertford, in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom, in 1838.[22] In 1841, he left Parliament and spent much of his time in travel.[13] He did not return to politics until 1852, when having differed from Lord John Russell over the Corn Laws, he stood for Hertfordshire as a Conservative. Bulwer-Lytton held that seat until 1866, when he was raised to the peerage as Baron Lytton of Knebworth in the County of Hertford. In 1858 he entered Lord Derby's government as Secretary of State for the Colonies, thus serving alongside his old friend Disraeli. He was comparatively inactive in the House of Lords.[13] "Just prior to his government’s defeat in 1859 the Secretary of State for the Colonies, Sir Edward Bulwer Lytton, notified Sir George Ferguson Bowen of his appointment as Governor of the new colony to be known as ‘Queen’s Land’." The draft letter was ranked #4 in the ‘Top 150: Documenting Queensland’ exhibition when it toured to venues around Queensland from February 2009 to April 2010.[23] The exhibition was part of Queensland State Archives’ events and exhibition program which contributed to the state’s Q150 celebrations, marking the 150th anniversary of the separation of Queensland from New South Wales.[24] British Columbia[edit] When news of the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush reached London, Bulwer-Lytton, as Secretary of State for the Colonies, requested that the War Office recommend a field officer, "a man of good judgement possessing a knowledge of mankind", to lead a Corps of 150 (later increased to 172) Royal Engineers, who had been selected for their "superior discipline and intelligence".[25] The War Office chose Richard Clement Moody, and Lord Lytton, who described Moody as his "distinguished friend",[26] accepted the nomination in view of Moody's military record, his success as Governor of the Falkland Islands, and the distinguished record of his father, Colonel Thomas Moody, Knight at the Colonial Office.[27] Moody was charged to establish British order and transform the newly established Colony of British Columbia (1858–66) into the British Empire's "bulwark in the farthest west"[28] and "found a second England on the shores of the Pacific."[25] Lytton desired to send to the colony "representatives of the best of British culture, not just a police force": he sought men who possessed "courtesy, high breeding and urbane knowledge of the world,"[29] and decided to send Moody, whom the Government considered to be the archetypal "English gentleman and British Officer."[30] at the head of the Royal Engineers, Columbia Detachment, to whom he wrote an impassioned letter.[26] The former HBC Fort Dallas at Camchin, the confluence of the Thompson and Fraser Rivers, was renamed in his honour by Governor Sir James Douglas in 1858 as Lytton, British Columbia.[31] Literary works[edit] Bulwer-Lytton's literary career began in 1820 with the publication of a book of poems and spanned much of the 19th century. He wrote in a variety of genres, including historical fiction, mystery, romance, the occult and science fiction. He financed his extravagant way of life with a varied and prolific literary output, sometimes publishing anonymously.[10] 1849 printing of Pelham with Hablot K. Browne (Phiz) frontispiece: Pelham's electioneering visit to the Rev. Combermere St Quintin, who is surprised at dinner with his family. Bulwer-Lytton published Falkland in 1827, a novel which was only a moderate success.[7] But Pelham brought him public acclaim in 1828 and established his reputation as a wit and dandy.[10] Its intricate plot and humorous, intimate portrayal of pre-Victorian dandyism kept gossips busy trying to associate public figures with characters in the book.[7] Pelham resembled Benjamin Disraeli's first novel Vivian Grey (1827).[10] The character of the villainous Richard Crawford in The Disowned, also published in 1828, borrowed much from that of banker and forger Henry Fauntleroy, who was hanged in London in 1824 before a crowd of some 100,000.[32] Bulwer-Lytton admired Disraeli's father Isaac D'Israeli, himself a noted author. They began corresponding in the late 1820s and met for the first time in March 1830, when Isaac D'Israeli dined at Bulwer-Lytton's house. Also present that evening were Charles Pelham Villiers and Alexander Cockburn. The young Villiers had a long parliamentary career, while Cockburn became Lord Chief Justice of England in 1859. Bulwer-Lytton reached his height of popularity with the publication of Godolphin (1833).[13] This was followed by The Pilgrims of the Rhine (1834), The Last Days of Pompeii (1834), Rienzi, Last of the Roman Tribunes about Cola di Rienzo (1835),[10] Leila; or, The Siege of Granada (1838), and Harold, the Last of the Saxons (1848).[10] The Last Days of Pompeii was inspired by Karl Briullov's painting The Last Day of Pompeii, which Bulwer-Lytton saw in Milan.[33] His New Timon lampooned Tennyson, who responded in kind.[13] Bulwer-Lytton also wrote the horror story "The Haunted and the Haunters" or "The House and the Brain" (1859). Another novel with a supernatural theme was A Strange Story (1862), which was an influence on Bram Stoker's Dracula.[34] Bulwer-Lytton wrote many other works, including Vril: The Power of the Coming Race (1871) which drew heavily on his interest in the occult and contributed to the early growth of the science fiction genre.[35] Its story of a subterranean race waiting to reclaim the surface of the Earth is an early science fiction theme. The book popularised the Hollow Earth theory and may have inspired Nazi mysticism.[36] His term "vril" lent its name to Bovril meat extract.[37] "Vril" has been adopted by theosophists and occultists since the 1870s and became closely associated with the ideas of an esoteric neo-Nazism after 1945.[38] His play Money (1840) was first produced at the Theatre Royal, Haymarket, London, on 8 December 1840. The first American production was at the Old Park Theater in New York on 1 February 1841. Subsequent productions include the Prince of Wales's Theatre's in 1872 and as the inaugural play at the new California Theatre (San Francisco) in 1869.[39] Among Bulwer-Lytton's lesser-known contributions to literature was that he convinced Charles Dickens to revise the ending of Great Expectations to make it more palatable to the reading public, as in the original version of the novel, Pip and Estella do not get together.[40] Legacy[edit] Quotations[edit] Bulwer-Lytton's most famous quotation is "The pen is mightier than the sword" from his play Richelieu: beneath the rule of men entirely great, the pen is mightier than the sword He popularized the phrase "pursuit of the almighty dollar" from his novel The Coming Race,[41] and he is credited with "the great unwashed", using this disparaging term in his 1830 novel Paul Clifford: He is certainly a man who bathes and "lives cleanly", (two especial charges preferred against him by Messrs. the Great Unwashed).[42] Theosophy[edit] The writers of theosophy were among those influenced by Bulwer-Lytton's work. Annie Besant and especially Helena Blavatsky incorporated his thoughts and ideas, particularly from The Last Days of Pompeii, Vril, the Power of the Coming Race and Zanoni in her own books.[43][44] Contest[edit] Further information: Bulwer-Lytton Fiction Contest Bulwer-Lytton's name lives on in the annual Bulwer-Lytton Fiction Contest, in which contestants think up terrible openings for imaginary novels, inspired by the first line of his 1830 novel Paul Clifford:[45] It was a dark and stormy night; the rain fell in torrents – except at occasional intervals, when it was checked by a violent gust of wind which swept up the streets (for it is in London that our scene lies), rattling along the housetops, and fiercely agitating the scanty flame of the lamps that struggled against the darkness. Entrants in the contest seek to capture the rapid changes in point of view, the florid language, and the atmosphere of the full sentence.[citation needed] The opening was popularized by the Peanuts comic strip, in which Snoopy's sessions on the typewriter usually began with It was a dark and stormy night.[46] The same words also form the first sentence of Madeleine L'Engle's Newbery Medal-winning novel A Wrinkle in Time. Similar wording appears in Edgar Allan Poe's 1831 short story, The Bargain Lost, although not at the very beginning. It reads: It was a dark and stormy night. The rain fell in cataracts; and drowsy citizens started, from dreams of the deluge, to gaze upon the boisterous sea, which foamed and bellowed for admittance into the proud towers and marble palaces. Who would have thought of passions so fierce in that calm water that slumbers all day long? At a slight alabaster stand, trembling beneath the ponderous tomes which it supported, sat the hero of our story. Operas[edit] Several of Bulwer-Lytton's novels were made into operas. One of them, Rienzi, der Letzte der Tribunen (1842) by Richard Wagner, eventually became more famous than the novel. Leonora (1846) by William Henry Fry, the first European-styled "grand" opera composed in the United States, is based on Bulwer-Lytton's play The Lady of Lyons, as is Frederic Cowen's first opera Pauline (1876). Verdi rival Errico Petrella's most successful opera, Jone (1858), was based upon Bulwer-Lytton's The Last Days of Pompeii, and was performed all over the world until the First World War. Harold, the Last of the Saxons (1848) was the source for Verdi's opera Aroldo in 1857. Magazines[edit] In addition to his political and literary work, Bulwer-Lytton became the editor of the New Monthly in 1831, but he resigned the following year. In 1841, he started the Monthly Chronicle, a semi-scientific magazine. During his career he wrote poetry, prose, and stage plays; his last novel was Kenelm Chillingly, which was in course of publication in Blackwood’s Magazine at the time of his death in 1873.[13] Translations[edit] Bulwer-Lytton's works of fiction and non-fiction were translated in his day and since then into many languages, including Serbian (by Laza Kostic), German, Russian, Norwegian, Swedish, French, Finnish, and Spanish. In 1879, his Ernest Maltravers was the first complete novel from the West to be translated into Japanese.[47] Place names[edit] In Brisbane, Queensland, Australia, the suburb of Lytton, the town of Bulwer on Moreton Island (Moorgumpin) and the neighbourhood (former island) of Bulwer Island are named after him.[48][49][50] The township of Lytton, Quebec (today part of Montcerf-Lytton) was named after him[51] as was Lytton, British Columbia, and Lytton, Iowa. Lytton Road in Gisborne, New Zealand was named after the novelist. Later a state secondary school, Lytton High School, was founded in the road.[52] Portrayal on television[edit] Bulwer-Lytton was portrayed by the actor Brett Usher in the 1978 television serial Disraeli. Works by Bulwer-Lytton[edit] Novels[edit] Falkland (1827)[10] Pelham: or The Adventures of a Gentleman (1828)[10] Available online The Disowned (1829) Devereux (1829) Paul Clifford (1830) Available online Eugene Aram (1832) Available online Godolphin (1833) Asmodeus at Large (1833) The Last Days of Pompeii (1834) Available online The Pilgrims of the Rhine (1834) Rienzi, the last of the Roman tribunes (1835)[10] Available online The Student (1835) Calderon, the Courtier (1838) Leila; or, The Siege of Granada (1838) Available online Zicci: a Tale (1838) Available online Night and Morning (1841) Available online Zanoni (1842) Available online The Last of the Barons (1843) Available online Lucretia (1846) Available online Harold, the Last of the Saxons (1848)[10] Available online The Caxtons: A Family Picture (1849)[10] Available online A Strange Story (1850) Available online My Novel, or Varieties in English Life (1853)[10] The Haunted and the Haunters or The House and the Brain (novelette, 1859) Available online What Will He Do With It? (1858)[10] A Strange Story (1862) The Coming Race (1871), republished as Vril: The Power of the Coming Race Available online Kenelm Chillingly (1873) The Parisians (1873)[10] Pausanias, the Spartan – Unfinished (1873) Series[edit] Ernest Maltravers (1837) Alice, or The Mysteries (1838) A sequel to Ernest Maltravers Available online Verse[edit] Ismael (1820)[10] The New Timon (1846), an attack on Tennyson published anonymously[10] King Arthur (1848–1849)[10] Plays[edit] The Duchess de la Vallière (1837) The Lady of Lyons (1838)[53] Richelieu (1839), adapted for the 1935 film Cardinal Richelieu Money (1840) Not So Bad as We Seem, or, Many Sides to a Character: A Comedy in Five Acts (1851) The Rightful Heir (1868), based on The Sea Captain, an earlier play of Lytton's Walpole, or Every Man Has His Price Darnley (unfinished) See also[edit] Bulwer-Lytton and Theosophy Lytton, Queensland References[edit] ^ a b Brown, Andrew (23 September 2004). "Lytton, Edward George Earle Lytton Bulwer [formerly Edward George Earle Lytton Bulwer], first Baron Lytton". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/17314. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) ^ "No. 23137". The London Gazette. 13 July 1866. p. 3984. ^ McCrum, Robert (17 May 2012). "Dickens, Browning and Lear: what's in a reputation?". Archived from the original on 29 March 2018. Retrieved 28 March 2018 – via www.theguardian.com. ^ Christopher John Murray (2013). Encyclopedia of the Romantic Era, 1760–1850. Routledge. pp. 139–. ISBN 978-1135455798. ^ Nevins, Jess. "An Appreciation of Lord Bulwer-Lytton". io9. Archived from the original on 13 February 2019. Retrieved 13 March 2019. ^ [1]. ^ a b c d e f Waugh 1911, p. 185. ^ "Bulwer [post Bulwer-Lytton], Edward George [Earle] Lytton (BLWR821EG)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge. ^ [2] Archived 30 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine History of Parliament Online article. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v Drabble, Margaret (2000). The Oxford Companion to English Literature (sixth ed.). Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. p. 147. ISBN 0198662440. ^ Lady Lytton (1880). A Blighted Life. London: The London Publishing Office. Archived from the original on 26 February 2010. Retrieved 28 November 2009. (Online text at wikisource.org) ^ Devey, Louisa (1887). Life of Rosina, Lady Lytton, with Numerous Extracts from her Ms. Autobiography and Other Original Documents, published in vindication of her memory. London: Swan Sonnenschein, Lowrey & Co. Archived from the original on 28 June 2011. Retrieved 28 November 2009. Full text at Internet Archive (archive.org) ^ a b c d e f g h Waugh 1911, p. 186. ^ a b c Lord Lytton (1875). "Confessions of a Water-Patient". in Pamphlets and Sketches (Knebworth ed.). London: George Routledge and Sons. pp. 49–75. Archived from the original on 24 March 2012. Retrieved 28 November 2009. Full text at Internet Archive (archive.org) ^ a b Bulwer (April 1863). "Bulwer's Letter on Water-Cure". In R. T. Trall (ed.). The Herald of Health, and The Water-cure journal (see title page of January edition, p. 5). 35–36. New York: R. T. Trall & Co. pp. 149–154 (see p. 151). Archived from the original on 19 November 2018. Retrieved 26 November 2009. ^ "Mrs. Bulwer-Lytton's Room", Knebworth House Antique Photographs, archived from the original on 13 July 2011, retrieved 28 November 2009 ^ Stoneman, Richard; Erickson, Kyle; Netton, Ian Richard (2012). The Alexander Romance in Persia and the East. Barkhuis. ISBN 978-9491431043 – via Google Books. ^ R. A. Gilbert, "The Supposed Rosy Crucian Society", in Caron et al., eds., Ésotérisme, Gnoses et Imaginaire Symbolique, Leuven: Peeters, 2001, p. 399. ^ a b c Mitchell, Leslie George (2003). Bulwer Lytton: The Rise and Fall of a Victorian Man of Letters. London; New York: Hambledon Continuum. ISBN 1852854235. ^ pixeltocode.uk, PixelToCode. "Famous people / organisations". Westminster Abbey. Archived from the original on 7 January 2008. Retrieved 29 August 2008. ^ Lord Lytton (1875). "The Present Crisis. A Letter to a Late Cabinet Minister". Pamphlets and Sketches (Knebworth ed.). London: George Routledge and Sons. pp. 9–48. Archived from the original on 24 March 2012. Retrieved 28 November 2009. Full text at Internet Archive (archive.org). ^ "No. 19631". The London Gazette. 3 July 1838. p. 1488. ^ corporateName=Queensland State Archives (5 April 2015). "Number 4 - Draft letter from Sir Edward Bulwer Lytton, Secretary of State for the Colonies to Governor Bowen". Number 4 - Draft letter from Sir Edward Bulwer Lytton, Secretary of State for the Colonies to Governor Bowen. Archived from the original on 5 April 2015. Retrieved 6 August 2020 – via National Library of Australia. ^ Queensland State Archives (2014), Annual report, Queensland State Archives, retrieved 6 August 2020 ^ a b Jean Barman, The West Beyond the West: A History of British Columbia, (Toronto: University of Toronto), p. 71. ^ a b Drummond, Sir Henry (1908). "XXIII". Rambling Recollections, Vol. 1. Macmillan and Co., London. p. 272. ^ "Entry for Richard Clement Moody in Dictionary of Canadian Biography". 2002. Archived from the original on 11 October 2012. Retrieved 11 March 2018. ^ Donald J. Hauka, McGowan's War, Vancouver: 2003, New Star Books, p. 146. ^ Scott, Laura Elaine (1983). The Imposition of British Culture as Portrayed in the New Westminster Capital Plan of 1859 to 1862. Simon Fraser University. p. 13. ^ Scott, Laura Elaine (1983). The Imposition of British Culture as Portrayed in the New Westminster Capital Plan of 1859 to 1862. Simon Fraser University. p. 19. . ^ The Canadian Press (17 August 2008). "Toff and prof to duke it out in literary slugfest". CBC News. Archived from the original on 16 January 2009. Retrieved 18 August 2008. ^ Richard Davenport-Hines, "Fauntleroy, Henry (1784–1824)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford, UK: OUP, 2004 Retrieved 12 October 2017. ^ Harris, Judith (2007). Pompeii Awakened: A Story of Rediscovery. I.B. Tauris. p. 166. ISBN 978-1845112417. ^ Bulwer-Lytton, Edward (2007). The Coming Race. Wesleyan University Press. ISBN 978-0819567352 – via Google Books. ^ Nevins, Jess. "May Day, 1871: The Day "Science Fiction" Was Invented". io9. ^ Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke (2004) [1985]. The Occult Roots Of Nazism. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 1860649734. ^ "Bovril". Unilever.co.uk. Archived from the original on 11 April 2012. Retrieved 10 April 2012. ^ Julian Strube. Vril. Eine okkulte Urkraft in Theosophie und esoterischem Neonazismus. München/Paderborn: Wilhelm Fink 2013. ^ Don B. Wilmeth 2007) The Cambridge Guide to American Theatre ^ John Forster's biography of Dickens ^ Edward Bulwer Lytton Baron Lytton, The Coming Race (London, England: William Blackwood and Sons, 1871), page 2 Archived 27 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Edward Bulwer Lytton Baron Lytton; Eric Robinson (1838). Paul Clifford. Baudry's European Library. p. x, footnote. Archived from the original on 8 May 2017. Retrieved 7 June 2016. ^ Edward Bulwer-Lytton, The Coming Race, Introduction by David Seed, Wesleyan University Press, 2007, p. xlii Archived 8 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Brian Stableford, The A to Z of Fantasy Literature, Scarecrow Press, 2009, "Blavatsky, Madame (1831–1991)". ^ Edward Bulwer Lytton, Paul Clifford (Paris, France: Baudry's European Library, 1838), page 1 Archived 27 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine. ^ "It Was a Dark and Stormy Night". Television Tropes & Idioms. Archived from the original on 8 November 2012. Retrieved 24 October 2012. ^ Keene, Donald (1984). Dawn to the West: Japanese Literature of the Modern Era. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. p. 62. ISBN 0030628148. ^ "Lytton (entry 43599)". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 2 September 2015. ^ "Bulwer - town in City of Brisbane (entry 5168)". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 28 December 2017. ^ "Bulwer Island - neighbourhood in the City of Brisbane (entry 5169)". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 27 October 2020. ^ "Lytton". Banque de noms de lieux du Québec (in French). Commission de toponymie du Québec. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 16 May 2012. ^ Meade, Geoffrey Thomas (1986). History of the school, 1961-1985: Lytton High School. Thomas Adams Printing. p. 3. ^ Lytton, Edward Bulwer Lytton (1 January 2001). "The Lady of Lyons; Or, Love and Pride". Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 2 October 2014 – via Project Gutenberg. Further reading[edit] Christensen, Allan Conrad (1976). Edward Bulwer-Lytton: The Fiction of New Regions. Athens, Georgia: The University of Georgia Press. ISBN 0820303879. Christensen, Allan Conrad, ed. (1976). The Subverting Vision of Bulwer Lytton: Bicentenary Reflections. Newark: The University of Delaware Press. ISBN 0874138566. Escott, T. H. S. (1910). Edward Bulwer, First Baron Lytton of Knebworth; a Social, Personal, and Political Monograph. London: George Routledge & Sons. Mitchell, L. G (2003). Bulwer Lytton: The Rise and Fall of a Victorian Man of Letters. London & New York: Hambledon and London. ISBN 1852854235. (Distributed in the United States and Canada by Palgrave Macmillan)  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Waugh, Arthur (1911). "Bulwer-Lytton, Edward". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 17 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 185–186. Whittington-Egan, Molly (2013). Arthur O'Shaughnessy: Music Maker Bluecoat Press[ISBN missing] External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Edward Bulwer-Lytton. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Edward Bulwer-Lytton Wikisource has original works written by or about: Edward Bulwer-Lytton Bulwer-Lytton ebooks Works by Edward Bulwer-Lytton at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Edward Bulwer-Lytton at Internet Archive Works by Edward Bulwer-Lytton at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Other links Hansard 1803–2005: contributions in Parliament by Lord Lytton Edward George Earl Bulwer-Lytton (1803–73) John S. Moore's essay on Bulwer-Lytton Edward Bulwer-Lytton biography and works Complete Works of Edward Bulwer-Lytton (Delphi Classics) Parliament of the United Kingdom Preceded by William Pole-Tylney-Long-Wellesley James Morrison Member of Parliament for St Ives 1831–1832 With: James Halse Succeeded by James Halse Preceded by Charles Sibthorp George Heneage Member of Parliament for Lincoln 1832–1841 With: George Heneage to 1835 Charles Sibthorp from 1835 Succeeded by Charles Sibthorp William Rickford Collett Preceded by Thomas Plumer Halsey Sir Henry Meux, Bt Hon. Thomas Brand Member of Parliament for Hertfordshire 1852 – 1866 With: Thomas Plumer Halsey to 1854 Sir Henry Meux, Bt 1847–59 Abel Smith 1854–57 Christopher William Puller 1857–64 Abel Smith 1859–65 Henry Surtees from 1864 Henry Cowper from 1865 Succeeded by Henry Surtees Henry Cowper Abel Smith Political offices Preceded by Lord Stanley Secretary of State for the Colonies 1858–1859 Succeeded by The Duke of Newcastle Academic offices Preceded by The Duke of Argyll Rector of the University of Glasgow 1856–1859 Succeeded by The Earl of Elgin Peerage of the United Kingdom New creation Baron Lytton 1866–1873 Succeeded by Robert Bulwer-Lytton Baronetage of the United Kingdom New creation Baronet (of Knebworth) 1838–1873 Succeeded by Robert Bulwer-Lytton v t e Edward Bulwer-Lytton Plays The Lady of Lyons (1838) Richelieu (1839) Money (1840) Not So Bad as We Seem, or, Many Sides to a Character (1851) Novels Paul Clifford (1830) Eugene Aram (1832) Godolphin (1833) The Last Days of Pompeii (1834) Leila; or, The Siege of Granada (1838) Zanoni (1842) The Last of the Barons (1843) The Caxtons (1849) Vril (1871) Places Heydon Hall Knebworth House People John Auldjo Henry Bulwer (brother) Elizabeth Bulwer-Lytton (mother) Rosina Bulwer Lytton (wife) Robert Bulwer-Lytton (son) Isaac D'Israeli Related topics A Blighted Life Bulwer-Lytton Fiction Contest "Dweller on the threshold" "It was a dark and stormy night" "The pen is mightier than the sword" "The almighty dollar" Authority control BIBSYS: 90107108 BNE: XX987329 BNF: cb11913705f (data) CANTIC: a10385885 CiNii: DA00474435 GND: 11866493X ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\019445 ISNI: 0000 0001 2145 0076 LCCN: n79032869 LNB: 000049597 MBA: e5883088-c7f7-4cb8-8fc0-3b20dc784a9a NDL: 00448302 NKC: jn19992000110 NLA: 36575258 NLG: 180656 NLI: 000086768 NLK: KAC200307056 NSK: 000126987 NTA: 068753128 RERO: 02-A000107835 RSL: 000029563 SELIBR: 179660 SNAC: w6028s02 SUDOC: 026999005 Trove: 1300958 ULAN: 500292901 VcBA: 495/47265 VIAF: 99871326 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en-wikipedia-org-3384	----	Battle of Philippi - Wikipedia Battle of Philippi From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Battle of the Roman civil war For the American Civil War battle, see Battle of Philippi (1861). This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (June 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Battle of Philippi Part of Liberators' civil war Location of Philippi Date 3 and 23 October 42 BC Location Philippi, Macedonia (modern Greece) Result Decisive Second Triumvirate victory; end of the Liberators' civil war Territorial changes Eastern provinces of Roman Republic given to Mark Antony, Parthia end their support for the Liberators Belligerents Second Triumvirate Supported by Ptolemaic Egypt (sent ships but too late to aid in the fighting)[1][2] Liberators Supported by: Parthian Empire (cavalry force)[3] Commanders and leaders Mark Antony Octavian Brutus  Cassius  Allienus (unknown) Serapion (retreats to Tyre) Strength 53,000–108,000[4] 40,000–95,000 infantry in 19 legions[4] 13,000 cavalry[4] 60,000–105,000[4] 40,000–85,000 infantry in 17 legions[4] 20,000 cavalry[4] Casualties and losses 16,000 killed (3 October) 8,000 killed (3 October) Surrender of entire army (23 October) Movements of armies in the Battle of Philippi The Battle of Philippi was the final battle in the Wars of the Second Triumvirate between the forces of Mark Antony and Octavian (of the Second Triumvirate) and the leaders of Julius Caesar's assassination, Brutus and Cassius in 42 BC, at Philippi in Macedonia. The Second Triumvirate declared the civil war ostensibly to avenge Julius Caesar's assassination in 44 BC, but the underlying cause was a long-brewing conflict between the so-called Optimates and the so-called Populares. The battle, involving up to 200,000 men in one of the largest of the Roman civil wars, consisted of two engagements in the plain west of the ancient city of Philippi. The first occurred in the first week of October; Brutus faced Octavian, and Antony's forces fought those of Cassius. The Roman armies fought poorly, with low discipline, nonexistent tactical co-ordination and amateurish lack of command experience evident in abundance with neither side able to exploit opportunities as they developed.[5][6] At first, Brutus pushed back Octavian and entered his legions' camp. However, to the south, Cassius was defeated by Antony and committed suicide after hearing a false report that Brutus had also failed. Brutus rallied Cassius's remaining troops, and both sides ordered their army to retreat to their camps with their spoils. The battle was essentially a draw but for Cassius's suicide. A second encounter, on 23 October, finished off Brutus's forces after a hard-fought battle. He committed suicide in turn, leaving the triumvirate in control of the Roman Republic. Contents 1 Prelude 2 Forces 2.1 Antony and Octavian 2.2 The liberators 3 First battle 4 Second battle 5 Aftermath 6 Quotes 7 Popular culture 8 Citations 9 See also 10 References 10.1 Primary sources 11 External links Prelude[edit] After the assassination of Caesar, the two main conspirators, Brutus and Cassius, also known as the Liberators and leaders of the Republicans had left Italy. They took control of all the eastern provinces from Greece to Syria and of the allied eastern kingdoms. In Rome the three main Caesarian leaders (Antony, Octavian and Lepidus), who controlled almost all the Roman army in the west, had crushed the opposition of the senate and established the second triumvirate. One of their first tasks was to destroy the Liberators' forces, not only to get full control of the Roman world, but also to avenge Caesar's death. The triumvirs decided that Lepidus would remain in Italy, while the two main partners of the triumvirate, Antony and Octavian, moved to northern Greece with their best troops, a total of 28 legions. They were able to ferry their army across the Adriatic and sent out a scouting force of eight legions, commanded by Norbanus and Saxa, along the Via Egnatia, with the aim of searching for the Liberators' army. Norbanus and Saxa passed the town of Philippi in eastern Macedonia and took a strong defensive position at a narrow mountain pass. Antony was following, while Octavian was delayed at Dyrrachium because of his ill-health (which would accompany him throughout the Philippi campaign). Although Antony and Octavian had been able to cross the sea with their main force, further communications with Italy were made difficult by the arrival of the Republican admiral Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, with a large fleet of 130 ships. The Liberators did not wish to engage in a decisive battle, but rather to attain a good defensive position and then use their naval superiority to block the triumvirs' communications with their supply base in Italy. They had spent the previous months plundering Greek cities to swell their war-chest. They gathered in Thrace with the Roman legions from the eastern provinces and levies from allies. With their superior forces they were able to outflank Norbanus and Saxa, who had to abandon their defensive position and retreat west of Philippi. This meant that Brutus and Cassius could position their forces to hold the high ground along both sides of the Via Egnatia, about 3.5 kilometres (2.2 mi) west of the city of Philippi. The southern position was anchored on a supposedly impassable marsh, while on the north on impassable hills. They had time to fortify their position with a rampart and ditch. Brutus positioned his camp to the north while Cassius was on the south of the via Egnatia. Antony arrived and positioned his army south of the via Egnatia, while Octavian put his legions north of the road. Forces[edit] Antony and Octavian[edit] The Triumvirs' army present for the battle included nineteen legions.[4] The sources specify the name of only one legion, IV legion, but other legions present included the III, VI, VII, VIII, X Equestris, XII, XXVI, XXVIII, XXIX, and XXX, since their veterans participated in the land settlements after the battle. Appian reports that the triumvirs' legions were almost at full complement.[4] Furthermore, they had a large allied cavalry force of 13,000 horsemen.[4] The liberators[edit] The Liberators' army had seventeen legions; eight with Brutus and nine with Cassius, while two other legions were with the fleet. Only two of the legions were at full strength, but the army was reinforced by levies from the eastern allied kingdoms. Appian reports that the army mustered a total of about 80,000 foot-soldiers. Allied cavalry totaled 20,000 horsemen, including 5,000 bowmen mounted in the Eastern fashion.[4] This army included the old Caesarean legions present in the east, probably including XXVII, XXXVI, XXXVII, XXXI and XXXIII legions; so most of these legionaries were Caesarean veterans. However, at least the XXXVI legion consisted of old Pompeian veterans, enrolled in Caesar's army after the Battle of Pharsalus. The loyalty of the soldiers who were supposed to fight against Caesar's heir was a delicate issue for the Liberators. It is important to emphasize that the name "Octavian" was never used by contemporaries: he was simply known as Gaius Iulius Caesar. Cassius tried to reinforce the soldiers' loyalty both with strong speeches ("Let it give no one any concern that he has been one of Caesar's soldiers. We were not his soldiers then, but our country's") and with a gift of 1,500 denarii for each legionary and 7,500 for each centurion.[dubious – discuss] Although ancient sources do not report the total numbers of men of the two armies, it seems that they had a similar strength. Adrian Goldsworthy suggests that at full strength the 19 Triumvir legions may have amounted to 95,000 men and the 17 Liberators' legions to 85,000.[4] Most likely each side had only 40,000–50,000 legionaries.[7] As the campaign lasted for months, it is unlikely that either side could have sustained the logistics to keep so many men, horses and baggage animals fed if both sides had had 100,000 or so troops.[4] First battle[edit] Antony offered battle several times, but the Liberators were not lured into leaving their defensive position.[8] Antony tried to secretly outflank the Liberators' position through the marshes in the south.[8] With great effort he was able to cut a passage through the marshes, throwing up a causeway over them.[8] This manoeuvre was finally noticed by Cassius, who countered by moving part of his army south into the marshes and constructing a transverse wall in a bid to cut off Antony's outstretched right wing.[8] This brought about a general battle on 3 October 42 BC. First Battle of Philippi Antony ordered a charge against Cassius, aiming at the fortifications between Cassius's camp and the marshes.[5] At the same time, Brutus's soldiers, provoked by the triumvirs' army, rushed against Octavian's army, without waiting for the order of attack, which was to be given with the watchword "Liberty".[5] This surprise assault had complete success: Octavian's troops were put to flight and pursued up to their camp, which was captured by Brutus's men, led by Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus.[9] Three of Octavian's legions had their standards taken, a clear sign of a rout.[9] Octavian was not found in his tent: his couch was pierced and cut to pieces.[9] Most ancient historians say that he had been warned in a dream to beware of that day, as he wrote in his memoirs. Pliny bluntly reports that Octavian went into hiding in the marsh.[9] Brutus and his companions after the Battle of Philippi However, on the other side of the Via Egnatia, Antony was able to storm Cassius' fortifications, demolishing the palisade and filling up the ditch.[5] Then he easily took Cassius's camp, which was defended by only a few men.[5] It seems that part of Cassius's army had advanced south: when these men tried to come back they were easily repulsed by Antony.[5] Apparently the battle had ended in a draw. Cassius had lost 8,000 men, while Octavian had about 16,000 casualties. The battlefield was very large and clouds of dust made it impossible to make a clear assessment of the outcome of the battle, so both wings were ignorant of each other's fate. Cassius moved to the top of a hill, but could not see what was happening on Brutus's side. Believing that he had suffered a crushing defeat he ordered his freedman Pindarus to kill him.[9] Brutus mourned over Cassius's body, calling him "the last of the Romans". He avoided a public funeral, fearing its negative effects on the army morale. Other sources credit the avarice of Brutus' troops as the factor that undid their definitive victory on October 3. Premature looting and gathering of treasure by Brutus's advancing forces allowed Octavian's troops to re-form their line. In Octavian's future reign as Emperor, a common battle cry became "Complete the battle once begun!" Second battle[edit] On the same day as the first battle, the Republican fleet was able to intercept and destroy the triumvirs' reinforcements of two legions and other troops and supplies led by Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus. The strategic position of Antony and Octavian became perilous, since the already depleted regions of Macedonia and Thessaly were unable to supply their army for long, while Brutus could easily receive supplies from the sea. The triumvirs had to send a legion south to Achaia to collect more supplies. The morale of the troops was boosted by the promise of a further 5,000 denarii for each soldier and 25,000 for each centurion. On the other side, the Liberators' army was left without its best strategic mind. Brutus had less military experience than Cassius and, even worse, he could not command the same respect from his allies and his soldiers, although after the battle he offered another gift of 1,000 denarii for each soldier. In the next three weeks, Antony was able to slowly advance his forces south of Brutus's army, fortifying a hill close to Cassius's former camp, which had been left unguarded by Brutus. Second Battle of Philippi To avoid being outflanked Brutus was compelled to extend his line to the south and then the east, parallel to the Via Egnatia, building several fortified posts. While still holding the high ground he wanted to keep to the original plan of avoiding an open engagement and waiting for his naval superiority to wear out the enemy. The traditional understanding is that Brutus, against his better judgment, subsequently abandoned this strategy because his officers and soldiers were tired of the delaying tactics and demanded he offer another open battle. Brutus and his officers may have feared that their soldiers would desert to the enemy if they appeared to have lost the initiative. Plutarch also reports that Brutus had not received news of Domitius Calvinus' defeat in the Ionian Sea. When some of the eastern allies and mercenaries started deserting, Brutus was forced to attack on the afternoon of October 23. As he said, "I seem to carry on war like Pompey the Great, not so much commanding as commanded." However, the reality is that Brutus had no option but to fight, because his entire position was now in danger of being isolated and rendered untenable. If the triumvirs were allowed to continue stretching their lines unimpeded to the east they would ultimately cut off his supply route to Neapolis and pin him against the mountains. If that happened, the tables would be turned; Brutus would either be starved into submission or be forced to retreat by taking his entire army via the hazardous northern trail that had brought him to Philippi. The battle which ensued resulted in close combat between two armies of well-trained veterans. Ranged weapons such as arrows or javelins were largely ignored; instead, the soldiers packed into solid ranks and fought face-to-face with their swords, and the slaughter was terrible. According to Cassius Dio, the two sides had little need for missile weapons, "for they did not resort to the usual manoeuvres and tactics of battles" but immediately advanced to close combat, "seeking to break each other's ranks". In the account of Plutarch, Brutus had the better of the fight at the western end of his line and pressed hard on the triumvirs' left wing, which gave way and retreated, being harassed by the Republican cavalry, which sought to exploit the advantage when it saw the enemy in disorder. But the eastern flank of Brutus's line had inferior numbers because it had been extended to avoid being outflanked. This meant Brutus's legions had been drawn out too thin in the center, and were so weak here they could not withstand the triumvirs' initial charge. Having broken through, the triumvirs swung to their left to take Brutus in his flank and rear. Appian speaks of the triumvirs' legions having "pushed back the enemy's line as though they were turning round a very heavy machine."[6] Brutus's legions were driven back step-by-step, slowly at first, but as their ranks crumbled under the pressure they began to give ground more rapidly.[6] The second and third reserve lines in the rear failed to keep pace with the retreat and all three lines became entangled. Octavian's soldiers were able to capture the gates of Brutus's camp before the routing army could reach this defensive position. Brutus's army could not reform, which made the triumvirs' victory complete. Brutus was able to retreat into the nearby hills with the equivalent of only four legions.[6] Seeing that surrender and capture were inevitable, Brutus committed suicide.[6] The total casualties for the second battle of Philippi were not reported, but the close quarters fighting likely resulted in heavy losses for both sides. Aftermath[edit] Plutarch reports that Antony covered Brutus's body with a purple garment as a sign of respect.[6] Although they had not been close friends, he remembered that Brutus had stipulated, as a condition for his joining the plot to assassinate Caesar, that the life of Antony be spared. Many other young Roman aristocrats lost their lives in the battle or committed suicide after the defeat, including the son of great orator Hortensius, and Marcus Porcius Cato, the son of Cato the Younger, and Marcus Livius Drusus Claudianus, the father of Livia, who became Octavian's wife.[6] Some of the nobles who were able to escape negotiated their surrender to Antony and entered his service. Among them were Lucius Calpurnius Bibulus and Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus. Apparently the nobles did not want to deal with the young and merciless Octavian. The remains of the Liberators' army were rounded up, and roughly 14,000 men were enrolled into the Triumvirs' army.[6] Old veterans were discharged back to Italy, but some of the veterans remained in the town of Philippi, which became a Roman colony, Colonia Victrix Philippensium. Antony remained in the East, while Octavian returned to Italy, with the difficult task of finding enough land on which to settle a large number of veterans. Although Sextus Pompey was controlling Sicily and Domitius Ahenobarbus still commanded the Republican fleet, the Republican resistance had been definitively crushed at Philippi.[6] The Battle of Philippi marked the highest point of Antony's career: at that time he was the most famous Roman general and the senior partner of the Second Triumvirate.[6] Quotes[edit] Plutarch famously reported that Brutus experienced a vision of a ghost a few months before the battle. One night he saw a huge and shadowy form appearing in front of him; when he calmly asked, "What and whence art thou?" it answered "Thy evil spirit, Brutus: I shall see thee at Philippi." He again met the ghost the night before the battle. This episode is one of the most famous in Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar. Plutarch also reports the last words of Brutus, quoted by a Greek tragedy "O wretched Virtue, thou wert but a name, and yet I worshipped thee as real indeed; but now, it seems, thou were but fortune's slave." Augustus's own version of the Battle of Philippi was: "I sent into exile the murderers of my father, punishing their crimes with lawful tribunals, and afterwards, when they made war upon the Republic, I twice defeated them in battle." Qui parentem meum [interfecer]un[t eo]s in exilium expuli iudiciis legitimis ultus eorum [fa]cin[us, e]t postea bellum inferentis rei publicae vici b[is a]cie. Res Gestae 2. Popular culture[edit] The battle figures in Shakespeare's Julius Caesar (background of the story in Acts 4 and 5), in which the two battles are merged into a single day's events. After Cassius' death Brutus says "Tis three o'clock, and, Romans, yet ere night / We shall try fortune in a second fight." Otherwise the information is mostly accurate. A fictionalised account of the battle is depicted in the sixth episode of the second season of the HBO television series Rome. There is but a single battle and both Cassius and Brutus fall in battle instead of being suicides, though Brutus's death is a lone, suicidal attack on the triumvirate's' advancing forces. Citations[edit] ^ Roller (2010), p. 75. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFRoller2010 (help) ^ Burstein (2004), pp. 22–23. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFBurstein2004 (help) ^ Bivar, H.D.H (1968). William Bayne Fisher; Ilya Gershevitch; Ehsan Yarshater; R. N. Frye; J. A. Boyle; Peter Jackson; Laurence Lockhart; Peter Avery; Gavin Hambly; Charles Melville (eds.). The Cambridge History of Iran. Cambridge University Press. p. 57. ISBN 0-521-20092-X. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Goldsworthy 2010, p. 252. ^ a b c d e f Goldsworthy 2010, p. 257. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Goldsworthy 2010, p. 259. ^ Goldsworthy 2010, p. 253. ^ a b c d Goldsworthy 2010, p. 255. ^ a b c d e Goldsworthy 2010, p. 258. See also[edit] Pompeian–Parthian invasion of 40 BC References[edit] Goldsworthy, Adrian (2010). Antony and Cleopatra. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 978 0 297 86104 1.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Thomas Harbottle, Dictionary of Battles. New York 1906 Ronald Syme. The Roman revolution. Oxford 1939 Lawrence Keppie. The making of the Roman army. New York 1984 Sheppard, Si (2008). Philippi 42 BC: The death of the Roman Republic. Oxford: Osprey Publishing (published 2008-08-10). ISBN 978-1-84603-265-3.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Primary sources[edit] Appian: Roman Civil Wars Plutarch: The Life of Brutus Suetonius: The Life of Augustus Velleius Paterculus: Roman History Augustus: Res Gestae External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Battle of Philippi. Philippi[permanent dead link] from the Greek Ministry of Culture Map of the First Battle of Philippi and Map of the Second Battle of Philippi at Livius.org v t e Julius Caesar Major life events Early life and career First Triumvirate Lucca Conference Gallic Wars Caesar's Civil War Crossing the Rubicon Constitutional reforms Dictator perpetuo Assassination Military campaigns Gallic Wars Arar Bibracte Vosges Axona Sabis Atuatuci Octodurus Invasions of Britain Ambiorix's revolt Avaricum Gergovia Alesia Uxellodunum Civil War Corfinium Brundisium Ilerda Dyrrhachium Gomphi Pharsalus Nile Alexandria Zela Ruspina Thapsus Munda Planned invasion of the Parthian Empire Works Laudatio Iuliae amitae Anticato Commentarii de Bello Civili Commentarii de Bello Gallico De analogia Poems by Julius Caesar Portraits Green Caesar Tusculum portrait Arles bust Buildings Forum of Caesar Curia Julia Basilica Julia Temple of Venus Genetrix Caesar's Rhine bridges Quotes Alea iacta est Veni, vidi, vici Ut est rerum omnium magister usus last words Family Wives Cossutia (disputed) Cornelia Pompeia Calpurnia Children Julia Caesarion Augustus (adopted) Other Gaius Julius Caesar (father) Aurelia (mother) Julia Major (sister) Julia Minor (sister) Legacy Cultural depictions of Julius Caesar Temple of Caesar Caesar's Comet Caesarism Julio-Claudian dynasty Related Julia gens Mark Antony Cleopatra Servilia Marcus Junius Brutus Category Authority control LCCN: sh2008009949 NKC: ph553781 Coordinates: 41°00′47″N 24°17′11″E / 41.0131°N 24.2864°E / 41.0131; 24.2864 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Philippi&oldid=995808919" Categories: 42 BC 40s BC conflicts Battles involving the Roman Republic Roman civil wars Macedonia (Roman province) Ancient Philippi 1st-century BC battles Marcus Junius Brutus Battles involving the Parthian Empire Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles lacking in-text citations from June 2018 All articles lacking in-text citations All accuracy disputes Articles with disputed statements from December 2015 CS1 maint: ref=harv Commons category link is on Wikidata All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with permanently dead external links Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Coordinates on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 23 December 2020, at 00:28 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3375	----	Frankfurt - Wikipedia Frankfurt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the city in Hesse. For the town in Brandenburg, see Frankfurt (Oder). For other uses, see Frankfurt (disambiguation). Largest city in Hesse, Germany Place in Hesse, Germany Frankfurt am Main Clockwise from top: Frankfurt's skyline, European Central Bank, Romans' Hill with Old St Nicholas Church at night, Romans' Hill, Chicken Market in the New Old Town, Old Opera Flag Coat of arms Location of Frankfurt am Main within Hesse Frankfurt am Main Show map of Germany Frankfurt am Main Show map of Hesse Coordinates: 50°7′N 8°41′E / 50.117°N 8.683°E / 50.117; 8.683Coordinates: 50°7′N 8°41′E / 50.117°N 8.683°E / 50.117; 8.683 Country Germany State Hesse Admin. region Darmstadt District Urban district Founded 1st century Subdivisions 16 area districts (Ortsbezirke) 46 city districts (Stadtteile) Government  • Lord Mayor Peter Feldmann (SPD)  • Governing parties CDU / SPD / Greens Area  • City 248.31 km2 (95.87 sq mi) Elevation 112 m (367 ft) Population (2019-12-31)[3]  • City 763,380  • Density 3,100/km2 (8,000/sq mi)  • Urban 2,319,029[2]  • Metro 5,604,523[1] Time zone UTC+01:00 (CET)  • Summer (DST) UTC+02:00 (CEST) Postal codes 60306–60599, 65929–65936 Dialling codes 069, 06101, 06109 Vehicle registration F Website www.frankfurt.de Frankfurt, officially Frankfurt am Main (German: [ˈfʁaŋkfʊʁt ʔam ˈmaɪn] (listen); Hessian: Frangford am Maa, lit. "Frank ford on the[a] Main"), is the most populous city in the German state of Hesse. Its 763,380 inhabitants as of December 31, 2019 make it the fifth-most populous city in Germany. On the River Main (a tributary of the Rhine), it forms a continuous conurbation with the neighbouring city of Offenbach am Main and its urban area has a population of 2.3 million.[2][4] The city is at the centre of the larger Rhine-Main Metropolitan Region, which has a population of 5.5 million[1] and is Germany's second-largest metropolitan region after the Rhine-Ruhr Region. Frankfurt's central business district lies about 90 km (56 mi) northwest of the geographic centre of the EU at Gadheim, Lower Franconia. Like France and Franconia, the city is named after the Franks. Frankfurt is the largest city in the Rhine Franconian dialect area. Frankfurt was a city state, the Free City of Frankfurt, for nearly five centuries, and was one of the most important cities of the Holy Roman Empire, as a site of imperial coronations; it lost its sovereignty upon the collapse of the empire in 1806, regained it in 1815 and then lost it again in 1866, when it was annexed (though neutral) by the Kingdom of Prussia. It has been part of the state of Hesse since 1945. Frankfurt is culturally, ethnically and religiously diverse, with half of its population, and a majority of its young people, having a migrant background. A quarter of the population consists of foreign nationals, including many expatriates. Frankfurt is a global hub for commerce, culture, education, tourism and transportation, and rated as an "alpha world city" according to GaWC. It is the site of many global and European corporate headquarters. Frankfurt Airport is Germany's busiest. Frankfurt is one of the major financial centres of the European continent, with the headquarters of the European Central Bank, Deutsche Bundesbank, Frankfurt Stock Exchange, Deutsche Bank, DZ Bank, KfW, Commerzbank, several cloud and fintech startups[5] and other institutes. Automotive, technology and research, services, consulting, media and creative industries complement the economic base. Frankfurt's DE-CIX is the world's largest internet exchange point. Messe Frankfurt is one of the world's largest trade fairs. Major fairs include the Music Fair and the Frankfurt Book Fair, the world's largest book fair. Frankfurt is home to influential educational institutions, including the Goethe University, the UAS, the FUMPA and graduate schools like the Frankfurt School of Finance & Management. Its renowned cultural venues include the concert hall Alte Oper, Europe's largest English theatre and many museums (e.g. the Museumsufer ensemble with Städel and Liebieghaus, Senckenberg Natural Museum, Goethe House and the Schirn art venue at the old town). Frankfurt's skyline is shaped by some of Europe's tallest skyscrapers. The city is also characterised by various green areas and parks, including the central Wallanlagen, the City Forest, two major botanical gardens (the Palmengarten and the University's Botanical Garden) and the Frankfurt Zoo. In sports, the city is known as the home of the top-tier football club Eintracht Frankfurt, the Löwen Frankfurt ice hockey team, the basketball club Frankfurt Skyliners, the Frankfurt Marathon and the venue of Ironman Germany. It was also one of the host cities of the 1974 and 2006 FIFA World Cups. Contents 1 Distinctions 2 Etymology 3 History 3.1 Early history and Holy Roman Empire 3.2 Impact of French revolution and the Napoleonic Wars 3.3 Frankfurt as a fully sovereign state 3.4 Frankfurt after the loss of sovereignty 4 Geography 4.1 Site 4.2 Districts 4.3 History of incorporations 4.4 Neighbouring districts and cities 4.5 Climate 5 Demographics 5.1 Population 5.2 Immigration/Foreign Nationals 5.3 Religion 6 Politics 6.1 International relations 6.1.1 Partnerships 7 Cityscape 7.1 Landmarks 7.2 20th-century architecture 7.3 21st-century architecture 7.4 Skyscrapers 7.5 History of high-rise buildings 7.6 Other tall structures 7.7 Shopping streets 7.8 Green city 8 Culture 8.1 Museums 8.2 Performing arts 8.2.1 Music 8.2.2 Venues 8.3 Botanical gardens 8.4 Foreign culture 8.5 Festivals 8.6 Nightlife 8.7 Domestic culture 8.8 Culinary specialties 9 Quality of life 10 Transport 10.1 Airports 10.1.1 Frankfurt Airport 10.1.2 Frankfurt Hahn Airport 10.1.3 Frankfurt Egelsbach Airport 10.2 Roads 10.3 Railway stations 10.3.1 Frankfurt Central Station 10.3.2 Frankfurt Airport stations 10.3.3 Frankfurt South station 10.3.4 Messe stations 10.3.5 Konstablerwache station and Hauptwache station 10.3.6 Frankfurt West Station 10.4 Coach stations 10.5 Public transport 10.5.1 S-Bahn 10.5.2 U-Bahn 10.5.3 Tram 10.5.4 Bus 10.6 Taxis 10.7 Bicycles 11 Economy and business 11.1 Central banks 11.1.1 European Central Bank 11.1.2 Deutsche Bundesbank 11.2 Commercial banks 11.3 Frankfurt Stock Exchange 11.4 Frankfurt Trade Fair 11.4.1 Messeturm 11.5 Aviation 11.5.1 Lufthansa 11.5.2 Fraport 11.5.3 Condor 11.6 Other industries 11.6.1 Accountancy and professional services 11.6.2 Credit rating agencies 11.6.3 Investment trust companies 11.6.4 Management consultancies 11.6.5 Real estate services companies 11.6.6 Law firms 11.6.7 Advertising agencies 11.6.8 Food 11.6.9 Automotive 11.6.10 Construction 11.6.11 Property and real estate 11.6.12 Tourism 11.6.13 Other 11.7 Urban area (suburban) businesses 12 Public institutions 12.1 European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority 12.2 Federal Financial Supervisory Authority 12.3 International Finance Corporation 12.4 German National Library 12.5 Consulates 12.6 Courts 13 Education and research 13.1 Universities and schools 13.1.1 Johann Wolfgang Goethe University 13.1.2 Frankfurt University of Applied Sciences 13.1.3 Frankfurt School of Finance and Management 13.1.4 Städelschule 13.1.5 Music schools and conservatory 13.1.6 Other notable schools 13.1.7 Education and media 13.2 Research institutes 14 Trade unions and associations 15 Media 15.1 Newspapers 15.2 Magazines 15.3 Radio and TV 15.4 News agency 16 Sports 17 Sights in the Frankfurt Rhein-Main-Area 17.1 North 17.2 West 17.3 East 17.4 South 18 See also 19 References 19.1 Notes 19.2 Citations 20 Further reading 20.1 History 20.2 Architecture 20.3 Others 21 External links Distinctions[edit] Often stereotyped as a financial city, Frankfurt is multifaceted, including the entertainment district at Bahnhofsviertel. Frankfurt is the largest financial centre in continental Europe. It is home to the European Central Bank, Deutsche Bundesbank, Frankfurt Stock Exchange and several large commercial banks. The Frankfurt Stock Exchange is one of the world's largest stock exchanges by market capitalization and accounts for more than 90 percent of the turnover in the German market. In 2010, 63 national and 152 international banks had their registered offices in Frankfurt, including Germany's major banks, notably Deutsche Bank, DZ Bank, KfW and Commerzbank, as well as 41 representative offices of international banks.[6] Frankfurt is considered a global city (alpha world city) as listed by the GaWC group's 2012 inventory.[7] Among global cities it was ranked 10th by the Global Power City Index 2011 and 11th by the Global City Competitiveness Index 2012. Among financial centres it was ranked 8th by the International Financial Centers Development Index 2013 and 9th in the 2013 Global Financial Centres Index. Its central location within Germany and Europe makes Frankfurt a major air, rail and road transport hub. Frankfurt Airport is one of the world's busiest international airports by passenger traffic and the main hub for Germany's flag carrier Lufthansa. Frankfurt Central Station is one of the largest rail stations in Europe and the busiest junction operated by Deutsche Bahn, the German national railway company, with 342 trains a day to domestic and European destinations.[8] Frankfurter Kreuz, the Autobahn interchange close to the airport, is the most heavily used interchange in the EU, used by 320,000 cars daily.[9] In 2011 human-resource-consulting firm Mercer ranked Frankfurt as seventh in its annual 'Quality of Living' survey of cities around the world.[10] According to The Economist cost-of-living survey, Frankfurt is Germany's most expensive city and the world's 10th most expensive.[11] Frankfurt has many high-rise buildings in the city centre, forming the Frankfurt skyline. It is one of the few cities in the European Union (EU) to have such a skyline, which is why Germans sometimes refer to Frankfurt as Mainhattan, a portmanteau of the local Main River and Manhattan. The other well-known and obvious nickname is Bankfurt. Before World War II the city was globally noted for its unique old town with timber-framed buildings, the largest timber-framed old town in Europe. The Römer area was later rebuilt and is popular with visitors and for events such as Christmas markets. Other parts of the old town were reconstructed as part of the Dom-Römer Project from 2012 to 2018. Etymology[edit] The legend of the Frankenfurt (ford of the Franks) Frankonovurd (in Old High German) or Vadum Francorum (in Latin) were the first names mentioned in written records from 794. It transformed to Frankenfort during the Middle Ages and then to Franckfort and Franckfurth in the modern era. According to historian David Gans, the city was named c. 146 AD by its builder, a Frankish king named Zuna, who ruled over the province then known as Sicambri. He hoped thereby to perpetuate the name of his lineage.[12] The name is derived from the Franconofurd of the Germanic tribe of the Franks; Furt (cf. English ford) where the river was shallow enough to be crossed on foot. By the 19th century, the name Frankfurt had been established as the official spelling. The older English spelling of Frankfort is now rarely seen in reference to Frankfurt am Main, although more than a dozen other towns and cities, mainly in the United States, use this spelling (e.g., Frankfort, Kentucky; Frankfort, New York; Frankfort, Illinois). The suffix am Main has been used regularly since the 14th century. In English, the city's full name of Frankfurt am Main means "Frankfurt on the Main" (pronounced like English mine or German mein). Frankfurt is located on an ancient ford (German: Furt) on the Main River. As a part of early Franconia, the inhabitants were the early Franks, thus the city's name reveals its legacy as "the ford of the Franks on the Main".[13] Among English speakers, the city is commonly known simply as Frankfurt, but Germans occasionally call it by its full name to distinguish it from the other (significantly smaller) German city of Frankfurt an der Oder in the Land of Brandenburg on the Polish border. The city district Bonames has a name probably dating back to Roman times, thought to be derived from bona me(n)sa (good table). The common abbreviations for the city, primarily used in railway services and on road signs, are Frankfurt (Main), Frankfurt (M), Frankfurt a. M., Frankfurt/Main or Frankfurt/M. The common abbreviation for the name of the city is "FFM". Also in use is "FRA", the IATA code for Frankfurt Airport. History[edit] Main articles: History of Frankfurt am Main and Timeline of Frankfurt Early history and Holy Roman Empire[edit] Roman settlements were established in the area of the Römer, probably in the first century. Nida (Heddernheim) was also a Roman civitas capital. Alemanni and Franks lived there, and by 794, Charlemagne presided over an imperial assembly and church synod, at which Franconofurd (alternative spellings end with -furt and -vurd) was first mentioned. Frankfurt was one of the most important cities in the Holy Roman Empire. From 855, the German kings and emperors were elected and crowned in Aachen. From 1562, the kings and emperors were crowned in Frankfurt, initiated for Maximilian II. This tradition ended in 1792, when Franz II was elected. His coronation was deliberately held on Bastille Day, 14 July, the anniversary of the storming of the Bastille. The elections and coronations took place in St. Bartholomäus Cathedral, known as the Kaiserdom (Emperor's Cathedral), or its predecessors. The Frankfurter Messe (Frankfurt Trade Fair) was first mentioned in 1150. In 1240, Emperor Friedrich II granted an imperial privilege to its visitors, meaning they would be protected by the empire. The fair became particularly important when similar fairs in French Beaucaire lost attraction around 1380. Book trade fairs began in 1478. In 1372, Frankfurt became a Reichsstadt (Imperial Free City), i.e., directly subordinate to the Holy Roman Emperor and not to a regional ruler or a local nobleman. In 1585, Frankfurt traders established a system of exchange rates for the various currencies that were circulating to prevent cheating and extortion. Therein lay the early roots for the Frankfurt Stock Exchange. Frankfurt managed to remain neutral during the Thirty Years' War, but suffered from the bubonic plague that refugees brought to the city. After the war, Frankfurt regained its wealth. In the late 1770s the theatre principal Abel Seyler was based in Frankfurt, and established the city's theatrical life.[14] Frankfurt in 1612 Frankfurt in 1872 Kaiserplatz, circa 1880 Impact of French revolution and the Napoleonic Wars[edit] Following the French Revolution, Frankfurt was occupied or bombarded several times by French troops. It remained a free city until the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire in 1805/6. In 1806, it became part of the principality of Aschaffenburg under the Fürstprimas (Prince-Primate), Karl Theodor Anton Maria von Dalberg. This meant that Frankfurt was incorporated into the confederation of the Rhine. In 1810, Dalberg adopted the title of a Grand Duke of Frankfurt. Napoleon intended to make his adopted son Eugène de Beauharnais, already Prince de Venise ("prince of Venice", a newly established primogeniture in Italy), Grand Duke of Frankfurt after Dalberg's death (since the latter as a Catholic bishop had no legitimate heirs). The Grand Duchy remained a short episode lasting from 1810 to 1813, when the military tide turned in favour of the Anglo-Prussian led allies that overturned the Napoleonic order. Dalberg abdicated in favour of Eugène de Beauharnais, which of course was only a symbolic action, as the latter effectively never ruled after the ruin of the French armies and Frankfurt's takeover by the allies. Frankfurt as a fully sovereign state[edit] After Napoleon's final defeat and abdication, the Congress of Vienna (1814–1815) dissolved the grand-duchy and Frankfurt became a fully sovereign city state with a republican form of government. Frankfurt entered the newly founded German Confederation (till 1866) as a free city, becoming the seat of its Bundestag, the confederal parliament where the nominally presiding Habsburg Emperor of Austria was represented by an Austrian "presidential envoy". After the ill-fated revolution of 1848, Frankfurt was the seat of the first democratically elected German parliament, the Frankfurt Parliament, which met in the Frankfurter Paulskirche (St. Paul's Church) and was opened on 18 May 1848. The institution failed in 1849 when the Prussian king, Frederick William IV, declared that he would not accept "a crown from the gutter". In the year of its existence, the assembly developed a common constitution for a unified Germany, with the Prussian king as its monarch. Frankfurt after the loss of sovereignty[edit] View of Frankfurt am Main, including the Alte Brücke (Old Bridge), by Gustave Courbet (1858) Frankfurt lost its independence after the Austro-Prussian War in 1866 when Prussia annexed several smaller states, among them the Free City of Frankfurt. The Prussian administration incorporated Frankfurt into its province of Hesse-Nassau. The Prussian occupation and annexation was perceived as a great injustice in Frankfurt, which retained its distinct western European, urban and cosmopolitan character. The formerly independent towns of Bornheim and Bockenheim were incorporated in 1890. In 1914, the citizens founded the University of Frankfurt, later named Goethe University Frankfurt. This marked the only civic foundation of a university in Germany; today it is one of Germany's largest. From 6 April to 17 May 1920, following military intervention to put down the Ruhr uprising, Frankfurt was occupied by French troops.[15] The French claimed that Articles 42 to 44 of the peace treaty of Versailles concerning the demilitarisation of the Rhineland had been broken.[16] In 1924, Ludwig Landmann became the first Jewish mayor of the city, and led a significant expansion during the following years. During the Nazi era, the synagogues of the city were destroyed. Frankfurt was severely bombed in World War II (1939–1945). About 5,500 residents were killed during the raids, and the once-famous medieval city centre, by that time the largest in Germany, was almost completely destroyed. It became a ground battlefield on 26 March 1945, when the Allied advance into Germany was forced to take the city in contested urban combat that included a river assault. The 5th Infantry Division and the 6th Armored Division of the United States Army captured Frankfurt after several days of intense fighting, and it was declared largely secure on 29 March 1945.[17] After the end of the war, Frankfurt became a part of the newly founded state of Hesse, consisting of the old Hesse-(Darmstadt) and the Prussian Hesse provinces. The city was part of the American Zone of Occupation of Germany. The Military Governor for the United States Zone (1945–1949) and the United States High Commissioner for Germany (HICOG) (1949–1952) had their headquarters in the IG Farben Building, intentionally left undamaged by the Allies' wartime bombardment. Frankfurt was the original choice for the provisional capital city of the newly founded state of West Germany in 1949. The city constructed a parliament building that was never used for its intended purpose (it housed the radio studios of Hessischer Rundfunk). In the end, Konrad Adenauer, the first postwar Chancellor, preferred the town of Bonn, for the most part because it was close to his hometown, but also because many other prominent politicians opposed the choice of Frankfurt out of concern that Frankfurt would be accepted as the permanent capital, thereby weakening the West German population's support for a reunification with East Germany and the eventual return of the capital to Berlin. Postwar reconstruction took place in a sometimes simple modern style, thus changing Frankfurt's architectural face. A few landmark buildings were reconstructed historically, albeit in a simplified manner (e.g., Römer, St. Paul's Church, and Goethe House). The collection of historically significant Cairo Genizah documents of the Municipal Library was destroyed by the bombing. According to Arabist and Genizah scholar S.D. Goitein, "not even handlists indicating its contents have survived."[18] The Frankfurt Parliament at St. Paul's Church in 1848 Aerial view of the cathedral in May 1945 Reconstruction (1981–1984) of six houses at the east side of the Römerberg which were destroyed in World War II The end of the war marked Frankfurt's comeback as Germany's leading financial centre, mainly because Berlin, now a city divided into four sectors, could no longer rival it. In 1948, the allies founded the Bank deutscher Länder, the forerunner of Deutsche Bundesbank. Following this decision, more financial institutions were re-established, e.g. Deutsche Bank and Dresdner Bank. In the 1950s, Frankfurt Stock Exchange regained its position as the country's leading stock exchange. Frankfurt also re-emerged as Germany's transportation centre and Frankfurt Airport became Europe's second-busiest airport behind London Heathrow Airport in 1961. During the 1970s, the city created one of Europe's most efficient underground transportation systems.[19] That system includes a suburban rail system (S-Bahn) linking outlying communities with the city centre, and a deep underground light rail system with smaller coaches (U-Bahn) also capable of travelling above ground on rails. In 1998, the European Central Bank was founded in Frankfurt, followed by the European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority and European Systemic Risk Board in 2011. Geography[edit] Frankfurt as seen by the European Space Agency's Sentinel-2A. Frankfurt is the largest city in the federated state of Hesse in the south-western part of Germany. Site[edit] Frankfurt is located on both sides of the Main River, south-east of the Taunus mountain range. The southern part of the city contains the Frankfurt City Forest, Germany's largest city forest. The city area is 248.31 km2 (95.87 sq mi) and extends over 23.4 km (14.54 mi) east to west and 23.3 km (14.48 mi) north to south. The city centre is north of the River Main in Altstadt district (the historical centre) and the surrounding Innenstadt district. The geographical centre is in Bockenheim district near Frankfurt West station. Frankfurt is the centre of the densely populated Frankfurt Rhine-Main Metropolitan Region with a population of 5.5 million. Other important cities in the region are Wiesbaden (capital of Hesse), Mainz (capital of Rhineland-Palatinate), Darmstadt, Offenbach am Main, Hanau, Aschaffenburg, Bad Homburg vor der Höhe, Rüsselsheim, Wetzlar and Marburg. Districts[edit] The 46 Stadtteile (city districts) of central Frankfurt The city is divided into 46 city districts (Stadtteile), which are in turn divided into 121 city boroughs (Stadtbezirke) and 448 electoral districts (Wahlbezirke). The 46 city districts combine into 16 area districts (Ortsbezirke), which each have a district committee and chairperson. The largest city district by population and area is Sachsenhausen, while the smallest is Altstadt, Frankfurt's historical center. Three larger city districts (Sachsenhausen, Westend and Nordend) are divided for administrative purposes into a northern (-Nord) and a southern (-Süd) part, respectively a western (-West) and an eastern (-Ost) part, but are generally considered as one city district (which is why often only 43 city districts are mentioned, even on the city's official website).[20] Some larger housing areas are often falsely called city districts, even by locals, like Nordweststadt (part of Niederursel, Heddernheim and Praunheim), Goldstein (part of Schwanheim), Riedberg (part of Kalbach-Riedberg) and Europaviertel (part of Gallus). The Bankenviertel (banking district), Frankfurt's financial district, is also not an administrative city district (it covers parts of the western Innenstadt district, the southern Westend district and the eastern Bahnhofsviertel district). Many city districts are incorporated suburbs (Vororte), or were previously independent cities, such as Höchst. Some like Nordend and Westend arose during the rapid growth of the city in the Gründerzeit following the Unification of Germany, while others were formed from territory which previously belonged to other city district(s), such as Dornbusch and Riederwald. History of incorporations[edit] Until the year 1877 the city's territory consisted of the present-day inner-city districts of Altstadt, Innenstadt, Bahnhofsviertel, Gutleutviertel, Gallus, Westend, Nordend, Ostend and Sachsenhausen. Bornheim was part of an administrative district called Landkreis Frankfurt, before becoming part of the city on 1 January 1877, followed by Bockenheim on 1 April 1895. Seckbach, Niederrad and Oberrad followed on 1 July 1900. The Landkreis Frankfurt was finally dispersed on 1 April 1910, and therefore Berkersheim, Bonames, Eckenheim, Eschersheim, Ginnheim, Hausen, Heddernheim, Niederursel, Praunheim, Preungesheim and Rödelheim joined the city. In the same year a new city district, Riederwald, was created on territory that had formerly belonged to Seckbach and Ostend. On 1 April 1928 the City of Höchst became part of Frankfurt, as well as its city districts Sindlingen, Unterliederbach and Zeilsheim. Simultaneously the Landkreis Höchst was dispersed with its member cities either joining Frankfurt (Fechenheim, Griesheim, Nied, Schwanheim, Sossenheim) or joining the newly established Landkreis of Main-Taunus-Kreis. Dornbusch became a city district in 1946. It was created on territory that had formerly belonged to Eckenheim and Ginnheim. On 1 August 1972, Hesse's smaller suburbs of Harheim, Kalbach, Nieder-Erlenbach, and Nieder-Eschbach became districts while other neighbouring suburbs chose to join the Main-Taunus-Kreis, the Landkreis Offenbach, the Kreis Groß-Gerau, the Hochtaunuskreis, the Main-Kinzig-Kreis or the Wetteraukreis. Bergen-Enkheim was the last suburb to become part of Frankfurt on 1 January 1977. Flughafen became an official city district in 1979. It covers the area of Frankfurt Airport that had belonged to Sachsenhausen and the neighbouring city of Mörfelden-Walldorf. Frankfurt's youngest city district is Frankfurter Berg. It was part of Bonames until 1996. Kalbach was officially renamed Kalbach-Riedberg in 2006 because of the large residential housing development in the area known as Riedberg. Neighbouring districts and cities[edit] Frankfurt urban area within Hesse To the west Frankfurt borders the administrative district (Landkreis) of Main-Taunus-Kreis with towns such as Hattersheim am Main, Kriftel, Hofheim am Taunus, Kelkheim, Liederbach am Taunus, Sulzbach, Schwalbach am Taunus and Eschborn; to the northwest the Hochtaunuskreis with Steinbach, Oberursel (Taunus) and Bad Homburg vor der Höhe; to the north the Wetteraukreis with Karben and Bad Vilbel; to the northeast the Main-Kinzig-Kreis with Niederdorfelden and Maintal; to the southeast the city of Offenbach am Main; to the south the Kreis Offenbach with Neu-Isenburg and to the southwest the Kreis Groß-Gerau with Mörfelden-Walldorf, Rüsselsheim and Kelsterbach. Together with these towns (and some larger nearby towns, e.g., Hanau, Rodgau, Dreieich, Langen) Frankfurt forms a contiguous built-up urban area called Stadtregion Frankfurt which is not an official administrative district. The urban area had an estimated population of 2.3 million in 2010, and is the 13th-largest urban area in the EU. Climate[edit] Frankfurt has a temperate-oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfb). Its average annual temperature is 10.6 °C (51.1 °F), with monthly mean temperatures ranging from 1.6 °C (34.9 °F) in January to 20.0 °C (68.0 °F) in July. Climate data for Frankfurt Airport 1981–2010, extremes 1949–present Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 15.9 (60.6) 19.1 (66.4) 24.7 (76.5) 30.3 (86.5) 33.2 (91.8) 39.3 (102.7) 40.2 (104.4) 38.7 (101.7) 32.8 (91.0) 28.0 (82.4) 19.1 (66.4) 16.3 (61.3) 40.2 (104.4) Average high °C (°F) 4.2 (39.6) 5.9 (42.6) 10.7 (51.3) 15.4 (59.7) 20.0 (68.0) 23.1 (73.6) 25.5 (77.9) 25.1 (77.2) 20.3 (68.5) 14.6 (58.3) 8.4 (47.1) 4.9 (40.8) 14.8 (58.6) Daily mean °C (°F) 1.6 (34.9) 2.4 (36.3) 6.4 (43.5) 10.3 (50.5) 14.7 (58.5) 17.8 (64.0) 20.0 (68.0) 19.5 (67.1) 15.2 (59.4) 10.4 (50.7) 5.6 (42.1) 2.5 (36.5) 10.6 (51.1) Average low °C (°F) −1.1 (30.0) −1.1 (30.0) 2.1 (35.8) 4.9 (40.8) 9.1 (48.4) 12.3 (54.1) 14.4 (57.9) 14.0 (57.2) 10.5 (50.9) 6.6 (43.9) 2.8 (37.0) −0.1 (31.8) 6.2 (43.2) Record low °C (°F) −21.6 (−6.9) −19.6 (−3.3) −13.0 (8.6) −7.1 (19.2) −2.8 (27.0) 0.1 (32.2) 2.8 (37.0) 2.5 (36.5) −0.3 (31.5) −6.3 (20.7) −11.5 (11.3) −17.0 (1.4) −21.6 (−6.9) Average precipitation mm (inches) 44.5 (1.75) 40.9 (1.61) 48.4 (1.91) 42.1 (1.66) 63.4 (2.50) 58.1 (2.29) 64.7 (2.55) 56.5 (2.22) 53.0 (2.09) 54.7 (2.15) 49.1 (1.93) 53.9 (2.12) 629.18 (24.77) Average rainy days 16.0 13.0 14.0 14.0 15.0 15.0 14.0 14.0 12.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 169 Mean monthly sunshine hours 50 80 121 178 211 219 233 219 156 103 51 41 1,662 Percent possible sunshine 18 29 33 42 45 46 47 51 40 30 19 16 35 Source 1: Data derived from Deutscher Wetterdienst[21] Source 2: Weather Atlas (sunshine data)[22] Climate data for Frankfurt Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Mean daily daylight hours 9.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 15.0 16.0 16.0 14.0 13.0 11.0 9.0 8.0 12.3 Average Ultraviolet index 1 1 3 4 6 7 6 6 4 2 1 1 3.5 Source: Weather Atlas [22] Demographics[edit] Population[edit] Historical population Year Pop. ±% 1387 9,600 —     1520 10,000 +4.2% 1750 32,000 +220.0% 1871 91,040 +184.5% 1895 229,279 +151.8% 1905 334,978 +46.1% 1925 467,520 +39.6% 1933 555,857 +18.9% 1939 553,464 −0.4% 1950 532,037 −3.9% 1961 683,081 +28.4% 1970 669,635 −2.0% 1987 618,266 −7.7% 2001 641,076 +3.7% 2011 667,925 +4.2% 2018 753,056 +12.7% Largest groups of foreign residents[23] Nationality Population (30.06.2019)  Turkey 25,294  Croatia 16,151  Italy 15,120  Poland 12,174  Romania 10,451  Serbia 9,404  Bulgaria 8,509  India 7,412  Spain 7,261  Greece 6,381  Morocco 6,175  Bosnia and Herzegovina 6,142  Afghanistan 5,114  China 4,662  France 4,609  Algeria 4,087  Portugal 3,991 With a population of 732,688 (2015) within its administrative boundaries[24] and of 2,300,000 in the actual urban area,[4] Frankfurt is the fifth-largest city in Germany, after Berlin, Hamburg, Munich and Cologne. Central Frankfurt has been a Großstadt (a city with at least 100,000 residents by definition) since 1875. With 414,576 residents in 1910, it was the ninth largest city in Germany and the number of inhabitants grew to 553,464 before World War II. After the war, at the end of the year 1945, the number had dropped to 358,000. In the following years, the population grew again and reached an all-time-high of 691,257 in 1963. It dropped again to 592,411 in 1986 but has increased since then. According to the demographic forecasts for central Frankfurt, the city will have a population up to 825,000 within its administrative boundaries in 2020 and more than 2.5 million inhabitants in its urban area. During the 1970s, the state government of Hesse wanted to expand the city's administrative boundaries to include the entire urban area. This would have made Frankfurt officially the second-largest city in Germany after Berlin with up to 3 million inhabitants.[25] However, because local authorities did not agree, the administrative territory is still much smaller than its actual urban area. Population of the 46 city districts on 31 December 2009 No City district (Stadtteil) Area in km2[26] Population[27] Foreign nationals[27] Foreign nationals in %[27] Area district (Ortsbezirk) 01 Altstadt 0.51 3.475 1.122 32.3 01 – Innenstadt I 02 Innenstadt 1.52 6.577 2.529 38.5 01 – Innenstadt I 03 Bahnhofsviertel 0.53 2.125 810 38.1 01 – Innenstadt I 04 Westend-Süd 2.47 17.288 3.445 19.9 02 – Innenstadt II 05 Westend-Nord 1.67 8.854 2.184 24.7 02 – Innenstadt II 06 Nordend-West 3.07 28.808 5.162 17.9 03 – Innenstadt III 07 Nordend-Ost 1.69 26.619 5.580 21.0 03 – Innenstadt III 08 Ostend 5.40 26.955 7.213 26.8 04 – Bornheim/Ostend 09 Bornheim 2.66 27.184 6.240 23.0 04 – Bornheim/Ostend 10 Gutleutviertel 2.20 5.843 1.953 33.4 01 – Innenstadt I 11 Gallus 4.22 26.716 11.012 41.2 01 – Innenstadt I 12 Bockenheim 8.04 34.740 9.034 26.0 02 – Innenstadt II 13 Sachsenhausen-Nord 4.24 30.374 6.507 21.4 05 – Süd 14 Sachsenhausen-Süd 34.91 26.114 4.847 18.6 05 – Süd 15 Flughafen 20.00 211 14 6.6 05 – Süd 16 Oberrad 2.74 12.828 3.113 24.3 05 – Süd 17 Niederrad 2.93 22.954 6.569 28.6 05 – Süd 18 Schwanheim 17.73 20.162 3.532 17.5 06 – West 19 Griesheim 4.90 22.648 8.029 35.5 06 – West 20 Rödelheim 5.15 17.841 4.863 27.3 07 – Mitte-West 21 Hausen 1.26 7.178 2.135 29.7 07 – Mitte-West 22/23 Praunheim 4.55 15.761 3.197 20.3 07 – Mitte-West 24 Heddernheim 2.49 16.443 3.194 19.4 08 – Nord-West 25 Niederursel 7.22 16.394 3.671 22.4 08 – Nord-West 26 Ginnheim 2.73 16.444 4.024 24.5 09 – Mitte-Nord 27 Dornbusch 2.38 18.511 3.482 18.8 09 – Mitte-Nord 28 Eschersheim 3.34 14.808 2.657 17.9 09 – Mitte-Nord 29 Eckenheim 2.23 14.277 3.674 25.7 10 – Nord-Ost 30 Preungesheim 3.74 13.568 3.442 25.4 10 – Nord-Ost 31 Bonames 1.24 6.362 1.288 20.2 10 – Nord-Ost 32 Berkersheim 3.18 3.400 592 17.4 10 – Nord-Ost 33 Riederwald 1.04 4.911 1.142 23.3 11 – Ost 34 Seckbach 8.04 10.194 1.969 19.3 11 – Ost 35 Fechenheim 7.18 16.061 5.635 35.1 11 – Ost 36 Höchst 4.73 13.888 5.279 38.0 06 – West 37 Nied 3.82 17.829 5.224 29.3 06 – West 38 Sindlingen 3.98 9.032 2.076 23.0 06 – West 39 Zeilsheim 5.47 11.984 2.555 21.3 06 – West 40 Unterliederbach 5.85 14.350 3.511 24.5 06 – West 41 Sossenheim 5.97 15.853 4.235 26.7 06 – West 42 Nieder-Erlenbach 8.34 4.629 496 10.7 13 – Nieder-Erlenbach 43 Kalbach-Riedberg 6.90 8.482 1.279 15.1 12 – Kalbach-Riedberg 44 Harheim 5.02 4.294 446 10.4 14 – Harheim 45 Nieder-Eschbach 6.35 11.499 1.978 17.2 15 – Nieder-Eschbach 46 Bergen-Enkheim 12.54 17.954 2.764 15.4 16 – Bergen-Enkheim 47 Frankfurter Berg 2.16 7.149 1.715 24.0 10 – Nord-Ost Frankfurt am Main 248.33 679.571 165.418 24.3 Immigration/Foreign Nationals[edit] According to data from the city register of residents, 51.2% of the population had a migration background as of 2015, which means that a person or at least one or both of their parents was born with foreign citizenship. For the first time, a majority of the city residents had an at least part non-German background.[28] Moreover, three of four children in the city under the age of six had immigrant backgrounds.[29] and 27.7% of residents had a foreign citizenship.[30] According to statistics, 46.7% of immigrants in Frankfurt come from other countries in the EU; 24.5% come from European countries that are not part of the EU; 15.7% come from Asia (including Western Asia and South Asia); 7.3% come from Africa; 3.4% come from North America (including the Caribbean and Central America); 0.2% come from Australia and Zealandia; 2.3% come from South America; and 1.1% come from Pacific island nations. Because of this the city is often considered to be a multicultural city, and has been compared to New York City, London and Toronto. Religion[edit] Frankfurt was historically a Protestant-dominated city. However, during the 19th century an increasing number of Catholics moved there. The Jewish community has a history dating back to medieval times and has always ranked among the largest in Germany. Two synagogues operate there. Due to the growing immigration of people from Muslim countries beginning in the 1960s, Frankfurt has a large Muslim community. The Ahmadiyya Noor Mosque, constructed in 1959, is the city's largest mosque and the third-largest in Germany.[31] As of 2013[update], the largest Christian denominations were Catholicism (22.7% of the population) and Protestantism, especially Lutheranism (19.4%).[32] Estimations put the share of Muslim inhabitants at approximately 12% (2006).[33] According to calculations based on census data for 21 countries of origin, the number of Muslim migrants in Frankfurt amounted to about 84,000 in 2011, making up 12.6 percent of the population.[34] A large part of them was from Turkey and Morocco. Over 7,000 inhabitants were affiliated with the Jewish community, amounting to approximately 1% of the population.[35] Politics[edit] Lord Mayor Peter Feldmann (SPD) This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Frankfurt is one of five independent district-free cities (kreisfreie Städte) in Hesse, which means that it does not form part of another general-purpose local government entity, in this case it is not part of a Landkreis. The other four cities are the second to fifth largest cities in Hesse: Wiesbaden, Kassel, Darmstadt and Offenbach am Main. A kreisfreie Stadt has territorial sovereignty within its defined city limits. In 1995 Petra Roth of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) became Lord Mayor (Oberbürgermeisterin), Frankfurt's municipal leader. In 2012, Peter Feldmann (SPD) succeeded Roth as Lord Mayor. The CDU and the Alliance '90/The Greens (Bündnis '90/Die Grünen) formed the government. International relations[edit] See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Germany Frankfurt is twinned with: Lyon, Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes, France (since 1960) Birmingham, West Midlands, England, United Kingdom (1966) Milan, Lombardy, Italy (1970) Guangzhou, China (1988) Prague, Czechia (1990) Budapest, Hungary (1990) San Pedro Sula, Honduras (1991) Yokohama, Japan (2011) Eskişehir, Turkey (2012)[36] Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States (2015) Partnerships[edit] Partnerships and city friendships are a weaker form of cooperation than the sister city relationship, acting more like a fixed-term cooperation or limited to certain projects. Frankfurt has partnerships with the following cities: Cairo, Egypt (1979) Tel Aviv, Israel (1980) Toronto, Ontario, Canada, (1989)[37] Deuil-la-Barre, Val-d'Oise, Île-de-France, France, partnered with Nieder-Eschbach, (1967; incorporated into Frankfurt in 1972) Kraków, Poland, (1991)[38] Leipzig, Saxony, Germany (1990) Dubai, United Arab Emirates (2005) Cityscape[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Landmarks[edit] Römer, the city hall Römer Römer, the German word for Roman, is a complex of nine houses that form the Frankfurt city hall (Rathaus). The houses were acquired by the city council in 1405 from a wealthy merchant family. The middle house became the city hall and was later connected with its neighbours. The Kaisersaal ("Emperor's Hall") is located on the upper floor and is where the newly crowned emperors held their banquets. The Römer was partially destroyed in World War II and later rebuilt. The surrounding square, the Römerberg, is named after the city hall. The New Frankfurt Old Town was completed in 2018, including 15 reconstructed historical buildings. The former Altstadt (old town) quarter between the Römer and the Frankfurt Cathedral was redeveloped as the Dom-Römer Quarter from 2012 to 2018, including 15 reconstructions of historical buildings that were destroyed during World War II. Frankfurt Cathedral Frankfurt Cathedral (Frankfurter Dom) is not a cathedral, but the main Catholic church, dedicated to St. Bartholomew. The Gothic building was constructed in the 14th and 15th centuries on the foundation of an earlier church from the Merovingian time. From 1356 onwards, kings of the Holy Roman Empire were elected in this church, and from 1562 to 1792, Roman-German emperors were crowned there. Since the 18th century, St. Bartholomew's has been called Dom, although it was never a bishop's seat. In 1867 it was destroyed by fire and rebuilt in its present style. It was again partially destroyed in World War II and rebuilt in the 1950s. Its height is 95 meters. The cathedral tower has a viewing platform open to the public at a height of 66 meters, accessed through a narrow spiral staircase with 386 steps. Frankfurt Cathedral Römerberg St. Paul's Church St. Paul's Church St. Paul's Church (Paulskirche) is a national historic monument in Germany because it was the seat of the first democratically elected parliament in 1848. It was established in 1789 as a Protestant church, but was not completed until 1833. Its importance has its roots in the Frankfurt Parliament, which met in the church during the revolutionary years of 1848/49 in order to write a constitution for a united Germany. The attempt failed because the monarchs of Prussia and Austria did not want to lose power. In 1849 Prussian troops ended the democratic experiment by force and the parliament dissolved. Afterwards, the building was used for church services again. St. Paul's was partially destroyed in World War II, particularly its interior, which now has a modern appearance. It was quickly and symbolically rebuilt after the war; today it is used mainly for exhibitions and events. Archäologischer Garten Frankfurt The Archaeological Garden contains small parts of the oldest recovered buildings: an ancient Roman settlement and the Frankfurt Royal Palace (Kaiserpfalz Frankfurt) from the 6th century. The garden is located between the Römerberg and the cathedral. It was discovered after World War II when the area was heavily bombed and later partly rebuilt. The remains were preserved and are now open to the public. From 2013 until 2015 an event building, the Stadthaus ("City house"), has been built on top of the garden, but it remains open to the public free of charge. Haus Wertheim Wertheim House is the only timbered house in the Altstadt district that survived the heavy bombings of World War II undamaged. It is located on the Römerberg next to the Historical Museum. Saalhof The Saalhof is the oldest conserved building in the Altstadt district and dates to the 12th century. It was used as an exhibition hall by Dutch clothiers when trade fairs were held during the 14th and 15th century. The Saalhof was partly destroyed in World War II and later rebuilt. Today it serves as a part of the Historical Museum. Eiserner Steg The Eiserner Steg (Iron Bridge) is a pedestrian-only bridge across the Main that connects Römerberg and Sachsenhausen. It was built in 1868 and was the second bridge to cross the river. After World War II, when it was blown up by the Wehrmacht, it was quickly rebuilt in 1946. Today some 10,000 people cross the bridge on a daily basis. Alte Oper, now a concert hall, at Opernplatz Alte Oper The Alte Oper is a former opera house, hence the name "Old Opera". The opera house was built in 1880 by architect Richard Lucae. It was one of the major opera houses in Germany until it was heavily damaged in World War II. Until the late 1970s, it was a ruin, nicknamed "Germany's most beautiful ruin". Former Frankfurt Lord Mayor Rudi Arndt called for blowing it up in the 1960s, which earned him the nickname "Dynamite-Rudi". (Later on, Arndt said he never had meant his suggestion seriously.) Public pressure led to its refurbishment and reopening in 1981. Today, it functions as a famous concert hall, while operas are performed at the "new" Frankfurt Opera. The inscription on the frieze of the Alte Oper says: "Dem Wahren, Schönen, Guten" ("To the true, the beautiful, the good"). Eschenheimer Turm The Eschenheim Tower (Eschenheimer Turm) was erected at the beginning of the 15th century and served as a city gate as part of late-medieval fortifications. It is the oldest and most unaltered building in the Innenstadt district. St. Catherine's Church St. Catherine's Church (Katharinenkirche) is the largest Protestant church, dedicated to Catherine of Alexandria, a martyred early Christian saint. It is located in the city centre at the entrance to the Zeil, the central pedestrian shopping street. Hauptwache Although today Hauptwache is mostly associated with the inner-city underground train station of the same name, the name originates from a baroque building on the square above the station. The Hauptwache building was constructed in 1730 and was used as a prison, therefore the name that translates as "main guard-house". Today the square surrounding the building is also called "Hauptwache" (formal: An der Hauptwache). It is situated in the city centre opposite to St. Catherine's Church and houses a famous café. Hauptwache and St. Catherine's Church Eschenheimer Turm Frankfurt Central Station Central Station Frankfurt Central Station (Frankfurt Hauptbahnhof), which opened in 1888, was built as the central train station for Frankfurt to replace three smaller train stations in the city centre and to boost the needed capacity for travellers. It was constructed as a terminus station and was the largest train station in Europe by floor area until 1915 when Leipzig Central Station was opened. Its three main halls were constructed in a neorenaissance-style, while the later enlargement with two outer halls in 1924 was constructed in neoclassic-style. Frankfurter Hof The Frankfurter Hof is a landmarked hotel in the city centre at Kaiserplatz, built from 1872 to 1876. It is part of Steigenberger Hotels group and is considered the city's most prestigious. St. Leonhard St. Leonhard, on the Main close to the bridge Eiserner Steg, is a Catholic late Gothic hall church, derived from a Romanesque style basilica beginning in 1425. It is the only one of nine churches in the Old Town that survived World War II almost undamaged. The parish serves the English-speaking community. The church has been under restoration from 2011 until 2019. [39] 20th-century architecture[edit] Frauenfriedenskirche and Holy Cross Church (with the Centre for Christian Meditation and Spirituality of the Diocese of Limburg), both consecrated 1929, are examples of early modernist church buildings during the time of the New Frankfurt. Großmarkthalle, built 1926–1928 as a part of the New Frankfurt-project, the former wholesale market hall was repaired after the second world war and integrated into the new seat of the European Central Bank between 2010 and 2014. Goethe House, rebuilt 1947. The birthplace of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe from 1749 was destroyed in World War II and then rebuilt true to the original. Junior-Haus, built 1951, an example of early post-World War II architecture located at Kaiserplatz. Bayer-Haus, built 1952, another example of early post-World War II architecture. Museum für angewandte Kunst, built 1985, designed by Richard Meier. IG Farben Building – Also known as Poelzig Building (Poelzig-Bau) after its architect Hans Poelzig, it was built from 1928 to 1930 as the corporate headquarters of I.G. Farbenindustrie AG. It is located in the Westend district and borders Grüneburgpark in the west. Upon its completion, the complex was the largest office building in Europe and remained so until the 1950s. The building served as headquarters for research projects relating to the development of synthetic oil and rubber and the manufacturing of magnesium, lubricating oil, explosives, methanol, and Zyklon B, the lethal gas used in concentration camps.[40][41] After World War II, it served as the headquarters for the Supreme Allied Command and from 1949 to 1952 the High Commissioner for Germany (HICOG). It became the principal location for implementing the Marshall Plan, which largely financed the post-war reconstruction of Europe. The state apparatus of the Federal German Government was devised there. It served as the headquarters for the US Army's V Corps and the Northern Area Command (NACOM) until 1995 when the US Army returned control of the IG Farben Building to the German government. It was purchased on behalf of the Goethe University Frankfurt by the state of Hesse. In October 2001 it became part of the Westend Campus of Goethe University. IG Farben Building, now the central lecture building of the Westend Campus of the Goethe University 21st-century architecture[edit] The Squaire in 2017 Die Welle (The Wave), built 1998–2003, a complex of three wavelike-formed office buildings next to the Opernplatz. Alte Stadtbibliothek, rebuilt 2003–2005, reconstruction of the old public library house originally built 1820–1825. Palais Thurn und Taxis, rebuilt 2004–2009, reconstruction of a palace originally built 1731–1739. MyZeil, built 2004–2009, shopping mall at the Zeil with an imposing vaulted glass-structure. The Squaire (portmanteau of square and air), also known as Airrail Center Frankfurt, is a 660 m (2,165.35 ft) long and 45 m (147.64 ft) tall office building located at Frankfurt Airport. It was built from 2006 to 2011 on top of an existing railway station (Frankfurt Airport long distance Station) and has a connecting bridge to Terminal 1 for pedestrians. Its total of 140,000 m2 (1,506,947 sq ft) rentable floor space makes it Germany's largest office building. Skyscrapers[edit] See also: List of tallest buildings in Frankfurt Upper section of the Main Tower with a public observation deck at 200 metres Frankfurt is one of the few European cities with a significant number of skyscrapers, (buildings at least 150 m (492.13 ft) tall). It hosts 17 out of Germany's 18 skyscrapers. Most skyscrapers and high-rise office buildings are located in the financial district (Bankenviertel) near the city centre, around the trade fair premises (Europaviertel) and at Mainzer Landstraße between Opernplatz and Platz der Republik, which connects the two areas. The 17 skyscrapers are: Commerzbank Tower, 259.0 m (849.74 ft) – The EU's tallest building; Commerzbank headquarters. Messeturm, 256.5 m (841.54 ft) – The EU's second-tallest building, the tallest building in Europe 1990–1997; main tenant is Goldman Sachs (Germany). Westend Tower, 208.0 m (682.41 ft) – DZ Bank headquarters Main Tower, 200.0 m (656.17 ft) – Landesbank Hessen-Thüringen and Standard & Poor's (Germany) headquarters Tower 185, 200.0 m (656.17 ft) – PricewaterhouseCoopers (Germany) headquarters Omniturm, 190.0 m (623.36 ft) Trianon, 186.0 m (610.24 ft) – DekaBank headquarters Seat of the European Central Bank, 185.0 m (606.96 ft) – European Central Bank headquarters Grand Tower, 172.0 m (564.30 ft) – Residential tower Opernturm, 170.0 m (557.74 ft) – UBS (Germany) headquarters Taunusturm, 170.0 m (557.74 ft) Silberturm, 166.3 m (545.60 ft) – Germany's tallest building 1978–1990, Main tenant is Deutsche Bahn. Westend Gate, 159.3 m (522.64 ft) – Germany's tallest building 1976–1978, Main tenant is Marriott Frankfurt Hotel. Deutsche Bank I, 155.0 m (508.53 ft) – Deutsche Bank headquarters Deutsche Bank II, 155.0 m (508.53 ft) Marienturm, 155.0 m (508.53 ft) Skyper, 153.8 m (504.59 ft) – Main tenant is DekaBank. Other high-rise buildings include: Eurotower, 148.0 m (485.56 ft) – Former European Central Bank headquarters Frankfurter Büro Center, 142.4 m (467.19 ft) – Main tenant is Clifford Chance (Germany). City-Haus, 142.1 m (466.21 ft) – Main tenant is DZ Bank. Gallileo, 136.0 m (446.19 ft) – Main tenant is Commerzbank. Frankfurt skyline in June 2013, view from south-west History of high-rise buildings[edit] Main article: List of tallest buildings in Frankfurt Skyline at dusk, seen from Deutschherrnbrücke (2014) For centuries, St. Bartholomeus's Cathedral was the tallest structure. The first building to exceed the 95-metre-high cathedral was not an office building but a grain silo, the 120-metre-high (390 ft) Henninger Turm, built from 1959 to 1961. The first high-rise building boom came in the 1970s when Westend Gate (then called Plaza Büro Center) and Silberturm were constructed and became the tallest buildings in Germany with a height of 159.3 metres and 166.3 metres, respectively. Around the same time, Frankfurter Büro Center and City-Haus (142.4 metres and 142.1 metres) were constructed at Mainzer Landstraße and Eurotower (148.0 metres) and Garden Tower (127.0 metres; then called Helaba-Hochhaus) were constructed in the financial district. None of the buildings constructed during the 1980s surpassed Silberturm. The most famous buildings from this decade are the Deutsche Bank Twin Towers at Taunusanlage, both 155.0 metres tall. The 1990s featured a second wave. Messeturm, built on the trade fair site, reached a height of 256.5 metres and became the tallest building in Europe by 1991. It was overtaken by the 259-metre-high (850 ft) Commerzbank Tower in 1997. Other tall buildings from this decade are Westendstrasse 1 (208.0 metres), Main Tower (200.0 metres) and Trianon (186.0 metres). In 21st-century Frankfurt, more high-rise buildings and skyscrapers (e.g., Skyper, Opernturm, Tower 185, Seat of the European Central Bank, Taunusturm) emerged, but none have surpassed Commerzbank Tower. Other tall structures[edit] Top of the Europaturm, a 337 m communications tower Europaturm — The Europe Tower is a telecommunications tower, also known as the Frankfurt TV Tower, built from 1974 to 1979. With a height of 337.5 metres it is the tallest tower and the second tallest structure in Germany after the Fernsehturm Berlin. It was open to the public until 1999, with an entertainment establishment in the revolving top. It is normally referred to by locals as the "Ginnheimer Spargel" (Ginnheim Asparagus), but stands a few metres within Bockenheim district. Henninger Turm — The Henninger Tower was a 120-metre-high grain silo built from 1959 to 1961 and owned by Henninger Brewery. It was the highest structure until 1974. The Henninger Tower had two rotating restaurants at the height of 101 and 106 metres and an open-air observation deck at the height of 110 metres. The tower closed to the public in October 2002 and was demolished in 2013 to be replaced by a 140 m (459 ft) tall residential tower, which is externally inspired by the old Henninger Turm. The cornerstone for this project was laid in June 2014 and construction was completed in summer 2017. The new tower offers 207 luxury flats [42] and houses the non-rotating restaurant „Franziska“. From 1962 to 2008 a famous yearly cycling race was named after the tower, the "Radrennen Rund um den Henninger Turm" (Cycling race around Henninger Tower). The now-renamed race is still a yearly event. Goetheturm — The Goethe Tower was a 43-metre-high (141 ft) tower on the northern edge of the Frankfurt City Forest in Sachsenhausen. It was the fifth tallest wood construction structure in Germany. It was built in 1931 and was a popular place for day-trippers until it burned down in 2017. A faithful reconstruction has been opened to the public on 12 October 2020, exactly three years after the original's destruction.[43] Shopping streets[edit] Zeil, Frankfurt's central shopping street. Zeil – Frankfurt's central shopping street. It is a pedestrian-only area and is bordered by two large public squares, Hauptwache in the west and Konstablerwache in the east. It is the second most expensive street for shops to rent in Germany after the Kaufingerstraße in Munich. 85 percent of the shops are retail chains such as H&M, Saturn, Esprit, Zara or NewYorker. In 2009 a new shopping mall named MyZeil opened there with nearly 100 stores and chains like Hollister. Three more shopping malls occupy the Zeil: UpperZeil (replacing the Zeilgalerie, which was demolished in 2016), Galeria Kaufhof and Karstadt, as well as large fashion retail clothing stores from Peek & Cloppenburg and C&A. During the month before Christmas, the extended pedestrian-only zone is host to Frankfurt Christmas Market, one of the largest and oldest Christmas markets in Germany. Goethestraße – Frankfurt's most expensive shopping street with prestigious shops like Louis Vuitton, Prada, Gucci, Tiffany, Giorgio Armani, Versace, Cartier, Burberry, Vertu and Bulgari. It is located between the financial district and the city centre and runs from Goetheplatz to Opernplatz. Freßgass – (officially Kalbächer Gasse and Große Bockenheimer Straße) is a pedestrian-only street section between Börsenstraße and Opernplatz in the city centre. The name translates as "feeding alley" because of its high concentration of gastronomy, but lately prestigious shops (e.g., Apple Store, Hugo Boss, Porsche Design) have moved here due to the lack of space in the neighbouring Goethestraße, displacing old, established restaurants, butchers and delicatessens. Berger Straße – Frankfurt's longest shopping street. It starts in the city center, runs through Nordend and Bornheim and ends in Seckbach. The street is less crowded than the Zeil and offers a greater variety of smaller shops, restaurants and cafés. Leipziger Straße – Central shopping street in the Bockenheim district starting at Bockenheimer Warte going towards West. High density of shops for daily needs. Braubachstraße – In the Altstadt district, close to the historic sites of the city, offers a large variety of art galleries, second-hand bookshops and antique shops. Münchener Straße – In the Bahnhofsviertel district, located between the central station and Willy-Brandt-Platz, is the most multicultural shopping street with many shops selling imported products mainly from Turkey, the Middle East and Asia. Kaiserstraße – One of the best-known streets and considered one of the most beautiful because of its amount of Gründerzeit-style buildings. It runs parallel to Münchener Straße from the central station to the financial district. Kaiserstraße is still a synonym for Frankfurt's Red-light district although sex-oriented businesses moved to neighbouring streets such as Taunusstrasse [de] in the 1990s. Today Kaiserstraße houses many small shops, restaurants and cafés. Kleinmarkthalle – (literally: Small Market Hall) is a market hall in the city centre close to Konstablerwache offering fresh food and flowers. In addition to regional delicacies like green sauce imported goods are offered. The Kleinmarkthalle is the largest public market place in Frankfurt. Sidewalk cafés at Fressgass Shopping mall MyZeil Luxury shopping at Goethestraße Green city[edit] Frankfurt City Forest With a large forest, many parks, the Main riverbanks and the two botanical gardens, Frankfurt is considered a "green city": More than 50 percent of the area within the city limits are protected green areas.[44] Frankfurter Grüngürtel – The Green Belt is a ring-shaped public green space around the city. With 8,000 ha it covers a third of the administrative area. It includes the Frankfurter Stadtwald (Frankfurt City Forest, Germany's largest forest within a city), the Schwanheimer Düne (Schwanheim Dune), the Niddatal (Nidda Valley), the Niddapark, the Lohrberg (Lohr Mountain, Frankfurt's only vineyard), the Huthpark, the Enkheimer Ried (Enkheim Marsh), the Seckbacher Ried (Seckbach Marsh) and the Fechenheimer Mainbogen (a S-shaped part of the Main river in Fechenheim). The Green Belt is a protected area which means that housing is not allowed. The Green Belt was formally created in 1991 with its own constitution. Mainuferpark – The Mainuferpark (Main Riverbanks Park) is the common term to describe the inner-city Main riverbanks. It is an auto-free zone with large green areas that is popular with strollers and tourists, especially in the summertime, when it can become crowded. The southern riverbank, which continues further to Offenbach am Main and Hanau, offers the best skyline views. The northern riverbank ends in the west at the former Westhafen (West Harbour, a residential housing area) and is growing to the east: A former industrial-used area between the new Seat of the European Central Bank and the Osthafen (East Harbour) has become a park named Hafenpark (Harbour Park), which offers outdoor courts for basketball, football and a skatepark. Wallanlagen – The Wallanlagen (former ramparts) relate to the former ring-shaped city wall fortifications around the Altstadt and the Innenstadt district (abolished 1804–1812), now a series of parks. Building is not allowed, with a few exceptions, the most famous being the Alte Oper (built 1880) at the Opernplatz. The part between the northern Main riverbank and the Opernplatz, referred to officially as Taunusanlage and Gallusanlage, is locally known as "Central Park" (a reference to the famous park in Manhattan), because of the skyscrapers which stand on both sides. Nizza Park – At the juncture of the northern Main riverbank and the Wallanlagen is a famous small park called Nizza. The name of the park recalls Nice in southern France, because it is one of the warmest areas with a nearly mediterranean climate. Numerous Mediterranean flora grow there and can survive outside during the winter. Garten des Himmlischen Friedens – Garden of Heavenly Peace, named after the Tiananmen Gate in Beijing, is a Chinese-styled park in the Nordend district and part of the larger Bethmannpark. It contains Chinese buildings, with building materials imported from China and built by Chinese workers in the 1980s. Hosts traditional Chinese plants and herbs. Other parks – The largest parks are the Niddapark (168 ha), the Ostpark (32 ha) and the Grüneburgpark (29 ha). Culture[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Museums[edit] The Städel Senckenberg Natural History Museum With more than 30 museums, Frankfurt has one of the largest variety of museums in Europe. 20 museums are part of the Museumsufer, located on the front row of both sides of the Main riverbank or nearby, which was created on an initiative by cultural politician Hilmar Hoffmann. Ten museums are located on the southern riverbank in Sachsenhausen between the Eiserner Steg and the Friedensbrücke. The street itself, Schaumainkai, is partially closed to traffic on Saturdays for Frankfurt's largest flea market. Deutsches Architekturmuseum (German Architecture Museum) Deutsches Filmmuseum (German Film Museum) Frankfurter Ikonenmuseum (Icon Museum Frankfurt) Liebieghaus (Museum of sculptures) Museum für Angewandte Kunst (Museum of Applied Arts) Museum Giersch (Museum for Regional Art) Museum für Kommunikation (Museum of Communications) Museum der Weltkulturen (Museum of World Cultures) Städel, one of the most famous art museums in Germany Bibelhaus Erlebnis Museum (Bible House Experience Museum) Two museums are located on the northern riverbank: Jüdisches Museum Frankfurt (Jewish Museum Frankfurt) Historisches Museum Frankfurt (Historical Museum Frankfurt) Not directly located on the northern riverbank in the Altstadt district are: Museum für Moderne Kunst (Museum of Modern Art) Schirn Kunsthalle Frankfurt (Schirn Art Gallery Frankfurt) Frankfurter Kunstverein (Art Association Frankfurt) Museum Judengasse (Jews' Alley Museum) Goethe-Haus (Goethe House) Archäologisches Museum Frankfurt (Archaeological Museum Frankfurt) Caricatura Museum für Komische Kunst Dommuseum Frankfurt (Frankfurt Cathedral Museum) Another important museum is located in the Westend district: Naturmuseum Senckenberg (Senckenberg Natural History Museum), the second largest natural history museum in Germany Other museums are the Dialogmuseum (Dialogue Museum) in the Ostend district, Eintracht Frankfurt Museum at Deutsche Bank Park, the Frankfurter Feldbahnmuseum (Light Railway Museum Frankfurt) in the Gallus district, the Verkehrsmuseum Frankfurt (Transport Museum Frankfurt) in the Schwanheim district, the Hammer Museum in the Bahnhofsviertel district and the Geldmuseum der Deutschen Bundesbank (Money Museum of the German Federal Bank) in the Ginnheim district. The Explora Museum+Wissenschaft+Technik (Explora Museum of Science and Engineering) in the Nordend district was closed in 2016. Performing arts[edit] Festhalle Frankfurt The English Theatre Music[edit] Eurodance and Trance music originated in Frankfurt. In 1989 German producers Michael Münzing and Luca Anzilotti (under the pseudonyms Benito Benites and John "Virgo" Garrett III) formed the Snap! project. Snap! songs combined Rap and Soul vocals adding rhythm by using computer technology and mixing electronic sounds, bass and drums. By doing so a new genre was born: Eurodance.[45] In the early 1990s, DJs including Sven Väth and DJ DAG (of Dance 2 Trance) first played a harder, deeper style of acid house that became popular worldwide over the next decade as Trance music. Some of the early and most influential Eurodance, Trance and Techno acts, e.g., La Bouche, Jam and Spoon, Magic Affair, Culture Beat, Snap!, Dance 2 Trance, Oliver Lieb and Hardfloor, and record labels such as Harthouse and Eye Q, were based in the city in the early 1990s. Venues[edit] Oper Frankfurt – A leading Germany opera company and one of Europe's most important. It was elected Opera house of the year (of Germany, Austria and German-speaking Switzerland) by German magazine Opernwelt in 1995, 1996 and 2003. It was also elected Best opera house in Germany in 2010 and 2011. Its orchestra was voted Orchestra of the year in 2009, 2010 and 2011.[46] Schauspiel Frankfurt – Theatre at Willy-Brandt-Platz in the financial district, next to the Frankfurt Opera. Frankfurt Radio Symphony (hr-Sinfonieorchester in German) – one of the top symphony orchestras in the world Festhalle Frankfurt – Multi-purpose hall next to the Messeturm at the grounds of the Frankfurt Trade Fair. It is mostly used for concerts, exhibitions or sport events and can accommodate up to 13,500. Deutsche Bank Park – Frankfurt's largest sports stadium and one of Germany's ten largest. It is located in the Frankfurt City Forest near Niederrad. It is primarily used for soccer and concerts with a capacity up to 51,500. It opened in 1925 and underwent several major reconstructions. Locals still prefer to call the stadium by its traditional name, Waldstadion (Forest Stadium). Alte Oper – A major concert hall. Jahrhunderthalle – Century Hall is a large concert and exhibition hall in Unterliederbach district. Sometimes referred to as "Jahrhunderthalle Höchst", because it was built to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the chemical company Hoechst AG in 1963. The English Theatre – Located on the ground floor of the Gallileo high-rise building, this is the largest anglophone theatre in continental Europe. It was established in 1979. Tigerpalast – Tiger Palace is a varieté in the city centre near the Zeil. It was established in 1988 and houses the famous Tiger-Restaurant which was awarded a Michelin star. Künstlerhaus Mousonturm – House of Artists Mouson Tower is a free theatre, which means that it has a smaller budget than traditional theatres and used more unconventional performing methods. It is located in an old factory in the Ostend district. Die Schmiere – The Grease is a cabaret and Frankfurt's oldest privately owned theatre. It is located in the Karmeliterkloster in the Altstadt district. According to its own advertising it is the worst theatre in the world. Die Komödie – The Comedy is a boulevard theatre in the city centre near Willy-Brandt-Platz. Botanical gardens[edit] Palmengarten Frankfurt is home to two major botanical gardens. Palmengarten – Located in the Westend district, it is Hesse's largest botanical garden covering 22 ha. It opened to the public in 1871. The botanical exhibits are organized according to their origin in free-air or in greenhouses that host tropical and subtropical plants, hence the name "Palm Garden". Botanischer Garten der Goethe-Universität – The university's botanical garden is also an arboretum. It contains about 5,000 species, with special collections of Rubus (45 species) and indigenous plants of central Europe. It is organized into two major areas: The geobotanical area contains an alpine garden, arboretum, meadows, steppes, marsh, and a pond, as well as collections of plants from the Canary Islands, Caucasus, East Asia, Mediterranean, and North America and the systematic and ecological collection includes crop plants, endangered species, ornamental plants, roses, and the Neuer Senckenbergischer Arzneipflanzengarten (New Senckenberg Medicinal Plant Garden, 1200 m2). The Botanical Garden, the neighbouring Palmengarten and the neighbouring Grüneburgpark form the largest inner-city green area. Foreign culture[edit] Instituto Cervantes – Named after Miguel de Cervantes, one of the most important Spanish authors, this is the world's largest organization for promoting the study and teaching of Spanish language and culture. 54 such Centros Cervantes across the world offer Spanish language and history courses. The Frankfurt branch was officially opened in September 2008 by Felipe, Prince of Asturias and his wife Letizia, Princess of Asturias. It is located in the so-called Amerika-Haus.[1] Institut Français – A French public industrial and commercial organization (EPIC), started in 1907 by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs for promoting French, francophone as well as local cultures around the world. The French Institute works closely with the French cultural network abroad consisting of more than 150 branches and nearly 1000 branches of the Alliance française around the world.[2] Istituto Italiano di Cultura – A worldwide non-profit organization created by the Italian government. It promotes Italian culture and is involved in the teaching of the Italian language; there are 83 Italian Cultural Institutes throughout major cities around the world.[3] Confucius Institute – A non-profit public educational organization affiliated with the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, whose aim is to promote Chinese language and culture, support local Chinese teaching internationally, and facilitate cultural exchanges. There are over 480 Confucius Institutes worldwide.[4] Central and Eastern European Online Library – CEEOL is an online archive providing access to full text articles from humanities and social science scholarly journals on Central, Eastern and South Eastern European topics. Subject areas include anthropology, culture and society, economy, gender studies, history, Judaic studies, fine arts, literature, linguistics, political sciences and social sciences, philosophy and religion. CEEOL is operated by Questa.Soft GmbH.[5] Festivals[edit] The Museumsuferfest in 2005 "OVO" at Luminale 2012 Museumsuferfest – Museums Riverbank Festival is one of Germany's biggest cultural festivals, attracting more than 3 million visitors over three days at the end of August along the Main riverbank in the city centre. The 20 museums there open far into the night. It offers live music, dance shows, booths for crafts, jewellery, clothes and food stands from around the world. Dippemess – Frankfurt's oldest folk festival is the Festival of Stoneware, which takes place semi-annually around Easter and the end of September in the eastern area. "Dippe" is a regional Hessian dialect word meaning "pot" or "jar" which would not be understood in most other German regions. Mentioned for the first time in the 14th century as an annual marketplace it is now more of an amusement park. The name of the festival derives from its original purpose, when it was a fair where traditionally crafted jars, pots and other stoneware were on offer. Wäldchestag – Day of the forest is known as a regional holiday because until the 1990s it was common that Frankfurt's shops were closed on this day. The festival takes place over four days after Pentecost with the formal Wäldchestag on Tuesday. Its unique location is in the Frankfurt City Forest, south-west of the city centre in Niederrad. "Wäldches" is a regional dialect of the German word "Wäldchen", meaning "small forest". Nacht der Museen – Night of the museums takes place every year in April or May. 50 museums in Frankfurt and in the neighbouring city of Offenbach am Main are open until 2:00 am surrounded by special music events, dance performances, readings and guided tours. A free shuttle operates between the museums. In 2010, approximately 40,000 visitors attended. Nacht der Clubs – Night of the clubs is an event similar to Nacht der Museen: On one night as many as 20 clubs can be visited with a single ticket for €12. Usually club-door-policies are loosened to attract new customers. A free shuttle runs between the clubs. 15,000 people participated in 2008. Luminale — The "festival of light" takes place biannually since 2000, parallel to the Light + building exhibition at the trade fair. Many buildings are specially lit for the event. In 2008, more than 220 light installations could be seen and attracted 100,000 visitors. The last Luminale was held in March 2018. Wolkenkratzer Festival — The Skyscraper Festival is unique in Germany. It takes place irregularly, lately in May 2013, and attracted around 1.2 million visitors. For two days most skyscrapers are open to the public. Sky-divers, base jumpers, fireworks and laser shows are extra attractions. Nightlife[edit] Frankfurt offers a variety of restaurants, bars, pubs and clubs. Clubs concentrate in and around the city centre and in the Ostend district, mainly close to Hanauer Landstraße. Restaurants, bars and pubs concentrate in Sachsenhausen, Nordend, Bornheim and Bockenheim. In electronic music, Frankfurt was a pioneering city in the late 1980s and early 1990s, with renowned DJs including Sven Väth, Marc Trauner, Scot Project and Kai Tracid. One of the main venues of the early Trance music sound was the Omen nightclub from 1988 to 1998. Another popular disco club of the 1980s–1990s and a hotspot for Techno/Trance music was the Dorian Gray, which was located within Terminal 1 at Frankfurt Airport from 1978 to 2000. Further popular venues were the U60311 (1998–2012) and the Coocoon Club in Fechenheim (2004–2012). Notable live music venues of the past include the Sinkkasten Arts Club (1971–2011) and the King Kamehameha Club (1999–2013). Among the most popular active rock and pop concert venues is the Batschkapp in Seckbach, which opened in 1976 as a center for autonomous and left-wing counter culture. Further popular active clubs and music venues include the Velvet Club, The Cave, Cooky's, Nachtleben, Silbergold, Zoom, Tanzhaus West and the Yachtclub. Domestic culture[edit] A "Frankfurt kitchen" in the version of 1926 in an Austrian museum Frankfurt kitchen – Designed originally in 1926 for the New Frankfurt-project and built in some 10,000 units, the kitchen became a milestone in domestic architecture, considered the forerunner of modern fitted kitchens. Frankfurt cupboard – The Baroque Frankfurt-style cupboards were used to store the family linen, one of them by Goethe's father, who took one cupboard to Rome. The most luxurious versions have wave-shaped parts, some are made of solid cherry wood inlaid with plumwood. Culinary specialties[edit] See also: Hessian cuisine "Bembel" (jug) and "Geripptes" (glas) Apfelwein – Apple wine or hard cider is regionally known as "Ebbelwoi", "Äppler" or "Stöffsche". It has an alcohol content of 5.5%–7% and a tart, sour taste. It is traditionally served in a glass, typically decorated with lozenges, called "Geripptes", a full glass is then called "Schoppen". Apfelwein is also available in a stoneware jar locally known as "Bembel". A group normally orders a "Bembel" and shares the contents. Apfelwein can be ordered as "sauergespritzer", which is apfelwein blended with 30% mineral water or as "süssgespritzer", which is Apfelwein blended with lemon soda, orange soda or fresh-pressed apple juice (lemon soda being the most common). Most of the pubs which serve Apfelwein are located in Sachsenhausen, which is therefore known as "Ebbelwoi district". Due to its national drink Frankfurt is sometimes called "Big Ebbel" (pronunciation with hessian dialect), an homage to Big Apple, the famous nickname of New York City. Grüne Soße – Green sauce is a sauce made with hard-boiled eggs, oil, vinegar, salt and generous amount of seven fresh herbs, namely borage, sorrel, garden cress, chervil, chives, parsley and salad burnet. Variants, often due to seasonal availability include dill, lovage, lemon balm and spinach. Original green sauce Frankfurt-style is made of herbs that were gathered only on fields within the city limits. Frankfurter Würstchen – "short Frankfurter" is a small sausage made of smoked pork. They are similar to hot dogs. The name Frankfurter Würstchen has been trademarked since 1860. Frankfurter Rindswurst – Sausage made of pure beef. Frankfurter Rippchen – Also known as Rippchen mit Kraut, this is a traditional dish which consists of cured pork cutlets, slowly heated in sauerkraut or meat broth, and usually served with sauerkraut, mashed potatoes and yellow mustard. Handkäs mit Musik – German regional sour milk cheese (similar to Harzer) and a culinary specialty in the Rhine Main Region. The traditional way producing it is by hand. When it is topped with chopped onions it becomes "Handkäs mit Musik" (with music) because the onions are supposed to stimulate flatulence. Frankfurter Kranz – Cake speciality believed to originate from Frankfurt. Bethmännchen – "A little Bethmann" is a pastry made from marzipan with almond, powdered sugar, rosewater, flour, and egg. It is usually baked for Christmas. Quality of life[edit] In a 2001 ranking by the University of Liverpool, Frankfurt was rated the richest city in Europe by GDP per capita, followed by Karlsruhe, Paris and Munich.[47] Frankfurt was voted the 7th in the Mercer Quality of Living Survey by the Mercer Quality of Living Survey (2012),[48] seventh in the Mercer Quality of Living Survey (2010) and 18th at the Economist's World's Most Liveable Cities Survey (2011).[49] According to an annual citizen survey (2010), arranged by the city council, 66 percent inhabitants are satisfied or highly satisfied with the city, while only 6 percent said that they are dissatisfied. Compared to the 1993's survey the number of satisfied inhabitants has grown about 22 percent while the number of dissatisfied inhabitants was reduced by 8 percent. 84 percent of the inhabitants like to live in Frankfurt, 13 percent would rather choose to live somewhere else. 37 percent are satisfied with the public safety (1993: only 9 percent), 22 percent are dissatisfied (1993: 64 percent).[50] Frankfurt consistently has the highest levels of crime per 100,000 inhabitants in Germany (15.976 crimes per annum in 2008) and is therefore dubbed the German "crime capital".[51] However, this statistic is often criticized[citation needed] because it ignores major factors: It is calculated based on the administrative 680,000-inhabitant figure while the urban area has 2.5 M inhabitants and on weekdays adds another million people[citation needed] (not counting the 53 million passengers passing through the airport each year). The rate for personal safety-relevant crimes such as murder, manslaughter, rape or bodily harm, is 3.4 percent, placing Frankfurt twelfth in the ranking (related to the official 680,000-inhabitant figure) or number 21 (related to the one-million-figure).[52] In 2018, the state of Hesse, where Frankfurt is located, was ranked the third-safest state in Germany.[53] Transport[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Airports[edit] Frankfurt Airport (with the fourth runway under construction in 2010) and the Frankfurter Kreuz (lower right corner) Frankfurt Airport[edit] The city can be accessed from around the world via Frankfurt Airport (Flughafen Frankfurt am Main) located 12 km (7 mi) southwest of the city centre. The airport has four runways and serves 265 non-stop destinations. Run by transport company Fraport it ranks among the world's busiest airports by passenger traffic and is the busiest airport by cargo traffic in Europe. The airport also serves as a hub for Condor and as the main hub for German flag carrier Lufthansa. It is the busiest airport in Europe in terms of cargo traffic, and the fourth busiest in Europe in terms of passenger traffic behind London Heathrow Airport, Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport and Amsterdam Airport Schiphol. Passenger traffic at Frankfurt Airport in 2018 was 69,510,269 passengers. A third terminal is being constructed (planned to open in 2023). The third terminal will increase the capacity of the airport to over 90 million passengers per year.[54] The airport can be reached by car or bus and has two railway stations, one for regional and one for long-distance traffic. The S-Bahn lines S8 and S9 (direction Offenbach Ost or Hanau Hbf) departing at the regional station take 10–15 minutes from the airport to Frankfurt Central Station and onwards to the city centre (Hauptwache station), the IC and ICE trains departing at the long-distance station take 10 minutes to Frankfurt Central Station. Frankfurt Hahn Airport[edit] Despite the name, Frankfurt Hahn Airport (Flughafen Frankfurt-Hahn) is situated approximately 120 km (75 mi) from the city in Lautzenhausen (Rhineland-Palatinate). Hahn Airport is a major base for low-cost carrier Ryanair. This airport can only be reached by car or bus. An hourly bus service runs from Frankfurt Central Station, taking just over 2 hours.[55] Passenger traffic at Hahn Airport in 2010 was 3.5 million. Frankfurt Egelsbach Airport[edit] Frankfurt Egelsbach Airport (Flugplatz Frankfurt-Egelsbach) is a busy general aviation airport located south-east of Frankfurt Airport, near Egelsbach. Roads[edit] Rush hour on Autobahn 5 Frankfurt is a traffic hub for the German motorway (Autobahn) system. The Frankfurter Kreuz is an Autobahn interchange close to the airport, where the Bundesautobahn 3 (A3), Cologne to Würzburg, and the Bundesautobahn 5 (A5), Basel to Hanover, meet. With approximately 320,000 cars passing through it every day it is Europe's most heavily used interchange. The Bundesautobahn 66 (A66) connects Frankfurt with Wiesbaden in the west and Fulda in the east. The Bundesautobahn 661 (A661) is mainly a commuter motorway which starts in the south (Egelsbach), runs through the eastern part and ends in the north (Oberursel). The Bundesautobahn 648 (A648) is a very short motorway in the western part which primarily serves as a fast connection between the A 66 and the Frankfurt Trade Fair. The A5 in the west, the A3 in the south and the A661 in the north-east form a ring road around the inner city districts and define a Low-emission zone (Umweltzone; established in 2008), meaning that vehicles have to meet certain emission criteria to enter the zone. The streets of central Frankfurt are usually congested with cars during rush hour. Some areas, especially around the shopping streets Zeil, Goethestraße and Freßgass, are pedestrian-only streets. Car parks are located throughout the city and especially in the city centre. Railway stations[edit] Frankfurt Central Station S-Bahn at Central station (underground) Frankfurt Central Station[edit] Frankfurt Central Station (Frankfurt Hauptbahnhof, often abbreviated as Frankfurt (Main) Hbf or F-Hbf) is the largest railway station in Germany by railway traffic. By daily passenger volume, it ranks second together with Munich Central Station (350,000 each) after Hamburg Central Station (450,000). It is located between the Gallus, the Gutleutviertel and the Bahnhofsviertel district, not far away from the trade fair and the financial district. It serves as a major hub for long-distance trains (InterCity, ICE) and regional trains as well as for Frankfurt's public transport system. It is a stop for most of ICE high speed lines, making it Germany's most important ICE station. ICE Trains to London via the Channel Tunnel were planned for 2013.[56] All Rhine-Main S-Bahn lines, two U-Bahn lines (U4, U5), several tram and bus lines stop there. Regional and local trains are integrated in the Public transport system Rhein-Main-Verkehrsverbund (RMV), the second largest integrated public transport systems in the world, after Verkehrsverbund Berlin-Brandenburg. Frankfurt Airport stations[edit] Frankfurt Airport can be accessed by two railway stations: Frankfurt Airport long-distance station (Frankfurt Flughafen Fernbahnhof) is only for long-distance traffic and connects the airport to the main rail network, with most of the ICE services using the Cologne-Frankfurt high-speed rail line. The long-distance station is located outside the actual airport ground but has a connecting bridge for pedestrians to Terminal 1, concourse B. Frankfurt Airport regional station (Frankfurt Flughafen Regionalbahnhof) is for local S-Bahn trains (lines S8, S9) and regional trains. The regional station is located within Terminal 1, concourse B. Frankfurt South station[edit] Frankfurt's third long-distance station is Frankfurt South station (Frankfurt Südbahnhof, often abbreviated as Frankfurt (Main) Süd or F-Süd), located in Sachsenhausen. It is an important destination for local trains and trams (lines 15, 16 and 18) and the terminal stop for four U-Bahn lines (U1, U2, U3, U8) as well as two S-Bahn lines (S5, S6). Two other S-Bahn lines (S3, S4) also serve the station. Messe stations[edit] The Frankfurt Trade Fair offers two railway stations: Messe station is for local S-Bahn trains (lines S3-S6) and is located at the centre of the trade fair premises while Festhalle/Messe station is served by U-Bahn line U4 and is located at the north-east corner of the premises. Konstablerwache station and Hauptwache station[edit] Two other major railway stations in the city centre are Konstablerwache and Hauptwache, located on each end of the Zeil. They are the main stations to change from east-to-west-bound S-Bahn trains to north-to-south-bound U-Bahn trains. Konstablerwache station is the second-busiest railway station regarding daily passenger volume (191,000) after the central station. The third-busiest railway station is Hauptwache station (181,000).[57][58] Frankfurt West Station[edit] This Station, located in Bockenheim, is served by north-heading Long-Distance ICE trains, multiple regional trains, and four commuter S-Bahn lines (S3, S4, S5, S6). Additionally, it is an important terminal stop for three "Metrobus" lines (M32, M36, M73). Coach stations[edit] There are three stations for intercity bus services in Frankfurt: one at the south side of the Central Station, one at the Terminal 2 of the airport and another one at Stephanstraße.[59] Public transport[edit] Public transport network Main article: Public transport in Frankfurt am Main The city has two rapid transit systems: the U-Bahn and the S-Bahn, as well as an above-ground tram system. Information about the U- and S-Bahn can be found on the website of the RMV.[60] S-Bahn[edit] Main article: Rhine-Main S-Bahn Nine S-Bahn lines (S1 to S9) connect Frankfurt with the densely populated Rhine Main Region. Most routes have at least 15-minute service during the day, either by one line running every 15 minutes, or by two lines servicing one route at a 30-minute interval. All lines, except line S7, run through the Frankfurt city tunnel and serve the stations Ostendstraße, Konstablerwache, Hauptwache, Taunusanlage and Frankfurt Central Station. When leaving the city the S-Bahn travels above ground. It provides access to the trade fair (S3, S4, S5, S6), the airport (S8, S9), the stadium (S7, S8, S9) and nearby cities such as Wiesbaden, Mainz, Darmstadt, Rüsselsheim, Hanau, Offenbach am Main, Oberursel, Bad Homburg, Kronberg, Friedberg and smaller towns that are on the way. The S8/S9 runs 24/7. U-Bahn[edit] Main article: Frankfurt U-Bahn The U-Bahn has nine lines (U1 to U9) serving Frankfurt and the larger suburbs of Bad Homburg and Oberursel in the north. The trains that run on the U-Bahn are in fact light rail (Stadtbahn) as many lines travel along a track in the middle of the street instead of underground further from the city centre. The minimum service interval is 2.5 minutes, although the usual pattern is that each line runs at 7.5 to 10-minute intervals, which produce between 3 and 5-minute intervals on city centre tracks shared by more than one line. Tram[edit] Main article: Trams in Frankfurt am Main Frankfurt has ten tram lines (11, 12, 14 to 21), with trams arriving usually every 10 minutes. Many sections are served by two lines, combining to run at 5-minute intervals during rush-hour. Trams only run above ground and serve more stops than the U-Bahn or the S-Bahn. Bus[edit] Main article: Public transport in Frankfurt am Main § Bus A number of bus lines complete the Frankfurt public transport system. Night buses replace U-Bahn and tram services between 1:30 am and 3:30 am.[61] The central junction for the night bus service is Konstablerwache in the city centre, where all night bus lines start and end. Taxis[edit] Taxicabs can usually be found outside the major S-Bahn and U-Bahn stations, at the central station, the south station, the airport, the trade fair and in the crowded inner-city shopping streets. The common way to obtain a taxi is to either call a taxi operator or to go to a taxi rank. However, although not the norm, one can hail a passing taxi on the street. Uber ceased operations in Frankfurt on 9 November 2015 after operating in the city for 18 months.[62] Bicycles[edit] Velotaxi at the Zeil Deutsche Bahn makes bicycles available for hire through their Call a Bike service. The bicycles are stationed all over the city, including at selected railway stations. They can easily be spotted because of their eye-catching silver-red colour. To rent a specific bike, riders either call a service number to get an unlock code or reserve the bike via the smartphone application. To return the bike, the rider locks it within a designated return area (and calls the service number, if not booked via the app).[63] Nextbike also makes bicycles available for hire in Frankfurt. They are stationed all over the city. These can be spotted with their blue color scheme. Cycle rickshaws (velotaxis), a type of tricycle designed to carry passengers in addition to the driver, are also available. These are allowed to operate in pedestrian-only areas and are therefore practical for sightseeing. Frankfurt has a network of cycle routes. Many long-distance bike routes into the city have cycle tracks that are separate from motor vehicle traffic. A number of roads in the city centre are "bicycle streets" where the cyclist has the right of way and where motorised vehicles are only allowed access if they do not disrupt the cycle users. In addition, cyclists are allowed to ride many cramped one-way streets in both directions. As of 2015[update], 15 percent of citizens used bicycles.[64] Economy and business[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Frankfurt is one of the world's most important financial centres and Germany's financial capital, followed by Munich. Frankfurt was ranked 8th at the International Financial Centers Development Index (2013), 8th at the Worldwide Centres of Commerce Index (2008), 9th at the Global Financial Centres Index (September 2013),[65] 10th at the Global Power City Index (2011), 11th at the Global City Competitiveness Index (2012), 12th at the Innovation Cities Index (2011),[66] 14th at the World City Survey (2011) and 23rd at the Global Cities Index (2012).[67] The city's importance as a financial centre has risen since the eurozone crisis. Indications are the establishment of two institutions of the European System of Financial Supervisors (European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority and European Systemic Risk Board) in 2011 and the Single Supervisory Mechanism by which the European Central Bank was to assume responsibility for specific supervisory tasks related to the financial stability of the biggest and most important Eurozone banks. According to an annual study by Cushman & Wakefield, the European Cities Monitor (2010), Frankfurt has been one of the top three cities for international companies in Europe, after London and Paris, since the survey started in 1990.[68] It is the only German city considered to be an alpha world city (category 3) as listed by the Loughborough University group's 2010 inventory,[69] which was a promotion from the group's 2008 inventory when it was ranked as an alpha minus world city (category 4).[70] With over 922 jobs per 1,000 inhabitants, Frankfurt has the highest concentration of jobs in Germany. On work days and Saturdays one million people commute from all over the Rhein-Main-Area. The city is expected to benefit from international banks relocating jobs from London to Frankfurt as a result of Brexit to retain access to the EU market.[71][72] Thus far, Morgan Stanley, Citigroup Inc., Standard Chartered Plc and Nomura Holdings Inc. announced they would move their EU headquarters to Frankfurt.[72] Central banks[edit] The new headquarters of the European Central Bank in the Ostend district Frankfurt is home to two important central banks: the German Bundesbank and the European Central Bank (ECB).[73] European Central Bank[edit] The European Central Bank (Europäische Zentralbank) is one of the world's most important central banks. The ECB sets monetary policy for the Eurozone, consisting of 19 EU member states that have adopted the Euro (€) as their common currency. From 1998 the ECB Headquarters have been located in Frankfurt, first in the Eurotower at Willy-Brandt-Platz and in two other nearby high-rises. The new Seat of the European Central Bank in the Ostend district, consisting of the former wholesale market hall (Großmarkthalle) and a newly built 185-metre skyscraper, was completed in late 2014. The new building complex was designed to accommodate up to 2,300 ECB personnel. The location is a few kilometres away from the city centre and borders an industrial area as well as the Osthafen (East Harbour), It was primarily chosen because of its large premises which allows the ECB to install security arrangements without high fences. The city honours the importance of the ECB by officially using the slogan "The City of the Euro" since 1998. Deutsche Bundesbank[edit] The Deutsche Bundesbank (German Federal Bank), located in Ginnheim, was established in 1957 as the central bank for the Federal Republic of Germany. Until the euro (€) was introduced in 1999, the Deutsche Bundesbank was responsible for the monetary policy of Germany and for the German currency, the Deutsche Mark (DM). The Bundesbank was greatly respected for its control of inflation through the second half of the 20th century. Today the Bundesbank is an integral part of the European System of Central Banks (ESCB) which is formed by all 27 EU member states. Commercial banks[edit] Deutsche Bank Twin Towers Westend Tower, also known as Westendstraße 1 or Crown Tower, Headquarters of DZ Bank Opernturm, Headquarters of UBS Germany, at the Opernplatz In 2010, 63 national and 152 international banks had a registered office, including the headquarters of the major German banks, as well as 41 offices of international banks.[6] Frankfurt is therefore known as Bankenstadt ("City of the banks") and nicknamed "Mainhattan" (a portmanteau of the local Main river and Manhattan in New York City) or "Bankfurt". 73,200 people were employed at banks in 2010. Deutsche Bank — Germany's largest commercial bank. It had 15% share of private customers and total assets of €1,900 billion in 2010. Deutsche Bank ranks among the 30 largest banks in the world and the ten largest banks in Europe.[74] Deutsche Bank is listed on the DAX, the stock market index of the 30 largest German business companies at the Frankfurt Stock Exchange. In November 2010 Deutsche Bank bought the majority of shares of competitor Postbank. Its headquarters are located at Taunusanlage in the financial district. DZ Bank — Central institution for more than 900 co-operative banks (Volksbanken und Raiffeisenbanken) and their 12,000 branch offices in Germany and is a corporate and investment bank. It is Germany's second-largest bank (total assets: €509 billion). The DZ Bank Group defines itself primarily as a service provider for the local Volksbanken and Raiffeisenbanken and their 30 million clients. The DZ Bank headquarters are the Westend Tower and the City-Haus at Platz der Republik. The DZ Bank Group includes Union Investment, DVB Bank and Reisebank, which are also headquartered in Frankfurt. KfW Bankengruppe — Government-owned development bank formed in 1948 as part of the Marshall Plan. KfW provides loans for approved purposes at lower rates than commercial banks, especially to medium-sized businesses. With total assets of €507 billion (2017), it is Germany's third-largest bank. The KfW headquarters are located in the Westend district at Bockenheimer Landstraße and Senckenberganlage. Commerzbank — Germany's fourth-largest bank by total assets (2017). In 2009, Commerzbank merged with competitor Dresdner Bank, then the third-largest German bank. Due to the merger and the higher credit risks, Commerzbank was 25% nationalized during the Great Recession. It is listed in the DAX. Its headquarters are at Commerzbank Tower (259 metres), the second-tallest building in the EU, at Kaiserplatz. Landesbank Hessen-Thüringen – Landesbank Hessen-Thüringen, or short Helaba, is the central federal bank (Landesbank) for the federal states of Hesse and Thuringia. As such, it is state-owned and defined as a service provider for the local German public banks (Sparkassen). Helaba is one of nine Landesbanken and is the fifth-largest in Germany. It is located in the 200-metre-tall Main Tower in the financial district, the only skyscraper with an observation desk open to the public. DekaBank – DekaBank is the central asset manager of the Sparkassen in Germany. The headquarters of DekaBank are located at the Trianon skyscraper at Mainzer Landstraße. ING Diba Germany – Germany's largest direct bank, headquartered in Bockenheim. Other major German banks include Frankfurter Volksbank, the second-largest Volksbank in Germany, Frankfurter Sparkasse and old-established private banks such as Bankhaus Metzler, Hauck & Aufhäuser and Delbrück Bethmann Maffei. Many international banks have a registered or a representative office, e.g., Credit Suisse, UBS, Bank of America, Morgan Stanley, Goldman Sachs, Merrill Lynch, JPMorgan Chase & Co., Bank of China, Banco do Brasil, Itaú Unibanco Société Générale, BNP Paribas, SEB, Royal Bank of Scotland and Barclays. Frankfurt Stock Exchange[edit] Main article: Frankfurt Stock Exchange Bull and bear in front of the Frankfurt Stock Exchange The Frankfurt Stock Exchange (Frankfurter Wertpapierbörse) began in the 9th century. By the 16th century Frankfurt had developed into an important European hub for trade fairs and financial services. Today the Frankfurt Stock Exchange is by far the largest in Germany, with a turnover of more than 90 percent of the German stock market and is the third-largest in Europe after the London Stock Exchange and the European branch of the NYSE Euronext. The most important stock market index is the DAX, the index of the 30 largest German business companies listed at the stock exchange. The stock exchange is owned and operated by Deutsche Börse, which is itself listed in the DAX. Deutsche Börse also owns the European futures exchange Eurex and clearing company Clearstream. Trading takes place exclusively via the Xetra trading system, with redundant floor brokers taking on the role of market-makers on the new platform. On 1 February 2012 European Commission blocked the proposed merger of Deutsche Börse and NYSE Euronext. "The merger between Deutsche Börse and NYSE Euronext would have led to a near-monopoly in European financial derivatives worldwide. These markets are at the heart of the financial system and it is crucial for the whole European economy that they remain competitive. We tried to find a solution, but the remedies offered fell far short of resolving the concerns."[75] European competition commissioner Joaquín Almunia said. It is located in the city centre at the Börsenplatz. Deutsche Börse's headquarters are formally registered in Frankfurt, but it moved most of its employees to a high-rise called "The Cube" in Eschborn in 2010, primarily due to significantly lower local corporate taxes. Frankfurt Trade Fair[edit] Messeturm seen from the trade fair premises Main article: Frankfurt Trade Fair Frankfurt Trade Fair (Messe Frankfurt) has the third-largest exhibition site in the world with a total of 578,000 square metres (6,221,540 square feet). The trade fair premises are located in the western part between Bockenheim, the Westend and the Gallus district. It houses ten exhibition halls with a total of 321,754 square meters (3,463,331 square feet) of space and 96,078 square metres (1,034,175 square feet) of outdoor space. Hosted in Frankfurt are the Frankfurt Motor Show (Internationale Automobil-Ausstellung – IAA), the world's largest auto show, the Frankfurt Book Fair (Frankfurter Buchmesse), the world's largest book fair, the Ambiente Frankfurt, the world's largest consumer goods fair, the Achema, the world's largest plant engineering fair, and many more like Paperworld, Christmasworld, Beautyworld, Tendence Lifestyle or Light+Building. Messe Frankfurt GmbH, the owner and operator company, organized 87 exhibitions in 2010, 51 thereof in foreign countries. It is one of the largest trade fair companies with commercial activities in over 150 countries. Messeturm[edit] A landmark building of the trade fair (and of the whole city) is the Messeturm (the name translates as Fair Trade Tower), which was the tallest building in Europe from 1991 to 1997. It is located on the north-east corner of the trade fair premises at the so-called city entrance. Despite the name it is not used for exhibition but serves as an office tower. Aviation[edit] Two Lufthansa Airbus A380s at Frankfurt Airport Frankfurt Airport is one of the busiest airports in the world and is also the single largest place of work in Germany with over 500 companies which employ 71,500 people (2010).[76] Lufthansa[edit] The largest company at Frankfurt Airport is Lufthansa, Germany's flag carrier and Europe's largest airline. Lufthansa employs 35,000 people in Frankfurt.[77][78] The Lufthansa Aviation Center (LAC) is the main operation base of Lufthansa at Frankfurt Airport. The airport serves as Lufthansa's primary hub with 157 worldwide destinations (compared to 110 destinations at Munich Airport, Lufthansa's second-largest hub). Lufthansa Cargo is based in Frankfurt and operates its largest cargo center (LCC) at Frankfurt Airport. Lufthansa Flight Training is also based here. Fraport[edit] Fraport is the owner and operator of Frankfurt Airport. It is the airport's second-largest employer (19,800 workers in 2010).[79] Fraport also operates other airports worldwide, e.g., King Abdulaziz International Airport in Jeddah, Jorge Chávez International Airport in Lima and Antalya Airport. Condor[edit] Condor is a German airline and part of Thomas Cook Group, based at Frankfurt Airport. Other industries[edit] Accountancy and professional services[edit] Three of the four largest international accountancy and professional services firms (Big Four) are present. PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) German headquarters are located at Tower 185. KPMG moved its European Headquarters (KPMG Europe LLP) to The Squaire. Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu are present, while Ernst & Young is located in Eschborn. Credit rating agencies[edit] The three major international credit rating agencies – Standard & Poor's, Moody's and Fitch Ratings – have their German headquarters in Frankfurt. Investment trust companies[edit] DWS Investments is the largest investment trust company in Germany and manages €288 billion fund assets. It is one of the 10 largest investment trust companies in the world.[80] Other large investment trust companies are Allianz Global Investors Europe (a division of Allianz SE, and a top-five global active investment manager with €1,933 billion assets under management globally), Union Investment and Deka Investmentfonds. Management consultancies[edit] Many of the largest international management consultancies are represented, including Arthur D. Little, McKinsey & Company, Boston Consulting Group, Booz & Company, Oliver Wyman, Bearing Point, Capgemini, Bain & Company and Roland Berger Strategy Consultants. Real estate services companies[edit] Located in Frankfurt are the German headquarters of Jones Lang LaSalle and BNP Paribas Real Estate. Law firms[edit] Frankfurt has the highest concentration of lawyers in Germany, with one lawyer per 97 inhabitants (followed by Düsseldorf with a ratio of 1/117 and Munich with 1/124) in 2005.[81] Most of the large international law firms maintain offices, among them Allen & Overy, Baker & McKenzie, Bird & Bird, Clifford Chance, Cleary Gottlieb Steen & Hamilton, Debevoise & Plimpton, DLA Piper, Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer, Hogan Lovells, Jones Day, Latham & Watkins, Linklaters, Mayer Brown, Milbank, Tweed, Hadley & McCloy, Norton Rose, Shearman & Sterling, Sidley Austin, SJ Berwin, Skadden, Arps, Slate, Meagher & Flom, Sullivan & Cromwell, K&L Gates, Taylor Wessing and White & Case. Advertising agencies[edit] Although it is best known for its banks and financial institutions, Frankfurt is also a centre for media companies. Around 570 companies of the advertising industry and 270 public relations companies are there. According to a ranking of German FOCUS magazine (November 2007) seven of the 48 largest advertising agencies in Germany are based in Frankfurt, including Havas, Dentsu, McCann-Erickson, Saatchi & Saatchi, JWT, and Publicis.[82] Food[edit] Frankfurt is home to the German headquarters of Nestlé, the world's largest food company, located in Niederrad. Other important food companies are Ferrero SpA (German headquarters) and Radeberger Gruppe KG, the largest private brewery group in Germany. Automotive[edit] The South-Korean automobile manufacturer Kia Motors moved its European headquarters to Frankfurt in 2007. In the same year Italian manufacturer Fiat opened its new German headquarters. The automotive supplier Continental AG has the headquarters and a major manufacturing plant of its Chassis & Safety division (formerly ITT Automotive) located in Frankfurt Rödelheim. Construction[edit] Some of the largest German construction companies have offices, e.g., Bilfinger Berger, Hochtief, Züblin and BAM Deutschland. Property and real estate[edit] Frankfurt has Germany's highest concentration of homeowners. This is partly attributed to the financial sector, but also to its cosmopolitan nature, with expatriates and immigrants representing one fourth of its population. For this reason Frankfurt's property market often operates differently than the rest of the country where the prices are generally flatter. Tourism[edit] Frankfurt is one of Germany's leading tourist destinations. In addition to its infrastructure and economy, its diversity supports a vibrant cultural scene. This blend of attractions led 4.3 million tourists (2012) to visit Frankfurt.[83] The Hotels in central Frankfurt offer 34,000 beds in 228 hotels, of which 13 are luxury hotels and 46 are first-class hotels.[84] Other[edit] Industriepark Höchst Mainova heating plant Frankfurt is home to companies from the chemical, the transportation, the telecommunication and the energy industry. Some of the larger companies are: Industriepark Höchst — An industrial park in Höchst. It is one of Germany's largest with over 90 companies from the pharmaceutical, the chemical and the biotechnology industry, including Celanese, Clariant, BASF, Merck KGaA and Siemens. It was founded by chemical company Hoechst AG in 1874. At the beginning of the 1980s Hoechst AG was the largest pharmaceutical corporation and Industriepark Höchst was known as "the pharmacy of the world". Hoechst AG merged with Rhône-Poulenc to become Aventis in 1999 and in 2004 Aventis merged with Sanofi-Synthélabo to become Sanofi-Aventis. In 2005, around 22,000 people worked at Industriepark Höchst. In 2011, Ticona now part of Celanese, an international manufacturer of engineering polymers, moved to Industriepark Höchst. Deutsche Bahn – Deutsche Bahn subsidiaries DB Fernverkehr, DB Regio, DB Stadtverkehr, DB Netz, DB Schenker and the corporate development department of Deutsche Bahn are Frankfurt-based. Deutsche Telekom – Deutsche Telekom's subsidiary T-Systems is Frankfurt-based. COLT – Telecommunications company with Frankfurt-based German headquarters. CenturyLink — internet service provider with German headquarters in Frankfurt. DE-CIX – Frankfurt is an important location for electronic communication, especially the Internet. It is home to DE-CIX, the world's largest internet exchange point, and also the place where domain names are registered for top-level-domain ".de". Mainova – The largest regional energy supplier in Germany with about one million customers in Hesse. It provides electricity, gas, heat and water. Its headquarters are Frankfurt-based. Urban area (suburban) businesses[edit] Within Frankfurt's urban area are several important companies. The business centre of Eschborn is located right at Frankfurt's city limits in the west and attracts businesses with significantly lower corporate taxes compared to Frankfurt. Major companies in Eschborn include Ernst & Young, Vodafone Germany, Randstad Holding and VR Leasing. Deutsche Börse moved most of its employees to Eschborn in 2010. Rüsselsheim is internationally known for its automobile manufacturer Opel, one of the biggest automobile manufacturers in Germany. With 20,000 employees in 2003, Opel was one of the five largest employers in Hesse. Offenbach am Main is home to the European headquarters of automobile manufacturer Hyundai Motor Company, to the German headquarters of automobile manufacturer Honda, to Honeywell Germany and to Deutscher Wetterdienst, the central scientific agency that monitors weather and meteorological conditions over Germany. Two DAX companies are located in Bad Homburg vor der Höhe, Fresenius SE & Co. KGaA and Fresenius Medical Care. Other major companies are Hewlett-Packard, Bridgestone, Deutsche Leasing and Basler Versicherungen. Kronberg im Taunus is home of the German headquarters of automobile manufacturer Jaguar Cars as well as the German headquarters of Accenture. Lufthansa Systems, a subsidiary of Lufthansa, is located in Kelsterbach. LSG Sky Chefs, another subsidiary of Lufthansa, is located in Neu-Isenburg. The German headquarters of Thomas Cook Group are based in Oberursel. Langen is home to Deutsche Flugsicherung, the German air traffic control. Public institutions[edit] Westhafen Tower, home to the European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority (EIOPA) European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority[edit] The European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority (EIOPA) is an institution of the EU and part of the European System of Financial Supervisors that was created in response to the financial crisis of 2007–2008. It was established on 1 January 2011. Federal Financial Supervisory Authority[edit] Frankfurt is one of two locations of the German Federal Financial Supervisory Authority (Bundesanstalt für Finanzdienstleistungsaufsicht, short: BaFin). The BaFin is an independent federal institution and acts as Germany's financial regulatory authority. International Finance Corporation[edit] Frankfurt is home to the German office of the International Finance Corporation (IFC), which is part of the World Bank Group. The IFC promotes sustainable private sector investment in developing countries. German National Library[edit] Frankfurt is one of two sites of the German National Library (Deutsche Nationalbibliothek), the other being Leipzig. The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek is the largest universal library in Germany.[citation needed] Its task, unique in Germany, is to collect, permanently archive, comprehensively document and record bibliographically all German and German-language publications from 1913 on, foreign publications about Germany, translations of German works and the works of German-speaking emigrants published abroad between 1933 and 1945, and to make them available to the public.[citation needed] Consulates[edit] Greek consulate As a profoundly international city, Frankfurt hosts 92 diplomatic missions (consulates and consulates-general).[citation needed] Worldwide, only New York City and Hamburg are non-capital cities with more foreign representation.[citation needed] The Consulate General of the United States in Eckenheim is the largest American consulate in the world.[citation needed] Courts[edit] Several courts are located in Frankfurt, including: Hessisches Landesarbeitsgericht (Hessian State Employment Court)[85] Oberlandesgericht Frankfurt (Higher Regional Court Frankfurt)[86] Landgericht Frankfurt (Regional Court Frankfurt)[87] Amtsgericht Frankfurt (Local Court Frankfurt)[88] Sozialgericht Frankfurt (Social Court Frankfurt)[89] Arbeitsgericht Frankfurt (Employment Court Frankfurt)[90] Verwaltungsgericht Frankfurt (Administration Court Frankfurt)[91] Education and research[edit] Frankfurt hosts two universities and several specialist schools. The two business schools are Goethe University Frankfurt's Goethe Business School and Frankfurt School of Finance & Management. Universities and schools[edit] Johann Wolfgang Goethe University[edit] Johann Wolfgang Goethe University The oldest and best-known university is the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, with locations in Bockenheim, Westend, and Riedberg, and the university hospital in Niederrad. Goethe Business School is part of the University's House of Finance at Campus Westend. The Business School's Full Time MBA program has over 70% international students. Frankfurt University of Applied Sciences[edit] The Frankfurt University of Applied Sciences was created out of several older organisations in 1971, and offers over 38 study areas, in the arts, sciences, engineering and law. Some of the most important research projects: Planet Earth Simulator, FraLine-IT-School-Service, quantitative analysis of methane in human corpses with the help of a mass spectrometer, software engineering (e.g., fraDesk), analysis of qualitative and quantitative gas in human lungs, long-term studies on photovoltaic modules (to name only a few). Frankfurt School of Finance and Management[edit] The city is also home to a business school, Frankfurt School of Finance & Management, formerly known as the Hochschule für Bankwirtschaft (Institution of Higher Learning for Banking Economics), with its new campus near Deutsche Nationalbibliothek U-Bahn stop (recently moving from its previous location in the Ostend (Eastend) neighbourhood). In 2001, it became a specialist institution for Economics and Management, or FOM. Frankfurt School is consistently ranked among the best business schools in the world, attributed to its high research output and quality of undergraduate and graduate training.[92] Städelschule[edit] Frankfurt has the State Institution of Higher Learning for Artistic Education known as the Städelschule, founded in 1817 by Johann Friedrich Städel. It was taken over by the city in 1942 and turned into a state art school. Music schools and conservatory[edit] Music institutions are the Frankfurt University of Music and Performing Arts, and the Hoch Conservatory (Dr. Hoch's Konservatorium) which was founded in 1878. The International Ensemble Modern Academy is a significant institution for the study of contemporary music.[93] Other notable schools[edit] The Sankt Georgen Graduate School of Philosophy and Theology (German:Philosophisch-Theologische Hochschule Sankt Georgen), a private institution with membership in the German Jesuit Association, has been located in Sachsenhausen since 1950. Education and media[edit] Frankfurt schools rank among the best equipped schools nationwide for availability of PCs and other media facilities.[citation needed] In order to assure maintenance and support of the school PCs, the city in cooperation with the University of Applied Sciences launched the project Fraline – IT-Schul-Service, an initiative employing students to provide basic school IT-support.[citation needed] Research institutes[edit] Max Planck Institute for Brain Research The city is home to three Max Planck Society institutes: the Max Planck Institute for European History of Law (MPIeR), Max Planck Institute for Biophysics, and the Max Planck Institute for Brain Research. The Frankfurt Institute for Advanced Studies, sponsored by several institutional and private sources, is involved in theoretical research in physics, chemistry, neuroscience, and computer science. Frankfurt is host to the Römisch-Germanische-Kommission (RGK), the German Archaeological Institute branch for prehistoric archaeology in Germany and Europe. The RGK is involved in a variety of research projects. Its library, with over 130,000 volumes, is one of the largest specialised archaeological libraries in the world.[citation needed] Trade unions and associations[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Main Forum, home to IG Metall Frankfurt is home to multiple trade unions and associations, including: IG Metall, Germany's largest metalworkers trade union, based at the Main Forum high-rise building in the Gutleutviertel district IG Bauen-Agrar-Umwelt, a union for construction and engineering workers, Gewerkschaft Erziehung und Wissenschaft, a union for teachers Gewerkschaft Deutscher Lokomotivführer, a union for train drivers Trade associations include: Verband der Elektrotechnik, Elektronik und Informationstechnik (Electrotechnical, Electronic and Information Technology Association) DECHEMA Gesellschaft für Chemische Technik und Biotechnologie (Applied Chemistry and Biotechnology Association) Börsenverein des Deutschen Buchhandels, which organises the Frankfurt Book Fair Bundesverband des Deutschen Versandhandels (German Catalogue Selling Association) Verband der Chemischen Industrie (Chemical Industry Association) Verband der Photoindustrie (Photography Industry Association) Verband Deutscher Maschinen- und Anlagenbau (German Machine and Equipment Building Association) Verband der Köche Deutschlands (German Cooks Association) Media[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Newspapers[edit] Editorial department building of Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung Two important daily newspapers are published. The conservative Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, also known as FAZ, was founded in 1949 and is the German newspaper with the widest circulation outside of Germany, with its editors claiming to deliver the newspaper to 148 countries every day. The FAZ has a circulation of over 380,000 copies daily. The other important newspaper, the Frankfurter Rundschau, was first published in 1945 and has a daily circulation of over 181,000. Magazines[edit] Several magazines also originate from Frankfurt. The local Journal Frankfurt is the best-known magazine for events, parties, and "insider tips". Öko-Test is a consumer-oriented magazine that focuses on ecological topics. Titanic is a well-known and often criticized satirical magazine with a circulation of approximately 100,000. Radio and TV[edit] Frankfurt's first radio station was the Südwestdeutsche Rundfunkdienst AG (Southwest German Broadcast Service), founded in 1924. Its successor service is the public broadcaster Hessischer Rundfunk (Hessian Broadcast Service). It is located at the "Funkhaus am Dornbusch" in the Dornbusch district and is one of the most important radio and television broadcasters in Hesse, with additional studios in Kassel, Darmstadt and Fulda. Bloomberg TV and RTL Television have regional studios. Other radio broadcasters include Main FM and Radio X. From August 1945 to October 2004, the American Forces Network (AFN) had broadcast from Frankfurt. Due to troop reductions the AFN's location has been closed with AFN now broadcasting from Mannheim. News agency[edit] Frankfurt is home to the German office of Reuters, a global news agency. Associated Press and US-based international news agency Feature Story News have bureaux in Frankfurt. Sports[edit] The Waldstadion (currently known as the Deutsche Bank Park) — home of the football club Eintracht Frankfurt This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Frankfurt is home to several professional sports teams. Some of them have won German Championships. E.g. the Skyliners Frankfurt won the German Basketball Championship in 2004 and the German Cup in 2000. Women's side 1. FFC Frankfurt (merged with Eintracht Frankfurt in 2020) are Germany's record title holders; Eintracht Frankfurt are one-time German champions, five-times winners of the DFB-Pokal, and winners of the UEFA Cup in 1980. Frankfurt hosts the following sports teams or clubs: Eintracht Frankfurt, Football (women) Eintracht Frankfurt, Football (men) FSV Frankfurt, Football (men) Rot-Weiss Frankfurt, Football Frankfurter FC Germania 1894, Football Skyliners Frankfurt, Basketball Frankfurt Galaxy (1991–2007), American football Frankfurt Universe, American football Frankfurt Pirates, American football Frankfurt Sarsfields GAA, Gaelic football Frankfurt Lions (until 2010), Ice hockey Löwen Frankfurt (since 2010), Ice hockey SC 1880 Frankfurt, Rugby union Frankfurt is host to the classic cycle race Eschborn-Frankfurt City Loop (known as Rund um den Henninger-Turm from 1961 to 2008). The city hosts also the annual Frankfurt Marathon and the Ironman Germany. In addition to the former, it is one of 13 global host locations to the J.P. Morgan Corporate Challenge [6], Germany's biggest corporate sports event. Rhein-Main Eissport Club forms the base of the German bandy community.[7] Sights in the Frankfurt Rhein-Main-Area[edit] Wiesbaden Kurhaus with the Casino Roman Empire Army Camp Saalburg The real Frankenstein Castle Waldspirale Besides the tourist attractions in central Frankfurt many internationally famous sites are within 80 km (50 mi) of the city, such as: North[edit] Taunus mountain range Roman Empire Army Camp Saalburg Limes (former northern border of the Roman Empire) Bad Homburg vor der Höhe with its famous casino Bad Nauheim Elvis Presley memorial Hessenpark West[edit] Wiesbaden with its Kurhaus, State Theater, Neroberg and Casino Rüdesheim Rheingau Eberbach Monastery (the original movie set of the film The Name of the Rose) Rhine Valley River Rhine Rheinhessen wine region East[edit] Leather Museum Offenbach Hanau Grimm Brothers Summer Festival German Fairy Tale Route Spessart South[edit] Darmstadt with the Art Nouveau Mathildenhoehe Waldspirale The former private chapel of the last Tsar of Russia Vortex Garden Odenwald Bergstrasse Vineyards at Heppenheim Frankenstein Castle Heidelberg See also[edit] Germany portal Europe portal Geography portal Frankfurt School List of people from Frankfurt Mayor of Frankfurt-am-Main List of cities in Hesse by population List of cities in Germany by population References[edit] Notes[edit] ^ an dem → am Citations[edit] ^ a b Regional Monitoring 2015. Facts and Figures – FrankfurtRheinMain Metropolitan Region Archived 31 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 18 January 2017 ^ a b The FrankfurtRheinMain region – facts and figures Archived 31 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 18 January 2017 ^ "Bevölkerungsstand am 31.12.2019". Hessisches Statistisches Landesamt (in German). July 2020. ^ a b European Union: State of European Cities Report "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 July 2011. Retrieved 2 January 2010.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) Retrieved 22 April 2014 ^ "Global Startup Ecosystem Survey – Startup Genome. Frankfurt among the global startup capitals". Archived from the original on 22 March 2017. Retrieved 21 March 2017. ^ a b Internetredaktion (23 May 2012). "Bundesbank: Bankenplatz Frankfurt" (PDF) (in German). Bundesbank.de. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 January 2011. ^ "The World According to GaWC Archived 30 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine". GaWC. Retrieved 4 November 2014. ^ Bahnhof.de Frankfurt Hbf Archived 15 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 27 September 2011. ^ Strassenwaerter Archived 2 May 2005 at the Wayback Machine ^ "Mercer's Survey 2011". Mercer. 29 November 2011. Archived from the original on 2 May 2014. ^ "World's most expensive place to live is..." The Economist. Archived from the original on 19 February 2012. ^ Dovid Solomon Ganz, Tzemach David (part 2), Warsaw 1859, p. 13b (Hebrew); Polish name of book: Cemahc Dawid; cf. J.M. Wallace-Hadrill, Fredegar and the History of France, University of Manchester, n.d. pp. 536–538. ^ Room, Adrian (2006). Placenames of the world. McFarland. p. 135. ISBN 978-0-7864-2248-7. Archived from the original on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 23 July 2009. ^ Mohr, Albert Richard (1967). "Abel Seyler und seine Verdienste um das Frankfurter Theaterleben". Frankfurter Theater von der Wandertruppe zum Komödienhaus: ein Beitrag zur Theatergeschichte des 18. Jahrhunderts. Frankfurt am Main: Kramer. pp. 66–81. ^ Chronology: Emergence of a Modern City 1866–1945 Archived 19 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 10 June 2010. ^ "French march into Germany". The Times. 7 April 1920. p. 10. "The French commander issued a notice to the public informing them that the occupation was consequent upon the German advance in the Ruhr contrary to the Peace Treaty." ^ Stanton, Shelby (2006). World War II Order of Battle: An Encyclopedic Reference to U.S. Army Ground Forces from Battalion through Division, 1939–1946 (2nd ed.). Stackpole Books. pp. 57, 84. ISBN 9780811701570. ^ Goitein, S.D. A Mediterranean Society: The Jewish Communities of the Arab World as Portrayed in the Documents of the Cairo Geniza, Vol. I – Economic Foundations. University of California Press, 2000, p. 5 ^ "Port of Frankfurt". World Port Source. Archived from the original on 29 March 2018. Retrieved 29 March 2018. ^ "Stadtteile". Frankfurt.de. Archived from the original on 14 October 2011. Retrieved 27 September 2011. ^ "Ausgabe der Klimadaten: Monatswerte". [permanent dead link] ^ a b "Frankfurt, Germany – Climate data". Weather Atlas. Archived from the original on 15 April 2017. Retrieved 15 April 2017. ^ "Statistisches Jahrbuch der Stadt Frankfurt am Main 2017" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 June 2018. Retrieved 20 June 2018. ^ "Bevölkerung der Hessischen Gemeinden". Statistik-Hessen.de. 30 September 2015. Archived from the original on 21 April 2008. Retrieved 9 April 2016. ^ H. Voit, Die kommunale Gebietsreform in: Erwin Stein (Hrsg.): 30 Jahre Hessische Verfassung, Wiesbaden 1976, p. 416 ff. (Text in German) ^ "Statistisches Jahrbuch Frankfurt am Main 2009" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 November 2011. Retrieved 26 September 2011. ^ a b c "Statistisches Jahrbuch Frankfurt am Main 2010" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 November 2011. 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Retrieved 24 July 2013. ^ Frankfurt – Data, Facts, Figures "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 23 April 2014.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) Retrieved 23 April 2014 ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 30 November 2016. Retrieved 29 November 2016.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ (in German) Website of the Higher Regional Court Archived 19 August 2012 at the Wayback Machine ^ (in German) Website of the Regional Court Archived 5 September 2012 at the Wayback Machine ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 17 November 2016. Retrieved 29 November 2016.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 30 November 2016. Retrieved 29 November 2016.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 30 November 2016. Retrieved 29 November 2016.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 29 November 2016.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ "FT Masters in Managemenet". FT. 2017. Archived from the original on 7 July 2018. Retrieved 6 July 2018. ^ "International Ensemble Modern Academy". internationale-em-akademie.de. Archived from the original on 15 February 2015. Retrieved 3 March 2015. Further reading[edit] History[edit] Kramer, Waldemar (Hrsg.): Frankfurt Chronik. Verlag Waldemar Kramer, Frankfurt am Main 1987 (3. Auflage), ISBN 3-7829-0321-8. Lothar Gall (Hrsg.): FFM 1200. Traditionen und Perspektiven einer Stadt. Jan Thorbecke Verlag, Sigmaringen 1994, ISBN 3-7995-1203-9 (Katalog zur 1200-Jahrfeier 1994 mit wiss. Aufsätzen). Mack, Ernst: Von der Steinzeit zur Stauferstadt. Die frühe Geschichte von Frankfurt am Main. Verlag Josef Knecht, Frankfurt am Main 1994, ISBN 3-7820-0685-2. Architecture[edit] Schohmann, Heinz: Frankfurt am Main und Umgebung. Von der Pfalzsiedlung zum Bankenzentrum. Dumont Kunstreiseführer. Dumont, Köln 2003, ISBN 3-7701-6305-2. (mit Schwerpunkt Architektur). Bodenbach, Christoph (Hrsg.): Neue Architektur in Frankfurt am Main. Junius Verlag, Hamburg 2008, ISBN 978-3-88506-583-8. Sturm, Philipp, Schmal, Peter Cachola: Hochhausstadt Frankfurt. Bauten und Visionen seit 1945. Prestel, München 2014, ISBN 978-3-7913-5363-0. Others[edit] Setzepfandt, Christian: Geheimnisvolles Frankfurt am Main. Wartberg, Gudensberg-Gleichen 2003, ISBN 3-8313-1347-4. Mosebach, Martin: Mein Frankfurt. Mit Photographien von Barbara Klemm. Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2002, ISBN 3-458-34571-X. (Insel-Taschenbuch. Bd 2871) External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Frankfurt am Main. Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Frankfurt. Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Frankfort-on-Main. Official website (in German) SKYLINE ATLAS – Information portal about the Frankfurt skyline having more than 500 pages Frankfurt prepares for Brexit bankers: 'Maybe our city will change them' Architecture of Frankfurt Frankfurt Zoo (in English) Frankfurt before and after World War II Frankfurt Panoramas: 360°City Panoramas Panorama-cities.net; Panorama Frankfurt – Bilder von der Skyline Oopper.de; frankfurt360.de, panorama-frankfurt.de "Frankfort-on-the-Main" . The American Cyclopædia. 1879. "Frankfort-on-the-Main" . Collier's New Encyclopedia. 1921. Tourismus+Congress GmbH Frankfurt am Main Frankfurt am Main at Curlie Cultural portal of the city of Frankfurt am Main There is literature about Frankfurt in the Hessian Bibliography Geschichte der Juden in Frankfurt a. M. (1150–1824) (in German) by Isidor Kracauer, 2 volumes, free download Places adjacent to Frankfurt Koblenz, Bonn, Cologne Marburg, Gießen Fulda Wiesbaden Frankfurt am Main Würzburg Kaiserslautern, Saarbrücken Darmstadt, Mannheim, Karlsruhe, Stuttgart Nuremberg Articles related to Frankfurt v t e Cities in Germany by population 1,000,000+ Berlin Cologne Hamburg Munich 500,000–999,999 Bremen Dortmund Dresden Düsseldorf Essen Frankfurt am Main Hanover Leipzig Nuremberg Stuttgart 200,000–499,999 Aachen Augsburg Bielefeld Bochum Bonn Braunschweig Chemnitz Duisburg Erfurt Freiburg im Breisgau Gelsenkirchen Halle (Saale) Karlsruhe Kassel Kiel Krefeld Lübeck Magdeburg Mainz Mannheim Münster Mönchengladbach Oberhausen Rostock Wiesbaden Wuppertal 100,000–199,999 Bergisch Gladbach Bottrop Bremerhaven Cottbus Darmstadt Erlangen Fürth Göttingen Hagen Hamm Heidelberg Heilbronn Herne Hildesheim Ingolstadt Jena Koblenz Leverkusen Ludwigshafen Moers Mülheim an der Ruhr Neuss Offenbach am Main Oldenburg 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en-wikipedia-org-3400	----	Roman–Iranian relations - Wikipedia Roman–Iranian relations From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman-Iranian relations SPQR Parthia Relations between the Roman and Iranian states were established c. 92 BC. It was in 69 BC that the two states clashed for the first time; the political rivalry between the two empires would dominate much of Western Asia and Europe until 628. Initially commencing as a rivalry between the Parthians and Rome, from the 3rd to mid-7th centuries the Roman Empire (later the Byzantine Empire) and its rival Sassanid Persia were recognized as two of the leading powers in the world.[1][2] Parthia's greatest extent. The Roman Empire's greatest extent. Sassanid Persia's territorial extent (and maximum extent). The Byzantine Empire's greatest extent under Justinian. Contents 1 Relations during the Republic 2 Relations during the Julio-Claudian dynasty 3 Relations during the Flavian dynasty 4 Relations in Late Antiquity 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Further reading Relations during the Republic[edit] The first direct contact between the Roman Republic and the Parthians was c. 92 BCE, when Lucius Cornelius Sulla, while proconsul in Cilicia, met the Parthian ambassador Orobazus.[3] Plutarch reports that he managed to take the central seat between the Parthian Ambassador and an ambassador from Pontus, and concluded a treaty that set the Euphrates as the boundary between the two powers. Orobazus was executed on his return to Parthia for allowing Sulla to outmaneuver him, and Sulla himself later came under criticism for being too high-handed in his treatment of such a powerful nation. The first time the Romans came into direct military contact with Parthia came when Lucullus invaded Armenia in 69 BCE, leading to diplomatic friction and clashes on the frontier between Armenia and Parthia. Over the following decades both empires became entangled in each other's civil wars, perhaps beginning with Crassus’s disastrous invasion of Parthia. Parthia was later involved in the civil war after the assassination of Julius Caesar. In 42 BCE, when Antony placed a legion in Syria, Cassius’ envoy Labienus joined forces with king Orodes of Parthia and, led by Pacorus, attacked the Levant and the Asia Minor. However, this was not to last as Antony successfully sent his general Publius Ventidius Bassus to recover the lost territory. After some difficulty dealing with local Parthian appointee kings, the Romans finally subdued the regained province and installed Herod the Great as king. Antony’s forces attempted a crossing of the Euphrates at the city of Zeugma but were held back by Parthian defences and had to settle for annexing the Armenian kingdom after deposing its king. Relations during the Julio-Claudian dynasty[edit] A Parthian warrior as depicted on Trajan's column Augustus was loath to seek further conflict with Parthia. However, the coveted standards were still held by the Parthians and this was of great concern to Augustus, forcing him to regain them through a less conventional method. In 30 BCE, Phraates IV usurped the throne of Tiridates who fled to Syria under the protection of the Romans, whence he launched an attack on his native land. Although this failed, an agreement was made whereby he could live under the Romans as a king in exile if he brokered the return of the Roman standards. The standards were returned to the future emperor Tiberius, who received them on an island in the Euphrates. The next half century saw relations between the two nations antagonistic but not overtly hostile, with the Romans unsuccessfully supporting a series of pretender kings, including Claudius in 49 CE, indicating the extent to which Rome was attempting to influence Parthian politics for its own ends. However, during the reign of Nero, Vologases I invaded Armenia and installed his own brother on the throne, disrupting the balance of influence which had hitherto existed there. The ensuing war was ended by a compromise which allowed the Parthian prince Tiridates and his descendants to reign in Armenia on condition that he and his successors received their crown from the Roman emperor and ruled as his clients. Strabo described the Parthian Empire as the only rival existing to Rome.[4] Relations during the Flavian dynasty[edit] During Vespasian’s rule Parthia seemed to make some attempts to strengthening the ties between the two powers, such as asking to form an alliance at the Caucasus against belligerent Sarmatian tribes and offering assistance to Vespasian against the short lived emperor Vitellius once it became clear that Vespasian would rule. However, both of these Vespasian refused. Parthian belt bucket featuring Roman cultural influences. Relations in Late Antiquity[edit] Sasanian embassy to Byzantine Empire, stone relief in Istanbul Archaeological Museums, Turkey In the 2nd century CE, the balance of power shifted emphatically in favour of the Romans. A series of invasions repeatedly overran Mesopotamia and sacked the Parthian capital of Ctesiphon, made substantial territorial gains in northern Mesopotamia and benefited from the manipulation of frequent Parthian dynastic civil wars, which eventually undermined the Parthian state. Under Caracalla, an interesting twist in Parthian relations occurred. After submitting a request to marry the daughter of Persian king Artabanus V (potentially allowing an heir to assume control of both empires) Caracalla massacred the diplomatic party sent to arrange the marriage and attempted an invasion of Persia in 216. This was eventually unsuccessful and the Persians soon retaliated, inflicting heavy losses upon the Romans. The replacement of the Parthian Empire by that of the Sassanids in 226 CE, which was more stable and effectively organised, shifted the balance of power against the Romans. The neighboring rivaling Sasanian Empire and the Roman-Byzantine Empire were recognized as the two leading world powers, for a period of more than 400 years.[5][6][2] Frequent Persian aggression during the 3rd century placed Roman defences under severe strain, but the Romans were eventually successful in warding these off and avoiding any territorial losses. Indeed, they eventually made significant gains towards the end of the century, although these were reversed in the mid-4th century. By that time conflicts attained an added religious dimension. It is in this context that the future of Roman–Persian relations would be played out over the remaining centuries, continuing into the Byzantine era. Neither side was able to inflict a decisive and convincing military victory against the other, and the movement between hostilities and diplomacy would continue to play out between each power. According to some sources, two years before his death, Shapur I married a daughter of Aurelian, and attempted to further Romanize the city of Gundeshapur, which was mainly populated by the Roman prisoners-of-war back then.[7] In the 5th century, Romans provided a subsidy as the Sassanians requested, to construct defenses in Derbent, through which incursions from tribes of the northern steppes endangered both empires.[8] In 395 AD, 18,000 Roman populations of Sophene, Armenia, Mesopotamia, Syria, and Cappadocia were captured and deported by the "Huns". the prisoners were freed by the Persians as they reached Persia, and were settled in Slōk (Wēh Ardashīr) and Kōkbā (Kōkhē). The author of the text Liber Calipharum has praised the king Yazdegerd I (399–420) for his treatment of the deportees, who also allowed some to return.[9] See also[edit] Italy-Iran relations Parthia Romans in Persia Roman Empire Byzantine Empire Roman-Persian Wars Roman-Parthian Wars Roman–Sassanid Wars Byzantine–Sassanid Wars Sassanid dynasty Acacius of Amida Roman-Parthian Wars Mithraic mysteries Notes[edit] ^ Norman A. Stillman The Jews of Arab Lands pp. 22 Jewish Publication Society, 1979 ISBN 0827611552 ^ a b International Congress of Byzantine Studies Proceedings of the 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London, 21–26 August 2006, Volumes 1-3 pp 29. Ashgate Pub Co, 30 sep. 2006 ISBN 075465740X ^ Keaveney, Arthur (Summer 1981). "Roman Treaties with Parthia circa 95-circa 64 BC". American Journal of Philology. 102: 195–212 – via JSTOR. ^ Anthony Pagden. Worlds at War: The 2,500-Year Struggle Between East and West Random House Publishing Group, 25 mrt. 2008 ISBN 1588366782 p 84 ^ (Shapur Shahbazi 2005) harv error: no target: CITEREFShapur_Shahbazi2005 (help) ^ Norman A. Stillman The Jews of Arab Lands pp 22 Jewish Publication Society, 1979 ISBN 0827611552 ^ Elgood, Cyril (1951). A Medical History of Persia and the Eastern Caliphate from the Earliest Times Until the Year A.D. 1932. University Press. p. 47. ^ http://tourajdaryaee.com/wp-content/uploads/2-If_these_Walls_Could_Speak_The_Barrier.pdf ^ "DEPORTATIONS – Encyclopaedia Iranica". www.iranicaonline.org. References[edit] K. Butcher, Roman Syria and the Near East, Getty Publications, Los Angeles, 2003 ISBN 0-89236-715-6 R. C. Brockley, East Roman Foreign Policy, Francis Cairns Publications, Leeds, 1992 ISBN 0-905205-83-9 Further reading[edit] Full historical overview of Byzantine-Iranian relations v t e Parthian Empire Origins Parni Dahae Parni conquest of Parthia Dynasty List of Parthian kings List of rulers of Parthian sub-kingdoms Arsacid dynasty of Armenia Arsacid dynasty of Iberia Arsacid dynasty of Caucasian Albania Chosroid dynasty Indo-Parthian Kingdom Noble clans Seven Great Houses of Iran House of Ispahbudhan House of Karen House of Mihran House of Spandiyadh House of Suren House of Varaz House of Zik Culture Parthian language Parthian art Parthian dress Parthian coinage Wars Seleucid–Parthian Wars Battle of Ecbatana Roman–Parthian Wars Roman–Parthian War of 58–63 Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 Antony's Atropatene campaign Pompeian–Parthian invasion of 40 BC Battle of Ctesiphon (165) Battle of Ctesiphon (198) Battle of Carrhae Battle of the Cilician Gates Battle of Mount Gindarus Battle of Amanus Pass Battle of Nisibis (217) Parthian war of Caracalla Armenian–Parthian War Bactrian–Parthian War Other related topics Parthia Parthian shot Roman–Iranian relations v t e Sasanian Empire Dynasty House of Sasan Shahanshahs Sasanian family tree Seven Great Houses of Iran Timeline Timeline of the Sasanian Empire Culture Architecture Art Coinage Crowns Dressing Education Glassware Inscriptions Literature Music Punishment Women Military and wars Military of the Sasanian Empire Navy Defense lines Roman–Persian Wars Arab tribes Hephthalite–Sasanian Wars Göktürk–Persian wars Aksumite–Persian wars Revolts and civil wars Muslim conquest of Persia Descendants Dabuyids Bavands Baduspanids Banu al-Munajjim Mikalids Other related topics Roads Economy Roman–Iranian relations Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom ērān and anērān Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman–Iranian_relations&oldid=991790005" Categories: Roman–Iranian relations Foreign relations of Iran Foreign relations of ancient Rome Ancient international relations Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Infobox bilateral relations usage without maps Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages فارسی Italiano Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 1 December 2020, at 20:57 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3407	----	Système universitaire de documentation - Wikipedia Système universitaire de documentation From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from SUDOC (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search "Sudoc" redirects here. For the US government document classification system, see United States Government Printing Office. Screenshot from the Système Universitaire de Documentation (Sudoc) The système universitaire de documentation or SUDOC is a system used by the libraries of French universities and higher education establishments to identify, track and manage the documents in their possession. The catalog, which contains nearly 13 million references, allows students and researchers to search for bibliographical and location information in more than 3,400 documentation centers. It is maintained by the Bibliographic Agency for Higher Education [fr] (ABES). External links[edit] Official website v t e Authority control files AAG • ACM DL • ADB • AGSA • autores.uy • AWR • BALaT • BIBSYS • Bildindex • BNC • BNE • BNF • Botanist • BPN • CANTIC • CiNii • CWGC • DAAO • DBLP • DSI • FNZA • GND • HDS • IAAF • ICCU • ICIA • ISNI • Joconde • KulturNav • LCCN • LIR • LNB • Léonore • MBA • MGP • NARA • NBL • NDL • NGV • NKC • NLA • NLG • NLI • NLK • NLP • NLR • NSK • NTA • ORCID • PIC • ResearcherID • RERO • RKD • RKDimages ID • RSL • SELIBR • SIKART • SNAC • SUDOC • S2AuthorId • TA98 • TDVİA • TE • TePapa • TH • TLS • Trove • UKPARL • ULAN • US Congress • VcBA • VIAF • WorldCat Identities This article relating to library science or information science is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Système_universitaire_de_documentation&oldid=922032708" Categories: Libraries in France Library cataloging and classification Library and information science stubs Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans العربية Asturianu भोजपुरी Български Català Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia עברית Malagasy مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Nordfriisk Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 19 October 2019, at 13:42 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3409	----	List of Roman quaestors - Wikipedia List of Roman quaestors From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The following is a list of quaestors in ancient Rome, as reported by ancient sources and compiled by Broughton.[1][2] The quaestorship was a political office in the Roman cursus honorum. The authenticity of the office prior during the early republic is doubted and quaestorships prior to 446 BC might be fabricated. There are large gaps in the lists of quaestors and only a small percentage of all who held the quaestorship is known. For those who are mentioned by ancient authors to have held the quaestorship during an unknown period, an estimate is provided in the list of the last possible date for such an questorship. This list is currently incomplete and only contain those who held the quaestorship between 509 - 100 BC. Unless otherwise noted all information is from Broughton's The Magistrates of the Roman Republic Date Name Notes 509 BC Marcus Minucius Augurinus Gaius Veturius Geminus Cicurinus <496 BC Appius Claudius Sabinus Inregillensis Quaestor prior to his consulship in 495 BC 485 BC Caeso Fabius Vibulanus Lucius Valerius Potitus 459 BC Aulus Cornelius Quintus Servilius Priscus Structus 458 BC Titus Quinctius Capitolinus Barbatus Marcus Valerius Maximus Lactuca 446 BC Lucius Valerius Potitus Mamercus Aemilius Mamercinus First elected Quaestors according to Tacitus 420 BC - Number of Quaestors increased to four 414 BC Publius Sestius (or Sextius) 409 BC Publius Aelius Caeso Fabius Ambustus Publius Papius Quintus Silius Plebeians are eligible to the Quaestorship 391 BC Spurius Carvilius <316 BC Appius Claudius Caecus Latest date as argued by Broughton 294 BC Lucius Opimius Pansa >267 BC ? Number of Quaestors increased to 10 <237 BC Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus Latest date as argued by Broughton <236 BC Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus II Latest date as argued by Broughton c. 230 BC Gnaeus Octavius Rufus <222 BC Gaius Terentius Varro Latest date as argued by Broughton 218 BC Gaius Fulvius Flaccus Lucius Lucretius 217 BC Tiberius Sempronius Blaesus 216 BC Lucius Atilius Lucius Furius Bibaculus 214 BC Lucius Caecilius Metellus 212 BC Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus 209 BC Gaius Flaminius <206 BC Gnaeus Tremellius Flaccus Marcus Valerius Falto Latest date as argued by Broughton. Mentioned as ex-Quaestors in 205 BC 204 BC Marcus Porcius Cato 202 BC Gaius Laelius 200 BC Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Quaestor sometime between 204 - 199 BC <199 BC Titus Quinctius Flaminius Mentioned as ex-Quaestor in 198 BC <196 BC Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus Latest date as argued by Broughton 196 BC Lucius Aurelius Quintus Fabius Labeo <195 BC Lucius Aemilius Paullus Latest date as argued by Broughton 194 BC Lucius Postumius Tympanus 190 BC Gaius Furius Aculeo <188 BC Quintus Petilius Spurnius Latest date as argued by Broughton 188 BC Quintus Fabius Buteo or Quintus Fabius Maximus 167 BC Lucius Cornelius Scipio 154 BC Terentius Varro 152 BC Publius Licinius Crassus Dives Mucianus 150 BC Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Hispanus 148 BC Lucius Fulcinnius 146 BC Gaius Publilius 145 BC Gaius Sempronius Tuditanus 143 BC Lucius Tremellius Scrofa 142 BC Lucius Tremellius Scrofa II 137 BC Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus 134 BC Quintus Fabius Maximus Allobrogicus 132 BC Quintus Fabius Maximus Eburnus 126 BC Gaius Sempronius Gracchus <120 BC Gaius Marius Latest date as argued by Broughton 120 BC Publius Albius 119 BC Marcus Annius 117 BC Marcus Aurelius Scaurus Conjectured date by Broughton 113 BC Marcus Antonius 111 BC Publius Sextius <109 BC Lucius Licinius Crassus Quintus Mucius Scaevola Gaius Servilius Glaucia Latest date as argued by Broughton 107 BC Lucius Cornelius Sulla <105 BC Gaius Claudius Pulcher Gnaeus Servilius Caepio Latest date as argued by Broughton 105 BC Gnaeus Octavius Ruso 104 BC Lucius Appuleius Saturnius Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo <102 BC Marcus Livius Drusus Lucius Veturius Philo or Lucius Publilius Philo Latest date as argued by Broughton 102 BC Gaius Norbanus >101 BC Gaius Fundanius Alternativly dated in 89 BC 101 BC Aulus Gabinius 100 BC Lucius Cornelius Lentulus Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus Quintus Servilius Caepio 81 BC - Number of Quaestors increased to 20 References[edit] ^ e.g. Livy, Ab urbe condita ^ Broughton, T. Robert S. (1952). The magistrates of the Roman Republic. American Philological Association. OCLC 1120836609. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Roman_quaestors&oldid=974874151" Categories: Lists of office-holders in ancient Rome Roman quaestors Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 25 August 2020, at 14:37 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. 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en-wikipedia-org-344	----	Ben Jonson - Wikipedia Ben Jonson From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other people with the same name, see Ben Johnson (disambiguation). 17th-century English playwright, poet, and actor Ben Jonson Ben Jonson (c. 1617), by Abraham Blyenberch; oil on canvas painting at the National Portrait Gallery, London Born c. 11 June 1572 Westminster, London, England Died c. 16 August 1637 (aged 65) London,[1] England Occupation Playwright, poet Nationality English Signature Benjamin Jonson (c. 11 June 1572 – c. 16 August 1637[2]) was an English playwright and poet. Johnson's artistry exerted a lasting influence upon English poetry and stage comedy. He popularised the comedy of humours; he is best known for the satirical plays Every Man in His Humour[3] (1598), Volpone, or The Fox (c. 1606), The Alchemist (1610) and Bartholomew Fair (1614) and for his lyric and epigrammatic poetry. "He is generally regarded as the second most important English dramatist, after William Shakespeare, during the reign of James I."[4] Jonson was a classically educated, well-read and cultured man of the English Renaissance with an appetite for controversy (personal and political, artistic and intellectual) whose cultural influence was of unparalleled breadth upon the playwrights and the poets of the Jacobean era (1603–1625) and of the Caroline era (1625–1642).[5][6] Contents 1 Early life 2 Career 3 Royal patronage 4 Religion 5 Decline and death 6 His work 6.1 Drama 6.2 Poetry 7 Relationship with Shakespeare 8 Reception and influence 8.1 Drama 8.2 Poetry 9 Jonson's works 9.1 Plays 9.2 Masques 9.3 Other works 10 Notes 11 Citations 12 References 13 Further reading 13.1 Biographies of Ben Jonson 14 External links Early life[edit] Westminster School master William Camden cultivated the artistic genius of Ben Jonson. The Scottish poet William Drummond of Hawthornden was friend and confidant to Jonson. In midlife, Jonson claimed that his paternal grandfather, who 'served King Henry 8 and was a gentleman',[7] was a member of the extended Johnston family of Annandale in the Dumfries and Galloway, a genealogy that is attested by the three spindles (rhombi) in the Jonson family coat of arms: one spindle is a diamond-shaped heraldic device used by the Johnston family. Jonson's father lost his property, was imprisoned, and suffered forfeiture under Queen Mary; having become a clergyman upon his release, he died a month before his son's birth.[8] Jonson's mother married a master bricklayer two years later.[9][10] Jonson attended school in St Martin's Lane.[3] Later, a family friend paid for his studies at Westminster School, where the antiquarian, historian, topographer and officer of arms, William Camden (1551–1623) was one of his masters. In the event, the pupil and the master became friends, and the intellectual influence of Camden's broad-ranging scholarship upon Jonson's art and literary style remained notable, until Camden's death in 1623. On leaving Westminster School, Jonson was to have attended the University of Cambridge, to continue his book learning but did not, because of his unwilled apprenticeship to his bricklayer stepfather.[5][9] According to the churchman and historian Thomas Fuller (1608–61), Jonson at this time built a garden wall in Lincoln's Inn. After having been an apprentice bricklayer, Ben Jonson went to the Netherlands and volunteered to soldier with the English regiments of Francis Vere (1560–1609) in Flanders. The Hawthornden Manuscripts (1619), of the conversations between Ben Jonson and the poet William Drummond of Hawthornden[3] (1585–1649), report that, when in Flanders, Jonson engaged, fought and killed an enemy soldier in single combat, and took for trophies the weapons of the vanquished soldier.[11] After his military activity on the Continent, Jonson returned to England and worked as an actor and as a playwright. As an actor, Jonson was the protagonist “Hieronimo” (Geronimo) in the play The Spanish Tragedy (ca. 1586), by Thomas Kyd (1558–94), the first revenge tragedy in English literature. Moreover, by 1597, he was a working playwright employed by Philip Henslowe, the leading producer for the English public theatre; by the next year, the production of Every Man in His Humour (1598) had established Jonson's reputation as a dramatist.[12][13] Regarding his marriage Jonson described his wife to William Drummond as "a shrew, yet honest". The identity of Jonson's wife has always been obscure, yet she sometimes is identified as "Ann Lewis", the woman who married a Benjamin Jonson in 1594, at the church of St Magnus-the-Martyr, near London Bridge.[14] Concerning the family of Anne Lewis and Ben Jonson, the St. Martin's Church registers indicate that Mary Jonson, their eldest daughter, died in November 1593, at six months of age. Then a decade later, in 1603, Benjamin Jonson, their eldest son, died of Bubonic plague when he was seven years old; to lament and honour the dead boy, Benjamin Jonson père wrote the elegiac On My First Sonne (1603). Moreover, 32 years later, a second son, also named Benjamin Jonson, died in 1635. In that period, Ann Lewis and Ben Jonson lived separate lives for five years; their matrimonial arrangement cast Ann Lewis as the housewife Jonson, and Ben Jonson as the artist who enjoyed the residential hospitality of his patrons, Sir Robert Townshend and Lord Aubigny, Esme Stuart, 3rd Duke of Lennox.[14] Career[edit] By summer 1597, Jonson had a fixed engagement in the Admiral's Men, then performing under Philip Henslowe's management at The Rose.[3] John Aubrey reports, on uncertain authority, that Jonson was not successful as an actor; whatever his skills as an actor, he was evidently more valuable to the company as a writer.[15] By this time Jonson had begun to write original plays for the Admiral's Men; in 1598 he was mentioned by Francis Meres in his Palladis Tamia as one of "the best for tragedy."[3] None of his early tragedies survive, however. An undated comedy, The Case is Altered, may be his earliest surviving play.[16] In 1597 a play which he co-wrote with Thomas Nashe, The Isle of Dogs, was suppressed after causing great offence. Arrest warrants for Jonson and Nashe were issued by Queen Elizabeth I's so-called interrogator, Richard Topcliffe. Jonson was jailed in Marshalsea Prison and charged with "Leude and mutynous behaviour", while Nashe managed to escape to Great Yarmouth. Two of the actors, Gabriel Spenser and Robert Shaw, were also imprisoned. A year later, Jonson was again briefly imprisoned, this time in Newgate Prison, for killing Gabriel Spenser in a duel on 22 September 1598 in Hogsden Fields[11] (today part of Hoxton). Tried on a charge of manslaughter, Jonson pleaded guilty but was released by benefit of clergy,[3] a legal ploy through which he gained leniency by reciting a brief bible verse (the neck-verse), forfeiting his 'goods and chattels' and being branded on his left thumb.[3] While in jail Jonson converted to Catholicism, possibly through the influence of fellow-prisoner Father Thomas Wright, a Jesuit priest.[17] In 1598 Jonson produced his first great success, Every Man in His Humour, capitalising on the vogue for humorous plays which George Chapman had begun with An Humorous Day's Mirth. William Shakespeare was among the first actors to be cast. Jonson followed this in 1599 with Every Man out of His Humour, a pedantic attempt to imitate Aristophanes. It is not known whether this was a success on stage, but when published it proved popular and went through several editions.[citation needed] Jonson's other work for the theatre in the last years of Elizabeth I's reign was marked by fighting and controversy. Cynthia's Revels was produced by the Children of the Chapel Royal at Blackfriars Theatre in 1600. It satirised both John Marston, who Jonson believed had accused him of lustfulness in Histriomastix, and Thomas Dekker. Jonson attacked the two poets again in Poetaster (1601). Dekker responded with Satiromastix, subtitled "the untrussing of the humorous poet".[3] The final scene of this play, whilst certainly not to be taken at face value as a portrait of Jonson, offers a caricature that is recognisable from Drummond's report – boasting about himself and condemning other poets, criticising performances of his plays and calling attention to himself in any available way.[citation needed] This "War of the Theatres" appears to have ended with reconciliation on all sides. Jonson collaborated with Dekker on a pageant welcoming James I to England in 1603 although Drummond reports that Jonson called Dekker a rogue. Marston dedicated The Malcontent to Jonson and the two collaborated with Chapman on Eastward Ho, a 1605 play whose anti-Scottish sentiment briefly landed both Jonson and Chapman in jail.[18] Royal patronage[edit] At the beginning of the English reign of James VI and I in 1603 Jonson joined other poets and playwrights in welcoming the new king. Jonson quickly adapted himself to the additional demand for masques and entertainments introduced with the new reign and fostered by both the king and his consort[3] Anne of Denmark. In addition to his popularity on the public stage and in the royal hall, he enjoyed the patronage of aristocrats such as Elizabeth Sidney (daughter of Sir Philip Sidney) and Lady Mary Wroth. This connection with the Sidney family provided the impetus for one of Jonson's most famous lyrics, the country house poem To Penshurst. In February 1603 John Manningham reported that Jonson was living on Robert Townsend, son of Sir Roger Townshend, and "scorns the world."[19] Perhaps this explains why his trouble with English authorities continued. That same year he was questioned by the Privy Council about Sejanus, a politically themed play about corruption in the Roman Empire. He was again in trouble for topical allusions in a play, now lost, in which he took part. Shortly after his release from a brief spell of imprisonment imposed to mark the authorities' displeasure at the work, in the second week of October 1605, he was present at a supper party attended by most of the Gunpowder Plot conspirators. After the plot's discovery he appears to have avoided further imprisonment; he volunteered what he knew of the affair to the investigator Robert Cecil and the Privy Council. Father Thomas Wright, who heard Fawkes's confession, was known to Jonson from prison in 1598 and Cecil may have directed him to bring the priest before the council, as a witness.[17] Title page of The Workes of Beniamin Ionson (1616), the first folio publication that included stage plays At the same time, Jonson pursued a more prestigious career, writing masques for James's court. The Satyr (1603) and The Masque of Blackness (1605) are two of about two dozen masques which Jonson wrote for James or for Queen Anne, some of them performed at Apethorpe Palace when the King was in residence. The Masque of Blackness was praised by Algernon Charles Swinburne as the consummate example of this now-extinct genre, which mingled speech, dancing and spectacle. On many of these projects he collaborated, not always peacefully, with designer Inigo Jones. For example, Jones designed the scenery for Jonson's masque Oberon, the Faery Prince performed at Whitehall on 1 January 1611 in which Prince Henry, eldest son of James I, appeared in the title role. Perhaps partly as a result of this new career, Jonson gave up writing plays for the public theatres for a decade. He later told Drummond that he had made less than two hundred pounds on all his plays together. In 1616 Jonson received a yearly pension of 100 marks (about £60), leading some to identify him as England's first Poet Laureate. This sign of royal favour may have encouraged him to publish the first volume of the folio collected edition of his works that year.[3] Other volumes followed in 1640–41 and 1692. (See: Ben Jonson folios) On 8 July 1618 Jonson set out from Bishopsgate in London to walk to Edinburgh, arriving in Scotland's capital on 17 September. For the most part he followed the great north road, and was treated to lavish and enthusiastic welcomes in both towns and country houses.[20] On his arrival he lodged initially with John Stuart, a cousin of King James, in Leith, and was made an honorary burgess of Edinburgh at a dinner laid on by the city on 26 September.[20] He stayed in Scotland until late January 1619, and the best-remembered hospitality he enjoyed was that of the Scottish poet, William Drummond of Hawthornden,[3] sited on the River Esk. Drummond undertook to record as much of Jonson's conversation as he could in his diary, and thus recorded aspects of Jonson's personality that would otherwise have been less clearly seen. Jonson delivers his opinions, in Drummond's terse reporting, in an expansive and even magisterial mood. Drummond noted he was "a great lover and praiser of himself, a contemner and scorner of others".[3] On returning to England, he was awarded an honorary Master of Arts degree from Oxford University. The period between 1605 and 1620 may be viewed as Jonson's heyday. By 1616 he had produced all the plays on which his present reputation as a dramatist is based, including the tragedy Catiline (acted and printed 1611), which achieved limited success[3] and the comedies Volpone (acted 1605 and printed in 1607), Epicoene, or the Silent Woman (1609), The Alchemist (1610), Bartholomew Fair (1614) and The Devil Is an Ass (1616).[3] The Alchemist and Volpone were immediately successful. Of Epicoene, Jonson told Drummond of a satirical verse which reported that the play's subtitle was appropriate, since its audience had refused to applaud the play (i.e., remained silent). Yet Epicoene, along with Bartholomew Fair and (to a lesser extent) The Devil is an Ass have in modern times achieved a certain degree of recognition. While his life during this period was apparently more settled than it had been in the 1590s, his financial security was still not assured. Religion[edit] Jonson recounted that his father had been a prosperous Protestant landowner until the reign of "Bloody Mary" and had suffered imprisonment and the forfeiture of his wealth during that monarch's attempt to restore England to Catholicism. On Elizabeth's accession he was freed and was able to travel to London to become a clergyman.[21][22] (All that is known of Jonson's father, who died a month before his son was born, comes from the poet's own narrative.) Jonson's elementary education was in a small church school attached to St Martin-in-the-Fields parish, and at the age of about seven he secured a place at Westminster School, then part of Westminster Abbey. Notwithstanding this emphatically Protestant grounding, Jonson maintained an interest in Catholic doctrine throughout his adult life and, at a particularly perilous time while a religious war with Spain was widely expected and persecution of Catholics was intensifying, he converted to the faith.[23][24] This took place in October 1598, while Jonson was on remand in Newgate Gaol charged with manslaughter. Jonson's biographer Ian Donaldson is among those who suggest that the conversion was instigated by Father Thomas Wright, a Jesuit priest who had resigned from the order over his acceptance of Queen Elizabeth's right to rule in England.[25][26] Wright, although placed under house arrest on the orders of Lord Burghley, was permitted to minister to the inmates of London prisons.[25] It may have been that Jonson, fearing that his trial would go against him, was seeking the unequivocal absolution that Catholicism could offer if he were sentenced to death.[24] Alternatively, he could have been looking to personal advantage from accepting conversion since Father Wright's protector, the Earl of Essex, was among those who might hope to rise to influence after the succession of a new monarch.[27] Jonson's conversion came at a weighty time in affairs of state; the royal succession, from the childless Elizabeth, had not been settled and Essex's Catholic allies were hopeful that a sympathetic ruler might attain the throne. Conviction, and certainly not expedience alone, sustained Jonson's faith during the troublesome twelve years he remained a Catholic. His stance received attention beyond the low-level intolerance to which most followers of that faith were exposed. The first draft of his play Sejanus was banned for "popery", and did not re-appear until some offending passages were cut.[17] In January 1606 he (with Anne, his wife) appeared before the Consistory Court in London to answer a charge of recusancy, with Jonson alone additionally accused of allowing his fame as a Catholic to "seduce" citizens to the cause.[28] This was a serious matter (the Gunpowder Plot was still fresh in mind) but he explained that his failure to take communion was only because he had not found sound theological endorsement for the practice, and by paying a fine of thirteen shillings (65 pence) he escaped the more serious penalties at the authorities' disposal. His habit was to slip outside during the sacrament, a common routine at the time—indeed it was one followed by the royal consort, Queen Anne, herself—to show political loyalty while not offending the conscience.[29] Leading church figures, including John Overall, Dean of St Paul's, were tasked with winning Jonson back to Protestantism, but these overtures were resisted.[30] In May 1610 Henry IV of France was assassinated, purportedly in the name of the Pope; he had been a Catholic monarch respected in England for tolerance towards Protestants, and his murder seems to have been the immediate cause of Jonson's decision to rejoin the Church of England.[31][32] He did this in flamboyant style, pointedly drinking a full chalice of communion wine at the eucharist to demonstrate his renunciation of the Catholic rite, in which the priest alone drinks the wine.[33][34] The exact date of the ceremony is unknown.[32] However, his interest in Catholic belief and practice remained with him until his death.[35] Decline and death[edit] Jonson's productivity began to decline in the 1620s, but he remained well known. In that time, rose to the prominence the Sons of Ben or the "Tribe of Ben" - those younger poets such as Robert Herrick, Richard Lovelace, and Sir John Suckling who took their bearing in verse from Jonson. However, a series of setbacks drained his strength and damaged his reputation. He resumed writing regular plays in the 1620s, but these are not considered among his best. They are of significant interest, however, for their portrayal of Charles I's England. The Staple of News, for example, offers a remarkable look at the earliest stage of English journalism. The lukewarm reception given that play was, however, nothing compared to the dismal failure of The New Inn; the cold reception given this play prompted Jonson to write a poem condemning his audience (An Ode to Himself), which in turn prompted Thomas Carew, one of the "Tribe of Ben," to respond in a poem that asks Jonson to recognise his own decline.[36] The principal factor in Jonson's partial eclipse was, however, the death of James and the accession of King Charles I in 1625. Jonson felt neglected by the new court. A decisive quarrel with Jones harmed his career as a writer of court masques, although he continued to entertain the court on an irregular basis. For his part, Charles displayed a certain degree of care for the great poet of his father's day: he increased Jonson's annual pension to £100 and included a tierce of wine and beer. Despite the strokes that he suffered in the 1620s, Jonson continued to write. At his death in 1637 he seems to have been working on another play, The Sad Shepherd. Though only two acts are extant, this represents a remarkable new direction for Jonson: a move into pastoral drama. During the early 1630s he also conducted a correspondence with James Howell, who warned him about disfavour at court in the wake of his dispute with Jones. Jonson died on or around 16 August 1637, and his funeral was held the next day. It was attended by 'all or the greatest part of the nobility then in town'.[19] He is buried in the north aisle of the nave in Westminster Abbey, with the inscription "O Rare Ben Johnson [sic]" set in the slab over his grave.[3][37] John Aubrey, in a more meticulous record than usual, notes that a passer-by, John Young of Great Milton, Oxfordshire, saw the bare grave marker and on impulse paid a workman eighteen pence to make the inscription. Another theory suggests that the tribute came from William Davenant, Jonson's successor as Poet Laureate (and card-playing companion of Young), as the same phrase appears on Davenant's nearby gravestone, but essayist Leigh Hunt contends that Davenant's wording represented no more than Young's coinage, cheaply re-used.[37][38] The fact that Jonson was buried in an upright position was an indication of his reduced circumstances at the time of his death,[39] although it has also been written that he asked for a grave exactly 18 inches square from the monarch and received an upright grave to fit in the requested space.[40][41] It has been claimed that the inscription could be read "Orare Ben Jonson" (pray for Ben Jonson), possibly in an allusion to Jonson's acceptance of Catholic doctrine during his lifetime (although he had returned to the Church of England) but the carving shows a distinct space between "O" and "rare".[17][42][43] A monument to Jonson was erected in about 1723 by the Earl of Oxford and is in the eastern aisle of Westminster Abbey's Poets' Corner. It includes a portrait medallion and the same inscription as on the gravestone. It seems Jonson was to have had a monument erected by subscription soon after his death but the English Civil War intervened.[44] His work[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Drama[edit] Apart from two tragedies, Sejanus and Catiline, that largely failed to impress Renaissance audiences, Jonson's work for the public theatres was in comedy. These plays vary in some respects. The minor early plays, particularly those written for boy players, present somewhat looser plots and less-developed characters than those written later, for adult companies. Already in the plays which were his salvos in the Poet's War, he displays the keen eye for absurdity and hypocrisy that marks his best-known plays; in these early efforts, however, plot mostly takes second place to variety of incident and comic set-pieces. They are, also, notably ill-tempered. Thomas Davies called Poetaster "a contemptible mixture of the serio-comic, where the names of Augustus Caesar, Maecenas, Virgil, Horace, Ovid and Tibullus, are all sacrificed upon the altar of private resentment". Another early comedy in a different vein, The Case is Altered, is markedly similar to Shakespeare's romantic comedies in its foreign setting, emphasis on genial wit and love-plot. Henslowe's diary indicates that Jonson had a hand in numerous other plays, including many in genres such as English history with which he is not otherwise associated. The comedies of his middle career, from Eastward Hoe to The Devil Is an Ass are for the most part city comedy, with a London setting, themes of trickery and money, and a distinct moral ambiguity, despite Jonson's professed aim in the Prologue to Volpone to "mix profit with your pleasure". His late plays or "dotages", particularly The Magnetic Lady and The Sad Shepherd [Wikidata], exhibit signs of an accommodation with the romantic tendencies of Elizabethan comedy. Within this general progression, however, Jonson's comic style remained constant and easily recognisable. He announces his programme in the prologue to the folio version of Every Man in His Humour: he promises to represent "deeds, and language, such as men do use". He planned to write comedies that revived the classical premises of Elizabethan dramatic theory—or rather, since all but the loosest English comedies could claim some descent from Plautus and Terence, he intended to apply those premises with rigour.[45] This commitment entailed negations: after The Case is Altered, Jonson eschewed distant locations, noble characters, romantic plots and other staples of Elizabethan comedy, focusing instead on the satiric and realistic inheritance of new comedy. He set his plays in contemporary settings, peopled them with recognisable types, and set them to actions that, if not strictly realistic, involved everyday motives such as greed and jealousy. In accordance with the temper of his age, he was often so broad in his characterisation that many of his most famous scenes border on the farcical (as William Congreve, for example, judged Epicoene). He was more diligent in adhering to the classical unities than many of his peers—although as Margaret Cavendish noted, the unity of action in the major comedies was rather compromised by Jonson's abundance of incident. To this classical model Jonson applied the two features of his style which save his classical imitations from mere pedantry: the vividness with which he depicted the lives of his characters, and the intricacy of his plots. Coleridge, for instance, claimed that The Alchemist had one of the three most perfect plots in literature. Poetry[edit] "Epitaph for Cecilia Bulstrode" manuscript, 1609 Jonson's poetry, like his drama, is informed by his classical learning. Some of his better-known poems are close translations of Greek or Roman models; all display the careful attention to form and style that often came naturally to those trained in classics in the humanist manner. Jonson largely avoided the debates about rhyme and meter that had consumed Elizabethan classicists such as Thomas Campion and Gabriel Harvey. Accepting both rhyme and stress, Jonson used them to mimic the classical qualities of simplicity, restraint and precision. "Epigrams" (published in the 1616 folio) is an entry in a genre that was popular among late-Elizabethan and Jacobean audiences, although Jonson was perhaps the only poet of his time to work in its full classical range. The epigrams explore various attitudes, most from the satiric stock of the day: complaints against women, courtiers and spies abound. The condemnatory poems are short and anonymous; Jonson’s epigrams of praise, including a famous poem to Camden and lines to Lucy Harington, are longer and are mostly addressed to specific individuals. Although it is included among the epigrams, "On My First Sonne" is neither satirical nor very short; the poem, intensely personal and deeply felt, typifies a genre that would come to be called "lyric poetry." It is possible that the spelling of 'son' as 'Sonne' is meant to allude to the sonnet form, with which it shares some features. A few other so-called epigrams share this quality. Jonson's poems of "The Forest" also appeared in the first folio. Most of the fifteen poems are addressed to Jonson's aristocratic supporters, but the most famous are his country-house poem “To Penshurst” and the poem “To Celia” ("Come, my Celia, let us prove") that appears also in Volpone. Underwood, published in the expanded folio of 1640, is a larger and more heterogeneous group of poems. It contains A Celebration of Charis, Jonson's most extended effort at love poetry; various religious pieces; encomiastic poems including the poem to Shakespeare and a sonnet on Mary Wroth; the Execration against Vulcan and others. The 1640 volume also contains three elegies which have often been ascribed to Donne (one of them appeared in Donne's posthumous collected poems). Relationship with Shakespeare[edit] A 19th-century engraving illustrating Thomas Fuller's story of Shakespeare and Jonson debating at the "Mermaid Tavern". There are many legends about Jonson's rivalry with Shakespeare, some of which may be true.[citation needed] William Drummond reports that during their conversation, Jonson scoffed at two apparent absurdities in Shakespeare's plays: a nonsensical line in Julius Caesar and the setting of The Winter's Tale on the non-existent seacoast of Bohemia. Drummond also reported Jonson as saying that Shakespeare "wanted art" (i.e., lacked skill). Whether Drummond is viewed as accurate or not, the comments fit well with Jonson's well-known theories about literature.[citation needed] In "De Shakespeare Nostrat" in Timber, which was published posthumously and reflects his lifetime of practical experience, Jonson offers a fuller and more conciliatory comment. He recalls being told by certain actors that Shakespeare never blotted (i.e., crossed out) a line when he wrote. His own claimed response was "Would he had blotted a thousand!"[a] However, Jonson explains, "He was, indeed, honest and of an open and free nature, had an excellent phantasy, brave notions and gentle expressions, wherein he flowed with that facility that sometimes it was necessary he should be stopped".[47] Jonson concludes that "there was ever more in him to be praised than to be pardoned." When Shakespeare died, he said, "He was not of an age, but for all time."[48] Thomas Fuller relates stories of Jonson and Shakespeare engaging in debates in the Mermaid Tavern; Fuller imagines conversations in which Shakespeare would run rings around the more learned but more ponderous Jonson. That the two men knew each other personally is beyond doubt, not only because of the tone of Jonson's references to him but because Shakespeare's company produced a number of Jonson's plays, at least two of which (Every Man in His Humour and Sejanus His Fall) Shakespeare certainly acted in. However, it is now impossible to tell how much personal communication they had, and tales of their friendship cannot be substantiated.[citation needed] Jonson's most influential and revealing commentary on Shakespeare is the second of the two poems that he contributed to the prefatory verse that opens Shakespeare's First Folio. This poem, "To the Memory of My Beloved the Author, Mr. William Shakespeare and What He Hath Left Us", did a good deal to create the traditional view of Shakespeare as a poet who, despite "small Latine, and lesse Greeke",[49] had a natural genius. The poem has traditionally been thought to exemplify the contrast which Jonson perceived between himself, the disciplined and erudite classicist, scornful of ignorance and sceptical of the masses, and Shakespeare, represented in the poem as a kind of natural wonder whose genius was not subject to any rules except those of the audiences for which he wrote. But the poem itself qualifies this view: Yet must I not give Nature all: Thy Art, My gentle Shakespeare, must enjoy a part. Some view this elegy as a conventional exercise, but others see it as a heartfelt tribute to the "Sweet Swan of Avon", the "Soul of the Age!" It has been argued that Jonson helped to edit the First Folio, and he may have been inspired to write this poem by reading his fellow playwright's works, a number of which had been previously either unpublished or available in less satisfactory versions, in a relatively complete form.[citation needed] Reception and influence[edit] Jonson was a towering literary figure, and his influence was enormous for he has been described as 'One of the most vigorous minds that ever added to the strength of English literature'.[50] Before the English Civil War, the "Tribe of Ben" touted his importance, and during the Restoration Jonson's satirical comedies and his theory and practice of "humour characters" (which are often misunderstood; see William Congreve's letters for clarification) was extremely influential, providing the blueprint for many Restoration comedies. John Aubrey wrote of Jonson in Brief Lives. By 1700 Jonson's status began to decline. In the Romantic era, Jonson suffered the fate of being unfairly compared and contrasted to Shakespeare, as the taste for Jonson's type of satirical comedy decreased. Jonson was at times greatly appreciated by the Romantics, but overall he was denigrated for not writing in a Shakespearean vein. In 2012, after more than two decades of research, Cambridge University Press published the first new edition of Jonson's complete works for 60 years.[51] Drama[edit] As G. E. Bentley notes in Shakespeare and Jonson: Their Reputations in the Seventeenth Century Compared, Jonson's reputation was in some respects equal to Shakespeare's in the 17th century. After the English theatres were reopened on the Restoration of Charles II, Jonson's work, along with Shakespeare's and Fletcher's, formed the initial core of the Restoration repertory. It was not until after 1710 that Shakespeare's plays (ordinarily in heavily revised forms) were more frequently performed than those of his Renaissance contemporaries. Many critics since the 18th century have ranked Jonson below only Shakespeare among English Renaissance dramatists. Critical judgment has tended to emphasise the very qualities that Jonson himself lauds in his prefaces, in Timber, and in his scattered prefaces and dedications: the realism and propriety of his language, the bite of his satire, and the care with which he plotted his comedies. For some critics, the temptation to contrast Jonson (representing art or craft) with Shakespeare (representing nature, or untutored genius) has seemed natural; Jonson himself may be said to have initiated this interpretation in the second folio, and Samuel Butler drew the same comparison in his commonplace book later in the century. At the Restoration, this sensed difference became a kind of critical dogma. Charles de Saint-Évremond placed Jonson's comedies above all else in English drama, and Charles Gildon called Jonson the father of English comedy. John Dryden offered a more common assessment in the "Essay of Dramatic Poesie," in which his Avatar Neander compares Shakespeare to Homer and Jonson to Virgil: the former represented profound creativity, the latter polished artifice. But "artifice" was in the 17th century almost synonymous with "art"; Jonson, for instance, used "artificer" as a synonym for "artist" (Discoveries, 33). For Lewis Theobald, too, Jonson "ow[ed] all his Excellence to his Art,” in contrast to Shakespeare, the natural genius. Nicholas Rowe, to whom may be traced the legend that Jonson owed the production of Every Man in his Humour to Shakespeare's intercession, likewise attributed Jonson's excellence to learning, which did not raise him quite to the level of genius. A consensus formed: Jonson was the first English poet to understand classical precepts with any accuracy, and he was the first to apply those precepts successfully to contemporary life. But there were also more negative spins on Jonson's learned art; for instance, in the 1750s, Edward Young casually remarked on the way in which Jonson's learning worked, like Samson's strength, to his own detriment. Earlier, Aphra Behn, writing in defence of female playwrights, had pointed to Jonson as a writer whose learning did not make him popular; unsurprisingly, she compares him unfavourably to Shakespeare. Particularly in the tragedies, with their lengthy speeches abstracted from Sallust and Cicero, Augustan critics saw a writer whose learning had swamped his aesthetic judgment. In this period, Alexander Pope is exceptional in that he noted the tendency to exaggeration in these competing critical portraits: "It is ever the nature of Parties to be in extremes; and nothing is so probable, as that because Ben Johnson had much the most learning, it was said on the one hand that Shakespear had none at all; and because Shakespear had much the most wit and fancy, it was retorted on the other, that Johnson wanted both."[52] For the most part, the 18th century consensus remained committed to the division that Pope doubted; as late as the 1750s, Sarah Fielding could put a brief recapitulation of this analysis in the mouth of a "man of sense" encountered by David Simple. Though his stature declined during the 18th century, Jonson was still read and commented on throughout the century, generally in the kind of comparative and dismissive terms just described. Heinrich Wilhelm von Gerstenberg translated parts of Peter Whalley's edition into German in 1765. Shortly before the Romantic revolution, Edward Capell offered an almost unqualified rejection of Jonson as a dramatic poet, who (he writes) "has very poor pretensions to the high place he holds among the English Bards, as there is no original manner to distinguish him and the tedious sameness visible in his plots indicates a defect of Genius."[53] The disastrous failures of productions of Volpone and Epicoene in the early 1770s no doubt bolstered a widespread sense that Jonson had at last grown too antiquated for the contemporary public; if he still attracted enthusiasts such as Earl Camden and William Gifford, he all but disappeared from the stage in the last quarter of the century. The romantic revolution in criticism brought about an overall decline in the critical estimation of Jonson. Hazlitt refers dismissively to Jonson's "laborious caution." Coleridge, while more respectful, describes Jonson as psychologically superficial: “He was a very accurately observing man; but he cared only to observe what was open to, and likely to impress, the senses.” Coleridge placed Jonson second only to Shakespeare; other romantic critics were less approving. The early 19th century was the great age for recovering Renaissance drama. Jonson, whose reputation had survived, appears to have been less interesting to some readers than writers such as Thomas Middleton or John Heywood, who were in some senses "discoveries" of the 19th century. Moreover, the emphasis which the romantic writers placed on imagination, and their concomitant tendency to distrust studied art, lowered Jonson's status, if it also sharpened their awareness of the difference traditionally noted between Jonson and Shakespeare. This trend was by no means universal, however; William Gifford, Jonson's first editor of the 19th century, did a great deal to defend Jonson's reputation during this period of general decline. In the next era, Swinburne, who was more interested in Jonson than most Victorians, wrote, "The flowers of his growing have every quality but one which belongs to the rarest and finest among flowers: they have colour, form, variety, fertility, vigour: the one thing they want is fragrance” – by “fragrance,” Swinburne means spontaneity. In the 20th century, Jonson's body of work has been subject to a more varied set of analyses, broadly consistent with the interests and programmes of modern literary criticism. In an essay printed in The Sacred Wood, T. S. Eliot attempted to repudiate the charge that Jonson was an arid classicist by analysing the role of imagination in his dialogue. Eliot was appreciative of Jonson's overall conception and his "surface", a view consonant with the modernist reaction against Romantic criticism, which tended to denigrate playwrights who did not concentrate on representations of psychological depth. Around mid-century, a number of critics and scholars followed Eliot's lead, producing detailed studies of Jonson's verbal style. At the same time, study of Elizabethan themes and conventions, such as those by E. E. Stoll and M. C. Bradbrook, provided a more vivid sense of how Jonson's work was shaped by the expectations of his time. The proliferation of new critical perspectives after mid-century touched on Jonson inconsistently. Jonas Barish was the leading figure among critics who appreciated Jonson's artistry. On the other hand, Jonson received less attention from the new critics than did some other playwrights and his work was not of programmatic interest to psychoanalytic critics. But Jonson's career eventually made him a focal point for the revived sociopolitical criticism. Jonson's works, particularly his masques and pageants, offer significant information regarding the relations of literary production and political power, as do his contacts with and poems for aristocratic patrons; moreover, his career at the centre of London's emerging literary world has been seen as exemplifying the development of a fully commodified literary culture. In this respect he is seen as a transitional figure, an author whose skills and ambition led him to a leading role both in the declining culture of patronage and in the rising culture of mass media. Poetry[edit] Jonson has been called 'the first poet laureate'.[54] If Jonson's reputation as a playwright has traditionally been linked to Shakespeare, his reputation as a poet has, since the early 20th century, been linked to that of John Donne. In this comparison, Jonson represents the cavalier strain of poetry, emphasising grace and clarity of expression; Donne, by contrast, epitomised the metaphysical school of poetry, with its reliance on strained, baroque metaphors and often vague phrasing. Since the critics who made this comparison (Herbert Grierson for example), were to varying extents rediscovering Donne, this comparison often worked to the detriment of Jonson's reputation. In his time Jonson was at least as influential as Donne. In 1623, historian Edmund Bolton named him the best and most polished English poet. That this judgment was widely shared is indicated by the admitted influence he had on younger poets. The grounds for describing Jonson as the "father" of cavalier poets are clear: many of the cavalier poets described themselves as his "sons" or his "tribe". For some of this tribe, the connection was as much social as poetic; Herrick described meetings at "the Sun, the Dog, the Triple Tunne".[3] All of them, including those like Herrick whose accomplishments in verse are generally regarded as superior to Jonson's, took inspiration from Jonson's revival of classical forms and themes, his subtle melodies, and his disciplined use of wit. In these respects Jonson may be regarded as among the most important figures in the prehistory of English neoclassicism. The best of Jonson's lyrics have remained current since his time; periodically, they experience a brief vogue, as after the publication of Peter Whalley's edition of 1756. Jonson's poetry continues to interest scholars for the light which it sheds on English literary history, such as politics, systems of patronage and intellectual attitudes. For the general reader, Jonson's reputation rests on a few lyrics that, though brief, are surpassed for grace and precision by very few Renaissance poems: "On My First Sonne"; "To Celia"; "To Penshurst"; and the epitaph on Salomon Pavy, a boy player abducted from his parents who acted in Jonson's plays. Jonson's works[edit] Plays[edit] A Tale of a Tub, comedy (c. 1596 revised performed 1633; printed 1640) The Isle of Dogs, comedy (1597, with Thomas Nashe; lost) The Case is Altered, comedy (c. 1597–98; printed 1609), possibly with Henry Porter and Anthony Munday Every Man in His Humour, comedy (performed 1598; printed 1601) Every Man out of His Humour, comedy ( performed 1599; printed 1600) Cynthia's Revels (performed 1600; printed 1601) The Poetaster, comedy (performed 1601; printed 1602) Sejanus His Fall, tragedy (performed 1603; printed 1605) Eastward Ho, comedy (performed and printed 1605), a collaboration with John Marston and George Chapman Volpone, comedy (c. 1605–06; printed 1607) Epicoene, or the Silent Woman, comedy (performed 1609; printed 1616) The Alchemist, comedy (performed 1610; printed 1612) Catiline His Conspiracy, tragedy (performed and printed 1611) Bartholomew Fair, comedy (performed 31 October 1614; printed 1631) The Devil is an Ass, comedy (performed 1616; printed 1631) The Staple of News, comedy (completed by Feb. 1626; printed 1631) The New Inn, or The Light Heart, comedy (licensed 19 January 1629; printed 1631) The Magnetic Lady, or Humours Reconciled , comedy (licensed 12 October 1632; printed 1641) The Sad Shepherd, pastoral (c. 1637, printed 1641), unfinished Mortimer His Fall, history (printed 1641), a fragment Masques[edit] The Coronation Triumph, or The King's Entertainment (performed 15 March 1604; printed 1604); with Thomas Dekker A Private Entertainment of the King and Queen on May-Day (The Penates) (1 May 1604; printed 1616) The Entertainment of the Queen and Prince Henry at Althorp (The Satyr) (25 June 1603; printed 1604) The Masque of Blackness (6 January 1605; printed 1608) Hymenaei (5 January 1606; printed 1606) The Entertainment of the Kings of Great Britain and Denmark (The Hours) (24 July 1606; printed 1616) The Masque of Beauty (10 January 1608; printed 1608) The Masque of Queens (2 February 1609; printed 1609) The Hue and Cry After Cupid, or The Masque at Lord Haddington's Marriage (9 February 1608; printed c. 1608) The Entertainment at Britain's Burse (11 April 1609; lost, rediscovered 1997)[55] The Speeches at Prince Henry's Barriers, or The Lady of the Lake (6 January 1610; printed 1616) Oberon, the Faery Prince (1 January 1611; printed 1616) Love Freed from Ignorance and Folly (3 February 1611; printed 1616) Love Restored (6 January 1612; printed 1616) A Challenge at Tilt, at a Marriage (27 December 1613/1 January 1614; printed 1616) The Irish Masque at Court (29 December 1613; printed 1616) Mercury Vindicated from the Alchemists (6 January 1615; printed 1616) The Golden Age Restored (1 January 1616; printed 1616) Christmas, His Masque (Christmas 1616; printed 1641) The Vision of Delight (6 January 1617; printed 1641) Lovers Made Men, or The Masque of Lethe, or The Masque at Lord Hay's (22 February 1617; printed 1617) Pleasure Reconciled to Virtue (6 January 1618; printed 1641) The masque was a failure; Jonson revised it by placing the anti-masque first, turning it into: For the Honour of Wales (17 February 1618; printed 1641) News from the New World Discovered in the Moon (7 January 1620: printed 1641) The Entertainment at Blackfriars, or The Newcastle Entertainment (May 1620?; MS) Pan's Anniversary, or The Shepherd's Holy-Day (19 June 1620?; printed 1641) The Gypsies Metamorphosed (3 and 5 August 1621; printed 1640) The Masque of Augurs (6 January 1622; printed 1622) Time Vindicated to Himself and to His Honours (19 January 1623; printed 1623) Neptune's Triumph for the Return of Albion (26 January 1624; printed 1624) The Masque of Owls at Kenilworth (19 August 1624; printed 1641) The Fortunate Isles and Their Union (9 January 1625; printed 1625) Love's Triumph Through Callipolis (9 January 1631; printed 1631) Chloridia: Rites to Chloris and Her Nymphs (22 February 1631; printed 1631) The King's Entertainment at Welbeck in Nottinghamshire (21 May 1633; printed 1641) Love's Welcome at Bolsover ( 30 July 1634; printed 1641) Other works[edit] Epigrams (1612) The Forest (1616), including To Penshurst On My First Sonne (1616), elegy A Discourse of Love (1618) Barclay's Argenis, translated by Jonson (1623) The Execration against Vulcan (1640) Horace's Art of Poetry, translated by Jonson (1640), with a commendatory verse by Edward Herbert Underwood (1640) English Grammar (1640) Timber, or Discoveries made upon men and matter, as they have flowed out of his daily readings, or had their reflux to his peculiar notion of the times, a commonplace book To Celia (Drink to Me Only With Thine Eyes), poem It is in Jonson's Timber, or Discoveries... that he famously quipped on the manner in which language became a measure of the speaker or writer: Language most shows a man: Speak, that I may see thee. It springs out of the most retired and inmost parts of us, and is the image of the parent of it, the mind. No glass renders a man’s form or likeness so true as his speech. Nay, it is likened to a man; and as we consider feature and composition in a man, so words in language; in the greatness, aptness, sound structure, and harmony of it. — Ben Jonson, 1640 (posthumous)[56] As with other English Renaissance dramatists, a portion of Ben Jonson's literary output has not survived. In addition to The Isle of Dogs (1597), the records suggest these lost plays as wholly or partially Jonson's work: Richard Crookback (1602); Hot Anger Soon Cold (1598), with Porter and Henry Chettle; Page of Plymouth (1599), with Dekker; and Robert II, King of Scots (1599), with Chettle and Dekker. Several of Jonson's masques and entertainments also are not extant: The Entertainment at Merchant Taylors (1607); The Entertainment at Salisbury House for James I (1608); and The May Lord (1613–19). Finally, there are questionable or borderline attributions. Jonson may have had a hand in Rollo, Duke of Normandy, or The Bloody Brother, a play in the canon of John Fletcher and his collaborators. The comedy The Widow was printed in 1652 as the work of Thomas Middleton, Fletcher and Jonson, though scholars have been intensely sceptical about Jonson's presence in the play. A few attributions of anonymous plays, such as The London Prodigal, have been ventured by individual researchers, but have met with cool responses.[57] Notes[edit] ^ Jonson's claim is interesting, since early printings of Shakespeare's work suggest that he tended to start a scene before giving up and trying again. His failure to cross the original attempts out left his printers unsure what needed to be deleted, though also allowed an insight into his creative process.[46] Citations[edit] Bednarz, James P. (2001), Shakespeare and the Poets' War, New York: Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0-2311-2243-6. Bentley, G. E. (1945), Shakespeare and Jonson: Their Reputations in the Seventeenth Century Compared, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-2260-4269-5 . Bush, Douglas (1945), English Literature in the Earlier Seventeenth Century, 1600–1660, Oxford History of English Literature, Oxford: Clarendon Press . Butler, Martin (Summer 1993). "Jonson's Folio and the Politics of Patronage". Criticism. Wayne State University Press. 35 (3): 377–90. Chute, Marchette. Ben Jonson of Westminster. New York: E.P. Dutton, 1953 Doran, Madeline. Endeavors of Art. Madison, Wis.: University of Wisconsin Press, 1954 Donaldson, Ian (2011). Ben Jonson: A Life. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 181–2. ISBN 9780198129769. Retrieved 20 March 2013. Eccles, Mark. "Jonson's Marriage." Review of English Studies 12 (1936) Eliot, T.S. "Ben Jonson." The Sacred Wood. London: Methuen, 1920 Jonson, Ben. Discoveries 1641, ed. G. B. Harrison. New York: Barnes & Noble, 1966 Jonson, Ben, David M. Bevington, Martin Butler, and Ian Donaldson. 2012. The Cambridge edition of the works of Ben Jonson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Knights, L. C. Drama and Society in the Age of Jonson. London: Chatto and Windus, 1968 Logan, Terence P., and Denzell S. Smith. The New Intellectuals: A Survey and Bibliography of Recent Studies in English Renaissance Drama. Lincoln, Nebraska, University of Nebraska Press, 1975 MacLean, Hugh, editor. Ben Jonson and the Cavalier Poets. New York: Norton Press, 1974 Ceri Sullivan, The Rhetoric of Credit. Merchants in Early Modern Writing (Madison/London: Associated University Press, 2002) Teague, Frances. "Ben Jonson and the Gunpowder Plot." Ben Jonson Journal 5 (1998). pp. 249–52 Thorndike, Ashley. "Ben Jonson." The Cambridge History of English and American Literature. New York: Putnam, 1907–1921 References[edit] ^ Ben Jonson - Bibliotheca Alexandrina ^ Bland, Mark (2004). "Ben Jonson and the Legacies of the Past". Huntington Library Quarterly. 67 (3): 371–400. doi:10.1525/hlq.2004.67.3.371. JSTOR 10.1525/hlq.2004.67.3.371. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Ward, Adolphus William (1911). "Jonson, Ben" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 502–507. ^ Ben Jonson at the Encyclopædia Britannica ^ a b "Ben Jonson", Grolier Encyclopedia of Knowledge, volume 10, p. 388. ^ Evans, Robert C (2000). "Jonson's critical heritage". In Harp, Richard; Stewart, Stanley (eds.). The Cambridge companion to Ben Jonson. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 189–202. ISBN 0-521-64678-2. ^ Donaldson, Ian (2004). "Jonson, Benjamin [Ben] (1572–1637), poet and playwright | Oxford Dictionary of National Biography". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/15116. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) ^ Donaldson, Ian (2004). "Jonson, Benjamin [Ben] (1572–1637), poet and playwright | Oxford Dictionary of National Biography". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/15116. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) ^ a b Robert Chambers, Book of Days ^ "Ben Jonson", Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th Edition, pp. 611 ^ a b Drummond, William (1619). Heads of a Conversation betwixt the Famous Poet Ben Johnson and William Drummond of Hawthornden, January 1619. ^ "Ben Jonson", Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th Edition, p. 611 ^ "Thomas Kyd", Grolier Encyclopedia of Knowledge, volume 11, p. 122. ^ a b "Ben Jonson", Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th Edition, p. 612. ^ Bowers, Fredson T. (July 1937). "Ben Jonson the Actor". Studies in Philology. 34 (3): 392–406. JSTOR 4172372. ^ Miola, Robert S. (2012). "The Case Is Altered, Introduction". The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Ben Jonson. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ^ a b c d Donaldson, Ian (2008). "Benjamin Jonson (1572–1637)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/15116. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) ^ Gossett, Suzanne (2004). "Marston, Collaboration, and "Eastward Ho!"". Renaissance Drama. New series. 33: 181–200. doi:10.1086/rd.33.41917391. JSTOR 41917391. S2CID 191392739. ^ a b Donaldson 2011, p. 428 ^ a b Loxley, James; Groundwater, Anna; Sanders, Julie (4 December 2014). Ben Jonson's walk to Scotland: an annotated edition of the 'foot voyage'. Loxley, James, 1968–, Groundwater, Anna, Sanders, Julie, 1968–. Cambridge, United Kingdom. pp. 94, 96. ISBN 9781107003330. OCLC 884139272. ^ Donaldson (2011: 56) ^ Riggs (1989: 9) ^ Donaldson (2011: 176) ^ a b Riggs (1989: 51–52) ^ a b Donaldson (2011: 134–140) ^ Harp; Stewart (2000: xiv) ^ Donaldson (2011: 143) ^ Donaldson (2011: 229) ^ Maxwell, Julie (2010). "Religion". In Sanders, Julie (ed.). Ben Jonson in context. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 231. ISBN 978-0-521-89571-2. ^ Donaldson (2011: 228–9) ^ Walker, Anita; Dickerman, Edmund (1995). "Mind of an Assassin: Ravaillac and the Murder of Henri IV of France". Canadian Journal of History. Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. 30 (2): 201–229. doi:10.3138/cjh.30.2.201. ^ a b Donaldson (2011: 272) ^ Jon Morrill, quoted in Donaldson (2011: 487) ^ Riggs (1989: 177) ^ van den Berg, Sara (30 November 2000). "True relation: the life and career of Ben Jonson". In Harp, Richard; Stewart, Stanley (eds.). The Cambridge Companion to Ben Jonson. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 10. ISBN 0-521-64678-2. ^ Maclean, p. 88 ^ a b "Monuments & Gravestones: Ben Jonson". Westminster Abbey 1065 to today. Dean and Chapter of Westminster Abbey. Archived from the original on 7 January 2008. Retrieved 26 May 2008. ^ Hunt, Leigh (9 April 1828). "His epitaph, and Ben Jonson's". Life of Sir William Davenant, with specimens of his poetry. The Companion. XIV. p. 187. OCLC 2853686. ^ Adams, J. Q. The Jonson Allusion Book. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1922. pp. 195–6 ^ Dunton, Larkin (1896). The World and Its People. Silver, Burdett. p. 34. ^ Donaldson (2011:1) ^ Stubbs, John (24 February 2011). Reprobates. London: Viking Penguin. p. 182. ISBN 978-0-670-91753-2. …a plea for the passerby's prayers (the Latin imperative orare)… ^ Fletcher, Angus (2007). "Structure of an epitaph". Time, space, and motion in the age of Shakespeare. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 95. ISBN 978-0-674-02308-6. At first sight the words seem clear enough…but some…have believed that the words intended to say, in Latin, "Pray for Ben Jonson"… ^ "Ben Jonson". Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 2014-08-18. ^ Doran, 120ff ^ Honigmann, E. A. J. (1 February 2005). "Shakespeare's Deletions and False Starts". The Review of English Studies. 56 (223): 37–48. doi:10.1093/res/hgi003. ^ "Gutenberg.org". Archived from the original on 18 January 2012. Retrieved 14 August 2006. ^ Pogue, Kate Emery (2006). Shakespeare's Friends. London: Praeger. p. 99. ISBN 0275989569. Retrieved 25 September 2016. praised than to be pardoned age but for all time. ^ W.T. Baldwin 's William Shakspere's Smalle Latine and Lesse Greeke, 1944 ^ Morley, Henry, Introduction to Discoveries Made Upon Men and Matter and Some Poems 1892 kindle ebook 2011 ASIN B004TOT8FQ ^ Hadfield, Andrew (24 July 2012). "Why should William Shakespeare have the last word over Ben Jonson?". Telegraph.co.uk. ^ Alexander Pope, ed. Works of Shakespeare (London, 1725), p. 1 ^ Quoted in Craig, D. H., ed. Jonson: The Critical Heritage (London: Routledge, 1995). p. 499 ^ Schmidt, Michael, Lives of the Poets, Weidenfeld & Nicolson 1998 ISBN 9780753807453 ^ Scott, Alison V. (September 2006). "Marketing Luxury at the New Exchange: Jonson's Entertainment at Britain's Burse and the Rhetoric of Wonder". Early Modern Literary Studies. 12 (2): 5.1–19. Retrieved 13 September 2014. ^ Jonson, B., "Discoveries and Some Poems," Cassell & Company, 1892. ^ Logan and Smith, pp. 82–92 Further reading[edit] Library resources about Ben Jonson Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Ben Jonson Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Biographies of Ben Jonson[edit] Ben Jonson: His Life and Work by Rosalind Miles (Routledge, London 1986) Ben Jonson: His Craft and Art by Rosalind Miles (Routledge, London 2017) Ben Jonson: A Literary Life by W. David Kay (Macmillan, Basingstoke 1995) Ben Jonson: A Life by David Riggs (1989) Ben Jonson: A Life by Ian Donaldson (2011) External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Ben Jonson Wikisource has original works written by or about: Ben Jonson Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ben Jonson. Works by Ben Jonson at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Ben Jonson at Internet Archive Works by Ben Jonson at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) The Cambridge edition of the works of Ben Jonson Digitised Facsimiles of Jonson's second folio, 1640/1 Jonson's second folio, 1640/1 Video interview with scholar David Bevington The Collected Works of Ben Jonson Audio resources on Ben Jonson at TheEnglishCollection.com Poems by Ben Jonson at PoetryFoundation.org Works of Ben Jonson Ben Jonson at Find a Grave Audio: Robert Pinsky reads "His Excuse For Loving" by Ben Jonson Audio: Robert Pinsky reads "My Picture Left in Scotland" by Ben Jonson Free scores by Ben Jonson in the Choral Public Domain Library (ChoralWiki) "Archival material relating to Ben Jonson". UK National Archives. Portraits of Benjamin Jonson at the National Portrait Gallery, London Preceded by Samuel Daniel British Poet Laureate 1619–1637 Succeeded by William Davenant v t e Ben Jonson (works) Plays A Tale of a Tub The Case is Altered The Isle of Dogs Every Man in His Humour Every Man out of His Humour Cynthia's Revels Poetaster Sejanus His Fall Eastward Hoe Volpone Epicœne, or The Silent Woman The Alchemist Catiline His Conspiracy Bartholomew Fair The Devil Is an Ass The Staple of News The New Inn The Magnetic Lady Rollo Duke of Normandy The Sad Shepherd Mortimer His Fall (fragment) Masques The Coronation Triumph A Private Entertainment of the King and Queen on May-Day The Entertainment at Althorp The Masque of Blackness Hymenaei The Entertainment of the Kings of Great Britain and Denmark The Masque of Beauty The Masque of Queens The Hue and Cry After Cupid The Entertainment at Britain's Burse The Speeches at Prince Henry's Barriers Oberon, the Faery Prince Love Freed from Ignorance and Folly Love Restored A Challenge at Tilt, at a Marriage The Irish Masque at Court Mercury Vindicated from the Alchemists The Golden Age Restored Christmas, His Masque The Vision of Delight Lovers Made Men Pleasure Reconciled to Virtue For the Honour of Wales News from the New World Discovered in the Moon The Entertainment at Blackfriars Pan's Anniversary The Gypsies Metamorphosed The Masque of Augurs Time Vindicated to Himself and to His Honours Neptune's Triumph for the Return of Albion The Masque of Owls at Kenilworth The Fortunate Isles and Their Union Love's Triumph Through Callipolis Chloridia The King's Entertainment at Welbeck Love's Welcome at Bolsover Poems "On My First Sonne" "To Celia" "To Penshurst" Related Ben Jonson folios English Renaissance theatre Sons of Ben (literary group) v t e Ben Jonson's Volpone Films The Honey Pot (1967) Il volpone (1988) Stage Volpone (1953 opera) Foxy (1964 musical) Sly Fox (1976 play) Related The Evil of the Day v t e Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom John Dryden (1668–88) Thomas Shadwell (1689–92) Nahum Tate (1692–1715) Nicholas Rowe (1715–18) Laurence Eusden (1718–30) Colley Cibber (1730–57) William Whitehead (1757–85) Thomas Warton (1785–90) Henry James Pye (1790–1813) Robert Southey (1813–43) William Wordsworth (1843–50) Alfred, Lord Tennyson (1850–92) Alfred Austin (1896–1913) Robert Bridges (1913–30) John Masefield (1930–67) Cecil Day-Lewis (1968–72) John Betjeman (1972–84) Ted Hughes (1984–98) Andrew Motion (1999–2009) Carol Ann Duffy (2009–2019) Simon Armitage (2019–) v t e The "Beaumont and Fletcher" Canon Francis Beaumont John Fletcher Philip Massinger Nathan Field William Shakespeare James Shirley Thomas Middleton William Rowley John Ford Ben Jonson George Chapman John Webster Plays (some attributions conjectural) Beaumont The Knight of the Burning Pestle The Masque of the Inner Temple and Gray's Inn Beaumont and Fletcher The Woman Hater Cupid's Revenge The Coxcomb Philaster The Captain The Maid's Tragedy A King and No King Love's Pilgrimage The Scornful Lady The Noble Gentleman Fletcher The Faithful Shepherdess The Woman's Prize Valentinian Bonduca Monsieur Thomas The Mad Lover The Chances The Loyal Subject Women Pleased The Humorous Lieutenant The Island Princess The Pilgrim The Wild Goose Chase A Wife for a Month Rule a Wife and Have a Wife Fletcher and Massinger †Barnavelt The Little French Lawyer The False One The Double Marriage The Custom of the Country The Lovers' Progress The Spanish Curate The Prophetess The Sea Voyage The Elder Brother †A Very Woman Fletcher and others with Beaumont & Massinger Thierry and Theodoret Beggars' Bush Love's Cure with Massinger & Field The Honest Man's Fortune The Queen of Corinth The Knight of Malta with Field Four Plays, or Moral Representations, in One with Shakespeare †Henry VIII The Two Noble Kinsmen with Shirley The Night Walker Wit Without Money with Rowley The Maid in the Mill with Massinger, Chapman & Jonson Rollo, Duke of Normandy with Massinger, Ford & Webster The Fair Maid of the Inn Others The Nice Valour (Middleton) Wit at Several Weapons (Middleton & Rowley) The Laws of Candy (Ford) The Coronation (Shirley) Performance and publication English Renaissance theatre King's Men Beaumont and Fletcher folios Humphrey Moseley Humphrey Robinson Related †The History of Cardenio (Shakespeare & Fletcher?) †Double Falsehood (possibly based on Cardenio) † = Not published in the Beaumont and Fletcher folios Authority control BIBSYS: 90051338 BNE: XX1152999 BNF: cb11908988h (data) CANTIC: a10468250 CiNii: DA00250813 GND: 118558323 ISNI: 0000 0001 2134 0010 LCCN: n80044918 LNB: 000021799 MBA: 5b9d93db-9bbc-4150-8fd9-a9e7fb7b1428 NDL: 00444907 NKC: ola2003175055 NLA: 35253811 NLI: 000603751 NLK: KAC199614196 NSK: 000012585 NTA: 339698896 RERO: 02-A000095453 SELIBR: 191914 SNAC: w6jd4vkd SUDOC: 026940183 Trove: 883521 ULAN: 500278089 VcBA: 495/15297 VIAF: 292789691 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n80044918 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ben_Jonson&oldid=996465132" Categories: 1572 births 1637 deaths 16th-century English dramatists and playwrights 16th-century English poets 17th-century English dramatists and playwrights 17th-century English poets 17th-century male writers Anglo-Scots British Poets Laureate Burials at Westminster Abbey Converts to Anglicanism from Roman Catholicism Converts to Roman Catholicism from Anglicanism English duellists English dramatists and playwrights English literary critics English male actors English male dramatists and playwrights English male poets English people convicted of manslaughter English people of the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604) English prisoners and detainees English Renaissance dramatists Linguists of English People associated with Shakespeare People educated at Westminster School, London People from Westminster Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource 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en-wikipedia-org-3459	----	Lucian - Wikipedia Lucian From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the second-century satirist and rhetorician. For other uses, see Lucian (disambiguation). 2nd-century satirist and rhetorician Lucian Title page of a 1619 Latin translation of Lucian's complete works Born c. 125 AD Samosata, Roman Syria (Now Turkey) Died After 180 AD probably Egypt, Roman Empire Occupation Novelist, satirist, rhetorician Notable works A True History, Dialogues of the Dead, Lover of Lies, Dialogues of the Gods, Dialogues of the Courtesans, Alexander the False Prophet, Philosophies for Sale, Lucian of Samosata[a] (c. 125 – after 180) was an Assyrian[1] satirist and rhetorician[2] who is best known for his characteristic tongue-in-cheek style, with which he frequently ridiculed superstition, religious practices, and belief in the paranormal. Although his native language was probably Syriac, all of his extant works are written entirely in Ancient Greek (mostly in the Attic Greek popular during the Second Sophistic period). Everything that is known about Lucian's life comes from his own writings, which are often difficult to interpret because of his extensive use of sarcasm. According to his oration The Dream, he was the son of a lower middle class family from the village of Samosata along the banks of the Euphrates in the remote Roman province of Syria. As a young man, he was apprenticed to his uncle to become a sculptor, but, after a failed attempt at sculpting, he ran away to pursue an education in Ionia. He may have become a travelling lecturer and visited universities throughout the Roman Empire. After acquiring fame and wealth through his teaching, Lucian finally settled down in Athens for a decade, during which he wrote most of his extant works. In his fifties, he may have been appointed as a highly paid government official in Egypt, after which point he disappears from the historical record. Lucian's works were wildly popular in antiquity, and more than eighty writings attributed to him have survived to the present day, a considerably higher quantity than for most other classical writers. His most famous work is A True Story, a tongue-in-cheek satire against authors who tell incredible tales, which is regarded by some as the earliest known work of science fiction. Lucian invented the genre of the comic dialogue, a parody of the traditional Socratic dialogue. His dialogue Lover of Lies makes fun of people who believe in the supernatural and contains the oldest known version of "The Sorcerer's Apprentice". Lucian wrote numerous satires making fun of traditional stories about the gods including The Dialogues of the Gods, Icaromenippus, Zeus Rants, Zeus Catechized, and The Parliament of the Gods. His Dialogues of the Dead focuses on the Cynic philosophers Diogenes and Menippus. Philosophies for Sale and The Banquet or Lapiths make fun of various philosophical schools, and The Fisherman or the Dead Come to Life is a defense of this mockery. Lucian often ridiculed public figures, such as the Cynic philosopher Peregrinus Proteus in his letter The Passing of Peregrinus and the fraudulent oracle Alexander of Abonoteichus in his treatise Alexander the False Prophet. Lucian's treatise On the Syrian Goddess satirizes cultural distinctions between Greeks and Syrians and is the main source of information about the cult of Atargatis. Lucian had an enormous, wide-ranging impact on Western literature. Works inspired by his writings include Thomas More's Utopia, the works of François Rabelais, William Shakespeare's Timon of Athens and Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels. Contents 1 Life 1.1 Biographical sources 1.2 Background and upbringing 1.3 Education and career 2 Views 3 Works 3.1 A True Story 3.2 Satirical dialogues 3.3 Treatises and letters 3.4 Pseudo-Lucian 4 Legacy 4.1 Renaissance and Reformation 4.2 Early modern period 4.3 Modern period 5 Editions 6 Notes 7 References 7.1 Bibliography 8 External links Life[edit] Biographical sources[edit] Lucian is not mentioned in any contemporary texts or inscriptions written by others[3] and he is not included in Philostratus's Lives of the Sophists.[3] As a result of this, everything that is known about Lucian comes exclusively from his own writings.[4][5][3] A variety of characters with names very similar to Lucian, including "Lukinos," "Lukianos," "Lucius," and "The Syrian" appear throughout Lucian's writings.[3] These have been frequently interpreted by scholars and biographers as "masks", "alter-egos", or "mouthpieces" of the author.[3] Daniel S. Richter criticizes the frequent tendency to interpret such "Lucian-like figures" as self-inserts by the author[3] and argues that they are, in fact, merely fictional characters Lucian uses to "think with" when satirizing conventional distinctions between Greeks and Syrians.[3] He suggests that they are primarily a literary trope used by Lucian to deflect accusations that he as the Syrian author "has somehow outraged the purity of Greek idiom or genre" through his invention of the comic dialogue.[6] British classicist Donald Russell states, "A good deal of what Lucian says about himself is no more to be trusted than the voyage to the moon that he recounts so persuasively in the first person in True Stories"[7] and warns that "it is foolish to treat [the information he gives about himself in his writings] as autobiography."[7] Background and upbringing[edit] Samosata Hierapolis Antioch Ephesus Smyrna Abonoteichos Map of Anatolia showing locations associated with Lucian Lucian was born in the town of Samosata on the banks of the Euphrates on the far eastern outskirts of the Roman Empire.[8][5][9][10] Samosata had been the capital of the Kingdom of Commagene until 72 AD when it was annexed by Vespasian and became part of the Roman province of Syria.[11][10] The population of the town was mostly Syrian[8] and Lucian's native tongue was probably Syriac, a form of Middle Aramaic.[8][12][13][10] During the time when Lucian lived, traditional Greco-Roman religion was in decline and its role in society had become largely ceremonial.[14] As a substitute for traditional religion, many people in the Hellenistic world joined mystery cults, such as the Mysteries of Isis, Mithraism, the cult of Cybele, and the Eleusinian Mysteries.[15] Superstition had always been common throughout ancient society,[15] but it was especially prevalent during the second century.[15][16] Most educated people of Lucian's time adhered to one of the various Hellenistic philosophies,[15] of which the major ones were Stoicism, Platonism, Peripateticism, Pyrrhonism, and Epicureanism.[15] Every major town had its own university[15] and these universities often employed professional travelling lecturers,[15] who were frequently paid high sums of money to lecture about various philosophical teachings.[17] The most prestigious center of learning was the city of Athens in Greece, which had a long intellectual history.[17] According to Lucian's oration The Dream, which classical scholar Lionel Casson states he probably delivered as an address upon returning to Samosata at the age of thirty-five or forty after establishing his reputation as a great orator,[4] Lucian's parents were lower middle class and his uncles owned a local statue-making shop.[8] Lucian's parents could not afford to give him a higher education,[4] so, after he completed his elementary schooling, Lucian's uncle took him on as an apprentice and began teaching him how to sculpt.[4] Lucian, however, soon proved to be poor at sculpting and ruined the statue he had been working on.[4] His uncle beat him, causing him to run off.[4] Lucian fell asleep and experienced a dream in which he was being fought over by the personifications of Statuary and of Culture.[4][18] He decided to listen to Culture and thus sought out an education.[4][19] Although The Dream has long been treated by scholars as a truthful autobiography of Lucian,[4][20] its historical accuracy is questionable at best.[21][20][7] Classicist Simon Swain calls it "a fine but rather apocryphal version of Lucian's education"[21] and Karin Schlapbach calls it "ironical".[18] Richter argues that it is not autobiographical at all, but rather a prolalia [προλᾰλιά], or playful literary work, and a "complicated meditation on a young man's acquisition of paideia" [i.e. education].[20] Russell dismisses The Dream as entirely fictional, noting, "We recall that Socrates too started as sculptor, and Ovid's vision of Elegy and Tragedy (Amores 3.1) is all too similar to Lucian's."[7] Education and career[edit] Speculative portrayal of Lucian taken from a seventeenth-century engraving by William Faithorne In Lucian's Double Indictment, the personification of Rhetoric delivers a speech in which she describes the unnamed defendant, who is described as a "Syrian" author of transgressive dialogues, at the time she found him, as a young man wandering in Ionia in Anatolia "with no idea what he ought to do with himself".[22][8][12] She describes "the Syrian" at this stage in his career as "still speaking in a barbarous manner and all but wearing a caftan [kandys] in the Assyrian fashion".[12][22] Rhetoric states that she "took him in hand and... gave him paideia".[12][22] Scholars have long interpreted the "Syrian" in this work as Lucian himself[12][8] and taken this speech to mean that Lucian ran away to Ionia, where he pursued his education.[8] Richter, however, argues that the "Syrian" is not Lucian himself, but rather a literary device Lucian uses to subvert literary and ethnic norms.[23] Ionia was the center of rhetorical learning at the time[8] The most prestigious universities of rhetoric were in Ephesus and Smyrna,[8] but it is unlikely that Lucian could have afforded to pay the tuition at either of these schools.[8] It is not known how Lucian obtained his education,[8] but somehow he managed to acquire an extensive knowledge of rhetoric as well as classical literature and philosophy.[8][12] Lucian mentions in his dialogue The Fisherman that he had initially attempted to apply his knowledge of rhetoric and become a lawyer,[24] but that he had become disillusioned by the deceitfulness of the trade and resolved to become a philosopher instead.[25] Lucian travelled across the Empire, lecturing throughout Greece, Italy, and Gaul.[26] In Gaul, Lucian may have held a position as a highly paid government professor.[27] In around 160, Lucian returned to Ionia as a wealthy celebrity.[27] He visited Samosata[27] and stayed in the east for several years.[27] He is recorded as having been in Antioch in either 162 or 163.[27][5] In around 165, he bought a house in Athens and invited his parents to come live with him in the city.[27] Lucian must have married at some point during his travels, because in one of his writings he mentions having a son at this point.[27] Lucian lived in Athens for around a decade, during which time he gave up lecturing and instead devoted his attention to writing.[27] It was during this decade that Lucian composed nearly all his most famous works.[27] Lucian wrote exclusively in Greek,[9][28][13] mainly in the Attic Greek popular during the Second Sophistic, but On the Syrian Goddess, which is attributed to Lucian, is written in a highly successful imitation of Herodotus' Ionic Greek, leading some scholars to believe that Lucian may not be the real author.[28] For unknown reasons, Lucian stopped writing around 175 and began travelling and lecturing again.[27] During the reign of Emperor Commodus (180–92), the aging Lucian may have been appointed to a lucrative government position in Egypt.[27][5][13] After this point, he disappears from the historical record entirely,[27] and nothing is known about his death.[27] Views[edit] Bust of Epicurus, an Athenian philosopher whom Lucian greatly admired[29][30] Lucian's philosophical views are difficult to categorize due to his persistent use of irony and sarcasm.[31] In The Fisherman, Lucian describes himself as a champion of philosophy[31] and throughout his other writings he characterizes philosophy as a morally constructive discipline,[31] but he is critical of pseudo-philosophers, whom he portrays as greedy, bad-tempered, sexually immoral hypocrites.[32][33] Lucian was not known to be a member of any of the major philosophical schools.[34][32] In his Philosophies for Sale, he makes fun of members of every school.[31][35] Lucian was critical of Stoicism and Platonism, because he regarded them as encouraging of superstition.[30] His Nigrinus superficially appears to be a "eulogy of Platonism",[30] but may, in fact, be satirical, or merely an excuse to ridicule Roman society.[30] Nonetheless, at other times, Lucian writes approvingly of individual philosophies.[31] According to Turner, although Lucian makes fun of Skeptic philosophers,[30] he displays a temperamental inclination towards that philosophy.[30] Edwyn Bevan identifies Lucian as a Skeptic, [36] and in his Hermotimus, Lucian rejects all philosophical systems as contradictory and concludes that life is too short to determine which of them comes nearest to the truth, so the best solution is to rely on common sense,[31] which was what the Pyrrhonian Skeptics advocated. The maxim that "Eyes are better witnesses than ears" is echoed repeatedly throughout several of Lucian's dialogues.[37] Lucian was skeptical of oracles,[38] though he was by no means the only person of his time to voice such skepticism.[38] Lucian rejected belief in the paranormal, regarding it as superstition.[37][10] In his dialogue The Lover of Lies, he probably voices some of his own opinions through his character Tychiades,[37][b] perhaps including the declaration by Tychiades that he does not believe in daemones, phantoms, or ghosts because he has never seen such things.[37] Tychiades, however, still professes belief in the gods' existence: Dinomachus: 'In other words, you do not believe in the existence of the Gods, since you maintain that cures cannot be wrought by the use of holy names?' Tychiades: 'Nay, say not so, my dear Dinomachus,' I answered; 'the Gods may exist, and these things may yet be lies. I respect the Gods: I see the cures performed by them, I see their beneficence at work in restoring the sick through the medium of the medical faculty and their drugs. Asclepius, and his sons after him, compounded soothing medicines and healed the sick, – without the lion's-skin-and-field-mouse process.'[41] According to Everett Ferguson, Lucian was strongly influenced by the Cynics.[42] The Dream or the Cock, Timon the Misanthrope, Charon or Inspectors, and The Downward Journey or the Tyrant all display Cynic themes.[42] Lucian was particularly indebted to Menippus, a Cynic philosopher and satirist of the third century BC.[42][43] Lucian wrote an admiring biography of the philosopher Demonax, who was a philosophical eclectic, but whose ideology most closely resembled Cynicism.[42] Demonax's main divergence from the Cynics was that he did not disapprove of ordinary life.[42] Paul Turner observes that Lucian's Cynicus reads as a straightforward defense of Cynicism,[30] but also remarks that Lucian savagely ridicules the Cynic philosopher Peregrinus in his Passing of Peregrinus.[30] Lucian also greatly admired Epicurus,[29][31] whom he describes in Alexander the False Prophet as "truly holy and prophetic".[29] Later, in the same dialogue, he praises a book written by Epicurus: What blessings that book creates for its readers and what peace, tranquillity, and freedom it engenders in them, liberating them as it does from terrors and apparitions and portents, from vain hopes and extravagant cravings, developing in them intelligence and truth, and truly purifying their understanding, not with torches and squills [i. e. sea onions] and that sort of foolery, but with straight thinking, truthfulness and frankness.[44] Lucian had a generally negative opinion of Herodotus and his historiography, which he viewed as faulty.[45][46] Works[edit] Main article: List of works by Lucian Over eighty works attributed to Lucian have survived.[47][48][5][7] These works belong to a diverse variety of styles and genres,[47][49][50] and include comic dialogues, rhetorical essays, and prose fiction.[47][49] Lucian's writings were targeted towards a highly educated, upper-class Greek audience[51] and make almost constant allusions to Greek cultural history,[51] leading the classical scholar R. Bracht Branham to label Lucian's highly sophisticated style "the comedy of tradition".[51] By the time Lucian's writings were rediscovered during the Renaissance, most of the works of literature referenced in them had been lost or forgotten,[51] making it difficult for readers of later periods to understand his works.[51] A True Story[edit] Illustration from 1894 by William Strang depicting a battle scene from Book One of Lucian's novel A True Story Main article: A True Story Lucian was one of the earliest novelists in Western civilization. In A True Story (Ἀληθῶν Διηγημάτων), a fictional narrative work written in prose, he parodies some of the fantastic tales told by Homer in the Odyssey and also the not-so-fantastic tales from the historian Thucydides.[52][53] He anticipated modern science fiction themes including voyages to the moon and Venus, extraterrestrial life, interplanetary warfare, and artificial life, nearly two millennia before Jules Verne and H. G. Wells. The novel is often regarded as the earliest known work of science fiction.[54][55][56][57][58][59] The novel begins with an explanation that the story is not at all "true" and that everything in it is, in fact, a complete and utter lie.[60][61] The narrative begins with Lucian and his fellow travelers journeying out past the Pillars of Heracles.[62][63] Blown off course by a storm, they come to an island with a river of wine filled with fish and bears, a marker indicating that Heracles and Dionysus have traveled to this point, and trees that look like women.[64][63] Shortly after leaving the island, they are caught up by a whirlwind and taken to the Moon,[65][63] where they find themselves embroiled in a full-scale war between the king of the Moon and the king of the Sun over colonization of the Morning Star.[66][63] Both armies include bizarre hybrid lifeforms.[67][63] The armies of the Sun win the war by clouding over the Moon and blocking out the Sun's light.[68][63] Both parties then come to a peace agreement.[69] Lucian then describes life on the Moon and how it is different from life on Earth.[70][63] After returning to Earth, the adventurers are swallowed by a 200-mile-long whale,[71][72] in whose belly they discover a variety of fish people, whom they wage war against and triumph over.[73][72] They kill the whale by starting a bonfire and escape by propping its mouth open.[74][72] Next, they encounter a sea of milk, an island of cheese, and the Island of the Blessed.[75][76] There, Lucian meets the heroes of the Trojan War, other mythical men and animals, as well as Homer and Pythagoras.[77][78] They find sinners being punished, the worst of them being the ones who had written books with lies and fantasies, including Herodotus and Ctesias.[79][78] After leaving the Island of the Blessed, they deliver a letter to Calypso given to them by Odysseus explaining that he wishes he had stayed with her so he could have lived eternally.[80][78] They then discover a chasm in the Ocean, but eventually sail around it, discover a far-off continent and decide to explore it.[81][78] The book ends abruptly with Lucian stating that their future adventures will be described in the upcoming sequels,[82][83] a promise which a disappointed scholiast described as "the biggest lie of all".[84] Satirical dialogues[edit] In his Double Indictment, Lucian declares that his proudest literary achievement is the invention of the "satirical dialogue",[85] which was modeled on the earlier Platonic dialogue, but was comedic in tone rather than philosophical.[85] The prolaliai to his Dialogues of the Courtesans suggests that Lucian acted out his dialogues himself as part of a comedic routine.[86] Lucian's Dialogues of the Dead (Νεκρικοὶ Διάλογοι) is a satirical work centering around the Cynic philosophers Diogenes of Sinope and his pupil Menippus, who lived modestly while they were alive and are now living comfortably in the abysmal conditions of the Underworld, while those who had lived lives of luxury are in torment when faced by the same conditions.[87] The dialogue draws on earlier literary precursors, including the nekyia in Book XI of Homer's Odyssey,[88] but also adds new elements not found in them.[89] Homer's nekyia describes transgressors against the gods being punished for their sins, but Lucian embellished this idea by having cruel and greedy persons also be punished.[89] Hermes, the messenger of the gods, is a major recurring character throughout many of Lucian's dialogues.[90] In his dialogue The Lover of Lies (Φιλοψευδὴς), Lucian satirizes belief in the supernatural and paranormal[91] through a framing story in which the main narrator, a skeptic named Tychiades, goes to visit an elderly friend named Eukrates.[92] At Eukrates's house, he encounters a large group of guests who have recently gathered together due to Eukrates suddenly falling ill.[92] The other guests offer Eukrates a variety of folk remedies to help him recover.[92] When Tychiades objects that such remedies do not work, the others all laugh at him[92] and try to persuade him to believe in the supernatural by telling him stories, which grow increasingly ridiculous as the conversation progresses.[92] One of the last stories they tell is "The Sorcerer's Apprentice", which the German playwright Johann Wolfgang von Goethe later adapted into a famous ballad.[93][94] Lucian frequently made fun of philosophers[42] and no school was spared from his mockery.[42] In the dialogue Philosophies for Sale, Lucian creates an imaginary slave market in which Zeus puts famous philosophers up for sale, including Pythagoras, Diogenes, Heraclitus, Socrates, Chrysippus, and Pyrrho,[95] each of whom attempts to persuade the customers to buy his philosophy.[95] In The Banquet, or Lapiths, Lucian points out the hypocrisies of representatives from all the major philosophical schools.[42] In The Fisherman, or the Dead Come to Life, Lucian defends his other dialogues by comparing the venerable philosophers of ancient times with their unworthy contemporary followers.[42] Lucian was often particularly critical of people who pretended to be philosophers when they really were not[42] and his dialogue The Runaways portrays an imposter Cynic as the antithesis of true philosophy.[42] His Symposium is a parody of Plato's Symposium in which, instead of discussing the nature of love, the philosophers get drunk, tell smutty tales, argue relentlessly over whose school is the best, and eventually break out into a full-scale brawl.[96] In Icaromenippus, the Cynic philosopher Menippus fashions a set of wings for himself in imitation of the mythical Icarus and flies to Heaven,[97] where he receives a guided tour from Zeus himself.[98] The dialogue ends with Zeus announcing his decision to destroy all philosophers, since all they do is bicker, though he agrees to grant them a temporary reprieve until spring.[99] Nektyomanteia is a dialogue written in parallel to Icaromenippus in which, rather than flying to Heaven, Menippus descends to the underworld to consult the prophet Tiresias.[100] Lucian wrote numerous dialogues making fun of traditional Greek stories about the gods.[42][101] His Dialogues of the Gods (Θεῶν Διάλογοι) consists of numerous short vignettes parodying a variety of the scenes from Greek mythology.[102] The dialogues portray the gods as comically weak and prone to all the foibles of human emotion.[101][42] Zeus in particular is shown to be a "feckless ruler" and a serial adulterer.[103] Lucian also wrote several other works in a similar vein, including Zeus Catechized, Zeus Rants, and The Parliament of the Gods.[42] Throughout all his dialogues, Lucian displays a particular fascination with Hermes, the messenger of the gods,[90] who frequently appears as a major character in the role of an intermediary who travels between worlds.[90] The Dialogues of the Courtesans is a collection of short dialogues involving various courtesans.[104][105] This collection is unique as one of the only surviving works of Greek literature to mention female homosexuality.[106] It is also unusual for mixing Lucian's characters from other dialogues with stock characters from New Comedy;[107] over half of the men mentioned in Dialogues of the Courtesans are also mentioned in Lucian's other dialogues,[107] but almost all of the courtesans themselves are characters borrowed from the plays of Menander and other comedic playwrights.[107] Treatises and letters[edit] Statue of the snake-god Glycon, invented by the oraclemonger Alexander of Abonoteichus, whom Lucian satirizes in his treatise Alexander the False Prophet[16] Nabataean carving from c. 100 AD depicting the goddess Atargatis, the subject of Lucian's treatise On the Syrian Goddess[45] Lucian's treatise Alexander the False Prophet describes the rise of Alexander of Abonoteichus, a charlatan who claimed to be the prophet of the serpent-god Glycon.[16] Though the account is satirical in tone,[108] it seems to be a largely accurate report of the Glycon cult[108] and many of Lucian's statements about the cult have been confirmed through archaeological evidence, including coins, statues, and inscriptions.[108] Lucian describes his own meeting with Alexander in which he posed as a friendly philosopher,[108] but, when Alexander invited him to kiss his hand, Lucian bit it instead.[108] Lucian reports that, aside from himself, the only others who dared challenge Alexander's reputation as a true prophet were the Epicureans (whom he lauds as heroes) and the Christians.[108] Lucian's treatise On the Syrian Goddess is a detailed description of the cult of the Syrian goddess Atargatis at Hierapolis (now Manbij).[45] It is written in a faux-Ionic Greek and imitates the ethnographic methodology of the Greek historian Herodotus,[45] which Lucian elsewhere derides as faulty.[45] For generations, many scholars doubted the authenticity of On the Syrian Goddess because it seemed too genuinely reverent to have really been written by Lucian.[109] More recently, scholars have come to recognize the book as satirical and have restored its Lucianic authorship.[109] In the treatise, Lucian satirizes the arbitrary cultural distinctions between "Greeks" and "Assyrians" by emphasizing the manner in which Syrians have adopted Greek customs and thereby effectively become "Greeks" themselves.[110] The anonymous narrator of the treatise initially seems to be a Greek Sophist,[111] but, as the treatise progresses, he reveals himself to actually be a native Syrian.[112] Scholars dispute whether the treatise is an accurate description of Syrian cultural practices because very little is known about Hierapolis other than what is recorded in On the Syrian Goddess itself.[45] Coins minted in the late fourth century BC, municipal decrees from Seleucid rulers, and a late Hellenistic relief carving have confirmed Lucian's statement that the city's original name was Manbog and that the city was closely associated with the cults of Atargatis and Hadad.[45] A Jewish rabbi later listed the temple at Hierapolis as one of the five most important pagan temples in the Near East.[113] Macrobii ("Long-Livers") is an essay about famous philosophers who lived for many years.[114] It describes how long each of them lived, and gives an account of each of their deaths.[114] In his treatises Teacher of Rhetoric and On Salaried Posts, Lucian criticizes the teachings of master rhetoricians.[18] His treatise On Dancing is a major source of information about Greco-Roman dance.[115] In it, he describes dance as an act of mimesis ("imitation")[116] and rationalizes the myth of Proteus as being nothing more than an account of a highly skilled Egyptian dancer.[115] He also wrote about visual arts in Portraits and On Behalf of Portraits.[18] Lucian's biography of the philosopher Demonax eulogizes him as a great philosopher[42] and portrays him as a hero of parrhesia ("boldness of speech").[42] In his treatise, How to Write History, Lucian criticizes the historical methodology used by writers such as Herodotus and Ctesias,[117] who wrote vivid and self-indulgent descriptions of events they had never actually seen.[117] Instead, Lucian argues that the historian never embellish his stories and should place his commitment to accuracy above his desire to entertain his audience.[118] He also argues the historian should remain absolutely impartial and tell the events as they really happened, even if they are likely to cause disapproval.[118] Lucian names Thucydides as a specific example of a historian who models these virtues.[118] In his satirical letter Passing of Peregrinus (Περὶ τῆς Περεγρίνου Τελευτῆς), Lucian describes the death of the controversial Cynic philosopher Peregrinus Proteus,[48] who had publicly immolated himself on a pyre at the Olympic Games of AD 165.[48] The letter is historically significant because it preserves one of the earliest pagan evaluations of Christianity.[119] In the letter, one of Lucian's characters delivers a speech ridiculing Christians for their perceived credulity and ignorance,[120] but he also affords them some level of respect on account of their morality.[120] The speaker in the letter also refers to an individual whom he calls "Christ", whom he characterizes as the founder of Christianity. The speaker claims that this "Christ" lived in Palestine just over a century prior, that he taught that his followers would attain immortality, and that he was crucified.[120] In the letter Against the Ignorant Book Collector, Lucian ridicules the common practice whereby Near Easterners collect massive libraries of Greek texts for the sake of appearing "cultured", but without actually reading any of them.[121][122] Pseudo-Lucian[edit] Some of the writings attributed to Lucian, such as the Amores and the Ass, are usually not considered genuine works of Lucian and are normally cited under the name of "Pseudo-Lucian".[123][124] The Ass (Λούκιος ἢ ῎Oνος) is probably a summarized version of a story by Lucian, and contains largely the same basic plot elements as The Golden Ass (or Metamorphoses) of Apuleius, but with fewer inset tales and a different ending.[125] Amores is usually dated to the third or fourth centuries based on stylistic grounds.[124] Legacy[edit] Renaissance and Reformation[edit] The Calumny of Apelles by Sandro Botticelli, based on a description of a painting by the Greek painter Apelles of Kos found in Lucian's ekphrasis On Calumny Lucian's writings were mostly forgotten during the Middle Ages.[126][127] The Suda, a tenth-century Byzantine encyclopedia, concludes that Lucian's soul is burning in Hell for his negative remarks about Christians in the Passing of Peregrinus.[128] Lucian's writings were rediscovered during the Renaissance[126][127] and almost immediately became popular with the Renaissance humanists.[126][127] By 1400, there were just as many Latin translations of the works of Lucian as there were for the writings of Plato and Plutarch.[126] By ridiculing plutocracy as absurd, Lucian helped facilitate one of Renaissance humanism's most basic themes.[30] His Dialogues of the Dead were especially popular and were widely used for moral instruction.[127] As a result of this popularity, Lucian's writings had a profound influence on writers from the Renaissance and the Early Modern period.[129][130][127] Many early modern European writers adopted Lucian's lighthearted tone, his technique of relating a fantastic voyage through a familiar dialogue, and his trick of constructing proper names with deliberately humorous etymological meanings.[30] During the Protestant Reformation, Lucian provided literary precedent for writers making fun of Catholic clergy.[30] Desiderius Erasmus's Encomium Moriae (1509) displays Lucianic influences.[30] Perhaps the most notable example of Lucian's impact was on the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries was on the French writer François Rabelais, particularly in his set of five novels, Gargantua and Pantagruel, which was first published in 1532. Rabelais also is thought to be responsible for a primary introduction of Lucian to the French Renaissance and beyond through his translations of Lucian's works.[131][132][133] Lucian's True Story inspired both Sir Thomas More's Utopia (1516)[134] and Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels (1726).[135] Sandro Botticelli's paintings The Calumny of Apelles and Pallas and the Centaur are both based on descriptions of paintings found in Lucian's works.[130] Lucian's prose narrative Timon the Misanthrope was the inspiration for William Shakespeare's tragedy Timon of Athens[134][136] and the scene from Hamlet with the gravediggers echoes several scenes from Dialogues of the Dead.[134] Christopher Marlowe's famous verse "Was this the face that launched a thousand ships/And burnt the topless towers of Ilium?" is a paraphrase of a quote from Lucian.[137] Francis Bacon called Lucian a "contemplative atheist".[30] Early modern period[edit] Monument commemorating Lucian of Samosata from Nordkirchen, Germany Henry Fielding, the author of The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling (1749), owned a complete set of Lucian's writings in nine volumes.[138] He deliberately imitated Lucian in his Journey from This World and into the Next[138] and, in The Life and Death of Jonathan Wild, the Great (1743), he describes Lucian as "almost... like the true father of humour"[138] and lists him alongside Miguel de Cervantes and Jonathan Swift as a true master of satire.[138] In The Convent Garden Journal, Fielding directly states in regard to Lucian that he had modeled his style "upon that very author".[138] Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux, François Fénelon, Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle, and Voltaire all wrote adaptations of Lucian's Dialogues of the Dead.[139] According to Turner, Voltaire's Candide (1759) displays the characteristically Lucianic theme of "refuting philosophical theory by reality".[30] Voltaire also wrote The Conversation between Lucian, Erasmus and Rabelais in the Elysian Fields,[30] a dialogue in which he treats Lucian as "one of his masters in the strategy of intellectual revolution".[30] Denis Diderot drew inspiration from the writings of Lucian in his Socrates Gone Mad; or, the Dialogues of Diogenes of Sinope (1770)[139] and his Conversations in Elysium (1780).[139] Lucian appears as one of two speakers in Diderot's dialogue Peregrinus Proteus (1791), which was based on The Passing of Peregrinus.[139] Lucian's True Story inspired Cyrano de Bergerac, whose writings later served as inspiration for Jules Verne.[134] The German satirist Christoph Martin Wieland was the first person to translate the complete works of Lucian into German[139] and he spent his entire career adapting the ideas behind Lucian's writings for a contemporary German audience.[139] David Hume admired Lucian as a "very moral writer"[30] and quoted him with reverence when discussing ethics or religion.[30] Hume read Lucian's Kataplous or Downward Journey when he was on his deathbed.[140][30] Modern period[edit] Kataplous, or Downward Journey also served as the source for Friedrich Nietzsche's concept of the Übermensch or Overman.[140] Nietzsche's declaration of a "new and super-human way of laughing – at the expense of everything serious!" echoes the exact wording of Tiresias's final advice to the eponymous hero of Lucian's dialogue Menippus: "Laugh a great deal and take nothing seriously."[139] Professional philosophical writers since then have generally ignored Lucian,[30] but Turner comments that "perhaps his spirit is still alive in those who, like Bertrand Russell, are prepared to flavor philosophy with wit."[30] In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, many classicists viewed Lucian's works negatively[128] and read them with preconceived ideas in mind about the "Oriental" character.[128] Many of these ideas were influenced by contemporary antisemitism, a "reflexive and genteel" form of which was common throughout English and German scholarly writings prior to World War II.[128] The German classicist Eduard Norden admitted that he had, as a foolish youth, wasted time reading the works of Lucian,[128] but, as an adult, had come to realize that Lucian was nothing more than an "Oriental without depth or character... who has no soul and degrades the most soulful language".[128] Rudolf Helm, one of the leading scholars on Lucian in the early twentieth century, labelled Lucian as a "thoughtless Syrian" who "possesses none of the soul of a tragedian"[128] and compared him to the Jewish German poet Heinrich Heine, who was known as the "mockingbird in the German poetry forest".[128] In his 1906 publication Lukian und Menipp, Helm argued that Lucian's claims of generic originality, especially his claim of having invented the comic dialogue, were actually lies intended to cover up his almost complete dependence on Menippus, whom he asserted was the true inventor of the genre.[141] Lucian's Syrian identity received renewed attention in the early twenty-first century as Lucian became seen as what Richter calls "a sort of Second Sophistic answer to early twenty-first-century questions about cultural and ethnic hybridity".[128] Richter states that Postcolonial critics have come to embrace Lucian as "an early imperial paradigm of the 'ethno-cultural hybrid.'"[128] Editions[edit] Lucian’s True History, with illustrations by Aubrey Beardsley, William Strang, and J. B. Clark, privately printed in an edition of 251 copies, 1894.[142] The Works of Lucian of Samosata. Complete with exceptions specified in the preface. I. Translated by Fowler, H. W.; Fowler, F. G. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1905.; volume II; volume III; volume IV. Lucian with an English translation (Loeb Classical Library), in 8 volumes: vols. 1–5 ed. Austin Morris Harmon (1913, 1915, 1921, 1925, 1936); vol. 6 ed. K. Kilburn (1959); vol. 7–8 ed. Matthew Donald Macleod (1961, 1967). Neil Hopkinson (ed.), Lucian: A Selection. Cambridge Greek and Latin Texts (Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008). Lightfoot, Jane (2003). On the Syrian Goddess. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-925138-4. Notes[edit] ^ /ˈljuːʃən, -siən/; Ancient Greek: Λουκιανὸς ὁ Σαμοσατεύς, Loukianòs ho Samosateús; Latin: Lucianus Samosatensis ^ Tychiades is commonly identified as an authorial self-insertion,[37][39] although Daniel Ogden notes that this can only be true to a limited extent.[40] References[edit] ^ "Lucian of Samosata, an Assyrian rhetorician who wrote in the Greek language and whom they translated into Latin." Donskis L. (2011) Troubled Identity, or the European Canon and the Dilemmas of Memory. In: Modernity in Crisis. Palgrave Macmillan, New York, pp. 7–42, (19); doi:10.1057/9780230339 ^ Fergus Millar, "Paul of Samosata, Zenobia and Aurelian: The Church, Local Culture and Political Allegiance in Third-Century Syria", The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 61 (1971), pp. 1–17. ^ a b c d e f g Richter 2017, p. 328. ^ a b c d e f g h i Casson 1962, pp. xiii–3. ^ a b c d e Marsh 1998, p. 1. ^ Richter 2017, p. 329. ^ a b c d e Russell 1986, p. 671. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Casson 1962, p. xiii. ^ a b Vout 2007, p. 16. ^ a b c d Russell 1986, p. 670. ^ Vout 2007, p. 229. ^ a b c d e f Kaldellis 2007, p. 31. ^ a b c Pomeroy et al. 2018, p. 532. ^ Casson 1962, pp. xi–xii. ^ a b c d e f g Casson 1962, p. xii. ^ a b c Gordon 1996, pp. 94–115. ^ a b Casson 1962, pp. xii–xiii. ^ a b c d Schlapbach 2018, p. 81. ^ Schlapbach 2018, pp. 81–82. ^ a b c Richter 2017, p. 334. ^ a b Swain 1996, p. 46. ^ a b c Richter 2017, p. 331. ^ Richter 2017, pp. 331–332. ^ Casson 1962, pp. xiii, 349. ^ Casson 1962, p. 349. ^ Casson 1962, pp. xiii–xiv. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Casson 1962, p. xiv. ^ a b Eerdmans commentary on the Bible, By James D. G. Dunn, John William Rogerson, p. 1105, ISBN 0-8028-3711-5. ^ a b c Gordon 1996, p. 107. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Turner 1967, p. 99. ^ a b c d e f g Turner 1967, p. 98. ^ a b Turner 1967, pp. 98–99. ^ Richter 2017, pp. 338–341. ^ Ferguson 1993, p. 331. ^ Richter 2017, p. 339. ^ Edwyn Bevan, Stoics And Sceptics 1913 ISBN 1162748400 p. 110 https://archive.org/details/stoicsandsceptic033554mbp/page/n6/mode/2up ^ a b c d e Georgiadou & Larmour 1998, p. 58. ^ a b Gordon 1996, p. 125. ^ Ogden 2007a, p. 180. ^ Ogden 2007a, p. 181. ^ Lucian, The Lover of Lies, translated by H. W. and F. G. Fowler. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Ferguson 1993, p. 332. ^ Richter 2017, pp. 333–334. ^ Harmon, A. M. (1925). Lucian Volume IV (Loeb Classical Library). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 235. ISBN 978-0-674-99179-8. ^ a b c d e f g Andrade 2013, p. 288. ^ Georgiadou & Larmour 1998, p. 51. ^ a b c Moeser 2002, p. 88. ^ a b c Van Voorst 2000, p. 58. ^ a b Marsh 1998, pp. 1–2. ^ Russell 1986, pp. 671–672. ^ a b c d e Marsh 1998, p. 2. ^ C. Robinson, Lucian and his Influence in Europe (London, 1979), 23–25. ^ A. Bartley, 2003, "The Implications of the Reception of Thucydides within Lucian's 'Vera Historia'", Hermes Heft, 131, pp. 222–234. ^ Grewell, Greg: "Colonizing the Universe: Science Fictions Then, Now, and in the (Imagined) Future", Rocky Mountain Review of Language and Literature, Vol. 55, No. 2 (2001), pp. 25–47 (30f.). ^ Fredericks, S.C.: “Lucian's True History as SF”, Science Fiction Studies, Vol. 3, No. 1 (March 1976), pp. 49–60. ^ Swanson, Roy Arthur: "The True, the False, and the Truly False: Lucian's Philosophical Science Fiction", Science Fiction Studies, Vol. 3, No. 3 (November 1976), pp. 227–239. ^ Georgiadou & Larmour 1998, p. 46. ^ Georgiadou, Aristoula & Larmour, David H. J.: "Lucian's Science Fiction Novel True Histories. Interpretation and Commentary", Mnemosyne Supplement 179, Leiden, 1998, ISBN 90-04-10667-7, Introduction ^ Gunn, James E.: The New Encyclopedia of Science Fiction, Publisher: Viking 1988, ISBN 978-0-670-81041-3, p. 249. ^ Casson 1962, pp. 13–15. ^ Georgiadou & Larmour 1998, pp. 51–52. ^ Casson 1962, p. 15. ^ a b c d e f g Georgiadou & Larmour 1998, pp. 53–155. ^ Casson 1962, pp. 15–17. ^ Casson 1962, pp. 17–18. ^ Casson 1962, p. 18. ^ Casson 1962, pp. 18–21. ^ Casson 1962, p. 22. ^ Casson 1962, pp. 22–23. ^ Casson 1962, pp. 23–25. ^ Casson 1962, pp. 27–28. ^ a b c Georgiadou & Larmour 1998, pp. 156–177. ^ Casson 1962, pp. 27–33. ^ Casson 1962, p. 34. ^ Casson 1962, pp. 35–37. ^ Georgiadou & Larmour 1998, pp. 156–178. ^ Casson 1962, pp. 35–45. ^ a b c d Georgiadou & Larmour 1998, pp. 178–232. ^ Casson 1962, p. 46. ^ Casson 1962, pp. 45–49. ^ Casson 1962, pp. 49–54. ^ Casson 1962, p. 54. ^ Georgiadou & Larmour 1998, pp. 232–233. ^ Casson 1962, p. 57. ^ a b Marsh 1998, p. 42. ^ Gilhuly 2006, p. 275. ^ Macleod, M. D. (1961). Dialogues of the Dead. Dialogues of the Sea-Gods. Dialogues of the Gods. Dialogues of the Courtesans. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Loeb Classical Library; Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-99475-1. ^ Marsh 1998, pp. 43–44. ^ a b Marsh 1998, p. 44. ^ a b c Marsh 1998, p. 88. ^ Ogden 2007, pp. 1–3. ^ a b c d e Ogden 2007, pp. 3–13. ^ Ogden 2007, p. 1. ^ Luck 2001, p. 141. ^ a b Casson 1962, pp. 314–333. ^ Anderson 1976, pp. 146–148. ^ Marsh 1998, pp. 77–79. ^ Marsh 1998, p. 79. ^ Marsh 1998, pp. 79–80. ^ Anderson 1976, pp. 139–140. ^ a b Marsh 1998, pp. 76–77. ^ Marsh 1998, p. 76. ^ Marsh 1998, p. 77. ^ Gilhuly 2006, pp. 274–294. ^ Casson 1962, pp. 301–311. ^ Gilhuly 2006, pp. 274–275. ^ a b c Gilhuly 2006, p. 277. ^ a b c d e f Gordon 1996, p. 114. ^ a b Richter 2017, p. 336. ^ Andrade 2013, pp. 289–292. ^ Andrade 2013, p. 292. ^ Andrade 2013, pp. 292–293. ^ Andrade 2013, p. 289. ^ a b Kechagia 2016, pp. 183–184. ^ a b Schlapbach 2018, pp. 82–84. ^ Schlapbach 2018, p. 82. ^ a b Kempshall 2011, pp. 489–491. ^ a b c Kempshall 2011, p. 491. ^ Van Voorst 2000, pp. 58–59. ^ a b c Van Voorst 2000, p. 59. ^ Andrade 2013, pp. 191–192. ^ Wallace-Hadril 1983, p. 79. ^ *Jope, James (2011). "Interpretation and authenticity of the Lucianic Erotes" (PDF). Helios. Texas Tech University Press. 38: 103–120. doi:10.1353/hel.2011.0004. S2CID 144874219. Retrieved 1 December 2015. ^ a b Vout 2007, p. 49. ^ S. J. Harrison (2004) [2000]. Apuleius: A Latin Sophist (revised paperback ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 9–10. ISBN 978-0-19-927138-2. ^ a b c d Marsh 2010, p. 544. ^ a b c d e Marsh 1998, pp. 2–3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Richter 2017, p. 327. ^ Marsh 2010, pp. 862–865. ^ a b Casson 1962, pp. xvii–xviii. ^ Pattard, Jean. Rebelais Works. Champion Publishers. 1909. pp. 204–215 ^ Screech, M.A. Rebelais. Ithaca; Cornell Press. 1979. pp. 7–11. ^ Marsh 1998, p. 71. ^ a b c d Casson 1962, p. xvii. ^ Marsh 2010, p. 510. ^ Armstrong, A. Macc. "Timon of Athens – A Legendary Figure?", Greece & Rome, 2nd Ser., Vol. 34, No. 1 (April 1987), pp. 7–11. ^ Casson 1962, p. xviii. ^ a b c d e Branham 2010, p. 863. ^ a b c d e f g Branham 2010, p. 864. ^ a b Babich, Babette (November 2011). "Nietzsche's Zarathustra and Parodic Style: On Lucian's Hyperanthropos and Nietzsche's Übermensch". Diogenes. 58 (4): 58–74. doi:10.1177/0392192112467410. S2CID 5727350. ^ Richter 2017, p. 333. ^ “Beardsley (Aubrey Vincent)” in T. Bose, Paul Tiessen, eds., Bookman's Catalogue Vol. 1 A-L: The Norman Colbeck Collection (UBC Press, 1987), p. 41 Bibliography[edit] Anderson, Graham (1976), Lucian: Theme and Variation in the Second Sophistic, Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-04735-8 Andrade, Nathanael J. (2013), Syrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1-107-01205-9 Branham, Bracht (2010), "Satire", in Grafton, Anthony; Most, Glenn W.; Settis, Salvatore (eds.), The Classical Tradition, Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, pp. 862–865, ISBN 978-0-674-03572-0 Casson, Lionel (1962), Selected Satires of Lucian, Edited and Translated by Lionel Casson, New York City, New York: W. W. Norton and Company, ISBN 978-0-393-00443-4 Ferguson, Everett (1993), Backgrounds of Early Christianity (second ed.), Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, ISBN 978-0-8028-0669-7 Georgiadou, Aristoula; Larmour, David H. J. (1998), Bremer, J. M.; Janssen, L. F.; Pinkster, H.; Pleket, H. W.; Ruijgh, C. J.; Schrijvers, P. H. (eds.), Lucian's Science Fiction Novel True Histories: Interpretation and Commentary, Supplements to Mnemosyne, Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-10667-3 Gilhuly, Kate (2006), "The Phallic Lesbian: Philosophy, Comedy, and Social Inversion in Lucian's Dialogues of the Courtesans", in Faraone, Christopher A.; McClure, Laura K. (eds.), Prostitutes and Courtesans in the Ancient World, Madison, Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press, pp. 274–294, ISBN 978-0-299-21314-5 Gordon, Pamela (1996), Epicurus in Lycia: The Second-Century World of Diogenes of Oenoanda, Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press, ISBN 978-0-472-10461-1 Kaldellis, Anthony (2007), Hellenism in Byzantium: The Transformations of Greek Identity and the Reception of the Classical Tradition, Greek Culture in the Roman World, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-87688-9 Kechagia, Elena (2016), "Chapter Ten: Dying philosophers in ancient biography: Zeno the Stoic and Epicurus", in De Temmerman, Koen; Demoen, Kristoffel (eds.), Writing Biography in Greece and Rome: Narrative Technique and Fictionalization, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1-107-12912-2 Kempshall, Matthew (2011), Rhetoric and the Writing of History, 400–1500, Manchester, England and New York City, New York: Manchester University Press, ISBN 978-0-7190-7030-3 Luck, Georg (1 January 2001), "Witches and Sorcerers in Classical Literature", in Flint, Valerie; Luck, Georg; Gordon, Richard (eds.), Witchcraft and Magic in Europe, 2, New York City and London: Continuum International Publishing Group, ISBN 978-0-485-89002-0 Marsh, David (1998), Lucian and the Latins: Humor and Humanism in the Early Renaissance, Ann Arbor Michigan: University of Michigan Press, ISBN 978-0-472-10846-6 Marsh, David (2010), "Lucian", in Grafton, Anthony; Most, Glenn W.; Settis, Salvatore (eds.), The Classical Tradition, Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, pp. 544–546, ISBN 978-0-674-03572-0 Moeser, Marion (15 December 2002), The Anecdote in Mark, the Classical World and the Rabbis: A Study of Brief Stories in the Demonax, The Mishnah, and Mark 8:27–10:45, London, England: A&C Black, p. 88, ISBN 978-0-8264-6059-2 Ogden, Daniel (2007), In Search of the Sorcerer's Apprentice: The Traditional Tales of Lucian's Lover of Lies, Swansea, Wales: The Classical Press of Wales, ISBN 978-1-905125-16-6 Ogden, Daniel (2007a), "The Love of Wisdom and the Love of Lies: The Philosophers and Philosophical Voices of Lucian's Philopseudes", in Morgan, J. R.; Jones, Meriel (eds.), Philosophical Presences in the Ancient Novel, Groningen, The Netherlands: Barkhuis Publishing & Groningen University Library, ISBN 978-90-77922-378 Pomeroy, Sarah B.; Burstein, Stanley M.; Donlan, Walter; Roberts, Jennifer Tolbert; Tandy, David W.; Tsouvala, Georgia (2018) [1999], Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cultural History (Fourth ed.), Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-068691-8 Richter, Daniel S. (2017), "Chapter 21: Lucian of Samosata", in Richter, Daniel S.; Johnson, William A. (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the Second Sophistic, 1, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199837472.013.26, ISBN 978-0-19-983747-2 Russell, Donald (1986), "27: The Arts of Prose: The Early Empire", in Boardman, John; Griffin, Jasper; Murray, Oswyn (eds.), The Oxford History of the Classical World, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, pp. 652–676, ISBN 978-0198721123 Schlapbach, Karin (2018), The Anatomy of Dance Discourse: Literary and Philosophical Approaches to Dance in the Later Graeco-Roman World, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-880772-8 Swain, Simon (1996), Hellenism and Empire: Language, Classicism, and Power in the Greek World, AD 50–250, Oxford, England: Clarendon Press, ISBN 978-0-19-814772-5 Turner, Paul (1967), "Lucian of Samosata", in Edwards, Paul (ed.), The Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 5, New York City, New York: The MacMillan Company & The Free Press, pp. 98–99 Van Voorst, Robert E. (2000), Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence, Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., ISBN 978-0-8028-4368-5 Vout, Caroline (22 February 2007), Power and Eroticism in Imperial Rome, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-86739-9 Wallace-Hadril, Andrew (1983), Suetonius: The Scholar and His Caesars, London: Duckworth, ISBN 978-0-7156-1747-2 External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Lucian Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lucian of Samosata. Library resources about Lucian Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Lucian Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Works written by or about Lucian of Samosata at Wikisource Works written by or about Pseudo-Lucian at Wikisource  Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Λουκιανός Lucian of Samosata Project – Library/Texts, Articles, Timeline, Maps, and Themes A.M. Harmon, Introduction to Lucian of Samosata Works by Lucian at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Lucian at Internet Archive Works by Lucian at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Dickinson College Commentaries: True Histories Alexander the False Prophet – the successful travelling prophet of Asclepius and his oracular serpent god Works of Lucian of Samostata at sacred-texts.com The Syrian Goddess, at sacred-texts.com Macrobii and Lucius (The Ass), at attalus.org Contents – Harvard University Press P. P. Fuentes González, art. Lucien de Samosate, DPhA IV, 2005, 131–160. 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en-wikipedia-org-3473	----	A. E. Housman - Wikipedia A. E. Housman From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search British classical scholar and poet (1859-1936) "Housman" redirects here. For other people with this surname, see Housman (surname). A. E. Housman Photo portrait by E. O. Hoppé, 1910 Born Alfred Edward Housman (1859-03-26)26 March 1859 Bromsgrove, Worcestershire, England Died 30 April 1936(1936-04-30) (aged 77) Cambridge, England Pen name A. E. Housman Occupation Classicist and poet Nationality British Alma mater St John's College, Oxford Genre Lyric poetry Notable works A Shropshire Lad Relatives Clemence Housman, Laurence Housman Alfred Edward Housman (/ˈhaʊsmən/; 26 March 1859 – 30 April 1936), usually known as A. E. Housman, was an English classical scholar and poet. His cycle of poems, A Shropshire Lad wistfully evoke the dooms and disappointments of youth in the English countryside.[1] Their simplicity and distinctive imagery appealed strongly to Edwardian taste, and to many early 20th-century English composers both before and after the First World War. Through their song-settings, the poems became closely associated with that era, and with Shropshire itself. Housman was one of the foremost classicists of his age and has been ranked as one of the greatest scholars who ever lived.[2][3] He established his reputation publishing as a private scholar and, on the strength and quality of his work, was appointed Professor of Latin at University College London and then at the University of Cambridge. His editions of Juvenal, Manilius and Lucan are still considered authoritative. Contents 1 Life 2 Poetry 2.1 A Shropshire Lad 2.2 Later collections 2.3 De Amicitia (Of Friendship) 3 Housman song settings 4 Commemorations 5 Works 5.1 Poetry collections 5.2 Classical scholarship 5.3 Published lectures 5.4 Prose collections 5.5 Collected letters 6 See also 7 Footnotes 8 Sources 9 Further reading 10 External links 10.1 Works Life[edit] Valley House, Housman's birthplace The site of the 17th-century Fockbury House (later known as The Clock House). Home of Housman from 1873 to 1878 Home of Housman from 1860 to 1873 and again from 1878 to 1882. His younger brother Laurence was born here in 1865. The eldest of seven children, Housman was born at Valley House in Fockbury, a hamlet on the outskirts of Bromsgrove in Worcestershire, to Sarah Jane (née Williams, married 17 June 1858 in Woodchester, Gloucester)[4] and Edward Housman (whose family came from Lancaster), and was baptised on 24 April 1859 at Christ Church, in Catshill.[5][6][7] His mother died on his twelfth birthday, and his father, a country solicitor, remarried, to an elder cousin, Lucy, in 1873. Two of his siblings became prominent writers, sister Clemence Housman and brother Laurence Housman. Housman was educated at King Edward's School in Birmingham and later Bromsgrove School, where he revealed his academic promise and won prizes for his poems.[7][8] In 1877 he won an open scholarship to St John's College, Oxford, and went there to study classics.[7] Although introverted by nature, Housman formed strong friendships with two roommates, Moses John Jackson (1858 – 14 January 1923) and A. W. Pollard. Though Housman obtained a first in classical Moderations in 1879, his dedication to textual analysis led him to neglect the ancient history and philosophy that formed part of the Greats curriculum. Accordingly, he failed his Finals and had to return humiliated in Michaelmas term to resit the exam and at least gain a lower-level pass degree.[9][7] Though some attribute Housman's unexpected performance in his exams directly to his unrequited feelings for Jackson,[10] most biographers adduce more obvious causes. Housman was indifferent to philosophy and overconfident in his exceptional gifts, and he spent too much time with his friends. He may also have been distracted by news of his father's desperate illness.[11][12][13] Moses Jackson (1858–1923) while attending Oxford c. 1880 After Oxford, Jackson went to work as a clerk in the Patent Office in London and arranged a job there for Housman too.[7] The two shared a flat with Jackson's brother Adalbert until 1885, when Housman moved to lodgings of his own, probably after Jackson responded to a declaration of love by telling Housman that he could not reciprocate his feelings.[14] Two years later, Jackson moved to India, placing more distance between himself and Housman. When he returned briefly to England in 1889, to marry, Housman was not invited to the wedding and knew nothing about it until the couple had left the country. Adalbert Jackson died in 1892 and Housman commemorated him in a poem published as "XLII – A.J.J." of More Poems (1936). Meanwhile, Housman pursued his classical studies independently, and published scholarly articles on Horace, Propertius, Ovid, Aeschylus, Euripides and Sophocles.[7] He also completed an edition of Propertius, which however was rejected by both Oxford University Press and Macmillan in 1885, and was destroyed after his death. He gradually acquired such a high reputation that in 1892 he was offered and accepted the professorship of Latin at University College London (UCL).[7] When, during his tenure, an immensely rare Coverdale Bible of 1535 was discovered in the UCL library and presented to the Library Committee, Housman (who had become an atheist while at Oxford)[15] remarked that it would be better to sell it to "buy some really useful books with the proceeds".[16] Although Housman's early work and his responsibilities as a professor included both Latin and Greek, he began to specialise in Latin poetry. When asked later why he had stopped writing about Greek verse, he responded, "I found that I could not attain to excellence in both."[17] In 1911 he took the Kennedy Professorship of Latin at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he remained for the rest of his life. G. P. Goold, Classics Professor at University College, wrote of Housman's accomplishments: The legacy of Housman's scholarship is a thing of permanent value; and that value consists less in obvious results, the establishment of general propositions about Latin and the removal of scribal mistakes, than in the shining example he provides of a wonderful mind at work … He was and may remain the last great textual critic.[3] Between 1903 and 1930 Housman published his critical edition of Manilius's Astronomicon in five volumes. He also edited works by Juvenal (1905) and Lucan (1926). Many colleagues were unnerved by his scathing attacks on those he thought guilty of shoddy scholarship.[7] In his paper "The Application of Thought to Textual Criticism" (1921) Housman wrote: "A textual critic engaged upon his business is not at all like Newton investigating the motion of the planets: he is much more like a dog hunting for fleas." He declared many of his contemporary scholars to be stupid, lazy, vain, or all three, saying: "Knowledge is good, method is good, but one thing beyond all others is necessary; and that is to have a head, not a pumpkin, on your shoulders, and brains, not pudding, in your head."[3][18] Housman's grave at St Laurence's Church in Ludlow His younger colleague A. S. F. Gow quoted examples of these attacks, noting that they "were often savage in the extreme".[19] Gow also related how Housman intimidated students, sometimes reducing the women to tears. According to Gow, Housman could never remember the names of female students, maintaining that "had he burdened his memory by the distinction between Miss Jones and Miss Robinson, he might have forgotten that between the second and fourth declension". Among the more notable students at his Cambridge lectures was Enoch Powell,[20] one of whose own Classical emendations was later complimented by Housman.[21] Housman's grave marker In his private life Housman enjoyed country walks, gastronomy, air travel and making frequent visits to France, where he read "books which were banned in Britain as pornographic".[22] But he struck A. C. Benson, a fellow don, as being "descended from a long line of maiden aunts".[23] His feelings about his poetry were ambivalent and he certainly treated it as secondary to his scholarship. He did not speak in public about his poems until 1933, when he gave a lecture "The Name and Nature of Poetry", arguing there that poetry should appeal to emotions rather than to the intellect. Housman died, aged 77, in Cambridge. His ashes are buried just outside St Laurence's Church, Ludlow, Shropshire. A cherry tree was planted there in his memory (see A Shropshire Lad II) and replaced by the Housman Society in 2003 with a new cherry tree nearby.[7][24] Poetry[edit] A Shropshire Lad[edit] Main article: A Shropshire Lad Loveliest of trees, the cherry now Is hung with bloom along the bough, And stands about the woodland ride Wearing white for Eastertide. Now, of my threescore years and ten, Twenty will not come again, And take from seventy springs a score, It only leaves me fifty more. And since to look at things in bloom Fifty springs are little room, About the woodlands I will go To see the cherry hung with snow.[25] —A Shropshire Lad: "Loveliest of trees, the cherry now" During his years in London, Housman completed A Shropshire Lad, a cycle of 63 poems. After one publisher had turned it down, he helped subsidise its publication in 1896. At first selling slowly, it rapidly became a lasting success. Its appeal to English musicians had helped to make it widely known before World War I, when its themes struck a powerful chord with English readers. The book has been in print continuously since May 1896.[26] The poems are marked by pessimism and preoccupation with death, without religious consolation (Housman had become an atheist while still an undergraduate). Housman wrote many of them while living in Highgate, London, before ever visiting Shropshire, which he presented in an idealised pastoral light as his 'land of lost content'.[27] Housman himself acknowledged that "No doubt I have been unconsciously influenced by the Greeks and Latins, but [the] chief sources of which I am conscious are Shakespeare's songs, the Scottish Border ballads, and Heine."[28] Later collections[edit] Housman began collecting a new set of poems after the First World War. His early work was an influence on many British poets who became famous by their writing about the war, and he himself wrote several poems as occasional verse to commemorate the war dead. This included his Epitaph on an Army of Mercenaries, honouring the British Expeditionary Force, an elite but small force of professional soldiers sent to Belgium at the start of the war. In the early 1920s, when Moses Jackson was dying in Canada, Housman wanted to assemble his best unpublished poems so that Jackson could read them before his death.[7] These later poems, mostly written before 1910, show a greater variety of subject and form than those in A Shropshire Lad but lack its consistency. He published his new collection as Last Poems (1922), feeling that his inspiration was exhausted and that he should not publish more in his lifetime. After Housman's death in 1936, his brother, Laurence published further poems in More Poems (1936), A. E .H.: Some Poems, Some Letters and a Personal Memoir by his Brother (1937), and Collected Poems (1939). A. E. H. includes humorous verse such as a parody of Longfellow's poem Excelsior. Housman also wrote a parodic Fragment of a Greek Tragedy, in English, published posthumously with humorous poems under the title Unkind to Unicorns.[29] John Sparrow quoted a letter written late in Housman's life that described the genesis of his poems: Poetry was for him …'a morbid secretion', as the pearl is for the oyster. The desire, or the need, did not come upon him often, and it came usually when he was feeling ill or depressed; then whole lines and stanzas would present themselves to him without any effort, or any consciousness of composition on his part. Sometimes they wanted a little alteration, sometimes none; sometimes the lines needed in order to make a complete poem would come later, spontaneously or with 'a little coaxing'; sometimes he had to sit down and finish the poem with his head. That... was a long and laborious process.[30] Sparrow himself adds, "How difficult it is to achieve a satisfactory analysis may be judged by considering the last poem in A Shropshire Lad. Of its four stanzas, Housman tells us that two were 'given' him ready made; one was coaxed forth from his subconsciousness an hour or two later; the remaining one took months of conscious composition. No one can tell for certain which was which."[30] De Amicitia (Of Friendship)[edit] In 1942 Laurence Housman also deposited an essay entitled "A. E. Housman's 'De Amicitia'" (there is a link to the text, below in this article, under "Further reading") in the British Library, with the proviso that it was not to be published for 25 years. The essay discussed A. E. Housman's homosexuality and his love for Moses Jackson.[31] Despite the conservative nature of the times and his own caution in public life, Housman was quite open in his poetry, and especially in A Shropshire Lad, about his deeper sympathies. Poem XXX of that sequence, for instance, speaks of how "Fear contended with desire": "Others, I am not the first, / Have willed more mischief than they durst". In More Poems, he buries his love for Moses Jackson in the very act of commemorating it, as his feelings of love are not reciprocated and must be carried unfulfilled to the grave:[32] Because I liked you better     Than suits a man to say, It irked you, and I promised     To throw the thought away. To put the world between us     We parted, stiff and dry; "Good-bye," said you, "forget me."     "I will, no fear," said I. If here, where clover whitens     The dead man's knoll, you pass, And no tall flower to meet you     Starts in the trefoiled grass, Halt by the headstone naming     The heart no longer stirred, And say the lad that loved you     Was one that kept his word.[33] His poem "Oh who is that young sinner with the handcuffs on his wrists?", written after the trial of Oscar Wilde, addressed more general attitudes towards homosexuals.[34] In the poem the prisoner is suffering "for the colour of his hair", a natural quality that, in a coded reference to homosexuality, is reviled as "nameless and abominable" (recalling the legal phrase peccatum illud horribile, inter Christianos non nominandum, "that horrible sin, not to be named amongst Christians"). Housman song settings[edit] Housman's poetry, especially A Shropshire Lad, was set to music by many British, and in particular English, composers in the first half of the 20th century. The national, pastoral and traditional elements of his style resonated with similar trends in English music.[35] In 1904 the cycle A Shropshire Lad was set by Arthur Somervell, who in 1898 had begun to develop the concept of the English song-cycle in his version of Tennyson's "Maud".[36] Stephen Banfield believes it was acquaintance with Somervell's cycle that led other composers to set Housman: Ralph Vaughan Williams is likely to have attended the first performance at the Aeolian Hall on 3 February 1905.[37] His well-known cycle of six songs On Wenlock Edge, for string quartet, tenor and piano, was published in 1909. Between 1909 and 1911 George Butterworth produced settings in two collections, Six Songs from A Shropshire Lad and Bredon Hill and Other Songs. He also wrote the orchestral tone poem A Shropshire Lad, first performed at Leeds Festival in 1912.[38] Ivor Gurney was another composer who made renowned settings of Housman's poems. Towards the end of World War I he was working on his cycle Ludlow and Teme, for voice and string quartet (published in 1919),[39] and went on to compose the eight-song cycle The Western Playland in 1921.[40] One more who set Housman songs at this period was John Ireland in the song cycle, The Land of Lost Content (1920–21). Even composers not directly associated with the 'pastoral' tradition, such as Arnold Bax, Lennox Berkeley and Arthur Bliss, were attracted to Housman's poetry. A 1976 catalogue listed 400 musical settings of Housman's poems.[35] As of 2020, Lieder Net Archive records 615 settings of 187 texts.[41] Commemorations[edit] The earliest commemoration of Housman was in the chapel of Trinity College in Cambridge, where there is a memorial brass on the south wall.[42] The Latin inscription was composed by his colleague there, A. S. F. Gow, who was also the author of a biographical and bibliographical sketch published immediately following his death.[43] Translated into English, the memorial reads: This inscription commemorates Alfred Edward Housman, who was for twenty-five years Kennedy Professor of Latin and Fellow of the College. Following in Bentley's footsteps he corrected the transmitted text of the Latin poets with so keen an intelligence and so ample a stock of learning, and chastised the sloth of editors so sharply and wittily, that he takes his place as the virtual second founder of textual studies. He was also a poet whose slim volumes of verse assured him of a secure place on the British Helicon. He died on 30th April 1936 at the age of seventy-six.[44] Housman statue in Bromsgrove From 1947, University College London's academic common room was dedicated to his memory as the Housman Room.[45] Blue plaques followed later elsewhere, the first being on Byron Cottage in Highgate in 1969, recording the fact that A Shropshire Lad was written there. More followed on his Worcestershire birthplace, his homes and school in Bromsgrove.[46] The latter were encouraged by the Housman Society, which was founded in the town in 1973.[47] Another initiative was the statue in Bromsgrove High Street, showing the poet striding with walking stick in hand. The work of local sculptor Kenneth Potts, it was unveiled on 22 March 1985.[48] The blue plaques in Worcestershire were set up on the centenary of A Shropshire Lad in 1996. In September of the same year a memorial window lozenge was dedicated at Poets' Corner in Westminster Abbey[49] The following year saw the première of Tom Stoppard's play The Invention of Love, whose subject is the relationship between Housman and Moses Jackson.[50] As the 150th anniversary of his birth approached, London University inaugurated its Housman lectures on classical subjects in 2005, initially given every second year then annually after 2011.[51] The anniversary itself in 2009 saw the publication of a new edition of A Shropshire Lad, including pictures from across Shropshire taken by local photographer Gareth Thomas.[52] Among other events, there were performances of Vaughan Williams' On Wenlock Edge and Gurney's Ludlow and Teme at St Laurence's Church in Ludlow.[53] Works[edit] Poetry collections[edit] A Shropshire Lad (1896) Last Poems (1922, Henry Holt & Company) A Shropshire Lad: Authorized Edition (1924, Henry Holt & Company) More Poems (1936, Barclays) Collected Poems (1940, Henry Holt & Company) Collected Poems (1939); the poems included in this volume but not the three above are known as Additional Poems. The Penguin edition of 1956 includes an introduction by John Sparrow. Manuscript Poems: Eight Hundred Lines of Hitherto Un-collected Verse from the Author's Notebooks, ed. Tom Burns Haber (1955) Unkind to Unicorns: Selected Comic Verse, ed. J. Roy Birch (1995; 2nd ed. 1999) The Poems of A. E. Housman, ed. Archie Burnett (1997) A Shropshire Lad and Other Poems (2010, Penguin Classics) Classical scholarship[edit] P. Ovidi Nasonis Ibis (1894. In J. P. Postgate's "Corpus Poetarum Latinorum") M. Manilii Astronomica (1903–1930; 2nd ed. 1937; 5 vols.) D. Iunii Iuuenalis Saturae: editorum in usum edidit (1905; 2nd ed. 1931) M. Annaei Lucani, Belli Ciuilis Libri Decem: editorum in usum edidit (1926; 2nd ed. 1927) The Classical Papers of A. E. Housman, ed. J. Diggle and F. R. D. Goodyear (1972; 3 vols.) "Housman's Latin Inscriptions", William White, The Classical Journal (1955) 159–166 Published lectures[edit] These lectures are listed by date of delivery, with date of first publication given separately if different. Introductory Lecture (1892) "Swinburne" (1910; published 1969) Cambridge Inaugural Lecture (1911; published 1969 as "The Confines of Criticism") "The Application of Thought to Textual Criticism" (1921; published 1922) "The Name and Nature of Poetry" (1933) Prose collections[edit] Selected Prose, edited by John Carter, Cambridge University Press, 1961 Collected letters[edit] The Letters of A. E. Housman, ed. Henry Maas (1971) The Letters of A. E. Housman, ed. Archie Burnett (2007) See also[edit] The Invention of Love Footnotes[edit] ^ "A E Housman, The Poetry Archive". Archived from the original on 12 November 2019. Retrieved 3 October 2014. ^ "a man who turned out to be not only the great English classical scholar of his time but also one of the few real and great scholars anywhere at any time". Charles Oscar Brink, English Classical Scholarship: Historical reflections on Bentley, Porson and Housman, James Clarke & Co, Oxford, Oxford University Press, New York, 1986 p.149 ^ a b c "A. E. Housman". Poetry Foundation. 28 May 2020. Retrieved 28 May 2020. ^ "England Marriages, 1538–1973 for Edward Housman", Baptism record via Family Search.org ^ "England Births and Christenings, 1538–1975 for Alfred Edward Housman", Baptism record via Family Search.org ^ Christ Church Catshill ^ a b c d e f g h i j Profile at Poets.org ^ "Housman's 150th birthday". BBC. Retrieved 12 January 2017. ^ P. G. Naiditch (1988). A. E. Housman at University College, London: The Election of 1892. ISBN 9004088482. Retrieved 31 December 2017. ^ Cunningham (2000) p. 981. ^ Norman Page, Macmillan, London (1983) A. E. Housman: A Critical Biography pp. 43–46 ^ Richard Perceval Graves, A. E. Housman: The Scholar-Poet Charles Scribners, New York (1979) pp. 52–55. ^ Charles Oscar Brink, English Classical Scholarship p. 152 ^ Summers (1995) p. 371 ^ Blocksidge, Martin. A. E. Housman: A Single Life. N.p.: n.p., 2016 ^ Ricks, Christopher (1989). A. E. Housman. Collected Poems and Selected Prose. Harmondsworth: Penguin. p. 18. ^ Gow (Cambridge 1936) p. 5 ^ "The Application of Thought to Textual Criticism", (1921) Housman ^ Gow (Cambridge 1936) p. 24 ^ Gow (Cambridge 1936) p. 18 ^ The Letters of A. E. Housman, Clarendon Press 2007, p.333 ^ Graves (1979) p. 155. ^ Critchley (1988). ^ Wilson, Scott. Resting Places: The Burial Sites of More Than 14,000 Famous Persons, 3d ed.: 2 (Kindle Location 22231). McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. Kindle Edition ^ Housman, A. E. (1906). A Shropshire Lad. New York: John Lane Company. pp. 3-4. ^ Peter Parker, Housman Country, London 2016, Chapter 1 ^ A. E. Housman, A Shropshire Lad, XL ^ Richard Stokes, The Penguin Book of English Song, 2016, p. li ^ J. Roy Birch and Norman Page, ed. (1995). Unkind to Unicorns. Cambridge: Silent Books. ^ a b Collected Poems Penguin, Harmondsworth (1956), preface by John Sparrow. ^ Summers ed. 1995, 371. ^ Summers (1995) p372. ^ Housman, A. E. (1936). More Poems. New York: A. A. Knopf. pp. 44-45. ^ Housman (1937) p213. ^ a b Palmer, Christopher. 'Housman, A(lfred) E(dward)', in Grove Music Online (2001) ^ 'Two Song Cycles by Arthur Somervell' in Opera Today, 2 June 2020 ^ Banfield, Stephen. Sensibility and English Song (1985), p 233-4 ^ Arthur Eaglefield Hull, A Dictionary of Modern Music and Musicians Dent, London (1924), 73. ^ Kate Kennedy, "Ambivalent Englishness: Ivor Gurney's song cycle Ludlow and Teme", First World War Studies, Volume 2, 2011, – Issue 1: Literature and Music of the First World War ^ "The Western Playland". The LiederNet Archive. Retrieved 28 May 2020. ^ "Authors starting with the letter H". The LiederNet Archive. Retrieved 28 May 2020. ^ "Brasses H-K". Trinity College Chapel. Retrieved 28 May 2020. ^ A.E. Housman: Classical Scholar, Bloomsbury 2009, N. Hopkinson, "Housman and J.P. Postgate" ^ In its original Latin the plaque reads: HOC TITVLO COMMEMORATVR / ALFRED EDWARD HOUSMAN [sic] / PER XXV ANNOS LINGVAE LATINAE PROFESSOR KENNEDIANVS / ET HVIVS COLLEGII SOCIVS / QVI BENTLEII INSISTENS VESTIGIIS / TEXTVM TRADITVM POETARVM LATINORVM / TANTO INGENII ACVMINE TANTIS DOCTRINAE COPIIS / EDITORVM SOCORDIAM / TAM ACRI CAVILLATIONE CASTIGAVIT / VT HORVM STVDIORVM PAENE REFORMATOR EXSTITERIT / IDEM POETA / TENVI CARMINVM FASCICVLO / SEDEM SIBI TVTAM IN HELICONE NOSTRO VINDICAVIT / OBIIT PRID.KAL.MAI./ A.S.MDCCCCXXXVI AETATIS SVAE LXXVII ^ "History of the ASCR". UCL. Archived from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 14 July 2017. ^ "Places, subjects, or plaques matching "A. E. Housman"". Open Plaques. Retrieved 28 May 2020. ^ Housman Society Newsletter 38, "Early history of the Society", pp. 7–8 Archived 1 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine ^ "Statue to A. E. Housman". Public Monuments and Sculpture Association. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 28 May 2020. ^ "A. E. Housman". Westminster Abbey. Retrieved 28 May 2020. ^ Clapp, Susannah (5 October 1997). "Susannah Clapp on Stoppard's The Invention of Love". The Observer. ISSN 0029-7712. Retrieved 28 May 2020. ^ "Housman Lectures". UCL Department of Greek & Latin. 15 November 2018. Retrieved 28 May 2020. ^ "A Shropshire Lad". Merlin Unwin Books. Retrieved 28 May 2020. ^ "A. E. Housman: 150th birth anniversary", Shropshire Life, 21 April 2007 Sources[edit] Critchley, Julian, 'Homage to a lonely lad', Weekend Telegraph (UK), 23 April 1988. Cunningham, Valentine ed., The Victorians: An Anthology of Poetry and Poetics (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000) Gow, A. S. F., A. E. Housman: A Sketch Together with a List of his Writings and Indexes to his Classical Papers (Cambridge 1936) Graves, Richard Perceval, A.E. Housman: The Scholar-Poet (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979), p. 155 Housman, Laurence, A. E .H.: Some Poems, Some Letters and a Personal Memoir by his Brother (London: Jonathan Cape, 1937) Page, Norman, 'Housman, Alfred Edward (1859–1936)', Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004) Palmer, Christopher and Stephen Banfield, 'A. E. Housman', The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (London: Macmillan, 2001) Richardson, Donna, "The Can Of Ail: A. E. Housman's Moral Irony", Victorian Poetry, Volume 48, Number 2, Summer 2010 (267–285) Shaw, Robin, "Housman's Places" (The Housman Society, 1995) Summers, Claude J. ed., The Gay and Lesbian Literary Heritage (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1995) Further reading[edit] Blocksidge, Martin. A. E. Housman : A Single Life (Sussex Academic Press, 2016) ISBN 978-1-84519-844-2 Brink, C. O. Lutterworth.com, English Classical Scholarship: Historical Reflections on Bentley, Porson and Housman, James Clarke & Co (2009), ISBN 978-0-227-17299-5 Efrati, C. The road of danger, guilt, and shame: the lonely way of A. E. Housman (Associated University Presse, 2002) ISBN 0-8386-3906-2 Gardner, Philip, ed. A. E. Housman: The Critical Heritage, a collection of reviews and essays on Housman's poetry (London: Routledge 1992) Holden, A. W. and Birch, J. R. A. E Housman – A Reassessment (Palgrave Macmillan, London, 1999) Housman, Laurence. [1], De Amicitia with annotation by John Carter. Encounter (October 1967, pp. 33–40). Parker, Peter. Housman country : into the heart of England (Little, Brown, 2016) ISBN 978-1-4087-0613-8 External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: A. E. Housman Wikisource has original works written by or about: Alfred Edward Housman Wikimedia Commons has media related to Alfred Edward Housman. Portraits of A. E. Housman at the National Portrait Gallery, London A. E. Housman profile and poems at Poets.org Profile and poems at Poetry Foundation London Review of Books review of "The Letters of A.E. Housman" 5 July 2007 BBC Profile 24 June 2009 "Star man": An article in the TLS by Robert Douglas Fairhurst, 20 June 2007 "Lost Horizon: The sad and savage wit of A. E. Housman" New Yorker article (5 pages) by Anthony Lane 19 February 2001 The Housman Society The Papers of A. E. Housman, Bryn Mawr College Special Collections Recording of part of the 1996 Shropshire Lad centenary reading by the Housman Society Catalogus Philologorum Classicorum Newspaper clippings about A. E. Housman in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW Works[edit] Works by A. E. Housman at Project Gutenberg Works by or about A. E. Housman at Internet Archive Works by A. E. Housman at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Works by A. E. Housman at Open Library A. E. Housman at Library of Congress Authorities, with 136 catalogue records Complete poems of A. E. Housman Academic offices Preceded by John E. B. Mayor Kennedy Professor of Latin Cambridge University 1911–36 Succeeded by William Blair Anderson Authority control BIBSYS: 90186784 BNE: XX874948 BNF: cb12074858c (data) CANTIC: a11004095 CiNii: DA03713984 GND: 118775073 ISNI: 0000 0001 1026 3814 LCCN: n79141239 LNB: 000072784 MBA: 3b482463-7841-4e3e-ba33-9363d855cd23 NDL: 00468583 NKC: xx0002584 NLA: 35208172 NLG: 129745 NLK: KAC199612892 NSK: 000021317 NTA: 068972652 RERO: 02-A003385217 SELIBR: 227364 SNAC: w6cv4h5t SUDOC: 029038901 Trove: 865691 VcBA: 495/9382 VIAF: 49249069 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79141239 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=A._E._Housman&oldid=996481509" Categories: 1859 births 1936 deaths 19th-century English poets 19th-century English writers 20th-century English poets 20th-century English writers Academics of University College London Alumni of St John's College, Oxford Burials in Shropshire English atheists English classical scholars English male poets Fellows of Trinity College, Cambridge LGBT poets LGBT writers from England Members of the University of Cambridge faculty of classics People educated at Bromsgrove School People educated at King Edward's School, Birmingham People from Bromsgrove Victorian poets War poets Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from November 2015 Commons category link is on Wikidata Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with LibriVox links Open Library ID same as Wikidata Articles with Open Library links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages العربية تۆرکجه Cymraeg Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Français Frysk Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina مصرى မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Suomi Svenska Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 26 December 2020, at 21:33 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3504	----	Solon - Wikipedia Solon From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Solon (disambiguation). Solon Σόλων Bust of Solon, copy from a Greek original (c. 110 BC) from the Farnese Collection, now at the National Archaeological Museum, Naples Born c. 630 BC Athens Died c. 560 BC (aged approx 70) Cyprus Occupation Statesman, lawmaker, poet Solon (Greek: Σόλων Sólōn [só.lɔːn]; c. 630 – c. 560 BC)[1] was an Athenian statesman, lawmaker and poet. He is remembered particularly for his efforts to legislate against political, economic and moral decline in archaic Athens.[2] His reforms failed in the short term, yet he is often credited with having laid the foundations for Athenian democracy.[3][4][5] He wrote poetry for pleasure, as patriotic propaganda, and in defence of his constitutional reform. Modern knowledge of Solon is limited by the fact that his works only survive in fragments and appear to feature interpolations by later authors and by the general paucity of documentary and archaeological evidence covering Athens in the early 6th century BC.[6] Ancient authors such as Philo of Alexandria[7], Herodotus, and Plutarch are the main sources, but wrote about Solon long after his death. Fourth-century orators, such as Aeschines, tended to attribute to Solon all the laws of their own, much later times.[2][8] The English word solon (meaning "wise lawmaker") derives from his name. Contents 1 Life 2 Historical setting 3 Solon's reforms 3.1 Constitutional reform 3.2 Economic reform 3.3 Moral reform 3.4 Aftermath of Solon's reforms 4 Poetry 5 Solon and Athenian sexuality 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 8.1 Collections of Solon's surviving verses 9 Further reading 10 External links Life[edit] Solon was born in Athens around 630 BC.[1] His family was distinguished in Attica as they belonged to a noble or Eupatrid clan, although they possessed only moderate wealth.[9] Solon's father was probably Execestides. If so his lineage could be traced back to Codrus, the last King of Athens.[10] According to Diogenes Laërtius, he had a brother named Dropides who was an ancestor (six generations removed) of Plato.[11] According to Plutarch, Solon was related to the tyrant Peisistratos, for their mothers were cousins.[12] Solon was eventually drawn into the unaristocratic pursuit of commerce.[13] "Solon demands to pledge respect for his laws", book illustration (Augsburg 1832) When Athens and Megara were contesting the possession of Salamis, Solon was made leader of the Athenian forces. After repeated disasters, Solon was able to improve the morale of his troops through a poem he wrote about the island.[14] Supported by Peisistratos, he defeated the Megarians either by means of a cunning trick[15] or more directly through heroic battle around 595 BC.[14][16] The Megarians, however, refused to give up their claim. The dispute was referred to the Spartans, who eventually awarded possession of the island to Athens on the strength of the case that Solon put to them.[17] According to Diogenes Laertius, in 594 BC, Solon was chosen archon, or chief magistrate.[14][18] As archon, Solon discussed his intended reforms with some friends. Knowing that he was about to cancel all debts, these friends took out loans and promptly bought some land. Suspected of complicity, Solon complied with his own law and released his own debtors, amounting to five talents (or 15 according to some sources). His friends never repaid their debts.[19] After he had finished his reforms, he travelled abroad for ten years, so that the Athenians could not induce him to repeal any of his laws.[20] His first stop was Egypt. There, according to Herodotus, he visited the Pharaoh of Egypt, Amasis II.[21] According to Plutarch, he spent some time and discussed philosophy with two Egyptian priests, Psenophis of Heliopolis and Sonchis of Sais.[22] A character in two of Plato's dialogues, Timaeus and Critias, claims Solon visited Neith's temple at Sais and received from the priests there an account of the history of Atlantis. Next, Solon sailed to Cyprus, where he oversaw the construction of a new capital for a local king, in gratitude for which the king named it Soloi.[22] Croesus awaits fiery execution (Attic red-figure amphora, 500–490 BC, Louvre G 197) Solon's travels finally brought him to Sardis, capital of Lydia. According to Herodotus and Plutarch, he met with Croesus and gave the Lydian king advice, which Croesus failed to appreciate until it was too late. Croesus had considered himself to be the happiest man alive and Solon had advised him, "Count no man happy until he be dead." The reasoning was that at any minute, fortune might turn on even the happiest man and make his life miserable. It was only after he had lost his kingdom to the Persian king Cyrus, while awaiting execution, that Croesus acknowledged the wisdom of Solon's advice.[23][24] After his return to Athens, Solon became a staunch opponent of Peisistratos. In protest, and as an example to others, Solon stood outside his own home in full armour, urging all who passed to resist the machinations of the would-be tyrant. His efforts were in vain. Solon died shortly after Peisistratos usurped by force the autocratic power that Athens had once freely bestowed upon him.[25] Solon died in Cyprus at the age of 80[14] and, in accordance with his will, his ashes were scattered around Salamis, the island where he was born.[26][27] The travel writer Pausanias listed Solon among the seven sages whose aphorisms adorned Apollo's temple in Delphi.[28] Stobaeus in the Florilegium relates a story about a symposium where Solon's young nephew was singing a poem of Sappho's: Solon, upon hearing the song, asked the boy to teach him to sing it. When someone asked, "Why should you waste your time on it?", Solon replied, "ἵνα μαθὼν αὐτὸ ἀποθάνω", "So that I may learn it before I die."[29] Ammianus Marcellinus, however, told a similar story about Socrates and the poet Stesichorus, quoting the philosopher's rapture in almost identical terms: "ut aliquid sciens amplius e vita discedam",[30] meaning "in order to leave life knowing a little more". Historical setting[edit] "Solon, the wise lawgiver of Athens", illustration by Walter Crane, from The Story of Greece, told to boys and girls, by Mary Macgregor (1910s) During Solon's time, many Greek city-states had seen the emergence of tyrants, opportunistic noblemen who had taken power on behalf of sectional interests. In Sicyon, Cleisthenes had usurped power on behalf of an Ionian minority. In Megara, Theagenes had come to power as an enemy of the local oligarchs. The son-in-law of Theagenes, an Athenian nobleman named Cylon, made an unsuccessful attempt to seize power in Athens in 632 BC. Solon was described by Plutarch as having been temporarily awarded autocratic powers by Athenian citizens on the grounds that he had the wisdom to sort out their differences for them in a peaceful and equitable manner.[31] According to ancient sources,[32][33] he obtained these powers when he was elected eponymous archon (594/3 BC). Some modern scholars believe these powers were in fact granted some years after Solon had been archon, when he would have been a member of the Areopagus and probably a more respected statesman by his peers.[34][35][36] The social and political upheavals that characterized Athens in Solon's time have been variously interpreted by historians from ancient times to the present day. Two contemporary historians have identified three distinct historical accounts of Solon's Athens, emphasizing quite different rivalries: economic and ideological rivalry, regional rivalry and rivalry between aristocratic clans.[37][38] These different accounts provide a convenient basis for an overview of the issues involved. Economic and ideological rivalry is a common theme in ancient sources. This sort of account emerges from Solon's poems (e.g. see below Solon the reformer and poet), in which he casts himself in the role of a noble mediator between two intemperate and unruly factions. This same account is substantially taken up about three centuries later by the author of the Aristotelian Athenaion Politeia but with an interesting variation: "...there was conflict between the nobles and the common people for an extended period. For the constitution they were under was oligarchic in every respect and especially in that the poor, along with their wives and children, were in slavery to the rich...All the land was in the hands of a few. And if men did not pay their rents, they themselves and their children were liable to be seized as slaves. The security for all loans was the debtor's person up to the time of Solon. He was the first people's champion."[39] Here Solon is presented as a partisan in a democratic cause whereas, judged from the viewpoint of his own poems, he was instead a mediator between rival factions. A still more significant variation in the ancient historical account appears in the writing of Plutarch in the late 1st – early 2nd century AD: "Athens was torn by recurrent conflict about the constitution. The city was divided into as many parties as there were geographical divisions in its territory. For the party of the people of the hills was most in favour of democracy, that of the people of the plain was most in favour of oligarchy, while the third group, the people of the coast, which preferred a mixed form of constitution somewhat between the other two, formed an obstruction and prevented the other groups from gaining control."[40] Regional rivalry is a theme commonly found among modern scholars.[41][42][43][44] "The new picture which emerged was one of strife between regional groups, united by local loyalties and led by wealthy landowners. Their goal was control of the central government at Athens and with it dominance over their rivals from other districts of Attika."[45] Regional factionalism was inevitable in a relatively large territory such as Athens possessed. In most Greek city states, a farmer could conveniently reside in town and travel to and from his fields every day. According to Thucydides, on the other hand, most Athenians continued to live in rural settlements right up until the Peloponnesian War.[46] The effects of regionalism in a large territory could be seen in Laconia, where Sparta had gained control through intimidation and resettlement of some of its neighbours and enslavement of the rest. Attika in Solon's time seemed to be moving towards a similarly ugly solution with many citizens in danger of being reduced to the status of helots.[47] Rivalry between clans is a theme recently developed by some scholars, based on an appreciation of the political significance of kinship groupings.[45][48][49][50][51][52] According to this account, bonds of kinship rather than local loyalties were the decisive influence on events in archaic Athens. An Athenian belonged not only to a phyle or tribe and one of its subdivisions, the phratry or brotherhood, but also to an extended family, clan or genos. It has been argued that these interconnecting units of kinship reinforced a hierarchic structure with aristocratic clans at the top.[37][38] Thus rivalries between aristocratic clans could engage all levels of society irrespective of any regional ties. In that case, the struggle between rich and poor was the struggle between powerful aristocrats and the weaker affiliates of their rivals or perhaps even with their own rebellious affiliates. The historical account of Solon's Athens has evolved over many centuries into a set of contradictory stories or a complex story that might be interpreted in a variety of ways. As further evidence accumulates, and as historians continue to debate the issues, Solon's motivations and the intentions behind his reforms will continue to attract speculation.[53] Solon's reforms[edit] Solon, depicted with pupils in an Islamic miniature Solon's laws were inscribed on large wooden slabs or cylinders attached to a series of axles that stood upright in the Prytaneion.[54][55] These axones appear to have operated on the same principle as a turntable, allowing both convenient storage and ease of access. Originally the axones recorded laws enacted by Draco in the late 7th Century (traditionally 621 BC). Nothing of Draco's codification has survived except for a law relating to homicide, yet there is consensus among scholars that it did not amount to anything like a constitution.[56][57] Solon repealed all Draco's laws except those relating to homicide.[58] During his visit to Athens, Pausanias, the 2nd century AD geographer reported that the inscribed laws of Solon were still displayed by the Prytaneion.[59] Fragments of the axones were still visible in Plutarch's time[60] but today the only records we have of Solon's laws are fragmentary quotes and comments in literary sources such as those written by Plutarch himself. Moreover, the language of his laws was archaic even by the standards of the fifth century and this caused interpretation problems for ancient commentators.[61] Modern scholars doubt the reliability of these sources and our knowledge of Solon's legislation is therefore actually very limited in its details.[citation needed] Generally, Solon's reforms appear to have been constitutional, economic and moral in their scope. This distinction, though somewhat artificial, does at least provide a convenient framework within which to consider the laws that have been attributed to Solon. Some short-term consequences of his reforms are considered at the end of the section. Constitutional reform[edit] Main article: Solonian Constitution Before Solon's reforms, the Athenian state was administered by nine archons appointed or elected annually by the Areopagus on the basis of noble birth and wealth.[62][63] The Areopagus comprised former archons and it therefore had, in addition to the power of appointment, extraordinary influence as a consultative body. The nine archons took the oath of office while ceremonially standing on a stone in the agora, declaring their readiness to dedicate a golden statue if they should ever be found to have violated the laws.[64][65] There was an assembly of Athenian citizens (the Ekklesia) but the lowest class (the Thetes) was not admitted and its deliberative procedures were controlled by the nobles.[66] There therefore seemed to be no means by which an archon could be called to account for breach of oath unless the Areopagus favoured his prosecution. According to the Constitution of the Athenians, Solon legislated for all citizens to be admitted into the Ekklesia[67] and for a court (the Heliaia) to be formed from all the citizens.[68] The Heliaia appears to have been the Ekklesia, or some representative portion of it, sitting as a jury.[69][70] By giving common people the power not only to elect officials but also to call them to account, Solon appears to have established the foundations of a true republic. However some scholars have doubted whether Solon actually included the Thetes in the Ekklesia, this being considered too bold a move for any aristocrat in the archaic period.[71] Ancient sources[72][73] credit Solon with the creation of a Council of Four Hundred, drawn from the four Athenian tribes to serve as a steering committee for the enlarged Ekklesia. However, many modern scholars have doubted this also.[74][75] There is consensus among scholars that Solon lowered the requirements – those that existed in terms of financial and social qualifications – which applied to election to public office. The Solonian constitution divided citizens into four political classes defined according to assessable property[67][76] a classification that might previously have served the state for military or taxation purposes only.[77] The standard unit for this assessment was one medimnos (approximately 12 gallons) of cereals and yet the kind of classification set out below might be considered too simplistic to be historically accurate.[78] The Areopagus, as viewed from the Acropolis, is a monolith where Athenian aristocrats decided important matters of state during Solon's time. Pentakosiomedimnoi valued at 500 medimnoi or more of cereals annually. eligible to serve as strategoi (generals or military governors) Hippeis valued at 300 medimnoi or more annually. approximating to the medieval class of knights, they had enough wealth to equip themselves for the cavalry Zeugitai valued at a 200 medimnoi or more annually. approximating to the medieval class of Yeoman, they had enough wealth to equip themselves for the infantry (Hoplite) Thetes valued up to 199 medimnoi annually or less manual workers or sharecroppers, they served voluntarily in the role of personal servant, or as auxiliaries armed for instance with the sling or as rowers in the navy. According to the Athenian Constitution, only the pentakosiomedimnoi were eligible for election to high office as archons and therefore only they gained admission into the Areopagus.[79] A modern view affords the same privilege to the hippeis.[80] The top three classes were eligible for a variety of lesser posts and only the thetes were excluded from all public office. Depending on how we interpret the historical facts known to us, Solon's constitutional reforms were either a radical anticipation of democratic government, or they merely provided a plutocratic flavour to a stubbornly aristocratic regime, or else the truth lies somewhere between these two extremes.[a] Economic reform[edit] Solon's economic reforms need to be understood in the context of the primitive, subsistence economy that prevailed both before and after his time. Most Athenians were still living in rural settlements right up to the Peloponnesian War.[81] Opportunities for trade even within the Athenian borders were limited. The typical farming family, even in classical times, barely produced enough to satisfy its own needs.[82] Opportunities for international trade were minimal. It has been estimated that, even in Roman times, goods rose 40% in value for every 100 miles they were carried over land, but only 1.3% for the same distance were they carried by ship[83] and yet there is no evidence that Athens possessed any merchant ships until around 525 BC.[84] Until then, the narrow warship doubled as a cargo vessel. Athens, like other Greek city states in the 7th century BC, was faced with increasing population pressures[85] and by about 525 BC it was able to feed itself only in 'good years'.[86] Solon's reforms can thus be seen to have taken place at a crucial period of economic transition, when a subsistence rural economy increasingly required the support of a nascent commercial sector. The specific economic reforms credited to Solon are these: The Croeseid, one of the earliest known coins. It was minted in the early 6th century BC in Lydia. Coins such as this might have made their way to Athens in Solon's time but it is unlikely that Athens had its own coinage at this period. The earliest coinage of Athens, c. 545–515 BC Fathers were encouraged to find trades for their sons; if they did not, there would be no legal requirement for sons to maintain their fathers in old age.[87] Foreign tradesmen were encouraged to settle in Athens; those who did would be granted citizenship, provided they brought their families with them.[88] Cultivation of olives was encouraged; the export of all other fruits was prohibited.[89] Competitiveness of Athenian commerce was promoted through revision of weights and measures, possibly based on successful standards already in use elsewhere, such as Aegina or Euboia[90][91] or, according to the ancient account but unsupported by modern scholarship, Argos.[92] It is generally assumed, on the authority of ancient commentators[92][93] that Solon also reformed the Athenian coinage. However, recent numismatic studies now lead to the conclusion that Athens probably had no coinage until around 560 BC, well after Solon's reforms.[94] Nevertheless, there are now reasons to suggest[95] that monetization had already begun before Solon's reforms. By early sixth century the Athenians were using silver in the form of a variety of bullion silver pieces for monetary payments.[96] Drachma and obol as a term of bullion value had already been adopted, although the corresponding standard weights were probably unstable.[97] Solon's economic reforms succeeded in stimulating foreign trade. Athenian black-figure pottery was exported in increasing quantities and good quality throughout the Aegean between 600 BC and 560 BC, a success story that coincided with a decline in trade in Corinthian pottery.[98] The ban on the export of grain might be understood as a relief measure for the benefit of the poor. However, the encouragement of olive production for export could actually have led to increased hardship for many Athenians to the extent that it led to a reduction in the amount of land dedicated to grain. Moreover, an olive produces no fruit for the first six years[99] (but farmers' difficulty of lasting until payback may also give rise to a mercantilist argument in favour of supporting them through that, since the British case illustrates that 'One domestic policy that had a lasting impact was the conversion of "waste lands" to agricultural use. Mercantilists felt that to maximize a nation's power all land and resources had to be used to their utmost...'). The real motives behind Solon's economic reforms are therefore as questionable as his real motives for constitutional reform. Were the poor being forced to serve the needs of a changing economy, was the economy being reformed to serve the needs of the poor, or were Solon's policies the manifestation of a struggle taking place between poorer citizens and the aristocrats? Moral reform[edit] In his poems, Solon portrays Athens as being under threat from the unrestrained greed and arrogance of its citizens.[100] Even the earth (Gaia), the mighty mother of the gods, had been enslaved.[101] The visible symbol of this perversion of the natural and social order was a boundary marker called a horos, a wooden or stone pillar indicating that a farmer was in debt or under contractual obligation to someone else, either a noble patron or a creditor.[102] Up until Solon's time, land was the inalienable property of a family or clan[103] and it could not be sold or mortgaged. This was no disadvantage to a clan with large landholdings since it could always rent out farms in a sharecropping system. A family struggling on a small farm however could not use the farm as security for a loan even if it owned the farm. Instead the farmer would have to offer himself and his family as security, providing some form of slave labour in lieu of repayment. Equally, a family might voluntarily pledge part of its farm income or labour to a powerful clan in return for its protection. Farmers subject to these sorts of arrangements were loosely known as hektemoroi[104] indicating that they either paid or kept a sixth of a farm's annual yield.[105][106][107] In the event of 'bankruptcy', or failure to honour the contract stipulated by the horoi, farmers and their families could in fact be sold into slavery. This 6th century Athenian black-figure urn, in the British Museum, depicts the olive harvest. Many farmers, enslaved for debt, would have worked on large estates for their creditors. Solon's reform of these injustices was later known and celebrated among Athenians as the Seisachtheia (shaking off of burdens).[108][109] As with all his reforms, there is considerable scholarly debate about its real significance. Many scholars are content to accept the account given by the ancient sources, interpreting it as a cancellation of debts, while others interpret it as the abolition of a type of feudal relationship, and some prefer to explore new possibilities for interpretation.[5] The reforms included: annulment of all contracts symbolised by the horoi.[110] prohibition on a debtor's person being used as security for a loan, i.e., debt slavery.[108][109] release of all Athenians who had been enslaved.[110] The removal of the horoi clearly provided immediate economic relief for the most oppressed group in Attica, and it also brought an immediate end to the enslavement of Athenians by their countrymen. Some Athenians had already been sold into slavery abroad and some had fled abroad to escape enslavement – Solon proudly records in verse the return of this diaspora.[111] It has been cynically observed, however, that few of these unfortunates were likely to have been recovered.[112] It has been observed also that the seisachtheia not only removed slavery and accumulated debt but may also have removed the ordinary farmer's only means of obtaining further credit.[113] The seisachtheia however was merely one set of reforms within a broader agenda of moral reformation. Other reforms included: the abolition of extravagant dowries.[114] legislation against abuses within the system of inheritance, specifically with relation to the epikleros (i.e. a female who had no brothers to inherit her father's property and who was traditionally required to marry her nearest paternal relative in order to produce an heir to her father's estate).[115] entitlement of any citizen to take legal action on behalf of another.[116][117] the disenfranchisement of any citizen who might refuse to take up arms in times of civil strife, and war, a measure that was intended to counteract dangerous levels of political apathy.[118][119][120][121][122] Demosthenes claimed that the city's subsequent golden age included "personal modesty and frugality" among the Athenian aristocracy.[123] Perhaps Solon, by both personal example and legislated reform, established a precedent for this decorum.[citation needed] A heroic sense of civic duty later united Athenians against the might of the Persians.[citation needed] Perhaps this public spirit was instilled in them by Solon and his reforms.[citation needed] (See also Solon and Athenian sexuality below). Aftermath of Solon's reforms[edit] After completing his work of reform, Solon surrendered his extraordinary authority and left the country. According to Herodotus[124] the country was bound by Solon to maintain his reforms for 10 years, whereas according to Plutarch[60] and the author of the Athenian Constitution[125] (reputedly Aristotle) the contracted period was instead 100 years. A modern scholar[126] considers the time-span given by Herodotus to be historically accurate because it fits the 10 years that Solon was said to have been absent from the country.[127] Within 4 years of Solon's departure, the old social rifts re-appeared, but with some new complications. There were irregularities in the new governmental procedures, elected officials sometimes refused to stand down from their posts and occasionally important posts were left vacant. It has even been said that some people blamed Solon for their troubles.[128] Eventually one of Solon's relatives, Peisistratos, ended the factionalism by force, thus instituting an unconstitutionally gained tyranny. In Plutarch's account, Solon accused Athenians of stupidity and cowardice for allowing this to happen.[129] Poetry[edit] Solon, depicted as a medieval scholar in the Nuremberg Chronicle Solon's verses have come down to us in fragmentary quotations by ancient authors such as Plutarch and Demosthenes[130] who used them to illustrate their own arguments. It is possible that some fragments have been wrongly attributed to him[131] and some scholars have detected interpolations by later authors.[132] He was also the first citizen of Athens to reference the goddess Athena (fr. 4.1–4).[133] The literary merit of Solon's verse is generally considered unexceptional. Solon's poetry can be said to appear 'self-righteous' and 'pompous' at times[134] and he once composed an elegy with moral advice for a more gifted elegiac poet, Mimnermus. Most of the extant verses show him writing in the role of a political activist determined to assert personal authority and leadership and they have been described by the German classicist Wilamowitz as a "versified harangue" (Eine Volksrede in Versen).[135] According to Plutarch[136] however, Solon originally wrote poetry for amusement, discussing pleasure in a popular rather than philosophical way. Solon's elegiac style is said to have been influenced by the example of Tyrtaeus.[137] He also wrote iambic and trochaic verses which, according to one modern scholar,[138] are more lively and direct than his elegies and possibly paved the way for the iambics of Athenian drama. Solon's verses are mainly significant for historical rather than aesthetic reasons, as a personal record of his reforms and attitudes. However, poetry is not an ideal genre for communicating facts and very little detailed information can be derived from the surviving fragments.[139] According to Solon the poet, Solon the reformer was a voice for political moderation in Athens at a time when his fellow citizens were increasingly polarized by social and economic differences: πολλοὶ γὰρ πλουτεῦσι κακοί, ἀγαθοὶ δὲ πένονται: ἀλλ' ἡμεῖς αὐτοῖς οὐ διαμειψόμεθα τῆς ἀρετῆς τὸν πλοῦτον: ἐπεὶ τὸ μὲν ἔμπεδον αἰεί, χρήματα δ' ἀνθρώπων ἄλλοτε ἄλλος ἔχει. Some wicked men are rich, some good are poor; We will not change our virtue for their store: Virtue's a thing that none can take away, But money changes owners all the day.[9] Here translated by the English poet John Dryden, Solon's words define a 'moral high ground' where differences between rich and poor can be reconciled or maybe just ignored. His poetry indicates that he attempted to use his extraordinary legislative powers to establish a peaceful settlement between the country's rival factions: ἔστην δ' ἀμφιβαλὼν κρατερὸν σάκος ἀμφοτέροισι: νικᾶν δ' οὐκ εἴασ' οὐδετέρους ἀδίκως. Before them both I held my shield of might And let not either touch the other's right.[76] His attempts evidently were misunderstood: χαῦνα μὲν τότ' ἐφράσαντο, νῦν δέ μοι χολούμενοι λοξὸν ὀφθαλμοῖς ὁρῶσι πάντες ὥστε δήϊον. Formerly they boasted of me vainly; with averted eyes Now they look askance upon me; friends no more but enemies.[140] Solon gave voice to Athenian 'nationalism', particularly in the city state's struggle with Megara, its neighbour and rival in the Saronic Gulf. Plutarch professes admiration of Solon's elegy urging Athenians to recapture the island of Salamis from Megarian control.[15] The same poem was said by Diogenes Laërtius to have stirred Athenians more than any other verses that Solon wrote: Let us go to Salamis to fight for the island We desire, and drive away our bitter shame![141] One fragment describes assorted breads and cakes:[142] They drink and some nibble honey and sesame cakes (itria), others their bread, other gouroi mixed with lentils. In that place, not one cake was unavailable of all those that the black earth bears for human beings, and all were present unstintingly. The place of abundance described in Solon's fragment about cakes is unknown. Some authors speculate that it may have been Persia based on comments from Herodotus that cake was the most significant part of a meal, one of the Greek city states or even a literary allusion to 'paradise'. Though Athenaeus is not able to identify the gouros cake from Solon's poem, he describes it as a plakous indicating it was a type of 'flat cake'. Similar cakes are described by Philoxenus of Cythera.[142] Solon and Athenian sexuality[edit] Bust of Solon in Vatican Museums As a regulator of Athenian society, Solon, according to some authors, also formalized its sexual mores. According to a surviving fragment from a work ("Brothers") by the comic playwright Philemon,[143] Solon established publicly funded brothels at Athens in order to "democratize" the availability of sexual pleasure.[144] While the veracity of this comic account is open to doubt, at least one modern author considers it significant that in Classical Athens, three hundred or so years after the death of Solon, there existed a discourse that associated his reforms with an increased availability of heterosexual contacts.[145] Ancient authors also say that Solon regulated pederastic relationships in Athens; this has been presented as an adaptation of custom to the new structure of the polis.[146][147] According to various authors, ancient lawgivers (and therefore Solon by implication) drew up a set of laws that were intended to promote and safeguard the institution of pederasty and to control abuses against freeborn boys. In particular, the orator Aeschines cites laws excluding slaves from wrestling halls and forbidding them to enter pederastic relationships with the sons of citizens.[148] Accounts of Solon's laws by 4th century orators like Aeschines, however, are considered unreliable for a number of reasons;[8][149][150] Attic pleaders did not hesitate to attribute to him (Solon) any law which suited their case, and later writers had no criterion by which to distinguish earlier from later works. Nor can any complete and authentic collection of his statutes have survived for ancient scholars to consult.[151] Besides the alleged legislative aspect of Solon's involvement with pederasty, there were also suggestions of personal involvement. Ancient readers concluded, based on his own erotic poetry, that Solon himself had a preference for boys.[152] According to some ancient authors Solon had taken the future tyrant Peisistratos as his eromenos. Aristotle, writing around 330 BC, attempted to refute that belief, claiming that "those are manifestly talking nonsense who pretend that Solon was the lover of Peisistratos, for their ages do not admit of it," as Solon was about thirty years older than Peisistratos.[153] Nevertheless, the tradition persisted. Four centuries later Plutarch ignored Aristotle's skepticism[154] and recorded the following anecdote, supplemented with his own conjectures: And they say Solon loved [Peisistratos]; and that is the reason, I suppose, that when afterwards they differed about the government, their enmity never produced any hot and violent passion, they remembered their old kindnesses, and retained "Still in its embers living the strong fire" of their love and dear affection.[155] A century after Plutarch, Aelian also said that Peisistratos had been Solon's eromenos. Despite its persistence, however, it is not known whether the account is historical or fabricated. It has been suggested that the tradition presenting a peaceful and happy coexistence between Solon and Peisistratos was cultivated during the latter's dominion, in order to legitimize his own rule, as well as that of his sons. Whatever its source, later generations lent credence to the narrative.[156] Solon's presumed pederastic desire was thought in antiquity to have found expression also in his poetry, which is today represented only in a few surviving fragments.[157][158] The authenticity of all the poetic fragments attributed to Solon is however uncertain – in particular, pederastic aphorisms ascribed by some ancient sources to Solon have been ascribed by other sources to Theognis instead.[131] See also[edit] Seven Sages of Greece Notes[edit] ^ "In all areas then it was the work of Solon which was decisive in establishing the foundations for the development of a full democracy."—Marylin B. Arthur, 'The Origins of the Western Attitude Toward Women', in: Women in the Ancient World: The Arethusa Papers, John Patrick Sullivan (ed.), State University of New York (1984), p. 30. "In making their own evaluation of Solon, the ancient sources concentrated on what were perceived to be the democratic features of the constitution. But...Solon was given his extraordinary commission by the nobles, who wanted him to eliminate the threat that the position of the nobles as a whole would be overthrown".— Stanton G. R. Athenian Politics c. 800–500 BC: A Sourcebook, Routledge, London (1990), p. 76. References[edit] ^ a b "Solon", Encyclopædia Britannica, retrieved 13 April 2019 ^ a b Aristotle Politics 1273b 35–1274a 21 ^ Stanton, G. R. Athenian Politics c. 800–500 BC: A Sourcebook, Routledge, London (1990), p. 76. ^ Andrews, A. Greek Society (Penguin 1967) 197 ^ a b E. Harris, A New Solution to the Riddle of the Seisachtheia, in The Development of the Polis in Archaic Greece, eds. L. Mitchell and P. Rhodes (Routledge 1997) 103 ^ Stanton G. R. Athenian Politics c. 800–500 BC: A Sourcebook, Routledge, London (1990), pp. 1–5. ^ Philo Judaeus Alexandria "On the Laws I and II", Loeb Classical Library (1953) ^ a b V. Ehrenberg, From Solon to Socrates: Greek History and Civilization, Routledge (1973) 71 ^ a b Plutarch Solon 1 s:Lives (Dryden translation)/Solon#1 ^ "Solon" in Magill, Frank N. (ed)., The Ancient World: Dictionary of World Biography (Salem Press/Routledge, 1998), p. 1057. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, The Lives and Opinions of Famous Philosophers, Book 3 "Plato", chapter 1. ^ Plutarch Solon 1 s:Lives (Dryden translation)/Solon#1. ^ Plutarch, Life of Solon, ch. 2 ^ a b c d Solon: Biography of Solon ^ a b Plutarch Solon 8 s:Lives (Dryden translation)/Solon#8 ^ Plutarch Solon 9 s:Lives/Solon#9 ^ Plutarch Solon 9 s:Lives (Dryden translation)/Solon#9 ^ Solon of Athens ^ Plutarch Solon 15 s:Lives (Dryden translation)/Solon#15 ^ Herodotus, The Histories, Hdt. 1.29 ^ Herodotus, The Histories, Hdt. 1.30 ^ a b Plutarch Solon 26 s:Lives (Dryden translation)/Solon#26 ^ Herodotus 1.30. ^ Plutarch Solon 28 s:Lives (Dryden translation)/Solon#28 ^ Plutarch Solon 32 s:Lives (Dryden translation)/Solon#32 ^ Diogenes Laertius 1.62 ^ I. M. Linforth, Solon the Athenian, University of California Press (1919), p. 308, Google Books link ^ Pausanias 10.24.1 (e.g. Jones and Omerod trans. [1]). ^ Stobaeus, III, 29, 58, taken from a lost work of Aelian. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus 38.4 ^ Plutarch Solon 14 s:Lives (Dryden translation)/Solon#14 ^ Plutarch Solon 14.3 s:Lives (Dryden translation)/Solon#14 ^ Athenaion Politeia 1.5 (e.g. Kenyon's translation s:Athenian Constitution#5) ^ Stanton G.R. Athenian Politics c. 800–500 BC: A Sourcebook, Routledge, London (1990), p. 36. ^ Hignett C. A History of the Athenian Constitution to the End of the Fifth Century B.C. (Oxford University Press 1952). ^ Miller, M. Arethusa 4 (1971) 25–47. ^ a b Stanton G.R. Athenian Politics c. 800–500 BC: A Sourcebook, Routledge, London (1991), pp. 3–4. ^ a b Walters, K.R., Geography and Kinship as Political Infrastructures in Archaic Athens "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2007-10-13. Retrieved 2007-07-05.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ Athenaion Politeia 2.1–3 s:Athenian Constitution#2. ^ Plutarch Solon 13 s:Lives (Dryden translation)/Solon#13 ^ B. Sealey, "Regionalism in Archaic Athens," Historia 9 (1960) 155–180. ^ D. Lewis, "Cleisthenes and Attica," Historia 12 (1963) 22–40. ^ P. Rhodes, A Commentary on the Aristotelian Athenian Politeia, Oxford University Press (1981) 186. ^ P. Rhodes, A History of the Greek City States, Berkeley (1976). ^ a b Walters K.R. Geography and Kinship as Political Infrastructures in Archaic Athens "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2007-10-13. Retrieved 2007-07-05.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ Thucydides 2.14–16. ^ Andrews, A. Greek Society (Penguin 1967) 118. ^ Stanton G.R. Athenian Politics c. 800–500 BC: A Sourcebook, Routledge, London (1991), pp. 3–4. ^ Frost, "Tribal Politics and the Civic State," AJAH (1976) 66–75. ^ Connor, The New Politicians of Fifth Century Athens, Princeton (1971) 11–14. ^ Cary, Cambridge Ancient History, Cambridge Univ. Press (1925) 3:582–586. ^ Ellis, J. and Stanton, G., Phoenix 22 (1968) 95–99. ^ See, for example, J. Bintliff, "Solon's Reforms: an archeological perspective", in Solon of Athens: new historical and philological approaches, eds. J. Blok and A. Lardinois (Brill, Leiden 2006)[2], and other essays published with it. ^ V. Ehrenberg, From Solon to Socrates: Greek History and Civilization, Routledge, London (1973), p. 71 f. ^ Stanton, G. R. Athenian Politics c. 800–500 BC: A Sourcebook, Routledge, London (1990), p. 52. ^ Stanton, G. R. Athenian Politics c. 800–500 BC: A Sourcebook, Routledge, London (1990), p. 26. ^ Oxford Classical Dictionary (1964), s. v. 'Draco'. ^ Plutarch, Solon 17. ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, 1.18.3. ^ a b Plutarch, Solon 25.1. ^ Andrews A. Greek Society, Penguin, London (1967), pp. 114, 201. ^ Athenaion Politeia 3.6 s:Athenian Constitution#3 ^ Athenaion Politeia 8.2. ^ Athenaion Politeia 7.1, 55.5. ^ Plutarch, Solon 25.3. ^ Stanton, G. R. Athenian Politics c. 800–500 BC: A Sourcebook, Routledge, London (1991), p. 35, n. 2. ^ a b Athenaion Politeia 7.3. ^ Aristotle, Politics 1274a 3, 1274a 15. ^ Ostwald M. From Popular Sovereignty to the Sovereignty of the Law: Law, Society and Politics in Fifth Century Athens, Berkeley (1986), pp. 9–12, 35. ^ Stanton, G. R. Athenian Politics c. 800–500 BC: A Sourcebook, Routledge, London (1990), p. 67, n. 2. ^ Hignett C. A History of the Athenian Constitution to the End of the Fifth Century B.C., Oxford University Press (1952), p. 117 f. ^ Athenaion Politeia 8.4. ^ Plutarch, Solon 19. ^ Hignett C. A History of the Athenian Constitution to the End of the Fifth Century B.C. (Oxford University Press 1952) 92–96 ^ Stanton, G. R. Athenian Politics c. 800–500 BC: A Sourcebook, Routledge, London (1990), p. 72 n. 14. ^ a b Plutarch, Solon 18. ^ Stanton, G. R. Athenian Politics c. 800–500 BC: A Sourcebook, Routledge, London (1990), p. 71, n. 6. ^ V. Ehrenberg, From Solon to Socrates: Greek History and Civilization, Routledge, London (1973). ^ Athenaion Politeia 7–8. ^ Oxford Classical Dictionary (3rd edition 1996), s. v. 'Solon'. ^ Thucydides 2.14–16. ^ Gallant T. Risk and Survival in Ancient Greece, Stanford (1991), cited by Morris I. in The Growth of City States in the First Millennium BC, Stanford (2005), p. 7 (pdf online). ^ Laurence R. Land Transport in Rural Italy, Parkins and Smith (1998), cited by Morris I. in The Growth of City States in the First Millennium BC, Stanford (2005). ^ Morris I. The Growth of City States in the First Millennium BC, Stanford (2005), p. 12. ^ Snodgrass A. Archaic Greece, London (1980), cited by Morris I. in The Growth of City States in the First Millennium BC, Stanford (2005), p. 11. ^ Garnsey P. Famine and Food Supply in Graeco-Roman World, Cambridge (1988), p. 104, cited by Morris I. in The Growth of City States in the First Millennium BC, Stanford (2005). ^ Plutarch, Solon 22.1. ^ Plutarch, Solon 24.4. ^ Plutarch, Solon 24.1. ^ V. Ehrenberg, From Solon to Socrates: Greek History and Civilization, Routledge (1973), p. 73 f. ^ Stanton, G. R. Athenian Politics c. 800–500 BC: A Sourcebook, Routledge, London (1990), pp. 60–63. ^ a b Athenaion Politeia 10. ^ Plutarch (quoting Androtion), Solon 15.2–5. ^ Stanton, G. R. Athenian Politics c. 800–500 BC: A Sourcebook, Routledge, London (1990), p. 61, n. 4. ^ Eberhard Ruschenbusch 1966, Solonos Nomoi (Solon's laws). ^ Kroll, 1998, 2001, 2008. ^ The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage by William Metcalf, p. 88. ^ Stanton, G. R. Athenian Politics c. 800–500 BC: A Sourcebook, Routledge, London (1990), p. 76. ^ Stanton, G. R. Athenian Politics c. 800–500 BC: A Sourcebook, Routledge, London (1991), p. 65, n. 1. ^ Demosthenes 19 (On the Embassy), p. 254 f. ^ Athenaion Politeia (quoting Solon) 12.4. ^ Stanton, G. R. Athenian Politics c. 800–500 BC: A Sourcebook, Routledge, London (1991), pp. 55–56, n. 3 and 4. ^ Innis, H. Empire and Communications, Rowman and Littlefield (2007), p. 91 f. ^ Stanton, G. R. Athenian Politics c. 800–500 BC: A Sourcebook, Routledge, London (1991), p. 38, n. 3. ^ Stanton, G. R. Athenian Politics c. 800–500 BC: A Sourcebook, Routledge, London (1990), p. 35, n. 3. ^ Kirk, G. Historia, Vol. 26 (1977), p. 369 f. ^ Woodhouse, W. Solon the Liberator: A Study of the Agrarian Problem in Attika in the Seventh Century, Oxford University Press (1938). ^ a b Athenaion Politeia 6 ^ a b Plutarch, Solon 15.2. ^ a b Athenaion Politeia 12.4, quoting Solon. ^ Solon quoted in Athenaion Politeia 12.4. ^ Forrest G. The Oxford History of the Classical World ed. Griffin J. and Murray O. (Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 32. ^ Stanton, G. R. Athenian Politics c. 800–500 BC: A Sourcebook Routledge, London (1991), p. 57, n. 1. ^ Plutarch, Solon 20.6. ^ Grant, Michael. The Rise of the Greeks, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York 1988, p. 49. ^ Athenaion Politeia 9. ^ Plutarch, Solon 18.6. ^ Athenaion Politeia 8.5. ^ Stanton, G. R. Athenian Politics c. 800–500 BC: A Sourcebook Routledge, London (1991), p. 72, n. 17. ^ Plutarch, Solon 20.1. ^ Goldstein J. Historia, Vol. 21 (1972), pp. 538–545. ^ Develin R. Historia, Vol. 26 (1977), p. 507 f. ^ Demosthenes, On Organization. ^ Herodotus 1.29 (e.g. Campbell's translation 2707). ^ Athenaion Politeia 7.2. ^ Stanton, G. R. Athenian Politics c. 800–55 BC: A Sourcebook Routledge, London (1991), p. 84. ^ Plutarch, Solon 25.6. ^ Athenaion Politeia 13. ^ Plutarch, Solon 30. ^ Demosthenes 19 (On the Embassy) 254–55 ^ a b K. Hubbard, Homosexuality in Greece and Rome: a sourcebook of basic documents, Uni. California Press, 2003; p. 36 ^ A. Lardinois, Have we Solon's verses? and E. Stehle, Solon's self-reflexive political persona and its audience, in 'Solon of Athens: new historical and philological approaches', eds. J. Blok and A. Lardinois (Brill, Leiden 2006) ^ Susan Deacy, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World: Athena (2008) p. 77 ^ Forrest G., The Oxford History of the Classical World, ed. Boardman J., Griffin J. and Murray O., Oxford University Press (New York, 1995), p. 31 ^ Wilamowitz, Arist. u. Athen, ii 304, cited by Eduard Fraenkel, Horace, Oxford University Press (1957), p. 38 ^ Plutarch Solon 3.1–4 s:Lives (Dryden translation)/Solon#3 ^ Oxford Classical Dictionary (1964) Solon ^ David. A. Campbell, Greek Lyric Poetry, Bristol Classical Press 1982, Intro. xxix ^ Andrews A. Greek Society (Penguin 1981) 114 ^ Plutarch Solon 16 s:Lives (Dryden translation)/Solon#16 ^ Solon, quoted in Diogenes Laërtius 1.47 ^ a b Wilkins, John M. (2006). Food in the Ancient World. Blackwell. p. 128. ^ Fr. 4 ^ Rachel Adams, David Savran, The Masculinity Studies Reader; Blackwell, 2002; p. 74 ^ One Hundred Years of Homosexuality: And Other Essays on Greek Love, p.101 ^ Bernard Sergent, "Paederasty and Political Life in Archaic Greek Cities" in Gay Studies from the French Culture; Harrington Park Press, Binghamton, NY 1993; pp. 153–154 ^ Eros and Greek Athletics By Thomas Francis Scanlon, p.213 "So it is clear that Solon was responsible for institutionalizing pederasty to some extent at Athens in the early sixth century." ^ Aeschines, Against Timarchus 6, 25, 26 [3]; compare also Plutarch, Solon 1.3. ^ Kevin Robb, Literacy and Paideia in Ancient Greece, Ox. Uni. Press, 1994; p. 128, ^ P. J. Rhodes, The Reforms and Laws of Solon: an Optimistic View, in 'Solon of Athens: new historical and philological approaches', eds. J. Blok and A. Lardinois (Brill, Leiden 2006) ^ Kevin Robb, Literacy and Paideia in Ancient Greece, Ox. Uni. Press 1994; p. 128 (quoting F. E. Adcock) ^ Marilyn Skinner (2013). Sexuality in Greek and Roman Culture (Ancient Cultures), 2nd edition. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 139. ISBN 978-1-4443-4986-3. ^ Aristotle, The Athenian Constitution, 2.17 ^ Homosexuality & Civilization By Louis Crompton, p. 25 ^ Plutarch, The Lives "Solon" Tr. John Dryden s:Lives (Dryden translation)/Solon ^ Solon and Early Greek Poetry By Elizabeth Irwin p. 272 n. 24 ^ Ancient Greece By Matthew Dillon, Lynda Garland, p. 475 ^ Nick Fisher, Against Timarchos, Oxford University Press 2001, p. 37 A. Andrews, Greek Society, Penguin, 1967 J. Blok and A. Lardinois (eds), Solon of Athens: New Historical and Philological Approaches, Leiden, Brill, 2006 Buckley, T. Aspects of Greek History. London: Routledge, 1996. Cary, Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. III, Cambridge Uni. Press, 1925 Connor, The New Politicians of Fifth-Century Athens, Princeton, 1971 W. Connor et al. Aspects of Athenian Democracy, Copenhagen, Museum Tusculanam P., 1990 R. Develin, Historia, Vol. 26, 1977 Dillon, M and L Garland. Ancient Greece: Social and Historical Documents from Archaic Times to the Death of Alexander the Great. London: Routledge, 2010. V. Ehrenberg, From Solon to Socrates: Greek History and Civilization, Routledge, 1973 J. Ellis and G. Stanton, Phoenix, Vol. 22, 1968, 95–99 W.R. Everdell, The End of Kings: A History of Republics and Republicans, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000. G. Forrest, 'Greece: The History of the Archaic Period', in The Oxford History of the Classical World, ed. Boardman J., Griffin J. and Murray O., Oxford University Press, New York, 1995 Frost, 'Tribal Politics and the Civic State', AJAH, 1976 P. Garnsey, Famine and Food Supply in Graeco-Roman World, Cambridge Uni. Press, 1988 J. Goldstein, Historia, Vol. 21, 1972 M. Grant, The Rise of the Greeks. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1988 E. Harris, 'A New Solution to the Riddle of the Seisachtheia', in The Development of the Polis in Archaic Greece, eds. L. Mitchell and P. Rhodes, Routledge, 1997 C. Hignett, A History of the Athenian Constitution to the End of the Fifth Century B.C., Oxford University Press, 1952 K. Hubbard, Homosexuality in Greece and Rome: a sourcebook of basic documents, Uni. California Press, 2003 H. Innis, Empire and Communications, Rowman and Littlefield, 2007 G. Kirk, Historia, Vol. 26, 1977 D. Lewis, 'Cleisthenes and Attica', Historia, 12, 1963 M. Miller, Arethusa, Vol. 4, 1971 I. Morris, The Growth of City States in the First Millennium BC, Stanford, 2005 C. Mosse, 'Comment s'elabore un mythe politique: Solon', Annales, ESC XXXIV, 1979 M. Ostwald, From Popular Sovereignty to the Sovereignty of the Law: Law, Society and Politics in Fifth-Century Athens, Berkeley, 1986 P. Rhodes, A History of the Greek City States, Berkeley, 1976 P. Rhodes, A Commentary on the Aristotelian Athenian Politeia, Oxford University Press, 1981 K. Robb, Literacy and Paideia in Ancient Greece, Oxford University Press, 1994 B. Sealey, 'Regionalism in Archaic Athens', Historia, 9, 1960 G. R. Stanton, Athenian Politics c. 800–500 BC: A Sourcebook, London, Routledge, 1990 M. L. West (ed.), Iambi et elegi Graeci ante Alexandrum cantati2: Callinus. Mimnermus. Semonides. Solon. Tyrtaeus. Minora adespota, Oxford University Press: Clarendon Press, 1972, revised edition, 1992 W. Woodhouse, 'Solon the Liberator: A Study of the Agrarian Problem', in Attika in the Seventh Century, Oxford University Press, 1938 Collections of Solon's surviving verses[edit] Martin Litchfield West, Iambi et elegi Graeci ante Alexandrum cantati2 : Callinus. Mimnermus. Semonides. Solon. Tyrtaeus. Minora adespota,, Oxonii: e typographeo Clarendoniano 1972, revised edition 1992 x + 246 pp. T. Hudaon-Williams, Early Greek Elegy: Ekegiac Fragments of Callinus, Archilochus, Mimmermus, Tyrtaeus, Solon, Xenophanes, and Others, # Taylor and Francis (1926), ISBN 0-8240-7773-3. H. Miltner Fragmente / Solon, Vienna (1955) Christoph Mülke, Solons politische Elegien und Iamben : (Fr. 1–13, 32–37 West), Munich (2002), ISBN 3-598-77726-4. Noussia-Fantuzzi, Maria, Solon the Athenian, the Poetic Fragments. Brill (2010). Eberhard Preime, Dichtungen : Sämtliche Fragmente / Solon Munich (1940). Eberhard Ruschenbusch Nomoi : Die Fragmente d. Solon. Gesetzeswerkes, Wiesbaden : F. Steiner (1966). Kathleen Freeman, The Work and Life of Solon, with a translation of his poems, Cardiff, University of Wales Press Board 1926. OCLC 756460254 Further reading[edit] Hall, Jonathan. 2013. "The Rise of State Action in the Archaic Age." In A Companion to Ancient Greek Government. Edited by Hans Beck, 9–21. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. Lewis, John. 2006. Solon the Thinker: Political Thought in Archaic Athens. London: Duckworth. Owens, Ron. 2010. Solon of Athens: Poet, Philosopher, Soldier, Statesman. Brighton, UK: Sussex Academic. Schubert, Charlotte. 2012. Solon. Tübingen, Germany: Francke. Wallace, Robert W. 2009. "Charismatic Leaders." In A Companion to Archaic Greece. Edited by Kurt Raaflaub and Hans van Wees, 411–426. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. External links[edit] Library resources about Solon Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Solon Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Wikiquote has quotations related to: Solon Wikimedia Commons has media related to Solon. Works about Solon at Perseus Digital Library Plutarch, Parallel Lives, Solon  Laërtius, Diogenes (1925). "The Seven Sages: Solon" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. 1:1. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library. Poems of Solon Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Solon" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 25 (11th ed.). 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en-wikipedia-org-3549	----	Jerome - Wikipedia Jerome From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the priest and Bible translator. For other uses, see Jerome (disambiguation) and Saint Jerome (disambiguation). 4th and 5th-century Catholic priest, theologian, and saint Saint Jerome Saint Jerome in the Desert by Bernardino Pinturicchio (c. 1475–1480) Hermit and Doctor of the Church Born c. 342-347 Stridon (possibly Strido Dalmatiae, on the border of Dalmatia and Pannonia) (located in modern Croatia)[1] Died 30 September 420 (aged c. 73-78)[2] Bethlehem, Palaestina Prima Venerated in Catholic Church Eastern Orthodox Church Oriental Orthodoxy Anglican Communion Lutheranism Major shrine Basilica of Saint Mary Major, Rome, Italy Feast 30 September (Latin Catholic Church) Attributes lion, cardinal attire, cross, skull, trumpet, owl, books and writing material Patronage archaeologists; archivists; Bible scholars; librarians; libraries; school children; students; translators; Morong, Rizal Saint Jerome St Jerome in Penitence Education Catechetical School of Alexandria Occupation Translator, theologian and writer Notable work The Vulgate De viris illustribus Chronicon Theological work Language Latin and Greek language Tradition or movement Trinitarianism Main interests Apologetics Notable ideas Perpetual virginity of Mary Part of a series on Catholic philosophy   Aquinas, Scotus, and Ockham Ethics Cardinal virtues Just price Just war Probabilism Natural law Personalism Social teaching Virtue ethics Schools Augustinianism Cartesianism Molinism Occamism Salamanca Scholasticism Neo-scholasticism Scotism Thomism Philosophers Ancient Ambrose Athanasius the Great Augustine of Hippo Clement of Alexandria Cyprian of Carthage Cyril of Alexandria Gregory of Nyssa Irenaeus of Lyons Jerome John Chrysostom John of Damascus Justin Martyr Origen Paul the Apostle Tertullian Postclassical Pseudo-Dionysius Boethius Isidore of Seville Scotus Eriugena Bede Anselm of Canterbury Hildegard of Bingen Peter Abelard Symeon the New Theologian Bernard of Clairvaux Hugh of Saint Victor Thomas Aquinas Benedict of Nursia Pope Gregory I Peter Lombard Bonaventure Albertus Magnus Duns Scotus Roger Bacon Giles of Rome James of Viterbo Giambattista Vico Gregory of Rimini William of Ockham Catherine of Siena Paul of Venice Modern Baltasar Gracián Erasmus of Rotterdam Thomas Cajetan Nicholas of Cusa Luis de Molina Teresa of Ávila Thomas More Francis de Sales Francisco de Vitoria Domingo de Soto Martín de Azpilcueta Tomás de Mercado Antoine Arnauld René Descartes Robert Bellarmine Ignacy Krasicki Hugo Kołłątaj François Fénelon Alphonsus Liguori Nicolas Malebranche Blaise Pascal Francisco Suárez Giovanni Botero Felicité de Lamennais Antonio Rosmini John Henry Newman Contemporary Pope Benedict XVI Pope John Paul II G. E. M. Anscombe Hans Urs von Balthasar Maurice Blondel G. K. Chesterton Yves Congar Henri de Lubac John Finnis Reginald Garrigou-Lagrange Étienne Gilson René Girard Nicolás Gómez Dávila Romano Guardini John Haldane Dietrich von Hildebrand Bernard Lonergan Marshall McLuhan Alasdair MacIntyre Gabriel Marcel Jean-Luc Marion Jacques Maritain Emmanuel Mounier Josef Pieper Karl Rahner Edith Stein Charles Taylor  Catholicism portal  Philosophy portal v t e Jerome (/dʒəˈroʊm/; Latin: Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus; Greek: Εὐσέβιος Σωφρόνιος Ἱερώνυμος; c. 342-347 – 30 September 420), also known as Jerome of Stridon, was a Latin priest, confessor, theologian, and historian; he is commonly known as Saint Jerome. Jerome was born at Stridon, a village near Emona on the border of Dalmatia and Pannonia.[3][4][5] He is best known for his translation of most of the Bible into Latin (the translation that became known as the Vulgate) and his commentaries on the Gospels. His list of writings is extensive.[6] The protégé of Pope Damasus I who died in December of 384, Jerome was known for his teachings on Christian moral life, especially to those living in cosmopolitan centers such as Rome. In many cases, he focused his attention on the lives of women and identified how a woman devoted to Jesus should live her life. This focus stemmed from his close patron relationships with several prominent female ascetics who were members of affluent senatorial families.[7] Jerome is recognised as a saint and Doctor of the Church by the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Lutheran Church, and the Anglican Communion.[8] His feast day is 30 September. Contents 1 Life 2 Conversion to Christianity 3 After Rome 4 Death 5 Translation of the Bible (382–405) 6 Commentaries (405–420) 7 Historical and hagiographic writings 7.1 Description of vitamin A deficiency 8 Letters 9 Theological writings 9.1 Eschatology 10 Reception by later Christianity 11 In art 12 See also 13 References 13.1 Bibliography 14 Further reading 15 External links 15.1 Latin texts 15.1.1 Facsimiles 15.2 English translations Life[edit] Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus was born at Stridon around 342-347 AD.[9] He was of Illyrian ancestry,[10] although whether he was able to speak the Illyrian languages is a subject of controversy. He was not baptized until about 360–369 in Rome, where he had gone with his friend Bonosus of Sardica to pursue rhetorical and philosophical studies. (This Bosonus may or may not have been the same Bonosus whom Jerome identifies as his friend who went to live as a hermit on an island in the Adriatic.) Jerome studied under the grammarian Aelius Donatus. There he learned Latin and at least some Greek,[11] though he probably did not yet acquire the familiarity with Greek literature that he later claimed to have acquired as a schoolboy.[12] As a student, Jerome engaged in the superficial escapades and sexual experimentation of students in Rome; he indulged himself quite casually but he suffered terrible bouts of guilt afterwards.[13][better source needed] To appease his conscience, on Sundays he visited the sepulchers of the martyrs and the Apostles in the catacombs. This experience reminded him of the terrors of hell: Often I would find myself entering those crypts, deep dug in the earth, with their walls on either side lined with the bodies of the dead, where everything was so dark that almost it seemed as though the Psalmist's words were fulfilled, Let them go down quick into Hell.[14] Here and there the light, not entering in through windows, but filtering down from above through shafts, relieved the horror of the darkness. But again, as soon as you found yourself cautiously moving forward, the black night closed around and there came to my mind the line of Virgil, "Horror ubique animos, simul ipsa silentia terrent".[15][16] St. Jerome in His Study (1480), by Domenico Ghirlandaio. His quote from Virgil reads: "On all sides round horror spread wide; the very silence breathed a terror on my soul"[17]—to describe the horror of hell. He initially used classical authors to describe Christian concepts such as hell that indicated both his classical education and his deep shame of their associated practices, such as the pederasty then found in Rome.[citation needed] Conversion to Christianity[edit] St Jerome in the Nuremberg Chronicle Although initially skeptical of Christianity, he eventually converted.[18] After several years in Rome, he travelled with Bonosus to Gaul and settled in Trier where he seems to have first taken up theological studies, and where, for his friend Tyrannius Rufinus, he copied Hilary of Poitiers' commentary on the Psalms and the treatise De synodis. Next came a stay of at least several months, or possibly years, with Rufinus at Aquileia, where he made many Christian friends. Some of these accompanied Jerome when in about 373 he set out on a journey through Thrace and Asia Minor into northern Syria. At Antioch, where he stayed the longest, two of his companions died and he himself was seriously ill more than once. During one of these illnesses (about the winter of 373–374), he had a vision that led him to lay aside his secular studies and devote himself to God. He seems to have abstained for a considerable time from the study of the classics and to have plunged deeply into study of the Bible, under the impulse of Apollinaris of Laodicea, then teaching in Antioch and not yet suspected of heresy. St. Jerome in the Desert, by Giovanni Bellini (1505) Seized with a desire for a life of ascetic penance, Jerome went for a time to the desert of Chalcis, to the southeast of Antioch, known as the "Syrian Thebaid" from the number of eremites inhabiting it. During this period, he seems to have found time for studying and writing. He made his first attempt to learn Hebrew under the guidance of a converted Jew; and he seems to have been in correspondence with Jewish Christians in Antioch. Around this time he had copied for him a Hebrew Gospel, of which fragments are preserved in his notes. It is known today as the Gospel of the Hebrews which the Nazarenes considered to be the true Gospel of Matthew.[19] Jerome translated parts of this Hebrew Gospel into Greek.[20] Returning to Antioch in 378 or 379, Jerome was ordained there by Bishop Paulinus, apparently unwillingly and on condition that he continue his ascetic life. Soon afterward, he went to Constantinople to pursue a study of Scripture under Gregory Nazianzen. He seems to have spent two years there, then left, and for the next three (382–385) he was in Rome again, as secretary to Pope Damasus I and the leading Roman Christians. Invited originally for the synod of 382, held to end the schism of Antioch as there were rival claimants to be the proper patriarch in Antioch. Jerome had accompanied one of the claimants, Paulinus, back to Rome to get more support for him; Jerome distinguished himself before the pope and assumed a prominent place in his papal councils. Jerome was given duties in Rome, and he undertook a revision of the Latin Bible based on the Greek manuscripts of the New Testament. He also updated the Psalter containing the Book of Psalms then in use in Rome, based on the Septuagint. Though he did not realize it yet, translating much of what became the Latin Vulgate Bible would take many years and be his most important achievement (see Writings – Translations section below). Saint Jerome in His Study, 1451, by Antonio da Fabriano II, shows writing implements, scrolls, and manuscripts testifying to Jerome's scholarly pursuits.[21] The Walters Art Museum. In Rome, Jerome was surrounded by a circle of well-born and well-educated women, including some from the noblest patrician families, such as the widows Lea, Marcella and Paula, with Paula's daughters Blaesilla and Eustochium. The resulting inclination of these women towards the monastic life, away from the indulgent lasciviousness in Rome, and his unsparing criticism of the secular clergy of Rome, brought a growing hostility against him among the Roman clergy and their supporters. Soon after the death of his patron Pope Damasus I on 10 December 384, Jerome was forced to leave his position at Rome after an inquiry was brought up by the Roman clergy into allegations that he had an improper relationship with the widow Paula. Still, his writings were highly regarded by women who were attempting to maintain a vow of becoming a consecrated virgin. His letters were widely read and distributed throughout the Christian empire and it is clear through his writing that he knew these virgin women were not his only audience.[7] Additionally, Jerome's condemnation of Blaesilla's hedonistic lifestyle in Rome had led her to adopt ascetic practices, but it affected her health and worsened her physical weakness to the point that she died just four months after starting to follow his instructions; much of the Roman populace were outraged at Jerome for causing the premature death of such a lively young woman, and his insistence to Paula that Blaesilla should not be mourned, and complaints that her grief was excessive, were seen as heartless, polarising Roman opinion against him.[22] After Rome[edit] In August 385, Jerome left Rome for good and returned to Antioch, accompanied by his brother Paulinian and several friends, and followed a little later by Paula and Eustochium who had resolved to end their days in the Holy Land. In the winter of 385, Jerome acted as their spiritual adviser. The pilgrims, joined by Bishop Paulinus of Antioch, visited Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and the holy places of Galilee, and then went to Egypt, the home of the great heroes of the ascetic life. At the Catechetical School of Alexandria, Jerome listened to the catechist Didymus the Blind expounding the prophet Hosea and telling his reminiscences of Anthony the Great, who had died 30 years before. Jerome spent some time in Nitria, admiring the disciplined community life of the numerous inhabitants of that "city of the Lord", but detecting even there "concealed serpents", i.e., the influence of Origen of Alexandria. Late in the summer of 388 he was back in Palestine, and spent the remainder of his life working in a cave near Bethlehem, the very cave where Jesus was born,[23] surrounded by a few friends, both men and women (including Paula and Eustochium), to whom he acted as priestly guide and teacher. Saint Jerome in His Study, by Niccolò Antonio Colantonio c. 1445–46, depicts Jerome's removal of a thorn from a lion's paw. Amply provided for by Paula with the means of livelihood and for increasing his collection of books, Jerome led a life of incessant activity in literary production. To these last 34 years of his career belong the most important of his works; his version of the Old Testament from the original Hebrew text, the best of his scriptural commentaries; his catalogue of Christian authors; and the dialogue against the Pelagians, the literary perfection of which even an opponent recognized.[citation needed] To this period also belong most of his polemics, which distinguished him among the orthodox Fathers, including the treatises against the Origenism later declared anathema, of Bishop John II of Jerusalem and his early friend Rufinus. Later, as a result of his writings against Pelagianism, a body of excited partisans broke into the monastic buildings, set them on fire, attacked the inmates and killed a deacon, forcing Jerome to seek safety in a neighboring fortress in 416. Death[edit] It is recorded that Jerome died near Bethlehem on 30 September 420. The date of his death is given by the Chronicon of Prosper of Aquitaine. His remains, originally buried at Bethlehem, are said to have been later transferred to the basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome, though other places in the West claim some relics, the cathedral at Nepi boasting possession of his head, which, according to another tradition, is in the Escorial.[citation needed] Translation of the Bible (382–405)[edit] Saint Jerome Writing, by Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, 1607, at St John's Co-Cathedral, Valletta, Malta Jerome was a scholar at a time when that statement implied a fluency in Greek. He knew some Hebrew when he started his translation project, but moved to Jerusalem to strengthen his grip on Jewish scripture commentary. A wealthy Roman aristocrat, Paula, funded his stay in a monastery in Bethlehem and he completed his translation there. He began in 382 by correcting the existing Latin-language version of the New Testament, commonly referred to as the Vetus Latina. By 390 he turned to translating the Hebrew Bible from the original Hebrew, having previously translated portions from the Septuagint which came from Alexandria. He believed that the mainstream Rabbinical Judaism had rejected the Septuagint as invalid Jewish scriptural texts because of what were ascertained as mistranslations along with its Hellenistic heretical elements.[24] He completed this work by 405. Prior to Jerome's Vulgate, all Latin translations of the Old Testament were based on the Septuagint, not the Hebrew. Jerome's decision to use a Hebrew text instead of the previous-translated Septuagint went against the advice of most other Christians, including Augustine, who thought the Septuagint inspired. Modern scholarship, however, has sometimes cast doubts on the actual quality of Jerome's Hebrew knowledge. Many modern scholars believe that the Greek Hexapla is the main source for Jerome's "iuxta Hebraeos" (i.e. "close to the Hebrews", "immediately following the Hebrews") translation of the Old Testament.[25] However, detailed studies have shown that to a considerable degree Jerome was a competent Hebraist.[26] Commentaries (405–420)[edit] Saint Jerome, unknown Southern Dutch artist, 1520, Hamburger Kunsthalle For the next 15 years, until he died, Jerome produced a number of commentaries on Scripture, often explaining his translation choices in using the original Hebrew rather than suspect translations. His patristic commentaries align closely with Jewish tradition, and he indulges in allegorical and mystical subtleties after the manner of Philo and the Alexandrian school. Unlike his contemporaries, he emphasizes the difference between the Hebrew Bible "Apocrypha" and the Hebraica veritas of the protocanonical books. In his Vulgate's prologues, he describes some portions of books in the Septuagint that were not found in the Hebrew as being non-canonical (he called them apocrypha);[27] for Baruch, he mentions by name in his Prologue to Jeremiah and notes that it is neither read nor held among the Hebrews, but does not explicitly call it apocryphal or "not in the canon".[28] His Preface to The Books of Samuel and Kings[29] includes the following statement, commonly called the Helmeted Preface: This preface to the Scriptures may serve as a "helmeted" introduction to all the books which we turn from Hebrew into Latin, so that we may be assured that what is not found in our list must be placed amongst the Apocryphal writings. Wisdom, therefore, which generally bears the name of Solomon, and the book of Jesus, the Son of Sirach, and Judith, and Tobias, and the Shepherd are not in the canon. The first book of Maccabees I have found to be Hebrew, the second is Greek, as can be proved from the very style. Although Jerome was once suspicious of the Apocrypha, it is said that he later viewed them as Scripture. For example, in Jerome's letter to Eustochium he quotes Sirach 13:2;[30] elsewhere Jerome also refers to Baruch, the Story of Susannah and Wisdom as scripture.[31][32][33] Jerome in the desert, tormented by his memories of the dancing girls, by Francisco de Zurbarán, 1639, Monastery of Santa María de Guadalupe Jerome's commentaries fall into three groups: His translations or recastings of Greek predecessors, including fourteen homilies on the Book of Jeremiah and the same number on the Book of Ezekiel by Origen (translated c. 380 in Constantinople); two homilies of Origen of Alexandria on the Song of Solomon (in Rome, c. 383); and thirty-nine on the Gospel of Luke (c. 389, in Bethlehem). The nine homilies of Origen on the Book of Isaiah included among his works were not done by him. Here should be mentioned, as an important contribution to the topography of Palestine, his book De situ et nominibus locorum Hebraeorum, a translation with additions and some regrettable omissions of the Onomasticon of Eusebius. To the same period (c. 390) belongs the Liber interpretationis nominum Hebraicorum, based on a work supposed to go back to Philo and expanded by Origen. Original commentaries on the Old Testament. To the period before his settlement at Bethlehem and the following five years belong a series of short, Old Testament studies: De seraphim, De voce Osanna, De tribus quaestionibus veteris legis (usually included among the letters as 18, 20, and 36); Quaestiones hebraicae in Genesim; Commentarius in Ecclesiasten; Tractatus septem in Psalmos 10–16 (lost); Explanationes in Michaeam, Sophoniam, Nahum, Habacuc, Aggaeum. After 395 he composed a series of longer commentaries, though in rather a desultory fashion: first on Jonah and Obadiah (396), then on Isaiah (c. 395 – c. 400), on Zechariah, Malachi, Hoseah, Joel, Amos (from 406), on the Book of Daniel (c. 407), on Ezekiel (between 410 and 415), and on Jeremiah (after 415, left unfinished). New Testament commentaries. These include only Philemon, Galatians, Ephesians, and Titus (hastily composed 387–388); Matthew (dictated in a fortnight, 398); Mark, selected passages in Luke, Revelation, and the prologue to the Gospel of John. Historical and hagiographic writings[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) In the Middle Ages, Jerome was often ahistorically depicted as a cardinal. Jerome is also known as a historian. One of his earliest historical works was his Chronicon, composed c. 380 in Constantinople; this is a translation into Latin of the chronological tables which compose the second part of the Chronicon of Eusebius, with a supplement covering the period from 325 to 379. Despite numerous errors taken over from Eusebius, and some of his own, Jerome produced a valuable work, if only for the impulse which it gave to such later chroniclers as Prosper, Cassiodorus, and Victor of Tunnuna to continue his annals. Of considerable importance as well is the De viris illustribus, which was written at Bethlehem in 392, the title and arrangement of which are borrowed from Suetonius. It contains short biographical and literary notes on 135 Christian authors, from Saint Peter down to Jerome himself. For the first seventy-eight authors Eusebius (Historia ecclesiastica) is the main source; in the second section, beginning with Arnobius and Lactantius, he includes a good deal of independent information, especially as to Western writers. Four works of a hagiographic nature are: the Vita Pauli monachi, written during his first sojourn at Antioch (c. 376), the legendary material of which is derived from Egyptian monastic tradition; the Vitae Patrum (Vita Pauli primi eremitae), a biography of Saint Paul of Thebes; the Vita Malchi monachi captivi (c. 391), probably based on an earlier work, although it purports to be derived from the oral communications of the aged ascetic Malchus of Syria originally made to him in the desert of Chalcis; the Vita Hilarionis, of the same date, containing more trustworthy historical matter than the other two, and based partly on the biography of Epiphanius and partly on oral tradition. The so-called Martyrologium Hieronymianum is spurious; it was apparently composed by a Western monk toward the end of the 6th or beginning of the 7th century, with reference to an expression of Jerome's in the opening chapter of the Vita Malchi, where he speaks of intending to write a history of the saints and martyrs from the apostolic times. Description of vitamin A deficiency[edit] The following passage, taken from Saint Jerome's "Life of St. Hilarion" which was written about A.D. 392, appears to be the earliest account of the etiology, symptoms and cure of severe vitamin A deficiency:[34] From his thirty-first to his thirty-fifth year he had for food six ounces of barley bread, and vegetables slightly cooked without oil. But finding that his eyes were growing dim, and that his whole body was shrivelled with an eruption and a sort of stony roughness (impetigine et pumicea quad scabredine) he added oil to his former food, and up to the sixty-third year of his life followed this temperate course, tasting neither fruit nor pulse, nor anything whatsoever besides.[34] Letters[edit] Saint Jerome by Matthias Stom, 1635 Jerome's letters or epistles, both by the great variety of their subjects and by their qualities of style, form an important portion of his literary remains. Whether he is discussing problems of scholarship, or reasoning on cases of conscience, comforting the afflicted, or saying pleasant things to his friends, scourging the vices and corruptions of the time and against sexual immorality among the clergy,[35] exhorting to the ascetic life and renunciation of the world, or breaking a lance with his theological opponents, he gives a vivid picture not only of his own mind, but of the age and its peculiar characteristics. Because there was no distinct line between personal documents and those meant for publication, we frequently find in his letters both confidential messages and treatises meant for others besides the one to whom he was writing.[36] Due to the time he spent in Rome among wealthy families belonging to the Roman upper-class, Jerome was frequently commissioned by women who had taken a vow of virginity to write to them in guidance of how to live their life. As a result, he spent a great deal of his life corresponding with these women about certain abstentions and lifestyle practices.[7] These included the clothing she should wear, the interactions she should undertake and how to go about conducting herself during such interactions, and what and how she ate and drank. The letters most frequently reprinted or referred to are of a hortatory nature, such as Ep. 14, Ad Heliodorum de laude vitae solitariae; Ep. 22, Ad Eustochium de custodia virginitatis; Ep. 52, Ad Nepotianum de vita clericorum et monachorum, a sort of epitome of pastoral theology from the ascetic standpoint; Ep. 53, Ad Paulinum de studio scripturarum; Ep. 57, to the same, De institutione monachi; Ep. 70, Ad Magnum de scriptoribus ecclesiasticis; and Ep. 107, Ad Laetam de institutione filiae. Francesco St Jerome by Jacopo Palma il Giovane, c. 1595 Theological writings[edit] The Virgin and Child with Saints Jerome and Nicholas of Tolentino by Lorenzo Lotto, 1522 Practically all of Jerome's productions in the field of dogma have a more or less vehemently polemical character, and are directed against assailants of the orthodox doctrines. Even the translation of the treatise of Didymus the Blind on the Holy Spirit into Latin (begun in Rome 384, completed at Bethlehem) shows an apologetic tendency against the Arians and Pneumatomachoi. The same is true of his version of Origen's De principiis (c. 399), intended to supersede the inaccurate translation by Rufinus. The more strictly polemical writings cover every period of his life. During the sojourns at Antioch and Constantinople he was mainly occupied with the Arian controversy, and especially with the schisms centering around Meletius of Antioch and Lucifer Calaritanus. Two letters to Pope Damasus (15 and 16) complain of the conduct of both parties at Antioch, the Meletians and Paulinians, who had tried to draw him into their controversy over the application of the terms ousia and hypostasis to the Trinity. At the same time or a little later (379) he composed his Liber Contra Luciferianos, in which he cleverly uses the dialogue form to combat the tenets of that faction, particularly their rejection of baptism by heretics. In Rome (c. 383) Jerome wrote a passionate counterblast against the teaching of Helvidius, in defense of the doctrine of the perpetual virginity of Mary and of the superiority of the single over the married state. An opponent of a somewhat similar nature was Jovinianus, with whom he came into conflict in 392 (Adversus Jovinianum, Against Jovinianus) and the defense of this work addressed to his friend Pammachius, numbered 48 in the letters. Once more he defended the ordinary practices of piety and his own ascetic ethics in 406 against the Gallic presbyter Vigilantius, who opposed the cultus of martyrs and relics, the vow of poverty, and clerical celibacy. Meanwhile, the controversy with John II of Jerusalem and Rufinus concerning the orthodoxy of Origen occurred. To this period belong some of his most passionate and most comprehensive polemical works: the Contra Joannem Hierosolymitanum (398 or 399); the two closely connected Apologiae contra Rufinum (402); and the "last word" written a few months later, the Liber tertius seuten ultima responsio adversus scripta Rufini. The last of his polemical works is the skilfully composed Dialogus contra Pelagianos (415). Eschatology[edit] Jerome in his study, made by the Flemish drawer de Bry.[37] Jerome warned that those substituting false interpretations for the actual meaning of Scripture belonged to the "synagogue of the Antichrist".[38] "He that is not of Christ is of Antichrist," he wrote to Pope Damasus I.[39] He believed that "the mystery of iniquity" written about by Paul in 2 Thessalonians 2:7 was already in action when "every one chatters about his views."[40] To Jerome, the power restraining this mystery of iniquity was the Roman Empire, but as it fell this restraining force was removed. He warned a noble woman of Gaul: He that letteth is taken out of the way, and yet we do not realize that Antichrist is near. Yes, Antichrist is near whom the Lord Jesus Christ "shall consume with the spirit of his mouth." "Woe unto them," he cries, "that are with child, and to them that give suck in those days."... Savage tribes in countless numbers have overrun run all parts of Gaul. The whole country between the Alps and the Pyrenees, between the Rhine and the Ocean, has been laid waste by hordes of Quadi, Vandals, Sarmatians, Alans, Gepids, Herules, Saxons, Burgundians, Allemanni, and—alas! for the commonweal!—even Pannonians.[41] His Commentary on Daniel was expressly written to offset the criticisms of Porphyry,[42] who taught that Daniel related entirely to the time of Antiochus IV Epiphanes and was written by an unknown individual living in the second century BC. Against Porphyry, Jerome identified Rome as the fourth kingdom of chapters two and seven, but his view of chapters eight and 11 was more complex. Jerome held that chapter eight describes the activity of Antiochus Epiphanes, who is understood as a "type" of a future antichrist; 11:24 onwards applies primarily to a future antichrist but was partially fulfilled by Antiochus. Instead, he advocated that the "little horn" was the Antichrist: We should therefore concur with the traditional interpretation of all the commentators of the Christian Church, that at the end of the world, when the Roman Empire is to be destroyed, there shall be ten kings who will partition the Roman world amongst themselves. Then an insignificant eleventh king will arise, who will overcome three of the ten kings. ...After they have been slain, the seven other kings also will bow their necks to the victor.[43] In his Commentary on Daniel, he noted, "Let us not follow the opinion of some commentators and suppose him to be either the Devil or some demon, but rather, one of the human race, in whom Satan will wholly take up his residence in bodily form."[43] Instead of rebuilding the Jewish Temple to reign from, Jerome thought the Antichrist sat in God's Temple inasmuch as he made "himself out to be like God."[43] Jerome identified the four prophetic kingdoms symbolized in Daniel 2 as the Neo-Babylonian Empire, the Medes and Persians, Macedon, and Rome.[44] Jerome identified the stone cut out without hands as "namely, the Lord and Savior".[45] Jerome refuted Porphyry's application of the little horn of chapter seven to Antiochus. He expected that at the end of the world, Rome would be destroyed, and partitioned among ten kingdoms before the little horn appeared.[46] Jerome believed that Cyrus of Persia is the higher of the two horns of the Medo-Persian ram of Daniel 8:3.[43] The he-goat is Greece smiting Persia.[47] Alexander is the great horn, which is then succeeded by Alexander's half brother Philip and three of his generals. Reception by later Christianity[edit] Statue of Saint Jerome (Hieronymus) – Bethlehem, Palestine Authority, West Bank Jerome is the second most voluminous writer (after Augustine of Hippo) in ancient Latin Christianity. In the Catholic Church, he is recognized as the patron saint of translators, librarians and encyclopedists.[48] He acquired a knowledge of Hebrew by studying with a Jew who converted to Christianity. Against the traditional view at the time, he maintained that the Hebrew, not the Septuagint, was the inspired text of the Old Testament. Over a period of fifteen years at the request of Pope Damasus, he made a translation from the Hebrew into Latin that eventually superseded the preceding Latin translations and became known as the Vulgate. In the Council of Trent, it was declared authoritative "in public lectures, disputations, sermons and expositions".[49][50] Jerome showed more zeal and interest in the ascetic ideal than in abstract speculation. He lived as an ascetic for four or five years in the Syrian desert and later, for 34 years, near Bethlehem. Nevertheless, his writings show outstanding scholarship and his correspondence is historically of great importance.[51] It was Jerome's strict asceticism that made Martin Luther judge him so severely. In fact, Protestant readers are not generally inclined to accept his writings as authoritative. The tendency to recognize a superior comes out in his correspondence with Augustine (cf. Jerome's letters numbered 56, 67, 102–105, 110–112, 115–116; and 28, 39, 40, 67–68, 71–75, 81–82 in Augustine's).[citation needed] In art[edit] In art, Jerome is often represented as one of the four Latin doctors of the Church along with Augustine of Hippo, Ambrose, and Pope Gregory I. As a prominent member of the Roman clergy, he has often been portrayed anachronistically in the garb of a cardinal. Even when he is depicted as a half-clad anchorite, with cross, skull and Bible for the only furniture of his cell, the red hat or some other indication of his rank as cardinal is as a rule introduced somewhere in the picture. During Jerome's life, cardinals did not exist. However, by the time of the Renaissance and the Baroque it was common practice for a secretary to the pope to be a cardinal (as Jerome had effectively been to Damasus), and so this was reflected in artistic interpretations. Jerome is also often depicted with a lion, in reference to the popular hagiographical belief that Jerome had tamed a lion in the wilderness by healing its paw. The source for the story may actually have been the second century Roman tale of Androcles, or confusion with the exploits of Saint Gerasimus (Jerome in later Latin is "Geronimus").[52][53][54] Hagiographies of Jerome talk of his having spent many years in the Syrian desert, and artists often depict him in a "wilderness", which for West European painters can take the form of a wood.[55] From the late Middle Ages, depictions of Jerome in a wider setting became popular. He is either shown in his study, surrounded by books and the equipment of a scholar, or in a rocky desert, or in a setting that combines both themes, with him studying a book under the shelter of a rock-face or cave mouth. His attribute of the lion, often shown at a smaller scale, may be beside him in either setting. Jerome is often depicted in connection with the vanitas motif, the reflection on the meaninglessness of earthly life and the transient nature of all earthly goods and pursuits. In the 16th century Saint Jerome in his study by Pieter Coecke van Aelst and workshop, the saint is depicted with a skull. Behind him on the wall is pinned an admonition, Cogita Mori ("Think upon death"). Further reminders of the vanitas motif of the passage of time and the imminence of death are the image of the Last Judgment visible in the saint's Bible, the candle and the hourglass.[56] Jerome is also sometimes depicted with an owl, the symbol of wisdom and scholarship.[57] Writing materials and the trumpet of final judgment are also part of his iconography.[57] He is commemorated on 30 September with a memorial. Saint Jerome in his study, c. 1530 by Pieter Coecke van Aelst and Workshop, Walters Art Museum Saint Jerome and the Paulines painted by Gabriel Thaller in the St. Jerome Church in Štrigova, Međimurje County, northern Croatia (18th century) Saint Jerome by Simon Vouet c. 1620 Saint Jerome c. 1520 Netherlandish stained glass window at MET. See also[edit] Saints portal Christianity portal Bible translations Church Fathers Ferdinand Cavallera Genesius of Arles International Translation Day Letter of Jerome to Pope Damasus Order of St. Jerome Saint Jerome, patron saint archive References[edit] ^ The Encyclopedia of Christian Literature, Volume 2. Scarecrow Press. 2010. ISBN 9780810872837. Jerome ("Hieronymus" in Latin), was born into a Christian family in Stridon, modern-day Strigova in northern Croatia. ^ "St. Jerome (Christian scholar)". Britannica Encyclopedia. 2 February 2017. Archived from the original on 24 March 2017. Retrieved 23 March 2017. ^ Scheck, Thomas P. (December 2008). Commentary on Matthew (The Fathers of the Church, Volume 117). p. 5. ISBN 9780813201177. Archived from the original on 5 February 2016. Retrieved 3 June 2015. "" ^ Maisie Ward, Saint Jerome, Sheed & Ward, London 1950, p. 7 "It may be taken as certain that Jerome was an Italian, coming from that wedge of Italy which seems on the old maps to be driven between Dalmatia and Pannonia." ^ Tom Streeter, The Church and Western Culture: An Introduction to Church History, AuthorHouse 2006, p. 102 "Jerome was born around 340 AD at Stridon, a town in northeast Italy at the head of the Adriatic Ocean." ^ Schaff, Philip, ed. (1893). A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church. 2nd series. VI. Henry Wace. New York: The Christian Literature Company. Archived from the original on 11 July 2014. Retrieved 7 June 2010. ^ a b c Megan Hale Williams, The Monk and the Book: Jerome and the Making of Christian Scholarship, (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2006) ^ In the Eastern Orthodox Church he is known as Saint Jerome of Stridonium or Blessed Jerome. Though "Blessed" in this context does not have the sense of being less than a saint, as in the West. ^ Williams, Megan Hale (2006), The Monk and the Book: Jerome and the making of Christian Scholarship, Chicago ^ Pevarello, Daniele (2013). The Sentences of Sextus and the origins of Christian ascetiscism. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck. p. 1. ISBN 978-3-16-152579-7. Archived from the original on 5 February 2016. Retrieved 11 December 2015. ^ Walsh, Michael, ed. (1992), Butler's Lives of the Saints, New York: HarperCollins, p. 307 ^ Kelly, JND (1975), Jerome: His Life, Writings, and Controversies, New York: Harper & Row, pp. 13–14 ^ Payne, Robert (1951), The Fathers of the Western Church, New York: Viking Press, pp. 90–92 ^ Psalm 55:15 ^ Jerome, Commentarius in Ezzechielem, c. 40, v. 5 ^ Patrologia Latina 25, 373: Crebroque cryptas ingredi, quae in terrarum profunda defossae, ex utraque parte ingredientium per parietes habent corpora sepultorum, et ita obscura sunt omnia, ut propemodum illud propheticum compleatur: Descendant ad infernum viventes (Ps. LIV,16): et raro desuper lumen admissum, horrorem temperet tenebrarum, ut non-tam fenestram, quam foramen demissi luminis putes: rursumque pedetentim acceditur, et caeca nocte circumdatis illud Virgilianum proponitur (Aeneid. lib. II): "Horror ubique animos, simul ipsa silentia terrent." ^ P. Vergilius Maro, Aeneid Theodore C. Williams, Ed. Perseus Project Archived 11 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine (retrieved 23 August 2013) ^ Payne, Robert (1951), The Fathers of the Western Church, New York: Viking, p. 91 ^ Rebenich, Stefan (2002), Jerome, p. 211, Further, he began to study Hebrew: 'I betook myself to a brother who before his conversion had been a Hebrew and...' ^ Pritz, Ray (1988), Nazarene Jewish Christianity: from the end of the New Testament, p. 50, In his accounts of his desert sojourn, Jerome never mentions leaving Chalcis, and there is no pressing reason to think... ^ "Saint Jerome in His Study". The Walters Art Museum. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 18 September 2012. ^ Joyce E. Salisbury, Encyclopedia of women in the ancient world, Blaesilla ^ Bennett, Rod (2015). The Apostasy That Wasn't: The Extraordinary Story of the Unbreakable Early Church. Catholic Answers Press. ISBN 978-1-941663-49-3. ^ "(...) die griechische Bibelübersetzung, die einem innerjüdischen Bedürfnis entsprang (...) [von den] Rabbinen zuerst gerühmt (...) Später jedoch, als manche ungenaue Übertragung des hebräischen Textes in der Septuaginta und Übersetzungsfehler die Grundlage für hellenistische Irrlehren abgaben, lehte man die Septuaginta ab." Verband der Deutschen Juden (Hrsg.), neu hrsg. von Walter Homolka, Walter Jacob, Tovia Ben Chorin: Die Lehren des Judentums nach den Quellen; München, Knesebeck, 1999, Bd.3, S. 43ff ^ Pierre Nautin, article Hieronymus, in: Theologische Realenzyklopädie, Vol. 15, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin-New York 1986, p. 304-315, here p. 309-310. ^ Michael Graves, Jerome's Hebrew Philology: A Study Based on his Commentary on Jeremiah, Brill, 2007: 196–198. Page 197: "In his discussion he gives clear evidence of having consulted the Hebrew himself, providing details about the Hebrew that could not have been learned from the Greek translations." ^ "The Bible". Archived from the original on 13 January 2016. Retrieved 14 December 2015. ^ Edgecomb, Kevin P., Jerome's Prologue to Jeremiah, archived from the original on 31 December 2013, retrieved 14 December 2015 ^ "Jerome's Preface to Samuel and Kings". Archived from the original on 2 December 2015. Retrieved 14 December 2015. ^ Barber, Michael (6 March 2006). "Loose Canons: The Development of the Old Testament (Part 2)". Archived from the original on 7 December 2009. Retrieved 1 August 2007. ^ Jerome, To Paulinus, Epistle 58 (A.D. 395), in NPNF2, VI:119.: "Do not, my dearest brother, estimate my worth by the number of my years. Gray hairs are not wisdom; it is wisdom which is as good as gray hairs at least that is what Solomon says: 'wisdom is the gray hair unto men' [Wisdom 4:9]. Moses too in choosing the seventy elders is told to take those whom he knows to be elders indeed, and to select them not for their years but for their discretion [Num. 11:16]? And, as a boy, Daniel judges old men and in the flower of youth condemns the incontinence of age [Daniel 13:55–59 aka Story of Susannah 55–59]." ^ Jerome, To Oceanus, Epistle 77:4 (A.D. 399), in NPNF2, VI:159.:"I would cite the words of the psalmist: 'the sacrifices of God are a broken spirit,’ [Ps 51:17] and those of Ezekiel 'I prefer the repentance of a sinner rather than his death,’ [Ez 18:23] and those of Baruch, 'Arise, arise, O Jerusalem,’ [Baruch 5:5] and many other proclamations made by the trumpets of the Prophets." ^ Jerome, Letter 51, 6, 7, NPNF2, VI:87-8: "For in the book of Wisdom, which is inscribed with his name, Solomon says: 'God created man to be immortal and made him be an image of his own eternity.'[Wisdom 2:23]...Instead of the three proofs from Holy Scripture which you said would satisfy you if I could produce them, behold I have given you seven" ^ a b Taylor, F. Sherwood (23 December 1944). "St. Jerome and Vitamin A". Nature. 154 (3921): 802. Bibcode:1944Natur.154Q.802T. doi:10.1038/154802a0. S2CID 4097517. ^ "regulae sancti pachomii 84 rule 104. ^ W. H. Fremantle, "Prolegomena to Jerome", V. ^ "Hiëronymus in zijn studeervertrek". lib.ugent.be. Retrieved 2 October 2020. ^ See Jerome's The Dialogue against the Luciferians Archived 1 January 2014 at the Wayback Machine, p.334 in A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church : St. Jerome: Letters and select works, 1893. Second Series By Philip Schaff, Henry Wace. ^ See Jerome's Letter to Pope Damasus Archived 13 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine, p.19 in A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church : St. Jerome: Letters and select works, 1893. Second Series By Philip Schaff, Henry Wace. ^ See Jerome's Against the Pelagians, Book I Archived 1 January 2014 at the Wayback Machine, p.449 in A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church : St. Jerome: Letters and select works, 1893. Second Series By Philip Schaff, Henry Wace. ^ See Jerome's Letter to Ageruchia Archived 2014-01-01 at the Wayback Machine, p.236-7 in A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church : St. Jerome: Letters and select works, 1893. Second Series By Philip Schaff, Henry Wace. ^ Eremantle, note on Jerome's commentary on Daniel, in NPAF, 2d series, Vol. 6, p. 500. ^ a b c d "Jerome, Commentario in Danielem". Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. Retrieved 6 May 2008. ^ "Jerome, Commentaria in Danelem, chap. 2, verses 31–40". Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. Retrieved 6 May 2008. ^ "Jerome, Commentaria in Danieluem, chap. 2, verse 40". Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. Retrieved 6 May 2008. ^ "Jerome, Commentario in Danielem, chap. 7, verse 8". Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. Retrieved 6 May 2008. ^ "Jerome, Commentaria in Danielem, chap. 8, verse 5". Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. Retrieved 6 May 2008. ^ "St. Jerome: Patron Saint of Librarians | Luther College Library and Information Services". Lis.luther.edu. Archived from the original on 4 July 2013. Retrieved 2 June 2014. ^ Jimmy Akin, "Is the Vulgate the Catholic Church’s Official Bible?" in National Catholic Register ^ The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. Oxford University Press; 2005. ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3. Vulgate. p. 1722–1723. ^ The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. Oxford University Press; 2005. ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3. Jerome. p. 872–873. ^ Hope Werness, Continuum encyclopaedia of animal symbolism in art, 2006 ^ "Eugene Rice has suggested that in all probability the story of Gerasimus's lion became attached to the figure of Jerome some time during the seventh century, after the military invasions of the Arabs had forced many Greek monks who were living in the deserts of the Middle East to seek refuge in Rome. Rice conjectures (Saint Jerome in the Renaissance, pp. 44–45) that because of the similarity between the names Gerasimus and Geronimus – the late Latin form of Jerome's name – 'a Latin-speaking cleric . . . made St Geronimus the hero of a story he had heard about St Gerasimus; and that the author of Plerosque nimirum, attracted by a story at once so picturesque, so apparently appropriate, and so resonant in suggestion and meaning, and under the impression that its source was pilgrims who had been told it in Bethlehem, included it in his life of a favourite saint otherwise bereft of miracles.'" Salter, David (2001). Holy and Noble Beasts: Encounters With Animals in Medieval Literature. D. S. Brewer. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-85991-624-0. Archived from the original on 5 February 2016. Retrieved 27 December 2015. ^ "a figment" found in the thirteenth-century Golden Legend by Jacobus de Voragine Williams, Megan Hale (2006). The Monk and the Book: Jerome and the Making of Christian Scholarship. Chicago: U of Chicago P. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-226-89900-8. ^ "Saint Jerome in Catholic Saint info". Catholic-saints.info. Archived from the original on 29 April 2014. Retrieved 2 June 2014. ^ "Saint Jerome in His Study". The Walters Art Museum. Archived from the original on 18 September 2012. Retrieved 6 September 2012. ^ a b The Collection: Saint Jerome Archived 22 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine, gallery of the religious art collection of New Mexico State University, with explanations. Retrieved 10 August 2007. Bibliography[edit] Andrew Cain and Josef Lössl, Jerome of Stridon: His Life, Writings and Legacy (London and New York, 2009) J. N. D. Kelly, Jerome: His Life, Writings, and Controversies (Peabody, MA 1998) S. Rebenich, Jerome (London and New York, 2002) Megan Hale Williams. The Monk and the Book: Jerome and the Making of Christian Scholarship (Chicago and London, 2008) Biblia Sacra Vulgata [e.g. edition published Stuttgart, 1994, ISBN 3-438-05303-9] Attribution This article uses material from the Schaff–Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge. Further reading[edit] Saint Jerome, Three biographies: Malchus, St. Hilarion and Paulus the First Hermit Authored by Saint Jerome, London, 2012. limovia.net. ISBN 978-1-78336-016-1 External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Jerome Wikimedia Commons has media related to Saint Jerome. Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: Biblia Sacra Letters of Jerome Dataset – corpus as structured data, with sender, receiver, and letter-type classification St. Jerome (pdf) from Fr. Alban Butler's Lives of the Saints The Life of St. Jerome, Priest, Confessor and Doctor of the Church Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "St. Jerome" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Jewish Encyclopedia: Jerome St. Jerome – Catholic Online St Jerome (Hieronymus) of Stridonium Orthodox synaxarion Further reading of depictions of Saint Jerome in art Saint Jerome, Doctor of the Church at the Christian Iconography web site Here Followeth the Life of Jerome from Caxton's translation of the Golden Legend Works of Saint Jerome at Somni Beati Hyeronimi Epistolarum liber, digitized codex (1464) Epistole de santo Geronimo traducte di latino, digitized codex (1475–1490) Hieronymi in Danielem, digitized codex (1490) Sancti Hieronymi ad Pammachium in duodecim prophetas, digitized codex (1470–1480) Colonnade Statue in St Peter's Square Latin texts[edit] Chronological list of Jerome's Works with modern editions and translations cited Opera Omnia (Complete Works) from Migne edition (Patrologia Latina, 1844–1855) with analytical indexes, almost complete online edition Lewis E 82 Vitae patrum (Lives of the Fathers) at OPenn Lewis E 47 Bible Commentary at OPenn Facsimiles[edit] Migne volume 23 part 1 (1883 edition) Migne volume 23 part 2 (1883 edition) Migne volume 24 (1845 edition) Migne volume 25 part 1 (1884 edition) Migne volume 25 part 2 (1884 edition) Migne volume 28 (1890 edition?) Migne volume 30 (1865 edition) English translations[edit] Jerome (1887). The pilgrimage of the holy Paula. Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society. English translations of Biblical Prefaces, Commentary on Daniel, Chronicle, and Letter 120 (tertullian.org) Jerome's Letter to Pope Damasus: Preface to the Gospels English translation of Jerome's De Viris Illustribus Translations of various works (letters, biblical prefaces, life of St. Hilarion, others) (under "Jerome") Lives of Famous Men (CCEL) Apology Against Rufinus (CCEL) Letters, The Life of Paulus the First Hermit, The Life of S. 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en-wikipedia-org-3550	----	Curia - Wikipedia Curia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Curia (disambiguation). Curia (Latin plural curiae) in ancient Rome referred to one of the original groupings of the citizenry, eventually numbering 30, and later every Roman citizen was presumed to belong to one. While they originally likely had wider powers,[1] they came to meet for only a few purposes by the end of the Republic: to confirm the election of magistrates with imperium, to witness the installation of priests, the making of wills, and to carry out certain adoptions. The term is more broadly used to designate an assembly, council, or court, in which public, official, or religious issues are discussed and decided. Lesser curiae existed for other purposes. The word curia also came to denote the places of assembly, especially of the senate. Similar institutions existed in other towns and cities of Italy. In medieval times, a king's council was often referred to as a curia. Today, the most famous curia is the Curia of the Roman Catholic Church, which assists the Roman Pontiff in the hierarchical government of the Church.[2] Contents 1 Origins 2 Roman Curiae 2.1 Comitia Curiata 2.2 Senate House 2.2.1 Curia Hostilia 2.2.2 Curia Julia 2.3 Curiae Veteres 2.4 Municipal curiae 3 Other curiae 3.1 Medieval Curiae 3.2 Roman Catholic Church 3.3 Modern usage 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links Origins[edit] The word curia is thought to derive from Old Latin coviria, meaning "a gathering of men" (co-, "together" =vir, "man").[3] In this sense, any assembly, public or private, could be called a curia. In addition to the Roman curiae, voting assemblies known as curiae existed in other towns of Latium, and similar institutions existed in other parts of Italy. During the republic, local curiae were established in Italian and provincial municipia and coloniae. In imperial times, local magistrates were often elected by municipal senates, which also came to be known as curiae. By extension, the word curia came to mean not just a gathering, but also the place where an assembly would gather, such as a meeting house.[4] Roman Curiae[edit] In Roman times, "curia" had two principal meanings. Originally it applied to the wards of the comitia curiata. However, over time the name became applied to the senate house, which in its various incarnations housed meetings of the Roman senate from the time of the kings until the beginning of the seventh century AD. Comitia Curiata[edit] Main article: Curiate Assembly The most important curiae at Rome were the 30 that together made up the comitia curiata. Traditionally ascribed to the kings, each of the three tribes established by Romulus, the Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres, was divided into ten curiae. In theory, each gens (family, clan) belonged to a particular curia, although whether this was strictly observed throughout Roman history is uncertain.[4][5] Each curia had a distinct name, said to have been derived from the names of some of the Sabine women abducted by the Romans in the time of Romulus. However, some of the curiae evidently derived their names from particular districts or eponymous heroes.[5] The curiae were probably established geographically, representing specific neighborhoods in Rome, for which reason curia is sometimes translated as "ward".[4] Only a few of the names of the 30 curiae have been preserved, including Acculeia, Calabra, Faucia, Foriensis, Rapta, Veliensis, Tifata, and Titia.[6][5] The assertion that the plebeians were not members of the curiae, or that only the dependents (clients) of the patricians were admitted, and not entitled to vote, is expressly contradicted by Dionysius[7] This argument is also refuted by Mommsen.[8] Each curia had its own sacra, in which its members, known as curiales, worshipped the gods of the state and other deities specific to the curia, with their own rites and ceremonies.[9] Each curia had a meeting site and place of worship, named after the curia.[4] Originally, this may have been a simple altar, then a sacellum, and finally a meeting house.[5] The curia was presided over by a curio (plural, curiones), who was always at least 50 years old, and was elected for life.[4] The curio undertook the religious affairs of the curia. He was assisted by another priest, known as the flamen curialis.[5] When the 30 curiae gathered to make up the comitia curiata, they were presided over by a curio maximus, who until 209 BC was always a patrician.[4][5] Originally, the curio maximus was probably elected by the curiones, but in later times by the people themselves.[5] Each curia was attended by one lictor; an assembly of the comitia curiata was attended by thirty lictors.[5][10] The comitia curiata voted to confirm the election of magistrates by passing a law called the lex curiata de imperio. It also witnessed the installation of priests, and adoptions, and the making of wills. The Pontifex Maximus may have presided over these ceremonies.[4] The assembly probably possessed much greater authority before the establishment of the comitia centuriata, which gradually assumed many of the curiate assembly's original functions.[4] Senate House[edit] Since the Roman Kingdom, the meeting-house of the Roman senate was known as the curia. The original meeting place was said to have been a temple built on the spot where the Romans and Sabines laid down their arms during the reign of Romulus (traditionally reigned 753–717 BC). The institution of the senate was always ascribed to Romulus; although the first senate was said to comprise 100 members, the earliest number which can be called certain is 300, probably connected with the three tribes and 30 curiae also attributed to Romulus.[4] Curia Hostilia[edit] Main article: Curia Hostilia After the original temple was destroyed by fire, it was replaced by a new meeting house by Tullus Hostilius, the third King of Rome (traditionally reigned 673–642 BC). The Curia Hostilia stood on the north end of the comitium, where the comitia curiata and other Roman assemblies met, and was oriented along the four cardinal points. After more than 500 years of service, the building was restored and enlarged by the dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla in 80 BC. Sulla had doubled the senate's membership from 300 to 600, necessitating a larger building, which retained the original orientation of the Curia Hostilia, but extended further south into the comitium. In 52 BC, following the murder of Publius Clodius Pulcher, his clientes set fire to the senate house, which was rebuilt by Faustus Cornelius Sulla, son of the dictator. Following this reconstruction, the building came to be called the Curia Cornelia.[4] Curia Julia[edit] Main article: Curia Julia The Curia Julia, as restored from 1935 to 1937 A generation after Sulla enlarged the senate from 300 members to 600, Julius Caesar increased its membership to 900, necessitating the construction of a larger meeting house. The Curia Cornelia was demolished, and shortly before his death in 44 BC, Caesar began the construction of a new building, which became known as the Curia Julia. This structure covered most of the comitium, and abandoned the original orientation of the previous curiae, pointing slightly northwest. The building featured a large central hall with a daïs for magistrates, and marble benches on one side. There was also a record office on one side. The building was completed by Caesar's grandnephew, Octavian, the future emperor Augustus, in 29 BC, although he reduced the senate itself to its former number of 600.[4] In AD 94, the Curia Julia was rebuilt along Caesar's original plan by the emperor Domitian, who also restored the former orientation of the Curia Hostilia. The building was damaged by fire during the reign of Carinus in 283, and again restored under his successor, Diocletian.[4] The Roman Senate is last mentioned in AD 600. In 630, Pope Honorius I transformed the senate house into the church of Sant'Adriano al Foro, preserving the structure at its full height. In 1923, the church and an adjacent convent were bought by the Italian government. The building was further restored from 1935 to 1937, removing various medieval additions, to reveal the original Roman architecture.[4] Curiae Veteres[edit] The Curiae Veteres was the earliest sanctuary of the thirty curiae. It is discussed by both Varro and by Tacitus, who mentions it as one point of the Palatine pomerium of Roma quadrata.[11] It is likely that this shrine was located at the northeast corner of the Palatine Hill. Its remains have likely been identified in excavations carried out by Clementina Panella.[12] As the Republic continued, the curiae grew too large to meet conveniently at the Curiae Veteres, and a new meeting place, the Curiae Novae, was constructed. A few of the curiae continued to meet at the Curiae Veteres due to specific religious obligations.[13][14] Municipal curiae[edit] Main article: Local government (ancient Roman) In the Roman Empire a town council was known as a curia, or sometimes an ordo, or boule. The existence of such a governing body was the mark of an independent city. Municipal curiae were co-optive, and their members, the decurions, sat for life. Their numbers varied greatly according to the size of the city. In the Western Empire, one hundred seems to have been a common number, but in the East five hundred was customary, on the model of the Athenian Boule. However, by the fourth century, curial duties had become onerous, and it was difficult to fill all the posts; often candidates had to be nominated. The emperor Constantine exempted Christians from serving in the curiae, which led to many rich pagans claiming to be priests in order to escape these duties.[15] Other curiae[edit] The concept of the curia as a governing body, or the court where such a body met, carried on into medieval times, both as a secular institution, and in the church. Medieval Curiae[edit] Main article: Curia regis In medieval times, a king's court was frequently known as the curia regis, consisting of the king's chief magnates and councilors. In England, the curia regis gradually developed into Parliament. In France, the curia regis or Conseil du Roi developed in the twelfth century, with the term gradually becoming applied to a judicial body, and falling out of use by the fourteenth century. Roman Catholic Church[edit] Main article: Roman Curia See also: Diocesan chancery In the Roman Catholic Church, the administrative body of the Holy See is known as the Roman Curia. It is through this Curia that the Roman Pontiff conducts the business of the Church as a whole.[2] Modern usage[edit] Emblem of the Court of Justice of the European Union The Court of Justice of the European Union uses "CURIA" (in roman script) in its official emblem. The term curia may refer to separate electoral colleges in a system of reserved political positions (reserved seats), e.g. during the British mandate of Palestine at the third election (1931) of the Asefat HaNivharim there were three curiae, for the Ashkenazi Jews, the Sephardi Jews and for the Yemeni Jews.[16][17][18][19] In the United States Supreme Court an interested third party to a case may file a brief as an amicus curiae.[20] The Federal Palace of Switzerland, the seat of the Swiss Confederation, bears the inscription Curia Confœderationis Helveticæ. See also[edit] Constitution of the Roman Republic References[edit] ^ See Palmer, Robert E. A. (1970). The Archaic community of the Romans. Cambridge: University Press. for an ambitious reconstruction. ^ a b Code of Canon Law, can. 360 ^ Webster's Third New International Dictionary (1966). ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Oxford Classical Dictionary, 2nd Ed. (1970). ^ a b c d e f g h Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities, Second Edition, Harry Thurston Peck, Editor (1897) ^ Marcus Terentius Varro, De Lingua Latina libri XXV. ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Romaike Archaiologia iv. 12, 20. ^ Christian Matthias Theodor Mommsen, Römische Forschungen. ^ Sextus Pompeius Festus, epitome of Marcus Verrius Flaccus, De Verborum Significatu. ^ Marcus Tullius Cicero, De Lege Agraria contra Rullum ^ Tac. Annales 12.24 ^ C. Panella. "Curiae Veteres. Nuovi dati sulla frequentazione del santuario in età tardo-repubblicana." Scienze dell'antichità. Storia, archeologia, antropologia 25 Fasc.1, p. 41-71 (2019) ^ CIL VI.975 ^ A.F. Ferrandes, 2013. "Il ripristino delle Curiae Veteres." In Scavare nel centro di Roma. Storia, uomini, paesaggi, edited by C. Panella, 118-23. Rome. ^ A. H. M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire, p. 724. ^ Fannie Fern Andrews, The Holy Land under mandate, Boston and New York, Houghton Mifflin Company – The Riverside Press Cambridge, 1931, 2 vol. (ch. XIV – Building a Jewish corporate life, vol. II, 1–32) ^ Moshe Burstein, Self-government of the Jews in Palestine since 1900, Tel Aviv, Hapoel Hatzair, 1934 ^ ESCO Foundation for Palestine, Inc., Palestine. A study of Jewish, Arab and British policies, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1947, 2 vol. (The growth and organization of the Jewish community, vol.II, 404–414) ^ Jacob C. Hurewitz, The struggle for Palestine, New York, Norton and Company, 1950 (ch. 3 – The political structure of the Yishuv, 38–50) ^ https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/amicus_curiae Further reading[edit] Bond, Sarah E. 2014.“Curial Communiqué: Memory, Propaganda, and the Roman Senate House” In Aspects of Ancient Institutions and Geography: Studies in Honor of Richard J.A. Talbert. Impact of Empire, 19. Edited by Lee L. Brice and Daniëlle Slootjes. Leiden: Brill, 84-102. Crofton-Sleigh, Lissa. 2018. "The Curia in Aeneid 7." Illinois Classical Studies 43.1. Gorski, Gilbert J. and James E. Packer. 2015. The Roman Forum: A Reconstruction and Architectural Guide. New York: Cambridge University Press. Heinzelmann, Michael. 2011. "The Imperial Building Complex of S. Maria Antiqua in Rome: An Incomplete Senate Building of Domitian?" Anales de Arqueología Cordobesa, 21-22: 57-80. Millar, Fergus. 1989. “Political Power in Mid-Republican Rome. Curia or Comitium?.” The Journal of Roman Studies LXXIX, 138-150. Santangeli Valenzani, Riccardo. 2006. “The Seat and Memory of Power: Caesar's Curia and Forum.” In Julius Caesar in Western Culture. Edited by Maria Wyke. Oxford: Blackwell, 85-94. External links[edit] Library resources about Curia Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries "Curia" . 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en-wikipedia-org-3562	----	List of Roman tribunes - Wikipedia List of Roman tribunes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This list is incomplete; you can help by adding missing items with reliable sources. The following is a list of Roman tribunes as reported by ancient sources. A tribune in ancient Rome was a person who held one of a number of offices, including tribune of the plebs (a political office to represent the interests of the plebs), Military tribune (a rank in the Roman army), Tribune of the Celeres (the commander of the king's personal bodyguard), and various other positions. Unless otherwise noted all dates are reported in BC. Contents 1 List of Tribunes of the Celeres of the Roman Kingdom 2 List of Tribunes of the Plebs of the Roman Republic 2.1 5th century BC 2.2 4th century BC 2.3 3rd century BC 2.4 2nd century BC 2.5 1st century BC 3 References 4 Bibliography List of Tribunes of the Celeres of the Roman Kingdom[edit] The following individuals held the position of Tribune of the Celeres (Tribunus Celerum), the captain of the king's bodyguard who had authority to preside over the Curiate Assembly (Comitia Curiata) during the period of the Roman Kingdom (753–509). Date (BC) Name 510/509 Lucius Junius Brutus[1] List of Tribunes of the Plebs of the Roman Republic[edit] The following individuals held the position of Tribune of the Plebs (Tribunus Plebis) during the Roman Republic, starting with the creation of the office in 493 BC. 5th century BC[edit] 493: Lucius Albinius C. f. Paterculus[2] 493: Gaius Icilius (Viscellius?) Ruga[3] 493: Lucius Junius Brutus[3] 493: Gaius Licinius[2] 493: Publius Licinius[2] 493: Lucius Sicinius L. f. Vellutus (Bellutus?)[2] 493: Spurius Icilius[4] 492: Spurius Sicinius Bellutus (or Spurius Icilius?)[5] 491: Lucius Sicinius Vellutus[6] 491: Marcus Decius[6] 489: Maenius[7] 486: Gaius Rabuleius[8] 486: Publius Mucius Scaevola[9] 486: Spurius Cassius[9] 483: Gaius Maenius[10] 481: Spurius Licinius (or Spurius Icilius?)[7] 480: Titus Pontificius[11] 476: Titus Genucius[12] 476: Quintus Considius[12] 475: Lucius Caedicius[12] 475: Titus Statius[12] 473: Gnaeus Genucius[13] 472: Volero Publilius[14] 472: Lucius Numitorius[15] 472: Volero Publilius[14] 471: Gaius Laetorius[14] 470: Spurius Icilius[15] 470: Lucius Mecilius[16] 470: Lucius Numitorius[15] 470: Marcus Duillius[17] 470: Gaius Sicinius[18] 462: Gaius Terentilius (Terentilius?) Arsa[19] 462: Sextus Titius[20] 461: Marcus Volscius Fictor[21] 461: Aulus Verginius[22] 460: Aulus Verginius[23] 460: Marcus Volscius Fictor[23] 459: Aulus Verginius[23] 459: Marcus Volscius Fictor[23] 458: Aulus Verginius[24] 458: Marcus Volscius Fictor[24] 457: Aulus Verginius[25] 457: Marcus Volscius Fictor[25] 456: Lucius Alienus[26] 456: Lucius Icilius S. f.[27] 455: Lucius Icilius S. f.[27] 454: Lucius Siccius Dentatus[28] 454: Gaius Calvius Cicero[29] 449: Gaius Apronius[30] 449: Publius Numitorius[31] 449: Gaius Oppius[30] 449: Marcus Pomponius[30] 449: Lucius Verginius[30] 449: Appius (Publius?) Villius[30] 449: Lucius Icilius S. f.[27] 449: Marcuis Duillius[32] 449: Gaius Sicinius[32] 449: Marcus Titinius[32] 448: Aulus Aternius Varus (Varus Fontinalis)[33] 448: Spurius Tarpeius (Montanus Capitolinus)[34] 448: Lucius Trebonius Asper[34] 445: Gaius Canuleius[35] 445: Gaius Furnius[36] 442: Poetilius[37] 439: Quintus Caecilius[38] 439: Quintus Junius[38] 439: Lucius Minucius (Esquilinus Augurinus)[39] 439: Sextus Titinius[40] 438: Lucius Minucius Augurinus[41] 436: Spurius Maelius[42] 423: Gaius Junius[43] 422: Sextus (Tiberius?) Antistius[44] 422: Marcus Asellius[45] 422: Tiberius Spurillius[45] 422: Sextus Tempanius[45] 422: Quintus Hortensius[44] 420: Aulus Antistius[46] 420: Manius Canuleius[46] 420: Marcus Canuleius[47] 420: Sextus Pompilius[47] 416: Spurius Maecilius (at least four times, the fourth occasion in 416 BC)[48] 416: Spurius (Marcus?) Metilius[48] 415: Lucius Decius[49] 414: Marcus Sextius[50] 413: Lucius Icilius[51] 412: Lucius Icilius[52] 410: Marcus Menenius[53] 409: Icilius (brother to the other two this year)[52] 409: Icilius (brother to the other two this year)[52] 409: Lucius Icilius[52] 401: Marcus Minucius[54] 401: Gnaeus Trebonius[54] 401: Marcus Acutius[55] 401: Gaius Lacerius[55] 401: Marcus Metilius[56] 401: Publius Curatius[56] 401: Marcus Acutius[55] 4th century BC[edit] 395: Quintus Pomponius (L. f. L. n.) Rufus[57] 395: Aulus Verginius[57] 395: Titus Sicinius[58] 394: Quintus Pomponius[59] 394: Titus Sicinius[59] 394: Aulus Verginius[59] 393: Titus Sicinius[60] 391: Lucius Apuleius[61] 390: Numerius Fabius Ambustus[62] 390: Caeso Fabius Ambustus[62] 390: Quintus Sulpicius Longus[62] 390: Quintus Servilius[62] 390: Publius Cornelius[62] 389: Gnaeus (Gaius?) Marcius[63] 387: Lucius Sicinius[64] 385: Marcus Menenius[65] 385: Quintus Publilius[65] 384: Marcus Menenius[66] 376: Gaius Licinius C. f. P. n. Calvus Stolo[67] 376: Lucius Sextius Sex. f. N. n. Sextinus Lateranus[67] 375: Gaius Licinius C. f. P. n. Calvus Stolo[67] 375: Lucius Sextius Sex. f. N. n. Sextinus Lateranus[67] 374: Gaius Licinius C. f. P. n. Calvus Stolo[67] 374: Lucius Sextius Sex. f. N. n. Sextinus Lateranus[67] 373: Gaius Licinius C. f. P. n. Calvus Stolo[67] 373: Lucius Sextius Sex. f. N. n. Sextinus Lateranus[67] 372: Gaius Licinius C. f. P. n. Calvus Stolo[67] 372: Lucius Sextius Sex. f. N. n. Sextinus Lateranus[67] 371: Gaius Licinius C. f. P. n. Calvus Stolo[67] 371: Lucius Sextius Sex. f. N. n. Sextinus Lateranus[67] 370: Gaius Licinius C. f. P. n. Calvus Stolo[67] 370: Lucius Sextius Sex. f. N. n. Sextinus Lateranus[67] 369: Gaius Licinius C. f. P. n. Calvus Stolo[67] 369: Lucius Sextius Sex. f. N. n. Sextinus Lateranus[67] 368: Gaius Licinius C. f. P. n. Calvus Stolo[67] 368: Lucius Sextius Sex. f. N. n. Sextinus Lateranus[67] 367: Gaius Licinius C. f. P. n. Calvus Stolo[67] 367: Lucius Sextius Sex. f. N. n. Sextinus Lateranus[67] 362: Marcus Pomponius[68] 358: Gaius Poetelius C. f. Q. n. Libo Visolus[69] 357: Lucius Menenius[70] 357: Marcus Duilius[71] 342: Lucius Genucius Aventinensis[72] 327: Marcus Flavius[73] 323: Marcus Flavius[73] 320: Lucius Livius[74] 320: Quintus Maelius[75] 320: Tiberius Numicius[76] 320: Marcus Antistius[77] 319: Marcus Antistius[78] 316: Quintus Caecilius 313: Ovinius[79] 312: Lucius Cominius[80] 311: Lucius Atilius 311: Marcus Decius[81] 311: Marcus Decius[82] 311: Gaius Marcius (Rutilus Censorinus)[82] 310: Publius Sempronius (Sophus)[83] 308: Lucius Furius[84] 305: Gnaeus Flavius C. f. (Anni f.?)[85] 304: Gnaeus Flavius[86] 3rd century BC[edit] 300: Quintus Ogulnius (Gallus)[87] 300: Gnaeus Ogulnius[87] 298: Marcus Curius Dentatus[88] 293: Marcus Scantius[89] 286: Maenius[90] 286: Aquilius[91] 285: Gaius Aelius[92] 279: Maenius[93] 270: Marcus Fulvius Flaccus[94] 248: Gaius Fundanius Fundulus[95] 248: Pullius[95] 241: Genucius[96] 232: Gaius Flaminius[97] 220: Marcus Metilius[98] 219: Maenius[99] 218: Quintus Claudius[100] 217: Quintus Baebius Herennius[101] 217: Marcus Metilius[102] 216: Marcus Minucius Augurinus[103] 216: Lucius Scribonius Libo[104] 216: Quintus Baebius Herennius[105] 215: Gaius Oppius[106] 213: Lucius Caecilius L. f. L. n. Metellus 213: Marcus Caecilius Metellus[107] 212: Spurius Carvilius[108] 212: Lucius Carvilius[108] 212: Gaius Servilius Casca[109] 211: Gaius Sempronius Blaesus[110] 211: Publius Aquilius[111] 211: Gaius Servilius Geminus[111] 211: Publius Villius[112] 210: Marcus Lucretius[113] 210: Gaius Arrenius[114] 210: Lucius Arrenius[113] 210: Lucius Atilius[115] 210: Marcus Lucretius[115] 209: Gaius Publicius Bibulus[116] 204: Marcus Cincius Alimentus[117] 204: Tiberius Claudius Asellus[118] 204: Gnaeus Baebius (Tamphilus)[119] 204: Marcus Claudius Marcellus[119] 204: Licinius[119] 204: Marcus Silius[119] 204: Publius Silius[119] 203: Gnaeus Baebius (Tamphilus)[120] 201: Manius Acilius Glabrio[121] 201: Quintus Minucius Thermus[121] 200: Quintus Baebius[122] 200: Tiberius Sempronius Longus[122] 2nd century BC[edit] Unless otherwise indicated, entries are based on T.R.S. Broughton, Magistrates of the Roman Republic, vol. I (1951). 199: P. Porcius Laeca 198: M. Fulvius[123] 198: M'. Curius[123] 197: Gaius Acilius Glabrio[124] 197: Q. Fulvius 197: L. Oppius (Salinator) 196: C. Afranius (Stellio?) 196: C. Atinius Labeo (probably)[125] 196: C. Licinius Lucullus 196: Q. Marcius Ralla 195: M. Fundanius 195: M. Junius Brutus 195: P. Junius Brutus 195: L. Valerius (Tappo) 194: M. Baebius (Tamphilus) (uncertain)[126] 193: Q. Aelius Tubero 193: M. Sempronius (Tuditanus) 192: C. Titinius 192: M. Titinius (Curvus?) before 192: Plaetorius[127] 191: P. Sempronius Blaesus 189: P. Sempronius Gracchus 189: C. Sempronius Rutilus 189: (Q.) Terentius Culleo 188: C. Valerius Tappo 187: M. Aburius 187: L. Mummius 187: Q. Mummius 187: Q. Petillius 187: Q. Petillius (Spurinus) c. 184: M. Caelius 184: C. Fannius 184: C. Minucius Augurinus 184: M. Naevius 184: Ti. Sempronius Gracchus[128] 182: C. Orchius 180: L. Villius Annalis 177: Q. Aelius 177: Licinius Nerva 177: C. Papirius Turdus bef. 175: Plaetorius[129] 172: M. Lucretius 172: Q. Marcius Scilla 172: M. Marcius Sermo 171: M. Claudius Marcellus 171: M. Fulvius Nobilior 170: Cn. Aufidius 170: M'. Juventius Thalna 169: P. Rutilius 169: Q. Voconius Saxa 168: Cn. Tremellius 167: M. Antonius 167: M. Pomponius 167: Ti. Sempronius c. 154: L. Aurelius Cotta[130] c. 154: Q. Caecilius Metellus (Macedonicus) c. 153: Aelius (probably) c. 153: Fufius (probably) c. 149: Atinius 149: L. Calpurnius Piso Frugi 149: L. Scribonius Libo 149: M. Scantius (or Scantinius?) (uncertain)[131] 146: Livius 145: C. Licinius Crassus 143: (T.?) Didius c. 142: C. Fannius 141: P. Mucius Scaevola[132] 140: Ti. Claudius Asellus 139: A. Gabinius 138: C. Curiatius 138: Sp. Licinius 137: M. Antius Briso 137: L. Cassius Longinus Ravilla 137: C. Fannius Strabo[133] 136: P. Rutilius 133: (Q.?) Mucius (or Minucius? Mummius?) 133: M. Octavius 133: Rubrius 133: P. Satureius 133: Ti. Sempronius Gracchus 132: Pompeius[134] 131: C. Atinius Labeo Macerio c. 130: Q. Aelius Tubero 130 (or 131): C. Papirius Carbo[135] 126: M. Junius Pennus c. 123: Aufeius[136] c. 123: M. Junius (Silanus) 123: C. Sempronius Gracchus c. 122: (M'.?) Acilius Glabrio[137] 122: M. Fulvius Flaccus 122: M. Livius Drusus c. 122: Cn. Marcius Censorinus 122: (C.?) Rubrius[138] 122: C. Sempronius Gracchus c. 121: Maevius 121: Minucius Rufus[139] 120 (or 121): L. Calpurnius Bestia[140] 120: P. Decius 119: C. Marius 113: Sex. Peducaeus 111: C. Baebius c. 111: C. Licinius Nerva 111: C. Memmius c. 111: Sp. Thorius[141] 110: L. Annius 110: P. Licinius Lucullus 109: C. Mamilius Limetanus 107: C. Coelius Caldus 107: L. Licinius Crassus 107: T. Manlius Mancinus 106: Q. Mucius Scaevola (Pontifex) 104: L. Cassius Longinus 104: Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus c. 104: L. Marcius Philippus c. 104: Clodius (possibly) 103: L. Appuleius Saturninus 103: L. Aurelius Cotta[142] 103: (M.?) Baebius (Tamphilus?) 103: T. Didius 103: C. Norbanus 103: L. (Antistius?) Reginus 102: A. Pompeius 101: C. Servilius Glaucia[143] 100: L. Appuleius Saturninus 1st century BC[edit] Unless otherwise indicated, entries are based on T.R.S. Broughton, Magistrates of the Roman Republic, vol. II (1952). 99: L. Equitius 99: P. Furius 99: (Q.) Pompeius (Rufus)[144] 99: M. Porcius Cato[145] 99: Sex. Titius 98: C. Appuleius Decianus 98: Q. Calidius 98: C. Canuleius c. 98: P. Servilius Vatia (Isauricus) c. 97: M. Duronius[146] 95: T. Didius 92: Cn. Papirius Carbo 91: M. Livius Drusus 91: Minicus (uncertain) 91: Saufeius c. 91: L. Sestius 91: P. Tarquinius[147] 90: Q. Caecilius Metellus Celer 90: C. Papirius Carbo Arvina 90: Cn. Pomponius (probably)[148] 90: C. Scribonius Curio 90: Q. Varius Severus Hibrida 89: L. Calpurnius Piso (Frugi)[149] 89: L. Cassius 89: L. Memmius 89: C. Papirius Carbo 89: M. Plautius Silvanus 88: P. Antistius 88: P. Sulpicius 87: Sex. Lucilius 87: P. Magius 87: M. Marius Gratidianus[150] 87: C. Milonius (uncertain)[150] 87: M. Verginius (Vergilius?) 86: P. Popillius Laenas 83: M. Junius Brutus 82: Q. Valerius Soranus 82: M. Octavius Ligur 82: L. Octavius Ligur 80: C. Herennius 77: M. Terpolius 76: Gnaeus Sicinius 75: Q. Opimius 74: L. Quinctius 73: C. Licinius Macer 71: M. Lollius Palicanus[151][152] 70: A. Plautius (Varus) 69: Q. Cornificius 69: Q. Manlius c. 69: C. Visellius Varro[153] 68: C. Antius Restio 68: C. Antonius Hibrida 68: Q. Caecilius (Metellus Celer? Nepos?) 68: Cn. Cornelius 68: C. Fundanius 68: L. Hostilius (Dasianus?) 68: Q. Marcius 68: C. Popilius 68: M. Valerius 68: L. (Volcatius?) 67: L. Roscius Otho 67: C. Cornelius 67: P. Servilius Globulus 67: A. Gabinius 67: C. Papirius Carbo[154] 67: L. Roscius Otho[154] 67: L. Trebellius[154] 66: C. Manilius (Crispus?)[155] 66: C. Memmius Geminus[156] 65: C. Papius 65: Q. Cornificius 64: Fabius 63: Servilius Rullus[157] 63: T. Labienus[158] 63: T. Ampius Balbus 63: P. Servilius Rullus[159] 63: L. Caecilius Rufus 62: Q. Caecilius Metellus Nepos 62: L. Calpurnius Bestia 62: L. Marius 62: M. Porcius Cato 62: L. Fabricus 62: Q. Minucius Thermus 61: M. Aufidius Lurco 61: Q. Fufius Calenus 61: C. Caecilius Cornutus 60: L. Flavius 60: C. Herennius 59: C. Cosconius 59: C. Herennius 59: P. Vatinius 59: Q. Ancharius 59: C. Alfius Flavus 59: Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio Nasica 59: Cn. Domitius Calvinus 59: Cn. Fannius 59: P. Nigidius Figulus 58: P. Clodius Pulcher 58: M'. Curius 58: Cn. Manlius 58: L. Ninnius Quadratus 58: L. Novius (Niger?) 58: Q. Terentius Culleo 58: Aelius Ligus 58: L. Antistus 57: T. Annius Milo 57: Sex. Atilius Serranus Gavianus 57: C. Curtius Peducaeanus 57: C. Messius 57: Q. Numerius Rufus (Gracchus) 57: Aelius Ligur 57: Gratidius 57: Marcus Cispius 57: P. Sestius 57: C. Cestilius 57: M'. Curtius Peducaeanus 57: Q. Fabricius 57: T. Fadius (Gallus?) 56: Cn. Plancius 56: L. Caninius Gallus 56: M. Nonius Sufenas 56: A. Plautius 56: C. Porcius Cato 56: L. Procilius 56: L. Racilius 56: P. Rutilius Lupus 56: Antistius Vetus 56: Cassius 55: P. Aquillius Gallus 55: C. Ateius Capito 55: L. Roscius Fabatus 55: C. Trebonius 55: Mamilius 55: A. Allienus 55: Sex. Peducaeus 55: C. Fabius 54: D. Laelius 54: Q. Mucius Scaevola 54: C. Memmius 54: Terentius 53: M. Coelius Vinicianus 53: P. Licinius Crassus Junianus 53: C. Lucilius Hirrius 52: M. Caelius Rufus 52: Q. Manilius Cumanus 52: Q. Pompeius Rufus 52: T. Munatius Plancus Byrsa 52: C. Sallustius Crispus 51: C. Caelius Rufus 51: P. Cornelius 51: C. Vibius Pansa Caetronianus 51: L. Vinicius 50: C. Scribonius Curio 50: C. Furnius 49: M. Antonius 49: L. Caecilius Metellus 49: Q. Cassius Longinus 49: L. Marcius Philippus 49: Aurelius Cotta 49: C. Cassius Longinus 49: Rubrius 48: A. Hirtius 47: C. Asinius Pollio 47: P. Cornelius Dolabella 47: L. Trebellius 46: C. Antonius (uncertain) 45: Pontius Aquila 44: L. Antonius 44: L. Caesetius Flavus 44: Ti. Canutius 44: D. Carfulenus 44: L. Cassius Longinus 44: L. Decidius Saxa 44: C. Epidius Marullus 44: C. Helvius Cinna 44: (Hostilius) Saserna 44: (Nonius) Asprenas 44: Servilius 44: Lucius Flaminius (Chilo?) 43: L. Clodius 43: P. Appuleius 43: P. Titius 43: Tullus Hostilius 43: L. Cornificius 43: Salvius 43: M. Servilius 43: P. Servilius Casca Longus 43: M. Terentius Varro Gibba 43: M. Agrippa 42: L. Clodius (Bithynicus?) 42: Tullus Hostilius 42: M. Insteius 42: Rufrenus 41: L. Memmius[160] 41: Falcidius 40: P. Falcidius 39: Q. Cloelius 32: Nonius Balbus 27: Sex. Pacuvius Taurus References[edit] ^ Livy, 1.59 ^ a b c d Livy, ii. 33. ^ a b Dionysius, vi. 89. ^ Dionysius, vi. 88, ii. 14, 17, vii. 26, 35, ix. 1. ^ Dionysius, vii. 14, 17. ^ a b Broughton, 1. p. 18 ^ a b Livy, ii. 36. ^ Dionysius, viii. 72. ^ a b Broughton, 1. p. 21 ^ Dionysius, viii. 87. ^ Livy, ii. 44. ^ a b c d Livy, ii. 52. ^ Livy, ii. 54. ^ a b c Livy, ii. 56. ^ a b c Livy, ii. 58. ^ Livy, ii. 57. ^ Livy, iii. 54, 55. ^ Livy, ii. 58, 61. ^ Livy, iii. 9. ^ Broughton, 1. p. 36 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 37 ^ Livy, iii. 11–13. ^ a b c d Broughton, 1. p. 38 ^ a b Broughton, 1. p. 40 ^ a b Broughton, 1. p. 41 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 42 ^ a b c Livy, iii. 31, 44–54, 63. ^ Livy, iii. 43. ^ Broughton, 1. p. 43 ^ a b c d e Livy, iii. 54. ^ Livy, iii. 35, 54. ^ a b c Broughton, 1. p. 48 ^ Livy, iii. 31, 65. ^ a b Broughton, 1. p. 50 ^ Livy, iv. 1–6. ^ Livy, iv. 1. ^ Broughton, 1. p. 54 ^ a b Livy, iv. 16. ^ Livy, iv. 12–16. ^ Broughton, 1. p. 56 ^ Smith, vol. II, p. 1092 ("Minucia Gens"). ^ Livy, iv. 21. ^ Broughton, 1. p. 68 ^ a b Livy, iv. 42. ^ a b c Broughton, 1. p. 69 ^ a b Broughton, 1. p. 70 ^ a b Livy, iv. 44. ^ a b Livy, iv. 48. ^ Broughton, 1. p. 74 ^ Livy, iv. 49. ^ Broughton, 1. p. 76 ^ a b c d Livy, iv. 52, 54–56. ^ Livy, iv. 53. ^ a b Broughton, 1. p. 84 ^ a b c Livy, v. 10. ^ a b Livy, v. 11, 12. ^ a b Livy, v. 29. ^ Livy, v. 24. ^ a b c Broughton, 1. p. 90 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 92 ^ Livy, v. 32. ^ a b c d e Broughton p.94 ^ Livy, vi. 1. ^ Livy, vi. 6. ^ a b Broughton, 1. p. 102 ^ Livy, vi. 19. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Livy, vi. 32–34, 36, 38. ^ Livy, vii. 4, 5. ^ Livy, vii. 11, 12, 27, viii. 28. ^ Livy, vii. 16. ^ Livy, vii. 16, 19. ^ Livy, vii. 42. ^ a b Livy, viii. 22, 27. ^ Livy, ix. 8–11. ^ Livy, ix. 8. ^ Livy, ix. 8–12. ^ Livy, xxvi. 33, ix. 12. ^ Broughton, 1. p. 154 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 158 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 160 ^ Livy, ix. 90. ^ a b Broughton, 1. p. 161 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 162 ^ Livy, ix. 42. ^ Broughton, 1. p. 167 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 168 ^ a b Livy, x. 6–9, 23. ^ Broughton, 1. p. 174 ^ Livy, x. 46. ^ Cicero, Brutus, 74. ^ Broughton, 1. p. 186 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 187 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 193 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 199 ^ a b Broughton, 1. p. 215 ^ Plutarch, Gaius Gracchus, 3. ^ Broughton, 1. p. 225 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 236 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 237 ^ Livy, xxi. 63. ^ Livy, xxii. 34. ^ Livy, xxii. 25. xxv. 22. ^ Livy, xxiii. 21. ^ Livy, xxii. 61, xxiii. 21, xxix 11, 13. ^ Broughton, 1. p. 249 ^ Livy, xxxiv. 1–8. ^ Broughton, vol. 1, p. 264 ^ a b Livy, xxv. 3, 4. ^ Livy, xxv. 3. ^ Livy, xxvi. 2, xxvii. 5. ^ a b Broughton, 1. p. 273 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 276 ^ a b Livy, xxvii. 5. ^ Livy, xxvii. 6. ^ a b Broughton, 1. p. 279 ^ Cicero, De Oratore, ii. 67. ^ Livy, xxxiv. 4. ^ Livy, xxvii. 41; xxviii. 10; xxix. 11. ^ a b c d e Broughton, 1. p. 307 ^ Broughton, 1. p. 312 ^ a b Broughton, 1. p. 320 ^ a b Broughton, 1. p. 324 ^ a b Against 199 BC: Broughton, vol. 1, pp. 331, 332 (note 3) harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBroughton (help) ^ Livy, xxxii. 29, xxv. 39, xxxv. 14. ^ Broughton, vol. 1, pp. 336, 339 (note 3). sfn error: no target: CITEREFBroughton (help) ^ Broughton, vol. 1, pp. 344, 346 (note 3). sfn error: no target: CITEREFBroughton (help) ^ Cicero, De Officiis, iii. 61, De Natura Deorum, iii. 74. ^ Broughton, vol. 1, pp. 376, 378 (note 6), against 187 BC. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBroughton (help) ^ Broughton, p. 472. ^ Tacitus, Annales, iii. 66. ^ Broughton, vol. 1, p. 459, 460 (note 3). sfn error: no target: CITEREFBroughton (help) ^ Stockton, pp. 27–28. ^ Cornell, pg. 246 ^ Drumann, Geschichte Roms, pp. 306 ff. ^ Broughton, vol. 1, pp. 502, 503 (note 1). sfn error: no target: CITEREFBroughton (help) ^ Broughton, vol. 1, pp. 513, 515 (note 3). sfn error: no target: CITEREFBroughton (help) ^ Broughton, vol. 1, pp. 517, 519 (note 4). sfn error: no target: CITEREFBroughton (help) ^ Broughton, vol. 1, pp. 517, 519 (note 5). sfn error: no target: CITEREFBroughton (help) ^ Broughton, vol. 1, pp. 521, 522 (note 3). sfn error: no target: CITEREFBroughton (help) ^ Broughton, vol. 1, pp. 524, 525 (note 3). sfn error: no target: CITEREFBroughton (help) ^ Broughton, vol. 1, pp. 541, 542 (note 3). sfn error: no target: CITEREFBroughton (help) ^ Cicero, De Oratore, ii. 47, iii. 11, 12, Brutus, 36, 74. ^ Broughton, Supp. p. 59 ^ Broughton, vol. II, p. 2, 3 (note 5). sfn error: no target: CITEREFBroughton (help) ^ Broughton, vol. II, pp. 2, 3 (note 6). ^ Broughton, vol. 2, pp. 7, 8 (note 3). sfn error: no target: CITEREFBroughton (help) ^ Obsequens, 114. ^ Broughton, vol. II, pp. 26, 30 (note 2). sfn error: no target: CITEREFBroughton (help) ^ Broughton, 2. p. 33 ^ a b Broughton, vol. 2, pp. 47, 52 (note 2). sfn error: no target: CITEREFBroughton (help) ^ Hazel, p. 220. ^ Broughton, vol. II, p. 122. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBroughton (help) ^ Broughton, vol. 2, pp. 132, 136 (note 6). sfn error: no target: CITEREFBroughton (help) ^ a b c Broughton, 2. p. 145 ^ Velleius Paterculus, ii. 33. ^ Broughton, vol. II, p. 153. ^ Cicero, De Lege Agraria, In Catilinam ^ Tyrrell (9) ^ Plutarch, Crassus ^ Crawford & Wiseman, pp. 156, 157. Bibliography[edit] Titus Livius Patavinus (Livy), Ab Urbe Condita (History of Rome). Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Romaike Archaiologia (Roman Antiquities). Broughton, T. Robert S., The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, American Philological Association (1952–1986), Volumes 1, 2, and Supplemental. Smith, William (ed. 1870), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Marcus Tullius Cicero, Brutus, De Oratore, De Officiis, De Natura Deorum, Epistulae ad Familiares, Laelius de Amicitia, In Verrem, Pro Gaio Rabirio Perduellionis Reo, Florus, Pro Quintus Roscius, Epistulae ad Atticum, Epistulae ad Quintum Fratrem, In Vatinium Testem, Post Reditum in Senatu, De Haruspicum Responsis, Pro Plancio, De Domo Sua, Pro Sestio, Pro Rabirio Postumo, Philippicae. Plutarch, The Life of Gaius Gracchus, The Life of Tiberius Gracchus, The Life of Marius, The Life of Pompey, The Life of Crassus, The Life of Cato the Younger, The Life of Cicero, The Life of Caesar, The Life of Antony. Macrobius Ambrosius Theodosius, Saturnalia. Publius Cornelius Tacitus, Annales (Annals), Historiae (Histories), De Origine et Situ Germanorum (The Origin and Situation of the Germans, or "Germania"). Stockton, David (1979). The Gracchi. Oxford University Press. Cornell, T. J. The Fragments of the Roman Historians (2013) Appianus Alexandrinus (Appian), Bellum Civile (The Civil War), Bella Mithridatica (The Mithridatic Wars) Gaius Sallustius Crispus (Sallust), Bellum Jugurthinum (The Jugurthine War). Auctor, De Viris Illustribus (On Illustrious Men) Julius Obsequens, Liber de Prodigiis (Book of Prodigies) Marcus Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History Hazel, John. Who's Who in the Roman World, Psychology Press (2001). Tyrrell, William B. Biography of Titus Labienus, Caesar's Lieutenant in Gaul. Diss. Michigan State Univ., 1970. 10 May 2007 Valerius Maximus, Factorum ac Dictorum Memorabilium (Memorable Facts and Sayings). Gaius Suetonius Tranquilis (Suetonius), Caligula, The Life Of Caesar Quintus Asconius Pedianus, Commentarius in Oratio Ciceronis Pro Milone (Commentary on Cicero's Oration Pro Milone). https://web.archive.org/web/20080422073924/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/1334.html Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Cassius s.v Quintus Cassius Longinus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 5 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Gaius Julius Caesar, De Bello Civili (On the Civil War) Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus (Cassius Dio), Roman History. Michel Crawford & Timothy Peter Wiseman, "The Coinage of the Age of Sulla", in The Numismatic Chronicle and Journal of the Royal Numismatic Society, Seventh Series, Vol. 4 (1964), pp. 141–158, Appendix II, pp. 156, 157. v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Roman_tribunes&oldid=994977241" Categories: Ancient Roman titles Lists of office-holders in ancient Rome Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Incomplete lists from June 2014 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Deutsch Español Polski Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 18 December 2020, at 15:13 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3563	----	History of the Roman Empire - Wikipedia History of the Roman Empire From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Occurrences and people in the Roman Empire Roman Empire Imperium Romanum  (Latin) Senatus populusque Romanus (SPQR) Senate and People of Rome[n 1] Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων  (Ancient Greek) Basileía Rhōmaíōn 27 BC – AD 395 395–480 (Western) 395–1453 (Eastern) 1204–1461 (Trebizond) 1374–1475 (Theodoro) Aureus of Augustus, the first Roman Emperor. The Roman Empire in AD 117, at its greatest extent.[1] Capital cities Rome Constantinople also: Antioch, Arelate, Augusta Treverorum, Mediolanum, Nicomedia, Ravenna, Sirmium Common languages Latin Greek numerous others Religion Roman polytheism Hellenistic polytheism Imperial cult numerous others official from 380 AD: Christianity Government Republic (de jure) Autocracy (de facto) Emperors   • 27 BC – AD 14 Augustus (first) • 98–117 Trajan • 284–305 Diocletian • 306–337 Constantine the Great • 379–395 Theodosius the Great • 474–480 Julius Neposa • 457–474 Leo the Great • 527–565 Justinian the Great • 610–641 Heraclius • 717–741 Leo III • 797–802 Irene • 960–1025 Basil II • 1143–1180 Manuel I Komnenos • 1259–1282 Michael VIII Palaiologos • 1449–1453 Constantine XIb Legislature Roman Senate Byzantine Senate Historical era Classical Antiquity to Late Middle Ages • Final War of the Roman Republic 32–30 BC • Empire established 30–2 BC • Empire at its greatest extent AD 117 • Constantinople inaugurated 11 May 330 • East–West division 17 January 395 • Fall of the West 4 September 476 • Sack of Constantinople 8–13 April 1204 • Reconquest of Constantinople 25 July 1261 • Fall of Constantinople 29 May 1453 Area 25 BC[2][3] 2,750,000 km2 (1,060,000 sq mi) AD 117 [2][4] 5,000,000 km2 (1,900,000 sq mi) AD 390 [2] 4,400,000 km2 (1,700,000 sq mi) Population • 25 BC[2][3] 56,800,000 Currency Sestertius, Aureus, Solidus, Nomismac Preceded by Succeeded by Roman Republic Byzantine Empire Today part of 54 countries  Albania  Algeria  Andorra  Armenia  Austria  Azerbaijan  Belgium  Bosnia and Herzegovina  Bulgaria  Croatia  Cyprus  Egypt  France  Georgia  Germany  Gibraltar  Greece  Guernsey  Hungary  Iran  Iraq  Israel  Italy  Jersey  Jordan  Kosovo  Kuwait  Lebanon  Liechtenstein  Libya  Luxembourg  Macedonia  Malta  Moldova  Monaco  Montenegro  Morocco  Netherlands  Palestine  Portugal  Romania  Russia  San Marino  Saudi Arabia  Serbia  Slovakia  Slovenia  Spain   Switzerland  Syria  Tunisia  Turkey  Ukraine  United Kingdom   Vatican City a Officially the final emperor of the Western empire. b Last emperor of the Eastern (Byzantine) empire. c Abbreviated "HS". Prices and values are usually expressed in sesterces; see below for currency denominations by period. Territorial development of the Roman Republic and of the Roman Empire (Animated map) The history of the Roman Empire covers the history of ancient Rome from the fall of the Roman Republic in 27 BC until the abdication of Romulus Augustulus in AD 476 in the West, and the Fall of Constantinople in the East in AD 1453. Ancient Rome became a territorial empire while still a republic, but was then ruled by Roman emperors beginning with Augustus (r. 27 BC – 14 AD), becoming the Roman Empire following the death of the last republican dictator, the first emperor's adoptive father Julius Caesar. Rome had begun expanding shortly after the founding of the Republic in the 6th century BC, though it did not expand outside of the Italian Peninsula until the 3rd century BC.[5][6][7][8] Civil war engulfed the Roman state in the mid 1st century BC, first between Julius Caesar and Pompey, and finally between Octavian and Mark Antony. Antony was defeated at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. In 27 BC the Senate and People of Rome made Octavian imperator ("commander") thus beginning the Principate, the first epoch of Roman imperial history usually dated from 27 BC to AD 284; they later awarded him the name Augustus, "the venerated". Subsequent emperors all took this name as the imperial title augustus. The success of Augustus in establishing principles of dynastic succession was limited by his outliving a number of talented potential heirs: the Julio-Claudian dynasty lasted for four more emperors—Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero—before it yielded in AD 69 to the strife-torn Year of the Four Emperors, from which Vespasian emerged as victor. Vespasian became the founder of the brief Flavian dynasty, to be followed by the Nerva–Antonine dynasty which produced the "Five Good Emperors": Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and the philosophically inclined Marcus Aurelius. In the view of the Greek historian Dio Cassius, a contemporary observer, the accession of the emperor Commodus in AD 180 marked the descent "from a kingdom of gold to one of rust and iron"[9]—a famous comment which has led some historians, notably Edward Gibbon, to take Commodus' reign as the beginning of the decline of the Roman Empire. In 212, during the reign of Caracalla, Roman citizenship was granted to all freeborn inhabitants of the Empire. Despite this gesture of universality, the Severan dynasty was tumultuous—an emperor's reign was ended routinely by his murder or execution—and following its collapse, the Roman Empire was engulfed by the Crisis of the Third Century, a period of invasions, civil strife, economic disorder, and epidemic disease.[10] In defining historical epochs, this crisis is typically viewed as marking the start of the Late Roman Empire,[11] and also the transition from Classical Antiquity to Late Antiquity. In the reign of Philip the Arab (r. 244–249), Rome celebrated the thousandth anniversary of her founding by Romulus and Remus with the Saecular Games. Diocletian (r. 284–305) restored stability to the empire, modifying the role of princeps and becoming the first emperor to be addressed by Roman citizens as domine, "master" or "lord"[12] or referred to as dominus noster "our lord". Diocletian's reign also brought the Empire's most concerted effort against the perceived threat of Christianity, the "Great Persecution". The state of absolute monarchy that began with Diocletian endured until the fall of the Eastern Roman Empire in 1453. Diocletian divided the empire into four regions, each ruled by an emperor (the Tetrarchy).[13] Confident that he fixed the disorders plaguing Rome, he abdicated along with his co-augustus, and the Tetrarchy eventually collapsed in the civil wars of the Tetrarchy. Order was eventually restored by the victories of Constantine, who became the first emperor to convert to Christianity, and who founded Constantinople as a new capital for the empire after defeating his co-emperor Licinius. The reign of Julian, who under the influence of his adviser Mardonius attempted to restore Classical Roman and Hellenistic religion, only briefly interrupted the succession of Christian emperors of the Constantinian dynasty. During the decades of the Valentinianic and Theodosian dynasties, the established practice of multiple emperors was continued. Theodosius I, the last emperor to rule over both the eastern empire and the whole western empire, died in AD 395 after making Christianity the official religion of the Empire.[14] The western Roman Empire began to disintegrate in the early 5th century as the Germanic migrations and invasions of the Migration Period overwhelmed the capacity of the Empire to assimilate the immigrants and fight off the invaders. Most chronologies place the end of the western Roman Empire in 476, when Romulus Augustulus was forced to abdicate to the Germanic warlord Odoacer.[15] By placing himself under the rule of the eastern emperor Zeno, rather than naming himself or a puppet ruler as emperor, as other Germanic chiefs, had done, Odoacer ended the separate Roman government of the western empire. The eastern empire exercised diminishing control over the west over the course of the next century. The empire in the east—known today as the Byzantine Empire, but referred to in its time as the "Roman Empire" or by various other names—ended in 1453 with the death of Constantine XI and the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks.[16] Contents 1 27 BC–AD 14: Augustus 1.1 Sources 2 14–68: Julio-Claudian Dynasty 2.1 14–37: Tiberius 2.2 37–41: Caligula 2.3 41–54: Claudius 2.4 54–68: Nero 3 68–69: Year of the Four Emperors 4 69–96: Flavian dynasty 4.1 69–79: Vespasian 4.2 79–81: Titus 4.3 81–96: Domitian 5 96–180: Five Good Emperors 5.1 96–98: Nerva 5.2 98–117: Trajan 5.3 117–138: Hadrian 5.4 138–161: Antoninus Pius 5.5 161–180: Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus 6 180–193: Commodus and the Year of the Five Emperors 6.1 Commodus 6.2 Pertinax 6.3 Didius Julianus 7 193–235: Severan dynasty 7.1 Septimius Severus (193–211) 7.2 Caracalla and Geta (198–217) 7.3 Interlude: Macrinus and Diadumenian (217–218) 7.4 Elagabalus (218–222) 7.5 Alexander Severus (222–235) 8 235–284: Crisis of the Third Century 9 Late Roman Empire 9.1 284–301: Diocletian and the Tetrarchy 9.2 324–363: Constantinian dynasty 9.2.1 Constantine and his sons 9.2.2 361–363: Julian 9.2.3 364: Jovian 9.3 364–392: Valentinianic dynasty 9.3.1 Valentinian and Valens 9.3.1.1 Battle of Adrianople (378) 9.3.2 Gratian and Valentinian II 9.3.2.1 383–388: rebellion of Magnus Maximus 9.4 379–457: Valentinianic–Theodosian dynasty 9.4.1 392–394: rebellion of Eugenius 9.4.2 395–423: Arcadius and Honorius 9.5 457–518: Leonid dynasty 9.5.1 Decline of the western Roman Empire 9.6 518–602 Justinian dynasty 10 Map gallery 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 27 BC–AD 14: Augustus[edit] Further information: Praetorian Guard, Roman triumph, Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, Arminius, and Publius Quinctilius Varus The Battle of Actium, by Laureys a Castro (1672) Octavian, the grandnephew and adopted son of Julius Caesar, had made himself a central military figure during the chaotic period following Caesar's assassination. In 43 BC at the age of twenty he became one of the three members of the Second Triumvirate, a political alliance with Marcus Lepidus and Mark Antony.[17] Octavian and Antony defeated the last of Caesar's assassins in 42 BC at the Battle of Philippi, although after this point, tensions began to rise between the two. The triumvirate ended in 32 BC, torn apart by the competing ambitions of its members: Lepidus was forced into exile and Antony, who had allied himself with his lover Queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt, committed suicide in 30 BC following his defeat at the Battle of Actium (31 BC) by the fleet of Octavian. Octavian subsequently annexed Egypt to the empire.[18] Now sole ruler of Rome, Octavian began a full-scale reformation of military, fiscal and political matters. The Senate granted him power over appointing its membership and several successive consulships, allowing Augustus to operate within the existing constitutional machinery and thus reject titles that Romans associated with monarchy, such as rex ("king"). The dictatorship, a military office in the early Republic typically lasting only for the six-month military campaigning season, had been resurrected first by Sulla in the late 80s BC and then by Julius Caesar in the mid-40s; the title dictator was never again used. As the adopted heir of Julius Caesar, Augustus had taken Caesar as a component of his name, and handed down the name to his heirs of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. With Vespasian, one of the first emperors outside the dynasty, Caesar evolved from a family name to the imperial title caesar. Augustus created his novel and historically unique position by consolidating the constitutional powers of several Republican offices. He renounced his consulship in 23 BC, but retained his consular imperium, leading to a second compromise between Augustus and the Senate known as the Second Settlement. Augustus was granted the authority of a tribune (tribunicia potestas), though not the title, which allowed him to call together the Senate and people at will and lay business before it, veto the actions of either the Assembly or the Senate, preside over elections, and it gave him the right to speak first at any meeting. Also included in Augustus's tribunician authority were powers usually reserved for the Roman censor; these included the right to supervise public morals and scrutinize laws to ensure they were in the public interest, as well as the ability to hold a census and determine the membership of the Senate. No tribune of Rome ever had these powers, and there was no precedent within the Roman system for consolidating the powers of the tribune and the censor into a single position, nor was Augustus ever elected to the office of Censor. Whether censorial powers were granted to Augustus as part of his tribunician authority, or he simply assumed those, is a matter of debate. In addition to those powers, Augustus was granted sole imperium within the city of Rome itself; all armed forces in the city, formerly under the control of the prefects, were now under the sole authority of Augustus. Additionally, Augustus was granted imperium proconsulare maius (power over all proconsuls), the right to interfere in any province and override the decisions of any governor. With imperium maius, Augustus was the only individual able to grant a triumph to a successful general as he was ostensibly the leader of the entire Roman army. The Senate re-classified the provinces at the frontiers (where the vast majority of the legions were stationed) as imperial provinces, and gave control of those to Augustus. The peaceful provinces were re-classified as senatorial provinces, governed as they had been during the Republic by members of the Senate sent out annually by the central government.[19] Senators were prohibited from so much as visiting Roman Egypt, given its great wealth and history as a base of power for opposition to the new emperor. Taxes from the Imperial provinces went into the fiscus, the fund administrated by persons chosen by and answerable to Augustus. The revenue from senatorial provinces continued to be sent to the state treasury (aerarium), under the supervision of the Senate. The Augustus of Prima Porta The Roman legions, which had reached an unprecedented 50 in number because of the civil wars, were reduced to 28. Several legions, particularly those with members of doubtful loyalties, were simply disbanded. Other legions were united, a fact hinted by the title Gemina (Twin).[20] Augustus also created nine special cohorts to maintain peace in Italia, with three, the Praetorian Guard, kept in Rome. Control of the fiscus enabled Augustus to ensure the loyalty of the legions through their pay. Augustus completed the conquest of Hispania, while subordinate generals expanded Roman possessions in Africa and Asia Minor. Augustus' final task was to ensure an orderly succession of his powers. His stepson Tiberius had conquered Pannonia, Dalmatia, Raetia, and temporarily Germania for the Empire, and was thus a prime candidate. In 6 BC, Augustus granted some of his powers to his stepson,[21] and soon after he recognized Tiberius as his heir. In AD 13, a law was passed which extended Augustus' powers over the provinces to Tiberius,[22] so that Tiberius' legal powers were equivalent to, and independent from, those of Augustus.[22] Attempting to secure the borders of the empire upon the rivers Danube and Elbe, Augustus ordered the invasions of Illyria, Moesia, and Pannonia (south of the Danube), and Germania (west of the Elbe). At first everything went as planned, but then disaster struck. The Illyrian tribes revolted and had to be crushed, and three full legions under the command of Publius Quinctilius Varus were ambushed and destroyed at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in AD 9 by Germanic tribes led by Arminius. Being cautious, Augustus secured all territories west of Rhine and contented himself with retaliatory raids. The rivers Rhine and Danube became the permanent borders of the Roman empire in the North. In AD 14 Augustus died at the age of seventy-five, having ruled the empire for forty years, and was succeeded as emperor by Tiberius. Sources[edit] Left image: A Roman fresco from Pompeii showing a Maenad in silk dress, 1st century AD Right image: A fresco of a young man from the Villa di Arianna, Stabiae, 1st century AD. The Augustan Age is not as well documented as the age of Caesar and Cicero. Livy wrote his history during Augustus's reign and covered all of Roman history through 9 BC, but only epitomes survive of his coverage of the late Republican and Augustan periods. Important primary sources for the Augustan period include: Res Gestae Divi Augusti, Augustus's highly partisan autobiography, Historiae Romanae by Velleius Paterculus, the best annals of the Augustan period, Controversiae and Suasoriae of Seneca the Elder. Works of poetry such as Ovid's Fasti and Propertius's Fourth Book, legislation and engineering also provide important insights into Roman life of the time. Archaeology, including maritime archaeology, aerial surveys, epigraphic inscriptions on buildings, and Augustan coinage, has also provided valuable evidence about economic, social and military conditions. Secondary ancient sources on the Augustan Age include Tacitus, Dio Cassius, Plutarch and Lives of the Twelve Caesars by Suetonius. Josephus's Jewish Antiquities is the important source for Judea,which became a province during Augustus's reign. 14–68: Julio-Claudian Dynasty[edit] Main article: Julio-Claudian dynasty The Great Cameo of France, a cameo five layers sardonyx, Rome, c. AD 23, depicting the emperor Tiberius seated with his mother Livia and in front of his designated heir Germanicus, with the latter's wife Agrippina the Elder; above them float the deceased members of their house: Augustus, Drusus Julius Caesar, and Nero Claudius Drusus The Portland Vase, AD 5–25, cameo glass Augustus had three grandsons by his daughter Julia the Elder: Gaius Caesar, Lucius Caesar and Agrippa Postumus. None of the three lived long enough to succeed him. He therefore was succeeded by his stepson Tiberius. Tiberius was the son of Livia, the third wife of Octavian, by her first marriage to Tiberius Nero. Augustus was a scion of the gens Julia (the Julian family), one of the most ancient patrician clans of Rome, while Tiberius was a scion of the gens Claudia, only slightly less ancient than the Julians. Their three immediate successors were all descended both from the gens Claudia, through Tiberius' brother Nero Claudius Drusus, and from gens Julia, either through Julia the Elder, Augustus' daughter from his first marriage (Caligula and Nero), or through Augustus' sister Octavia Minor (Claudius). Historians thus refer to their dynasty as "Julio-Claudian". 14–37: Tiberius[edit] Main article: Tiberius The early years of Tiberius's reign were relatively peaceful. Tiberius secured the overall power of Rome and enriched its treasury. However, his rule soon became characterized by paranoia. He began a series of treason trials and executions, which continued until his death in 37.[23] He left power in the hands of the commander of the guard, Lucius Aelius Sejanus. Tiberius himself retired to live at his villa on the island of Capri in 26, leaving administration in the hands of Sejanus, who carried on the persecutions with contentment. Sejanus also began to consolidate his own power; in 31 he was named co-consul with Tiberius and married Livilla, the emperor's niece. At this point he was "hoist by his own petard": the emperor's paranoia, which he had so ably exploited for his own gain, turned against him. Sejanus was put to death, along with many of his associates, the same year. The persecutions continued until Tiberius' death in 37. 37–41: Caligula[edit] Main article: Caligula At the time of Tiberius's death most of the people who might have succeeded him had been killed. The logical successor (and Tiberius' own choice) was his 24-year-old grandnephew, Gaius, better known as "Caligula" ("little boots"). Caligula was a son of Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder. His paternal grandparents were Nero Claudius Drusus and Antonia Minor, and his maternal grandparents were Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia the Elder. He was thus a descendant of both Augustus and Livia. Marble bust of Caligula, the Louvre Caligula started out well, by putting an end to the persecutions and burning his uncle's records. Unfortunately, he quickly lapsed into illness. The Caligula that emerged in late 37 demonstrated features of mental instability that led modern commentators to diagnose him with such illnesses as encephalitis, which can cause mental derangement, hyperthyroidism, or even a nervous breakdown (perhaps brought on by the stress of his position). Whatever the cause, there was an obvious shift in his reign from this point on, leading his biographers to label him as insane. Most of what history remembers of Caligula comes from Suetonius, in his book Lives of the Twelve Caesars. According to Suetonius, Caligula once planned to appoint his favourite horse Incitatus to the Roman Senate. He ordered his soldiers to invade Britain to fight the sea god Neptune, but changed his mind at the last minute and had them pick sea shells on the northern end of France instead. It is believed he carried on incestuous relations with his three sisters: Julia Livilla, Drusilla and Agrippina the Younger. He ordered a statue of himself to be erected in Herod's Temple at Jerusalem, which would have undoubtedly led to revolt had he not been dissuaded from this plan by his friend king Agrippa I. He ordered people to be secretly killed, and then called them to his palace. When they did not appear, he would jokingly remark that they must have committed suicide. In 41, Caligula was assassinated by the commander of the guard Cassius Chaerea. Also killed were his fourth wife Caesonia and their daughter Julia Drusilla. For two days following his assassination, the senate debated the merits of restoring the Republic.[24] 41–54: Claudius[edit] Main article: Claudius Claudius was a younger brother of Germanicus, and had long been considered a weakling and a fool by the rest of his family. The Praetorian Guard, however, acclaimed him as emperor. Claudius was neither paranoid like his uncle Tiberius, nor insane like his nephew Caligula, and was therefore able to administer the Empire with reasonable ability. He improved the bureaucracy and streamlined the citizenship and senatorial rolls. He ordered the construction of a winter port at Ostia Antica for Rome, thereby providing a place for grain from other parts of the Empire to be brought in inclement weather. Claudius ordered the suspension of further attacks across the Rhine,[25] setting what was to become the permanent limit of the Empire's expansion in that direction.[26] In 43, he resumed the Roman conquest of Britannia that Julius Caesar had begun in the 50s BC, and incorporated more Eastern provinces into the empire. In his own family life, Claudius was less successful. His wife Messalina cuckolded him; when he found out, he had her executed and married his niece, Agrippina the Younger. She, along with several of his freedmen, held an inordinate amount of power over him, and although there are conflicting accounts about his death, she may very well have poisoned him in 54.[27] Claudius was deified later that year. The death of Claudius paved the way for Agrippina's own son, the 17-year-old Lucius Domitius Nero. 54–68: Nero[edit] Main article: Nero Nero ruled from 54 to 68. During his rule, Nero focused much of his attention on diplomacy, trade, and increasing the cultural capital of the empire. He ordered the building of theatres and promoted athletic games. His reign included the Roman–Parthian War (a successful war and negotiated peace with the Parthian Empire (58–63)), the suppression of a revolt led by Boudica in Britannia (60–61) and the improvement of cultural ties with Greece. However, he was egotistical and had severe troubles with his mother, who he felt was controlling and over-bearing. After several attempts to kill her, he finally had her stabbed to death. He believed himself a god and decided to build an opulent palace for himself. The so-called Domus Aurea, meaning golden house in Latin, was constructed atop the burnt remains of Rome after the Great Fire of Rome (64). Because of the convenience of this many believe that Nero was ultimately responsible for the fire, spawning the legend of him fiddling while Rome burned which is almost certainly untrue. The Domus Aurea was a colossal feat of construction that covered a huge space and demanded new methods of construction in order to hold up the golden, jewel-encrusted ceilings. By this time Nero was hugely unpopular despite his attempts to blame the Christians for most of his regime's problems. A military coup drove Nero into hiding. Facing execution at the hands of the Roman Senate, he reportedly committed suicide in 68. According to Cassius Dio, Nero's last words were "Jupiter, what an artist perishes in me!"[28][29] 68–69: Year of the Four Emperors[edit] Main article: Year of the Four Emperors v t e Year of the Four Emperors Forum Julii Placentia Locus Castorum 1st Bedriacum 2nd Bedriacum Castra Vetera Augusta Treverorum Since he had no heir, Nero's suicide was followed by a brief period of civil war, known as the "Year of the Four Emperors". Between June 68 and December 69, Rome witnessed the successive rise and fall of Galba, Otho and Vitellius until the final accession of Vespasian, first ruler of the Flavian dynasty. The military and political anarchy created by this civil war had serious implications, such as the outbreak of the Batavian rebellion. These events showed that a military power alone could create an emperor.[30] Augustus had established a standing army, where individual soldiers served under the same military governors over an extended period of time. The consequence was that the soldiers in the provinces developed a degree of loyalty to their commanders, which they did not have for the emperor. Thus the Empire was, in a sense, a union of inchoate principalities, which could have disintegrated at any time.[31] Through his sound fiscal policy, the emperor Vespasian was able to build up a surplus in the treasury, and began construction on the Colosseum. Titus, Vespasian's successor, quickly proved his merit, although his short reign was marked by disaster, including the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in Pompeii. He held the opening ceremonies in the still unfinished Colosseum, but died in 81. His brother Domitian succeeded him. Having exceedingly poor relations with the Senate, Domitian was murdered in September 96. 69–96: Flavian dynasty[edit] Main article: Flavian dynasty Roman trade with India according to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, 1st century AD The Flavians, although a relatively short-lived dynasty, helped restore stability to an empire on its knees. Although all three have been criticised, especially based on their more centralised style of rule, they issued reforms that created a stable enough empire to last well into the 3rd century. However, their background as a military dynasty led to further marginalisation of the Roman Senate, and a conclusive move away from princeps, or first citizen, and toward imperator, or emperor. 69–79: Vespasian[edit] Main article: Vespasian Vespasian was a remarkably successful Roman general who had been given rule over much of the eastern part of the Roman Empire. He had supported the imperial claims of Galba, after whose death Vespasian became a major contender for the throne. Following the suicide of Otho, Vespasian was able to take control of Rome's winter grain supply in Egypt, placing him in a good position to defeat his remaining rival, Vitellius. On December 20, 69, some of Vespasian's partisans were able to occupy Rome. Vitellius was murdered by his own troops and, the next day, Vespasian, then sixty years old, was confirmed as emperor by the Senate. Although Vespasian was considered an autocrat by the Senate, he mostly continued the weakening of that body begun in the reign of Tiberius. The degree of the Senate's subservience can be seen from the post-dating of his accession to power, by the Senate, to July 1, when his troops proclaimed him emperor, instead of December 21, when the Senate confirmed his appointment. Another example was his assumption of the censorship in 73, giving him power over the make up of the Senate. He used that power to expel dissident senators. At the same time, he increased the number of senators from 200 (at that low level because of the actions of Nero and the year of crisis that followed), to 1,000; most of the new senators came not from Rome but from Italy and the urban centres within the western provinces. Vespasian commissioned the Colosseum in Rome. Polyphemus hears of the arrival of Galatea, ancient Roman fresco painted in the "Fourth Style" of Pompeii (AD 45–79) Vespasian was able to liberate Rome from the financial burdens placed upon it by Nero's excesses and the civil wars. To do this, he not only increased taxes, but created new forms of taxation. Also, through his power as censor, he was able to carefully examine the fiscal status of every city and province, many paying taxes based upon information and structures more than a century old. Through this sound fiscal policy, he was able to build up a surplus in the treasury and embark on public works projects. It was he who first commissioned the Amphitheatrum Flavium (Colosseum); he also built a forum whose centrepiece was a temple to Peace. In addition, he allotted sizeable subsidies to the arts, and created a chair of rhetoric at Rome. Vespasian was also an effective emperor for the provinces, having posts all across the empire, both east and west. In the west he gave considerable favouritism to Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula, comprising modern Spain and Portugal) in which he granted Latin Rights to over three hundred towns and cities, promoting a new era of urbanisation throughout the western (formerly barbarian) provinces. Through the additions he made to the Senate he allowed greater influence of the provinces in the Senate, helping to promote unity in the empire. He also extended the borders of the empire, mostly done to help strengthen the frontier defenses, one of Vespasian's main goals. The crisis of 69 had wrought havoc on the army. One of the most marked problems had been the support lent by provincial legions to men who supposedly represented the best will of their province. This was mostly caused by the placement of native auxiliary units in the areas they were recruited in, a practice Vespasian stopped; he mixed auxiliary units with men from other areas of the empire or moved the units away from where they were recruited. Also, to reduce further the chances of another military coup, he broke up the legions and, instead of placing them in singular concentrations, spread them along the border. Perhaps the most important military reform he undertook was the extension of legion recruitment from exclusively Italy to Gaul and Hispania, in line with the Romanisation of those areas. 79–81: Titus[edit] Main article: Titus Roman fresco with a banquet scene from the Casa dei Casti Amanti, Pompeii Titus, the eldest son of Vespasian, had been groomed to rule. He had served as an effective general under his father, helping to secure the east and eventually taking over the command of Roman armies in Syria and Iudaea, quelling a significant Jewish revolt at the time. He shared the consulship for several years with his father and received the best tutelage. Although there was some trepidation when he took office because of his known dealings with some of the less respectable elements of Roman society, he quickly proved his merit, even recalling many exiled by his father as a show of good faith. However, his short reign was marked by disaster: in 79, Mount Vesuvius erupted in Pompeii, and in 80, a fire destroyed much of Rome. His generosity in rebuilding after these tragedies made him very popular. Titus was very proud of his work on the vast amphitheater begun by his father. He held the opening ceremonies in the still unfinished edifice during the year 80, celebrating with a lavish show that featured 100 gladiators and lasted 100 days. Titus died in 81 at the age of 41 of what is presumed to be illness; it was rumoured that his brother Domitian murdered him in order to become his successor, although these claims have little merit. Whatever the case, he was greatly mourned and missed. 81–96: Domitian[edit] Main article: Domitian All of the Flavians had rather poor relations with the Senate due to their autocratic rule; however, Domitian was the only one who encountered significant problems. His continuous control as consul and censor throughout his rule—the former his father shared in much the same way as his Julio-Claudian forerunners, the latter presented difficulty even to obtain—were unheard of. In addition, he often appeared in full military regalia as an imperator, an affront to the idea of what the Principate-era emperor's power was based upon: the emperor as the princeps. His reputation in the Senate aside, he kept the people of Rome happy through various measures, including donations to every resident of Rome, wild spectacles in the newly finished Colosseum, and the continuation of the public works projects of his father and brother. He also apparently had the good fiscal sense of his father; although he spent lavishly, his successors came to power with a well-endowed treasury. Domitian repelled the Dacians in his Dacian War; the Dacians had sought to conquer Moesia, south of the Danube in the Roman Balkans. Toward the end of his reign Domitian became extremely paranoid, which probably had its roots in the treatment he received by his father: although given significant responsibility, he was never trusted with anything important without supervision. This flowered into the severe and perhaps pathological repercussions following the short-lived rebellion in 89 of Lucius Antonius Saturninus, a governor and commander in Germania Superior. Domitian's paranoia led to a large number of arrests, executions, and seizures of property (which might help explain his ability to spend so lavishly). Eventually it reached the point where even his closest advisers and family members lived in fear. This led to his murder in 96, orchestrated by his enemies in the Senate, Stephanus (the steward of the deceased Julia Flavia), members of the Praetorian Guard and the empress Domitia Longina. 96–180: Five Good Emperors[edit] Situation of Eurasia in 2nd Century AD Main article: Nerva–Antonine dynasty The next century came to be known as the period of the "Five Good Emperors", in which the succession was peaceful and the Empire prosperous. The emperors of this period were Nerva (96–98), Trajan (98–117), Hadrian (117–138), Antoninus Pius (138–161) and Marcus Aurelius (161–180), each one adopted by his predecessor as his successor during the former's lifetime. While their respective choices of successor were based upon the merits of the individual men they selected rather than dynastic, it has been argued that the real reason for the lasting success of the adoptive scheme of succession lay more with the fact that none but the last had a natural heir. The last two emperors of the "Five Good Emperors" and Commodus are also called Antonines. 96–98: Nerva[edit] Main article: Nerva After his accession, Nerva set a new tone: he released those imprisoned for treason, banned future prosecutions for treason, restored much confiscated property, and involved the Roman Senate in his rule. He probably did so as a means to remain relatively popular and therefore alive, but this did not completely aid him. Support for Domitian in the army remained strong, and in October 97 the Praetorian Guard laid siege to the Imperial Palace on the Palatine Hill and took Nerva hostage. He was forced to submit to their demands, agreeing to hand over those responsible for Domitian's death and even giving a speech thanking the rebellious Praetorians. Nerva then adopted Trajan, a commander of the armies on the German frontier, as his successor shortly thereafter in order to bolster his own rule. Casperius Aelianus, the Guard Prefect responsible for the mutiny against Nerva, was later executed under Trajan. 98–117: Trajan[edit] Trajan's Column, marble with stone-carved reliefs that show various scenes depicting events of Trajan's Dacian Wars Main article: Trajan Upon his accession to the throne, Trajan prepared and launched a carefully planned military invasion in Dacia, a region north of the lower Danube whose inhabitants the Dacians had long been an opponent to Rome. In 101, Trajan personally crossed the Danube and defeated the armies of the Dacian king Decebalus at the Battle of Tapae. The emperor decided not to press on towards a final conquest as his armies needed reorganisation, but he did impose very hard peace conditions on the Dacians. At Rome, Trajan was received as a hero and he took the name of Dacicus, a title that appears on his coinage of this period.[32] Decebalus complied with the terms for a time, but before long he began inciting revolt. In 105 Trajan once again invaded and after a yearlong invasion ultimately defeated the Dacians by conquering their capital, Sarmizegetusa Regia. King Decebalus, cornered by the Roman cavalry, eventually committed suicide rather than being captured and humiliated in Rome. The conquest of Dacia was a major accomplishment for Trajan, who ordered 123 days of celebration throughout the empire. He also constructed Trajan's Column in the middle of Trajan's Forum in Rome to glorify the victory. The maximum extent of the Roman Empire under Trajan (117) In 112, Trajan was provoked by the decision of Osroes I to put his own nephew Axidares on the throne of the Kingdom of Armenia. The Arsacid dynasty of Armenia was a branch of the Parthian royal family established in 54. Since then, the two great empires had shared hegemony of Armenia. The encroachment on the traditional Roman sphere of influence by Osroes ended the peace which had lasted for some 50 years.[33] Trajan first invaded Armenia. He deposed the king and annexed it to the Roman Empire. Then he turned south into Parthian territory in Mesopotamia, taking the cities of Babylon, Seleucia and finally the capital of Ctesiphon in 116, while suppressing the Kitos War, a Jewish uprising across the eastern provinces. He continued southward to the Persian Gulf, whence he took Mesopotamia as a new province of the empire and lamented that he was too old to follow in the steps of Alexander the Great and continue his invasion eastward. But he did not stop there. In 116, he captured the great city of Susa. He deposed the emperor Osroes I and put his own puppet ruler Parthamaspates on the throne. Not until the reign of Heraclius would the Roman army push so far to the east, and Roman territory never again reached so far eastward. During his rule, the Roman Empire reached its greatest extent; it was quite possible for a Roman to travel from Britain to the Persian Gulf without leaving Roman territory. 117–138: Hadrian[edit] Main article: Hadrian Parts of Hadrian's Wall in Britain remain to this day. Despite his own excellence as a military administrator, Hadrian's reign was marked more by the defense of the empire's vast territories, rather than major military conflicts. He surrendered Trajan's conquests in Mesopotamia, considering them to be indefensible. There was almost a war with Vologases III of Parthia around 121, but the threat was averted when Hadrian succeeded in negotiating a peace. Hadrian's army crushed the Bar Kokhba revolt, a massive Jewish uprising in Judea (132–135). Hadrian was the first emperor to extensively tour the provinces, donating money for local construction projects as he went. In Britain, he ordered the construction of a wall, the famous Hadrian's Wall as well as various other such defences in Germania and North Africa. His domestic policy was one of relative peace and prosperity. 138–161: Antoninus Pius[edit] Main article: Antoninus Pius Antoninus Pius's reign was comparatively peaceful; there were several military disturbances throughout the Empire in his time, in Mauretania, Judaea, and amongst the Brigantes in Britain, but none of them are considered serious. The unrest in Britain is believed to have led to the construction of the Antonine Wall from the Firth of Forth to the Firth of Clyde, although it was soon abandoned. 161–180: Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus[edit] Main articles: Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus Marcus Aurelius Green Roman glass cup unearthed from an Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 25–220) tomb, Guangxi, China Germanic tribes and other people launched many raids along the long north European border, particularly into Gaul and across the Danube—Germans, these in turn, may have been under attack from more warlike tribes farther east, driving them into the empire. His campaigns against them are commemorated on the Column of Marcus Aurelius. In Asia, a revitalised Parthian Empire renewed its assault. Marcus Aurelius sent his co-emperor Lucius Verus to command the legions in the East. Lucius was authoritative enough to command the full loyalty of the troops, but already powerful enough that he had little incentive to overthrow Marcus. The plan succeeded—Verus remained loyal until his death, while on campaign, in 169. In 175, while on campaign in the northern Germany in the Marcomannic Wars, Marcus was forced to contend with a rebellion by Avidius Cassius, a general who had been an officer during the wars against Persia. Cassius proclaimed himself Roman Emperor and took the provinces of Egypt and Syria as his part of the empire. It is said that Cassius had revolted as he had heard word that Marcus was dead. After three months Cassius was assassinated and Marcus restored the eastern part of the empire. In the last years of his life Marcus, a philosopher as well as an emperor, wrote his book of Stoic philosophy known as the Meditations. The book has since been hailed as Marcus' great contribution to philosophy. When Marcus died in 180 the throne passed to his son Commodus, who had been elevated to the rank of co-emperor in 177. This ended the succession plan of the previous four emperors where the emperor would adopt his successor, although Marcus was the first emperor since Vespasian to have a natural son that could succeed him, which probably was the reason he allowed the throne to pass to Commodus and not adopt a successor from outside his family. It is possible that an alleged Roman embassy from "Daqin" that arrived in Eastern Han China in 166 via a Roman maritime route into the South China Sea, landing at Jiaozhou (northern Vietnam) and bearing gifts for the Emperor Huan of Han (r. 146–168), was sent by Marcus Aurelius, or his predecessor Antoninus Pius (the confusion stems from the transliteration of their names as "Andun", Chinese: 安敦).[34][35] The embassy was perhaps simply a group of Roman merchants, not official diplomats.[36] Other Roman embassies of the 3rd century supposedly visited China by sailing along the same maritime route.[35] These were preceded by the appearance of Roman glasswares in Chinese tombs, the earliest piece found at Guangzhou (along the coast of the South China Sea) and dating to the 1st century BC.[37] The earliest Roman coins found in China date to the 4th century AD and appear to have come by way of the Silk Road through Central Asia.[38] However, Roman golden medallions from the reign of Antoninus Pius, and possibly his successor Marcus Aurelius, have been discovered at Óc Eo (in southern Vietnam), which was then part of the kingdom of Funan near Chinese-controlled Jiaozhi (northern Vietnam) and the region where Chinese historical texts claim the Romans first landed before venturing further into China to conduct diplomacy.[39][40] Furthermore, in his Geography (c. 150 AD), Ptolemy described the location of the Golden Chersonese, now known as the Malay Peninsula, and beyond this a trading port called Kattigara. Ferdinand von Richthofen assumed this as Hanoi, yet the Roman and Mediterranean artefacts found at Óc Eo suggest this location instead.[39][41] 180–193: Commodus and the Year of the Five Emperors[edit] Main article: Year of the Five Emperors Commodus[edit] Main article: Commodus A bust of Commodus, depicting him as the legendary Heracles (i.e. Hercules) wearing the skins of the Nemean lion The period of the "Five Good Emperors" was brought to an end by the reign of Commodus from 180 to 192. Commodus was the son of Marcus Aurelius, making him the first direct successor in a century, breaking the scheme of adoptive successors that had worked so well. He was co-emperor with his father from 177. When he became sole emperor upon the death of his father in 180, it was at first seen as a hopeful sign by the people of the Roman Empire. Nevertheless, as generous and magnanimous as his father was, Commodus was just the opposite. In The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire by Edward Gibbon, it is noted that Commodus at first ruled the empire well. However, after an assassination attempt, involving a conspiracy by certain members of his family, Commodus became paranoid and slipped into insanity. The Pax Romana, or "Roman Peace", ended with the reign of Commodus. One could argue that the assassination attempt began the long decline of the Roman Empire. When Commodus' behaviour became increasingly erratic throughout the early 190s, Pertinax is thought to have been implicated in the conspiracy that led to Commodus' assassination on 31 December 192.[citation needed] The plot was carried out by the Praetorian prefect Quintus Aemilius Laetus, Commodus' mistress Marcia, and his chamberlain Eclectus.[42] Pertinax[edit] Main article: Pertinax After the murder had been carried out, Pertinax, who was serving as urban prefect at this time, was hurried to the Praetorian Camp and proclaimed emperor the following morning.[43] His short reign (86 days) was an uneasy one. He attempted to emulate the restrained practices of Marcus Aurelius, and made an effort to reform the welfare program for poor children but he faced antagonism from many quarters.[44] His monetary reform was far-sighted, but would not survive his death. He attempted to impose stricter military discipline upon the pampered Praetorians.[45] In early March he narrowly averted one conspiracy by a group to replace him with the consul Quintus Sosius Falco while he was in Ostia inspecting the arrangements for grain shipments.[46] The plot was betrayed; Falco himself was pardoned but several of the officers behind the coup were executed.[47] On 28 March 193, Pertinax was at his palace when a contingent of some three hundred soldiers of the Praetorian Guard rushed the gates[48] (two hundred according to Cassius Dio).[49] Sources suggest that they had received only half their promised pay.[46] Neither the guards on duty nor the palace officials chose to resist them. Pertinax sent Laetus to meet them, but he chose to side with the insurgents instead and deserted the emperor.[50] Although advised to flee, he then attempted to reason with them, and was almost successful before being struck down by one of the soldiers.[51] The Praetorian Guards auctioned off the imperial position, which Senator Didius Julianus won and became the new emperor.[citation needed] Didius Julianus[edit] Main article: Didius Julianus Bust of Clodius Albinus (d. 197), a usurper who was proclaimed emperor after the assassination of Pertinax Upon his accession, Julianus immediately devalued the Roman currency by decreasing the silver purity of the denarius from 87% to 81.5%.[52] After the initial confusion had subsided, the population did not tamely submit to the dishonor brought upon Rome.[53][54][55] Whenever Julianus appeared in public he was saluted with groans, imprecations, and shouts of "robber and parricide."[56] The mob tried to obstruct his progress to the Capitol, and even threw stones.[57] When news of the public anger in Rome spread across the Empire, the generals Pescennius Niger in Syria, Septimius Severus in Pannonia, and Clodius Albinus in Britain, each having three legions under his command, refused to recognize the authority of Julianus.[58][59] Julianus declared Severus a public enemy because he was the nearest of the three and, therefore, the most dangerous foe.[60][61] Deputies were sent from the Senate to persuade the soldiers to abandon him;[61] a new general was nominated to supersede him, and a centurion dispatched to take his life.[62] The Praetorian Guard, lacking discipline and sunk in debauchery and sloth, were incapable of offering any effectual resistance.[63] Julianus, now desperate, attempted negotiation and offered to share the empire with his rival.[64][65] [66][67] Severus ignored these overtures and pressed forward, all Italy declaring for him as he advanced.[68] At last the Praetorians, having received assurances that they would suffer no punishment – provided they surrendered the actual murderers of Pertinax – seized the ringleaders of the conspiracy and reported what they had done to Silius Messala, the consul, by whom the Senate was summoned and informed of the proceedings.[69] Julianus was killed in the palace by a soldier in the third month of his reign (1 June 193).[70][71] Severus dismissed the Praetorian Guard and executed the soldiers who had killed Pertinax.[72] According to Cassius Dio, who lived in Rome during the period, Julianus's last words were "But what evil have I done? Whom have I killed?"[70] His body was given to his wife and daughter, who buried it in his great-grandfather's tomb by the fifth milestone on the Via Labicana.[73] 193–235: Severan dynasty[edit] Septimius Severus (193–211)[edit] Main article: Septimius Severus The empire under Septimius Severus (210) Lucius Septimius Severus was born to a family of Phoenician equestrian rank in the Roman province of Africa proconsularis. He rose through military service to consular rank under the later Antonines. Proclaimed emperor in 193 by his legionaries in Noricum during the political unrest that followed the death of Commodus, he secured sole rule over the empire in 197 after defeating his last rival, Clodius Albinus, at the Battle of Lugdunum. In securing his position as emperor, he founded the Severan dynasty. Severus fought a successful war against the Parthians and campaigned with success against barbarian incursions in Roman Britain, rebuilding Hadrian's Wall. In Rome, his relations with the Senate were poor, but he was popular with the commoners, as with his soldiers, whose salary he raised. Starting in 197, the influence of his Praetorian prefect Gaius Fulvius Plautianus was a negative influence; the latter was executed in 205. One of Plautianus's successors was the jurist Papinian. Severus continued official persecution of Christians and Jews, as they were the only two groups who would not assimilate their beliefs to the official syncretistic creed. Severus died while campaigning in Britain. He was succeeded by his sons Caracalla and Geta, whom he made his co-augusti and who reigned under the influence of their mother, Julia Domna. Caracalla and Geta (198–217)[edit] Main articles: Caracalla and Geta (emperor) Caracalla and Geta, Lawrence Alma-Tadema (1907). The eldest son of Severus, Caracalla was born Lucius Septimius Bassianus in Lugdunum, Gaul. "Caracalla" was a nickname referring to the Gallic hooded tunic he habitually wore even when he slept. Before his father's death, Caracalla was proclaimed co-emperor with his father and brother Geta. Conflict between the two culminated in the assassination of the latter. Unlike the much more successful joint reign of Marcus Aurelius and his brother Lucius Verus in the previous century, relations were hostile between the two Severid brothers from childhood. Geta was assassinated in his mother's apartments by order of Caracalla, who thereafter ruled as sole augustus. Reigning alone, Caracalla was noted for lavish bribes to the legionaries and unprecedented cruelty, authorizing numerous assassinations of perceived enemies and rivals. He campaigned with indifferent success against the Alamanni. The Baths of Caracalla in Rome are the most enduring monument of his rule. His reign was also notable for the Antonine Constitution (Latin: Constitutio Antoniniana), also known as the Edict of Caracalla, which granted Roman citizenship to nearly all freemen throughout the Roman Empire. He was assassinated while en route to a campaign against the Parthians by the Praetorian Guard. Severan dynasty family tree Interlude: Macrinus and Diadumenian (217–218)[edit] Main article: Macrinus Macrinus was born in 164 at Caesarea. Although coming from a humble background that was not dynastically related to the Severan dynasty, he rose through the imperial household until, under the emperor Caracalla, he was made prefect of the Praetorian Guard. On account of the cruelty and treachery of the emperor, Macrinus became involved in a conspiracy to kill him, and ordered the Praetorian Guard to do so. On April 8, 217, Caracalla was assassinated traveling to Carrhae. Three days later, Macrinus was declared augustus. Diadumenian was the son of Macrinus, born in 208. He was given the title caesar in 217, when his father became augustus, and raised to co-augustus the following year. His most significant early decision was to make peace with the Parthian Empire, but many thought that the terms were degrading to the Romans. However, his downfall was his refusal to award the pay and privileges promised to the eastern troops by Caracalla. He also kept those forces wintered in Syria, where they became attracted to the young Elagabalus. After months of mild rebellion by the bulk of the army in Syria, Macrinus took his loyal troops to meet the army of Elagabalus near Antioch. Despite a good fight by the Praetorian Guard, his soldiers were defeated. Macrinus managed to escape to Chalcedon but his authority was lost: he was betrayed and executed after a short reign of just 14 months. After his father's defeat outside Antioch, Diadumenian tried to escape east to Parthia, but was captured and killed. Elagabalus (218–222)[edit] Main article: Elagabalus Roman aureus depicting Elagabalus. The reverse commemorates the sun god Elagabal. Born Varius Avitus Bassianus on 16 May 205, known later as M. Aurelius Antonius, he was appointed at an early age to be priest of the sun god, Elagabalus, represented by a large, dark rock called a baetyl, by which name he is known to historians (his name is sometimes written "Heliogabalus"). He was proclaimed emperor by the troops of Emesa, his hometown, who were instigated to do so by Elagabalus's grandmother, Julia Maesa. She spread a rumor that Elagabalus was the secret son of Caracalla. This revolt spread to the entire Syrian army (which, at the time, was swollen with troops raised by the emperor Caracalla, and not fully loyal to Macrinus), and eventually they were to win the short struggle that followed by defeating Macrinus at a battle just outside Antioch. Elagabalus was then accepted by the Senate, and he began the slow journey to Rome. His reign in Rome has long been known for outrageousness, although the historical sources are few, and in many cases not to be fully trusted. He is said to have smothered guests at a banquet by flooding the room with rose petals; married his male lover – who was then referred as the 'empress's husband'; and married one of the Vestal Virgins. Some say he was transgender, and one ancient text states that he offered half the empire to the physician who could give him female genitalia. The running of the Empire during this time was mainly left to his grandmother and mother (Julia Soaemias). Seeing that her grandson's outrageous behavior could mean the loss of power, Julia Maesa persuaded Elagabalus to accept his cousin Alexander Severus as caesar (and thus the nominal emperor-to-be). However, Alexander was popular with the troops, who viewed their new emperor with dislike: when Elagabalus, jealous of this popularity, removed the title of caesar from his nephew, the enraged Praetorian Guard swore to protect him. Elagabalus and his mother were murdered in a Praetorian Guard camp mutiny. Alexander Severus (222–235)[edit] Main article: Alexander Severus Bust of Alexander Severus, the last emperor of the Severan dynasty Alexander Severus was adopted as son and caesar by his slightly older and very unpopular cousin, the emperor Elagabalus at the urging of the influential and powerful Julia Maesa — who was grandmother of both cousins and who had arranged for the emperor's acclamation by the Third Legion. On March 6, 222, when Alexander was just fourteen, a rumour went around the city troops that Alexander had been killed, triggering a revolt of the guards that had sworn his safety from Elegabalus and his accession as emperor. The eighteen-year-old Emperor Elagabalus and his mother were both taken from the palace, dragged through the streets, murdered and thrown in the river Tiber by the Praetorian Guard, who then proclaimed Alexander Severus as augustus. Ruling from the age of fourteen under the influence of his able mother, Julia Avita Mamaea, Alexander restored, to some extent, the moderation that characterized the rule of Septimius Severus. The rising strength of the Sasanian Empire (226–651) heralded perhaps the greatest external challenge that Rome faced in the 3rd century. His prosecution of the war against a German invasion of Gaul led to his overthrow by the troops he was leading, whose regard the twenty-seven-year-old had lost during the campaign. 235–284: Crisis of the Third Century[edit] Main article: Crisis of the Third Century Further information: Year of the Six Emperors The situation of the Roman Empire became dire in AD 235, when the emperor Alexander Severus was murdered by his own troops. Many Roman legions had been defeated during a campaign against Germanic peoples raiding across the borders, while the emperor was focused primarily on the dangers from the Sassanid Persian Empire. Leading his troops personally, Alexander Severus resorted to diplomacy and the paying of tribute in an attempt to pacify the Germanic chieftains quickly. According to Herodian this cost him the respect of his troops, who may have felt they should be punishing the tribes who were intruding on Rome's territory.[74] In the years following the emperor's death, generals of the Roman army fought each other for control of the Empire and neglected their duties in preventing invasions. Provincials became victims of frequent raids by foreign tribes, such as the Carpians, Goths, Vandals, and Alamanni, along the Rhine and Danube Rivers in the western part of the empire, as well as attacks from Sassanids in the eastern part of the Empire. Additionally, in 251, the Plague of Cyprian (possibly smallpox) broke out, causing large-scale mortality which may have seriously affected the ability of the Empire to defend itself. An Antoninianus coin depicting Zenobia, showing her diadem and draped bust on a crescent with the reverse showing a standing figure of Iuno Regina By 258, the Roman Empire broke up into three competing states. The Roman provinces of Gaul, Britain and Hispania broke off to form the Gallic Empire and, two years later in 260, the eastern provinces of Syria, Palestine and Aegyptus became independent as the Palmyrene Empire, leaving the remaining Italian-centered Roman Empire-proper in the middle. An invasion by a vast host of Goths was beaten back at the Battle of Naissus in 269. This victory was significant as the turning point of the crisis, when a series of tough, energetic soldier-emperors took power. Victories by the emperor Claudius II Gothicus over the next two years drove back the Alamanni and recovered Hispania from the Gallic Empire. When Claudius died in 270 of the plague, Aurelian, who had commanded the cavalry at Naissus, succeeded him as the emperor and continued the restoration of the Empire. Aurelian reigned (270–275) through the worst of the crisis, defeating the Vandals, the Visigoths, the Palmyrenes, the Persians, and then the remainder of the Gallic Empire. By late 274, the Roman Empire was reunited into a single entity, and the frontier troops were back in place. More than a century would pass before Rome again lost military ascendancy over its external enemies. However, dozens of formerly thriving cities, especially in the western empire, had been ruined, their populations dispersed and, with the breakdown of the economic system, could not be rebuilt. Major cities and towns, even Rome itself, had not needed fortifications for many centuries; many then surrounded themselves with thick walls. Finally, although Aurelian had played a significant role in restoring the Empire's borders from external threat, more fundamental problems remained. In particular, the right of succession had never been clearly defined in the Roman Empire, leading to continuous civil wars as competing factions in the military, Senate and other parties put forward their favored candidate for emperor. Another issue was the sheer size of the Empire, which made it difficult for a single autocratic ruler to effectively manage multiple threats at the same time. These continuing problems would be radically addressed by Diocletian, allowing the Empire to continue to survive in the West for over a century and in the East for over a millennium. Late Roman Empire[edit] Further information: Dominate, Late Antiquity, Fall of the western Roman empire, and Historiography of the fall of the western Roman Empire As a matter of historical convention, the late Roman Empire emerged from the Roman Principate (the early Roman Empire), with the accession of Diocletian in 284, following the Third Century Crisis of AD 235–284.[75][11] The end of the late Empire is usually marked in the west with the collapse of the western empire in AD 476, while in the east its end is disputed, as either occurring at the close of the reign of Justinian I (AD 565)[76] or of Heraclius (AD 641).[77] The subsequent period of centuries of the Roman Empire's history is conventionally labelled the "Byzantine Empire", with the reign of Heraclius beginning the Middle Byzantine period, which lasted until the Fourth Crusade. 284–301: Diocletian and the Tetrarchy[edit] Main articles: Diocletian and Tetrarchy The Tetrarchs, a porphyry sculpture sacked from a Byzantine palace in 1204, Treasury of St Mark's, Venice The transition to divided western and eastern halves of the empire was gradual. In July 285, Diocletian defeated rival emperor Carinus and briefly became sole emperor of the Roman Empire. Diocletian's reign stabilized the empire and marked the end of the Crisis of the Third Century. Diocletian appointed a co-emperor in 286 and delegated further with two junior-emperors. Diocletian secured the empire's borders and purged it of all threats to his power. He defeated the Sarmatians and Carpi during several campaigns between 285 and 299, the Alamanni in 288, and usurpers in Egypt between 297 and 298. Galerius, aided by Diocletian, campaigned successfully against Sassanid Persia, the empire's traditional enemy. In 299 he sacked their capital, Ctesiphon. Diocletian led the subsequent negotiations and achieved a lasting and favorable peace. Diocletian separated and enlarged the empire's civil and military services and reorganized the empire's provincial divisions, establishing the largest and most bureaucratic government in the history of the empire. He established new administrative centers in Nicomedia, Mediolanum, Antioch, and Trier, closer to the empire's frontiers than the traditional capital at Rome had been. Building on third-century trends towards absolutism, he styled himself an autocrat, elevating himself above the empire's masses with imposing forms of court ceremonies and architecture. Bureaucratic and military growth, constant campaigning, and construction projects increased the state's expenditures and necessitated a comprehensive tax reform. From at least 297 on, imperial taxation was standardized, made more equitable, and levied at generally higher rates. Diocletian saw that the vast Roman Empire was ungovernable by a single emperor in the face of internal pressures and military threats on two fronts. He therefore split the Empire in half along a northwest axis just east of Italy, and created two equal emperors to rule under the title of augustus. Diocletian himself was the augustus of the eastern half, and he made his long-time friend Maximian augustus of the western half. In doing so, he effectively created what would become the western empire and the eastern empire. On March 1, 293, authority was further divided. Each augustus took a junior emperor called a caesar to aid him in administrative matters, and to provide a line of succession. Galerius became caesar for Diocletian and Constantius Chlorus caesar for Maximian. This constituted what is called the Tetrarchy by modern scholars, as each emperor would rule over a quarter-division of the empire. After the empire had been plagued by bloody disputes about the supreme authority, this finally formalised a peaceful succession of the emperor: in each half a caesar would rise up to replace the augustus and select a new caesar. On May 1, 305, Diocletian and Maximian abdicated in favour of their caesares. Galerius named the two new caesares: his nephew Maximinus Daia for himself, and Valerius Severus for Constantius. The arrangement worked well under Diocletian and Maximian and shortly thereafter. The internal tensions within the Roman government were less acute than they had been. In The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Edward Gibbon notes that this arrangement worked well because of the affinity the four rulers had for each other. Gibbon says that this arrangement has been compared to a "chorus of music". With the retirement of Diocletian and Maximian, this harmony disappeared. On the reverse of this argenteus struck in Antioch under Constantius Chlorus, the tetrarchs are sacrificing to celebrate a victory against the Sarmatians. After an initial period of tolerance, Diocletian, who was a fervent pagan and was worried about the ever-increasing numbers of Christians in the Empire, persecuted them with zeal unknown since the time of Nero; this was to be one of the greatest persecutions the Christians endured in history. Not all of Diocletian's plans were successful: the Edict on Maximum Prices (301), his attempt to curb inflation via price controls, was counterproductive and quickly ignored. Although effective while he ruled, Diocletian's tetrarchic system collapsed after his abdication under the competing dynastic claims of Maxentius and Constantine, sons of Maximian and Constantius respectively. The Diocletianic Persecution (303–11), the empire's last, largest, and bloodiest official persecution of Christianity, did not destroy the empire's Christian community; indeed, after 324 Christianity became the empire's preferred religion under its first Christian emperor, Constantine. In spite of his failures, Diocletian's reforms fundamentally changed the structure of Roman imperial government and helped stabilize the empire economically and militarily, enabling the empire to remain essentially intact for another hundred years despite being near the brink of collapse in Diocletian's youth. Weakened by illness, Diocletian left the imperial office on 1 May 305, and became the first Roman emperor to voluntarily abdicate the position (John VI retired to a monastery in the 14th century). He lived out his retirement in his palace on the Dalmatian coast, tending to his vegetable gardens. His palace eventually became the core of the modern-day city of Split. The peaceful Tetrarchy would effectively collapse with the death of Constantius Chlorus on July 25, 306. Constantius's troops in Eboracum immediately proclaimed his son Constantine the Great as augustus. In August 306, Galerius promoted Severus to the position of augustus. A revolt in Rome supported another claimant to the same title: Maxentius, son of Maximian, who was proclaimed augustus on October 28, 306. His election was supported by the Praetorian Guard and the Roman Senate. This left the Empire with five rulers: four augusti (Galerius, Constantine, Severus and Maxentius) and one caesar (Maximinus). The year 307 saw the return of Maximian to the rank of augustus alongside his son Maxentius, creating a total of six rulers of the Empire. Galerius and Severus campaigned against them in Italy. Severus was killed under command of Maxentius on September 16, 307. The two augusti of Italy also managed to ally themselves with Constantine by having Constantine marry Fausta, the daughter of Maximian and sister of Maxentius. At the end of 307, the Empire had four augusti (Maximian, Galerius, Constantine and Maxentius) and a sole caesar. In 311 Galerius's Edict of Serdica officially put an end to the persecution of Christians, though the persecution continued in the territory of Maximinius Daia until his death in 313. Constantine and his co-augustus Licinius legalised Christianity definitively in 313 in the so-called Edict of Milan. In 317, Constantine and Licinius elevated three of the grandchildren of Constantius to caesar: Constantine's eldest sons Crispus and Constantine II, and his nephew, Licinius's son Licinius II Constantine defeated his brother-in-law in 324 and executed both him and his son. This unified the empire under his control as sole augustus, with only his young sons as co-emperors; he raised his son Constantius II to caesar in 324. 324–363: Constantinian dynasty[edit] Main article: Constantinian dynasty Constantine and his sons[edit] Main articles: Constantine the Great and Roman empire under the Constantinian dynasty The empire under Constantine (337) Division of the Roman Empire among the caesares appointed by Constantine I: from west to east, the territories of Constantine II, Constans, Dalmatius and Constantius II Having executed his eldest son and caesar Crispus in 326, Constantine also elevated his son Constans to caesar in 333, as well as appointing his relatives Dalmatius and Hannibalianus to caesar and King of Kings respectively. Constantine would rule until his death on 22 May 337. On their father's death, an interregnum followed during which Constantine II, Constantius II, and Constans eliminated most of the Constantinian dynasty in a struggle for power that ended with the elevation of the three brothers as co-augusti in September 337. The empire was parted again among his three surviving sons. Constantine II was killed in conflict with his youngest brother in 340. Constans was himself killed in conflict with the rebel augustus Magnentius on January 18, 350. Magnentius was at first opposed in the city of Rome by self-proclaimed augustus Nepotianus, a paternal first cousin of Constans. Nepotianus was killed alongside his mother Eutropia. His other first cousin Constantia convinced Vetranio to proclaim himself caesar in opposition to Magnentius. Vetranio served a brief term from March 1 to December 25, 350. He was then forced to abdicate by the legitimate augustus Constantius. The usurper Magnentius would continue to rule the western Roman Empire until 353 while in conflict with Constantius. His eventual defeat and suicide left Constantius as sole emperor until the nomination of his cousin Constantius Gallus as his caesar and co-emperor. Constantius's rule would however be opposed again in 360. After his execution of Constantius Gallus, the augustus Constantius had named his paternal half-cousin and brother-in-law Julian as his caesar in 355, sending him to rule from Trier. During the following five years, Julian had a series of victories against invading Germanic tribes, including the Alamanni. This allowed him to secure the Rhine frontier. His victorious Gallic troops thus ceased campaigning. Constantius sent orders for the troops to be transferred to the east as reinforcements for his own currently unsuccessful campaign against Shapur II of Persia. This order led the Gallic troops to an insurrection. They acclaimed, invested, and crowned their commanding officer Julian as augustus after the decisive Battle of Strasbourg, a distinction he had previously been offered but declined. Both augusti readied their troops for another Roman civil war, but the timely demise of Constantius on 3 November 361 and his deathbed recognition of Julian as co-augustus prevented the Roman civil war of 350–353 from reaching Constantinople. Map of Rome in 350 361–363: Julian[edit] Main article: Julian (emperor) Detail of the "bikini girls" mosaic from the Villa Romana del Casale, Roman Sicily, 4th century AD Julian would serve as the sole emperor for two years. He had been raised by the Gothic slave Mardonius, a great admirer of ancient Greek philosophy and literature. Julian had received his baptism as a Christian years before, but no longer considered himself one. His reign would see the ending of restrictions and violence against paganism introduced by his uncle and father-in-law Constantine I and his cousins and brothers-in-law Constantine II, Constans and Constantius II. He instead placed similar restrictions on Christianity, and some unofficial violence against Christians occurred. His edict of toleration in 362 ordered the reopening of pagan temples and the reinstitution of alienated temple properties, and, more problematically for the Christian Church, the recalling of previously exiled Christian bishops. Returning orthodox and Arian bishops resumed their conflicts, thus further weakening the Church as a whole. Julian himself was not a traditional pagan. His personal beliefs were largely influenced by Neoplatonism and Theurgy; he reputedly believed he was the reincarnation of Alexander the Great. He produced works of philosophy arguing his beliefs. His brief renaissance of paganism would, however, end with his death. Julian eventually resumed the war against Shapur II of Persia. He received a mortal wound in battle and died on June 26, 363. According to Gibbon in The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, upon being mortally wounded by a dart, he was carried back to his camp. He gave a farewell speech, in which he refused to name a successor. He then proceeded to debate the philosophical nature of the soul with his generals. He then requested water and, shortly after drinking it, died. He was considered a hero by pagan sources of his time and a villain by Christian ones. Gibbon wrote quite favourably about Julian. Contemporary historians have treated him as a controversial figure. 364: Jovian[edit] Main article: Jovian (emperor) Julian died childless and with no designated successor. The officers of his army elected the rather obscure officer Jovian emperor. He is remembered for signing an unfavourable peace treaty with the Sasanian Empire, ceding territories won from the Persians, dating back to Trajan. He restored the privileges of Christianity. He is considered a Christian himself, though little is known of his beliefs. Jovian himself died on February 17, 364. 364–392: Valentinianic dynasty[edit] Main article: Valentinianic Dynasty Valentinian and Valens[edit] Main articles: Valentinian the Great and Valens A golden solidus depicting Valentinian I (r. 364–375) and (righthand image) a marble statue of his son and later ruler Valentinian II (r. 375–392) The role of choosing a new Augustus fell again to army officers. On February 28, 364, Pannonian officer Valentinian I was elected augustus in Nicaea, Bithynia. The army had been left leaderless twice in less than a year, and the officers demanded Valentinian choose a co-ruler. On March 28 Valentinian chose his own younger brother Valens and the two new augusti parted the empire in the pattern established by Diocletian: Valentinian would administer the western provinces, while Valens took control over the eastern empire. The election of Valens was soon disputed. Procopius, a Cilician maternal cousin of Julian, had been considered a likely heir to his cousin but was never designated as such. He had been in hiding since the election of Jovian. In 365, while Valentinian was at Paris and then at Rheims to direct the operations of his generals against the Alamanni, Procopius managed to bribe two legions assigned to Constantinople and take control of Constantinople. He was acclaimed augustus on September 28 and soon extended his control to both Thrace and Bithynia. War between the rival emperors continued until Procopius was defeated. Valens had him executed on May 27, 366. On August 4, 367, the eight-year-old Gratian was proclaimed as a third augustus by his father Valentinian, who had fallen ill, a nominal co-ruler and means to secure succession. In April 375 Valentinian I led his army in a campaign against the Quadi, a Germanic tribe which had invaded his native region of Pannonia. According to Ammianus Marcellinus, during an audience with an embassy from the Quadi at Brigetio on the Danube, Valentinian suffered a burst blood vessel in his brain while angrily yelling at the people gathered,[78] resulting in his death on November 17, 375. Gratian was then a 16-year-old and arguably ready to act as emperor, but the troops in Pannonia proclaimed his infant half-brother emperor under the title Valentinian II. Valens and Gratian acquiesced in their choice. While the senior augustus administered the eastern empire, Gratian governed the praetorian prefecture of Gaul. The praetorian prefecture of Italy, Illyricum, and Africa were officially administrated by infant brother and Gratian's stepmother Justina. However the division was merely nominal, actual authority in the west still rested with Gratian, and with Valens as the senior emperor. Battle of Adrianople (378)[edit] Main article: Battle of Adrianople Barbarian invasions of the Roman Empire, showing the Battle of Adrianople Meanwhile, the Eastern Roman Empire faced its own problems with Germanic tribes. The Thervingi, an East Germanic tribe, fled their former lands following an invasion by the Huns. Their leaders Alavivus and Fritigern led them to seek refuge in the Eastern Roman Empire. Valens allowed them to settle as foederati on the southern bank of the Danube in 376. However, the newcomers faced problems from allegedly corrupted provincial commanders and a series of hardships. Their dissatisfaction led them to revolt against their Roman hosts. Conflicts continued for the following two years. Valens led a campaign against them in 378. Gratian provided his uncle with reinforcements from the western Roman army. However, this campaign proved disastrous for the Romans. The two armies approached each other near Adrianople. Valens was apparently overconfident of the numerical superiority of his own forces over the Goths. Some of his officers advised caution and to await the arrival of Gratian, others urged an immediate attack and eventually prevailed over Valens, who, eager to have all of the glory for himself, rushed into battle. On August 9, 378, the Battle of Adrianople resulted in the crushing defeat of the Romans and the death of Valens. Contemporary historian Ammianus Marcellinus estimated that two-thirds of the Roman army were lost in the battle. The battle had far-reaching consequences. Veteran soldiers and valuable administrators were among the heavy casualties. There were few available replacements at the time, leaving the Empire with the problem of finding suitable leadership. The Roman army also started to face recruiting problems. In the following century much of the Roman army would consist of Germanic mercenaries. Gratian and Valentinian II[edit] Main articles: Gratian and Valentinian II The death of Valens left Gratian and Valentinian II as the sole augusti. Gratian was now effectively responsible for the whole empire. He sought a replacement augustus for the Eastern Roman Empire. His choice was Theodosius I, son of formerly distinguished magister equitum Count Theodosius. The elder Theodosius had been executed in early 375 for unclear reasons. The younger Theodosius was named Gratian and Valentinian's junior co-augustus on January 19, 379, at Sirmium. Gratian governed the western Roman Empire with energy and success for some years, but he gradually sank into indolence. He is considered to have become a figurehead while Frankish general Merobaudes and bishop Ambrose of Milan jointly acted as the power behind the throne. Gratian lost favour with factions of the Roman Senate by prohibiting traditional paganism at Rome and relinquishing his title of Pontifex Maximus. The senior augustus also became unpopular with his own Roman troops because of his close association with so-called barbarians. He reportedly recruited Alans to his personal service and adopted the guise of a Scythian warrior for public appearances. Meanwhile, Gratian, Valentinian II and Theodosius were joined by a fourth augustus. Theodosius elevated his oldest son Arcadius to augustus in January 383, in an obvious attempt to secure succession. The boy was still only five or six years old and held no actual authority. Nevertheless, he was recognised as a co-emperor by all three augusti. 383–388: rebellion of Magnus Maximus[edit] Main article: Magnus Maximus The increasing unpopularity of Gratian would cause the four augusti problems later that same year. Magnus Maximus, a general from Hispania, stationed in Roman Britain, was proclaimed Augustus by his troops in 383 and, rebelling against Gratian, he invaded Gaul. Gratian fled from Lutetia (Paris) to Lugdunum (Lyon), where he was assassinated on August 25, 383, at the age of 25. Maximus was a firm believer of the Nicene Creed and introduced state persecution on charges of heresy, which brought him into conflict with Pope Siricius who argued that the augustus had no authority over church matters. But he was an emperor with popular support, as is attested in Romano-British tradition, where he gained a place in the Mabinogion, compiled about a thousand years after his death. Following Gratian's death, Maximus had to deal with Valentinian II, at the time only twelve years old, as the senior augustus. During the first few years, the Alps would serve as the borders between the respective territories of the two rival western Roman emperors. Maximus controlled the praetorian prefecture of Gaul. He assumed the government at Augusta Treverorum (Trier), the prefecture's capital. Maximus soon entered negotiations with Valentinian II and Theodosius, attempting to gain their official recognition. By 384, negotiations were unfruitful and Maximus tried to press the matter by settling succession as only a legitimate emperor could do: proclaiming his own infant son Flavius Victor an augustus. The end of the year found the Empire having five augusti (Valentinian II, Theodosius I, Arcadius, Magnus Maximus and Flavius Victor) with relations between them yet to be determined. Theodosius was left a widower in 385, following the sudden death of Aelia Flaccilla, his augusta and the mother of Arcadius and Honorius. In 386 Maximus and Victor finally received official recognition by Theodosius but not by Valentinian. In 387, Maximus apparently decided to rid himself of his Italian rival. He crossed the Alps into the valley of the Po and threatened Milan. Theodosius was remarried to the sister of Valentinian II, Galla, after their mother Justina fled with the young emperor to Theodosius's territory to escape Magnus Maximus's invasion of Italy. The marriage secured closer relations between the two augusti. Theodosius indeed campaigned west in 388 and was victorious against Maximus. Maximus himself was captured and executed in Aquileia on July 28, 388. The magister militum Arbogast was sent to Trier with orders to also kill Flavius Victor. Theodosius restored Valentinian to power and through his influence had him converted to orthodox catholic Christianity. Theodosius continued supporting Valentinian and protecting him from a variety of usurpations. 379–457: Valentinianic–Theodosian dynasty[edit] Detail of one of the carved reliefs on the Obelisk of Theodosius in Istanbul (Constantinople), showing Roman emperor Theodosius I surrounded by members of his court and receiving tributary gifts from foreign emissaries, late 4th century AD The division of the empire after the death of Theodosius I, c. 395, superimposed on modern borders.   Western empire   Eastern empire Main articles: Valentinianic dynasty and Theodosian dynasty 392–394: rebellion of Eugenius[edit] Main article: Eugenius In 392 Valentinian II died mysteriously in Vienne. Arbogast, who may have killed him, arranged for the appointment of Eugenius as emperor. However, the eastern emperor Theodosius refused to recognise Eugenius as emperor and invaded the West, defeating and killing Arbogast and Eugenius at the Battle of the Frigidus. He thus reunited the entire Roman Empire under his rule, the last emperor who had practical power over the whole empire. On his death in February 395, the two halves of the Empire to his two sons Arcadius and Honorius. 395–423: Arcadius and Honorius[edit] Main articles: Arcadius and Honorius (emperor) Arcadius became ruler in the East, with his capital in Constantinople, and Honorius became ruler in the West, with his capital in Milan and later Ravenna. The Roman state would continue to have two different emperors with different seats of power throughout the 5th century, though the Eastern Romans considered themselves to be the only ones who were fully Roman. Latin was used in official writings as much as, if not more than, Greek and the two halves were nominally, culturally and historically, if not politically, the same state. Arcadius died in 408, having already elevated his infant son Theodosius II to augustus in 402. Theodosius II reigned for more than forty years. Theodosius had two sons and a daughter, Pulcheria, from his first wife, Aelia Flacilla. His daughter and wife had died in 385. By his second wife, Galla, the daughter of Valentinian the Great, he had a daughter, Galla Placidia; his son Gratian did not survive infancy. Galla Placidia, having grown up at Constantinople, married first Athaulf, king of the Visigoths, and then the future Constantius III. Both her husbands died not long after the marriages, and Constantius III, who succeeded Honorius as augustus, reigned for less than a year. Galla Placidia and Constantius had two children: the future Valentinian III, who became augustus in the western empire, and Justa Grata Honoria. On the death of Honorius, the official Joannes seized power in Italy and Thedosius II appointed Valentinian III his caesar and dispatched him to the western empire with an army, which deposed Joannes and whose commander elevated Valentinian to augustus on the first anniversary of his appointment as caesar. His mother the augusta Galla Placidia was regent during his youth. Valentinian III married Theodosius II's daughter Licinia Eudoxia and reigned for three decades until his murder by the rebel augustus Petronius Maximus and his caesar Palladius, who forced Valentinian's wife Licinia and daughter Placidia to marry them. On the death of Theodosius II, the military officer Marcian was acclaimed Valentinian III's co-augustus and married the late emperor's elder sister, the augusta Pulcheria. Marcian was the last of the Theodosians to rule in the east, and only connected to them by marriage to the augusta. When Pulcheria died in 453 and Marcian died in 457, ending the Theodosian line, the court at Constantinople selected the general Leo I as his successor as augustus, beginning the reign of the Leonid dynasty. 457–518: Leonid dynasty[edit] Main article: Leonid dynasty The Leonid dynasty established by Leo I was continued by his daughters by the augusta Verina: Ariadne and Leontia. Ariadne married Zeno and their son together, Leo II, was elevated to augustus on the death of his grandfather (or shortly beforehand) in 474. Leo II, still a child, also died that year, but not before crowning his own father Zeno his co-emperor. Zeno, who was then sole augustus, faced numerous rebellions because of his tenuous claim to the throne, including a usurpation by Basiliscus, Leo I's brother-in-law, that briefly ousted Zeno from Constantinople. Other claimants were descended from Marcia Euphemia, the daughter of the emperor Marcian from his first marriage, before becoming emperor. Marcia Euphemia married Anthemius, who became augustus in the west in 467, and had several sons: Anthemiolus was killed fighting the Goths in the west, but his brothers Romulus, Procopius Anthemius, and Marcian, who married had Leontia, sought to overthrow Zeno, as did the generals Illus and Leontius, though each failed to dislodge the emperor. A relative of Leo I's wife Verina whose name is lost was married to Julius, the future emperor, who took the name Nepos, 'nephew', from his wife's relationship with the imperial dynasty. When Zeno finally died in 491, his widow Ariadne remarried, wedding a silentiarius, Anastasius Dicorus, who was then acclaimed and crowned emperor. Anastasius built the Anastasian Wall as an outer defensive works for the fortification Walls of Constantinople. Decline of the western Roman Empire[edit] Main articles: Western Roman Empire, Fall of the western Roman Empire, and Migration Period The western and eastern halves of the empire under Majorian and Leo (460) The Roman Empire in 476 After 395, the emperors in the western empire were usually figureheads, while the actual rulers were military strongmen who took the title of magister militum, patrician or both—Stilicho from 395 to 408, Constantius from about 411 to 421, Aëtius from 433 to 454 and Ricimer from about 457 to 472. The year 476 is generally accepted as the formal end of the western Roman Empire. That year, Orestes, having stolen power from the emperor Julius Nepos the year before, refused the request of Germanic mercenaries in his service for lands in Italy. The dissatisfied mercenaries, including the Heruli, revolted. The revolt was led by the Germanic chieftain Odoacer. Odoacer and his men captured and executed Orestes; weeks later they captured Ravenna and deposed Orestes' usurper son, Romulus Augustus. This event has been traditionally considered the fall of the Roman Empire in the west. Odoacer quickly conquered the remaining provinces of Italy. Odoacer returned the western imperial regalia to the eastern emperor, Zeno. Zeno soon received two deputations. One was from Odoacer requesting that his control of Italy be formally recognised by the empire, in which case he would in turn acknowledge Zeno's supremacy. The other deputation was from Julius Nepos, requesting support to regain the throne. Zeno granted Odoacer the title patrician. Zeno told Odoacer and the Roman Senate to take Nepos back, but Nepos never returned from Dalmatia, even though Odoacer issued coins in his name. Upon Nepos's death in 480, Zeno claimed Dalmatia for the East; J. B. Bury considers this the real end of the western Roman Empire. Odoacer attacked Dalmatia, and the ensuing war ended with Theodoric the Great, King of the Ostrogoths, conquering Italy under Zeno's authority and forming the Ostrogothic Kingdom, with its capital at Ravenna. 518–602 Justinian dynasty[edit] Main article: Roman Empire under the Justinian dynasty When Anastasius himself died, the court at Constantinople ignored potential claimants from the Valentinianic–Theodosian dynasty and elevated instead a senior officer of the imperial guard, Justin I, as augustus. Map gallery[edit] Empire Orient See also[edit] History of Rome Legacy of the Roman Empire Roman imperial period (chronology) History of the Byzantine Empire List of cities founded by the Romans Notes[edit] ^ Other ways of referring to the "Roman Empire" among the Romans and Greeks themselves included Res publica Romana or Imperium Romanorum (also in Greek: Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων – Basileíā tôn Rhōmaíōn – ["Dominion (Literally 'kingdom') of the Romans"]) and Romania. Res publica means Roman "commonwealth" and can refer to both the Republican and the Imperial eras. Imperium Romanum (or Romanorum) refers to the territorial extent of Roman authority. Populus Romanus ("the Roman people") was/is often used to indicate the Roman state in matters involving other nations. The term Romania, initially a colloquial term for the empire's territory as well as a collective name for its inhabitants, appears in Greek and Latin sources from the 4th century onward and was eventually carried over to the Byzantine Empire (see R. L. Wolff, "Romania: The Latin Empire of Constantinople" in Speculum 23 (1948), pp. 1–34 and especially pp. 2–3). References[edit] Works cited Abbott, Frank Frost (1901). A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. Boston: Ginn. OCLC 1069567291. Cassius Dio (1925). Roman History. Loeb classical library, 176. VIII: Books 61–70. Translated by Cary, Earnest; Foster, Herbert B. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. doi:10.4159/DLCL.dio_cassius-roman_history.1914. ISBN 978-0674991958. OCLC 902696997. Cassius Dio (1927). Roman History. Loeb classical library, 177. IX: Books 71–80. Translated by Cary, Earnest; Foster, Herbert B. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. doi:10.4159/DLCL.dio_cassius-roman_history.1914. ISBN 978-0674991965. OCLC 899735677. Magie, David. Historia Augusta, Volume I: Hadrian. Aelius. Antoninus Pius. Marcus Aurelius. L. Verus. Avidius Cassius. Commodus. Pertinax. Didius Julianus. Septimius Severus. Pescennius Niger. Clodius Albinus. Loeb classical library, 139. I. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674991545. OCLC 899735637. Magie, David (1924). Historia Augusta, Volume II: Caracalla. Geta. Opellius Macrinus. Diadumenianus. Elagabalus. Severus Alexander. The Two Maximini. The Three Gordians. Maximus and Balbinus. Loeb classical library, 140. II. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674991552. OCLC 899735638. References ^ Bennett, J. Trajan: Optimus Princeps. 1997. Fig. 1. Regions east of the Euphrates river were held only in the years 116–117. ^ a b c Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 BC to AD 600". Social Science History. Duke University Press. 3 (3/4): 118. doi:10.2307/1170959. JSTOR 1170959. ^ John D. Durand, Historical Estimates of World Population: An Evaluation, 1977, pp. 253–296. ^ Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D (December 2006). "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires" (PDF). Journal of World-Systems Research. 12 (2): 219–229. doi:10.5195/JWSR.2006.369. ISSN 1076-156X. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 February 2012. Retrieved 12 August 2010. ^ Christopher Kelly, The Roman Empire: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford University Press, 2006), pp. 4ff. ^ Claude Nicolet, Space, Geography, and Politics in the Early Roman Empire (University of Michigan Press, 1991, originally published in French 1988), pp. 1, 15 ^ T. Corey Brennan, The Praetorship in the Roman Republic (Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 605 et passim ^ Clifford Ando, "From Republic to Empire," in The Oxford Handbook of Social Relations in the Roman World (Oxford University Press, pp. 39–40. ^ Dio Cassius 72.36.4, Loeb edition translated E. Cary ^ Brown, P., The World of Late Antiquity, London 1971, p. 22. ^ a b "Oxford Centre for Late Antiquity: The Late Roman Empire". University of Oxford. 2012. Retrieved 8 December 2018. The late Roman period (which we are defining as, roughly, AD 250–450)... ^ Adrian Goldsworth, How Rome Fell: Death of a Superpower (Yale University Press, 2009), pp. 405–415. ^ Potter, David. The Roman Empire at Bay. 296–98. ^ Chester G. Starr, A History of the Ancient World, Second Edition. Oxford University Press, 1974. pp. 670–678. ^ Isaac Asimov. Asimov's Chronology of the World. Harper Collins, 1989. p. 110. ^ Asimov, p. 198. ^ Eck, Werner; translated by Deborah Lucas Schneider; new material by Sarolta A. Takács. (2003) The Age of Augustus. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. p. 12 ^ Paul K. Davis, 100 Decisive Battles from Ancient Times to the Present: The World’s Major Battles and How They Shaped History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 63. ^ Eck, Werner; translated by Deborah Lucas Schneider; new material by Sarolta A. Takács. (2003) The Age of Augustus. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. p. 40. ^ Birley, E.B. (1928). "A Note on the Title 'Gemina'". Journal of Roman Studies. 18: 56–60. doi:10.2307/296044. JSTOR 296044. ^ Abbott 1901, p. 272. ^ a b Abbott 1901, p. 273. ^ Pliny the Elder, Natural Histories XXVIII.5.23. ^ Abbott 1901, p. 293. ^ Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 269. ^ Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 38. ^ Scramuzza, Vincent (1940). The Emperor Claudius Cambridge: Harvard University Press. p. 29. ^ Dio-Loeb 1925, 29 (p. 191). ^ Cassius Dio; Thayer, Bill. "Cassius Dio – Epitome of Book 63" (retyped, unproofread transcription of Dio-Loeb-1925). 29 (p. 191). ^ Abbott 1901, p. 298. ^ Abbott 1901, p. 296. ^ "De Imperatoribus Romanis". Retrieved 2007-11-08. Although the Dacians had been defeated, the emperor postponed the final siege for the conquering of Sarmizegetuza because his armies needed reorganisation. Trajan imposed on the Dacians very hard peace conditions: Decebalus had to renounce claim to some regions of his kingdom, including Banat, Tara Hategului, Oltenia, and Muntenia in the area south-west of Transylvania. He had also to surrender all the Roman deserters and all his war machines. At Rome, Trajan was received as a winner and he took the name of Dacicus, a title that appears on his coinage of this period. At the beginning of the year AD 103, there were minted coins with the inscription: IMP NERVA TRAIANVS AVG GER DACICVS. ^ Statius Silvae 5.1; Dio Cassius 68.17.1.; Arrian Parthica frs 37/40. ^ Yü, Ying-shih. (1986). "Han Foreign Relations," in Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe (eds), The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, 377–462, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 460–461, ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8. ^ a b Paul Halsall (2000) [1998]. Jerome S. Arkenberg (ed.). "East Asian History Sourcebook: Chinese Accounts of Rome, Byzantium and the Middle East, c. 91 B.C.E. – 1643 C.E." Fordham.edu. Fordham University. Retrieved 2016-09-17. ^ de Crespigny, Rafe (2007), A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (AD 23–220), Leiden: Koninklijke Brill, p. 600, ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0. ^ An, Jiayao. (2002), "When Glass Was Treasured in China," in Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner (eds), Silk Road Studies VII: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road, 79–94, Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, ISBN 2503521789, p. 83. ^ Hansen, Valerie (2012), The Silk Road: A New History, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 97, ISBN 978-0-19-993921-3. ^ a b Gary K. Young (2001), Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy, 31 BC – AD 305, London & New York: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-24219-3, p. 29. ^ For further information on the Kingdom of Funan and discoveries at Oc Eo, see Milton Osborne (2006), The Mekong: Turbulent Past, Uncertain Future, Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin, revised edition, first published in 2000, ISBN 1-74114-893-6, pp. 24–25. ^ Ferdinand von Richthofen, China, Berlin, 1877, Vol.I, pp. 504–510; cited in Richard Hennig, Terrae incognitae : eine Zusammenstellung und kritische Bewertung der wichtigsten vorcolumbischen Entdeckungsreisen an Hand der daruber vorliegenden Originalberichte, Band I, Altertum bis Ptolemäus, Leiden, Brill, 1944, pp. 387, 410–411; cited in Zürcher (2002), pp. 30–31. ^ Bowman, pg. 1 ^ Historia Augusta 1921, Pertinax, 4:5. ^ Gibbon, Ch. 4 ^ Zosimus, 1:8 ^ a b Dio, 74:8 ^ Historia Augusta 1921, Pertinax, 10:4. ^ Historia Augusta 1921, Pertinax, 11:1. ^ Dio, 74:9. ^ Historia Augusta 1921, Pertinax, 11:7. ^ Dio, 74:10. ^ Tulane University "Roman Currency of the Principate" Archived 2008-11-01 at the Wayback Machine ^ Dio-Loeb 1927, lxxiv, 13.2–5. ^ Historia Augusta 1921, Didius Julianus, 4.2–7. ^ Herodian, ii.7.3 ^ Dio-Loeb 1927, lxxiv, 13.3. ^ Historia Augusta 1921, Didius Julianus, 4.2, 4.4. ^ Dio-Loeb 1927, lxxiv, 14.3–4. ^ Historia Augusta 1921, Didius Julianus, 5.1–2. ^ Historia Augusta 1921, Didius Julianus, 5.3. ^ a b Historia Augusta 1921, Septimius Severus, 5.5. ^ Historia Augusta 1921, Didius Julianus, 5.4–8. ^ Dio-Loeb 1927, lxxiv, 16.3. ^ Dio-Loeb 1927, lxxiv, 17.2. ^ Historia Augusta 1921, Didius Julianus, 6.9. ^ Historia Augusta 1921, Septimius Severus, 5.7. ^ Herodian, ii.12.3 ^ Herodian, ii.11.6 ^ Dio-Loeb 1927, lxxiv, 17.3. ^ a b Dio-Loeb 1927, lxxiv, 17.5. ^ Historia Augusta 1921, Didius Julianus, 8.8. ^ Dio-Loeb 1927, lxxv, 1.1. ^ Historia Augusta 1921, Didius Julianus, 8.10. ^ " Herodian says "in their opinion Alexander showed no honourable intention to pursue the war and preferred a life of ease, when he should have marched out to punish the Germans for their previous insolence" (Herodian vi.7.10). ^ Abbott, Frank Frost (1963). A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. New York: Biblo and Tannen. p. 334. ^ Lee, A.D., From Rome to Byzantium AD 363 to 565: The Transformation of Ancient Rome (2013) p. xiii. ^ Mitchell, S., A History of the Later Roman Empire, AD 284-641 (2014), Chapter 1. ^ Gibbon, Edward (2012). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire: Edited in Seven Volumes with Introduction, Notes, Appendices, and Index. Cambridge University Press. p. 66. 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en-wikipedia-org-3580	----	List of cities founded by the Romans - Wikipedia List of cities founded by the Romans From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikipedia list article This list is incomplete; you can help by adding missing items with reliable sources. This is a list of cities and towns founded by the Romans. It lists every city established and built by the ancient Romans to have begun as a colony, often for the settlement of citizens or veterans of the legions. Many Roman colonies rose to become important commercial and cultural centers, transportation hubs and capitals of global empires. Contents 1 Cities founded by the Romans 2 Cities not founded by the Romans, but which have gained importance with them 3 See also 4 References Cities founded by the Romans[edit] 'This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it. Foundation Latin name Modern-day Modern country 753 BC Roma Rome Italy 268 BC Ariminum Rimini Italy 220 BC Belum Belluno Italy 218 BC Placentia Piacenza Italy 218 BC Tarraco Tarragona Spain 206 BC Italica Santiponce Spain [1] 3rd c. BC Modicia Monza Italy 197 BC Salernum Salerno Italy 189 BC Bononia Bologna Italy 188 BC Forum Livii Forlì Italy 187 BC Regium Lepidi Reggio Emilia Italy 181 BC Aquileia Aquileia Italy 169 BC Colonia Patricia Corduba Córdoba Spain 168 BC Ascrivium Kotor Montenegro 138 BC Valentia Edetanorum Valencia Spain 138 BC Scalabis Santarém Portugal 136 BC Villa Euracini Póvoa de Varzim Portugal 123 BC Palma Palma de Mallorca Spain 118 BC Colonia Narbo Martius Narbonne France 2nd c. BC Massa Massa Italy 2nd c. BC Pistoria Pistoia Italy 95 BC Confloenta Duratón Spain 77 BC Gerunda Girona Spain 74 BC Pompaelo Pamplona Spain 73 BC Naissus Niš Serbia 62 BC Brigantium A Coruña Spain 59 BC Florentia Florence Italy 58 BC Vesontio Besançon France 52 BC Lutetia Parisiorum Paris France 50 BC Atuatuca Tungrorum Tongeren Belgium [2] 49 BC Iulia Romula Hispalis Seville Spain 44 BC Augusta Raurica Augst Switzerland 44 BC Noviodunum Nyon Switzerland 43 BC Lugdunum Lyon France 35 BC Siscia Sisak Croatia 30 BC Marsonia Slavonski Brod Croatia 30 BC Augusta Treverorum Trier Germany [3] 29–19 BC Castra Legionis León Spain 28 BC Augusta Taurinorum Turin Italy 25 BC Augusta Praetoria Salassorum Aosta Italy 25 BC Emerita Augusta Mérida Spain 25 BC Norba Caesarina Cáceres Spain 25 BC Lucus Augusta Lugo Spain 25–13 BC Caesarea Caesarea Israel 20 BC Bracara Augusta Braga Portugal 16 BC Novaesium Neuss Germany 15 BC Castra Vetera (15 BC to 110 AD) - Colonia Ulpia Traiana (after 110 AD) Xanten Germany 15 BC Pons Drusi Bolzano Italy 15 BC Ovilava Wels Austria 15 BC Iuvavum Salzburg Austria 15 BC Augusta Vindelicorum Augsburg Germany 15 BC Turicum Zurich Switzerland 14 BC Asturica Augusta Astorga Spain 14 BC Borbetomagus Worms Germany 14 BC Caesaraugusta Zaragoza Spain 14 BC Sirmium Sremska Mitrovica Serbia 14 BC Sorviodurum Straubing Germany 13–12 BC Mogontiacum Mainz Germany 110 AD Colonia Ulpia Traiana (after 110 AD) - Castra Ventra (15 BC to 110 AD) Xanten Germany 12 BC Argentoratum Strasbourg France 11 BC Bonna Bonn Germany 10 BC Noviomagus Speyer Germany 9 BC Castellum apud Confluentes Koblenz Germany 1st c. BC Divodurum Metz France 1st c. BC Caesaromagus Beauvais France 1st c. BC Ambianum Amiens France 1st c. BC Faventia Paterna Barcino Barcelona Spain 1st c. BC Abila Avila Spain 1st c. BC Lousonna Lausanne Switzerland 1st c. BC Ulpia Noviomagus Batavorum Nijmegen Netherlands 6 AD Rigomagus Remagen Germany 6 AD Aquae Mattiacorum Wiesbaden Germany 9 AD Mursa Osijek Croatia 15 AD Emona Ljubljana Slovenia 15 AD Vindonissa Windisch Switzerland 16 AD Aventicum Avenches Switzerland 39 AD Praetorium Agrippinae Valkenburg Netherlands 40 AD Lopodunum Ladenburg Germany 41 AD Lugdunum Batavorum Katwijk Netherlands 42 AD Aequum Čitluk Croatia 43 AD Londinium London UK 43 AD Albanianis Alphen aan den Rijn Netherlands 43 AD Lauri Woerden Netherlands 43 AD Durovernum Cantiacorum Canterbury UK 43 AD Regulbium Reculver UK 43 AD Rutupiae Richborough UK 46 AD Viminacium Kostolac Serbia 43–49 AD Camulodunum Colchester UK [4] 47 AD Traiectum Utrecht Netherlands 47 AD Matilo Leiden Netherlands 47 AD Forum Hadriani Voorburg Netherlands 47 AD Nigrum Pullum Zwammerdam Netherlands 48 AD Lindum Colonia Lincoln UK 50 AD Ratae Corieltauvorum Leicester UK 50 AD Durocobrivis Dunstable UK 50 AD Colonia Agrippina Cologne Germany 50 AD Durocornovium Swindon UK 50 AD Verulamium St. Albans UK 50 AD Letocetum Wall UK 50 AD Dubris Dover UK 50 AD Danum Doncaster UK 52 AD Mediolanum Whitchurch UK 55 AD Isca Dumnoniorum Exeter UK 55 AD Blestium Monmouth UK 58 AD Viroconium Cornoviorum Wroxeter UK 60 AD Aquae Sulis Bath UK 60 AD Durnovaria Dorchester UK 60 AD Lindinis Ilchester UK 60 AD Ad Flexum Mosonmagyaróvár Hungary 70 AD Clausentum Southampton UK 70 AD Venta Belgarum Winchester UK 70 AD Calleva Atrebatum Silchester UK 70 AD Duroliponte Cambridge UK 70 AD Concangis Chester-le-Street UK 70 AD Condate Northwich UK 70 AD Corinium Dobunnorum Cirencester UK 71 AD Eboracum York UK 72 AD Luguvalium Carlisle UK 73 AD Arae Flaviae Rottweil Germany 74 AD Isca Augusta Caerleon UK 74 AD Lagentium Castleford UK 75 AD Moridunum Carmarthen UK 75 AD Venta Silurum Caerwent UK 79 AD Deva Victrix Chester UK 79 AD Mamucium Manchester UK 79 AD Olicana Ilkley UK 79 AD Vinovia Binchester UK 80 AD Inveresk Roman Fort Musselburgh UK 83 AD Bonames (present city district) Frankfurt am Main Germany 85 AD Coria Corbridge UK 85 AD Gerulata Bratislava Slovakia 89 AD Vindobona Vienna Austria 90 AD Biriciana Weißenburg in Bayern Germany 90 AD Cannstatt Castrum Stuttgart Germany 97 AD Colonia Nervia Glevensium Gloucester UK 98 AD Sumelocenna Rottenburg am Neckar Germany 98 AD Traiectum ad Nicrem Heidelberg Germany 1st c. AD Castra Batavar Passau Germany 1st c. AD Nida Frankfurt Germany 1st c. AD Lactodurum Towcester UK 1st c. AD Bovium Cowbridge UK 1st c. AD Burgodunum Leeds UK 1st c. AD Lentia Linz Austria 1st c. AD Aquae Granni Aachen Germany 1st c. AD Portus Victoriae Iuliobrigensium Santander Spain 1st c. AD Complutum Alcalá de Henares Spain 1st c. AD Aeminium later renamed Conimbriga Coimbra Portugal 1st c. AD Traiectum ad Mosam Maastricht Netherlands 1st c. AD Coriovallum Heerlen Netherlands 1st c. AD Portus Lemanis Lympne UK 1st c. AD Colonia Pietas Iulia Pola Pollentia Herculanea Pula Croatia 1st c. AD Andautonia Zagreb Croatia 1st c. AD Salona Solin Croatia 1st c. AD Cibalae Vinkovci Croatia 1st c. AD Aquae Helveticae Baden Switzerland 103 AD Aquincum Budapest Hungary 107 AD Apulum Alba Iulia Romania 120 AD Pons Aelius Newcastle upon Tyne UK 120 AD Durovigutum Godmanchester UK 125 AD Hadrianopolis Edirne Turkey 131 AD Aelia Capitolina Jerusalem (part of) Israel / State of Palestine 150 AD Ala Aalen Germany 179 AD Castra Regina Regensburg Germany 2nd c. AD Theranda Prizren Kosovo 2nd c. AD Pomaria Tlemcen Algeria 2nd c. AD Partiscum Szeged Hungary 1st c. AD Gesoriacum Boulogne-sur-Mer France 210 AD Aurelia Aquensis Baden-Baden Germany 273 AD Urbs Aurelianorum Orléans France 330 AD Constantinopolis Istanbul Turkey 421 AD Venetiae Venice Italy 7th c. AD Ragusium Dubrovnik Croatia Cities not founded by the Romans, but which have gained importance with them[edit] Conquest Latin name Modern-day Modern country 4th c. BC Pompeii Pompei Italy 338 BC Capua Capua Italy 315 BC Thessalonica Thessaloniki Greece 3rd c. BC Volubilis Meknes Morocco 293 BC Barium Bari Italy 293 BC Antiochia Antakya Turkey 268 BC Asculum Ascoli Piceno Italy 229 BC Dyrrachium Durrës Albania 225 BC Brixia Brescia Italy 222 BC Mediolanum Milan Italy 196 BC Comum Como Italy 146 BC Colonia Augusta Achaica Patrensis Patras Greece 146 BC Tingi Tangier Morocco 133 BC Attalia Antalya Turkey 89 BC Patavium Padua Italy 78 BC Spalatum Split Croatia 74 BC Nicomedia İzmit Turkey 72 BC Nicaea İznik Turkey 67 BC Tarsus Tarsus Turkey 64 BC Berytus Beirut Lebanon 27 BC Ulpia Serdica Sofia Bulgaria 15 BC Poetovio Ptuj Slovenia 15 BC Neviodunum Drnovo Slovenia 15 BC Celeia Celje Slovenia 15 BC Nauportus Vrhnika Slovenia 44 AD Colonia Claudia Caesarea Cherchell Algeria 64 AD Trapezus Trabzon Turkey 117 AD Artaxata Artashat Armenia See also[edit] Romanization Legacy of the Roman Empire Ancient Rome Roman Empire Roman colonies in antiquity References[edit] ^ The first purely Roman city to be established outside Italy ^ Oldest town in Belgium ^ It has a claim to being the oldest city in Germany ^ It has a claim to being the oldest city in Britain v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir 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en-wikipedia-org-3582	----	Category:Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers - Wikipedia Help Category:Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This category is for articles with MBA identifiers. Please do not add subcategories. For more information, see Wikipedia:Authority control. Administrators: Please do not delete this category even if it is empty! This category may be empty occasionally or even most of the time. This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a tracking category. It builds and maintains a list of pages primarily for the sake of the list itself. They are not part of the encyclopedia's categorization scheme. 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(previous page) (next page)! !!! + +/- (band) 0–9 0.8Syooogeki 0DFx 1 Giant Leap 1 Life 2 Live 1 Mile North 1 of the Girls (group) 1:43 (band) 1.6 Band 1.8.7 1GN 1TYM 2 Bad Mice The 2 Bears 2 Bit Pie 2 Brothers on the 4th Floor 2 Chainz II D Extreme 2 Eivissa 2 Fabiola 2 in a Room 2 Live Crew 2 Live Jews 2 Minutos 2 Pistols 2 Plus 1 2 Skinnee J's 2 Unlimited 2-4 Family 2:54 2AM (band) 2AM Club 2B (band) 2Baba 2Be3 2BiC 2Cellos 2Cents 2gether (band) Mr 2Kay 2Mex 2nd Chapter of Acts 2nd II None 2nd South Carolina String Band 2NE1 2NU 2PM 2R (group) 2raumwohnung The +2's 2Tm2,3 2wo Third3 2Yoon 3 (1980s band) 3 (American band) 3 Colours Red 3 Daft Monkeys 3 Doors Down 3 Feet Smaller 3 Hürel 3 Inches of Blood 3 Lb. Thrill 3 Melancholy Gypsys 3 Mustaphas 3 3 of a Kind (group) 3 of Hearts 3 Pill Morning 3 Steps Ahead 3 the Hard Way 3 Years Hollow 3-2 3-11 Porter 3,14... 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en-wikipedia-org-3584	----	Jordanes - Wikipedia Jordanes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the consul of 470, see Flavius Iordanes. It has been suggested that parts of Getica be moved into this page. (discuss) The Mediterranean area c. 550 AD as Jordanes wrote his Getica. The Eastern Roman Empire, capital Constantinople, is shown in pink. Conquests of Justinian I shown in green. Jordanes (/dʒɔːrˈdeɪniːz/), also written as Jordanis or Jornandes,[1] was a Gothic 6th-century Eastern Roman bureaucrat[2] who became a historian later in life. Jordanes wrote Romana, about the history of Rome, but his best-known work is his Getica, which was written in Constantinople[3] about 551 AD.[4] Along with Isidore of Seville's Historia Gothorum, it is one of only two extant ancient works dealing with the early history of the Goths. Jordanes was asked by a friend to write Getica as a summary of a multi-volume history of the Goths by the statesman Cassiodorus that existed then but has since been lost. Jordanes was selected for his known interest in history and because of his own Gothic background. He had been a high-level notarius, or secretary, of a small client state on the Roman frontier in Scythia Minor, modern southeastern Romania and northeastern Bulgaria.[5] Other writers, such as Procopius, wrote works that are extant on the later history of the Goths. Getica has been the object of much critical review. Jordanes wrote in Late Latin rather than the classical Ciceronian Latin. According to his own introduction, he had only three days to review what Cassiodorus had written, meaning that he must also have relied on his own knowledge. Contents 1 Life 2 Works 3 Controversy 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 External links Life[edit] Jordanes writes about himself almost in passing:[6][7] The Sciri, moreover, and the Sadagarii and certain of the Alani with their leader, Candac by name, received Scythia Minor and Lower Moesia. Paria, the father of my father Alanoviiamuth (that is to say, my grandfather), was secretary to this Candac as long as he lived. To his sister's son Gunthigis, also called Baza, the Master of the Soldiery, who was the son of Andag the son of Andela, who was descended from the stock of the Amali, I also, Jordanes, although an unlearned man before my conversion, was secretary. Paria was Jordanes's paternal grandfather. Jordanes writes that he was secretary to Candac, dux Alanorum, an otherwise unknown leader of the Alans. Jordanes was notarius, or secretary to Gunthigis Baza, a nephew of Candac and a magister militum of the leading Ostrogoth clan of the Amali. This was ante conversionem meam ("before my conversion"). The nature and details of the conversion remain obscure. The Goths had been converted with the assistance of Ulfilas (a Goth), made bishop on that account. However, the Goths had adopted Arianism. Jordanes' conversion may have been a conversion to the trinitarian Nicene creed, which may be expressed in anti-Arianism in certain passages in Getica.[8] In the letter to Vigilius he mentions that he was awakened vestris interrogationibus - "by your questioning". Alternatively, Jordanes' conversio may mean that he had become a monk, or a religiosus, or a member of the clergy. Some manuscripts say that he was a bishop, some even say bishop of Ravenna, but the name Jordanes is not known in the lists of bishops of Ravenna. Works[edit] The deeds of Dacians and Getae (here from Trajan's column) were wrongly attributed to Goths by Jordanes Jordanes wrote his Romana at the behest of a certain Vigilius. Although some scholars have identified this person with Pope Vigilius, there is nothing else to support the identification besides the name. The form of address that Jordanes uses and his admonition that Vigilius "turn to God" would seem to rule out this identification.[9][10] In the preface to his Getica, Jordanes writes that he is interrupting his work on the Romana at the behest of a brother Castalius, who apparently knew that Jordanes possessed the twelve volumes of the History of the Goths by Cassiodorus. Castalius wanted a short book about the subject, and Jordanes obliged with an excerpt based on memory, possibly supplemented with other material to which he had access. The Getica sets off with a geography/ethnography of the North, especially of Scandza (16–24). He lets the history of the Goths commence with the emigration of Berig with three ships from Scandza to Gothiscandza (25, 94), in a distant past. In the pen of Jordanes, Herodotus's Getian demigod Zalmoxis becomes a king of the Goths (39). Jordanes tells how the Goths sacked "Troy and Ilium" just after they had recovered somewhat from the war with Agamemnon (108). They are also said to have encountered the Egyptian pharaoh Vesosis (47). The less fictional part of Jordanes's work begins when the Goths encounter Roman military forces in the third century AD. The work concludes with the defeat of the Goths by the Byzantine general Belisarius. Jordanes concludes the work by stating that he writes to honour those who were victorious over the Goths after a history spanning 2,030 years. Controversy[edit] Several Romanian and American historians wrote about Jordanes's error when considering that Getae were Goths. According to this interpretation, much of the historical data about Dacians and Getae were wrongly attributed to Goths.[11][12][13][14] Arne Søby Christensen and M. Kulikowski[15][16] argue in their works that Jordanes developed in Getica the history of Getic and Dacian peoples mixed with a lot of fantastic deeds.[clarification needed] Caracalla (in 214) received "Geticus Maximus" and "Quasi Gothicus" titles following battles with Getae and Goths. See also[edit] History of the Roman Empire Notes[edit] ^ According to Schanz-Hosius (Geschichte der Römischen Literatur, 4, vol. 2 (1920), pp. 115, 118) the best MSS of his work present his name as Jordanes, as does the 'Geographus Ravennas'. Jordanis is a 'vulgar' form that is also used, while Jornandes only appears in lesser MSS. The form Jornandes, however, was often used in older publications. ^ "If Jordanes was a bishop (as is frequently assumed) and if he lived in Italy (also frequently assumed), those elements of his background have left no trace in his two histories" (Brian Croke (1987), "Cassiodorus and the Getica of Jordanes", Classical Philology, 82: 119 (117–134)., doi:10.1086/367034 ^ "Constantinople is "our city" (Getica 38). ^ He mentions the great plague of 542 as having occurred "nine years ago" (Getica 104). Still, there are some modern scholars who opt for a later date, see Peter Heather, Goths and Romans 332-489, Oxford 1991, pp. 47-49 (year 552), Walter Goffart, The Narrators of Barbarian History, Princeton 1988, p. 98 (year 554). ^ Croke 1987. ^ Jordanes, Mierow (ed.), Getica 266 ^ Jordanes, De origine actibusque Getarum L, archived from the original on 2008-02-13, retrieved 2007-08-17 ^ Getica 132, 133, 138, noted by Croke 1987:125 ^ Arne Søby Christensen (2002), Cassiodorus, Jordanes, and the History of the Goths. Studies in a Migration Myth, ISBN 978-87-7289-710-3, archived from the original on 2007-08-21, retrieved 2007-08-15 ^ James J. O'Donnell (1982), "The Aims of Jordanes", Historia, 31: 223–240, archived from the original on November 9, 2007 ^ Walter Goffart, The Narrators of Barbarian History, Princeton 1988, p. 70. ^ Pârvan, Vasile (1928). Dacia: An Outline of the Early Civilization of the Carpatho-Danubian Countries. The University Press ^ Oțetea, Andrei (1970). The History of the Romanian people. Scientific Pub. Hoose. ^ Ioan Bolovan, Florin Constantiniu, Paul E. Michelson, Ioan Aurel Pop, Christian Popa, Marcel Popa, Kurt Treptow, A History of Romania, Intl Specialized Book Service Inc. 1997 ^ Arne Søby Christensen (2002), Cassiodorus, Jordanes, and the History of the Goths. Studies in a Migration Myth ^ M. Kulikowski, Rome’s Gothic Wars, p. 130, References[edit] Mierow, Charles Christopher, The Gothic History of Jordanes: In English with an Introduction and a Commentary, 1915. Reprinted 2006. Evolution Publishing, ISBN 978-1-889758-77-0. [1] Kulikowski, Michael, Rome's Gothic Wars, p. 130. Arne Søby Christensen, Cassiodorus, Jordanes, and the History of the Goths. Studies in a Migration Myth, 2002, ISBN 978-87-7289-710-3 Kai Brodersen, Könige im Karpatenbogen: Zur historischen Bedeutung von Jordanes' Herrscherliste. In: Zeitschrift für Siebenbürgische Landeskunde 36 (2013) pp. 129–146 ( ISSN 0344-3418) External links[edit] Works by Jordanes at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Jordanes at Internet Archive Jordanes, The Origins and Deeds of the Goths, translated by Charles C. Mierow. alternative. James J. O'Donell (1982), "The Aims of Jordanes", Historia, 31: 223–240, archived from the original on November 9, 2007 The Origins and Deeds of the Goths  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Jordanis (Jornandes)". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. v t e Byzantine historians 5th century Annianus of Alexandria Eunapius John Rufus Malchus Olympiodorus of Thebes Panodorus of Alexandria Philostorgius Priscus Sabinus of Heraclea Socrates of Constantinople Sozomen Theodoret 6th century Agathias Cyril of Scythopolis Eustathius of Epiphania Evagrius Scholasticus Hesychius of Miletus John Diakrinomenos John of Ephesus John of Epiphania Pseudo-Joshua the Stylite Jordanes John Malalas Liberatus of Carthage Marcellinus Comes Menander Protector Nonnosus Peter the Patrician Procopius Theodorus Lector Theophanes of Byzantium Zacharias Rhetor Zosimus 7th century Chronicon Paschale John of Antioch Trajan the Patrician Theophylact Simocatta 8th century Hippolytus of Thebes 9th century Theophanes the Confessor George Syncellus Nikephoros I of Constantinople George Hamartolos Scriptor Incertus 10th century Chronicle of Monemvasia Constantine VII Joseph Genesius John Kaminiates Leo the Deacon Pseudo-Simeon Symeon the Metaphrast Theophanes Continuatus 11th century Michael Attaleiates George Kedrenos Michael Psellos John Skylitzes John Xiphilinus Yahya of Antioch 12th century Nikephoros Bryennios the Younger Niketas Choniates Eustathius of Thessalonica Michael Glykas Anna Komnene John Kinnamos Constantine Manasses Joannes Zonaras 13th century George Akropolites Theodore Skoutariotes 14th century Nicephorus Gregoras Nikephoros Kallistos Xanthopoulos John VI Kantakouzenos George Kodinos George Pachymeres Michael Panaretos 15th century John Anagnostes John Cananus Laonikos Chalkokondyles Michael Critobulus Doukas George Sphrantzes Authority control BIBSYS: 90152917 BNE: XX970580 BNF: cb12215657t (data) CANTIC: a10460214 GND: 118891472 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\013204 ISNI: 0000 0001 2030 3509 LCCN: n85084093 NKC: mzk2002110384 NSK: 000107851 NTA: 069726736 SELIBR: 191963 SUDOC: 030817498 Trove: 1001290 VcBA: 495/42448 VIAF: 268814081 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n85084093 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jordanes&oldid=970786323" Categories: Byzantine historians 6th-century historians 6th-century Byzantine people of Gothic descent Gothic writing Latin historians 6th-century Latin writers 6th-century Byzantine writers Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles needing clarification from November 2015 Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Articles incorporating text from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages العربية Asturianu Беларуская Български Boarisch Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Frysk Galego 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Мокшень Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 2 August 2020, at 11:14 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-35	----	Integrated Authority File - Wikipedia Integrated Authority File From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from GND (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search International authority file for personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies Parts of this article (those related to Types of GND high-level entities) need to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (February 2018) Integrated Authority File GND: Screenshot of the German National Library (Browser: Opera 11.62). Acronym GND Organisation DNB Introduced 5 April 2012 (2012-04-05) Example 7749153-1 Website www.dnb.de/EN/Professionell/Standardisierung/GND/gnd_node.html The Integrated Authority File (German: Gemeinsame Normdatei; also known as the Universal Authority File) or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives and museums. The GND is managed by the German National Library (German: Deutsche Nationalbibliothek; DNB) in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero (CC0) licence.[1] The GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format.[2] The Integrated Authority File became operational in April 2012 and integrates the content of the following authority files, which have since been discontinued: Name Authority File (German: Personennamendatei; PND) Corporate Bodies Authority File (German: Gemeinsame Körperschaftsdatei; GKD) Subject Headings Authority File (German: Schlagwortnormdatei; SWD) Uniform Title File of the Deutsches Musikarchiv (German: Einheitssachtitel-Datei des Deutschen Musikarchivs; DMA-EST) At the time of its introduction on 5 April 2012, the GND held 9,493,860 files, including 2,650,000 personalised names. Contents 1 Types of GND high-level entities 2 See also 3 References 4 External links Types of GND high-level entities[edit] There are seven main types of GND entities:[3] Typ German (official) English (translation) p Person (individualisiert) person (individualised) n Name (nicht individualisiert) name (not individualised) k Körperschaft corporate body v Veranstaltung event w Werk work s Sachbegriff topical term g Geografikum geographical place name See also[edit] LIBRIS Virtual International Authority File References[edit] ^ www.dnb.de/EN/Professionell/Standardisierung/GND/gnd_node.html Integrated Authority File (GND) ^ GND Ontology – Namespace Document Archived 2013-01-03 at the Wayback Machine, version 2012-06-30. ^ Entitätencodierung: Vergaberichtlinien (short lists – old and new versions) External links[edit] Wikidata has the property: GND ID (P227) (see uses) Information pages about the GND from the German National Library Search via OGND (Bibliotheksservice-Zentrum Baden-Württemberg) Bereitstellung des ersten GND-Grundbestandes DNB, 19 April 2012 From Authority Control to Linked Authority Data Presentation given by Reinhold Heuvelmann (German National Library) to the ALA MARC Formats Interest Group, June 2012 v t e Authority control files AAG • ACM DL • ADB • AGSA • autores.uy • AWR • BALaT • BIBSYS • Bildindex • BNC • BNE • BNF • Botanist • BPN • CANTIC • CiNii • CWGC • DAAO • DBLP • DSI • FNZA • GND • HDS • IAAF • ICCU • ICIA • ISNI • Joconde • KulturNav • LCCN • LIR • LNB • Léonore • MBA • MGP • NARA • NBL • NDL • NGV • NKC • NLA • NLG • NLI • NLK • NLP • NLR • NSK • NTA • ORCID • PIC • ResearcherID • RERO • RKD • RKDimages ID • RSL • SELIBR • SIKART • SNAC • SUDOC • S2AuthorId • TA98 • TDVİA • TE • TePapa • TH • TLS • Trove • UKPARL • ULAN • US Congress • VcBA • VIAF • WorldCat Identities Authority control GND: 7749153-1 VIAF: 188136221 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 188136221 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Integrated_Authority_File&oldid=993458488#GND" Categories: Computer-related introductions in 2012 Library cataloging and classification Unique identifiers Creative Commons-licensed databases Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Wikipedia articles in need of updating from February 2018 All Wikipedia articles in need of updating Articles containing German-language text Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ भोजपुरी Български Boarisch Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Magyar Македонски Malagasy मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русский Scots සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 December 2020, at 18:41 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3612	----	Seneca the Elder - Wikipedia Seneca the Elder From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman scholar, writer and historian (54 BC-c.39 AD) Seneca the Elder Born c. 54 BC Died c. 39 AD (aged c. 92) Language Latin Genre Rhetoric, Silver Age of Latin, History Notable works Oratorum et Rhetorum Sententiae Divisiones Colores; Historiae ab Initio Bellorum Civilium Spouse Helvia Children Lucius Junius Gallio Annaeanus Lucius Annaeus Seneca the Younger Marcus Annaeus Mela Lucius Annaeus Seneca the Elder (/ˈsɛnɪkə/; c. 54 BC – c. 39 AD), also known (less correctly) as Seneca the Rhetorician, was a Roman writer, born of a wealthy equestrian family of Corduba, Hispania. He wrote a collection of reminiscences about the Roman schools of rhetoric, six books of which are extant in a more or less complete state and five others in epitome only. His principal work, a history of Roman affairs from the beginning of the Civil Wars until the last years of his life, is almost entirely lost to posterity. Seneca lived through the reigns of three significant emperors; Augustus (ruled 27 BC – 14 AD), Tiberius (ruled 14 AD – 37 AD) and Caligula (ruled 37 AD – 41 AD). He was the father of Lucius Junius Gallio Annaeanus, best known as a Proconsul of Achaia; his second son was the dramatist and Stoic philosopher Seneca the Younger (Lucius), who was tutor of Nero, and his third son, Marcus Annaeus Mela, became the father of the poet Lucan. Contents 1 Background 1.1 The Declamatory Anthology 1.2 History 2 Editions of the declamatory anthology 3 References 4 Sources 5 Further reading 6 External links Background[edit] Seneca the Elder is the first of the gens Annaea of whom there is definite knowledge.[1] In the renaissance his name and his works became confused with his son Lucius Annaeus Seneca.[2] In the early 16th century Raphael of Volterra saw that there must be two different men. He noted that two of the elder Seneca's grandsons were called Marcus and since there was a Roman custom for boys to be given the name of their grandfather, Raphael adopted the name of Marcus for the elder Seneca.[2] Until the 20th century this was used as the standard praenomen. However it is now accepted that this naming custom was not rigid, and since in the manuscripts he is referred to as Lucius, many scholars now prefer this praenomen since it would also help explain why their works became so confused.[2] The elder Seneca was born in Spain at a date sufficiently early that he might, theoretically, have heard the voice of Cicero, had he been living in Italy as a boy. Instead, he was confined by wartime conditions 'within the walls' of his 'own colony'[3], and it was presumably there that he received his first schooling from a praeceptor who had more than two hundred pupils. [4]As soon as the journey became safe after the Civil Wars,[5] he travelled to Rome and during lengthy stays there attended assiduously the public declamations by teachers of rhetoric, and sometimes professional orators too, which provided training, in those days, for young men preparing to pursue careers in advocacy and public administration. But there is no evidence that the elder Seneca ever pursued such a career. Rather the testimony of the younger Seneca in a fragment from his De Vita Patris, suggests that his father remained all his life a private gentleman, declining to seek fame from his writing of a History of Rome 'From the beginning of the Civil Wars', on which he was still engaged at the time of his death under the regime of Caligula. It emerges from some of the elder Seneca's own words [6] that he regarded as honourable political careers such as his elder two sons had entered upon, and thought the study of rhetoric, as a preparation for them, correspondingly honourable; yet he was fully aware of the dangers inherent in such careers, 'in which the very objectives sought after are to be feared'[7], and was supportive also towards his youngest son, Mela, when he opted not to follow his brothers in their pursuit of public honours but, instead, to remain content with his inherited equestrian status. The Declamatory Anthology[edit] It was on the basis of his experiences in the schools and auditoria of the declaimers of Augustan and Tiberian Rome that the elder Seneca wrote, in his old age, the work on which his fame rests today, the Oratorum et Rhetorum Sententiae Divisiones Colores. This work, originally comprising ten books on the subject of Controversiae (fictitious lawsuits) together with at least one additional book on Suasoriae (fictitious speeches of persuasion), was written ostensibly at the request of his sons and ostensibly from memory. It is not a collection of his own declamations, or of complete fair copies of those delivered by any other declaimer but instead it presents representative extracts and analyses of the declamatory art of a considerable number of the rhetorical celebrities of his younger days. It certainly does not have the character of a theoretical treatise. The elder Seneca's own input is confined to pen-portraits of the famous declaimers whom he cites, plus analytical and critical comments about details of their work and anecdotes remembered from the literary chatter of long ago. The declaimers of Augustan and Tiberian Rome professed admiration for Cicero, but their preferred oratorical style was not very Ciceronian and nor was the theoretical basis of their educational method. 'Declamation' of the sort that they practised, was, according to the elder Seneca, a new art, born after his own birth. So far as Rome was concerned, we must believe him. If its characteristic concentration on the bizarre kind of imaginary lawsuits known as controversiae had earlier precedent in the schools somewhere in the Greek-speaking world - as is likely, in view of the remoteness of the subject-matter and legal suppositions of these declamatory themes from the realities of Roman law-courts - Seneca the Elder seems to have been totally unaware of it. He was, however, aware of the activity of a number of Greek rhetoricians, teaching in Rome alongside those who taught their art in Latin. It so happened that Porcius Latro, a great friend from the elder Seneca's Corduban childhood, became one of Rome's leading rhetoricians in the Augustan era. Together they had studied at the rhetorical school of one Marullus.[8] In his friend's view Latro's only serious rival for supremacy among Rome's declaimers was the orator Junius Gallio, another close family connection of the Senecas. Latro cultivated the sort of 'fiery and agitated style' that Seneca particularly admired.[9] He was characterized by his friend as a man of both gravity and charm, pre-emininently worthy of the eloquence he possessed. But the end of Seneca's tribute to him [10] illustrates how both men inhabited a literary world far distant from Cicero's, one in which delight in neat contrasts and paradoxes had become all-consuming: 'no one' wrote Seneca of Latro, 'was more in command of his intellect: no one was more indulgent towards it'. Not all the rhetoricians cited by Seneca were identical to Latro in their tastes. In the prefaces to the books of Controversiae Seneca took pains to identify their distinguishing characteristics and was by no means entirely dismissive of those who fell short of his Latronian ideal. At one point he refers to a primum tetradeum, meaning the four most distinguished declaimers he had known. One should note the inclusion, in this distinguished group, alongside Latro, Gallio and Albucius Silus, of Arellius Fuscus, about whose style he expresses serious reservations in his second preface, for its unevenness and, in particular, with regard to the descriptive passages (explicationes)[11] characteristic of it, which he considered 'brilliant, but laboured and involved, with a decorative finish too contrived, and word-positioning too effeminate, to be tolerable for a mind preparing itself for such holy and courageous teachings.'[12] But there was no denying the distinction of the school of Arellius Fuscus, whose pupils included the philosophical writer Fabianus[13] and the poet Ovid,[14] so it is understandable why, even in the judgement of a severe critic, he had to be ranked so highly. Albucius, too was influential, the author of a textbook which Quintilian was to cite several times.[15] The elder Seneca's declamatory anthology in fact presents a far-reaching critical investigation of the rhetorical substrata underlying the mannerist 'Silver Age' literature in which, after Ovid, the younger Seneca's sententious philosophical disquisitions and dramatic art and, in the next generation, Lucan's fiery and agitated epic poetry stand out as among the most striking examples. Out of the ten books of Controversiae, in which extracts from declamatory treatments of seventy-four judicial themes were presented, only books 1, 2, 7, 9, 10 survive more or less in their entirety, with the names of individual rhetoricians and Seneca's critical comments included. Such information as we have about the remaining books is supplied by an epitome made in the 4th or 5th century for school use, which was to leave its mark on later European literature by supplying some of the stories included in the anecdote-collection called Gesta Romanorum Each book was introduced by a preface in which the anthologist adopted an approach which he himself compared to that adopted by organizers of gladiatorial shows [16] Each preface presents pen-portraits of the famous exponents of the declamatory art either individually, or in pairs, before finally, in the tenth preface, Seneca offers his readers a group-presentation of declaimers previously overlooked. After the prefaces came surveys of the treatment of particular controversia-themes by noted declaimers of the past. These surveys, in line with the title of the anthology, usually contain three main sections, the first presenting sententiae the 'ways of thinking'[17] adopted by the various declaimers about their set themes, while the second section is devoted to divisiones , outlines of their argumentation, and the third to colores, the specious interpretations which they gave to the actions of their imaginary defendants, with a view to excusing or vilifying them. The books of Controversiae were supplemented by at least one devoted to Suasoriae (exercises in deliberative oratory), in which historical or mythological characters are imagined as deliberating on their options at crucial junctures in the career. In his extant book of Suasoriae, Seneca presents sententiae by the declaimers cited, followed by their divisiones, but no colores, as these have no place in deliberation, belonging exclusively to judicial rhetoric. The elder Seneca's claim to the authorship of this declamatory anthology, generally ascribed to his son during the Middle Ages, was vindicated by the Renaissance humanists Raffaello Maffei and Justus Lipsius. History[edit] Seneca was also the author of a lost historical work, containing the history of Rome from the beginning of the civil wars almost down to his own death, after which it was published by his son. About this magnum opus we learn something from the younger Seneca's De vita patris (H. Peter, Historicorum Romanorum fragmenta, 1883, 292, 301) and from a large fragment of the History itself which was cited by Lactantius in Institutiones Divinae 7.15.14. This fragment is prefatory in character and pessimistic in outlook, likening as it does the history of Rome to the Seven Ages of Man, and comparing the reversion of Rome to monarchical rule with the 'second infancy' of senility. Also extant is his account of the death of Tiberius, cited by Suetonius in Tiberius 73.[18] In 2017 the papyrologist Valeria Piano published a detailed study of P.Herc 1067, a charred papyrus-roll from Herculaneum first excavated probably in 1782, and partially unrolled in the early nineteenth century. In this study, published in Cronache Ercolanesi (47, pp. 163–250), she asserts, on the basis of traces of lettering on its final subscriptio, that the text which the roll contained was by one L. Annaeus Seneca, and that in view of the clear preponderance in what can be read of the text's contents, of historical and political matter relating to the first decades of the Roman Empire, it is most likely to have originated in the elder Seneca's Histories. Slight traces of a book-title following the author's name in the subscriptio are also judged to be more compatible with ab initio b[ell]orum [civilium] than with the title of the rhetorical anthology. Unfortunately, the text of the scroll legible now is very far from capable of being read as a continuous narrative since, in the process of unrolling, several layers of tightly rolled papyrus tended to remain stuck together and peeled away from each other unevenly.[citation needed] Editions of the declamatory anthology[edit] Nicolas Lefèvre (Nicholas Faber) (Paris, 1587) JF Gronovius (Leiden, 1649, Amsterdam, 1672) Conrad Bursian (critical edition) (Leipzig, 1857) Adolf Kiessling (Leipzig, 1872) Hermann Johannes Müller (Prague, 1887) Michael Winterbottom, (1974) Declamations, (Controversiae, Suasoriae. Fragments). 2 vols. Loeb Classical Library References[edit] ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, William Smith, Editor. ^ a b c Sussman, Lewis A. (1978). The Elder Seneca. Brill. p. 19. ISBN 9004057595. ^ Controversiae 1 pr 11 ^ Controversiae 1. pr. 2 ^ Controversiae 1 pr. 11 ^ Controversiae 2 pr. 3-4 ^ Latin: in quibus ipsa quae sperantur timenda sunt ^ Controversiae 1 pr. 22, 24 ^ Controversiae 3 pr.7; 2.2.8 ^ Controversiae i pr 13 ^ Oxford Latin Dictionary sv. explicatio 4 ^ Controversiae 2 pr 1 ^ Controversiae 2 pr. 1 ^ Controversiae 2.8 ^ Quintilian 2.15.36; 3.3.4; 3.6.62. The elder Seneca's pen-portrait of him is lost, but Suetonius' de Rhetoribus 30 describes him vividly as a man who was a greater success as a declaimer than as an orator. ^ Controversiae 1 pr. 24; 4 pr 1; Fairweather 29-30 ^ Oxford Latin Dictionary s.v. sententia 1, cf. 3 'an opinion expressed in the senate in response to an interrogatio/ ^ See M. Winterbottom, Loeb edition, Seneca the Elder Vol. 2, pp 614-7, for the text and English translation of both these fragments. Sources[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Seneca". Encyclopædia Britannica. 24 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 637–638. Further reading[edit] Bodel, John. (2010). Kangaroo Courts: Displaced Justice in the Roman Novel. In Spaces of Justice in the Roman World. Edited by Francesco de Angelis, 311-329. Boston: Brill. Fairweather, Janet. (1981). Seneca the Elder. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Fantham, Elaine (1978). Imitation and Decline: Rhetorical Theory and Practice in the First Century after Christ. Classical Philology, 73(2), 102-116. Griffin, Miriam. (1972). The Elder Seneca and Spain. Journal of Roman Studies 62:1–19. Gunderson, Erik. (2003). Declamation, Paternity, and Roman Identity: Authority and the Rhetorical Self. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Huelsenbeck, B. (2011). The Rhetorical Collection of the Elder Seneca: Textual Tradition and Traditional Text. Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, 106, 229-299. Imber, Margaret. (2008). Life Without Father: Declamation and the Construction of Paternity in the Roman Empire. In Role Models in the Roman World: Identity and Assimilation. Edited by Sinclair Bell and Inge Lyse Hansen, 161-169. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. McGill, Scott. (2012). A Spectrum of Innocence: Denying Plagiarism in Seneca the Elder. In Plagiarism in Latin Literature. By Scott McGill, 146–177. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Richlin, Amy. (1997). Gender and Rhetoric: Producing Manhood in the Schools. In Roman Eloquence: Rhetoric in Society and Literature. Edited by William J. Dominik, 90-110. London: Routledge. Roller, Matthew (1997). Color-Blindness: Cicero's Death, Declamation, and the Production of History. Classical Philology, 92(2), 109-130. External links[edit] Library resources about Seneca the Elder Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Seneca the Elder Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Quotations related to Seneca the Elder at Wikiquote Works by Seneca the Elder at Perseus Digital Library Seneca, Suasoriae - English translation by W.A. Edward Authority control BIBSYS: 90567289 BNE: XX923175 BNF: cb118875561 (data) CANTIC: a10261692 GND: 118764543 ISNI: 0000 0001 0855 9368 LCCN: n82166595 NKC: jx20111118033 NLA: 35818302 NLI: 004765141 NTA: 069192847 SELIBR: 198103 SUDOC: 026670992 Trove: 1101597 VcBA: 495/44779 VIAF: 23497389 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n82166595 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seneca_the_Elder&oldid=993802367" Categories: 54 BC births 39 deaths 1st-century BC Romans 1st-century historians 1st-century Romans Ancient Roman rhetoricians Annaei Latin historians People from Córdoba, Spain Romans from Hispania Silver Age Latin writers Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2019 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages Afrikaans Asturianu Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Français Furlan Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Latina Latviešu Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 12 December 2020, at 15:56 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3620	----	Template talk:Ancient Rome topics - Wikipedia Template talk:Ancient Rome topics From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search WikiProject Classical Greece and Rome (Rated Template-class) v t e This template is within the scope of WikiProject Classical Greece and Rome, a group of contributors interested in Wikipedia's articles on classics. If you would like to join the WikiProject or learn how to contribute, please see our project page. If you need assistance from a classicist, please see our talk page.Classical Greece and RomeWikipedia:WikiProject Classical Greece and RomeTemplate:WikiProject Classical Greece and RomeClassical Greece and Rome articles  Template  This template does not require a rating on the project's quality scale.   Oh my... that statue is from 1696. It is not Roman... How unseemly! -- Pichote (talk) 21:25, 22 January 2008 (UTC) Whatever, the subject is Julius Ceasar the most famous Roman of all times. More than worthy. Flamarande (talk) 22:07, 22 January 2008 (UTC) ...as cultural depiction of Julius Caesar, you mean. Pichote (talk) 20:48, 14 February 2008 (UTC) I added a section to this template on the Latin language. I think it would be a good idea to do away with the ages of Latin template and apply this one to all the Latin pages since it's a good way to consolidate information - have a single template for all the roman articles? Thoughts? - Christopher (talk) 23:55, 26 February 2008 (UTC) Should Tetrarchy be added under extraordinary magistrates? 72.40.104.171 (talk) 15:57, 21 September 2008 (UTC) Contents 1 Julius Caesar statue image replacement 2 Semi-protected edit request on 6 September 2018 3 Servius 4 Adding List of Quaestors under Lists Julius Caesar statue image replacement[edit] I changed the picture of the statue of Julius Caesar by Nicolas Coustou to a picture of the Augustus of Prima Porta statue. The Julius Caesar statue was anachronistic with Ancient Rome and misleading. I tried to substitute another statue of a Caesar for the sake of consistency. Having the image with a white background looked very good and I looked for another such image, but did not find one in the Commons. AmateurEditor (talk) 22:39, 5 August 2009 (UTC) I've changed the image to one with a white background for aesthetic reasons. AmateurEditor (talk) 18:33, 8 August 2009 (UTC) Icons should not be added only because they look good, because aesthetics are in the eye of the beholder: one reader's harmless decoration may be another reader's distraction Gnevin (talk) 20:59, 9 June 2010 (UTC) Semi-protected edit request on 6 September 2018[edit] This edit request has been answered. Set the |answered= or |ans= parameter to no to reactivate your request. 79.167.155.160 (talk) 20:16, 6 September 2018 (UTC) I suggest you to add Thessaloniki as one of the largest cities of the Roman Empire Can you list any reliable sources that support your idea? —AE (talk • contributions) 14:18, 17 September 2018 (UTC)  Not done: please provide reliable sources that support the change you want to be made. Hhkohh (talk) 15:29, 22 September 2018 (UTC) Servius[edit] Please fix [[Maurus Servius Honoratus|Servius]]. Thank you 93.185.19.144 (talk) 07:31, 3 December 2019 (UTC) Done. Thank you for letting us know about the error! P Aculeius (talk) 14:08, 3 December 2019 (UTC) Adding List of Quaestors under Lists[edit] Hey! I am kinda new to editing stuff here on the wiki and how to edit Templates such as this one seems kinda scary. So i am wondering if someone could do me the favor of adding "List of Roman Quaestors" under the section "Lists" as it feels like that list would now fit there unless im confused about how this template is supposed to work. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Roman_quaestors CutieyKing (talk) 06:00, 26 June 2020 (UTC) Done. And also added the List of Roman praetors (moved that from incorrect capitalization). Not sure if these lists are particularly useful compared with the consuls or dictators, but that's a discussion for another time, and adding them to the template seems harmless enough. P Aculeius (talk) 11:38, 26 June 2020 (UTC) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Ancient_Rome_topics&oldid=964590154" Categories: Template-Class Classical Greece and Rome articles NA-importance Classical Greece and Rome articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Template Talk Variants Views Read Edit New section View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages This page was last edited on 26 June 2020, at 11:38 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. 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en-wikipedia-org-3622	----	Senate - Wikipedia Senate From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Senator) This is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on 23 December 2020. Jump to navigation Jump to search "Senator" and "Sen." redirect here. For other uses, see Senator (disambiguation), Sen (disambiguation), and Senate (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Senate" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Curia Julia in the Roman Forum The debating chamber of the Senate of the Czech Republic in the Wallenstein Palace A senate is a deliberative assembly, often the upper house or chamber of a bicameral legislature. The name comes from the ancient Roman Senate (Latin: Senatus), so-called as an assembly of the senior (Latin: senex meaning "the elder" or "old man") and therefore considered wiser and more experienced members of the society or ruling class. Many countries have an assembly named a senate, composed of senators who may be elected, appointed, have inherited the title, or gained membership by other methods, depending on the country. Modern senates typically serve to provide a chamber of "sober second thought" to consider legislation passed by a lower house, whose members are usually elected. Most senates have asymmetrical duties and powers compared with their respective lower house meaning they have special duties, for example to fill important political positions or to pass special laws. Conversely many senates have limited powers in changing or stopping bills under consideration and efforts to stall or veto a bill may be bypassed by the lower house or another branch of government.[1] Contents 1 Overview 2 Alternative meanings 3 National senates in other parts of the world 4 Defunct and unestablished senates 5 Notes 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Overview[edit] The modern word Senate is derived from the Latin word senātus (senate), which comes from senex, 'old man'.[2] The members or legislators of a senate are called senators. The Latin word senator was adopted into English with no change in spelling. Its meaning is derived from a very ancient form of social organization, in which advisory or decision-making powers are reserved for the eldest men. For the same reason, the word senate is correctly used when referring to any powerful authority characteristically composed by the eldest members of a community, as a deliberative body of a faculty in an institution of higher learning is often called a senate. This form adaptation was used to show the power of those in body and for the decision-making process to be thorough, which could take a long period of time. The original senate was the Roman Senate, which lasted until at least AD 603,[3] although various efforts to revive it were made in Medieval Rome. In the Eastern Roman Empire, the Byzantine Senate continued until the Fourth Crusade, circa 1202–1204. Modern democratic states with bicameral parliamentary systems are sometimes equipped with a senate, often distinguished from an ordinary parallel lower house, known variously as the "House of Representatives", "House of Commons", "Chamber of Deputies", "National Assembly", "Legislative Assembly", or "House of Assembly", by electoral rules. This may include minimum age required for voters and candidates, proportional or majoritarian or plurality system, and an electoral basis or collegium. Typically, the senate is referred to as the upper house and has a smaller membership than the lower house. In some federal states senates also exist at the subnational level. In the United States, every state has a senate, with the exception of Nebraska (whose legislature is a unicameral body called the "Legislature" but whose members refer to themselves as "senators"). There is also the US Senate at the federal level. Similarly in Argentina, in addition to the Senate at federal level, eight of the country's provinces, Buenos Aires, Catamarca, Corrientes, Entre Ríos, Mendoza, Salta, San Luis (since 1987) and Santa Fe, have bicameral legislatures with a Senate. Córdoba and Tucumán changed to unicameral systems in 2001 and 2003 respectively. In Australia and Canada, only the upper house of the federal parliament is known as the Senate. All Australian states other than Queensland have an upper house known as a Legislative council. Several Canadian provinces also once had a Legislative Council, but these have all been abolished, the last being Quebec's Legislative council in 1968. In Germany, the last Senate of a State parliament, the Senate of Bavaria, was abolished in 1999. Senate membership can be determined either through elections or appointments. For example, elections are held every three years for half the membership of the Senate of the Philippines, the term of a senator being six years. In contrast, members of the Canadian Senate are appointed by the Governor General upon the recommendation of the Prime Minister of Canada, holding the office until they resign, are removed, or retire at the mandatory age of 75. Alternative meanings[edit] The terms senate and senator, however, do not necessarily refer to a second chamber of a legislature: The Senate of Finland was, until 1918, the executive branch and the supreme court. The Senate of Latvia (lv) fulfilled a similar judicial function during the interbellum (1918-1940). In German politics: In the Bundesländer (Federated States) of Germany which form a City State (in German: Stadtstaat), i.e. Berlin (Senate of Berlin), Bremen (Senate of Bremen) and Hamburg (Senate of Hamburg), the senates (Senat in German) are the executive branch, with senators (Senator) being the holders of ministerial portfolios.[4] In a number of cities which were former members of the Hanse (a medieval confederacy of port cities mainly at the shores of the Baltic Sea and the North Sea), such as Greifswald, Lübeck, Rostock, Stralsund, or Wismar, the city government is also called a Senate. However, in Bavaria, the Senate was a second legislative chamber until its abolition in 1999. In German jurisdiction: The term Senat (senate) in higher courts of appeal refers to the "bench" in its broader metonymy meaning, describing members of the judiciary collectively (usually five judges), often occupied with a particular subject-matter jurisdiction. However, the judges are not called "senators". The German term Strafsenat (literally "Penal Senate") in a German court translates to Bench of penal-law jurisdiction and Zivilsenat (literally "Civil Senate") to Bench of private-law jurisdiction. The Federal Constitutional Court of Germany consists of two senates of eight judges each. In its case the division is mostly of an organizational nature, as a matter of dividing the work load; both senates handle the same kind of constitutional cases. At some points in the past, one senate was considered more conservative and the other more liberal, but that is not the case as of 2011. In Scotland, judges of the High Court of Justiciary are called Senators of the College of Justice. In some, mostly federal countries with a unicameral legislature, some of the legislators are elected differently from the others and are called senators. In federal countries, such senators represent the territories, while the other members represent the people at large (this device is used to allow a federal representation without having to establish a bicameral legislature); this is the case with St. Kitts and Nevis, Comoros and Micronesia. In other, non-federal countries, the use of the term senator marks some other difference between such members and the rest of the legislators (such as the method of selection); this is the case with the States of Jersey, Dominica's House of Assembly and the Saint Vincent House of Assembly. In Wales, the Welsh Parliament debating chamber is called the Senedd, pronounced 'Seneth', there being no other word in the Welsh language for "Parliament" An academic senate is the governing body of some universities. In Greece during the early stages of the Greek War of Independence, various local legislative and executive bodies were established by the Greek rebels. Two of them were styled "senate": the Peloponnesian Senate and the Senate of Western Continental Greece. National senates in other parts of the world[edit] Afghanistan Argentina Austria Australia Bahamas Barbados Belgium Belize Bolivia Brazil Burundi Cambodia Cameroon Canada Chile Colombia Democratic Republic of the Congo Republic of Congo Czech Republic Dominican Republic Egypt France Gabon Germany Grenada Haiti India Indonesia Ireland Italy Ivory Coast Jamaica Japan Jordan Kenya Kazakhstan Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Malaysia Mexico Nepal Netherlands Nigeria Palau Pakistan Paraguay Philippines Poland Romania Russia Rwanda Saint Lucia South Africa Spain Swaziland Switzerland Thailand Trinidad and Tobago United States Uzbekistan Uruguay Zimbabwe Defunct and unestablished senates[edit] See also: List of abolished upper houses Abolished in favor of unicameral system 1863 Greece[Note 1] 1904 Santiago del Estero Province, Argentina 1958 Sudan 1966 Kenya (restored in 2013)[Note 2] 1970 Sweden 1971 Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) 1979 Iran 1990 Tucumán Province, Argentina 1981 South Africa[Note 3] 1993 Republic of China (Taiwan)[Note 4] 2000 Bavaria, Germany 2001 Córdoba Province, Argentina 2005 Chad 2017 Mauritania Legislature disbanded 603 Roman Republic/Empire 1204 Byzantine Empire 1865 Confederate States of America 1831–1879 Montenegro 1931–1941 Yugoslavia 1939 Czechoslovakia 1947 British Burma 1958 Cuba 1959 Iraq 1961 South Korea 1969 Libya 1972 Northern Ireland 1972 Philippines (restored in 1987)[Note 5] 1974 Ethiopia 1975 South Vietnam 1979 Rhodesia New constitution adopted 1847 Costa Rica[Note 6] 1866 Sweden 1871 Costa Rica[Note 6] 1886 El Salvador[Note 7] 1890 Japan 1901–1903 Serbia 1917 Russia 1919 Costa Rica[Note 6] 1919 Finland 1926 Portugal 1928 Albania 1930 Bahia, Brazil 1930 Ceará, Brazil 1930 Pernambuco, Brazil 1930 São Paulo, Brazil 1935 Philippines (restored in 1945)[Note 5] 1949 Malta 1950 Indonesia (restored in 2001 as DPD) 1964 British Guiana (now Guyana) 1970 Ceylon 1978 Ecuador 1978 Philippines (restored in 1987)[Note 5] 1979 Iran 1979 Nicaragua 1982 Turkey 1993 Peru 2000 Venezuela 2012 Senegal 2013 Fiji Senate unestablished, though foreseen by the Constitution 1989 Lebanon 1994 Malawi 1995 Georgia 2004 Iraq Notes[edit] ^ A Greek Senate was reestablished in 1927, and abolished again in 1935. ^ The Kenyan Senate and House of Representatives were combined into a single National Assembly, under the 2010 Constitution, the Senate is the upper house, with the National Assembly becoming the lower house. ^ A South African Senate was reconvened between 1994 and 1997, before being replaced by the National Council of Provinces. ^ The Control Yuan existed as a parliamentary body in the 1947 Chinese constitution which were elected by provincial legislators for a duration of 6 years. After the Chinese Civil War, the government was transferred to Taiwan. In the constitutional reforms of the 1990s, the Control Yuan is now a purely auditory body, and its 29 members are nominated by the president, and confirmed by the Legislative Yuan for a duration of 6 years. Since 2005, the Legislative Yuan is now the nation's sole parliamentary body. ^ a b c The Philippine Senate was abolished and restored twice. A new constitution in 1935 abolished the Senate but an amendment in 1941 restored it in 1945. In 1972, the legislature was closed, and a passage of a new constitution in 1978 confirmed the abolition of the Senate; an approval of a new constitution in 1987 restored it. ^ a b c The 1844 Constitution of the Republic of Costa Rica Archived 2011-01-24 at the Wayback Machine provided for a Senate; the Constitution of 1847 Archived 2014-11-29 at the Wayback Machine, which replaced it, established a unicameral legislature. The Senate was reestablished by the Constitution of 1859 Archived 2014-11-29 at the Wayback Machine; the country reverted to unicameralism with the adoption of the 1871 Constitution Archived 2014-11-29 at the Wayback Machine. Costa Rica briefly restored the Senate and bicameralism with the adoption of the 1917 Constitution Archived 2014-11-29 at the Wayback Machine, but that constitution was abrogated in 1919, whereupon the 1871 Constitution was restored; it remained in effect until 1949, when Costa Rica adopted its present Constitution, which provides for a unicameral legislature. ^ The 1841 Constitution of the Republic of El Salvador established a bicameral legislature with a Chamber of Deputies and a Senate. The 1886 constitution replaced the bicameral legislature with a unicameral one.[5] See also[edit] Senator for life References[edit] ^ Bicameral Legislatures: An international Comparison. Betty Drexhage. The Hague. 2015. ^ Dictionary.com Unabridged Based on the Random House Dictionary: senate ^ Levillain, Philippe (2002). The Papacy: Gaius-Proxies. Psychology Press. p. 1047. ISBN 978-0-415-92230-2. ^ See Senate of Berlin, Senate of Bremen and Senate of Hamburg. ^ Haggerty, Richard A. (ed.), El Salvador: A Country Study (1990), p. 144 External links[edit] Livius.org: Roman Senate Encyclopedia Britannica on Senate Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Senate&oldid=995826072" Categories: Legislatures National upper houses Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Wikipedia pending changes protected pages Articles needing additional references from February 2015 All articles needing additional references Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Asturianu Беларуская Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Kurdî Latviešu Lietuvių Lumbaart Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Vèneto Tiếng Việt 吴语 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 23 December 2020, at 02:26 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3632	----	List of Roman legions - Wikipedia List of Roman legions From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikipedia list article Part of a series on the Military of ancient Rome 753 BC – AD 476 Structural history Army Unit types and ranks Decorations and punishments Legions Auxilia Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Campaign history Wars and battles Technological history Military engineering Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Political history   Strategy and tactics Infantry tactics Frontiers and fortifications Limes Limes Britannicus Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Limes Germanicus Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes Norican Limes Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannonian Limes Limes Alutanus Limes Moesiae Trajan's Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmatiae Limes Arabicus Limes Tripolitanus Limes Mauretaniae  Ancient Rome portal •  War portal v t e Nero, Sestertius with countermark "X" of Legio X Gemina. Obv: Laureate bust right. Rev: Nero riding horse right, holding spear, DECVRSIO in exergue; S C across fields. This is a list of Roman legions, including key facts about each legion, primarily focusing on the Principate (early Empire, 27 BC – 284 AD) legions, for which there exists substantial literary, epigraphic and archaeological evidence. Main articles: Roman army, Imperial Roman army, and Roman legion When Augustus became sole ruler in 31 BC, he disbanded about half of the over 50 legions then in existence. The remaining 28 legions became the core of the early Imperial army of the Principate (27 BC – AD 284), most lasting over three centuries. Augustus and his immediate successors transformed legions into permanent units, staffed by entirely career soldiers on standard 25-year terms. During the Dominate period (near the end of the Empire, 284–476), legions were also professional, but are little understood due to scarcity of evidence compared to the Principate. What is clear is that late legions were radically different in size, structure, and tactical role from their predecessors, despite several retaining early period names. This was the result of the military reforms of Emperors Diocletian and Constantine I, and of further developments during the 4th century. The legions were identified by Roman numerals, though the spelling sometimes differed from the modern "standard". For example, in addition to the spellings "IV", "IX", "XIV", "XVIII" and "XIX", the respective spellings "IIII", "VIIII", "XIIII", "XIIX" and "XVIIII" were commonly used.[1] Contents 1 Late Republican legions 2 Early Empire legions 2.1 Legend 2.1.1 Legion number and title (cognomen) 2.1.2 Main legionary base 2.1.3 Emblem 2.1.4 Date disbanded 2.1.5 Castra legionaria 2.1.6 Notes 3 Late Empire legions 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 6.1 Primary sources 6.2 Secondary sources 7 External links Late Republican legions[edit] Until the Marian reforms of 107 BC, the Republican legions were formed by compulsory levy of Roman citizens (who met a minimum property qualification) and raised whenever it was necessary. Usually they were authorized by the Roman Senate, and were later disbanded. Gaius Marius' reforms transformed legions into standing units, which could remain in being for several years, or even decades. This became necessary to garrison the Republic's now far-flung territories. Legionaries started large-scale recruiting of volunteer soldiers enlisted for a minimum term of six years and a fixed salary, although conscription was still practiced. The property requirements were abolished by Marius, so that the bulk of recruits were henceforth from the landless citizens, who would be most attracted to the paid employment and land offered after their service. In the last century of the Republic, proconsuls governing frontier provinces became increasingly powerful. Their command of standing legions in distant and arduous military campaigns resulted in the allegiance of those units transferring from the Roman state to themselves. These imperatores (lit: victorious generals, from the title imperator they were hailed with by their troops) frequently fell out with each other and started civil wars to seize control of the state, such as Sulla, Caesar, Pompey, Crassus, Mark Antony and Octavian (later Augustus, the first Emperor himself). In this context, the imperatores raised many legions that were not authorised by the Senate, sometimes having to use their own resources. As civil wars were resolved, many of these "private" units would be disbanded, only for more to be raised to fight the next civil war. By the time Augustus emerged as sole ruler of Rome in 31 BC, over 50 legions were in existence, many of which were disbanded. The legions included in the following list had a long enough history to be somehow remarkable. Most of them were levied by Julius Caesar and later included into Octavian's army, some of them were levied by Marc Antony. Legio I Germanica (Germanic): 48 BC – AD 70 (Revolt of the Batavi), Julius Caesar Legio II Sabina (Sabine): 43 BC – c. AD 9, early name of the Legio II Augusta Legio III Cyrenaica (from Cyrene): probably c. 36 BC to (at least) the 5th century, Mark Antony Legio III Gallica (Gallic): around 49 BC to at least early 4th century, Julius Caesar (emblem: bull) Legio IV Macedonica (Macedonian): 48 BC – AD 70 (renamed by Vespasian), Julius Caesar (emblem: bull, capricorn) Legio IV Scythica (from Scythia): c. 42 BC to at least early 5th century, Mark Antony (emblem: capricorn) Legio V Alaudae (Larks): 52 BC – AD 70 or 86 (destroyed either during the Batavian rebellion or by the Dacians in first Battle of Tapae), Julius Caesar (emblem: elephant) Legio VI Ferrata (Ironclad): 52 BC – after 250, Julius Caesar (emblem: bull, she-wolf and Romulus and Remus); twin legion of Legio VI Victrix Legio VI Victrix (Victorious): 41 BC – after 402, Octavian (emblem: bull) Legio VII Claudia Pia Fidelis (loyal and faithful to Claudius): 51 BC – 44 BC, Julius Caesar; disbanded and re-formed by Vespasian as Legio VII Gemina Legio VIII Augusta: 59 BC – 48 BC, Julius Caesar, disbanded and re-enlisted by Augustus as Legio VIII Augusta Legio IX Hispana Triumphalis (Triumphant): 59 BC – 48 BC, Julius Caesar, disbanded and re-enlisted by Augustus as Legio IX Hispana Legio X Fretensis (of the sea strait): levied by Augustus in 41–40 BC Legio X Equestris (Equestrian): before 58 BC – 45 BC, Julius Caesar's personal legion Legio XI Claudia: 58 BC – 45 BC, Julius Caesar (emblem: Neptune), disbanded, reconstituted by Augustus Legio XII Victrix (Victorious): 57 BC – AD 45, Julius Caesar Legio XII Fulminata (Thunderbolt): after being renamed by Augustus, first reconstituted by Lepidus in 43 BC, named by Mark Antony as Legio XII Antiqua (Ancient) Legio XIII Gemina (Twin): 57 BC – 45 BC: Julius Caesar, later (41 BC) reconstituted by Augustus Legio XIV Gemina (Twin): 57 BC – 48 BC: Julius Caesar, destroyed and reconstituted in 53 BC. Reconstituted by Augustus after 41 BC Legio XVII Classica (Of the Fleet): raised by Mark Antony, disbanded in 31 BC by Octavian following his victory at the Battle of Actium. Legio XVIII Libyca (from Libya): raised by Mark Antony, disbanded in 31 BC by Octavian following his victory at the Battle of Actium. Legio XIX: raised by Mark Antony, disbanded in 31 BC by Octavian following his victory at the Battle of Actium. Legio XX Siciliana: raised by Octavian for the purpose of launching an invasion of Sicily in 36 BC, which at the time was held by Sextus Pompeius. Legio XXX Classica (Naval): 48 BC – 41 BC, Julius Caesar Early Empire legions[edit] The Roman empire and legions deployed in AD 125, in the time of emperor Hadrian. Codes for Roman provinces in the table: AEG Aegyptus (Egypt) AFR Africa (Tunisia/Western Libya) AQ Aquitania (SW France) AR Arabia Petraea (Jordan/Sinai) BRIT Britannia (England/Wales) CAP Cappadocia (Central/Eastern Turkey) DC Dacia (Romania/Serbia) DLM Dalmatia (Bosnia/Croatia/Montenegro/Kosovo/Serbia) GAL Galatia (Central Turkey) GI Germania Inferior (Netherlands/Rhineland) GS Germania Superior (Alsace-Lorraine/Rhineland) HISP Hispania Tarraconensis (Central Spain) IT Italia (Italy) JUD Judaea (Israel/Palestine) MAUR Mauretania (Western Maghreb) MCD Macedonia (Southern Balkans/Greece) MI Moesia Inferior (Romania/Bulgaria) MS Moesia Superior (Serbia) NR Noricum (Austria) PAN Pannonia (Hungary/Croatia/Slovenia) RT Raetia (Switzerland/Germany) SYR Syria (Syria/Lebanon) Roman legions of the early Empire (units founded between 59 BC and AD 250) Legion no. and title (cognomen) Main legionary base Emblem Date founded/ founder Date disbanded Castra legionaria (legion bases)[2] * = main base. Start date 31 BC if unspecified Notes I Adiutrix Szőny, Hungary Capricorn 68 Nero 444 70–86 Moguntiacum (GS); 86 – mid-5th century Brigetio* (PAN) "1st Rescuer". Was raised from marines of Classis Misenensis I Germanica Bonn, Germany Bull 48 BC Caesar 70 DD to 16 BC HISP; c. 5 BC – AD 70 Bonna* (GI) Disbanded for cowardice in Batavi revolt I Italica Svishtov, Bulgaria Boar 66 Nero post 400 70 – early 5th century Novae* (MI) prima Italica:raised for aborted Caucasus war I Macriana 68 Macer 69 DD (Raised for mutiny against Nero by Macer, gov of AFR) liberatrix: "Liberator 1st". Disbanded by Galba I Minervia Bonn, Germany Minerva 82 Domitian post 300 82 – 4th century Bonna* (GI) "Minerva-revering 1st" I Parthica Sinjar, Iraq Centaur 197 S. Severus post 400 197 – early 5th century Nisibis* (SYR) Raised for Severus' Parthian campaign in 197 II Adiutrix Budapest, Hungary Capricorn 70 Vespasian after 269 70–87 BRIT; 87–106 MS; 106 – at least 269 Aquincum* (PAN) "2nd Rescuer." Was raised from marines of Classis Ravennatis II Augusta Caerleon, Wales Capricorn before 9 BC Augustus after 300 to c. AD 9 HISP; 43–74 BRIT; 74 – at least 255 Isca Augusta* (BRIT) Failed to engage Boudica 60. c. 395 at Rutupiae (BRIT) II Italica Enns, Austria She-Wolf 165 M Aurelius after 400 180 – c. 400 Lauriacum* (NR) Capitoline Wolf Rome's national emblem II Parthica Castra Albana, Italy Centaur 197 S. Severus after 350 197–218 Castra Albana (IT); 218–234 Apamea (SYR); 238 – c. 300 Castra Albana(IT) 4th century recorded at Bezabde (SYR) II Traiana Alexandria, Egypt Hercules 105 Trajan after 400 125 – 5th century Nicopolis* (AEG) secunda fortis "Trajan's valliant 2nd" III Augusta Batna, Algeria Pegasus 43 BC Augustus after 350 to 20 AFR; 20–75 Ammaedara; 74 – after 350+ Lambaesis* (MAUR) Decimated for cowardice in Mauri war (AD 18) III Cyrenaica Busra, Syria 36 BC M Antony after 400 to 35 Thebes 35–125 Alexandria AEG; 125 – 5th century Bostra* AR "3rd from Cyrene" III Gallica Abila, Jordan Two Bulls 49 BC Caesar after 300 31 BC– 4th century Raphana* (SYR) tertia Gallica: "3rd from Gaul" III Italica Regensburg, Germany Stork 165 M Aurelius after 300 165 – 4th century Castra Regina* (RT) Raised for war on Marcomanni III Parthica Ras al-Ayn, Syria Bull 197 S. Severus after 400 197 – 4th century Resaena* (SYR) Raised for Severus' Parthian campaign in 197 Legion no. and title (cognomen) Main legionary base Emblem Date founded/ founder Date disbanded Castra legionaria (legion bases)[2] * = main base. Start date 31 BC if unspecified Notes IV Flavia Felix Belgrade, Serbia Lion 70 Vespasian before 400 86 – 4th century Singidunum* (MS) Vespasian's lucky 4th. Reformed IV Macedon IV Macedonica Mainz, Germany Bull 48 BC Caesar 70 DD to 43 HISP; 43–70 Moguntiacum* (GS) Disbanded in Batavi revolt IV Scythica Gaziantep, Turkey Capricorn 42 BC M Antony after 400 to 58 MS; 68 – 5th century Zeugma* (SYR) quarta scythica: "Scythian-conquering 4th" V Alaudae Xanten, Germany Elephant 52 BC Caesar 70 or 86 XX to 19 BC HISP; c. 10 BC – AD 70 Castra Vetera* (GI) "Larks 5th" Feathers in helmet? XX during Batavian rebellion in 70 or at the first Battle of Tapae in 86 V Macedonica Turda, Romania Eagle 43 BC Augustus after 500 6–101 Oescus, 107–161 Troesmis (MI); 166–274 Potaissa* (DC) quinta macedonica: "5th from Macedonia" VI Ferrata Galilee, Israel She-Wolf 58 BC Caesar at least 250 UF to 71 Raphana (SYR); 135 – at least 250 Caparcotna* (JUD) "Ironclad 6th". XX at Battle of Edessa 260? VI Hispana post 212 after 250 UF unknown Only 1 record. XX at Battle of Abrittus 251? VI Victrix York, England Bull 41 BC Augustus after 400 to 70 Castra Legionis HISP; 71–122 GI; 122 – c. 400 Eburacum* BRIT "Victorious 6th" built Hadrian's Wall 122–132 VII Claudia Kostolac, Serbia Bull 58 BC Caesar c. 400 to AD 9 GAL; 9–58 DLM; 58 – c. 400 Viminacium* (MS) septima Claudia: title for crushing mutiny 42 VII Gemina León, Spain 68 Galba c. 400 75 – c. 400 Castra Legionis* HISP Raised in Hispania by Galba for march on Rome VIII Augusta Strasbourg, France Bull 59 BC Caesar after 371 9-45 Poetovium; 45–69 Novae MI; 69–86 Mirebeau-sur-Bèze GS; 86 – at least 371 Argentorate* GS octava Augusta: IX Hispana York, England Bull 41 BC Augustus 132? 161? to 13 BC HISP; AD 9–43 PAN?; 71–121 Eburacum* BRIT; 121–130 Nijmegen GI? nona Hispana: XX in Judaea (132)? XX by Parthians in Armenia (161) X Fretensis Jerusalem Boar 40 BC Augustus after 400 to 25 BC JUD; 25 BC – AD 66 SYR; 73 – at least c. 400 Hierosolyma* fretum = Strait of Messina, Naulochus 36 BC X Gemina Vienna, Austria Bull 42 BC Lepidus after 400 30 BC – AD 63 Petavonium HISP; 63–68 Carnuntum PAN; Petavonium 68–71 HISP; 71–103 Noviomagus GI; 103 – c. 400 Vindobona* PAN Was X Equestris, Caesar's "mounted" legion XI Claudia Silistra, Bulgaria Neptune 42 BC Augustus after 400 to 71 DLM; 71–104 Vindonissa RT; 104 – c. 400 Durostorum* MI undecima Claudia: honoured by Claudius XII Fulminata Malatya, Turkey Thunderbolt 43 BC Lepidus after 400 to 14 AEG; 14–71 Raphana (SYR); 71 – c. 400 Melitene* (CAP) Thunderbolt 12th lost aquila in 1st Jewish War Legion no. and title (cognomen) Main legionary base Emblem Date founded/ founder Date disbanded Castra legionaria (legion bases)[2] * = main base. Start date 31 BC if unspecified Notes XIII Gemina Alba Iulia, Romania Lion 57 BC Caesar after 400 45–106 Poetovio PAN; 106–270 Apulum* DC; 270–400 MI "Twinned 13th". Crossed Rubicon with Caesar 49 BC XIV Gemina Petronell, Austria Capricorn 57 BC Caesar after 400 AD 9–43 Moguntiacum GS; 43–58 Mancetter BRIT; 58–67 Wroxeter BRIT; 67–89 Balkans; 92–106 Vindobona PAN; 106 – c. 400 Carnuntum* Defeated Boudica's Britons at Watling Street (60) XV Apollinaris Saddagh, Turkey Apollo 41 BC Augustus after 400 14–62 Carnuntum PAN; 62–73 SYR 71–115 Carnuntum PAN; 115 – c. 400 Satala* CAP "Apollo-revering 15th". Fought in First Jewish War XV Primigenia Xanten, Germany Fortuna 39 Caligula 70 XX 39–43 Moguntiacum (GS); 43–70 Castra Vetera* (GI) Primigenia goddess of Fate. XX in Batavi revolt XVI Flavia Firma Samsat, Turkey Lion 70 Vespasian post 300 70–117 Satala (CAP); 117 – at least 300 Samosata* SYR "Vespasian's steadfast 16th". Reformed XVI Gallica XVI Gallica Mainz, Germany Lion 41 BC Augustus 70 DD to 43 Moguntiacum* (GS); 43–70 Novaesium* (GI) Disbanded for cowardice in Batavi revolt XVII Xanten, Germany 41 BC Augustus AD 9 XX to 15 BC AQ?; 15 BC – AD 9 Castra Vetera* (GI) Destroyed in Teutoburg Forest, lost aquila standard, never rebuilt XVIII Xanten, Germany 41 BC Augustus AD 9 XX to 15 BC AQ?; 15 BC – AD 9 Castra Vetera* (GI) Destroyed in Teutoburg Forest, lost aquila standard, never rebuilt. XIX Xanten, Germany 41 BC Augustus AD 9 XX to 15 BC unknown; 15 BC – AD 9 somewhere in GI Possibly saw action in the conquest of Rhaetia in 15 BC. Destroyed in Teutoburg Forest, lost aquila standard, never rebuilt. XX Valeria Victrix Chester, England Boar 31 BC Augustus after 250 UF to AD 9 Burnum DLM; 9–43 Oppidum Ubiorum GI; 43–55 Camulodunum* BRIT; 55–66 Burrium* BRIT; 66–78 Viroconium* BRIT; 78–88 Inchtuthil* BRIT; 88 – at least 250 Deva* BRIT vigesima named for Messalla? XX in Allectus' fall 296? XXI Rapax Windisch, Switzerland Capricorn 31 BC Augustus 92 XX AD 9–43 GI; 43–70 Vindonissa* (RT); 70–89 GI; 89–92 PAN "Predator 21st". XX by Roxolani Sarmatian tribe PAN XXII Deiotariana Alexandria, Egypt 48 BC 132? 161? XX to c. 8 BC GAL; c. 8 BC – at least 123 Alexandria* (AEG) GAL king "Deiotarus's 22nd". XX by Jewish rebels in 132? or by Parthians in Armenia in 161? XXII Primigenia Mainz, Germany Hercules 39 Caligula after 300 39 – c. 300 Moguntiacum* (GS) Raised for Caligula's German war XXX Ulpia Victrix Xanten, Germany Jupiter 105 Trajan post 400 105–122 DC; 122 – c. 400 Castra Vetera* (GI) "Trajan's victorious 30th" (M Ulpius Traianus) Legend[edit] Legion number and title (cognomen)[edit] The numbering of the legions is confusing, since several legions shared the same number with others. Augustus numbered the legions he founded himself from I, but also inherited numbers from his predecessors. Each emperor normally numbered the legions he raised himself starting from I. However, even this practice was not consistently followed. For example, Vespasian kept the same numbers as before for legions he raised from disbanded units. Trajan's first legion was numbered XXX because there were 29 other legions in existence at the time it was raised; but the second Trajanic legion was given the sequential number II. XVII, XVIII and XIX, the numbers of the legions annihilated in the Teutoburg Forest, were never used again. (These three legions are without titles, suggesting that in disgrace their titles may have been deliberately forgotten or left unmentioned.) As a result of this somewhat chaotic evolution, the legion's title became necessary to distinguish between legions with the same number. Legions often carried several titles, awarded after successive campaigns, normally by the ruling emperor e.g. XII Fulminata was also awarded: paterna (fatherly), victrix (victorious), antiqua (venerable), certa constans (reliable, steadfast) and Galliena (Gallienus '). Pia fidelis (loyal and faithful), fidelis constans and others were titles awarded to several legions, sometimes several times to the same legion. Only the most established, commonly used titles are displayed on this table. The geographical titles indicate the country a legion was originally recruited e.g. Italica = from Italy or peoples the legion has vanquished e.g.Parthica = victorious over the Parthians Legions bearing the personal name of an emperor, or of his gens (clan) (e.g. Augusta, Flavia) were either founded by that Emperor or awarded the name as a mark of special favour. The title GEMINA means that two diminished legions have been combined to make one new one. Main legionary base[edit] This shows the castra (base) where the legion spent the longest period during the Principate. Legions often shared the same base with other legions. Detachments of legions were often seconded for lengthy periods to other bases and provinces, as operational needs demanded. Emblem[edit] Legions often sported more than one emblem at the same time, and occasionally changed them. Legions raised by Caesar mostly carried a bull emblem originally; those of Augustus mostly a Capricorn Date disbanded[edit] For legions that are documented into the 4th century and beyond, we do not know when or how they were terminated. For legions disappearing from the record before 284, the reason (certain or likely) is given as: XX = annihilated in battle DD = disbanded in disgrace UF = unknown fate Castra legionaria[edit] Indicates the bases (castra) and/or provinces where the legion was based during its history, with dates. Notes[edit] Contains points of note, including explanation of titles and details of a legion's fate. Province names and borders are assumed throughout the Principate period as at 107, during the rule of Trajan, and after the annexation of Dacia and Arabia Petraea. The map above shows provinces at the end of Trajan's reign, 117. They are the same as in 107, except that Armenia and Mesopotamia have been annexed (they were abandoned soon after Trajan's death); and Pannonia has been split into two (the split occurred c. 107). In reality provincial borders were modified several times between 30 BC and 284: this explains any discrepancy with other sources, as to a legion's location at a particular date. Late Empire legions[edit] Main article: Late Roman army Shield pattern of the palatina legion of the Ioviani seniores, according to the Notitia Dignitatum. Diocletian reorganized the Roman army, in order to better counter the threat of the Germanic peoples of northern Europe as well as that of the Persians from the East. The army was formed by border and field units. The border (limitanei) units were to occupy the limes, the structured border fortifications, and were formed by professional soldiers with an inferior training. The field units were to stay well behind the border, and to move quickly where they were needed, with both offensive and defensive roles. Field units were formed by elite soldiers with high-level training and weapons. They were further divided into: Scholae: the personal guard of the Emperor, created by Constantine I to replace the Praetorian Guard; Palatinae: "palace troops" were the highest ranked units, created by Constantine I after he disbanded the Praetorian Guard, it was comprised originally of former guardsmen; Comitatenses: regular field units, some were newly-formed, others were descended from Early-Empire legions; Pseudocomitatenses: these were limitanei units diverted into the field army and often kept there; some Early Empire legions became pseudocomitatenses units. These units usually numbered between 300 and 2,000 soldiers and some of them kept their original numbering schemes. The primary source for the legions of this era is the Notitia Dignitatum, a late 4th-century document containing all the civil and military offices of both halves of the Roman Empire (revised in c. 420 for the Western Empire). Legio I I Armeniaca I Flavia Constantia (reliable Flavian): comitatensis unit under the command of the Magister militum per Orientis I Flavia Gallicana Constantia (reliable Flavian legion from Gallia): pseudocomitatensis under the command of the Magister Peditum per Gallias. The legion was founded by Constantius I Chlorus. The legions objective was to protect the Armorican coast and fight the Roman-British usurper, Allectus.[3][4][5] I Flavia Martis (Flavian legion devoted to Mars): pseudocomitatensis. The legion was founded by Constantius Chlorus to fight Allectus.[5][6] It was stationed in Gaul.[6] I Flavia Pacis (Flavian legion of peace): comitatensis under the command of the Magister Peditum I Flavia Theodosiana: comitatensis. I Illyricorum (of the Illyrians): stationed at the Camp of Diocletian in Palmyra I Iovia (devoted to Jupiter): levied by Diocletian, stationed in Scythia Minor I Isaura Sagittaria (archers from Isauria): pseudocomitatensis under the command of the Magister militum per Orientis I Iulia Alpina: pseudocomitatensis under the command of the Magister Peditum in Italy. It is unknown who founded the legion although it was probably Crispus or Constans.[7] I Martia possibly based near modern Kaiseraugst. The Legion could have had the surname Victrix.[8] The legion was probably founded by Diocletian. It also may have built forts in Valeria.[8] I Maximiana Thaebanorum (the Thebans of Maximianus): comitatensis unit stationed near Thebes, Egypt, and probably fighting in the battle of Adrianople I Noricorum (of the Noricans): stationed in Noricum. The legion was probably founded by Diocletian to help defend the Danube. I Pontica: the legion was founded by Dioceltian to help defend Pontus Polemoniacus.[9] The legion was stationed in Trapezus.[9] Legio II II Armeniaca II Britannica: comitatensis under Magister Peditum II Flavia Constantia: comitatensis under the command of the Magister Peditum II Flavia Virtutis: comitatensis under the command of the Magister Peditum II Herculia (devoted to Hercules): levied by Diocletian, stationed in Scythia Minor II Isaura II Iulia Alpina: pseudocomitatensis under the command of the Magister Peditum, in Comes Illyricum command. It was probably founded by Crispus or Constans. Its objective was to defend Alpes Cottiae II Felix Valentis Thebaeorum: comitatensis Legio III III Diocletiana III Flavia Salutis The Legio III Flacia Salutis was a comitatensis legion of the Late Roman Empire. The legion was raised by either Constantius II or Diocletian. The legion was used to guard North Africa. The Legio III Flavia Salutis was under the command of the Magister Militum in the west.[4][10][11] III Herculea: comitatensis under the command of the Comes Illyricum III Isaura III Iulia Alpina: comitatensis under the command of the Magister Peditum command in Italy Legio IV IV Italica IV Martia IV Parthica Legio V V Iovia (maybe the Jovians) V Parthica Legio VI VI Gemella VI Gallicana VI Herculia (maybe the Herculians) VI Hispana VI Parthica Legio XII XII Victrix See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal War portal List of Roman auxiliary regiments Roman army Auxilia Roman legion Structural history of the Roman military Notes[edit] ^ Boyne, William (1968). A manual of Roman coins. p. 13. ^ a b c "Roman Legionary Fortresses". www.legionaryfortresses.info. Archived from the original on 2016-12-20. ^ "Legio I Flavia Gallicana Constantia - Livius". www.livius.org. Retrieved 2020-08-06. ^ a b History of the Roman Legions. ^ a b Lacey, James (2016). Great Strategic Rivalries From the Classical World to the Cold War. Oxford University Press. ^ a b "Legio I Flavia Martis - Livius". www.livius.org. Retrieved 2020-08-06. ^ "Legio I Iulia Alpina - Livius". www.livius.org. Retrieved 2020-08-06. ^ a b "Legio I Martia - Livius". www.livius.org. Retrieved 2020-08-06. ^ a b "Legio I Pontica - Livius". www.livius.org. Retrieved 2020-08-06. ^ DuBois, Michael (2016). Auxillae. Lulu.com. ISBN 978-132-963-758-0. ^ Lenski, Noel (2006). The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine. Cambridge University Press. References[edit] Primary sources[edit] Notitia Dignitatum reports the military units and their locations at the beginning of the 5th century. Secondary sources[edit] Oxford Classical Dictionary Keppie, Lawrence. The Making of the Roman Army, 1984 pp. 205–215 Stephen Dando-Collins "Legions Of Rome" External links[edit] Legio X – Legio X Gemina (Equites) – "Viri Clarissimi" Livius.org: List of Roman legions A catalogue of Roman legions Legio V Living History Group in Tennessee Roman legions from Dacia (KML file) v t e Roman legions Legio I Adiutrix Legio I Armeniaca Legio I Flavia Constantia Legio I Germanica Legio I Iovia Legio I Isaura Sagittaria Legio I Italica Legio I Macriana liberatrix Legio I Maximiana Legio I Minervia Legio I Parthica Legio II Adiutrix Legio II Armeniaca Legio II Augusta Legio II Flavia Constantia Legio II Flavia Virtutis Legio II Gallica Legio II Herculia Legio II Isaura Legio II Italica Legio II Parthica Legio II Traiana Fortis Legio III Augusta Legio III Cyrenaica Legio III Diocletiana Legio III Gallica Legio III Isaura Legio III Italica Legio III Parthica Legio IV Flavia Felix Legio IV Italica Legio IV Macedonica Legio IV Scythica Legio V Alaudae Legio V Iovia Legio V Macedonica Legio V Parthica Legio VI Ferrata Legio VI Herculia Legio VI Hispana Legio VI Victrix Legio VII Claudia Legio VII Gemina Legio VIII Augusta Legio IX Hispana Legio X Equestris Legio X Fretensis Legio X Gemina Legio XI Legio XI Claudia Legio XII Fulminata Legio XIII Gemina Legio XIV Gemina Legio XV Apollinaris Legio XV Primigenia Legio XVI Flavia Firma Legio XVI Gallica Legio XVII Legio XVIII Legio XIX Legio XX Valeria Victrix Legio XXI Rapax Legio XXII Deiotariana Legio XXII Primigenia Legio XXX Ulpia Victrix v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus 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en-wikipedia-org-3639	----	Hexameter - Wikipedia Hexameter From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Hexameter is a metrical line of verses consisting of six feet. It was the standard epic metre in classical Greek and Latin literature, such as in the Iliad, Odyssey and Aeneid. Its use in other genres of composition include Horace's satires, Ovid's Metamorphoses, and the Hymns of Orpheus. According to Greek mythology, hexameter was invented by Phemonoe, daughter of Apollo and the first Pythia of Delphi.[1][2] Contents 1 Classical Hexameter 2 Application 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References 6 External links Classical Hexameter[edit] In classical hexameter, the six feet follow these rules: A foot can be made up of two long syllables (– –), a spondee; or a long and two short syllables, a dactyl (– υ υ). The first four feet can contain either one of them. The fifth is almost always a dactyl, and last must be a spondee. A short syllable (υ) is a syllable with a short vowel and no consonant at the end. A long syllable (–) is a syllable that either has a long vowel, one or more consonants at the end (or a long consonant), or both. Spaces between words are not counted in syllabification, so for instance "cat" is a long syllable in isolation, but "cat attack" would be syllabified as short-short-long: "ca", "ta", "tack" (υ υ –). Variations of the sequence from line to line, as well as the use of caesura (logical full stops within the line) are essential in avoiding what may otherwise be a monotonous sing-song effect. Application[edit] Although the rules seem simple, it is hard to use classical hexameter in English, because English is a stress-timed language that condenses vowels and consonants between stressed syllables, while hexameter relies on the regular timing of the phonetic sounds. Languages having the latter properties (i.e., languages that are not stress-timed) include Ancient Greek, Latin, Lithuanian and Hungarian. While the above classical hexameter has never enjoyed much popularity in English, where the standard metre is iambic pentameter, English poems have frequently been written in iambic hexameter. There are numerous examples from the 16th century and a few from the 17th; the most prominent of these is Michael Drayton's Poly-Olbion (1612) in couplets of iambic hexameter. An example from Drayton (marking the feet): Nor a | ny o | ther wold | like Cot | swold e | ver sped, So rich | and fair | a vale | in for | tuning | to wed. In the 17th century the iambic hexameter, also called alexandrine, was used as a substitution in the heroic couplet, and as one of the types of permissible lines in lyrical stanzas and the Pindaric odes of Cowley and Dryden. Several attempts were made in the 19th century to naturalise the dactylic hexameter to English, by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Arthur Hugh Clough and others, none of them particularly successful. Gerard Manley Hopkins wrote many of his poems in six-foot iambic and sprung rhythm lines. In the 20th century a loose ballad-like six-foot line with a strong medial pause was used by William Butler Yeats. The iambic six-foot line has also been used occasionally, and an accentual six-foot line has been used by translators from the Latin and many poets. In the late 18th century the hexameter was adapted to the Lithuanian language by Kristijonas Donelaitis. His poem "Metai" (The Seasons) is considered the most successful hexameter text in Lithuanian as yet. Hungarian is extremely suitable to hexameter (and other forms of poetry based on quantitative metre).[3] It has been applied to Hungarian since 1541, introduced by the grammarian János Sylvester.[4] It can even occur spontaneously: A student may extricate oneself from failing to remember a poem by saying "I'm stuck here, unfortunately the rest won't come into my mind," which is a hexameter in Hungarian: Itt ela | kadtam, | sajnos | nem jut e | szembe a | többi. Sándor Weöres included an ordinary nameplate text ("Gyula Tóth tinsmith and plumber") in one of his poems (this time, a pentameter): Tóth Gyula | bádogos | és || vízveze | ték-szere | lő. An inscription on a bar of chocolate went as follows ("milk chocolate with apricot and biscuit pieces"), another hexameter, noticed by the poet Dániel Varró:[5] tejcsoko | ládé | sárgaba | rack- és | kekszdara | bokkal. Due to this feature, hexameter has been widely used both in translated (Greek and Roman) and in original Hungarian poetry up to the twentieth century (e.g. by Miklós Radnóti).[6] See also[edit] Dactylic hexameter Prosody (Latin) Notes[edit] ^ Pausanias, 10.5.7 ^ Pliny the Elder, 7.57 ^ A magyar nyelv szelleme; Művelt magyar nyelvtan I., 1843, by the linguist János Fogarasi, pp. 40–41 [pp. 59–60 in the PDF] Ha jelesb magyar költőink hexametereit olvassuk vagy halljuk, oly szabályszerűeknek találjuk a kifejezéseket, a szórendet oly erőltetésnélkülinek, s — a formától s válogatottabb szóktul elvontan — az egészet oly természetes folyamatúnak, mintha csak gondos kötetlen beszédet hallanánk. "When we read or hear hexameters by our Hungarian poets of note, we find the expressions so regular, the word order so uncontrived, and – detached from the form and the refined terms – the whole so naturally flowing, as if we were to hear careful colloquial speech." The author then goes on to illustrate his point by quoting Cserhalom by Mihály Vörösmarty. ^ Hexameter in Pallas’ Great Lexicon. ^ A líra az ász: Varró Dániel a költői szerepekről ^ Radnóti's poems with English translations, see the Fifth, Seventh or Eighth Eclogue, the seventh being the most famous, while the eighth is rendered into English in hexameter. References[edit] Stephen Greenblatt et al. The Norton Anthology of English Literature, volume D, 9th edition (Norton, 2012). Pausanias. Description of Greece, Vol. IV. Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann Ltd., 1918). Pliny the Elder. The Natural History. Translated by John Bostock, M.D., F.R.S. H.T. Riley, Esq., B.A. (London: Taylor and Francis, 1855). External links[edit] Hexametrica, a tutorial on Latin dactylic hexameter at Skidmore College Hexameter.co, practice scanning lines of dactylic hexameter from a variety of Latin authors v t e Poetic meters Meter Monometer Dimeter Trimeter Tetrameter Hexameter Octameter Iambic heptameter Iambic pentameter Iambic tetrameter Dactyl Dactylic hexameter Trochee/Trochaic Trochaic tetrameter Basīṭ Hazaj Kāmil Mutaqārib Madīd Rajaz Tawīl Wāfir Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hexameter&oldid=935642859" Categories: Types of verses Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Alemannisch Asturianu Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Boarisch Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara Français Galego Հայերեն Hrvatski Ido Íslenska Italiano Latina Lietuvių Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Plattdüütsch Português Русский Seeltersk Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 13 January 2020, at 20:48 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3696	----	Macrobius - Wikipedia Macrobius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the lunar crater, see Macrobius (crater). For the Irish bishop, see Macrobius (bishop). For the place in Antarctica, see Macrobius Cove. Macrobius, fully Macrobius Ambrosius Theodosius, also known as Theodosius (fl. c. 400 AD), was a Roman provincial who lived during the early fifth century, during Late Antiquity, the period of time corresponding to the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, and when Latin was as widespread as Greek among the elite. He is primarily known for his writings, which include the widely copied and read Commentarii in Somnium Scipionis ("Commentary on the Dream of Scipio"), which was one of the most important sources for Neoplatonism in the Latin West during the Middle Ages; the Saturnalia, a compendium of ancient Roman religious and antiquarian lore; and De differentiis et societatibus graeci latinique verbi ("On the Differences and Similarities of the Greek and Latin Verb"), which is now lost. Contents 1 Name 2 Life 3 Works 3.1 Commentary on the "Dream of Scipio" 3.2 Saturnalia 3.3 Editions and translations 4 Legacy 5 Gallery 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 8.1 Citations 8.2 Bibliography 9 External links Name[edit] The correct order of his names is "Macrobius Ambrosius Theodosius", which is how it appears in the earliest manuscripts of the Saturnalia, and how he is addressed in the excerpts from his lost De differentiis. Only in later manuscripts were his names reversed as "Ambrosius Theodosius Macrobius", which James Willis then adopted for his edition of the Commentary. Alan Cameron notes that Cassiodorus and Boethius both refer to him as "Macrobius Theodosius", while he was known during his lifetime as "Theodosius": the dedication to the De differentiis is addressed Theodosius Symmacho suo ("Theodosius to his Symmachus"), and by the dedicatory epistle to Avianus's Fables, where he is addressed as Theodosi optime.[1] Life[edit] Macrobius presenting his work to his son Eustachius. From an 1100 copy of Macrobius' "Commentary on the «Dream of Scipio»". Little is known for certain about Macrobius, but there are many theories and speculations about him. He states at the beginning of his Saturnalia that he was "born under a foreign sky" (sub alio ortos caelo), and both of his major works are dedicated to his son, Eustachius.[a] His major works have led experts to assume that he was a pagan. Which "foreign sky" Macrobius was born under has been the subject of much speculation. Terrot Glover considers Macrobius either an ethnic Greek, or born in one of the Greek-speaking parts of the Roman Empire, such as Egypt, due to his intimate knowledge of Greek literature. J. E. Sandys went further and argued that Macrobius was born in one of the Greek provinces. However other experts, beginning with Ludwig van Jan, point out that despite his familiarity with Greek literature Macrobius was far more familiar with Latin than Greek—as evidenced by his enthusiasm for Vergil and Cicero—and favor North Africa, which was part of the Latin-speaking portion of the Roman Empire.[3] Scholars have attempted to identify him with a Macrobius who is mentioned in the Codex Theodosianus as a praetorian prefect of Spain (399–400), and a proconsul of Africa (410).[4] The Codex Theodosianus also records a praepositus (or lord chamberlain) named Macrobius in 422.[5] A number of older authorities go so far as to identify Macrobius the author with the first, and date his floruit to 399–410. There are objections to either identification: as Alan Cameron notes, the complete name of the first candidate is attested in an inscription to be "Flavius Macrobius Maximianus", while the second is excluded because "A praepositus must at this period have been a eunuch."[6] However, since Macrobius is frequently referred to as vir clarissimus et inlustris, a title which was achieved by holding public office, we can reasonably expect his name to appear in the Codex Theodosianus. Further, Cameron points out that during his lifetime Macrobius was referred to as "Theodosius", and looking for that name Cameron found a Theodosius who was praetorian prefect of Italy in 430. "It is significant that the only surviving law addressed to this Theodosius sanctions a privilege for Africa Proconsularis on the basis of information received concerning Byzacena," Cameron notes.[7] Works[edit] Commentary on the "Dream of Scipio"[edit] Macrobius's most influential book and one of the most widely cited books of the Middle Ages was a commentary on the book Dream of Scipio narrated by Cicero at the end of his Republic. The nature of the dream, in which the elder Scipio appears to his (adopted) grandson and describes the life of the good after death and the constitution of the universe from a Stoic and Neo-Platonic point of view, gave occasion for Macrobius to discourse upon the nature of the cosmos, transmitting much classical philosophy to the later Middle Ages.[8] In astronomy, this work is noted for giving the diameter of the Sun as twice the diameter of the Earth.[9] Of a third work On the Differences and Similarities of the Greek and Latin Verb, we only possess an abstract by a certain Johannes, doubtfully identified with Johannes Scotus Eriugena (9th century).[8] See editions by Ludwig von Jan (1848–1852, with a bibliography of previous editions, and commentary), Franz Eyssenhardt (1893, Teubner text), James Willis (1994, new Teubner), and R. A. Kaster (OCT and Loeb, 2011); on the sources of the Saturnalia see H. Linke (1880) and Georg Wissowa (1880). The grammatical treatise will be found in Jan's edition and Heinrich Keil's Grammatici latini; see also Georg Friedrich Schömann, Commentatio macrobiana (1871). Saturnalia[edit] Main article: Saturnalia (Macrobius) Early printed edition of Macrobius's In Somnium Scipionis and Saturnaliorum. Macrobius's Saturnalia (Latin: Saturnaliorum Libri Septem, "Seven Books of the Saturnalia") consists of an account of the discussions held at the house of Vettius Agorius Praetextatus during the holiday of the Saturnalia. It contains a great variety of curious historical, mythological, critical, antiquarian and grammatical discussions. "The work takes the form of a series of dialogues among learned men at a fictional banquet."[10] Editions and translations[edit] Robert A. Kaster (ed.), Macrobius: Saturnalia. Loeb classical library 510-512. Cambridge, MA/ London: Harvard University Press, 2011. 3 volumes. Percival Vaughan Davies (trans.), Macrobius: The Saturnalia. New York: Columbia University Press, 1969. William Harris Stahl (trans.), Macrobius: Commentary on the Dream of Scipio. New York: Columbia University Press, 1952. (Second printing, with revisions, 1966) Macrobius, Ambrosius Aurelius Theodosius (1400s). Seven Books of the Saturnalia: Codex from the Plutei Collection of the Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana in Florence (in Latin). World Digital Library. Retrieved 2014-02-28. Legacy[edit] A prominent lunar crater is named after Macrobius.[11] Macrobius Cove in Antarctica is named after Macrobius. Gallery[edit] Cicero's Dream of Scipio described the Earth as a globe of insignificant size in comparison to the remainder of the cosmos.[12] Many early medieval manuscripts of Macrobius include maps of the Earth, including the antipodes, zonal maps showing the Ptolemaic climates derived from the concept of a spherical Earth and a diagram showing the Earth (labeled as globus terrae, the sphere of the Earth) at the center of the hierarchically ordered planetary spheres.[13] (See also: flat Earth). Images from a 12th-century manuscript of Macrobius's Commentarii in Somnium Scipionis (Parchment, 50 ff.; 23.9 × 14 cm; Southern France). Date: ca. 1150. Source: Copenhagen, Det Kongelige Bibliotek, ms. NKS 218 4°. Initial E shaped in the form of a writing man, probably representing Macrobius himself. The Universe, the Earth in the centre, surrounded by the five planets, the sun and the moon, within the zodiacal signs. The five climes of the Earth. Frozen climes in yellow; Temperate climes in blue; Torrid clime in red. Sketch map showing the inhabited northern region separated from the antipodes by an imagined ocean at the equator. Diagram showing a lunar eclipse. Diagram showing a solar eclipse. See also[edit] Allegory in the Middle Ages Notes[edit] ^ Alan Cameron notes that several of the earliest manuscripts of his works spell his son's name Eustathius, then after pointing out that a certain Plotinus Eustathius was Urban prefect in 462 observes "Plotinus would be a peculiarly appropriate name for a neoplatonist philosopher and keen admirer of the great Lycopolitan (cf. Comm. I, 8, 5) to have given his son." There is also a Macrobius Plotinus Eudoxius who collaborated with Memmius Symmachus over an edition of Macrobius' Commentary.[2] References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ See Cameron, "The Date and Identity of Macrobius", Journal of Roman Studies, 56 (1966), p. 27 and notes. ^ Cameron, "Date and Identity", p. 38. ^ William Harris Stahl, Macrobius: Commentary on the Dream of Scipio (New York: Columbia University, 1952), pp. 4f ^ Codex Theodosianus XIV.10.15, VIII.5.61, XI.28.6 ^ Codex Theodosianus VI.8.1 ^ Cameron, "Date and Identity", pp. 25f ^ Cameron, "Date and Identity", pp. 26f ^ a b  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Macrobius, Ambrosius Theodosius". Encyclopædia Britannica. 17 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 269. ^ Hall, Graham; Elliott, Ian; Joeveer, Mihkel; Bònoli, Fabrizio; Langermann, Y. Tzvi; Casulleras, Josep; Sarma, Ke Ve; Bell, Trudy E.; Gurshtein, Alexander A.; Cunning, David; Wegner, Gary A.; Berggren, Len; Bònoli, Fabrizio; Hatch, Robert Alan; Jarrell, Richard A.; Durham, Ian T.; Durham, Ian T.; Snedegar, Keith; Trimble, Virginia; Dick, Steven J.; McCarthy, Dennis D.; Charette, François; Bolt, Marvin; Belenkiy, Ari; McFarland, John; Jackson, Francine; Green, Daniel W. E.; Ikeyama, Setsuro; Snedegar, Keith; et al. (2007). "Macrobius, Ambrosius (Theodosius)". The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. New York: Springer. p. 723. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-30400-7_882. ISBN 978-0-387-30400-7. ^ "Seven Books of the Saturnalia". World Digital Library. 2014-02-26. Retrieved 2014-02-28. ^ International Astronomical Union Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature. "Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature". USGS. Retrieved 2013-07-17. ^ Macrobius, Commentary on the Dream of Scipio, transl. W. H. Stahl, (New York: Columbia Univ. Pr., 1952), chaps. v-vii, (pp. 200-212). ^ B. Eastwood and G. Graßhoff, Planetary Diagrams for Roman Astronomy in Medieval Europe, ca. 800-1500, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 94, 3 (Philadelphia, 2004), pp. 49-50. Bibliography[edit] Brigitte Englisch: Die Artes liberales im frühen Mittelalter (5.–9. Jahrhundert). Das Quadrivium und der Komputus als Indikatoren für Kontinuität und Erneuerung der exakten Wissenschaften zwischen Antike und Mittelalter. Steiner, Stuttgart 1994, ISBN 3-515-06431-1 Frateantonio, C., "Praetextatus – Verteidiger des römischen Glaubens? Zur gesellschaftlichen (Neu-)Inszenierung römischer Religion in Macrobius' Saturnalien," Zeitschrift für Antikes Christentum, 11,2 (2007), 360–377. Kaster, R. (ed), Studies on the Text of Macrobius’s ‘Saturnalia’ (New York, 2010) (American Philological Association. American Classical Studies, 55). Cameron, A., The Last Pagans of Rome (Oxford, 2011). External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Macrobius Wikisource has original works written by or about: Macrobius  Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: Ambrosius Theodosius Macrobius Macrobius: The Saturnalia, the Latin text of the critical edition edited by Ludwig von Jan (Gottfried Bass; Quedlinburg and Leipzig, 1852), web edition by Bill Thayer. Opera quae supersunt, 2 voll., Quedlinburgi et Lipsiae, typis et sumptibus Godofredi Bassii, 1848-52: vol. 1, vol. 2. Iohannis (Scoti) defloratio de Macrobio[permanent dead link], a paraphrase of Macrobius' De uerborum Graeci et Latini differentiis uel societatibus. Also as Excerpta parisina in Grammatici latini, vol. 5, Lipsiae, in aedibus B. G. Teubneri, 1923, pagg. 599-629. Macrobii excerpta Bobiensa[permanent dead link], some extracts from Macrobius' De uerborum Graeci et Latini differentiis uel societatibus. Also as Excerpta bobiensa in Grammatici latini, vol. 5, cit., pagg. 631-55. Bibliography on Macrobius' grammatical work[permanent dead link] v t e Platonists Academic Old Plato Aristotle Eudoxus Philip of Opus Aristonymus Coriscus and Erastus of Scepsis Demetrius of Amphipolis Euaeon of Lampsacus Heraclides and Python of Aenus Hestiaeus of Perinthus Lastheneia of Mantinea Timolaus of Cyzicus Speusippus Axiothea of Phlius Heraclides Ponticus Menedemus of Pyrrha Xenocrates Crantor Polemon Crates of Athens Skeptic Middle Arcesilaus Diocles of Cnidus Lacydes Telecles and Evander Hegesinus New Carneades Hagnon of Tarsus Metrodorus of Stratonicea Clitomachus Charmadas Aeschines of Neapolis Philo of Larissa Cicero Dio of Alexandria Middle Platonist Antiochus Philo of Alexandria Plutarch Justin Martyr Gaius Albinus Alcinous Apuleius Atticus Maximus of Tyre Numenius of Apamea Longinus Clement of Alexandria Origen the Pagan Calcidius Neoplatonist Ancient Ammonius Saccas Plotinus Disciples Origen Amelius Porphyry Iamblichus Sopater Eustathius of Cappadocia Sosipatra Aedesius Dexippus Chrysanthius Theodorus of Asine Julian Sallustius Maximus of Ephesus Eusebius of Myndus Priscus of Epirus Antoninus Gregory of Nyssa Hypatia Augustine Macrobius Academy Plutarch of Athens Asclepigenia Hierocles Syrianus Hermias Aedesia Proclus Ammonius Hermiae Asclepiodotus Hegias Zenodotus Marinus Agapius Isidore Damascius Simplicius Priscian Medieval Boethius John Philoponus Olympiodorus Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite John Scotus Eriugena Islamic Golden Age Al-Farabi Anselm Peter Abelard Chartres Bernard Gilbert Thierry Henry of Ghent Bonaventure Theodoric of Freiberg Meister Eckhart Berthold of Moosburg Paul of Venice Modern Renaissance Florentine Academy Plethon Marsilio Ficino Cristoforo Landino Giovanni Pico della Mirandola Cambridge Ralph Cudworth Henry More Anne Conway Petrus Ramus Giordano Bruno Blaise Pascal Emanuel Swedenborg German idealist Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Christian Wolff Moses Mendelssohn Immanuel Kant Johann Gottlieb Fichte Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling Arthur Schopenhauer G. W. F. Hegel Hermann Lotze Otto Weininger Thomas Taylor Ralph Waldo Emerson Josiah Royce Søren Kierkegaard Henri Bergson Aleksei Losev Contemporary Analytic Gottlob Frege G. E. Moore Kurt Gödel Alonzo Church Roderick Chisholm Michael Dummett W. V. O. Quine David Kaplan Saul Kripke Alvin Plantinga Peter van Inwagen Nicholas Wolterstorff Crispin Wright Edward N. Zalta Continental Edmund Husserl Roman Ingarden Leo Strauss Miscellaneous Philip K. Dick Joseph Ratzinger Bernard Bolzano Authority control BIBSYS: 90671916 BNE: XX1257394 BNF: cb11999201s (data) CANTIC: a10116904 CiNii: DA04585890 GND: 118640763 ISNI: 0000 0001 1624 565X LCCN: n50043606 LNB: 000057922 NKC: jn20020102058 NLA: 35320872 NLG: 221604 NLI: 000087370 NLP: A12585919 NSK: 000073669 NTA: 069488991 RERO: 02-A000108846 SELIBR: 282835 SUDOC: 03092166X Trove: 910749 VcBA: 495/54659 VIAF: 39387062 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n50043606 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Macrobius&oldid=991984020" Categories: 4th-century Romans 5th-century Byzantine people 5th-century philosophers 5th-century Latin writers Grammarians of Latin Latin-language writers Neoplatonists Philosophers of Roman Italy Roman-era philosophers Romans from Africa Ancient Roman antiquarians Ancient Roman scholars of religion Byzantine-era pagans 5th-century Byzantine writers Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Articles containing Latin-language text CS1 Latin-language sources (la) All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from March 2020 Articles with permanently dead external links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLP identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages Asturianu Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara Français Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Magyar Nederlands Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 2 December 2020, at 21:24 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3700	----	Lucius Orbilius Pupillus - Wikipedia Lucius Orbilius Pupillus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Orbilius) Jump to navigation Jump to search 1st century BC Roman teacher and Latin grammarian Statue at Benevento Cathedral, perhaps antique and representing Lucius Orbilius Pupillus Lucius Orbilius Pupillus (114 BC – c. 14 BC) was a Latin grammarian of the 1st century BC, who taught at school, first at Benevento and then at Rome, where the poet Horace was one of his pupils. Horace (Epistles, ii) criticizes his old schoolmaster and describes him as plagosus (a flogger), and Orbilius has become proverbial as a disciplinarian pedagogue. One of his slaves, Scribonius Aphrodisius, went on to become a grammarian himself, and was purchased by Scribonia, wife of the emperor Augustus. Bibliography[edit] Tranquillus Lives of the Eminent Grammarians, chapter 4 Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, v. 3 p. 40 Media related to Lucius Orbilius Pupillus at Wikimedia Commons Authority control GND: 102401128 LCCN: nr95027998 VIAF: 76207567 WorldCat Identities: lccn-nr95027998 This ancient Roman biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lucius_Orbilius_Pupillus&oldid=954251701" Categories: 114 BC births 10s BC deaths People from the Province of Benevento Grammarians of Latin Latin writers known only from secondary sources 1st-century BC educators Ancient Roman people stubs Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Català Deutsch Esperanto Français Italiano Latina Magyar Polski Português Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 1 May 2020, at 12:54 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3702	----	Christina Rossetti - Wikipedia Christina Rossetti From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search English poet Christina Rossetti Born Christina Georgina Rossetti (1830-12-05)5 December 1830 London, England Died 29 December 1894(1894-12-29) (aged 64) London, England Occupation Poet Language English Nationality British Literary movement Pre-Raphaelite Parents Gabriele Rossetti Frances Polidori Relatives Dante Gabriel Rossetti (brother) Maria Francesca Rossetti (sister) William Michael Rossetti (brother) Gaetano Polidori (maternal grandfather) John William Polidori (maternal uncle) Christina Georgina Rossetti (5 December 1830 – 29 December 1894) was an English poet who wrote romantic, devotional, and children's poems. "Goblin Market" and "Remember" remain famous. She also wrote the words of two Christmas carols well known in the UK: "In the Bleak Midwinter", later set by Gustav Holst and by Harold Darke, and "Love Came Down at Christmas", also set by Darke and by other composers. She was a sister of the artist and poet Dante Gabriel Rossetti and features in several of his paintings. Contents 1 Early life and education 2 Career 3 Later life 4 Recognition 5 Ancestry 6 Publications 6.1 Poetry collections 6.2 Fiction 6.3 Non-fiction 7 References 7.1 Citations 7.2 Sources 8 External links Early life and education[edit] Christina Rossetti was born in Charlotte Street (now Hallam Street), London, to Gabriele Rossetti, a poet and a political exile from Vasto, Abruzzo, since 1824 and Frances Polidori, the sister of Lord Byron's friend and physician, John William Polidori.[1] She had two brothers and a sister: Dante Gabriel became an influential artist and poet, and William Michael and Maria both became writers.[1] Christina, the youngest, was a lively child. She dictated her first story to her mother before she had learned to write.[2][3] Rossetti was educated at home by her mother and father, who had her study religious works, classics, fairy tales and novels. Rossetti delighted in the works of Keats, Scott, Ann Radcliffe and Matthew Lewis.[4] The influence of the work of Dante Alighieri, Petrarch and other Italian writers filled the home and deeply impacted Rossetti's later writing. Their home was open to visiting Italian scholars, artists and revolutionaries.[3] The family homes in Bloomsbury at 38 and later 50 Charlotte Street were within easy reach of Madam Tussauds, London Zoo and the newly opened Regent's Park, which she visited regularly; in contrast to her parents, Rossetti was very much a London child, and, it seems, a happy one.[3][4] Christina Rossetti, by her brother Dante Gabriel Rossetti In the 1840s, her family faced severe financial difficulties due to the deterioration of her father's physical and mental health. In 1843, he was diagnosed with persistent bronchitis, possibly tuberculosis, and faced losing his sight. He gave up his teaching post at King's College and though he lived another 11 years, he suffered from depression and was never physically well again. Rossetti's mother began teaching to keep the family out of poverty and Maria became a live-in governess, a prospect that Christina Rossetti dreaded. At this time her brother William was working for the Excise Office and Gabriel was at art school, leaving Christina's life at home to become one of increasing isolation.[5] When she was 14, Rossetti suffered a nervous breakdown and left school. Bouts of depression and related illness followed. During this period she, her mother and her sister became absorbed in the Anglo-Catholic movement that developed in the Church of England. Religious devotion came to play a major role in Rossetti's life. In her late teens, Rossetti became engaged to the painter James Collinson, the first of three suitors. He was, like her brothers Dante and William, one of the founding members of the avant-garde artistic group, the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood (founded 1848).[6] The engagement was broken in 1850 when he reverted to Catholicism. In 1853, when the Rossetti family was in continuing financial difficulties, Christina helped her mother keep a school in Fromefield, Frome, but it was not a success. (A plaque commemorates the house.)[7] In 1854 the pair returned to London, where Christina's father died.[8] Later she became involved with the linguist Charles Cayley, but declined to marry him, also for religious reasons.[6] The third offer came from the painter John Brett, whom she likewise refused.[3] Rossetti sat for several of Dante Gabriel Rossetti's most famous paintings. In 1848, she was the model for the Virgin Mary in his first completed oil painting, The Girlhood of Mary Virgin, and the first work to be inscribed with the initials "PRB", later revealed to signify the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood.[9] The following year she modelled for his depiction of the Annunciation, Ecce Ancilla Domini. A line from her poem "Who shall deliver me?" inspired the famous painting by Fernand Khnopff called I lock my door upon myself. In 1849 she became seriously ill again, suffering from depression and sometime around 1857 had a major religious crisis.[3] Career[edit] Illustration for the cover of Christina Rossetti's Goblin Market and Other Poems (1862), by her brother Dante Gabriel Rossetti Rossetti began writing down and dating her poems from 1842, most of which imitated her favoured poets. In 1847 she began experimenting with verse forms such as sonnets, hymns and ballads, while drawing narratives from the Bible, folk tales and the lives of saints. Her early pieces often feature meditations on death and loss, in the Romantic tradition.[4] She published her first two poems ("Death's Chill Between", "Heart's Chill Between") in the Athenaeum in 1848, when she was 18.[10][11] Under the pseudonym "Ellen Alleyne" she contributed to the literary magazine, The Germ, published by the Pre-Raphaelites from January to April 1850 and edited by her brother William.[1] This marked the beginning of her public career.[12] Rossetti's more critical reflections on the artistic movement begun by her brother find expression in her 1856 poem "In the Artist's Studio". Here she reflects on seeing multiple paintings of the same model. For Rossetti, the artist's idealised vision of the model's character begins to overwhelm his work, until "every canvas means/the one same meaning."[13] Dinah Roe, in her introduction to the Penguin Classics collection of Pre-Raphaelite poetry, argues that this critique of her brother and similar male artists is not so much about "the objectification of women" as about "the male artist's self-worship".[14] Rossetti's most famous collection, Goblin Market and Other Poems, appeared in 1862, when she was 31. It received widespread critical praise, establishing her as the foremost female poet of the time. Hopkins, Swinburne and Tennyson lauded her,[12] and with the death of Elizabeth Barrett Browning in 1861 she was hailed as her natural successor.[12] The title poem is one of Rossetti's best known. Although it is ostensibly about two sisters' misadventures with goblins, critics have interpreted the piece in a variety of ways, seeing it as an allegory about temptation and salvation, a commentary on Victorian gender roles and female agency, and a work about erotic desire and social redemption. Rossetti was a volunteer worker from 1859 to 1870 at the St Mary Magdalene house of charity in Highgate, a refuge for former prostitutes, and it is suggested that Goblin Market may have been inspired by the "fallen women" she came to know.[15] There are parallels with Coleridge's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner in both poems' religious themes of temptation, sin and redemption by vicarious suffering.[16] Swinburne in 1883 dedicated A Century of Roundels to Rossetti, as she adopted his roundel form in a number of poems, for instance in Wife to Husband.[17] She was ambivalent about women's suffrage, but many scholars have found feminist themes in her poetry.[18] She opposed slavery (in the American South), cruelty to animals (in the prevalent practice of animal experimentation), and the exploitation of girls in under-age prostitution.[19] Rossetti maintained a large circle of friends and correspondents, and continued to write and publish for the rest of her life, focusing mainly on devotional writing and children's poetry. In 1892, she wrote The Face of the Deep, a book of devotional prose, and oversaw production of a new and enlarged edition of Sing-Song in 1893.[20] Later life[edit] Song When I am dead, my dearest,   Sing no sad songs for me; Plant thou no roses at my head,   Nor shady cypress tree: Be the green grass above me   With showers and dewdrops wet: And if thou wilt, remember,   And if thou wilt, forget. I shall not see the shadows,   I shall not feel the rain; I shall not hear the nightingale   Sing on as if in pain: And dreaming through the twilight   That doth not rise nor set, Haply I may remember,   And haply may forget. 1862[21] In the later decades of her life, Rossetti suffered from Graves' disease, diagnosed in 1872, suffering a near-fatal attack in the early 1870s.[1][3] In 1893, she developed breast cancer and though the tumour was removed, there was a recurrence in September 1894.[22] She died in Bloomsbury on 29 December 1894 and was buried in Highgate Cemetery.[20][23] The place where she died, in Torrington Square, is marked with a stone tablet.[24] Recognition[edit] Christina Rossetti Feast 27 April[25][26] Although Rossetti's popularity in her lifetime did not approach that of the contemporaneous Elizabeth Barrett Browning, her standing remained strong after her death. Her popularity faded in the early 20th century in the wake of Modernism, although scholars began to explore Freudian themes in her work, such as religious and sexual repression, reaching for personal, biographical interpretations of her poetry.[3] In the 1970s academics began to study her work again, looking beyond the lyrical Romantic sweetness to her mastery of prosody and versification. Feminists held her as symbol of constrained female genius, placed as a leader of 19th-century poets.[1][3] Her writings strongly influenced the work of such writers as Ford Madox Ford, Virginia Woolf, Gerard Manley Hopkins, Elizabeth Jennings, and Philip Larkin. The critic Basil de Selincourt stated that she was "all but our greatest woman poet... incomparably our greatest craftswoman... probably in the first twelve of the masters of English verse."[3][27] The year stood at its equinox, And bluff the North was blowing. A bleat of lambs came from the flocks, Green hardy things were growing. I met a maid with shining locks, Where milky kine were lowing. She wore a kerchief on her neck, Her bare arm showed its dimple. Her apron spread without a speck, Her air was frank and simple. From "The Milking-Maid" poem by Christina Georgina Rossetti[28] Rossetti's Christmas poem "In the Bleak Midwinter" became widely known in the English-speaking world after her death, when it was set as a Christmas carol, first by Gustav Holst and later by Harold Darke.[29] Her poem "Love Came Down at Christmas" (1885) has also been widely arranged as a carol.[30] Rossetti is honoured with a feast day on the liturgical calendar of the Anglican Church on 27 April.[25][26][31] Up-Hill is an allegorical poem.She compares humanlife with a painful journey. In 1918, John Ireland set eight of her poems from Sing-Song: A Nursery Rhyme Book to music in his song cycle Mother and Child. The title of J. K. Rowling's novel The Cuckoo's Calling is based on a line in Rossetti's poem A Dirge.[32] The poem "Song" was an inspiration for Bear McCreary to write his musical composition When I Am Dead, published in 2015.[33] Two of Rossetti's poems, "Where Sunless Rivers Weep" and "Weeping Willow" were set to music by Barbara Arens in her All Beautiful & Splendid Things: 12 + 1 Piano Songs on Poems by Women (2017, Editions Musica Ferrum). In 2000, as one of the many Millennium projects across the country, a poetry stone was placed in what used to be the grounds of North Hill House in Frome. On one side is an excerpt from her poem, "What Good Shall My Life Do Me": "Love lights the sun: love through the dark/Lights the moon's evanescent arc:/Same Love lights up the glow-worms spark." She wrote of her brief stay in Frome, which had "an abundance of green slopes and gentle declivities: no boldness or grandeur but plenty of peaceful beauty."[34] In 2011, Rossetti was the subject of Radio 4's programme In Our Time.[35][36] Ancestry[edit] Ancestors of Christina Rossetti 8. Giuseppe Rossetti 4. Nicola Rossetti 9. Teresa Bosco[37] 2. Gabriele Rossetti 80. Donato Pietro di Cola 40. Giacinto Pietrocola 81. Nella di Santo Buono[38] 20. Domenico Pietrocola 41. Lucrezia De Rosa[38] 10. Pietro Pietrocola 5. Maria Francesca Pietrocola 11. Domenica Miscione[38] 1. Christina Rossetti 12. Agostino Ansano Polidori 6. Gaetano Polidori 13. Teresa Cosci[39] 3. Frances Polidori 14. John Pierce 7. Anna Maria Pierce 15. Mary Pierce The Rossetti Family by Lewis Carroll (Charles Lutwidge Dodgson) Publications[edit] Poetry collections[edit] Verses. London: Private, 1847.[40] Goblin Market and Other Poems. London: Macmillan, 1862[40] 1876 Author's revised edition The Prince's Progress and Other Poems. London: Macmillan, 1866[40] Goblin Market, The Prince's Progress, and Other Poems. London: Macmillan, 1879 Sing-Song: A Nursery Rhyme Book (1872, 1893)[41] A Pageant and Other Poems (1881) Verses. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1893[40] New Poems. London: Macmillan, 1896[40] The Rossetti Birthday Book. London: Private, 1896[40] The Poetical Works of Christina Georgina Rossetti. Edited by William Michael Rossetti. London: Macmillan, 1904 The Complete Poems of Christina Rossetti. Edited by Rebecca W. Crump. A complete and comprehensive collection, with publication annotation, in three volumes. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1979–1985 Fiction[edit] Commonplace and Other Stories. London: Ellis, 1870[40] Speaking Likenesses. London: Macmillan, 1874.[40] Non-fiction[edit] Called to Be Saints. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1881 "Dante, an English Classic". Churchman's Shilling Magazine and Family Treasury 2 (1867): 200–205 "Dante: The Poet Illustrated out of the Poem". The Century (February 1884): 566–573. The Face of the Deep. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1893 Seek and Find: A Double Series of Short Studies of the Benedicite. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1879 Time Flies: A Reading Diary. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1885 References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ a b c d e Profile at Poets.org ^ "Author Profile: Christina Rossetti," Literary Worlds, BYU.edu, Web, 19 May 2011. ^ a b c d e f g h i Lindsay Duguid: "Rossetti, Christina Georgina (1830–1894)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford: OUP, 2009. Retrieved 15 October 2018. ^ a b c Packer, Lona Mosk (1963) Christina Rossetti University of California Press, pp. 13–17. ^ Packer, Lona Mosk (1963) Christina Rossetti University of California Press, p. 20. ^ a b Packer, Lona Mosk (1963) Christina Rossetti University of California Press, p. 29. ^ "Plaques". 16 June 2016. Retrieved 2 June 2019. ^ "Christina Rossetti | English poet". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2 June 2019. ^ Tate Gallery ^ "Christina Rossetti (1830–1894)," eNotes.com, Web, 19 May 2011. ^ Jan Marsh, Christina Rossetti and the Pre–Raphaelite Brotherhood Archived 30 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine ^ a b c The Cambridge Companion to English Poets (2011), Claude Rawson, Cambridge University Press, pp. 424–429. ^ Roe, Dinah (2010). The Pre-Raphaelites: From Rossetti to Ruskin. Penguin Classics. p. 182. ^ Roe, Dinah (2010). The Pre-Raphaelites: From Rossetti to Ruskin. Penguin Classics. p. xxvii. ^ Lona Mosk Packer, (1963), Christina Rossetti, University of California Press, p. 155. ^ Constance W. Hassett, (2005), Christina Rossetti: the patience of style, University of Virginia Press, p. 15. ^ Christina Rossetti, The Complete Poems, Penguin Books, London, 2001 ISBN 9780140423662. ^ Pieter Liebregts and Wim Tigges, eds. (1996) Beauty and the Beast: Christina Rossetti. Rodopi Press, p. 43. ^ Hoxie Neale Fairchild (1939), Religious Trends in English Poetry, Vol. 4, Columbia University Press. ^ a b Antony H. Harrison (2004), The Letters of Christina Rossetti Volume 4, 1887–1894, University of Virginia Press, ISBN 0-8139-2295-X. ^ The Norton Anthology of Poetry (revised shorter edition), ISBN 0-393-09251-8. ^ "Christina Rossetti (1830–1894) – Find A Grave..." www.findagrave.com. Retrieved 26 December 2017. ^ Wilson, Scott. Resting Places: The Burial Sites of More Than 14,000 Famous Persons, 3rd ed.: 2 (Kindle Locations 40725-40726). McFarland & Company, Inc., publishers. Kindle Edition. ^ "Christina Rossetti: London Remembers". londonremembers.com. Retrieved 22 November 2013. ^ a b Exciting Holiness: Collects and Readings for the Festivals and Lesser Festivals of the Calendars of the Church of England, the Church of Ireland, the Scottish Episcopal Church and the Church in Wales. (2003) Brother Tristam, Hymns Ancient and Modern Ltd, p. 172 ISBN 9781853114793 ^ a b ChurchofEngland.org, Holy Days calendar ^ TLS, 4 December 1930. ^ A Gallery of English and American Women Famous in Song (1875), J.M. Stoddart & Company, p. 205. ^ BBC article Bleak Midwinter named best carol Thursday, 27 November 2008 ^ Hymns and Carols of Christmas ^ "The Baptismal Ecclesiology of Holy Women, Holy Men: Developments in the Theology of Sainthood in the Episcopal Church" (2012) Dan Joslyn-Siemiatkoski p. 33. ^ Retrieved 9 June 2019. ^ Retrieved 9 June 2019. ^ "Poetry on the Millennium Green". Discover Frome. 29 September 2016. Retrieved 14 August 2019. ^ BBC Radio 4, In our Time, 1 December 2011, Christina Rossetti ^ Retrieved 20 July 2018. ^ "Rossetti family tree". Retrieved 29 June 2018. ^ a b c "Pietrocola family of Vasto". Retrieved 28 June 2018. ^ Manfredi, Marco. "Polidori, Gaetano" (in Italian). Treccani. Retrieved 28 June 2018. ^ a b c d e f g h "Christina Rossetti Bibliography – UK First Edition Books," Bookseller World, Web, 19 May 2011. ^ Sing-Song online edition Sources[edit] Kathleen Jones, Christina Rossetti: Learning Not To Be First David Clifford and Laurence Roussillon, Outsiders Looking In: The Rossettis Then and Now. London: Anthem, 2004 Antony Harrison, Christina Rossetti in Context. Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1988 Kathleen Jones, Learning Not to be First: A Biography of Christina Rossetti. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991 Jan Marsh, Introduction, Christina Rossetti, Poems and Prose. London: Everyman, 1994. xvii–xxxiii Jan Marsh, Christina Rossetti: A Writer's Life. New York: Viking, 1994 Maura Ives, Christina Rossetti: A Descriptive Bibliography. New Castle, D.E.: Oak Knoll, 2011 External links[edit] Christina Rossettiat Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Data from Wikidata Christina Rossetti on the British Library's "Discovering Literature" website Poems and poetry at the Poetry Foundation Profile at Poets.org "Christina Rossetti", In our time, BBC Radio 4 (audio, 45 minutes) Rossetti Family Correspondence at the University of Kansas Libraries Online books, and library resources in your library and in other libraries about Christina Rossetti Online books, and library resources in your library and in other libraries by Christina Rossetti Works by Christina Rossetti at Project Gutenberg Open Library Works by or about Christina Rossetti at Internet Archive Works by Christina Rossetti at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Free scores by Christina Rossetti in the Choral Public Domain Library (ChoralWiki) Christina Rossetti in Encyclopedia of Fantasy (1997) Christina Rossetti Collection. General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library. v t e Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood (paintings) William Holman Hunt John Everett Millais Dante Gabriel Rossetti James Collinson William Michael Rossetti Frederic George Stephens Thomas Woolner Associated artists and figures Lawrence Alma-Tadema George Price Boyce John Brett Ford Madox Brown Lucy Madox Brown Richard Burchett Edward Burne-Jones Georgiana Burne-Jones James Campbell John Collier Charles Allston Collins Frank Cadogan Cowper Evelyn De Morgan Walter Deverell Henry Treffry Dunn William Dyce Henry Holiday Arthur Hughes Edward Robert Hughes Frederic Leighton Robert Braithwaite Martineau Louisa Beresford, Marchioness of Waterford William Morris Alexander Munro Joseph Noel Paton Valentine Cameron Prinsep Christina Rossetti John Ruskin Emma Sandys Frederick Sandys Thomas Seddon Elizabeth Siddal James Smetham Rebecca Solomon Simeon Solomon John Roddam Spencer Stanhope Marie Spartali Stillman John Melhuish Strudwick Algernon Charles Swinburne Henry Wallis John William Waterhouse William Lindsay Windus Some well-known works (period and post-period) Ophelia Christ in the House of His Parents A Converted British Family Sheltering a Christian Missionary from the Persecution of the Druids Ecce Ancilla Domini Mariana The Light of the World Our English Coasts ('Strayed Sheep') The Scapegoat Paolo and Francesca da Rimini The Last of England Work The Awakening Conscience The Hireling Shepherd April Love Found Autumn Leaves Bocca Baciata Oxford Union murals Lady Lilith Roman Widow Mary Magdalene The Finding of the Saviour in the Temple Morgan le Fay Beata Beatrix The Shadow of Death Proserpine A Vision of Fiammetta Pygmalion and the Image series The Beloved Flaming June Cymon and Iphigenia King Cophetua and the Beggar Maid The Day Dream The Golden Stairs Dante and Beatrice Love's Messenger The Magic Circle The Legend of Briar Rose The Lady of Shalott (Waterhouse) The Roses of Heliogabalus Lilith Eos Hope Hylas and the Nymphs Lady Godiva The Love Potion The Lady of Shalott (Hunt) I Am Half-Sick of Shadows, Said the Lady of Shalott Models Elizabeth Siddal Fanny Cornforth Effie Gray Sophy Gray Annie Miller Jane Morris Marie Spartali Stillman Alexa Wilding Maria Zambaco Dorothy Dene Fanny Eaton Ruth Herbert Related The Germ Hogarth Club Morris & Co. Rossetti and His Circle (1922 book) Dante's Inferno (1967 film) The Love School (1975 series) Desperate Romantics (2009 series) Effie Gray (2014 film) v t e Dante Gabriel Rossetti Paintings List of paintings The Girlhood of Mary Virgin Ecce Ancilla Domini Paolo and Francesca da Rimini Bocca Baciata Oxford Union murals Venus Verticordia The Beloved Monna Vanna Monna Rosa Pia de' Tolomei Joan of Arc Kissing the Sword of Deliverance Beata Beatrix Dante's Dream Water Willow Veronica Veronese Roman Widow Lady Lilith La Ghirlandata Proserpine A Sea–Spell The Blessed Damozel A Vision of Fiammetta The Day Dream Mnemosyne Found Drawings Ligeia Siren (1873) Family Elizabeth Siddal (wife) Frances Polidori (mother) Gabriele Rossetti (father) Maria Francesca Rossetti (sister) William Michael Rossetti (brother) Christina Rossetti (sister) Gaetano Polidori (grandfather) Related Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood The Germ Hogarth Club Morris & Co. Tristram and Isoude stained glass panels Great Bookcase Rossetti and His Circle (1922 book) Dante's Inferno (1967 film) The Love School (1975 miniseries) Desperate Romantics (2009 miniseries) Poetry portal Speculative fiction portal Biography portal England portal London portal Authority control BIBSYS: 90113206 BNE: XX967913 BNF: cb12054523g (data) CANTIC: a11109646 CiNii: DA01756738 GND: 118749897 ISNI: 0000 0001 1059 7312 LCCN: n79032213 LNB: 000130375 MBA: 51b77482-6a96-4c3e-850d-6bbd54283716 NDL: 00454739 NKC: jn20010316158 NLA: 36580539 NLG: 259404 NLI: 001789524 NLK: KAC201330742 NTA: 068328850 RERO: 02-A003761986 SELIBR: 211685 SNAC: w6m0460d SUDOC: 027426041 Trove: 381763 VcBA: 495/117547 VIAF: 44318353 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79032213 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Christina_Rossetti&oldid=995892716" Categories: 1830 births 1894 deaths Anglo-Catholic poets Anglican saints Burials at Highgate Cemetery Christian hymnwriters English Anglo-Catholics English hymnwriters English people of Italian descent English women poets English fantasy writers People from the London Borough of Camden Polidori-Rossetti family Sonneteers Women of the Victorian era Victorian poets Victorian women writers 19th-century English women writers 19th-century British writers 19th-century British musicians Anglo-Catholic writers British women hymnwriters British people of Italian descent 19th-century women musicians Rossetti family Writers from London Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links CS1 Italian-language sources (it) EngvarB from October 2013 Use dmy dates from December 2019 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages العربية Asturianu تۆرکجه Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Kotava Latina မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 23 December 2020, at 13:04 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3703	----	Strabo - Wikipedia Strabo From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Greek geographer, philosopher and historian This article is about the Greek geographer. For other people called "Strabo", see Strabo (disambiguation). Strabo Strabo as depicted in a 16th-century engraving Born 64 or 63 BC Amaseia, Pontus (modern-day Amasya, Turkey) Died c. AD 24 (aged about 87) Occupation Geographer Philosopher Historian Strabo[n 1] (/ˈstreɪboʊ/; Greek: Στράβων Strábōn; 64 or 63 BC – c. AD 24) was a Greek geographer, philosopher, and historian who lived in Asia Minor during the transitional period of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire. Contents 1 Life 2 Education 3 Geographica 4 Geology 4.1 Fossil formation 4.2 Volcanism 5 Editions 6 References 6.1 Notes 6.2 Citations 6.3 Bibliography 6.4 Further reading 7 External links Life[edit] Title page from Isaac Casaubon's 1620 edition of Geographica Strabo was born to an affluent family from Amaseia in Pontus (in present-day Turkey) in around 64 BC.[1] His family had been involved in politics since at least the reign of Mithridates V.[2] Strabo was related to Dorylaeus on his mother's side. Several other family members, including his paternal grandfather had served Mithridates VI during the Mithridatic Wars. As the war drew to a close, Strabo's grandfather had turned several Pontic fortresses over to the Romans.[3] Strabo wrote that "great promises were made in exchange for these services", and as Persian culture endured in Amaseia even after Mithridates and Tigranes were defeated, scholars have speculated about how the family's support for Rome might have affected their position in the local community, and whether they might have been granted Roman citizenship as a reward.[2] Strabo as depicted in the Nuremberg Chronicle Strabo's life was characterized by extensive travels. He journeyed to Egypt and Kush, as far west as coastal Tuscany and as far south as Ethiopia in addition to his travels in Asia Minor and the time he spent in Rome. Travel throughout the Mediterranean and Near East, especially for scholarly purposes, was popular during this era and was facilitated by the relative peace enjoyed throughout the reign of Augustus (27 BC – AD 14). He moved to Rome in 44 BC, and stayed there, studying and writing, until at least 31 BC. In 29 BC, on his way to Corinth (where Augustus was at the time), he visited the island of Gyaros in the Aegean Sea. Around 25 BC, he sailed up the Nile until he reached Philae,[n 2] after which point there is little record of his travels until AD 17. Statue of Strabo in his hometown (modern-day Amasya, Turkey), beside the Iris (Yeşilırmak) River It is not known precisely when Strabo's Geography was written, though comments within the work itself place the finished version within the reign of Emperor Tiberius. Some place its first drafts around 7 BC,[4] others around AD 17[5] or AD 18.[4] The latest passage to which a date can be assigned is his reference to the death in AD 23 of Juba II, king of Maurousia (Mauretania), who is said to have died "just recently".[6] He probably worked on the Geography for many years and revised it steadily, but not always consistently. It is an encyclopaedic chronicle and consists of political, economic, social, cultural, geographic description covering almost all of Europe and the Mediterranean: British Isles, Iberian Peninsula, Gaul, Germania, the Alps, Italy, Greece, Northern Black Sea region, Anatolia, Middle East, Central Asia and North Africa. The Geography is the only extant work providing information about both Greek and Roman peoples and countries during the reign of Augustus.[7] On the presumption that "recently" means within a year, Strabo stopped writing that year or the next (AD 24), at which time he is thought to have died. He was influenced by Homer, Hecataeus and Aristotle.[8] The first of Strabo's major works, Historical Sketches (Historica hypomnemata), written while he was in Rome (c. 20 BC), is nearly completely lost. Meant to cover the history of the known world from the conquest of Greece by the Romans, Strabo quotes it himself and other classical authors mention that it existed, although the only surviving document is a fragment of papyrus now in the possession of the University of Milan (renumbered [Papyrus] 46). Education[edit] Strabo studied under several prominent teachers of various specialities throughout his early life[n 3] at different stops during his Mediterranean travels. The first chapter of his education took place in Nysa (modern Sultanhisar, Turkey) under the master of rhetoric Aristodemus, who had formerly taught the sons of the Roman general who had taken over Pontus.[n 4] Aristodemus was the head of two schools of rhetoric and grammar, one in Nysa and one in Rhodes. The school in Nysa possessed a distinct intellectual curiosity in Homeric literature and the interpretation of the ancient Greek epics. Strabo was an admirer of Homer's poetry, perhaps as a consequence of his time spent in Nysa with Aristodemus.[n 5] At around the age of 21, Strabo moved to Rome, where he studied philosophy with the Peripatetic Xenarchus, a highly respected tutor in Augustus's court. Despite Xenarchus's Aristotelian leanings, Strabo later gives evidence to have formed his own Stoic inclinations.[n 6] In Rome, he also learned grammar under the rich and famous scholar Tyrannion of Amisus.[n 7] Although Tyrannion was also a Peripatetic, he was more relevantly a respected authority on geography, a fact of some significance considering Strabo's future contributions to the field. The final noteworthy mentor to Strabo was Athenodorus Cananites, a philosopher who had spent his life since 44 BC in Rome forging relationships with the Roman elite. Athenodorus passed onto Strabo his philosophy, his knowledge and his contacts. Unlike the Aristotelian Xenarchus and Tyrannion who preceded him in teaching Strabo, Athenodorus was a Stoic and almost certainly the source of Strabo's diversion from the philosophy of his former mentors. Moreover, from his own first-hand experience, Athenodorus provided Strabo with information about regions of the empire which Strabo would not otherwise have known about. Geographica[edit] Main article: Geographica Map of the world according to Strabo. Strabo is best known for his work Geographica ("Geography"), which presented a descriptive history of people and places from different regions of the world known during his lifetime.[6] Map of Europe according to Strabo. Although the Geographica was rarely utilized by contemporary writers, a multitude of copies survived throughout the Byzantine Empire. It first appeared in Western Europe in Rome as a Latin translation issued around 1469. The first Greek edition was published in 1516 in Venice.[9] Isaac Casaubon, classical scholar and editor of Greek texts, provided the first critical edition in 1587. Although Strabo cited the classical Greek astronomers Eratosthenes and Hipparchus, acknowledging their astronomical and mathematical efforts covering geography, he claimed that a descriptive approach was more practical, such that his works were designed for statesmen who were more anthropologically than numerically concerned with the character of countries and regions.[citation needed] As such, Geographica provides a valuable source of information on the ancient world of his day, especially when this information is corroborated by other sources. He travelled extensively, as he says: "Westward I have journeyed to the parts of Etruria opposite Sardinia; towards the south from the Euxine to the borders of Ethiopia; and perhaps not one of those who have written geographies has visited more places than I have between those limits."[citation needed] It is not known when he wrote Geographica, but he spent much time in the famous library in Alexandria taking notes from "the works of his predecessors". A first edition was published in 7 BC and a final edition no later than 23 AD, in what may have been the last year of Strabo's life. It took some time for Geographica to be recognized by scholars and for Geographica to become a standard.[10] In his last book of Geographica, he wrote quite extensively about the thriving port city of Alexandria suggesting a highly developed local economy at that time.[11] Strabo also describes the city of Alexandria noting that there were many beautiful public parks and the city was reticulated with streets wide enough for chariots and horsemen. "Two of these are exceeding broad, over a plethron in breadth, and cut one another at right angles ... All the buildings are connected one with another, and these also with what are beyond it."[12] Lawrence Kim observes that Strabo is [13] "... pro-Roman throughout the Geography. But while he acknowledges and even praises Roman ascendancy in the political and military sphere, he also makes a significant effort to establish Greek primacy over Rome in other contexts." In Europe, Strabo was the first to connect the Danube -- Danouios and the Istros --with the change of names occurring at "the cataracts," the modern Iron Gates on the Romanian/Serbian border.[14] In India, a country he never visited, Strabo described small flying reptiles that were long with a snake-like body and bat-like wings, winged scorpions, and other mythical creatures along with those that were factual.[15] Other historians, such as Herodotus, Aristotle, and Flavius Josephus, mentioned similar creatures.[citation needed] Geology[edit] Charles Lyell, in his Principles of Geology, wrote of Strabo:[16] Strabo…enters largely, in the Second Book of his Geography, into the opinions of Eratosthenes and other Greeks on one of the most difficult problems in geology, viz., by what causes marine shells came to be plentifully buried in the earth at such great elevations and distances from the sea. He notices, amongst others, the explanation of Xanthus the Lydian, who said that the seas had once been more extensive, and that they had afterwards been partially dried up, as in his own time many lakes, rivers, and wells in Asia had failed during a season of drought. Treating this conjecture with merited disregard, Strabo passes on to the hypothesis of Strato, the natural philosopher, who had observed that the quantity of mud brought down by rivers into the Euxine was so great, that its bed must be gradually raised, while the rivers still continued to pour in an undiminished quantity of water. He therefore conceived that, originally, when the Euxine was an inland sea, its level had by this means become so much elevated that it burst its barrier near Byzantium, and formed a communication with the Propontis, and this partial drainage had already, he supposed, converted the left side into marshy ground, and that, at last, the whole would be choked up with soil. So, it was argued, the Mediterranean had once opened a passage for itself by the Columns of Hercules into the Atlantic, and perhaps the abundance of sea-shells in Africa, near the Temple of Jupiter Ammon, might also be the deposit of some former inland sea, which had at length forced a passage and escaped. But Strabo rejects this theory as insufficient to account for all the phenomena, and he proposes one of his own, the profoundness of which modern geologists are only beginning to appreciate. 'It is not,' he says, 'because the lands covered by seas were originally at different altitudes, that the waters have risen, or subsided, or receded from some parts and inundated others. But the reason is, that the same land is sometimes raised up and sometimes depressed, and the sea also is simultaneously raised and depressed so that it either overflows or returns into its own place again. We must, therefore, ascribe the cause to the ground, either to that ground which is under the sea, or to that which becomes flooded by it, but rather to that which lies beneath the sea, for this is more moveable, and, on account of its humidity, can be altered with great celerity. It is proper,' he observes in continuation, 'to derive our explanations from things which are obvious, and in some measure of daily occurrences, such as deluges, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and sudden swellings of the land beneath the sea; for the last raise up the sea also, and when the same lands subside again, they occasion the sea to be let down. And it is not merely the small, but the large islands also, and not merely the islands, but the continents, which can be lifted up together with the sea; and both large and small tracts may subside, for habitations and cities, like Bure, Bizona, and many others, have been engulfed by earthquakes.' In another place, this learned geographer [Strabo], in alluding to the tradition that Sicily had been separated by a convulsion from Italy, remarks, that at present the land near the sea in those parts was rarely shaken by earthquakes, since there were now open orifices whereby fire and ignited matters and waters escaped; but formerly, when the volcanoes of Etna, the Lipari Islands, Ischia, and others, were closed up, the imprisoned fire and wind might have produced far more vehement movements. The doctrine, therefore, that volcanoes are safety valves, and that the subterranean convulsions are probably most violent when first the volcanic energy shifts itself to a new quarter, is not modern. Fossil formation[edit] Strabo commented on fossil formation mentioning Nummulite (quoted from Celâl Şengör):[6] One extraordinary thing which I saw at the pyramids must not be omitted. Heaps of stones from the quarries lie in front of the pyramids. Among these are found pieces which in shape and size resemble lentils. Some contain substances like grains half peeled. These, it is said, are the remnants of the workmen's food converted into stone; which is not probable. For at home in our country (Amaseia), there is a long hill in a plain, which abounds with pebbles of a porous stone, resembling lentils. The pebbles of the sea-shore and of rivers suggest somewhat of the same difficulty [respecting their origin]; some explanation may indeed be found in the motion [to which these are subject] in flowing waters, but the investigation of the above fact presents more difficulty. I have said elsewhere, that in sight of the pyramids, on the other side in Arabia, and near the stone quarries from which they are built, is a very rocky mountain, called the Trojan mountain; beneath it there are caves, and near the caves and the river a village called Troy, an ancient settlement of the captive Trojans who had accompanied Menelaus and settled there. Volcanism[edit] Strabo commented on volcanism (effusive eruption) which he observed at Katakekaumene (modern Kula, Western Turkey). Strabo observations predated Pliny the Younger who witnessed the eruption of Mount Vesuvius on 24 August AD 79 in Pompeii:[17] …There are no trees here, but only the vineyards where they produce the Katakekaumene wines which are by no means inferior from any of the wines famous for their quality. The soil is covered with ashes, and black in colour as if the mountainous and rocky country was made up of fires. Some assume that these ashes were the result of thunderbolts and subterranean explosions, and do not doubt that the legendary story of Typhon takes place in this region. Ksanthos adds that the king of this region was a man called Arimus. However, it is not reasonable to accept that the whole country was burned down at a time as a result of such an event rather than as a result of a fire bursting from underground whose source has now died out. Three pits are called "Physas" and separated by forty stadia from each other. Above these pits, there are hills formed by the hot masses burst out from the ground as estimated by a logical reasoning. Such type of soil is very convenient for viniculture, just like the Katanasoil which is covered with ashes and where the best wines are still produced abundantly. Some writers concluded by looking at these places that there is a good reason for calling Dionysus by the name ("Phrygenes"). Editions[edit] Meineke, Augustus, ed. (1877). Strabonis Geographica. Lipsiae: B.G. Teubneri. Strabo (1852). Gustav Kramer (ed.). Strabonis Geographica. Recens. G. Kramer. Ed. minor. Stefan Radt, ed. (2002–2011). Strabons Geographika : mit Übersetzung und Kommentar. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Jones, H. L., transl. (1917). The Geography of Strabo. London: Heinemann.[18] Strabo's Geography in three volumes as translated by H.C. Hamilton, ed. H.G. Bohn, 1854–1857 References[edit] Notes[edit] ^ Strabo (meaning "squinty", as in strabismus) was a term employed by the Romans for anyone whose eyes were distorted or deformed. The father of Pompey was called "Pompeius Strabo". A native of Sicily so clear-sighted that he could see things at great distance as if they were nearby was also called "Strabo." ^ Accompanied by prefect of Egypt Aelius Gallus, who had been sent on a military mission to Arabia. ^ He mentions all or most of his teachers as prominent citizens of their own respective cities. ^ This also highlights the international trend of the era that Greek intellectuals would often instruct the Roman elite. ^ Aristodemus was also the grandson of the famous Posidonius, whose influence is manifest in Strabo's Geography. ^ Largely due to his future teacher Athenodorus, tutor of Augustus. ^ Thus completing his traditional Greek aristocratic education in rhetoric, grammar, and philosophy. Tyrannion was known to have befriended Cicero and taught his nephew, Quintus. Citations[edit] ^ Purcell, Nicholas (2014). "Strabo". In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.). The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization. Oxford University Press. p. 757. ISBN 978-0-19-870677-9. ^ a b Bianchetti, Serena; Cataudella, Michele; Gehrke, Hans-Joachim (4 December 2015). Brill's Companion to Ancient Geography: The Inhabited World in Greek and Roman Tradition. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-28471-5. ^ Adrienne Mayor (March 2011). The Poison King: The Life and Legend of Mithradates, Rome's Deadliest Enemy. Princeton University Press. pp. 9–. ISBN 978-0-691-15026-0. ^ a b Strabo (1917). Geography. Vol. I. Translated by Horace Leonard Jones. London: William Heinemann. p. xxv-xxvi. ^ Sarah Pothecary, When was the Geography written? ^ a b c Strabo (1949). "34". Geography. Vol. VIII Book XVII. Translated by Horace Leonard Jones. London: William Heinemann. p. 95. ^ "Strabo, Geography, Volume I: Books 1-2". Loeb Classical Library. n.d. Retrieved 8 September 2018. ^ "Strabo | Greek geographer and historian". Encyclopedia Britannica. ^ Geographie, Band 1, Strabo, S.17, Strabo, Karl Kärcher, Gottlieb Lukas Friedrich Tafel, Christian Nathanael Osiander, Gustav Schwab, Verlag Metzler, 1831. ^ "Strabo Critical Essays - eNotes.com". eNotes. ^ Strabo, Geography 17.1.6, 7, 8, 13; translated by Brent Shaw. Attained from: E.A. Pollard, C. Rosenberg, and R.L. Tignor, et al. Worlds Together, Worlds Apart, Concise, Volume One: Beginnings through the Fifteenth Century (W.W. Norton, 2015) Pg. 228 ^ Davis, William Stearns (1912). Reading in Ancient History. Vol. I: Greece and the East. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. pp. 325–329. ^ Kim, Lawrence (2010). Homer between History and Fiction in Imperial Greek Literature. Cambridge University Press. p. 83. ISBN 978-1-139-49024-5. ^ Roller, Duane W. (27 August 2015). Ancient Geography: The Discovery of the World in Classical Greece and Rome. ISBN 9780857725660. ^ https://www.ibiblio.org/britishraj/Jackson9/chapter01.html ^ Lyell, Charles (1832). Principles of Geology. John Murray. pp. 20–21. ^ Strabo (1950). "11". Geography. Vol. VI Book XIII. Translated by Horace Leonard Jones. London: William Heinemann. p. 183. ^ Jones, H. L., transl. (1917). The Geography of Strabo. London: Heinemann. In eight volumes: Vol 1; Vol 2; Vol 3; Vol 4; Vol 5; Vol 6; Vol 7; Vol 8. Bibliography[edit] "Biography of Strabo". Tufts. "Strabo". Encyclopædia Britannica (15th ed.). 1998. pp. 296–297. Diller, A. (1975). The Textual Tradition of Strabo's Geography. Amsterdam. Dueck, Daniela (2000). Strabo of Amasia: Greek Man of Letters in Augustan Rome. New York: Routledge. Dueck, D.; H. Lindsay; S. Pothecary, eds. (2005). Strabo's Cultural Geography: The Making of a Kolossourgia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lindberg, David C. (2008). The Beginnings of Western Science The European Scientific Tradition in Philosophical, Religious, and Institutional Context, Prehistory A.D. 1450 (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Roller, Duane (2014). The Geography of Strabo: An English Translation, with Introduction and Notes. Cambridge. Further reading[edit] Bowersock, Glen W. 2005. "La patria di Strabone." In Strabone e l’Asia Minore. Edited by Anna Maria Biraschi and Giovanni Salmieri, 15–23. Studi di Storia e di Storiografia. Göttingen, Germany: Edizione Scientifiche Italiane. Braund, David. 2006. "Greek Geography and Roman Empire: The Transformation of Tradition in Strabo’s Euxine." In Strabo’s Cultural Geography: The Making of a Kolossourgia. Edited by Daniela Dueck, Hugh Lindsay, and Sarah Pothecary, 216–234. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Clarke, Katherine. 1997. "In Search of the Author of Strabo’s Geography." Journal of Roman Studies 87:92–110. Diller, Aubrey. 1975. The Textual Tradition of Strabo’s Geography. Amsterdam: Hakkert. Irby, Georgia L. 2012. "Mapping the World: Greek Initiatives from Homer to Eratosthenes." In Ancient Perspectives: Maps and their Place in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, and Rome. Edited by Richard J. A. Talbert, 81–107. Kenneth Nebenzahl Jr. Lectures in the History of Cartography. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press. Kim, Lawrence. 2007. "The Portrait of Homer in Strabo’s Geography." Classical Philology 102.4: 363–388. Kuin, Inger N.I. 2017. "Rewriting Family History: Strabo and the Mithridatic Wars." Phoenix 71.1-2: 102-118. Pfuntner, Laura. 2017. "Death and Birth in the Urban Landscape: Strabo on Troy and Rome." Classical Antiquity 36.1: 33-51. Pothecary, Sarah. 1999. "Strabo the Geographer: His Name and its Meaning." Mnemosyne, 4th ser. 52.6: 691–704 Richards, G. C. 1941. "Strabo: The Anatolian who Failed of Roman Recognition." Greece and Rome 10.29: 79–90. 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Amasya Notable people Strabo Amirdovlat Amasiatsi Authority control BIBSYS: 90412753 BNE: XX1110117 BNF: cb11925629v (data) CANTIC: a10081227 CiNii: DA01311957 GND: 118618806 HDS: 010312 ISNI: 0000 0001 1838 7379 LCCN: n80035710 LNB: 000234233 NDL: 00475701 NKC: jn19990210586 NLA: 36017850 NLG: 29923 NLI: 000127564 NSK: 000132603 NTA: 068949111 RERO: 02-A000156055 SELIBR: 269797 SNAC: w6n595kj SUDOC: 027150062 Trove: 1187741 VcBA: 495/44787 VIAF: 100219883 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n80035710 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Strabo&oldid=993627656" Categories: 60s BC births 24 deaths 1st-century BC historians Ancient Greek geographers Roman-era geographers Roman-era Greek historians Ancient Pontic Greeks People from Amasya Roman Pontus Historians from Roman Anatolia Hidden categories: CS1: long volume value Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles with hCards Articles containing Greek-language text All articles with 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en-wikipedia-org-3722	----	Lucan - Wikipedia Lucan From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman poet (AD 39-65) This article is about the Roman poet. For other uses, see Lucan (disambiguation). Lucan Modern bust of Lucan in Córdoba. There are no ancient likenesses. Born AD (39-11-03)3 November 39 Corduba, Hispania Baetica, Roman Empire Died AD 30 April 65(65-04-30) (aged 25) Occupation Poet Spouse Polla Argentaria Marcus Annaeus Lucanus (3 November 39 AD – 30 April 65 AD), better known in English as Lucan (/ˈluːkən/), was a Roman poet, born in Corduba (modern-day Córdoba), in Hispania Baetica. He is regarded as one of the outstanding figures of the Imperial Latin period, known in particular for his epic Pharsalia. His youth and speed of composition set him apart from other poets. Contents 1 Life 2 Works 3 Notes 4 References 5 Further reading 6 External links Life[edit] Three brief ancient accounts allow for the reconstruction of a modest biography – the earliest attributed to Suetonius, another to an otherwise unknown Vacca, and the third anonymous and undated – along with references in Martial, Cassius Dio, Tacitus's Annals, and one of Statius's Silvae. Lucan was the son of Marcus Annaeus Mela and grandson of Seneca the Elder; he grew up under the tutelage of his uncle Seneca the Younger. Born into a wealthy family, he studied rhetoric at Athens and was probably provided with a philosophical and Stoic education by his uncle.[1] Engraved title page of a French edition of Lucan's Pharsalia, 1657 His wife was Polla Argentaria, who is said to have assisted him with his Pharsalia.[2] He found success under Nero, became one of the emperor's close friends and was rewarded with a quaestorship in advance of the legal age. In 60 AD, he won a prize for extemporizing Orpheus and Laudes Neronis at the quinquennial Neronia, and was again rewarded when the emperor appointed him to the augurate. During this time he circulated the first three books of his epic poem, Pharsalia (labelled De Bello civili in the manuscripts), which told the story of the civil war between Julius Caesar and Pompey. At some point, a feud began between Nero and Lucan. Two very different accounts of the events have survived that both trivialize the feud. According to Tacitus, Nero became jealous of Lucan and forbade him to publish his poems.[3] According to Suetonius, Nero lost interest in Lucan and Lucan responded by writing insulting poems about Nero that Nero continued to ignore.[4] Other works, though, point to a more serious basis to the feud. Works by the grammarian Vacca and the poet Statius may support the claim that Lucan wrote insulting poems about Nero. Vacca mentions that one of Lucan's works was entitled De Incendio Urbis (On the Burning of the City).[5] Statius's ode to Lucan mentions that Lucan described how the "unspeakable flames of the criminal tyrant roamed the heights of Remus."[6] Additionally, the later books of Pharsalia are anti-Imperial and pro-Republic. This criticism of Nero and office of the Emperor may have been the true cause of the ban. Lucan later joined the 65 AD conspiracy of Gaius Calpurnius Piso against Nero. His treason discovered, he was obliged, at the age of 25, to commit suicide by opening a vein, but not before incriminating his mother, among others, in the hopes of a pardon. According to Tacitus, as Lucan bled to death, "(he) recalled some poetry he had composed in which he had told the story of a wounded soldier dying a similar kind of death and he recited the very lines. These were his last words."[7] His father was involved in the proscription but his mother escaped. Statius's poem about Lucan was addressed to his widow, Polla Argentaria, upon the occasion of his birthday during the reign of Domitian (Silvae, ii.7, the Genethliacon Lucani). Works[edit] Pharsalia, 1740 According to Vacca and Statius, Lucan's works included: Surviving work: Pharsalia or De Bello Civili (On the Civil War), on the wars between Julius Caesar and Pompey Often attributed to him (but to others as well): Laus Pisonis (Praise of Piso), a panegyric of a member of the Piso family Lost works: Catachthonion Iliacon from the Trojan cycle Epigrammata Adlocutio ad Pollam Silvae Saturnalia Medea Salticae Fabulae Laudes Neronis, a praise of Nero Orpheus Prosa oratio in Octavium Sagittam Epistulae ex Campania De Incendio Urbis, on the Roman fire of 64, perhaps accusing Nero of arson Notes[edit] ^ Suetonius, "Life of Lucan" ^ Hays, Mary (1807). "Polla Argentaria". Female Biography, vol 3. Philadelphia: Printed for Byrch and Small. p. 95. Retrieved 14 October 2017. ^ Tacitus, Annals XV.49 ^ Suetonius, "Life of Lucan" ^ Vacca, Life of Lucan ^ Statius, Silvae II.vii ^ Tacitus, Annals XV.70.1. Scholars have vainly tried to locate Lucan's last words in his work but no passage in Lucan's extant poem exactly matches Tacitus's description at "Annals" 15.70.1. See, e.g., P. Asso, "A Commentary on Lucan 'De Bello Civili IV.'" Berlin: De Gruyter, 2010, p. 9n38. References[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Lucan". Encyclopædia Britannica. 17 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 91–92. Further reading[edit] Ahl, Frederick M. Lucan: An Introduction. Cornell Studies in Classical Philology 39. Ithaca, New York: Cornell Univ. Pr., 1976. Bartsch, Shadi. Ideology in Cold Blood: A Reading of Lucan's Civil War. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard Univ. Pr., 1997. Braund, Susanna M. (2008) Lucan: Civil War. Oxford World's Classics. Oxford University Press. Braund, Susanna M. (2009) A Lucan Reader: Selections from Civil War. BC Latin Readers. Bolchazy-Carducci. Dewar, Michael. "Laying It On with a Trowel: The Proem to Lucan and Related Texts." Classical Quarterly 44 (1994), 199–211. Fantham, Elaine. "Caesar and the Mutiny: Lucan's Reshaping of the Historical Tradition in De Bello Civili 5.237–373." Classical Philology 80 (1985), 119–31. Fantham, Elaine (1992) De bello civili. Book II. Cambridge Greek and Latin Classics. Cambridge University Press. ———. "Lucan's Medusa Excursus: Its Design and Purpose." Materiali e discussioni 29 (1992), 95–119. Fratantuono, Lee. "Madness Triumphant: A Reading of Lucan's Pharsalia." Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books, 2012. Henderson, John G. W. "Lucan: The Word at War." Ramus 16 (1987), 122–64. Johnson, Walter R. Momentary Monsters: Lucan and His Heroes. Cornell Studies in Classical Philology 47. Ithaca, New York: Cornell Univ. Pr., 1987. Lapidge, M. "Lucan's Imagery of Cosmic Dissolution." Hermes 107 (1979), 344–70. Leigh, Matthew. Lucan: Spectacle and Engagement. New York: Oxford Univ. Pr., 1997. Marti, Berthe. "The Meaning of the Pharsalia." American Journal of Philology 66 (1945), 352–76. Martindale, Charles A. "The Politician Lucan." Greece and Rome 31 (1984), 64–79. Masters, Jamie. Poetry and Civil War in Lucan's 'Bellum Civile'. Cambridge Classical Studies. New York: Cambridge Univ. Pr., 1992. ———. "Deceiving the Reader: The Political Mission of Lucan's Bellum Civile." Reflections of Nero: Culture, History, and Representation, ed. Jás Elsner and Jamie Masters. Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Pr., 1994. 151–77. Matthews, Monica (2008) Caesar and the Storm: A Commentary on Lucan, De Bello Civili, Book 5, lines 476-721. Peter Lang. Morford, M. P. O. The Poet Lucan. New York: Oxford Univ. Pr., 1967. O'Gorman, Ellen. "Shifting Ground: Lucan, Tacitus, and the Landscape of Civil War." Hermathena 159 (1995), 117–31. Rossi, Andreola. "Remapping the Past: Caesar's Tale of Troy (Lucan BC 9.964–999)." Phoenix 55 (2001), 313–26. Sklenar, Robert John. The Taste for Nothingness: A Study of "Virtus" and Related Themes in Lucan's Bellum Civile. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Mich. Pr., 2003. Thomas, Richard F. "The Stoic Landscape of Lucan 9." Lands and Peoples in Roman Poetry: The Ethnographic Tradition. New York: Cambridge Univ. Pr., 1982. 108–23. Wick, Claudia (2004) Marcus Annaeus Lucanus, Bellum Civile, liber IX. I: Einleitung, Text und Übersetzung; II: Kommentar. K.G. Saur. Wilson Joyce, Jane (1994) Lucan: Pharsalia. Cornell University Press. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Marcus Annaeus Lucanus Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lucan. Library resources about Lucan Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Lucan Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Works by Lucan at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Lucan at Internet Archive Lucan on Librivox Marcus Annaeus Lucanus: text, concordances and frequency list Text of Lucan at the Latin Library v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus 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en-wikipedia-org-3748	----	Hippika gymnasia - Wikipedia Hippika gymnasia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search A reenactor and horse wearing pieces of display armour typical of the hippika gymnasia The hippika gymnasia (Greek: ἱππικὰ γυμνάσια, "horse exercises") were ritual tournaments performed by the cavalry of the Roman Empire to both practice their skills and display their expertise.[1] They took place on a parade ground situated outside a fort and involved the cavalry practicing manoeuvring and the handling of weapons such as javelins and spears.[2] The riders and their mounts wore highly elaborate armour and helmets specially made for display purposes, decorated with images from classical mythology.[3] Such tournaments served several purposes, improving the riders' skills, helping to build unit morale and impressing dignitaries and conquered peoples.[2] The Romans maintained substantial cavalry forces to support their legions. The elite of the cavalry, the alae, were expected to perform complex manoeuvres that required extensive training. The role of the cavalry was described in the 2nd century AD by the Roman writer Arrian in his Ars Tactica, a (possibly theoretical) work in which he described how the legions and auxiliary troops could be organised to defeat an enemy. He recorded the hippika gymnasia in considerable detail, though – as he was writing in Greek – we do not know the Latin name of such events.[4] The riders practised complex manoeuvres with dummy weapons, alternately attacking and defending, and displaying their horsemanship and courage to onlookers. Contents 1 Clothing and armour 2 Weapons and exercises 3 See also 4 References 5 External links Clothing and armour[edit] Reconstruction of a Roman cavalry "sports helmet" of the 2nd century AD The participants in the hippika gymnasia would have been an impressive sight for those who saw them; as one writer has put it, "a cavalcade of richly armoured horses and men – who in their masked helmets with silvered faces looked like divine beings."[5] The riders wore brightly coloured tunics – which seems to have evolved into decorated bronze armour by the 3rd century – and very ornate greaves and helmets with face masks. As Arrian described them, The horsemen enter [the parade ground] fully armed, and those of high rank or superior in horsemanship wear gilded helmets of iron or bronze to draw the attention of the spectators. Unlike the helmets made for active service, these do not cover the head and cheeks only but are made to fit all round the faces of the riders with apertures for the eyes . . . From the helmets hang yellow plumes, a matter of décor as much as utility. As the horses move forward, the slightest breeze adds to the beauty of these plumes. They carry oblong shields of a lighter type than those used in action, since both agility and smart turnout are the objects of the exercise and they improve the appearance of their shields by embellishment. Instead of breastplates the horsemen wear close-fitting Cimmerian tunics [leather jerkins] embroidered with scarlet, red or blue and other colours. On their legs they wear tight trousers, not loosely fitting like those of the Parthians and Armenians. The horses have frontlets carefully made to measure and also have side armour.[6] Substantial archaeological evidence has been found of such "sports equipment", as it has been dubbed. A hoard of cavalry display armour dating to the 3rd century AD was discovered at Straubing in Bavaria in 1950. It included extraordinarily elaborate horse armour, greaves, helmets and other pieces of armour.[5] Many more "sports helmets" have been recovered from other locations. They were made from a variety of metals and alloys, often from gold-coloured alloys or iron covered with tin. They were decorated with embossed reliefs and engravings depicting the war god Mars and other divine and semi-divine figures associated with the military. One of the Newstead Helmets from Scotland, for instance, is embossed with a naked winged figure of Cupid driving a chariot.[7] The helmets were of both "male" and "female" types, portraying the wearers as Greeks or Amazons. These were apparently commonly competing teams in the hippika gymnasia, which may also have involved re-enactments of other scenes from classical tradition.[3] The female helmets can be recognised by their sculpted hairstyles and other distinctively female elements such as diadems, ribbons and jewels. They were often equipped with the full-face masks mentioned by Arrian in his account. The faces depicted were not always those of Romans, as some were clearly intended to portray easterners.[8] The origin of these very elaborate helmets is uncertain but appears not to have been Rome. Various origins have been suggested, including a theory that they came from Rome's eastern provinces. They were produced from the early 1st century AD through to the mid-3rd century.[7] Although they are relatively light, they appear to have been worn in battle as well as for display purposes. One such helmet was found at the site of the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, where three Roman legions were wiped out by Germans in 9 AD. It was perhaps worn by an officer or standard-bearer who intended its imposing appearance to intimidate his enemies on the battlefield.[9] Roman cavalry "sports helmets" from Britain The Ribchester Helmet One of the Newstead Helmets The Crosby Garrett Helmet The Guisborough Helmet Arrian's account makes it clear that the horses were also armoured to protect them from javelins and other weapons used during the hippika gymnasia: "[the javelins] fall harmlessly on [the horses'] sides, particularly since the sides are for the most part protected by the horses' armour." Examples of Roman scale armour for horses have been found at Dura-Europos in Syria. It is possible that cloth or linen horse armour may also have been used, which would have been in keeping with the tunics worn by the riders. Arrian also describes the horses as wearing frontlets or head armour, of which examples were found at the Roman fort of Trimontium (Newstead) in Scotland.[10] Weapons and exercises[edit] Reenactment of the hippika gymnasia at Carnuntum, Austria The riders in the hippika gymnasia were armed with dummy javelins and darts that they employed in mock battles. According to Arrian, the riders would divide into two teams, one of which would be the attacking side and one the defenders. They used their shields to cover their own and their horses' backs, forming a type of mobile testudo. Two of the defenders would stand in front of their team, acting as targets for the throws of the other side. The attackers were tested on their accuracy in hitting the two defenders, who in turn would attempt to protect themselves with their shields. Some of the other defenders would ride out and try to hit the passing attackers. This was a challenging exercise, as Arrian noted: It is at this point that good horsemanship is especially needed to be able simultaneously to throw at those who are charging in and to give one's right hand side the protection of the shield. When riding parallel to his target, the rider must swivel himself to the right in order to throw; when making a complete about-turn, he must throw in the matter called, in the Gallic tongue petrinos, which is the most difficult of all. For he must turn right round as far as the tenderness of the sides will allow, to face the horse's tail, so as to throw backwards as straight as possible, and having done so, he must quickly turn forward again and bring his shield to cover his back, since if he turns without getting protection, he exposes a vulnerable target to the enemy.[11] In another exercise, the cavalry would attempt to throw as many darts as far as they could in a gallop across the parade area in front of the viewing platform where the commanders or other dignitaries were sitting. Fifteen was considered to be a good number but achieving a score of twenty was considered praiseworthy. They also undertook exercises in accurately striking targets with a lance: "Each man carries one lance, and before he gets near the platform, he must whirl his lance with all his might, and, as soon as it reverberates, throw it, taking aim at the target which has been set up . . . on the left of the platform."[12] The final stage of the display demonstrated skills that would evidently have been useful in combat, where the cavalry was given the task of chasing down the enemy and preventing him from regrouping. As Arrian puts it, They advance first with pikes levelled in defensive style, then as though they were overtaking a fleeing enemy. Others, as if against another enemy, as their horses turn, swing their shields over their heads to a position behind them and turn their pikes as though meeting an enemy's assault. This manuoeuvre is called in Gallic toloutegon. Also they draw their swords and make a variety of strokes, best calculated to overtake an enemy in flight, to kill a man already down, or to achieve any success by a quick movement [along] from the flanks. Nor is this all: they demonstrate in as great a variety as possible, the number of shapes and forms which can be given to the act of leaping on a horse. Finally they demonstrate how a man wearing his armour can leap onto a horse when it is running. Some call this the 'wayfarer's jump'.[13] The emperor Hadrian witnessed one such display in North Africa in 118 and reviewed the performance of the riders. He complimented their prowess, telling them: You did everything in orderly fashion. You filled the field with manoeuvres. Your javelin hurling was not without grace, although you used javelins which are short and stiff. Several of you hurled your lances equally well. And your mounting was smart just now and lively yesterday. if there were anything lacking I should notice it; if there were anything conspicuously bad, I should point it out. But you pleased me uniformly throughout the whole exercise . . .[14] See also[edit] Lusus Troiae, the equestrian "Troy Game" References[edit] ^ Southern, Pat. The Roman army: a social and institutional history, p. 338. ABC-CLIO, 2006. ISBN 978-1-85109-730-2 ^ a b Fields, Nic; Hook, Adam. Roman auxiliary cavalryman: AD 14-193, p. 62. Osprey Publishing, 2006. ISBN 978-1-84176-973-8 ^ a b Maxfield, Valerie A. The military decorations of the Roman army, p. 74. University of California Press, 1981. ISBN 978-0-520-04499-9 ^ Lendon, J.E. Soldiers and Ghosts: A History of Battle in Classical Antiquity, p. 435. Yale University Press, 2006. ISBN 978-0-300-11979-4 ^ a b Simkins, Michael. The Roman army from Hadrian to Constantine, pp. 29-30. Osprey Publishing, 1979. ISBN 978-0-85045-333-1 ^ Arrian, Ars Tactica 34 ^ a b Hargrave, James; Yu Treister, Michail. Hammering techniques in Greek and Roman jewellery and toreutics, pp. 327-328. BRILL, 2001. ISBN 978-90-04-12150-8 ^ Dixon, Karen R.; Southern, Pat. The Roman cavalry: from the first to the third century AD, p. 128. Routledge, 1997. ISBN 978-0-415-17039-0 ^ Sidnell, Philip. Warhorse: cavalry in ancient warfare, p. 257. Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006. ISBN 978-1-85285-374-7 ^ Dixon & Southern, p. 131 ^ Arrian, Ars Tactica 39 ^ Arrian, Ars Tactica 41 ^ Arrian, Ars Tactica 43 ^ Quoted in Dixon & Southern, p. 134 External links[edit] Media related to Roman cavalry reenactments at Wikimedia Commons v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hippika_gymnasia&oldid=982882279" Categories: Combat sports Historical European martial arts Horse history and evolution Military of ancient Rome Warhorses Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Greek-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Français Polski Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 10 October 2020, at 23:14 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3768	----	Galen - Wikipedia Galen From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Greek physician, surgeon and philosopher For other uses, see Galen (disambiguation). Galen Eighteenth-century portrait by Georg Paul Busch Born September 129 AD Pergamon, Asia, Roman Empire Died c. 210 AD Rome, Roman Empire Nationality Greek Occupation Physician Aelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus (Greek: Κλαύδιος Γαληνός; September 129 AD – c. 200/c. 216), often Anglicized as Galen and sometimes known as Galen of Pergamon (/ˈɡeɪlən/),[1] was a physician, surgeon and philosopher in the Roman Empire.[2][3][4] Considered one of the most accomplished of all medical researchers of antiquity, Galen influenced the development of various scientific disciplines, including anatomy,[5] physiology, pathology,[6] pharmacology,[7] and neurology, as well as philosophy[8] and logic. The son of Aelius Nicon, a wealthy Greek architect with scholarly interests, Galen received a comprehensive education that prepared him for a successful career as a physician and philosopher. Born in the ancient city of Pergamon (present-day Bergama, Turkey), Galen travelled extensively, exposing himself to a wide variety of medical theories and discoveries before settling in Rome, where he served prominent members of Roman society and eventually was given the position of personal physician to several emperors. Galen's understanding of anatomy and medicine was principally influenced by the then-current theory of humorism (also known as the theory of the four humors: black bile, yellow bile, blood, and phlegm), as advanced by ancient Greek physicians such as Hippocrates. Galen's views dominated and influenced Western medical science for more than 1,300 years. His anatomical reports were based mainly on the dissection of monkeys. However, while dissecting them he discovered that their facial expressions were too much like those of humans; thus, he switched to other animals, especially pigs. The reason for using animals to discover the human body was due to the fact that dissections and vivisections on humans were strictly prohibited at the time. Galen would encourage his students to go look at dead gladiators or bodies that washed up in order to get better acquainted with the human body. Galen’s most famous experiment that he recreated in public was the squealing pig. The squealing pig experiment was when Galen would cut open a pig, and while it was squealing he would cut the nerve, or vocal cords, showing they controlled the making of sound. His anatomical reports remained uncontested until 1543, when printed descriptions and illustrations of human dissections were published in the seminal work De humani corporis fabrica by Andreas Vesalius[9][10] where Galen's physiological theory was accommodated to these new observations.[11] Galen's theory of the physiology of the circulatory system remained unchallenged until ca. 1242, when Ibn al-Nafis published his book Sharh tashrih al-qanun li’ Ibn Sina (Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon), in which he reported his discovery of pulmonary circulation.[12] Galen saw himself as both a physician and a philosopher, as he wrote in his treatise titled That the Best Physician Is Also a Philosopher.[13][14][15] Galen was very interested in the debate between the rationalist and empiricist medical sects,[16] and his use of direct observation, dissection and vivisection represents a complex middle ground between the extremes of those two viewpoints.[17][18][19] Many of his works have been preserved and/or translated from the original Greek, although many were destroyed and some credited to him are believed to be spurious. Although there is some debate over the date of his death, he was no younger than seventy when he died. Contents 1 Early life: AD 129–161 2 Later years: AD 162–217 2.1 The Antonine Plague 2.2 Eudemus 2.3 Death 3 Contributions to medicine 4 Contributions to philosophy 4.1 Opposition to the Stoics 4.2 Localization of function 5 Mind–body problem 6 Psychotherapy 7 Published works 8 Legacy 8.1 Late antiquity 8.2 Influence on medicine in the Islamic world 8.3 Reintroduction to the Latin West 8.4 Renaissance 8.5 Contemporary scholarship 9 See also 10 Notes 11 Sources 12 Further reading 12.1 Primary sources 13 External links Early life: AD 129–161[edit] Galen's name Γαληνός, Galēnos comes from the adjective "γαληνός", "calm".[20] Galen’s hometown of Pergamum happened to be the site of a large shrine to the healing god, Asclepius, which Galen’s father claimed to have had a dream about, leading Galen to start studying medicine.[21] Galen describes his early life in On the affections of the mind. He was born in September AD 129.[4] His father, Aelius Nicon, was a wealthy patrician, an architect and builder, with eclectic interests including philosophy, mathematics, logic, astronomy, agriculture and literature. Galen describes his father as a "highly amiable, just, good and benevolent man". At that time Pergamon (modern-day Bergama, Turkey) was a major cultural and intellectual centre, noted for its library, second only to that in Alexandria,[6][22] and attracted both Stoic and Platonic philosophers, to whom Galen was exposed at age 14. His studies also took in each of the principal philosophical systems of the time, including Aristotelian and Epicurean. His father had planned a traditional career for Galen in philosophy or politics and took care to expose him to literary and philosophical influences. However, Galen states that in around AD 145 his father had a dream in which the god Asclepius (Aesculapius) appeared and commanded Nicon to send his son to study medicine. Again, no expense was spared, and following his earlier liberal education, at 16 he began studies at the prestigious local sanctuary or Asclepieum dedicated to Asclepius, god of medicine, as a θεραπευτής (therapeutes, or attendant) for four years. There he came under the influence of men like Aeschrion of Pergamon, Stratonicus and Satyrus. Asclepiea functioned as spas or sanitoria to which the sick would come to seek the ministrations of the priesthood. Romans frequented the temple at Pergamon in search of medical relief from illness and disease. It was also the haunt of notable people such as Claudius Charax the historian, Aelius Aristides the orator, Polemo the sophist, and Cuspius Rufinus the Consul.[4] Galen's father died in 148, leaving Galen independently wealthy at the age of 19. He then followed the advice he found in Hippocrates' teaching[23] and travelled and studied widely including such destinations as Smyrna (now Izmir), Corinth, Crete, Cilicia (now Çukurova), Cyprus, and finally the great medical school of Alexandria, exposing himself to the various schools of thought in medicine. In 157, aged 28, he returned to Pergamon as physician to the gladiators of the High Priest of Asia, one of the most influential and wealthy men in Asia. Galen claims that the High Priest chose him over other physicians after he eviscerated an ape and challenged other physicians to repair the damage. When they refused, Galen performed the surgery himself and in so doing won the favor of the High Priest of Asia. Over his four years there, he learned the importance of diet, fitness, hygiene and preventive measures, as well as living anatomy, and the treatment of fractures and severe trauma, referring to their wounds as "windows into the body". Only five deaths among the gladiators occurred while he held the post, compared to sixty in his predecessor's time, a result that is in general ascribed to the attention he paid to their wounds. At the same time he pursued studies in theoretical medicine and philosophy.[4][24][25][26] Later years: AD 162–217[edit] Modern statue of Galen in his home town, Pergamon Galen went to Rome in 162 and made his mark as a practicing physician. His impatience brought him into conflict with other doctors and he felt menaced by them. His demonstrations there antagonized the less skilled and more conservative physicians in the city. When Galen's animosity with the Roman medical practitioners became serious, he feared he might be exiled or poisoned, so he left the city.[27] Rome had engaged in foreign wars in 161; Marcus Aurelius and his colleague Lucius Verus were in the north fighting the Marcomanni.[28] During the autumn of 169 when Roman troops were returning to Aquileia, a great plague broke out, and the emperor summoned Galen back to Rome. He was ordered to accompany Marcus and Verus to Germany as the court physician. The following spring Marcus was persuaded to release Galen after receiving a report that Asclepius was against the project.[29] He was left behind to act as physician to the imperial heir Commodus. It was here in court that Galen wrote extensively on medical subjects. Ironically, Lucius Verus died in 169, and Marcus Aurelius himself died in 180, both victims of the plague. Galen was the physician to Commodus for much of the emperor’s life and treated his common illnesses. According to Dio Cassius 72.14.3–4, in about 189, under Commodus’ reign, a pestilence occurred which at its height killed 2,000 people a day in Rome. This was most likely the same plague that struck Rome during Marcus Aurelius’ reign.[29] Galen became physician to Septimius Severus during his reign in Rome. Galen compliments Severus and Caracalla on keeping a supply of drugs for their friends and mentions three cases in which they had been of use in 198.[27] The Antonine Plague[edit] Main article: Antonine Plague The 'Galen' group of physicians in an image from the Vienna Dioscurides; he is depicted top center. The Antonine Plague was named after Marcus Aurelius’ family name of Antoninus. It was also known as the Plague of Galen and held an important place in medicinal history because of its association with Galen. He had first-hand knowledge of the disease, and was present in Rome when it first struck in 166 AD, and was also present in the winter of 168–69 during an outbreak among troops stationed at Aquileia. He had experience with the epidemic, referring to it as very long lasting, and described its symptoms and his treatment of it. Unfortunately, his references to the plague are scattered and brief. Galen was not trying to present a description of the disease so that it could be recognized in future generations; he was more interested in the treatment and physical effects of the disease. For example, in his writings about a young man afflicted with the plague, he concentrated on the treatment of internal and external ulcerations. According to Niebuhr, "this pestilence must have raged with incredible fury; it carried off innumerable victims. The ancient world never recovered from the blow inflicted upon it by the plague that visited it in the reign of M. Aurelius." The mortality rate of the plague was 7–10 percent; the outbreak in 165–168 would have caused approximately 3.5 to 5 million deaths. Otto Seeck believes that over half the population of the empire perished. J. F. Gilliam believes that the Antonine plague probably caused more deaths than any other epidemic during the empire before the mid-3rd century.[29] Although Galen's description is incomplete, it is sufficient to enable a firm identification of the disease as smallpox. Galen notes that the exanthema covered the victim's entire body and was usually black. The exanthem became rough and scabby where there was no ulceration. He states that those who were going to survive developed a black exanthem. According to Galen, it was black because of a remnant of blood putrefied in a fever blister that was pustular. His writings state that raised blisters were present in the Antonine plague, usually in the form of a blistery rash. Galen states that the skin rash was close to the one Thucydides described. Galen describes symptoms of the alimentary tract via a patient's diarrhea and stools. If the stool was very black, the patient died. He says that the amount of black stools varied. It depended on the severity of the intestinal lesions. He observes that in cases where the stool was not black, the black exanthema appeared. Galen describes the symptoms of fever, vomiting, fetid breath, catarrh, cough, and ulceration of the larynx and trachea.[29] Eudemus[edit] When the Peripatetic philosopher Eudemus became ill with quartan fever, Galen felt obliged to treat him "since he was my teacher and I happened to live nearby."[30] Galen wrote: "I return to the case of Eudemus. He was thoroughly attacked by the three attacks of quartan ague, and the doctors had given him up, as it was now mid-winter."[31] Some Roman physicians criticized Galen for his use of the prognosis in his treatment of Eudemus. This practice conflicted with the then-current standard of care, which relied upon divination and mysticism. Galen retaliated against his detractors by defending his own methods. Garcia-Ballester quotes Galen as saying: "In order to diagnose, one must observe and reason. This was the basis of his criticism of the doctors who proceeded alogos and askeptos."[32] However, Eudemus warned Galen that engaging in conflict with these physicians could lead to his assassination. "Eudemus said this, and more to the same effect; he added that if they were not able to harm me by unscrupulous conduct they would proceed to attempts at poisoning. Among other things he told me that, some ten years before, a young man had come to the city and had given, like me practical demonstrations of the resources of our art; this young man was put to death by poison, together with two servants who accompanied him."[33] Garcia-Ballester says the following of Galen’s use of prognosis: "In modern medicine, we are used to distinguishing between the diagnostic judgment (the scientific knowledge of what a patient has) and the prognostic judgment (the conjecture about what will happen to him.) For Galen, to understand a clinical case technically, ‘to diagnose’, was, among other things, to know with greater or lesser certainty the outcome for the patient, ‘to prognosticate’. Prognosis, then, is one of the essential problems and most important objectives of Galenic diagnosis. Galen was concerned with distinguishing prognosis from divination or prophecy, both to improve diagnosis technically and to enhance the physician's reputation."[34] Death[edit] The 11th-century Suda lexicon states that Galen died at the age of 70, which would place his death in about the year 199. However, there is a reference in Galen's treatise "On Theriac to Piso" (which may, however, be spurious) to events of 204. There are also statements in Arabic sources[35] that he died in Sicily at age 87, after 17 years studying medicine and 70 practicing it, which would mean he died about 217. According to these sources, the tomb of Galenus in Palermo was still well preserved in the tenth century. Nutton[36] believes that "On Theriac to Piso" is genuine, that the Arabic sources are correct, and that the Suda has erroneously interpreted the 70 years of Galen's career in the Arabic tradition as referring to his whole lifespan. Boudon-Millot[37] more or less concurs and favours a date of 216. Contributions to medicine[edit] Further information: Humorism Galen contributed a substantial amount to the Hippocratic understanding of pathology. Under Hippocrates' bodily humors theory, differences in human moods come as a consequence of imbalances in one of the four bodily fluids: blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm. Galen promoted this theory and the typology of human temperaments. In Galen's view, an imbalance of each humor corresponded with a particular human temperament (blood—sanguine, black bile—melancholic, yellow bile—choleric, and phlegm—phlegmatic). Thus, individuals with sanguine temperaments are extroverted and social; choleric people have energy, passion, and charisma; melancholics are creative, kind, and considerate; and phlegmatic temperaments are characterized by dependability, kindness, and affection.[38] Many theorist just like Galen believed that sickness came from an imbalance in the body and that the best way to treat an imbalance was by bleeding, enemas, and vomitting. However, the practice of blood letting is no longer used today. Galen dissecting a monkey, as imagined by Veloso Salgado in 1906 Galen's principal interest was in human anatomy, but Roman law had prohibited the dissection of human cadavers since about 150 BC.[39] Because of this restriction, Galen performed anatomical dissections on living (vivisection) and dead animals, mostly focusing on primates.[6] This work was useful because Galen believed that the anatomical structures of these animals closely mirrored those of humans. Galen clarified the anatomy of the trachea and was the first to demonstrate that the larynx generates the voice.[40][41] In one experiment, Galen used bellows to inflate the lungs of a dead animal.[42][43] Galen's work on the anatomy remained largely unsurpassed and unchallenged up until the 16th century in Europe. In the middle of the 16th century, the anatomist Andreas Vesalius challenged the anatomical knowledge of Galen by conducting dissections on human cadavers. These investigations allowed Vesalius to refute aspects of Galen's anatomy. Galen’s research on physiology was largely influenced by previous works of philosophers Plato and Aristotle, as well as physician Hippocrates. He was one of the first people to experiments as a method of research for his medical findings.[44] Doing so allowed him to explore various parts of the body and its function. Many of his findings were accurate and has helped to shape medical science today. Because of Galen this is where we get most of our medical knowledge from. Among Galen's major contributions to medicine was his work on the circulatory system. He was the first to recognize that there are distinct differences between venous (dark) and arterial (bright) blood. Although his anatomical experiments on animal models led him to a more complete understanding of the circulatory system, nervous system, respiratory system, and other structures, his work contained scientific errors.[8] Galen believed the circulatory system to consist of two separate one-way systems of distribution, rather than a single unified system of circulation. He believed venous blood to be generated in the liver, from where it was distributed and consumed by all organs of the body. He posited that arterial blood originated in the heart, from where it was distributed and consumed by all organs of the body. The blood was then regenerated in either the liver or the heart, completing the cycle. Galen also believed in the existence of a group of blood vessels he called the rete mirabile in the carotid sinus.[38] Both of these theories of the circulation of blood were later (beginning with works of Ibn al-Nafis published ca. 1242) shown to be incorrect.[45] Not only did Galen contribute tremendously to the understanding of  the respiratory system, blood and the circulatory system, but he was also a pioneer in research about the human spine. His dissections and vivisections of animals led to key observations that helped him accurately describe the human spine, spinal cord, and vertebral column. Galen also played a major role in the discoveries of the Central Nervous System. He was also able to describe the nerves that emerge from the spine, which is integral to his research about the nervous system.[46] Galen went on to be the first physician to study what happens when the spinal cord is transected on multiple different levels.[47] He worked with pigs and studied their neuroanatomy by severing different nerves either totally or partially to see how it affected the body. He even dealt with diseases affecting the spinal cord and nerves. Although his work demonstrated inevitable anatomical inaccuracies, his research was integral to the future advances in knowledge about the spinal column, vertebrae, and spinal cord. Galen primarily worked on lower animals, such as pigs, Barbary apes, sheep, and goats. These animals were used for dissections and anatomical studies. Due to the taboo at the time of dissection and work with human cadavers, Galen had to draw parallels between the animals he worked on and the human body. This led to some inaccuracies, most notably Galen’s anatomy of the uterus which largely resembled a dog’s. Though incorrect in his studies of human reproduction and reproductive anatomy, he came very close to identifying the ovaries as analogous to the male testes. Reproduction was a controversial topic in Galen’s lifetime, as there was much debate over if the male was solely responsible for the seed, or if the woman was also responsible. In his work De motu musculorum, Galen explained the difference between motor and sensory nerves, discussed the concept of muscle tone, and explained the difference between agonists and antagonists. For 400 years before Galen’s research, it was believed that the arteries carries oxygen rather than blood. Through his vivisection practices, Galen also proved that the voice was controlled by the brain. He did this through tying off the recurrent laryngeal nerve. He used the same method to tie off the ureters to prove his theories of kidney and bladder function. Galen believed the human body had three interconnected systems that allowed it to work. The first system that he theorized consisted of the brain and the nerves, responsible for thought and sensation. The second theorized system was the heart and the arteries, which Galen believed to be responsible for providing life-giving energy. The last theorized system was the liver and veins, which Galen theorized were responsible for nutrition and growth. Galen also theorized that blood was made in the liver and sent out around the body. Galen was a skilled surgeon, operating on human patients. Many of his procedures and techniques would not be used again for centuries, such as the procedures he performed on brains and eyes.[8] To correct cataracts in patients, Galen performed an operation similar to a modern one. Using a needle-shaped instrument, Galen attempted to remove the cataract-affected lens of the eye.[48] His surgical experiments included ligating the arteries of living animals.[49] Although many 20th century historians have claimed that Galen believed the lens to be in the exact center of the eye, Galen actually understood that the crystalline lens is located in the anterior aspect of the human eye.[50] At first reluctantly but then with increasing vigour, Galen promoted Hippocratic teaching, including venesection and bloodletting, then unknown in Rome. This was sharply criticised by the Erasistrateans, who predicted dire outcomes, believing that it was not blood but pneuma that flowed in the veins. Galen, however, staunchly defended venesection in his three books on the subject[51] and in his demonstrations and public disputations. Contributions to philosophy[edit] See also: Philosophy of medicine Although the main focus of his work was on medicine, anatomy, and physiology, Galen also wrote about logic and philosophy. His writings were influenced by earlier Greek and Roman thinkers, including Plato, Aristotle, the Stoics, and the Pyrrhonists. Galen was concerned to combine philosophical thought with medical practice, as in his brief work That the Best Physician is also a Philosopher he took aspects from each group and combined them with his original thought. He regarded medicine as an interdisciplinary field that was best practiced by utilizing theory, observation, and experimentation in conjunction. Several schools of thought existed within the medical field during Galen's lifetime, the main two being the Empiricists and Rationalists (also called Dogmatists or Philosophers), with the Methodists being a smaller group. The Empiricists emphasized the importance of physical practice and experimentation, or "active learning" in the medical discipline. In direct opposition to the Empiricists were the Rationalists, who valued the study of established teachings in order to create new theories in the name of medical advancements. The Methodists formed somewhat of a middle ground, as they were not as experimental as the Empiricists, nor as theoretical as the Rationalists. The Methodists mainly utilized pure observation, showing greater interest in studying the natural course of ailments than making efforts to find remedies. Galen's education had exposed him to the five major schools of thought (Platonists, Peripatetics, Stoics, Epicureans, Pyrrhonists), with teachers from the Rationalist sect and from the Empiricist sect. Opposition to the Stoics[edit] Galen was well known for his advancements in medicine and the circulatory system, but he was also concerned with philosophy. He developed his own tripartite soul model following the examples of Plato; some scholars refer to him as a Platonist.[52] Galen developed a theory of personality based on his understanding of fluid circulation in humans, and he believed that there was a physiological basis for mental disorders.[53] Galen connected many of his theories to the pneuma and he opposed the Stoics' definition of and use of the pneuma.[52] The Stoics, according to Galen, failed to give a credible answer for the localization of functions of the psyche, or the mind. Through his use of medicine, he was convinced that he came up with a better answer, the brain.[52] The Stoics only recognized the soul as having one part, which was the rational soul and they claimed it would be found in the heart. Galen, following Plato's idea, came up with two more parts to the soul.[52] Galen also rejected Stoic propositional logic and instead embraced a hypothetical syllogistic which was strongly influenced by the Peripatetics and based on elements of Aristotelian logic.[54] Localization of function[edit] One of Galen's major works, On the Doctrines of Hippocrates and Plato, sought to demonstrate the unity of the two subjects and their views. Using their theories, combined with Aristotle's, Galen developed a tripartite soul consisting of similar aspects.[52] He used the same terms as Plato, referring to the three parts as rational, spiritual, and appetitive. Each corresponded to a localized area of the body. The rational soul was in the brain, the spiritual soul was in the heart, and the appetitive soul was in the liver. Galen was the first scientist and philosopher to assign specific parts of the soul to locations in the body because of his extensive background in medicine.[55] This idea is now referred to as localization of function.[56] Galen's assignments were revolutionary for the time period, which set the precedent for future localization theories. Galen believed each part of this tripartite soul controlled specific functions within the body and that the soul, as a whole, contributed to the health of the body, strengthening the "natural functioning capacity of the organ or organs in question".[56] The rational soul controlled higher level cognitive functioning in an organism, for example, making choices or perceiving the world and sending those signals to the brain.[56] He also listed "imagination, memory, recollection, knowledge, thought, consideration, voluntary motion and sensation" as being found within the rational soul.[56] The functions of "growing or being alive" resided in the spirited soul.[56] The spirited soul also contained our passions, such as anger. These passions were considered to be even stronger than regular emotions, and, as a consequence, more dangerous.[56] The third part of the soul, or the appetitive spirit, controlled the living forces in our body, most importantly blood.[56] The appetitive spirit also regulated the pleasures of the body and was moved by feelings of enjoyment. This third part of the soul is the animalistic, or more natural, side of the soul; it deals with the natural urges of the body and survival instincts. Galen proposed that when the soul is moved by too much enjoyment, it reaches states of "incontinence" and "licentiousness", the inability to willfully cease enjoyment, which was a negative consequence of too much pleasure.[56] In order to unite his theories about the soul and how it operated within the body, he adapted the theory of the pneuma,[55] which he used to explain how the soul operated within its assigned organs, and how those organs, in turn, interacted together. Galen then distinguished the vital pneuma, in the arterial system, from the psychic pneuma, in the brain and nervous system.[55] Galen placed the vital pneuma in the heart and the psychic pneuma within the brain. He conducted many anatomical studies on animals, most famously an ox, to study the transition from vital to psychic pneuma.[55] Although highly criticized for comparing animal anatomy to human anatomy, Galen was convinced that his knowledge was abundant enough in both anatomies to base one on the other.[55] In his treatise On the usefulness of the parts of the body, Galen argued the perfect conformation of each part of the body and its strict pertinence with its function founded the needy role of an intelligent creator. His creationist was anticipated by the anatomical examples of Socrates and Empedocles.[57] Mind–body problem[edit] Further information: Mind–body problem Galen believed there to be no distinction between the mental and the physical.[56] This was a controversial argument of the time, and Galen fell with the Greeks in believing that the mind and body were not separate faculties.[55] He believed that this could be scientifically proven.[56] This was where his opposition to the Stoics became most prevalent.[52] Galen proposed organs within the body to be responsible for specific functions, rather than individual parts. According to Galen, the Stoics' lack of scientific justification discredited their claims of the separateness of mind and body, which is why he spoke so strongly against them.[56] Psychotherapy[edit] Another one of Galen's major works, On the Diagnosis and Cure of the Soul's Passion, discussed how to approach and treat psychological problems.[53] This was Galen's early attempt at what would later be called psychotherapy. His book contained directions on how to provide counsel to those with psychological issues to prompt them to reveal their deepest passions and secrets, and eventually cure them of their mental deficiency. The leading individual, or therapist, had to be a male, preferably of an older, wiser, age, as well as free from the control of the passions.[53] These passions, according to Galen, caused the psychological problems that people experienced. Published works[edit] Main article: Galenic corpus De curandi ratione Galenou apanta (1538) Galen may have produced more work than any author in antiquity, rivaling the quantity of work issued from Augustine of Hippo.[58] So profuse was Galen's output that the surviving texts represent nearly half of all the extant literature from ancient Greece.[24][58] It has been reported that Galen employed twenty scribes to write down his words.[citation needed] Galen may have written as many as 500 treatises,[59] amounting to some 10 million words.[citation needed] Although his surviving works amount to some 3 million words,[60] this is thought to represent less than a third of his complete writings. In AD 191, a fire in the Temple of Peace destroyed many of his works, in particular treatises on philosophy.[61] Because Galen's works were not translated into Latin in the ancient period, and because of the collapse of the Roman Empire in the West, the study of Galen, along with the Greek medical tradition as a whole, went into decline in Western Europe during the Early Middle Ages, when very few Latin scholars could read Greek. However, in general, Galen and the ancient Greek medical tradition continued to be studied and followed in the Eastern Roman Empire, commonly known as the Byzantine Empire. All of the extant Greek manuscripts of Galen were copied by Byzantine scholars. In the Abbasid period (after AD 750) Arab Muslims began to be interested in Greek scientific and medical texts for the first time, and had some of Galen's texts translated into Arabic, often by Syrian Christian scholars (see below). As a result, some texts of Galen exist only in Arabic translation,[62] while others exist only in medieval Latin translations of the Arabic. In some cases scholars have even attempted to translate from the Latin or Arabic back into Greek where the original is lost.[58][63][64] For some of the ancient sources, such as Herophilus, Galen's account of their work is all that survives. Even in his own time, forgeries and unscrupulous editions of his work were a problem, prompting him to write On his Own Books. Forgeries in Latin, Arabic or Greek continued until the Renaissance. Some of Galen's treatises have appeared under many different titles over the years. Sources are often in obscure and difficult-to-access journals or repositories. Although written in Greek, by convention the works are referred to by Latin titles, and often by merely abbreviations of those. No single authoritative collection of his work exists, and controversy remains as to the authenticity of a number of works attributed to Galen. As a consequence, research on Galen's work is fraught with hazard.[22][58] Various attempts have been made to classify Galen's vast output. For instance Coxe (1846) lists a Prolegomena, or introductory books, followed by 7 classes of treatise embracing Physiology (28 vols.), Hygiene (12), Aetiology (19), Semeiotics (14), Pharmacy (10), Blood letting (4) and Therapeutics (17), in addition to 4 of aphorisms, and spurious works.[65] The most complete compendium of Galen's writings, surpassing even modern projects like the Corpus Medicorum Graecorum, is the one compiled and translated by Karl Gottlob Kühn of Leipzig between 1821 and 1833.[58] This collection consists of 122 of Galen's treatises, translated from the original Greek into Latin (the text is presented in both languages). Over 20,000 pages in length, it is divided into 22 volumes, with 676 index pages.[citation needed] Many of Galen's works are included in the Thesaurus Linguae Graecae, a digital library of Greek literature started in 1972. Another useful modern source is the French Bibliothèque interuniversitaire de médecine (BIUM). Legacy[edit] Late antiquity[edit] In his time, Galen's reputation as both physician and philosopher was legendary,[66] the Emperor Marcus Aurelius describing him as "Primum sane medicorum esse, philosophorum autem solum" (first among doctors and unique among philosophers Praen 14: 660). Other contemporary authors in the Greek world confirm this including Theodotus the Shoemaker, Athenaeus and Alexander of Aphrodisias. The 7th-century poet George of Pisida went so far as to refer to Christ as a second and neglected Galen.[67] Galen continued to exert an important influence over the theory and practice of medicine until the mid-17th century in the Byzantine and Arabic worlds and Europe. Hippocrates and Galen form important landmarks of 600 years of Greek medicine. A. J. Brock describes them as representing the foundation and apex respectively.[6] A few centuries after Galen, Palladius Iatrosophista stated, in his commentary on Hippocrates, that Hippocrates sowed and Galen reaped. Thus Galen summarised and synthesised the work of his predecessors, and it is in Galen's words (Galenism) that Greek medicine was handed down to subsequent generations, such that Galenism became the means by which Greek medicine was known to the world. Often, this was in the form of restating and reinterpreting, such as in Magnus of Nisibis' 4th-century work on urine, which was in turn translated into Arabic.[68] Yet the full importance of his contributions was not appreciated till long after his death.[6] Galen's rhetoric and prolificity were so powerful as to convey the impression that there was little left to learn. The term Galenism has subsequently taken on both a positive and pejorative meaning as one that transformed medicine in late antiquity yet so dominated subsequent thinking as to stifle further progress.[68] After the collapse of the Western Empire the study of Galen and other Greek works almost disappeared in the Latin West. In contrast, in the predominantly Greek-speaking eastern half of the Roman empire (Byzantium), many commentators of the subsequent centuries, such as Oribasius, physician to the emperor Julian who compiled a Synopsis in the 4th century, preserved and disseminated Galen's works, making Galenism more accessible. Nutton refers to these authors as the "medical refrigerators of antiquity".[6][68] In late antiquity, medical writing veered increasingly in the direction of the theoretical at the expense of the practical, with many authors merely debating Galenism. Magnus of Nisibis was a pure theorist, as were John of Alexandria and Agnellus of Ravenna with their lectures on Galen's De Sectis.[69] So strong was Galenism that other authors such as Hippocrates began to be seen through a Galenic lens, while his opponents became marginalised and other medical sects such as Asclepiadism slowly disappeared.[68] Greek medicine was part of Greek culture, and Syrian Eastern Christians came in contact with it while the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) ruled Syria and Western Mesopotamia, regions that were conquered from Byzantium in the 7th century by Arab Muslims. After AD 750, Muslims had these Syrian Christians make the first translations of Galen into Arabic. From then on, Galen and the Greek medical tradition in general became assimilated into the medieval and early modern Islamic Middle East.[6] Influence on medicine in the Islamic world[edit] Further information: Medicine in the medieval Islamic world Galen's approach to medicine became and remains influential in the Islamic world. The first major translator of Galen into Arabic was the Arab Christian Hunayn ibn Ishaq. He translated (c. 830–870) 129 works of "Jalinos"[70] into Arabic. Arabic sources, such as Muhammad ibn Zakarīya al-Rāzi (AD 865–925), continue to be the source of discovery of new or relatively inaccessible Galenic writings.[64] One of Hunayn's Arabic translations, Kitab ila Aglooqan fi Shifa al Amrad, which is extant in the Library of Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine & Sciences, is regarded as a masterpiece of Galen's literary works. A part of the Alexandrian compendium of Galen's work, this 10th-century manuscript comprises two parts that include details regarding various types of fevers (Humyat) and different inflammatory conditions of the body. More important is that it includes details of more than 150 single and compound formulations of both herbal and animal origin. The book provides an insight into understanding the traditions and methods of treatment in the Greek and Roman eras. In addition, this book provides a direct source for the study of more than 150 single and compound drugs used during the Greco-Roman period. As the title of Doubts on Galen by al-Rāzi implies, as well as the writings of physicians such as Ibn Zuhr and Ibn al-Nafis,[71] the works of Galen were not accepted unquestioningly, but as a challengeable basis for further inquiry. A strong emphasis on experimentation and empiricism led to new results and new observations, which were contrasted and combined with those of Galen by writers such as al-Rāzi, Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi, Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi, Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Ibn Zuhr and Ibn al-Nafis. For example, Ibn al-Nafis' discovery of the pulmonary circulation contradicted the Galenic theory on the heart.[72] The influence of Galen's writings, including humorism, remains strong in modern Unani medicine, now closely identified with Islamic culture, and widely practiced from India (where it is officially recognized) to Morocco.[73] Reintroduction to the Latin West[edit] Mondino dei Liuzzi, Anathomia, 1541 From the 11th century onwards, Latin translations of Islamic medical texts began to appear in the West, alongside the Salerno school of thought, and were soon incorporated into the curriculum at the universities of Naples and Montpellier. From that time, Galenism took on a new, unquestioned authority, Galen even being referred to as the "Medical Pope of the Middle Ages".[6] Constantine the African was amongst those who translated both Hippocrates and Galen from Arabic. In addition to the more numerous translations of Arabic texts in this period, there were a few translations of Galenic works directly from the Greek, such as Burgundio of Pisa's translation of De complexionibus. Galen's works on anatomy and medicine became the mainstay of the medieval physician's university curriculum, alongside Ibn Sina's The Canon of Medicine, which elaborated on Galen's works. Unlike pagan Rome, Christian Europe did not exercise a universal prohibition of the dissection and autopsy of the human body and such examinations were carried out regularly from at least the 13th century.[citation needed] However, Galen's influence was so great that when dissections discovered anomalies compared with Galen's anatomy, the physicians often tried to fit these into the Galenic system. An example of this is Mondino de Liuzzi, who describes rudimentary blood circulation in his writings but still asserts that the left ventricle should contain air. Some cited these changes as proof that human anatomy had changed since the time of Galen.[74] The most important translator of Galen's works into Latin was Niccolò di Deoprepio da Reggio, who spent several years working on Galen. Niccolò worked at the Angevin Court during the reign of king Robert of Naples. Among Niccolò's translations is a piece from a medical treatise by Galen, of which the original text is lost.[75] Renaissance[edit] Galen's Opera omnia, dissection of a pig. Venice, 1565 The first edition of Galen's complete works in Latin translation was edited by Diomede Bonardo of Brescia and printed at Venice by Filippo Pinzi in 1490.[76] The Renaissance, and the fall of the Byzantine Empire (1453), were accompanied by an influx of Greek scholars and manuscripts to the West, allowing direct comparison between the Arabic commentaries and the original Greek texts of Galen. This New Learning and the Humanist movement, particularly the work of Linacre, promoted literae humaniores including Galen in the Latin scientific canon, De Naturalibus Facultatibus appearing in London in 1523. Debates on medical science now had two traditions, the more conservative Arabian and the liberal Greek.[6] The more extreme liberal movements began to challenge the role of authority in medicine, as exemplified by Paracelsus' symbolically burning the works of Avicenna and Galen at his medical school in Basle.[6] Nevertheless, Galen's pre-eminence amongst the great thinkers of the millennium is exemplified by a 16th-century mural in the refectory of the Great Lavra of Mt Athos. It depicts pagan sages at the foot of the Tree of Jesse, with Galen between the Sibyl and Aristotle.[68] Galen. De pulsibus. (Manuscript; Venice, c. 1550). This Greek manuscript of Galen’s treatise on the pulse is interleaved with a Latin translation. Galenism's final defeat came from a combination of the negativism of Paracelsus and the constructivism of the Italian Renaissance anatomists, such as Vesalius in the 16th century.[6] In the 1530s, the Flemish anatomist and physician Andreas Vesalius took on a project to translate many of Galen's Greek texts into Latin. Vesalius' most famous work, De humani corporis fabrica, was greatly influenced by Galenic writing and form. Seeking to examine critically Galen's methods and outlook, Vesalius turned to human cadaver dissection as a means of verification. Galen's writings were shown by Vesalius to describe details present in monkeys but not in humans, and he demonstrated Galen's limitations through books and hands-on demonstrations despite fierce opposition from orthodox pro-Galenists such as Jacobus Sylvius. Since Galen states that he is using observations of monkeys (human dissection was prohibited) to give an account of what the body looks like, Vesalius could portray himself as using Galen's approach of description of direct observation to create a record of the exact details of the human body, since he worked in a time when human dissection was allowed. Galen argued that monkey anatomy was close enough to humans for physicians to learn anatomy with monkey dissections and then make observations of similar structures in the wounds of their patients, rather than trying to learn anatomy only from wounds in human patients, as would be done by students trained in the Empiricist model.[77] The examinations of Vesalius also disproved medical theories of Aristotle and Mondino de Liuzzi. One of the best known examples of Vesalius' overturning of Galenism was his demonstration that the interventricular septum of the heart was not permeable, as Galen had taught (Nat Fac III xv). However, this had been revealed two years before by Michael Servetus in his fateful "Christianismi restitutio" (1553) with only three copies of the book surviving, but these remaining hidden for decades; the rest were burned shortly after its publication because of persecution of Servetus by religious authorities. Michael Servetus, using the name "Michel de Villeneuve" during his stay in France, was Vesalius' fellow student and the best Galenist at the University of Paris, according to Johann Winter von Andernach,[78] who taught both. In the Galenism of the Renaissance, editions of the Opera Omnia by Galen were very important. It was begun in Venice in 1541–1542 by the Guinta. There were fourteen editions of the book from that date until 1625. Just one edition was produced from Lyon between 1548 and 1551. The Lyon edition has commentaries on breathing and blood streaming that correct the work of earlier renowned authors such as Vesalius, Caius or Janus Cornarius. "Michel De Villeneuve" had contracts with Jean Frellon for that work, and the Servetus scholar-researcher Francisco Javier González Echeverría[79][80] presented research that became an accepted communication in the International Society for the History of Medicine,[81] which concluded that Michael De Villeneuve (Michael Servetus) is the author of the commentaries of this edition of Frellon, in Lyon.[82][83] Another convincing case where understanding of the body was extended beyond where Galen had left it came from these demonstrations of the nature of human circulation and the subsequent work of Andrea Cesalpino, Fabricio of Acquapendente and William Harvey.[6] Some Galenic teaching, such as his emphasis on bloodletting as a remedy for many ailments, however, remained influential until well into the 19th century.[84] Contemporary scholarship[edit] Galenic scholarship remains an intense and vibrant field, following renewed interest in his work, dating from the German encyclopedia Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft.[58] Copies of his works translated by Robert M. Green are held at the National Library of Medicine in Bethesda, Maryland.[85] In 2018, the University of Basel discovered that a mysterious Greek papyrus with mirror writing on both sides, which was at the collection of Basilius Amerbach, a professor of jurisprudence at the University of Basel in the 16th century, is an unknown medical document of Galen or an unknown commentary on his work. The medical text describes the phenomenon of ‘hysterical apnea’.[86] See also[edit] Abascantus Galenic formulation Timeline of medicine and medical technology History of medicine Notes[edit] ^ "Galen" entry in Collins English Dictionary. ^ Life, death, and entertainment in the Roman Empire. David Stone Potter, D. J. Mattingly (1999). University of Michigan Press. p. 63. ISBN 0-472-08568-9 ^ "Galen on bloodletting: a study of the origins, development, and validity of his opinions, with a translation of the three works". Peter Brain, Galen (1986). Cambridge University Press. p.1. ISBN 0-521-32085-2 ^ a b c d Nutton Vivian (1973). "The Chronology of Galen's Early Career". Classical Quarterly. 23 (1): 158–171. doi:10.1017/S0009838800036600. PMID 11624046. ^ "Galen on the affected parts. Translation from the Greek text with explanatory notes". Med Hist. 21 (2): 212. 1977. doi:10.1017/s0025727300037935. PMC 1081972. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Arthur John Brock (translator), Introduction. Galen. On the Natural Faculties. Edinburgh 1916 ^ Debru, Armelle (7 March 1997). Galen on Pharmacology: Philosophy, History, and Medicine : Proceedings of the Vth International Galen Colloquium, Lille, 16-18 March 1995. BRILL. ISBN 978-9004104037 – via Google Books. ^ a b c Rocca, Dr Julius (16 January 2003). Galen on the Brain: Anatomical Knowledge and Physiological Speculation in the Second Century Ad. Studies in Ancient Medicine. 26. Brill. pp. 1–313. ISBN 978-9004125124. PMID 12848196. ^ Andreas Vesalius (1543). De humani corporis Fabrica, Libri VII (in Latin). Basel, Switzerland: Johannes Oporinus. Retrieved 7 August 2010. ^ O'Malley, C., Andreas Vesalius of Brussels, 1514–1564, Berkeley: University of California Press ^ Siraisi, Nancy G., (1991) Girolamo Cardano and the Art of Medical Narrative, Journal of the History of Ideas. pp. 587–88. ^ West, John (1985). "Ibn al-Nafis, the pulmonary circulation, and the Islamic Golden Age". Journal of Applied Physiology. 105 (6): 1877–1880. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.91171.2008. PMC 2612469. PMID 18845773. ^ Claudii Galeni Pergameni (1992). Odysseas Hatzopoulos (ed.). "That the best physician is also a philosopher" with a Modern Greek Translation. Athens, Greece: Odysseas Hatzopoulos & Company: Kaktos Editions. ^ Theodore J. Drizis (Fall 2008). "Medical ethics in a writing of Galen". Acta Med Hist Adriat. 6 (2): 333–336. PMID 20102254. Retrieved 7 August 2010. ^ Brian, P., 1977, "Galen on the ideal of the physician", South Africa Medical Journal, 52: 936–938 pdf ^ Frede, M. and R. Walzer, 1985, Three Treatises on the Nature of Science, Indianapolis: Hacket. ^ De Lacy P (1972). "Galen's Platonism". American Journal of Philosophy. 1972 (1): 27–39. doi:10.2307/292898. JSTOR 292898. ^ Cosans C (1997). "Galen's Critique of Rationalist and Empiricist Anatomy". Journal of the History of Biology. 30 (1): 35–54. doi:10.1023/a:1004266427468. PMID 11618979. S2CID 35323972. ^ Cosans C (1998). "The Experimental Foundations of Galen's Teleology". Studies in History and Philosophy of Science. 29: 63–80. doi:10.1016/s0039-3681(96)00005-2. ^ γαληνός, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library ^ "Galen | Biography, Achievements, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-12-18. ^ a b Metzger BM. New Testament Studies: Philological, Versional, and Patristic. BRILL 1980 ISBN 90-04-06163-0 ISBN 978-90-04-06163-7 ^ "Hippocrates Collected Works I". daedalus.umkc.edu. ^ a b Ustun C. Galen and his anatomic eponym: Vein of Galen. Clinical Anatomy Volume 17 Issue 6 454–457, 2004; ^ Galen; Grant, Mark (7 March 2018). Galen on Food and Diet. Psychology Press. ISBN 9780415232333 – via Google Books. ^ Gleason, M. Making Men: Sophists and Self-Presentation in Ancient Rome. Princeton 1995 ^ a b D.E. Eichholz, 1951, Galen and His Environment, Greece & Rome 20 no. 59, Cambridge University Press, p. 60–71 ^ Elizabeth C. Evans, 1956, Galen the Physician as Physiognomist, American Philological Association ^ a b c d R.J. Littman and M.L. Littman, 1973 Galen and the Antonine Plague, The American Journal of Philology 94 no. 3, p. 243–255 ^ Luis Garcia-Ballester, 2002, Galen and Galenism, Burlington: Ashgate-Variorum, page 1641 ^ Arthur John Brock, 1929, Greek Medicine, London: J.M. Dent and Songs, Ltd., page 207. ^ Luis Garcia-Ballester, 2002, Galen and Galenism, Burlington: Ashgate-Variorum, page 1663 ^ Arthur John Brock, 1929, Greek Medicine, London: J.M. Dent and Songs, Ltd., page 212. ^ Luis Garcia-Ballester, 2002, Galen and Galenism, Burlington: Ashgate-Variorum, page 1640 ^ Amari, M. Biblioteca Arabo-sicula, 2nd vol., Loscher, Turin, Rome, p. 503-504. ^ Nutton V. Ancient Medicine. Routledge, 2004 226–7 ^ Boudon-Millot V (ed. and trans.) Galien: Introduction générale; Sur l'ordre de ses propres livres; Sur ses propres livres; Que l'excellent médecin est aussi philosophe Paris: Les Belles Lettres. 2007, LXXVII-LXXX ^ a b Mark Grant, 2000, Galen on Food and Diet, Routledge] ^ 'Tragically, the prohibition of human dissection by Rome in 150 BC arrested this progress and few of their findings survived', Arthur Aufderheide, 'The Scientific Study of Mummies' (2003), page 5 ^ Claudii Galeni Pergameni (1956). translated by Charles Joseph Singer (ed.). Galen on anatomical procedures: De anatomicis administrationibus. London: Geoffrey Cumberlege, Oxford University Press/Wellcome Historical Medical Museum. pp. 195–207. ^ Claudii Galeni Pergameni (October 1956). "Galen on Anatomical Procedures". Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine. 49 (10): 833. doi:10.1177/003591575604901017. PMC 1889206. ^ Claudii Galeni Pergameni (1528). "De usu partium corporis humani, libri VII, cap. IV". In Nicolao Regio Calabro (Nicolaus Rheginus) (ed.). De usu partium corporis humani, libri VII (in Latin). Paris: ex officina Simonis Colinaei. p. 339. Retrieved 7 August 2010. ^ A. Barrington Baker (October 1971). "Artificial respiration, the history of an idea". Medical History. 15 (4): 336–351. doi:10.1017/s0025727300016896. PMC 1034194. PMID 4944603. ^ "BBC - History - Historic Figures: Galen (c.130 AD - c.210 AD)". www.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2020-12-18. ^ Furley, D, and J. 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JSTOR 639325. ^ Coxe, John Redman, The Writings of Hippocrates and Galen. Epitomised from the Original Latin translations. Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston, 1846 ^ Nutton V. Galen in the eyes of his contemporaries. BHM 58(3) fall 1984 315–24 ^ George of Pisida. Hexameron 1.1588f ^ a b c d e "Nutton V. From Galen to Alexander, aspects of medicine and medical practice in late antiquity. Dunbarton Oaks Papers. 38, 1984" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-12-16. ^ Temkin O. Studies on late Alexandrian medicine. Bull Hist Med 3: 405–30, 1935 ^ Dear P. Revolutionizing the Sciences: European Knowledge and Its Ambitions, 1500–1700. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press (2001), 37–39 Archived 2008-10-12 at the Wayback Machine ^ Reflections Chairman's (2004). "Traditional Medicine Among Gulf Arabs, Part II: Blood-letting". Heart Views. 5 (2): 74–85 [80]. ^ Al-Dabbagh S. A. (1978). "Ibn Al-Nafis and the pulmonary circulation". The Lancet. 311 (8074): 1148. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(78)90318-5. PMID 77431. S2CID 43154531. ^ Unani Tibb. Science Museum, London. http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/broughttolife/techniques/unanitibb.aspx accessed 29 Nov 2015. ^ Jones, Raymond F. (1963). "The Anatomist". Stories of Great Physicians. Whitman. pp. 46–47. ^ Weiss, Roberto (1947). The Dawn of Humanism in Italy. London: H. K. Lewis & Co. Ltd. p. 19. ^ Stefania Fortuna, "The Latin Editions of Galen’s Opera omnia (1490–1625) and Their Prefaces", Early Science and Medicine 17 (2012): 391–412. ^ Cosans C (1997). "Galen's Critique of Rationalist and Empiricist Anatomy". Journal of the History of Biology. 30 (1): 35–54. doi:10.1023/A:1004266427468. PMID 11618979. S2CID 35323972. ^ 2011 "The love for truth. Life and work of Michael Servetus", (El amor a la verdad. Vida y obra de Miguel Servet.), González Echeverría, Francisco Javier, printed by Navarro y Navarro, Zaragoza, collaboration with the Government of Navarra, Department of Institutional Relations and Education of the Government of Navarra, 607 pp, 64 of them illustrations. Note 481 (.."primum Andrea Vesalem..Post hunc, Michael Villanovanus familiariter milhi in consectionibus adhibitus est, vir in omni genere litterarum ornatissimus in Galenic doctrina, vix illi secundus.." Audrey, Jean ^ 2002 “ Michael Servetus in the 'Opera Omnia' of Galenus of 1548–1551 printed by Jean Frellon”, González Echeverría, Francisco Javier. Book of communications, XII National Congress on History of Medicine., Albacete, 7–9 of febrabry, pp 42–43 ^ 2004 "The edition of Lyon of the ‘Opera omnia’ by Galenus of the printer Jean Frellon (1548–1551) commented by Michael Servetus", Francisco Javier González Echeverría and Ancín Chandía, Teresa. In: Medicine in the presence of the new millennium: a historical perspective. Coordinators: José Martínez Pérez, Isabel Porras Gallo, Pedro Samblás Tilve, Mercedes Del Cura González, Minutes from the XII Congress in History of Medicine, 7–9 February 2002, Albacete. Ed. Of the University of Castilla-La Mancha. Cuenca, pp. 645–657. ^ 2011 September 9th, Francisco González Echeverría VI International Meeting for the History of Medicine,(S-11: Biographies in History of Medicine (I)), Barcelona. New Discoveries on the biography of Michael De Villeneuve (Michael Servetus) & New discoverys on the work of Michael De Villeneuve (Michael Servetus) ^ 2011 "The love for truth. Life and work of Michael Servetus", (El amor a la verdad. Vida y obra de Miguel Servet.), Francisco Javier González Echeverría, Francisco Javier, printed by Navarro y Navarro, Zaragoza, collaboration with the Government of Navarra, Department of Institutional Relations and Education of the Government of Navarra, 607 pp, 64 of them illustrations.pag 194–204 ^ Michael Servetus Research Archived 2017-02-21 at the Wayback Machine Website with a study on the Opera Omnia of Galen, by Michael de Villanueva ^ Brian, P., 1986, Galen on Bloodletting, Cambridge University Press ^ "Selected works of Galen / translated by Robert Montraville Green for Sidney Licht [ca.1953] 1951–1979". National Library of Medicine. ^ "Mystery of the Basel papyrus solved". University of Basel. Sources[edit] The works of Galen are listed in Galenic corpus. Algra K (ed.) The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy. Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-521-25028-5, ISBN 978-0-521-25028-3 Boudon-Millot V (ed. and trans.) Galien: Introduction générale; Sur l'ordre de ses propres livres; Sur ses propres livres; Que l'excellent médecin est aussi philosophe Paris: Les Belles Lettres. 2007, ISBN 978-2-251-00536-2 Boylen M. Galen. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Brodersen K. Galenos, Die verbrannte Bibliothek: Peri Alypias. Marix, Wiesbaden 2015, ISBN 978-3-7374-0962-9 Debru A. "Galen on Pharmacology: Philosophy, History, and Medicine : Proceedings of the Vth International Galen Colloquium", Lille, 16–18 March 1995 BRILL 1997 ISBN 90-04-10403-8, ISBN 978-90-04-10403-7 Dunn PM. Galen (AD 129–200) of Pergamun: anatomist and experimental physiologist. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2003 Sep;88(5):F441-3. Everson S. (ed.) Language. Cambridge University Press, 1994 ISBN 0-521-35795-0, ISBN 978-0-521-35795-1 French RK. Medicine Before Science: The Rational and Learned Doctor from the Middle Ages to the Enlightenment. Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-521-00761-5, ISBN 978-0-521-00761-0 Gleason MW. Shock and Awe: The Performance Dimension of Galen’s Anatomy Demonstrations. Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics January 2007 Gleason MW. Making Men: Sophists and Self-Presentation in Ancient Rome. Princeton 1995 Hankinson RJ (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to Galen. CUP 2008 ISBN 978-0-521-81954-1 Hankinson R.J. Cause and explanation in ancient Greek thought. Oxford University Press, 1998 ISBN 0-19-924656-4, ISBN 978-0-19-924656-4 Houston, George W. (2003). "Galen, His Books, and the Horrea Piperataria at Rome". Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome. University of Michigan Press. 48: 45–51. doi:10.2307/4238804. JSTOR 4238804. Johannes Ilberg. "Aus Galens Praxis. Neue Jahrbücher für das Klassische Altertum", Geschichte und Deutsche Literatur 15: 276–312, 1905 Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman (ed.). Jawami Kitab Al-Nabd Al-Saghir by Galen (2007), Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine & Sciences, Aligarh, India; ISBN 978-81-901362-7-3 Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman (ed.). Kitab fi Firaq al Tibb by Galen (2008), Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine & Sciences, Aligarh, India; ISBN 978-81-906070-1-8 Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman (ed.). Kitab al Anasir by Galen (2008), Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine & Sciences, Aligarh, India; ISBN 978-81-906070-2-5 Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman (ed.). Kitab al Mizaj of Galen (2008), Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine & Sciences, Aligarh, India; ISBN 978-81-906070-3-2 Kotrc RF, Walters KR. "A bibliography of the Galenic Corpus. A newly researched list and arrangement of the titles of the treatises extant in Greek, Latin, and Arabic". Trans Stud Coll Physicians Phila. 1979 December;1(4):256–304 Mattern SP. Physicians and the Roman Imperial Aristocracy: The Patronage of Therapeutics. Bulletin of the History of Medicine. Volume 73, Number 1, Spring 1999, pp. 1–18 Metzger BM. New Testament Studies: Philological, Versional, and Patristic. BRILL 1980 ISBN 90-04-06163-0, ISBN 978-90-04-06163-7 Muhaqqiq M. Medical Sects in Islam. al-Tawhid Islamic Journal, vol. VIII, No.2 Nutton V. "Roman Medicine, 250 BC to AD 200, and Medicine in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages", in Lawrence C.(ed.) The Western Medical Tradition: 800–1800 A.D. 1995 Nutton V. Ancient Medicine. Routledge, 2004 ISBN 0-415-08611-6, ISBN 978-0-415-08611-0 Osler W. The Evolution of Modern Medicine 1913. Plain Label Books 1987. Chapter II: Greek Medicine Peterson DW. "Observations on the chronology of the Galenic Corpus". Bull Hist Med 51(3): 484, 1977 Siegel RE. Galen's System of Physiology and Medicine, Basel 1968 (this text is not regarded highly by most Galen scholars) Siegel RE. Galen on Sense Perception, His Doctrines, Observations and Experiments on Vision, Hearing, Smell, Taste, Touch and Pain, and Their Historical Sources. Karger, Basel 1970 (this text is not regarded highly by most Galen scholars) Siegel RE. Galen on Psychology, Psychopathology, and Function and Diseases of the Nervous System 1973 (this text is not regarded highly by most Galen scholars) Smith WG. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. J Walton 1849 Stakelum JW, Galen and the Logic of Proposition, Rome, Angelicum, 1940 Taylor HO. Greek Biology And Medicine. Marshall Jones 1922. Chapter 5: The Final System – Galen Temkin O. Galenism: Rise and Decline of a Medical Philosophy. Cornell University Press, Ithaca 1973 The Cambridge Ancient History: Second Edition. XI The High Empire A.D. 70–192 Cambridge University Press, 2000 ISBN 0-521-26335-2, ISBN 978-0-521-26335-1 Thesaurus Linguae Graecae: TLG van der Eijk P. Medicine and Philosophy in Classical Antiquity: Doctors and Philosophers on Nature, Soul, Health and Disease. Cambridge University Press, 2005 ISBN 0-521-81800-1, ISBN 978-0-521-81800-1 Watson PB. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. Harper & brothers, 1884 Further reading[edit] Boudon-Millot, V. Introduction Générale, Sur L’ordre de ses Propres Livres, Sur ses Propres Livres, Que L’excellent Médecin est Aussi Philosophe Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 2007. Garcia Ballester, Luis. 2002. Galen and Galenism. Theory and Medical Practice from Antiquity to the European Renaissance. Collected Studies Series 710. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate Variorum. Gilbert, N. Ward. 1960. Renaissance Concepts of Method. New York: Columbia University Press. Gill, Christopher, Tim Whitmarsh, and John Wilkins, eds. 2012. Galen and the World of Knowledge. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Kudlien, Fridolf, and Richard J Durling. 1991. Galen's Method of Healing: Proceedings of the 1982 Galen Symposium. Leiden: E.J. Brill. Lloyd, G. E. R. 1991. Methods and Problems in Greek Science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Mattern, Susan P. 2013. The Prince of Medicine: Galen In the Roman Empire. New York: Oxford University Press. Nutton, Vivian. 2004. Ancient Medicine. London and New York: Routledge. Rocca, Julius. 2003. Galen on the Brain: Anatomical Knowledge and Physiological Speculation in the Second Century A.D. Studies in Ancient Medicine 26. Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Brill. Rosen, Ralph M. 2013. “Galen on Poetic Testimony” In Writing Science: Medical and Mathematical Authorship in Ancient Greece. Edited by M. Asper, 177-189. Berlin: De Gruyter. Rosen, Ralph M. 2013. “Galen, Plato, and the Physiology of Eros." In Eros Edited by E. Sanders, C. Carey and N. Lowe, 111-27. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sarton, George. 1954. Galen of Pergamon. Lawrence: University of Kansas Press. Schlange-Schöningen, H. Die römische Gesellschaft bei Galen. Biographie und Sozialgeschichte (= Untersuchungen zur antiken Literatur und Geschichte, Bd. 65) Berlin: de Gruyter, 2003 Walzer, Richard. 1949. Galen On Jews and Christians. London: Oxford University Press. Primary sources[edit] Brock, Arthur John (1929). Greek Medicine, Being Extracts Illustrative of Medical Writers from Hippocrates to Galen. London: Dent. Galen (1991). On the Therapeutic Method. R.J. Hankinson, trans. Oxford: Clarendon Press. External links[edit] Wikisource has original works written by or about: Galen Wikiquote has quotations related to: Galen Library resources about Galen Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Galen Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Works by Galen at Project Gutenberg Works by Galen at the Corpus Medicorum Graecorum with links to digitized editions, manuscripts and modern translations. Works by or about Galen at Internet Archive Works by or about Claudius Galenus at Internet Archive Singer, P. N. "Galen". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Galen entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy* Classicsindex: Galen Works by Galen at Perseus Digital Library Corpus Medicorum Graecorum editions online Gerhard Fichtner, Galen bibliography University of Virginia: Health Sciences Library. Galen Channel 4 – History – Ancient surgery Lienhard JH. Engines of our Ingenuity, Number 2097 – Constantine the African Nutton V. Galen of Pergamum, Encyclopædia Britannica Pearcy L. Galen: A biographical sketch. Medicina Antiqua Taylor HO. Greek Biology and Medicine 1922: Chapter 5 – "The Final System: Galen" Galenus von Pergamon – Leben und Werk. Includes alphabetical list of Latin Titles (in French) Galien's works digitized by the BIUM (Bibliothèque interuniversitaire de médecine et d'odontologie, Paris), see its digital library Medic@. Galeni opera varia – Mscr.Dresd.Db.93 Digital Version of the Manuscript at the Saxon State and University Library, Dresden (SLUB) Hypertexts – Medicina Antiqua, University College London (Commentary on Hippocrates' On the Nature of Man; On the Natural Faculties; Exhortation to Study the Arts: To Menodotus; On Diagnosis from Dreams) Michael Servetus Research Website with a study on the Opera Omnia of Galen by the galenist Michael de Villanueva, and also the first description of the pulmonary circulation in his Manuscript of Paris in 1546. Claudii Galeni opera omnia in Medicorum graecorum opera quae exstant, editionem curavit D. Carolus Gottlob Kühn, Lipsiae prostat in officina libraria Car. Cnoblochii, 1821–1833 in 20 volumines. Discussion of Galens on BBC Radio 4's programme "In Our Time". Digital edition: Galeni septima Classis (1550) by the University and State Library Düsseldorf The Galen Syriac Palimpsest - On the Mixtures and Powers of Simple Drugs v t e History of medicine Timeline of medicine and medical technology Histories of basic sciences Anatomy Biochemistry Biology Biotechnology Chemistry Embryology Genetics Immunology Timeline Medical diagnosis Microbiology Molecular biology Neuroscience Nutrition Pathology Pharmacology Physiology Virology Viruses Histories of medical specialties Alternative medicine Anesthesia General Neuraxial Cancer Cardiology (invasive and interventional) Dental treatments Dermatology Emergency medicine CPR Endocrinology Neurology Psychiatry Timeline Psychiatric institutions Psychosurgery Surgery Trauma and orthopaedics Medicine in ancient societies Prehistory Babylon Byzantinia Ancient Egypt Egyptian medical papyri Ancient Greece Ancient Iran Ancient Rome Medieval Islam Medieval Western Europe History of methods in medicine Antibiotics Timeline Blood transfusion Humorism Neuroimaging Radiation therapy Tracheal intubation Vaccines Timeline Wound care Disasters and plagues Black Death List of epidemics Malaria Pandemics Plague Poliomyelitis Smallpox Syphilis Tuberculosis Category v t e History of biology Fields, disciplines Agricultural science Anatomy Biochemistry Biotechnology Botany Ecology Evolutionary thought Genetics Geology Immunology Medicine Model organisms Molecular biology Molecular evolution Paleontology Phycology Plant systematics RNA biology Zoology (since 1859) Zoology (through 1859) Institutions Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Laboratory of Molecular Biology Marine Biological Laboratory Max Planck Society Pasteur Institute Rockefeller University Rothamsted Research Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute Theories, concepts Germ theory of disease Central dogma of molecular biology Darwinism Great chain of being Hierarchy of life Lamarckism One gene–one enzyme hypothesis Protocell RNA world Sequence hypothesis Spontaneous generation History Classical antiquity Aristotle Aristotle's biology On Generation and Corruption History of Animals Theophrastus Historia Plantarum Dioscorides De materia medica Galen Renaissance, early modern Conrad Gessner Historia animalium Andreas Vesalius De humani corporis fabrica William Harvey De Motu Cordis Frederik Ruysch Jan Swammerdam Antonie van Leeuwenhoek Regnier de Graaf Marcello Malpighi Robert Hooke Micrographia Francesco Redi Evolution 19th century Linnaeus Systema Naturae Buffon Histoire Naturelle Lamarck Philosophie Zoologique Humboldt Charles Lyell Principles of Geology Charles Darwin On the Origin of Species The Descent of Man Gregor Mendel Alfred Russel Wallace Henry Walter Bates Modern synthesis William Bateson Theodosius Dobzhansky Genetics and the Origin of Species R. 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Watson and Francis Crick "Molecular structure of Nucleic Acids" Linus Pauling "Sickle Cell Anemia, a Molecular Disease" Fred Sanger Max Perutz John Kendrew Sydney Brenner Joshua Lederberg Walter Gilbert Kary Mullis Emmanuelle Charpentier Jennifer Doudna Ecology Rachel Carson Frederic Clements Charles Elton Henry Gleason Arthur Tansley Eugenius Warming Ethology Niko Tinbergen Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz Frans de Waal Jane Goodall Ivan Pavlov Related History of science Philosophy of biology Teleology Ethnobotany Eugenics History of the creation-evolution controversy Human Genome Project Humboldtian science Natural history Natural philosophy Natural theology Relationship between religion and science Timeline of biology and organic chemistry Category Authority control BIBSYS: 10052998 BNE: XX895402 BNF: cb119039184 (data) CANTIC: a10333952 CiNii: DA01637648 GND: 118537202 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\036469 ISNI: 0000 0001 2130 2401 LCCN: n79059644 LNB: 000032645 NDL: 00620704 NKC: jn19990002533 NLA: 36554152 NLG: 153553 NLI: 000050693 NSK: 000043198 NTA: 068607407 RERO: 02-A000068868 SELIBR: 187872 SNAC: w6h23n6v SUDOC: 02776897X TDVİA: galen Trove: 1289223 VcBA: 495/44656 VIAF: 44299175 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79059644 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Galen&oldid=995487977" Categories: 129 births 3rd-century deaths 2nd-century Romans Ancient Greek anatomists Ancient Greek physicians Ancient Greek science writers Greek neuroscientists Ancient Roman physicians Court physicians Herbalists History of anatomy History of neuroscience People from Pergamon Roman-era Greeks Aelii 2nd-century physicians 3rd-century physicians Ancient ophthalmologists Middle Platonists Hidden categories: CS1 Latin-language sources (la) Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles with hCards Articles containing Greek-language text Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2007 Articles with unsourced statements from October 2010 Articles with unsourced statements from June 2019 Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with French-language sources (fr) Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with TDVİA identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers AC with 25 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés Asturianu Azərbaycanca Bân-lâm-gú Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Нохчийн Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла संस्कृतम् ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча/tatarça ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 21 December 2020, at 08:29 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3769	----	Royal Library of the Netherlands - Wikipedia Royal Library of the Netherlands From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from NTA (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search National Library of the Netherlands KB National Library of the Netherlands Koninklijke Bibliotheek (KB) The KB as seen from the Prins Bernhardviaduct Type National Library Established 1798 (222 years ago) (1798) Location The Hague Coordinates 52°4′50.37″N 4°19′36.35″E / 52.0806583°N 4.3267639°E / 52.0806583; 4.3267639Coordinates: 52°4′50.37″N 4°19′36.35″E / 52.0806583°N 4.3267639°E / 52.0806583; 4.3267639 Collection Size 7 million printed items: over 115 km (71 miles) of books, newspapers, journals, and microforms[1] Access and use Members 16,975 Other information Budget €53 million Director Lily Knibbeler Staff 412 Website www.kb.nl/en Map The Royal Library of the Netherlands (Dutch: Koninklijke Bibliotheek or KB; Royal Library) is the national library of the Netherlands, based in The Hague, founded in 1798.[2][3] The KB collects everything that is published in and concerning the Netherlands, from medieval literature to today's publications. About 7 million publications are stored in the stockrooms, including books, newspapers, magazines and maps. The KB also offers many digital services, such as the national online Library (with e-books and audiobooks), Delpher (millions of digitized pages) and The Memory. Since 2015, the KB has played a coordinating role for the network of the public library.[4] Contents 1 History 2 Collection 3 Literature museum 4 Research 5 See also 6 References 7 External links History[edit] The initiative to found a national library was proposed by representative Albert Jan Verbeek on August 17, 1798. The collection would be based on the confiscated book collection of William V.[5][6] The library was officially founded as the Nationale Bibliotheek on November 8 of the same year, after a committee of representatives had advised the creation of a national library on the same day. The National Library was initially only open to members of the Representative Body. King Louis Bonaparte gave the national library its name of the Royal Library in 1806. Napoleon Bonaparte transferred the Royal Library to The Hague as property, while also allowing the Imperial Library in Paris to expropriate publications from the Royal Library. In 1815 King William I of the Netherlands confirmed the name of 'Royal Library' (Dutch: Koninklijke Bibliotheek) by royal resolution. It has been known as the National Library of the Netherlands since 1982, when it opened new quarters.[7] The institution became 'Independent Administrative Body' of the state in 1996, although it is financed by the Department of Education, Culture and Science. On 18 November 2014 the Wsob (Public Library Facilities System Act or 'Library Act') came into being. The act became valid on 1 January 2015 and from this moment onwards four organizations from the library world continued under the name Koninklijke Bibliotheek. These organizations are Sector Institute Public Libraries (SIOB), the Foundation Bibliotheek.nl (BNL), the Digital Library for Dutch Literature (DBNL) and the Koninklijke Bibliotheek (KB). Collection[edit] The humanities are central to the collection of the KB, with an emphasis on Dutch history, language and culture. In 2016, the KB contained 7,000,000 items, equivalent to 115 kilometers of bookshelves. Most items in the collection are books. There are also pieces of "grey literature", where the author, publisher, or date may not be apparent but the document has cultural or intellectual significance.[7] The collection contains almost the entire literature of the Netherlands, from medieval manuscripts to modern scientific publications. As there was no law for depositing Dutch publication the library started on January 1 1974 the voluntary Dutch Repository Library. This in contrast with most other countries that have a legal deposit of publications. For a publication to be accepted, it must be from a registered Dutch publisher.[7] The Royal Library of the Netherlands also has works of art and antiquities. One such piece of art is The Madonna with the Christ Child by fifteenth-century French painter Jean Fouquet, who is regarded as one of the best painters from that era. A valuable antiquity that is housed within the library is a bound book by Christopher Plantin (1520-89), a sixteenth-century French printer and publisher. The binding is made of brown calfskin with gold tooling. The book was made at Plantin’s workshop in Antwerp and was dedicated to Emperor Charles V (1500-58). The library also has remarkable eighteenth-century brocade paper from Augsburg, Germany. In addition, the library holds a rare elaborately illustrated book from 1596. The book is of the travels of Jan Huygen van Linschoten (1563-1611). He traveled to Spain, India, Indonesia, and East Asia. [8] Another valuable antiquity is the oldest depiction of ‘Dutchmen’. In 975, Count Dirk and Countess Hildegard donated the medieval manuscript, known as Egmond Gospels, to the Abbey of Egmond. It is one of the oldest surviving church treasures and includes depictions of ‘Dutch’ people and buildings. The Egmond Gospels were lost around the sixteenth-century, but were found in the early nineteenth-century. Knowing its historical significance, the Dutch government purchased the manuscript and brought it to the Royal Library of the Netherlands.[9] The Royal Library of the Netherlands also has the Trivulzio Book of House (ca.1465), a medieval manuscript that measures 9cm x 13cm, and contains wonderfully detailed Flemish miniature art.[10] The collection is accessible for members. Any person aged 16 years or older can become a member. One day passes are also available. Requests for material take approximately 30 minutes. The KB hosts several open access websites, including the "Memory of the Netherlands" (Geheugen van Nederland),[11] Digital Library for Dutch Literature[12] and Delpher, an archive of more than 100 million pages as of 2020.[13] Literature museum[edit] The Literature museum (in Dutch: Literatuurmuseum) was founded in 1750[14] as Nederlands Letterkundig Museum,[15] The museum contains a large collection of letters, manuscripts and memorabilia. The museum has three permanent and several temporary exhibitions. It also contains a special children's book museum.[14] On 4 February 2016, an online museum was opened.[15] On 1 November 2016, the museum was renamed to Literature museum.[16] The museum has a reading room with an extensive collection of newspaper clipping, and under certain conditions, some archival material can be consulted.[14] Research[edit] The KB's Research Department is engaged in internationally renowned research in the field of digital technology, sustainable preservation and accessibility of both paper and digital heritage. Important topics are the applicability of artificial intelligence, the use of big data, the increasing importance of privacy & security, the changes in the publishing and publishing world and the role of public libraries in today's society. See also[edit] List of libraries in the Netherlands European Library Nederlandse Centrale Catalogus (Dutch Central Catalog) Books in the Netherlands References[edit] ^ "KB in a nutshell". ^ "Koninklijke Bibliotheek / Royal Library of the Netherlands". The Conference of European National Librarians (CENL). Retrieved 2020-05-23. ^ "Dutch Royal Library | library, The Hague, Netherlands". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-05-23. ^ "The National Library of the Netherlands - Digital Preservation (Library of Congress)". www.digitalpreservation.gov. Retrieved 2020-05-23. ^ "National Library of The Netherlands". Preserving the World's Rarest Books. 2018-02-13. Retrieved 2019-08-13. ^ Hanson, J. C. M. (April 1940). "Review: The Royal Library of the Netherlands". The Library Quarterly: Information, Community, Policy. The University of Chicago Press. 10 (2): 266–269. doi:10.1086/614725. JSTOR 4302710. ^ a b c Murray, Stuart (2009). The Library: An Illustrated History. Chicago: Skyhorse Publishing. ^ Murray, Stuart. The Library: An Illustrated History. New York: Skyhorse, 2019. Print. ^ [1] Egmond Gospels. KB National Library of the Netherlands ^ [2] Trivulzio Book of Hours (ca.1465). KB National Library of the Netherlands ^ "Image database - Memory of the Netherlands - Online image database of archives, museums and libraries". geheugenvannederland.nl. ^ "Organisatie". Digital Library for Dutch Literature (in Dutch). Retrieved 14 June 2020. ^ "Delpher: de Organisatie". Delpher (in Dutch). Retrieved 14 June 2020. ^ a b c "Literatuurmuseum". The Memory. Retrieved 14 June 2020. ^ a b "Literatuurmuseum". Mondriaan Fonds. Retrieved 14 June 2020. ^ "Letterkundig Museum wordt Literatuurmuseum". Literatuur Museum (in Dutch). Retrieved 14 June 2020. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Koninklijke Bibliotheek. 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en-wikipedia-org-3778	----	LIBRIS - Wikipedia LIBRIS From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from SELIBR (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Swedish national union catalogue LIBRIS (Library Information System) is a Swedish national union catalogue maintained by the National Library of Sweden in Stockholm.[1] It is possible to freely search about 6.5 million titles nationwide.[2] In addition to bibliographic records, one for each book or publication, LIBRIS also contains an authority file of people. For each person there is a record connecting name, birth and occupation with a unique identifier.[citation needed] The MARC Code for the Swedish Union Catalog is SE-LIBR, normalized: selibr.[3] The development of LIBRIS can be traced to the mid-1960s.[4] While rationalization of libraries had been an issue for two decades after World War II, it was in 1965 that a government committee published a report on the use of computers in research libraries.[5] The government budget of 1965 created a research library council (Forskningsbiblioteksrådet, FBR).[6] A preliminary design document, Biblioteksadministrativt Information System (BAIS) was published in May 1970, and the name LIBRIS, short for Library Information System, was used for a technical subcommittee that started on 1 July 1970.[7] The newsletter LIBRIS-meddelanden (ISSN 0348-1891) has been published since 1972[8] and is online since 1997.[9] References[edit] ^ "LIBRIS". Nationalencyklopedin (in Swedish). Retrieved 27 July 2010. (subscription required) ^ "LIBRIS database contents". National Library of Sweden. Retrieved 27 July 2010. ^ Library of Congress Network Development and MARC Standards Office (5 April 2011). "Search the MARC Code List for Organizations Database". Library of Congress. Retrieved 22 August 2012. ^ Lena Olsson, Det datoriserade biblioteket. Maskindrömmar på 70-talet (1995), PhD dissertation from Linköping University, Linköping Studies in Arts and Science 121, ISSN 0282-9800, ISBN 91-7871-492-3, Abstract online ^ Databehandling i forskningsbibliotek (1965; in LIBRIS), cited in Olsson (1995), p. 51. ^ Olsson (1995), p. 55. ^ Olsson (1995), p. 103. ^ Olsson (1995), p. 31. ^ LIBRIS-meddelanden External links[edit] Wikidata has the property: SELIBR ID (P906) (see uses) National Library of Sweden: LIBRIS (select "In English" from the top menu, default language is Swedish) Open Data, Information about LIBRIS bibliographic records and authority file as open data, 3 April 2012. v t e Authority control files AAG • ACM DL • ADB • AGSA • autores.uy • AWR • BALaT • BIBSYS • Bildindex • BNC • BNE • BNF • Botanist • BPN • CANTIC • CiNii • CWGC • DAAO • DBLP • DSI • FNZA • GND • HDS • IAAF • ICCU • ICIA • ISNI • Joconde • KulturNav • LCCN • LIR • LNB • Léonore • MBA • MGP • NARA • NBL • NDL • NGV • NKC • NLA • NLG • NLI • NLK • NLP • NLR • NSK • NTA • ORCID • PIC • ResearcherID • RERO • RKD • RKDimages ID • RSL • SELIBR • SIKART • SNAC • SUDOC • S2AuthorId • TA98 • TDVİA • TE • TePapa • TH • TLS • Trove • UKPARL • ULAN • US Congress • VcBA • VIAF • WorldCat Identities Authority control GND: 4501169-2 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=LIBRIS&oldid=996199542" Categories: Libraries in Sweden Library cataloging and classification Hidden categories: CS1 Swedish-language sources (sv) Pages containing links to subscription-only content Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from August 2012 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2012 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans العربية Asturianu भोजपुरी Български Català Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Македонски مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Türkçe Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 25 December 2020, at 02:47 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3803	----	Satires 2.5 (Horace) - Wikipedia Satires 2.5 (Horace) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Tiresias appears to Odysseus during the nekyia of Odyssey xi, in this watercolor with tempera by the Anglo-Swiss painter Johann Heinrich Füssli, c. 1780-85 Published around 30 BCE, the second book of Satires is a series of poems composed in dactylic hexameter by the Roman poet Horace. Satires 2.5[1] stands out in the work for its unique analysis of legacy hunting. Contents 1 Plot summary 2 Analysis 3 Characterizations 3.1 Ulysses 3.2 Tiresias 3.3 Penelope 4 References Plot summary[edit] Horace's Satire Book II, Satire V is poem about a discussion between Ulysses and Tiresias that is presented as a continuation of their interaction in the underworld in Book 11 of Homer's Odyssey. Ulysses is concerned that he will have no wealth once he returns to Ithaca because the suitors will have squandered the contents of his storehouses. Stating bluntly that breeding and character are meaningless without wealth, he asks Tiresias for any suggestions on how to rebuild his prosperity. Tiresias suggests that Ulysses try his hand at legacy hunting, and gives examples of characters through history that have ingratiated themselves with the affluent in order to be named as benefactors in their will. Despite Ulysses’ skepticism, Tiresias asserts the plan's merit and provides examples of how to curry favor. Outline of the Poem[2] A. 1-22 Introduction B. 23-44 Ensnarement of Victim. Flattery C. 45-69 Precautions. Failure D. 70-98 Maintenance of Hold over Victim. Flattery E. 99-110 Conclusions. Success Analysis[edit] The structure of the poem places the majority of focus on section C, especially the story of Nasica and Coranus.[3] The poem draws from the imagery of hunting, referring to the legacy-seeker as adept with snares and to his prey as an unwary tunny fish. Most importantly, in the poem “nothing suggests that the typical senex has a mind or will of his own.”.[4] The victim is utterly objectified and reduced to a feeble creature that the captator can exploit. On a linguistic level, the poem features very colloquial and expressive language. “‘breeding and character without assets are vilior alga--more worthless than seaweed.’ Tell me, says Ulysses, how I can rake together ‘piles of cash’-- aeris acervos.”.[5] The analogies in the text are similarly graphic, as in the story of the over-insistent heir in Thebes who was required by the will of his benefactor to carry her oil-soaked slippery carcass on his shoulders during the funeral procession. Satire 2.5 is often thought of as the least “Horatian” of the Satires and is often compared to works by Juvenal, a poet of the 1st century AD. Juvenal’s poems focus on the perversions of man and hint at Man’s loss of “his highest potentialities”.[6][7] Many scholars acknowledge this cynicism in Satire 2.5 and see a connection between the two authors. As Shackleton Bailey writes, “Uniquely for Horace, it concerns a particular social malpractice (touting for legacies), and its mordant humour has reminded many readers of Juvenal.”[8] Characterizations[edit] Ulysses[edit] Horace diverges from classical portrayals of Ulysses in this satire. Ulysses is a heroic Greek protagonist, but in this poem he eschews the importance of noble bearing in favor of temporal riches. Michael Roberts writes that “the theme of perversion of human values runs throughout the satire,”[9] and this is especially relevant to the destitute Ulysses. Horace’s choice of an established epic hero to request Tiresias’ scheming advice displays a distortion of Greek heroic values. The poem also distorts the meaning of xenia, reducing the powerful bonds of host-guest friendship down to a calculated exchange of flattery for services. Although Ulysses is mostly silent after line 23, it is implied that he has been swayed by the pragmatism of Tiresias’ words. Tiresias[edit] Horace’s characterization of Tiresias is strikingly different from other authors. Instead of portraying him as a great prophet, Horace characterizes him as a shady figure, quick to reveal the secret to making money. With this, the characterization of Tiresias creates a moral tension between the paragon prophet so highly respected in ancient literature and the shady truth-teller that reveals the inner workings of legacy hunting. It is from this tension that the satirical nature of the work is derived.[10] Penelope[edit] Horace also takes a noticeably different tack than other Roman and Greek poets with regard to his characterization of Penelope. Horace introduces her first as the virtuous wife she is typically characterized as in lines 77-78. Ulysses claims that his chaste wife would never betray their vows of monogamy, but Tiresias counters that she is chaste only because the suitors are more motivated by consuming Ulysses’ bountiful stores than by sex. ”But if you make her a partner/ and let her taste some cash at an old fellow’s expense,/ there’ll be no holding her. She’ll be like a dog with a juicy bone.” Penelope, classically a bastion of chastity, is hereby portrayed as corruptible like any other woman. References[edit] ^ "Horace (65 BC–8 BC) - The Satires: Book II Satire V". www.poetryintranslation.com. ^ Roberts, Michael. "Horace Satires 2.5: Restrained Indignation." The American Journal of Philology 105.4 (1984). pg. 427 ^ Roberts, Michael. "Horace Satires 2.5: Restrained Indignation." The American Journal of Philology 105.4 (1984). pg. 427 ^ Roberts, Michael. "Horace Satires 2.5: Restrained Indignation." The American Journal of Philology 105.4 (1984). pg. 428 ^ Rudd, Niall. The Satires of Horace. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1966. pg. 238 ^ Anderson, W.S., “Imagery in the Satires of Horace and Juvenal,” AJP 81 (1960). pg. 241-243 ^ Roberts, Michael. "Horace Satires 2.5: Restrained Indignation." The American Journal of Philology 105.4 (1984). pg. 431 ^ Shackleton Bailey, D.R. Profile of Horace. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982. pg.36 ^ Roberts, Michael. "Horace Satires 2.5: Restrained Indignation." The American Journal of Philology 105.4 (1984). pg. 432 ^ Rudd, Niall. The Satires of Horace. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1966. pg. 228 v t e Works by Horace Poetry Satires Epodes Odes Epistles Carmen Saeculare Ars Poetica Collections Satires 2.5 Quote Ut pictura poesis Related Spring of Bandusium Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Satires_2.5_(Horace)&oldid=904383673" Categories: Poetry by Horace Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Latina Edit links This page was last edited on 1 July 2019, at 20:10 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3771	----	Plato - Wikipedia Plato From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Platonic Dialogues) Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation) and Platon (disambiguation). Classical Greek Athenian philosopher, founder of Platonism Plato Roman copy of a portrait bust by Silanion for the Academia in Athens (c. 370 BC) Born 428/427 or 424/423 BC Athens, Greece Died 348/347 BC (age c. 80) Athens, Greece Notable work Apology Crito Euthyphro Meno Parmenides Phaedo Phaedrus Republic Symposium Timaeus Era Ancient Greek philosophy Region Western philosophy School Platonism Notable students Aristotle Eudoxus of Cnidus Main interests Metaphysics Ethics Politics Epistemology Aesthetics Soul Love Mathematics Language Education Cosmology Eschatology Notable ideas Platonic philosophy Innatism Theory of forms Idealism Influences Socrates Pythagoras Parmenides Heraclitus Cratylus the Sophists Eleusinian Mysteries Orphism Diotima[1] Theaetetus Theodorus Homer Hesiod Influenced Virtually all subsequent Western philosophy (and religion), especially Platonism, including Aristotle, Speusippus and Xenocrates, Academic skepticism, Middle Platonism, Philo, Plotinus and Neoplatonism, Augustine and Christian Platonism, Boethius, Islamic Platonism and Isma'ilism, Gemistus Pletho, Florentine Academy and Renaissance Platonism, Cambridge Platonism, Modern Platonism Part of a series on Platonism Plato from Raphael's The School of Athens (1509–1511) Early life Works Epistemology Idealism / realism Demiurge Theory of forms Theory of soul Transcendentals Form of the Good Third man argument Euthyphro dilemma Five regimes Philosopher king Plato's unwritten doctrines political philosophy Allegories and metaphors Atlantis Ring of Gyges The Cave The Divided Line The Sun Ship of State Myth of Er The Chariot Related articles Commentaries The Academy in Athens Socratic problem Academic skepticism Middle Platonism Neoplatonism and Christianity Allegorical interpretations of Plato Related categories ► Plato  Philosophy portal v t e Plato (/ˈpleɪtoʊ/ PLAY-toe;[2] Greek: Πλάτων Plátōn, pronounced [plá.tɔːn] in Classical Attic; 428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC) was an Athenian philosopher during the Classical period in Ancient Greece, founder of the Platonist school of thought, and the Academy, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. He is widely considered the pivotal figure in the history of Ancient Greek and Western philosophy, along with his teacher, Socrates, and his most famous student, Aristotle.[a] Plato has also often been cited as one of the founders of Western religion and spirituality.[4] The so-called Neoplatonism of philosophers like Plotinus and Porphyry greatly influenced Christianity through Church Fathers such as Augustine. Alfred North Whitehead once noted: "the safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato."[5] Plato was the innovator of the written dialogue and dialectic forms in philosophy. Plato is also considered the founder of Western political philosophy. His most famous contribution is the theory of Forms known by pure reason, in which Plato presents a solution to the problem of universals known as Platonism (also ambiguously called either Platonic realism or Platonic idealism). He is also the namesake of Platonic love and the Platonic solids. His own most decisive philosophical influences are usually thought to have been along with Socrates, the pre-Socratics Pythagoras, Heraclitus and Parmenides, although few of his predecessors' works remain extant and much of what we know about these figures today derives from Plato himself.[b] Unlike the work of nearly all of his contemporaries, Plato's entire body of work is believed to have survived intact for over 2,400 years.[7] Although their popularity has fluctuated over the years, Plato's works have never been without readers since the time they were written.[8] Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Early life 1.1.1 Birth and family 1.1.2 Name 1.1.3 Education 1.2 Later life and death 2 Influences 2.1 Pythagoras 2.1.1 Plato and mathematics 2.2 Heraclitus and Parmenides 2.3 Socrates 3 Philosophy 3.1 Metaphysics 3.1.1 The Forms 3.1.2 The soul 3.2 Epistemology 3.2.1 Recollection 3.2.2 Justified true belief 3.3 Ethics 3.3.1 Justice 3.4 Politics 3.5 Art and poetry 3.6 Unwritten doctrines 4 Themes of Plato's dialogues 4.1 Trial of Socrates 4.1.1 The trial in other dialogues 4.2 Allegories 4.2.1 The Cave 4.2.2 Ring of Gyges 4.2.3 Chariot 4.3 Dialectic 4.4 Family 4.5 Narration 5 History of Plato's dialogues 5.1 Chronology 5.1.1 Writings of doubted authenticity 5.1.2 Spurious writings 5.2 Textual sources and history 5.2.1 Modern editions 6 Criticism 7 Legacy 7.1 In the arts 7.2 In philosophy 8 See also 8.1 Philosophy 8.2 Ancient scholars 8.3 Modern scholars 8.4 Other 9 Notes 10 References 10.1 Works cited 11 Further reading 12 External links Biography Early life Main article: Early life of Plato Birth and family Diogenes Laertius is a principal source for the history of ancient Greek philosophy. Due to a lack of surviving accounts, little is known about Plato's early life and education. Plato belonged to an aristocratic and influential family. According to a disputed tradition, reported by doxographer Diogenes Laërtius, Plato's father Ariston traced his descent from the king of Athens, Codrus, and the king of Messenia, Melanthus.[9] According to the ancient Hellenic tradition, Codrus was said to have been descended from the mythological deity Poseidon.[10][11] Through his mother, Plato was related to Solon. Plato's mother was Perictione, whose family boasted of a relationship with the famous Athenian lawmaker and lyric poet Solon, one of the seven sages, who repealed the laws of Draco (except for the death penalty for homicide).[11] Perictione was sister of Charmides and niece of Critias, both prominent figures of the Thirty Tyrants, known as the Thirty, the brief oligarchic regime (404–403 BC), which followed on the collapse of Athens at the end of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC).[12] According to some accounts, Ariston tried to force his attentions on Perictione, but failed in his purpose; then the god Apollo appeared to him in a vision, and as a result, Ariston left Perictione unmolested.[13] The exact time and place of Plato's birth are unknown. Based on ancient sources, most modern scholars believe that he was born in Athens or Aegina[c] between 429 and 423 BC, not long after the start of the Peloponnesian War.[d] The traditional date of Plato's birth during the 87th or 88th Olympiad, 428 or 427 BC, is based on a dubious interpretation of Diogenes Laërtius, who says, "When [Socrates] was gone, [Plato] joined Cratylus the Heracleitean and Hermogenes, who philosophized in the manner of Parmenides. Then, at twenty-eight, Hermodorus says, [Plato] went to Euclides in Megara." However, as Debra Nails argues, the text does not state that Plato left for Megara immediately after joining Cratylus and Hermogenes.[23] In his Seventh Letter, Plato notes that his coming of age coincided with the taking of power by the Thirty, remarking, "But a youth under the age of twenty made himself a laughingstock if he attempted to enter the political arena." Thus, Nails dates Plato's birth to 424/423.[24] According to Neanthes, Plato was six years younger than Isocrates, and therefore was born the same year the prominent Athenian statesman Pericles died (429 BC).[25] Jonathan Barnes regards 428 BC as the year of Plato's birth.[21][22] The grammarian Apollodorus of Athens in his Chronicles argues that Plato was born in the 88th Olympiad.[18] Both the Suda and Sir Thomas Browne also claimed he was born during the 88th Olympiad.[17][26] Another legend related that, when Plato was an infant, bees settled on his lips while he was sleeping: an augury of the sweetness of style in which he would discourse about philosophy.[27] Speusippus was Plato's nephew. Besides Plato himself, Ariston and Perictione had three other children; two sons, Adeimantus and Glaucon, and a daughter Potone, the mother of Speusippus (the nephew and successor of Plato as head of the Academy).[12] The brothers Adeimantus and Glaucon are mentioned in the Republic as sons of Ariston,[28] and presumably brothers of Plato, though some have argued they were uncles.[e] In a scenario in the Memorabilia, Xenophon confused the issue by presenting a Glaucon much younger than Plato.[30] Ariston appears to have died in Plato's childhood, although the precise dating of his death is difficult.[31] Perictione then married Pyrilampes, her mother's brother,[32] who had served many times as an ambassador to the Persian court and was a friend of Pericles, the leader of the democratic faction in Athens.[33] Pyrilampes had a son from a previous marriage, Demus, who was famous for his beauty.[34] Perictione gave birth to Pyrilampes' second son, Antiphon, the half-brother of Plato, who appears in Parmenides.[35] In contrast to his reticence about himself, Plato often introduced his distinguished relatives into his dialogues or referred to them with some precision. In addition to Adeimantus and Glaucon in the Republic, Charmides has a dialogue named after him; and Critias speaks in both Charmides and Protagoras.[36] These and other references suggest a considerable amount of family pride and enable us to reconstruct Plato's family tree. According to Burnet, "the opening scene of the Charmides is a glorification of the whole [family] connection ... Plato's dialogues are not only a memorial to Socrates but also the happier days of his own family."[37] Name The fact that the philosopher in his maturity called himself Platon is indisputable, but the origin of this name remains mysterious. Platon is a nickname from the adjective platýs (πλατύς) 'broad'. Although Platon was a fairly common name (31 instances are known from Athens alone),[38] the name does not occur in Plato's known family line.[39] The sources of Diogenes Laërtius account for this by claiming that his wrestling coach, Ariston of Argos, dubbed him "broad" on account of his chest and shoulders, or that Plato derived his name from the breadth of his eloquence, or his wide forehead.[40][41] While recalling a moral lesson about frugal living Seneca mentions the meaning of Plato's name: "His very name was given him because of his broad chest."[42] Plato was a wrestler His true name was supposedly Aristocles (Ἀριστοκλῆς), meaning 'best reputation'.[f] According to Diogenes Laërtius, he was named after his grandfather, as was common in Athenian society.[43] But there is only one inscription of an Aristocles, an early archon of Athens in 605/4 BC. There is no record of a line from Aristocles to Plato's father, Ariston. Recently a scholar has argued that even the name Aristocles for Plato was a much later invention.[44] However, another scholar claims that "there is good reason for not dismissing [the idea that Aristocles was Plato's given name] as a mere invention of his biographers", noting how prevalent that account is in our sources.[39] Education Ancient sources describe him as a bright though modest boy who excelled in his studies. Apuleius informs us that Speusippus praised Plato's quickness of mind and modesty as a boy, and the "first fruits of his youth infused with hard work and love of study".[45] His father contributed all which was necessary to give to his son a good education, and, therefore, Plato must have been instructed in grammar, music, and gymnastics by the most distinguished teachers of his time.[46] Plato invokes Damon many times in the Republic. Plato was a wrestler, and Dicaearchus went so far as to say that Plato wrestled at the Isthmian games.[47] Plato had also attended courses of philosophy; before meeting Socrates, he first became acquainted with Cratylus and the Heraclitean doctrines.[48] Ambrose believed that Plato met Jeremiah in Egypt and was influenced by his ideas. Augustine initially accepted this claim, but later rejected it, arguing in The City of God that "Plato was born a hundred years after Jeremiah prophesied."[49][need quotation to verify] Later life and death Plato in his academy, drawing after a painting by Swedish painter Carl Johan Wahlbom Plato may have travelled in Italy, Sicily, Egypt and Cyrene.[50]Plato's own statement was that he visited Italy and Sicily at the age of forty and was disgusted by the sensuality of life there. Said to have returned to Athens at the age of forty, Plato founded one of the earliest known organized schools in Western Civilization on a plot of land in the Grove of Hecademus or Academus.[51] This land was named after Academus, an Attic hero in Greek mythology. In historic Greek times it was adorned with oriental plane and olive plantations[52][53] The Academy was a large enclosure of ground about six stadia (a total of between a kilometer and a half mile) outside of Athens proper. One story is that the name of the Academy comes from the ancient hero, Academus; still another story is that the name came from a supposed former owner of the plot of land, an Athenian citizen whose name was (also) Academus; while yet another account is that it was named after a member of the army of Castor and Pollux, an Arcadian named Echedemus.[54] The Academy operated until it was destroyed by Lucius Cornelius Sulla in 84 BC. Many intellectuals were schooled in the Academy, the most prominent one being Aristotle.[55][56] Throughout his later life, Plato became entangled with the politics of the city of Syracuse. According to Diogenes Laërtius, Plato initially visited Syracuse while it was under the rule of Dionysius.[57] During this first trip Dionysius's brother-in-law, Dion of Syracuse, became one of Plato's disciples, but the tyrant himself turned against Plato. Plato almost faced death, but he was sold into slavery.[g] Anniceris, a Cyrenaic philosopher, subsequently bought Plato's freedom for twenty minas,[59] and sent him home. After Dionysius's death, according to Plato's Seventh Letter, Dion requested Plato return to Syracuse to tutor Dionysius II and guide him to become a philosopher king. Dionysius II seemed to accept Plato's teachings, but he became suspicious of Dion, his uncle. Dionysius expelled Dion and kept Plato against his will. Eventually Plato left Syracuse. Dion would return to overthrow Dionysius and ruled Syracuse for a short time before being usurped by Calippus, a fellow disciple of Plato. According to Seneca, Plato died at the age of 81 on the same day he was born.[60] The Suda indicates that he lived to 82 years,[17] while Neanthes claims an age of 84.[18] A variety of sources have given accounts of his death. One story, based on a mutilated manuscript,[61] suggests Plato died in his bed, whilst a young Thracian girl played the flute to him.[62] Another tradition suggests Plato died at a wedding feast. The account is based on Diogenes Laërtius's reference to an account by Hermippus, a third-century Alexandrian.[63] According to Tertullian, Plato simply died in his sleep.[63] Plato owned an estate at Iphistiadae, which by will he left to a certain youth named Adeimantus, presumably a younger relative, as Plato had an elder brother or uncle by this name. Influences Pythagoras Bust of Pythagoras in Rome. Although Socrates influenced Plato directly as related in the dialogues, the influence of Pythagoras upon Plato, or in a broader sense, the Pythagoreans, such as Archytas also appears to have been significant. Aristotle claimed that the philosophy of Plato closely followed the teachings of the Pythagoreans,[64] and Cicero repeats this claim: "They say Plato learned all things Pythagorean."[65] It is probable that both were influenced by Orphism, and both believed in metempsychosis, transmigration of the soul. Pythagoras held that all things are number, and the cosmos comes from numerical principles. He introduced the concept of form as distinct from matter, and that the physical world is an imitation of an eternal mathematical world. These ideas were very influential on Heraclitus, Parmenides and Plato.[66] George Karamanolis notes that Numenius accepted both Pythagoras and Plato as the two authorities one should follow in philosophy, but he regarded Plato's authority as subordinate to that of Pythagoras, whom he considered to be the source of all true philosophy—including Plato's own. For Numenius it is just that Plato wrote so many philosophical works, whereas Pythagoras' views were originally passed on only orally.[67] According to R. M. Hare, this influence consists of three points: The platonic Republic might be related to the idea of "a tightly organized community of like-minded thinkers", like the one established by Pythagoras in Croton. The idea that mathematics and, generally speaking, abstract thinking is a secure basis for philosophical thinking as well as "for substantial theses in science and morals". They shared a "mystical approach to the soul and its place in the material world".[68][69] Plato and mathematics Plato may have studied under the mathematician Theodorus of Cyrene, and has a dialogue named for and whose central character is the mathematician Theaetetus. While not a mathematician, Plato was considered an accomplished teacher of mathematics. Eudoxus of Cnidus, the greatest mathematician in Classical Greece, who contributed much of what is found in Euclid's Elements, was taught by Archytas and Plato. Plato helped to distinguish between pure and applied mathematics by widening the gap between "arithmetic", now called number theory and "logistic", now called arithmetic.[h] Assignment to the elements in Kepler's Mysterium Cosmographicum In the dialogue Timaeus Plato associated each of the four classical elements (earth, air, water, and fire) with a regular solid (cube, octahedron, icosahedron, and tetrahedron respectively) due to their shape, the so-called Platonic solids. The fifth regular solid, the dodecahedron, was supposed to be the element which made up the heavens. Heraclitus and Parmenides The two philosophers Heraclitus and Parmenides, following the way initiated by pre-Socratic Greek philosophers like Pythagoras, depart from mythology and begin the metaphysical tradition that strongly influenced Plato and continues today.[66] Heraclitus (1628) by Hendrick ter Brugghen Bust of Parmenides from Velia The surviving fragments written by Heraclitus suggest the view that all things are continuously changing, or becoming. His image of the river, with ever-changing waters, is well known. According to some ancient traditions like that of Diogenes Laërtius, Plato received these ideas through Heraclitus' disciple Cratylus, who held the more radical view that continuous change warrants scepticism because we cannot define a thing that does not have a permanent nature.[71] Parmenides adopted an altogether contrary vision, arguing for the idea of changeless Being and the view that change is an illusion.[66] John Palmer notes "Parmenides' distinction among the principal modes of being and his derivation of the attributes that must belong to what must be, simply as such, qualify him to be seen as the founder of metaphysics or ontology as a domain of inquiry distinct from theology."[72] These ideas about change and permanence, or becoming and Being, influenced Plato in formulating his theory of Forms.[71] Plato's most self-critical dialogue is called Parmenides, featuring Parmenides and his student Zeno, who following Parmenides' denial of change argued forcefully with his paradoxes to deny the existence of motion. Plato's Sophist dialogue includes an Eleatic stranger, a follower of Parmenides, as a foil for his arguments against Parmenides. In the dialogue Plato distinguishes nouns and verbs, providing some of the earliest treatment of subject and predicate. He also argues that motion and rest both "are", against followers of Parmenides who say rest is but motion is not. Socrates See also: Socratic problem Bust of Socrates at the Louvre. Plato was one of the devoted young followers of Socrates. The precise relationship between Plato and Socrates remains an area of contention among scholars. Plato never speaks in his own voice in his dialogues, and speaks as Socrates in all but the Laws. In the Second Letter, it says, "no writing of Plato exists or ever will exist, but those now said to be his are those of a Socrates become beautiful and new";[73] if the Letter is Plato's, the final qualification seems to call into question the dialogues' historical fidelity. In any case, Xenophon's Memorabilia and Aristophanes's The Clouds seem to present a somewhat different portrait of Socrates from the one Plato paints. The Socratic problem asks how to reconcile these various accounts. Leo Strauss notes that Socrates' reputation for irony casts doubt on whether Plato's Socrates is expressing sincere beliefs.[74] Aristotle attributes a different doctrine with respect to Forms to Plato and Socrates.[75] Aristotle suggests that Socrates' idea of forms can be discovered through investigation of the natural world, unlike Plato's Forms that exist beyond and outside the ordinary range of human understanding. In the dialogues of Plato though, Socrates sometimes seems to support a mystical side, discussing reincarnation and the mystery religions, this is generally attributed to Plato.[clarification needed][76] Regardless, this view of Socrates cannot be dismissed out of hand, as we cannot be sure of the differences between the views of Plato and Socrates. In the Meno Plato refers to the Eleusinian Mysteries, telling Meno he would understand Socrates's answers better if he could stay for the initiations next week. It is possible that Plato and Socrates took part in the Eleusinian Mysteries.[77] Philosophy Metaphysics In Plato's dialogues, Socrates and his company of disputants had something to say on many subjects, including several aspects of metaphysics. These include religion and science, human nature, love, and sexuality. More than one dialogue contrasts perception and reality, nature and custom, and body and soul. The Forms The "windmill proof" of the Pythagorean theorem found in Euclid's Elements. "Platonism" and its theory of Forms (or theory of Ideas) denies the reality of the material world, considering it only an image or copy of the real world. The theory of Forms is first introduced in the Phaedo dialogue (also known as On the Soul), wherein Socrates refutes the pluralism of the likes of Anaxagoras, then the most popular response to Heraclitus and Parmenides, while giving the "Opposites Argument" in support of the Forms. According to this theory of Forms there are at least two worlds: the apparent world of concrete objects, grasped by the senses, which constantly changes, and an unchanging and unseen world of Forms or abstract objects, grasped by pure reason (λογική). which ground what is apparent. It can also be said there are three worlds, with the apparent world consisting of both the world of material objects and of mental images, with the "third realm" consisting of the Forms. Thus, though there is the term "Platonic idealism", this refers to Platonic Ideas or the Forms, and not to some platonic kind of idealism, an 18th-century view which sees matter as unreal in favour of mind. For Plato, though grasped by the mind, only the Forms are truly real. Plato's Forms thus represent types of things, as well as properties, patterns, and relations, to which we refer as objects. Just as individual tables, chairs, and cars refer to objects in this world, 'tableness', 'chairness', and 'carness', as well as e. g. justice, truth, and beauty refer to objects in another world. One of Plato's most cited examples for the Forms were the truths of geometry, such as the Pythagorean theorem. In other words, the Forms are universals given as a solution to the problem of universals, or the problem of "the One and the Many", e. g. how one predicate "red" can apply to many red objects. For Plato this is because there is one abstract object or Form of red, redness itself, in which the several red things "participate". As Plato's solution is that universals are Forms and that Forms are real if anything is, Plato's philosophy is unambiguously called Platonic realism. According to Aristotle, Plato's best known argument in support of the Forms was the "one over many" argument.[78] What is justice? Aside from being immutable, timeless, changeless, and one over many, the Forms also provide definitions and the standard against which all instances are measured. In the dialogues Socrates regularly asks for the meaning – in the sense of intensional definitions – of a general term (e. g. justice, truth, beauty), and criticizes those who instead give him particular, extensional examples, rather than the quality shared by all examples. There is thus a world of perfect, eternal, and changeless meanings of predicates, the Forms, existing in the realm of Being outside of space and time; and the imperfect sensible world of becoming, subjects somehow in a state between being and nothing, that partakes of the qualities of the Forms, and is its instantiation. The soul Plato advocates a belief in the immortality of the soul, and several dialogues end with long speeches imagining the afterlife. In the Timaeus, Socrates locates the parts of the soul within the human body: Reason is located in the head, spirit in the top third of the torso, and the appetite in the middle third of the torso, down to the navel.[79][80] Epistemology Socrates, such as wisdom also discuss several aspects of epistemology. More than one dialogue contrasts knowledge and opinion. Plato's epistemology involves Socrates arguing that knowledge is not empirical, and that it comes from divine insight. The Forms are also responsible for both knowledge or certainty, and are grasped by pure reason. In several dialogues, Socrates inverts the common man's intuition about what is knowable and what is real. Reality is unavailable to those who use their senses. Socrates says that he who sees with his eyes is blind. While most people take the objects of their senses to be real if anything is, Socrates is contemptuous of people who think that something has to be graspable in the hands to be real. In the Theaetetus, he says such people are eu amousoi (εὖ ἄμουσοι), an expression that means literally, "happily without the muses".[81] In other words, such people are willingly ignorant, living without divine inspiration and access to higher insights about reality. In Plato's dialogues, Socrates always insists on his ignorance and humility, that he knows nothing, so called Socratic irony. Several dialogues refute a series of viewpoints, but offer no positive position of its own, ending in aporia. Recollection In several of Plato's dialogues, Socrates promulgates the idea that knowledge is a matter of recollection of the state before one is born, and not of observation or study.[82] Keeping with the theme of admitting his own ignorance, Socrates regularly complains of his forgetfulness. In the Meno, Socrates uses a geometrical example to expound Plato's view that knowledge in this latter sense is acquired by recollection. Socrates elicits a fact concerning a geometrical construction from a slave boy, who could not have otherwise known the fact (due to the slave boy's lack of education). The knowledge must be present, Socrates concludes, in an eternal, non-experiential form. In other dialogues, the Sophist, Statesman, Republic, and the Parmenides, Plato himself associates knowledge with the apprehension of unchanging Forms and their relationships to one another (which he calls "expertise" in Dialectic), including through the processes of collection and division.[83] More explicitly, Plato himself argues in the Timaeus that knowledge is always proportionate to the realm from which it is gained. In other words, if one derives one's account of something experientially, because the world of sense is in flux, the views therein attained will be mere opinions. And opinions are characterized by a lack of necessity and stability. On the other hand, if one derives one's account of something by way of the non-sensible forms, because these forms are unchanging, so too is the account derived from them. That apprehension of forms is required for knowledge may be taken to cohere with Plato's theory in the Theaetetus and Meno.[84] Indeed, the apprehension of Forms may be at the base of the "account" required for justification, in that it offers foundational knowledge which itself needs no account, thereby avoiding an infinite regression.[85] Justified true belief A Venn diagram illustrating the classical theory of knowledge. Many have interpreted Plato as stating—even having been the first to write—that knowledge is justified true belief, an influential view that informed future developments in epistemology.[86] This interpretation is partly based on a reading of the Theaetetus wherein Plato argues that knowledge is distinguished from mere true belief by the knower having an "account" of the object of their true belief.[87] And this theory may again be seen in the Meno, where it is suggested that true belief can be raised to the level of knowledge if it is bound with an account as to the question of "why" the object of the true belief is so.[88][89] Many years later, Edmund Gettier famously demonstrated the problems of the justified true belief account of knowledge. That the modern theory of justified true belief as knowledge which Gettier addresses is equivalent to Plato's is accepted by some scholars but rejected by others.[90] Plato himself also identified problems with the justified true belief definition in the Theaetetus, concluding that justification (or an "account") would require knowledge of difference, meaning that the definition of knowledge is circular.[91][92] Ethics Several dialogues discuss ethics including virtue and vice, pleasure and pain, crime and punishment, and justice and medicine. Plato views "The Good" as the supreme Form, somehow existing even "beyond being". Socrates propounded a moral intellectualism which claimed nobody does bad on purpose, and to know what is good results in doing what is good; that knowledge is virtue. In the Protagoras dialogue it is argued that virtue is innate and cannot be learned. Socrates presents the famous Euthyphro dilemma in the dialogue of the same name: "Is the pious (τὸ ὅσιον) loved by the gods because it is pious, or is it pious because it is loved by the gods?" (10a) Justice As above, in the Republic, Plato asks the question, “What is justice?” By means of the Greek term dikaiosune – a term for “justice” that captures both individual justice and the justice that informs societies, Plato is able not only to inform metaphysics, but also ethics and politics with the question: “What is the basis of moral and social obligation?” Plato's well-known answer rests upon the fundamental responsibility to seek wisdom, wisdom which leads to an understanding of the Form of the Good. Plato further argues that such understanding of forms produces and ensures the good communal life when ideally structured under a philosopher king in a society with three classes (philosophers kings, guardians and workers) that neatly mirror his triadic view of the individual soul (reason, spirit and appetite). In this manner, justice is obtained when knowledge of how to fulfill one's moral and political function in society is put into practice.[93] Politics Oxyrhynchus Papyri, with fragment of Plato's Republic The dialogues also discuss politics. Some of Plato's most famous doctrines are contained in the Republic as well as in the Laws and the Statesman. Because these doctrines are not spoken directly by Plato and vary between dialogues, they cannot be straightforwardly assumed as representing Plato's own views. Socrates asserts that societies have a tripartite class structure corresponding to the appetite/spirit/reason structure of the individual soul. The appetite/spirit/reason are analogous to the castes of society.[94] Productive (Workers) – the labourers, carpenters, plumbers, masons, merchants, farmers, ranchers, etc. These correspond to the "appetite" part of the soul. Protective (Warriors or Guardians) – those who are adventurous, strong and brave; in the armed forces. These correspond to the "spirit" part of the soul. Governing (Rulers or Philosopher Kings) – those who are intelligent, rational, self-controlled, in love with wisdom, well suited to make decisions for the community. These correspond to the "reason" part of the soul and are very few. According to this model, the principles of Athenian democracy (as it existed in his day) are rejected as only a few are fit to rule. Instead of rhetoric and persuasion, Socrates says reason and wisdom should govern. As Socrates puts it: "Until philosophers rule as kings or those who are now called kings and leading men genuinely and adequately philosophize, that is, until political power and philosophy entirely coincide, while the many natures who at present pursue either one exclusively are forcibly prevented from doing so, cities will have no rest from evils,... nor, I think, will the human race."[95] Socrates describes these "philosopher kings" as "those who love the sight of truth"[96] and supports the idea with the analogy of a captain and his ship or a doctor and his medicine. According to him, sailing and health are not things that everyone is qualified to practice by nature. A large part of the Republic then addresses how the educational system should be set up to produce these philosopher kings. In addition, the ideal city is used as an image to illuminate the state of one's soul, or the will, reason, and desires combined in the human body. Socrates is attempting to make an image of a rightly ordered human, and then later goes on to describe the different kinds of humans that can be observed, from tyrants to lovers of money in various kinds of cities. The ideal city is not promoted, but only used to magnify the different kinds of individual humans and the state of their soul. However, the philosopher king image was used by many after Plato to justify their personal political beliefs. The philosophic soul according to Socrates has reason, will, and desires united in virtuous harmony. A philosopher has the moderate love for wisdom and the courage to act according to wisdom. Wisdom is knowledge about the Good or the right relations between all that exists. Wherein it concerns states and rulers, Socrates asks which is better—a bad democracy or a country reigned by a tyrant. He argues that it is better to be ruled by a bad tyrant, than by a bad democracy (since here all the people are now responsible for such actions, rather than one individual committing many bad deeds.) This is emphasised within the Republic as Socrates describes the event of mutiny on board a ship.[97] Socrates suggests the ship's crew to be in line with the democratic rule of many and the captain, although inhibited through ailments, the tyrant. Socrates' description of this event is parallel to that of democracy within the state and the inherent problems that arise. According to Socrates, a state made up of different kinds of souls will, overall, decline from an aristocracy (rule by the best) to a timocracy (rule by the honourable), then to an oligarchy (rule by the few), then to a democracy (rule by the people), and finally to tyranny (rule by one person, rule by a tyrant).[98] Aristocracy in the sense of government (politeia) is advocated in Plato's Republic. This regime is ruled by a philosopher king, and thus is grounded on wisdom and reason. The aristocratic state, and the man whose nature corresponds to it, are the objects of Plato's analyses throughout much of the Republic, as opposed to the other four types of states/men, who are discussed later in his work. In Book VIII, Socrates states in order the other four imperfect societies with a description of the state's structure and individual character. In timocracy the ruling class is made up primarily of those with a warrior-like character.[99] Oligarchy is made up of a society in which wealth is the criterion of merit and the wealthy are in control.[100] In democracy, the state bears resemblance to ancient Athens with traits such as equality of political opportunity and freedom for the individual to do as he likes.[101] Democracy then degenerates into tyranny from the conflict of rich and poor. It is characterized by an undisciplined society existing in chaos, where the tyrant rises as popular champion leading to the formation of his private army and the growth of oppression.[102][98][103] Art and poetry Several dialogues tackle questions about art, including rhetoric and rhapsody. Socrates says that poetry is inspired by the muses, and is not rational. He speaks approvingly of this, and other forms of divine madness (drunkenness, eroticism, and dreaming) in the Phaedrus,[104] and yet in the Republic wants to outlaw Homer's great poetry, and laughter as well. In Ion, Socrates gives no hint of the disapproval of Homer that he expresses in the Republic. The dialogue Ion suggests that Homer's Iliad functioned in the ancient Greek world as the Bible does today in the modern Christian world: as divinely inspired literature that can provide moral guidance, if only it can be properly interpreted. Unwritten doctrines Bust excavated at the Villa of the Papyri, possibly of Dionysus, Plato or Poseidon. For a long time, Plato's unwritten doctrines[105][106][107] had been controversial. Many modern books on Plato seem to diminish its importance; nevertheless, the first important witness who mentions its existence is Aristotle, who in his Physics writes: "It is true, indeed, that the account he gives there [i.e. in Timaeus] of the participant is different from what he says in his so-called unwritten teachings (ἄγραφα δόγματα)."[108] The term "ἄγραφα δόγματα" literally means unwritten doctrines or unwritten dogmas and it stands for the most fundamental metaphysical teaching of Plato, which he disclosed only orally, and some say only to his most trusted fellows, and which he may have kept secret from the public. The importance of the unwritten doctrines does not seem to have been seriously questioned before the 19th century. A reason for not revealing it to everyone is partially discussed in Phaedrus where Plato criticizes the written transmission of knowledge as faulty, favouring instead the spoken logos: "he who has knowledge of the just and the good and beautiful ... will not, when in earnest, write them in ink, sowing them through a pen with words, which cannot defend themselves by argument and cannot teach the truth effectually."[109] The same argument is repeated in Plato's Seventh Letter: "every serious man in dealing with really serious subjects carefully avoids writing."[110] In the same letter he writes: "I can certainly declare concerning all these writers who claim to know the subjects that I seriously study ... there does not exist, nor will there ever exist, any treatise of mine dealing therewith."[111] Such secrecy is necessary in order not "to expose them to unseemly and degrading treatment".[112] It is, however, said that Plato once disclosed this knowledge to the public in his lecture On the Good (Περὶ τἀγαθοῦ), in which the Good (τὸ ἀγαθόν) is identified with the One (the Unity, τὸ ἕν), the fundamental ontological principle. The content of this lecture has been transmitted by several witnesses. Aristoxenus describes the event in the following words: "Each came expecting to learn something about the things that are generally considered good for men, such as wealth, good health, physical strength, and altogether a kind of wonderful happiness. But when the mathematical demonstrations came, including numbers, geometrical figures and astronomy, and finally the statement Good is One seemed to them, I imagine, utterly unexpected and strange; hence some belittled the matter, while others rejected it."[113] Simplicius quotes Alexander of Aphrodisias, who states that "according to Plato, the first principles of everything, including the Forms themselves are One and Indefinite Duality (ἡ ἀόριστος δυάς), which he called Large and Small (τὸ μέγα καὶ τὸ μικρόν)", and Simplicius reports as well that "one might also learn this from Speusippus and Xenocrates and the others who were present at Plato's lecture on the Good".[44] Their account is in full agreement with Aristotle's description of Plato's metaphysical doctrine. In Metaphysics he writes: "Now since the Forms are the causes of everything else, he [i.e. Plato] supposed that their elements are the elements of all things. Accordingly the material principle is the Great and Small [i.e. the Dyad], and the essence is the One (τὸ ἕν), since the numbers are derived from the Great and Small by participation in the One".[114] "From this account it is clear that he only employed two causes: that of the essence, and the material cause; for the Forms are the cause of the essence in everything else, and the One is the cause of it in the Forms. He also tells us what the material substrate is of which the Forms are predicated in the case of sensible things, and the One in that of the Forms—that it is this the duality (the Dyad, ἡ δυάς), the Great and Small (τὸ μέγα καὶ τὸ μικρόν). Further, he assigned to these two elements respectively the causation of good and of evil".[114] The most important aspect of this interpretation of Plato's metaphysics is the continuity between his teaching and the Neoplatonic interpretation of Plotinus[i] or Ficino[j] which has been considered erroneous by many but may in fact have been directly influenced by oral transmission of Plato's doctrine. A modern scholar who recognized the importance of the unwritten doctrine of Plato was Heinrich Gomperz who described it in his speech during the 7th International Congress of Philosophy in 1930.[115] All the sources related to the ἄγραφα δόγματα have been collected by Konrad Gaiser and published as Testimonia Platonica.[116] These sources have subsequently been interpreted by scholars from the German Tübingen School of interpretation such as Hans Joachim Krämer or Thomas A. Szlezák.[k] Themes of Plato's dialogues Trial of Socrates The Death of Socrates (1787), by Jacques-Louis David The trial of Socrates and his death sentence is the central, unifying event of Plato's dialogues. It is relayed in the dialogues Apology, Crito, and Phaedo. Apology is Socrates' defence speech, and Crito and Phaedo take place in prison after the conviction. Apology is among the most frequently read of Plato's works. In the Apology, Socrates tries to dismiss rumours that he is a sophist and defends himself against charges of disbelief in the gods and corruption of the young. Socrates insists that long-standing slander will be the real cause of his demise, and says the legal charges are essentially false. Socrates famously denies being wise, and explains how his life as a philosopher was launched by the Oracle at Delphi. He says that his quest to resolve the riddle of the oracle put him at odds with his fellow man, and that this is the reason he has been mistaken for a menace to the city-state of Athens. In Apology, Socrates is presented as mentioning Plato by name as one of those youths close enough to him to have been corrupted, if he were in fact guilty of corrupting the youth, and questioning why their fathers and brothers did not step forward to testify against him if he was indeed guilty of such a crime.[117] Later, Plato is mentioned along with Crito, Critobolus, and Apollodorus as offering to pay a fine of 30 minas on Socrates' behalf, in lieu of the death penalty proposed by Meletus.[118] In the Phaedo, the title character lists those who were in attendance at the prison on Socrates' last day, explaining Plato's absence by saying, "Plato was ill".[119] The trial in other dialogues See also: List of speakers in Plato's dialogues If Plato's important dialogues do not refer to Socrates' execution explicitly, they allude to it, or use characters or themes that play a part in it. Five dialogues foreshadow the trial: In the Theaetetus and the Euthyphro Socrates tells people that he is about to face corruption charges.[120][121] In the Meno, one of the men who brings legal charges against Socrates, Anytus, warns him about the trouble he may get into if he does not stop criticizing important people.[122] In the Gorgias, Socrates says that his trial will be like a doctor prosecuted by a cook who asks a jury of children to choose between the doctor's bitter medicine and the cook's tasty treats.[123] In the Republic, Socrates explains why an enlightened man (presumably himself) will stumble in a courtroom situation.[124] Plato's support of aristocracy and distrust of democracy is also taken to be partly rooted in a democracy having killed Socrates. In the Protagoras, Socrates is a guest at the home of Callias, son of Hipponicus, a man whom Socrates disparages in the Apology as having wasted a great amount of money on sophists' fees. Two other important dialogues, the Symposium and the Phaedrus, are linked to the main storyline by characters. In the Apology, Socrates says Aristophanes slandered him in a comic play, and blames him for causing his bad reputation, and ultimately, his death.[125] In the Symposium, the two of them are drinking together with other friends. The character Phaedrus is linked to the main story line by character (Phaedrus is also a participant in the Symposium and the Protagoras) and by theme (the philosopher as divine emissary, etc.) The Protagoras is also strongly linked to the Symposium by characters: all of the formal speakers at the Symposium (with the exception of Aristophanes) are present at the home of Callias in that dialogue. Charmides and his guardian Critias are present for the discussion in the Protagoras. Examples of characters crossing between dialogues can be further multiplied. The Protagoras contains the largest gathering of Socratic associates. In the dialogues Plato is most celebrated and admired for, Socrates is concerned with human and political virtue, has a distinctive personality, and friends and enemies who "travel" with him from dialogue to dialogue. This is not to say that Socrates is consistent: a man who is his friend in one dialogue may be an adversary or subject of his mockery in another. For example, Socrates praises the wisdom of Euthyphro many times in the Cratylus, but makes him look like a fool in the Euthyphro. He disparages sophists generally, and Prodicus specifically in the Apology, whom he also slyly jabs in the Cratylus for charging the hefty fee of fifty drachmas for a course on language and grammar. However, Socrates tells Theaetetus in his namesake dialogue that he admires Prodicus and has directed many pupils to him. Socrates' ideas are also not consistent within or between or among dialogues. Allegories Main article: Allegorical interpretations of Plato Mythos and logos are terms that evolved along classical Greek history. In the times of Homer and Hesiod (8th century BC) they were essentially synonyms, and contained the meaning of 'tale' or 'history'. Later came historians like Herodotus and Thucydides, as well as philosophers like Heraclitus and Parmenides and other Presocratics who introduced a distinction between both terms; mythos became more a nonverifiable account, and logos a rational account.[126] It may seem that Plato, being a disciple of Socrates and a strong partisan of philosophy based on logos, should have avoided the use of myth-telling. Instead he made an abundant use of it. This fact has produced analytical and interpretative work, in order to clarify the reasons and purposes for that use. Plato, in general, distinguished between three types of myth.[l] First there were the false myths, like those based on stories of gods subject to passions and sufferings, because reason teaches that God is perfect. Then came the myths based on true reasoning, and therefore also true. Finally there were those non verifiable because beyond of human reason, but containing some truth in them. Regarding the subjects of Plato's myths they are of two types, those dealing with the origin of the universe, and those about morals and the origin and fate of the soul.[127] It is generally agreed that the main purpose for Plato in using myths was didactic. He considered that only a few people were capable or interested in following a reasoned philosophical discourse, but men in general are attracted by stories and tales. Consequently, then, he used the myth to convey the conclusions of the philosophical reasoning. Some of Plato's myths were based in traditional ones, others were modifications of them, and finally he also invented altogether new myths.[128] Notable examples include the story of Atlantis, the Myth of Er, and the Allegory of the Cave. The Cave Plato's Allegory of the Cave by Jan Saenredam, according to Cornelis van Haarlem, 1604, Albertina, Vienna The theory of Forms is most famously captured in his Allegory of the Cave, and more explicitly in his analogy of the sun and the divided line. The Allegory of the Cave is a paradoxical analogy wherein Socrates argues that the invisible world is the most intelligible ('noeton') and that the visible world ((h)oraton) is the least knowable, and the most obscure. Socrates says in the Republic that people who take the sun-lit world of the senses to be good and real are living pitifully in a den of evil and ignorance. Socrates admits that few climb out of the den, or cave of ignorance, and those who do, not only have a terrible struggle to attain the heights, but when they go back down for a visit or to help other people up, they find themselves objects of scorn and ridicule. According to Socrates, physical objects and physical events are "shadows" of their ideal or perfect forms, and exist only to the extent that they instantiate the perfect versions of themselves. Just as shadows are temporary, inconsequential epiphenomena produced by physical objects, physical objects are themselves fleeting phenomena caused by more substantial causes, the ideals of which they are mere instances. For example, Socrates thinks that perfect justice exists (although it is not clear where) and his own trial would be a cheap copy of it. The Allegory of the Cave is intimately connected to his political ideology, that only people who have climbed out of the cave and cast their eyes on a vision of goodness are fit to rule. Socrates claims that the enlightened men of society must be forced from their divine contemplation and be compelled to run the city according to their lofty insights. Thus is born the idea of the "philosopher-king", the wise person who accepts the power thrust upon him by the people who are wise enough to choose a good master. This is the main thesis of Socrates in the Republic, that the most wisdom the masses can muster is the wise choice of a ruler.[129] Ring of Gyges A ring which could make one invisible, the Ring of Gyges is proposed in the Republic by the character of Glaucon, and considered by the rest of characters for its ethical consequences, whether an individual possessing it would be most happy abstaining or doing injustice. Chariot He also compares the soul (psyche) to a chariot. In this allegory he introduces a triple soul which composed of a charioteer and two horses. The charioteer is a symbol of intellectual and logical part of the soul (logistikon), and two horses represents the moral virtues (thymoeides) and passionate instincts (epithymetikon), respectively, to illustrate the conflict between them. Dialectic Socrates employs a dialectic method which proceeds by questioning. The role of dialectic in Plato's thought is contested but there are two main interpretations: a type of reasoning and a method of intuition.[130] Simon Blackburn adopts the first, saying that Plato's dialectic is "the process of eliciting the truth by means of questions aimed at opening out what is already implicitly known, or at exposing the contradictions and muddles of an opponent's position."[130] A similar interpretation has been put forth by Louis Hartz, who suggests that elements of the dialectic are borrowed from Hegel.[131] According to this view, opposing arguments improve upon each other, and prevailing opinion is shaped by the synthesis of many conflicting ideas over time. Each new idea exposes a flaw in the accepted model, and the epistemological substance of the debate continually approaches the truth. Hartz's is a teleological interpretation at the core, in which philosophers will ultimately exhaust the available body of knowledge and thus reach "the end of history." Karl Popper, on the other hand, claims that dialectic is the art of intuition for "visualising the divine originals, the Forms or Ideas, of unveiling the Great Mystery behind the common man's everyday world of appearances."[132] Family Plato often discusses the father-son relationship and the question of whether a father's interest in his sons has much to do with how well his sons turn out. In ancient Athens, a boy was socially located by his family identity, and Plato often refers to his characters in terms of their paternal and fraternal relationships. Socrates was not a family man, and saw himself as the son of his mother, who was apparently a midwife. A divine fatalist, Socrates mocks men who spent exorbitant fees on tutors and trainers for their sons, and repeatedly ventures the idea that good character is a gift from the gods. Plato's dialogue Crito reminds Socrates that orphans are at the mercy of chance, but Socrates is unconcerned. In the Theaetetus, he is found recruiting as a disciple a young man whose inheritance has been squandered. Socrates twice compares the relationship of the older man and his boy lover to the father-son relationship,[133][134] and in the Phaedo, Socrates' disciples, towards whom he displays more concern than his biological sons, say they will feel "fatherless" when he is gone. Though Plato agreed with Aristotle that women were inferior to men, in the fourth book of the Republic the character of Socrates says this was only because of nomos or custom and not because of nature, and thus women needed paidia, rearing or education to be equal to men. In the "merely probable tale" of the eponymous character in the Timaeus, unjust men who live corrupted lives would be reincarnated as women or various animal kinds. Narration Plato never presents himself as a participant in any of the dialogues, and with the exception of the Apology, there is no suggestion that he heard any of the dialogues firsthand. Some dialogues have no narrator but have a pure "dramatic" form (examples: Meno, Gorgias, Phaedrus, Crito, Euthyphro), some dialogues are narrated by Socrates, wherein he speaks in first person (examples: Lysis, Charmides, Republic). One dialogue, Protagoras, begins in dramatic form but quickly proceeds to Socrates' narration of a conversation he had previously with the sophist for whom the dialogue is named; this narration continues uninterrupted till the dialogue's end. Painting of a scene from Plato's Symposium (Anselm Feuerbach, 1873) Two dialogues Phaedo and Symposium also begin in dramatic form but then proceed to virtually uninterrupted narration by followers of Socrates. Phaedo, an account of Socrates' final conversation and hemlock drinking, is narrated by Phaedo to Echecrates in a foreign city not long after the execution took place.[m] The Symposium is narrated by Apollodorus, a Socratic disciple, apparently to Glaucon. Apollodorus assures his listener that he is recounting the story, which took place when he himself was an infant, not from his own memory, but as remembered by Aristodemus, who told him the story years ago. The Theaetetus is a peculiar case: a dialogue in dramatic form embedded within another dialogue in dramatic form. In the beginning of the Theaetetus,[136] Euclides says that he compiled the conversation from notes he took based on what Socrates told him of his conversation with the title character. The rest of the Theaetetus is presented as a "book" written in dramatic form and read by one of Euclides' slaves.[137] Some scholars take this as an indication that Plato had by this date wearied of the narrated form.[138] With the exception of the Theaetetus, Plato gives no explicit indication as to how these orally transmitted conversations came to be written down. History of Plato's dialogues Volume 3, pp. 32–33, of the 1578 Stephanus edition of Plato, showing a passage of Timaeus with the Latin translation and notes of Jean de Serres Thirty-five dialogues and thirteen letters (the Epistles) have traditionally been ascribed to Plato, though modern scholarship doubts the authenticity of at least some of these. Plato's writings have been published in several fashions; this has led to several conventions regarding the naming and referencing of Plato's texts. The usual system for making unique references to sections of the text by Plato derives from a 16th-century edition of Plato's works by Henricus Stephanus known as Stephanus pagination. One tradition regarding the arrangement of Plato's texts is according to tetralogies. This scheme is ascribed by Diogenes Laërtius to an ancient scholar and court astrologer to Tiberius named Thrasyllus. Chronology No one knows the exact order Plato's dialogues were written in, nor the extent to which some might have been later revised and rewritten. The works are usually grouped into Early (sometimes by some into Transitional), Middle, and Late period.[139][140] This choice to group chronologically is thought worthy of criticism by some (Cooper et al),[141] given that it is recognized that there is no absolute agreement as to the true chronology, since the facts of the temporal order of writing are not confidently ascertained.[142] Chronology was not a consideration in ancient times, in that groupings of this nature are virtually absent (Tarrant) in the extant writings of ancient Platonists.[143] Whereas those classified as "early dialogues" often conclude in aporia, the so-called "middle dialogues" provide more clearly stated positive teachings that are often ascribed to Plato such as the theory of Forms. The remaining dialogues are classified as "late" and are generally agreed to be difficult and challenging pieces of philosophy. This grouping is the only one proven by stylometric analysis.[144] Among those who classify the dialogues into periods of composition, Socrates figures in all of the "early dialogues" and they are considered the most faithful representations of the historical Socrates.[145] The following represents one relatively common division.[146] It should, however, be kept in mind that many of the positions in the ordering are still highly disputed, and also that the very notion that Plato's dialogues can or should be "ordered" is by no means universally accepted. Increasingly in the most recent Plato scholarship, writers are sceptical of the notion that the order of Plato's writings can be established with any precision,[147] though Plato's works are still often characterized as falling at least roughly into three groups.[6] Early: Apology, Charmides, Crito, Euthyphro, Gorgias, (Lesser) Hippias (minor), (Greater) Hippias (major), Ion, Laches, Lysis, Protagoras Middle: Cratylus, Euthydemus, Meno, Parmenides, Phaedo, Phaedrus, Republic, Symposium, Theaetetus Late: Critias, Sophist, Statesman / Politicus, Timaeus, Philebus, Laws.[145] A significant distinction of the early Plato and the later Plato has been offered by scholars such as E.R. Dodds and has been summarized by Harold Bloom in his book titled Agon: "E.R. Dodds is the classical scholar whose writings most illuminated the Hellenic descent (in) The Greeks and the Irrational ... In his chapter on Plato and the Irrational Soul ... Dodds traces Plato's spiritual evolution from the pure rationalist of the Protagoras to the transcendental psychologist, influenced by the Pythagoreans and Orphics, of the later works culminating in the Laws."[148] Lewis Campbell was the first[149] to make exhaustive use of stylometry to prove the great probability that the Critias, Timaeus, Laws, Philebus, Sophist, and Statesman were all clustered together as a group, while the Parmenides, Phaedrus, Republic, and Theaetetus belong to a separate group, which must be earlier (given Aristotle's statement in his Politics[150] that the Laws was written after the Republic; cf. Diogenes Laërtius Lives 3.37). What is remarkable about Campbell's conclusions is that, in spite of all the stylometric studies that have been conducted since his time, perhaps the only chronological fact about Plato's works that can now be said to be proven by stylometry is the fact that Critias, Timaeus, Laws, Philebus, Sophist, and Statesman are the latest of Plato's dialogues, the others earlier.[144] Protagoras is often considered one of the last of the "early dialogues". Three dialogues are often considered "transitional" or "pre-middle": Euthydemus, Gorgias, and Meno. Proponents of dividing the dialogues into periods often consider the Parmenides and Theaetetus to come late in the middle period and be transitional to the next, as they seem to treat the theory of Forms critically (Parmenides) or only indirectly (Theaetetus).[151] Ritter's stylometric analysis places Phaedrus as probably after Theaetetus and Parmenides,[152] although it does not relate to the theory of Forms in the same way. The first book of the Republic is often thought to have been written significantly earlier than the rest of the work, although possibly having undergone revisions when the later books were attached to it.[151] While looked to for Plato's "mature" answers to the questions posed by his earlier works, those answers are difficult to discern. Some scholars[145] indicate that the theory of Forms is absent from the late dialogues, its having been refuted in the Parmenides, but there isn't total consensus that the Parmenides actually refutes the theory of Forms.[153] Writings of doubted authenticity Jowett mentions in his Appendix to Menexenus, that works which bore the character of a writer were attributed to that writer even when the actual author was unknown.[154] For below: (*) if there is no consensus among scholars as to whether Plato is the author, and (‡) if most scholars agree that Plato is not the author of the work.[155] First Alcibiades (*), Second Alcibiades (‡), Clitophon (*), Epinomis (‡), Epistles (*), Hipparchus (‡), Menexenus (*), Minos (‡), (Rival) Lovers (‡), Theages (‡) Spurious writings The following works were transmitted under Plato's name, most of them already considered spurious in antiquity, and so were not included by Thrasyllus in his tetralogical arrangement. These works are labelled as Notheuomenoi ("spurious") or Apocrypha. Axiochus, Definitions, Demodocus, Epigrams, Eryxias, Halcyon, On Justice, On Virtue, Sisyphus. Textual sources and history First page of the Euthyphro, from the Clarke Plato (Codex Oxoniensis Clarkianus 39), 895 AD. The text is Greek minuscule. See also: List of manuscripts of Plato's dialogues Some 250 known manuscripts of Plato survive.[156] The texts of Plato as received today apparently represent the complete written philosophical work of Plato and are generally good by the standards of textual criticism.[157] No modern edition of Plato in the original Greek represents a single source, but rather it is reconstructed from multiple sources which are compared with each other. These sources are medieval manuscripts written on vellum (mainly from 9th to 13th century AD Byzantium), papyri (mainly from late antiquity in Egypt), and from the independent testimonia of other authors who quote various segments of the works (which come from a variety of sources). The text as presented is usually not much different from what appears in the Byzantine manuscripts, and papyri and testimonia just confirm the manuscript tradition. In some editions however the readings in the papyri or testimonia are favoured in some places by the editing critic of the text. Reviewing editions of papyri for the Republic in 1987, Slings suggests that the use of papyri is hampered due to some poor editing practices.[158] In the first century AD, Thrasyllus of Mendes had compiled and published the works of Plato in the original Greek, both genuine and spurious. While it has not survived to the present day, all the extant medieval Greek manuscripts are based on his edition.[159] The oldest surviving complete manuscript for many of the dialogues is the Clarke Plato (Codex Oxoniensis Clarkianus 39, or Codex Boleianus MS E.D. Clarke 39), which was written in Constantinople in 895 and acquired by Oxford University in 1809.[160] The Clarke is given the siglum B in modern editions. B contains the first six tetralogies and is described internally as being written by "John the Calligrapher" on behalf of Arethas of Caesarea. It appears to have undergone corrections by Arethas himself.[161] For the last two tetralogies and the apocrypha, the oldest surviving complete manuscript is Codex Parisinus graecus 1807, designated A, which was written nearly contemporaneously to B, circa 900 AD.[162] A must be a copy of the edition edited by the patriarch, Photios, teacher of Arethas.[163][164][165]A probably had an initial volume containing the first 7 tetralogies which is now lost, but of which a copy was made, Codex Venetus append. class. 4, 1, which has the siglum T. The oldest manuscript for the seventh tetralogy is Codex Vindobonensis 54. suppl. phil. Gr. 7, with siglum W, with a supposed date in the twelfth century.[166] In total there are fifty-one such Byzantine manuscripts known, while others may yet be found.[167] To help establish the text, the older evidence of papyri and the independent evidence of the testimony of commentators and other authors (i.e., those who quote and refer to an old text of Plato which is no longer extant) are also used. Many papyri which contain fragments of Plato's texts are among the Oxyrhynchus Papyri. The 2003 Oxford Classical Texts edition by Slings even cites the Coptic translation of a fragment of the Republic in the Nag Hammadi library as evidence.[168] Important authors for testimony include Olympiodorus the Younger, Plutarch, Proclus, Iamblichus, Eusebius, and Stobaeus. During the early Renaissance, the Greek language and, along with it, Plato's texts were reintroduced to Western Europe by Byzantine scholars. In September or October 1484 Filippo Valori and Francesco Berlinghieri printed 1025 copies of Ficino's translation, using the printing press at the Dominican convent S.Jacopo di Ripoli.[169][170] Cosimo had been influenced toward studying Plato by the many Byzantine Platonists in Florence during his day, including George Gemistus Plethon. The 1578 edition[171] of Plato's complete works published by Henricus Stephanus (Henri Estienne) in Geneva also included parallel Latin translation and running commentary by Joannes Serranus (Jean de Serres). It was this edition which established standard Stephanus pagination, still in use today.[172] Modern editions The Oxford Classical Texts offers the current standard complete Greek text of Plato's complete works. In five volumes edited by John Burnet, its first edition was published 1900–1907, and it is still available from the publisher, having last been printed in 1993.[173][174] The second edition is still in progress with only the first volume, printed in 1995, and the Republic, printed in 2003, available. The Cambridge Greek and Latin Texts and Cambridge Classical Texts and Commentaries series includes Greek editions of the Protagoras, Symposium, Phaedrus, Alcibiades, and Clitophon, with English philological, literary, and, to an extent, philosophical commentary.[175][176] One distinguished edition of the Greek text is E. R. Dodds' of the Gorgias, which includes extensive English commentary.[177][178] The modern standard complete English edition is the 1997 Hackett Plato, Complete Works, edited by John M. Cooper.[179][180] For many of these translations Hackett offers separate volumes which include more by way of commentary, notes, and introductory material. There is also the Clarendon Plato Series by Oxford University Press which offers English translations and thorough philosophical commentary by leading scholars on a few of Plato's works, including John McDowell's version of the Theaetetus.[181] Cornell University Press has also begun the Agora series of English translations of classical and medieval philosophical texts, including a few of Plato's.[182] Criticism The most famous criticism of the Theory of Forms is the Third Man Argument by Aristotle in the Metaphysics. Plato had actually already considered this objection with the idea of "large" rather than "man" in the dialogue Parmenides, using the elderly Elean philosophers Parmenides and Zeno characters anachronistically to criticize the character of the younger Socrates who proposed the idea. The dialogue ends in aporia. Many recent philosophers have diverged from what some would describe as the ontological models and moral ideals characteristic of traditional Platonism. A number of these postmodern philosophers have thus appeared to disparage Platonism from more or less informed perspectives. Friedrich Nietzsche notoriously attacked Plato's "idea of the good itself" along with many fundamentals of Christian morality, which he interpreted as "Platonism for the masses" in one of his most important works, Beyond Good and Evil (1886). Martin Heidegger argued against Plato's alleged obfuscation of Being in his incomplete tome, Being and Time (1927), and the philosopher of science Karl Popper argued in The Open Society and Its Enemies (1945) that Plato's alleged proposal for a utopian political regime in the Republic was prototypically totalitarian. The Dutch historian of science Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis criticizes Plato, stating that he was guilty of "constructing an imaginary nature by reasoning from preconceived principles and forcing reality more or less to adapt itself to this construction."[183] Dijksterhuis adds that one of the errors into which Plato had "fallen in an almost grotesque manner, consisted in an over-estimation of what unaided thought, i.e. without recourse to experience, could achieve in the field of natural science."[184] Legacy In the arts Plato (left) and Aristotle (right) a detail of The School of Athens, a fresco by Raphael. Aristotle gestures to the earth while holding a copy of his Nicomachean Ethics in his hand. Plato holds his Timaeus and gestures to the heavens. Plato's Academy mosaic was created in the villa of T. Siminius Stephanus in Pompeii, around 100 BC to 100 CE. The School of Athens fresco by Raphael features Plato also as a central figure. The Nuremberg Chronicle depicts Plato and other as anachronistic schoolmen. In philosophy Plato's thought is often compared with that of his most famous student, Aristotle, whose reputation during the Western Middle Ages so completely eclipsed that of Plato that the Scholastic philosophers referred to Aristotle as "the Philosopher". However, in the Byzantine Empire, the study of Plato continued. The only Platonic work known to western scholarship was Timaeus, until translations were made after the fall of Constantinople, which occurred during 1453.[185] George Gemistos Plethon brought Plato's original writings from Constantinople in the century of its fall. It is believed that Plethon passed a copy of the Dialogues to Cosimo de' Medici when in 1438 the Council of Ferrara, called to unify the Greek and Latin Churches, was adjourned to Florence, where Plethon then lectured on the relation and differences of Plato and Aristotle, and fired Cosimo with his enthusiasm;[186] Cosimo would supply Marsilio Ficino with Plato's text for translation to Latin. During the early Islamic era, Persian and Arab scholars translated much of Plato into Arabic and wrote commentaries and interpretations on Plato's, Aristotle's and other Platonist philosophers' works (see Al-Farabi, Avicenna, Averroes, Hunayn ibn Ishaq). Many of these commentaries on Plato were translated from Arabic into Latin and as such influenced Medieval scholastic philosophers.[187] During the Renaissance, with the general resurgence of interest in classical civilization, knowledge of Plato's philosophy would become widespread again in the West. Many of the greatest early modern scientists and artists who broke with Scholasticism and fostered the flowering of the Renaissance, with the support of the Plato-inspired Lorenzo (grandson of Cosimo), saw Plato's philosophy as the basis for progress in the arts and sciences. More problematic was Plato's belief in metempsychosis as well as his ethical views (on polyamory and euthanasia in particular), which did not match those of Christianity. It was Plethon's student Bessarion who reconciled Plato with Christian theology, arguing that Plato's views were only ideals, unattainable due to the fall of man.[188] The Cambridge Platonists were around in the 17th century. By the 19th century, Plato's reputation was restored, and at least on par with Aristotle's. Notable Western philosophers have continued to draw upon Plato's work since that time. Plato's influence has been especially strong in mathematics and the sciences. Plato's resurgence further inspired some of the greatest advances in logic since Aristotle, primarily through Gottlob Frege and his followers Kurt Gödel, Alonzo Church, and Alfred Tarski. Albert Einstein suggested that the scientist who takes philosophy seriously would have to avoid systematization and take on many different roles, and possibly appear as a Platonist or Pythagorean, in that such a one would have "the viewpoint of logical simplicity as an indispensable and effective tool of his research."[189] "The safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato." (Alfred North Whitehead, Process and Reality, 1929). The political philosopher and professor Leo Strauss is considered by some as the prime thinker involved in the recovery of Platonic thought in its more political, and less metaphysical, form. Strauss' political approach was in part inspired by the appropriation of Plato and Aristotle by medieval Jewish and Islamic political philosophers, especially Maimonides and Al-Farabi, as opposed to the Christian metaphysical tradition that developed from Neoplatonism. Deeply influenced by Nietzsche and Heidegger, Strauss nonetheless rejects their condemnation of Plato and looks to the dialogues for a solution to what all three latter day thinkers acknowledge as 'the crisis of the West.[citation needed] W. V. O. Quine dubbed the problem of negative existentials "Plato's beard". Noam Chomsky dubbed the problem of knowledge Plato's problem. One author calls the definist fallacy the Socratic fallacy[190].[relevant? – discuss] More broadly, platonism (sometimes distinguished from Plato's particular view by the lowercase) refers to the view that there are many abstract objects. Still to this day, platonists take number and the truths of mathematics as the best support in favour of this view. Most mathematicians think, like platonists, that numbers and the truths of mathematics are perceived by reason rather than the senses yet exist independently of minds and people, that is to say, they are discovered rather than invented.[citation needed] Contemporary platonism is also more open to the idea of there being infinitely many abstract objects, as numbers or propositions might qualify as abstract objects, while ancient Platonism seemed to resist this view, possibly because of the need to overcome the problem of "the One and the Many". Thus e. g. in the Parmenides dialogue, Plato denies there are Forms for more mundane things like hair and mud. However, he repeatedly does support the idea that there are Forms of artifacts, e. g. the Form of Bed. Contemporary platonism also tends to view abstract objects as unable to cause anything, but it is unclear whether the ancient Platonists felt this way.[citation needed] See also Library resources about Plato Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Plato Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Philosophy portal Philosophy Socratic Problem Platonic Academy Plato's unwritten doctrines List of speakers in Plato's dialogues Commentaries on Plato Neoplatonism Academic Skepticism Ancient scholars Philip of Opus, Plato's amanuensis Speusippus, Plato's nephew and the second scholarch of the academy Menedemus of Pyrrha Xenocrates Crantor Polemon Crates of Athens Arcesilaus Carneades Plotinus, founder of Neoplatonism, although he had no connection to the previous Academy of Plato Proclus Ammonius Saccas Yahya Ibn al-Batriq, Syrian scholar and associate of Al-Kindi who translated Timaeus into Arabic Hunayn ibn Ishaq, Arab scholar who either amended or surpassed the Timaeus of al-Batriq and translated Plato's Republic and Laws into Arabic Ishaq ibn Hunayn, translated Plato's Sophist with the commentary of Olympiodorus the Younger Yahya ibn Adi, translated Laws into Arabic Al-Farabi, author of a commentary on Plato's political philosophy Averroes, author of a commentary on the Republic Marsilio Ficino, Italian scholar and first translator of Plato's complete works into Latin Stephanus pagination, the standard reference numbering in Platonic scholarship, based on the 1578 complete Latin translation by Jean de Serres, and published by Henri Estienne Modern scholars Johann Gottfried Stallbaum, major Plato scholar and commentator in Latin Eduard Zeller, scholar and classicist John Alexander Stewart, major Plato scholar and classicist Victor Cousin, scholar and the first translator Plato's complete works into French Émile Saisset, scholar and a translator Plato's complete works into French Émile Chambry, scholar and a translator Plato's complete works into French Otto Apelt, scholar and the first translator Plato's complete works into German Benjamin Jowett, scholar and the first translated Plato's complete works into English James Adam, major Plato scholar and author of the authoritative critical edition of the Republic John Burnet, major Plato scholar and translator Francis Macdonald Cornford, translator of Republic and author of commentaries William Keith Chambers Guthrie, classical scholar and historian E. R. Dodds, classical scholar and author of commentaries on Plato Allan Bloom, major Plato scholar and translator of Republic in English Myles Burnyeat, major Plato scholar Harold F. Cherniss, major Plato scholar Guy Cromwell Field, Plato scholar Paul Friedländer, Plato scholar Terence Irwin, major Plato scholar Richard Kraut, major Plato scholar Ellen Francis Mason, translator of Plato Eric Havelock, Plato scholar Debra Nails, Plato scholar Alexander Nehamas, major Plato scholar Thomas Pangle, major Plato scholar and translator of Laws in English Friedrich Schleiermacher, commentator Paul Shorey, major Plato scholar and translator of Republic John Madison Cooper, major Plato scholar and translator of several works of Plato, and editor of the Hackett edition of the complete works of Plato in English Leo Strauss, major Plato scholar Seth Benardete, major Plato scholar Gregory Vlastos, major Plato scholar Hans-Georg Gadamer, major Plato scholar Paul Woodruff, major Plato scholar Catherine Zuckert, Plato scholar and political philosopher Julia Annas, Plato scholar and moral philosopher John McDowell, translated Theaetetus in English Robin Waterfield, Plato scholar and translator in English Léon Robin, scholar of Ancient Greek philosophy, translator of the complete works of Plato in French Alain Badiou, French philosopher, loosely translated Republic in French Chen Chung-hwan, scholar and commentator, translated Parmenides in Chinese Liu Xiaofeng, scholar and commentator, translated Symposium in Chinese Michitaro Tanaka and Norio Fujisawa, translators of the complete works of Plato in Japanese Joseph Gerhard Liebes, major scholar and commentator, the first to translate Plato's complete works in Hebrew Margalit Finkelberg, scholar and commentator, translated Symposium in Hebrew Virgilio S. Almario, translated Republic to Filipino Mahatma Gandhi, translated Apology in Gujarati Zakir Husain, Indian politician and academic, translated Republic in Urdu[191] Pierre Hadot, scholar and author of commentaries of Plato in French Luc Brisson, translator and author of commentaries on several works of Plato, and editor of the complete French translations; widely considered to be the most important contemporary scholar of Plato[192] Other Oxyrhynchus Papyri, including the Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 228, containing the oldest fragment of the Laches, and Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 24, that of the Book X of the Republic Plato, a lunar impact crater on the Moon aged 3.8 billion years, named after the Greek philosopher Notes ^ "...the subject of philosophy, as it is often conceived—a rigorous and systematic examination of ethical, political, metaphysical, and epistemological issues, armed with a distinctive method—can be called his invention."[3] ^ "Though influenced primarily by Socrates, to the extent that Socrates is usually the main character in many of Plato's writings, he was also influenced by Heraclitus, Parmenides, and the Pythagoreans"[6] ^ Diogenes Laërtius mentions that Plato "was born, according to some writers, in Aegina in the house of Phidiades, the son of Thales." Diogenes mentions as one of his sources the Universal History of Favorinus. According to Favorinus, Ariston, Plato's family, and his family were sent by Athens to settle as cleruchs (colonists retaining their Athenian citizenship), on the island of Aegina, from which the Spartans expelled them after Plato's birth there.[14] Nails points out, however, that there is no record of any Spartan expulsion of Athenians from Aegina between 431–411 BC.[15] On the other hand, at the Peace of Nicias, Aegina was silently left under Athens' control, and it was not until the summer of 411 that the Spartans overran the island.[16] Therefore, Nails concludes that "perhaps Ariston was a cleruch, perhaps he went to Aegina in 431, and perhaps Plato was born on Aegina, but none of this enables a precise dating of Ariston's death (or Plato's birth).[15] Aegina is regarded as Plato's place of birth by the Suda as well.[17] ^ Apollodorus of Athens said Plato was born on the seventh day of the month Thargelion; according to this tradition the god Apollo was born this day.[18] Renaissance Platonists celebrated Plato's birth on November 7.[19] Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff estimates that Plato was born when Diotimos was archon eponymous, namely between July 29, 428 BC and July 24, 427 BC.[20] Greek philologist Ioannis Kalitsounakis believes that he was born on May 26 or 27, 427 BC.[21][22] ^ According to James Adam, some have held that "Glaucon and Adeimantus were uncles of Plato, but Zeller decides for the usual view that they were brothers."[29] ^ From aristos and kleos ^ A scroll by Philodemus analysed in 2019 may suggest that Plato was enslaved earlier than was previously believed.[58] ^ He regarded "logistic" as appropriate for business men and men of war who "must learn the art of numbers or he will not know how to array his troops," while "arithmetic" was appropriate for philosophers "because he has to arise out of the sea of change and lay hold of true being."[70] ^ Plotinus describes this in the last part of his final Ennead (VI, 9) entitled On the Good, or the One (Περὶ τἀγαθοῦ ἢ τοῦ ἑνός). Jens Halfwassen states in Der Aufstieg zum Einen' (2006) that "Plotinus' ontology—which should be called Plotinus' henology—is a rather accurate philosophical renewal and continuation of Plato's unwritten doctrine, i.e. the doctrine rediscovered by Krämer and Gaiser." ^ In one of his letters (Epistolae 1612) Ficino writes: "The main goal of the divine Plato ... is to show one principle of things, which he called the One (τὸ ἕν)", cf. Montoriola 1926, p. 147. ^ For a brief description of the problem see for example Gaiser 1980. A more detailed analysis is given by Krämer 1990. Another description is by Reale 1997 and Reale 1990. A thorough analysis of the consequences of such an approach is given by Szlezak 1999. Another supporter of this interpretation is the German philosopher Karl Albert, cf. Albert 1980 or Albert 1996. Hans-Georg Gadamer is also sympathetic towards it, cf. Grondin 2010 and Gadamer 1980. Gadamer's final position on the subject is stated in Gadamer 1997. ^ Some use the term allegory instead of myth. This is in accordance with the practice in the specialized literature, in which it is common to find that the terms allegory and myth are used as synonyms. Nevertheless, there is a trend among modern scholars to use the term myth and avoid the term allegory, as it is considered more appropriate to modern interpretation of Plato's writings. One of the first to initiate this trend was the Oxford University professor John Alexander Stewart, in his work The Myths of Plato. ^ "The time is not long after the death of Socrates; for the Pythagoreans [Echecrates & co.] have not heard any details yet".[135] References ^ Ragland-Sullivan, Ellie (Fall 1989). "Plato's Symposium and the Lacanian Theory of Transference: Or, What Is Love?". The South Atlantic Quarterly. Duke University Press. 88: 740. ^ Jones 2006. ^ Kraut 2013 ^ Michel Foucault, The Hermeneutics of the Subject, Palgrave Macmillan, 2005, p. 17. ^ Whitehead 1978, p. 39. ^ a b Brickhouse & Smith. ^ Cooper, John M.; Hutchinson, D.S., eds. (1997): "Introduction." ^ Cooper 1997, p. vii. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Plato, III • Nails 2002, p. 53 • Wilamowitz-Moellendorff 2005, p. 46 ^ The Great Books of the Western World: Plato, Biographical Note. ^ a b Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Plato, I ^ a b Guthrie 1986, p. 10 • Taylor 2001, p. xiv • Wilamowitz-Moellendorff 2005, p. 47 ^ Apuleius, De Dogmate Platonis, 1 • Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Plato, I • "Plato". Suda. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Plato, III ^ a b Nails 2002, p. 54. ^ Thucydides, 5.18 • Thucydides, 8.92 ^ a b c "Plato". Suda. ^ a b c Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Plato, II ^ Nails 2006, p. 1. ^ Wilamowitz-Moellendorff 2005, p. 46. ^ a b Plato at the Encyclopædia Britannica ^ a b "Plato". Encyclopaedic Dictionary The Helios Volume V (in Greek). 1952. ^ Nails 2002, p. 247. ^ Nails 2002, p. 246. ^ Nietzsche 1967, p. 32. ^ Browne 1672. ^ Cicero, De Divinatione, I, 36 ^ Plato, Republic 368a • Wilamowitz-Moellendorff 2005, p. 47 ^ "Plato, Republic, Book 2, page 368". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Archived from the original on 21 April 2015. 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Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Ulrich von (2005) [1917]. Plato: His Life and Work (translated in Greek by Xenophon Armyros). Kaktos. ISBN 978-960-382-664-4. Further reading Alican, Necip Fikri (2012). Rethinking Plato: A Cartesian Quest for the Real Plato. Amsterdam and New York: Editions Rodopi B.V. ISBN 978-90-420-3537-9. Allen, R.E. (1965). Studies in Plato's Metaphysics II. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-7100-3626-4 Ambuel, David (2007). Image and Paradigm in Plato's Sophist. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-04-9 Anderson, Mark; Osborn, Ginger (2009). Approaching Plato: A Guide to the Early and Middle Dialogues (PDF). Nashville: Belmont University. Arieti, James A. Interpreting Plato: The Dialogues as Drama, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. ISBN 0-8476-7662-5 Bakalis, Nikolaos (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing ISBN 1-4120-4843-5 Barrow, Robin (2007). Plato: Continuum Library of Educational Thought. Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-8408-6. Cadame, Claude (1999). Indigenous and Modern Perspectives on Tribal Initiation Rites: Education According to Plato, pp. 278–312, in Padilla, Mark William (editor), "Rites of Passage in Ancient Greece: Literature, Religion, Society", Bucknell University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8387-5418-X Cooper, John M.; Hutchinson, D.S., eds. (1997). Plato: Complete Works. Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. ISBN 978-0-87220-349-5. Corlett, J. Angelo (2005). Interpreting Plato's Dialogues. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-02-5 Durant, Will (1926). The Story of Philosophy. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-69500-2. Derrida, Jacques (1972). La dissémination, Paris: Seuil. (esp. cap.: La Pharmacie de Platon, 69–199) ISBN 2-02-001958-2 Field, G.C. (1969). The Philosophy of Plato (2nd ed. with an appendix by Cross, R.C. ed.). London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-888040-0. Fine, Gail (2000). Plato 1: Metaphysics and Epistemology Oxford University Press, US, ISBN 0-19-875206-7 Finley, M.I. (1969). Aspects of antiquity: Discoveries and Controversies The Viking Press, Inc., US Garvey, James (2006). Twenty Greatest Philosophy Books. Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-9053-7. Guthrie, W.K.C. (1986). A History of Greek Philosophy (Plato – The Man & His Dialogues – Earlier Period), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-31101-2 Guthrie, W.K.C. (1986). A History of Greek Philosophy (Later Plato & the Academy) Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-31102-0 Havelock, Eric (2005). Preface to Plato (History of the Greek Mind), Belknap Press, ISBN 0-674-69906-8 Hamilton, Edith; Cairns, Huntington, eds. (1961). The Collected Dialogues of Plato, Including the Letters. Princeton Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-691-09718-3. Harvard University Press publishes the hardbound series Loeb Classical Library, containing Plato's works in Greek, with English translations on facing pages. Irvine, Andrew David (2008). Socrates on Trial: A play based on Aristophanes' Clouds and Plato's Apology, Crito, and Phaedo, adapted for modern performance. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-9783-5, 978-0-8020-9538-1 Hermann, Arnold (2010). Plato's Parmenides: Text, Translation & Introductory Essay, Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-71-1 Irwin, Terence (1995). Plato's Ethics, Oxford University Press, US, ISBN 0-19-508645-7 Jackson, Roy (2001). Plato: A Beginner's Guide. London: Hoder & Stroughton. ISBN 978-0-340-80385-1. Jowett, Benjamin (1892). [The Dialogues of Plato. Translated into English with analyses and introductions by B. Jowett.], Oxford Clarendon Press, UK, UIN:BLL01002931898 Kochin, Michael S. (2002). Gender and Rhetoric in Plato's Political Thought. Cambridge Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-521-80852-1. Kraut, Richard, ed. (1993). The Cambridge Companion to Plato. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-43610-6. LeMoine, Rebecca (2020). Plato's Caves: The Liberating Sting of Cultural Diversity. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0190936983. Lilar, Suzanne (1954), Journal de l'analogiste, Paris, Éditions Julliard; Reedited 1979, Paris, Grasset. Foreword by Julien Gracq Lilar, Suzanne (1963), Le couple, Paris, Grasset. Translated as Aspects of Love in Western Society in 1965, with a foreword by Jonathan Griffin London, Thames and Hudson. Lilar, Suzanne (1967) A propos de Sartre et de l'amour , Paris, Grasset. Lundberg, Phillip (2005). Tallyho – The Hunt for Virtue: Beauty, Truth and Goodness Nine Dialogues by Plato: Pheadrus, Lysis, Protagoras, Charmides, Parmenides, Gorgias, Theaetetus, Meno & Sophist. Authorhouse. ISBN 978-1-4184-4977-3. Márquez, Xavier (2012) A Stranger's Knowledge: Statesmanship, Philosophy & Law in Plato's Statesman, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-79-7 Melchert, Norman (2002). The Great Conversation: A Historical Introduction to Philosophy. McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-0-19-517510-3. Miller, Mitchell (2004). The Philosopher in Plato's Statesman. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-16-2 Mohr, Richard D. (2006). God and Forms in Plato – and other Essays in Plato's Metaphysics. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-01-8 Mohr, Richard D. (Ed.), Sattler, Barbara M. (Ed.) (2010) One Book, The Whole Universe: Plato's Timaeus Today, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-32-2 Moore, Edward (2007). Plato. Philosophy Insights Series. Tirril, Humanities-Ebooks. ISBN 978-1-84760-047-9 Nightingale, Andrea Wilson. (1995). "Genres in Dialogue: Plato and the Construct of Philosophy", Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-48264-X Oxford University Press publishes scholarly editions of Plato's Greek texts in the Oxford Classical Texts series, and some translations in the Clarendon Plato Series. Patterson, Richard (Ed.), Karasmanis, Vassilis (Ed.), Hermann, Arnold (Ed.) (2013) Presocratics & Plato: Festschrift at Delphi in Honor of Charles Kahn, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-75-9 Piechowiak, Marek (2019). Plato's Conception of Justice and the Question of Human Dignity. Peter Lang: Berlin. ISBN 978-3-631-65970-0. Sallis, John (1996). Being and Logos: Reading the Platonic Dialogues. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-21071-5. Sallis, John (1999). Chorology: On Beginning in Plato's "Timaeus". Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-21308-2. Sayre, Kenneth M. (2005). Plato's Late Ontology: A Riddle Resolved. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-09-4 Seung, T.K. (1996). Plato Rediscovered: Human Value and Social Order. Rowman and Littlefield. ISBN 0-8476-8112-2 Smith, William. (1867). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. University of Michigan/Online version. Stewart, John. (2010). Kierkegaard and the Greek World – Socrates and Plato. Ashgate. ISBN 978-0-7546-6981-4 Thesleff, Holger (2009). Platonic Patterns: A Collection of Studies by Holger Thesleff, Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-29-2 Thomas Taylor has translated Plato's complete works. Thomas Taylor (1804). The Works of Plato, viz. His Fifty-Five Dialogues and Twelve Epistles 5 vols Vlastos, Gregory (1981). Platonic Studies, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-10021-7 Vlastos, Gregory (2006). Plato's Universe – with a new Introduction by Luc Brisson, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-13-1 Zuckert, Catherine (2009). Plato's Philosophers: The Coherence of the Dialogues, The University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-99335-5 External links Platoat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Data from Wikidata Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Platon Works available online: Works by Plato at Perseus Project – Greek & English hyperlinked text Works by Plato at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Plato at Internet Archive Works by Plato at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Other resources: Plato at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project Plato at PhilPapers "Plato and Platonism" . Catholic Encyclopedia. 1913. v t e Plato General Early life Concepts Platonism Platonic epistemology Platonic idealism Platonic realism Innatism Platonic love Cardinal virtues Demiurge Theory of Forms Transcendentals Form of the Good Third man argument Euthyphro dilemma Five regimes Theory of soul Philosopher king Platonic solid True name Agathos kai sophos Khôra Metaxy Peritrope Philotimon Poiesis Psychagogy Sophrosyne Theia mania Topos hyperuranios Legacy Unwritten doctrines Cultural influence of Plato's Republic Neoplatonism and Gnosticism Platonism in the Renaissance Works Uncontested Apology Charmides Cratylus Critias Crito Euthydemus Euthyphro Gorgias Hippias Minor Ion Laches Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 228 Laws Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 23 Lysis Menexenus Meno Parmenides Phaedo Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 229 Phaedrus Philebus Protagoras Republic Sophist Statesman Symposium Theaetetus Timaeus Of doubtful authenticity Axiochus Clitophon Definitions Demodocus Epigrams Epinomis Epistles Letter I II IV V VI VII IX X XI XII Eryxias First Alcibiades Halcyon Hipparchus Hippias Major Minos On Justice On Virtue Rival Lovers Second Alcibiades Sisyphus Theages Allegories and metaphors Atlantis Ring of Gyges The Cave The Divided Line The Sun Ship of State Myth of Er The Chariot Allegorical interpretations of Plato Family Ariston of Athens (father) Pyrilampes (stepfather) Perictione (mother) Adeimantus of Collytus (brother) Glaucon (brother) Antiphon (brother) Potone (sister) Speusippus (nephew) Related Commentaries The Academy in Athens Socratic problem Middle Platonism Neoplatonism and Christianity Poitier Meets Plato List of speakers in Plato's dialogues "Plato's Dream" Articles related to Plato v t e Platonists Academic Old Plato Aristotle Eudoxus Philip of Opus Aristonymus Coriscus and Erastus of Scepsis Demetrius of Amphipolis Euaeon of Lampsacus Heraclides and Python of Aenus Hestiaeus of Perinthus Lastheneia of Mantinea Timolaus of Cyzicus Speusippus Axiothea of Phlius Heraclides Ponticus Menedemus of Pyrrha Xenocrates Crantor Polemon Crates of Athens Skeptic Middle Arcesilaus Diocles of Cnidus Lacydes Telecles and Evander Hegesinus New Carneades Hagnon of Tarsus Metrodorus of Stratonicea Clitomachus Charmadas Aeschines of Neapolis Philo of Larissa Cicero Dio of Alexandria Middle Platonist Antiochus Philo of Alexandria Plutarch Justin Martyr Gaius Albinus Alcinous Apuleius Atticus Maximus of Tyre Numenius of Apamea Longinus Clement of Alexandria Origen the Pagan Calcidius Neoplatonist Ancient Ammonius Saccas Plotinus Disciples Origen Amelius Porphyry Iamblichus Sopater Eustathius of Cappadocia Sosipatra Aedesius Dexippus Chrysanthius Theodorus of Asine Julian Sallustius Maximus of Ephesus Eusebius of Myndus Priscus of Epirus Antoninus Gregory of Nyssa Hypatia Augustine Macrobius Academy Plutarch of Athens Asclepigenia Hierocles Syrianus Hermias Aedesia Proclus Ammonius Hermiae Asclepiodotus Hegias Zenodotus Marinus Agapius Isidore Damascius Simplicius Priscian Medieval Boethius John Philoponus Olympiodorus Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite John Scotus Eriugena Islamic Golden Age Al-Farabi Anselm Peter Abelard Chartres Bernard Gilbert Thierry Henry of Ghent Bonaventure Theodoric of Freiberg Meister Eckhart Berthold of Moosburg Paul of Venice Modern Renaissance Florentine Academy Plethon Marsilio Ficino Cristoforo Landino Giovanni Pico della Mirandola Cambridge Ralph Cudworth Henry More Anne Conway Petrus Ramus Giordano Bruno Blaise Pascal Emanuel Swedenborg German idealist Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Christian Wolff Moses Mendelssohn Immanuel Kant Johann Gottlieb Fichte Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling Arthur Schopenhauer G. 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Related articles Jurisprudence Philosophy and economics Philosophy of education Philosophy of history Philosophy of love Philosophy of sex Philosophy of social science Political ethics Social epistemology Category v t e Seven virtues in Christian ethics Four cardinal virtues Prudence (Prudentia) Justice (Iustitia) Fortitude (Fortitudo) Temperance (Temperantia) Sources: Plato Republic, Book IV Cicero Ambrose Augustine of Hippo Thomas Aquinas Three theological virtues Faith (Fides) Hope (Spes) Love (Caritas) Sources: Paul the Apostle 1 Corinthians 13 Seven deadly sins Lust (Luxuria) Gluttony (Gula) Greed (Avaritia) Sloth (Acedia) Wrath (Ira) Envy (Invidia) Pride (Superbia) Source: Prudentius, Psychomachia People: Evagrius Ponticus John Cassian Pope Gregory I Dante Alighieri Peter Binsfeld Related concepts Ten Commandments Great Commandment Eschatology Sin Original sin Old Covenant Hamartiology Christian philosophy v t e Ethics Normative ethics Consequentialism Utilitarianism Deontology Kantian ethics Ethics of care Existentialist ethics Particularism Pragmatic ethics Role ethics Virtue ethics Eudaimonism Applied ethics Animal ethics Bioethics Business ethics Discourse ethics Engineering ethics Environmental ethics Legal ethics Machine ethics Media ethics Medical ethics Nursing ethics Professional ethics Sexual ethics Ethics of artificial intelligence Ethics of eating meat Ethics of technology Ethics of terraforming Ethics of uncertain sentience Meta-ethics Cognitivism Moral realism Ethical naturalism Ethical non-naturalism Ethical subjectivism Ideal observer theory Divine command theory Error theory Non-cognitivism Emotivism Expressivism Quasi-realism Universal prescriptivism Moral universalism Value monism – Value pluralism Moral relativism Moral nihilism Moral rationalism Ethical intuitionism Moral skepticism Concepts Autonomy Axiology Conscience Consent Equality Free will Good and evil Good Evil Happiness Ideal Immorality Justice Liberty Morality Norm Freedom Suffering or Pain Stewardship Sympathy Trust Value Virtue Wrong full index... Philosophers Laozi Socrates Plato Aristotle Diogenes Valluvar Cicero Confucius Augustine of Hippo Mencius Mozi Xunzi Thomas Aquinas Baruch Spinoza David Hume Immanuel Kant Georg W. F. Hegel Arthur Schopenhauer Jeremy Bentham John Stuart Mill Søren Kierkegaard Henry Sidgwick Friedrich Nietzsche G. E. Moore Karl Barth Paul Tillich Dietrich Bonhoeffer Philippa Foot John Rawls John Dewey Bernard Williams J. L. Mackie G. E. M. Anscombe William Frankena Alasdair MacIntyre R. M. Hare Peter Singer Derek Parfit Thomas Nagel Robert Merrihew Adams Charles Taylor Joxe Azurmendi Christine Korsgaard Martha Nussbaum more... 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Anscombe Jaakko Hintikka Michael Dummett Donald Davidson Roger Gibson Paul Grice Gilbert Ryle P. F. Strawson Willard Van Orman Quine Hilary Putnam David Lewis John Searle Joxe Azurmendi Scott Soames Stephen Yablo John Hawthorne Stephen Neale Paul Watzlawick Theories Causal theory of reference Contrast theory of meaning Contrastivism Conventionalism Cratylism Deconstruction Descriptivism Direct reference theory Dramatism Dynamic semantics Expressivism Linguistic determinism Mediated reference theory Nominalism Non-cognitivism Phallogocentrism Relevance theory Semantic externalism Semantic holism Structuralism Supposition theory Symbiosism Theological noncognitivism Theory of descriptions (Definite description) Unilalianism Verification theory Concepts Ambiguity Cant Linguistic relativity Language Truth-bearer Proposition Use–mention distinction Concept Categories Set Class Family resemblance Intension Logical form Metalanguage Mental representation Presupposition Principle of compositionality Property Sign Sense and reference Speech act Symbol Sentence Statement more... Related articles Analytic philosophy Philosophy of information Philosophical logic Linguistics Pragmatics Rhetoric Semantics Formal semantics Semiotics Category Task Force Discussion v t e Philosophy of science Concepts Analysis Analytic–synthetic distinction A priori and a posteriori Causality Commensurability Consilience Construct Creative synthesis Demarcation problem Empirical evidence Explanatory power Fact Falsifiability Feminist method Functional contextualism Ignoramus et ignorabimus Inductive reasoning Intertheoretic reduction Inquiry Nature Objectivity Observation Paradigm Problem of induction Scientific law Scientific method Scientific revolution Scientific theory Testability Theory choice Theory-ladenness Underdetermination Unity of science Metatheory of science Coherentism Confirmation holism Constructive empiricism Constructive realism Constructivist epistemology Contextualism Conventionalism Deductive-nomological model Hypothetico-deductive model Inductionism Epistemological anarchism Evolutionism Fallibilism Foundationalism Instrumentalism Pragmatism Model-dependent realism Naturalism Physicalism Positivism / Reductionism / Determinism Rationalism / Empiricism Received view / Semantic view of theories Scientific realism / Anti-realism Scientific essentialism Scientific formalism Scientific skepticism Scientism Structuralism Uniformitarianism Vitalism Philosophy of Physics thermal and statistical Motion Chemistry Biology Geography Social science Technology Engineering Artificial intelligence Computer science Information Mind Psychiatry Psychology Perception Space and time Related topics Alchemy Criticism of science Descriptive science Epistemology Faith and rationality Hard and soft science History and philosophy of science History of science History of evolutionary thought Logic Metaphysics Normative science Pseudoscience Relationship between religion and science Rhetoric of science Science studies Sociology of scientific knowledge Sociology of scientific ignorance Philosophers of science by era Ancient Plato Aristotle Stoicism Epicureans Medieval Averroes Avicenna Roger Bacon William of Ockham Hugh of Saint Victor Dominicus Gundissalinus Robert Kilwardby Early modern Francis Bacon Thomas Hobbes René Descartes Galileo Galilei Pierre Gassendi Isaac Newton David Hume Late modern Immanuel Kant Friedrich Schelling William Whewell Auguste Comte John Stuart Mill Herbert Spencer Wilhelm Wundt Charles Sanders Peirce Wilhelm Windelband Henri Poincaré Pierre Duhem Rudolf Steiner Karl Pearson Contemporary Alfred North Whitehead Bertrand Russell Albert Einstein Otto Neurath C. 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en-wikipedia-org-3806	----	Culture of ancient Rome - Wikipedia Culture of ancient Rome From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Roman culture" and "Culture of Rome" redirect here. For the culture of the modern city of Rome, see Culture of Rome, Italy. "Roman society" redirects here. For the learned society, see Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Culture of ancient Rome" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Wall painting (1st century AD) from Pompeii depicting a multigenerational banquet The culture of ancient Rome existed throughout the almost 1200-year history of the civilization of Ancient Rome. The term refers to the culture of the Roman Republic, later the Roman Empire, which at its peak covered an area from Lowland Scotland and Morocco to the Euphrates. Life in ancient Rome revolved around the city of Rome, its famed seven hills, and its monumental architecture such as the Colosseum, Trajan's Forum, and the Pantheon. The city also had several theaters, gymnasia, and many taverns, baths, and brothels. Throughout the territory under ancient Rome's control, residential architecture ranged from very modest houses to country villas, and in the capital city of Rome, there were imperial residences on the elegant Palatine Hill, from which the word palace is derived. The vast majority of the population lived in the city center, packed into insulae (apartment blocks). The city of Rome was the largest megalopolis of that time, with a population that may well have exceeded one million people, with a high-end estimate of 3.6 million and a low-end estimate of 450,000. A substantial proportion of the population under the city's jurisdiction lived in innumerable urban centers, with population of at least 10,000 and several military settlements, a very high rate of urbanization by pre-industrial standards. The most urbanized part of the Empire was Italy, which had an estimated rate of urbanization of 32%, the same rate of urbanization of England in 1800. Most Roman towns and cities had a forum, temples and the same type of buildings, on a smaller scale, as found in Rome. The large urban population required an endless supply of food which was a complex logistical task, including acquiring, transporting, storing and distribution of food for Rome and other urban centers. Italian farms supplied vegetables and fruits, but fish and meat were luxuries. Aqueducts were built to bring water to urban centers and wine and oil were imported from Hispania, Gaul and Africa. There was a very large amount of commerce between the provinces of the Roman Empire, since its transportation technology was very efficient. The average costs of transport and the technology were comparable with 18th-century Europe. The later city of Rome did not fill the space within its ancient Aurelian walls until after 1870. The majority of the population under the jurisdiction of ancient Rome lived in the countryside in settlements with less than 10 thousand inhabitants. Landlords generally resided in cities and their estates were left in the care of farm managers. The plight of rural slaves was generally worse than their counterparts working in urban aristocratic households. To stimulate a higher labor productivity most landlords freed a large number of slaves and many received wages; but in some rural areas, poverty and overcrowding were extreme.[1] Rural poverty stimulated the migration of population to urban centers until the early 2nd century when the urban population stopped growing and started to decline. Starting in the middle of the 2nd century BC, private Greek culture was increasingly in ascendancy, in spite of tirades against the "softening" effects of Hellenized culture from the conservative moralists. By the time of Augustus, cultured Greek household slaves taught the Roman young (sometimes even the girls); chefs, decorators, secretaries, doctors, and hairdressers all came from the Greek East. Greek sculptures adorned Hellenistic landscape gardening on the Palatine or in the villas, or were imitated in Roman sculpture yards by Greek slaves. Against this human background, both the urban and rural setting, one of history's most influential civilizations took shape, leaving behind a cultural legacy that survives in part today. The Roman Empire, at its height (c. 117 CE), was the most extensive political and social structure in western civilization. By 285 CE the empire had grown too vast to be ruled from the central government at Rome and so was divided by Emperor Diocletian into a Western and an Eastern Empire. The Roman Empire began when Augustus Caesar became the first emperor of Rome (31 BCE) and ended, in the west, when the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed by the Germanic King Odoacer (476 CE). In the east, it continued as the Byzantine Empire until the death of Constantine XI and the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 CE. The influence of the Roman Empire on western civilization was profound in its lasting contributions to virtually every aspect of western culture. Contents 1 Social structure 1.1 Clothing 1.2 Food 1.3 Education 2 Language 3 The arts 3.1 Literature 3.2 Visual art 3.3 Music 3.4 Architecture 4 Sports and entertainment 5 Religion 6 Philosophy 7 Science 8 See also 9 References 10 Bibliography 11 External links Social structure[edit] Main article: Social class in ancient Rome A late Republican banquet scene in a fresco from Herculaneum, Italy, c. 50 BC; the woman wears a transparent silk gown while the man to the left raises a rhyton drinking vessel A fresco portrait of a man holding a papyrus roll, Pompeii, Italy, 1st century AD The center of the early social structure, dating from the time of the agricultural tribal city state, was the family, which was not only marked by biological relations but also by the legally constructed relation of patria potestas. The Pater familias was the absolute head of the family; he was the master over his wife (if she was given to him cum manu, otherwise the father of the wife retained patria potestas), his children, the wives of his sons (again if married cum manu which became rarer towards the end of the Republic), the nephews, the slaves and the freedmen (liberated slaves, the first generation still legally inferior to the freeborn), disposing of them and of their goods at will, even having them put to death. Slavery and slaves were part of the social order. The slaves were mostly prisoners of war. There were slave markets where they could be bought and sold. Roman law was not consistent about the status of slaves, except that they were considered like any other moveable property. Many slaves were freed by the masters for fine services rendered; some slaves could save money to buy their freedom. Generally, mutilation and murder of slaves was prohibited by legislation,[citation needed] although outrageous cruelty continued. Apart from these families (called gentes) and the slaves (legally objects, mancipia i.e. "kept in the [master's] hand") there were Plebeians that did not exist from a legal perspective. They had no legal capacity and were not able to make contracts, even though they were not slaves. To deal with this problem, the so-called clientela was created. By this institution, a plebeian joined the family of a patrician (in a legal sense) and could close contracts by mediation of his patrician pater familias. Everything the plebeian possessed or acquired legally belonged to the gens. He was not allowed to form his own gens. The authority of the pater familias was unlimited, be it in civil rights as well as in criminal law. The king's duty was to be head over the military, to deal with foreign politics and also to decide on controversies between the gentes. The patricians were divided into three tribes (Ramnenses, Titientes, Luceres). During the time of the Roman Republic (founded in 509 BC) Roman citizens were allowed to vote. These included patricians and plebeians. Women, slaves, and children were not allowed to vote. There were two assemblies, the assembly of centuries (comitia centuriata) and the assembly of tribes (comitia tributa), which were made up of all the citizens of Rome. In the comitia centuriata the Romans were divided according to age, wealth and residence. The citizens in each tribe were divided into five classes based on property and then each group was subdivided into two centuries by age. All in all, there were 373 centuries. Like the assembly of tribes, each century had one vote. The Comitia Centuriata elected the praetors (judicial magistrates), the censors, and the consuls. The comitia tributa comprised thirty-five tribes from Rome and the country. Each tribe had a single vote. The Comitia Tributa elected the Quaestors (financial magistrates) and the patrician Curule Aedile. Fresco of a seated woman from Stabiae, 1st century AD Over time, Roman law evolved considerably, as well as social views, emancipating (to increasing degrees) family members. Justice greatly increased, as well. The Romans became more efficient at considering laws and punishments. Life in the ancient Roman cities revolved around the Forum, the central business district, where most of the Romans would go for marketing, shopping, trading, banking, and for participating in festivities and ceremonies. The Forum was also a place where orators would express themselves to mould public opinion, and elicit support for any particular issue of interest to them or others. Before sunrise, children would go to schools or tutoring them at home would commence. Elders would dress, take a breakfast by 11 o'clock, have a nap and in the afternoon or evening would generally go to the Forum. Going to a public bath at least once daily was a habit with most Roman citizens. There were separate baths for men and women. The main difference was that the women's baths were smaller than the men's, and did not have a frigidarium (cold room) or a palaestra (exercise area).[citation needed] Different types of outdoor and indoor entertainment, free of cost, were available in ancient Rome. Depending on the nature of the events, they were scheduled during daytime, afternoons, evenings, or late nights. Huge crowds gathered at the Colosseum to watch events such as events involving gladiators, combats between men, or fights between men and wild animals. The Circus Maximus was used for chariot racing. Life in the countryside was slow-paced but lively, with numerous local festivals and social events. Farms were run by the farm managers, but estate owners would sometimes take a retreat to the countryside for rest, enjoying the splendor of nature and the sunshine, including activities like fishing, hunting, and riding. On the other hand, slave labor slogged on continuously, for long hours and all seven days, and ensuring comforts and creating wealth for their masters. The average farm owners were better off, spending evenings in economic and social interactions at the village markets. The day ended with a meal, generally left over from the noontime preparations. Clothing[edit] Main article: Clothing in ancient Rome Toga-clad statue, restored with the head of the emperor Nerva In ancient Rome, the cloth and the dress distinguished one class of people from the other class. The tunic worn by plebeians (common people) like shepherds was made from coarse and dark material, whereas the tunic worn by patricians was of linen or white wool. A magistrate would wear the tunica angusticlavi; senators wore tunics with purple stripes (clavi), called tunica laticlavi. Military tunics were shorter than the ones worn by civilians. The many types of togas were also named. Boys, up until the festival of Liberalia, wore the toga praetexta, which was a toga with a crimson or purple border, also worn by magistrates in office. The toga virilis, (or toga pura) or man's toga was worn by men who had come of age to signify their citizenship in Rome. The toga picta was worn by triumphant generals and had embroidery of their skill on the battlefield. The toga pulla was worn when in mourning. Even footwear indicated a person's social status. Patricians wore red and orange sandals, senators had brown footwear, consuls had white shoes, and soldiers wore heavy boots. Women wore closed shoes of colors such as white, yellow, or green. The bulla was a locket-like amulet worn by children. When about to marry, the woman would donate her bulla (sometimes called partha) to the household gods, along with her toys, to signify maturity and womanhood. Men typically wore a toga, and women wore a stola. The woman's stola was a dress worn over a tunic, and was usually brightly colored. A fibula (or brooch) would be used as ornamentation or to hold the stola in place. A palla, or shawl, was often worn with the stola. Food[edit] Main articles: Ancient Roman cuisine and Food and dining in the Roman Empire Since the beginning of the Republic until 200 BC, ancient Romans had very simple food habits. Simple food was generally consumed at around 11 o'clock, and consisted of bread, salad, olives, cheese, fruits, nuts, and cold meat left over from the dinner the night before. Breakfast was called ientaculum, lunch was prandium, and dinner was called cena. Appetizers were called gustatio, and dessert was called secunda mensa (or second table). Usually, a nap or rest followed this. The family ate together, sitting on stools around a table. Later on, a separate dining room with dining couches was designed, called a triclinium. Fingers were used to take foods which were prepared beforehand and brought to the diners. Spoons were used for soups. Eggs, thrushes, napkin, and vessels (wall painting from the House of Julia Felix, Pompeii) Wine in Rome did not become common or mass-produced until around 250 B.C. It was more commonly produced around the time of Cato the Elder who mentions in his book De Agri Cultura that the vineyard was the most important aspect of a good farm.[2] Wine was considered a staple drink, consumed at all meals and occasions by all classes and was quite cheap; however, it was always mixed with water.[citation needed] This was the case even during explicit evening drinking events (comissatio) where an important part of the festivity was choosing an arbiter bibendi (Judge of Drinking) who was, among other things, responsible for deciding the ratio of wine to water in the drinking wine. Wine to water ratios of 1:2, 1:3, or 1:4 were commonly used. Many types of drinks involving grapes and honey were consumed as well. Mulsum was honeyed wine, mustum was grape juice, mulsa was honeyed water. The per-person-consumption of wine per day in the city of Rome has been estimated at 0.8 to 1.1 gallons for males, and about 0.5 gallons for females. Even the notoriously strict Cato the Elder recommended distributing a daily ration of low quality wine of more than 0.5 gallons among the slaves forced to work on farms.[citation needed] Drinking non-watered wine on an empty stomach was regarded as boorish and a sure sign of alcoholism whose debilitating physical and psychological effects were already recognized in ancient Rome. An accurate accusation of being an alcoholic—in the gossip-crazy society of the city bound to come to light and easily verified—was a favorite and damaging way to discredit political rivals employed by some of Rome's greatest orators like Cicero and Julius Caesar. Prominent Roman alcoholics include Mark Antony, Cicero's own son Marcus (Cicero Minor) and the emperor Tiberius whose soldiers gave him the unflattering nickname Biberius Caldius Mero (lit. boozer of pure wine, Sueton Tib. 42,1). Cato the Younger was also known as a heavy drinker, frequently found stumbling home disoriented and the worse for wear in the early hours of morning by fellow citizens. During the Imperial period, staple food of the lower class Romans (plebeians) was vegetable porridge and bread, and occasionally fish, meat, olives and fruits. Sometimes, subsidized or free foods were distributed in cities. The patrician's aristocracy had elaborate dinners, with parties and wines and a variety of comestibles. Sometimes, dancing girls would entertain the diners. Women and children ate separately, but in the later Empire period, with permissiveness creeping in, even decent women would attend such dinner parties. Education[edit] Main article: Education in ancient Rome Roman portraiture fresco of a young man with a papyrus scroll, from Herculaneum, 1st century AD Schooling in a more formal sense was begun around 200 BC. Education began at the age of around six, and in the next six to seven years, boys and girls were expected to learn the basics of reading, writing and counting. By the age of twelve, they would be learning Latin, Greek, grammar and literature, followed by training for public speaking. Oratory was an art to be practiced and learnt and good orators commanded respect; to become an effective orator was one of the objectives of education and learning. Poor children could not afford education. In some cases, services of gifted slaves were utilized for imparting education. School was mostly for boys, however some wealthy girls were tutored at home, but could still go to school sometimes. Language[edit] Main articles: Latin and Languages of the Roman Empire Fragmentary military diploma from Carnuntum; Latin was the language of the military throughout the Empire The native language of the Romans was Latin, an Italic language in the Indo-European family. Several forms of Latin existed, and the language evolved considerably over time, eventually becoming the Romance languages spoken today. Initially a highly inflectional and synthetic language, older forms of Latin rely little on word order, conveying meaning through a system of affixes attached to word stems. Like other Indo-European languages, Latin gradually became much more analytic over time and acquired conventionalized word orders as it lost more and more of its case system and associated inflections. Its alphabet, the Latin alphabet, is based on the Old Italic alphabet, which is in turn derived from the Greek alphabet. The Latin alphabet is still used today to write most European and many other languages. Most of the surviving Latin literature consists almost entirely of Classical Latin. In the eastern half of the Roman Empire, which became the Byzantine Empire; Greek was the main lingua franca as it had been since the time of Alexander the Great, while Latin was mostly used by the Roman administration and military. Eventually Greek would supplant Latin as both the official written and spoken language of the Eastern Roman Empire, while the various dialects of Vulgar Latin used in the Western Roman Empire evolved into the modern Romance languages still used today. The expansion of the Roman Empire spread Latin throughout Europe, and over time Vulgar Latin evolved and dialectized in different locations, gradually shifting into a number of distinct Romance languages beginning in around the 9th century. Many of these languages, including French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, and Spanish, flourished, the differences between them growing greater over time. Although English is Germanic rather than Romanic in origin—Britannia was a Roman province, but the Roman presence in Britain had effectively disappeared by the time of the Anglo-Saxon invasions—English today borrows heavily from Latin and Latin-derived words. Old English borrowings were relatively sparse and drew mainly from ecclesiastical usage after the Christianization of England. When William the Conqueror invaded England from Normandy in 1066, he brought with him a considerable number of retainers who spoke Anglo-Norman French, a Romance language derived from Latin. Anglo-Norman French remained the language of the English upper classes for centuries, and the number of Latinate words in English increased immensely through borrowing during this Middle English period. More recently, during the Modern English period, the revival of interest in classical culture during the Renaissance led to a great deal of conscious adaptation of words from Classical Latin authors into English. Although Latin is an extinct language with very few contemporary fluent speakers, it remains in use in many ways. In particular, Latin has survived through Ecclesiastical Latin, the traditional language of the Roman Catholic Church and one of the official languages of the Vatican City. Although distinct from both Classical and Vulgar Latin in a number of ways, Ecclesiastical Latin was more stable than typical Medieval Latin. More Classical sensibilities eventually re-emerged in the Renaissance with Humanist Latin. Due to both the prevalence of Christianity and the enduring influence of the Roman civilization, Latin became western Europe's lingua franca, a language used to cross international borders, such as for academic and diplomatic usage. A deep knowledge of classical Latin was a standard part of the educational curriculum in many western countries until well into the 20th century, and is still taught in many schools today. Although it was eventually supplanted in this respect by French in the 19th century and English in the 20th, Latin continues to see heavy use in religious, legal, and scientific terminology, and in academia in general. The arts[edit] Literature[edit] See also: Roman literature and Augustan literature (ancient Rome) Roman literature was from its very inception influenced heavily by Greek authors. Some of the earliest works currently discovered are of historical epics telling the early military history of Rome. As the Republic expanded, authors began to produce poetry, comedy, history, and tragedy. Mosaic depicting a theatrical troupe preparing for a performance The Greeks and Romans founded history, and had great influence on the way history is written today. Cato the Elder was a Roman senator, as well as the first man to write history in Latin. Although theoretically opposed to Greek influence, Cato the Elder wrote the first Greek inspired rhetorical textbook in Latin (91), and combined strains of Greek and Roman history into a method combining both.[3] One of Cato the Elder's great historical achievements was the Origines, which chronicles the story of Rome, from Aeneas to his own day, but this document is now lost. In the second and early first centuries BC an attempt was made, led by Cato the Elder, to use the records and traditions that were preserved, in order to reconstruct the entire past of Rome. The historians engaged in this task are often referred to as the "Annalists", implying that their writings more or less followed chronological order.[3] In 123 BC and official endeavor was made to provide a record of the whole of Roman history. This work filled eighty books and was known as the Annales Maximi. The composition recorded the official events of the State, such as elections and commands, civic, provincial and cult business, set out in formal arrangements year by year.[3] During the reign of the early emperors of Rome there was a golden age of historical literature. Works such as the 'Histories' of Tacitus, the 'Gallic Wars' by Julius Caesar and 'History of Rome' by Livy have been passed down through generations. Unfortunately, in the case of Livy, much of the script has been lost and it is left with a few specific areas: the founding of the city, the war with Hannibal, and its aftermath. In the ancient world, poetry usually played a far more important part of daily life than it does today. In general, educated Greeks and Romans thought of poetry as playing a much more fundamental part of life than in modern times. Initially in Rome poetry was not considered a suitable occupation for important citizens, but the attitude changed in the second and first centuries BC.[4] In Rome poetry considerably preceded prose writing in date. As Aristotle pointed out, poetry was the first sort of literate to arouse people's interest in questions of style. The importance of poetry in the Roman Empire was so strong that Quintilian, the greatest authority on education, wanted secondary schools to focus on the reading and teaching of poetry, leaving prose writings to what would now be referred to as the university stage.[4] Virgil represents the pinnacle of Roman epic poetry. His Aeneid was produced at the request of Maecenas and tells the story of flight of Aeneas from Troy and his settlement of the city that would become Rome. Lucretius, in his On the Nature of Things, attempted to explicate science in an epic poem. Some of his science seems remarkably modern, but other ideas, especially his theory of light, are no longer accepted. Later Ovid produced his Metamorphoses, written in dactylic hexameter verse, the meter of epic, attempting a complete mythology from the creation of the earth to his own time. He unifies his subject matter through the theme of metamorphosis. It was noted in classical times that Ovid's work lacked the gravitas possessed by traditional epic poetry. Catullus and the associated group of neoteric poets produced poetry following the Alexandrian model, which experimented with poetic forms challenging tradition. Catullus was also the first Roman poet to produce love poetry, seemingly autobiographical, which depicts an affair with a woman called Lesbia. Under the reign of the Emperor Augustus, Horace continued the tradition of shorter poems, with his Odes and Epodes. Martial, writing under the Emperor Domitian, was a famed author of epigrams, poems which were often abusive and censured public figures. A bust of Cicero, Capitoline Museums, Rome Roman prose developed its sonority, dignity, and rhythm in persuasive speech.[5] Rhetoric had already been key to many great achievements in Athens, so after studying the Greeks the Romans ranked oratory highly as a subject and a profession.[6] Written speeches were some of the first forms of prose writing in ancient Rome, and other forms of prose writing in the future were influenced by this. Sixteen books of Cicero's letters have survived, all published by after Cicero's death by his secretary, Tito. the letters provide a look at the social life in the days of the falling republic, providing pictures of the personalities of this epoch.[7] The letters of Cicero are vast and varied, and provide pictures of the personalities of this epoch. Cicero's personality is most clearly revealed, emerging as a vain vacillating, snobbish man. Cicero's passion for the public life of the capital also emerges from his letters, most clearly when he was in exile and when he took on a provincial governorship in Asia Minor. The letters also contain much about Cicero's family life, and its political and financial complications.[7] Roman philosophical treatises have had great influence on the world, but the original thinking came from the Greeks. Roman philosophical writings are rooted in four 'schools' from the age of the Hellenistic Greeks.[8] The four 'schools' were that of the Epicureans, Stocis, Peripatetics, and Academy.[8] Epicureans believed in the guidance of the senses, and identified the supreme goal of life to be happiness, or the absence of pain. Stoicism was founded by Zeno of Citium, who taught that virtue was the supreme good, creating a new sense of ethical urgency. The Perpatetics were followers of Aristotle, guided by his science and philosophy. The Academy was founded by Plato and was based on the Sceptic Pyro's idea that real knowledge could be acquired. The Academy also presented criticisms of the Epicurean and Stoic schools of philosophy.[9] The genre of satire was traditionally regarded as a Roman innovation, and satires were written by, among others, Juvenal and Persius. Some of the most popular plays of the early Republic were comedies, especially those of Terence, a freed Roman slave captured during the First Punic War. A great deal of the literary work produced by Roman authors in the early Republic was political or satirical in nature. The rhetorical works of Cicero, a self-distinguished linguist, translator, and philosopher, in particular, were popular. In addition, Cicero's personal letters are considered to be one of the best bodies of correspondence recorded in antiquity. Visual art[edit] Main article: Roman art The so-called Primavera of Stabiae, perhaps the goddess Flora Most early Roman painting styles show Etruscan influences, particularly in the practice of political painting. In the 3rd century BCE, Greek art taken as booty from wars became popular, and many Roman homes were decorated with landscapes by Greek artists. Evidence from the remains at Pompeii shows diverse influence from cultures spanning the Roman world. An early Roman style of note was "Incrustation", in which the interior walls of houses were painted to resemble colored marble. Another style consisted of painting interiors as open landscapes, with highly detailed scenes of plants, animals, and buildings. Portrait sculpture during the period utilized youthful and classical proportions, evolving later into a mixture of realism and idealism. During the Antonine and Severan periods, more ornate hair and bearding became prevalent, created with deeper cutting and drilling. Advancements were also made in relief sculptures, usually depicting Roman victories. Music[edit] Main article: Music of ancient Rome Musicians playing a Roman tuba, a water organ (hydraulis), and a pair of cornua, detail from the Zliten mosaic, 2nd century AD Music was a major part of everyday life in ancient Rome. Many private and public events were accompanied by music, ranging from nightly dining to military parades and manoeuvres. Some of the instruments used in Roman music are the tuba, cornu, aulos, askaules, flute, panpipes, lyre, lute, cithara, tympanum, drums, hydraulis and the sistrum. Architecture[edit] Main articles: Ancient Roman architecture and Roman architectural revolution The Colosseum in Rome In its initial stages, the ancient Roman architecture reflected elements of architectural styles of the Etruscans and the Greeks. Over a period of time, the style was modified in tune with their urban requirements, and civil engineering and building construction technology became developed and refined. The Roman concrete has remained a riddle,[10] and even after more than two thousand years some ancient Roman structures still stand magnificently, like the Pantheon (with one of the largest single span domes in the world) located in the business district of today's Rome. The architectural style of the capital city of ancient Rome was emulated by other urban centers under Roman control and influence,[11] like the Verona Arena, Verona, Italy; Arch of Hadrian, Athens, Greece; Temple of Hadrian, Ephesus, Turkey; a Theatre at Orange, France; and at several other locations, for example, Lepcis Magna, located in Libya.[12] Roman cities were well planned, efficiently managed and neatly maintained. Palaces, private dwellings and villas, were elaborately designed and town planning was comprehensive with provisions for different activities by the urban resident population, and for countless migratory population of travelers, traders and visitors passing through their cities. Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, a 1st-century BCE Roman architect's treatise "De architectura," with various sections, dealing with urban planning, building materials, temple construction, public and private buildings, and hydraulics, remained a classic text until the Renaissance. Sports and entertainment[edit] The ancient city of Rome had a place called the Campus, a sort of drill ground for Roman soldiers, which was located near the Tiber. Later, the Campus became Rome's track and field playground, which even Julius Caesar and Augustus were said to have frequented. Imitating the Campus in Rome, similar grounds were developed in several other urban centers and military settlements. Circus Maximus, a mass entertainment venue located in Rome In the campus, the youth assembled to play, exercise, and indulge in appropriate sports, which included jumping, wrestling, boxing and racing. Riding, throwing, and swimming were also preferred physical activities. In the countryside, pastimes also included fishing and hunting. Females did not participate in these activities. Ball playing was a popular sport and ancient Romans had several ball games, which included Handball (Expulsim Ludere), field hockey, catch, and some form of football. Board games played in ancient Rome included dice (Tesserae or tali), Roman chess (Latrunculi), Roman Checkers (Calculi), tic-tac-toe (Terni Lapilli), and ludus duodecim scriptorum and tabula, predecessors of backgammon. There were several other activities to keep people engaged like chariot races, musical and theatrical performances, public executions and gladiatorial combat. In the Colosseum, Rome's amphitheatre, 60,000 persons could be accommodated. There are also accounts of the Colosseum's floor being flooded to hold mock naval battles for the public to watch. In addition to these, Romans also spent their share of time in bars and brothels, and graffiti[13] carved into the walls of these buildings was common. Based on the number of messages found on bars, brothels, and bathhouses, it's clear that they were popular places of leisure and people spent a deal of time there. Religion[edit] Main article: Religion in ancient Rome Religion in ancient Rome Marcus Aurelius (head covered) sacrificing at the Temple of Jupiter Practices and beliefs libation sacrifice votum temples festivals ludi funerals Imperial cult mystery religions Priesthoods Pontifices Augures Vestales Flamines Fetiales Epulones Fratres Arvales Deities List of Roman deities Twelve major gods Capitoline Triad Aventine Triad underworld gods indigitamenta Deified emperors: Divus Julius Divus Augustus Related topics Glossary of ancient Roman religion Roman mythology Ancient Greek religion Etruscan religion Gallo-Roman religion Interpretatio graeca Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism v t e The Romans thought of themselves as highly religious,[14] and attributed their success as a world power to their collective piety (pietas) in maintaining good relations with the Gods. According to legendary history, most of Rome's religious institutions could be traced to its founders, particularly Numa Pompilius, the Sabine second King of Rome, who negotiated directly with the Gods. This archaic religion was the foundation of the mos maiorum, "the way of the ancestors" or simply "tradition", viewed as central to Roman identity. The priesthoods of public religion were held by members of the elite classes. There was no principle analogous to "separation of church and state" in ancient Rome. During the Roman Republic (509–27 BC), the same men who were elected public officials served as augurs and pontiffs. Priests married, raised families, and led politically active lives. Julius Caesar became Pontifex Maximus before he was elected consul. The augurs read the will of the gods and supervised the marking of boundaries as a reflection of universal order, thus sanctioning Roman expansionism as a matter of divine destiny. The Roman triumph was at its core a religious procession in which the victorious general displayed his piety and his willingness to serve the public good by dedicating a portion of his spoils to the gods, especially Jupiter, who embodied just rule. As a result of the Punic Wars (264–146 BC), when Rome struggled to establish itself as a dominant power, many new temples were built by magistrates in fulfillment of a vow to a deity for assuring their military success. A fresco from Herculaneum depicting Heracles and Achelous from Greco-Roman mythology, 1st century CE Roman religion was thus mightily pragmatic and contractual, based on the principle of do ut des, "I give that you might give." Religion depended on knowledge and the correct practice of prayer, ritual, and sacrifice, not on faith or dogma, although Latin literature preserves learned speculation on the nature of the divine and its relation to human affairs. Even the most skeptical among Rome's intellectual elite such as Cicero, who was an augur, saw religion as a source of social order. For ordinary Romans, religion was a part of daily life.[15] Each home had a household shrine at which prayers and libations to the family's domestic deities were offered. Neighborhood shrines and sacred places such as springs and groves dotted the city. The Roman calendar was structured around religious observances. In the Imperial Era, as many as 135 days of the year were devoted to religious festivals and games (ludi).[16] Women, slaves, and children all participated in a range of religious activities. Some public rituals could be conducted only by women, and women formed what is perhaps Rome's most famous priesthood, the state-supported Vestal Virgins, who tended Rome's sacred hearth for centuries, until disbanded under Christian domination. The Romans are known for the great number of deities they honored. The presence of Greeks on the Italian peninsula from the beginning of the historical period influenced Roman culture, introducing some religious practices that became as fundamental as the cult of Apollo. The Romans looked for common ground between their major gods and those of the Greeks, adapting Greek myths and iconography for Latin literature and Roman art. Etruscan religion was also a major influence, particularly on the practice of augury, since Rome had once been ruled by Etruscan kings. Mystery religions imported from the Near East (Ptolemaic Egypt, Persia and Mesopotamia), which offered initiates salvation through a personal God and eternal life after the death, were a matter of personal choice for an individual, practiced in addition to carrying on one's family rites and participating in public religion. The mysteries, however, involved exclusive oaths and secrecy, conditions that conservative Romans viewed with suspicion as characteristic of "magic", conspiracy (coniuratio), and subversive activity. Sporadic and sometimes brutal attempts were made to suppress religionists who seemed to threaten traditional Roman morality and unity, as with the senate's efforts to restrict the Bacchanals in 186 BC. As the Romans extended their dominance throughout the Mediterranean world, their policy in general was to absorb the deities and cults of other peoples rather than try to eradicate them,[17] since they believed that preserving tradition promoted social stability.[18] Marble relief of Mithras slaying the bull (2nd century, Louvre-Lens); Mithraism was among the most widespread mystery religions of the Roman Empire.[19] One way that Rome incorporated diverse peoples was by supporting their religious heritage, building temples to local deities that framed their theology within the hierarchy of Roman religion. Inscriptions throughout the Empire record the side-by-side worship of local and Roman deities, including dedications made by Romans to local Gods.[20] By the height of the Empire, numerous international deities were cultivated at Rome and had been carried to even the most remote provinces (among them Cybele, Isis, Osiris, Serapis, Epona), and Gods of solar monism such as Mithras and Sol Invictus, found as far north as Roman Britain. Because Romans had never been obligated to cultivate one deity or one cult only, religious tolerance was not an issue in the sense that it is for competing monotheistic systems.[21] The monotheistic rigor of Judaism posed difficulties for Roman policy that led at times to compromise and the granting of special exemptions, but sometimes to intractable conflict. In the wake of the Republic's collapse, State religion had adapted to support the new regime of the Emperors. Augustus, the first Roman emperor, justified the novelty of one-man rule with a vast program of religious revivalism and reform. Public vows formerly made for the security of the Republic now were directed at the wellbeing of the Emperor. So-called "Emperor worship" expanded on a grand scale the traditional Roman veneration of the ancestral dead and of the Genius, the divine tutelary of every individual. Imperial cult became one of the major ways Rome advertised its presence in the provinces and cultivated shared cultural identity and loyalty throughout the Empire: rejection of the State religion was tantamount to treason. This was the context for Rome's conflict with Christianity, which Romans variously regarded as a form of atheism and threat to the stability of the Empire,[22] causing the prosecution of anti-Christian policies; under Emperor Trajan's reign (AD 98–117), Roman intellectuals and functionaries (Lucian of Samosata, Tacitus,[23] Suetonius,[23] Pliny the Younger,[23] and Celsus)[22] gained knowledge about the Jewish roots of Early Christians, therefore many of them considered Christianity to be some sort of superstitio Iudaica.[22][23][24] From the 2nd century onward, the Church Fathers began to condemn the diverse religions practiced throughout the Empire collectively as "Pagan".[25] In the early 4th century, Constantine the Great and his half-brother Licinius stipulated an agreement known as the Edict of Milan (313), which granted liberty to all religions to be freely practiced in the Roman Empire; following the Edict's proclamation, the conflict between the two Emperors exacerbated, ending with the execution of both Licinius and the co-Emperor Sextus Martinianus as ordered by Constantine after Licinius' defeat in the Battle of Chrysopolis (324). Head of Constantine the Great, part of a colossal statue. Bronze, 4th century, Musei Capitolini, Rome. Constantine ruled the Roman Empire as sole emperor for the remainder of his reign. Some scholars allege that his main objective was to gain unanimous approval and submission to his authority from all classes, and therefore chose Christianity to conduct his political propaganda, believing that it was the most appropriate religion that could fit with the Imperial cult (see also Sol Invictus). Regardless, under Constantine's rule Christianity expanded throughout the Empire, launching the era of Christian Church's dominance under the Constantinian dynasty.[26] However, if Constantine himself sincerely converted to Christian religion or remained loyal to Paganism is still a matter of debate between scholars (see also Constantine's Religious policy).[27] His formal conversion to Christianity in 312 is almost universally acknowledged among historians,[26][28] despite that he was baptized only on his deathbed by the Arian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia (337);[29] the real reasons behind it remain unknown and are debated too.[27][28] According to Hans Pohlsander, Professor Emeritus of History at the University at Albany, SUNY, Constantine's conversion was just another instrument of Realpolitik in his hands meant to serve his political interest in keeping the Empire united under his control: The prevailing spirit of Constantine's government was one of conservatorism. His conversion to and support of Christianity produced fewer innovations than one might have expected; indeed they served an entirely conservative end, the preservation and continuation of the Empire. — Hans Pohlsander, The Emperor Constantine[30] The Emperor and Neoplatonic philosopher Julian the Apostate made a short-lived attempt to restore traditional religion and Paganism, and to reaffirm the special status of Judaism, but in 391, under Theodosius I, Nicene Christianity became the official State church of the Roman Empire to the exclusion of all other Christian churches and Hellenistic religions, including Roman religion itself. Pleas for religious tolerance from traditionalists such as the senator Symmachus (d. 402) were rejected, and Christian monotheism became a feature of Imperial domination. Heretics as well as non-Christians were subject to exclusion from public life or persecution, but, despite the decline of Greco-Roman polytheism, Rome's original religious hierarchy and many aspects of its ritual influenced Christian religion as a whole;[31] various pre-Christian beliefs and practices survived as well in Christian festivals and local traditions. Philosophy[edit] Main article: Roman philosophy Plato's Academy mosaic from Pompeii Ancient Roman philosophy was heavily influenced by the ancient Greeks and the schools of Hellenistic philosophy; however, unique developments in philosophical schools of thought occurred during the Roman period as well. Interest in philosophy was first excited at Rome in 155 BCE. by an Athenian embassy consisting of the Academic Skeptic Carneades, the Stoic Diogenes, and the Peripatetic Critolaus.[32] During this time Athens declined as an intellectual center of thought while new sites such as Alexandria and Rome hosted a variety of philosophical discussion.[33] Science[edit] Further information: History of science in classical antiquity § Roman Empire, and Roman technology This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (December 2020) See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal Classical antiquity Gallo-Roman culture Roman Britain Romanization Romanization of Hispania Theatre of ancient Rome Romanization of Anatolia References[edit] ^ For example, a Romano-Egyptian text attests to the sharing of one small farmhouse by 42 people; elsewhere, six families held common interest in a single olive tree. See Alfoldy, Geza., The Social History of Rome (Routledge Revivals) 2014 (online e-edition, unpaginated: accessed October 11th, 2016) ^ E. M. Jellinek, Drinkers and Alcoholics in Ancient Rome. ^ a b c Grant, Michael (1954). Roman Literature. Cambridge England: University Press. pp. 91–94. ^ a b Grant, Michael (1954). Roman Literature. Cambridge England: University Press. p. 134. ^ Tenney, Frank (1930). Life and Literature in the Roman Republic. Berkeley California: University of California Press. p. 132. ^ Tenney, Frank (1930). Life and Literature in the Roman Republic. Berkeley California: University of California Press. p. 35. ^ a b Grant, Michael (1954). Roman Literature. Cambridge England: University Press. pp. 78–84. ^ a b Grant, Michael (1954). Roman Literature. Cambridge England: University Press. pp. 30–45. ^ Grant, Michael (1954). Roman Literature. Cambridge England: University Press. pp. Notes. ^ The Riddle of Ancient Roman Concrete, By David Moore, P.E., 1995, Retired Professional Engineer, Bureau of Reclamation (This article first appeared in "The Spillway" a newsletter of the US Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Upper Colorado Region, February, 1993) ^ "Roman Art and Architecture". UCCS.edu. Archived from the original on September 8, 2006. Retrieved July 14, 2013. ^ Lepcis Magna - Window on the Roman World in North Africa ^ Harvey, Brian. "Graffiti from Pompeii". Graffiti from Pompeii. Archived from the original on March 3, 2016. Retrieved February 23, 2016. ^ Ehlke, Troy D. (2008-10-16). Crossroads of Agony: Suffering and Violence in the Christian Tradition. Xlibris Corporation. ISBN 978-1-4691-0298-6. ^ Jörg Rüpke, "Roman Religion – Religions of Rome," in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 4. ^ Matthew Bunson, A Dictionary of the Roman Empire (Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 246. ^ "This mentality", notes John T. Koch, "lay at the core of the genius of cultural assimilation which made the Roman Empire possible"; entry on "Interpretatio romana," in Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia (ABC-Clio, 2006), p. 974. ^ Rüpke, "Roman Religion – Religions of Rome," p. 4; Benjamin H. Isaac, The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity (Princeton University Press, 2004, 2006), p. 449; W.H.C. Frend, Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church: A Study of Conflict from the Maccabees to Donatus (Doubleday, 1967), p. 106. ^ G. W. Bromiley (ed.), The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, Vol. 4 (Eerdmans, 1988), p. 116. ISBN 0-8028-3784-0. ^ Janet Huskinson, Experiencing Rome: Culture, Identity and Power in the Roman Empire (Routledge, 2000), p. 261. ^ A classic essay on this topic is Arnaldo Momigliano, "The Disadvantages of Monotheism for a Universal State", in Classical Philology, 81.4 (1986), pp. 285–297. ^ a b c Michael Frede, "Origen's Treatise Against Celsus", in M. Edwards, M. Goodman, S. Price and C. Rowland (ed.), Apologetics in the Roman Empire: Pagans, Jews, and Christians (Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 133-134. ISBN 0-19-826986-2; Antonia Tripolitis, Religions of the Hellenistic-Roman Age (Eerdmans, 2001), pp. 99-101. ISBN 978-0-8028-4913-7. ^ a b c d R. L. Wilken, The Christians as the Romans Saw Them (Yale University Press, 2003), pp. 32-50. ISBN 978-03-00-09839-6. ^ For the Roman sources on early Christianity, see also Pliny the Younger on Christians, Suetonius on Christians, and Tacitus on Christ. ^ See Peter Brown in G. W. Bowersock, P. Brown and O. Grabar (ed.); Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World (Harvard University Press, 1999), pp. 625-626, for the epithet "Pagan" used as a mark of socio-religious inferiority in Latin Christian polemic and apologetics. ^ a b Wendy Doniger (ed.), "Constantine I", in Britannica Encyclopedia of World Religions (Encyclopædia Britannica, 2006), p. 262. ^ a b Noel Lenski (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine (Cambridge University Press, 2006), "Introduction". ISBN 978-0-521-81838-4. ^ a b A. H. M. Jones, Constantine and the Conversion of Europe (University of Toronto Press, 2003), p. 73. ISBN 0-8020-6369-1. ^ Hans A. Pohlsander, The Emperor Constantine (Routledge, NY 2004), pp. 82–84. ISBN 0-415-31938-2; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine), p. 82. ^ Pohlsander, The Emperor Constantine, pp. 78–79. ^ Stefan Heid, "The Romanness of Roman Christianity," in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), pp. 406–426; on vocabulary in particular, Robert Schilling, "The Decline and Survival of Roman Religion", in Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992, from the French edition of 1981), p. 110. ^ "Roman Philosophy | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy". ^ Annas, Julia. (2000). Voices of Ancient Philosophy : an Introductory Reader. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512694-5. OCLC 870243656. Bibliography[edit] Elizabeth S. Cohen, Honor and Gender in the Streets of Early Modern Rome, The Journal of Interdisciplinary History, Vol. 22, No. 4 (Spring, 1992), pp. 597-625 Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Tom Holland, The Last Years of the Roman Republic ISBN 0-385-50313-X Ramsay MacMullen, 2000. Romanization in the Time of Augustus (Yale University Press) Paul Veyne, editor, 1992. A History of Private Life: I From Pagan Rome to Byzantium (Belknap Press of Harvard University Press) Karl Wilhelm Weeber, 2008. Nachtleben im Alten Rom (Primusverlag) Karl Wilhelm Weeber, 2005. Die Weinkultur der Römer J.H. D'Arms, 1995. 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en-wikipedia-org-3807	----	Pope Urban VIII - Wikipedia Pope Urban VIII From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Urban VIII) Jump to navigation Jump to search "Maffeo Barberini" redirects here. For his great-nephew, see Maffeo Barberini (1631–1685). 17th-century Catholic pope Pope Urban VIII Bishop of Rome A portrait of Pope Urban VIII by Pietro da Cortona (1627) See Holy See Papacy began 6 August 1623 Papacy ended 29 July 1644 Predecessor Gregory XV Successor Innocent X Orders Ordination 24 September 1592 Consecration 28 October 1604 by Fabio Blondus de Montealto Created cardinal 11 September 1606 by Pope Paul V Personal details Birth name Maffeo Barberini Born 5 April 1568 Florence, Duchy of Florence Died 29 July 1644 (aged 76) Rome, Lazio, Papal States Parents Antonio Barberini & Camilla Barbadoro Previous post Referendary of the Apostolic Signatura (1589–1592) Governor of Fano (1592–1604) Titular Archbishop of Nazareth (1604–1608) Apostolic Nuncio to France (1604–1606) Cardinal-Priest of San Montorio (1607–1610) Bishop of Spoleto (1608–1617) Prefect of the Apostolic Signatura (1610–1623) Cardinal-Priest of Sant'Onofrio (1610–1623) Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church (1623) Coat of arms Other popes named Urban Pope Urban VIII (Latin: Urbanus VIII; baptised 5 April 1568 – 29 July 1644), born Maffeo Barberini, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 6 August 1623 to his death in 1644. He expanded the papal territory by force of arms and advantageous politicking, and was also a prominent patron of the arts and a reformer of Church missions. However, the massive debts incurred during his pontificate greatly weakened his successors, who were unable to maintain the papacy's longstanding political and military influence in Europe. He was also an opponent of Copernicanism and involved in the Galileo affair. Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Early life 2 Papacy 2.1 Papal election 2.2 Activities 2.2.1 Canonizations and beatifications 2.2.2 Consistories 2.3 Politics 2.4 Patron of the arts 2.5 Later life 2.6 Death and legacy 3 Private revelation 4 Portrayals in fiction 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Biography[edit] Early life[edit] C. 1598 painting of Maffeo Barberini at age 30 by Caravaggio He was born Maffeo Barberini in April 1568[1] to Antonio Barberini, a Florentine nobleman, and Camilla Barbadoro. His father died when he was only three years old and his mother took him to Rome, where he was put in the charge of his uncle, Francesco Barberini, an apostolic protonotary.[2] At the age of 16, he became his uncle's heir.[3] He was educated by the Society of Jesus ("Jesuits"), and received a doctorate of law from the University of Pisa in 1589. In 1601, Barberini, through the influence of his uncle, was able to secure from Pope Clement VIII appointment as a papal legate to the court of King Henry IV of France. In 1604, the same pope appointed him as the Archbishop of Nazareth,[2] an office joined with that of Bishop of the suppressed Dioceses of Canne and Monteverde, with his residence at Barletta. At the death of his uncle, he inherited his riches, with which he bought a palace in Rome, which he made into a luxurious Renaissance residence.[4] Pope Paul V also later employed Barberini in a similar capacity, afterwards raising him, in 1606, to the order of the Cardinal-Priest, with the titular church of San Pietro in Montorio and appointing him as a papal legate of Bologna.[2] Papacy[edit] Gold quadrupla of Pope Urban VIII, struck at the Avignon mint, dated 1629 Papal styles of Pope Urban VIII Reference style His Holiness Spoken style Your Holiness Religious style Holy Father Posthumous style None Papal election[edit] Main article: 1623 papal conclave Barberini was considered someone who could be elected as pope, though there were those such as Cardinal Ottavio Bandini who worked to prevent it. Despite this, throughout 29–30 July, the cardinals began an intense series of negotiations to test the numbers as to who could emerge from the conclave as pope, with Cardinal Ludovico Ludovisi dismissing Barberini's chances as long as Barberini remained a close ally of Cardinal Scipione Borghese, whose faction Barberini supported. Ludovisi had discussions with Cardinals Farnese, Medici and Aldobrandini on 30 July about seeing to Barberini's election. The three supported his candidacy and went about securing the support of others, which lead to Barberini's election just over a week later.[5] On 6 August 1623, at the papal conclave following the death of Pope Gregory XV, Barberini was chosen as Gregory XV's successor and took the name Urban VIII. Upon Pope Urban VIII's election, Zeno, the Venetian envoy, wrote the following description of him:[6] The new Pontiff is 56 years old. His Holiness is tall, dark, with regular features and black hair turning grey. He is exceptionally elegant and refined in all details of his dress; has a graceful and aristocratic bearing and exquisite taste. He is an excellent speaker and debater, writes verses and patronises poets and men of letters. Activities[edit] Engraving of Pope Urban VIII Urban VIII's papacy covered 21 years of the Thirty Years' War, (1618-1648) and was an eventful one, even by the standards of the day. He canonized Elizabeth of Portugal, Andrew Corsini and Conrad of Piacenza, and issued the papal bulls of canonization for Ignatius of Loyola (founder of the Society of Jesus, "Jesuits") and Francis Xavier (also a Jesuit), who had been canonized by his predecessor, Pope Gregory XV. Despite an early friendship and encouragement for his teachings, Urban VIII was responsible for summoning the scientist and astronomer Galileo to Rome in 1633 to recant his work. Urban VIII was opposed to Copernican heliocentrism and he ordered Galileo's second trial after the publication of Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, in which Urban's point of view is argued by the character "Simplicio". Urban VIII practiced nepotism on a grand scale; various members of his family were enormously enriched by him, so that it seemed to contemporaries as if he were establishing a Barberini dynasty.[7] He elevated his brother Antonio Marcello Barberini (Antonio the Elder) and then his nephews Francesco Barberini and Antonio Barberini (Antonio the Younger) to Cardinal. He also bestowed upon their brother, Taddeo Barberini, the titles Prince of Palestrina, Gonfalonier of the Church, Prefect of Rome and Commander of Sant'Angelo. Historian Leopold von Ranke estimated that during his reign, Urban VIII's immediate family amassed 105 million scudi in personal wealth.[8] Urban VIII was a skilled writer of Latin verse, and a collection of Scriptural paraphrases as well as original hymns of his composition have been frequently reprinted. The 1638 papal bull Commissum Nobis protected the existence of Jesuit missions in South America by forbidding the enslavement of natives who were at the Jesuit Reductions.[9][10] At the same time, Urban VIII repealed the Jesuit monopoly on missionary work in China and Japan, opening these countries to missionaries of other orders and missionary societies.[11] Urban VIII issued a 1624 papal bull that made the use of tobacco in holy places punishable by excommunication;[12] Pope Benedict XIII repealed the ban one hundred years later.[13] Canonizations and beatifications[edit] Urban VIII canonized five saints during his pontificate: Stephen Harding (1623), Elizabeth of Portugal and Conrad of Piacenza (1625), Peter Nolasco (1628), and Andrea Corsini (1629). The pope also beatified 68 individuals including the Martyrs of Nagasaki (1627). Consistories[edit] Main article: Cardinals created by Urban VIII Bust of Urban VIII, Gianlorenzo Bernini, 1637–8 The pope created 74 cardinals in eight consistories throughout his pontificate, and this included his nephews Francesco and Antonio, cousin Lorenzo Magalotti, and the pope's own brother Antonio Marcello. He also created Giovanni Battista Pamphili as a cardinal, with Pamphili becoming his immediate successor Pope Innocent X. The pope also created eight of those cardinals whom he had reserved in pectore. Politics[edit] Urban VIII's military involvement was aimed less at the restoration of Catholicism in Europe than at adjusting the balance of power to favour his own independence in Italy. In 1626, the duchy of Urbino was incorporated into the papal dominions, and, in 1627, when the direct male line of the Gonzagas in Mantua became extinct, he controversially favoured the succession of the Protestant Duke Charles of Nevers against the claims of the Catholic Habsburgs. He also launched the Wars of Castro in 1641 against Odoardo Farnese, Duke of Parma and Piacenza, whom he excommunicated. Castro was destroyed and its duchy incorporated into the Papal States. Urban VIII was the last pope to extend the papal territory. He fortified Castelfranco Emilia on the Mantuan frontier and commissioned Vincenzo Maculani to fortify the Castel Sant'Angelo in Rome. Urban VIII also established an arsenal in the Vatican, an arms factory at Tivoli and fortified the harbour of Civitavecchia. For the purposes of making cannon and the baldacchino in St Peters, massive bronze girders were pillaged from the portico of the Pantheon leading to the well known lampoon: quod non fecerunt barbari, fecerunt Barberini, "what the barbarians did not do, the Barberini did."[11] Patron of the arts[edit] Urban VIII and his family patronized art on a grand scale.[1] He expended vast sums bringing polymaths like Athanasius Kircher to Rome and funding various substantial works by the sculptor and architect Bernini, from whom he had already commissioned Boy with a Dragon around 1617 and who was particularly favored during Urban VIII's reign. As well as several portrait busts of Urban, Urban commissioned Bernini to work on the family palace in Rome, the Palazzo Barberini, the College of the Propaganda Fide, the Fontana del Tritone in the Piazza Barberini, the baldacchino and cathedra in St Peter's Basilica and other prominent structures in the city. Numerous members of Barberini's family also had their likeness caught in stone by Bernini, such as his brothers Carlo and Antonio. Urban also had rebuilt the Church of Santa Bibiana and the Church of San Sebastiano al Palatino on the Palatine Hill. The Barberini patronised painters such as Nicolas Poussin and Claude Lorrain. One of the most eulogistic of these artistic works in its celebration of his reign, is the huge Allegory of Divine Providence and Barberini Power painted by Pietro da Cortona on the ceiling of the large salon of the Palazzo Barberini. The Barberini Vase, now re-named The Portland Vase. Another such acquisition, in a vast collection, was the purchase of the 'Barberini vase'. This was allegedly found at the mausoleum of the Roman Emperor Severus Alexander and his family at Monte Del Grano. The discovery of the vase is described by Pietro Santi Bartoli and referenced on page 28 of a book on The Portland Vase.[14] Pietro Bartoli indicates that the vase contained the ashes of the Roman Emperor. However, this together with the interpretations of the scenes depicted on it are the source of countless theories and disputed 'facts'. The vase remained in the Barberini family collection for some 150 years before passing through the hands of Sir William Hamilton Ambassador to the Royal Court in Naples. It was later sold to the Duke and Duchess of Portland, and has subsequently been known as the Portland Vase. Following catastrophic damage, this glass vase (1-25BC) has been reconstructed three times and resides in the British Museum. The Portland vase itself was borrowed and near copied by Josiah Wedgewood who appears to have added modesty drapery. The vase formed the basis of Jasperware. Later life[edit] Statue of Pope Urban VIII sculpted by Gian Lorenzo Bernini and his students between 1635 and 1640, and currently on display at the Palazzo dei Conservatori in Rome. A consequence of these military and artistic endeavours was a massive increase in papal debt. Urban VIII inherited a debt of 16 million scudi, and by 1635 had increased it to 28 million. According to contemporary John Bargrave, in 1636 members of the Spanish faction of the College of Cardinals were so horrified by the conduct of Pope Urban VIII that they conspired to have him arrested and imprisoned (or killed) so that they could replace him with a new pope; namely Laudivio Zacchia.[15] When Urban VIII travelled to Castel Gandolfo to rest, the members of the Spanish faction met in secret and discussed ways to advance their plan. But they were discovered and the pope raced back to Rome where he immediately held a consistory and demanded to know who the new pope was. To put an end to the conspiracy, the pope decreed that all Cardinal-Bishops should leave Rome and return to their own churches.[15] With the Spanish plan having failed, by 1640 the debt had reached 35 million scudi, consuming more than 80% of annual papal income in interest repayments.[16] Death and legacy[edit] Urban VIII's death on 29 July 1644 is said to have been hastened by chagrin at the result of the Wars of Castro. Because of the costs incurred by the city of Rome to finance this war, Urban VIII became immensely unpopular with his subjects. On his death, the bust of Urban VIII that lay beside the Palace of the Conservators on the Capitoline Hill was rapidly destroyed by an enraged crowd, and only a quick-thinking priest saved the sculpture of the late pope belonging to the Jesuits from a similar fate.[17] Following his death, international and domestic machinations resulted in the papal conclave not electing Cardinal Giulio Cesare Sacchetti, who was closely associated with some members of the Barberini family. Instead, it elected Cardinal Giovanni Battista Pamphili, who took the name of Innocent X, as his successor at the papal conclave of 1644. Private revelation[edit] Bust by Giovanni Gonnelli In the papal bull Sanctissimus Dominus Noster of 13 March 1625, Urban instructed Catholics not to venerate the deceased or represent them in the manner of saints without Church sanction. It required a bishop’s approval for the publication of private revelations. Since the nineteenth century, it has become common for books of popular devotion to carry a disclaimer. One read in part: "In obedience to the decrees of Urban the Eighth, I declare that I have no intention of attributing any other than a purely human authority to the miracles, revelations, favours, and particular cases recorded in this book...."[18][19][20] Portrayals in fiction[edit] Urban VIII is a recurring character in the Ring of Fire alternative history hypernovel by Eric Flint et al. where he is favorably portrayed. He is especially prominent in 1634: The Galileo Affair (in which he made the fictional Grantville priest, Larry Mazzare, a cardinal), and in 1635: The Cannon Law, 1635: The Papal Stakes, and 1636: The Vatican Sanction. He is somewhat less favorably presented in Galileo's Dream by Kim Stanley Robinson. See also[edit] Barberini Wars of Castro Portrait of Maffeo Barberini Cardinals created by Urban VIII Pontificio Collegio Urbano de Propaganda Fide References[edit] ^ a b Weech, William Nassau (1905). URBAN VIII: Being the Lothian Prize Essay, 1903. London: Archibald Constable & Co. Ltd. pp. 1–128. Retrieved October 31, 2014. ^ a b c Ott, Michael T. (1912). "Pope Urban VIII". The Catholic Encyclopedia. XV. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 2007-09-07. ^ Keyvanian, Carla. "Concerted Efforts: The Quarter of the Barberini Casa Grande in Seventeenth- Century Rome". Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 64, no 3 (2005): 294. ^ N, Carla (2016-12-19). The Mystery of an Old Master Painting Madonna of Divine Love Painting by Raffaello Sanzio Da Urbino. Xlibris Corporation. ISBN 9781524504762. ^ "Sede Vacante 1623". 27 September 2015. Retrieved 22 January 2019. ^ Pirie, Valérie (1935). The Triple Crown: An Account of the Papal Conclaves from the Fifteenth Century to the Present Day. p. 159. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2013-07-21. Retrieved 2012-03-06.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ History of the popes; their church and state (Volume III) by Leopold von Ranke (Wellesley College Library, reprint; 2009) ^ Mooney, James (June 1910). "Catholic Encyclopedia Volume VII". Robert Appleton Company, New York. Retrieved 2007-06-07. ^ Joel S. Panzer, The Popes and Slavery, Staten Island, New York, Society of St. Paul, 1996, pp.89-91. ^ a b van Helden, Al (1995). "The Galileo Project". Rice University. Retrieved 2007-09-07. ^ Gately, Iain (2001). Tobacco: A Cultural History of How an Exotic Plant Seduced Civilization. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-8021-3960-3. ^ Cutler, Abigail. "The Ashtray of History", The Atlantic Monthly, January/February 2007. ^ Brooks, Robin (Robin Jeremy) (2004). The Portland Vase : the extraordinary odyssey of a mysterious Roman treasure (1st ed.). New York, NY: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-051099-4. OCLC 54960357. ^ a b Pope Alexander the Seventh and the College of Cardinals by John Bargrave, edited by James Craigie Robertson (reprint; 2009) ^ Duffy, Eamon (1997). Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-09165-6. ^ Ernesta Chinazzi, Sede Vacante per la morte del Papa Urbano VIII Barberini e conclave di Innocenzo X Pamfili, Rome, 1904, 13. ^ Walsh Pasulka, Diana (2015). Heaven Can Wait: Purgatory in Catholic Devotional and Popular Culture. Oxford University Press. p. 127. ISBN 9780195382020. Retrieved 30 November 2017. ^ Boruchoff, David A. (2014). "Martín de Murúa, Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala, and the Contested Uses of Saintly Models in Writing Colonial American History". In Kirk, Stephanie; Rivett, Sarah (eds.). Religious Transformations in the Early Modern Americas. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 283. ^ Windeatt, Mary Fabyan (2013). Saint Benedict: The Story of the Father of the Western Monks. TAN Books. ISBN 9781618904614. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Urbanus VIII. Italian Academies Themed Collection—British Library. Includes information about Barbernini's membership of Italian academies, and of his links with other intellectuals of his time Catholic Church titles Preceded by Gregory XV Pope 6 August 1623 – 29 July 1644 Succeeded by Innocent X v t e Popes of the Catholic Church List of popes graphical canonised Papal names Tombs extant non-extant Antipope Pope emeritus Papal resignation Pope-elect 1st–4th centuries During the Roman Empire (until 493) including under Constantine (312–337) Peter Linus Anacletus Clement I Evaristus Alexander I Sixtus I Telesphorus Hyginus Pius I Anicetus Soter Eleutherius Victor I Zephyrinus Callixtus I Urban I Pontian Anterus Fabian Cornelius Lucius I Stephen I Sixtus II Dionysius Felix I Eutychian Caius Marcellinus Marcellus I Eusebius Miltiades Sylvester I Mark Julius I Liberius Damasus I Siricius Anastasius I 5th–8th centuries Ostrogothic Papacy (493–537) Byzantine Papacy (537–752) Frankish Papacy (756–857) Innocent I Zosimus Boniface I Celestine I Sixtus III Leo 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en-wikipedia-org-3843	----	Livy - Wikipedia Livy From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman historian Livy Titus Livius Born Titus Livius 64 or 59 BC Patavium, Adriatic Veneti (modern Padua, Italy) Died AD 12 or 17 Patavium, Italy, Roman Empire Occupation Historian Genre History Subject History, biography, oratory Literary movement Golden Age of Latin Titus Livius[a] (/ˈlɪviəs/ LIV-ee-əs, Latin: [ˈtɪtʊs ˈliːwijʊs]; 64/59 BC – AD 12/17), known as Livy (/ˈlɪvi/ LIV-ee) in English, was a Roman historian. He wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people, titled Ab Urbe Condita, ''From the Founding of the City'', covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditional foundation in 753 BC through the reign of Augustus in Livy's own lifetime. He was on familiar terms with members of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and even in friendship with Augustus,[1] whose young grandnephew, the future emperor Claudius, he exhorted to take up the writing of history.[2] Contents 1 Life 2 Works 3 Reception 3.1 Imperial era 3.2 Later 4 Dates 5 Notes 6 References 7 Bibliography 8 Further reading 9 External links Life[edit] Livy was born in Patavium in northern Italy, now modern Padua. There is a debate about the year of his birth – either in 64 BC, or more likely, in 59 BC (see below).[3] At the time of his birth, his home city of Patavium was the second wealthiest on the Italian peninsula, and the largest in the province of Cisalpine Gaul (northern Italy). Cisalpine Gaul was merged in Italy proper during his lifetime and its inhabitants were given Roman citizenship by Julius Caesar. In his works, Livy often expressed his deep affection and pride for Patavium, and the city was well known for its conservative values in morality and politics.[4] "He was by nature a recluse, mild in temperament and averse to violence; the restorative peace of his time gave him the opportunity to turn all his imaginative passion to the legendary and historical past of the country he loved."[5] Livy's teenage years were during the 40s BC, when a period of numerous civil wars throughout the Roman world occurred. The governor of Cisalpine Gaul at the time, Asinius Pollio, tried to sway Patavium[when?] into supporting Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony), the leader of one of the warring factions. The wealthy citizens of Patavium refused to contribute money and arms to Asinius Pollio, and went into hiding. Pollio then attempted to bribe the slaves of those wealthy citizens to expose the whereabouts of their masters; his bribery did not work, and the citizens instead pledged their allegiance to the Senate. It is therefore likely[citation needed] that the Roman civil wars prevented Livy from pursuing a higher education in Rome or going on a tour of Greece, which was common for adolescent males of the nobility at the time. Many years later, Asinius Pollio derisively commented on Livy's "patavinity", saying that Livy's Latin showed certain "provincialisms" frowned on at Rome. Pollio's dig may have been the result of bad feelings he harboured toward the city of Patavium from his experiences there during the civil wars.[6] Livy probably went to Rome in the 30s BC,[7] and it is likely that he spent a large amount of time in the city after this, although it may not have been his primary home. During his time in Rome, he was never a senator nor held a government position. His writings contain elementary mistakes on military matters, indicating that he probably never served in the Roman army. However, he was educated in philosophy and rhetoric. It seems that Livy had the financial resources and means to live an independent life, though the origin of that wealth is unknown. He devoted a large part of his life to his writings, which he was able to do because of his financial freedom.[8] Livy was known to give recitations to small audiences, but he was not heard of to engage in declamation, then a common pastime. He was familiar with the emperor Augustus and the imperial family. Augustus was considered by later Romans to have been the greatest Roman emperor, benefiting Livy's reputation long after his death. Suetonius described how Livy encouraged the future emperor Claudius, who was born in 10 BC,[9] to write historiographical works during his childhood.[10] Livy's most famous work was his history of Rome. In it he narrates a complete history of the city of Rome, from its foundation to the death of Augustus. Because he was writing under the reign of Augustus, Livy's history emphasizes the great triumphs of Rome. He wrote his history with embellished accounts of Roman heroism in order to promote the new type of government implemented by Augustus when he became emperor.[11] In Livy's preface to his history, he said that he did not care whether his personal fame remained in darkness, as long as his work helped to "preserve the memory of the deeds of the world’s preeminent nation."[12] Because Livy was mostly writing about events that had occurred hundreds of years earlier, the historical value of his work was questionable, although many Romans came to believe his account to be true.[13] Livy was married and had at least one daughter and one son.[8] He also produced other works, including an essay in the form of a letter to his son, and numerous dialogues, most likely modelled on similar works by Cicero.[14] Titus Livius died in his home city of Patavium in either (see below) AD 12 or 17; the latter would have been three years after the death of the emperor Augustus.[4] Works[edit] Main article: Ab Urbe Condita Libri Ab Urbe condita (1715) Livy's only surviving work is commonly known as "History of Rome" (or Ab Urbe Condita, ''From the Founding of the City''), which was his career from his mid-life, probably 32, until he left Rome for Padua in old age, probably in the reign of Tiberius after the death of Augustus. When he began this work he was already past his youth; presumably, events in his life prior to that time had led to his intense activity as a historian. Seneca the Younger[15] gives brief mention that he was also known as an orator and philosopher and had written some treatises in those fields from a historical point of view.[b] Reception[edit] Imperial era[edit] Livy's History of Rome was in high demand from the time it was published and remained so during the early years of the empire. Pliny the Younger reported that Livy's celebrity was so widespread, a man from Cadiz travelled to Rome and back for the sole purpose of meeting him.[16] Livy's work was a source for the later works of Aurelius Victor, Cassiodorus, Eutropius, Festus, Florus, Granius Licinianus and Orosius. Julius Obsequens used Livy, or a source with access to Livy, to compose his De Prodigiis, an account of supernatural events in Rome from the consulship of Scipio and Laelius to that of Paulus Fabius and Quintus Aelius.[citation needed] Livy wrote during the reign of Augustus, who came to power after a civil war with generals and consuls claiming to be defending the Roman Republic, such as Pompey. Patavium had been pro-Pompey. To clarify his status, the victor of the civil war, Octavian Caesar, had wanted to take the title Romulus (the first king of Rome) but in the end accepted the senate proposal of Augustus. Rather than abolishing the republic, he adapted it and its institutions to imperial rule. The historian Tacitus, writing about a century after Livy's time, described the Emperor Augustus as his friend. Describing the trial of Cremutius Cordus, Tacitus represents him as defending himself face-to-face with the frowning Tiberius as follows: I am said to have praised Brutus and Cassius, whose careers many have described and no one mentioned without eulogy. Titus Livius, pre-eminently famous for eloquence and truthfulness, extolled Cn. Pompeius in such a panegyric that Augustus called him Pompeianus, and yet this was no obstacle to their friendship.[17] Livy's reasons for returning to Padua after the death of Augustus (if he did) are unclear, but the circumstances of Tiberius' reign certainly allow for speculation.[citation needed] Later[edit] Titus Livius by Andrea Briosco (c. 1567) During the Middle Ages, interest in Livy declined because Western scholars were more focused on religious texts.[18] Due to the length of the work, the literate class was already reading summaries rather than the work itself, which was tedious to copy, expensive, and required a lot of storage space. It must have been during this period, if not before, that manuscripts began to be lost without replacement. The Renaissance was a time of intense revival; the population discovered that Livy's work was being lost and large amounts of money changed hands in the rush to collect Livian manuscripts. The poet Beccadelli sold a country home for funding to purchase one manuscript copied by Poggio.[18] Petrarch and Pope Nicholas V launched a search for the now missing books. Laurentius Valla published an amended text initiating the field of Livy scholarship. Dante speaks highly of him in his poetry, and Francis I of France commissioned extensive artwork treating Livian themes; Niccolò Machiavelli's work on republics, the Discourses on Livy is presented as a commentary on the History of Rome. Respect for Livy rose to lofty heights. Walter Scott reports in Waverley (1814) as an historical fact that a Scotchman involved in the first Jacobite uprising of 1715 was recaptured (and executed) because, having escaped, he yet lingered near the place of his captivity in "the hope of recovering his favourite Titus Livius."[19] Dates[edit] Livy was likely born between 64 and 59 BC and died sometime between AD 12 to 17. He started his work sometime between 31 and 25 BC. St. Jerome says that Livy was born the same year as Marcus Valerius Messala Corvinus and died the same year as Ovid.[20] Messala, however, was born earlier, in 64 BC, and Ovid's death, usually taken to be the same year as Livy's, is more uncertain. As an alternative view, Ronald Syme argues for 64 BC–12 AD as a range for Livy, setting the death of Ovid at 12.[21] A death date of 12 AD, however, removes Livy from Augustus' best years and makes him depart for Padua without the good reason of the second emperor, Tiberius, being not as tolerant of his republicanism. The contradiction remains. The authority supplying information from which possible vital data on Livy can be deduced is Eusebius of Caesarea, a bishop of the early Christian Church. One of his works was a summary of world history in ancient Greek, termed the Chronikon, dating from the early 4th century AD. This work was lost except for fragments (mainly excerpts), but not before it had been translated in whole and in part by various authors such as St. Jerome. The entire work survives in two separate manuscripts, Armenian and Greek (Christesen and Martirosova-Torlone 2006). St. Jerome wrote in Latin. Fragments in Syriac exist.[22] Eusebius' work consists of two books: the Chronographia, a summary of history in annalist form, and the Chronikoi Kanones, tables of years and events. St. Jerome translated the tables into Latin as the Chronicon, probably adding some information of his own from unknown sources. Livy's dates appear in Jerome's Chronicon. The main problem with the information given in the manuscripts is that, between them, they often give different dates for the same events or different events, do not include the same material entirely, and reformat what they do include. A date may be in Ab Urbe Condita or in Olympiads or in some other form, such as age. These variations may have occurred through scribal error or scribal license. Some material has been inserted under the aegis of Eusebius. The topic of manuscript variants is a large and specialized one, on which authors of works on Livy seldom care to linger. As a result, standard information in a standard rendition is used, which gives the impression of a standard set of dates for Livy. There are no such dates.[citation needed] A typical presumption is of a birth in the 2nd year of the 180th Olympiad and a death in the first year of the 199th Olympiad, which are coded 180.2 and 199.1 respectively.[20] All sources use the same first Olympiad, 776/775–773/772 BC by the modern calendar. By a complex formula (made so by the 0 reference point not falling on the border of an Olympiad), these codes correspond to 59 BC for the birth, 17 AD for the death. In another manuscript the birth is in 180.4, or 57 BC.[23] Notes[edit] ^ Titus is the praenomen (the personal name); Livius is the nomen (the gentile name, i.e. "belonging to the gens Livia"). Therefore, Titus Livius did not have a cognomen (third name, i.e. family name), which was not unusual during the Roman Republic. About this, classical sources agree: Seneca (Ep. 100.9); Tacitus (Ann. IV.34.4); Pliny (Ep. II.3.8); and Suetonius (Claud. 41.1) call him Titus Livius. Quintilian calls him Titus Livius (Inst. Or. VIII.1.3; VIII.2.18; X.1.101) or simply Livius (Inst. Or. I.5.56; X.1.39). In the sepulchral inscription from Patavium, which most probably concerns Titus, he is named, with the patronymic, T Livius C f, ''Titus Livius Cai filius'' (CIL V, 2975). ^ "Livy wrote both dialogues, which should be ranked as history no less than as philosophy, and works which professedly deal with philosophy" ("scripsit enim et dialogos, quos non magis philosophiae adnumerare possis quam historiae, et ex professo philosophiam continentis libros") —Seneca the Younger. Moral Letters to Lucilius. 100.9. References[edit] ^ Tacitus. Annales. IV.34. ^ Suetonius. Claudius. The Twelve Caesars. 41.1. ^ "Livy". A Dictionary of World History. Oxford University Press. 2015. Retrieved 22 April 2018. ^ a b Livy 1998, ix. ^ Livy (1978). Livy: The History of Early Rome. Translated by Aubrey de Sélincourt (Collector's ed.). Norwalk, Connecticut: Easton Press. p. viii. ^ Livy 1998, ix–x. ^ Hazel, John (2001). Who's Who in the Roman World. Who's Who Series. Routledge – via EBSCOhost. ^ a b Livy 1998, x. ^ Payne, Robert (1962). The Roman Triumph. London: Robert Hale. p. 38. ^ Suetonius. Claudius. The Twelve Caesars. 41.1. Historiam in adulescentia hortante T. Livio, Sulpicio vero Flavo etiam adiuvante, scribere adgressus est. ('In his youth he began to write a history under the encouragement of Titus Livius and with the help of Sulpicius Flavus.') . ^ Dudley, Donald R (1970). The Romans: 850 BC – AD 337. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p. 19. ^ Feldherr, Andrew (1998). Spectacle and Society in Livy's History. London: University of California Press. p. ix. ^ Heichelheim, Fritz Moritz (1962). A History of the Roman People. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. p. 47. ^ Livy 1998, xi. ^ Seneca the Younger. Moral Letters to Lucilius. 100.9. ^ Pliny. Epistlae. II.3. ^ Tacitus. Annales. IV.34. Brutum et Cassium laudavisse dicor, quorum res gestas cum plurimi composuerint nemo sine honore memoravit. Ti. Livius, eloquentiae ac fidei praeclarus in primis, Cn. Pompeium tantis laudibus tulit, ut Pompeianum eum Augustus appellaret: neque id amicitiae eorum offecit. ^ a b Foster 1919, p. 24. sfn error: no target: CITEREFFoster1919 (help) ^ Scott, Walter (1897) [1814]. "6". Waverley. London: Adam and Charles Black. p. 570. ^ a b "St. Jerome (Hieronymus): Chronological Tables". Attalus. 29 February 2016. Retrieved 14 August 2009. ^ Livy (1994). Kraus, Christina Shuttleworth (ed.). Ab urbe condita. Book VI. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 1. ISBN 0-521-41002-9. ^ Fotheringham 1905, p. 1. sfn error: no target: CITEREFFotheringham1905 (help) ^ Livius, Titus (1881). Seeley, John Robert (ed.). Livy. 1. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 1. ISBN 0-86292-296-8. Bibliography[edit] Livy (1919) [written 27–9 BC]. Livy. I. Translated by Foster, B. O. Boston: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-99256-3. Livy (1998) [written 27–9 BC]. The Rise of Rome. Books 1–5. Translated by Luce, T. J. Oxford: Oxford University Press. . Further reading[edit] Chaplin, Janes D. (2000). Livy's Exemplary History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Damon, Cynthia (1997). "From Source to Sermo: Narrative Technique in Livy 34.54.4-8". The American Journal of Philology. 118 (2): 251–266. doi:10.1353/ajp.1997.0026. S2CID 162297951. Davies, Jason P. (2004). Rome's Religious History: Livy, Tacitus and Ammianus on their Gods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dorey, Thomas Allen, ed. (1971). Livy. London: Routledge. Feldherr, Andrew (1998). Spectacle and Society in Livy's History. Berkeley: University of California Press. Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony, eds. (2003). The Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-860641-3. Klindienst, Patricia (1990). "'Ritual Work on Human Flesh': Livy's Lucretia and the Rape of the Body Politic". HELIOS. 17 (1): 51–70. Kraus, C. S.; Woodman, A. J. (1997). Latin Historians. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 51–81. Levene, D. S. (2010). Livy on the Hannibalic War. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Linderski, Jerzy. "Roman Religion in Livy". In Wolfgang Schuller (ed.). Livius: Aspekte senes Werkes. Konstanz: Universitätsverlag Konstanz. pp. 53–70. Miles, Gary B. (1995). Livy: Reconstructing Early Rome. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. Moore, Timothy J. (1989). Artistry and Ideology: Livy's Vocabulary of Virtue. Frankfurt: Athenäum. Rossi, Andreola (2004). "Parallel Lives: Hannibal and Scipio in Livy's Third Decade". Transactions of the American Philological Association. 134 (2): 359–381. doi:10.1353/apa.2004.0017. S2CID 154240047. Syme, Ronald (1959). "Livy and Augustus". Harvard Studies in Classical Philology. 64: 27–78. doi:10.2307/310937. JSTOR 310937. Vandiver, Elizabeth (1999). "The Founding Mothers of Livy's Rome: The Sabine Women and Lucretia". In Titchener, Frances B.; Moorton Jr., Richard F. (eds.). The Eye Expanded: Life and the Arts in Greco-Roman Antiquity. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 206–232. Walsh, Patrick G. (1961). Livy: His Historical Aims and Methods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Livy Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Livy. Wikisource has original works written by or about: Titus Livius Library resources about Livy Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Livy Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries For links to the surviving works of Livy in Latin and English, see Ab Urbe Condita Libri (Livy). Works by Livy at Perseus Digital Library Works by Livy at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Livy at Internet Archive Works by Livy at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Lendering, Jona (2006–2009). "Livy (1): Life". Livius Articles on Ancient History. Livius.org. 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en-wikipedia-org-3855	----	Ars Poetica (Horace) - Wikipedia Ars Poetica (Horace) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The art of poetry "Ars Poetica", or "The Art of Poetry", is a poem written by Horace c. 19 BC,[1] in which he advises poets on the art of writing poetry and drama. The Ars Poetica has "exercised a great influence in later ages on European literature, notably on French drama"[2] and has inspired poets and authors since it was written.[3] Although it has been well-known since the Middle Ages, it has been used in literary criticism since the Renaissance.[4] Contents 1 Background 2 Summary 3 Literary phrases 4 Key concepts 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Background[edit] The poem was written in hexameter verse as an Epistle (or Letter) to Lucius Calpurnius Piso (the Roman senator and consul) and his two sons, and is sometimes referred to as the Epistula ad Pisones, or "Epistle to the Pisos". The first mention of its name as the "Ars Poetica" was c. 95 by the classical literary critic Quintilian in his Institutio Oratoria,[5] and since then it has been known by that name. The translations of the original epistle are typically in the form of prose.[6] "Written, like Horace's other epistles of this period, in a loose conversational frame, Ars Poetica consists of 476 lines containing nearly 30 maxims for young poets."[7] But Ars Poetica is not a systematic treatise of theory, and it wasn't intended to be. It is an inviting and lively poetic letter, composed for friends who appreciate poetic literature.[8] Horace approaches poetry from a practical standpoint—as a craft, or ars—rather than the theoretical approach of his predecessors, Aristotle and the philosopher Plato. He also holds the poet in high regard, as opposed, for instance, to Plato, who distrusts mimesis and who has philosopher Socrates say in Book 10 of the Republic that he would banish poets from the ideal state.[9] Summary[edit] The following is a brief outline of the main subjects of the work: (a) A poem demands unity, to be secured by harmony and proportion, as well as a wise choice of subject and good diction. Meter and style must be appropriate to theme and to character. A good model will always be found in Homer (ll, 1–152). (b) Dramatic poetry calls for special care – as to character drawing, propriety of representation, length of a play, number of actors, use of the chorus and its music, special features for the satyric type, verse-forms, and employment of Greek models (ll. 153–294). (c) A poet's qualifications include common sense, knowledge of character, adherence to high ideals, combination of the dulce with the utile, intellectual superiority, appreciation of the noble history and lofty mission of poetry, and above all a willingness to listen to and profit by impartial criticism (ll. 295–476).[10] (For a more detailed summary of Horace's Ars Poetica, see the article on Horace's Epistles – Epistle II.3). Literary phrases[edit] "Many of...[the] apt phrases [of the Ars Poetica]...have passed into common literary parlance."[11] Four quotations in particular are associated with the work: "in medias res (l. 148)", or "into the middle of things". This describes a narrative technique of starting the story from its middle point. According to Horace, this entices the audience into the plot by making everyone curious about the characters' previous paths and their future destinies. The technique appeared frequently in ancient epics, and remains popular in modern narratives. "ab ovo (l. 147)", or "from the beginning". As Homer did not initiate his epics about the Trojan War from the conception (thus, the egg – "ovo" in Latin) of Helen, poets and other story tellers should do something likewise: in other words, starting a story from its commencement will bore and fatigue audiences that may not be interested in a plot that is tediously inclusive. For another explanation of this mention of an egg, see Leda (mythology). "quandoque bonus dormitat Homerus (l. 359)" or "sometimes even good Homer nods off". Today this expression is used to indicate that 1. even the most skilled poet can make continuity errors and 2. long works, usually epics (such as the Iliad or the Odyssey), may have their faults without that detracting significantly from their general quality. In context, however, Horace even censures Homer for such lapses. It reads "et idem | indignor quandoque bonus dormitat Homerus"; (I even castigate the good Homer for the same [fault of technical errors] whenever he nods off). "ut pictura poesis (l. 361)", or "as is painting so is poetry", by which Horace meant that poetry, in its widest sense meaning "imaginative texts", merits the same careful interpretation that was in his day reserved for painting. (The latter two phrases occur one after the other near the end of the poem). Key concepts[edit] The work is also known for its discussion of the principle of decorum (the use of appropriate vocabulary and diction in each style of writing) (l.81–106), and for Horace's criticisms of purple prose (purpureus pannus, l.15–16), a term coined by him to mean the use of flowery language.[12] This principle is considered a core component of Horatian poetics as it principally aimed to achieve verisimilitude in artistic representation, guiding everything from the choice of genre to diction, dramatic characterization, meter, poetic invention, and the intended effect.[13] Some cited that decorum enforces subordination such as of parts to whole, woman to man, desire to reason, and individual to state.[14] In line 191, Horace warns against deus ex machina, the practice of resolving a convoluted plot by having an Olympian god appear and set things right. Horace writes "Nec deus intersit, nisi dignus vindice nodus": "That a god not intervene, unless a knot show up that be worthy of such an untangler".[15] Perhaps it can even be said that the quotability of Horace's Ars Poetica is what has given it a distinguished place in literary criticism: The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism says: It would be impossible to overestimate the importance of Horace's Ars Poetica (Art of Poetry) for the subsequent history of literary criticism. Since its composition in the first century BCE, this epigrammatic and sometimes enigmatic critical poem has exerted an almost continual influence over poets and literary critics alike – perhaps because its dicta, phrased in verse form, are so eminently quotable. Horace's injunction that poetry should both "instruct and delight" has been repeated so often that it has come to be known as the Horatian platitude.[16] The Horatian platitude is usually given as "instruct and delight", but sometimes as "instruct or delight". The first reading implies that all literature must be instructive. A related ambiguity is that "instruct" might be better translated as "help", "advise", or "warn". Horace repeats this maxim in different wordings: "Aut prodesse uolunt aut delectare poetae aut simul et iucunda et idonea dicere uitae" (The poet wishes to benefit or please, or to be pleasant and helpful at the same time), "miscuit utile dulci" (a mix of useful and sweet), and "delectando pariterque monendo" (delighting and advising). The Ars Poetica was first translated into English in 1566 by Thomas Drant.[17] A translation by Ben Jonson was published posthumously in 1640. See also[edit] Epistles of Horace References[edit] ^ The dating of the poem is uncertain. Different sources give various dates ranging from 19–10 BC. The date 19 BC is given by The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature, p. 74. ^ Howatson, M.C. The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature, 3rd ed. Oxford University Press, 2013, p. 75. ^ For a discussion of the Ars Poetica and related poems, see: Poets.org – http://www.poets.org/viewmedia.php/prmMID/20035 ^ Norton, Glyn (2001). The Cambridge History of Literary Criticism: Volume 3, The Renaissance. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 199. ISBN 0521300088. ^ Institutio Oratoria 8.60 (Also known as Institutes of Oratory in its Dedication to Trypho). See: Horace: Epistles Book II and Epistle to the Pisones (Ars Poetica), ed. by Niall Rudd. Cambridge University Press, 1990, p. 19. ^ "Ars Poetica by Horace". Poetry Foundation. Poetry Foundation. 2018-11-23. Retrieved 2018-11-23.CS1 maint: others (link) ^ Article on Ars Poetica. Encyclopædia Britannica Academic Edition, 2014. ^ Horace. Rudd, Niall, editor. Horace: Epistles Book II and Ars Poetica. Cambridge Greek and Latin Classics. Cambridge University Press. (January 26, 1990). ISBN 978-0521312929 page 34. ^ The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism, ed. by Vincent B. Leitch et al. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2001, p. 121 and p. 33. ^ This summary is taken from: Horace: Satires; Epistles and Ars Poetica, translated and edited by H.R. Fairclough. Harvard: Loeb Classical Library, 1926, p. 443. ^ Howatson, p. 75. ^ The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism, p. 123. ^ Prasad, Leela (2007). Poetics of Conduct: Oral Narrative and Moral Being in a South Indian Town. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 179. ISBN 0-231-13920-9. ^ Lowrie, Michele (2009). Horace: Odes and Epodes. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 160. ISBN 9780199207695. ^ Ars Poetica, line 191 Archived February 9, 2005, at the Wayback Machine ^ The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism, p. 121. ^ See the article on Thomas Drant by Fred Schurink in The Encyclopedia of English Renaissance Literature, Vol.1. Blackwell Publishing, 2012, pp.290–292. External links[edit] Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: Ars Poetica Latin text of poem at The Latin Library Text at Perseus. The Art of Poetry: an Epistle to the Pisos by Horace at Project Gutenberg (English translation) v t e Works by Horace Poetry Satires Epodes Odes Epistles Carmen Saeculare Ars Poetica Collections Satires 2.5 Quote Ut pictura poesis Related Spring of Bandusium Authority control VIAF: 2159152140025011100003 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 2159152140025011100003 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ars_Poetica_(Horace)&oldid=965821543" Categories: 1926 poems 1961 poems Literature about poetry Literary concepts Poetry by Horace 1st-century BC Latin books Hidden categories: CS1 maint: others Webarchive template wayback links Articles with Project Gutenberg links Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages বাংলা Català Español Hrvatski Italiano עברית Latina Nederlands 日本語 Polski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 3 July 2020, at 16:22 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3891	----	Roman theatre (structure) - Wikipedia Roman theatre (structure) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman theatre at Amman, Jordan Roman theatres derive from and are part of the overall evolution of earlier Greek theatres. Indeed, much of the architectural influence on the Romans came from the Greeks, and theatre structural design was no different from other buildings. However, Roman theatres have specific differences, such as generally being built upon their own foundations instead of earthen works or a hillside and being completely enclosed on all sides. Contents 1 Buildings 2 List of Roman theatres 3 See also 4 References Buildings[edit] Standard floor plan of a Roman theatre Roman theatres were built in all areas of the Empire, from Spain to the Middle East. Because of the Romans' ability to influence local architecture, we see numerous theatres around the world with uniquely Roman attributes.[1] Similarities exist between the theatres and amphitheaters of ancient Rome. They were constructed out of the same material, Roman concrete, and provided a place for the public to go and see numerous events. However, they are two entirely different structures, with specific layouts that lend to the different events they held. Amphitheatres did not need superior acoustics, unlike those provided by the structure of a Roman theatre. While amphitheatres would feature races and gladiatorial events, theatres hosted events such as plays, pantomimes, choral events, orations, and commerce.[2] Their design, with its semicircular form, enhances the natural acoustics, unlike Roman amphitheatres constructed in the round.[1] Interior view of the Roman theatre of Bosra, Syria: 1) Scaenae frons 2) Porticus post scaenam 3) Pulpitum 4) Proscaenium 5) Orchestra 6) Cavea 7) Aditus maximus 8) Vomitorium. These buildings were semi-circular and possessed certain inherent architectural structures, with minor differences depending on the region in which they were constructed. The scaenae frons was a high back wall of the stage floor, supported by columns. The proscaenium was a wall that supported the front edge of the stage with ornately decorated niches off to the sides. The Hellenistic influence is seen through the use of the proscenium. The Roman theatre also had a podium, which sometimes supported the columns of the scaenae frons. The theatre itself was divided into the stage (orchestra) and the seating section (cavea). The cavea was sometimes constructed on a small hill or slope in which stacked seating could be easily made in the tradition of the Greek theatres. The center of the cavea was hollowed out of a hill or slope, while the outer radian seats required structural support and solid retaining walls. This was not always the case as Romans tended to build their theatres regardless of the availability of hillsides. All theatres built within the city of Rome were completely man-made without the use of earthworks. The cavea was not roofed, rather, awnings (vela) could be pulled overhead to provide shelter from rain or sunlight.[3] Vomitoria, passages situated below or behind a tier of seats, were made available to the audience.[4] Some Roman theatres, constructed of wood, were torn down after the festival for which they were erected concluded. This practice was due to a moratorium on permanent theatre structures that lasted until 55 BC when the Theatre of Pompey was built with the addition of a temple to avoid the law. Some Roman theatres show signs of never having been completed in the first place.[5] Inside Rome, few theatres have survived the centuries following their construction, providing little evidence about the specific theatres. The Roman theatre of Orange in modern Orange, France, is a good example of a classic Roman theatre, with an indented scaenae frons, reminiscent of why Western Roman theatre designs, however, stripped of its ornamental stone columns, statues and [3] Roman Theatre (Mérida) Roman Theatre of Orange, France Roman Theatre at Palmyra Plovdiv Roman theatre, Bulgaria List of Roman theatres[edit] Main article: List of Roman theatres See also[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ancient Roman theatres. Theatre of ancient Rome Roman architecture References[edit] ^ a b Jones, Mark Wilson (2000). Principles of Roman Architecture. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-08138-3. ^ McDermott, Alicia. "Ancient Mall Found in Famous Theater City of Aspendos Shows Commerce and Entertainment Went Hand-in-Hand". ^ a b Richard Allan Tomlinson. "Theatres (Greek and Roman), structure", The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization. Ed. Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth. Oxford University Press, 1998. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. Northwestern University. 11 May 2007. ^ Ros, Karen E. (1996). "The Roman Theater at Carthage". American Journal of Archaeology. 100 (3): 449–89. JSTOR 507025. ^ , Constance Campbell. "The Uncompleted Theatres of Rome", The Johns Hopkins University Press. Theatre Journal 55.1 (2003) 67–79 10 May 2007. v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_theatre_(structure)&oldid=991949782" Categories: Ancient Roman architecture Ancient Roman leisure Lists of ancient Roman buildings and structures Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Català Español Esperanto Estremeñu Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Italiano עברית Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Suomi Türkçe 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 2 December 2020, at 17:56 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3894	----	Project Gutenberg - Wikipedia Project Gutenberg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Project Gutenberg (disambiguation). Online digital book library Project Gutenberg Established December 1971; 49 years ago (1971-12) (first document posted)[1] Collection Size Over 60,000 documents Website Project Gutenberg Home Page Project Gutenberg (PG) is a volunteer effort to digitize and archive cultural works, as well as to "encourage the creation and distribution of eBooks."[2] It was founded in 1971 by American writer Michael S. Hart and is the oldest digital library.[3] Most of the items in its collection are the full texts of books in the public domain. The Project tries to make these as free as possible, in long-lasting, open formats that can be used on almost any computer. As of 20 May 2020[update], Project Gutenberg had reached 62,108 items in its collection of free eBooks.[4] The releases are available in plain text, but other formats, such as HTML, PDF, EPUB, MOBI, and Plucker are included wherever possible. Most releases are in the English language, but many non-English works are also available. There are multiple affiliated projects that provide additional content, including region- and language-specific works. Project Gutenberg is closely affiliated with Distributed Proofreaders, an Internet-based community for proofreading scanned texts. Contents 1 History 1.1 Affiliated organizations 2 CD and DVD project 3 Scope of collection 4 Ideals 5 Copyright 6 Criticism 7 Affiliated projects 7.1 List of affiliated projects 8 See also 9 References 10 External links History[edit] Michael S. Hart (left) and Gregory Newby (right) of Project Gutenberg, 2006 Michael S. Hart began Project Gutenberg in 1971 with the digitization of the United States Declaration of Independence.[5] Hart, a student at the University of Illinois, obtained access to a Xerox Sigma V mainframe computer in the university's Materials Research Lab. Through friendly operators, he received an account with a virtually unlimited amount of computer time; its value at that time has since been variously estimated at $100,000 or $100,000,000.[6] Hart explained he wanted to "give back" this gift by doing something one could consider to be of great value. His initial goal was to make the 10,000 most consulted books available to the public at little or no charge by the end of the 20th century.[7] This particular computer was one of the 15 nodes on ARPANET, the computer network that would become the Internet. Hart believed one day the general public would be able to access computers and decided to make works of literature available in electronic form for free. He used a copy of the United States Declaration of Independence in his backpack, and this became the first Project Gutenberg e-text. He named the project for Johannes Gutenberg, the fifteenth century German printer who propelled the movable type printing press revolution. By the mid-1990s, Hart was running Project Gutenberg from Illinois Benedictine College. More volunteers had joined the effort. He manually entered all of the text until 1989 when image scanners and optical character recognition software improved and became more available, making book scanning more feasible.[8] Hart later came to an arrangement with Carnegie Mellon University, which agreed to administer Project Gutenberg's finances. As the volume of e-texts increased, volunteers began to take over the project's day-to-day operations that Hart had run. Starting in 2004, an improved online catalog made Project Gutenberg content easier to browse, access and hyperlink. Project Gutenberg is now hosted by ibiblio at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Italian volunteer Pietro Di Miceli developed and administered the first Project Gutenberg website and started the development of the Project online Catalog. In his ten years in this role (1994–2004), the Project web pages won a number of awards, often being featured in "best of the Web" listings, and contributing to the project's popularity.[9] Hart died on 6 September 2011 at his home in Urbana, Illinois, at the age of 64.[10] Affiliated organizations[edit] In 2000, a non-profit corporation, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, Inc. was chartered in Mississippi, United States, to handle the project's legal needs. Donations to it are tax-deductible. Long-time Project Gutenberg volunteer Gregory Newby became the foundation's first CEO.[11] Also in 2000, Charles Franks founded Distributed Proofreaders (DP), which allowed the proofreading of scanned texts to be distributed among many volunteers over the Internet. This effort increased the number and variety of texts being added to Project Gutenberg, as well as making it easier for new volunteers to start contributing. DP became officially affiliated with Project Gutenberg in 2002.[12] As of 2018[update], the 36,000+ DP-contributed books comprised almost two-thirds of the nearly 60,000 books in Project Gutenberg. CD and DVD project[edit] In August 2003, Project Gutenberg created a CD containing approximately 600 of the "best" e-books from the collection. The CD is available for download as an ISO image. When users are unable to download the CD, they can request to have a copy sent to them, free of charge. In December 2003, a DVD was created containing nearly 10,000 items. At the time, this represented almost the entire collection. In early 2004, the DVD also became available by mail. In July 2007, a new edition of the DVD was released containing over 17,000 books, and in April 2010, a dual-layer DVD was released, containing nearly 30,000 items. The majority of the DVDs, and all of the CDs mailed by the project, were recorded on recordable media by volunteers. However, the new dual layer DVDs were manufactured, as it proved more economical than having volunteers burn them. As of October 2010[update], the project has mailed approximately 40,000 discs. As of 2017, the delivery of free CDs has been discontinued, though the ISO image is still available for download.[13] Scope of collection[edit] Growth of Project Gutenberg publications from 1994 until 2015 As of August 2015[update], Project Gutenberg claimed over 60,000 items in its collection, with an average of over 50 new e-books being added each week.[14] These are primarily works of literature from the Western cultural tradition. In addition to literature such as novels, poetry, short stories and drama, Project Gutenberg also has cookbooks, reference works and issues of periodicals.[15] The Project Gutenberg collection also has a few non-text items such as audio files and music-notation files.[16] Most releases are in English, but there are also significant numbers in many other languages. As of April 2016[update], the non-English languages most represented are: French, German, Finnish, Dutch, Italian, and Portuguese.[3] Whenever possible, Gutenberg releases are available in plain text, mainly using US-ASCII character encoding but frequently extended to ISO-8859-1 (needed to represent accented characters in French and Scharfes s in German, for example). Besides being copyright-free, the requirement for a Latin (character set) text version of the release has been a criterion of Michael Hart's since the founding of Project Gutenberg, as he believes this is the format most likely to be readable in the extended future.[17] Out of necessity, this criterion has had to be extended further for the sizable collection of texts in East Asian languages such as Chinese and Japanese now in the collection, where UTF-8 is used instead. Other formats may be released as well when submitted by volunteers. The most common non-ASCII format is HTML, which allows markup and illustrations to be included. Some project members and users have requested more advanced formats, believing them to be easier to read. But some formats that are not easily editable, such as PDF, are generally not considered to fit with the goals of Project Gutenberg. Also Project Gutenberg has two options for master formats that can be submitted (from which all other files are generated): customized versions of the Text Encoding Initiative standard (since 2005)[18] and reStructuredText (since 2011).[19] Beginning in 2009, the Project Gutenberg catalog began offering auto-generated alternate file formats, including HTML (when not already provided), EPUB and plucker.[20] Ideals[edit] Michael Hart said in 2004, "The mission of Project Gutenberg is simple: 'To encourage the creation and distribution of ebooks'".[2] His goal was "to provide as many e-books in as many formats as possible for the entire world to read in as many languages as possible".[3] Likewise, a project slogan is to "break down the bars of ignorance and illiteracy",[21] because its volunteers aim to continue spreading public literacy and appreciation for the literary heritage just as public libraries began to do in the late 19th century.[22][23] Project Gutenberg is intentionally decentralized; there is no selection policy dictating what texts to add. Instead, individual volunteers work on what they are interested in, or have available. The Project Gutenberg collection is intended to preserve items for the long term, so they cannot be lost by any one localized accident. In an effort to ensure this, the entire collection is backed-up regularly and mirrored on servers in many different locations.[24] Copyright[edit] Project Gutenberg is careful to verify the status of its ebooks according to United States copyright law. Material is added to the Project Gutenberg archive only after it has received a copyright clearance, and records of these clearances are saved for future reference. Project Gutenberg does not claim new copyright on titles it publishes. Instead, it encourages their free reproduction and distribution.[3] Most books in the Project Gutenberg collection are distributed as public domain under United States copyright law. There are also a few copyrighted texts, such as those of science fiction author Cory Doctorow, that Project Gutenberg distributes with permission. These are subject to further restrictions as specified by the copyright holder, although they generally tend to be licensed under Creative Commons. "Project Gutenberg" is a trademark of the organization, and the mark cannot be used in commercial or modified redistributions of public domain texts from the project. There is no legal impediment to the reselling of works in the public domain if all references to Project Gutenberg are removed, but Gutenberg contributors have questioned the appropriateness of directly and commercially reusing content that has been formatted by volunteers. There have been instances of books being stripped of attribution to the project and sold for profit in the Kindle Store and other booksellers, one being the 1906 book Fox Trapping.[25] The website is not accessible within Germany, as a result of a court order from S. Fischer Verlag regarding the works of Heinrich Mann, Thomas Mann and Alfred Döblin. Although they were in the public domain in the United States, the German court (Frankfurt am Main Regional Court) recognized the infringement of copyrights still active in Germany, and asserted that the Project Gutenberg website was under German jurisdiction because it hosts content in the German language and is accessible in Germany.[26] This judgment was confirmed by the Frankfurt Court of Appeal on 30 April 2019 (11 U 27/18, available at [27]). The Frankfurt Court of Appeal has not given permission for a further appeal to the Federal Court of Justice (Bundesgerichtshof), however, an application for permission to appeal has been filed with the Federal Court of Justice. As of 4 October 2020 that application was still pending (Federal Court of Justice I ZR 97/19). Criticism[edit] This article needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (December 2019) The text files use the format of plain text encoded in UTF-8 and are typically wrapped at 65–70 characters, with paragraphs separated by a double line break. In recent decades, the resulting relatively bland appearance and the lack of a markup possibility have often been perceived as a drawback of this format.[28] Project Gutenberg attempts to address this by making many texts available in HTML, ePub, and PDF versions as well. HTML versions of older texts are autogenerated versions. Another not-for-profit project, Standard Ebooks, aims to address these issues with its collection of public domain titles that are formatted and styled. It corrects issues related to design and typography.[29] In December 1994, Project Gutenberg was criticized by the Text Encoding Initiative for failing to include documentation or discussion of the decisions unavoidable in preparing a text, or in some cases, not documenting which of several (conflicting) versions of a text has been the one digitized.[30] The selection of works (and editions) available has been determined by popularity, ease of scanning, being out of copyright, and other factors; this would be difficult to avoid in any crowd-sourced project.[31] In March 2004, an initiative was begun by Michael Hart and John S. Guagliardo[32] to provide low-cost intellectual properties. The initial name for this project was Project Gutenberg 2 (PG II), which created controversy among PG volunteers because of the re-use of the project's trademarked name for a commercial venture.[11] Affiliated projects[edit] All affiliated projects are independent organizations that share the same ideals and have been given permission to use the Project Gutenberg trademark. They often have a particular national or linguistic focus.[33] List of affiliated projects[edit] Project Gutenberg Australia hosts many texts that are public domain according to Australian copyright law, but still under copyright (or of uncertain status) in the United States, with a focus on Australian writers and books about Australia.[34] Project Gutenberg Canada.[35] Project Gutenberg Consortia Center specializes in collections of collections. These do not have the editorial oversight or consistent formatting of the main Project Gutenberg. Thematic collections, as well as numerous languages, are featured.[36] Projekt Gutenberg-DE claims copyright for its product and limits access to browsable web-versions of its texts.[37] Project Gutenberg Europe is run by Project Rastko in Serbia. It aims at being a Project Gutenberg for all of Europe, and began posting projects in 2005. It uses the Distributed Proofreaders software to quickly produce etexts.[38] Project Gutenberg Luxembourg publishes mostly, but not exclusively, books that are written in Luxembourgish.[39] Projekti Lönnrot, started by Finnish Project Gutenberg volunteers, derives its name from the Finnish philologist Elias Lönnrot (1802–1884)[40] Project Gutenberg of the Philippines aims to "make as many books available to as many people as possible, with a special focus on the Philippines and Philippine languages".[41] Project Gutenberg Russia (Rutenberg) aims to collect public domain books in Slavic languages, particularly in Russian. The discussion of the project and its legal side began in April 2012. The word Rutenberg is a combination of words "Russia" and "Gutenberg".[42] Project Gutenberg Self-Publishing Press, also known as Project Gutenberg Consortia Center.[43] Unlike the Gutenberg Project itself, Project Gutenberg Self-Publishing allows submission of texts never published before, including self-published ebooks.[44] Launched in 2012,[43][45] also owns the "gutenberg.us" domain.[46] Project Gutenberg of Taiwan seeks to archive copyright free books with a special focus on Taiwan in English, Mandarin and Taiwan-based languages. It is a special project of Forumosa.com[47] See also[edit] Aozora Bunko Chinese Text Project Google Books HathiTrust Internet Archive LibriVox free online audiobook library, with many texts used from Project Gutenberg List of digital library projects On-line Guitar Archive Open Content Alliance Project Runeberg, for books significant to the culture and history of the Nordic countries. Runivers, for Russian historical documents Sefaria, for Jewish texts Virtual volunteering Wikisource or Project Sourceberg Standard Ebooks References[edit] ^ Hart, Michael S. United States Declaration of Independence by United States. Project Gutenberg. Archived from the original on 26 January 2007. Retrieved 17 February 2007. "The Declaration of Independence of the United States of America by Thomas Jefferson" is the bold heading of the linked webpage twelve years later (6 June 2019). No author but Jefferson is identified, nor is Hart otherwise named. Officially this is Project Gutenberg Ebook #1 (assigned December 1993?), or the current index to multiple formats of the same. What Ebook #1 actually contains is heavily annotated re-release of the first two e-texts that were released in December 1971 (as by Michael S. Hart?). For more information, open the HTML format, for instance, and search for "December" or "Michael". ^ a b Hart, Michael S. (23 October 2004). "Gutenberg Mission Statement by Michael Hart". Project Gutenberg. Archived from the original on 14 July 2007. Retrieved 15 August 2007. ^ a b c d Thomas, Jeffrey (20 July 2007). "Project Gutenberg Digital Library Seeks To Spur Literacy". US Department of State, Bureau of International Information Programs. Archived from the original on 14 March 2008. Retrieved 20 August 2007. ^ "Project Gutenberg Releases eBook #50,000". Project Gutenberg News. 25 February 2017. Archived from the original on 25 February 2017. ^ "Hobbes' Internet Timeline". Archived from the original on 5 May 2009. Retrieved 17 February 2009. ^ Hart, Michael S. (August 1992). "Gutenberg:The History and Philosophy of Project Gutenberg". Archived from the original on 29 November 2006. Retrieved 5 December 2006. ^ Day, B. H.; Wortman, W. A. (2000). Literature in English: A Guide for Librarians in the Digital Age. Chicago: Association of College and Research Libraries. p. 170. ISBN 0-8389-8081-3. ^ Vara, Vauhini (5 December 2005). "Project Gutenberg Fears No Google". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 9 August 2017. Retrieved 15 August 2007. ^ "Gutenberg:Credits". Project Gutenberg. 8 June 2006. Archived from the original on 11 July 2007. Retrieved 15 August 2007. ^ "Michael_S._Hart". Project Gutenberg. 6 September 2011. Archived from the original on 17 September 2011. Retrieved 25 September 2011. ^ a b Hane, Paula (2004). "Project Gutenberg Progresses". Information Today. 21 (5). Archived from the original on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 20 August 2007. ^ Staff (August 2007). "The Distributed Proofreaders Foundation". Distributed proofreaders. Archived from the original on 21 August 2007. Retrieved 10 August 2007. ^ "The CD and DVD Project". Gutenberg. 24 July 2012. Archived from the original on 5 October 2012. Retrieved 7 October 2012. ^ According to gutindex-2006 Archived 13 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine, there were 1,653 new Project Gutenberg items posted in the first 33 weeks of 2006. This averages out to 50.09 per week. This does not include additions to affiliated projects. ^ For a listing of the categorized books, see: Staff (28 April 2007). "Category:Bookshelf". Project Gutenberg. Archived from the original on 11 July 2007. Retrieved 18 August 2007. ^ "Project Gutenberg Sheet Music | Manchester-by-the-Sea Public Library". Manchesterpl.org. Archived from the original on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 14 July 2014. ^ Various Project Gutenberg FAQs allude to this. See, for example: Staff. "File Formats FAQ". Archived from the original on 2 November 2012. Retrieved 2 November 2012. You can view or edit ASCII text using just about every text editor or viewer in the world. [...] Unicode is steadily gaining ground, with at least some support in every major operating system, but we're nowhere near the point where everyone can just open a text based on Unicode and read and edit it. ^ "The Guide to PGTEI". Project Gutenberg. 12 April 2005. Archived from the original on 18 May 2013. Retrieved 7 February 2013. ^ The Project Gutenberg RST Manual. Project Gutenberg. 25 November 2010. Archived from the original on 26 January 2013. Retrieved 8 February 2013. ^ "Help on Bibliographic Record". Project Gutenberg. 4 April 2010. Archived from the original on 17 September 2011. Retrieved 3 September 2011. ^ "The Project Gutenberg Weekly Newsletter". Project Gutenberg. 10 December 2003. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 8 June 2008. ^ Perry, Ruth (2007). "Postscript about the Public Libraries". Modern Language Association. Archived from the original on 9 August 2007. Retrieved 20 August 2007. ^ Lorenzen, Michael (2002). "Deconstructing the Philanthropic Library: The Sociological Reasons Behind Andrew Carnegie's Millions to Libraries". Modern Language Association. Archived from the original on 13 August 2007. Retrieved 20 August 2007. ^ Walker, Joseph (30 November 2013). Information Technology and Collection Management for Library User Environments. ISBN 9781466647404. ^ Pegoraro, Rob (30 November 2010). "Amazon charges Kindle users for free Project Gutenberg e-books". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 5 May 2017. Retrieved 3 March 2018. ^ "Court Order to Block Access in Germany". Project Gutenberg Library Archive Foundation. Archived from the original on 4 March 2018. Retrieved 4 March 2018. ^ "OLG Frankfurt jugdment of 30 April 2019". ^ Boumphrey, Frank (July 2000). "European Literature and Project Gutenberg". Cultivate Interactive. Archived from the original on 14 July 2007. Retrieved 15 August 2007. ^ Partick Lucas Austin (20 June 2017). "Standard eBooks is a Gutenberg Project You'll Actually Use". LifeHacker.com. Retrieved 20 October 2020. ^ Michael Sperberg-McQueen, "Textual Criticism and the Text Encoding Initiative", 1994, "Textual Criticism and the Text Encoding Initiative". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 28 July 2015. , retrieved 25 July 2015. ^ Hoffmann, Sebastian (2005). Grammaticalization And English Complex Prepositions: A Corpus-based Study (1st ed.). Routledge. ISBN 0-415-36049-8. OCLC 156424479. ^ Executive director of the World eBook Library. ^ Staff (17 July 2007). "Gutenberg:Partners, Affiliates and Resources". Project Gutenberg. Archived from the original on 26 September 2007. Retrieved 20 August 2007. ^ Staff (24 January 2007). "Project Gutenberg of Australia". Archived from the original on 14 August 2006. Retrieved 10 August 2006. ^ "Project Gutenberg Canada". Archived from the original on 18 January 2016. Retrieved 20 August 2007. ^ Staff (2004). "Project Gutenberg Consortia Center". Archived from the original on 9 August 2007. Retrieved 20 August 2007. ^ Staff (1994). "Projekt Gutenberg-DE". Spiegel Online. Archived from the original on 30 June 2007. Retrieved 20 August 2007. ^ Staff (2005). "Project Gutenberg Europe". EUnet Yugoslavia. Archived from the original on 20 August 2007. Retrieved 20 August 2007. ^ Kirps, Jos (22 May 2007). "Project Gutenberg Luxembourg". Archived from the original on 29 September 2007. Retrieved 20 August 2007. ^ Riikonen, Tapio (28 February 2005). "Projekti Lönnrot". Archived from the original on 10 August 2007. Retrieved 20 August 2007. ^ Staff. "Project Gutenberg of the Philippines". Archived from the original on 24 August 2007. Retrieved 20 August 2007. ^ "Project Gutenberg Russia". Archived from the original on 24 May 2012. Retrieved 5 April 2012. ^ a b "Partners, Affiliates and Resources". Archived from the original on 13 November 2012. Retrieved 27 February 2016. ^ "Project Gutenberg Self-Publishing Press". Archived from the original on 2 March 2016. Retrieved 27 February 2016. ^ "Project Gutenberg launches self-publishing library". RT Book Reviews. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 27 February 2016. ^ "Domain Availability – Registration Information". GoDaddy. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 27 February 2016. ^ Staff. "Project Gutenberg of Taiwan". Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 5 April 2009. External links[edit] Project Gutenbergat Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Wikimedia Commons Texts from Wikisource Data from Wikidata Listen to this article (9.0 megabytes) This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 23 July 2007 (2007-07-23), and does not reflect subsequent edits. 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en-wikipedia-org-3897	----	Cicero - Wikipedia Cicero From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman statesman, lawyer, orator and philosopher For other uses, see Cicero (disambiguation). Cicero First-century AD bust of Cicero in the Capitoline Museums, Rome Born 3 January 106 BC Arpinum, Italy, Roman Republic Died 7 December 43 BC (aged 63) Formia, Italy, Roman Republic Cause of death Beheaded by order of the Second Triumvirate Occupation Statesman, lawyer, writer, orator Office Consul of Rome (63 BC) Governor of Cilicia (51–50 BC) Political party Optimates Spouse(s) Terentia (79–51 BC) Publilia (46–45 BC) Children Tullia and Cicero Minor Relatives Quintus Tullius Cicero (brother) Writing career Subjects Politics, law, philosophy, rhetoric Literary movement Golden Age Latin Eclectic philosophy Notable works Orations: In Verrem In Catilinam I–IV Philosophy: Academica De Oratore De re publica De Natura Deorum De Officiis Tusculanae Quaestiones De Divinatione De Fato Philosophy career Era Hellenistic philosophy Region Western philosophy School Academic skepticism[1] Classical republicanism Main interests Ethics, epistemology, theology Notable ideas Summum bonum Influences Socrates, Plato, Philo of Larissa, Panaetius Influenced Virtually all of subsequent Western philosophy Part of a series on Ancient Rome and the fall of the Republic People Mark Antony Augustus Brutus Cato Cicero Cleopatra Clodius Pulcher Crassus Lepidus Pompey Sextus Pompey Events First Triumvirate Caesar's Civil War Assassination of Caesar Second Triumvirate Liberators' Civil War Sicilian Revolt Final War of the Roman Republic Places Caesareum Comitium Curia Julia Curia Hostilia Rostra Theatre of Pompey v t e Marcus Tullius Cicero (/ˈsɪsəroʊ/ SISS-ə-roh; Latin: [ˈmaːrkʊs ˈtʊlːijʊs ˈkɪkɛroː]; 3 January 106 – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar and Academic Skeptic[2] who played an important role in the politics of the late Roman Republic and upheld optimate principles during the crisis that led to the establishment of the Roman Empire.[3] His extensive writings include treatises on rhetoric, philosophy and politics, and he is considered one of Rome's greatest orators and prose stylists.[4][5] He came from a wealthy municipal family of the Roman equestrian order, and served as consul in 63 BC. His influence on the Latin language was immense: he wrote more than three-quarters of surviving Latin literature from the period of his adult life, and it has been said that subsequent prose was either a reaction against or a return to his style, not only in Latin but in European languages up to the 19th century.[6][7][8] Cicero introduced into Latin the arguments of the chief schools of Hellenistic philosophy and created a Latin philosophical vocabulary with neologisms such as evidentia,[9] humanitas, qualitas, quantitas, and essentia,[10] distinguishing himself as a translator and philosopher. Though he was an accomplished orator and successful lawyer, Cicero believed his political career was his most important achievement. It was during his consulship that the second Catilinarian conspiracy attempted to overthrow the government through an attack on the city by outside forces, and Cicero suppressed the revolt by summarily and controversially executing five conspirators. During the chaotic latter half of the 1st century BC marked by civil wars and the dictatorship of Gaius Julius Caesar, Cicero championed a return to the traditional republican government. Following Julius Caesar's death, Cicero became an enemy of Mark Antony in the ensuing power struggle, attacking him in a series of speeches. He was proscribed as an enemy of the state by the Second Triumvirate and consequently executed by soldiers operating on their behalf in 43 BC after having been intercepted during an attempted flight from the Italian peninsula. His severed hands and head were then, as a final revenge of Mark Antony, displayed on the Rostra. Petrarch's rediscovery of Cicero's letters is often credited for initiating the 14th-century Renaissance in public affairs, humanism, and classical Roman culture.[11] According to Polish historian Tadeusz Zieliński, "the Renaissance was above all things a revival of Cicero, and only after him and through him of the rest of Classical antiquity."[12] The peak of Cicero's authority and prestige came during the 18th-century Enlightenment,[13] and his impact on leading Enlightenment thinkers and political theorists such as John Locke, David Hume, Montesquieu and Edmund Burke was substantial.[14] His works rank among the most influential in European culture, and today still constitute one of the most important bodies of primary material for the writing and revision of Roman history, especially the last days of the Roman Republic.[15] Contents 1 Personal life 1.1 Early life 1.2 Family 2 Public career 2.1 Early legal activity 2.2 Early political career 2.3 Consul 2.4 Exile and return 2.5 Governorship of Cilicia 2.6 Julius Caesar's civil war 2.7 Opposition to Mark Antony and death 3 Legacy 4 Works 5 In archaeology 6 Notable fictional portrayals 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 9.1 Citations 9.2 Sources 10 Further reading 11 External links 11.1 Works by Cicero 11.2 Biographies and descriptions of Cicero's time Personal life[edit] Main article: Personal life of Cicero Early life[edit] Marcus Tullius Cicero was born on 3 January 106 BC[16] in Arpinum, a hill town 100 kilometers (62 mi) southeast of Rome. He belonged to the tribus Cornelia.[17] His father was a well-to-do member of the equestrian order and possessed good connections in Rome. However, being a semi-invalid, he could not enter public life and studied extensively to compensate. Although little is known about Cicero's mother, Helvia, it was common for the wives of important Roman citizens to be responsible for the management of the household. Cicero's brother Quintus wrote in a letter that she was a thrifty housewife.[18] Cicero's cognomen, or personal surname, comes from the Latin for chickpea, cicer. Plutarch explains that the name was originally given to one of Cicero's ancestors who had a cleft in the tip of his nose resembling a chickpea. However, it is more likely that Cicero's ancestors prospered through the cultivation and sale of chickpeas.[19] Romans often chose down-to-earth personal surnames. The famous family names of Fabius, Lentulus, and Piso come from the Latin names of beans, lentils, and peas, respectively. Plutarch writes that Cicero was urged to change this deprecatory name when he entered politics, but refused, saying that he would make Cicero more glorious than Scaurus ("Swollen-ankled") and Catulus ("Puppy").[20] The Young Cicero Reading by Vincenzo Foppa (fresco, 1464), now at the Wallace Collection During this period in Roman history, "cultured" meant being able to speak both Latin and Greek. Cicero was therefore educated in the teachings of the ancient Greek philosophers, poets and historians; as he obtained much of his understanding of the theory and practice of rhetoric from the Greek poet Archias[21] and from the Greek rhetorician Apollonius.[22] Cicero used his knowledge of Greek to translate many of the theoretical concepts of Greek philosophy into Latin, thus translating Greek philosophical works for a larger audience. It was precisely his broad education that tied him to the traditional Roman elite.[23] Cicero's interest in philosophy figured heavily in his later career and led to him providing a comprehensive account of Greek philosophy for a Roman audience,[24] including creating a philosophical vocabulary in Latin.[25] In 87 BC, Philo of Larissa, the head of the Platonic Academy that was founded by Plato in Athens about 300 years earlier, arrived in Rome. Cicero, "inspired by an extraordinary zeal for philosophy",[26] sat enthusiastically at his feet and absorbed Carneades' Academic Skeptic philosophy.[27] Cicero said of Plato's Dialogues, that if Zeus were to speak, he would use their language.[28] According to Plutarch, Cicero was an extremely talented student, whose learning attracted attention from all over Rome,[29] affording him the opportunity to study Roman law under Quintus Mucius Scaevola.[30] Cicero's fellow students were Gaius Marius Minor, Servius Sulpicius Rufus (who became a famous lawyer, one of the few whom Cicero considered superior to himself in legal matters), and Titus Pomponius. The latter two became Cicero's friends for life, and Pomponius (who later received the nickname "Atticus", and whose sister married Cicero's brother) would become, in Cicero's own words, "as a second brother", with both maintaining a lifelong correspondence.[23] In 79 BC, Cicero left for Greece, Asia Minor and Rhodes. This was perhaps to avoid the potential wrath of Sulla, as Plutarch claims,[31][32] though Cicero himself says it was to hone his skills and improve his physical fitness.[33] In Athens he studied philosophy with Antiochus of Ascalon, the 'Old Academic' and initiator of Middle Platonism.[34] In Asia Minor, he met the leading orators of the region and continued to study with them. Cicero then journeyed to Rhodes to meet his former teacher, Apollonius Molon, who had previously taught him in Rome. Molon helped Cicero hone the excesses in his style, as well as train his body and lungs for the demands of public speaking.[35] Charting a middle path between the competing Attic and Asiatic styles, Cicero would ultimately become considered second only to Demosthenes among history's orators.[36] Family[edit] Marcus Tullius Cicero Cicero married Terentia probably at the age of 27, in 79 BC. According to the upper class mores of the day it was a marriage of convenience, but lasted harmoniously for nearly 30 years. Terentia's family was wealthy, probably the plebeian noble house of Terenti Varrones, thus meeting the needs of Cicero's political ambitions in both economic and social terms. She had a half-sister named Fabia, who as a child had become a Vestal Virgin, a great honour. Terentia was a strong willed woman and (citing Plutarch) "she took more interest in her husband's political career than she allowed him to take in household affairs."[37] In the 50s BC, Cicero's letters to Terentia became shorter and colder. He complained to his friends that Terentia had betrayed him but did not specify in which sense. Perhaps the marriage simply could not outlast the strain of the political upheaval in Rome, Cicero's involvement in it, and various other disputes between the two. The divorce appears to have taken place in 51 BC or shortly before.[38] In 46 or 45 BC,[39] Cicero married a young girl, Publilia, who had been his ward. It is thought that Cicero needed her money, particularly after having to repay the dowry of Terentia, who came from a wealthy family.[40] This marriage did not last long. Although his marriage to Terentia was one of convenience, it is commonly known that Cicero held great love for his daughter Tullia.[41] When she suddenly became ill in February 45 BC and died after having seemingly recovered from giving birth to a son in January, Cicero was stunned. "I have lost the one thing that bound me to life" he wrote to Atticus.[42] Atticus told him to come for a visit during the first weeks of his bereavement, so that he could comfort him when his pain was at its greatest. In Atticus's large library, Cicero read everything that the Greek philosophers had written about overcoming grief, "but my sorrow defeats all consolation."[43] Caesar and Brutus as well as Servius Sulpicius Rufus sent him letters of condolence.[44][45] Cicero hoped that his son Marcus would become a philosopher like him, but Marcus himself wished for a military career. He joined the army of Pompey in 49 BC and after Pompey's defeat at Pharsalus 48 BC, he was pardoned by Caesar. Cicero sent him to Athens to study as a disciple of the peripatetic philosopher Kratippos in 48 BC, but he used this absence from "his father's vigilant eye" to "eat, drink and be merry."[46] After Cicero's death he joined the army of the Liberatores but was later pardoned by Augustus. Augustus's bad conscience for not having objected to Cicero's being put on the proscription list during the Second Triumvirate led him to aid considerably Marcus Minor's career. He became an augur, and was nominated consul in 30 BC together with Augustus. As such, he was responsible for revoking the honors of Mark Antony, who was responsible for the proscription, and could in this way take revenge. Later he was appointed proconsul of Syria and the province of Asia.[47] Public career[edit] Main article: Political career of Cicero Early legal activity[edit] Cicero wanted to pursue a public career in politics along the steps of the Cursus honorum. In 90–88 BC, he served both Pompeius Strabo and Lucius Cornelius Sulla as they campaigned in the Social War, though he had no taste for military life, being an intellectual first and foremost. Cicero started his career as a lawyer around 83–81 BC. The first extant speech is a private case from 81 BC (the pro Quinctio), delivered when Cicero was aged 26, though he refers throughout to previous defenses he had already undertaken.[48] His first major public case, of which a written record is still extant, was his 80 BC defense of Sextus Roscius on the charge of patricide.[49] Taking this case was a courageous move for Cicero; patricide was considered an appalling crime, and the people whom Cicero accused of the murder, the most notorious being Chrysogonus, were favorites of Sulla. At this time it would have been easy for Sulla to have the unknown Cicero murdered. Cicero's defense was an indirect challenge to the dictator Sulla, and on the strength of his case, Roscius was acquitted.[50] Soon after, Cicero again challenged Sulla, by criticising his disenfranchisement of Italian towns in a lost speech on behalf of a woman from Arretium.[51] Cicero's case in the Pro Roscio Amerino was divided into three parts. The first part detailed exactly the charge brought by Ericius. Cicero explained how a rustic son of a farmer, who lives off the pleasures of his own land, would not have gained anything from committing patricide because he would have eventually inherited his father's land anyway. The second part concerned the boldness and greed of two of the accusers, Magnus and Capito. Cicero told the jury that they were the more likely perpetrators of murder because the two were greedy, both for conspiring together against a fellow kinsman and, in particular, Magnus, for his boldness and for being unashamed to appear in court to support the false charges. The third part explained that Chrysogonus had immense political power, and the accusation was successfully made due to that power. Even though Chrysogonus may not have been what Cicero said he was, through rhetoric Cicero successfully made him appear to be a foreign freed man who prospered by devious means in the aftermath of the civil war. Cicero surmised that it showed what kind of a person he was and that something like murder was not beneath him.[52] Early political career[edit] His first office was as one of the twenty annual quaestors, a training post for serious public administration in a diversity of areas, but with a traditional emphasis on administration and rigorous accounting of public monies under the guidance of a senior magistrate or provincial commander. Cicero served as quaestor in western Sicily in 75 BC and demonstrated honesty and integrity in his dealings with the inhabitants. As a result, the grateful Sicilians asked Cicero to prosecute Gaius Verres, a governor of Sicily, who had badly plundered the province. His prosecution of Gaius Verres was a great forensic success[53] for Cicero. Governor Gaius Verres hired the prominent lawyer of a noble family Quintus Hortensius Hortalus. After a lengthy period in Sicily collecting testimonials and evidence and persuading witnesses to come forward, Cicero returned to Rome and won the case in a series of dramatic court battles. His unique style of oratory set him apart from the flamboyant Hortensius. On the conclusion of this case, Cicero came to be considered the greatest orator in Rome. The view that Cicero may have taken the case for reasons of his own is viable. Hortensius was, at this point, known as the best lawyer in Rome; to beat him would guarantee much success and the prestige that Cicero needed to start his career. Cicero's oratorical skill is shown in his character assassination of Verres and various other techniques of persuasion used on the jury. One such example is found in the speech Against Verres I, where he states "with you on this bench, gentlemen, with Marcus Acilius Glabrio as your president, I do not understand what Verres can hope to achieve".[54] Oratory was considered a great art in ancient Rome and an important tool for disseminating knowledge and promoting oneself in elections, in part because there were no regular newspapers or mass media. Cicero was neither a patrician nor a plebeian noble; his rise to political office despite his relatively humble origins has traditionally been attributed to his brilliance as an orator.[55] Cicero grew up in a time of civil unrest and war. Sulla's victory in the first of a series of civil wars led to a new constitutional framework that undermined libertas (liberty), the fundamental value of the Roman Republic. Nonetheless, Sulla's reforms strengthened the position of the equestrian class, contributing to that class's growing political power. Cicero was both an Italian eques and a novus homo, but more importantly he was a Roman constitutionalist. His social class and loyalty to the Republic ensured that he would "command the support and confidence of the people as well as the Italian middle classes". The optimates faction never truly accepted Cicero, and this undermined his efforts to reform the Republic while preserving the constitution. Nevertheless, he successfully ascended the cursus honorum, holding each magistracy at or near the youngest possible age: quaestor in 75 BC (age 30), aedile in 69 BC (age 36), and praetor in 66 BC (age 39), when he served as president of the "Reclamation" (or extortion) Court. He was then elected consul at age 42. Consul[edit] Cicero Denounces Catiline, fresco by Cesare Maccari, 1882–88 Cicero, seizing the opportunity offered by optimate fear of reform, was elected consul for the year 63 BC;[56][57] he was elected with the support of every unit of the centuriate assembly, rival members of the post-Sullan establishment, and the leaders of municipalities throughout post–Social War Italy.[57] His co-consul for the year, Gaius Antonius Hybrida, played a minor role.[citation needed] He began his consular year by opposing a land bill proposed by a plebeian tribune which would have appointed commissioners with semi-permanent authority over land reform.[58][56] Cicero was also active in the courts, defending Gaius Rabirius from accusations of participating in the unlawful killing of plebeian tribune Lucius Appuleius Saturninus in 100 BC.[59] The prosecution occurred before the comita centuriata and threatened to reopen conflict between the Marian and Sullan factions at Rome.[59] Cicero defended the use of force as being authorised by a senatus consultum ultimum, which would prove similar to his own use of force under such conditions.[59] Most famously – in part because of his own publicity[57] – he thwarted a conspiracy led by Lucius Sergius Catilina to overthrow the Roman Republic with the help of foreign armed forces. Cicero procured a senatus consultum ultimum (a recommendation from the senate attempting to legitimise the use of force)[57] and drove Catiline from the city with four vehement speeches (the Catiline Orations), which to this day remain outstanding examples of his rhetorical style. The Orations listed Catiline and his followers' debaucheries, and denounced Catiline's senatorial sympathizers as roguish and dissolute debtors clinging to Catiline as a final and desperate hope. Cicero demanded that Catiline and his followers leave the city. At the conclusion of Cicero's first speech (which was made in the Temple of Jupiter Stator), Catiline hurriedly left the Senate. In his following speeches, Cicero did not directly address Catiline. He delivered the second and third orations before the people, and the last one again before the Senate. By these speeches, Cicero wanted to prepare the Senate for the worst possible case; he also delivered more evidence, against Catiline.[60] Catiline fled and left behind his followers to start the revolution from within while he himself assaulted the city with an army of "moral bankrupts and honest fanatics". It is alleged that Catiline had attempted to involve the Allobroges, a tribe of Transalpine Gaul, in their plot, but Cicero, working with the Gauls, was able to seize letters that incriminated the five conspirators and forced them to confess in front of the senate.[61] The senate then deliberated upon the conspirators' punishment. As it was the dominant advisory body to the various legislative assemblies rather than a judicial body, there were limits to its power; however, martial law was in effect, and it was feared that simple house arrest or exile – the standard options – would not remove the threat to the state. At first Decimus Junius Silanus spoke for the "extreme penalty"; many were swayed by Julius Caesar, who decried the precedent it would set and argued in favor of life imprisonment in various Italian towns. Cato the Younger rose in defense of the death penalty and the entire Senate finally agreed on the matter. Cicero had the conspirators taken to the Tullianum, the notorious Roman prison, where they were strangled. Cicero himself accompanied the former consul Publius Cornelius Lentulus Sura, one of the conspirators, to the Tullianum.[citation needed] Cicero received the honorific "pater patriae" for his efforts to suppress the conspiracy, but lived thereafter in fear of trial or exile for having put Roman citizens to death without trial.[citation needed] While the senatus consultum ultimum gave some legitimacy to the use of force against the conspirators,[a] Cicero also argued that Catiline's conspiracy, by virtue of its treason, made the conspirators enemies of the state and forfeited the protections intrinsically possessed by Roman citizens.[59] The consuls moved decisively. Antonius Hybrida was dispatched to defeat Catiline in battle that year, preventing Crassus or Pompey from exploiting the situation for their own political aims.[62] After the suppression of the conspiracy, Cicero was proud of his accomplishment.[citation needed] Some of his political enemies argued that though the act gained Cicero popularity, he exaggerated the extent of his success. He overestimated his popularity again several years later after being exiled from Italy and then allowed back from exile. At this time, he claimed that the republic would be restored along with him.[63] Many Romans at the time, led by Populares politicians Gaius Julius Caesar and patrician turned plebeian Publius Clodius Pulcher believed that Cicero's evidence against Catiline was fabricated and the witnesses were bribed. Cicero, who had been elected consul with the support of the Optimates, promoted their position as advocates of the status quo resisting social changes, especially more privileges for the average inhabitants of Rome.[64] Shortly after completing his consulship, in late 62 BC, Cicero arranged the purchase of a large townhouse on the Palatine Hill previously owned by Rome's richest citizen, Marcus Licinius Crassus.[65] It cost an exorbitant sum, 3.5 million sesterces, which required Cicero to arrange for a loan from his co-consul Gaius Antonius Hybrida based on the expected profits from Antonius's proconsulship in Macedonia.[66][67] At the beginning of his consulship, Cicero had made an arrangement with Hybrida to grant Hybrida the profitable province of Macedonia that had been granted to Cicero by the Senate in exchange for Hybrida staying out of Cicero's way for the year and a quarter of the profits from the province.[67] In return Cicero gained a lavish house which he proudly boasted was "in conspectu prope totius urbis" (in sight of nearly the whole city), only a short walk away from the Roman Forum.[68] Exile and return[edit] In 60 BC, Julius Caesar invited Cicero to be the fourth member of his existing partnership with Pompey and Marcus Licinius Crassus, an assembly that would eventually be called the First Triumvirate. Cicero refused the invitation because he suspected it would undermine the Republic.[69] During Caesar's consulship of 59 BC, the triumvirate had achieved many of their goals of land reform, publicani debt forgiveness, ratification of Pompeian conquests, etc. With Caesar leaving for his provinces, they wished to maintain their stranglehold on politics. They engineered the adoption of patrician Publius Clodius Pulcher into a plebeian family and had him elected as one of the ten tribunes of the plebs for 58 BC.[70] Clodius used the triumvirate's backing to push through legislation that benefited them all. He introduced several laws (the leges Clodiae) that made him very popular with the people, strengthening his power base, then he turned on Cicero by threatening exile to anyone who executed a Roman citizen without a trial. Cicero, having executed members of the Catiline conspiracy four years previously without formal trial, was clearly the intended target.[71] Furthermore, many believed that Clodius acted in concert with the triumvirate who feared that Cicero would seek to abolish many of Caesar's accomplishments while consul the year before. Cicero argued that the senatus consultum ultimum indemnified him from punishment, and he attempted to gain the support of the senators and consuls, especially of Pompey.[72] Cicero grew out his hair, dressed in mourning and toured the streets. Clodius' gangs dogged him, hurling abuse, stones and even excrement. Hortensius, trying to rally to his old rival's support, was almost lynched. The Senate and the consuls were cowed. Caesar, who was still encamped near Rome, was apologetic but said he could do nothing when Cicero brought himself to grovel in the proconsul's tent. Everyone seemed to have abandoned Cicero.[73] After Clodius passed a law to deny to Cicero fire and water (i.e. shelter) within four hundred miles of Rome, Cicero went into exile.[71] He arrived at Thessalonica, on 23 May 58 BC.[74][75][76] In his absence, Clodius, who lived next door to Cicero on the Palatine, arranged for Cicero's house to be confiscated by the state, and was even able to purchase a part of the property in order to extend his own house.[68] After demolishing Cicero's house, Clodius had the land consecrated and symbolically erected a temple of Liberty (aedes Libertatis) on the vacant spot.[77] Cicero's exile caused him to fall into depression. He wrote to Atticus: "Your pleas have prevented me from committing suicide. But what is there to live for? Don't blame me for complaining. My afflictions surpass any you ever heard of earlier".[78] After the intervention of recently elected tribune Titus Annius Milo, acting on the behalf of Pompey who wanted Cicero as a client,[71] the senate voted in favor of recalling Cicero from exile. Clodius cast the single vote against the decree. Cicero returned to Italy on 5 August 57 BC, landing at Brundisium.[79] He was greeted by a cheering crowd, and, to his delight, his beloved daughter Tullia.[80] In his Oratio De Domo Sua Ad Pontifices, Cicero convinced the College of Pontiffs to rule that the consecration of his land was invalid, thereby allowing him to regain his property and rebuild his house on the Palatine.[81][82] Cicero tried to re-enter politics as an independent operator,[71] but his attempts to attack portions of Caesar's legislation were unsuccessful[70] and encouraged Caesar to re-solidify his political alliance with Pompey and Crassus.[83] The conference at Luca in 56 BC left the three-man alliance in domination of the republic's politics; this forced Cicero to recant and support the triumvirate out of fear from being entirely excluded from public life.[84] After the conference Cicero lavishly praised Caesar's achievements, got the Senate to vote a thanksgiving for Caesar's victories and grant money to pay his troops.[citation needed] He also delivered a speech 'On the consular provinces' (Latin: de provinciis consularibus)[84] which checked an attempt by Caesar's enemies to strip him of his provinces in Gaul.[85] After this, a cowed Cicero concentrated on his literary works. It is uncertain whether he was directly involved in politics for the following few years.[86] Governorship of Cilicia[edit] In 51 BC he reluctantly accepted a promagistracy (as proconsul) in Cilicia for the year; there were few other former consuls eligible as a result of a legislative requirement enacted by Pompey in 52 BC specifying an interval of five years between a consulship or praetorship and a provincial command.[87][88] He served as proconsul of Cilicia from May 51, arriving in the provinces three months later around August.[87] He was given instructions to keep nearby Cappadocia loyal to King Ariobarzanes III, which he achieved 'satisfactorily without war'. In 53 BC Marcus Licinius Crassus had been defeated by the Parthians at the Battle of Carrhae. This opened up the Roman East for a Parthian invasion, causing much unrest in Syria and Cilicia. Cicero restored calm by his mild system of government. He discovered that a great amount of public property had been embezzled by corrupt previous governors and members of their staff, and did his utmost to restore it. Thus he greatly improved the condition of the cities.[89] He retained the civil rights of, and exempted from penalties, the men who gave the property back.[90] Besides this, he was extremely frugal in his outlays for staff and private expenses during his governorship, and this made him highly popular among the natives.[91] Previous governors had extorted enormous sums from the provincials in order to supply their households and bodyguards. Besides his activity in ameliorating the hard pecuniary situation of the province, Cicero was also creditably active in the military sphere. Early in his governorship he received information that prince Pacorus, son of Orodes II the king of the Parthians, had crossed the Euphrates, and was ravaging the Syrian countryside and had even besieged Cassius (the interim Roman commander in Syria) in Antioch.[92] Cicero eventually marched with two understrength legions and a large contingent of auxiliary cavalry to Cassius's relief. Pacorus and his army had already given up on besieging Antioch and were heading south through Syria, ravaging the countryside again, Cassius and his legions followed them, harrying them wherever they went, eventually ambushing and defeating them near Antigonea.[93] Another large troop of Parthian horsemen was defeated by Cicero's cavalry who happened to run into them while scouting ahead of the main army. Cicero next defeated some robbers who were based on Mount Amanus and was hailed as imperator by his troops. Afterwards he led his army against the independent Cilician mountain tribes, besieging their fortress of Pindenissum. It took him 47 days to reduce the place, which fell in December.[94] Then Cicero left the province on 30 July[95] to his brother Quintus, who had accompanied him on his governorship as his legate.[96] On his way back to Rome he stopped over in Rhodes and then went to Athens, where he caught up with his old friend Titus Pomponius Atticus and met men of great learning.[97] Julius Caesar's civil war[edit] Cicero arrived in Rome on 4 January 49 BC.[95] He stayed outside the pomerium, to retain his promagisterial powers: either in expectation of a triumph or to retain his independent command authority in the coming civil war.[95] The struggle between Pompey and Julius Caesar grew more intense in 50 BC. Cicero favored Pompey, seeing him as a defender of the senate and Republican tradition, but at that time avoided openly alienating Caesar.[98] When Caesar invaded Italy in 49 BC, Cicero fled Rome. Caesar, seeking an endorsement by a senior senator, courted Cicero's favor, but even so Cicero slipped out of Italy and traveled to Dyrrachium (Epidamnos), Illyria, where Pompey's staff was situated.[99] Cicero traveled with the Pompeian forces to Pharsalus in 48 BC,[100] though he was quickly losing faith in the competence and righteousness of the Pompeian side. Eventually, he provoked the hostility of his fellow senator Cato, who told him that he would have been of more use to the cause of the optimates if he had stayed in Rome. After Caesar's victory at the Battle of Pharsalus on 9 August, Cicero refused to take command of the Pompeian forces and continue the war.[101] He returned to Rome, still as a promagistrate with his lictors, in 47 BC, and dismissed them upon his crossing the pomerium and renouncing his command.[101] Caesar pardoned him and Cicero tried to adjust to the situation and maintain his political work, hoping that Caesar might revive the Republic and its institutions. In a letter to Varro on c. 20 April 46 BC, Cicero outlined his strategy under Caesar's dictatorship. Cicero, however, was taken completely by surprise when the Liberatores assassinated Caesar on the ides of March, 44 BC. Cicero was not included in the conspiracy, even though the conspirators were sure of his sympathy. Marcus Junius Brutus called out Cicero's name, asking him to restore the republic when he lifted his bloodstained dagger after the assassination.[102] A letter Cicero wrote in February 43 BC to Trebonius, one of the conspirators, began, "How I could wish that you had invited me to that most glorious banquet on the Ides of March!"[103][104] Cicero became a popular leader during the period of instability following the assassination. He had no respect for Mark Antony, who was scheming to take revenge upon Caesar's murderers. In exchange for amnesty for the assassins, he arranged for the Senate to agree not to declare Caesar to have been a tyrant, which allowed the Caesarians to have lawful support and kept Caesar's reforms and policies intact.[105] Opposition to Mark Antony and death[edit] Cicero's death (France, 15th century) Cicero and Antony now became the two leading men in Rome: Cicero as spokesman for the Senate; Antony as consul, leader of the Caesarian faction, and unofficial executor of Caesar's public will. Relations between the two, never friendly, worsened after Cicero claimed that Antony was taking liberties in interpreting Caesar's wishes and intentions. Octavian was Caesar's adopted son and heir. After he returned to Italy, Cicero began to play him against Antony. He praised Octavian, declaring he would not make the same mistakes as his father. He attacked Antony in a series of speeches he called the Philippics,[106] after Demosthenes's denunciations of Philip II of Macedon. At the time Cicero's popularity as a public figure was unrivalled.[107] The Vengeance of Fulvia by Francisco Maura y Montaner, 1888 depicting Fulvia inspecting the severed head of Cicero Cicero supported Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus as governor of Cisalpine Gaul (Gallia Cisalpina) and urged the Senate to name Antony an enemy of the state. The speech of Lucius Piso, Caesar's father-in-law, delayed proceedings against Antony. Antony was later declared an enemy of the state when he refused to lift the siege of Mutina, which was in the hands of Decimus Brutus. Cicero's plan to drive out Antony failed. Antony and Octavian reconciled and allied with Lepidus to form the Second Triumvirate after the successive battles of Forum Gallorum and Mutina. The Triumvirate began proscribing their enemies and potential rivals immediately after legislating the alliance into official existence for a term of five years with consular imperium. Cicero and all of his contacts and supporters were numbered among the enemies of the state, even though Octavian argued for two days against Cicero being added to the list.[108] Cicero was one of the most viciously and doggedly hunted among the proscribed. He was viewed with sympathy by a large segment of the public and many people refused to report that they had seen him. He was caught on 7 December 43 BC leaving his villa in Formiae in a litter heading to the seaside, where he hoped to embark on a ship destined for Macedonia.[109] When his killers – Herennius (a centurion) and Popilius (a tribune) – arrived, Cicero's own slaves said they had not seen him, but he was given away by Philologus, a freedman of his brother Quintus Cicero.[109] Cicero about age 60, from a marble bust As reported by Seneca the Elder, according to the historian Aufidius Bassus, Cicero's last words are said to have been "There is nothing proper about what you are doing, soldier, but do try to kill me properly."[110] He bowed to his captors, leaning his head out of the litter in a gladiatorial gesture to ease the task. By baring his neck and throat to the soldiers, he was indicating that he would not resist. According to Plutarch, Herennius first slew him, then cut off his head. On Antony's instructions his hands, which had penned the Philippics against Antony, were cut off as well; these were nailed along with his head on the Rostra in the Forum Romanum according to the tradition of Marius and Sulla, both of whom had displayed the heads of their enemies in the Forum. Cicero was the only victim of the proscriptions who was displayed in that manner. According to Cassius Dio (in a story often mistakenly attributed to Plutarch),[111] Antony's wife Fulvia took Cicero's head, pulled out his tongue, and jabbed it repeatedly with her hairpin in final revenge against Cicero's power of speech.[112] Cicero's son, Marcus Tullius Cicero Minor, during his year as a consul in 30 BC, avenged his father's death, to a certain extent, when he announced to the Senate Mark Antony's naval defeat at Actium in 31 BC by Octavian and his commander-in-chief, Agrippa.[citation needed] Octavian is reported to have praised Cicero as a patriot and a scholar of meaning in later times, within the circle of his family.[113] However, it was Octavian's acquiescence that had allowed Cicero to be killed, as Cicero was condemned by the new triumvirate.[citation needed] Cicero's career as a statesman was marked by inconsistencies and a tendency to shift his position in response to changes in the political climate. His indecision may be attributed to his sensitive and impressionable personality; he was prone to overreaction in the face of political and private change. "Would that he had been able to endure prosperity with greater self-control, and adversity with more fortitude!" wrote C. Asinius Pollio, a contemporary Roman statesman and historian.[114][115] Legacy[edit] Part of the Politics series on Republicanism Central concepts Anti-monarchism Liberty as non-domination Popular sovereignty Republic Res publica Social contract Schools Classical Federal Kemalism Nasserism Neo-republicanism Venizelism Types of republics Autonomous Capitalist Christian Corporate Democratic Federal Federal parliamentary Islamic Parliamentary People's Revolutionary Sister Soviet Important thinkers Hannah Arendt Cicero James Harrington Thomas Jefferson John Locke James Madison Montesquieu Polybius Jean-Jacques Rousseau Algernon Sidney Mary Wollstonecraft History Roman Republic Gaṇa sangha Classical Athens Republic of Venice Republic of Genoa Republic of Florence Dutch Republic American Revolution French Revolution Spanish American wars of independence Trienio Liberal French Revolution of 1848 5 October 1910 revolution Chinese Revolution Russian Revolution German Revolution of 1918–19 Turkish War of Independence Mongolian Revolution of 1921 11 September 1922 Revolution 1935 Greek coup d'état attempt Spanish Civil War 1946 Italian institutional referendum Egyptian revolution of 1952 14 July Revolution North Yemen Civil War Zanzibar Revolution 1969 Libyan coup d'état Cambodian coup of 1970 Metapolitefsi Iranian Revolution 1987 Fijian coups d'état Nepalese Civil War By country Australia Barbados Canada Ireland Jamaica Japan Morocco Netherlands New Zealand Norway Spain Sweden Turkey United Kingdom Scotland United States Related topics Communitarianism Democracy Liberalism Monarchism Politics portal v t e Henry VIII's childhood copy of De Officiis, bearing the inscription in his hand, "Thys boke is myne Prynce Henry" Cicero has been traditionally considered the master of Latin prose, with Quintilian declaring that Cicero was "not the name of a man, but of eloquence itself."[116] The English words Ciceronian (meaning "eloquent") and cicerone (meaning "local guide") derive from his name.[117][118] He is credited with transforming Latin from a modest utilitarian language into a versatile literary medium capable of expressing abstract and complicated thoughts with clarity.[119] Julius Caesar praised Cicero's achievement by saying "it is more important to have greatly extended the frontiers of the Roman spirit than the frontiers of the Roman empire".[120] According to John William Mackail, "Cicero's unique and imperishable glory is that he created the language of the civilized world, and used that language to create a style which nineteen centuries have not replaced, and in some respects have hardly altered."[121] Cicero was also an energetic writer with an interest in a wide variety of subjects, in keeping with the Hellenistic philosophical and rhetorical traditions in which he was trained. The quality and ready accessibility of Ciceronian texts favored very wide distribution and inclusion in teaching curricula, as suggested by a graffito at Pompeii, admonishing: "You will like Cicero, or you will be whipped".[122] Cicero was greatly admired by influential Church Fathers such as Augustine of Hippo, who credited Cicero's lost Hortensius for his eventual conversion to Christianity,[123] and St. Jerome, who had a feverish vision in which he was accused of being "follower of Cicero and not of Christ" before the judgment seat.[124] This influence further increased after the Early Middle Ages in Europe, which more of his writings survived than any other Latin author. Medieval philosophers were influenced by Cicero's writings on natural law and innate rights.[125][additional citation(s) needed] Petrarch's rediscovery of Cicero's letters provided the impetus for searches for ancient Greek and Latin writings scattered throughout European monasteries, and the subsequent rediscovery of classical antiquity led to the Renaissance. Subsequently, Cicero became synonymous with classical Latin to such an extent that a number of humanist scholars began to assert that no Latin word or phrase should be used unless it appeared in Cicero's works, a stance criticised by Erasmus.[126] His voluminous correspondence, much of it addressed to his friend Atticus, has been especially influential, introducing the art of refined letter writing to European culture. Cornelius Nepos, the 1st century BC biographer of Atticus, remarked that Cicero's letters contained such a wealth of detail "concerning the inclinations of leading men, the faults of the generals, and the revolutions in the government" that their reader had little need for a history of the period.[127] Among Cicero's admirers were Desiderius Erasmus, Martin Luther, and John Locke.[128] Following the invention of Johannes Gutenberg's printing press, De Officiis was the second book printed in Europe, after the Gutenberg Bible. Scholars note Cicero's influence on the rebirth of religious toleration in the 17th century.[129] Cicero was especially popular with the Philosophes of the 18th century, including Edward Gibbon, Diderot, David Hume, Montesquieu, and Voltaire.[130] Gibbon wrote of his first experience reading the author's collective works thus: "I tasted the beauty of the language; I breathed the spirit of freedom; and I imbibed from his precepts and examples the public and private sense of a man...after finishing the great author, a library of eloquence and reason, I formed a more extensive plan of reviewing the Latin classics..."[131] Voltaire called Cicero "the greatest as well as the most elegant of Roman philosophers" and even staged a play based on Cicero's role in the Catilinarian conspiracy, called Rome Sauvée, ou Catilina, to "make young people who go to the theatre acquainted with Cicero."[132] Voltaire was spurred to pen the drama as a rebuff to his rival Claude Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon's own play Catilina, which had portrayed Cicero as a coward and villain who hypocritically married his own daughter to Catiline.[133] Montesquieu produced his "Discourse on Cicero" in 1717, in which he heaped praise on the author because he rescued "philosophy from the hands of scholars, and freed it from the confusion of a foreign language".[134] Montesquieu went on to declare that Cicero was "of all the ancients, the one who had the most personal merit, and whom I would prefer to resemble."[133][135] Internationally, Cicero the republican inspired the Founding Fathers of the United States and the revolutionaries of the French Revolution.[136] John Adams said, "As all the ages of the world have not produced a greater statesman and philosopher united than Cicero, his authority should have great weight."[137] Jefferson names Cicero as one of a handful of major figures who contributed to a tradition "of public right" that informed his draft of the Declaration of Independence and shaped American understandings of "the common sense" basis for the right of revolution.[138] Camille Desmoulins said of the French republicans in 1789 that they were "mostly young people who, nourished by the reading of Cicero at school, had become passionate enthusiasts for liberty".[139] Jim Powell starts his book on the history of liberty with the sentence: "Marcus Tullius Cicero expressed principles that became the bedrock of liberty in the modern world."[140] Likewise, no other ancient personality has inspired as much venomous dislike as Cicero, especially in more modern times.[141] His commitment to the values of the Republic accommodated a hatred of the poor and persistent opposition to the advocates and mechanisms of popular representation.[142] Friedrich Engels referred to him as "the most contemptible scoundrel in history" for upholding republican "democracy" while at the same time denouncing land and class reforms.[143] Cicero has faced criticism for exaggerating the democratic qualities of republican Rome, and for defending the Roman oligarchy against the popular reforms of Caesar.[144] Michael Parenti admits Cicero's abilities as an orator, but finds him a vain, pompous and hypocritical personality who, when it suited him, could show public support for popular causes that he privately despised. Parenti presents Cicero's prosecution of the Catiline conspiracy as legally flawed at least, and possibly unlawful.[145] Cicero also had an influence on modern astronomy. Nicolaus Copernicus, searching for ancient views on earth motion, said that he "first ... found in Cicero that Hicetas supposed the earth to move."[146] Notably, "Cicero" was the name attributed to size 12 font in typesetting table drawers. For ease of reference, type sizes 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 16, and 20 were all given different names.[147] Works[edit] Marci Tullii Ciceronis Opera Omnia (1566) Main article: Writings of Cicero Cicero was declared a righteous pagan by the Early Church,[148] and therefore many of his works were deemed worthy of preservation. The Bogomils considered him a rare exception of a pagan saint.[149] Subsequent Roman and medieval Christian writers quoted liberally from his works De Re Publica (On the Commonwealth) and De Legibus (On the Laws), and much of his work has been recreated from these surviving fragments. Cicero also articulated an early, abstract conceptualization of rights, based on ancient law and custom. Of Cicero's books, six on rhetoric have survived, as well as parts of eight on philosophy. Of his speeches, 88 were recorded, but only 58 survive.[citation needed] In archaeology[edit] Cicero's great repute in Italy has led to numerous ruins being identified as having belonged to him, though none have been substantiated with absolute certainty. In Formia, two Roman-era ruins are popularly believed to be Cicero's mausoleum, the Tomba di Cicerone, and the villa where he was assassinated in 43 BC. The latter building is centered around a central hall with Doric columns and a coffered vault, with a separate nymphaeum, on five acres of land near Formia.[150] A modern villa was built on the site after the Rubino family purchased the land from Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies in 1868. Cicero's supposed tomb is a 24-meter (79 feet) tall tower on an opus quadratum base on the ancient Via Appia outside of Formia. Some suggest that it is not in fact Cicero's tomb, but a monument built on the spot where Cicero was intercepted and assassinated while trying to reach the sea.[151] In Pompeii, a large villa excavated in the mid 18th century just outside the Herculaneum Gate was widely believed to have been Cicero's, who was known to have owned a holiday villa in Pompeii he called his Pompeianum. The villa was stripped of its fine frescoes and mosaics and then re-buried after 1763 – it has yet to be re-excavated.[152] However, contemporaneous descriptions of the building from the excavators combined with Cicero's own references to his Pompeianum differ, making it unlikely that it is Cicero's villa.[153] In Rome, the location of Cicero's house has been roughly identified from excavations of the Republican-era stratum on the northwestern slope of the Palatine Hill.[154][155] Cicero's domus has long been known to have stood in the area, according to his own descriptions and those of later authors, but there is some debate about whether it stood near the base of the hill, very close to the Roman Forum, or nearer to the summit.[154][156] During his life the area was the most desirable in Rome, densely occupied with Patrician houses including the Domus Publica of Julius Caesar and the home of Cicero's mortal enemy Clodius.[157] In the early Imperial era these properties fell into the possession of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and the substructures of the Domus Tiberiana were built over the Republican-era buildings.[158] Notable fictional portrayals[edit] Ben Jonson dramatised the conspiracy of Catiline in his play Catiline His Conspiracy, featuring Cicero as a character. Cicero also appears as a minor character in William Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar.[citation needed] Cicero was portrayed on the motion picture screen by British actor Alan Napier in the 1953 film Julius Caesar, based on Shakespeare's play.[159] He has also been played by such noted actors as Michael Hordern (in Cleopatra),[160] and André Morell (in the 1970 Julius Caesar).[161] Most recently, Cicero was portrayed by David Bamber in the HBO series Rome (2005–2007) and appeared in both seasons.[162] In the historical novel series Masters of Rome, Colleen McCullough presents a not-so-flattering depiction of Cicero's career, showing him struggling with an inferiority complex and vanity, morally flexible and fatally indiscreet, while his rival Julius Caesar is shown in a more approving light.[163] Cicero is portrayed as a hero in the novel A Pillar of Iron by Taylor Caldwell (1965). Robert Harris' novels Imperium, Lustrum (published under the name Conspirata in the United States) and Dictator comprise a three-part series based on the life of Cicero. In these novels Cicero's character is depicted in a more favorable way than in those of McCullough, with his positive traits equaling or outweighing his weaknesses (while conversely Caesar is depicted as more sinister than in McCullough).[164] Cicero is a major recurring character in the Roma Sub Rosa series of mystery novels by Steven Saylor.[165] He also appears several times as a peripheral character in John Maddox Roberts' SPQR series.[166] Samuel Barnett portrays Cicero in a 2017 audio drama series pilot produced by Big Finish Productions. A full series was released the following year.[167] All Episodes are written by David Llewellyn[168] and directed and produced by Scott Handcock.[169] Llewellyn, Handcock and Barnett re-teamed in the Doctor Who audio-drama Tartarus (also produced by Big Finish) starring Peter Davison as the 5th Doctor. It is not intended to be a part of the Cicero series; in Vortex (Big Finish's official free online magazine) Llewellyn revealed that he was "worried that if we had Cicero meeting aliens people might go back to the Cicero series and see it through a sci-fi lens. Then I remembered that Simon Callow still performs as Charles Dickens, and that he played Dickens before reprising him in the Doctor Who TV episode, The Unquiet Dead – so I got over myself!".[170] it was released in September 2019.[citation needed] See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal Caecilia Attica Caecilia Metella (daughter of Metellus Celer) Civis romanus sum Clausula (rhetoric) A Dialogue Concerning Oratorical Partitions E pluribus unum Esse quam videri Ipse dixit List of ancient Romans Lorem ipsum Marcantonius Majoragio Marcus Tullius Tiro Marius Nizolius O tempora o mores! Otium Socratici viri Tempest in a teapot Translation Notes[edit] ^ Wiedemann describes the senatus consultum ultimum by the late republic as "little more than a fig-leaf by those who could muster a majority in the senate ... to legitimate the use of force".[59] References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ IEP/ ^ Cicero, Academica Book II, Section 65 ^ Ferguson & Balsdon. ^ Rawson, E.: Cicero, a portrait (1975) p. 303 ^ Haskell, H.J.: This was Cicero (1964) pp. 300–01 ^ Harrison, Stephen (15 April 2008). A Companion to Latin Literature. John Wiley & Sons. p. 31. ISBN 978-1-4051-3737-9. Latin literature in the period 90–40 BC presents one feature that is unique in Classical, and perhaps even in the whole of Western, literature. Although it is a period from which a substantial amount of literature in a wide variety of genres survives, more than 75 per cent of that literature was written by a single man: Marcus Tullius Cicero. Cicero wrote speeches, philosophical and rhetorical trea- tises, letters and poetry, which simply in terms of quantity outweigh all other extant writings of the period. ^ Merriam-Webster, Inc (1995). "Ciceronian period". Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature. Merriam-Webster. p. 244. ISBN 978-0-87779-042-6. Retrieved 27 August 2013. ^ Cicero, Selected Works, 1971, p. 24 ^ Q. Acad. 2.17–18 ^ Conte, G.B.: "Latin Literature: a history" (1987) p. 199 ^ Wootton, David (1996). Modern Political Thought: Readings from Machiavelli to Nietzsche. Hackett Publishing. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-87220-341-9. Retrieved 27 August 2013. ^ Zieliński, Tadeusz. Cicero Im Wandel Der Jahrhunderte. Nabu Press. ^ Wood, Neal (1991). Cicero's Social and Political Thought. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-07427-9. ^ Nicgorski, Walter. "Cicero and the Natural Law". Natural Law, Natural Rights, and American Constitutionalism. ^ Griffin, Miriam; Boardman, John; Griffin, Jasper; Murray, Oswyn (2001). The Oxford Illustrated History of the Roman World. Oxford University Press. pp. 76ff. ISBN 978-0-19-285436-0. Retrieved 10 August 2011. ^ "UPI Almanac for Thursday, Jan. 3, 2019". United Press International. 3 January 2019. Archived from the original on 3 January 2019. Retrieved 3 September 2019. Roman philosopher Cicero in 106 B.C ^ Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum, 747. ^ Rawson, E.: Cicero, a portrait (1975) pp. 5–6; Cicero, Ad Familiares 16.26.2 (Quintus to Cicero) ^ Trollope, Anthony. The Life of Cicero Volume 1. p. 42 ^ Plutarch, Cicero 1.3–5 ^ Everitt, A.:"Cicero: The Life and Times of Rome's Greatest Politician" (2001) p.34 ^ Plutarch. "Life of Caesar". University of Chicago. p. 447. After this, Sulla's power being now on the wane, and Caesar's friends at home inviting him to return, Caesar sailed to Rhodes to study under Apollonius the son of Molon, an illustrious rhetorician with the reputation of a worthy character, of whom Cicero also was a pupil. ^ a b Everitt, A.: "Cicero: The Life and Times of Rome's Greatest Politician" (2001) p. 35 ^ De Officiis, book 1, n. 1 ^ Everitt, A.:" Cicero: The Life and Times of Rome's Greatest Politician" (2001) pp. 253–55 ^ Rawson: "Cicero, a portrait" (1975) p.18 ^ J.P.F. Wynne, "Cicero's Skepticism" in Skepticism: From Antiquity to the Present Bloomsbury Academic 2018 p 93 ^ "Plato". www.ellopos.net. ^ Plutarch, Cicero 2.2 ^ Plutarch, Cicero 3.2 ^ Haskell, H.J.: "This was Cicero" (1940) p. 83 ^ Plutarch, Cicero 3.2–5 ^ Cicero, Brutus, 313–14 ^ Cicero, Brutus, 315 ^ Cicero, Brutus, 316 ^ Gesine Manuwald, Cicero: Philippics 3–9, vol. 2, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2007, pp. 129f ^ Rawson, E.: "Cicero, a portrait" (1975) p. 25 ^ Susan Treggiari, Terentia, Tullia and Publilia: the women of Cicero's family, London: Routledge, 2007, pp. 76ff. ^ Treggiari, op. cit., p. 133 ^ Rawson, E.: Cicero p. 225 ^ Haskell H.J.: This was Cicero, p. 95 ^ Haskell, H.J.: "This was Cicero" (1964) p. 249 ^ Cicero, Letters to Atticus, 12.14. Rawson, E.: Cicero p. 225 ^ Rawson, E.: Cicero p. 226 ^ Cicero, Samtliga brev/Collected letters ^ Haskell, H.J (1964). This was Cicero. pp. 103–04. ^ Paavo Castren & L. Pietilä-Castren: Antiikin käsikirja/Encyclopedia of the Ancient World ^ E.g. Cicero, pro Quinctio 4 ^ Rawson, E.: "Cicero, a portrait" (1975) p. 22 ^ Everitt, A.: "Cicero: The Life and Times of Rome's Greatest Politician" (2001) p. 61 ^ Cicero, pro Caecina 97 ^ Vasaly, Ann (1993). Representation: Images of the World in a Ciceronian Territory. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 158–68. ISBN 978-0-520-07755-3. Archived from the original on 6 March 2014. ^ Boardman, John (18 January 2001). The Oxford illustrated history of the Roman world. OUP Oxford. pp. 84ff. ISBN 978-0-19-285436-0. Retrieved 10 August 2011. extortionate. ^ Trans. Grant, Michael. Cicero: Selected Works. London: Penguin Books. 1960. ^ "III. The First Oration Against Catiline by Cicero. Rome (218 B.C.-84 A.D.). Vol. II. Bryan, William Jennings, ed. 1906. The World's Famous Orations". www.bartleby.com. ^ a b John Leach, Pompey the Great, p.106. ^ a b c d Wiedemann 1994, p. 42. ^ Wiedemann 1994, p. 43. ^ a b c d e Wiedemann 1994, p. 44. ^ Cicero, Marcus Tullius, Selected Works, Penguin Books Ltd, Great Britain, 1971. ^ Cicero, In Catilinam 3.2 (at the Perseus Project); Sallust, Bellum Catilinae 40–45 (at Lacus Curtius); Plutarch, Cicero 18.4 (at Lacus Curtius). ^ Wiedemann 1994, p. 46. ^ Clayton, Edward. "Cicero (106–43 BC)". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 21 October 2013. ^ Arthur D. Kahn (2000) [1986]. The Education of Julius Caesar. iUniverse.com, Inc. pp. 149–75. [self-published source] ^ Wiedemann 1994, p. 47. ^ Anthony Everitt (2003). Cicero: The Life and Times of Rome's Greatest Orator. Random House. pp. 115–16. ^ a b Dunstan, William (2010). Ancient Rome. Rowman and Littlefield Publishers. pp. 163–64. ISBN 0-7425-6834-2. ^ a b Steven M. Cerutti (1997). "The Location of the Houses of Cicero and Clodius and the Porticus Catuli on the Palatine Hill". 118 (3). American Journal of Philology. p. 417. ^ Rawson, E.: Cicero, 1984 106 ^ a b Wiedemann 1994, p. 51. ^ a b c d Wiedemann 1994, p. 50. ^ Tom Holland, Rubicon, pp. 237–39. ^ Tom Holland, Rubicon, pp. 238–39. ^ Haskell, H.J.: This was Cicero, (1964) p. 200 ^ Haskell, H.J.: This was Cicero, (1964) p. 201 ^ Plutarch. Cicero 32 ^ Anthony Everitt (2003). Cicero. Random House. p. 145. ^ Haskell, H.J.: "This was Cicero" (1964) p. 201 ^ Cicero, Samtliga brev/Collected letters (in a Swedish translation) ^ Haskell. H.J.: This was Cicero, p. 204 ^ Anthony Everitt (2003). Cicero. Random House. p. 165. ^ Cicero. De Domo Sua. perseus.tufts.edu. ^ Wiedemann 1994, p. 52. ^ a b Wiedemann 1994, p. 53. ^ John Leach, Pompey the Great, p. 144. ^ Grant, M: "Cicero: Selected Works", p. 67 ^ a b Wiedemann 1994, p. 59. ^ Everitt, A. "Cicero: The Life and Times of Rome's Greatest Politician" (2001), pp. 186–88 ^ Alfred John Church, Roman Life in the Days of Cicero, (Kindle edition), ch. XIII., loc. 1834 ^ Church, loc. 1871 ^ Church, loc. 1834 ^ Church, loc. 1845; Gareth C. Sampson, The defeat of Rome, Crassus, Carrhae & the invasion of the East, pp. 155–58; Cicero, Letters to friends, 15.3.1. ^ Gareth C. Sampson, The defeat of Rome, Crassus, Carrhae & the invasion of the East, p.159; Cicero, Letters to friends, 2.10.2. ^ Church, loc. 1855 ^ a b c Wiedemann 1994, p. 62. ^ Church, ibid ^ Plutarch, The Life of Cicero, 36. ^ Plutarch. "Life of Caesar". University of Chicago. p. 575. It was Cicero who proposed the first honours for [Caesar] in the senate, and their magnitude was, after all, not too great for a man; but others added excessive honours and vied with one another in proposing them, thus rendering Caesar odious and obnoxious even to the mildest citizens because of the pretension and extravagance of what was decreed for him. ^ Everitt, Anthony: Cicero p. 215. ^ Plutarch, Cicero 38.1 ^ a b Wiedemann 1994, p. 63. ^ Cicero, Second Philippic Against Antony ^ Cicero, Ad Familiares 10.28. ^ Matthew B Schwartz, Finley Hooper, Roman Letters: History from a Personal Point of View, p. 48. ^ Cecil W. Wooten, "Cicero's Philippics and Their Demosthenic Model" University of North Carolina Press ^ "World History in Context". ic.galegroup.com. Retrieved 3 January 2018. ^ Appian, Civil Wars 4.19 ^ Plutarch, Cicero 46.3–5 ^ a b Haskell, H.J.: This was Cicero (1964) p. 293 ^ Seneca, Suasoria 6:18 (http://www.attalus.org/translate/suasoria6.html) ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History 47.8.4 ^ Everitt, A.: Cicero, A turbulent life (2001) ^ Plutarch, Cicero, 49.5 ^ Haskell, H.J. "This was Cicero" (1964) p. 296 ^ Castren and Pietilä-Castren: "Antiikin käsikirja" /"Handbook of antiquity" (2000) p. 237 ^ Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria 10.1.1 12 ^ Harper, Douglas. "Ciceronian". Online Etymology Dictionary. ^ Harper, Douglas. "cicerone". Online Etymology Dictionary. ^ Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature, "Ciceronian period" (1995) p. 244 ^ Pliny, Natural History, 7.117 ^ Cicero, Seven orations, 1912 ^ Hasan Niyazi, From Pompeii to Cyberspace – Transcending barriers with Twitter "Account Suspended". Archived from the original on 14 November 2012. Retrieved 7 September 2012. ^ Augustine of Hippo, Confessions, 3:4 ^ Jerome, Letter to Eustochium, XXII:30 ^ Goodey, C.F. (2013). A History of Intelligence and 'Intellectual Disability': The Shaping of Psychology in Early Modern Europe. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4094-8235-2. [page needed] ^ Erasmus, Ciceronianus ^ Cornelius Nepos, Atticus 16, trans. John Selby Watson. ^ Richards 2010, p.121 ^ Gibson, William (2006). "John Marshall. John Locke, Toleration and Early Enlightenment Culture: Religious Toleration and Arguments for Religious Toleration in Early Modern and Early Enlightenment Europe". H-Albion. Retrieved 8 July 2012. ^ Peter Gay (1966). The Enlightenment: An Interpretation. W.W. Norton. p. 105. ^ Peter Gay (1966). The Enlightenment: An Interpretation. W.W. Norton. p. 56. ^ Peter Gay (1966). The Enlightenment: An Interpretation. W.W. Norton. p. 106. ^ a b Matthew Sharpe. Cicero, Voltaire and the philosophes in the French Enlightenment. p. 329. ^ Montesquieu. Discourse on Cicero. Political Theory Vol. 30, No. 5. pp. 733–37. ^ Montesquieu. Discourse on Cicero. Political Theory Vol. 30, No. 5. p. 734. ^ De Burgh, W.G., "The legacy of the ancient world" ^ American republicanism: Roman Ideology in the United States Mortimer N. S. Sellers, NYU Press, 1994 ^ Thomas Jefferson, "Letter to Henry Lee," 8 May 1825, in The Political Thought of American Statesmen, eds. Morton Frisch and Richard Stevens (Itasca, Ill.: F. E. Peacock Publishers, 1973), 12. ^ Aulard, François-Alphonse (1901). Histoire politique de la Révolution française: Origines et Développement de la Démocratie et de la République (1789–1804). Librairie Armand Colin. p. 5. ^ Powell, Jim (2000). The Triumph of Liberty: A 2,000 Year History Told Through the Lives of Freedom's Greatest Champions. Free Press. pp. 2–10. ISBN 978-0-684-85967-5. ^ Bailey, D.R.S. "Cicero's letters to Atticus" (1978) p. 16 ^ Letters to Atticus I & II ^ Noted in Michael Parenti, The Assassination of Julius Caesar: A People's History of Ancient Rome, 2003:86. ISBN 1-56584-797-0 ^ Cicero. "On Duties" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 January 2017. ^ Michael Parenti, The Assassination of Julius Caesar: A People's History of Ancient Rome, 2003, pp. 107–11, 93. ISBN 1-56584-797-0 ^ Spielvogel, Jackson (2011). Western Civilization since 1300. Cengage Learning. p. 492. ISBN 978-1-111-34219-7. ^ Tomiša, Mario. THE IMPACT OF THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF TYPOGRAPHY ON MODERN CLASSIFICATION OF TYPEFACES. Varaždin, Croatia. p. 906. ISSN 1330-3651. ^ Everitt, A., Cicero: The Life and Times of Rome's Greatest Politician (2003), p. 259 ^ De Burgh, W.G. ^ L. Richardson Jr. (1976). "The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites". Princeton University Press. ^ Redazione ANSA (25 July 2015). "Mayor launches appeal to save Cicero's villa from ruin". ANSA English. Retrieved 19 June 2018. ^ "Villa Cicero". pompeiiinpictures.com. Retrieved 19 June 2018. ^ Mary Beard (2010). The Fires of Vesuvius: Pompeii Lost and Found. Harvard University Press. p. 45. ^ a b Bolchazy-Carducci (2004). Rome Alive: A Source Guide to the Ancient City. p. Vol. 1.5. ^ "Palatine Hill". archive1.village.virginia.edu. Retrieved 20 June 2018. ^ Filippo Coarelli (2014). Rome and Environs: An Archaeological Guide. p. 93. ^ Samuel Ball Platner & Thomas Ashby (1929). "Palatinus Mons, Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome". Oxford University Press. ^ Steven M. Cerutti (1997). "The Location of the Houses of Cicero and Clodius and the Porticus Catuli on the Palatine Hill". 118 (3). American Journal of Philology. pp. 417–26. ^ Julius Caesar at the TCM Movie Database ^ Cleopatra at the TCM Movie Database ^ Julius Caesar at the TCM Movie Database ^ "Rome – Cast and Crew". HBO. Retrieved 5 December 2018. ^ Faria, Miguel A. (14 August 2013). "Caesar's Women – McCullough's Idolatry and Politics in Ancient Rome". Hacienda Publishing. Retrieved 5 December 2018. ^ Higgins, Charlotte (29 June 2018). "Robert Harris: 'I'm not sure you can be the world's superpower and remain a democracy'". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 5 December 2018. ^ "Roma Sub Rosa Mystery Series". www.stevensaylor.com. Retrieved 5 December 2018. ^ Steel, C.E.W. (2013). The Cambridge Companion to Cicero. Cambridge University Press. p. 356. ISBN 978-0-521-50993-0. ^ "1. Cicero Series 01 – Big Finish Originals – Big Finish". www.bigfinish.com. ^ "David Llewellyn – Contributions – Big Finish". www.bigfinish.com. Retrieved 7 September 2019. ^ "Scott Handcock – Contributions – Big Finish". www.bigfinish.com. Retrieved 7 September 2019. ^ "Issue 127 – Vortex – Big Finish". www.bigfinish.com. Retrieved 7 September 2019. Sources[edit] Badian, E: "Cicero and the Commission of 146 B.C.", Collection Latomus 101 (1969), 54–65. Ferguson, John & Balsdon, J.P.V.D. "Marcus Tullius Cicero". Encyclopædia Britannica (online). Caldwell, Taylor (1965). A Pillar of Iron. New York: Doubleday & Company. ISBN 978-0-385-05303-7. Cicero, Marcus Tullius, Cicero's letters to Atticus, Vol, I, II, IV, VI, Cambridge University Press, Great Britain, 1965 Cicero, Marcus Tullius, Latin extracts of Cicero on Himself, translated by Charles Gordon Cooper, University of Queensland Press, Brisbane, 1963 Cicero, Marcus Tullius, Selected Political Speeches, Penguin Books Ltd, Great Britain, 1969 Cicero, Marcus Tullius, De Officiis (On Duties), translated by Walter Miller. Harvard University Press, 1913, ISBN 978-0-674-99033-3, 0-674-99033-1 Cicero, Marcus Tullius, Selected Works, Penguin Books Ltd, Great Britain, 1971 Cowell, F.R. (1948). Cicero and the Roman Republic. Penguin Books Everitt, Anthony (2001). Cicero: the life and times of Rome's greatest politician. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-375-50746-5. Gruen, Erich S. (1974). The Last Generation of the Roman Republic. University of California Press. Haskell, H.J. (1942). This was Cicero. Alfred A. Knopf. March, Duane A. (1989). "Cicero and the 'Gang of Five'". Classical World. 82 (4): 225–34. doi:10.2307/4350381. JSTOR 4350381. Narducci, Emanuele (2009). Cicerone. La parola e la politica. Laterza. ISBN 978-88-420-7605-6. Plutarch Penguins Classics English translation by Rex Warner, Fall of the Roman Republic, Six Lives by Plutarch: Marius, Sulla, Crassus, Pompey, Caesar, Cicero (Penguin Books, 1958; with Introduction and notes by Robin Seager, 1972) Rawson, Beryl: The Politics of Friendship: Pompey and Cicero (Sydney University Press, 1978) Rawson, Elizabeth (1972). "Cicero the Historian and Cicero the Antiquarian". Journal of Roman Studies. 62: 33–45. doi:10.2307/298924. JSTOR 298924. Rawson, Elizabeth. (1975). Cicero : a portrait. London: Allen Lane. ISBN 0-7139-0864-5. OCLC 1531175. Richards, Carl J. (2010). Why We're All Romans: The Roman Contribution to the Western World. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-6778-8. Scullard, H.H. From the Gracchi to Nero, University Paperbacks, Great Britain, 1968 Smith, R.E: Cicero the Statesman (Cambridge University Press, 1966) Stockton, David: Cicero: A Political Biography (Oxford University Press, 1971) Strachan-Davidson, James Leigh (1936). "Cicero and the Fall of the Roman Republic". Oxford: Oxford University Press. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Taylor, H. (1918). "Cicero: A sketch of his life and works". Chicago: A.C. McClurg & Co. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Uttschenko, Sergej L. (1978): Cicero, translated from Russian by Rosemarie Pattloch, VEB Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften, Berlin, Germany.Cicero Wistrand, M. (1979). Cicero Imperator: Studies in Cicero's Correspondence 51–47 B.C. Göteborg. Wiedemann, Thomas E. J. (1994). Cicero and the end of the Roman Republic. London: Bristol Classical Press. ISBN 1-85399-193-7. OCLC 31494651. Yates, Frances A. (1974). The Art of Memory. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-95001-3. Further reading[edit] Boissier, Gaston, Cicéron et ses amis. Étude sur la société romaine du temps de César (1884) Everitt, Anthony (2001). Cicero. A turbulent life. London: John Murray Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7195-5493-3. Fuhrmann, Manfred (1992). Cicero and the Roman Republic. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-17879-8. Gildenhard, Ingo (2011). Creative Eloquence: The Construction of Reality in Cicero's Speeches. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press. Habicht, Christian (1990). Cicero the politician. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-3872-9. Hamza, Gabor, L'optimus status civitatis di Cicerone e la sua tradizione nel pensiero politico. In: Tradizione romanistica e Costituzione. Cinquanta anni della Corte Costituzionale della Repubblica Italiana. vol. II. Napoli, 2006. 1455–68. Hamza, Gabor, Ciceros Verhältnis zu seinen Quellen, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Darstellung der Staatslehre in De re publica. KLIO – Beiträge zur alten Geschichte 67 (1985) 492–97. Hamza, Gabor, Cicero und der Idealtypus des iurisconsultus. Helixon 22–27 (1982–1987) 281–96. Hamza, Gabor, Il potere (lo Stato) nel pensiero di Cicerone e la sua attualità. Revista Internacional de Derecho Romano (RIDROM) 10 (2013) 1–25. Revista Internacional de Derecho Romano – Index Hamza, Gabor, Zur Interpretation des Naturrechts in den Werken von Cicero. Pázmány Law Review 2 (2014) 5–15.Macdonald, C. (1986). De imperio (Nachdr. d. Ausg. Basingstoke 1966. ed.). Bristol: Bristol Classical Press. ISBN 978-0-86292-182-8. Palmer, Tom G. (2008). "Cicero (106–43 B.C.)". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; Cato Institute. p. 63. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n42. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024. Parenti, Michael (2004). The Assassination of Julius Caesar: A People's History of Ancient Rome. New York: The New Press. ISBN 978-1-56584-942-6. Powell, J.G.F., ed. (1995). Cicero the philosopher : twelve papers. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814751-0. Shackleton Bailey, D. R. (1971). Cicero. London: Duckworth. ISBN 978-0-7156-0574-5. Sihler, Ernest G. (1914). Cicero of Arpinum: A Political and Literary Biography. New Haven: Yale University Press. Treggiari, S. (2007). Terentia, Tullia and Publilia. The women of Cicero's family. London: Routledge Weiskopf, Michael (1991). "CICERO". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. V, Fasc. 5. pp. 558–59. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Marcus Tullius Cicero. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Cicero Wikisource has original works written by or about: Cicero Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: Marcus Tullius Cicero Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Cicero. Library resources about Cicero Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Cicero Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Works by Cicero[edit] Works by Cicero at Perseus Digital Library Works by Cicero at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Cicero at Internet Archive Works by Cicero at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) The Latin Library (Latin): Works of Cicero Dickinson College Commentaries: Against Verres 2.1.53–86 Dickinson College Commentaries: On Pompey’s Command (De Imperio) 27–49 Horace MS 1b Laelius de Amicitia at OPenn Lewis E 66 Epistolae ad familiares (Letters to friends) Biographies and descriptions of Cicero's time[edit] Plutarch's biography of Cicero contained in the Parallel Lives Life of Cicero by Anthony Trollope, Volume I – Volume II Cicero by Rev. W. Lucas Collins (Ancient Classics for English Readers) Roman life in the days of Cicero by Rev. Alfred J. Church Social life at Rome in the Age of Cicero by W. Warde Fowler "At Heraklia website". Archived from the original on 14 January 2006. Retrieved 31 March 2017. Dryden's translation of Cicero from Plutarch's Parallel Lives At Middlebury College website Political offices Preceded by L. Julius Caesar C. Marcius Figulus Consul of Rome 63 BC With: C. Antonius Hybrida Succeeded by D. Junius Silanus L. Licinius Murena v t e Marcus Tullius Cicero Personal life Political career Writings Treatises Rhetoric and politics De Inventione De Oratore Book III De Partitionibus Oratoriae De Optimo Genere Oratorum Brutus Orator De Legibus Philosophical Hortensius Consolatio De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum Tusculanae Disputationes De Natura Deorum De Divinatione De Fato Cato Maior de Senectute Laelius de Amicitia De Officiis De Re Publica Somnium Scipionis Paradoxa Stoicorum Orations Political De Imperio Cn. 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Related articles Jurisprudence Philosophy and economics Philosophy of education Philosophy of history Philosophy of love Philosophy of sex Philosophy of social science Political ethics Social epistemology Category v t e Platonists Academic Old Plato Aristotle Eudoxus Philip of Opus Aristonymus Coriscus and Erastus of Scepsis Demetrius of Amphipolis Euaeon of Lampsacus Heraclides and Python of Aenus Hestiaeus of Perinthus Lastheneia of Mantinea Timolaus of Cyzicus Speusippus Axiothea of Phlius Heraclides Ponticus Menedemus of Pyrrha Xenocrates Crantor Polemon Crates of Athens Skeptic Middle Arcesilaus Diocles of Cnidus Lacydes Telecles and Evander Hegesinus New Carneades Hagnon of Tarsus Metrodorus of Stratonicea Clitomachus Charmadas Aeschines of Neapolis Philo of Larissa Cicero Dio of Alexandria Middle Platonist Antiochus Philo of Alexandria Plutarch Justin Martyr Gaius Albinus Alcinous Apuleius Atticus Maximus of Tyre Numenius of Apamea Longinus Clement of Alexandria Origen the Pagan Calcidius Neoplatonist Ancient Ammonius Saccas Plotinus Disciples Origen Amelius Porphyry Iamblichus Sopater Eustathius of Cappadocia Sosipatra Aedesius Dexippus Chrysanthius Theodorus of Asine Julian Sallustius Maximus of Ephesus Eusebius of Myndus Priscus of Epirus Antoninus Gregory of Nyssa Hypatia Augustine Macrobius Academy Plutarch of Athens Asclepigenia Hierocles Syrianus Hermias Aedesia Proclus Ammonius Hermiae Asclepiodotus Hegias Zenodotus Marinus Agapius Isidore Damascius Simplicius Priscian Medieval Boethius John Philoponus Olympiodorus Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite John Scotus Eriugena Islamic Golden Age Al-Farabi Anselm Peter Abelard Chartres Bernard Gilbert Thierry Henry of Ghent Bonaventure Theodoric of Freiberg Meister Eckhart Berthold of Moosburg Paul of Venice Modern Renaissance Florentine Academy Plethon Marsilio Ficino Cristoforo Landino Giovanni Pico della Mirandola Cambridge Ralph Cudworth Henry More Anne Conway Petrus Ramus Giordano Bruno Blaise Pascal Emanuel Swedenborg German idealist Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Christian Wolff Moses Mendelssohn Immanuel Kant Johann Gottlieb Fichte Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling Arthur Schopenhauer G. 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Dick Joseph Ratzinger Bernard Bolzano Authority control BIBSYS: 90053491 BNC: 000065341 BNE: XX841248 BNF: cb11885977m (data) CANTIC: a10491818 CiNii: DA00596013 GND: 118520814 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\006643 ISNI: 0000 0001 3932 2910 LCCN: n79032166 LNB: 000011711 MBA: 5c8bd706-95c3-4e91-9388-27a944203a16 NDL: 00436023 NKC: jn19981000486 NLA: 35028404 NLG: 78428 NLI: 000032025 NLK: KAC199605097 NSK: 000033379 NTA: 06825878X RERO: 02-A000036472 SELIBR: 46187 SNAC: w6tb1bsj SUDOC: 02665234X Trove: 801765 ULAN: 500242756 VcBA: 495/29827 VIAF: 78769600 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79032166 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cicero&oldid=996697560" Categories: Cicero 106 BC births 43 BC deaths 2nd-century BC Romans 1st-century BC executions 1st-century BC philosophers 1st-century BC Romans 1st-century BC writers Academic skepticism Ancient Roman equites Ancient Roman exiles Ancient Roman jurists Ancient Roman political philosophers Ancient Roman proconsuls Ancient Roman 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en-wikipedia-org-3901	----	Caesius Bassus - Wikipedia Caesius Bassus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 1st century Roman lyric poet Gaius Caesius Bassus (d. AD 79) was a Roman lyric poet who lived in the reign of Nero.[1] He was the intimate friend of Persius, who dedicated his sixth satire to him, and whose works he edited (Schol. on Persius, vi. I). He had a great reputation as a poet; Quintilian (Instit. x. I. 96) goes so far as to say that with the exception of Horace, he was the only lyric poet worth reading. He is also identified with the author of a treatise De Metris of which considerable fragments, probably of an abbreviated edition, are extant (ed. Keil, 1885).[2] The work was probably originally in verse, and afterwards recast or epitomized in prose form to be used as an instruction book. An account of some of the metres of Horace (in Keil, Grammatici Latini, vi. 305), bearing the title Ars Caesii Bassi de Metris is not by him but chiefly borrowed by its unknown author, from the treatise mentioned above. He is said to have lost his life in the eruption of Vesuvius in AD 79 and to have been the husband of Rectina. References[edit] ^ Epic and Empire in Vespasianic Rome: A New Reading of Valerius Flaccus' Argonautica. Oxford University Press. 5 July 2012. pp. 8–. ISBN 978-0-19-964408-7. ^ Wolfgang Haase; Hildegard Temporini (1998). Aufstieg und Niedergang der romischen Welt: (ANRW) : Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung : Teil II : Principat. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 3254–. ISBN 978-3-11-015699-7.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Bassus, Caesius". Encyclopædia Britannica. 3 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 498. External links[edit] Corpus Grammaticorum Latinorum: complete texts and full bibliography Authority control BIBSYS: 95000364 BNE: XX1239278 BNF: cb12112741t (data) GND: 118675257 ISNI: 0000 0000 4753 5046 LCCN: nr90002081 NSK: 000118043 NTA: 069976813 SUDOC: 130802379 VcBA: 495/58888 VIAF: 537149294298980521421 WorldCat Identities: lccn-nr90002081 This ancient Roman biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e This article about a European writer or poet is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Caesius_Bassus&oldid=996568870" Categories: Latin-language writers Silver Age Latin writers Roman-era poets 1st-century Roman poets 79 deaths Deaths in volcanic eruptions Ancient Roman people stubs European writer stubs Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Use dmy dates from June 2018 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica articles with no significant updates Year of birth unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Français Italiano Latina Magyar Polski Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 27 December 2020, at 11:20 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-390	----	List of Roman generals - Wikipedia List of Roman generals From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikipedia list article Part of a series on the Military of ancient Rome 753 BC – AD 476 Structural history Army Unit types and ranks Decorations and punishments Legions Auxilia Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Campaign history Wars and battles Technological history Military engineering Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Political history   Strategy and tactics Infantry tactics Frontiers and fortifications Limes Limes Britannicus Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Limes Germanicus Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes Norican Limes Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannonian Limes Limes Alutanus Limes Moesiae Trajan's Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmatiae Limes Arabicus Limes Tripolitanus Limes Mauretaniae  Ancient Rome portal •  War portal v t e Roman generals were often career statesmen, remembered by history for reasons other than their service in the Roman Army. This page encompasses men whom history remembers for their accomplishments commanding Roman armies on land and sea. Contents 1 A 2 B 3 C 4 D 5 F 6 G 7 H 8 J 9 L 10 M 11 N 12 O 13 P 14 Q 15 R 16 S 17 T 18 U 19 V 20 Notes A[edit] Manius Acilius Glabrio (consul 67 BC) [1] Manius Acilius Glabrio (consul 191 BC)[2] Titus Aebutius Elva[3] Aegidius Lucius Aemilius Barbula Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir) Lucius Aemilius Paulus Macedonicus Marcus Aemilius Scaurus (praetor 56 BC) Marcus Antonius (orator)[4] Gaius Antonius[5] Lucius Antonius (brother of Mark Antony) Marcus Antonius Creticus[6] Mark Antony Manius Aquillius (consul 129 BC) Arrian Lucius Artorius Castus Gaius Asinius Pollio (consul 40 BC) Aulus Atilius Calatinus[7] Marcus Atilius Regulus[8] Publius Attius Varus[9] Aureolus[10] Graltinus Maximus Aurelius B[edit] Lucius Cornelius Balbus (minor) – defeated the Garamantes Barbatio Lucilius Bassus Publius Ventidius Bassus Bonifacius Bonosus (usurper) Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus – commanded Caesar's fleet in the war against the Veneti Decimus Junius Brutus Callaicus – led the Roman legions in the conquest of western Iberia Marcus Junius Brutus C[edit] Quintus Caecilius Metellus[11] Aulus Caecina Alienus Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus Gaius Calpurnius Piso (consul 67 BC) Gaius Carrinas (praetor 82 BC) Gaius Carrinas (consul 43 BC) Gaius Cassius Longinus Quintus Tullius Cicero Gaius Julius Civilis Appius Claudius Caudex Marcus Claudius Marcellus Gaius Claudius Nero Claudius Pompeianus Publius Claudius Pulcher Lucius Clodius Macer Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo Gaius Marcius Coriolanus Lucius Cornelius Cinna Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus Publius Cornelius Lentulus Spinther Lucius Cornelius Lentulus Crus Scipio Aemilianus Scipio Africanus Scipio Asiaticus Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica[12] D[edit] Publius Decius Mus (consul 279 BC) – fought Pyrrhus of Epirus at the Battle of Asculum (279 BC) Publius Decius Mus (consul 340 BC) – awarded the Grass Crown during First Samnite War Publius Decius Mus (consul 312 BC) Dexippus Aulus Didius Gallus Titus Didius Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 32 BC) Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 122 BC) Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus Nero Claudius Drusus Drusus Julius Caesar Gaius Duilius F[edit] Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus[13] Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus[14] Fabius Valens Gaius Flaminius Gaius Flavius Fimbria Quintus Fufius Calenus Fullofaudes Marcus Fulvius Flaccus (consul 125 BC) Marcus Fulvius Flaccus (consul 264 BC) Quintus Fulvius Flaccus Quintus Fulvius Flaccus (consul 179 BC) Marcus Fulvius Nobilior Marcus Furius Camillus Flavius Aetius Cornelius Fuscus G[edit] Aulus Gabinius[15] Gaius Julius Caesar the Elder Servius Sulpicius Galba (praetor 54 BC) Cestius Gallus Lucius Gellius Publicola Germanicus Gundobad Gaius Salvius Liberalis H[edit] Gnaeus Hosidius Geta – defeated Sabalus, chief of the Mauri J[edit] Lucius Julius Caesar Julius Caesar Lucius Junius Brutus founder of Roman republic L[edit] Gaius Laelius Titus Larcius Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (consul 6) Publius Licinius Crassus Dives Mucianus Marcus Licinius Crassus Lucius Licinius Lucullus Litorius Lucullus Mucianus Quintus Ligarius Marcus Livius Salinator Marcus Lollius Quintus Lollius Urbicus Lucius Caecilius Metellus Denter Lucius Pinarius Gaius Lutatius Catulus Quintus Lutatius Catulus M[edit] Gnaeus Mallius Maximus Titus Manlius Torquatus (consul 347 BC) Titus Manlius Torquatus (235 BC) Lucius Manlius Vulso Longus Gaius Marcius Rutilus Marcius Turbo Gaius Marius – initiated "Marian reforms" of the army Gaius Marius the Younger Lucius Mummius Achaicus Marcus Valerius Maximianus N[edit] Tiberius Nero – commanded Caesar's fleet in the Alexandrian War Gaius Norbanus Flaccus Gaius Norbanus Gaius Noobius O[edit] Gaius Octavius – put down a slave rebellion at Thurii • Gnaeus Octavius Odaenathus Lucius Opimius Publius Ostorius Scapula – responsible for the defeat and capture of Caratacus P[edit] Gnaeus Papirius Carbo Lucius Papirius Cursor Tiberius Claudius Paulinus Marcus Perperna Vento Marcus Perperna Quintus Petillius Cerialis Publius Petronius Turpilianus Lucius Calpurnius Piso (consul 15 BC) Aulus Plautius[16] Gnaeus Pompeius Pompey Sextus Pompeius Pompeius Strabo Pomponius Secundus Marcus Popillius Laenas Marcus Popillius Laenas (consul 173 BC) Lucius Postumius Albinus Marcus Antonius Primus Publius Cornelius Dolabella (consul 283 BC) Marcus Pupius Piso Frugi Calpurnianus Q[edit] Lusius Quietus Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus – dictator Publius Quinctilius Varus – lost three Roman legions and his own life when attacked by Germanic leader Arminius in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest Titus Quinctius Flamininus Quintus Aemilius Quintus Pedius R[edit] Ricimer Marcus Roscius Coelius Publius Rutilius Lupus (consul 90 BC) Publius Rutilius Rufus S[edit] Quintus Salvidienus Rufus Gaius Scribonius Curio (consul 76 BC) Gaius Scribonius Curio (praetor 49 BC) Sejanus Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (consul 238 BC) Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (consul 215 BC) Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (consul 177 BC) Tiberius Sempronius Longus (consul 194 BC) Tiberius Sempronius Longus (consul 218 BC) Marcus Sergius Quintus Sertorius Gaius Servilius Ahala Quintus Servilius Caepio (consul 106 BC) Gnaeus Servilius Geminus Quintus Servilius Caepio (praetor 91 BC) Sextus Julius Severus Lucius Cornelius Sisenna Lucius Flavius Silva Gaius Sosius Staurakios[17] Stilicho Gaius Suetonius Paulinus[18] Publius Cornelius Sulla Publius Sulpicius Galba Maximus[19] Servius Sulpicius Galba (consul 144 BC) Publius Sulpicius Rufus Syagrius Scipio Sextus Calpurnius Classicus (senator and general of Hadrian) T[edit] Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus[20] Gaius Terentius Varro Titus Vinius Trebonius U[edit] Ursicinus (magister equitum) – Entrusted to suppress the Jewish revolt against Gallus (Constantius Gallus) V[edit] Valens (usurper) Marcus Valerius Corvus[21] Gaius Valerius Flaccus (consul) Lucius Valerius Flaccus Publius Valerius Laevinus M. Valerius Laevinus Manius Valerius Maximus Corvinus Messalla Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus Flavius Valila Theodosius Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa[22] Notes[edit] ^ command of the war against Mithridates VI of Pontus ^ defeated the Seleucid ruler Antiochus the Great at the Battle of Thermopylae ^ Battle of Lake Regillus, Roman victory over the Latin League ^ Roman Senate voted him a naval triumph ^ entrusted with the defence of Illyricum against the Pompeians ^ ordered to clear the Mediterranean Sea of piracy, but instead, plundered the provinces he was supposed to protect ^ first to lead an army outside of the Italian mainland ^ defeated and captured at the Battle of Tunis ^ fought and defeated Gaius Scribonius Curio ^ one of the so-called Thirty Tyrants ^ twice defeated Andriscus, self-proclaimed pretender to Macedonian throne ^ defeated the Lusitanians at Ilipa, and subjugated the Boii ^ hero of the Samnite Wars ^ instigated his "Fabian strategy" against Hannibal ^ successful campaign to restore Ptolemy XII of Egypt ^ led the Roman conquest of Britain ^ defeated the Sclaveni Slavs near Thessalonica ^ defeated the rebellion of Boudica ^ led Roman Army in the Second Macedonian War ^ defeated the Bessi in Thrace ^ defeated successively the Gauls, the Volscians, the Samnites, the Etruscans and the Marsians ^ next Roman general to cross the Rhine after Julius Caesar v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex 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Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Roman_generals&oldid=996799890" Categories: Ancient Rome-related lists Lists of generals Ancient Roman generals Lists of office-holders in ancient Rome Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Română Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 28 December 2020, at 17:52 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3912	----	Political institutions of ancient Rome - Wikipedia Political institutions of ancient Rome From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e Various lists regarding the political institutions of ancient Rome are presented.[1] Each entry in a list is a link to a separate article. Categories included are: constitutions (5), laws (5), and legislatures (7); state offices (28) and office holders (6 lists); political factions (2 + 1 conflict) and social ranks (8). A political glossary (35) of similar construction follows.[2] Contents 1 Laws 2 Legislatures 3 State offices 4 Lists of individual office holders 5 Political factions 6 Social ranks 7 Glossary of law and politics 8 Miscellaneous 9 Notes Laws[edit] Roman law List of Roman laws Twelve Tables Digest of Roman law Corpus Juris Civilis Legislatures[edit] Roman senate Roman assemblies Roman Curia Comitia curiata Comitia centuriata Comitia tributa Concilium plebis State offices[edit] aedile – Office of the Roman Republic censor – Roman magistrate responsible for the census and monitoring public morality comes palatinus consul – Political office in ancient Rome decemviri – A 10-man commission in the Roman Republic dictator – Extraordinary magistrate of the Roman Republic dux – Roman title emperor – Ruler of the Roman Empire in imperial period governor imperator – Rank in ancient Rome legatus lictor magistrate officium pontifex maximus – Chief high priest in ancient Rome praefectus praetor – Official of the Roman Republic praetor peregrinus princeps senatus procurator promagistrates quaestor rex senator tribune – Elected Roman officials triumviri vicarius vigintisexviri – College of minor magistrates of the Roman Republic Lists of individual office holders[edit] List of Roman kings List of Roman Consuls List of Roman Emperors List of principes senatus List of Roman censors List of Roman governors of Britain Political factions[edit] Optimates Populares (also see Conflict of the Orders[3]) Social ranks[edit] Nobles Patricians Equites Plebs Adsidui Proletarians Capite censi Slaves Glossary of law and politics[edit] auctoritas civitas collegia consilium consortium consuetudo contractus contractus litteris curiae cursus honorum – The sequential order of public offices held by politicians in Ancient Rome decreta delectum digesta edicta aequitas fiducia gravitas – An Ancient Roman virtue imperium iudex ius lex libertas mos maiorum – The customs and traditions of ancient Rome municipium obligatio – Course of action that someone is required to take, whether legal or moral patria pietas – An Ancient Roman virtue potestas – A Latin word meaning power or faculty responsa – Body of written legal decisions and rulings provincia – Major Roman administrative territorial entity outside of Italy ratio – Relationship between two numbers of the same kind senatus consultum stipulatio First Triumvirate – Political alliance between Caesar, Crassus and Pompey during the late Roman Republic Second Triumvirate – Ancient Roman political alliance Miscellaneous[edit] Tarpeian Rock Notes[edit] ^ Cf., History of Rome (disambiguation). ^ A. Berger, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society 1953). ^ Patricians versus Plebs. v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome&oldid=989555758" Categories: Ancient Roman government Roman law Ancient Rome-related lists Political systems Tetrarchy Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Français עברית Latina Português Română Suomi 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 19 November 2020, at 17:48 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3925	----	Verrius Flaccus - Wikipedia Verrius Flaccus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman lexicographer and writer (55 BC-20 AD) This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (August 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Marcus Verrius Flaccus (c. 55 BC – AD 20) was a Roman grammarian and teacher who flourished under Augustus and Tiberius. Contents 1 Life 2 Works 3 See also 4 References 5 External links Life[edit] He was a freedman, and his manumitter has been identified with Verrius Flaccus, an authority on pontifical law; but for chronological reasons the name of Veranius Flaccus, a writer on augury, has been suggested (Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist. of Roman Lit. 199, 4). He gained such a reputation by his methods of instruction that he was summoned to court to bring up Gaius and Lucius, the grandsons of Augustus. He removed there with his whole school, and his salary was greatly increased on the condition that he took no fresh pupils. He died at an advanced age during the reign of Tiberius (Suetonius, De Grammaticis, 17), and a statue in his honour was erected at Praeneste, in a marble recess, with inscriptions from his Fasti Praenestini.[1] Works[edit] Section of the Fasti Praenestini Flaccus was also a distinguished philologist and antiquarian investigator. His most important work, De verborum significatu, was the first major alphabetical dictionary in Latin. Though only small fragments remain of the work, it served as the basis for Sextus Pompeius Festus's epitome, also called De verborum significatu. Festus's work was in turn abridged centuries later by Paul the Deacon for the library of Charlemagne. Of the calendar of Roman festivals (Fasti Praenestini) engraved on marble and set up in the forum at Praeneste, some fragments were discovered (1771) at some distance from the town itself in a Christian building of later date, and some consular fasti in the forum itself (1778). The collection was subsequently increased by two new fragments.[1] Other lost works of Flaccus include: De Orthographia: De Obscuris Catonis, an elucidation of obscurities in the writings of Cato the Elder Saturnus, dealing with questions of Roman ritual Rerum memoria dignarum libri, an encyclopaedic work much used by Pliny the Elder Res Etruscae, probably on augury.[1] See also[edit] Quintus Caecilius Epirota References[edit] ^ a b c Chisholm 1911. Attribution:  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Verrius Flaccus, Marcus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 1038. For the fragments of the Fasti see Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, i. pp. 311; G. Gatti, "Due nuovi Frammenti del Calendario di Verrio Flacco," in Atti della r. Accademia dei Lincei, 5th ser., vol. 5, pt. 2, p. 421 (1898); Winther, De Fastis Verrii Flacci ab Ovidio adhibitis (1885); John Edwin Sandys, Classical Scholarship (ed. 1906), vol. i., index, s.v. "Verrius"; Fragments of Flaccus in KO Müller's edition of Festus; Henry Nettleship, Lectures and Essays. External links[edit] Fragments of Verrius Flaccus's works and testimonia in Latin English translation of Fasti Praenestinini at attalus.org Authority control BNE: XX1150751 BNF: cb16500744d (data) CiNii: DA08297639 GND: 11876814X ISNI: 0000 0000 9304 968X LCCN: n92045025 NKC: ola2013763417 NLG: 232080 NTA: 07011045X SELIBR: 271239 SUDOC: 068916086 Trove: 840616 VIAF: 57410497 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n78088492 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Verrius_Flaccus&oldid=975749978" Categories: 50s BC births 20 deaths Golden Age Latin writers Grammarians of Latin Ancient Roman antiquarians Lexicographers 1st-century BC educators Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles lacking in-text citations from August 2020 All articles lacking in-text citations Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Asturianu Български Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto فارسی Français Italiano Magyar Nederlands Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 30 August 2020, at 06:10 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3936	----	View source for Horace - Wikipedia View source for Horace ← Horace Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ===Childhood=== He was born on 8 December 65 BC<ref group="nb">The year is given in ''Odes'' 3.21.1 ([[Lucius Manlius Torquatus|"Consule Manlio"]]), the month in ''Epistles'' 1.20.27, the day in Suetonius' biography ''Vita'' (R. Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 7)</ref> in the [[Samnites|Samnite]] south of [[Italy (Roman Empire)|Italy]].<ref>''Brill's Companion to Horace'', edited by Hans-Christian Günther, Brill, 2012, p. 7, [https://books.google.com/books?id=N2b0YUwXfM8C&pg=PA7 Google Book]</ref> His home town, [[Venosa|Venusia]], lay on a trade route in the border region between [[Apulia]] and [[Lucania]] ([[Basilicata]]). Various Italic dialects were spoken in the area and this perhaps enriched his feeling for language. He could have been familiar with Greek words even as a young boy and later he poked fun at the jargon of mixed Greek and Oscan spoken in neighbouring [[Canusium]].<ref>''Satires'' 1.10.30</ref> One of the works he probably studied in school was the ''Odyssia'' of [[Livius Andronicus]], taught by teachers like the '[[Orbilius]]' mentioned in one of his poems.<ref>''Epistles'' 2.1.69 ff.</ref> Army veterans could have been settled there at the expense of local families uprooted by Rome as punishment for their part in the [[Social War (91–88 BC)]].<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 2–3</ref> Such state-sponsored migration must have added still more linguistic variety to the area. According to a local tradition reported by Horace,<ref>''Satires'' 2.1.34</ref> a colony of Romans or Latins had been installed in Venusia after the [[Samnites]] had been driven out early in the third century. In that case, young Horace could have felt himself to be a Roman<ref>T. Frank, ''Catullus and Horace'', 133–34</ref><ref>A. Campbell, ''Horace: A New Interpretation'', 84</ref> though there are also indications that he regarded himself as a Samnite or [[Sabellus]] by birth.<ref>''Epistles'' 1.16.49</ref><ref>R. Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 7</ref> Italians in modern and ancient times have always been devoted to their home towns, even after success in the wider world, and Horace was no different. Images of his childhood setting and references to it are found throughout his poems.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 3–4</ref> Horace's father was probably a Venutian taken captive by Romans in the Social War, or possibly he was descended from a [[Sabine]] captured in the [[Samnite Wars]]. Either way, he was a slave for at least part of his life. He was evidently a man of strong abilities however and managed to gain his freedom and improve his social position. Thus Horace claimed to be the free-born son of a prosperous 'coactor'.<ref name="Kiernan">V. Kiernan, ''Horace: Poetics and Politics'', 24</ref> The term 'coactor' could denote various roles, such as tax collector, but its use by Horace<ref>''Satires'' 1.6.86</ref> was explained by [[scholia]] as a reference to 'coactor argentareus' i.e. an auctioneer with some of the functions of a banker, paying the seller out of his own funds and later recovering the sum with interest from the buyer.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 4–5</ref> The father spent a small fortune on his son's education, eventually accompanying him to [[Rome]] to oversee his schooling and moral development. The poet later paid tribute to him in a poem<ref name="Satires 1.6">''Satires'' 1.6</ref> that one modern scholar considers the best memorial by any son to his father.<ref group="nb">"No son ever set a finer monument to his father than Horace did in the sixth satire of Book I...Horace's description of his father is warm-hearted but free from sentimentality or exaggeration. We see before us one of the common people, a hard-working, open-minded, and thoroughly honest man of simple habits and strict convictions, representing some of the best qualities that at the end of the Republic could still be found in the unsophisticated society of the Italian ''municipia''"&nbsp;{{emdash}}&nbsp;E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 5–6</ref> The poem includes this passage: <blockquote> If my character is flawed by a few minor faults, but is otherwise decent and moral, if you can point out only a few scattered blemishes on an otherwise immaculate surface, if no one can accuse me of greed, or of prurience, or of profligacy, if I live a virtuous life, free of defilement (pardon, for a moment, my self-praise), and if I am to my friends a good friend, my father deserves all the credit... As it is now, he deserves from me unstinting gratitude and praise. I could never be ashamed of such a father, nor do I feel any need, as many people do, to apologize for being a freedman's son. ''[[Satire]]s 1.6.65–92'' </blockquote> He never mentioned his mother in his verses and he might not have known much about her. Perhaps she also had been a slave.<ref name="Kiernan"/> Return to Horace. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4012	----	Ammianus Marcellinus - Wikipedia Ammianus Marcellinus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus Born 330 Greek-speaking East, possibly Antioch Died 391–400 (aged 61–70) Rome Allegiance Western Roman Empire Service/branch Roman army Other work Res Gestae Ammianus Marcellinus (born c. 330, died c. 391 – 400) was a Roman soldier and historian who wrote the penultimate major historical account surviving from antiquity (preceding Procopius). His work, known as the Res Gestae, chronicled in Latin the history of Rome from the accession of the Emperor Nerva in 96 to the death of Valens at the Battle of Adrianople in 378, although only the sections covering the period 353 to 378 survive. Contents 1 Biography 2 Work 3 Reception 4 Notes 5 References 6 Sources 7 External links Biography[edit] A bust of Emperor Constantius II from Syria. Ammianus was born in the Greek-speaking East,[1] possibly in Syria or Phoenicia[a] in 330.[4] His native language was most likely Greek.[5] The surviving books of his history cover the years 353 to 378.[6] Ammianus served as an officer in the army of the emperors Constantius II and Julian, he served in Gaul (Julian) and in the east (twice for Constantius, once under Julian). He professes to have been "a former soldier and a Greek" (miles quondam et graecus),[7] and his enrollment among the elite protectores domestici (household guards) shows that he was of middle class or higher birth. Consensus is that Ammianus probably came from a curial family, but it is also possible that he was the son of a comes Orientis of the same family name. He entered the army at an early age, when Constantius II was emperor of the East, and was sent to serve under Ursicinus, governor of Nisibis in Mesopotamia, and magister militum. Ammianus campaigned in the East twice under Ursicinus. The walls of Amida, built by Constantius II before the Siege of Amida of 359. Ammianus himself was present in the city until a day before its fall. He travelled with Ursicinus to Italy when Ursicinus was called on by Constantius to begin an expedition against Claudius Silvanus. Silvanus had been forced by the allegedly false accusations of his enemies into proclaiming himself emperor in Gaul. Ursicinus had one of his men assassinate Silvanus, restoring Gaul to Constantius. He then stayed in Gaul to help install Julian as Caesar of Gaul, Spain and Britain. Ammianus probably met Julian for the first time while serving on Ursicinus' staff in Gaul. In 359 Constantius sent Ursicinus back to the east to help in the defence against a Persian invasion led by king Shapur II himself. Ammianus returned with his commander to the East and again served Ursicinus as a staff officer. Ursicinus, although he was the more experienced commander, was placed under the command of Sabinianus, the Magister Peditum of the east. The two did not get along, resulting in a lack of cooperation between the Limitanei (border regiments) of Mesopotamia and Osrhoene under Ursicinus' command and the Comitatus (Field Army) of Sabinianus. While on a mission near Nisibis, Ammianus spotted a Persian patrol which was about to try and capture Ursicinus, he was able to warn his commander in time.[8] In an attempt to locate the Persian Royal Army Ursicinus sent Ammianus to Jovinianus, the semi-independent governor of Corduene, and a friend of Ursicinus. Ammianus successfully located the Persian main body and reported his findings to Ursicinus.[9] After his mission in Corduene Amminianus accompanied his commander when the latter rode out from his headquarters at Amida on a mission to make sure the bridges across the Euphrates were demolished. They were attacked by the Persian vanguard who had made a night march in an attempt to catch the Romans at Amida off guard. After a protracted cavalry battle the Romans were scattered, Ursicinus evaded capture and fled to Melitene while Ammianus barely made it back to Amida with a wounded comrade.[10] The Persians started to besiege the city. When it fell Ammianus barely escaped with his life.[11] When Ursicinus was dismissed from his military post by Constantius, Ammianus too seems to have retired from the military; however, reevaluation of his participation in Julian's Persian campaigns has led modern scholarship to suggest that he continued his service but did not for some reason include the period in his history. He accompanied Julian, for whom he expresses enthusiastic admiration, in his campaigns against the Alamanni and the Sassanids. After Julian's death, Ammianus accompanied the retreat of the new emperor, Jovian, as far as Antioch. He was residing in Antioch in 372 when a certain Theodorus was thought to have been identified the successor to the emperor Valens by divination. Speaking as an alleged eyewitness, Marcellinus recounts how Theodorus and several others were made to confess their deceit through the use of torture, and cruelly punished. Portrait of Julian on a bronze coin of Antioch He eventually settled in Rome and began the Res Gestae. The precise year of his death is unknown, but scholarly consensus places it somewhere between 392 and 400 at the latest.[12][13] Modern scholarship generally describes Ammianus as a pagan who was tolerant of Christianity.[14] Marcellinus writes of Christianity as being a pure and simple religion that demands only what is just and mild, and when he condemns the actions of Christians, he does not do so on the basis of their Christianity as such.[15] His lifetime was marked by lengthy outbreaks of sectarian and dogmatic strife within the new state-backed faith, often with violent consequences (especially the Arian controversy) and these conflicts sometimes appeared unworthy to him, though it was territory where he could not risk going very far in criticism, due to the growing and volatile political connections between the church and imperial power. He was not blind to the faults of Christians or of pagans; he observed in his Res Gestae that "no wild beasts are so deadly to humans as most Christians are to each other."[16] and he condemns his hero Julian for excessive attachment to (pagan) sacrifice, and for his edict effectively barring Christians from teaching posts.[17] Work[edit] While living in Rome in the 380s, Ammianus wrote a Latin history of the Roman empire from the accession of Nerva (96) to the death of Valens at the Battle of Adrianople (378),[18] in effect writing a continuation of the history of Tacitus. He presumably completed the work before 391, as at 22.16.12 he praises the Serapeum in Egypt as the glory of the empire; it was in that same year the Emperor granted the temple grounds to a Christian bishop, provoking pagans into barricading themselves in the temple, plundering its contents, and torturing Christians, ultimately destroying the temple. The Res Gestae (Rerum gestarum Libri XXXI) was originally composed of thirty-one books, but the first thirteen have been lost.[19][b] The surviving eighteen books cover the period from 353 to 378.[20] It constitutes the foundation of modern understanding of the history of the fourth century Roman Empire. It is lauded as a clear, comprehensive, and generally impartial account of events by a contemporary; like many ancient historians, however, Ammianus was in fact not impartial, although he expresses an intention to be so, and had strong moral and religious prejudices. Although criticised as lacking literary merit by his early biographers, he was in fact quite skilled in rhetoric, which significantly has brought the veracity of some of the Res Gestae into question. His work has suffered substantially from manuscript transmission. Aside from the loss of the first thirteen books, the remaining eighteen are in many places corrupt and lacunose. The sole surviving manuscript from which almost every other is derived is a ninth-century Carolingian text, Vatican lat. 1873 (V), produced in Fulda from an insular exemplar. The only independent textual source for Ammianus lies in Fragmenta Marbugensia (M), another ninth-century Frankish codex which was taken apart to provide covers for account-books during the fifteenth century. Only six leaves of M survive; however, before this manuscript was dismantled the Abbot of Hersfeld lent the manuscript to Sigismund Gelenius, who used it in preparing the text of the second Froben edition (G). The dates and relationship of V and M were long disputed until 1936 when R. P. Robinson demonstrated persuasively that V was copied from M. As L. D. Reynolds summarizes, "M is thus a fragment of the archetype; symptoms of an insular pre-archetype are evident."[21] His handling from his earliest printers was little better. The editio princeps was printed in 1474 in Rome by Georg Sachsel and Bartholomaeus Golsch, which broke off at the end of Book 26. The next edition (Bologna, 1517) suffered from its editor's conjectures upon the poor text of the 1474 edition; the 1474 edition was pirated for the first Froben edition (Basle, 1518). It was not until 1533 that the last five books of Ammianus' history were put into print by Silvanus Otmar and edited by Mariangelus Accursius. The first modern edition was produced by C.U. Clark (Berlin, 1910–1913).[21] The first English translations were by Philemon Holland in 1609,[22] and later by C.D. Yonge in 1862.[22] Reception[edit] A copy of the Res Gestae from 1533 Edward Gibbon judged Ammianus "an accurate and faithful guide, who composed the history of his own times without indulging the prejudices and passions which usually affect the mind of a contemporary."[23] But he also condemned Ammianus for lack of literary flair: "The coarse and undistinguishing pencil of Ammianus has delineated his bloody figures with tedious and disgusting accuracy."[24] Austrian historian Ernst Stein praised Ammianus as "the greatest literary genius that the world produced between Tacitus and Dante".[25] According to Kimberly Kagan, his accounts of battles emphasize the experience of the soldiers but at the cost of ignoring the bigger picture. As a result, it is difficult for the reader to understand why the battles he describes had the outcome they did.[26] Ammianus' work contains a detailed description of the tsunami in Alexandria which devastated the metropolis and the shores of the eastern Mediterranean on 21 July 365. His report describes accurately the characteristic sequence of earthquake, retreat of the sea and sudden giant wave.[27] Notes[edit] ^ Following earlier scholars, Matthews suggested a hometown of Antioch on the Orontes based on the assumption that Ammianus was the recipient of a letter from a pagan contemporary, Libanius, to a certain Marcellinus;[2] however Formara in 1992 argued that this letter must have referred in fact to a younger man and an orator newly arrived in Rome, rather than Ammianus, who had long been a resident in the City, and Barnes solidified this stance in modern scholarship. However, many scholars remain convinced that Ammianus was a native of Antioch.[3] ^ Historian T.D. Barnes argues that the original was actually thirty-six books, which if correct would mean that eighteen books have been lost.[4] References[edit] ^ Young 1916, p. 336. ^ Matthews 1989, p. 8. ^ Barnes 1998, p. 57-58. ^ a b Barnes 1998, p. 28. ^ Norden 1909, p. 648. ^ Kagan 2009, p. 23. ^ Barnes 1998, p. 65. ^ Ammianus, Res Gestae, 18, 10–17. ^ Ammianus, Res Gestae, 18, 7.1–7.7. ^ Ammianus, Res Gestae, 18, 8, 4–7. ^ Kagan 2009, p. 29-30. ^ Kelly 2008, p. 104. ^ Barnes 1998, p. ?. ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 133-. ^ Hunt 1985, p. 193,195. ^ Hunt 1985, p. 195. ^ Hunt 1985, p. 198. ^ Kagan 2009, p. 22. ^ Frakes 1997, p. 125. ^ Fisher 1918, p. 39. ^ a b Reynolds 1983, p. 6ff. ^ a b Jenkins 2017, p. 31. ^ Gibbon 1995, p. Chapter26.5. ^ Gibbon 1995, p. Chapter25. ^ Stein 1928, p. ?. ^ Kagan 2009, p. 27-29. ^ Kelly 2004, p. 141-167. Sources[edit] Barnes, Timothy D. (1998). Ammianus Marcellinus and the Representation of Historical Reality (Cornell Studies in Classical Philology). Cornell University Press. Clark, Charles Upson. The Text Tradition of Ammianus Marcellinus. Ph.D. Diss. Yale: 1904. Crump, Gary A. Ammianus Marcellinus as a military historian. Steiner, 1975, ISBN 3-515-01984-7. Drijvers, Jan and David Hunt. Late Roman World and its Historian. Routledge, 1999, ISBN 0-415-20271-X. Fisher, H. A. L. (1918). "The Last Latin Historian". The Quarterly Review. 230 July. Frakes, Robert M. (1997). "Ammianus Marcellinus and Zonaras on a Late Roman Assassination Plot". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. Franz Steiner Verlag. Bd. 46, H. 1 1st Qtr. Gibbon, Edward (1995). Bury, J.B. (ed.). Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. I. Random House Inc. ISBN 978-0-679-60148-7. Hunt, E.D. (1985). "Christians and Christianity in Ammianus Marcellinus". Classical Quarterly. New Series. 35 (1): 186–200. doi:10.1017/S0009838800014671. JSTOR 638815. Jenkins, Fred W. (2017). Ammianus Marcellinus: An Annotated Bibliography, 1474 to the Present. Brill. Kelly, G. (2004). "Ammianus and the Great Tsunami". The Journal of Roman Studies. Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies. 94: 141–167. doi:10.2307/4135013. hdl:20.500.11820/635a4807-14c9-4044-9caa-8f8e3005cb24. JSTOR 4135013. Kelly, Gavin (2008). Ammianus Marcellinus: The Allusive Historian. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84299-0. Kagan, Kimberly (2009). The Eye of Command. The University of Michigan Press. Marcos, Moyses. "A Tale of Two Commanders: Ammianus Marcellinus on the Campaigns of Constantius II and Julian on the Northern Frontiers." American Journal of Philology 136.4: 669–708, 2015. Matthews, J. (1989). The Roman Empire of Ammianus. Johns Hopkins University Press. Norden, Eduard (1909). Antika Kunstprosa. Leipzig. Reynolds, L. D., ed. (1983). Texts and Transmission: A Survey of the Latin Classics. Clarendon Press. Roth, Roman "Pyrrhic paradigms: Ennius, Livy, and Ammianus Marcellinus." Hermes 138.2: 171–195, 2010. Rowell, Henry Thompson. Ammianus Marcellinus, soldier-historian of the late Roman Empire. University of Cincinnati, 1964. Sabbah, Guy. "Ammianus Marcellinus." In Greek and Roman Historiography in Late Antiquity: Fourth to Sixth century AD. Edited by Gabriele Marasco, 43–84. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2003. Sabbah, Guy. La Méthode d'Ammien Marcellin. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1978. Seager, Robin. Ammianus Marcellinus: Seven Studies in His Language and Thought. Univ of Missouri Pr, 1986, ISBN 0-8262-0495-3. Stein, E. (1928). Geschichte des spätrömischen Reiches (in German). Vienna. Syme, Ronald. Ammianus and the Historia Augusta. Oxford: Clarendon, 1968. Thompson, E.A. The Historical Work of Ammianus Marcellinus. London: Cambridge University Press, 1947. Tougher, S. "Ammianus Marcellinus on the Empress Eusebia: A Split Personality." Greece and Rome 47.1:94-101, 2000. Treadgold, Warren T. (1997). A history of the Byzantine state and society. Stanford University Press. p. 133. ISBN 978-0-8047-2630-6. Retrieved 22 August 2010. Young, George Frederick (1916). East and West Through Fifteen Centuries: Being a General History from B.C. 44 to A.D. 1453. Longmans, Green and Co. 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en-wikipedia-org-4015	----	Simplicius of Cilicia - Wikipedia Simplicius of Cilicia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Simplicius of Cilicia[1] (/sɪmˈplɪʃiəs/; Greek: Σιμπλίκιος ὁ Κίλιξ; c. 490 – c. 560[2]) was a disciple of Ammonius Hermiae and Damascius, and was one of the last of the Neoplatonists. He was among the pagan philosophers persecuted by Justinian in the early 6th century, and was forced for a time to seek refuge in the Persian court, before being allowed back into the empire. He wrote extensively on the works of Aristotle. Although his writings are all commentaries on Aristotle and other authors, rather than original compositions, his intelligent and prodigious learning makes him the last great philosopher of pagan antiquity. His works have preserved much information about earlier philosophers which would have otherwise been lost. Contents 1 Life 2 Writings 3 Works in English translation 3.1 On Aristotle's Categories 3.2 On Aristotle's On the Heavens 3.3 On Aristotle's Physics 3.4 On Aristotle's On the Soul 3.5 On Epictetus' Handbook 3.6 Other works 4 Notes 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links Life[edit] Simplicius was a disciple of Ammonius Hermiae,[3] and Damascius,[4] and was consequently one of the last members of the Neoplatonist school. The school had its headquarters in Athens. It became the centre of the last efforts to maintain Hellenistic religion against the encroachments of Christianity. Imperial edicts enacted in the 5th century against paganism gave legal protection to pagans against personal maltreatment.[5] In the year 528 the emperor Justinian ordered that pagans should be removed from government posts. Some were robbed of their property, some put to death. The order specified that if they did not within three months convert to Christianity, they were to be banished from the Empire. In addition, it was forbidden any longer to teach philosophy and jurisprudence in Athens.[6] Probably also the property of the Platonist school, which in the time of Proclus was valued at more than 1000 gold pieces,[7] was confiscated; at least, Justinian deprived the physicians and teachers of the liberal arts of the provision-money which had been assigned to them by previous emperors, and confiscated funds which the citizens had provided for spectacles and other civic purposes.[8] Seven philosophers, among whom were Simplicius, Eulamius, Priscian, and others, with Damascius, the last president of the Platonist school in Athens at their head, resolved to seek protection at the court of the famous Persian king Chosroes, who had succeeded to the throne in 531. But they were disappointed in their hopes. Chosroes, in a peace treaty concluded with Justinian c. 533 stipulated that the philosophers should be allowed to return without risk and to practise their rites, after which they returned.[9] Of the subsequent fortunes of the seven philosophers we learn nothing. We know little about where Simplicius lived and taught. That he not only wrote, but taught, is proved by the address to his hearers in the commentary on the Physica Auscultatio of Aristotle,[10] as well as by the title of his commentary on the Categories. He had received his training partly in Alexandria, under Ammonius,[11] partly in Athens, as a disciple of Damascius; and it was probably in one of these two cities that he subsequently took up his abode; for, with the exception of these cities and Constantinople, it would have been difficult to find a town which possessed the collections of books he needed, and he is unlikely to have gone to Constantinople. As to his personal history, especially his migration to Persia, no definite allusions are to be found in the writings of Simplicius. Only at the end of his explanation of the treatise of Epictetus, Simplicius mentions, with gratitude, the consolation which he had found under tyrannical oppression in such ethical contemplations; which might suggest that it was composed during, or immediately after, the above-mentioned persecutions. Writings[edit] Commentary on Aristotle's De Caelo by Simplicius. This 14th-century manuscript is signed by a former owner, Basilios Bessarion. The works which have survived are his commentaries upon Aristotle's de Caelo, Physica Auscultatio, and Categories, as well as a commentary upon the Enchiridion of Epictetus. There is also a commentary on Aristotle's de Anima under his name, but it is stylistically inferior and lacks the breadth of historical information usually used by Simplicius. It has been suggested that it was written by Priscian of Lydia,[12] but other scholars see it as authentic.[13] The commentary on de Caelo was written before that on the Physica Auscultatio, and probably not in Alexandria, since he mentions in it an astronomical observation made during his stay in that city by Ammonius.[14] Simplicius wrote his commentary on the Physica Auscultatio after the death of Damascius, and therefore after his return from Persia.[15] When it was that he wrote his explanations of the Categories, whether before or after those on the above-mentioned Aristotelian treatises, it is impossible to ascertain. Besides these commentaries of Simplicius which have been preserved, the de Anima commentary mentions explanations on the metaphysical books, and an epitome of the Physica of Theophrastus.[16] Simplicius, as a Neoplatonist, endeavoured to show that Aristotle agrees with Plato even on those points which he controverts, so that he may lead the way to their deeper, hidden meaning. In his view not only Plotinus, but also Syrianus, Proclus, and Ammonius, are great philosophers, who have penetrated into the depths of the wisdom of Plato. Many of the more ancient Greek philosophers he also brings into a connection with Platonism. He is, however, distinguished from his predecessors, whom he so admires, in making less frequent application of Orphic, Hermetic, Chaldean, and other Theologumena of the East; partly in proceeding carefully and modestly in the explanation and criticism of particular points, and in striving with diligence to draw from the original sources a thorough knowledge of the older Greek philosophy. His commentaries can, therefore, be regarded as the richest in their contents of any that have come down to us concerning Aristotle. But for them, we should be without the most important fragments of the writings of the Eleatics, of Empedocles, Anaxagoras, Diogenes of Apollonia, and others, which were at that time already very scarce,[17] as well as without many extracts from the lost books of Aristotle, Theophrastus and Eudemus: but for them we should hardly be able to unriddle the doctrine of the Categories, so important for the system of the Stoics. It is true he himself complains that in his time both the school and the writings of the followers of Zeno had perished.[18] But where he cannot draw immediately from the original sources, he looks round for guides whom he can depend upon, who had made use of those sources. In addition, we have to thank him for such copious quotations from the Greek commentaries from the time of Andronicus of Rhodes down to Ammonius and Damascius, that, for the Categories and the Physics, the outlines of a history of the interpretation and criticism of those books may be composed. With a correct idea of their importance, Simplicius made the most diligent use of the commentaries of Alexander of Aphrodisias and Porphyry; and although he often enough combats the views of the former, he knew how to value, as it deserved, his (in the main) sound critical sense. He has also preserved for us intelligence of several more ancient readings, which now, in part, have vanished from the manuscripts without leaving any trace, and in the paraphrastic sections of his interpretations furnishes us with valuable contributions for correcting or settling the text of Aristotle. Not less valuable are the contributions towards a knowledge of the ancient astronomical systems for which we have to thank him in his commentary on the books de Caelo. We even find in his writings some traces of a disposition for the observation of nature.[19] Although averse to Christianity he abstains from assailing Christian doctrines, even when he combats expressly the work of his contemporary, John Philoponus, directed against the Aristotelian doctrine of the eternity of the universe.[20] In Ethics he seems to have abandoned the mystical pantheistic purification-theory of the Neoplatonists, and to have found full satisfaction in the ethical system of the later Stoics, however little he was disposed towards their logical and physical doctrines. While some sources attribute to Simplicius the coining of the phrase πάντα ῥεῖ (panta rhei), meaning "everything flows/is in a state of flux", to characterize the concept in the philosophy of Heraclitus,[21] the essential phrasing "everything changes"[22] and variations on it, in contexts where Heraclitus's thought is being alluded to, was current in both Plato and Aristotle's writings.[23][24] Works in English translation[edit] On Aristotle's Categories[edit] Simplicius: On Aristotle, Categories 1-4, translated by Michael Chase (2003). Cornell University Press: ISBN 0-8014-4101-3, and Duckworth, London: ISBN 0-7156-3197-7 Simplicius: On Aristotle, Categories 5-6, translated by Frans A.J. de Haas and Barrie Fleet (2001). Cornell University Press: ISBN 0-8014-3838-1, and Duckworth, London: ISBN 0-7156-3037-7 Simplicius: On Aristotle, Categories 7-8, translated by Barrie Fleet (2002). Cornell University Press: ISBN 0-8014-3839-X, and Duckworth, London: ISBN 0-7156-3038-5 Simplicius: On Aristotle, Categories 9-15, translated by Richard Gaskin (2000). Cornell University Press: ISBN 0-8014-3691-5, and Duckworth, London: ISBN 0-7156-2900-X On Aristotle's On the Heavens[edit] Simplicius: On Aristotle, On the Heavens 1.1-4, translated by Robert J. Hankinson (2001). Cornell University Press: ISBN 0-8014-3907-8, and Duckworth, London: ISBN 0-7156-3070-9 Simplicius: On Aristotle, On the Heavens 1.3-4, translated by Ian Mueller (2011). Duckworth, London: ISBN 0-7156-4063-1 Simplicius: On Aristotle, On the Heavens 1.5-9, translated by Robert J. Hankinson (2004). Cornell University Press: ISBN 0-8014-4212-5, and Duckworth, London: ISBN 0-7156-3231-0 Simplicius: On Aristotle, On the Heavens 1.10-12, translated by Robert J. Hankinson (2006). Cornell University Press: ISBN 0-8014-4216-8, and Duckworth, London: ISBN 0-7156-3232-9 Simplicius: On Aristotle, On the Heavens 2.1-9, translated by Ian Mueller (2004). Cornell University Press: ISBN 0-8014-4102-1, and Duckworth, London: ISBN 0-7156-3200-0 Simplicius: On Aristotle, On the Heavens 2.10-14, translated by Ian Mueller (2005). Cornell University Press: ISBN 0-8014-4415-2, and Duckworth, London: ISBN 0-7156-3342-2 Simplicius: On Aristotle, On the Heavens 3.1-7, translated by Ian Mueller (2009). Duckworth, London: ISBN 0-7156-3843-2 Simplicius: On Aristotle, On the Heavens 3.7-4.6, translated by Ian Mueller (2009). Duckworth, London: ISBN 0-7156-3844-0 On Aristotle's Physics[edit] Simplicius: On Aristotle, Physics 1.3-4, translated by Pamela M. Huby and C. C. W. Taylor (2011). Duckworth, London: ISBN 0-7156-3921-8 Simplicius: On Aristotle, Physics 1.5-9, translated by Han Baltussen (2011). Duckworth, London: ISBN 0-7156-3857-2 Simplicius: On Aristotle, Physics 2, translated by Barrie Fleet (1997). Cornell University Press: ISBN 0-8014-3283-9, and Duckworth, London: ISBN 0-7156-2732-5 Simplicius: On Aristotle, Physics 3, translated by James O. Urmson (2002). Cornell University Press: ISBN 0-8014-3903-5, and Duckworth, London: ISBN 0-7156-3067-9 Simplicius: On Aristotle, Physics 4.1-5, 10-14, translated by James O. Urmson (1992). Cornell University Press: ISBN 0-8014-2817-3, and Duckworth, London: ISBN 0-7156-2434-2 Simplicius: On Aristotle, Physics 5, translated by James O. Urmson (1997). Cornell University Press: ISBN 0-8014-3407-6, and Duckworth, London: ISBN 0-7156-2765-1 Simplicius: On Aristotle, Physics 6, translated by David Konstan (1989). Cornell University Press: ISBN 0-8014-2238-8, and Duckworth, London: ISBN 0-7156-2217-X Simplicius: On Aristotle, Physics 7, translated by Charles Hagen (1994). Cornell University Press: ISBN 0-8014-2992-7, and Duckworth, London: ISBN 0-7156-2485-7 Simplicius: On Aristotle, Physics 8.6-10, translated by Richard McKirahan (2001). Cornell University Press: ISBN 0-8014-3787-3, and Duckworth, London: ISBN 0-7156-3039-3 On Aristotle's On the Soul[edit] Simplicius: On Aristotle, On the Soul 1.1-2.4, translated by James O. Urmson (1995). Cornell University Press: ISBN 0-8014-3160-3, and Duckworth, London: ISBN 0-7156-2614-0 Priscian: On Theophrastus on Sense-Perception, with "Simplicius": On Aristotle, On the Soul 2.5-12, translated by Carlos Steel (1997). Cornell University Press: ISBN 0-8014-3282-0, and Duckworth, London: ISBN 0-7156-2752-X "Simplicius": On Aristotle, On the Soul 3.1-5, translated by Henry J. Blumenthal (2000). Cornell University Press: ISBN 0-8014-3687-7, and Duckworth, London: ISBN 0-7156-2896-8 On Epictetus' Handbook[edit] Simplicius: On Epictetus, Handbook 1-26, translated by Tad Brennan and Charles Brittain (2002). Cornell University Press: ISBN 0-8014-3904-3, and Duckworth, London: ISBN 0-7156-3068-7 Simplicius: On Epictetus, Handbook 27-53, translated by Tad Brennan and Charles Brittain (2002). Cornell University Press: ISBN 0-8014-3905-1, and Duckworth, London: ISBN 0-7156-3069-5 Other works[edit] Simplicius: Corollaries on Place and Time, translated by James O. Urmson (1992). Cornell University Press: ISBN 0-8014-2713-4, and Duckworth, London: ISBN 0-7156-2252-8 Philoponus: Corollaries on Place and Void, with Simplicius: Against Philoponus On the Eternity of the World, translated by David Furley and Christian Wildberg (1991). Cornell University Press: ISBN 0-8014-2634-0, and Duckworth, London: ISBN 0-7156-2250-1 Philoponus: On Aristotle, Physics 5-8, with Simplicius: On Aristotle on the Void, translated by Paul Lettinck and J. O. Urmson (1994). Cornell University Press: ISBN 0-8014-3005-4, and Duckworth, London: ISBN 0-7156-2493-8 Notes[edit] ^ Agathias, ii. 30; Suda, Presbeis; it is inaccurately that the Suda (Damascius) calls him a countryman of Eulamius the Phrygian. ^ Donald J. Zeyl, Daniel Devereux, Phillip Mitsis, (1997), Encyclopedia of classical philosophy. Greenwood Press ^ Simplicius, in Phys. Ausc. f. 42, 43, etc. ^ Simplicius, in Phys. Ausc. f. 150, a. b., 183, b., 186, etc. ^ Cod. Theod. 16. tit. 10. ^ 529 AD; Malalas, xviii.; comp. Theophanes, i. 276. ^ Damascius ap. Photius. ^ Procopius, Arcan. c. 26. ^ Agathias, ii. 30. ^ Simplicius, in Arist. Phys. Ausc. f. 173. ^ see especially Simplicius in ll. de Caelo, f. 113. ^ Steel C., in Priscian, On Theophrastus on Sense-Perception and Simplicius' On Aristotle's On the Soul 2.5-12., Cornell University Press, 1997. See Bryn Mawr Classical Review 1999.10.18 ^ Hadot, I. (2002). "Simplicius or Pricianus? On the Author of the Commentary on Aristotle's De Anima". Mnemosyne. 55 (2): 159–199. doi:10.1163/15685250252989724. ^ Simplicius, de Caelo, f. 113. ^ Simplicius, in Arist. Phys. Ausc. f. 184, etc. ^ Simplicius, in Arist. de Anima, 38. ^ Simplicius, in Phys. Ausc. f. 31. ^ Simplicius, in Arist. de Caelo, 79, b. ^ Simplicius, Comm. in Phys. Ausc. 173, 176; de Anima, 35, b. 36. ^ Simplicius, in Arist. de Caelo, 6, b, etc., 72; in Phys. Ausc. 257, 262, etc., 312, etc., 320. ^ Barnes page 65, and also Peters, Francis E. (1967). Greek Philosophical Terms: A Historical Lexicon. NYU Press. pp. 178. ISBN 0814765521. Simplicius' commentary on Aristotle's physica 1313.11. ^ Plato, Cratylus, 401d and 402a ^ Graham, Daniel W. (2006). Explaining the Cosmos: The Ionian Tradition of Scientific Philosophy. Princeton University Press. p. 118 n. 5. ISBN 0-691-12540-6. ^ Peters (2009), p. 178. References[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870). "Simplicius". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Barnes, Jonathan (1982). The Presocratic Philosophers [Revised Edition]. London & New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 0-415-05079-0. Further reading[edit] Ilsetraut Hadot (ed.), Simplicius, sa vie, son œuvre, sa survie. Actes du Colloque international de Paris (28 septembre - 1 octobre 1985) / organised by the Centre de recherche sur les œuvres et la pensée de Simplicius (RCP 739-CNRS), Berlin & New York, Walter de Gruyter, 1987, X-406 p.  ISBN 3-11-010924-7 Ilsetraut Hadot: The life and work of Simplicius in Greek and Arabic sources. In: Richard Sorabji (Ed.): Aristotle Transformed. Duckworth, London 1990, pp. 275–303. ISBN 0-7156-2254-4 Han Baltussen: Philosophy and Exegesis in Simplicius. The methodology of a commentator. Duckworth, London 2008, 292 p.  ISBN 978-0-7156-3500-1 External links[edit] Simplicius, Commentary on the Enchiridion of Epictetus, translated by George Stanhope, 1722 Helmig, Christoph. "Simplicius". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Falcon, Andrea. "Commentators on Aristotle". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Extract from Taylor's translation of Aristotle's Physics with Simplicius' Commentary Greek text of Simplicius' Commentary on the Enchiridion of Epictetus (Simplicii Commentarius in Enchiridion Epicteti) on archive.org. v t e Platonists Academic Old Plato Aristotle Eudoxus Philip of Opus Aristonymus Coriscus and Erastus of Scepsis Demetrius of Amphipolis Euaeon of Lampsacus Heraclides and Python of Aenus Hestiaeus of Perinthus Lastheneia of Mantinea Timolaus of Cyzicus Speusippus Axiothea of Phlius Heraclides Ponticus Menedemus of Pyrrha Xenocrates Crantor Polemon Crates of Athens Skeptic Middle Arcesilaus Diocles of Cnidus Lacydes Telecles and Evander Hegesinus New Carneades Hagnon of Tarsus Metrodorus of Stratonicea Clitomachus Charmadas Aeschines of Neapolis Philo of Larissa Cicero Dio of Alexandria Middle Platonist Antiochus Philo of Alexandria Plutarch Justin Martyr Gaius Albinus Alcinous Apuleius Atticus Maximus of Tyre Numenius of Apamea Longinus Clement of Alexandria Origen the Pagan Calcidius Neoplatonist Ancient Ammonius Saccas Plotinus Disciples Origen Amelius Porphyry Iamblichus Sopater Eustathius of Cappadocia Sosipatra Aedesius Dexippus Chrysanthius Theodorus of Asine Julian Sallustius Maximus of Ephesus Eusebius of Myndus Priscus of Epirus Antoninus Gregory of Nyssa Hypatia Augustine Macrobius Academy Plutarch of Athens Asclepigenia Hierocles Syrianus Hermias Aedesia Proclus Ammonius Hermiae Asclepiodotus Hegias Zenodotus Marinus Agapius Isidore Damascius Simplicius Priscian Medieval Boethius John Philoponus Olympiodorus Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite John Scotus Eriugena Islamic Golden Age Al-Farabi Anselm Peter Abelard Chartres Bernard Gilbert Thierry Henry of Ghent Bonaventure Theodoric of Freiberg Meister Eckhart Berthold of Moosburg Paul of Venice Modern Renaissance Florentine Academy Plethon Marsilio Ficino Cristoforo Landino Giovanni Pico della Mirandola Cambridge Ralph Cudworth Henry More Anne Conway Petrus Ramus Giordano Bruno Blaise Pascal Emanuel Swedenborg German idealist Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Christian Wolff Moses Mendelssohn Immanuel Kant Johann Gottlieb Fichte Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling Arthur Schopenhauer G. 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Conoids and Spheroids On the Sizes and Distances (Aristarchus) On Sizes and Distances (Hipparchus) On the Moving Sphere (Autolycus) Euclid's Optics On Spirals On the Sphere and Cylinder Ostomachion Planisphaerium Sphaerics The Quadrature of the Parabola The Sand Reckoner Problems Angle trisection Doubling the cube Squaring the circle Problem of Apollonius Concepts/definitions Circles of Apollonius Apollonian circles Apollonian gasket Circumscribed circle Commensurability Diophantine equation Doctrine of proportionality Golden ratio Greek numerals Incircle and excircles of a triangle Method of exhaustion Parallel postulate Platonic solid Lune of Hippocrates Quadratrix of Hippias Regular polygon Straightedge and compass construction Triangle center Results In Elements Angle bisector theorem Exterior angle theorem Euclidean algorithm Euclid's theorem Geometric mean theorem Greek geometric algebra Hinge theorem Inscribed angle theorem Intercept theorem Pons asinorum Pythagorean theorem 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en-wikipedia-org-4023	----	New Latin - Wikipedia New Latin From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the language of original Latin works created since the beginning of the 20th century, see Contemporary Latin. For the modern languages descended from ancient Latin, see Romance languages. "Modern Latin" redirects here. For the modern Latin alphabet, see ISO basic Latin alphabet. Form of the Latin language between c. 1375 and c. 1900s New Latin Latina nova Linnaeus, 1st edition of Systema Naturae is a famous New Latin text. Region Western World Era Evolved from Renaissance Latin in the 16th century; developed into contemporary Latin between 19th and 20th centuries Language family Indo-European Italic Latino-Faliscan Latin New Latin Early form Renaissance Latin Writing system Latin alphabet  Language codes ISO 639-1 la ISO 639-2 lat ISO 639-3 lat This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. New Latin (also called Neo-Latin[1] or Modern Latin)[2] was a revival in the use of Latin in original, scholarly, and scientific works since c. 1375 or 1500. Modern scholarly and technical nomenclature, such as in zoological and botanical taxonomy and international scientific vocabulary, draws extensively from New Latin vocabulary. In such use, New Latin is subject to new word formation. As a language for full expression in prose or poetry, however, it is often distinguished from its successor, Contemporary Latin. Contents 1 Extent 2 History 2.1 Beginnings 2.2 Height 2.3 Decline 2.4 Crisis and transformation 2.5 Relics 3 Pronunciation 4 Orthography 4.1 Characters 4.2 Diacritics 5 Notable works (1500–1900) 5.1 Literature and biography 5.2 Scientific works 5.3 Other technical subjects 6 See also 7 Notes 8 Further reading 9 External links Extent[edit] Classicists use the term "Neo-Latin" to describe the Latin that developed in Renaissance Italy as a result of renewed interest in classical civilization in the 14th and 15th centuries.[3] Neo-Latin also describes the use of the Latin language for any purpose, scientific or literary, during and after the Renaissance. The beginning of the period cannot be precisely identified; however, the spread of secular education, the acceptance of humanistic literary norms, and the wide availability of Latin texts following the invention of printing, mark the transition to a new era of scholarship at the end of the 15th century. The end of the New Latin period is likewise indeterminate, but Latin as a regular vehicle of communicating ideas became rare after the first few decades of the 19th century, and by 1900 it survived primarily in international scientific vocabulary and taxonomy. The term "New Latin" came into widespread use towards the end of the 1890s among linguists and scientists. New Latin was, at least in its early days, an international language used throughout Catholic and Protestant Europe, as well as in the colonies of the major European powers. This area consisted of most of Europe, including Central Europe and Scandinavia; its southern border was the Mediterranean Sea, with the division more or less corresponding to the modern eastern borders of Finland, the Baltic states, Poland, Slovakia, Hungary and Croatia. Russia's acquisition of Kiev in the later 17th century introduced the study of Latin to Russia. Nevertheless, the use of Latin in Orthodox eastern Europe did not reach high levels due to their strong cultural links to the cultural heritage of Ancient Greece and Byzantium, as well as Greek and Old Church Slavonic languages. Though Latin and New Latin are considered dead (having no native speakers), large parts of their vocabulary have seeped into English and several Germanic languages. In the case of English, about 60% of the lexicon can trace its origin to Latin, thus many English speakers can recognize New Latin terms with relative ease as cognates are quite common. History[edit] Beginnings[edit] New Latin was inaugurated by the triumph of the humanist reform of Latin education, led by such writers as Erasmus, More, and Colet. Medieval Latin had been the practical working language of the Roman Catholic Church, taught throughout Europe to aspiring clerics and refined in the medieval universities. It was a flexible language, full of neologisms and often composed without reference to the grammar or style of classical (usually pre-Christian) authors. The humanist reformers sought both to purify Latin grammar and style, and to make Latin applicable to concerns beyond the ecclesiastical, creating a body of Latin literature outside the bounds of the Church. Attempts at reforming Latin use occurred sporadically throughout the period, becoming most successful in the mid-to-late 19th century. Height[edit] Europe in 1648 The Protestant Reformation (1520–1580), though it removed Latin from the liturgies of the churches of Northern Europe, may have advanced the cause of the new secular Latin. The period during and after the Reformation, coinciding with the growth of printed literature, saw the growth of an immense body of New Latin literature, on all kinds of secular as well as religious subjects. The heyday of New Latin was its first two centuries (1500–1700), when in the continuation of the Medieval Latin tradition, it served as the lingua franca of science, education, and to some degree diplomacy in Europe. Classic works such as Newton's Principia Mathematica (1687) were written in the language. Throughout this period, Latin was a universal school subject, and indeed, the pre-eminent subject for elementary education in most of Europe and other places of the world that shared its culture. All universities required Latin proficiency (obtained in local grammar schools) to obtain admittance as a student. Latin was an official language of Poland—recognised and widely used[4][5][6][7] between the 9th and 18th centuries, commonly used in foreign relations and popular as a second language among some of the nobility.[8] Through most of the 17th century, Latin was also supreme as an international language of diplomatic correspondence, used in negotiations between nations and the writing of treaties, e.g. the peace treaties of Osnabrück and Münster (1648). As an auxiliary language to the local vernaculars, New Latin appeared in a wide variety of documents, ecclesiastical, legal, diplomatic, academic, and scientific. While a text written in English, French, or Spanish at this time might be understood by a significant cross section of the learned, only a Latin text could be certain of finding someone to interpret it anywhere between Lisbon and Helsinki. As late as the 1720s, Latin was still used conversationally, and was serviceable as an international auxiliary language between people of different countries who had no other language in common. For instance, the Hanoverian king George I of Great Britain (reigned 1714–1727), who had no command of spoken English, communicated in Latin with his Prime Minister Robert Walpole,[9] who knew neither German nor French. Decline[edit] By about 1700, the growing movement for the use of national languages (already found earlier in literature and the Protestant religious movement) had reached academia, and an example of the transition is Newton's writing career, which began in New Latin and ended in English (e.g. Opticks, 1704). A much earlier example is Galileo c. 1600, some of whose scientific writings were in Latin, some in Italian, the latter to reach a wider audience. By contrast, while German philosopher Christian Wolff (1679–1754) popularized German as a language of scholarly instruction and research, and wrote some works in German, he continued to write primarily in Latin, so that his works could more easily reach an international audience (e.g., Philosophia moralis, 1750–53). Likewise, in the early 18th century, French replaced Latin as a diplomatic language, due to the commanding presence in Europe of the France of Louis XIV. At the same time, some (like King Frederick William I of Prussia) were dismissing Latin as a useless accomplishment, unfit for a man of practical affairs. The last international treaty to be written in Latin was the Treaty of Vienna in 1738; after the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–48) international diplomacy was conducted predominantly in French. A diminishing audience combined with diminishing production of Latin texts pushed Latin into a declining spiral from which it has not recovered. As it was gradually abandoned by various fields, and as less written material appeared in it, there was less of a practical reason for anyone to bother to learn Latin; as fewer people knew Latin, there was less reason for material to be written in the language. Latin came to be viewed as esoteric, irrelevant, and too difficult. As languages like French, Italian, German, and English became more widely known, use of a 'difficult' auxiliary language seemed unnecessary—while the argument that Latin could expand readership beyond a single nation was fatally weakened if, in fact, Latin readers did not compose a majority of the intended audience. As the 18th century progressed, the extensive literature in Latin being produced at the beginning slowly contracted. By 1800 Latin publications were far outnumbered, and often outclassed, by writings in the modern languages as impact of Industrial Revolution. Latin literature lasted longest in very specific fields (e.g. botany and zoology) where it had acquired a technical character, and where a literature available only to a small number of learned individuals could remain viable. By the end of the 19th century, Latin in some instances functioned less as a language than as a code capable of concise and exact expression, as for instance in physicians' prescriptions, or in a botanist's description of a specimen. In other fields (e.g. anatomy or law) where Latin had been widely used, it survived in technical phrases and terminology. The perpetuation of Ecclesiastical Latin in the Roman Catholic Church through the 20th century can be considered a special case of the technicalizing of Latin, and the narrowing of its use to an elite class of readers. By 1900, creative Latin composition, for purely artistic purposes, had become rare. Authors such as Arthur Rimbaud and Max Beerbohm wrote Latin verse, but these texts were either school exercises or occasional pieces. The last survivals of New Latin to convey non-technical information appear in the use of Latin to cloak passages and expressions deemed too indecent (in the 19th century) to be read by children, the lower classes, or (most) women. Such passages appear in translations of foreign texts and in works on folklore, anthropology, and psychology, e.g. Krafft-Ebing's Psychopathia Sexualis (1886). Crisis and transformation[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Latin as a language held a place of educational pre-eminence until the second half of the 19th century. At that point its value was increasingly questioned; in the 20th century, educational philosophies such as that of John Dewey dismissed its relevance.[citation needed] At the same time, the philological study of Latin appeared to show that the traditional methods and materials for teaching Latin were dangerously out of date and ineffective. In secular academic use, however, New Latin declined sharply and then continuously after about 1700. Although Latin texts continued to be written throughout the 18th and into the 19th century, their number and their scope diminished over time. By 1900, very few new texts were being created in Latin for practical purposes, and the production of Latin texts had become little more than a hobby for Latin enthusiasts. Around the beginning of the 19th century came a renewed emphasis on the study of Classical Latin as the spoken language of the Romans of the 1st centuries BC and AD. This new emphasis, similar to that of the Humanists but based on broader linguistic, historical, and critical studies of Latin literature, led to the exclusion of Neo-Latin literature from academic studies in schools and universities (except for advanced historical language studies); to the abandonment of New Latin neologisms; and to an increasing interest in the reconstructed Classical pronunciation, which displaced the several regional pronunciations in Europe in the early 20th century. Coincident with these changes in Latin instruction, and to some degree motivating them, came a concern about lack of Latin proficiency among students. Latin had already lost its privileged role as the core subject of elementary instruction; and as education spread to the middle and lower classes, it tended to be dropped altogether. By the mid-20th century, even the trivial acquaintance with Latin typical of the 19th-century student was a thing of the past. Relics[edit] This pocket watch made for the medical community has Latin instructions for measuring a patient's pulse rate on its dial: enumeras ad XX pulsus, "you count to 20 beats". Ecclesiastical Latin, the form of New Latin used in the Roman Catholic Church, remained in use throughout the period and after. Until the Second Vatican Council of 1962–65 all priests were expected to have competency in it, and it was studied in Catholic schools. It is today still the official language of the Church, and all Catholic priests of the Latin liturgical rites are required by canon law to have competency in the language.[10] Use of Latin in the Mass, largely abandoned through the later 20th century, has recently seen a resurgence due in large part to Pope Benedict XVI's 2007 motu proprio Summorum Pontificum and its use by traditional Catholic priests and their organizations. New Latin is also the source of the biological system of binomial nomenclature and classification of living organisms devised by Carl Linnaeus, although the rules of the ICZN allow the construction of names that deviate considerably from historical norms. (See also classical compounds.) Another continuation is the use of Latin names for the surface features of planets and planetary satellites (planetary nomenclature), originated in the mid-17th century for selenographic toponyms. New Latin has also contributed a vocabulary for specialized fields such as anatomy and law; some of these words have become part of the normal, non-technical vocabulary of various European languages. Pronunciation[edit] Further information: Latin regional pronunciation See also: Traditional English pronunciation of Latin New Latin had no single pronunciation, but a host of local variants or dialects, all distinct both from each other and from the historical pronunciation of Latin at the time of the Roman Republic and Roman Empire. As a rule, the local pronunciation of Latin used sounds identical to those of the dominant local language; the result of a concurrently evolving pronunciation in the living languages and the corresponding spoken dialects of Latin. Despite this variation, there are some common characteristics to nearly all of the dialects of New Latin, for instance: The use of a sibilant fricative or affricate in place of a stop for the letters c and sometimes g, when preceding a front vowel. The use of a sibilant fricative or affricate for the letter t when not at the beginning of the first syllable and preceding an unstressed i followed by a vowel. The use of a labiodental fricative for most instances of the letter v (or consonantal u), instead of the classical labiovelar approximant /w/. A tendency for medial s to be voiced to [z], especially between vowels. The merger of æ and œ with e, and of y with i. The loss of the distinction between short and long vowels, with such vowel distinctions as remain being dependent upon word-stress. The regional dialects of New Latin can be grouped into families, according to the extent to which they share common traits of pronunciation. The major division is between Western and Eastern family of New Latin. The Western family includes most Romance-speaking regions (France, Spain, Portugal, Italy) and the British Isles; the Eastern family includes Central Europe (Germany and Poland), Eastern Europe (Russia and Ukraine) and Scandinavia (Denmark, Sweden). The Western family is characterized, inter alia, by having a front variant of the letter g before the vowels æ, e, i, œ, y and also pronouncing j in the same way (except in Italy). In the Eastern Latin family, j is always pronounced [ j ], and g had the same sound (usually [ɡ]) in front of both front and back vowels; exceptions developed later in some Scandinavian countries. The following table illustrates some of the variation of New Latin consonants found in various countries of Europe, compared to the Classical Latin pronunciation of the 1st centuries BC to AD.[11] In Eastern Europe, the pronunciation of Latin was generally similar to that shown in the table below for German, but usually with [z] for z instead of [ts]. Roman letter Pronunciation Classical Western Central Eastern France England Portugal Spain Italy Romania Germany Netherlands Scandinavia c before "æ", "e", "i", "œ", y / k / / s / / s / / s / / θ / / tʃ / / tʃ / / ts / / s / / s / cc before "æ", "e", "i", "œ", "y" / kː / / ks / / ks / / ss / / kθ / / ttʃ / / ktʃ / / kts / / ss / / ss / ch / kʰ / / ʃ / / tʃ / / tʃ / / tʃ / / k / / k / / k /, / x / / x / / k / g before "æ", "e", i", "œ", "y" / ɡ / / ʒ / / dʒ / / ʒ / / x / / dʒ / / dʒ / / ɡ / / ɣ / or / x / / j / j / j / / j / / ʒ / / j / / j / qu before "a", "o", "u" / kʷ / / kw / / kw / / kw / / kw / / kw / / kv / / kv / /kw / / kv / qu before "æ", "e", "i" / k / / k / / k / s between vowels unless ss / s / / z / / z / / z / / s / / z / / z / / z / / z / / s / sc before "æ", "e", "i", "œ", "y" / sk / / s / / s / / s / / sθ / / ʃ / / stʃ /, / sk / (earlier / ʃt /) / sts / / s / / s / t before unstressed i+vowel except initially or after "s", "t", "x" / t / / ʃ / / θ / / ts / / ts / / ts / / ts / / ts / v / w / / v / / v / / v / / b / ([β]) / v / / v / / f / or / v / / v / / v / z / dz / / z / / z / / z / / θ / / dz / / z / / ts / / z / / s / Orthography[edit] New Latin texts are primarily found in early printed editions, which present certain features of spelling and the use of diacritics distinct from the Latin of antiquity, medieval Latin manuscript conventions, and representations of Latin in modern printed editions. Characters[edit] In spelling, New Latin, in all but the earliest texts, distinguishes the letter u from v and i from j. In older texts printed down to c. 1630, v was used in initial position (even when it represented a vowel, e.g. in vt, later printed ut) and u was used elsewhere, e.g. in nouus, later printed novus. By the mid-17th century, the letter v was commonly used for the consonantal sound of Roman V, which in most pronunciations of Latin in the New Latin period was [v] (and not [w]), as in vulnus "wound", corvus "crow". Where the pronunciation remained [w], as after g, q and s, the spelling u continued to be used for the consonant, e.g. in lingua, qualis, and suadeo. The letter j generally represented a consonantal sound (pronounced in various ways in different European countries, e.g. [j], [dʒ], [ʒ], [x]). It appeared, for instance, in jam "already" or jubet "orders" (earlier spelled iam and iubet). It was also found between vowels in the words ejus, hujus, cujus (earlier spelled eius, huius, cuius), and pronounced as a consonant; likewise in such forms as major and pejor. J was also used when the last in a sequence of two or more i's, e.g. radij (now spelled radii) "rays", alijs "to others", iij, the Roman numeral 3; however, ij was for the most part replaced by ii by 1700. In common with texts in other languages using the Roman alphabet, Latin texts down to c. 1800 used the letter-form ſ (the long s) for s in positions other than at the end of a word; e.g. ipſiſſimus. The digraphs ae and oe were rarely so written (except when part of a word in all capitals, e.g. in titles, chapter headings, or captions) ; instead the ligatures æ and œ were used, e.g. Cæsar, pœna. More rarely (and usually in 16th- to early 17th-century texts) the e caudata is found substituting for either. Diacritics[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Three kinds of diacritic were in common use: the acute accent ´, the grave accent `, and the circumflex accent ˆ. These were normally only marked on vowels (e.g. í, è, â); but see below regarding que. Handwriting in Latin from 1595 The acute accent marked a stressed syllable, but was usually confined to those where the stress was not in its normal position, as determined by vowel length and syllabic weight. In practice, it was typically found on the vowel in the syllable immediately preceding a final clitic, particularly que "and", ve "or" and ne, a question marker; e.g. idémque "and the same (thing)". Some printers, however, put this acute accent over the q in the enclitic que, e.g. eorumq́ue "and their". The acute accent fell out of favor by the 19th century. The grave accent had various uses, none related to pronunciation or stress. It was always found on the preposition à (variant of ab "by" or "from") and likewise on the preposition è (variant of ex "from" or "out of"). It might also be found on the interjection ò "O". Most frequently, it was found on the last (or only) syllable of various adverbs and conjunctions, particularly those that might be confused with prepositions or with inflected forms of nouns, verbs, or adjectives. Examples include certè "certainly", verò "but", primùm "at first", pòst "afterwards", cùm "when", adeò "so far, so much", unà "together", quàm "than". In some texts the grave was found over the clitics such as que, in which case the acute accent did not appear before them. The circumflex accent represented metrical length (generally not distinctively pronounced in the New Latin period) and was chiefly found over an a representing an ablative singular case, e.g. eâdem formâ "with the same shape". It might also be used to distinguish two words otherwise spelled identically, but distinct in vowel length; e.g. hîc "here" differentiated from hic "this", fugêre "they have fled" (=fūgērunt) distinguished from fugere "to flee", or senatûs "of the senate" distinct from senatus "the senate". It might also be used for vowels arising from contraction, e.g. nôsti for novisti "you know", imperâsse for imperavisse "to have commanded", or dî for dei or dii. Notable works (1500–1900)[edit] Erasmus by Holbein Literature and biography[edit] 1511. Stultitiæ Laus, essay by Desiderius Erasmus. 1516. Utopia[1] [2] by Thomas More 1525 and 1538. Hispaniola and Emerita, two comedies by Juan Maldonado. 1546. Sintra, a poem by Luisa Sigea de Velasco. 1602. Cenodoxus, a play by Jacob Bidermann. 1608. Parthenica, two books of poetry by Elizabeth Jane Weston. 1621. Argenis, a novel by John Barclay. 1626–1652. Poems by John Milton. 1634. Somnium, a scientific fantasy by Johannes Kepler. 1741. Nicolai Klimii Iter Subterraneum[3] [4], a satire by Ludvig Holberg. 1761. Slawkenbergii Fabella, short parodic piece in Laurence Sterne's Tristram Shandy. 1767. Apollo et Hyacinthus, intermezzo by Rufinus Widl (with music by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart). 1835. Georgii Washingtonii, Americæ Septentrionalis Civitatum Fœderatarum Præsidis Primi, Vita, biography of George Washington by Francis Glass. Scientific works[edit] 1543. De Revolutionibus Orbium Cœlestium by Nicolaus Copernicus 1545. Ars Magna by Hieronymus Cardanus 1551–58 and 1587. Historia animalium by Conrad Gessner. 1600. De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus et de Magno Magnete Tellure by William Gilbert. 1609. Astronomia nova by Johannes Kepler. 1610. Sidereus Nuncius by Galileo Galilei. 1620. Novum Organum by Francis Bacon.[5] 1628. Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus by William Harvey. [6] 1659. Systema Saturnium by Christiaan Huygens. 1673. Horologium Oscillatorium by Christiaan Huygens. Also at Gallica. 1687. Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica by Isaac Newton. [7] 1703. Hortus Malabaricus by Hendrik van Rheede.[8] [9] 1735. Systema Naturae by Carl Linnaeus. [10] [11] 1737. Mechanica sive motus scientia analytice exposita by Leonhard Euler. 1738. Hydrodynamica, sive de viribus et motibus fluidorum commentarii by Daniel Bernoulli. 1748. Introductio in analysin infinitorum by Leonhard Euler. 1753. Species Plantarum by Carl Linnaeus. 1758. Systema Naturae (10th ed.) by Carolus Linnaeus. 1791. De viribus electricitatis in motu musculari by Aloysius Galvani. 1801. Disquisitiones Arithmeticae by Carl Gauss. 1810. Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen by Robert Brown.[12] 1830. Fundamenta nova theoriae functionum ellipticarum by Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi. 1840. Flora Brasiliensis by Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius.[13] 1864. Philosophia zoologica by Jan van der Hoeven. 1889. Arithmetices principia, nova methodo exposita by Giuseppe Peano Other technical subjects[edit] 1511–1516. De Orbe Novo Decades by Peter Martyr d'Anghiera. 1514. De Asse et Partibus by Guillaume Budé. 1524. De motu Hispaniæ by Juan Maldonado. 1525. De subventione pauperum sive de humanis necessitatibus libri duo by Juan Luis Vives. 1530. Syphilis, sive, De Morbo Gallico by Girolamo Fracastoro(transcription[permanent dead link]) 1531. De disciplinis libri XX by Juan Luis Vives. 1552. Colloquium de aulica et privata vivendi ratione by Luisa Sigea de Velasco. 1553. Christianismi Restitutio by Michael Servetus. A mainly theological treatise, where the function of pulmonary circulation was first described by a European, more than half a century before Harvey. For the non-trinitarian message of this book Servetus was denounced by Calvin and his followers, condemned by the French Inquisition, and burnt alive just outside Geneva. Only three copies survived. 1554. De naturæ philosophia seu de Platonis et Aristotelis consensione libri quinque by Sebastián Fox Morcillo. 1582. Rerum Scoticarum Historia by George Buchanan (transcription) 1587. Minerva sive de causis linguæ Latinæ by Francisco Sánchez de las Brozas. 1589. De natura Novi Orbis libri duo et de promulgatione euangelii apud barbaros sive de procuranda Indorum salute by José de Acosta. 1597. Disputationes metaphysicæ by Francisco Suárez. 1599. De rege et regis institutione by Juan de Mariana. 1604–1608. Historia sui temporis by Jacobus Augustus Thuanus. [14] 1612. De legibus by Francisco Suárez. 1615. De Christiana expeditione apud Sinas by Matteo Ricci and Nicolas Trigault. 1625. De Jure Belli ac Pacis by Hugo Grotius. (Posner Collection facsimile; Gallica facsimile) 1641. Meditationes de prima philosophia by René Descartes. (The Latin, French and English by John Veitch.) 1642-1658. Elementa Philosophica by Thomas Hobbes. 1652-1654. Œdipus Ægyptiacus by Athanasius Kircher. 1655. Novus Atlas Sinensis by Martino Martini. 1656. Flora Sinensis by Michael Boym. 1657. Orbis Sensualium Pictus by John Amos Comenius. (Hoole parallel Latin/English translation, 1777; Online version in Latin) 1670. Tractatus Theologico-Politicus by Baruch Spinoza. 1677. Ethica Ordine Geometrico Demonstrata by Baruch Spinoza. 1725. Gradus ad Parnassum by Johann Joseph Fux. An influential treatise on musical counterpoint. 1780. De rebus gestis Caroli V Imperatoris et Regis Hispaniæ and De rebus Hispanorum gestis ad Novum Orbem Mexicumque by Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda. 1891. De primis socialismi germanici lineamentis apud Lutherum, Kant, Fichte et Hegel by Jean Jaurès See also[edit] Languages portal Binomial nomenclature Botanical Latin Classical compound Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Neo-Latin Studies Romance languages, sometimes called Neo-Latin languages Notes[edit] ^ "Neo-Latin". The American College Dictionary. Random House. 1966. ^ Oxford Dictionaries, Oxford Dictionaries Online, Oxford University Press. ^ "What is Neo-Latin?". Archived from the original on 2016-10-09. Retrieved 2016-10-09. ^ Who only knows Latin can go across the whole Poland from one side to the other one just like he was at his own home, just like he was born there. So great happiness! I wish a traveler in England could travel without knowing any other language than Latin!, Daniel Defoe, 1728 ^ Anatol Lieven, The Baltic Revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and the Path to Independence, Yale University Press, 1994, ISBN 0-300-06078-5, Google Print, p.48 ^ Kevin O'Connor, Culture And Customs of the Baltic States, Greenwood Press, 2006, ISBN 0-313-33125-1, Google Print, p.115 ^ Karin Friedrich et al., The Other Prussia: Royal Prussia, Poland and Liberty, 1569–1772, Cambridge University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-521-58335-7, Google Print, p.88 ^ Karin Friedrich et al., The Other Prussia: Royal Prussia, Poland and Liberty, 1569–1772, Cambridge University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-521-58335-7, Google Print, p. 88 ^ "Before I conclude the reign of George the First, one remarkable fact must not be omitted: As the king could not readily speak English, nor Sir Robert Walpole French, the minister was obliged to deliver his sentiments in Latin; and as neither could converse in that language with readiness and propriety, Walpole was frequently heard to say, that during the reign of the first George, he governed the kingdom by means of bad Latin." Coxe, William (1800). Memoirs of the Life and Administration of Sir Robert Walpole, Earl of Orford. London: Cadell and Davies. p. 465. Retrieved June 2, 2010. "It was perhaps still more remarkable, and an instance unparalleled, that Sir Robert governed George the First in Latin, the King not speaking English, and his minister no German, nor even French. It was much talked of that Sir Robert, detecting one of the Hanoverian ministers in some trick or falsehood before the King's face, had the firmness to say to the German "Mentiris impudissime!"Walpole, Horace (1842). The Letters of Horace Walpole, Earl of Orford. Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard. p. 70. Retrieved June 2, 2010. ^ This requirement is found under canon 249 of the 1983 Code of Canon Law. See "1983 Code of Canon Law". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. 1983. Retrieved 22 March 2011. ^ Fisher, Michael Montgomery (1879). The Three Pronunciations of Latin. Boston: New England Publishing Company. pp. 10–11. Further reading[edit] Library resources about New Latin Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Black, Robert. 2007. Humanism and Education in Medieval and Renaissance Italy. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Bloemendal, Jan, and Howard B. Norland, eds. 2013. Neo-Latin Drama and Theatre in Early Modern Europe. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. Burnett, Charles, and Nicholas Mann, eds. 2005. Britannia Latina: Latin in the Culture of Great Britain from the Middle Ages to the Twentieth Century. Warburg Institute Colloquia 8. London: Warburg Institute. Butterfield, David. 2011. "Neo-Latin". In A Blackwell Companion to the Latin Language. Edited by James Clackson, 303–18. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. Churchill, Laurie J., Phyllis R. Brown, and Jane E. Jeffrey, eds. 2002. Women Writing in Latin: From Roman Antiquity to Early Modern Europe. Vol. 3, Early Modern Women Writing Latin. New York: Routledge. Coroleu, Alejandro. 2010. "Printing and Reading Italian Neo-Latin Bucolic Poetry in Early Modern Europe". Grazer Beitrage 27: 53-69. de Beer, Susanna, K. A. E. Enenkel, and David Rijser. 2009. The Neo-Latin Epigram: A Learned and Witty Genre. Supplementa Lovaniensia 25. Leuven, Belgium: Leuven Univ. Press. De Smet, Ingrid A. R. 1999. "Not for Classicists? The State of Neo-Latin Studies". Journal of Roman Studies 89: 205–9. Ford, Philip. 2000. "Twenty-Five Years of Neo-Latin Studies". Neulateinisches Jahrbuch 2: 293–301. Ford, Philip, Jan Bloemendal, and Charles Fantazzi, eds. 2014. Brill’s Encyclopaedia of the Neo-Latin World. Two vols. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. Godman, Peter, and Oswyn Murray, eds. 1990. Latin Poetry and the Classical Tradition: Essays in Medieval and Renaissance Literature. Oxford: Clarendon. Haskell, Yasmin, and Juanita Feros Ruys, eds. 2010. Latin and Alterity in the Early Modern Period. Arizona Studies in the Middle Ages and Renaissance 30. Tempe: Arizona Univ. Press Helander, Hans. 2001. "Neo-Latin Studies: Significance and Prospects". Symbolae Osloenses 76.1: 5–102. IJsewijn, Jozef with Dirk Sacré. Companion to Neo-Latin Studies. Two vols. Leuven University Press, 1990–1998. Knight, Sarah, and Stefan Tilg, eds. 2015. The Oxford Handbook of Neo-Latin. New York: Oxford University Press. Miller, John F. 2003. "Ovid's Fasti and the Neo-Latin Christian Calendar Poem". International Journal of Classical Tradition 10.2:173-186. Moul, Victoria. 2017. A Guide to Neo-Latin Literature. New York: Cambridge University Press. Tournoy, Gilbert, and Terence O. Tunberg. 1996. "On the Margins of Latinity? Neo-Latin and the Vernacular Languages". Humanistica Lovaniensia 45:134–175. van Hal, Toon. 2007. "Towards Meta-neo-Latin Studies? Impetus to Debate on the Field of Neo-Latin Studies and its Methodology". Humanistica Lovaniensia 56:349–365. Waquet, Françoise, Latin, or the Empire of a Sign: From the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Centuries (Verso, 2003) ISBN 1-85984-402-2; translated from the French by John Howe. External links[edit] Look up new latin in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. An Analytic Bibliography of On-line Neo-Latin Titles — Bibliography of Renaissance Latin and Neo-Latin literature on the web. A Lost Continent of Literature: The rise and fall of Neo-Latin, the universal language of the Renaissance. — An essay on Neo-Latin literature by James Hankins from the I Tatti Renaissance Library website. CAMENA – Latin Texts of Early Modern Europe Database of Nordic Neo-Latin Literature Heinsius collection: Dutch Neo-Latin poetry Latinitas Nova at Bibliotheca Augustana Hofmanni, Joh. Jac. (2009) [1698]. Lexicon Universale (in German and Latin). Corpus Automatum Multiplex Electorum Neolatinitatis Auctorum (CAMENA), University of Mannheim. "Neo-Latin" (in Latin). The Latin Library. Retrieved 12 October 2009. Patzdasch, Bernd (2008). "PANTOIA: Unterhaltsame Literatur und Dichtung in lateinischer und griechischer Übersetzung" (in German). Pantoia. Retrieved 12 October 2009. "Seminarium Philologiae Humanisticae". Katholieke Universiteit Leuven. 2009. Retrieved 12 October 2009. "Society for Neo-Latin Studies". University of Warwick, UK. 2008. Retrieved 12 October 2009. "International Association for Neo-Latin Studies". Retrieved 6 March 2019. v t e Ages of Latin until 75 BC Old Latin 75 BC – 200 AD Classical Latin 200–900 Late Latin 900–1300 Medieval Latin 1300–1500 Renaissance Latin 1500–1900 New Latin 1900–present Contemporary Latin History of Latin Latin literature Vulgar Latin Ecclesiastical Latin Romance languages Latino sine flexione Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum Hiberno-Latin Judeo-Latin Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=New_Latin&oldid=994985919" Categories: Latin language Forms of Latin Latin-language literature History of literature Languages attested from the 16th century 16th-century establishments in Europe Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text Languages with ISO 639-2 code Languages with ISO 639-1 code Language articles with unreferenced extinction date Language articles missing Glottolog code Articles needing additional references from June 2014 All articles needing additional references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2017 Articles needing additional references from November 2015 All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from February 2018 Articles with permanently dead external links CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 Latin-language sources (la) Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Bân-lâm-gú Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Español فارسی Français Galego Latina Nederlands Norsk bokmål Português Русский Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 18 December 2020, at 16:08 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4033	----	The Latin Library - Wikipedia The Latin Library From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) The topic of this article may not meet Wikipedia's general notability guideline. Please help to demonstrate the notability of the topic by citing reliable secondary sources that are independent of the topic and provide significant coverage of it beyond a mere trivial mention. If notability cannot be shown, the article is likely to be merged, redirected, or deleted. Find sources: "The Latin Library" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This article relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources. Find sources: "The Latin Library" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Latin Library is a website that collects public domain Latin texts. The texts have been drawn from different sources. Many were originally scanned and formatted from texts in the public domain. Others have been downloaded from various sites on the Internet (many of which have long since disappeared). Most of the recent texts have been submitted by contributors around the world. The texts are not intended for research purposes nor as substitutes for critical editions. There are no translations at the site. See also[edit] Latin literature Corpus Corporum Library of Latin Texts External links[edit] Official website Gellar-Goad, T. H. M. (2016-12-26). "Review: The Latin Library". Society for Classical Studies. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Latin_Library&oldid=963789434" Categories: Latin-language literature Computing in classical studies American digital libraries Hidden categories: Articles with topics of unclear notability from September 2011 All articles with topics of unclear notability Articles needing additional references from September 2011 All articles needing additional references Articles with multiple maintenance issues Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Íslenska Italiano Latina Latviešu Македонски 日本語 Polski Română Sardu Edit links This page was last edited on 21 June 2020, at 20:09 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4030	----	Romance languages - Wikipedia Romance languages From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article may be too long to read and navigate comfortably. The readable prose size is 96 kilobytes. Please consider splitting content into sub-articles, condensing it, or adding subheadings. (May 2019) This article possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (June 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This article or section should specify the language of its non-English content, using {{lang}}, with an appropriate ISO 639 code. See why. (June 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Languages derived from Vulgar Latin Romance Geographic distribution Originated in Old Latium, Southern, Western and Eastern Europe; now also spoken all over the Americas, in parts of Africa and in parts of Southeast Asia and Oceania Linguistic classification Indo-European Italic Romance Early form Vulgar Latin Subdivisions Italo-Western Eastern Romance Sardinian African † Pannonian † British † ISO 639-2 / 5 roa Linguasphere 51- (phylozone) Glottolog roma1334[1]   Official language   Co-official or coexists with other languages   Cultural or secondary language European Romance languages Part of a series on Indo-European topics Languages List of Indo-European languages Historical Albanian Persian Parthian Armenian Balto-Slavic Baltic Slavic Celtic Germanic Hellenic Greek Indo-Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Italic Romance Extinct Anatolian Tocharian Paleo-Balkan Dacian Illyrian Liburnian Messapian Mysian Paeonian Phrygian Thracian Reconstructed Proto-Indo-European language Phonology: Sound laws, Accent, Ablaut Hypothetical Daco-Thracian Graeco-Armenian Graeco-Aryan Graeco-Phrygian Indo-Hittite Italo-Celtic Thraco-Illyrian Grammar Vocabulary Root Verbs Nouns Pronouns Numerals Particles Other Proto-Albanian Proto-Anatolian Proto-Armenian Proto-Germanic (Proto-Norse) Proto-Celtic Proto-Italic Proto-Greek Proto-Balto-Slavic (Proto-Slavic) Proto-Indo-Iranian (Proto-Iranian) Philology Hittite texts Hieroglyphic Luwian Linear B Rigveda Avesta Homer Behistun Gaulish epigraphy Latin epigraphy Runic epigraphy Ogam Gothic Bible Armenian Bible Slanting Brahmi Old Irish glosses Origins Homeland Proto-Indo-Europeans Society Religion Mainstream Kurgan hypothesis Indo-European migrations Eurasian nomads Alternative and fringe Anatolian hypothesis Armenian hypothesis Indigenous Aryans Baltic homeland Paleolithic Continuity Theory Archaeology Chalcolithic (Copper Age) Pontic Steppe Domestication of the horse Kurgan Kurgan culture Steppe cultures Bug–Dniester Sredny Stog Dnieper–Donets Samara Khvalynsk Yamnaya Mikhaylovka culture Novotitorovka culture Caucasus Maykop East Asia Afanasievo Eastern Europe Usatovo Cernavodă Cucuteni Northern Europe Corded ware Baden Middle Dnieper Bronze Age Pontic Steppe Chariot Yamnaya Catacomb Multi-cordoned ware Poltavka Srubna Northern/Eastern Steppe Abashevo culture Andronovo Sintashta Europe Globular Amphora Corded ware Beaker Unetice Trzciniec Nordic Bronze Age Terramare Tumulus Urnfield Lusatian South Asia BMAC Yaz Gandhara grave Iron Age Steppe Chernoles Europe Thraco-Cimmerian Hallstatt Jastorf Caucasus Colchian India Painted Grey Ware Northern Black Polished Ware Peoples and societies Bronze Age Anatolian peoples (Hittites) Armenians Mycenaean Greeks Indo-Iranians Iron Age Indo-Aryans Indo-Aryans Iranians Iranians Persians Medes Parthians Scythians Saka Sarmatians Massagetae Alans East Asia Wusun Yuezhi Europe Celts Gauls Celtiberians Insular Celts Cimmerians Hellenic peoples Italic peoples Germanic peoples Paleo-Balkan/Anatolia Thracians Dacians Illyrians Phrygians Middle Ages East Asia Tocharians Europe Albanians Balts Slavs Norsemen/Medieval Scandinavians Medieval Europe Indo-Aryan Medieval India Iranian Greater Persia Religion and mythology Reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion Proto-Indo-Iranian religion Ancient Iranian religion Historical Hittite Indo-Aryan Vedic Hinduism Buddhism Jainism Sikhism Iranian Persian Zoroastrianism Kurdish Yazidism Yarsanism Scythian Ossetian Others Armenian Europe Paleo-Balkan (Albanian · Illyrian · Thracian · Dacian) Greek Roman Celtic Irish Scottish Breton Welsh Cornish Germanic Anglo-Saxon Continental Norse Baltic Latvian Lithuanian Slavic Practices Fire sacrifice Horse sacrifice Sati Winter solstice/Yule Indo-European studies Scholars Marija Gimbutas J. P. Mallory Institutes Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European Publications Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture The Horse, the Wheel and Language Journal of Indo-European Studies Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch Indo-European Etymological Dictionary v t e This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. The Romance languages (less commonly Latin languages, or Neo-Latin languages) are the modern languages that evolved from Vulgar Latin between the third and eighth centuries.[2] They are a subgroup of the Italic languages in the Indo-European language family. The five most widely spoken Romance languages by number of native speakers are Spanish (480 million), Portuguese (270 million), French (77 million), Italian (65 million), and Romanian (24 million). Of the major Romance languages, Italian is the closest to Latin, followed by Spanish, Romanian, Portuguese, and the most divergent being French. Taking into account all the Romance languages, including national and regional languages, it is seen that Sardinian and Italian are together the least differentiated from Latin and that Occitan is closer to Latin than French.[3][4][5] However, all Romance languages are closer to each other than to classical Latin. The more than 900 million native speakers of Romance languages are found worldwide, mainly in the Americas, Europe, and parts of Africa. The major Romance languages also have many non-native speakers and are in widespread use as lingua franca.[6] This is especially true of French, which is in widespread use throughout Central and West Africa, Madagascar, Mauritius, Seychelles, Comoros, Djibouti, Lebanon, and North Africa (excluding Egypt, where it is a minority language). Because it is difficult to assign rigid categories to phenomena such as languages, which exist on a continuum, estimates of the number of modern Romance languages vary. For example, Dalby lists 23, based on the criterion of mutual intelligibility.[7] The following includes those and additional current, living languages, and one extinct language, Dalmatian: Ibero-Romance: Portuguese, Galician, Mirandese, Asturian, Leonese, Spanish, Aragonese, Ladino (Judaeo-Spanish); Occitano-Romance: Catalan/Valencian, Occitan (lenga d'oc), Gascon; Gallo-Romance: French/Oïl languages, Franco-Provençal (Arpitan); Rhaeto-Romance: Romansh, Ladin, Friulian; Gallo-Italic: Piedmontese, Ligurian, Lombard, Emilian-Romagnol; Italo-Dalmatian: Italian, Tuscan, Romanesco, Corsican, Sassarese, Sicilian, Neapolitan, Dalmatian (extinct in 1898), Venetian (classification disputed), Istriot; Sardinian; Eastern Romance: Romanian (standard known as Daco-Romanian), Istro-Romanian, Megleno-Romanian, Aromanian. Contents 1 Name 2 Samples 3 Classification and related languages 3.1 Proposed divisions 3.1.1 Italo-Western vs. Eastern vs. Sardinian 3.1.2 Gallo-Romance languages 3.2 Pidgins, creoles, and mixed languages 3.3 Auxiliary and constructed languages 4 Modern status 5 History 5.1 Vulgar Latin 5.2 Fall of the Western Roman Empire 5.3 Fall of the Eastern Roman empire 5.4 Early Romance 5.5 Recognition of the vernaculars 5.6 Uniformization and standardization 6 Sound changes 6.1 Consonants 6.1.1 Apocope 6.1.2 Palatalization 6.1.3 Lenition 6.1.4 Vowel prosthesis 6.2 Stressed vowels 6.2.1 Loss of vowel length, reorientation 6.2.2 Latin diphthongs 6.2.3 Further developments 6.2.3.1 Metaphony 6.2.3.2 Diphthongization 6.2.3.3 Nasalization 6.2.4 Front-rounded vowels 6.3 Unstressed vowels 6.4 Intertonic vowels 7 Writing systems 7.1 Letters 7.2 Digraphs and trigraphs 7.2.1 Double consonants 7.3 Diacritics 7.4 Upper and lower case 8 Vocabulary comparison 8.1 Degrees of lexical similarity between the Romance languages 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 External links Name[edit] The term Romance comes from the Vulgar Latin adverb romanice, "in Roman", derived from Romanicus: for instance, in the expression romanice loqui, "to speak in Roman" (that is, the Latin vernacular), contrasted with latine loqui, "to speak in Latin" (Medieval Latin, the conservative version of the language used in writing and formal contexts or as a lingua franca), and with barbarice loqui, "to speak in Barbarian" (the non-Latin languages of the peoples living outside the Roman Empire).[8] From this adverb the noun romance originated, which applied initially to anything written romanice, or "in the Roman vernacular".[citation needed] Samples[edit] Lexical and grammatical similarities among the Romance languages, and between Latin and each of them, are apparent from the following examples having the same meaning in various Romance lects: English: She always closes the window before she dines / before dining. Latin (Ea) semper antequam cenat fenestram claudit. Vulgar Latin Illa/ipsa claudit semper illa fenestra antequa (later, only in Italy prima) de cenare Apulian (Jèdde) akjude sèmbe la fenèstre prime de mangè. Aragonese (Ella) zarra siempre a finestra antes de cenar. Aromanian (Ea/Nâsa) ãncljidi/nkidi totna firida/fireastra ninti di tsinã. Asturian (Ella) pieslla siempres la ventana enantes de cenar. Cantabrian (Ella) tranca siempri la ventana enantis de cenar. Catalan (Ella) sempre tanca/clou la finestra abans de sopar. Northern Corsican Ella chjode/chjude sempre lu/u purtellu avanti/nanzu di cenà. Southern Corsican Edda/Idda sarra/serra sempri u purteddu nanzu/prima di cinà. Emilian (Reggiano) (Lē) la sèra sèmpar sù la fnèstra prima ad snàr. Emilian (Bolognese) (Lî) la sèra sänper la fnèstra prémma ed dṡnèr. Extremaduran (Ella) afecha siempri la ventana antis de cenal. Franco-Provençal (Le) sarre toltin/tojor la fenétra avan de goutâ/dinar/sopar. French Elle ferme toujours la fenêtre avant de dîner/souper. Friulian (Jê) e siere simpri il barcon prin di cenâ. Galician (Ela) pecha/fecha sempre a fiestra/xanela antes de cear. Gallurese Idda chjude sempri lu balconi primma di cinà. Italian (Ella/lei) chiude (archaic: serra) sempre la finestra prima (archaic: avanti) di cenare. Judaeo-Spanish אֵילייה סֵירּה סײֵמפּרֵי לה בֵֿינטאנה אנטֵיס דֵי סֵינאר.‎‎ Ella cerra siempre la ventana antes de cenar. Ladin Badiot: Ëra stlüj dagnora la finestra impröma de cenè. Centro Cadore: La sera sempre la fenestra gnante de disna. Auronzo di Cadore: La sera sempro la fenestra davoi de disnà. Gherdëina: Ëila stluj for l viere dan maië da cëina. Leonese (Eilla) pecha siempre la ventana primeiru de cenare. Ligurian (Le) a saera sempre u barcun primma de cenà. Lombard (east.) (Bergamasque) (Lé) la sèra sèmper sö la finèstra prima de senà. Lombard (west.) (Lee) la sara sù semper la finestra primma de disnà/scenà. Magoua (Elle) à fàrm toujour là fnèt àvan k'à manj. Mirandese (Eilha) cerra siempre la bentana/jinela atrás de jantar. Mozarabic آلي كلودات سامبرا ل فيناستر أبنتا د جانرا.‎‎ Ella cloudet sempre la fainestra abante da cenare. (reconstructed) Neapolitan Essa 'nzerra sempe 'a fenesta primma 'e cenà. Norman Lli barre tréjous la crouésie devaunt de daîner. Occitan (Ela) barra/tanca sempre/totjorn la fenèstra abans de sopar. Picard Ale frunme tojours l' creusèe édvint éd souper. Piedmontese Chila a sara sèmper la fnestra dnans ëd fé sin-a/dnans ëd siné. Portuguese (Ela) fecha sempre a janela antes de jantar/cear/comer. Romagnol (Lia) la ciud sëmpra la fnèstra prëma ad magnè. Romanian Ea închide întotdeauna fereastra înainte de a cina. Romansh Ella clauda/serra adina la fanestra avant ch'ella tschainia. Southern Sardinian Issa serrat semp(i)ri sa bentana in antis de cenai Northern Sardinian Issa serrat semper sa bentana in antis de chenàre. Sassarese Edda sarra sempri lu balchoni primma di zinà. Sicilian Iḍḍa ferma sempri la finesṭṛa anti mi pistìa/mancha. Spanish (Ella) siempre cierra la ventana antes de cenar/comer. Tuscan Lei chiude sempre la finestra prima di cenà. Umbrian Lia chiude sempre la finestra prima de cenà. Venetian Eła ła sara/sera senpre ła fenestra vanti de diznar. Walloon Ele sere todi li finiesse divant di soper. Romance-based creoles and pidgins Haitian Creole Li toujou fèmen fenèt la avan li mange. Mauritian Creole Li pou touzour ferm lafnet la avan (li) manze. Seychellois Creole Y pou touzour ferm lafnet aven y manze. Papiamento E muhe semper ta sera e bentana promé ku e kome. Kriolu Êl fechâ sempre janela antes de jantâ. Chavacano Ta cerrá él siempre con la ventana antes de cená. Some of the divergence comes from semantic change: where the same root words have developed different meanings. For example, the Portuguese word fresta is descended from Latin fenestra "window" (and is thus cognate to French fenêtre, Italian finestra, Romanian fereastră and so on), but now means "skylight" and "slit". Cognates may exist but have become rare, such as finiestra in Spanish, or dropped out of use entirely. The Spanish and Portuguese terms defenestrar meaning "to throw through a window" and fenestrado meaning "replete with windows" also have the same root, but are later borrowings from Latin. Likewise, Portuguese also has the word cear, a cognate of Italian cenare and Spanish cenar, but uses it in the sense of "to have a late supper" in most varieties, while the preferred word for "to dine" is jantar (related to archaic Spanish yantar "to eat") because of semantic changes in the 19th century. Galician has both fiestra (from medieval fẽestra, the ancestor of standard Portuguese fresta) and the less frequently used ventá and xanela. As an alternative to lei (originally the genitive form), Italian has the pronoun ella, a cognate of the other words for "she", but it is hardly ever used in speaking. Spanish, Asturian, and Leonese ventana and Mirandese and Sardinian bentana come from Latin ventus "wind" (cf. English window, etymologically 'wind eye'), and Portuguese janela, Galician xanela, Mirandese jinela from Latin *ianuella "small opening", a derivative of ianua "door". Sardinian balcone (alternative for ventàna/bentàna) comes from Old Italian and is similar to other Romance languages such as French balcon (from Italian balcone), Portuguese balcão, Romanian balcon, Spanish balcón, Catalan balcó and Corsican balconi (alternative for purtellu). Classification and related languages[edit] Chart of Romance languages based on structural and comparative criteria, not on socio-functional ones. FP: Franco-Provençal, IR: Istro-Romanian. Eastern and Western Romance areas split by the La Spezia–Rimini Line Romance languages and dialects Main article: Classification of Romance languages The classification of the Romance languages is inherently difficult, because most of the linguistic area is a dialect continuum, and in some cases political biases can come into play. Along with Latin (which is not included among the Romance languages) and a few extinct languages of ancient Italy, they make up the Italic branch of the Indo-European family.[9] Latin Classical Latin Vulgar Latin Ecclesiastical Latin Continental Romance Sardinian language Italo-Western African Romance Eastern Romance Western Romance Proto-Italian Balkan Romance Dalmatian Ibero-Romance Gallo-Romance Italian Proto-Romanian Galician-Portuguese Spanish Occitano-Romance French Gallo-Italic Romanian Aromanian Galician Portuguese Catalan Occitan Proposed divisions[edit] Extent of variation in development (very conservative to very innovative) Form ("to sing") Latin Nuorese Sardinian Italian Spanish Portuguese Languedocien Occitan Classical Catalan 2 Milanese Lombard Romanian Bolognese Emilian French Infinitive cantāre cantare [kanˈtare̞] cantare [kanˈtare] cantar [kanˈtar] cantar [kɐ̃ˈtaɾ] [kɐ̃ˈtaχ] 1 cantar [kanˈta] cantar [kənˈta] [kanˈtaɾ] cantar [kanˈta] a cânta [a kɨnˈta] cantèr [kaŋˈtɛːr] chanter [ʃɑ̃ˈte] Past participle cantātum cantatu [kanˈtatu] cantato [kanˈtato] cantado [kanˈtaðo̞] cantado [kɐ̃ˈtadu] [kɐ̃ˈtadʊ] cantat [kanˈtat] cantat [kənˈtat] [kanˈtat] cantad [kanˈtaː] cântat [kɨnˈtat] cantè [kaŋˈtɛː] chanté [ʃɑ̃ˈte] Gerund cantandum cantande [kanˈtande̞] cantando [kanˈtando] cantando [kanˈtando̞] cantando [kɐ̃ˈtɐ̃du] [kɐ̃ˈtɐ̃dʊ] cantant [kanˈtan] cantant [kənˈtan] [kanˈtant] cantand [kanˈtant] cântând [kɨnˈtɨnd] cantànd [kaŋˈtaŋd] chantant [ʃɑ̃ˈtɑ̃] 1SG INDIC cantō canto [ˈkanto̞] canto [ˈkanto] canto [ˈkanto̞] canto [ˈkɐ̃tu] [ˈkɐ̃tʊ] cante [ˈkante] cant [ˈkan] [ˈkant] canti [ˈkanti] cânt [ˈkɨnt] a3 cant [a ˈkaŋt] chante [ˈʃɑ̃t] 2SG INDIC cantās cantas [ˈkantaza] canti [ˈkanti] cantas [ˈkantas] cantas [ˈkɐ̃tɐʃ] [ˈkɐ̃tɐs] cantas [ˈkantɔs] cantes [ˈkantəs] [ˈkantes] càntet [ˈkantɛt] cânți [ˈkɨntsʲ] t cant [t ˈkaŋt] chantes [ˈʃɑ̃t] 3SG INDIC cantat cantat [ˈkantata] canta [ˈkanta] canta [ˈkanta] canta [ˈkɐ̃tɐ] canta [ˈkantɔ] canta [ˈkantə] [ˈkanta] canta [ˈkantɔ] cântă [ˈkɨntə] al canta [al ˈkaŋtɐ] chante [ˈʃɑ̃t] 1PL INDIC cantāmus cantamus [kanˈtamuzu] cantiamo [kanˈtjamo] cantamos [kanˈtamo̞s] cantamos [kɐ̃ˈtɐmuʃ] [kɐ̃ˈtɐ̃mʊs] cantam [kanˈtam] cantam [kənˈtam] [kanˈtam] cantom [ˈkantum, kanˈtum] cântăm [kɨnˈtəm] a cantän [a kaŋˈtɛ̃] chantons [ʃɑ̃ˈtɔ̃] 2PL INDIC cantātis cantates [kanˈtate̞ze̞] cantate [kanˈtate] cantáis [kanˈtajs] cantais [kɐ̃ˈtajʃ] [kɐ̃ˈtajs] cantatz [kanˈtats] cantau [kənˈtaw] [kanˈtaw] cantev [kanˈteː(f)] cântați [kɨnˈtatsʲ] a cantè [a kaŋˈtɛ:] chantez [ʃɑ̃ˈte] 3PL INDIC cantant cantant [ˈkantana] cantano [ˈkantano] cantan [ˈkantan] cantam [ˈkɐ̃tɐ̃w̃] cantan [ˈkantan] canten [ˈkantən] [ˈkanten] canten/canta [ˈkantɛn, ˈkantɔ] cântă [ˈkɨntə] i cànten [i ˈkaŋtɐn] chantent [ˈʃɑ̃t] 1SG SBJV cantem cante [ˈkante̞] canti [ˈkanti] cante [ˈkante̞] cante [ˈkɐ̃tɨ] [ˈkɐ̃tᶴi] cante [ˈkante] cante [ˈkantə] [ˈkanta] canta [ˈkantɔ] cânt [ˈkɨnt] a canta [a ˈkaŋtɐ] chante [ˈʃɑ̃t] 2SG SBJV cantēs cantes [ˈkante̞ze̞] canti [ˈkanti] cantes [ˈkante̞s] cantes [ˈkɐ̃tɨʃ] [ˈkɐ̃tᶴis] cantes [ˈkantes] cantes [ˈkantəs] [ˈkantes] càntet [ˈkantɛt] cânți [ˈkɨntsʲ] t cant [t ˈkaŋt] chantes [ˈʃɑ̃t] 3SG SBJV cantet cantet [ˈkante̞te̞] canti [ˈkanti] cante [ˈkante̞] cante [ˈkɐ̃tɨ] [ˈkɐ̃tᶴi] cante [ˈkante] cante [ˈkantə] [ˈkante] canta [ˈkantɔ] cânte [ˈkɨnte̞] al canta [al ˈkaŋtɐ] chante [ˈʃɑ̃t] 1PL SBJV cantēmus cantemus [kanˈte̞muzu] cantiamo [kanˈtjamo] cantemos [kanˈte̞mo̞s] cantemos [kɐ̃ˈtemuʃ] [kɐ̃ˈtẽmʊs] cantem [kanˈtem] cantem [kənˈtɛm] [kanˈtem] cantom [ˈkantum, kanˈtum] cântăm [kɨnˈtəm] a cantaggna [a kɐnˈtaɲɲɐ] chantions [ʃɑ̃ˈtjɔ̃] 2PL SBJV cantētis cantetis [kanˈte̞tizi] cantiate [kanˈtjate] cantéis [kanˈte̞js] canteis [kɐ̃ˈtejʃ] [kɐ̃ˈtejs] cantetz [kanˈtets] canteu [kənˈtɛw] [kanˈtew] cantev [kanˈteː(f)] cântați [kɨnˈtatsʲ] a cantèdi [a kaŋˈtɛ:di] chantiez [ʃɑ̃ˈtje] 3PL SBJV cantent cantent [ˈkante̞ne̞] cantino [ˈkantino] canten [ˈkante̞n] cantem [ˈkɐ̃tẽj̃] canten [ˈkanten] canten [ˈkantən] [ˈkanten] canten/canta [ˈkantɛn, ˈkantɔ] cânte [ˈkɨnte̞] i cànten [i ˈkaŋtɐn] chantent [ˈʃɑ̃t] 2SG imperative cantā canta [ˈkanta] canta [ˈkanta] canta [ˈkanta] canta [ˈkɐ̃tɐ] canta [ˈkantɔ] canta [ˈkantə] [ˈkanta] canta [ˈkantɔ] cântă [ˈkɨntə] canta [ˈkaŋtɐ] chante [ˈʃɑ̃t] 2PL imperative cantāte cantate [kanˈtate̞] cantate [kanˈtate] cantad [kanˈtað] cantai [kɐ̃ˈtaj] cantatz [kanˈtats] cantau [kənˈtaw] [kanˈtaw] cantev [kanˈteːn(f)] cântați [kɨnˈtatsʲ] cantè [kaŋˈtɛ:] chantez [ʃɑ̃ˈte] 1 Also [ɾ̥ r̥ ɻ̝̊ x χ ħ] are all possible allophones of [ɾ] in this position, as well deletion of the consonant. 2 Its conjugation model is based according to the classical model dating to the Middle ages, rather than the modern conjugations used in Catalonia, the Valencian Community or the Balearic Islands, which may differ accordingly. 3Conjugated verbs in Bolognese require an unstressed subject pronoun cliticized to the verb. Full forms may be used in addition, thus 'you (pl.) eat' can be a magnè or vuèter a magnè, but bare *magnè is ungrammatical. Interrogatives require enclitics, which may not replicate proclitic forms: magnèv? 'are you (pl.) eating?/do you (pl.) eat?'. There are various schemes used to subdivide the Romance languages. Three of the most common schemes are as follows: Italo-Western vs. Eastern vs. Southern. This is the scheme followed by Ethnologue, and is based primarily on the outcome of the ten monophthong vowels in Classical Latin. This is discussed more below. West vs. East. This scheme divides the various languages along the La Spezia–Rimini Line, which runs across north-central Italy just to the north of the city of Florence (whose speech forms the basis of standard Italian). In this scheme, "East" includes the languages of central and southern Italy, and the Balkan Romance (or "Eastern Romance") languages in Romania, Greece, and elsewhere in the Balkans; "West" includes the languages of Portugal, Spain, France, northern Italy and Switzerland. Sardinian does not easily fit in this scheme. "Conservative" vs. "innovatory". This is a non-genetic division whose precise boundaries are subject to debate. Generally, the Gallo-Romance languages (discussed further below) form the core "innovatory" languages, with standard French generally considered the most innovatory of all, while the languages near the periphery (which include Spanish, Portuguese, Italian and Romanian) are "conservative". Sardinian is generally acknowledged the most conservative Romance language, and was also the first language to split off genetically from the rest, possibly as early as the first century BC. Dante famously denigrated the Sardinians for the conservativeness of their speech, remarking that they imitate Latin "like monkeys imitate men".[10][11] Italo-Western vs. Eastern vs. Sardinian[edit] The main subfamilies that have been proposed by Ethnologue within the various classification schemes for Romance languages are: Italo-Western, the largest group, which includes languages such as Catalan, Portuguese, Italian, Spanish, and French. Eastern Romance, which includes the Romance languages of Eastern Europe, such as Romanian. Southern Romance, which includes a few languages with particularly archaic features, such as Sardinian and, according to some authors, Corsican as well to a more limited extent. This family is thought to have included the now-vanished Romance languages of North Africa (or at least, they appear to have evolved some phonological features and their vowels in the same way). Now only represented by Sardinian and Lucanian. This three-way division is made primarily based on the outcome of Vulgar Latin (Proto-Romance) vowels: Outcome of Classical Latin vowels Classical Latin Proto-Romance Southern Italo-Western Eastern Taravo long I /i/ /i/ /i/ /i/ /i/ short I /ɪ/ /e/ /e/ /ɛ/ long E /e/ /e/ /e/ short E /ɛ/ /ɛ/ /ɛ/ short A /a/ /a/ /a/ /a/ /a/ long A short O /ɔ/ /o/ /ɔ/ /o/ /o/ long O /o/ /o/ short U /ʊ/ /u/ /u/ /ɔ/ long U /u/ /u/ /u/ Italo-Western is in turn split along the so-called La Spezia–Rimini Line in northern Italy, which divides the central and southern Italian languages from the so-called Western Romance languages to the north and west. The primary characteristics dividing the two are: Phonemic lenition of intervocalic stops, which happens to the northwest but not to the southeast. Degemination of geminate stops (producing new intervocalic single voiceless stops, after the old ones were lenited), which again happens to the northwest but not to the southeast. Deletion of intertonic vowels (between the stressed syllable and either the first or last syllable), again in the northwest but not the southeast. Use of plurals in /s/ in the northwest vs. plurals using vowel change in the southeast. Development of palatalized /k/ before /e,i/ to /(t)s/ in the northwest vs. /tʃ/ in the southeast. Development of /kt/, which develops to /xt/ > /it/ (sometimes progressing further to /tʃ/) in the northwest but /tt/ in the southeast. The reality is somewhat more complex. All of the "southeast" characteristics apply to all languages southeast of the line, and all of the "northwest" characteristics apply to all languages in France and (most of) Spain. However, the Gallo-Italic languages are somewhere in between. All of these languages do have the "northwest" characteristics of lenition and loss of gemination. However: The Gallo‒Italic languages have vowel-changing plurals rather than /s/ plurals. The Lombard language in north-central Italy and the Rhaeto-Romance languages have the "southeast" characteristic of /tʃ/ instead of /(t)s/ for palatalized /k/. The Venetian language in northeast Italy and some of the Rhaeto-Romance languages have the "southeast" characteristic of developing /kt/ to /tt/. Lenition of post-vocalic /p t k/ is widespread as an allophonic phonetic realization in Italy below the La Spezia-Rimini line, including Corsica and most of Sardinia. On top of this, the ancient Mozarabic language in southern Spain, at the far end of the "northwest" group, had the "southeast" characteristics of lack of lenition and palatalization of /k/ to /tʃ/. Certain languages around the Pyrenees (e.g. some highland Aragonese dialects) also lack lenition, and northern French dialects such as Norman and Picard have palatalization of /k/ to /tʃ/ (although this is possibly an independent, secondary development, since /k/ between vowels, i.e. when subject to lenition, developed to /dz/ rather than /dʒ/, as would be expected for a primary development). The usual solution to these issues is to create various nested subgroups. Western Romance is split into the Gallo-Iberian languages, in which lenition happens and which include nearly all the Western Romance languages, and the Pyrenean-Mozarabic group, which includes the remaining languages without lenition (and is unlikely to be a valid clade; probably at least two clades, one for Mozarabic and one for Pyrenean). Gallo-Iberian is split in turn into the Iberian languages (e.g. Spanish and Portuguese), and the larger Gallo-Romance languages (stretching from eastern Spain to northeast Italy). Probably a more accurate description, however, would be to say that there was a focal point of innovation located in central France, from which a series of innovations spread out as areal changes. The La Spezia–Rimini Line represents the farthest point to the southeast that these innovations reached, corresponding to the northern chain of the Apennine Mountains, which cuts straight across northern Italy and forms a major geographic barrier to further language spread. This would explain why some of the "northwest" features (almost all of which can be characterized as innovations) end at differing points in northern Italy, and why some of the languages in geographically remote parts of Spain (in the south, and high in the Pyrenees) are lacking some of these features. It also explains why the languages in France (especially standard French) seem to have innovated earlier and more extensively than other Western Romance languages. Many of the "southeast" features also apply to the Eastern Romance languages (particularly, Romanian), despite the geographic discontinuity. Examples are lack of lenition, maintenance of intertonic vowels, use of vowel-changing plurals, and palatalization of /k/ to /tʃ/. This has led some researchers to postulate a basic two-way East-West division[citation needed], with the "Eastern" languages including Romanian and central and southern Italian, although this view is troubled by the contrast of numerous Romanian phonological developments with those found in Italy below the La Spezia-Rimini line. Among these features, in Romanian geminates reduced historically to single units — which may be an independent development or perhaps due to Slavic influence[citation needed] — and /kt/ developed into /pt/, whereas in central and southern Italy geminates are preserved and /kt/ underwent assimilation to /tt/.[12] Despite being the first Romance language to evolve from Vulgar Latin,[dubious – discuss][13] Sardinian does not fit at all into this sort of division.[14] It is clear that Sardinian became linguistically independent from the remainder of the Romance languages at an extremely early date, possibly already by the first century BC.[citation needed] Sardinian contains a large number of archaic features, including total lack of palatalization of /k/ and /g/ and a large amount of vocabulary preserved nowhere else, including some items already archaic by the time of Classical Latin (first century BC). Sardinian has plurals in /s/ but post-vocalic lenition of voiceless consonants is normally limited to the status of an allophonic rule (e.g. [k]ane 'dog' but su [g]ane or su [ɣ]ane 'the dog'), and there are a few innovations unseen elsewhere, such as a change of /au/ to /a/. Use of su < ipsum as an article is a retained archaic feature that also exists in the Catalan of the Balearic Islands and that used to be more widespread in Occitano-Romance, and is known as article salat [ca] (literally the "salted article"), while Sardinian shares develarisation of earlier /kw/ and /gw/ with Romanian: Sard. abba, Rum. apă 'water'; Sard. limba, Rom. limbă 'language' (cf. Italian acqua, lingua). Gallo-Romance languages[edit] Main article: Gallo-Romance languages Gallo-Romance can be divided into the following subgroups: The Langues d'oïl, including French and closely related languages. The Franco-Provençal language (also known as Arpitan) of southeastern France, western Switzerland, and Aosta Valley region of northwestern Italy. The following groups are also sometimes considered part of Gallo-Romance: The Occitano-Romance languages of southern France namely, Occitan and Gascon. The Catalan language of eastern Iberia is also sometimes included in Gallo-romance. This is however disputed by some linguists who prefer to group it with Iberian Romance, since although Old Catalan is close to Old Occitan, it later adjusted its lexicon to some degree to align with Spanish. In general however, modern Catalan, especially grammatically, remains closer to modern Occitan than to either Spanish or Portuguese. The Gallo-Italian languages of northern Italy, including Piedmontese, Ligurian, Lombard, Emilian and Romagnol. Ligurian retains the final -o, being the exception in Gallo-Romance. The Rhaeto-Romance languages, including Romansh, and Friulian, and Ladin dialects. The Gallo-Romance languages are generally considered the most innovative (least conservative) among the Romance languages. Characteristic Gallo-Romance features generally developed earliest and appear in their most extreme manifestation in the Langue d'oïl, gradually spreading out along riverways and transalpine roads. In some ways, however, the Gallo-Romance languages are conservative. The older stages of many of the languages preserved a two-case system consisting of nominative and oblique, fully marked on nouns, adjectives and determiners, inherited almost directly from the Latin nominative and accusative and preserving a number of different declensional classes and irregular forms. The languages closest to the oïl epicenter preserve the case system the best, while languages at the periphery lose it early. Notable characteristics of the Gallo-Romance languages are: Early loss of unstressed final vowels other than /a/ — a defining characteristic of the group. Further reductions of final vowels in Langue d'oïl and many Gallo-Italic languages, with the feminine /a/ and prop vowel /e/ merging into /ə/, which is often subsequently dropped. Early, heavy reduction of unstressed vowels in the interior of a word (another defining characteristic). Loss of final vowels phonemicized the long vowels that used to be automatic concomitants of stressed open syllables. These phonemic long vowels are maintained directly in many Northern Italian dialects; elsewhere, phonemic length was lost, but in the meantime many of the long vowels diphthongized, resulting in a maintenance of the original distinction. The langue d'oïl branch is again at the forefront of innovation, with no less than five of the seven long vowels diphthongizing (only high vowels were spared). Front rounded vowels are present in all branches of Gallo-Romance. /u/ usually fronts to /y/, and secondary mid front rounded vowels often develop from long /oː/ or /ɔː/. Extreme lenition (i.e. multiple rounds of lenition) occurs in many languages especially in Langue d'oïl and many Gallo-Italian languages. The Langue d'oïl, Swiss Rhaeto-Romance languages and many of the northern dialects of Occitan have a secondary palatalization of /k/ and /ɡ/ before /a/, producing different results from the primary Romance palatalization: e.g. centum "hundred" > cent /sɑ̃/, cantum "song" > chant /ʃɑ̃/. Other than the Occitano-Romance languages, most Gallo-Romance languages are subject-obligatory (whereas all the rest of the Romance languages are pro-drop languages). This is a late development triggered by progressive phonetic erosion: Old French was still a null-subject language, and this only changed upon loss of secondarily final consonants in Middle French. Pidgins, creoles, and mixed languages[edit] Some Romance languages have developed varieties which seem dramatically restructured as to their grammars or to be mixtures with other languages. There are several dozens of creoles of French, Spanish, and Portuguese origin, some of them spoken as national languages in former European colonies. Creoles of French: Antillean (French Antilles, Saint Lucia, Dominica) Haitian (one of Haiti's two official languages) Louisiana (US) Mauritian (lingua franca of Mauritius) Réunion (native language of Réunion) Seychellois (Seychelles' official language) Creoles of Spanish: Chavacano (in part of Philippines) Palenquero (in part of Colombia) Creoles of Portuguese: Angolar (regional language in São Tomé and Principe) Cape Verdean (Cape Verde's national language; includes several distinct varieties) Forro (regional language in São Tomé and Príncipe) Kristang (Malaysia) Macanese (Macau) Papiamento (Dutch Antilles official language) Guinea-Bissau Creole (Guinea-Bissau's national language) Auxiliary and constructed languages[edit] Main articles: Constructed language and International auxiliary language Latin and the Romance languages have also served as the inspiration and basis of numerous auxiliary and constructed languages, so-called "Neo-Romance languages".[15][16] The concept was first developed in 1903 by Italian mathematician Giuseppe Peano, under the title Latino sine flexione.[17] He wanted to create a naturalistic international language, as opposed to an autonomous constructed language like Esperanto or Volapük which were designed for maximal simplicity of lexicon and derivation of words. Peano used Latin as the base of his language, because at the time of his flourishing it was the de facto international language of scientific communication. Other languages developed since include Idiom Neutral, Interlingua and Lingua Franca Nova. The most famous and successful of these is Interlingua. Each of these languages has attempted to varying degrees to achieve a pseudo-Latin vocabulary as common as possible to living Romance languages. Some languages have been constructed specifically for communication among speakers of Romance languages, the Pan-Romance languages. There are also languages created for artistic purposes only, such as Talossan. Because Latin is a very well attested ancient language, some amateur linguists have even constructed Romance languages that mirror real languages that developed from other ancestral languages. These include Brithenig (which mirrors Welsh), Breathanach[18] (mirrors Irish), Wenedyk (mirrors Polish), Þrjótrunn (mirrors Icelandic),[19] and Helvetian (mirrors German).[20] Modern status[edit] Main articles: Romance-speaking Europe, Latin America, Latin Union, Romance-speaking Africa, and Romance-speaking world European extent of Romance languages in the 20th century Number of native speakers of each Romance language, as fractions of the total 690 million (2007) The Romance language most widely spoken natively today is Spanish, followed by Portuguese, French, Italian and Romanian, which together cover a vast territory in Europe and beyond, and work as official and national languages in dozens of countries. Romance languages in the World French, Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, and Romanian are also official languages of the European Union. Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian, Romanian, and Catalan were the official languages of the defunct Latin Union; and French and Spanish are two of the six official languages of the United Nations. Outside Europe, French, Portuguese and Spanish are spoken and enjoy official status in various countries that emerged from the respective colonial empires. Spanish is an official language in Spain and in nine countries of South America, home to about half that continent's population; in six countries of Central America (all except Belize); and in Mexico. In the Caribbean, it is official in Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico. In all these countries, Latin American Spanish is the vernacular language of the majority of the population, giving Spanish the most native speakers of any Romance language. In Africa it is an official language of Equatorial Guinea. Portuguese, in its original homeland, Portugal, is spoken by virtually the entire population of 10 million. As the official language of Brazil, it is spoken by more than 200 million people in that country, as well as by neighboring residents of eastern Paraguay and northern Uruguay, accounting for a little more than half the population of South America, thus making Portuguese the most spoken official Romance language in a single country. It is the official language of six African countries (Angola, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Equatorial Guinea, and São Tomé and Príncipe), and is spoken as a first language by perhaps 30 million residents of that continent.[21] In Asia, Portuguese is co-official with other languages in East Timor and Macau, while most Portuguese-speakers in Asia—some 400,000[22]—are in Japan due to return immigration of Japanese Brazilians. In North America 1,000,000 people speak Portuguese as their home language.[23] In Oceania, Portuguese is the second most spoken Romance language, after French, due mainly to the number of speakers in East Timor. Its closest relative, Galician, has official status in the autonomous community of Galicia in Spain, together with Spanish. Outside Europe, French is spoken natively most in the Canadian province of Quebec, and in parts of New Brunswick and Ontario. Canada is officially bilingual, with French and English being the official languages. In parts of the Caribbean, such as Haiti, French has official status, but most people speak creoles such as Haitian Creole as their native language. French also has official status in much of Africa, but relatively few native speakers. In France's overseas possessions, native use of French is increasing. Although Italy also had some colonial possessions before World War II, its language did not remain official after the end of the colonial domination. As a result, Italian outside of Italy and Switzerland is now spoken only as a minority language by immigrant communities in North and South America and Australia. In some former Italian colonies in Africa—namely Libya, Eritrea and Somalia—it is spoken by a few educated people in commerce and government. Romania did not establish a colonial empire, but beyond its native territory in southeastern Europe, the Romanian language is spoken as a minority language by autochthonous populations in Serbia, Bulgaria, and Hungary, and in some parts of the former Greater Romania (before 1945), as well as in Ukraine (Bukovina, Budjak) and in some villages between the Dniester and Bug rivers.[24] The Aromanian language is spoken today by Aromanians in Bulgaria, Macedonia, Albania, Kosovo, and Greece.[25] Romanian also spread to other countries on the Mediterranean (especially the other Romance-speaking countries, most notably Italy and Spain), and elsewhere such as Israel, where it is the native language of five percent of the population,[26] and is spoken by many more as a secondary language. This is due to the large number of Romanian-born Jews who moved to Israel after World War II.[27] And finally, some 2.6 million people in the former Soviet republic of Moldova speak a variety of Romanian, called variously Moldovan or Romanian by them. The total native speakers of Romance languages are divided as follows (with their ranking within the languages of the world in brackets):[28][29] Spanish (Hispanosphere) 49% (2nd) Portuguese (Lusosphere) 26% (6th) French (Francophonie) 8.6% (18th) Italian 7.7% (23rd) Romanian 3.0% (49th) Catalan 0.9% (not in the top 100) Others 3.6% Catalan is the official language of Andorra. In Spain, it is co-official with Spanish in Catalonia, the Valencian Community, and the Balearic Islands, and it is recognized, but not official, in La Franja, and in Aragon. In addition, it is spoken by many residents of Alghero, on the island of Sardinia, and it is co-official in that city. Galician, with more than a million native speakers, is official together with Spanish in Galicia, and has legal recognition in neighbouring territories in Castilla y León. A few other languages have official recognition on a regional or otherwise limited level; for instance, Asturian and Aragonese in Spain; Mirandese in Portugal; Friulan, Sardinian and Franco-Provençal in Italy; and Romansh in Switzerland. The remaining Romance languages survive mostly as spoken languages for informal contact. National governments have historically viewed linguistic diversity as an economic, administrative or military liability, as well as a potential source of separatist movements; therefore, they have generally fought to eliminate it, by extensively promoting the use of the official language, restricting the use of the other languages in the media, recognizing them as mere "dialects", or even persecuting them. As a result, all of these languages are considered endangered to varying degrees according to the UNESCO Red Book of Endangered Languages, ranging from "vulnerable" (e.g. Sicilian and Venetian) to "severely endangered" (Arpitan, most of the Occitan varieties). Since the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, increased sensitivity to the rights of minorities has allowed some of these languages to start recovering their prestige and lost rights. Yet it is unclear whether these political changes will be enough to reverse the decline of minority Romance languages. History[edit] Romance languages are the continuation of Vulgar Latin, the popular and colloquial sociolect of Latin spoken by soldiers, settlers, and merchants of the Roman Empire, as distinguished from the classical form of the language spoken by the Roman upper classes, the form in which the language was generally written.[13] Between 350 BC and 150 AD, the expansion of the Empire, together with its administrative and educational policies, made Latin the dominant native language in continental Western Europe. Latin also exerted a strong influence in southeastern Britain, the Roman province of Africa, western Germany, Pannonia and the whole Balkans. During the Empire's decline, and after its fragmentation and the collapse of Western half in the fifth and sixth centuries, the spoken varieties of Latin became more isolated from each other, with the western dialects coming under heavy Germanic influence (the Goths and Franks in particular) and the eastern dialects coming under Slavic influence.[30][31] The dialects diverged from classical Latin at an accelerated rate and eventually evolved into a continuum of recognizably different typologies. The colonial empires established by Portugal, Spain, and France from the fifteenth century onward spread their languages to the other continents to such an extent that about two-thirds of all Romance language speakers today live outside Europe. Despite other influences (e.g. substratum from pre-Roman languages, especially Continental Celtic languages; and superstratum from later Germanic or Slavic invasions), the phonology, morphology, and lexicon of all Romance languages consist mainly of evolved forms of Vulgar Latin. However, some notable differences occur between today's Romance languages and their Roman ancestor. With only one or two exceptions, Romance languages have lost the declension system of Latin and, as a result, have SVO sentence structure and make extensive use of prepositions. Vulgar Latin[edit] Main article: Vulgar Latin Length of the Roman rule and the Romance Languages[32] Romance languages in Europe Documentary evidence is limited about Vulgar Latin for the purposes of comprehensive research, and the literature is often hard to interpret or generalize. Many of its speakers were soldiers, slaves, displaced peoples, and forced resettlers, more likely to be natives of conquered lands than natives of Rome. In Western Europe, Latin gradually replaced Celtic and other Italic languages, which were related to it by a shared Indo-European origin. Commonalities in syntax and vocabulary facilitated the adoption of Latin.[33][34][35] Vulgar Latin is believed to have already had most of the features shared by all Romance languages, which distinguish them from Classical Latin, such as the almost complete loss of the Latin grammatical case system and its replacement by prepositions; the loss of the neuter grammatical gender and comparative inflections; replacement of some verb paradigms by innovations (e.g. the synthetic future gave way to an originally analytic strategy now typically formed by infinitive + evolved present indicative forms of 'have'); the use of articles; and the initial stages of the palatalization of the plosives /k/, /g/, and /t/. To some scholars, this suggests the form of Vulgar Latin that evolved into the Romance languages was around during the time of the Roman Empire (from the end of the first century BC), and was spoken alongside the written Classical Latin which was reserved for official and formal occasions. Other scholars argue that the distinctions are more rightly viewed as indicative of sociolinguistic and register differences normally found within any language. Both were mutually intelligible as one and the same language, which was true until very approximately the second half of the 7th century. However, within two hundred years Latin became a dead language since "the Romanized people of Europe could no longer understand texts that were read aloud or recited to them,"[36] i.e. Latin had ceased to be a first language and became a foreign language that had to be learned, if the label Latin is constrained to refer to a state of the language frozen in past time and restricted to linguistic features for the most part typical of higher registers. With the rise of the Roman Empire, Vulgar Latin spread first throughout Italy and then through southern, western, central, and southeast Europe, and northern Africa along parts of western Asia.[37]:1 Fall of the Western Roman Empire[edit] During the political decline of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century, there were large-scale migrations into the empire, and the Latin-speaking world was fragmented into several independent states. Central Europe and the Balkans were occupied by Germanic and Slavic tribes, as well as by Huns. These incursions isolated the Vlachs from the rest of Romance-speaking Europe. British and African Romance—the forms of Vulgar Latin used in Britain and the Roman province of Africa, where it had been spoken by much of the urban population—disappeared in the Middle Ages (as did Pannonian Romance in what is now Hungary, and Moselle Romance in Germany). But the Germanic tribes that had penetrated Roman Italy, Gaul, and Hispania eventually adopted Latin/Romance and the remnants of the culture of ancient Rome alongside existing inhabitants of those regions, and so Latin remained the dominant language there. In part due to regional dialects of the Latin language and local environments, several languages evolved from it.[37]:4 Fall of the Eastern Roman empire[edit] Meanwhile, large-scale migrations into the Eastern Roman Empire started with the Goths and continued with Huns, Avars, Bulgars, Slavs, Pechenegs, Hungarians and Cumans. The invasions of Slavs were the most thoroughgoing, and they partially reduced the Romanic element in the Balkans.[38] The invasion of the Turks and conquest of Constantinople in 1453 marked the end of the empire. The Slavs named the Romance-speaking population Vlachs, while the latter called themselves "Rumân" or "Român", from the Latin "Romanus"[39] The Daco-Roman dialect became fully distinct from the three dialects spoken South of the Danube—Macedo-Romanian, Istro-Romanian, and Megleno-Romanian—during the ninth and tenth centuries, when the Romanians (sometimes called Vlachs or Wallachians) emerged as a people.[40] Early Romance[edit] Over the course of the fourth to eighth centuries, local changes in phonology, morphology, syntax and lexicon accumulated to the point that the speech of any locale was noticeably different from another. In principle, differences between any two lects increased the more they were separated geographically, reducing easy mutual intelligibility between speakers of distant communities.[41] Clear evidence of some levels of change is found in the Reichenau Glosses, an eighth-century compilation of about 1,200 words from the fourth-century Vulgate of Jerome that had changed in phonological form or were no longer normally used, along with their eighth-century equivalents in proto-Franco-Provençal. The following are some examples with reflexes in several modern Romance languages for comparison: English Classical / 4th cent. (Vulgate) 8th cent. (Reichenau) Franco-Provençal French Romansh Italian Spanish Portuguese Romanian Catalan Sardinian Occitan Ladin Neapolitan once semel una vice una fês une fois (ina giada) (una volta) una vez uma vez (o dată) una vegada (un cop, una volta) (una borta) una fes (un còp) n iede na vota children/ infants liberi / infantes infantes enfants enfants unfants (bambini) / infanti (niños) / infantes infantes (crianças) (copii) (nens, etc.) / infants (pipius) / (pitzinnos) enfants mutons criature to blow flare / sofflare suflare soflar souffler suflar soffiare soplar soprar (a) sufla (bufar) sulai / sulare bufar suflé sciuscià to sing canere cantare çhantar chanter chantar cantare cantar cantar (a) cânta cantar cantai / cantare cantar cianté cantà the best (plur.) optimi / meliores meliores los mèljörs les meilleurs ils megliers i migliori los mejores os melhores (optimi, cei mai buni) els millors is mellus / sos menzus Los/lei melhors i miëures 'e meglie beautiful pulchra / bella bella bèla belle bella bella (hermosa, bonita, linda) / bella bela / (formosa, bonita, linda) frumoasă (bonica, polida) / bella bella bèla bela bella in the mouth in ore in bucca en la boçhe dans la bouche in la bucca nella bocca en la boca na boca[42] (a îmbuca)[43] a la boca in sa buca dins la boca te la bocia 'n bocca /'mmok.kə winter hiems hibernus hìvern hiver inviern inverno invierno inverno iarnă hivern ierru / iberru ivèrn inviern vierno In all of the above examples, the words appearing in the fourth century Vulgate are the same words as would have been used in Classical Latin of c. 50 BC. It is likely that some of these words had already disappeared from casual speech by the time of the Glosses; but if so, they may well have been still widely understood, as there is no recorded evidence that the common people of the time had difficulty understanding the language. By the 8th century, the situation was very different. During the late 8th century, Charlemagne, holding that "Latin of his age was by classical standards intolerably corrupt",[41]:6 successfully imposed Classical Latin as an artificial written vernacular for Western Europe. Unfortunately, this meant that parishioners could no longer understand the sermons of their priests, forcing the Council of Tours in 813 to issue an edict that priests needed to translate their speeches into the rustica romana lingua, an explicit acknowledgement of the reality of the Romance languages as separate languages from Latin.[41]:6 By this time, and possibly as early as the 6th century according to Price (1984),[41]:6 the Romance lects had split apart enough to be able to speak of separate Gallo-Romance, Ibero-Romance, Italo-Romance and Eastern Romance languages. Some researchers[who?] have postulated that the major divergences in the spoken dialects began or accelerated considerably in the 5th century, as the formerly widespread and efficient communication networks of the Western Roman Empire rapidly broke down, leading to the total disappearance of the Western Roman Empire by the end of the century. The critical period between the 5th–10th centuries AD is poorly documented because little or no writing from the chaotic "Dark Ages" of the 5th–8th centuries has survived, and writing after that time was in consciously classicized Medieval Latin, with vernacular writing only beginning in earnest in the 11th or 12th centuries. An exception such as the Oaths of Strasbourg is evidence that by the ninth century effective communication with a non-learnèd audience was carried out in evolved Romance. A language that was closely related to medieval Romanian was spoken during the Dark Ages by Vlachs in the Balkans, Herzegovina, Dalmatia (Morlachs), Ukraine (Hutsuls), Poland (Gorals), Slovakia, and Czech Moravia, but gradually these communities lost their maternal language.[44] Recognition of the vernaculars[edit] Romance - Germanic language border:[45] • Early Middle Ages   • Early Twentieth Century   Between the 10th and 13th centuries, some local vernaculars developed a written form and began to supplant Latin in many of its roles. In some countries, such as Portugal, this transition was expedited by force of law; whereas in others, such as Italy, many prominent poets and writers used the vernacular of their own accord – some of the most famous in Italy being Giacomo da Lentini and Dante Alighieri. Well before that, the vernacular was also used for practical purposes, such as the testimonies in the Placiti Cassinesi, written 960-963. Uniformization and standardization[edit] The invention of the printing press brought a tendency towards greater uniformity of standard languages within political boundaries, at the expense of other Romance languages and dialects less favored politically. In France, for instance, the dialect spoken in the region of Paris gradually spread to the entire country, and the Occitan of the south lost ground. Sound changes[edit] See also: Vulgar Latin This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Consonants[edit] Significant sound changes affected the consonants of the Romance languages. Apocope[edit] There was a tendency to eliminate final consonants in Vulgar Latin, either by dropping them (apocope) or adding a vowel after them (epenthesis). Many final consonants were rare, occurring only in certain prepositions (e.g. ad "towards", apud "at, near (a person)"), conjunctions (sed "but"), demonstratives (e.g. illud "that (over there)", hoc "this"), and nominative singular noun forms, especially of neuter nouns (e.g. lac "milk", mel "honey", cor "heart"). Many of these prepositions and conjunctions were replaced by others, while the nouns were regularized into forms based on their oblique stems that avoided the final consonants (e.g. *lacte, *mele, *core). Final -m was dropped in Vulgar Latin. Even in Classical Latin, final -am, -em, -um (inflectional suffixes of the accusative case) were often elided in poetic meter, suggesting the m was weakly pronounced, probably marking the nasalisation of the vowel before it. This nasal vowel lost its nasalization in the Romance languages except in monosyllables, where it became /n/ e.g. Spanish quien < quem "whom", French rien "anything" < rem "thing"; note especially French and Catalan mon < meum "my (m.sg.)" pronounced as one syllable (/meu̯m/ > */meu̯n/, /mun/) but Spanish mío and Portuguese and Catalan meu < meum pronounced as two (/ˈme.um/ > */ˈme.o/). As a result, only the following final consonants occurred in Vulgar Latin: Final -t in third-person singular verb forms, and -nt (later reduced in many languages to -n) in third-person plural verb forms. Final -s (including -x) in a large number of morphological endings (verb endings -ās/-ēs/-īs/-is, -mus, -tis; nominative singular -us/-is; plural -ās/-ōs/-ēs) and certain other words (trēs "three", sex "six", crās "tomorrow", etc.). Final -n in some monosyllables (from earlier -m). Final -r, -d in some prepositions (e.g. ad, per), which were clitics that attached phonologically to the following word. Very occasionally, final -c, e.g. Occitan oc "yes" < hoc, Old French avuec "with" < apud hoc (although these instances were possibly protected by a final epenthetic vowel at one point). Final -t was eventually dropped in many languages, although this often occurred several centuries after the Vulgar Latin period. For example, the reflex of -t was dropped in Old French and Old Spanish only around 1100. In Old French, this occurred only when a vowel still preceded the t (generally /ə/ < Latin a). Hence amat "he loves" > Old French aime but venit "he comes" > Old French vient: the /t/ was never dropped and survives into Modern French in liaison, e.g. vient-il? "is he coming?" /vjɛ̃ti(l)/ (the corresponding /t/ in aime-t-il? is analogical, not inherited). Old French also kept the third-person plural ending -nt intact. In Italo-Romance and the Eastern Romance languages, eventually all final consonants were either dropped or protected by an epenthetic vowel, except in clitic forms (e.g. prepositions con, per). Modern Standard Italian still has almost no consonant-final words, although Romanian has resurfaced them through later loss of final /u/ and /i/. For example, amās "you love" > ame > Italian ami; amant "they love" > *aman > Ital. amano. On the evidence of "sloppily written" Lombardic language documents, however, the loss of final /s/ in Italy did not occur until the 7th or 8th century, after the Vulgar Latin period, and the presence of many former final consonants is betrayed by the syntactic gemination (raddoppiamento sintattico) that they trigger. It is also thought that after a long vowel /s/ became /j/ rather than simply disappearing: nōs > noi "we", se(d)ēs > sei "you are", crās > crai "tomorrow" (southern Italian). In unstressed syllables, the resulting diphthongs were simplified: canēs > /ˈkanej/ > cani "dogs"; amīcās > /aˈmikaj/ > amiche /aˈmike/ "(female) friends", where nominative amīcae should produce **amice rather than amiche (note masculine amīcī > amici not **amichi). Central Western Romance languages eventually regained a large number of final consonants through the general loss of final /e/ and /o/, e.g. Catalan llet "milk" < lactem, foc "fire" < focum, peix "fish" < piscem. In French, most of these secondary final consonants (as well as primary ones) were lost before around 1700, but tertiary final consonants later arose through the loss of /ə/ < -a. Hence masculine frīgidum "cold" > Old French freit /frwεt/ > froid /fʁwa/, feminine frigidam > Old French freide /frwεdə/ > froide /fʁwad/. Palatalization[edit] For a table of examples of palatalized n and l in the Romance languages, see Palatalization (sound change) § Mouillé. Palatalization was one of the most important processes affecting consonants in Vulgar Latin. This eventually resulted in a whole series of "palatal" and postalveolar consonants in most Romance languages, e.g. Italian /ʃ/, /tʃ/, /dʒ/, /ts/, /dz/, /ɲ/, /ʎ/. The following historical stages occurred: Stage Environment Consonants affected Result Languages affected 1 before /j/ (from e, i in hiatus) /t/, /d/ /tsʲ/, /jj~dzʲ~ddʒʲ/ all 2 all remaining, except labial consonants /ttʃʲ~ttsʲ/ < /kj/, /jj~ddʒʲ/ < /ɡj/, /ɲɲ/, /ʎʎ/, /Cʲ/ all except Sardinian 3 before /i/ /k/, /ɡ/ /tʃʲ~tsʲ/, /j~dʒʲ/ 4 before /e/ all except Sardinian and Dalmatian 5 before /a/, /au/ /tɕ~tʃʲ/, /dʑ~dʒʲ/ north-central Gallo-Romance (e.g. French, northern Occitan); Rhaeto-Romance Note how the environments become progressively less "palatal", and the languages affected become progressively fewer. The outcomes of palatalization depended on the historical stage, the consonants involved, and the languages involved. The primary division is between the Western Romance languages, with /ts/ resulting from palatalization of /k/, and the remaining languages (Italo-Dalmatian and Eastern Romance), with /tʃ/ resulting. It is often suggested that /tʃ/ was the original result in all languages, with /tʃ/ > /ts/ a later innovation in the Western Romance languages. Evidence of this is the fact that Italian has both /ttʃ/ and /tts/ as outcomes of palatalization in different environments, while Western Romance has only /(t)ts/. Even more suggestive is the fact that the Mozarabic language in al-Andalus (modern southern Spain) had /tʃ/ as the outcome despite being in the "Western Romance" area and geographically disconnected from the remaining /tʃ/ areas; this suggests that Mozarabic was an outlying "relic" area where the change /tʃ/ > /ts/ failed to reach. (Northern French dialects, such as Norman and Picard, also had /tʃ/, but this may be a secondary development, i.e. due to a later sound change /ts/ > /tʃ/.) Note that /ts, dz, dʒ/ eventually became /s, z, ʒ/ in most Western Romance languages. Thus Latin caelum (sky, heaven), pronounced [ˈkai̯lu(m)] with an initial [k], became Italian cielo [ˈtʃɛlo], Romanian cer [tʃer], Spanish cielo [ˈθjelo]/[ˈsjelo], French ciel [sjɛl], Catalan cel [ˈsɛɫ], and Portuguese céu [ˈsɛw]. The outcome of palatalized /d/ and /ɡ/ is less clear: Original /j/ has the same outcome as palatalized /ɡ/ everywhere. Romanian fairly consistently has /z/ < /dz/ from palatalized /d/, but /dʒ/ from palatalized /ɡ/. Italian inconsistently has /ddz~ddʒ/ from palatalized /d/, and /ddʒ/ from palatalized /ɡ/. Most other languages have the same results for palatalized /d/ and /ɡ/: consistent /dʒ/ initially, but either /j/ or /dʒ/ medially (depending on language and exact context). But Spanish has /j/ (phonetically [ɟ͡ʝ]) initially except before /o/, /u/; nearby Gascon is similar. This suggests that palatalized /d/ > /dʲ/ > either /j/ or /dz/ depending on location, while palatalized /ɡ/ > /j/; after this, /j/ > /(d)dʒ/ in most areas, but Spanish and Gascon (originating from isolated districts behind the western Pyrenees) were relic areas unaffected by this change. In French, the outcomes of /k, ɡ/ palatalized by /e, i, j/ and by /a, au/ were different: centum "hundred" > cent /sɑ̃/ but cantum "song" > chant /ʃɑ̃/. French also underwent palatalization of labials before /j/: Vulgar Latin /pj, bj~vj, mj/ > Old French /tʃ, dʒ, ndʒ/ (sēpia "cuttlefish" > seiche, rubeus "red" > rouge, sīmia "monkey" > singe). The original outcomes of palatalization must have continued to be phonetically palatalized even after they had developed into alveolar/postalveolar/etc. consonants. This is clear from French, where all originally palatalized consonants triggered the development of a following glide /j/ in certain circumstances (most visible in the endings -āre, -ātum/ātam). In some cases this /j/ came from a consonant palatalized by an adjoining consonant after the late loss of a separating vowel. For example, mansiōnātam > /masʲoˈnata/ > masʲˈnada/ > /masʲˈnʲæðə/ > early Old French maisnieḍe /maisˈniɛðə/ "household". Similarly, mediētātem > /mejeˈtate/ > /mejˈtade/ > /mejˈtæðe/ > early Old French meitieḍ /mejˈtʲɛθ/ > modern French moitié /mwaˈtje/ "half". In both cases, phonetic palatalization must have remained in primitive Old French at least through the time when unstressed intertonic vowels were lost (?c.8th century), well after the fragmentation of the Romance languages. The effect of palatalization is indicated in the writing systems of almost all Romance languages, where the letters have the "hard" pronunciation [k, ɡ] in most situations, but a "soft" pronunciation (e.g. French/Portuguese [s, ʒ], Italian/Romanian [tʃ, dʒ]) before ⟨e, i, y⟩. (This orthographic trait has passed into Modern English through Norman French-speaking scribes writing Middle English; this replaced the earlier system of Old English, which had developed its own hard-soft distinction with the soft ⟨c, g⟩ representing [tʃ, j~dʒ].) This has the effect of keeping the modern spelling similar to the original Latin spelling, but complicates the relationship between sound and letter. In particular, the hard sounds must be written differently before ⟨e, i, y⟩ (e.g. Italian ⟨ch, gh⟩, Portuguese ⟨qu, gu⟩), and likewise for the soft sounds when not before these letters (e.g. Italian ⟨ci, gi⟩, Portuguese ⟨ç, j⟩). Furthermore, in Spanish, Catalan, Occitan and Brazilian Portuguese, the use of digraphs containing ⟨u⟩ to signal the hard pronunciation before ⟨e, i, y⟩ means that a different spelling is also needed to signal the sounds /kw, ɡw/ before these vowels (Spanish ⟨cu, gü⟩, Catalan, Occitan and Brazilian Portuguese ⟨qü, gü⟩).[46] This produces a number of orthographic alternations in verbs whose pronunciation is entirely regular. The following are examples of corresponding first-person plural indicative and subjunctive in a number of regular Portuguese verbs: marcamos, marquemos "we mark"; caçamos, cacemos "we hunt"; chegamos, cheguemos "we arrive"; averiguamos, averigüemos "we verify"; adequamos, adeqüemos "we adapt"; oferecemos, ofereçamos "we offer"; dirigimos, dirijamos "we drive" erguemos, ergamos "we raise"; delinquimos, delincamos "we commit a crime". In the case of Italian, the convention of digraphs <ch> and <gh> to represent /k/ and /g/ before written <e, i> results in similar orthographic alternations, such as dimentico 'I forget', dimentichi 'you forget', baco 'worm', bachi 'worms' with [k] or pago 'I pay', paghi 'you pay' and lago 'lake', laghi 'lakes' with [g]. The use in Italian of <ci> and <gi> to represent /tʃ/ or /dʒ/ before vowels written <a,o,u> neatly distinguishes dico 'I say' with /k/ from dici 'you say' with /tʃ/ or ghiro 'dormouse' /g/ and giro 'turn, revolution' /dʒ/, but with orthographic <ci> and <gi> also representing the sequence of /tʃ/ or /dʒ/ and the actual vowel /i/ (/ditʃi/ dici, /dʒiro/ giro), and no generally observed convention of indicating stress position, the status of i when followed by another vowel in spelling can be unrecognizable. For example, the written forms offer no indication that <cia> in camicia 'shirt' represents a single unstressed syllable /tʃa/ with no /i/ at any level (/kaˈmitʃa/ → [kaˈmiːtʃa] ~ [kaˈmiːʃa]), but that underlying the same spelling <cia> in farmacia 'pharmacy' is a bisyllabic sequence consisting of the stressed syllable /tʃi/ and syllabic /a/ (/farmaˈtʃia/ → [farmaˈtʃiːa] ~ [farmaˈʃiːa]). Lenition[edit] Stop consonants shifted by lenition in Vulgar Latin in some areas. The voiced labial consonants /b/ and /w/ (represented by ⟨b⟩ and ⟨v⟩, respectively) both developed a fricative [β] as an intervocalic allophone.[47] This is clear from the orthography; in medieval times, the spelling of a consonantal ⟨v⟩ is often used for what had been a ⟨b⟩ in Classical Latin, or the two spellings were used interchangeably. In many Romance languages (Italian, French, Portuguese, Romanian, etc.), this fricative later developed into a /v/; but in others (Spanish, Galician, some Catalan and Occitan dialects, etc.) reflexes of /b/ and /w/ simply merged into a single phoneme. Several other consonants were "softened" in intervocalic position in Western Romance (Spanish, Portuguese, French, Northern Italian), but normally not phonemically in the rest of Italy (except some cases of "elegant" or Ecclesiastical words), nor apparently at all in Romanian. The dividing line between the two sets of dialects is called the La Spezia–Rimini Line and is one of the most important isoglosses of the Romance dialects. The changes (instances of diachronic lenition resulting in phonological restructuring) are as follows: Single voiceless plosives became voiced: -p-, -t-, -c- > -b-, -d-, -g-. Subsequently, in some languages they were further weakened, either becoming fricatives or approximants, [β̞], [ð̞], [ɣ˕] (as in Spanish) or disappearing entirely (as /t/ and /k/, but not /p/, in French). The following example shows progressive weakening of original /t/: e.g. vītam > Italian vita [ˈvita], Portuguese vida [ˈvidɐ] (European Portuguese [ˈviðɐ]), Spanish vida [ˈbiða] (Southern Peninsular Spanish [ˈbia]), and French vie [vi]. Some scholars once speculated that these sound changes may be due in part to the influence of Continental Celtic languages,[citation needed] but scholarship of the past few decades challenges that hypothesis. The voiced plosives /d/ and /ɡ/ tended to disappear. The plain sibilant -s- [s] was also voiced to [z] between vowels, although in many languages its spelling has not changed. (In Spanish, intervocalic [z] was later devoiced back to [s]; [z] is only found as an allophone of /s/ before voiced consonants in Modern Spanish.) The double plosives became single: -pp-, -tt-, -cc-, -bb-, -dd-, -gg- > -p-, -t-, -c-, -b-, -d-, -g- in most languages. In French spelling, double consonants are merely etymological, except for -ll- after -i (pronounced [ij]), in most cases. The double sibilant -ss- [sː] also became phonetically single [s], although in many languages its spelling has not changed. Consonant length is no longer phonemically distinctive in most Romance languages. However some languages of Italy (Italian, Sardinian, Sicilian, and numerous other varieties of central and southern Italy) do have long consonants like /ɡɡ/, /dd/, /bb/, /kk/, /tt/, /pp/, /ll/, /mm/, /nn/, /ss/, /rr/, etc., where the doubling indicates either actual length or, in the case of plosives and affricates, a short hold before the consonant is released, in many cases with distinctive lexical value: e.g. note /ˈnɔ.te/ (notes) vs. notte /ˈnɔt.te/ (night), cade /ˈka.de/ (s/he, it falls) vs. cadde /ˈkad.de/ (s/he, it fell), caro /ˈka.ro/ (dear, expensive) vs. carro /ˈkar.ro/ (cart). They may even occur at the beginning of words in Romanesco, Neapolitan, Sicilian and other southern varieties, and are occasionally indicated in writing, e.g. Sicilian cchiù (more), and ccà (here). In general, the consonants /b/, /ts/, and /dz/ are long at the start of a word, while the archiphoneme |R|[dubious – discuss] is realised as a trill /r/ in the same position. In much of central and southern Italy, the affricates /t͡ʃ/ and /d͡ʒ/ weaken synchronically to fricative [ʃ] and [ʒ] between vowels, while their geminate congeners do not, e.g. cacio /ˈka.t͡ʃo/ → [ˈkaːʃo] (cheese) vs. caccio /ˈkat.t͡ʃo/ → [ˈkat.t͡ʃo] (I chase). A few languages have regained secondary geminate consonants. The double consonants of Piedmontese exist only after stressed /ə/, written ë, and are not etymological: vëdde (Latin vidēre, to see), sëcca (Latin sicca, dry, feminine of sech). In standard Catalan and Occitan, there exists a geminate sound /lː/ written ŀl (Catalan) or ll (Occitan), but it is usually pronounced as a simple sound in colloquial (and even some formal) speech in both languages. Vowel prosthesis[edit] In Late Latin a prosthetic vowel /i/ (lowered to /e/ in most languages) was inserted at the beginning of any word that began with /s/ (referred to as s impura) and a voiceless consonant (#sC- > isC-): scrībere 'to write' > Sardinian iscribere, Spanish escribir, Portuguese escrever, Catalan escriure, Old French escri(v)re (mod. écrire); spatha "sword" > Sard ispada, Sp/Pg espada, Cat espasa, OFr espeḍe (modern épée); spiritus "spirit" > Sard ispìritu, Sp espíritu, Pg espírito, Cat esperit, French esprit; Stephanum "Stephen" > Sard Istèvene, Sp Esteban, Cat Esteve, Pg Estêvão, OFr Estievne (mod. Étienne); status "state" > Sard istadu, Sp/Pg estado, Cat estat, OFr estat (mod. état). Prosthetic /i/ ~ /e/ in Romance languages may have been influenced by Continental Celtic languages,[citation needed] although the phenomenon exists or existed in some areas where Celtic was never present (e.g. Sardinia, southern Italy). While Western Romance words undergo prothesis, cognates in Balkan Romance and southern Italo-Romance do not, e.g. Italian scrivere, spada, spirito, Stefano, and stato. In Italian, syllabification rules were preserved instead by vowel-final articles, thus feminine spada as la spada, but instead of rendering the masculine *il spaghetto, lo spaghetto came to be the norm. Though receding at present, Italian once had a prosthetic /i/ if a consonant preceded such clusters, so that 'in Switzerland' was in [i]Svizzera. Some speakers still use the prothetic [i] productively, and it is fossilized in a few set locutions such as in ispecie 'especially' or per iscritto 'in writing' (although in this case its survival may be due partly to the influence of the separate word iscritto < Latin īnscrīptus). The association of /i/ ~ /j/ and /s/ also led to the vocalization of word-final -s in Italian, Romanian, certain Occitan dialects, and the Spanish dialect of Chocó in Colombia.[48] Stressed vowels[edit] Loss of vowel length, reorientation[edit] Evolution of the stressed vowels in early Romance Classical Proto- Romance Western Romance Balkan Romance Sardinian Sicilian Acad.1 Roman IPA Acad.1 IPA IPA ī long i /iː/ /i/ [i(ː)] i /i/ /i/ /i/ ȳ long y /yː/ i (ĭ) short i /i/ [ɪ] /ɪ/ [ɪ(ː)] ẹ /e/ y (y̆) short y /y/ ē long e /eː/ /e/ [e(ː)] /e/ œ oe /oj/ > /eː/ e (ĕ) short e /e/ [ɛ] /ɛ/ [ɛ(ː)] ę /ɛ/ /ɛ/ æ ae /aj/ > [ɛː] ā long a /aː/ /a/ [a(ː)] a /a/ a (ă) short a /a/ o (ŏ) short o /o/ [ɔ] /ɔ/ [ɔ(ː)] ǫ /ɔ/ /o/ /ɔ/ ō long o /oː/ /o/ [o(ː)] ọ /o/ /u/ au (a few words) au /aw/ > /oː/ u (ŭ) short u /u/ [ʊ] /ʊ/ [ʊ(ː)] /u/ ū long u /uː/ /u/ [u(ː)] u /u/ au (most words) au /aw/ au /aw/ 1 Traditional academic transcription in Latin and Romance studies, respectively. One profound change that affected Vulgar Latin was the reorganisation of its vowel system. Classical Latin had five short vowels, ă, ĕ, ĭ, ŏ, ŭ, and five long vowels, ā, ē, ī, ō, ū, each of which was an individual phoneme (see the table in the right, for their likely pronunciation in IPA), and four diphthongs, ae, oe, au and eu (five according to some authors, including ui). There were also long and short versions of y, representing the rounded vowel /y(ː)/ in Greek borrowings, which however probably came to be pronounced /i(ː)/ even before Romance vowel changes started. There is evidence that in the imperial period all the short vowels except a differed by quality as well as by length from their long counterparts.[49] So, for example ē was pronounced close-mid /eː/ while ĕ was pronounced open-mid /ɛ/, and ī was pronounced close /iː/ while ĭ was pronounced near-close /ɪ/. During the Proto-Romance period, phonemic length distinctions were lost. Vowels came to be automatically pronounced long in stressed, open syllables (i.e. when followed by only one consonant), and pronounced short everywhere else. This situation is still maintained in modern Italian: cade [ˈkaːde] "he falls" vs. cadde [ˈkadde] "he fell". The Proto-Romance loss of phonemic length originally produced a system with nine different quality distinctions in monophthongs, where only original /ă ā/ had merged. Soon, however, many of these vowels coalesced: The simplest outcome was in Sardinian,[50] where the former long and short vowels in Latin simply coalesced, e.g. /ĕ ē/ > /e/, /ĭ ī/ > /i/: This produced a simple five-vowel system /a e i o u/. In most areas, however (technically, the Italo-Western languages), the near-close vowels /ɪ ʊ/ lowered and merged into the high-mid vowels /e o/. As a result, Latin pira "pear" and vēra "true", came to rhyme (e.g. Italian and Spanish pera, vera, and Old French poire, voire). Similarly, Latin nucem (from nux "nut") and vōcem (from vōx "voice") become Italian noce, voce, Portuguese noz, voz, and French noix, voix. This produced a seven-vowel system /a ɛ e i ɔ o u/, still maintained in conservative languages such as Italian and Portuguese, and lightly transformed in Spanish (where /ɛ/ > /je/, /ɔ/ > /we/). In the Eastern Romance languages (particularly, Romanian), the front vowels /ĕ ē ĭ ī/ evolved as in the majority of languages, but the back vowels /ŏ ō ŭ ū/ evolved as in Sardinian. This produced an unbalanced six-vowel system: /a ɛ e i o u/. In modern Romanian, this system has been significantly transformed, with /ɛ/ > /je/ and with new vowels /ə ɨ/ evolving, leading to a balanced seven-vowel system with central as well as front and back vowels: /a e i ə ɨ o u/. Sicilian is sometimes described as having its own distinct vowel system. In fact, Sicilian passed through the same developments as the main bulk of Italo-Western languages. Subsequently, however, high-mid vowels (but not low-mid vowels) were raised in all syllables, stressed and unstressed; i.e. /e o/ > /i u/. The result is a five-vowel /a ɛ i ɔ u/. The Proto-Romance allophonic vowel-length system was rephonemicized in the Gallo-Romance languages as a result of the loss of many final vowels. Some northern Italian languages (e.g. Friulan) still maintain this secondary phonemic length, but most languages dropped it by either diphthongizing or shortening the new long vowels. French phonemicized a third vowel length system around AD 1300 as a result of the sound change /VsC/ > /VhC/ > /VːC/ (where V is any vowel and C any consonant). This vowel length was eventually lost by around AD 1700, but the former long vowels are still marked with a circumflex. A fourth vowel length system, still non-phonemic, has now arisen: All nasal vowels as well as the oral vowels /ɑ o ø/ (which mostly derive from former long vowels) are pronounced long in all stressed closed syllables, and all vowels are pronounced long in syllables closed by the voiced fricatives /v z ʒ ʁ vʁ/. This system in turn has been phonemicized in some non-standard dialects (e.g. Haitian Creole), as a result of the loss of final /ʁ/. Latin diphthongs[edit] The Latin diphthongs ae and oe, pronounced /ai/ and /oi/ in earlier Latin, were early on monophthongized. ae became /ɛː/ by the 1st century a.d. at the latest. Although this sound was still distinct from all existing vowels, the neutralization of Latin vowel length eventually caused its merger with /ɛ/ < short e: e.g. caelum "sky" > French ciel, Spanish/Italian cielo, Portuguese céu /sɛw/, with the same vowel as in mele "honey" > French/Spanish miel, Italian miele, Portuguese mel /mɛl/. Some words show an early merger of ae with /eː/, as in praeda "booty" > *prēda /preːda/ > French proie (vs. expected **priée), Italian preda (not **prieda) "prey"; or faenum "hay" > *fēnum [feːnũ] > Spanish heno, French foin (but Italian fieno /fjɛno/). oe generally merged with /eː/: poenam "punishment" > Romance */pena/ > Spanish/Italian pena, French peine; foedus "ugly" > Romance */fedo/ > Spanish feo, Portuguese feio. There are relatively few such outcomes, since oe was rare in Classical Latin (most original instances had become Classical ū, as in Old Latin oinos "one" > Classical ūnus[51]) and so oe was mostly limited to Greek loanwords, which were typically learned (high-register) terms. au merged with ō /oː/ in the popular speech of Rome already by the 1st century b.c. A number of authors remarked on this explicitly, e.g. Cicero's taunt that the populist politician Publius Clodius Pulcher had changed his name from Claudius to ingratiate himself with the masses. This change never penetrated far from Rome, however, and the pronunciation /au/ was maintained for centuries in the vast majority of Latin-speaking areas, although it eventually developed into some variety of o in many languages. For example, Italian and French have /ɔ/ as the usual reflex, but this post-dates diphthongization of /ɔ/ and the French-specific palatalization /ka/ > /tʃa/ (hence causa > French chose, Italian cosa /kɔza/ not **cuosa). Spanish has /o/, but Portuguese spelling maintains ⟨ou⟩, which has developed to /o/ (and still remains as /ou/ in some dialects, and /oi/ in others). Occitan, Romanian, southern Italian languages, and many other minority Romance languages still have /au/. A few common words, however, show an early merger with ō /oː/, evidently reflecting a generalization of the popular Roman pronunciation: e.g. French queue, Italian coda /koda/, Occitan co(d)a, Romanian coadă (all meaning "tail") must all derive from cōda rather than Classical cauda (but notice Portuguese cauda).[52] Similarly, Spanish oreja, Portuguese orelha, French oreille, Romanian ureche, and Sardinian olícra, orícla "ear" must derive from ōric(u)la rather than Classical auris (Occitan aurelha was probably influenced by the unrelated ausir < audīre "to hear"), and the form oricla is in fact reflected in the Appendix Probi. Further developments[edit] Metaphony[edit] Main article: Metaphony (Romance languages) An early process that operated in all Romance languages to varying degrees was metaphony (vowel mutation), conceptually similar to the umlaut process so characteristic of the Germanic languages. Depending on the language, certain stressed vowels were raised (or sometimes diphthongized) either by a final /i/ or /u/ or by a directly following /j/. Metaphony is most extensive in the Italo-Romance languages, and applies to nearly all languages in Italy; however, it is absent from Tuscan, and hence from standard Italian. In many languages affected by metaphony, a distinction exists between final /u/ (from most cases of Latin -um) and final /o/ (from Latin -ō, -ud and some cases of -um, esp. masculine "mass" nouns), and only the former triggers metaphony. Some examples: In Servigliano in the Marche of Italy, stressed /ɛ e ɔ o/ are raised to /e i o u/ before final /i/ or /u/:[53] /ˈmetto/ "I put" vs. /ˈmitti/ "you put" (< *metti < *mettes < Latin mittis); /moˈdɛsta/ "modest (fem.)" vs. /moˈdestu/ "modest (masc.)"; /ˈkwesto/ "this (neut.)" (< Latin eccum istud) vs. /ˈkwistu/ "this (masc.)" (< Latin eccum istum). Calvallo in Basilicata, southern Italy, is similar, but the low-mid vowels /ɛ ɔ/ are diphthongized to /je wo/ rather than raised:[54] /ˈmette/ "he puts" vs. /ˈmitti/ "you put", but /ˈpɛnʒo/ "I think" vs. /ˈpjenʒi/ "you think". Metaphony also occurs in most northern Italian dialects, but only by (usually lost) final *i; apparently, final *u was lowered to *o (usually lost) before metaphony could take effect. Some of the Astur-Leonese languages in northern Spain have the same distinction between final /o/ and /u/[55] as in the Central-Southern Italian languages,[56] with /u/ triggering metaphony.[57] The plural of masculine nouns in these dialects ends in -os, which does not trigger metaphony, unlike in the singular (vs. Italian plural -i, which does trigger metaphony). Sardinian has allophonic raising of mid vowels /ɛ ɔ/ to [e o] before final /i/ or /u/. This has been phonemicized in the Campidanese dialect as a result of the raising of final /e o/ to /i u/. Raising of /ɔ/ to /o/ occurs sporadically in Portuguese in the masculine singular, e.g. porco /ˈporku/ "pig" vs. porcos /ˈpɔrkus/ "pig". It is thought that Galician-Portuguese at one point had singular /u/ vs. plural /os/, exactly as in modern Astur-Leonese.[56] In all of the Western Romance languages, final /i/ (primarily occurring in the first-person singular of the preterite) raised mid-high /e o/ to /i u/, e.g. Portuguese fiz "I did" (< *fidzi < *fedzi < Latin fēcī) vs. fez "he did" (< *fedze < Latin fēcit). Old Spanish similarly had fize "I did" vs. fezo "he did" (-o by analogy with amó "he loved"), but subsequently generalized stressed /i/, producing modern hice "I did" vs. hizo "he did". The same thing happened prehistorically in Old French, yielding fis "I did", fist "he did" (< *feist < Latin fēcit). Diphthongization[edit] A number of languages diphthongized some of the free vowels, especially the open-mid vowels /ɛ ɔ/: Spanish consistently diphthongized all open-mid vowels /ɛ ɔ/ > /je we/ except for before certain palatal consonants (which raised the vowels to close-mid before diphthongization took place). Romanian similarly diphthongized /ɛ/ to /je/ (the corresponding vowel /ɔ/ did not develop from Proto-Romance). Italian diphthongized /ɛ/ > /jɛ/ and /ɔ/ > /wɔ/ in open syllables (in the situations where vowels were lengthened in Proto-Romance), the most salient exception being /ˈbɛne/ bene 'well', perhaps due to the high frequency of apocopated ben (e.g. ben difficile 'quite difficult', ben fatto 'well made' etc.). French similarly diphthongized /ɛ ɔ/ in open syllables (when lengthened), along with /a e o/: /aː ɛː eː ɔː oː/ > /aɛ iɛ ei uɔ ou/ > middle OF /e je ɔi we eu/ > modern /e je wa œ ~ ø œ ~ ø/. French also diphthongized /ɛ ɔ/ before palatalized consonants, especially /j/. Further development was as follows: /ɛj/ > /iej/ > /i/; /ɔj/ > /uoj/ > early OF /uj/ > modern /ɥi/. Catalan diphthongized /ɛ ɔ/ before /j/ from palatalized consonants, just like French, with similar results: /ɛj/ > /i/, /ɔj/ > /uj/. These diphthongizations had the effect of reducing or eliminating the distinctions between open-mid and close-mid vowels in many languages. In Spanish and Romanian, all open-mid vowels were diphthongized, and the distinction disappeared entirely. Portuguese is the most conservative in this respect, keeping the seven-vowel system more or less unchanged (but with changes in particular circumstances, e.g. due to metaphony). Other than before palatalized consonants, Catalan keeps /ɔ o/ intact, but /ɛ e/ split in a complex fashion into /ɛ e ə/ and then coalesced again in the standard dialect (Eastern Catalan) in such a way that most original /ɛ e/ have reversed their quality to become /e ɛ/. In French and Italian, the distinction between open-mid and close-mid vowels occurred only in closed syllables. Standard Italian more or less maintains this. In French, /e/ and /ɛ/ merged by the twelfth century or so, and the distinction between /ɔ/ and /o/ was eliminated without merging by the sound changes /u/ > /y/, /o/ > /u/. Generally this led to a situation where both [e,o] and [ɛ,ɔ] occur allophonically, with the close-mid vowels in open syllables and the open-mid vowels in closed syllables. This is still the situation in modern Spanish, for example.[citation needed] In French, however, both [e/ɛ] and [o/ɔ] were partly rephonemicized: Both /e/ and /ɛ/ occur in open syllables as a result of /aj/ > /ɛ/, and both /o/ and /ɔ/ occur in closed syllables as a result of /al/ > /au/ > /o/. Old French also had numerous falling diphthongs resulting from diphthongization before palatal consonants or from a fronted /j/ originally following palatal consonants in Proto-Romance or later: e.g. pācem /patsʲe/ "peace" > PWR */padzʲe/ (lenition) > OF paiz /pajts/; *punctum "point" > Gallo-Romance */ponʲto/ > */pojɲto/ (fronting) > OF point /põjnt/. During the Old French period, preconsonantal /l/ [ɫ] vocalized to /w/, producing many new falling diphthongs: e.g. dulcem "sweet" > PWR */doltsʲe/ > OF dolz /duɫts/ > douz /duts/; fallet "fails, is deficient" > OF falt > faut "is needed"; bellus "beautiful" > OF bels [bɛɫs] > beaus [bɛaws]. By the end of the Middle French period, all falling diphthongs either monophthongized or switched to rising diphthongs: proto-OF /aj ɛj jɛj ej jej wɔj oj uj al ɛl el il ɔl ol ul/ > early OF /aj ɛj i ej yj oj yj aw ɛaw ew i ɔw ow y/ > modern spelling ⟨ai ei i oi ui oi ui au eau eu i ou ou u⟩ > mod. French /ɛ ɛ i wa ɥi wa ɥi o o ø i u u y/. Nasalization[edit] In both French and Portuguese, nasal vowels eventually developed from sequences of a vowel followed by a nasal consonant (/m/ or /n/). Originally, all vowels in both languages were nasalized before any nasal consonants, and nasal consonants not immediately followed by a vowel were eventually dropped. In French, nasal vowels before remaining nasal consonants were subsequently denasalized, but not before causing the vowels to lower somewhat, e.g. dōnat "he gives" > OF dune /dunə/ > donne /dɔn/, fēminam > femme /fam/. Other vowels remained diphthongized, and were dramatically lowered: fīnem "end" > fin /fɛ̃/ (often pronounced [fæ̃]); linguam "tongue" > langue /lɑ̃ɡ/; ūnum "one" > un /œ̃/, /ɛ̃/. In Portuguese, /n/ between vowels was dropped, and the resulting hiatus eliminated through vowel contraction of various sorts, often producing diphthongs: manum, *manōs > PWR *manu, ˈmanos "hand(s)" > mão, mãos /mɐ̃w̃, mɐ̃w̃s/; canem, canēs "dog(s)" > PWR *kane, ˈkanes > *can, ˈcanes > cão, cães /kɐ̃w̃, kɐ̃j̃s/; ratiōnem, ratiōnēs "reason(s)" > PWR *raˈdʲzʲone, raˈdʲzʲones > *raˈdzon, raˈdzones > razão, razões /χaˈzɐ̃w̃, χaˈzõj̃s/ (Brazil), /ʁaˈzɐ̃ũ, ʁɐˈzõj̃ʃ/ (Portugal). Sometimes the nasalization was eliminated: lūna "moon" > Galician-Portuguese lũa > lua; vēna "vein" > Galician-Portuguese vẽa > veia. Nasal vowels that remained actually tend to be raised (rather than lowered, as in French): fīnem "end" > fim /fĩ/; centum "hundred" > PWR tʲsʲɛnto > cento /ˈsẽtu/; pontem "bridge" > PWR pɔnte > ponte /ˈpõtʃi/ (Brazil), /ˈpõtɨ/ (Portugal). Front-rounded vowels[edit] Characteristic of the Gallo-Romance languages and Rhaeto-Romance languages are the front rounded vowels /y ø œ/. All of these languages show an unconditional change /u/ > /y/, e.g. lūnam > French lune /lyn/, Occitan /ˈlyno/. Many of the languages in Switzerland and Italy show the further change /y/ > /i/. Also very common is some variation of the French development /ɔː oː/ (lengthened in open syllables) > /we ew/ > /œ œ/, with mid back vowels diphthongizing in some circumstances and then re-monophthongizing into mid-front rounded vowels. (French has both /ø/ and /œ/, with /ø/ developing from /œ/ in certain circumstances.) Unstressed vowels[edit] Evolution of unstressed vowels in early Italo-Western Romance Latin Proto- Romance Stressed Non-final unstressed Final-unstressed Original Later Italo- Romance Later Western- Romance Gallo- Romance Primitive French IPA Acad.1 IPA a,ā /a/ a /a/ /a/ /ə/ e,ae /ɛ/ ę /ɛ/ /e/ /e/ /e/ ∅; /e/ (prop) ∅; /ə/ (prop) ē,oe /e/ ẹ /e/ i,y /ɪ/ ī,ȳ /i/ i /i/ /i/ o /ɔ/ ǫ /ɔ/ /o/ /o/ /o/ ō,(au) /o/ ọ /o/ u /ʊ/ /u/ ū /u/ u /u/ au (most words) /aw/ au /aw/ N/A 1 Traditional academic transcription in Romance studies. There was more variability in the result of the unstressed vowels. Originally in Proto-Romance, the same nine vowels developed in unstressed as stressed syllables, and in Sardinian, they coalesced into the same five vowels in the same way. In Italo-Western Romance, however, vowels in unstressed syllables were significantly different from stressed vowels, with yet a third outcome for final unstressed syllables. In non-final unstressed syllables, the seven-vowel system of stressed syllables developed, but then the low-mid vowels /ɛ ɔ/ merged into the high-mid vowels /e o/. This system is still preserved, largely or completely, in all of the conservative Romance languages (e.g. Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan). In final unstressed syllables, results were somewhat complex. One of the more difficult issues is the development of final short -u, which appears to have been raised to /u/ rather than lowered to /o/, as happened in all other syllables. However, it is possible that in reality, final /u/ comes from long *-ū < -um, where original final -m caused vowel lengthening as well as nasalization. Evidence of this comes from Rhaeto-Romance, in particular Sursilvan, which preserves reflexes of both final -us and -um, and where the latter, but not the former, triggers metaphony. This suggests the development -us > /ʊs/ > /os/, but -um > /ũː/ > /u/.[58] Examples of evolution of final unstressed vowels: From least- to most-changed languages English Latin Proto-Italo-Western1 Conservative Central Italian1 Italian Spanish Catalan Old French a, e, i, o, u a, e, i, o, u a, e, i, o a, e/-, o a, -/e e, -/e one (fem.) ūnam ˈuna una una una una une door portam ˈpɔrta pɔrta porta puerta porta porte seven septem ˈsɛtte sɛtte sette siete set set sea mare ˈmare mare mare mar mar mer peace pācem ˈpatʃe pace pace paz pau paiz part partem ˈparte parte parte parte part part mother mātrem ˈmatre matre madre madre mare meḍre twenty vīgintī veˈenti vinti venti veinte vint vint four quattuor ˈkwattro quattro quattro cuatro quatre quatre eight octō ˈɔkto ɔtto otto ocho vuit huit when quandō ˈkwando quando quando cuando quan quant fourth quartum ˈkwartu quartu quarto cuarto quart quart one (masc.) ūnum ˈunu unu uno uno un un port portum ˈpɔrtu portu porto puerto port port 1 These columns use IPA symbols /ɔ, ɛ/ to indicate open-mid vowels. The original five-vowel system in final unstressed syllables was preserved as-is in some of the more conservative central Italian languages, but in most languages there was further coalescence: In Tuscan (including standard Italian), final /u/ merged into /o/. In the Western Romance languages, final /i/ eventually merged into /e/ (although final /i/ triggered metaphony before that, e.g. Spanish hice, Portuguese fiz "I did" < *fize < Latin fēcī). Conservative languages like Spanish largely maintain that system, but drop final /e/ after certain single consonants, e.g. /r/, /l/, /n/, /d/, /z/ (< palatalized c). In the Gallo-Romance languages (part of Western Romance), final /o/ and /e/ were dropped entirely unless that produced an impossible final cluster (e.g. /tr/), in which case a "prop vowel" /e/ was added. This left only two final vowels: /a/ and prop vowel /e/. Catalan preserves this system. Loss of final stressless vowels in Venetian shows a pattern intermediate between Central Italian and the Gallo-Italic branch, and the environments for vowel deletion vary considerably depending on the dialect. In the table above, final /e/ is uniformly absent in mar, absent in some dialects in part(e) /part(e)/ and set(e) /sɛt(e)/, but retained in mare (< Latin mātrem) as a relic of the earlier cluster *dr. In primitive Old French (one of the Gallo-Romance languages), these two remaining vowels merged into /ə/. Various later changes happened in individual languages, e.g.: In French, most final consonants were dropped, and then final /ə/ was also dropped. The /ə/ is still preserved in spelling as a final silent -e, whose main purpose is to signal that the previous consonant is pronounced, e.g. port "port" /pɔʁ/ vs. porte "door" /pɔʁt/. These changes also eliminated the difference between singular and plural in most words: ports "ports" (still /pɔʁ/), portes "doors" (still /pɔʁt/). Final consonants reappear in liaison contexts (in close connection with a following vowel-initial word), e.g. nous [nu] "we" vs. nous avons [nu.za.ˈvɔ̃] "we have", il fait [il.fɛ] "he does" vs. fait-il ? [fɛ.til] "does he?". In Portuguese, final unstressed /o/ and /u/ were apparently preserved intact for a while, since final unstressed /u/, but not /o/ or /os/, triggered metaphony (see above). Final-syllable unstressed /o/ was raised in preliterary times to /u/, but always still written ⟨o⟩. At some point (perhaps in late Galician-Portuguese), final-syllable unstressed /e/ was raised to /i/ (but still written ⟨e⟩); this remains in Brazilian Portuguese, but has developed to /ɨ/ in northern and central European Portuguese. In Catalan, final unstressed /as/ > /es/. In many dialects, unstressed /o/ and /u/ merge into /u/ as in Portuguese, and unstressed /a/ and /e/ merge into /ə/. However, some dialects preserve the original five-vowel system, most notably standard Valencian. Intertonic vowels[edit] The so-called intertonic vowels are word-internal unstressed vowels, i.e. not in the initial, final, or tonic (i.e. stressed) syllable, hence intertonic. Intertonic vowels were the most subject to loss or modification. Already in Vulgar Latin intertonic vowels between a single consonant and a following /r/ or /l/ tended to drop: vétulum "old" > veclum > Dalmatian vieklo, Sicilian vecchiu, Portuguese velho. But many languages ultimately dropped almost all intertonic vowels. Generally, those languages south and east of the La Spezia–Rimini Line (Romanian and Central-Southern Italian) maintained intertonic vowels, while those to the north and west (Western Romance) dropped all except /a/. Standard Italian generally maintained intertonic vowels, but typically raised unstressed /e/ > /i/. Examples: septimā́nam "week" > Italian settimana, Romanian săptămână vs. Spanish/Portuguese semana, French semaine, Occitan/Catalan setmana, Piedmontese sman-a quattuórdecim "fourteen" > Italian quattordici, Venetian cuatòrdexe, Lombard/Piedmontese quatòrdes, vs. Spanish catorce, Portuguese/French quatorze metipsissimus[59] > medipsimus /medíssimos/ ~ /medéssimos/ "self"[60] > Italian medésimo vs. Venetian medemo, Lombard medemm, Old Spanish meísmo, meesmo (> modern mismo), Galician-Portuguese meesmo (> modern mesmo), Old French meḍisme (> later meïsme > MF mesme > modern même)[61] bonitā́tem "goodness" > Italian bonità ~ bontà, Romanian bunătate but Spanish bondad, Portuguese bondade, French bonté collocā́re "to position, arrange" > Italian coricare vs. Spanish colgar "to hang", Romanian culca "to lie down", French coucher "to lay sth on its side; put s.o. to bed" commūnicā́re "to take communion" > Romanian cumineca vs. Portuguese comungar, Spanish comulgar, Old French comungier carricā́re "to load (onto a wagon, cart)" > Portuguese/Catalan carregar vs. Spanish/Occitan cargar "to load", French charger, Lombard cargà/caregà, Venetian carigar/cargar(e) "to load" fábricam "forge" > /*fawrɡa/ > Spanish fragua, Portuguese frágua, Occitan/Catalan farga, French forge disjējūnā́re "to break a fast" > *disjūnā́re > Old French disner "to have lunch" > French dîner "to dine" (but *disjū́nat > Old French desjune "he has lunch" > French (il) déjeune "he has lunch") adjūtā́re "to help" > Italian aiutare, Romanian ajuta but French aider, Lombard aidà/aiuttà (Spanish ayudar, Portuguese ajudar based on stressed forms, e.g. ayuda/ajuda "he helps"; cf. Old French aidier "to help" vs. aiue "he helps") Portuguese is more conservative in maintaining some intertonic vowels other than /a/: e.g. *offerḗscere "to offer" > Portuguese oferecer vs. Spanish ofrecer, French offrir (< *offerīre). French, on the other hand, drops even intertonic /a/ after the stress: Stéphanum "Stephen" > Spanish Esteban but Old French Estievne > French Étienne. Many cases of /a/ before the stress also ultimately dropped in French: sacraméntum "sacrament" > Old French sairement > French serment "oath". Writing systems[edit] Main article: Latin script The Romance languages for the most part have kept the writing system of Latin, adapting it to their evolution. One exception was Romanian before the nineteenth century, where, after the Roman retreat, literacy was reintroduced through the Romanian Cyrillic alphabet, a Slavic influence. A Cyrillic alphabet was also used for Romanian (Moldovan) in the USSR. The non-Christian populations of Spain also used the scripts of their religions (Arabic and Hebrew) to write Romance languages such as Ladino and Mozarabic in aljamiado. Letters[edit] Spelling of results of palatalization and related sounds Sound Spanish Portuguese French Catalan Italian Romanian /k/, not + ⟨e, i, y⟩ ⟨c⟩ palatalized /k/ (/tʃ/~/s/~/θ/), + ⟨e, i, y⟩ ⟨c⟩ palatalized /k/ (/tʃ/~/s/~/θ/), not + ⟨e, i, y⟩ ⟨z⟩ ⟨ç⟩ ⟨ci⟩ /kw/, not + ⟨e, i, y⟩ ⟨cu⟩ ⟨qu⟩ ⟨cu⟩ /k/ + ⟨e, i⟩ (inherited) ⟨qu⟩ ⟨ch⟩ /kw/ + ⟨e, i⟩ (learned) ⟨cu⟩ ⟨qu⟩[62] ⟨qü⟩ ⟨qu⟩ ⟨cu⟩ /g/, not + ⟨e, i, y⟩ ⟨g⟩ palatalized /k, g/ (/dʒ/~/ʒ/~/x/), + ⟨e, i, y⟩ ⟨g⟩ palatalized /k, g/ (/dʒ/~/ʒ/~/x/), not + ⟨e, i, y⟩ ⟨j⟩ ⟨g(e)⟩ ⟨j⟩ ⟨gi⟩ /gw/, not + ⟨e ,i⟩ ⟨gu⟩ /g/ + ⟨e, i⟩ (inherited) ⟨gu⟩ ⟨gh⟩ /gw/ + ⟨e, i⟩ (learned) ⟨gü⟩ ⟨gu⟩[63] ⟨gü⟩ ⟨gu⟩ (former) /ʎ/ ⟨ll⟩ ⟨lh⟩ ⟨il(l)⟩ ⟨ll⟩ ⟨gli⟩ ⟨il⟩ /ɲ/ ⟨ñ⟩ ⟨nh⟩ ⟨gn⟩ ⟨ny⟩ ⟨gn⟩ ⟨in⟩ The Romance languages are written with the classical Latin alphabet of 23 letters – A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, V, X, Y, Z – subsequently modified and augmented in various ways. In particular, the single Latin letter V split into V (consonant) and U (vowel), and the letter I split into I and J. The Latin letter K and the new letter W, which came to be widely used in Germanic languages, are seldom used in most Romance languages – mostly for unassimilated foreign names and words. Indeed, in Italian prose kilometro is properly chilometro. Catalan eschews importation of "foreign" letters more than most languages. Thus Wikipedia is Viquipèdia in Catalan but Wikipedia in Spanish. While most of the 23 basic Latin letters have maintained their phonetic value, for some of them it has diverged considerably; and the new letters added since the Middle Ages have been put to different uses in different scripts. Some letters, notably H and Q, have been variously combined in digraphs or trigraphs (see below) to represent phonetic phenomena that could not be recorded with the basic Latin alphabet, or to get around previously established spelling conventions. Most languages added auxiliary marks (diacritics) to some letters, for these and other purposes. The spelling rules of most Romance languages are fairly simple, and consistent within any language. Since the spelling systems are based on phonemic structures rather than phonetics, however, the actual pronunciation of what is represented in standard orthography can be subject to considerable regional variation, as well as to allophonic differentiation by position in the word or utterance. Among the letters representing the most conspicuous phonological variations, between Romance languages or with respect to Latin, are the following: B, V: Merged in Spanish and some dialects of Catalan, where both letters represent a single phoneme pronounced as either [b] or [β] depending on position, with no differentiation between B and V. C: Generally a "hard" [k], but "soft" (fricative or affricate) before e, i, or y. G: Generally a "hard" [ɡ], but "soft" (fricative or affricate) before e, i, or y. In some languages, like Spanish, the hard g, phonemically /g/, is pronounced as a fricative [ɣ] after vowels. In Romansch, the soft g is a voiced palatal plosive [ɟ] or a voiced alveolo-palatal affricate [dʑ]. H: Silent in most languages; used to form various digraphs. But represents [h] in Romanian, Walloon and Gascon Occitan. J: Represents the fricative [ʒ] in most languages, or the palatal approximant [j] in Romansh and in several of the languages of Italy, and [x] or [h] in Spanish, depending on the variety. Italian does not use this letter in native words. Q: As in Latin, its phonetic value is that of a hard c, i.e. [k], and in native words it is almost always followed by a (sometimes silent) u. Romanian does not use this letter in native words. S: Generally voiceless [s], but voiced [z] between vowels in some languages. In Spanish, Romanian, Galician and several varieties of Italian, however, it is always pronounced voiceless between vowels. If the phoneme /s/ is represented by the letter S, predictable assimilations are normally not shown (e.g. Italian /slitta/ 'sled', spelled slitta but pronounced [zlitːa], never with [s]). Also at the end of syllables it may represent special allophonic pronunciations. In Romansh, it also stands for a voiceless or voiced fricative, [ʃ] or [ʒ], before certain consonants. W: No Romance language uses this letter in native words, with the exception of Walloon. X: Its pronunciation is rather variable, both between and within languages. In the Middle Ages, the languages of Iberia used this letter to denote the voiceless postalveolar fricative [ʃ], which is still the case in Modern Catalan and Portuguese. With the Renaissance the classical pronunciation [ks] – or similar consonant clusters, such as [ɡz], [ɡs], or [kθ] – were frequently reintroduced in latinisms and hellenisms. In Venetian it represents [z], and in Ligurian the voiced postalveolar fricative [ʒ]. Italian does not use this letter in native words. Y: This letter is not used in most languages, with the prominent exceptions of French and Spanish, where it represents [j] before vowels (or various similar fricatives such as the palatal fricative [ʝ], in Spanish), and the vowel [i] or semivowel [j] elsewhere. Z: In most languages it represents the sound [z]. However, in Italian it denotes the affricates [dz] and [ts] (which are two separate phonemes, but rarely contrast; among the few examples of minimal pairs are razza "ray" with [ddz], razza "race" with [tts] (note that both are phonetically long between vowels); in Romansh the voiceless affricate [ts]; and in Galician and Spanish it denotes either the voiceless dental fricative [θ] or [s]. Otherwise, letters that are not combined as digraphs generally represent the same phonemes as suggested by the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), whose design was, in fact, greatly influenced by Romance spelling systems. Digraphs and trigraphs[edit] Since most Romance languages have more sounds than can be accommodated in the Roman Latin alphabet they all resort to the use of digraphs and trigraphs – combinations of two or three letters with a single phonemic value. The concept (but not the actual combinations) is derived from Classical Latin, which used, for example, TH, PH, and CH when transliterating the Greek letters "θ", "ϕ" (later "φ"), and "χ". These were once aspirated sounds in Greek before changing to corresponding fricatives, and the H represented what sounded to the Romans like an /ʰ/ following /t/, /p/, and /k/ respectively. Some of the digraphs used in modern scripts are: CI: used in Italian, Romance languages in Italy, Corsican and Romanian to represent /tʃ/ before A, O, or U. CH: used in Italian, Romance languages in Italy, Corsican, Romanian, Romansh and Sardinian to represent /k/ before E or I (including yod /j/); /tʃ/ in Occitan, Spanish, Astur-leonese and Galician; [c] or [tɕ] in Romansh before A, O or U; and /ʃ/ in most other languages. In Catalan it is used in some old spelling conventions for /k/. DD: used in Sicilian and Sardinian to represent the voiced retroflex plosive /ɖ/. In recent history more accurately transcribed as DDH. DJ: used in Walloon and Catalan for /dʒ/. GI: used in Italian, Romance languages in Italy, Corsican and Romanian to represent /dʒ/ before A, O, or U, and in Romansh to represent [ɟi] or /dʑi/ or (before A, E, O, and U) [ɟ] or /dʑ/ GH: used in Italian, Romance languages in Italy, Corsican, Romanian, Romansh and Sardinian to represent /ɡ/ before E or I (including yod /j/), and in Galician for the voiceless pharyngeal fricative /ħ/ (not standard sound). GL: used in Romansh before consonants and I and at the end of words for /ʎ/. GLI: used in Italian and Corsican for /ʎʎ/ and Romansh for /ʎ/. GN: used in French, some Romance languages in Italy, Corsican and Romansh for /ɲ/, as in champignon; in Italian to represent /ɲɲ/, as in "ogni" or "lo gnocco". GU: used before E or I to represent /ɡ/ or /ɣ/ in all Romance languages except Italian, Romance languages in Italy, Corsican, Romansh, and Romanian, which use GH instead. IG: used at the end of word in Catalan for /tʃ/, as in maig, safareig or enmig. IX: used between vowels or at the end of word in Catalan for /ʃ/, as in caixa or calaix. LH: used in Portuguese and Occitan /ʎ/. LL: used in Spanish, Catalan, Galician, Astur-leonese, Norman and Dgèrnésiais, originally for /ʎ/ which has merged in some cases with /j/. Represents /l/ in French unless it follows I (i) when it represents /j/ (or /ʎ/ in some dialects). As in Italian, it is used in Occitan for a long /ll/. L·L: used in Catalan for a geminate consonant /ɫɫ/. NH: used in Portuguese and Occitan for /ɲ/, used in official Galician for /ŋ/ . N-: used in Piedmontese and Ligurian for /ŋ/ between two vowels. NN: used in Leonese for /ɲ/, in Italian for geminate /nn/. NY: used in Catalan for /ɲ/. QU: represents /kw/ in Italian, Romance languages in Italy, and Romansh; /k/ in French, Astur-leonese (normally before e or i); /k/ (before e or i) or /kw/ (normally before a or o) in Occitan, Catalan and Portuguese; /k/ in Spanish (always before e or i). RR: used between vowels in several languages (Occitan, Catalan, Spanish...) to denote a trilled /r/ or a guttural R, instead of the flap /ɾ/. SC: used before E or I in Italian, Romance languages in Italy as /ʃʃ/, in European Portuguese as /ʃˈs/ and in French, Brazilian Portuguese, Catalan and Latin American Spanish as /s/ in words of certain etymology (notice this would represent /θ/ in standard peninsular Spanish) SCH: used in Romansh for [ʃ] or [ʒ], in Italian for /sk/ before "E"or "I", including yod /j/. SCI: used in Italian, Romance languages in Italy, and Corsican to represent /ʃ/ or /ʃʃ/ before A, O, or U. SH: used in Aranese Occitan for /ʃ/. SS: used in French, Portuguese, Piedmontese, Romansh, Occitan, and Catalan for /s/ between vowels, in Italian, Romance languages of Italy, and Corsican for long /ss/. TS: used in Catalan for /ts/. TG: used in Romansh for [c] or [tɕ]. In Catalan is used for /dʒ/ before E and I, as in metge or fetge. TH: used in Jèrriais for /θ/; used in Aranese for either /t/ or /tʃ/. TJ: used between vowels and before A, O or U, in Catalan for /dʒ/, as in sotjar or mitjó. TSCH: used in Romansh for [tʃ]. TX: used at the beginning or at the end of word or between vowels in Catalan for /tʃ/, as in txec, esquitx or atxa. TZ: used in Catalan for /dz/. While the digraphs CH, PH, RH and TH were at one time used in many words of Greek origin, most languages have now replaced them with C/QU, F, R and T. Only French has kept these etymological spellings, which now represent /k/ or /ʃ/, /f/, /ʀ/ and /t/, respectively. Double consonants[edit] Gemination, in the languages where it occurs, is usually indicated by doubling the consonant, except when it does not contrast phonemically with the corresponding short consonant, in which case gemination is not indicated. In Jèrriais, long consonants are marked with an apostrophe: s's is a long /zz/, ss's is a long /ss/, and t't is a long /tt/. The phonemic contrast between geminate and single consonants is widespread in Italian, and normally indicated in the traditional orthography: fatto /fatto/ 'done' vs. fato /fato/ 'fate, destiny'; cadde /kadde/ 's/he, it fell' vs. cade /kade/ 's/he, it falls'. The double consonants in French orthography, however, are merely etymological. In Catalan, the gemination of l is marked by a punt volat ("flying point"): l·l. Diacritics[edit] Romance languages also introduced various marks (diacritics) that may be attached to some letters, for various purposes. In some cases, diacritics are used as an alternative to digraphs and trigraphs; namely to represent a larger number of sounds than would be possible with the basic alphabet, or to distinguish between sounds that were previously written the same. Diacritics are also used to mark word stress, to indicate exceptional pronunciation of letters in certain words, and to distinguish words with same pronunciation (homophones). Depending on the language, some letter-diacritic combinations may be considered distinct letters, e.g. for the purposes of lexical sorting. This is the case, for example, of Romanian ș ([ʃ]) and Spanish ñ ([ɲ]). The following are the most common use of diacritics in Romance languages. Vowel quality: the system of marking close-mid vowels with an acute accent, é, and open-mid vowels with a grave accent, è, is widely used (e.g. Catalan, French, Italian). Portuguese, however, uses the circumflex (ê) for the former, and the acute (é), for the latter. Some minority Romance languages use an umlaut (diaeresis mark) in the case of ä, ö, ü to indicate fronted vowel variants, as in German. Centralized vowels (/ɐ/, /ə/) are indicated variously (â in Portuguese, ă/î in Romanian, ë in Piedmontese, etc.). In French, Occitan and Romanian, these accents are used whenever necessary to distinguish the appropriate vowel quality, but in the other languages, they are used only when it is necessary to mark unpredictable stress, or in some cases to distinguish homophones. Vowel length: French uses a circumflex to indicate what had been a long vowel (although nowadays this rather indicates a difference in vowel quality, if it has any effect at all on pronunciation). This same usage is found in some minority languages. Nasality: Portuguese marks nasal vowels with a tilde (ã) when they occur before other written vowels and in some other instances. Palatalization: some historical palatalizations are indicated with the cedilla (ç) in French, Catalan, Occitan and Portuguese. In Spanish and several other world languages influenced by it, the grapheme ñ represents a palatal nasal consonant. Separate pronunciation: when a vowel and another letter that would normally be combined into a digraph with a single sound are exceptionally pronounced apart, this is often indicated with a diaeresis mark on the vowel. This is particularly common in the case of gü /gw/ before e or i, because plain gu in this case would be pronounced /g/. This usage occurs in Spanish, French, Catalan and Occitan, and occurred before the 2009 spelling reform in Brazilian Portuguese. French also uses the diaeresis on the second of two adjacent vowels to indicate that both are pronounced separately, as in Noël "Christmas" and haïr "to hate". Stress: the stressed vowel in a polysyllabic word may be indicated with an accent, when it cannot be predicted by rule. In Italian, Portuguese and Catalan, the choice of accent (acute, grave or circumflex) may depend on vowel quality. When no quality needs to be indicated, an acute accent is normally used (ú), but Italian and Romansh use a grave accent (ù). Portuguese puts a diacritic on all stressed monosyllables that end in a e o as es os, to distinguish them from unstressed function words: chá "tea", más "bad (fem. pl.)", sé "seat (of government)", dê "give! (imperative)", mês "month", só "only", nós "we" (cf. mas "but", se "if/oneself", de "of", nos "us"). Word-final stressed vowels in polysyllables are marked by the grave accent in Italian, thus università "university/universities", virtù "virtue/virtues", resulting in occasional minimal or near-minimal pairs such as parlo "I speak" ≠ parlò "s/he spoke", capi "heads, bosses" ≠ capì "s/he understood", gravita "it, s'/he gravitates" ≠ gravità "gravity, seriousness". Homophones: words (especially monosyllables) that are pronounced exactly or nearly the same way and are spelled identically, but have different meanings, can be differentiated by a diacritic. Typically, if one of the pair is stressed and the other isn't, the stressed word gets the diacritic, using the appropriate diacritic for notating stressed syllables (see above). Portuguese does this consistently as part of notating stress in certain monosyllables, whether or not there is an unstressed homophone (see examples above). Spanish also has many pairs of identically pronounced words distinguished by an acute accent on the stressed word: si "if" vs. sí "yes", mas "but" vs. más "more", mi "my" vs. mí "me", se "oneself" vs. sé "I know", te "you (object)" vs. té "tea", que/quien/cuando/como "that/who/when/how" vs. qué/quién/cuándo/cómo "what?/who?/when?/how?", etc. A similar strategy is common for monosyllables in writing Italian, but not necessarily determined by stress: stressed dà "it, s/he gives" vs. unstressed da "by, from", but also tè "tea" and te "you", both capable of bearing phrasal stress. Catalan has some pairs where both words are stressed, and one is distinguished by a vowel-quality diacritic, e.g. os "bone" vs. ós "bear". When no vowel-quality needs distinguishing, French and Catalan use a grave accent: French ou "or" vs. où "where", French la "the" vs. là "there", Catalan ma "my" vs. mà "hand". Upper and lower case[edit] Most languages are written with a mixture of two distinct but phonetically identical variants or "cases" of the alphabet: majuscule ("uppercase" or "capital letters"), derived from Roman stone-carved letter shapes, and minuscule ("lowercase"), derived from Carolingian writing and Medieval quill pen handwriting which were later adapted by printers in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. In particular, all Romance languages capitalize (use uppercase for the first letter of) the following words: the first word of each complete sentence, most words in names of people, places, and organizations, and most words in titles of books. The Romance languages do not follow the German practice of capitalizing all nouns including common ones. Unlike English, the names of months, days of the weeks, and derivatives of proper nouns are usually not capitalized: thus, in Italian one capitalizes Francia ("France") and Francesco ("Francis"), but not francese ("French") or francescano ("Franciscan"). However, each language has some exceptions to this general rule. Vocabulary comparison[edit] The tables below provide a vocabulary comparison that illustrates a number of examples of sound shifts that have occurred between Latin and Romance languages. Words are given in their conventional spellings. In addition, for French the actual pronunciation is given, due to the dramatic differences between spelling and pronunciation. (French spelling approximately reflects the pronunciation of Old French, c. 1200 AD.) English Latin Sardinian[64] (Nuorese) Romanian Sicilian[65][66][67] Corsican (Northern) Italian Venetian Emilian Lombard Piedmontese[68] Friulian[69] Romansh French Occitan[70] Catalan Aragonese[71] Spanish Asturian[72] Portuguese Galician man homō, hominem ómine om omu omu uomo om(en)o òm(en) òm(en) òm om um homme /ɔm/ òme home om(br)e hombre home homem home woman, wife Domina, femina,mulier, mulierem Fémina, muzère femeie, muiere mugghieri donna, moglie donna, moglie mujer mujér dòna/fomna, miee/moglier fomna muîr muglier femme /fam/ OF moillier OOc mólher (nom.) / molhér (obj.) dona, muller muller mujer muyer mulher muller son fīlium fízu fiu figghiu figliu/figliolu figlio fio fiōl fiœl fieul fi figl, fegl fils /fis/ filh fill fillo hijo fíu filho fillo water aquam àbba apă acqua acqua acqua acua aqua aqua/ova/eiva eva aghe aua eau /o/ aiga aigua aigua, augua agua agua água auga fire focum fócu foc focu focu fuoco fogo foeugh fœg feu fûc fieu feu /fø/ fuòc foc fuego fuego fueu fogo fogo rain pluviam próida ploaie chiuvuta[73] pioggia pioggia pióva pioeuva piœva pieuva ploe plievgia pluie /plɥi/ pluèja pluja plebia lluvia lluvia chuva choiva land terram tèrra ţară terra terra terra tera tera terra tèra tiere terra/tiara terre /tɛʁ/ tèrra terra tierra tierra tierra terra terra sky caelum chélu cer celu celu cielo çiél cēl cel cel cîl tschiel ciel /sjɛl/ cèl cel zielo cielo cielu céu ceo high altum àrtu înalt autu altu alto alto élt alt/(v)olt àut alt aut haut[74] /o/ n-aut alt alto alto altu alto alto new novum nóbu nou novu novu nuovo nóvo noeuv nœv neuv gnove nov neuf /nœf/ nòu nou nuebo nuevo nuevu novo novo horse caballum càdhu cal cavaddu cavallu cavallo cavało cavàl cavall caval ĉhaval chaval cheval /ʃ(ə)val/ caval cavall caballo caballo caballu cavalo cabalo dog canem càne/jàgaru câine cani cane cane can can can/ca can cjan chaun chien /ʃjɛ̃/ can ca, gos can can/perro can cão can do facere fàchere face(re) fari/fàciri fà fare far far fà fé fâ far faire /fɛːʁ/ far/fàser fer fer hacer facer fazer facer milk lactem làte lapte latti latte latte late latt lacc/lat làit lat latg lait /lɛ/ lach llet leit leche lleche leite leite eye oculum > *oclum ócru ochi occhiu ochiu/ochju occhio ocio òć œgg euj voli egl œil /œj/ uèlh ull güello ojo güeyu olho ollo ear auriculam > *oriclam orícra ureche auricchia orecchiu/orechju orecchio orécia uréć oregia/orecia orija orele ureglia oreille /ɔʁɛj/ aurelha orella orella oreja oreya orelha orella tongue/ language linguam límba limbǎ lingua lingua lingua léngua léngua lengua lenga lenghe lingua langue /lɑ̃ɡ/ lenga llengua luenga lengua llingua língua lingua hand manum mànu mână manu manu mano man man man/ma man man maun main /mɛ̃/ man mà man mano mano mão [mɐ̃w̃] man skin pellem pèdhe piele peddi pelle pelle pełe pèl pell pel piel pel peau /po/ pèl pell piel piel piel pele pel I ego (d)ègo eu eu/jè/ju eiu io (mi)[75] (mì/mè)[75] (mi/mé)[75] i jo jau je /ʒə/ ieu/jo jo yo yo yo eu eu our nostrum nóstru nostru nostru nostru nostro nostro noster nòst/nòster nòst nestri noss notre /nɔtʁ/ nòstre nostre nuestro nuestro nuesu,[76] nuestru nosso[76] noso[76] three trēs tres trei tri tre tre tre trii tri (m)/ tre (f) trè tre trais trois /tʁwɑ/ tres tres tres tres trés três tres four quattuor > *quattro bàtoro patru quattru quattru quattro cuatro quàtar quàter quatr cuatri quat(t)er quatre /katʁ/ quatre quatre cuatre, cuatro cuatro cuatro quatro catro five quīnque > *cīnque chímbe cinci cincu cinque cinque çincue sinc cinc/sic sinch cinc tschintg cinq /sɛ̃k/ cinc cinc zinco, zingo cinco cinco, cincu cinco cinco six sex ses şase sia sei sei sìe siē sex /ses/ ses sîs sis six /sis/ sièis sis seis/sais seis seis seis seis seven septem sète şapte setti sette sette sete sèt set set siet se(a)t, siat sept /sɛt/ sèt set siet(e) siete siete sete sete eight octō òto opt ottu ottu otto oto òt vòt/òt eut vot ot(g), och huit /ɥit/ uèch vuit güeito, ueito ocho ocho oito oito nine novem nòbe nouă novi nove nove nove nóv nœv neuv nûv no(u)v neuf /nœf/ nòu nou nueu nueve nueve nove nove ten decem dèche zece deci dece dieci diéxe déś dex /des/ des dîs diesch dix /dis/ dètz deu diez diez diez dez dez English Latin Sardinian (Nuorese) Romanian Sicilian Corsican (Northern) Italian Venetian Emilian Lombard Piedmontese Friulian Romansh French Occitan Catalan Aragonese Spanish Asturian Portuguese Galician Degrees of lexical similarity between the Romance languages[edit] Data from Ethnologue:[77] % French Catalan Italian Portuguese Romansh Romanian Spanish Sardinian French 85 89 75 78 75 75 80 Catalan 85 87 85 76 73 85 75 Italian 89 87 80 78 77 82 85 Portuguese 75 85 80 74 72 89 76 Romansh 78 76 78 74 72 74 74 Romanian 75 73 77 72 72 71 74 Spanish 75 85 82 89 74 71 76 Sardinian 80 75 85(a) 76 74 74 76 See also[edit] Romance languages linguistics Italo-Celtic Romance peoples Legacy of the Roman Empire Southern Romance African Romance British Latin Moselle Romance Pannonian Romance Romance-speaking Africa Romance-speaking Europe Romance-speaking world Notes[edit] ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Romance". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. ^ Herman, József; Wright, Roger (Translator) (2000). Vulgar Latin. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. pp. 96–115. ISBN 0-271-02001-6. ^ «Classifications that are not based on family trees usually involve ranking languages according to degree of differentiation rather than grouping them; thus, if the Romance languages are compared with Latin, it is seen that by most measures Sardinian and Italian are least differentiated and French most (though in vocabulary Romanian has changed most).» Marius Sala; et al. "Romance languages". Britannica.com. ^ Pei, Mario (1949). "A New Methodology for Romance Classification". WORD. 5 (2): 135–146. doi:10.1080/00437956.1949.11659494. ^ For example, a 1949 study by Pei, analyzing the degree of difference from a language's parent (Latin, in the case of Romance languages) by comparing phonology, inflection, syntax, vocabulary, and intonation, indicated the following percentages (the higher the percentage, the greater the distance from Latin): Sardinian 8%, Italian 12%, Spanish 20%, Romanian 23.5%, Occitan 25%, Portuguese 31%, and French 44%. ^ M. Paul Lewis, "Summary by language size", Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Sixteenth Edition. ^ David Dalby (1999). The Linguasphere register of the world's languages and speech communities (PDF). 2. Oxford, England: Observatoire Linguistique, Linguasphere Press. pp. 390–410 (zone 51). Retrieved July 30, 2020. ^ Ilari, Rodolfo (2002). Lingüística Românica. Ática. p. 50. ISBN 85-08-04250-7. ^ "Romance languages". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2 December 2014. ^ Sardos etiam, qui non Latii sunt sed Latiis associandi videntur, eiciamus, quoniam soli sine proprio vulgari esse videntur, gramaticam tanquam simie homines imitantes: nam domus nova et dominus meus locuntur. ["As for the Sardinians, who are not Italian but may be associated with Italians for our purposes, out they must go, because they alone seem to lack a vernacular of their own, instead imitating gramatica as apes do humans: for they say domus nova [my house] and dominus meus [my master]." (English translation provided by Dante Online, De Vulgari Eloquentia, I-xi)] It is unclear whether this indicates that Sardinian still had a two-case system at the time; modern Sardinian lacks grammatical case. ^ "Dante's Peek". Online Etymology Dictionary. 2020. ^ Jaberg, Karl and Jud, Jakob, Sprach- und Sachatlas Italiens und der Südschweiz, Vol.1-8, Bern: Zofingen, 1928-1940; Karte 1045: QUELLA VACCA, Karte 342: UNA NOTTE (Online access: [1]) ^ a b Zhang, Huiying (2015). "From Latin to the Romance languages: A normal evolution to what extent?" (PDF). Quarterly Journal of Chinese Studies. 3 (4): 105–111. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-01-19. Retrieved 2018-01-18. ^ Ruhlen M. (1987). A guide to the world's languages, Stanford University Press, Stanford. ^ "NEO-ROMANTICISM IN LANGUAGE PLANNING (Edo BERNASCONI)". Archived from the original on 2015-02-04. ^ "NEO-ROMANTICISM IN LANGUAGE PLANNING (Edo BERNASCONI)". Archived from the original on 2015-07-10. ^ Peano, Giuseppe (1903). De Latino Sine Flexione. Lingua Auxiliare Internationale [2], Revista de Mathematica (Revue de Mathématiques), Tomo VIII, pp. 74–83. Fratres Bocca Editores: Torino. ^ "Eall fhoil de Bhreathanach". Archived from the original on June 10, 2008. ^ Henrik Theiling (2007-10-28). "Þrjótrunn: A North Romance Language: History". Kunstsprachen.de. Retrieved 2010-11-06. ^ "Relay 10/R – Jelbazech". Steen.free.fr. 2004-08-28. Retrieved 2010-11-06. ^ See Portuguese in Africa. ^ See Portuguese in Asia and Oceania. ^ See List of countries where Portuguese is an official language. ^ I.S. Nistor, "Istoria românilor din Transnistria" (The history of Romanians from Transnistria), București, 1995 ^ Djuvara Neagu, "La Diaspora aroumaine aux XVIIIe et XIXe siècles " In: Les Aroumains, Paris : Publications Langues’O, 1989 (Cahiers du Centre d’étude des civilisations d’Europe centrale et du Sud-Est ; 8). P. 95-125. ^ 1993 Statistical Abstract of Israel reports 250,000 speakers of Romanian in Israel, while the 1995 census puts the total figure of the Israeli population at 5,548,523 ^ "Reports of about 300,000 Jews who left the country after WW2". Eurojewcong.org. Archived from the original on 2006-08-31. Retrieved 2010-11-06. ^ "Encarta Dictionary". Microsoft Encarta 2006. Archived from the original on 2009-10-28. Retrieved 2009-11-16. ^ "Ethnologue". SIL Haley. 3 October 2018. ^ Percy, Thomas (1887). Reliques of Ancient English Poetry: Consisting of Old Heroic Ballads, Songs, Etc. Abe Books. p. 289. ^ The Encyclopædia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature, and General Information. 28 (11 ed.). 1957. p. 167. ^ Bereznay, András (2011). Erdély történetének atlasza [Atlas of the History of Transylvania]. Méry Ratio. p. 63. ISBN 978-80-89286-45-4. ^ Rochette, p. 550 ^ Stefan Zimmer, "Indo-European," in Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia (ABC-Clio, 2006), p. 961 ^ Curchin, Leonard A. (1995). "Literacy in the Roman Provinces: Qualitative and Quantitative Data from Central Spain". The American Journal of Philology. 116 (3): 461–476 (464). doi:10.2307/295333. JSTOR 295333. ^ Herman, Jozsef (1 November 2010). Vulgar Latin. Penn State Press. ISBN 978-0-271-04177-3. , pp. 108–115 ^ a b Harris, Martin; Vincent, Nigel (2001). Romance Languages. London, England, UK: Routledge. ^ Vlad Georgescu, The Romanians: A History, Ohio State University Press, Columbus, p.12 ^ Ioan-Aurel Pop, "On the Significance of Certain Names: Romanian/Wallachian and Romania/Wallachia" (PDF). Retrieved 18 June 2018 ^ Vlad Georgescu, The Romanians: A History, Ohio State University Press, Columbus, p.13 ^ a b c d Price, Glanville (1984). The French language: past and present. London: Grant and Cutler Ltd. ^ "Na" is a contraction of "em" (in) + "a" (the), the form "em a" is never used, it is always replaced by "na". The same happens with other prepositions: "de" (of) + o/a/os/as (singular and plural forms for "the" in masculine and feminine) = do, da, dos, das; etc. ^ Verb; literally means "to put in mouth" ^ Ilona Czamańska, "Vlachs and Slavs in the Middle Ages and Modern Era", Res Historica, 41, Lublin, 2016 ^ van Durme, Luc (2002). "Genesis and Evolution of the Romance-Germanic Language Border in Europe". In Treffers-Daller, Jeanine; Willemyns, Roland (eds.). Language Contact at the Romance–Germanic Language Border (PDF). Multilingual Matters. p. 13. ISBN 9781853596278. ^ Note that the current Portuguese spelling (Portuguese Language Orthographic Agreement of 1990) abolished the use of the diaeresis for this purpose. ^ Pope (1934). ^ Rodney Sampson, Vowel Prosthesis in Romance: A Diachronic Study (Oxford: Oxford UP, 2010), 63. ^ Allen (2003) states: "There appears to have been no great difference in quality between long and short a, but in the case of the close and mid vowels (i and u, e and o) the long appear to have been appreciably closer than the short." He then goes on to the historical development, quotations from various authors (from around the second century AD), as well as evidence from older inscriptions where "e" stands for normally short i, and "i" for long e, etc. ^ Technically, Sardinian is one of the Southern Romance languages. The same vowel outcome occurred in a small strip running across southern Italy (the Lausberg Zone), and is thought to have occurred in the Romance languages of northern Africa. ^ Palmer (1954). ^ cauda would produce French **choue, Italian */kɔda/, Occitan **cauda, Romanian **caudă. ^ Kaze, Jeffery W. (1991). "Metaphony and Two Models for the Description of Vowel Systems". Phonology. 8 (1): 163–170. doi:10.1017/s0952675700001329. JSTOR 4420029. ^ Calabrese, Andrea. "Metaphony" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-09-21. Retrieved 2012-05-15. ^ "ALVARO ARIAS CABAL - Publicaciones". personales.uniovi.es. ^ a b Penny, Ralph (1994). "Continuity and Innovation in Romance: Metaphony and Mass-Noun Reference in Spain and Italy". The Modern Language Review. 89 (2): 273–281. doi:10.2307/3735232. JSTOR 3735232. ^ Álvaro Arias. "La armonización vocálica en fonología funcional (de lo sintagmático en fonología a propósito de dos casos de metafonía hispánica) Archived 2018-01-19 at the Wayback Machine", Moenia 11 (2006): 111–139. ^ Note that the outcome of -am -em -om would be the same regardless of whether lengthening occurred, and that -im was already rare in Classical Latin, and appears to have barely survived in Proto-Romance. The only likely survival is in "-teen" numerals such as trēdecim "thirteen" > Italian tredici. This favors the vowel-lengthening hypothesis -im > /ĩː/ > /i/; but notice unexpected decem > Italian dieci (rather than expected *diece). It is possible that dieci comes from *decim, which analogically replaced decem based on the -decim ending; but it is also possible that the final /i/ in dieci represents an irregular development of some other sort and that the process of analogy worked in the other direction. ^ The Latin forms are attested; metipsissimus is the superlative of the formative -metipse, found for example in egometipse "myself in person" ^ Ralph Penny, A History of the Spanish Language, 2nd edn. (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2002), 144. ^ Espinosa, Aurelio M. (1911). "Metipsimus in Spanish and French". PMLA. 26 (2): 356–378. doi:10.2307/456649. JSTOR 456649. ^ Formerly ⟨qü⟩ in Brazilian Portuguese ^ Formerly ⟨gü⟩ in Brazilian Portuguese ^ "Ditzionàriu in línia de sa limba e de sa cultura sarda, Regione Autònoma de sa Sardigna". Archived from the original on 2017-10-08. Retrieved 2013-09-14. ^ "Sicilian–English Dictionary". Italian.about.com. 2010-06-15. Retrieved 2010-11-06. ^ "Dictionary Sicilian – Italian". Utenti.lycos.it. Archived from the original on 2009-04-20. Retrieved 2010-11-06. ^ "Indo-European Languages". Retrieved 2013-09-18. ^ "Grand Dissionari Piemontèis / Grande Dizionario Piemontese". Retrieved 2013-09-17. ^ "Dictionary English–Friulian Friulian–English". Sangiorgioinsieme.it. Archived from the original on 2011-07-22. Retrieved 2011-07-31. ^ Beaumont (2008-12-16). "Occitan–English Dictionary". Freelang.net. Retrieved 2010-11-06. ^ "English Aragonese Dictionary Online". Glosbe. Retrieved 2013-09-18. ^ "English Asturian Dictionary Online". Glosbe. Retrieved 2013-09-18. ^ Developed from *pluviūtam. ^ Initial h- due to contamination of Germanic *hauh "high". Although no longer pronounced, it reveals its former presence by inhibiting elision of a preceding schwa, e.g. le haut "the high" vs. l'eau "the water". ^ a b c Cognate with Latin mē, not ego. Note that this parallels the state of affairs in Celtic, where the cognate of ego is not attested anywhere, and the use of the accusative form cognate to mē has been extended to cover the nominative, as well. ^ a b c Developed from an assimilated form *nossum rather than from nostrum. ^ Ethnologue, Languages of the World, 15th edition, SIL International, 2005. References[edit] Overviews: Frederick Browning Agard. A Course in Romance Linguistics. Vol. 1: A Synchronic View, Vol. 2: A Diachronic View. Georgetown University Press, 1984. Harris, Martin; Vincent, Nigel (1988). The Romance Languages. London: Routledge. . Reprint 2003. Posner, Rebecca (1996). The Romance Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Gerhard Ernst et al., eds. Romanische Sprachgeschichte: Ein internationales Handbuch zur Geschichte der romanischen Sprachen. 3 vols. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2003 (vol. 1), 2006 (vol. 2). Alkire, Ti; Rosen, Carol (2010). Romance Languages: A Historical Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Martin Maiden, John Charles Smith & Adam Ledgeway, eds., The Cambridge History of the Romance Languages. Vol. 1: Structures, Vol. 2: Contexts. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2011 (vol. 1) & 2013 (vol. 2). Martin Maiden & Adam Ledgeway, eds. The Oxford Guide to the Romance Languages. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016. Lindenbauer, Petrea; Metzeltin, Michael; Thir, Margit (1995). Die romanischen Sprachen. Eine einführende Übersicht. Wilhelmsfeld: G. Egert. Metzeltin, Michael (2004). Las lenguas románicas estándar. Historia de su formación y de su uso. Uviéu: Academia de la Llingua Asturiana. Phonology: Boyd-Bowman, Peter (1980). From Latin to Romance in Sound Charts. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. Cravens, Thomas D. Comparative Historical Dialectology: Italo-Romance Clues to Ibero-Romance Sound Change. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2002. Sónia Frota & Pilar Prieto, eds. Intonation in Romance. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2015. Christoph Gabriel & Conxita Lleó, eds. Intonational Phrasing in Romance and Germanic: Cross-Linguistic and Bilingual studies. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2011. Philippe Martin. The Structure of Spoken Language: Intonation in Romance. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2016. Rodney Sampson. Vowel Prosthesis in Romance. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2010. Lexicon: Holtus, Günter; Metzeltin, Michael; Schmitt, Christian (1988). Lexikon der Romanistischen Linguistik. (LRL, 12 volumes). Tübingen: Niemeyer. French: Price, Glanville (1971). The French language: present and past. Edward Arnold. Kibler, William W. (1984). An introduction to Old French. New York: Modern Language Association of America. Lodge, R. Anthony (1993). French: From Dialect to Standard. London: Routledge. Portuguese: Williams, Edwin B. (1968). From Latin to Portuguese, Historical Phonology and Morphology of the Portuguese Language (2nd ed.). University of Pennsylvania. Wetzels, W. Leo; Menuzzi, Sergio; Costa, João (2016). The Handbook of Portuguese Linguistics. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. Spanish: Penny, Ralph (2002). A History of the Spanish Language (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lapesa, Rafael (1981). Historia de la Lengua Española. Madrid: Editorial Gredos. Pharies, David (2007). A Brief History History of the Spanish Language. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Zamora Vicente, Alonso (1967). Dialectología Española (2nd ed.). Madrid: Editorial Gredos. Italian: Devoto, Giacomo; Giacomelli, Gabriella (2002). I Dialetti delle Regioni d'Italia (3rd ed.). Milano: RCS Libri (Tascabili Bompiani). Devoto, Giacomo (1999). Il Linguaggio d'Italia. Milano: RCS Libri (Biblioteca Universale Rizzoli). Maiden, Martin (1995). A Linguistic History of Italian. London: Longman. Rhaeto-Romance: John Haiman & Paola Benincà, eds., The Rhaeto-Romance Languages. London: Routledge, 1992. External links[edit] Michael de Vaan, Etymological Dictionary of Latin and the other Italic Languages, Brill, 2008, 826pp. (part available freely online) Michael Metzeltin, Las lenguas románicas estándar. Historia de su formación y de su uso, Oviedo, 2004 Orbis Latinus, site on Romance languages Hugh Wilkinson's papers on Romance Languages Spanish is a Romance language, but what does that have to do with the type of romance between lovers?, dictionary.com Comparative Grammar of the Romance Languages Comparison of the computer terms in Romance languages v t e Romance languages Classification Western Ibero-Romance Galician-Portuguese Portuguese* dialects European* Brazilian* Uruguayan African* Asian Creoles Galician Eonavian/Galician-Asturian Fala Judaeo-Portuguese Caló Astur-Leonese Asturian Cantabrian Extremaduran Leonese Mirandese Spanish Spanish* dialects Equatoguinean European* Latin American* Philippine Saharan Creoles Old Spanish Judaeo-Spanish Caló Others Navarro-Aragonese Aragonese Judaeo-Aragonese Mozarabic Occitano-Romance Catalan Catalan* dialects Eastern* Alguerese Balearic Central* Northern Western North-Western Valencian Judaeo-Catalan Caló Occitan* Auvergnat Gascon Aranese Languedocien Limousin Provençal Niçard Mentonasc Vivaro-Alpine Old Provençal Judaeo-Provençal Caló Gallo-Romance Langues d'oïl Burgundian Champenois Franc-Comtois French* dialects Standard* African* Aostan Belgian Cambodian Canadian* Indian Laotian Swiss Vietnamese Old French Middle French Judaeo-French Creoles Gallo Lorrain Norman Anglo-Norman Picard Poitevin Saintongeais Walloon Moselle Romance British Latin Others Arpitan/Franco-Provençal Valdôtain Savoyard North Italian dialects Gallo-Italic Ligurian Brigasc Genoese Intemelio Monégasque Lombard Western Eastern Emilian-Romagnol Emilian Bolognese Parmigiano Romagnol Piedmontese Judaeo-Piedmontese Gallo-Italic of Sicily Gallo-Italic of Basilicata Others Venetian Fiuman Talian Triestine Mediterranean Lingua Franca Rhaeto-Romance Friulian Ladin Romansh Central, Sardinian and Eastern Italo-Dalmatian Central Italian* dialects Central* Tuscan Corsican Gallurese Sassarese Judaeo-Italian Southern Neapolitan* Northern Calabrese Sicilian* Southern Calabrese Others Dalmatian Istriot Sardinian* Sardinian Campidanese Logudorese Eastern Romanian* Romanian Moldovan Vlach Others Aromanian Istro-Romanian Megleno-Romanian Pannonian Romance North African African Romance Italics indicate extinct languages * (asterisks) indicates languages with more than 5 million speakers Languages between parentheses are varieties of the language on their left. 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en-wikipedia-org-4051	----	Roman Italy - Wikipedia Roman Italy From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Italy (Roman Empire)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Italian peninsula during the Roman Empire Italy Italia (Latin) Roman Empire at its greatest extent c. 117 AD, with Italy in red and Provinces in pink. Capital Rome, Mediolanum and Ravenna (as capitals of the Republic or the Empire) Common languages Latin Religion Polytheistic synchretism, followed by monotheistic Christianity Government Mixed constitution Legislature Senate and People of Rome Historical era Classic Antiquity Population • AD 1 c. 10 million (c.1 million in Rome)[1] ISO 3166 code IT Preceded by Succeeded by Archaic Italy Regnum Italiae Italia (the Latin and Italian name for the Italian Peninsula) was the homeland of the Romans and metropole of Rome's empire in classical antiquity.[2][3][4][5] According to Roman mythology, Italy was the ancestral home promised by Jupiter to Aeneas of Troy and his descendants, whose descendants were the founders of Rome. Aside from the legendary accounts, Rome was an Italic city-state that changed its form of government from kingdom to republic and then grew within the context of a peninsula dominated by the Celts in the North, the Etruscans and Umbrians in the Centre, and the Messapians (Illyrian Colonies) and Greeks colonies in the south. The consolidation of Italy into a single entity occurred during the Roman expansion in the peninsula, when Rome formed a permanent association with most of the local tribes and cities.[6] The strength of the Italian confederacy was a crucial factor in the rise of Rome, starting with the Punic and Macedonian wars between the 3rd and 2nd century BC. As provinces were being established throughout the Mediterranean, Italy maintained a special status which made it "not a province, but the Domina (ruler) of the provinces".[7] Such a status meant that Roman magistrates exercised the Imperium domi (police power) within Italy, rather than the Imperium militiae (military power) used abroad. Italy's inhabitants had Latin Rights as well as religious and financial privileges. The period between the end of the 2nd century BC and the 1st century BC was turbulent, beginning with the Servile Wars, continuing with the opposition of aristocratic élite to populist reformers and leading to a Social War in the middle of Italy. However, Roman citizenship was recognized to the rest of the Italics by the end of the conflict and then extended to Cisalpine Gaul when Julius Caesar became Roman Dictator. In the context of the transition from Republic to Principate, Italy swore allegiance to Octavian Augustus and was then organized in eleven regions from the Alps to the Ionian Sea. More than two centuries of stability followed, during which Italy was referred to as the rectrix mundi (queen of the world) and omnium terrarum parens (motherland of all lands).[8] Several emperors made notable accomplishments in this period: Claudius incorporated Britain into the Roman Empire, Vespasian subjugated the Great Revolt of Judea and reformed the financial system, Trajan conquered Dacia and defeated Parthia, and Marcus Aurelius epitomized the ideal of the philosopher king. The crisis of the third century hit Italy particularly hard and left the eastern half of the Empire more prosperous. In 286 AD the Roman Emperor Diocletian moved the capital of the Western Roman Empire from Rome to Mediolanum.[9] Nevertheless, the islands of Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily and Malta were added to Italy by Diocletian in 292 AD, and Italian cities such as Mediolanum and Ravenna continued to serve as capitals for the West. The Bishop of Rome gained importance during Constantine's reign and was given religious primacy with the Edict of Thessalonica under Theodosius I. Italy was invaded several times by the barbarians and fell under the control of Odoacer, when Romulus Augustus was deposed in 476 AD. In the sixth century, Italy's territory was divided between the Eastern Roman Empire and the Germanic peoples.[further explanation needed] After that, Italy remained divided until 1861, when it was reunited by the House of Savoy in the Kingdom of Italy, which became the present-day Italian Republic in 1946. Contents 1 Characteristics 2 History 2.1 Augustan organization 2.2 Diocletianic and Constantinian re-organizations 2.3 Western Roman Empire 3 References 4 Further reading 5 External links Characteristics[edit] Northern and southern section of Italia under Augustus and successors Following the end of the Social War in 88 BC, Rome had allowed its Italian allies full rights in Roman society and granted Roman citizenship to all the Italic peoples.[10] After having been for centuries the heart of the Roman Empire, from the 3rd century the government and the cultural center began to move eastward: first the Edict of Caracalla in 212 AD extended Roman citizenship to all free men within the imperial boundaries. Then, Christianity became the dominant religion during Constantine's reign (306–337), raising the power of other Eastern political centres. Although not founded as a capital city in 330, Constantinople grew in importance. It finally gained the rank of eastern capital when given an urban prefect in 359 and the senators who were clari became senators of the lowest rank as clarissimi. As a result, Italy began to decline in favour of the provinces, which resulted in the division of the Empire into two administrative units in 395: the Western Roman Empire, with its capital at Mediolanum (now Milan), and the Eastern Roman Empire, with its capital at Constantinople (now Istanbul). In 402, the capital was moved to Ravenna from Milan, confirming the decline of the city of Rome (which was sacked in 410 for the first time in seven centuries). History[edit] The name Italia covered an area whose borders evolved over time. According to Strabo's Geographica, before the expansion of the Roman Republic, the name was used by Greeks to indicate the land between the strait of Messina and the line connecting the gulf of Salerno and gulf of Taranto (corresponding roughly to the current region of Calabria); later the term was extended by Romans to include the Italian Peninsula up to the Rubicon, a river located between Northern and Central Italy. In 49 BC, with the Lex Roscia, Julius Caesar gave Roman citizenship to the people of the Cisalpine Gaul;[11] while in 42 BC the hitherto existing province was abolished, thus extending Italy to the north up to the southern foot of the Alps.[12][13] Under Augustus, the peoples of today's Aosta Valley and of the western and northern Alps were subjugated (so the western border of Roman Italy was moved to the Varus river), and the Italian eastern border was brought to the Arsia in Istria.[13] Lastly, in the late 3rd century, Italy came to also include the islands of Sicily, Corsica and Sardinia, as well as Raetia and part of Pannonia.[14] The city of Emona (modern Ljubljana, Slovenia) was the easternmost town of Italy. Augustan organization[edit] At the beginning of the Roman imperial era, Italy was a collection of territories with different political statuses. Some cities, called municipia, had some independence from Rome, while others, the coloniae, were founded by the Romans themselves. Around 7 BC, Augustus divided Italy into eleven regiones, as reported by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia: Roman Italia (in green) as organized by Augustus. The Tropaeum Alpium The Victory Monument of the Alps, La Turbie, France, marked the augustan border between Italy and Gaul Italia annonaria and Italia suburbicaria dioceses. Regio I Latium et Campania Regio II Apulia et Calabria Regio III Lucania et Bruttium Regio IV Samnium Regio V Picenum Regio VI Umbria et Ager Gallicus Regio VII Etruria Regio VIII Aemilia Regio IX Liguria Regio X Venetia et Histria Regio XI Transpadana Italy was privileged by Augustus and his heirs, with the construction, among other public structures, of a dense network of Roman roads. The Italian economy flourished: agriculture, handicraft and industry had a sensible growth, allowing the export of goods to the other provinces.[citation needed] The Italian population may have grown as well: three census were ordered by Augustus, to record the number of Roman citizens throughout the empire. The surviving totals were 4,063,000 in 28 BC, 4,233,000 in 8 BC, and 4,937,000 in AD 14, but it is still debated whether these counted all citizens, all adult male citizens, or citizens sui iuris.[15] Estimates for the population of mainland Italy, including Cisalpine Gaul, at the beginning of the 1st century range from 6,000,000 according to Karl Julius Beloch in 1886, to 14,000,000 according to Elio Lo Cascio in 2009.[16] Diocletianic and Constantinian re-organizations[edit] During the Crisis of the Third Century the Roman Empire nearly collapsed under the combined pressures of invasions, military anarchy and civil wars, and hyperinflation. In 284, emperor Diocletian restored political stability. He carried out thorough administrative reforms to maintain order. He created the so-called Tetrarchy whereby the empire was ruled by two senior emperors called Augusti and two junior vice-emperors called Caesars. He decreased the size of the Roman provinces by doubling their number to reduce the power of the provincial governors. He grouped the provinces into several dioceses (Latin: diocesis) and put them under the supervision of the imperial vicarius (vice, deputy), who was the head of the diocese. During the Crisis of the Third Century the importance of Rome declined because the city was far from the troubled frontiers. Diocletian and his colleagues usually resided in four imperial seats. The Augusti, Diocletian and Maximian, who were responsible for the East and West respectively, established themselves at Nicomedia, in north-western Anatolia (closer to the Persian frontier in the east) and Milan, in northern Italy (closer to the European frontiers) respectively. The seats of the Caesars were Augusta Treverorum (on the River Rhine frontier) for Constantius Chlorus and Sirmium (on the River Danube frontier) for Galerius who also resided at Thessaloniki. Under Diocletian Italy became the Dioecesis Italiciana. It included Raetia. It was subdivided the following provinces: Liguria (today's Liguria and western Piedmont) Transpadana (eastern Piedmont and Lombardy) Rhaetia (eastern Switzerland, western and central Austria, part of southern Germany, and part of northeastern Italy) Venetia et Histria (today's Veneto, Friuli-Venezia Giulia and Trentino-Alto Adige and Istria county) Aemilia (Emilia-Romagna) Tuscia (Etruria) et Umbria (Tuscany and Umbria) Flaminia (Picenum and the former Ager Gallicus, in today's Marche) Latium et Campania (the coastal parts of Lazio and Campania) Samnium (Abruzzo, Molise and Irpinia) Apulia et Calabria (today's Apulia) Lucania et Bruttium (Basilicata and Calabria) Sicilia (Sicily and Malta) Corsica et Sardinia Constantine subdivided the empire into four Praetorian prefectures. The Diocesis Italiciana became the Praetorian prefecture of Italy (praefectura praetoria Italiae), and was subdivided into two dioceses. It still included Raetia. The two dioceses and their provinces were: Diocesis Italia annonaria (Italy of the annona - its inhabitants had to provide the administration in Milan and the troops stationed in that city the annona - food, wine and timber).[clarification needed] Alpes Cottiae (modern Liguria and western part of Piedmont) Liguria (western Lombardy and eastern part of Piedmont) Venetia et Histria (Istria [which is now part of Croatia, Slovenia and Italy], Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Trentino-Alto Adige, Veneto and eastern and central Lombardy) Raetia I (eastern Switzerland and western Austria) Rhaetia II (central Austria, part of southern Germany, and part of northeastern Italy) Aemilia (the Emilia part of Emilia-Romagna) Flaminia et Picenum Annonarium (Romagna and northern Marche) Diocesis Italia Suburbicaria (Italy "under the government of the urbs", i.e. Rome) Tuscia (Etruria) et Umbria (Tuscany, Umbria and the northern part of coastal Lazio) Picenum suburbicarium (Piceno, in southern Marche) Valeria Sabina (the modern province of Rieti, other areas of Lazio and areas of Umbria and Abruzzo) Campania (central and southern coastal Lazio and coastal Campania except for the modern province of Salerno) Samnium (Abruzzo, Molise and the mountain areas of modern Campania; i.e., the modern provinces of Benevento and Avellino and part of the province of Caserta) Apulia et Calabria (today's Apulia) Lucania et Bruttium (modern Calabria, Basilicata and the province of Salerno in modern Campania) Sicilia (Sicily and Malta) Sardinia Corsica Western Roman Empire[edit] In 330, Constantine inaugurated Constantinople. He established the imperial court, a Senate, financial and judicial administrations, as well as the military structures. The new city, however, did not receive an urban prefect until 359 which raised it to the status of eastern capital. After the death of Theodosius in 395 and the subsequent division of the empire Italy was part of the Western Roman Empire. As a result of Alaric's invasion in 402 the western seat was moved from Mediolanum to Ravenna. Alaric, king of Visigoths, sacked Rome itself in 410; something that hadn't happened for eight centuries. Northern Italy was attacked by Attila's Huns in 452. Rome was sacked in 455 again by the Vandals under the command of Genseric. The "Praetorian Prefecture of Italy" (in yellow) stretched from the Danube river to North Africa According to Notitia Dignitatum, one of the very few surviving documents of Roman government updated to the 420s, Roman Italy was governed by a praetorian prefect, Prefectus praetorio Italiae (who also governed the Diocese of Africa and the Diocese of Pannonia), one vicarius, and one comes rei militaris. The regions of Italy were governed at the end of the fourth century by eight consulares (Venetiae et Histriae, Aemiliae, Liguriae, Flaminiae et Piceni annonarii, Tusciae et Umbriae, Piceni suburbicarii, Campaniae, and Siciliae), two correctores (Apuliae et Calabriae and Lucaniae et Bruttiorum) and seven praesides (Alpium Cottiarum, Rhaetia Prima and Secunda, Samnii, Valeriae, Sardiniae, and Corsicae). In the fifth century, with the Emperors controlled by their barbarian generals, the Western imperial government maintained weak control over Italy, whose coasts were periodically under attack. In 476, with the abdication of Romulus Augustulus, the Western Roman Empire had formally fallen unless one considers Julius Nepos, the legitimate emperor recognized by Constantinople as the last. He was assassinated in 480He may have been recognized by Odoacer. Italy remained under Odoacer and his Kingdom of Italy, and then under the Ostrogothic Kingdom. The Germanic successor states under Odoacer and Theodoric the Great continued to use the Roman administrative machinery, as well as being nominal subjects of the Eastern emperor at Constantinople. In 535 Roman Emperor Justinian invaded Italy which suffered twenty years of disastrous war. In August 554, Justinian issued a Pragmatic sanction which maintained most of the organization of Diocletian. The "Prefecture of Italy" thus survived, and came under Roman control in the course of Justinian's Gothic War. As a result of the Lombard invasion in 568, the Byzantines lost most of Italy, except the territories of the Exarchate of Ravenna - a corridor from Venice to Lazio - and footholds in the south Naples and the toe and heel of the peninsula. References[edit] ^ [1] ^ [2] ^ [3] ^ [4] ^ [5] ^ Mommsen, Theodor (1855). History of Rome, Book II: From the Abolition of the Monarchy in Rome to the Union of Italy. Leipzig: Reimer & Hirsel. ^ [6] ^ [7] ^ Video of Roman Milan (in Italian) ^ Keaveney, Arthur (1987). Rome and the Unification of Italy. London: Croom Helm. ISBN 9781904675372. ^ Cassius, Dio. Historia Romana. 41. 36. ^ Laffi, Umberto (1992). "La provincia della Gallia Cisalpina". Athenaeum (in Italian). Firenze (80): 5–23. ^ a b Aurigemma, Salvatore. "Gallia Cisalpina". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Enciclopedia Italiana. Retrieved 14 October 2014. ^ "Italy (ancient Roman territory)". britannica.com. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 10 November 2013. ^ Hin, Saskia (2007). Counting Romans (PDF). Leiden: Princeton/Stanford Working Papers. ^ Lo Cascio, Elio (2009). Urbanization as a Proxy of Demographic and Economic Growth. Oxford: Scholarship Online. ISBN 9780199562596. Further reading[edit] Potter, Timothy W. (1990). Roman Italy. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-06975-7. Salmon, Edward T. (1982). The Making of Roman Italy. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0801414381. Whatmough, Joshua (1937). The Foundations of Roman Italy. London: Methuen & Company. Lomas, Kathryn (1996). Roman Italy, 338 BC-AD 200. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-16072-2. Launaro, Alessandro (2011). Peasants and Slaves: The Rural Population of Roman Italy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1107004795. Hin, Saskia (2013). The Demography of Roman Italy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-00393-4. Clarke, John R. (1991). The Houses of Roman Italy, 100 BC-AD 250. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-07267-7. Laurence, Ray (2002). The Roads of Roman Italy: Mobility and Cultural Change. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-16616-0. External links[edit] (in Italian) Geographical regions in Roman history: Italy v t e Provinces of the early Roman Empire (117 AD) Achaea Aegyptus Africa proconsularis Alpes Cottiae Alpes Maritimae Alpes Poeninae Arabia Petraea Armenia Asia Assyria Bithynia and Pontus Britannia Cappadocia Cilicia Corsica and Sardinia Crete and Cyrenaica Cyprus Dacia Dalmatia Epirus Galatia Gallia Aquitania Gallia Belgica Gallia Lugdunensis Gallia Narbonensis Germania Inferior Germania Superior Hispania Baetica Hispania Lusitania Hispania Tarraconensis Italia † Iudaea Lycia et Pamphylia Macedonia Mauretania Caesariensis Mauretania Tingitana Mesopotamia Moesia Inferior Moesia Superior Noricum Pannonia Inferior Pannonia Superior Raetia Sicilia Syria Thracia † Italy was never constituted as a province, instead retaining a special juridical status until Diocletian's reforms. v t e Late Roman and Byzantine provinces (4th–7th centuries AD) History As found in the Notitia Dignitatum. Provincial administration reformed and dioceses established by Diocletian, c. 293. Permanent praetorian prefectures established after the death of Constantine I. Empire permanently partitioned after 395. Exarchates of Ravenna and Africa established after 584. After massive territorial losses in the 7th century, the remaining provinces were superseded by the theme system in c. 640–660, although in Asia Minor and parts of Greece they survived under the themes until the early 9th century. 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Quaestura exercitus in 536 5 Affected (i.e. boundaries modified, abolished or renamed) by Justinian I's administrative reorganization in 534–536 v t e List of historic states of Italy Etruscan civilization Lega dei popoli Etruscan dodecapolis Ancient Rome Roman Kingdom (753 BC–509 BC) Roman Republic (509 BC–27 BC) Italy (4th/3rd century BC–476 AD) Sicilia (241 BC–476 AD) Corsica and Sardinia (238 BC–455 AD) Roman Empire (27 BC–395 AD) Western Roman Empire (285 AD–476 AD) Praetorian prefecture of Italy (337 AD–584 AD) Medieval and Early Modern states Early Italian Kingdom (476–774) Odoacer's rule (476–493) Ostrogothic rule (493–553) Vandal rule (435–534) Lombard rule (568–774) Duchy of Benevento Duchy of Friuli Duchy of Ivrea Duchy of Spoleto Duchy of Tridentum Byzantine Empire (584–751) Exarchate of Ravenna (584–751) Duchy of Rome (533–751) Duchy of Perugia (554–752) Duchy of the Pentapolis (554–752) Exarchate of Africa (585–698) Holy Roman Empire and other independent states Bishopric 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en-wikipedia-org-4057	----	Slavery in ancient Rome - Wikipedia Slavery in ancient Rome From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman mosaic from Dougga, Tunisia (2nd century AD): the two slaves carrying wine jars wear typical slave clothing and an amulet against the evil eye on a necklace; the slave boy to the left carries water and towels, and the one on the right a bough and a basket of flowers[1] Captives in Rome, a nineteenth-century painting by Charles W. 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Besides manual labor, slaves performed many domestic services, and might be employed at highly skilled jobs and professions. Accountants and physicians were often slaves. Slaves of Greek origin in particular might be highly educated. Unskilled slaves, or those sentenced to slavery as punishment, worked on farms, in mines, and at mills. Slaves were considered property under Roman law and had no legal personhood. Most slaves would never be freed. Unlike Roman citizens, they could be subjected to corporal punishment, sexual exploitation (prostitutes were often slaves), torture and summary execution. Over time, however, slaves gained increased legal protection, including the right to file complaints against their masters. A major source of slaves had been Roman military expansion during the Republic. The use of former enemy soldiers as slaves led perhaps inevitably to a series of en masse armed rebellions, the Servile Wars, the last of which was led by Spartacus. During the Pax Romana of the early Roman Empire (1st–2nd centuries AD), emphasis was placed on maintaining stability, and the lack of new territorial conquests dried up this supply line of human trafficking. To maintain an enslaved work force, increased legal restrictions on freeing slaves were put into place. Escaped slaves would be hunted down and returned (often for a reward). There were also many cases of poor people selling their children to richer neighbors as slaves in times of hardship. Contents 1 Origins 2 Slavery and warfare 3 Trade and economy 4 Demography 5 Auctions and sales 5.1 Debt slavery 6 Types of work 6.1 Servus publicus 7 Treatment and legal status 8 Rebellions and runaways 9 Serfdom 10 Slavery in philosophy and religion 10.1 Classical Roman religion 10.1.1 Female slaves and religion 10.2 Mystery cults 10.3 Stoic philosophy 10.4 Early Christianity 11 In literature 11.1 Plutarch 11.2 Cicero 11.3 Roman comedies 12 Emancipation 13 Freedmen 14 See also 15 References 15.1 Bibliography 16 Further reading 17 External links Origins[edit] Further information: Slavery in antiquity In his Institutiones (161 AD), the Roman jurist Gaius wrote that: [Slavery is] the state that is recognized by the ius gentium in which someone is subject to the dominion of another person contrary to nature. — Gaius, Institutiones 1.3.2[2] The 1st century BC Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus indicates that the Roman institution of slavery began with the legendary founder Romulus giving Roman fathers the right to sell their own children into slavery, and kept growing with the expansion of the Roman state. Slave ownership was most widespread throughout the Roman citizenry from the Second Punic War (218–201 BC) to the 4th century AD. The Greek geographer Strabo (1st century AD) records how an enormous slave trade resulted from the collapse of the Seleucid Empire (100–63 BC).[3] The Twelve Tables, Rome's oldest legal code, has brief references to slavery, indicating that the institution was of long standing. In the tripartite division of law by the jurist Ulpian (2nd century AD), slavery was an aspect of the ius gentium, the customary international law held in common among all peoples (gentes). The "law of nations" was neither considered natural law, thought to exist in nature and govern animals as well as humans, nor civil law, belonging to the emerging bodies of laws specific to a people in Western societies.[4] All human beings are born free (liberi) under natural law, but slavery was held to be a practice common to all nations, who might then have specific civil laws pertaining to slaves.[4] In ancient warfare, the victor had the right under the ius gentium to enslave a defeated population; however, if a settlement had been reached through diplomatic negotiations or formal surrender, the people were by custom to be spared violence and enslavement. The ius gentium was not a legal code,[5] and any force it had depended on "reasoned compliance with standards of international conduct."[6] Vernae (singular verna) were slaves born within a household (familia) or on a family farm or agricultural estate (villa). There was a stronger social obligation to care for vernae, whose epitaphs sometimes identify them as such, and at times they would have been the children of free males of the household.[7][8] The general Latin word for slave was servus. Roman mosaic describing slaves performing agricultural tasks Slavery and warfare[edit] Throughout the Roman period many slaves for the Roman market were acquired through warfare. Many captives were either brought back as war booty or sold to traders,[9] and ancient sources cite anywhere from hundreds to tens of thousands of such slaves captured in each war.[10][11] These wars included every major war of conquest from the Monarchical period to the Imperial period, as well as the Social and Samnite Wars.[12] The prisoners taken or retaken after the three Roman Servile Wars (135–132, 104–100, and 73–71 BC, respectively) also contributed to the slave supply.[13] While warfare during the Republic provided the largest figures for captives,[14] warfare continued to produce slaves for Rome throughout the imperial period.[15] Piracy has a long history of adding to the slave trade,[16] and the period of the Roman Republic was no different. Piracy was particularly lucrative in Cilicia where pirates operated with impunity from a number of strongholds. Pompey was credited with effectively eradicating piracy from the Mediterranean in 67 BC.[17] Although large-scale piracy was curbed under Pompey and controlled under the Roman Empire, it remained a steady institution, and kidnapping through piracy continued to contribute to the Roman slave supply. Augustine lamented the wide-scale practice of kidnapping in North Africa in the early 5th century AD.[18] Trade and economy[edit] During the period of Roman imperial expansion, the increase in wealth amongst the Roman elite and the substantial growth of slavery transformed the economy.[19] Although the economy was dependent on slavery, Rome was not the most slave-dependent culture in history. Among the Spartans, for instance, the slave class of helots outnumbered the free by about seven to one, according to Herodotus.[20] In any case, the overall role of slavery in Roman economy is a discussed issue among scholars.[21][22][23] Delos in the eastern Mediterranean was made a free port in 166 BC and became one of the main market venues for slaves. Multitudes of slaves who found their way to Italy were purchased by wealthy landowners in need of large numbers of slaves to labor on their estates. Historian Keith Hopkins noted that it was land investment and agricultural production which generated great wealth in Italy, and considered that Rome's military conquests and the subsequent introduction of vast wealth and slaves into Italy had effects comparable to widespread and rapid technological innovations.[3] Augustus imposed a 2 percent tax on the sale of slaves, estimated to generate annual revenues of about 5 million sesterces—a figure that indicates some 250,000 sales.[24] The tax was increased to 4 percent by 43 AD.[25] Slave markets seem to have existed in every city of the Empire, but outside Rome the major center was Ephesus.[24] Demography[edit] 4th-century sarcophagus relief of Valerius Petronianus, with his slave holding writing tablets Estimates for the prevalence of slavery in the Roman Empire vary. Estimates of the percentage of the population of Italy who were slaves range from 30 to 40 percent in the 1st century BC, upwards of two to three million slaves in Italy by the end of the 1st century BC, about 35% to 40% of Italy's population.[26][27][28] For the empire as a whole during the period 260–425 AD, according to a study done by Kyle Harper, the slave population has been estimated at just under five million, representing 10–15% of the total population of 50–60 million+ inhabitants. An estimated 49% of all slaves were owned by the elite, who made up less than 1.5% of the empire's population. About half of all slaves worked in the countryside where they were a small percentage of the population except on some large agricultural, especially imperial, estates; the remainder of the other half were a significant percentage — 25% or more — in towns and cities as domestics and workers in commercial enterprises and manufacturers.[29] Roman slavery was not based on ideas of race.[30][31] Slaves were drawn from all over Europe and the Mediterranean, including Gaul, Hispania, North Africa, Syria, Germany, Britannia, the Balkans, Greece, etc. Those from outside of Europe were predominantly of Greek descent, while the Jewish ones never fully assimilated into Roman society, remaining an identifiable minority. The slaves (especially the foreigners) had higher mortality rates and lower birth rates than natives, and were sometimes even subjected to mass expulsions.[32] The average recorded age at death for the slaves of the city of Rome was extraordinarily low: seventeen and a half years (17.2 for males; 17.9 for females).[33] By comparison, life expectancy at birth for the population as a whole was in the mid-twenties (36% percent of men and 27% of women could expect to reach the age of 62 if they succeeded in reaching the age of 10). The overall impact of slavery on the Italian genetics was insignificant though, because the slaves imported in Italy were native Europeans, mostly from Germanic and Slavic tribes and very few if any of them had non-European origin. This has been further confirmed by recent biochemical analysis of 166 skeletons from three non-elite imperial-era cemeteries in the vicinity of Rome (where the bulk of the slaves lived), which shows that only one individual definitely came from outside of Europe (North Africa), and another two possibly did, but results are inconclusive. In the rest of the Italian peninsula, the fraction of non-European slaves was definitively much lower than that.[34][35] Auctions and sales[edit] Slave Market in Ancient Rome, by Jean-Léon Gérôme New slaves were primarily acquired by wholesale dealers who followed the Roman armies.[36] Many people who bought slaves wanted strong slaves, mostly men.[37] Child slaves cost less than adults[38] although other sources state their price as higher.[39] Julius Caesar once sold the entire population of a conquered region in Gaul, no fewer than 53,000 people, to slave dealers on the spot.[40] Within the empire, slaves were sold at public auction or sometimes in shops, or by private sale in the case of more valuable slaves. Slave dealing was overseen by the Roman fiscal officials called quaestors. Sometimes slaves stood on revolving stands, and around each slave for sale hung a type of plaque describing their origin, health, character, intelligence, education, and other information pertinent to purchasers. Prices varied with age and quality, with the most valuable slaves fetching high prices. Because the Romans wanted to know exactly what they were buying, slaves were presented naked. The dealer was required to take a slave back within six months if the slave had defects that were not manifest at the sale, or make good the buyer's loss.[41] Slaves to be sold with no guarantee were made to wear a cap at the auction. Debt slavery[edit] Main article: Nexum Nexum was a debt bondage contract in the early Roman Republic. Within the Roman legal system, it was a form of mancipatio. Though the terms of the contract would vary, essentially a free man pledged himself as a bond slave (nexus) as surety for a loan. He might also hand over his son as collateral. Although the bondsman could expect to face humiliation and some abuse, as a legal citizen he was supposed to be exempt from corporal punishment. Nexum was abolished by the Lex Poetelia Papiria in 326 BC, in part to prevent abuses to the physical integrity of citizens who had fallen into debt bondage. Roman historians illuminated the abolition of nexum with a traditional story that varied in its particulars; basically, a nexus who was a handsome but upstanding youth suffered sexual harassment by the holder of the debt. In one version, the youth had gone into debt to pay for his father's funeral; in others, he had been handed over by his father. In all versions, he is presented as a model of virtue. Historical or not, the cautionary tale highlighted the incongruities of subjecting one free citizen to another's use, and the legal response was aimed at establishing the citizen's right to liberty (libertas), as distinguished from the slave or social outcast (infamis).[42] Cicero considered the abolition of nexum primarily a political maneuver to appease the common people (plebs): the law was passed during the Conflict of the Orders, when plebeians were struggling to establish their rights in relation to the hereditary privileges of the patricians. Although nexum was abolished as a way to secure a loan, debt bondage might still result after a debtor defaulted.[43] Types of work[edit] Mosaic depicting two female slaves (ancillae) attending their mistress. Slaves worked in a wide range of occupations that can be roughly divided into five categories: household or domestic, imperial or public, urban crafts and services, agriculture, and mining.[44] Epitaphs record at least 55 different jobs a household slave might have,[44] including barber, butler, cook, hairdresser, handmaid (ancilla), wash their master's clothes, wet nurse or nursery attendant, teacher, secretary, seamstress, accountant, and physician.[3] A large elite household (a domus in town, or a villa in the countryside) might be supported by a staff of hundreds.[44] The living conditions of slaves attached to a domus (the familia urbana), while inferior to those of the free persons they lived with, were sometimes superior to that of many free urban poor in Rome.[45] Household slaves likely enjoyed the highest standard of living among Roman slaves, next to publicly owned slaves, who were not subject to the whims of a single master.[41] Imperial slaves were those attached to the emperor's household, the familia Caesaris.[44] In urban workplaces, the occupations of slaves included fullers, engravers, shoemakers, bakers, mule drivers, and prostitutes. Farm slaves (familia rustica) probably lived in more healthful conditions. Roman agricultural writers expect that the workforce of a farm will be mostly slaves, managed by a vilicus, who was often a slave himself.[44] "Eros, Posidippus' Cook, this is his site" ("SER" presumably short for "SERVUS", "slave"): epitaph on a stele[46] Slaves numbering in the tens of thousands were condemned to work in the mines or quarries, where conditions were notoriously brutal.[44] Damnati in metallum ("those condemned to the mine") were convicts who lost their freedom as citizens (libertas), forfeited their property (bona) to the state, and became servi poenae, slaves as a legal penalty. Their status under the law was different from that of other slaves; they could not buy their freedom, be sold, or be set free. They were expected to live and die in the mines.[47] Imperial slaves and freedmen (the familia Caesaris) worked in mine administration and management.[48] In the Late Republic, about half the gladiators who fought in Roman arenas were slaves, though the most skilled were often free volunteers.[49] Successful gladiators were occasionally rewarded with freedom. However gladiators, being trained warriors and having access to weapons, were potentially the most dangerous slaves. At an earlier time, many gladiators had been soldiers taken captive in war. Spartacus, who was a rebel gladiator, led the great slave rebellion of 73–71 BC. Servus publicus[edit] A servus publicus was a slave owned not by a private individual, but by the Roman people. Public slaves worked in temples and other public buildings both in Rome and in the municipalities. Most performed general, basic tasks as servants to the College of Pontiffs, magistrates, and other officials. Some well-qualified public slaves did skilled office work such as accounting and secretarial services. They were permitted to earn money for their personal use.[50] Because they had an opportunity to prove their merit, they could acquire a reputation and influence, and were sometimes deemed eligible for manumission. During the Republic, a public slave could be freed by a magistrate's declaration, with the prior authorization of the senate; in the Imperial era, liberty would be granted by the emperor. Municipal public slaves could be freed by the municipal council.[50] Treatment and legal status[edit] Relief from Smyrna (present-day İzmir, Turkey) depicting a Roman soldier leading captives in chains According to Marcel Mauss, in Roman times the persona gradually became "synonymous with the true nature of the individual" but "the slave was excluded from it. servus non habet personam ('a slave has no persona'). He has no personality. He does not own his body; he has no ancestors, no name, no cognomen, no goods of his own."[51] The testimony of a slave could not be accepted in a court of law[52] unless the slave was tortured—a practice based on the belief that slaves in a position to be privy to their masters' affairs would be too virtuously loyal to reveal damaging evidence unless coerced. Rome differed from Greek city-states in allowing freed slaves to become citizens. After manumission, a male slave who had belonged to a Roman citizen enjoyed not only passive freedom from ownership, but active political freedom (libertas), including the right to vote.[53] A slave who had acquired libertas was thus a libertus ("freed person", feminine liberta) in relation to his former master, who then became his patron (patronus). As a social class, freed slaves were libertini, though later writers used the terms libertus and libertinus interchangeably.[54][55] Libertini were not entitled to hold public office or state priesthoods, nor could they achieve senatorial rank. During the early Empire, however, freedmen held key positions in the government bureaucracy, so much so that Hadrian limited their participation by law.[56] Any future children of a freedman would be born free, with full rights of citizenship. Although in general freed slaves could become citizens, with the right to vote if they were male, those categorized as dediticii suffered permanent disbarment from citizenship. The dediticii were mainly slaves whose masters had felt compelled to punish them for serious misconduct by placing them in chains, branding them, torturing them to confess a crime, imprisoning them or sending them involuntarily to a gladiatorial school (ludus), or condemning them to fight with gladiator or wild beasts (their subsequent status was obviously a concern only to those who survived). Dediticii were regarded as a threat to society, regardless of whether their master's punishments had been justified, and if they came within a hundred miles of Rome, they were subject to reenslavement.[57] Roman slaves could hold property which, despite the fact that it belonged to their masters, they were allowed to use as if it were their own.[58] Skilled or educated slaves were allowed to earn their own money, and might hope to save enough to buy their freedom.[59][60] Such slaves were often freed by the terms of their master's will, or for services rendered. A notable example of a high-status slave was Tiro, the secretary of Cicero. Tiro was freed before his master's death, and was successful enough to retire on his own country estate, where he died at the age of 99.[61][62][63] However, the master could arrange that slaves would only have enough money to buy their freedom when they were too old to work. They could then use the money to buy a new young slave while the old slave, unable to work, would be forced to rely on charity to stay alive.[64] Several emperors began to grant more rights to slaves as the empire grew. Claudius announced that if a slave was abandoned by his master, he became free. Nero granted slaves the right to complain against their masters in a court. And under Antoninus Pius, a master who killed a slave without just cause could be tried for homicide.[65] Legal protection of slaves continued to grow as the empire expanded. It became common throughout the mid to late 2nd century AD to allow slaves to complain of cruel or unfair treatment by their owners.[66] Attitudes changed in part because of the influence among the educated elite of the Stoics, whose egalitarian views of humanity extended to slaves. There are reports of abuse of slaves by Romans, but there is little information to indicate how widespread such harsh treatment was. Cato the Elder was recorded as expelling his old or sick slaves from his house. Seneca held the view that a slave who was treated well would perform a better job than a poorly treated slave. As most slaves in the Roman world could easily blend into the population if they escaped, it was normal for the masters to discourage slaves from running away by putting a tattoo reading "Stop me! I am a runaway!" or "tax paid" if the slaves were owned by the Roman state on the foreheads of their slaves.[67] For this reason, slaves usually wore headbands to cover up their disfiguring tattoos and at the Temple of Asclepius, the Greek god of healing, in Ephesus, archeologists have found thousands of tablets from escaped slaves asking Asclepius to make their tattoos on their foreheads disappear.[68] Crucifixion was the capital punishment meted out specifically to slaves, traitors, and bandits.[69][70][71][72] Marcus Crassus was supposed to have concluded his victory over Spartacus in the Third Servile War by crucifying 6,000 of the slave rebels along the Appian Way. Rebellions and runaways[edit] Moses Finley remarked, "fugitive slaves are almost an obsession in the sources". Rome forbade the harbouring of fugitive slaves, and professional slave-catchers were hired to hunt down runaways. Advertisements were posted with precise descriptions of escaped slaves, and offered rewards.[73] If caught, fugitives could be punished by being whipped, burnt with iron, or killed. Those who lived were branded on the forehead with the letters FUG, for fugitivus. Sometimes slaves had a metal collar riveted around the neck. One such collar is preserved at Rome and states in Latin, "I have run away. Catch me. If you take me back to my master Zoninus, you'll be rewarded."[41] There was a constant danger of servile insurrection, which had more than once seriously threatened the republic.[74] The 1st century BC Greek historian Diodorus Siculus wrote that slaves sometimes banded together to plot revolts. He chronicled the three major slave rebellions: in 135–132 BC (the First Servile War), in 104–100 BC (the Second Servile War), and in 73–71 BC (the Third Servile War).[75] Serfdom[edit] In addition to slavery, the Romans also practiced serfdom. By the 3rd century AD, the Roman Empire faced a labour shortage. Large Roman landowners increasingly relied on Roman freemen, acting as tenant farmers, instead of slaves to provide labour.[76] The status of these tenant farmers, eventually known as coloni, steadily eroded. Because the tax system implemented by Diocletian assessed taxes based on both land and the inhabitants of that land, it became administratively inconvenient for peasants to leave the land where they were counted in the census.[76] In 332 AD Emperor Constantine issued legislation that greatly restricted the rights of the coloni and tied them to the land. Some see these laws as the beginning of medieval serfdom in Europe. Slavery in philosophy and religion[edit] Classical Roman religion[edit] The religious holiday most famously celebrated by slaves at Rome was the Saturnalia, a December festival of role reversals during which time slaves enjoyed a rich banquet, gambling, free speech and other forms of license not normally available to them. To mark their temporary freedom, they wore the pilleus, the cap of freedom, as did free citizens, who normally went about bareheaded.[77][78] Some ancient sources suggest that master and slave dined together,[79][80] while others indicate that the slaves feasted first, or that the masters actually served the food. The practice may have varied over time.[81] Macrobius (5th century AD) describes the occasion thus: Meanwhile the head of the slave household, whose responsibility it was to offer sacrifice to the Penates, to manage the provisions and to direct the activities of the domestic servants, came to tell his master that the household had feasted according to the annual ritual custom. For at this festival, in houses that keep to proper religious usage, they first of all honor the slaves with a dinner prepared as if for the master; and only afterwards is the table set again for the head of the household. So, then, the chief slave came in to announce the time of dinner and to summon the masters to the table.[82][83] Saturnalian license also permitted slaves to enjoy a pretense of disrespect for their masters, and exempted them from punishment. The Augustan poet Horace calls their freedom of speech "December liberty" (libertas Decembri).[84][85] In two satires set during the Saturnalia, Horace portrays a slave as offering sharp criticism to his master.[86][87][88] But everyone knew that the leveling of the social hierarchy was temporary and had limits; no social norms were ultimately threatened, because the holiday would end.[89] Another slaves' holiday (servorum dies festus) was held August 13[90] in honor of Servius Tullius, the legendary sixth king of Rome who was the child of a slave woman. Like the Saturnalia, the holiday involved a role reversal: the matron of the household washed the heads of her slaves, as well as her own.[91][92] The temple of Feronia at Terracina in Latium was the site of special ceremonies pertaining to manumission. The goddess was identified with Libertas, the personification of liberty,[93] and was a tutelary goddess of freedmen (dea libertorum). A stone at her temple was inscribed "let deserving slaves sit down so that they may stand up free."[94][95] Female slaves and religion[edit] At the Matralia, a women's festival held June 11 in connection with the goddess Mater Matuta, free women ceremonially beat a slave girl and drove her from the community. Slave women were otherwise forbidden participation.[96] Slave women were honored at the Ancillarum Feriae on July 7.[97][98] The holiday is explained as commemorating the service rendered to Rome by a group of ancillae (female slaves or "handmaids") during the war with the Fidenates in the late 4th century BC.[99][100] Weakened by the Gallic sack of Rome in 390 BC, the Romans next had suffered a stinging defeat by the Fidenates, who demanded that they hand over their wives and virgin daughters as hostages to secure a peace. A handmaid named either Philotis or Tutula came up with a plan to deceive the enemy: the ancillae would put on the apparel of the free women, spend one night in the enemy camp, and send a signal to the Romans about the most advantageous time to launch a counterattack.[96][101] Although the historicity of the underlying tale may be doubtful, it indicates that the Romans thought they had already had a significant slave population before the Punic Wars.[102] Dedication to Mithras by the Imperial slave Atimetus; a great number of inscriptions from around the Empire record votive offerings from slaves and freedmen Mystery cults[edit] The Mithraic mysteries were open to slaves and freedmen, and at some cult sites most or all votive offerings are made by slaves, sometimes for the sake of their masters' wellbeing.[103] The cult of Mithras, which valued submission to authority and promotion through a hierarchy, was in harmony with the structure of Roman society, and thus the participation of slaves posed no threat to social order.[104] Stoic philosophy[edit] The Stoics taught that all men were manifestations of the same universal spirit, and thus by nature equal. Stoicism also held that external circumstances (such as being enslaved) did not truly impede a person from practicing the Stoic ideal of inner self-mastery: It has been said that one of the more important Roman stoics, Epictetus, spent his youth as a slave. Early Christianity[edit] See also: Christianity and slavery Both the Stoics and some early Christians opposed the ill treatment of slaves, rather than slavery itself. Advocates of these philosophies saw them as ways to live within human societies as they were, rather than to overthrow entrenched institutions. In the Christian scriptures, equal pay[clarification needed] and fair treatment of slaves was enjoined upon slave masters, and slaves were advised to obey their earthly masters, even if their masters are unfair, and lawfully obtain freedom if possible.[105][106][107][108] Certain senior Christian leaders (such as Gregory of Nyssa and John Chrysostom) called for good treatment for slaves and condemned slavery, while others supported it. Christianity gave slaves an equal place within the religion, allowing them to participate in the liturgy. According to tradition, Pope Clement I (term c. 92–99), Pope Pius I (158–167) and Pope Callixtus I (c. 217–222) were former slaves.[109] In literature[edit] Although ancient authors rarely discussed slavery in terms of morals, because their society did not view slavery as the moral dilemma we do today,[110] they included slaves and the treatment of slaves in works in order to shed light on other topics—history, economy, an individual's character—or to entertain and amuse. Texts mentioning slaves include histories, personal letters, dramas, and satires, including Petronius' Banquet of Trimalchio, in which the eponymous freedman asserts "Slaves too are men. The milk they have drunk is just the same even if an evil fate has oppressed them."[111] Many literary works may have served to help educated Roman slave owners navigate acceptability in the master-slave relationships in terms of slaves' behavior and punishment. To achieve this navigation of acceptability, works often focus on extreme cases, such as the crucifixion of hundreds of slaves for the murder of their master. We must be careful to recognize these instances as exceptional and yet recognize that the underlying problems must have concerned the authors and audiences.[112] Examining the literary sources that mention ancient slavery can reveal both the context for and contemporary views of the institution. The following examples provide a sampling of different genres and portrayals. Plutarch[edit] Plutarch mentioned slavery in his biographical history in order to pass judgement on men's characters. In his Life of Cato the Elder, Plutarch revealed contrasting views of slaves. He wrote that Cato, known for his stringency, would resell his old servants because "no useless servants were fed in his house," but that he himself believes that "it marks an over-rigid temper for a man to take the work out of his servants as out of brute beasts."[113] Cicero[edit] A prolific letter writer, Cicero even wrote letters to one of his administrative slaves, one Marcus Tullius Tiro. Even though Cicero himself remarked that he only wrote to Tiro "for the sake of keeping to [his] established practice,"[114] he occasionally revealed personal care and concern for his slave. Indeed, just the fact that Tiro had enough education and freedom to express his opinions in letters to his master is exceptional and only allowed through his unique circumstances.[115] First, as an administrative slave, Tiro would have enjoyed better living and working conditions than the majority of slaves working in the fields, mines, or workhouses. Also, Cicero was an exceptional owner, even taking Tiro's education into his own hands.[116] While these letters suggest a familiarity and connection between master and slave, each letter still contains a direct command, suggesting that Cicero calculatingly used familiarity in order to ensure performance and loyalty from Tiro.[117] Roman comedies[edit] Main article: Theatre of ancient Rome In Roman comedy, servi or slaves make up the majority of the stock characters, and generally fall into two basic categories: loyal slaves and tricksters. Loyal slaves often help their master in their plan to woo or obtain a lover (the most popular plot-driving element in Roman comedy). They are often dim, timid, and worried about what punishments may befall them. Trickster slaves are more numerous and often use their masters' unfortunate situation to create a "topsy-turvy" world in which they are the masters and their masters are subservient to them. The master will often ask the slave for a favor and the slave only complies once the master has made it clear that the slave is in charge, beseeching him and calling him lord, sometimes even a god.[118] These slaves are threatened with numerous punishments for their treachery, but always escape the fulfillment of these threats through their wit.[118] Depictions of slaves in Roman comedies can be seen in the work of Plautus and Publius Terentius Afer. Dartmouth associate professor Roberta Stewart has stated that Plautus’ plays represent slavery "as a complex institution that raised perplexing problems in human relationships involving masters and slaves.”[119] Terence added a new element to how slaves were portrayed in his plays, due to his personal background as a former slave. In the work Andria, slaves are at the centerpiece off the plot. In this play, Simo, a wealthy Athenian wants his son, Pamphilius, to marry one girl but Pamphilius has his sights set on another. Much of the conflict in this play revolves around schemes with Pamphilius's slave, Davos, and the rest of the characters in the story. Many times throughout the play, slaves are allowed to engage in activity, such as the inner and personal lives of their owners, that wouldn't normally be seen with slaves in every day society. This is a form of satire by Terence due to the unrealistic nature of events that occurs between slaves and citizens in his plays.[120] Emancipation[edit] Freeing a slave was called manumissio, which literally means "sending out from the hand". The freeing of the slave was a public ceremony, performed before some sort of public official, usually a judge. The owner touched the slave on the head with a staff and he was free to go. Simpler methods were sometimes used, usually with the owner proclaiming a slave's freedom in front of friends and family, or just a simple invitation to recline with the family at dinner. A felt cap called the Pileus was given to the former slave as symbol of manumission. Slaves were freed for a variety of reasons; for a particularly good deed toward the slave's owner, or out of friendship or respect. Sometimes, a slave who had enough money could buy his freedom and the freedom of a fellow slave, frequently a spouse. However, few slaves had enough money to do so, and many slaves were not allowed to hold money. Slaves were also freed through testamentary manumission, by a provision in an owner's will at his death. Augustus restricted such manumissions to at most a hundred slaves, and fewer in a small household.[citation needed] Already educated or experienced slaves were freed the most often. Eventually the practice became so common that Augustus decreed that no Roman slave could be freed before age 30.[citation needed] Freedmen[edit] Cinerary urn for the freedman Tiberius Claudius Chryseros and two women, probably his wife and daughter A freed slave was the libertus of his former master, who became his patron (patronus). The two had mutual obligations to each other within the traditional patronage network. The terms of his manumission might specify the services a libertus owed. A freedman could "network" with other patrons as well. As a social class, former slaves were libertini. Men could vote and participate in politics, with some limitations. They could not run for office, nor be admitted to the senatorial class. The children of former slaves enjoyed the full privileges of Roman citizenship without restrictions. The Latin poet Horace was the son of a freedman, and an officer in the army of Marcus Junius Brutus. Some freedmen became very powerful. Many freedmen had important roles in the Roman government. Freedmen of the Imperial families often were the main functionaries in the Imperial administration. Some rose to positions of great influence, such as Narcissus, a former slave of the Emperor Claudius. Other freedmen became wealthy. The brothers who owned House of the Vettii, one of the biggest and most magnificent houses in Pompeii, are thought to have been freedmen. A freedman designed the amphitheater in Pompeii. A freedman who became rich and influential might still be looked down on by the traditional aristocracy as a vulgar nouveau riche. Trimalchio, a character in the Satyricon, is a caricature of such a freedman. See also[edit] Slavery in ancient Greece Slavery in antiquity History of slavery References[edit] ^ Described by Mikhail Rostovtzev, The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire (Tannen, 1900), p. 288. ^ Fields, Nic. Spartacus and the Slave War 73–71 BC: A Gladiator Rebels against Rome. (Osprey 2009) p. 17–18. ^ a b c Roman Slavery: The Social, Cultural, Political, and Demographic Consequences by Moya K. Mason ^ a b Brian Tierney, The Idea of Natural Rights (Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2002, originally published 1997 by Scholars Press for Emory University), p. 136. ^ R.W. Dyson, Natural Law and Political Realism in the History of Political Thought (Peter Lang, 2005), vol. 1, p. 127. ^ David J. Bederman, International Law in Antiquity (Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 85. ^ Bradley (1994), pp. 33–34, 48–49 ^ Mouritsen (2011), p. 100 ^ Dupont p. 63. ^ Tim Cornell 'The Recovery of Rome' in CAH2 7.2 F.W. Walbank et al. (eds.) Cambridge. ^ Wickham (2014), pp. 210–217 ^ W.V. Harris. 1979. War and Imperialism in Republican Rome 327–70 B.C.. Oxford, p. 59 n. 4. ^ Fields, pp. 7, 8–10. ^ K.R. Bradley. 2004. 'On Captives under the Principate', Phoenix 58,3/4:, 299; Brunt 1971 Italian Manpower, Oxford, p. 707; Hopkins 1978, pp. 8–15. This view has been challenged more recently by Wickham (2014). ^ Bradley 2004, pp. 298–318. ^ V. Gabrielsen 'Piracy and the Slave-Trade' in A. Erskine (ed.) A Companion to the Hellenistic World (London, 2003) pp. 389–404. ^ Plutarch, Pompey 24-8. ^ St. Augustine Letter 10. ^ Hopkins, Keith. Conquerors and Slaves: Sociological Studies in Roman History. Cambridge University Press, New York. Pgs. 4–5 ^ Herodotus, Histories 9.10. ^ Finley, Moses I. (1960). Slavery in classical Antiquity. Views and controversies. Cambridge. ^ Finley, Moses I. (1980). Ancient Slavery and Modern Ideology. Chatto & Windus. ^ Montoya Rubio, Bernat (2015). L'esclavitud en l'economia antiga: fonaments discursius de la historiografia moderna (Segles XV-XVIII). Presses universitaires de Franche-Comté. pp. 15–25. ISBN 978-2-84867-510-7. ^ a b Harris (2000), p. 721 ^ Harris (2000), p. 722 ^ Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to History ^ Walter Scheidel. 2005. 'Human Mobility in Roman Italy, II: The Slave Population', Journal of Roman Studies 95: 64–79. Scheidel, p. 170, has estimated between 1 and 1.5 million slaves in the 1st century BC. ^ Wickham (2014), p. 198 notes the difficulty in estimating the size of the slave population and the supply needed to maintain and grow the population. ^ No contemporary or systematic census of slave numbers is known; in the Empire, under-reporting of male slave numbers would have reduced the tax liabilities attached to their ownership. See Kyle Harper, Slavery in the Late Roman World, AD 275–425. Cambridge University Press, 2011, pp. 58–60, and footnote 150. ISBN 978-0-521-19861-5 ^ Bruce W. Frier and Thomas A. J. McGinn. 2004. A Casebook on Roman Family Law. Oxford University Press: American Philological Association. p. 15 ^ Stefan Goodwin. 2009. Africa in Europe: Antiquity into the Age of Global Expansion. Lexington Books. vol. 1, p. 41, noting that "Roman slavery was a nonracist and fluid system". ^ Noy, David (2000). Foreigners at Rome: Citizens and Strangers. Duckworth with the Classical Press of Wales. ISBN 978-0-7156-2952-9. ^ Harper, James (1972). Slaves and Freedmen in Imperial Rome. Am J Philol. ^ Prowse, Tracy L.; Schwarcz, Henry P.; Garnsey, Peter; Knyf, Martin; MacChiarelli, Roberto; Bondioli, Luca (2007). "Isotopic evidence for age-related immigration to imperial Rome". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 132 (4): 510–519. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20541. PMID 17205550. ^ Killgrove, Kristina; Montgomery, Janet (2016). "All Roads Lead to Rome: Exploring Human Migration to the Eternal City through Biochemistry of Skeletons from Two Imperial-Era Cemeteries (1st–3rd c AD)". PLOS ONE. 11 (2): e0147585. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1147585K. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0147585. PMC 4749291. PMID 26863610. ^ Wickham (2014), pp. 180–184 ^ This is contested by Wickham (2014), pp. iv, 202–205. ^ William L. Westermann, The slave systems of Greek and Roman Antiquity, The American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, US. ^ de souza,Philip:"the roman news" , page 11. Candlewick press, 1996.; ^ Roman Society, Roman Life ^ a b c Johnston, Mary. Roman Life. Chicago: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1957, p. 158–177 ^ P.A. Brunt, Social Conflicts in the Roman Republic (Chatto & Windus, 1971), pp. 56–57. ^ Brunt, Social Conflicts in the Roman Republic, pp. 56–57. ^ a b c d e f "Slavery in Rome," in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome (Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 323. ^ Roman Civilization Archived 2009-02-03 at the Wayback Machine ^ CIL VI, 6246. ^ Alfred Michael Hirt, Imperial Mines and Quarries in the Roman World: Organizational Aspects 27–BC AD 235 (Oxford University Press, 2010), sect. 3.3. ^ Hirt, Imperial Mines and Quarries, sect. 4.2.1. ^ Alison Futrell, A Sourcebook on the Roman Games (Blackwell, 2006), p. 124. ^ a b Adolf Berger. 1991. Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law. American Philosophical Society (reprint). p. 706. ^ Marcel Mauss. 1979. "A Category of the human mind: the notion of the person, the notion of 'self'". In: Marcel Mauss. 1979. Sociology and psychology. Essays. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. p. 81. ^ Ingram, John Kells (1911). "Slavery" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 216–227. ^ Fergus Millar, The Crowd in Rome in the Late Republic (University of Michigan, 1998, 2002), pp. 23, 209. ^ Mouritsen (2011), p. 36 ^ Adolf Berger, entry on libertus, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law (American Philological Society, 1953, 1991), p. 564. ^ Berger, entry on libertinus, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law, p. 564. ^ Jane F. Gardner. 2011. "Slavery and Roman Law," in The Cambridge World History of Slavery. Cambridge University Press. vol. 1, p. 429. ^ Gamauf (2009) ^ Kehoe, Dennis P. (2011). "Law and Social Function in the Roman Empire". The Oxford Handbook of Social Relations in the Roman World. Oxford University Press. pp. 147–8. ^ Bradley (1994), pp. 2–3 ^ Cicero, Ad familiares 16.21 ^ Jerome, Chronological Tables 194.1 ^ William Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology vol. 3, p. 1182 Archived 2006-12-07 at the Wayback Machine ^ "Slavery in the Roman Empire". ^ Dillon, Matthew and Garland, Lynda. Ancient Rome: From the Early Republic to the Assassination of Julius Caesar. Routledge, 2005. Pg 297 ^ McGinn, Thomas. Prostitution, Sexuality, and the Law in Ancient Rome. Oxford University Press, 2003 Pg. 309 ^ Maylor, Adrienne The Poison King Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010 page 20. ^ Maylor, Adrienne The Poison King Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010 pages 20–21. ^ Strauss, pp. 190–194, 204 ^ Fields, pp. 79–81 ^ Losch, p. 56, n. 1 ^ see also Philippians 2:5–8. ^ Bradley, Keith Resisting Slavery in Ancient Rome ^ Naerebout and Singor, "De Oudheid", p. 296 ^ Siculus, Diodorus. The Civil Wars 111–121. 73–71 BC ^ a b Mackay, Christopher (2004). Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 298. ISBN 978-0521809184. ^ H.S. Versnel, "Saturnus and the Saturnalia," in Inconsistencies in Greek and Roman Religion: Transition and Reversal in Myth and Ritual (Brill, 1993, 1994), p. 147 ^ Dolansky (2010), p. 492 ^ Seneca, Epistulae 47.14 ^ Barton (1993), p. 498 ^ Dolansky (2010), p. 484 ^ Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.24.22–23 ^ Mary Beard, J.A. North, and S.R.F. Price, Religions of Rome: A Sourcebook (Cambridge University Press, 1998), vol. 2, p. 124. ^ Horace, Satires 2.7.4 ^ Hans-Friedrich Mueller, "Saturn", in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome (Oxford University Press, 2010), pp. 221,222. ^ Horace, Satires, Book 2, poems 3 and 7 ^ Catherine Keane, Figuring Genre in Roman Satire (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 90 ^ Maria Plaza, The Function of Humour in Roman Verse Satire: Laughing and Lying (Oxford University Press, 2006), pp. 298–300 et passim. ^ Barton (1993), passim ^ Richard P. Saller, "Symbols of Gender and Status Hierarchies in the Roman Household," in Women and Slaves in Greco-Roman Culture (Routledge, 1998; Taylor & Francis, 2005), p. 90. ^ Plutarch, Roman Questions 100 ^ Saller, "Symbols of Gender and Status Hierarchies," p. 91. ^ Servius, in his note to Aeneid 8.564, citing Varro. ^ Livy, 22.1.18 ^ Peter F. Dorcey, The Cult of Silvanus: A Study in Roman Folk Religion (Brill, 1992), p. 109. ^ a b Bradley (1994), p. 18 ^ The calendar of Polemius Silvius is the only one to record the holiday. ^ William Warde Fowler, The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic (London, 1908), p. 176. ^ Plutarch, Life of Camillus 33, as well as Silvius. ^ By Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.11.36 ^ Jennifer A. Glancy, Slavery in Early Christianity (Oxford University Press, 2002; First Fortress Press, 2006), p. 27 ^ K.R. Bradley, "On the Roman Slave Supply and Slavebreeding," in Classical Slavery (Frank Cass Publishers, 1987, 1999, 2003), p. 63. ^ Clauss (2001), pp. 33, 37–39 ^ Clauss (2001), pp. 40, 143 ^ Ephesians 6:5–9 ^ Colossians 4:1 ^ 1Corinthians 7:21. ^ "1 Peter 2:18 Slaves, in reverent fear of God submit yourselves to your masters, not only to those who are good and considerate, but also to those who are harsh". biblehub.com. Retrieved 2016-02-17. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia Slavery and Christianity ^ Isaac, Benjamin (2006). "Proto-Racism in Graeco-Roman Antiquity". World Archaeology. 38 (1): 32–47. doi:10.1080/00438240500509819. ^ Westermann, William Linn (1942). "Industrial Slavery in Roman Italy". The Journal of Economic History. 2 (2): 161. doi:10.1017/S0022050700052542. ^ Hopkins, Keith (1993). "Novel Evidence for Roman Slavery". Past & Present. 138: 6, 8. doi:10.1093/past/138.1.3. ^ Mellor, Ronald. The Historians of Ancient Rome. New York: Routledge, 1997. (467). ^ Cicero. Ad familiares 16.6 ^ Bankston (2012), p. 209 ^ Cicero. Ad familiares 16.3 ^ Bankston (2012), p. 215 ^ a b Segal, Erich. Roman Laughter: The Comedy of Plautus. New York: Oxford University Press, 1968. (99–169). ^ Stewart, Roberta (2012). Plautus and Roman Slavery. Malden, MA: Oxford. ^ Terence, Terence (2002). Andria. Bristol Classical Press. Bibliography[edit] Bankston, Zach (2012). "Administrative Slavery in the Ancient Roman Republic: The Value of Marcus Tullius Tiro in Ciceronian Rhetoric". Rhetoric Review. 31 (3): 203–218. doi:10.1080/07350198.2012.683991. Barton, Carlin A. (1993). The Sorrows of the Ancient Romans: The Gladiator and the Monster. Princeton University Press. Bradley, Keith (1994). Slavery and Society at Rome. Cambridge University Press. Clauss, Manfred (2001). The Roman Cult of Mithras: The God and His Mysteries. Translated by Richard Gordon. Routledge. Dolansky, Fanny (2010). "Celebrating the Saturnalia: religious ritual and Roman domestic life". In Beryl Rawson (ed.). A Companion to Families in the Greek and Roman Worlds. Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 488–503. doi:10.1002/9781444390766.ch29. ISBN 978-1-4051-8767-1. Gamauf, Richard (2009). "Slaves Doing Business: The role of Roman Law in the Economy of a Roman Household". European Review of History. 16 (3): 331–346. doi:10.1080/13507480902916837. Harris, W. V. (2000). "Trade". The Cambridge Ancient History: The High Empire A.D. 70–192. 11. Cambridge University Press. Mouritsen, Henrik (2011). The Freedman in the Roman World. Cambridge University Press. Santosuosso, Antonio (2001). Storming the Heavens. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-3523-0. Wickham, Jason Paul (2014). The Enslavement of War Captives by the Romans to 146 BC (PDF) (PhD thesis). Liverpool University. Further reading[edit] Bosworth, A. B. 2002. "Vespasian and the Slave Trade." Classical Quarterly 52:350–357. Bradley, Keith. 1994. Slavery and Society at Rome. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Fitzgerald, William. 2000. Slavery and the Roman Literary Imagination. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Hopkins, Keith. 1978. Conquerors and Slaves. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Hunt, Peter. 2018. Ancient Greek and Roman Slavery. Chichester, UK: Wiley Blackwell. Joshel, Sandra R.. 2010. Slavery in the Roman World. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Watson, Alan. 1987. Roman Slave Law. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press. Yavetz, Zvi. 1988. Slaves and Slavery in Ancient Rome. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Slavery in ancient Rome. 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en-wikipedia-org-4074	----	Valerius Antias - Wikipedia Valerius Antias From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Shrine of the nymph Egeria, Caffarella Park, Rome. Numa Pompilius consulted her frequently, but on the early Aventine. The life of Numa was of extensive interest to Antias. In Fragment 6 (Plutarch, Numa, 15 and elsewhere) following the nymph's advice he summons Jupiter from heaven and forces him to accept a remedy of onion and fish heads to counter the effects of a lightning strike, instead of the human heads proposed by the god. Livy ignores the story.[1] Valerius Antias (fl. 1st century BC) was an ancient Roman annalist whom Livy mentions as a source. No complete works of his survive but from the sixty-five fragments said to be his in the works of other authors it has been deduced that he wrote a chronicle of ancient Rome in at least seventy-five books.[2] The latest dateable event in the fragments is mention of the heirs of the orator, Lucius Licinius Crassus, who died in 91 BC. Of the seventy references to Antias in classical (Greek and Latin) literature sixty-one mention him as an authority on Roman legendary history. Numa Pompilius consulting Egeria. Contents 1 Life 2 Work 3 Legacy 4 See also 5 References 5.1 Citations 5.2 Bibliography 6 External links Life[edit] Not much is known about the life of Valerius Antias. His family were the Valerii Antiates, a branch of the Valeria gens residing at least from early republican times in the vicinity of Antium (modern towns of Anzio and Nettuno). He may have been descended from Lucius Valerius Antias.[3] He was probably a younger contemporary of Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius and lived in the times of Sulla, although some scholars believe that he was a contemporary of Julius Caesar and wrote his work after 50 BC, because he seems to have been unknown to Cicero, who does not mention him in his enumeration of famous historians.[4] He was the most important of the so-called “younger annalists”. Work[edit] The nearly completely lost work of Antias – cited as annales or as historiae – began its account of the Roman history with the foundation of Rome and extended at least to the year 91 BC. The second book told about the legendary Roman king Numa Pompilius, the twenty-second book about the capitulation of Gaius Hostilius Mancinus in 136 BC (this event Livy only reports in book 55 of his history). Therefore, the earlier times were reported much shorter than the contemporary history of the author. The work of Antias was not very reliable. Livy criticizes his exaggerated numbers of killed and captured enemies in the Roman wars. Sometimes he seems to have even invented battles.[5] But sometimes he also delivered correct values, which fact can be concluded from a comparison with some values given by Polybius. Antias’ account of each year included the allocation of troops and provinces, important omen, battles, foundation of new colonies etc. At the end of the description of each year he reported about plays, temple inaugurations, and other news, in particular about events in the city of Rome. Under the influence of Hellenistic historiography Antias related his stories very long-winded and filled with sensationalism to entertain his readers. He embroidered the mostly short accounts of older historians with dramatic details and also recounted legends and miracles. He falsified the report about the trials of the Scipio brothers (compare Livy 38.50-60) and seems to have invented high offices and deeds of members of his house, the gens Valeria, who lived in the early Roman republic because there were no reliable sources about these early times, which could have disproved his assertions. Antias gave a rationalistic account about the discovery of the coffins with the books of king Numa, because he had the coffins uncovered by rain and not by excavation like in the older tradition. The style of Antias was simple, but not archaic, and Marcus Cornelius Fronto (epistel ad Verus 1, 1, p. 134, 2 ed. Van den Hout) judged his language and style to be unattractive (invenuste). Therefore, he was rarely cited literally by later grammarians.[6] Legacy[edit] In one long-standing view of Antias' influence on Livy, the latter relied mainly on the former in Books 1-10 of Ab Urbe Condita Libri, the legendary history of Rome.[5] To elucidate this possible influence, A.A. Howard compared each of Antias' fragments with the equivalent story in Livy. He deduced that there is no evidence of such influence in the first ten books. Of twenty fragments falling within the period Livy does not use any, either omitting the information, or explicitly disagreeing with it. Howard says:[7] "The argument that Livy made free use of Antias and mentioned him only in case of disagreement is absolutely without foundation, for we have seen fourteen specific instances in which, although Livy does not mention him, he nevertheless disagrees with his statements as known to us from other sources, or absolutely disregards them...." For example, in Fragment 1 Acca Larentia willed her property to Romulus. Livy does not mention it. Fragment 3 mentions that exactly 527 Sabine Women were kidnapped.[5] Livy says the number is greater than 30, and so on. For the entire period covered by Livy, 33 fragments of Antias come from Livy.[8] He disagrees with six of these, criticizes eleven more, quotes Antias in disagreement on ten, and agrees with, but later disproves, two. Howard concludes disparagingly that "It is on such evidence as this that we are asked to believe that Antias was the source of considerable portions of Livy's history and that Livy followed blindly, at least in the earlier part of his work. " See also[edit] Livy's History of Rome References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Howard (1906), p. 163. ^ Howard (1906), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), Antias. ^ De Legibus, 1.2.3-7. ^ a b c Freese, John Henry (1911). "Annalists s.v." . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 60. ^ Hans Volkmann, Valerius 98. In: Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft (RE), vol. 7A, 2 (1948), col. 2313-2340 ^ Howard (1906), p. 167. ^ Howard (1906), p. 181. Bibliography[edit] Howard, Albert A. (1906). "Valerius Antias and Livy". Harvard Studies in Classical Philology. Cambridge: Harvard University. 18: 161–182. doi:10.2307/310316. JSTOR 310316. External links[edit] Smith, William (1870). "Antias". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. The Ancient Library. Archived from the original on 2007-09-05. Authority control GND: 119146495 ISNI: 0000 0001 0602 5223 LCCN: nr95029635 VIAF: 41732015 WorldCat Identities: lccn-nr95029635 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Valerius_Antias&oldid=921910537" Categories: Old Latin-language writers Latin historians 1st-century BC historians 1st-century BC Romans Valerii Antiates Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Беларуская Català Deutsch Español Français Italiano Português Русский Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 18 October 2019, at 18:13 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4097	----	Help:Introduction - Wikipedia Help:Introduction From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Tutorial for newcomers who want to contribute to Wikipedia Introduction to Wikipedia Welcome to Wikipedia! Anyone can edit almost every page, and millions already have. This page takes you through a set of tutorials aimed at complete newcomers interested in contributing. It covers all the basics, and each tutorial takes only a few minutes, so you could become a proficient Wikipedian in no time! Get started Policies and Guidelines The Wiki markup source editor shows the underlying page source code, and works like a plain text file. Links and other items are indicated using simple code like this: [[Earth]]. Editing Referencing Images Tables Talk pages VisualEditor works more like a word processor and hides the underlying source code. Links and other items are edited using toolbar and pop-up interfaces. Editing Referencing Images Tables Navigating Wikipedia Manual of Style Conclusion View all as single page Shortcuts WP:I H:I H:INTRO For more training information, see also: Full help contents page Training for students A single-page guide to contributing A training adventure game Resources for new editors Please consider leaving us some feedback. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Help:Introduction&oldid=996279760" Categories: Wikipedia quick introductions Hidden categories: Help pages with short description Wikipedia semi-protected project pages Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Help page Talk Variants Views Read View source View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikisource Wikiversity Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch Ænglisc Аҧсшәа العربية Arpetan অসমীয়া Авар Basa Bali বাংলা Bân-lâm-gú Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Български Boarisch Bosanski Буряад Català Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Davvisámegiella Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara Føroyskt Français Gaeilge Gaelg Gàidhlig Galego ગુજરાતી 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული Қазақша Kurdî Кыргызча Ladino ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Limburgs मैथिली Македонски മലയാളം Malti مصرى Bahasa Melayu Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ 日本語 Napulitano Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk پښتو Plattdüütsch Polski Română Romani čhib Runa Simi Русский संस्कृतम् Sardu Scots Sicilianu Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog Tarandíne Татарча/tatarça ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး ไทย Türkçe Удмурт Українська اردو Vahcuengh Tiếng Việt ייִדיש 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 25 December 2020, at 16:23 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-409	----	Helenius Acron - Wikipedia Helenius Acron From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Helenius Acro) Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Roman grammarian For the other meanings of acron, see Acron (disambiguation). Helenius Acron (or Acro) was a Roman commentator and grammarian, probably of the 3rd century AD, but whose precise date is not known. Helenius Acron is known to have written on Terence (Adelphi and Eunuchus at least) and Horace. These commentaries on Horace are now lost but are referred to by the grammarian Charisius.[1] There is some evidence for a commentary on Persius.[2] Scholia attributed to Acron appear in manuscripts of Horace; there are three recensions known, the earliest dating to the 5th century. The fragments which remain of the work on Horace, though much mutilated, are valuable, as containing the remarks of the older commentators, Quintus Terentius Scaurus and others. The attribution to Acron, however, is not found before the 15th century, and is doubtful.[2] Fragments of Acron's writing may also appear in Pomponius Porphyrion. References[edit] ^ Allen, Alexander (1867). "Acron, Helenius". In Smith, William (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 1. Boston, MA. p. 15. ^ a b Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Acro, Helenius" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 155. External links[edit] Acronis et Porphyrionis commentarii in Q. Horatium Flaccum. Edidit Ferdinandus Hauthal, vol. 1, vol. 2, Berolini sumptibus Julii Springeri, 1864. Heleni Acronis commentarium in Horatium Flaccum at www.horatius.net.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870). "Acron, Helenius". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Authority control BNE: XX4728696 BNF: cb12527466f (data) GND: 101100809 ISNI: 0000 0000 4954 2100 LCCN: nr97044692 NKC: mzk2005290002 NTA: 067760023 SELIBR: 289507 SUDOC: 034527303 VIAF: 120697186 WorldCat Identities: lccn-nr97044694 This article about an Ancient Roman writer is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helenius_Acron&oldid=884561582" Categories: 3rd-century Romans Post–Silver Age Latin writers Grammarians of Latin Horace 3rd-century Latin writers Ancient Roman people stubs European writer stubs Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM without a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Asturianu Català Cymraeg Deutsch Español Français Italiano Latina Português Edit links This page was last edited on 22 February 2019, at 13:09 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4116	----	Gens - Wikipedia Gens From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the Roman family unit. For other uses, see Gens (disambiguation). In ancient Rome, a gens (/ˈɡɛns/ or /ˈdʒɛnz/), plural gentes, was a family consisting of individuals who shared the same nomen and who claimed descent from a common ancestor. A branch of a gens was called a stirps (plural stirpes). The gens was an important social structure at Rome and throughout Italia during the period of the Roman Republic. Much of individuals' social standing depended on the gens to which they belonged. Certain gentes were classified as patrician, others as plebeian; some had both patrician and plebeian branches. The importance of membership in a gens declined considerably in imperial times, although the gentilicium continued to be used and defined the origins and dynasties of Roman emperors.[1][2] Contents 1 Origins 1.1 Stirpes 1.2 Praenomina 2 Social function of the gens 3 Patrician and plebeian gentes 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Origins[edit] The word gens is sometimes translated as "race", or "nation", meaning a people descended from a common ancestor (rather than sharing a common physical trait). It can also be translated as "clan", "kin", or "tribe", although the word tribus has a separate and distinct meaning in Roman culture. A gens could be as small as a single family, or could include hundreds of individuals. According to tradition, in 479 BC the gens Fabia alone were able to field a militia consisting of three hundred and six men of fighting age. The concept of the gens was not uniquely Roman, but was shared with communities throughout Italy, including those who spoke Italic languages such as Latin, Oscan, and Umbrian as well as the Etruscans. All of these peoples were eventually absorbed into the sphere of Roman culture.[1][2][3][4] The oldest gentes were said to have originated before the foundation of Rome (traditionally 753 BC), and claimed descent from mythological personages as far back as the time of the Trojan War (traditionally ended 1184 BC[5]). However, the establishment of the gens cannot long predate the adoption of hereditary surnames. The nomen gentilicium, or "gentile name", was its distinguishing feature, for a Roman citizen's nomen indicated his membership in a gens.[1][4][5][6] The nomen could be derived from any number of things, such as the name of an ancestor, a person's occupation, physical appearance, behavior, or characteristics, or town of origin. Because some of these things were fairly common, it was possible for unrelated families to bear the same nomen, and over time to become confused. Persons could be adopted into a gens and acquire its nomen. A libertus, or "freedman", usually assumed the nomen (and sometimes also the praenomen) of the person who had manumitted him, and a naturalized citizen usually took the name of the patron who granted his citizenship. Freedmen and newly enfranchised citizens were not technically part of the gentes whose names they shared, but within a few generations it often became impossible to distinguish their descendants from the original members. In practice this meant that a gens could acquire new members and even new branches, either by design or by accident.[1][2][7] Stirpes[edit] Different branches or stirpes of a gens were usually distinguished by their cognomina, additional surnames following the nomen, which could be either personal or hereditary. Some particularly large stirpes themselves became divided into multiple branches, distinguished by additional cognomina.[1][4] Praenomina[edit] Most gentes regularly employed a limited number of personal names, or praenomina, the selection of which helped to distinguish members of one gens from another. Sometimes different branches of a gens would vary in their names of choice. The most conservative gentes would sometimes limit themselves to three or four praenomina, while others made regular use of six or seven.[1][2] There were two main reasons for this limited selection: first, it was traditional to pass down family names from one generation to the next; such names were always preferred. Second, most patrician families limited themselves to a small number of names as a way of distinguishing themselves from the plebeians, who often employed a wider variety of names, including some that were seldom used by the patricians. However, several of the oldest and most noble patrician houses frequently used rare and unusual praenomina.[4][7] Certain families also deliberately avoided particular praenomina. In at least some cases, this was because of traditions concerning disgraced or dishonored members of the gens bearing a particular name. For example, the gens Junia carefully avoided the praenomina Titus and Tiberius after two members with these names were executed for treason. A similar instance supposedly led the assembly of the gens Manlia to forbid its members from bearing the praenomen Marcus, although this prohibition does not seem to have been strictly observed.[1][3][4][8] Social function of the gens[edit] In theory, each gens functioned as a state within a state, governed by its own elders and assemblies, following its own customs, and carrying out its own religious rites. Certain cults were traditionally associated with specific gentes. The gentile assemblies had the responsibility of adoption and guardianship for their members. If a member of a gens died intestate and without immediate family, his property was distributed to the rest of the gens.[1][2] The decisions of a gens were theoretically binding on all of its members. However, no public enactment is recorded as having been passed by the assembly of a gens. As a group, the gentes had considerable influence on the development of Roman law and religious practices, but comparatively little influence on the political and constitutional history of Rome.[1][2] Patrician and plebeian gentes[edit] Certain gentes were considered patrician, and others plebeian. According to tradition, the patricians were descended from the "city fathers", or patres; that is, the heads of family at the time of its foundation by Romulus, the first King of Rome. Other noble families which came to Rome during the time of the kings were also admitted to the patriciate, including several who emigrated from Alba Longa after that city was destroyed by Tullus Hostilius. The last known instance of a gens being admitted to the patriciate prior to the 1st century BC was when the Claudii were added to the ranks of the patricians after coming to Rome in 504 BC, five years after the establishment of the Republic.[1][2][3][6] Numerous sources describe two classes amongst the patrician gentes, known as the gentes maiores, or major gentes, and the gentes minores, or minor gentes. No definite information has survived concerning which families were numbered amongst the gentes maiores, or even how many there were. However, they almost certainly included the Aemilii, Claudii, Cornelii, Fabii, Manlii, and Valerii. Nor is it certain whether this distinction was of any practical importance, although it has been suggested that the princeps senatus, or speaker of the Senate, was usually chosen from their number.[1] For the first several decades of the Republic, it is not entirely certain which gentes were considered patrician and which plebeian. However, a series of laws promulgated in 451 and 450 BC as the Twelve Tables attempted to codify a rigid distinction between the classes, formally excluding the plebeians from holding any of the major magistracies from that time until the passage of the Lex Licinia Sextia in 367 BC. The law forbidding the intermarriage of patricians and plebeians was repealed after only a few years, by the Lex Canuleia in 445 BC.[1][2] Despite the formal reconciliation of the orders in 367, the patrician houses, which as time passed represented a smaller and smaller percentage of the Roman populace, continued to hold on to as much power as possible, resulting in frequent conflict between the orders over the next two centuries. Certain patrician families regularly opposed the sharing of power with the plebeians, while others favored it, and some were divided.[2][4][9] Many gentes included both patrician and plebeian branches. These may have arisen through adoption or manumission, or when two unrelated families bearing the same nomen became confused. It may also be that individual members of a gens voluntarily left or were expelled from the patriciate, along with their descendants. In some cases, gentes that must originally have been patrician, or which were so regarded during the early Republic, were later known only by their plebeian descendants.[2] By the first century BC, the practical distinction between the patricians and the plebeians was minimal. Nonetheless, with the rise of imperial authority, several plebeian gentes were raised to the patriciate, replacing older patrician families that had faded into obscurity, and were no longer represented in the Roman senate. Although both the concept of the gens and of the patriciate survived well into imperial times, both gradually lost most of their significance. In the final centuries of the Western Empire, patricius was used primarily as an individual title, rather than a class to which an entire family belonged.[1][2] See also[edit] Genos – a similar concept in Ancient Greece Gana - a cognate Sanskrit term referring to a different type of human group List of Roman gentes List of Roman nomina Roman naming conventions References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities, Second Edition, Harry Thurston Peck, Editor (1897) ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Oxford Classical Dictionary, 2nd Ed. (1970) ^ a b c Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, Book II ^ a b c d e f Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, William Smith, Editor ^ a b Eratosthenes, Chronographia, cited in Michael Wood, In Search of the Trojan War (1985) ^ a b Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, Book I ^ a b Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, August Pauly and Georg Wissowa, Editors ^ Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, Book VI ^ Michael Grant, History of Rome (1978) External links[edit] The dictionary definition of gens at Wiktionary v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum 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Euskara Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Svenska Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 17 December 2020, at 21:19 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4129	----	Constitution of the Roman Kingdom - Wikipedia Constitution of the Roman Kingdom From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e The Constitution of the Roman Kingdom was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles originating mainly through precedent.[1] During the years of the Roman Kingdom, the constitutional arrangement was centered on the king, who had the power to appoint assistants, and delegate to them their specific powers. The Roman Senate, which was dominated by the aristocracy, served as the advisory council to the king. Often, the king asked the Senate to vote on various matters, but he was free to ignore any advice they gave him. The king could also request a vote on various matters by the popular assembly (the "Curiate Assembly"), which he was also free to ignore. The popular assembly functioned as a vehicle through which the People of Rome could express their opinions. In it, the people were organized according to their respective curiae. However, the popular assembly did have other functions. For example, it was a forum used by citizens to hear announcements. It could also serve as a trial court for both civil and criminal matters. Contents 1 Constitutional history 2 Senate 3 Legislative Assemblies 4 Executive Magistrates 5 The end of the monarchy 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 Further reading 9.1 Primary sources 9.2 Secondary source material Constitutional history[edit] Main articles: History of the Roman Constitution and History of the Constitution of the Roman Kingdom The period of the kingdom can be divided into two epochs based on the legends.[2] While the specific legends were probably not true, they were likely based on historical fact. It is likely that, before the founding of the republic, Rome had actually been ruled by a succession of kings. The first legendary epoch spans the reigns of the first four legendary kings. During this time, the political foundations of the city were laid,[3] the city was organized into "curiae", the religious institutions were established, and the Senate and the assemblies evolved into formal institutions. The city fought several wars of conquest, the port of Ostia was founded, and the Tiber River was bridged.[3] The early Romans were divided into three ethnic groups:[4] the Ramnes (Latins), Tities (Sabines), and Luceres (Etruscans). The original "patrician" families belonged to these ethnic groups. In an attempt to add a level of organization to the city, these patrician families were divided into units called "curiae".[3] The vehicle through which the early Romans expressed their democratic impulses was known as a "committee" (comitia or "assembly"). The two principal assemblies that formed were known as the "Curiate Assembly" and the "Calate Assembly". The two assemblies were designed to mirror the ethnic divisions of the city and, as such, the assemblies were organized according to curia. The vehicle through which the early Romans expressed their aristocratic impulses was a council of town elders,[2] which became the Roman Senate. The elders of this council were known as patres ("fathers"), and thus are known to history as the first Roman senators. The populus ("people") and the elders eventually recognized the need for a single political leader,[2] and thus elected the rex (king). The populus elected the rex, and the elders advised the rex.[2] Aeneas, whom the Romans believed Romulus and Remus descended from and is depicted in the Aeneid, fleeing from the burning city of Troy The second epoch spans the reigns of the last three legendary kings. This epoch was more consequential than the first, which was due partly to the significant degree of territorial expansion that occurred.[2] Regardless of whether these legends are true, it is likely that, as the legends claim, a series of conquests did occur during the late monarchy. As a result of these conquests, it became necessary to determine what was to be done with the conquered people.[2] Often, some of the individuals whose towns had been conquered remained in those towns,[5] while some others came to Rome.[5] To acquire legal and economic standing, these newcomers adopted a condition of dependency toward either a patrician family, or toward the king (who himself was a patrician).[5] Eventually, the individuals who were dependents of the king were released from their state of dependency, and became the first "plebeians".[5] As Rome grew, it needed more soldiers to continue its conquests. When the plebeians were released from their dependency, they were released from their curiae. When this occurred, they were freed from the requirement to serve in the army, but they also lost their political and economic standing.[6] To bring these new plebeians back into the army, the patricians were forced to make concessions.[7] While it is not known exactly what concessions were made, the fact that they were not granted any political power[7] set the stage for what history knows as the Conflict of the Orders. To bring the plebeians back into the army, the army was reorganized. The legends give credit for this reorganization to King Servius Tullius.[8] Per the legends, Tullius abolished the old system whereby the army was organized on the basis of the hereditary curiae, and replaced it with one based on land ownership.[9] As part of his reorganization, two new types of unit were created; the army was divided into "centuries", and later reorganizations made the army more efficient through the use of "tribes".[10] The centuries were organized on the basis of property ownership, and any individual, patrician or plebeian, could become a member of a century.[8] These centuries formed the basis of a new assembly called the "Centuriate Assembly", though this assembly was not immediately granted any political powers.[11] In contrast, four tribes were created that encompassed the entire city of Rome, and while new tribes were to be created later, those tribes would encompass territory outside of the city of Rome. Membership in a tribe, unlike that in a curia, was open to both patricians and plebeians without regard to property qualification. Senate[edit] Main articles: Roman Senate and Senate of the Roman Kingdom The Roman Senate was a political institution starting in the ancient Roman Kingdom. The Latin term, "senātus," is derived from senex, which means "old man". Therefore, senate literally means "board of old men." The prehistoric Indo-Europeans that settled Italy in the centuries before the legendary founding of Rome in 753 BC[3] were structured into tribal communities.[12] These communities would often include an aristocratic board of tribal elders.[13] The early Roman family was called a gens, or "clan".[12] Each clan was an aggregation of families under a common living male patriarch, called a pater (Latin for "father"), who was the undisputed master of his clan.[2] When the early Roman gentes were aggregating to form a community, the patres from the leading clans were selected[14] for the confederated board of elders (which later became the Roman Senate).[2] Over time, the patres came to recognize the need for a single leader. Therefore, they elected a Roman king (rex),[2] and vested in him their sovereign power.[15] When the king died, that sovereign power would naturally revert to the patres.[2] The senate of the Roman Kingdom held three principal responsibilities: it functioned as the ultimate repository for the executive power,[16] served as counsel to the king, and functioned as a legislative body in concert with the people of Rome.[17] Romulus, Victor over Acron, hauls the rich booty to the temple of Jupiter, by Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres During the years of the monarchy, the Senate's most important function was to select new kings. The period between the death of one king and the election of the next, was called an interregnum.[16] When a king died, a member of the Senate (the "interrex"') would nominate a candidate to replace the king.[18] After the Senate gave its initial approval of the nominee, he would then be formally elected by the people,[19] and then receive the Senate's final approval.[18] So while the king was officially elected by the people, it was effectively the Senate's decision. The Senate's most significant role outside of royal elections was as an advisory council to the king. While the king was not bound by the Senate's advice, the growing prestige of the Senate made its advice increasingly impolitic to ignore. Technically, the Senate could also make laws, though it would be incorrect to view the Senate's decrees as legislation in the modern sense. Only the king could decree new laws, although he would often involve both the Senate and the Curiate Assembly (the popular assembly) in the process.[17] Legislative Assemblies[edit] Main articles: Roman assemblies and Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Kingdom The legislative assemblies were political institutions in the ancient Roman Kingdom. While one, the Curiate Assembly, had some legislative powers,[20] these involved nothing more than a right to symbolically ratify decrees issued by the Roman King. The functions of the other, the Calate Assembly ("Comitia Calata"), were purely religious. During the years of the kingdom, all of the People of Rome were divided among a total of thirty curiae,[20] the basic units of division in the two popular assemblies.[21] The members in each curia would vote, and the majority therein would determine how that curia voted before the assembly. Thus a majority of the curiae (at least sixteen of the thirty) was needed during any vote in either the Curiate Assembly or the Calate Assembly. The Curiate Assembly (Comitia Curiata) was the only popular assembly with any political significance during the period of the Roman Kingdom,[20] and was organized on the basis of the thirty curiae.[22] The king presided over the assembly, and submitted decrees to it for ratification.[22] On the calends (the first day of the month), and the nones (the fifth or seventh day of the month), this assembly met to hear announcements.[22] Appeals heard by the Curiate often dealt with questions concerning Roman family law.[23] During two fixed days in the spring, the assembly was scheduled to meet to witness wills and adoptions.[22] The assembly also had jurisdiction over the admission of new families to a curia, the transfer of families between two curiae, and the transfer of individuals from plebeian to patrician status (or vice versa).[22] Executive Magistrates[edit] Main articles: Roman Magistrates and Executive Magistrates of the Roman Kingdom Growth of the city region during the Kingdom Executive Magistrates were elected officials of the ancient Roman Kingdom. During the period of the Roman Kingdom, the king was the principal executive magistrate.[7] He was the chief executive, chief priest, chief lawgiver, chief judge, and the commander in chief of the army.[7][23] His powers rested on law and legal precedent, and he could only receive these powers through the political process of a democratic election. In practice, he had no real restrictions on his power. When war broke out, he had the sole power to organize and levy troops, to select leaders for the army, and to conduct the campaign as he saw fit.[23] He controlled all property held by the state, had the sole power to divide land and war spoils, was the chief representative of the city during dealings with either the gods or the leaders of other communities, and could unilaterally decree any new law.[23] Sometimes he submitted his decrees to either the popular assembly or to the Senate for a ceremonial ratification, but a rejection did not prevent the enactment of the decree. The king chose several officers to assist him,[14] and unilaterally granted them their powers. When the king left the city, an "urban prefect" presided over the city in his stead.[14] The king also had two quaestors as general assistants, while several other officers assisted the king during treason cases. In war, the king occasionally commanded only the infantry, and delegated command over the cavalry to the commander of his personal bodyguards, the tribune of the Celeres.[14] The king sometimes deferred to precedent, often simply out of practical necessity. While the king could unilaterally declare war, for example, he typically wanted to have such declarations ratified by the popular assembly.[14][22] The period between the death of one king and the election of the next was known as an interregnum.[13] During the interregnum, the Senate elected a senator to the office of interrex[18] to facilitate the selection of a new king. Once the interrex found a suitable nominee for the kingship, he presented this nominee to the senate for an initial approval. If the Senate voted in favor of the nominee, that man (women were excluded as nominees) stood for formal election before the People of Rome in the Curiate Assembly (the popular assembly).[18] After the nominee was elected by the Curiate, the Senate ratified the election by passing a decree.[18] The interrex then formally declared the nominee to be king. The new king then took the auspices (a ritual search for omens from the gods), and was vested with legal authority (imperium) by the popular assembly.[18] The end of the monarchy[edit] Main article: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy The first Etruscan King of Rome, Tarquinius Priscus, succeeded king Ancus Marcius. It has been suggested that Rome had been conquered by the Etruscans,[9] but this is unlikely. The city was located in an easily defensible position, and its rapid growth attracted people from all over the region. The city's liberal policy of extending citizenship probably created an opportunity for a skillful leader to gain the throne.[24] The reign of the first four kings was distinct from that of the last three. The first kings were elected. Between the reigns of the final three kings, however, the monarchy became hereditary,[16] and thus the Senate became subordinated to the king. The fact that the monarchy became hereditary is obvious from the kinship among those three kings, as well as from the lack of interregna.[16] The fact that the auspices did not revert to the Senate upon the deaths of those kings constituted a serious erosion of the Senate's authority, because it prevented the Senate from electing a monarch of its choosing.[16] This violation of the Senate's sovereignty, rather than an intolerable tyranny, was probably what led the patricians in the Senate to overthrow the last king.[16] The king may have sought the support of the plebeians, but the plebeians were no doubt exhausted from their continued military service and from their forced labor in the construction of public works, and were probably also embittered by their lack of political power. Therefore, they did not come to the aide of either the king or the Senate.[16] See also[edit] ‹ The template below (Columns) is being considered for deletion. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus. › Roman Kingdom Roman Republic Roman Empire Roman Law Plebeian Council Centuria Curia Roman consul Praetor Roman censor Quaestor Aedile Roman Dictator Master of the Horse Roman Senate Cursus honorum Byzantine Senate Pontifex Maximus Princeps senatus Interrex Promagistrate Acta Senatus Notes[edit] ^ Byrd, 161 ^ a b c d e f g h i j Abbott, 6 ^ a b c d Abbott, 3 ^ Abbott, 5 ^ a b c d Abbott, 7 ^ Abbott, 7-8 ^ a b c d Abbott, 8 ^ a b Abbott, 20 ^ a b Abbott, 9 ^ Abbott, 4 ^ Abbott, 21 ^ a b Abbott, 1 ^ a b Abbott, 12 ^ a b c d e Abbott, 16 ^ Byrd, 42 ^ a b c d e f g Abbott, 10 ^ a b Abbott, 17 ^ a b c d e f Abbott, 14 ^ Byrd, 20 ^ a b c Abbott, 18 ^ Byrd, 33 ^ a b c d e f Abbott, 19 ^ a b c d Abbott, 15 ^ Abbott, 9-10 References[edit] Abbott, Frank Frost (1901). A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. Elibron Classics (ISBN 0-543-92749-0). Byrd, Robert (1995). The Senate of the Roman Republic. U.S. Government Printing Office, Senate Document 103-23. Cicero, Marcus Tullius (1841). The Political Works of Marcus Tullius Cicero: Comprising his Treatise on the Commonwealth; and his Treatise on the Laws. Translated from the original, with Dissertations and Notes in Two Volumes. By Francis Barham, Esq. London: Edmund Spettigue. Vol. 1. Lintott, Andrew (1999). The Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press ( ISBN 0-19-926108-3). Polybius (1823). The General History of Polybius: Translated from the Greek. By James Hampton. Oxford: Printed by W. Baxter. Fifth Edition, Vol 2. Taylor, Lily Ross (1966). Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar. The University of Michigan Press ( ISBN 0-472-08125-X). Further reading[edit] Library resources about Constitution of the Roman Kingdom Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Ihne, Wilhelm. Researches Into the History of the Roman Constitution. William Pickering. 1853. Johnston, Harold Whetstone. Orations and Letters of Cicero: With Historical Introduction, An Outline of the Roman Constitution, Notes, Vocabulary and Index. Scott, Foresman and Company. 1891. Mommsen, Theodor. Roman Constitutional Law. 1871-1888 Tighe, Ambrose. The Development of the Roman Constitution. D. Apple & Co. 1886. Von Fritz, Kurt. The Theory of the Mixed Constitution in Antiquity. Columbia University Press, New York. 1975. The Histories by Polybius Cambridge Ancient History, Volumes 9–13. A. Cameron, The Later Roman Empire, (Fontana Press, 1993). M. Crawford, The Roman Republic, (Fontana Press, 1978). E. S. Gruen, "The Last Generation of the Roman Republic" (U California Press, 1974) F. Millar, The Emperor in the Roman World, (Duckworth, 1977, 1992). A. Lintott, "The Constitution of the Roman Republic" (Oxford University Press, 1999) Primary sources[edit] Cicero's De Re Publica, Book Two Rome at the End of the Punic Wars: An Analysis of the Roman Government; by Polybius Secondary source material[edit] Considerations on the Causes of the Greatness of the Romans and their Decline, by Montesquieu The Roman Constitution to the Time of Cicero What a Terrorist Incident in Ancient Rome Can Teach Us v t e Roman Constitution Ancient Rome History Constitution Senate Assemblies Curiate Century Tribal Plebeian Magistrates Roman Kingdom History Constitution Senate Assemblies Magistrates Roman Republic History Constitution (reforms of Sulla • reforms of Caesar • reforms of Augustus) Senate Assemblies Magistrates Roman Empire History (post Diocletian) Constitution (post Diocletian) Senate Assemblies Magistrates Miscellaneous Sulla's Constitutional Reforms Caesar's Constitutional Reforms Conflict of the Orders Roman law v t e Ancient Rome topics 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ==Reception== [[File:Quinto Orazio Flacco.jpg|thumb|Horace, portrayed by [[Giacomo Di Chirico]]]] The reception of Horace's work has varied from one epoch to another and varied markedly even in his own lifetime. ''Odes'' 1–3 were not well received when first 'published' in Rome, yet Augustus later commissioned a ceremonial ode for the Centennial Games in 17 BC and also encouraged the publication of ''Odes'' 4, after which Horace's reputation as Rome's premier lyricist was assured. His Odes were to become the best received of all his poems in ancient times, acquiring a classic status that discouraged imitation: no other poet produced a comparable body of lyrics in the four centuries that followed<ref>R. Tarrant, ''Ancient receptions of Horace'', 279</ref> (though that might also be attributed to social causes, particularly the parasitism that Italy was sinking into).<ref>V. Kiernan, ''Horace: Poetics and Politics'', 176</ref> In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, ode-writing became highly fashionable in England and a large number of aspiring poets imitated Horace both in English and in Latin.<ref>D. Money, ''The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries'', 326, 332</ref> In a verse epistle to Augustus (Epistle 2.1), in 12 BC, Horace argued for classic status to be awarded to contemporary poets, including Virgil and apparently himself.<ref>R. Lyme, ''Augustan Poetry and Society'', 603</ref> In the final poem of his third book of Odes he claimed to have created for himself a monument more durable than bronze ("Exegi monumentum aere perennius", ''[[Carmina]]'' 3.30.1). For one modern scholar, however, Horace's personal qualities are more notable than the monumental quality of his achievement: {{quote|... when we hear his name we don't really think of a monument. We think rather of a voice which varies in tone and resonance but is always recognizable, and which by its unsentimental humanity evokes a very special blend of liking and respect.|[[Niall Rudd]]<ref>[[Niall Rudd]], ''The Satires of Horace and Persius'', 14</ref>}} Yet for men like [[Wilfred Owen]], scarred by experiences of World War I, his poetry stood for discredited values: {{poemquote| My friend, you would not tell with such high zest To children ardent for some desperate glory, The Old Lie: Dulce et decorum est Pro patria mori.<ref group="nb">Wilfred Owen, ''[[Dulce et decorum est]]'' (1917), echoes a line from ''Carmina'' 3.2.13, "it is sweet and honourable to die for one's country", cited by Stephen Harrison, ''The nineteenth and twentieth centuries'', 340.</ref> }} The same motto, ''[[Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori]]'', had been adapted to the ethos of martyrdom in the lyrics of early Christian poets like [[Prudentius]].<ref>R. Tarrant, ''Ancient receptions of Horace'', 282–83</ref> These preliminary comments touch on a small sample of developments in the reception of Horace's work. More developments are covered epoch by epoch in the following sections. ===Antiquity=== Horace's influence can be observed in the work of his near contemporaries, [[Ovid]] and [[Propertius]]. Ovid followed his example in creating a completely natural style of expression in hexameter verse, and Propertius cheekily mimicked him in his third book of elegies.<ref group="nb">Propertius published his third book of elegies within a year or two of Horace's Odes 1–3 and mimicked him, for example, in the opening lines, characterizing himself in terms borrowed from Odes 3.1.13 and 3.30.13–14, as a priest of the Muses and as an adaptor of Greek forms of poetry (R. Tarrant, ''Ancient receptions of Horace'', 227)</ref> His ''Epistles'' provided them both with a model for their own verse letters and it also shaped Ovid's exile poetry.<ref group="nb">Ovid for example probably borrowed from Horace's ''Epistle'' 1.20 the image of a poetry book as a slave boy eager to leave home, adapting it to the opening poems of ''Tristia'' 1 and 3 (R. Tarrant, ''Ancient receptions of Horace''), and ''Tristia'' 2 may be understood as a counterpart to Horace's ''Epistles'' 2.1, both being letters addressed to Augustus on literary themes (A. Barchiesi, ''Speaking Volumes'', 79–103)</ref> His influence had a perverse aspect. As mentioned before, the brilliance of his ''Odes'' may have discouraged imitation. Conversely, they may have created a vogue for the lyrics of the archaic Greek poet [[Pindar]], due to the fact that Horace had neglected that style of lyric (see [[Pindar#Influence and legacy|Influence and Legacy of Pindar]]).<ref>R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 280</ref> The iambic genre seems almost to have disappeared after publication of Horace's ''Epodes''. Ovid's ''Ibis'' was a rare attempt at the form but it was inspired mainly by [[Callimachus]], and there are some iambic elements in [[Martial]] but the main influence there was [[Catullus]].<ref>R. Tarrant, ''Ancient receptions of Horace'', 278</ref> A revival of popular interest in the satires of Lucilius may have been inspired by Horace's criticism of his unpolished style. Both Horace and Lucilius were considered good role-models by [[Persius]], who critiqued his own satires as lacking both the acerbity of Lucillius and the gentler touch of Horace.<ref group="nb">The comment is in Persius 1.114–18, yet that same satire has been found to have nearly 80 reminiscences of Horace; see D. Hooley, ''The Knotted Thong'', 29</ref> [[Juvenal]]'s caustic satire was influenced mainly by Lucilius but Horace by then was a school classic and Juvenal could refer to him respectfully and in a round-about way as "''the Venusine lamp''".<ref group="nb">The allusion to ''Venusine'' comes via Horace's ''Sermones'' 2.1.35, while ''lamp'' signifies the lucubrations of a conscientious poet. According to Quintilian (93), however, many people in Flavian Rome preferred Lucilius not only to Horace but to all other Latin poets (R. Tarrant, ''Ancient receptions of Horace'', 279)</ref> [[Statius]] paid homage to Horace by composing one poem in Sapphic and one in Alcaic meter (the verse forms most often associated with ''Odes''), which he included in his collection of occasional poems, ''Silvae''. Ancient scholars wrote commentaries on the lyric meters of the ''Odes'', including the scholarly poet [[Caesius Bassus]]. By a process called ''derivatio'', he varied established meters through the addition or omission of syllables, a technique borrowed by [[Seneca the Younger]] when adapting Horatian meters to the stage.<ref>R. Tarrant, ''Ancient receptions of Horace'', 280–81</ref> Horace's poems continued to be school texts into late antiquity. Works attributed to [[Helenius Acro]] and [[Pomponius Porphyrio]] are the remnants of a much larger body of Horatian scholarship. Porphyrio arranged the poems in non-chronological order, beginning with the ''Odes'', because of their general popularity and their appeal to scholars (the ''Odes'' were to retain this privileged position in the medieval manuscript tradition and thus in modern editions also). Horace was often evoked by poets of the fourth century, such as [[Ausonius]] and [[Claudian]]. [[Prudentius]] presented himself as a Christian Horace, adapting Horatian meters to his own poetry and giving Horatian motifs a Christian tone.<ref group="nb">Prudentius sometimes alludesto the ''Odes'' in a negative context, as expressions of a secular life he is abandoning. Thus for example ''male pertinax'', employed in Prudentius's ''Praefatio'' to describe a willful desire for victory, is lifted from ''Odes'' 1.9.24, where it describes a girl's half-hearted resistance to seduction. Elsewhere he borrows ''dux bone'' from ''Odes'' 4.5.5 and 37, where it refers to Augustus, and applies it to Christ (R. Tarrant, ''Ancient receptions of Horace'', 282</ref> On the other hand, [[St Jerome]], modelled an uncompromising response to the pagan Horace, observing: "''What harmony can there be between Christ and the Devil? What has Horace to do with the Psalter?''"<ref group="nb">St Jerome, ''Epistles'' 22.29, incorporating a quote from ''2 'Corinthians'' 6.14: ''qui consensus Christo et Belial? quid facit cum psalterio Horatius?''(cited by K. Friis-Jensen, ''Horace in the Middle Ages'', 292)</ref> By the early sixth century, Horace and Prudentius were both part of a classical heritage that was struggling to survive the disorder of the times. [[Boethius]], the last major author of classical Latin literature, could still take inspiration from Horace, sometimes mediated by Senecan tragedy.<ref name="Tarrant">R. Tarrant, ''Ancient receptions of Horace'', 283</ref> It can be argued that Horace's influence extended beyond poetry to dignify core themes and values of the early Christian era, such as self-sufficiency, inner contentment and courage.<ref group="nb">''Odes'' 3.3.1–8 was especially influential in promoting the value of heroic calm in the face of danger, describing a man who could bear even the collapse of the world without fear (''si fractus illabatur orbis,/impavidum ferient ruinae''). Echoes are found in Seneca's ''Agamemnon'' 593–603, Prudentius's ''Peristephanon'' 4.5–12 and Boethius's ''Consolatio'' 1 metrum 4.(R. Tarrant, ''Ancient receptions of Horace'', 283–85)</ref> ===Middle Ages and Renaissance=== [[File:Horaz beim Studium.jpg|thumb|Horace in his Studium: German print of the fifteenth century, summarizing the final [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber IV/Carmen XV|ode 4.15]] (in praise of Augustus).]] Classical texts almost ceased being copied in the period between the mid sixth century and the [[Carolingian Renaissance|Carolingian revival]]. Horace's work probably survived in just two or three books imported into northern Europe from Italy. These became the ancestors of six extant manuscripts dated to the ninth century. Two of those six manuscripts are French in origin, one was produced in [[Alsace]], and the other three show Irish influence but were probably written in continental monasteries ([[Lombardy]] for example).<ref>R. Tarrant, ''Ancient receptions of Horace'', 285–87</ref> By the last half of the ninth century, it was not uncommon for literate people to have direct experience of Horace's poetry. His influence on the [[Carolingian Renaissance]] can be found in the poems of [[Heiric of Auxerre]]<ref group="nb">Heiric, like Prudentius, gave Horatian motifs a Christian context. Thus the character Lydia in ''Odes'' 3.19.15, who would willingly die for her lover twice, becomes in Heiric's ''Life'' of St Germaine of Auxerre a saint ready to die twice for the Lord's commandments (R. Tarrant, ''Ancient receptions of Horace'', 287–88)</ref> and in some manuscripts marked with [[neumes]], mysterious notations that may have been an aid to the memorization and discussion of his lyric meters. ''Ode'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber IV/Carmen XI|4.11]] is neumed with the melody of a hymn to John the Baptist, ''[[Ut queant laxis]]'', composed in [[Sapphic stanza]]s. This hymn later became the basis of the [[solfege]] system (''Do, re, mi...''){{emdash}}an association with western music quite appropriate for a lyric poet like Horace, though the language of the hymn is mainly Prudentian.<ref>R. Tarrant, ''Ancient receptions of Horace'', 288–89</ref> Lyons<ref>Stuart Lyons, Horace's Odes and the Mystery of Do-Re-Mi</ref> argues that the melody in question was linked with Horace's Ode well before Guido d'Arezzo fitted [[Ut queant laxis]] to it. However, the melody is unlikely to be a survivor from classical times, although Ovid<ref>Tristia, 4.10.49–50</ref> testifies to Horace's use of the lyre while performing his Odes. The German scholar, [[Ludwig Traube (palaeographer)|Ludwig Traube]], once dubbed the tenth and eleventh centuries ''The age of Horace'' (''aetas Horatiana''), and placed it between the ''aetas Vergiliana'' of the eighth and ninth centuries, and the ''aetas Ovidiana'' of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, a distinction supposed to reflect the dominant classical Latin influences of those times. Such a distinction is over-schematized since Horace was a substantial influence in the ninth century as well. Traube had focused too much on Horace's ''Satires''.<ref>B. Bischoff, ''Living with the satirists'', 83–95</ref> Almost all of Horace's work found favour in the Medieval period. In fact medieval scholars were also guilty of over-schematism, associating Horace's different genres with the different ages of man. A twelfth-century scholar encapsulated the theory: "...Horace wrote four different kinds of poems on account of the four ages, the ''Odes'' for boys, the ''Ars Poetica'' for young men, the ''Satires'' for mature men, the ''Epistles'' for old and complete men."<ref>K. Friis-Jensen,''Horace in the Middle Ages'', 291</ref> It was even thought that Horace had composed his works in the order in which they had been placed by ancient scholars.<ref group="nb">According to a medieval French commentary on the ''Satires'': "...first he composed his lyrics, and in them, speaking to the young, as it were, he took as subject-matter love affairs and quarrels, banquets and drinking parties. Next he wrote his ''Epodes'', and in them composed invectives against men of a more advanced and more dishonourable age...He next wrote his book about the ''Ars Poetica'', and in that instructed men of his own profession to write well...Later he added his book of ''Satires'', in which he reproved those who had fallen a prey to various kinds of vices. Finally, he finished his oeuvre with the ''Epistles'', and in them, following the method of a good farmer, he sowed the virtues where he had rooted out the vices." (cited by K. Friis-Jensen, ''Horace in the Middle Ages'', 294–302)</ref> Despite its naivety, the schematism involved an appreciation of Horace's works as a collection, the ''Ars Poetica'', ''Satires'' and ''Epistles'' appearing to find favour as well as the ''Odes''. The later Middle Ages however gave special significance to ''Satires'' and ''Epistles'', being considered Horace's mature works. [[Dante]] referred to Horace as ''Orazio satiro'', and he awarded him a privileged position in the first circle of Hell, with [[Homer]], Ovid and [[Lucan]].<ref>K. Friis-Jensen, ''Horace in the Middle Ages'', 293, 304</ref> Horace's popularity is revealed in the large number of quotes from all his works found in almost every genre of medieval literature, and also in the number of poets imitating him in [[Prosody (Latin)#Two rhythms|quantitative Latin meter]]. The most prolific imitator of his ''Odes'' was the Bavarian monk, [[Metellus of Tegernsee]], who dedicated his work to the patron saint of [[Tegernsee Abbey]], [[Quirinus of Tegernsee|St Quirinus]], around the year 1170. He imitated all Horace's lyrical meters then followed these up with imitations of other meters used by Prudentius and Boethius, indicating that variety, as first modelled by Horace, was considered a fundamental aspect of the lyric genre. The content of his poems however was restricted to simple piety.<ref>K. Friis-Jensen, ''Horace in the Middle Ages'', 296–98</ref> Among the most successful imitators of ''Satires'' and ''Epistles'' was another Germanic author, calling himself [[Sextus Amarcius]], around 1100, who composed four books, the first two exemplifying vices, the second pair mainly virtues.<ref>K. Friis-Jensen, ''Horace in the Middle Ages'', 302</ref> [[Petrarch]] is a key figure in the imitation of Horace in accentual meters. His verse letters in Latin were modelled on the ''Epistles'' and he wrote a letter to Horace in the form of an ode. However he also borrowed from Horace when composing his Italian sonnets. One modern scholar has speculated that authors who imitated Horace in accentual rhythms (including stressed Latin and vernacular languages) may have considered their work a natural sequel to Horace's metrical variety.<ref>K. Friis-Jensen, ''Horace in the Middle Ages'', 299</ref> In France, Horace and [[Pindar]] were the poetic models for a group of vernacular authors called the [[Pléiade]], including for example [[Pierre de Ronsard]] and [[Joachim du Bellay]]. [[Montaigne]] made constant and inventive use of Horatian quotes.<ref>Michael McGann, ''Horace in the Renaissance'', 306</ref> The vernacular languages were dominant in Spain and Portugal in the sixteenth century, where Horace's influence is notable in the works of such authors as [[Garcilaso de la Vega (poet)|Garcilaso de la Vega]], [[Juan Boscán]], [[Sá de Miranda]], [[Antonio Ferreira]] and [[Fray Luis de León]], the last writing odes on the Horatian theme ''beatus ille'' (''happy the man'').<ref>E. Rivers, ''Fray Luis de León: The Original Poems''</ref> The sixteenth century in western Europe was also an age of translations (except in Germany, where Horace wasn't translated into the vernacular until well into the seventeenth century). The first English translator was [[Thomas Drant]], who placed translations of [[Jeremiah]] and Horace side by side in ''Medicinable Morall'', 1566. That was also the year that the Scot [[George Buchanan]] paraphrased the [[Psalms]] in a Horatian setting. [[Ben Jonson]] put Horace on the stage in 1601 in ''[[Poetaster (play)|Poetaster]]'', along with other classical Latin authors, giving them all their own verses to speak in translation. Horace's part evinces the independent spirit, moral earnestness and critical insight that many readers look for in his poems.<ref>M. McGann, ''Horace in the Renaissance'', 306–07, 313–16</ref> ===Age of Enlightenment=== During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, or the [[Age of Enlightenment]], neoclassical culture was pervasive. English literature in the middle of that period has been dubbed [[Augustan literature|Augustan]]. It is not always easy to distinguish Horace's influence during those centuries (the mixing of influences is shown for example in one poet's pseudonym, ''Horace Juvenal'').<ref group="nb">'Horace Juvenal' was author of ''Modern manners: a poem'', 1793</ref> However a measure of his influence can be found in the diversity of the people interested in his works, both among readers and authors.<ref>D. Money, ''The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries'', 318, 331, 332</ref> New editions of his works were published almost yearly. There were three new editions in 1612 (two in [[Leiden]], one in [[Frankfurt]]) and again in 1699 ([[Utrecht]], [[Barcelona]], [[Cambridge]]). Cheap editions were plentiful and fine editions were also produced, including one whose entire text was engraved by [[John Pine]] in [[copperplate engraving|copperplate]]. The poet [[James Thomson (poet)|James Thomson]] owned five editions of Horace's work and the physician [[James Douglas (physician)|James Douglas]] had five hundred books with Horace-related titles. Horace was often commended in periodicals such as [[The Spectator (1711)|The Spectator]], as a hallmark of good judgement, moderation and manliness, a focus for moralising.<ref group="nb">see for example ''Spectator'' '''312''', 27 Feb. 1712; '''548''', 28 Nov. 1712; '''618''', 10 Nov. 1714</ref> His verses offered a fund of mottoes, such as ''[[simplex munditiis]]'' (elegance in simplicity), ''[[splendide mendax]]'' (nobly untruthful), ''[[sapere aude]]'' (dare to know), ''[[nunc est bibendum]]'' (now is the time to drink), ''[[carpe diem]]'' (seize the day, perhaps the only one still in common use today).<ref name="Tarrant"/> These were quoted even in works as prosaic as [[Edmund Quincy (1703-1788)|Edmund Quincy]]'s ''A treatise of hemp-husbandry'' (1765). The fictional hero [[The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling|Tom Jones]] recited his verses with feeling.<ref>D. Money, ''The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries'', 322</ref> His works were also used to justify commonplace themes, such as patriotic obedience, as in James Parry's English lines from an Oxford University collection in 1736:<ref>D. Money, ''The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries'', 326–27</ref> {{poemquote| What friendly [[Muse]] will teach my Lays To emulate the Roman fire? Justly to sound a Caeser's praise Demands a bold Horatian lyre. }} Horatian-style lyrics were increasingly typical of Oxford and Cambridge verse collections for this period, most of them in Latin but some like the previous ode in English. [[John Milton]]'s [[Lycidas]] first appeared in such a collection. It has few Horatian echoes<ref group="nb">One echo of Horace may be found in line 69: "''Were it not better done as others use,/ To sport with Amaryllis in the shade/Or with the tangles of Neaera's hair?''", which points to the Neara in ''Odes'' 3.14.21 (Douglas Bush, ''Milton: Poetical Works'', 144, note 69)</ref> yet Milton's associations with Horace were lifelong. He composed a controversial version of ''Odes'' 1.5, and [[Paradise Lost]] includes references to Horace's 'Roman' ''Odes'' 3.1–6 (Book 7 for example begins with echoes of ''Odes'' 3.4).<ref>J. Talbot, ''A Horatian Pun in Paradise Lost'', 21–3</ref> Yet Horace's lyrics could offer inspiration to libertines as well as moralists, and neo-Latin sometimes served as a kind of discrete veil for the risqué. Thus for example [[Benjamin Loveling]] authored a catalogue of Drury Lane and Covent Garden prostitutes, in Sapphic stanzas, and an encomium for a dying lady "of salacious memory".<ref>B. Loveling, ''Latin and English Poems'', 49–52, 79–83</ref> Some Latin imitations of Horace were politically subversive, such as a marriage ode by [[Anthony Alsop]] that included a rallying cry for the [[Jacobitism|Jacobite]] cause. On the other hand, [[Andrew Marvell]] took inspiration from Horace's ''Odes'' 1.37 to compose his English masterpiece [[Horatian Ode upon Cromwell's Return from Ireland]], in which subtly nuanced reflections on the execution of [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] echo Horace's ambiguous response to the death of [[Cleopatra]] (Marvell's ode was suppressed in spite of its subtlety and only began to be widely published in 1776). [[Samuel Johnson]] took particular pleasure in reading ''The Odes''.<ref group="nb">Cfr. [[James Boswell]], "The Life of [[Samuel Johnson]]" ''Aetat.'' 20, 1729 where Boswell remarked of Johnson that Horace's ''Odes'' "were the compositions in which he took most delight."</ref> [[Alexander Pope]] wrote direct ''Imitations'' of Horace (published with the original Latin alongside) and also echoed him in ''Essays'' and [[The Rape of the Lock]]. He even emerged as "a quite Horatian Homer" in his translation of the ''[[Iliad]]''.<ref>D. Money, ''The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries'', 329–31</ref> Horace appealed also to female poets, such as [[Anna Seward]] (''Original sonnets on various subjects, and odes paraphrased from Horace'', 1799) and [[Elizabeth Tollet]], who composed a Latin ode in Sapphic meter to celebrate her brother's return from overseas, with tea and coffee substituted for the wine of Horace's [[symposium|sympotic]] settings: {{verse translation|lang=la | Quos procax nobis numeros, jocosque Musa dictaret? mihi dum tibique Temperent baccis Arabes, vel herbis Pocula Seres<ref>E. Tollet, ''Poems on Several Occasions'', 84</ref> | What verses and jokes might the bold Muse dictate? while for you and me Arabs flavour our cups with beans Or Chinese with leaves.<ref>Translation adapted from D. Money, ''The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries'', 329</ref> }} Horace's ''Ars Poetica'' is second only to Aristotle's ''Poetics'' in its influence on literary theory and criticism. Milton recommended both works in his treatise ''of Education''.<ref>A. Gilbert, ''Literary Criticism: Plato to Dryden'', 124, 669</ref> Horace's ''Satires'' and ''Epistles'' however also had a huge impact, influencing theorists and critics such as [[John Dryden]].<ref>W. Kupersmith, ''Roman Satirists in Seventeenth Century England'', 97–101</ref> There was considerable debate over the value of different lyrical forms for contemporary poets, as represented on one hand by the kind of four-line stanzas made familiar by Horace's Sapphic and Alcaic ''Odes'' and, on the other, the loosely structured [[Pindarics]] associated with the odes of [[Pindar]]. Translations occasionally involved scholars in the dilemmas of censorship. Thus [[Christopher Smart]] entirely omitted ''Odes'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber IV/Carmen X|4.10]] and re-numbered the remaining odes. He also removed the ending of ''Odes'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber IV/Carmen I|4.1]]. [[Thomas Creech]] printed ''Epodes'' [[:wikisource:la:Epodi#VIII|8]] and [[:wikisource:la:Epodi#XII|12]] in the original Latin but left out their English translations. [[Philip Francis (translator)|Philip Francis]] left out both the English and Latin for those same two epodes, a gap in the numbering the only indication that something was amiss. French editions of Horace were influential in England and these too were regularly [[bowdlerize]]d. Most European nations had their own 'Horaces': thus for example [[Friedrich von Hagedorn]] was called ''The German Horace'' and [[Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski]] ''The Polish Horace'' (the latter was much imitated by English poets such as [[Henry Vaughan]] and [[Abraham Cowley]]). Pope [[Urban VIII]] wrote voluminously in Horatian meters, including an ode on gout.<ref>D. Money, ''The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries'', 319–25</ref> ===19th century on=== Horace maintained a central role in the education of English-speaking elites right up until the 1960s.<ref>S. Harrison, ''The nineteenth and twentieth centuries'', 340</ref> A pedantic emphasis on the formal aspects of language-learning at the expense of literary appreciation may have made him unpopular in some quarters<ref>V. Kiernan, ''Horace: Poetics and Politics'', x</ref> yet it also confirmed his influence{{emdash}}a tension in his reception that underlies [[Lord Byron|Byron]]'s famous lines from ''[[Childe Harold's Pilgrimage|Childe Harold]]'' (Canto iv, 77):<ref>S. Harrison, ''The nineteenth and twentieth centuries'', 334</ref> {{poemquote| Then farewell, Horace, whom I hated so Not for thy faults, but mine; it is a curse To understand, not feel thy lyric flow, To comprehend, but never love thy verse. }} [[William Wordsworth]]'s mature poetry, including the [[Preface to the Lyrical Ballads|preface]] to ''[[Lyrical Ballads]]'', reveals Horace's influence in its rejection of false ornament<ref>D. Money, ''The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries'', 323</ref> and he once expressed "a wish / to meet the shade of Horace...".<ref group="nb">The quote, from ''Memorials of a Tour of Italy'' (1837), contains allusions to ''Odes'' 3.4 and 3.13 (S. Harrison, ''The nineteenth and twentieth centuries'', 334–35)</ref> [[John Keats]] echoed the opening of Horace's ''Epodes'' 14 in the opening lines of ''[[Ode to a Nightingale]]''.<ref group="nb">"''My heart aches, and a drowsy numbness pains / my sense...''" echoes Epodes [[:wikisource:la:Epodi#XIV|14.1–4]] (S. Harrison, ''The nineteenth and twentieth centuries'', 335)</ref> The Roman poet was presented in the nineteenth century as an honorary English gentleman. [[William Makepeace Thackeray|William Thackeray]] produced a version of ''Odes'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber I/Carmen XXXVIII|1.38]] in which Horace's 'boy' became 'Lucy', and [[Gerard Manley Hopkins]] translated the boy innocently as 'child'. Horace was translated by [[Sir Theodore Martin]] (biographer of [[Albert, Prince Consort|Prince Albert]]) but minus some ungentlemanly verses, such as the erotic ''Odes'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber I/Carmen XXV|1.25]] and ''Epodes'' 8 and 12. [[Edward Bulwer-Lytton]] produced a popular translation and [[William Gladstone]] also wrote translations during his last days as Prime Minister.<ref>S. Harrison, ''The nineteenth and twentieth centuries'', 335–37</ref> [[Edward FitzGerald (poet)|Edward FitzGerald]]'s ''[[Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam]]'', though formally derived from the Persian ''[[ruba'i]]'', nevertheless shows a strong Horatian influence, since, as one modern scholar has observed, "''...the quatrains inevitably recall the stanzas of the 'Odes', as does the narrating first person of the world-weary, ageing [[Epicurus|Epicurean]] Omar himself, mixing [[Symposium|sympotic]] exhortation and 'carpe diem' with splendid moralising and 'memento mori' [[nihilism]].''"<ref group="nb">Comment by S. Harrison, editor and contributor to ''The Cambridge Companion to Horace'' (S. Harrison, ''The nineteenth and twentieth centuries'', 337</ref> [[Matthew Arnold]] advised a friend in verse not to worry about politics, an echo of ''Odes'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber II/Carmen XI|2.11]], yet later became a critic of Horace's inadequacies relative to Greek poets, as role models of [[Victorian Age|Victorian]] virtues, observing: "''If human life were complete without faith, without enthusiasm, without energy, Horace...would be the perfect interpreter of human life.''"<ref>M. Arnold, ''Selected Prose'', 74</ref> [[Christina Rossetti]] composed a sonnet depicting a woman willing her own death steadily, drawing on Horace's depiction of 'Glycera' in ''Odes'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber I/Carmen XIX|1.19.5–6]] and Cleopatra in ''Odes'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber I/Carmen XXXVII|1.37]].<ref group="nb">Rossetti's sonnet, ''A Study (a soul)'', dated 1854, was not published in her own lifetime. Some lines: ''She stands as pale as Parian marble stands / Like Cleopatra when she turns at bay...'' (C. Rossetti, ''Complete Poems'', 758</ref> [[A. E. Housman]] considered ''Odes'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber IV/Carmen VII|4.7]], in [[Prosody (Latin)#First Archilochian|Archilochian]] couplets, the most beautiful poem of antiquity<ref>W. Flesch, ''Companion to British Poetry, 19th Century'', 98</ref> and yet he generally shared Horace's penchant for quatrains, being readily adapted to his own elegiac and melancholy strain.<ref>S. Harrison, ''The nineteenth and twentieth centuries'', 339</ref> The most famous poem of [[Ernest Dowson]] took its title and its heroine's name from a line of ''Odes'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber IV/Carmen I|4.1]], ''Non sum qualis eram bonae sub regno Cynarae'', as well as its motif of nostalgia for a former flame. [[Kipling]] wrote a famous [[parody]] of the ''Odes'', satirising their stylistic idiosyncrasies and especially the extraordinary syntax, but he also used Horace's Roman patriotism as a focus for British imperialism, as in the story ''Regulus'' in the school collection ''[[Stalky & Co.]]'', which he based on ''Odes'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber III/Carmen V|3.5]].<ref>S. Medcalfe, ''Kipling's Horace'', 217–39</ref> Wilfred Owen's famous poem, quoted above, incorporated Horatian text to question patriotism while ignoring the rules of Latin scansion. However, there were few other echoes of Horace in the war period, possibly because war is not actually a major theme of Horace's work.<ref>S. Harrison, ''the nineteenth and twentieth centuries'', 340</ref> [[File:Michelin Poster 1898.jpg|thumb|[[Bibendum]] (the symbol of the [[Michelin]] tyre company) takes his name from the opening line of [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber I/Carmen XXXVII|Ode 1.37]], ''[[Nunc est bibendum]]''.]] Both [[W.H.Auden]] and [[Louis MacNeice]] began their careers as teachers of classics and both responded as poets to Horace's influence. Auden for example evoked the fragile world of the 1930s in terms echoing ''Odes'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber II/Carmen XI|2.11.1–4]], where Horace advises a friend not to let worries about frontier wars interfere with current pleasures. {{poemquote| And, gentle, do not care to know Where Poland draws her Eastern bow, What violence is done; Nor ask what doubtful act allows Our freedom in this English house, Our picnics in the sun.<ref group="nb">Quoted from Auden's poem ''Out on the lawn I lie in bed'', 1933, and cited by S. Harrison, ''The nineteenth and twentieth centuries'', 340</ref> }} The American poet, [[Robert Frost]], echoed Horace's ''Satires'' in the conversational and sententious idiom of some of his longer poems, such as ''The Lesson for Today'' (1941), and also in his gentle advocacy of life on the farm, as in ''Hyla Brook'' (1916), evoking Horace's ''fons Bandusiae'' in ''Ode'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber III/Carmen XIII|3.13]]. Now at the start of the third millennium, poets are still absorbing and re-configuring the Horatian influence, sometimes in translation (such as a 2002 English/American edition of the ''Odes'' by thirty-six poets)<ref group="nb">Edited by McClatchy, reviewed by S. Harrison, ''Bryn Mawr Classical Review'' 2003.03.05</ref> and sometimes as inspiration for their own work (such as a 2003 collection of odes by a New Zealand poet).<ref group="nb">I. Wedde, ''The Commonplace Odes'', Auckland 2003, (cited by S. Harrison, ''The nineteenth and twentieth centuries'', 345)</ref> Horace's ''Epodes'' have largely been ignored in the modern era, excepting those with political associations of historical significance. The obscene qualities of some of the poems have repulsed even scholars<ref group="nb">'Political' Epodes are 1, 7, 9, 16; notably obscene Epodes are 8 and 12. E. Fraenkel is among the admirers repulsed by these two poems, for another view of which see for example Dee Lesser Clayman, 'Horace's Epodes VIII and XII: More than Clever Obscenity?', ''The Classical World'' Vol. 6, No. 1 (September 1975), pp 55–61 {{JSTOR|4348329}}</ref> yet more recently a better understanding of the nature of [[Iambus (genre)|Iambic poetry]] has led to a re-evaluation of the ''whole'' collection.<ref>D. Mankin, ''Horace: Epodes'', 6–9</ref><ref>R. McNeill, ''Horace'', 12</ref> A re-appraisal of the ''Epodes'' also appears in creative adaptations by recent poets (such as a 2004 collection of poems that relocates the ancient context to a 1950s industrial town).<ref group="nb">M. Almond, ''The Works'' 2004, Washington, cited by S. Harrison, ''The nineteenth and twentieth centuries'', 346</ref> Return to Horace. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
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Psalm The 101ers 113 (band) The 120 Days of Sodom 311 (band) 391 (magazine) The 400 Blows The 411 La 628-E8 666 (band) 702 (group) 808 State 1000 Homo DJs 1349 (band) 1812 Overture 1851 French coup d'état 1896 Summer Olympics 1910 Fruitgum Company 1928 Winter Olympics 1936 Winter Olympics 1954 Geneva Conference 1968 Winter Olympics 1971 Turkish military memorandum 1972 Winter Olympics 1973 oil crisis 1980 Turkish coup d'état 1980 Winter Olympics 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt 1998 Winter Olympics 2001: A Space Odyssey (film) 2006 Winter Olympics 2009 L'Aquila earthquake 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum 2046 (film) 10,000 Maniacs 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1916 film) A A Hymn of St Columba A II Z À l'Olympia (Alan Stivell album) A La Carte (group) A-Teens A-Mei Michael A'Hearn Abraham Jacob van der Aa Brynjar Aa Christianus Carolus Henricus van der Aa Michel van der Aa Philips van der Aa Pieter van der Aa AABB Hauk Aabel Philip Aaberg Asger Aaboe Karen Aabye AACE International Herb Aach Aachen RWTH Aachen University Aachen Cathedral Hans von Aachen Roman Catholic Diocese of Aachen Aachener Domchor Beverly Aadland Bertus Aafjes Torstein Aagaard-Nilsen Johannes Aagaard Thorvald Aagaard Prince Aage, Count of Rosenborg Frøy Aagre David Aaker Lee Aaker Kim Fupz Aakeson Jeppe Aakjær Johannes Aal Mikkel Aaland Ida Aalberg Albert Aalbers Aalborg Aalborg Symphony Orchestra Knut Aalefjær Aalen Ålesund Aaliyah Thomas van Aalten Aino Aalto Alvar Aalto Elissa Aalto Pentti Aalto Heikki Aaltoila Erkki Aaltonen Juhani Aaltonen Yrjö Aaltonen Willie Aames Bjørn Aamodt Kristoffer Aamot Jane Aamund A&M Records Hans Aanrud Willem Aantjes Hans Aaraas Jarle Aarbakke Verna Aardema (previous page) (next page) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Wikipedia_articles_with_BNF_identifiers&oldid=949917107" Categories: Pages with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with authority control information Hidden categories: Hidden categories Tracking categories Template Large category TOC via CatAutoTOC on category with over 20,000 pages CatAutoTOC generates Large category TOC Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans Asturianu تۆرکجه বাংলা Bân-lâm-gú भोजपुरी Български Cymraeg Dansk Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 हिन्दी Ilokano Italiano עברית Jawa Lëtzebuergesch Magyar Македонски मराठी Bahasa Melayu Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Монгол 日本語 Nordfriisk ଓଡ଼ିଆ Português Română Sardu Scots Simple English سنڌي Slovenščina کوردی Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Tagalog ไทย Türkçe اردو Vèneto Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 9 April 2020, at 07:17 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-414	----	Related changes - Wikipedia Help Related changes ← Horace Jump to navigation Jump to search Enter a page name to see changes on pages linked to or from that page. (To see members of a category, enter Category:Name of category). Changes to pages on your Watchlist are shown in bold with a green bullet. 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of Roman consuls‎ 19:08 +87‎ ‎Avilich talk contribs‎ diffhist m List of Roman praetors‎ 19:03 +7‎ ‎Avilich talk contribs‎ diffhist List of Roman generals‎ 17:52 −83‎ ‎Avilich talk contribs‎ diffhist Status in Roman legal system‎ 17:30 +122‎ ‎Bueller 007 talk contribs‎ →‎Termination of slave status Tag: Visual edit diffhist m Roman dictator‎ 16:58 +1‎ ‎P Aculeius talk contribs‎ Supplied necessary comma to replace deleted punctuation. diffhist m Latin alphabet‎ 15:57 +1‎ ‎Bkell talk contribs‎ →‎Etymology: MOS:COMMA diffhist m Julius Caesar‎ 15:29 −24‎ ‎Davide King talk contribs‎ ce diffhist m Roman dictator‎ 15:25 −15‎ ‎Davide King talk contribs‎ ce Tag: Visual edit: Switched diffhist Adoption in ancient Rome‎ 15:15 +347‎ ‎*Treker talk contribs‎ →‎Practice diffhist m Childe Harold's Pilgrimage‎ 14:42 +1‎ ‎Broc talk contribs‎ typo diffhist Caesar (title)‎ 14:24 −916‎ ‎Cplakidas talk contribs‎ →‎Bibliography diffhist Pliny the Elder‎ 14:20 +522‎ ‎DiverDave talk contribs‎ →‎"Natural History": added inline citation diffhist Praetor‎ 14:10 −214‎ ‎Cplakidas talk contribs‎ →‎Sources diffhist Republic‎ 14:09 −6‎ ‎81.197.165.146 talk‎ →‎Sub-national republics diffhist Pliny the Elder‎ 13:41 +8‎ ‎DiverDave talk contribs‎ standardizing text: using quotations for titles in English and italics for titles in Latin diffhist Pliny the Elder‎ 13:16 −90‎ ‎DiverDave talk contribs‎ removed redundant citations from ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' (secondary sources are preferable to tertiary sources) diffhist Pliny the Elder‎ 13:07 +31‎ ‎DiverDave talk contribs‎ →‎Literary interlude: added title of Pliny's second published work diffhist List of Roman consuls‎ 11:40 +108‎ ‎CutieyKing talk contribs‎ →‎5th century BC (500–401): Wikilink to Aulus Manlius Vulso Capitolinus, consular tribune in 405, 402 and 397 BC Tag: Visual edit diffhist m John Milton‎ 10:43 −28‎ ‎Dumbassman talk contribs‎ Fixed broken reference Tag: Manual revert diffhist m Pliny the Elder‎ 10:29 +12‎ ‎Chewings72 talk contribs‎ Changing short description from "Roman military commander and writer" to "1st century Roman military commander and writer" (Shortdesc helper) diffhist John Milton‎ 10:24 +28‎ ‎2405:201:3012:d821:7932:cdc5:7c6f:1113 talk‎ Tag: Reverted Move log 10:22 Anthony Appleyard talk contribs moved page Circus (building) to Roman circus ‎(Requested by GPinkerton at WP:RM/TR: Natural name, avoids parentheses, already used throughout the article, including bolded in the lead.) diffhist Internet Archive‎ 10:12 +35‎ ‎Pancho507 talk contribs‎ Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit Advanced mobile edit diffhist Basilicata‎ 10:10 −1‎ ‎Generale Lee talk contribs‎ →‎Tourism Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit diffhist Module:IPAc-en/phonemes‎ 09:00 −110‎ ‎Nardog talk contribs‎ rv ill-motivated addition, see talk Tag: Undo diffhist Lucan‎ 08:57 +50‎ ‎Marcocapelle talk contribs‎ added Category:Ancient Romans who committed suicide using HotCat diffhist Republic‎ 07:52 +54‎ ‎Cartingcarl talk contribs‎ →‎Sub-national republics Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit diffhist Republic‎ 07:49 +157‎ ‎Cartingcarl talk contribs‎ →‎Sub-national republics Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit diffhist Petronius‎ 04:32 −5‎ ‎Lawrencekhoo talk contribs‎ →‎top diffhist m List of Roman civil wars and revolts‎ 04:09 +71‎ ‎VFF0347 talk contribs‎ Expanded an event based upon the Wikipedia article on the subject. diffhist Cicero‎ 03:57 +143‎ ‎GoingBatty talk contribs‎ General fixes and manual cleanup Tag: AWB diffhist m Pedanius Dioscorides‎ 01:53 +5‎ ‎Chewings72 talk contribs‎ Changing short description from "Greco-Roman physician and pharmacologist (40-90)" to "Greco-Roman physician and pharmacologist (AD c.40-90)" (Shortdesc helper) diffhist m Solon‎ 00:05 +10‎ ‎Bkell talk contribs‎ copyedit 27 December 2020 diffhist Pedanius Dioscorides‎ 23:38 +6‎ ‎Aldux talk contribs‎ Undid revision 994505335 by 99.246.135.183 (talk) Tag: Undo diffhist Pliny the Elder‎ 22:53 −895‎ ‎DiverDave talk contribs‎ removed text describing the life of Bassus (will paste into Aufidius Bassus article, where it belongs diffhist Pliny the Elder‎ 22:24 +281‎ ‎DiverDave talk contribs‎ added text and inline citation diffhist Roman Republic‎ 22:21 −29‎ ‎Sumanuil talk contribs‎ Reverted to revision 996441702 by Monkbot (talk) Tags: Undo Twinkle diffhist Roman Republic‎ 22:16 +29‎ ‎2601:601:9c80:ca40:8a3:2bda:e0de:22f0 talk‎ Changed BC to BCE and AD to CE Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit missing file added Reverted diffhist Josephus‎ 20:03 +169‎ ‎Straw Cat talk contribs‎ Better and more complete summary in lead of key points from main article diffhist m Robert Frost‎ 19:44 +25‎ ‎Ardub23 talk contribs‎ MOS:SLASH diffhist m Quintus Aurelius Symmachus‎ 19:41 +23‎ ‎Tom.Reding talk contribs‎ Enum 1 author/editor WL; WP:GenFixes on Tag: AWB diffhist Iliad‎ 17:12 −87‎ ‎Paul August talk contribs‎ Undid revision 996590573 by DamianosUGC (talk) Not an improvement Tag: Undo diffhist Frankfurt‎ 15:57 −19‎ ‎Rio65trio talk contribs‎ →‎Quality of life: Language diffhist m Frankfurt‎ 15:44 +29‎ ‎Rio65trio talk contribs‎ →‎Nightlife: Corrected link diffhist m Syntax‎ 15:33 −18‎ ‎ClueBot NG talk contribs‎ Reverting possible vandalism by 2409:4060:2E00:82B5:9B10:28D2:B160:7EA2 to version by Monkbot. Report False Positive? Thanks, ClueBot NG. (3854068) (Bot) Tag: Rollback diffhist Syntax‎ 15:33 +18‎ ‎2409:4060:2e00:82b5:9b10:28d2:b160:7ea2 talk‎ Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit Reverted diffhist Pausanias (geographer)‎ 15:28 0‎ ‎184.147.149.229 talk‎ Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit diffhist m Iliad‎ 14:47 +87‎ ‎DamianosUGC talk contribs‎ →‎Major characters Tag: Reverted diffhist Pliny the Elder‎ 13:06 −1,195‎ ‎DiverDave talk contribs‎ removed text describing the life of Pomponius (will paste into Pomponius article, where it belongs) diffhist Ancient Roman cuisine‎ 11:42 +130‎ ‎77.99.49.230 talk‎ →‎Foods and ingredients: Request citation for French beans - a New World crop. 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en-wikipedia-org-4160	----	Book sources - Wikipedia Book sources Jump to navigation Jump to search This page allows users to search for multiple sources for a book given the 10- or 13-digit ISBN number. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN number do not matter. Search for book sourcesISBN: Search Wikimedia page containing links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources For assistance, see Help:ISBN. This page links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources where you will be able to search for the book by its International Standard Book Number (ISBN). If you arrived at this page by clicking an ISBN link in a Wikipedia page, you will find the full range of relevant search links for that specific book by scrolling to the find links below. To search for a different book, type that book's individual ISBN into this ISBN search box. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. 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en-wikipedia-org-4161	----	Charles I of England - Wikipedia Charles I of England From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 17th-century monarch of England, Scotland and Ireland King of England and Ireland Charles I Portrait from the studio of Anthony van Dyck, 1636 King of England and Ireland (more...) Reign 27 March 1625 – 30 January 1649 Coronation 2 February 1626 Predecessor James I Successor Charles II (de jure) Council of State (de facto) King of Scotland (more...) Reign 27 March 1625 – 30 January 1649 Coronation 18 June 1633 Predecessor James VI Successor Charles II Born 19 November 1600 Dunfermline Palace, Dunfermline, Scotland Died 30 January 1649(1649-01-30) (aged 48) Whitehall, London, England Burial 9 February 1649 St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, England Spouse Henrietta Maria of France ​ ​ (m. 1625)​ Issue Detail Charles James, Duke of Cornwall Charles II Mary, Princess of Orange James II & VII Elizabeth Anne Catherine Henry, Duke of Gloucester Henrietta, Duchess of Orléans House Stuart Father James VI of Scotland and I of England Mother Anne of Denmark Religion Anglican Charles I (19 November 1600 – 30 January 1649)[a] was King of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649. He was born into the House of Stuart as the second son of King James VI of Scotland, but after his father inherited the English throne in 1603 (as James I), he moved to England, where he spent much of the rest of his life. He became heir apparent to the three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland in 1612 on the death of his elder brother Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales. An unsuccessful and unpopular attempt to marry him to the Spanish Habsburg princess Maria Anna culminated in an eight-month visit to Spain in 1623 that demonstrated the futility of the marriage negotiations. Two years later he married the Bourbon princess Henrietta Maria of France. After his succession in 1625, Charles quarrelled with the Parliament of England, which sought to curb his royal prerogative. Charles believed in the divine right of kings, and was determined to govern according to his own conscience. Many of his subjects opposed his policies, in particular the levying of taxes without parliamentary consent, and perceived his actions as those of a tyrannical absolute monarch. His religious policies, coupled with his marriage to a Roman Catholic, generated antipathy and mistrust from Reformed religious groups such as the English Puritans and Scottish Covenanters, who thought his views were too Catholic. He supported high church Anglican ecclesiastics such as Richard Montagu and William Laud, and failed to aid continental Protestant forces successfully during the Thirty Years' War. His attempts to force the Church of Scotland to adopt high Anglican practices led to the Bishops' Wars, strengthened the position of the English and Scottish parliaments, and helped precipitate his own downfall. From 1642, Charles fought the armies of the English and Scottish parliaments in the English Civil War. After his defeat in 1645, he surrendered to a Scottish force that eventually handed him over to the English Parliament. Charles refused to accept his captors' demands for a constitutional monarchy, and temporarily escaped captivity in November 1647. Re-imprisoned on the Isle of Wight, Charles forged an alliance with Scotland, but by the end of 1648 Oliver Cromwell's New Model Army had consolidated its control over England. Charles was tried, convicted, and executed for high treason in January 1649. The monarchy was abolished and the Commonwealth of England was established as a republic. The monarchy would be restored to Charles's son, Charles II, in 1660. Contents 1 Early life 2 Heir apparent 3 Early reign 4 Personal rule 4.1 Parliament prorogued 4.2 Finances 5 Religious conflicts 5.1 Bishops' Wars 6 Long Parliament 6.1 Tensions escalate 6.2 Irish rebellion 6.3 Five members 7 English Civil War 7.1 Captivity 8 Trial 9 Execution 10 Legacy 10.1 Art 10.2 Assessments 11 Titles, styles, honours and arms 11.1 Titles and styles 11.2 Honours 11.3 Arms 12 Issue 13 Ancestry 14 Notes 15 References 15.1 Citations 15.2 Sources 16 Further reading 16.1 Historiography 17 External links Early life Engraving by Simon de Passe of Charles and his parents, King James and Queen Anne, c. 1612 The second son of King James VI of Scotland and Anne of Denmark, Charles was born in Dunfermline Palace, Fife, on 19 November 1600.[1] At a Protestant ceremony in the Chapel Royal of Holyrood Palace in Edinburgh on 23 December 1600, he was baptised by David Lindsay, Bishop of Ross, and created Duke of Albany, the traditional title of the second son of the King of Scotland, with the subsidiary titles of Marquess of Ormond, Earl of Ross and Lord Ardmannoch.[2] James VI was the first cousin twice removed of Queen Elizabeth I of England, and when she died childless in March 1603, he became King of England as James I. Charles was a weak and sickly infant, and while his parents and older siblings left for England in April and early June that year, due to his fragile health,[3] he remained in Scotland with his father's friend Lord Fyvie, appointed as his guardian.[4] By 1604, when Charles was three-and-a-half, he was able to walk the length of the great hall at Dunfermline Palace without assistance, and it was decided that he was strong enough to make the journey to England to be reunited with his family. In mid-July 1604, Charles left Dunfermline for England where he was to spend most of the rest of his life.[5] In England, Charles was placed under the charge of Elizabeth, Lady Carey, the wife of courtier Sir Robert Carey, who put him in boots made of Spanish leather and brass to help strengthen his weak ankles.[6] His speech development was also slow, and he retained a stammer for the rest of his life.[7] Portrait by Robert Peake, c. 1610 In January 1605, Charles was created Duke of York, as is customary in the case of the English sovereign's second son, and made a Knight of the Bath.[8] Thomas Murray, a presbyterian Scot, was appointed as a tutor.[9] Charles learnt the usual subjects of classics, languages, mathematics and religion.[10] In 1611, he was made a Knight of the Garter.[11] Eventually, Charles apparently conquered his physical infirmity,[11] which might have been caused by rickets.[6] He became an adept horseman and marksman, and took up fencing.[10] Even so, his public profile remained low in contrast to that of his physically stronger and taller[b] elder brother, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales, whom Charles adored and attempted to emulate.[12] However, in early November 1612, Henry died at the age of 18 of what is suspected to have been typhoid (or possibly porphyria).[13] Charles, who turned 12 two weeks later, became heir apparent. As the eldest surviving son of the sovereign, Charles automatically gained several titles (including Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay). Four years later, in November 1616, he was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester.[14] Heir apparent In 1613, Charles's sister Elizabeth married Frederick V, Elector Palatine, and moved to Heidelberg.[15] In 1617, the Habsburg Archduke Ferdinand of Austria, a Catholic, was elected king of Bohemia. The following year, the Bohemians rebelled, defenestrating the Catholic governors. In August 1619, the Bohemian diet chose as their monarch Frederick V, who was leader of the Protestant Union, while Ferdinand was elected Holy Roman Emperor in the imperial election. Frederick's acceptance of the Bohemian crown in defiance of the emperor marked the beginning of the turmoil that would develop into the Thirty Years' War. The conflict, originally confined to Bohemia, spiralled into a wider European war, which the English Parliament and public quickly grew to see as a polarised continental struggle between Catholics and Protestants.[16] In 1620, Charles's brother-in-law, Frederick V, was defeated at the Battle of White Mountain near Prague and his hereditary lands in the Electoral Palatinate were invaded by a Habsburg force from the Spanish Netherlands.[17] James, however, had been seeking marriage between the new Prince of Wales and Ferdinand's niece, Habsburg princess Maria Anna of Spain, and began to see the Spanish match as a possible diplomatic means of achieving peace in Europe.[18] Unfortunately for James, negotiation with Spain proved generally unpopular, both with the public and with James's court.[19] The English Parliament was actively hostile towards Spain and Catholicism, and thus, when called by James in 1621, the members hoped for an enforcement of recusancy laws, a naval campaign against Spain, and a Protestant marriage for the Prince of Wales.[20] James's Lord Chancellor, Francis Bacon, was impeached before the House of Lords for corruption.[21] The impeachment was the first since 1459 without the king's official sanction in the form of a bill of attainder. The incident set an important precedent as the process of impeachment would later be used against Charles and his supporters: the Duke of Buckingham, Archbishop William Laud, and the Earl of Strafford. James insisted that the House of Commons be concerned exclusively with domestic affairs, while the members protested that they had the privilege of free speech within the Commons' walls, demanding war with Spain and a Protestant Princess of Wales.[22] Charles, like his father, considered the discussion of his marriage in the Commons impertinent and an infringement of his father's royal prerogative.[23] In January 1622, James dissolved Parliament, angry at what he perceived as the members' impudence and intransigence.[24] Portrait of Charles as Prince of Wales after Daniel Mytens, c. 1623 Charles and Buckingham, James's favourite and a man who had great influence over the prince,[25] travelled incognito to Spain in February 1623 to try to reach agreement on the long-pending Spanish match.[26] In the end, however, the trip was an embarrassing failure.[27] The Infanta thought Charles to be little more than an infidel, and the Spanish at first demanded that he convert to Roman Catholicism as a condition of the match.[28] The Spanish insisted on toleration of Catholics in England and the repeal of the penal laws, which Charles knew would never be agreed by Parliament, and that the Infanta remain in Spain for a year after any wedding to ensure that England complied with all the terms of the treaty.[29] A personal quarrel erupted between Buckingham and the Count of Olivares, the Spanish chief minister, and so Charles conducted the ultimately futile negotiations personally.[30] When Charles returned to London in October, without a bride and to a rapturous and relieved public welcome,[31] he and Buckingham pushed a reluctant King James to declare war on Spain.[32] With the encouragement of his Protestant advisers, James summoned the English Parliament in 1624 so that he could request subsidies for a war. Charles and Buckingham supported the impeachment of the Lord Treasurer, Lionel Cranfield, 1st Earl of Middlesex, who opposed war on grounds of cost and who quickly fell in much the same manner as Bacon had.[33] James told Buckingham he was a fool, and presciently warned his son Charles that he would live to regret the revival of impeachment as a parliamentary tool.[34] An under-funded makeshift army under Ernst von Mansfeld set off to recover the Palatinate, but it was so poorly provisioned that it never advanced beyond the Dutch coast.[35] By 1624, an increasingly ill James was finding it difficult to control Parliament. By the time of his death in March 1625, Charles and the Duke of Buckingham had already assumed de facto control of the kingdom.[36] Early reign With the failure of the Spanish match, Charles and Buckingham turned their attention to France.[37] On 1 May 1625 Charles was married by proxy to the fifteen-year-old French princess Henrietta Maria in front of the doors of Notre Dame de Paris.[38] Charles had seen Henrietta Maria in Paris while en route to Spain.[39] The married couple met in person on 13 June 1625 in Canterbury. Charles delayed the opening of his first Parliament until after the marriage was consummated, to forestall any opposition.[40] Many members of the Commons were opposed to the king's marriage to a Roman Catholic, fearing that Charles would lift restrictions on Catholic recusants and undermine the official establishment of the reformed Church of England. Although he told Parliament that he would not relax religious restrictions, he promised to do exactly that in a secret marriage treaty with his brother-in-law Louis XIII of France.[41] Moreover, the treaty loaned to the French seven English naval ships that would be used to suppress the Protestant Huguenots at La Rochelle in September 1625.[42] Charles was crowned on 2 February 1626 at Westminster Abbey, but without his wife at his side because she refused to participate in a Protestant religious ceremony.[43] Distrust of Charles's religious policies increased with his support of a controversial anti-Calvinist ecclesiastic, Richard Montagu, who was in disrepute among the Puritans.[44] In his pamphlet A New Gag for an Old Goose (1624), a reply to the Catholic pamphlet A New Gag for the New Gospel, Montagu argued against Calvinist predestination, the doctrine that salvation and damnation were preordained by God. Anti-Calvinists—known as Arminians—believed that human beings could influence their own fate through the exercise of free will.[45] Arminian divines had been one of the few sources of support for Charles's proposed Spanish marriage.[46] With the support of King James, Montagu produced another pamphlet, entitled Appello Caesarem, in 1625 shortly after the old king's death and Charles's accession. To protect Montagu from the stricture of Puritan members of Parliament, Charles made the cleric one of his royal chaplains, increasing many Puritans' suspicions that Charles favoured Arminianism as a clandestine attempt to aid the resurgence of Catholicism.[47] Rather than direct involvement in the European land war, the English Parliament preferred a relatively inexpensive naval attack on Spanish colonies in the New World, hoping for the capture of the Spanish treasure fleets. Parliament voted to grant a subsidy of £140,000, which was an insufficient sum for Charles's war plans.[48] Moreover, the House of Commons limited its authorisation for royal collection of tonnage and poundage (two varieties of customs duties) to a period of one year, although previous sovereigns since Henry VI had been granted the right for life.[49] In this manner, Parliament could delay approval of the rates until after a full-scale review of customs revenue.[50] The bill made no progress in the House of Lords past its first reading.[51] Although no Parliamentary Act for the levy of tonnage and poundage was obtained, Charles continued to collect the duties.[52] Portrait by Gerrit van Honthorst, 1628 A poorly conceived and executed naval expedition against Spain under the leadership of Buckingham went badly, and the House of Commons began proceedings for the impeachment of the duke.[53] In May 1626, Charles nominated Buckingham as Chancellor of Cambridge University in a show of support,[54] and had two members who had spoken against Buckingham—Dudley Digges and Sir John Eliot—arrested at the door of the House. The Commons was outraged by the imprisonment of two of their members, and after about a week in custody, both were released.[55] On 12 June 1626, the Commons launched a direct protestation attacking Buckingham, stating, "We protest before your Majesty and the whole world that until this great person be removed from intermeddling with the great affairs of state, we are out of hope of any good success; and do fear that any money we shall or can give will, through his misemployment, be turned rather to the hurt and prejudice of this your kingdom than otherwise, as by lamentable experience we have found those large supplies formerly and lately given."[56] Despite Parliament's protests, however, Charles refused to dismiss his friend, dismissing Parliament instead.[57] Meanwhile, domestic quarrels between Charles and Henrietta Maria were souring the early years of their marriage. Disputes over her jointure, appointments to her household, and the practice of her religion culminated in the king expelling the vast majority of her French attendants in August 1626.[58] Despite Charles's agreement to provide the French with English ships as a condition of marrying Henrietta Maria, in 1627 he launched an attack on the French coast to defend the Huguenots at La Rochelle.[59] The action, led by Buckingham, was ultimately unsuccessful. Buckingham's failure to protect the Huguenots—and his retreat from Saint-Martin-de-Ré—spurred Louis XIII's siege of La Rochelle and furthered the English Parliament's and people's detestation of the duke.[60] Charles provoked further unrest by trying to raise money for the war through a "forced loan": a tax levied without parliamentary consent. In November 1627, the test case in the King's Bench, the "Five Knights' Case", found that the king had a prerogative right to imprison without trial those who refused to pay the forced loan.[61] Summoned again in March 1628, on 26 May Parliament adopted a Petition of Right, calling upon the king to acknowledge that he could not levy taxes without Parliament's consent, not impose martial law on civilians, not imprison them without due process, and not quarter troops in their homes.[62] Charles assented to the petition on 7 June,[63] but by the end of the month he had prorogued Parliament and re-asserted his right to collect customs duties without authorisation from Parliament.[64] On 23 August 1628, Buckingham was assassinated.[65] Charles was deeply distressed. According to Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon, he "threw himself upon his bed, lamenting with much passion and with abundance of tears".[66] He remained grieving in his room for two days.[67] In contrast, the public rejoiced at Buckingham's death, which accentuated the gulf between the court and the nation, and between the Crown and the Commons.[68] Although the death of Buckingham effectively ended the war with Spain and eliminated his leadership as an issue, it did not end the conflicts between Charles and Parliament.[69] It did, however, coincide with an improvement in Charles's relationship with his wife, and by November 1628 their old quarrels were at an end.[70] Perhaps Charles's emotional ties were transferred from Buckingham to Henrietta Maria.[71] She became pregnant for the first time, and the bond between them grew stronger.[72] Together, they embodied an image of virtue and family life, and their court became a model of formality and morality.[73] Personal rule Further information: Caroline era Parliament prorogued Rubens depicted Charles as a victorious and chivalrous Saint George in an English landscape, 1629–30.[c] In January 1629, Charles opened the second session of the English Parliament, which had been prorogued in June 1628, with a moderate speech on the tonnage and poundage issue.[77] Members of the House of Commons began to voice opposition to Charles's policies in light of the case of John Rolle, a Member of Parliament whose goods had been confiscated for failing to pay tonnage and poundage.[78] Many MPs viewed the imposition of the tax as a breach of the Petition of Right. When Charles ordered a parliamentary adjournment on 2 March,[79] members held the Speaker, Sir John Finch, down in his chair so that the ending of the session could be delayed long enough for resolutions against Catholicism, Arminianism and tonnage and poundage to be read out and acclaimed by the chamber.[80] The provocation was too much for Charles, who dissolved Parliament and had nine parliamentary leaders, including Sir John Eliot, imprisoned over the matter,[81] thereby turning the men into martyrs,[82] and giving popular cause to their protest.[83] Personal rule necessitated peace. Without the means in the foreseeable future to raise funds from Parliament for a European war, or the help of Buckingham, Charles made peace with France and Spain.[84] The following eleven years, during which Charles ruled England without a Parliament, are referred to as the personal rule or the "eleven years' tyranny".[85] Ruling without Parliament was not exceptional, and was supported by precedent.[d] Only Parliament, however, could legally raise taxes, and without it Charles's capacity to acquire funds for his treasury was limited to his customary rights and prerogatives.[87] Finances Sixpence of Charles I, inscribed: CAROLUS D(EI) G(RATIA) MAG(NAE) BRIT(ANNIAE) FR(ANCIAE) ET HIB(ERNIAE) REX ("Charles, by the grace of God, King of Great Britain, of France and of Ireland") Farthing of Charles I, showing a crown over two sceptres in saltire on the obverse. The two sceptres represent the two kingdoms of England and Scotland.[88] A large fiscal deficit had arisen in the reigns of Elizabeth I and James I.[89] Notwithstanding Buckingham's short-lived campaigns against both Spain and France, there was little financial capacity for Charles to wage wars overseas. Throughout his reign Charles was obliged to rely primarily on volunteer forces for defence and on diplomatic efforts to support his sister, Elizabeth, and his foreign policy objective for the restoration of the Palatinate.[90] England was still the least taxed country in Europe, with no official excise and no regular direct taxation.[91] To raise revenue without reconvening Parliament, Charles resurrected an all-but-forgotten law called the "Distraint of Knighthood", in abeyance for over a century, which required any man who earned £40 or more from land each year to present himself at the king's coronation to be knighted. Relying on this old statute, Charles fined individuals who had failed to attend his coronation in 1626.[92][e] The chief tax imposed by Charles was a feudal levy known as ship money,[94] which proved even more unpopular, and lucrative, than tonnage and poundage before it. Previously, collection of ship money had been authorised only during wars, and only on coastal regions. Charles, however, argued that there was no legal bar to collecting the tax for defence during peacetime and throughout the whole of the kingdom. Ship money, paid directly to the Treasury of the Navy, provided between £150,000 to £200,000 annually between 1634 and 1638, after which yields declined.[95] Opposition to ship money steadily grew, but the 12 common law judges of England declared that the tax was within the king's prerogative, though some of them had reservations.[96] The prosecution of John Hampden for non-payment in 1637–38 provided a platform for popular protest, and the judges found against Hampden only by the narrow margin of 7–5.[97] The king also derived money through the granting of monopolies, despite a statute forbidding such action, which, though inefficient, raised an estimated £100,000 a year in the late 1630s.[98][f] One such monopoly was for soap, pejoratively referred to as "popish soap" because some of its backers were Catholics.[100] Charles also raised funds from the Scottish nobility, at the price of considerable acrimony, by the Act of Revocation (1625), whereby all gifts of royal or church land made to the nobility since 1540 were revoked, with continued ownership being subject to an annual rent.[101] In addition, the boundaries of the royal forests in England were restored to their ancient limits as part of a scheme to maximise income by exploiting the land and fining land users within the reasserted boundaries for encroachment.[102] The focus of the programme was disafforestation and sale of forest lands for conversion to pasture and arable farming, or in the case of the Forest of Dean, development for the iron industry. Disafforestation frequently caused riots and disturbances including those known as the Western Rising.[103] Against the background of this unrest, Charles faced bankruptcy in mid-1640. The City of London, preoccupied with its own grievances, refused to make any loans to the king, as did foreign powers. In this extremity, in July Charles seized silver bullion worth £130,000 held in trust at the mint in the Tower of London, promising its later return at 8% interest to its owners.[104] In August, after the East India Company refused to grant a loan,[105] Lord Cottington seized the company's stock of pepper and spices and sold it for £60,000 (far below its market value), promising to refund the money with interest later.[106] Religious conflicts Charles I with M. de St Antoine by Anthony van Dyck, 1633 Throughout Charles's reign, the English Reformation was constantly in the forefront of political debate. Arminian theology emphasised clerical authority and the individual's ability to reject or accept salvation, which opponents viewed as heretical and a potential vehicle for the reintroduction of Roman Catholicism. Puritan reformers thought Charles was too sympathetic to the teachings of Arminianism, which they considered irreligious, and opposed his desire to move the Church of England in a more traditional and sacramental direction.[107] In addition, his Protestant subjects followed the European war closely[108] and grew increasingly dismayed by Charles's diplomacy with Spain and his failure to support the Protestant cause abroad effectively.[109] In 1633, Charles appointed William Laud Archbishop of Canterbury.[110] They initiated a series of reforms to promote religious uniformity by restricting non-conformist preachers, insisting the liturgy be celebrated as prescribed by the Book of Common Prayer, organising the internal architecture of English churches to emphasise the sacrament of the altar, and re-issuing King James's Declaration of Sports, which permitted secular activities on the sabbath.[111] The Feoffees for Impropriations, an organisation that bought benefices and advowsons so that Puritans could be appointed to them, was dissolved.[112] Laud prosecuted those who opposed his reforms in the Court of High Commission and the Star Chamber, the two most powerful courts in the land.[113] The courts became feared for their censorship of opposing religious views and unpopular among the propertied classes for inflicting degrading punishments on gentlemen.[114] For example, in 1637 William Prynne, Henry Burton and John Bastwick were pilloried, whipped and mutilated by cropping and imprisoned indefinitely for publishing anti-episcopal pamphlets.[115] Charles I in Three Positions by van Dyck, 1635–36 When Charles attempted to impose his religious policies in Scotland he faced numerous difficulties. Although born in Scotland, Charles had become estranged from his northern kingdom; his first visit since early childhood was for his Scottish coronation in 1633.[116] To the dismay of the Scots, who had removed many traditional rituals from their liturgical practice, Charles insisted that the coronation be conducted using the Anglican rite.[117] In 1637, the king ordered the use of a new prayer book in Scotland that was almost identical to the English Book of Common Prayer, without consulting either the Scottish Parliament or the Kirk.[118] Although it had been written, under Charles's direction, by Scottish bishops, many Scots resisted it, seeing the new prayer book as a vehicle for introducing Anglicanism to Scotland.[119] On 23 July, riots erupted in Edinburgh upon the first Sunday of the prayer book's usage, and unrest spread throughout the Kirk. The public began to mobilise around a reaffirmation of the National Covenant, whose signatories pledged to uphold the reformed religion of Scotland and reject any innovations that were not authorised by Kirk and Parliament.[120] When the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland met in November 1638, it condemned the new prayer book, abolished episcopal church government by bishops, and adopted presbyterian government by elders and deacons.[121] Bishops' Wars Main article: Bishops' Wars Charles perceived the unrest in Scotland as a rebellion against his authority, precipitating the First Bishops' War in 1639.[122] Charles did not seek subsidies from the English Parliament to wage war, but instead raised an army without parliamentary aid and marched to Berwick-upon-Tweed, on the border of Scotland.[123] Charles's army did not engage the Covenanters as the king feared the defeat of his forces, whom he believed to be significantly outnumbered by the Scots.[124] In the Treaty of Berwick, Charles regained custody of his Scottish fortresses and secured the dissolution of the Covenanters' interim government, albeit at the decisive concession that both the Scottish Parliament and General Assembly of the Scottish Church were called.[125] The military failure in the First Bishops' War caused a financial and diplomatic crisis for Charles that deepened when his efforts to raise funds from Spain, while simultaneously continuing his support for his Palatine relatives, led to the public humiliation of the Battle of the Downs, where the Dutch destroyed a Spanish bullion fleet off the coast of Kent in sight of the impotent English navy.[126] Charles continued peace negotiations with the Scots in a bid to gain time before launching a new military campaign. Because of his financial weakness, he was forced to call Parliament into session in an attempt to raise funds for such a venture.[127] Both English and Irish parliaments were summoned in the early months of 1640.[128] In March 1640, the Irish Parliament duly voted in a subsidy of £180,000 with the promise to raise an army 9,000 strong by the end of May.[128] In the English general election in March, however, court candidates fared badly,[129] and Charles's dealings with the English Parliament in April quickly reached stalemate.[130] The earls of Northumberland and Strafford attempted to broker a compromise whereby the king would agree to forfeit ship money in exchange for £650,000 (although the cost of the coming war was estimated at around £1 million).[131] Nevertheless, this alone was insufficient to produce consensus in the Commons.[132] The Parliamentarians' calls for further reforms were ignored by Charles, who still retained the support of the House of Lords. Despite the protests of Northumberland,[133] the Short Parliament (as it came to be known) was dissolved in May 1640, less than a month after it assembled.[134] The Earl of Strafford (left) and William Laud (right): two of Charles's most influential advisors during the personal rule[135] By this stage Strafford, Lord Deputy of Ireland since 1632,[136] had emerged as Charles's right-hand man and together with Laud, pursued a policy of "Thorough" that aimed to make central royal authority more efficient and effective at the expense of local or anti-government interests.[137] Although originally a critic of the king, Strafford defected to royal service in 1628 (due in part to Buckingham's persuasion),[138] and had since emerged, alongside Laud, as the most influential of Charles's ministers.[139] Bolstered by the failure of the English Short Parliament, the Scottish Parliament declared itself capable of governing without the king's consent, and in August 1640 the Covenanter army moved into the English county of Northumberland.[140] Following the illness of the earl of Northumberland, who was the king's commander-in-chief, Charles and Strafford went north to command the English forces, despite Strafford being ill himself with a combination of gout and dysentery.[141] The Scottish soldiery, many of whom were veterans of the Thirty Years' War,[142] had far greater morale and training compared to their English counterparts. They met virtually no resistance until reaching Newcastle upon Tyne, where they defeated the English forces at the Battle of Newburn and occupied the city, as well as the neighbouring county of Durham.[143] As demands for a parliament grew,[144] Charles took the unusual step of summoning a great council of peers. By the time it met, on 24 September at York, Charles had resolved to follow the almost universal advice to call a parliament. After informing the peers that a parliament would convene in November, he asked them to consider how he could acquire funds to maintain his army against the Scots in the meantime. They recommended making peace.[145] A cessation of arms, although not a final settlement, was negotiated in the humiliating Treaty of Ripon, signed in October 1640.[146] The treaty stated that the Scots would continue to occupy Northumberland and Durham and be paid £850 per day until peace was restored and the English Parliament recalled, which would be required to raise sufficient funds to pay the Scottish forces.[147] Consequently, Charles summoned what later became known as the Long Parliament. Once again, Charles's supporters fared badly at the polls. Of the 493 members of the Commons returned in November, over 350 were opposed to the king.[148] Long Parliament Main article: Long Parliament See also: Wars of the Three Kingdoms Tensions escalate The Long Parliament proved just as difficult for Charles as had the Short Parliament. It assembled on 3 November 1640 and quickly began proceedings to impeach the king's leading counsellors of high treason.[149] Strafford was taken into custody on 10 November; Laud was impeached on 18 December; John Finch, now Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, was impeached the following day, and he consequently fled to the Hague with Charles's permission on 21 December.[150] To prevent the king from dissolving it at will, Parliament passed the Triennial Act, which required Parliament to be summoned at least once every three years, and permitted the Lord Keeper and 12 peers to summon Parliament if the king failed to do so.[151] The Act was coupled with a subsidy bill, and so to secure the latter, Charles grudgingly granted royal assent in February 1641.[152] Strafford had become the principal target of the Parliamentarians, particularly John Pym, and he went on trial for high treason on 22 March 1641.[153] However, the key allegation by Sir Henry Vane that Strafford had threatened to use the Irish army to subdue England was not corroborated and on 10 April Pym's case collapsed.[154] Pym and his allies immediately launched a bill of attainder, which simply declared Strafford guilty and pronounced the sentence of death.[155] Wikisource has original text related to this article: Speech against the attainder of Strafford Charles assured Strafford that "upon the word of a king you shall not suffer in life, honour or fortune",[156] and the attainder could not succeed if Charles withheld assent.[157] Furthermore, many members and most peers were opposed to the attainder, not wishing, in the words of one, to "commit murder with the sword of justice".[158] However, increased tensions and an attempted coup by royalist army officers in support of Strafford and in which Charles was involved began to sway the issue.[159] The Commons passed the bill on 20 April by a large margin (204 in favour, 59 opposed, and 230 abstained), and the Lords acquiesced (by 26 votes to 19, with 79 absent) in May.[160] On 3 May, Parliament's Protestation attacked the "wicked counsels" of Charles's "arbitrary and tyrannical government". While those who signed the petition undertook to defend the king's "person, honour and estate", they also swore to preserve "the true reformed religion", parliament, and the "rights and liberties of the subjects".[161] Charles, fearing for the safety of his family in the face of unrest, assented reluctantly to Strafford's attainder on 9 May after consulting his judges and bishops.[162] Strafford was beheaded three days later.[163] Additionally in early May, Charles assented to an unprecedented Act that forbade the dissolution of the English Parliament without its consent.[164] In the following months, ship money, fines in distraint of knighthood and excise without parliamentary consent were declared unlawful, and the Courts of Star Chamber and High Commission were abolished.[165] All remaining forms of taxation were legalised and regulated by the Tonnage and Poundage Act.[166] The House of Commons also launched bills attacking bishops and episcopacy, but these failed in the Lords.[167] Charles had made important concessions in England, and temporarily improved his position in Scotland by securing the favour of the Scots on a visit from August to November 1641 during which he conceded to the official establishment of presbyterianism.[168] However, following an attempted royalist coup in Scotland, known as "The Incident", Charles's credibility was significantly undermined.[169] Irish rebellion Main article: Irish Rebellion of 1641 Portrait by van Dyck, c. 1635 In Ireland, the population was split into three main socio-political groups: the Gaelic Irish, who were Catholic; the Old English, who were descended from medieval Normans and were also predominantly Catholic; and the New English, who were Protestant settlers from England and Scotland aligned with the English Parliament and the Covenanters. Strafford's administration had improved the Irish economy and boosted tax revenue, but had done so by heavy-handedly imposing order.[170] He had trained up a large Catholic army in support of the king and had weakened the authority of the Irish Parliament,[171] while continuing to confiscate land from Catholics for Protestant settlement at the same time as promoting a Laudian Anglicanism that was anathema to presbyterians.[172] As a result, all three groups had become disaffected.[173] Strafford's impeachment provided a new departure for Irish politics whereby all sides joined together to present evidence against him.[174] In a similar manner to the English Parliament, the Old English members of the Irish Parliament argued that while opposed to Strafford they remained loyal to Charles. They argued that the king had been led astray by malign counsellors,[175] and that, moreover, a viceroy such as Strafford could emerge as a despotic figure instead of ensuring that the king was directly involved in governance.[176] Strafford's fall from power weakened Charles's influence in Ireland.[177] The dissolution of the Irish army was unsuccessfully demanded three times by the English Commons during Strafford's imprisonment,[161] until Charles was eventually forced through lack of money to disband the army at the end of Strafford's trial.[178] Disputes concerning the transfer of land ownership from native Catholic to settler Protestant,[179] particularly in relation to the plantation of Ulster,[180] coupled with resentment at moves to ensure the Irish Parliament was subordinate to the Parliament of England,[181] sowed the seeds of rebellion. When armed conflict arose between the Gaelic Irish and New English, in late October 1641, the Old English sided with the Gaelic Irish while simultaneously professing their loyalty to the king.[182] In November 1641, the House of Commons passed the Grand Remonstrance, a long list of grievances against actions by Charles's ministers committed since the beginning of his reign (that were asserted to be part of a grand Catholic conspiracy of which the king was an unwitting member),[183] but it was in many ways a step too far by Pym and passed by only 11 votes – 159 to 148.[184] Furthermore, the Remonstrance had very little support in the House of Lords, which the Remonstrance attacked.[185] The tension was heightened by news of the Irish rebellion, coupled with inaccurate rumours of Charles's complicity.[186] Throughout November, a series of alarmist pamphlets published stories of atrocities in Ireland,[187] which included massacres of New English settlers by the native Irish who could not be controlled by the Old English lords.[188] Rumours of "papist" conspiracies circulated in England,[189] and English anti-Catholic opinion was strengthened, damaging Charles's reputation and authority.[190] The English Parliament distrusted Charles's motivations when he called for funds to put down the Irish rebellion; many members of the Commons suspected that forces raised by Charles might later be used against Parliament itself.[191] Pym's Militia Bill was intended to wrest control of the army from the king, but it did not have the support of the Lords, let alone Charles.[192] Instead, the Commons passed the bill as an ordinance, which they claimed did not require royal assent.[193] The Militia Ordinance appears to have prompted more members of the Lords to support the king.[194] In an attempt to strengthen his position, Charles generated great antipathy in London, which was already fast falling into lawlessness, when he placed the Tower of London under the command of Colonel Thomas Lunsford, an infamous, albeit efficient, career officer.[195] When rumours reached Charles that Parliament intended to impeach his wife for supposedly conspiring with the Irish rebels, the king decided to take drastic action.[196] Five members Queen Henrietta Maria by van Dyck, 1632 Charles suspected, probably correctly, that some members of the English Parliament had colluded with the invading Scots.[197] On 3 January 1642, Charles directed Parliament to give up five members of the Commons – Pym, John Hampden, Denzil Holles, William Strode and Sir Arthur Haselrig – and one peer – Lord Mandeville – on the grounds of high treason.[198] When Parliament refused, it was possibly Henrietta Maria who persuaded Charles to arrest the five members by force, which Charles intended to carry out personally.[199] However, news of the warrant reached Parliament ahead of him, and the wanted men slipped away by boat shortly before Charles entered the House of Commons with an armed guard on 4 January.[200] Having displaced the Speaker, William Lenthall, from his chair, the king asked him where the MPs had fled. Lenthall, on his knees,[201] famously replied, "May it please your Majesty, I have neither eyes to see nor tongue to speak in this place but as the House is pleased to direct me, whose servant I am here."[202] Charles abjectly declared "all my birds have flown", and was forced to retire, empty-handed.[203] The botched arrest attempt was politically disastrous for Charles.[204] No English sovereign had ever entered the House of Commons, and his unprecedented invasion of the chamber to arrest its members was considered a grave breach of parliamentary privilege.[205] In one stroke Charles destroyed his supporters' efforts to portray him as a defence against innovation and disorder.[206] Parliament quickly seized London, and Charles fled the capital for Hampton Court Palace on 10 January,[207] moving two days later to Windsor Castle.[208] After sending his wife and eldest daughter to safety abroad in February, he travelled northwards, hoping to seize the military arsenal at Hull.[209] To his dismay, he was rebuffed by the town's Parliamentary governor, Sir John Hotham, who refused him entry in April, and Charles was forced to withdraw.[210] English Civil War Main article: English Civil War A nineteenth-century painting depicting Charles (centre in blue sash) before the battle of Edgehill, 1642 In mid-1642, both sides began to arm. Charles raised an army using the medieval method of commission of array, and Parliament called for volunteers for its militia.[211] The negotiations proved futile, and Charles raised the royal standard in Nottingham on 22 August 1642.[212] By then, Charles's forces controlled roughly the Midlands, Wales, the West Country and northern England. He set up his court at Oxford. Parliament controlled London, the south-east and East Anglia, as well as the English navy.[213] After a few skirmishes, the opposing forces met in earnest at Edgehill, on 23 October 1642. Charles's nephew Prince Rupert of the Rhine disagreed with the battle strategy of the royalist commander Lord Lindsey, and Charles sided with Rupert. Lindsey resigned, leaving Charles to assume overall command assisted by Lord Forth.[214] Rupert's cavalry successfully charged through the parliamentary ranks, but instead of swiftly returning to the field, rode off to plunder the parliamentary baggage train.[215] Lindsey, acting as a colonel, was wounded and bled to death without medical attention. The battle ended inconclusively as the daylight faded.[216] In his own words, the experience of battle had left Charles "exceedingly and deeply grieved".[217] He regrouped at Oxford, turning down Rupert's suggestion of an immediate attack on London. After a week, he set out for the capital on 3 November, capturing Brentford on the way while simultaneously continuing to negotiate with civic and parliamentary delegations. At Turnham Green on the outskirts of London, the royalist army met resistance from the city militia, and faced with a numerically superior force, Charles ordered a retreat.[217] He overwintered in Oxford, strengthening the city's defences and preparing for the next season's campaign. Peace talks between the two sides collapsed in April.[218] Charles depicted by Wenceslaus Hollar on horseback in front of his troops, 1644 The war continued indecisively over the next couple of years, and Henrietta Maria returned to Britain for 17 months from February 1643.[219] After Rupert captured Bristol in July 1643, Charles visited the port city and laid siege to Gloucester, further up the river Severn. His plan to undermine the city walls failed due to heavy rain, and on the approach of a parliamentary relief force, Charles lifted the siege and withdrew to Sudeley Castle.[220] The parliamentary army turned back towards London, and Charles set off in pursuit. The two armies met at Newbury, Berkshire, on 20 September. Just as at Edgehill, the battle stalemated at nightfall, and the armies disengaged.[221] In January 1644, Charles summoned a Parliament at Oxford, which was attended by about 40 peers and 118 members of the Commons; all told, the Oxford Parliament, which sat until March 1645, was supported by the majority of peers and about a third of the Commons.[222] Charles became disillusioned by the assembly's ineffectiveness, calling it a "mongrel" in private letters to his wife.[223] In 1644, Charles remained in the southern half of England while Rupert rode north to relieve Newark and York, which were under threat from parliamentary and Scottish Covenanter armies. Charles was victorious at the battle of Cropredy Bridge in late June, but the royalists in the north were defeated at the battle of Marston Moor just a few days later.[224] The king continued his campaign in the south, encircling and disarming the parliamentary army of the Earl of Essex.[225] Returning northwards to his base at Oxford, he fought at Newbury for a second time before the winter closed in; the battle ended indecisively.[226] Attempts to negotiate a settlement over the winter, while both sides re-armed and re-organised, were again unsuccessful.[227] At the battle of Naseby on 14 June 1645, Rupert's horsemen again mounted a successful charge against the flank of Parliament's New Model Army, but Charles's troops elsewhere on the field were pushed back by the opposing forces. Charles, attempting to rally his men, rode forward but as he did so, Lord Carnwath seized his bridle and pulled him back, fearing for the king's safety. Carnwath's action was misinterpreted by the royalist soldiers as a signal to move back, leading to a collapse of their position.[228] The military balance tipped decisively in favour of Parliament.[229] There followed a series of defeats for the royalists,[230] and then the Siege of Oxford, from which Charles escaped (disguised as a servant) in April 1646.[231] He put himself into the hands of the Scottish presbyterian army besieging Newark, and was taken northwards to Newcastle upon Tyne.[232] After nine months of negotiations, the Scots finally arrived at an agreement with the English Parliament: in exchange for £100,000, and the promise of more money in the future,[g] the Scots withdrew from Newcastle and delivered Charles to the parliamentary commissioners in January 1647.[234] Captivity Charles at Carisbrooke Castle, as painted by Eugène Lami in 1829 Parliament held Charles under house arrest at Holdenby House in Northamptonshire until Cornet George Joyce took him by threat of force from Holdenby on 3 June in the name of the New Model Army.[235] By this time, mutual suspicion had developed between Parliament, which favoured army disbandment and presbyterianism, and the New Model Army, which was primarily officered by congregationalist Independents, who sought a greater political role.[236] Charles was eager to exploit the widening divisions, and apparently viewed Joyce's actions as an opportunity rather than a threat.[237] He was taken first to Newmarket, at his own suggestion,[238] and then transferred to Oatlands and subsequently Hampton Court, while more ultimately fruitless negotiations took place.[239] By November, he determined that it would be in his best interests to escape – perhaps to France, Southern England or to Berwick-upon-Tweed, near the Scottish border.[240] He fled Hampton Court on 11 November, and from the shores of Southampton Water made contact with Colonel Robert Hammond, Parliamentary Governor of the Isle of Wight, whom he apparently believed to be sympathetic.[241] Hammond, however, confined Charles in Carisbrooke Castle and informed Parliament that Charles was in his custody.[242] From Carisbrooke, Charles continued to try to bargain with the various parties. In direct contrast to his previous conflict with the Scottish Kirk, on 26 December 1647 he signed a secret treaty with the Scots. Under the agreement, called the "Engagement", the Scots undertook to invade England on Charles's behalf and restore him to the throne on condition that presbyterianism be established in England for three years.[243] The royalists rose in May 1648, igniting the Second Civil War, and as agreed with Charles, the Scots invaded England. Uprisings in Kent, Essex, and Cumberland, and a rebellion in South Wales, were put down by the New Model Army, and with the defeat of the Scots at the Battle of Preston in August 1648, the royalists lost any chance of winning the war.[244] Charles's only recourse was to return to negotiations,[245] which were held at Newport on the Isle of Wight.[246] On 5 December 1648, Parliament voted by 129 to 83 to continue negotiating with the king,[247] but Oliver Cromwell and the army opposed any further talks with someone they viewed as a bloody tyrant and were already taking action to consolidate their power.[248] Hammond was replaced as Governor of the Isle of Wight on 27 November, and placed in the custody of the army the following day.[249] In Pride's Purge on 6 and 7 December, the members of Parliament out of sympathy with the military were arrested or excluded by Colonel Thomas Pride,[250] while others stayed away voluntarily.[251] The remaining members formed the Rump Parliament. It was effectively a military coup.[252] Trial Main article: High Court of Justice for the trial of Charles I Charles at his trial, by Edward Bower, 1649. He let his beard and hair grow long because Parliament had dismissed his barber, and he refused to let anyone else near him with a razor.[253] Charles was moved to Hurst Castle at the end of 1648, and thereafter to Windsor Castle.[254] In January 1649, the Rump House of Commons indicted him on a charge of treason, which was rejected by the House of Lords.[255] The idea of trying a king was a novel one.[256] The Chief Justices of the three common law courts of England – Henry Rolle, Oliver St John and John Wilde – all opposed the indictment as unlawful.[257] The Rump Commons declared itself capable of legislating alone, passed a bill creating a separate court for Charles's trial, and declared the bill an act without the need for royal assent.[258] The High Court of Justice established by the Act consisted of 135 commissioners, but many either refused to serve or chose to stay away.[259] Only 68 (all firm Parliamentarians) attended Charles's trial on charges of high treason and "other high crimes" that began on 20 January 1649 in Westminster Hall.[260] John Bradshaw acted as President of the Court, and the prosecution was led by the Solicitor General, John Cook.[261] Charles (in the dock with his back to the viewer) facing the High Court of Justice, 1649[262] Charles was accused of treason against England by using his power to pursue his personal interest rather than the good of the country.[263] The charge stated that he, "for accomplishment of such his designs, and for the protecting of himself and his adherents in his and their wicked practices, to the same ends hath traitorously and maliciously levied war against the present Parliament, and the people therein represented", and that the "wicked designs, wars, and evil practices of him, the said Charles Stuart, have been, and are carried on for the advancement and upholding of a personal interest of will, power, and pretended prerogative to himself and his family, against the public interest, common right, liberty, justice, and peace of the people of this nation."[263] Presaging the modern concept of command responsibility,[264] the indictment held him "guilty of all the treasons, murders, rapines, burnings, spoils, desolations, damages and mischiefs to this nation, acted and committed in the said wars, or occasioned thereby."[265] An estimated 300,000 people, or 6% of the population, died during the war.[266] Over the first three days of the trial, whenever Charles was asked to plead, he refused,[267] stating his objection with the words: "I would know by what power I am called hither, by what lawful authority...?"[268] He claimed that no court had jurisdiction over a monarch,[256] that his own authority to rule had been given to him by God and by the traditional laws of England, and that the power wielded by those trying him was only that of force of arms. Charles insisted that the trial was illegal, explaining that, no earthly power can justly call me (who am your King) in question as a delinquent ... this day's proceeding cannot be warranted by God's laws; for, on the contrary, the authority of obedience unto Kings is clearly warranted, and strictly commanded in both the Old and New Testament ... for the law of this land, I am no less confident, that no learned lawyer will affirm that an impeachment can lie against the King, they all going in his name: and one of their maxims is, that the King can do no wrong ... the higher House is totally excluded; and for the House of Commons, it is too well known that the major part of them are detained or deterred from sitting ... the arms I took up were only to defend the fundamental laws of this kingdom against those who have supposed my power hath totally changed the ancient government.[269] The court, by contrast, challenged the doctrine of sovereign immunity and proposed that "the King of England was not a person, but an office whose every occupant was entrusted with a limited power to govern 'by and according to the laws of the land and not otherwise'."[270] Wikisource has original text related to this article: Death warrant of King Charles I At the end of the third day, Charles was removed from the court,[271] which then heard over 30 witnesses against the king in his absence over the next two days, and on 26 January condemned him to death. The following day, the king was brought before a public session of the commission, declared guilty, and sentenced.[272] Fifty-nine of the commissioners signed Charles's death warrant.[273] Execution Main article: Execution of Charles I Contemporary German print of Charles I's beheading outside the Banqueting House, Whitehall Charles's beheading was scheduled for Tuesday, 30 January 1649. Two of his children remained in England under the control of the Parliamentarians: Elizabeth and Henry. They were permitted to visit him on 29 January, and he bade them a tearful farewell.[274] The following morning, he called for two shirts to prevent the cold weather causing any noticeable shivers that the crowd could have mistaken for fear:[275][276] "the season is so sharp as probably may make me shake, which some observers may imagine proceeds from fear. I would have no such imputation."[275] He walked under guard from St James's Palace, where he had been confined, to the Palace of Whitehall, where an execution scaffold had been erected in front of the Banqueting House.[277] Charles was separated from spectators by large ranks of soldiers, and his last speech reached only those with him on the scaffold.[278] He blamed his fate on his failure to prevent the execution of his loyal servant Strafford: "An unjust sentence that I suffered to take effect, is punished now by an unjust sentence on me."[279] He declared that he had desired the liberty and freedom of the people as much as any, "but I must tell you that their liberty and freedom consists in having government ... It is not their having a share in the government; that is nothing appertaining unto them. A subject and a sovereign are clean different things."[280] He continued, "I shall go from a corruptible to an incorruptible Crown, where no disturbance can be."[281] At about 2:00 p.m.,[282] Charles put his head on the block after saying a prayer and signalled the executioner when he was ready by stretching out his hands; he was then beheaded with one clean stroke.[283] According to observer Philip Henry, a moan "as I never heard before and desire I may never hear again" rose from the assembled crowd,[284] some of whom then dipped their handkerchiefs in the king's blood as a memento.[285] Cromwell was said to have visited Charles's coffin, sighing "Cruel necessity!" as he did so.[286] The story was depicted by Delaroche in the nineteenth century. Another of Delaroche's paintings, Charles I Insulted by Cromwell's Soldiers, is an allegory for later events in France and the mocking of Christ.[287] The executioner was masked and disguised, and there is debate over his identity. The commissioners approached Richard Brandon, the common hangman of London, but he refused, at least at first, despite being offered £200. It is possible he relented and undertook the commission after being threatened with death, but there are others who have been named as potential candidates, including George Joyce, William Hulet and Hugh Peters.[288] The clean strike, confirmed by an examination of the king's body at Windsor in 1813,[289][h] suggests that the execution was carried out by an experienced headsman.[292] It was common practice for the severed head of a traitor to be held up and exhibited to the crowd with the words "Behold the head of a traitor!"[293] Although Charles's head was exhibited,[294] the words were not used, possibly because the executioner did not want his voice recognised.[293] On the day after the execution, the king's head was sewn back onto his body, which was then embalmed and placed in a lead coffin.[295] The commission refused to allow Charles's burial at Westminster Abbey, so his body was conveyed to Windsor on the night of 7 February.[296] He was buried in private on 9 February 1649 in the Henry VIII vault in the chapel's quire, alongside the coffins of Henry VIII and Henry's third wife, Jane Seymour, in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle.[297] The king's son, Charles II, later planned for an elaborate royal mausoleum to be erected in Hyde Park, London, but it was never built.[135] Legacy See also: English Interregnum and Cultural depictions of Charles I of England Ten days after Charles's execution, on the day of his interment, a memoir purporting to be written by the king appeared for sale.[295] This book, the Eikon Basilike (Greek for the "Royal Portrait"), contained an apologia for royal policies, and it proved an effective piece of royalist propaganda. John Milton wrote a Parliamentary rejoinder, the Eikonoklastes ("The Iconoclast"), but the response made little headway against the pathos of the royalist book.[298] Anglicans and royalists fashioned an image of martyrdom,[299] and in the Convocations of Canterbury and York of 1660 King Charles the Martyr was added to the Church of England's liturgical calendar.[300] High church Anglicans held special services on the anniversary of his death. Churches, such as those at Falmouth and Tunbridge Wells, and Anglican devotional societies such as the Society of King Charles the Martyr, were founded in his honour.[135] With the monarchy overthrown, England became a republic or "Commonwealth". The House of Lords was abolished by the Rump Commons, and executive power was assumed by a Council of State.[301] All significant military opposition in Britain and Ireland was extinguished by the forces of Oliver Cromwell in the Third English Civil War and the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland.[302] Cromwell forcibly disbanded the Rump Parliament in 1653,[303] thereby establishing the Protectorate with himself as Lord Protector.[304] Upon his death in 1658, he was briefly succeeded by his ineffective son, Richard.[305] Parliament was reinstated, and the monarchy was restored to Charles I's eldest son, Charles II, in 1660.[306] Art Main article: Caroline era Partly inspired by his visit to the Spanish court in 1623,[307] Charles became a passionate and knowledgeable art collector, amassing one of the finest art collections ever assembled.[308] In Spain, he sat for a sketch by Velázquez, and acquired works by Titian and Correggio, among others.[309] In England, his commissions included the ceiling of the Banqueting House, Whitehall, by Rubens and paintings by other artists from the Low Countries such as van Honthorst, Mytens, and van Dyck.[310] His close associates, including the Duke of Buckingham and the Earl of Arundel, shared his interest and have been dubbed the Whitehall Group.[311] In 1627 and 1628, Charles purchased the entire collection of the Duke of Mantua, which included work by Titian, Correggio, Raphael, Caravaggio, del Sarto and Mantegna.[312] His collection grew further to encompass Bernini, Bruegel, da Vinci, Holbein, Hollar, Tintoretto and Veronese, and self-portraits by both Dürer and Rembrandt.[313] By Charles's death, there were an estimated 1,760 paintings,[314] most of which were sold and dispersed by Parliament.[315] Assessments In the words of John Philipps Kenyon, "Charles Stuart is a man of contradictions and controversy".[316] Revered by high Tories who considered him a saintly martyr,[135] he was condemned by Whig historians, such as Samuel Rawson Gardiner, who thought him duplicitous and delusional.[317] In recent decades, most historians have criticised him,[318] the main exception being Kevin Sharpe who offered a more sympathetic view of Charles that has not been widely adopted.[319] While Sharpe argued that the king was a dynamic man of conscience, Professor Barry Coward thought Charles "was the most incompetent monarch of England since Henry VI",[320] a view shared by Ronald Hutton, who called him "the worst king we have had since the Middle Ages".[321] Archbishop William Laud, who was beheaded by Parliament during the war, described Charles as "A mild and gracious prince who knew not how to be, or how to be made, great."[322] Charles was more sober and refined than his father,[323] but he was intransigent. He deliberately pursued unpopular policies that ultimately brought ruin on himself.[324] Both Charles and James were advocates of the divine right of kings, but while James's ambitions concerning absolute prerogative were tempered by compromise and consensus with his subjects, Charles believed that he had no need to compromise or even to explain his actions.[325] He thought he was answerable only to God. "Princes are not bound to give account of their actions," he wrote, "but to God alone".[326] Titles, styles, honours and arms Charles, as painted by Sir Anthony van Dyck between 1637 and 1638 Titles and styles 23 December 1600 – 27 March 1625: Duke of Albany, Marquess of Ormonde, Earl of Ross and Lord Ardmannoch[327] 6 January 1605 – 27 March 1625: Duke of York[327] 6 November 1612 – 27 March 1625: Duke of Cornwall and Rothesay[327] 4 November 1616 – 27 March 1625: Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester[327] 27 March 1625 – 30 January 1649: His Majesty The King The official style of Charles I as king in England was "Charles, by the Grace of God, King of England, Scotland, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, etc."[328] The style "of France" was only nominal, and was used by every English monarch from Edward III to George III, regardless of the amount of French territory actually controlled.[329] The authors of his death warrant referred to him as "Charles Stuart, King of England".[330] Honours KB: Knight of the Bath, 6 January 1605[331] KG: Knight of the Garter, 24 April 1611[331] Arms As Duke of York, Charles bore the royal arms of the kingdom differenced by a label Argent of three points, each bearing three torteaux Gules.[332] As the Prince of Wales, he bore the royal arms differenced by a plain label Argent of three points.[333] As king, Charles bore the royal arms undifferenced: Quarterly, I and IV Grandquarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lis Or (for France) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II Or a lion rampant within a tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland). In Scotland, the Scottish arms were placed in the first and fourth quarters with the English and French arms in the second quarter.[334] Coat of arms as Duke of York from 1611 to 1612 Coat of arms as heir apparent and Prince of Wales used from 1612 to 1625 Coat of arms of Charles I used (outside Scotland) from 1625 to 1649 Coat of arms of Charles I used in Scotland from 1625 to 1649 Issue Charles I's five eldest children, 1637. Left to right: Mary, James, Charles, Elizabeth and Anne. See also: Descendants of Charles I of England Charles had nine children, two of whom eventually succeeded as king, and two of whom died at or shortly after birth.[335] Name Birth Death Notes Charles James, Duke of Cornwall and Rothesay 13 May 1629 13 May 1629 Born and died the same day. Buried as "Charles, Prince of Wales".[336] Charles II 29 May 1630 6 February 1685 Married Catherine of Braganza (1638–1705) in 1662. No legitimate liveborn issue. Mary, Princess Royal 4 November 1631 24 December 1660 Married William II, Prince of Orange (1626–1650) in 1641. She had one child: William III. James II & VII 14 October 1633 6 September 1701 Married (1) Anne Hyde (1637–1671) in 1659. Had issue including Mary II and Anne, Queen of Great Britain; Married (2) Mary of Modena (1658–1718) in 1673. Had issue. Elizabeth 29 December 1635 8 September 1650 No issue. Anne 17 March 1637 5 November 1640 Died young. Catherine 29 June 1639 29 June 1639 Born and died the same day. Henry, Duke of Gloucester 8 July 1640 13 September 1660 No issue. Henrietta 16 June 1644 30 June 1670 Married Philip, Duke of Orléans (1640–1701) in 1661. Had issue. Ancestry Ancestors of Charles I of England[337] 8. Matthew Stewart, Earl of Lennox 4. Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley 9. Margaret Douglas[i] 2. James I of England (VI of Scotland) 10. James V of Scotland[i] 5. Mary, Queen of Scots 11. Mary of Guise 1. Charles I of England 12. Christian III of Denmark[j] 6. Frederick II of Denmark 13. Dorothea of Saxe-Lauenburg 3. Anne of Denmark 14. Ulrich III, Duke of Mecklenburg 7. Sophia of Mecklenburg 15. Elizabeth of Denmark[j] Notes ^ All dates in this article are given in the Julian calendar, which was used in Great Britain throughout Charles's lifetime. However, years are assumed to start on 1 January rather than 25 March, which was the English New Year until 1752. ^ Charles grew to a peak height of 5 feet 4 inches (163 cm).[7] ^ Rubens, who acted as the Spanish representative during peace negotiations in London, painted Landscape with Saint George and the Dragon in 1629–30.[74] The landscape is modelled on the Thames Valley, and the central figures of Saint George (England's patron saint) and a maiden resemble the king and queen.[75] The dragon of war lies slain under Charles's foot.[76] ^ For example, James I ruled without Parliament between 1614 and 1621.[86] ^ For comparison, a typical farm labourer could earn 8d a day, or about £10 a year.[93] ^ The statute forbade grants of monopolies to individuals but Charles circumvented the restriction by granting monopolies to companies.[99] ^ The Scots were promised £400,000 in instalments.[233] ^ In 1813, part of Charles's beard, a piece of neck bone, and a tooth were taken as relics. They were placed back in the tomb in 1888.[290][291] ^ a b James V and Margaret Douglas were both children of Margaret Tudor, the daughter of Henry VII of England: James V by James IV of Scotland, Margaret by Archibald Douglas, Earl of Angus.[337] ^ a b Christian III and Elizabeth were both children of Frederick I of Denmark: Christian by Anne of Brandenburg, Elizabeth by Sophia of Pomerania.[337] References Citations ^ Cust 2005, p. 2; Weir 1996, p. 252. ^ Gregg 1981, pp. 4–5. ^ Cust 2005, p. 2. ^ Carlton 1995, p. 2. ^ Carlton 1995, p. 3; Gregg 1981, p. 9. ^ a b Gregg 1981, p. 11. ^ a b Gregg 1981, p. 12. ^ Gregg 1981, p. 13. ^ Gregg 1981, p. 16; Hibbert 1968, p. 22. ^ a b Carlton 1995, p. 16. ^ a b Gregg 1981, p. 22. ^ Gregg 1981, pp. 18–19; Hibbert 1968, pp. 21–23. ^ Gregg 1981, p. 29. ^ Gregg 1981, p. 47. ^ Hibbert 1968, p. 24. ^ Hibbert 1968, p. 49; Howat 1974, pp. 26–28. ^ Gregg 1981, p. 63; Howat 1974, pp. 27–28; Kenyon 1978, p. 79. ^ Cust 2005, p. 5; Hibbert 1968, pp. 49–50. ^ Coward 2003, p. 152. ^ Gregg 1981, pp. 67–68; Hibbert 1968, pp. 49–50. ^ Carlton 1995, p. 31. ^ Cust 2005, p. 8. ^ Cust 2005, pp. 5–9. ^ Carlton 1995, p. 33; Gregg 1981, p. 68. ^ Cust 2005, p. 4; Hibbert 1968, pp. 30–32. ^ Carlton 1995, pp. 34–38; Cust 2005, pp. 32–34; Gregg 1981, pp. 78–82; Quintrell 1993, p. 11. ^ Gregg 1981, pp. 87–89; Quintrell 1993, p. 11; Sharpe 1992, p. 5. ^ Gregg 1981, p. 84. ^ Gregg 1981, pp. 85–87. ^ Carlton 1995, pp. 42–43; Cust 2005, pp. 34–35. ^ Carlton 1995, p. 46; Cust 2005, p. 31; Gregg 1981, p. 90; Hibbert 1968, p. 63; Quintrell 1993, p. 11; Sharpe 1992, pp. 5–6. ^ Carlton 1995, p. 47; Cust 2005, pp. 36–38; Gregg 1981, p. 94; Sharpe 1992, p. 6. ^ Gregg 1981, pp. 97–99. ^ Carlton 1995, p. 52; Gregg 1981, p. 99; Hibbert 1968, p. 64. ^ Carlton 1995, p. 56; Gregg 1981, p. 124; Kenyon 1978, p. 92; Schama 2001, p. 65. ^ Trevelyan 1922, p. 130. ^ Carlton 1995, p. 47; Gregg 1981, pp. 103–105; Howat 1974, p. 31. ^ Gregg 1981, p. 114; Hibbert 1968, p. 86; Weir 1996, p. 252. ^ Carlton 1995, p. 38; Gregg 1981, p. 80. ^ Gregg 1981, p. 126. ^ Carlton 1995, pp. 55, 70. ^ Quintrell 1993, pp. 16, 21. ^ Carlton 1995, p. 76; Gregg 1981, p. 156; Weir 1996, p. 252. ^ Gregg 1981, pp. 130–131. ^ Cust 2005, pp. 84–86. ^ Coward 2003, p. 153. ^ Gregg 1981, p. 131. ^ Cust 2005, p. 46; Gregg 1981, p. 129. ^ Carlton 1995, pp. 68–69; Gregg 1981, p. 129. ^ Gregg 1981, p. 129; Smith 1999, pp. 54, 114. ^ Smith 1999, pp. 54, 114. ^ Gregg 1981, p. 138. ^ Carlton 1995, pp. 71–75; Cust 2005, pp. 50–52; Gregg 1981, pp. 138–147; Quintrell 1993, pp. 21–28. ^ Gregg 1981, p. 150. ^ Carlton 1995, p. 80; Gregg 1981, pp. 149–151. ^ Loades 1974, pp. 369–370. ^ Carlton 1995, pp. 75, 81; Quintrell 1993, p. 29. ^ Carlton 1995, pp. 86–88; Gregg 1981, pp. 154–160; Hibbert 1968, pp. 91–95. ^ Howat 1974, p. 35. ^ Gregg 1981, pp. 173–174. ^ Coward 2003, p. 162; Cust 2005, p. 67. ^ Gregg 1981, pp. 170–173. ^ Carlton 1995, p. 101; Cust 2005, p. 74; Quintrell 1993, p. 39. ^ Cust 2005, p. 75; Gregg 1981, p. 175; Quintrell 1993, p. 40. ^ Carlton 1995, pp. 103–104; Cust 2005, p. 76; Gregg 1981, pp. 175–176; Kenyon 1978, p. 104. ^ Quoted in Cust 2005, p. 77. ^ Carlton 1995, p. 104; Gregg 1981, p. 176. ^ Carlton 1995, pp. 110–112; Sharpe 1992, pp. 48–49. ^ Howat 1974, p. 38; Kenyon 1978, pp. 107–108. ^ Carlton 1995, pp. 112–113; Kenyon 1978, p. 105; Sharpe 1992, pp. 170–171. ^ Carlton 1995, p. 107; Sharpe 1992, p. 168. ^ Carlton 1995, p. 113; Hibbert 1968, pp. 109–111; Sharpe 1992, pp. 170–171. ^ Cust 2005, pp. 148–150; Hibbert 1968, p. 111. ^ Gregg 1981, pp. 190–195. ^ Carlton 1995, p. 146; Cust 2005, p. 161; Gregg 1981, p. 195. ^ Carlton 1995, p. 146; Cust 2005, p. 161. ^ Cust 2005, pp. 114–115. ^ Quintrell 1993, p. 42. ^ Cust 2005, p. 118; Gregg 1981, p. 185; Quintrell 1993, p. 43. ^ Cust 2005, p. 118; Gregg 1981, p. 186; Robertson 2005, p. 35. ^ Cust 2005, p. 118; Gregg 1981, p. 186; Quintrell 1993, p. 43. ^ Carlton 1995, p. 121; Hibbert 1968, p. 108. ^ Cust 2005, pp. 121–122. ^ Carlton 1995, pp. 169–171; Gregg 1981, pp. 187–197; Howat 1974, p. 38; Sharpe 1992, pp. 65–68. ^ Carlton 1995, pp. 153–154; Sharpe 1992, p. xv. ^ Sharpe 1992, p. 603. ^ Starkey 2006, p. 104. ^ Weightman 1906, p. 185. ^ Gregg 1981, p. 40. ^ Sharpe 1992, pp. 509–536, 541–545, 825–834. ^ Gregg 1981, p. 220. ^ Carlton 1995, p. 190; Gregg 1981, p. 228. ^ Edwards 1999, p. 18. ^ Carlton 1995, p. 191; Quintrell 1993, p. 62. ^ Adamson 2007, pp. 8–9; Sharpe 1992, pp. 585–588. ^ Cust 2005, pp. 130, 193; Quintrell 1993, p. 64. ^ Cust 2005, p. 194; Gregg 1981, pp. 301–302; Quintrell 1993, pp. 65–66. ^ Loades 1974, p. 385. ^ Coward 2003, p. 167; Gregg 1981, pp. 215–216; Hibbert 1968, p. 138; Loades 1974, p. 385. ^ Young 1997, p. 97. ^ Carlton 1995, p. 185; Cust 2005, pp. 212–217; Gregg 1981, p. 286; Quintrell 1993, pp. 12–13. ^ Carlton 1995, p. 190; Gregg 1981, pp. 224–227; Quintrell 1993, pp. 61–62; Sharpe 1992, pp. 116–120. ^ Sharp 1980, pp. 82 ff. ^ Gregg 1981, pp. 312–313. ^ Sharpe 1992, p. 906. ^ Gregg 1981, p. 314. ^ Cust 2005, pp. 97–103. ^ Donaghan 1995, pp. 65–100. ^ Howat 1974, pp. 40–46. ^ Cust 2005, p. 133. ^ Coward 2003, pp. 174–175; Cust 2005, pp. 133–147; Gregg 1981, pp. 267, 273; Sharpe 1992, pp. 284–292, 328–345, 351–359. ^ Coward 2003, p. 175; Sharpe 1992, pp. 310–312. ^ Coward 2003, pp. 175–176. ^ Coward 2003, p. 176; Kenyon 1978, pp. 113–115; Loades 1974, p. 393; Sharpe 1992, p. 382. ^ Coward 2003, p. 176; Sharpe 1992, pp. 680, 758–763. ^ Cust 2005, pp. 212, 219; Sharpe 1992, pp. 774–776. ^ Cust 2005, p. 219; Sharpe 1992, pp. 780–781. ^ Cust 2005, pp. 223–224; Gregg 1981, p. 288; Sharpe 1992, pp. 783–784; Starkey 2006, p. 107. ^ Carlton 1995, p. 195; Trevelyan 1922, pp. 186–187. ^ Carlton 1995, pp. 189–197; Cust 2005, pp. 224–230; Gregg 1981, pp. 288–289; Sharpe 1992, pp. 788–791. ^ Cust 2005, pp. 236–237. ^ Carlton 1995, pp. 197–199; Cust 2005, pp. 230–231; Sharpe 1992, pp. 792–794. ^ Adamson 2007, p. 9; Gregg 1981, pp. 290–292; Sharpe 1992, pp. 797–802. ^ Adamson 2007, p. 9; Cust 2005, pp. 246–247; Sharpe 1992, pp. 805–806. ^ Adamson 2007, pp. 9–10; Cust 2005, p. 248. ^ Howat 1974, pp. 44, 66; Sharpe 1992, pp. 809–813, 825–834, 895. ^ Cust 2005, p. 251; Gregg 1981, p. 294. ^ a b Adamson 2007, p. 11. ^ Loades 1974, p. 401. ^ Loades 1974, p. 402. ^ Adamson 2007, p. 14. ^ Adamson 2007, p. 15. ^ Adamson 2007, p. 17. ^ Carlton 1995, pp. 211–212; Cust 2005, pp. 253–259; Gregg 1981, pp. 305–307; Loades 1974, p. 402. ^ a b c d Kishlansky & Morrill 2008. ^ Gregg 1981, p. 243. ^ Cust 2005, pp. 185–186; Quintrell 1993, p. 114. ^ Quintrell 1993, p. 46. ^ Sharpe 1992, p. 132. ^ Stevenson 1973, pp. 183–208. ^ Gregg 1981, pp. 313–314; Hibbert 1968, pp. 147, 150. ^ Stevenson 1973, p. 101. ^ Cust 2005, pp. 262–263; Gregg 1981, pp. 313–315. ^ Cust 2005, pp. 264–265; Sharpe 1992, pp. 914–916. ^ Carlton 1995, p. 214; Cust 2005, pp. 265–266; Sharpe 1992, pp. 916–918. ^ Gregg 1981, p. 315; Stevenson 1973, pp. 212–213. ^ Loades 1974, p. 404; Stevenson 1973, pp. 212–213. ^ Carlton 1995, p. 216; Gregg 1981, pp. 317–319. ^ Gregg 1981, p. 323. ^ Gregg 1981, pp. 324–325. ^ Cust 2005, p. 276; Russell 1991, p. 225. ^ Carlton 1995, p. 220; Gregg 1981, p. 326. ^ Gregg 1981, p. 327; Hibbert 1968, pp. 151–153. ^ Carlton 1995, p. 222; Gregg 1981, p. 328; Hibbert 1968, p. 154. ^ Carlton 1995, p. 222; Hibbert 1968, p. 154 and Sharpe 1992, p. 944 assume that Pym was involved with the launch of the bill; Russell 1991, p. 288, quoting and agreeing with Gardiner, suspects that it was initiated by Pym's allies only. ^ Carlton 1995, pp. 222–223; Cust 2005, p. 282; Gregg 1981, p. 330. ^ Hibbert 1968, pp. 154–155. ^ Gregg 1981, p. 330; see also Cust 2005, p. 282 and Sharpe 1992, p. 944. ^ Cust 2005, pp. 283–287; Russell 1991, pp. 291–295 ^ Gregg 1981, pp. 329, 333. ^ a b Kenyon 1978, p. 127. ^ Carlton 1995, p. 223; Cust 2005, p. 287; Gregg 1981, pp. 333–334; Hibbert 1968, p. 156. ^ Coward 2003, p. 191; Gregg 1981, p. 334; Hibbert 1968, pp. 156–157. ^ Hibbert 1968, p. 156; Kenyon 1978, pp. 127–128. ^ Gregg 1981, p. 335; Kenyon 1978, p. 128. ^ Kenyon 1978, p. 129. ^ Kenyon 1978, p. 130. ^ Carlton 1995, pp. 225–226; Starkey 2006, p. 112. ^ Carlton 1995, p. 226; Kenyon 1978, p. 133; Stevenson 1973, pp. 238–239. ^ Carlton 1995, p. 183; Robertson 2005, pp. 42–43. ^ Gillespie 2006, p. 125. ^ Coward 2003, p. 172. ^ Carlton 1995, pp. 183, 229; Robertson 2005, p. 42. ^ Gillespie 2006, p. 130. ^ Gillespie 2006, p. 131. ^ Gillespie 2006, p. 137. ^ Carlton 1995, p. 229; 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J., 83 (980): 431–433, doi:10.1136/pgmj.2006.055848, PMC 2600044, PMID 17551078 ^ Robertson 2005, p. 333. ^ a b Edwards 1999, p. 183. ^ Edwards 1999, p. 183; Gregg 1981, p. 445. ^ a b Gregg 1981, p. 445. ^ Edwards 1999, p. 188; Gregg 1981, p. 445. ^ Edwards 1999, p. 189; Gregg 1981, p. 445. ^ Gregg 1981, p. 445; Robertson 2005, pp. 208–209. ^ Cust 2005, p. 461. ^ Mitchell 2012, p. 99. ^ Edwards 1999, p. 190; Kenyon 1978, p. 166. ^ Edwards 1999, p. 190; Kenyon 1978, pp. 166–168; Loades 1974, pp. 450–452. ^ Holmes 2006, p. 121; Kenyon 1978, p. 170; Loades 1974, p. 454. ^ Edwards 1999, p. 190; Loades 1974, pp. 455–459. ^ Holmes 2006, p. 174; Kenyon 1978, p. 177; Loades 1974, p. 459. ^ Holmes 2006, pp. 175–176; Kenyon 1978, pp. 177–180. ^ Gregg 1981, p. 83; Hibbert 1968, p. 133. ^ Carlton 1995, p. 141; Cust 2005, pp. 156–157; Gregg 1981, p. 194; Hibbert 1968, p. 135. ^ Gregg 1981, p. 83. ^ Carlton 1995, p. 145; Hibbert 1968, p. 134. ^ Millar 1958, p. 6. ^ Gregg 1981, pp. 167–169; see also Carlton 1995, p. 142; Cust 2005, p. 157 and Hibbert 1968, p. 135. ^ Gregg 1981, pp. 249–250, 278. ^ Carlton 1995, p. 142. ^ Carlton 1995, p. 143. ^ Kenyon 1978, p. 93. ^ Cust 2005, pp. 414, 466; Kenyon 1978, p. 93. ^ Carlton 1995, p. xvi; Coward 2003, p. xxiii; Cust 2005, pp. 472–473. ^ Carlton 1995, p. xvii; Coward 2003, p. xxii; Cust 2005, p. 466. ^ Coward 2003, p. xxii. ^ Quoted in Carlton 1995, p. xvii ^ Archbishop Laud, quoted by his chaplain Peter Heylin in Cyprianus Angelicus, 1688 ^ Kenyon 1978, p. 93; Robertson 2005, p. 32. ^ Cust 2005, pp. 466–474. ^ Kenyon 1978, p. 94; Sharpe 1992, p. 198. ^ Gardiner 1906, p. 83. ^ a b c d Weir 1996, p. 252. ^ Wallis 1921, p. 61. ^ Weir 1996, p. 286. ^ Edwards 1999, p. 160; Gregg 1981, pp. 436, 440. ^ a b Cokayne, Gibbs & Doubleday 1913, p. 445; Weir 1996, p. 252. ^ Ashmole 1715, p. 532. ^ Ashmole 1715, pp. 531, 534. ^ Johnston 1906, p. 18. ^ Weir 1996, pp. 252–254. ^ Cokayne, Gibbs & Doubleday 1913, p. 446. ^ a b c Louda & Maclagan 1999, pp. 27, 50. 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(1997), Charles I, Basingstoke: Macmillan, ISBN 0-333-60135-1 Further reading Ashley, Maurice (1987), Charles I and Cromwell, London: Methuen, ISBN 978-0-413-16270-0 Brotton, Jerry (2007), The Sale of the Late King's Goods: Charles I and His Art Collection, Pan Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-330-42709-8 Gardiner, Samuel Rawson (1882), The Fall of the Monarchy of Charles I, 1637–1649: Volume I (1637–1640); Volume II (1640–1642) Hibbard, Caroline M. (1983), Charles I and the Popish Plot, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, ISBN 0-8078-1520-9 Lockyer, Roger, ed. (1959), The Trial of Charles I, London: Folio Society Reeve, L. J. (1989), Charles I and the Road to Personal Rule, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-52133-5 Wedgwood, Cicely Veronica (1955), The Great Rebellion: The King's Peace, 1637–1641, London: Collins Wedgwood, Cicely Veronica (1958), The Great Rebellion: The King's War, 1641–1647, London: Collins Wedgwood, Cicely Veronica (1964), A Coffin for King Charles: The Trial and Execution of Charles I, London: Macmillan Historiography Braddick, Michael (2004), "State Formation and the Historiography of Early Modern England", History Compass, 2 (1): **, doi:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2004.00074.x Burgess, Glenn (1990), "On revisionism: an analysis of early Stuart historiography in the 1970s and 1980s", Historical Journal, 33 (3): 609–627, doi:10.1017/S0018246X90000013 Coward, Barry, and Peter Gaunt (2017), The Stuart Age: England, 1603–1714 (5th ed.), pp. 54–97 Cressy, David (2015), "The Blindness of Charles I", Huntington Library Quarterly, 78 (4): 637–656, doi:10.1353/hlq.2015.0031, S2CID 159801678 online Devereaux, Simon (2009), "The historiography of the English state during 'the Long Eighteenth Century': Part I–Decentralized perspectives", History Compass, 7 (3): 742–764, doi:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2009.00591.x Harris, Tim (2015), "Revisiting the Causes of the English Civil War", Huntington Library Quarterly, 78 (4): 615–635, doi:10.1353/hlq.2015.0025, S2CID 147299268 online Holmes, Clive (1980), "The County Community in Stuart Historiography", Journal of British Studies, 19 (1): 54–73, doi:10.1086/385755 Kishlansky, Mark A. (2005), "Charles I: A Case of Mistaken Identity", Past and Present, 189 (1): 41–80, doi:10.1093/pastj/gti027, S2CID 162382682 Lake, Peter (2015), "From Revisionist to Royalist History; or, Was Charles I the First Whig Historian", Huntington Library Quarterly, 78 (4): 657–681, doi:10.1353/hlq.2015.0037, S2CID 159530910 online Lee, Maurice, Jr (1984), "James I and the Historians: Not a Bad King after All?", Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies, 16 (2): 151–163, doi:10.2307/4049286, JSTOR 4049286 in JSTOR Russell, Conrad (1990), "The Man Charles Stuart", The Causes of the English Civil War, Oxford University Press, pp. 185–211 External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Charles I of England. 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en-wikipedia-org-416	----	Josephus - Wikipedia Josephus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Romano-Jewish scholar and historian (AD 37-c.100) For other uses, see Josephus (disambiguation). Josephus The romanticized engraving of Flavius Josephus appearing in William Whiston's translation of his works Born Yosef ben Matityahu 37 CE Jerusalem, Roman Judea Died c. 100 CE Spouse(s) Captured Jewish woman Alexandrian Jewish woman Greek Jewish woman from Crete Children Flavius Hyrcanus Flavius Simonides Agrippa Flavius Justus Parent(s) Matthias Jewish noblewoman Academic background Influences Philo[1] Pharisees Greco-Roman world Academic work Era Hellenistic Judaism Main interests Jewish history Maccabees Jewish–Roman wars Herodian dynasty Hasmonean dynasty Notable works The Jewish War Antiquities of the Jews Influenced Early Christianity Josephus problem Titus Flavius Josephus (/dʒoʊˈsiːfəs/;[2] 37 – c. 100),[3] born Yosef ben Matityahu (Hebrew: יוסף בן מתתיהו‎; Greek: Ἰώσηπος Ματθίου παῖς),[4][5][6] was a first-century Romano-Jewish historian who was born in Jerusalem—then part of Roman Judea—to a father of priestly descent and a mother who claimed royal ancestry. He initially fought against the Romans during the First Jewish–Roman War as head of Jewish forces in Galilee, until surrendering in 67 CE to Roman forces led by Vespasian after the six-week siege of Jotapata. Josephus claimed the Jewish Messianic prophecies that initiated the First Jewish–Roman War made reference to Vespasian becoming Emperor of Rome. In response Vespasian decided to keep Josephus as a slave and presumably interpreter. After Vespasian became Emperor in 69 CE, he granted Josephus his freedom, at which time Josephus assumed the emperor's family name of Flavius.[7] Flavius Josephus fully defected to the Roman side and was granted Roman citizenship. He became an advisor and friend of Vespasian's son Titus, serving as his translator when Titus led the Siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE. Since the siege proved ineffective at stopping the Jewish revolt, the city's destruction and the looting and destruction of Herod's Temple (Second Temple) soon followed. Josephus recorded Jewish history, with special emphasis on the first century CE and the First Jewish–Roman War (66–70 CE),[8] including the Siege of Masada. His most important works were The Jewish War (c. 75) and Antiquities of the Jews (c. 94).[9] The Jewish War recounts the Jewish revolt against Roman occupation. Antiquities of the Jews recounts the history of the world from a Jewish perspective for an ostensibly Greek and Roman audience. These works provide valuable insight into first century Judaism and the background of Early Christianity,[9] although not specifically mentioned by Josephus. Josephus' works are the chief source next to the Bible for the history and antiquity of ancient Palestine,[10] and provide a significant and independent extra-Biblical account of such figures as Pontius Pilate, Herod the Great, John the Baptist, and Jesus Christ. Contents 1 Biography 2 Scholarship and impact on history 2.1 Impact on history and archaeology 2.2 Manuscripts, textual criticism, and editions 2.3 Josephus's audience 3 Historiography and Josephus 4 Works 4.1 The Jewish War 4.2 Jewish Antiquities 4.3 Against Apion 4.4 Spurious works 5 See also 6 Notes and references 6.1 Explanatory notes 6.2 Citations 7 General sources 8 Further reading 9 External links Biography[edit] Galilee, site of Josephus's governorship, before the First Jewish–Roman War Born into one of Jerusalem's elite families,[11] Josephus introduces himself in Greek as Iōsēpos (Ιώσηπος), son of Matthias, an ethnic Jewish priest. He was the second-born son of Matthias (Mattiyah or Mattityahu in Hebrew). His older full-blooded brother was also called Matthias.[12] Their mother was an aristocratic woman who descended from the royal and formerly ruling Hasmonean dynasty.[13] Josephus's paternal grandparents were Josephus and his wife—an unnamed Hebrew noblewoman, distant relatives of each other and direct descendants of Simon Psellus.[14] Josephus's family was wealthy. He descended through his father from the priestly order of the Jehoiarib, which was the first of the 24 orders of priests in the Temple in Jerusalem.[15] Josephus was a descendant of the High Priest of Israel Jonathan Apphus.[15] He was raised in Jerusalem and educated alongside his brother.[16] In his mid twenties, he traveled to negotiate with Emperor Nero for the release of some Jewish priests.[17] Upon his return to Jerusalem, at the outbreak of the First Jewish–Roman War, Josephus was appointed the military governor of Galilee.[18] His arrival in Galilee, however, was fraught with internal division: the inhabitants of Sepphoris and Tiberias opting to maintain peace with the Romans; the people of Sepphoris enlisting the help of the Roman army to protect their city,[19] whilst the people of Tiberias appealing to King Agrippa's forces to protect them from the insurgents.[20] Josephus also contended with John of Gischala who had also set his sight over the control of Galilee. Like Josephus, John had amassed to himself a large band of supporters from Gischala (Gush Halab) and Gabara,[a] including the support of the Sanhedrin in Jerusalem.[24] Meanwhile, Josephus fortified several towns and villages in Lower Galilee, among which were Tiberias, Bersabe, Selamin, Japha, and Tarichaea, in anticipation of a Roman onslaught.[25] In Upper Galilee, he fortified the towns of Jamnith, Seph, Mero, and Achabare, among other places.[25] Josephus, with the Galileans under his command, managed to bring both Sepphoris and Tiberias into subjection,[19] but was eventually forced to relinquish his hold on Sepphoris by the arrival of Roman forces under Placidus the tribune and later by Vespasian himself. Josephus first engaged the Roman army at a village called Garis, where he launched an attack against Sepphoris a second time, before being repulsed.[26] At length, he resisted the Roman army in its siege of Yodfat (Jotapata) until it fell to the Roman army in the lunar month of Tammuz, in the thirteenth year of Nero's reign. After the Jewish garrison of Yodfat fell under siege, the Romans invaded, killing thousands; the survivors committed suicide. According to Josephus, he was trapped in a cave with 40 of his companions in July 67 CE. The Romans (commanded by Flavius Vespasian and his son Titus, both subsequently Roman emperors) asked the group to surrender, but they refused. Josephus suggested a method of collective suicide;[27] they drew lots and killed each other, one by one, counting to every third person. Two men were left [b] who surrendered to the Roman forces and became prisoners. In 69 CE, Josephus was released.[29] According to his account, he acted as a negotiator with the defenders during the Siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE, during which time his parents were held as hostages by Simon bar Giora.[30] While being confined at Yodfat (Jotapata), Josephus claimed to have experienced a divine revelation that later led to his speech predicting Vespasian would become emperor. After the prediction came true, he was released by Vespasian, who considered his gift of prophecy to be divine. Josephus wrote that his revelation had taught him three things: that God, the creator of the Jewish people, had decided to "punish" them; that "fortune" had been given to the Romans; and that God had chosen him "to announce the things that are to come".[31][32][33] To many Jews, such claims were simply self-serving.[34] In 71 CE, he went to Rome in the entourage of Titus, becoming a Roman citizen and client of the ruling Flavian dynasty (hence he is often referred to as Flavius Josephus). In addition to Roman citizenship, he was granted accommodation in conquered Judaea and a pension. While in Rome and under Flavian patronage, Josephus wrote all of his known works. Although he uses "Josephus", he appears to have taken the Roman praenomen Titus and nomen Flavius from his patrons.[35] Vespasian arranged for Josephus to marry a captured Jewish woman, whom he later divorced. About 71 CE, Josephus married an Alexandrian Jewish woman as his third wife. They had three sons, of whom only Flavius Hyrcanus survived childhood. Josephus later divorced his third wife. Around 75 CE, he married his fourth wife, a Greek Jewish woman from Crete, who was a member of a distinguished family. They had a happy married life and two sons, Flavius Justus and Flavius Simonides Agrippa. Josephus's life story remains ambiguous. He was described by Harris in 1985 as a law-observant Jew who believed in the compatibility of Judaism and Graeco-Roman thought, commonly referred to as Hellenistic Judaism.[9] Before the 19th century, the scholar Nitsa Ben-Ari notes that his work was banned as those of a traitor, whose work was not to be studied or translated into Hebrew.[36] His critics were never satisfied as to why he failed to commit suicide in Galilee, and after his capture, accepted the patronage of Romans. The historian E. Mary Smallwood writes critically of Josephus: [Josephus] was conceited, not only about his own learning, but also about the opinions held of him as commander both by the Galileans and by the Romans; he was guilty of shocking duplicity at Jotapata, saving himself by sacrifice of his companions; he was too naive to see how he stood condemned out of his own mouth for his conduct, and yet no words were too harsh when he was blackening his opponents; and after landing, however involuntarily, in the Roman camp, he turned his captivity to his own advantage, and benefited for the rest of his days from his change of side.[37] Author Joseph Raymond calls Josephus "the Jewish Benedict Arnold" for betraying his own troops at Jotapata.[38] Scholarship and impact on history[edit] A 1st-century Roman bust thought by Robert Eisler to be of Josephus. Now conserved in the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen, Denmark[39] The works of Josephus provide crucial information about the First Jewish-Roman War and also represent important literary source material for understanding the context of the Dead Sea Scrolls and late Temple Judaism. Josephan scholarship in the 19th and early 20th centuries took an interest in Josephus's relationship to the sect of the Pharisees.[citation needed] It consistently portrayed him as a member of the sect and as a traitor to the Jewish nation—a view which became known as the classical concept of Josephus.[40] In the mid-20th century a new generation of scholars[who?] challenged this view and formulated the modern concept of Josephus. They consider him a Pharisee but restore his reputation in part as patriot and a historian of some standing. In his 1991 book, Steve Mason argued that Josephus was not a Pharisee but an orthodox Aristocrat-Priest who became associated with the philosophical school of the Pharisees as a matter of deference, and not by willing association.[41] Impact on history and archaeology[edit] The works of Josephus include useful material for historians about individuals, groups, customs, and geographical places. Josephus mentions that in his day there were 240 towns and villages scattered across Upper and Lower Galilee,[42] some of which he names. A few of the Jewish customs named by him include the practice of hanging a curtain of fine-linen at the entrance to one's house,[43] and the Jewish custom to partake of a Sabbath-day's meal around the sixth-hour of the day (at noon).[44] He notes also that it was permissible for Jewish men to marry many wives (polygamy).[45] His writings provide a significant, extra-Biblical account of the post-Exilic period of the Maccabees, the Hasmonean dynasty, and the rise of Herod the Great. He describes the Sadducees, Jewish High Priests of the time, Pharisees and Essenes, the Herodian Temple, Quirinius' census and the Zealots, and such figures as Pontius Pilate, Herod the Great, Agrippa I and Agrippa II, John the Baptist, James the brother of Jesus, and Jesus (found only in the Slavonic version of the Jewish War).[46] Josephus represents an important source for studies of immediate post-Temple Judaism and the context of early Christianity. A careful reading of Josephus's writings and years of excavation allowed Ehud Netzer, an archaeologist from Hebrew University, to discover what he considered to be the location of Herod's Tomb, after searching for 35 years.[47] It was above aqueducts and pools, at a flattened desert site, halfway up the hill to the Herodium, 12 km south of Jerusalem—as described in Josephus's writings.[48] In October 2013, archaeologists Joseph Patrich and Benjamin Arubas challenged the identification of the tomb as that of Herod.[49] According to Patrich and Arubas, the tomb is too modest to be Herod's and has several unlikely features.[49] Roi Porat, who replaced Netzer as excavation leader after the latter's death, stood by the identification.[49] Josephus's writings provide the first-known source for many stories considered as Biblical history, despite not being found in the Bible or related material. These include Ishmael as the founder of the Arabs,[50] the connection of "Semites", "Hamites" and "Japhetites" to the classical nations of the world, and the story of the Siege of Masada.[51] Manuscripts, textual criticism, and editions[edit] For many years, the works of Josephus were largely known in Europe only in an imperfect Latin translation from the original Greek. Only in 1544 did a version of the standard Greek text become available in French, edited by the Dutch humanist Arnoldus Arlenius. The first English translation, by Thomas Lodge, appeared in 1602, with subsequent editions appearing throughout the 17th century. The 1544 Greek edition formed the basis of the 1732 English translation by William Whiston, which achieved enormous popularity in the English-speaking world. It was often the book—after the Bible—that Christians most frequently owned. A cross-reference apparatus for Whiston's version of Josephus and the biblical canon also exists.[52][53] Whiston claimed that certain works by Josephus had a similar style to the Epistles of St Paul.[54] Later editions of the Greek text include that of Benedikt Niese, who made a detailed examination of all the available manuscripts, mainly from France and Spain. Henry St. John Thackeray used Niese's version for the Loeb Classical Library edition widely used today. The standard editio maior of the various Greek manuscripts is that of Benedictus Niese, published 1885–95. The text of Antiquities is damaged in some places. In the Life, Niese follows mainly manuscript P, but refers also to AMW and R. Henry St. John Thackeray for the Loeb Classical Library has a Greek text also mainly dependent on P.[citation needed] André Pelletier edited a new Greek text for his translation of Life. The ongoing Münsteraner Josephus-Ausgabe of Münster University will provide a new critical apparatus. There also exist late Old Slavonic translations of the Greek, but these contain a large number of Christian interpolations.[55] Josephus's audience[edit] Scholars debate about Josephus's intended audience. For example, Antiquities of the Jews could be written for Jews—"a few scholars from Laqueur onward have suggested that Josephus must have written primarily for fellow-Jews (if also secondarily for Gentiles). The most common motive suggested is repentance: in later life he felt so badly about the traitorous War that he needed to demonstrate … his loyalty to Jewish history, law and culture."[56] However, Josephus's "countless incidental remarks explaining basic Judean language, customs and laws … assume a Gentile audience. He does not expect his first hearers to know anything about the laws or Judean origins."[57] The issue of who would read this multi-volume work is unresolved. Other possible motives for writing Antiquities could be to dispel the misrepresentation of Jewish origins[58] or as an apologetic to Greek cities of the Diaspora in order to protect Jews and to Roman authorities to garner their support for the Jews facing persecution.[59] Neither motive explains why the proposed Gentile audience would read this large body of material. Historiography and Josephus[edit] Josephus in the Nuremberg Chronicle In the Preface to Jewish Wars, Josephus criticizes historians who misrepresent the events of the Jewish–Roman War, writing that "they have a mind to demonstrate the greatness of the Romans, while they still diminish and lessen the actions of the Jews."[60] Josephus states that his intention is to correct this method but that he "will not go to the other extreme … [and] will prosecute the actions of both parties with accuracy."[61] Josephus suggests his method will not be wholly objective by saying he will be unable to contain his lamentations in transcribing these events; to illustrate this will have little effect on his historiography, Josephus suggests, "But if any one be inflexible in his censures of me, let him attribute the facts themselves to the historical part, and the lamentations to the writer himself only."[61] His preface to Antiquities offers his opinion early on, saying, "Upon the whole, a man that will peruse this history, may principally learn from it, that all events succeed well, even to an incredible degree, and the reward of felicity is proposed by God."[62] After inserting this attitude, Josephus contradicts himself: "I shall accurately describe what is contained in our records, in the order of time that belongs to them … without adding any thing to what is therein contained, or taking away any thing therefrom."[62] He notes the difference between history and philosophy by saying, "[T]hose that read my book may wonder how it comes to pass, that my discourse, which promises an account of laws and historical facts, contains so much of philosophy."[63] In both works, Josephus emphasizes that accuracy is crucial to historiography. Louis H. Feldman notes that in Wars, Josephus commits himself to critical historiography, but in Antiquities, Josephus shifts to rhetorical historiography, which was the norm of his time.[64] Feldman notes further that it is significant that Josephus called his later work "Antiquities" (literally, archaeology) rather than history; in the Hellenistic period, archaeology meant either "history from the origins or archaic history."[65] Thus, his title implies a Jewish peoples' history from their origins until the time he wrote. This distinction is significant to Feldman, because "in ancient times, historians were expected to write in chronological order," while "antiquarians wrote in a systematic order, proceeding topically and logically" and included all relevant material for their subject.[65] Antiquarians moved beyond political history to include institutions and religious and private life.[66] Josephus does offer this wider perspective in Antiquities. To compare his historiography with another ancient historian, consider Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Feldman lists these similarities: "Dionysius in praising Rome and Josephus in praising Jews adopt same pattern; both often moralize and psychologize and stress piety and role of divine providence; and the parallels between … Dionysius's account of deaths of Aeneas and Romulus and Josephus's description of the death of Moses are striking."[66] Works[edit] The works of Josephus are major sources of our understanding of Jewish life and history during the first century.[67] The works of Josephus translated by Thomas Lodge (1602). (c. 75) War of the Jews, The Jewish War, Jewish Wars, or History of the Jewish War (commonly abbreviated JW, BJ or War) (c. 94) Antiquities of the Jews, Jewish Antiquities, or Antiquities of the Jews/Jewish Archeology (frequently abbreviated AJ, AotJ or Ant. or Antiq.) (c. 97) Flavius Josephus Against Apion, Against Apion, Contra Apionem, or Against the Greeks, on the antiquity of the Jewish people (usually abbreviated CA) (c. 99) The Life of Flavius Josephus, or Autobiography of Flavius Josephus (abbreviated Life or Vita) The Jewish War[edit] Main article: The Jewish War His first work in Rome was an account of the Jewish War, addressed to certain "upper barbarians"—usually thought to be the Jewish community in Mesopotamia—in his "paternal tongue" (War I.3), arguably the Western Aramaic language. In 78 CE he finished a seven-volume account in Greek known as the Jewish War (Latin Bellum Judaicum or De Bello Judaico). It starts with the period of the Maccabees and concludes with accounts of the fall of Jerusalem, and the subsequent fall of the fortresses of Herodion, Macharont and Masada and the Roman victory celebrations in Rome, the mopping-up operations, Roman military operations elsewhere in the empire and the uprising in Cyrene. Together with the account in his Life of some of the same events, it also provides the reader with an overview of Josephus's own part in the events since his return to Jerusalem from a brief visit to Rome in the early 60s (Life 13–17). In the wake of the suppression of the Jewish revolt, Josephus would have witnessed the marches of Titus's triumphant legions leading their Jewish captives, and carrying treasures from the despoiled Temple in Jerusalem. It was against this background that Josephus wrote his War, claiming to be countering anti-Judean accounts. He disputes the claim[citation needed] that the Jews served a defeated God and were naturally hostile to Roman civilization. Rather, he blames the Jewish War on what he calls "unrepresentative and over-zealous fanatics" among the Jews, who led the masses away from their traditional aristocratic leaders (like himself), with disastrous results. Josephus also blames some of the Roman governors of Judea, representing them as corrupt and incompetent administrators. According to Josephus, the traditional Jew was, should be, and can be a loyal and peace-loving citizen. Jews can, and historically have, accepted Rome's hegemony precisely because their faith declares that God himself gives empires their power.[68] Jewish Antiquities[edit] Main article: Antiquities of the Jews The next work by Josephus is his twenty-one volume Antiquities of the Jews, completed during the last year of the reign of the Emperor Flavius Domitian, around 93 or 94 CE. In expounding Jewish history, law and custom, he is entering into many philosophical debates current in Rome at that time. Again he offers an apologia for the antiquity and universal significance of the Jewish people. Josephus claims to be writing this history because he "saw that others perverted the truth of those actions in their writings,"[69] those writings being the history of the Jews. In terms of some of his sources for the project, Josephus says that he drew from and "interpreted out of the Hebrew Scriptures"[70] and that he was an eyewitness to the wars between the Jews and the Romans,[69] which were earlier recounted in Jewish Wars. He outlines Jewish history beginning with the creation, as passed down through Jewish historical tradition. Abraham taught science to the Egyptians, who, in turn, taught the Greeks.[71] Moses set up a senatorial priestly aristocracy, which, like that of Rome, resisted monarchy. The great figures of the Tanakh are presented as ideal philosopher-leaders. He includes an autobiographical appendix defending his conduct at the end of the war when he cooperated with the Roman forces. Louis H. Feldman outlines the difference between calling this work Antiquities of the Jews instead of History of the Jews. Although Josephus says that he describes the events contained in Antiquities "in the order of time that belongs to them,"[62] Feldman argues that Josephus "aimed to organize [his] material systematically rather than chronologically" and had a scope that "ranged far beyond mere political history to political institutions, religious and private life."[66] Against Apion[edit] Main article: Against Apion Josephus's Against Apion is a two-volume defence of Judaism as classical religion and philosophy, stressing its antiquity, as opposed to what Josephus claimed was the relatively more recent tradition of the Greeks. Some anti-Judaic allegations ascribed by Josephus to the Greek writer Apion and myths accredited to Manetho are also addressed. Spurious works[edit] (date unknown) Josephus's Discourse to the Greeks concerning Hades (spurious; adaptation of "Against Plato, on the Cause of the Universe" by Hippolytus of Rome) See also[edit] Josephus on Jesus Josephus problem – a mathematical problem named after Josephus Josippon Pseudo-Philo Notes and references[edit] Explanatory notes[edit] ^ A large village in Galilee during the 1st century CE, located to the north of Nazareth. In antiquity, the town was called "Garaba", but in Josephus' historical works of antiquity, the town is mentioned by its Greek corruption, "Gabara".[21][22][23] ^ This method as a mathematical problem is referred to as the Josephus problem, or Roman roulette.[28] Citations[edit] ^ Antiquities of the Jews, xviii.8, § 1, Whiston's translation (online) ^ "Josephus". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins Publishers. ^ Mason 2000. ^ Douer, Alisa (2015). Egypt – The Lost Homeland: Exodus from Egypt, 1947–1967 – The History of the Jews in Egypt, 1540 BCE to 1967 CE (Arabische Welt – Arab World). Logos Verlag. p. 277, footnote 190. ISBN 978-3832540524. ^ Josephus refers to himself in his Greek works as Ἰώσηπος Ματθίου παῖς, Iōsēpos Matthiou pais (Josephus the son of Matthias). Josephus spoke Aramaic, Hebrew and Greek. ^ Φλαβίου Ἰωσήπου τὰ εὑρισκόμενα – Flavii Josephi Opera. Graece et latine. Recognovit Guilelmus Dindorfius [= Wilhelm Dindorf]. Volumen secundum. Paris, 1847 ^ Simon Claude Mimouni, Le Judaïsme ancien du VIe siècle avant notre ère au IIIe siècle de notre ère : Des prêtres aux rabbins, Paris, P.U.F., coll. « Nouvelle Clio », 2012, p. 133. ^ Telushkin, Joseph. "Ancient Jewish History: The Great Revolt". Jewish Virtual Library. ^ a b c Harris 1985. ^ Robinson, E.; Smith, E. (1856). Biblical Researches in Palestine, and in the Adjacent Regions (Journal of Travels in the Year 1838). 2. Boston: Crocker & Brewster. p. 533, Appendix I ^ Goodman, Martin (2007). Rome and Jerusalem: The Clash of Ancient Civilisations. Penguin Books. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-713-99447-6. Josephus was born into the ruling elite of Jerusalem ^ Mason 2000, pp. 12–13. ^ Nodet 1997, p. 250. ^ "Josephus Lineage" (PDF). History of the Daughters (Fourth ed.). Sonoma, California: L P Publishing. December 2012. pp. 349–350. ^ a b Schürer 1973, pp. 45–46. ^ Mason 2000, p. 13. ^ Josephus, Vita § 3 ^ Goldberg, G. J. "The Life of Flavius Josephus". Josephus.org. Retrieved 2012-05-18. ^ a b Josephus, Vita, § 67 ^ Josephus, Vita, § 68 ^ Klausner, J. (1934). "Qobetz". Journal of the Jewish Palestinian Exploration Society (in Hebrew). 3: 261–263. ^ Rappaport, Uriel (2013). John of Gischala, from the mountains of Galilee to the walls of Jerusalem. p. 44 [note 2]. ^ Safrai, Ze'ev (1985). The Galilee in the time of the Mishna and Talmud (in Hebrew) (2nd ed.). Jerusalem. pp. 59–62. ^ Josephus, Vita, § 25; § 38; Josephus (1926). "The Life of Josephus". doi:10.4159/DLCL.josephus-life.1926. Retrieved 31 May 2016. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)  – via digital Loeb Classical Library (subscription required) ^ a b Josephus, Vita, § 37 ^ Josephus, Vita, § 71 ^ Josephus, The Jewish War. Book 3, Chapter 8, par. 7 ^ Cf. this example, Roman Roulette. Archived February 21, 2007, at the Wayback Machine ^ Jewish War IV.622–629 ^ Josephus, The Jewish War (5.13.1. and 5.13.3.) ^ Gray 1993, pp. 35–38. ^ Aune 1991, p. 140. ^ Gnuse 1996, pp. 136–142. ^ Goodman, Martin (2007). Rome and Jerusalem: The Clash of Ancient Civilisations. Penguin Books. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-713-99447-6. Later generations of Jews have been inclined to treat such claims as self-serving ^ Attested by the third-century Church theologian Origen (Comm. Matt. 10.17). ^ Ben-Ari, Nitsa (2003). "The double conversion of Ben-Hur: a case of manipulative translation" (PDF). Target. 14 (2): 263–301. doi:10.1075/target.14.2.05ben. Retrieved 28 November 2011. The converts themselves were banned from society as outcasts and so was their historiographic work or, in the more popular historical novels, their literary counterparts. Josephus Flavius, formerly Yosef Ben Matityahu (34–95), had been shunned, then banned as a traitor. ^ Josephus, Flavius (1981). The Jewish War. Translated by Williamson, G. A. Introduction by E. Mary Smallwood. New York: Penguin. p. 24. ^ Raymond 2010, p. 222. ^ "Museernes Samlinger - Kulturarvsstyrelsen". www.kulturarv.dk. ^ Millard 1997, p. 306. ^ Mason, Steve (April 2003). "Flavius Josephus and the Pharisees". The Bible and Interpretation. Retrieved 2012-05-18. ^ Josephus, Vita § 45 ^ Flavius Josephus, The Works of Flavius Josephus. Translated by William Whiston, A.M. Auburn and Buffalo. John E. Beardsley: 1895, s.v. Antiquities 3.6.4. (3.122). After describing the curtain that hung in the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem, Josephus adds: "…Whence that custom of ours is derived, of having a fine linen veil, after the temple has been built, to be drawn over the entrances." ^ Josephus, Vita § 54 ^ Flavius Josephus, The Works of Flavius Josephus. Translated by William Whiston, A.M. Auburn and Buffalo. John E. Beardsley: 1895, s.v. The Jewish War 1.24.2 (end) (1.473). ^ Whealey, Alice (2003). Josephus on Jesus: The Testimonium Flavianum Controversy from Late Antiquity to Modern Times. Peter Lang Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8204-5241-8. In the sixteenth century the authenticity of the text [Testimonium Flavianum] was publicly challenged, launching a controversy that has still not been resolved today ^ Kraft, Dina (May 9, 2007). "Archaeologist Says Remnants of King Herod's Tomb Are Found". NY Times. Retrieved 24 September 2015. ^ Murphy 2008, p. 99. ^ a b c Hasson, Nir (October 11, 2013). "Archaeological stunner: Not Herod's Tomb after all?". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 27 September 2015. Retrieved 24 September 2015. ^ Millar, Fergus, 2006. ‘Hagar, Ishmael, Josephus, and the origins of Islam’. In Fergus Millar, Hannah H. Cotton, and Guy MacLean Rogers, Rome, the Greek World and the East. Vol. 3. The Greek World, the Jews and the East, 351-377. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ^ The Myth of Masada: How Reliable Was Josephus, Anyway?: "The only source we have for the story of Masada, and numerous other reported events from the time, is the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus, author of the book “The Jewish War”." ^ Clontz, T.; Clontz, J. (2008). The Comprehensive New Testament. Cornerstone Publications. ISBN 978-0-9778737-1-5. ^ Bennett, Rick (November 30, 2011). "New Release: Comprehensive Crossreferences". Accordancebible.com. Retrieved 2012-05-18. ^ Maier 1999, p. 1070. ^ Bowman 1987, p. 373. ^ Mason 1998, p. 66. ^ Mason 1998, p. 67. ^ Mason 1998, p. 68. ^ Mason 1998, p. 70. ^ JW preface. 3. ^ a b JW preface. 4. ^ a b c Ant. preface. 3. ^ Ant. preface. 4. ^ Feldman 1998, p. 9. ^ a b Feldman 1998, p. 10. ^ a b c Feldman 1998, p. 13. ^ Ehrman 1999, pp. 848–849. ^ Daniel 2:21 ^ a b Ant. preface. 1. ^ Ant. preface. 2. ^ Feldman 1998, p. 232. General sources[edit] Aune, David Edward (1991) [first published 1983]. Prophecy In Early Christianity and the Ancient Mediterranean World. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN 0-8028-0635-X. Bowman, Steven (1987). "Josephus in Byzantium". In Feldman, Louis H.; Hata, Gōhei (eds.). Josephus, Judaism and Christianity. Wayne State University Press. ISBN 90-04-08554-8. Ehrman, Bart D. (1999). Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium (Kindle ed.). Feldman, Louis H. (1998). Josephus's Interpretation of the Bible. Berkeley: University of California Press. Gnuse, Robert Karl (1996). Dreams & Dream Reports in the Writings of Josephus: A Traditio-Historical Analysis. E. J. Brill. ISBN 90-04-10616-2. Gray, Rebecca (1993). Prophetic Figures in Late Second Temple Jewish Palestine: The Evidence from Josephus. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-507615-X. Harris, Stephen L. (1985). Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. Maier, Paul L., ed. (1999). "Appendix: Dissertation 6 (by Whiston)". The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Academic. p. 1070. ISBN 978-0-8254-9692-9. Retrieved 2013-05-07. Mason, Steve, ed. (1998). "Should Any Wish to Enquire Further (Ant. 1.25): The Aim and Audience of Josephus's Judean Antiquities/Life". Understanding Josephus: Seven Perspectives. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press. Mason, Steve, ed. (2000). Flavius Josephus: Translation and Commentary (10 vols. in 12 ed.). Leiden: BRILL. Millard, Alan Ralph (1997). Discoveries From Bible Times: Archaeological Treasures Throw Light on The Bible. Lion Publishing. ISBN 0-7459-3740-3. Murphy, Catherine M. (2008). The Historical Jesus For Dummies. Wiley Publishing, Inc. ISBN 978-0-470-16785-4. Nodet, Etienne (1997). A Search for the Origins of Judaism: From Joshua to the Mishnah. Continuum International Publishing Group. Raymond, Joseph (2010). Herodian Messiah: Case For Jesus As Grandson of Herod. Tower Grover Publishing. ISBN 978-0615355085. Schürer, Emil (1973) [1891]. Vermes, Géza; Millar, Fergus; Black, Matthew (eds.). The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ (175 B.C. – A.D. 135). Continuum International Publishing Group. Further reading[edit] Library resources about Josephus Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries The Works of Josephus, Complete and Unabridged New Updated Edition. Translated by Whiston, William; Peabody, A. M. (Hardcover ed.). M. A. Hendrickson Publishers, Inc. 1987. ISBN 0-913573-86-8. (Josephus, Flavius (1987). The Works of Josephus, Complete and Unabridged New Updated Edition (Paperback ed.). ISBN 1-56563-167-6. ) Hillar, Marian (2005). "Flavius Josephus and His Testimony Concerning the Historical Jesus". Essays in the Philosophy of Humanism. Washington, DC: American Humanist Association. 13: 66–103. O'Rourke, P. J. (1993). "The 2000 Year Old Middle East Policy Expert". Give War A Chance. Vintage. Pastor, Jack; Stern, Pnina; Mor, Menahem, eds. (2011). Flavius Josephus: Interpretation and History. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-19126-6. ISSN 1384-2161. Bilde, Per. Flavius Josephus between Jerusalem and Rome: his life, his works and their importance. Sheffield: JSOT, 1988. Shaye J. D. Cohen. Josephus in Galilee and Rome: his vita and development as a historian. (Columbia Studies in the Classical Tradition; 8). Leiden: Brill, 1979. Louis Feldman. "Flavius Josephus revisited: the man, his writings, and his significance". In: Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt 21.2 (1984). Mason, Steve: Flavius Josephus on the Pharisees: a composition-critical study. Leiden: Brill, 1991. Rajak, Tessa: Josephus: the Historian and His Society. 2nd ed. London: 2002. (Oxford D.Phil. thesis, 2 vols. 1974.) The Josephus Trilogy, a novel by Lion Feuchtwanger Der jüdische Krieg (Josephus), 1932 Die Söhne (The Jews of Rome), 1935 Der Tag wird kommen (The day will come, Josephus and the Emperor), 1942 Flavius Josephus Eyewitness to Rome's first-century conquest of Judea, Mireille Hadas-lebel, Macmillan 1993, Simon and Schuster 2001 Josephus and the New Testament: Second Edition, by Steve Mason, Hendrickson Publishers, 2003. Making History: Josephus and Historical Method, edited by Zuleika Rodgers (Boston: Brill, 2007). Josephus, the Emperors, and the City of Rome: From Hostage to Historian, by William den Hollander (Boston: Brill, 2014). Josephus, the Bible, and History, edited by Louis H. Feldman and Gohei Hata (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1988). Josephus: The Man and the Historian, by H. St. John Thackeray (New York: Ktav Publishing House, 1967). A Jew Among Romans: The Life and Legacy of Flavius Josephus, by Frederic Raphael (New York: Pantheon Books, 2013). A Companion to Josephus, edited by Honora Chapman and Zuleika Rodgers (Oxford, 2016). External links[edit] Josephusat Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Works Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Josephus PACE Josephus: text and resources in the Project on Ancient Cultural Engagement at York University, edited by Steve Mason. works by Flavius Josephus at Perseus digital library – Greek (Niese) and English (Whiston) 1895 editions Works by Josephus at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Josephus at Internet Archive Works by Josephus at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) The Works of Flavius Josephus at Christian Classics Ethereal Library (Whiston, lacks Loeb numbers) De bello judaico digitized codex (1475) at Somni Lecture, Dr. Henry Abramson (historian): Josephus: First-Person Accounts of Jewish History on YouTube, June 2020. Other The AHRC Reception of Josephus in Jewish Culture Project and Josephus Reception Archive Josephus.org, G. J. Goldberg Flavius Josephus The Jewish History Resource Center – Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Flavius Josephus, Judaea and Rome: A Question of Context Flavius Josephus at livius.org Flavius Josephus at Jewish Virtual Library v t e Josephus Works War of the Jews (c. 75) Antiquities of the Jews (c. 94) Against Apion (c. 97) The Life of Flavius Josephus (c. 99) Views Jesus Family Matthias (father) Matthias (brother) Josephus (grandfather) Matthias Curtus (great-grandfather) Matthias Ephlias (great-great-grandfather) Simon Psellus (great-great-great-grandfather) Related Discourse to the Greeks concerning Hades Josephus problem Authority control BIBSYS: 90057636 BNE: XX901356 BNF: cb11909011p (data) CANTIC: a10488960 CiNii: DA00423434 GND: 118640003 ICCU: IT\ICCU\BVEV\003796 ISNI: 0000 0001 2123 5616 LCCN: n80015583 LNB: 000042964 NDL: 00444936 NKC: jn19981001581 NLA: 35254596 NLG: 99756 NLI: 001398077 NLK: KAC199614229 NSK: 000088757 NTA: 069071632 RERO: 02-A000095558 SELIBR: 191979 SNAC: w65x39cg SUDOC: 026940434 Trove: 883891 VcBA: 495/53647 VIAF: 22143666 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n80015583 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Josephus&oldid=996634714" Categories: Josephus 1st-century historians 1st-century Jews 1st-century Romans 1st-century writers 37 births Ancient Roman antiquarians Flavii Greco-Roman military writers Hellenistic Jewish writers Hellenistic Jews Jewish apologists Jewish historians Jewish Roman (city) history Judean people Roman-era Greek historians Roman-era Jews Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text CS1 Hebrew-language sources (he) CS1 errors: missing periodical Subscription required using via Pages containing links to subscription-only content Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles with hCards Articles containing Hebrew-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2011 All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from November 2009 Articles with unsourced statements from August 2012 Articles with unsourced statements from November 2009 Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers AC with 25 elements Year of death missing Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Kiswahili Latina Latviešu La .lojban. 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en-wikipedia-org-4173	----	Prefect - Wikipedia Prefect From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Magisterial title For other uses, see Prefect (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Prefect" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (August 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) A French prefect Prefect (from the Latin praefectus, substantive adjectival[1] form of praeficere: "put in front", i.e., in charge) is a magisterial title of varying definition, but essentially refers to the leader of an administrative area. A prefect's office, department, or area of control is called a prefecture, but in various post-Roman empire cases there is a prefect without a prefecture or vice versa. The words "prefect" and "prefecture" are also used, more or less conventionally, to render analogous words in other languages, especially Romance languages. Contents 1 Ancient Rome 1.1 Praetorian prefects 1.2 Police and civil prefects 1.3 Military prefects 1.4 Prefects as provincial governors 1.5 Religious prefects 2 Feudal times 3 Ecclesiastical 4 Academic 5 Modern sub-national administration 6 Police 7 See also 8 References 9 External links Ancient Rome[edit] Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e Praefectus, often with a further qualification, was the formal title of many, fairly low to high-ranking, military or civil officials in the Roman Empire, whose authority was not embodied in their person (as it was with elected Magistrates) but conferred by delegation from a higher authority. They did have some authority in their prefecture such as controlling prisons and in civil administration. Praetorian prefects[edit] The Praetorian prefect (Praefectus praetorio) began as the military commander of a general's guard company in the field, then grew in importance as the Praetorian Guard became a potential kingmaker during the Empire. From the Emperor Diocletian's tetrarchy (c. 300) they became the administrators of the four Praetorian prefectures, the government level above the (newly created) dioceses and (multiplied) provinces. Police and civil prefects[edit] Praefectus urbi, or praefectus urbanus: city prefect, in charge of the administration of Rome. Praefectus vigilum: commander of the Vigiles (firemen and police). Praefectus aerarii: nobles appointed guardians of the state treasury. Praefectus aerarii militaris: prefect of the military treasury. Praefectus annonae: official charged with the supervision of the grain supply to the city of Rome. Military prefects[edit] Praefectus alae: commander of a cavalry unit. Praefectus castrorum: camp commandant.[2] Praefectus cohortis: commander of a cohort (constituent unit of a legion, or analogous unit). Praefectus classis: fleet commander.[2] Praefectus equitatus: cavalry commander. Praefectus equitum: cavalry commander. Praefectus fabrum: officer in charge of fabri, i.e. well-trained engineers and artisans.[2] Praefectus legionis: equestrian legionary commander.[2] Praefectus legionis agens vice legati: equestrian acting legionary commander. Praefectus orae maritimae: official in charge with the control and defense of an important sector of sea coast.[2] Praefectus socium (sociorum): Roman officer appointed to a command function in an ala sociorum (unit recruited among the socii, Italic peoples of a privileged status within the empire). For some auxiliary troops, specific titles could even refer to their peoples: Praefectus Laetorum (Germanic, notably in Gaul) Praefectus Sarmatarum gentilium (from the steppes, notably in Italy) Prefects as provincial governors[edit] Roman provinces were usually ruled by high-rank officials. Less important provinces though were entrusted to prefects, military men who would otherwise only govern parts of larger provinces. The most famous example is Pontius Pilate, who governed Judaea at a time when it was administered as an annex of Syria. As Egypt was a special imperial domain, a rich and strategic granary, where the Emperor enjoyed an almost pharaonic position unlike any other province or diocese, its head was styled uniquely Praefectus Augustalis, indicating that he governed in the personal name of the emperor, the "Augustus". Septimius Severus, after conquering Mesopotamia, introduced the same system there too. After the mid-1st century, as a result of the Pax Romana, the governorship was gradually shifted from the military prefects to civilian fiscal officials called procurators, Egypt remaining the exception.[3] Religious prefects[edit] Praefectus urbi: a prefect of the republican era who guarded the city during the annual sacrifice of the Feriae Latinae on Mount Alban in which the consuls participated. His former title was "custos urbi" ("guardian of the city").[4] Feudal times[edit] Especially in Medieval Latin, præfectus was used to refer to various officers—administrative, military, judicial, etc.—usually alongside a more precise term in the vernacular (such as Burggraf, which literally means Count of the Castle in the German language). Ecclesiastical[edit] Saint Margaret attracts the attention of the Roman prefect, by Jean Fouquet from an illuminated manuscript Part of a series on the Hierarchy of the Catholic Church Saint Peter Ecclesiastical titles (order of precedence) Pope Cardinal Cardinal Vicar Moderator of the curia Chaplain of His Holiness Papal legate Papal majordomo Apostolic nuncio Apostolic delegate Apostolic Syndic Apostolic visitor Vicar apostolic Apostolic exarch Apostolic prefect Assistant at the Pontifical Throne Eparch Metropolitan Patriarch Bishop Archbishop Bishop emeritus Diocesan bishop Major archbishop Primate Suffragan bishop Titular bishop Coadjutor bishop Auxiliary bishop Territorial prelate Territorial abbot Liturgical titles Acolyte Consecrator Lector Subdeacon Administrative and pastoral titles Auditor Brother Chancellor Chaplain Military chaplain Military ordinary Coarb Confessor Consultor Curate Deacon Defender of the Bond Definitor Devil's advocate Diocesan administrator Ecclesiastical judge Episcopal vicar Exorcist Judicial vicar Lay brother Lay cardinal Monsignor Officialis Pastor Assistant pastor Personal prelate Preacher Prefect Presbyter Priest Protonotary apostolic Saint Blessed Venerable Seminarian Vicar forane Vicar general Consecrated and professed titles Abbess Abbot Consecrated virgin Corrector Custos Friar Dean Grand Master Hermit Master general Master of novices Monk Novice Nun Postulant Oblate Prior Provincial superior Rector Religious Superior general Additional titles Almoner Altar server Archimandrite Archpriest Archdeacon Canon Captain General of the Church Chorbishop Commissary Apostolic Datarius Gonfalonier of the Church Honorary Prelate Minor canon Notarius Ostiarius Peritus Postulator Prebendary Precentor Prince-bishop Prince-abbot Prince-primate Prince-provost Promotor Fidei Protopriest Protodeacon Protosyncellus Regionarius Sacristan Organization titles Grand Master Sovereign Military Order of Malta Order of the Holy Sepulchre Teutonic Knights  Catholic Church portal v t e The term is used by the Roman Catholic Church, which based much of its canon law terminology on Roman law, in several different ways. The Roman Curia has the nine Prefects of all the Congregations as well as the two of the Papal Household and of the Economic Affairs of the Holy See. The title also attaches to the heads of some Pontifical Council (central departments of the Curia), who are principally titled president, but in addition there is sometimes an additional ex officio position as a prefect. For example, the president of the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue is also the prefect of the Commission for Religious Relations with Muslims. Traditionally these Curial officials are Cardinals, hence often called "Cardinal-Prefect" or "Cardinal-President". There was a custom that those who were not cardinals when they were appointed were titled "Pro-Prefect" or "Pro-President". Then these officials would be appointed prefect or president after their elevation to the Sacred College. However, since 1998, this custom has fallen into disuse.[citation needed] A Prefect Apostolic is a cleric (sometimes a Titular Bishop, but normally a priest) in charge of an apostolic prefecture, a type of Roman Catholic territorial jurisdiction fulfilling the functions of a diocese, usually in a missionary area or in a country that is anti-religious, such as the People's Republic of China, but that is not yet given the status of regular diocese. It is usually destined to become one in time. Academic[edit] In the context of schools, a prefect is a pupil who has been given certain responsibilities in the school, similar to the responsibilities given to a hall monitor or safety patrol members. In some British, Irish and Commonwealth schools (especially but not exclusively independent schools), prefects, usually students in fifth to seventh years (depending on how many years the school in question has), have considerable power; in some cases they effectively run the school outside the classroom. They were once allowed to administer school corporal punishment in some schools (now abolished in the UK and several other countries). They usually answer to a senior prefect known as the Head of School (though in Canada, Head of School is more often seen as a gender-neutral term for headmaster or headmistress) or Head Prefect or Head Boy or Head Girl or Senior Prefect. Larger schools may have a hierarchical structure with a team of prefects, a team of senior prefects, and a Head Boy and Girl. The Head Prefect may also be the School Captain if that is an appointed position in the school. However, due to Health and Safety laws the staff have tended to become stricter about what responsibilities prefects may hold, for fear of being held responsible in case of litigation.[citation needed] This system is also practised in Hong Kong, a former British colony. Today, prefect roles in the U.K. are largely perfunctory and are mostly used to reward the better students in the year groups that qualify for prefect roles. Duties tend to be limited to door monitoring during recess and representing the school at various extra-curricular events. In India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Singapore and Malaysia, prefects are student leaders in primary and secondary schools, often along the lines of other Commonwealth schools, but with superior powers. The prefect systems in these countries have changed little from when they were under the British, as the present governments have seen them as effective.[citation needed] In Bangladesh, Prefects are the leaders in Army based educational institutions namely Cadet Colleges. In Mexico, Prefects (in Spanish, prefecta/prefecto) is an adult head of a grade of a school, a US equivalent would be a dean. In Sweden, a prefect (prefekt) is the head of a university department. In Jesuit and other Catholic schools this title was given formerly to members of the faculty, a prefect of discipline in charge of student attendance, general order and such, and a prefect of studies in charge of academic issues. Many college preparatory boarding schools utilize the position of Prefect as a high student leadership position. Modern sub-national administration[edit] In Albania a prefect (Prefekti) is the State's representative in a region (qark). His agency is called the Prefektura. Albania has 12 prefects in 12 prefectures, appointed by the Prime Minister of Albania and the Government. In France the préfet (prefect) is a top ranking public servant who belongs to the so-called Corps préfectoral. The function was created on 17 February 1800 by Napoléon Bonaparte after his successful coup d'état of 9 November 1799 which made him Head of State with the title Premier Consul. The prefect's role at that time (until the reform of the function in the 1980s) was to be the top representative of the central government as well as the chief administrator in a département (which can be compared to a county in most English-speaking nations) . His agency services as well as his circumscription (=territory in which he is in charge) are called préfecture. Sub-prefects (sous-préfets, sous-préfecture) operate as assistants in the arrondissements (subdivisions of a département) under his authority and control. In the 1980s, under the presidency of François Mitterrand (1981–1995), a fundamental change in the role of the prefect (and sub-prefect) took place. The previously extremely centralized French (Fifth) Republic was gradually decentralized by the creation of the Regions and the devolution of central state powers towards the Régions, Départements and Communes (municipalities). New elected authorities were created (e.g. the Conseils régionaux) in order to administrate the subdivisional entities (collectivités territoriales) of the nation (law from 2 March 1982). The changes have gradually altered the function of the prefect. He is still the supreme representative of the state in a département, but has lost his omnipotent function of chief administrator. Instead, he has acquired the roles of chief controller (not a title) of regional, departemental and communal public accounts and of chief inspector (not a title) of good (i.e. law-abiding) governance of the authorities of the respective territorial entities.[5] A Préfet maritime is a French Admiral (Amiral) who is commissioned to be the chief commander of a Zone maritime (i.e. a section of the French territorial waters and the respective shores). In Paris, the Préfet de police (prefect of police) is the head of the city's police under the direct authority of the Ministre de l'Intérieur (Minister of the Interior), which makes him unique as usually in French towns and cities the chief of the local police is subordinated to the maire (mayor), who is the local representative of the minister in police matters. In Italy, a prefect (prefetto) is a high-ranking public servant who belongs to the so-called Corpo prefettizio and is the State's representative in a province. His office is called Prefettura – Ufficio Territoriale del Governo. The prefects have political responsibility and coordinate the local head of the State Police (Questore), who has technical responsibility, to enforce laws when public safety is threatened. Similar offices already existed under various names before the Italian unification (1861) (e.g., in the Kingdom of Two Sicilies it was named "intendente"); in Northern Italy, it was imported from France during the Napoleonic occupation (1802). Its current form dates back to 1861, when the government of Bettino Ricasoli extended the Kingdom of Sardinia's administrative system to the entire country. In the early years the job entailed a more vigorous and vigilant application of central state authority, by enforcing regulations and dispositions in the fields of education, public works, public health, and the nomination of mayors and provincial deputies. He also plays the role of intermediary between the government and municipalities and other local governments. In some Spanish-speaking states in Latin America, following a French-type model introduced in Spain itself, prefects were installed as governors; remarkably, in some republics (like Peru) two levels were constructed from the French model: a prefecture and a department, the one being only part of the other. In Greece a prefect (nomarhis, νομάρχης) used to be the elected head of one of the 54 prefectures (nomarhies, νομαρχίες), which were second-level administrative divisions, between the first-level Peripheries (periferies, περιφέρειες) and the third-level Municipalities (demoi, δήμοι), until their abolition with the Kallikratis reform in 2010. The Prefectural elections (popular ballot) would be held every four years along with the Municipal elections. The last Prefectural elections in Greece were held in October 2006. In Romania, a prefect (prefect) is the appointed governmental representative in a county (judeţ) and in the Municipality of Bucharest, in an agency called prefectură. The prefect's role is to represent the national government at local level, acting as a liaison and facilitating the implementation of National Development Plans and governing programmes at local level. In Québec, a prefect (préfet) is the head of a regional county municipality. In Brazil, a prefect (prefeito) is the elected head of the executive branch in a municipality. Larger cities, such as São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Curitiba, etc., also have sub-prefects, appointed to their offices by the elected prefect. In Georgia, the nation in the Caucasus region, a prefect (პრეფექტი) was the head of the executive branch in a municipality, appointed by the President of Georgia from 1990 to 1992. In Iran, a prefect (بخشدار) is responsible for the administration of a sector in Iran's political and administrative system. Police[edit] The Prefect of Police (Préfet de police) is the officer in charge of co-ordinating police forces in Paris (see above under "France"). The local police in Japan are divided among prefectures too. See also[edit] Pauly-Wissowa Praefectus palatii Préfet References[edit] ^ Adam's Latin Grammar ^ a b c d e Berger, Adolf (2002). Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law. The Lawbook Exchange. p. 643. ISBN 1-58477-142-9. ^ "Provincial governors (Roman)". Livius.org. Jona Lendering. Retrieved 2014-12-18. ^ Smith, William (1875). Praefectus Urbi - in A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. London: John Murray. pp. 953–954. Retrieved July 27, 2020. ^ Le petit Larousse 2013 pp873 and 1420 External links[edit] Look up prefect in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. 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en-wikipedia-org-4174	----	Auctoritas - Wikipedia Auctoritas From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Representation of a sitting of the Roman Senate: Cicero attacks Catiline, from a 19th-century fresco Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e Auctoritas is a Latin word which is the origin of English "authority". While historically its use in English was restricted to discussions of the political history of Rome, the beginning of phenomenological philosophy in the 20th century expanded the use of the word.[1] In ancient Rome, auctoritas referred to the general level of prestige a person had in Roman society, and, as a consequence, his clout, influence, and ability to rally support around his will. Auctoritas was not merely political, however; it had a numinous content and symbolized the mysterious "power of command" of heroic Roman figures. Noble women could also achieve a degree of auctoritas. For example, the wives, sisters, and mothers of the Julio-Claudians had immense influence on society, the masses, and the political apparatus. Their auctoritas was exercised less overtly than their male counterparts due to Roman societal norms, but they were powerful nonetheless. Contents 1 Etymology and origin 2 Political meaning in ancient Rome 2.1 Auctoritas principis 3 Middle Ages 4 Hannah Arendt 5 See also 6 References and sources Etymology and origin[edit] According to French linguist Emile Benveniste, auctor (which also gives us English "author") is derived from Latin augeō ("to augment", "to enlarge", "to enrich"). The auctor is "is qui auget", the one who augments the act or the juridical situation of another.[2] Arguably[citation needed], Benveniste defended that Latin "auctoritas" was based on a divine conception of power and not on the individual that happened to the position of authority. Auctor in the sense of "author", comes from auctor as founder or, one might say, "planter-cultivator"[citation needed]. Similarly, auctoritas refers to rightful ownership, based on one's having "produced" or homesteaded the article of property in question - more in the sense of "sponsored" or "acquired" than "manufactured". This auctoritas would, for example, persist through an usucapio of ill-gotten or abandoned property. Political meaning in ancient Rome[edit] Politically, the Roman Senate's authority (auctoritas patrum) was connected to auctoritas, not to be confused with potestas or imperium, which were held by the magistrates or the people[citation needed]. In this context, auctoritas could be defined as the juridical[citation needed] power to authorize some other act. The 19th-century classicist Theodor Mommsen describes the "force" of auctoritas as "more than advice and less than command, an advice which one may not ignore." Cicero says of power and authority, "Cum potestas in populo auctoritas in senatu sit." ("While power resides in the people, authority rests with the Senate.")[3] In the private domain, those under tutelage (guardianship), such as women and minors, were similarly obliged to seek the sanction of their tutors ("protectors") for certain actions. Thus, auctoritas characterizes the auctor: The pater familias authorizes – that is, validates and legitimates – his son's wedding in prostate. In this way, auctoritas might function as a kind of "passive counsel", much as, for example, a scholarly authority. Traditional imperial Roman exception to declare any legalistic concept and rule of law null and overrule prior decision making, in some military and political circumstances overrule fundamental body of law within a constitution, whether it is or isn't codified. Imperial prerogative is to protect the state from harm and its peoples. During the overruling of Roman Constitution body of fundamental laws and rule of law, a dictator may be chosen by the senate in Imperial Rome.[citation needed] Auctoritas principis[edit] After the fall of the Republic, during the days of the Roman Empire, the Emperor had the title of princeps ("first citizen" of Rome) and held the auctoritas principis – the supreme moral authority – in conjunction with the imperium and potestas – the military, judiciary and administrative powers. That is to say, there is a non-committal to a separation of powers, some civil rights, constitutionalism, codified constitutional state and legalist concept of law. Middle Ages[edit] The notion of auctoritas was often invoked by the papacy during the Middle Ages, in order to secure the temporal power of the Pope. Innocent III most famously invoked auctoritas in order to depose kings and emperors and to try to establish a papal theocracy. Hannah Arendt[edit] Hannah Arendt considered auctoritas a reference to founding acts as the source of political authority in ancient Rome. She took foundation to include (as augeō suggests), the continuous conservation and increase of principles handed down from "the beginning" (see also pietas). According to Arendt, this source of authority was rediscovered in the course of the 18th-century American Revolution (see "United States of America" under Founding Fathers), as an alternative to an intervening Western tradition of absolutism, claiming absolute authority, as from God (see Divine Right of Kings), and later from Nature, Reason, History, and even, as in the French Revolution, Revolution itself (see La Terreur). Arendt views a crisis of authority as common to both the American and French Revolutions, and the response to that crisis a key factor in the relative success of the former and failure of the latter.[4] Arendt further considered the sense of auctor and auctoritas in various Latin idioms, and the fact that auctor was used in contradistinction to – and (at least by Pliny) held in higher esteem than – artifices, the artisans to whom it might fall to "merely" build up or implement the author-founder's vision and design.[5] See also[edit] History portal Philosophy portal Authoritarianism – Form of social organization characterized by submission to authority Authority – The power to command Athenian law Constitution of the Roman Republic – The norms, customs, and written laws, which guided the government of the Roman Republic Discipline – Action or inaction that is regulated to be in accordance with a particular system of governance Dignitas – Ancient Roman virtue Gravitas – An Ancient Roman virtue Hierarchy – System of elements that are subordinated to each other Mana – Life force Energy, Power, effectiveness, and prestige in Pacific Island culture Mund (law) – Germanic legal relationship Nobility – Official privileged social class Pietas – An Ancient Roman virtue Piety Potestas – A Latin word meaning power or faculty Roman law – Legal system of Ancient Rome (c. 449 BC – AD 529) References and sources[edit] References ^ "What does auctoritas mean?". Definitions.net. Retrieved 17 September 2019. ^ J. B. Greenough disputes this etymology of auctor - but not the sense of foundation and augmentation - in "Latin Etymologies", Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, Vol. 4, 1893. ^ De leg. 3. 28 ^ Hannah Arendt, On Revolution, Chapter 5, Section 2. (1965) ^ Hannah Arendt, Between Past and Future, Chapter 3, Section IV. (1968) Sources Cicero, De Legibus (1st century BC) Theodor Mommsen, Römisches Staatsrecht, Volume III, Chapter 2. (1887) William Smith, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. (1875, 1890 editions) Alvaro d'Ors, Derecho privado romano (10 ed. Eunsa, 2004) Rafael Domingo Osle, Auctoritas (Ariel, 1999) v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Auctoritas&oldid=993142339" Categories: Latin words and phrases Latin legal terminology Roman law Philosophy of law Ancient Roman virtues Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2019 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Català Deutsch Español Esperanto Français Bahasa Indonesia Latina Nederlands Polski Português Русский Simple English Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 9 December 2020, at 00:57 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4178	----	Category:People from Venosa - Wikipedia Help Category:People from Venosa From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For more information, see Venosa. Wikimedia Commons has media related to People of Venosa. Pages in category "People from Venosa" The following 11 pages are in this category, out of 11 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). D Mario de Bernardi Giacomo Di Chirico G Antonio Gammone Carlo Gesualdo Cinzia Giorgio H Horace L Giovanni Battista de Luca M Manfred, King of Sicily Bartolomeo Maranta Tommaso Marolda T Luigi Tansillo Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:People_from_Venosa&oldid=675713934" Categories: People from the Province of Potenza People by city or town in Italy Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية تۆرکجه Dansk Deutsch Español فارسی Italiano Norsk bokmål Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 12 August 2015, at 06:18 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4181	----	Wikipedia:File Upload Wizard - Wikipedia Wikipedia:File Upload Wizard From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Picture:File Upload Wizard Shortcut WP:FUW Thank you for offering to contribute an image or other media file for use on Wikipedia. This wizard will guide you through a questionnaire prompting you for the appropriate copyright and sourcing information for each file. Please ensure you understand copyright and the image use policy before proceeding. Upload to Wikimedia Commons Recommended for your own or freely licensed files Upload locally to Wikipedia Use for non-free files You are not currently logged in. Sorry, in order to use this uploading script and to upload files, you need to be logged in with your named account. Please log in and then try again. Your account has not become confirmed yet. Sorry, in order to upload files on the English Wikipedia, you need to have a confirmed account. Normally, your account will become confirmed automatically once you have made 10 edits and four days have passed since you created it. You may already be able to upload files on the Wikimedia Commons, but you can't do it on the English Wikipedia just yet. If the file you want to upload has a free license, please go to Commons and upload it there. Important note: if you don't want to wait until you are autoconfirmed, you may ask somebody else to upload a file for you at Wikipedia:Files for upload. In very rare cases an administrator may make your account confirmed manually through a request at Wikipedia:Requests for permissions/Confirmed. Step 1: Choose your file File: Choose a file from your computer. Maximum file size: 100 MB. Permitted file types: png, gif, jpg, jpeg, xcf, pdf, mid, ogg, ogv, svg, djvu, tiff, tif, oga. Step 2: Describe your file Please provide a clear, descriptive name by which your file will be known on Wikipedia.   This name must be unique across the whole of Wikipedia, so please make it informative and easy to recognize. It's no problem to use a fairly long name. It may also include spaces, commas and most other punctuation marks. Please also note that file names are case sensitive (with the exception of the first letter). Good: "City of London, skyline from London City Hall, Oct 2008.jpg". Bad: "Skyline.jpg", "DSC0001234.jpg". Sorry, a few special characters and character combinations cannot be used in the filename for technical reasons. This goes especially for # < > [ ] | : { } /  and ~~~. Your filename has been modified to avoid these. Please check if it is okay now. The filename you chose seems to be very short, or overly generic. Please don't use: Titles that consist only of very generic descriptive words (e.g. "Sunset.jpg", "Townhall.jpg") Titles that consist only of a person's first or last name, when that name is likely to be shared by many others (e.g. "John.jpg", "Miller.jpg") Titles that consist of mere numbers, of the kind often produced by digital cameras ("DSC_001234", "IMGP0345"), or random strings like those sometimes found on the web ("30996951316264l.jpg") Existing file. Last uploaded by Example user. A file of this name already exists on Commons! If you upload your file with this name, you will be masking the existing file and make it inaccessible. Your new file will be displayed everywhere the existing file was previously used. This should not be done, except in very rare exceptional cases. Please don't upload your file under this name, unless you seriously know what you are doing. Choose a different name for your new file instead. If you want to replace the existing file with an uncontroversial, improved version of the same work, please go to Commons and upload it there, not here on the English Wikipedia's local wiki. A file of this name already exists. If you upload your file with this name, you will be overwriting the existing file. Your new file will be displayed everywhere the existing file was previously used. Please don't do this, unless you have a good reason to: No, I don't want to overwrite the existing file. I will choose a different name for my new file instead. Yes, I want to overwrite the existing file. My file is merely a new, improved and uncontentious version of the same work. The old description page, including the source and copyright information, will still be correct for the new version and can remain the same. Yes, I want to overwrite the existing file, and I will use this wizard to add a new description and new source information for it. The previous version was my own, or else I have made sure the previous uploader(s) don't object to this replacement. Please provide a brief description of the contents of this file. This will be stored and displayed as part of the file description page. It is important that other editors be able to understand what this file is about.   What does this file show? What is it a photo/diagram/recording of? It will be helpful if you also add a wikilink to the article where you want to use it. Step 3: Provide source and copyright information It is very important that you read through the following options and questions, and provide all required information truthfully and carefully. This is a free work. I can demonstrate that it is legally okay for anybody to use, in Wikipedia and elsewhere, for any purpose. Thank you for offering to upload a free work. Wikipedia loves free files. However, we would love it even more if you uploaded them on our sister project, the Wikimedia Commons. Files uploaded on Commons can be used immediately here on Wikipedia as well as on all its sister projects. Uploading files on Commons works just the same as here. Your Wikipedia account will automatically work on Commons too. Please consider uploading your file on Commons. However, if you prefer to do it here instead, you may go ahead with this form. You can also first use this form to collect the information about your file and then send it to Commons from here. Copyright status: This file is entirely my own work. I am the copyright holder. I made this myself, from scratch, without copying or incorporating anybody else's creative work, and I am willing to release it under a free license. Please note that by "entirely self-made" we really mean just that. Do not use this section for any of the following: a scan or photograph you made of a painting, drawing, printed page or other item originally created by somebody else. The copyright belongs to the original creator, not to you. a screenshot or other kind of capture of a video, computer screen, TV programme or other kind of visual media. a picture you created by modifying or copying some other picture or by combining several preexisting pictures made by somebody else. a picture given to you by somebody else. a picture you found somewhere on the Internet. Editors who falsely declare such items as their "own work" will be blocked from editing. Please describe how and when you created this item. How?   (e.g.: Where and on what kind of occasion did you take this photo? How did you make this diagram? etc.) Date   (please use YYYY-MM-DD format if possible). Publication: Please indicate here if you have previously published this item elsewhere, e.g. on your own website, your Flickr or Facebook account, etc., providing a link. It is important that you place this work under a free license, which will allow everybody else to use it for any purpose, including both commercial and non-commercial purposes, and to modify it. This license will be irrevocable. This file was given to me by its owner. The copyright owner of this file has given it to me for uploading on Wikipedia. I can provide evidence that they have agreed to release it under a free license, for free use by anybody and for any purpose. Please describe who owns this work and how you got it from them. Owner/author: Date of creation: Source: Where did you get the file from? (e.g. available online; was sent to me personally …) Permission: How did you receive the permission? (e.g.: by e-mail, personally, I work for the owner …) The copyright owner has chosen the following license: License: Other: Evidence: The license statement can be found online at: The license agreement has been forwarded to Wikimedia's copyright service at "permissions-en@wikimedia.org". OTRS ticket received: The license hasn't yet been forwarded, but I will do so shortly or ask the owner to send it. I haven't got the evidence right now, but I will provide some if requested to do so. Note: files without verifiable permissions may be deleted. You may be better off obtaining proof of permission first. This file is from a free published source. I took it from a website or other published source, where its author has explicitly placed it under a free license, allowing free re-use by anybody. Use this only if there is an explicit licensing statement in the source. The website must explicitly say that the image is released under a license that allows free re-use for any purpose, e.g. the Creative Commons Attribution license. You must be able to point exactly to where it says this. If the source website doesn't say so explicitly, please do not upload the file. Author/owner: Date of creation: Source: For web sources: please provide a link to the html web page where the file can be found ("http://... .html"), not a direct link to the image file itself ("http://... .jpg"). For print sources: provide full bibliographic information (author, title, publisher, year, page, etc.) The copyright owner has chosen the following license for this file: License: Other: Evidence: Provide a link to where the author explicitly says that the file is released under a free license. (if not visible on the source page itself). This work is so old its copyright has expired This is an old photograph, or a photographic reproduction of an old painting, drawing, etc. I can provide enough information about its author and provenance to prove that it is old enough for its copyright to have expired. It is now legally in the Public Domain. Original author: Please name the original author of this work. Lifetime: Specify date of death, if applicable to public domain status. In many cases, we need to be certain the author died before a certain year, in many cases before 1926. Original publication: Provide as much information as possible about the original time and place of publication of this work. For print publications: provide full bibliographic information. Date of publication: Provide date of first publication, and date of creation if different. Immediate source: State exactly where you found this file. For web sources: please provide a link to the html web page where the file can be found ("http://... .html"), not a direct link to the image file itself ("http://... .jpg"). For print sources: provide full bibliographic information (author, title, publisher, year, page, etc.) Public Domain status: This work is free of all copyrights because: It was created and first published before 1925 and is therefore in the Public Domain in the USA. It was first published outside the USA, and it was in the Public Domain in its country of origin by the "URAA date". For most countries, this means the author died 70 years before 1 January 1996, i.e. before 1926. Please look up the copyright rules for the specific country at [1]. It was first published in the USA before 1989, and its copyright expired because it was published without a copyright notice and/or without the necessary copyright registration.Please look up the exact rules at [2]. Its copyright expired for some other reason. [Please explain below]. Explanation: Please provide any evidence necessary to verify the public domain status. This file is in the Public Domain for some other reason. I can demonstrate that this work is legally in the Public Domain, i.e. nobody owns any copyrights on it. This may be for a variety of reasons, for instance because it was created by the US Federal Government, or because it is too simple to attract any copyright. Public Domain means that nobody owns any copyrights on this work. It does not mean simply that it is freely viewable somewhere on the web or that it has been widely used by others. This is not for images you simply found somewhere on the web. Most images on the web are under copyright and belong to somebody, even if you believe the owner won't care about that copyright. If it is in the public domain, you must be able to point to an actual law that makes it so. If you can't point to such a law but merely found this image somewhere, then please do not upload it. Author: Please name the original author of this work. Source: State exactly where you found this file. For web sources: please provide a link to the html web page where the file can be found ("http://... .html"), not a direct link to the image file itself ("http://... .jpg"). For print sources: provide full bibliographic information (author, title, publisher, year, page, etc.) Date of creation: Public Domain status: This work is free of all copyrights because: It was created by an agency of the US Federal Government. This does not apply to most US state and local agencies, nor to governments of other countries! It is an official governmental item, such as a flag, state emblem, banknote or postage stamp, from a country where such items are exempt from copyright according to local law. This does not apply to all countries, nor does it usually apply to all publications! (For instance, it usually doesn't apply to simple publicity photographs published on a governmental website.) Please look up the copyright rules for the specific country in question. If the country does not have an exemption rule that applies to this item, go on with the section for "non-free copyrighted works" below. Explanation: Add any explanation or evidence necessary to substantiate your statement above. Cite and provide a link to the relevant law if possible. It is too simple to be eligible for copyright. This typically applies only to graphics that consist solely of simple geometric shapes and/or a few letters or words, or to items such as mathematical or chemical formulae. It may apply to some very simple logos that do not contain complex pictorial elements. It never applies to photographs! It is in the Public Domain for some other reason. Explanation: This is a copyrighted, non-free work, but I believe it is Fair Use. I have read the Wikipedia rules on Non-Free Content, and I am prepared to explain how the use of this file will meet the criteria set out there. Please remember that you will need to demonstrate that: The file will serve an important function in a particular article; (NFCC8) It cannot be replaced by any other, free illustration that might yet be created; (NFCC1) Its use does not negatively affect the commercial interests of its owner (NFCC2) There will not be more non-free material used than necessary. (NFCC3) This file will be used in the following article: Enter the name of exactly one Wikipedia article, without the [[...]] brackets and without the "http://en.wikipedia.org/..." URL code. It has to be an actual article, not a talkpage, template, user page, etc. If you plan to use the file in more than one article, please name only one of them here. Then, after uploading, open the image description page for editing and add your separate explanations for each additional article manually. Example – article okay. This article doesn't exist! The article Example could not be found. Please check the spelling, and make sure you enter the name of an existing article in which you will include this file. If this is an article you are only planning to write, please write it first and upload the file afterwards. This is not an actual encyclopedia article! The page Example is not in the main article namespace. Non-free files can only be used in mainspace article pages, not on a user page, talk page, template, etc. Please upload this file only if it is going to be used in an actual article. If this page is an article draft in your user space, we're sorry, but we must ask you to wait until the page is ready and has been moved into mainspace, and only upload the file after that. This is a disambiguation page! The page Example is not a real article, but a disambiguation page pointing to a number of other pages. Please check and enter the exact title of the actual target article you meant. Non-free use rationale This image is the object of discussion in an article. This is a copyrighted artwork or photograph, and the image itself is the topic of discussion in the article. The discussion is about the photograph or painting as such, as a creative work, not just about the thing or person it shows. Which of these options describes this item best? Who created this work? Author/owner: Date: Source: State exactly where you found this file. For web sources: please provide a link to the html web page where the file can be found ("http://... .html"), not a direct link to the image file itself ("http://... .jpg"). For print sources: provide full bibliographic information (author, title, publisher, year, page, etc.) Usage: The article as a whole is dedicated specifically to a discussion of this particular photograph/painting. (It is not just about the person or thing shown in the picture.) There is a substantial amount of encyclopedic discussion of this particular photograph/painting (not just about the person or thing shown in it) in this article. The illustration is specifically needed to support the following point: If neither of these two statements applies, then please do not upload this image. This section is not for images used merely to illustrate an article about a person or thing, showing what that person or thing look like. This is a depiction of a copyrighted three-dimensional work or building, which is the object of discussion in an article. This is a photograph or other kind of depiction of a copyrighted, three-dimensional creative work, such as a statue or work of architecture. The article contains a discussion of that work which requires illustration. The photograph as such is free, or was provided by the creator of the sculpture. Which of these options describes this item best? First describe who created the original work depicted: Creator: Date: Usage: The article as a whole is dedicated specifically to this work. There is a substantial amount of encyclopedic discussion of this work in this article. The illustration is specifically needed to support the following point: Now describe who created the image: Author: Date: Source: State exactly where you found this file. For web sources: please provide a link to the html web page where the file can be found ("http://... .html"), not a direct link to the image file itself ("http://... .jpg"). For print sources: provide full bibliographic information (author, title, publisher, year, page, etc.) Image status The image was created and published by the same author who also holds the rights to the original object, and no alternative depiction could be suitably created. The author of the image has released the photographic work under a free license, or it is in the public domain: Name the license or describe the public domain status, adding any necessary evidence to make the licensing status verifiable. This is an excerpt from a copyrighted work. This is an excerpt from a copyrighted work, e.g. a screenshot from a movie or TV programme, a panel from a comic, or a sound sample from a song. Its presence is needed to support a piece of explicit critical discussion in an article related to that work or its creator(s). Which of these options describes this item best? Author: (author / copyright owner of the original work) Date of creation: Source: (where exactly did you get this file from?) Please explain what exactly in the article it is that you want to illustrate with this.   Typically, the illustration must be used to support some specific issue of discussion in the article. Please be concrete and specific. Don't just copy boilerplate statements from elsewhere. State clearly, in your own words, what this particular image will be doing in this particular article. If necessary, please explain why this purpose cannot be achieved through text alone.   This is the official cover art of a work. This is the cover or dustjacket of a book, the cover of a CD or video, the official release poster of a movie, or a comparable item. It will be included as that work's primary means of visual identification, at the top of the article about the book, movie, etc. in question. Note: If you plan to use it for any other purpose than this, please tick the box for "other non-free work" below. Which of these options describes this item best? Author: (author / copyright owner of the original work) Date of publication: Source: (where exactly did you get this file from?) This image will be shown as a primary means of visual identification at the top of the article dedicated to the work in question. A standard fair use rationale will be added that matches this type of use. If you plan to use the file for any purpose other than this, please do not use this section, but the one labelled "other type of non-free work" below. This is a logo of an organization, company, brand, etc. This is an official logo of an entity that is the subject of a Wikipedia article. It will be included as that entity's primary means of visual identification, at the top of the article in question. Note: If you plan to use it for any other purpose than this, please tick the box for "other non-free work" below. Which of these options describes this item best? Source: (where exactly did you get this file from?) This image will be shown as a primary means of visual identification at the top of the article dedicated to the entity in question. A standard fair use rationale will be added that matches this type of use. If you plan to use the file for any purpose other than this, please do not use this section, but the one labelled "other type of non-free work" below. This is an historic portrait of a person no longer alive. This is an historic photograph or other depiction of a person who is no longer alive. It will be used as the primary means of visual identification of that person in the article about them. Deceased since: (This type of file can typically only be used with people who are no longer alive.) Author: (Who made this image?) Original publication: (Where, when and how was this image first published?) Date of publication: Source: (where exactly did you get this file from?) This image will be shown as a primary means of visual identification at the top of the article dedicated to the person in question. A standard fair use rationale will be added that matches this type of use. If you plan to use the file for any purpose other than this, please do not use this section, but the one labelled "other type of non-free work" below. Please explain why a free alternative to this image cannot be found.   For subjects who died recently: have you made a reasonable effort to find people who might possess photographs of this person and might be willing to release one? For subjects who lived in the early-to-mid 20th century: have you considered if there might be an older photograph that has fallen in the public domain? Please explain why you are confident that our use of the file will not harm any commercial opportunities of its owner.   We will typically not use a file if its owner has a potential commercial interest in its use, and if our use of it would compete with its original market role. This is some other kind of non-free work that I believe is legitimate Fair Use. This is a copyrighted work whose use does not fall into any of the classes above. I have read the Wikipedia rules on Non-free content, and I will explain how this file meets all of the criteria set out there. Which of these options describes this item best? Author: (Who made this image?) Original publication: (Where, when and how was this image first published?) Date of publication: Source: (where exactly did you get this file from?) Please explain what exact purpose this file will serve in the article.   Please be concrete and specific. Don't just copy boilerplate statements from elsewhere. State clearly, in your own words, what this particular image will be doing in this particular article. Your explanation must make it clear why the article would be significantly worse off without this file. Please explain why this purpose could not be served by text alone.   Please explain why this purpose could not be served with an alternative, free illustration that could yet be found or created.   For a file to be deemed replaceable, it is not necessary that a suitable replacement already exists. Even if it is merely possible that a replacement could be created, we will not use the non-free file. Please explain why you are confident that our use of the file will not harm any commercial opportunities of its owner.   We will typically not use a file if its owner has a potential commercial interest in its use, and if our use of it would compete with its original market role. Remember that the use of non-free files must be minimal. This can mean several things: Don't use more files per article/topic than necessary Don't use the same file in more articles than necessary Don't use larger excerpts of a single work than necessary Don't use images of higher resolution than necessary In view of this, please explain how the use of this file will be minimal.   Special source and license conditions (optional)   Any further relevant information about this file?   Edit summary: A brief description of why you are overwriting this file. This will not be saved on the description page, but will be shown in its edit history. Yes, I want this file to be immediately available in all Wikimedia projects, in all languages. I will upload it on the Wikimedia Commons. Clicking this button will redirect you to a page on Commons. This will only work if you are already logged in there, which is likely the case if you have a unified account. Check here to see if you are logged in. No, I want to upload this file locally. This way it can be used only on the English Wikipedia. We urge you to upload it to the Commons unless there is a very good reason for it to stay local. Often such local files are copied to the Commons for use elsewhere and deleted locally, requiring extra work for other volunteers. If you do not want your file to be copied to Commons and deleted locally, consider adding the {{Keep local}} tag. Reset this form and start over. This file doesn't fit either of the categories above. This file doesn't seem to fall into either of the classes above, or I am not certain what its status is. I found this file somewhere, but I don't really know who made it or who owns it. Well, we're very sorry, but if you're not sure about this file's copyright status, or if it doesn't fit into any of the groups above, then: Please don't upload it. Really, please don't. Even if you think it would make for a great addition to an article. We really take these copyright rules very seriously on Wikipedia. Note that media is assumed to be fully-copyrighted unless shown otherwise; the burden is on the uploader. In particular, please don't upload: any file you simply found on some website, without knowing who its author or copyright owner is. any file you found somewhere, even if you have good reason to believe it has a copyright owner who would not mind us using it, but you don't have an explicit licensing statement from them. any file that was released for publicity purposes by its owners but doesn't have a fully-free license for free re-use for all purposes. any file credited to a commercial image agency, such as Reuters, AP or Getty Images. Such files normally cannot be used even under the "Fair Use" rules, except in rare cases. any file that is licensed for use exclusively on Wikipedia, or is free except that the free license excludes commercial use. If you are in any doubt, please ask some experienced editors for advice before uploading. People will be happy to assist you at Wikipedia:Media copyright questions. Thank you. Preview (test) This is the data that will be submitted to upload: Filename: Edit summary: Text: Upload in process Your file is being uploaded. This might take a minute or two, depending on the size of the file and the speed of your internet connection. Once uploading is completed, you will find your new file at this link: File:Example.jpg File successfully uploaded Your file has been uploaded successfully and can now be found here: File:Example.jpg Please follow the link and check that the image description page has all the information you meant to include. If you want to change the description, just go to the image page, click the "edit" tab at the top of the page and edit just as you would edit any other page. Do not go through this upload form again, unless you want to replace the actual file with a new version. To insert this file into an article, you may want to use code similar to the following: [[File:Example.jpg|thumb|right|insert a caption here]] If you wish to make a link to the file in text, without actually showing the image, for instance when discussing the image on a talk page, you can use the following (mark the ":" after the initial brackets!): [[:File:Example.jpg]] See Wikipedia:Picture tutorial for more detailed help on how to insert and position images in pages. Thank you for using the File Upload Wizard. Please leave your feedback, comments, bug reports or suggestions on the talk page. Uploading media files Commons Wikipedia Commons Wizard (recommended for free files) Plain form for Commons (experienced users) Old form Files for upload process (recommended for new users) Plain form for local uploads (experienced users) Old guided form Help and guidelines Ask copyright questions Image use policy Non-free content This wizard Documentation Script Discuss Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard&oldid=992054988" Hidden categories: Project pages with short description Templates that are not mobile friendly Wikipedia fully protected pages Wikipedia template-protected pages other than templates and modules Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Project page Talk Variants Views Read View source View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiversity Languages العربية অসমীয়া Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা Bân-lâm-gú भोजपुरी Bosanski ChiShona Ελληνικά Esperanto فارسی Français Gagauz 한국어 Hawaiʻi हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano ქართული Қазақша Magyar Македонски മലയാളം मराठी مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands नेपाली 日本語 Нохчийн Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча پښتو Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Română සිංහල Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Tagalog தமிழ் తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 3 December 2020, at 06:41 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4205	----	Category:All articles with unsourced statements - Wikipedia Help Category:All articles with unsourced statements From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Shortcut CAT:AAWUS This category has a backlog that requires the attention of willing editors. This notice will hide itself when this category has fewer than 100,000 items. (recount) This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a tracking category. It builds and maintains a list of pages primarily for the sake of the list itself. They are not part of the encyclopedia's categorization scheme. This category is hidden on its member pages—unless the corresponding user preference (appearance → show hidden categories) is set. 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en-wikipedia-org-4237	----	List of Roman gentes - Wikipedia List of Roman gentes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikipedia list article Part of a series on Indo-European topics Languages List of Indo-European languages Historical Albanian Persian Parthian Armenian Balto-Slavic Baltic Slavic Celtic Germanic Hellenic Greek Indo-Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Italic Romance Extinct Anatolian Tocharian Paleo-Balkan Dacian Illyrian Liburnian Messapian Mysian Paeonian Phrygian Thracian Reconstructed Proto-Indo-European language Phonology: Sound laws, Accent, Ablaut Hypothetical Daco-Thracian Graeco-Armenian Graeco-Aryan Graeco-Phrygian Indo-Hittite Italo-Celtic Thraco-Illyrian Grammar Vocabulary Root Verbs Nouns Pronouns Numerals Particles Other Proto-Albanian Proto-Anatolian Proto-Armenian Proto-Germanic (Proto-Norse) Proto-Celtic Proto-Italic Proto-Greek Proto-Balto-Slavic (Proto-Slavic) Proto-Indo-Iranian (Proto-Iranian) Philology Hittite texts Hieroglyphic Luwian Linear B Rigveda Avesta Homer Behistun Gaulish epigraphy Latin epigraphy Runic epigraphy Ogam Gothic Bible Armenian Bible Slanting Brahmi Old Irish glosses Origins Homeland Proto-Indo-Europeans Society Religion Mainstream Kurgan hypothesis Indo-European migrations Eurasian nomads Alternative and fringe Anatolian hypothesis Armenian hypothesis Indigenous Aryans Baltic homeland Paleolithic Continuity Theory Archaeology Chalcolithic (Copper Age) Pontic Steppe Domestication of the horse Kurgan Kurgan culture Steppe cultures Bug–Dniester Sredny Stog Dnieper–Donets Samara Khvalynsk Yamnaya Mikhaylovka culture Novotitorovka culture Caucasus Maykop East Asia Afanasievo Eastern Europe Usatovo Cernavodă Cucuteni Northern Europe Corded ware Baden Middle Dnieper Bronze Age Pontic Steppe Chariot Yamnaya Catacomb Multi-cordoned ware Poltavka Srubna Northern/Eastern Steppe Abashevo culture Andronovo Sintashta Europe Globular Amphora Corded ware Beaker Unetice Trzciniec Nordic Bronze Age Terramare Tumulus Urnfield Lusatian South Asia BMAC Yaz Gandhara grave Iron Age Steppe Chernoles Europe Thraco-Cimmerian Hallstatt Jastorf Caucasus Colchian India Painted Grey Ware Northern Black Polished Ware Peoples and societies Bronze Age Anatolian peoples (Hittites) Armenians Mycenaean Greeks Indo-Iranians Iron Age Indo-Aryans Indo-Aryans Iranians Iranians Persians Medes Parthians Scythians Saka Sarmatians Massagetae Alans East Asia Wusun Yuezhi Europe Celts Gauls Celtiberians Insular Celts Cimmerians Hellenic peoples Italic peoples Germanic peoples Paleo-Balkan/Anatolia Thracians Dacians Illyrians Phrygians Middle Ages East Asia Tocharians Europe Albanians Balts Slavs Norsemen/Medieval Scandinavians Medieval Europe Indo-Aryan Medieval India Iranian Greater Persia Religion and mythology Reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion Proto-Indo-Iranian religion Ancient Iranian religion Historical Hittite Indo-Aryan Vedic Hinduism Buddhism Jainism Sikhism Iranian Persian Zoroastrianism Kurdish Yazidism Yarsanism Scythian Ossetian Others Armenian Europe Paleo-Balkan (Albanian · Illyrian · Thracian · Dacian) Greek Roman Celtic Irish Scottish Breton Welsh Cornish Germanic Anglo-Saxon Continental Norse Baltic Latvian Lithuanian Slavic Practices Fire sacrifice Horse sacrifice Sati Winter solstice/Yule Indo-European studies Scholars Marija Gimbutas J. P. Mallory Institutes Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European Publications Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture The Horse, the Wheel and Language Journal of Indo-European Studies Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch Indo-European Etymological Dictionary v t e Further information on Roman families: Gens The gens (plural gentes) was a Roman, Italic, or Etruscan family, consisting of all those individuals who shared the same nomen and claimed descent from a common ancestor. It was an important social and legal structure in early Roman history.[1][2] The distinguishing characteristic of a gens was the nomen gentilicium, or gentile name. Every member of a gens, whether by birth or adoption, bore this name. All nomina were based on other nouns, such as personal names, occupations, physical characteristics or behaviors, or locations. Consequently, most of them ended with the adjectival termination -ius (-ia in the feminine form).[1] Nomina ending in -aius, -eius, -eus, and -aeus are typical of Latin families. Faliscan gentes frequently had nomina ending in -ios, while Samnite and other Oscan-speaking peoples of southern Italy had nomina ending in -iis. Umbrian nomina typically end in -as, -anas, -enas, or -inas, while nomina ending in -arna, -erna, -ena, -enna, -ina, or -inna are characteristic of Etruscan families.[1] The word gens is feminine, and the name of a gens was also feminine. Marcus Valerius Corvus was a member of gens Valeria. Valerius was his nomen. His son's nomen would have been Valerius, and his daughter's Valeria. Male members of his gens were collectively called Valerii, and female members Valeriae. If a member of the gens were adopted into another family, he would assume the nomen of that gens, followed by the cognomen Valerianus.[2] In the following list, "I" and "J" are treated as separate letters, as are "U" and "V". The letter "K" was rare in Latin, and the few nomina occasionally spelled with this letter were usually spelled with "C". No Roman gentes began with "X", and the letters "Y" and "Z" occurred only in names borrowed from Greek. The letter "W" did not exist in Classical Latin. Contents 1 A 2 B 3 C 4 D 5 E 6 F 7 G 8 H 9 I 10 J 11 L 12 M 13 N 14 O 15 P 16 Q 17 R 18 S 19 T 20 U 21 V 22 See also 23 References 24 External links A[edit] Abronia Abudia Aburia Accia Accoleia Acerronia Acilia Aconia Actoria Acutia Aebutia Aedinia Aelia Aemilia Afinia Afrania Agoria Albania Albatia Albia Albinia Albucia Alfena Alfia Aliena Allectia Amafinia Amatia Ambrosia Ampia Ampudia Ancharia Anicia Annaea Anneia Annia Anquirinnia Antia Antistia Antonia Apisia Aponia Appia Appuleia Apronia Apustia Aquillia Aquinia Arellia Arennia Arminia Arpineia Arrecina Arria Arruntia Articuleia Artoria Asconia Asellia Asinia Ateia Aternia Atia Atilia Atinia Atria Attia Audasia Aufeia Aufidia Aulia Aurelia Auria Aurunculeia Ausonia Autronia Avia Aviana Avidia Aviena Avilia Axia B[edit] Babria Baebia Balonia Balventia Bantia Barbatia Barria Bavia Bellia Bellicia Belliena Betiliena Betitia Betua Betucia Blandia Blossia Boionia Bruttia Bucculeia Burbuleia Burriena C[edit] Caecia Caecilia Caecina Caedicia Caelia Caeparia Caepasia Caerellia Caesellia Caesennia Caesetia Caesia Caesonia Caesulena Caetronia Calavia Calesterna Calidia Calpurnia Calventia Calvisia Campatia Cania Canidia Caninia Cantia Cantilia Canuleia Canutia Carfulena Caria Carisia Caristania Carpinatia Carrinatia Carteia Carvilia Casperia Cassia Castricia Castrinia Catia Catiena Catilia Ceionia Centenia Ceppuleia Cervonia Cestia Cicereia Cilnia Cincia Cispia Classidia Claudia Cloelia Cluentia Clutoria Cluvia Cocceia Coelia Cominia Condetia Consentia Consia Considia Coponia Cordia Corfidia Cornelia Cornificia Coruncania Cosconia Cossinia Cossutia Cotia Cottia Crassicia Crepereia Critonia Cupiennia Curia Curiatia Curtia Curtilia Cusinia Cuspia D[edit] Decentia Decia Decidia Decimia Dellia Desticia Dexsia Didia Digitia Dillia Domitia Dubia Duccia Duilia Durmia Duronia E[edit] Eggia Egilia Egnatia Egnatuleia Egrilia Elvia Ennia Epidia Eppia Equitia Erucia Expentania F[edit] Fabia Fabricia Fadena Fadia Faenia Falcidia Faleria Faminia Fannia Farsuleia Faucia Favonia Festinia Fidiculania Firmia Flaminia Flavia Flavinia Flavonia Floria Floridia Floronia Fonteia Foslia Fufetia Fufia Fuficia Fufidia Fulcinia Fulginas Fulvia Fundania Furia Furnia G[edit] Gabinia Galeria Gallia Gargonia Gavia Gegania Gellia Geminia Genucia Gessia Glicia Grania Gratidia Gratia H[edit] Hateria Heia Helvia Helvidia Herennia Herennuleia Herminia Hirria Hirtia Hirtuleia Horatia Hordeonia Hortensia Hosidia Hostia Hostilia I[edit] Iallia Iasdia Iccia Icilia Ignia Insteia Istacidia Iteia Ituria J[edit] Jania Javolena Jucundia Julia Juncia Junia Justia Justinia Juventia L[edit] Laberia Labiena Laceria Laecania Laelia Laenia Laetilia Laetoria Lafrenia Lamponia Laronia Lartia Latinia Lavinia Lemonia Lentidia Lepidia Libertia Liburnia Licinia Ligaria Livia Livinia Lollia Longinia Loreia Lucceia Lucia Luciena Lucilia Lucretia Luria Luscia Lusia Lutatia M[edit] Maccia Macrinia Maecenas Maecia Maecilia Maelia Maenas Maenia Maevia Magia Mallia Mamercia Mamilia Manilia Manlia Marcia Maria Martinia Matia Matiena Matinia Matrinia Maximia Memmia Menenia Menia Mescinia Messia Messienus Mestria Metilia Mettia Milonia Mimesia Minatia Minia Minicia Minidia Minucia Modia Mucia Mummia Munatia Munia Murria Mussidia Mustia Mutia Mutilia N[edit] Naevia Nasennia Nasidia Nasidiena Nautia Neratia Nerfinia Neria Nigidia Ninnia Nipia Nonia Norbana Novellia Novia Numeria Numicia Numisia Numitoria Nummia Numonia Nunnuleia Nymphidia O[edit] Obellia Obultronia Occia Oclatia Oclatinia Ocratia Octavena Octavia Ofania Ofilia Ogulnia Ollia Opellia Opetreia Opimia Opisia Opiternia Oppia Oppidia Opsia Opsidia Opsilia Orania Orbia Orbicia Orbilia Orchia Orcivia Orfia Orfidia Orosia Oscia Ostoria Otacilia Ovidia Ovinia P[edit] Paccia Pacidia Pacilia Paconia Pactumeia Pacuvia Palfuria Palpellia Pantuleia Papia Papinia Papiria Pasidia Pasidiena Passiena Patulcia Pedania Pedia Peducaea Peltrasia Percennia Perperna Persia Pescennia Petillia Petreia Petronia Petrosidia Pilia Pinaria Pinnia Pisentia Placidia Plaetoria Plaguleia Plancia Plaria Plautia Pleminia Plinia Poetelia Pollia Pompeia Pompilia Pomponia Pomptina Pontia Pontidia Pontificia Pontilia Pontiliena Popillia Popaedia Popidia Poppaea Porcia Postumia Postumulena Potitia Praecilia Praeconia Prastina Precia Priscia Procilia Proculeia Propertia Proxinia Publicia Publilia Pupia Q[edit] Quartia Quartinia Quinctia Quinctilia Quirinia R[edit] Rabiria Rabonia Rabuleia Racilia Raecia Ragonia Rammia Rania Rasinia Reginia Remmia Rennia Resia Romania Romilia Roscia Rubellia Rubrena Rubria Rufia Rufinia Rufria Rullia Rupilia Rusonia Rustia Rusticelia Rutilia S[edit] Sabellia Sabidia Sabinia Sabucia Saenia Safinia Saliena Sallustia Salonia Saltia Saltoria Salvia Salvidia Salvidiena Salviena Sammia Sanquinia Saria Sariolena Satellia Satria Satriena Sattia Saturia Saufeia Scaevia Scaevinia Scandilia Scantia Scantinia Scaptia Scoedia Scribonia Scutaria Seccia Secundia Secundinia Sedatia Segulia Seia Selicia Sellia Sempronia Sennia Sentia Seppia Seppiena Septicia Septimia Septimuleia Septueia Sepullia Sepunia Sergia Seria Sertoria Servaea Servenia Servia Servilia Sestia Severia Sextia Sextilia Sibidiena Sicinia Silia Silicia Silvia Simplicia Simplicinia Sinicia Sinnia Sittia Socellia Sollia Sornatia Sosia Sotidia Spedia Spellia Splattia Spuria Spurilia Spurinnia Staberia Staia Stallia Statia Statilia Statinia Statoria Steia Stellia Stenia Stertinia Stlaccia Strabonia Subria Suedia Suellia Suetonia Suettia Suilia Sulpicia Surdinia T[edit] Tadia Talia Tampia Tanicia Tannonia Tanusia Tapsenna Taracia Taria Tarpeia Tarquinia Tarquitia Tarronia Tarrutenia Tarutia Tarutilia Tatia Tattia Tauria Terentia Terentilia Tertinia Tettia Tettidia Tettiedia Tettiena Thoria Tigellia Tineia Titania Titia Titinia Tituria Tonantia Trebatia Trebellia Trebia Treblana Trebonia Tremellia Tuccia Tullia Turallasia Turcia Turia Turpilia Turullia U[edit] Ulpia Umbonia Umbria Umbricia Ummidia Urgulania Urseia V[edit] Valeria Varena Varia Varinia Varisidia Vatinia Vecilia Vedia Velia Velleia Venafrania Ventidia Vequasia Verania Verecundia Vergilia Verginia Verres Verria Vesnia Vesonia Vestoria Vestricia Vetilia Vettia Veturia Vibenia Vibia Vibidia Viciria Victoria Victorinia Victricia Viducia Vigilia Villia Vinia Vinicia Vipsania Vipstana Viria Viridia Visellia Vistilia Vitellia Vitrasia Vitruvia Voconia Volcacia Volturcia Volumnia Volusena Volusenna Volusia Vorenia Vulia See also[edit] Roman naming conventions List of Roman nomina List of Roman cognomina Roman gentes of Etruscan origin Roman gentes of Hernician origin Roman gentes of Latin origin from Alba Longa Roman gentes of Latin origin from Praeneste Roman gentes of Latin origin from Tibur Roman gentes of Latin origin from Tusculum Roman gentes of Picentine origin Roman gentes of Sabine origin Roman gentes of Samnite origin Roman gentes of Umbrian origin Roman gentes of Volscian origin Prosopography of ancient Rome References[edit] ^ a b c Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities, Second Edition, Harry Thurston Peck, Editor (1897) ^ a b Oxford Classical Dictionary, 2nd Ed. (1970) External links[edit] Look up gens in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Roman_gentes&oldid=996251986" Categories: Roman gentes Ancient Rome-related lists Lists of ancient Indo-European peoples and tribes Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Español Italiano Latina Norsk bokmål Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 25 December 2020, at 12:35 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-424	----	Eclogues - Wikipedia Eclogues From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about a major work of Virgil. For the genre of poetry known as "bucolics" or "eclogues", see Eclogue. For the poems by Dante, see Eclogues (Dante). The opening lines of the Eclogues in the 5th-century Vergilius Romanus The Eclogues (/ˈɛklɒɡz/; Latin: Eclogae [ˈɛklɔɡae̯]), also called the Bucolics, is the first of the three major works[1] of the Latin poet Virgil. Contents 1 Background 2 Structure and organization 3 Eclogue 1 4 Eclogue 2 5 Eclogue 3 6 Eclogue 4 7 Eclogue 5 8 Eclogue 8 9 Eclogue 10 10 See also 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links Background[edit] Taking as his generic model the Greek bucolic poetry of Theocritus, Virgil created a Roman version partly by offering a dramatic and mythic interpretation of revolutionary change at Rome in the turbulent period between roughly 44 and 38 BC. Virgil introduced political clamor largely absent from Theocritus' poems, called idylls ("little scenes" or "vignettes"), even though erotic turbulence disturbs the "idyllic" landscapes of Theocritus. Virgil's book contains ten pieces, each called not an idyll but an eclogue ("draft" or "selection" or "reckoning"), populated by and large with herdsmen imagined conversing and performing amoebaean singing in largely rural settings, whether suffering or embracing revolutionary change or happy or unhappy love. Performed with great success on the Roman stage, they feature a mix of visionary politics and eroticism that made Virgil a celebrity, legendary in his own lifetime. First page of an Italian translation of Eclogue 1, AD 1481 Structure and organization[edit] Like the rest of Virgil's works, the Eclogues are composed in dactylic hexameter. It is likely that Virgil deliberately designed and arranged his book of Eclogues, in which case it is the first extant collection of Latin poems in the same meter put together by the poet. (Although it is thought that Catullus also compiled his book of poetry, it consists of poems written in different meters).[2][3] Several scholars have attempted to identify the organizational/architectural principles underpinning the construction of the book. The book is arguably based on an alternation of antiphonal poems (e.g., dialogues) with non-dramatic/narrative poems.[4][5] Beyond this, there have been many attempts (with little consensus) to identify other organizational principles. Many of these attempts have been catalogued and critiqued by Niall Rudd.[6] Rudd refuted a number of cruder organizational theories, including theories that the Eclogues are organized in chronological order[7] by geographic setting, with Italian settings alternating with non-Italian settings[8] into two halves, each featuring a movement from lighter, more peaceful poems to heavier, more emphatic and agitated poems[9] Rudd also identified more-convoluted organizational theories. While considering these more plausible than the above, he concluded that "each system has at least one defect, and none is so superior to the others as to be obviously Virgil's own".[10] Such systems include: arrangement based on mutually supporting principles, such as topical and arithmetic correspondences arrangement into a series of pairs of poems, bracketing Eclogue 5 with the balancing Eclogue 10 and supported by arithmetical correspondence (i.e., length of poems) arrangement into two halves, with corresponding pairs based on length More recently, Thomas K. Hubbard has noted, "The first half of the book has often been seen as a positive construction of a pastoral vision, whilst the second half dramatizes progressive alienation from that vision, as each poem of the first half is taken up and responded to in reverse order."[11] Eclogue 1[edit] A dialogue between Tityrus and Meliboeus. In the turmoil of the era Meliboeus has been forced off his land and faces an uncertain future. Tityrus recounts his journey to Rome and the "god" he met there who answered his plea and allowed him to remain on his land. He offers to let Meliboeus spend the night with him. Eclogue 2[edit] A monologue by the shepherd Corydon bemoaning his unrequited love for Alexis in the height of summer. Eclogue 3[edit] A singing competition between Menalcas and Damoetas. Palaemon is the judge and pronounces the contest a tie. Eclogue 4[edit] Main article: Eclogue 4 Capping a sequence or cycle in which Virgil created and augmented a new political mythology, Eclogue 4 reaches out to imagine a golden age ushered in by the birth of a boy heralded as "great increase of Jove" (magnum Iovis incrementum), which ties in with divine associations claimed in the propaganda of Octavian, the ambitious young heir to Julius Caesar. The poet makes this notional scion of Jove the occasion to predict his own metabasis up the scale in epos, rising from the humble range of the bucolic to the lofty range of the heroic, potentially rivaling Homer: he thus signals his own ambition to make Roman epic that will culminate in the Aeneid. In the surge of ambition, Virgil also projects defeating the legendary poet Orpheus and his mother, the epic muse Calliope, as well as Pan, the inventor of the bucolic pipe, even in Pan's homeland of Arcadia, which Virgil will claim as his own at the climax of his eclogue book in the tenth eclogue. Biographical identification of the fourth eclogue's child has proved elusive; but the figure proved a link between traditional Roman authority and Christianity. The connection is first made in the Oration of Constantine[12] appended to the Life of Constantine by Eusebius of Caesarea (a reading to which Dante makes fleeting reference in his Purgatorio). Some scholars have also remarked similarities between the eclogue's prophetic themes and the words of Isaiah 11:6: "a little child shall lead". Eclogue 5[edit] Eclogue 5 articulates another significant pastoral theme, the shepherd-poet's concern with achieving worldly fame through poetry. This concern is related to the metabasis Virgil himself undertakes thematically in Eclogue 4. In Eclogue 5, the shepherds Menalcas and Mopsus mourn their deceased companion Daphnis by promising to "praise ... Daphnis to the stars – / yes, to the stars raise Daphnis". Menalcas and Mopsus praise Daphnis out of compassion but also out of obligation. Daphnis willed that his fellow shepherds memorialize him by making a "mound and add[ing] above the mound a song: / Daphnis am I in woodland, known hence far as the stars". Not only are Daphnis's survivors concerned with solidifying and eternizing his poetic reputation, but the dead shepherd-poet himself is involved in self-promotion from beyond the grave through the aegis of his will. It is an outgrowth of the friendly poetic rivalries that occur between them and of their attempts to best the gods, usually Pan or Phoebus, at their lyric craft. At the end of Eclogue 5, Daphnis is deified in the shepherds' poetic praise: "'A god, a god is he, Menalcas!' / ... Here are four altars: / Look, Daphnis, two for you and two high ones for Phoebus." Menalcas apostrophizes Daphnis with a promise: "Always your honor, name and praises will endure." Ensuring poetic fame is a fundamental interest of the shepherds in classical pastoral elegies, including the speaker in Milton's "Lycidas".[13] Eclogue 8[edit] This eclogue is also known as Pharmaceutria ("Sorceress"). Eclogue 10[edit] In Eclogue 10, Virgil caps his book by inventing a new myth of poetic authority and origin: he replaces Theocritus' Sicily and old bucolic hero, the impassioned oxherd Daphnis, with the impassioned voice of his contemporary Roman friend, the elegiac poet Gaius Cornelius Gallus, imagined dying of love in Arcadia. Virgil transforms this remote, mountainous, and myth-ridden region of Greece, homeland of Pan, into the original and ideal place of pastoral song, thus founding a richly resonant tradition in western literature and the arts. This eclogue is the origin of the phrase omnia vincit amor ("love conquers all"). See also[edit] Aeneid Georgics The Golden Bough References[edit] ^ Davis, Gregson (2010). "Introduction". Virgil's Eclogues, trans. Len Krisak. Philadelphia: U of Pennsylvania P. p. vii. ISBN 978-0-8122-4225-6 ^ Rudd, Niall (1976). Lines of Enquiry: Studies in Latin Poetry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 119. ^ Clausen, Wendell (1994). Virgil: Eclogues. Clarendon, Oxford University Press. p. xxi. ISBN 0-19-815035-0. ^ Goold, G. P. (1999), Virgil: Eclogues, Georgics, Aeneid 1–6. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-674-99583-3 ^ Rudd, Lines of Enquiry, pp. 121 ff. ^ Rudd, Lines of Enquiry, pp. 119 ff. ^ Rudd, Lines of Enquiry, pp. 125 ff., citing R. Helm in Bursians Jahresbericht (1902) and W. Port in Phililogus 81 (1926). ^ Rudd, Lines of Enquiry, pp. 121 ff., citing R. S. Conway, Harvard Lectures on the Vergilian Age (1928), p. 139. ^ Rudd, Lines of Enquiry, pp. 121 ff., citing Büchner. ^ Rudd, Lines of Enquiry, pp. 141 ff. ^ Hubbard, Thomas K. (1998). The Pipes of Pan: Intertextuality and Literary Filiation in the Pastoral Tradition from Theocritus to Milton. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-472-10855-8 ^ Oration of Constantine ^ Lee, Guy, trans. (1984). "Eclogue 5". In Virgil, The Eclogues. New York: Penguin. pp. 29–35. Further reading[edit] Buckham, Philip Wentworth; Spence, Joseph; Holdsworth, Edward; Warburton, William; Jortin, John, Miscellanea Virgiliana: In Scriptis Maxime Eruditorum Virorum Varie Dispersa, in Unum Fasciculum Collecta, Cambridge : Printed for W. P. Grant; 1825. Coleman, Robert, ed. (1977). Vergil: Eclogues. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29107-0.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) Hornblower, Simon; Antony Spawforth (1999). The Oxford Classical Dictionary: Third Edition. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-866172-X. Hunter, Richard, ed. (1999). Theocritus: A Selection. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57420-X.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) Van Sickle; John B. (2004). The Design of Virgil's Bucolics. Duckworth. ISBN 1-85399-676-9. _________. (2011). Virgil's Book of Bucolics, the Ten Eclogues in English Verse. Framed by Cues for Reading Out-Loud and Clues for Threading Texts and Themes. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-9799-8.CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) | External links[edit] Wikisource has original text related to this article: Eclogues Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: Eclogae vel bucolica Wikiquote has quotations related to: Eclogues Wikimedia Commons has media related to Eclogues. The Eclogues (Internet Classics Archive) The Eclogues (Translated by H.R. Fairclough for the Loeb Classical Library, at Stoic Therapy) The Bucolics and Eclogues by Virgil at Project Gutenberg (in Latin) The Bucolics and Eclogues by Virgil at Project Gutenberg (in English) French translations (Bibliotheca Classica Selecta) Latin texts and German translations An appreciation by Samuel Johnson The Eclogues public domain audiobook at LibriVox v t e Virgil Works Eclogues (Eclogue 4) Georgics Aeneid Appendix Vergiliana (spurious) Manuscripts Vergilius Augusteus Vergilius Romanus Vergilius Vaticanus Miscellaneous Christian interpretations of Eclogue 4 Sortes Vergilianae The Virgilian Progression Virgil's tomb Commons Wikiquote Wikisource texts Authority control BNF: cb12008706c (data) GND: 4135940-9 LCCN: n81124196 VIAF: 310351953 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 310351953 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eclogues&oldid=992862882" Categories: 1st-century BC Latin books Poetry by Virgil LGBT poetry Hidden categories: Articles containing Latin-language text CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list CS1 maint: extra text: authors list CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list Commons category link from Wikidata Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Latin-language sources (la) Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages Български Català Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français Frysk Furlan Interlingua Íslenska Italiano Қазақша Latina Nederlands Português Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 7 December 2020, at 14:29 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4253	----	Structural history of the Roman military - Wikipedia Structural history of the Roman military From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Evolution of ancient Rome's armed forces Part of a series on the Military of ancient Rome 753 BC – AD 476 Structural history Army Unit types and ranks Decorations and punishments Legions Auxilia Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Campaign history Wars and battles Technological history Military engineering Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Political history   Strategy and tactics Infantry tactics Frontiers and fortifications Limes Limes Britannicus Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Limes Germanicus Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes Norican Limes Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannonian Limes Limes Alutanus Limes Moesiae Trajan's Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmatiae Limes Arabicus Limes Tripolitanus Limes Mauretaniae  Ancient Rome portal •  War portal v t e The structural history of the Roman military concerns the major transformations in the organization and constitution of ancient Rome's armed forces, "the most effective and long-lived military institution known to history."[1] From its origins around 800 BC to its final dissolution in AD 476 with the demise of the Western Roman Empire, Rome's military organization underwent substantial structural change. At the highest level of structure, the forces were split into the Roman army and the Roman navy, although these two branches were less distinct than in many modern national defense forces. Within the top levels of both army and navy, structural changes occurred as a result of both positive military reform and organic structural evolution. These changes can be divided into four distinct phases. Phase I The army was derived from obligatory annual military service levied on the citizenry, as part of their duty to the state. During this period, the Roman army would wage seasonal campaigns against largely local adversaries. Phase II As the extent of the territories falling under Roman control expanded and the size of the forces increased, the soldiery gradually became salaried professionals. As a consequence, military service at the lower (non-salaried) levels became progressively longer-term. Roman military units of the period were largely homogeneous and highly regulated. The army consisted of units of citizen infantry known as legions (Latin: legiones) as well as non-legionary allied troops known as auxilia. The latter were most commonly called upon to provide light infantry, logistical, or cavalry support. Phase III At the height of the Roman Empire's power, forces were tasked with manning and securing the borders of the vast provinces which had been brought under Roman control. Serious strategic threats were less common in this period and emphasis was placed on preserving gained territory. The army underwent changes in response to these new needs and became more dependent on fixed garrisons than on march-camps and continuous field operations. Phase IV As Rome began to struggle to keep control over its sprawling territories, military service continued to be salaried and professional for Rome's regular troops. However, the trend of employing allied or mercenary elements was expanded to such an extent that these troops came to represent a substantial proportion of the armed forces. At the same time, the uniformity of structure found in Rome's earlier military disappeared. Soldiery of the era ranged from lightly armed mounted archers to heavy infantry, in regiments of varying size and quality. This was accompanied by a trend in the late empire of an increasing predominance of cavalry rather than infantry troops, as well as a requirement for more mobile operations. In this period there was more focus (on all frontiers but the east) on smaller units of independently-operating troops, engaging less in set-piece battles and more in low-intensity, guerilla actions. Contents 1 Tribal forces (c. 752 BC – c. 578 BC) 2 Etruscan-model hoplites (578 BC – c. 315 BC) 3 Manipular legion (315–107 BC) 3.1 Proletarianisation of the infantry (217–107 BC) 4 Marian legion (107–27 BC) 4.1 Non-citizen recruitment (49–27 BC) 5 Imperial legions and reformation of the auxilia (27 BC – 117 AD) 5.1 Introduction of vexillationes (76–117 AD) 6 Barbarisation of the army (117–253 AD) 7 Successive crises (238–359 AD) 8 Comitatenses and limitanei (284–395 AD) 8.1 Adoption of barbarian allies (358–395 AD) 9 Collapse in the West and survival in the East (395–476 AD) 10 See also 11 References 11.1 Explanatory notes 11.2 Citations 12 Bibliography 12.1 Primary sources 12.2 Secondary and tertiary sources Tribal forces (c. 752 BC – c. 578 BC)[edit] Main article: Early Roman army According to the historians Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, writing at a far later date, the earliest Roman army existed in the 8th century BC. During this period Rome itself was probably little more than a fortified hilltop settlement and its army a relatively small force, whose activities were limited "mainly [to] raiding and cattle rustling with the occasional skirmish-like battle".[2] Historian Theodor Mommsen referred to it as Rome's curiate army, named for its presumed subdivision along the boundaries of Rome's three founding tribes (Latin: curiae), the Ramnians, Tities and Luceres.[3] This army's exact structure is not known, but it is probable that it loosely resembled a warrior band or group of bodyguards led by a chieftain or king.[4] Mommsen believes that Roman military organization of this period was regimented by the "Laws of [the apocryphal] King [V]Italus"[5] but these laws, though referred to by Aristotle, have been lost. The army (Latin: legio) consisted, according to Livy, of exactly 3,000 infantry and 300 horsemen, one third from each of Rome's three founding tribes.[Note 1][6] Warriors served under six "leaders of division" (Latin: tribuni) who in turn served under a general, usually in the person of the reigning King. Mommsen uses philological arguments and references from Livy and others to suggest that the greater mass of foot-soldiers probably consisted of pilumni (javelin-throwers), with a smaller number possibly serving as arquites (archers).[7] The cavalry was far smaller in number and probably consisted solely of the town's richest citizens.[8] The army may also have contained the earliest form of chariots,[9] hinted at by references to the flexuntes ("the wheelers").[10] By the beginning of the 7th century BC, the Iron-Age Etruscan civilization (Latin: Etrusci) was dominant in the region.[11] Like most of the other peoples in the region, the Romans warred against the Etruscans. By the close of the century, the Romans had lost their struggle for independence, and the Etruscans had conquered Rome, establishing a military dictatorship, or kingdom, in the city. Etruscan-model hoplites (578 BC – c. 315 BC)[edit] Main article: Early Roman army Ancient Greek sculpture of a hoplite (c. 5th century BC, Archæological Museum of Sparti), on which Rome's first class of infantry was based. Although several Roman sources including Livy and Polybius talk extensively about the Roman army of the Roman Kingdom period that followed the Etruscan capture of the city, no contemporary accounts survive. Polybius, for example, wrote some 300 years after the events in question, and Livy some 500 years later. Additionally, what records were kept by the Romans at this time were later destroyed when the city was sacked. The sources for this period cannot therefore be seen as reliable, as they can be for later military history, e.g. from the First Punic War onwards. According to our surviving narratives, the three kings of Rome during the Etruscan occupation were Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius, and Tarquinius Superbus. During this period the army underwent a reformation into a centurial army based on socio-economic class.[12] This reformation is traditionally attributed to Servius Tullius, the second of the Etruscan kings. Tullius had earlier carried out the first Roman census of all citizens.[13] Livy tells us that Tullius reformed the army by transplanting onto it the structure derived originally for civil life as a result of this census.[12] At all levels, military service was, at this time, considered to be a civic responsibility and a way of advancing one's status within society.[14] However, Rome's social classes were qualified rather than created by the census. It is perhaps more accurate to say therefore that the army's structure was slightly refined during this period rather than radically reformed. Prior to these reforms, the infantry was divided into the classis of rich citizens and the infra classem of poorer citizens. The latter were excluded from the regular line of battle on the basis that their equipment was of poor quality.[8] During the reforms, this crude division of poorer and richer citizens was further stratified. The army thereafter consisted of a number of troop types based upon the social class of propertied citizens, collectively known as adsidui. From the poorest in the "fifth class" to the richest in the "first class" and the equestrians above them, military service was compulsory for all.[15] However, Roman citizens at this time generally viewed military service as a proper undertaking of duty to the state, in contrast to later views of military service as an unwelcome and unpleasant burden.[16] Whereas there are accounts of Romans in the late empire mutilating their own bodies in order to exempt themselves from military service,[17] there seems to have been no such reluctance to serve in the military of early Rome. This may in part be due to the generally lower intensity of conflict in this era; to the fact that men were fighting close to and often in protection of their own homes, or due to—as posited by later Roman writers—a greater martial spirit in antiquity.[Note 2][18] The equestrians, the highest social class of all, served in mounted units known as equites. The first class of the richest citizens served as heavy infantry with swords and long spears (resembling hoplites), and provided the first line of the battle formation. The second class were armed similarly to the first class, but without a breastplate for protection, and with an oblong rather than a round shield. The second class stood immediately behind the first class when the army was drawn up in battle formation. The third and fourth classes were more lightly armed and carried a thrusting-spear and javelins. The third class stood behind the second class in battle formation, normally providing javelin support. The poorest of the propertied men of the city comprised the fifth class. They were generally too poor to afford much equipment at all and were armed as skirmishers with slings and stones. They were deployed in a screen in front of the main army, covering its approach and masking its manoeuvres. Men without property, who were thereby excluded from the qualifying social classes of the adsidui, were exempted from military service on the grounds that they were too poor to provide themselves with any arms whatsoever.[12] However, in the most pressing circumstances, even these proletarii were pressed into service,[19] though their military worth was probably questionable. Troops in all of these classes would fight together on the battlefield, with the exception of the most senior troops, who were expected to guard the city.[13] The army is said to have increased from 3,000 to 4,000 men in the 5th century BC, and then again from 4,000 to 6,000 men sometime before 400 BC.[8] This later army of 6,000 men were then divided into 60 centuries of 100 men each.[20] Manipular legion (315–107 BC)[edit] Main article: Roman army of the mid-Republic Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus, c. 122 BC; the altar shows two Roman infantrymen equipped with long scuta and a cavalryman with his horse. All are shown wearing chain mail armour. The army of the early Republic continued to evolve, and although there was a tendency among Romans to attribute such changes to great reformers, it is more likely that changes were the product of slow evolution rather than singular and deliberate policy of reform.[21] The manipular formation was probably copied from Rome's Samnite enemies to the south, perhaps as a result of Roman defeats in the Second Samnite War.[22][23] During this period, a military formation of around 5,000 men was known as a legion (Latin: legio). However, in contrast to later legionary formations of exclusively heavy infantry, the legions of the early and middle Republic consisted of both light and heavy infantry. The term manipular legion, a legion based on units called maniples, is therefore used to contrast the later cohortal legion of the Empire that was based around a system of cohort units. The manipular legion was based partially upon social class and partially upon age and military experience.[24] It therefore represents a theoretical compromise between the earlier class-based army and the class-free armies of later years. In practice, even slaves were at one time pressed into the army of the Republic out of necessity.[25] Normally a single legion was raised each year, but in 366 BC two legions were raised in a single year for the first time.[8] Maniples were units of 120 men each drawn from a single infantry class. The maniples were small enough to permit tactical movement of individual infantry units on the battlefield within the framework of the greater army. The maniples were typically deployed into three discrete lines (Latin: triplex acies) based on the three heavy infantry types of hastati, principes and triarii.[26] The first type, the hastati, typically formed the first rank in battle formation. They typically wore a brass chest plate (though some could afford mail), a helmet called a galea, and occasionally, greaves (shin guards). They carried an iron bossed wooden shield, 120 cm (4 ft) tall and rectangular in shape with a curved front to partially protect the sides. Traditionally they were armed with a sword known as a gladius and two throwing spears known as pila: one the heavy pilum of popular imagination and one a slender javelin.[27] However the exact introduction of the gladius and the replacement of the spear with the sword as the primary weapon of the Roman legions is uncertain, and it's possible that the early manipular legions still fought with the hastati and principes wielding the hasta or spear. "the Romans ... habitually enroll four legions each year, each consisting of about four thousand foot and two hundred horse; and when any unusual necessity arises, they raise the number of foot to five thousand and of the horse to three hundred. Of allies, the number in each legion is the same as that of the citizens, but of the horse three times as great" Polybius, The Histories, 1:268–70 The second type, the principes, typically formed the second rank of soldiers back from the front of a battle line. They were heavy infantry soldiers armed and armoured as per the hastati. The triarii, who typically formed the third rank when the army was arrayed for battle, were the last remnant of hoplite-style troops in the Roman army. They were armed and armoured as per the principes, with the exception that they carried a pike rather than two pila.[27] A triarii maniple was divided into two formations each six men across by 10 men deep.[28] A manipular legion typically contained between 1,200 hastati, 1,200 principes and 600 triarii.[29] The three classes of unit may have retained some slight parallel to social divisions within Roman society, but at least officially the three lines were based upon age and experience rather than social class. Young, unproven men would serve as hastati, older men with some military experience as principes, and veteran troops of advanced age and experience as triarii. The heavy infantry of the maniples were supported by a number of light infantry (Latin: velites) and cavalry (Latin: equites) troops, typically 300 horsemen per manipular legion.[26] The cavalry was drawn primarily from the richest class of equestrians, but additional cavalry and light infantry were drawn at times from the socii and Latini of the Italian mainland. The equites were still drawn from the wealthier classes in Roman society. There was an additional class of troops (Latin: accensi, also adscripticii and later supernumerarii) who followed the army without specific martial roles and were deployed to the rear of the triarii. Their role in accompanying the army was primarily to supply any vacancies that might occur in the maniples, but they also seem to have acted occasionally as orderlies to the officers. The light infantry of 1,200 velites[26] consisted of unarmoured skirmishing troops drawn from the youngest and lower social classes. They were armed with a sword and shield (90 cm (3 ft) diameter), as well as several light javelins, each with a 90 cm (3 ft) wooden shaft the diameter of a finger, with a c. 25 cm (10 in) narrow metal point.[27] Their numbers were swollen by the addition of allied light infantry and irregular rorarii. The Roman levy of 403 BC was the first to be requested to campaign for longer than a single season,[30] and from this point on such a practice became gradually more common, if still not typical. A small navy had operated at a fairly low level after the Second Samnite War, but it was massively upgraded during this period, expanding from a few primarily river- and coastal-based patrol craft to a full maritime unit. After a period of frenetic construction, the navy mushroomed to a size of more than 400 ships on the Carthaginian pattern. Once completed, it could accommodate up to 100,000 sailors and embarked troops for battle. The navy thereafter declined in size. This was partially because a pacified Roman Mediterranean called for little naval policing, and partially because the Romans chose to rely during this period on ships provided by Greek cities, whose peoples had greater maritime experience.[31] Proletarianisation of the infantry (217–107 BC)[edit] The extraordinary demands of the Punic Wars, in addition to a shortage of manpower, exposed the tactical weaknesses of the manipular legion, at least in the short term.[32] In 217 BC, Rome was forced to effectively ignore its long-standing principle that its soldiers must be both citizens and property owners when slaves were pressed into naval service;[25] around 213 BC, the property requirement was reduced from 11,000 to 4,000 asses.[25] Since the Romans are unlikely to have preferred to employ slaves over poor citizens in their armies,[19] it must be assumed that, at this point, the proletarii of the poorest citizens must also have been pressed into service despite their lack of legal qualification. By 123 BC, the financial requirement for military service was slashed again from 4,000 asses to just 1,500 asses.[33] By this time, therefore, it is clear that many of the property-less former proletarii had been nominally admitted into the adsidui.[33] During the 2nd century BC, Roman territory saw an overall decline in population,[34] partially due to the huge losses incurred during various wars. This was accompanied by severe social stresses and the greater collapse of the middle classes into lower classes of the census and the proletarii.[34] As a result, both the Roman society and its military became increasingly proletarianised. The Roman state was forced to arm its soldiers at the expense of the state, since many of the soldiers who made up its lower classes were now impoverished proletarii in all but name, and were too poor to afford their own equipment.[34] The distinction between the heavy infantry types of hastati, principes and triarii began to blur, perhaps because the state was now assuming the responsibility of providing standard-issue equipment to all but the first class of troops, who alone were able to afford their own equipment.[34] By the time of Polybius, the triarii or their successors still represented a distinct heavy infantry type armed with a unique style of cuirass, but the hastati and principes had become indistinguishable.[34] In addition, the shortage of available manpower led to a greater burden being placed upon its allies (socii) for the provision of allied troops.[35] Where accepted allies could not provide the required force types, the Romans were not averse during this period to hiring mercenaries to fight alongside the legions.[36] Marian legion (107–27 BC)[edit] Bust of Marius, instigator of the Marian reforms Main article: Roman army of the late Republic In a process known as the Marian reforms, Roman consul Gaius Marius carried out a programme of reform of the Roman military.[25] In 107 BC, all citizens, regardless of their wealth or social class, were made eligible for entry into the Roman army.[37] This move formalised and concluded a gradual process that had been growing for centuries, of removing property requirements for military service.[38] The distinction between hastati, principes and triarii, which had already become blurred, was officially removed,[26][39] and the legionary infantry of popular imagination was created. Legionary infantry formed a homogeneous force of heavy infantry. These legionaries were drawn from citizen stock; by this time, Roman or Latin citizenship had been regionally expanded over much of ancient Italy and Cisalpine Gaul.[40] Lighter citizen infantry, such as the velites and equites, were replaced by non-citizen auxiliaries (auxilia) that could consist of foreign mercenaries.[41] Due to the concentration of the citizen legions into a force of heavy infantry[29] Rome's armies depended on auxiliary cavalry attachments for support. As a tactical necessity, legions were almost always accompanied by an equal or greater number of lighter auxiliary troops,[42] which were drawn from the non-citizens of the Empire's territories. One known exception of legions being formed from non-citizen provinces during this period was the legion that was raised in the province of Galatia.[40] After Marius, the legions were drawn largely from volunteer citizens rather than citizens conscripted for duty.[43] Volunteers came forward and were accepted not from citizens of the city of Rome itself but from the surrounding countryside and smaller towns falling under Roman control.[44] Whereas some long-term military professionals were classed as veterans, they were outnumbered by civilians with limited military experience who were in active service perhaps only for a few campaigns.[45] The legions of the late Republic remained, unlike the legions of the later Empire, predominantly Roman in origin, although some small number of ex-auxiliary troops were probably incorporated.[46] The army's higher-level officers and commanders were still drawn exclusively from the Roman aristocracy.[44] Unlike earlier in the Republic, legionaries were no longer fighting on a seasonal basis to protect their land.[Note 3] Instead, they received standard pay, and were employed by the state on a fixed-term basis. As a consequence, military duty began to appeal most to the poorest sections of society, to whom a guaranteed salary was attractive.[47] The army therefore consisted of a far higher proportion of the poor—particularly the rural poor—than it had previously.[48] A destabilising consequence of this development was that the proletariat "acquired a stronger and more elevated position"[47] within the state. This professionalisation of the military was necessary to provide permanent garrisons for newly acquired and distant territories such as Hispania, something not possible under an army of seasonal citizen militia. Historian R. E. Smith notes that there was a need to raise additional legions in an emergency to repel specific strategic threats. He argues that this may have resulted in two types of legion.[49] Long-standing legions deployed overseas were probably professional troops forming a standing army. Quickly-formed new legions, in contrast, consisted of younger men, perhaps with little or no military experience, who hoped for adventure and plunder.[49] However, no distinction in basic pay, discipline or armour is known of between the two types of legion. The practice of veteran troops signing up again voluntarily into newly raised legions must have meant that no one army conformed exactly to one or other of these theoretical archetypes. The legions of the late Republic were, structurally, almost entirely heavy infantry. The legion's main sub-unit was called a cohort and consisted of approximately 480 infantrymen.[50] The cohort was therefore a much larger unit than the earlier maniple sub-unit, and was divided into six centuriae of 80 men each.[50] Each centuria was separated further into 10 "tent groups" (Latin: contubernia) of 8 men each. Legions additionally consisted of a small body, typically 120 men, of Roman legionary cavalry (Latin: equites legionis). The equites were used as scouts and dispatch riders rather than battlefield cavalry.[51] Legions also contained a dedicated artillery crew of perhaps 60 men, who would operate devices such as ballistae.[50] Each legion was normally partnered with an approximately equal number of allied (non-Roman) auxiliae troops.[52] The addition of allied troops to the Roman army was a formalisation of the earlier arrangement of using light troops from the Socii and Latini, who had received Roman citizenship after the Social War.[53] Auxiliary troops could be formed from either auxiliary light cavalry known as alae, auxiliary light infantry known as cohors auxiliae, or a flexible mixture of the two known as cohors equitata.[52] Cavalry types included mounted archers (Latin: sagittarii) and heavy shock cavalry (Latin: cataphracti or clibanarii). Infantry could be armed with bows, slings, throwing spears, long swords, or thrusting spears. Auxiliary units were originally led by their own chiefs, and, in this period, their internal organisation was left to their commanders.[54] However, "the most obvious deficiency" of the Roman army remained its shortage of cavalry, especially heavy cavalry;[55] even auxiliary troops were predominantly infantry. Luttwak argues that auxiliary forces largely consisted of Cretan archers, Balearic slingers and Numidian infantry, all of whom fought on foot.[56] As Rome's borders expanded and its adversaries changed from largely infantry-based to largely cavalry-based troops, the infantry-based Roman army began to find itself at a tactical disadvantage, particularly in the East. After having declined in size following the subjugation of the Mediterranean, the Roman navy underwent short-term upgrading and revitalisation in the late Republic to meet several new demands. Under Caesar, an invasion fleet was assembled in the English Channel to allow the invasion of Britain; under Pompey, a large fleet was raised in the Mediterranean Sea to clear the sea of Cilician pirates.[31] During the civil war that followed, as many as a thousand ships were either constructed or pressed into service from Greek cities.[31] Non-citizen recruitment (49–27 BC)[edit] By the time of Julius Caesar in 54 BC, regular legionary units were supplemented by exploratores, a body of scouts, and speculatores, spies who infiltrated enemy camps.[57] Due to the demands of the civil war, the extraordinary measure of recruiting legions from non-citizens was taken by Caesar in Transalpine Gaul (Latin: Gallia Transalpina), by Brutus in Macedonia, and by Pompey in Pharsalus.[58] This irregular and extraordinary recruitment was not, however, typical of recruitment during this period, and Roman law still officially required that legions were recruited from Roman citizens only. Imperial legions and reformation of the auxilia (27 BC – 117 AD)[edit] Main article: Imperial Roman army By the turn of the millennium, Emperor Augustus' primary military concern was to prevent Roman generals from further usurping the imperial throne.[59] The experience of Caesar and, earlier, Marius and Sulla, had demonstrated the willingness of "emergency" (re-activated previously decommissioned) legions containing troops keen for plunder to follow their generals against the state. Augustus therefore removed the need for such emergency armies by increasing the size of the standing armies to a size sufficient to provide territorial defence on their own.[60] Perhaps due to similar concerns, the legions and auxiliaries of the army were supplemented under the Emperor Augustus by an elite formation of guards dedicated to the protection of the Emperor. The first such unit was based in Rome and were known as the Praetorian Guard, and a second similar formation were known as the Cohortes urbanae.[61] The legions, which had been a mix of life professionals and civilian campaigners, was altered into a standing army of professionals only.[62] The actual structure of the cohort army remained much the same as in the late Republic, although around the 1st century AD the first cohort of each legion was increased in size to a total of 800 soldiers.[63] However, while the structure of the legions remained much the same, their make-up gradually changed. Whereas early Republican legions had been raised by a draft from eligible Roman citizens, imperial legions were recruited solely on a voluntary basis and from a much wider base of manpower. Likewise, whereas Republican legions had been recruited almost exclusively in Italy, early Imperial legions drew most of their recruits from Roman colonies in the provinces from 68 AD onwards. One estimate places the proportion of Italian troops at 65% under Augustus in c. 1 AD, falling to around 49% by the end of Nero's reign.[64] Bas-relief carving of a Roman legionary out of battle dress, c. 1st century AD (Pergamon Museum, Berlin) Since the legions were officially open only to Roman citizens, Max Cary and Howard Hayes Scullard argue that at least in some provinces at this time "many provincials must have been recruited who lacked any genuine claim to Roman citizenship but received it unofficially on enlistment,"[65] a practice that was to increase in the 2nd century.[66] This is most likely in those provinces where the pool of Roman citizens was not large enough to fulfill the provincial army's recruitment needs. One possible example is Britain, where one estimate puts the citizen pool in the 1st century at only 50,000 out of a total provincial population of around two million.[67] At the same time as the legions underwent these transformations, the auxilia were reorganized and a number of allied troops were formalised into standing units similar to legions. Rather than being raised re-actively when required, the process of raising auxiliary troops was carried out in advance of conflicts according to annual targets.[68] Whereas the internal organisation of the auxilia had previously been left up to their commanders, in the early empire they were organised into standardised units known as turmae (for cavalry alae) and centuriae (for infantry cohortes).[54] Although never becoming as standardised in their equipment as the legions,[69] and often retaining some national flavour, the size of the units at least was standardised to some degree. Cavalry were formed into either an ala quingenaria of 512 horsemen, or an ala millaria of 1,000 horsemen.[52] Likewise, infantry auxilia could be formed into a cohors quingenaria of 500 men or a cohors millaria of 1,000 men.[52] Mixed cavalry/infantry auxiliaries were typically formed with a larger proportion of foot than horse troops: the cohors equitata quingenaria consisted of 380 foot and 120 horsemen, and the cohors equitata millaria consisted of 760 foot and 240 horsemen.[52] The vitality of the empire at this point was such that the use of native auxilia in the Roman army did not apparently barbarise the military as some scholars claim was to happen in the late empire.[70] On the contrary, those serving in the auxilia during this period frequently strove to Romanise themselves. They were granted Roman citizenship on retirement, granting them several social advantages, and their sons became eligible for service in the legions.[71] As with the army, many non-Italians were recruited into the Roman Navy, partly because the Romans had never readily taken to the sea. It appears that the navy was considered to be slightly less prestigious than the auxilia but, like the auxilia, troops could gain citizenship on discharge upon retirement. In terms of structure, each ship was staffed by a group of men approximately equivalent to a century, with ten ships forming a naval squadron.[72] Introduction of vexillationes (76–117 AD)[edit] Roman soldiers of around 101 AD from a cast of Trajan's column, c. 113 AD (Victoria and Albert Museum, London) Through the final years of the 1st century AD, the legions remained the backbone of the Roman army, although the auxilia in fact outnumbered them by up to half as much again.[73] Within the legions, the proportion of troops recruited from within Italy fell gradually after 70 AD.[74] By the close of the 1st century, this proportion had fallen to as low as 22 percent, with the remainder drawn from conquered provinces.[64] Since technically only citizens were allowed to enlist in the legions, where recruits did not possess citizenship then, at least in some instances, citizenship "was simply given [to] them on enlistment".[75] During this time, the borders of the Empire had remained relatively fixed to the extent originally reached under the Emperor Trajan. Because of this, the army was increasingly responsible for protecting existing frontiers rather than expanding into foreign territory, the latter of which had characterised the army's earlier existence.[76] As a result, legions became stationed in largely fixed locations. Although entire legions were occasionally transferred into theatres of war, they remained largely rooted in one or more legionary bases in a province, detaching into smaller bodies of troops (Latin: vexillationes) on demand.[77] This policy eventually led to a split of the military's land-based forces into mobile and fixed troops in the later Empire. In general, the best troops were dispatched as vexillationes, and the remainder left to guard border defences were of lower quality, perhaps those with injuries or near retirement.[78] Barbarisation of the army (117–253 AD)[edit] Battle with Germanic troops, on the Portonaccio sarcophagus (190–200) By the time of the emperor Hadrian the proportion of Italians in the legions had fallen to just ten percent[64] and provincial citizens now dominated. This low figure is probably a direct result of the changing needs of military staffing: a system of fixed border defences (Latin: limes) were established around the Empire's periphery under Hadrian, consolidating Trajan's territorial gains. These called for troops to be stationed permanently in the provinces, a prospect more attractive to locally raised rather than Italian troops.[64] The higher prestige and pay to be found in the Italian dominated Praetorian Guard must also have played a role. The majority of the troops in the legions at the start of the 3rd century AD were from the more Romanised (though non-Italian) provinces, especially Illyria.[79] As the century progressed, more and more barbarians (Latin: barbari) were permitted to settle inside of, and tasked with aiding in the defence of, Rome's borders.[80] As a result, greater numbers of barbarous and semi-barbarous peoples were gradually admitted to the army.[79] 3rd-century Roman soldiers battling barbarian troops on the Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus (250-260) However, whether this regionalisation of the legions was partnered by a drop in the professionalism of the troops is contested. Antonio Santosuosso argues that the strict discipline and high motivation of the days of Marius had lapsed,[81] but Andrew Alfoldi states that the Illyrian troops were both valiant and warlike,[79] and Tacitus described German recruits as being natural mercenaries (Latin: vivi ad arma nati).[82] It seems that discipline in the legions did slacken, with soldiers granted permission to live with wives outside of military lodgings and permitted to adopt a more lavish and comfortable lifestyle, in contrast to the strict military regimen of earlier years.[81] However, it is by no means certain that this led to any reduction in the effectiveness of the legions, due to the greater ferocity and stature of the barbari recruits. The flavour of the Roman military, however, was now dictated by the increasing number of regional recruits, leading to a partial barbarisation of Rome's military forces beginning in this period.[83] The barbarisation of the lower ranks was paralleled by a concurrent barbarisation of its command structure, with the Roman senators who had traditionally provided its commanders becoming entirely excluded from the army. By 235 AD the Emperor himself, the figurehead of the entire military, was a man born outside of Italy to non-Italian parents.[84] "A young nobleman, strong of hand and quick of mind and far more intelligent than your average barbarian ... the ardour of his face and eyes showed the burning spirit within. He had fought on our side in previous campaigns and earned the right to become a Roman citizen; indeed, he was even elevated to the rank of Equestrian." Velleius Paterculus, Roman History, 2.108 The gradual inclusion of greater numbers of non-citizen troops into the military was taken a further step by the creation under Hadrian of a new type of force in addition to the legions and auxilia, known as numeri.[76] Formed in bodies of around 300 irregular troops,[52] the numeri were drawn from subjugate provinces and peoples of client-states or even from beyond the borders of the empire. They were both less regimented and less Romanised than auxiliary troops, with a "pronounced national character,"[85] including native dress and native war cries.[70] The introduction of the numeri was a response to the need for cheap troops, who were nevertheless fierce and provided a force balance of light infantry and cavalry.[86] They were therefore largely less well armed and less well trained than auxilia or legions,[76] although more prestigious elite irregular native troops were also utilised.[87] However, the legions still made up around one half of the Roman army at this point.[79] Successive crises (238–359 AD)[edit] Main articles: Late Roman army and Sacer comitatus A 6th-century carving of a Sassanid armoured knight, the model for the Roman catafractarii By the late Empire, enemy forces in both the East and West were "sufficiently mobile and sufficiently strong to pierce [the Roman] defensive perimeter on any selected axis of penetration";[88] from the 3rd century onwards, both Germanic tribes and Persian armies pierced the frontiers of the Roman Empire.[89] In response, the Roman army underwent a series of changes, more organic and evolutionary than the deliberate military reforms of the Republic and early Empire. A stronger emphasis was placed upon ranged combat ability of all types, such as field artillery, hand-held ballistae, archery and darts. Roman forces also gradually became more mobile, with one cavalryman for every three infantryman, compared to one in forty in the early Empire.[90] Additionally, the Emperor Gallienus took the revolutionary step of forming an entirely cavalry field army, which was kept as a mobile reserve at the city of Milan in northern Italy. It is believed that Gallienus facilitated this concentration of cavalry by stripping the legions of their integral mounted element.[91] A diverse range of cavalry regiments existed, including catafractarii or clibanarii, scutarii, and legionary cavalry known as promoti. Collectively, these regiments were known as equites.[87] Around 275 AD, the proportion of catafractarii was also increased.[87] There is some disagreement over exactly when the relative proportion of cavalry increased, whether Gallienus' reforms occurred contemporaneously with an increased reliance on cavalry, or whether these are two distinct events. Alfoldi appears to believe that Gallienus' reforms were contemporaneous with an increase in cavalry numbers. He argues that, by 258, Gallienus had made cavalry the predominant troop type in the Roman army in place of heavy infantry, which dominated earlier armies.[87] According to Warren Treadgold, however, the proportion of cavalry did not change between the early 3rd and early 4th centuries.[92] Larger groups of barbari began to settle in Rome's territories around this time, and the troops they were contracted to provide to the Roman army were no longer organised as numeri but rather were the forerunners of the later rented native armies known as federated troops (Latin: foederati).[Note 4][93] Though they served under Roman officers, the troops of these units were far more barbarised than the numeri, lacked Romanisation of either military structure or personal ideology, and were ineligible for Roman citizenship upon discharge.[93] These native troops were not permitted to fight in native war bands under their own leaders, unlike the later foederati; instead, these troops were split into small groups attached to other Roman units.[94] They existed therefore as a halfway house between numeri, who were encouraged to be Romanised, and the foederati, who raised officers from their own ranks and were almost entirely self-dependent. Comitatenses and limitanei (284–395 AD)[edit] Main articles: Late Roman army, Scholae, Palatini (Roman military), Comitatenses, and Limitanei Bearded Roman troops as pictured on a triumphal arch, c. 312 AD, however, the sculptured panels were re-used from earlier monuments of Trajanic date. A distinction between frontier guard troops and more mobile reserve forces had emerged with the use of certain troops to permanently man frontiers such as Hadrian's Wall in Britannia in the 2nd century AD. The competing demands of manned frontiers and strategic reserve forces had led to the division of the military into four types of troops by the early 4th century: The limitanei or riparienses patrolled the border and defended the border fortifications. According to some older theories, the limitanei were "settled and hereditary"[79] militia that were "tied to their posts."[95] But according to most recent research, the limitanei were originally regular soldiers, including infantry, cavalry, and river flotillas,[96][97][98] although they eventually became settled militia.[99][100] According to Luttwak, the cunei of cavalry, and auxilia of infantry alone by this time, were local provincial reserves that may have evolved from earlier auxiliary units.[101][clarification needed] According to Pat Southern and Karen Dixon, the legiones, auxilia, and cunei of the border armies were part of the limitanei, but higher-status than the older cohortes and alae in the same armies.[100] The comitatenses, and later the palatini were strategic reserves, usually in the rear.[102] After their division into palatini and comitatenses, the latter were usually associated with the praesental armies, and the former were usually associated with the regional armies, but both types could be moved between the two. The emperor Constantine I created the scholae to replace the old praetorian guard. The scholae were his personal guard, and were mainly equipped as cavalry. Vogt suggests that the scholae formed two small central reserves (Latin: scholae) held to the strategic rear even of the comitatenses, one each in the presence of the emperors of West and East respectively.[103] The permanent field armies of the palatini and comitatenses ultimately derived from the temporary field armies of the earlier sacer comitatus. Created and expanded from the core troops of the Emperor's personal bodyguards,[clarification needed] the central field armies by 295 AD seem to have been too large to be accounted for as simple bodyguard forces, but were still too small to be able to campaign independently of legionary or vexillation support.[clarification needed][104] Of the four troop types, the limitanei (border guards) were once considered to have been of the lowest quality,[105] consisting largely of peasant-soldiers that were both "grossly inferior" to the earlier legions and inferior also to their counterparts in the mobile field armies.[106] However, more recent work establishes that the limitanei were regular soldiers.[96][97][98] While the limitanei were supposed to deal with policing actions and low-intensity incursions, the duty of responding to more serious incidents fell upon the provincial troops.[contradictory] The countering of the very largest scale incursions on a strategic scale was the task of the comitatenses and palatini or mobile field troops, possibly accompanied by the emperor's scholae. Both border and field armies consisted of a mix of infantry and cavalry units[107] although the weight of cavalry was, according to some authorities, greater in the mobile field armies.[103] Overall, approximately one quarter of the army consisted of cavalry troops[108] but their importance is uncertain. Older works such as the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (1911) state that the Roman military of the late Empire was "marked by that predominance of the horseman which characterised the earlier centuries of the Middle Ages,"[1] but many more recent authors believe that the infantry remained predominant.[109] There is some dispute about whether this new military structure was put into place under the Emperor Diocletian or Constantine since both reorganised the Roman Army in the late 3rd and early 4th centuries to some degree.[110] Both Diocletian and even his predecessor of thirty years Gallienus may already have controlled mobile strategic reserves to assist the empire's border forces;[111] either Diocletian or Constantine expanded this nascent force into permanent field armies.[112] Recruitment from amongst Roman citizens had become greatly curtailed as a consequence of a declining population,[113] "cripplingly numerous" categories of those exempted from military service and the spread of Christianity with its pacifist message.[Note 5][114] Together, these factors culminated in "the withdrawal of the urban class from all forms of military activity."[115] In their place, much of Rome's military were now recruited from non-Italian peoples living within the empire's borders. Many of these people were barbarians or semi-barbarians recently settled from lands beyond the empire,[116] including several colonies of Carpi, Bastarnae and Sarmatians.[117] Although units described as legiones existed as late as the 5th century in both the border and field armies,[118] the legionary system was very different from that of the principate and early empire. Since the term legion continued to be used, it is unclear exactly when the structure and role of the legions changed. In the 3rd or 4th century, however, the legions' role as elite heavy infantry was substantially reduced[119] and may have evaporated entirely.[120] Instead, those "legions" that remained were no longer drawn exclusively (and perhaps hardly at all) from Roman citizens.[107] Either Diocletian[121] or Constantine reorganised the legions into smaller infantry units[107] who, according to some sources, were more lightly armoured than their forebears.[119] Their lighter armament may have been either because they "would not consent to wear the same weight of body armour as the legionaries of old"[122] or, as in at least one documented instance, because they were prohibited from wearing heavy armour by their general in order to increase their mobility.[123] 4th-century legions were at times only one sixth the size of early imperial legions, and they were armed with some combination of spears, bows, slings, darts and swords, reflecting a greater contemporary emphasis on ranged fighting.[124] The auxilia and numeri had also largely disappeared.[125] Constantine further increased the proportion of German troops in the regular army;[126] their cultural impact was so great that even legionaries began wearing German dress.[115] At the start of Diocletian's reign, the Roman army numbered about 390,000 men, but by the end of his reign he successfully increased the number to 581,000 men.[127] Adoption of barbarian allies (358–395 AD)[edit] By the late 4th century, the Empire had become chronically deficient in raising sufficient troops from amongst its own population.[128] As an alternative, taxation raised internally was increasingly used to subsidise growing numbers of barbarian recruits. The Romans had, for some time, recruited individual non-Roman soldiers into regular military units. In 358 AD, this practice was accelerated by the wholescale adoption of the entire Salian Franks people into the Empire, providing a ready pool of such recruits. In return for being allowed to settle as foederatii in northern Gallia on the near side of the Rhine, the Franks were expected to defend the Empire's borders in their territory and provide troops to serve in Roman units. In 376, a large band of Goths asked Emperor Valens for permission to settle on the southern bank of the Danube River on terms similar to the Franks. The Goths were also accepted into the empire as foederati; however, they rebelled later that year and defeated the Romans at the Battle of Adrianople. The heavy losses that the Roman military suffered during this defeat ironically forced the Roman Empire to rely still further on such foederati troops to supplement its forces.[129] In 382, the practice was radically extended when federated troops were signed up en masse as allied contingents of laeti and foederatii troops separate from existing Roman units.[128] Near-constant civil wars during the period 408 and 433 between various Roman usurpers, emperors and their supposed deputies such as Constantine III, Constantius III, Aetius and Bonifacius resulted in further losses, necessitating the handing over of more taxable land to foederati. The size and composition of these allied forces remains in dispute. Santosuosso argues that foederati regiments consisted mostly of cavalry[130] that were raised both as a temporary levy for a specific campaign need and, in some cases, as a permanent addition to the army. Hugh Elton believes that the importance of foederati has been overstated in traditional accounts by historians such as A.H.M. Jones. Elton argues that the majority of soldiers were probably non-Italian Roman citizens,[Note 6][131] while Santosuosso believes that the majority of troops were almost certainly non-citizen barbari.[132] Collapse in the West and survival in the East (395–476 AD)[edit] Mosaic of what is presumed to be a Gothic war leader. The Goths were employed as foederati by the Romans in the 5th century The non-federated mobile field army, known as the comitatenses, was eventually split into a number of smaller field armies: a central field army under the emperor's direct control, known as the comitatensis palatina or praesentalis, and several regional field armies.[26] Historians Santosuosso and Vogt agree that the latter gradually degraded into low-quality garrison units similar to the limitanei that they either supplemented or replaced.[95] By the 5th century, a significant portion of Western Rome's main military strength lay in rented barbarian mercenaries known as foederati.[133] As the 5th century progressed, many of the Empire's original borders had been either wholly or partially denuded of troops to support the central field army.[133][134] In 395, the Western Roman Empire had several regional field armies in Italy, Illyricum, Gallia, Britannia and Africa, and about twelve border armies. By about 430, two more field armies were established in Hispania and Tingitania but the central government had lost control of Britannia[134] as well as much of Gaul, Hispania, and Africa. In the same period, the Eastern Roman Empire had two palatine field armies (at Constantinople), three regional field armies (in the East, in Thrace, and in Illyricum) and fifteen frontier armies.[135] "We received a terrible rumour about events in the West. They told us that Rome was under siege, and the only safety for its citizens was that which they could buy with gold, and when that had been stripped from them, they were besieged again, so that they lost not only their possessions, but also their lives. Our messenger gave the news in a faltering voice, and could hardly speak for sobbing. The city which had captured the world was now itself captured" Jerome, Letters, 127 As Roman troops were spread increasingly thin over its long border, the Empire's territory continued to dwindle in size as the population of the empire declined.[136] Barbarian war bands increasingly began to penetrate the Empire's vulnerable borders, both as settlers and invaders. In 451, the Romans defeated Attila the Hun, but only with assistance from a confederation of foederatii troops, which included Visigoths, Franks and Alans. As barbarian incursions continued, some advancing as far as the heart of Italy, Rome's borders began to collapse, with frontier forces swiftly finding themselves cut off deep in the enemy's rear.[133] Simultaneously, barbarian troops in Rome's pay came to be "in a condition of almost perpetual turbulence and revolt"[137] from 409 onwards. In 476 these troops finally unseated the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire.[138] The Eastern Roman forces continued to defend the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire until its fall in 1453.[139] The former Oxford University historian Adrian Goldsworthy has argued that the cause of the fall of the Roman Empire in the West should not be blamed on barbarization of the late Roman Army, but on its recurrent civil wars, which led to its inability to repel or defeat invasions from outside its frontiers. The East Roman or Byzantine empire on the other hand had fewer civil wars to contend with in the late fourth and early fifth centuries, or in the years from 383–432 A.D.[140] See also[edit] Roman army Early Roman army Roman army of the mid-Republic Roman army of the late Republic Imperial Roman army Late Roman army Socii Roman auxiliaries East Roman army Byzantine army History of physical training and fitness References[edit] Explanatory notes[edit] ^ The eleventh edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica calls Livy's numbers "clearly artificial and invented." ^ This viewpoint is echoed in the Encyclopædia Britannica, eleventh edition, which argues that "Much of its strength lay in the same qualities which made the Puritan soldiers of Cromwell terrible—the excellent character of the common soldiers, the rigid discipline, the high training." ^ Livy describes how an army of citizen levies was first retained for longer than a single season in 403BC. Citizens forced to continue to prosecute hostilities throughout the winter were apparently outraged and for a while Roman society came close to tearing at itself (see Livy, Book 5, Chapter 1). However, throughout the 5th and 4th centuries BC, it became gradually more common for campaigns to last for longer than a single season, such that Marius' reforms were not entirely radical on this point. ^ The word can mean both a federated people, and also the units of allied troops later supplied by those people ^ Gibbon writes that due to "the abuse of Christianity ... the active virtues of society were discouraged; and the last remains of military spirit were buried in the cloister." ^ Elton argues from the proportion of Roman names to non-Roman names from 350 to 476 Citations[edit] ^ a b Encyclopædia Britannica, Eleventh Edition (1911), The Roman Army ^ Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 18 ^ Mommsen, The History of Rome, Volume 1, p. 40 ^ Keppie, The Making of the Roman Army, p. 14 ^ Mommsen, The History of Rome, Volume 1, p. 22 ^ Grant, The History of Rome, p. 22 * Boak, A History of Rome to 565 AD, p. 69 ^ Mommsen, The History of Rome, Volume 1, p. 20 ^ a b c d Boak, A History of Rome to 565 AD, p. 69 ^ Boak, A History of Rome to 565 AD, p. 86 ^ Mommsen, The History of Rome, Volume 1, p. 65 ^ Livy, The Rise of Rome, Book 5, chapter 33 * Pallottino, The Etruscans, p. 68 ^ a b c Livy, The Rise of Rome, Book 1, chapter 42 ^ a b Livy, The Rise of Rome, Book 1, chapter 43 ^ Smith, Service in the Post-Marian Roman Army, p. 10 ^ Gabba, Republican Rome, The Army And the Allies, p. 2 ^ Grant, The History of Rome, p. 334 * Boak, A History of Rome, p. 454 ^ Campbell, The Crisis of Empire, p. 126 * Boak, A History of Rome, p. 454 ^ Vogt, The Decline of Rome, p. 158 ^ a b Gabba, Republican Rome, The Army And the Allies, p. 5 ^ Grant, The History of Rome, p. 24 ^ Grant, The History of Rome, Faber and Faber, 1979 p. 54 ^ "Rome, The Samnite Wars". Archived from the original on 2011-10-14. Retrieved 2009-05-06. ^ Sekunda, Early Roman Armies, p. 40 ^ Boak, A History of Rome to 565 A.D., p. 87 ^ a b c d Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 10 ^ a b c d e Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 18 ^ a b c Polybius, History, Book 6 ^ From Maniple to Cohort, Strategy Page ^ a b Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 40 ^ Livy, The Rise of Rome, Book 5, ch. 1 ^ a b c Webster, The Roman Imperial Army, p. 156 ^ Smith, Service in the Post-Marian Roman Army, p. 2 ^ a b Gabba, Republican Rome, The Army and The Allies, p. 7 ^ a b c d e Gabba, Republican Rome, The Army and The Allies, p. 9 ^ Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 11 ^ Webster, The Roman Imperial Army, p. 143 ^ Boak, A History of Rome to 565 A.D., p. 189 * Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 10 ^ Gabba, Republican Rome, The Army And the Allies, p. 1 ^ Cary & Scullard, A History of Rome, p. 219 ^ a b Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 27 ^ Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 16 ^ Tacitus, Annals, IV, 5 ^ Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 16 ^ a b Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 29 ^ Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 51 ^ Smith, Service in the Post-Marian Roman Army, p. 56 ^ a b Gabba, Republican Rome, The Army and The Allies, p. 25 ^ Boak, A History of Rome, p. 189 ^ a b Smith, Service in the Post-Marian Roman Army, p. 29 ^ a b c Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 14 ^ Webster, The Roman Imperial Army, p. 116 ^ a b c d e f Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 15 ^ Smith, Service in the Post-Marian Roman Army, p. 27 ^ a b Webster, The Roman Imperial Army, p. 146 ^ Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 43 ^ Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 44 ^ Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 67 ^ Smith, Service in the Post-Marian Roman Army, p. 57 ^ Smith, Service in the Post-Marian Roman Army, p. 71 ^ Boak, A History of Rome to 565 A.D., p. 270 * Smith, Service in the Post-Marian Roman Army, p. 71 ^ Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 17 * Grant, A History of Rome, p. 209 ^ Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 91 ^ Hassall, The Army, p. 325 * Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 91 ^ a b c d Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 98 ^ Cary & Scullard, A History of Rome, p. 338 ^ Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Chapter I, p. 36 ^ Mattingly, An Imperial Possession – Britain in the Roman Empire, pp. 166–168 ^ Webster, The Roman Imperial Army, p. 144 ^ Webster, The Roman Imperial Army, p. 152 ^ a b Webster, The Roman Imperial Army, p. 150 ^ Webster, The Roman Imperial Army, p. 147 ^ Webster, The Roman Imperial Army, p. 165 ^ Hassall, The High Empire, AD 70–192, p. 320 ^ Hassall, The High Empire, AD 70–192, p. 331 ^ Hassall, The High Empire, AD 70–192, p. 331 * Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Chapter I, p. 36 ^ a b c Alfoldi, The Crisis of the Empire, p. 211 ^ Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 124 ^ Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, pp. 153–154 ^ a b c d e Alfoldi, The Crisis of the Empire, p. 208 ^ Vogt, The Decline of Rome, p. 58. ^ a b Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 173 ^ Tacitus, History, 4, 64 ^ Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 174 ^ Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 175 ^ Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 122 ^ Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 123 ^ a b c d Alfoldi, The Crisis of the Empire, p. 216 ^ Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 176 ^ Alfoldi, The Crisis of the Empire, p. 211 * Heather, The Fall of the Roman Empire, pp. 58–67 ^ Elton, Warfare in Roman Europe, p. 94 Santosuosso, Storming The Heavens, p. 190 ^ Southern and Dixon, The Late Roman Army, pp. 11–12 ^ Treadgold, Byzantium and its Army, 284–1081, p. 56. ^ a b Alfoldi, The Crisis of the Empire, p. 212 ^ Alfoldi, The Crisis of the Empire, p. 219 ^ a b Vogt, The Decline of Rome, p. 178 ^ a b Treadgold 1995, p. 161. ^ a b Strobel 2011, p. 268. ^ a b Southern & Dixon, 1996, p. 57. ^ Treadgold 1995, pp. 97–98. ^ a b Southern & Dixon, 1996, p. 36. ^ Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 173 ^ Boak, A History of Rome to 565 AD. p. 452 * Vogt, The Decline of Rome, p. 177 ^ a b Vogt, The Decline of Rome, p. 177 ^ Campbell, The Army, p. 121 ^ Boak, A History of Rome to 565 AD. p. 452 * Grant, A History of Rome, p. 333 * Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 188 ^ Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, pp. 154, 173 ^ a b c Cary & Scullard, A History of Rome, p. 534 ^ Boak, A History of Rome to 565 AD. p. 451 ^ Elton, Warfare in Roman Europe, A.D. 350–425, pp. 103, 105–106 * Treadgold, Byzantium and its Army, pp. 44–59. ^ Southern & Dixon, The Late Roman Army, pp. 15–38. ^ Campbell, The Army, p. 121 * Southern & Dixon, The Late Roman Army, pp. 11–17 ^ Southern & Dixon, The Late Roman Army, pp. 15–20 & 37–38 ^ Boak, A History of Rome to 565 AD. p. 451 * Cary & Scullard, A History of Rome, p. 537 * Vogt, The Decline of Rome, p. 25 ^ Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Chapter XXXVIII, p. 622 * Grant, A History of Rome, p. 333 * Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 229 ^ a b Vogt, The Decline of Rome, p. 59 ^ Alfoldi, The Crisis of the Empire, p. 208 * Boak, A History of Rome to 565 AD, p. 451 * Vogt, The Decline of Rome, p. 178 ^ Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Chapter VI, p. 188 ^ Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 171 ^ a b Boak, A History of Rome to 565 AD. p. 453 * Vogt, The Decline of Rome, p. 59 ^ Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 175 ^ Brian Campbell, The Crisis of Empire, p. 123 ^ Cary & Scullard, A History of Rome, p. 535 ^ Alfoldi, The Crisis of the Empire, p. 209 ^ Alfoldi, The Crisis of the Empire, p. 209 * Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 175 ^ Alfoldi, The Crisis of the Empire, p. 213 ^ Grant, A History of Rome, p. 310 ^ Treadgold, A History of Byzantine State and Society, 19 ^ a b Grant, The History of Rome, p. 334 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Historiae, book 31, chapters 3–16. ^ Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 189 ^ Elton, Warfare in Roman Europe, pp. 145–152. ^ Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 192 ^ a b c Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 188 ^ a b Salway. Roman Britain, 1981, p. 437 ^ Treadgold, Byzantium and its Army, 284–1081, pp. 43–59. ^ Boak, A History of Rome to 525 AD, p. 521 ^ Grant, A History of Rome, p. 344 ^ Vogt, The Decline of Rome, p. 250 ^ Runciman, The Fall of Constantinople: 1453. ^ Adrian Goldsworthy The Fall of the West: The Slow Death of the Roman Superpower, Great Britain, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, paperback edition by Orion Books Ltd, London, 2010. Published in the US as How Rome Fell: Death of a Superpower. Bibliography[edit] Primary sources[edit] Livy, From the Founding of the City on Wikisource (print: Book 1 as The Rise of Rome, Oxford University Press, 1998, ISBN 0-19-282296-9) Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae a Fine Corneli Taciti on The Latin Library. Notitia Dignitatum Polybius: The Rise of the Roman Empire at LacusCurtius print: Harvard University Press, 1927. (Translation by W. R. Paton). Tacitus: The Annals. Secondary and tertiary sources[edit] Alfoldi, Andrew, The Crisis of the Empire (AD 249–270), in S A Cook et al. (eds.), The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. XII: The Imperial Crisis and Recovery (AD 193–324), pp. 208ff., ISBN 0-521-30199-8. Boak, Arthur, A History of Rome to 565 A.D., The MacMillan Company, 1957, ISBN unknown Boak, AER (1915). "The Roman Magistri in the Civil and Military Service of the Empire". Harvard Studies in Classical Philology. 26: 73–164. JSTOR 310606. Campbell, Brian, The Army, in The Crisis of Empire, AD 193–337, in The Cambridge Ancient History, Second Edition, Vol. XII, ISBN 0-521-30199-8. Cary, Max; Scullard, Howard, A History of Rome, The MacMillan Press Ltd, 1979, ISBN 0-333-27830-5. Elton, Hugh, Warfare in Roman Europe AD 350–425, Oxford University Press, 1996, ISBN 0-19-815241-8. Gabba, Emilio, Republican Rome, The Army and The Allies, University of California Press, 1976, ISBN 0-520-03259-4. Gibbon, Edward: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (print: Penguin Books, 1985, ISBN 0-14-043189-6). Goldsworthy, Adrian, In the Name of Rome: The Men Who Won the Roman Empire, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003, ISBN 0-297-84666-3. Grant, Michael, The History of Rome, Faber and Faber, 1993, ISBN 0-571-11461-X. Hassall, Mark, The Army, in The High Empire, AD 70–192, in The Cambridge Ancient History, Second Edition, Vol. XI, ISBN 0-521-26335-2. Heather, Peter, The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History, Macmillan Publishers, 2005, ISBN 0-330-49136-9. Jones, Arnold, The Later Roman Empire, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1964, ISBN 0-8018-3285-3. Keppie, Lawrence, The Making of the Roman Army, Barnes & Noble Books, 1984, ISBN 978-0-389-20447-3. Luttwak, Edward, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 0-8018-2158-4. Mattingly, David, An Imperial Possession-Britain in the Roman Empire, Allen Lane, 2006, ISBN 0-14-014822-1. Matyszak, Philip, The Enemies of Rome, Thames and Hudson, 2004, ISBN 0-500-25124-X. Theodor Mommsen, The History of Rome, Indypublish.com, 2008, ISBN 1-4142-7314-2 Pallottino, Massimo, The Etruscans. Penguin Books. 1975, ISBN 0-253-32080-1. Runciman, Steven, The Fall of Constantinople: 1453. Cambridge University Press, 1965, ISBN 0-521-39832-0. Santosusso, Antonio, Storming the Heavens: Soldiers, Emperors and Civilians in the Roman Empire, Westview Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8133-3523-X. Smith, Richard, Service in the Post-Marian Roman Army, Manchester University Press, 1958, ASIN B0000CK67F. Southern, Pat; Dixon, Karen, The Late Roman Army, 1996, ISBN 0-415-22296-6. Treadgold, Warren, Byzantium and its Army, Stanford University Press, 1995, ISBN 0-8047-3163-2. Vogt, Joseph, The Decline of Rome, Weidenfeld, 1993, ISBN 0-297-81392-7. 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en-wikipedia-org-4255	----	Virtual International Authority File - Wikipedia Virtual International Authority File From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from VIAF (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search International authority file For use of VIAF with Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Authority control and Wikipedia:VIAF/errors. Virtual International Authority File Screenshot 2012 Acronym VIAF Organisation OCLC Introduced August 6, 2003 (2003-08-06) Example 106965171 Website viaf.org The Virtual International Authority File (VIAF) is an international authority file. It is a joint project of several national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center (OCLC).[1] Contents 1 History 2 VIAF clusters 3 Participating libraries and organizations 3.1 Libraries added for testing purposes 4 See also 5 References 6 External links History[edit] Discussion about having a common international authority started in the late 1990s. After a series of failed attempts to come up with a unique common authority file, the new idea was to link existing national authorities. This would present all the benefits of a common file without requiring a large investment of time and expense in the process.[2] The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress (LC), the German National Library (DNB) and the OCLC on August 6, 2003. The Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF) joined the project on October 5, 2007. The project transitioned to being a service of the OCLC on April 4, 2012.[3] The aim is to link the national authority files (such as the German Name Authority File) to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together. A VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary "see" and "see also" records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are made available online and are available for research and data exchange and sharing. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH) protocol. The file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata.[4][5] VIAF clusters[edit] VIAF's clustering algorithm is run every month. As more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records.[6] Participating libraries and organizations[edit] English Wikipedia entry name Identifier Native-language name Location Country Bibliotheca Alexandrina EGAXA Arabic: مكتبة الإسكندرية‎ Alexandria Egypt Biblioteca Nacional de Chile BNCHL Spanish: Biblioteca Nacional de Chile Santiago Chile Biblioteca Nacional de España BNE Spanish: Biblioteca Nacional de España Madrid Spain Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal PTBNP Portuguese: Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal Lisbon Portugal Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec B2Q French: Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec Quebec Canada Bibliothèque nationale de France BnF French: Bibliothèque nationale de France Paris France Bibliothèque Nationale du Royaume du Maroc (BNRM) MRBNR Arabic: المكتبة الوطنية للمملكة المغربية‎ French: Bibliothèque nationale du Royaume du Maroc Rabat Morocco Biografisch Portaal BPN Dutch: Biografisch Portaal The Hague Netherlands British Library – London England Danish Agency for Culture and Palaces Danish: Kulturstyrelsen Copenhagen Denmark Danish Bibliographic Centre DBC Danish: Dansk BiblioteksCenter Ballerup Denmark German National Library (DNB) GND German: Deutsche Nationalbibliothek Frankfurt Germany International Standard Name Identifier[7] ISNI – London United Kingdom Israel Museum Hebrew: מוזיאון ישראל‎ Jerusalem Israel Istituto Centrale per il Catalogo Unico ICCU SBN Italian: Istituto Centrale per il Catalogo Unico Rome Italy Lebanese National Library LNL Arabic: المكتبة الوطنية‎ Beirut Lebanon Library and Archives Canada LAC French: Bibliothèque et Archives Canada Ottawa, Ontario Canada Library of Congress NACO consortium (Name Authority Cooperative Program)[8] LCCN – Washington, D.C. United States National and University Library in Zagreb NSK Croatian: Nacionalna i sveučilišna knjižnica u Zagrebu Zagreb Croatia National and University Library of Slovenia Slovene: Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica Ljubljana Slovenia National Central Library NCL CYT Chinese: 國家圖書館 Taipei Taiwan National Diet Library NDL Japanese: 国立国会図書館 Tokyo Kyoto Japan National Institute of Informatics NII CiNii Japanese: 国立情報学研究所 Tokyo Japan National Library Board NLB – – Singapore National Library of Australia NLA – Canberra Australia National Library of Brazil BLBNB Portuguese: Biblioteca Nacional do Brasil Rio de Janeiro Brazil National Library of Catalonia BNC Catalan: Biblioteca de Catalunya Barcelona Spain National Library of Estonia ERRR Estonian: Eesti Rahvusraamatukogu Tallinn Estonia National and University Library of Iceland (NULI) UIY Icelandic: Háskólabókasafn Reykjavík Iceland National Library of Ireland N6I Irish: Leabharlann Náisiúnta na hÉireann Dublin Ireland National Library of Israel NLI Hebrew: הספרייה הלאומית‎ Jerusalem Israel National Library of Korea KRNLK Korean: 국립중앙도서관 Seoul Korea National Library of Latvia LNB Latvian: Latvijas Nacionālā bibliotēka Rīga Latvia National Library of Luxembourg BNL Luxembourgish: Nationalbibliothéik Lëtzebuerg French: Bibliothèque nationale de Luxembourg Luxembourg City Luxembourg National Library of Mexico BNM Spanish: Biblioteca Nacional de México Mexico City Mexico National Library of the Netherlands NTA Dutch: Koninklijke Bibliotheek The Hague Netherlands National Library of New Zealand – Wellington New Zealand National Library of Norway BIBSYS W2Z Norwegian: Nasjonalbiblioteket Trondheim Norway National Library of Poland NLP Polish: Biblioteka Narodowa Warsaw Poland National Library of Russia NLR Russian: Российская национальная библиотека Saint Petersburg Russia National Library of Scotland Scottish Gaelic: Leabharlann Nàiseanta na h-Alba Scots: Naitional Leebrar o Scotland Edinburgh Scotland National Library of South Africa Afrikaans: Staats-Bibliotheek der Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek Cape Town Pretoria South Africa National Library of Sweden SELIBR Swedish: Kungliga biblioteket - Sveriges nationalbibliotek Stockholm Sweden National Library of Wales Welsh: Llyfrgell Genedlaethol Cymru Aberystwyth Wales National Library of the Czech Republic NKC Czech: Národní knihovna České republiky Prague Czech Republic National Széchényi Library NSZL Hungarian: Országos Széchényi Könyvtár Budapest Hungary Perseus Project PERSEUS – Medford, Massachusetts United States RERO (Library Network of Western Switzerland) RERO German: Westschweizer Bibliothekverbund French: Réseau des bibliothèques de Suisse occidentale Italian: Rete delle bibliotheche della Svizzera occidentale Martigny Switzerland Répertoire International des Sources Musicales RISM – Frankfurt Germany Système universitaire de documentation SUDOC French: Système universitaire de documentation – France Syriac Reference Portal SRP – Nashville, Tennessee United States Swiss National Library SWNL German: Schweizerische Nationalbibliothek French: Bibliothèque nationale suisse Italian: Biblioteca nazionale svizzera Romansh: Biblioteca naziunala svizra Berne Switzerland Narodowy Uniwersalny Katalog Centralny, NUKAT [pl] NUKAT Polish: Narodowy Uniwersalny Katalog Centralny – Poland Union List of Artist Names – Getty Research Institute ULAN JPG – Los Angeles, California United States United States National Agricultural Library NALT – Beltsville, Maryland United States United States National Library of Medicine – Bethesda, Maryland United States Vatican Library BAV Latin: Bibliotheca Apostolica Vaticana – Vatican City Vlaamse openbare bibliotheken (VLACC): Bibnet [nl] VLACC Dutch: Vlaamse Centrale Catalogus Brussels Belgium Wikidata WKP – Berlin, Germany International Libraries added for testing purposes[edit] English Wikipedia entry name Identifier Native-language name Location Country Lithuanian National Library LIH Lithuanian: Lietuvos nacionalinė Martyno Mažvydo biblioteka Vilnius Lithuania National and University Library of Slovenia / COBISS SIMACOB Slovene: Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica, NUK Ljubljana Slovenia See also[edit] Authority control Faceted Application of Subject Terminology (FAST) Integrated Authority File (GND) International Standard Authority Data Number (ISADN) International Standard Name Identifier (ISNI) Wikipedia's authority control template for articles References[edit] ^ Kelley, Michael; Schwartz, Meredith (2012). "VIAF service transitions to OCLC". Library Journal. Media Source Inc. 137 (8): 16.  ^ O'Neill, Edward T. (12 August 2016). "VIAF: Origins" (Video presentation). Authority Data on the Web, a Satellite Meeting of the 2016 IFLA World Library and Information Congress. OCLC. ^ Murphy, Bob (4 April 2012). "Virtual International Authority File service transitions to OCLC; contributing institutions continue to shape direction through VIAF Council" (Press release). OCLC. Dublin, OH. ^ Klein, Max; Renspie, Melissa (7 December 2012). "VIAFbot Edits 250,000 Wikipedia Articles to Reciprocate All Links from VIAF into Wikipedia". OCLC. ^ Klein, Maximilian; Kyrios, Alex (14 October 2013). "VIAFbot and the Integration of Library Data on Wikipedia". The Code4Lib Journal (22). ISSN 1940-5758. ^ Hickey, Thomas B.; Toves, Jenny A. (July 2014). "Managing Ambiguity In VIAF". D-Lib Magazine. Corporation for National Research Initiatives. 20 (7/8). doi:10.1045/july2014-hickey. ^ MacEwan, Andrew (12 August 2016). "ISNI and VIAF" (Video presentation). Authority Data on the Web, a Satellite Meeting of the 2016 IFLA World Library and Information Congress. OCLC. ^ "NACO - Name Authority Cooperative Program". Library of Congress. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to VIAF. Wikidata has the property: VIAF ID (P214) (see uses) Official website VIAF at OCLC v t e International numbering standards Standards ISO 2108: International Standard Book Number (ISBN) ISO 3297: International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) ISO 3901: International Standard Recording Code (ISRC) ISO 6166: International Securities Identification Number (ISIN) ISO/IEC 7812: Issuer Identification Number (IIN) ISO 9362: Business Entity Identifier (BIC) ISO 10957: International Standard Music Number (ISMN) ISO 13616: International Bank Account Number (IBAN) ISO 15511: International Standard Identifier for Libraries... 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en-wikipedia-org-4263	----	Roman temple - Wikipedia Roman temple From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The Maison Carrée in Nîmes, one of the best-preserved Roman temples. It is a mid-sized Augustan provincial temple of the Imperial cult. The Temple of Hercules Victor, in the Forum Boarium in Rome; the entablature is lost and the roof later. Roman temple of Alcántara, in Spain, a tiny votive temple built with an important bridge under Trajan Temple of Augustus in Pula, Croatia, an early temple of the Imperial cult Ancient Roman temples were among the most important buildings in Roman culture, and some of the richest buildings in Roman architecture, though only a few survive in any sort of complete state. Today they remain "the most obvious symbol of Roman architecture".[1] Their construction and maintenance was a major part of ancient Roman religion, and all towns of any importance had at least one main temple, as well as smaller shrines. The main room (cella) housed the cult image of the deity to whom the temple was dedicated, and often a table for supplementary offerings or libations and a small altar for incense. Behind the cella was a room or rooms used by temple attendants for storage of equipment and offerings. The ordinary worshiper rarely entered the cella, and most public ceremonies were performed outside where the sacrificial altar was located, on the portico, with a crowd gathered in the temple precinct.[2][3] The most common architectural plan had a rectangular temple raised on a high podium, with a clear front with a portico at the top of steps, and a triangular pediment above columns. The sides and rear of the building had much less architectural emphasis, and typically no entrances. There were also circular plans, generally with columns all round, and outside Italy there were many compromises with traditional local styles. The Roman form of temple developed initially from Etruscan temples, themselves influenced by the Greeks, with subsequent heavy direct influence from Greece. Public religious ceremonies of the official Roman religion took place outdoors and not within the temple building. Some ceremonies were processions that started at, visited, or ended with a temple or shrine, where a ritual object might be stored and brought out for use, or where an offering would be deposited. Sacrifices, chiefly of animals, would take place at an open-air altar within the templum; often on one of the narrow extensions of the podium to the side of the steps. Especially under the Empire, exotic foreign cults gained followers in Rome, and were the local religions in large parts of the expanded Empire. These often had very different practices, some preferring underground places of worship, while others, like Early Christians, worshiped in houses.[4] Some remains of many Roman temples still survive, above all in Rome itself, but the relatively few near-complete examples were nearly all converted into Christian churches (and sometimes subsequently to mosques), usually a considerable time after the initial triumph of Christianity under Constantine. The decline of Roman religion was relatively slow, and the temples themselves were not appropriated by the government until a decree of the Emperor Honorius in 415. Santi Cosma e Damiano, in the Roman Forum, originally the Temple of Romulus, was not dedicated as a church until 527. The best known is the Pantheon, Rome, which, however, is highly untypical, being a very large circular temple with a magnificent concrete roof, behind a conventional portico front.[5] Contents 1 Terms 2 Architecture 3 Circular plans 4 Caesareum 5 Influence 6 Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus 7 Substantial survivals 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Terms[edit] The English word "temple" derives from the Latin templum, which was originally not the building itself, but a sacred space surveyed and plotted ritually.[6] The Roman architect Vitruvius always uses the word templum to refer to the sacred precinct, and not to the building. The more common Latin words for a temple or shrine were sacellum (a small shrine or chapel), aedes, delubrum, and fanum (in this article, the English word "temple" refers to any of these buildings, and the Latin templum to the sacred precinct). Architecture[edit] The form of the Roman temple was mainly derived from the Etruscan model, but in the late Republic there was a switch to using Greek classical and Hellenistic styles, without much change in the key features of the form. The Etruscans were a people of northern Italy, whose civilization was at its peak in the seventh century BC. The Etruscans were already influenced by early Greek architecture, so Roman temples were distinctive but with both Etruscan and Greek features.[7][8] Surviving temples (both Greek and Roman) lack the extensive painted statuary that decorated the rooflines, and the elaborate revetments and antefixes, in colourful terracotta in earlier examples, that enlivened the entablature. Etruscan and Roman temples emphasised the front of the building, which followed Greek temple models and typically consisted of wide steps leading to a portico with columns, a pronaos, and usually a triangular pediment above, which was filled with statuary in the most grand examples; this was as often in terracotta as stone, and no examples have survived except as fragments. Especially in the earlier periods, further statuary might be placed on the roof, and the entablature decorated with antefixes and other elements, all of this being brightly painted. However, unlike the Greek models, which generally gave equal treatment to all sides of the temple, which could be viewed and approached from all directions, the side and rear walls of Roman temples might be largely undecorated (as in the Pantheon, Rome and Vic), inaccessible by steps (as in the Maison Carrée and Vic), and even back on to other buildings. As in the Maison Carrée, columns at the side might be half columns, emerging from ("engaged with" in architectural terminology) the wall.[9] The platform on which the temple sat was typically raised higher in Etruscan and Roman examples than Greek, with up to ten, twelve or more steps rather than the three typical in Greek temples; the Temple of Claudius was raised twenty steps. These steps were normally only at the front, and typically not the whole width of that. It might or might not be possible to walk around the temple exterior inside (Temple of Hadrian) or outside the colonnade, or at least down the sides.[10] The description of the Greek models used here is a generalization of classical Greek ideals, and later Hellenistic buildings often do not reflect them. For example, the "Temple of Dionysus" on the terrace by the theatre at Pergamon (Ionic, 2nd century BC, on a hillside), had many steps in front, and no columns beyond the portico.[11] The Parthenon, also approached up a hill, probably had many wide steps at the approach to the main front, followed by a flat area before the final few steps.[12] After the eclipse of the Etruscan models, the Greek classical orders in all their details were closely followed in the façades of Roman temples, as in other prestigious buildings, with the direct adoption of Greek models apparently beginning around 200 BC, under the late Republic. But the distinctive differences in the general arrangement of temples between the Etruscan-Roman style and the Greek, as outlined above, were retained. However the idealized proportions between the different elements in the orders set out by the only significant Roman writer on architecture to survive, Vitruvius, and subsequent Italian Renaissance writers, do not reflect actual Roman practice, which could be very variable, though always aiming at balance and harmony. Following a Hellenistic trend, the Corinthian order and its variant the Composite order were most common in surviving Roman temples, but for small temples like that at Alcántara, a simple Tuscan order could be used. Vitruvius does not recognise the Composite order in his writings, and covers the Tuscan order only as Etruscan; Renaissance writers formalized them from observing surviving buildings.[13] A Roman mammisi or chapel added to Dendera Temple, using the traditional Egyptian temple style. The front of the temple typically carried an inscription saying who had built it, cut into the stone with a "V" section. This was filled with brightly coloured paint, usually scarlet or vermilion. In major imperial monuments the letters were cast in lead and held in by pegs, then also painted or gilded. These have usually long vanished, but archaeologists can generally reconstruct them from the peg-holes, and some have been re-created and set in place.[14] There was considerable local variation in style, as Roman architects often tried to incorporate elements the population expected in its sacred architecture. This was especially the case in Egypt and the Near East, where different traditions of large stone temples were already millennia old. The Romano-Celtic temple was a simple style, usually with little use of stone, for small temples found in the Western Empire, and by far the most common type in Roman Britain, where they were usually square, with an ambulatory. It often lacked any of the distinctive classical features, and may have had considerable continuity with pre-Roman temples of the Celtic religion.[15] Circular plans[edit] "Temple of Venus", Baalbek, from the rear Romano-Celtic temples were often circular, and circular temples of various kinds were built by the Romans. Greek models were available in tholos shrines and some other buildings, as assembly halls and various other functions. Temples of the goddess Vesta, which were usually small, typically had this shape, as in those at Rome and Tivoli (see list), which survive in part. Like the Temple of Hercules Victor in Rome, which was perhaps by a Greek architect, these survivors had an unbroken colonnade encircling the building, and a low, Greek-style podium.[16] Different formulae were followed in the Pantheon, Rome and a small temple at Baalbek (usually called the "Temple of Venus"), where the door is behind a full portico, though very different ways of doing this are used. In the Pantheon only the portico has columns, and the "thoroughly uncomfortable" exterior meeting of the portico and circular cella are often criticised. At Baalbek, a wide portico with a broken pediment is matched by four other columns round the building, with the architrave in scooped curving sections, each ending in a projection supported by a column.[17] At Praeneste (modern Palestrina) near Rome, a huge pilgrimage complex of the 1st century BC led visitors up several levels with large buildings on a steep hillside, before they eventually reached the sanctuary itself, a much smaller circular building.[18] Caesareum[edit] Temple of the Imperial cult at Vienne A caesareum was a temple devoted to the Imperial cult. Caesarea were located throughout the Roman Empire, and often funded by the imperial government, tending to replace state spending on new temples to other gods, and becoming the main or only large temple in new Roman towns in the provinces. This was the case at Évora, Vienne and Nîmes, which were all expanded by the Romans as coloniae from Celtic oppida soon after their conquest. Imperial temples paid for by the government usually used conventional Roman styles all over the empire, regardless of the local styles seen in smaller temples. In newly planned Roman cities the temple was normally centrally placed at one end of the forum, often facing the basilica at the other.[19] In the city of Rome, a caesareum was located within the religious precinct of the Arval Brothers. In 1570, it was documented as still containing nine statues of Roman emperors in architectural niches.[20] Most of the earlier emperors had their own very large temples in Rome,[4] but a faltering economy meant that the building of new imperial temples mostly ceased after the reign of Marcus Aurelius (d. 180), though the Temple of Romulus on the Roman Forum was built and dedicated by the Emperor Maxentius to his son Valerius Romulus, who died in childhood in 309 and was deified. One of the earliest and most prominent of the caesarea was the Caesareum of Alexandria, located on the harbor. It was begun by Cleopatra VII of the Ptolemaic dynasty, the last pharaoh of Ancient Egypt, to honour her dead lover Julius Caesar, then converted by Augustus to his own cult. During the 4th century, after the Empire had come under Christian rule, it was converted to a church.[21] Influence[edit] St Martin-in-the-Fields, London (1720), James Gibbs The Etruscan-Roman adaptation of the Greek temple model to place the main emphasis on the front façade and let the other sides of the building harmonize with it only as much as circumstances and budget allow has generally been adopted in Neoclassical architecture, and other classically derived styles. In these temple fronts with columns and a pediment are very common for the main entrance of grand buildings, but often flanked by large wings or set in courtyards. This flexibility has allowed the Roman temple front to be used in buildings made for a wide variety of purposes. The colonnade may no longer be pushed forward with a pronaus porch, and it may not be raised above the ground, but the essential shape remains the same. Among thousands of examples are the White House, Buckingham Palace, and St Peters, Rome; in recent years the temple front has become fashionable in China.[22] Renaissance and later architects worked out ways of harmoniously adding high raised domes, towers and spires above a colonnaded temple portico front, something the Romans would have found odd. The Roman temple front remains a familiar feature of subsequent Early Modern architecture in the Western tradition, but although very commonly used for churches, it has lost the specific association with religion that it had for the Romans.[23] Generally, later adaptions lack the colour of the original, and though there may be sculpture filling the pediment in grand examples, the full Roman complement of sculpture above the roofline is rarely emulated. Variations on the theme, mostly Italian in origin, include: San Andrea, Mantua, 1462 by Leon Battista Alberti, which took a four-columned Roman triumphal arch and added a pediment above; San Giorgio Maggiore, Venice, begun 1566, by Andrea Palladio, which has two superimposed temple fronts, one low and wide, the other tall and narrow; the Villa Capra "La Rotonda", 1567 on, also by Palladio, with four isolated temple fronts on each side of a rectangle, with a large central dome. In Baroque architecture two temple fronts, often of different orders, superimposed one above the other, became extremely common for Catholic churches, often with the uppermost one supported by huge volutes to each side. This can be seen developing in the Gesù, Rome (1584), Santa Susanna, Rome (1597), Santi Vincenzo e Anastasio a Trevi (1646) and Val-de-Grâce, Paris (1645 on).[24] The Palladian villas of the Veneto include numerous ingenious and influential variations on the theme of the Roman temple front. An archetypical pattern for churches in Georgian architecture was set by St Martin-in-the-Fields in London (1720), by James Gibbs, who boldly added to the classical temple façade at the west end a large steeple on top of a tower, set back slightly from the main frontage. This formula shocked purists and foreigners, but became accepted and was very widely copied, at home and in the colonies,[25] for example at St Andrew's Church, Chennai in India and St. Paul's Chapel in New York City (1766). La Madeleine, Paris (1807), now a church Examples of modern buildings that stick more faithfully to the ancient rectangular temple form are only found from the 18th century onwards.[1] Versions of the Roman temple as a discrete block include La Madeleine, Paris (1807), now a church but built by Napoleon as a Temple de la Gloire de la Grande Armée ("Temple to the Glory of the Great Army"), the Virginia State Capitol as originally built in 1785–88, and Birmingham Town Hall (1832–34).[26] Small Roman circular temples with colonnades have often been used as models, either for single buildings, large or small, or elements such as domes raised on drums, in buildings on another plan such as St Peters, Rome, St Paul's Cathedral in London and the United States Capitol. The great progenitor of these is the Tempietto of Donato Bramante in the courtyard of San Pietro in Montorio in Rome, c. 1502, which has been widely admired ever since.[27] Though the Pantheon's large circular domed cella, with a conventional portico front, is "unique" in Roman architecture, it has been copied many times by modern architects. Versions include the church of Santa Maria Assunta in Ariccia by Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1664), which followed his work restoring the Roman original,[28] Belle Isle House (1774) in England, and Thomas Jefferson's library at the University of Virginia, The Rotunda (1817–26).[29] The Pantheon was much the largest and most accessible complete classical temple front known to the Italian Renaissance, and was the standard exemplar when these were revived. Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus[edit] Relief of Marcus Aurelius sacrificing at the 4th temple (left) The Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the Capitoline Hill was the oldest large temple in Rome, dedicated to the Capitoline Triad consisting of Jupiter and his companion deities, Juno and Minerva, and had a cathedral-like position in the official religion of Rome. It was destroyed by fire three times, and rapidly rebuilt in contemporary styles. The first building, traditionally dedicated in 509 BC,[30] has been claimed to have been almost 60 m × 60 m (200 ft × 200 ft), much larger than other Roman temples for centuries after, although its size is heavily disputed by specialists. Whatever its size, its influence on other early Roman temples was significant and long-lasting.[31] The same may have been true for the later rebuildings, though here the influence is harder to trace. For the first temple Etruscan specialists were brought in for various aspects of the building, including making and painting the extensive terracotta elements of the entablature or upper parts, such as antefixes.[32] But for the second building they were summoned from Greece. Rebuildings after destruction by fire were completed in 69 BC, 75 AD, and in the 80s AD, under Domitian – the third building only lasted five years before burning down again. After a major sacking by Vandals in 455, and comprehensive removal of stone in the Renaissance, only foundations can now be seen, in the basement of the Capitoline Museums.[33] The sculptor Flaminio Vacca (d 1605) claimed that the life-size Medici lion he carved to match a Roman survival, now in Florence, was made from a single capital from the temple.[34] Substantial survivals[edit] Further information: List of Ancient Roman temples Temple of Bacchus at Baalbek, Lebanon View of the Temple of Romulus, from the Palatine Hill. The Temple of Apollo in Pompeii. Mount Vesuvius is to the far left. Roman temple of Vic, part original, with parts restored Ceiling of Temple of Jupiter, Diocletian's Palace, Split Reconstruction of Pagans Hill Roman Temple, Somerset, a Romano-Celtic temple Temple of Saturn, Roman Forum, 8 impressive columns and architrave remain standing Capitoleum of Dougga, Tunisia Most of the best survivals had been converted to churches (and sometimes later mosques), which some remain. Often the porticos were walled in between the columns, and the original cella front and side walls largely removed to create a large single space in the interior. Rural areas in the Islamic world have some good remains, which had been left largely undisturbed. In Spain some remarkable discoveries (Vic, Cordoba, Barcelona) were made in the 19th century when old buildings being reconstructed or demolished were found to contain major remains encased in later buildings. In Rome, Pula, and elsewhere some walls incorporated in later buildings have always been evident. The squared-off blocks of temple walls have always been attractive for later builders to reuse, while the large pieces of massive columns were less easy to remove and make use of; hence the podium, minus facing, and some columns are often all that remain. In most cases loose pieces of stone have been removed from the site, and some such as capitals may be found in local museums, along with non-architectural items excavated, such as terracotta votive statuettes or amulets, which are often found in large numbers.[35] Very little indeed survives in place from the significant quantities of large sculpture that originally decorated temples.[36] Rome Pantheon or Temple to All The Gods, unique among Roman temples, but later much imitated. Easily the most impressive and complete interior to survive. Temple of Hercules Victor, early circular temple, largely complete Temple of Portunus or "Temple of Fortuna Virilis" – very complete Ionic exterior, near Santa Maria in Cosmedin and the Temple of Romulus Temple of Romulus – very complete circular exterior, early 4th century, Roman Forum Temple of Antoninus and Faustina – the core of the building survives as a church, including parts of the frieze, Roman Forum Temple of Hadrian – Campus Martius – a huge wall with 11 columns, now incorporated in a later building Temple of Vesta – small circular temple, part complete, Roman Forum Temple of Saturn – 8 impressive columns and architrave remain standing, west end of the Roman Forum Temple of Bellona (Ostia) – small back-street all-brick temple at the port. Elsewhere Palestrina, Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia, (see above) a large complex leading to a small shrine Temple of Apollo (Pompeii), unusually, it is the smaller elements that are best preserved, and the surrounding forum Temple of Vesta – Tivoli, so-called, circular Capitolium of Brixia, Brescia, buried by a landslide and partly reconstructed Maison Carrée – Nîmes, Southern France, one of the most complete survivals Temple of Augustus and Livia – Vienne, France, exterior largely complete Temple of Augustus (Pula) – Pula, Croatia, largely complete (illustrated above); a large wall from another temple forms part of the town hall next door. Roman Temple of Évora – Évora, Portugal, impressive partial remains of a small temple; podium and columns, but no cella. Temple of Jupiter in Diocletian's Palace, Split, Croatia. Small but very complete, amid other Roman buildings, c. 300. Most unusually, the barrel ceiling is intact. Roman temple of Alcántara, Spain, tiny but complete Roman temple of Vic, Spain. Substantially rebuilt, after it was found covered by a castle. Roman temple of Córdoba, Spain. Base and 11 Corinthian columns, found inside later buildings. Temple of Bacchus, Baalbek, Lebanon, a famous exotic "Baroque" pilgrimage destination, very largely preserved, including the interior.[37] Temples of Jupiter and Venus, Baalbek Temple of Artemis (Jerash), Jordan; partial remains of two other temples Sbeitla, Tunisia, three small temples in a row on the forum, many other city ruins. Dougga, Tunisia, several temples in extensive city ruins, two with substantial remains. See also[edit] List of Ancient Greek temples Temple for other religious traditions Notes[edit] ^ a b Summerson (1980), 25 ^ Sarah Iles Johnston (2004). Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide. Harvard University Press. p. 278. ISBN 0674015177. ^ Hans-Josef Klauck (2003). Religious Context of Early Christianity: A Guide To Graeco-Roman Religions (reprint ed.). A&C Black. p. 23. ISBN 0567089436. ^ a b Sear ^ Wheeler, 104–106; Sear ^ Stamper, 10 ^ Campbell, Jonathan. Roman Art and Architecture – from Augustus to Constantine. Pearson Education New Zealand. ISBN 978-0-582-73984-0. ^ Boardman, 255; Henig, 56 ^ Wheeler, 89; Henig, 56 ^ Henig, 56, Wheeler, 89 ^ Cook, R.M., Greek Art, plate 86 and caption, Penguin, 1986 (reprint of 1972), ISBN 0140218661 ^ 16 in a reconstruction drawing by G. Stephens, p. 38 in The Acropolis: Monuments and Museum, by G. Papathanassopoulos, Krene Editions, 1977 ^ Summerson (1980), 8–13 ^ Henig, 225 ^ Henig, 56–57; Wheeler, 100–104: Sear ^ Wheeler, 100–104; Sear ^ Wheeler, 97–106, 105 quoted. Originally, the "uncomfortable" junction was screened by a wall and less apparent. ^ Boardman, 256–257 ^ Henig, 55; Sear ^ The statues are all lost, but the base for the statue of Marcus Aurelius survives, and the inscriptions of seven of the nine are recorded in volume 6 of the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Jane Fejfer, Roman Portraits in Context (Walter de Gruyter, 2008), p. 86. ^ David M. Gwynn, "Archaeology and the 'Arian Controversy' in the Fourth Century," in Religious Diversity in Late Antiquity (Brill, 2010), p. 249. ^ Heathcote, Edwin, Review of Original Copies: Architectural Mimicry in Contemporary China, by Bianca Bosker, University of Hawaii Press, The Financial Times, January 25, 2013 ^ Anthony Grafton, Glenn W Most, Salvatore Settis, eds., The Classical Tradition, 927, 2010, Harvard University Press, ISBN 0674035720, 9780674035720, google books ^ Summerson (1980), captions to illustrations 21, 41, 42, 72–75 ^ Summerson (1988), 64–70 ^ Summerson (1980), 28. The Virginia State Capitol is specifically based on the Maison carre, but in a cheaper Ionic rather than Corinthian. ^ Summerson (1980), 25, 41–42, 49–51 ^ Summerson (1980), 38–39, 38 quoted ^ Summerson (1980), 38–39 ^ Ab urbe condita, 2.8 ^ Stamper, 33 and all Chapters 1 and 2. Stamper is a leading protagonist of a smaller size, rejecting the larger size proposed by the late Einar Gjerstad. ^ Stamper, 12–13 ^ Stamper, 14–15, 33 and all Chapters 1 and 2; Rykwert, Joseph, The Dancing Column: On Order in Architecture, 357–360, 1998, MIT Press, ISBN 0262681013, 9780262681018, google books; Entry on "Aedes Iovis Optimi Maximi Capitolini" from A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome, by Samuel Ball Platner (as completed and revised by Thomas Ashby), Oxford University Press, 1929 ^ Stamper, 15 ^ Vickers, Michael, Ancient Rome, Preface, 1989, Elsevier-Phaidon; Henig, 191–199 ^ Strong, 48 ^ Wheeler, 93–96 References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ancient Roman temples. "EERA" = Boëthius, Axel, Ling, Roger, Rasmussen, Tom, Etruscan and Early Roman Architecture, Yale/Pelican history of art, 1978, Yale University Press, ISBN 0300052901, 9780300052909, google books Henig, Martin (ed.), A Handbook of Roman Art, Phaidon, 1983, ISBN 0714822140 Sear, F. B., "Architecture, 1, a) Religious", section in Diane Favro, et al. "Rome, ancient." Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press, accessed March 26, 2016, subscription required Stamper, John, The architecture of Roman temples: the republic to the middle empire, Cambridge University Press, 2005 Strong, Donald, et al., Roman Art, 1995 (2nd edn.), Yale University Press (Penguin/Yale History of Art), ISBN 0300052936 Summerson, John (1980), The Classical Language of Architecture, 1980 edition, Thames and Hudson World of Art series, ISBN 0-500-20177-3 Summerson, John (1988), Georgian London, (1945), 1988 revised edition, Barrie & Jenkins, ISBN 0712620958. (Also see revised edition, edited by Howard Colvin, 2003) Wheeler, Mortimer, Roman Art and Architecture, 1964, Thames and Hudson (World of Art), ISBN 0500200211 Further reading[edit] Anderson, James C. 1997. Roman architecture and society. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press. Bailey, Donald. M. 1990. "Classical architecture in Egypt." In Architecture and architectural sculpture in the Roman Empire. Edited by Martin Henig, 121–137. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Committee for Archaeology. Barton, Ian M. 1982. "Capitoline temples in Italy and the provinces." In Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt (ANRW) Vol. 2.12.1. Edited by Hildegard Temporini, 259–342. Berlin and New York: de Gruyter. Claridge, Amanda, Rome (Oxford Archaeological Guides), 1998, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0192880039 Grasshoff, Gerd, Michael Heinzelmann, and Markus Wäfler, eds. 2009. The Pantheon in Rome: Contributions to the conference, Bern, November 9–12, 2006. Bern, Switzerland: Bern Studies. Hetland, Lisa. 2007. "Dating the Pantheon." Journal of Roman Archaeology 20:95–112. Johnson, Peter and Ian Haynes eds. 1996. Architecture in Roman Britain. Papers presented at a conference organized by the Roman Research Trust and held at the Museum of London in November 1991. York, UK: Council for British Archaeology. MacDonald, W. L. 1976. The Pantheon: Design, meaning, and progeny. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press. --. 1982. The architecture of the Roman Empire: An introductory study. 2d rev. ed. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press. Mierse, William E. 1999. Temples and towns in Roman Iberia: The social and architectural dynamics of sanctuary designs from the third century B.C. to the third century A.D. Berkeley and Los Angeles: Univ. of California Press. North, John A. 2000. Roman Religion. Oxford: Oxford University Press for the Classical Association. Sear, Frank. 1982. Roman architecture. London: Batsford. Thomas, Edmund V. 2007. Monumentality and the Roman Empire: Architecture in the Antonine age. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. 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and ritual Roman polytheism (List) Classical mythology Conversion to Christianity Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_temple&oldid=992919421" Categories: Ancient Roman temples Ancient Roman religion Religious architecture Ancient Roman architecture Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Català Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa 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en-wikipedia-org-4268	----	Sabines - Wikipedia Sabines From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Sabine) Jump to navigation Jump to search "Sabine" redirects here. For other uses, see Sabine (disambiguation). Ancient Italic people Sabine Statue of Semo Sancus from his shrine on the Quirinal Native to Sabinum Region Central Italy Extinct Only traces of vocabulary, mainly from Marcus Terentius Varro, 1st century BC Language family Indo-European Italic Osco-Umbrian Sabine Writing system Not written except as Latinized words Language codes ISO 639-3 sbv Linguist List sbv Glottolog sabi1245[1] Map showing the location of the Sabines. The border with Latium to the south was the Aniene river; however, it is possible that Sabines extended to Lake Regillus slightly to the south of it near Gabii. Part of a series on the History of Italy Early Prehistoric Italy Etruscan civilization (12th–6th c. BC) Magna Graecia (8th–3rd c. BC) Ancient Rome Kingdom (753 BC–509 BC) Republic (509 BC–27 BC) Empire (27 BC–286 AD) Roman Italy Western Empire (286 AD–476 AD) Praetorian prefecture of Italy Post-Roman Kingdoms Odoacer's 476-493 Ostrogothic 493-553 Vandal 435-534 Lombard (independence) 565-774 Lombard (under the Frankish rule) 774-885 Frankish (as part of the Carolingian Empire) 885-961 Germanic (as part of the Holy Roman Empire) 961-1801 Medieval Italy in the Middle Ages Byzantine reconquest of Italy (6th–8th c.) Islam and Normans in southern Italy Maritime republics and Italian city-states Guelphs and Ghibellines Early modern Italian Renaissance (14th–16th c.) Italian Wars (1494–1559) Catholic revival (1545-1648) Foreign dominations Napoleonic Italy (1801–1814) Republic Kingdom Risorgimento (1815–1871) Young Italy Thousand Modern Monarchy (1861–1946) Colonial Empire (1882–1960) Italy in World War I (1914–1918) Fascism (1922–1943) Italy in World War II (1940–1945) Fascist Italian Social Republic, Partisans and Civil War (1943–1945) Republic (1946–present) Years of Lead (1970s–1980s) Maxi Trial (1986–1992) Mani pulite (1992–2001) Great Recession (2007–2009) European migrant crisis (2014–present) Coronavirus pandemic (2019–present) By topic List of historic states Citizenship Currency Economy Fashion Genetic Military Music Postage Railway Timeline  Italy portal v t e The Sabines (/ˈseɪbaɪnz/; Latin: Sabini; Ancient Greek: Σαβῖνοι Sabĩnoi; Italian: Sabini, all exonyms) were an Italic people that lived in the central Apennine Mountains of ancient Italy, also inhabiting Latium north of the Anio before the founding of Rome. The Sabines divided into two populations just after the founding of Rome, which is described by Roman legend. The division, however it came about, is not legendary. The population closer to Rome transplanted itself to the new city and united with the preexisting citizenry, beginning a new heritage that descended from the Sabines but was also Latinized. The second population remained a mountain tribal state, coming finally to war against Rome for its independence along with all the other Italic tribes. After losing, it became assimilated into the Roman Republic. Contents 1 Language 2 Historical geography 3 Origins 3.1 Literary evidence 4 At Rome 4.1 Legend of the Sabine women 4.2 Traditions 4.3 Religion 5 State 6 Prominent Sabines 6.1 Gentes of Sabine origin 6.2 Romans of Sabine ancestry 7 See also 8 References 9 Sources 9.1 Ancient 9.2 Modern 10 Further reading Language[edit] There is little record of the Sabine language; however, there are some glosses by ancient commentators, and one or two inscriptions have been tentatively identified as Sabine. There are also personal names in use on Latin inscriptions from the Sabine country, but these are given in Latin form. Robert Seymour Conway, in his Italic Dialects, gives approximately 100 words which vary from being well-attested as Sabine to being possibly of Sabine origin. In addition to these he cites place names derived from the Sabine, sometimes giving attempts at reconstructions of the Sabine form.[2] Based on all the evidence, the Linguist List tentatively classifies Sabine as a member of the Umbrian group of Italic languages of the Indo-European family. Historical geography[edit] Latin-speakers called the Sabines' original territory, straddling the modern regions of Lazio, Umbria, and Abruzzo, Sabinum. To this day[update], it bears the ancient tribe's name in the Italian form of Sabina. Within the modern region of Lazio (or Latium), Sabina constitutes a sub-region, situated north-east of Rome, around Rieti. Origins[edit] The Sabine hills in the middle of Sabina Literary evidence[edit] According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, many Roman historians (including Porcius Cato and Gaius Sempronius) regarded the origins of indigenous Romans to be Greek, even though their knowledge was derived from Greek legendary accounts.[3] Dionysius regarded Lista as the mother-city of the Aborigines.[4] Ancient historians debated the specific origins of the Sabines. Zenodotus of Troezen claimed that the Sabines were originally Umbrians that changed their name after being driven from the Reatine territory by the Pelasgians. However, Porcius Cato argued that the Sabines were a populace named after Sabus, the son of Sancus (a divinity of the area sometimes called Jupiter Fidius).[5] In another account mentioned in Dionysius's work, a group of Lacedaemonians fled Sparta since they regarded the laws of Lycurgus as too severe. In Italy, they founded the Spartan colony of Foronia (near the Pomentine plains) and some from that colony settled among the Sabines. According to the account, the Sabine habits of belligerence (aggressive or warlike behavior) and frugality (prudence in avoiding waste) were known to have derived from the Spartans.[6] Plutarch also mentions, in the Life of Numa Pompilius, "Sabines, who declare themselves to be a colony of the Lacedaemonians". Plutarch also wrote that the Pythagoras of Sparta, who was Olympic victor in the foot-race, helped Numa arrange the government of the city and many Spartan customs introduced by him to the Numa and the people.[7] At Rome[edit] Legend of the Sabine women[edit] Main article: The Rape of the Sabine Women The linguistic landscape of Central Italy at the beginning of Roman expansion Legend says that the Romans abducted Sabine women to populate the newly built Rome. The resultant war ended only by the women throwing themselves and their children between the armies of their fathers and their husbands. The Rape of the Sabine Women became a common motif in art; the women ending the war is a less frequent but still reappearing motif. According to Livy, after the conflict, the Sabine and Roman states merged, and the Sabine king Titus Tatius jointly ruled Rome with Romulus until Tatius' death five years later. Three new centuries of Equites were introduced at Rome, including one named Tatienses, after the Sabine king. A variation of the story is recounted in the pseudepigraphal Sefer haYashar (see Jasher 17:1–15). Traditions[edit] Tradition suggests that the population of the early Roman kingdom was the result of a union of Sabines and others. Some of the gentes of the Roman republic were proud of their Sabine heritage, such as the Claudia gens, assuming Sabinus as a cognomen or agnomen. Some specifically Sabine deities and cults were known at Rome: Semo Sancus and Quirinus, and at least one area of the town, the Quirinale, where the temples to those latter deities were located, had once been a Sabine centre. The extravagant claims of Varro and Cicero that augury, divination by dreams and the worship of Minerva and Mars originated with the Sabines are disputable, as they were general Italic and Latin customs, as well as Etruscan, even though they were espoused by Numa Pompilius, second king of Rome and a Sabine.[8] Religion[edit] Dius Fidius Feronia Ops Quirinus Sabus Sancus Soranus Vacuna Varro's list of Sabine gods Flora State[edit] Main article: Roman–Sabine wars During the expansion of ancient Rome, there were a series of conflicts with the Sabines. Manius Curius Dentatus conquered the Sabines in 290 BC. The citizenship without the right of suffrage was given to the Sabines in the same year.[9] The right of suffrage was granted to the Sabines in 268 BC.[10] Prominent Sabines[edit] Gentes of Sabine origin[edit] Aemilia gens – Patrician Aurelia gens Calpurnia gens Calvisia gens Claudia gens – Patrician Curtia (gens) – Patrician Flavia gens Ligaria (gens) Marcia gens – Patrician Minatia (gens) Oppia gens – Patrician Opsia gens Ostoria gens Pantuleia (gens) Petronia gens Pinaria gens Pompilia gens Pomponia gens Poppaea (gens) Quirinia gens Rania gens Rubellia gens Sabinia gens Safinia gens Sallustia gens Saturia gens Sertoria gens Sicinia gens Tarpeia gens – Patrician Tineia gens Titia gens Valeria gens – Patrician Romans of Sabine ancestry[edit] Titus Tatius, legendary King of the Sabines Numa Pompilius, legendary King of Rome Ancus Marcius, legendary King of Rome Quintus Sertorius, republican general Attius Clausus, founder of the Roman Claudia gens Gaius Sallustius Crispus, Roman writer Marcus Terentius Varro, Roman scholar Vespasian, Roman emperor and founder of the Flavian dynasty See also[edit] Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Sabini. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rape of the Sabine Women. For a list of words relating to Sabine language, see the Sabine language category of words in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Library resources about Sabines Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Ancient peoples of Italy Hostus Hostilius References[edit] ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Sabine". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. ^ Conway, Robert Seymour (1897). The Italic Dialects Edited with a Grammar and Glossary. Cambridge: University Press. pp. 351–369. ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus. "Book 1.11". Roman Antiquities. But the most learned of the Roman historians, among whom is Porcius Cato, who compiled with the greatest care the "origins" of the Italian cities, Gaius Sempronius and a great many others say that they [Aborigines] were Greeks, part of those who once dwelt in Achaia, and that they migrated many generations before the Trojan war. But they do not name the Greek tribe or city they belonged to, or the date or the leader of the colony, or what made them leave their mother country. Though they follow a Greek legend, they cite no Greek historian as their authority. It is uncertain, therefore, what the truth of the matter is. ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus. "Book I.14". Roman Antiquities. Twenty-four stades from the afore-mentioned city stood Lista, the mother-city of the Aborigines, which at a still earlier time the Sabines had captured by a surprise attack, having set out against it from Amiternum by night. ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus. "Book II.49". Roman Antiquities. But Zenodotus of Troezen, a...historian, relates that the Umbrians, a native race, first dwelt in the Reatine territory, as it is called, and that, being driven from there by the Pelasgians, they came into the country which they now inhabit and changing their name with their place of habitation, from Umbrians were called Sabines. But Porcius Cato says that the Sabine race received its name from Sabus, the son of Sancus, a divinity of that country, and that this Sancus was by some called Jupiter Fidius. ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus. "Book II.49". Roman Antiquities. There is also another account given of the Sabines in the native histories, to the effect that a colony of Lacedaemonians settled among them at the time when Lycurgus, being guardian to his nephew Eunomus, gave his laws to Sparta. For the story goes that some of the Spartans, disliking the severity of his laws and separating from the rest, quit the city entirely, and after being borne through a vast stretch of sea, made a vow to the gods to settle in the first land they should reach; for a longing came upon them for any land whatsoever. At last they made that part of Italy which lies near the Pomentine plains and they called the place where they first landed Foronia, in memory of their being borne through the sea, and built a temple to the goddess Foronia, to whom they had addressed their vows; this goddess, by the alteration of one letter, they now call Feronia. And some of them, setting out from thence, settled among the Sabines. It is for this reason, they say, that many of the habits of the Sabines are Spartan, particularly their fondness for war and their frugality and a severity in all the actions of their lives. But this is enough about the Sabine race. ^ Plutarch. "1". Numa. Pythagoras, the Spartan, who was Olympic victor in the foot-race for the sixteenth Olympiad (in the third year of which Numa was made king), and that in his wanderings about Italy he made the acquaintance of Numa, and helped him arrange the government of the city, whence it came about that many Spartan customs were mingled with the Roman, as Pythagoras taught them to Numa. And at all events, Numa was of Sabine descent, and the Sabines will have it that they were colonists from Lacedaemon. Chronology, however, is hard to fix, and especially that which is based upon the names of victors in the Olympic games, the list of which is said to have been published at a late period by Hippias of Elis, who had no fully authoritative basis for his work. I shall therefore begin at a convenient point, and relate the noteworthy facts which I have found in the life of Numa. ^ Bunbury, Edward Herbert (1857). "Sabini". In Smith, William (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman geography. Volume II Iabadius—Zymethus. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. ^ Velleius Paterculus 1.14.6 ^ Velleius Paterculus 1.14.7 Sources[edit] Ancient[edit] Ovid, Fasti (Book III, 167–258) Ovid, Ars Amatoria (Book I, 102) Livy, Ab urbe condita (Book I, 9–14) Cicero, De Republica (Book II, 12–14) Plutarch, Parallel Lives (Romulus, 14–20) Juvenal, Satires (Book III, 81–85) Modern[edit] Donaldson, John William (1860). "Chapter IV: The Sabello-Oscan Language". Varronianus: a critical and historical introduction to the ethnography of ancient Italy and the philological study of the Latin language. London: John W. Parker and Son. Further reading[edit] Brown, Robert. "Livy's Sabine Women and the Ideal of Concordia." Transactions of the American Philological Association 125 (1995): 291-319. doi:10.2307/284357. MacLachlan, Bonnie. Women In Ancient Rome: A Sourcebook. London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2013. v t e Lazio Provinces and places Frosinone Latina Rieti Rome Viterbo List of communes History Latins Latium Ancient Rome Papal States Roman Republic (18th century) Roman Republic (19th century) Lakes Lake Albano Lake Bolsena Lake Bracciano Lago di Canterno Lago di Caprolace Lago di Fondi Lago di Giulianello Lake Martignano Lake Mezzano Lago dei Monaci Lake Nemi Lago di Posta Fibreno Lago di Rascino Lago di Sabaudia Lago del Salto Lago del Turano Lake Vico Mountains Seven hills of Rome Alban Hills Aurunci Mountains Monti Ausoni Monte Cavo Cimini Hills Monti Ernici Monte Gorzano Monti della Laga Monti Lepini Monti della Meta Monte Petrella Monti Prenestini Monti Sabatini Monti Sabini Monte Soratte Monte Terminillo Monti della Tolfa Monti Volsini Monte Cassino Monte Abate Monte Altino Monte Appiolo Maschio dell'Ariano Maschio di Lariano Monte Artemisio Monte Autore Monte Carbonaro Monte Cefalo Cima del Redentore (monti Aurunci) Circeo Monte Crispi Monte Dragone Monte Faggeto Monte Fammera Mont Fogliano Monte Fusco Monte Guadagnolo Monte Lauro in Gaeta Monte Lauzo Le Rave Fosche Monte Livata Mainarde Maschio delle Faete Meta (monte) Monna Monte Caira Monte Cervello Monte Revole Monte Sorgenze Monte Trina Monte Val de' Varri – Monte Faito – Monte San Nicola Monte di Cambio Monte le Pezze Parco regionale urbano Monte Orlando Monte Orso Monte Pizzuto Monte Ruazzo Geography Castelli Romani Valle Latina Pontine marshes Roman Campagna Sabina Tiber Tuscia Politics Elections in Lazio List of Presidents of Lazio Culture Flag Categories v t e Italic languages Latino-Faliscan Latin Faliscan Praenestinian Lanuvian Osco-Umbrian Oscan Umbrian Volscian Sabine South Picene Marsian Paeligni Hernican Marrucinian Pre-Samnite Unknown Sicel? (possibly not Italic) Venetic? (possibly Celtic, transitional or independent) Aequian Vestinian Lusitanian? (possibly Celtic) Reconstructed Proto-Italic language All Italic languages except Latin (and its descendants) are now extinct; Latin is still used as a liturgical language of the Catholic Church. Authority control NKC: xx0115320 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sabines&oldid=995081101" Categories: Sabines History of Abruzzo History of Lazio History of Umbria Hidden categories: CS1: long volume value Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Language articles with unreferenced extinction date Articles containing Latin-language text Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Italian-language text Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2008 All articles containing potentially dated statements Commons category link is locally defined Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Alemannisch العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 19 December 2020, at 03:09 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4282	----	Ut queant laxis - Wikipedia Ut queant laxis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search A version of "Ut queant laxis" "Ut queant laxis" or "Hymnus in Ioannem" is a Latin hymn in honor of John the Baptist, written in Horatian Sapphics[1] and traditionally attributed to Paulus Diaconus, the eighth-century Lombard historian. It is famous for its part in the history of musical notation, in particular solmization. The hymn belongs to the tradition of Gregorian chant. It is not known who wrote the melody. Guido of Arezzo possibly composed it,[2] but he more likely used an existing melody. A variant of the melody appears in an eleventh-century musical setting of Horace's poem Ode to Phyllis (4.11) recorded in a manuscript in France.[3] Contents 1 Structure 2 Liturgical use 3 See also 4 References 5 External links Structure[edit] The hymn uses classical metres: the Sapphic stanza consisting of three Sapphic hendecasyllables followed by an adonius (a type of dimeter). The chant is useful for teaching singing because of the way it uses successive notes of the scale: the first six musical phrases of each stanza begin on a successively higher notes of the hexachord, giving ut–re–mi–fa–so–la; though ut is replaced by do in modern solfège. The naming of the notes of the hexachord by the first syllable of each hemistich (half line of verse) of the first verse is usually attributed to Guido of Arezzo. Guido, who was active in the eleventh century, is regarded as the father of modern musical notation. He made use of clefs (C & F clefs) and invented the ut-re-mi-fa-sol-la notation. The hymn does not help with the seventh tone as the last line, Sancte Iohannes, breaks the ascending pattern. The syllable si, for the seventh tone, was added in the 18th century. The first stanza is: Ut queant laxis First verse of the hymn (Gregorian chant) Problems playing this file? See media help. Ut queant laxīs resonāre fibrīs Mīra gestōrum famulī tuōrum, Solve pollūtī labiī reātum, Sāncte Iōhannēs. It may be translated: So that your servants may, with loosened voices, resound the wonders of your deeds, clean the guilt from our stained lips, O Saint John. A paraphrase by Cecile Gertken, OSB (1902–2001) preserves the key syllables and loosely evokes the original meter: Do let our voices resonate most purely, miracles telling, far greater than many; so let our tongues be lavish in your praises, Saint John the Baptist.[4] Ut is now mostly replaced by Do in solfège due to the latter's open sound, in deference to Italian theorist Giovanni Battista Doni.[5] The word "Ut" is still in use to name the C-clef. The seventh note was not part of the medieval hexachord and does not occur in this melody, and it was originally called "si" from "Sancte Ioannes" (Johannes).[2] In the nineteenth century, Sarah Glover, an English music teacher, renamed "si" to "ti" so that every syllable might be notated by its initial letter. But this was not adopted in countries using fixed-do systems: in Romance languages "si" is used alike for B and B flat, and no separate syllable is required for sharp "sol". Melody Problems playing this file? See media help. Liturgical use[edit] In the Roman Rite, the hymn is sung in the Divine Office on June 24, the Feast of the Nativity of John the Baptist. The full hymn is divided into three parts, with "Ut queant laxis" sung at Vespers, "Antra deserti" sung at Matins, "O nimis felix" sung at Lauds, and doxologies added after the first two parts. See also[edit] Diatonic and chromatic Do-Re-Mi (song). The lyrics teach the solfege syllables by linking them with English homophones (or near-homophones) Gamut Guidonian hand Solmization References[edit] ^ Stuart Lyons, Music in the Odes of Horace (2010), Oxford, Aris & Phillips, ISBN 978-0-85668-844-7 ^ a b (in French) Ut queant laxis in Encyclopédie Larousse ^ This manuscript H425 is held in Bibliothèque de l'école de Médecine, Montpellier. ^ Gertken, Cecile: Feasts and Saints, 1981 ^ McNaught, W. G. (1893). "The History and Uses of the Sol-fa Syllables". Proceedings of the Musical Association. London: Novello, Ewer and Co. 19: 43. ISSN 0958-8442. Retrieved 2010-12-12. External links[edit] Wikisource has original text related to this article: Catholic Encyclopedia (1913): "Ut queant laxis resonare fibris" by Hugh Thomas Henry Full text, translation and some polyphonic settings at Choral Public Domain Library a short account at Catholicculture.org An alternative translation Catholic Encyclopedia article Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ut_queant_laxis&oldid=996719982" Categories: 11th century in music Latin-language Christian hymns Hidden categories: Articles with French-language sources (fr) Articles containing Latin-language text Articles with hAudio microformats Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara 한국어 Հայերեն Italiano Latina 日本語 Português Русский Suomi Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 28 December 2020, at 07:08 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4294	----	Palinurus - Wikipedia Palinurus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Palinurus (disambiguation). Palinurus (Palinūrus), in Roman mythology and especially Virgil's Aeneid, is the helmsman of Aeneas's ship. Later authors used him as a general type of navigator or guide. Contents 1 Palinurus in the Aeneid 2 Later references 3 See also 4 References Palinurus in the Aeneid[edit] Cape Palinuro: "Those living near will build you a mound. Through the remainder of time that site will be named Palinurus" (Aeneid 6.378-81). In Book 3, which tells of the Trojans' wanderings after The Fall of Troy, he is singled out as an experienced navigator.[1] In Book 5, when the Trojans have left Carthage, he advises Aeneas to forestall sailing to Italy and to wait out a terrible storm on Sicily, where they hold the funeral games honoring Aeneas's father, Anchises. After they leave Sicily for Italy, Palinurus, at the helm of Aeneas's ship and leading the fleet, is singled out by Virgil in second person[2] when it becomes clear that he is the one whom the gods will sacrifice to guarantee safe passage to Italy for the Trojans: unum pro multis dabitur caput, "one single life shall be offered to save many." Drugged by the god of sleep, he falls overboard;[3] Aeneas takes over the helm and, unaware of the gods' influence, accuses Palinurus of complacency: "You, Palinurus, placed too much trust in the sky and the ocean's / Calm. You'll lie naked and dead on the sands of an unknown seashore."[4][5] Aeneas next encounters Palinurus in the underworld, before he crosses Cocytus (which the ghosts of the unburied dead cannot cross into the underworld proper), where he asks how it came to be that he died despite a prophecy from Apollo, that he would reach Italy unscathed. Palinurus responds that he survived the plunge into the sea and washed ashore after four days near Velia, and was killed there and left unburied. The Cumaean Sibyl, who has guided Aeneas into the underworld, predicts that locals will come and build him a mound; the place will be named Cape Palinuro in his honor.[6][7] Later references[edit] One of Martial's epigrams (3.78) plays on Palinurus's name by turning it into an obscene pun: Minxisti currente semel, Pauline, carina. Meiere vis iterum? Iam Palinurus eris. ("You pissed one time, Paulinus, as the ship hurried along. / Do you want to piss again? Then you'll be Palinurus.") "Palinurus" is assigned a humorous etymology, as though it were derived from πάλιν ("again") and the root of οὐρέω ("to urinate"), thus πάλιν-οὖρος ("again-pisser"). In the early thirteenth century, William the Breton compared Christ to Palinurus in the "Invocatio divini auxilii" of his epic poem, the Philippide, stating "You are the path, You are my guide, You are the ship, You are my Palinurus. Make my passage through the rough seas safe for me."[8] In the fifteenth century, Maffeo Vegio, famous for his continuations of the Aeneid, published a dialogue of the dead (in the vein of Lucian's Dialogi Mortuorum), Palinurus or On Happiness and Misery, consisting of a dialogue between Palinurus and Charon, in which Palinurus plays the part of the young man who bemoans his lot, while Charon, an older and wiser character, expounds on Stoic philosophy.[9] Since the nineteenth century, scholars have recognized that in Dante's Purgatorio Palinurus can be identified (though he is never named) with Manfred, King of Sicily, whom Dante and Virgil meet in Canto 3.[10] Palinurus here stands for the dead soul who cannot be at rest (in Virgil's scheme, cross the river Cocytus; in Dante's, cross Acheron) because his bones are unburied: Manfred's remains, after being covered by a mound of stones, is disinterred by order of the Catholic Church because he had been excommunicated (by no fewer than three successive popes).[11] Canto 3, the canto of the "sheepfold of the excommunicates",[11] discusses the problem of the body and the soul (Dante's character casts a shadow at the foot of Mount Purgatory, in contrast to the bodiless souls that populate purgatory) and the concept of exclusion (from "physical burial,...safety, the sacraments of the church,...divine grace absolutely").[12] It opens with Virgil mentioning his own burial and the translation of his body from Brindisi to Naples, drawing a connection between Virgil himself and Palinurus. Worse than Palinurus, who can be at rest after he is reburied, Virgil's soul can never be at ease since he was unbaptized and thus is eternally "suspended" in Limbo.[10] Christian commentators saw "an anticipation of the sacrifice of Christ" in Palinurus--unum pro multis dabitur caput prefigures the biblical "that one man should die for the people" (John 11:50).[12] Palinurus's request to Aeneas, "save me from this vile doom",[13] "resonates with the Catholic liturgy" in the Latin translation of Psalm 58, "Deliver me, Lord, from my enemies."[12] Palinurus is mentioned in Utopia by Sir Thomas More as a type of careless traveler. "'Then you're not quite right,' he replied, 'for his sailing has not been like that of Palinurus, but more that of Ulysses, or rather of Plato. This man, who is named Raphael.'"[14] Sir Walter Scott made reference to Palinurus in his Marmion, comparing him to William Pitt the Younger, who had died while Scott was working on the poem.[5] The name Palinurus was the pseudonym adopted by Cyril Connolly for The Unquiet Grave.[15] During the 1830s the East India Company had a ship named "Palinurus" surveying the coast of Arabia.[16] H. P. Lovecraft references Palinurus, probably via Dante, in The Tomb. The connection is made clearer through the opening quote of the story, which is from the Aeneid. In W.S. Merwin's 1952 debut collection A Mask for Janus, there is a short, four line poem entitled "The Bones of Palinurus Pray to the North Star." Peter Hammill, the British singer, did a song called "Palinurus (Castaway)" on his album The Future Now, produced in 1978. The Swedish band Trettioåriga Kriget has a song about Palinurus, titled "Behold the pilot" on their 2016 album Seaside air. See also[edit] 4832 Palinurus, Jovian asteroid References[edit] Notes ^ Virgil's Aeneid 3.202, 515. ^ Virgil's Aeneid 5.840. ^ Virgil's Aeneid 5.857-8. ^ Virgil's Aeneid 5.870-1. ^ a b Bulfinch 353-54. ^ Virgil's Aeneid 6.337-83. ^ The Oxford Classical Dictionary 1100. ^ Stringer, Gregory. Book I of William the Breton's Philippide: A Translation. p. 75. ^ Marsh, David (1998). Lucian and the Latins: humor and humanism in the early Renaissance. U of Michigan P. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-472-10846-6. Retrieved 7 March 2012. ^ a b Martinez 598. ^ a b Kirkpatrick 21. ^ a b c Martinez 599. ^ Virgil's Aeneid 6.365. ^ More, Sir Thomas (1992). translated by Robert M. Adams (ed.). Utopia (2nd ed.). p. 5. ^ Orwell 318-20. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2015-06-18. Retrieved 2014-11-21.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) Bibliography Frederick Ahl (trans.), ed. (2007). Virgil's Aeneid. Oxford UP. ISBN 978-0-19-923195-9. Bulfinch, Thomas (1872). "Palinurus". The age of fable; or, Beauties of mythology. J.E. Tilton & co. pp. 353–54. Retrieved 7 February 2012. Hornblower, Simon and Antony Spawforth, ed. (2003). The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford UP. p. 1100. ISBN 0-19-860641-9. Martinez, Robert M. (2003). "Vergil's Palinurus in Purgatorio and the Rudderless Ship of State". In Robert M. Durling (ed.). The Divine Comedy of Dante Alighieri: Purgatorio. Robert M. Martinez. Oxford UP. pp. 597–600. ISBN 978-0-19-508741-3. Retrieved 7 February 2012. Orwell, George (2000-08-01). Sonia Orwell (ed.). The Collected Essays, Journalism, & Letters, George Orwell: As I please, 1943-1945. Ian Angus. Godine. pp. 318–20. ISBN 978-1-56792-135-9. Retrieved 7 February 2012. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Palinurus&oldid=994979468" Categories: Roman mythology Characters in the Aeneid Hidden categories: CS1 maint: archived copy as title Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Dansk Deutsch Español Français Galego Italiano Latina Nederlands Polski Português Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 18 December 2020, at 15:28 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. 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en-wikipedia-org-4273	----	Rome - Wikipedia Rome From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the capital and largest city in Italy. For other uses, see Rome (disambiguation) and Roma (disambiguation). Capital city of Italy Capital city and comune in Italy Rome Roma Capital city and comune Roma Capitale Clockwise from top: the Colosseum, St. Peter's Basilica, Castel Sant'Angelo, Ponte Sant'Angelo, Trevi Fountain and the Pantheon Flag Coat of arms Etymology: Possibly Etruscan: Rumon, lit. 'river' (See Etymology). Nickname(s): Urbs Aeterna (Latin) The Eternal City Caput Mundi (Latin) The Capital of the world Throne of St. Peter The territory of the comune (Roma Capitale, in red) inside the Metropolitan City of Rome (Città Metropolitana di Roma, in yellow). The white area in the centre is Vatican City. Rome Location within Italy Show map of Italy Rome Location within Europe Show map of Europe Coordinates: 41°53′N 12°30′E / 41.883°N 12.500°E / 41.883; 12.500Coordinates: 41°53′N 12°30′E / 41.883°N 12.500°E / 41.883; 12.500 Country Italy[a] Region  Lazio Metropolitan city Rome Founded c. 752 BC Founded by King Romulus Government  • Type Strong Mayor–Council  • Mayor Virginia Raggi (M5S)  • Legislature Capitoline Assembly Area  • Total 1,285 km2 (496.3 sq mi) Elevation 21 m (69 ft) Population (31 December 2019)  • Rank 1st in Italy (3rd in the EU)  • Density 2,236/km2 (5,790/sq mi)  • Comune 2,860,009[1]  • Metropolitan City 4,342,212[2] Demonym(s) Italian: romano (masculine), romana (feminine) English: Roman Time zone UTC+1 (CET) CAP code(s) 00100; 00118 to 00199 Area code(s) 06 Website comune.roma.it UNESCO World Heritage Site Official name Historic Centre of Rome, the Properties of the Holy See in that City Enjoying Extraterritorial Rights and San Paolo Fuori le Mura Reference 91 Inscription 1980 (4th session) Area 1,431 ha (3,540 acres) Rome (Italian and Latin: Roma [ˈroːma] (listen)) is the capital city and a special comune of Italy (named Comune di Roma Capitale), as well as the capital of the Lazio region. The city has been a major human settlement for almost three millennia. With 2,860,009 residents in 1,285 km2 (496.1 sq mi),[1] it is also the country's most populated comune. It is the third most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the centre of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4,355,725 residents, thus making it the most populous metropolitan city in Italy.[2] Its metropolitan area is the third-most populous within Italy.[3] Rome is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio (Latium), along the shores of the Tiber. Vatican City (the smallest country in the world)[4] is an independent country inside the city boundaries of Rome, the only existing example of a country within a city; for this reason Rome has sometimes been defined as the capital of two states.[5][6] Rome's history spans 28 centuries. While Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied cities in Europe.[7] The city's early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans, and Sabines. Eventually, the city successively became the capital of the Roman Kingdom, the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, and is regarded by many as the first ever Imperial city and metropolis.[8] It was first called The Eternal City (Latin: Urbs Aeterna; Italian: La Città Eterna) by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy.[9][10] Rome is also called "Caput Mundi" (Capital of the World). After the fall of the Empire in the west, which marked the beginning of the Middle Ages, Rome slowly fell under the political control of the Papacy, and in the 8th century it became the capital of the Papal States, which lasted until 1870. Beginning with the Renaissance, almost all popes since Nicholas V (1447–1455) pursued a coherent architectural and urban programme over four hundred years, aimed at making the city the artistic and cultural centre of the world.[11] In this way, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Renaissance,[12] and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, creating masterpieces throughout the city. In 1871, Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, which, in 1946, became the Italian Republic. In 2019, Rome was the 11th most visited city in the world with 10.1 million tourists, the third most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist destination in Italy.[13] Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site.[14] Host city for the 1960 Summer Olympics, Rome is also the seat of several specialised agencies of the United Nations, such as the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the World Food Programme (WFP) and the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). The city also hosts the Secretariat of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Union for the Mediterranean[15] (UfM) as well as the headquarters of many international business companies such as Eni, Enel, TIM, Leonardo S.p.A., and national and international banks such as Unicredit and BNL. Rome's EUR business district is the home of many companies involved in the oil industry, the pharmaceutical industry, and financial services. The presence of renowned international brands in the city have made Rome an important centre of fashion and design, and the Cinecittà Studios have been the set of many Academy Award–winning movies.[16] Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Earliest history 2.1.1 Legend of the founding of Rome 2.2 Monarchy and republic 2.3 Empire 2.4 Middle Ages 2.5 Early modern history 2.6 Late modern and contemporary 3 Government 3.1 Local government 3.1.1 Administrative and historical subdivisions 3.2 Metropolitan and regional government 3.3 National government 4 Geography 4.1 Location 4.2 Topography 5 Climate 6 Demographics 6.1 Ethnic groups 6.2 Religion 6.3 Vatican City 7 Pilgrimage 8 Cityscape 8.1 Architecture 8.1.1 Ancient Rome 8.1.2 Medieval 8.1.3 Renaissance and Baroque 8.1.4 Neoclassicism 8.1.5 Fascist architecture 8.2 Parks and gardens 8.3 Fountains and aqueducts 8.4 Statues 8.5 Obelisks and columns 8.6 Bridges 8.7 Catacombs 9 Economy 10 Education 11 Culture 11.1 Entertainment and performing arts 11.2 Tourism 11.3 Fashion 11.4 Cuisine 11.5 Cinema 11.6 Language 12 Sports 13 Transport 14 International entities, organisations and involvement 15 International relations 15.1 Twin towns and sister cities 15.2 Other relationships 16 See also 17 Notes 18 References 19 Bibliography 20 External links Etymology[edit] Roman representation of Tiber as a god, Capitoline Hill in Rome According to the founding myth of the city by the Ancient Romans themselves,[17] the long-held tradition of the origin of the name Roma is believed to have come from the city's founder and first king, Romulus.[18] However, it is a possibility that the name Romulus was actually derived from Rome itself.[19] As early as the 4th century, there have been alternative theories proposed on the origin of the name Roma. Several hypotheses have been advanced focusing on its linguistic roots which however remain uncertain:[20] from Rumon or Rumen, archaic name of the Tiber, which in turn is supposedly related to the Greek verb ῥέω (rhéō) 'to flow, stream' and the Latin verb ruō 'to hurry, rush';[b] from the Etruscan word 𐌓𐌖𐌌𐌀 (ruma), whose root is *rum- "teat", with possible reference either to the totem wolf that adopted and suckled the cognately named twins Romulus and Remus, or to the shape of the Palatine and Aventine Hills; from the Greek word ῥώμη (rhṓmē), which means strength.[c] History[edit] Main articles: History of Rome and Timeline of the city of Rome Historical affiliations Latins (Italic tribe) c. 2nd millennium – 752 BC Albanis (Latins) 10th century – 752 BC (Foundation of the city) 9th–c. BC Roman Kingdom 752–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC  Roman Empire 27 BC–285 AD Western Roman Empire 285–476 Kingdom of Odoacer 476–493 Ostrogothic Kingdom 493–553 Eastern Roman Empire 553–754 Papal States 754–1870 Kingdom of Italy 1870–1946 Vatican City 1929–present Italian Republic 1946–present Earliest history[edit] Main article: Founding of Rome While there have been discoveries of archaeological evidence of human occupation of the Rome area from approximately 14,000 years ago, the dense layer of much younger debris obscures Palaeolithic and Neolithic sites.[7] Evidence of stone tools, pottery, and stone weapons attest to about 10,000 years of human presence. Several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the Bronze Age and the beginning of the Iron Age, each hill between the sea and the Capitol was topped by a village (on the Capitol Hill, a village is attested since the end of the 14th century BC).[21] However, none of them yet had an urban quality.[21] Nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city developed gradually through the aggregation ("synoecism") of several villages around the largest one, placed above the Palatine.[21] This aggregation was facilitated by the increase of agricultural productivity above the subsistence level, which also allowed the establishment of secondary and tertiary activities. These, in turn, boosted the development of trade with the Greek colonies of southern Italy (mainly Ischia and Cumae).[21] These developments, which according to archaeological evidence took place during the mid-eighth century BC, can be considered as the "birth" of the city.[21] Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome was founded deliberately in the middle of the eighth century BC, as the legend of Romulus suggests, remains a fringe hypothesis.[22] Legend of the founding of Rome[edit] Capitoline Wolf, a sculpture of the mythical she-wolf suckling the infant twins Romulus and Remus Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth. The most familiar of these myths, and perhaps the most famous of all Roman myths, is the story of Romulus and Remus, the twins who were suckled by a she-wolf.[17] They decided to build a city, but after an argument, Romulus killed his brother and the city took his name. According to the Roman annalists, this happened on 21 April 753 BC.[23] This legend had to be reconciled with a dual tradition, set earlier in time, that had the Trojan refugee Aeneas escape to Italy and found the line of Romans through his son Iulus, the namesake of the Julio-Claudian dynasty.[24] This was accomplished by the Roman poet Virgil in the first century BC. In addition, Strabo mentions an older story, that the city was an Arcadian colony founded by Evander. Strabo also writes that Lucius Coelius Antipater believed that Rome was founded by Greeks.[25][26] Monarchy and republic[edit] Main articles: Ancient Rome, Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic, and Roman Empire After the legendary foundation by Romulus,[23] Rome was ruled for a period of 244 years by a monarchical system, initially with sovereigns of Latin and Sabine origin, later by Etruscan kings. The tradition handed down seven kings: Romulus, Numa Pompilius, Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Marcius, Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius and Lucius Tarquinius Superbus.[23] The Ancient-Imperial-Roman palaces of the Palatine, a series of palaces located in the Palatine Hill, visibly express the power and wealth of emperors from Augustus until the 4th century. In 509 BC, the Romans expelled the last king from their city and established an oligarchic republic. Rome then began a period characterised by internal struggles between patricians (aristocrats) and plebeians (small landowners), and by constant warfare against the populations of central Italy: Etruscans, Latins, Volsci, Aequi, and Marsi.[27] After becoming master of Latium, Rome led several wars (against the Gauls, Osci-Samnites and the Greek colony of Taranto, allied with Pyrrhus, king of Epirus) whose result was the conquest of the Italian peninsula, from the central area up to Magna Graecia.[28] The third and second century BC saw the establishment of Roman hegemony over the Mediterranean and the Balkans, through the three Punic Wars (264–146 BC) fought against the city of Carthage and the three Macedonian Wars (212–168 BC) against Macedonia.[29] The first Roman provinces were established at this time: Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, Hispania, Macedonia, Achaea and Africa.[30] From the beginning of the 2nd century BC, power was contested between two groups of aristocrats: the optimates, representing the conservative part of the Senate, and the populares, which relied on the help of the plebs (urban lower class) to gain power. In the same period, the bankruptcy of the small farmers and the establishment of large slave estates caused large-scale migration to the city. The continuous warfare led to the establishment of a professional army, which turned out to be more loyal to its generals than to the republic. Because of this, in the second half of the second century and during the first century BC there were conflicts both abroad and internally: after the failed attempt of social reform of the populares Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus,[31] and the war against Jugurtha,[31] there was a first civil war between Gaius Marius and Sulla.[31] A major slave revolt under Spartacus followed,[32][32] and then the establishment of the first Triumvirate with Caesar, Pompey and Crassus.[32] The Imperial fora belong to a series of monumental fora (public squares) constructed in Rome by the emperors. Also seen in the image is Trajan's Market. The conquest of Gaul made Caesar immensely powerful and popular, which led to a second civil war against the Senate and Pompey. After his victory, Caesar established himself as dictator for life.[32] His assassination led to a second Triumvirate among Octavian (Caesar's grandnephew and heir), Mark Antony and Lepidus, and to another civil war between Octavian and Antony.[33] Empire[edit] In 27 BC, Octavian became princeps civitatis and took the title of Augustus, founding the principate, a diarchy between the princeps and the senate.[33] During the reign of Nero, two thirds of the city was ruined after the Great Fire of Rome, and the persecution of Christians commenced.[34][35][36] Rome was established as a de facto empire, which reached its greatest expansion in the second century under the Emperor Trajan. Rome was confirmed as caput Mundi, i.e. the capital of the known world, an expression which had already been used in the Republican period. During its first two centuries, the empire was ruled by emperors of the Julio-Claudian,[37] Flavian (who also built an eponymous amphitheatre, known as the Colosseum),[37] and Antonine dynasties.[38] This time was also characterised by the spread of the Christian religion, preached by Jesus Christ in Judea in the first half of the first century (under Tiberius) and popularised by his apostles through the empire and beyond.[39] The Antonine age is considered the apogee of the Empire, whose territory ranged from the Atlantic Ocean to the Euphrates and from Britain to Egypt.[38] The Roman Empire at its greatest extent in 117 AD, approximately 6.5 million square kilometres (2.5 million square miles)[40] of land surface. The Roman Forum are the remains of those buildings that during most of Ancient Rome's time represented the political, legal, religious and economic centre of the city and the neuralgic centre of all the Roman civilisation.[41] Trajan's Column, triumphal column and place where the relics of Emperor Trajan are placed. After the end of the Severan Dynasty in 235, the Empire entered into a 50-year period known as the Crisis of the Third Century during which there were numerous putsches by generals, who sought to secure the region of the empire they were entrusted with due to the weakness of central authority in Rome. There was the so-called Gallic Empire from 260 to 274 and the revolts of Zenobia and her father from the mid-260s which sought to fend off Persian incursions. Some regions – Britain, Spain, and North Africa – were hardly affected. Instability caused economic deterioration, and there was a rapid rise in inflation as the government debased the currency in order to meet expenses. The Germanic tribes along the Rhine and north of the Balkans made serious, uncoordinated incursions from the 250s-280s that were more like giant raiding parties rather than attempts to settle. The Persian Empire invaded from the east several times during the 230s to 260s but were eventually defeated.[42] Emperor Diocletian (284) undertook the restoration of the State. He ended the Principate and introduced the Tetrarchy which sought to increase state power. The most marked feature was the unprecedented intervention of the State down to the city level: whereas the State had submitted a tax demand to a city and allowed it to allocate the charges, from his reign the State did this down to the village level. In a vain attempt to control inflation, he imposed price controls which did not last. He or Constantine regionalised the administration of the empire which fundamentally changed the way it was governed by creating regional dioceses (the consensus seems to have shifted from 297 to 313/14 as the date of creation due to the argument of Constantin Zuckerman in 2002 "Sur la liste de Verone et la province de grande armenie, Melanges Gilber Dagron). The existence of regional fiscal units from 286 served as the model for this unprecedented innovation. The emperor quickened the process of removing military command from governors. Henceforth, civilian administration and military command would be separate. He gave governors more fiscal duties and placed them in charge of the army logistical support system as an attempt to control it by removing the support system from its control. Diocletian ruled the eastern half, residing in Nicomedia. In 296, he elevated Maximian to Augustus of the western half, where he ruled mostly from Mediolanum when not on the move.[42] In 292, he created two 'junior' emperors, the Caesars, one for each Augustus, Constantius for Britain, Gaul, and Spain whose seat of power was in Trier and Licinius in Sirmium in the Balkans. The appointment of a Caesar was not unknown: Diocletian tried to turn into a system of non-dynastic succession. Upon abdication in 305, the Caesars succeeded and they, in turn, appointed two colleagues for themselves.[42] The Pyramid of Gaius Cestius and the Aurelian Walls After the abdication of Diocletian and Maximian in 305 and a series of civil wars between rival claimants to imperial power, during the years 306–313, the Tetrarchy was abandoned. Constantine the Great undertook a major reform of the bureaucracy, not by changing the structure but by rationalising the competencies of the several ministries during the years 325–330, after he defeated Licinius, emperor in the East, at the end of 324. The so-called Edict of Milan of 313, actually a fragment of a letter from Licinius to the governors of the eastern provinces, granted freedom of worship to everyone, including Christians, and ordered the restoration of confiscated church properties upon petition to the newly created vicars of dioceses. He funded the building of several churches and allowed clergy to act as arbitrators in civil suits (a measure that did not outlast him but which was restored in part much later). He transformed the town of Byzantium into his new residence, which, however, was not officially anything more than an imperial residence like Milan or Trier or Nicomedia until given a city prefect in May 359 by Constantius II; Constantinople.[43] Christianity in the form of the Nicene Creed became the official religion of the empire in 380, via the Edict of Thessalonica issued in the name of three emperors – Gratian, Valentinian II, and Theodosius I – with Theodosius clearly the driving force behind it. He was the last emperor of a unified empire: after his death in 395, his sons, Arcadius and Honorius divided the empire into a western and an eastern part. The seat of government in the Western Roman Empire was transferred to Ravenna after the Siege of Milan in 402. During the 5th century, the emperors from the 430s mostly resided in the capital city, Rome.[43] Rome, which had lost its central role in the administration of the empire, was sacked in 410 by the Visigoths led by Alaric I,[44] but very little physical damage was done, most of which were repaired. What could not be so easily replaced were portable items such as artwork in precious metals and items for domestic use (loot). The popes embellished the city with large basilicas, such as Santa Maria Maggiore (with the collaboration of the emperors). The population of the city had fallen from 800,000 to 450–500,000 by the time the city was sacked in 455 by Genseric, king of the Vandals.[45] The weak emperors of the fifth century could not stop the decay, leading to the deposition of Romulus Augustus on 22 August 476, which marked the end of the Western Roman Empire and, for many historians, the beginning of the Middle Ages.[43] The decline of the city's population was caused by the loss of grain shipments from North Africa, from 440 onward, and the unwillingness of the senatorial class to maintain donations to support a population that was too large for the resources available. Even so, strenuous efforts were made to maintain the monumental centre, the palatine, and the largest baths, which continued to function until the Gothic siege of 537. The large baths of Constantine on the Quirinale were even repaired in 443, and the extent of the damage exaggerated and dramatised.[46] However, the city gave an appearance overall of shabbiness and decay because of the large abandoned areas due to population decline. The population declined to 500,000 by 452 and 100,000 by 500 AD (perhaps larger, though no certain figure can be known). After the Gothic siege of 537, the population dropped to 30,000 but had risen to 90,000 by the papacy of Gregory the Great.[47] The population decline coincided with the general collapse of urban life in the West in the fifth and sixth centuries, with few exceptions. Subsidized state grain distributions to the poorer members of society continued right through the sixth century and probably prevented the population from falling further.[48] The figure of 450,000–500,000 is based on the amount of pork, 3,629,000 lbs. distributed to poorer Romans during five winter months at the rate of five Roman lbs per person per month, enough for 145,000 persons or 1/4 or 1/3 of the total population.[49] Grain distribution to 80,000 ticket holders at the same time suggests 400,000 (Augustus set the number at 200,000 or one-fifth of the population). Middle Ages[edit] 15th-century illustration depicting the Sack of Rome (410) by the Visigothic king Alaric I The Bishop of Rome, called the Pope, was important since the early days of Christianity because of the martyrdom of both the apostles Peter and Paul there. The Bishops of Rome were also seen (and still are seen by Catholics) as the successors of Peter, who is considered the first Bishop of Rome. The city thus became of increasing importance as the centre of the Catholic Church. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, Rome was first under the control of Odoacer and then became part of the Ostrogothic Kingdom before returning to East Roman control after the Gothic War, which devastated the city in 546 and 550. Its population declined from more than a million in 210 AD to 500,000 in 273[50] to 35,000 after the Gothic War (535–554),[51] reducing the sprawling city to groups of inhabited buildings interspersed among large areas of ruins, vegetation, vineyards and market gardens.[52] It is generally thought the population of the city until 300 AD was 1 million (estimates range from 2 million to 750,000) declining to 750–800,000 in 400 AD, 450–500,000 in 450 AD and down to 80–100,000 in 500 AD (though it may have been twice this).[53] After the Lombard invasion of Italy, the city remained nominally Byzantine, but in reality, the popes pursued a policy of equilibrium between the Byzantines, the Franks, and the Lombards.[54] In 729, the Lombard king Liutprand donated the north Latium town of Sutri to the Church, starting its temporal power.[54] In 756, Pepin the Short, after having defeated the Lombards, gave the Pope temporal jurisdiction over the Roman Duchy and the Exarchate of Ravenna, thus creating the Papal States.[54] Since this period, three powers tried to rule the city: the pope, the nobility (together with the chiefs of militias, the judges, the Senate and the populace), and the Frankish king, as king of the Lombards, patricius, and Emperor.[54] These three parties (theocratic, republican, and imperial) were a characteristic of Roman life during the entire Middle Ages.[54] On Christmas night of 800, Charlemagne was crowned in Rome as emperor of the Holy Roman Empire by Pope Leo III: on that occasion, the city hosted for the first time the two powers whose struggle for control was to be a constant of the Middle Ages.[54] Detail view on an illustration by Raphael portraying the crowning of Charlemagne in Old Saint Peter's Basilica, on 25 December 800 In 846, Muslim Arabs unsuccessfully stormed the city's walls, but managed to loot St. Peter's and St. Paul's basilica, both outside the city wall.[55] After the decay of Carolingian power, Rome fell prey to feudal chaos: several noble families fought against the pope, the emperor, and each other. These were the times of Theodora and her daughter Marozia, concubines and mothers of several popes, and of Crescentius, a powerful feudal lord, who fought against the Emperors Otto II and Otto III.[56] The scandals of this period forced the papacy to reform itself: the election of the pope was reserved to the cardinals, and reform of the clergy was attempted. The driving force behind this renewal was the monk Ildebrando da Soana, who once elected pope under the name of Gregory VII became involved into the Investiture Controversy against Emperor Henry IV.[56] Subsequently, Rome was sacked and burned by the Normans under Robert Guiscard who had entered the city in support of the Pope, then besieged in Castel Sant'Angelo.[56] During this period, the city was autonomously ruled by a senatore or patrizio. In the 12th century, this administration, like other European cities, evolved into the commune, a new form of social organisation controlled by the new wealthy classes.[56] Pope Lucius II fought against the Roman commune, and the struggle was continued by his successor Pope Eugenius III: by this stage, the commune, allied with the aristocracy, was supported by Arnaldo da Brescia, a monk who was a religious and social reformer.[57] After the pope's death, Arnaldo was taken prisoner by Adrianus IV, which marked the end of the commune's autonomy.[57] Under Pope Innocent III, whose reign marked the apogee of the papacy, the commune liquidated the senate, and replaced it with a Senatore, who was subject to the pope.[57] In this period, the papacy played a role of secular importance in Western Europe, often acting as arbitrators between Christian monarchs and exercising additional political powers.[58][59][60] In 1266, Charles of Anjou, who was heading south to fight the Hohenstaufen on behalf of the pope, was appointed Senator. Charles founded the Sapienza, the university of Rome.[57] In that period the pope died, and the cardinals, summoned in Viterbo, could not agree on his successor. This angered the people of the city, who then unroofed the building where they met and imprisoned them until they had nominated the new pope; this marked the birth of the conclave.[57] In this period the city was also shattered by continuous fights between the aristocratic families: Annibaldi, Caetani, Colonna, Orsini, Conti, nested in their fortresses built above ancient Roman edifices, fought each other to control the papacy.[57] Pope Boniface VIII, born Caetani, was the last pope to fight for the church's universal domain; he proclaimed a crusade against the Colonna family and, in 1300, called for the first Jubilee of Christianity, which brought millions of pilgrims to Rome.[57] However, his hopes were crushed by the French king Philip the Fair, who took him prisoner and killed him in Anagni.[57] Afterwards, a new pope faithful to the French was elected, and the papacy was briefly relocated to Avignon (1309–1377).[61] During this period Rome was neglected, until a plebeian man, Cola di Rienzo, came to power.[61] An idealist and a lover of ancient Rome, Cola dreamed about a rebirth of the Roman Empire: after assuming power with the title of Tribuno, his reforms were rejected by the populace.[61] Forced to flee, Cola returned as part of the entourage of Cardinal Albornoz, who was charged with restoring the Church's power in Italy.[61] Back in power for a short time, Cola was soon lynched by the populace, and Albornoz took possession of the city. In 1377, Rome became the seat of the papacy again under Gregory XI.[61] The return of the pope to Rome in that year unleashed the Western Schism (1377–1418), and for the next forty years, the city was affected by the divisions which rocked the Church.[61] Early modern history[edit] Main article: Roman Renaissance Almost 500 years old, this map of Rome by Mario Cartaro shows the city's primary monuments. Castel Sant'Angelo or Hadrian's Mausoleum, is a Roman monument radically altered in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance built in 134 AD and crowned with 16th and 17th-century statues. Fontana della Barcaccia by Gian Lorenzo Bernini in 1629 In 1418, the Council of Constance settled the Western Schism, and a Roman pope, Martin V, was elected.[61] This brought to Rome a century of internal peace, which marked the beginning of the Renaissance.[61] The ruling popes until the first half of the 16th century, from Nicholas V, founder of the Vatican Library, to Pius II, humanist and literate, from Sixtus IV, a warrior pope, to Alexander VI, immoral and nepotist, from Julius II, soldier and patron, to Leo X, who gave his name to this period ("the century of Leo X"), all devoted their energy to the greatness and the beauty of the Eternal City and to the patronage of the arts.[61] During those years, the centre of the Italian Renaissance moved to Rome from Florence. Majestic works, as the new Saint Peter's Basilica, the Sistine Chapel and Ponte Sisto (the first bridge to be built across the Tiber since antiquity, although on Roman foundations) were created. To accomplish that, the Popes engaged the best artists of the time, including Michelangelo, Perugino, Raphael, Ghirlandaio, Luca Signorelli, Botticelli, and Cosimo Rosselli. The period was also infamous for papal corruption, with many Popes fathering children, and engaging in nepotism and simony. The corruption of the Popes and the huge expenses for their building projects led, in part, to the Reformation and, in turn, the Counter-Reformation. Under extravagant and rich popes, Rome was transformed into a centre of art, poetry, music, literature, education and culture. Rome became able to compete with other major European cities of the time in terms of wealth, grandeur, the arts, learning and architecture. The Renaissance period changed the face of Rome dramatically, with works like the Pietà by Michelangelo and the frescoes of the Borgia Apartments. Rome reached the highest point of splendour under Pope Julius II (1503–1513) and his successors Leo X and Clement VII, both members of the Medici family. Carnival in Rome, c. 1650 A View of the Piazza Navona, Rome, Hendrik Frans van Lint, c. 1730 In this twenty-year period, Rome became one of the greatest centres of art in the world. The old St. Peter's Basilica built by Emperor Constantine the Great[62] (which by then was in a dilapidated state) was demolished and a new one begun. The city hosted artists like Ghirlandaio, Perugino, Botticelli and Bramante, who built the temple of San Pietro in Montorio and planned a great project to renovate the Vatican. Raphael, who in Rome became one of the most famous painters of Italy, created frescoes in the Villa Farnesina, the Raphael's Rooms, plus many other famous paintings. Michelangelo started the decoration of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel and executed the famous statue of the Moses for the tomb of Julius II. Its economy was rich, with the presence of several Tuscan bankers, including Agostino Chigi, who was a friend of Raphael and a patron of arts. Before his early death, Raphael also promoted for the first time the preservation of the ancient ruins. The War of the League of Cognac caused the first plunder of the city in more than five hundred years since the previous sack; in 1527, the Landsknechts of Emperor Charles V sacked the city, bringing an abrupt end to the golden age of the Renaissance in Rome.[61] Beginning with the Council of Trent in 1545, the Church began the Counter-Reformation in response to the Reformation, a large-scale questioning of the Church's authority on spiritual matters and governmental affairs. This loss of confidence led to major shifts of power away from the Church.[61] Under the popes from Pius IV to Sixtus V, Rome became the centre of a reformed Catholicism and saw the building of new monuments which celebrated the papacy.[63] The popes and cardinals of the 17th and early 18th centuries continued the movement by having the city's landscape enriched with baroque buildings.[63] This was another nepotistic age; the new aristocratic families (Barberini, Pamphili, Chigi, Rospigliosi, Altieri, Odescalchi) were protected by their respective popes, who built huge baroque buildings for their relatives.[63] During the Age of Enlightenment, new ideas reached the Eternal City, where the papacy supported archaeological studies and improved the people's welfare.[61] But not everything went well for the Church during the Counter-Reformation. There were setbacks in the attempts to assert the Church's power, a notable example being in 1773 when Pope Clement XIV was forced by secular powers to have the Jesuit order suppressed.[61] Late modern and contemporary[edit] The rule of the Popes was interrupted by the short-lived Roman Republic (1798–1800), which was established under the influence of the French Revolution. The Papal States were restored in June 1800, but during Napoleon's reign Rome was annexed as a Département of the French Empire: first as Département du Tibre (1808–1810) and then as Département Rome (1810–1814). After the fall of Napoleon, the Papal States were reconstituted by a decision of the Congress of Vienna of 1814. In 1849, a second Roman Republic was proclaimed during a year of revolutions in 1848. Two of the most influential figures of the Italian unification, Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi, fought for the short-lived republic. Rome then became the focus of hopes of Italian reunification after the rest of Italy was united as the Kingdom of Italy in 1861 with the temporary capital in Florence. That year Rome was declared the capital of Italy even though it was still under the Pope's control. During the 1860s, the last vestiges of the Papal States were under French protection thanks to the foreign policy of Napoleon III. French troops were stationed in the region under Papal control. in 1870 the French troops were withdrawn due to the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War. Italian troops were able to capture Rome entering the city through a breach near Porta Pia. Pope Pius IX declared himself a prisoner in the Vatican. In 1871 the capital of Italy was moved from Florence to Rome.[64] In 1870 the population of the city was 212,000, all of whom lived with the area circumscribed by the ancient city, and in 1920, the population was 660,000. A significant portion lived outside the walls in the north and across the Tiber in the Vatican area. Bombardment of Rome by Allied planes, 1943 Soon after World War I in late 1922 Rome witnessed the rise of Italian Fascism led by Benito Mussolini, who led a march on the city. He did away with democracy by 1926, eventually declaring a new Italian Empire and allying Italy with Nazi Germany in 1938. Mussolini demolished fairly large parts of the city centre in order to build wide avenues and squares which were supposed to celebrate the fascist regime and the resurgence and glorification of classical Rome.[65] The interwar period saw a rapid growth in the city's population which surpassed one million inhabitants soon after 1930. During World War II, due to the art treasuries and the presence of the Vatican, Rome largely escaped the tragic destiny of other European cities. However, on 19 July 1943, the San Lorenzo district was bombed by Anglo-American forces, resulting in about 3,000 immediate deaths and 11,000 wounded of whom another 1,500 died. Mussolini was arrested on 25 July 1943. On the date of the Italian Armistice 8 September 1943 the city was occupied by the Germans. The Pope declared Rome an open city. It was liberated on 4 June 1944. Rome developed greatly after the war as part of the "Italian economic miracle" of post-war reconstruction and modernisation in the 1950s and early 1960s. During this period, the years of la dolce vita ("the sweet life"), Rome became a fashionable city, with popular classic films such as Ben Hur, Quo Vadis, Roman Holiday and La Dolce Vita filmed in the city's iconic Cinecittà Studios. The rising trend in population growth continued until the mid-1980s when the comune had more than 2.8 million residents. After this, the population declined slowly as people began to move to nearby suburbs. Government[edit] See also: Mayor of Rome, City Council of Rome, Elections in Rome, and Administrative subdivision of Rome Local government[edit] Rome constitutes a comune speciale, named "Roma Capitale",[66] and is the largest both in terms of land area and population among the 8,101 comuni of Italy. It is governed by a mayor and a city council. The seat of the comune is the Palazzo Senatorio on the Capitoline Hill, the historic seat of the city government. The local administration in Rome is commonly referred to as "Campidoglio", the Italian name of the hill. Administrative and historical subdivisions[edit] The municipi of Rome The Piazza della Repubblica, Rome Since 1972, the city has been divided into administrative areas, called municipi (sing. municipio) (until 2001 named circoscrizioni).[67] They were created for administrative reasons to increase decentralisation in the city. Each municipio is governed by a president and a council of twenty-five members who are elected by its residents every five years. The municipi frequently cross the boundaries of the traditional, non-administrative divisions of the city. The municipi were originally 20, then 19,[68] and in 2013, their number was reduced to 15.[69] Rome is also divided into differing types of non-administrative units. The historic centre is divided into 22 rioni, all of which are located within the Aurelian Walls except Prati and Borgo. These originate from the 14 regions of Augustan Rome, which evolved in the Middle Ages into the medieval rioni.[70] In the Renaissance, under Pope Sixtus V, they again reached fourteen, and their boundaries were finally defined under Pope Benedict XIV in 1743. A new subdivision of the city under Napoleon was ephemeral, and there were no serious changes in the organisation of the city until 1870 when Rome became the third capital of Italy. The needs of the new capital led to an explosion both in the urbanisation and in the population within and outside the Aurelian walls. In 1874, a fifteenth rione, Esquilino, was created on the newly urbanised zone of Monti. At the beginning of the 20th century other rioni were created (the last one was Prati – the only one outside the Walls of Pope Urban VIII – in 1921). Afterwards, for the new administrative subdivisions of the city, the term "quartiere" was used. Today all the rioni are part of the first Municipio, which therefore coincides completely with the historical city (Centro Storico). Metropolitan and regional government[edit] Rome is the principal town of the Metropolitan City of Rome, operative since 1 January 2015. The Metropolitan City replaced the old provincia di Roma, which included the city's metropolitan area and extends further north until Civitavecchia. The Metropolitan City of Rome is the largest by area in Italy. At 5,352 square kilometres (2,066 sq mi), its dimensions are comparable to the region of Liguria. Moreover, the city is also the capital of the Lazio region.[71] National government[edit] The Palazzo del Quirinale, now seat of the President of the Italian Republic Rome is the national capital of Italy and is the seat of the Italian Government. The official residences of the President of the Italian Republic and the Italian Prime Minister, the seats of both houses of the Italian Parliament and that of the Italian Constitutional Court are located in the historic centre. The state ministries are spread out around the city; these include the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, which is located in Palazzo della Farnesina near the Olympic stadium. Geography[edit] Location[edit] Rome is in the Lazio region of central Italy on the Tiber (Italian: Tevere) river. The original settlement developed on hills that faced onto a ford beside the Tiber Island, the only natural ford of the river in this area. The Rome of the Kings was built on seven hills: the Aventine Hill, the Caelian Hill, the Capitoline Hill, the Esquiline Hill, the Palatine Hill, the Quirinal Hill, and the Viminal Hill. Modern Rome is also crossed by another river, the Aniene, which flows into the Tiber north of the historic centre. Although the city centre is about 24 kilometres (15 mi) inland from the Tyrrhenian Sea, the city territory extends to the shore, where the south-western district of Ostia is located. The altitude of the central part of Rome ranges from 13 metres (43 ft) above sea level (at the base of the Pantheon) to 139 metres (456 ft) above sea level (the peak of Monte Mario).[72] The Comune of Rome covers an overall area of about 1,285 square kilometres (496 sq mi), including many green areas. Topography[edit] Satellite image of Rome Aerial view of part of Rome's Centro Storico Throughout the history of Rome, the urban limits of the city were considered to be the area within the city's walls. Originally, these consisted of the Servian Wall, which was built twelve years after the Gaulish sack of the city in 390 BC. This contained most of the Esquiline and Caelian hills, as well as the whole of the other five. Rome outgrew the Servian Wall, but no more walls were constructed until almost 700 years later, when, in 270 AD, Emperor Aurelian began building the Aurelian Walls. These were almost 19 kilometres (12 mi) long, and were still the walls the troops of the Kingdom of Italy had to breach to enter the city in 1870. The city's urban area is cut in two by its ring-road, the Grande Raccordo Anulare ("GRA"), finished in 1962, which circles the city centre at a distance of about 10 km (6 mi). Although when the ring was completed most parts of the inhabited area lay inside it (one of the few exceptions was the former village of Ostia, which lies along the Tyrrhenian coast), in the meantime quarters have been built which extend up to 20 km (12 mi) beyond it. The comune covers an area roughly three times the total area within the Raccordo and is comparable in area to the entire metropolitan cities of Milan and Naples, and to an area six times the size of the territory of these cities. It also includes considerable areas of abandoned marshland which is suitable neither for agriculture nor for urban development. As a consequence, the density of the comune is not that high, its territory being divided between highly urbanised areas and areas designated as parks, nature reserves, and for agricultural use. Climate[edit] Main article: Climate of Rome Stone pines in the Villa Doria Pamphili Rome has a Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: Csa),[73] with hot, dry summers and mild, humid winters. Its average annual temperature is above 21 °C (70 °F) during the day and 9 °C (48 °F) at night. In the coldest month, January, the average temperature is 12.6 °C (54.7 °F) during the day and 2.1 °C (35.8 °F) at night. In the warmest month, August, the average temperature is 31.7 °C (89.1 °F) during the day and 17.3 °C (63.1 °F) at night. December, January and February are the coldest months, with a daily mean temperature of approximately 8 °C (46 °F). Temperatures during these months generally vary between 10 and 15 °C (50 and 59 °F) during the day and between 3 and 5 °C (37 and 41 °F) at night, with colder or warmer spells occurring frequently. Snowfall is rare but not unheard of, with light snow or flurries occurring on some winters, generally without accumulation, and major snowfalls on a very rare occurrence (the most recent ones were in 2018, 2012 and 1986).[74][75][76] The average relative humidity is 75%, varying from 72% in July to 77% in November. Sea temperatures vary from a low of 13.9 °C (57.0 °F) in February to a high of 25.0 °C (77.0 °F) in August.[77] Climate data for Rome Urbe Airport (altitude: 24 m sl, 7 km north from Colosseum satellite view) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 20.2 (68.4) 23.6 (74.5) 27.0 (80.6) 28.3 (82.9) 33.1 (91.6) 36.8 (98.2) 40.0 (104.0) 39.6 (103.3) 37.6 (99.7) 31.4 (88.5) 26.0 (78.8) 22.8 (73.0) 40.0 (104.0) Average high °C (°F) 12.6 (54.7) 14.0 (57.2) 16.5 (61.7) 18.9 (66.0) 23.9 (75.0) 28.1 (82.6) 31.5 (88.7) 31.7 (89.1) 27.5 (81.5) 22.4 (72.3) 16.5 (61.7) 13.2 (55.8) 21.4 (70.5) Daily mean °C (°F) 7.4 (45.3) 8.4 (47.1) 10.4 (50.7) 12.9 (55.2) 17.3 (63.1) 21.2 (70.2) 24.2 (75.6) 24.5 (76.1) 20.9 (69.6) 16.4 (61.5) 11.2 (52.2) 8.2 (46.8) 15.3 (59.5) Average low °C (°F) 2.1 (35.8) 2.7 (36.9) 4.3 (39.7) 6.8 (44.2) 10.8 (51.4) 14.3 (57.7) 16.9 (62.4) 17.3 (63.1) 14.3 (57.7) 10.5 (50.9) 5.8 (42.4) 3.1 (37.6) 9.1 (48.4) Record low °C (°F) −9.8 (14.4) −6.0 (21.2) −9.0 (15.8) −2.5 (27.5) 3.7 (38.7) 6.2 (43.2) 9.8 (49.6) 8.6 (47.5) 5.4 (41.7) 0.0 (32.0) −7.2 (19.0) −5.4 (22.3) −9.8 (14.4) Average precipitation mm (inches) 69.5 (2.74) 75.8 (2.98) 59.0 (2.32) 76.2 (3.00) 49.1 (1.93) 40.7 (1.60) 21.0 (0.83) 34.1 (1.34) 71.8 (2.83) 107.0 (4.21) 109.9 (4.33) 84.4 (3.32) 798.5 (31.44) Average precipitation days (≥ 1 mm) 7.6 7.4 7.8 8.8 5.6 4.1 2.3 3.2 5.6 7.7 9.1 8.5 77.7 Mean monthly sunshine hours 120.9 132.8 167.4 201.0 263.5 285.0 331.7 297.6 237.0 195.3 129.0 111.6 2,473 Source: Servizio Meteorologico[78] (1971–2000) Demographics[edit] Main article: Demographics of Italy Historical population Year Pop. ±% 1861 194,500 —     1871 212,432 +9.2% 1881 273,952 +29.0% 1901 422,411 +54.2% 1911 518,917 +22.8% 1921 660,235 +27.2% 1931 930,926 +41.0% 1936 1,150,589 +23.6% 1951 1,651,754 +43.6% 1961 2,188,160 +32.5% 1971 2,781,993 +27.1% 1981 2,840,259 +2.1% 1991 2,775,250 −2.3% 2001 2,663,182 −4.0% 2011 2,617,175 −1.7% 2017 2,876,051 +9.9% Source: ISTAT, 2001 In 550 BC, Rome was the second largest city in Italy, with Tarentum being the largest.[citation needed] It had an area of about 285 hectares (700 acres) and an estimated population of 35,000. Other sources suggest the population was just under 100,000 from 600 to 500 BC.[79][80] When the Republic was founded in 509 BC the census recorded a population of 130,000. The republic included the city itself and the immediate surroundings. Other sources suggest a population of 150,000 in 500 BC. It surpassed 300,000 in 150 BC.[81][82][83][84][85] The size of the city at the time of the Emperor Augustus is a matter of speculation, with estimates based on grain distribution, grain imports, aqueduct capacity, city limits, population density, census reports, and assumptions about the number of unreported women, children and slaves providing a very wide range. Glenn Storey estimates 450,000 people, Whitney Oates estimates 1.2 million, Neville Morely provides a rough estimate of 800,000 and excludes earlier suggestions of 2 million.[86][87][88][89] Estimates of the city's population vary. A.H.M. Jones estimated the population at 650,000 in the mid-fifth century. The damage caused by the sackings may have been overestimated. The population had already started to decline from the late fourth century onward, although around the middle of the fifth century it seems that Rome continued to be the most populous city of the two parts of the Empire.[90] According to Krautheimer it was still close to 800,000 in 400 AD; had declined to 500,000 by 452, and dwindled to perhaps 100,000 in 500 AD. After the Gothic Wars, 535–552, the population may have dwindled temporarily to 30,000. During the pontificate of Pope Gregory I (590–604), it may have reached 90,000, augmented by refugees.[91] Lancon estimates 500,000 based on the number of 'incisi' enrolled as eligible to receive bread, oil and wine rations; the number fell to 120,000 in the reform of 419.[92] Neil Christie, citing free rations for the poorest, estimated 500,000 in the mid-fifth century and still a quarter of a million at the end of the century.[93] Novel 36 of Emperor Valentinian III records 3.629 million pounds of pork to be distributed to the needy at 5 lbs. per month for the five winter months, sufficient for 145,000 recipients. This has been used to suggest a population of just under 500,000. Supplies of grain remained steady until the seizure of the remaining provinces of North Africa in 439 by the Vandals, and may have continued to some degree afterwards for a while. The city's population declined to less than 50,000 people in the Early Middle Ages from 700 AD onward. It continued to stagnate or shrink until the Renaissance.[94] When the Kingdom of Italy annexed Rome in 1870, the city had a population of about 225,000. Less than half the city within the walls was built up in 1881 when the population recorded was 275,000. This increased to 600,000 by the eve of World War I. The Fascist regime of Mussolini tried to block an excessive demographic rise of the city but failed to prevent it from reaching one million people by the early 1930s.[citation needed][clarification needed] Population growth continued after the Second World War, helped by a post-war economic boom. A construction boom also created many suburbs during the 1950s and 1960s. In mid-2010, there were 2,754,440 residents in the city proper, while some 4.2 million people lived in the greater Rome area (which can be approximately identified with its administrative metropolitan city, with a population density of about 800 inhabitants/km2 stretching over more than 5,000 km2 (1,900 sq mi)). Minors (children ages 18 and younger) totalled 17.00% of the population compared to pensioners who number 20.76%. This compares with the Italian average of 18.06% (minors) and 19.94% (pensioners). The average age of a Roman resident is 43 compared to the Italian average of 42. In the five years between 2002 and 2007, the population of Rome grew by 6.54%, while Italy as a whole grew by 3.56%.[95] The current[when?] birth rate of Rome is 9.10 births per 1,000 inhabitants compared to the Italian average of 9.45 births.[citation needed] The urban area of Rome extends beyond the administrative city limits with a population of around 3.9 million.[96] Between 3.2 and 4.2 million people live in the Rome metropolitan area.[97][98][99][100][101] Ethnic groups[edit] The Esquilino rione According to the latest statistics conducted by ISTAT,[102] approximately 9.5% of the population consists of non-Italians. About half of the immigrant population consists of those of various other European origins (chiefly Romanian, Polish, Ukrainian, and Albanian) numbering a combined total of 131,118 or 4.7% of the population. The remaining 4.8% are those with non-European origins, chiefly Filipinos (26,933), Bangladeshis (12,154), and Chinese (10,283). The Esquilino rione, off Termini Railway Station, has evolved into a largely immigrant neighbourhood. It is perceived as Rome's Chinatown. Immigrants from more than a hundred different countries reside there. A commercial district, Esquilino contains restaurants featuring many kinds of international cuisine. There are wholesale clothes shops. Of the 1,300 or so commercial premises operating in the district 800 are Chinese-owned; around 300 are run by immigrants from other countries around the world; 200 are owned by Italians.[103] Religion[edit] Main article: Religion in Rome Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran, Rome's Cathedral, built in 324, and partly rebuilt between 1660 and 1734 Religion in Rome (2015), Percentage[104][105][106][107][108][109] Catholicism 82.0 Other or non-religious 8.0 Eastern Orthodoxy 4.0 Islam 3.8 Protestantism 0.8 Judaism 0.7 Hinduism 0.4 Buddhism 0.3 Much like the rest of Italy, Rome is predominantly Christian, and the city has been an important centre of religion and pilgrimage for centuries, the base of the ancient Roman religion with the pontifex maximus and later the seat of the Vatican and the pope. Before the arrival of the Christians in Rome, the Religio Romana (literally, the "Roman Religion") was the major religion of the city in classical antiquity. The first gods held sacred by the Romans were Jupiter, the Most High, and Mars, the god of war, and father of Rome's twin founders, Romulus and Remus, according to tradition. Other deities such as Vesta and Minerva were honoured. Rome was also the base of several mystery cults, such as Mithraism. Later, after St Peter and St Paul were martyred in the city, and the first Christians began to arrive, Rome became Christian, and the Old St. Peter's Basilica was constructed in 313 AD. Despite some interruptions (such as the Avignon papacy), Rome has for centuries been the home of the Roman Catholic Church and the Bishop of Rome, otherwise known as the Pope. Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, one of the four papal major basilicas and has numerous architectural styles, built between the 4th century and 1743 Despite the fact that Rome is home to the Vatican City and St. Peter's Basilica, Rome's cathedral is the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran, in the south-east of the city centre. There are around 900 churches in Rome in total. Aside from the cathedral itself, some others of note include the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls, the Basilica di San Clemente, San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane and the Church of the Gesù. There are also the ancient Catacombs of Rome underneath the city. Numerous highly important religious educational institutions are also in Rome, such as the Pontifical Lateran University, Pontifical Biblical Institute, Pontifical Gregorian University, and Pontifical Oriental Institute. In recent years, there has been growth in Rome's Muslim community, mainly due to immigration from North Africa and the Middle East into the city.[clarification needed] As a result of this increase of the local practitioners of the Islamic faith, the comune promoted the building of the Mosque of Rome, which is the largest mosque in Western Europe, designed by architect Paolo Portoghesi and inaugurated on 21 June 1995. Since the end of the Roman Republic, Rome is also the centre of an important Jewish community,[110] which was once based in Trastevere, and later in the Roman Ghetto. There lies also the major synagogue in Rome, the Tempio Maggiore. Vatican City[edit] Main article: Vatican City St. Peter's Square in Vatican City The territory of Vatican City is part of the Mons Vaticanus (Vatican Hill), and of the adjacent former Vatican Fields, where St. Peter's Basilica, the Apostolic Palace, the Sistine Chapel, and museums were built, along with various other buildings. The area was part of the Roman rione of Borgo until 1929. Being separated from the city on the west bank of the Tiber, the area was a suburb that was protected by being included within the walls of Leo IV, later expanded by the current fortification walls of Paul III, Pius IV, and Urban VIII. When the Lateran Treaty of 1929 that created the Vatican state was being prepared, the boundaries of the proposed territory were influenced by the fact that much of it was all but enclosed by this loop. For some parts of the border, there was no wall, but the line of certain buildings supplied part of the boundary, and for a small part a new wall was constructed. The territory includes Saint Peter's Square, separated from the territory of Italy only by a white line along with the limit of the square, where it borders Piazza Pio XII. St. Peter's Square is reached through the Via della Conciliazione, which runs from the Tiber to St. Peter's. This grand approach was designed by architects Piacentini and Spaccarelli, on the instructions of Benito Mussolini and in accordance with the church, after the conclusion of the Lateran Treaty. According to the Treaty, certain properties of the Holy See located in Italian territory, most notably the Papal Palace of Castel Gandolfo and the major basilicas, enjoy extraterritorial status similar to that of foreign embassies. Pilgrimage[edit] St. Peter's Basilica at night from Via della Conciliazione in Rome Rome has been a major Christian pilgrimage site since the Middle Ages. People from all over the Christian world visit Vatican City, within the city of Rome, the seat of the papacy. The city became a major pilgrimage site during the Middle Ages. Apart from brief periods as an independent city during the Middle Ages, Rome kept its status as Papal capital and holy city for centuries, even when the Papacy briefly relocated to Avignon (1309–1377). Catholics believe that the Vatican is the last resting place of St. Peter. Pilgrimages to Rome can involve visits to many sites, both within Vatican City and in Italian territory. A popular stopping point is the Pilate's stairs: these are, according to the Christian tradition, the steps that led up to the praetorium of Pontius Pilate in Jerusalem, which Jesus Christ stood on during his Passion on his way to trial.[111] The stairs were, reputedly, brought to Rome by Helena of Constantinople in the fourth century. For centuries, the Scala Santa has attracted Christian pilgrims who wished to honour the Passion of Jesus. Other objects of pilgrimage include several catacombs built in imperial times, in which Christians prayed, buried their dead and performed worship during periods of persecution, and various national churches (among them San Luigi dei francesi and Santa Maria dell'Anima), or churches associated with individual religious orders, such as the Jesuit Churches of Jesus and Sant'Ignazio. Traditionally, pilgrims in Rome (as well as devout Romans) visit the seven pilgrim churches (Italian: Le sette chiese) in 24 hours. This custom, mandatory for each pilgrim in the Middle Ages, was codified in the 16th century by Saint Philip Neri. The seven churches are the four major basilicas (St Peter in the Vatican, St Paul outside the Walls, St John in Lateran and Santa Maria Maggiore), while the other three are San Lorenzo fuori le mura (an Early Christian basilica), Santa Croce in Gerusalemme (a church founded by Helena, the mother of Constantine, which hosts fragments of wood attributed to the holy cross) and San Sebastiano fuori le mura (which lies on the Appian Way and is built above the Catacombs of San Sebastiano). Cityscape[edit] See also: List of tourist attractions in Rome and List of streets in Rome Architecture[edit] Main articles: Architecture of Rome and Churches of Rome The Pantheon, built as a temple dedicated to "all the gods of the past, present and future" The Colosseum is still today the largest amphitheater in the world.[112] It was used for gladiator shows and other public events (hunting shows, recreations of famous battles and dramas based on classical mythology). Rome's architecture over the centuries has greatly developed, especially from the Classical and Imperial Roman styles to modern fascist architecture. Rome was for a period one of the world's main epicentres of classical architecture, developing new forms such as the arch, the dome and the vault.[113] The Romanesque style in the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries was also widely used in Roman architecture, and later the city became one of the main centres of Renaissance, Baroque and neoclassical architecture.[113] Ancient Rome[edit] Main articles: List of ancient monuments in Rome and Ancient Roman architecture One of the symbols of Rome is the Colosseum (70–80 AD), the largest amphitheatre ever built in the Roman Empire. Originally capable of seating 60,000 spectators, it was used for gladiatorial combat. Important monuments and sites of ancient Rome include the Roman Forum, the Domus Aurea, the Pantheon, Trajan's Column, Trajan's Market, the Catacombs, the Circus Maximus, the Baths of Caracalla, Castel Sant'Angelo, the Mausoleum of Augustus, the Ara Pacis, the Arch of Constantine, the Pyramid of Cestius, and the Bocca della Verità. Medieval[edit] The medieval popular quarters of the city, situated mainly around the Capitol, were largely demolished between the end of the 19th century and the fascist period, but many notable buildings still remain. Basilicas dating from Christian antiquity include Saint Mary Major and Saint Paul outside the Walls (the latter largely rebuilt in the 19th century), both housing precious fourth century AD mosaics. Notable later medieval mosaics and frescoes can be also found in the churches of Santa Maria in Trastevere, Santi Quattro Coronati, and Santa Prassede. Secular buildings include a number of towers, the largest being the Torre delle Milizie and the Torre dei Conti, both next to the Roman Forum, and the huge outdoor stairway leading up to the basilica of Santa Maria in Aracoeli. Renaissance and Baroque[edit] Rome was a major world centre of the Renaissance, second only to Florence, and was profoundly affected by the movement. Among others, a masterpiece of Renaissance architecture in Rome is the Piazza del Campidoglio by Michelangelo. During this period, the great aristocratic families of Rome used to build opulent dwellings as the Palazzo del Quirinale (now seat of the President of the Italian Republic), the Palazzo Venezia, the Palazzo Farnese, the Palazzo Barberini, the Palazzo Chigi (now seat of the Italian Prime Minister), the Palazzo Spada, the Palazzo della Cancelleria, and the Villa Farnesina. Panoramic view of Piazza del Campidoglio, with a copy of the Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius Many of the famous city's squares – some huge, majestic and often adorned with obelisks, some small and picturesque – took their present shape during the Renaissance and Baroque periods. The principal ones are Piazza Navona, the Spanish Steps, Campo de' Fiori, Piazza Venezia, Piazza Farnese, Piazza della Rotonda and Piazza della Minerva. One of the most emblematic examples of Baroque art is the Trevi Fountain by Nicola Salvi. Other notable 17th-century baroque palaces are the Palazzo Madama, now the seat of the Italian Senate, and the Palazzo Montecitorio, now the seat of the Chamber of Deputies of Italy. Neoclassicism[edit] The Victor Emmanuel II Monument In 1870, Rome became the capital city of the new Kingdom of Italy. During this time, neoclassicism, a building style influenced by the architecture of antiquity, became the predominant influence in Roman architecture. During this period, many great palaces in neoclassical styles were built to host ministries, embassies, and other government agencies. One of the best-known symbols of Roman neoclassicism is the Monument to Vittorio Emanuele II or "Altar of the Fatherland", where the Grave of the Unknown Soldier, who represents the 650,000 Italian soldiers who died in World War I, is located. Fascist architecture[edit] The Palazzo della Civiltà Italiana in EUR district See also: Fascist architecture The Fascist regime that ruled in Italy between 1922 and 1943 had its showcase in Rome. Mussolini ordered the construction of new roads and piazzas, resulting in the destruction of older roads, houses, churches and palaces erected during papal rule. The main activities during his government were: the "isolation" of the Capitoline Hill; Via dei Monti, later renamed Via del'Impero, and finally Via dei Fori Imperiali; Via del Mare, later renamed Via del Teatro di Marcello; the "isolation" of the Mausoleum of Augustus, with the erection of Piazza Augusto Imperatore; and Via della Conciliazione. Architecturally, Italian Fascism favoured the most modern movements, such as Rationalism. Parallel to this, in the 1920s another style emerged, named "Stile Novecento", characterised by its links with ancient Roman architecture. Two important complexes in the latter style are the Foro Mussolini, now Foro Italico, by Enrico Del Debbio, and the Città universitaria ("University city"), by Marcello Piacentini, also author of the controversial destruction of part of the Borgo rione to open Via della Conciliazione. The most important Fascist site in Rome is the EUR district, designed in 1938 by Piacentini. This new quarter emerged as a compromise between Rationalist and Novecento architects, the former being led by Giuseppe Pagano. The EUR was originally conceived for the 1942 world exhibition, and was called "E.42" ("Esposizione 42"). The most representative buildings of EUR are the Palazzo della Civiltà Italiana (1938–1943), and the Palazzo dei Congressi, examples of the Rationalist style. The world exhibition never took place, because Italy entered the Second World War in 1940, and the buildings were partly destroyed in 1943 in fighting between the Italian and German armies and later abandoned. The quarter was restored in the 1950s when the Roman authorities found that they already had the seed of an off-centre business district of the type that other capitals were still planning (London Docklands and La Défense in Paris). Also, the Palazzo della Farnesina, the current seat of the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, was designed in 1935 in pure Fascist style. Parks and gardens[edit] Main article: List of parks and gardens in Rome The Temple of Aesculapius, in the Villa Borghese gardens Public parks and nature reserves cover a large area in Rome, and the city has one of the largest areas of green space among European capitals.[114] The most notable part of this green space is represented by the large number of villas and landscaped gardens created by the Italian aristocracy. While most of the parks surrounding the villas were destroyed during the building boom of the late 19th century, some of them remain. The most notable of these are the Villa Borghese, Villa Ada, and Villa Doria Pamphili. Villa Doria Pamphili is west of the Gianicolo hill, comprising some 1.8 square kilometres (0.7 sq mi). The Villa Sciarra is on the hill, with playgrounds for children and shaded walking areas. In the nearby area of Trastevere, the Orto Botanico (Botanical Garden) is a cool and shady green space. The old Roman hippodrome (Circus Maximus) is another large green space: it has few trees but is overlooked by the Palatine and the Rose Garden ('roseto comunale'). Nearby is the lush Villa Celimontana, close to the gardens surrounding the Baths of Caracalla. The Villa Borghese garden is the best known large green space in Rome, with famous art galleries among its shaded walks. Overlooking Piazza del Popolo and the Spanish Steps are the gardens of Pincio and Villa Medici. There is also a notable pine wood at Castelfusano, near Ostia. Rome also has a number of regional parks of much more recent origin, including the Pineto Regional Park and the Appian Way Regional Park. There are also nature reserves at Marcigliana and at Tenuta di Castelporziano. Fountains and aqueducts[edit] Main articles: List of fountains in Rome and List of aqueducts in the city of Rome The Trevi Fountain. Construction began during the time of Ancient Rome and was completed in 1762 by a design of Nicola Salvi. Rome is a city famous for its numerous fountains, built-in all different styles, from Classical and Medieval, to Baroque and Neoclassical. The city has had fountains for more than two thousand years, and they have provided drinking water and decorated the piazzas of Rome. During the Roman Empire, in 98 AD, according to Sextus Julius Frontinus, the Roman consul who was named curator aquarum or guardian of the water of the city, Rome had nine aqueducts which fed 39 monumental fountains and 591 public basins, not counting the water supplied to the Imperial household, baths, and owners of private villas. Each of the major fountains was connected to two different aqueducts, in case one was shut down for service.[115] During the 17th and 18th century, the Roman popes reconstructed other ruined Roman aqueducts and built new display fountains to mark their termini, launching the golden age of the Roman fountain. The fountains of Rome, like the paintings of Rubens, were expressions of the new style of Baroque art. They were crowded with allegorical figures and filled with emotion and movement. In these fountains, sculpture became the principal element, and the water was used simply to animate and decorate the sculptures. They, like baroque gardens, were "a visual representation of confidence and power".[116] Statues[edit] See also: Talking statues of Rome Fontana dei Fiumi by Gian Lorenzo Bernini, 1648 Rome is well known for its statues but, in particular, the talking statues of Rome. These are usually ancient statues which have become popular soapboxes for political and social discussion, and places for people to (often satirically) voice their opinions. There are two main talking statues: the Pasquino and the Marforio, yet there are four other noted ones: il Babuino, Madama Lucrezia, il Facchino and Abbot Luigi. Most of these statues are ancient Roman or classical, and most of them also depict mythical gods, ancient people or legendary figures; il Pasquino represents Menelaus, Abbot Luigi is an unknown Roman magistrate, il Babuino is supposed to be Silenus, Marforio represents Oceanus, Madama Lucrezia is a bust of Isis, and il Facchino is the only non-Roman statue, created in 1580, and not representing anyone in particular. They are often, due to their status, covered with placards or graffiti expressing political ideas and points of view. Other statues in the city, which are not related to the talking statues, include those of the Ponte Sant'Angelo, or several monuments scattered across the city, such as that to Giordano Bruno in the Campo de'Fiori. Obelisks and columns[edit] Main article: List of obelisks in Rome Flaminio Obelisk, Piazza del Popolo The city hosts eight ancient Egyptian and five ancient Roman obelisks, together with a number of more modern obelisks; there was also formerly (until 2005) an ancient Ethiopian obelisk in Rome.[117] The city contains some of obelisks in piazzas, such as in Piazza Navona, St Peter's Square, Piazza Montecitorio, and Piazza del Popolo, and others in villas, thermae parks and gardens, such as in Villa Celimontana, the Baths of Diocletian, and the Pincian Hill. Moreover, the centre of Rome hosts also Trajan's and Antonine Column, two ancient Roman columns with spiral relief. The Column of Marcus Aurelius is located in Piazza Colonna and it was built around 180 AD by Commodus in memory of his parents. The Column of Marcus Aurelius was inspired by Trajan's Column at Trajan's Forum, which is part of the Imperial Fora[118] Bridges[edit] Main article: List of bridges in Rome Ponte Vittorio Emanuele II at sunset The city of Rome contains numerous famous bridges which cross the Tiber. The only bridge to remain unaltered until today from the classical age is Ponte dei Quattro Capi, which connects the Isola Tiberina with the left bank. The other surviving – albeit modified – ancient Roman bridges crossing the Tiber are Ponte Cestio, Ponte Sant'Angelo and Ponte Milvio. Considering Ponte Nomentano, also built during ancient Rome, which crosses the Aniene, currently there are five ancient Roman bridges still remaining in the city.[119] Other noteworthy bridges are Ponte Sisto, the first bridge built in the Renaissance above Roman foundations; Ponte Rotto, actually the only remaining arch of the ancient Pons Aemilius, collapsed during the flood of 1598 and demolished at the end of the 19th century; and Ponte Vittorio Emanuele II, a modern bridge connecting Corso Vittorio Emanuele and Borgo. Most of the city's public bridges were built in Classical or Renaissance style, but also in Baroque, Neoclassical and Modern styles. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, the finest ancient bridge remaining in Rome is the Ponte Sant'Angelo, which was completed in 135 AD, and was decorated with ten statues of the angels, designed by Bernini in 1688.[120] Catacombs[edit] Main article: Catacombs of Rome The Vatican Caves, the place where many popes are buried Rome has an extensive amount of ancient catacombs, or underground burial places under or near the city, of which there are at least forty, some discovered only in recent decades. Though most famous for Christian burials, they include pagan and Jewish burials, either in separate catacombs or mixed together. The first large-scale catacombs were excavated from the 2nd century onwards. Originally they were carved through tuff, a soft volcanic rock, outside the boundaries of the city, because Roman law forbade burial places within city limits. Currently, maintenance of the catacombs is in the hands of the Papacy which has invested in the Salesians of Don Bosco the supervision of the Catacombs of St. Callixtus on the outskirts of Rome. Economy[edit] As the capital of Italy, Rome hosts all the principal institutions of the nation, including the Presidency of the Republic, the government (and its single Ministeri), the Parliament, the main judicial Courts, and the diplomatic representatives of all the countries for the states of Italy and Vatican City. Many international institutions are located in Rome, notably cultural and scientific ones, such as the American Institute, the British School, the French Academy, the Scandinavian Institutes, and the German Archaeological Institute. There are also specialised agencies of the United Nations, such as the FAO. Rome also hosts major international and worldwide political and cultural organisations, such as the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), World Food Programme (WFP), the NATO Defense College and the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM). Panoramic view of the EUR business district According to the GaWC study of world cities, Rome is a "Beta +" city.[121] The city was ranked in 2014 as 32nd in the Global Cities Index, the highest in Italy.[122] With a 2005 GDP of €94.376 billion (US$121.5 billion),[123][needs update] the city produces 6.7% of the national GDP (more than any other single city in Italy), and its unemployment rate, lowered from 11.1% to 6.5% between 2001 and 2005, is now one of the lowest rates of all the European Union capital cities.[123] Rome's economy grows at around 4.4% annually and continues to grow at a higher rate in comparison to any other city in the rest of the country.[123] This means that were Rome a country, it would be the world's 52nd richest country by GDP, near to the size to that of Egypt. Rome also had a 2003 GDP per capita of €29,153 (US$37,412), which was second in Italy, (after Milan), and is more than 134.1% of the EU average GDP per capita.[124][needs update] Rome, on the whole, has the highest total earnings in Italy, reaching €47,076,890,463 in 2008,[125][needs update] yet, in terms of average workers' incomes, the city places itself 9th in Italy, with €24,509.[125] On a global level, Rome's workers receive the 30th highest wages in 2009, coming three places higher than in 2008, in which the city ranked 33rd.[126][needs update] The Rome area had a GDP amounting to $167.8 billion, and $38,765 per capita.[127] Rome chamber of commerce in the ancient Temple of Hadrian Although the economy of Rome is characterised by the absence of heavy industry and it is largely dominated by services, high-technology companies (IT, aerospace, defence, telecommunications), research, construction and commercial activities (especially banking), and the huge development of tourism are very dynamic and extremely important to its economy. Rome's international airport, Fiumicino, is the largest in Italy, and the city hosts the head offices of the vast majority of the major Italian companies, as well as the headquarters of three of the world's 100 largest companies: Enel, Eni, and Telecom Italia.[128] Universities, national radio and television and the movie industry in Rome are also important parts of the economy: Rome is also the hub of the Italian film industry, thanks to the Cinecittà studios, working since the 1930s. The city is also a centre for banking and insurance as well as electronics, energy, transport, and aerospace industries. Numerous international companies and agencies headquarters, government ministries, conference centres, sports venues, and museums are located in Rome's principal business districts: the Esposizione Universale Roma (EUR); the Torrino (further south from the EUR); the Magliana; the Parco de' Medici-Laurentina and the so-called Tiburtina-valley along the ancient Via Tiburtina. Education[edit] The Sapienza University of Rome, founded in 1303 Rome is a nationwide and major international centre for higher education, containing numerous academies, colleges and universities. It boasts a large variety of academies and colleges, and has always been a major worldwide intellectual and educational centre, especially during Ancient Rome and the Renaissance, along with Florence.[129] According to the City Brands Index, Rome is considered the world's second most historically, educationally and culturally interesting and beautiful city.[130] Rome has many universities and colleges. Its first university, La Sapienza (founded in 1303), is one of the largest in the world, with more than 140,000 students attending; in 2005 it ranked as Europe's 33rd best university[131] and in 2013 the Sapienza University of Rome ranked as the 62nd in the world and the top in Italy in its World University Rankings.[132] and has been ranked among Europe's 50 and the world's 150 best colleges.[133] In order to decrease the overcrowding of La Sapienza, two new public universities were founded during the last decades: Tor Vergata in 1982, and Roma Tre in 1992. Rome hosts also the LUISS School of Government,[134] Italy's most important graduate university in the areas of international affairs and European studies as well as LUISS Business School, Italy's most important business school. Rome ISIA was founded in 1973 by Giulio Carlo Argan and is Italy's oldest institution in the field of industrial design. Biblioteca Casanatense Rome contains many pontifical universities and other institutes, including the British School at Rome, the French School in Rome, the Pontifical Gregorian University (the oldest Jesuit university in the world, founded in 1551), Istituto Europeo di Design, the Scuola Lorenzo de' Medici, the Link Campus of Malta, and the Università Campus Bio-Medico. Rome is also the location of two American Universities; The American University of Rome[135] and John Cabot University as well as St. John's University branch campus, John Felice Rome Center, a campus of Loyola University Chicago and Temple University Rome, a campus of Temple University.[136] The Roman Colleges are several seminaries for students from foreign countries studying for the priesthood at the Pontifical Universities.[137] Examples include the Venerable English College, the Pontifical North American College, the Scots College, and the Pontifical Croatian College of St. Jerome. National Central Library Rome's major libraries include: the Biblioteca Angelica, opened in 1604, making it Italy's first public library; the Biblioteca Vallicelliana, established in 1565; the Biblioteca Casanatense, opened in 1701; the National Central Library, one of the two national libraries in Italy, which contains 4,126,002 volumes; The Biblioteca del Ministero degli Affari Esteri, specialised in diplomacy, foreign affairs and modern history; the Biblioteca dell'Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana; the Biblioteca Don Bosco, one of the largest and most modern of all Salesian libraries; the Biblioteca e Museo teatrale del Burcardo, a museum-library specialised in history of drama and theatre; the Biblioteca della Società Geografica Italiana, which is based in the Villa Celimontana and is the most important geographical library in Italy, and one of Europe's most important;[138] and the Vatican Library, one of the oldest and most important libraries in the world, which was formally established in 1475, though in fact much older and has 75,000 codices, as well as 1.1 million printed books, which include some 8,500 incunabula. There are also many specialist libraries attached to various foreign cultural institutes in Rome, among them that of the American Academy in Rome, the French Academy in Rome and the Bibliotheca Hertziana – Max Planck Institute of Art History, a German library, often noted for excellence in the arts and sciences;[139] Culture[edit] Main article: Culture in Rome Entertainment and performing arts[edit] Main articles: Music of Rome and Events in Rome The Teatro dell'Opera di Roma at the Piazza Beniamino Gigli Rome is an important centre for music, and it has an intense musical scene, including several prestigious music conservatories and theatres. It hosts the Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia (founded in 1585), for which new concert halls have been built in the new Parco della Musica, one of the largest musical venues in the world. Rome also has an opera house, the Teatro dell'Opera di Roma, as well as several minor musical institutions. The city also played host to the Eurovision Song Contest in 1991 and the MTV Europe Music Awards in 2004. Rome has also had a major impact on music history. The Roman School was a group of composers of predominantly church music, which were active in the city during the 16th and 17th centuries, therefore spanning the late Renaissance and early Baroque eras. The term also refers to the music they produced. Many of the composers had a direct connection to the Vatican and the papal chapel, though they worked at several churches; stylistically they are often contrasted with the Venetian School of composers, a concurrent movement which was much more progressive. By far the most famous composer of the Roman School is Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, whose name has been associated for four hundred years with smooth, clear, polyphonic perfection. However, there were other composers working in Rome, and in a variety of styles and forms. Between 1960 and 1970 Rome was considered to be as a “new Hollywood” because of the many actors and directors who worked there; Via Vittorio Veneto had transformed into a glamour place where you could meet famous people.[140] Tourism[edit] Main article: Tourism in Rome The Spanish Steps Ostia Lido beach Rome today is one of the most important tourist destinations of the world, due to the incalculable immensity of its archaeological and artistic treasures, as well as for the charm of its unique traditions, the beauty of its panoramic views, and the majesty of its magnificent "villas" (parks). Among the most significant resources are the many museums – Musei Capitolini, the Vatican Museums and the Galleria Borghese and others dedicated to modern and contemporary art – aqueducts, fountains, churches, palaces, historical buildings, the monuments and ruins of the Roman Forum, and the Catacombs. Rome is the third most visited city in the EU, after London and Paris, and receives an average of 7–10 million tourists a year, which sometimes doubles on holy years. The Colosseum (4 million tourists) and the Vatican Museums (4.2 million tourists) are the 39th and 37th (respectively) most visited places in the world, according to a recent study.[141] Rome is a major archaeological hub, and one of the world's main centres of archaeological research. There are numerous cultural and research institutes located in the city, such as the American Academy in Rome,[142] and The Swedish Institute at Rome.[143] Rome contains numerous ancient sites, including the Forum Romanum, Trajan's Market, Trajan's Forum,[144] the Colosseum, and the Pantheon, to name but a few. The Colosseum, arguably one of Rome's most iconic archaeological sites, is regarded as a wonder of the world.[145][146] Rome contains a vast and impressive collection of art, sculpture, fountains, mosaics, frescos, and paintings, from all different periods. Rome first became a major artistic centre during ancient Rome, with forms of important Roman art such as architecture, painting, sculpture and mosaic work. Metal-work, coin die and gem engraving, ivory carvings, figurine glass, pottery, and book illustrations are considered to be 'minor' forms of Roman artwork.[147] Rome later became a major centre of Renaissance art, since the popes spent vast sums of money for the constructions of grandiose basilicas, palaces, piazzas and public buildings in general. Rome became one of Europe's major centres of Renaissance artwork, second only to Florence, and able to compare to other major cities and cultural centres, such as Paris and Venice. The city was affected greatly by the baroque, and Rome became the home of numerous artists and architects, such as Bernini, Caravaggio, Carracci, Borromini and Cortona.[148] In the late 18th century and early 19th century, the city was one of the centres of the Grand Tour,[149] when wealthy, young English and other European aristocrats visited the city to learn about ancient Roman culture, art, philosophy, and architecture. Rome hosted a great number of neoclassical and rococo artists, such as Pannini and Bernardo Bellotto. Today, the city is a major artistic centre, with numerous art institutes[150] and museums. Internal view of the Colosseum The Vatican Museums are the 3rd most visited art museum in the world. Rome has a growing stock of contemporary and modern art and architecture. The National Gallery of Modern Art has works by Balla, Morandi, Pirandello, Carrà, De Chirico, De Pisis, Guttuso, Fontana, Burri, Mastroianni, Turcato, Kandisky, and Cézanne on permanent exhibition. 2010 saw the opening of Rome's newest arts foundation, a contemporary art and architecture gallery designed by acclaimed Iraqi architect Zaha Hadid. Known as MAXXI – National Museum of the 21st Century Arts it restores a dilapidated area with striking modern architecture. Maxxi[151] features a campus dedicated to culture, experimental research laboratories, international exchange and study and research. It is one of Rome's most ambitious modern architecture projects alongside Renzo Piano's Auditorium Parco della Musica[152] and Massimiliano Fuksas' Rome Convention Center, Centro Congressi Italia EUR, in the EUR district, due to open in 2016.[153] The convention centre features a huge translucent container inside which is suspended a steel and teflon structure resembling a cloud and which contains meeting rooms and an auditorium with two piazzas open to the neighbourhood on either side. Fashion[edit] Via Condotti Rome is also widely recognised as a world fashion capital. Although not as important as Milan, Rome is the fourth most important centre for fashion in the world, according to the 2009 Global Language Monitor after Milan, New York, and Paris, and beating London.[154] Major luxury fashion houses and jewellery chains, such as Valentino, Bulgari, Fendi,[155] Laura Biagiotti, Brioni, and Renato Balestra, are headquartered or were founded in the city. Also, other major labels, such as Gucci, Chanel, Prada, Dolce & Gabbana, Armani, and Versace have luxury boutiques in Rome, primarily along its prestigious and upscale Via dei Condotti. Cuisine[edit] Main article: Roman cuisine Spaghetti alla Carbonara, a typical Roman dish Concia di zucchine, an example of Roman-Jewish cuisine Rome's cuisine has evolved through centuries and periods of social, cultural, and political changes. Rome became a major gastronomical centre during the ancient Age. Ancient Roman cuisine was highly influenced by Ancient Greek culture, and after, the empire's enormous expansion exposed Romans to many new, provincial culinary habits and cooking techniques. Later, during the Renaissance, Rome became well known as a centre of high-cuisine, since some of the best chefs of the time worked for the popes. An example of this was Bartolomeo Scappi, who was a chef working for Pius IV in the Vatican kitchen, and he acquired fame in 1570 when his cookbook Opera dell'arte del cucinare was published. In the book he lists approximately 1000 recipes of the Renaissance cuisine and describes cooking techniques and tools, giving the first known picture of a fork.[156] In the modern age, the city developed its own peculiar cuisine, based on products of the nearby Campagna, as lamb and vegetables (globe artichokes are common).[157] In parallel, Roman Jews – present in the city since the 1st century BC – developed their own cuisine, the cucina giudaico-romanesca. Examples of Roman dishes include "Saltimbocca alla Romana" – a veal cutlet, Roman-style; topped with raw ham and sage and simmered with white wine and butter; "Carciofi alla romana" – artichokes Roman-style; outer leaves removed, stuffed with mint, garlic, breadcrumbs and braised; "Carciofi alla giudia" – artichokes fried in olive oil, typical of Roman Jewish cooking; outer leaves removed, stuffed with mint, garlic, breadcrumbs and braised; "Spaghetti alla carbonara" – spaghetti with bacon, eggs and pecorino, and "Gnocchi di semolino alla romana" – semolina dumpling, Roman-style, to name but a few.[158] Cinema[edit] Main articles: List of films set in Rome and List of films set in ancient Rome Roman Holiday with Audrey Hepburn and Gregory Peck, 1953 Rome hosts the Cinecittà Studios,[159] the largest film and television production facility in continental Europe and the centre of the Italian cinema, where many of today's biggest box office hits are filmed. The 99-acre (40 ha) studio complex is 9.0 kilometres (5.6 mi) from the centre of Rome and is part of one of the biggest production communities in the world, second only to Hollywood, with well over 5,000 professionals – from period costume makers to visual effects specialists. More than 3,000 productions have been made on its lot, from recent features like The Passion of the Christ, Gangs of New York, HBO's Rome, The Life Aquatic and Dino De Laurentiis' Decameron, to such cinema classics as Ben-Hur, Cleopatra, and the films of Federico Fellini.[citation needed] Founded in 1937 by Benito Mussolini, the studios were bombed by the Western Allies during the Second World War. In the 1950s, Cinecittà was the filming location for several large American film productions, and subsequently became the studio most closely associated with Federico Fellini. Today, Cinecittà is the only studio in the world with pre-production, production, and full post-production facilities on one lot, allowing directors and producers to walk in with their script and "walkout" with a completed film.[citation needed] Language[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Main articles: Roman dialect and Latin Latin inscription, National Roman Museum Although associated today only with Latin, ancient Rome was in fact multilingual. In the highest antiquity, Sabine tribes shared the area of what is today Rome with Latin tribes. The Sabine language was one of the Italic group of ancient Italian languages, along with Etruscan, which would have been the main language of the last three kings who ruled the city till the founding of the Republic in 509 BC. Urganilla, or Plautia Urgulanilla, wife of Emperor Claudius, is thought to have been a speaker of Etruscan many centuries after this date, according to Suetonius' entry on Claudius. However Latin, in various evolving forms, was the main language of classical Rome, but as the city had immigrants, slaves, residents, ambassadors from many parts of the world it was also multilingual. Many educated Romans also spoke Greek, and there was a large Greek, Syriac and Jewish population in parts of Rome from well before the Empire. Latin evolved during the Middle Ages into a new language, the "volgare". The latter emerged as the confluence of various regional dialects, among which the Tuscan dialect predominated, but the population of Rome also developed its own dialect, the Romanesco. The Romanesco spoken during the Middle Ages was more like a southern Italian dialect, very close to the Neapolitan language in Campania. The influence of the Florentine culture during the renaissance, and above all, the immigration to Rome of many Florentines following the two Medici Popes (Leo X and Clement VII), caused a major shift in the dialect, which began to resemble more the Tuscan varieties. This remained largely confined to Rome until the 19th century, but then expanded to other zones of Lazio (Civitavecchia, Latina and others), from the beginning of the 20th century, thanks to the rising population of Rome and to improving transportation systems. As a consequence of education and media like radio and television, Romanesco became more similar to standard Italian. Dialectal literature in the traditional form of Romanesco includes the works of such authors as Giuseppe Gioachino Belli (one of the most important Italian poets altogether), Trilussa and Cesare Pascarella. It is worth remembering though that Romanesco was a "lingua vernacola" (vernacular language), meaning that for centuries, it did not have a written form but it was only spoken by the population. Contemporary Romanesco is mainly represented by popular actors and actresses, such as Alberto Sordi, Aldo Fabrizi, Anna Magnani. Carlo Verdone, Enrico Montesano, Gigi Proietti and Nino Manfredi. Rome's historic contribution to language in a worldwide sense is much more extensive, however. Through the process of Romanization, the peoples of Italy, Gallia, the Iberian Peninsula and Dacia developed languages which derive directly from Latin and were adopted in large areas of the world, all through cultural influence, colonisation and migration. Moreover, also modern English, because of the Norman Conquest, borrowed a large percentage of its vocabulary from the Latin language. The Roman or Latin alphabet is the most widely used writing system in the world used by the greatest number of languages.[160] Rome has long hosted artistic communities, foreign resident communities and many foreign religious students or pilgrims and so has always been a multilingual city. Today because of mass tourism, many languages are used in servicing tourism, especially English which is widely known in tourist areas, and the city hosts large numbers of immigrants and so has many multilingual immigrant areas. Sports[edit] Stadio Olimpico, home of A.S. Roma and S.S. Lazio, is one of the largest in Europe, with a capacity of over 70,000.[161] Association football is the most popular sport in Rome, as in the rest of the country. The city hosted the final games of the 1934 and 1990 FIFA World Cup. The latter took place in the Stadio Olimpico, which is also the shared home stadium for local Serie A clubs S.S. Lazio, founded in 1900, and A.S. Roma, founded in 1927, whose rivalry in the Derby della Capitale has become a staple of Roman sports culture.[162] Footballers who play for these teams and are also born in the city tend to become especially popular, as has been the case with players such as Francesco Totti and Daniele De Rossi (both for A.S. Roma), and Alessandro Nesta (for S.S. Lazio). Stadio dei Marmi Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics, with great success, using many ancient sites such as the Villa Borghese and the Thermae of Caracalla as venues. For the Olympic Games many new facilities were built, notably the new large Olympic Stadium (which was then enlarged and renewed to host several matches and the final of the 1990 FIFA World Cup), the Stadio Flaminio, the Villaggio Olimpico (Olympic Village, created to host the athletes and redeveloped after the games as a residential district), ecc. Rome made a bid to host the 2020 Summer Olympics but it was withdrawn before the deadline for applicant files.[163][164] Further, Rome hosted the 1991 EuroBasket and is home to the internationally recognised basketball team Virtus Roma. Rugby union is gaining wider acceptance. Until 2011 the Stadio Flaminio was the home stadium for the Italy national rugby union team, which has been playing in the Six Nations Championship since 2000. The team now plays home games at the Stadio Olimpico because the Stadio Flaminio needs works of renovation in order to improve both its capacity and safety. Rome is home to local rugby union teams such as Rugby Roma (founded in 1930 and winner of five Italian championships, the latter in 1999–2000), Unione Rugby Capitolina and S.S. Lazio 1927 (rugby union branch of the multisport club S.S. Lazio). Every May, Rome hosts the ATP Masters Series tennis tournament on the clay courts of the Foro Italico. Cycling was popular in the post-World War II period, although its popularity has faded. Rome has hosted the final portion of the Giro d'Italia three times, in 1911, 1950, and 2009. Rome is also home to other sports teams, including volleyball (M. Roma Volley), handball or waterpolo. Transport[edit] Main article: Transport in Rome Rome–Fiumicino Airport was the tenth busiest airport in Europe in 2016. Port of Civitavecchia Rome is at the centre of the radial network of roads that roughly follow the lines of the ancient Roman roads which began at the Capitoline Hill and connected Rome with its empire. Today Rome is circled, at a distance of about 10 km (6 mi) from the Capitol, by the ring-road (the Grande Raccordo Anulare or GRA). Due to its location in the centre of the Italian peninsula, Rome is the principal railway node for central Italy. Rome's main railway station, Termini, is one of the largest railway stations in Europe and the most heavily used in Italy, with around 400 thousand travellers passing through every day. The second-largest station in the city, Roma Tiburtina, has been redeveloped as a high-speed rail terminus.[165] As well as frequent high-speed day trains to all major Italian cities, Rome is linked nightly by 'boat train' sleeper services to Sicily, and internationally by overnight sleeper services to Munich and Vienna by ÖBB Austrian railways. Rome is served by three airports. The intercontinental Leonardo da Vinci International Airport, Italy's chief airport is located within the nearby Fiumicino, south-west of Rome. The older Rome Ciampino Airport is a joint civilian and military airport. It is commonly referred to as "Ciampino Airport", as it is located beside Ciampino, south-east of Rome. A third airport, the Roma-Urbe Airport, is a small, low-traffic airport located about 6 km (4 mi) north of the city centre, which handles most helicopter and private flights. Although the city has its own quarter on the Mediterranean Sea (Lido di Ostia), this has only a marina and a small channel-harbour for fishing boats. The main harbour which serves Rome is Port of Civitavecchia, located about 62 kilometres (39 miles) northwest of the city.[166] The city suffers from traffic problems largely due to this radial street pattern, making it difficult for Romans to move easily from the vicinity of one of the radial roads to another without going into the historic centre or using the ring-road. These problems are not helped by the limited size of Rome's metro system when compared to other cities of similar size. In addition, Rome has only 21 taxis for every 10,000 inhabitants, far below other major European cities.[167] Chronic congestion caused by cars during the 1970s and 1980s led to restrictions being placed on vehicle access to the inner city-centre during the hours of daylight. Areas, where these restrictions apply, are known as Limited Traffic Zones (Zona a Traffico Limitato (ZTL) in Italian). More recently, heavy night-time traffic in Trastevere, Testaccio and San Lorenzo has led to the creation of night-time ZTLs in those districts. Roma Metrorail and Underground map, 2016 Conca d'Oro metro station A 3-line metro system called the Metropolitana operates in Rome. Construction on the first branch started in the 1930s.[168] The line had been planned to quickly connect the main railway station with the newly planned E42 area in the southern suburbs, where 1942 the World Fair was supposed to be held. The event never took place because of war, but the area was later partly redesigned and renamed EUR (Esposizione Universale di Roma: Rome Universal Exhibition) in the 1950s to serve as a modern business district. The line was finally opened in 1955, and it is now the south part of the B Line. The A line opened in 1980 from Ottaviano to Anagnina stations, later extended in stages (1999–2000) to Battistini. In the 1990s, an extension of the B line was opened from Termini to Rebibbia. This underground network is generally reliable (although it may become very congested at peak times and during events, especially the A line) as it is relatively short. The A and B lines intersect at Roma Termini station. A new branch of the B line (B1) opened on 13 June 2012 after an estimated building cost of €500 million. B1 connects to line B at Piazza Bologna and has four stations over a distance of 3.9 km (2 mi). A third line, the C line, is under construction with an estimated cost of €3 billion and will have 30 stations over a distance of 25.5 km (16 mi). It will partly replace the existing Termini-Pantano rail line. It will feature full automated, driverless trains.[169] The first section with 15 stations connecting Pantano with the quarter of Centocelle in the eastern part of the city, opened on 9 November 2014.[170] The end of the work was scheduled in 2015, but archaeological findings often delay underground construction work. A fourth line, D line, is also planned. It will have 22 stations over a distance of 20 km (12 mi). The first section was projected to open in 2015 and the final sections before 2035, but due to the city's financial crisis, the project has been put on hold. Above-ground public transport in Rome is made up of a bus, tram and urban train network (FR lines). The bus, tram, metro and urban railways network is run by Atac S.p.A. (which originally stood for the Municipal Bus and Tramways Company, Azienda Tramvie e Autobus del Comune in Italian). The bus network has in excess of 350 bus lines and over eight thousand bus stops, whereas the more-limited tram system has 39 km (24 mi) of track and 192 stops.[171] There is also one trolleybus line, opened in 2005, and additional trolleybus lines are planned.[172] International entities, organisations and involvement[edit] FAO headquarters in Rome, Circo Massimo WFP headquarters in Rome Among the global cities, Rome is unique in having two sovereign entities located entirely within its city limits, the Holy See, represented by the Vatican City State, and the territorially smaller Sovereign Military Order of Malta. The Vatican is an enclave of the Italian capital city and a sovereign possession of the Holy See, which is the Diocese of Rome and the supreme government of the Roman Catholic Church. Rome, therefore, hosts foreign embassies to the Italian government, to the Holy See, to the Order of Malta and to certain international organisations. Several international Roman Colleges and Pontifical Universities are located in Rome. The Pope is the Bishop of Rome and its official seat is the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran (of which the President of the French Republic is ex officio the "first and only honorary canon", a title held by the heads of the French state since King Henry IV of France). Another body, the Sovereign Military Order of Malta (SMOM), took refuge in Rome in 1834, due to the conquest of Malta by Napoleon in 1798. It is sometimes classified as having sovereignty but does not claim any territory in Rome or anywhere else, hence leading to dispute over its actual sovereign status. Rome is the seat of the so-called Polo Romano[173] made up by three main international agencies of the United Nations: the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the World Food Programme (WFP) and the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). Rome has traditionally been involved in the process of European political integration. The Treaties of the EU are located in Palazzo della Farnesina, the seat of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, because the Italian government is the depositary of the treaties. In 1957 the city hosted the signing of the Treaty of Rome, which established the European Economic Community (predecessor to the European Union), and also played host to the official signing of the proposed European Constitution in July 2004. Rome is the seat of the European Olympic Committee and of the NATO Defense College. The city is the place where the Statute of the International Criminal Court and the European Convention on Human Rights were formulated. The city hosts also other important international entities such as the IDLO (International Development Law Organisation), the ICCROM (International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property) and the UNIDROIT (International Institute for the Unification of Private Law). International relations[edit] Twin towns and sister cities[edit] See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Italy Sculpture dedicated to Rome in the square Paul Painlevé in Paris Column dedicated to Paris in 1956 near the Baths of Diocletian Since 9 April 1956, Rome is exclusively and reciprocally twinned only with: Paris, France, 1956 Solo Parigi è degna di Roma; solo Roma è degna di Parigi. (in Italian) Seule Paris est digne de Rome; seule Rome est digne de Paris. (in French) "Only Paris is worthy of Rome; only Rome is worthy of Paris."[174][175][176][177][178] Other relationships[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Rome's other partner cities are:[179] Achacachi, Bolivia Algiers, Algeria Beijing, China[180][181] Belgrade, Serbia Brasília, Brazil Buenos Aires, Argentina Cairo, Egypt Cincinnati, United States Kyiv, Ukraine Kobanî, Syria[182] Kraków, Poland[183] Madrid, Spain[184] Multan, Pakistan[185] New Delhi, India New York City, United States[186] Plovdiv, Bulgaria Seoul, South Korea[187][188] Sydney, Australia Tirana, Albania[189][190] Tehran, Iran Tokyo, Japan[191] Tongeren, Belgium Tunis, Tunisia[192] Washington, D.C., United States[193] See also[edit] Italy portal Outline of Rome Tourism in Italy Notes[edit] ^ Excluding Vatican City. ^ This hypothesis originates from the Roman Grammarian Maurus Servius Honoratus. However, the Greek verb descends from the Proto-Indo-European root *srew- (compare Ancient Greek ῥεῦμα (rheûma) 'a stream, flow, current', the Thracian river name Στρυμών (Strumṓn) and Proto-Germanic *strauma- 'stream'; if it was related, however, the Latin river name would be expected to begin with **Frum-, like Latin frīgeō 'to freeze' from the root *sreyHg-) and the Latin verb from *h₃rew-. ^ This hypothesis originates from Plutarch. References[edit] ^ a b "I numeri di Roma Capitale" (PDF). Comune di Roma. 31 December 2018. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 May 2020. Retrieved 4 May 2020. ^ a b "Popolazione residente al 1° gennaio". ^ "Principal Agglomerations of the World". Citypopulation. January 2017. ^ "What is the smallest country in the world?". History.com. Retrieved 27 September 2018. ^ "Discorsi del Presidente Ciampi". Presidenza della Repubblica. Archived from the original on 21 September 2013. Retrieved 17 May 2013. ^ "Le istituzioni salutano Benedetto XVI". 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External links[edit] Romeat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Travel guide from Wikivoyage Resources from Wikiversity Data from Wikidata Comune of Rome (in Italian) APT (official Tourist Office) of the City of Rome (in English) Rome Museums – Official site (in English) Capitoline Museums (in English) Geographic data related to Rome at OpenStreetMap Rome v t e Landmarks of Rome Walls and gates Aurelian Walls Ardeatina Asinaria Latina Maggiore Metronia Nomentana Pia Pinciana Popolo Portese San Pancrazio San Paolo San Giovanni San Sebastiano Settimiana Tiburtina Leonine Wall Cavalleggeri Pertusa Santo Spirito Castra Praetoria Janiculum Wall Terreus Wall Romuli Wall Servian Wall Caelimontana Dolabella Gallienus Esquilina Ancient obelisks Lateran Obelisk Flaminian Obelisk Obelisk of Minerveo Obelisk of Montecitorio Ancient Roman landmarks triumphal arches Arch of Constantine Arch of Dolabella Arch of Drusus Arch of Gallienus Arch of Janus Arch of Septimius Severus Arch of Titus Arcus Novus aqueducts Aqua Alexandrina Aqua Anio Vetus Aqua Claudia Cloaca Maxima public baths Baths of Agrippa Baths of Caracalla Baths of Diocletian Baths of Nero Baths of Trajan religious Ara Pacis Temple of Antoninus and Faustina Temple of Apollo Palatinus Temple of Apollo Sosianus Temple of Hadrian Temple of Hercules Victor Temple of Janus Temple of Minerva Medica Temple of Portunus Temple of Saturn Temple of Vesta House of the Vestals Largo di Torre Argentina Lupercal Pantheon Porta Maggiore Basilica fora Roman Forum Imperial fora Forum of Augustus Forum of Caesar Forum of Nerva Forum of Vespasian Forum of Trajan Forum Boarium Forum Holitorium civic Basilica Argentaria Basilica Julia Basilica of Junius Bassus Basilica of Maxentius Basilica of Neptune Basilica Ulpia Comitium Curia Julia Portico Dii Consentes Porticus Octaviae Tabularium entertainment Auditorium of Maecenas Circus Maximus Circus of Maxentius Circus of Nero Colosseum Ludus Magnus Gardens of Sallust Stadium of Domitian Theatre of Marcellus Theatre of Pompey palaces and villae Domus Augustana Domus Aurea Domus Transitoria Flavian Palace House of Augustus Palace of Domitian Villa Gordiani Villa of Livia Insula dell'Ara Coeli Villa of the Quintilii Villa of the sette bassi column monuments Column of Antoninus Pius Column of Marcus Aurelius "Column of Phocas" Trajan's Column "Decennalia column" "Five-column monument" commerce Porticus Aemilia Trajan's Market tombs Casal Rotondo Catacombs of Domitilla Catacombs of Rome Catacombs of San Sebastiano Columbarium of Pomponius Hylas Mausoleum of Augustus Mausoleum of Helena Mausoleum of Maxentius Pyramid of Cestius Tomb of Eurysaces the Baker Tomb of Hilarus Fuscus Tomb of the Scipios Tombs of Via Latina Tomb of Priscilla Vigna Randanini bridges Pons Cestius Milvian Bridge Ponte Sant'Angelo Roman Catholic Basilicas Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran Basilica of Saint Mary Major Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls S. Lorenzo fuori le mura S. Agnese fuori le mura S. Agostino S. Anastasia al Palatino S. Andrea delle Fratte S. Andrea della Valle S. Antonio da Padova in Via Merulana S. Apollinare alle Terme Ss. Apostoli S. Balbina S. Bartolomeo all'Isola Ss. Bonifacio ed Alessio S. Camillo de Lellis S. Carlo al Corso S. Cecilia in Trastevere Ss. Celso e Giuliano S. Clemente Ss. Cosma e Damiano S. Crisogono S. Croce in Via Flaminia S. Croce in Gerusalemme S. Eugenio S. Eustachio S. Francesca Romana S. Giovanni a Porta Latina S. Giovanni dei Fiorentini Ss. Giovanni e Paolo S. Lorenzo in Damaso S. Lorenzo in Lucina S. Maria Ausiliatrice S. Marco S. Maria degli Angeli S. Maria in Montesanto S. Maria in Cosmedin S. Maria in Domnica S. Maria in Aracoeli S. Maria del Popolo S. Maria sopra Minerva S. Maria in Trastevere S. Maria in Via S. Maria in Via Lata S. Maria della Vittoria S. Martino ai Monti Ss. Nereo e Achilleo S. Nicola in Carcere S. Pancrazio Pantheon S. Pietro in Vincoli S. Prassede S. Pudenziana Ss. Quattro Coronati S. Saba S. Sabina Sacro Cuore di Maria Sacro Cuore di Cristo Re Sacro Cuore di Gesù a Castro Pretorio S. Sebastiano fuori le mura S. Silvestro in Capite S. Sisto Vecchio S. Sofia a Via Boccea S. Stefano Rotondo S. Teresa S. Vitale Other churches List of churches in Rome Castles and palaces Sant'Angelo Castle House of the Knights of Rhodes Domus Internationalis Paulus VI Palazzo Aragona Gonzaga Palazzo Barberini Palazzo Borghese Palazzo della Cancelleria Palazzo Chigi Palazzo Colonna Palazzo della Consulta Palazzo Farnese Palazzo Fusconi-Pighini Palazzo Giustinani Lateran Palace Palazzo Madama Palazzo Malta Palazzo di Giustizia Palazzo Massimo alle Colonne Palazzo Mattei Palazzo del Quirinale Palazzo Pamphilj Palazzo Poli Palazzo Riario Palazzo Ruspoli Palazzo Spada Palazzo Valentini Palazzo Vidoni-Caffarelli Palazzo del Viminale Palazzo Wedekind Palazzo Zuccari Villa Farnesina Villa Giulia Villa Madama Fountains Api Acqua Felice Acqua Paola Babuino Barcaccia Il Facchino Marforio Moro Nasone Navicella Neptune Nettuno del Pantheon Pianto di Piazza d'Aracoeli di Piazza Colonna di Piazza Farnese della Piazza dei Quiriti di Piazza Nicosia in Piazza Santa Maria in Trastevere di Ponte Sisto Quattro Fiumi Quattro Fontane Tartarughe Trevi Fountain Tritons Tritone Other landmarks Altare della Patria (Tomb of the Unknown Soldier of Italy) Campo Verano Capocci Tower Column of the Immaculate Conception Conti Tower Hospital of the Holy Spirit Milizie Tower Sisto Bridge Spanish Steps Squares, streets and public spaces Appian Way Campo de' Fiori Clivus Capitolinus Piazza Colonna Piazza d'Aracoeli Piazza del Popolo Piazza della Minerva Piazza della Repubblica Piazza Farnese Piazza Navona Piazza di Spagna Piazza Venezia Via dei Coronari Via del Corso Via della Conciliazione Via dei Fori Imperiali Via Sacra Via Veneto Parks, gardens and zoos Bioparco Villa Ada Villa Borghese gardens Villa Doria Pamphili Villa Medici Villa Torlonia Parco degli Acquedotti Museums and art galleries Boncompagni Ludovisi Decorative Art Museum Capitoline Museums Casa di Goethe Doria Pamphilj Gallery Galleria Borghese Galleria Comunale d'Arte Moderna Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Moderna Giorgio de Chirico House Museum Galleria Spada Jewish Museum of Rome Keats-Shelley Memorial House MAXXI Museo delle anime del Purgatorio Museum of the Ara Pacis Museo Archeologico Ostiense Museo Barracco di Scultura Antica Museo Civico di Zoologia Museum of Contemporary Art of Rome Museum of the Liberation of Rome Museo delle Mura Museo Nazionale Etrusco Museo nazionale del Palazzo di Venezia Museo Storico Nazionale dell'Arte Sanitaria Museo di Roma Museo di Roma in Trastevere Museum of Roman Civilization National Museum of Oriental Art National Roman Museum Palazzo Colonna Palazzo delle Esposizioni Pigorini National Museum Porta San Paolo Railway Museum Santa Cecilia Musical Instruments Museum Venanzo Crocetti Museum Art Apollo Belvedere Augustus of Prima Porta Colossus of Constantine La Bocca della Verità Laocoön and His Sons Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus Ecstasy of Saint Teresa Portonaccio sarcophagus Sistine Chapel ceiling Velletri Sarcophagus Landscape Seven Hills Aventine Caelian Capitoline Esquiline Palatine Quirinal Viminal Tiber Island Monte Testaccio Metropolitan City of Rome Capital Appian Way Regional Park Capo di Bove Castello Orsini-Odescalchi Frascati Hadrian's Villa Ostia Antica Villa Aldobrandini Villa d'Este Villa Farnese Events and traditions Festa della Repubblica Rome Quadriennale Rome Film Festival Related Vatican City St. Peter's basilica St. Peter's Square Sistine Chapel ceiling v t e Municipi of Rome Municipio I (List of Rioni) Municipio II Municipio III Municipio IV Municipio V Municipio VI Municipio VII Municipio VIII Municipio IX Municipio X Municipio XI Municipio XII Municipio XIII Municipio XIV Municipio XV v t e Rioni of Rome I - Monti II - Trevi III - Colonna IV - Campo Marzio V - Ponte VI - Parione VII - Regola VIII - Sant'Eustachio IX - Pigna X - Campitelli XI - Sant'Angelo XII - Ripa XIII - Trastevere XIV - Borgo XV - Esquilino XVI - Ludovisi XVII - Sallustiano XVIII - Castro Pretorio XIX - Celio XX - Testaccio XXI - San Saba XXII - Prati Category v t e Municipalities of the Metropolitan City of Rome Capital Affile Agosta Albano Laziale Allumiere Anguillara Sabazia Anticoli Corrado Anzio Arcinazzo Romano Ardea Ariccia Arsoli Artena Bellegra Bracciano Camerata Nuova Campagnano di Roma Canale Monterano Canterano Capena Capranica Prenestina Carpineto Romano Casape Castel Gandolfo Castel Madama Castel San Pietro Romano Castelnuovo di Porto Cave Cerreto Laziale Cervara di Roma Cerveteri Ciampino Ciciliano Cineto Romano Civitavecchia Civitella San Paolo Colleferro Colonna Fiano Romano Filacciano Fiumicino Fonte Nuova Formello Frascati Gallicano nel Lazio Gavignano Genazzano Genzano di Roma Gerano Gorga Grottaferrata Guidonia Montecelio Jenne Labico Ladispoli Lanuvio Lariano Licenza Magliano Romano Mandela Manziana Marano Equo Marcellina Marino Mazzano Romano Mentana Monte Compatri Monte Porzio Catone Monteflavio Montelanico Montelibretti Monterotondo Montorio Romano Moricone Morlupo Nazzano Nemi Nerola Nettuno Olevano Romano Palestrina Palombara Sabina Percile Pisoniano Poli Pomezia Ponzano Romano Riano Rignano Flaminio Riofreddo Rocca Canterano Rocca Priora Rocca Santo Stefano Rocca di Cave Rocca di Papa Roccagiovine Roiate Rome Roviano Sacrofano Sambuci San Cesareo San Gregorio da Sassola San Polo dei Cavalieri San Vito Romano Sant'Angelo Romano Sant'Oreste Santa Marinella Saracinesco Segni Subiaco Tivoli Tolfa Torrita Tiberina Trevignano Romano Vallepietra Vallinfreda Valmontone Velletri Vicovaro Vivaro Romano Zagarolo v t e Capital cities of the member states of the European Union Netherlands: Amsterdam Greece: Athens Germany: Berlin Slovakia: Bratislava Belgium: Brussels Romania: Bucharest Hungary: Budapest Denmark: Copenhagen Ireland: Dublin Finland: Helsinki Portugal: Lisbon Slovenia: Ljubljana Luxembourg: Luxembourg Spain: Madrid Cyprus: Nicosia France: Paris Czech Republic: Prague Latvia: Riga Italy: Rome Bulgaria: Sofia Sweden: Stockholm Estonia: Tallinn Malta: Valletta Austria: Vienna Lithuania: Vilnius Poland: Warsaw Croatia: Zagreb v t e Regional capitals of Italy     L'Aquila, Abruzzo Aosta, Aosta Valley Bari, Apulia Potenza, Basilicata Catanzaro, Calabria Naples, Campania Bologna, Emilia-Romagna Trieste, Friuli-Venezia Giulia Rome, Lazio Genoa, Liguria Milan, Lombardy Ancona, Marche Campobasso, Molise Turin, Piedmont Cagliari, Sardinia Palermo, Sicily Trento, Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol Florence, Tuscany Perugia, Umbria Venice, Veneto v t e Summer Olympic Games host cities 1896: Athens 1900: Paris 1904: St. Louis 1908: London 1912: Stockholm 1916: None[c1] 1920: Antwerp 1924: Paris 1928: Amsterdam 1932: Los Angeles 1936: Berlin 1940: None[c2] 1944: None[c2] 1948: London 1952: Helsinki 1956: Melbourne 1960: Rome 1964: Tokyo 1968: Mexico City 1972: Munich 1976: Montreal 1980: Moscow 1984: Los Angeles 1988: Seoul 1992: Barcelona 1996: Atlanta 2000: Sydney 2004: Athens 2008: Beijing 2012: London 2016: Rio de Janeiro 2020: Tokyo[c3] 2024: Paris 2028: Los Angeles [c1] Cancelled due to World War I; [c2] Cancelled due to World War II; [c3] Postponed to 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic v t e Cities in Italy by population 1,000,000+ Rome Milan 500,000+ Naples Turin Palermo Genoa 200,000+ Bari Bologna Catania Florence Messina Padua Trieste Venice Verona 100,000+ Ancona Andria Arezzo Bergamo Bolzano Brescia Cagliari Ferrara Foggia Forlì Giugliano Latina Livorno Modena Monza Novara Parma Perugia Pescara Piacenza Prato Ravenna Reggio Calabria Reggio Emilia Rimini Salerno Sassari Syracuse Taranto Terni Trento Udine Vicenza v t e Host cities of the World Athletics Championships 1983: Helsinki 1987: Rome 1991: Tokyo 1993: Stuttgart 1995: Gothenburg 1997: Athens 1999: Seville 2001: Edmonton 2003: Saint-Denis 2005: Helsinki 2007: Osaka 2009: Berlin 2011: Daegu 2013: Moscow 2015: Beijing 2017: London 2019: Doha 2021: Eugene 2023: Budapest v t e World Heritage Sites in Italy Northwest Crespi d'Adda Genoa Ivrea Mantua and Sabbioneta Monte San Giorgio1 Porto Venere, Palmaria, Tino and Tinetto, Cinque Terre Corniglia Manarola Monterosso al Mare Riomaggiore Vernazza Residences of the Royal House of Savoy Castle of Moncalieri Castle of Racconigi Castle of Rivoli Castello del Valentino Royal Palace of Turin Palazzo Carignano Palazzo Madama, Turin Palace of Venaria Palazzina di caccia of Stupinigi Villa della Regina Rhaetian Railway in the Albula / Bernina Landscapes1 Rock Drawings in Valcamonica Sacri Monti of Piedmont and Lombardy Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan Vineyard Landscape of Piedmont: Langhe-Roero and Monferrato Northeast Aquileia The Dolomites Ferrara Le Colline del Prosecco di Conegliano e Valdobbiadene Modena Cathedral, Torre della Ghirlandina and Piazza Grande, Modena Orto botanico di Padova Ravenna Venice Verona City of Vicenza and the Palladian Villas of the Veneto Central Assisi Basilica of Saint Francis of Assisi Etruscan Necropolises of Cerveteri and Tarquinia Florence Hadrian's Villa Medici villas Piazza del Duomo, Pisa Pienza Rome2 San Gimignano Siena Urbino Val d'Orcia Villa d'Este South Alberobello Amalfi Coast Castel del Monte, Apulia Cilento and Vallo di Diano National Park, Paestum and Velia, Certosa di Padula Herculaneum Oplontis and Villa Poppaea Naples Royal Palace of Caserta, Aqueduct of Vanvitelli and San Leucio Complex Pompeii Sassi di Matera Islands Aeolian Islands Arab-Norman Palermo and the Cathedral Churches of Cefalù and Monreale Archaeological Area of Agrigento Barumini nuraghes Mount Etna Syracuse and Necropolis of Pantalica Val di Noto Caltagirone Catania Militello in Val di Catania Modica Noto Palazzolo Acreide Ragusa Scicli Villa Romana del Casale Countrywide Longobards in Italy, Places of Power (568–774 A.D.) Brescia Cividale del Friuli Castelseprio Spoleto Temple of Clitumnus located at Campello sul Clitunno Santa Sofia located at Benevento Sanctuary of Monte Sant'Angelo located at Monte Sant'Angelo Prehistoric pile dwellings around the Alps3 Primeval Beech Forests of Europe4 Venetian Works of Defence between 15th and 17th centuries5 Bergamo Palmanova Peschiera del Garda 1 Shared with Switzerland 2 Shared with the Holy See 3 Shared with Austria, France, Germany, Slovenia, and Switzerland 4 Shared with Albania, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Germany, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain and Ukraine 5 Shared with Croatia and Montenegro Authority control BNF: cb12139445g (data) GND: 4050471-2 HDS: 006605 ISNI: 0000 0001 2106 5979 LCCN: n79018704 MBAREA: dccd77b2-bd3d-49eb-a98f-fd58e87f481e NARA: 10044604 NDL: 00660798 NKC: ge131746 NLI: 000974521 SUDOC: 026399997 VIAF: 145348938 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79039816 Retrieved from 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en-wikipedia-org-4312	----	Andrew Marvell - Wikipedia Andrew Marvell From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Horatian Ode upon Cromwell's Return from Ireland) Jump to navigation Jump to search English Metaphysical poet, satirist and politician Andrew Marvell Andrew Marvell (between c. 1655 and c. 1660) Born (1621-03-31)31 March 1621 Winestead, England Died 16 August 1678(1678-08-16) (aged 57) London, England Occupation Poet Alma mater Trinity College, Cambridge Notable works "To His Coy Mistress", "The Garden", "An Horatian Ode" Andrew Marvell (/ˈmɑːrvəl, mɑːrˈvɛl/; 31 March 1621 – 16 August 1678) was an English Metaphysical poet, satirist and politician who sat in the House of Commons at various times between 1659 and 1678. During the Commonwealth period he was a colleague and friend of John Milton. His poems range from the love-song "To His Coy Mistress", to evocations of an aristocratic country house and garden in "Upon Appleton House" and "The Garden", the political address "An Horatian Ode upon Cromwell's Return from Ireland", and the later personal and political satires "Flecknoe" and "The Character of Holland". Contents 1 Early life 2 First poems and Marvell's time at Nun Appleton 3 Anglo-Dutch War and employment as Latin secretary 4 After the Restoration 5 Prose works 6 Views 7 Marvell's poetic style 8 In popular culture 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Early life[edit] Attributed to Sir Godfrey Kneller (who arrived in England in 1676), Trinity College, Cambridge Andrew Marvell Marvell was born in Winestead-in-Holderness, East Riding of Yorkshire, near the city of Kingston upon Hull, the son of a Church of England clergyman also named Andrew Marvell. The family moved to Hull when his father was appointed Lecturer at Holy Trinity Church there, and Marvell was educated at Hull Grammar School. A secondary school in the city, the Andrew Marvell Business and Enterprise College, is named after him.[1] At the age of 13, Marvell attended Trinity College, Cambridge and eventually received a BA degree.[2] A portrait of Marvell attributed to Godfrey Kneller hangs in Trinity College's collection.[3] Afterwards, from the middle of 1642 onwards, Marvell probably travelled in continental Europe. He may well have served as a tutor for an aristocrat on the Grand Tour, but the facts are not clear on this point. While England was embroiled in the civil war, Marvell seems to have remained on the continent until 1647. In Rome in 1645 he probably met the Villiers brothers, Lord Francis and the 2nd Duke of Buckingham, as well as Richard Flecknoe, about whom he would later on write a satirical poem.[4] It is not known exactly where his travels took him except that Milton later reported that Marvell had mastered four languages, including French, Italian and Spanish.[5] First poems and Marvell's time at Nun Appleton[edit] Marvell's first poems, which were written in Latin and Greek and published when he was still at Cambridge, lamented a visitation of the plague and celebrated the birth of a child to King Charles I and Queen Henrietta Maria. He only belatedly became sympathetic to the successive regimes during the Interregnum after Charles I's execution on 30 January 1649. His "Horatian Ode", a political poem dated to early 1650, responds with lament to the regicide even as it praises Oliver Cromwell's return from Ireland.[6][7][8] Circa 1650–52, Marvell served as tutor to the daughter of the Lord General Thomas Fairfax, who had recently relinquished command of the Parliamentary army to Cromwell. He lived during that time at Nun Appleton Hall, near York, where he continued to write poetry. One poem, "Upon Appleton House, To My Lord Fairfax", uses a description of the estate as a way of exploring Fairfax's and Marvell's own situation in a time of war and political change.[9] Probably the best-known poem he wrote at this time is "To His Coy Mistress". Anglo-Dutch War and employment as Latin secretary[edit] During the period of increasing tensions leading up to the First Anglo-Dutch War of 1652, Marvell wrote the satirical "Character of Holland," repeating the then-current stereotype of the Dutch as "drunken and profane": "This indigested vomit of the Sea,/ Fell to the Dutch by Just Propriety." He became a tutor to Cromwell's ward, William Dutton, in 1653, and moved to live with his pupil at the house of John Oxenbridge in Eton. Oxenbridge had made two trips to Bermuda, and it is thought that this inspired Marvell to write his poem Bermudas. He also wrote several poems in praise of Cromwell, who was by this time Lord Protector of England. In 1656 Marvell and Dutton travelled to France, to visit the Protestant Academy of Saumur.[10][11] In 1657, Marvell joined Milton, who by that time had lost his sight, in service as Latin secretary to Cromwell's Council of State at a salary of £200 a year, which represented financial security at that time. Oliver Cromwell died in 1658. He was succeeded as Lord Protector by his son Richard. In 1659 Marvell was elected Member of Parliament for Kingston upon Hull in the Third Protectorate Parliament.[12] He was paid a rate of 6 shillings, 8 pence per day during sittings of parliament, a financial support derived from the contributions of his constituency.[13] He was re-elected MP for Hull in 1660 for the Convention Parliament. After the Restoration[edit] A statue of Andrew Marvell, located in the Marketplace, Kingston upon Hull, UK The monarchy was restored to Charles II in 1660. Marvell avoided punishment for his own co-operation with republicanism, and he helped convince the government of Charles II not to execute John Milton for his antimonarchical writings and revolutionary activities.[14] The closeness of the relationship between the two former colleagues is indicated by the fact that Marvell contributed an eloquent prefatory poem, entitled "On Mr. Milton's Paradise Lost", to the second edition of Milton's epic Paradise Lost. According to a biographer: "Skilled in the arts of self-preservation, he was not a toady."[15] In 1661 Marvell was re-elected MP for Hull in the Cavalier Parliament.[12] He eventually came to write several long and bitterly satirical verses against the corruption of the court. Although circulated in manuscript form, some finding anonymous publication in print, they were too politically sensitive and thus dangerous to be published under his name until well after his death. Marvell took up opposition to the 'court party', and satirised them anonymously. In his longest verse satire, Last Instructions to a Painter, written in 1667, Marvell responded to the political corruption that had contributed to English failures during the Second Anglo-Dutch War. The poem did not find print publication until after the Revolution of 1688–9. The poem instructs an imaginary painter how to picture the state without a proper navy to defend them, led by men without intelligence or courage, a corrupt and dissolute court, and dishonest officials. Of another such satire, Samuel Pepys, himself a government official, commented in his diary, "Here I met with a fourth Advice to a Painter upon the coming in of the Dutch and the End of the War, that made my heart ake to read, it being too sharp and so true."[16] From 1659 until his death in 1678, Marvell was serving as London agent for the Hull Trinity House, a shipmasters' guild.[citation needed] He went on two missions to the continent, one to the Dutch Republic and the other encompassing Russia, Sweden, and Denmark.[citation needed] He spent some time living in a cottage on Highgate Hill in north London, where his time in the area is recorded by a bronze plaque that bears the following inscription: Four feet below this spot is the stone step, formerly the entrance to the cottage in which lived Andrew Marvell, poet, wit, and satirist; colleague with John Milton in the foreign or Latin secretaryship during the Commonwealth; and for about twenty years M.P. for Hull. Born at Winestead, Yorkshire, 31st March, 1621, died in London, 18th August, 1678, and buried in the church of St. Giles-in-the-Fields. This memorial is placed here by the London County Council, December, 1898.[17] A floral sundial in the nearby Lauderdale House bears an inscription quoting lines from his poem "The Garden".[18] He died suddenly in 1678, while in attendance at a popular meeting of his old constituents at Hull. His health had previously been remarkably good; and it was supposed by many that he was poisoned by some of his political or clerical enemies. Marvell was buried in the church of St Giles in the Fields in central London. His monument, erected by his grateful constituency, bears the following inscription: Near this place lyeth the body of Andrew Marvell, Esq., a man so endowed by Nature, so improved by Education, Study, and Travel, so consummated by Experience, that, joining the peculiar graces of Wit and Learning, with a singular penetration and strength of judgment; and exercising all these in the whole course of his life, with an unutterable steadiness in the ways of Virtue, he became the ornament and example of his age, beloved by good men, feared by bad, admired by all, though imitated by few; and scarce paralleled by any. But a Tombstone can neither contain his character, nor is Marble necessary to transmit it to posterity; it is engraved in the minds of this generation, and will be always legible in his inimitable writings, nevertheless. He having served twenty years successfully in Parliament, and that with such Wisdom, Dexterity, and Courage, as becomes a true Patriot, the town of Kingston-upon-Hull, from whence he was deputed to that Assembly, lamenting in his death the public loss, have erected this Monument of their Grief and their Gratitude, 1688. Prose works[edit] Marvell also wrote anonymous prose satires criticizing the monarchy and Roman Catholicism, defending Puritan dissenters, and denouncing censorship. The Rehearsal Transpros'd, an attack on Samuel Parker, was published in two parts in 1672 and 1673. In 1676, Mr. Smirke; or The Divine in Mode, a work critical of intolerance within the Church of England, was published together with a "Short Historical Essay, concerning General Councils, Creeds, and Impositions, in matters of Religion." Marvell's pamphlet An Account of the Growth of Popery and Arbitrary Government in England, published in late 1677, alleged that: "There has now for diverse Years, a design been carried on, to change the Lawfull Government of England into an Absolute Tyranny, and to convert the established Protestant Religion into down-right Popery".[19] John Kenyon described it as "one of the most influential pamphlets of the decade"[20] and G. M. Trevelyan called it: "A fine pamphlet, which throws light on causes provocative of the formation of the Whig party".[21] A 1678 work published anonymously ("by a Protestant") in defense of John Howe against the attack of his fellow-dissenter, the severe Calvinist Thomas Danson, is also probably by Marvell. Its full title is Remarks upon a late disingenuous discourse, writ by one T.D. under the pretence de causa Dei, and of answering Mr. John Howe's letter and postscript of God's prescience, &c., affirming, as the Protestant doctrine, that God doth by efficacious influence universally move and determine men to all their actions, even to those that are most wicked. Views[edit] Although Marvell became a Parliamentarian and was opposed to episcopacy, he was not a Puritan. Later in life especially, he seems to have been a conforming Anglican.[22] Marvell positively identifies himself as "a Protestant" in pamphlets.[23] He had flirted briefly with Catholicism as a youth,[24] and was described in his thirties (on the Saumur visit) as "a notable English Italo-Machiavellian".[25][26] His strong Biblical influence is clear in poems such as "The Garden", the "Coronet" and "The Bermudas".[27] Vincent Palmieri noted that Marvell is sometimes known as the "British Aristides" for his incorruptible integrity in life and poverty at death. Many of his poems were not published until 1681, three years after his death, from a collection owned by Mary Palmer, his housekeeper. After Marvell's death she laid dubious claim to having been his wife, from the time of a secret marriage in 1667.[28] Marvell's poetic style[edit] Marvell is said to have adhered to the established stylized forms of his contemporary neoclassical tradition. These include the carpe diem lyric tradition which also forms the basis of his famous lyric "To His Coy Mistress". He adopted familiar forms and infused them with his unique conceits, analogies, reflections and preoccupations with larger questions about life and death[29] T.S. Eliot wrote of Marvell's style that "It is more than a technical accomplishment, or the vocabulary and syntax of an epoch; it is, what we have designated tentatively as wit, a tough reasonableness beneath the slight lyric grace". He also identified Marvell and the Metaphysical school with the "dissociation of sensibility" that occurred in 17th-century English literature; Eliot described this trend as "something which...happened to the mind of England...it is the difference between the intellectual poet and the reflective poet".[30] Poets increasingly developed a self-conscious relationship to tradition, which took the form of a new emphasis on craftsmanship of expression and an idiosyncratic freedom in allusions to Classical and Biblical sources. "To His Coy Mistress", Marvell's most celebrated poem, combines an old poetic conceit (the persuasion of the speaker's lover by means of a carpe diem philosophy) with Marvell's typically vibrant imagery and easy command of rhyming couplets. Other works incorporate topical satire and religious themes. In popular culture[edit] His work is referenced in the 1997 British film The Serpent's Kiss and quoted in the 1946 British film A Matter of Life and Death. It is also referenced in Audrey Niffenegger's The Time Traveler's Wife and Emily Colin's The Memory Thief. Several works of science fiction, fantasy, and mystery allude to "To His Coy Mistress". In 2003, Christopher Peachment published "The Green and the Gold", a first-person fictional narrative following Marvell's life. See also[edit] List of works by Andrew Marvell The Marvell College Andrew Marvel (1812 ship) - ship built at Kingston upon Hull that made some 24 voyages as a Greenland whaler References[edit] ^ "Andrew Marvell College". ^ "Marvell, Andrew (MRVL633A)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge. ^ "Trinity College, University of Cambridge". BBC Your Paintings. Archived from the original on 11 May 2014. Retrieved 12 February 2018. ^ Edward Chaney, The Grand Tour and the Great Rebellion (Geneva, 1985), pp. 347-50. ^ Nicholas Murray, Andrew Marvell (1999), pp. 24–35. ^ Full title "An Horatian Ode upon Cromwell's Return from Ireland". ^ "Online text". Archived from the original on 25 October 2009. ^ Understanding Poetry (Brooks/Penn Warren): Marvell's Horatian Ode ^ Marvell, Andrew. "Upon Appleton House, to my Lord Fairfax". Luminarium. Retrieved 6 August 2017. ^ Andrew Marvell: Chronology of Important Dates ^ Nicholas Murray, Andrew Marvell (1999), pp. 92–3. ^ a b History of Parliament Online – Marvell, Andrew ^ John Stuart Mill, Considerations on Representative Government, Chapter X, last paragraph p.369 Oxford World's Classic edition, On Liberty And Other Essays, 1991, reed. 1998 ^ Andrew Crozier's introduction to The Works of Andrew Marvell, Ware 1995, p.vi ^ Nicholas Murray, Andrew Marvell (1999), p. 117. ^ 16 September 1667, The Diary of Samuel Pepys, Volume 2, p.657 ^ Andrew Marvell's cottage : London Remembers, Aiming to capture all memorials in London ^ Poetry Landmarks - Individual Landmark ^ Andrew Marvell, An Account of the Growth of Popery and Arbitrary Government in England (Gregg International Publishers Limited, 1971), p. 3. ^ John Kenyon, The Popish Plot (Phoenix, 2000), p. 24. ^ G. M. Trevelyan, England under the Stuarts (Routledge, 2002), p. 513. ^ http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-18242 ^ http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-1824 ^ John Dixon Hunt Andrew Marvell: his life and writings (Paul Elek, 1978) pp. 24–25 ^ http://www.english.ox.ac.uk/Old%20Site/lists/MarvellDates.htm Archived 13 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine ^ Robert R. Hay, An Andrew Marvell Companion (Routledge, 1998), p. 101. ^ http://www.gradesaver.com/andrew-marvell-poems/study-guide/summary-bermudas ^ Nicholas Murray, Andrew Marvell (1999), pp. 296–9. ^ Moldenhauer, Josheph J. (1968). "The Voices of Seduction in "To His Coy Mistress": A Rhetorical Analysis". Texas Studies in Literature and Language. 10: 189–206 – via JSTOR. ^ T S. Eliot."The Metaphysical Poets" and "Andrew Marvell". Selected Prose of T.S. Eliot. ed. Frank Kermode. Harcourt, 1975. Further reading[edit] A. B. Chambers (1991). Andrew Marvell and Edmund Waller: Seventeenth-Century Praise and Restoration Satire. University Park, PA. Warren L. Chernaik (1983). The poet's time: politics and religion in the work of Andrew Marvell. Cambridge University Press. Will Davenport. The Painter. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-00-651460-X. This novel about Rembrandt features Andrew Marvell as a character. Kenneth R. Friedenreich (ed.) (1978). Tercentenary Essays in Honor of Andrew Marvell. Hamden, CT. Nicholas McDowell (2008). Poetry and Allegiance in the English Civil Wars: Marvell and the Cause of Wit. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Nigel Smith (2010). Andrew Marvell: The Chameleon. New Haven, CT. ISBN 978-0-300-11221-4. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Andrew Marvell Wikisource has original works written by or about: Andrew Marvell Works by Marvell: Works by Andrew Marvell at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Andrew Marvell at Internet Archive Works by Andrew Marvell at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Poems: Luminarium Correspondence and prose works: in Grosart's edition (via Google Books) Biography: Poetry Foundation; Andrew Marvell at Project Gutenberg by Augustine Birrell Andrew Marvell's Grave Portraits of Andrew Marvell at the National Portrait Gallery, London "Archival material relating to Andrew Marvell". UK National Archives. Andrew Marvell, Sir Thomas Widdrington and Appleton House (Notes and Queries 1996); www.phoenixlodger.co.uk Andrew Marvell at Nun Appleton (TLS 1994); www.phoenixlodger.co.uk v t e Poetry by Andrew Marvell List List of works by Andrew Marvell Poems "The Garden" "The Mower's Song" "To His Coy Mistress" "Upon Appleton House" "On Mr. Milton's Paradise Lost" v t e Metaphysical poetry Major poets John Donne (1572–1631) George Herbert (1593–1633) Andrew Marvell (1621–1678) Abraham Cowley (1618–1667) Robert Southwell (c. 1561–1595) Richard Crashaw (c. 1613–1649) Thomas Traherne (1636/1637–1674) Henry Vaughan (1622–1695) Minor poets Anne Bradstreet (c. 1612–1672) Thomas Carew (1595–1640) George Chapman (c. 1559–1634) John Hall (c. 1627–1656) Edward Herbert (1583–1648) Richard Leigh (1649-1728) Katherine Philips (1632–1664) Sir John Suckling (1609–1642) Edward Taylor (c. 1642–1729) Critics Samuel Johnson T. S. Eliot Authority control BIBSYS: 90116297 BNE: XX1023536 BNF: cb11914924h (data) CANTIC: a10120798 CiNii: DA01564624 GND: 118578448 ISNI: 0000 0001 0889 3577 LCCN: n80010195 LNB: 000021863 MBA: 94062291-2cbb-4284-b539-3a7183029b28 NDL: 00471163 NKC: jn19990005453 NLA: 35331879 NLI: 000606429 NLK: KAC201829386 NTA: 068354215 SELIBR: 205428 SNAC: w61z4975 SUDOC: 027014460 Trove: 914638 VIAF: 39381003 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n80010195 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Andrew_Marvell&oldid=996209864" Categories: 1621 births 1678 deaths 17th-century English poets 17th-century male writers Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge English male poets English MPs 1659 English MPs 1660 English MPs 1661–1679 People educated at Hull Grammar School Politicians from Kingston upon Hull Writers from Kingston upon Hull Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from December 2013 Use British English from December 2013 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2012 Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages العربية تۆرکجه Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano ಕನ್ನಡ Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Suomi Svenska Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 25 December 2020, at 04:39 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4316	----	Columella - Wikipedia Columella From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 1st century AD Roman writer on agriculture For other uses, see Columella (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Columella" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella Portrait of Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella from Jean de Tournes, Insignium aliquot virorum icones, Lyon, 1559 Born 4 AD Gades, Hispania Baetica Died c. 70 AD Citizenship Roman Notable works De Re Rustica Statue of Columella, holding a sickle and an ox-yoke, in the Plaza de las Flores, Cádiz Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella (/ˌkɒljəˈmɛlə/; Arabic: Yunius,[1] 4 – c. 70 AD) was a prominent writer on agriculture in the Roman empire.[2] His De re rustica in twelve volumes has been completely preserved and forms an important source on Roman agriculture, together with the works of Cato the Elder and Varro, both of which he occasionally cites. A smaller book on trees, De arboribus, is usually attributed to him. In 1794 the Spanish botanists Jose Antonio Pavón y Jimenez and Hipólito Ruiz López named a genus of Peruvian asterid Columellia in his honour.[3] Contents 1 Personal life 2 De re rustica 3 De arboribus 4 Sources 5 Principal early editions 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links Personal life[edit] Little is known of Columella's life. He was probably born in Gades, Hispania Baetica (modern Cádiz), possibly to Roman parents. After a career in the army (he was tribune in Syria in 35), he turned to farming his estates at Ardea, Carseoli, and Alba in Latium.[4] De re rustica[edit] In ancient times, Columella's work "appears to have been but little read", cited only by Pliny the Elder, Servius, Cassiodorus, and Isidorus, and having fallen "into almost complete neglect" after Palladius published an abridgement of it.[5] This book is presented as advice to a certain Publius Silvinus. Previously known only in fragments, the complete book was among those discovered in monastery libraries in Switzerland and France by Poggio Bracciolini and his assistant Bartolomeo di Montepulciano during the Council of Constance, between 1414 and 1418.[6] Structure of De re rustica ("On Rural Affairs"): soils viticulture fruits olive trees big animals: cattle, horses and mules small animals: asses, sheep, goats, pigs, dogs fish and fowl: chickens, doves, thrushes, peacocks, Numidian chicken and guinea fowl, geese, ducks, fish ponds wild animals: enclosures for wild animals, bee-keeping, production of honey and wax gardens personnel management calendars household management Book 10 is written entirely in dactylic hexameter verse, in imitation of or homage to, Virgil. It may initially have been intended to be the concluding volume, books 11 and 12 being perhaps an addition to the original scheme.[7] A complete but anonymous translation into English was published by Andrew Millar in 1745.[8] Excerpts had previously been translated by Richard Bradley.[9] De arboribus[edit] De re rustica, 1564 The short work De arboribus, "On Trees", is in manuscripts and early editions of Columella considered as book 3 of De Re Rustica.[10] However it is clear from the opening sentences that it is part of a separate and possibly earlier work. As the anonymous translator of the Millar edition notes, there is in De arboribus no mention of the Publius Silvinus to whom the De Re Rustica is addressed.[8]:571 A recent critical edition of the Latin text of the De Re Rustica of Columella includes it, but as incerti auctoris, by an unknown hand.[11] Cassiodorus mentions sixteen books of Columella, which has led to the suggestion that De arboribus formed part of a work in four volumes.[10] Sources[edit] In addition to Cato the Elder and Varro, Columella used many sources that are no longer extant and for which he is one of the few references. These include works by Aulus Cornelius Celsus, the Carthaginian writer Mago, Tremellius Scrofa, and many Greek sources. His uncle Marcus Columella, "a clever man and an exceptional farmer" (VII.2.30), had conducted experiments in sheep breeding, crossing colourful wild rams, introduced from Africa for gladiatorial games, with domestic sheep,[12] and may have influenced his nephew's interests. Columella owned farms in Italy; he refers specifically to estates at Ardea, Carseoli, and Alba,[13] and speaks repeatedly of his own practical experience in agriculture. Principal early editions[edit] The earliest editions of Columella group his works with those on agriculture of Cato the Elder, Varro Reatinus and Palladius. Some modern library catalogues follow Brunet in listing these under "Rei rusticae scriptores" or "Scriptores rei rusticae".[14] Iunii Moderati Columellae hortulus [Rome: Printer of Silius Italicus, ca. 1471] (book X only) Georgius Merula, Franciscus Colucia (eds.) De re rustica Opera et impensa Nicolai Ienson: Venetiis, 1472. Lucii Iunii Moderati Columellae de Cultu hortorum Liber .xi. quem .Pub. Virgilius .M. i[n] Georgicis Posteris edendum dimisit. [Padova]: D[ominicus] S[iliprandus], [ca. 1480] Opera Agricolationum: Columellæ: Varronis: Catonisque: nec non Palladii: cū excriptionibus .D. Philippi Beroaldi: & commentariis quæ in aliis impressionibus non extāt. Impensis Benedicti hectoris: Bonon., xiii. calen. octob. [19 Sept.], 1494 Beroaldo, Filippo "il vecchio" Oratio de felicitate habita in enarratione Georgicon Virgilii et Columellae Bononiae: per Ioannemantonium De Benedictis, 1507 Lucii Junii moderati Columell[ae] de cultu hortorum carme[n] : Necno[n] [et] Palladius de arboru[m] insitione una cu[m] Nicolai Barptholomaei Lochensis hortulo. Parisiis: Venundantur parisiis in aedibus Radulphi Laliseau [printed by Jean Marchant], [1512] (poetry sections only) Columella, Lucius Iunius Moderatus Columella De cultu ortorum. Interprete Pio Bononiensi. Impressum Bononiae: a Hieronymo de Benedictis bibliopola et calcographo, 1520 mense Augusto Libri De Re Rustica...Additis Nuper Commentariis Iunii Pompo. Fortunati in Librum De Cultu Hortorum, Cum Adnotationibus Philippi Beroaldi... Florence: Filippo Giunta, 1521 De re rustica libri XII. Euisdem de Arboris liber, separatus ab aliis. Lyon, Sébastien Gryphe, 1541 Columella, Lucius Iunius Moderatus De l'agricoltura libri XII. / Lutio Giunio Moderato Columella. Trattato de gli alberi, tradotto nuouamente di latino in lingua italiana per Pietro Lauro Modonese In Venetia: [Michele Tramezzino il vecchio], 1544 Les Douze livres des choses rustiques. Traduicts de Latin en François, par feu maistre Claude Cotereau Chanoine de Paris. La traduction duquel ha esté soingneusement reveue & en la plupart corrigée, & illustrée de doctes annotations par maistre Jean Thierry de Beauvoisis Paris: Jacques Kerver, 1551, 1555 Columella, Lucius Junius Moderatus Les douze liures ... des choses rustiques, tr. par C. Cotereau. La tr. corrigée & illustrée de doctes annotations par J. Thiery de Beauoisis Paris, 1555 Columella, Lucius Iunius Moderatus Lutio Giunio Moderato Columella De l'agricoltura libri XII. Trattato de gli alberi del medesimo, tradotto nuouamente di latino in lingua italiana per Pietro Lauro modonese. In Venetia: per Geronimo Caualcalouo, 1559 Columella, Lucius Iunius Moderatus Lutio Giunio Moderato Columella De l'agricoltura libri XII. Trattato de gli alberi tradotto nuovamente di latino in lingua italiana per Pietro Lauro modonese. In Venetia: appresso Nicolò Beuilacqua, 1564 Orsini, Fulvio Notae ad M. Catonem, M. Varronem, L. Columellam de re rustica. Ad kalend. rusticum Farnesianum & veteres inscriptiones Fratrum Arvalium. Iunius Philargyrius in Bucolica & Georgica Virgilij. Notae ad Servium in Bucol. Georg. & Aeneid. Virg. Velius Longus de orthographia : ex bibliotheca Fulvi Ursini Romae: in aedib. S.P.Q.R. apud Georgium Ferrarium, 1587[15] Bradley, Richard A Survey of the Ancient Husbandry and Gardening collected from Cato, Varro, Columella, Virgil, and others, the most eminent writers among the Greeks & Romans: wherein many of the most difficult passages in those authors are explain'd ... Adorn'd with cuts, etc. London: B. Motte, 1725 Gesner, Johann Matthias (ed.) Scriptores Rei Rusticae veteres Latini Cato, Varro, Columella, Palladius, quibus nunc accedit Vegetius de Mulo-Medicina et Gargilii Martialis fragmentum (Ausoni Popinæ De instrumento fundi liber. J. B. Morgagni epist. IV.) cum editionibus prope omnibus et MSS. pluribus collati: adjectae notae virorum clariss, integræ ... et lexicon Rei Rusticae curante Io. Matthia Gesnero Lipsiae: sumtibus Caspari Fritsch, 1735 (full text) Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella (trans. Anon.) L. Junius Moderatus Columella of Husbandry, in Twelve Books: and his book, concerning Trees. Translated into English, with illustrations from Pliny, Cato, Varro, Palladius and other ancient and modern authors London: A. Millar, 1745 See also[edit] Junia (gens) Ancient Rome and wine Geoponica References[edit] ^ Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia. Taylor and Francis. ^ "Columella - Classics - Oxford Bibliographies - obo". Retrieved 3 April 2018. ^ Michaud, Joseph Fr., Eugène Ernest Desplaces, Louis Gabriel Michaud (1854). Biographie universelle (Michaud) ancienne et moderne ... (in French). Madame C. Desplaces. p. 668, vol. 8. Accessed June 2011. ^ von Stackelberg, Katharine T. (2012). "Columella". The Encyclopedia of Ancient History. American Cancer Society. doi:10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah06080. ISBN 9781444338386. ^ Peck, Harry Thurston, ed. (1963) [1898]. "Columella, L. Iunius Moderātus". Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities. New York: Cooper Square Publishers, Inc. pp. 383–84. ^ Shepherd, William (1802). The life of Poggio Bracciolini. London, Liverpool: T. Cadell, Jun., & W. Davies. pp. iv, 487. ^ Kenney, E.J. (ed); W.V. Clausen (1982). The Cambridge history of classical literature, vol. 2: Latin literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 973. ISBN 978-0-521-21043-0.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) ^ a b [anonymous translator] (1745). L. Junius Moderatus Columella of Husbandry, in Twelve Books: and his book, concerning Trees. Translated into English, with illustrations from Pliny, Cato, Varro, Palladius and other ancient and modern authors. London: Andrew Millar. ^ Richard Bradley (1725). A Survey of the Ancient Husbandry and Gardening collected from Cato, Varro, Columella, Virgil, and others, the most eminent writers among the Greeks & Romans: wherein many of the most difficult passages in those authors are explain'd ... Adorn'd with cuts, etc.. London: B. Motte. ^ a b Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge (1837). Penny Cyclopaedia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. C. Knight. p. 380, volumes 7–8. . Accessed June 2011. ^ Rodgers, R.H. (ed.) (2010). L. Iuni Moderati Columellae Res rustica. Incerti auctoris Liber de arboribus (in Latin). Oxonii [Oxford, England]: E Typographeo Clarendoniano. ISBN 978-0-19-927154-2.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) Accessed June 2011. ^ Diderot, Denis, Jean Le Rond d' Alembert (eds.) (1765). Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers ... Neufchatel: S. Faulche. p. 179, vol. 9 JU–MAM.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) Accessed June 2011. ^ "De re rustica (English translation) III.9.2". Loeb Classical Library edition, 1941. Accessed June 2011. ^ Brunet, Jacques-Charles (1843). Manuel du libraire et de l'amateur de livres, vol 4., R–Z (in French) (4th ed.). Paris: Silvestre. p. 238. Accessed May 2011. ^ Fulvio Orsini (1587). Notae ad M. Catonem, M. Varronem, L. Columellam de re rustica. Ad kalend. rusticum Farnesianum & veteres inscriptiones Fratrum Arvalium. Iunius Philargyrius in Bucolica & Georgica Virgilij. Notae ad Servium in Bucol. Georg. & Aeneid. Virg. Velius Longus de orthographia : ex bibliotheca Fulvi Ursini. Romae: in aedib. S.P.Q.R.: apud Georgium Ferrarium. Full text online at Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, two copies: 1, 2. Further reading[edit] Baldwin, Barry. 1963. "Columella’s Sources and How He Used Them." Latomus 22:785–791. Bertoni, D. 2017. “Geometry and Genre in Columella.” American Journal of Philology. 138.3: 527-554. Carandini, Andrea. 1983. "Columella’s Vineyard and the Rationality of the Roman Economy." Opus 2:177–204. Carroll, Peter D. 1976. "Columella the Reformer." Latomus 35:783–790. Doody, Aude. 2007. "Virgil the Farmer? Critiques of the Georgics in Columella and Pliny." Classical Philology. 102.2: 180-197. Dumont, Jean Christian. 2008. "Columella and Vergil." Vergilius 54:49–59. Forster, E. S. 1950. "Columella and His Latin Treatise on Agriculture." Greece and Rome 19:123–128. Gowers, Emily. 2000. "Vegetable Love: Virgil, Columella, and Garden Poetry." Ramus 29:127–148. Henderson, John. 2002. "Columella's Living Hedge: the Roman Gardening Book." The Journal of Roman Studies 92: 110-133. Olson, L. 1943. "Columella and the Beginning of Soil Science." Agricultural History 17:65–72. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Columella. 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en-wikipedia-org-431	----	Iambus (genre) - Wikipedia Iambus (genre) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Engraving from Quinti Horatii Flacci Emblemata, Antwerp 1607, showing Socrates receiving the contents of a chamberpot, and a young man bullying his elders in a boat in the background. Iambus depicted the ugly and unheroic side of humanity. Iambus or iambic poetry was a genre of ancient Greek poetry that included but was not restricted to the iambic meter and whose origins modern scholars have traced to the cults of Demeter and Dionysus. The genre featured insulting and obscene language[1][2] and sometimes it is referred to as "blame poetry".[3] For Alexandrian editors, however, iambus signified any poetry of an informal kind that was intended to entertain, and it seems to have been performed on similar occasions as elegy even though lacking elegy's decorum.[4] The Archaic Greek poets Archilochus, Semonides and Hipponax were among the most famous of its early exponents. The Alexandrian poet Callimachus composed "iambic" poems against contemporary scholars, which were collected in an edition of about a thousand lines, of which fragments of thirteen poems survive.[5] He in turn influenced Roman poets such as Catullus, who composed satirical epigrams that popularized Hipponax's choliamb.[6] Horace's Epodes on the other hand were mainly imitations of Archilochus[7] and, as with the Greek poet, his invectives took the forms both of private revenge and denunciation of social offenders.[8][9] Contents 1 Historical background 2 A tale of two ditties 2.1 Epode 10 2.2 Strasbourg papyrus 3 Extras 4 See also 5 Notes 6 Citations 7 References Historical background[edit] Originally "iambos" (ἴαμβος) denoted a type of poetry, specifically its content, and only secondarily did it have any significance as a metrical term. This emerges for example from the fact that Archilochus, a famous iambic poet, was once criticized for being "too iambic"[nb 1] The genre appears to have originated in the cult of Demeter, whose festivals commonly featured insulting and abusive language (αἰσχρολογία, aischrologia). A figure called "Iambe" is even mentioned in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, employing language so abusive that the goddess forgets her sorrows and laughs instead. The abuse of a divinity however is quite common in other cults too, as an ironic means of affirming piety: "Normality is reinforced by experiencing its opposite".[10] The common element in all iambus is blame, drawing attention to dangerous or unsuitable behaviours. It is addressed to an audience with shared values and customs, which are represented as under threat, as for example a body of citizens or companions. Whatever its real composition, the audience is cast in the role of mutual friends and their friendship (φιλότης, philotēs or Latin amicitia) is asserted in various ways: the poet, speaking in his own person, might criticize someone directly, whether a group member or an outsider; the poet might act out the role of someone guilty of misconduct, condemning "himself" in his own words; the poet might tell a story, combining 'self-indictments' with a narrative account of misconduct. Blame ranges from humorous ribbing of friends to merciless attacks on outsiders.[11] Among ancient literary theorists, iambic verse came to be regarded as lower than lyric poetry, partly because iambic meter was thought to be the simplest of verse forms, and the nearest to common speech, but also because of its undignified content.[12] It isn't clear what role Archilochus played in the development of the literary genre at the beginning of the seventh century. Demeter was a significant deity in his home island, Paros, but she isn't prominent in his surviving poetry. Possibly he became involved in iambus via the cult of Dionysus. This cult's association with iambus seems to be indicated etymologically by the poetic form associated with Dionysus, the dithyramb, a term which appears to include the same root as "iambus". Early dithyrambs were a "riotous affair"[13] and Archilochus was prominent in the controversial development of Dionyssian worship on Paros[14] (possibly in relation to phallic rites).[15] There is no sure evidence about the original venue for iambic poetry but the drinking party (or symposium) and the cult festival were probably the main occasions.[16] Nor do we know clearly what role iambic poetry played in ancient society. It was certainly complex. It seems to have found voice during times of social change and political dissent, when the poet felt entitled or empowered to preach and condemn.[17] Semonides, probably about the middle of the seventh century, composed iambic verse on a misogynist theme, but without the invective and obscenity of Archilochus.[18] A hundred years after Archilochus, Hipponax was composing choliambs, a deliberately awkward version of the iambic trimeter symbolizing mankind's imperfections and vices,[19] yet by then iambus seems to have been performed mainly for entertainment (our understanding of his work however might change significantly when and as more fragments are unearthed).[20] The genre's religious and moral value was evidently not appreciated by the fifth century lyric poet Pindar, who condemned Archilochus for being "sharp-tongued" and "grown fat on the harsh words of hate",[21] yet Archilochus's brand of iambus could still find sympathetic audiences even in the first century AD, when the philosopher, Dio Chrysostom, compared him with Homer in these terms: For of the two poets who for all time deserve to be compared with no other, namely Homer and Archilochus, Homer praised nearly everything ... But Archilochus went to the opposite extreme, to censure, seeing, I suppose, that men are in greater need of this, and first of all he censures himself ... [thus winning for himself, in Dio's opinion] ... the highest commendation from heaven.[22] The spread of literacy impacted on all ancient poetry, iambus included. Its influence was already becoming evident in Athens by the fifth century BC, gradually changing the nature of poetry from a performance before a local group to a literary artifact with an international reach.[23] By the Hellenistic period, the librarian/scholar Callimachus claimed to be following the example of Hipponax yet introduced a wider range of content and a more literary and intellectual focus. He also aligned iambus more closely with other genres[24] such as curse poetry (Ἀραί) and farewell poetry (propemptika, προπέμπτικα).[25] Iambus was taken up as a political weapon by some public figures in Rome, such as Cato The Elder, who, in an account by Plutarch: ... betook himself to iambic verse, and heaped much scornful abuse upon Scipio, adopting the bitter tone of Archilochus, but avoiding his license and puerility.[26] Neoteric poets such as Catullus combined a native tradition of satirical epigram with Hipponax's pungent invective to form neatly crafted, personal attacks. Hipponactean choliambs were among Catullus's most often used meters[27] but the spirit of iambus seems to have infused much of his non-iambic verse as well.[28] Horace nominally modelled his Epodes on the work of Archilochus but he mainly followed the example of Callimachus, relying on painstaking craftsmanship rather than instinctive vitriol[29] and broadening the range of the genre. Thus for example he introduced a panagyric element in support of Augustus (Epodes 1 and 9), a lyrical element (Epode 13), and a suggestion of love poetry (Epodes 11 and 14). Moreover, his iambic persona is deliberately presented as powerless, in contrast to the swaggering persona of Archilochus.[30] Horace's weak iambic persona is not inconsistent with the genre. Traditionally the iambic poet, though he bullies others, is a victim too. Thus Archilochus was said to have driven his would-be in-laws to suicide by his invectives after they had cheated him out of a promised marriage, and Hipponax was said to have driven Bupalus to suicide after being caricatured by him in a sculpture. Similarly the author of the Strasbourg fragment below is motivated by revenge. Moreover, Horace's thematic variety is not without parallel among archaic poets such as Archilochus and Hipponax: the mood of the genre is meant to appear spontaneous and that inevitably led to some "hodepodge" contexts.[31] Whatever his unique contribution may have been, Horace still managed to recreate something of the ancient spirit of the genre, alerting his companions to threats facing them as a group, in this case as Roman citizens of a doomed republic: In the midst of a crisis which could be seen as a result of the decline and failure of traditional Roman amicitia, Horace turned to a type of poetry whose function had been the affirmation of "friendship" in its community. It is doubtful whether he believed that his or anyone else's poetry could avert disaster. But he may have hoped that his iambi would somehow 'blame' his friends and fellow citizens into at least asking themselves quo ruitis [i.e. where are you careering to]? — D. Mankin[32][nb 2] A tale of two ditties[edit] The nature of iambus changed from one epoch to another, as becomes obvious if we compare two poems that are otherwise very similar – Horace's Epode 10 (around 30 BC) and the "Strasbourg" papyrus, a fragment attributed either to Archilochus or Hipponax (seventh and sixth century respectively). The modern world became aware of the Greek poem only in 1899, when it was discovered by R. Reitzenstein among other papyri at the University Library of Strasbourg. He published it straight away, recognizing its significance and its resemblance to Horace's poem. This study however begins with Horace and it is based on comments by Eduard Fraenkel.[33] Epode 10[edit] Horace's poem is in couplets, where a line of iambic trimeter (six iambic feet) is followed by a line of iambic dimeter (four iambic feet). Here it is broken into four-line stanzas to bring out the intrinsic structure of the poem. The English translation has the same metrical couplets but the rhythm is accentual (the norm for English verse) rather than quantitative (the norm for classical Latin and Greek verse). Mala soluta navis exit alite    ferens olentem Mevium. ut horridis utrumque verberes latus,    Auster, memento fluctibus; niger rudentis Eurus inverso mari    fractosque remos differat; insurgat Aquilo, quantus altis montibus    frangit trementis ilices; nec sidus atra nocte amicum appareat,    qua tristis Orion cadit; quietiore nec feratur aequore    quam Graia victorum manus, cum Pallas usto vertit iram ab Ilio    in inpiam Aiacis ratem. o quantus instat navitis sudor tuis    tibique pallor luteus et illa non virilis eiulatio    preces et aversum ad Iovem, Ionius udo cum remugiens sinus    Noto carinam ruperit! opima quodsi praeda curvo litore    porrecta mergos iuverit, libidinosus immolabitur caper    et agna Tempestatibus. [34] The ship casts off from shore in an ill-omened hour,    Carrying the stinking Mevius. God of the southern wind – take care to pulverize    Both its sides with horrendous waves! Let the black eastern wind turn the sea upside-down,    Some oars here, some rigging there, And may the north wind loom as large as when it rends    Oaks trembling on the mountain tops, And not one friendly star appear through the dark night    As Orion sinks in the west! May the sea carrying him be no more gentle than    The waves the winning Greeks sailed on That time Athena turned her rage from smouldering Troy    Onto Ajax and his damned ship! Oh what a cold damp sweating will beset your crew    While you change hue to a pale green, And oh how woman-like will all that wailing be    And all those prayers ignored by Jove, When the Ionian sea, resounding with the wet    Southern wind, breaks apart your ship! If then the rich spoil, scattered round the curving shore,    Lies at the pleasure of the gulls, There will be sacrifices of a lusty goat    And lamb in honour of the Winds. It is not known who Mevius is nor what he is supposed to have done wrong. The name could be of a real person but it could also function like "John Doe" and thus it might be a stock figure with some special significance for the original audience. Some scholars identify him with the Maevius rubbished as a contemptible poet by Virgil in Eclogues 3.90 but there is no proof for such an identification. He could represent an imaginary scapegoat intended to avert the gods' anger from the poet's circle of 'friends', a device common in the archaic iambus of Hipponax and Archilochus: in this case, the "friends" may be understood to be Roman citizens at a time of social and political decay.[35] A fictional Mevius would also be consistent with iambus as a mere literary topic, where Horace makes up for the lack of any real context by adding artistic values, in the Hellenistic manner.[36] The poem is skilfully structured. There is an introduction briefly outlining the situation (lines 1–2), a large midsection made up of curses (lines 3–14) and predictions (15–20), and finally an epilogue (21–24). Three winds (Auster, Eurus, Aquilo) are the chief figures in the main body of the poem and also at the very end (Tempestates). Each wind is assigned its own couplet (lines 3–8), but only the south wind is addressed. The south wind gets another mention, though by a different name, 'Notus' (line 20), so that these two mentions provide the poem with the kind of symmetry found in Ring composition. By the latter part of the poem, however, the south wind is no longer being addressed, a change that happens when Mevius is addressed instead (lines 15–20). This change in addressee is preceded by a mythological episode taken from the heroic Ajax legend, occurring exactly in the middle of the poem (lines 11–14), where it functions as a sort of piano nobile, with curses before and predictions afterwards. In some versions of the poem, Mevius continues to be addressed right to the very end, i.e. iuverit has been taken to be iuveris instead (line 22). Some scholars prefer iuveris since it implies that only Mevius ends up as rich spoil for the gulls, but other scholars argue that it is quite consistent with iambus for the whole crew to be punished on account of one offender, a result implied by the impersonal ending iuverit in the version here. Moreover, the impersonal ending marks a clear break between the epilogue and the main body of the poem.[37] The intricate structure of the poem reveals Hellenistic influence. A poet of the archaic period, such as Archilochus or Hipponax, might have mentioned this or that wind but not arranged them as neatly as here, assigning each its own couplet. Moreover, the epode bears resemblance to curse poems or Ἀραί, fashionable in the Hellenistic period. On the other hand, Horace leaves out the heavy-handed pedantry of a craftsman like Callimachus. The epode also resembles a "farewell" poem or προπεμπτικόν but with an ironic inversion: in a Hellenistic "farewell" poem, it was conventional to wish upon the traveller a safe voyage and favourable winds, pledging sacrifices if the ship arrived at port. Nevertheless, the ironic genre-bending quality of epode 10 (and some others in the collection) was fairly typical of Hellenistic poetry generally. To sum up. Horace did not attempt to reproduce the true nature of the old Greek iambus which had partly suggested to him the theme of his epode. His borrowing was confined to the most general outlines of the subject. As if to make up for the resulting loss, he embroidered his own poem with many elaborate devices, most of them derived from Hellenistic poetry. Consequently what had been a weapon in a serious struggle became in his hands a dexterous display of literary patterns. — Eduard Fraenkel[38] The "serious struggle" is found in the Strasbourg fragment. Strasbourg papyrus[edit] Reitzenstein, the first editor of the fragment, attributed it to Archilochus but, in the following year (1900) Friedrich Blass assigned it to Hipponax. The papyrus includes, among its tattered portions, an incomplete name (Ἱππωνά.., Hippona..), which seems to support Blass's identification since Hipponax often mentions himself by name in his extant work. However the brilliance of the poem's invective suggests it is the work of a more significant poet i.e. Archilochus.[39] Some scholars conclude that the fragment is not a single poem, assigning part to Archilochus and the rest to Hipponax.[40] Like Horace's epode above, the verse below is made of couplets, but the meter is a bit different. An initial line of iambic trimeter in this case is followed by a hemiepes (two dactyls then an emphatic final syllable). The English translation follows it closely but in accentual rhythm. The opening lines are lost and the square brackets indicate another lost portion. The square brackets are not in the English version, replaced by an "educated guess" suggested by Eduard Fraenkel. A few more letters were lost in the original but scholars are in general agreement about their identity and those gaps are not shown here. The comments are also largely based on Fraenkel's work.[41] Despite all the gaps in the original, the fragment supplies a key meaning absent from Horace's epode – a motive for hate. .....    κύματι πλαζόμενος· κἀν Σαλμυδησσῶι γυμνὸν εὐφρονέστατα    Θρήϊκες ἀκρόκομοι λάβοιεν - ἔνθα πόλλ᾽ ἀναπλήσει κακὰ    δούλιον ἄρτον ἔδων - ῥίγει πεπηγότ᾽ αὐτόν· ἐκ δὲ τοῦ χνόου    φυκία πόλλ᾽ ἐπέχοι, κροτέοι δ᾽ ὀδόντας, ὡς κύων ἐπὶ στόμα    κείμενος ἀκρασίηι ἄκρον παρὰ ῥηγμῖνα κυμα[...]    ταῦτ᾽ ἐθέλοιμ᾽ ἂν ἰδεῖν, ὅς μ᾽ ἠδίκησε, λὰξ δ᾽ ἐφ᾽ ὁρκίοισ᾽ ἔβη,    τὸ πρὶν ἑταῖρος ἐών.[42] ....    Drifting about in the swell; When he comes nude to Salmydessus, may the kind    Thracians, their hair in a bun, Take him in hand – there he shall have his fill of woe,    Slavishly eating his bread – Stiff with the freezing cold; emerging from the froth,    Clung to by piles of seaweed, May he lie like a dog face-down on chattering teeth,    Laid low by his feebleness, Sprawled at the breakers' edge, still licked at by the surf!    These are the things I must see, Because he wronged me, trampling all over our oaths,    Once a companion of mine! The language is vigorous and direct, appropriate to the mood of the piece. Some of the diction is borrowed from the older work of Homer but it adds dignity and pathos without any artificiality. Meanings flow clearly and naturally with the simple meter, except in one place, marked with a "parenthesis" or endash, where emotions get ahead of the poet's control as he anticipates years of suffering for his former friend. Images seem to tumble from his excited mind but nothing is superfluous and his control of the material is shown for example in his use of irony when referring to the great kindness of the savage Thracians, their hair neatly dressed, in contrast to his nude friend.[43] His skill as a wordsmith can be seen in the way he loads the beginnings of lines with key words, a trend he overturns in the final couplet, with a caesura, marked by a comma, between key words justifying his hatred, μ᾽ ἠδίκησε, λὰξ ("wronged me, trampling").[44] One of the uncertainties in the text comes in the word ἐπέχοι, which indicates that the seaweed has a hold on the castaway. Some scholars prefer to read ἐπιχέοι, indicating that he spews out seaweed.[nb 3] Scholars often contrast the poem's realism with the artificiality of Horace's Epode 10, but not all scholars are willing to go along with this view, citing the Homeric diction as a literary device and the absence of proof that the oath-breaker was ever a real man rather than just a scapegoat or imaginary exemplar.[45] Yet the poet has made the context seem real. In this poem fierce hatred mingled with contempt finds a powerful voice, and yet, with so much passion, every phrase and every sentence is kept strictly under the control of a masterly mind. The impact on the ear, on the eye, and on the sense of smell is strong throughout. Every detail, the surf, the seaweed, the dog, the wretched man's frozen body, is there, life-like, or rather in even sharper outlines than they would appear to us in actual life. — E. Fraenkel.[46] Extras[edit] In his famous speech On the Crown, the great Athenian rhetor, Demosthenes, denounced his rival Aeschines with the neologism ἰαμβειοφάγος, signifying an iambus devourer or devourer of insults.[47] See also[edit] Library resources about Iambus Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Prosody (Latin) Epodes (Horace) Epode Category:Iambic poets Notes[edit] ^ The phrase "too iambic" appears in a fragmentary inscription dated to the third century BC, originally part of a commemorative shrine to Archilochus, "The Archilocheion". The inscription was a part of a record of his life and reception on Paros, where his poetry was deemed offensive by the population until Dionyssus opened their eyes to their own folly by punishing them with some kind of affliction, possibly impotence (the fragment is very patchy at that point). A Pythian oracle then advised them to honour Archilochus and thus a shrine was established to him. (see Archilochus fr. 3 and commentary, D.E. Gerber, Greek Iambic Poetry, 16–25 ^ Mankin's latin here refers to the opening to Epode 7, "Quo quo scelesti ruitis? ^ The variant reading is cited for instance by D. Gerber, Greek Iambic Poetry, 438 Citations[edit] ^ Christopher Brown, in A Companion to the Greek Lyric Poets, D.E.Gerber (ed), Leiden 1997, pages 13–88 ^ Douglas E. Gerber, Greek Iambic Poetry, Loeb Classical Library (1999), Introduction pages i–iv ^ D. Mankin, Horace: Epodes,C.U.P., 8 ^ J.P. Barron and P.E. Easterling, "Elegy and Iambus" in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Greek Literature, P.Easterling and B.Knox (eds), Cambridge University Press (1985), page 120 ^ A.W. Bulloch, "Hellenistic Poetry", in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Greek Literature, P.Easterling and B.Knox (eds), Cambridge University Press (1985), pages 556–57, 569 ^ Peter Green, The Poems of Catullus, University of California Press (2005), pages 10, 33 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, Sandpiper Books Ltd, 32 ^ J.P. Clancy, The Odes and Epodes of Horace, Chicago (1960), page 196 ^ V.G. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and Politics, New York (1999), page 52 ^ C. Brown in A Companion to the Greek Lyric Poets, 41 ^ D. Mankin, Horace: Epodes, 8–9 ^ S. Harrison, Lyric and Iambic, 190 ^ D. Gerber, Greek Iambic Poetry, 2–3 ^ D. Campbell, Greek Lyric Poetry, 138 ^ D. Gerber, Greek Iambic Poetry, 3 ^ D. Gerber, Greek Iambic Poetry, 4 ^ L. O'Higgins, Women and Humour in Classical Greece, 63 ^ D. Gerber, Greek Iambic Poetry, 7–8 ^ P. Green, The Poems of Catullus, 10, 33 ^ D. Gerber, Greek Iambic Poetry, 2 ^ Pindar, Pythian II, translated by Geoffrey Conway, The Odes of Pindar, 93 ^ Dio Chrysostom 33.11–12, cited and translated by Douglas E. Gerber, Greek Iambic Poetry, 43 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 41 ^ S. Harrison, Lyric and Iambic, 190 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 35 ^ Plutarch, Life of Cato, quoted by D. Gerber, Greek Iambic Poetry, 1 ^ P. Green, The Poems of Catullus, 10, 33 ^ S. Harrison, Lyric and Iambic, 192 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 32 ^ S. Harrison, Lyric and Iambic, 192–94 ^ L. Watson, The Epodes: Horace's Archilochus?, 99 ^ D. Mankin, Horace: Epodes, 9 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 25–35 ^ Epode 10 from D. Mankin, Horace: Epodes, 38-9 ^ D. Mankin, Horace: Epodes, 183–4 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 42 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 32–3 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 35-6 ^ D. Campbell, Greek Lyric Poetry, 157 ^ D. Gerber, Greek Iambic Poetry, 437 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 28–9 ^ Strasburg papyrus, D. Gerber, Greek Iambic Poetry, 436-438 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 28–9 ^ D. Campbell, Greek Lyric Poetry, 157 ^ D. Mankin, Horace: Epodes, 182 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 28–29 ^ Harvey Yunis, Demosthenes: On the Crown, Cambridge University Press (2001), page 192, note 139 References[edit] Barron, J.P. and Easterling, P.E. (1985), "Elegy and Iambus", in P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.), The Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Greek Literature, Cambridge University PressCS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link) Bartol, Krystyna. (1993). Greek Elegy and Iambus: Studies in Ancient Literary Sources. Poznań: Adam Mickiewicz Univ. Press. Brown, Christopher (1997), D.E. Gerber (ed.), A Companion to the Greek Lyric Poets, Leiden, pp. 13–88 Bulloch, A.W. (1985), "Hellenistic Poetry", in P.Easterlin and B.Knox (ed.), The Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Greek Literature, Cambridge University Press Cambell, David (1982), Greek Lyric Poetry, Bristol Classical Press Clancy, J.P. (1960), The Odes and Epodes of Horace, Chicago Conway, Geoffrey (1972), The Odes of Pindar, Everyman's University Library Fraenkel, Eduard (1997), Horace, Sandpiper Books Ltd Gerber, Douglas (1999), Greek Iambic Poetry, Loeb Classical Library Gentili, Bruno. 1988. Poetry and its Public in Ancient Greece. Translated by A. T. Cole. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press. Green, Peter (2005), The Poems of Catullus, University of California Press Harrison, Stephen (2005), "Lyric and Iambic", in Stephen Harrison (ed.), A Companion to Latin Literature, Blackwell Publishing Kerkhecker, Arnd. (1999). Callimachus’ Book of Iambi. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press. Kantzios, Ippokratis. 2005. The Trajectory of Archaic Greek Trimeters. Mnemosyne Supplement 265. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill. Kiernon, V.G. (1999), Horace: Poetics and Politics, New York: St Martins Press Mankin, David (1995), Horace: Epodes, Cambridge University Press O'Higgins, L. (2003), Women and Humour in Classical Greece, Cambridge University Press Rosen, Ralph M. (1988). Old Comedy and the Iambographic Tradition. American Classical Studies 19. Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press. Rotstein, Andrea (2009), The Idea of Iambos, Oxford University Press Steinrück, Martin. (2008). The Suitors in the Odyssey: The Clash between Homer and Archilochus. Hermeneutic Commentaries 2. New York: Peter Lang. Watson, Lindsay (2007), "The Epodes: Horace's Archilochus?", in Stephen Harrison (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Horace, Cambridge University Press West, Martin. (1974). Studies in Greek Elegy and Iambus. Berlin: de Gruyter. Yunis, Harvey (2001), Demosthenes: On the Crown, Cambridge University Press Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Iambus_(genre)&oldid=990971984" Categories: Ancient Greek poetry Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text CS1 maint: uses authors parameter Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Eesti Español Galego Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 27 November 2020, at 15:53 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-432	----	Quintilian - Wikipedia Quintilian From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Not to be confused with Quintillion or Quintillians. This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (April 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Quintilian's statue in Calahorra, La Rioja, Spain Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (c. 35 – c. 100 AD) was a Roman educator and rhetorician from Hispania, widely referred to in medieval schools of rhetoric and in Renaissance writing. In English translation, he is usually referred to as Quintilian (/kwɪnˈtɪliən/), although the alternate spellings of Quintillian and Quinctilian are occasionally seen, the latter in older texts. Contents 1 Life 2 Works 3 Institutio Oratoria 4 Placement of Quintilian's rhetoric 5 Influence of Quintilian 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links Life[edit] Quintilian was born c. 35 in Calagurris (Calahorra, La Rioja) in Hispania. His father, a well-educated man, sent him to Rome to study rhetoric early in the reign of Nero. While there, he cultivated a relationship with Domitius Afer, who died in 59. "It had always been the custom … for young men with ambitions in public life to fix upon some older model of their ambition … and regard him as a mentor" (Kennedy, 16). Quintilian evidently adopted Afer as his model and listened to him speak and plead cases in the law courts. Afer has been characterized as a more austere, classical, Ciceronian speaker than those common at the time of Seneca the Younger, and he may have inspired Quintilian's love of Cicero. Sometime after Afer's death, Quintilian returned to Hispania, possibly to practice law in the courts of his own province. However, in 68, he returned to Rome as part of the retinue of Emperor Galba, Nero's short-lived successor. Quintilian does not appear to have been a close advisor of the Emperor, which probably ensured his survival after the assassination of Galba in 69. After Galba's death, and during the chaotic Year of the Four Emperors which followed, Quintilian opened a public school of rhetoric. Among his students were Pliny the Younger, and perhaps Tacitus. The Emperor Vespasian made him a consul. The emperor "in general was not especially interested in the arts, but … was interested in education as a means of creating an intelligent and responsible ruling class" (Kennedy, 19). This subsidy enabled Quintilian to devote more time to the school, since it freed him of pressing monetary concerns. In addition, he appeared in the courts of law, arguing on behalf of clients. Of his personal life, little is known. In the Institutio Oratoria, he mentions a wife who died young, as well as two sons who predeceased him.[citation needed] Quintilian retired from teaching and pleading in 88 (Reid 1911), during the reign of Domitian. His retirement may have been prompted by his achievement of financial security and his desire to become a gentleman of leisure. Quintilian survived several emperors; the reigns of Vespasian and Titus were relatively peaceful, but that of Domitian was reputed to be difficult. Domitian's cruelty and paranoia may have prompted the rhetorician to distance himself quietly. The emperor does not appear to have taken offence as he made Quintilian tutor of his two grand-nephews in 90 AD. He is believed to have died sometime around 100, not having long survived Domitian, who was assassinated in 96 (Quintilianus 2016,[page needed]). Works[edit] The only extant work of Quintilian is a twelve-volume textbook on rhetoric entitled Institutio Oratoria (generally referred to in English as the Institutes of Oratory), written around AD 95. This work deals not only with the theory and practice of rhetoric, but also with the foundational education and development of the orator himself, providing advice that ran from the cradle to the grave. An earlier text, De Causis Corruptae Eloquentiae ("On the Causes of Corrupted Eloquence") has been lost, but is believed to have been "a preliminary exposition of some of the views later set forth in [Institutio Oratoria]" (Kennedy, 24). In addition, there are two sets of declamations, Declamationes Maiores and Declamationes Minores, which have been attributed to Quintilian. However, there is some dispute over the real writer of these texts: "Some modern scholars believe that the declamations circulated in his name represent the lecture notes of a scholar either using Quintilian's system or actually trained by him" (Murphy, XVII–XVIII). Institutio Oratoria[edit] Main article: Institutio Oratoria Frontispiece of a 1720 edition of the Institutio Oratoria, showing Quintilan teaching rhetoric Institutio Oratoria (English: Institutes of Oratory) is a twelve-volume textbook on the theory and practice of rhetoric by Roman rhetorician Quintilian. It was written around year 95 AD. The work deals also with the foundational education and development of the orator himself. In this work, Quintilian establishes that the perfect orator is first a good man, and after that he is a good speaker (Golden, Berquist, Coleman, and Sproule,[page needed]). He also believed that a speech should stay genuine to a message that is "just and honorable" (Golden, Berquist, Coleman, and Sproule,[page needed]). This came to be known as his good man theory, embracing the message that if one cannot be genuinely good, then one cannot be a good speaker for the people. This theory also revolves around being of service to the people. A good man is one who works for the good of the people and the prosperity of society. Quintilian wrote Institutio Oratoria in the last years of Domitian’s rule of the empire.[citation needed] He had worked alongside Domitian, but as he began to write more and ease away from Emperor Domitian’s complete power, the emperor did not seem to mind as he was so impressed with Quintilian, he hired him to be a tutor for his family because of Quintilian’s devotion to education. Domitian was in the harshest period of his rule, and almost no one had the courage to speak any idea that was unlike his, but Quintilian did (Gideon). He spoke as an orator in the tradition of Cicero, such as had not been seen since the beginning of the reign of Augustus (Gideon). Rather than pleading cases, as an orator of his era might have been expected to do, he concentrated on speaking in more general terms about how sound rhetoric influences the education of the people. Placement of Quintilian's rhetoric[edit] Quintilian cites many authors in the Institutio Oratoria before providing his own definition of rhetoric (Quintilianus 1920, 10.1.3). His rhetoric is chiefly defined by Cato the Elder’s vir bonus, dicendi peritus, or “the good man skilled at speaking” (Quintilian, 12.1.1) harv error: no target: CITEREFQuintilian (help). Later he states: “I should like the orator I am training to be a sort of Roman Wise Man” (Quintilianus 1920, 12.2.7). Quintilian also “insists that his ideal orator is no philosopher because the philosopher does not take as a duty participation in civic life; this is constitutive of Quintilian's (and Isocrates' and Cicero's) ideal orator" (Walzer, 26). Though he calls for imitation, he also urges the orator to use this knowledge to inspire his own original invention (Quintilianus 1920, 10.2.4). No author receives greater praise in the Institutio Oratoria than Cicero: "For who can instruct with greater thoroughness, or more deeply stir the emotions? Who has ever possessed such a gift of charm?" (Quintilianus 1920, 10.1.110). Quintilian's definition of rhetoric shares many similarities with that of Cicero, one being the importance of the speaker's moral character (Logie,[page needed]). Like Cicero, Quintilian also believes that “history and philosophy can increase an orator’s command of copia and style;" they differ in that Quintilian “features the character of the orator, as well as the art” (Walzer, 36–37). In Book II, Quintilian sides with Plato’s assertion in the Phaedrus that the rhetorician must be just: “In the Phaedrus, Plato makes it even clearer that the complete attainment of this art is even impossible without the knowledge of justice, an opinion in which I heartily concur" (Quintilianus 1920, 2.15.29). Their views are further similar in their treatment of “(1) the inseparability, in more respects than one, of wisdom, goodness, and eloquence; and (2) the morally ideological nature of rhetoric. [...] For both, there are conceptual connections between rhetoric and justice which rule out the possibility of [an] amorally neutral conception of rhetoric. For both, rhetoric is ‘speaking well,’ and for both ‘speaking well’ means speaking justly" (Logie, 371). Influence of Quintilian[edit] The influence of Quintilian's masterwork, Institutio Oratoria, can be felt in several areas. First of all, there is his criticism of the orator Seneca the Younger. Quintilian was attempting to modify the prevailing imperial style of oratory with his book, and Seneca was the principal figure in that style's tradition. He was more recent than many of the authors mentioned by Quintilian, but his reputation within the post-classical style necessitated both his mention and the criticism or back-handed praise that is given to him. Quintilian believed that “his style is for the most part corrupt and extremely dangerous because it abounds in attractive faults” (Quintilianus 1920, 10.1.129). Seneca was regarded as doubly dangerous because his style was sometimes attractive. This reading of Seneca “has heavily coloured subsequent judgments of Seneca and his style" (Dominik, 51). Quintilian also made an impression on Martial, the Latin poet. A short poem, written in 86, was addressed to him, and opened, "Quintilian, greatest director of straying youth, / you are an honour, Quintilian, to the Roman toga". However, one should not take Martial's praise at face value, since he was known for his sly and witty insults. The opening lines are all that are usually quoted, but the rest of the poem contains lines such as "A man who longs to surpass his father’s census rating" (6).[full citation needed] This speaks of Quintilian's ambitious side and his drive for wealth and position. After his death, Quintilian's influence fluctuated. He was mentioned by his pupil, Pliny, and by Juvenal, who may have been another student, “as an example of sobriety and of worldly success unusual in the teaching profession” (Gwynn, 139). During the 3rd to 5th centuries, his influence was felt among such authors as St. Augustine of Hippo, whose discussion of signs and figurative language certainly owed something to Quintilian, and to St. Jerome, editor of the Vulgate Bible, whose theories on education are clearly influenced by Quintilian's. The Middle Ages saw a decline in knowledge of his work, since existing manuscripts of Institutio Oratoria were fragmented, but the Italian humanists revived interest in the work after the discovery by Poggio Bracciolini in 1416 of a forgotten, complete manuscript in the monastery of St. Gall, which he found "buried in rubbish and dust" in a filthy dungeon. The influential scholar Leonardo Bruni, considered the first modern historian, greeted the news by writing to his friend Poggio: It will be your glory to restore to the present age, by your labour and diligence, the writings of excellent authors, which have hitherto escaped the researches of the learned... Oh! what a valuable acquisition! What an unexpected pleasure! Shall I then behold Quintilian whole and entire, who, even in his imperfect state, was so rich a source of delight?... But Quintilian is so consummate a master of rhetoric and oratory, that when, after having delivered him from his long imprisonment in the dungeons of the barbarians, you transmit him to this country, all the nations of Italy ought to assemble to bid him welcome... Quintilian, an author whose works I will not hesitate to affirm, are more an object of desire to the learned than any others, excepting only Cicero's dissertation De Republica. (Shepherd, chapter 3, pp. 95–97) The Italian poet Petrarch addressed one of his letters to the dead to Quintilian, and for many he “provided the inspiration for a new humanistic philosophy of education” (Gwynn, 140). This enthusiasm for Quintilian spread with humanism itself, reaching northern Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries. Martin Luther, the German theologian and ecclesiastical reformer, "claimed that he preferred Quintilian to almost all authors, 'in that he educates and at the same time demonstrates eloquence, that is, he teaches in word and in deed most happily'" (Gwynn, 140). The influence of Quintilian's works is also seen in Luther's contemporary Erasmus of Rotterdam. He above all shaped the implicit depth of humanism and had studied at Steyn. It has been argued by a musicologist, Ursula Kirkendale, Page needed) that the composition of Johann Sebastian Bach's Das Musikalische Opfer (The Musical Offering, BWV 1079), was closely connected with the Institutio Oratoria. Among Bach's duties during his tenure at Leipzig (1723–1750) was teaching Latin; his early training included rhetoric. (Philologist and Rector of the Leipzig Thomasschule, Johann Matthias Gesner, for whom Bach composed a cantata in 1729, published a substantial Quintilian edition with a long footnote in Bach's honor.) After this high point, Quintilian's influence seems to have lessened somewhat, although he is mentioned by the English poet Alexander Pope in his versified An Essay on Criticism: In grave Quintilian’s copious works we find The justest rules and clearest method join’d (lines 669–70). In addition, “he is often mentioned by writers like Montaigne and Lessing... but he made no major contribution to intellectual history, and by the nineteenth century he seemed to be... rather little read and rarely edited” (Gwynn, 140–41). However, in his celebrated Autobiography, John Stuart Mill (arguably the nineteenth-century's most influential English intellectual) spoke highly of Quintilian as a force in his early education. He wrote that Quintilian, while little-read in Mill's day due to "his obscure style and to the scholastic details of which many parts of his treatise are made up," was "seldom sufficiently appreciated." "His book," Mill continued, "is a kind of encyclopaedia of the thoughts of the ancients on the whole field of education and culture; and I have retained through life many valuable ideas which I can distinctly trace to my reading of him..." (Mill,[page needed]). He was also highly praised by Thomas De Quincey: "[F]or elegance and as a practical model in the art he was expounding, neither Aristotle, nor any less austere among the Greek rhetoricians, has any pretensions to measure himself with Quintilian. In reality, for a triumph over the difficulties of the subject, and as a lesson on the possibility of imparting grace to the treatment of scholastic topics, naturally as intractable as that of Grammar or Prosody, there is no such chef-d'oeuvre to this hour in any literature, as the Institutions of Quintilian" (De Quincey, 40). In more recent times, Quintilian appears to have made another upward turn. He is frequently included in anthologies of literary criticism, and is an integral part of the history of education. He is believed to be the "earliest spokesman for a child-centered education" (141),[full citation needed] which is discussed above under his early childhood education theories. As well, he has something to offer students of speech, professional writing, and rhetoric, because of the great detail with which he covers the rhetorical system. His discussions of tropes and figures also formed the foundation of contemporary works on the nature of figurative language, including the post-structuralist and formalist theories. For example, the works of Jacques Derrida on the failure of language to impart the truth of the objects it is meant to represent would not be possible without Quintilian's assumptions about the function of figurative language and tropes (Gunderson, 38).[failed verification] See also[edit] Quadripartita ratio Dionysian imitatio References[edit] De Quincey, Thomas. De Quincey's Literary Criticism, edited with an introduction by H. Darbisire. London: Henry Frowde, 1909. Dominik, William J. "The Style Is the Man: Seneca, Tacitus, and Quintilian’s Canon". In Roman Eloquence: Rhetoric in Society and Literature, edited by William J. Dominik, 50–68. New York: Routledge, 1997. Gideon, Burton O. "Quintilian: Institutio Oratoria (95 C.E.)." Quintilian: Institutio Oratoria (95 C.E.). Silva Rhetoricae, n.d. Web[full citation needed]. 30 Sept. 2014. Golden, J. L., G. F. Berquist, W. E. Coleman, and J. M. Sproule. The Rhetoric of Western Thought. Dubuque, IA: Kendall-Hunt, 2011. Gunderson, Erik. Staging Masculinity: The Rhetoric of Performance in the Roman World.[full citation needed], 2000. Gwynn, Aubrey S.J. Roman Education from Cicero to Quintilian. New York: Teachers College Press, 1926. Kennedy, George. Quintilian. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1969. Kirkendale, Ursula. "The Source for Bach's Musical Offering". Journal of the American Musicological Society 33 (1980): 99–141. Logie, John. "Quintilian and Roman Authorship". Rhetoric Review 22.4 (2003): 353–73. Mill, John Stuart. Autobiography, Chapter 1: "Childhood and Early Education", The University of Adelaide Library Electronic Texts Collection, archived 9 November 2008 from the original. (Also at p. 25, Collected Works, Vol. I). Murphy, James J. (ed.). Quintilian on the Teaching of Speaking and Writing: Translations from Books One, Two, and Ten of the Institutio Oratoria. Edwardville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1987. Quintilianus, Marcus Fabius. Institutio Oratoria, translated by H.E. Butler. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge: Harvard University press, 1920. Quintilian. Quintilian on the Teaching of Speaking & Writing: Translations from Books One, Two & Ten of the Institutio Oratoria, second edition, translated by James Jerome Murphy and Cleve Wiese. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2016. ISBN 0-8093-3440-2. Reid, James Smith (1911). "Quintilian" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 761.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Shepherd, William. Life of Poggio Bracciolini.[full citation needed] 1837. Walzer, Arthur E. "Quintilian's "Vir Bonus" and the Stoic Wise Man." Rhetoric Society 33.4 (2003): 25–41. Further reading[edit] Bonner, Stanley F. Education in Ancient Rome: From the elder Cato to the younger Pliny. London: Methuen & Company, Ltd., 1977. Clarke, M.L. Rhetoric at Rome: A Historical Survey. New York: Routledge, 1996. Dozier, Curtis Andrew. "Poetry, Politics, and Pleasure in Quintilian." Aesthetic Value in Classical Antiquity. 345–363. Fantham, Elaine. Roman Readings: Roman Response to Greek Literature from Plautus to Statius and Quintilian. Beiträge zur Altertumskunde, 277. Berlin; New York: De Gruyter, 2011. Galand, P., F. Hallyn, C. Lévy, W. Verbaal, Quintilien ancien et moderne. Etudes réunies, Turnhout 2010, Brepols Publishers, ISBN 978-2-503-52865-6 Gernot, Krapinger (ed.), [Quintilian] Der Gladiator (Groessere Deklamationen, 9). Collana Scientifica, 18. Cassino: Universita\ degli Studi di Cassino, 2007. Kennedy, George Alexander. The Art of Rhetoric in the Roman World 300 B.C.–A.D. 300. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1972. Laing, Gordon J. Quintilian, the Schoolmaster. The Classical Journal 15.9 (1920): 515–34. Leitch, Vincent B., Ed. The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2001. Morgan, Teresa. Literate Education in the Hellenistic and Roman Worlds. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998. Murray, Oswyn, John Boardman, and Jasper Griffin, Eds. The Oxford History of the Roman World. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991. Quintilian. Quintilian's Institutes of Oratory; Or, Education of an Orator. J. S. Watson. London: G. Bell and Sons, 1856. Print. Thomas, Zinsmaier, [Quintilian], Die Hände der blinden Mutter (Größere Deklamationen, 6). Collana Scientifica 24. Cassino: Edizioni Università di Cassino, 2009. Winterbottom, Michael. Problems in Quintilian. London: University of London, Institute of Classical Studies, 1970. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Quintilian Wikimedia Commons has media related to Quintilian. 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en-wikipedia-org-4340	----	Aulus Gellius - Wikipedia Aulus Gellius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Latin author and grammarian Aulus Gellius Frontispiece to a 1706 Latin edition of the Attic Nights [fr] by Jakob Gronovius Born c. 125 A.D. Died c. 180 A.D. Aulus Gellius (c. 125 – after 180 AD) was a Roman author and grammarian, who was probably born and certainly brought up in Rome. He was educated in Athens, after which he returned to Rome. He is famous for his Attic Nights, a commonplace book, or compilation of notes on grammar, philosophy, history, antiquarianism, and other subjects, preserving fragments of the works of many authors who might otherwise be unknown today. Contents 1 Name 2 Life 3 Writings 4 Editions 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Further reading 8.1 Translations 8.2 Studies 9 External links Name[edit] Medieval manuscripts of the Noctes Atticae commonly gave the author's name in the form of "Agellius", which is used by Priscian; Lactantius, Servius and Saint Augustine had "A. Gellius" instead. Scholars from the Renaissance onwards hotly debated which one of the two transmitted names is correct (the other one being presumably a corruption) before settling on the latter of the two in modern times.[1] Life[edit] The only source for the life of Aulus Gellius is the details recorded in his writings.[2] Internal evidence points to Gellius having been born between AD 125 and 128.[3] He was of good family and connections, possibly of African origin,[4] but he was probably born and certainly brought up in Rome. He attended the Pythian Games in the year 147,[3] and resided for a considerable period in Athens.[2] Gellius studied rhetoric under Titus Castricius and Sulpicius Apollinaris; philosophy under Calvisius Taurus and Peregrinus Proteus; and enjoyed also the friendship and instruction of Favorinus, Herodes Atticus, and Fronto.[2] He returned to Rome, where he held a judicial office.[5] He was appointed by the praetor to act as an umpire in civil causes, and much of the time which he would gladly have devoted to literary pursuits was consequently occupied by judicial duties.[2] Writings[edit] His only known work, the Attic Nights (Latin: Noctes Atticae), takes its name from having been begun during the long nights of a winter which he spent in Attica. He afterwards continued it in Rome. It is compiled out of an Adversaria, or commonplace book, in which he had jotted down everything of unusual interest that he heard in conversation or read in books, and it comprises notes on grammar, geometry, philosophy, history and many other subjects.[5] One story is the fable of Androcles, which is often included in compilations of Aesop's fables, but was not originally from that source. Internal evidence led Leofranc Holford-Strevens to date its publication in or after AD 177.[3] The work, deliberately devoid of sequence or arrangement, is divided into twenty books. All have survived except the eighth, of which only the index survives. The Attic Nights are valuable for the insight they afford into the nature of the society and pursuits of those times, and for its many excerpts from works of lost ancient authors.[5] The Attic Nights found many readers in Antiquity. Writers who used this compilation include Apuleius, Lactantius, Nonius Marcellus, Ammianus Marcellinus, the anonymous author of the Historia Augusta, Servius, and Augustine; but most notable is how Gellius' work was mined by Macrobius, "who, without mentioning his name, quotes Gellius verbatim throughout the Saturnalia, and is thus of the highest value for the text".[6] Editions[edit] The editio princeps was published at Rome in 1469 by Giovanni Andrea Bussi, bishop-designate of Aleria.[7] The earliest critical edition was by Ludovicus Carrio in 1585, published by Henricus Stephanus; however, the projected commentary fell victim to personal quarrels. Better known is the critical edition of Johann Friedrich Gronovius ; although he devoted his entire life to work on Gellius, he died in 1671 before his work could be completed. His son Jakob published most of his comments on Gellius in 1687, and brought out a revised text with all of his father's comments and other materials at Leyden in 1706; this later work became known as the "Gronoviana". According to Leofranc Holford-Strevens, the "Gronoviana" remained the standard text of Gellius for over a hundred years, until the edition of Martin Hertz (Berlin, 1883–85; there is also a smaller edition by the same author, Berlin, 1886), revised by C. Hosius, 1903, with bibliography. A volume of selections, with notes and vocabulary, was published by Nall (London, 1888). There is an English translation by W. Beloe (London, 1795), and a French translation (1896).[5][8] A more recent English translation is by John Carew Rolfe (1927) for the Loeb Classical Library. More recently, Peter K. Marshall's edition (Oxford U. Press, 1968, 1990 (reissued with corrections) seems widespread both in print and digital (open access) formats.[9] See also[edit] Ex pede Herculem Gellia gens Notes[edit] ^ René Marache (1967). "Introduction". Aulu-Gelle, Les nuits attiques. Livres I–IV. Paris: Les Belles Lettres. p. VII. ^ a b c d Ramsay, William (1867), "A. Gellius", in Smith, William (ed.), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, 2, Boston, p. 235 ^ a b c Leofranc Holford-Strevens, "Towards a Chronology of Aulus Gellius", Latomus, 36 (1977), pp. 93-109 ^ Leofranc Holford-Strevens (2003), Aulus Gellius: an Antonine scholar and his achievement, pages 13–15 ^ a b c d  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Gellius, Aulus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 558. ^ P. K. Marshall, "Aulus Gellius" in Texts and Transmission: A Survey of the Latin Classics (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983), p. 176 ^ Unless otherwise indicated, this section is based on Leofranc Holford-Strevens, Aulus Gellius (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1988), pp.241-244 ^ Gilman, D. C.; Peck, H. T.; Colby, F. M., eds. (1905). "Gellius, Aulus" . New International Encyclopedia (1st ed.). New York: Dodd, Mead. ^ Marshall, Peter K. (1990). A. Gellii Noctes Atticae. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814651-5. References[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Wm Ramsay (1870). "A.Gellius". In Smith, William (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 2. p. 235. Further reading[edit] Translations[edit] George Herbert Nall, ed. (1921). Stories from Aulus Gellius. Elementary classics. London: Macmillan. John Carew Rolfe (1927), The Attic Nights of Aulus Gellius. Loeb Classical Library. 3 Volumes. ISBN 0674992156, ISBN 0674992202, ISBN 0674992342 Studies[edit] Anderson, Graham. (1994). "Aulus Gellius: a Miscellanist and His World," in Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt, vol. II.34.2. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter. Beall, S. (1997). "Translation in Aulus Gellius." The Classical Quarterly, 47(1), 215–226. Ceaicovschi, K. (2009). "Cato the Elder in Aulus Gellius." Illinois Classical Studies, (33-34), 25–39. Lakmann, Marie-Luise. (1995). Der Platoniker Tauros in der Darstellung des Aulus Gellius. Leiden, The Netherlands, and New York: Brill. Garcea, Alessandro. (2003). "Paradoxes in Aulus Gellius." Argumentation 17:87–98. Gunderson, Eric. (2009). Nox Philologiae: Aulus Gellius and the Fantasy of the Roman Library. Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press. Holford-Strevens, Leofranc. (2003). Aulus Gellius: An Antonine Scholar and his Achievement. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Holford-Strevens, Leofranc. (1982). "Fact and fiction in Aulus Gellius." Liverpool Classical Monthly 7:65–68. Holford-Strevens, Leofranc, and Amiel Vardi, eds. (2004). The Worlds of Aulus Gellius. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Howley, Joseph A. (2013). "Why Read the Jurists ?: Aulus Gellius on Reading Across Disciplines." In New Frontiers: Law and Society in the Roman World. Edited by Paul J. du Plessis. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Howley, Joseph A. (2018). Aulus Gellius and Roman Reading Culture. Text, Presence, and Imperial Knowledge in the Noctes Atticae. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Johnson, William A. (2012). "Aulus Gellius: The Life of the Litteratus" In Readers and Reading Culture in the High Roman Empire: A Study of Elite Communities. Classical Culture and Society. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. Ker, James (2004). "Nocturnal Writers in Imperial Rome: The Culture of Lucubratio." Classical Philology, 99(3), 209–242. Keulen, Wytse. (2009). "Gellius the Satirist: Roman Cultural Authority in Attic Nights." Mnemosyne Supplements 297. Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Brill. McGinn, Thomas A.J. (2010). "Communication and the Capability Problem in Roman Law: Aulus Gellius as Iudex and the Jurists on Child-Custody." RIDA 57, 265–298. Russell, Brigette. (2003). "Wine, Women, and the Polis: Gender and the Formation of the City-State in Archaic Rome." Greece & Rome, 50(1), 77-84 External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Aulus Gellius Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: Works by Aulus Gellius Wikimedia Commons has media related to Aulus Gellius. Library resources about Aulus Gellius Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Aulus Gellius Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Works by Aulus Gellius at Perseus Digital Library Works by Aulus Gellius at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Aulus Gellius at Internet Archive The Attic Nights of Aulus Gellius, 1795 translation, Vol. I, Vol. II, Vol. III. Attic Nights (Latin text: complete; English translation: Preface thru Book 13) Attic Nights (Latin text: Books 1–11, 13, 20) Noctes atticae at Somni Authority control BIBSYS: 90284979 BNE: XX945789 BNF: cb11886402k (data) CANTIC: a11845582 CiNii: DA03746429 GND: 118716735 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\012860 ISNI: 0000 0001 2096 7225 LCCN: n79142673 LNB: 000021575 NDL: 001226487 NKC: jn19981001331 NLA: 35785569 NLG: 295584 NLP: A11789244 NSK: 000084418 NTA: 069708827 RERO: 02-A000070247 SELIBR: 55560 SNAC: w6h428qb SUDOC: 026657112 Trove: 1086862 VcBA: 495/30769 VIAF: 100198334 WorldCat Identities: viaf-110602656 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aulus_Gellius&oldid=992683544" Categories: 125 births 2nd-century deaths 2nd-century Romans 2nd-century writers Ancient Roman antiquarians Gellii Grammarians of Latin Latin-language writers Middle Platonists Roman-era students in Athens Silver Age Latin writers Writers from Rome Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the New International Encyclopedia Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM without a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM Commons category link is on Wikidata Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLP identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages Asturianu Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Íslenska Italiano עברית Latina Latviešu Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 December 2020, at 15:38 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-434	----	Roman assemblies - Wikipedia Roman assemblies From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e The Roman Assemblies were institutions in ancient Rome. They functioned as the machinery of the Roman legislative branch, and thus (theoretically at least) passed all legislation. Since the assemblies operated on the basis of a direct democracy, ordinary citizens, and not elected representatives, would cast all ballots. The assemblies were subject to strong checks on their power by the executive branch and by the Roman Senate. Laws were passed (and magistrates elected) by Curia (in the Curiate Assembly), Tribes (in the Tribal Assembly), and century. When the city of Rome was founded (traditionally dated at 753 BC), a senate and an assembly, the Curiate Assembly, were both created. The Curiate Assembly was the principal legislative assembly during the era of the Roman Kingdom. While its primary purpose was to elect new kings, it also possessed rudimentary legislative powers. Shortly after the founding of the Roman Republic (traditionally dated to 509 BC), the principal legislative authority shifted to two new assemblies, the Tribal Assembly ("Citizen's Assembly") and the Centuriate Assembly. Eventually, most legislative powers were transferred to another assembly, the Plebeian Council ("Assembly of the Commoners"). Ultimately, it was the Plebeian Council that disrupted the balance between the senate, the legislative branch, and the executive branch[citation needed]. This led to the collapse of the republic, and the founding of the Roman Empire in 21 BC. Under the empire, the powers that had been held by the assemblies were transferred to the senate. While the assemblies eventually lost their last semblance of political power, citizens continued to gather into them for organizational purposes. Eventually, however, the assemblies were abandoned. Contents 1 Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Kingdom 2 Legislative assemblies of the Roman Republic 3 Legislative assemblies of the Roman Empire 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 Further reading 7.1 Primary sources 7.2 Secondary source material 8 External links Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Kingdom[edit] Main articles: Constitution of the Roman Kingdom and Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Kingdom The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Kingdom were political institutions in the ancient Roman Kingdom. While one assembly, the Curiate Assembly, had some legislative powers,[1] these powers involved nothing more than a right to symbolically ratify decrees issued by the Roman King.[2] The functions of the other assembly, the Calate Assembly, were purely religious. During the years of the kingdom, the People of Rome were organized on the basis of units called curia.[1] All of the People of Rome were divided amongst a total of thirty curiae.[1] These curiae were the basic units of division in the two popular assemblies.[3] The members in each curia would vote, and the majority in each curia would determine how that curia voted before the assembly. Thus, a majority of the curiae (sixteen out of the thirty total curiae) were needed during any vote before either the Curiate Assembly or the Calculate Assembly. They functioned as the Roman legislative branch. Growth of the city region during the kingdom The king presided over the assembly, and submitted decrees to it for ratification.[2] After a king died, the Interrex selected a candidate to replace the king.[4] After the nominee received the approval of the Roman Senate, the Interrex held the formal election before the Curiate Assembly. After the Curiate Assembly elected the new king, and the senate ratified that election, the Interrex then presided over the assembly as it voted on the law which granted the king his legal powers (the lex curiata de imperio).[4] On the calends (the first day of the month), and the nones (around the fifth day of the month), this assembly met to hear announcements.[2] Appeals heard by this assembly often had to deal with questions concerning Roman family law.[5] During two fixed days in the spring, the assembly was to always meet to witness wills and adoptions.[2] The assembly also had jurisdiction over the admission of new families to a curia, the transfer of families between two curiae, and the transfer of individuals from plebeian (commoner) to patrician (aristocratic) status (or vice versa).[2] Legislative assemblies of the Roman Republic[edit] Main articles: Constitution of the Roman Republic, Legislative assemblies of the Roman Republic, and Plebeian Council The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic were political institutions in the ancient Roman Republic. There were two types of Roman assembly. The first was the comitia,[6] which was an assembly of Roman citizens.[7] Here, Roman citizens gathered to enact laws, elect magistrates, and try judicial cases. The second type of assembly was the council (concilium), which was an assembly of a specific group of citizens.[7] For example, the "Plebeian Council" was an assembly where Plebeians gathered to elect Plebeian magistrates, pass laws that applied only to Plebeians, and try judicial cases concerning Plebeians.[8] A convention (conventio), in contrast, was an unofficial forum for communication, where citizens gathered to debate bills, campaign for office, and decide judicial cases.[6] The voters first assembled into conventions to deliberate, and then they assembled into committees or councils to actually vote.[9] In addition to the curiae (familial groupings), Roman citizens were also organized into centuries (for military purposes) and tribes (for civil purposes). Each gathered into an assembly for legislative, electoral, and judicial purposes. The Centuriate Assembly was the assembly of the Centuries, while the Tribal Assembly was the assembly of the Tribes. Only a block of voters (Century, Tribe or Curia), and not the individual electors, cast the formal vote (one vote per block) before the assembly.[10] The majority of votes in any Century, Tribe, or Curia decided how that Century, Tribe, or Curia voted. The Centuriate Assembly was divided into 193 (later 373) Centuries, with each Century belonging to one of three classes: the officer class, the infantry, and the unarmed adjuncts.[11][12] During a vote, the Centuries voted, one at a time, by order of seniority. The president of the Centuriate Assembly was usually a Roman Consul (the chief magistrate of the republic).[13] Only the Centuriate Assembly could elect Consuls, Praetors and Censors, only it could declare war,[14] and only it could ratify the results of a census.[15] While it had the power to pass ordinary laws (leges), it rarely did so. Gaius Gracchus, tribune of the people, presiding over the Plebeian Council The organization of the Tribal Assembly was much simpler than was that of the Centuriate Assembly, in contrast, since its organization was based on only thirty-five Tribes. The Tribes were not ethnic or kinship groups, but rather geographical divisions (similar to modern U.S. Congressional districts or Commonwealth Parliamentary constituencies).[16] The president of the Tribal Assembly was usually a Consul,[13] and under his presidency, the assembly elected Quaestors, Curule Aediles, and Military Tribunes.[17] While it had the power to pass ordinary laws (leges), it rarely did so. The assembly known as the Plebeian Council was identical to the Tribal Assembly with one key exception: only plebeians (the commoners) had the power to vote before it. Members of the aristocratic patrician class were excluded from this assembly. In contrast, both classes were entitled to a vote in the Tribal Assembly. Under the presidency of a Plebeian Tribune (the chief representative of the people), the Plebeian Council elected Plebeian Tribunes and Plebeian Aediles (the Plebeian Tribune's assistant), enacted laws called plebiscites, and presided over judicial cases involving Plebeians. Originally, laws passed by the Plebeian Council only applied to Plebeians.[18] However, by 287 BC, laws passed by the Plebeian Council had acquired the full force of law, and from that point on, most legislation came from the council. Legislative assemblies of the Roman Empire[edit] See also: Constitution of the Roman Empire and Legislative assemblies of the Roman Empire The legislative assemblies of the Roman Empire were political institutions in the ancient Roman Empire. During the reign of the second Roman Emperor, Tiberius, the powers that had been held by the Roman assemblies were transferred to the senate. The neutering of the assemblies had become inevitable for reasons beyond the fact that they were composed of the rabble of Rome. The electors were, in general, ignorant as to the merits of the important questions that were laid before them,[19] and often willing to sell their votes to the highest bidder. After the founding of the Roman Empire, the People of Rome continued to organize by Centuries and by Tribes, but by this point, these divisions had lost most of their relevance.[20] While the machinery of the Centuriate Assembly continued to exist well into the life of the empire,[20] the assembly lost all of its practical relevance. Under the empire, all gatherings of the Centuriate Assembly were in the form of an unsorted convention. Legislation was never submitted to the imperial Centuriate Assembly, and the one major legislative power that this assembly had held under the republic, the right to declare war, was now held exclusively by the emperor.[20] All judicial powers that had been held by the republican Centuriate Assembly were transferred to independent jury courts, and under the emperor Tiberius, all of its former electoral powers were transferred to the senate.[20] After it had lost all of these powers, it had no remaining authority. Its only remaining function was, after the senate had 'elected' the magistrates, to hear the renuntiatio,[20] The renuntiatio had no legal purpose, but instead was a ceremony in which the results of the election were read to the electors. This allowed the emperor to claim that the magistrates had been "elected" by a sovereign people. After the founding of the empire, the tribal divisions of citizens and freedmen continued, but the only political purpose of the tribal divisions was such that they better enabled the senate to maintain a list of citizens.[20] Tribal divisions also simplified the process by which grain was distributed.[20] Eventually, most freedmen belonged to one of the four urban Tribes, while most freemen belonged to one of the thirty-one rural Tribes.[20] Under the emperor Tiberius, the electoral powers of the Tribal Assembly were transferred to the senate. Each year, after the senate had elected the annual magistrates, the Tribal Assembly also heard the renuntiatio.[20] Any legislation that the emperor submitted to the assemblies for ratification were submitted to the Tribal Assembly.[20] The assembly ratified imperial decrees, starting with the emperor Augustus, and continuing until the emperor Domitian. The ratification of legislation by the assembly, however, had no legal importance as the emperor could make any decree into law, even without the acquiescence of the assemblies. Thus, under the empire, the chief executive again became the chief lawgiver, which was a power he had not held since the days of the early republic.[20] The Plebeian Council also survived the fall of the republic,[20] and it also lost its legislative, judicial and electoral powers to the senate. By virtue of his tribunician powers, the emperor had absolute control over the council.[20] See also[edit] ‹ The template below (Columns) is being considered for deletion. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus. › Roman Kingdom Roman Republic Roman Empire Roman Law Plebeian Council Centuria Curia Roman consul Praetor Roman censor Quaestor Aedile Roman Dictator Master of the Horse Roman Senate Cursus honorum Byzantine Senate Pontifex Maximus Princeps senatus Interrex Promagistrate Acta Senatus Notes[edit] ^ a b c Abbott, 18 ^ a b c d e Abbott, 19 ^ Byrd, 33 ^ a b Abbott, 14 ^ Abbott, 15 ^ a b Lintott, 42 ^ a b Abbott, 251 ^ Lintott, 43 ^ Taylor, 2 ^ Taylor, 40 ^ Taylor, 85 ^ Cicero, 226 ^ a b Polybius, 132 ^ Abbott, 257 ^ Taylor, 3, 4 ^ Lintott, 51 ^ Taylor, 7 ^ Byrd, 31 ^ Abbott, 278 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Abbott, 397 References[edit] Abbott, Frank Frost (1901). A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. Elibron Classics (ISBN 0-543-92749-0). Byrd, Robert (1995). The Senate of the Roman Republic. U.S. Government Printing Office, Senate Document 103-23. Cicero, Marcus Tullius (1841). The Political Works of Marcus Tullius Cicero: Comprising his Treatise on the Commonwealth; and his Treatise on the Laws. Translated from the original, with Dissertations and Notes in Two Volumes. By Francis Barham, Esq. London: Edmund Spettigue. Vol. 1. Lintott, Andrew (1999). The Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press ( ISBN 0-19-926108-3). Polybius (1823). The General History of Polybius: Translated from the Greek. By James Hampton. Oxford: Printed by W. Baxter. Fifth Edition, Vol 2. Taylor, Lily Ross (1966). Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar. The University of Michigan Press ( ISBN 0-472-08125-X). Further reading[edit] Ihne, Wilhelm. Researches Into the History of the Roman Constitution. William Pickering. 1853. Johnston, Harold Whetstone. Orations and Letters of Cicero: With Historical Introduction, An Outline of the Roman Constitution, Notes, Vocabulary and Index. Scott, Foresman and Company. 1891. Mommsen, Theodor. Roman Constitutional Law. 1871–1888 Tighe, Ambrose. The Development of the Roman Constitution. D. Apple & Co. 1886. Von Fritz, Kurt. The Theory of the Mixed Constitution in Antiquity. Columbia University Press, New York. 1975. The Histories by Polybius Cambridge Ancient History, Volumes 9–13. A. Cameron, The Later Roman Empire, (Fontana Press, 1993). M. Crawford, The Roman Republic, (Fontana Press, 1978). E. S. Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (U California Press, 1974) F. Millar, The Emperor in the Roman World, (Duckworth, 1977, 1992). A. Lintott, The Constitution of the Roman Republic (Oxford University Press, 1999) Primary sources[edit] Cicero's De Re Publica, Book Two Rome at the End of the Punic Wars: An Analysis of the Roman Government; by Polybius Secondary source material[edit] Considerations on the Causes of the Greatness of the Romans and their Decline, by Montesquieu The Roman Constitution to the Time of Cicero What a Terrorist Incident in Ancient Rome Can Teach Us An extensive collection of digital books and articles on Roman Law and History, in various languages. 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en-wikipedia-org-4350	----	View source for Horace - Wikipedia View source for Horace ← Horace Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ===Middle Ages and Renaissance=== [[File:Horaz beim Studium.jpg|thumb|Horace in his Studium: German print of the fifteenth century, summarizing the final [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber IV/Carmen XV|ode 4.15]] (in praise of Augustus).]] Classical texts almost ceased being copied in the period between the mid sixth century and the [[Carolingian Renaissance|Carolingian revival]]. Horace's work probably survived in just two or three books imported into northern Europe from Italy. These became the ancestors of six extant manuscripts dated to the ninth century. Two of those six manuscripts are French in origin, one was produced in [[Alsace]], and the other three show Irish influence but were probably written in continental monasteries ([[Lombardy]] for example).<ref>R. Tarrant, ''Ancient receptions of Horace'', 285–87</ref> By the last half of the ninth century, it was not uncommon for literate people to have direct experience of Horace's poetry. His influence on the [[Carolingian Renaissance]] can be found in the poems of [[Heiric of Auxerre]]<ref group="nb">Heiric, like Prudentius, gave Horatian motifs a Christian context. Thus the character Lydia in ''Odes'' 3.19.15, who would willingly die for her lover twice, becomes in Heiric's ''Life'' of St Germaine of Auxerre a saint ready to die twice for the Lord's commandments (R. Tarrant, ''Ancient receptions of Horace'', 287–88)</ref> and in some manuscripts marked with [[neumes]], mysterious notations that may have been an aid to the memorization and discussion of his lyric meters. ''Ode'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber IV/Carmen XI|4.11]] is neumed with the melody of a hymn to John the Baptist, ''[[Ut queant laxis]]'', composed in [[Sapphic stanza]]s. This hymn later became the basis of the [[solfege]] system (''Do, re, mi...''){{emdash}}an association with western music quite appropriate for a lyric poet like Horace, though the language of the hymn is mainly Prudentian.<ref>R. Tarrant, ''Ancient receptions of Horace'', 288–89</ref> Lyons<ref>Stuart Lyons, Horace's Odes and the Mystery of Do-Re-Mi</ref> argues that the melody in question was linked with Horace's Ode well before Guido d'Arezzo fitted [[Ut queant laxis]] to it. However, the melody is unlikely to be a survivor from classical times, although Ovid<ref>Tristia, 4.10.49–50</ref> testifies to Horace's use of the lyre while performing his Odes. The German scholar, [[Ludwig Traube (palaeographer)|Ludwig Traube]], once dubbed the tenth and eleventh centuries ''The age of Horace'' (''aetas Horatiana''), and placed it between the ''aetas Vergiliana'' of the eighth and ninth centuries, and the ''aetas Ovidiana'' of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, a distinction supposed to reflect the dominant classical Latin influences of those times. Such a distinction is over-schematized since Horace was a substantial influence in the ninth century as well. Traube had focused too much on Horace's ''Satires''.<ref>B. Bischoff, ''Living with the satirists'', 83–95</ref> Almost all of Horace's work found favour in the Medieval period. In fact medieval scholars were also guilty of over-schematism, associating Horace's different genres with the different ages of man. A twelfth-century scholar encapsulated the theory: "...Horace wrote four different kinds of poems on account of the four ages, the ''Odes'' for boys, the ''Ars Poetica'' for young men, the ''Satires'' for mature men, the ''Epistles'' for old and complete men."<ref>K. Friis-Jensen,''Horace in the Middle Ages'', 291</ref> It was even thought that Horace had composed his works in the order in which they had been placed by ancient scholars.<ref group="nb">According to a medieval French commentary on the ''Satires'': "...first he composed his lyrics, and in them, speaking to the young, as it were, he took as subject-matter love affairs and quarrels, banquets and drinking parties. Next he wrote his ''Epodes'', and in them composed invectives against men of a more advanced and more dishonourable age...He next wrote his book about the ''Ars Poetica'', and in that instructed men of his own profession to write well...Later he added his book of ''Satires'', in which he reproved those who had fallen a prey to various kinds of vices. Finally, he finished his oeuvre with the ''Epistles'', and in them, following the method of a good farmer, he sowed the virtues where he had rooted out the vices." (cited by K. Friis-Jensen, ''Horace in the Middle Ages'', 294–302)</ref> Despite its naivety, the schematism involved an appreciation of Horace's works as a collection, the ''Ars Poetica'', ''Satires'' and ''Epistles'' appearing to find favour as well as the ''Odes''. The later Middle Ages however gave special significance to ''Satires'' and ''Epistles'', being considered Horace's mature works. [[Dante]] referred to Horace as ''Orazio satiro'', and he awarded him a privileged position in the first circle of Hell, with [[Homer]], Ovid and [[Lucan]].<ref>K. Friis-Jensen, ''Horace in the Middle Ages'', 293, 304</ref> Horace's popularity is revealed in the large number of quotes from all his works found in almost every genre of medieval literature, and also in the number of poets imitating him in [[Prosody (Latin)#Two rhythms|quantitative Latin meter]]. The most prolific imitator of his ''Odes'' was the Bavarian monk, [[Metellus of Tegernsee]], who dedicated his work to the patron saint of [[Tegernsee Abbey]], [[Quirinus of Tegernsee|St Quirinus]], around the year 1170. He imitated all Horace's lyrical meters then followed these up with imitations of other meters used by Prudentius and Boethius, indicating that variety, as first modelled by Horace, was considered a fundamental aspect of the lyric genre. The content of his poems however was restricted to simple piety.<ref>K. Friis-Jensen, ''Horace in the Middle Ages'', 296–98</ref> Among the most successful imitators of ''Satires'' and ''Epistles'' was another Germanic author, calling himself [[Sextus Amarcius]], around 1100, who composed four books, the first two exemplifying vices, the second pair mainly virtues.<ref>K. Friis-Jensen, ''Horace in the Middle Ages'', 302</ref> [[Petrarch]] is a key figure in the imitation of Horace in accentual meters. His verse letters in Latin were modelled on the ''Epistles'' and he wrote a letter to Horace in the form of an ode. However he also borrowed from Horace when composing his Italian sonnets. One modern scholar has speculated that authors who imitated Horace in accentual rhythms (including stressed Latin and vernacular languages) may have considered their work a natural sequel to Horace's metrical variety.<ref>K. Friis-Jensen, ''Horace in the Middle Ages'', 299</ref> In France, Horace and [[Pindar]] were the poetic models for a group of vernacular authors called the [[Pléiade]], including for example [[Pierre de Ronsard]] and [[Joachim du Bellay]]. [[Montaigne]] made constant and inventive use of Horatian quotes.<ref>Michael McGann, ''Horace in the Renaissance'', 306</ref> The vernacular languages were dominant in Spain and Portugal in the sixteenth century, where Horace's influence is notable in the works of such authors as [[Garcilaso de la Vega (poet)|Garcilaso de la Vega]], [[Juan Boscán]], [[Sá de Miranda]], [[Antonio Ferreira]] and [[Fray Luis de León]], the last writing odes on the Horatian theme ''beatus ille'' (''happy the man'').<ref>E. Rivers, ''Fray Luis de León: The Original Poems''</ref> The sixteenth century in western Europe was also an age of translations (except in Germany, where Horace wasn't translated into the vernacular until well into the seventeenth century). The first English translator was [[Thomas Drant]], who placed translations of [[Jeremiah]] and Horace side by side in ''Medicinable Morall'', 1566. That was also the year that the Scot [[George Buchanan]] paraphrased the [[Psalms]] in a Horatian setting. [[Ben Jonson]] put Horace on the stage in 1601 in ''[[Poetaster (play)|Poetaster]]'', along with other classical Latin authors, giving them all their own verses to speak in translation. Horace's part evinces the independent spirit, moral earnestness and critical insight that many readers look for in his poems.<ref>M. McGann, ''Horace in the Renaissance'', 306–07, 313–16</ref> Return to Horace. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4376	----	Bologna - Wikipedia Bologna From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the city in Italy. For the food, see Bologna sausage. For the city in Corsica, see Balogna. For other uses, see Bologna (disambiguation). "Bologne" and "Bolognese" redirect here. For other uses, see Bologne (disambiguation) and Bolognese (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Boulogne (disambiguation). Comune in Italy Bologna Bologna  (Italian) Comune Comune di Bologna Clockwise from top: panorama of Bologna and the surrounding hills, San Petronio Basilica, University of Bologna, Fountain of Neptune, Sanctuary of the Madonna di San Luca, Unipol Tower and the Two Towers Flag Coat of arms Bologna Show map of Emilia-Romagna Bologna Show map of Italy Bologna Show map of Europe Coordinates: 44°29′38″N 11°20′34″E / 44.49389°N 11.34278°E / 44.49389; 11.34278Coordinates: 44°29′38″N 11°20′34″E / 44.49389°N 11.34278°E / 44.49389; 11.34278 Country Italy Region Emilia-Romagna Metro Bologna (BO) Government  • Body Bologna City Council  • Mayor Virginio Merola (PD) Area[1]  • Comune 140.86 km2 (54.39 sq mi) Elevation 54 m (177 ft) Population (31 December 2019)[2]  • Comune 390,625  • Density 2,800/km2 (7,200/sq mi)  • Metro[3] 1,017,196 Demonym(s) Bolognese Area code(s) 0039 051 Website [1] Bologna (/bəˈloʊnjə/, UK also /bəˈlɒnjə/, Italian: [boˈloɲɲa] (listen); Emilian (Bolognese dialect): Bulåggna [buˈlʌɲːa]; Latin: Bonōnia) is the capital and largest city of the Emilia-Romagna region in Northern Italy. It is the seventh most populous city in Italy with about 390,000 inhabitants and 150 different nationalities.[4] Its metropolitan area is home to more than 1,000,000 people.[5] Originally Etruscan, the city has been one of the most important urban centres for centuries, first under the Etruscans (who called it Felsina), then under the Celts as Bona, later under the Romans (Bonōnia), then again in the Middle Ages, as a free municipality and signoria, when it was among the largest European cities by population. Famous for its towers, churches and lengthy porticoes, Bologna has a well-preserved historical centre, thanks to a careful restoration and conservation policy which began at the end of the 1970s.[6] Home to the oldest university in the world,[7][8][9][10][11] the University of Bologna, established in AD 1088, the city has a large student population that gives it a cosmopolitan character. In 2000 it was declared European capital of culture[12] and in 2006, a UNESCO "City of Music" and became part of the Creative Cities Network.[13] Bologna is an important agricultural, industrial, financial and transport hub, where many large mechanical, electronic and food companies have their headquarters as well as one of the largest permanent trade fairs in Europe. According to the most recent data gathered by the European Regional Economic Growth Index (E-REGI) of 2009, Bologna is the first Italian city and the 47th European city in terms of its economic growth rate.[14] As a consequence, Bologna is also one of the wealthiest cities in Italy, often ranking as one of the top cities in terms of quality of life in the country: in 2020 it ranked 1st out of 107 Italian provinces.[15] Contents 1 History 1.1 Antiquity and Middle Ages 1.2 Early modern 1.3 Modern history 1.3.1 World War II 1.3.2 Cold War period 1.3.3 Recent history 2 Geography 2.1 Territory 2.2 Climate 3 Government 3.1 Municipal government 3.2 Provincial and regional government 4 Cityscape 5 Economy 6 Transport 6.1 Bologna public transportation statistics 7 Demographics 8 Education 9 Culture 9.1 University 9.2 Entertainment and performing arts 9.3 Cuisine 10 Sport 11 People 12 International relations 13 See also 14 References 15 Further reading 15.1 Guide books 15.2 Older guides 16 External links History[edit] See also: Timeline of Bologna Antiquity and Middle Ages[edit] The iconic Due Torri Porta Maggiore, one of the twelve medieval city gates of Bologna Depiction of a 14th-century fight between the Guelf and Ghibelline factions in Bologna, from the Croniche of Giovanni Sercambi of Lucca Traces of human habitation in the area of Bologna go back to the 3rd millennium BCE, with significant settlements from about the 9th century BCE (Villanova culture). The influence of Etruscan civilization reached the area in the 7th to 6th centuries, and the Etruscan city of Felsina was founded at the site of Bologna by the end of the 6th century. By the 4th century BCE, the site was occupied by the Gaulish Boii, and it became a Roman colony and municipium with the name of Bonōnia in 196 BCE.[16] After the fall of the Roman Empire, Bologna, then a frontier outpost of the Byzantine Exarchate of Ravenna, was repeatedly sacked by the Goths; it is in this period that legendary Bishop Petronius, according to ancient chronicles, rebuilt the ruined town and founded the basilica of Saint Stephen.[17] Petronius is still revered as patron saint of Bologna. In 727–28, the city was sacked and captured by the Lombards under King Liutprand, becoming part of that kingdom. These Germanic conquerors built an important new quarter, called "addizione longobarda" (Italian meaning "Longobard addition") near the complex of St. Stephen.[18] In the last quarter of the 8th century, Charlemagne, at the request of Pope Adrian I, invaded the Lombard Kingdom, causing its eventual demise. Occupied by Frankish troops in 774 on behalf of the papacy, Bologna remained under imperial authority and prospered as a frontier mark of the Carolingian empire.[19] Bologna was the center of a revived study of law, including the scholar Irnerius[20] (c 1050 – after 1125) and his famous students, the Four Doctors of Bologna. After the death of Matilda of Tuscany in 1115, Bologna obtained substantial concessions from Emperor Henry V. However, when Frederick Barbarossa subsequently attempted to strike down the deal, Bologna joined the Lombard League, which then defeated the imperial armies at the Battle of Legnano and established an effective autonomy at the Peace of Constance in 1183. Subsequently, the town began to expand rapidly and became one of the main commercial trade centres of northern Italy thanks to a system of canals that allowed barges and ships to come and go.[21] Believed to have been established in 1088, the University of Bologna is widely considered the world's oldest university in continuous operation.[10][11] The university originated as a centre for the study of medieval Roman law under major glossators, including Irnerius. It numbered Dante, Boccaccio and Petrarch among its students.[22] The medical school was especially renowned.[23] By 1200, Bologna was a thriving commercial and artisanal centre of about 10,000 people.[24] During a campaign to support the imperial cities of Modena and Cremona against Bologna, Frederick II's son, King Enzo of Sardinia, was defeated and captured on 26 May 1249 at the Battle of Fossalta. Though the emperor demanded his release, Enzo was thenceforth kept a knightly prisoner in Bologna, in a palace that came to be named Palazzo Re Enzo after him. Every attempt to escape or to rescue him failed, and he died after more than 22 years in captivity.[25] After the death of his half-brothers Conrad IV in 1254, Frederick of Antioch in 1256 and Manfred in 1266, as well as the execution his nephew Conradin in 1268, he was the last of the Hohenstaufen heirs. During the late 1200s, Bologna was affected by political instability when the most prominent families incessantly fought for the control of the town. The free commune was severely weakened by decades of infighting, allowing the Pope to impose the rule of his envoy Cardinal Bertrand du Pouget in 1327. Du Pouget was eventually ousted by a popular rebellion and Bologna became a signoria under Taddeo Pepoli in 1334.[26] By the arrival of the Black Death in 1348, Bologna had 40,000 to 50,000 inhabitants, reduced to just 20,000 to 25,000 after the plague.[27] In 1350, Bologna was conquered by Archbishop Giovanni Visconti, the new lord of Milan. However, following a rebellion by the town's governor, a renegade member of the Visconti family, Bologna was recuperated to the papacy in 1363 by Cardinal Gil Álvarez Carrillo de Albornoz after a long negotiation involving a huge indemnity paid to Bernabò Visconti, Giovanni's heir, who died in 1354.[26] In 1376, Bologna again revolted against Papal rule and joined Florence in the unsuccessful War of the Eight Saints. However, extreme infighting inside the Holy See after the Western Schism prevented the papacy from restoring its domination over Bologna, so it remained relatively independent for some decades as an oligarchic republic. In 1401, Giovanni I Bentivoglio took power in a coup with the support of Milan, but the Milanese, having turned his back on them and allied with Florence, marched on Bologna and had Giovanni killed the following year. In 1442, Hannibal I Bentivoglio, Giovanni's nephew, recovered Bologna from the Milanese, only to be assassinated in a conspiracy plotted by Pope Eugene IV three years later. But the signoria of the Bentivoglio family was then firmly established, and the power passed to his cousin Sante Bentivoglio, who ruled until 1462, followed by Giovanni II. Giovanni II managed to resist the expansionist designs of Cesare Borgia for some time, but on 7 October 1506, Pope Julius II issued a bull deposing and excommunicating Bentivoglio and placing the city under interdict. When the papal troops, along with a contingent sent by Louis XII of France, marched against Bologna, Bentivoglio and his family fled. Julius II entered the city triumphantly on 10 November. Early modern[edit] Bologna in 1640 The period of Papal rule over Bologna (1506–1796) has been generally evaluated by historians as one of severe decline. However, this was not evident in the 1500s, which were marked by some major developments in Bologna. In 1530, Emperor Charles V was crowned in Bologna, the last of the Holy Roman Emperors to be crowned by the pope. In 1564, the Piazza del Nettuno and the Palazzo dei Banchi were built, along with the Archiginnasio, the main building of the university. The period of Papal rule saw also the construction of many churches and other religious establishments, and the restoration of older ones. At this time, Bologna had ninety-six convents, more than any other Italian city. Painters working in Bologna during this period established the Bolognese School which includes Annibale Carracci, Domenichino, Guercino and others of European fame.[28] Engraving of the city of Bologna from Leandro Alberti's History of Bologna, 1590, showing the two surviving towers and several others It was only towards the end of the 16th century that severe signs of decline began to manifest. A series of plagues in the late 16th to early 17th century reduced the population of the city from some 72,000 in the mid-16th century to about 47,000 by 1630. During the Italian Plague of 1629–31 alone Bologna lost up to a third of its population.[29] In the mid-17th century, population stabilized at roughly 60,000, slowly increasing to some 70,000 by the mid-18th century. The economy of Bologna started to show signs of severe decline as the global centres of trade shifted towards the Atlantic. The traditional silk industry was in a critical state.[30] The university was losing students, who once came from all over Europe, because of the illiberal attitudes of the Church towards culture (especially after the trial of Galileo).[31] Bologna continued to suffer a progressive deindustrialisation also in the 18th century.[32] In the mid-1700s pope Benedict XIV, a Bolognese, tried to reverse the decline of the city with a series of reforms intended to stimulate the economy and promote the arts. However, these reforms achieved only mixed results. The pope's efforts to stimulate the decaying textile industry had little success, while he was more successful in reforming the tax system, liberalising trade[33] and relaxing the oppressive system of censorship.[34] The economic and demographic decline of Bologna became even more noticeable starting from the second half of the 18th century. In 1790 the city had 72,000 inhabitants, ranking as the second largest in the Papal States; however this figure had remained unchanged for decades. The economy was stagnant because of Papal policies that distorted trade with heavy custom duties and sold concessions of monopolies to single manufacturers thus lowering competition, depressing productivity and incentivising corruption.[35] Modern history[edit] Piazza del Nettuno in 1855, looking towards Piazza Maggiore Napoleon entered Bologna on 19 June 1796. Napoleon briefly reinstated the ancient mode of government, giving power to the Senate, which however had to swear fealty to the short lived Cispadane Republic, created as a client state of the French Empire at the congress of Reggio (27 December 1796 – 9 January 1797) but succeeded by the Cisalpine Republic on 9 July 1797, later by the Italian Republic and finally the Kingdom of Italy. After the fall of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna of 1815 restored Bologna to the Papal States. Papal rule was contested in the uprisings of 1831. The insurrected provinces planned to unite as the Province Italiane Unite with Bologna as capital. Pope Gregory XVI asked for Austrian help against the rebels. Metternich warned French king Louis Philippe I against intervention in Italian affairs, and in the spring of 1831, Austrian forces marched across the Italian peninsula, defeating the rebellion by 26 April.[36] By the mid 1840s, unemployment levels were very high and traditional industries continued to languish or disappear; Bologna became a city of economic disparity with the top 10 percent of the population living off rent, another 20 percent exercising professions or commerce and 70 percent working in low-paid, often insecure manual jobs. The Papal census of 1841 reported 10,000 permanent beggars and another 30,000 (out of a total population of 70,000) who lived in poverty.[37] In the revolutions of 1848 the Austrian garrisons which controlled the city on behalf of the Pope were temporarily expelled, but eventually came back and crushed the revolutionaries. Papal rule finally ended in the aftermath of Second War of Italian Independence, when the French and Pidemontese troops expelled the Austrians from Italian lands, on 11 and 12 March 1860, Bologna voted to join the new Kingdom of Italy. In the last decades of the 19th century, Bologna once again thrived economically and socially. In 1863 Naples was linked to Rome by railway, and the following year Bologna to Florence.[38] Bolognese moderate agrarian elites, that supported liberal insurgencies against the papacy and were admirers of the British political system and of free trade, envisioned a unified national state that would open a bigger market for the massive agricultural production of the Emilian plains.[39] Indeed, Bologna gave Italy one of its first prime ministers, Marco Minghetti. After World War I, Bologna was heavily involved in the Biennio Rosso socialist uprisings. As a consequence, the traditionally moderate elites of the city turned their back on the progressive faction and gave their support to the rising Fascist movement of Benito Mussolini.[40] Dino Grandi, a high-ranking Fascist party official and Ministry of Foreign Affairs, remembered for being an Anglophile, was from Bologna. During the interwar years, Bologna developed into an important manufacturing centre for food processing, agricultural machinery and metalworking. The Fascist regime poured in massive investments, for example with the setting up of a giant tobacco manufacturing plant in 1937.[41] World War II[edit] Sappers of the 136 Indian Railway Maintenance Company repair some of the extensive damage to the railyards in 1945. Bologna suffered extensive damage during World War II. The strategic importance of the city as an industrial and railway hub connecting northern and central Italy made it a target for the Allied forces. On 24 July 1943, a massive aerial bombardment destroyed a significant part of the historic city centre and killed about 200 people. The main railway station and adjoining areas were severely hit, and 44% of the buildings in the centre were listed as having been destroyed or severely damaged. The city was heavily bombed again on 25 September. The raids, which this time were not confined to the city centre, left 2,481 people dead and 2,000 injured.[42][43] By the end of the war, 43% of all buildings in Bologna had been destroyed or damaged.[44][45] After the armistice of 1943, the city became a key centre of the Italian resistance movement. On 7 November 1944, a pitched battle around Porta Lame, waged by partisans of the 7th Brigade of the Gruppi d'Azione Patriottica against Fascist and Nazi occupation forces, did not succeed in triggering a general uprising, despite being one of the largest resistance-led urban conflicts in the European theatre.[46] Resistance forces entered Bologna on the morning of 21 April 1945. By this time, the Germans had already largely left the city in the face of the Allied advance, spearheaded by Polish forces advancing from the east during the Battle of Bologna which had been fought since 9 April. First to arrive in the centre was the 87th Infantry Regiment of the Friuli Combat Group under general Arturo Scattini, who entered the centre from Porta Maggiore to the south. Since the soldiers were dressed in British outfits, they were initially thought to be part of the allied forces; when the local inhabitants heard the soldiers were speaking Italian, they poured out onto the streets to celebrate.[citation needed] Cold War period[edit] Aftermath of the 1980 terrorist bombing In the post-war years, Bologna became a thriving industrial centre as well as a political stronghold of the Italian Communist Party. Between 1945 and 1999, the city was helmed by an uninterrupted succession of mayors from the PCI and its successors, the Democratic Party of the Left and Democrats of the Left, the first of whom was Giuseppe Dozza. At the end of the 1960s the city authorities, worried by massive gentrification and suburbanisation, asked Japanese starchitect Kenzo Tange to sketch a master plan for a new town north of Bologna; however, the project that came out in 1970 was evaluated as too ambitious and expensive.[47] Eventually the city council, in spite of vetoing Tange's master plan, decided to keep his project for a new exhibition centre and business district.[48] At the end of 1978 the construction of a tower block and several diverse buildings and structures started.[49] In 1985 the headquarters of the regional government of Emilia-Romagna moved in the new district.[50] In 1977, Bologna was the scene of rioting linked to the Movement of 1977, a spontaneous political movement of the time. The police shooting of a far-left activist, Francesco Lorusso, sparked two days of street clashes. On 2 August 1980, at the height of the "years of lead", a terrorist bomb was set off in the central railway station of Bologna killing 85 people and wounding 200, an event which is known in Italy as the Bologna massacre. In 1995, members of the neo-fascist group Nuclei Armati Rivoluzionari were convicted for carrying out the attack, while Licio Gelli—Grand Master of the underground Freemason lodge Propaganda Due (P2)—was convicted for hampering the investigation, together with three agents of the secret military intelligence service SISMI (including Francesco Pazienza and Pietro Musumeci). Commemorations take place in Bologna on 2 August each year, culminating in a concert in the main square. Recent history[edit] In 1999, the long tradition of left-wing mayors was interrupted by the victory of independent centre-right candidate Giorgio Guazzaloca. However, Bologna reverted to form in 2004 when Sergio Cofferati, a former trade union leader, unseated Guazzaloca. The next centre-left mayor, Flavio Delbono, elected in June 2009, resigned in January 2010 after being involved in a corruption scandal. After a 15-month period in which the city was administered under Anna Maria Cancellieri (as a state-appointed prefect), Virginio Merola was elected as mayor, leading a left-wing coalition comprising the Democratic Party, Left Ecology Freedom and Italy of Values.[51] Geography[edit] Territory[edit] Aerial photograph of Bologna (from East to West). Bologna is situated on the edge of the Po Plain at the foot of the Apennine Mountains, at the meeting of the Reno and Savena river valleys. As Bologna's two main watercourses flow directly to the sea, the town lies outside of the drainage basin of the River Po. The Province of Bologna stretches from the western edge of the Po Plain on the border with Ferrara to the Tuscan-Emilian Apennines. The centre of the town is 54 metres (177 ft) above sea level (while elevation within the municipality ranges from 29 metres (95 ft) in the suburb of Corticella to 300 metres (980 ft) in Sabbiuno and the Colle della Guardia). The Province of Bologna stretches from the Po Plain into the Apennines; the highest point in the province is the peak of Corno alle Scale (in Lizzano in Belvedere) at 1,945 metres (6,381 ft) above sea level. Climate[edit] Bologna has a mid-latitude, four-season humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfa). Annual precipitation oscillates between around 450 mm (18 in) and 900 mm (35 in),[52] with the majority generally falling in spring and autumn. The last major snow event was in November 2012.[53] Climate data for Bologna (1971–2000, extremes 1946–present) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 20.7 (69.3) 24.9 (76.8) 27.0 (80.6) 30.6 (87.1) 34.9 (94.8) 38.0 (100.4) 39.6 (103.3) 40.1 (104.2) 34.8 (94.6) 29.8 (85.6) 24.0 (75.2) 23.0 (73.4) 40.1 (104.2) Average high °C (°F) 6.0 (42.8) 9.0 (48.2) 14.2 (57.6) 17.7 (63.9) 23.0 (73.4) 27.1 (80.8) 30.4 (86.7) 29.8 (85.6) 25.4 (77.7) 18.6 (65.5) 11.1 (52.0) 6.8 (44.2) 18.3 (64.9) Daily mean °C (°F) 2.8 (37.0) 5.0 (41.0) 9.2 (48.6) 12.5 (54.5) 17.5 (63.5) 21.4 (70.5) 24.4 (75.9) 24.1 (75.4) 20.1 (68.2) 14.4 (57.9) 7.7 (45.9) 3.6 (38.5) 13.6 (56.5) Average low °C (°F) −0.5 (31.1) 0.9 (33.6) 4.1 (39.4) 7.4 (45.3) 12.0 (53.6) 15.7 (60.3) 18.5 (65.3) 18.4 (65.1) 14.8 (58.6) 10.1 (50.2) 4.3 (39.7) 0.4 (32.7) 8.8 (47.8) Record low °C (°F) −18.8 (−1.8) −14.4 (6.1) −9.7 (14.5) −4.5 (23.9) 0.8 (33.4) 7.0 (44.6) 9.0 (48.2) 9.7 (49.5) 4.5 (40.1) −1.8 (28.8) −9.0 (15.8) −13.4 (7.9) −18.8 (−1.8) Average precipitation mm (inches) 34.0 (1.34) 44.3 (1.74) 54.2 (2.13) 74.2 (2.92) 58.0 (2.28) 57.3 (2.26) 40.5 (1.59) 52.5 (2.07) 67.5 (2.66) 72.3 (2.85) 68.0 (2.68) 48.5 (1.91) 671.3 (26.43) Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) 5.9 5.6 7.1 8.2 8.1 6.1 4.2 5.2 5.4 7.1 6.4 5.8 75.1 Average relative humidity (%) 83 78 70 71 69 68 65 66 69 76 84 84 74 Mean monthly sunshine hours 77.5 96.1 151.9 174.0 229.4 255.0 291.4 260.4 201.0 148.8 81.0 74.4 2,040.9 Source: Servizio Meteorologico (sun and humidity 1961–1990)[54][55][56] Government[edit] See also: List of mayors of Bologna Bologna City Council Consiglio Comunale di Bologna Leadership Mayor Virginio Merola, PD since 16 May 2011 Structure Seats 32 Political groups List Majority (22)   PD (21)   CCA (1) Opposition (14)   LN (4)   M5S (4)   FI (2)   IB (2)   CC (2) Elections Voting system Party-list proportional representation Last election 5–19 June 2016 Meeting place Palazzo d'Accursio, Bologna Website Official website Municipal government[edit] Virginio Merola, mayor of Bologna since 2011 The legislative body of the municipality is the City Council (Consiglio Comunale), which is composed by 48 councillors elected every five years with a corrected proportional system (granting the majority to the list or alliance of lists which receives more votes), contextually to the mayoral elections. The executive body is the City Committee (Giunta Comunale), composed by 12 assessors, that is nominated and presided over by a directly elected Mayor. The current mayor of Bologna is Virginio Merola (PD), elected on 16 May 2011 with the 50.5% of the votes.[57] On 19 June 2016 Merola was re-elected in a second-round ballot with 54.64% of votes.[58] The municipality of Bologna is subdivided into six administrative Boroughs (Quartieri), down from the former nine before the 2015 administrative reform. Each Borough is governed by a Council (Consiglio) and a President, elected contextually to the city Mayor. The urban organization is governed by the Italian Constitution (art. 114). The Boroughs have the power to advise the Mayor with nonbinding opinions on a large spectrum of topics (environment, construction, public health, local markets) and exercise the functions delegated to them by the City Council; in addition they are supplied with an autonomous founding in order to finance local activities. Provincial and regional government[edit] Fiera District, seat of the regional government of Emilia-Romagna Bologna is the capital of the eponymous metropolitan city and of Emilia-Romagna, one of the twenty regions of Italy. While the Province of Bologna has a population of 1,007,644,[59] making it the twelfth most populated province of Italy, Emilia-Romagna ranks as the sixth most populated region of Italy, with about 4.5 million inhabitants, more than 7% of the national total. The seat of the regional government is Fiera District, a tower complex designed by Japanese architect Kenzo Tange in 1985. According to the last governmental dispositions concerning administrative reorganisation, the urban area of Bologna is one of the 15 Metropolitan municipalities (città metropolitane), new administrative bodies fully operative since 1 January 2015.[60] The new Metro municipalities, giving large urban areas the administrative powers of a province, are conceived for improving the performance of local administrations and to slash local spending by better co-ordinating the municipalities in providing basic services (including transport, school and social programs) and environment protection.[61] In this policy framework, the Mayor of Bologna is designated to exercise the functions of Metropolitan mayor (Sindaco metropolitano), presiding over a Metropolitan Council formed by 18 mayors of municipalities within the Metro municipality. The Metropolitan City of Bologna is headed by the Metropolitan Mayor (Sindaco metropolitano) and by the Metropolitan Council (Consiglio metropolitano). Since 21 June 2016 Virginio Merola, as mayor of the capital city, has been the mayor of the Metropolitan City. Cityscape[edit] Further information: Category:Buildings and structures in Bologna Panoramic view of central Bologna Piazza Maggiore, with San Petronio Basilica, Palazzo dei Banchi and Palazzo del Podestà The colorful open-air market of Via Pescherie Vecchie Sanctuary of the Madonna di San Luca The icon of the Madonna di San Luca Until the late 19th century, when a large-scale urban renewal project was undertaken, Bologna was one of the few remaining large walled cities in Europe; to this day and despite having suffered considerable bombing damage in 1944, Bologna's 142 hectares (350 acres) historic centre is Europe's second largest,[62] containing an immense wealth of important medieval, renaissance, and baroque artistic monuments. Bologna developed along the Via Emilia as an Etruscan and later Roman colony; the Via Emilia still runs straight through the city under the changing names of Strada Maggiore, Rizzoli, Ugo Bassi, and San Felice. Due to its Roman heritage, the central streets of Bologna, today largely pedestrianized, follow the grid pattern of the Roman settlement. The original Roman ramparts were supplanted by a high medieval system of fortifications, remains of which are still visible, and finally by a third and final set of ramparts built in the 13th century, of which numerous sections survive. No more than twenty medieval defensive towers remain out of up to 180 that were built in the 12th and 13th centuries before the arrival of unified civic government. The most famous of the towers of Bologna are the central "Due Torri" (Asinelli and Garisenda), whose iconic leaning forms provide a popular symbol of the town.[63] The cityscape is further enriched by its elegant and extensive porticoes, for which the city is famous. In total, there are some 38 kilometres (24 miles) of porticoes in the city's historical centre[64] (over 45 km (28 mi) in the city proper), which make it possible to walk for long distances sheltered from the elements. The Portico di San Luca is possibly the world's longest.[65] It connects Porta Saragozza (one of the twelve gates of the ancient walls built in the Middle Ages, which circled a 7.5 km (4.7 mi) part of the city) with the Sanctuary of the Madonna di San Luca, a church begun in 1723 on the site of an 11th-century edifice which had already been enlarged in the 14th century, prominently located on a hill (289 metres (948 feet)) overlooking the town, which is one of Bologna's main landmarks. The windy 666 vault arcades, almost four kilometres (3,796 m or 12,454 ft) long, effectively links San Luca, as the church is commonly called, to the city centre. Its porticos provide shelter for the traditional procession which every year since 1433 has carried a Byzantine icon of the Madonna with Child attributed to Luke the Evangelist down to the Bologna Cathedral during the Feast of the Ascension.[64] San Petronio Basilica, built between 1388 and 1479 (but still unfinished), is the tenth-largest church in the world by volume, 132 metres long and 66 metres wide, while the vault reaches 45 metres inside and 51 metres in the facade. With its volume of 258,000 m3, it is the largest (Gothic or otherwise) church built of bricks of the world.[66] The Basilica of Saint Stephen and its sanctuary are among the oldest structures in Bologna, having been built starting from the 8th century, according to the tradition on the site of an ancient temple dedicated to Egyptian goddess Isis. The Basilica of Saint Dominic is an example of Romanic architecture from the 13th century, enriched by the monumental tombs of great Bolognese glossators Rolandino de'Passeggeri and Egidio Foscherari. Basilicas of St Francis, Santa Maria dei Servi and San Giacomo Maggiore are other magnificent examples of 14th-century architecture, the latter also featuring Renaissance artworks such as the Bentivoglio Altarpiece by Lorenzo Costa. Finally, the Church of San Michele in Bosco is a 15th-century religious complex located on a hill not far from the city's historical cente. View from the top of the Basilica di San Petronio: the dome of Santuario di Santa Maria della Vita dominates the foreground; the Asinelli (higher) and Garisenda towers ("Due Torri") are seen on the right. Economy[edit] Unipol Tower, at 127 m, is the city's tallest building. In terms of total GDP, the Metropolitan City of Bologna generated a value of about €35 billion ($40.6 billion) in 2017, equivalent to €34,251 ($40,165) per capita, the third highest figure among Italian provinces (after Milan and Bolzano/Bozen).[67] The economy of Bologna is characterized by a flourishing industrial sector, traditionally centered on the transformation of agricultural and zootechnical products (Eridania, Granarolo, Segafredo Zanetti, Conserve Italia), machinery (Coesia, IMA, Sacmi), construction equipment (Maccaferri); energy (Hera Group), automotive (Ducati, Lamborghini), footwear, textile, engineering, chemical, printing and publishing (il Mulino, Monrif Group, Zanichelli). In particular, Bologna is considered the centre of the so-called "packaging valley", an area well known for its high concentration of firms specialised in the manufacturing of automatic packaging machines (COESIA, IMA).[68] Furthermore, Bologna is well known for its dense network of cooperatives, a feature that dates back to the social struggles of farmers and workers in the 1800s and that today produces up to a third of its GDP[69] and occupies 265 thousand people in the Emilia-Romagna region.[70] Transport[edit] A Trolleybus of the urban trolleybus network managed by TPER, photographed in Via Saffi Bologna is home to the Guglielmo Marconi International Airport, the seventh busiest Italian airport for passenger traffic (8 million passengers handled in 2017). Bologna Centrale railway station is one of Italy's most important train hubs thanks to the city's strategic location as a crossroad between north–south and east–west routes. It serves 58 million passengers annually.[71] The city hosts several minor railway stations (see List of railway stations in Bologna). In addition, Bologna San Donato classification yard, with 33 railway tracks, is the largest freight hub in Italy by size and traffic.[72] The city is also served by a large network of public bus lines, including trolleybus lines, operated since 2012 by Trasporto Passeggeri Emilia-Romagna (TPER). A large commuter rail service is currently under development (see Bologna metropolitan railway service), and a four line tram network is also planned (see Trams in Bologna).[73] Bologna public transportation statistics[edit] The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Bologna, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 53 min. 9% of public transit riders ride for more than 2 hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 12 min, while 16% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is 5.4 km, while 7% travel for over 12 km in a single direction.[74] Demographics[edit] At the end of 2016, the city proper had a population of 388,254 (while 1 million live in the greater Bologna area), located in the province of Bologna, Emilia Romagna, of whom 46.7% were male and 53.3% were female. Minors (children ages 18 and younger) totalled 12.86 percent of the population compared to pensioners who number 27.02 percent. This compares with the Italian average of 18.06 percent (minors) and 19.94 percent (pensioners). The average age of Bologna resident is 51 compared to the Italian average of 42. In the five years between 2002 and 2007, the population of Bologna grew by 0.0 percent, while Italy as a whole grew by 3.56 percent.[75] The current birth rate of Bologna is 8.07 births per 1,000 inhabitants compared to the Italian average of 9.45 births. As of 2009[update], 89.47% of the population was Italian. The largest immigrant group came from other European countries (mostly Romanians and Albanians): 2.82%, East Asia (mostly Filipino): 1.50%, and South Asia (mostly from Bangladesh): 1.39%.[76] Education[edit] The University of Bologna is the world's oldest institution of higher learning, founded in AD 1088. The University of Bologna, conventionally said to have been founded in 1088 by glossators Irnerius and Pepo,[77] is the oldest university in Europe. It was an important centre of European intellectual life during the Middle Ages, attracting scholars from Italy and throughout Europe.[78] The Studium, as it was originally known, began as a loosely organized teaching system with each master collecting fees from students on an individual basis. The location of the early University was thus spread throughout the city, with various colleges being founded to support students of a specific nationality. Anatomical theatre of the Archiginnasio, dating from 1637 In the Napoleonic era, the headquarters of the university were moved to their present location on Via Zamboni, in the north-eastern sector of the city centre. Today, the University's 11 schools, 33 departments, and 93 libraries are spread across the city and include four subsidiary campuses in nearby Cesena, Forlì, Ravenna, and Rimini. Noteworthy students present at the university in centuries past included Dante, Petrarch, Thomas Becket, Pope Nicholas V, Erasmus of Rotterdam, Peter Martyr Vermigli, and Copernicus. Laura Bassi, appointed in 1732, became the first woman to officially teach at a university in Europe. In more recent history, Luigi Galvani, the discoverer of bioelectromagnetics, and Guglielmo Marconi, the pioneer of radio technology, also worked at the University. The University of Bologna remains one of the most respected and dynamic post-secondary educational institutions in Italy. To this day, Bologna is still very much a university town, with over 80,000 enrolled students in 2015. This community includes a great number of Erasmus, Socrates, and overseas students.[79] The university's botanical garden, the Orto Botanico dell'Università di Bologna, was established in 1568; it is the fourth oldest in Europe. Johns Hopkins University maintains its Bologna Center in the city, which hosts one of the overseas campuses of the School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS). SAIS Bologna was founded in 1955 as the first campus of a US post-graduate school to open in Europe.[80] It was inspired by Marshall Plan efforts to build a cultural bridge between America and Europe.[81] Today, the Bologna Center also hosts the Associazione italo-americana "Luciano Finelli", which supports cross-cultural awareness and exchange between Italy and the United States.[82] Dickinson College, Indiana University, Brown University, and the University of California also have campuses or antennas in the city. In addition, Bologna hosts a music school, Conservatorio Giovanni Battista Martini, established in 1804, and an art school, Accademia di Belle Arti di Bologna, founded in 1802. Both institutions were born as part of the reforms introduced by Napoleon Bonaparte. Culture[edit] The International museum and library of music displays ancient musical instruments and unique musical scores from the 16th to the 20th centuries. Over the centuries, Bologna has acquired many nicknames: "the fat" (la grassa) refers to its cuisine, in which the most famous specialities are prepared using rich meats (especially pork), egg pasta and dairy products, such as butter and Parmesan. Another nickname that has been given to the city is "the red" (la rossa), which was originally used as a reference to the colour of the buildings in the city centre, has later become connected with the communist ideology supported by the majority of the population, in particular after World War II: until the election of a centre-right mayor in 1999, the city was renowned as a bastion of the Italian Communist Party.[83] The centre-left regained power again in the 2004 mayoral elections, with the election of Sergio Cofferati. It was one of the first European cities to experiment with the concept of free public transport.[84] Bologna has also two other nicknames: the first one, "the towered" (la turrita) refers to the high number of medieval towers that can be found in the city, even if today only 24 towers are still standing. The second one, "the learned" (la dotta) is a reference to its university. University[edit] Bologna university was founded in 1088 and it is considered the oldest university of the Western world. According to the QS University Rankings, Bologna university is the 4th Italian university and the 180th in the world. The high number of students coming from all over Italy and the world (in Bologna there are several campuses of foreign universities such as Johns Hopkins University, Dickinson College, Indiana University, Brown University, University of California and more) considerably affects the everyday life: if on one hand it contributes to liven up the city centre (an area in which the average age of the residents is very high), and it also helps to promote cultural initiatives, on the other hand it creates public order and garbage problems which are related to the lively nightlife of the university district. Entertainment and performing arts[edit] Façade of "Arena del Sole" theatre The city of Bologna became a UNESCO City of Music on 26 May 2006. According to UNESCO, "As the first Italian city to be appointed to the Network, Bologna has demonstrated a rich musical tradition that is continuing to evolve as a vibrant factor of contemporary life and creation. It has also shown a strong commitment to promoting music as an important vehicle for inclusion in the fight against racism and in an effort to encourage economic and social development. Fostering a wide range of genres from classical to electronic, jazz, folk and opera, Bologna offers its citizens a musical vitality that deeply infiltrates the city's professional, academic, social and cultural facets."[85] The theatre was a popular form of entertainment in Bologna until the 16th century. The first public theater was the Teatro alla Scala, active since 1547 in Palazzo del Podestà. An important figure of Italian Bolognese theatre was Alfredo Testoni, the playwright, author of The Cardinal Lambertini, which has had great theatrical success since 1905, repeated on screen by the Bolognese actor Gino Cervi. In 1998, the City of Bologna initiated the project "Bologna dei Teatri" (Bologna of the Theatres), an association of the major theatrical facilities in the city. This is a circuit of theatres which offer diverse theatrical opportunities, ranging from Bolognese dialect to contemporary dance, but with a communications strategy and promoting unity. Specifically, the shows on the bill in various theatres participating in the project are advertised weekly through a single poster. Bologna's opera house is the Teatro Comunale di Bologna. The Orchestra Mozart, whose music director was Claudio Abbado until his death in 2014, was created in 2004. Bologna hosts a number of international music, art, dance and film festivals, including Angelica[86] Bologna and Contemporanea (festivals on contemporary music),[87] Bolognafestival (international classical music festival),[88] Bologna Jazz Festival,[89] Biografilm Festival (a film festival devote to biographic movies),[90] BilBolBul (a comics festival),[91] Danza Urbana (a street contemporary dance festival)[92] F.I.S.Co(festival on contemporary art, now merged in Live Arts Week) Future Film Festival (animation and special effects),[93]Il Cinema Ritrovato(film festival about rare and forgotten movies),[94] Live Arts Week, Gender Bender (festival on gender identity, sexual orientation and body representation),[95] Homework festival (electronic music festival),[96] Human Rights Film Festival,[97] Some Prefer Cake (lesbian film festival),[98] Zecchino d'Oro (a children's song contest). Cuisine[edit] Tagliatelle al ragù Bolognese, as served in Bologna Bologna is renowned for its culinary tradition. It has baptised the famous Bolognese sauce, a meat-based pasta sauce that in Italy is called ragù and is substantially different from the variety found worldwide; moreover, in Bologna the sauce is used only as a dressing for tagliatelle, serving it with spaghetti being considered odd.[99] Situated in the fertile Po River Valley, the rich local cuisine depends heavily on meats and cheeses. As in all of Emilia-Romagna, the production of cured pork meats such as prosciutto, mortadella and salumi is an important part of the local food industry.[100] Well-regarded nearby vineyards include Pignoletto dei Colli Bolognesi, Lambrusco di Modena and Sangiovese di Romagna.[101] Tagliatelle with ragù, lasagne, tortellini served in broth, and mortadella, the original Bologna sausage, are among the local specialties.[102] Traditional Bolognese desserts are often linked to holidays, such as fave dei morti ("cookies of the dead"), multi-coloured almond paste cookies made for All Saints' Day, jam-filled raviole cookies that are served on Saint Joseph's Day, and carnival sweets known as sfrappole, a light and delicate fried pastry topped with powder sugar, certosino or panspeziale ("carthusian" o "apothecary-cake"), a spicy cake served on Christmas. Torta di riso, a custard-like cake made of almonds, rice and amaretto, is made throughout the year,[103] as the zuppa inglese. In 2019, an article in la Repubblica also named Bologna the most vegan-friendly city in Italy, noting that the city had 19 vegan and vegetarian restaurants [104] Sport[edit] The 32,000-capacity Stadio Renato Dall'Ara is the home of Bologna FC 1909. A sporting nickname for Bologna is Basket City in reference to the successes of the town's two rival historic basketball clubs, Virtus and Fortitudo, though the clubs are now often referred to by the names of their current sponsors.[105] Of the two, the former won 15 Italian basketball championships and two Euroleagues making them one of the most influential European basketball clubs; the latter won two league titles between 1999 and 2005. The rivalry is temporarily dormant since Fortitudo left the country's professional ranks when, following the 2008–09 season, the club was relegated from the top-level Lega A to LegADue, before being relegated further to the nominally amateur Serie A Dilettanti for financial reasons; in the 2012–13 season, Fortitudo will play in the LegADue. The Italian Basketball League, which operates both Lega A and LegADue, has its headquarters in Bologna. Football also has a strong tradition in Bologna. The city's main club, Bologna F.C. 1909, have won seven Italian league championships (the latest in 1963–64), which make them the sixth most successful team in the history of the league; in their heyday in the 1930s Bologna FC were called "Lo squadrone che tremare il mondo fa" (Italian for "The Team that Shakes the World"). The club play at the 38,000-capacity Stadio Renato Dall'Ara, which has hosted the Italian national team in both football and rugby union, as well as the San Marino national football team. It was also a venue at the 1990 FIFA World Cup. Rugby union is also present in the city: Rugby Bologna 1928 is not only one of the oldest Italian rugby union clubs but also the first ever club affiliated to the Italian rugby union federation.[106] and, to date (2014) is Italy's oldest rugby union club still in operation. The club took part to the top tier of the Italian championship for the first 25 years of their history never winning the title but getting to the runner-up place several times; they returned in top division (Serie A1 then Super 10), in the late 1990s and faced serious financial problems which led them to the relegation and almost to disappearance.[citation needed] Gianni Falchi Stadium is a baseball stadium located in Bologna.[107][108][109] It is home to the home games of Fortitudo Baseball Bologna, in the Italian Baseball League.[107][110] People[edit] Main category: People from Bologna Pope Benedict XIV, born in Bologna in 1675 Luca Carboni (singer-songwriter, born 1962) Ulisse Aldrovandi (naturalist, 1522–1605) Antonio Alessandrini (anatomist and parasitologist, 1786–1861) Maria Gaetana Agnesi (mathematician and humanitarian, 1718–1799) Amico Aspertini (painter, c. 1474–1552) Pupi Avati (director, born 1938) Riccardo Bacchelli (writer, 1891–1985) Adriano Banchieri (composer, 1568–1634) Agostino Barelli (architect, 1627–1687) Antonio Basoli (painter and scene designer, 1774–1848) Laura Bassi (scientist, first female appointed to university chair in Europe, 1711–1788) Ugo Bassi (Italian nationalist hero, executed for role in 1848 uprisings, 1800–1849) Pier Francesco Battistelli (painter of quadratura, 17th-century) Stefano Benni (writer, born 1947) Benedict XIV (Prospero Lambertini, Pope 1740–58) Giovanni II Bentivoglio (1443–1508) Giordano Berti (writer, born 1959) Amedeo Biavati (footballer, 1915–1979, credited with the invention of the stepover, World Champion 1938, played only for Bologna FC) Cristina D'Avena (actress and singer, born 1964) Francesco Ricci Bitti, Italian sports administrator Simone Bolelli (professional tennis player, born 1985) Giacomo Bolognini (painter, 1664–1734) Rafael Bombelli (mathematician, 1526–1572) Rossano Brazzi (actor, 1916–1994) Floriano Buroni (engraver, 17th-century) Raffaella Carrà (singer, born 1943) Annibale Carracci (painter, 1560–1609) Lodovico Carracci (painter, 1555–1619) Agostino Carracci (painter, 1557–1602) Corrado Casalini (footballer, born 1914) Chiara Caselli (actress, born 1967) Pier Ferdinando Casini (politician, born 1955) Pietro Cataldi (mathematician, 1548–1626) Pierluigi Collina (football referee, born 1960) Carlo Colombara (operatic bass, born 1964) Giovanni Paolo Colonna (composer, 1637–1695) Alessandro Cortini (musician, born 1976) Cesare Cremonini (songwriter, 1980) Giuseppe Maria Crespi (painter, 1665–1747) Donato Creti (painter, 1671–1749) Giulio Cesare Croce (cantastorie and writer, 1550–1609) Scipione del Ferro (mathematician, solved the cubic equation, 1465–1526) Francesco Francia (Francesco Raibolini, painter, c. 1450–1517) Lucio Dalla (singer-songwriter, 1943–2012) Domenichino (Domenico Zampieri, painter, 1581–1641) Elena Duglioli (Roman Catholic aristocrat, 1472–1520) Sara Errani (tennis player, born 1987) Gianfranco Fini (politician, born 1952) Aristotile Fioravanti (architect, c. 1415–c. 1486) Carlo Fornasini (1854–1931), micropalaeontologist who studied Foraminifera Galeazzo Frudua (luthier and Beatles expert, birthdate unknown) Luigi Galvani (scientist, discoverer of bioelectricity, 1737–1798) Alessandro Gamberini, (footballer, born 1981) Serena Grandi (actress, born 1958) Gregory XIII (Ugo Boncompagni, Pope 1572–85, instituted the Gregorian Calendar) Gregory XV (Alessandro Ludovisi, Pope 1621–3) Il Guercino (Giovanni Barbieri, painter, 1591–1666) Irnerius (jurist, c. 1050–at least 1125) Blessed Imelda Lambertini (Dominican novice, Eucharistic mystic, and child saint, c. 1322–1333) Claudio Lolli (singer-songwriter, 1950–2018) Lucius II (Gherardo Caccianemici dell'Orso, Pope 1144–5) Marcello Malpighi (physiologist, anatomist and histologist, 1628–1694) Guglielmo Marconi (engineer, pioneer of wireless telegraphy, Nobel prize for Physics, 1874–1937) Giovanni Battista Martini (musical theorist, 1706–1784) Giuseppe Mezzofanti (cardinal, linguist and hyperpolyglot, 1774–1839) Marco Minghetti (economist and statesman, 1818–1886) Giorgio Morandi (painter, 1890–1964) Gianni Morandi (singer, born 1944) Ludovico Morbioli (Catholic layman, declared Blessed, 1433–1485) Edgardo Mortara (Catholic priest that was the subject of the Mortara Case during the Risorgimento, 1851–1940) Gianluca Pagliuca (footballer, born 1966) Pier Paolo Pasolini (writer, poet, director, 1922–1975) Umberto Puppini (1884-1946), mathematician Roberto Regazzi (luthier, born 1956) Guido Reni (painter, 1575–1642) Ottorino Respighi (composer, 1879–1936) Augusto Righi (physicist, authority on electromagnetism, 1850–1920) Carlo Ruini (equine anatomist, 1530–1598) Angelo Schiavio (footballer, 1905–1990, scored the winning goal in extra time in the 1934 for Bologna) Elisabetta Sirani (painter, 1638–1665) Alberto Tomba (skier, born 1966) Ondina Valla (first Italian woman Olympic gold medalist, 1916–2006) Mariele Ventre (teacher and educator, founder of Piccolo Coro dell' Antoniano choir, 1939–1995) Christian Vieri (footballer, born 1973) Lelio dalla Volpe (17 September 1685 – 6 October 1749), printer Vitale da Bologna (painter, fl. 1330, d. 1361) Anteo Zamboni (anarchist who at the age of 15 attempted to assassinate Benito Mussolini, 1911–1926) Alex Zanardi (racing driver, born 1966) Marco Aurelio Zani de Ferranti (writer, musician, and composer, 1801–1878) Alessandro Carloni (director, animator, artist who worked on films like Kung Fu Panda and The Croods, born 1978) Saint Catherine of Bologna (Caterina de' Vigri) (1413–1463) Poor Claire nun, writer, mystic, artist In addition to the natives of the city listed above, the following have made Bologna their home: Giosuè Carducci (poet and academic, Nobel Prize for Literature, born near Lucca, Tuscany, 1835–1907) Carlo Felice Cillario (Italian conductor of international renown, founder of the Bologna Chamber Orchestra in 1946 (7 February 1915 – 13 December 2007) Umberto Eco (writer and academic, born in Alessandria, Piedmont, 1932–2016) Enzio of Sardinia (born c. 1218, King of Sardinia and illegitimate son of Emperor Frederick II, was imprisoned in Palazzo Re Enzo from 1249 until his death in 1272) Vasco Errani (politician, born 1955) William Girometti (painter, born in Milan, 1924–1998) Alfonso Lombardi (sculptor, born in Ferrara, c. 1497–1537) Niccolò dell'Arca (sculptor, born in Bari, c. 1435/1440–2 March 1494) Juan Ignacio Molina (naturalist, born in Chile, 1740–1829) Giovanni Pascoli (poet and academic, born in San Mauro di Romagna, 1855–1912) St. Petronius (San Petronio, bishop of Bologna and patron saint of the city, birthplace unknown, died c. 450 AD) Romano Prodi (economist, politician, born in Scandiano, Reggio Emilia, 1939) Gioachino Rossini (opera composer, born in Pesaro, 1792–1868) Giuseppe Torelli (composer, born in Verona, 1658–1709) Wu Ming (collective of writers, active since 2000) Farinelli (Carlo Broschi, castrato opera singer, 1705–1782) International relations[edit] See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Italy Bologna is twinned with:[111] Coventry, England, UK, since 1984 Kharkiv, Ukraine, since 1966 Leipzig, Germany, since 1962 La Plata, Argentina, since 1988 Portland, United States, since 2003 Saint-Louis, Senegal, since 1991 St. Louis, United States, since 1987 San Carlos, Nicaragua, since 1988 Thessaloniki, Greece, since 1981 Toulouse, France, since 1981 Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina, since 1994 Valencia, Spain, since 1976 Zagreb, Croatia, since 1961 Prijepolje, Serbia, since 1966 See also[edit] Bologna declaration Bologna metropolitan area Bologna Process Bolognese bell ringing art List of tallest buildings in Bologna Opera Pia Dei Poveri Mendicanti References[edit] ^ "ISTAT, Rapporto UrBes 2015 Bologna" (PDF). istat.it. 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Retrieved 19 April 2010. ^ "Biografilm Festival" (in Italian). Biografilm.it. Retrieved 19 April 2010. ^ "BilBolBul". BilBolBul. Retrieved 19 April 2010. ^ "Danza Urbana". Danzaurbana.it. Retrieved 19 April 2010. ^ "futurefilmfestival". Futurefilmfestival.org. Retrieved 19 April 2010. ^ "Il CInema Ritrovato". Cinetecadibologna.it. Retrieved 19 April 2010. ^ "Gender Bender". Genderbender.it. Retrieved 19 April 2010. ^ "homeworkfestival". homeworkfestival. Archived from the original on 28 December 2010. Retrieved 19 April 2010. ^ "Human Rights Film Festival". Cinetecadibologna.it. Retrieved 19 April 2010. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 9 February 2012. Retrieved 19 August 2011.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ Cesarato, Monica (14 September 2016). "Why you won't find spaghetti bolognese in Italy". The Local. Retrieved 5 November 2017. ^ Pauls, Dana Facaros & Michael (2000). Italy : Bologna & Emilia Romagna. London: Cadogan. p. 57. ISBN 978-1860119774. ^ Anderson, Burton (2006). The Wines of Italy. An endless adventure in taste (8th ed.). The Italian Trade Commission. pp. 85–89. ASIN B002H6TK9C. ^ Pauls, Dana Facaros & Michael (2000). Italy : Bologna & Emilia Romagna. London: Cadogan. p. 52. ISBN 978-1860119774. ^ Pauls, Dana Facaros & Michael (2000). Italy : Bologna & Emilia Romagna. London: Cadogan. p. 60. ISBN 978-1860119774. ^ Cozzella, Eleonora (31 October 2019). "World Vegan Day, ecco le dieci città più vegan-friendly d'Italia". la Repubblica. Retrieved 29 November 2020. ^ Alexander Wolff (2003). "6". Big Game, Small World: A Basketball Adventure. Grand Central Publishing. ISBN 978-0-446-67989-3. ^ Zanasi, Gianni (6 March 2009). "Rugby Bologna 1928 : quale futuro?" [What Future for Rugby Bologna 1928?]. air.it (in Italian). Associazione Italiana Rugbysti. Archived from the original on 5 November 2014. Retrieved 5 November 2014. ^ a b "Fortitudo Baseball Bologna – Stadio Gianni Falchi". www.fortitudobaseball.com. ^ "Welcome to Italy," ESPN. ^ "Punk Hits: Baseball in the Old Country". Baseball Prospectus. 18 July 2012. ^ "Baseball Qualifier Europe/Africa dal 18 al 22 Settembre a Bologna e Parma #RoadToTokyo" ^ "Gemellaggi del Comune di Bologna". comune.bologna.it (in Italian). Bologna. Retrieved 13 December 2019. Further reading[edit] See also: Bibliography of the history of Bologna Mancini, Giorgia, and Nicholas Penny, eds. The Sixteenth Century Italian Paintings: Volume III: Ferrara and Bologna (National Gallery Catalogues) (2016). Rashdall, Hastings. The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages: Volume 1, Salerno, Bologna, Paris (2010). Robertson, Anne Walters. Tyranny under the Mantle of St Peter: Pope Paul II and Bologna (2002) Guide books[edit] Grieco, Romy. Bologna: a city to discover(1976) Insight Guides. Pocket Bologna (2016). Noyes, Mary Tolaro. Bologna Reflections (2009). Uras, Martina. "Bologna Photo Guide" Older guides[edit] "Bologna", Italy (2nd ed.), Coblenz: Karl Baedeker, 1870, OL 24140254M ** "Bologna", Hand-book for Travellers in Northern Italy (16th ed.), London: John Murray, 1897, OCLC 2231483, OL 6936521M T. Francis Bumpus (1900), "Ferrara and Bologna", The Cathedrals and Churches of Northern Italy, London: Laurie, OL 7201313M "Bologna", Northern Italy (14th ed.), Leipzig: Karl Baedeker, 1913, OL 16015532M External links[edit] Bolognaat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Travel guide from Wikivoyage Resources from Wikiversity Official website Weather Bologna Museum of the History of Bologna Collection of Musical Instruments in Bologna Links to related articles v t e Emilia-Romagna · Comuni of the Metropolitan City of Bologna Alto Reno Terme Anzola dell'Emilia Argelato Baricella Bentivoglio Bologna Borgo Tossignano Budrio Calderara di Reno Camugnano Casalecchio di Reno Casalfiumanese Castel Guelfo di Bologna Castel Maggiore Castel San Pietro Terme Castel d'Aiano Castel del Rio Castel di Casio Castello d'Argile Castenaso Castiglione dei Pepoli 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en-wikipedia-org-4377	----	Roman mythology - Wikipedia Roman mythology From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Traditional stories pertaining to ancient Rome's legendary origins and religious system Romulus and Remus, the Lupercal, Father Tiber, and the Palatine on a relief from a pedestal dating to the reign of Trajan (AD 98–117) Roman mythology is the body of traditional stories pertaining to ancient Rome's legendary origins and religious system, as represented in the literature and visual arts of the Romans. "Roman mythology" may also refer to the modern study of these representations, and to the subject matter as represented in the literature and art of other cultures in any period. The Romans usually treated their traditional narratives as historical, even when these have miraculous or supernatural elements. The stories are often concerned with politics and morality, and how an individual's personal integrity relates to his or her responsibility to the community or Roman state. Heroism was an important theme. When the stories illuminate Roman religious practices, they are more concerned with ritual, augury, and institutions than with theology or cosmogony.[1] The study of Roman religion and myth is complicated by the early influence of Greek religion on the Italian peninsula during Rome's protohistory, and by the later artistic imitation of Greek literary models by Roman authors. In matters of theology, the Romans were curiously eager to identify their own gods with those of the Greeks (interpretatio graeca), and to reinterpret stories about Greek deities under the names of their Roman counterparts.[2] Rome's early myths and legends also have a dynamic relationship with Etruscan religion, less documented than that of the Greeks. While Roman mythology may lack a body of divine narratives as extensive as that found in Greek literature,[3] Romulus and Remus suckling the she-wolf is as famous as any image from Greek mythology except for the Trojan Horse.[4] Because Latin literature was more widely known in Europe throughout the Middle Ages and into the Renaissance, the interpretations of Greek myths by the Romans often had a greater influence on narrative and pictorial representations of "classical mythology" than Greek sources. In particular, the versions of Greek myths in Ovid's Metamorphoses, written during the reign of Augustus, came to be regarded as canonical. Contents 1 Nature of Roman myth 1.1 Founding myths 1.2 Other myths 2 Religion and myth 2.1 Foreign gods 3 See also 4 References 5 Sources 6 External links Nature of Roman myth In this wall painting from Pompeii, Venus looks on while the physician Iapyx tends to the wound of her son, Aeneas; the tearful boy is her grandson Ascanius, also known as Iulus, legendary ancestor[citation needed] of Julius Caesar and the Julio-Claudian dynasty Because ritual played the central role in Roman religion that myth did for the Greeks, it is sometimes doubted that the Romans had much of a native mythology. This perception is a product of Romanticism and the classical scholarship of the 19th century, which valued Greek civilization as more "authentically creative."[5] From the Renaissance to the 18th century, however, Roman myths were an inspiration particularly for European painting.[6] The Roman tradition is rich in historical myths, or legends, concerning the foundation and rise of the city. These narratives focus on human actors, with only occasional intervention from deities but a pervasive sense of divinely ordered destiny. In Rome's earliest period, history and myth have a mutual and complementary relationship.[7] As T. P. Wiseman notes: The Roman stories still matter, as they mattered to Dante in 1300 and Shakespeare in 1600 and the founding fathers of the United States in 1776. What does it take to be a free citizen? Can a superpower still be a republic? How does well-meaning authority turn into murderous tyranny?[6] Major sources for Roman myth include the Aeneid of Virgil and the first few books of Livy's history as well as Dionysius's Roman Antiquities. Other important sources are the Fasti of Ovid, a six-book poem structured by the Roman religious calendar, and the fourth book of elegies by Propertius. Scenes from Roman myth also appear in Roman wall painting, coins, and sculpture, particularly reliefs. Founding myths Main article: Founding of Rome The Aeneid and Livy's early history are the best extant sources for Rome's founding myths. Material from Greek heroic legend was grafted onto this native stock at an early date. The Trojan prince Aeneas was cast as husband of Lavinia, daughter of King Latinus, patronymical ancestor of the Latini, and therefore through a convoluted revisionist genealogy as forebear of Romulus and Remus. By extension, the Trojans were adopted as the mythical ancestors of the Roman people.[8] Other myths Mucius Scaevola in the Presence of Lars Porsenna (early 1640s) by Matthias Stom Polyphemus hears of the arrival of Galatea; ancient Roman fresco painted in the "Fourth Style" of Pompeii (45–79 AD) The characteristic myths of Rome are often political or moral, that is, they deal with the development of Roman government in accordance with divine law, as expressed by Roman religion, and with demonstrations of the individual's adherence to moral expectations (mos maiorum) or failures to do so. Rape of the Sabine women, explaining the importance of the Sabines in the formation of Roman culture, and the growth of Rome through conflict and alliance. Numa Pompilius, the Sabine second king of Rome who consorted with the nymph Egeria and established many of Rome's legal and religious institutions. Servius Tullius, the sixth king of Rome, whose mysterious origins were freely mythologized and who was said to have been the lover of the goddess Fortuna. The Tarpeian Rock, and why it was used for the execution of traitors. Lucretia, whose self-sacrifice prompted the overthrow of the early Roman monarchy and led to the establishment of the Republic. Cloelia, a Roman woman taken hostage by Lars Porsena. She escaped the Clusian camp with a group of Roman virgins. Horatius at the bridge, on the importance of individual valor. Mucius Scaevola, who thrust his right hand into the fire to prove his loyalty to Rome. Caeculus and the founding of Praeneste.[9] Manlius and the geese, about divine intervention at the Gallic siege of Rome.[10] Stories pertaining to the Nonae Caprotinae and Poplifugia festivals.[11] Coriolanus, a story of politics and morality. The Etruscan city of Corythus as the "cradle" of Trojan and Italian civilization.[12] The arrival of the Great Mother (Cybele) in Rome.[13] Religion and myth Main article: Religion in ancient Rome Narratives of divine activity played a more important role in the system of Greek religious belief than among the Romans, for whom ritual and cult were primary. Although Roman religion did not have a basis in scriptures and exegesis, priestly literature was one of the earliest written forms of Latin prose.[14] The books (libri) and commentaries (commentarii) of the College of Pontiffs and of the augurs contained religious procedures, prayers, and rulings and opinions on points of religious law.[15] Although at least some of this archived material was available for consultation by the Roman senate, it was often occultum genus litterarum,[16] an arcane form of literature to which by definition only priests had access.[17] Prophecies pertaining to world history and to Rome's destiny turn up fortuitously at critical junctures in history, discovered suddenly in the nebulous Sibylline books, which Tarquin the Proud (according to legend) purchased in the late 6th century BC from the Cumaean Sibyl. Some aspects of archaic Roman religion survived in the lost theological works of the 1st-century BC scholar Varro, known through other classical and Christian authors. Capitoline Triad The earliest pantheon included Janus, Vesta, and a leading so-called Archaic Triad of Jupiter, Mars, and Quirinus, whose flamens were of the highest order. According to tradition, Numa Pompilius, the Sabine second king of Rome, founded Roman religion; Numa was believed to have had as his consort and adviser a Roman goddess or nymph of fountains and of prophecy, Egeria. The Etruscan-influenced Capitoline Triad of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva later became central to official religion, replacing the Archaic Triad – an unusual example within Indo-European religion of a supreme triad formed of two female deities and only one male. The cult of Diana became established on the Aventine Hill, but the most famous Roman manifestation of this goddess may be Diana Nemorensis, owing to the attention paid to her cult by J.G. Frazer in the mythographical classic The Golden Bough. Punishment of Ixion: in the center stands Mercury holding the caduceus, and on the right Juno sits on her throne. Behind her Iris stands and gestures. On the left Vulcan (the blond figure) stands behind the wheel, manning it, with Ixion already tied to it. Nephele sits at Mercury's feet. – Roman fresco from the eastern wall of the triclinium in the House of the Vettii, Pompeii, Fourth Style (60–79 AD). The gods represented distinctly the practical needs of daily life, and Ancient Romans scrupulously accorded them the appropriate rites and offerings. Early Roman divinities included a host of "specialist gods" whose names were invoked in the carrying out of various specific activities. Fragments of old ritual accompanying such acts as plowing or sowing reveal that at every stage of the operation a separate deity was invoked, the name of each deity being regularly derived from the verb for the operation. Tutelary deities were particularly important in ancient Rome. Thus, Janus and Vesta guarded the door and hearth, the Lares protected the field and house, Pales the pasture, Saturn the sowing, Ceres the growth of the grain, Pomona the fruit, and Consus and Ops the harvest. Even the majestic Jupiter, the ruler of the gods, was honored for the aid his rains might give to the farms and vineyards. In his more encompassing character he was considered, through his weapon of lightning, the director of human activity. Due to his widespread domain, the Romans regarded him as their protector in their military activities beyond the borders of their own community. Prominent in early times were the gods Mars and Quirinus, who were often identified with each other. Mars was a god of war; he was honored in March and October. Modern scholars see Quirinus as the patron of the armed community in time of peace. The 19th-century scholar Georg Wissowa[18] thought that the Romans distinguished two classes of gods, the di indigetes and the di novensides or novensiles: the indigetes were the original gods of the Roman state, their names and nature indicated by the titles of the earliest priests and by the fixed festivals of the calendar, with 30 such gods honored by special festivals; the novensides were later divinities whose cults were introduced to the city in the historical period, usually at a known date and in response to a specific crisis or felt need. Arnaldo Momigliano and others, however, have argued that this distinction cannot be maintained.[19] During the war with Hannibal, any distinction between "indigenous" and "immigrant" gods begins to fade, and the Romans embraced diverse gods from various cultures as a sign of strength and universal divine favor.[20] Foreign gods Mithras in a Roman wall painting The absorption of neighboring local gods took place as the Roman state conquered neighboring territories. The Romans commonly granted the local gods of a conquered territory the same honors as the earlier gods of the Roman state religion. In addition to Castor and Pollux, the conquered settlements in Italy seem to have contributed to the Roman pantheon Diana, Minerva, Hercules, Venus, and deities of lesser rank, some of whom were Italic divinities, others originally derived from the Greek culture of Magna Graecia. In 203 BC, Rome imported the cult object embodying Cybele from Pessinus in Phrygia and welcomed its arrival with due ceremony. Both Lucretius and Catullus, poets contemporary in the mid-1st century BC, offer disapproving glimpses of Cybele's wildly ecstatic cult. In some instances, deities of an enemy power were formally invited through the ritual of evocatio to take up their abode in new sanctuaries at Rome. Communities of foreigners (peregrini) and former slaves (libertini) continued their own religious practices within the city. In this way Mithras came to Rome and his popularity within the Roman army spread his cult as far afield as Roman Britain. The important Roman deities were eventually identified with the more anthropomorphic Greek gods and goddesses, and assumed many of their attributes and myths. See also Mythology portal History portal Wikimedia Commons has media related to Roman mythology. Ancient Rome Greek mythology Kanglei mythology List of deities in Sanamahism List of Metamorphoses characters List of Roman deities Roman Polytheistic Reconstructionism The Golden Bough (mythology) References ^ John North, Roman Religion (Cambridge University Press, 2000) pp. 4ff. ^ North, Roman Religion, pp. 4–5. ^ North, Roman Religion, p. 4. ^ T. P. Wiseman, Remus: A Roman Myth (Cambridge University Press, 1995), p. xiii. ^ T. P. Wiseman, The Myths of Rome (University of Exeter Press, 2004), preface (n.p.). ^ a b Wiseman, The Myths of Rome, preface. ^ Alexandre Grandazzi, The Foundation of Rome: Myth and History (Cornell University Press, 1997), pp. 45–46. ^ See also Lusus Troiae. ^ J.N. Bremmer and N.M. Horsfall, Roman Myth and Mythography (University of London Institute of Classical Studies, 1987), pp. 49–62. ^ Bremmer and Horsfall, pp. 63–75. ^ Bremmer and Horsfall, pp. 76–88. ^ Bremmer and Horsfall, pp. 89–104; Larissa Bonfante, Etruscan Life and Afterlife: A Handbook of Etruscan Studies (Wayne State University Press, 1986), p. 25. ^ Bremmer and Horsfall, pp. 105–111. ^ Moses Hadas (1952). A History of Latin Literature. Columbia University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-231-51487-3. ^ C. O. Brink (1963). Horace on Poetry: Epistles Book II: The Letters to Augustus and Florus. CUP Archive. p. 64. ISBN 978-0-521-20069-1. ^ Cicero, De domo sua 138. ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The libri reconditi," Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 89 (1985) 207–234. ^ Georg Wissowa, De dis Romanorum indigetibus et novensidibus disputatio (1892), full text (in Latin) online. ^ Arnaldo Momigliano, "From Bachofen to Cumont," in A.D. Momigliano: Studies on Modern Scholarship (University of California Press, 1994), p. 319; Franz Altheim, A History of Roman Religion, as translated by Harold Mattingly (London, 1938), pp. 110–112; Mary Beard, J.A. North and S.R.F. Price. Religions of Rome: A History (Cambridge University Press, 1998), vol. 1, p. 158, note 7. ^ William Warde Fowler, The Religious Experience of the Roman People (London, 1922) pp. 157 and 319; J.S. Wacher, The Roman World (Routledge, 1987, 2002), p. 751. Sources Beard, Mary. 1993. "Looking (Harder) for Roman Myth: Dumézil, Declamation, and the Problems of Definition." In Mythos in Mythenloser Gesellschaft: Das Paradigma Roms. Edited by Fritz Graf, 44–64. Stuttgart, Germany: Teubner. Braund, David, and Christopher Gill, eds. 2003. Myth, History, and Culture in Republican Rome: Studies in Honour of T. P. Wiseman. Exeter, UK: Univ. of Exeter Press. Cameron, Alan. 2004. Greek Mythography in the Roman World. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Dumézil, Georges. 1996. Archaic Roman Religion. Rev. ed. Translated by Philip Krapp. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press. Fox, Matthew. 2011. "The Myth of Rome" In A Companion to Greek Mythology. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. Literature and Culture.Edited by Ken Dowden and Niall Livingstone. Chichester; Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. Gardner, Jane F. 1993. Roman Myths: The Legendary Past. Austin: Univ. of Texas Press. Grandazzi, Alexandre. 1997. The Foundation of Rome: Myth and History. Translated by Jane Marie Todd. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press. Hall, Edith 2013. "Pantomime: Visualising Myth in the Roman Empire." In Performance in Greek and Roman Theatre. Edited by George Harrison and George William Mallory, 451–743. Leiden; Boston: Brill. Miller, Paul Allen. 2013. "Mythology and the Abject in Imperial Satire." In Classical Myth and Psychoanalysis: Ancient and Modern Stories of the Self. Edited by Vanda Zajko and Ellen O'Gorman, 213–230. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. Newby, Zahra. 2012. "The Aesthetics of Violence: Myth and Danger in Roman Domestic Landscapes." Classical Antiquity 31.2: 349–389. Wiseman, T. P. 2004. The Myths of Rome. Exeter: Univ. of Exeter Press. Woodard, Roger D. 2013. Myth, Ritual, and the Warrior in Roman and Indo-European Antiquity. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. External links Library resources about Roman mythology Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae (LIMC) (1981–1999, Artemis-Verlag, 9 volumes), Supplementum (2009, Artemis_Verlag). LIMC-France (LIMC): Databases Dedicated to Graeco-Roman Mythology and its Iconography. v t e Religion in ancient Rome Practices and beliefs Libation Sacrifice Vota Temples Festivals Ludi Funerals Imperial cult Greco-Roman mysteries Priesthoods Pontifices Augures Vestal Virgins Flamines Fetiales Epulones Fratres Arvales Salii Deities List of Roman deities Twelve major gods Capitoline Triad Aventine Triad Underworld gods Indigitamenta Deified emperors Divus Julius Divus Augustus Related topics Glossary of ancient Roman religion Roman mythology Ancient Greek religion Etruscan mythology Gallo-Roman religion Interpretatio graeca Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism v t e Ancient Roman religion and mythology Deities (Dii Consentes) Agenoria Angerona Anna Perenna Apollo Bellona Bona Dea Carmenta Castor and Pollux Ceres Cloacina Cupid Dea Dia Diana Dies Dīs Pater Egeria Fauna Faunus Flora Genius Hercules Janus Juno Jupiter Lares Liber Libertas Mars Mercury Minerva Neptune Orcus Penates Pluto 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en-wikipedia-org-4381	----	Quirinus of Tegernsee - Wikipedia Quirinus of Tegernsee From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Saint Quirinus of Tegernsee Death of Saint Quirin, painting by Martin Johann Schmidt, 1782 Martyr Died ~270 AD Venerated in Eastern Orthodox Church Roman Catholic Church Major shrine Tegernsee, Bavaria Feast March 25; June 16 (translation of relics)[1] Attributes orb, sceptre[1] Quirinus of Tegernsee, or Quirinus of Rome (not to be confused with Quirinus of Neuss, also sometimes called Quirinus of Rome), is venerated as a martyr and saint of the third century. According to one tradition, he was beheaded during the reign of Claudius Gothicus (268-70). His corpse was thrown into the Tiber and later found at Tiber Island.[1] According to the legendary Acts of the martyrs Saint Maris and Saint Martha, a Roman martyr Quirinus (Cyrinus) was buried in the Catacomb of Pontian. However, the Itineraries to the graves of the Roman martyrs do not mention him.[2] His legend was later connected with Tegernsee Abbey in Bavaria, where his relics had been translated in the eighth century, during the reign of King Pippin and Pope Zacharias.[1] However, Quirinus' relics may have been translated instead during the papacy of Pope Paul I (term 757-767), around 761.[1] Veneration[edit] Chapel of St Quirinus, Tegernsee His feast is celebrated on March 25. Perhaps this Quirinus is meant by the expression "Romæ sancti Cyri" found in the "Martyrologium Hieronymianum" of March 24 (cf. "Acta SS.", III, March, 543 sqq.; Dufourcq "Les Gesta martyrum romains", I, 240). Quirinus' cult flourished from its center at Tegernsee, and a larger stone church was built in 1450 to house his coffin. References[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Sts. Quirinus". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. ^ a b c d e QUIRINUS vom Tegernsee ^ CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Sts. Quirinus "Den hellige Quirinus av Tegernsee (d. 269)". katolsk.no (in Norwegian). 21 February 2000. Retrieved 12 August 2019. External links[edit] Catholic Encyclopedia Walter Troxler (1994). "Quirinus vom Tegernsee". In Bautz, Traugott (ed.). Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon (BBKL) (in German). 7. Herzberg: Bautz. cols. 1132–1133. ISBN 3-88309-048-4. Authority control GND: 118743236 VIAF: 35251898 WorldCat Identities: viaf-35251898 This article about a German saint is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quirinus_of_Tegernsee&oldid=910481436" Categories: 3rd-century Christian martyrs 303 deaths 3rd-century Romans Saint stubs German religious biography stubs Hidden categories: Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Articles incorporating text from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference CS1 Norwegian-language sources (no) CS1 German-language sources (de) Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Deutsch Español Italiano Nederlands Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 12 August 2019, at 11:13 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4394	----	Poet - Wikipedia Poet From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Person who writes and publishes poetry For other uses, see Poet (disambiguation). "Poetess" redirects here. For the American rapper, see The Poetess. Victor Hugo was a French poet, novelist, and dramatist. Hugo is renowned for works such as Les Contemplations (The Contemplations) and La Légende des siècles (The Legend of the Ages). Poet Occupation Names Poet, Troubador, Bard Occupation type Vocation Activity sectors Literary Description Competencies Writing Related jobs Novelist, writer, lyricist Literature Major forms Novel Poetry Drama Short story Novella Genres Adventure Comedy Drama Epic Erotic Nonsense Lyric Mythopoeia Rogue Romance Satire Speculative fiction Tragedy Tragicomedy Media Performance Play Books Techniques Prose Poetry History and lists History modern Outline Glossary of terms Books Writers Literary awards poetry Discussion Criticism Theory (critical theory) Sociology Magazines  Literature portal v t e A poet is a person who creates poetry. Poets may describe themselves as such or be described as such by others. A poet may simply be a writer of poetry, or may perform their art to an audience. Postmortal fictional portrait of Slovak poet Janko Kráľ (1822–1876) – an idealized romanticized picture of "how a real poet should look" in Western culture. The work of a poet is essentially one of communication, either expressing ideas in a literal sense, such as writing about a specific event or place, or metaphorically. Poets have existed since antiquity, in nearly all languages, and have produced works that vary greatly in different cultures and periods.[1] Throughout each civilization and language, poets have used various styles that have changed through the course of literary history, resulting in a history of poets as diverse as the literature they have produced. Many ancient poets may not have achieved fame in their lifetime, but there are exceptions; Johan Ludvig Runeberg (1804–1877), who later also rose to the position of a "national poet of Finland", was a well-respected person when lived in his home country. The Italian Giacomo Leopardi was mentioned by the University of Birmingham as "one of the most radical and challenging of nineteenth-century thinkers".[2] Contents 1 History 2 Education 3 Poets of sacred verse 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links History[edit] This is about the history of the poet profession. For a history of poetry, see History of poetry In Ancient Rome, professional poets were generally sponsored by patrons, wealthy supporters including nobility and military officials.[3] For instance, Gaius Cilnius Maecenas, friend to Caesar Augustus, was an important patron for the Augustan poets, including both Horace and Virgil. While Ovid , a well established poet, was banished from Rome by the first Augustus. Poets held an important position in pre-Islamic Arabic society with the poet or sha'ir filling the role of historian, soothsayer and propagandist. Words in praise of the tribe (qit'ah) and lampoons denigrating other tribes (hija') seem to have been some of the most popular forms of early poetry. The sha'ir represented an individual tribe's prestige and importance in the Arabian peninsula, and mock battles in poetry or zajal would stand in lieu of real wars. 'Ukaz, a market town not far from Mecca, would play host to a regular poetry festival where the craft of the sha'irs would be exhibited. In the High Middle Ages, troubadors were an important class of poets and came from a variety of backgrounds. They lived and travelled in many different places and were looked upon as actors or musicians as much as poets. They were often under patronage, but many travelled extensively. The Renaissance period saw a continuation of patronage of poets by royalty. Many poets, however, had other sources of income, including Italians like Dante Aligheri, Giovanni Boccaccio and Petrarch's works in a pharmacist's guild and William Shakespeare's work in the theater. In the Romantic period and onwards, many poets were independent writers who made their living through their work, often supplemented by income from other occupations or from family.[4] This included poets such as William Wordsworth and Robert Burns. Poets such as Virgil in the Aeneid and John Milton in Paradise Lost invoked the aid of a Muse. Education[edit] Poets of earlier times were often well read and highly educated people while others were to a large extent self-educated. A few poets such as John Gower and John Milton were able to write poetry in more than one language. Some Portuguese poets, as Francisco de Sá de Miranda, wrote not only in Portuguese but also in Spanish.[5] Jan Kochanowski wrote in Polish and in Latin,[6] France Prešeren and Karel Hynek Mácha[7] wrote some poems in German, although they were poets of Slovenian and Czech respectively. Adam Mickiewicz, the greatest poet of Polish language, wrote a Latin ode for emperor Napoleon III. Another example is Jerzy Pietrkiewicz, a Polish poet. When he moved to Great Britain, he ceased to write poetry in Polish, but started writing novel in English.[8] He also translated poetry from English and into English. Many universities offer degrees in creative writing though these only came into existence in the 20th century. While these courses are not necessary for a career as a poet, they can be helpful as training, and for giving the student several years of time focused on their writing.[9] Poets of sacred verse[edit] Main article: Lyricist Lyrical poets who write sacred poetry ("hymnographers") differ from the usual image of poets in a number of ways. A hymnographer such as Isaac Watts who wrote 700 poems in his lifetime, may have their lyrics sung by millions of people every Sunday morning, but are not always included in anthologies of poetry. Because hymns are perceived of as "worship" rather than "poetry," the term "artistic kenosis" is sometimes used to describe the hymnographer's success in "emptying out" the instinct to succeed as a poet. A singer in the pew might have several of Watts's stanzas memorized, without ever knowing his name or thinking of him as a poet. See also[edit] List of poets Bard Lyricist References[edit] ^ Orban, Clara Elizabeth (1997). The Culture of Fragments: Word and Images in Futurism and Surrealism. Rodopi. p. 3. ISBN 90-420-0111-9. ^ The Zibaldone project, University of Birmingham ^ Barbara K. Gold, (2014) Literary and Artistic Patronage in Ancient Rome", University of Texas Press ^ Peter T. Murphy (2005) "Poetry as an Occupation and an Art in Britain" Cambridge University Press ^ Encyclopaedia Britanncia. ^ Jan Kochanowski at Catholic Encyclopaedia. ^ Karel Hynek Mácha: A leading poet of Czech Romanticism. ^ Independent. ^ Nikki Moustaki (2001), The Complete Idiot's Guide to Writing Poetry, Penguin. Further reading[edit] Reginald Gibbons (ed), The Poet's Work: 29 poets on the origins and practice of their art. University of Chicago Press (1979). ISBN 9780226290546 at Google Books External links[edit] Look up poet or poetess in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Poets Wikimedia Commons has media related to poets. v t e Lists of poets By language Afrikaans Albanian Arabic Armenian Azerbaijani Assamese Awadhi Belarusian Bengali Bosnian Bulgarian Catalan Chinese Croatian Danish Dutch English French German Greek (Ancient) Gujarati Hebrew Hindi Icelandic Indonesian Irish Italian Japanese Kashmiri Konkani Kannada Korean Kurdish Latin Maithili Malayalam Maltese Manipuri Marathi Nepali Oriya Pashto Pennsylvania Dutch Persian Polish Portuguese Punjabi Rajasthani Romanian Russian Sanskrit Sindhi Slovak Slovenian Sorbian Spanish Swedish Syriac Tamil Telugu Turkic Ukrainian Urdu Uzbek Welsh Yiddish By nationality or culture Afghan American Argentine Australian Austrian Bangladeshi Bosniak Brazilian Breton Bulgarian Canadian Chicano Estonian Finnish Ghanaian Greek Indian Iranian Iraqi Irish Israeli Mexican Nepalese New Zealander Nicaraguan Nigerian Ottoman Pakistani Peruvian Romani Romanian Somali South African Swedish Swiss Syrian Turkish By type Anarchist Early-modern women (UK) Feminist Lyric Modernist National Performance Romantic Speculative Surrealist War Women v t e Poetry of different cultures and languages Albanian American Anglo-Welsh Arabic Assamese Australian Bengali Biblical British Bulgarian Byzantine Canadian Chinese Cantonese Cornish English Estonian Finnish French Greek Guernésiais Gujarati Hindi Hebrew Indian Indian epic Irish Italian Japanese Javanese Jèrriais Kannada Kashmiri Korean Latin Latin American Latino Manx Marathi Malayalam Nepali New Zealand Old English Old Norse Ottoman Pakistani Pashto Persian Polish Portuguese Punjabi Rajasthani Russian Sanskrit Classical Vedic Scottish Serbian Serbian epic Sindhi Slovak Spanish Tamil Telugu Thai Turkish Urdu Vietnamese Welsh v t e Schools of poetry Akhmatova's Orphans Angry Penguins Auden Group The Beats Black Arts Movement Black Mountain poets British Poetry Revival Cairo poets Castalian Band Cavalier poets Chhayavaad Churchyard poets Confessionalists Créolité Cyclic Poets Dada Deep image Della Cruscans Dolce Stil Novo Dymock poets Ecopoetry The poets of Elan Flarf Fugitives Garip Gay Saber Generation of '27 Generation of the '30s Generation of '98 Georgian poets Goliard The Group Harlem Renaissance Harvard Aesthetes Hungry generation Imagism Informationist poetry İkinci Yeni Jindyworobaks Lake Poets Language poets Martian poetry Metaphysical poets Misty Poets Modernist poetry The Movement Négritude Neotericism New American Poetry New Apocalyptics New Formalism New York School Objectivists Others Parnassian poets La Pléiade Rhymers' Club San Francisco Renaissance Scottish Renaissance Sicilian School Sons of Ben Southern Agrarians Spasmodic poets Sung poetry Surrealism Symbolism Uranian poetry Zutiste Poetry portal Authority control GND: 4436441-6 LCCN: sh85103733 NDL: 00571341 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Poet&oldid=986934325" Categories: Poets Occupations in literature Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from June 2018 Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés अवधी Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ भोजपुरी Български བོད་ཡིག Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Davvisámegiella Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español فارسی Français Frysk Gagauz Gàidhlig ГӀалгӀай ગુજરાતી 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Kreyòl ayisyen Kurdî Кыргызча Ladino Latviešu Лезги Livvinkarjala Lumbaart Magyar मैथिली Malagasy മലയാളം مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Монгол Nederlands नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano Нохчийн Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی پښتو Polski Português Română Русиньскый Русский संस्कृतम् Sardu Scots Shqip සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Soomaaliga کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча/tatarça ไทย Türkçe Türkmençe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Võro Walon 吴语 ייִדיש 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 3 November 2020, at 21:05 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4404	----	Category:Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers - Wikipedia Help Category:Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This category is for articles with NKC identifiers. Please do not add subcategories. For more information, see Wikipedia:Authority control. Administrators: Please do not delete this category even if it is empty! This category may be empty occasionally or even most of the time. This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a tracking category. It builds and maintains a list of pages primarily for the sake of the list itself. They are not part of the encyclopedia's categorization scheme. 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en-wikipedia-org-4405	----	Demography of the Roman Empire - Wikipedia Demography of the Roman Empire From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The Roman Empire at its greatest extent, in the reign of Trajan, 117 CE Demographically, the Roman Empire was a typical premodern state. It had high infant mortality, a low marriage age, and high fertility within marriage. Perhaps half of Roman subjects died by the age of 5. Of those still alive at age 10, half would die by the age of 50. At its peak, after the Antonine Plague of the 160s CE, it had a population of about 60–70 million and a population density of about 16 people per square kilometer. In contrast to the European societies of the classical and medieval periods, Rome had unusually high urbanization rates. During the 2nd century CE, the city of Rome had more than one million inhabitants. No Western city would have as many again until the 19th century. Contents 1 Background 2 Mortality 3 Fertility 4 Migration 5 Population 5.1 Estimates 6 Urbanization 7 Notes 8 References 8.1 Citations 8.2 Sources 8.2.1 Ancient sources 8.2.2 Modern sources Background[edit] Further information: Latins (Italic tribe) For the lands around the Mediterranean Sea and their hinterlands, the period from the second millennium BCE to the early first millennium CE was one of substantial population growth. What would become the territory of the Roman Empire saw an average annual population growth of about 0.1 per cent from the 12th century BCE to the 3rd century CE, resulting in a quadrupling of the region's total population. Growth was slower around the eastern Mediterranean, which was already more developed at the beginning of the period, on the order of about 0.07 per cent per year.[1] This was stronger growth than that seen in the succeeding period; from about 200 CE to 1800 CE, the European half of the empire only saw about 0.06 to 0.07 per cent annual growth (Europe as a whole saw 0.1 per cent annual growth rates), and the north African and west Asian parts of the empire saw almost no growth at all.[2] By comparison, what is now the territory of China experienced 0.1 per cent annual growth from 1 CE to 1800 CE. After population decline following the disintegration of the western half of the Roman state in the fifth and sixth centuries, Europe probably re-attained Roman-era population totals in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries and, following another decline associated with the Black Death, consistently exceeded them after the mid-15th century.[2] There are no reliable surviving records for the general demography of the Roman Empire. There are no detailed local records, such as underlie the demographic study of early modern Europe, either. Large numbers of impressionistic, moralizing, and anecdotal observations on demography survive from the literary sources. They are of little use in the study of Roman demography, which tends to rely instead on conjecture and comparison, rather than records and observations.[3] Mortality[edit] When the high infant mortality rate is factored in (life expectancy at birth) inhabitants of the Roman Empire had a life expectancy at birth of about 25 years. However, when infant mortality is factored out, life expectancy is doubled to the late-50s. If a Roman survived infancy to their mid-teens, they could, on average, expect near six decades of life, although of course many lived much longer or shorter lives for varied reasons.[clarification needed] Although this figure relies more on conjecture than ancient evidence, which is sparse and of dubious quality, it is a point of general consensus among historians of the period. It originates in cross-country comparison: given the known social and economic conditions of the Roman Empire, we should expect a life expectancy near the lower bound of known pre-modern populations. Roman demography bears comparison to available data for India and rural China in the early 20th century, where life expectancies at birth were also in the low 20s.[4] About 300 census returns filed in Egypt in the first three centuries CE survive. R. Bagnall and B. Frier have used them to build female and male age distributions, which show life expectancies at birth of between 22 and 25 years, results broadly consistent with model life tables.[5] Other sources used for population reconstructions include cemetery skeletons, Roman tombstones in North Africa, and an annuities table known as "Ulpian's life table". The basis and interpretation of these sources is disputed: the skeletons cannot be firmly dated, the tombstones show non-representative sample populations, and the sources of "Ulpian's life table" are unknown. Nonetheless, because they converge with low Roman elite survival rates shown in the literary sources, and because their evidence is consistent with data from populations with comparably high mortality rates, such as in 18th century France, and early 20th century China, India, and Egypt, they reinforce the basic assumption of Roman demography: that life expectancies at birth were in the low 20s.[6] As no population for which accurate observations survive has such a low life expectancy, model life tables must be used to understand this population's age demography. These models, based on historical data, describe 'typical' populations at different levels of mortality. For his demographic synopsis of the Roman Empire, Bruce Frier used the Model West framework, as it is "the most generalized and widely applicable".[7] Because it is based on only one empirical input, the model life table can provide only a very approximate picture of Roman demography. On two important points, the table may seriously misrepresent the Roman situation: the structural relationship between juvenile and adult mortality, and the relative mortality rates across the sexes.[8] In any case, Roman mortality should be expected to have varied greatly across times, places, and perhaps classes.[9][notes 1] A variation of ten years would not have been unusual. A life expectancy range of between 20 and 30 years is therefore plausible,[11] though it may have been exceeded in either direction in marginal regions (e.g., malarious urban districts on one end; high-altitude, low-density settlements on the other).[6] Model West, level 3: a possible life table for the Roman Empire Females Males Age Mortality Cohort Life expectancy Mortality Cohort Life expectancy 0 0.3056 100,000 25.0 0.3517 100,000 22.8 1 0.2158 69,444 34.9 0.2147 64,826 34.1 5 0.0606 54,456 40.1 0.0563 50,906 39.0 10 0.0474 51,156 37.5 0.0404 48,041 36.2 15 0.0615 48,732 34.2 0.0547 46,099 32.6 20 0.0766 45,734 31.3 0.0775 43,579 29.4 25 0.0857 42,231 28.7 0.0868 40,201 26.6 30 0.0965 38,614 26.1 0.1002 36,713 23.9 35 0.1054 34,886 23.7 0.1168 33,035 21.3 40 0.1123 31,208 21.1 0.1397 29,177 18.7 45 0.1197 27,705 18.5 0.1597 25,101 16.4 50 0.1529 24,389 15.6 0.1981 21,092 14.0 55 0.1912 20,661 13.0 0.2354 16,915 11.8 60 0.2715 16,712 10.4 0.3091 12,932 9.6 65 0.3484 12,175 8.4 0.3921 8,936 7.7 70 0.4713 7,934 6.5 0.5040 5,432 6.1 75 0.6081 4,194 4.9 0.6495 2,694 4.6 80 0.7349 1,644 3.6 0.7623 944 3.4 85 0.8650 436 2.5 0.8814 225 2.4 90 0.9513 59 1.8 0.9578 27 1.7 95 1.0000 3 1.2 1.0000 1 1.2 After Frier, "Demography", 789, table 1.[notes 2] The specifics of any ancient age distribution, moreover, would have seen heavy variation under the impact of local conditions.[6] In pre-modern societies, the major cause of death was not the chronic, end-of-life conditions that characterize mortality in industrialized societies, nor primary malnutrition, but acute infectious disease, which has varied effects on age distributions in populations. Pulmonary tuberculosis, for example, characterized much of the Roman region in antiquity; its deaths tend to be concentrated in the early twenties, where model life tables show a mortality trough.[12] Similarly, in pre-modern societies for which evidence is available, such as early modern England and early eighteenth-century China, infant mortality varies independently of adult mortality, to the extent that equal life expectancies at age twenty can be obtained in societies with infant mortality rates of 15% to 35% (life table models omit this; they depend on the assumption that age-specific mortality ratios co-vary in uniform, predictable ratios).[13] No ancient evidence can gauge this effect (the sources have a strong tendency to overlook infant death), and the model life tables might overstate it, but comparative evidence suggests that it is very high: mortality was strongly concentrated in the first years of life.[14] Mortality on this scale: (1) discourages investment in human capital, hindering productivity growth (adolescent mortality rates in Rome were two-thirds higher than in early modern Britain); (2) creates large numbers of dependent widows and orphans; and (3) hinders long-term economic planning. With the prevalence of debilitating diseases, the number of effective working years was even worse: health-adjusted life expectancy (HALE), the number of years lived in good health, varies from life expectancy by no more than 8% in modern societies; in high-mortality societies such as Rome, it could be as much as one-sixth (17%) beneath total life expectancy. A HALE of less than 20 years would have left the empire with very depressed levels of economic productivity.[15] Fertility[edit] See also: Childbirth and obstetrics in antiquity To maintain replacement levels under such a mortality regime—much less to achieve sustained growth—fertility figures needed to be very high. With life expectancies of twenty to thirty, women would have to give birth to between 4.5 and 6.5 children to maintain replacement levels. Given elevated levels of divorce, widowhood, and sterility, however, the birth rate would have needed to be higher than that baseline, at around 6 to 9 children per woman.[16] Fertility could not long have either fallen below or outstripped replacement levels. A population which maintained an annual growth or decline of 0.7% would double or halve itself every century. Such rates are feasible locally or over a short period of time, and deaths could consistently outstrip births during epidemics, but, in the long term, convergence to maintenance levels was the rule.[17] The surviving census returns from Roman Egypt speak to a population that had not yet undergone the "fertility transition"; artificial fertility controls like contraception and abortion were not widely used to alter natural fecundity in the Roman period. Only family limitation, in which couples ceased procreating after they had attained an acceptable level of children, could have been widespread.[18] There is no indication that even this limitation was widespread, however; the recorded distribution shows no evidence of being governed by parity or maternal age.[19] Marital fertility in Roman Egypt Age Roman Egypt Natural fertility Attested rates Gompertz Model 12–14 22 23 225 15–19 232 249 420 20–24 343 333 460 25–29 367 325 431 30–34 293 299 396 35–39 218 262 321 40–44 219 166 167 45–49 134 37 24 After Frier, "Natural fertility", 325, table 1.[notes 3] Imperial Rome largely conforms to what is known as the "Mediterranean" pattern of marital fertility: men married late and women married early.[21] The evidence on marriage age is fairly robust for Roman elites: men in the senatorial class were expected to marry in their early twenties; women were expected to marry in their early teens. According to the most plausible interpretation of the evidence from funerary commemoration, in the lower classes, women married in their late teens or early twenties, and men married in their late twenties or early thirties.[22] The Roman pattern thus stands in contrast to the "Eastern" (i.e., East Asian) pattern, in which both men and women married young.[21] China, the major example of the "Eastern" pattern, also had lower levels of fertility than Rome. This was apparently achieved by a combination of prolonged breastfeeding, female infanticide, and male celibacy, though the details are controversial.[23] Roman families share some features of the "Eastern" pattern. Roman Egypt, for example, had a custom of extended breastfeeding, which may have lengthened birth spacing. Egyptian fertility levels are comparable to those recorded in the early modern Japanese village Nakahara, where about half the population practiced family limitation. On the historian Walter Scheidel's judgment, this speaks to the incidence of family limitation even in what are supposedly "natural fertility" regimes.[24] Roman and Greek literary and legal tradition also makes frequent reference to the "Eastern" demographic features infanticide and child exposure. Although the extent of these practices is unlikely to have been small, it is nonetheless impossible to quantify (nor can reported gender ratios permit judgment on the prevalence of femicide). These "Eastern" features did not prevail in medieval[citation needed] or modern Europe, where there were cultural and structural factors directly discouraging them or diminishing their effects on childhood mortality (religious doctrine, legal enforcement, institutions of foundling care, child labor, wet-nursing, etc.). These constraints were weak or absent in Greek and Roman society.[25] Migration[edit] According to the Cavalli–Sforza reconstruction of genetic history, there was little migration in Europe after the Iron Age. Most population growth can therefore be ascribed to the gradual expansion of local populations under conditions of improving fertility, rather than inter-regional transfer. That said, local migration from village to village may have been substantial; for the successful dedication and expansion of new settlements, it would have been necessary. The geography of the Mediterranean made this fairly convenient;[26] at the beginning of the empire, about 750,000 Italians lived in the provinces.[27] Julius Caesar, Mark Anthony and Octavian–Augustus settled many of their veterans in colonies, in Italy, and the provinces. Those established in Italy up to 14 BCE have been studied by Keppie (1983). In his account of the achievements of his long reign (Res Gestae), Augustus stated that he had settled 120,000 soldiers in twenty colonies in Italy in 31 BCE, then 100,000 men in colonies in Spain and southern Gaul in 14 BCE, followed by another 96,000 in 2 BCE.[28] Brian Campbell also states "From 49 to 32 BCE about 420,000 Italians were recruited" – which would thus be the Veteran (citizen) stock that was largely sent to the provinces (colonies) during Augustus; The Lex Calpurnia however also allowed citizenship to be granted for distinguished bravery – as example the 1,000 Socii from Camerinum after Vercellae 101 BCE (Plutarch Mar. XXXVIII) or the auxiliary (later Legio XXII Deiotariana) after Zela. By the time of Augustus the legions consisted mostly of ethnic Latins/Italics and Cisalpine Gauls.[29] Historian Theodore Mommsen estimated that under Hadrian nearly 1/3 of the eastern Numidia population (roughly modern Tunisia) was descended from Roman veterans.[30] Population[edit] Modern estimates of the population of the Roman Empire derive from the fundamental work of 19th-century historian Karl Julius Beloch.[31] His estimates of the area of different components of the empire, based on planimetric estimates by contemporary military cartographers, have not been challenged by any more modern analyst. By providing a check to population densities, these area figures compel a baseline level of plausibility.[32] Beloch's 1886 estimate of the population of the empire in 14 CE has withstood contemporary and more recent criticism, and underlies modern analysis (his 1899 revision of those figures is less esteemed). Only his estimates for Anatolia and Greater Syria required extensive revision; Beloch estimated population figure, 19 million, produced population densities not otherwise achieved in those areas until the 20th century. Bruce Frier, in a recent estimate of the population of the empire, suggested a figure of 12 million as "considerably more plausible".[33] Beloch's figures for Spain and Africa have also been revised downwards.[34] This estimate produces a population density of 13.6 inhabitants per square kilometer, a very low figure by modern standards (the United Kingdom, for example, has a population density of 254.7/km2). The population density in the Greek East was 20.9/km2, twice as dense as the Latin West at 10.6/km2; only the Western provinces of Italy and Sicily had a density comparable to the East.[35] Estimate of the Population of the Empire Region Area (1000 km2) 14 CE Population (millions) 14 CE Density (per km2) 164 CE Population (millions) 164 CE Density (per km2) Population increase (per cent) Greek peninsula[notes 4] 267 2.8 10.5 3.0 11.2 7.1 Anatolia 547 8.2 15.0 9.2 16.8 12.2 Greater Syria[notes 5] 109 4.3 39.4 4.8 44.0 11.6 Cyprus 9.5 0.2 21.2 0.2 21.1 – Egypt[notes 6] 28 4.5 160.7 5.0 178.6 11.1 Libya[notes 7] 15 0.4 26.7 0.6 40.0 50.0 Greek East 975.5 20.4 20.9 22.9 23.5 12.3 Annexations 0.2 Greek East (with annexations) 23.1 Italy 250 7.0 28.0 7.6 30.4 8.6 Sicily 26 0.6 23.1 0.6 23.1 – Sardinia and Corsica 33 0.5 15.2 0.5 15.2 – Maghreb[notes 8] 400 3.5 8.8 6.5 16.3 85.7 Iberia 590 5.0 8.5 7.5 12.7 50.0 Gaul and Germany 635 5.8 9.1 9.0 14.2 55.2 Danube Region[notes 9] 430 2.7 6.3 4.0 9.3 48.1 Latin West 2,364 25.1 10.6 35.7 15.1 42.2 Annexations 2.5 Latin West (with annexations) 38.2 Roman Empire 3,339.5 45.5 13.6 61.4 15.9 34.9 "Area" includes the client kingdoms taken over soon after 14 CE. After Frier, "Demography", 812, table 5, 814, table 6. Slaves constituted about 15 percent of the Empire's total population; the proportionate figure would be much higher in Italy and much lower in Africa and Egypt.[37] Estimated Distribution of Citizenship in the Roman Empire[38] Region Citizens (per cent) Noncitizen residents (per cent) Slaves (per cent) Rome 55 15 30 Italy 70 5 25 Spain and Gaul 10 70 20 Other Western Provinces 3 80 17 Greece and Asia Minor 3 70 27 North African Provinces 2 70 28 Other Eastern Provinces 1 80 19 There are few recorded population numbers for the whole of antiquity, and those that exist are often rhetorical or symbolic. Unlike the contemporaneous Han Dynasty, no general census survives for the Roman Empire. The late period of the Roman Republic provides a small exception to this general rule: serial statistics for Roman citizen numbers, taken from census returns, survive for the early Republic through the 1st century CE.[39] Only the figures for periods after the mid-3rd century BCE are reliable, however. Fourteen figures are available for the 2nd century BCE (from 258,318 to 394,736). Only four figures are available for the 1st century BCE, and are feature a large break between 70/69 BCE (910,000) and 28 BCE (4,063,000). The interpretation of the later figures—the Augustan censuses of 28 BCE, 8 BCE, and 14 CE—is therefore controversial.[40] Alternate interpretations of the Augustan censuses (such as those of E. Lo Cascio[41]) produce divergent population histories across the whole imperial period.[42] Population of Italy and the islands in 165 CE Population (millions) Area (1000 km2) Density (per km2) Standard interpretation of the Augustan censuses 8–9 310 26–29 Revised interpretation of the Augustan censuses 12–13 310 39–42 After Scheidel, "Demography", 47 n. 42, 47. The enfranchisement of the Cisalpine provinces and the Italian Allies after the Social War would account for some of the population growth of the 1st century BCE.[43] Alternate readings of the Augustan census both accept the basic accuracy of the figures, but assume different methods on the part of the census-takers. The standard interpretation assumes that the census-takers included all citizens—men, women, and children—in the Augustan censuses; the revised interpretation assumes that the census-takers only counted adult men, as they had during the Republican period. The standard interpretation is not supported by any evidence internal to the text, but reduces the implied population totals for 28 BCE Italy from 10 million to a more plausible 4 million.[44] The high total earns support from recorded conflict over land in the late Republic and other indications of population pressure, but does not accord well with comparative evidence from other periods and other parts of the empire.[45] Estimates[edit] Beloch's 1886 estimate for the population of the empire during the reign of Augustus:[46][47] Region Population (in millions) Total Empire 54 European part 23 Asian part 19.5 North African part 11.5 Russell's 1958 estimate for the population of the empire in 350 CE:[47] Region Population (in millions) Total Empire 39.3 European part 18.3 Asian part 16 North African part 5 Recent demographic studies have argued for a population peak ranging from 70 million (comparable to the contemporaneous and similarly sized Han empire in China), with one-tenth of them located in Italy itself, to more than 100 million.[48] The cities of the Roman world in the Imperial Period. Data source: Hanson, J. W. (2016), Cities database, (OXREP databases). Version 1.0. (link). Urbanization[edit] Cartogram of the estimated populations of cities in the Roman world in the Imperial period (after Hanson 2016 and Hanson and Ortman 2017). By the standards of pre-modern economies, the Roman Empire was highly urbanized. According to recent work, there were some 1,400 sites with urban characteristics in the Roman world in the Imperial period.[49] At its peak, the city of Rome had at least one million inhabitants, a total not equaled again in Europe until the 19th century.[49][50] As the imperial capital, Rome was sustained by transfers in kind from throughout the empire; no other city could be sustained at this level. Other major cities in the empire (Alexandria, Antioch, Carthage, Ephesus, Salona etc.) had populations of about a few hundred thousand.[49][50] Of the remaining cities, most were quite small, usually possessing only 10–15,000 inhabitants. The cumulative urban population of the empire is estimated at around 14 million (using a population threshold of 5,000 individuals), indicating an urbanization rate of at least 25–30 % to be consistent with conventional estimates for the total population, comparable to those in the 19th century.[49][50] High mortality rates and pre-modern sanitary conditions made urban regions net population sinks, with more local deaths than births. They could only be sustained by constant immigration.[51] The large cities provided a major stimulus to demand, and not only for agricultural products, but for manufactured goods and luxury items as well.[52] Russell estimated the urban population in Late Antiquity, as follows.[47] City Population (thousands) Region Rome 350 Italy Alexandria 216 Egypt Antioch 90 Syria Smyrna 90 Asia Minor Cadiz 65 Hispania Salona 60 Dalmatia Ephesus 51 Asia Minor Carthage 50 Africa Corinth 50 Greece Jerash 40 Jordan Apamea 37 Syria Capua 36 Italy Ancyra 34 Asia Minor Nicomedia 34 Asia Minor Oxyrhyncus 34 Egypt Memphis 34 Egypt Damascus 31 Syria Bostra 30 Syria Athens 28 Greece Tarragona 27 Hispania Cyzicus 24 Asia Minor Hermopolis 24 Egypt Pergamum 24 Asia Minor Mytilene 23 Asia Minor Arsinoe 20 Egypt Cordoba 20 Hispania Cirta 20 Africa Hadrumetum 20 Africa Pisa 20 Italy Rusicade 20 Africa Tyre 20 Syria Catania 18 Italy Nicaea 18 Asia Minor Antiochia 17 Asia Minor Antinoe 16 Egypt Sicca V. 16 Africa Mérida 15 Hispania Miletus 15 Asia Minor Naples 15 Italy Heliopolis 14 Egypt Baalbek 13.5 Syria Thugga 13 Africa Isaura 12 Asia Minor Sidon 12 Syria Bologna 10 Italy Cartagena 10 Hispania Hippo Regis 10 Africa Jerusalem 10 Syria Lambraesis 10 Africa Pamplona 10 Hispania Thysdrus 10 Africa Trebizond 10 Asia Minor Notes[edit] ^ Frier elsewhere quotes material to the effect that cross-class variation in life expectancy in high mortality societies is small.[10] ^ "Mortality" is a function predicting the likelihood that a person aged exactly (x) will die before the next indicated interval; "cohort" lists the number of survivors to exact age (x). ^ The Gompertz figures are obtained using linear regression on the census figures to create a relational fertility model, producing a probable schedule of true fertility rates. The model uses two values, α and β, that determine the model's relationship to a standard of early marriage and natural fertility. For this dataset, α, which indicates variation from median age of marital maternity, is −0.05, and β, which indicates the degree of fertility concentration, is 0.80. As the standard figure for β is 1.0, the dataset for Roman Egypt shows a wider spread of childbearing than is typical of the standard.[20] ^ Roughly includes the southern Balkan peninsula; Greece, Albania, North Macedonia, Serbia, about half of Bulgaria and European Turkey. Or approximately the Roman provinces of Achaea, Macedonia, Epirus and Thracia.[36] ^ Defined to include the modern territories of Lebanon, Israel and Palestine, as well as approximately the western half of Syria (i.e. the coastal Levant).[36] ^ Area figure is only the narrow strip of land along the Nile and its delta. Not the vast deserts of Egypt.[36] ^ Refers only to the coastal area of Cyrenaica.[36] ^ Refers to the coastal area of North Africa. i.e. Northern areas of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and most of coastal Libya (except Cyrenaica).[36] ^ Areas generally south of the river Danube. Includes the Roman provinces of Raetia, Noricum, Pannonia Superior, Pannonia Inferior, Illyricum (or Dalmatia) and Moesia (Superior and Inferior). Parts of modern Switzerland, southern Germany and Austria, western Hungary, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia, Montenegro, central Serbia and northern Bulgaria.[36] References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Scheidel, "Demography", 42–43. ^ a b Scheidel, "Demography", 43. ^ Frier, "Demography", 787; Scheidel, "Demography", 42. ^ Frier, "Demography", 788. ^ Scheidel, "Demography", 38–39. ^ a b c Scheidel, "Demography", 39. ^ Frier, "Demography", 788. On this model, Frier cites A. J. Coale and P. Demeny Regional Model Life Tables and Stable Populations, 2nd ed. (Princeton, 1983). ^ Frier, "Demography", 789. See also the extensive criticism in Scheidel, "Roman age structure", 1–26. ^ Frier, "Demography", 789. ^ Frier, "Roman life expectancy", 228 n. 36. ^ Frier, "Demography", 789; Scheidel, "Demography", 39. ^ Scheidel, "Roman age structure", 8. ^ Scheidel, "Roman age structure", 6–7. ^ Scheidel, "Demography", 40. ^ Scheidel, "Demography", 40–41. ^ Scheidel, "Demography", 41. ^ Scheidel, "Demography", 41–42. ^ Frier, "Natural fertility", 318–26; Scheidel, "Demography", 66–67. ^ Scheidel, "Demography", 67. ^ Frier, "Natural fertility", 325–26. ^ a b Scheidel, "Demography", 68. ^ Saller, "Household", 90. ^ Scheidel, "Demography", 68–69. ^ Scheidel, "Demography", 69. ^ Scheidel, "Demography", 69–70. ^ Scheidel, "Demography", 49–50. ^ Scheidel, "Demography", 49–50, 64, 64 n. 114, citing P. A. Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 B.C.–A.D. 14 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), 263. ^ Pat Southern – The Roman Army: A Social and Institutional History (2006/Oxford Uni.) ^ B. Campbell The Roman Army, 31 BC–AD 337 p.9 ^ Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib (1970, 1977) at 35–37. ^ Frier, "Demography", 811; Maddison, Contours of the World Economy, 32–33. ^ Maddison, Contours of the World Economy, 33. ^ Frier, "Demography", 811, 811 n. 95. ^ Frier, "Demography", 811 n. 97. ^ Frier, "Demography", 811–12. ^ a b c d e f Frier, "Demography", 812 table 5. ^ Frier, "Demography", 812. ^ Goldhill, Simon (2006). Being Greek Under Rome: Cultural Identity, the Second Sophistic and the Development of Empire. Cambridge University Press. ^ Scheidel, "Demography", 42. ^ Scheidel, "Demography", 45. Augustan census figures are recorded in the Res Gestae 8. ^ Lo Cascio, "Size of the Roman Population", 23–40. ^ Maddison, Contours of the World Economy, 33; Scheidel, "Demography", 47 n. 42, 47. ^ Scheidel, "Demography", 45 n. 35. ^ Scheidel, "Demography", 45. ^ Scheidel, "Demography", 47. ^ Beloch, Karl Julius (1886). Die Bevölkerung der griechisch-römischen Welt. p. 507. ^ a b c Russell, J. C. (1958). "Late ancient and medieval population". Philadelphia, PA: American Philosophical Society. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ Scheidel, Walter (April 2006) "Population and demography" in Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics, p. 9 ^ a b c d Hanson, J. W. (2016). An Urban Geography of the Roman World, 100 BC to AD 300. Oxford: Archaeopress. ISBN 9781784914721. ^ a b c Hanson, J. W.; Ortman, S. G. (15 November 2017). "A systematic method for estimating the populations of Greek and Roman settlements". 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"The Early Roman Empire: Production", in W. Scheidel, I. Morris and R. Saller, eds., The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 543–69. Lo Cascio, Elio (1994). "The Size of the Roman Population: Beloch and the Meaning of the Augustan Census Figures". Journal of Roman Studies. 84: 23–40. doi:10.2307/300868. JSTOR 300868. Lo Cascio, Elio. "The Early Roman Empire: The State and the Economy", in W. Scheidel, I. Morris and R. Saller, eds., The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 619–47. Maddison, Angus. Contours of the World Economy, 1–2030 AD: Essays in Macro-Economic History. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007. Morris, Ian, Richard P. Saller, and Walter Scheidel. "Introduction", in W. Scheidel, I. Morris and R. Saller, eds., The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 1–12. Saller, Richard P. "Household and Gender", in W. Scheidel, I. Morris and R. Saller, eds., The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 87–112. Scheidel, Walter (2001). "Roman Age Structure: Evidence and Models". Journal of Roman Studies. 91: 1–26. doi:10.1017/s0075435800015811. Scheidel, Walter. "Demography", in W. Scheidel, I. Morris and R. Saller, eds., The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 38–86. Scheidel, Walter (2010). "Real Wages in Early Economies: Evidence for Living Standards from 1800 BCE to 1300 CE". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 53 (3): 425–62. doi:10.1163/156852010x506038. Scheidel, Walter; Friesen, Steven J. (2009). "The Size of the Economy and the Distribution of Income in the Roman Empire". Journal of Roman Studies. 99: 61–91. doi:10.3815/007543509789745223. Temin, Peter. "Estimating GDP in the Early Roman Empire", in E. 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en-wikipedia-org-4407	----	Constantinople - Wikipedia Constantinople From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Capital city of the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire, the Latin and the Ottoman Empire This article is about the historical city from 330 to 1453. For its predecessor in Greek and early Roman times, see Byzantium. For Constantinople during the Ottoman era and the modern city, see Istanbul. For other uses, see Constantinople (disambiguation). "Constantinopolis" and "Konstantinopolis" redirect here. For the town of that name in ancient Osrhoene, see Constantinopolis in Osrhoene. For the Ottoman Greek newspaper, see Konstantinoupolis (newspaper). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Constantinople" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Constantinople Greek: Κωνσταντινούπολις Latin: Constantinopolis Map of Constantinople, corresponding to the modern-day Fatih district of İstanbul Alternative name Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsarigrad (Slavic), Qustantiniya (Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis ("the Great City"), Πόλις ("the City"), Konstantiniyye (Ottoman Turkish), İstanbul (Turkish) Location İstanbul, Turkey Region Marmara Region Coordinates 41°00′50″N 28°57′20″E / 41.01389°N 28.95556°E / 41.01389; 28.95556Coordinates: 41°00′50″N 28°57′20″E / 41.01389°N 28.95556°E / 41.01389; 28.95556 Type Imperial city Part of Byzantine Empire, Ottoman Empire and Turkey Area 6 km2 (2.3 sq mi) enclosed within Constantinian Walls 14 km2 (5.4 sq mi) enclosed within Theodosian Walls History Builder Constantine the Great Founded 11 May 330 Periods Late antiquity to Late Middle Ages Cultures Byzantine • Greek • Turkish Timeline of Constantinople Capital of the Byzantine Empire 395–1204 AD; 1261–1453 AD 330 AD: Founding of Constantinople c. 404/05-413 AD: Construction of the Theodosian Walls 474 AD: Great Fire of Constantinople [1] 532 AD: Nika Riots and Fire of Constantinople 537 AD: Completion of the Hagia Sophia by Justinian I[2][3][4] 626 AD: First Siege of Constantinople 674–678 AD: First Arab Siege of Constantinople 717–718 AD: Great Siege of Constantinople/Second Arab Siege of Constantinople 1204 AD: Sack of Constantinople 1261 AD: Liberation of Constantinople 1422 AD: First Ottoman Siege of Constantinople 1453 AD: Fall of Constantinople Constantinople (/ˌkɒnstæntɪˈnoʊpəl/[5] Greek: Κωνσταντινούπολη; Latin: Cōnstantīnopolis; Turkish: Kostantiniye) was the capital city of the Roman Empire (330–395), the Byzantine Empire (395–1204 and 1261–1453), the brief Crusader state known as the Latin Empire (1204–1261), and the Ottoman Empire (1453–1923). In 324, the ancient city of Byzantium was made the new capital of the Roman Empire by Emperor Constantine the Great, after whom it was renamed, and dedicated on 11 May 330.[6] From the mid-5th century to the early 13th century, Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe.[7] The city became famous for its architectural masterpieces, such as Hagia Sophia, the cathedral of the Eastern Orthodox Church, which served as the seat of the Ecumenical Patriarchate, the sacred Imperial Palace where the Emperors lived, the Galata Tower, the Hippodrome, the Golden Gate of the Land Walls, and opulent aristocratic palaces. The University of Constantinople was founded in the fifth century and contained artistic and literary treasures before it was sacked in 1204 and 1453,[8] including its vast Imperial Library which contained the remnants of the Library of Alexandria and had 100,000 volumes.[9] The city was the home of the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople and guardian of Christendom's holiest relics such as the Crown of thorns and the True Cross. Aerial view of Byzantine Constantinople and the Propontis (Sea of Marmara). Constantinople was famed for its massive and complex defences. The Theodosian Walls consisted of a double wall lying about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) to the west of the first wall and a moat with palisades in front.[10] This formidable complex of defences was one of the most sophisticated of Antiquity. The city was built intentionally to rival Rome, and it was claimed that several elevations within its walls matched the 'seven hills' of Rome. Because it was located between the Golden Horn and the Sea of Marmara the land area that needed defensive walls was reduced, and this helped it to present an impregnable fortress enclosing magnificent palaces, domes, and towers, the result of the prosperity it achieved from being the gateway between two continents (Europe and Asia) and two seas (the Mediterranean and the Black Sea). Although besieged on numerous occasions by various armies, the defences of Constantinople proved impregnable for nearly nine hundred years. In 1204, however, the armies of the Fourth Crusade took and devastated the city, and its inhabitants lived several decades under Latin rule. In 1261 the Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos liberated the city, and after the restoration under the Palaiologos dynasty, enjoyed a partial recovery. With the advent of the Ottoman Empire in 1299, the Byzantine Empire began to lose territories and the city began to lose population. By the early 15th century, the Byzantine Empire was reduced to just Constantinople and its environs, along with Morea in Greece, making it an enclave inside the Ottoman Empire; after a 53-day siege the city eventually fell to the Ottomans, led by Sultan Mehmed II, on 29 May 1453,[11] whereafter it replaced Edirne (Adrianople) as the new capital of the Ottoman Empire.[12] Contents 1 Names 1.1 Before Constantinople 1.2 Names of Constantinople 1.3 Modern names of the city 2 History 2.1 Foundation of Byzantium 2.2 324–337: The refoundation as Constantinople 2.3 337–529: Constantinople during the Barbarian Invasions and the fall of the West 2.4 527–565: Constantinople in the Age of Justinian 2.5 Survival, 565–717: Constantinople during the Byzantine Dark Ages 2.6 717–1025: Constantinople during the Macedonian Renaissance 2.6.1 Iconoclast controversy in Constantinople 2.7 1025–1081: Constantinople after Basil II 2.8 1081–1185: Constantinople under the Comneni 2.9 1185–1261: Constantinople during the Imperial Exile 2.10 1261–1453: Palaiologan Era and the Fall of Constantinople 2.11 1453–1922: Ottoman Kostantiniyye 3 Culture 3.1 Women in literature 3.2 Markets 3.3 Architecture 3.4 Religion 3.5 Education 3.6 Media 3.7 Popular culture 4 International status 5 See also 5.1 People from Constantinople 5.2 Secular buildings and monuments 5.3 Churches, monasteries and mosques 5.4 Miscellaneous 6 References 7 Bibliography 8 External links Names[edit] Hagia Sophia built in AD 537, during the reign of Justinian Before Constantinople[edit] According to Pliny the Elder in his Natural History, the first known name of a settlement on the site of Constantinople was Lygos,[13] a settlement likely of Thracian origin founded between the 13th and 11th centuries BC.[14] The site, according to the founding myth of the city, was abandoned by the time Greek settlers from the city-state of Megara founded Byzantium (Ancient Greek: Βυζάντιον, Byzántion) in around 657 BC,[15] across from the town of Chalcedon on the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus. The origins of the name of Byzantion, more commonly known by the later Latin Byzantium, are not entirely clear, though some suggest it is of Thraco-Illyrian origin.[16][17] The founding myth of the city has it told that the settlement was named after the leader of the Megarian colonists, Byzas. The later Byzantines of Constantinople themselves would maintain that the city was named in honour of two men, Byzas and Antes, though this was more likely just a play on the word Byzantion.[18] The city was briefly renamed Augusta Antonina in the early 3rd century AD by the Emperor Septimius Severus (193–211), who razed the city to the ground in 196 for supporting a rival contender in the civil war and had it rebuilt in honour of his son Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (who succeeded him as Emperor), popularly known as Caracalla.[18][19] The name appears to have been quickly forgotten and abandoned, and the city reverted to Byzantium/Byzantion after either the assassination of Caracalla in 217 or, at the latest, the fall of the Severan dynasty in 235. Names of Constantinople[edit] Main article: Names of Constantinople The Column of Constantine, built by Constantine I in 330 to commemorate the establishment of Constantinople as the new capital of the Roman Empire. Byzantium took on the name of Kōnstantinoupolis ("city of Constantine", Constantinople) after its refoundation under Roman emperor Constantine I, who transferred the capital of the Roman Empire to Byzantium in 330 and designated his new capital officially as Nova Roma (Νέα Ῥώμη) 'New Rome'. During this time, the city was also called 'Second Rome', 'Eastern Rome', and Roma Constantinopolitana.[17] As the city became the sole remaining capital of the Roman Empire after the fall of the West, and its wealth, population, and influence grew, the city also came to have a multitude of nicknames. This huge keystone found in Çemberlitaş, Fatih might have belonged to a triumphal arch at the Forum of Constantine built by Constantine I. As the largest and wealthiest city in Europe during the 4th–13th centuries and a centre of culture and education of the Mediterranean basin, Constantinople came to be known by prestigious titles such as Basileuousa (Queen of Cities) and Megalopolis (the Great City) and was, in colloquial speech, commonly referred to as just Polis (ἡ Πόλις) 'the City' by Constantinopolitans and provincial Byzantines alike.[20] In the language of other peoples, Constantinople was referred to just as reverently. The medieval Vikings, who had contacts with the empire through their expansion in eastern Europe (Varangians) used the Old Norse name Miklagarðr (from mikill 'big' and garðr 'city'), and later Miklagard and Miklagarth.[18] In Arabic, the city was sometimes called Rūmiyyat al-Kubra (Great City of the Romans) and in Persian as Takht-e Rum (Throne of the Romans). In East and South Slavic languages, including in medieval Russia, Constantinople has been referred to as Tsargrad (Царьград) or Carigrad, 'City of the Caesar (Emperor)', from the Slavonic words tsar ('Caesar' or 'King') and grad ('city'). This was presumably a calque on a Greek phrase such as Βασιλέως Πόλις (Vasileos Polis), 'the city of the emperor [king]'. Modern names of the city[edit] Obelisk of Theodosius is the Ancient Egyptian obelisk of Pharaoh Thutmose III re-erected in the Hippodrome of Constantinople by the Roman emperor Theodosius I in the 4th century AD. The modern Turkish name for the city, İstanbul, derives from the Greek phrase eis tin polin (εἰς τὴν πόλιν), meaning "(in)to the city".[18][21]This name was used in Turkish alongside Kostantiniyye, the more formal adaptation of the original Constantinople, during the period of Ottoman rule, while western languages mostly continued to refer to the city as Constantinople until the early 20th century. In 1928, the Turkish alphabet was changed from Arabic script to Latin script. After that, as part of the 1920s Turkification movement, Turkey started to urge other countries to use Turkish names for Turkish cities, instead of other transliterations to Latin script that had been used in Ottoman times.[22][23][24][25] In time the city came to be known as Istanbul and its variations in most world languages. The name "Constantinople" is still used by members of the Eastern Orthodox Church in the title of one of their most important leaders, the Orthodox patriarch based in the city, referred to as "His Most Divine All-Holiness the Archbishop of Constantinople New Rome and Ecumenical Patriarch." In Greece today, the city is still called Konstantinoúpoli(s) (Κωνσταντινούπολις/Κωνσταντινούπολη) or simply just "the City" (Η Πόλη). History[edit] The four bronze horses that used to be in the Hippodrome of Constantinople, today in Venice Foundation of Byzantium[edit] Main article: Byzantium Constantinople was founded by the Roman Emperor Constantine I (272–337) in 324[6] on the site of an already-existing city, Byzantium, which was settled in the early days of Greek colonial expansion, in around 657 BC, by colonists of the city-state of Megara. This is the first major settlement that would develop on the site of later Constantinople, but the first known settlements was that of Lygos, referred to in Pliny's Natural Histories.[26] Apart from this, little is known about this initial settlement. The site, according to the founding myth of the city, was abandoned by the time Greek settlers from the city-state of Megara founded Byzantium(Βυζάντιον) in around 657 BC,[19] across from the town of Chalcedon on the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus. Hesychius of Miletus wrote that some "claim that people from Megara, who derived their descent from Nisos, sailed to this place under their leader Byzas, and invent the fable that his name was attached to the city." Some versions of the founding myth say Byzas was the son of a local nymph, while others say he was conceived by one of Zeus' daughters and Poseidon. Hesychius also gives alternate versions of the city's founding legend, which he attributed to old poets and writers:[27] It is said that the first Argives, after having received this prophecy from Pythia,     Blessed are those who will inhabit that holy city,     a narrow strip of the Thracian shore at the mouth of the Pontos,     where two pups drink of the gray sea,     where fish and stag graze on the same pasture, set up their dwellings at the place where the rivers Kydaros and Barbyses have their estuaries, one flowing from the north, the other from the west, and merging with the sea at the altar of the nymph called Semestre" The city maintained independence as a city-state until it was annexed by Darius I in 512 BC into the Persian Empire, who saw the site as the optimal location to construct a pontoon bridge crossing into Europe as Byzantium was situated at the narrowest point in the Bosphorus strait. Persian rule lasted until 478 BC when as part of the Greek counterattack to the Second Persian invasion of Greece, a Greek army led by the Spartan general Pausanias captured the city which remained an independent, yet subordinate, city under the Athenians, and later to the Spartans after 411 BC.[28] A farsighted treaty with the emergent power of Rome in c. 150 BC which stipulated tribute in exchange for independent status allowed it to enter Roman rule unscathed.[29] This treaty would pay dividends retrospectively as Byzantium would maintain this independent status, and prosper under peace and stability in the Pax Romana, for nearly three centuries until the late 2nd century AD.[30] Pammakaristos Church, also known as the Church of Theotokos Pammakaristos (Greek: Θεοτόκος ἡ Παμμακάριστος, "All-Blessed Mother of God"), is one of the most famous Greek Orthodox Byzantine churches in Istanbul Byzantium was never a major influential city-state like that of Athens, Corinth or Sparta, but the city enjoyed relative peace and steady growth as a prosperous trading city lent by its remarkable position. The site lay astride the land route from Europe to Asia and the seaway from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean, and had in the Golden Horn an excellent and spacious harbour. Already then, in Greek and early Roman times, Byzantium was famous for its strategic geographic position that made it difficult to besiege and capture, and its position at the crossroads of the Asiatic-European trade route over land and as the gateway between the Mediterranean and Black Seas made it too valuable a settlement to abandon, as Emperor Septimius Severus later realized when he razed the city to the ground for supporting Pescennius Niger's claimancy.[31] It was a move greatly criticized by the contemporary consul and historian Cassius Dio who said that Severus had destroyed "a strong Roman outpost and a base of operations against the barbarians from Pontus and Asia".[32] He would later rebuild Byzantium towards the end of his reign, in which it would be briefly renamed Augusta Antonina, fortifying it with a new city wall in his name, the Severan Wall. 324–337: The refoundation as Constantinople[edit] A simple cross: example of iconoclast art in the Hagia Irene Church in Istanbul Emperor Constantine I presents a representation of the city of Constantinople as tribute to an enthroned Mary and Christ Child in this church mosaic. Hagia Sophia, c. 1000. Another coin struck by Constantine I in 330–333 to commemorate the foundation of Constantinople and to also reaffirm Rome as the traditional centre of the Roman Empire. Coin struck by Constantine I to commemorate the founding of Constantinople. Constantine had altogether more colourful plans. Having restored the unity of the Empire, and, being in the course of major governmental reforms as well as of sponsoring the consolidation of the Christian church, he was well aware that Rome was an unsatisfactory capital. Rome was too far from the frontiers, and hence from the armies and the imperial courts, and it offered an undesirable playground for disaffected politicians. Yet it had been the capital of the state for over a thousand years, and it might have seemed unthinkable to suggest that the capital be moved to a different location. Nevertheless, Constantine identified the site of Byzantium as the right place: a place where an emperor could sit, readily defended, with easy access to the Danube or the Euphrates frontiers, his court supplied from the rich gardens and sophisticated workshops of Roman Asia, his treasuries filled by the wealthiest provinces of the Empire. Constantinople was built over six years, and consecrated on 11 May 330.[6][33] Constantine divided the expanded city, like Rome, into 14 regions, and ornamented it with public works worthy of an imperial metropolis.[34] Yet, at first, Constantine's new Rome did not have all the dignities of old Rome. It possessed a proconsul, rather than an urban prefect. It had no praetors, tribunes, or quaestors. Although it did have senators, they held the title clarus, not clarissimus, like those of Rome. It also lacked the panoply of other administrative offices regulating the food supply, police, statues, temples, sewers, aqueducts, or other public works. The new programme of building was carried out in great haste: columns, marbles, doors, and tiles were taken wholesale from the temples of the empire and moved to the new city. In similar fashion, many of the greatest works of Greek and Roman art were soon to be seen in its squares and streets. The emperor stimulated private building by promising householders gifts of land from the imperial estates in Asiana and Pontica and on 18 May 332 he announced that, as in Rome, free distributions of food would be made to the citizens. At the time, the amount is said to have been 80,000 rations a day, doled out from 117 distribution points around the city.[35] Hagia Irene is a Greek Eastern Orthodox Church located in the outer courtyard of Topkapı Palace in Istanbul. It is one of the few churches in Istanbul that has not been converted into a mosque Constantine laid out a new square at the centre of old Byzantium, naming it the Augustaeum. The new senate-house (or Curia) was housed in a basilica on the east side. On the south side of the great square was erected the Great Palace of the Emperor with its imposing entrance, the Chalke, and its ceremonial suite known as the Palace of Daphne. Nearby was the vast Hippodrome for chariot-races, seating over 80,000 spectators, and the famed Baths of Zeuxippus. At the western entrance to the Augustaeum was the Milion, a vaulted monument from which distances were measured across the Eastern Roman Empire. From the Augustaeum led a great street, the Mese, lined with colonnades. As it descended the First Hill of the city and climbed the Second Hill, it passed on the left the Praetorium or law-court. Then it passed through the oval Forum of Constantine where there was a second Senate-house and a high column with a statue of Constantine himself in the guise of Helios, crowned with a halo of seven rays and looking toward the rising sun. From there, the Mese passed on and through the Forum Tauri and then the Forum Bovis, and finally up the Seventh Hill (or Xerolophus) and through to the Golden Gate in the Constantinian Wall. After the construction of the Theodosian Walls in the early 5th century, it was extended to the new Golden Gate, reaching a total length of seven Roman miles.[36] After the construction of the Theodosian Walls, Constantinople consisted of an area approximately the size of Old Rome within the Aurelian walls, or some 1,400 ha.[37] 337–529: Constantinople during the Barbarian Invasions and the fall of the West[edit] See also: Palace of Lausus Theodosius I was the last Roman emperor who ruled over an undivided empire (detail from the Obelisk at the Hippodrome of Constantinople). The importance of Constantinople increased, but it was gradual. From the death of Constantine in 337 to the accession of Theodosius I, emperors had been resident only in the years 337–338, 347–351, 358–361, 368–369. Its status as a capital was recognized by the appointment of the first known Urban Prefect of the City Honoratus, who held office from 11 December 359 until 361. The urban prefects had concurrent jurisdiction over three provinces each in the adjacent dioceses of Thrace (in which the city was located), Pontus and Asia comparable to the 100-mile extraordinary jurisdiction of the prefect of Rome. The emperor Valens, who hated the city and spent only one year there, nevertheless built the Palace of Hebdomon on the shore of the Propontis near the Golden Gate, probably for use when reviewing troops. All the emperors up to Zeno and Basiliscus were crowned and acclaimed at the Hebdomon. Theodosius I founded the Church of John the Baptist to house the skull of the saint (today preserved at the Topkapı Palace), put up a memorial pillar to himself in the Forum of Taurus, and turned the ruined temple of Aphrodite into a coach house for the Praetorian Prefect; Arcadius built a new forum named after himself on the Mese, near the walls of Constantine. After the shock of the Battle of Adrianople in 378, in which the emperor Valens with the flower of the Roman armies was destroyed by the Visigoths within a few days' march, the city looked to its defences, and in 413–414 Theodosius II built the 18-metre (60-foot)-tall triple-wall fortifications, which were not to be breached until the coming of gunpowder. Theodosius also founded a University near the Forum of Taurus, on 27 February 425. Uldin, a prince of the Huns, appeared on the Danube about this time and advanced into Thrace, but he was deserted by many of his followers, who joined with the Romans in driving their king back north of the river. Subsequent to this, new walls were built to defend the city and the fleet on the Danube improved. Mosaics of the Great Palace of Constantinople, now in Great Palace Mosaic Museum in Istanbul After the barbarians overran the Western Roman Empire, Constantinople became the indisputable capital city of the Roman Empire. Emperors were no longer peripatetic between various court capitals and palaces. They remained in their palace in the Great City and sent generals to command their armies. The wealth of the eastern Mediterranean and western Asia flowed into Constantinople. 527–565: Constantinople in the Age of Justinian[edit] Map of Constantinople (1422) by Florentine cartographer Cristoforo Buondelmonti[38] is the oldest surviving map of the city, and the only one that predates the Turkish conquest of the city in 1453. The current Hagia Sophia was commissioned by Emperor Justinian I after the previous one was destroyed in the Nika riots of 532. It was converted into a mosque in 1453 when the Ottoman Empire commenced and was a museum from 1935 to 2020. The emperor Justinian I (527–565) was known for his successes in war, for his legal reforms and for his public works. It was from Constantinople that his expedition for the reconquest of the former Diocese of Africa set sail on or about 21 June 533. Before their departure, the ship of the commander Belisarius was anchored in front of the Imperial palace, and the Patriarch offered prayers for the success of the enterprise. After the victory, in 534, the Temple treasure of Jerusalem, looted by the Romans in AD 70 and taken to Carthage by the Vandals after their sack of Rome in 455, was brought to Constantinople and deposited for a time, perhaps in the Church of St Polyeuctus, before being returned to Jerusalem in either the Church of the Resurrection or the New Church.[39] Chariot-racing had been important in Rome for centuries. In Constantinople, the hippodrome became over time increasingly a place of political significance. It was where (as a shadow of the popular elections of old Rome) the people by acclamation showed their approval of a new emperor, and also where they openly criticized the government, or clamoured for the removal of unpopular ministers. In the time of Justinian, public order in Constantinople became a critical political issue. Aqueduct of Valens completed by Roman Emperor Valens in the late 4th century AD. Throughout the late Roman and early Byzantine periods, Christianity was resolving fundamental questions of identity, and the dispute between the orthodox and the monophysites became the cause of serious disorder, expressed through allegiance to the chariot-racing parties of the Blues and the Greens. The partisans of the Blues and the Greens were said[40] to affect untrimmed facial hair, head hair shaved at the front and grown long at the back, and wide-sleeved tunics tight at the wrist; and to form gangs to engage in night-time muggings and street violence. At last these disorders took the form of a major rebellion of 532, known as the "Nika" riots (from the battle-cry of "Conquer!" of those involved).[41] Fires started by the Nika rioters consumed the Theodosian basilica of Hagia Sophia (Holy Wisdom), the city's cathedral, which lay to the north of the Augustaeum and had itself replaced the Constantinian basilica founded by Constantius II to replace the first Byzantine cathedral, Hagia Irene (Holy Peace). Justinian commissioned Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus to replace it with a new and incomparable Hagia Sophia. This was the great cathedral of the city, whose dome was said to be held aloft by God alone, and which was directly connected to the palace so that the imperial family could attend services without passing through the streets. The dedication took place on 26 December 537 in the presence of the emperor, who was later reported to have exclaimed, "O Solomon, I have outdone thee!"[42] Hagia Sophia was served by 600 people including 80 priests, and cost 20,000 pounds of gold to build.[43] Justinian also had Anthemius and Isidore demolish and replace the original Church of the Holy Apostles and Hagia Irene built by Constantine with new churches under the same dedication. The Justinianic Church of the Holy Apostles was designed in the form of an equal-armed cross with five domes, and ornamented with beautiful mosaics. This church was to remain the burial place of the Emperors from Constantine himself until the 11th century. When the city fell to the Turks in 1453, the church was demolished to make room for the tomb of Mehmet II the Conqueror. Justinian was also concerned with other aspects of the city's built environment, legislating against the abuse of laws prohibiting building within 100 feet (30 m) of the sea front, in order to protect the view.[44] During Justinian I's reign, the city's population reached about 500,000 people.[45] However, the social fabric of Constantinople was also damaged by the onset of the Plague of Justinian between 541–542 AD. It killed perhaps 40% of the city's inhabitants.[46] Restored section of the fortifications (Theodosian Walls) that protected Constantinople during the medieval period. Survival, 565–717: Constantinople during the Byzantine Dark Ages[edit] In the early 7th century, the Avars and later the Bulgars overwhelmed much of the Balkans, threatening Constantinople with attack from the west. Simultaneously, the Persian Sassanids overwhelmed the Prefecture of the East and penetrated deep into Anatolia. Heraclius, son of the exarch of Africa, set sail for the city and assumed the throne. He found the military situation so dire that he is said to have contemplated withdrawing the imperial capital to Carthage, but relented after the people of Constantinople begged him to stay. The citizens lost their right to free grain in 618 when Heraclius realised that the city could no longer be supplied from Egypt as a result of the Persian wars: the population fell substantially as a result.[47] Chora Church medieval Byzantine Greek Orthodox church preserved as the Chora Museum in the Edirnekapı neighborhood of Istanbul. While the city withstood a siege by the Sassanids and Avars in 626, Heraclius campaigned deep into Persian territory and briefly restored the status quo in 628, when the Persians surrendered all their conquests. However, further sieges followed the Arab conquests, first from 674 to 678 and then in 717 to 718. The Theodosian Walls kept the city impregnable from the land, while a newly discovered incendiary substance known as Greek Fire allowed the Byzantine navy to destroy the Arab fleets and keep the city supplied. In the second siege, the second ruler of Bulgaria, Khan Tervel, rendered decisive help. He was called Saviour of Europe.[48] 717–1025: Constantinople during the Macedonian Renaissance[edit] Emperor Leo VI (886–912) adoring Jesus Christ. Mosaic above the Imperial Gate in the Hagia Sophia. In the 730s Leo III carried out extensive repairs of the Theodosian walls, which had been damaged by frequent and violent attacks; this work was financed by a special tax on all the subjects of the Empire.[49] Theodora, widow of the Emperor Theophilus (died 842), acted as regent during the minority of her son Michael III, who was said to have been introduced to dissolute habits by her brother Bardas. When Michael assumed power in 856, he became known for excessive drunkenness, appeared in the hippodrome as a charioteer and burlesqued the religious processions of the clergy. He removed Theodora from the Great Palace to the Carian Palace and later to the monastery of Gastria, but, after the death of Bardas, she was released to live in the palace of St Mamas; she also had a rural residence at the Anthemian Palace, where Michael was assassinated in 867.[50] In 860, an attack was made on the city by a new principality set up a few years earlier at Kyiv by Askold and Dir, two Varangian chiefs: Two hundred small vessels passed through the Bosporus and plundered the monasteries and other properties on the suburban Prince's Islands. Oryphas, the admiral of the Byzantine fleet, alerted the emperor Michael, who promptly put the invaders to flight; but the suddenness and savagery of the onslaught made a deep impression on the citizens.[51] In 980, the emperor Basil II received an unusual gift from Prince Vladimir of Kyiv: 6,000 Varangian warriors, which Basil formed into a new bodyguard known as the Varangian Guard. They were known for their ferocity, honour, and loyalty. It is said that, in 1038, they were dispersed in winter quarters in the Thracesian Theme when one of their number attempted to violate a countrywoman, but in the struggle she seized his sword and killed him; instead of taking revenge, however, his comrades applauded her conduct, compensated her with all his possessions, and exposed his body without burial as if he had committed suicide.[52] However, following the death of an Emperor, they became known also for plunder in the Imperial palaces.[53] Later in the 11th Century the Varangian Guard became dominated by Anglo-Saxons who preferred this way of life to subjugation by the new Norman kings of England.[54] One of the most famous of the surviving Byzantine mosaics of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople – the image of Christ Pantocrator on the walls of the upper southern gallery, Christ being flanked by the Virgin Mary and John the Baptist; circa 1261 The Book of the Eparch, which dates to the 10th century, gives a detailed picture of the city's commercial life and its organization at that time. The corporations in which the tradesmen of Constantinople were organised were supervised by the Eparch, who regulated such matters as production, prices, import, and export. Each guild had its own monopoly, and tradesmen might not belong to more than one. It is an impressive testament to the strength of tradition how little these arrangements had changed since the office, then known by the Latin version of its title, had been set up in 330 to mirror the urban prefecture of Rome.[55] In the 9th and 10th centuries, Constantinople had a population of between 500,000 and 800,000.[56] Mosaic of Jesus in Pammakaristos Church, Istanbul. Iconoclast controversy in Constantinople[edit] In the 8th and 9th centuries, the iconoclast movement caused serious political unrest throughout the Empire. The emperor Leo III issued a decree in 726 against images, and ordered the destruction of a statue of Christ over one of the doors of the Chalke, an act that was fiercely resisted by the citizens.[57] Constantine V convoked a church council in 754, which condemned the worship of images, after which many treasures were broken, burned, or painted over with depictions of trees, birds or animals: One source refers to the church of the Holy Virgin at Blachernae as having been transformed into a "fruit store and aviary".[58] Following the death of her son Leo IV in 780, the empress Irene restored the veneration of images through the agency of the Second Council of Nicaea in 787. The iconoclast controversy returned in the early 9th century, only to be resolved once more in 843 during the regency of Empress Theodora, who restored the icons. These controversies contributed to the deterioration of relations between the Western and the Eastern Churches. 1025–1081: Constantinople after Basil II[edit] A fragment of the Milion (Greek: Μίλ(λ)ιον), a mile-marker monument In the late 11th century catastrophe struck with the unexpected and calamitous defeat of the imperial armies at the Battle of Manzikert in Armenia in 1071. The Emperor Romanus Diogenes was captured. The peace terms demanded by Alp Arslan, sultan of the Seljuk Turks, were not excessive, and Romanus accepted them. On his release, however, Romanus found that enemies had placed their own candidate on the throne in his absence; he surrendered to them and suffered death by torture, and the new ruler, Michael VII Ducas, refused to honour the treaty. In response, the Turks began to move into Anatolia in 1073. The collapse of the old defensive system meant that they met no opposition, and the empire's resources were distracted and squandered in a series of civil wars. Thousands of Turkoman tribesmen crossed the unguarded frontier and moved into Anatolia. By 1080, a huge area had been lost to the Empire, and the Turks were within striking distance of Constantinople. 1081–1185: Constantinople under the Comneni[edit] The Byzantine Empire under Manuel I, c. 1180. 12th century mosaic from the upper gallery of the Hagia Sophia, Constantinople. Emperor John II (1118–1143) is shown on the left, with the Virgin Mary and infant Jesus in the centre, and John's consort Empress Irene on the right. Under the Comnenian dynasty (1081–1185), Byzantium staged a remarkable recovery. In 1090–91, the nomadic Pechenegs reached the walls of Constantinople, where Emperor Alexius I with the aid of the Kipchaks annihilated their army.[59] In response to a call for aid from Alexius, the First Crusade assembled at Constantinople in 1096, but declining to put itself under Byzantine command set out for Jerusalem on its own account.[60] John II built the monastery of the Pantocrator (Almighty) with a hospital for the poor of 50 beds.[61] With the restoration of firm central government, the empire became fabulously wealthy. The population was rising (estimates for Constantinople in the 12th century vary from some 100,000 to 500,000), and towns and cities across the realm flourished. Meanwhile, the volume of money in circulation dramatically increased. This was reflected in Constantinople by the construction of the Blachernae palace, the creation of brilliant new works of art, and general prosperity at this time: an increase in trade, made possible by the growth of the Italian city-states, may have helped the growth of the economy. It is certain that the Venetians and others were active traders in Constantinople, making a living out of shipping goods between the Crusader Kingdoms of Outremer and the West, while also trading extensively with Byzantium and Egypt. The Venetians had factories on the north side of the Golden Horn, and large numbers of westerners were present in the city throughout the 12th century. Toward the end of Manuel I Komnenos's reign, the number of foreigners in the city reached about 60,000–80,000 people out of a total population of about 400,000 people.[62] In 1171, Constantinople also contained a small community of 2,500 Jews.[63] In 1182, most Latin (Western European) inhabitants of Constantinople were massacred.[64] In artistic terms, the 12th century was a very productive period. There was a revival in the mosaic art, for example: Mosaics became more realistic and vivid, with an increased emphasis on depicting three-dimensional forms. There was an increased demand for art, with more people having access to the necessary wealth to commission and pay for such work. According to N.H. Baynes (Byzantium, An Introduction to East Roman Civilization): With its love of luxury and passion for colour, the art of this age delighted in the production of masterpieces that spread the fame of Byzantium throughout the whole of the Christian world. Beautiful silks from the workshops of Constantinople also portrayed in dazzling colour animals – lions, elephants, eagles, and griffins – confronting each other, or represented Emperors gorgeously arrayed on horseback or engaged in the chase. From the tenth to the twelfth century Byzantium was the main source of inspiration for the West. By their style, arrangement, and iconography the mosaics of St. Mark's at Venice and of the cathedral at Torcello clearly reveal their Byzantine origin. Similarly those of the Palatine Chapel, the Martorana at Palermo, and the cathedral of Cefalù, together with the vast decoration of the cathedral at Monreale, demonstrate the influence of Byzantium on the Norman Court of Sicily in the twelfth century. Hispano-Moorish art was unquestionably derived from the Byzantine. Romanesque art owes much to the East, from which it borrowed not only its decorative forms but the plan of some of its buildings, as is proved, for instance, by the domed churches of south-western France. Princes of Kyiv, Venetian doges, abbots of Monte Cassino, merchants of Amalfi, and the kings of Sicily all looked to Byzantium for artists or works of art. Such was the influence of Byzantine art in the twelfth century, that Russia, Venice, southern Italy and Sicily all virtually became provincial centres dedicated to its production." 1185–1261: Constantinople during the Imperial Exile[edit] Pammakaristos Church mosaic of Saint Anthony, the desert Father The Entry of the Crusaders into Constantinople, by Eugène Delacroix, 1840. The Latin Empire, Empire of Nicaea, Empire of Trebizond, and the Despotate of Epirus. The borders are very uncertain. On 25 July 1197, Constantinople was struck by a severe fire which burned the Latin Quarter and the area around the Gate of the Droungarios (Turkish: Odun Kapısı) on the Golden Horn.[65][66] Nevertheless, the destruction wrought by the 1197 fire paled in comparison with that brought by the Crusaders. In the course of a plot between Philip of Swabia, Boniface of Montferrat and the Doge of Venice, the Fourth Crusade was, despite papal excommunication, diverted in 1203 against Constantinople, ostensibly promoting the claims of Alexius, son of the deposed emperor Isaac. The reigning emperor Alexius III had made no preparation. The Crusaders occupied Galata, broke the defensive chain protecting the Golden Horn, and entered the harbour, where on 27 July they breached the sea walls: Alexius III fled. But the new Alexius IV found the Treasury inadequate, and was unable to make good the rewards he had promised to his western allies. Tension between the citizens and the Latin soldiers increased. In January 1204, the protovestiarius Alexius Murzuphlus provoked a riot, it is presumed, to intimidate Alexius IV, but whose only result was the destruction of the great statue of Athena Promachos, the work of Phidias, which stood in the principal forum facing west. In February 1204, the people rose again: Alexius IV was imprisoned and executed, and Murzuphlus took the purple as Alexius V. He made some attempt to repair the walls and organise the citizenry, but there had been no opportunity to bring in troops from the provinces and the guards were demoralised by the revolution. An attack by the Crusaders on 6 April failed, but a second from the Golden Horn on 12 April succeeded, and the invaders poured in. Alexius V fled. The Senate met in Hagia Sophia and offered the crown to Theodore Lascaris, who had married into the Angelid family, but it was too late. He came out with the Patriarch to the Golden Milestone before the Great Palace and addressed the Varangian Guard. Then the two of them slipped away with many of the nobility and embarked for Asia. By the next day the Doge and the leading Franks were installed in the Great Palace, and the city was given over to pillage for three days. Sir Steven Runciman, historian of the Crusades, wrote that the sack of Constantinople is "unparalleled in history". For nine centuries, [...] the great city had been the capital of Christian civilisation. It was filled with works of art that had survived from ancient Greece and with the masterpieces of its own exquisite craftsmen. The Venetians [...] seized treasures and carried them off to adorn [...] their town. But the Frenchmen and Flemings were filled with a lust for destruction. They rushed in a howling mob down the streets and through the houses, snatching up everything that glittered and destroying whatever they could not carry, pausing only to murder or to rape, or to break open the wine-cellars [...] . Neither monasteries nor churches nor libraries were spared. In Hagia Sophia itself, drunken soldiers could be seen tearing down the silken hangings and pulling the great silver iconostasis to pieces, while sacred books and icons were trampled under foot. While they drank merrily from the altar-vessels a prostitute set herself on the Patriarch's throne and began to sing a ribald French song. Nuns were ravished in their convents. Palaces and hovels alike were entered and wrecked. Wounded women and children lay dying in the streets. For three days the ghastly scenes [...] continued, till the huge and beautiful city was a shambles. [...] When [...] order was restored, [...] citizens were tortured to make them reveal the goods that they had contrived to hide.[67] For the next half-century, Constantinople was the seat of the Latin Empire. Under the rulers of the Latin Empire, the city declined, both in population and the condition of its buildings. Alice-Mary Talbot cites an estimated population for Constantinople of 400,000 inhabitants; after the destruction wrought by the Crusaders on the city, about one third were homeless, and numerous courtiers, nobility, and higher clergy, followed various leading personages into exile. "As a result Constantinople became seriously depopulated," Talbot concludes.[68] Dome of the Pammakaristos Church, Istanbul The Latins took over at least 20 churches and 13 monasteries, most prominently the Hagia Sophia, which became the cathedral of the Latin Patriarch of Constantinople. It is to these that E.H. Swift attributed the construction of a series of flying buttresses to shore up the walls of the church, which had been weakened over the centuries by earthquake tremors.[69] However, this act of maintenance is an exception: for the most part, the Latin occupiers were too few to maintain all of the buildings, either secular and sacred, and many became targets for vandalism or dismantling. Bronze and lead were removed from the roofs of abandoned buildings and melted down and sold to provide money to the chronically under-funded Empire for defense and to support the court; Deno John Geanokoplos writes that "it may well be that a division is suggested here: Latin laymen stripped secular buildings, ecclesiastics, the churches."[70] Buildings were not the only targets of officials looking to raise funds for the impoverished Latin Empire: the monumental sculptures which adorned the Hippodrome and fora of the city were pulled down and melted for coinage. "Among the masterpieces destroyed, writes Talbot, "were a Herakles attributed to the fourth-century B.C. sculptor Lysippos, and monumental figures of Hera, Paris, and Helen."[71] The Nicaean emperor John III Vatatzes reportedly saved several churches from being dismantled for their valuable building materials; by sending money to the Latins "to buy them off" (exonesamenos), he prevented the destruction of several churches.[72] According to Talbot, these included the churches of Blachernae, Rouphinianai, and St. Michael at Anaplous. He also granted funds for the restoration of the Church of the Holy Apostles, which had been seriously damaged in an earthquake.[71] The final siege of Constantinople, contemporary 15th-century French miniature. The Byzantine nobility scattered, many going to Nicaea, where Theodore Lascaris set up an imperial court, or to Epirus, where Theodore Angelus did the same; others fled to Trebizond, where one of the Comneni had already with Georgian support established an independent seat of empire.[73] Nicaea and Epirus both vied for the imperial title, and tried to recover Constantinople. In 1261, Constantinople was captured from its last Latin ruler, Baldwin II, by the forces of the Nicaean emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos. 1261–1453: Palaiologan Era and the Fall of Constantinople[edit] See also: Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty and Fall of Constantinople Mehmed the Conqueror enters Constantinople, painting by Fausto Zonaro. Although Constantinople was retaken by Michael VIII Palaiologos, the Empire had lost many of its key economic resources, and struggled to survive. The palace of Blachernae in the north-west of the city became the main Imperial residence, with the old Great Palace on the shores of the Bosporus going into decline. When Michael VIII captured the city, its population was 35,000 people, but, by the end of his reign, he had succeeded in increasing the population to about 70,000 people.[74] The Emperor achieved this by summoning former residents who had fled the city when the crusaders captured it, and by relocating Greeks from the recently reconquered Peloponnese to the capital.[75] Military defeats, civil wars, earthquakes and natural disasters were joined by the Black Death, which in 1347 spread to Constantinople exacerbated the people’s sense that they were doomed by God.[76][77] In 1453, when the Ottoman Turks captured the city, it contained approximately 50,000 people.[78] Constantinople was conquered by the Ottoman Empire on 29 May 1453.[79] The Ottomans were commanded by 21-year-old Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II. The conquest of Constantinople followed a seven-week siege which had begun on 6 April 1453. 1453–1922: Ottoman Kostantiniyye[edit] Main article: Constantinople during the Ottoman era Galata Tower, the Romanesque style tower was built as Christea Turris (Tower of Christ) in 1348 during an expansion of the Genoese colony in Constantinople The Christian Orthodox city of Constantinople was now under Ottoman control. When Mehmed II finally entered Constantinople through the Gate of Charisius (today known as Edirnekapı or Adrianople Gate), he immediately rode his horse to the Hagia Sophia, where after the doors were axed down, the thousands of citizens hiding within the sanctuary were raped and enslaved, often with slavers fighting each other to the death over particularly beautiful and valuable slave girls.[80] Moreover, symbols of Christianity were everywhere vandalized or destroyed, including the crucifix of Hagia Sophia which was paraded through the sultan's camps.[81] Afterwards he ordered his soldiers to stop hacking at the city's valuable marbles and 'be satisfied with the booty and captives; as for all the buildings, they belonged to him'.[82] He ordered that an imam meet him there in order to chant the adhan thus transforming the Orthodox cathedral into a Muslim mosque,[82][83] solidifying Islamic rule in Constantinople. Mehmed's main concern with Constantinople had to do with solidifying control over the city and rebuilding its defenses. After 45,000 captives were marched from the city, building projects were commenced immediately after the conquest, which included the repair of the walls, construction of the citadel, and building a new palace.[84] Mehmed issued orders across his empire that Muslims, Christians, and Jews should resettle the city, with Christans and Jews are required to pay jizya and muslims pay Zakat; he demanded that five thousand households needed to be transferred to Constantinople by September.[84] From all over the Islamic empire, prisoners of war and deported people were sent to the city: these people were called "Sürgün" in Turkish (Greek: σουργούνιδες).[11] Two centuries later, Ottoman traveler Evliya Çelebi gave a list of groups introduced into the city with their respective origins. Even today, many quarters of Istanbul, such as Aksaray, Çarşamba, bear the names of the places of origin of their inhabitants.[11] However, many people escaped again from the city, and there were several outbreaks of plague, so that in 1459 Mehmed allowed the deported Greeks to come back to the city.[11] Culture[edit] Eagle and Snake, 6th century mosaic flooring Constantinople, Grand Imperial Palace. Constantinople apple quinces Constantinople was the largest and richest urban center in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea during the late Eastern Roman Empire, mostly as a result of its strategic position commanding the trade routes between the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea. It would remain the capital of the eastern, Greek-speaking empire for over a thousand years. At its peak, roughly corresponding to the Middle Ages, it was the richest and largest European city, exerting a powerful cultural pull and dominating economic life in the Mediterranean. Visitors and merchants were especially struck by the beautiful monasteries and churches of the city, in particular the Hagia Sophia, or the Church of Holy Wisdom. According to Russian 14th-century traveler Stephen of Novgorod: "As for Hagia Sophia, the human mind can neither tell it nor make description of it." It was especially important for preserving in its libraries manuscripts of Greek and Latin authors throughout a period when instability and disorder caused their mass-destruction in western Europe and north Africa: On the city's fall, thousands of these were brought by refugees to Italy, and played a key part in stimulating the Renaissance, and the transition to the modern world. The cumulative influence of the city on the west, over the many centuries of its existence, is incalculable. In terms of technology, art and culture, as well as sheer size, Constantinople was without parallel anywhere in Europe for a thousand years. Women in literature[edit] Constantinople was home to the first known Western Armenian journal published and edited by a woman (Elpis Kesaratsian). Entering circulation in 1862, Kit'arr or Guitar stayed in print for only seven months. Female writers who openly expressed their desires were viewed as immodest, but this changed slowly as journals began to publish more "women's sections". In the 1880s, Matteos Mamurian invited Srpouhi Dussap to submit essays for Arevelian Mamal. According to Zaruhi Galemkearian's autobiography, she was told to write about women's place in the family and home after she published two volumes of poetry in the 1890s. By 1900, several Armenian journals had started to include works by female contributors including the Constantinople-based Tsaghik.[85] Markets[edit] Even before Constantinople was founded, the markets of Byzantion were mentioned first by Xenophon and then by Theopompus who wrote that Byzantians "spent their time at the market and the harbour". In Justinian's age the Mese street running across the city from east to west was a daily market. Procopius claimed "more than 500 prostitutes" did business along the market street. Ibn Batutta who traveled to the city in 1325 wrote of the bazaars "Astanbul" in which the "majority of the artisans and salespeople in them are women".[86] Architecture[edit] Main article: Byzantine architecture Columns of the Hagia Sophia, currently a Mosque The Byzantine Empire used Roman and Greek architectural models and styles to create its own unique type of architecture. The influence of Byzantine architecture and art can be seen in the copies taken from it throughout Europe. Particular examples include St Mark's Basilica in Venice,[87] the basilicas of Ravenna, and many churches throughout the Slavic East. Also, alone in Europe until the 13th-century Italian florin, the Empire continued to produce sound gold coinage, the solidus of Diocletian becoming the bezant prized throughout the Middle Ages. Its city walls were much imitated (for example, see Caernarfon Castle) and its urban infrastructure was moreover a marvel throughout the Middle Ages, keeping alive the art, skill and technical expertise of the Roman Empire. In the Ottoman period Islamic architecture and symbolism were used. Religion[edit] Constantine's foundation gave prestige to the Bishop of Constantinople, who eventually came to be known as the Ecumenical Patriarch, and made it a prime center of Christianity alongside Rome. This contributed to cultural and theological differences between Eastern and Western Christianity eventually leading to the Great Schism that divided Western Catholicism from Eastern Orthodoxy from 1054 onwards. Constantinople is also of great religious importance to Islam, as the conquest of Constantinople is one of the signs of the End time in Islam. Education[edit] In 1909, in Constantinople there were 626 primary schools and 12 secondary schools. Of the primary schools 561 were of the lower grade and 65 were of the higher grade; of the latter, 34 were public and 31 were private. There was one secondary college and eleven secondary preparatory schools.[88] Media[edit] This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (July 2019) See also: Media of the Ottoman Empire In the past the Bulgarian newspapers in the late Ottoman period were Makedoniya, Napredŭk, and Pravo.[89] Popular culture[edit] Page depicting Constantinople in the Nuremberg Chronicle published in 1493, forty years after the city's fall to the Muslims. Constantinople appears as a city of wondrous majesty, beauty, remoteness, and nostalgia in William Butler Yeats' 1928 poem "Sailing to Byzantium." Constantinople, as seen under the Byzantine emperor Theodosius II, makes several on-screen appearances in the 2001 TV miniseries Attila as the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. Finnish author Mika Waltari wrote one of his most-acclaimed historical novels, Johannes Angelos (published in English by name "The Dark Angel") on the fall of Constantinople. Robert Graves, author of I, Claudius, also wrote Count Belisarius, a historical novel about Belisarius. Graves set much of the novel in the Constantinople of Justinian I. Constantinople provides the setting of much of the action in Umberto Eco's 2000 novel Baudolino. The name Constantinople was made easy to spell thanks to a novelty song, "C-O-N-S-T-A-N-T-I-N-O-P-L-E," written by Harry Carlton and performed by Paul Whiteman and his Orchestra, in the 1920s. Constantinople's change of name was the theme for a song made famous by The Four Lads and later covered by They Might Be Giants and many others, titled "Istanbul (Not Constantinople)." "Constantinople" was one of the "big words" the Father knows toward the end of Dr. Seuss's book, Hop on Pop. (The other was Timbuktu.) "Constantinople" was also the title of the opening edit of The Residents' EP Duck Stab!, released in 1978. Queen's Roger Meddows Taylor included the track "Interlude in Constantinople" on Side 2 of his debut album Fun in Space. A Montreal-based folk/classical/fusion band calls itself "Constantinople." Constantinople under Justinian is the scene of the book A Flame in Byzantium (ISBN 0-312-93026-7) by Chelsea Quinn Yarbro, released in 1987. "Constantinople" is the title of a song by The Decemberists. Stephen Lawhead's novel Byzantium (1996) is set in 9th-century Constantinople. Folk Metal band Turisas makes multiple references to Constantinople in their song "Miklagard Overture," referring to it as "Konstantinopolis," "Tsargrad," and "Miklagard." Constantinople makes an appearance in the MMORPG game Silkroad as a major capital, along with a major Chinese capital. Constantinople makes an appearance in the "Rome Total War" expansion "Barbarian Invasion" belonging to the Eastern Roman Empire. It would reappear in the same role for the spiritual sequel, Total War: Attila. Constantinople also makes an appearance in "Medieval Total War." It is a starting province and city of the Byzantines. Constantinople makes an appearance in the game "Age of Empires II: The Age of Kings" in the fifth scenario of the Barbarossa campaign and again in the third scenario of the Attila the Hun campaign in the expansion pack "Age of Empires II: The Conquerors Expansion." Constantinople is the main setting of the game "Assassin's Creed: Revelations," the fourth major title in the best-selling "Assassin's Creed" series.[90] Constantinople is also a setting of the Vampire: The Dark Ages role playing game by White Wolf.[91] Constantinople is one of the territories featured in the Board Game Diplomacy. It is one of the default territories of Turkey. Constantinople appears in "Europa Universalis IV" and in "Crusader Kings II" as the capital of the Byzantine Empire, which is featured in both games. Constantinople appears as the capital of the Byzantine civilization in several installments of the video game series "Civilization". International status[edit] Constantinople's monumental center. The city provided a defence for the eastern provinces of the old Roman Empire against the barbarian invasions of the 5th century. The 18-meter-tall walls built by Theodosius II were, in essence, impregnable to the barbarians coming from south of the Danube river, who found easier targets to the west rather than the richer provinces to the east in Asia. From the 5th century, the city was also protected by the Anastasian Wall, a 60-kilometer chain of walls across the Thracian peninsula. Many scholars[who?] argue that these sophisticated fortifications allowed the east to develop relatively unmolested while Ancient Rome and the west collapsed.[92] Constantinople's fame was such that it was described even in contemporary Chinese histories, the Old and New Book of Tang, which mentioned its massive walls and gates as well as a purported clepsydra mounted with a golden statue of a man.[93][94][95] The Chinese histories even related how the city had been besieged in the 7th century by Muawiyah I and how he exacted tribute in a peace settlement.[94][96] See also[edit] People from Constantinople[edit] List of people from Constantinople Secular buildings and monuments[edit] Augustaion Column of Justinian Basilica Cistern Column of Marcian Bucoleon Palace Horses of Saint Mark Obelisk of Theodosius Serpent Column Walled Obelisk Palace of Lausus Cistern of Philoxenos Palace of the Porphyrogenitus Prison of Anemas Valens Aqueduct Churches, monasteries and mosques[edit] Atik Mustafa Pasha Mosque Bodrum Mosque Chora Church Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus Church of the Holy Apostles Church of St. Polyeuctus Eski Imaret Mosque Fenari Isa Mosque Gül Mosque Hagia Irene Hirami Ahmet Pasha Mosque Kalenderhane Mosque Koca Mustafa Pasha Mosque Nea Ekklesia Pammakaristos Church Stoudios Monastery Toklu Dede Mosque Vefa Kilise Mosque Zeyrek Mosque Unnamed Mosque established during Byzantine times for visiting Muslim dignitaries.[97][98][99][100][101] Miscellaneous[edit] Ahmed Bican Yazıcıoğlu Byzantine calendar Byzantine silk Eparch of Constantinople (List of eparchs) Sieges of Constantinople Third Rome Timeline of Istanbul history References[edit] ^ Croke, Brian (2001). Count Marcellinus and His Chronicle, p. 103. University Press, Oxford. ISBN 0198150016. ^ Müller-Wiener (1977), p. 86. ^ "The Chronicle of John Malalas", Bk 18.86 Translated by E. Jeffreys, M. Jeffreys, and R. Scott. Australian Association of Byzantine Studies, 1986 vol 4. ^ "The Chronicle of Theophones Confessor: Byzantine and Near Eastern History AD 284-813". Translated with commentary by Cyril Mango and Roger Scott. AM 6030 pg 316, with this note: Theophanes' precise date should be accepted. ^ Roach, Peter (2011). Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary (18th ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-15253-2. ^ a b c Mango, Cyril (1991). "Constantinople". In Kazhdan, Alexander (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 508–512. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. ^ Pounds, Norman John Greville. An Historical Geography of Europe, 1500–1840, p. 124. CUP Archive, 1979. ISBN 0-521-22379-2. ^ Janin (1964), passim ^ "Preserving The Intellectual Heritage – Preface". ^ Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of Byzantine State and Society. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. p. 89. ^ a b c d Müller-Wiener (1977), p. 28 ^ Rosenberg, Matt. "Largest cities through history." About.com. ^ Pliny the Elder, book IV, chapter XI Archived 2017-01-01 at the Wayback Machine. Quote: "On leaving the Dardanelles we come to the Bay of Casthenes, ... and the promontory of the Golden Horn, on which is the town of Byzantium, a free state, formerly called Lygos; it is 711 miles from Durazzo,..." ^ Vailhé, S. (1908). "Constantinople". Catholic Encyclopedia. 4. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 2007-09-12. ^ Room, Adrian (2006). Placenames of the World: Origins and Meanings of the Names for 6,600 Countries, Cities, Territories, Natural Features, and Historic Sites (2nd ed.). Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Company. p. 177. ISBN 978-0-7864-2248-7. ^ Janin, Raymond (1964). Constantinople byzantine. Paris: Institut Français d'Études Byzantines. p. 10f. ^ a b Georgacas, Demetrius John (1947). "The Names of Constantinople". Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association (The Johns Hopkins University Press) 78: 347–67. doi:10.2307/283503. JSTOR 283503. ^ a b c d Harris, Jonathan (2009). Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-082-643-086-1. ^ a b Necdet Sakaoğlu (1993/94a): "İstanbul'un adları" ["The names of Istanbul"]. In: 'Dünden bugüne İstanbul ansiklopedisi', ed. Türkiye Kültür Bakanlığı, Istanbul. ^ Harris, 2007, p. 5 ^ Harper, Douglas. "Istanbul". Online Etymology Dictionary. ^ Stanford and Ezel Shaw (1977): History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Vol II, p. 386; Robinson (1965), The First Turkish Republic, p. 298 ^ Tom Burham, The Dictionary of Misinformation, Ballantine, 1977. ^ Room, Adrian, (1993), Place Name changes 1900–1991, Metuchen, N.J., & London:The Scarecrow Press, Inc., ISBN 0-8108-2600-3 pp. 46, 86. ^ Britannica, Istanbul. ^ Pliny, IV, xi ^ Patria of Constantinople ^ Thucydides, I, 94 ^ Harris, 2007, pp. 24–25 ^ Harris, 2007, p. 45 ^ Harris, 2007, pp. 44–45 ^ Cassius Dio, ix, p. 195 ^ Commemorative coins that were issued during the 330s already refer to the city as Constantinopolis (see, e.g., Michael Grant, The climax of Rome (London 1968), p. 133), or "Constantine's City". According to the Reallexikon für Antike und Christentum, vol. 164 (Stuttgart 2005), column 442, there is no evidence for the tradition that Constantine officially dubbed the city "New Rome" (Nova Roma). It is possible that the Emperor called the city "Second Rome" (Δευτέρα Ῥώμη, Deutera Rhōmē) by official decree, as reported by the 5th-century church historian Socrates of Constantinople: See Names of Constantinople. ^ A description can be found in the Notitia urbis Constantinopolitanae. ^ Socrates II.13, cited by J B Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire, p. 74. ^ J B Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire, p. 75. et seqq. ^ Bogdanović 2016, pp. 100. ^ Liber insularum Archipelagi, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris. ^ Margaret Barker, Times Literary Supplement 4 May 2007, p. 26. ^ Procopius' Secret History: see P Neville-Ure, Justinian and his Age, 1951. ^ James Grout: "The Nika Riot", part of the Encyclopædia Romana ^ Source for quote: Scriptores originum Constantinopolitanarum, ed T Preger I 105 (see A. A. Vasiliev, History of the Byzantine Empire, 1952, vol I, p. 188). ^ Madden, Thomas F. (2004). Crusades: The Illustrated History. University of Michigan Press. p. 114. ISBN 9780472114634. ^ Justinian, Novellae 63 and 165. ^ Early Medieval and Byzantine Civilization: Constantine to Crusades Archived August 26, 2015, at the Wayback Machine, Dr. Kenneth W. Harl. ^ Past pandemics that ravaged Europe, BBC News, November 7, 2005. ^ Possibly from the largest city in the world with 500,000 inhabitants to just 40,000–70,000: The Inheritance of Rome, Chris Wickham, Penguin Books Ltd. 2009, ISBN 978-0-670-02098-0 (p. 260) ^ "Exposition, Dedicated to Khan Tervel". Programata. Archived from the original on 2016-05-07. Retrieved 2014-08-28. ^ Vasiliev 1952, p. 251. ^ George Finlay, History of the Byzantine Empire, Dent, London, 1906, pp. 156–161. ^ Finlay, 1906, pp. 174–175. ^ Finlay, 1906, p. 379. ^ Enoksen, Lars Magnar. (1998). Runor : historia, tydning, tolkning. Historiska Media, Falun. ISBN 91-88930-32-7 p. 135. ^ J M Hussey, The Byzantine World, Hutchinson, London, 1967, p. 92. ^ Vasiliev 1952, pp. 343–344. ^ Silk Road Seattle – Constantinople, Daniel C. Waugh. ^ The officer given the task was killed by the crowd, and in the end the image was removed rather than destroyed: It was to be restored by Irene and removed again by Leo V: Finlay 1906, p. 111. ^ Vasiliev 1952, p. 261. ^ "The Pechenegs". Archived from the original on 2005-08-29. Retrieved 2009-10-27. , Steven Lowe and Dmitriy V. Ryaboy. ^ There is an excellent source for these events: the writer and historian Anna Comnena in her work The Alexiad. ^ Vasiliev 1952, p. 472. ^ J. Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople, 144. ^ J. Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople, 155. ^ The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Middle Ages: 950–1250. Cambridge University Press. 1986. pp. 506–508. ISBN 978-0-521-26645-1. Retrieved 2016-02-19. ^ Stilbes, Constantine; Johannes M. Diethart; Wolfram Hörandner (2005). Constantinus Stilbes Poemata. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 16 line 184. ISBN 978-3-598-71235-7. ^ Diethart and Hörandner (2005). p. 24, line 387 ^ Steven Runciman, A History of the Crusades, Cambridge 1966 [1954], vol 3, p. 123. ^ Talbot, "The Restoration of Constantinople under Michael VIII", Dumbarton Oaks Papers, 47 (1993), p. 246 ^ Talbot, "Restoration of Constantinople", p. 247 ^ Geanakoplos, Emperor Michael Palaeologus and the West (Harvard University Press, 1959), p. 124 n. 26 ^ a b Talbot, "Restoration of Constantinople", p. 248 ^ Geanakoplos, Emperor Michael, p. 124 ^ Hussey 1967, p. 70. ^ T. Madden, Crusades: The Illustrated History, 113. ^ Norwich, John Julius (1996). Byzantium: The Decline and Fall. Penguin Books. p. 217. ISBN 9780140114492. ^ https://www.infezmed.it/media/journal/Vol_19_3_2011_10.pdf ^ "The Black Death". Archived from the original on 2008-06-25. Retrieved 2008-11-03.CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link) , Channel 4 – History. ^ Nicolle, David (2005). Constantinople 1453: The end of Byzantium. Praeger. p. 32. ISBN 9780275988562. ^ "fall of Constantinople | Facts, Summary, & Significance". Encyclopedia Britannica. ^ Ibrahim, Raymond. Sword and Scimitar. Da Capo Press, New York, ISBN 978-0-306-82555-2. p. 244. ^ Ibrahim, Raymond. Sword and Scimitar. Da Capo Press, New York, ISBN 978-0-306-82555-2. p. 245. ^ a b Mansel, Philip. Constantinople: City of the World's Desire. Penguin History Travel, ISBN 0-14-026246-6. p. 1. ^ Lewis, Bernard. Istanbul and the Civilization of the Ottoman Empire. 1, University of Oklahoma Press, 1963. p. 6 ^ a b Inalcik, Halil. "The Policy of Mehmed II toward the Greek Population of Istanbul and the Byzantine Buildings of the City." Dumbarton Oaks Papers 23, (1969): 229–249. p. 236 ^ Rowe, Victoria (2003). A History of Armenian Women's Writing, 1880–1922. Cambridge Scholars Press. ISBN 978-1-904303-23-7. ^ Dalby, Andrew. Tastes of Byzantium: The Cuisine of a Legendary Empire. I.B. Tauris. pp. 61–63. ^ "San Marco Basilica | cathedral, Venice, Italy". Encyclopedia Britannica. ^ "Report of the Commissioner of Education for the Year Ended June 30, 1912." Whole Number 525. Volume 1. Washington Government Printing Office, 1913. In: Congressional Edition, Volume 6410. U.S. Government Printing Office, 1913. p. 570. ^ Strauss, Johann. "Twenty Years in the Ottoman capital: the memoirs of Dr. Hristo Tanev Stambolski of Kazanlik (1843-1932) from an Ottoman point of view." In: Herzog, Christoph and Richard Wittmann (editors). Istanbul - Kushta - Constantinople: Narratives of Identity in the Ottoman Capital, 1830-1930. Routledge, 10 October 2018. ISBN 1351805223, 9781351805223. p. 267. ^ "Game Informer 218 details (Assassin's Creed, Rayman Origins)". NeoGAF. ^ Constantinople by Night by p. Boulle, J. Mosqueria-Asheim and L. Soulban, 1997 White Wolf Publishing, Inc. ^ "Constantinople". Barbarism and Civilization. Retrieved 2018-04-09. ^ Ball (2016), pp. 152–153; see also endnote No. 114. ^ a b Hirth (2000) [1885], East Asian History Sourcebook. Retrieved 24 September 2016. ^ Yule (1915), 46–48; see also footnote No. 1 on p. 49. ^ Yule (1915), 46–49; see footnote No. 1 on p. 49 for discussion about the Byzantine diplomat sent to Damascus who was named in Chinese sources. ^ Islamic Ritual Preaching (Khutbas) in a Contested Arena: Shi'is and Sunnis, Fatimids and Abbasids Paul E. Walker. University of Chicago. Anuario de Estuddios Medievales (2012) ^ "AZIZ (365-386/975-996), 15TH Iman – Ismaili.net – Heritage F.I.E.L.D." ^ "Μεγάλη διαδικτυακή εγκυκλοπαίδεια της Κωνσταντινούπολης". Archived from the original on 2015-12-05. ^ Borrut, Antoine (2011). Entre mémoire et pouvoir: L'espace syrien sous les derniers Omeyyades et les premiers Abbassides (in French). Brill. p. 235. ISBN 9789004185616. ^ Jeffreys, Elizabeth; Haarer, Fiona K., eds. (2006). Proceedings of the 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies: London, 21-26 August, 2006, Volume 1. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 36. ISBN 9780754657408. Bibliography[edit] Ball, Warwick (2016). Rome in the East: Transformation of an Empire, 2nd edition. London & New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-72078-6. Bury, J. B. (1958). History of the Later Roman Empire: From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian. Dover Publications. Crowley, Roger (2005). Constantinople: Their Last Great Siege, 1453. Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-22185-1. Emerson, Charles. 1913: In Search of the World Before the Great War (2013) compares Constantinople to 20 major world cities; pp 358–80. Frazee, Charles A. (1978). "The Catholic Church in Constantinople, 1204-1453". Balkan Studies. 19: 33–49. ISSN 2241-1674. Freely, John (1998). Istanbul: The Imperial City. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-024461-8. Freely, John; Ahmet S. Cakmak (2004). The Byzantine Monuments of Istanbul. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77257-0. Gibbon, Edward (2005). The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Phoenix Press. ISBN 978-0-7538-1881-7. Hanna-Riitta, Toivanen (2007). The Influence of Constantinople on Middle Byzantine Architecture (843–1204). A typological and morphological approach at the provincial level. Suomen kirkkohistoriallisen seuran toimituksia 202 (Publications of the Finnish Society of Church History No. 202). ISBN 978-952-5031-41-6. Harris, Jonathan. Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium. Bloomsbury, 2nd edition, 2017. ISBN 978-1-4742-5465-6. online review Harris, Jonathan. Byzantium and the Crusades. Bloomsbury, 2nd edition, 2014. ISBN 978-1-78093-767-0. Herrin, Judith (2008). Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13151-1. Hirth, Friedrich (2000) [1885]. Jerome S. Arkenberg (ed.). "East Asian History Sourcebook: Chinese Accounts of Rome, Byzantium and the Middle East, c. 91 B.C.E. – 1643 C.E." Fordham.edu. Fordham University. Retrieved 2016-09-10. Ibrahim, Raymond (2018). Sword and Scimitar, 1st edition. New York, ISBN 978-0-306-82555-2. Janin, Raymond (1964). Constantinople Byzantine (in French) (2 ed.). Paris: Institut Français d'Etudes Byzantines. Korolija Fontana-Giusti, Gordana 'The Urban Language of Early Constantinople: The Changing Roles of the Arts and Architecture in the Formation of the New Capital and the New Consciousness' in Intercultural Transmission in the Medieval Mediterranean, (2012), Stephanie L. Hathaway and David W. Kim (eds), London: Continuum, pp 164–202. ISBN 978-1-4411-3908-5. Mamboury, Ernest (1953). The Tourists' Istanbul. Istanbul: Çituri Biraderler Basımevi. Mansel, Philip (1998). Constantinople: City of the World's Desire, 1453–1924. St. Martin's Griffin. ISBN 978-0-312-18708-8. Meyendorff, John (1996). Rome, Constantinople, Moscow: Historical and Theological Studies. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 9780881411348. Müller-Wiener, Wolfgang (1977). Bildlexikon zur Topographie Istanbuls: Byzantion, Konstantinupolis, Istanbul bis zum Beginn d. 17 Jh (in German). Tübingen: Wasmuth. ISBN 978-3-8030-1022-3. Phillips, Jonathan (2005). The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople. Pimlico. ISBN 978-1-84413-080-1. Runciman, Steven (1990). The Fall of Constantinople, 1453. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-84413-080-1. Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-2630-6. Yule, Henry (1915). Henri Cordier (ed.), Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China, Vol I: Preliminary Essay on the Intercourse Between China and the Western Nations Previous to the Discovery of the Cape Route. London: Hakluyt Society. Accessed 21 September 2016. Evans, Helen C.; Wixom, William D (1997). The glory of Byzantium: art and culture of the Middle Byzantine era, A.D. 843–1261. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-0-8109-6507-2. Retrieved 2016-02-19. Bogdanović, Jelena (2016). The Relational Spiritual Geopolitics of Constantinople, the Capital of the Byzantine Empire. Boulder : University Press of Colorado. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Constantinople. Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Constantinople. Constantinople, from History of the Later Roman Empire, by J.B. Bury History of Constantinople from the "New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia." Monuments of Byzantium – Pantokrator Monastery of Constantinople Constantinoupolis on the web Select internet resources on the history and culture Info on the name change from the Foundation for the Advancement of Sephardic Studies and Culture Welcome to Constantinople at the Wayback Machine (archived September 15, 2006), documenting the monuments of Byzantine Constantinople Byzantium 1200, a project aimed at creating computer reconstructions of the Byzantine monuments located in Istanbul in 1200 AD. 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en-wikipedia-org-4419	----	Late Latin - Wikipedia Late Latin From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Written Latin of late antiquity Late Latin Latinitas serior Augustine of Hippo (354–430), Late Latin author Native to (Western) Roman Empire, Ostrogothic Kingdom, Gallic Empire Region Mare Nostrum region Era 3rd to 6th centuries; developed into Medieval Latin Language family Indo-European Italic Latino-Faliscan Latin Late Latin Early forms Old Latin Classical Latin Writing system Latin Official status Official language in Both Roman Empires (Later replaced with Koine Greek in the East) Regulated by Schools of grammar and rhetoric Language codes ISO 639-3 – Glottolog late1252 The Late-Latin speaking world, AD 271 Late Latin (Latin: Latinitas serior) is the scholarly name for the written Latin of late antiquity.[1] English dictionary definitions of Late Latin date this period from the 3rd to the 6th centuries AD,[2][3] and continuing into the 7th century in the Iberian Peninsula.[1] This somewhat ambiguously defined version of Latin was used between the eras of Classical Latin and Medieval Latin. There is no scholarly consensus about exactly when Classical Latin should end or Medieval Latin should begin. However, Late Latin is characterized (with variations and disputes) by an identifiable style. Being a written language, Late Latin is not the same as Vulgar Latin. The latter served as ancestor of the Romance languages. Although Late Latin reflects an upsurge of the use of Vulgar Latin vocabulary and constructs, it remains largely classical in its overall features, depending on the author who uses it. Some Late Latin writings are more literary and classical, but others are more inclined to the vernacular. Also, Late Latin is not identical to Christian patristic Latin, used in the theological writings of the early Christian fathers. While Christian writings used a subset of Late Latin, pagans also wrote extensively in Late Latin, especially in the early part of the period. Late Latin formed when large numbers of non-Latin-speaking peoples on the borders of the empire were being subsumed and assimilated, and the rise of Christianity was introducing a heightened divisiveness in Roman society, creating a greater need for a standard language for communicating between different socioeconomic registers and widely separated regions of the sprawling empire. A new and more universal speech evolved from the main elements: Classical Latin, Christian Latin, which featured sermo humilis (ordinary speech) in which the people were to be addressed,[4] and all the various dialects of Vulgar Latin.[5] The linguist Antoine Meillet wrote, "Without the exterior appearance of the language being much modified, Latin became in the course of the imperial epoch a new language",[6] and, "Serving as some sort of lingua franca to a large empire, Latin tended to become simpler, to keep above all what it had of the ordinary".[7] Contents 1 Philological constructs 1.1 Late and post-classical Latin 1.2 Imperial Latin 1.3 Christian, patristic, vulgate and ancient Latin 1.4 Low Latin 1.5 Through the death of Boethius 2 See also 3 Notes 4 References 5 Further reading 6 External links Philological constructs[edit] Late and post-classical Latin[edit] Neither Late Latin nor Late Antiquity are modern terms or concepts; neither are they ancient; their origin remains obscure. A notice in Harper's New Monthly Magazine of the publication of Andrews' Freund's Lexicon of the Latin Language in 1850 mentions that the dictionary divides Latin into ante-classic, quite classic, Ciceronian, Augustan, post-Augustan and post-classic or late Latin,[8][9] which indicates the term already was in professional use by English classicists in the early 19th century. Instances of English vernacular use of the term may also be found from the 18th century. The term Late Antiquity meaning post-classical and pre-medieval had currency in English well before then. Imperial Latin[edit] Wilhelm Sigismund Teuffel's first edition (1870) of History of Roman Literature defined an early period, the Golden Age, the Silver Age and then goes on to define other ages first by dynasty and then by century (see under Classical Latin). In subsequent editions he subsumed all periods under three headings: the First Period (Old Latin), the Second Period (the Golden Age) and the Third Period, "the Imperial Age", subdivided into the Silver Age, the 2nd century, and Centuries 3–6 together, which was a recognition of Late Latin, as he sometimes refers to the writings of those times as "late." Imperial Latin went on into English literature; Fowler's History of Roman Literature mentions it in 1903.[10] There are, however, insoluble problems with the beginning and end of Imperial Latin. Politically the excluded Augustan Period is the paradigm of imperiality, and yet the style cannot be bundled with either the Silver Age or with Late Latin. Moreover, in 6th century Italy, the Roman Empire no longer existed; the rule of Gothic kings prevailed. Subsequently, the term Imperial Latin was dropped by historians of Latin literature, although it may be seen in marginal works. The Silver Age was extended a century and the final four centuries represent Late Latin. Christian, patristic, vulgate and ancient Latin[edit] Main articles: Ecclesiastical Latin, Vulgate, Vetus Latina, Patrologia Latina, and Patristics Low Latin[edit] St. Gildas, one of a number of Late Latin writers to promulgate an excidium or ruina Britanniae because of moral turpitude. Low Latin is a vague and often pejorative term that might refer to any post-classical Latin from Late Latin through Renaissance Latin depending on the author.[clarification needed] Its origins are obscure but the Latin expression media et infima Latinitas sprang into public notice in 1678 in the title of a Glossary (by today's standards a dictionary) by Charles du Fresne, sieur du Cange. The multi-volume set had many editions and expansions by other authors subsequently. The title varies somewhat; most commonly used was Glossarium Mediae et Infimae Latinitatis. It has been translated by expressions of widely different meanings. The uncertainty is understanding what media, "middle", and infima, "low", mean in this context. The media is securely connected to Medieval Latin by Cange's own terminology expounded in the Praefatio,[11] such as scriptores mediae aetatis, "writers of the middle age." Cange's Glossary takes words from authors ranging from the Christian period (Late Latin) to the Renaissance, dipping into the classical period if a word originated there. Either media et infima Latinitas refers to one age, which must be the middle age covering the entire post-classical range, or it refers to two consecutive periods, infima Latinitas and media Latinitas. Both interpretations have their adherents. Edward Gibbon, English historian who espoused the concept of a decline of the Roman Empire resulting in its fall. In the former case the infimae appears extraneous; it recognizes the corruptio of the corrupta Latinitas Cange said his Glossary covered.[12] The two-period case postulates a second unity of style, infima Latinitas, translated into English as "Low Latin" (which in the one-period case would be identical to media Latinitas). Cange in the glossarial part of his Glossary identifies some words as being used by purioris Latinitatis scriptores, such as Cicero (of the Golden Age). He has already said in the Preface that he rejects the ages scheme used by some: Golden Age, Silver Age, Brass Age, Iron Age. A second category are the inferioris Latinitatis scriptores, such as Apuleius (Silver Age). The third and main category are the infimae Latinitatis scriptores, who must be post-classical; that is, Late Latin, unless they are also medieval. His failure to state which authors are low leaves the issue unresolved. He does however give some idea of the source of his infima, which is a classical word, "lowest", of which the comparative degree is inferior, "lower." In the Preface he opposes the style of the scriptores aevi inferioris (Silver Age) to the elegantes sermones, "elegant speech", the high and low styles of Latinitas defined by the classical authors. Apparently Cange was basing his low style on sermo humilis,[13] the simplified speech devised by Late Latin Christian writers to address the ordinary people. Humilis (humble, humility) means "low", "of the ground". The Christian writers were not interested in the elegant speech of the best or classical Latin, which belonged to their aristocratic pagan opponents. Instead they preferred a humbler style lower in correctness, so that they might better deliver the gospel to the vulgus or "common people." Low Latin in this view is the Latin of the two periods in which it has the least degree of purity, or is most corrupt. By corrupt du Cange only meant that the language had resorted to non-classical vocabulary and constructs from various sources, but his choice of words was unfortunate. It allowed the "corruption" to extend to other aspects of society, providing fuel for the fires of religious (Catholic vs. Protestant) and class (conservative vs. revolutionary) conflict. Low Latin passed from the heirs of the Italian renaissance to the new philologists of the northern and Germanic climes, where it became a different concept. In Britain Gildas' view that Britain fell to the Anglo-Saxons because it was morally slack was already well known to the scholarly world. The northern Protestants now worked a role reversal: if the language was "corrupt" it must be symptomatic of a corrupt society, which indubitably led to a "decline and fall", as Edward Gibbon put it, of imperial society. Writers taking this line relied heavily on the scandalous behavior of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and the bad emperors reported by Tacitus and other writers and later by the secret history of Procopius, who hated his royal employers to such a degree that he could not contain himself about their real methods and way of life any longer. They, however, spoke elegant Latin. The Protestants changed the scenario to fit their ideology that the church needed to be purified of corruption. For example, Baron Bielfeld, a Prussian officer and comparative Latinist, characterised the low in Low Latin, which he saw as medieval Latin, as follows: ‹ The template below (Columns) is being considered for deletion. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus. › French: Le quatrieme âge de la langue Latine, est celui où pendant le reste du moyen âge & les premiers siecles des temps modernes, le Latin tomba successivement dans une telle décadence, que ce ne fut plus qu’un jargon barbare. C’est au Latin de cet âge qu’on a donné le nom de basse Latinité ; […] en effet […] tellement corrompu, altéré, mêlé d’expressions étrangeres […] Et que pouvoit-on espérer pour la langue Latine d’un temps où des Nations Barbares pénétrerent dans toute l’Europe, & sur-tout en Italie, où l’Empire d’Orient étoit gouverné par des imbécilles, où les moeurs étoient abominables, où les arts & les sciences étoient comme anéantis, où les Prêtres & les Moines, &c. étoient les seuls lettrés, & néanmoins les plus ignorans & les plus ineptes personnages du monde. Aussi faut-il ranger sous ces temps ténébreux ce Latin absurde qu’on nommoit lingua Ecclesiastica, & qu’on ne sauroit lire sans dégoût.[15] The fourth age of the Latin tongue is that of the remainder of the middle age, and the 1st centuries of modern times, during which the language fell by degrees into so great a decadency, that it became nothing better than a barbarous jargon. It is the style of these times that is given the name of Low Latin. ... What indeed could be expected from this language, at a time when the barbarians had taken possession of Europe, but especially of Italy; when the empire of the east was governed by idiots; when there was a total corruption of morals; when the priests and monks were the only men of letters, and were at the same time the most ignorant and futile mortals in the world. Under these times of darkness, we must, therefore, rank that Latin, which is called lingua ecclesiastica, and which we cannot read without disgust.[14] — The Elements of Universal Erudition, containing an Analytical Abrigement of the Sciences, Polite Arts and Belles Lettres As 'Low Latin' tends to be muddled with Vulgar Latin, Late Latin and Medieval Latin and has unfortunate extensions of meaning into the sphere of socioeconomics, it has gone out of use by the mainstream philologists of Latin literature. A few writers on the periphery still mention it, influenced by the dictionaries and classic writings of former times. Tertullian Cyprian As Teuffel's scheme of the Golden Age and the Silver Age is the generally accepted one, the canonical list of authors should begin just after the end of the Silver Age, regardless of what 3rd century event is cited as the beginning; otherwise there are gaps. Teuffel gave the end of the Silver Age as the death of Hadrian at 138 AD. His classification of styles left a century between that event and his final period, the 3rd–6th centuries BC, which was in other systems being considered Late Antiquity. Starting with Charles Thomas Crutwell's A History of Roman Literature from the Earliest Period to the Death of Marcus Aurelius, which first came out in 1877, English literary historians have included the spare century in Silver Latin. Accordingly, the latter ends with the death of the last of the five good emperors in 180 AD. Other authors use other events, such as the end of the Nervan–Antonine dynasty in 192 AD or later events. A good round date of 200 AD gives a canonical list of nearly no overlap. The transition between Late Latin and Medieval Latin is by no means as easy to assess. Taking that media et infima Latinitas was one style, Mantello in a recent handbook asserts of "the Latin used in the middle ages" that it is "here interpreted broadly to include late antiquity and therefore to extend from c. AD 200 to 1500."[16] Although recognizing "late antiquity" he does not recognize Late Latin. It did not exist and Medieval Latin began directly at 200 BC. In this view all differences from Classical Latin are bundled as though they evolved through a single continuous style. Of the two-style interpretations the Late Latin period of Erich Auerbach and others is one of the shortest: "In the first half of the 6th century, which witnessed the beginning and end of Ostrogoth rule in Italy, Latin literature becomes medieval. Boethius was the last 'ancient' author and the role of Rome as the center of the ancient world, as communis patria, was at an end."[17] In essence, the lingua franca of classical vestiges was doomed when Italy was overrun by the Goths, but its momentum carried it one lifetime further, ending with the death of Boethius in AD 524. Not everyone agrees that the lingua franca came to an end with the fall of Rome, but argue that it continued and became the language of the reinstituted Carolingian Empire (predecessor of the Holy Roman Empire) under Charlemagne. Toward the end of his reign his administration conducted some language reforms. The first recognition that Late Latin could not be understood by the masses and therefore was not a lingua franca was the decrees of 813 AD by synods at Mainz, Rheims Tours that from then on preaching was to be done in a language more understandable to the people, which was stated by Tours Canon 17 as rustica Romana lingua, identified as proto-Romance, the descendant of Vulgar Latin.[18] Late Latin as defined by Meillet was at an end; however, Pucci's Harrington's Mediaeval Latin sets the end of Late Latin when Romance began to be written, "Latin retired to the cloister" and "Romanitas lived on only in the fiction of the Holy Roman Empire."[19] The final date given by those authors is AD 900. Through the death of Boethius[edit] Constantine the Great Ausonius Ambrose Domitius Ulpianus (170 AD – 228 AD), jurist, imperial officer Julius Paulus Prudentissimus (2nd & 3rd centuries AD), jurist, imperial officer Aelius Marcianus (2nd & 3rd centuries AD), jurist Herennius Modestinus (3rd century AD), jurist Censorinus (3rd century AD), historian, essayist Quintus Gargilius Martialis (3rd century AD), horticulturalist, pharmacologist Gaius Asinius Quadratus (3rd century AD), historian Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus (AD 160 - 220), "the father of Latin Christianity", polemicist against heresy Thascius Caecilius Cyprianus (AD 200 - 258), converted rhetorician, bishop of Carthage, martyr, saint Novatianus (200 AD – 258 AD), theologian, rival pope, excommunicant Quintus Serenus Sammonicus (2nd century AD, early 3rd century AD), scholar, educator Commodianus (3rd century AD), poet, Christian educator Lucius Caelius Firmianus Lactantius (AD 240 - 320), converted rhetorician, scholar, Christian apologist and educator Ammianus Marcellinus (4th century AD), soldier, imperial officer, historian Claudius Claudianus (4th century AD), court poet Gaius Julius Solinus (3rd or 4th century AD), topical writer Nonius Marcellus (3rd or 4th century AD), topical writer Marcus Aurelius Olympius Nemesianus (fl. 283 AD), poet Aquila Romanus (3rd century AD), rhetorician Eumenius of Autun (3rd century AD), educator Aelius Festus Aphthonius (3rd or 4th century AD), grammarian Calcidius (4th century AD), translator Gaius Marius Victorinus (4th century AD), converted philosopher Arnobius of Sicca (4th century), Christian apologist Constantine I (272 AD – 337 AD), first Christian emperor Nazarius (4th century AD), rhetorician, educator Gaius Julius Victor (4th century AD), rhetorician Gaius Vettius Aquilinus Juvencus (4th century AD), Christian poet Nonius Marcellus (3rd and 4th centuries AD), grammarian, lexicographer Julius Firmicus Maternus (4th century AD), converted advocate, pagan and Christian writer Aelius Donatus (4th century AD), grammarian, rhetorician, educator Palladius (408/431 AD – 457/461 AD), saint, first bishop of Ireland Sextus Aurelius Victor (AD 320 - 390), imperial officer, historian Eutropius (4th century AD), imperial officer, historian Aemilius Magnus Arborius (4th century AD), poet, educator, friend of the imperial family Decimius Magnus Ausonius (ca. 310 AD – 395 AD), poet, rhetorician, educator, friend of the imperial family Claudius Mamertinus (4th century AD), imperial officer, panegyricist, embezzler Hilarius (4th century AD), converted neo-Platonist, theologian, bishop of Poitiers, saint Ambrosius (337/340 AD – 397 AD), theologian, Bishop of Milan, saint Lucifer (d. 370/371 AD), theologian, Bishop of Sardinia Priscillianus (d. 385 AD), theologian, first person executed as a heretic Flavius Sosipater Charisius (4th century AD), grammarian Diomedes Grammaticus (4th century AD), grammarian Postumius Rufus Festus Avienus (4th century AD), imperial officer, poet, translator Priscianus Caesariensis (fl. AD 500), grammarian See also[edit] Decline of the Roman Empire Panegyrici Latini, a collection of 3rd to 4th century panegyrics; their language is however predominantly classical (Golden Age) Latin base, derived from an education heavy on Cicero, mixed with a large number of Silver Age usages and a small number of Late and Vulgar terms. Notes[edit] ^ a b Roberts (1996), p.537. ^ "Late Latin". Webster's Third New International Dictionary. Volume II, H to R. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 1961. ^ "Late Latin". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (3rd ed.). Boston, New York, London: Houghton Mifflin Company. ^ Auerbach (1958), Chapter 1, Sermo Humilis. ^ Harrington, Karl Pomeroy; Pucci, Joseph Michael (1997). Mediaeval Latin (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 67. ISBN 0-226-31713-7. The combination of features specific to Vulgar Latin and Ecclesiastical Latin had the effect, then, of transforming the language by the fourth century into something of extraordinary vigor. ^ Meillet (1928), p.270: "Sans que l'aspect extérieur de la langue se soit beaucoup modifié, le Latin est devenu au cours de l'epoque impériale une langue nouvelle}", ^ Meillet (1928), p. 273: "Servant en quelque sorte de lingua franca à un grand empire, le Latin a tendu à se simplifier, à garder surtout ce qu'il avait de banal". ^ "Harper's New Monthly Magazine, Monthly Record of Current Events". I. 1850: 705. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ Ethan Allen Andrews; William Freund (1851). A Copious and Critical Latin-English Lexicon: Founded on the Larger Latin-German Lexicon of Dr. William Freund; with Additions and Corrections from the Lexicons of Gesner, Facciolati, Scheller, Georges, Etc. Harper & Brothers. ^ Fowler, Harold North (1903). A History of Roman Literature. New York: D. Appleton and Co. p. 3. The third or Imperial Period lasts from 14 A. D. to the beginning of the Middle Ages. ^ Du Cange, Charles du Fresne; et al. (1840). "Præfatio LXII". Glossarium mediæ et infimæ Latinitatis. Volume 1. Paris: Firmin Didot Fratres. p. 41. Retrieved 1 June 2011. ^ Du Cange, Charles du Fresne; et al. (1840). "Præfatio LXIII". Glossarium mediæ et infimæ Latinitatis. Volume 1. Paris: Firmin Didot Fratres. pp. 41–42. Retrieved 1 June 2011. ^ https://sermohumilis.com ^ von Bielfeld, Jakob Friedrich (1770). The Elements of Universal Erudition, containing an Analytical Abrigement of the Sciences, Polite Arts and Belles Lettres. III. Translated by Hooper, W. London: G. Scott. p. 345. ^ The text was originally published in French, the court language of Prussia at the time: von Bielfeld, Jakob Friedrich (1767). Les premiers traits de l'érudition universelle : ou, analyse abregée de toutes les sciences, des beaux-arts et des belles-lettres. III. Leiden: Luchtmans. p. 317. ^ Mantello, FAC (1999) [1996]. "Part I". In Mantello, Frank Anthony Carl; Rigg, A. G (eds.). Medieval Latin: an introduction and bibliographical guide. Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press. p. 3. ^ Auerbach (1965), p.85. ^ Uytfanghe, Marc Van (1996). "The consciousness of a linguistic dichotomy (Latin-Romance) in Carolingian Gaul: the contradictions of the sources and of their interpretation". In Wright, Roger (ed.). Latin and the Romance languages in the early Middle Ages. University Park, Penn.: Pennsylvania State University Press. pp. 114–120. ISBN 0-271-01569-1. ^ Harrington, Karl Pomeroy; Pucci, Joseph Michael (1997). Mediaeval Latin (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 196. ISBN 0-226-31713-7. References[edit] Auerbach, Erich (1965) [1958]. Literary Language and its Public in Late Latin Antiquity and in the Middle Ages. Bollingen Series LXXIV. Trans. Ralph Mannheim. Pantheon Books. Meillet, Antoine (1928). Esquisse d'une Histoire de la Langue Latine (in French). Paris: Hachette. Roberts, Michael (1996). "The Latin Literature of Late Antiquity". In Anthony, Frank; Mantello, Carl; Rigg, A.G (eds.). Medieval Latin: an introduction and bibliographical guide. Catholic University of America Press. pp. 537–546. Teuffel, Wilhelm Sigismund; Schwabe, Ludwig (1892). Teuffel's History of Roman Literature Revised and Enlarged. II, The Imperial Period. Trans. George C.W. Warr (from the 5th German ed.). London: George Bell & Sons. Further reading[edit] Adams, J. N., Nigel Vincent, and Valerie Knight. 2016. Early and Late Latin: Continuity Or Change? Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Courcelle, Pierre. 1969. Late Latin Writers and Their Greek Sources. Translated by Harry Wedeck. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Elsner, Jaś, and Jesús Hernández Lobato. 2017. The Poetics of Late Latin Literature. New York: Oxford University Press. Langslow, D. R. 2006. The Latin Alexander Trallianus: The Text and Transmission of a Late Latin Medical Book. London: Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies. Löfstedt, Einar. 1959. Late Latin. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press. Wright, Roger. 1982. Late Latin and Early Romance in Spain and Carolingian France. Liverpool, UK: Francis Cairns. --. 2003. A sociophilological study of Late Latin. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols. External links[edit] Library resources about Late Latin Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries "Christian Latin" (in Latin). The Latin Library. Retrieved 12 October 2009. Du Cange, Charles du Fresne (2009) [1710]. Glossarium ad scriptores mediae et infimae Latinitatis. Francofurti ad Moenum: apud Johannem Adamum Jungium, CAMENA - Corpus Automatum Multiplex Electorum Neolatinitatis Auctorum, University of Heidelberg. "du Cange, le Glossarium: en ligne". École nationale des Chartres. 2008. Retrieved 10 October 2009. "Glossarium Mediae et Infimae Latinitatis". Documenta Catholica Omnia. 2006. 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en-wikipedia-org-4431	----	Wikipedia:About - Wikipedia Wikipedia:About From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search General introduction for visitors to a Wikimedia project For a guide to help pages in Wikipedia, see Help:About help pages. "Wikipedia:Wikipedia" redirects here. For other uses, see Wikipedia:Wikipedia (disambiguation). This is a general introduction for visitors to Wikipedia. The project also has an encyclopedia article about itself, an introduction, and a tutorial for aspiring contributors. Shortcuts WP:ABOUT WP:WIKIPEDIA About Wikipedia Administration FAQ Contributing Tips Tasks Tutorial Help menu Directories Cheatsheet Asking questions Help desk Reference desk Teahouse English Wikipedia right now *MediaWiki version: 1.36.0-wmf.22 (f77db54) *Content articles: 6,216,500 *Total pages: 52,219,816 *Uploaded files: 891,646 *Edits: 991,989,698 *Registered users: 40,596,143, including 129,034 active this month and 1,119 administrators *Data as of 01:24, 28 December 2020 (UTC). *Update v t e Wikipedia is an online free-content encyclopedia project helping to create a world in which everyone can freely share in the sum of all knowledge. It is supported by the Wikimedia Foundation and based on a model of openly editable content. The name "Wikipedia" is a blending of the words wiki (a technology for creating collaborative websites, from the Hawaiian word wiki, meaning "quick") and encyclopedia. Wikipedia's articles provide links designed to guide the user to related pages with additional information. Wikipedia is written collaboratively by largely anonymous volunteers who write without pay. Anyone with internet access can write and make changes to Wikipedia articles, except in limited cases where editing is restricted to prevent disruption or vandalism. Since its creation on January 15, 2001, Wikipedia has grown into the world's largest reference website, attracting 1.7 billion unique visitors monthly as of November 2020[update]. It currently has more than 55 million articles in more than 300 languages, including 6,216,500 articles in English with 129,034 active contributors in the past month. The fundamental principles by which Wikipedia operates are the five pillars. The Wikipedia community has developed many policies and guidelines to improve the encyclopedia; however, it is not a formal requirement to be familiar with them before contributing. Anyone is allowed to add or edit words, references, images, and other media here. What is contributed is more important than who contributes it. To remain, the content must be free of copyright restrictions and contentious material about living people. It must fit within Wikipedia's policies, including being verifiable against a published reliable source. Editors' opinions and beliefs and unreviewed research will not remain. Contributions cannot damage Wikipedia because the software allows easy reversal of mistakes, and many experienced editors are watching to ensure that edits are improvements. Begin by simply clicking the Edit button at the top of any editable page! Wikipedia is a live collaboration differing from paper-based reference sources in important ways. It is continually created and updated, with articles on new events appearing within minutes, rather than months or years. Because everybody can help improve it, Wikipedia has become more comprehensive than any other encyclopedia. Besides quantity, its contributors work on improving quality, removing or repairing misinformation, and other errors. Over time, articles tend to become more comprehensive and balanced. However, because anyone can click "edit" at any time and add content, any article may contain undetected misinformation, errors, or vandalism. Readers who are aware of this can obtain valid information, avoid recently added misinformation (see Wikipedia:Researching with Wikipedia), and fix the article. Contents 1 About Wikipedia 1.1 History 1.2 Contributors 1.3 Trademarks and copyrights 1.4 Credits 2 Uses 2.1 Exploration 2.2 Basic navigation 2.3 Research 2.4 Versus paper encyclopedias 2.5 Strengths, weaknesses, and article quality 2.6 Disclaimers 3 Contributing 3.1 Editorial quality review 4 Technical attributes 5 Feedback and questions 5.1 Frequently asked questions (FAQ) 5.2 Static help 5.3 Giving feedback 5.4 Research help and similar questions 5.5 Community discussion 5.6 Contacting individual editors 6 Other languages 7 Sister projects 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links About Wikipedia For information on the administrative structure of Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Administration. See also: Wikipedia:Purpose Further information: Wikipedia:Essay directory § About Wikipedia History Further information: History of Wikipedia The English edition of Wikipedia has grown to 6,216,500 articles, equivalent to around 2,800 print volumes of the Encyclopædia Britannica. Including all language editions, Wikipedia has 55,512,474 articles, equivalent to around 20,800 print volumes.[1] Wikipedia was founded as an offshoot of Nupedia, a now-abandoned project to produce a free encyclopedia, begun by the online media company Bomis. Nupedia had an elaborate system of peer review and required highly qualified contributors, but the writing of articles was slow. During 2000, Jimmy Wales (founder of Nupedia and co-founder of Bomis), and Larry Sanger, whom Wales had employed to work on the encyclopedia project, discussed ways of supplementing Nupedia with a more open, complementary project. Multiple sources suggested that a wiki might allow public members to contribute material, and Nupedia's first wiki went online on January 10, 2001. There was considerable resistance on the part of Nupedia's editors and reviewers to the idea of associating Nupedia with a website in the wiki format, so the new project was given the name "Wikipedia" and launched on its own domain, wikipedia.com, on January 15 (now called "Wikipedia Day" by some users). The bandwidth and server (in San Diego) were donated by Wales. Other current and past Bomis employees who have worked on the project include Tim Shell, one of the cofounders of Bomis and its current CEO, and programmer Jason Richey. In May 2001, a large number of non-English Wikipedias were launched—in Catalan, Chinese, Dutch, Esperanto, French, German, Hebrew, Italian, Japanese, Portuguese, Russian, Spanish, and Swedish. These were soon joined by Arabic and Hungarian. In September,[2] Polish was added, and further commitment to the multilingual provision of Wikipedia was made. At the end of the year, Afrikaans, Norwegian, and Serbo-Croatian versions were announced. The domain was eventually changed to the present wikipedia.org when the Wikimedia Foundation was launched, in 2003, as its new parent organization with the ".org" top-level domain denoting its not-for-profit nature. Today, there are Wikipedias in more than 300 languages. Contributors Main pages: Wikipedia:Who writes Wikipedia? and Wikipedia:Wikipedians Further information: Wikipedia:Administration § Editors Play media Wikipedia contributors Anyone with Web access can edit Wikipedia, and this openness encourages the inclusion of a tremendous amount of content. About 130,000 editors—from expert scholars to casual readers—regularly edit Wikipedia, and these experienced editors often help to create a consistent style throughout the encyclopedia, following our Manual of Style. Several mechanisms are in place to help Wikipedia members carry out the important work of crafting a high-quality resource while maintaining civility. Editors can watch pages, and technically skilled persons can write editing programs to keep track of or rectify bad edits. Where there are disagreements on how to display facts, editors often work together to compile an article that fairly represents current expert opinion on the subject. Aspiring authors may wish to read the information on Contributing to Wikipedia before contributing to the project. Although the Wikimedia Foundation owns the site, it is largely uninvolved in writing and daily operations. Trademarks and copyrights Main pages: Wikipedia:Copyrights and wmf:Trademark policy "Wikipedia" is a registered trademark of the not-for-profit Wikimedia Foundation, which has created a family of free-content projects that are built by user contributions. Most of Wikipedia's text and many of its images are dual-licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Unported License (CC-BY-SA) and the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) (unversioned, with no invariant sections, front-cover texts, or back-cover texts). Some text has been imported only under CC-BY-SA and CC-BY-SA-compatible license and cannot be reused under GFDL; such text is identified either on the page footer, in the page history, or on the discussion page of the article that utilizes the text. Every image has a description page that indicates the license under which it is released or, if it is non-free, the rationale under which it is used. Contributions remain the property of their creators, while the CC-BY-SA and GFDL licenses ensure the content is freely distributable and reproducible. (See content disclaimer for more information.) Credits Text on Wikipedia is a collaborative work, and the efforts of individual contributors to a page are recorded in that page's history, which is publicly viewable. Information on the authorship of images and other media, such as sound files, can be found by clicking on the image itself or the nearby information icon to display the file page, which includes the author and source, where appropriate, along with other information. Uses Readers' FAQ About Wikipedia Administration FAQs Authority control Books Categories Censorship Copyright Disambiguation Images and multimedia ISBN Microformats Mobile access Offline access Navigation Other languages Page names Portals Searching Student help Researching with Wikipedia Citing Wikipedia Readers' glossary Readers' index Reader's guide to Wikipedia v t e Further information: Wikipedia:Reader's index to Wikipedia See also: Reader's guide to Wikipedia and the guide to using Wikipedia in research Exploration Main page: Wikipedia:Contents Many visitors come to Wikipedia to acquire knowledge, while others come to share knowledge. At this very instant, dozens of articles are being improved, and new articles are also being created. Changes can be viewed at the Recent changes page and a random page at random articles. 5,897 articles have been designated by the Wikipedia community as featured articles, exemplifying the best articles in the encyclopedia. Another 32,993 articles are designated as good articles. Some information on Wikipedia is organized into lists; the best of these are designated as featured lists. Wikipedia also has portals, which organize content around topic areas. Articles can be found using the search box on the screen's top-right side. Wikipedia is available in languages other than English. Wikipedia has more than 300 languages, including a Simple English version, and related projects include a dictionary, quotations, books, manuals, and scientific reference sources, and a news service (see sister projects). All these are maintained, updated, and managed by separate communities and often include information and articles that can be hard to find through other common sources. Basic navigation Main page: Help:Navigation Wikipedia articles are all cross-referenced. Highlighted text like this means "click here" for in-depth information. (Hovering is probably deep enough.) There are other links towards the ends of most articles, for other articles of interest, relevant external websites and pages, reference material, navigational templates, and organized categories of knowledge which can be searched and traversed in a loose hierarchy for more information. Some articles may also have links to dictionary definitions, audio-book readings, quotations, the same article in other languages, and further information on our sister projects. Additional links can be easily made if a relevant link is missing—this is one simple way to contribute. Research Main pages: Wikipedia:Researching with Wikipedia and Wikipedia:Citing Wikipedia Play media What's a love dart? Wikipedia can help you find out! (2:13 min) As wiki documents, articles are never considered complete and may be continually edited and improved. Over time, this generally results in an upward trend of quality and a growing consensus over a neutral representation of information. Users should be aware that not all articles are of encyclopedic quality from the start: they may contain false or debatable information. Indeed, many articles start their lives as displaying a single viewpoint; and, after a long process of discussion, debate, and argumentation, they gradually take on a neutral point of view reached through consensus. For a while, others may become caught up in a heavily unbalanced viewpoint that can take some time—months or years perhaps—to achieve better-balanced coverage of their subject. In part, this is because editors often contribute content in which they have a particular interest and do not attempt to make each article they edit comprehensive. However, additional editors eventually expand and contribute to articles and strive to achieve balance and comprehensive coverage. Also, Wikipedia operates several internal resolution processes that can assist when editors disagree on content and approach. Usually, editors eventually reach a consensus on ways to improve the article. External video "Using Wikipedia" with John Green, from Crash Course's Navigating Digital Information series, YouTube video The ideal Wikipedia article is well written, balanced, neutral, and encyclopedic, containing comprehensive, notable, verifiable knowledge. An increasing number of articles reach this standard over time, and many already have. Our best articles are called Featured Articles (and display a small star in the upper right corner of the article), and our second-best tier of articles are designated Good Articles. However, this is a process and can take months or years to be achieved through editors' concerted effort. Some articles contain statements that have not yet been fully cited. Others will later be augmented with new sections. Some information will be considered by later contributors to be insufficiently founded and, therefore, may be removed. While the overall trend is toward improvement, it is important to use Wikipedia carefully if it is intended to be used as a research source. Individual articles will vary in quality and maturity by their nature. Guidelines and information pages are available to help users and researchers do this effectively, as is an article that summarizes third-party studies and assessments of the reliability of Wikipedia. Versus paper encyclopedias Like a paper encyclopedia, Wikipedia attempts to compile world knowledge but is not bound by the restrictions of a paper encyclopedia. Illustration from Nuremberg Chronicle 1493 Main page: Wikipedia is not paper (on Wikimedia Meta-Wiki). Wikipedia has advantages over traditional paper encyclopedias. First, it is not limited in space: it can keep growing as fast as people add. Second, there are no qualifications required to be able to author its articles. Therefore, it has a vast pool of contributors: the whole world. This, and the first advantage mentioned above, have enabled Wikipedia to become the most comprehensive encyclopedia on Earth. Third, a paper encyclopedia remains static (stays the same) and falls out of date until the next edition. But Wikipedia is dynamic: you don't have to wait for the next edition to come out (there are no editions), as Wikipedia is published on-line as it is written on-line. Articles are made available as is, regardless of what stage of development they are in. You can update Wikipedia at any instant. People do so continually around the clock, thereby helping each other keep abreast of the most recent events everywhere and the latest facts in every subject. Fourth, Wikipedia has a meager "publishing" cost for adding or expanding entries, as it is on-line, with no need to buy paper or ink for distribution. This has allowed it to be made available for free, making it more accessible to everyone. This has enabled Wikipedia to be independently developed and published in many different languages simultaneously by people literate in each language. Of the 290+ different language Wikipedias, 137 of them have 10,000 or more articles. Fifth, Wikipedia has a low environmental impact in some respects, since it never needs to be printed. However, computers have their own environmental cost. Sixth, Wikipedia is extra-linear (more than linear). Instead of in-line explanations, Wikipedia incorporates hypertext in the form of wikilinks. Throughout its content is a robust network of links, providing another dimension of knowledge accessibility. The encyclopedia also has correlated to tables of contents and indexes, with each entry in them hyperlinked to an article on the topic specified. Seventh, each Wikipedia article provides an introduction summarizing the more extensive detail of its contents. Eighth, being open to anyone to edit, articles on Wikipedia are subject to additions that might be erroneous or written poorly, which in turn are subject to being corrected or rewritten. It is a community effort, with most people involved helping to improve the work, fixing problems they encounter along the way. See more about Wikipedia's strengths and weaknesses below ... Strengths, weaknesses, and article quality Main pages: Wikipedia:Why Wikipedia is so great and Wikipedia:Why Wikipedia is not so great See also: Reliability of Wikipedia and Wikipedia:Researching with Wikipedia The Wikipedia Monument (2014) by Mihran Hakobyan in Slubice, Poland, honors the Wikipedia community. Wikipedia's greatest strengths, weaknesses, and differences arise because it is open to anyone. According to editorial guidelines and policies, it has a large contributor base, and its articles are written by consensus. Wikipedia is open to a large contributor base, drawing many editors from diverse backgrounds. This allows Wikipedia to reduce regional and cultural bias found in many publications significantly and makes it very difficult for any person or group to censor and impose bias. A large, diverse editor base also provides access and breadth on subject matter otherwise inaccessible or poorly documented. Many editors contributing at any moment can produce encyclopedic articles and resources covering newsworthy events within hours or days of their occurrence. Like any publication, Wikipedia may reflect the cultural, age, socio-economic, and other biases of its contributors. There is no systematic process to make sure "obviously important" topics are written about, so Wikipedia may suffer unexpected oversights and omissions. While most articles may be altered by anyone, in practice, editing will be performed by a certain demographic (younger rather than older, male rather than female, literate, rich enough to afford a computer, et cetera) and may, therefore, show some bias. Some topics may not be covered well, others in great depth. Allowing anyone to edit Wikipedia makes it easily vandalized and susceptible to unverified information, which requires removal. See Wikipedia:Administrator intervention against vandalism. While blatant vandalism is usually easily spotted and rapidly corrected, Wikipedia is more subject to subtle viewpoint promotion than a typical reference work. However, a bias that would be unchallenged in a traditional reference work is likely to be eventually challenged or considered on Wikipedia. While Wikipedia articles generally attain a good standard after editing, it is important to note that fledgling articles and those monitored less well may be susceptible to vandalism and insertion of false information. Wikipedia's radical openness also means any given article may be, at any given moment, in a bad state, such as in the middle of a large edit or a controversial rewrite. Many contributors do not yet comply fully with key policies or may add information without citable sources. Wikipedia's open approach tremendously increases the chances that any particular factual error or misleading statement will be relatively promptly corrected. Numerous editors at any given time are monitoring recent changes and edit articles on their watchlists. Wikipedia is written by open and transparent consensus—an approach with its pros and cons. Censorship or imposing "official" points of view is complicated and usually fails after a time. Eventually, all notable views become fairly described for most articles and a neutral point of view reached. In reality, the process of reaching consensus may be long and drawn-out, with articles fluid or changeable for a long time while they find the "neutral approach" all sides can agree on. Reaching neutrality is occasionally made harder by extreme-viewpoint contributors. Wikipedia operates a full editorial dispute resolution process that allows time for discussion and resolution in-depth. Still, it also permits disagreements to last for months before poor-quality or biased edits are removed. A common conclusion is that Wikipedia is a valuable resource and provides a good reference point on its subjects. That said, articles and subject areas sometimes suffer from significant omissions, and while misinformation and vandalism are usually corrected quickly, this does not always happen. (See for example this incident in which a person inserted a fake biography linking a prominent journalist to the Kennedy assassinations and Soviet Russia as a joke on a co-worker which went undetected for four months, saying afterward he "didn't know Wikipedia was used as a serious reference tool.") Wikipedia is written largely by amateurs. Those with expert credentials are given no additional weight. Wikipedia is also not subject to any peer review for scientific, medical, or engineering articles. One advantage of having amateurs write in Wikipedia is that they have more free time on their hands to make rapid changes in response to current events. The wider the general public interest in a topic, the more likely it is to attract contributions from non-specialists. The MediaWiki software that runs Wikipedia retains a history of all edits and changes. Thus information added to Wikipedia never "vanishes" irreversibly. Discussion pages are an important resource on contentious topics. Therefore, serious researchers can often find a wide range of vigorously or thoughtfully advocated viewpoints not present in the consensus article. As with any source, the information should be checked. A 2005 editorial by a BBC technology writer comments that these debates are probably symptomatic of cultural changes that are happening across all sources of information (including search engines and the media), and may lead to "a better sense of how to evaluate information sources." [3] Disclaimers Main page: Wikipedia:General disclaimer Wikipedia disclaimers apply to all pages on Wikipedia. However, the consensus in Wikipedia is to put all disclaimers only as links and at the end of each article. Proposals to have a warning box at the beginning have been rejected. Some do not like the way it looks or that it calls attention to possible errors in Wikipedia. Wikipedia, in common with many websites, has a disclaimer that, at times, has led to commentators citing these to support the view that Wikipedia is unreliable. A selection of similar disclaimers from places which are often regarded as reliable (including sources such as Encyclopædia Britannica, Associated Press, and the Oxford English Dictionary) can be read and compared at Wikipedia:Non-Wikipedia disclaimers. Contributing Main pages: Wikipedia:Contributing to Wikipedia and Help:Introduction to Wikipedia See also: Help:Your first article and Guide to fixing vandalism A downloadable "Editing Wikipedia guide" in PDF form written by the staff at the Wikimedia Foundation Play media Go ahead and be bold—click the edit button! (1:06 min) Anyone can contribute to Wikipedia by clicking on the Edit tab in an article, and editors are encouraged to be bold. To get started, the intro tutorial has helpful advice. Also, creating an account offers many benefits. Editors are expected to add only verifiable and factual information rather than personal views and opinions, and to remain civil when discussing issues. Vandals will have their edits reverted and be blocked from editing. Most articles start as stubs, but after many contributions, they can become featured articles. All editors are unpaid volunteers, including administrators, trusted editors who are given elevated permissions. The ease of editing Wikipedia results in many people editing. That makes updating the encyclopedia very quick. Every page has an associated talk page tab, where improvements to it are discussed. Editorial quality review Play media Video guided tour #2: Why does Wikipedia work even though anyone can edit it? As well as systems to catch and control substandard and vandalistic edits, Wikipedia also has a full style and content manual and various positive systems for continual article review and improvement. Examples of the processes include peer review, good article assessment, and the featured article process, a rigorous review of articles that are intended to meet the highest standards and showcase Wikipedia's capability to produce high-quality work. Besides, specific types of articles or fields often have their own specialized and comprehensive projects, assessment processes (such as biographical article assessment), and expert reviewers within specific subjects. Nominated articles are also frequently the subject of specific focus on the neutral point of view noticeboard or in WikiProject Cleanup. Technical attributes Wikipedia uses MediaWiki software, the open-source program used not only on Wikimedia projects but also on many other third-party websites. The hardware supporting the Wikimedia projects is based on several hundred servers in various hosting centers worldwide. Full descriptions of these servers and their roles are available on this Meta-Wiki page. For technical information about Wikipedia, check Technical FAQ. Wikipedia publishes various types of metadata; and, across its pages, are many thousands of microformats. Feedback and questions Wikipedia is run as a communal effort. It is a community project whose result is an encyclopedia. Feedback about the content should, in the first instance, be raised on the discussion pages of those articles. Be bold and edit the pages to add information or correct mistakes. Frequently asked questions (FAQ) Main page: Wikipedia:FAQ FAQ index Category:Wikipedia FAQs Static help The Help:Contents may be accessed by clicking help displayed under the ► Interaction tab at the top left of all pages. Help:Menu—is a menu-style page that will direct you to the right place to find information. Help:Directory—is a descriptive listing of all Wikipedia's informative, instructional, and consultation pages. Giving feedback There is an established escalation-and-dispute process within Wikipedia and pages designed for questions, feedback, suggestions, and comments. For a full listing of the services and assistance that can be requested on Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Request directory. Talk pages—the associated discussion page for discussion of an article or policy's contents (usually the first place to go) Wikipedia:Vandalism—a facility for reporting vandalism (but fix vandalism as well as report it) Dispute resolution—the procedure for handling disputes that remain unresolved within an article's talk space Village pump—the Wikipedia discussion area, part of the Community portal Wikipedia:Contact us See also: Bug tracker—a facility for reporting problems with the Wikipedia website or the MediaWiki software that runs it Village pump: proposals page—a place for making non-policy suggestions Wikipedia:Help desk—Wikipedia's general help desk, if other pages have not answered the query Research help and similar questions Facilities to help users researching specific topics can be found at: Wikipedia:Requested articles—to suggest or request new articles. Wikipedia:Reference desk—to ask for help with any questions or find specific facts. Wikipedia:Researching with Wikipedia—for information on using Wikipedia as a research tool. Because of Wikipedia's nature, it is encouraged that people looking for information should try to find it themselves in the first instance. If, however, information is found to be missing from Wikipedia, please be bold and add it. Community discussion For a listing of ongoing discussions and current requests, see the dashboard. For specific discussion not related to article content or editor conduct, see the Village pump, which covers such subjects as milestone announcements, policy and technical discussion, and information on other specialized portals such as the help, reference and peer review desks. The Community portal is a centralized place to find things to do, collaborations, and general editing to help information and find out what is happening. The Signpost, a community-edited newspaper, has recent news regarding Wikipedia, its sister projects, and the Wikimedia Foundation. Contacting individual editors To contact individual contributors, leave a message on their talk page. Standard places to ask policy and project-related questions are the Village pump, online, and the Wikipedia mailing lists, over e-mail. Reach other Wikipedians via IRC and e-mail. Besides, the Wikimedia Foundation Meta-Wiki is a site for coordinating the various Wikipedia projects and sister projects (and abstract discussions of policy and direction). Also available are places for submitting bug reports and feature requests. For a full list of contact options, see Wikipedia:Questions. Other languages This Wikipedia is written in English. Started in 2001 (2001), it currently contains 6,216,500 articles. Many other Wikipedias are available; some of the largest are listed below. More than 1,000,000 articles: العربية Deutsch Español Français Italiano Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Svenska Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 More than 250,000 articles: Bahasa Indonesia Bahasa Melayu Bân-lâm-gú Български Català Čeština Dansk Esperanto Euskara فارسی‎ עברית 한국어 Magyar Norsk Bokmål Română Srpski Srpskohrvatski Suomi Türkçe More than 50,000 articles: Asturianu Bosanski Eesti Ελληνικά Simple English Galego Hrvatski Latviešu Lietuvių മലയാളം Македонски Norsk nynorsk Slovenčina Slovenščina ไทย Complete list of Wikipedias Sister projects Wikipedia is hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation, a non-profit organization that also hosts a range of other projects: Commons Free media repository MediaWiki Wiki software development Meta-Wiki Wikimedia project coordination Wikibooks Free textbooks and manuals Wikidata Free knowledge base Wikinews Free-content news Wikiquote Collection of quotations Wikisource Free-content library Wikispecies Directory of species Wikiversity Free learning resources Wikivoyage Free travel guide Wiktionary Dictionary and thesaurus Please note that while other sites may also use MediaWiki software and therefore look like Wikipedia [dot org]—"wiki-" or "-pedia" or anything similar—the only projects which are part of the Wikimedia Foundation are those listed above. See also Help desk Help portal Internet portal For useful directories and indexes, see Wikipedia:Directories and indexes. Wikipedia:Formal organization Wikipedia:History of Wikipedian processes and people Wikipedia:Quality control Wikipedia:Ten things you may not know about Wikipedia Wikimedia power structure (Meta) References ^ "Wikistats - Statistics For Wikimedia Projects". stats.wikimedia.org. Wikimedia Foundation. Retrieved 10 March 2020. ^ "Milestones 2001". Wikipedia, www.wikipedia.org. ^ Bill Thompson, "What is it with Wikipedia?" BBC, December 16, 2005. Further reading Main article: Bibliography of Wikipedia Phoebe Ayers; Charles Matthews; Ben Yates (2008). How Wikipedia Works. No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-176-3. John Broughton (2008). Wikipedia Reader's Guide: The Missing Manual. O'Reilly Media, Inc. ISBN 978-0-596-55387-6. John Broughton (2008). Wikipedia: The Missing Manual. O'Reilly Media, Inc. ISBN 978-0-596-55377-7. Dan O'Sullivan (24 September 2009). Wikipedia: A New Community of Practice?. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 978-1-4094-8606-0. Andrew Lih (17 March 2009). The Wikipedia revolution: how a bunch of nobodies created the world's greatest encyclopedia. Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6. Joseph Michael Reagle, Jr.; Lawrence Lessig (30 September 2010). Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Wikipedia. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-01447-2. External links Wikipedia on Facebook Wikipedia on Twitter Wikipedia on Instagram Mission statement—The Wikimedia Foundation Wikimedia values—The six values of the Wikimedia Foundation Frequently asked questions|In a nutshell, what is Wikipedia? And what is the Wikimedia Foundation?—The Wikimedia Foundation Wikimedia founding principles—Principles generally supported by all the Wikimedia communities Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia v t e  Basic information on Wikipedia Help directory menu Reference desk Help desk About Wikipedia Administration FAQs Purpose Who writes Wikipedia? 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en-wikipedia-org-4538	----	Poetaster (play) - Wikipedia Poetaster (play) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Play written by Ben Jonson Poetaster is a late Elizabethan satirical comedy written by Ben Jonson that was first performed in 1601. The play formed one element in the back-and-forth exchange between Jonson and his rivals John Marston and Thomas Dekker in the so-called Poetomachia or War of the Theatres of 1599–1601.[1] Poetaster was entered into the Stationers' Register on 21 December 1601, and was first published in quarto in 1602 by the bookseller Matthew Lownes. The title page of the first edition states that the play was performed by the Children of the Chapel, one of the companies of boy actors popular at the time. The play was next published in the first folio collection of Jonson's works (1616). A prefatory note to the folio text identifies the main actors in the 1601 production as Nathan Field, John Underwood, Salomon Pavy, William Ostler, Thomas Day, and Thomas Marton. The quarto and folio texts both supply subtitles, with slight variants: in the quarto, the title is Poetaster or The Arraignment, and in the folio, Poetaster, Or His Arraignment. The principal character in the play is Ovid. It is widely accepted among scholars and critics that the character of Horace in Poetaster represents Jonson himself, while Crispinus, who vomits up a pretentious and bombastic vocabulary, is Marston, and Demetrius Fannius is Dekker. Individual commentators have attempted to identify other characters in the play with historical and literary figures of the era, including George Chapman and Shakespeare — though these arguments have not been accepted by the scholarly consensus.[2] It is generally argued that the play is more than a mere venting of personal spleen against two rivals; rather, Jonson attempted in Poetaster to express his views on "the poet's moral duties in society."[3] The play has been considered "an attempt to combine undramatic, philosophical material on good poets with satire on bad poets."[4] Scholars have also traced out a broad range of particular connections between Poetaster, other Jonson works, and plays by other authors in the first years of the 17th century.[5] The term poetaster, meaning an inferior poet with pretensions to artistic value, had been coined by Erasmus in 1521. It was used by Jonson in 1600 and then popularised with this play a year later. References[edit] ^ James Loxley, The Complete Critical Guide to Ben Jonson. London, Routledge, 2002. ^ E. K. Chambers The Elizabethan Stage, 4 Volumes, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1923; Vol. 3, p. 365. ^ Terence P. Logan and Denzell S. Smith, eds., The New Intellectuals: A Survey and Bibliography of Recent Studies in English Renaissance Drama, Lincoln, NE, University of Nebraska Press, 1977; pp. 67-9. ^ Logan and Smith, p. 8. ^ Logan and Smith, pp. 74, 175-6, 221-2, 313. External links[edit] The Poetaster online. v t e Ben Jonson (works) Plays A Tale of a Tub The Case is Altered The Isle of Dogs Every Man in His Humour Every Man out of His Humour Cynthia's Revels Poetaster Sejanus His Fall Eastward Hoe Volpone Epicœne, or The Silent Woman The Alchemist Catiline His Conspiracy Bartholomew Fair The Devil Is an Ass The Staple of News The New Inn The Magnetic Lady Rollo Duke of Normandy The Sad Shepherd Mortimer His Fall (fragment) Masques The Coronation Triumph A Private Entertainment of the King and Queen on May-Day The Entertainment at Althorp The Masque of Blackness Hymenaei The Entertainment of the Kings of Great Britain and Denmark The Masque of Beauty The Masque of Queens The Hue and Cry After Cupid The Entertainment at Britain's Burse The Speeches at Prince Henry's Barriers Oberon, the Faery Prince Love Freed from Ignorance and Folly Love Restored A Challenge at Tilt, at a Marriage The Irish Masque at Court Mercury Vindicated from the Alchemists The Golden Age Restored Christmas, His Masque The Vision of Delight Lovers Made Men Pleasure Reconciled to Virtue For the Honour of Wales News from the New World Discovered in the Moon The Entertainment at Blackfriars Pan's Anniversary The Gypsies Metamorphosed The Masque of Augurs Time Vindicated to Himself and to His Honours Neptune's Triumph for the Return of Albion The Masque of Owls at Kenilworth The Fortunate Isles and Their Union Love's Triumph Through Callipolis Chloridia The King's Entertainment at Welbeck Love's Welcome at Bolsover Poems "On My First Sonne" "To Celia" "To Penshurst" Related Ben Jonson folios English Renaissance theatre Sons of Ben (literary group) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Poetaster_(play)&oldid=982127636" Categories: Plays by Ben Jonson English Renaissance plays 1601 plays Cultural depictions of Ovid Horace Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Français Latina Edit links This page was last edited on 6 October 2020, at 09:42 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-453	----	Roman emperor - Wikipedia Roman emperor From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ruler of the Roman Empire in imperial period For the ruler of the Roman Kingdom in the archaic period, see Kings of Rome. For the dual chief magistrates during the Roman Republic, see Roman consul. For the Roman emperors, see List of Roman emperors. Not to be confused with Holy Roman Emperor. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Roman emperor" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Emperor of the Roman Empire Imperial Vexillum of the emperor First to command Augustus 16 January 27 BC – 19 August AD 14 Details Style Imperator, Augustus, Caesar, Princeps, Dominus Noster, Autokrator or Basileus (depending on period) First monarch Augustus Last monarch Theodosius I (Unified or Classical), Julius Nepos (Western), Constantine XI (Eastern) Formation 16 January 27 BC Abolition 17 January 395 AD (Unified or Classical), 22 June 480 AD (Western), 29 May 1453 AD (Eastern) Appointer Roman Senate (officially) and/or Roman Military Pretender(s) none The Roman emperor was the ruler of the Roman Empire during the imperial period (starting in 27 BC). The emperors used a variety of different titles throughout history. Often when a given Roman is described as becoming "emperor" in English, it reflects his taking of the title Augustus or Caesar. Another title often used was imperator, originally a military honorific. Early emperors also used the title Princeps Civitatis ('first citizen'). Emperors frequently amassed republican titles, notably princeps senatus, consul and pontifex maximus. The legitimacy of an emperor's rule depended on his control of the army and recognition by the Senate; an emperor would normally be proclaimed by his troops, or invested with imperial titles by the Senate, or both. The first emperors reigned alone; later emperors would sometimes rule with co-emperors and divide administration of the empire between them. The Romans considered the office of emperor to be distinct from that of a king. The first emperor, Augustus, resolutely refused recognition as a monarch.[1] Although Augustus could claim that his power was authentically republican, his successors, Tiberius and Nero, could not convincingly make the same claim.[2] Nonetheless, for the first three hundred years of Roman emperors, from Augustus until Diocletian, efforts were made to portray the emperors as leaders of a republic. From Diocletian, whose tetrarchic reforms also divided the position into one emperor in the West and one in the East, until the end of the Empire, emperors ruled in an openly monarchic style[3] and did not preserve the nominal principle of a republic, but the contrast with "kings" was maintained: although the imperial succession was generally hereditary, it was only hereditary if there was a suitable candidate acceptable to the army and the bureaucracy,[4] so the principle of automatic inheritance was not adopted. Elements of the republican institutional framework (senate, consuls, and magistrates) were preserved even after the end of the Western Empire. The peaceful reign of Constantine the Great, the first to openly convert to Christianity and allowing freedom of religion, witnessed the replacement of the Caput Mundi from Rome to Constantinople in 330 AD. The Western Roman Empire collapsed in the late 5th century after multiple invasions of imperial territory by Germanic barbarian tribes. Romulus Augustulus is often considered to be the last emperor of the West after his forced abdication in 476, although Julius Nepos maintained a claim recognized by the Eastern Empire to the title until his death in 480. Following Nepos' death, the Eastern emperor Zeno abolished the division of the position and proclaimed himself as the sole emperor of a reunited Roman Empire. Emperor Heraclius made diplomatic relations with the Companions of the Prophet Muhammad, but lost many territories after successful Islamic conquests. The Eastern imperial lineage continued to rule from Constantinople ("New Rome"); they continued to style themselves "emperor of the Romans" (later βασιλεύς Ῥωμαίων in Greek), but are often referred to in modern scholarship as Byzantine emperors. Constantine XI Palaiologos was the last Roman emperor in Constantinople, dying in the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire's Mehmed II in 1453. The Muslim rulers then claimed the title of Caesar of Rome. The "Byzantine" emperors from Heraclius in 629 and onwards adopted the title of basileus (βασιλεύς), which had originally meant king in Greek but became a title reserved solely for the Roman emperor and the ruler of the Sasanian Empire. Other kings were then referred to as rēgas.[5] In addition to their pontifical office, some emperors were given divine status after death. With the eventual hegemony of Christianity, the emperor came to be seen as God's chosen ruler, as well as a special protector and leader of the Christian Church on Earth, although in practice an emperor's authority on Church matters was subject to challenge. Due to the cultural rupture of the Turkish conquest, most western historians treat Constantine XI as the last meaningful claimant to the title Roman emperor. From 1453, one of the titles used by the Ottoman Sultans was "Caesar of Rome" (Turkish: Kayser-i Rum)[6], part of their titles until the Ottoman Empire ended in 1922. A Byzantine group of claimant Roman emperors existed in the Empire of Trebizond until its conquest by the Ottomans in 1461, though they had used a modified title since 1282. Eastern emperors in Constantinople had been recognized and accepted as Roman emperors both in the East, which they ruled, and by the papacy and Germanic kingdoms of the West until the deposition of Constantine VI and accession of Irene of Athens as Empress regnant in 797. Objecting to a woman ruling the Roman Empire in her own right and issues with the eastern clergy, the Papacy would then create a rival lineage of Roman emperors in western Europe, the Holy Roman Emperors, which ruled the Holy Roman Empire for most of the period between 800 and 1806. These emperors were never recognized as Roman emperors by the court in Constantinople and their coronations resulted in the medieval problem of two emperors. Contents 1 Background and beginning 2 Classical period 2.1 Imperator 2.2 Princeps 2.3 Evolution in Late Antiquity 3 Titles and positions 3.1 Powers 4 Lineages and epochs 4.1 Principate 4.2 Crisis of the Third Century 4.3 Dominate 4.4 Decline of the Western Roman Empire 5 Post-classical assertions to the title 5.1 Survival of the Roman Empire in the East 5.2 Last Roman emperor 5.3 New Western lineage 6 See also 6.1 Lists 7 References 8 Sources 9 Further reading 10 External links Background and beginning[edit] Statue of Augustus, c. 30 BC–20 BC; this statue is located in the Louvre Modern historians conventionally regard Augustus as the first Emperor whereas Julius Caesar is considered the last dictator of the Roman Republic, a view having its origins in the Roman writers Plutarch, Tacitus and Cassius Dio.[7] However, the majority of Roman writers, including Josephus, Pliny the Younger, Suetonius and Appian, as well as most of the ordinary people of the Empire, thought of Julius Caesar as the first Emperor.[8] At the end of the Roman Republic no new, and certainly no single, title indicated the individual who held supreme power. Insofar as emperor could be seen as the English translation of imperator, then Julius Caesar had been an emperor, like several Roman generals before him. Instead, by the end of the civil wars in which Julius Caesar had led his armies, it became clear that there was certainly no consensus to return to the old-style monarchy, but that the period when several officials, bestowed with equal power by the senate, would fight one another had come to an end. Julius Caesar, and then Augustus after him, accumulated offices and titles of the highest importance in the Republic, making the power attached to those offices permanent, and preventing anyone with similar aspirations from accumulating or maintaining power for themselves. However, Julius Caesar, unlike those after him, did so without the Senate's vote and approval.[citation needed] Julius Caesar held the Republican offices of consul four times and dictator five times, was appointed dictator in perpetuity (dictator perpetuo) in 45 BC and had been "pontifex maximus" for a long period. He gained these positions by senatorial consent and just prior to his assassination, was the most powerful man in the Roman world. Cameo of Augustus in a quadriga drawn by tritons (Kunsthistorisches Museum) In his will, Caesar appointed his adopted son Octavian as his heir. On Caesar's death, Octavian inherited his adoptive father's property and lineage, the loyalty of most of his allies and – again through a formal process of senatorial consent – an increasing number of the titles and offices that had accrued to Caesar. A decade after Caesar's death, Octavian's victory over his erstwhile ally Mark Antony at Actium put an end to any effective opposition and confirmed Octavian's supremacy. In 27 BC, Octavian appeared before the Senate and offered to retire from active politics and government; the Senate not only requested he remain, but increased his powers and made them lifelong, awarding him the title of Augustus (the elevated or divine one, somewhat less than a god but approaching divinity). Augustus stayed in office until his death; the sheer breadth of his superior powers as princeps and permanent imperator of Rome's armies guaranteed the peaceful continuation of what nominally remained a republic. His "restoration" of powers to the Senate and the people of Rome was a demonstration of his auctoritas and pious respect for tradition. Some later historians such as Tacitus would say that even at Augustus' death, the true restoration of the Republic might have been possible. Instead, Augustus actively prepared his adopted son Tiberius to be his successor and pleaded his case to the Senate for inheritance on merit. The Senate disputed the issue but eventually confirmed Tiberius as princeps. Once in power, Tiberius took considerable pains to observe the forms and day-to-day substance of republican government. Classical period[edit] Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e Rome had no single constitutional office, title or rank exactly equivalent to the English title "Roman emperor". Romans of the Imperial era used several titles to denote their emperors, and all were associated with the pre-Imperial, Republican era. The legal authority of the emperor derived from an extraordinary concentration of individual powers and offices that were extant in the Republic rather than from a new political office; emperors were regularly elected to the offices of consul and censor.[9] Among their permanent privileges were the traditional Republican title of princeps senatus (leader of the Senate) and the religious office of pontifex maximus (chief priest of the College of Pontiffs). Every emperor held the latter office and title until Gratian surrendered it in AD 382 to Pope Siricius; it eventually became an auxiliary honor of the Bishop of Rome. These titles and offices conferred great personal prestige (dignitas) but the basis of an emperor's powers derived from his auctoritas: this assumed his greater powers of command (imperium maius) and tribunician power (tribunicia potestas) as personal qualities, separate from his public office. As a result, he formally outranked provincial governors and ordinary magistrates. He had the right to enact or revoke sentences of capital punishment, was owed the obedience of private citizens (privati) and by the terms of the ius auxiliandi could save any plebeian from any patrician magistrate's decision. He could veto any act or proposal of any magistrate, including the tribunes of the people (ius intercedendi or ius intercessionis). His person was held to be sacred. Roman magistrates on official business were expected to wear the form of toga associated with their office; different togas were worn by different ranks; senior magistrates had the right to togas bordered with purple. A triumphal imperator of the Republic had the right to wear the toga picta (of solid purple, richly embroidered) for the duration of the triumphal rite. During the Late Republic, the most powerful had this right extended. Pompey and Caesar are both thought to have worn the triumphal toga and other triumphal dress at public functions. Later emperors were distinguished by wearing togae purpurae, purple togas; hence the phrase "to don the purple" for the assumption of imperial dignity. The titles customarily associated with the imperial dignity are imperator ("commander"), which emphasizes the emperor's military supremacy and is the source of the English word emperor; Caesar, which was originally a name but came to be used for the designated heir (as Nobilissimus Caesar, "Most Noble Caesar") and was retained upon accession. The ruling emperor's title was the descriptive Augustus ("majestic" or "venerable", which had tinges of the divine), which was adopted upon accession. In Greek, these three titles were rendered as autokratōr ("Αὐτοκράτωρ"), kaisar ("Καίσαρ"), and augoustos ("Αὔγουστος") or sebastos ("Σεβαστός") respectively. In Diocletian's Tetrarchy, the traditional seniorities were maintained: "Augustus" was reserved for the two senior emperors and "Caesar" for the two junior emperors – each delegated a share of power and responsibility but each an emperor-in-waiting, should anything befall his senior. As princeps senatus (lit., "first man of the senate"), the emperor could receive foreign embassies to Rome; some emperors (such as Tiberius) are known to have delegated this task to the Senate. In modern terms these early emperors would tend to be identified as chiefs of state. The office of princeps senatus, however, was not a magistracy and did not entail imperium. At some points in the Empire's history, the emperor's power was nominal; powerful praetorian prefects, masters of the soldiers and on a few occasions, other members of the Imperial household including Imperial mothers and grandmothers were the true source of power. Imperator[edit] Main article: Imperator The title imperator dates back to the Roman Republic, when a victorious commander could be hailed as imperator in the field by his troops. The Senate could then award or withhold the extraordinary honour of a triumph; the triumphal commander retained the title until the end of his magistracy.[10] In Roman tradition, the first triumph was that of Romulus, but the first attested recipient of the title imperator in a triumphal context is Aemilius Paulus in 189 BC.[10] It was a title held with great pride: Pompey was hailed imperator more than once, as was Sulla, but it was Julius Caesar who first used it permanently – according to Dio, this was a singular and excessive form of flattery granted by the Senate, passed to Caesar's adopted heir along with his name and virtually synonymous with it.[11] In 38 BC Agrippa refused a triumph for his victories under Octavian's command, and this precedent established the rule that the princeps should assume both the salutation and title of imperator. It seems that from then on Octavian (later the first emperor Augustus) used imperator as a first name (praenomen): Imperator Caesar not Caesar imperator. From this the title came to denote the supreme power and was commonly used in that sense. Otho was the first to imitate Augustus, but only with Vespasian did imperator (emperor) become the official title by which the ruler of the Roman Empire was known. Princeps[edit] Main articles: Principate and Roman Emperor (Principate) The word princeps (plural principes), meaning "first", was a republican term used to denote the leading citizen(s) of the state. It was a purely honorific title with no attached duties or powers. It was the title most preferred by Augustus as its use implies only primacy, as opposed to another of his titles, imperator, which implies dominance. Princeps, because of its republican connotation, was most commonly used to refer to the emperor in Latin (although the emperor's actual constitutional position was essentially "pontifex maximus with tribunician power and imperium superseding all others") as it was in keeping with the façade of the restored Republic; the Greek word basileus ("king") was modified to be synonymous with emperor (and primarily came into favour after the reign of Heraclius) as the Greeks had no republican sensibility and openly viewed the emperor as a monarch. In the era of Diocletian and beyond, princeps fell into disuse and was replaced with dominus ("lord");[12] later emperors used the formula Imperator Caesar NN. Pius Felix (Invictus) Augustus: NN representing the individual's personal name; Pius Felix meaning "Pious and Blest"; and Invictus meaning "undefeated". The use of princeps and dominus broadly symbolise the differences in the empire's government, giving rise to the era designations "Principate" and "Dominate". Evolution in Late Antiquity[edit] In 293, following the Crisis of the Third Century which had severely damaged Imperial administration, Emperor Diocletian enacted sweeping reforms that washed away many of the vestiges and façades of republicanism which had characterized the Augustan order in favor of a more frank autocracy. As a result, historians distinguish the Augustan period as the principate and the period from Diocletian to the 7th-century reforms of Emperor Heraclius as the dominate (from the Latin for "lord".) Reaching back to the oldest traditions of job-sharing in the republic, however, Diocletian established at the top of this new structure the Tetrarchy ("rule of four") in an attempt to provide for smoother succession and greater continuity of government. Under the Tetrarchy, Diocletian set in place a system of co-emperors, styled "Augustus", and junior emperors, styled "Caesar". When a co-emperor retired (as Diocletian and his co-emperor Maximian did in 305) or died, a junior "Caesar" would succeed him and the co-emperors would appoint new Caesars as needed. The four members of the Imperial college (as historians call the arrangement) shared military and administrative challenges by each being assigned specific geographic areas of the empire. From this innovation, often but not consistently repeated over the next 187 years, comes the notion of an east–west partition of the empire that became popular with historians long after the practice had stopped. The two halves of empire, while often run as de facto separate entities day-to-day, were always considered and seen, legally and politically, as separate administrative divisions of a single, insoluble imperium by the Romans of the time. Roman coins (i.e. the tremissis) of the emperors Romulus Augustulus and Julius Nepos, the last emperors of the Western Roman Empire, although Nepos was a de jure ruler in Dalmatia after the deposition of Romulus Augustulus When emperor Theodosius I died, his sons Arcadius and Honorius, already proclaimed augusti, succeeded him. Eighty-five years later, following Germanic migrations which had reduced the empire's effective control across Brittania, Gaul and Hispania and a series of military coup d'état which drove Emperor Nepos out of Italy, the idea of dividing the position of emperor was formally abolished by Emperor Zeno (480). The Roman Empire survived in the east until 1453, but the marginalization of the former heartland of Italy to the empire[clarification needed] had a profound cultural impact on the empire and the position of emperor. In 620, the official language was changed from Latin to Greek. The Greek-speaking inhabitants were Romaioi (Ῥωμαῖοι), and were still considered Romans by themselves and the populations of Eastern Europe, the Near East, India, and China. But many in Western Europe began to refer to the political entity as the "Greek Empire". The evolution of the church in the no-longer imperial city of Rome and the church in the now supreme Constantinople began to follow divergent paths, culminating in the schism between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox faiths. The position of emperor was increasingly influenced by Near Eastern concepts of kingship. Starting with Emperor Heraclius, Roman emperors styled themselves "King of Kings" (from the imperial Persian Shahanshah) from 627 and "Basileus" (from the title used by Alexander the Great) from 629. The later period of the empire is today called the Byzantine Empire as a matter of scholarly convention.[citation needed] Titles and positions[edit] Although these are the most common offices, titles, and positions, not all Roman emperors used them, nor were all of them used at the same time in history. The consular and censorial offices especially were not an integral part of the Imperial dignity, and were usually held by persons other than the reigning emperor. Augustus: (also "Αὔγουστος" or "Σεβαστός"), "Majestic" or "Venerable"; an honorific cognomen exclusive to the emperor Autokrator: (Αὐτοκράτωρ, Autokratōr), (lit. "Self-ruler"); Greek title equivalent to imperator or commander-in-chief Basileus: (Βασιλεύς), Greek for king, popularly used in the east to refer to the emperor; a formal title of the Roman emperor beginning with Heraclius Caesar: (also "Καίσαρ"), "Caesar"; initially the cognomen of Julius Caesar, it was transformed into a title; an honorific name later used to identify an emperor-designate Censor: a Republican office held jointly by two former consuls every five years for the purpose of conducting the lustrum that determined the role of citizens; the censor could audit all other magistrates and all state finances Consul: the highest magistracy of the Roman Republic with a one-year term and one coequal officeholder; the consul was the head of state within Rome. The last emperor to be bestowed the title by the Senate was Constans II, who was also the last emperor to visit Rome. Dominus ("Lord" or "Master"): an honorific title mainly associated with the Dominate Dominus Noster ("Our Lord"): an honorific title; the praenomen of later emperors.[citation needed] Imperator ("Commander" or "Commander-in-Chief"): a victory title taken on accession to the purple and after a major military victory Imperator Destinatus ("Destined to be Emperor"): heir apparent, used by Septimius Severus for Caracalla Invictus ("Unconquered"), an honorific title. Nobilissimus: (Nωβελίσσιμος, Nōbelissimos), ("Most Noble"), one of the highest imperial titles held by the emperor 1st-century sardonyx cameo of Caligula with the goddess Roma in a 17th-century setting (Kunsthistorisches Museum) Pater Patriae ("Father of the Fatherland"): an honorific title Perpetuus ("Universal"): an honorific title of later emperors Pius Felix ("Pious and Blessed"): an honorific title Pontifex Maximus ("Supreme Pontiff" or "Chief Priest"): in the Republican era, the Pontifex Maximus was the head of the College of Pontiffs, the religious body that oversaw the ancestral public religion of the Romans; Julius Caesar had become Pontifex Maximus before he was elected consul, and the precedent set by his heir Augustus in consolidating supreme authority through this religious office was in general followed by his successors until the empire came under Christian rule Princeps ("First Citizen" or "Leading Citizen"): an honorific title denoting the status of the emperor as first among equals, associated mainly with the Principate Princeps Iuventutis: ("Prince of Youth"), an honorific title awarded to a presumptive emperor-designate Princeps Senatus: ("First Man of the Senate"), a Republican office with a five-year term Sebastos: (Σεβαστός), ("Venerable"); the Greek rendition of the imperial title Augustus Sebastokrator: (Σεβαστοκράτωρ, Sebastokratōr), ("Venerable Ruler); a senior court title from the compound words "sebastos" ("venerable", the Greek equivalent of the Latin Augustus) and "kratōr" ("ruler", the same element as is found in "autokratōr", "emperor") Tribunicia Potestas: ("Tribunician Power"); the powers of a tribune of the people, including sacrosanctity and inviolability of his person, and the veto over any decision by any other magistrate, assembly, or the Senate (the emperor could not be a "tribune" because a tribune was a plebeian by definition, therefore the emperor had all the powers of a tribune without actually being one) Powers[edit] When Augustus established the Princeps, he turned down supreme authority in exchange for a collection of various powers and offices, which in itself was a demonstration of his auctoritas ("authority"). As holding princeps senatus, the emperor declared the opening and closure of each Senate session, declared the Senate's agenda, imposed rules and regulation for the Senate to follow, and met with foreign ambassadors in the name of the Senate. Being pontifex maximus made the emperor the chief administrator of religious affairs, granting him the power to conduct all religious ceremonies, consecrate temples, control the Roman calendar (adding or removing days as needed), appoint the vestal virgins and some flamens, lead the Collegium Pontificum, and summarize the dogma of the Roman religion. While these powers granted the emperor a great deal of personal pride and influence, they did not include legal authority. In 23 BC, Augustus gave the emperorship its legal power. The first was Tribunicia Potestas, or the powers of the tribune of the plebs without actually holding the office (which would have been impossible, since a tribune was by definition a plebeian, whereas Augustus, although born into a plebeian family, had become a patrician when he was adopted into the gens Julia). This endowed the emperor with inviolability (sacrosanctity) of his person, and the ability to pardon any civilian for any act, criminal or otherwise. By holding the powers of the tribune, the emperor could prosecute anyone who interfered with the performance of his duties. The emperor's tribuneship granted him the right to convene the Senate at his will and lay proposals before it, as well as the ability to veto any act or proposal by any magistrate, including the actual tribune of the plebeians. Also, as holder of the tribune's power, the emperor would convoke the Council of the People, lay legislation before it, and served as the council's president. But his tribuneship only granted him power within Rome itself. He would need another power to veto the act of governors and that of the consuls while in the provinces. To solve this problem, Augustus managed to have the emperor be given the right to hold two types of imperium. The first being consular imperium while he was in Rome, and imperium maius outside of Rome. While inside the walls of Rome, the reigning consuls and the emperor held equal authority, each being able to veto each other's proposals and acts, with the emperor holding all of the consul's powers. But outside of Rome, the emperor outranked the consuls and could veto them without the same effects on himself. Imperium Maius also granted the emperor authority over all the provincial governors, making him the ultimate authority in provincial matters and gave him the supreme command of all of Rome's legions. With Imperium Maius, the emperor was also granted the power to appoint governors of imperial provinces without the interference of the Senate. Also, Imperium Maius granted the emperor the right to veto the governors of the provinces and even the reigning consuls while in the provinces. Lineages and epochs[edit] 1st-century Sardonyx cameo of an eagle, a symbol of Jupiter (Kunsthistorisches Museum) Principate[edit] Main article: Principate The nature of the imperial office and the Principate was established under Julius Caesar's heir and posthumously adopted son, Augustus, and his own heirs, the descendants of his wife Livia from her first marriage to a scion of the distinguished Claudian clan. This Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end when the Emperor Nero – a great-great-grandson of Augustus through his daughter and of Livia through her son – was deposed in 68. Nero was followed by a succession of usurpers throughout 69, commonly called the "Year of the Four Emperors". The last of these, Vespasian, established his own Flavian dynasty. Nerva, who replaced the last Flavian emperor, Vespasian's son Domitian, in 96, was elderly and childless, and chose therefore to adopt an heir, Trajan, from outside his family. When Trajan acceded to the purple he chose to follow his predecessor's example, adopting Hadrian as his own heir, and the practice then became the customary manner of imperial succession for the next century, producing the "Five Good Emperors" and the Empire's period of greatest stability. The last of the Good Emperors, Marcus Aurelius, chose his natural son Commodus as his successor rather than adopting an heir. A brief period of instability quickly gave way to Septimius Severus, who established the Severan dynasty which, except for an interruption in 217–218 when Macrinus was emperor, held the purple until 235. Crisis of the Third Century[edit] Main article: Crisis of the Third Century The accession of Maximinus Thrax marks both the close and the opening of an era. It was one of the last attempts by the increasingly impotent Roman Senate to influence the succession. Yet it was the second time that a man had achieved the purple while owing his advancement purely to his military career; both Vespasian and Septimius Severus had come from noble or middle-class families, while Thrax was born a commoner. He never visited the city of Rome during his reign[13], which marks the beginning of a series of "barracks emperors" who came from the army. Between 235 and 285 over a dozen emperors achieved the purple, but only Valerian and Carus managed to secure their own sons' succession to the throne; both dynasties died out within two generations. Dominate[edit] Main article: Dominate The accession on 20 November 284, of Diocletian, the lower-class, Greek-speaking Dalmatian commander of Carus' and Numerian's household cavalry (protectores domestici), marked major innovations in Rome's government and constitutional theory. Diocletian, a traditionalist and religious conservative, attempted to secure efficient, stable government and a peaceful succession with the establishment of the Tetrarchy. The empire was divided into East and West, each ruled by an Augustus assisted by a Caesar as emperor-in-waiting. These divisions were further subdivided into new or reformed provinces, administered by a complex, hierarchic bureaucracy of unprecedented size and scope. Diocletian's own court was based at Nicomedia. His co-Augustus, Maximian, was based at Mediolanum (modern Milan). Their courts were peripatetic, and Imperial progressions through the provinces made much use of the impressive, theatrical adventus, or "Imperial arrival" ceremony, which employed an elaborate choreography of etiquette to emphasise the emperor's elevation above other mortals. Hyperinflation of imperial honours and titles served to distinguish the Augusti from their Caesares, and Diocletian, as senior Augustus, from his colleague Maximian. The senior Augustus in particular was made a separate and unique being, accessible only through those closest to him. The overall unity of the Empire still required the highest investiture of power and status in one man.[14] The Tetrarchy ultimately degenerated into civil war, but the eventual victor, Constantine the Great, restored Diocletian's division of Empire into East and West. He kept the East for himself and founded his city of Constantinople as its new capital. Constantine's own dynasty was also soon swallowed up in civil war and court intrigue until it was replaced, briefly, by Julian the Apostate's general Jovian and then, more permanently, by Valentinian I and the dynasty he founded in 364. Though a soldier from a low middle-class background, Valentinian was made emperor by a conclave of senior generals and civil officials. Theodosius I acceded to the purple in the East in 379 and in the West in 394. He outlawed paganism and made Christianity the Empire's official religion. He was the last emperor to rule over a united Roman Empire; the distribution of the East to his son Arcadius and the West to his son Honorius after his death in 395 represented a permanent division. Decline of the Western Roman Empire[edit] Main article: Western Roman Empire In the Western Roman Empire, the office of emperor soon degenerated into being little more than a puppet of a succession of Germanic tribal kings, until finally the Heruli Odoacer simply overthrew the child-emperor Romulus Augustulus in 476, shipped the imperial regalia to the Emperor Zeno in Constantinople and became King of Italy. Though during his own lifetime Odoacer maintained the legal fiction that he was actually ruling Italy as the viceroy of Zeno, historians mark 476 as the traditional date of the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Large parts of Italy (Sicily, the south part of the peninsula, Ravenna, Venice etc.), however, remained under actual imperial rule from Constantinople for centuries, with imperial control slipping or becoming nominal only as late as the 11th century. In the East, the Empire continued until the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. Although known as the Byzantine Empire by contemporary historians, the Empire was simply known as the Roman Empire to its citizens and neighboring countries. Post-classical assertions to the title[edit] Main article: Succession of the Roman Empire Survival of the Roman Empire in the East[edit] Imaginary portrait of Constantine XI, the last Roman emperor of the Eastern Roman empire (until 1453). The line of Roman emperors in the Eastern Roman Empire continued unbroken at Constantinople until the capture of Constantinople in 1204 by the Fourth Crusade. In the wake of this action, four lines of Emperors emerged, each claiming to be the legal successor: the Empire of Thessalonica, evolving from the Despotate of Epirus, which was reduced to impotence when its founder Theodore Komnenos Doukas was defeated, captured and blinded by the Bulgarian Emperor Ivan Asen III;[15] the Latin Empire, which came to an end when the Empire of Nicaea recovered Constantinople in 1261; the Empire of Trebizond, whose importance declined over the 13th century, and whose claims were simply ignored;[16] and the Empire of Nicaea, whose claims based on kinship with the previous emperors, control of the Patriarch of Constantinople, and possession of Constantinople through military prowess, prevailed. The successors of the emperors of Nicaea continued until the fall of Constantinople in 1453 under Constantine XI Palaiologos. These emperors eventually normalized the imperial dignity into the modern conception of an emperor, incorporated it into the constitutions of the state, and adopted the aforementioned title Basileus kai autokratōr Rhomaiōn ("Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans"). They had also ceased to use Latin as the language of state after Emperor Heraclius (d. 641 AD). Historians have customarily treated the state of these later Eastern emperors under the name "Byzantine Empire". It is important to note, however, that the adjective Byzantine, although historically used by Eastern Roman authors in a metonymic sense, was never an official term. Last Roman emperor[edit] Main article: Constantine XI Palaiologos Further information: Deposition of Romulus Augustulus Constantine XI Palaiologos was the last reigning Roman emperor. A member of the Palaiologos dynasty, he ruled the remnant of the Eastern Roman Empire from 1449 until his death in 1453 defending its capital Constantinople. He was born in Mystra[17] as the eighth of ten children of Manuel II Palaiologos and Helena Dragaš, the daughter of the Serbian prince Constantine Dragaš of Kumanovo. He spent most of his childhood in Constantinople under the supervision of his parents. During the absence of his older brother in Italy, Constantine was regent in Constantinople from 1437 to 1440. Before the beginning of the siege, Mehmed the Conqueror made an offer to Constantine XI.[18] In exchange for the surrender of Constantinople, the emperor's life would be spared and he would continue to rule in Mystra. Constantine refused this offer. Instead he led the defense of the city and took an active part in the fighting along the land walls. At the same time, he used his diplomatic skills to maintain the necessary unity between the Genovese, Venetian, and Byzantine troops. As the city fell on May 29, 1453, Constantine is said to have remarked: "The city is fallen but I am alive." Realizing that the end had come, he reportedly discarded his purple cloak and led his remaining soldiers into a final charge, in which he was killed. With his death, Roman imperial succession came to an end, almost 1500 years after Augustus. After the fall of Constantinople, Thomas Palaiologos, brother of Constantine XI, was elected emperor and tried to organize the remaining forces. His rule came to an end after the fall of the last major Byzantine city, Corinth. He then moved in Italy and continued to be recognized as Eastern emperor by the Christian powers. His son Andreas Palaiologos continued claims on the Byzantine throne until he sold the title to Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile, the grandparents of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. New Western lineage[edit] Charles V was the last emperor of the Holy Roman Empire to receive a papal coronation (until abdication in 1556). The concept of the Roman Empire was renewed in the West with the coronation of the king of the Franks, Charlemagne (Charles the Great), as Roman emperor by the Pope on Christmas Day, 800. This coronation had its roots in the decline of influence of the Pope in the affairs of the Byzantine Empire at the same time the Byzantine Empire declined in influence over politics in the West. The Pope saw no advantage to be derived from working with the Byzantine Empire, but as George Ostrogorsky points out, "an alliance with the famous conqueror of the Lombards, on the other hand ... promised much".[19] The immediate response of the Eastern Roman emperor was not welcoming. "At that time it was axiomatic that there could be only one Empire as there could be only one church", writes Ostrogorsky. "The coronation of Charles the Great violated all traditional ideas and struck a hard blow at Byzantine interests, for hitherto Byzantium, the new Rome, had unquestionably been regarded as the sole Empire which had taken over the inheritance of the old Roman imperium. Conscious of its imperial rights, Byzantium could only consider the elevation of Charles the Great to be an act of usurpation."[20] Nikephoros I chose to ignore Charlemagne's claim to the imperial title, clearly recognizing the implications of this act. According to Ostrogorsky, "he even went so far as to refuse the Patriarch Nicephorus permission to dispatch the customary synodica to the Pope."[21] Meanwhile, Charlemagne's power steadily increased: he subdued Istria and several Dalmatian cities during the reign of Irene, and his son Pepin brought Venice under Western hegemony, despite a successful counter-attack by the Byzantine fleet. Unable to counter this encroachment on Byzantine territory, Nikephoros' successor Michael I Rangabe capitulated; in return for the restoration of the captured territories, Michael sent Byzantine delegates to Aachen in 812 who recognized Charlemagne as Basileus.[22] Michael did not recognize him as Basileus of the Romans, however, which was a title that he reserved for himself.[23] This line of Roman emperors was actually generally Germanic rather than Roman, but maintained their Roman-ness as a matter of principle. These emperors used a variety of titles (most frequently "Imperator Augustus") before finally settling on Imperator Romanus Electus ("Elected Roman Emperor"). Historians customarily assign them the title "Holy Roman Emperor", which has a basis in actual historical usage, and treat their "Holy Roman Empire" as a separate institution. To Latin Catholics of the time, the Pope was the temporal authority as well as spiritual authority, and as Bishop of Rome he was recognized as having the power to anoint or crown a new Roman emperor. The last man to be crowned by the pope (although in Bologna, not Rome) was Charles V. All his successors bore only a title of "Elected Roman Emperor". This line of Emperors lasted until 1806 when Francis II dissolved the Empire during the Napoleonic Wars. Despite the existence of later potentates styling themselves "emperor", such as the Napoleons, the Habsburg Emperors of Austria, and the Hohenzollern heads of the German Reich, this marked the end of the Western Empire. Although there is a living heir, Karl von Habsburg, to the Habsburg dynasty, as well as a Pope and pretenders to the positions of the electors, and although all the medieval coronation regalia are still preserved in Austria, the legal abolition of all aristocratic prerogatives of the former electors and the imposition of republican constitutions in Germany and Austria render quite remote any potential for a revival of the Holy Roman Empire. For rulers of Italy after Romulus "Augustulus" and Julius Nepos, see list of barbarian kings. For the Roman emperors who ruled in the East after The Fall in the West, see List of Byzantine emperors. For emperors of the Holy Roman Empire in the West, see Holy Roman Emperor. See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal Imperial cult (ancient Rome) Interregnum Justitium Roman Emperors family tree Julio-Claudian family tree Severan dynasty family tree Roman usurper Lists[edit] List of Byzantine emperors List of condemned Roman emperors List of Imperial Roman victory titles List of Roman emperors List of Roman usurpers References[edit] ^ Galinsky 2005, pp. 13–14 ^ Alston 1998, p. 39 ^ Williams 1997, p. 147 ^ Heather 2005, p. 28 ^ Kazhdan 1991, p. 264 ^ İlber Ortaylı, "Büyük Constantin ve İstanbul", Milliyet, 28 May 2011. ^ Barnes 2009, pp. 278–279 ^ Barnes 2009, pp. 279–282 ^ Murray, John (1875). A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. University of Chicago. pp. 260–266. ^ a b The Oxford Classical Dictionary, entry 'Imperator', Third Edition, Oxford University Press, 1996. ^ Cassius Dio, 43.44.2. ^ Goldsworth 2010, p. 443 ^ Hekster, Olivier (2008). Rome and its Empire, AD 193–284. Edinburgh University Press. p. 3. ISBN 9780748629923. Retrieved 29 July 2020. ^ Rees 2004, pp. 46–56, 60 ^ Ostrogorsky 1957, p. 387 ^ On the imperial claims of the Grand Komnenos and international response to them, see N. Oikonomides, "The Chancery of the Grand Komnenoi; Imperial Tradition and Political Reality", Archeion Pontou, 35 (1979), pp. 299–332 ^ "Constantine Palaeologus the last Hellene emperor Fall of Constantinople". www.agiasofia.com. ^ Mansel, Philip (1995). "Constantinople: City of the World's Desire 1453–1924". Washington Post. St. Martin's Press. Retrieved 21 August 2018. – Chapter 1 of Constantinople: City of the World's Desire 1453–1924 ^ Ostrogorsky 1957, p. 164 ^ Ostrogorsky 1957, p. 164f ^ Ostrogorsky 1957, p. 175 ^ Ostrogorsky 1957, p. 176 ^ Eichmann, Eduard (1942). Die Kaiserkrönung im Abendland: ein Beitrag zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung des kirchlichen Rechte, der Liturgie und der Kirchenpolitik. Echter-Verlag. p. 33. Sources[edit] Alston, Richard (1998). Aspects of Roman history, AD 14–117. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-13237-4. Retrieved 2011-08-03. Barnes, Timothy (2009). "The first Emperor: the view of late antiquity". In Griffin, Miriam (ed.). A Companion to Julius Caesar. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-0845-7. Galinsky, Karl (2005). The Cambridge companion to the Age of Augustus. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-80796-8. Retrieved 2011-08-03. Goldsworth, Adrian (2010). How Rome Fell: Death of a Superpower. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300164268. Heather, Peter (2005). The Fall of the Roman Empire. ISBN 978-0-330-49136-5. Retrieved 2011-08-03. Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991), Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6 Ostrogorsky, George (1957). History of the Byzantine State. Translated by Hussey, Joan. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. Rees, Roger (2004). Diocletian and the Tetrarchy. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 9780748616602. Williams, Stephen (1997) [1985]. Diocletian and the Roman recovery. New York, NY: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-91827-5. Retrieved 2011-08-03. Further reading[edit] Scarre, Chris. Chronicle of the Roman Emperors: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial Rome. London: Thames & Hudson, October 1, 1995. ISBN 0-500-05077-5 (hardcover). External links[edit] De Imperatoribus Romanis Rulers of Rome "Decadence, Rome and Romania, and the Emperors Who Weren't", by Kelley L. Ross, Ph.D. UNRV.com The Roman Law Library List of Greatest Roman Emperors v t e Roman emperors by epoch List of Roman emperors Roman Empire Family tree Early Principate Crisis of the Third Century Dominate Western Roman Empire and the Middle Ages Julio-Claudian dynasty (27 BC–68 AD) Year of the 4 Emperors (68–69) Flavian dynasty (69–96) Nerva–Antonine dynasty (96–192) Year of the 5 Emperors (192–193) Severan dynasty (193–235) Year of the 6 Emperors (238) Gordian dynasty (238–244) Illyrian emperors (268–284) Gallic emperors (260–274) Britannic emperors (286–297) Tetrarchies (293–313) Constantinian dynasty (305–363) Valentinianic dynasty (364–392) Theodosian dynasty (378–455) Western Roman emperors (395–476) Eastern Roman/Byzantine emperors (395–1453) Emperors of Nicaea (1204–1261) Emperors of Trebizond (1204–1461) Emperors/Despots of Thessalonica (1224–1246) Latin emperors (1204–1261) Holy Roman emperors (800–1806) v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus 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en-wikipedia-org-4554	----	JSTOR - Wikipedia JSTOR From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from JSTOR (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Subscription digital library JSTOR Screenshot The JSTOR front page Type of site Digital library Available in English (includes content in other languages) Owner Ithaka Harbors[1] Created by Andrew W. Mellon Foundation URL jstor.org Registration Yes Launched 1995; 25 years ago (1995) Current status Active OCLC number 46609535 Links Website www.jstor.org Title list(s) support.jstor.org/hc/en-us/articles/115007466248-JSTOR-Title-Lists JSTOR (/ˈdʒeɪstɔːr/;[2] short for Journal Storage)[3] is a digital library founded in 1995 in New York City, United States. Originally containing digitized back issues of academic journals, it now encompasses books and other primary sources as well as current issues of journals.[4] It provides full-text searches of almost 2,000 journals. As of 2013[update], more than 8,000 institutions in more than 160 countries had access to JSTOR.[5] Most access is by subscription but some of the site's public domain and open access content is available free of charge.[6] JSTOR's revenue was $86 million in 2015.[7] Contents 1 History 2 Content 3 Access 3.1 Aaron Swartz incident 3.2 Limitations 3.3 Increasing public access 4 Use 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links History[edit] William G. Bowen, president of Princeton University from 1972 to 1988,[8] founded JSTOR in 1995. JSTOR originally was conceived as a solution to one of the problems faced by libraries, especially research and university libraries, due to the increasing number of academic journals in existence. Most libraries found it prohibitively expensive in terms of cost and space to maintain a comprehensive collection of journals. By digitizing many journal titles, JSTOR allowed libraries to outsource the storage of journals with the confidence that they would remain available long-term. Online access and full-text search ability improved access dramatically. Bowen initially considered using CD-ROMs for distribution.[9] However, Ira Fuchs, Princeton University's vice-president for Computing and Information Technology, convinced Bowen that CD-ROM was becoming an increasingly outdated technology and that network distribution could eliminate redundancy and increase accessibility. (For example, all Princeton's administrative and academic buildings were networked by 1989; the student dormitory network was completed in 1994; and campus networks like the one at Princeton were, in turn, linked to larger networks such as BITNET and the Internet.) JSTOR was initiated in 1995 at seven different library sites, and originally encompassed ten economics and history journals. JSTOR access improved based on feedback from its initial sites, and it became a fully searchable index accessible from any ordinary web browser. Special software was put in place to make pictures and graphs clear and readable.[10] With the success of this limited project, Bowen and Kevin Guthrie, then-president of JSTOR, wanted to expand the number of participating journals. They met with representatives of the Royal Society of London and an agreement was made to digitize the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society dating from its beginning in 1665. The work of adding these volumes to JSTOR was completed by December 2000.[10] The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation funded JSTOR initially. Until January 2009 JSTOR operated as an independent, self-sustaining nonprofit organization with offices in New York City and in Ann Arbor, Michigan. Then JSTOR merged with the nonprofit Ithaka Harbors, Inc.[11]—a nonprofit organization founded in 2003 and "dedicated to helping the academic community take full advantage of rapidly advancing information and networking technologies".[1] Content[edit] JSTOR content is provided by more than 900 publishers.[5] The database contains more than 1,900 journal titles,[5] in more than 50 disciplines. Each object is uniquely identified by an integer value, starting at 1. In addition to the main site, the JSTOR labs group operates an open service that allows access to the contents of the archives for the purposes of corpus analysis at its Data for Research service.[12] This site offers a search facility with graphical indication of the article coverage and loose integration into the main JSTOR site. Users may create focused sets of articles and then request a dataset containing word and n-gram frequencies and basic metadata. They are notified when the dataset is ready and may download it in either XML or CSV formats. The service does not offer full-text, although academics may request that from JSTOR, subject to a non-disclosure agreement. JSTOR Plant Science[13] is available in addition to the main site. JSTOR Plant Science provides access to content such as plant type specimens, taxonomic structures, scientific literature, and related materials and aimed at those researching, teaching, or studying botany, biology, ecology, environmental, and conservation studies. The materials on JSTOR Plant Science are contributed through the Global Plants Initiative (GPI)[14] and are accessible only to JSTOR and GPI members. Two partner networks are contributing to this: the African Plants Initiative, which focuses on plants from Africa, and the Latin American Plants Initiative, which contributes plants from Latin America. JSTOR launched its Books at JSTOR program in November 2012, adding 15,000 current and backlist books to its site. The books are linked with reviews and from citations in journal articles.[15] In September 2014, JSTOR launched JSTOR Daily, an online magazine meant to bring academic research to a broader audience. Posted articles are generally based on JSTOR entries, and some entries provide the backstory to current events.[16] Access[edit] JSTOR is licensed mainly to academic institutions, public libraries, research institutions, museums, and schools. More than 7,000 institutions in more than 150 countries have access.[4] JSTOR has been running a pilot program of allowing subscribing institutions to provide access to their alumni, in addition to current students and staff. The Alumni Access Program officially launched in January 2013.[17] Individual subscriptions also are available to certain journal titles through the journal publisher.[18] Every year, JSTOR blocks 150 million attempts by non-subscribers to read articles.[19] Inquiries have been made about the possibility of making JSTOR open access. According to Harvard Law professor Lawrence Lessig, JSTOR had been asked "how much would it cost to make this available to the whole world, how much would we need to pay you? The answer was $250 million".[20] Aaron Swartz incident[edit] Main article: United States v. Aaron Swartz See also: Aaron Swartz § JSTOR In late 2010 and early 2011, Swartz used MIT's data network to bulk-download a substantial portion of JSTOR's collection of academic journal articles.[21][22] When the bulk-download was discovered, a video camera was placed in the room to film the mysterious visitor and the relevant computer was left untouched. Once video was captured of the visitor, the download was stopped and Swartz was identified. Rather than pursue a civil lawsuit against him, in June 2011 they reached a settlement wherein he surrendered the downloaded data.[21][22] The following month, federal authorities charged Swartz with several "data theft"-related crimes, including wire fraud, computer fraud, unlawfully obtaining information from a protected computer, and recklessly damaging a protected computer.[23][24] Prosecutors in the case claimed that Swartz acted with the intention of making the papers available on P2P file-sharing sites.[22][25] Swartz surrendered to authorities, pleaded not guilty to all counts, and was released on $100,000 bail. In September 2012, U.S. attorneys increased the number of charges against Swartz from four to thirteen, with a possible penalty of 35 years in prison and $1 million in fines.[26][27] The case still was pending when Swartz committed suicide in January 2013.[28] Prosecutors dropped the charges after his suicide.[29] Limitations[edit] The availability of most journals on JSTOR is controlled by a "moving wall", which is an agreed-upon delay between the current volume of the journal and the latest volume available on JSTOR. This time period is specified by agreement between JSTOR and the publisher of the journal, which usually is three to five years. Publishers may request that the period of a "moving wall" be changed or request discontinuation of coverage. Formerly, publishers also could request that the "moving wall" be changed to a "fixed wall"—a specified date after which JSTOR would not add new volumes to its database. As of November 2010[update], "fixed wall" agreements were still in effect with three publishers of 29 journals made available online through sites controlled by the publishers.[30] In 2010, JSTOR started adding current issues of certain journals through its Current Scholarship Program.[31] Increasing public access[edit] Beginning September 6, 2011, JSTOR made public domain content available at no charge to the public.[32][33] This "Early Journal Content" program constitutes about 6% of JSTOR's total content, and includes over 500,000 documents from more than 200 journals that were published before 1923 in the United States, and before 1870 in other countries.[32][33][34] JSTOR stated that it had been working on making this material free for some time. The Swartz controversy and Greg Maxwell's protest torrent of the same content led JSTOR to "press ahead" with the initiative.[32][33] As of 2017[update], JSTOR does not have plans to extend it to other public domain content, stating that "We do not believe that just because something is in the public domain, it can always be provided for free".[35] In January 2012, JSTOR started a pilot program, "Register & Read", offering limited no-cost access (not open access) to archived articles for individuals who register for the service. At the conclusion of the pilot, in January 2013, JSTOR expanded Register & Read from an initial 76 publishers to include about 1,200 journals from over 700 publishers.[36] Registered readers may read up to six articles online every calendar month, but may not print or download PDFs.[37] JSTOR is conducting a pilot program with Wikipedia, whereby established editors are given reading privileges through the Wikipedia Library, as with a university library.[38][39] Use[edit] In 2012, JSTOR users performed nearly 152 million searches, with more than 113 million article views and 73.5 million article downloads.[5] JSTOR has been used as a resource for linguistics research to investigate trends in language use over time and also to analyze gender differences and inequities in scholarly publishing, revealing that in certain fields, men predominate in the prestigious first and last author positions and that women are significantly underrepresented as authors of single-authored papers.[40][41][42] JSTOR metadata is available through CrossRef and the Unpaywall dump,[43] which as of 2020 identifies nearly 3 million works hosted by JSTOR as toll access, as opposed to over 200,000 available in open access (mainly through third party open access repositories). See also[edit] Aluka ARTstor ArXiv Digital preservation HAL (open archive) Japanese Historical Text Initiative JHOVE List of academic databases and search engines Project MUSE References[edit] ^ a b "About". Ithaka. Retrieved 2009-10-25. ^ "JSTOR Videos". YouTube. Retrieved 16 December 2012. ^ Douglas F. Morgan; Marcus D. Ingle; Craig W. Shinn (3 September 2018). New Public Leadership: Making a Difference from Where We Sit. Routledge. p. 82. ISBN 9780429832918. JSTOR means journal storage, which is an online service created in 1995 to provide electronic access to an extensive array of academic journals. ^ a b Genicot, Léopold (February 13, 2012). "At a glance". Études Rurales (PDF) (45): 131–133. JSTOR 20120213. ^ a b c d "Annual Summary" (PDF). JSTOR. 19 March 2013. Retrieved 13 April 2013. ^ "Register and read beta". ^ "Ithaka Harbors, Inc". Nonprofit Explorer. ProPublica. Retrieved 2018-04-24. ^ Leitch, Alexander. "Bowen, William Gordon". Princeton University Press. ^ "JSTOR, A History" by Roger C. Schonfeld, Princeton University Press, 2003 ^ a b Taylor, John (2001). "JSTOR: An Electronic Archive from 1665". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London. 55 (1): 179–81. doi:10.1098/rsnr.2001.0135. JSTOR 532157. ^ "About". JSTOR. Retrieved 28 November 2015. ^ Data for Research. JSTOR. ^ JSTOR Plant Science. JSTOR. ^ Global Plants Initiative. JSTOR. ^ "A new chapter begins: Books at JSTOR launches". JSTOR. November 12, 2012. Retrieved December 1, 2012. ^ Lichterman, Joseph. "Opening up the archives: JSTOR wants to tie a library to the news". Nieman Lab. Retrieved September 18, 2017. ^ "Access for alumni". JSTOR. Retrieved December 1, 2012. (subscription required) ^ "Individual subscriptions". JSTOR. Retrieved December 1, 2012. (subscription required) ^ Every Year, JSTOR Turns Away 150 Million Attempts to Read Journal Articles. The Atlantic. Retrieved 29 January 2013. ^ Lessig on "Aaron's Laws—Law and Justice in a Digital Age". YouTube (2013-02-20). Retrieved on 2014-04-12. ^ a b "JSTOR Statement: Misuse Incident and Criminal Case". JSTOR. 2011-07-19. ^ a b c Carter, Zach; Grim, Ryan; Reilly, Ryan J. (2013-01-12). "Aaron Swartz, Internet Pioneer, Found Dead Amid Prosecutor 'Bullying' In Unconventional Case". Huffington Post. The Huffington Post. ^ Bilton, Nick (July 19, 2011). "Internet activist charged in M.I.T. data theft". Bits Blog, The New York Times website. Retrieved December 1, 2012. ^ Schwartz, John (July 19, 2011). "Open-Access Advocate Is Arrested for Huge Download". New York Times. Retrieved July 19, 2011. ^ Lindsay, Jay (July 19, 2011). "Feds: Harvard fellow hacked millions of papers". Associated Press. Retrieved July 20, 2011. ^ Ortiz, Carmen (2011-07-19). "Alleged Hacker Charged with Stealing over Four Million Documents from MIT Network". The United States Attorney's Office". Archived from the original on 2011-07-24. ^ Kravets, David (2012-09-18). "Feds Charge Activist with 13 Felonies for Rogue Downloading of Academic Articles". Wired. ^ "Aaron Swartz, internet freedom activist, dies aged 26", BBC News ^ "Aaron Swartz's father: He'd be alive today if he was never arrested", money.cnn.com ^ "Moving wall". JSTOR. ^ "About current journals". JSTOR. Retrieved December 1, 2012. ^ a b c Brown, Laura (September 7, 2011). "JSTOR–free access to early journal content and serving 'unaffiliated' users", JSTOR. Retrieved December 1, 2012. ^ a b c Rapp, David (2011-09-07). "JSTOR Announces Free Access to 500K Public Domain Journal Articles". Library Journal. Archived from the original on 2015-09-24. Retrieved 2015-10-21. ^ "Early journal content". JSTOR. Retrieved December 1, 2012. ^ "About JSTOR: Frequently Asked Questions". JSTOR. Archived from the original on 2017-05-11. Retrieved 2017-05-18. ^ Tilsley, Alexandra (January 9, 2013). "Journal Archive Opens Up (Some)". Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved 6 January 2015. ^ "My JSTOR Read Online Free". JSTOR. Retrieved 2018-03-26. ^ Orlowitz, Jake; Earley, Patrick (January 25, 2014). "Librarypedia: The Future of Libraries and Wikipedia". The Digital Shift. Library Journal. Retrieved 20 December 2014. ^ Price, Gary (June 22, 2014). "Wikipedia Library Program Expands With More Accounts from JSTOR, Credo, and Other Database Providers". INFOdocket. Library Journal. Retrieved 20 December 2014. ^ Shapiro, Fred R. (1998). "A Study in Computer-Assisted Lexicology: Evidence on the Emergence of Hopefully as a Sentence Adverb from the JSTOR Journal Archive and Other Electronic Resources". American Speech. 73 (3): 279–296. doi:10.2307/455826. JSTOR 455826. ^ Wilson, Robin (October 22, 2012). "Scholarly Publishing's Gender Gap". The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved 6 January 2015. ^ West, Jevin D.; Jacquet, Jennifer; King, Molly M.; Correll, Shelley J.; Bergstrom, Carl T. (2013-07-22). "The Role of Gender in Scholarly Authorship". PLOS ONE. 8 (7): e66212. arXiv:1211.1759. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...866212W. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0066212. PMC 3718784. PMID 23894278. ^ Heather (2018-09-14). "It's time to insist on #openinfrastructure for #openscience". Our Research blog. Retrieved 2020-04-25. Further reading[edit] Gauger, Barbara J.; Kacena, Carolyn (2006). "JSTOR usage data and what it can tell us about ourselves: is there predictability based on historical use by libraries of similar size?". OCLC Systems & Services. 22 (1): 43–55. doi:10.1108/10650750610640801. Schonfeld, Roger C. (2003). JSTOR: A History. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-11531-3. Seeds, Robert S. (November 2002). "Impact of a digital archive (JSTOR) on print collection use". Collection Building. 21 (3): 120–22. doi:10.1108/01604950210434551. Spinella, Michael P. (2007). "JSTOR: Past, Present, and Future". Journal of Library Administration. 46 (2): 55–78. doi:10.1300/J111v46n02_05. Spinella, Michael (2008). "JSTOR and the changing digital landscape". Interlending & Document Supply. 36 (2): 79–85. doi:10.1108/02641610810878549. External links[edit] Official website "Libraries and institutions offering access". JSTOR. Retrieved 2015-10-21. Searchable database, includes many public libraries offering free access to library card holders. "Register & Read". JSTOR. Retrieved 2015-10-21. Free individual registration, offering free read-only access (no printing or saving) to three articles every two weeks (seventy-eight per year). JSTOR Early Journal Content : Free Texts : Download & Streaming : Internet Archive Authority control BIBSYS: 2041438 BNF: cb14557837v (data) GND: 1086659538 LCCN: no97001983 NLI: 002100754 VIAF: 146159089 WorldCat Identities: lccn-no97001983 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=JSTOR&oldid=993335798" Categories: 1995 establishments in the United States Academic publishing Andrew W. 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en-wikipedia-org-4559	----	View source for Horace - Wikipedia View source for Horace ← Horace Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ===19th century on=== Horace maintained a central role in the education of English-speaking elites right up until the 1960s.<ref>S. Harrison, ''The nineteenth and twentieth centuries'', 340</ref> A pedantic emphasis on the formal aspects of language-learning at the expense of literary appreciation may have made him unpopular in some quarters<ref>V. Kiernan, ''Horace: Poetics and Politics'', x</ref> yet it also confirmed his influence{{emdash}}a tension in his reception that underlies [[Lord Byron|Byron]]'s famous lines from ''[[Childe Harold's Pilgrimage|Childe Harold]]'' (Canto iv, 77):<ref>S. Harrison, ''The nineteenth and twentieth centuries'', 334</ref> {{poemquote| Then farewell, Horace, whom I hated so Not for thy faults, but mine; it is a curse To understand, not feel thy lyric flow, To comprehend, but never love thy verse. }} [[William Wordsworth]]'s mature poetry, including the [[Preface to the Lyrical Ballads|preface]] to ''[[Lyrical Ballads]]'', reveals Horace's influence in its rejection of false ornament<ref>D. Money, ''The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries'', 323</ref> and he once expressed "a wish / to meet the shade of Horace...".<ref group="nb">The quote, from ''Memorials of a Tour of Italy'' (1837), contains allusions to ''Odes'' 3.4 and 3.13 (S. Harrison, ''The nineteenth and twentieth centuries'', 334–35)</ref> [[John Keats]] echoed the opening of Horace's ''Epodes'' 14 in the opening lines of ''[[Ode to a Nightingale]]''.<ref group="nb">"''My heart aches, and a drowsy numbness pains / my sense...''" echoes Epodes [[:wikisource:la:Epodi#XIV|14.1–4]] (S. Harrison, ''The nineteenth and twentieth centuries'', 335)</ref> The Roman poet was presented in the nineteenth century as an honorary English gentleman. [[William Makepeace Thackeray|William Thackeray]] produced a version of ''Odes'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber I/Carmen XXXVIII|1.38]] in which Horace's 'boy' became 'Lucy', and [[Gerard Manley Hopkins]] translated the boy innocently as 'child'. Horace was translated by [[Sir Theodore Martin]] (biographer of [[Albert, Prince Consort|Prince Albert]]) but minus some ungentlemanly verses, such as the erotic ''Odes'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber I/Carmen XXV|1.25]] and ''Epodes'' 8 and 12. [[Edward Bulwer-Lytton]] produced a popular translation and [[William Gladstone]] also wrote translations during his last days as Prime Minister.<ref>S. Harrison, ''The nineteenth and twentieth centuries'', 335–37</ref> [[Edward FitzGerald (poet)|Edward FitzGerald]]'s ''[[Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam]]'', though formally derived from the Persian ''[[ruba'i]]'', nevertheless shows a strong Horatian influence, since, as one modern scholar has observed, "''...the quatrains inevitably recall the stanzas of the 'Odes', as does the narrating first person of the world-weary, ageing [[Epicurus|Epicurean]] Omar himself, mixing [[Symposium|sympotic]] exhortation and 'carpe diem' with splendid moralising and 'memento mori' [[nihilism]].''"<ref group="nb">Comment by S. Harrison, editor and contributor to ''The Cambridge Companion to Horace'' (S. Harrison, ''The nineteenth and twentieth centuries'', 337</ref> [[Matthew Arnold]] advised a friend in verse not to worry about politics, an echo of ''Odes'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber II/Carmen XI|2.11]], yet later became a critic of Horace's inadequacies relative to Greek poets, as role models of [[Victorian Age|Victorian]] virtues, observing: "''If human life were complete without faith, without enthusiasm, without energy, Horace...would be the perfect interpreter of human life.''"<ref>M. Arnold, ''Selected Prose'', 74</ref> [[Christina Rossetti]] composed a sonnet depicting a woman willing her own death steadily, drawing on Horace's depiction of 'Glycera' in ''Odes'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber I/Carmen XIX|1.19.5–6]] and Cleopatra in ''Odes'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber I/Carmen XXXVII|1.37]].<ref group="nb">Rossetti's sonnet, ''A Study (a soul)'', dated 1854, was not published in her own lifetime. Some lines: ''She stands as pale as Parian marble stands / Like Cleopatra when she turns at bay...'' (C. Rossetti, ''Complete Poems'', 758</ref> [[A. E. Housman]] considered ''Odes'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber IV/Carmen VII|4.7]], in [[Prosody (Latin)#First Archilochian|Archilochian]] couplets, the most beautiful poem of antiquity<ref>W. Flesch, ''Companion to British Poetry, 19th Century'', 98</ref> and yet he generally shared Horace's penchant for quatrains, being readily adapted to his own elegiac and melancholy strain.<ref>S. Harrison, ''The nineteenth and twentieth centuries'', 339</ref> The most famous poem of [[Ernest Dowson]] took its title and its heroine's name from a line of ''Odes'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber IV/Carmen I|4.1]], ''Non sum qualis eram bonae sub regno Cynarae'', as well as its motif of nostalgia for a former flame. [[Kipling]] wrote a famous [[parody]] of the ''Odes'', satirising their stylistic idiosyncrasies and especially the extraordinary syntax, but he also used Horace's Roman patriotism as a focus for British imperialism, as in the story ''Regulus'' in the school collection ''[[Stalky & Co.]]'', which he based on ''Odes'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber III/Carmen V|3.5]].<ref>S. Medcalfe, ''Kipling's Horace'', 217–39</ref> Wilfred Owen's famous poem, quoted above, incorporated Horatian text to question patriotism while ignoring the rules of Latin scansion. However, there were few other echoes of Horace in the war period, possibly because war is not actually a major theme of Horace's work.<ref>S. Harrison, ''the nineteenth and twentieth centuries'', 340</ref> [[File:Michelin Poster 1898.jpg|thumb|[[Bibendum]] (the symbol of the [[Michelin]] tyre company) takes his name from the opening line of [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber I/Carmen XXXVII|Ode 1.37]], ''[[Nunc est bibendum]]''.]] Both [[W.H.Auden]] and [[Louis MacNeice]] began their careers as teachers of classics and both responded as poets to Horace's influence. Auden for example evoked the fragile world of the 1930s in terms echoing ''Odes'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber II/Carmen XI|2.11.1–4]], where Horace advises a friend not to let worries about frontier wars interfere with current pleasures. {{poemquote| And, gentle, do not care to know Where Poland draws her Eastern bow, What violence is done; Nor ask what doubtful act allows Our freedom in this English house, Our picnics in the sun.<ref group="nb">Quoted from Auden's poem ''Out on the lawn I lie in bed'', 1933, and cited by S. Harrison, ''The nineteenth and twentieth centuries'', 340</ref> }} The American poet, [[Robert Frost]], echoed Horace's ''Satires'' in the conversational and sententious idiom of some of his longer poems, such as ''The Lesson for Today'' (1941), and also in his gentle advocacy of life on the farm, as in ''Hyla Brook'' (1916), evoking Horace's ''fons Bandusiae'' in ''Ode'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber III/Carmen XIII|3.13]]. Now at the start of the third millennium, poets are still absorbing and re-configuring the Horatian influence, sometimes in translation (such as a 2002 English/American edition of the ''Odes'' by thirty-six poets)<ref group="nb">Edited by McClatchy, reviewed by S. Harrison, ''Bryn Mawr Classical Review'' 2003.03.05</ref> and sometimes as inspiration for their own work (such as a 2003 collection of odes by a New Zealand poet).<ref group="nb">I. Wedde, ''The Commonplace Odes'', Auckland 2003, (cited by S. Harrison, ''The nineteenth and twentieth centuries'', 345)</ref> Horace's ''Epodes'' have largely been ignored in the modern era, excepting those with political associations of historical significance. The obscene qualities of some of the poems have repulsed even scholars<ref group="nb">'Political' Epodes are 1, 7, 9, 16; notably obscene Epodes are 8 and 12. E. Fraenkel is among the admirers repulsed by these two poems, for another view of which see for example Dee Lesser Clayman, 'Horace's Epodes VIII and XII: More than Clever Obscenity?', ''The Classical World'' Vol. 6, No. 1 (September 1975), pp 55–61 {{JSTOR|4348329}}</ref> yet more recently a better understanding of the nature of [[Iambus (genre)|Iambic poetry]] has led to a re-evaluation of the ''whole'' collection.<ref>D. Mankin, ''Horace: Epodes'', 6–9</ref><ref>R. McNeill, ''Horace'', 12</ref> A re-appraisal of the ''Epodes'' also appears in creative adaptations by recent poets (such as a 2004 collection of poems that relocates the ancient context to a 1950s industrial town).<ref group="nb">M. Almond, ''The Works'' 2004, Washington, cited by S. Harrison, ''The nineteenth and twentieth centuries'', 346</ref> Return to Horace. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4564	----	Symposium - Wikipedia Symposium From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Part of a banquet in Greek and Etruscan art This article is about the social custom in ancient Greece. For other uses, see Symposium (disambiguation). A female aulos-player entertains men at a symposium on this Attic red-figure bell-krater, c. 420 BC In ancient Greece, the symposium (Greek: συμπόσιον symposion or symposio, from συμπίνειν sympinein, "to drink together") was a part of a banquet that took place after the meal, when drinking for pleasure was accompanied by music, dancing, recitals, or conversation.[1] Literary works that describe or take place at a symposium include two Socratic dialogues, Plato's Symposium and Xenophon's Symposium, as well as a number of Greek poems such as the elegies of Theognis of Megara. Symposia are depicted in Greek and Etruscan art that shows similar scenes.[1] In modern usage, it has come to mean an academic conference or meeting such as a scientific conference. The equivalent of a Greek symposium in Roman society is the Latin convivium.[1] Contents 1 Setting and social occasion 2 Drinking 3 Pottery 4 Entertainments 5 Etruscan and Roman drinking parties 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Setting and social occasion[edit] Plato's Symposium, depiction by Anselm Feuerbach Banquet scene from a Temple of Athena (6th century BC relief). The Greek symposium was a key Hellenic social institution. It was a forum for men of respected families to debate, plot, boast, or simply to revel with others. They were frequently held to celebrate the introduction of young men into aristocratic society. Symposia were also held by aristocrats to celebrate other special occasions, such as victories in athletic and poetic contests. They were a source of pride for them. Symposia were usually held in the andrōn (ἀνδρών), the men's quarters of the household. The participants, or "symposiasts", would recline on pillowed couches arrayed against the three walls of the room away from the door. Due to space limitations, the couches would number between seven and nine, limiting the total number of participants to somewhere between fourteen and twenty seven[2] (Oswyn Murray gives a figure of between seven and fifteen couches and reckons fourteen to thirty participants a "standard size for a drinking group").[3] If any young men took part, they did not recline but sat up.[4] However, in Macedonian symposia, the focus was not only on drinking but hunting, and young men were allowed to recline only after they had killed their first wild boar. Pietro Testa (1611–1650): The Drunken Alcibiades Interrupting the Symposium (1648). Food and wine were served. Entertainment was provided, and depending on the occasion could include games, songs, flute-girls or boys, slaves performing various acts, and hired entertainment. Symposia often were held for specific occasions. The most famous symposium of all, described in Plato's dialogue of that name (and rather differently in Xenophon's) was hosted by the poet Agathon on the occasion of his first victory at the theater contest of the 416 BC Dionysia. According to Plato's account, the celebration was upstaged by the unexpected entrance of the toast of the town, the young Alcibiades, dropping in drunken and nearly naked, having just left another symposium. The men at the symposium would discuss a multitude of topics—often philosophical, such as love and the differences between genders. Drinking[edit] A slave attends to a vomiting symposiast. A symposium would be overseen by a "symposiarch" who would decide how strong the wine for the evening would be, depending on whether serious discussions or sensual indulgence were in the offing. The Greeks and Romans customarily served their wine mixed with water, as the drinking of pure wine was considered a habit of uncivilized peoples. However, there were major differences between the Roman and Greek symposia. A Roman symposium (convivium) served wine before, with and after food, and women were allowed to join. In a Greek symposium, wine was only drunk after dinner, and women were not allowed to attend.[5] The wine was drawn from a krater, a large jar designed to be carried by two men, and served from pitchers (oenochoe). Determined by the Master of Ceremonies, the wine was diluted to a specific strength and was then mixed. Slave boys would manage the krater, and transfer the wine into pitchers. They then attended to each man in the symposium with the pitchers and filled their cups with wine.[6] Certain formalities were observed, most important among which were libations, the pouring of a small amount of wine in honour of various deities or the mourned dead. In a fragment from his c. 375 BC play Semele or Dionysus, Eubulus has the god of wine Dionysos describe proper and improper drinking: For sensible men I prepare only three kraters: one for health (which they drink first), the second for love and pleasure, and the third for sleep. After the third one is drained, wise men go home. The fourth krater is not mine any more – it belongs to bad behaviour; the fifth is for shouting; the sixth is for rudeness and insults; the seventh is for fights; the eighth is for breaking the furniture; the ninth is for depression; the tenth is for madness and unconsciousness. In keeping with the Greek virtue of moderation, the symposiarch should have prevented festivities from getting out of hand, but Greek literature and art often indicate that the third-krater limit was not observed.[7] Pottery[edit] Symposiums are often featured on Attic pottery and Richard Neer has argued that the chief function of Attic pottery was for use in the symposium.[8] An amphora was used as a jug to hold the wine and usually one single cup was passed amongst the men.[9] Cups used at symposiums were not as nearly intricate as amphoras. Pottery used at symposiums often featured painted scenes of the god Dionysus, satyrs, and other mythical scenes related to drinking and celebration.[10] Entertainments[edit] Kottabos player flinging wine-dregs (Attic red-figure kylix, c. 510 BC). Poetry and music were central to the pleasures of the symposium. Although free women of status did not attend symposia, high-class female prostitutes (hetairai) and entertainers were hired to perform, consort, and converse with the guests. Among the instruments, women might play was the aulos, a Greek woodwind instrument sometimes compared to an oboe. When string instruments were played, the barbiton was the traditional instrument.[11] Slaves and boys also provided service and entertainment. The guests also participated actively in competitive entertainments. A game sometimes played at symposia was kottabos, in which players swirled the dregs of their wine in a kylix, a platter-like stemmed drinking vessel, and flung them at a target. Another feature of the symposia were skolia, drinking songs of a patriotic or bawdy nature, performed competitively with one symposiast reciting the first part of a song and another expected to improvise the end of it. Symposiasts might also compete in rhetorical contests, for which reason the word "symposium" has come to refer in English to any event where multiple speeches are made. Etruscan and Roman drinking parties[edit] Banqueting scene from the Etruscan Tomb of the Leopards. Paris – Louvre – Sarcophagus of the Married Couple Etruscan art shows scenes of banqueting that recall aspects of the Greek symposia; however, one major difference is that women of status participated more fully in this as in other realms of Etruscan society. Women were allowed to drink wine and recline with men at feasts. Some Etruscan women were even considered "expert drinkers".[12] Additionally, Etruscan women were often buried with drinking and feasting paraphernalia, suggesting that they partook in these activities.[13] The most apparent distinctions between Greek and Etruscan drinking parties appear in Etruscan art. Etruscan paintings show men and women drinking wine together and reclining on the same cushions.[13] The Sarcophagus of the Married Couple,[14] found in the Etruscan region dating to 520–530 BC, depicts a man and women lounging together in the context of a banquet,[15] which is a stark contrast with gendered Greek drinking parties. As with many other Greek customs, the aesthetic framework of the symposium was adopted by the Romans under the name of comissatio. These revels also involved the drinking of assigned quantities of wine, and the oversight of a master of the ceremonies appointed for the occasion from among the guests. Another Roman version of the symposium was the convivium. Women's role differed in Roman symposia as well. Roman women were legally prohibited from drinking wine as a matter of public morality.[13] Men were expected to control their own wine consumption, but women were not given this authority. Women seemed to have a greater presence at drinking parties in the early years of the Roman Empire, until they were prohibited from drinking wine during the Republic Period. References[edit] ^ a b c Peter Garnsey, Food and Society in Classical Antiquity (Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. 136 online; Sara Elise Phang, Roman Military Service: Ideologies of Discipline in the Late Republic and Early Principate (Cambridge University Press, 2008), pp. 263–264. ^ Literature in the Greek World By Oliver Taplin; p 47 ^ The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization (ed. Hornblower & Spawforth), pp. 696–7 ^ Xenophon, "Symposium" 1.8 ^ Gately, Iain (2008). Drink: A Cultural History Of Alcohol. New York: Penguin Group. p. 32. ISBN 978-1-592-40464-3. ^ "The Symposium in Ancient Greece". New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Department of Greek and Roman Art. Retrieved 28 September 2017. ^ "Our 9,000-Year Love Affair With Booze". 2017-01-17. Retrieved 2017-07-14. ^ Neer, R.T. (2002) Style and politics in Athenian vase-painting: The craft of democracy, ca. 530–460 B.C.E.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 9. ISBN 0521791111 ^ Osborne. Gay Abandon. pp. 134–135. ^ Osborne, Robin (1998). Archaic and Classical Greek Art (1st ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 149. ISBN 9780192842022. ^ "Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2004.09.16 of Alessandro Iannucci, La Parola e l'Azione: I Frammenti Simposiali di Crizia. Bologna: Edizioni Nautilus, 2002". Ccat.sas.upenn.edu. Retrieved 2012-08-19. ^ Izzet, Vedia (2012). "Etruscan Women". A Companion to Women in the Ancient World. pp. 66–77. doi:10.1002/9781444355024.ch5. ISBN 978-1-4051-9284-2. ^ a b c Russell, Brigette Ford (April 2003). "Wine, Women, and the Polis : Gender and the Formation of the City-State in Archaic Rome". Greece and Rome. 50 (1): 77–84. doi:10.1093/gr/50.1.77. JSTOR 3567821. ProQuest 200023705. ^ Marie-Bénédicte, Astier. "The Sarcophagus of the Spouses". The Louvre Museum. ^ Salazar, Sara H (2006). Etruscan Women's Lives: Re-envisioning the Role of Women in Myths, Mirrors, and Other Funerary Artifacts (Thesis). California Institute of Integral Studies. ProQuest 304955236. Further reading[edit] Burkert, Walter. 1991. Oriental Symposia: Contrasts and Parallels. In Dining in a Classical Context. Edited by William J. Slater, 7–24. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press. Davidson, James N. 1997. Courtesans and Fishcakes: The Consuming Passions of Classical Athens. London: HarperCollins. Hobden, Fiona. 2013. The Symposion in Ancient Greek Society and Thought. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Lissarrague, François. 1990. The Aesthetics of the Greek Banquet: Images of Wine and Ritual. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press. Morgan, Janett. 2011. "Drunken Men and Modern Myths: Re-viewing the Classical andrôn." In Sociable Man: Essays on Ancient Greek Social Behaviour in honour of Nick Fisher. Edited by Stephen D. Lambert, 267–290. Swansea: Classical Press of Wales. Murray, Oswyn. 2009. "The Culture of the Symposion." In A Companion to Archaic Greece. Edited by Kurt A. Raaflaub and Hans van Wees, 508–523. Chichester, UK, and Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. Nielsen, Inge, and Hanne Sigismund Nielsen, eds. 1998. Meals in a Social Context: Aspects of the Communal Meal in the Hellenistic and Roman World. Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus Univ. Press. Osborne, R. (1 January 2014). "Intoxication and Sociality: The Symposium in the Ancient Greek World". Past & Present. 222 (suppl 9): 34–60. doi:10.1093/pastj/gtt028. Rosen, Ralph M. (December 1989). "Euboulos' Ankylion and the Game of Kottabos". The Classical Quarterly. 39 (2): 355–359. doi:10.1017/S0009838800037423. JSTOR 639378. Topper, Kathryn. 2012. The Imagery of the Athenian Symposium. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. External links[edit] Library resources about Symposium Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Wikimedia Commons has media related to Symposium scenes. Look up symposium in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Symposium" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 291. Ancient Greek art depicting symposium scenes A kylix with symposium scene Learning about the Symposium. Ure Museum of Greek Archaeology. Metropolitan Museum v t e Pottery of ancient Greece Aegean Minyan ware Minoan Kamares ware Vasiliki ware Mycenaean Sub-Mycenaean Cycladic Frying pans Ancient Greece proper Bilingual Black-figure Black-glazed Ware Bucchero Red-figure South Italian West Slope Ware White ground Potters Amasis Ergotimos Euphronios Euthymides Gryton Hypereides Nikosthenes Pamphaios Sophilos Little Masters Ergoteles Hermogenes Phrynos Tleson Special topics Conservation Corpus vasorum antiquorum Disjecta membra Hellenistic glass LIMC Name vase Slip Symposium Tanagra figurine Terracotta figurines Three-phase firing Vase types v t e Party topics Sorted by occasions, purposes or attributes Types Wedding-related Bachelor party Bachelorette party Bridal shower Engagement party Wedding reception Banquets State banquet Ball Debutante ball Hunt ball Symposium House parties Family reunion Cocktail party Housewarming party Sleepover LAN party Political houseparty Rent party Public parties Festivals Holidays Spring break Arts festival Film awards seasons Religious festival Christmas Carnival Feasts Food festival Harvest festival See also: Season (society) Fairs World's fair State fair County fair Trade fair Picnic Block party Subway party Tailgate party Children's party Baby shower Class reunion Costume party Masqerade party Drag party Toga party Naked party Crayfish party Cuddle party Dance party Prom Homecoming Foam party Hurricane party Kitty party Pamper party Pizza party Quiet party Stop light party Tea party Equipment Clothing Western dress codes Formal White tie Morning dress Semi-formal Black tie Black lounge suit Informal Suit Casual Wedding dress Contemporary Bridal crown Dress Evening gown Ball gown Evening gloves Cocktail dress Garters Casual Balloon Balloon modelling Confetti Cotton candy Deely bobber Glow stick Groucho glasses Party hat New Year's glasses Party bus Party horn Party popper Party service Serpentine streamer  Society portal Media Category Authority control BNE: XX5676645 GND: 4121749-4 LCCN: sh89005058 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Symposium&oldid=992751266" Categories: Leisure in classical antiquity Ancient Greek culture Ancient Greek society History of wine Parties Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Commons category link is locally defined Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Български Català Чӑвашла Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Кыргызча Latina Lietuvių Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Shqip Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська ייִדיש Edit links This page was last edited on 6 December 2020, at 22:21 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4626	----	File:Horatius - Boek I Ode XIV - Cleveringaplaats 1, Leiden.JPG - Wikipedia File:Horatius - Boek I Ode XIV - Cleveringaplaats 1, Leiden.JPG From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata Size of this preview: 454 × 599 pixels. Other resolutions: 182 × 240 pixels | 364 × 480 pixels | 455 × 600 pixels | 582 × 768 pixels | 776 × 1,024 pixels | 1,952 × 2,576 pixels. Original file ‎(1,952 × 2,576 pixels, file size: 1.09 MB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Summary DescriptionHoratius - Boek I Ode XIV - Cleveringaplaats 1, Leiden.JPG English: A poem of the Roman lyric poet Horace on a wall of the building at the Cleveringaplaats 1, Leiden, The Netherlands Nederlands: Een gedicht van de Romeinse lyrisch dichter Horatius op een muur van het gebouw aan de Cleveringaplaats 1, Leiden, Nederland Français : Texte de l'ode I, 14 d'Horace sur un mur d'immeuble : Cleveringaplaats 1, Leyde, Pays-Bas Date 13 September 2008 Source Own work Author Tubantia Camera location 52° 09′ 27.9″ N, 4° 28′ 59.27″ E    View this and other nearby images on: OpenStreetMap 52.157750; 4.483131 Licensing I, the copyright holder of this work, hereby publish it under the following licenses: Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. 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Captions EnglishAdd a one-line explanation of what this file represents Items portrayed in this file depicts creator some value Wikimedia username: Tubantia URL: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Tubantia author name string: Tubantia object has role: photographer copyright status copyrighted copyright license Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 2.5 Generic Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 2.0 Generic GNU Free Documentation License, version 1.2 or later Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 1.0 Generic source of file original creation by uploader inception 13 September 2008 File history Click on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensions User Comment current 10:58, 28 September 2008 1,952 × 2,576 (1.09 MB) Tubantia {{Information |Description={{en|1=A poem of the Roman lyric poet Horace on a wall of the building at the Cleveringaplaats 1, Leiden, The Netherlands}} {{nl|1=Een gedicht van de Romeinse lyrisch dichter Horatius op een muur File usage The following pages on the English Wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Horace Global file usage The following other wikis use this file: Usage on fr.wikipedia.org Odes (Horace) Usage on la.wikipedia.org Quintus Horatius Flaccus Lugdunum Batavorum Usage on mk.wikipedia.org Хорациј Usage on nl.wikipedia.org Horatius Lijst van muurgedichten in Leiden Gebruiker:Tubantia/Foto's/Zuid-Holland Gebruiker:Erik Zachte/Gedichten Usage on pl.wikipedia.org Horacy (poeta) Usage on sv.wikipedia.org Horatius Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. If the file has been modified from its original state, some details may not fully reflect the modified file. Image title HPIM0181.JPG Camera manufacturer Hewlett-Packard Camera model Photosmart M417 Copyright holder Copyright 2003-2004 Exposure time 1/151 sec (0.0066225165562914) F-number f/5.72 ISO speed rating 100 Date and time of data generation 14:41, 13 September 2008 Lens focal length 9.37 mm Orientation Normal Horizontal resolution 72 dpi Vertical resolution 72 dpi Software used Microsoft Windows Photo Gallery 6.0.6001.18000 File change date and time 16:45, 13 September 2008 Y and C positioning Co-sited Exposure Program Normal program Exif version 2.2 Date and time of digitizing 14:41, 13 September 2008 Meaning of each component Y Cb Cr does not exist Image compression mode 1.5967983148356 Shutter speed 7.236 APEX aperture 5.032 Exposure bias 0 Maximum land aperture 3.082 APEX (f/2.91) Subject distance 100 meters Metering mode Average Light source Unknown Flash Flash did not fire, auto mode Supported Flashpix version 1 Color space sRGB Digital zoom ratio 1 Scene capture type Standard Scene control 197 Contrast Normal Saturation Normal Sharpness Hard Subject distance range Distant view Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horatius_-_Boek_I_Ode_XIV_-_Cleveringaplaats_1,_Leiden.JPG" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces File Talk Variants Views Read View on Commons More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Upload file Special pages Printable version Page information Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4644	----	National Library of Australia - Wikipedia National Library of Australia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from NLA (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search National reference library in Canberra, Australia National Library of Australia Type Reference library Scope Commonwealth of Australia Established 23 March 1961; 59 years ago (1961-03-23) Reference to legal mandate National Library Act 1960 Location Canberra, Australian Capital Territory Coordinates 35°17′47″S 149°07′46″E / 35.296379°S 149.129448°E / -35.296379; 149.129448Coordinates: 35°17′47″S 149°07′46″E / 35.296379°S 149.129448°E / -35.296379; 149.129448 Collection Items collected Books, magazines, pictures, photographs, maps, sheet music, manuscripts, websites Size 6.93 million items Criteria for collection Publications made available to the Australian public Legal deposit Digital and hard-copy Australian published materials Other information Budget A$57,800,000 (2015–16) Director Marie-Louise Ayres Staff 400 (2016) Website www.nla.gov.au Map Building details National Library of Australia as viewed from Lake Burley Griffin, Canberra General information Status Complete Architectural style Late Twentieth Century Stripped Classical Address Parkes Place and King Edward Terrace, Parkes, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory Country Australia Construction started 1961 Inaugurated 15 August 1968 (1968-08-15) by Prime Minister John Gorton Cost A$8 million (1968) Technical details Material Marble, granite, bronze, slate, trachyte, and copper Design and construction Architect Walter Bunning Architecture firm Bunning and Madden Other designers Leonard French (stained-glass windows) Mathieu Matégot (Aubusson tapestries x3) Tom Bass (copper sculpture) Henry Moore (sculpture) Commonwealth Heritage List Official name National Library of Australia and Surrounds, Parkes Pl, Parkes, ACT, Australia Type Listed place Criteria A., D., E., F., G., H. Designated 22 June 2004 Reference no. 105470 References: [1][2][3][4][5][6] The original National Library building on Kings Avenue, Canberra, was designed by Edward Henderson. Originally intended to be several wings, only one wing was completed and was demolished in 1968. Now the site of the Edmund Barton Building. The National Library of Australia (NLA), formerly the Commonwealth National Library and Commonwealth Parliament Library, is the largest reference library in Australia, responsible under the terms of the National Library Act 1960 for "maintaining and developing a national collection of library material, including a comprehensive collection of library material relating to Australia and the Australian people", thus functioning as a national library. It is located in Parkes, Canberra, ACT. Created in 1960 by the National Library Act, by the end of June 2019 its collection contained 7,717,579 items, with its manuscript material occupying 17,950 metres (58,890 ft) of shelf space. The NLA also hosts and manages the renowned Trove cultural heritage discovery service, which includes access to the Australian Web Archive and National edeposit (NED), a large collection of digitised newspapers, official documents, manuscripts and images, as well as born-digital material. Contents 1 History 2 Building 2.1 Reading rooms 3 Collections 3.1 Australian & General Collection 3.1.1 Digital collections 3.2 Asian Collections 3.3 Pictures and manuscripts 4 Services 4.1 Trove 4.2 Membership 5 Directors-General 6 Funding problems 7 See also 8 References 8.1 Attribution 8.2 Bibliography 9 External links History[edit] In 1901 the Commonwealth Parliament Library[7] was established to serve the newly formed Federal Parliament of Australia. From its inception the Commonwealth Parliamentary Library was driven to development of a truly national collection. In 1907 the Joint Parliamentary Library Committee under the Chairmanship of the Speaker, Sir Frederick William Holder defined the objective of the Commonwealth Parliamentary Library in the following words:[8] The Library Committee is keeping before it the ideal of building up, for the time when Parliament shall be established in the Federal Capital, a great Public Library on the lines of the world-famed Library of Congress at Washington; such a library, indeed, as shall be worthy of the Australian Nation; the home of the literature, not of a State, or of a period, but of the world, and of all time. From 1923, two forms of name were used concurrently: Commonwealth National Library and Commonwealth Parliament Library, to designate the national and parliamentary collections respectively.[7] In 1960 the National Library of Australia was created[7] by the National Library Act 1960,[9] and each library became a separate entity.[7] Building[edit] The present library building was opened on 15 August 1968 by Prime Minister John Gorton.[10][11] The building was designed by the architectural firm of Bunning and Madden in the Late Twentieth Century Stripped Classical style. The foyer is decorated in marble, with stained-glass windows by Leonard French and three tapestries by Mathieu Matégot.[12] The building was listed on the Australian Commonwealth Heritage List on 22 June 2004.[5] Reading rooms[edit] The large National Library building is home to various reading rooms and collections. On the ground floor is the Main Reading Room — this is where the bulk of the Library's Internet access terminals are located, and where wireless internet access is available. Services are also delivered on-site from the Newspaper & Family History zone on the ground floor, Special Collections Reading Room on the 1st floor, and Asian Collections on level 3. Collections[edit] Australian & General Collection[edit] The Library collects material produced by Australians, for Australians or about the Australian experience in all formats—not just printed works—books, serials, newspapers, maps, posters, music and printed ephemera—but also online publications and unpublished material such as manuscripts, pictures and oral histories. Hazel de Berg began recording Australian writers, artists, musicians and others in the Arts community in 1957. She conducted nearly 1300 interviews. Together with the Library, she was a pioneer in the field in Australia, working together for twenty-seven years.[13] A core Australiana collection is that of John A. Ferguson.[14] The Library has particular collection strengths in the performing arts, including dance. The Library's considerable collections of general overseas and rare book materials, as well as world-class Asian and Pacific collections which augment the Australiana collections. The print collections are further supported by extensive microform holdings. The Library also maintains the National Reserve Braille Collection. As a national library, the NLA is required by legal deposit provisions enshrined in the Copyright Act 1968 to collect a copy of every Australian publication in the country, which publishers must submit upon publication of the material.[15][16] At the end of the Australian financial year of 2018–2019, the National Library collection comprised 7,717,579 items, and an additional 17,950 metres (58,890 ft) of manuscript material.[3] The Library's collections of Australiana have developed into the nation's single most important resource of materials recording the Australian cultural heritage. Australian writers, editors and illustrators are actively sought and well represented, whether published in Australia or overseas. The Library's collection includes all formats of material, from books, journals, websites and manuscripts to pictures, photographs, maps, music, oral history recordings, manuscript papers and ephemera.[17] Approximately 94.1% of the Library's collection had been catalogued by July 2019, a total of 5,453,888 items[3] and these are discoverable through the online catalogue.[18] Digital collections[edit] The Library is a world leader in digital preservation techniques,[19] and has maintained an Internet-accessible archive of selected Australian websites called the Pandora Archive since 1996. The Australian Web Archive, released in March 2019, combines records from PANDORA, the Australian Government Web Archive (AGWA), and other websites published in Australia. In the 2019 federal budget, the government allocated A$10 million to the library, intended to be spread over four years to set up a digitisation fund.[20] As of June 2019[update], the Library had digitised a total of 5,508,008 images.[21] Where possible, these are delivered these directly across the Internet. Since a 2016 amendment to the Copyright Act, all born-digital content must also be deposited in the library (with varying provisions for state libraries as well). The NLA has since May 2019 hosted and managed the National edeposit (NED) service. Libraries ACT, Libraries Tasmania, Northern Territory Library, State Library of New South Wales, State Library of Queensland, State Library of South Australia, State Library Victoria and the State Library of Western Australia are the member organisations of the collaboration.[22][23] Asian Collections[edit] The Library houses the largest and most actively developing research resource on Asia in Australia, and the largest Asian language collections in the Southern hemisphere, with over half a million volumes in the collection, as well as extensive online and electronic resources. The Library collects resources about all Asian countries in Western languages extensively, and resources in the following Asian languages: Burmese, Chinese, Persian, Indonesian, Japanese, Khmer, Korean, Lao, Manchu, Mongolian, Thai, Timorese, and Vietnamese. The Library has acquired a number of important Western and Asian language scholarly collections from researchers and bibliophiles. These collections include: Australian Buddhist Library Collection Braga Collection (Portuguese in Asia)[24] Claasz Collection (Sri Lanka)[25] Coedes Collection (Indo-China)[26] London Missionary Society Collection (China) Luce Collection (Burma) McLaren-Human Collection (Korea)[27] Otley Beyer Collection (Philippines) Sakakibara Collection (Japan) Sang Ye Collection (China) Simon Collection (East Asia) Harold S. Williams Collection (Japan) The Asian Collections are searchable via the National Library's catalogue.[28] Pictures and manuscripts[edit] Play media Discussion of the acquisition and preservation process of Joan Blaeu's Archipelagus Orientalis (1663) by the National Library (2013) The National Library holds an extensive collection of pictures and manuscripts. The manuscript collection contains about 26 million separate items, covering in excess of 10,492 meters of shelf space (ACA Australian Archival Statistics, 1998). The collection relates predominantly to Australia, but there are also important holdings relating to Papua New Guinea, New Zealand and the Pacific. The collection also holds a number of European and Asian manuscript collections or single items have been received as part of formed book collections. The Australian manuscript collections date from the period of maritime exploration and settlement in the 18th century until the present, with the greatest area of strength dating from the 1890s onwards. The collection includes a large number of outstanding single items, such as the 14th century Chertsey Cartulary, the journal of James Cook on HM Bark Endeavour, inscribed on the Memory of the World[29] Register in 2001, the diaries of Robert O'Hara Burke and William John Wills from the Burke and Wills expedition, and Charles Kingsford Smith's and Charles Ulm's log of the Southern Cross. A wide range of individuals and families are represented in the collection, with special strength in the fields of politics, public administration, diplomacy, theatre, art, literature, the pastoral industry and religion. Examples are the papers of Alfred Deakin, Sir John Latham, Sir Keith Murdoch, Sir Hans Heysen, Sir John Monash, Vance Palmer and Nettie Palmer, A.D. Hope, Manning Clark, David Williamson, W.M. Hughes, Sir Robert Menzies, Sir William McMahon, Lord Casey, Geoffrey Dutton, Peter Sculthorpe, Daisy Bates, Jessie Street, and Eddie Mabo and James Cook both of whose papers were inscribed on UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme Register in 2001.[30][31] The Library has also acquired the records of many national non-governmental organisations. They include the records of the Federal Secretariats of the Liberal party, the A.L.P, the Democrats, the R.S.L., the Australian Inland Mission, the Australian Union of Students, The Australian Ballet, the Australian Elizabethan Theatre Trust, the Australian Institute of Urban Studies, Australian Industries Protection League, the Australian Conservation Foundation, and the Australian Council of National Trusts. Finally, the Library holds about 37,000 reels of microfilm of manuscripts and archival records, mostly acquired overseas and predominantly of Australian and Pacific interest. The National Library's Pictures collection focuses on Australian people, places and events, from European exploration of the South Pacific to contemporary events. Art works and photographs are acquired primarily for their informational value, and for their importance as historical documents.[32] Media represented in the collection include photographs, drawings, watercolours, oils, lithographs, engravings, etchings and sculpture/busts.[33] Services[edit] The National Library of Australia provides a national leadership role in developing and managing collaborative online services with the Australian library community, making it easier for users to find and access information resources at the national level. It provides services to libraries and publishers and the general public, with membership available to residents of Australia providing access to additional services.[34][35] Some of the components of the services are:[34] For publishers: Prepublication Data Service,[36] ISSNs and ISMNs for Australian publishers. National edeposit (NED), to fulfill legal deposit obligations.[37] NLA hosts and manages the service, whereby all born-digital content published in Australia, as required by legal deposit legislation under the Copyright Act 1968, is deposited remotely by the publisher, stored and made accessible to member libraries and the public.[23][38][39][22] For librarians: The Australian National Bibliographic Database (ANBD)[40] and offers free access through the Libraries Australia[41] subscription-based service. It is used for reference, collection development, cataloguing and interlibrary lending. National Libraries Gateway. Online, for the general public: The Australian Web Archive, which now incorporates PANDORA (established 1996), the Australian Government Web Archive (AWA) and the ".au" domain archive. National Library of Australia Catalogue, a catalogue of resources in NLA which are available to the general public.[42] Trove[edit] The Trove logo Main article: Trove The online services mentioned above, and more, are accessible via the Trove service, which was launched in 2009. Trove is an online library database aggregator, a centralised national service built with the collaboration of major libraries of Australia.[43] Trove's most well known feature is the digitised collection of Australian newspapers. Most NLA resource discovery services are now fully integrated with Trove. The service is able to locate resources about Australia and Australians, which reaches many locations otherwise unavailable to external search engines.[44] Membership[edit] Free registration with the library is allowed for all Australian residents, with cards sent to a physical address before use is allowed. Membership confers some extra benefits for users of the library, such as requesting items for use onsite in the reading rooms, and access to a select range of licensed electronic resources from offsite, such as the full text of Encyclopaedia Britannica.[45] Electronic copies of some items are able to be ordered, and for members who can visit the library in person, inter-library loans may be obtained to use in the reading rooms.[46] Directors-General[edit] The library seen from Lake Burley Griffin in autumn. The following individuals have been appointed as Director-General or any precedent titles: Directors-General of the National Library of Australia Ordinal Officeholder Title Term begin Term end Time in office Notes 1 Arthur Wadsworth Interim Commonwealth Parliamentary Librarian 1901 1927 25–26 years 2 Kenneth Binns CBE Commonwealth Parliamentary Librarian 1927 1947 19–20 years 3 Harold Leslie White CBE National Librarian 1947 1970 22–23 years 4 Allan Percy Fleming CBE 1970 1974 3–4 years 5 George Chandler Director-General 1974 1980 5–6 years 6 Harrison Bryan AO 1980 1985 4–5 years 7 Warren Horton AM 1985 1999 13–14 years 8 Jan Fullerton AO 1999 2010 10–11 years [47][48] 9 Anne-Marie Schwirtlich 2011 2017 5–6 years [49] 10 Dr Marie-Louise Ayres 2017 present 3 years [50] Funding problems[edit] In 2016, with threatened funding cuts to Trove, a public campaign led to a government commitment of A$16.4 million in December 2016, spread over four years.[44][51] By early 2020, with the surge in demand for all types of digital services, the National Library was having to cope with increasingly dwindling staff resources to develop services on Trove and National edeposit, and undertook a restructure of its staffing and operations.[52] See also[edit] Australia portal Architecture portal List of national and state libraries National and State Libraries Australia Parliamentary Triangle, Canberra Parliamentary Library of Australia References[edit] ^ "NATIONAL LIBRARY ACT 1960 - NOTES". www.austlii.edu.au. Retrieved 31 July 2017. ^ "NLA Annual Report 2015-2016 | National Library of Australia" (PDF). nla.gov.au. Retrieved 25 July 2017. ^ a b c "Collection statistics". National Library of Australia. Retrieved 5 May 2020. ^ "CDP - How we collect". National Library of Australia. Retrieved 31 July 2017. ^ a b "National Library of Australia and Surrounds, Parkes Pl, Parkes, ACT, Australia (Place ID 105470)". Australian Heritage Database. Department of the Environment. Retrieved 22 March 2019. ^ "Our Building". nla.gov.au. National Library of Australia. Retrieved 25 July 2018. ^ a b c d "Commonwealth National Library (Australia) - Full record view". Libraries Australia Search. Retrieved 2 May 2020. ^ "History of the National Library collections until 1980 (extract from Burmester) | National Library of Australia". www.nla.gov.au. Retrieved 2 May 2020. ^ "National Library Act 1960". Federal Register of Legislation. 29 April 2011. Retrieved 2 May 2020. ^ Reid, David; National Library of Australia (1968), Prime Minister John Gorton addressing officials and dignitaries at the opening of the National Library of Australia, Canberra, 15 August 1968, National Library of Australia, retrieved 13 August 2018 ^ National Library of Australia; White, Harold Leslie Sir, 1905-1992 (1968), Publications relating to the opening of the National Library of Australia, 15th August, 1968, retrieved 13 August 2018CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Sue Ebury (2008). The Many Lives of Kenneth Myer. The Miegunyah Press. p. 319. ISBN 0-522-85546-6. ^ Artists' Portraits: selected and introduced by Geoffrey Dutton. Canberra, Australian Capitol Territory: National Library of Australia. 1992. p. 1. ISBN 0642105790. ^ "Ferguson Collection | National Library of Australia". www.nla.gov.au. Retrieved 2 February 2017. ^ "What is legal deposit?". National Library of Australia. 17 February 2016. Retrieved 3 May 2020. ^ "Legal deposit in Australia". National and State Libraries Australia. 1 June 2019. Retrieved 3 May 2020. ^ "National Library of Australia – Our Collections". nla.gov.au. Retrieved 3 August 2012. ^ "Catalogue Home | National Library of Australia". nla.gov.au. Retrieved 12 November 2013. ^ "NLA.gov.au". NLA.gov.au. Archived from the original on 24 August 2011. Retrieved 30 May 2012. ^ "Check Out Australia's Web Archive". Southern Phone. 11 April 2019. Retrieved 8 May 2020. ^ "Digitisation of Library collections". National Library of Australia. 30 June 2019. Retrieved 5 May 2020. ^ a b "What is National edeposit (NED)?". NED. Retrieved 3 May 2020. ^ a b "National Library of Australia Annual Report 2018–2019: 2.5 Strategic Priority Three: Collaborate". Australian Government. Transparency Portal. 30 October 2019. Retrieved 5 May 2020. ^ "NLA.gov.au". NLA.gov.au. 12 December 1984. Retrieved 30 May 2012. ^ "NLA.gov.au". NLA.gov.au. Retrieved 30 May 2012. ^ Coedès Collection, National Library of Australia ^ "NLA.gov.au" (PDF). Retrieved 30 May 2012. ^ Asian collections, National Library of Australia ^ "Portal.unesco.org". Portal.unesco.org. Archived from the original on 4 August 2009. Retrieved 30 May 2012. ^ "The Mabo Case Manuscripts". UNESCO Memory of the World Programme. 16 May 2008. Archived from the original on 19 September 2008. Retrieved 11 December 2009. ^ "The Endeavour Journal of James Cook". UNESCO Memory of the World Programme. 16 May 2008. Archived from the original on 4 August 2009. Retrieved 11 December 2009. ^ "National Library of Australia – Pictures Collection Development Policy". nla.gov.au. Retrieved 3 August 2012. ^ "National Library of Australia – Pictures". nla.gov.au. Retrieved 3 August 2012. ^ a b "Services". National Library of Australia. 23 March 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2020. ^ "Using the library". National Library of Australia. 23 March 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2020. ^ "Prepublication Data Service | National Library of Australia". www.nla.gov.au. Retrieved 9 August 2019. ^ "Legal deposit". National Library of Australia. 23 March 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2020. ^ "Our work". National and State Libraries Australia. Retrieved 3 May 2020. ^ "National edeposit (NED)". National and State Libraries Australia. 30 May 2019. Retrieved 3 May 2020. ^ "NLA.gov.au". NLA.gov.au. 1 October 2007. Retrieved 30 May 2012. ^ "NLA.gov.au". Libraries Australia. Retrieved 30 May 2012. ^ "Services". National Library of Australia. NLA.gov.au. Retrieved 1 February 2016. ^ "National Library unveils web-based treasure Trove". ABC News. 28 April 2010. ^ a b Stainforth, Liz (26 October 2018). "Treasuring Trove: Why Australia's digital heritage platform is so special". Pursuit. University of Melbourne. Retrieved 10 May 2020. ^ "Get a library card". National Library of Australia. Retrieved 10 May 2020. ^ "Copies and interlibrary loans for individuals". National Library of Australia. 23 March 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2020. ^ "HISTORY OF THE LIBRARY". National Library of Australia. Retrieved 1 April 2015. ^ "Friends Farewell Jan Fullerton". National Library of Australia. 15 September 2010. Retrieved 29 September 2010. ^ Library Council Director-General and Executive Member Anne-Marie Schwirtlich, National Library of Australia Archived 27 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine Archived ^ Director-General and Executive Member Dr Marie-Louise Ayres, National Library of Australia ^ Villiers, Annelie de (23 February 2016). "#FundTROVE". Identity & Archives. Retrieved 10 May 2020. ^ Rollins, Adrian (28 February 2020). "Job cuts a 'live possibility' in National Library of Australia restructure". The Canberra Times. Retrieved 9 May 2020. Attribution[edit] This Wikipedia article was originally based on National Library of Australia and Surrounds, Parkes Pl, Parkes, ACT, Australia, entry number 105470 in the Australian Heritage Database published by the Commonwealth of Australia 2004 under CC-BY 4.0 licence, accessed on 18 May 2020. Bibliography[edit] Cliff, Paul, ed. (2004). A different view: the National Library of Australia and its building art. National Library of Australia. Cochrane, Peter, ed. (2001). Remarkable occurrences: the National Library of Australia’s first 100 years 1901-2001. National Library of Australia. Garnett, Rodney; Hyndes, Danielle (1992). The Heritage of the Australian Capital Territory. Canberra: National Trust of Australia (ACT). Rickard, S. (1999). "A Distinguished Building". National Library of Australia News. National Library of Australia. Scarlett, Ken (1990). Australian Architecture Since 1960. RAIA. Zimmer, Jenny (1984). Stained Glass in Australia. Oxford University Press. 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en-wikipedia-org-4649	----	Magister militum - Wikipedia Magister militum From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Imperial Roman military office The original command structure of the Late Roman army, with a separate magister equitum and a magister peditum in place of the later overall magister militum in the command structure of the army of the Western Roman Empire. The high command structure of the West Roman army c. 410–425, based on the Notitia Dignitatum. Magister militum (Latin for "Master of Soldiers", plural magistri militum) was a top-level military command used in the later Roman Empire, dating from the reign of Constantine the Great.[dubious – discuss] The term referred to the senior military officer (equivalent to a war theatre commander, the emperor remaining the supreme commander) of the Empire. In Greek sources, the term is translated either as strategos or as stratelates. Contents 1 Establishment and development of the Command 2 List of magistri militum 2.1 Unspecified commands 2.2 Comes et Magister Utriusque Militiae 2.3 per Gallias 2.4 per Hispanias 2.5 per Illyricum 2.6 per Orientem 2.7 per Armeniam 2.8 per Thracias 2.9 Praesentalis 2.10 per Africam 2.10.1 Western Empire 2.10.2 Eastern Empire 2.11 Magister Militae in Byzantine and medieval Italy 2.11.1 Venice 3 Later, less formal use of the term 4 See also 5 References 5.1 Citations 5.2 Sources Establishment and development of the Command[edit] Further information: Late Roman army The title of magister militum was created in the 4th century, when the emperor Constantine the Great deprived the praetorian prefects of their military functions. Initially two posts were created, one as head of the infantry, as the magister peditum ("Master of Foot"), and one for the more prestigious cavalry, the magister equitum ("Master of Horse"). The latter title had existed since Republican times, as the second-in-command to a Roman dictator. Under Constantine's successors, the title was also established at a territorial level: magistri peditum and magistri equitum were appointed for every praetorian prefecture (per Gallias, per Italiam, per Illyricum, per Orientem), and, in addition, for Thrace and, sometimes, Africa. On occasion, the offices would be combined under a single person, then styled magister equitum et peditum or magister utriusque militiae ("master of both forces"). As such they were directly in command of the local mobile field army of the comitatenses, composed mostly of cavalry, which acted as a rapid reaction force. Other magistri remained at the immediate disposal of the Emperors, and were termed in praesenti ("in the presence" of the Emperor). By the late 4th century, the regional commanders were termed simply magister militum. In the Western Roman Empire, a "commander-in-chief" evolved with the title of magister utriusque militiae. This powerful office was often the power behind the throne and was held by Stilicho, Flavius Aetius, Ricimer, and others. In the East, there were two senior generals, who were each appointed to the office of magister militum praesentalis. During the reign of Emperor Justinian I, with increasing military threats and the expansion of the Eastern Empire, three new posts were created: the magister militum per Armeniam in the Armenian and Caucasian provinces, formerly part of the jurisdiction of the magister militum per Orientem, the magister militum per Africam in the reconquered African provinces (534), with a subordinate magister peditum, and the magister militum Spaniae (c. 562). In the course of the 6th century, internal and external crises in the provinces often necessitated the temporary union of the supreme regional civil authority with the office of the magister militum. In the establishment of the exarchates of Ravenna and Carthage in 584, this practice found its first permanent expression. Indeed, after the loss of the eastern provinces to the Muslim conquest in the 640s, the surviving field armies and their commanders formed the first themata. Supreme military commanders sometimes also took this title in early medieval Italy, for example in the Papal States and in Venice, whose Doge claimed to be the successor to the Exarch of Ravenna. List of magistri militum[edit] Part of a series on the Military of ancient Rome 753 BC – AD 476 Structural history Army Unit types and ranks Decorations and punishments Legions Auxilia Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Campaign history Wars and battles Technological history Military engineering Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Political history   Strategy and tactics Infantry tactics Frontiers and fortifications Limes Limes Britannicus Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Limes Germanicus Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes Norican Limes Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannonian Limes Limes Alutanus Limes Moesiae Trajan's Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmatiae Limes Arabicus Limes Tripolitanus Limes Mauretaniae  Ancient Rome portal •  War portal v t e Unspecified commands[edit] 383–385/8: Flavius Bauto, magister militum under Valentinian II[1] 385/8–394: Arbogast, magister militum under Valentinian II and Eugenius[1] 383–388: Andragathius[2] ?–480: Ovida Comes et Magister Utriusque Militiae[edit] 392–408: Flavius Stilicho 411–421: Flavius Constantius [3] 422–425: Castinus 425–430: Flavius Constantius Felix [4] 431–432: Bonifacius [5] 432–433: Sebastianus 433–454: Flavius Aetius[6] 455–456: Avitus & Remistus 456–472: Ricimer 472–473: Gundobad 475: Ecdicius Avitus 475–476: Orestes per Gallias[edit] 352–355: Claudius Silvanus 362–364: Flavius Valerius Jovinus, magister equitum under Julian and Jovian[7] ?–419: Gaudentius 425–430: Flavius Aetius 435–439: Litorius 452–458: Agrippinus 458–461: Aegidius 461/462: Agrippinus ?–472: Bilimer per Hispanias[edit] 441–442: Astyrius[8] 443: Merobaudes[9] 446: Vitus[10] per Illyricum[edit] ?–350: Vetranio, magister peditum under Constans[11] 361: Flavius Iovinus, magister equitum under Julian[7] 365–375: Aequitius, magister utriusquae militiae under Valentinian I[12] 395–? Alaric I 448/9 Agintheus (known from Priscus of Panium to have held office as the latter's embassy proceeded towards the court of Attila). 468–474: Julius Nepos 477–479: Onoulphus 479–481: Sabinianus Magnus 528: Ascum 529–530/1: Mundus (1st time) 532–536: Mundus (2nd time) c. 538: Justin c. 544: Vitalius c. 550: John 568–569/70: Bonus 581–582: Theognis per Orientem[edit] c. 347: Flavius Eusebius, magister utriusquae militiae[13] 349–359: Ursicinus, magister equitum under Constantius[11] 359–360: Sabinianus, magister equitum under Constantius[11] 363–367: Lupicinus, magister equitum under Jovian and Valens[7] 371–378: Iulius, magister equitum et Peditum under Valens[7] 383: Richomeres, magister equitum et peditum[1] 383–388: Ellebichus, magister equitum et peditum[1] 392: Eutherius, magister equitum et peditum[1] 393–396: Addaeus, magister equitum et peditum[1] 395/400: Fravitta 433–446: Anatolius 447–451: Zeno 460s: Flavius Ardabur Aspar –469: Flavius Iordanes 469–471: Zeno 483–498: Ioannes Scytha c. 503–505: Areobindus Dagalaiphus Areobindus 505–506: Pharesmanes ?516–?518: Hypatius ?518–529: Diogenianus 520–525/526: Hypatius 527: Libelarius 527–529: Hypatius 529–531: Belisarius 531: Mundus 532–533: Belisarius 540: Buzes 542: Belisarius 543–544: Martinus 549–551: Belisarius 555: Amantius 556: Valerianus 569: Zemarchus 572–573: Marcian 573: Theodorus 574: Eusebius 574/574–577: Justinian 577–582: Maurice 582–583: John Mystacon 584–587/588: Philippicus 588: Priscus 588–589: Philippicus 589–591: Comentiolus 591–603: Narses 603–604 Germanus 604–605 Leontius 605–610 Domentziolus per Armeniam[edit] Peter, direct predecessor of John Tzibus John Tzibus (?–541) Valerian Dagisthaeus (?–550) Bessas (550–554)[14] Martin[15] Justin[16] Heraclius the Elder (c. 595)[17] per Thracias[edit] 377–378: Saturninus, magister equitum under Valens[7] 377–378: Traianus, magister peditum under Valens[1] 378: Sebastianus, magister peditum under Valens[1] 380–383: Flavius Saturninus, magister peditum under Theodosius I[1] 392–393: Stilicho, magister equitum et peditum[1] 412–414: Constans 441: Ioannes the Vandal, magister utriusque militiae[18] 468–474: Armatus 474: Heraclius of Edessa 511: Hypatius 512: Cyril 514: Vitalian 530–533: Chilbudius 550–c. 554: Artabanes 588: Priscus (1st time) 593: Priscus (2nd time) 593–594: Peter (1st time) 594–c. 598: Priscus (2nd time) 598–601: Comentiolus 601–602: Peter (2nd time) Praesentalis[edit] 351–361: Arbitio, magister equitum under Constantius II[11] 361–363: Nevitta, magister equitum under Julian[7] 363–379: Victor, magister equitum under Valens[7] 366–378: Flavius Arinthaeus, magister peditum under Valens[7] 364–369: Flavius Iovinus, magister equitum under Valentinian I[7] 364–366: Dagalaifus, magister peditum under Valentinian I[7] 367–372: Severus, magister peditum under Valentinian I[7] 369–373: Flavius Theodosius, magister equitum under Valentinian I[7] 375–388: Merobaudes, magister peditum under Valentinian I, Gratian and Magnus Maximus[19] 388–395: Timasius 394–408: Stilicho, magister equitum et peditum[1] 399–400: Gainas 400: Fravitta 409: Varanes and Arsacius[20] 419–: Plinta 434–449: Areobindus? 443–451: Apollonius 450–451: Anatolius 475–477/478: Armatus 485–: Longinus 492–499: John the Hunchback 518–520: Vitalian [21] 520–?: Justinian [22] 528: Leontius 528–529: Phocas 520–538/9: Sittas 536: Germanus 536: Maxentianus 546–548: Artabanes 548/9–552: Suartuas 562: Constantinianus (uncertain) 582: Germanus (uncertain) 585–c. 586: Comentiolus 626: Bonus (uncertain) per Africam[edit] Western Empire[edit] 373–375: Flavius Theodosius, magister equitum [7] 386–398: Gildo, magister equitum et peditum[23] Eastern Empire[edit] 534–536: Solomon 536–539: Germanus 539–544: Solomon 544–546: Sergius 545–546: Areobindus 546: Artabanes 546–552: John Troglita 578–590: Gennadius Magister Militae in Byzantine and medieval Italy[edit] Venice[edit] 8th century: Marcellus 737: Domenico Leoni under Leo III the Isaurian 738: Felice Cornicola under Leo III the Isaurian 739: Theodatus Hypatus under Leo III the Isaurian 741: Ioannes Fabriacius under Leo III the Isaurian 764–787: Mauricius Galba Later, less formal use of the term[edit] By the 12th century, the term was being used to describe a man who organized the military force of a political or feudal leader on his behalf. In the Gesta Herwardi, the hero is several times described as magister militum by the man who translated the original Old English account into Medieval Latin. It seems possible that the writer of the original version, now lost, thought of him as the 'hereward' (Old English: here, lit. 'army' and Old English: weard, lit. 'guard') – the supervisor of the military force. That this later use of these terms was based on the classical concept seems clear.[24] See also[edit] Structural history of the Roman military References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h i j k PLRE I, p. 1114 ^ PLRE I, p. 62 ^ Hughes, Ian: Aetius: Attila's Nemesis, pg. 74 ^ Hughes, Ian: Aetius: Attila's Nemesis, pg. 75 ^ Hughes, Ian: Aetius: Attila's Nemesis, pg. 85 ^ Hughes, Ian: Aetius: Attila's Nemesis, pg. 87, Heather, Peter: The Fall of the Roman Empire, pg. 262, 491 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m PLRE I, p. 1113 ^ Hydatius, Chronica Hispania, 122 ^ Hydatius, Chronica Hispania, 128 ^ Hydatius, Chronica Hispania, 134 ^ a b c d PLRE I, p. 1112 ^ PLRE I, p. 125 ^ PLRE I, p. 307 ^ Jones, Arnold Hugh Martin; Martindale, J. R.; Morris, J. (1980). The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire: Volume 2, AD 395-527. Cambridge University Press. p. 228. ISBN 9780521201599. ^ Martindale, J. R. (1992). The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire 2 Part Set: Volume 3, AD 527-641. Cambridge University Press. p. 845. ISBN 978-0-521-20160-5. ^ Greatrex, Geoffrey; Lieu, Samuel N. C. (2005). The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars AD 363-628. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-75645-2. ^ Kaegi, Walter Emil (2003). Heraclius, Emperor of Byzantium. Cambridge University Press. p. 22. ISBN 9780521814591. ^ PLRE II, p. 597 ^ PLRE I, pp. 1113–1114 ^ PLRE I, p. 152 ^ John Moorhead, Justinian (London, 1994), p. 16. ^ John Moorhead, Justinian (London, 1994), p. 17. ^ PLRE I, p. 395 ^ Gesta Herwardi Archived 2011-01-21 at the Wayback Machine The term is used in chapters XII, XIV, XXII and XXIII. See The Name, Hereward for details. Sources[edit] Boak, AER (1915). "The Roman Magistri in the Civil and Military Service of the Empire". Harvard Studies in Classical Philology. 26: 73–164. JSTOR 310606. Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire (PLRE), Vols. 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en-wikipedia-org-4659	----	Roman military decorations and punishments - Wikipedia Roman military decorations and punishments From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Part of a series on the Military of ancient Rome 753 BC – AD 476 Structural history Army Unit types and ranks Decorations and punishments Legions Auxilia Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Campaign history Wars and battles Technological history Military engineering Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Political history   Strategy and tactics Infantry tactics Frontiers and fortifications Limes Limes Britannicus Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Limes Germanicus Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes Norican Limes Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannonian Limes Limes Alutanus Limes Moesiae Trajan's Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmatiae Limes Arabicus Limes Tripolitanus Limes Mauretaniae  Ancient Rome portal •  War portal v t e As with most other military forces the Roman military adopted an extensive list of decorations for military gallantry and likewise a range of punishments for military transgressions. Contents 1 Decorations, awards and victory titles 1.1 Crowns 1.2 Imperial titles 1.2.1 Synonyms for "Emperor" 1.2.2 Victory titles 1.3 Decorations (medal equivalents) 1.4 Financial awards 1.5 Service awards 1.6 Imperial parades 2 Punishments 2.1 Punishments for crimes 2.2 Punishments for unmanly acts 3 See also 4 Notes Decorations, awards and victory titles[edit] Crowns[edit] Tiberius Claudius Maximus memorial showing two awards he received Grass crown – (Latin: corona obsidionalis or corona graminea), was the highest and rarest of all military decorations. It was presented only to a general, commander, or officer whose actions saved the legion or the entire army. Civic crown – (Latin: corona civica), was a chaplet of common oak leaves woven to form a crown. During the Roman Republic, and the subsequent Principate, it was regarded as the second highest military decoration a citizen could aspire to (the Grass Crown being held in higher regard) and was rewarded for saving the lives of fellow roman citizens (cives)or stand ground in war. Since Augustus, only the princeps was eligible for this decoration. It may have been identical to the Crown of the Preserver mentioned below. Naval crown – (Latin: corona navalis), was a gold crown awarded to the first man who boarded an enemy ship during a naval engagement. In style, the crown was made of gold and surmounted with the beaks of ships. Gold crown – (Latin: corona aurea), Awarded to both Centurions and apparently some principales, for killing an enemy in single combat and holding the ground to the end of the battle. Battlement crowns – These were made of gold and decorated with the uprights (valli) of an entrenchment or turrets of a city. It was awarded to the first soldier or Centurion to mount the wall or palisade of an enemy town or camp.[1] Mural crown – (Latin: corona muralis), Also referred to as the "walled crown", this was a golden crown, or circle of gold intended to resemble a battlement, bestowed upon the first soldier who climbed the wall of a besieged city and to successfully place the standard of the attacking army upon it. Camp crown – (Latin: corona vallaris or corona castrensis), A golden crown which was ornamented with the palisades used in forming an entrenchment. Crown of the Preserver – awarded to "those who have shielded and saved any of the citizens or allies"[1] – Polybius relates that the crown is presented by those civilians the soldier saved and adds that "the man thus preserved also reverences his preserver as a father all through his life, and must treat him in every way like a parent."[1] Imperial titles[edit] Synonyms for "Emperor"[edit] Augustus (also "Αὔγουστος" or "Σεβαστός"), "Majestic" or "Venerable"; an honorific cognomen exclusive to the emperor Αὐτοκράτωρ, (lit. "Self-ruler"); Greek title equivalent to imperator i.e. Commander-in-Chief Βασιλεύς (Basileus), Greek title meaning sovereign, popularly used in the east to refer to the emperor; a formal title of the Roman emperor beginning with Heraclius Caesar (also "Καίσαρ" or "Nobilissimus Caesar"), "Caesar" or "Most Noble Caesar"; an honorific name later used to identify an Emperor-designate Censor, a Republican office with a five-year term and one coequal officeholder Consul, the highest magistracy of the Roman republic with a one-year term and one coequal officeholder Dominus, "Lord" or "Master"; an honorific title popular in the Empire's middle history Imperator, "Commander" or "Commander-in-Chief"; a victory title taken on accession to the purple and after a major military victory; the praenomen of most Roman emperors Imperator Destinatus, "Destined to be Emperor"; heir apparent, used by Septimius Severus for Caracalla. Imperium maius, "greater imperium"; absolute power to a degree greater than any other, including power of enacting capital punishment Invictus, "Unconquered"; an honorific title Pater Patriae, "Father of the Fatherland"; an honorific title Pius Felix, "Pious and Blessed" (lit. "Dutiful and Happy"); an honorific title Pontifex Maximus, "Supreme Pontiff" or "Chief Priest" (lit. "Greatest Bridgemaker"); a title and office of Republican origin – could not be used by Christian Emperors, while by that time only the pope had a claim on the title of highest religious authority. Princeps, "First Citizen" or "Leading Citizen"; an honorific title denoting the status of the emperor as first among equals Princeps Iuventatis, "First of Youth"; an honorific title awarded to a presumptive Emperor-designate Princeps Senatus, "First Man of the Senate" a Republican office with a five-year term Restitor Orbis, "Restorer of the World"; a title granted to Aurelian for his role in helping to end the Crisis of the Third Century. Tribunicia potestas, "tribunician power"; the powers of a tribune of the people including sacrosanctity and the veto Victory titles[edit] Main article: List of Roman imperial victory titles Victory titles were treated as Latin cognomina and were usually the name of the enemy defeated by the commander. Hence, names like Africanus ("the African"), Numidicus ("the Numidian"), Isauricus ("the Isaurian"), Creticus ("the Cretan"), Gothicus ("the Goth"), Germanicus ("the German") and Parthicus ("the Parthian"), seemingly out of place for ardently patriotic Romans, are in fact expressions of Roman superiority over these peoples. The most famous grantee of Republican victory title was Publius Cornelius Scipio, who for his great victories in the Second Punic War was awarded by the Roman Senate the title "Africanus" and is thus known to history as "Scipio Africanus". The practice continued in the Roman Empire, although it was subsequently amended by some Roman Emperors who desired to emphasise the totality of their victories by adding Maximus ("the Greatest") to the victory title (e.g., Parthicus Maximus, "the Greatest Parthian"). Decorations (medal equivalents)[edit] Polybius writes that "After a battle in which some of them have distinguished themselves, the general calls an assembly of the troops, and bringing forward those whom he considers to have displayed conspicuous valour, first of all speaks in laudatory terms of the courageous deeds of each and of anything else in their previous conduct which deserves commendation".[1] Only after this are the military decorations presented: Torc – gold necklet Armillae – gold armbands Phalerae – gold, silver, or bronze sculpted disks worn on the breastplate during parades Hasta pura or Arrow without a Head- a ceremonial silver spear awarded to "the man who has wounded an enemy".[1] The use of this decoration is not clear.[2] a small silver replica of a standard or flag (the vexillum). a cup – presented to an infantryman "who has slain and stripped an enemy"[1] not in the normal melee of battle but voluntarily in single combat after throwing themselves into danger "horse trappings" – presented to a cavalryman "who has slain and stripped an enemy"[1] not in the normal melee of battle but voluntarily in single combat after throwing themselves into danger Financial awards[edit] monetary bonuses part of the loot and spoils after a conquest including slaves Service awards[edit] missio honesta – honorable discharge Imperial parades[edit] Triumph – a civil ceremony and religious rite of ancient Rome, held to publicly honour the military commander (dux) of a notably successful foreign war or campaign and to display the glories of Roman victory. Ovation – a less-honored form of the Roman triumph. Ovations were granted when war was not declared between enemies on the level of states, when an enemy was considered basely inferior (slaves, pirates), and when the general conflict was resolved with little to no bloodshed or danger to the army itself. Punishments[edit] When the Roman soldier enrolled in service to the state, he swore a military oath known as the sacramentum: originally to the Senate and Roman People, later to the general and the emperor. The sacramentum stated that he would fulfill his conditions of service on pain of punishment up to and inclusive of death. Discipline in the army was extremely rigorous by modern standards, and the general had the power to summarily execute any soldier under his command. Polybius divides the punishments inflicted by a commander on one or more troops into punishments for military crimes, and punishments for "unmanly acts", although there seems to be little difference in the harsh nature of the punishment between the two classes. Punishments for crimes[edit] Fustuarium or bastinado — Following a court-martial sentence for desertion or dereliction of duty, the soldier would be stoned, or beaten to death by cudgels, in front of the assembled troops, by his fellow soldiers, whose lives had been put in danger. Soldiers under sentence of fustuarium who escaped were not pursued, but lived under sentence of banishment from Rome.[3] Polybius writes that the fustuarium is "also inflicted on those who steal anything from the camp; on those who give false evidence; on young men who have abused their persons; and finally on anyone who has been punished thrice for the same fault." Pecunaria multa – fines or deductions from the pay allowance. Flogging in front of the century, cohort or legion. "demanding sureties", including the re-taking of the military oath known as the sacramentum. For treason or theft, the punishment would most probably be being placed in a sack of snakes and thrown into a nearby river or lake. Another punishment in the Roman Military only applied to people involved in the prison system; this rule was that if a prisoner died due to the punishment inflicted by Roman legionaries, unless he was given the death penalty, then the leader of the troops would be given the same punishment.[citation needed] It would seem that in the later Empire independent commanders were given considerable latitude in the crimes they chose to punish and the penalties they inflicted. According to the Historia Augusta [4] the future Emperor Aurelian once ordered a man who was convicted of raping the wife of the man on whom he had been billeted to be attached to two trees drawn together so that when the restraining ropes were cut, they sprang apart and the unfortunate victim was torn asunder. The author of the Vita Aureliani comments that Aurelian rarely punished twice for the same offence. However, even by Roman standards his justice was considered particularly harsh. As always with the Historia Augusta, one takes this story with a pinch of salt and either wonders what fourth century point the author was attempting to make of a third-century incident or whether he merely attributed to Aurelian a good story that seemed appropriate to that man's reputation. On the other hand, the imposition of cruel and unusual penalties to maintain discipline among the brutalised soldiery in the chaotic conditions of the north European provinces in the mid-third century was a necessity for the maintenance of effective command.[5] Punishments for unmanly acts[edit] Decimatio – a form of extreme military discipline used by officers in the Roman Army to punish mutinous or cowardly soldiers in exceptional cases. A cohort selected for punishment by decimation was divided into groups of ten; each group cast lots, and the soldier on whom the lot fell was executed by his nine comrades, often by stoning or clubbing. The remaining soldiers were given rations of barley instead of wheat and forced to sleep outside of the Roman encampment. This punishment was forgotten over time since the early Republic, but the ancient punishment was resurrected by Marcus Crassus during the Spartacus gladiator rebellion in 72 BC, when two of his legions disobeyed his direct orders not to engage the enemy. As a result, they suffered a terrible defeat. Crassus's response to the disobedience was brutal. He assembled the two legions and pulled out every 10th man as he walked across the ranks. Each man who was pulled out was to be beaten to death by his preceding nine comrades. Some scholars say that Julius Caesar joined these two legions to form his legendary "Legio X Equitata". According to Cassius Dio as re-told by Matthew Dennison, the newly-appointed emperor Galba revived this punishment to deal with a contingent of rebellious soldiers who confronted him as he entered Rome at the Milvian Bridge in autumn of 68 AD.[6] Dio states that Galba ordered this punishment because "he did not believe that an emperor should submit to compulsion in anything."[7] Castigatio – being hit by the centurion with his staff or animadversio fustium Reduction of rations, or to be forced to eat barley instead of the usual grain ration Whipping with the flagrum (flagellum, flagella), or "short whip" — a much more brutal punishment than simple flogging. The "short whip" was used for slave volunteers, volones. gradus deiectio – a reduction in rank Loss of advantages gained from length of service. militiae mutatio – relegation to inferior service or duties. Summary execution. munerum indictio – additional duties See also[edit] Spolia opima Tropaion Notes[edit] ^ a b c d e f g Polybius, The Histories, III.39 ^ Some sources call it a civilian award. See the main article. ^ Polybius, The Histories, III.37 ^ Vita Aureliani, VII.4. ^ The soldier in question was a billetee – i.e. not living in one of the Roman Army's permanent cantonments. This suggests that his unit was on detached service – always a recipe for relaxed discipline and undesirable interaction with the civilian population. ^ Roman History 64.3.2 ^ The Twelve Caesars, translated by Dennison, (London: Atlantic Books, 2012), p. 207 v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the 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"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_military_decorations_and_punishments&oldid=994010159" Categories: Ancient Roman military punishments Military awards and decorations of ancient Rome Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2018 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Eesti Français Italiano עברית Magyar Português Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 13 December 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en-wikipedia-org-4676	----	Category:Roman philhellenes - Wikipedia Help Category:Roman philhellenes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Pages in category "Roman philhellenes" The following 8 pages are in this category, out of 8 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). C Scipio Aemilianus Scipio Africanus H Hadrian Horace J Julian (emperor) M Marcus Aurelius N Nero Q Titus Quinctius Flamininus Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Roman_philhellenes&oldid=744505872" Categories: Philhellenes Ancient Romans Greco-Roman relations in classical antiquity Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 15 October 2016, at 17:46 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4700	----	The Spectator (1711) - Wikipedia The Spectator (1711) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Daily publication in England, 1711 to 1712 The Spectator from 7 June 1711 The Spectator was a daily publication founded by Joseph Addison and Richard Steele in England, lasting from 1711 to 1712. Each "paper", or "number", was approximately 2,500 words long, and the original run consisted of 555 numbers, beginning on 1 March 1711.[1] These were collected into seven volumes. The paper was revived without the involvement of Steele in 1714, appearing thrice weekly for six months, and these papers when collected formed the eighth volume. Eustace Budgell, a cousin of Addison's, and the poet John Hughes also contributed to the publication. Contents 1 Aims 2 Readership 3 Works 3.1 Inkle and Yarico 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 Bibliography 7.1 Editions 7.2 Further reading 8 External links Aims[edit] In Number 10, Mr. Spectator states that The Spectator will aim "to enliven morality with wit, and to temper wit with morality". The journal reached an audience of thousands of people every day, because "the Spectators was something that every middle-class household with aspirations to looking like its members took literature seriously would want to have."[2] He hopes it will be said he has "brought philosophy out of closets and libraries, schools, and colleges, to dwell in clubs and assemblies, at tea-tables and coffee–houses". Women specifically were also a target audience for The Spectator, because one of the aims of the periodical was to increase the number of women who were "of a more elevated life and conversation." Steele states in The Spectator, No. 10, "But there are none to whom this paper will be more useful than to the female world."[3] He recommends that readers of the paper consider it "as a part of the tea-equipage" and set aside time to read it each morning.[4] The Spectator sought to provide readers with topics for well-reasoned discussion, and to equip them to carry on conversations and engage in social interactions in a polite manner.[5] In keeping with the values of Enlightenment philosophies of their time, the authors of The Spectator promoted family, marriage, and courtesy. Readership[edit] Title pages of the c. 1788 edition of the collected edition of Addison and Steele's The Spectator Despite a modest daily circulation of approximately 3,000 copies, The Spectator was widely read; Joseph Addison estimated that each number was read by thousands of Londoners, about a tenth of the capital's population at the time. Contemporary historians and literary scholars, meanwhile, do not consider this to be an unreasonable claim; most readers were not themselves subscribers but patrons of one of the subscribing coffeehouses. These readers came from many stations in society, but the paper catered principally to the interests of England's emerging middle class—merchants and traders large and small. The Spectator also had many readers in the American colonies. In particular, James Madison read the paper avidly as a teenager. It is said to have had a big influence on his world view, lasting throughout his long life.[6] Benjamin Franklin was also a reader, and the Spectator influenced his style in his "Silence Dogood" letters.[7] Jürgen Habermas sees The Spectator as instrumental in the formation of the public sphere in 18th century England.[8] Although The Spectator declares itself to be politically neutral, it was widely recognised as promoting Whig values and interests. The Spectator continued to be popular and widely read in the late 18th and 19th centuries. It was sold in eight-volume editions. Its prose style, and its marriage of morality and advice with entertainment, were considered exemplary. The decline in its popularity has been discussed by Brian McCrea and C. S. Lewis. Works[edit] Inkle and Yarico[edit] In The Spectator, No.11, Steele created a frame narrative that would come to be an incredibly well known story in the eighteenth century, the story of Inkle and Yarico. Although the periodical essay was published on March 13 of 1711, the story is based on Richard Ligon's publication in 1647. Ligon's publication, A True and Exact History of the Island of Barbadoes, reports on how the cruelties of the transatlantic slave trade contribute to slave-produced goods such as tobacco and sugarcane. Mr. Spectator goes to speak with an older woman, Arietta, whom many people visit to discuss various topics. When Mr. Spectator enters the room, there is already another man present speaking with Arietta. They are discussing "constancy in love," and the man uses the tale of The Ephesian Matron to support his point. Arietta is insulted and angered by the man's hypocrisy and sexism. She counters his tale with one of her own, the story of Inkle and Yarico. Thomas Inkle, a twenty-year-old man from London, sailed to the West Indies to increase his wealth through trade. While on an island, he encounters a group of Indians, who battle and kill many of his shipmates. After fleeing, Inkle hides in a cave where he discovers Yarico, an Indian maiden. They become enamored with one another's clothing and physical appearances, and Yarico for the next several months hides her lover from her people and provides him with food and fresh water. Eventually, a ship passes, headed for Barbadoes, and Inkle and Yarico use this opportunity to leave the island. After reaching the English colony, Inkle sells Yarico to a merchant, even after she tells him that she is pregnant. Arietta closes the tale stating that Inkle simply uses Yarico's declaration to argue for a higher price when selling her. Mr. Spectator is so moved by the legend that he takes his leave. Steele's text was so well known and influential that seven decades after his publication, George Colman modified the short story into a comic opera, showcasing three relationships between characters of varying social statuses to reach multiple audiences. See also[edit] Bully Dawson, mentioned in The Spectator as being kicked by "Sir Roger de Coverley" in a public coffee house The Spectator, a current weekly British conservative magazine, which borrows its name from the 1711 publication Notes[edit] ^ Information Britain ^ "Joseph Addison & Richard Steele". The Open Anthology of Literature in English. Retrieved 19 September 2017. ^ Felsenstein, Frank, ed. (1999). English Trader, Indian Maid: Representing Gender, Race, and Slavery in the New World. Johns Hopkins UP. ^ Addison, Joseph (1837). The Works of Joseph Addison, Vol. I, p.31. Harper & Brothers. ^ Bowers, Terence. "Universalizing Sociability: The Spectator, Civic Enfranchisement, and the Rule(s) of the Public Sphere." In Newman, Donald J., ed. (2005). The Spectator: Emerging Discourses, pp. 155-56. University of Delaware Press. ^ Ralph Ketcham, James Madison, A Biography, 1971, pp. 39-48 ^ George Goodwin (2016). Benjamin Franklin in London. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. p. 14. ^ Habermas, Jürgen (1989). The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry Into a Category of Bourgeois Society. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. References[edit] The Spectator Nos. 1, 2, 10 [Addison], 1710–11. The Spectator No. 11 [Addison], 1710–11. Brian McCrea, Addison and Steele are Dead: The English Department, Its Canon, and the Professionalization of Literary Criticism C. S. Lewis, "Addison" in Eighteenth Century English Literature: Modern Essays in Criticism ed. James Clifford. Bibliography[edit] Editions[edit] The standard edition of The Spectator is Donald F. Bond's edition in five volumes, published in 1965.[1] Selections can be found in The Norton Anthology of English Literature. Ross, Angus (ed.) Selections from The Tatler and The Spectator (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1982) ISBN 0-14-043-130-6. Edited with an introduction and notes. Out of print. Further reading[edit] Henry W. Kent (1903). "Spectator". Bibliographical Notes on One Hundred Books Famous in English Literature. NY: Grolier Club. External links[edit] The Spectator, Volumes 1, 2 and 3: With Translations and Index for the Series at Project Gutenberg (transcription of 1891 republication) Dear Mr Spectator, series 2 (BBC series by Elizabeth Kuti, adapted from and inspired by Joseph Addison and Richard Steele's 18th century Spectator essays) Hathi Trust The Spectator; Addison, Joseph, 1672–1719; Internet Archive ^ Greenblatt, Stephen, ed. (2006). The Norton Anthology of English Literature (8th ed.). p. A49. ISBN 0393925315. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Spectator_(1711)&oldid=995049503" Categories: Defunct newspapers published in the United Kingdom 1711 establishments in England 1712 disestablishments in Great Britain 1714 establishments in England Publications established in 1711 Publications disestablished in 1712 Publications established in 1714 Publications disestablished in 1714 1714 disestablishments in Great Britain Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from April 2012 Articles with Project Gutenberg links AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Dansk Deutsch Español Français 한국어 हिन्दी Italiano Latina Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Svenska తెలుగు Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 18 December 2020, at 23:26 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-470	----	Bibliothèque nationale de France - Wikipedia Bibliothèque nationale de France From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from BNF (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search National Library of France "BnF" and "Gallica" redirect here. For the compound abbreviated as "BnF", see Benzyl fluoride. For other uses, see Gallica (disambiguation). Coordinates: 48°50′01″N 2°22′33″E / 48.83361°N 2.37583°E / 48.83361; 2.37583 National Library of France Bibliothèque nationale de France Established 1461; 559 years ago (1461)[1] Location Paris, France Collection Items collected books, journals, newspapers, magazines, sound and music recordings, patents, databases, maps, stamps, prints, drawings and manuscripts Size 40M items 14M books and publications[2] Access and use Access requirements Open to anyone with a need to use the collections and services Other information Budget €254 million[2] Director Laurence Engel Staff 2,300 Website www.bnf.fr Map The Bibliothèque nationale de France (French: [biblijɔtɛk nɑsjɔnal də fʁɑ̃s], "National Library of France"; BnF) is the national library of France, located in Paris. It is the national repository of all that is published in France and also holds extensive historical collections. Contents 1 History 2 New buildings 3 Mission 4 Manuscript collection 5 Digital library 6 List of directors 6.1 1369–1792 6.2 1792–present 7 Films about the library 8 Famous patrons 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links History[edit] The National Library of France traces its origin to the royal library founded at the Louvre Palace by Charles V in 1368. Charles had received a collection of manuscripts from his predecessor, John II, and transferred them to the Louvre from the Palais de la Cité. The first librarian of record was Claude Mallet, the king's valet de chambre, who made a sort of catalogue, Inventoire des Livres du Roy nostre Seigneur estans au Chastel du Louvre. Jean Blanchet made another list in 1380 and Jean de Bégue one in 1411 and another in 1424. Charles V was a patron of learning and encouraged the making and collection of books. It is known that he employed Nicholas Oresme, Raoul de Presle and others to transcribe ancient texts. At the death of Charles VI, this first collection was unilaterally bought by the English regent of France, the Duke of Bedford, who transferred it to England in 1424. It was apparently dispersed at his death in 1435.[3][4] Charles VII did little to repair the loss of these books, but the invention of printing resulted in the starting of another collection in the Louvre inherited by Louis XI in 1461. Charles VIII seized a part of the collection of the kings of Aragon.[5] Louis XII, who had inherited the library at Blois, incorporated the latter into the Bibliothèque du Roi and further enriched it with the Gruthuyse collection and with plunder from Milan. Francis I transferred the collection in 1534 to Fontainebleau and merged it with his private library. During his reign, fine bindings became the craze and many of the books added by him and Henry II are masterpieces of the binder's art.[4] Under librarianship of Amyot, the collection was transferred to Paris during which process many treasures were lost. Henry IV again moved it to the Collège de Clermont and in 1604 it was housed in the Rue de la Harpe. The appointment of Jacques Auguste de Thou as librarian initiated a period of development that made it the largest and richest collection of books in the world. He was succeeded by his son who was replaced, when executed for treason, by Jérôme Bignon, the first of a line of librarians of the same name. Under de Thou, the library was enriched by the collections of Queen Catherine de Medici. The library grew rapidly during the reigns of Louis XIII and Louis XIV, due in great part to the interest of the Minister of Finance, Colbert, an indefatigable collectors of books.[4] The quarters in the Rue de la Harpe becoming inadequate, the library was again moved, in 1666, to a more spacious house in Rue Vivienne. The minister Louvois took quite as much interest in the library as Colbert and during his administration a magnificent building to be erected in the Place Vendôme was planned. The death of Louvois, however, prevented the realization of this plan. Louvois employed Mabillon, Thévenot and others to procure books from every source. In 1688, a catalogue in eight volumes was compiled.[4] The library opened to the public in 1692, under the administration of Abbé Louvois, Minister Louvois's son. Abbé Louvois was succeeded by Jean-Paul Bignon, who instituted a complete reform of the library's system. Catalogues were made which appeared from 1739 to 1753 in 11 volumes. The collections increased steadily by purchase and gift to the outbreak of the French Revolution, at which time it was in grave danger of partial or total destruction, but owing to the activities of Antoine-Augustin Renouard and Joseph Van Praet it suffered no injury.[4] The library's collections swelled to over 300,000 volumes during the radical phase of the French Revolution when the private libraries of aristocrats and clergy were seized. After the establishment of the French First Republic in September 1792, "the Assembly declared the Bibliotheque du Roi to be national property and the institution was renamed the Bibliothèque Nationale. After four centuries of control by the Crown, this great library now became the property of the French people."[3] Reading room, Richelieu site A new administrative organization was established. Napoleon took great interest in the library and among other things issued an order that all books in provincial libraries not possessed by the Bibliothèque Nationale should be forwarded to it, subject to replacement by exchanges of equal value from the duplicate collections, making it possible, as Napoleon said, to find a copy of any book in France in the National Library. Napoleon furthermore increased the collections by spoil from his conquests. A considerable number of these books were restored after his downfall. During the period from 1800 to 1836, the library was virtually under the control of Joseph Van Praet. At his death it contained more than 650,000 printed books and some 80,000 manuscripts.[4] Following a series of regime changes in France, it became the Imperial National Library and in 1868 was moved to newly constructed buildings on the Rue de Richelieu designed by Henri Labrouste. Upon Labrouste's death in 1875 the library was further expanded, including the grand staircase and the Oval Room, by academic architect Jean-Louis Pascal. In 1896, the library was still the largest repository of books in the world, although it has since been surpassed by other libraries for that title.[6] By 1920, the library's collection had grown to 4,050,000 volumes and 11,000 manuscripts.[4] M. Henri Lemaître, a vice-president of the French Library Association and formerly librarian of the Bibliothèque Nationale ... outlined the story of French libraries and librarians during the German occupation, a record of destruction and racial discrimination. During 1940–1945, more than two million books were lost through the ravages of war, many of them forming the irreplaceable local collections in which France abounded. Many thousands of books, including complete libraries, were seized by the Germans. Yet French librarians stood firm against all threats, and continued to serve their readers to the best of their abilities. In their private lives and in their professional occupations they were in the van of the struggle against the Nazis, and many suffered imprisonment and death for their devotion. Despite Nazi opposition they maintained a supply of books to French prisoners of war. They continued to supply books on various proscribed lists to trustworthy readers; and when liberation came, they were ready with their plans for rehabilitation with the creation of new book centres for the French people on lines of the English county library system.[7] New buildings[edit] View of the Bibliothèque nationale de France, François-Mitterrand site On 14 July 1988, President François Mitterrand announced "the construction and the expansion of one of the largest and most modern libraries in the world, intended to cover all fields of knowledge, and designed to be accessible to all, using the most modern data transfer technologies, which could be consulted from a distance, and which would collaborate with other European libraries". Book and media logistics inside the whole library was planned with an automated 6.6 km (4.1 mi) Telelift system. Only with this high level of automation, the library can comply with all demands fully in time. Due to initial trade union opposition, a wireless network was fully installed only in August 2016. In July 1989, the services of the architectural firm of Dominique Perrault were retained. The design was recognized with the European Union Prize for Contemporary Architecture in 1996. The construction was carried out by Bouygues.[8] Construction of the library ran into huge cost overruns and technical difficulties related to its high-rise design, so much so that it was referred to as the "TGB" or "Très Grande Bibliothèque" (i.e. "Very Large Library", a sarcastic allusion to France's successful high-speed rail system, the TGV).[9] After the move of the major collections from the Rue de Richelieu, the National Library of France was inaugurated on 15 December 1996.[10] As of 2016[update], the BnF contained roughly 14 million books at its four Parisian sites (Tolbiac, i.e. Bibliothèque François-Mitterrand, and Richelieu, Arsenal and Opéra) as well as printed documents, manuscripts, prints, photographs, maps and plans, scores, coins, medals, sound documents, video and multimedia documents, scenery elements..."[11] The library retains the use of the Rue de Richelieu complex for some of its collections. Plan of the Bibliothèque François-Mitterrand ___ Located near the Métro station: Bibliothèque François Mitterrand. Mission[edit] The National Library of France is a public establishment under the supervision of the Ministry of Culture. Its mission is to constitute collections, especially the copies of works published in France that must, by law, be deposited there, conserve them, and make them available to the public. It produces a reference catalogue, cooperates with other national and international establishments, and participates in research programs. Manuscript collection[edit] The Manuscripts department houses the largest collection of medieval and modern manuscripts worldwide. The collection includes medieval chansons de geste and chivalric romances, eastern literature, eastern and western religions, ancient history, scientific history, and literary manuscripts by Pascal, Diderot, Apollinaire, Proust, Colette, Sartre, etc. The collection is organised: according to language (Ancient Greek, Latin, French and other European languages, Arabic, Coptic, Ethiopian, Hebrew, Persian, Turkish, Near- and Middle-Eastern languages, Chinese, Japanese, Tibetan, Sanskrit, Indian languages, Vietnamese, etc.) The library holds about 5,000 Ancient Greek manuscripts, which are divided into three fonds: Ancien fonds grec, fonds Coislin, and Fonds du Supplément grec. according to content: learned and bibliophilic, collections of learned materials, Library Archives, genealogical collections, French provinces, Masonic collection, etc. Digital library[edit] Gallica is the digital library for online users of the Bibliothèque nationale de France and its partners. It was established in October 1997. Today it has more than 6 million digitized materials of various types: books, magazines, newspapers, photographs, cartoons, drawings, prints, posters, maps, manuscripts, antique coins, scores, theater costumes and sets, audio and video materials. All library materials are freely available. On February 10, 2010, a digitized copy of Scenes from Bohemian Life by Henri Murger (1913) became Gallica's millionth document. And in February 2019, the five millionth document was a copy of the manuscript "Record of an Unsuccessful Trip to the West Indies" stored in the Bibliothèque Inguimbertine. As of 1 January 2020[update], Gallica had made available on the Web about: 6 million documents 690,311 books 176,341 maps 144,859 manuscripts 1,468,952 images 3,968,841 newspapers and magazines 51,055 sheets of music 51,170 audio recordings 510,807 objects 1,705 video recordings Most of Gallica's collections have been converted into text format using optical character recognition (OCR-processing), which allows full-text search in the library materials. Each document has a digital identifier, the so-called ARK (Archival Resource Key) of the National Library of France and is accompanied by a bibliographic description. List of directors[edit] 1369–1792[edit] 1369–1411: Gilles Mallet [fr] (fr) 1522–1540: Guillaume Budé 1540–1552: Pierre Duchâtel [fr] 1552–1567: Pierre de Montdoré [fr] 1567–1593: Jacques Amyot 1593–1617: Jacques-Auguste de Thou 1617–1642: François Auguste de Thou 1642–1656: Jérôme Bignon 1656–1684: Jérôme II Bignon [fr] 1560–1604: Jean Gosselin [fr] 1604–1614: Isaac Casaubon 1614–1645: Nicolas Rigault 1645–1651: Pierre Dupuy 1651–1656: Jacques Dupuy [fr] 1656–1676: Nicolas Colbert [fr]; Pierre de Carcavi (1663-1683) 1676–1684: Louis Colbert [fr]; Melchisédech Thévenot (1684-1691) 1684–1718: Camille Le Tellier de Louvois; Nicolas Clément [fr] (1691-1712) 1719–1741: Jean-Paul Bignon 1741–1743: Jérôme Bignon de Blanzy [fr] 1743–1772: Armand-Jérôme Bignon 1770–1784: Jérôme-Frédéric Bignon [fr]; Grégoire Desaunays [fr] (from 1775 to 1793) 1784–1789: Jean-Charles-Pierre Le Noir (démission) 1789–1792: Louis Le Fèvre d'Ormesson de Noyseau [fr] 1792–present[edit] 1792–1793: Jean-Louis Carra [fr] and Sébastien-Roch Nicolas de Chamfort (fr) 1793: Jean-Baptiste Cœuilhe [fr] (interim) 1793–1795: Jean Baptiste Lefebvre de Villebrune 1795–1796: André Barthélemy de Courcay [fr] 1796–1798: Jean-Augustin Capperonnier [fr] 1798–1799: Adrien-Jacques Joly [fr] 1799–1800: Aubin-Louis Millin de Grandmaison 1800–1803: Jean-Augustin Capperonnier 1803–1806: Pascal-François-Joseph Gossellin [fr] 1806–1829: Bon-Joseph Dacier 1830–1831: Joseph Van Praet 1832: Joseph Van Praet 1832: Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat 1832–1837: Jean-Antoine Letronne 1838–1839: Edmé François Jomard 1839: Charles Dunoyer 1839–1840: Antoine Jean Letronne 1840–1858: Joseph Naudet 1858–1874: Jules-Antoine Taschereau [fr]; the Paris Commune appointed Élie Reclus (29 April to 24 May 1871) 1874–1905: Léopold Delisle 1905–1913: Henry Marcel 1913–1923: Théophile Homolle 1923–1930: Pierre-René Roland-Marcel [fr] 1930–1940: Julien Cain 1940–1944: Bernard Faÿ 1944–1945: Jean Laran [fr] (interim) 1945–1964: Julien Cain 1964–1975: Étienne Dennery 1975–1981: Georges Le Rider 1981–1984: Alain Gourdon [fr] 1984–1987: André Miquel 1987–1993: Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie 1989–1994: Dominique Jamet [fr] 1994–1997: Jean Favier 1997–2002: Jean-Pierre Angremy 2002–2007: Jean-Noël Jeanneney 2007–2016: Bruno Racine 2016–present: Laurence Engel [fr] Films about the library[edit] Alain Resnais directed Toute la mémoire du monde, a 1956 short film about the library and its collections. Famous patrons[edit] Raoul Rigault, leader during the Paris Commune, is known for habitually occupying the library and reading endless copies of the newspaper Le Père Duchesne.[12] See also[edit] Arcade (blinkenlights) Bibliothèque de l'Arsenal Bibliothèque-Musée de l'Opéra National de Paris Books in France Cabinet des Médailles Dossiers Secrets d'Henri Lobineau Les Enfers, a department within the Bibliothèque nationale Legal deposit National electronic library References[edit] ^ Jack A. Clarke. "French Libraries in Transition, 1789–95." The Library Quarterly, Vol. 37, No. 4 (Oct., 1967) ^ a b "La BnF en chiffres". Archived from the original on 2007-11-28. ^ a b Priebe, Paul M. (1982). "From Bibliothèque du Roi to Bibliothèque Nationale: The Creation of a State Library, 1789–1793". The Journal of Library History. 17 (4): 389–408. JSTOR 25541320. ^ a b c d e f g This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Rines, George Edwin, ed. (1920). "National Library of France" . Encyclopedia Americana. ^ Konstantinos Staikos (2012), History of the Library in Western Civilization: From Petrarch to Michelangelo, New Castle, DE: Oak Knoll Press, ISBN 978-1-58456-182-8 ^ Dunton, Larkin (1896). The World and Its People. Silver, Burdett. p. 38. ^ "University and Research Libraries". Nature. 156 (3962): 417. 6 October 1945. doi:10.1038/156417a0. ^ Bouygues website: Bibliothèque nationale de France Archived November 27, 2006, at the Wayback Machine ^ Fitchett, Joseph (30 March 1995). "New Paris Library: Visionary or Outdated?". The New York Times. Retrieved 10 April 2013. ^ Ramsay, Raylene L. (2003). French women in politics: writing power, paternal legitimization, and maternal legacies. Berghahn Books. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-57181-082-3. Retrieved 21 May 2011. ^ "Welcome to the BnF". BnF (Bibliothèque nationale de France). Archived from the original on 25 January 2016. Retrieved 17 January 2016. ^ Horne, Alistair (1965). The Fall of Paris: The Siege and the Commune 1870-1. St. Martin's Press, New York. pp. 29–30. Further reading[edit] Bibliothèque nationale (France), Département de la Phonothèque nationale et de l'Audiovisuel. The National [Sound] Record[ings] and Audiovisual Department of the National Library [of France]. [Paris]: Bibliothèque nationale, [1986]. 9 p. David H. Stam, ed. (2001). International Dictionary of Library Histories. Fitzroy Dearborn. ISBN 1-57958-244-3. Riding, Alan. "France Detects a Cultural Threat in Google," The New York Times. April 11, 2005. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bibliothèque nationale de France. 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en-wikipedia-org-4714	----	Julius Caesar - Wikipedia Julius Caesar From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman general and dictator This article is about the Roman dictator. For other uses, see Julius Caesar (disambiguation) and Caesar (disambiguation). Gaius Julius Caesar The Tusculum portrait, possibly the only surviving sculpture of Caesar made during his lifetime. Archaeological Museum, Turin, Italy. Born 12 July 100 BC[1] Rome, Italy, Roman Republic Died 15 March 44 BC (aged 55) Rome, Italy Cause of death Assassination (stab wounds) Resting place Temple of Caesar, Rome 41°53′31″N 12°29′10″E / 41.891943°N 12.486246°E / 41.891943; 12.486246 Notable work Bellum Gallicum Bellum Civile Office Dictator (49, 48–47, 46–44 BC) Consul (59, 48, 46–45, 44 BC) Political party Populares Spouse(s) Cossutia (disputed) Cornelia (84–69 BC; her death) Pompeia (67–61 BC; divorced) Calpurnia (59–44 BC; his death) Children Julia Caesarion (unacknowledged) Augustus (adoptive) Parent(s) Gaius Julius Caesar and Aurelia Military career Years 81–45 BC Conflicts Siege of Mytilene Gallic Wars Caesar's civil war Alexandrine war Awards Civic Crown Gaius Julius Caesar[a] (/ˈsiːzər/ SEE-zər, Latin: [ˈɡaːiʊs ˈjuːliʊs ˈkae̯sar]; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC) was a Roman general and statesman who played a critical role in the events that led to the demise of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire. In 60 BC, Caesar, Crassus and Pompey formed the First Triumvirate, a political alliance that dominated Roman politics for several years. Their attempts to amass power as Populares were opposed by the Optimates within the Roman Senate, among them Cato the Younger with the frequent support of Cicero. Caesar rose to become one of the most powerful politicians in the Roman Republic through a string of military victories in the Gallic Wars, completed by 51 BC, which greatly extended Roman territory. During this time he both invaded Britain and built a bridge across the Rhine river. These achievements and the support of his veteran army threatened to eclipse the standing of Pompey, who had realigned himself with the Senate after the death of Crassus in 53 BC. With the Gallic Wars concluded, the Senate ordered Caesar to step down from his military command and return to Rome. Leaving his command in Gaul would mean losing his immunity to criminal prosecution by his enemies; knowing this, Caesar openly defied the Senate's authority by crossing the Rubicon and marching towards Rome at the head of an army.[2] This began Caesar's civil war, which he won, leaving him in a position of near unchallenged power and influence. After assuming control of government, Caesar began a program of social and governmental reforms, including the creation of the Julian calendar. He gave citizenship to many residents of far regions of the Roman Republic. He initiated land reform and support for veterans. He centralized the bureaucracy of the Republic and was eventually proclaimed "dictator for life" (Latin: dictator perpetuo). His populist and authoritarian reforms angered the elites, who began to conspire against him. On the Ides of March (15 March), 44 BC, Caesar was assassinated by a group of rebellious senators led by Brutus and Cassius, who stabbed him to death.[3][4] A new series of civil wars broke out and the constitutional government of the Republic was never fully restored. Caesar's great-nephew and adopted heir Octavian, later known as Augustus, rose to sole power after defeating his opponents in a civil war. Octavian set about solidifying his power, and the era of the Roman Empire began. Caesar was an accomplished author and historian as well as a statesman; much of his life is known from his own accounts of his military campaigns. Other contemporary sources include the letters and speeches of Cicero and the historical writings of Sallust. Later biographies of Caesar by Suetonius and Plutarch are also important sources. Caesar is considered by many historians to be one of the greatest military commanders in history.[5] His cognomen was subsequently adopted as a synonym for "Emperor"; the title "Caesar" was used throughout the Roman Empire, giving rise to modern cognates such as Kaiser and Tsar. He has frequently appeared in literary and artistic works, and his political philosophy, known as Caesarism, inspired politicians into the modern era. Contents 1 Early life and career 2 Consulship and military campaigns 2.1 Conquest of Gaul 2.2 Civil war 3 Dictatorship and assassination 3.1 Dictatorship 3.1.1 Political reforms 3.2 Assassination 3.3 Aftermath of the assassination 3.4 Deification 4 Personal life 4.1 Health and physical appearance 4.2 Name and family 4.2.1 The name Gaius Julius Caesar 4.2.2 Family 4.3 Rumors of passive homosexuality 5 Literary works 5.1 Memoirs 6 Legacy 6.1 Historiography 6.2 Politics 6.3 Depictions 6.4 Battle record 7 Chronology 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Sources 11.1 Primary sources 11.1.1 Own writings 11.1.2 Ancient historians' writings 11.2 Secondary sources 12 External links Early life and career Main article: Early life and career of Julius Caesar Gaius Marius, Caesar's uncle Gaius Julius Caesar was born into a patrician family, the gens Julia, which claimed descent from Julus, son of the legendary Trojan prince Aeneas, supposedly the son of the goddess Venus.[6] The Julii were of Alban origin, mentioned as one of the leading Alban houses, which settled in Rome around the mid-7th century BC, following the destruction of Alba Longa. They were granted patrician status, along with other noble Alban families.[7] The Julii also existed at an early period at Bovillae, evidenced by a very ancient inscription on an altar in the theatre of that town, which speaks of their offering sacrifices according to the lege Albana, or Alban rites.[8][9][10] The cognomen "Caesar" originated, according to Pliny the Elder, with an ancestor who was born by Caesarean section (from the Latin verb to cut, caedere, caes-).[11] The Historia Augusta suggests three alternative explanations: that the first Caesar had a thick head of hair (Latin caesaries); that he had bright grey eyes (Latin oculis caesiis); or that he killed an elephant during the Punic Wars (caesai in Moorish) in battle.[12] Caesar issued coins featuring images of elephants, suggesting that he favored the latter interpretation of his name. Despite their ancient pedigree, the Julii Caesares were not especially politically influential, although they had enjoyed some revival of their political fortunes in the early 1st century BC.[13] Caesar's father, also called Gaius Julius Caesar, governed the province of Asia,[14] and his sister Julia, Caesar's aunt, married Gaius Marius, one of the most prominent figures in the Republic.[15] His mother, Aurelia Cotta, came from an influential family. Little is recorded of Caesar's childhood.[16] In 85 BC, Caesar's father died suddenly,[17] so Caesar was the head of the family at the age of 16. His coming of age coincided with a civil war between his uncle Gaius Marius and his rival Lucius Cornelius Sulla. Both sides carried out bloody purges of their political opponents whenever they were in the ascendancy. Marius and his ally Lucius Cornelius Cinna were in control of the city when Caesar was nominated as the new flamen dialis (high priest of Jupiter),[18] and he was married to Cinna's daughter Cornelia.[19][20] Following Sulla's final victory, though, Caesar's connections to the old regime made him a target for the new one. He was stripped of his inheritance, his wife's dowry, and his priesthood, but he refused to divorce Cornelia and was forced to go into hiding.[21] The threat against him was lifted by the intervention of his mother's family, which included supporters of Sulla, and the Vestal Virgins. Sulla gave in reluctantly and is said to have declared that he saw many a Marius in Caesar.[16] The loss of his priesthood had allowed him to pursue a military career, as the high priest of Jupiter was not permitted to touch a horse, sleep three nights outside his own bed or one night outside Rome, or look upon an army.[22] Caesar felt that it would be much safer far away from Sulla should the dictator change his mind, so he left Rome and joined the army, serving under Marcus Minucius Thermus in Asia and Servilius Isauricus in Cilicia. He served with distinction, winning the Civic Crown for his part in the Siege of Mytilene. He went on a mission to Bithynia to secure the assistance of King Nicomedes's fleet, but he spent so long at Nicomedes' court that rumours arose of an affair with the king, which Caesar vehemently denied for the rest of his life.[23] Hearing of Sulla's death in 78 BC, Caesar felt safe enough to return to Rome. He lacked means since his inheritance was confiscated, but he acquired a modest house in Subura, a lower-class neighbourhood of Rome.[24] He turned to legal advocacy and became known for his exceptional oratory accompanied by impassioned gestures and a high-pitched voice, and ruthless prosecution of former governors notorious for extortion and corruption. Dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla stripped Caesar of the priesthood. On the way across the Aegean Sea,[25] Caesar was kidnapped by pirates and held prisoner.[26][27] He maintained an attitude of superiority throughout his captivity. The pirates demanded a ransom of 20 talents of silver, but he insisted that they ask for 50.[28][29] After the ransom was paid, Caesar raised a fleet, pursued and captured the pirates, and imprisoned them. He had them crucified on his own authority, as he had promised while in captivity[30]—a promise that the pirates had taken as a joke. As a sign of leniency, he first had their throats cut. He was soon called back into military action in Asia, raising a band of auxiliaries to repel an incursion from the east.[31] On his return to Rome, he was elected military tribune, a first step in a political career. He was elected quaestor for 69 BC,[32] and during that year he delivered the funeral oration for his aunt Julia, and included images of her husband Marius in the funeral procession, unseen since the days of Sulla. His wife Cornelia also died that year.[33] Caesar went to serve his quaestorship in Hispania after her funeral, in the spring or early summer of 69 BC.[34] While there, he is said to have encountered a statue of Alexander the Great, and realised with dissatisfaction that he was now at an age when Alexander had the world at his feet, while he had achieved comparatively little. On his return in 67 BC,[35] he married Pompeia, a granddaughter of Sulla, whom he later divorced in 61 BC after her embroilment in the Bona Dea scandal.[36] In 65 BC, he was elected curule aedile, and staged lavish games that won him further attention and popular support.[37] In 63 BC, he ran for election to the post of pontifex maximus, chief priest of the Roman state religion. He ran against two powerful senators. Accusations of bribery were made by all sides. Caesar won comfortably, despite his opponents' greater experience and standing.[38] Cicero was consul that year, and he exposed Catiline's conspiracy to seize control of the republic; several senators accused Caesar of involvement in the plot.[39] After serving as praetor in 62 BC, Caesar was appointed to govern Hispania Ulterior (the western part of the Iberian Peninsula) as propraetor,[40][41][42] though some sources suggest that he held proconsular powers.[43][44] He was still in considerable debt and needed to satisfy his creditors before he could leave. He turned to Marcus Licinius Crassus, the richest man in Rome. Crassus paid some of Caesar's debts and acted as guarantor for others, in return for political support in his opposition to the interests of Pompey. Even so, to avoid becoming a private citizen and thus open to prosecution for his debts, Caesar left for his province before his praetorship had ended. In Spain, he conquered two local tribes and was hailed as imperator by his troops; he reformed the law regarding debts, and completed his governorship in high esteem.[45] Caesar was acclaimed imperator in 60 BC (and again later in 45 BC). In the Roman Republic, this was an honorary title assumed by certain military commanders. After an especially great victory, army troops in the field would proclaim their commander imperator, an acclamation necessary for a general to apply to the Senate for a triumph. However, he also wanted to stand for consul, the most senior magistracy in the republic. If he were to celebrate a triumph, he would have to remain a soldier and stay outside the city until the ceremony, but to stand for election he would need to lay down his command and enter Rome as a private citizen. He could not do both in the time available. He asked the Senate for permission to stand in absentia, but Cato blocked the proposal. Faced with the choice between a triumph and the consulship, Caesar chose the consulship.[46] Consulship and military campaigns Main articles: Military campaigns of Julius Caesar and First Triumvirate A denarius depicting Julius Caesar, dated to February–March 44 BC—the goddess Venus is shown on the reverse, holding Victoria and a scepter. Caption: CAESAR IMP. M. / L. AEMILIVS BVCA In 60 BC, Caesar sought election as consul for 59 BC, along with two other candidates. The election was sordid—even Cato, with his reputation for incorruptibility, is said to have resorted to bribery in favour of one of Caesar's opponents. Caesar won, along with conservative Marcus Bibulus.[47] Caesar was already in Marcus Licinius Crassus' political debt, but he also made overtures to Pompey. Pompey and Crassus had been at odds for a decade, so Caesar tried to reconcile them. The three of them had enough money and political influence to control public business. This informal alliance, known as the First Triumvirate ("rule of three men"), was cemented by the marriage of Pompey to Caesar's daughter Julia.[48] Caesar also married again, this time Calpurnia, who was the daughter of another powerful senator.[49] Caesar proposed a law for redistributing public lands to the poor—by force of arms, if need be—a proposal supported by Pompey and by Crassus, making the triumvirate public. Pompey filled the city with soldiers, a move which intimidated the triumvirate's opponents. Bibulus attempted to declare the omens unfavourable and thus void the new law, but he was driven from the forum by Caesar's armed supporters. His lictors had their fasces broken, two high magistrates accompanying him were wounded, and he had a bucket of excrement thrown over him. In fear of his life, he retired to his house for the rest of the year, issuing occasional proclamations of bad omens. These attempts proved ineffective in obstructing Caesar's legislation. Roman satirists ever after referred to the year as "the consulship of Julius and Caesar."[50] When Caesar was first elected, the aristocracy tried to limit his future power by allotting the woods and pastures of Italy, rather than the governorship of a province, as his military command duty after his year in office was over.[51] With the help of political allies, Caesar secured passage of the lex Vatinia, granting him governorship over Cisalpine Gaul (northern Italy) and Illyricum (southeastern Europe).[52] At the instigation of Pompey and his father-in-law Piso, Transalpine Gaul (southern France) was added later after the untimely death of its governor, giving him command of four legions.[52] The term of his governorship, and thus his immunity from prosecution, was set at five years, rather than the usual one.[53][54] When his consulship ended, Caesar narrowly avoided prosecution for the irregularities of his year in office, and quickly left for his province.[55] Conquest of Gaul Main article: Gallic Wars The extent of the Roman Republic in 40 BC after Caesar's conquests Caesar was still deeply in debt, but there was money to be made as a governor, whether by extortion[56] or by military adventurism. Caesar had four legions under his command, two of his provinces bordered on unconquered territory, and parts of Gaul were known to be unstable. Some of Rome's Gallic allies had been defeated by their rivals at the Battle of Magetobriga, with the help of a contingent of Germanic tribes. The Romans feared these tribes were preparing to migrate south, closer to Italy, and that they had warlike intent. Caesar raised two new legions and defeated these tribes.[57] In response to Caesar's earlier activities, the tribes in the north-east began to arm themselves. Caesar treated this as an aggressive move and, after an inconclusive engagement against the united tribes, he conquered the tribes piecemeal. Meanwhile, one of his legions began the conquest of the tribes in the far north, directly opposite Britain.[58] During the spring of 56 BC, the Triumvirs held a conference, as Rome was in turmoil and Caesar's political alliance was coming undone. The Lucca Conference renewed the First Triumvirate and extended Caesar's governorship for another five years.[59] The conquest of the north was soon completed, while a few pockets of resistance remained.[60] Caesar now had a secure base from which to launch an invasion of Britain. In 55 BC, Caesar repelled an incursion into Gaul by two Germanic tribes, and followed it up by building a bridge across the Rhine and making a show of force in Germanic territory, before returning and dismantling the bridge. Late that summer, having subdued two other tribes, he crossed into Britain, claiming that the Britons had aided one of his enemies the previous year, possibly the Veneti of Brittany.[61] His intel was poor, and although he gained a beachhead on the coast, he could not advance further. He raided out from his beachhead and destroyed some villages, then returned to Gaul for the winter.[62] He returned the following year, better prepared and with a larger force, and achieved more. He advanced inland, and established a few alliances, but poor harvests led to widespread revolt in Gaul, forcing Caesar to leave Britain for the last time.[63] Vercingetorix throws down his arms at the feet of Julius Caesar, painting by Lionel Royer. Musée Crozatier, Le Puy-en-Velay, France. While Caesar was in Britain his daughter Julia, Pompey's wife, had died in childbirth. Caesar tried to re-secure Pompey's support by offering him his great-niece in marriage, but Pompey declined. In 53 BC Crassus was killed leading a failed invasion of the east. Rome was on the brink of civil war. Pompey was appointed sole consul as an emergency measure, and married the daughter of a political opponent of Caesar. The Triumvirate was dead.[64] Though the Gallic tribes were just as strong as the Romans militarily, the internal division among the Gauls guaranteed an easy victory for Caesar. Vercingetorix's attempt in 52 BC to unite them against Roman invasion came too late.[65][66] He proved an astute commander, defeating Caesar at the Battle of Gergovia, but Caesar's elaborate siege-works at the Battle of Alesia finally forced his surrender.[67] Despite scattered outbreaks of warfare the following year,[68] Gaul was effectively conquered. Plutarch claimed that during the Gallic Wars the army had fought against three million men (of whom one million died, and another million were enslaved), subjugated 300 tribes, and destroyed 800 cities.[69] Civil war Main article: Caesar's Civil War Further information: Alexandrine war, Early life of Cleopatra VII, and Reign of Cleopatra VII A Roman bust of Pompey the Great made during the reign of Augustus (27 BC – 14 AD), a copy of an original bust from 70–60 BC, Venice National Archaeological Museum, Italy In 50 BC, the Senate (led by Pompey) ordered Caesar to disband his army and return to Rome because his term as governor had finished.[70] Caesar thought he would be prosecuted if he entered Rome without the immunity enjoyed by a magistrate. Pompey accused Caesar of insubordination and treason. On 10 January 49 BC, Caesar crossed the Rubicon river (the frontier boundary of Italy) with only a single legion, the Legio XIII Gemina, and ignited civil war. Upon crossing the Rubicon, Caesar, according to Plutarch and Suetonius, is supposed to have quoted the Athenian playwright Menander, in Greek, "the die is cast".[71] Erasmus, however, notes that the more accurate Latin translation of the Greek imperative mood would be "alea iacta esto", let the die be cast.[72] Pompey and many of the Senate fled to the south, having little confidence in Pompey's newly raised troops. Pompey, despite greatly outnumbering Caesar, who only had his Thirteenth Legion with him, did not intend to fight. Caesar pursued Pompey, hoping to capture Pompey before his legions could escape.[73] Pompey managed to escape before Caesar could capture him. Heading for Spain, Caesar left Italy under the control of Mark Antony. After an astonishing 27-day route-march, Caesar defeated Pompey's lieutenants, then returned east, to challenge Pompey in Illyria, where, on 10 July 48 BC in the battle of Dyrrhachium, Caesar barely avoided a catastrophic defeat. In an exceedingly short engagement later that year, he decisively defeated Pompey at Pharsalus, in Greece on 9 August 48 BC.[74] Cleopatra and Caesar, 1866 painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme This mid-1st-century-BC Roman wall painting in Pompeii is probably a depiction of Cleopatra VII as Venus Genetrix, with her son Caesarion as Cupid. Its owner Marcus Fabius Rufus most likely ordered its concealment behind a wall in reaction to the execution of Caesarion on orders of Octavian in 30 BC.[75][76] In Rome, Caesar was appointed dictator,[77] with Mark Antony as his Master of the Horse (second in command); Caesar presided over his own election to a second consulship and then, after 11 days, resigned this dictatorship.[77][78] Caesar then pursued Pompey to Egypt, arriving soon after the murder of the general. There, Caesar was presented with Pompey's severed head and seal-ring, receiving these with tears.[79] He then had Pompey's assassins put to death.[80] Caesar then became involved with an Egyptian civil war between the child pharaoh and his sister, wife, and co-regent queen, Cleopatra. Perhaps as a result of the pharaoh's role in Pompey's murder, Caesar sided with Cleopatra. He withstood the Siege of Alexandria and later he defeated the pharaoh's forces at the Battle of the Nile in 47 BC and installed Cleopatra as ruler. Caesar and Cleopatra celebrated their victory with a triumphal procession on the Nile in the spring of 47 BC. The royal barge was accompanied by 400 additional ships, and Caesar was introduced to the luxurious lifestyle of the Egyptian pharaohs.[81] Caesar and Cleopatra were not married. Caesar continued his relationship with Cleopatra throughout his last marriage—in Roman eyes, this did not constitute adultery—and probably fathered a son called Caesarion. Cleopatra visited Rome on more than one occasion, residing in Caesar's villa just outside Rome across the Tiber.[81] Late in 48 BC, Caesar was again appointed dictator, with a term of one year.[78] After spending the first months of 47 BC in Egypt, Caesar went to the Middle East, where he annihilated the king of Pontus; his victory was so swift and complete that he mocked Pompey's previous victories over such poor enemies.[82] On his way to Pontus, Caesar visited Tarsus from 27 to 29 May 47 BC (25–27 Maygreg.), where he met enthusiastic support, but where, according to Cicero, Cassius was planning to kill him at this point.[83][84][85] Thence, he proceeded to Africa to deal with the remnants of Pompey's senatorial supporters. He was defeated by Titus Labienus at Ruspina on 4 January 46 BC but recovered to gain a significant victory at Thapsus on 6 April 46 BC over Cato, who then committed suicide.[86] After this victory, he was appointed dictator for 10 years.[87] Pompey's sons escaped to Spain; Caesar gave chase and defeated the last remnants of opposition in the Battle of Munda in March 45 BC.[88] During this time, Caesar was elected to his third and fourth terms as consul in 46 BC and 45 BC (this last time without a colleague). Dictatorship and assassination While he was still campaigning in Spain, the Senate began bestowing honours on Caesar. Caesar had not proscribed his enemies, instead pardoning almost all, and there was no serious public opposition to him. Great games and celebrations were held in April to honour Caesar's victory at Munda. Plutarch writes that many Romans found the triumph held following Caesar's victory to be in poor taste, as those defeated in the civil war had not been foreigners, but instead fellow Romans.[89] On Caesar's return to Italy in September 45 BC, he filed his will, naming his grandnephew Gaius Octavius (Octavian, later known as Augustus Caesar) as his principal heir, leaving his vast estate and property including his name. Caesar also wrote that if Octavian died before Caesar did, Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus would be the next heir in succession.[90] In his will, he also left a substantial gift to the citizens of Rome. Between his crossing of the Rubicon in 49 BC, and his assassination in 44 BC, Caesar established a new constitution, which was intended to accomplish three separate goals.[91] First, he wanted to suppress all armed resistance out in the provinces, and thus bring order back to the Republic. Second, he wanted to create a strong central government in Rome. Finally, he wanted to knit together all of the provinces into a single cohesive unit.[91] The first goal was accomplished when Caesar defeated Pompey and his supporters.[91] To accomplish the other two goals, he needed to ensure that his control over the government was undisputed,[92] so he assumed these powers by increasing his own authority, and by decreasing the authority of Rome's other political institutions. Finally, he enacted a series of reforms that were meant to address several long-neglected issues, the most important of which was his reform of the calendar.[93] Dictatorship Green Caesar, posthumous portrait of the 1st century AD, Altes Museum, Berlin Statue of Julius Caesar, Via dei Fori Imperiali, Rome When Caesar returned to Rome, the Senate granted him triumphs for his victories, ostensibly those over Gaul, Egypt, Pharnaces, and Juba, rather than over his Roman opponents.[citation needed] When Arsinoe IV, Egypt's former queen, was paraded in chains, the spectators admired her dignified bearing and were moved to pity.[94] Triumphal games were held, with beast-hunts involving 400 lions, and gladiator contests. A naval battle was held on a flooded basin at the Field of Mars.[95] At the Circus Maximus, two armies of war captives, each of 2,000 people, 200 horses, and 20 elephants, fought to the death. Again, some bystanders complained, this time at Caesar's wasteful extravagance. A riot broke out, and only stopped when Caesar had two rioters sacrificed by the priests on the Field of Mars.[95] After the triumph, Caesar set out to pass an ambitious legislative agenda.[95] He ordered a census be taken, which forced a reduction in the grain dole, and decreed that jurors could only come from the Senate or the equestrian ranks. He passed a sumptuary law that restricted the purchase of certain luxuries. After this, he passed a law that rewarded families for having many children, to speed up the repopulation of Italy. Then, he outlawed professional guilds, except those of ancient foundation, since many of these were subversive political clubs. He then passed a term-limit law applicable to governors. He passed a debt-restructuring law, which ultimately eliminated about a fourth of all debts owed.[95] The Forum of Caesar, with its Temple of Venus Genetrix, was then built, among many other public works.[96] Caesar also tightly regulated the purchase of state-subsidised grain and reduced the number of recipients to a fixed number, all of whom were entered into a special register.[97] From 47 to 44 BC, he made plans for the distribution of land to about 15,000 of his veterans.[98] The most important change, however, was his reform of the calendar. The Roman calendar at the time was regulated by the movement of the moon. By replacing it with the Egyptian calendar, based on the sun, Roman farmers were able to use it as the basis of consistent seasonal planting from year to year. He set the length of the year to 365.25 days by adding an intercalary/leap day at the end of February every fourth year.[93] To bring the calendar into alignment with the seasons, he decreed that three extra months be inserted into 46 BC (the ordinary intercalary month at the end of February, and two extra months after November). Thus, the Julian calendar opened on 1 January 45 BC.[93][95] This calendar is almost identical to the current Western calendar. Shortly before his assassination, he passed a few more reforms.[95] He established a police force, appointed officials to carry out his land reforms, and ordered the rebuilding of Carthage and Corinth. He also extended Latin rights throughout the Roman world, and then abolished the tax system and reverted to the earlier version that allowed cities to collect tribute however they wanted, rather than needing Roman intermediaries. His assassination prevented further and larger schemes, which included the construction of an unprecedented temple to Mars, a huge theatre, and a library on the scale of the Library of Alexandria.[95] He also wanted to convert Ostia to a major port, and cut a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth. Militarily, he wanted to conquer the Dacians and Parthians, and avenge the loss at Carrhae. Thus, he instituted a massive mobilisation. Shortly before his assassination, the Senate named him censor for life and Father of the Fatherland, and the month of Quintilis was renamed July in his honour.[95] He was granted further honours, which were later used to justify his assassination as a would-be divine monarch: coins were issued bearing his image and his statue was placed next to those of the kings. He was granted a golden chair in the Senate, was allowed to wear triumphal dress whenever he chose, and was offered a form of semi-official or popular cult, with Mark Antony as his high priest.[95] Political reforms Main article: Constitutional reforms of Julius Caesar La clémence de César, Abel de Pujol, 1808 The history of Caesar's political appointments is complex and uncertain. Caesar held both the dictatorship and the tribunate, but alternated between the consulship and the proconsulship.[92] His powers within the state seem to have rested upon these magistracies.[92] He was first appointed dictator in 49 BC, possibly to preside over elections, but resigned his dictatorship within 11 days. In 48 BC, he was reappointed dictator, only this time for an indefinite period, and in 46 BC, he was appointed dictator for 10 years.[99] In 48 BC, Caesar was given permanent tribunician powers,[100][failed verification] which made his person sacrosanct and allowed him to veto the Senate,[100] although on at least one occasion, tribunes did attempt to obstruct him. The offending tribunes in this case were brought before the Senate and divested of their office.[100] This was not the first time Caesar had violated a tribune's sacrosanctity. After he had first marched on Rome in 49 BC, he forcibly opened the treasury, although a tribune had the seal placed on it. After the impeachment of the two obstructive tribunes, Caesar, perhaps unsurprisingly, faced no further opposition from other members of the Tribunician College.[100] When Caesar returned to Rome in 47 BC, the ranks of the Senate had been severely depleted, so he used his censorial powers to appoint many new senators, which eventually raised the Senate's membership to 900.[101] All the appointments were of his own partisans, which robbed the senatorial aristocracy of its prestige, and made the Senate increasingly subservient to him.[102] To minimise the risk that another general might attempt to challenge him,[99] Caesar passed a law that subjected governors to term limits.[99] In 46 BC, Caesar gave himself the title of "Prefect of the Morals", which was an office that was new only in name, as its powers were identical to those of the censors.[100] Thus, he could hold censorial powers, while technically not subjecting himself to the same checks to which the ordinary censors were subject, and he used these powers to fill the Senate with his own partisans. He also set the precedent, which his imperial successors followed, of requiring the Senate to bestow various titles and honours upon him. He was, for example, given the title of "Father of the Fatherland" and "imperator".[99] Coins bore his likeness, and he was given the right to speak first during Senate meetings.[99] Caesar then increased the number of magistrates who were elected each year, which created a large pool of experienced magistrates, and allowed Caesar to reward his supporters.[101] Caesar even took steps to transform Italy into a province, and to link more tightly the other provinces of the empire into a single cohesive unit. This addressed the underlying problem that had caused the Social War decades earlier, where persons from outside Rome or Italy did not have citizenship. This process, of fusing the entire Roman Empire into a single unit, rather than maintaining it as a network of unequal principalities, would ultimately be completed by Caesar's successor, the Emperor Augustus. In February 44 BC, one month before his assassination, he was appointed dictator in perpetuity. Under Caesar, a significant amount of authority was vested in his lieutenants,[99] mostly because Caesar was frequently out of Italy.[99] In October 45 BC, Caesar resigned his position as sole consul, and facilitated the election of two successors for the remainder of the year, which theoretically restored the ordinary consulship, since the constitution did not recognise a single consul without a colleague.[101] Denarius (42 BC) issued by Gaius Cassius Longinus and Lentulus Spinther, depicting the crowned head of Liberty and on the reverse a sacrificial jug and lituus, from the military mint in Smyrna. Caption: C. CASSI. IMP. LEIBERTAS / LENTVLVS SPINT. Near the end of his life, Caesar began to prepare for a war against the Parthian Empire. Since his absence from Rome might limit his ability to install his own consuls, he passed a law which allowed him to appoint all magistrates, and all consuls and tribunes.[101] This, in effect, transformed the magistrates from being representatives of the people to being representatives of the dictator.[101] Assassination See also: Assassination of Julius Caesar On the Ides of March (15 March; see Roman calendar) of 44 BC, Caesar was due to appear at a session of the Senate. Several Senators had conspired to assassinate Caesar. Mark Antony, having vaguely learned of the plot the night before from a terrified liberator named Servilius Casca, and fearing the worst, went to head Caesar off. The plotters, however, had anticipated this and, fearing that Antony would come to Caesar's aid, had arranged for Trebonius to intercept him just as he approached the portico of the Theatre of Pompey, where the session was to be held, and detain him outside (Plutarch, however, assigns this action of delaying Antony to Brutus Albinus). When he heard the commotion from the Senate chamber, Antony fled.[103] According to Plutarch, as Caesar arrived at the Senate, Tillius Cimber presented him with a petition to recall his exiled brother.[104] The other conspirators crowded round to offer support. Both Plutarch and Suetonius say that Caesar waved him away, but Cimber grabbed his shoulders and pulled down Caesar's tunic. Caesar then cried to Cimber, "Why, this is violence!" ("Ista quidem vis est!").[105] The senators encircle Caesar, a 19th-century interpretation of the event by Carl Theodor von Piloty Casca simultaneously produced his dagger and made a glancing thrust at the dictator's neck. Caesar turned around quickly and caught Casca by the arm. According to Plutarch, he said in Latin, "Casca, you villain, what are you doing?"[106] Casca, frightened, shouted, "Help, brother!" in Greek ("ἀδελφέ, βοήθει", "adelphe, boethei"). Within moments, the entire group, including Brutus, was striking out at the dictator. Caesar attempted to get away, but, blinded by blood, he tripped and fell; the men continued stabbing him as he lay defenceless on the lower steps of the portico. According to Eutropius, around 60 men participated in the assassination. He was stabbed 23 times.[107] According to Suetonius, a physician later established that only one wound, the second one to his chest, had been lethal.[108] The dictator's last words are not known with certainty, and are a contested subject among scholars and historians alike. Suetonius reports that others have said Caesar's last words were the Greek phrase "καὶ σύ, τέκνον;"[109] (transliterated as "Kai su, teknon?": "You too, child?" in English). However, Suetonius' own opinion was that Caesar said nothing.[110] Plutarch also reports that Caesar said nothing, pulling his toga over his head when he saw Brutus among the conspirators.[111] The version best known in the English-speaking world is the Latin phrase "Et tu, Brute?" ("And you, Brutus?", commonly rendered as "You too, Brutus?");[112][113] best known from Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, where it actually forms the first half of a macaronic line: "Et tu, Brute? Then fall, Caesar." This version was already popular when the play was written, as it appears in Richard Edes's Latin play Caesar Interfectus of 1582 and The True Tragedie of Richarde Duke of Yorke & etc. of 1595, Shakespeare's source work for other plays.[114] The Death of Caesar, Jean-Léon Gérôme, 1867 According to Plutarch, after the assassination, Brutus stepped forward as if to say something to his fellow senators; they, however, fled the building.[115] Brutus and his companions then marched to the Capitol while crying out to their beloved city: "People of Rome, we are once again free!" They were met with silence, as the citizens of Rome had locked themselves inside their houses as soon as the rumour of what had taken place had begun to spread. Caesar's dead body lay where it fell on the Senate floor for nearly three hours before other officials arrived to remove it. Caesar's body was cremated. A crowd which had gathered at the cremation started a fire, which badly damaged the forum and neighbouring buildings. On the site of his cremation, the Temple of Caesar was erected a few years later (at the east side of the main square of the Roman Forum). Only its altar now remains.[116] A life-size wax statue of Caesar was later erected in the forum displaying the 23 stab wounds. In the chaos following the death of Caesar, Mark Antony, Octavian (later Augustus Caesar), and others fought a series of five civil wars, which would culminate in the formation of the Roman Empire. Aftermath of the assassination The result unforeseen by the assassins was that Caesar's death precipitated the end of the Roman Republic.[117] The Roman middle and lower classes, with whom Caesar was immensely popular and had been since before Gaul, became enraged that a small group of aristocrats had killed their champion. Antony, who had been drifting apart from Caesar, capitalised on the grief of the Roman mob and threatened to unleash them on the Optimates, perhaps with the intent of taking control of Rome himself. To his surprise and chagrin, Caesar had named his grandnephew Gaius Octavius his sole heir (hence the name Octavian), bequeathing him the immensely potent Caesar name and making him one of the wealthiest citizens in the Republic.[118] Bust of Mark Antony made during the Flavian dynasty (69–96 AD) Marc Antony's Oration at Caesar's Funeral by George Edward Robertson The crowd at the funeral boiled over, throwing dry branches, furniture, and even clothing on to Caesar's funeral pyre, causing the flames to spin out of control, seriously damaging the Forum. The mob then attacked the houses of Brutus and Cassius, where they were repelled only with considerable difficulty, ultimately providing the spark for the civil war, fulfilling at least in part Antony's threat against the aristocrats.[119] Antony did not foresee the ultimate outcome of the next series of civil wars, particularly with regard to Caesar's adopted heir. Octavian, aged only 18 when Caesar died, proved to have considerable political skills, and while Antony dealt with Decimus Brutus in the first round of the new civil wars, Octavian consolidated his tenuous position. To combat Brutus and Cassius, who were massing an enormous army in Greece, Antony needed soldiers, the cash from Caesar's war chests, and the legitimacy that Caesar's name would provide for any action he took against them. With the passage of the lex Titia on 27 November 43 BC,[120] the Second Triumvirate was officially formed, composed of Antony, Octavian, and Caesar's loyal cavalry commander Lepidus.[121] It formally deified Caesar as Divus Iulius in 42 BC, and Caesar Octavian henceforth became Divi filius ("Son of the divine").[122] Because Caesar's clemency had resulted in his murder, the Second Triumvirate reinstated the practice of proscription, abandoned since Sulla.[123] It engaged in the legally sanctioned killing of a large number of its opponents to secure funding for its 45 legions in the second civil war against Brutus and Cassius.[124] Antony and Octavian defeated them at Philippi.[125] Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, Caesar's adopted heir Afterward, Mark Antony formed an alliance with Caesar's lover, Cleopatra, intending to use the fabulously wealthy Egypt as a base to dominate Rome. A third civil war broke out between Octavian on one hand and Antony and Cleopatra on the other. This final civil war, culminating in the latter's defeat at Actium in 31 BC and suicide in Egypt in 30 BC, resulted in the permanent ascendancy of Octavian, who became the first Roman emperor, under the name Caesar Augustus, a name conveying religious, rather than political, authority.[126] Julius Caesar had been preparing to invade Parthia, the Caucasus, and Scythia, and then march back to Germania through Eastern Europe. These plans were thwarted by his assassination.[127] His successors did attempt the conquests of Parthia and Germania, but without lasting results. Deification See also: Divus Julius and Caesar's Comet Julius Caesar was the first historical Roman to be officially deified. He was posthumously granted the title Divus Iulius (the divine/deified Julius) by decree of the Roman Senate on 1 January 42 BC. The appearance of a comet during games in his honour was taken as confirmation of his divinity. Though his temple was not dedicated until after his death, he may have received divine honours during his lifetime:[128] and shortly before his assassination, Mark Antony had been appointed as his flamen (priest).[129] Both Octavian and Mark Antony promoted the cult of Divus Iulius. After the death of Caesar, Octavian, as the adoptive son of Caesar, assumed the title of Divi Filius (Son of the Divine). Personal life Health and physical appearance Bust of Julius Caesar, posthumous portrait in marble, 44–30 BC, Museo Pio-Clementino, Vatican Museums Based on remarks by Plutarch,[130] Caesar is sometimes thought to have suffered from epilepsy. Modern scholarship is sharply divided on the subject, and some scholars believe that he was plagued by malaria, particularly during the Sullan proscriptions of the 80s.[131] Other scholars contend his epileptic seizures were due to a parasitic infection in the brain by a tapeworm.[132][133] Caesar had four documented episodes of what may have been complex partial seizures. He may additionally have had absence seizures in his youth. The earliest accounts of these seizures were made by the biographer Suetonius, who was born after Caesar died. The claim of epilepsy is countered among some medical historians by a claim of hypoglycemia, which can cause epileptoid seizures.[134][135][136] In 2003, psychiatrist Harbour F. Hodder published what he termed as the "Caesar Complex" theory, arguing that Caesar was a sufferer of temporal lobe epilepsy and the debilitating symptoms of the condition were a factor in Caesar's conscious decision to forgo personal safety in the days leading up to his assassination.[137] A line from Shakespeare has sometimes been taken to mean that he was deaf in one ear: "Come on my right hand, for this ear is deaf".[138] No classical source mentions hearing impairment in connection with Caesar. The playwright may have been making metaphorical use of a passage in Plutarch that does not refer to deafness at all, but rather to a gesture Alexander of Macedon customarily made. By covering his ear, Alexander indicated that he had turned his attention from an accusation in order to hear the defence.[139] Francesco M. Galassi and Hutan Ashrafian suggest that Caesar's behavioral manifestations—headaches, vertigo, falls (possibly caused by muscle weakness due to nerve damage), sensory deficit, giddiness and insensibility—and syncopal episodes were the results of cerebrovascular episodes, not epilepsy. Pliny the Elder reports in his Natural History that Caesar's father and forefather died without apparent cause while putting on their shoes. These events can be more readily associated with cardiovascular complications from a stroke episode or lethal heart attack. Caesar possibly had a genetic predisposition for cardiovascular disease.[140] Suetonius, writing more than a century after Caesar's death, describes Caesar as "tall of stature with a fair complexion, shapely limbs, a somewhat full face, and keen black eyes".[141] Name and family The name Gaius Julius Caesar Main article: Gaius Julius Caesar (name) Using the Latin alphabet of the period, which lacked the letters J and U, Caesar's name would be rendered GAIVS IVLIVS CAESAR; the form CAIVS is also attested, using the older Roman representation of G by C. The standard abbreviation was C. IVLIVS CÆSAR, reflecting the older spelling. (The letterform Æ is a ligature of the letters A and E, and is often used in Latin inscriptions to save space.) In Classical Latin, it was pronounced [ˈɡaː.i.ʊs ˈjuːl.i.ʊs ˈkae̯sar]. In the days of the late Roman Republic, many historical writings were done in Greek, a language most educated Romans studied. Young wealthy Roman boys were often taught by Greek slaves and sometimes sent to Athens for advanced training, as was Caesar's principal assassin, Brutus. In Greek, during Caesar's time, his family name was written Καίσαρ (Kaísar), reflecting its contemporary pronunciation. Thus, his name is pronounced in a similar way to the pronunciation of the German Kaiser. In Vulgar Latin, the original diphthong [ae̯] first began to be pronounced as a simple long vowel [ɛː]. Then, the plosive /k/ before front vowels began, due to palatalization, to be pronounced as an affricate, hence renderings like [ˈtʃeːsar] in Italian and [ˈtseːzar] in German regional pronunciations of Latin, as well as the title of Tsar. With the evolution of the Romance languages, the affricate [ts] became a fricative [s] (thus, [ˈseːsar]) in many regional pronunciations, including the French one, from which the modern English pronunciation is derived. Caesar's cognomen itself became a title; it was promulgated by the Bible, which contains the famous verse "Render unto Caesar the things which are Caesar's, and unto God the things that are God's". The title became Kaiser in German and Tsar or Czar in the Slavic languages. The last Tsar in nominal power was Simeon II of Bulgaria, whose reign ended in 1946. This means that for almost two thousand years after Julius Caesar's assassination, there was at least one head of state bearing his name. Family Main article: Julio-Claudian family tree Julio-Claudian family tree Parents Father Gaius Julius Caesar (proconsul Asiae) (proconsul of Asia in 90s BC) Mother Aurelia (one of the Aurelii Cottae) Sisters Julia Major Julia Minor Wives First marriage to Cornelia (Cinnilla), from 84 BC until her death in 69 or 68 BC Second marriage to Pompeia, from 67 BC until he divorced her around 61 BC over the Bona Dea scandal Third marriage to Calpurnia, from 59 BC until Caesar's death Reliefs of Cleopatra and her son by Julius Caesar, Caesarion, at the Temple of Dendera Roman painting from the House of Giuseppe II, Pompeii, early 1st century AD, most likely depicting Cleopatra VII, wearing her royal diadem, consuming poison in an act of suicide, while her son Caesarion, also wearing a royal diadem, stands behind her[142] Children Julia, by Cornelia, born in 83 or 82 BC Caesarion, by Cleopatra VII, born 47 BC, and killed at age 17 by Caesar's adopted son Octavianus. Posthumously adopted: Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, his great-nephew by blood (grandson of Julia, his sister), who later became Emperor Augustus. Suspected Children Marcus Junius Brutus (born 85 BC): The historian Plutarch notes that Caesar believed Brutus to have been his illegitimate son, as his mother Servilia had been Caesar's lover during their youth.[143] Caesar would have been 15 years old when Brutus was born. Junia Tertia (born ca. 60s BC), the daughter of Caesar's lover Servilia was believed by Cicero among other contemporaries, to be Caesar's natural daughter. Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus (born ca. 85–81 BC): On several occasions Caesar expressed how he loved Decimus Brutus like a son. This Brutus was also named an heir of Caesar in case Octavius had died before the latter. Ronald Syme argued that if a Brutus was the natural son of Caesar, Decimus was more likely than Marcus.[144] Grandchildren Grandchild from Julia and Pompey, dead at several days, unnamed.[145] Lovers Cleopatra VII, mother of Caesarion Servilia, mother of Brutus Eunoë, queen of Mauretania and wife of Bogudes Notable relatives Gaius Marius (married to his paternal aunt Julia) Mark Antony (his relative through Antony's mother Julia) Lucius Julius Caesar (his third cousin) Rumors of passive homosexuality Roman society viewed the passive role during sexual activity, regardless of gender, to be a sign of submission or inferiority. Indeed, Suetonius says that in Caesar's Gallic triumph, his soldiers sang that, "Caesar may have conquered the Gauls, but Nicomedes conquered Caesar."[146] According to Cicero, Bibulus, Gaius Memmius, and others (mainly Caesar's enemies), he had an affair with Nicomedes IV of Bithynia early in his career. The stories were repeated, referring to Caesar as the Queen of Bithynia, by some Roman politicians as a way to humiliate him. Caesar himself denied the accusations repeatedly throughout his lifetime, and according to Cassius Dio, even under oath on one occasion.[147] This form of slander was popular during this time in the Roman Republic to demean and discredit political opponents. Catullus wrote two poems suggesting that Caesar and his engineer Mamurra were lovers,[148] but later apologised.[149] Mark Antony charged that Octavian had earned his adoption by Caesar through sexual favors. Suetonius described Antony's accusation of an affair with Octavian as political slander. Octavian eventually became the first Roman Emperor as Augustus.[150] Literary works Julii Caesaris quae exstant (1678) During his lifetime, Caesar was regarded as one of the best orators and prose authors in Latin —even Cicero spoke highly of Caesar's rhetoric and style.[151] Only Caesar's war commentaries have survived. A few sentences from other works are quoted by other authors. Among his lost works are his funeral oration for his paternal aunt Julia and his Anticato, a document written to defame Cato in response to Cicero's published praise. Poems by Julius Caesar are also mentioned in ancient sources.[152] Memoirs A 1783 edition of The Gallic Wars The Commentarii de Bello Gallico, usually known in English as The Gallic Wars, seven books each covering one year of his campaigns in Gaul and southern Britain in the 50s BC, with the eighth book written by Aulus Hirtius on the last two years. The Commentarii de Bello Civili (The Civil War), events of the Civil War from Caesar's perspective, until immediately after Pompey's death in Egypt. Other works historically have been attributed to Caesar, but their authorship is in doubt: De Bello Alexandrino (On the Alexandrine War), campaign in Alexandria; De Bello Africo (On the African War), campaigns in North Africa; and De Bello Hispaniensi (On the Hispanic War), campaigns in the Iberian Peninsula. These narratives were written and published annually during or just after the actual campaigns, as a sort of "dispatches from the front." They were important in shaping Caesar's public image and enhancing his reputation when he was away from Rome for long periods. They may have been presented as public readings.[153] As a model of clear and direct Latin style, The Gallic Wars traditionally has been studied by first- or second-year Latin students. Legacy Historiography The texts written by Caesar, an autobiography of the most important events of his public life, are the most complete primary source for the reconstruction of his biography. However, Caesar wrote those texts with his political career in mind, so historians must filter the exaggerations and bias contained in it.[154] The Roman emperor Augustus began a cult of personality of Caesar, which described Augustus as Caesar's political heir. The modern historiography is influenced by the Octavian traditions, such as when Caesar's epoch is considered a turning point in the history of the Roman Empire. Still, historians try to filter the Octavian bias.[155] Many rulers in history became interested in the historiography of Caesar. Napoleon III wrote the scholarly work Histoire de Jules César, which was not finished. The second volume listed previous rulers interested in the topic. Charles VIII ordered a monk to prepare a translation of the Gallic Wars in 1480. Charles V ordered a topographic study in France, to place The Gallic Wars in context; which created forty high-quality maps of the conflict. The contemporary Ottoman sultan Suleiman the Magnificent catalogued the surviving editions of the Commentaries, and translated them to Turkish language. Henry IV and Louis XIII of France translated the first two commentaries and the last two respectively; Louis XIV retranslated the first one afterwards.[156] Politics Main article: Caesarism Julius Caesar is seen as the main example of Caesarism, a form of political rule led by a charismatic strongman whose rule is based upon a cult of personality, whose rationale is the need to rule by force, establishing a violent social order, and being a regime involving prominence of the military in the government.[157] Other people in history, such as the French Napoleon Bonaparte and the Italian Benito Mussolini, have defined themselves as Caesarists.[158][159] Bonaparte did not focus only on Caesar's military career but also on his relation with the masses, a predecessor to populism.[160] The word is also used in a pejorative manner by critics of this type of political rule. Depictions Main article: Cultural depictions of Julius Caesar Bust in Naples National Archaeological Museum, photograph published in 1902 Bust in the National Archaeological Museum of Naples Bust of Julius Caesar from the British Museum Modern bronze statue of Julius Caesar, Rimini, Italy Battle record Date War Action Opponent/s Type Country (present day) Outcome 58 BC 58 BC Gallic Wars Arar Battle of the Arar .Helvetii Battle France Victory ⁂ 58 BC 58 BC Gallic Wars Mount Haemus Battle of Bibracte Helvetii, Boii, Tulingi, Rauraci Battle France Victory ⁂ 58 BC 58 BC Gallic Wars Vosges Battle of Vosges .Suebi Battle France Victory ⁂ 57 BC 57 BC Gallic Wars Battle of the Axona .Belgae Battle France Victory ⁂ 57 BC 57 BC Gallic Wars Battle of the Sabis Battle of the Sabis .Nervii, Viromandui, Atrebates, Aduatuci Battle France Victory ⁂ 55 and 54 BC55 and 54 BC Gallic Wars Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain .Celtic Britons Campaign England Victory ⁂ 54 BC–53 BC 54 BC–53 BC Gallic Wars Ambiorix's revolt Ambiorix's revolt .Eburones Campaign Belgium, France Victory ⁂ 52 BC 52 BC Gallic Wars Avaricum Avaricum .Bituriges, Arverni Siege France Victory ⁂ 52 BC 52 BC Gallic Wars Battle of Gergovia Battle of Gergovia .Gallic tribes Battle France Defeat September 52 BC Gallic Wars Battle of Alesia Battle of Alesia .Gallic Confederation Siege and Battle Alise-Sainte-Reine, France Decisive Victory ⁂ 51 BC 51 BC Gallic Wars Siege of Uxellodunum Siege of Uxellodunum .Gallic Siege Vayrac, France Victory ⁂ June–August 49 BC June–August 49 BC Caesar's Civil War Battle of Ilerda Battle of Ilerda Optimates. Battle Catalonia, Spain Victory ⁂ 10 July 48 BC 10 July 48 BC Caesar's Civil War Battle of Dyrrhachium (48 BC) .Optimates Battle Durrës, Albania Defeat ⁂ 9 August 48 BC 9 August 48 BC Caesar's Civil War Battle of Pharsalus .Pompeians Battle Greece Decisive Victory ⁂ 4 January 46 BC 4 January 46 BC Caesar's Civil War Battle of Ruspina Battle of Ruspina .Optimates, Numidia Battle Ruspina Africa Defeat ⁂ 6 April 46 BC 6 April 46 BC Caesar's Civil War Battle of Thapsus Battle of Thapsus .Optimates, Numidia Battle Tunisia Decisive Victory ⁂ 17 March 45 BC 17 March 45 BC Caesar's Civil War Battle of Munda Battle of Munda .Pompeians Battle Andalusia Spain Victory ⁂ Chronology See also Et tu, Brute? Gaius Julius Caesar (name) Julius Caesar, a play by William Shakespeare (c. 1599) Giulio Cesare, an opera by Handel, 1724 Veni, vidi, vici Caesareum of Alexandria Notes ^ His titulary name was Imperator Gaius Iulius Gaii filius Gaii nepos Caesar Pater Patriae "Commander Gaius Julius Caesar, son of Gaius, grandson of Gaius, Father of the Fatherland", pronounced [ɪmpɛˈraːtɔr ˈɡaːiʊs ˈjuːliʊs ˈɡaː(i)iː ˈfiːliʊs ˈɡaː(i)iː ˈnɛpoːs ˈkae̯sar ˈpatɛr ˈpatriae̯] (Suetonius, Divus Julius 76.1). Official name after deification in 42 BC: Divus Iulius ("The Divine Julius"). References ^ For 13 July being the wrong date, see Badian in Griffin (ed.) p.16 ^ Keppie, Lawrence (1998). "The approach of civil war". The Making of the Roman Army: From Republic to Empire. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-8061-3014-9. ^ Suetonius (121). "De vita Caesarum" [The Twelve Caesars]. University of Chicago. p. 107. Archived from the original on 30 May 2012. More than sixty joined the conspiracy against [Caesar], led by Gaius Cassius and Marcus and Decimus Brutus. ^ Plutarch. "Life of Caesar". University of Chicago. p. 595. Archived from the original on 13 February 2018. ... at this juncture Decimus Brutus, surnamed Albinus, who was so trusted by Caesar that he was entered in his will as his second heir, but was partner in the conspiracy of the other Brutus and Cassius, fearing that if Caesar should elude that day, their undertaking would become known, ridiculed the seers and chided Caesar for laying himself open to malicious charges on the part of the senators ... ^ Tucker, Spencer (2010). Battles That Changed History: An Encyclopedia of World Conflict. ABC-CLIO. p. 68. ^ Froude, James Anthony (1879). Life of Caesar. Project Gutenberg e-text. p. 67. Archived from the original on 9 December 2007. See also: Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars: Julius 6 Archived 30 May 2012 at Archive.today; Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.41; Virgil, Aeneid ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:28–30 ^ Dionysius, iii. 29. ^ Tacitus, Annales, xi. 24. ^ Niebuhr, vol. i. note 1240, vol. ii. note 421. ^ Pliny the Elder, Natural History 7.7. The misconception that Julius Caesar himself was born by Caesarian section dates back at least to the 10th century (Suda kappa 1199). Julius was not the first to bear the name, and in his time the procedure was only performed on dead women, while Caesar's mother Aurelia lived long after he was born. ^ Historia Augusta: Aelius 2. ^ Goldsworthy, p. 32. ^ Suetonius, Julius 1 Archived 30 May 2012 at Archive.today; Plutarch, Caesar 1, Marius 6; Pliny the Elder, Natural History 7.54; Inscriptiones Italiae, 13.3.51–52 ^ Plutarch, Marius 6 ^ a b Plutarch, Caesar 1; Suetonius, Julius 1 Archived 30 May 2012 at Archive.today ^ Suetonius, Julius 1 Archived 30 May 2012 at Archive.today; Pliny the Elder, Natural History 7.54 ^ Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.22; Florus, Epitome of Roman History 2.9 ^ "Julius Caesar". Archived from the original on 22 March 2012. ^ Suetonius, Julius 1 Archived 30 May 2012 at Archive.today; Plutarch, Caesar 1; Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.41 ^ Canfora, p. 3 ^ William Smith, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities: Flamen ^ Suetonius, Julius 2–3 Archived 30 May 2012 at Archive.today; Plutarch, Caesar 2–3; Cassius Dio, Roman History 43.20 ^ Suetonius, Julius 46 Archived 30 May 2012 at Archive.today ^ Again, according to Suetonius's chronology (Julius 4 Archived 30 May 2012 at Archive.today). Plutarch (Caesar 1.8–2) says this happened earlier, on his return from Nicomedes's court. Velleius Paterculus (Roman History 2:41.3–42) says merely that it happened when he was a young man. ^ Plutarch, Caesar 1–2 ^ "Plutarch • Life of Caesar". penelope.uchicago.edu. ^ Thorne, James (2003). Julius Caesar: Conqueror and Dictator. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 15. ^ Freeman, 39 ^ Freeman, 40 ^ Goldsworthy, 77–78 ^ Freeman, 51 ^ Freeman, 52 ^ Goldsworthy, 100 ^ Goldsworthy, 101 ^ Suetonius, Julius 5–8 Archived 30 May 2012 at Archive.today; Plutarch, Caesar 5; Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.43 ^ Mouritsen, Henrik, Plebs and Politics in the Late Roman Republic, Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 2001, p 97. ISBN 0-521-79100-6 For context, see Plutarch, Julius Caesar, 5.4. ^ Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.43; Plutarch, Caesar 7; Suetonius, Julius 13 Archived 30 May 2012 at Archive.today ^ Sallust, Catiline War 49 ^ Kennedy, E.C. (1958). Caesar de Bello Gallico. Cambridge Elementary Classics. III. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p. 10. Retrieved 26 December 2014. ^ Hammond, Mason (1966). City-state and World State in Greek and Roman Political Theory Until Augustus. Biblo & Tannen. p. 114. ISBN 9780819601766. Retrieved 26 December 2014. ^ Suetonius (2004). Lives of the Caesars. Barnes and Noble Library of Essential Reading Series. Translated by J. C. Rolfe. Barnes & Noble. p. 258. ISBN 9780760757581. Retrieved 26 December 2014. ^ T.R.S. Broughton, The Magistrates of the Roman Republic (American Philological Association, 1952), vol. 2, pp. 180 and 173. ^ Colegrove, Michael (2007). Distant Voices: Listening to the Leadership Lessons of the Past. iUniverse. p. 9. ISBN 9780595472062. Retrieved 26 December 2014. ^ Plutarch, Caesar 11–12; Suetonius, Julius 18.1 Archived 30 May 2012 at Archive.today ^ Plutarch, Julius 13; Suetonius, Julius 18.2 Archived 30 May 2012 at Archive.today ^ Plutarch, Caesar 13–14; Suetonius 19 Archived 30 May 2012 at Archive.today ^ Cicero, Letters to Atticus 2.1, 2.3, 2.17; Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.44; Plutarch, Caesar 13–14, Pompey 47, Crassus 14; Suetonius, Julius 19.2 Archived 30 May 2012 at Archive.today; Cassius Dio, Roman History 37.54–58 ^ Suetonius, Julius 21 Archived 30 May 2012 at Archive.today ^ Cicero, Letters to Atticus 2.15, 2.16, 2.17, 2.18, 2.19, 2.20, 2.21; Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 44.4; Plutarch, Caesar 14, Pompey 47–48, Cato the Younger 32–33; Cassius Dio, Roman History 38.1–8 ^ Suetonius, Julius 19.2 Archived 30 May 2012 at Archive.today ^ a b von Ungern-Sternberg, Jurgen (2014). "The Crisis of the Republic". In Flower, Harriet (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic (2 ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 91. doi:10.1017/CCOL0521807948. ISBN 9781139000338. ^ Bucher, Gregory S (2011). "Caesar: the view from Rome". The Classical Outlook. 88 (3): 82–87. ISSN 0009-8361. JSTOR 43940076. ^ Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2:44.4; Plutarch, Caesar 14.10, Crassus 14.3, Pompey 48, Cato the Younger 33.3; Suetonius, Julius 22 Archived 30 May 2012 at Archive.today; Cassius Dio, Roman History 38:8.5 ^ Suetonius, Julius 23 Archived 30 May 2012 at Archive.today ^ See Cicero's speeches against Verres for an example of a former provincial governor successfully prosecuted for illegally enriching himself at his province's expense. ^ Cicero, Letters to Atticus 1.19; Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War Book 1; Appian, Gallic Wars Epit. 3; Cassius Dio, Roman History 38.31–50 ^ Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War Book 2; Appian, Gallic Wars Epit. 4; Cassius Dio, Roman History 39.1–5 ^ Cicero, Letters to his brother Quintus 2.3; Suetonius, Julius 24 Archived 30 May 2012 at Archive.today; Plutarch, Caesar 21, Crassus 14–15, Pompey 51 ^ Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War Book 3; Cassius Dio, Roman History 39.40–46 ^ Black, Jeremy (2003). A History of the British Isles. Palgrave MacMillan. p. 6. ^ Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War Book 4; Appian, Gallic Wars Epit. 4; Cassius Dio, Roman History 47–53 ^ Cicero, Letters to friends 7.6, 7.7, 7.8, 7.10, 7.17; Letters to his brother Quintus 2.13, 2.15, 3.1; Letters to Atticus 4.15, 4.17, 4.18; Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War Book 5–6; Cassius Dio, Roman History 40.1–11 ^ Suetonius, Julius [1] Archived 30 May 2012 at Archive.today; Plutarch, Caesar 23.5, Pompey 53–55, Crassus 16–33; Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 46–47 ^ "France: The Roman conquest". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 6 April 2015. Because of chronic internal rivalries, Gallic resistance was easily broken, though Vercingetorix's Great Rebellion of 52 bce had notable successes. ^ "Julius Caesar: The first triumvirate and the conquest of Gaul". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 15 February 2015. Indeed, the Gallic cavalry was probably superior to the Roman, horseman for horseman. Rome's military superiority lay in its mastery of strategy, tactics, discipline, and military engineering. In Gaul, Rome also had the advantage of being able to deal separately with dozens of relatively small, independent, and uncooperative states. Caesar conquered these piecemeal, and the concerted attempt made by a number of them in 52 bce to shake off the Roman yoke came too late. ^ Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War Book 7; Cassius Dio, Roman History 40.33–42 ^ Aulus Hirtius, Commentaries on the Gallic War Book 8 ^ "Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans, by Plutarch (chapter48)". ^ Suetonius, Julius 28 Archived 30 May 2012 at Archive.today ^ Plutarch, Caesar 32.8 ^ Thomson, D. F. S.; Sperna Weiland, Jan (1988). "Erasmus and textual scholarship: Suetonius". In Weiland, J. S. (ed.). Erasmus of Rotterdam: the man and the scholar. Leiden, Netherlands: E.J. Brill. p. 161. ISBN 978-90-04-08920-4. ^ Plutarch, Caesar 35.2 ^ Plutarch, Caesar 42–45 ^ Roller, Duane W. (2010). Cleopatra: a biography. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195365535, p. 175. ^ Walker, Susan. "Cleopatra in Pompeii?" in Papers of the British School at Rome, 76 (2008): 35–46 and 345–8 (pp. 35, 42–44). ^ a b Plutarch, Caesar 37.2 ^ a b Martin Jehne, Der Staat des Dicators Caesar, Köln/Wien 1987, p. 15–38. ^ Plutarch, Pompey 80.5 ^ Plutarch, Pompey 77–79 ^ a b Salisbury, Joyce E (2001). "Cleopatra VII". Women in the ancient world. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. p. 52. ISBN 978-1-57607-092-5. ^ Suetonius, Julius 35.2 Archived 30 May 2012 at Archive.today ^ Caesar: a history of the art of war among the Romans down to the end of the Roman empire, with a detailed account of the campaigns of Caius Julius Caesar, page 791, Theodore Ayrault Dodge, Greenhill Books, 1995. ISBN 9781853672163 ^ Paul: The Man and the Myth, page 15, Studies on personalities of the New Testament Personalities of the New Testament Series, Calvin J. Roetzel, Continuum International Publishing Group, 1999. ISBN 9780567086983 ^ Julius Caesar, page 311, Philip Freeman, Simon and Schuster, 2008. ISBN 9780743289535 ^ Plutarch, Caesar 52–54 ^ Martin Jehne, Der Staat des Dictators Caesar, Köln/Wien 1987, p. 15–38. Technically, Caesar was not appointed dictator with a term of 10 years, but he was appointed annual dictator for the next 10 years in advance. ^ Plutarch, Caesar 56 ^ Plutarch, Caesar 56.7–56.8 ^ Appian, The Civil Wars 2:143.1 ^ a b c Abbott, 133 ^ a b c Abbott, 134 ^ a b c Suetonius, Julius 40 Archived 30 May 2012 at Archive.today ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History 43.19.2–3; Appian, Civil Wars 2.101.420 ^ a b c d e f g h i J.F.C. Fuller, Julius Caesar, Man, Soldier, Tyrant, Chapter 13 ^ Diana E. E. Kleiner. Julius Caesar, Venus Genetrix, and the Forum Iulium (Multimedia presentation). Yale University. ^ Mackay, Christopher S. (2004). Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History. Cambridge University Press. p. 254. ^ Campbell, J. B. (1994). The Roman Army, 31 BC–AD 337. Routledge. p. 10. ^ a b c d e f g Abbott, 136 ^ a b c d e Abbott, 135 ^ a b c d e Abbott, 137 ^ Abbott, 138 ^ Huzar, Eleanor Goltz (1978). Mark Antony, a biography By Eleanor Goltz Huzar. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. pp. 79–80. ISBN 978-0-8166-0863-8. ^ "Plutarch—Life of Brutus". Classics.mit.edu. Retrieved 28 April 2010. ^ "Suetonius, 'Life of the Caesars, Julius', trans. J C Rolfe". Fordham.edu. Retrieved 28 April 2010. ^ Plutarch, Life of Caesar, ch. 66: "ὁ μεν πληγείς, Ῥωμαιστί· 'Μιαρώτατε Κάσκα, τί ποιεῖς;'" ^ Woolf Greg (2006), Et Tu Brute?—The Murder of Caesar and Political Assassination, 199 pages— ISBN 1-86197-741-7 ^ Suetonius, Julius, c. 82. ^ Suetonius, Julius 82.2 ^ From the J. C. Rolfe translation of 1914: "...he was stabbed with three and twenty wounds, uttering not a word, but merely a groan at the first stroke, though some have written that when Marcus Brutus rushed at him, he said in Greek, 'You too, my child?". ^ Plutarch, Caesar 66.9 ^ Stone, Jon R. (2005). The Routledge Dictionary of Latin Quotations. London: Routledge. p. 250. ISBN 978-0-415-96909-3. ^ Morwood, James (1994). The Pocket Oxford Latin Dictionary (Latin-English). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-860283-5. ^ Dyce, Alexander (1866). The Works of William Shakespeare. London: Chapman and Hall. p. 648. Quoting Malone ^ Plutarch, Caesar 67 ^ "Temple of Caesar". Anamericaninrome.com. 2 July 2011. Retrieved 8 January 2012. ^ Florus, Epitome 2.7.1 ^ Suetonius, Julius 83.2 ^ "Suetonius, Life of Caesar, Chapters LXXXIII, LXXXIV, LXXXV". Ancienthistory.about.com. 29 October 2009. Retrieved 28 April 2010. ^ Osgood, Josiah (2006). Caesar's Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire. Cambridge University Press. p. 60. ^ Suetonius, Augustus 13.1; Florus, Epitome 2.6 ^ Warrior, Valerie M. (2006). Roman Religion. Cambridge University Press. p. 110. ISBN 978-0-521-82511-5. ^ Florus, Epitome 2.6.3 ^ Zoch, Paul A. (200). Ancient Rome: An Introductory History. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 217–218. ISBN 978-0-8061-3287-7. ^ Florus, Epitome 2.7.11–14; Appian, The Civil Wars 5.3 ^ Florus, Epitome 2.34.66 ^ Plutarch, Caesar 58.6 ^ Cicero, Philippic ii.110: Cicero refers to the divine honours of : "...couch, image, pediment, priest" given to Caesar in the months before his assassination. ^ According to Dio Cassius, 44.6.4. ^ Plutarch, Caesar 17, 45, 60; see also Suetonius, Julius 45. ^ Ronald T. Ridley, "The Dictator's Mistake: Caesar's Escape from Sulla," Historia 49 (2000), pp. 225–226, citing doubters of epilepsy: F. Kanngiesser, "Notes on the Pathology of the Julian Dynasty," Glasgow Medical Journal 77 (1912) 428–432; T. Cawthorne, "Julius Caesar and the Falling Sickness," Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine 51 (1957) 27–30, who prefers Ménière's disease; and O. Temkin, The Falling Sickness: A History of Epilepsy from the Greeks to the Beginnings of Modern Neurology (Baltimore 1971), p 162. ^ Bruschi, Fabrizio (2011). "Was Julius Caesar's epilepsy due to neurocysticercosis?". Trends in Parasitology. Cell Press. 27 (9): 373–374. doi:10.1016/j.pt.2011.06.001. PMID 21757405. Retrieved 2 May 2013. ^ McLachlan, Richard S. (2010). "Julius Caesar's Late Onset Epilepsy: A Case of Historic Proportions". Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences. Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences Inc. 37 (5): 557–561. doi:10.1017/S0317167100010696. PMID 21059498. Retrieved 11 May 2013. ^ Hughes J; Atanassova, E; Boev, K (2004). "Dictator Perpetuus: Julius Caesar—did he have seizures? If so, what was the etiology?". Epilepsy Behav. 5 (5): 756–64. doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2004.05.006. PMID 15380131. S2CID 34640921. ^ Gomez J, Kotler J, Long J (1995). "Was Julius Caesar's epilepsy due to a brain tumor?". The Journal of the Florida Medical Association. 82 (3): 199–201. PMID 7738524. ^ H. Schneble (1 January 2003). "Gaius Julius Caesar". German Epilepsy Museum. Retrieved 28 August 2008. ^ Hodder, Harbour Fraser (September 2003). "Epilepsy and Empire, Caveat Caesar". Accredited Psychiatry & Medicine. Harvard, Boston: Harvard University. 106 (1): 19. ^ William Shakespeare, Julius Caesar I.ii.209. ^ Plutarch, Alexander 42; Jeremy Paterson discussing Caesar's health in general in "Caesar the Man," A Companion to Julius Caesar (Wiley-Blackwell, 2009), p. 130 online. ^ Galassi, Francesco M.; Ashrafian, Hutan (29 March 2015). "Has the diagnosis of a stroke been overlooked in the symptoms of Julius Caesar?". Neurological Sciences. 36 (8): 1521–1522. doi:10.1007/s10072-015-2191-4. PMID 25820216. S2CID 11730078. ^ Suetonius, Life of Caesar 45 Archived 30 May 2012 at Archive.today: excelsa statura, colore candido, teretibus membris, ore paulo pleniore, nigris vegetisque oculis. ^ Roller, Duane W. (2010), Cleopatra: a biography, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 178–179, ISBN 978-0-19-536553-5. ^ Plutarch, Brutus 5 ^ Ronald Syme, "Bastards in the Roman Aristocracy," pp. 323–327. Thomas Africa thought Syme had recanted this view; see "The Mask of an Assassin: A Psychohistorical Study of M. Junius Brutus," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 8 (1978), p. 615, note 28, referring to Syme's book Sallust (Berkeley, 1964), p. 134. This would appear to be a misreading, given Syme's fuller argument twenty years later in "No Son for Caesar?" Historia 29 (1980) 422–437, pp. 426–430 regarding the greater likelihood that Decimus would be the Brutus who was Caesar's son. ^ Ramon L. Jiménez (1 January 2000). Caesar Against Rome: The Great Roman Civil War. Praeger. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-275-96620-1. ^ Suetonius, Julius 49 Archived 30 May 2012 at Archive.today ^ Suetonius, Julius 49 Archived 30 May 2012 at Archive.today; Cassius Dio, Roman History 43.20 ^ Catullus, Carmina 29, 57 ^ Suetonius, Julius 73 Archived 30 May 2012 at Archive.today ^ Suetonius, Augustus 68, 71 ^ Cicero, Brutus, 252. ^ Edward Courtney, The Fragmentary Latin Poets (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), pp. 153–155 and 187–188. See also Poems by Julius Caesar. ^ T.P. Wiseman, "The Publication of De Bello Gallico," Julius Caesar as Artful Reporter (Classical Press of Wales, 1998). ^ Canfora, p. 10–11 ^ Canfora, p. 10 ^ Canfora, pp. 11–12 ^ Caesarism, Charisma, and Fate: Historical Sources and Modern Resonances in the Work of Max Weber. Transaction Publishers. 2008. p. 34. ^ Brown, Howard G. (29 June 2007). "Napoleon Bonaparte, Political Prodigy". History Compass. Wiley. 5 (4): 1382–1398. doi:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2007.00451.x. ^ Hartfield, James (28 September 2012). Unpatriotic History of the Second World War. John Hunt Publishing. p. 77. ISBN 9781780993799. ^ Canfora, pp. 12–13 Sources Primary sources Own writings Dickinson College Commentaries: Selections from the Gallic War Forum Romanum Index to Caesar's works online in Latin and translation Works by Julius Caesar at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Julius Caesar at Internet Archive Works by Julius Caesar at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Ancient historians' writings Appian, Book 13 (English translation) Cassius Dio, Books 37–44 (English translation) Plutarch on Antony (English translation, Dryden edition) Plutarch: The Life of Julius Caesar (English translation) Plutarch: The Life of Mark Antony (English translation) Suetonius: The Life of Julius Caesar. (Latin and English, cross-linked: the English translation by J. C. Rolfe) Suetonius: The Life of Julius Caesar (J. C. Rolfe English translation, modified) Secondary sources Abbott, Frank Frost (1901). A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. Elibron Classics. ISBN 978-0-543-92749-1. Canfora, Luciano (2006). Julius Caesar: The People's Dictator. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-1936-8. Freeman, Philip (2008). Julius Caesar. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-8953-5. Fuller, J. F. C. (1965). Julius Caesar: Man, Soldier, and Tyrant. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. Goldsworthy, Adrian (2006). Caesar: Life of a Colossus. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-12048-6. Grant, Michael (1969). Julius Caesar. New York: McGraw-Hill. Grant, Michael (1979). The Twelve Caesars. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-044072-0. Griffin, Miriam, ed. (2009). A Companion to Julius Caesar. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781444308457. Holland, Tom (2003). Rubicon: The Last Years of the Roman Republic. Anchor Books. ISBN 978-1-4000-7897-4. Jiménez, Ramon L. (2000). Caesar Against Rome: The Great Roman Civil War. Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-96620-1. Kleiner, Diana E. E. (2005). Cleopatra and Rome. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01905-8. Meier, Christian (1996). Caesar: A Biography. Fontana Press. ISBN 978-0-00-686349-6. Tucker, Spencer (2010). Battles That Changed History: An Encyclopedia of World Conflict. ABC-CLIO. Thorne, James (2003). Julius Caesar: Conqueror and Dictator. The Rosen Publishing Group. Ward, Allen M.; Heichelheim, Fritz M.; Yeo, Cedric A. (2016). History of the Roman People. Routledge. ISBN 9781315511207. Weinstock, Stefan (1971). Divus Julius. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814287-4. Wiseman, T. P. (1998). The Publication of De Bello Gallico," Julius Caesar as Artful Reporter. Classical Press of Wales. Weber, Max (2008). Caesarism, Charisma, and Fate: Historical Sources and Modern Resonances in the Work of Max Weber. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-1412812146. Warrior, Velerie M. (2006). Roman Religion. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-82511-3. Zoch, Paul A. (2000). Ancient Rome: An Introductory History. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3287-6. External links Listen to this article (3 parts, 24.3 megabytes) These audio files were created from a revision of this article dated 10 January 2007 (2007-01-10), and do not reflect subsequent edits. (Audio help · More spoken articles) Works written by or about Gaius Julius Caesar at Wikisource Works related to Julius Caesar at Wikisource Online books, and library resources in your library and in other libraries about Caesar Online books, and library resources in your library and in other libraries by Caesar Guide to online resources History of Julius Caesar Julius Caesar at BBC History Grey, D. The Assassination of Caesar, Clio History Journal, 2009. Caesar: Courage and Charisma Jones, Henry Stuart; Bryant, Margaret (1911). "Caesar, Gaius Julius" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 4 (11th ed.). pp. 938–943. Political offices Preceded by Lucius Afranius Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer Consul of the Roman Republic 59 BC With: Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus Succeeded by Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus Aulus Gabinius In abeyanceTitle last held by Sulla in 81 BC Dictator of the Roman Republic 49 BC Succeeded by Himself in 48 BC Preceded by Lucius Cornelius Lentulus Crus Gaius Claudius Marcellus Consul of the Roman Republic 48 BC With: Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus Succeeded by Quintus Fufius Calenus Publius Vatinius Preceded by Himself in 49 BC Dictator of the Roman Republic 48–47 BC Succeeded by Himself in 46 BC Preceded by Quintus Fufius Calenus Publius Vatinius Consul of the Roman Republic 46 BC With: Marcus Aemilius Lepidus Succeeded by Himself without colleague Preceded by Himself in 47 BC Dictator of the Roman Republic 46–44 BC Succeeded by Himself as Dictator in perpetuity (in 44 BC) Preceded by Himself Marcus Aemilius Lepidus Consul of the Roman Republic January–September 45 BC 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en-wikipedia-org-4734	----	Zosimus - Wikipedia Zosimus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine historian For other uses, see Zosimus (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Zosimus" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Zosimus (Greek: Ζώσιμος [ˈzosimos]; also known by the Latin name Zosimus Historicus, i.e. "Zosimus the Historian"; fl. 490s–510s) was a Greek historian who lived in Constantinople during the reign of the eastern Roman Emperor Anastasius I (491–518). According to Photius, he was a comes, and held the office of "advocate" of the imperial treasury.[1] Zosimus was also known for condemning Constantine’s rejection of the traditional polytheistic religion. Contents 1 Historia Nova 2 Editions 3 References 4 External links Historia Nova[edit] Zosimus' Historia Nova (Ἱστορία Νέα, "New History") is written in Greek in six books. For the period from 238 to 270, he apparently uses Dexippus; for the period from 270 to 404, Eunapius; and after 407, Olympiodorus. His dependence upon his sources is made clear by the change in tone and style between the Eunapian and Olympiodoran sections, and by the gap left in between them. In the Eunapian section, for example, he is pessimistic and critical of Stilicho; in the Olympiodoran section, he offers precise figures and transliterations from the Latin, and favors Stilicho.[2] The first book sketches briefly the history of the early Roman emperors from Augustus to Diocletian (305); the second, third and fourth deal more fully with the period from the accession of Constantius Chlorus and Galerius to the death of Theodosius I;[1] the fifth and sixth cover the period between 395 and 410, when Priscus Attalus was deposed; for this period, he is the most important surviving non-ecclesiastical source. The work, which breaks off abruptly in the summer of 410 at the beginning of the sixth book, is believed to have been written in 498–518. The style is characterized by Photius as concise, clear and pure.[1] The historian's object was to account for the decline of the Roman Empire from the pagan point of view. Zosimus is the only non-Christian source for much of what he reports. In contrast to Polybius, who had narrated the rise of the Roman Empire, Zosimus documented the events and causes which led to its decline.[3] Though the decline of the Roman Empire was Zosimus' primary subject, he also discussed events connected with Persian, and Greek history, perhaps in imitation of Polybius. It is clear that Photius and Evagrius did not have any more of Zosimus' work than what survives today. Yet it is likely that either a part of the work has been lost or, more likely, that Zosimus did not live to finish it; for it does not cover all the areas that Zosimus himself tells us he intended to discuss.[4] There does not seem much probability in the conjecture that the monks and other ecclesiastics succeeded in suppressing that portion of the work in which the evil influences of their body were to be more especially touched upon.[5] If the work was thus left incomplete, that circumstance would account for some carelessness of style which is here and there apparent. There may appear some difficulty at first sight, however, in the statement of Photius, that the work, in the form in which he saw it, appeared to him to be a second edition. But it would seem that Photius was under some misapprehension. It is called in the manuscripts Historia Nova (in what sense is not quite clear). This may perhaps have misled Photius. He himself remarks that he had not seen the first edition. Zosimus was a pagan, and is by no means sparing of the faults and crimes of the Christian emperors. In consequence of this his credibility has been fiercely assailed by several Christian writers, and has been sometimes defended merely because his history tended to the discredit of many leading persons in the Christian party. The question does not, as has sometimes been supposed, turn upon the credibility of the historians whom Zosimus followed, for he did not adhere in all cases to their judgment with respect to events and characters. For instance, although Zosimus followed Eunapius for the period 270–404, he entirely differed from Eunapius in his account of Stilicho and Serena. Of modern writers, Caesar Baronius, Lelio Bisciola, Kaspar von Barth, Johann Daniel Ritter, Richard Bentley, and G. E. M. de Ste. Croix, have taken the derogatory side. Bentley in particular speaks of Zosimus with great contempt.[6] On the other hand, his historical authority has been maintained by Leunclavius, G. B. von Schirach, J. Matth. Schrockh, and Reitemeier. Editions[edit] The history of Zosimus was first printed in the Latin translation of Leunclavius, accompanied by a defence of the historian (Basel, 1576, fol.). The first two books, in Greek, with the translation of Leunclavius, were printed by H. Stephanus, in his edition of Herodian (Paris, 1581). The first complete edition of the Greek text of Zosimus was that by F. Sylburg (Scriptores Hist. Rom. Min., vol. iii., Frankfurt, 1590). Later editions are those published at Oxford (1679), at Zeitz and Jena, edited by Cellarius, with annotations of his own and others (1679, 1713, 1729). The next edition is that by Reitemeier, who, though he consulted no fresh manuscripts, made good use of the critical remarks of Heyne and other scholars (Leipzig, 1784). Bekker produced a reliable edition in 1837 at Bonn. There is a German translation by Seybold and Heyler, and also an English and a French translation. (Schöll, Gesch. d. Griech. Lit. vol. iii, p. 232 ; Fabric. Bibl. Graec. vol. viii. p. 62.) The single good manuscript, in the Vatican Library (MS Vat. Gr. 156), was unavailable to scholars until the mid-19th century, although it lacks the conclusion of the first book and the beginning of the second. Ludwig Mendelssohn (Leipzig 1887) edited the first dependable text. The modern standard edition is F. Paschoud Zosime: Histoire Nouvelle (Paris 1971) which has a French translation, introduction and commentary. A later edition in English, Zosimus: New History a translation with commentary by Ronald T. Ridley, was published in 1982 by the Australian Association of Byzantine Studies. References[edit] ^ a b c  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Zosimus (historian)". Encyclopædia Britannica. 28 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 1044. ^ Sorek, Susan (2012). Ancient Historians: A Student Handbook. A&C Black. p. 211. ISBN 9781441179913. ^ i. 57 ^ iv. 59. §4, 5, i. 58. §9, iv. 28. §3 ^ v. 23. §8; Harles. ad Fabr. vol. viii. p. 65; comp. Voss. de Hist. Gr. p. 312[clarification needed] ^ Bentley, Remarks upon a late Discourse of Freethinking, Part. ii. p. 21 External links[edit] Wikisource has original text related to this article: Zosimus Greek text with Latin translation on Google Books Raw OCR Greek text of Mendelssohn's 1887 Teubner edition of the Historia Nova (from the Lace collection at Mount Allison University) Greek text from the First One-Thousand Years of Greek Project The manuscripts of the Historia Nova Translation of the Historia Nova (published in 1814), book 1, book 2, book 3, book 4, book 5, book 6 "Zosimus" . Catholic Encyclopedia. 1913. The Chinese translation of Zosimi Historia Nova Jona Lendering (livius.org) on Zosimus v t e Byzantine historians 5th century Annianus of Alexandria Eunapius John Rufus Malchus Olympiodorus of Thebes Panodorus of Alexandria Philostorgius Priscus Sabinus of Heraclea Socrates of Constantinople Sozomen Theodoret 6th century Agathias Cyril of Scythopolis Eustathius of Epiphania Evagrius Scholasticus Hesychius of Miletus John Diakrinomenos John of Ephesus John of Epiphania Pseudo-Joshua the Stylite Jordanes John Malalas Liberatus of Carthage Marcellinus Comes Menander Protector Nonnosus Peter the Patrician Procopius Theodorus Lector Theophanes of Byzantium Zacharias Rhetor Zosimus 7th century Chronicon Paschale John of Antioch Trajan the Patrician Theophylact Simocatta 8th century Hippolytus of Thebes 9th century Theophanes the Confessor George Syncellus Nikephoros I of Constantinople George Hamartolos Scriptor Incertus 10th century Chronicle of Monemvasia Constantine VII Joseph Genesius John Kaminiates Leo the Deacon Pseudo-Simeon Symeon the Metaphrast Theophanes Continuatus 11th century Michael Attaleiates George Kedrenos Michael Psellos John Skylitzes John Xiphilinus Yahya of Antioch 12th century Nikephoros Bryennios the Younger Niketas Choniates Eustathius of Thessalonica Michael Glykas Anna Komnene John Kinnamos Constantine Manasses Joannes Zonaras 13th century George Akropolites Theodore Skoutariotes 14th century Nicephorus Gregoras Nikephoros Kallistos Xanthopoulos John VI Kantakouzenos George Kodinos George Pachymeres Michael Panaretos 15th century John Anagnostes John Cananus Laonikos Chalkokondyles Michael Critobulus Doukas George Sphrantzes Authority control BIBSYS: 90336640 BNE: XX982225 BNF: cb11929733b (data) CANTIC: a12271639 CiNii: DA01313715 GND: 100964354 ISNI: 0000 0003 7121 7816 LCCN: n84169983 LNB: 000029969 NKC: jn19990009453 NLG: 18829 NSK: 000134678 NTA: 069653070 RERO: 02-A000182618 SELIBR: 258857 SUDOC: 02810627X Trove: 1158711 VcBA: 495/65233 VIAF: 102333329 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n84169983 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zosimus&oldid=992362728" Categories: 5th-century births 6th-century deaths Byzantine historians Late Antique writers 6th-century historians 6th-century Byzantine people Byzantine-era pagans 6th-century Byzantine writers Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles needing clarification from December 2012 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles needing additional references from December 2012 All articles needing additional references Articles containing Greek-language text Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Frysk Galego Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Magyar Mirandés Nederlands Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 December 2020, at 21:40 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4779	----	Roman metallurgy - Wikipedia Roman metallurgy From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (October 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Roman Chronology Context for Metallurgy (Shepard 1993) circa 753 BC First settlement in the Iron Age; see also founding of Rome. 600–524 BC Etruscans control Italy. 550–500 BC Carthaginian occupation of parts of Sardinia and Sicily. 509 BC Creation of the Roman Republic. 510–27 BC Roman Republic and beginning of Rome's expansion. 390 BC Etruria becomes part of Rome. 264–146 BC Punic Wars. 197 BC Iberia becomes a Roman province. 197 BC Athens becomes a Roman province. 146 BC Carthage becomes a Roman province. 129 BC Asia Minor becomes a Roman province. 58–52 BC Roman conquest of Gaul. 30 BC Egypt becomes a Roman province. 27 BC The institution of the Roman Empire begins with Emperor Augustus. 44 AD Britannia becomes a Roman province. 106 AD Dacia becomes a Roman province. Metals and metal working had been known to the people of modern Italy since the Bronze Age. By 53 BC, Rome had expanded to control an immense expanse of the Mediterranean. This included Italy and its islands, Spain, Macedonia, Africa, Asia Minor, Syria and Greece; by the end of the Emperor Trajan's reign, the Roman Empire had grown further to encompass parts of Britain, Egypt, all of modern Germany west of the Rhine, Dacia, Noricum, Judea, Armenia, Illyria, and Thrace (Shepard 1993). As the empire grew, so did its need for metals. Central Italy itself was not rich in metal ores, leading to necessary trade networks in order to meet the demand for metal. Early Italians had some access to metals in the northern regions of the peninsula in Tuscany and Cisalpine Gaul, as well as the islands Elba and Sardinia. With the conquest of Etruria in 275 BC and the subsequent acquisitions due to the Punic Wars, Rome had the ability to stretch further into Transalpine Gaul and Iberia, both areas rich in minerals. At the height of the Empire, Rome exploited mineral resources from Tingitana in north western Africa to Egypt, Arabia to North Armenia, Galatia to Germania, and Britannia to Iberia, encompassing all of the Mediterranean coast. Britannia, Iberia, Dacia, and Noricum were of special significance, as they were very rich in deposits and became major sites of resource exploitation (Shepard, 1993). There is evidence that after the middle years of the Empire there was a sudden and steep decline in mineral extraction. This was mirrored in other trades and industries. One of the most important Roman sources of information is the Naturalis Historia of Pliny the Elder. Several books (XXXIII–XXXVII) of his encyclopedia cover metals and metal ores, their occurrence, importance and development. Contents 1 Types of metal used 2 Sources of ore 3 Technology 4 Mechanisation 5 Output 6 Production of objects 7 Social ramifications 7.1 Slavery 7.2 Economy 8 See also 9 References 10 Sources 11 Further reading Types of metal used[edit] Many of the first metal artifacts that archaeologists have identified have been tools or weapons, as well as objects used as ornaments such as jewellery. These early metal objects were made of the softer metals; copper, gold, and lead in particular, as the metals either as native metal or by thermal extraction from minerals, and softened by minimal heat (Craddock, 1995). While technology did advance to the point of creating surprisingly pure copper, most ancient metals are in fact alloys, the most important being bronze, an alloy of copper and tin. As metallurgical technology developed (hammering, melting, smelting, roasting, cupellation, moulding, smithing, etc.), more metals were intentionally included in the metallurgical repertoire. By the height of the Roman Empire, metals in use included: silver, zinc, iron, mercury, arsenic, antimony, lead, gold, copper, tin (Healy 1978). As in the Bronze Age, metals were used based on many physical properties: aesthetics, hardness, colour, taste/smell (for cooking wares), timbre (instruments), aversion to corrosion, weight, and other factors. Many alloys were also possible, and were intentionally made in order to change the properties of the metal e.g. the alloy of predominately tin with lead would harden the soft tin, to create pewter, which would prove its utility as cooking and tableware. Sources of ore[edit] Las Médulas, remains of the most important gold mine in the Roman Empire. The spectacular landscape resulted from the Ruina montium mining technique Sources of ore Ores and Origin (Healy 1978) Gold Iberia, Gaul, Cisalpine Gaul, Britannia, Noricum, Dalmatia, Moesia Superior, Arabia, India, Africa Silver Iberia, Gaul, Laurion (Greece), Asia Minor, Carmania, Midian, India, Bactria, Britannia, Cyprus Copper Iberia, Gaul, Cisthene, Cyprus, Carmania, Arabia, Aleppo, Sinai, Meroe, Masaesyi, India, Britannia. Tin Iberia, Persia, Britannia Lead Iberia, Gaul, Sardinia, Sicily, Britannia Iron Iberia, Elba, Sardinia, Hallstatt, Noricum, Illyria, Macedonia, Dacia, Sinai, Meroe, Britannia Zinc Gaul, Gallia Transpadana, Campania, Germania, Andeira (in Asia Minor), Cyprus Mercury Iberia, Armani, Ethiopia Arsenic Phalagonia, Carmania Antimony Hypothesised: Mytilene, Chios, around Smyrna, Transcaucasia, Persia, Tehran, Punjab, Britannia Iberia or modern Spain and Portugal, was one of if not the richest Roman province in the case of mineral ore from around the first century BC (Healy 1978). Containing deposits of gold, silver, copper, tin, lead, iron, and mercury), it was very rich in resources. From its acquisition during the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome, Iberia continued to produce a significant amount of Roman metals (Healy 1978, Shepard 1993). Similarly, Britannia was also very rich in metals. Gold was mined at Dolaucothi in Wales, copper and tin in Cornwall, and lead in the Pennines, Mendip Hills and Wales. Significant studies have been made on the iron production of Roman Britain; iron use in Europe was intensified by the Romans, and was part of the exchange of ideas between the cultures through Roman occupation (Aitchison, 1960). It was the importance placed on iron by the Romans throughout the Empire which completed the shift from the few cultures still using primarily bronze into the Iron Age.[citation needed] Noricum is the ancient site of modern Austria. Exceedingly rich in gold and iron, Pliny, Strabo, and Ovid all lauded its bountiful deposits. Iron was its main commodity, but alluvial gold was also prospected. By 15 BC, Noricum was officially made a province of the Empire, and the metal trade saw prosperity well into the fifth century AD (Shepard 1993, Healy 1978). Some scholars believe that the art of iron forging was not necessarily created, but well developed in this area and it was the population of Noricum which reminded Romans of the usefulness of iron (Aitchison, 1960). For example, of the three forms of iron (wrought iron, steel, and soft), the forms which were exported were of the wrought iron (containing a small percentage of uniformly distributed slag material) and steel (carbonised iron) categories, as pure iron is too soft to function like wrought or steel iron (Sim 1999, Aitchison 1960). Dacia, located in the area of Transylvania, was conquered in 107 AD in order to capture the resources of the region for Rome. The amount of gold that came into Roman possession actually brought down the value of gold. Iron was also of importance to the region. The difference between the mines of Noricum and Dacia was the presence of a slave population as a workforce (Shepard 1993). Technology[edit] Roman ingots of lead from the mines of Cartagena, Spain, Archaeological Municipal Museum of Cartagena The earliest metal manipulation was probably hammering (Craddock 1995, 1999), where copper ore was pounded into thin sheets. Beneficiation, or the process of ’making better’ could be carried out on the ore (if there were large enough pieces of metal separate from mineral) or after melting, where the prills of metal could be hand picked from the cooled slag. Melting beneficiated metal also allowed early metallurgists to use moulds and casts to form shapes of molten metal (Craddock 1995). Many of the metallurgical skills developed in the Bronze Age were still in use during Roman times. Melting—the process of using heat to separate slag and metal, smelting—using a reduced oxygen heated environment to separate metal oxides into metal and carbon dioxide, roasting—process of using an oxygen rich environment to isolate sulphur oxide from metal oxide which can then be smelted, casting—pouring liquid metal into a mould to make an object, hammering—using blunt force to make a thin sheet which can be annealed or shaped, and cupellation—separating metal alloys to isolate a specific metal—were all techniques which were well understood (Zwicker 1985, Tylecote 1962, Craddock 1995). However, the Romans provided few new technological advances other than the use of iron and the cupellation and granulation in the separation of gold alloys (Tylecote 1962). While native gold is common, the ore will sometimes contain small amounts of silver and copper. The Romans utilised a sophisticated system to separate these precious metals. The use of cupellation, a process developed before the rise of Rome, would extract copper from gold and silver, or an alloy called electrum. In order to separate the gold and silver, however, the Romans would granulate the alloy by pouring the liquid, molten metal into cold water, and then smelt the granules with salt, separating the gold from the chemically altered silver chloride (Tylecote 1962). They used a similar method to extract silver from lead. While Roman production became standardised in many ways, the evidence for distinct unity of furnace types is not strong, alluding to a tendency of the peripheries continuing with their own past furnace technologies. In order to complete some of the more complex metallurgical techniques, there is a bare minimum of necessary components for Roman metallurgy: metallic ore, furnace of unspecified type with a form of oxygen source (assumed by Tylecote to be bellows) and a method of restricting said oxygen (a lid or cover), a source of fuel (charcoal from wood or occasionally peat), moulds and/or hammers and anvils for shaping, the use of crucibles for isolating metals (Zwicker 1985), and likewise cupellation hearths (Tylecote 1962). Mechanisation[edit] Drainage wheel from Rio Tinto mines There is direct evidence that the Romans mechanised at least part of the extraction processes. They used water power from water wheels for grinding grains and sawing timber or stone, for example. A set of sixteen such overshot wheels is still visible at Barbegal near Arles dating from the 1st century AD or possibly earlier, the water being supplied by the main aqueduct to Arles. It is likely that the mills supplied flour for Arles and other towns locally. Multiple grain mills also existed on the Janiculum hill in Rome. Ausonius attests the use of a water mill for sawing stone in his poem Mosella from the 4th century AD. They could easily have adapted the technology to crush ore using tilt hammers, and just such is mentioned by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia dating to about 75 AD, and there is evidence for the method from Dolaucothi in South Wales. The Roman gold mines developed from c. 75 AD. The methods survived into the medieval period, as described and illustrated by Georgius Agricola in his De Re Metallica. They also used reverse overshot water-wheel for draining mines, the parts being prefabricated and numbered for ease of assembly. Multiple set of such wheels have been found in Spain at the Rio Tinto copper mines and a fragment of a wheel at Dolaucothi. An incomplete wheel from Spain is now on public show in the British Museum. Output[edit] The invention and widespread application of hydraulic mining, namely hushing and ground-sluicing, aided by the ability of the Romans to plan and execute mining operations on a large scale, allowed various base and precious metals to be extracted on a proto-industrial scale only rarely matched until the Industrial Revolution.[1] The most common fuel by far for smelting and forging operations, as well as heating purposes, was wood and particularly charcoal, which is nearly twice as efficient.[2] In addition, coal was mined in some regions to a fairly large extent: Almost all major coalfields in Roman Britain were exploited by the late 2nd century AD, and a lively trade along the English North Sea coast developed, which extended to the continental Rhineland, where bituminous coal was already used for the smelting of iron ore.[3] The annual iron production at Populonia alone accounted for an estimated 2,000[4] to 10,000 tons.[5] Annual metal production in metric tons Output per annum Comment Iron 82,500 t[6] Based on estimate of iron production at 1.5 kg per head in Roman Britain, extrapolated to population size of 55 million for entire empire[7] Copper 15,000 t[8] Largest preindustrial producer.[9] Lead 80,000 t[10] Largest preindustrial producer.[11] Silver 11,200 t[12] At its peak around the mid-2nd century AD, Roman stock is estimated at 10,000 t, five to ten times larger than the combined silver mass of medieval Europe and the Caliphate around 800 AD.[13] Gold 11,119 t[14] Production in Asturia, Callaecia, and Lusitania (all Iberian Peninsula) alone. Production of objects[edit] Romans used many methods to create metal objects. Like Samian ware, moulds were created by making a model of the desired shape (whether through wood, wax, or metal), which would then be pressed into a clay mould. In the case of a metal or wax model, once dry, the ceramic could be heated and the wax or metal melted until it could be poured from the mould (this process utilising wax is called the “lost wax“ technique). By pouring metal into the aperture, exact copies of an object could be cast. This process made the creation of a line of objects quite uniform. This is not to suggest that the creativity of individual artisans did not continue; rather, unique handcrafted pieces were normally the work of small, rural metalworkers on the peripheries of Rome using local techniques (Tylecote 1962). There is archaeological evidence throughout the Empire demonstrating the large scale excavations, smelting, and trade routes concerning metals. With the Romans came the concept of mass production; this is arguably the most important aspect of Roman influence in the study of metallurgy. Three particular objects produced en masse and seen in the archaeological record throughout the Roman Empire are brooches called fibulae, worn by both men and women (Bayley 2004), coins, and ingots (Hughes 1980). These cast objects can allow archaeologists to trace years of communication, trade, and even historic/stylistic changes throughout the centuries of Roman power. Social ramifications[edit] Slavery[edit] When the cost of producing slaves became too high to justify slave labourers for the many mines throughout the empire around the second century, a system of indentured servitude was introduced for convicts. In 369 AD a law was reinstated due to the closure of many deep mines; the emperor Hadrian had previously given the control of mines to private employers, so that workers were hired rather than working out of force. Through the institution of this system profits increased (Shepard 1993). In the case of Noricum, there is archaeological evidence of freemen labour in the metal trade and extraction through graffiti on mine walls. In this province, many men were given Roman citizenship for their efforts contributing to the procurement of metal for the empire. Both privately owned and government run mines were in operation simultaneously (Shepard 1993). Economy[edit] From the formation of the Roman Empire, Rome was an almost completely closed economy, not reliant on imports although exotic goods from India and China (such as gems, silk and spices) were highly prized (Shepard 1993). Through the recovery of Roman coins and ingots throughout the ancient world (Hughes 1980), metallurgy has supplied the archaeologist with material culture through which to see the expanse of the Roman world. See also[edit] De Re Metallica Georgius Agricola Mining in Roman Britain Naturalis Historia Pliny the Elder Roman engineering Roman technology Malvesa References[edit] ^ Wilson 2002, pp. 17–21, 25, 32 ^ Cech 2010, p. 20 ^ Smith 1997, pp. 322–324 ^ Ian Morris, Francoise Audouze, Cyprian Broodbank (1994): Classical Greece: Ancient Histories and Modern Archaeologies, Cambridge University Press, p. 102 ISBN 978-0-521-45678-4 ^ Wertime, Theodore A. (1983): "The Furnace versus the Goat: The Pyrotechnologic Industries and Mediterranean Deforestation in Antiquity", Journal of Field Archaeology, Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 445–452 (451); Williams, Joey (2009): "The Environmental Effects of Populonia's Metallurgical Industry: Current Evidence and Future Directions", Etruscan and Italic Studies, Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 131–150 (134f.) ^ Craddock 2008, p. 108; Sim, Ridge 2002, p. 23; Healy 1978, p. 196 ^ Sim, Ridge 2002, p. 23; Healy 1978, p. 196 ^ World output, the large bulk of which is attributed to Roman mining and smelting activities (mainly in Spain, Cyprus and Central Europe): Hong, Candelone, Patterson, Boutron 1996, p. 247; Callataÿ 2005, pp. 366–369; cf. also Wilson 2002, pp. 25–29 ^ Hong, Candelone, Patterson, Boutron 1996, p. 247, fig. 1 & 2; 248, table 1; Callataÿ 2005, pp. 366–369 ^ World output, the large bulk of which is attributed to Roman silver mining and smelting activities (in Central Europe, Britain, the Balkans, Greece, Asia Minor and, above all, Spain, with a 40% share in world production alone): Hong, Candelone, Patterson, Boutron 1994, p. 1841–1843; Callataÿ 2005, pp. 361–365; Settle, Patterson 1980, pp. 1170f.; cf. also Wilson 2002, pp. 25–29 ^ Hong, Candelone, Patterson, Boutron 1994, p. 1841–1843; Settle, Patterson 1980, pp. 1170f.; Callataÿ 2005, pp. 361–365 follows the aforementioned authors, but cautions that the Greco-Roman levels may have already been surpassed by the end of the Middle Ages (p. 365). ^ Patterson 1972, p. 228, table 6; Callataÿ 2005, pp. 365f.; cf. also Wilson 2002, pp. 25–29 ^ Patterson 1972, p. 216, table 2; Callataÿ 2005, pp. 365f. ^ Pliny: Naturalis Historia, 33.21.78, in: Wilson 2002, p. 27 Sources[edit] General Aitchison, Leslie. 1960. A History of Metals. London: Macdonald & Evans Ltd. Bayley, Justine; Butcher, Sarnia. 2004. Roman Brooches in Britain: A Technological and Typological Study based on the Richborough Collection. London: The Society of Antiquaries of London. Craddock, Paul T. 1995. Early Metal Mining and Production. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Craddock, Paul T. 1999. Paradigms of Metallurgical Innovation in Prehistoric Europe in Hauptmann, A., Ernst, P., Rehren, T., Yalcin, U. (eds). The Beginnings of Metallurgy: Proceedings of the International Conference “The Beginnings of Metallurgy”, Bochum 1995. Hamburg Davies, O. Roman Mines in Europe 1935., Oxford University Press Hughes, M. J. 1980 The Analysis of Roman Tin and Pewter Ingots in Ody, W. A. (ed) Aspects of Early Metallurgy. Occasional Paper No 17. British Museum Occasional Papers. Shepard, Robert. 1993. Ancient Mining. London: Elsevier Applied Science. Sim, David. 1998. Beyond the Bloom: Bloom Refining and Iron Artifact Production in the Roman World. Ridge, Isabel (ed). BAR International Series 725. Oxford: Archaeopress. Tylecote, R.F. 1962. Metallurgy in Archaeology: A Prehistory of Metallurgy in the British Isles. London: Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd. Zwicker, U., Greiner, H., Hofmann, K-H., Reithinger, M. 1985. Smelting, Refining and Alloying of Copper and Copper Alloys in Crucible Furnaces During Prehistoric up to Roman Times in Craddock, P.T., Hughes, M.J. (eds) Furnaces and Smelting Technology in Antiquity. Occasional Paper No 48. London: British Museum Occasional Papers. J. S., Hodgkinson. 2008. "The Wealden Iron Industry." (The History Press, Stroud). Cleere, Henry. 1981. The Iron Industry of Roman Britain. Wealden Iron Research Group. Output Callataÿ, François de (2005): "The Graeco-Roman Economy in the Super Long-Run: Lead, Copper, and Shipwrecks", Journal of Roman Archaeology, Vol. 18, pp. 361–372 Cech, Brigitte (2010): Technik in der Antike, Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt, ISBN 978-3-8062-2080-3 Cleere, H. & Crossley, D. (1995): The Iron industry of the Weald. 2nd edition, Merton Priory Press, Cardiff, ISBN 1-898937-04-4: republishing the 1st edition (Leicester University Press 1985) with a supplement. Cleere, Henry. 1981. The Iron Industry of Roman Britain. Wealden Iron Research Group. p. 74-75 Craddock, Paul T. (2008): "Mining and Metallurgy", in: Oleson, John Peter (ed.): The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-518731-1, pp. 93–120 Healy, John F. (1978): Mining and Metallurgy in the Greek and Roman World, Thames and Hudson, London, ISBN 0-500-40035-0 Hong, Sungmin; Candelone, Jean-Pierre; Patterson, Clair C.; Boutron, Claude F. (1994): "Greenland Ice Evidence of Hemispheric Lead Pollution Two Millennia Ago by Greek and Roman Civilizations", Science, Vol. 265, No. 5180, pp. 1841–1843 Hong, Sungmin; Candelone, Jean-Pierre; Patterson, Clair C.; Boutron, Claude F. (1996): "History of Ancient Copper Smelting Pollution During Roman and Medieval Times Recorded in Greenland Ice", Science, Vol. 272, No. 5259, pp. 246–249 Patterson, C. C. (1972): "Silver Stocks and Losses in Ancient and Medieval Times", The Economic History Review, Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 205–235 Lewis, P. R. and G. D. B. Jones, The Dolaucothi gold mines, I: the surface evidence, The Antiquaries Journal, 49, no. 2 (1969): 244-72. Lewis, P. R. and G. D. B. Jones, Roman gold-mining in north-west Spain, Journal of Roman Studies 60 (1970): 169-85. Lewis, P. R., The Ogofau Roman gold mines at Dolaucothi, The National Trust Year Book 1976-77 (1977). Settle, Dorothy M.; Patterson, Clair C. (1980): "Lead in Albacore: Guide to Lead Pollution in Americans", Science, Vol. 207, No. 4436, pp. 1167–1176 Sim, David; Ridge, Isabel (2002): Iron for the Eagles. The Iron Industry of Roman Britain, Tempus, Stroud, Gloucestershire, ISBN 0-7524-1900-5 Smith, A. H. V. (1997): "Provenance of Coals from Roman Sites in England and Wales", Britannia, Vol. 28, pp. 297–324 Wilson, Andrew (2002): "Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy", The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 92, pp. 1–32 Further reading[edit] Library resources about Roman metallurgy Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Butcher, Kevin, Matthew Ponting, Jane Evans, Vanessa Pashley, and Christopher Somerfield. The Metallurgy of Roman Silver Coinage: From the Reform of Nero to the Reform of Trajan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014. Corretti,Benvenuti. "Beginning of iron metallurgy in Tuscany, with special reference to Etruria mineraria." Mediterranean archaeology 14 (2001): 127–45. Healy, John F. Mining and metallurgy in the Greek and Roman world. London: Thames and Hudson, 1978. Hobbs, Richard. Late Roman Precious Metal Deposits, C. AD 200-700: Changes Over Time and Space. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2006. Montagu, Jennifer. Gold, Silver, and Bronze: Metal Sculpture of the Roman Baroque. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996. Papi, Emanuele., and Michel Bonifay. Supplying Rome and the Empire: The Proceedings of an International Seminar Held At Siena-Certosa Di Pontignano On May 2-4, 2004, On Rome, the Provinces, Production and Distribution. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology, 2007. Rihll, T. E. Technology and Society In the Ancient Greek and Roman Worlds. Washington, D.C.: American Historical Association, Society for the History of Technology, 2013. Schrüfer-Kolb, Irene. Roman Iron Production In Britain: Technological and Socio-Economic Landscape Development Along the Jurassic Ridge. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2004. Young, Suzanne M. M. Metals In Antiquity. 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en-wikipedia-org-4786	----	Tegernsee Abbey - Wikipedia Tegernsee Abbey From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Tegernsee Abbey" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Baroque style former Tegernsee Abbey and basilica Tegernsee Abbey (German Kloster Tegernsee, Abtei Tegernsee) is a former Benedictine monastery in the town and district of Tegernsee in Bavaria. Both the abbey and the town that grew up around it, are named after the Tegernsee, the lake on the shores of which they are located. The name is from the Old High German tegarin seo, meaning great lake. Tegernsee Abbey, officially known as St. Quirinus Abbey for its patron saint St. Quirinus,[1] was first built in the 8th century. Until 1803, it was the most important Benedictine community in Bavaria. Today, the monastery buildings are known as Schloss Tegernsee (Tegernsee Castle) and are in the possession of the Wittelsbach family. The local Catholic parish church of Saint Quirinus is in the former abbey church. The former abbey premises also accommodate the well-known brewery Herzoglich Bayerisches Brauhaus Tegernsee, brew pub, restaurant and the Tegernsee Grammar School (Gymnasium Tegernsee). Contents 1 History 1.1 Foundation and early history 1.2 Middle Ages 1.3 Later history to dissolution 1.4 Architecture 1.5 Secularisation 2 Abbots of Tegernsee 3 Burials 4 See also 5 References 6 Sources 7 External links History[edit] Foundation and early history[edit] The monastic community at Tegernsee was founded in the mid-8th century (either in 746 or around 765). It was settled by monks from St. Gall and dedicated to Saint Quirinus of Rome, whose relics were brought here from Rome in 804. Soon the monastery spread the message of Christianity as far as Tyrol and Lower Austria. The founders were the brothers Otkar (or Otocar), and Adalbert, members of one of the ancient noble clans of Bavaria, although it is not certain exactly which family they were from. There is little definite information on the early days of the monastery as a result of a fire in about 970, which destroyed earlier evidence. However, a well-known and detailed (but nevertheless entirely unverifiable) tradition about the foundation has developed. According to this tradition, Otkar and Adelbert were princes of the Huosi. They were kin of the Bavarian ruling house of the Agilolfinger, whose principal territory was the area now known as the Huosigau in south-west Bavaria, although they had many other lands elsewhere in Bavaria and in Burgundy. They and their families lived at the court of Pippin the Younger, King of the Franks (714-768), whose son fell into a rage during a game of chess and killed the son of Otkar with the chessboard. Pippin, fearing the revenge of such a powerful family, he summoned Otkar and Adalbert before they could hear of the killing, and asked them for their advice: "How would you deal with a terrible evil if there were no way to change it?" The brothers replied: "All one could do in such a case would be to accept the evil with humility and submission to the will of God." Only then did Pippin tell them of the death of Otkar's son. The brothers, bound by their own judgment, were unable to take up arms and found themselves forced to accept the murder. Instead, they decided to turn their backs on the world. They returned to their homeland in the south of Bavaria and founded a monastery on an unusually beautiful site by the shores of the Tegernsee, into which they withdrew. For many centuries a large panel in the nearby church of Egern depicted the scene of the princes playing chess. After the fall of Tassilo III, Duke of Bavaria (748-788), Tegernsee became a Carolingian Empire royal monastery during the Carolingian Renaissance. The community was greatly weakened by Hungarian raids and by repeated attempts at secularisation during the reign of Arnulf I, Duke of Bavaria (907-937) and in the course of the 10th century suffered a sustained decline, culminating in the fire of around 970. Middle Ages[edit] Restored and re-founded, however, under Emperor Otto II (973-983) as an Imperial Abbey in 978, and re-settled by monks from St. Maximin's Abbey, Trier, Tegernsee entered a new period of growth. With the activities of the monk Froumund (1006-1012) and Abbot Ellinger (1017-1026 and 1031-1041), the abbey became a centre of literature, manuscript production and learning, and was also active in the resettlement of other Benedictine houses in Bavaria, including the newly founded abbey of Saints Ulrich and Afra in Augsburg in c. 1012. This golden age of the abbey lasted almost to the end of the 12th century. Among the literary and scientific works produced at that time were: "Ruodlieb" (considered the first German novel; last third of the 11th century); the Quirinals (12th century); "Play about the Antichrist" (1155?); and the Tegernsee Letter Collection (1178 to 1186). The well-known Tegernseespruch of Walther von der Vogelweide dates either from a little before 1206 or from c. 1212, and thus belongs, not to this period, but to the beginning of the period of decline that followed. Tegernsee was largely spared the political and ecclesiastical confusions arising from the conflict between Pope Alexander III (1159-1177) and Emperor Frederick I "Barbarossa," Holy Roman Emperor, and even managed to acquire substantial privileges from both pope and emperor. However, despite those privileges and its early status as an imperial abbey, Tegernsee lost that status as it was never able to effectively enjoy Imperial immediacy. Therefore, it remained subordinate to Bavaria throughout its existence.[2] The shape of the future was made plain with the appointment of Abbot Manegold of Berg, son of the Count of Berg, to this Bavarian abbey in 1189, as the result of political intrigue by the Counts of Andechs, Vögte (lords protectors) of Tegernsee, and Bishop Otto of Freising. The political and economic interests of the noble families of Berg, Andechs and Hohenstaufen, now came to dominate the abbey and as a result, it declined during the 13th and 14th centuries into little more than a private monastery dependent on a small number of noble families. To make matters worse, it burnt down in 1410. Later history to dissolution[edit] However, in 1426, Tegernsee received a Visitation from the Vicar-General, Johannes Grünwalder, which marked a new beginning. Over the next decades, with the support of the Papal Legate Cardinal Nikolaus von Kues, it became a focus of the Reforms of Melk Abbey, which opened Benedictine houses hitherto restricted to the nobility to a wider range of social classes. In 1455, monks of Tegernsee settled Andechs Abbey and were appointed abbots at Benediktbeuern, Oberalteich, Wessobrunn and others. In 1446, a Passion altar was dedicated. Johannes Keck (who was the Tegernsee delegate at the Council of Basle and died in 1450) wrote a work on music, and the Prior of Tegernsee, Bernhard von Waging (d. 1472) composed his mystical writings, including a defense of Cusanus' writings on "learned ignorance." This second flowering continued into the Early Modern period. From 1573, the monastery had its own printing press, which thanks to Imperial privileges was allowed to print many books on theology, liturgy and the theory of music. The community survived the confusion of the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), when the abbey was raided by Swedish soldiers. Tegernsee Abbey was also a prominent member of the Benedictine Bavarian Congregation, established in 1684. Architecture[edit] The former Carolingian style abbey church built at the end of the 10th century had been converted in the 11th to a Romanesque basilica, which in its turn had been re-fashioned between 1455 and 1460 into a Gothic church. The monastic buildings and the church were refurbished in the Baroque style between 1684 and 1688. Secularisation[edit] During the abbacy of Abbot Benedikt Schwarz (to 1787), the first signs began to show of the secularisation which eventually took place on 17 March 1803, thus bringing the abbey to an end. Gregor Rottenkolber, the last Abbot of Tegernsee, died on 13 February 1810. The greater part of the site was bought by Baron Drechsel for his brewery, but he later sold a small part back to an unofficial monastic community, which remained until 1861. The buildings of the monastery itself were acquired in 1817 by king Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria and later became a possession of the Dukes in Bavaria (a side branch of the ruling Wittelsbach family, the kings of Bavaria), attracted by the unusually beautiful location, and turned it into their summer residence. Known since then as Schloss Tegernsee, it is still the property of that family, the present owner is their adopted son Prince Max, Duke in Bavaria. Abbots of Tegernsee[edit] Adalbert (762-800) Zaccho (800-804) Maginhart (804-, 823) Isker (826, 829) [gap] Megilo (866, -880?) [gap] Hartwic (978-982) Gozpert (982-1001) Godehard of Hildesheim (Saint Gotthard)(1001-1002) Eberhard I (1002-1003) Beringer (1003-1013) Burchard (1013-1017) Ellinger (1017-1026) Albin (1026-1031) Ellinger (2nd abbacy, 1031-1041) Altmann (1041) Udalrich I (1041/42-1042) Herrand (1042-1046) Egbert (1046-1048) Siegfried (1048-1068) Eberhard II of Eppenstein (1068-1091) Odalschalk of Hohenburg (1092-1113) Aribo of Neuburg-Falkenstein (1113-1126) Konrad I (1126-1155) Rupert of Neuburg-Falkenstein (1155-1186) Alban (1186-1187) Konrad II (1187-1189) Manegold of Berg (also Abbot of Kremsmünster and Bishop of Passau) (1189-1206) Berthold I (1206-1217) Heinrich I (1217-1242) Berthold II Schneck (1242-1248) Ulrich II Portenhauser (1248-1261) Rudolf (1261-1266) Heinrich II (1266-1273) Ludwig of Graisbach (1273-1286) Heinrich III (1286-1287) Marquard of Veringen (1287-1324) Heinrich IV of Rain (1324-1339) Sigibrand Geltinger (1339-1347) Carl Hauzendorfer (1347-1349) Konrad III Kazbeck (1349-1363) Konrad IV Eglinger (1363-1372) Gerhard of Taufkirchen (1372-1393) Oswald Torer (1393-1418) Georg Türndl (1418-1423) Hildebrand Kastner (1424-1426) Kaspar Ayndorffer (1426-1461) Konrad V Ayrenschmalz (1461-1492) Quirin I Regler (1492-1500) Heinrich V Kintzner (1500-1512) Maurus Leyrer (1512-1528) Heinrich V Kintzner (2. Mal, 1528-1543) Quirin II ( - ) Paulus Widmann (1594-1624) Quirin III Ponschab (1624-) Bernhard Wenzl (1673-1700) Quirin IV Millon (1700-1715) Petrus von Guetrater (1715-1725) Gregor I Plaichshirn (1726-1762) Benedikt Schwarz (1762-1787) Gregor II Rottenkolber (1787 to 1803; last abbot; d. 1810) Burials[edit] Quirinus of Rome Maximilian Joseph, Duke in Bavaria Princess Ludovika of Bavaria Duke Karl-Theodor in Bavaria Infanta Maria Josepha of Portugal Ludwig Wilhelm, Duke in Bavaria See also[edit] List of Carolingian monasteries Carolingian architecture Carolingian dynasty Regional characteristics of Romanesque architecture References[edit] ^ "Tegernsee, Benediktinerabtei St. Quirinus | MRFH 2590". Mrfh.de. Retrieved 2016-07-22. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2016-02-16. Retrieved 2016-02-11.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) Sources[edit] Hemmerle, Josef, 1970. Die Benediktinerklöster in Bayern (= Germania Benedictina, Bd.2), pp. 297ff. Ottobeuren. External links[edit] Klöster in Bayern: Tegernsee (in German) Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Tegernsee" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Coordinates: 47°42′27″N 11°45′24″E / 47.70750°N 11.75667°E / 47.70750; 11.75667 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tegernsee_Abbey&oldid=995890123" Categories: Monasteries in Bavaria Benedictine monasteries in Germany Castles in Bavaria Christian monasteries established in the 8th century Baroque architecture in Bavaria Miesbach (district) Hidden categories: CS1 maint: archived copy as title Articles needing additional references from July 2016 All articles needing additional references Articles with German-language sources (de) Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Coordinates on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Deutsch Español Esperanto Français Italiano Română Edit links This page was last edited on 23 December 2020, at 12:42 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4811	----	Portal:Literature - Wikipedia Portal:Literature From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Portal maintenance status: (June 2018) This portal's subpages have been checked by an editor, and are needed. Please take care when editing, especially if using automated editing software. Learn how to update the maintenance information here. Wikipedia's portal for exploring content related to Literature Portal topics Activities Culture Geography Health History Mathematics Nature People Philosophy Religion Society Technology Random portal Introduction The Adventures of Pinocchio (1883) is a canonical piece of children's literature and one of the best-selling books ever published. Literature broadly is any collection of written work, but it is also used more narrowly for writings specifically considered to be an art form, especially prose fiction, drama, and poetry. In recent centuries, the definition has expanded to include oral literature, much of which has been transcribed. Literature is a method of recording, preserving, and transmitting knowledge and entertainment. Literature, as an art form, can also include works in various non-fiction genres, such as autobiography, diaries, memoir, letters, and the essay. Within its broad definition, literature includes non-fictional books, articles or other printed information on a particular subject. (Full article...) Outline Index Refresh with new selections below (purge) Selected work Z. Marcas is a novelette by French author Honoré de Balzac first published in 1840. Set in contemporary Paris, it describes the rise and fall of a brilliant political strategist who is abandoned by the politicians he helps into power. Destitute and forgotten, he befriends a pair of students who live next door to him in a boarding-house. The story follows their many discussions about the political situation in France. Although Z. Marcas features characters from other Balzac stories and elements of literary realism – both hallmarks of Balzac's style – it is remembered primarily for its political themes. Balzac, a legitimist, believed that France's lack of bold leadership had led to mediocrity and ruin, and that men of quality were being ignored or worse. He maintained that the youth of France were in danger of being abandoned by the government, and predicted unrest in the years to come. The story also explores Balzac's conviction that a person's name is a powerful indicator of his or her destiny, an idea he drew from the work of Laurence Sterne. The title character, with his keen intellect, is based on Balzac's conception of himself: a visionary genius who fails to achieve his true potential because of less talented individuals with more social power. More selected works... Read more... Selected figure Jorge Mario Pedro Vargas Llosa, 1st Marquis of Vargas Llosa (born March 28, 1936), more commonly known as Mario Vargas Llosa (/ˈvɑːrɡəs ˈjoʊsə/; Spanish: [ˈmaɾjo ˈbaɾɣas ˈʎosa]), is a Peruvian writer, journalist, essayist, college professor, and a former politician. Vargas Llosa is one of Latin America's most significant novelists and essayists, and one of the leading writers of his generation. Some critics consider him to have had a larger international impact and worldwide audience than any other writer of the Latin American Boom. In 2010 he won the Nobel Prize in Literature, "for his cartography of structures of power and his trenchant images of the individual's resistance, revolt, and defeat." Vargas Llosa rose to international fame in the 1960s with novels such as The Time of the Hero (La ciudad y los perros, literally The City and the Dogs, 1963/1966), The Green House (La casa verde, 1965/1968), and the monumental Conversation in the Cathedral (Conversación en la catedral, 1969/1975). He writes prolifically across an array of literary genres, including literary criticism and journalism. His novels include comedies, murder mysteries, historical novels, and political thrillers. Several, such as Captain Pantoja and the Special Service (1973/1978) and Aunt Julia and the Scriptwriter (1977/1982), have been adapted as feature films. Many of Vargas Llosa's works are influenced by the writer's perception of Peruvian society and his own experiences as a native Peruvian. Increasingly, however, he has expanded his range, and tackled themes that arise from other parts of the world. In his essays, Vargas Llosa has made many criticisms of nationalism in different parts of the world. Another change over the course of his career has been a shift from a style and approach associated with literary modernism, to a sometimes playful postmodernism. (Full article...) More selected figures... Read more... Selected excerpt “ Something incomprehensible, vexatious and hopeless takes possession of the man's whole being. He forgets his comrade who is awaiting him, forgets the work that is to be accomplished that night, and with his whole excited spirit abandons himself to the dumb dog. He cannot convince himself that the dog does not comprehend either the danger, or his words, or the necessity of going home at once. He lifts him angrily by the skin of his neck and so carries him ten steps nearer to the house. There he deposits him carefully on the snow and commands: "Away with you, go home!" ” — Leonid Andreyev, The Burglar More excerpts... Read at Wikisource... Subcategories Click [+] or ► to view subcategories ► Literature Selected illustration Ivanhoe Engraver: J. Cooper; Restoration: Adam Cuerden "Le Noir Faineant in the Hermit's Cell", an illustration from an 1886 edition of Sir Walter Scott's 1819 novel Ivanhoe. Here, we see Le Noir Faineant, or the Black Knight (Richard the Lionheart in disguise) with Friar Tuck. Scott was an early pioneer in the development of the modern novel, and largely created the genre of historical fiction by weaving together legends and characters into his own creations. Ivanhoe, the story of one of the remaining Saxon noble families at a time when the English nobility was overwhelmingly Norman, was greatly influential on the modern view of the English folk hero Robin Hood, and has inspired many adaptations around the world in theatre, opera, film, and television. More selected pictures "The Queen of Hearts" Restoration: Lise Broer William Wallace Denslow's illustration of the poem "The Queen of Hearts" from a 1901 issue of Mother Goose. The poem was originally published in 1782 as part of a set of four playing card based poems, but proved to be far more popular than the others. By 1785 it had been set to music, and it forms the basis of the plot of Lewis Carroll's Alice in Wonderland, Chapter XI: "Who Stole the Tarts?" Although it was originally published in a magazine for adults, it is now best known as a nursery rhyme. More selected pictures The Sleeping Beauty Illustration: W. E. F. Britten; restoration: Adam Cuerden "The Sleeping Beauty" is a poem written by Alfred, Lord Tennyson, and published in 1830; it was later expanded and published in 1842 as "The Day-Dream". Based on the fairy tale Sleeping Beauty, the poem (as with many of Tennyson's adaptations of existing literary works) focuses on a single aspect of the story, the appearance of the eponymous character as she sleeps. This illustration by W. E. F. Britten was published in 1901 to accompany a reprinting of "The Sleeping Beauty". It accompanies the poem's final lines: "She sleeps, nor dreams, but ever dwells / A perfect form in perfect rest." More selected pictures "The Canterville Ghost" Artist: Wallace Goldsmith; Restoration: Adam Cuerden A scene from "The Canterville Ghost", Oscar Wilde's first published story, which is about an American family that moves into a haunted house in England. However, instead of being frightened of the eponymous ghost, they turn the tables and prank him, such as in this scene, where the twin boys have set up a butter-slide, causing the ghost to slip down the staircase. The story satirises both the unrefined tastes of Americans and the determination of the British to guard their traditions. More selected pictures Dan'l Druce, Blacksmith Artist: Francis S. Walker; Engraving: Brothers Dalziel Restoration: Adam Cuerden Hermann Vezin in the title role of Dan'l Druce, Blacksmith, an 1876 play by W. S. Gilbert. In the story, Druce begins as a miser and drunkard whose wife has left him. Two army deserters find shelter at his house, but they rob him and abandon a baby girl there. Many years later, Druce has become a blacksmith, and the two men return to try to claim the girl. The play was a success, running for about 100 performances and enjoying tours and several revivals. More selected pictures The Last of the Mohicans Illustration: Frank T. Merrill; restoration: Chris Woodrich An illustration from 1896 edition of James Fenimore Cooper's The Last of the Mohicans. Set during the French and Indian War, the novel details the transport of two young women to Fort William Henry. Among the caravan guarding the women are the frontiersman Natty Bumppo, the Major Duncan Heyward, and the Indians Chingachgook and Uncas. In this scene, Bumppo (disguised as a bear) fights against the novel's villain, Magua, as two of his compatriots look on. More selected pictures Scientific romance Artist: Albert Robida A typical 20th-century aerial rotating house, as drawn by Albert Robida. The drawing shows a dwelling structure in the scientific romance style elevated above rooftops and designed to revolve and adjust in various directions. An occupant in the lower right points to an airship with a fish-shaped balloon in the sky, while a woman rides a bucket elevator on the left. Meanwhile, children fly a kite from the balcony as a dog watches from its rooftop doghouse. More selected pictures Pride and Prejudice Artist: George Pickering, Engraver: William Greatbatch; Restoration: Adam Cuerden One of the two earliest illustrations of Jane Austen's novel Pride and Prejudice, which was first published on January 28, 1813. This engraving comes from the first illustrated edition, published twenty years later, and depicts Elizabeth Bennet (the main protagonist, right) and her father, in fashions that were common in the 1830s, not the story's original time setting. The novel is told from Bennet's point of view and deals with issues of manners, upbringing, moral rightness, education and marriage in the aristocratic society of early 19th century England. The novel retains a fascination for modern readers, having sold some 20 million copies worldwide and continuing near the top of lists of 'most loved books'. More selected pictures The Song of Los Illustration: William Blake The Song of Los is an epic poem by William Blake first published in 1795 and considered part of his prophetic books. The poem consists of two sections, "Africa" and "Asia": in the first section Blake catalogues the decline of morality in Europe, which he blames on both the African slave trade and enlightenment philosophers, whereas in the second section he describes a worldwide revolution, urged by the eponymous Los. The illustration here is from the book's frontispiece and shows Urizen presiding over the decline of morality. More selected pictures Divine Comedy Restoration: Adam Cuerden An engraving of Charon, in Greek mythology the ferryman of Hades who carried souls of the newly deceased across the River Styx that divided the world of the living from the world of the dead. This illustration is from French engraver Gustave Doré's 1857 set of illustrations for Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy, an Italian epic poem depicting an allegorical vision of the Christian afterlife. Here, Charon is shown coming to ferry souls across the river Acheron to Hell. The caption is from Henry Francis Cary's translation, from which this particular copy is taken: And, lo! toward us in a bark Comes on an old man, hoary white with eld, Crying "Woe to you, wicked spirits!" More selected pictures Childe Harold's Pilgrimage Engraving: I. H. Jones; Restoration: Adam Cuerden The frontispiece to a c. 1825 edition of Childe Harold's Pilgrimage, a lengthy narrative poem by Lord Byron. The poem describes the travels and reflections of a world-weary young man who, disillusioned with a life of pleasure and revelry, looks for distraction in foreign lands. In a wider sense, it is an expression of the melancholy and disillusionment felt by a generation weary of the wars of the post-Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras. This poem proved to be quite popular upon its publication in 1812. Byron himself said of this, "I awoke one morning and found myself famous." More selected pictures Auld Lang Syne Engraving: John Masey Wright (artist) and John Rogers (engraver); restoration: Adam Cuerden A mid-19th century illustration for "Auld Lang Syne", a Scots poem written by Robert Burns in 1788 and set to a traditional melody. It is traditionally used in the English-speaking world to bid farewell to the old year at the stroke of midnight on New Year's Eve; this has led to the song being used to close other activities as well. More selected pictures Suikoden Woodblock artist: Utagawa Kuniyoshi This woodblock print, titled Kinhyōshi yōrin, hero of the Suikoden, is one of a series created by the Japanese artist Utagawa Kuniyoshi between 1827 and 1830 illustrating the 108 Suikoden ("Water Margin"). The publication of the series catapulted Kuniyoshi to fame. The story of the Suikoden is an adaptation of the Chinese Shuǐhǔ Zhuàn; during the 1800s, the publication of this woodblock series and other translations of the novel created a Suikoden craze in Japan. Following the great commercial success of the Kuniyoshi series, other ukiyo-e artists were commissioned to produce prints of the Suikoden heroes, which began to be shown as Japanese heroes rather than the original Chinese personages. The hero portrayed in this print is Yang Lin. More selected pictures The Water-Babies, A Fairy Tale for a Land Baby Artist: Jessie Willcox Smith; Restoration: ErikTheBikeMan Mrs. Bedonebyasyoudid, a character named after the Golden Rule, from The Water-Babies, A Fairy Tale for a Land Baby, a children's novel by Charles Kingsley. Published in 1863, the book was extremely popular in England, and was a mainstay of British children's literature for many decades. The book had been intended in part as a satire, a tract against child labour, as well as a serious critique of the closed-minded approaches of many scientists of the day in their response to Charles Darwin's ideas on evolution. More selected pictures Caterpillar, Alice's Adventures in Wonderland Artist: Sir John Tenniel Sir John Tenniel's illustration of the Caterpillar for Lewis Carroll's classic children's book, Alice's Adventures in Wonderland. The illustration is noted for its ambiguous central figure, which can be viewed as having either a human male's face with pointed nose and protruding lower lip or as the head end of an actual caterpillar, with the right three "true" legs visible. The small symbol in the lower left is composed of Tenniel's initials, which was how he signed most of his work for the book. The partially obscured word in the lower left-center is the last name of Edward Dalziel, the engraver of the piece. More selected pictures Did you know ... that the John Steinbeck play adaptation Of Mice and Men debuted on Broadway while the novel of the same name was still on the best seller lists? ... that Samuel Taylor Coleridge's Eminent Characters series includes: a lawyer, a speaker, a Unitarian, a general, a rebel, a betrayer, a poet, an actress, a philosopher, a friend, a playwright and a lord? ... that The Insider, a roman à clef, was Prime Minister P V Narasimha Rao's first novel? ... that a possible source for the poem The Fox, the Wolf and the Husbandman, by the 15th-century Scottish poet Robert Henryson, was Aesop's Fables as published by William Caxton? ... that Maria Konopnicka's poem Rota became so popular it was seen as an unofficial anthem of Poland? Today in literature 28 December 1619 - Antoine Furetière, French writer born 1859 - Thomas Macaulay, British poet died 1877 - Nikolai Alekseevich Nekrasov, Russian poet died 1902 - Shen Congwen, Chinese writer born 1918 - Olavo Bilac, Brazilian poet died 1922 - Stan Lee, American comic book writer born 1931 - Guy Debord, French writer born 1932 - Manuel Puig, Argentine writer born 1945 - Theodore Dreiser, American author died 2001 - William X. Kienzle, American novelist died 2004 - Susan Sontag, American writer died Archive (December) Topics Literature: History of literature · History of the book · Literary criticism · Literary theory · Publishing By genre: Biography · Comedy · Drama · Epic · Erotic · Fable · Fantasy · Historical fiction · Horror · Mystery · Narrative nonfiction · Nonsense · Lyric · Mythopoeia · Poetry · Romance · Satire · Science fiction · Tragedy · Tragicomedy · more... 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en-wikipedia-org-4823	----	Lycidas - Wikipedia Lycidas From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the genus of jumping spiders formerly known as Lycidas, see Maratus. Statue of Lycidas (1902–1908) by James Havard Thomas, Tate Britain, London.[1] "Lycidas" (/ˈlɪsɪdəs/) is a poem by John Milton, written in 1637 as a pastoral elegy. It first appeared in a 1638 collection of elegies, entitled Justa Edouardo King Naufrago, dedicated to the memory of Edward King, friend of Milton's at Cambridge who drowned when his ship sank in the Irish Sea off the coast of Wales in August 1637. The poem is 193 lines in length, and is irregularly rhymed. While many of the other poems in the compilation are in Greek and Latin, "Lycidas" is one of the poems written in English.[2] Milton republished the poem in 1645. Contents 1 History of the name Lycidas 2 "Lycidas" as pastoral elegy 3 The Uncouth Swain 4 The Pilot 5 The conclusion 6 Justa Edouardo King Naufrago 7 1645 reprint 8 Influence 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links History of the name Lycidas[edit] Herodotus in his Book IX (written in the 5th century BC) mentions an Athenian councilor in Salamis, "a man named Lycidas" (Λυκίδας), who proposed to his fellow citizens that they submit to a compromise offered by their enemy, Persian King Xerxes I, with whom they were at war. Suspected of collusion with the enemy for suggesting the compromise, Lycidas was stoned to death by "those in the council and those outside, [who] were so enraged.... [W]ith all the uproar in Salamis over Lycidas, the Athenian women soon found out what had happened; whereupon, without a word from the men, they got together, and, each one urging on her neighbor and taking her along with the crowd, flocked to Lycidas' house and stoned his wife and children."[3] The name later occurs in Theocritus's Idylls, where Lycidas is most prominently a poet-goatherd encountered on the trip of "Idyll vii." The name appears several times in Virgil and is a typically Doric shepherd's name, appropriate for the pastoral mode. A Lycidas appears in Ovid's Metamorphoses as a centaur. Lycidas also occurs in Lucan's Pharsalia, where in iii.636 a sailor named Lycidas is ripped by an iron hook from the deck of a ship. "Lycidas" as pastoral elegy[edit] By naming Edward King "Lycidas," Milton follows "the tradition of memorializing a loved one through Pastoral poetry, a practice that may be traced from ancient Greek Sicily through Roman culture and into the Christian Middle Ages and early Renaissance."[2] Milton describes King as "selfless," even though he was of the clergy – a statement both bold and, at the time, controversial among lay people: "Through allegory, the speaker accuses God of unjustly punishing the young, selfless King, whose premature death ended a career that would have unfolded in stark contrast to the majority of the ministers and bishops of the Church of England, whom the speaker condemns as depraved, materialistic, and selfish."[2] Authors and poets in the Renaissance used the pastoral mode in order to represent an ideal of life in a simple, rural landscape. Literary critics have emphasized the artificial character of pastoral nature: "The pastoral was in its very origin a sort of toy, literature of make-believe."[citation needed] Milton himself "recognized the pastoral as one of the natural modes of literary expression," employing it throughout "Lycidas" in order to achieve a strange juxtaposition between death and the remembrance of a loved one.[4] The poem itself begins with a pastoral image of laurels and myrtles, “symbols of poetic fame; as their berries are not yet ripe, the poet is not yet ready to take up his pen.”[5] However, the speaker is so filled with sorrow for the death of Lycidas that he finally begins to write an elegy. "Yet the untimely death of young Lycidas requires equally untimely verses from the poet. Invoking the muses of poetic inspiration, the shepherd-poet takes up the task, partly, he says, in hope that his own death will not go unlamented." [5] The speaker continues by recalling the life of the young shepherds together "in the ‘pastures’ of Cambridge." Milton uses the pastoral idiom to allegorize experiences he and King shared as fellow students at Christ’s College, Cambridge. The university is represented as the “self-same hill” upon which the speaker and Lycidas were “nurst”; their studies are likened to the shepherds’ work of “dr[iving] a field” and “Batt’ning… flocks”; classmates are “Rough satyrs” and “fauns with clov’n heel” and the dramatic and comedic pastimes they pursued are “Rural ditties… / Temper’ed to th’ oaten flute"; a Cambridge professor is “old Damoetas [who] lov’d to hear our song.” The poet then notes the "‘heavy change’ suffered by nature now that Lycidas is gone—a ‘pathetic fallacy’ in which the willows, hazel groves, woods, and caves lament Lycidas's death." [5] In the next section of the poem, "The shepherd-poet reflects… that thoughts of how Lycidas might have been saved are futile… turning from lamenting Lycidas’s death to lamenting the futility of all human labor." This section is followed by an interruption in the swain's monologue by the voice of Phoebus, "the sun-god, an image drawn out of the mythology of classical Roman poetry, [who] replies that fame is not mortal but eternal, witnessed by Jove (God) himself on judgment day." At the end of the poem, King/Lycidas appears as a resurrected figure, being delivered, through the resurrecting power of Christ, by the waters that lead to his death: "Burnished by the sun's rays at dawn, King resplendently ascends heavenward to his eternal reward." [2] Although on its surface "Lycidas" reads like a straightforward pastoral elegy, a closer reading reveals its complexity. "Lycidas" has been called "‘probably the most perfect piece of pure literature in existence…’ [employing] patterns of structure, prosody, and imagery to maintain a dynamic coherence. The syntax of the poem is full of ‘impertinent auxiliary assertions’ that contribute valuably to the experience of the poem."[6] The piece itself is remarkably dynamic, enabling many different styles and patterns to overlap, so that "the loose ends of any one pattern disappear into the interweavings of the others."[6] "Lycidas" also has its detractors, including 18th-century literary critic and polymath Samuel Johnson, who infamously called the pastoral form "easy, vulgar, and therefore disgusting," and said of Milton's elegy: It is not to be considered as the effusion of real passion; for passion runs not after remote allusions and obscure opinions. Passion plucks no berries from the myrtle and ivy, nor calls upon Arethuse and Mincius, nor tells of rough satyrs and fauns with cloven heel. Where there is leisure for fiction there is little grief.[7] Johnson was reacting to what he saw as the irrelevance of the pastoral idiom in Milton's age and his own, and to its ineffectiveness at conveying genuine emotion. Johnson said that conventional pastoral images—for instance, the representation of the speaker and the deceased as shepherds—were "long ago exhausted," and so improbable that they "always forc[e] dissatisfaction on the mind." Johnson also criticized the blending of Christian and pagan images and themes in "Lycidas," which he saw as the poem's "grosser fault." He said "Lycidas" positions the “trifling fictions” of “heathen deities—Jove and Phoebus, Neptune and Æolus” alongside “the most awful and sacred truths, such as ought never to be polluted with such irreverend combinations.[7] Johnson concluded: "Surely no man could have fancied that he read Lycidas with pleasure had he not known its author."[7] The Uncouth Swain[edit] Though commonly considered to be a monody, ‘Lycidas’ in fact features two distinct voices, the first of which belongs to the uncouth swain (or shepherd). The work opens with the swain, who finds himself grieving for the death of his friend, Lycidas, in an idyllic pastoral world. In his article entitled "Belief and Disbelief in Lycidas," Lawrence W. Hyman states that the swain is experiencing a "loss of faith in a world order that allows death to strike a young man."[8] Similarly, Lauren Shohet asserts that the swain is projecting his grief upon the classical images of the pastoral setting at this point in the elegy.[9] Throughout the poem, the swain uses both Christian and Pagan concepts, and mentally locates Lycidas’ body in both settings, according to Russel Fraser.[10] Examples of this are the mention of Death as an animate being, the "Sisters of the Sacred Well," Orpheus, the blind Fury that struck Lycidas down, and the scene in which Lycidas is imagined to have become a regional deity (a "genius of the shore") after drowning. Since Lycidas, like King, drowned, there is no body to be found, and the absence of the corpse is of great concern to the swain.[10] Ultimately, the swain's grief and loss of faith are conquered by a "belief in immortality."[11] Many scholars have pointed out that there is very little logical basis within the poem for this conclusion, but that a reasonable process is not necessary for 'Lycidas' to be effective.[12] Fraser will argue that Milton's voice intrudes briefly upon the swain's to tell a crowd of fellow swains that Lycidas is not in fact dead (here one sees belief in immortality). This knowledge is inconsistent with the speaker's "uncouth" character.[13] The Pilot[edit] Upon entering the poem at line 109, the voice of the "Pilot of the Galilean lake," generally believed to represent St. Peter, serves as a judge, condemning the multitude of unworthy members found among the clergy of the Church of England. Similarly, St. Peter fills the position of Old Testament prophet when he speaks of the clergy's “moral decay” and the grave consequences of their leadership. He then compares these immoral church leaders to wolves among sheep and warns of the “two-handed engine.” According to E. S. de Beer, this "two-handed engine" is thought to be a powerful weapon and an allusion to a portion of the Book of Zechariah.[14] Concerning St. Peter's role as a "prophet," the term is meant in the Biblical sense, de Beer claims, and not in the more modern sense of the word. Since Biblical prophets more often served as God's messengers than as seers, de Beer states that Milton was not attempting to foretell the likely future of the church via St. Peter.[15] De Beer continues on to note that St. Peter's appearance in "Lycidas" is likely unrelated to his position as head of the Roman Catholic Church. Neither was St. Peter ascribed any particular position within the Church of England. Instead, de Beer argues that St. Peter appears simply as an apostolic authority, through whom Milton might express his frustration with unworthy members of the English clergy.[16] Fraser also agrees that St. Peter, indeed, serves as a vehicle for Milton's voice to enter the poem.[17] The Church was so thrown off by the poem that they banned it for nearly twenty years after Milton's death. The conclusion[edit] Several interpretations of the ending have been proposed.[18] Jonathan Post claims the poem ends with a sort of retrospective picture of the poet having "sung" the poem into being.[19] According to critic Lauren Shohet, Lycidas is transcendently leaving the earth, becoming immortal, rising from the pastoral plane in which he is too involved or tangled from the objects that made him.[9] She claims that "he is diffused into, and animates, the last location of his corpse—his experience of body-as-object… neither fully immanent (since his body is lost) nor fully transcendent (since he remains on earth)."[20] With an ambiguous ending, the poem does not just end with a death, but instead, it just begins.[21] The monody clearly ends with a death and an absolute end but also moves forward and comes full circle because it takes a look back at the pastoral world left behind making the ambivalence of the end a mixture of creation and destruction.[22] Nonetheless "thy large recompense" also has a double meaning. As Paul Alpers states, Lycidias' gratitude in heaven is a payment for his loss.[23] The word "thy" is both an object and mediator of "large recompense." Thus, the meaning also maintains the literal meaning which is that of a sacred higher being or the pagan genius.[24] The final lines of the poem: And now the Sun had stretch'd out all the hills, And now was dropt into the Western bay; At last he rose, and twitch'd his Mantle blew: To morrow to fresh Woods, and Pastures new may refer to Milton's imminent departure to Italy, and they are reminiscent of the end of Virgil's 10th Eclogue, Surgamus; solet esse gravis cantantibus umbra; iuniperi gravis umbra; nocent et frugibus umbrae. Ite domum saturae, venit Hesperus, ite capellae. Come, let us rise: the shade is wont to be baneful to singers; baneful is the shade cast by the juniper, crops sicken too in shade. Now homeward, having fed your fill — eve's star is rising — go, my she-goats, go. Justa Edouardo King Naufrago[edit] "Lycidas" was originally published in a poetic miscellany alongside thirty-five other poems elegizing the death of Edward King. Collected at Cambridge, most of the poems were written by academics at the university who were committed to the conservative church politics of Archbishop Laud. Among the poets were John Cleveland, Joseph Beaumont, and Henry More.[25] Milton, on the other hand, who reported that he had been "Church-outed by the prelates,"[26] had failed to achieve a position at Cambridge after his graduation, and his religious views were becoming more radical. The style and form of his poem also strongly contrasts from the other texts in the collection. While most of the poetry adopts a baroque aesthetic linked to the Laudian ceremonialism that was in vogue in the 1630s, Milton wrote "Lycidas" in the outmoded pastoral style.[27] "Lycidas" may actually be satirizing the poetic work featured throughout the Justa Edouardo King Naufrago.[28] 1645 reprint[edit] Milton republished the poem in his 1645 collection Poems of Mr. John Milton. To this version is added a brief prose preface: In this MONODY the Author bewails a learned Friend, unfortunately drowned in his passage from Chester on the Irish seas, 1637. And by occasion foretells the ruin of our corrupted clergy, then in their height.[29] When Milton published this version, in 1645, the Long Parliament, to which Milton held allegiance, was in power; thus Milton could add the prophetic note—in hindsight—about the destruction of the "corrupted clergy," the "blind mouths" (119) of the poem. Influence[edit] The poem was exceedingly popular. It was hailed as Milton's best poem, and by some as the greatest lyrical poem in the English language.[30] Yet it was detested for its artificiality by Samuel Johnson, who found "the diction is harsh, the rhymes uncertain, and the numbers unpleasing" and complained that "in this poem there is no nature, for there is no truth; there is no art, for there is nothing new."[31] It is from a line in "Lycidas" that Thomas Wolfe took the name of his novel Look Homeward, Angel: Look homeward Angel now, and melt with ruth: And, O ye Dolphins', waft the hapless youth. (163–164) The title of Howard Spring's 1940 political novel Fame is the Spur takes its title from the poem, as does The Sheep Look Up by John Brunner which is taken from line 125. The title of the short story "Wash Far Away" by John Berryman from the collection Freedom of the Poet is also taken from this poem: Ay me! Whilst thee the shores and sounding Seas Wash far away, where ere thy bones are hurld, (154–155) The song "The Alphabet Business Concern (Home of Fadeless Splendour)", from the album, Heaven Born and Ever Bright (1992) by Cardiacs, contains the lines: Comes the blind Fury with th'abhorred shears And slits the thin spun life. (75–76) See also[edit] 1637 in poetry, the year the poem was written 1638 in poetry, the year the poem was published References[edit] ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, ed. 1911, vol. 24, pg. 505, Plate IV. ^ a b c d Womack, Mark (1 January 1997). "On the Value of Lycidas". SEL: Studies in English Literature 1500–1900. 37 (1): 119–136. doi:10.2307/450776. JSTOR 450776. ^ Marincola, John (Trans. and Ed.) (1996). Herodotus: The Histories. New York: Penguin Classics. ^ "Milton, John". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 3 Nov. 2008 ^ a b c Hale, James. "Lycidas." Masterplots II: Poetry 2002: MagillonLiterature Plus. EBSCOhost. 3 Nov2008 ^ a b Hanford, James Holly (1 January 1910). "The Pastoral Elegy and Milton's Lycidas". PMLA. 25 (3): 403–447. doi:10.2307/456731. JSTOR 456731. ^ a b c Johnson, Samuel (1783). The Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets. London. pp. 218–220. ^ Hyman, Lawrence W. (1 January 1972). "Belief and Disbelief in Lycidas". College English. 33 (5): 532–542. doi:10.2307/375413. JSTOR 375413. ^ a b Shohet, Lauren. "Subjects and Objects in Lycidas." Texas Studies in Literature and Language, Volume 47, Number 2, Summer 2005, pp. 101–119, 103 ^ a b Fraser, Russell. "Milton’s Two Poets." Studies in English Literature (Rice); Winter94, Vol. 34 Issue 1, p109, 10p., 115 ^ Hyman, 532 ^ Hyman, 532–533 ^ Fraser, 116 ^ de Beer, E. S. (1 January 1947). "St. Peter in 'Lycidas'". The Review of English Studies. 23 (89): 60–63. JSTOR 509769. ^ de Beer, 62 ^ de Beer, 60 ^ Fraser 109 ^ Post, Jonathan. "Helpful Contraries: Carew's 'Donne' and Milton's Lycidas." George Hebert Journal Vol. 29.1 and 2 (Fall 2005/Spring 2006): 88–89. Project Muse 3 November 2008 88 ^ Post, Jonathan. "Helpful Contraries: Carew's 'Donne' and Milton's Lycidas." George Herbert Journal Vol. 29.1 and 2 (Fall 2005/Spring 2006): 88–89. Project Muse 3 November 2008 ^ Shohet 113 ^ Kilgour, Maggie. "Heroic Contradiction: Samson and the Death of Turnus." Texas Studies in Literature and Language Vol. 50.2 (2008) ^ Kilgour 224 ^ Alpers, Paul (1 January 1982). "Lycidas and Modern Criticism". ELH. 49 (2): 468–496. doi:10.2307/2872992. JSTOR 2872992. ^ Alpers 494 ^ Gadaleto, Michael (2018). ""Who would not sing for Lycidas?": Milton's Satirical Reform of the Justa Edouardo King". Studies in Philology. 115 (1): 154–192. doi:10.1353/sip.2018.0006. S2CID 165697367. ^ CPW 1:823 ^ Gadaleto, p. 156 ^ Gadaleto, p. 158 ^ Homer Baxter Sprague, ed. (1879). Milton's Lycidas. Ginn and Heath. ^ Bloom, H. (2004) The best poems of the English language: From Chaucer through Frost. New York: HarperCollins Publishers. ^ "Clement A. Price Institute on Ethnicity, Culture, and the Modern Experience – Rutgers SASN". sasn.rutgers.edu. Further reading[edit] Patrides, C. A. Lycidas: The Tradition and the Poem (Holt, Rinehart, 1961) LCCN 61005930 Patrides, C. A. Milton's Lycidas: The Tradition and the Poem new and revised edition, (University of Missouri, 1983) ISBN 0-8262-0412-0 External links[edit] Works related to Lycidas at Wikisource Full text at The Milton Reading Room v t e John Milton Topics Poetic style Reception history Religion Politics Early life Relationships Poetry Poems 1645 On the Morning of Christ's Nativity Upon the Circumcision The Passion Arcades Comus "Lycidas" "L'Allegro" "Il Penseroso" Paradise Lost Paradise Regained Samson Agonistes Poems 1673 Antiprelatical tracts Of Reformation Of Prelatical Episcopacy Animadversions The Reason of Church-Government Apology for Smectymnuus Divorce tracts Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce Judgement of Martin Bucer Concerning Divorce Tetrachordon Colasterion Political tracts Areopagitica The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates Eikonoklastes Defensio pro Populo Anglicano Defensio Secunda A Treatise of Civil Power The Ready and Easy Way Other writings Of Education The History of Britain Of True Religion Individual sonnets "When I Consider How My Light is Spent" "On the Late Massacre in Piedmont" "Methought I Saw my Late Espoused Saint" Disputed De Doctrina Christiana Related John Milton (father) Edward Phillips (nephew) John Phillips (nephew) Milton: A Poem in Two Books (1804–1810) Neo-Miltonic syllabics Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lycidas&oldid=978037130" Categories: 1637 poems 1638 poems Poetry by John Milton Hidden categories: CS1: Julian–Gregorian uncertainty Use dmy dates from February 2013 Use British English from February 2013 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2016 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Français Italiano മലയാളം Nederlands Русский Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 12 September 2020, at 14:33 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4911	----	List of Latin phrases (N) - Wikipedia List of Latin phrases (N) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Nunc est bibendum) Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikipedia list article This page lists English translations of notable Latin phrases, such as veni vidi vici and et cetera. Some of the phrases are themselves translations of Greek phrases, as Greek rhetoric and literature reached its peak centuries before the rise of ancient Rome. This list covers the letter N. See List of Latin phrases for the main list. List of Latin phrases A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z full References Latin Translation Notes nanos gigantum humeris insidentes Dwarfs standing on the shoulders of giants First recorded by John of Salisbury in the twelfth century and attributed to Bernard of Chartres. Also commonly known by the letters of Isaac Newton: "If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of giants". nascentes morimur finisque ab origine pendet When we are born we die, our end is but the pendant of our beginning nasciturus pro iam nato habetur, quotiens de commodis eius agitur The unborn is deemed to have been born to the extent that his own inheritance is concerned Refers to a situation where an unborn child is deemed to be entitled to certain inheritance rights. natura abhorret a vacuo nature abhors vacuum Pseudo-explanation for why a liquid will climb up a tube to fill a vacuum, often given before the discovery of atmospheric pressure. natura artis magistra Nature is the teacher of art The name of the zoo in the centre of Amsterdam; short: "Artis". natura nihil frustra facit nature does nothing in vain Cf. Aristotle: "οὐθὲν γάρ, ὡς φαμέν, μάτην ἡ φύσις ποιεῖ" (Politics I 2, 1253a9) and Leucippus: "Everything that happens does so for a reason and of necessity." natura non contristatur nature is not saddened That is, the natural world is not sentimental or compassionate. Derived by Arthur Schopenhauer from an earlier source. natura non facit saltum ita nec lex nature does not make a leap, thus neither does the law Shortened form of "sicut natura nil facit per saltum ita nec lex" (just as nature does nothing by a leap, so neither does the law), referring to both nature and the legal system moving gradually. natura non facit saltus nature makes no leaps A famous aphorism of Carl Linnaeus stating that all organisms bear relationships on all sides, their forms changing gradually from one species to the next. From Philosophia Botanica (1751). natura valde simplex est et sibi consona Nature is exceedingly simple and harmonious with itself Sir Isaac Newton's famous quote, defining foundation of all modern sciences. Can be found in his Unpublished Scientific Papers of Isaac Newton: A selection from the Portsmouth Collection in the University Library, Cambridge, 1978 edition[1] naturalia non sunt turpia What is natural is not dirty Based on Servius' commentary on Virgil's Georgics (3:96): "turpis non est quia per naturam venit." naturam expellas furca, tamen usque recurret. You may drive out Nature with a pitchfork, yet she still will hurry back You must take the basic nature of something into account. – Horace, Epistles, Book I, epistle X, line 24. navigare necesse est, vivere non est necesse to sail is necessary; to live is not necessary Attributed by Plutarch to Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, who, during a severe storm, commanded sailors to bring food from Africa to Rome. Translated from Plutarch's Greek "πλεῖν ἀνάγκη, ζῆν οὐκ ἀνάγκη". ne plus ultra nothing more beyond Also nec plus ultra or non plus ultra. A descriptive phrase meaning the best or most extreme example of something. The Pillars of Hercules, for example, were literally the nec plus ultra of the ancient Mediterranean world. Holy Roman Emperor Charles V's heraldic emblem reversed this idea, using a depiction of this phrase inscribed on the Pillars – as plus ultra, without the negation. The Boston Musical Instrument Company engraved ne plus ultra on its instruments from 1869 to 1928 to signify that none were better. Non plus ultra is the motto of the Spanish exclave Melilla. ne puero gladium do not give a sword to a boy Never give dangerous tools to someone who is untrained to use them or too immature to understand the damage they can do. ne supra crepidam sutor iudicaret a shoemaker should not judge beyond the shoe see Sutor, ne ultra crepidam ne te quaesiveris extra do not seek outside yourself line from the Roman satirist Persius inscribed on the boulder to the right of Sir John Suckling in the painting of the aforementioned subject by Sir Anthony Van Dyck (ca. 1638) and invoked by Ralph Waldo Emerson at the opening of his essay Self-Reliance (1841) Nec aspera terrent They are not terrified of the rough things They are not afraid of difficulties. Less literally "Difficulties be damned." Motto for 27th Infantry Regiment (United States) and the Duke of Lancaster's Regiment. Nec = not; aspera = rough ones/things; terrent = they terrify / do terrify / are terrifying. Nec deus intersit, nisi dignus vindice nodus (inciderit) That a god not intervene, unless a knot show up that be worthy of such an untangler "When the miraculous power of God is necessary, let it be resorted to: when it is not necessary, let the ordinary means be used." From Horace's Ars Poetica as a caution against deus ex machina. nec dextrorsum, nec sinistrorsum Neither to the right nor to the left Do not get distracted. Motto for Bishop Cotton Boys' School and the Bishop Cotton Girls' School, both located in Bangalore, India. nec spe, nec metu without hope, without fear nec tamen consumebatur and yet it was not consumed Refers to the Burning Bush of Exodus 3:2. Motto of many Presbyterian churches throughout the world. nec temere nec timide neither reckless nor timid Motto of the Dutch 11th Air Manoeuvre Brigade and the city of Gdańsk, Poland nec vi, nec clam, nec precario Without permission, without secrecy, without interruption The law of adverse possession neca eos omnes, Deus suos agnoscet kill them all, God will know his own alternate rendition of Caedite eos. Novit enim Dominus qui sunt eius. by Arnaud Amalric necesse est aut imiteris aut oderis you must either imitate or loathe the world Seneca the Younger, Epistulae morales ad Lucilium, 7:7 necessitas etiam timidos fortes facit need makes even the timid brave Sallust, The Conspiracy of Catiline, 58:19 nemine contradicente (nem. con., N.C.D.) with no one speaking against Less literally, "without dissent". Used especially in committees, where a matter may be passed nem. con., or unanimously, or with unanimous consent. nemo contra Deum nisi Deus ipse No one against God except God himself From Goethe's autobiography From my Life: Poetry and Truth, p. 598 nemo dat quod non habet no one gives what he does not have Thus, "none can pass better title than they have" nemo est supra legem nobody is above the law; or nemo est supra leges, nobody is above the laws Nemo igitur vir magnus sine aliquo adflatu divino umquam fuit No great man ever existed who did not enjoy some portion of divine inspiration From Cicero's De Natura Deorum, Book 2, chapter LXVI, 167[2] nemo iudex in causa sua no man shall be a judge in his own cause Legal principle that no individual can preside over a hearing in which he holds a specific interest or bias nemo malus felix peace visits not the guilty mind Also translated to "no rest for the wicked." Refers to the inherent psychological issues that plague bad/guilty people. nemo me impune lacessit No one provokes me with impunity Motto of the Order of the Thistle, and consequently of Scotland, found stamped on the milled edge of certain British pound sterling coins. It is the motto of the Montressors in the Edgar Allan Poe short story "The Cask of Amontillado". Motto of the San Beda College Beta Sigma Fraternity. nemo mortalium omnibus horis sapit No mortal is wise at all times The wisest may make mistakes. nemo nisi per amicitiam cognoscitur No one learns except by friendship Used to imply that one must like a subject in order to study it. nemo propheta in patria (sua) no man is a prophet in his own land Concept present in all four Gospels (Matthew 13:57; Mark 6:4; Luke 4:24; John 4:44). nemo saltat sobrius Nobody dances sober The short and more common form of Nemo enim fere saltat sobrius, nisi forte insanit, "Nobody dances sober, unless he happens to be insane," a quote from Cicero (from the speech Pro Murena). nemo tenetur se ipsum accusare no one is bound to accuse himself (the right to silence) A maxim banning mandatory self-incrimination. Near-synonymous with accusare nemo se debet nisi coram Deo. Similar phrases include: nemo tenetur armare adversarium contra se (no one is bound to arm an opponent against himself), meaning that a defendant is not obligated to in any way assist the prosecutor to his own detriment; nemo tenetur edere instrumenta contra se (no one is bound to produce documents against himself, meaning that a defendant is not obligated to provide materials to be used against himself (this is true in Roman law and has survived in modern criminal law, but no longer applies in modern civil law); and nemo tenere prodere se ipsum (no one is bound to betray himself), meaning that a defendant is not obligated to testify against himself. neque semper arcum tendit Apollo nor does Apollo always keep his bow drawn Horace, Carmina 2/10:19-20. The same image appears in a fable of Phaedrus. Ne quid nimis Nothing in excess nervos belli, pecuniam infinitam Endless money forms the sinews of war In war, it is essential to be able to purchase supplies and to pay troops (as Napoleon put it, "An army marches on its stomach"). nihil ad rem nothing to do with the point That is, in law, irrelevant and/or inconsequential. nihil boni sine labore nothing achieved without hard work Motto of Palmerston North Boys' High School nihil dicit he says nothing In law, a declination by a defendant to answer charges or put in a plea. nihil enim lacrima citius arescit nothing dries sooner than a tear Pseudo-Cicero, Ad Herrenium, 2/31:50 nihil humanum mihi alienum nothing human is alien to me Adapted from Terence's Heauton Timorumenos (The Self-Tormentor), homo sum humani a me nihil alienum puto ("I am a human being; nothing human is strange to me"). Sometimes ending in est. nihil in intellectu nisi prius in sensu nothing in the intellect unless first in sense The guiding principle of empiricism, and accepted in some form by Aristotle, Aquinas, Locke, Berkeley, and Hume. Leibniz, however, added nisi intellectus ipse (except the intellect itself). nihil nimis nothing too Or nothing to excess. Latin translation of the inscription of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. nihil novi nothing of the new Or just "nothing new". The phrase exists in two versions: as nihil novi sub sole (nothing new under the sun), from the Vulgate, and as nihil novi nisi commune consensu (nothing new unless by the common consensus), a 1505 law of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and one of the cornerstones of its Golden Liberty. nihil obstat nothing prevents A notation, usually on a title page, indicating that a Roman Catholic censor has reviewed the book and found nothing objectionable to faith or morals in its content. See also imprimatur. nihil sine Deo nothing without God Motto of the Kingdom of Romania, while ruled by the Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen dynasty (1878–1947). nihil ultra nothing beyond Motto of St. Xavier's College, Calcutta nil admirari be surprised at nothing Or "nihil admirari". Cicero, Tusculanae Disputationes (3,30), Horace, Epistulae (1,6,1), and Seneca, Epistulae morales ad Lucilium, (8,5). Motto of the Fitzgibbon family. See John FitzGibbon, 1st Earl of Clare nil desperandum nothing must be despaired at That is, "never despair". nil igitur fieri de nilo posse fatendumst nothing, therefore, we must confess, can be made from nothing From Lucretius' De rerum natura (On the Nature of Things), I.205 Nil igitur mors est ad nos Death, therefore, is nothing to us From Lucretius' De rerum natura (On the Nature of Things), III.831 nil mortalibus ardui est nothing is impossible for humankind From Horace's Odes. Motto of Rathkeale College, New Zealand and Brunts School, England. nil nisi bonum (about the dead say) nothing unless (it is) good Short for nil nisi bonum de mortuis dicere. That is, "Don't speak ill of anyone who has died". Also "Nil magnum nisi bonum" (nothing is great unless good), motto of St Catherine's School, Toorak, Pennant Hills High School and Petit Seminaire Higher Secondary School. nil nisi malis terrori no terror, except to the bad Motto of The King's School, Macclesfield nil per os, rarely non per os (n.p.o.) nothing through the mouth Medical shorthand indicating that oral foods and fluids should be withheld from the patient. nil satis nisi optimum nothing [is] enough unless [it is] the best Motto of Everton F.C., residents of Goodison Park, Liverpool. nil sine labore nothing without labour Motto of many schools nil sine numine nothing without the divine will Or "nothing without providence". State motto of Colorado, adopted in 1861. Probably derived from Virgil's Aeneid Book II, line 777, "non haec sine numine divum eveniunt" (these things do not come to pass without the will of Heaven). See also numen. nil volentibus arduum Nothing [is] arduous for the willing Nothing is impossible for the willing nisi Dominus frustra if not the Lord, [it is] in vain That is, "everything is in vain without God". Summarized from Psalm 127 (126 Vulgate), nisi Dominus aedificaverit domum in vanum laboraverunt qui aedificant eam nisi Dominus custodierit civitatem frustra vigilavit qui custodit (unless the Lord builds the house, they work on a useless thing who build it; unless the Lord guards the community, he keeps watch in vain who guards it); widely used motto. nisi paria non pugnant it takes two to make a fight Irascetur aliquis: tu contra beneficiis prouoca; cadit statim simultas ab altera parte deserta; nisi paria non pugnant. (If any one is angry with you, meet his anger by returning benefits for it: a quarrel which is only taken up on one side falls to the ground: it takes two men to fight.) Seneca the Younger, De Ira (On Anger): Book 2, cap. 34, line 5. nisi prius unless previously In England, a direction that a case be brought up to Westminster for trial before a single judge and jury. In the United States, a court where civil actions are tried by a single judge sitting with a jury, as distinguished from an appellate court. nitimur in vetitum We strive for the forbidden From Ovid's Amores, III.4:17. It means that when we are denied of something, we will eagerly pursue the denied thing. Used by Friedrich Nietzsche in his Ecce Homo to indicate that his philosophy pursues what is forbidden to other philosophers. nobis bene, nemini male Good for us, Bad for no one Inscription on the old Nobistor [de] gatepost that divided Altona and St. Pauli nolens volens unwilling, willing That is, "whether unwillingly or willingly". Sometimes rendered volens nolens, aut nolens aut volens or nolentis volentis. Similar to willy-nilly, though that word is derived from Old English will-he nil-he ([whether] he will or [whether] he will not). noli me tangere do not touch me Commonly translated "touch me not". According to the Gospel of John, this was said by Jesus to Mary Magdalene after his resurrection. noli turbare circulos meos Do not disturb my circles! That is, "Don't upset my calculations!" Said by Archimedes to a Roman soldier who, despite having been given orders not to, killed Archimedes at the conquest of Syracuse, Sicily. nolite te bastardes carborundorum (Dog Latin) Don't let the bastards grind you down From The Handmaid's Tale by Margaret Atwood – the protagonist (Offred) finds the phrase inscribed on the inside of her wardrobe. One of many variants of Illegitimi non carborundum. nolle prosequi to be unwilling to prosecute A legal motion by a prosecutor or other plaintiff to drop legal charges, usually in exchange for a diversion program or out-of-court settlement. nolo contendere I do not wish to contend That is, "no contest". A plea that can be entered on behalf of a defendant in a court that states that the accused doesn't admit guilt, but will accept punishment for a crime. Nolo contendere pleas cannot be used as evidence in another trial. nomen amicitiae sic, quatenus expedit, haeret the name of friendship lasts just so long as it is profitable Petronius, Satyricon, 80. nomen dubium doubtful name A scientific name of unknown or doubtful application. nomen est omen the name is a sign Thus, "true to its name". nomen nescio (N.N.) I do not know the name Thus, the name or person in question is unknown. nomen nudum naked name A purported scientific name that does not fulfill the proper formal criteria and therefore cannot be used unless it is subsequently proposed correctly. non auro, sed ferro, recuperanda est patria Not gold, but iron redeems the native land According to some Roman this sentence was said by Marcus Furius Camillus to Brennus, the chief of the Gauls, after he demanded more gold from the citizens of the recently sacked Rome in 390 BC. non bene pro toto libertas venditur auro liberty is not well sold for all the gold Motto of Republic of Ragusa, inscribed over the gates of St. Lawrence Fortress. From Gualterus Anglicus's version of Aesop's fable "The Dog and the Wolf". non bis in idem not twice in the same thing A legal principle forbidding double jeopardy. non canimus surdis, respondent omnia silvae we sing not to the deaf; the trees echo every word Virgil, Eclogues 10:8 non causa pro causa not the cause for the cause Also known as the "questionable cause" or "false cause". Refers to any logical fallacy where a cause is incorrectly identified. non compos mentis not in control of the mind See compos mentis. Also rendered non compos sui (not in control of himself). Samuel Johnson, author of the first English dictionary, theorized that the word nincompoop may derive from this phrase. non constat it is not certain Used to explain scientific phenomena and religious advocations, for example in medieval history, for rulers to issue a 'Non Constat' decree, banning the worship of a holy figure. In legal context, occasionally a backing for nulling information that was presented by an attorney. Without any tangible proof, Non constat information is difficult to argue for. non ducor, duco I am not led; I lead Motto of São Paulo city, Brazil. See also pro Brasilia fiant eximia. non est factum it is not [my] deed a doctrine in contract law that allows a signing party to escape performance of the agreement. A claim of "non est factum" means that the signature on the contract was signed by mistake, without knowledge of its meaning, but was not done so negligently. A successful plea would make the contract void ab initio. non est princeps super leges, sed leges supra principem the prince is not above the laws, but the law is above the prince. Pliny the Younger, Panegyricus 65:1. non extinguetur shall not be extinguished Motto of the Society of Antiquaries of London accompanying their Lamp of knowledge emblem non facias malum ut inde fiat bonum you should not make evil in order that good may be made from it More simply, "don't do wrong to do right". The direct opposite of the phrase "the ends justify the means". non hos quaesitum munus in usus A gift sought for no such purpose Virgil, Aeneid, 4:647, of the sword with which Dido will commit suicide. "Not for so dire an enterprise design’d." (Dryden trans.; 1697)[3] "A gift asked for no use like this." (Mackail trans.; 1885).[4] "Ne'er given for an end so dire." (Taylor trans.; 1907)[5] "A gift not asked for use like this!" (Williams trans.; 1910).[6] Quoted by Francis Bacon of the civil law, "not made for the countries it governeth". non impediti ratione cogitationis unencumbered by the thought process motto of radio show Car Talk non in legendo sed in intelligendo leges consistunt the laws depend not on being read, but on being understood non liquet it is not proven Also "it is not clear" or "it is not evident". A sometimes controversial decision handed down by a judge when they feel that the law is not complete. non loqui sed facere not talk but action Motto of the University of Western Australia's Engineering faculty student society. non mihi solum not for myself alone Motto of Anderson Junior College, Singapore. non ministrari sed ministrare not to be served, but to serve Motto of Wellesley College and Shimer College (from Matthew 20:28 in the Vulgate). non multa sed multum not quantity but quality Motto of the Daniel Pearl Magnet High School. Non nobis Domine Not to us (oh) Lord Christian hymn based on Psalm 115. non nobis nati 'Born not for ourselves' Motto of St Albans School (Hertfordshire) non nobis solum not for ourselves alone Appears in Cicero's De Officiis Book 1:22 in the form non nobis solum nati sumus (we are not born for ourselves alone). Motto of Lower Canada College, Montreal and University College, Durham University, and Willamette University. non numerantur, sed ponderantur they are not counted, but weighed Old saying. Paul Erdős (1913–1996), in The Man Who Loved Only Numbers by Paul Hoffman[7] non obstante veredicto not standing in the way of a verdict A judgment notwithstanding verdict, a legal motion asking the court to reverse the jury's verdict on the grounds that the jury could not have reached such a verdict reasonably. non olet it doesn't smell See pecunia non olet. non omnia possumus omnest not everyone can do everything Virgil, Eclogues 8:63 (and others). non omnis moriar I shall not all die Horace, Carmina 3/30:6. "Not all of me will die", a phrase expressing the belief that a part of the speaker will survive beyond death. non plus ultra nothing further beyond the ultimate. See also 'ne plus ultra' non possumus not possible non possunt primi esse omnes omni in tempore not everyone can occupy the first rank forever (It is impossible always to excel) Decimus Laberius. non progredi est regredi to not go forward is to go backward non prosequitur he does not proceed A judgment in favor of a defendant when the plaintiff failed to take the necessary steps in an action within the time allowed. non scholae sed vitae [We learn] not for school but for life An inversion of non vitae sed scholae now used as a school motto non qui parum habet, set qui plus cupit, pauper est It is not he who has little, but he who wants more, who is the pauper. Seneca the Younger, Epistulae morales ad Lucilium, 2:6. non quis sed quid not who but what Used in the sense "what matters is not who says it but what he says" – a warning against ad hominem arguments; frequently used as motto, including that of Southwestern University. non sequitur it does not follow In general, a comment which is absurd due to not making sense in its context (rather than due to being inherently nonsensical or internally inconsistent), often used in humor. As a logical fallacy, a conclusion that does not follow from a premise. non serviam I will not serve Possibly derived from a Vulgate mistranslation of the Book of Jeremiah. Commonly used in literature as Satan's statement of disobedience to God, though in the original context the quote is attributed to Israel, not Satan. non sibi Not for self A slogan used by many schools and universities. non sibi, sed patriae Not for self, but for country Engraved on the doors of the United States Naval Academy chapel; motto of the USS Halyburton (FFG-40). non sibi, sed suis Not for one's self but for one's own A slogan used by many schools and universities. non sibi, sed omnibus Not for one's self but for all A slogan used by many schools and universities. non sic dormit, sed vigilat Sleeps not but is awake Martin Luther on mortality of the soul. non silba, sed anthar; Deo vindice Not for self, but for others; God will vindicate A slogan used by the Ku Klux Klan non sum qualis eram I am not such as I was Or "I am not the kind of person I once was". Expresses a change in the speaker. Horace, Odes 4/1:3. non teneas aurum totum quod splendet ut aurum Do not hold as gold all that shines as gold Also, "All that glitters is not gold." Shakespeare in The Merchant of Venice. non timebo mala I will fear no evil It is possibly a reference to Psalm 23. Printed on the Colt in Supernatural. non vestra sed vos Not yours but you Motto of St Chad's College, Durham. non vitae sed scholae [We learn] not for life but for schooltime From a passage of occupatio in Seneca the Younger's moral letters to Lucilius,[8] wherein Lucilius is given the argument that too much literature fails to prepare students for life non vi, sed verbo Not by force, but by the word [of God] From Martin Luther's "Invocavit Sermons" preached in March, 1522, against the Zwickau prophets unrest in Wittenberg;[9] later echoed in the Augsburg Confession as ...sine vi humana, sed Verbo: bishops should act "without human force, but through the Word".[10] nosce te ipsum know thyself From Cicero, based on the Greek γνῶθι σεαυτόν (gnothi seauton), inscribed on the pronaos of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi, according to the Greek periegetic writer Pausanias (10.24.1). A non-traditional Latin rendering, temet nosce (thine own self know), is translated in The Matrix as "know thyself". noscitur a sociis a word is known by the company it keeps In statutory interpretation, when a word is ambiguous, its meaning may be determined by reference to the rest of the statute. noster nostri Literally "Our ours" Approximately "Our hearts beat as one." nota bene mark well That is, "please note" or "note it well". novus ordo seclorum new order of the ages From Virgil. Motto on the Great Seal of the United States. Similar to Novus Ordo Mundi (New World Order). nulla dies sine linea Not a day without a line drawn Pliny the Elder attributes this maxim to Apelles, an ancient Greek artist. nulla dies umquam memori vos eximet aevo No day shall erase you from the memory of time From Virgil's Aeneid, Book IX, line 447, on the episode of Nisus and Euryalus. nulla poena sine lege no penalty without a law Refers to the legal principle that one cannot be punished for doing something that is not prohibited by law, and is related to Nullum crimen, nulla poena sine praevia lege poenali. nulla quaestio there is no question, there is no issue nulla tenaci invia est via For the tenacious, no road is impassable Motto of the Dutch car builder Spyker. nullam rem natam no thing born That is, "nothing". It has been theorized that this expression is the origin of Italian nulla, French rien, and Spanish and Portuguese nada, all with the same meaning. nulli secundus second to none Motto of the Coldstream Guards and Nine Squadron Royal Australian Corps of Transport and the Pretoria Regiment. nullius in verba On the word of no man Motto of the Royal Society. nullum crimen, nulla poena sine praevia lege poenali no crime, no punishment without a previous penal law Legal principle meaning that one cannot be penalised for doing something that is not prohibited by law; penal law cannot be enacted retroactively. nullum magnum ingenium sine mixtura dementiae fuit There has been no great wisdom without an element of madness numen lumen God our light The motto of the University of Wisconsin-Madison. The motto of Elon University. numerus clausus closed number A method to limit the number of students who may study at a university. nunc aut nunquam now or never Motto of the Korps Commandotroepen, Dutch elite special forces. nunc dimittis now you send beginning of the Song of Simeon, from the Gospel of Luke. nunc est bibendum now is the time to drink Carpe-Diem-type phrase from the Odes of Horace, Nunc est bibendum, nunc pede libero pulsanda tellus (Now is the time to drink, now the time to dance footloose upon the earth). nunc pro tunc now for then Something that has retroactive effect, is effective from an earlier date. nunc scio quid sit amor now I know what love is From Virgil, Eclogues VIII. nunquam minus solus quam cum solus never less alone than when alone nunquam non paratus never unprepared, ever ready, always ready frequently used as motto nunquam obliviscar never forget References[edit] ^ Hall, A. Rupert. Unpublished Scientific Papers of Isaac Newton: A selection from the Portsmouth Collection in the University Library, Cambridge. ISBN 0521294363. ^ "LXVI". De Natura Deorum. Cambridge University Press. 1880 – via Internet Archive. ^ Virgil's Aeneid Translated by John Dryden (1697). ^ The Aeneid of Virgil Translated into English by John William Mackail (1885), Book Fourth: The Love of Dido, and Her End. ^ The Aeneid of Vergil Translated into English by E. Fairfax Taylor [1907] (1910), Book Four, LXXXV. ^ Aeneid Translated by Theodore C. Williams (1910). ^ Paul Hoffman (1998). The Man Who Loved Only Numbers. p. 6. ^ Seneca the Younger. Moral Letters to Lucilius, 106. Hosted at Wikisource. ^ The Cambridge Companion to Martin Luther, p. 13. Cambridge University Press (Cambridge), 2003. ^ "Confessio Augustana", §28. 1530. Hosted at Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Additional references Adeleye, Gabriel G. (1999). Thomas J. Sienkewicz; James T. McDonough, Jr. (eds.). World Dictionary of Foreign Expressions. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc. ISBN 0865164223. Stone, Jon R. (1996). Latin for the Illiterati. London & New York: Routledge. ISBN 0415917751. v t e Latin phrases Latin phrases  A   B   C   D   E   F   G   H   I   L   M   N   O   P   Q   R   S   T   U   V   Complete list Others Latin abbreviations Latin words with English derivatives Legal Latin terms Latin proverbs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Latin_phrases_(N)&oldid=973083520#nunc_est_bibendum" Categories: Lists of Latin phrases Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Čeština Deutsch Français Հայերեն Simple English Edit links This page was last edited on 15 August 2020, at 08:03 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4917	----	Polyaenus - Wikipedia Polyaenus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Polyaenus (disambiguation). Polyaenus or Polyenus (/ˌpɒliˈiːnəs/ POL-ee-EE-nəs; see ae (æ) vs. e; Greek: Πoλύαινoς, translit. Polyainos, "much-praised") was a 2nd-century CE Macedonian author, known best for his Stratagems in War (Greek: Στρατηγήματα, translit. Strategemata), which has been preserved. The Suda[1] calls him a rhetorician, and Polyaenus himself writes that he was accustomed to plead causes before the Roman emperor.[2] Polyaenus dedicated Stratagems in War to the two emperors Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180) and Lucius Verus (r. 161–169), while they were engaged in the Roman–Parthian War of 161–166, about 163, at which time he was too old to accompany them in their campaigns.[3] Polyaenus, Stratagems in War, 1821 Contents 1 Stratagems 2 Other works 3 Notes 4 Further reading 5 External links Stratagems[edit] This work is divided into eight books: the first six contain accounts of the stratagems of the most celebrated Greek generals, the seventh book contains stratagems of non Greeks and Romans, and the eighth book those of the Romans and of illustrious women. Parts, however, of the sixth and seventh books are lost, so that of the 900 stratagems which Polyaenus described, 833 have survived. The book has survived in a single copy made in the 13th century, although there exist five abridged versions, which will be discussed below. The full copy once belonged to Michel Apostolios and is now in the Laurentian Library in Florence. The work is written in a clear and pleasing style[citation needed], though somewhat tinged with the artificial rhetoric of the age[clarification needed]. It contains a vast number of anecdotes respecting many of the most celebrated men in antiquity, and has uniquely preserved many historical facts. There are no less than five Byzantine abridgments of this work, the most important one of which is held in the same library of the original, the Laurentian. This compendium, titled Ὑπoθέσεις ἐκ τῶν στρατηγικῶν πράξεων, contains 58 chapters and 354 stratagems, and is useful to elucidate and explain many passages of the original, lost or not. Despite the existence of the abridgements, Polyaenus' treatise was not popular in the Middle Ages. The original is rarely cited by Byzantine sources, which suggests that it had ceased to circulate, and that the abridgements had replaced it. To this it must be added that only the Ὑπoθέσεις derives directly from the original, while the other four versions seem to be summaries of the first. Polyaenus was first printed in a Latin translation, executed by Justus Vulteius, at Basel, 1549. The first edition of the Greek text was published by Isaac Casaubon, Lyon, 1589; the next by Pancratius Maasvicius, Leyden, 1690; the third by Samuel Mursinna, Berlin, 1756; the fourth by Adamantios Korais, Paris, 1809.[4] The work has been translated into English by R. Shepherd, London, 1793; into German by Seybold, Frankfurt, 1793–94, and by Blume, Stuttgart, 1834. Other works[edit] Polyaenus also wrote several other works, all of which have perished. The Suda has preserved the titles of two, On Thebes (Περὶ Θηβῶν) and Tactics, in three books (Τακτικά). Stobaeus makes a quotation from a work of Polyaenus, Ὑπὲρ τoῦ κoινoῦ τῶν Mακεδόνων[5] (For the koinon of Macedonians), and from another entitled Ὑπὲρ τoῦ Συνεδρίoυ[6] (For the Synedrion). Polyaenus likewise mentions his intention of writing a work on the memorable actions of M. Aurelius and L. Verus.[7] Notes[edit] ^ Suda π 1955, Πολύαινος ^ Polyaenus, praef. lib. ii, praef. lib. viii ^ Polyaenus, praef. lib. i ^ Polyaenus’ Stratagems, ELINEPA, 2019 ^ Stobaeus, xlviii. 43 ^ Stobaeus, xlviii. 53 ^ Polyaenus, praef. lib. vi Further reading[edit] Bayle, Pierre (1740). "Polyænus". Dictionnaire historique et critique. Amsterdam.[permanent dead link] Brodersen, Kai, ed. (2010). Polyainos. Neue Studien. Polyaenus. New Studies. Berlin: Verlag Antike. ISBN 978-3-938032-39-8. Brodersen, Kai (2017). Polyainos: Strategika (in Greek and German). Berlin & Boston: De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-053664-5. Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Polyaenus" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 17. Dain, A. "Les Cinq adaptations Byzantines de les Stratagèmes de Polyen". Revue des études anciennes: 321–346. "Polyen: Ruses de guerre". Site de Philippe Remacle (in French). Retrieved 9 October 2018. — Gui-Alexis Lobineau (traducteur), Paris, (1840) Seyffert, Oskar (1894). "Polyænus". Dictionary of Classical Antiquities.  Smith, William, ed. (1870). "Polyaenus (4) the Macedonian". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 3. External links[edit] Livius, Polyaenus by Jona Lendering Polyaenus, Stratagems of War, Translated by E. Shepherd, 1793 (excerpts: those stratagems concerning Alexander and some of the Diadochi) Stratagems of War (complete translation) Eduard von Woelffin 1887 edition at the Internet Archive Authority control BIBSYS: 95004199 BNE: XX1093657 BNF: cb123171991 (data) CANTIC: a10492215 CiNii: DA02986019 GND: 118741411 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\185644 ISNI: 0000 0000 8339 499X LCCN: n94028544 LNB: 000050390 NDL: 00756593 NSK: 000506352 NTA: 06995142X RERO: 02-A000131903 SELIBR: 269887 SUDOC: 032072252 Trove: 974360 VcBA: 495/25170 VIAF: 15564840 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n94028544 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polyaenus&oldid=986005747" Categories: 2nd-century writers 2nd-century historians Roman-era Greek historians Ancient Greek military writers Ancient Macedonian historians Ancient Macedonian anthologists Roman-era Macedonians Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2016 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from May 2016 All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from January 2018 Articles with permanently dead external links CS1 Greek-language sources (el) CS1 German-language sources (de) Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference CS1 French-language sources (fr) Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM without a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Galego Italiano עברית Қазақша Latina Magyar Македонски Mirandés Nederlands Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 29 October 2020, at 07:17 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4920	----	Triumvirate - Wikipedia Triumvirate From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Political regime ruled or dominated by three powerful individuals known as triumvirs (the arrangement can be formal or informal) For the waste management company, see Triumvirate Environmental. "Triarchy" redirects here. For other uses, see Triarchy (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Triumvirate" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Part of a series of articles on Monarchy Central concepts Monarch Monarchism Imperialism Divine right of kings Mandate of Heaven Types Absolute Chinese Legalist Composite Constitutional Crowned republic Diarchy Dual Elective Emirate Ethnarch Federal Hereditary Personal union Non-sovereign Popular Regency Coregency Tetrarch Triarchy Universal History Birth of the Roman Empire Magna Carta Foundation of the Ottoman Empire Glorious Revolution French Revolution Trienio Liberal First French Empire Liberal Wars Second French Empire Italian unification Meiji Restoration Austro-Hungarian Compromise German unification 5 October 1910 Revolution Proclamation of the Republic in Brazil Chinese Revolution Russian Revolution Siamese revolution of 1932 Birth of the Italian Republic Spanish transition to democracy Iranian Revolution Modern Cambodia Nepalese Civil War Related topics Aristocracy Nobility Autocracy Chamberlain Conservatism Despotism Dynasty List Enlightened absolutism Thomas Hobbes Legitimists Orléanist Oligarchy Peerage Philosopher king Primogeniture Rank Royalism Regicide Regnal number Royal family Style Ultra-royalist Politics portal v t e Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e A triumvirate (Latin: triumvirātus) is a political regime ruled or dominated by three powerful individuals known as triumvirs (Latin: triumviri). The arrangement can be formal or informal. Though the three are notionally equal, this is rarely the case in reality. The term can also be used to describe a state with three different military leaders who all claim to be the sole leader. In the context of the Soviet Union and Russia, the term troika (Russian for "group of three") is used for "triumvirate". Another synonym is triarchy. Contents 1 Pre-Modern triumvirates 1.1 Biblical triumvirates 1.2 Chinese triumvirates 1.3 Hinduism triumvirates 1.4 Pagaruyuang triumvirates 1.5 Roman triumvirates 1.6 Tamil triumvirates 2 Modern triumvirates 2.1 Ottoman Empire 2.2 Early-modern and modern France 2.3 Pre-Independent India 2.4 Modern Israel 2.5 People's Republic of China 2.6 Benin 2.7 Soviet Union 2.8 Modern Italy 2.9 Modern Greece 2.10 Argentina 2.11 The Americas 2.12 European Union 2.13 Business slang 3 Other triumvirates 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 External links Pre-Modern triumvirates[edit] Biblical triumvirates[edit] In the Bible triumvirates occurred at some notable events in both the Old Testament and New Testament. In the Book of Exodus Moses, his brother Aaron and, according to some views their nephew or brother-in-law, Hur acted this way during Battle of Rephidim against the Amalekites.[Exodus 17:10][1] In the Gospels as a leading trio among the Twelve Apostles at three particular occasions during public ministry of Jesus acted Peter, James, son of Zebedee and his brother John. They were the only apostles present at the Raising of Jairus' daughter[Mark 5:37], Transfiguration of Jesus [Matthew 17:1] and Agony in the Garden of Gethsemane[Matthew 26:37]. Later, at the time of the Early Christian Church this triumvirate of the leading apostles changed slightly after the former James's death, as it became composed of Peter, John and James, brother of Jesus.[Galatians 2:9][2] Old Testament and New Testament triumvirates Moses (in the centre) along with Aaron and Hur at the Battle of Rephidim. Peter (sitting in the centre) along with John and his brother James, son of Zebedee (sitting L-R) at the Transfiguration of Jesus. Chinese triumvirates[edit] One of the most notable triumvirates formed in the history of China was by the Han Dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE) statesmen Huo Guang (d. 68 BCE), Jin Midi (d. 86 BCE), and Shangguan Jie 上官桀 (d. 80 BCE), following the death of Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BCE) and the installation of the child emperor Zhao. Despite the Three Excellencies—including the Chancellor, Imperial Secretary, and irregularly the Grand Commandant—representing the most senior ministerial positions of state, this triumvirate was supported by the economic technocrat and Imperial Secretary Sang Hongyang (d. 80 BCE), their political lackey. The acting Chancellor Tian Qianqiu was also easily swayed by the decisions of the triumvirate.[3] The Three Excellencies existed in Western Han (202 BCE – 9 CE) as the Chancellor, Imperial Secretary, and Grand Commandant, but the Chancellor was viewed as senior to the Imperial Secretary while the post of Grand Commandant was vacant for most of the dynasty. After Emperor Guangwu established the Eastern Han (25–220 CE), the Grand Commandant was made a permanent official while the Minister over the Masses replaced the Chancellor and the Minister of Works replaced the Imperial Secretary. Unlike the three high officials in Western Han when the Chancellor was senior to all, these new three senior officials had equal censorial and advisory powers. When a young or weak-minded emperor ascended to the throne, these Three Excellencies could dominate the affairs of state. There were also other types of triumvirates during the Eastern Han; for example, at the onset of the reign of Emperor Ling of Han (r. 168–189), the General-in-Chief Dou Wu (d. 168), the Grand Tutor Chen Fan (d. 168), and another prominent statesman Hu Guang (91–172) formed a triumvirate nominally in charge of the Privy Secretariat, when in fact it was a regent triumvirate that was overseeing the affairs of state and Emperor Ling.[4] Hinduism triumvirates[edit] In Hinduism, the gods Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva form the triumvirate Trimurti "in which the cosmic functions of creation, maintenance, and destruction are personified" respectively by those gods.."[5] Pagaruyuang triumvirates[edit] Triumvirates during the Pagaruyuang era in the Minangkabau Highlands was known as Rajo Tigo Selo or the three reigning kings. The Rajo Tigo Selo was descended from the same line in the same dynasty and ruled at the same reigning time. It consisted of three kings, the Rajo Alam who ruled the government and diplomatic affairs, the Rajo Adaik who ruled the customs and the Rajo Ibadaik who acted as a Grand Mufti.[6] Roman triumvirates[edit] The First Triumvirate of the Roman Republic: Gnaeus Pompeius (Pompey), Marcus Licinius Crassus, and Gaius Julius Caesar Originally, triumviri were special commissions of three men appointed for specific administrative tasks apart from the regular duties of Roman magistrates. The triumviri capitales, for instance, oversaw prisons and executions, along with other functions that, as Andrew Lintott notes, show them to have been "a mixture of police superintendents and justices of the peace."[7] The capitales were first established around 290 to 287 BC.[8] They were supervised by the praetor urbanus. These triumviri, or the tresviri nocturni,[9] may also have taken some responsibility for fire control.[10] The triumviri monetalis ("triumviri of the temple of Juno the Advisor" or "monetary triumvirs") supervised the issuing of Roman coins. Three-man commissions were also appointed for purposes such as establishing colonies (triumviri coloniae deducendae) or distributing land.[11] Triumviri mensarii served as public bankers;[12] the full range of their financial functions in 216 BC, when the commission included two men of consular rank, has been the subject of debate.[13] Another form of three-man commission was the tresviri epulones, who were in charge of organizing public feasts on holidays. This commission was created in 196 BC by a tribunician law on behalf of the people, and their number was later increased to seven (septemviri epulones).[14] The term is most commonly used by historians to refer to the First Triumvirate of Julius Caesar, Marcus Licinius Crassus, and Pompey the Great, and the Second Triumvirate of Octavianus (later Caesar Augustus), Mark Antony, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. Tamil triumvirates[edit] Tamil Triumvirate refers to the triumvirate of Chola, Chera, and Pandya who dominated the politics of the ancient Tamil country. Modern triumvirates[edit] The title was revived a few times for (short-lived) three-headed political 'magistratures' in post-feudal times. Ottoman Empire[edit] The Three Pashas also known as Ottoman Triumvirate effectively ruled the Ottoman Empire during World War I: Mehmed Talaat Pasha (1874–1921), the Grand Vizier (prime minister) and Minister of the Interior; Ismail Enver Pasha (1881–1922), the Minister of War; and Ahmed Djemal Pasha (1872–1922), the Minister of the Navy. Early-modern and modern France[edit] Triumvirate of : (L-R) Saint-Just, Robespierre, and Couthon While French Huguenots had derisively bestowed the name Triumvirate on the alliance formed in 1561 between Catholic Francis, Duke of Guise, Anne de Montmorency, and Jacques Dalbon, Seigneur de Saint Andre during the French Wars of Religion, in later years the term would be used to describe other arrangements within France. At the end of the 1700s, when the French revolutionaries turned to several Roman Magistrature names for their new institutions, the three-headed collective Head of State was named Consulat, a term in use for two-headed magistratures since Antiquity; furthermore it included a "First Consul" who was not an equal, but the de facto solo head of state and government – a position Napoleon Bonaparte chose to convert openly into the First French Empire. Prior to Napoleon and during the Terror Robespierre, Louis de Saint-Just, and Couthon, as members of the governing Committee of Public Safety, were purported by some to have formed an unofficial triumvirate. Although officially all members of the committee shared equal power the three men's friendship and close ideological base led their detractors to declaim them as triumvirs which was used against them in the coup of 9 Thermidor. Pre-Independent India[edit] In the early days of the national struggle and before Gandhi, the Indian National Congress was known to be under Lal-Bal-Pal i.e. Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal and the leader of the three Balgangadhar Tilak often dubbed Lokmanya Tilak. Modern Israel[edit] 2008–2009: Former Prime Minister Ehud Olmert, Defense Minister Ehud Barak, and Minister of Foreign Affairs Tzipi Livni were sometimes referred to as a triumvirate.[15][16][17] 2012: The leadership of Shas, the ultra-orthodox Sepharadi political party of Israel, was given by its spiritual leader, Rabbi Ovadia Yosef and the Council of Torah Sages, to a triumvirate formed by the convicted Aryeh Deri, who decided to return to politics after a thirteen-year hiatus, the former party leader Eli Yishai and Ariel Atias. People's Republic of China[edit] (L-R) Zhou Enlai, Mao Zedong, and Liu Shaoqi in 1964 Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai, and Liu Shaoqi had the biggest contribution to the foundation of the People's Republic of China in 1949 and are regarded as the three most influential members of the first generation of the Chinese communist leaders. Mao and Zhou died in 1976 while holding the highest party and state offices Chairman of the CPC Central Committee (Mao), Premier of the State Council (Zhou). Liu was the Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress and President of the People's Republic of China, nominal de jure head of state, until 1968 when he was purged in the cultural revolution. He died in late 1969 under harsh treatment.[18] Benin[edit] Main article: Presidential Council (Benin) 13 April 1970 until 26 October 1972: After the contentious 1970 presidential elections, the country of Benin (then known as the Republic of Dahomey) adopted a Presidential Council which included the three main political figures in the country: Hubert Maga, Justin Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin, and Sourou-Migan Apithy. In addition, the formal office of President would rotate between the three of them beginning with Hubert Maga. After one successful change of leadership, military leader Mathieu Kérékou staged a coup and overthrew the Presidential Council becoming the leader of the country until 1991.[19] Soviet Union[edit] See also List of Troikas in the Soviet Union May 1922 – April 1925: When Vladimir Lenin suffered his first stroke in May 1922, a Troika was established to govern the country in his place, although Lenin briefly returned to the leadership from 2 October 1922 until a severe stroke on 9 March 1923 ended Lenin's political career. The Troika consisted of Lev Kamenev, Joseph Stalin, and Grigory Zinoviev. The Troika broke up in April 1925, when Kamenev and Zinoviev found themselves in a minority over their belief that socialism could only be achieved internationally. Zinoviev and Kamenev joined forces with Leon Trotsky's Left Opposition in early 1926.[20] Later, Kamenev, Zinoviev and Trotsky would all be murdered on Stalin's orders. 13 March – 26 June 1953: After the death of Joseph Stalin in March 1953, power was shared between Lavrenty Beria, Georgy Malenkov, and Vyacheslav Molotov. 14 October 1964 – 16 June 1977: After the removal of Nikita Khrushchev in October 1964, the Soviet Union went through a period of collective leadership. Power was initially shared between Premier Alexei Kosygin, General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev and Chairman of the Presidium Anastas Mikoyan. Mikoyan was replaced by Nikolai Podgorny in 1965. Triumvirate of: (L-R) Nikolai Podgorny, Leonid Brezhnev, and Alexei Kosygin during October Revolution anniversary celebrations in 1973 Modern Italy[edit] In the Roman Republic (1849), the title of two sets of three joint chiefs of state in the year 1849: 29 March – 1 July 1849: Carlo Armellini (b. 1777 – d. 1863), Giuseppe Mazzini (b. 1805 – d. 1872), and Conte Aurelio Saffi (b. 1819 – d. 1890) 1–4 July 1849: Aurelio Saffi (again), Alessandro Calandrelli (b. 1805 – d. 1888), and Livio Mariani (no dates available) Modern Greece[edit] After the downfall of the first King of Greece, the Bavarian Otto, on 23 October 1862, and Dimitrios Voulgaris' unsuccessful term (23 October 1862 – 30 January 1863) as president of the Provisional Government, a Triumvirate (30 January – 30 October 1863) was established consisting of the same Dimitrios Voulgaris, the renowned Admiral Konstantinos Kanaris and Benizelos Rouphos, which acted as a regency until the arrival of the new monarch, the first "King of the Hellenes", George I. A triumvirate was established to head the Theriso revolt of 1905 in autonomous Crete, consisting of Eleftherios Venizelos (later Prime Minister of Greece) in charge of organisational matters, Konstantinos Foumis in charge of finances and Konstantinos Manos, the former mayor of Chania, in charge of military affairs. The "Triumvirate of National Defence": (L-R) Admiral Kountouriotis, Venizelos, and General Danglis A triumvirate was set up during the First World War in September 1916, to head the "Provisional Government of National Defence" in Thessaloniki. It consisted of the popular liberal statesman Eleftherios Venizelos, General Panagiotis Danglis and Admiral Pavlos Koundouriotis. This "Triumvirate of National Defence" functioned as a collective head of government, although effective control was in Venizelos' hands. With the abdication of King Constantine I in June 1917 and the reunification of the country under Venizelos, the triumvirate was dissolved. The Triandria municipality in Thessaloniki is named after this triumvirate. A triumvirate was set up on 13 September 1922 to lead the military revolt against the royalist government in Athens in the aftermath of the Asia Minor Disaster. It was composed of Colonels Nikolaos Plastiras and Stylianos Gonatas, and Commander Dimitrios Fokas. The triumvirate assumed the government of Greece on 15 September, and would control the country until it laid down its powers on 2 January 1924. Plastiras however quickly became the dominant figure among the triumvirate, and was eventually labelled as the "Chief of the Revolution". A de facto triumvirate existed during the early years of the Greek military junta of 1967–1974, when the junta's three main leaders were Colonel Georgios Papadopoulos, Brigadier Stylianos Pattakos and Colonel Nikolaos Makarezos. With the increasing predominance of Papadopoulos from 1970 on, this triumvirate ceased to function. The Greek People's Liberation Army, active during the Axis Occupation of Greece, had a triadic leadership structure, consisting of the kapetánios ("captain", the unit's leader), the stratiotikós (the military specialist, usually a former Army officer) and the politikós (the political representative of the National Liberation Front). Argentina[edit] First Triumvirate (23 September 1811 – 8 October 1812): Feliciano Chiclana. Manuel de Sarratea. Juan José Paso, replaced by Juan Martín de Pueyrredón on 23 March 1812. Second Triumvirate (8 October 1812 – 31 January 1814): Nicolás Rodríguez Peña. Antonio Álvarez Jonte, replaced by Gervasio Antonio de Posadas on 19 August 1813. Juan José Paso, replaced by José Julián Pérez on 20 February 1813, and replaced by Juan Larrea on 5 November 1813. Third Triumvirate (18 April 1815 - 20 April 1815): José de San Martín. Matías de Irigoyen. Manuel de Sarratea. Military Junta (28 June 1966 - 29 June 1966): Pascual Pistarini. Benigno Ignacio Varela. Adolfo Teodoro Álvarez. Junta of Commanders of the Armed Forces (8 June 1970 - 18 June 1970): Pedro Alberto José Gnavi, President. Carlos Alberto Rey. Alejandro Lanusse. Junta of Commanders of the Armed Forces (23 March 1971 - 26 March 1971): Alejandro Lanusse, President. Pedro Alberto José Gnavi. Carlos Alberto Rey. Military Junta (24 March 1976 - 29 March 1976): Jorge Rafael Videla. Emilio Eduardo Massera. Orlando Ramón Agosti. The Americas[edit] Venezuela: by decree of the Caracas Junta and ratified in the Federal Constitution of 1811 the executive power was vested in "three individuals" (1810–12) The Eastern State of Uruguay had one triumvirate in 1853. The United Provinces of New Granada, now Colombia, and Panama, were headed by two triumvirates in the period known as the "Patria Boba" or Foolish Fatherland Interim Triumvirate, 5 October – 23 November 1814 José María del Castillo y Rada José Joaquín Camacho José Fernández Madrid Triumvirate of the United Provinces of New Granada, 23 November 1814 – October 1815 Custodio García Rovira Antonio Villavicencio, replaced Rovira during his second term as he could not preside over José Manuel Restrepo, was never sworn in. José Miguel Pey de Andrade, replaced Restrepo as he declined. 28 July 1815 Manuel Rodríguez Torices The Dominican Republic had two triumvirates, which were essentially three-member juntas: 29 May – 22 August 1866 – 1st Triumvirate (in rebellion against Buenaventura Báez from 1 May 1866): Pedro Antonio Pimentel (b. 1830 – d. 1874; formerly one of three "Generals-in-Chief" 23–24 January 1865) Gregorio Luperón (b. 1839 – d. 1897) PA Federico de Jesús García 26 September 1963 – 25 April 1965 – 2nd Triumvirate: Emilio de los Santos (b. 1903 – 22 December 1963) (chairman from 29 December 1963, succeeded by Donald Reid Cabral, b. 1923, UCN, new chairman) Manuel Enrique Tavares Espaillat (b. 1924 - d. 1984) Ramón Tapia Espinal (b. 1926 – d. 2002)  New York: the political arrangement of "three men in a room", consisting of the Governor, Speaker of the New York State Assembly, and the Majority Leader of the New York State Senate[21] Nicaragua (1972–74) Liberal-Conservative Junta of Roberto Martínez, Alfonso Lovo Cordero (liberals) and Fernando Agüero (conservative). Agüero resigned in 1973 and Edmundo Paguada was successor.  Mexico (1823–24) Guadalupe Victoria, Nicolás Bravo and Celestino Negrete. European Union[edit] After the Lisbon Treaty came into force from 1 December 2009: President of the European Council - Charles Michel President of the European Commission - Ursula von der Leyen High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy - Josep Borrell Business slang[edit] This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (April 2014) Eric Schmidt, CEO of Google has referred to himself, along with founders Larry Page and Sergey Brin as part of a triumvirate, stating, "This triumvirate has made an informal deal to stick together for at least 20 years".[22] Other triumvirates[edit] The word has been used as a term of convenience, though not an official title, for other groups of three in a similar position: Great Triumvirate (19th-century American politics – Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, and John C. Calhoun) Great Triumvirate (Early 20th-century golf – Harry Vardon, James Braid, and J.H. Taylor) See also[edit] Constitution of the Roman Republic Council of Three (disambiguation) Decemvirate Diarchy Duumviri Monarchy Septemvir Tetrarchy Notes[edit] ^ Magill, Frank Northen (23 January 2003). Dictionary of World Biography. ISBN 9781579580407. Retrieved 2015-08-18. ^ "Galatians 2:9 And recognizing the grace that I had been given, James, Cephas, and John--those reputed to be pillars--gave me and Barnabas the right hand of fellowship, so that we should go to the Gentiles and they to the Jews". biblehub.com. ^ Loewe (1986), 178. ^ Beck (1986), 319. ^ For quotation defining the trimurti see Matchett, Freda. "The Purāṇas", in: Flood (2003), p. 139. ^ [1] ^ Andrew Lintott, Violence in Republican Rome (Oxford University Press, 1999, 2nd ed.), p. 102 online. ^ Livy, Periocha 11. ^ Triumviri or tresviri nocturni may be another name or nickname for the capitales, because their duties often pertained to the streets at night. ^ John E. Stambaugh, The Ancient Roman City (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988), p. 347, note 4 online and p. 348, note 13; O.F. Robinson, Ancient Rome: City Planning and Administration (Routledge, 1994), p. 105 online. ^ Andrew Lintott, The Constitution of the Roman Republic (Oxford University Press, 1999), pp. 12 and 95 online. ^ Jean Andreau, Banking and Business in the Roman World (Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. 115 online. ^ Rachel Feig Vishnia, State, Society, and Popular Leaders in Mid-Republican Rome, 241-167 B.C. (Routledge, 1996), p. 86ff. online. ^ Livy 33.42.1; Vishnia, State, Society, and Popular Leaders, p. 171; Fergus Millar, Rome, the Greek World, and the East (University of North Caroline Press, 2002), p. 122 online; Lintott, Constitution, p. 184. ^ Ladies and gentlemen, your next government, By Amir Oren, Published: 13 January 2009, Haaretz Daily Newspaper ^ Diplomacy: Endgame politics[permanent dead link], By HERB KEINON, January 8, 2009, Jerusalem Post ^ Israel launches PR blitz ahead of Gaza operation, Roni Sofer, Published: 12.21.2008, Ynetnews ^ Angela P. Cheater, Department of Sociology, University of Zimbabwe (29 June 1989). "Managing Culture en Route to Socialism: The Problem of Culture 'Answering Back'" (PDF). msu.edu. Michigan State University. Retrieved 4 December 2016.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Decalo, Samuel (1973). "Regionalism, Politics, and the Military in Dahomey". The Journal of Developing Areas. 7 (3): 449–478. ^ Rappaport, Helen (1999). Joseph Stalin: A Biographical Companion. ABC-CLIO. pp. 141, 326. ISBN 978-1576070840. ^ Lachman, Seymour & Polner, Robert (2006). Three Men in a Room: The Inside Story of Power and Betrayal in an American Statehouse. New York : New Press. ^ Tim Weber (2008-09-04), A decade on: Google's internet economy, BBC News, retrieved February 10, 2013 References[edit] Beck, Mansvelt. (1986). "The Fall of Han," in The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24327-0. Flood, Gavin (Editor) (2003). The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. ISBN 1-4051-3251-5.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) Loewe, Michael. (1986). "The Former Han Dynasty," in The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, 103–222. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24327-0. Etymology on line World Statesmen here Greece - see under each present country External links[edit] Livius.org: Triumvir v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Triumvirate&oldid=995938239" Categories: Heads of government Collective heads of state Trios Hidden 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en-wikipedia-org-493	----	Ludwig Traube (palaeographer) - Wikipedia Ludwig Traube (palaeographer) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ludwig Traube Ludwig Traube (June 19, 1861 – May 19, 1907) was a paleographer and held the first chair of Medieval Latin in Germany (at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich). He was a son of the physician Ludwig Traube (1818–1876), and the brother of the chemist Margarete Traube (1856–1912).[1] Traube was born in Berlin, the son of a middle-class Jewish family, and studied at the universities of Munich and Greifswald. In 1883 he finished his Ph.D. with a dissertation entitled Varia libamenta critica. He finished his habilitation in classical and medieval philology in 1888 with a part of his book on Carolingian poetry (Karolingische Dichtungen).[2] In 1897 he became a member of the central management of Monumenta Germaniae Historica. In 1902 he was appointed professor of Latin philology of the Middle Ages at Munich.[3] In 1905 he discovered that he had leukemia, from which he died two years later.[4] Selected works[edit] O Roma nobilis : philologische Untersuchungen aus dem Mittelalter, 1891 – O Roma nobilis: philological studies from the Middle Ages. Textgeschichte der Regula S. Benedicti, 1898 – Textual history of Regula Benedicti. Die Geschichte der tironischen Noten bei Suetonius und Isidorus, 1901 (2 volumes) – The history of Tironian notes from Suetonius and Isidorus. Jean-Baptiste Maugérard: ein Beitrag zur Bibliotheksgeschicthe, 1904 – Jean-Baptiste Maugérard, a contribution to library history. Bamberger Fragmente der vierten Dekade des Livius, 1906 – Bamberger fragments of the fourth decade of Livy. Nomina sacra : Versuch einer Geschichte der christlichen Kürzung, 1907 – Nomina sacra. Essay on the history of Christian abbreviations. Zur Paläographie und Handschriftenkunde, 1909 (edited by Franz Boll) – On palaeography and manuscript studies. Einleitung in die lateinische Philologie des Mittelalters, 1911 (edited by Franz Boll, Paul Lehmann) – Introduction to Latin philology of the Middle Ages. Vorlesungen und Abhandlungen, 1909–1920 (3 volumes, edited by Franz Boll, Samuel Brandt) – Lectures and essays.[5][6] References[edit] ^ "Traube Mengarini Margarethe (Margherita) — Scienza a due voci". scienzaa2voci.unibo.it. Retrieved 2020-10-06. ^ Karolingische Dichtungen HathiTrust Digital Library ^ Thibaut - Zycha, Volume 10 Dictionary of German Biography, edited by Walther Killy ^ Berlin for Jews: A Twenty-First-Century Companion by Leonard Barkan ^ HathiTrust Digital Library published works ^ IDREF.fr (bibliography) External links[edit] Works by or about Ludwig Traube at Internet Archive Authority control BIBSYS: 15022548 BNF: cb15543684s (data) CANTIC: a11994265 CiNii: DA0517339X GND: 11903493X ISNI: 0000 0001 0863 6503 LCCN: n83020006 NKC: jn19990008596 NLA: 35627085 NLI: 000132435 NSK: 000192801 NTA: 071641955 RERO: 02-A012326822 SNAC: w6zb3h26 SUDOC: 070112592 Trove: 1020624 VcBA: 495/137800 VIAF: 2780870 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n83020006 This article on a German linguist is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ludwig_Traube_(palaeographer)&oldid=982237397" Categories: 1861 births 1907 deaths 19th-century German people 19th-century German writers 19th-century German male writers 19th-century philologists Deaths from leukemia German Jews German palaeographers German philologists Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich alumni Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich faculty People from the Province of Brandenburg University of Greifswald alumni Writers from Berlin German linguist stubs Hidden categories: Articles with Internet Archive links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Français Italiano مصرى Edit links This page was last edited on 6 October 2020, at 23:06 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4976	----	Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Main Page From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Welcome to Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia that anyone can edit. 6,217,068 articles in English The arts Biography Geography History Mathematics Science Society Technology All portals From today's featured article Louie Nunn (1924–2004) was the 52nd governor of Kentucky (1967–1971), the only Republican elected to that office between 1947 and 2003. The first Republican county judge in the history of Barren County, Kentucky, he ran for governor in 1963, but lost a close race to his Democratic opponent Ned Breathitt. In 1967, Nunn again ran for governor. After defeating Marlow Cook in the Republican gubernatorial primary, he eked out a victory over Democrat Henry Ward. Despite a Democratic majority in the General Assembly, Nunn was able to enact most of his priorities, including tax increases that funded improvements to the state park system and the construction of a statewide network of mental health centers. His administration was marred by race riots in Louisville and a violent protest against the Vietnam War at the University of Kentucky. Following his term as governor, he lost to Walter "Dee" Huddleston in the 1972 senatorial election, and to John Y. Brown Jr. for governor in 1979. (Full article...) Recently featured: INTERFET logistics 2017 EFL Trophy Final Anbe Sivam Archive By email More featured articles Did you know ... 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Archive Start a new article Nominate an article In the news COVID-19 pandemic Disease Virus By location Impact Vaccines Portal Chang'e 5 The closest great conjunction between Jupiter and Saturn since 1623 occurs. The Chang'e 5 (illustration shown) sample-return mission returns lunar material to Earth. Nana Akufo-Addo is re-elected for a second term as President of Ghana. 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en-wikipedia-org-4978	----	Phlegon of Tralles - Wikipedia Phlegon of Tralles From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Phlegon of Tralles" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Phlegon of Tralles Born Early second century AD Tralles, Roman Empire (modern-day Turkey) Died Late second century AD unknown Occupation Chronicler and historian Notable works Olympiads, On Marvels, On Long-Lived Persons, Phlegon of Tralles (Ancient Greek: Φλέγων ὁ Τραλλιανός) was a Greek writer and freedman of the emperor Hadrian, who lived in the 2nd century AD. Contents 1 Works 2 Reference to Jesus 3 References 4 Bibliography 5 External links Works[edit] His chief work was the Olympiads, an historical compendium in sixteen books, from the 1st down to the 229th Olympiad (776 BC to AD 137), of which several chapters are preserved in Eusebius' Chronicle, Photius and George Syncellus. Two short works by him are extant. On Marvels consists of "anecdotes culled from sources as diverse as the Greek poet Hesiod and the Roman natural historian Pliny the Elder. Each... recounts a fantastical or paranormal event."[1] On Long-Lived Persons contains a list of Italians who had passed the age of 100, taken from the censuses of the Roman Empire. Other works ascribed to Phlegon in the Suda are a description of Sicily, a work on the Roman festivals in three books, and a topography of Rome: "Phlegon of Tralles, freedman of Augustus Caesar, but some say of Hadrian: historian. He wrote Olympiads in 16 books. Up to the 229th Olympiad they contain what was done everywhere. And these in 8 books: Description of Sicily; On long-lived and marvelous persons, On the feasts of the Romans 3 books, On the places in Rome and by what names they are called, Epitome of Olympic victors in 2 books, and other things. "Of this Phlegon, as Philostorgius says, to relate fully in detail what befell with the Jews, while Phlegon and Dio mentioned [these events] briefly and made them an appendix to their own narrative. Since this man does not exhibit at all prudently those who would lead to piety and other virtues, as those others do not either. Josephus, on the contrary, is like one who fears and takes care not to offend the [sc.pagan] Greeks."[clarification needed] Reference to Jesus[edit] Origen of Alexandria (182-254 AD), in Against Celsus (Book II, Chap. XIV), wrote that Phlegon, in his "Chronicles", mentions Jesus: "Now Phlegon, in the thirteenth or fourteenth book, I think, of his Chronicles, not only ascribed to Jesus a knowledge of future events (although falling into confusion about some things which refer to Peter, as if they referred to Jesus), but also testified that the result corresponded to His predictions." He referred to a description by Phlegon of an eclipse accompanied by earthquakes during the reign of Tiberius: that there was "the greatest eclipse of the sun" and that "it became night in the sixth hour of the day [i. e., noon] so that stars even appeared in the heavens. There was a great earthquake in Bithynia, and many things were overturned in Nicaea." [2] References[edit] ^ Emma Southon: "Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them". History Today, June 2018, p. 15. ^ Roberts, Donaldson & Coxe (1896), Volume IV, "Contra Celsum", Book II, chapter 14,23,59 p. 441. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFRobertsDonaldsonCoxe1896 (help)  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Phlegon". Encyclopædia Britannica. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 447. Bibliography[edit] Karl Wilhelm Ludwig Müller, Frag. hist. graec., iii O Keller, Rerum naturalium scriptores, i. (1877) H Diels, "Phlegons Androgynenorakel" in Sibyllinische Bücher (1890). Phlegon of Tralles' Book of Marvels. Translated with an introduction and commentary by William Hansen. University of Exeter Press (1996) pp.xvi + 215. Review. External links[edit] Photius, "Bibliotheca" codex 97 - the entry on Phlegon's Chronicles and List of Olympic Victors. The Suda entry for Phlegon - Greek, English and commentary. Fragments of Phlegon on the passion phenomena - Greek/Latin and English. William Smith, "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology" (1870) v. 3, page 336 - bitmap and scanned text with list of works Authority control BIBSYS: 95004129 BNE: XX1653510 BNF: cb135389114 (data) CiNii: DA14400007 GND: 119070634 ISNI: 0000 0001 1586 2613 LCCN: no97040169 NLG: 153935 NSK: 000383554 NTA: 069888779 RERO: 02-A000130298 SELIBR: 83778 SUDOC: 050693646 VcBA: 495/84186 VIAF: 2633773 WorldCat Identities: lccn-no97040169 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phlegon_of_Tralles&oldid=955150412" Categories: Ancient Greek writers 2nd-century Greek people 2nd-century Romans 2nd-century writers Historians from Roman Anatolia Emperor's slaves and freedmen Ancient Olympic Games People from Tralles Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles needing additional references from April 2019 All articles needing additional references Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles needing clarification from May 2013 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Asturianu Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Galego Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Magyar Nederlands Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 6 May 2020, at 06:31 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-499	----	Legatus - Wikipedia Legatus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the ancient Roman military rank. For the bird genus, see Legatus (bird). For other uses, see Legate (disambiguation). This article may need to be rewritten to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards. You can help. The talk page may contain suggestions. (October 2017) Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e A legatus (anglicised as legate) was a high-ranking Roman military officer in the Roman Army, equivalent to a modern high-ranking general officer. Initially used to delegate power, the term became formalised under Augustus as the officer in command of a legion. From the times of the Roman Republic, legates received large shares of the military's rewards at the end of a successful campaign. This made the position a lucrative one, so it could often attract even distinguished consuls or other high-ranking political figures within Roman politics (e.g., the consul Lucius Julius Caesar volunteered late in the Gallic Wars as a legate under his first cousin once removed, Gaius Julius Caesar). Contents 1 Overview 2 Diplomatic legatus 3 See also 4 References Overview[edit] A legatus held full power over his legion. Consul Militaris held control of all legions under the Emperor, who held entire control of Rome during the time of the Roman Empire. After the Roman Republic, all control from the Senate shifted to the Emperor, making him the most powerful person in Rome. The Legatus Legionis would delegate duties to his command staff, who would then carry out his orders. A legatus was one of the most respected military ranks in Rome. The men who filled the office of legate were drawn from among the senatorial class of Rome. There were two main positions; the legatus legionis was an ex-praetor given command of one of Rome's elite legions,[1] while the legatus pro praetore was an ex-consul given the governorship of a Roman province, with the magisterial powers of a praetor, which in some cases included command of four or more legions. A legatus was entitled to twelve lictors, who carried out punishments with fasces (bundled rods). By the time of the Roman Republic, the term legatus was applied to those holding delegated authority (usually a consul or proconsul). Julius Caesar made wide use of the title throughout the Gallic Wars.[2] From Augustus, the emperor gave the title of legatus legionis to senior commanders (former military tribunes) of a legion, except in Egypt and Mesopotamia, where the legions were commanded by a praefectus legionis of an equestrian rank. The legatus legionis was under the supreme command of a Legatus Augusti pro praetore of senatorial rank. If the province was defended by a single legion, the Legatus Augusti pro praetor was also in direct command of the legion. This post was generally appointed by the emperor. The person chosen for this rank was a former tribune, and although the emperor Augustus set a maximum term of command of two years for a legatus, subsequent emperors extended the tenure to three or four years (although the incumbent could serve for a much longer period). In a province with only one legion, the legatus served as the provincial governor, while in provinces with multiple legions each legion had a legatus and a separate provincial governor who had overall command. The legatus could be distinguished in the field by his elaborate helmet and body armour, as well as a scarlet paludamentum (cloak) and cincticulus (a waist-band tied around the waist in a bow). A legatus legionis could order capital punishment.[3] The senatorial legatus legionis was removed from the Roman army by Gallienus, who preferred to entrust the command of a legionary unit to a leader chosen from within the equestrian order who had a long military career. Diplomatic legatus[edit] Legatus was also a term for an ambassador of the Roman Republic who was appointed by the senate for a mission (legatio) to a foreign nation, as well as for ambassadors who came to Rome from other countries.[4] The concept remains today as a diplomatic legation. See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal War portal List of Roman army unit types Centurion References[edit] ^ "The Roman Army Archived 2018-06-03 at the Wayback Machine". Accessed April 16, 2007. ^ Smith, William (2006-07-14). Smith (1901) Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities Vol. 1 PA797. Retrieved 2011-04-16. ^ Smith, William (2006-07-14). Smith (1901) Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities Vol. 1 PA811. Retrieved 2011-04-16. ^ Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1875), Bill Thayer's edition, entry on "Legatus". v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Legatus&oldid=995797125" Categories: Roman legates Ancient Roman titles Military ranks of ancient Rome Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Wikipedia articles needing rewrite from October 2017 All articles needing rewrite Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Português Română Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Татарча/tatarça Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 December 2020, at 23:08 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5000	----	View source for Horace - Wikipedia View source for Horace ← Horace Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. You are currently unable to edit Wikipedia due to a block affecting your IP address. This does not affect your ability to read Wikipedia pages. Most people who see this message have done nothing wrong. Some kinds of blocks restrict editing from specific service providers or telecom companies in response to recent abuse or vandalism, and affect other users who are unrelated to that abuse. See below if you do not believe you have done anything wrong. Editing from 40.76.0.0/16 has been blocked (disabled) by ‪SQL‬ for the following reason(s): The IP address that you are currently using has been blocked because it is believed to be a web host provider or colocation provider. To prevent abuse, web hosts and colocation providers may be blocked from editing Wikipedia. You will not be able to edit Wikipedia using a web host or colocation provider because it hides your IP address, much like a proxy or VPN. We recommend that you attempt to use another connection to edit. For example, if you use a proxy or VPN to connect to the internet, turn it off when editing Wikipedia. If you edit using a mobile connection, try using a Wi-Fi connection, and vice versa. If you have a Wikipedia account, please log in. If you do not have any other way to edit Wikipedia, you will need to request an IP block exemption. If you are confident that you are not using a web host, you may appeal this block by adding the following text on your talk page: {{unblock|reason=Caught by a colocation web host block but this host or IP is not a web host. My IP address is _______. Place any further information here. ~~~~}}. You must fill in the blank with your IP address for this block to be investigated. Your IP address can be determined here. Alternatively, if you wish to keep your IP address private you can use the unblock ticket request system. There are several reasons you might be editing using the IP address of a web host or colocation provider (such as if you are using VPN software or a business network); please use this method of appeal only if you think your IP address is in fact not a web host or colocation provider. Administrators: The IP block exemption user right should only be applied to allow users to edit using web host in exceptional circumstances, and requests should usually be directed to the functionaries team via email. If you intend to give the IPBE user right, a CheckUser needs to take a look at the account. This can be requested most easily at SPI Quick Checkuser Requests. Unblocking an IP or IP range with this template is highly discouraged without at least contacting the blocking administrator. This block has been set to expire: 16:25, 2 June 2023. Even when blocked, you will usually still be able to edit your user talk page and email other editors and administrators. For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ==Notes== <references group="nb" /> Return to Horace. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5012	----	Outline of ancient Rome - Wikipedia Outline of ancient Rome From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Overview of and topical guide to ancient Rome "Roman time" redirects here. For the Roman clock, see Roman timekeeping. Julius Caesar The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to ancient Rome: Ancient Rome – former civilization that thrived on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to become one of the largest empires in the ancient world.[1] Contents 1 Essence of Ancient Rome 2 Geography of ancient Rome 3 Government and politics of ancient Rome 3.1 Political institutions of ancient Rome 3.1.1 Magistrates 3.1.1.1 Ordinary magistrates 3.1.1.2 Extraordinary magistrates 3.2 Roman law 3.3 Military of ancient Rome 3.3.1 Roman armed forces 3.3.2 Military history of Rome 3.3.3 Military conflict 4 General history of ancient Rome 4.1 Roman historiography 4.2 Works on Roman history 5 Culture of ancient Rome 5.1 Architecture of ancient Rome 5.2 Art in ancient Rome 5.3 Social order in ancient Rome 5.4 Religion in ancient Rome 5.4.1 Roman mythology 5.4.2 Roman religious institutions 5.4.3 Roman religious practices 5.5 Language in ancient Rome 6 Economy of ancient Rome 7 Scholars 7.1 Ancient 7.2 Modern 8 Ancient Roman lists 9 See also 10 References 11 External links Essence of Ancient Rome[edit] Civilization Classical antiquity Classical Rome Greco-Roman world Geography of ancient Rome[edit] Roman geographers Roman provinces Achaea Africa Asia Assyria Roman Britain Roman conquest of Britain Governors of Roman Britain Roman road from Silchester to Bath Roman sites in Great Britain Cappadocia Dalmatia Dardania Roman Egypt Galatia Roman Gaul Roman Greece Hispania Insulae Roman Judea Roman Jerusalem Macedonia Mesopotamia Sicilia Cities founded by the Romans Climate of Ancient Rome Demography of the Roman Empire Topography of ancient Rome Lexicon Topographicum Urbis Romae (1993-2000) Government and politics of ancient Rome[edit] Augustus, the first Roman emperor Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praefectus Princeps senatus Populares Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar SPQR Tetrarch Political institutions of ancient Rome[edit] Political institutions of ancient Rome of ancient Rome in general Roman Senate Roman assemblies Curiate Assembly Centuriate Assembly Tribal Assembly Plebeian Executive magistrates of the Roman Kingdom Senate of the Roman Kingdom Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Kingdom Executive magistrates of the Roman Kingdom of the Roman Republic Senate of the Roman Republic Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic Executive magistrates of the Roman Republic of the Roman Empire Senate of the Roman Empire Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Empire Executive magistrates of the Roman Empire Magistrates[edit] Roman magistrate Ordinary magistrates[edit] Ordinary magistrate Tribune Quaestor Aedile Praetor Consul Censor Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary magistrates[edit] Extraordinary magistrate Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Rex Interrex Roman law[edit] Roman law Roman laws Twelve Tables Roman citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status in Roman legal system Roman litigation Roman Constitution History of the Roman Constitution Constitution of the Roman Kingdom History of the Constitution of the Roman Kingdom Constitution of the Roman Republic History of the Constitution of the Roman Republic Constitutional Reforms of Lucius Cornelius Sulla Constitutional Reforms of Julius Caesar Constitution of the Roman Empire History of the Constitution of the Roman Empire History of the Constitution of the Late Roman Empire (post Diocletian) Constitution of the Late Roman Empire Military of ancient Rome[edit] Military of ancient Rome Weapons Catapult Gladius Pilum Roman military diploma Praetorian Guard Victory titles Roman infantry tactics, strategy and battle formations Castra Roman armed forces[edit] Roman army Roman generals Troops Roman legions List of Roman legions Roman auxiliaries Roman infantry tactics Military equipment Roman military personal equipment Roman siege engines Navy Fleet Decorations and punishments Roman triumph Ovation Decimatio Fustuarium Economics of the Roman army Roman military clothing Military history of Rome[edit] Military history of ancient Rome Borders of the Roman Empire Roman military frontiers and fortifications Castra Military engineering of ancient Rome Military establishment of the Roman Republic Political history of the Roman military Strategy of the Roman military Structural history of the Roman military Technological history of the Roman military Military conflict[edit] Campaign history of the Roman military Roman wars Roman battles Battle of Cannae Battle of Cape Ecnomus General history of ancient Rome[edit] Further information: Timeline of Roman history and History of the Roman Empire Roman era History of Rome Founding of Rome Kingdom of Rome Kings of Rome Enlargeable map showing the expansion of the Roman Republic in Italy from about 500 BC to the start of the Second Punic War in 218 BC. Roman Republic Conflict of the Orders (494-287 BC) Punic Wars (264-146 BC) – series of three wars fought between Rome and ancient Carthage First Punic War (264-241 BC) Ebro Treaty Second Punic War (218-201 BC) – marked by Hannibal's surprising overland journey and his costly crossing of the Alps, followed by his reinforcement by Gaulish allies and crushing victories over Roman armies in the battle of the Trebia and the giant ambush at Trasimene. Hannibal – Punic Carthaginian military commander, generally considered one of the greatest military commanders in history. Hannibal occupied much of Italy for 15 years, but a Roman counter-invasion of North Africa forced him to return to Carthage, where he was decisively defeated by Scipio Africanus at the Battle of Zama. Conquests of Hannibal Hannibal's Crossing of the Alps Battle of the Trebia Battle of Lake Trasimene Battle of Cannae Battle of Zama – marked the final and decisive end of the Second Punic War. A Roman army led by Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus defeated a Carthaginian force led by the legendary commander Hannibal. Soon after this defeat on their home ground, the Carthaginian senate sued for peace, which was given to them by the Roman Republic on rather humiliating terms, ending the 17-year war. Third Punic War (149-146 BC) – involved an extended siege of Carthage, ending in the city's thorough destruction. The resurgence of the struggle can be explained by growing anti-Roman agitations in Hispania and Greece, and the visible improvement of Carthaginian wealth and martial power in the fifty years since the Second Punic War. Battle of Carthage (c. 149 BC) Crisis of the Roman Republic (134 BC-44 BC) – extended period of political instability and social unrest that culminated in the demise of the Roman Republic and the advent of the Roman Empire. Extent of the Roman Republic on the eve of the assassination of Julius Caesar, 44 BC Assassination of Julius Caesar Roman Empire Principate (27 BC-284 AD) – first period of the Roman Empire, extending from the beginning of the reign of Caesar Augustus to the Crisis of the Third Century, after which it was replaced with the Dominate. During the Principate, the constitution of the Roman Republic was never formally abolished. It was amended in such a way as to maintain a politically correct façade of Republican government. This ended following the Crisis of the Third Century (235–284), during the reign of Diocletian. Julio-Claudian dynasty (27 BC-68 AD) – the first five Roman Emperors, including Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula (also known as Gaius), Claudius, and Nero. The dynasty ended when Nero committed suicide. Extent of the Roman Empire under Augustus. Yellow shows the extent of the Republic in 31 BC, shades of green represent territories gradually conquered by Augustus, and pink shows client states. Augustus Tiberius (ruled 14-37 AD) – stepson of Augustus. He was one of Rome's greatest generals, conquering Pannonia, Dalmatia, Raetia, and temporarily Germania; laying the foundations for the northern frontier. But he came to be remembered as a dark, reclusive, and sombre ruler who never really desired to be emperor; Pliny the Elder called him tristissimus hominum, "the gloomiest of men."[2] Caligula Claudius Nero Year of the Four Emperors (69 AD) – these four emperors were Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian. Vespasian's rule marked the beginning of the Flavian dynasty. Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Flavian dynasty (69-96 AD) Nerva–Antonine dynasty (96-192 AD) – dynasty of seven Roman Emperors who ruled over the Roman Empire from 96 AD to 192 AD. These Emperors were Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, Lucius Verus, and Commodus. Nerva The Roman Empire at its greatest extent, during the reign of Trajan in 117 AD Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Severan dynasty (193-235 AD) During the Crisis of the Third Century, the Roman Empire suffered internal schisms, forming the Palmyrene Empire and the Gallic Empire Crisis of the Third Century (235-284 AD) – period in which the Roman Empire nearly collapsed under the combined pressures of invasion, civil war, plague, and economic depression. The Crisis began with the assassination of Emperor Alexander Severus at the hands of his own troops, initiating a fifty-year period in which 20–25 claimants to the title of Emperor, mostly prominent Roman army generals, assumed imperial power over all or part of the Empire. Barracks emperor – any Roman Emperor who seized power by virtue of his command of the army. Barracks emperors were especially common in the period from 235 through 284, during the Crisis of the Third Century. List of barracks emperors Gallic Empire (260-274 AD) – modern name for a breakaway realm of the Roman Empire, founded by Postumus in 260 in the wake of barbarian invasions and instability in Rome, and at its height included the territories of Germania, Gaul, Britannia, and (briefly) Hispania. Palmyrene Empire (260-273) – splinter empire, that broke away from the Roman Empire during the Crisis of the Third Century. It encompassed the Roman provinces of Syria Palaestina, Egypt and large parts of Asia Minor. Dominate (284-476 AD) – 'despotic' latter phase of government in the ancient Roman Empire from the conclusion of the Third Century Crisis until the collapse of the Western Empire. The Emperor Diocletian abandoned the appearances of the Republic for the sake of control, and introduced a novel system of joint rule by four monarchs known as the Tetrarchy. Decline of the Roman Empire – process spanning many centuries; there is no consensus when it might have begun but many dates and time lines have been proposed by historians. Map of the Roman Empire under the Tetrarchy, showing the dioceses and the four Tetrarchs' zones of influence. Tetrarchy (293-313 AD) – Diocletian designated the general Maximian as co-emperor, first as Caesar (junior emperor) in 285, and then promoted him to Augustus in 286. Diocletian took care of matters in the Eastern regions of the Empire while Maximian similarly took charge of the Western regions. In 293, feeling more focus was needed on both civic and military problems, Diocletian, with Maximian's consent, expanded the imperial college by appointing two Caesars (one responsible to each Augustus). The tetrarchy collapsed, however, in 313 and a few years later Constantine I reunited the two administrative divisions of the Empire as sole Augustus.[3] First Tetrarchy – created by Diocletian with Maximian's consent in 293 by the appointment of two subordinate Caesars. Diocletian (Augustus) Galerius (Caesar) Maximian (Augustus) Constantius Chlorus (Caesar) Second Tetrarchy – in 305, the senior emperors jointly abdicated and retired, elevating Constantius and Galerius to the rank of Augusti. They in turn appointed two new Caesars. Galerius (Augustus) Maximinus (Caesar) Constantius Chlorus (Augustus) Flavius Valerius Severus (Caesar) Civil wars of the Tetrarchy – series of conflicts between the co-emperors of the Roman Empire, starting in 306 AD with the usurpation of Maxentius and the defeat of Severus, and ending with the defeat of Licinius at the hands of Constantine I in 324 AD. Constantinian dynasty – informal name for the ruling family of the Roman Empire from Constantius Chlorus (†305) to the death of Julian in 363. It is named after its most famous member, Constantine the Great who became the sole ruler of the empire in 324. It is also called the Neo-Flavian dynasty. First phase of the Migration Period The Roman Empire during the reigns of Leo I (east) and Majorian (west) in 460 AD. Division of the Roman Empire – in order to maintain control and improve administration, various schemes to divide the work of the Roman Emperor by sharing it between individuals were tried between 285 and 324, from 337 to 350, from 364 to 392, and again between 395 and 480. Although the administrative subdivisions varied, they generally involved a division of labour between East and West. Each division was a form of power-sharing (or even job-sharing), for the ultimate imperium was not divisible and therefore the empire remained legally one state—although the co-emperors often saw each other as rivals or enemies rather than partners. Western Roman Empire – In 285, Emperor Diocletian (r. 284–305) divided the Roman Empire's administration into western and eastern halves.[4] In 293, Rome lost its capital status, and Milan became the capital. Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire) – term used by modern historians to distinguish the Constantinople-centered Roman Empire of the Middle Ages from its earlier classical existence. Nicomedia – Nicomedia was the metropolis of Bithynia under the Roman Empire, and Diocletian made it the eastern capital city of the Roman Empire in 286 when he introduced the Tetrarchy system. Constantinople – founded in AD 330, at ancient Byzantium as the new capital of the entire Roman Empire by Constantine the Great, after whom it was named. Walls of Constantinople The Western and Eastern Roman Empires by 476 Fall of the Western Roman Empire (476 AD) – the two halves of the Roman Empire ended at different times, with the Western Roman Empire coming to an end in 476 AD (the end of Ancient Rome). The Eastern Roman Empire (referred to by historians as the Byzantine Empire) survived for nearly a thousand years more, and eventually engulfed much of the Western Roman Empire's former territory. Fall of the Western Roman Empire – this was not sudden, and took over a hundred years. By 476, when Odoacer deposed the Emperor Romulus, the Western Roman Empire wielded negligible military, political, or financial power and had no effective control over the scattered Western domains that still described themselves as Roman. Odoacer – Germanic soldier, who in 476 became the first King of Italy (476-493). His reign is commonly seen as marking the end of the Western Roman Empire.[5] For comparison, the Byzantine Empire at its greatest extent under Justinian I, in 555 AD Byzantine Empire (Byzantium) – after the Western Roman Empire fragmented and collapsed, the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) continued to thrive, existing for nearly another thousand years until it fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. Its citizens referred to it as the Roman Empire, and saw it as a direct continuation of it. Historians consider it to be a distinctly different empire, with some overlap, but generally not included in the period referred to as Ancient Rome. Byzantium differed in major ways, including its primary language, which was Greek rather than Latin. It also differed religiously, with Roman mythology being replaced by Christianity. Legacy of the Roman Empire – what the Roman Empire passed on, in the form of cultural values, religious beliefs, as well as technological and other achievements, and through which it continued to shape other civilizations, a process which continues to this day. Cultural heritage of the Roman Empire Last of the Romans Legacy of Byzantium Third Rome Roman historiography[edit] Roman historiography Prosopography of ancient Rome Works on Roman history[edit] Ab Urbe Condita, by Titus Livius (around 59 BC-17 AD), a monumental history of Rome, from its founding (traditionally dated to 753 BC). Annals and Histories by Tacitus Res Gestae by Ammianus Marcellinus The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, by Edward Gibbon Culture of ancient Rome[edit] The Colosseum, the largest amphitheatre ever built Pont du Gard, a Roman aqueduct built circa 40–60 AD Back side of the Roman temples of Sbeitla, Tunisia The ancient theatre of Taormina Trio of musicians playing an aulos, cymbala, and tympanum (mosaic from Pompeii) Daedalus and Pasiphaë, Roman fresco in the House of the Vettii, Pompeii, first century AD Theatrical masks of Tragedy and Comedy, Roman mosaic, 2nd century AD Ancient Roman earrings Roman cage cup, ca. 400 AD (Collection Staatliche Antikensammlung, Munich) Museum of Roman Civilization, a museum in Rome devoted to aspects of the Ancient Roman civilization Augustus, possibly the most famous example of adoption in Ancient Rome Mosaic depicting two female slaves (ancillae) attending their mistress (Carthage National Museum) Culture of ancient Rome Architecture of ancient Rome[edit] Ancient Roman architecture Roman Architectural Revolution Roman concrete Roman brick Types of buildings and structures Roman amphitheatre List of Roman amphitheatres Roman aqueduct List of aqueducts in the city of Rome List of aqueducts in the Roman Empire Roman bridge List of Roman bridges Roman canal Roman circus Roman cistern Roman dams and reservoirs Roman defensive walls Roman domes Forum Roman Forum List of monuments of the Roman Forum Roman gardens Roman horreum Insula (building) Roman roads Roman roofs Roman temple List of Ancient Roman temples Roman theatre List of Roman theatres Thermae List of Roman public baths Tholos Roman triumphal arches Roman villa Villa rustica Art in ancient Rome[edit] Roman art Decorative arts of ancient Rome Ancient Roman pottery Roman glass Roman mosaic Literature Augustan literature Augustan poetry Music of ancient Rome Painting of ancient Rome Pompeian Styles Roman wall painting Sculpture of ancient Rome Roman sculpture Roman portraiture Theatre of ancient Rome Bathing in ancient Rome Calendar Julian calendar Cuisine of ancient Rome Food and dining in the Roman Empire Wine in Roman culture Bacchanalia Education in Ancient Rome Athenaeum Fashion in ancient Rome Clothing in ancient Rome Palla Pallium Stola Synthesis Toga Cosmetics in Ancient Rome Roman hairstyles Roman jewelry Festivals Ludi Romani Lupercalia Saturnalia Fiction set in ancient Rome Legacy of the Roman Empire Museum of Roman Civilization Medicine in ancient Rome Disease in Imperial Rome Disability in ancient Rome Food and diet in ancient medicine Medical community of ancient Rome Naming conventions People in ancient Rome List of ancient Romans Philosophy in ancient Rome Public entertainment Chariot racing Gladiator combat Ludi Sexuality in ancient Rome Homosexuality in ancient Rome Prostitution Technology Engineering in ancient Rome Units of measurement Roman timekeeping Sanitation in ancient Rome Social order in ancient Rome[edit] Associations in Ancient Rome Collegium Dignitas Family in Ancient Rome Pater familias Children of Ancient Rome Adoption in ancient Rome Birth registration in Ancient Rome Marriage in ancient Rome Confarreatio Mos maiorum Patronage in ancient Rome Roman citizenship Romanization Slavery in ancient Rome Social class in ancient Rome Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equestrian order Gens Tribes Women in ancient Rome Naming conventions for women in ancient Rome Religion in ancient Rome[edit] The Maison Carrée in Nîmes, a mid-sized provincial temple of the Augustan imperial cult Jupiter holding a staff, with eagle and globe, a fresco from the Casa dei Dioscuri, Pompeii Religion in ancient Rome Imperial cult Religious persecution in the Roman Empire Roman mythology[edit] Roman mythology Roman Gods Capitoline Triad Juno Jupiter Minerva Heroes Hercules in ancient Rome Great Altar of Hercules Temple of Hercules Victor Roma (deity) Roman religious institutions[edit] Portrait of the emperor Antoninus Pius in ritual attire Roman numerals Collegium Pontificum Vestal Virgin Rex Sacrorum Pontifex maximus Flamen Augur Quindecimviri sacris faciundis Epulones See also: Etruscan mythology and Persecution of religion in ancient Rome Roman religious practices[edit] Animal sacrifice Lustratio October Horse Taurobolium Roman funerary practices Roman funerary art Roman sarcophagi Language in ancient Rome[edit] Latin Romance languages History of Latin Old Latin Classical Latin Vulgar Latin Medieval Latin Renaissance Latin New Latin Contemporary Latin Ecclesiastical Latin Latin alphabet Latin letters used in mathematics Roman numerals Latin phrases Latin-script calligraphy Roman cursive Roman square capitals Rustic capitals Languages of the Roman Empire Economy of ancient Rome[edit] Aureus minted in AD 176 by Marcus Aurelius Solidus of Constantine I, minted in AD 335 Roman economy Roman agriculture Deforestation Grain supply to the city of Rome Roman commerce Roman trade with China Roman trade with India Roman finance Roman currency Roman Republican currency Roman provincial currency Roman metallurgy Scholars[edit] Ancient[edit] Apuleius Catullus Cicero Quintus Curtius Rufus Horace Julius Caesar Juvenal Livy Lucretius Ovid Petronius Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Propertius Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Suetonius Tacitus Virgil Vitruvius Modern[edit] Edward Gibbon Ancient Roman lists[edit] Alphabetized list of notable ancient Romans Glossary of ancient Roman religion Latin masculine nouns of the 1st Declension Roman cognomina Roman geographers Roman nomina Roman tribes Roman women Adjectival and demonymic forms of regions in Greco-Roman antiquity See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal Civilizations portal Outline of classical studies Daqin Classical orders Fiction set in ancient Rome Naumachia References[edit] ^ Chris Scarre, The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Rome (London: Penguin Books, 1995). ^ Pliny the Elder, Natural Histories XXVIII.5.23. ^ Bury 1923, p. 1 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBury1923 (help); Kuhoff 2002, pp. 177–178 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFKuhoff2002 (help). ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 847 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFTreadgold1997 (help). ^ "Odoacer was the first barbarian who reigned over Italy, over a people who had once asserted their just superiority above the rest of mankind." Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Chapter XXXVI External links[edit] Ancient Romeat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Ancient Rome resources for students from the Courtenay Middle School Library. History of Ancient Rome OpenCourseWare from the University of Notre Dame providing free resources including lectures, discussion questions, assignments and exams. 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en-wikipedia-org-5025	----	Sallust - Wikipedia Sallust From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman historian and politician (86 BC - c.35 BC) This article is about the historian. For the philosopher, see Sallustius. For other uses, see Sallust (disambiguation). Statue of Sallust in L'Aquila Gaius Sallustius Crispus, usually anglicised as Sallust (/ˈsæləst/; 86 – c. 35 BC),[1] was a Roman historian and politician from an Italian plebeian family. Sallust was born at Amiternum in the country of the Sabines and was a popularis, an opponent of the old Roman aristocracy, throughout his career, and later a partisan of Julius Caesar. Sallust is the earliest known Roman historian with surviving works to his name, of which Catiline's War (about the conspiracy in 63 BC of L. Sergius Catilina), The Jugurthine War (about Rome's war against the Numidian King Jugurtha from 111 to 105 BC), and the Histories (of which only fragments survive) are still extant. Sallust was primarily influenced by the Greek historian Thucydides and amassed great (and ill-gotten) wealth from his governorship of Africa.[2] Contents 1 Life and career 2 Works 2.1 The Conspiracy of Catiline 2.2 Jugurthine War 2.3 Other works 3 Style 4 Significance 5 Manuscripts 6 Translations 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Life and career[edit] Gardens of Sallust Sallust was probably born in Amiternum in Central Italy,[3][4][5] though Eduard Schwartz takes the view that Sallust's birthplace was Rome.[6] His birth date is calculated from the report of Jerome's Chronicon.[7] But Ronald Syme suggests that Jerome's date has to be adjusted because of his carelessness,[7] and suggests 87 BC as a more correct date.[7] However, Sallust's birth is widely dated at 86 BC,[4][8][9] and the Kleine Pauly Encyclopedia takes 1 October 86 BC as the birthdate.[10] Michael Grant cautiously offers 80s BC.[5] There is no information about Sallust's parents or family,[11] except for Tacitus' mention of his sister.[12] The Sallustii were a provincial noble family of Sabine origin.[4][5][13] They belonged to the equestrian order and had full Roman citizenship.[4] During the Social War Sallust’s parents hid in Rome, because Amiternum was under threat of siege by rebelling Italic tribes.[14] Because of this Sallust could have been raised in Rome[11] He received a very good education.[4] After an ill-spent youth, Sallust entered public life and may have won election as quaestor in 55 BC. However, there is no conclusive evidence about this, and some scholars suppose that Sallust did not become a quaestor — the practice of violating the cursus honorum was common in the last years of the Republic.[5][15][16] He became a Tribune of the Plebs in 52 BC, the year in which the followers of Milo killed Clodius in a street brawl. Sallust then supported the prosecution of Milo. Sallust, Titus Munatius Plancus and Quintus Pompeius Rufus also tried to blame Cicero, one of the leaders of the Senators' opposition to the triumvirate, for his support of Milo.[17] Syme suggests that Sallust, because of his position in Milo's trial, did not originally support Caesar.[18] Theodor Mommsen states that Sallust acted in Pompey's interests (according to Mommsen, Pompey was preparing to install his own dictatorship).[19] According to one inscription, some Sallustius (with unclear praenomen) was a proquaestor in Syria in 50 BC under Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus.[20] Mommsen identified this Sallustius with Sallust the historian, though T. R. S. Broughton argued that Sallust the historian could not have been an assistant to Julius Caesar's adversary.[21] From the beginning of his public career, Sallust operated as a decided partisan of Julius Caesar, to whom he owed such political advancement as he attained. In 50 BC, the censor Appius Claudius Pulcher removed him from the Senate on the grounds of gross immorality (probably really because of his opposition to Milo and Cicero). In the following year, perhaps through Caesar's influence, he was reinstated. During the Civil War of 49–45 BC Sallust acted as Caesar's partisan, but his role was not significant, so his name is not mentioned in the dictator's Commentarii de Bello Civili.[22] It was reported by Plutarch that Sallust dined with Caesar, Hirtius, Oppius, Balbus and Sulpicius Rufus on the night after Caesar's famous crossing of the Rubicon river into Italy on 10 January.[23] In 49 BC Sallust was moved to Illyricum and probably commanded at least one legion there after the failure of Publius Cornelius Dolabella and Gaius Antonius.[10][22] This campaign was unsuccessful.[22] In 48 BC he was probably made quaestor by Caesar to[clarification needed] re-enter the Senate.[10] However, the last statement is based on the "Invective against Sallust" ascribed to Cicero,[24] which is probably a later forgery. In late summer 47 BC a group of soldiers rebelled near Rome, demanding their discharge and payment for service. Sallust, as praetor designatus, with several other senators, was sent to persuade the soldiers to abstain, but the rebels killed two senators, and Sallust narrowly escaped death.[25][26] In 46 BC, he served as a praetor and accompanied Caesar in his African campaign, which ended in the decisive defeat of the remains of the Pompeian war party at Thapsus. Sallust did not participate in military operations directly, but he commanded several ships and organized supply through the Kerkennah Islands. As a reward for his services, Sallust was appointed governor of the province of Africa Nova — it is not clear why: Sallust was not a skilled general, and the province was militarily significant, with three legions deployed there. Moreover, his successors as governor were experienced military men. However, Sallust successfully managed the organization of supply and transportation, and these qualities could have determined Caesar's choice.[27] As governor he committed such oppression and extortion that only Caesar's influence enabled him to escape condemnation. On his return to Rome he purchased and began laying out in great splendour the famous gardens on the Quirinal known as the Horti Sallustiani or Gardens of Sallust. These gardens would later belong to the emperors. Sallust then retired from public life and devoted himself to historical literature, and further developed his Gardens, upon which he spent much of his accumulated wealth. According to Hieronymus Stridonensis, Sallust later became the second husband of Cicero's ex-wife Terentia.[28] However prominent scholars of Roman prosopography such as Ronald Syme refute this as a legend.[29] According to Procopius, when Alaric's invading army entered Rome they burned Sallust's house.[30] Works[edit] Sallust's account of the Catiline conspiracy (De coniuratione Catilinae or Bellum Catilinae) and of the Jugurthine War (Bellum Jugurthinum) have come down to us complete, together with fragments of his larger and most important work (Historiae), a history of Rome from 78 to 67 BC, intended as a continuation of Cornelius Sisenna's work. The Conspiracy of Catiline[edit] Main article: The Conspiracy of Catiline This is Sallust's first published work, an account of the attempt by Lucius Sergius Catalina (Catiline) to overthrow the Roman Republic in the year 63 BC. Sallust presents Catiline as a deliberate foe of law, order and morality, and does not give a comprehensive explanation of his views and intentions (Catiline had supported the party of Sulla, whom Sallust had opposed). Theodor Mommsen suggested that Sallust particularly wished to clear his patron (Caesar) of all complicity in the conspiracy. In writing about the conspiracy of Catiline, Sallust's tone, style, and descriptions of aristocratic behavior show that he was deeply troubled by the moral decline of Rome. While he inveighs against Catiline's depraved character and vicious actions, he does not fail to state that the man had many noble traits, indeed all that a Roman man needed to succeed. In particular, Sallust shows Catiline as deeply courageous in his final battle. The work probably was written between 44 and 40 BC,[31] or between 42 and 41 BC according to Der Kleine Pauly.[10][32] The work does not show any traces of personal experience, and the most common explanation is that Sallust was absent from Rome on military service during this period.[33] The main source for this work is De Consulatu Suo by Cicero.[34] Jugurthine War[edit] c. 1490 manuscript for De Bello Jugurthino Sallust's Jugurthine War is a monograph recording the war against Jugurtha in Numidia from c. 112 BC to 105 BC. Its true value lies in the introduction of Marius and Sulla to the Roman political scene and the beginning of their rivalry. Sallust's time as governor of Africa Nova ought to have let the author develop a solid geographical and ethnographical background to the war; however, this is not evident in the monograph, despite a diversion on the subject, because Sallust's priority in the Jugurthine War, as with the Catiline Conspiracy, is to use history as a vehicle for his judgement on the slow destruction of Roman morality and politics. Other works[edit] See also: Epistula Mithridatis The extant fragments of the Histories (some discovered in 1886) show sufficiently well the political partisan, who took a keen pleasure in describing the reaction against Sulla's policy and legislation after the dictator's death. Historians regret the loss of the work, as it must have thrown much light on a very eventful period, embracing the war against Sertorius (died 72 BC), the campaigns of Lucullus against Mithradates VI of Pontus (75-66 BC), and the victories of Pompey in the East (66–62 BC). Two letters (Duae epistolae de republica ordinanda), letters of political counsel and advice addressed to Caesar, and an attack upon Cicero (Invectiva or Declamatio in Ciceronem), frequently attributed to Sallust, are thought by modern scholars to have come from the pen of a rhetorician of the first century AD, along with a counter-invective attributed to Cicero. At one time Marcus Porcius Latro was considered a candidate for the authorship of the pseudo-Sallustian corpus, but this view is no longer commonly held.[35] Style[edit] The style of works written by Sallust was well known in Rome. It differs from the writings of his contemporaries — Caesar and especially Cicero. It is characterized by brevity and by the use of rare words and turns of phrase. As a result, his works are very far from the conversational Latin of his time.[36] Consider his use of archaic words. According to Suetonius, Lucius Ateius Praetextatus (Philologus) helped Sallust to collect them.[37] Ronald Syme suggests that Sallust's choice of style and even particular words was influenced by his antipathy to Cicero, his rival, but also one of the trendsetters in Latin literature in the first century BC.[38] "The Conspiracy of Catiline" reflects many features of style that were developed in his later works.[39] Sallust avoids common words from public speeches of contemporary Roman political orators, such as honestas, humanitas, consensus.[40] In several cases he uses rare forms of well-known words: for example, lubido instead of libido, maxumum instead of maximum, the conjunction quo in place of more common ut. He also uses the less common endings -ere instead of common -erunt in the third person plural in the perfect indicative, and -is instead of -es in the accusative plural for third declension (masculine or feminine) adjectives and nouns. Some words used by Sallust (for example, antecapere, portatio, incruentus, incelebratus, incuriosus), are not known in other writings before him. They are believed to be either neologisms or intentional revivals of archaic words.[41] Sallust also often uses antithesis, alliterations and chiasmus.[42] Significance[edit] On the whole, antiquity looked favourably on Sallust as a historian. Tacitus speaks highly of him (Annals, iii.30); and Quintilian does not hesitate to put him on a level with Thucydides, and declares that he is a greater historian than Livy. Martial joins the praise: "Sallust, according to the judgment of the learned, will rank as the prince of Roman historiographers".[43] His books were sometimes used by authors of the first and second centuries AD, especially after imitations of archaic style gained popularity. Among those who borrowed information from his works were Silius Italicus, Lucan, Plutarch, and Ammianus Marcellinus.[44][45] Fronto used ancient words collected by Sallust to provide "archaic coloring" for his works.[46] In the second century AD Zenobius translated his works into Ancient Greek.[44] Other opinions were also present. For example, Gaius Asinius Pollio criticized Sallust's addiction to archaic words and his unusual grammatical features.[47] Aulus Gellius saved[clarification needed] Pollio's unfavorable statement about Sallust's style. According to him, Sallust once used the word transgressus meaning generally "passage [by foot]" for a platoon which crossed the sea (the usual word for this type of crossing was transfretatio).[48] Though Quintilian has a generally favorable opinion of Sallust, he disparages several features of his style: For though a diffuse irrelevance is tedious, the omission of what is necessary is positively dangerous. We must therefore avoid even the famous terseness of Sallust (though in his case of course it is a merit), and shun all abruptness of speech, since a style which presents no difficulty to a leisurely reader, flies past a hearer and will not stay to be looked at again.[49] Sallust struck out practically a new line in literature for himself: his predecessors had been little better than mere dry-as-dust chroniclers, but he endeavoured to explain the connection and meaning of events and successfully delineated character. The contrast between his early life and the high moral tone he adopted in his writings has frequently made him a subject of reproach, but history gives no reason why he should not have reformed. In any case, his knowledge of his own former weaknesses may have led him to take a pessimistic view of the morality of his fellow men, and to judge them severely. He took as his model Thucydides, whom he imitated in his truthfulness and impartiality, in the introduction of philosophical reflections and speeches, and in the brevity of his style, sometimes bordering upon obscurity. During the Late Antiquity and Early Middle Ages his works retained their popularity, and some influential early Christian theologists (Marcus Minucius Felix and Augustine of Hippo) knew his writings well.[44][50] In the Middle Ages Sallust's works were often used in schools to teach Latin. His brief style influenced, among others, Widukind of Corvey and Wipo of Burgundy.[50] In the thirteenth century Sallust's passage on the expansion of the Roman Republic (Cat. 7) was cited and interpreted by theologian Thomas Aquinas and scholar Brunetto Latini.[51] During the Late Middle Ages and Renaissance Sallust's works began to influence political thought in Italy. Among many scholars and historians interested in Sallust, the most notable are Leonardo Bruni, Coluccio Salutati and Niccolo Machiavelli.[52] Petrarch also praised Sallust highly, though he primarily appreciated his style and moralization.[53] During the French Wars of Religion, De coniuratione Catilinae became widely known as a tutorial on disclosing conspiracies.[54] Among his admirers in England were Thomas More, Alexander Barclay and Thomas Elyot.[55] Justus Lipsius marked Sallust as the second most notable Roman historian after Tacitus.[56] Nietzsche credits Sallust in Twilight of the Idols[57] for his epigrammatic style: "My sense of style, for the epigram as a style, was awakened almost instantly when I came into contact with Sallust" and praises him for being "compact, severe, with as much substance as possible, a cold sarcasm against 'beautiful words' and 'beautiful sentiments'." Henrik Ibsen's first play was Catiline, based on Sallust's story.[50] Manuscripts[edit] Several manuscripts of his works survived due to his popularity in Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Manuscripts of his writings are usually divided into two groups: mutili (mutilated) and integri (whole; undamaged). The classification is based on the existence of the lacuna (gap) between 103.2 and 112.3 of the Jugurthine War. The lacuna exists in the mutili scrolls, while integri manuscripts have the text there. The most ancient scrolls which survive are the Codex Parisinus 16024 and Codex Parisinus 16025, known as "P" and "A" respectively. They were created in the ninth century, and both belong to the mutili group.[58] Both these scrolls include only Catiline and Jugurtha, while some other mutili manuscripts also include Invective and Cicero's response.[59] The oldest integri scrolls were created in the eleventh century AD.[60] The probability that all these scrolls came from one or more ancient manuscripts is debated.[61] There is also a unique scroll Codex Vaticanus 3864, known as "V". It includes only speeches and letters from Catiline, Jugurtha and Histories.[58] The creator of this manuscript changed the original word order and replaced archaisms with more familiar words.[58] The "V" scroll also includes two anonymous letters to Caesar probably from Sallust,[58] but their authenticity is debated (see above). Several fragments of Sallust's works survived in papyri of the second to fourth centuries AD. Many ancient authors cited Sallust, and sometimes their citations of Histories are the only source for reconstruction of this work. But the significance of these citations for the reconstruction is uncertain, because occasionally the authors cited Sallust from memory, and some distortions were possible.[62] Translations[edit] The Conspiracie of Cateline and The Warre of Jugurth (trans. Thomas Heywood, 1608). New York: AMS Press, 1967 (among other modern printings). Loeb Classical Library, Vol. 116 (trans. J.C. Rolfe). Cambridge, MA: HUP, 1921. Catiline's War, the Jugurthine War, Histories (trans. A.J. Woodman). London: Penguin, 2007 (ISBN 0140449485). (Page xxvii, "When Sallust died, probably in 35...") Catiline's Conspiracy, The Jugurthine War, Histories (trans. William W. Batstone). Oxford: OUP, 2010 ( ISBN 9780192823458). See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal Biography portal List of historians Roman historiography Unity makes strength Animus in consulendo liber References[edit] ^ Woodman, A.J. (2007). Catiline's War, the Jugurthine War, Histories. London: Penguin. p. xxvii. ISBN 978-0140449488. When Sallust died, probably in 35 . ^ Woodman, Catiline's War, the Jugurthine War, Histories, p. xxvii ^ Syme, R. (1964) Sallust. University of California Press. p. 7 ^ a b c d e Mellor, R. J. (1999) The Roman historians. Routledge. p. 30 ^ a b c d Grant, M. (1995) Greek and Roman historians: information and misinformation. Routledge. P. 13 ^ Syme, R. (1964) Sallust. University of California Press. p. 15. R. Syme provides an analysis of the hypothesis ^ a b c Syme, R. (1964) Sallust. University of California Press. p. 13 ^ (in Russian) Альбрехт, М. (2002) История римской литературы [Istoriya Rimskoy Literatury], Т. 1. Греко-латинский кабинет. С. 480 ^ (in Russian) Горенштейн, В. О. (1981) Гай Саллюстий Крисп. Сочинения. Наука. С. 148 ^ a b c d Schmidt, P. L. "Sallustius (4)", Der Kleine Pauly. Bd. IV. Sp. 1513 ^ a b Syme, R. (1964) Sallust. University of California Press. P. 14 ^ Tacitus. Annales, III.30.3 ^ Syme, R. (1964) Sallust. University of California Press. p. 9 ^ Syme, R. (1964) Sallust. University of California Press. p. 12 ^ Syme, R. (1964) Sallust. University of California Press. p. 28 ^ Earl D. C. "The Early Career of Sallust", Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, 15 (1966), p. 306 ^ (Asc. Mil., 20 (37)) Asconius Pedianus. Commentary on Pro Milone, 20 (37) ^ Syme, R. (1964) Sallust. University of California Press. p. 29 ^ Моммзен, Т. (2005) История Рима. Т. 3. Наука. С. 223 ^ Broughton, T. R. S. (1952) Magistrates of the Roman Republic, Vol. 2. American Philological Association. P. 242 ^ Broughton, T. R. S. (1952) Magistrates of the Roman Republic, Vol. 2. American Philological Association. P. 247 ^ a b c Syme, R. (1964) Sallust. University of California Press. P. 36 ^ Dando-Collins, Stephan (2002). The Epic Saga of Julius Caesars Tenth Legion and Rome. p. 67. ISBN 0-471-09570-2. ^ Broughton, T. R. S. (1952) Magistrates of the Roman Republic, Vol. 2. American Philological Association. p. 274 ^ (App. B. C., II, 92) Appian. Roman history. Civil wars, II, 92 ^ (Cass. Dio, XLII, 52) Cassius Dio. Roman history, XLII, 52 ^ Syme, R. (1964) Sallust. University of California Press. p. 37 ^ Hieronymus. Adversus Jovinianum Libri Duo, I, 48: "Illa [Terentia] […] nupsit Sallustio" Read online: [1] ^ Syme, Roland (1978). "Sallust's Wife". The Classical Quarterly. 28 (2): 292–295. doi:10.1017/S0009838800034820. JSTOR 638680. ^ Procopius. History of the Wars, Books III & IV, trans. Dewing, Loeb Classical Library, G.P. Putman's Sons, London, ç1916, p.17 ^ Mellor, R. (1999) The Roman historians. Routledge. P. 32 ^ Louis MacKay proposed a different dating. According to him, The Conspiracy was prepared by Sallust in 50 BC as a political pamphlet, but was not published; after the Civil War Sallust reviewed and finally published it: MacKay, L. A. "Sallust's Catiline: Date and Purpose", Phoenix, 16 (1962), p. 190 ^ Earl D. C. "The Early Career of Sallust," Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. Vol. 15, No. 3. 1966. P. 307-309 ^ MacKay, "Sallust's Catiline: Date and Purpose", p. 183 ^ Smith, William (1867), "Latro, M. Porcius", in Smith, William (ed.), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, 2, Stefano Ciufferpebble, p. 726 ^ (in Russian) Альбрехт, М. (2002) История римской литературы, Т. 1. Греко-латинский кабинет. С. 494 ^ (Suet. Gram. 10) Suetonius. On Famous Grammarians and Rhetoricians, 10 ^ Syme, (1964) Sallust. University of California Press. p. 257 ^ Syme, (1964) Sallust. University of California Press. p. 266 ^ (in Russian) Альбрехт, М. (2002) История римской литературы, Т. 1. Греко-латинский кабинет. С. 493 ^ McGushin, P. Bellum Catilinae: A Commentary. Brill Archive, 1977. p. 19 ^ (in Russian) Горенштейн, В. О. (1981) Гай Саллюстий Крисп. Сочинения. Москва: Наука. С. 161 ^ (Mart. XIV, 191) Martial. Epigrams, XIV, 191: Hic erit, ut perhibent doctorum corda virorum, // Primus Romana Crispus in historia. ^ a b c (in Russian) Альбрехт, М. (2002) История римской литературы, Т. 1. Греко-латинский кабинет. С. 504 ^ Rawson E. Sallust on the Eighties? // In: The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 37, No. 1 (1987). P. 164 ^ (in Russian) Тронский, И. М. (1946) История античной литературы Ленинград: Учпедгиз. С. 47 ^ (Suet. Gram. 10) Suetonius. On Famous Grammarians and Rhetoricians, 10 ^ Gellius. Noctes Atticae, X, 26 ^ (Quint. Inst. IV, 44-45) Quintilian, Institio Oratoria, IV, 44-45 ^ a b c (in Russian) Альбрехт, М. (2002) История римской литературы, Т. 1. Греко-латинский кабинет. С. 505 ^ Osmond P. J. "Princeps historiae Romanae: Sallust in Renaissance political thought", Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 40 (1995), p. 104 ^ Osmond P. J. "Princeps historiae Romanae: Sallust in Renaissance political thought", Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome, 40 (1995), p. 107ff. ^ Osmond P. J. "Princeps historiae Romanae: Sallust in Renaissance political thought", Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome, 40 (1995), p. 106 ^ Osmond P. J. "Princeps historiae Romanae", p. 121 ^ Osmond P. J. "Princeps historiae Romanae", p. 120 ^ Osmond P. J. "Princeps historiae Romanae: Sallust in Renaissance political thought", p. 101 ^ Nietzsche, Twilight of the Idols, s. 13.1 ^ a b c d Ramsey, J. T. (2007) Sallust’s Bellum Catilinae. 2nd Ed. New York—Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 14 ^ Rolfe J. C. "Introduction", Sallust. Loeb Classical Library p. XVIII ^ Ramsey J. T. (2007) Sallust’s Bellum Catilinae. 2nd Ed. New York—Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 26 ^ (in Russian) Альбрехт, М. (2002) История римской литературы, Т. 1. Греко-латинский кабинет. С. 502 ^ Ramsey J. T. (2007) Sallust's Bellum Catilinae, 2nd ed. New York—Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 15 Further reading[edit] Aili, H. The Prose Rhythm of Sallust and Livy. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1979. Chisholm, H., ed. "Sallust". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press, 1911. Drummond, A. Law, Politics and Power: Sallust and the Execution of the Catilinarian Conspirators. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1995. Earl, D. C. The Political Thought of Sallust. Amsterdam: Hakkert, 1961. Funari, R., ed. Corpus dei papiri storici greci e latini. Parte B. Storici latini. 1. Autori noti. Vol. 2 Caius Sallustius Crispus. Pisa & Rome: Fabrizio Serra Editore, 2008. Hartswick, K. J. The Gardens of Sallust. A Changing Landscape. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2004. Latte, K. Sallust. Leipzig: Teubner, 1935. Lemprière, J. A Classical Dictionary. London: Cadell & Davies, 1820; p. 683. Oniga, R. Sallustio e l'etnografia. Pisa: Giardini, 1995. Osmond, P. J. "Princeps Historiae Romanae: Sallust in Renaissance Political Thought", Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 40 (1995), pp. 101–143. Renehan, R. "A Traditional Pattern of Imitation in Sallust and his Sources", Classical Philology 71 (1976), pp. 97–105. Scanlon, T. Spes Frustrata: A Reading of Sallust. Heidelberg: Winter, 1987. Scanlon, T. The Influence of Thucydides on Sallust. Heidelberg: Winter, 1980. Syme, R. Sallust. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1964. Woodman, A. J. Rhetoric in Classical Historiography. London: Croom Helm, 1988. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Sallust Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sallust. Wikisource has original works written by or about: Sallust Wikisource has the text of the 1905 New International Encyclopedia article "Sallust". Library resources about Sallust Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Sallust Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Latin with English translation at LacusCurtius (J. C. Rolfe, 1921): Bellum Catilinae Bellum Jugurthinum Invectiva in Ciceronem (uncertain authorship, sometimes attributed to Sallust) Oratio ad Caesarem (uncertain authorship) Works by Sallust at Project Gutenberg (Schmitz and Zumpt, 1848): Bellum Catilinae Bellum Jugurthinum at the Perseus Project (Watson, 1899): Bellum Catilinae Bellum Jugurthinum at Attalus.org: Fragmenta Historiarum (translation of selected fragments) Fragmenta Historiarum (Latin text of all surviving fragments) Latin only at Latin Library (unknown edition): Bellum Catilinae Bellum Jugurthinum Fragmenta Historiarum Epistolae ad Caesarem Invectiva in Ciceronem English only Works by Sallust at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Sallust at Internet Archive Works by Sallust at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Works by Sallust at Open Library v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure 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en-wikipedia-org-5082	----	Gaius Maecenas - Wikipedia Gaius Maecenas From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Maecenas) Jump to navigation Jump to search Bust of Maecenas at Coole Park, Co. Galway, Ireland Gaius Cilnius Maecenas (/maɪˈsiːnəs/; c. 70 BC – 8 BC) was a friend and political advisor to Octavian, who later reigned as Augustus. He was also an important patron for the new generation of Augustan poets, including both Horace and Virgil. During the reign of Augustus, Maecenas served as a quasi-culture minister to the Emperor but in spite of his wealth and power he chose not to enter the Senate, remaining of equestrian rank. Contents 1 Biography 2 Reputation 3 Maecenate (patronage) 4 Works 5 Gardens of Maecenas 6 Legacy 7 Film and television portrayals 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 10.1 Primary sources 10.2 Secondary sources Biography[edit] Expressions in Propertius[1] seem to imply that Maecenas had taken some part in the campaigns of Mutina, Philippi and Perugia. He prided himself on his ancient Etruscan lineage, and claimed descent from the princely house of the Cilnii, who excited the jealousy of their townsmen by their preponderant wealth and influence at Arretium in the 4th century BC.[2] Horace makes reference to this in his address to Maecenas at the opening of his first books of Odes with the expression "atavis edite regibus" (descendant of kings). Tacitus[3] refers to him as "Cilnius Maecenas"; it is possible that "Cilnius" was his mother's nomen – or that Maecenas was in fact a cognomen.[4] The Gaius Maecenas mentioned in Cicero[5] as an influential member of the equestrian order in 91 BC may have been his grandfather, or even his father. The testimony of Horace[6] and Maecenas's own literary tastes imply that he had profited from the highest education of his time. His great wealth may have been in part hereditary, but he owed his position and influence to his close connection with the Emperor Augustus. He first appears in history in 40 BC, when he was employed by Octavian in arranging his marriage with Scribonia, and afterwards in assisting to negotiate the Treaty of Brundisium and the reconciliation with Mark Antony. As a close friend and advisor he had even acted as deputy for Augustus when he was abroad. It was in 38 BC that Horace was introduced to Maecenas, who had before this received Lucius Varius Rufus and Virgil into his intimacy. In the "Journey to Brundisium,"[7] in 37, Maecenas and Marcus Cocceius Nerva – great-grandfather of the future emperor Nerva – are described as having been sent on an important mission, and they were successful in patching up, by the Treaty of Tarentum, a reconciliation between the two claimants for supreme power. During the Sicilian war against Sextus Pompeius in 36, Maecenas was sent back to Rome, and was entrusted with supreme administrative control in the city and in Italy. He was vicegerent of Octavian during the campaign that led to the Battle of Actium, when, with great promptness and secrecy, he crushed the conspiracy of Lepidus the Younger; during the subsequent absences of his chief in the provinces he again held the same position. During the latter years of his life he fell somewhat out of favour with his master. Suetonius[8] attributes the loss of the imperial favour to Maecenas' having indiscreetly revealed to Terentia, his beautiful but difficult wife, the discovery of the conspiracy in which her brother Lucius Licinius Varro Murena[9] was implicated, but according to Cassius Dio[10] (writing in the early 3rd century AD) it was due to the emperor's relations with Terentia. Maecenas died in 8 BC, leaving the emperor sole heir to his wealth. Reputation[edit] Opinions were much divided in ancient times as to his personal character; but the testimony as to his administrative and diplomatic ability was unanimous. He enjoyed the credit of sharing largely in the establishment of the new order of things, of reconciling parties, and of carrying the new empire safely through many dangers. To his influence especially was attributed the more humane policy of Octavian after his first alliance with Antony and Lepidus. The best summary of his character as a man and a statesman, by Marcus Velleius Paterculus,[11] describes him as "of sleepless vigilance in critical emergencies, far-seeing and knowing how to act, but in his relaxation from business more luxurious and effeminate than a woman." Expressions in the Odes of Horace[12] seem to imply that Maecenas was deficient in the robustness of fibre which Romans liked to imagine was characteristic of their city. Maecenate (patronage)[edit] Stefan Bakałowicz. "At Maecenas' reception room" Maecenas is most famous for his support of young poets, hence his name has become the eponym for a "patron of arts". He supported Virgil who wrote the Georgics in his honour. It was Virgil, impressed with examples of Horace's poetry, who introduced Horace to Maecenas. Indeed, Horace begins the first poem of his Odes (Odes I.i) by addressing his new patron. Maecenas gave him full financial support as well as an estate in the Sabine mountains. Propertius and the minor poets Varius Rufus, Plotius Tucca, Valgius Rufus and Domitius Marsus also were his protégés. His character as a munificent patron of literature – which has made his name a household word – is gratefully acknowledged by the recipients of it and attested by the regrets of the men of letters of a later age, expressed by Martial and Juvenal. His patronage was exercised, not from vanity or a mere dilettante love of letters, but with a view to the higher interest of the state. He recognized in the genius of the poets of that time not only the truest ornament of the court, but the power of reconciling men's minds to the new order of things, and of investing the actual state of affairs with an ideal glory and majesty. The change in seriousness of purpose between the Eclogues and the Georgics of Virgil was in a great measure the result of the direction given by the statesman to the poet's genius. A similar change between the earlier odes of Horace, in which he declares his epicurean indifference to affairs of state, and the great national odes of the third book has been ascribed by some to the same guidance. However, since the organization of the Odes is not entirely chronological, and their composition followed both books of Satires and the Epodes, this argument is plainly specious; but doubtless the milieu of Maecenas's circle influenced the writing of the Roman Odes (III.1–6) and others such as the ode to Pollio, Motum ex Metello (II.1). Maecenas endeavoured also to divert the less masculine genius of Propertius from harping continually on his love to themes of public interest, an effort which to some extent backfired in the ironic elegies of Book III. But if the motive of his patronage had been merely political, it never could have inspired the affection which it did in its recipients. The great charm of Maecenas in his relation to the men of genius who formed his circle was his simplicity, cordiality and sincerity. Although not particular in the choice of some of the associates of his pleasures, he admitted none but men of worth to his intimacy, and when once admitted they were treated like equals. Much of the wisdom of Maecenas probably lives in the Satires and Epistles of Horace. It has fallen to the lot of no other patron of literature to have his name associated with works of such lasting interest as the Georgics of Virgil, the first three books of Horace's Odes, and the first book of his Epistles. Works[edit] Maecenas also wrote literature himself in both prose and verse, which consists of lost literary work. The some twenty fragments that remain show that he was less successful as an author than as a judge and patron of literature. His prose works on various subjects – Prometheus, dialogues like Symposium (a banquet at which Virgil, Horace and Messalla were present), De cultu suo (on his manner of life) and a poem In Octaviam ("Against Octavia") of which the content is unclear – were ridiculed by Augustus, Seneca and Quintilian for their strange style, the use of rare words and awkward transpositions. According to Dio Cassius, Maecenas was also the inventor of a system of shorthand. Gardens of Maecenas[edit] Auditorium of Maecenas, Esquiline Villa of Maecenas in Tivoli, Italy, Jacob Philipp Hackert, 1783 Reconstruction of the Villa Maecenas in Tivoli, Italy, 1713 Main article: Gardens of Maecenas Maecenas sited his famous gardens, the first gardens in the Hellenistic-Persian garden style in Rome, on the Esquiline Hill, atop the Servian Wall and its adjoining necropolis, near the gardens of Lamia. It contained terraces, libraries and other aspects of Roman culture. Maecenas is said to have been the first to construct a swimming bath of hot water in Rome,[13] which may have been in the gardens. The luxury of his gardens and villas incurred the displeasure of Seneca the Younger. Though the approximate site is known, it is not easy to reconcile literary indications to determine the gardens' exact location, whether or not they lay on both sides of the Servian ager and both north and south of the porta Esquilina. Common graves of the archaic Esquiline necropolis have been found near the north-west corner of the modern Piazza Vittorio Emanuele, that is, outside the Esquiline gate of antiquity and north of the via Tiburtina vetus; most probably the horti Maecenatiani extended north from this gate and road on both sides of the ager. The "Auditorium of Maecenas", a probable venue for dining and entertainment, may still be visited (upon reservation[14]) on Largo Leopardi near Via Merulana. The gardens became imperial property after Maecenas's death, and Tiberius lived there after his return to Rome in 2 AD.[15] Nero connected them with the Palatine Hill via his Domus Transitoria,[16] and viewed the burning of that from the turris Maecenatiana.[17] This turris was probably the "molem propinquam nubibus arduis" ("the pile, among the clouds") mentioned by Horace.[18] Whether the horti Maecenatiani bought by Fronto[19] actually were the former gardens of Maecenas is unknown, and the domus Frontoniana mentioned in the twelfth century by Magister Gregorius may also refer to the gardens of Maecenas.[20] Legacy[edit] His name has become a byword in many languages[21] for a well-connected and wealthy patron. For instance, John Dewey, in his lectures Art as Experience, said "Economic patronage by wealthy and powerful individuals has at many times played a part in the encouragement of artistic production. Probably many a savage tribe had its Maecenas."[22] He is celebrated for this role in two poems, the Elegiae in Maecenatem, which were written after his death and collected in the Appendix Vergiliana. In various languages, it has even been coined into a word for (private) patronage (mainly cultural, but sometimes wider, usually perceived as more altruistic than sponsorship). A verse of the student song "Gaudeamus igitur" wishes longevity upon the charity of the students' benefactors ("Maecenatum", genitive plural of "Maecenas"). In Poland and Western Ukraine, a lawyer would customarily be addressed with the honorific "Pan Mecenas", as lawyers were considered to be philanthropists and patrons of the arts. In The Great Gatsby, along with Midas and J. P. Morgan, Maecenas is one of the three famous wealthy men whose secrets narrator Nick Carraway hopes to find in the books he buys for his home library.[23] Film and television portrayals[edit] Maecenas was portrayed by Alex Wyndham in the second season of the 2005 HBO television series Rome. He was portrayed by Russell Barr in the made-for-TV movie Imperium: Augustus.[24] He is also featured in one episode of the second series of Plebs on ITV. See also[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gaius Maecenas. Cilnia (gens) Maecenas-Ehrung, German Award to philanthropists Notes[edit] ^ ii. I, 25–30 ^ Livy x. 3. ^ Tacitus, Annals 6. 11. ^ Varro, however, specifies that the name Maecenas is a nomen based on origin like Lesas, Ufenas, etc: see Chris J. Simpson, "Two Small Thoughts on 'Cilnius Maecenas'" 1996. Archived 2010-04-01 at the Wayback Machine ^ Pro Cluentio, 56 ^ Odes iii. 8, 5 ^ Horace, Satires, i. 5. ^ Augustus, 66 ^ Murena was accused of being in a conspiracy with Fannius Caepio and executed in 22 BC (Kline, Index to Horace Satires: Epistles). ^ liv. 19 ^ ii. 88 ^ ii. 17. a ^ Cassius Dio LV.7.6 ^ [1] ^ Suet. Tib. 15 ^ Tac. Ann. XV.39 ^ Suet. Nero 38 ^ Horace's Odes iii.29.10. ^ Fronto, ad M. Caesarem 2.2 – "Plane multum mihi facetiarum contulit istic Horatius Flaccus, memorabilis poeta mihique propter Maecenatem ac Maecenatianos hortos meos non alienus. Is namque Horatius Sermonum libr(o) s(ecundo) fabulam istam Polemonis inseruit, si recte memini, hisce versibus..." ^ Journal of Roman Studies 1919, 35, 53.1 ^ μαικήνας in Greek, mecenaat in Dutch, mesenaatti in Finnish, mécénat in French, Mäzen in German, mecenate in Italian, mecenat in Romanian, mecen in Slovenian, mecenas in Spanish, Polish, and Ukrainian, and меценат in Russian and Bulgarian. ^ Dewey, John (1934). Art as Experience. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. p. 9. ^ Fitzgerald, F. Scott (1925). The Great Gatsby. New York: Scribner. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-7432-7356-5. ^ https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0340529/ References[edit] Primary sources[edit] Dio Cassius Tacitus, Annals Suetonius, Augustus Horace, Odes with Scholia Horace, Satires i.8.14 – "nunc licet Esquiliis habitare salubribus atque / aggere in aprico spatiari, quo modo tristes / albis informem spectabant ossibus agrum,/cum mihi non tantum furesque feraeque suetae/hunc vexare locum curae sunt atque labori/quantum carminibus quae versant atque venenis/humanos animos: has nullo perdere possum/nec prohibere modo, simul ac vaga luna decorum/protulit os, quin ossa legant herbasque nocentis." Acro, Porphyrio, and Comm. Cruq. ad loc. Topographical Dictionary Secondary sources[edit] V. Gardthausen, Augustus and seine Zeit, i. 762 seq. ; ii. 432 seq.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Maecenas, Gaius". Encyclopædia Britannica. 17 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 296–297. André, Jean-Marie (1967). "Mécène. Essai de biographie spirituelle". Annales littéraires de l'Université de Besançon (in French) (86). The fragments of Maecenas' poetry have been collected and edited by J. Blänsdorf (ed.), Philippe Le Doze, "Mécène. Ombres et flamboyances", Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 2014. Fragmenta poetarum Latinorum epicorum et lyricorum praeter Ennium et Lucilium, 3rd ed., Stuttgart: Teubner, 1995, pp. 243–48. S. Lyons, Music in the Odes of Horace, 2010, Oxford, Aris and Phillips ( ISBN 978-0-85668-844-7). Authority control BNF: cb12308437b (data) GND: 118730053 ISNI: 0000 0000 6318 2711 LCCN: n94110034 NKC: jn20011211048 NTA: 070031320 SELIBR: 73562 SUDOC: 031965253 TePapa: 37636 VcBA: 495/41963 VIAF: 36906810 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n94110034 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gaius_Maecenas&oldid=992092474" Categories: Augustus People from Arezzo Ancient Roman equites Roman-era inhabitants of Italy Roman-era poets Italian philanthropists Italian literature patrons Golden Age Latin writers Urban prefects of Rome 1st-century BC Roman poets 68 BC births 8 BC deaths Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica CS1 French-language sources (fr) Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with TePapa identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Беларуская Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Қазақша Latina Lietuvių Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русиньскый Русский Sardu Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 3 December 2020, at 13:24 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-50	----	Giacomo Di Chirico - Wikipedia Giacomo Di Chirico From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Giacomo Di Chirico self portrait Born (1844-01-27)27 January 1844 Venosa, Basilicata Died 26 December 1883(1883-12-26) (aged 39) Naples, Campania Nationality Italian Known for painting Giacomo Ernesto Eduardo Di Chirico (27 January 1844 – 26 December 1883) was an Italian painter. Together with Domenico Morelli and Filippo Palizzi, he was one of the most elite Neapolitan artists of the 19th century. Contents 1 Biography 2 Artworks 3 Honor 4 Notes 5 Bibliography 6 External links Biography[edit] Giacomo Di Chirico was born in Venosa into a carpenter's family, the younger son of Luigi and Caterina Savino. In 1847, when Di Chirico was barely 3 years old, his father Luigi died, leaving the family impoverished. He attended a private school for boys from deprived families under the supervision of priest Giuseppe Gianturco, the brother of politician Emanuele Gianturco. He began working at a barbershop to support his family economically but had become passionate about his painting hobby, after learning basic art techniques from his older brother, Nicola, a sculptor. Di Chirico had begun to create portraits of his customers, who expressed admiration for his work, and local citizens who saw his portraits began to request them. Feeling stimulated from such interest and their appreciation, Di Chirico decided to become a professional painter. He obtained a subsidy salary from the municipality of Venosa, was enrolled in the Academy of Fine Arts of Naples[1] and graduated after he had demonstrated optimal results from the studies. In 1865, Di Chirico became a disciple of Francesco de Sanctis, who taught him lessons in literature for two years. Between 1868 and 1871, Di Chirico refined his artistic technique while living in Rome, further strengthening his friendship with Domenico Morelli and Filippo Palizzi. He returned to Naples to open an art studio. During his career, Di Chirico created masterpieces such as Buoso da Duera, Quinto Orazio Flacco, Corteggiamento and Donna lucana. Sposalizio in Basilicata, one of his best known paintings, was exposed in Paris (1877), Vienna (1879) and Munich (1882). It was purchased by the French merchant Adolphe Goupil. Di Chirico's works were exposed at the Goupil & Cie in Paris. He received the title Knight of the Order of the Crown of Italy from Victor Emmanuel II. Between 1877 and 1878, Di Chirico was made an honorary professor at the Academy of Art in Naples. He spent August (Ferragosto) in Maiori, where he met his wife Emilia D’Amato. He remained with her for the rest of his life and they had a daughter named Maria. One of his pupils was Pietro Scoppetta. As his artistic career continued to reach new heights, so did the rise of his activity until 1882, when Di Chirico began to exhibit symptoms of mania, sleep deprivation and cachexia, a pattern of ailments that overlapped with the Dutch painter Vincent van Gogh's illness. Di Chirico was confined to the Provincial lunatic asylum for his mental illness. In the asylum, his physical health continued to deteriorate, and he died during treatment in Naples in 1883 at age 39. Artworks[edit] Buoso da Duera Sposalizio in Basilicata Donna lucana Horace Il ministrante Honor[edit] • Knight of the Order of the Crown of Italy, Kingdom of Italy[2] Notes[edit] ^ http://www.accademianapoli.it/istituzioni-e-societa/[permanent dead link] Academy of Art in Naples ^ Enrico Castelnuovo, La Pittura in Italia: l'Ottocento, Volume 2, p. 805 Bibliography[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Giacomo Di Chirico. Richard Muther, The history of modern painting, Volume 3, J.M. Dent & Co., 1907. Enrico Castelnuovo, La Pittura in Italia: l'Ottocento, Volume 2, Electa, 1991. External links[edit] https://web.archive.org/web/20110205072127/http://www.giacomodichirico.com/ (in English) Biografia di Giacomo Di Chirico Wedding of the Prefect of the Province of Basilicata in the South of Italy Authority control GND: 121750035 ISNI: 0000 0001 1558 0448 LCCN: no2009011243 RKD: 16694 SUDOC: 137977549 ULAN: 500053408 VIAF: 877475 WorldCat Identities: lccn-no2009011243 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Di_Chirico&oldid=996368005" Categories: 19th-century Italian painters Italian male painters Painters from Naples 1844 births 1883 deaths People from Venosa Academic art Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from December 2019 Articles with permanently dead external links Use dmy dates from March 2020 Articles with hCards Pages using infobox artist with unknown parameters Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with RKDartists identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français Italiano Nederlands 日本語 Napulitano Norsk bokmål Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 26 December 2020, at 04:34 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-503	----	Augustus - Wikipedia Augustus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search First Roman emperor, from 27 BC to AD 14 This article is about the first Roman emperor. For other uses, see Augustus (title), Augustus (disambiguation), and Octavian (disambiguation). Princeps Civitatis Augustus Princeps Civitatis Augustus of Prima Porta, 1st century Roman emperor Reign 16 January 27 BC – 19 August AD 14 Predecessor Empire Established Successor Tiberius Born Gaius Octavius 23 September 63 BC Rome, Italy, Roman Republic Died 19 August AD 14 (aged 75) Nola, Italy, Roman Empire Burial Mausoleum of Augustus, Rome Spouse Claudia (42–40 BC; divorce) Scribonia (40–38 BC; divorce) Livia (37 BC–AD 14; his death) Issue Julia the Elder Gaius Caesar (adopted) Lucius Caesar (adopted) Agrippa Postumus (adopted) Tiberius (adopted) Regnal name Imperator Caesar divi filius Augustus Dynasty Julio-Claudian Father Gaius Octavius Julius Caesar (adoptive) Mother Atia Balba Caesonia Bust of Augustus wearing the Civic Crown, at Glyptothek, Munich Caesar Augustus (23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14) was the first Roman emperor, reigning from 27 BC until his death in AD 14.[nb 1] His status as the founder of the Roman Principate (the first phase of the Roman Empire) has consolidated an enduring legacy as one of the most effective and controversial leaders in human history.[1][2] The reign of Augustus initiated an era of relative peace known as the Pax Romana. The Roman world was largely free from large-scale conflict for more than two centuries, despite continuous wars of imperial expansion on the Empire's frontiers and the year-long civil war known as the "Year of the Four Emperors" over the imperial succession. Augustus was born Gaius Octavius into an old and wealthy equestrian branch of the plebeian gens Octavia. His maternal great-uncle Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC, and Octavius was named in Caesar's will as his adopted son and heir. Afterwards, Octavius took the name Gaius Julius Caesar and was called Octavianus. He, Mark Antony, and Marcus Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate to defeat the assassins of Caesar. Following their victory at the Battle of Philippi (42 BC), the Triumvirate divided the Roman Republic among themselves and ruled as de facto dictators. The Triumvirate was eventually torn apart by the competing ambitions of its members; Lepidus was exiled in 36 BC, and Antony was defeated by Octavian at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. After the demise of the Second Triumvirate, Augustus restored the outward façade of the free Republic, with governmental power vested in the Roman Senate, the executive magistrates, and the legislative assemblies. In reality, however, he retained his autocratic power—with the Senate granting him lifetime powers of supreme military command, tribune, and censor. Augustus rejected monarchical titles, and instead called himself Princeps Civitatis ("First Citizen"). Augustus dramatically enlarged the Empire, annexing Egypt, Dalmatia, Pannonia, Noricum, and Raetia, expanding possessions in Africa, and completing the conquest of Hispania, but suffered a major setback in Germania. Beyond the frontiers, he secured the Empire with a buffer region of client states and made peace with the Parthian Empire through diplomacy. He reformed the Roman system of taxation, developed networks of roads with an official courier system, established a standing army, established the Praetorian Guard, created official police and fire-fighting services for Rome, and rebuilt much of the city during his reign. Augustus died in AD 14 at the age of 75, probably from natural causes. However, there were unconfirmed rumors that his wife Livia poisoned him. He was succeeded as emperor by his adopted son Tiberius (also stepson and former son-in-law). Contents 1 Name 2 Early life 3 Rise to power 3.1 Heir to Caesar 3.2 Growing tensions 3.3 First conflict with Antony 3.4 Second Triumvirate 3.4.1 Proscriptions 3.4.2 Battle of Philippi and division of territory 3.4.3 Rebellion and marriage alliances 3.4.4 War with Pompeius 3.4.5 War with Antony and Cleopatra 4 Sole ruler of Rome 4.1 First settlement 4.2 Change to Augustus 4.3 Second settlement 4.4 Primary reasons for the Second settlement 4.5 Additional powers 4.6 Conspiracy 4.7 Stability and staying power 5 War and expansion 6 Death and succession 7 Legacy 7.1 Revenue reforms 7.2 Month of August 7.3 Building projects 8 Physical appearance and official images 9 See also 10 References 10.1 Notes 10.2 Citations 10.3 Works cited 11 Further reading 12 External links 12.1 Primary sources 12.2 Secondary source material Name As a consequence of Roman customs, society, and personal preference, Augustus (/ɔːˈɡʌstəs/)(aw-GUST-əs) was known by many names throughout his life: Gaius Octavius (/ɒkˈteɪviəs/ ok-TAY-vee-əs, Latin: [ˈɡaː.jʊs ɔkˈtaː.wi.us]): He received his birth name, after his biological father, in 63 BC. "Gaius" was his praenomen, while "Octavius" was his nomen. He did not yet receive a cognomen at birth since his father appears to have lacked or eschewed one, which would normally be inherited. Gaius Octavius Thurinus: He was given the cognomen "Thurinus" in 60 BC, when he was a few years old.[3][4] Later, after he had taken the name of Caesar, his rival Mark Antony referred to him as "Thurinus" in order to belittle him. In response, he merely said he was surprised that "using his old name was thought to be an insult".[5][6] Gaius Julius Caesar: After he was adopted by Julius Caesar, he adopted Caesar's name in accordance with Roman naming conventions.[7] While he dropped all references to the gens Octavia, people colloquially added the epithet Octavianus (Latin: [ɔktaːwɪˈaːnʊs]) to his legal name, either to differentiate him from his adoptive father or to highlight his more modest origins. Modern English language historians refer to him using the anglicized form "Octavian" (/ɒkˈteɪviən/ ok-TAY-vee-ən) to the period between 44 BC and 27 BC, rather than "Gaius Julius Caesar", as he was officially called, mainly to avoid possible confusion with Julius Caesar.[8] Gaius Julius Caesar divi filius: Two years after his adoption, he founded the Temple of Caesar additionally adding the title divi filius ("son of the divine") to his name in attempt to strengthen his political ties to Caesar's former soldiers, following the deification of Caesar.[9] Imperator Caesar divi filius: From 38 BC, Octavian opted to use Imperator, the title by which troops hailed their leader after military success. His name is roughly translated as "Commander Caesar, Son of the Divine". Imperator Caesar divi filius Augustus (Latin: [ɪmpɛˈraːtɔr ˈkae̯sar ˈdiːwiː ˈfiːlɪ.ʊs au̯ˈɡʊstʊs]): Following his 31 BC defeat of Mark Antony and Cleopatra, partly on his own insistence, on 16 January 27 BC the Roman Senate granted him the additional name "Augustus".[4][11] Historians use this name to refer to him from 27 BC until his death in AD 14.[12] Early life Main article: Early life of Augustus While his paternal family was from the Volscian town of Velletri, approximately 40 kilometres (25 mi) to the south-east of Rome, Augustus was born in the city of Rome on 23 September 63 BC.[13] He was born at Ox Head, a small property on the Palatine Hill, very close to the Roman Forum. He was given the name Gaius Octavius Thurinus, his cognomen possibly commemorating his father's victory at Thurii over a rebellious band of slaves which occurred a few years after his birth.[14][15] Suetonius wrote: "There are many indications that the Octavian family was in days of old a distinguished one at Velitrae; for not only was a street in the most frequented part of town long ago called Octavian, but an altar was shown there besides, consecrated by an Octavius. This man was leader in a war with a neighbouring town ..." [16] Due to the crowded nature of Rome at the time, Octavius was taken to his father's home village at Velletri to be raised. Octavius mentions his father's equestrian family only briefly in his memoirs. His paternal great-grandfather Gaius Octavius was a military tribune in Sicily during the Second Punic War. His grandfather had served in several local political offices. His father, also named Gaius Octavius, had been governor of Macedonia. His mother, Atia, was the niece of Julius Caesar.[17][18] A denarius from 44 BC, showing Julius Caesar on the obverse and the goddess Venus on the reverse of the coin. Caption: CAESAR IMP. M. / L. AEMILIVS BVCA In 59 BC, when he was four years old, his father died.[19] His mother married a former governor of Syria, Lucius Marcius Philippus.[20] Philippus claimed descent from Alexander the Great, and was elected consul in 56 BC. Philippus never had much of an interest in young Octavius. Because of this, Octavius was raised by his grandmother, Julia, the sister of Julius Caesar. Julia died in 52 or 51 BC, and Octavius delivered the funeral oration for his grandmother.[21][22] From this point, his mother and stepfather took a more active role in raising him. He donned the toga virilis four years later,[23] and was elected to the College of Pontiffs in 47 BC.[24][25] The following year he was put in charge of the Greek games that were staged in honor of the Temple of Venus Genetrix, built by Julius Caesar.[25] According to Nicolaus of Damascus, Octavius wished to join Caesar's staff for his campaign in Africa, but gave way when his mother protested.[26] In 46 BC, she consented for him to join Caesar in Hispania, where he planned to fight the forces of Pompey, Caesar's late enemy, but Octavius fell ill and was unable to travel. When he had recovered, he sailed to the front, but was shipwrecked; after coming ashore with a handful of companions, he crossed hostile territory to Caesar's camp, which impressed his great-uncle considerably.[23] Velleius Paterculus reports that after that time, Caesar allowed the young man to share his carriage.[27] When back in Rome, Caesar deposited a new will with the Vestal Virgins, naming Octavius as the prime beneficiary.[28] Rise to power Heir to Caesar The Death of Caesar, by Jean-Léon Gérôme (1867). On 15 March 44 BC, Octavius's adoptive father Julius Caesar was assassinated by a conspiracy led by Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus. Walters Art Museum, Baltimore. Octavius was studying and undergoing military training in Apollonia, Illyria, when Julius Caesar was killed on the Ides of March (15 March) 44 BC. He rejected the advice of some army officers to take refuge with the troops in Macedonia and sailed to Italy to ascertain whether he had any potential political fortunes or security.[29] Caesar had no living legitimate children under Roman law,[nb 2] and so had adopted Octavius, his grand-nephew, making him his primary heir.[30] Mark Antony later charged that Octavian had earned his adoption by Caesar through sexual favours, though Suetonius describes Antony's accusation as political slander.[31] This form of slander was popular during this time in the Roman Republic to demean and discredit political opponents by accusing them of having an inappropriate sexual affair.[32][33] After landing at Lupiae near Brundisium, Octavius learned the contents of Caesar's will, and only then did he decide to become Caesar's political heir as well as heir to two-thirds of his estate.[25][29][34] Upon his adoption, Octavius assumed his great-uncle's name Gaius Julius Caesar. Roman citizens adopted into a new family usually retained their old nomen in cognomen form (e.g., Octavianus for one who had been an Octavius, Aemilianus for one who had been an Aemilius, etc.). However, though some of his contemporaries did,[35] there is no evidence that Octavius ever himself officially used the name Octavianus, as it would have made his modest origins too obvious.[36][37][38] Historians usually refer to the new Caesar as Octavian during the time between his adoption and his assumption of the name Augustus in 27 BC in order to avoid confusing the dead dictator with his heir.[39] Octavian could not rely on his limited funds to make a successful entry into the upper echelons of the Roman political hierarchy.[40] After a warm welcome by Caesar's soldiers at Brundisium,[41] Octavian demanded a portion of the funds that were allotted by Caesar for the intended war against the Parthian Empire in the Middle East.[40] This amounted to 700 million sesterces stored at Brundisium, the staging ground in Italy for military operations in the east.[42] A later senatorial investigation into the disappearance of the public funds took no action against Octavian, since he subsequently used that money to raise troops against the Senate's arch enemy Mark Antony.[41] Octavian made another bold move in 44 BC when, without official permission, he appropriated the annual tribute that had been sent from Rome's Near Eastern province to Italy.[37][43] Octavian began to bolster his personal forces with Caesar's veteran legionaries and with troops designated for the Parthian war, gathering support by emphasizing his status as heir to Caesar.[29][44] On his march to Rome through Italy, Octavian's presence and newly acquired funds attracted many, winning over Caesar's former veterans stationed in Campania.[37] By June, he had gathered an army of 3,000 loyal veterans, paying each a salary of 500 denarii.[45][46][47] Growing tensions A reconstructed statue of Augustus as a younger Octavian, dated ca. 30 BC Arriving in Rome on 6 May 44 BC, Octavian found consul Mark Antony, Caesar's former colleague, in an uneasy truce with the dictator's assassins. They had been granted a general amnesty on 17 March, yet Antony had succeeded in driving most of them out of Rome with an inflammatory eulogy at Caesar's funeral, mounting public opinion against the assassins.[37] Mark Antony was amassing political support, but Octavian still had opportunity to rival him as the leading member of the faction supporting Caesar. Mark Antony had lost the support of many Romans and supporters of Caesar when he initially opposed the motion to elevate Caesar to divine status.[48] Octavian failed to persuade Antony to relinquish Caesar's money to him. During the summer, he managed to win support from Caesarian sympathizers and also made common with the Optimates, the former enemies of Caesar, who saw him as the lesser evil and hoped to manipulate him.[49] In September, the leading Optimate orator Marcus Tullius Cicero began to attack Antony in a series of speeches portraying him as a threat to the Republican order.[50][51] First conflict with Antony Bust of Augustus in Musei Capitolini, Rome With opinion in Rome turning against him and his year of consular power nearing its end, Antony attempted to pass laws that would assign him the province of Cisalpine Gaul.[52][53] Octavian meanwhile built up a private army in Italy by recruiting Caesarian veterans and, on 28 November, he won over two of Antony's legions with the enticing offer of monetary gain.[54][55][56] In the face of Octavian's large and capable force, Antony saw the danger of staying in Rome and, to the relief of the Senate, he left Rome for Cisalpine Gaul, which was to be handed to him on 1 January.[56] However, the province had earlier been assigned to Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus, one of Caesar's assassins, who now refused to yield to Antony. Antony besieged him at Mutina[57] and rejected the resolutions passed by the Senate to stop the fighting. The Senate had no army to enforce their resolutions. This provided an opportunity for Octavian, who already was known to have armed forces.[55] Cicero also defended Octavian against Antony's taunts about Octavian's lack of noble lineage and aping of Julius Caesar's name, stating "we have no more brilliant example of traditional piety among our youth."[58] At the urging of Cicero, the Senate inducted Octavian as senator on 1 January 43 BC, yet he also was given the power to vote alongside the former consuls.[55][56] In addition, Octavian was granted propraetor imperium (commanding power) which legalized his command of troops, sending him to relieve the siege along with Hirtius and Pansa (the consuls for 43 BC).[55][59] In April 43 BC, Antony's forces were defeated at the battles of Forum Gallorum and Mutina, forcing Antony to retreat to Transalpine Gaul. Both consuls were killed, however, leaving Octavian in sole command of their armies.[60][61] The senate heaped many more rewards on Decimus Brutus than on Octavian for defeating Antony, then attempted to give command of the consular legions to Decimus Brutus.[62] In response, Octavian stayed in the Po Valley and refused to aid any further offensive against Antony.[63] In July, an embassy of centurions sent by Octavian entered Rome and demanded the consulship left vacant by Hirtius and Pansa[64] and also that the decree should be rescinded which declared Antony a public enemy.[63] When this was refused, he marched on the city with eight legions.[63] He encountered no military opposition in Rome, and on 19 August 43 BC was elected consul with his relative Quintus Pedius as co-consul.[65][66] Meanwhile, Antony formed an alliance with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, another leading Caesarian.[67] Second Triumvirate Proscriptions Roman aureus bearing the portraits of Mark Antony (left) and Octavian (right), issued in 41 BC to celebrate the establishment of the Second Triumvirate by Octavian, Antony and Marcus Lepidus in 43 BC. Both sides bear the inscription "III VIR R P C", meaning "One of Three Men for the regulation of the Republic". Caption: M. ANT. IMP. AVG. III VIR RPC M. BARBAT. Q. P. / CAESAR IMP. PONT. III VIR PRC. The M. Barbatius Pollio was a moneyer[68] In a meeting near Bologna in October 43 BC, Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate.[69] This explicit arrogation of special powers lasting five years was then legalised by law passed by the plebs, unlike the unofficial First Triumvirate formed by Pompey, Julius Caesar, and Marcus Licinius Crassus.[69][70] The triumvirs then set in motion proscriptions, in which between 130 and 300 senators[nb 3] and 2,000 equites were branded as outlaws and deprived of their property and, for those who failed to escape, their lives.[72] This decree issued by the triumvirate was motivated in part by a need to raise money to pay the salaries of their troops for the upcoming conflict against Caesar's assassins, Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus.[73] Rewards for their arrest gave incentive for Romans to capture those proscribed, while the assets and properties of those arrested were seized by the triumvirs.[72] Contemporary Roman historians provide conflicting reports as to which triumvir was most responsible for the proscriptions and killing. However, the sources agree that enacting the proscriptions was a means by all three factions to eliminate political enemies.[74] Marcus Velleius Paterculus asserted that Octavian tried to avoid proscribing officials whereas Lepidus and Antony were to blame for initiating them. Cassius Dio defended Octavian as trying to spare as many as possible, whereas Antony and Lepidus, being older and involved in politics longer, had many more enemies to deal with.[75] This claim was rejected by Appian, who maintained that Octavian shared an equal interest with Lepidus and Antony in eradicating his enemies.[76] Suetonius said that Octavian was reluctant to proscribe officials, but did pursue his enemies with more vigor than the other triumvirs.[74] Plutarch described the proscriptions as a ruthless and cutthroat swapping of friends and family among Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian. For example, Octavian allowed the proscription of his ally Cicero, Antony the proscription of his maternal uncle Lucius Julius Caesar (the consul of 64 BC), and Lepidus his brother Paullus.[75] A denarius minted c. 18 BC. Obverse: CAESAR AVGVSTVS; reverse: comet of eight rays with tail upward; DIVVS IVLIV[S] (DIVINE JULIUS). Battle of Philippi and division of territory Further information: Liberators' civil war On 1 January 42 BC, the Senate posthumously recognized Julius Caesar as a divinity of the Roman state, Divus Iulius. Octavian was able to further his cause by emphasizing the fact that he was Divi filius, "Son of the Divine".[77] Antony and Octavian then sent 28 legions by sea to face the armies of Brutus and Cassius, who had built their base of power in Greece.[78] After two battles at Philippi in Macedonia in October 42, the Caesarian army was victorious and Brutus and Cassius committed suicide. Mark Antony later used the examples of these battles as a means to belittle Octavian, as both battles were decisively won with the use of Antony's forces. In addition to claiming responsibility for both victories, Antony also branded Octavian as a coward for handing over his direct military control to Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa instead.[79] After Philippi, a new territorial arrangement was made among the members of the Second Triumvirate. Gaul and the province of Hispania were placed in the hands of Octavian. Antony traveled east to Egypt where he allied himself with Queen Cleopatra VII, the former lover of Julius Caesar and mother of Caesar's infant son Caesarion. Lepidus was left with the province of Africa, stymied by Antony, who conceded Hispania to Octavian instead.[80] Octavian was left to decide where in Italy to settle the tens of thousands of veterans of the Macedonian campaign, whom the triumvirs had promised to discharge. The tens of thousands who had fought on the republican side with Brutus and Cassius could easily ally with a political opponent of Octavian if not appeased, and they also required land.[80] There was no more government-controlled land to allot as settlements for their soldiers, so Octavian had to choose one of two options: alienating many Roman citizens by confiscating their land, or alienating many Roman soldiers who could mount a considerable opposition against him in the Roman heartland. Octavian chose the former.[81] There were as many as eighteen Roman towns affected by the new settlements, with entire populations driven out or at least given partial evictions.[82] Rebellion and marriage alliances There was widespread dissatisfaction with Octavian over these settlements of his soldiers, and this encouraged many to rally at the side of Lucius Antonius, who was brother of Mark Antony and supported by a majority in the Senate. Meanwhile, Octavian asked for a divorce from Claudia, the daughter of Fulvia (Mark Antony's wife) and her first husband Publius Clodius Pulcher. He returned Claudia to her mother, claiming that their marriage had never been consummated. Fulvia decided to take action. Together with Lucius Antonius, she raised an army in Italy to fight for Antony's rights against Octavian. Lucius and Fulvia took a political and martial gamble in opposing Octavian, however, since the Roman army still depended on the triumvirs for their salaries. Lucius and his allies ended up in a defensive siege at Perusia (modern Perugia), where Octavian forced them into surrender in early 40 BC.[82] Fresco paintings inside the House of Augustus, his residence during his reign as emperor. Lucius and his army were spared, due to his kinship with Antony, the strongman of the East, while Fulvia was exiled to Sicyon.[83] Octavian showed no mercy, however, for the mass of allies loyal to Lucius; on 15 March, the anniversary of Julius Caesar's assassination, he had 300 Roman senators and equestrians executed for allying with Lucius.[84] Perusia also was pillaged and burned as a warning for others.[83] This bloody event sullied Octavian's reputation and was criticized by many, such as Augustan poet Sextus Propertius.[84] Sextus Pompeius, the son of Pompey and still a renegade general following Julius Caesar's victory over his father, had established himself in Sicily and Sardinia as part of an agreement reached with the Second Triumvirate in 39 BC.[85] Both Antony and Octavian were vying for an alliance with Pompeius. Octavian succeeded in a temporary alliance in 40 BC when he married Scribonia, a sister or daughter of Pompeius's father-in-law Lucius Scribonius Libo. Scribonia gave birth to Octavian's only natural child, Julia, the same day that he divorced her to marry Livia Drusilla, little more than a year after their marriage.[84] While in Egypt, Antony had been engaged in an affair with Cleopatra and had fathered twin children with her.[nb 4] Aware of his deteriorating relationship with Octavian, Antony left Cleopatra; he sailed to Italy in 40 BC with a large force to oppose Octavian, laying siege to Brundisium. This new conflict proved untenable for both Octavian and Antony, however. Their centurions, who had become important figures politically, refused to fight due to their Caesarian cause, while the legions under their command followed suit. Meanwhile, in Sicyon, Antony's wife Fulvia died of a sudden illness while Antony was en route to meet her. Fulvia's death and the mutiny of their centurions allowed the two remaining triumvirs to effect a reconciliation.[86][87] A Roman marble portrait bust of Mark Antony, made during the Flavian dynasty (69–96 AD), Vatican Museums In the autumn of 40, Octavian and Antony approved the Treaty of Brundisium, by which Lepidus would remain in Africa, Antony in the East, Octavian in the West. The Italian Peninsula was left open to all for the recruitment of soldiers, but in reality, this provision was useless for Antony in the East. To further cement relations of alliance with Mark Antony, Octavian gave his sister, Octavia Minor, in marriage to Antony in late 40 BC.[86] War with Pompeius Further information: Sicilian revolt A denarius of Sextus Pompeius, minted for his victory over Octavian's fleet. Obverse: the place where he defeated Octavian, Pharus of Messina decorated with a statue of Neptune; before that galley adorned with aquila, sceptre & trident; MAG. PIVS IMP. ITER. Reverse, the monster Scylla, her torso of dogs and fish tails, wielding a rudder as a club. Caption: PRAEF[ECTUS] CLAS[SIS] ET ORAE MARIT[IMAE] EX S. C. Sextus Pompeius threatened Octavian in Italy by denying shipments of grain through the Mediterranean Sea to the peninsula. Pompeius's own son was put in charge as naval commander in the effort to cause widespread famine in Italy.[87] Pompeius's control over the sea prompted him to take on the name Neptuni filius, "son of Neptune".[88] A temporary peace agreement was reached in 39 BC with the treaty of Misenum; the blockade on Italy was lifted once Octavian granted Pompeius Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily, and the Peloponnese, and ensured him a future position as consul for 35 BC.[87][88] The territorial agreement between the triumvirate and Sextus Pompeius began to crumble once Octavian divorced Scribonia and married Livia on 17 January 38 BC.[89] One of Pompeius's naval commanders betrayed him and handed over Corsica and Sardinia to Octavian. Octavian lacked the resources to confront Pompeius alone, however, so an agreement was reached with the Second Triumvirate's extension for another five-year period beginning in 37 BC.[70][90] In supporting Octavian, Antony expected to gain support for his own campaign against the Parthian Empire, desiring to avenge Rome's defeat at Carrhae in 53 BC.[90] In an agreement reached at Tarentum, Antony provided 120 ships for Octavian to use against Pompeius, while Octavian was to send 20,000 legionaries to Antony for use against Parthia. Octavian sent only a tenth of those promised, however, which Antony viewed as an intentional provocation.[91] Octavian and Lepidus launched a joint operation against Sextus in Sicily in 36 BC.[92] Despite setbacks for Octavian, the naval fleet of Sextus Pompeius was almost entirely destroyed on 3 September by General Agrippa at the naval Battle of Naulochus. Sextus fled to the east with his remaining forces, where he was captured and executed in Miletus by one of Antony's generals the following year. As Lepidus and Octavian accepted the surrender of Pompeius's troops, Lepidus attempted to claim Sicily for himself, ordering Octavian to leave. Lepidus's troops deserted him, however, and defected to Octavian since they were weary of fighting and were enticed by Octavian's promises of money.[93] Lepidus surrendered to Octavian and was permitted to retain the office of Pontifex Maximus (head of the college of priests), but was ejected from the Triumvirate, his public career at an end, and effectively was exiled to a villa at Cape Circei in Italy.[73][93] The Roman dominions were now divided between Octavian in the West and Antony in the East. Octavian ensured Rome's citizens of their rights to property in order to maintain peace and stability in his portion of the Empire. This time, he settled his discharged soldiers outside of Italy, while also returning 30,000 slaves to their former Roman owners—slaves who had fled to join Pompeius's army and navy.[94] Octavian had the Senate grant him, his wife, and his sister tribunal immunity, or sacrosanctitas, in order to ensure his own safety and that of Livia and Octavia once he returned to Rome.[95] War with Antony and Cleopatra Main article: Final War of the Roman Republic Further information: Early life of Cleopatra, Reign of Cleopatra, and Death of Cleopatra Anthony and Cleopatra, by Lawrence Alma-Tadema The Battle of Actium, by Laureys a Castro, painted 1672, National Maritime Museum, London. Meanwhile, Antony's campaign turned disastrous against Parthia, tarnishing his image as a leader, and the mere 2,000 legionaries sent by Octavian to Antony were hardly enough to replenish his forces.[96] On the other hand, Cleopatra could restore his army to full strength; he already was engaged in a romantic affair with her, so he decided to send Octavia back to Rome.[97] Octavian used this to spread propaganda implying that Antony was becoming less than Roman because he rejected a legitimate Roman spouse for an "Oriental paramour".[98] In 36 BC, Octavian used a political ploy to make himself look less autocratic and Antony more the villain by proclaiming that the civil wars were coming to an end, and that he would step down as triumvir—if only Antony would do the same. Antony refused.[99] Roman troops captured the Kingdom of Armenia in 34 BC, and Antony made his son Alexander Helios the ruler of Armenia. He also awarded the title "Queen of Kings" to Cleopatra, acts that Octavian used to convince the Roman Senate that Antony had ambitions to diminish the preeminence of Rome.[98] Octavian became consul once again on 1 January 33 BC, and he opened the following session in the Senate with a vehement attack on Antony's grants of titles and territories to his relatives and to his queen.[100] The breach between Antony and Octavian prompted a large portion of the Senators, as well as both of that year's consuls, to leave Rome and defect to Antony. However, Octavian received two key deserters from Antony in the autumn of 32 BC: Munatius Plancus and Marcus Titius.[101] These defectors gave Octavian the information that he needed to confirm with the Senate all the accusations that he made against Antony.[102] Octavian forcibly entered the temple of the Vestal Virgins and seized Antony's secret will, which he promptly publicized. The will would have given away Roman-conquered territories as kingdoms for his sons to rule, and designated Alexandria as the site for a tomb for him and his queen.[103][104] In late 32 BC, the Senate officially revoked Antony's powers as consul and declared war on Cleopatra's regime in Egypt.[105][106] This mid-1st-century-BC Roman wall painting in Pompeii, Italy, showing Venus holding a cupid is most likely a depiction of Cleopatra VII of Ptolemaic Egypt as Venus Genetrix, with her son Caesarion as the cupid, similar in appearance to the now lost statue of Cleopatra erected by Julius Caesar in the Temple of Venus Genetrix (within the Forum of Caesar). The owner of the House of Marcus Fabius Rufus at Pompeii walled off the room with this painting, most likely in immediate reaction to the execution of Caesarion on orders of Augustus in 30 BC, when artistic depictions of Caesarion would have been considered a sensitive issue for the ruling regime.[107][108] In early 31 BC, Antony and Cleopatra were temporarily stationed in Greece when Octavian gained a preliminary victory: the navy successfully ferried troops across the Adriatic Sea under the command of Agrippa. Agrippa cut off Antony and Cleopatra's main force from their supply routes at sea, while Octavian landed on the mainland opposite the island of Corcyra (modern Corfu) and marched south. Trapped on land and sea, deserters of Antony's army fled to Octavian's side daily while Octavian's forces were comfortable enough to make preparations.[109] Antony's fleet sailed through the bay of Actium on the western coast of Greece in a desperate attempt to break free of the naval blockade. It was there that Antony's fleet faced the much larger fleet of smaller, more maneuverable ships under commanders Agrippa and Gaius Sosius in the Battle of Actium on 2 September 31 BC.[110] Antony and his remaining forces were spared only due to a last-ditch effort by Cleopatra's fleet that had been waiting nearby.[111] Aureus of Octavian, circa 30 BC, British Museum. Octavian pursued them and defeated their forces in Alexandria on 1 August 30 BC—after which Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide. Antony fell on his own sword and was taken by his soldiers back to Alexandria where he died in Cleopatra's arms. Cleopatra died soon after, reputedly by the venomous bite of an asp or by poison.[112] Octavian had exploited his position as Caesar's heir to further his own political career, and he was well aware of the dangers in allowing another person to do the same. He therefore followed the advice of Arius Didymus that "two Caesars are one too many", ordering Caesarion, Julius Caesar's son by Cleopatra, killed, while sparing Cleopatra's children by Antony, with the exception of Antony's older son.[113][114] Octavian had previously shown little mercy to surrendered enemies and acted in ways that had proven unpopular with the Roman people, yet he was given credit for pardoning many of his opponents after the Battle of Actium.[115] Sole ruler of Rome Main article: Constitutional Reforms of Augustus Further information: Elections in the Roman Republic After Actium and the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra, Octavian was in a position to rule the entire Republic under an unofficial principate[116]—but he had to achieve this through incremental power gains. He did so by courting the Senate and the people while upholding the republican traditions of Rome, appearing that he was not aspiring to dictatorship or monarchy.[117][118] Marching into Rome, Octavian and Marcus Agrippa were elected as consuls by the Senate.[119] Years of civil war had left Rome in a state of near lawlessness, but the Republic was not prepared to accept the control of Octavian as a despot. At the same time, Octavian could not simply give up his authority without risking further civil wars among the Roman generals and, even if he desired no position of authority whatsoever, his position demanded that he look to the well-being of the city of Rome and the Roman provinces. Octavian's aims from this point forward were to return Rome to a state of stability, traditional legality, and civility by lifting the overt political pressure imposed on the courts of law and ensuring free elections—in name at least.[120] First settlement Main articles: Constitution of the Roman Empire and History of the Constitution of the Roman Empire In 27 BC, Octavian made a show of returning full power to the Roman Senate and relinquishing his control of the Roman provinces and their armies. Under his consulship, however, the Senate had little power in initiating legislation by introducing bills for senatorial debate. Octavian was no longer in direct control of the provinces and their armies, but he retained the loyalty of active duty soldiers and veterans alike. The careers of many clients and adherents depended on his patronage, as his financial power was unrivaled in the Roman Republic.[119] Historian Werner Eck states: The sum of his power derived first of all from various powers of office delegated to him by the Senate and people, secondly from his immense private fortune, and thirdly from numerous patron-client relationships he established with individuals and groups throughout the Empire. All of them taken together formed the basis of his auctoritas, which he himself emphasized as the foundation of his political actions.[121] To a large extent, the public were aware of the vast financial resources that Octavian commanded. He failed to encourage enough senators to finance the building and maintenance of networks of roads in Italy in 20 BC, but he undertook direct responsibility for them. This was publicized on the Roman currency issued in 16 BC, after he donated vast amounts of money to the aerarium Saturni, the public treasury.[122] Octavian as a magistrate. The statue's marble head was made c. 30–20 BC, the body sculpted in the 2nd century AD (Louvre, Paris). According to H. H. Scullard, however, Octavian's power was based on the exercise of "a predominant military power and ... the ultimate sanction of his authority was force, however much the fact was disguised."[123] The Senate proposed to Octavian, the victor of Rome's civil wars, that he once again assume command of the provinces. The Senate's proposal was a ratification of Octavian's extra-constitutional power. Through the Senate, Octavian was able to continue the appearance of a still-functional constitution. Feigning reluctance, he accepted a ten-year responsibility of overseeing provinces that were considered chaotic.[124][125] The provinces ceded to Augustus for that ten-year period comprised much of the conquered Roman world, including all of Hispania and Gaul, Syria, Cilicia, Cyprus, and Egypt.[124][126] Moreover, command of these provinces provided Octavian with control over the majority of Rome's legions.[126][127] While Octavian acted as consul in Rome, he dispatched senators to the provinces under his command as his representatives to manage provincial affairs and ensure that his orders were carried out. The provinces not under Octavian's control were overseen by governors chosen by the Roman Senate.[127] Octavian became the most powerful political figure in the city of Rome and in most of its provinces, but he did not have a monopoly on political and martial power.[128] The Senate still controlled North Africa, an important regional producer of grain, as well as Illyria and Macedonia, two strategic regions with several legions.[128] However, the Senate had control of only five or six legions distributed among three senatorial proconsuls, compared to the twenty legions under the control of Octavian, and their control of these regions did not amount to any political or military challenge to Octavian.[117][123] The Senate's control over some of the Roman provinces helped maintain a republican façade for the autocratic Principate. Also, Octavian's control of entire provinces followed Republican-era precedents for the objective of securing peace and creating stability, in which such prominent Romans as Pompey had been granted similar military powers in times of crisis and instability.[117] Change to Augustus On 16 January 27 BC the Senate gave Octavian the new titles of Augustus and Princeps.[129] Augustus is from the Latin word Augere (meaning to increase) and can be translated as "the illustrious one". It was a title of religious authority rather than political authority. His new title of Augustus was also more favorable than Romulus, the previous one which he styled for himself in reference to the story of the legendary founder of Rome, which symbolized a second founding of Rome.[115] The title of Romulus was associated too strongly with notions of monarchy and kingship, an image that Octavian tried to avoid.[130] The title princeps senatus originally meant the member of the Senate with the highest precedence,[131] but in the case of Augustus, it became an almost regnal title for a leader who was first in charge.[132] Augustus also styled himself as Imperator Caesar divi filius, "Commander Caesar son of the deified one". With this title, he boasted his familial link to deified Julius Caesar, and the use of Imperator signified a permanent link to the Roman tradition of victory. He transformed Caesar, a cognomen for one branch of the Julian family, into a new family line that began with him.[129] The Arch of Augustus in Rimini (Ariminum), dedicated to Augustus by the Roman Senate in 27 BC, the oldest surviving Roman triumphal arch Augustus was granted the right to hang the corona civica above his door, the "civic crown" made from oak, and to have laurels drape his doorposts.[128] However, he renounced flaunting insignia of power such as holding a scepter, wearing a diadem, or wearing the golden crown and purple toga of his predecessor Julius Caesar.[133] If he refused to symbolize his power by donning and bearing these items on his person, the Senate nonetheless awarded him with a golden shield displayed in the meeting hall of the Curia, bearing the inscription virtus, pietas, clementia, iustitia—"valor, piety, clemency, and justice."[128][134] Second settlement Portraits of Augustus show the emperor with idealized features By 23 BC, some of the un-Republican implications were becoming apparent concerning the settlement of 27 BC. Augustus's retention of an annual consulate drew attention to his de facto dominance over the Roman political system, and cut in half the opportunities for others to achieve what was still nominally the preeminent position in the Roman state.[135] Further, he was causing political problems by desiring to have his nephew Marcus Claudius Marcellus follow in his footsteps and eventually assume the Principate in his turn,[nb 5] alienating his three greatest supporters – Agrippa, Maecenas, and Livia.[136] He appointed noted Republican Calpurnius Piso (who had fought against Julius Caesar and supported Cassius and Brutus[137]) as co-consul in 23 BC, after his choice Aulus Terentius Varro Murena died unexpectedly.[138] In the late spring Augustus suffered a severe illness, and on his supposed deathbed made arrangements that would ensure the continuation of the Principate in some form,[139] while allaying senators' suspicions of his anti-republicanism. Augustus prepared to hand down his signet ring to his favored general Agrippa. However, Augustus handed over to his co-consul Piso all of his official documents, an account of public finances, and authority over listed troops in the provinces while Augustus's supposedly favored nephew Marcellus came away empty-handed.[140][141] This was a surprise to many who believed Augustus would have named an heir to his position as an unofficial emperor.[142] Augustus bestowed only properties and possessions to his designated heirs, as an obvious system of institutionalized imperial inheritance would have provoked resistance and hostility among the republican-minded Romans fearful of monarchy.[118] With regards to the Principate, it was obvious to Augustus that Marcellus was not ready to take on his position;[143] nonetheless, by giving his signet ring to Agrippa, Augustus intended to signal to the legions that Agrippa was to be his successor, and that constitutional procedure notwithstanding, they should continue to obey Agrippa.[144] The Blacas Cameo showing Augustus wearing a gorgoneion on a three layered sardonyx cameo, AD 20–50 Soon after his bout of illness subsided, Augustus gave up his consulship. The only other times Augustus would serve as consul would be in the years 5 and 2 BC,[141][145] both times to introduce his grandsons into public life.[137] This was a clever ploy by Augustus; ceasing to serve as one of two annually elected consuls allowed aspiring senators a better chance to attain the consular position, while allowing Augustus to exercise wider patronage within the senatorial class.[146] Although Augustus had resigned as consul, he desired to retain his consular imperium not just in his provinces but throughout the empire. This desire, as well as the Marcus Primus Affair, led to a second compromise between him and the Senate known as the Second Settlement.[147] Primary reasons for the Second settlement The primary reasons for the Second Settlement were as follows. First, after Augustus relinquished the annual consulship, he was no longer in an official position to rule the state, yet his dominant position remained unchanged over his Roman, 'imperial' provinces where he was still a proconsul.[141][148] When he annually held the office of consul, he had the power to intervene with the affairs of the other provincial proconsuls appointed by the Senate throughout the empire, when he deemed necessary.[149] A second problem later arose showing the need for the Second Settlement in what became known as the "Marcus Primus Affair".[150] In late 24 or early 23 BC, charges were brought against Marcus Primus, the former proconsul (governor) of Macedonia, for waging a war without prior approval of the Senate on the Odrysian kingdom of Thrace, whose king was a Roman ally.[151] He was defended by Lucius Lucinius Varro Murena, who told the trial that his client had received specific instructions from Augustus, ordering him to attack the client state.[152] Later, Primus testified that the orders came from the recently deceased Marcellus.[153] Such orders, had they been given, would have been considered a breach of the Senate's prerogative under the Constitutional settlement of 27 BC and its aftermath—i.e., before Augustus was granted imperium proconsulare maius—as Macedonia was a Senatorial province under the Senate's jurisdiction, not an imperial province under the authority of Augustus. Such an action would have ripped away the veneer of Republican restoration as promoted by Augustus, and exposed his fraud of merely being the first citizen, a first among equals.[152] Even worse, the involvement of Marcellus provided some measure of proof that Augustus's policy was to have the youth take his place as Princeps, instituting a form of monarchy – accusations that had already played out.[143] Augustus as Jove, holding a scepter and orb (first half of 1st century AD) The situation was so serious that Augustus himself appeared at the trial, even though he had not been called as a witness. Under oath, Augustus declared that he gave no such order.[154] Murena disbelieved Augustus's testimony and resented his attempt to subvert the trial by using his auctoritas. He rudely demanded to know why Augustus had turned up to a trial to which he had not been called; Augustus replied that he came in the public interest.[155] Although Primus was found guilty, some jurors voted to acquit, meaning that not everybody believed Augustus's testimony, an insult to the 'August One'.[156] The Second Constitutional Settlement was completed in part to allay confusion and formalize Augustus's legal authority to intervene in Senatorial provinces. The Senate granted Augustus a form of general imperium proconsulare, or proconsular imperium (power) that applied throughout the empire, not solely to his provinces. Moreover, the Senate augmented Augustus's proconsular imperium into imperium proconsulare maius, or proconsular imperium applicable throughout the empire that was more (maius) or greater than that held by the other proconsuls. This in effect gave Augustus constitutional power superior to all other proconsuls in the empire.[147] Augustus stayed in Rome during the renewal process and provided veterans with lavish donations to gain their support, thereby ensuring that his status of proconsular imperium maius was renewed in 13 BC.[145] Additional powers During the second settlement, Augustus was also granted the power of a tribune (tribunicia potestas) for life, though not the official title of tribune.[147] For some years, Augustus had been awarded tribunicia sacrosanctitas, the immunity given to a Tribune of the Plebs. Now he decided to assume the full powers of the magistracy, renewed annually, in perpetuity. Legally, it was closed to patricians, a status that Augustus had acquired some years earlier when adopted by Julius Caesar.[146] This power allowed him to convene the Senate and people at will and lay business before them, to veto the actions of either the Assembly or the Senate, to preside over elections, and to speak first at any meeting.[145][157] Also included in Augustus's tribunician authority were powers usually reserved for the Roman censor; these included the right to supervise public morals and scrutinize laws to ensure that they were in the public interest, as well as the ability to hold a census and determine the membership of the Senate.[158] With the powers of a censor, Augustus appealed to virtues of Roman patriotism by banning all attire but the classic toga while entering the Forum.[159] There was no precedent within the Roman system for combining the powers of the tribune and the censor into a single position, nor was Augustus ever elected to the office of censor.[160] Julius Caesar had been granted similar powers, wherein he was charged with supervising the morals of the state. However, this position did not extend to the censor's ability to hold a census and determine the Senate's roster. The office of the tribunus plebis began to lose its prestige due to Augustus's amassing of tribunal powers, so he revived its importance by making it a mandatory appointment for any plebeian desiring the praetorship.[161] Head of Augustus as Pontifex Maximus, Roman artwork of the late Augustan period, last decade of the 1st century BC Augustus was granted sole imperium within the city of Rome itself, in addition to being granted proconsular imperium maius and tribunician authority for life. Traditionally, proconsuls (Roman province governors) lost their proconsular "imperium" when they crossed the Pomerium – the sacred boundary of Rome – and entered the city. In these situations, Augustus would have power as part of his tribunician authority but his constitutional imperium within the Pomerium would be less than that of a serving consul. That would mean that, when he was in the city, he might not be the constitutional magistrate with the most authority. Thanks to his prestige or auctoritas, his wishes would usually be obeyed, but there might be some difficulty. To fill this power vacuum, the Senate voted that Augustus's imperium proconsulare maius (superior proconsular power) should not lapse when he was inside the city walls. All armed forces in the city had formerly been under the control of the urban praetors and consuls, but this situation now placed them under the sole authority of Augustus.[162] In addition, the credit was given to Augustus for each subsequent Roman military victory after this time, because the majority of Rome's armies were stationed in imperial provinces commanded by Augustus through the legatus who were deputies of the princeps in the provinces. Moreover, if a battle was fought in a Senatorial province, Augustus's proconsular imperium maius allowed him to take command of (or credit for) any major military victory. This meant that Augustus was the only individual able to receive a triumph, a tradition that began with Romulus, Rome's first King and first triumphant general. Lucius Cornelius Balbus was the last man outside Augustus's family to receive this award, in 19 BC.[163] Tiberius, Augustus's eldest stepson by Livia, was the only other general to receive a triumph—for victories in Germania in 7 BC.[164] Conspiracy A colossal statue of Augustus from the Augusteum of Herculaneum, seated and wearing a laurel wreath. Many of the political subtleties of the Second Settlement seem to have evaded the comprehension of the Plebeian class, who were Augustus's greatest supporters and clientele. This caused them to insist upon Augustus's participation in imperial affairs from time to time. Augustus failed to stand for election as consul in 22 BC, and fears arose once again that he was being forced from power by the aristocratic Senate. In 22, 21, and 19 BC, the people rioted in response, and only allowed a single consul to be elected for each of those years, ostensibly to leave the other position open for Augustus.[165] Likewise, there was a food shortage in Rome in 22 BC which sparked panic, while many urban plebs called for Augustus to take on dictatorial powers to personally oversee the crisis. After a theatrical display of refusal before the Senate, Augustus finally accepted authority over Rome's grain supply "by virtue of his proconsular imperium", and ended the crisis almost immediately.[145] It was not until AD 8 that a food crisis of this sort prompted Augustus to establish a praefectus annonae, a permanent prefect who was in charge of procuring food supplies for Rome.[166] There were some who were concerned by the expansion of powers granted to Augustus by the Second Settlement, and this came to a head with the apparent conspiracy of Fannius Caepio.[150] Some time prior to 1 September 22 BC, a certain Castricius provided Augustus with information about a conspiracy led by Fannius Caepio.[167] Murena, the outspoken Consul who defended Primus in the Marcus Primus Affair, was named among the conspirators. The conspirators were tried in absentia with Tiberius acting as prosecutor; the jury found them guilty, but it was not a unanimous verdict.[168] All the accused were sentenced to death for treason and executed as soon as they were captured—without ever giving testimony in their defence.[169] Augustus ensured that the facade of Republican government continued with an effective cover-up of the events.[170] In 19 BC, the Senate granted Augustus a form of 'general consular imperium', which was probably 'imperium consulare maius', like the proconsular powers that he received in 23 BC. Like his tribune authority, the consular powers were another instance of gaining power from offices that he did not actually hold.[171] In addition, Augustus was allowed to wear the consul's insignia in public and before the Senate,[162] as well as to sit in the symbolic chair between the two consuls and hold the fasces, an emblem of consular authority.[171] This seems to have assuaged the populace; regardless of whether or not Augustus was a consul, the importance was that he both appeared as one before the people and could exercise consular power if necessary. On 6 March 12 BC, after the death of Lepidus, he additionally took up the position of pontifex maximus, the high priest of the college of the Pontiffs, the most important position in Roman religion.[172][173] On 5 February 2 BC, Augustus was also given the title pater patriae, or "father of the country".[174][175] Stability and staying power A final reason for the Second Settlement was to give the Principate constitutional stability and staying power in case something happened to Princeps Augustus. His illness of early 23 BC and the Caepio conspiracy showed that the regime's existence hung by the thin thread of the life of one man, Augustus himself, who suffered from several severe and dangerous illnesses throughout his life.[176] If he were to die from natural causes or fall victim to assassination, Rome could be subjected to another round of civil war. The memories of Pharsalus, the Ides of March, the proscriptions, Philippi, and Actium, barely twenty-five years distant, were still vivid in the minds of many citizens. Proconsular imperium was conferred upon Agrippa for five years, similar to Augustus's power, in order to accomplish this constitutional stability. The exact nature of the grant is uncertain but it probably covered Augustus's imperial provinces, east and west, perhaps lacking authority over the provinces of the Senate. That came later, as did the jealously guarded tribunicia potestas.[177] Augustus's accumulation of powers was now complete. In fact, he dated his 'reign' from the completion of the Second Settlement, 1 July 23 BC.[178] War and expansion Main article: Wars of Augustus Further information: Roman–Persian relations The victorious advance of Hermann, depiction of the 9 AD Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, by Peter Janssen, 1873 Augustus chose Imperator ("victorious commander") to be his first name, since he wanted to make an emphatically clear connection between himself and the notion of victory, and consequently became known as Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus. By the year 13, Augustus boasted 21 occasions where his troops proclaimed "imperator" as his title after a successful battle. Almost the entire fourth chapter in his publicly released memoirs of achievements known as the Res Gestae was devoted to his military victories and honors.[179] Augustus also promoted the ideal of a superior Roman civilization with a task of ruling the world (to the extent to which the Romans knew it), a sentiment embodied in words that the contemporary poet Virgil attributes to a legendary ancestor of Augustus: tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento—"Roman, remember by your strength to rule the Earth's peoples!"[159] The impulse for expansionism was apparently prominent among all classes at Rome, and it is accorded divine sanction by Virgil's Jupiter in Book 1 of the Aeneid, where Jupiter promises Rome imperium sine fine, "sovereignty without end".[180] By the end of his reign, the armies of Augustus had conquered northern Hispania (modern Spain and Portugal) and the Alpine regions of Raetia and Noricum (modern Switzerland, Bavaria, Austria, Slovenia), Illyricum and Pannonia (modern Albania, Croatia, Hungary, Serbia, etc.), and had extended the borders of the Africa Province to the east and south. Judea was added to the province of Syria when Augustus deposed Herod Archelaus, successor to client king Herod the Great (73–4 BC). Syria (like Egypt after Antony) was governed by a high prefect of the equestrian class rather than by a proconsul or legate of Augustus.[181] Bust of Tiberius, a successful military commander under Augustus before he was designated as his heir and successor Again, no military effort was needed in 25 BC when Galatia (modern Turkey) was converted to a Roman province shortly after Amyntas of Galatia was killed by an avenging widow of a slain prince from Homonada.[181] The rebellious tribes of Asturias and Cantabria in modern-day Spain were finally quelled in 19 BC, and the territory fell under the provinces of Hispania and Lusitania. This region proved to be a major asset in funding Augustus's future military campaigns, as it was rich in mineral deposits that could be fostered in Roman mining projects, especially the very rich gold deposits at Las Medulas.[182] Muziris in the Chera Kingdom of Southern India, as shown in the Tabula Peutingeriana, with depiction of a "Temple of Augustus" ("Templum Augusti"), an illustration of Indo-Roman relations in the period Conquering the peoples of the Alps in 16 BC was another important victory for Rome, since it provided a large territorial buffer between the Roman citizens of Italy and Rome's enemies in Germania to the north.[183] Horace dedicated an ode to the victory, while the monumental Trophy of Augustus near Monaco was built to honor the occasion.[184] The capture of the Alpine region also served the next offensive in 12 BC, when Tiberius began the offensive against the Pannonian tribes of Illyricum, and his brother Nero Claudius Drusus moved against the Germanic tribes of the eastern Rhineland. Both campaigns were successful, as Drusus's forces reached the Elbe River by 9 BC—though he died shortly after by falling off his horse.[185] It was recorded that the pious Tiberius walked in front of his brother's body all the way back to Rome.[186] A Parthian returning an aquila, relief in the heroic cuirass of the Augustus of Prima Porta statue To protect Rome's eastern territories from the Parthian Empire, Augustus relied on the client states of the east to act as territorial buffers and areas that could raise their own troops for defense. To ensure security of the Empire's eastern flank, Augustus stationed a Roman army in Syria, while his skilled stepson Tiberius negotiated with the Parthians as Rome's diplomat to the East.[187] Tiberius was responsible for restoring Tigranes V to the throne of the Kingdom of Armenia.[186] Yet arguably his greatest diplomatic achievement was negotiating with Phraates IV of Parthia (37–2 BC) in 20 BC for the return of the battle standards lost by Crassus in the Battle of Carrhae, a symbolic victory and great boost of morale for Rome.[186][187][188] Werner Eck claims that this was a great disappointment for Romans seeking to avenge Crassus's defeat by military means.[189] However, Maria Brosius explains that Augustus used the return of the standards as propaganda symbolizing the submission of Parthia to Rome. The event was celebrated in art such as the breastplate design on the statue Augustus of Prima Porta and in monuments such as the Temple of Mars Ultor ('Mars the Avenger') built to house the standards.[190] Parthia had always posed a threat to Rome in the east, but the real battlefront was along the Rhine and Danube rivers.[187] Before the final fight with Antony, Octavian's campaigns against the tribes in Dalmatia were the first step in expanding Roman dominions to the Danube.[191] Victory in battle was not always a permanent success, as newly conquered territories were constantly retaken by Rome's enemies in Germania.[187] A prime example of Roman loss in battle was the Battle of Teutoburg Forest in AD 9, where three entire legions led by Publius Quinctilius Varus were destroyed by Arminius, leader of the Cherusci, an apparent Roman ally.[192] Augustus retaliated by dispatching Tiberius and Drusus to the Rhineland to pacify it, which had some success although the battle of AD 9 brought the end to Roman expansion into Germany.[193] Roman general Germanicus took advantage of a Cherusci civil war between Arminius and Segestes; they defeated Arminius, who fled that Battle of Idistaviso in AD 16 but was killed later in 21 due to treachery.[194] Death and succession Augustus in a late 16th-century copper engraving by Giovanni Battista Cavalieri. From the book Romanorum Imperatorum effigies (1583), preserved in the Municipal Library of Trento (Italy) The illness of Augustus in 23 BC brought the problem of succession to the forefront of political issues and the public. To ensure stability, he needed to designate an heir to his unique position in Roman society and government. This was to be achieved in small, undramatic, and incremental ways that did not stir senatorial fears of monarchy. If someone was to succeed to Augustus's unofficial position of power, he would have to earn it through his own publicly proven merits.[195] Some Augustan historians argue that indications pointed toward his sister's son Marcellus, who had been quickly married to Augustus's daughter Julia the Elder.[196] Other historians dispute this due to Augustus's will being read aloud to the Senate while he was seriously ill in 23 BC,[197] instead indicating a preference for Marcus Agrippa, who was Augustus's second in charge and arguably the only one of his associates who could have controlled the legions and held the Empire together.[198] After the death of Marcellus in 23 BC, Augustus married his daughter to Agrippa. This union produced five children, three sons and two daughters: Gaius Caesar, Lucius Caesar, Vipsania Julia, Agrippina the Elder, and Postumus Agrippa, so named because he was born after Marcus Agrippa died. Shortly after the Second Settlement, Agrippa was granted a five-year term of administering the eastern half of the Empire with the imperium of a proconsul and the same tribunicia potestas granted to Augustus (although not trumping Augustus's authority), his seat of governance stationed at Samos in the eastern Aegean.[198][199] This granting of power showed Augustus's favor for Agrippa, but it was also a measure to please members of his Caesarian party by allowing one of their members to share a considerable amount of power with him.[199] The Mausoleum of Augustus Augustus's intent became apparent to make Gaius and Lucius Caesar his heirs when he adopted them as his own children.[200] He took the consulship in 5 and 2 BC so that he could personally usher them into their political careers,[201] and they were nominated for the consulships of AD 1 and 4.[202] Augustus also showed favor to his stepsons, Livia's children from her first marriage Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus (henceforth referred to as Drusus) and Tiberius Claudius (henceforth Tiberius), granting them military commands and public office, though seeming to favor Drusus. After Agrippa died in 12 BC, Tiberius was ordered to divorce his own wife Vipsania Agrippina and marry Agrippa's widow, Augustus's daughter Julia—as soon as a period of mourning for Agrippa had ended.[203] Drusus's marriage to Augustus's niece Antonia was considered an unbreakable affair, whereas Vipsania was "only" the daughter of the late Agrippa from his first marriage.[203] Tiberius shared in Augustus's tribune powers as of 6 BC, but shortly thereafter went into retirement, reportedly wanting no further role in politics while he exiled himself to Rhodes.[164][204] No specific reason is known for his departure, though it could have been a combination of reasons, including a failing marriage with Julia,[164][204] as well as a sense of envy and exclusion over Augustus's apparent favouring of his young grandchildren-turned-sons Gaius and Lucius. (Gaius and Lucius joined the college of priests at an early age, were presented to spectators in a more favorable light, and were introduced to the army in Gaul.)[205][206] After the early deaths of both Lucius and Gaius in AD 2 and 4 respectively, and the earlier death of his brother Drusus (9 BC), Tiberius was recalled to Rome in June AD 4, where he was adopted by Augustus on the condition that he, in turn, adopt his nephew Germanicus.[207] This continued the tradition of presenting at least two generations of heirs.[203] In that year, Tiberius was also granted the powers of a tribune and proconsul, emissaries from foreign kings had to pay their respects to him, and by AD 13 was awarded with his second triumph and equal level of imperium with that of Augustus.[208] The deified Augustus hovers over Tiberius and other Julio-Claudians in the Great Cameo of France The only other possible claimant as heir was Postumus Agrippa, who had been exiled by Augustus in AD 7, his banishment made permanent by senatorial decree, and Augustus officially disowned him. He certainly fell out of Augustus's favor as an heir; the historian Erich S. Gruen notes various contemporary sources that state Postumus Agrippa was a "vulgar young man, brutal and brutish, and of depraved character".[209] On 19 August AD 14, Augustus died while visiting Nola where his father had died. Both Tacitus and Cassius Dio wrote that Livia was rumored to have brought about Augustus's death by poisoning fresh figs.[210][211] This element features in many modern works of historical fiction pertaining to Augustus's life, but some historians view it as likely to have been a salacious fabrication made by those who had favoured Postumus as heir, or other of Tiberius's political enemies. Livia had long been the target of similar rumors of poisoning on the behalf of her son, most or all of which are unlikely to have been true.[212] Alternatively, it is possible that Livia did supply a poisoned fig (she did cultivate a variety of fig named for her that Augustus is said to have enjoyed), but did so as a means of assisted suicide rather than murder. Augustus's health had been in decline in the months immediately before his death, and he had made significant preparations for a smooth transition in power, having at last reluctantly settled on Tiberius as his choice of heir.[213] It is likely that Augustus was not expected to return alive from Nola, but it seems that his health improved once there; it has therefore been speculated that Augustus and Livia conspired to end his life at the anticipated time, having committed all political process to accepting Tiberius, in order to not endanger that transition.[212] Augustus's famous last words were, "Have I played the part well? Then applaud as I exit" ("Acta est fabula, plaudite")—referring to the play-acting and regal authority that he had put on as emperor. Publicly, though, his last words were, "Behold, I found Rome of clay, and leave her to you of marble" ("Marmoream se relinquere, quam latericiam accepisset"). An enormous funerary procession of mourners traveled with Augustus's body from Nola to Rome, and on the day of his burial all public and private businesses closed for the day.[213] Tiberius and his son Drusus delivered the eulogy while standing atop two rostra. Augustus's body was coffin-bound and cremated on a pyre close to his mausoleum. It was proclaimed that Augustus joined the company of the gods as a member of the Roman pantheon.[214] Historian D. C. A. Shotter states that Augustus's policy of favoring the Julian family line over the Claudian might have afforded Tiberius sufficient cause to show open disdain for Augustus after the latter's death; instead, Tiberius was always quick to rebuke those who criticized Augustus.[215] Shotter suggests that Augustus's deification obliged Tiberius to suppress any open resentment that he might have harbored, coupled with Tiberius's "extremely conservative" attitude towards religion.[216] Also, historian R. Shaw-Smith points to letters of Augustus to Tiberius which display affection towards Tiberius and high regard for his military merits.[217] Shotter states that Tiberius focused his anger and criticism on Gaius Asinius Gallus (for marrying Vipsania after Augustus forced Tiberius to divorce her), as well as toward the two young Caesars, Gaius and Lucius—instead of Augustus, the real architect of his divorce and imperial demotion.[216] Legacy Further information: Cultural depictions of Augustus The Virgin Mary and Child, the prophetess Sibyl Tivoli bottom left and the Emperor Augustus in the bottom right, from the Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry. The likeness of Augustus is that of the Byzantine emperor Manuel II Palaiologos[218] The Augustus cameo at the center of the Medieval Cross of Lothair Augustus's reign laid the foundations of a regime that lasted, in one form or another, for nearly fifteen hundred years through the ultimate decline of the Western Roman Empire and until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453. Both his adoptive surname, Caesar, and his title Augustus became the permanent titles of the rulers of the Roman Empire for fourteen centuries after his death, in use both at Old Rome and at New Rome. In many languages, Caesar became the word for Emperor, as in the German Kaiser and in the Bulgarian and subsequently Russian Tsar (sometimes Csar or Czar). The cult of Divus Augustus continued until the state religion of the Empire was changed to Christianity in 391 by Theodosius I. Consequently, there are many excellent statues and busts of the first emperor. He had composed an account of his achievements, the Res Gestae Divi Augusti, to be inscribed in bronze in front of his mausoleum.[219] Copies of the text were inscribed throughout the Empire upon his death.[220] The inscriptions in Latin featured translations in Greek beside it, and were inscribed on many public edifices, such as the temple in Ankara dubbed the Monumentum Ancyranum, called the "queen of inscriptions" by historian Theodor Mommsen.[221] The Res Gestae is the only work to have survived from antiquity, though Augustus is also known to have composed poems entitled Sicily, Epiphanus, and Ajax, an autobiography of 13 books, a philosophical treatise, and a written rebuttal to Brutus's Eulogy of Cato.[222] Historians are able to analyze excerpts of letters penned by Augustus, preserved in other works, to others for additional facts or clues about his personal life.[217][223] Many consider Augustus to be Rome's greatest emperor; his policies certainly extended the Empire's life span and initiated the celebrated Pax Romana or Pax Augusta. The Roman Senate wished subsequent emperors to "be more fortunate than Augustus and better than Trajan". Augustus was intelligent, decisive, and a shrewd politician, but he was not perhaps as charismatic as Julius Caesar and was influenced on occasion by Livia (sometimes for the worse). Nevertheless, his legacy proved more enduring. The city of Rome was utterly transformed under Augustus, with Rome's first institutionalized police force, fire fighting force, and the establishment of the municipal prefect as a permanent office. The police force was divided into cohorts of 500 men each, while the units of firemen ranged from 500 to 1,000 men each, with 7 units assigned to 14 divided city sectors.[224] A praefectus vigilum, or "Prefect of the Watch" was put in charge of the vigiles, Rome's fire brigade and police.[225] With Rome's civil wars at an end, Augustus was also able to create a standing army for the Roman Empire, fixed at a size of 28 legions of about 170,000 soldiers.[226] This was supported by numerous auxiliary units of 500 non-citizen soldiers each, often recruited from recently conquered areas.[227] With his finances securing the maintenance of roads throughout Italy, Augustus also installed an official courier system of relay stations overseen by a military officer known as the praefectus vehiculorum.[228] Besides the advent of swifter communication among Italian polities, his extensive building of roads throughout Italy also allowed Rome's armies to march swiftly and at an unprecedented pace across the country.[229] In the year 6 Augustus established the aerarium militare, donating 170 million sesterces to the new military treasury that provided for both active and retired soldiers.[230] One of the most enduring institutions of Augustus was the establishment of the Praetorian Guard in 27 BC, originally a personal bodyguard unit on the battlefield that evolved into an imperial guard as well as an important political force in Rome.[231] They had the power to intimidate the Senate, install new emperors, and depose ones they disliked; the last emperor they served was Maxentius, as it was Constantine I who disbanded them in the early 4th century and destroyed their barracks, the Castra Praetoria.[232] Augustus in an Egyptian-style depiction, a stone carving of the Kalabsha Temple in Nubia Although the most powerful individual in the Roman Empire, Augustus wished to embody the spirit of Republican virtue and norms. He also wanted to relate to and connect with the concerns of the plebs and lay people. He achieved this through various means of generosity and a cutting back of lavish excess. In the year 29 BC, Augustus gave 400 sesterces (equal to 1/10 of a Roman pound of gold) each to 250,000 citizens, 1,000 sesterces each to 120,000 veterans in the colonies, and spent 700 million sesterces in purchasing land for his soldiers to settle upon.[233] He also restored 82 different temples to display his care for the Roman pantheon of deities.[233] In 28 BC, he melted down 80 silver statues erected in his likeness and in honor of him, an attempt of his to appear frugal and modest.[233] Coin of Kushan ruler Kujula Kadphises, in the style of Roman emperor Augustus. British Museum. AE dichalkon, Chach, c. first half of 1st. Century, Weight:3.26 gm., Diam:18 mm. Caption: obcerse in Greek KOZOΛA KAΔAΦEΣ XOPANOY ZAOOY; reverse in Kharoshti. The longevity of Augustus's reign and its legacy to the Roman world should not be overlooked as a key factor in its success. As Tacitus wrote, the younger generations alive in AD 14 had never known any form of government other than the Principate.[234] Had Augustus died earlier (in 23 BC, for instance), matters might have turned out differently. The attrition of the civil wars on the old Republican oligarchy and the longevity of Augustus, therefore, must be seen as major contributing factors in the transformation of the Roman state into a de facto monarchy in these years. Augustus's own experience, his patience, his tact, and his political acumen also played their parts. He directed the future of the Empire down many lasting paths, from the existence of a standing professional army stationed at or near the frontiers, to the dynastic principle so often employed in the imperial succession, to the embellishment of the capital at the emperor's expense. Augustus's ultimate legacy was the peace and prosperity the Empire enjoyed for the next two centuries under the system he initiated. His memory was enshrined in the political ethos of the Imperial age as a paradigm of the good emperor. Every Emperor of Rome adopted his name, Caesar Augustus, which gradually lost its character as a name and eventually became a title.[214] The Augustan era poets Virgil and Horace praised Augustus as a defender of Rome, an upholder of moral justice, and an individual who bore the brunt of responsibility in maintaining the empire.[235] However, for his rule of Rome and establishing the principate, Augustus has also been subjected to criticism throughout the ages. The contemporary Roman jurist Marcus Antistius Labeo (d. AD 10/11), fond of the days of pre-Augustan republican liberty in which he had been born, openly criticized the Augustan regime. In the beginning of his Annals, the Roman historian Tacitus (c. 56–c.117) wrote that Augustus had cunningly subverted Republican Rome into a position of slavery. He continued to say that, with Augustus's death and swearing of loyalty to Tiberius, the people of Rome simply traded one slaveholder for another.[236] Tacitus, however, records two contradictory but common views of Augustus: Intelligent people praised or criticized him in varying ways. One opinion was as follows. Filial duty and a national emergency, in which there was no place for law-abiding conduct, had driven him to civil war—and this can neither be initiated nor maintained by decent methods. He had made many concessions to Anthony and to Lepidus for the sake of vengeance on his father's murderers. When Lepidus grew old and lazy, and Anthony's self-indulgence got the better of him, the only possible cure for the distracted country had been government by one man. However, Augustus had put the state in order not by making himself king or dictator, but by creating the Principate. The Empire's frontiers were on the ocean, or distant rivers. Armies, provinces, fleets, the whole system was interrelated. Roman citizens were protected by the law. Provincials were decently treated. Rome itself had been lavishly beautified. Force had been sparingly used—merely to preserve peace for the majority.[237] Fragment of a bronze equestrian statue of Augustus, 1st century AD, National Archaeological Museum of Athens Virgil reading the Aeneid to Augustus and Octavia, by Jean-Joseph Taillasson, 1787 According to the second opposing opinion: filial duty and national crisis had been merely pretexts. In actual fact, the motive of Octavian, the future Augustus, was lust for power ... There had certainly been peace, but it was a blood-stained peace of disasters and assassinations.[238] In a 2006 biography on Augustus, Anthony Everitt asserts that through the centuries, judgments on Augustus's reign have oscillated between these two extremes but stresses that: Opposites do not have to be mutually exclusive, and we are not obliged to choose one or the other. The story of his career shows that Augustus was indeed ruthless, cruel, and ambitious for himself. This was only in part a personal trait, for upper-class Romans were educated to compete with one another and to excel. However, he combined an overriding concern for his personal interests with a deep-seated patriotism, based on a nostalgia of Rome's antique virtues. In his capacity as princeps, selfishness and selflessness coexisted in his mind. While fighting for dominance, he paid little attention to legality or to the normal civilities of political life. He was devious, untrustworthy, and bloodthirsty. But once he had established his authority, he governed efficiently and justly, generally allowed freedom of speech, and promoted the rule of law. He was immensely hardworking and tried as hard as any democratic parliamentarian to treat his senatorial colleagues with respect and sensitivity. He suffered from no delusions of grandeur.[239] Tacitus was of the belief that Nerva (r. 96–98) successfully "mingled two formerly alien ideas, principate and liberty".[240] The 3rd-century historian Cassius Dio acknowledged Augustus as a benign, moderate ruler, yet like most other historians after the death of Augustus, Dio viewed Augustus as an autocrat.[236] The poet Marcus Annaeus Lucanus (AD 39–65) was of the opinion that Caesar's victory over Pompey and the fall of Cato the Younger (95 BC–46 BC) marked the end of traditional liberty in Rome; historian Chester G. Starr, Jr. writes of his avoidance of criticizing Augustus, "perhaps Augustus was too sacred a figure to accuse directly."[240] The Anglo-Irish writer Jonathan Swift (1667–1745), in his Discourse on the Contests and Dissentions in Athens and Rome, criticized Augustus for installing tyranny over Rome, and likened what he believed Great Britain's virtuous constitutional monarchy to Rome's moral Republic of the 2nd century BC. In his criticism of Augustus, the admiral and historian Thomas Gordon (1658–1741) compared Augustus to the puritanical tyrant Oliver Cromwell (1599–1658).[241] Thomas Gordon and the French political philosopher Montesquieu (1689–1755) both remarked that Augustus was a coward in battle.[242] In his Memoirs of the Court of Augustus, the Scottish scholar Thomas Blackwell (1701–1757) deemed Augustus a Machiavellian ruler, "a bloodthirsty vindicative usurper", "wicked and worthless", "a mean spirit", and a "tyrant".[242] Revenue reforms Coin of Augustus found at the Pudukottai hoard, from an ancient Tamil country, Pandyan Kingdom of present-day Tamil Nadu in India, a testimony to Indo-Roman trade. British Museum. Caption: AVGVSTVS DIVI F[ILIVS]. Augustus's public revenue reforms had a great impact on the subsequent success of the Empire. Augustus brought a far greater portion of the Empire's expanded land base under consistent, direct taxation from Rome, instead of exacting varying, intermittent, and somewhat arbitrary tributes from each local province as Augustus's predecessors had done. This reform greatly increased Rome's net revenue from its territorial acquisitions, stabilized its flow, and regularized the financial relationship between Rome and the provinces, rather than provoking fresh resentments with each new arbitrary exaction of tribute.[243] The measures of taxation in the reign of Augustus were determined by population census, with fixed quotas for each province. Citizens of Rome and Italy paid indirect taxes, while direct taxes were exacted from the provinces. Indirect taxes included a 4% tax on the price of slaves, a 1% tax on goods sold at auction, and a 5% tax on the inheritance of estates valued at over 100,000 sesterces by persons other than the next of kin.[244] 1st century coin of the Himyarite Kingdom, southern coast of the Arabian peninsula. This is also an imitation of a coin of Augustus. An equally important reform was the abolition of private tax farming, which was replaced by salaried civil service tax collectors. Private contractors who collected taxes for the State were the norm in the Republican era. Some of them were powerful enough to influence the number of votes for men running for offices in Rome. These tax farmers called publicans were infamous for their depredations, great private wealth, and the right to tax local areas.[243] The use of Egypt's immense land rents to finance the Empire's operations resulted from Augustus's conquest of Egypt and the shift to a Roman form of government.[245] As it was effectively considered Augustus's private property rather than a province of the Empire, it became part of each succeeding emperor's patrimonium.[246] Instead of a legate or proconsul, Augustus installed a prefect from the equestrian class to administer Egypt and maintain its lucrative seaports; this position became the highest political achievement for any equestrian besides becoming Prefect of the Praetorian Guard.[247] The highly productive agricultural land of Egypt yielded enormous revenues that were available to Augustus and his successors to pay for public works and military expeditions.[245] During his reign the circus games resulted in the killing of 3,500 elephants.[248] Month of August The month of August (Latin: Augustus) is named after Augustus; until his time it was called Sextilis (named so because it had been the sixth month of the original Roman calendar and the Latin word for six is sex). Commonly repeated lore has it that August has 31 days because Augustus wanted his month to match the length of Julius Caesar's July, but this is an invention of the 13th century scholar Johannes de Sacrobosco. Sextilis in fact had 31 days before it was renamed, and it was not chosen for its length (see Julian calendar). According to a senatus consultum quoted by Macrobius, Sextilis was renamed to honor Augustus because several of the most significant events in his rise to power, culminating in the fall of Alexandria, fell in that month.[249] Building projects Main page: Category:Augustan building projects Further information: Vitruvius and De architectura Close up on the sculpted detail of the Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace), 13 BC to 9 BC On his deathbed, Augustus boasted "I found a Rome of bricks; I leave to you one of marble." Although there is some truth in the literal meaning of this, Cassius Dio asserts that it was a metaphor for the Empire's strength.[250] Marble could be found in buildings of Rome before Augustus, but it was not extensively used as a building material until the reign of Augustus.[251] Although this did not apply to the Subura slums, which were still as rickety and fire-prone as ever, he did leave a mark on the monumental topography of the centre and of the Campus Martius, with the Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace) and monumental sundial, whose central gnomon was an obelisk taken from Egypt.[252] The relief sculptures decorating the Ara Pacis visually augmented the written record of Augustus's triumphs in the Res Gestae. Its reliefs depicted the imperial pageants of the praetorians, the Vestals, and the citizenry of Rome.[253] He also built the Temple of Caesar, the Baths of Agrippa, and the Forum of Augustus with its Temple of Mars Ultor.[254] Other projects were either encouraged by him, such as the Theatre of Balbus, and Agrippa's construction of the Pantheon, or funded by him in the name of others, often relations (e.g. Portico of Octavia, Theatre of Marcellus). Even his Mausoleum of Augustus was built before his death to house members of his family.[255] To celebrate his victory at the Battle of Actium, the Arch of Augustus was built in 29 BC near the entrance of the Temple of Castor and Pollux, and widened in 19 BC to include a triple-arch design.[251] The Temple of Augustus and Livia in Vienne, late 1st century BC After the death of Agrippa in 12 BC, a solution had to be found in maintaining Rome's water supply system. This came about because it was overseen by Agrippa when he served as aedile, and was even funded by him afterwards when he was a private citizen paying at his own expense. In that year, Augustus arranged a system where the Senate designated three of its members as prime commissioners in charge of the water supply and to ensure that Rome's aqueducts did not fall into disrepair.[224] In the late Augustan era, the commission of five senators called the curatores locorum publicorum iudicandorum (translated as "Supervisors of Public Property") was put in charge of maintaining public buildings and temples of the state cult.[224] Augustus created the senatorial group of the curatores viarum (translated as "Supervisors for Roads") for the upkeep of roads; this senatorial commission worked with local officials and contractors to organize regular repairs.[228] The Corinthian order of architectural style originating from ancient Greece was the dominant architectural style in the age of Augustus and the imperial phase of Rome. Suetonius once commented that Rome was unworthy of its status as an imperial capital, yet Augustus and Agrippa set out to dismantle this sentiment by transforming the appearance of Rome upon the classical Greek model.[251] Physical appearance and official images The Meroë Head of Augustus, bronze Roman portraiture bust from Meroë, Kingdom of Kush (Nubia, modern Sudan), 27–25 BC His biographer Suetonius, writing about a century after Augustus's death, described his appearance as: "... unusually handsome and exceedingly graceful at all periods of his life, though he cared nothing for personal adornment. He was so far from being particular about the dressing of his hair, that he would have several barbers working in a hurry at the same time, and as for his beard he now had it clipped and now shaved, while at the very same time he would either be reading or writing something ... He had clear, bright eyes ... His teeth were wide apart, small, and ill-kept; his hair was slightly curly and inclined to golden; his eyebrows met. His ears were of moderate size, and his nose projected a little at the top and then bent ever so slightly inward. His complexion was between dark and fair. He was short of stature, although Julius Marathus, his freedman and keeper of his records, says that he was five feet and nine inches (just under 5 ft. 7 in., or 1.70 meters, in modern height measurements), but this was concealed by the fine proportion and symmetry of his figure, and was noticeable only by comparison with some taller person standing beside him...",[256] adding that "his shoes [were] somewhat high-soled, to make him look taller than he really was".[257] Scientific analysis of traces of paint found in his official statues show that he most likely had light brown hair and eyes (his hair and eyes were depicted as the same color).[258] His official images were very tightly controlled and idealized, drawing from a tradition of Hellenistic royal portraiture rather than the tradition of realism in Roman portraiture. He first appeared on coins at the age of 19, and from about 29 BC "the explosion in the number of Augustan portraits attests a concerted propaganda campaign aimed at dominating all aspects of civil, religious, economic and military life with Augustus's person."[259] The early images did indeed depict a young man, but although there were gradual changes his images remained youthful until he died in his seventies, by which time they had "a distanced air of ageless majesty".[260] Among the best known of many surviving portraits are the Augustus of Prima Porta, the image on the Ara Pacis, and the Via Labicana Augustus, which shows him as a priest. Several cameo portraits include the Blacas Cameo and Gemma Augustea. See also Augustan literature (ancient Rome) Augustan poetry Bierzo Edict Caesar's Comet Gaius Maecenas Gaius Octavian (Rome character) Indo-Roman trade and relations Julio-Claudian family tree List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources Temple of Augustus References Notes ^ The dates of his rule are contemporary dates; Augustus lived under two calendars, the Roman Republican until 45 BC, and the Julian after 45 BC. Due to departures from Julius Caesar's intentions, Augustus finished restoring the Julian calendar in March AD 4, and the correspondence between the proleptic Julian calendar and the calendar observed in Rome is uncertain before 8 BC. (Blackburn & Holford-Strevens 2003: 670–1) ^ His daughter Julia had died in 54 BC.; his son Caesarion by Cleopatra was not recognized by Roman law and was not mentioned in his will.[28] ^ Appian estimates that 300 senators were proscribed, while his earlier contemporary Livy asserted that only 130 senators had been proscribed.[71] ^ These were Alexander Helios, Cleopatra Selene II, and Ptolemy Philadelphus. ^ He acted on the orders of Marcellus and Augustus – see Southern, p. 108 and Eck (2003), p. 55 Citations ^ "Augustus | Biography, Accomplishments, Full Name, & Facts". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 6 March 2018. ^ "Augustus - Ancient History - HISTORY.com". HISTORY.com. Retrieved 6 March 2018. ^ Luke, Trevor (2015). "Cultivating the memory of Octavius Thurinus". Journal of Ancient History. 3 (2): 242–266. doi:10.1515/jah-2015-0012. S2CID 164329002. ^ a b "Augustus - Ancient History - HISTORY.com". HISTORY.com. 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Oxford: Oxford University Press, in association with the Open University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-872108-6 Dio, Cassius. (1987) The Roman History: The Reign of Augustus. Translated by Ian Scott-Kilvert. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-044448-3. Davies, Mark (2010). Aspects of Roman History 82BC-AD14. doi:10.4324/9780203856659. ISBN 9780203856659. Eck, Werner; translated by Deborah Lucas Schneider; new material by Sarolta A. Takács. (2003) The Age of Augustus. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing (hardcover, ISBN 978-0-631-22957-5; paperback, ISBN 978-0-631-22958-2). Eder, Walter. (2005). "Augustus and the Power of Tradition", in The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Augustus (Cambridge Companions to the Ancient World), ed. Karl Galinsky, 13–32. Cambridge, MA; New York: Cambridge University Press (hardcover, ISBN 978-0-521-80796-8; paperback, ISBN 978-0-521-00393-3). Everitt, Anthony (2006) Augustus: The Life of Rome's First Emperor. Random House Books. ISBN 1-4000-6128-8. Goldsworthy, Adrian (2014). Augustus: First Emperor of Rome. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-17827-2. Green, Peter (1990). Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age. Hellenistic Culture and Society. Berkeley, CA; Los Angeles; London: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-05611-4. Gruen, Erich S. (2005). "Augustus and the Making of the Principate", in The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Augustus (Cambridge Companions to the Ancient World), ed. Karl Galinsky, 33–51. Cambridge, MA; New York: Cambridge University Press (hardcover, ISBN 978-0-521-80796-8; paperback, ISBN 978-0-521-00393-3). Holland, Richard, Augustus, Godfather of Europe, Sutton Publishing, 2005. Kelsall, Malcolm (1976). "Augustus and Pope". Huntington Library Quarterly. 39 (2): 117–131. doi:10.2307/3816937. JSTOR 3816937. Mackay, Christopher S. (2004). Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-80918-4. Raaflaub, Kurt A.; Toher, Mark, Between republic and empire: interpretations of Augustus and his principate, University of California Press, 1993. Roller, Duane W. (2010). Cleopatra: a biography. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195365535. Rowell, Henry Thompson. (1962). The Centers of Civilization Series: Volume 5; Rome in the Augustan Age. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-0956-5 Scullard, H. H. (1982) [1959]. From the Gracchi to Nero: A History of Rome from 133 B.C. to A.D. 68 (5th ed.). London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-02527-0. Suetonius, Gaius Tranquillus (2013) [1913]. Thayer, Bill (ed.). The Lives of the Twelve Caesars. J. C. Rolfe, trans. University of Chicago. Original publisher Loeb Classical Library. Suetonius, Gaius Tranquillus (1931). Lives of the Twelve Caesars. New York: Modern Library. Scott, Kenneth (1933). "The Political Propaganda of 44-30 B. C". Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome. 11: 7–49. doi:10.2307/4238573. JSTOR 4238573. Shaw-Smith, R. (1971). "A Letter from Augustus to Tiberius". Greece and Rome. 18 (2): 213–214. doi:10.1017/S0017383500018118. Shotter, D. C. A. (1966). "Tiberius and the Spirit of Augustus". Greece and Rome. 13 (2): 207–212. doi:10.1017/S0017383500015539. Starr, Chester G. (1952). "The Perfect Democracy of the Roman Empire". The American Historical Review. 58 (1): 1–16. doi:10.2307/1844784. JSTOR 1844784. Jones, A. H. M. (1951). "The Imperium of Augustus". Journal of Roman Studies. 41 (1–2): 112–119. doi:10.2307/298104. JSTOR 298104. Henry, Lyell D. (1991). Zig-Zag-and-Swirl. doi:10.2307/j.ctt20h6tqz. ISBN 9781587291081. Smith, R. R. R., "The Public Image of Licinius I: Portrait Sculpture and Imperial Ideology in the Early Fourth Century", The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 87, (1997), pp. 170–202, JSTOR Southern, Pat. (1998). Augustus. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-16631-7. Syme, Ronald (1939). The Roman Revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280320-7. Walker, Susan, and Burnett, Andrew, The Image of Augustus, 1981, British Museum Publications, ISBN 0-7141-1270-4 Walker, Susan. "Cleopatra in Pompeii?" in Papers of the British School at Rome, 76 (2008), pp. 35–46 and 345–348. Wells, Colin Michael, The Roman Empire, Harvard University Press, 2004. Further reading Bleicken, Jochen. (1998). Augustus. Eine Biographie. Berlin. Buchan, John (1937). Augustus. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. Everitt, Anthony. The First Emperor: Caesar Augustus and the Triumph of Rome. London: John Murray, 2007. ISBN 978-0-7195-5495-7. Galinsky, Karl. Augustan Culture. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998 (paperback, ISBN 978-0-691-05890-0). Galinsky, Karl (2012). Augustus: Introduction to the Life of an Emperor. Cambridge University Press. p. 300. ISBN 978-0-521-74442-3. Goldsworthy, Adrian (2014) Augustus: First Emperor of Rome. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-3001-7872-7. Grant, Michael (1985). The Roman Emperors: A Biographical Guide to the Rulers of Imperial Rome, 31 BC – AD 476. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. Levick, Barbara. Augustus: Image and Substance. London: Longman, 2010. ISBN 978-0-582-89421-1. Lewis, P. R. and G. D. B. Jones, Roman gold-mining in north-west Spain, Journal of Roman Studies 60 (1970): 169–85 Jones, R. F. J. and Bird, D. G., Roman gold-mining in north-west Spain, II: Workings on the Rio Duerna, Journal of Roman Studies 62 (1972): 59–74. Jones, A. H. M. "The Imperium of Augustus", The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 41, Parts 1 and 2. (1951), pp. 112–19. Jones, A. H. M. Augustus. London: Chatto & Windus, 1970 (paperback, ISBN 978-0-7011-1626-2). Massie, Allan (1984). The Caesars. New York: Franklin Watts. Osgood, Josiah. Caesar's Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire. New York: Cambridge University Press (USA), 2006 (hardback, ISBN 978-0-521-85582-2; paperback, ISBN 978-0-521-67177-4). Raaflaub, Kurt A. and Toher, Mark (eds.). Between Republic and Empire: Interpretations of Augustus and His Principate. Berkeley; Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993 (paperback, ISBN 978-0-520-08447-6). Reinhold, Meyer. The Golden Age of Augustus (Aspects of Antiquity). Toronto, ON: Univ. of Toronto Press, 1978 (hardcover, ISBN 978-0-89522-007-3; paperback, ISBN 978-0-89522-008-0). Roebuck, C. (1966). The World of Ancient Times. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. Shotter, D. C. A. (1991). Augustus Caesar. Lancaster Pamphlets. London: Routledge. Southern, Pat. Augustus (Roman Imperial Biographies). New York: Routledge, 1998 (hardcover, ISBN 978-0-415-16631-7); 2001 (paperback, ISBN 978-0-415-25855-5). Zanker, Paul. The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus (Thomas Spencer Jerome Lectures). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1989 (hardcover, ISBN 978-0-472-10101-6); 1990 (paperback, ISBN 978-0-472-08124-0). External links Augustusat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Primary sources Works by and about Augustus at Perseus Digital Library Cassius Dio's Roman History: Books 45–56, English translation Gallery of the Ancient Art: August Life of Augustus by Nicolaus of Damascus, English translation Suetonius's biography of Augustus, Latin text with English translation The Res Gestae Divi Augusti (The Deeds of Augustus, his own account: complete Latin and Greek texts with facing English translation) The Via Iulia Augusta: road built by the Romans; constructed on the orders of Augustus between the 13–12 B.C. Library resources about Augustus Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Secondary source material Augustan Legionaries – Augustus's legions and legionaries Augustus – short biography at the BBC Brown, F. The Achievements of Augustus Caesar, Clio History Journal, 2009. "Augustus Caesar and the Pax Romana" – essay by Steven Kreis about Augustus's legacy "De Imperatoribus Romanis" – article about Augustus at Garrett G. Fagan's online encyclopedia of Roman Emperors Augustus Why he is important – his place in world history Augustus Julio-Claudian dynasty Born: 23 September 63 BC Died: 19 August AD 14 Roman Emperors New title Roman emperor 27 BC – AD 14 Succeeded by Tiberius Political offices Preceded by C. Vibius Pansa Caetronianus A. Hirtius Consul of Rome 43 BC (suffect) With: Q. Pedius Succeeded by M. Aemilius Lepidus L. Munatius Plancus Preceded by Paullus Aemilius Lepidus M. Herennius Picens Consul of Rome 33 BC With: L. Volcatius Tullus Succeeded by Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus C. Sosius Preceded by Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus C. Sosius Consul of Rome 31–23 BC With: Marc Antony M. Valerius Messalla Corvinus M. Licinius Crassus Sex. Appuleius M. Agrippa T. Statilius Taurus M. Junius Silanus C. Norbanus Flaccus Cn. Calpurnius Piso Succeeded by M. Claudius Marcellus Aeserninus L. Arruntius Preceded by D. Laelius Balbus C. Antistius Vetus Consul of Rome 5 BC With: L. Cornelius Sulla Succeeded by C. Calvisius Sabinus L. Passienus Rufus Preceded by L. Cornelius Lentulus M. Valerius Messalla Messallinus Consul of Rome 2 BC With: M. Plautius Silvanus Succeeded by Cossus Cornelius Lentulus L. Calpurnius Piso Religious titles Preceded by M. Aemilius Lepidus Pontifex Maximus 12 BC – AD 14 Succeeded by Tiberius v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–284 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic Emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius Chlorus Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daia (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo the Thracian Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian the Great Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. v t e Ancient Roman religion and mythology Deities (Dii Consentes) Agenoria Angerona Anna Perenna Apollo Bellona Bona Dea Carmenta Castor and Pollux Ceres Cloacina Cupid Dea Dia Diana Dies Dīs Pater Egeria Fauna Faunus Flora Genius Hercules Janus Juno Jupiter Lares Liber Libertas Mars Mercury Minerva Neptune Orcus Penates Pluto Pomona Priapus Proserpina Quirinus Saturn Silvanus Sol Venus Veritas Vesta Vulcan Abstract deities Abundantia Aequitas Aeternitas Africa Annona Averruncus Concordia Feronia Fides Fortuna Fontus Laverna Pietas Roma Salus Securitas Spes Tranquillitas Victoria Terra Legendary figures Aeneas Rhea Silvia Romulus and Remus Numa Pompilius Tullus Hostilius Servius Tullius Ancus Marcius Lucius Tarquinius Priscus Lucius Tarquinius Superbus Texts Virgil Aeneid Ovid Metamorphoses Fasti Propertius Apuleius The Golden Ass Varro Concepts and practices Religion in ancient Rome Festivals Interpretatio graeca Imperial cult Pomerium Temples Philosophy Cynicism Epicureanism Neoplatonism Peripateticism Pythagoreanism Stoicism See also Glossary Greek mythology Myth and ritual Roman polytheism (List) Classical mythology Conversion to Christianity Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism v t e Ancient Roman wars Wars of the Roman Republic Roman–Etruscan Wars Roman-Aequian wars Roman–Latin wars Roman–Hernician wars Roman-Volscian wars Samnite Wars Pyrrhic War Punic Wars (First, Second, Third) Illyrian Wars (First, Second, Third) Macedonian Wars (First, Second, Third, Fourth) Roman–Seleucid War Aetolian War Galatian War Roman conquest of Hispania (Celtiberian Wars, Lusitanian War, Numantine War, Sertorian War, Cantabrian Wars) Achaean War Jugurthine War Cimbrian War Servile Wars (First, Second, Third) Social War Sulla's civil wars (First, Second) Mithridatic Wars (First, Second, Third) Gallic Wars Invasions of Britain Caesar's Civil War End of the Republic (Post-Caesarian, Liberators', Sicilian, Perusine, Last) Wars of the Roman Empire Germanic wars (Teutoburg, Marcomannic, Alemannic, Gothic, Visigothic) Wars in Britain Boudica's revolt Armenian War Civil War of 69 Jewish–Roman wars Domitian's Dacian War Trajan's Dacian Wars Persian Wars Civil Wars of the Third Century Wars of the Fall of the Western Roman Empire Military history of ancient Rome v t e Pontifices Maximi 715 BC: Numa Marcius 509 BC: C. Papirius 449 BC: Q. Furius 431 BC: A. Cornelius Cossus 420 BC: S. Minucius 390 BC: M. Fabius Ambustus 332 BC: P. Cornelius Calussa 304 BC: P. Cornelius Scipio Barbatus 254 BC: Ti. Coruncanius 243 BC: L. Caecilius Metellus 221 BC: L. Cornelius Lentulus Caudinus 213 BC: M. Cornelius Cethegus 212 BC: P. Licinius Crassus Dives 180 BC: M. Aemilius Lepidus 150 BC: P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica Corculum 141 BC: P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica Serapio 132 BC: P. Licinius Crassus Dives Mucianus 130 BC: P. Mucius Scaevola 114 BC: L. Caecilius Metellus Delmaticus 103 BC: Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus 89 BC: Q. Mucius Scaevola 81 BC: Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius 63 BC: C. Julius Caesar 44 BC: M. Aemilius Lepidus 12 BC: Imp. Caesar Augustus 12 BC - AD 375: Held by the emperors. v t e Ancient Greek and Roman wars Ancient Greece Trojan War First Messenian War Second Messenian War Lelantine War Greek–Punic Wars (Sicilian Wars) Greco-Persian Wars Aeginetan War Wars of the Delian League Samian War Peloponnesian War Corinthian War First / Second / Third Sacred War Social War (357–355 BC) Expansion of Macedonia Wars of Alexander the Great Wars of the Diadochi Lamian War Chremonidean War Cleomenean War Social War (220–217 BC) Cretan War Aetolian War War against Nabis Maccabean Revolt Roman Republic Roman–Latin wars (First Latin War (Battle of Lake Regillus) Second Latin War) Samnite Wars Pyrrhic War Punic Wars (First Second Third) Macedonian Wars (Illyrian First Macedonian Second Macedonian Seleucid Third Macedonian Fourth Macedonian) Jugurthine War Cimbrian War Roman Servile Wars (First Second Third) Social War (91–87 BC) Sulla's civil wars (First Second) Mithridatic Wars (First Second Third) Gallic Wars Julius Caesar's civil war Augustus' rise to power (Battle of Mutina Liberators' civil war Sicilian revolt Perusine War (Fulvia's civil war) Final War of the Roman Republic) Roman Empire Germanic wars (Marcomannic Alemannic Gothic Visigothic) Conquest of Britain Wars of Boudica Armenian War Four Emperors Jewish wars Domitian's Dacian War Trajan's Dacian Wars Parthian Wars Wars against Persia Third-century civil wars Decline and fall of the Western Empire Military history v t e Empires Ancient (Colonies) Akkadian Neo-Sumerian Old Babylonian Egyptian Old Kingdom Middle Kingdom New Kingdom Assyrian Neo-Babylonian Phoenician Carthaginian Chinese Shang Qin Han Three Kingdoms Jin North and South Hellenistic Macedonian Seleucid Hittite Indian Nanda Maurya Satavahana Shunga Gupta Harsha Iranian Median Achaemenid Parthian Sasanian Kushan Mongol Xianbei Roman Western Eastern Teotihuacan Post-classical Aksum Arab Rashidun Umayyad Abbasid Fatimid Córdoba Aragonese Angevin Aztec Benin Bornu Bruneian Bulgarian First Second Byzantine Nicaea Thessalonica Trebizond Calakmul Castilian Chinese Sui Tang Liao Song Jīn Yuan Uyghur Khaganate Ethiopian Zagwe Solomonic Genoese Georgian Holy-Roman Carolingian Huetar Hunnic Hephthalite Inca Indian Chola Gurjara-Pratihara Pala Eastern Ganga dynasty Delhi Vijayanagara Iranian Samanid Saffarid Kanem Khmer Latin Majapahit Malaccan Mali Mongol Yuan Golden Horde Chagatai Khanate Ilkhanate Moroccan Idrisid Almoravid Almohad Marinid North Sea Oyo Serbian Singhasari Somali Ajuran Ifatite Adalite Mogadishan Songhai Srivijaya Tibetan Tikal Timurid Tiwanku Toltec Turko-Persian Ghaznavid Great Seljuk Khwarezmian Venetian Vietnamese Dai Viet Wagadou Wari Modern Afghan Ashanti Austrian Austro-Hungarian Brazilian Central African Chinese Ming Qing China Manchukuo Ethiopian Haitian First Second French First Second German First/Old Reich Second Reich Third Reich Indian Mughal Mysorean Sikh Maratha British Raj Iranian Safavid Afsharid Qajar Pahlavi Japanese Johor Korean Mexican First Second Moroccan Saadi Alaouite Russian Somali Gobroon Majeerteen Hobyo Swedish Tongan Ottoman Vietnamese Dainam Vietnam Colonial American Belgian British English Scottish Danish Dutch French German Italian Japanese Omani Polish–Lithuanian Couronian Portuguese Sovereign Military Order of Malta Spanish Swedish Lists Empires largest in India Ancient great powers Medieval great powers Modern great powers European colonialism African empires Miscellaneous The empire on which the sun never sets "Empire" as a description of foreign policy American empire Soviet Empire v t e Julius Caesar Major life events Early life and career First Triumvirate Lucca Conference Gallic Wars Caesar's Civil War Crossing the Rubicon Constitutional reforms Dictator perpetuo Assassination Military campaigns Gallic Wars Arar Bibracte Vosges Axona Sabis Atuatuci Octodurus Invasions of Britain Ambiorix's revolt Avaricum Gergovia Alesia Uxellodunum Civil War Corfinium Brundisium Ilerda Dyrrhachium Gomphi Pharsalus Nile Alexandria Zela Ruspina Thapsus Munda Planned invasion of the Parthian Empire Works Laudatio Iuliae amitae Anticato Commentarii de Bello Civili Commentarii de Bello Gallico De analogia Poems by Julius Caesar Portraits Green Caesar Tusculum portrait Arles bust Buildings Forum of Caesar Curia Julia Basilica Julia Temple of Venus Genetrix Caesar's Rhine bridges Quotes Alea iacta est Veni, vidi, vici Ut est rerum omnium magister usus last words Family Wives Cossutia (disputed) Cornelia Pompeia Calpurnia Children Julia Caesarion Augustus (adopted) Other Gaius Julius Caesar (father) Aurelia (mother) Julia Major (sister) Julia Minor (sister) Legacy Cultural depictions of Julius Caesar Temple of Caesar Caesar's Comet Caesarism Julio-Claudian dynasty Related Julia gens Mark Antony Cleopatra Servilia Marcus Junius Brutus Category Authority control BIBSYS: 90747437 BNE: XX1026401 BNF: cb12326866z (data) CANTIC: a10443502 CiNii: DA00507115 GND: 118505122 HDS: 010314 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\021587 ISNI: 0000 0001 2122 7317 LCCN: n79033006 LNB: 000097185 NDL: 00650422 NKC: jn20000700093 NLA: 35010212 NLG: 96552 NLI: 000013167 NLK: KAC201620721 NSK: 000056773 NTA: 069639639 RERO: 02-A012316543 SELIBR: 176310 SNAC: w61n94pq SUDOC: 032190026 Trove: 788755 ULAN: 500058949 VcBA: 495/51125 VIAF: 18013086 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79033006 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Augustus&oldid=995031937" Categories: Augustus 63 BC births 14 deaths 1st-century BC Romans 1st-century BC clergy 1st-century clergy 1st-century BC Roman emperors 1st-century Roman emperors Adoptees adopted by relations Ancient Roman adoptees Ancient Roman military personnel Ancient Roman propraetors Burials at the Mausoleum of Augustus Characters in Book VI of the Aeneid Children of Julius Caesar Deified Roman emperors Founding monarchs Imperial Roman consuls Julii Caesares Julio-Claudian dynasty Octavii Rufi People in the canonical gospels Pontifices Maximi of the Roman 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en-wikipedia-org-5008	----	Sexuality in ancient Rome - Wikipedia Sexuality in ancient Rome From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Attitudes and behaviors towards sex in ancient Rome Satyr and nymph, mythological symbols of sexuality on a mosaic from a bedroom in Pompeii Threesome in a boat, surrounded by beasts; sex scenes set on the Nile consistently feature the a tergo position, often combined as here with fellatio[1] Male–female couple on the back of a bronze mirror (ca. 70–90 AD) Sexual attitudes and behaviors in ancient Rome are indicated by art, literature and inscriptions, and to a lesser extent by archaeological remains such as erotic artifacts and architecture. It has sometimes been assumed that "unlimited sexual license" was characteristic of ancient Rome.[2] Verstraete and Provençal opine that this perspective was simply a Christian interpretation: "The sexuality of the Romans has never had good press in the West ever since the rise of Christianity. In the popular imagination and culture, it is synonymous with sexual license and abuse."[3] But sexuality was not excluded as a concern of the mos maiorum, the traditional social norms that affected public, private, and military life.[4] Pudor, "shame, modesty", was a regulating factor in behavior,[5] as were legal strictures on certain sexual transgressions in both the Republican and Imperial periods.[6] The censors—public officials who determined the social rank of individuals—had the power to remove citizens from the senatorial or equestrian order for sexual misconduct, and on occasion did so.[7][8] The mid-20th-century sexuality theorist Michel Foucault regarded sex throughout the Greco-Roman world as governed by restraint and the art of managing sexual pleasure.[9] Roman society was patriarchal (see paterfamilias), and masculinity was premised on a capacity for governing oneself and others of lower status, not only in war and politics, but also in sexual relations.[10] Virtus, "virtue", was an active masculine ideal of self-discipline, related to the Latin word for "man", vir. The corresponding ideal for a woman was pudicitia, often translated as chastity or modesty, but a more positive and even competitive personal quality that displayed both her attractiveness and self-control.[11] Roman women of the upper classes were expected to be well educated, strong of character, and active in maintaining their family's standing in society.[12] But with extremely few exceptions, surviving Latin literature preserves the voices only of educated male Romans on the subject of sexuality. Visual art was created by those of lower social status and of a greater range of ethnicity, but was tailored to the taste and inclinations of those wealthy enough to afford it, including, in the Imperial era, former slaves.[13] Some sexual attitudes and behaviors in ancient Roman culture differ markedly from those in later Western societies.[14][15] Roman religion promoted sexuality as an aspect of prosperity for the state, and individuals might turn to private religious practice or "magic" for improving their erotic lives or reproductive health. Prostitution was legal, public, and widespread. "Pornographic" paintings were featured among the art collections in respectable upperclass households.[16] It was considered natural and unremarkable for men to be sexually attracted to teen-aged youths of both sexes, and pederasty was condoned as long as the younger male partner was not a freeborn Roman. "Homosexual" and "heterosexual" did not form the primary dichotomy of Roman thinking about sexuality, and no Latin words for these concepts exist.[17] No moral censure was directed at the man who enjoyed sex acts with either women or males of inferior status, as long as his behaviors revealed no weaknesses or excesses, nor infringed on the rights and prerogatives of his masculine peers. While perceived effeminacy was denounced, especially in political rhetoric, sex in moderation with male prostitutes or slaves was not regarded as improper or vitiating to masculinity, if the male citizen took the active and not the receptive role. Hypersexuality, however, was condemned morally and medically in both men and women. Women were held to a stricter moral code,[18] and same-sex relations between women are poorly documented, but the sexuality of women is variously celebrated or reviled throughout Latin literature. In general the Romans had more flexible gender categories than the ancient Greeks.[19] A late-20th-century paradigm analyzed Roman sexuality in terms of a "penetrator–penetrated" binary model, a misleadingly rigid analysis that may obscure expressions of sexuality among individual Romans.[20] Even the relevance of the word "sexuality" to ancient Roman culture has been disputed,[21][22][23] but in the absence of any other label for "the cultural interpretation of erotic experience", the term continues to be used.[24] Contents 1 Erotic literature and art 2 Sex, religion and the state 2.1 Moral and legal concepts 2.1.1 Castitas 2.1.2 Incestum 2.1.3 Stuprum 2.1.4 Raptus 2.2 Healing and magic 3 Theories of sexuality 3.1 Epicurean sexuality 3.2 Stoic sexual morality 4 Male sexuality 4.1 Male nudity 4.2 Phallic sexuality 4.2.1 Castration and circumcision 4.3 Regulating semen 4.4 Effeminacy and transvestism 4.5 Male–male sex 4.6 The rape of men 4.7 Sex in the military 5 Female sexuality 5.1 The female body 5.1.1 Female genitals 5.1.2 Breasts 5.2 Female–female sex 5.3 Rape 5.3.1 The mythology of rape 5.3.2 Rape and the law 6 Sexuality and children 6.1 Rites of passage 7 Sex, marriage, and society 7.1 Marital sex 7.1.1 The wedding night 7.1.2 Fidelity and adultery 7.2 Master-slave relations 7.3 Prostitution 7.3.1 Pleasure and infamy 7.3.2 Private sex clubs 8 Sex acts and positions 8.1 Male–female sex 8.1.1 Mulier equitans 8.2 Anal sex 8.3 Os impurum 8.3.1 Cunnilingus and fellatio 8.3.2 Irrumatio 8.4 Group sex 8.5 Masturbation 8.6 Bestiality 9 Hermaphroditism and androgyny 10 Sexual conquest and imperialism 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 14 Cited sources 15 Further reading 16 External links Erotic literature and art[edit] Romantic scene from a mosaic (Villa at Centocelle, Rome, 20 BC–20 AD) Ancient literature pertaining to Roman sexuality falls mainly into four categories: legal texts; medical texts; poetry; and political discourse.[25] Forms of expression with lower cultural cachet in antiquity—such as comedy, satire, invective, love poetry, graffiti, magic spells, inscriptions, and interior decoration—have more to say about sex than elevated genres, such as epic and tragedy. Information about the sex lives of the Romans is scattered in historiography, oratory, philosophy, and writings on medicine, agriculture, and other technical topics.[26] Legal texts point to behaviors Romans wanted to regulate or prohibit, without necessarily reflecting what people actually did or refrained from doing.[27] Major Latin authors whose works contribute significantly to an understanding of Roman sexuality include: the comic playwright Plautus (d. 184 BC), whose plots often revolve around sex comedy and young lovers kept apart by circumstances; the statesman and moralist Cato the Elder (d. 149 BC), who offers glimpses of sexuality at a time that later Romans regarded as having higher moral standards; the poet Lucretius (d. c. 55 BC), who presents an extended treatment of Epicurean sexuality in his philosophical work De rerum natura; Catullus (fl. 50s BC), whose poems explore a range of erotic experience near the end of the Republic, from delicate romanticism to brutally obscene invective; Cicero (d. 43 BC), with courtroom speeches that often attack the opposition's sexual conduct and letters peppered with gossip about Rome's elite; the Augustan elegists Propertius and Tibullus, who reveal social attitudes in describing love affairs with mistresses; Ovid (d. 17 AD), especially his Amores ("Love Affairs") and Ars Amatoria ("Art of Love"), which according to tradition contributed to Augustus's decision to exile the poet, and his epic, the Metamorphoses, which presents a range of sexuality, with an emphasis on rape, through the lens of mythology; the epigrammatist Martial (d. c. 102/4 AD), whose observations of society are braced by sexually explicit invective; the satirist Juvenal (d. early 2nd century AD), who rails against the sexual mores of his time. Ovid lists a number of writers known for salacious material whose works are now lost.[28] Greek sex manuals and "straightforward pornography"[29] were published under the name of famous heterai (courtesans), and circulated in Rome. The robustly sexual Milesiaca of Aristides was translated by Sisenna, one of the praetors of 78 BC. Ovid calls the book a collection of misdeeds (crimina), and says the narrative was laced with dirty jokes.[30] After the Battle of Carrhae, the Parthians were reportedly shocked to find the Milesiaca in the baggage of Marcus Crassus's officers.[31] Erotic art, especially as preserved in Pompeii and Herculaneum, is a rich if not unambiguous source; some images contradict sexual preferences stressed in literary sources and may be intended to provoke laughter or challenge conventional attitudes.[32] Everyday objects such as mirrors and serving vessels might be decorated with erotic scenes; on Arretine ware, these range from "elegant amorous dalliance" to explicit views of the penis entering the vagina.[33] Erotic paintings were found in the most respectable houses of the Roman nobility, as Ovid notes: Just as venerable figures of men, painted by the hand of an artist, are resplendent in our houses, so too there is a small painting (tabella)[34] in some spot which depicts various couplings and sexual positions: just as Telamonian Ajax sits with an expression that declares his anger, and the barbarian mother (Medea) has crime in her eyes, so too a wet Venus dries her dripping hair with her fingers and is viewed barely covered by the maternal waters.[35] Erotic art on a wall of the House of the Centenary, Pompeii The pornographic tabella and the erotically charged Venus appear among various images that a connoisseur of art might enjoy.[36] A series of paintings from the Suburban Baths at Pompeii, discovered in 1986 and published in 1995, presents erotic scenarios that seem intended "to amuse the viewer with outrageous sexual spectacle," including a variety of positions, oral sex, and group sex featuring male–female, male–male, and female–female relations.[37] The décor of a Roman bedroom could reflect quite literally its sexual use: the Augustan poet Horace supposedly had a mirrored room for sex, so that when he hired a prostitute he could watch from all angles.[38] The emperor Tiberius had his bedrooms decorated with "the most lascivious" paintings and sculptures, and stocked with Greek sex manuals by Elephantis in case those employed in sex needed direction.[39] In the 2nd century AD, "there is a boom in texts about sex in Greek and Latin," along with romance novels.[40] But frank sexuality all but disappears from literature thereafter, and sexual topics are reserved for medical writing or Christian theology. In the 3rd century, celibacy had become an ideal among the growing number of Christians, and Church Fathers such as Tertullian and Clement of Alexandria debated whether even marital sex should be permitted for procreation. The sexuality of martyrology focuses on tests against the Christian's chastity[40] and sexual torture; Christian women are more often than men subjected to sexual mutilation, in particular of the breasts.[n 1] The obscene humor of Martial was briefly revived in 4th-century Bordeaux by the Gallo-Roman scholar-poet Ausonius, although he shunned Martial's predilection for pederasty and was at least nominally a Christian.[41] Sex, religion and the state[edit] A man prepares the nocturnal sacrifice of a pig to Priapus, with Cupid as the swineherd[42] (wall painting, Villa of the Mysteries) Like other aspects of Roman life, sexuality was supported and regulated by religious traditions, both the public cult of the state and private religious practices and magic. Sexuality was an important category of Roman religious thought.[43] The complement of male and female was vital to the Roman concept of deity. The Dii Consentes were a council of deities in male–female pairs, to some extent Rome's equivalent to the Twelve Olympians of the Greeks.[44] At least two state priesthoods were held jointly by a married couple.[45] The Vestal Virgins, the one state priesthood reserved for women, took a vow of chastity that granted them relative independence from male control; among the religious objects in their keeping was a sacred phallus:[46] "Vesta's fire ... evoked the idea of sexual purity in the female" and "represented the procreative power of the male".[47] The men who served in the various colleges of priests were expected to marry and have families. Cicero held that the desire (libido) to procreate was "the seedbed of the republic", as it was the cause for the first form of social institution, marriage. Marriage produced children and in turn a "house" (domus) for family unity that was the building block of urban life.[48] Many Roman religious festivals had an element of sexuality. The February Lupercalia, celebrated as late as the 5th century of the Christian era, included an archaic fertility rite. The Floralia featured nude dancing. At certain religious festivals throughout April, prostitutes participated or were officially recognized.[49] The connections among human reproduction, general prosperity, and the wellbeing of the state are embodied by the Roman cult of Venus, who differs from her Greek counterpart Aphrodite in her role as a mother of the Roman people through her half-mortal son Aeneas.[50] During the civil wars of the 80s BC, Sulla, about to invade his own country with the legions under his command, issued a coin depicting a crowned Venus as his personal patron deity, with Cupid holding a palm branch of victory; on the reverse military trophies flank symbols of the augurs, the state priests who read the will of the gods. The iconography links deities of love and desire with military success and religious authority; Sulla adopted the title Epaphroditus, "Aphrodite's own", before he became a dictator.[51] The fascinum, a phallic charm, was ubiquitous in Roman culture, appearing on everything from jewelry to bells and wind chimes to lamps,[52] including as an amulet to protect children[53] and triumphing generals.[54] Denarius issued ca. 84–83 BC under Sulla picturing Venus with a diadem and a standing Cupid with a palm branch, and on the reverse two military trophies and religious implements (jug and lituus) Cupid inspired desire; the imported god Priapus represented gross or humorous lust; Mutunus Tutunus promoted marital sex. The god Liber (understood as the "Free One") oversaw physiological responses during sexual intercourse. When a male assumed the toga virilis, "toga of manhood," Liber became his patron; according to the love poets, he left behind the innocent modesty (pudor) of childhood and acquired the sexual freedom (libertas) to begin his course of love.[55] A host of deities oversaw every aspect of intercourse, conception, and childbirth.[56] Classical myths often deal with sexual themes such as gender identity, adultery, incest, and rape. Roman art and literature continued the Hellenistic treatment of mythological figures having sex as humanly erotic and at times humorous, often removed from the religious dimension.[57] Moral and legal concepts[edit] Castitas[edit] The Latin word castitas, from which the English "chastity" derives, is an abstract noun denoting "a moral and physical purity usually in a specifically religious context", sometimes but not always referring to sexual chastity.[58] The related adjective castus (feminine casta, neuter castum), "pure", can be used of places and objects as well as people; the adjective pudicus ("chaste, modest") describes more specifically a person who is sexually moral.[58] The goddess Ceres was concerned with both ritual and sexual castitas, and the torch carried in her honor as part of the Roman wedding procession was associated with the bride's purity; Ceres also embodied motherhood.[59] The goddess Vesta was the primary deity of the Roman pantheon associated with castitas, and a virgin goddess herself; her priestesses the Vestals were virgins who took a vow to remain celibate. Incestum[edit] A Vestal Incestum (that which is "not castum") is an act that violates religious purity,[58] perhaps synonymous with that which is nefas, religiously impermissible.[60] The violation of a Vestal's vow of chastity was incestum, a legal charge brought against her and the man who rendered her impure through sexual relations, whether consensually or by force. A Vestal's loss of castitas ruptured Rome's treaty with the gods (pax deorum),[61] and was typically accompanied by the observation of bad omens (prodigia). Prosecutions for incestum involving a Vestal often coincide with political unrest, and some charges of incestum seem politically motivated:[62] Marcus Crassus was acquitted of incestum with a Vestal who shared his family name.[63] Although the English word "incest" derives from the Latin, incestuous relations are only one form of Roman incestum,[58] sometimes translated as "sacrilege". When Clodius Pulcher dressed as a woman and intruded on the all-female rites of the Bona Dea, he was charged with incestum.[64] Stuprum[edit] In Latin legal and moral discourse, stuprum is illicit sexual intercourse, translatable as "criminal debauchery"[65] or "sex crime".[66] Stuprum encompasses diverse sexual offenses including incestum, rape ("unlawful sex by force"),[67] and adultery. In early Rome, stuprum was a disgraceful act in general, or any public disgrace, including but not limited to illicit sex.[n 2] By the time of the comic playwright Plautus (ca. 254–184 BC) it had acquired its more restricted sexual meaning.[68] Stuprum can occur only among citizens; protection from sexual misconduct was among the legal rights that distinguished the citizen from the non-citizen.[68] Although the noun stuprum may be translated into English as fornication, the intransitive verb "to fornicate" (itself derived from the Latin fornicarium,[citation needed] which originally meant "a vaulted room"; the small vaulted rooms in which some prostitutes plied their trade led to the verb fornicare) is an inadequate translation of the Latin stuprare, which is a transitive verb requiring a direct object (the person who is the target of the misconduct) and a male agent (the stuprator).[68] Raptus[edit] See also: Raptio The English word "rape" derives ultimately from the Latin verb rapio, rapere, raptus, "to snatch, carry away, abduct" (the words rapt, rapture, and raptor still have the same meaning). In Roman law, raptus or raptio meant primarily kidnapping or abduction;[69] the mythological rape of the Sabine women is a form of bride abduction in which sexual violation is a secondary issue. (Before the word "rape" acquired its modern strictly sexual meaning, the verb meant simply to seize something or someone by force; this usage persisted at least into the early 19th century.) The abduction of an unmarried girl from her father's household in some circumstances was a matter of the couple eloping without her father's permission to marry. Rape in the English sense was more often expressed as stuprum committed through violence or coercion (cum vi or per vim). As laws pertaining to violence were codified toward the end of the Republic, raptus ad stuprum, "abduction for the purpose of committing a sex crime", emerged as a legal distinction.[70] (See further discussion of rape under "The rape of men" and "Rape and the law" below.) Healing and magic[edit] Votive offerings from Pompeii representing breasts, penises, and a uterus Divine aid might be sought in private religious rituals along with medical treatments to enhance or block fertility, or to cure diseases of the reproductive organs. Votive offerings (vota; compare ex-voto) in the form of breasts and penises have been found at healing sanctuaries. A private ritual under some circumstances might be considered "magic", an indistinct category in antiquity.[71] An amatorium (Greek philtron) was a love charm or potion;[72] binding spells (defixiones) were supposed to "fix" a person's sexual affection.[73] The Greek Magical Papyri, a collection of syncretic magic texts, contain many love spells that indicate "there was a very lively market in erotic magic in the Roman period", catered by freelance priests who at times claimed to derive their authority from the Egyptian religious tradition.[74] Canidia, a witch described by Horace, performs a spell using a female effigy to dominate a smaller male doll.[75] Aphrodisiacs, anaphrodisiacs, contraceptives, and abortifacients are preserved by both medical handbooks and magic texts; potions can be difficult to distinguish from pharmacology. In his Book 33 De medicamentis, Marcellus of Bordeaux, a contemporary of Ausonius,[76] collected more than 70 sexually related treatments—for growths and lesions on the testicles and penis, undescended testicles, erectile dysfunction, hydrocele, "creating a eunuch without surgery",[77] ensuring a woman's fidelity, and compelling or diminishing a man's desire—some of which involve ritual procedures: If you’ve had a woman, and you don't want another man ever to get inside her, do this: Cut off the tail of a live green lizard with your left hand and release it while it’s still alive. Keep the tail closed up in the palm of the same hand until it dies and touch the woman and her private parts when you have intercourse with her.[78] There is an herb called nymphaea in Greek, 'Hercules’ club' in Latin, and baditis in Gaulish. Its root, pounded to a paste and drunk in vinegar for ten consecutive days, has the astonishing effect of turning a boy into a eunuch.[79] If the spermatic veins of an immature boy should become enlarged,[n 3] split a young cherry-tree down the middle to its roots while leaving it standing, in such a way that the boy can be passed through the cleft. Then join the sapling together again and seal it with cow manure and other dressings, so that the parts that were split may intermingle within themselves more easily. The speed with which the sapling grows together and its scar forms will determine how quickly the swollen veins of the boy will return to health.[80] Marcellus also records which herbs[81] could be used to induce menstruation, or to purge the womb after childbirth or abortion; these herbs include potential abortifacients and may have been used as such.[82] Other sources advise remedies such as coating the penis with a mixture of honey and pepper to get an erection,[83] or boiling an ass's genitals in oil as an ointment.[84] Theories of sexuality[edit] Ancient theories of sexuality were produced by and for an educated elite. The extent to which theorizing about sex actually affected behavior is debatable, even among those who were attentive to the philosophical and medical writings that presented such views. This elite discourse, while often deliberately critical of common or typical behaviors, at the same time cannot be assumed to exclude values broadly held within the society. Epicurean sexuality[edit] "Nor does he who avoids love lack the fruit of Venus but rather chooses goods which are without a penalty; for certainly the pleasure from this is more pure for the healthy than for the wretched. For indeed, at the very moment of possession, the hot passion of lovers fluctuates with uncertain wanderings and they are undecided what to enjoy first with eyes and hands. They tightly press what they have sought and cause bodily pain, and often drive their teeth into little lips and give crushing kisses, because the pleasure is not pure and there are goads underneath which prod them to hurt that very thing, whatever it is, from which those [torments] of frenzy spring."[85] Lucretius, De rerum natura 4.1073–1085 The fourth book of Lucretius' De rerum natura provides one of the most extended passages on human sexuality in Latin literature. Yeats, describing the translation by Dryden, called it "the finest description of sexual intercourse ever written."[86] Lucretius was the contemporary of Catullus and Cicero in the mid-1st century BC. His didactic poem De rerum natura is a presentation of Epicurean philosophy within the Ennian tradition of Latin poetry. Epicureanism is both materialist and hedonic. The highest good is pleasure, defined as the absence of physical pain and emotional distress.[87] The Epicurean seeks to gratify his desires with the least expenditure of passion and effort. Desires are ranked as those that are both natural and necessary, such as hunger and thirst; those that are natural but unnecessary, such as sex; and those that are neither natural nor necessary, including the desire to rule over others and glorify oneself.[88] It is within this context that Lucretius presents his analysis of love and sexual desire, which counters the erotic ethos of Catullus and influenced the love poets of the Augustan period.[89] Lucretius treats male desire, female sexual pleasure, heredity, and infertility as aspects of sexual physiology. In the Epicurean view, sexuality arises from impersonal physical causes without divine or supernatural influence. The onset of physical maturity generates semen, and wet dreams occur as the sexual instinct develops.[90][91] Sense perception, specifically the sight of a beautiful body, provokes the movement of semen into the genitals and toward the object of desire. The engorgement of the genitals creates an urge to ejaculate, coupled with the anticipation of pleasure. The body's response to physical attractiveness is automatic, and neither the character of the person desired nor one's own choice is a factor. With a combination of scientific detachment and ironic humor, Lucretius treats the human sex drive as muta cupido, "dumb desire", comparing the physiological response of ejaculation to the blood spurting from a wound.[92] Love (amor) is merely an elaborate cultural posturing that obscures a glandular condition;[93] love taints sexual pleasure just as life is tainted by the fear of death.[94] Lucretius is writing primarily for a male audience, and assumes that love is a male passion, directed at either boys or women.[95][96] Male desire is viewed as pathological, frustrating, and violent.[97] Lucretius thus expresses an Epicurean ambivalence toward sexuality, which threatens one's peace of mind with agitation if desire becomes a form of bondage and torment,[98] but his view of female sexuality is less negative.[97] While men are driven by unnatural expectations to engage in onesided and desperate sex, women act on a purely animal instinct toward affection, which leads to mutual satisfaction.[99] The comparison with female animals in heat is meant not as an insult, though there are a few traces of conventional misogyny in the work, but to indicate that desire is natural and should not be experienced as torture.[99] Having analyzed the sex act, Lucretius then considers conception and what in modern terms would be called genetics. Both man and woman, he says, produce genital fluids that mingle in a successful procreative act. The characteristics of the child are formed by the relative proportions of the mother's "seed" to the father's. A child who most resembles its mother is born when the female seed dominates the male's, and vice versa; when neither the male nor female seed dominates, the child will have traits of both mother and father evenly.[100] Infertility occurs when the two partners fail to make a satisfactory match of their seed after several attempts; the explanation for infertility is physiological and rational, and has nothing to do with the gods.[101][98] The transfer of genital "seed" (semina) is consonant with Epicurean physics and the theme of the work as a whole: the invisible semina rerum, "seeds of things," continually dissolve and recombine in universal flux.[102] The vocabulary of biological procreation underlies Lucretius's presentation of how matter is formed from atoms.[103] Lucretius' purpose is to correct ignorance and to give the knowledge necessary for managing one's sex life rationally.[104] He distinguishes between pleasure and conception as goals of copulation; both are legitimate, but require different approaches.[104] He recommends casual sex as a way of releasing sexual tension without becoming obsessed with a single object of desire;[105][106] a "streetwalking Venus"—a common prostitute—should be used as a surrogate.[107] Sex without passionate attachment produces a superior form of pleasure free of uncertainty, frenzy, and mental disturbance.[108][109] Lucretius calls this form of sexual pleasure venus, in contrast to amor, passionate love.[110][111] The best sex is that of happy animals, or of gods.[112] Lucretius combines an Epicurean wariness of sex as a threat to peace of mind with the Roman cultural value placed on sexuality as an aspect of marriage and family life,[113] pictured as an Epicurean man in a tranquil and friendly marriage with a good but homely woman, beauty being a disquieting prompt to excessive desire.[114] Lucretius reacts against the Roman tendency to display sex ostentatiously, as in erotic art, and rejects the aggressive, "Priapic" model of sexuality spurred by visual stimulus.[115] Stoic sexual morality[edit] In early Stoicism among the Greeks, sex was regarded as a good, if enjoyed between people who maintained the principles of respect and friendship; in the ideal society, sex should be enjoyed freely, without bonds of marriage that treated the partner as property. Some Greek Stoics privileged same-sex relations between a man and a younger male partner[116][117] (see "Pederasty in ancient Greece"). However, stoics in the Roman Imperial era departed from the view of human beings as "communally sexual animals"[118] and emphasized sex within marriage,[116] which as an institution helped sustain social order.[119] Although they distrusted strong passions, including sexual desire,[120] sexual vitality was necessary for procreation. Roman-era Stoics such as Seneca and Musonius Rufus, both active about 100 years after Lucretius, emphasized "sex unity" over the polarity of the sexes.[121] Although Musonius is predominately a Stoic, his philosophy also partakes of Platonism and Pythagoreanism.[122] He rejected the Aristotelian tradition, which portrayed sexual dimorphism as expressing a proper relation of those ruling (male) and those being ruled (female), and distinguished men from women as biologically lacking. Dimorphism exists, according to Musonius, simply to create difference, and difference in turn creates the desire for a complementary relationship, that is, a couple who will bond for life for the sake of each other and for their children.[18] The Roman ideal of marriage was a partnership of companions who work together to produce and rear children, manage everyday affairs, lead exemplary lives, and enjoy affection; Musonius drew on this ideal to promote the Stoic view that the capacity for virtue and self-mastery was not gender-specific.[123] Marcus Aurelius wrote that sex "is the friction of a piece of gut and, following a sort of convulsion, the expulsion of some mucus" Both Musonius and Seneca criticized the double standard, cultural and legal, that granted Roman men greater sexual freedom than women.[18][124] Men, Musonius argues, are excused by society for resorting to prostitutes and slaves to satisfy their sexual appetites, while such behavior from a woman would not be tolerated; therefore, if men presume to exercise authority over women because they believe themselves to have greater self-control, they ought to be able to manage their sex drive. The argument, then, is not that sexual freedom is a human good, but that men as well as women should exercise sexual restraint.[18][125] A man visiting a prostitute does harm to himself by lacking self-discipline; disrespect for his wife and her expectations of fidelity would not be at issue.[126] Similarly, a man should not be so self-indulgent as to exploit a female slave sexually; however, her right not to be used is not a motive for his restraint.[127] Musonius maintained that even within marriage, sex should be undertaken as an expression of affection and for procreation, and not for "bare pleasure".[128] Musonius disapproved of same-sex relations because they lacked a procreative purpose.[18][129] Seneca and Epictetus also thought that procreation privileged male–female sexual pairing within marriage,[130] and Seneca strongly opposed adultery, finding it particularly offensive by women.[131] Although Seneca is known primarily as a Stoic philosopher, he draws on Neopythagoreanism for his views on sexual austerity.[132] Neopythagoreans characterized sexuality outside marriage as disordered and undesirable; celibacy was not an ideal, but chastity within marriage was.[133] To Seneca, sexual desire for pleasure (libido) is a "destructive force (exitium) insidiously fixed in the innards"; unregulated, it becomes cupiditas, lust. The only justification for sex is reproduction within marriage.[134] Although other Stoics see potential in beauty to be an ethical stimulus, a way to attract and develop affection and friendship within sexual relations, Seneca distrusts the love of physical beauty as destroying reason to the point of insanity.[135] A man should have no sexual partner other than his wife,[132] and the wise man (sapiens, Greek sophos) will make love to his wife by exercising good judgment (iudicium), not emotion (affectus).[136] This is a far stricter view than that of other Stoics who advocate sex as a means of promoting mutual affection within marriage.[136] Venus rising from the sea, a wall painting from Pompeii The philosophical view of the body as a corpse that carries around the soul[137] could result in outright contempt for sexuality: the emperor and Stoic philosopher Marcus Aurelius writes, "as for sexual intercourse, it is the friction of a piece of gut and, following a sort of convulsion, the expulsion of some mucus".[138] Seneca rails "at great length" against the perversity of one Hostius Quadra, who surrounded himself with the equivalent of funhouse mirrors so he could view sex parties from distorted angles and penises would look bigger.[139] Sexual severity opened the Roman Stoics to charges of hypocrisy: Juvenal satirizes those who affect a rough and manly Stoic façade but privately indulge.[140] It was routinely joked that not only were Stoics inclined toward pederasty, they liked young men who were acquiring beards, contrary to Roman sexual custom.[116] Martial repeatedly makes insinuations about those who were outwardly Stoic but privately enjoyed the passive homosexual role.[141] Stoic sexual ethics are grounded in their physics and cosmology.[142] The 5th-century writer Macrobius preserves a Stoic interpretation of the myth of the birth of Venus as a result of the primal castration of the deity Heaven (Latin Caelus).[n 4] The myth, Macrobius indicates, could be understood as an allegory of the doctrine of seminal reason. The elements derive from the semina, "seeds," that are generated by heaven; "love" brings together the elements in the act of creation, like the sexual union of male and female.[143] Cicero suggests that in Stoic allegory the severing of reproductive organs signifies, "...that the highest heavenly aether, that seed-fire which generates all things, did not require the equivalent of human genitals to proceed in its generative work".[144] Male sexuality[edit] Male–female couple on an oil lamp (Römisch-Germanisches Museum) During the Republic, a Roman citizen's political liberty (libertas) was defined in part by the right to preserve his body from physical compulsion, including both corporal punishment and sexual abuse.[145] Virtus, "valor" as that which made a man most fully a man (vir), was among the active virtues.[146][147][148] Roman ideals of masculinity were thus premised on taking an active role that was also, as Williams has noted, "the prime directive of masculine sexual behavior for Romans." The impetus toward action might express itself most intensely in an ideal of dominance that reflects the hierarchy of Roman patriarchal society.[149] The "conquest mentality" was part of a "cult of virility" that particularly shaped Roman homosexual practices.[150][19] In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, an emphasis on domination has led scholars to view expressions of Roman male sexuality in terms of a "penetrator-penetrated" binary model; that is, the proper way for a Roman male to seek sexual gratification was to insert his penis in his partner.[20] Allowing himself to be penetrated threatened his liberty as a free citizen as well as his sexual integrity.[151] It was expected and socially acceptable for a freeborn Roman man to want sex with both female and male partners, as long as he took the dominating role.[152] Acceptable objects of desire were women of any social or legal status, male prostitutes, or male slaves, but sexual behaviors outside marriage were to be confined to slaves and prostitutes, or less often a concubine or "kept woman." Lack of self-control, including in managing one's sex life, indicated that a man was incapable of governing others;[153] the enjoyment of "low sensual pleasure" threatened to erode the elite male's identity as a cultured person.[154] It was a point of pride for Gaius Gracchus to claim that during his term as a provincial governor he kept no slave-boys chosen for their good looks, no female prostitutes visited his house, and he never accosted other men's slave-boys.[155][156] In the Imperial era, anxieties about the loss of political liberty and the subordination of the citizen to the emperor were expressed by a perceived increase in passive homosexual behavior among free men, accompanied by a documentable increase in the execution and corporal punishment of citizens.[157] The dissolution of Republican ideals of physical integrity in relation to libertas contributes to and is reflected by the sexual license and decadence associated with the Empire.[158] Male nudity[edit] Roman Neo-Attic stele depicting a warrior in a muscle cuirass, idealizing the male form without nudity (1st century BC) The poet Ennius (ca. 239–169 BC) declared that "exposing naked bodies among citizens is the beginning of public disgrace (flagitium)," a sentiment echoed by Cicero that again links the self-containment of the body with citizenship.[159][160][161][162] Roman attitudes toward nudity differed from those of the Greeks, whose ideal of masculine excellence was expressed by the nude male body in art and in such real-life venues as athletic contests. The toga, by contrast, distinguished the body of the sexually privileged adult Roman male.[163] Even when stripping down for exercises, Roman men kept their genitals and buttocks covered, an Italic custom shared also with the Etruscans, whose art mostly shows them wearing a loincloth, a skirt-like garment, or the earliest form of "shorts" for athletics. Romans who competed in the Olympic Games presumably followed the Greek custom of nudity, but athletic nudity at Rome has been dated variously, possibly as early as the introduction of Greek-style games in the 2nd century BC but perhaps not regularly till the time of Nero around 60 AD.[164] Public nudity might be offensive or distasteful even in traditional settings; Cicero derides Mark Antony as undignified for appearing near-naked as a participant in the Lupercalia, even though it was ritually required.[165][166] Nudity is one of the themes of this religious festival that most consumes Ovid's attention in the Fasti, his long-form poem on the Roman calendar.[167] Augustus, during his program of religious revivalism, attempted to reform the Lupercalia, in part by suppressing the use of nudity despite its fertility aspect.[168] Negative connotations of nudity include defeat in war, since captives were stripped, and slavery, since slaves for sale were often displayed naked. The disapproval of nudity was thus less a matter of trying to suppress inappropriate sexual desire than of dignifying and marking the citizen's body.[169] The influence of Greek art, however, led to "heroic" nude portrayals of Roman men and gods, a practice that began in the 2nd century BC. When statues of Roman generals nude in the manner of Hellenistic kings first began to be displayed, they were shocking not simply because they exposed the male figure, but because they evoked concepts of royalty and divinity that were contrary to Republican ideals of citizenship as embodied by the toga.[170] The god Mars is presented as a mature, bearded man in the attire of a Roman general when he is conceived of as the dignified father of the Roman people, while depictions of Mars as youthful, beardless, and nude show the influence of the Greek Ares. In art produced under Augustus, the programmatic adoption of Hellenistic and Neo-Attic style led to more complex signification of the male body shown nude, partially nude, or costumed in a muscle cuirass.[171] One exception to public nudity was the baths, though attitudes toward nude bathing also changed over time. In the 2nd century BC, Cato preferred not to bathe in the presence of his son, and Plutarch implies that for Romans of these earlier times it was considered shameful for mature men to expose their bodies to younger males.[172][173][174] Later, however, men and women might even bathe together.[n 5] Phallic sexuality[edit] See also: Fascinum Polyphallic[n 6] bronze tintinnabulum; the tip of each phallus was outfitted with a ring to dangle a bell Roman sexuality as framed by Latin literature has been described as phallocentric.[175][176] The phallus was supposed to have powers to ward off the evil eye and other malevolent supernatural forces. It was used as an amulet (fascinum), many examples of which survive, particularly in the form of wind chimes (tintinnabula).[177] Some scholars have even interpreted the plan of the Forum Augustum as phallic, "with its two semi-circular galleries or exedrae as the testicles and its long projecting forecourt as the shaft".[178][179] The outsized phallus of Roman art was associated with the god Priapus, among others. It was laughter-provoking, grotesque, or used for magical purposes.[180] Originating in the Greek town of Lampsacus, Priapus was a fertility deity whose statue was placed in gardens to ward off thieves. The poetry collection called the Priapea deals with phallic sexuality, including poems spoken in the person of Priapus. In one, for instance, Priapus threatens anal rape against any potential thief. The wrath of Priapus might cause impotence, or a state of perpetual arousal with no means of release: one curse of Priapus upon a thief was that he might lack women or boys to relieve him of his erection, and burst.[149] There are approximately 120 recorded Latin terms and metaphors for the penis, with the largest category treating the male member as an instrument of aggression, a weapon.[181] This metaphorical tendency is exemplified by actual lead sling-bullets, which are sometimes inscribed with the image of a phallus, or messages that liken the target to a sexual conquest—for instance "I seek Octavian's asshole."[182] The most common obscenity for the penis is mentula, which Martial argues for in place of polite terms: his privileging of the word as time-honored Latin from the era of Numa may be compared to the unvarnished integrity of "four letter Anglo-Saxon words".[183][184] Cicero does not use the word even when discussing the nature of obscene language in a letter to his friend Atticus;[185][184] Catullus famously uses it as a pseudonym for the disreputable Mamurra, Julius Caesar's friend ("Dick" or "Peter" might be English equivalents).[186] Mentula appears frequently in graffiti and the Priapea,[187] but while obscene the word was not inherently abusive or vituperative. Verpa, by contrast, was "an emotive and highly offensive word" for the penis with its foreskin drawn back, as the result of an erection, excessive sexual activity, or circumcision.[188][189] Virga, as well as other words for "branch, rod, stake, beam", is a common metaphor,[190] as is vomer, "plough".[191] Priapus, wearing a Phrygian cap and weighing his phallus in a balance scale (House of the Vettii, Pompeii) The penis might also be referred to as the "vein" (vena), "tail" (penis or cauda), or "tendon" (nervus).[192] The English word "penis" derives from penis, which originally meant "tail" but in Classical Latin was used regularly as a "risqué colloquialism" for the male organ. Later, penis becomes the standard word in polite Latin, as used for example by the scholiast to Juvenal and by Arnobius, but did not pass into usage among the Romance languages.[193] It was not a term used by medical writers, except for Marcellus of Bordeaux.[194][195] In medieval Latin, a vogue for scholarly obscenity led to a perception of the dactyl, a metrical unit of verse represented — ‿ ‿, as an image of the penis, with the long syllable (longum) the shaft and the two short syllables (breves) the testicles.[196] The apparent connection between Latin testes, "testicles," and testis, plural testes, "witness" (the origin of English "testify" and "testimony")[197] may lie in archaic ritual. Some ancient Mediterranean cultures swore binding oaths upon the male genitalia, symbolizing that "the bearing of false witness brings a curse upon not only oneself, but one's house and future line".[198] Latin writers make frequent puns and jokes based on the two meanings of testis:[199] it took balls to become a legally functioning male citizen.[200] The English word "testicle" derives from the diminutive testiculum.[199] The obscene word for "testicle" was coleus.[201] Castration and circumcision[edit] See also: Circumcision controversies § Classical civilization, History of male circumcision, and Religious male circumcision To Romans and Greeks, castration and circumcision were linked as barbaric mutilations of the male genitalia.[189][202][203][204][205][206][207] When the cult of Cybele was imported to Rome at the end of the 3rd century BC, its traditional eunuchism was confined to foreign priests (the Galli), while Roman citizens formed sodalities to perform honors in keeping with their own customs.[208] It has been argued that among the reasons for the Apostle Paul's exhortation of the Galatians not to undergo circumcision,[209][210][211] the practice at the time should be understood not only in the context of Jewish circumcision, but also of the ritual castration associated with Cybele, whose cult was centered in Galatia.[212][213][214] Among Jews, circumcision was a marker of the Abrahamic covenant; diaspora Jews circumcised their male slaves and adult male converts, in addition to Jewish male infants.[215] Although Greco-Roman writers view circumcision as an identifying characteristic of Jews, they believed the practice to have originated in Egypt,[189][216] and recorded it among peoples they identified as Arab, Syrian, Phoenician, Colchian, and Ethiopian.[217][218] The Neoplatonic philosopher Sallustius associates circumcision with the strange familial–sexual customs of the Massagetae who "eat their fathers" and of the Persians who "preserve their nobility by begetting children on their mothers".[219] During the Republican period, a Lex Cornelia prohibited various kinds of mutilation, including castration. (Two millennia later, in 1640, the poet Salvatore Rosa would write in La Musica, “Fine Cornelia law, where hast thou gone / Now that the whole of Norcia seems not enough / For the castration of boys?”)[220] Despite these prohibitions, some Romans kept beautiful male slaves as deliciae or delicati ("toys, delights") who were sometimes castrated in an effort to preserve the androgynous looks of their youth. The emperor Nero had his freedman Sporus castrated, and married him in a public ceremony.[221] By the end of the 1st century AD, bans against castration had been enacted by the emperors Domitian and Nerva in the face of a burgeoning trade in eunuch slaves. Sometime between 128 and 132 AD, Hadrian seems to have temporarily banned circumcision, on pain of death.[222] Antoninus Pius exempted Jews from the ban,[223][224] as well as Egyptian priests,[225] and Origen says that in his time only Jews were permitted to practice circumcision.[226][227] Legislation under Constantine, the first Christian emperor, freed any slave who was subjected to circumcision; in 339 AD, circumcising a slave became punishable by death.[228] A medical procedure known as epispasm, which consisted of both surgical and non-surgical methods,[189][202][229] existed in ancient Rome and Greece to restore the foreskin and cover the glans "for the sake of decorum".[164][189][202][203][230] Both were described in detail by the Greek physician Aulus Cornelius Celsus in his comprehensive encyclopedic work De Medicina, written during the reign of Tiberius (14-37 CE).[202][229] The surgical method involved freeing the skin covering the penis by dissection, and then pulling it forward over the glans; he also described a simpler surgical technique used on men whose prepuce is naturally insufficient to cover their glans.[202][203][229] The second approach was non-surgical: a restoration device which consisted of a special weight made of bronze, copper, or leather, was affixed to the penis, pulling its skin downward.[202][229] Overtime a new foreskin was generated, or a short prepuce was lengthened, by means of tissue expansion;[202][229] Martial also mentioned the restoration device in Epigrammaton (Book 7:35).[229] Hellenized or Romanized Jews resorted to epispasm to better integrate into the Greco-Roman society, and also to make themselves less conspicuous at the baths or during athletics.[189][202][204] Of these, some had themselves circumcised again later.[231] Regulating semen[edit] Too-frequent ejaculation was thought to weaken men. Greek medical theories based on the classical elements and humors recommended limiting the production of semen by means of cooling, drying, and astringent therapies, including cold baths and the avoidance of flatulence-causing foods.[232] In the 2nd century AD, the medical writer Galen explains semen as a concoction of blood (conceived of as a humor) and pneuma (the "vital air" required by organs to function) formed within the man's coiled spermatic vessels, with the humor turning white through heat as it enters into the testicles.[233] In his treatise On Semen, Galen warns that immoderate sexual activity results in a loss of pneuma and hence vitality: It is not at all surprising that those who are less moderate sexually turn out to be weaker, since the whole body loses the purest part of both substances, and there is besides an accession of pleasure, which by itself is enough to dissolve the vital tone, so that before now some persons have died from excess of pleasure.[234] The uncontrolled dispersing of pneuma in semen could lead to loss of physical vigor, mental acuity, masculinity, and a strong manly voice,[235] a complaint registered also in the Priapea.[236] Sexual activity was thought particularly to affect the voice: singers and actors might be infibulated to preserve their voices.[237][238][239] Quintilian advises that the orator who wished to cultivate a deep masculine voice for court should abstain from sexual relations.[240] This concern was felt intensely by Catullus's friend Calvus, the 1st-century BC avant-garde poet and orator, who slept with lead plates over his kidneys to control wet dreams. Pliny reports that: When plates of lead are bound to the area of the loins and kidneys, it is used, owing to its rather cooling nature, to check the attacks of sexual desire and sexual dreams in one's sleep that cause spontaneous eruptions to the point of becoming a sort of disease. With these plates the orator Calvus is reported to have restrained himself and to have preserved his body's strength for the labor of his studies.[241] Lead plates, cupping therapy, and hair removal were prescribed for three sexual disorders thought to be related to nocturnal emissions: satyriasis, or hypersexuality; priapism, a chronic erection without an accompanying desire for sex; and the involuntary discharge of semen (seminis lapsus or seminis effusio).[242] Effeminacy and transvestism[edit] Hercules and Omphale cross-dressed (mosaic from Roman Spain, 3rd century AD) Effeminacy was a favorite accusation in Roman political invective, and was aimed particularly at populares, the politicians of the faction who represented themselves as champions of the people, sometimes called Rome's "democratic" party in contrast to the optimates, a conservative elite of nobles.[243] In the last years of the Republic, the popularists Julius Caesar, Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony), and Clodius Pulcher, as well as the Catilinarian conspirators, were all derided as effeminate, overly-groomed, too-good-looking men who might be on the receiving end of sex from other males; at the same time, they were supposed to be womanizers or possessed of devastating sex appeal.[244] Perhaps the most notorious incident of cross-dressing in ancient Rome occurred in 62 BC, when Clodius Pulcher intruded on annual rites of the Bona Dea that were restricted to women only. The rites were held at a senior magistrate's home, in this year that of Julius Caesar, nearing the end of his term as praetor and only recently invested as Pontifex Maximus. Clodius disguised himself as a female musician to gain entrance, as described in a "verbal striptease" by Cicero, who prosecuted him for sacrilege (incestum):[245] Take away his saffron dress, his tiara, his girly shoes and purple laces, his bra, his Greek harp, take away his shameless behavior and his sex crime, and Clodius is suddenly revealed as a democrat.[246] The actions of Clodius, who had just been elected quaestor and was probably about to turn thirty, are often regarded as a last juvenile prank. The all-female nature of these nocturnal rites attracted much prurient speculation from men; they were fantasized as drunken lesbian orgies that might be fun to watch.[247] Clodius is supposed to have intended to seduce Caesar's wife, but his masculine voice gave him away before he got a chance. The scandal prompted Caesar to seek an immediate divorce to control the damage to his own reputation, giving rise to the famous line "Caesar's wife must be above suspicion". The incident "summed up the disorder of the final years of the republic".[248][249] In addition to political invective, cross-dressing appears in Roman literature and art as a mythological trope (as in the story of Hercules and Omphale exchanging roles and attire),[250] religious investiture, and rarely or ambiguously as transvestic fetishism. A section of the Digest by Ulpian[251] categorizes Roman clothing on the basis of who may appropriately wear it; a man who wore women's clothes, Ulpian notes, would risk making himself the object of scorn. A fragment from the playwright Accius (170–86 BC) seems to refer to a father who secretly wore "virgin's finery".[252] An instance of transvestism is noted in a legal case, in which "a certain senator accustomed to wear women's evening clothes" was disposing of the garments in his will.[253] In a "mock trial" exercise presented by the elder Seneca, a young man (adulescens) is gang-raped while wearing women's clothes in public, but his attire is explained as his acting on a dare by his friends, not as a choice based on gender identity or the pursuit of erotic pleasure.[254][255] Gender ambiguity was a characteristic of the priests of the goddess Cybele known as Galli, whose ritual attire included items of women's clothing. They are sometimes considered a transgender priesthood, since they were required to be castrated in imitation of Attis. The complexities of gender identity in the religion of Cybele and the Attis myth are explored by Catullus in one of his longest poems, Carmen 63.[256] Male–male sex[edit] Main article: Homosexuality in ancient Rome Roman men were free to have sex with males of lower status without a perceived loss of masculinity, or even as an enhancement of it. However, those who took the receiving role in sex acts, sometimes referred to as the "passive" or "submissive" role, were disparaged as weak and effeminate, regardless of the sex of their partner (see the section below on cunnilungus and fellatio),[257] while having sex with males in the active position was proof of one's masculinity.[257] Mastery of one's own body was an aspect of the citizen's libertas, political liberty,[258] while the use of one's body to give pleasure to others, whether in homosexual or heterosexual relations, was servile. Laws such as the poorly understood Lex Scantinia and various pieces of Augustan moral legislation were meant to restrict same-sex activity among freeborn males, viewed as threatening a man's status and independence as a citizen. Latin had such a wealth of words for men outside the masculine norm that some scholars[259] argue for the existence of a homosexual subculture at Rome; that is, although the noun "homosexual" has no straightforward equivalent in Latin, literary sources reveal a pattern of behaviors among a minority of free men that indicate same-sex preference or orientation. Some terms, such as exoletus, specifically refer to an adult; Romans who were socially marked as "masculine" did not confine their same-sex penetration of male prostitutes or slaves to those who were "boys" under the age of 20.[260] The Satyricon, for example, includes many descriptions of adult, free men showing sexual interest in one another. And some older men may have at times preferred the passive role with a same age or younger partner, though this was socially frowned upon. Homoerotic Latin literature includes the "Juventius" poems of Catullus,[261] elegies by Tibullus[262] and Propertius,[263] the second Eclogue of Vergil, and several poems by Horace. Lucretius addresses the love of boys in De rerum natura (4.1052–1056). The poet Martial, despite being married to a woman, often derides women as sexual partners, and celebrates the charms of pueri (boys).[264] The Satyricon of Petronius is so permeated with the culture of male–male sexuality that in 18th-century European literary circles, his name became "a byword for homosexuality".[265] Although Ovid includes mythological treatments of homoeroticism in the Metamorphoses,[266] he is unusual among Latin love poets, and indeed among Romans in general, for his aggressively heterosexual stance, though even he did not claim exclusive heterosexuality.[257] Although Roman law did not recognize marriage between men, in the early Imperial period some male couples were celebrating traditional marriage rites. Same-sex weddings are reported by sources that mock them; the feelings of the participants are not recorded.[267][268] Apart from measures to protect the liberty of citizens, the prosecution of homosexuality as a general crime began in the 3rd century when male prostitution was banned by Philip the Arab, a sympathizer of the Christian faith. By the end of the 4th century, passive homosexuality under the Christian Empire was punishable by burning.[269] "Death by sword" was the punishment for a "man coupling like a woman" under the Theodosian Code.[270] Under Justinian, all same-sex acts, passive or active, no matter who the partners, were declared contrary to nature and punishable by death.[271] Homosexual behaviors were pointed to as causes for God's wrath following a series of disasters around 542 and 559.[272] Justinian also demanded the penalty of death for anyone who enslaved a castrated Roman, although he permitted the buying and selling of foreign-born eunuchs as long as they were castrated outside the boundaries of the Roman Empire (Codex Justinianus, 4.42.2).[273] The rape of men[edit] Men who had been raped were exempt from the loss of legal or social standing (infamia) suffered by males who prostituted themselves or willingly took the receiving role in sex.[274] According to the jurist Pomponius, "whatever man has been raped by the force of robbers or the enemy in wartime (vi praedonum vel hostium)" ought to bear no stigma.[275] Fears of mass rape following a military defeat extended equally to male and female potential victims.[276] The mythological abduction or "rape" of Hylas by the nymphs (opus sectile, basilica of Junius Bassus, 4th century AD) Roman law addressed the rape of a male citizen as early as the 2nd century BC, when a ruling was issued in a case that may have involved a male of same-sex orientation. Although a man who had worked as a prostitute could not be raped as a matter of law, it was ruled that even a man who was "disreputable (famosus) and questionable (suspiciosus)" had the same right as other free men not to have his body subjected to forced sex.[277] In a book on rhetoric from the early 1st century BC, the rape of a freeborn male (ingenuus) is equated with that of a materfamilias as a capital crime.[278][279] The Lex Julia de vi publica,[280] recorded in the early 3rd century AD but "probably dating from the dictatorship of Julius Caesar", defined rape as forced sex against "boy, woman, or anyone"; the rapist was subject to execution, a rare penalty in Roman law.[281] It was a capital crime for a man to abduct a free-born boy for sexual purposes, or to bribe the boy's chaperon (comes) for the opportunity.[282] Negligent chaperones could be prosecuted under various laws, placing the blame on those who failed in their responsibilities as guardians rather than on the victim.[283] Although the law recognized the victim's blamelessness, rhetoric used by the defense indicates that attitudes of blame among jurors could be exploited.[255] In his collection of twelve anecdotes dealing with assaults on chastity, the historian Valerius Maximus features male victims in equal number to female.[284][255] In the "mock trial" case described by the elder Seneca, an adulescens (a man young enough not to have begun his formal career) was gang-raped by ten of his peers; although the case is imaginary, Seneca assumes that the law permitted the successful prosecution of the rapists.[254] Another hypothetical case imagines the extremity to which a rape victim could be driven: the free-born male who was raped commits suicide.[285][286] The rape of an ingenuus is among the worst crimes that could be committed in Rome, along with parricide, the rape of a female virgin, and robbing a temple.[287] Rape was nevertheless one of the traditional punishments inflicted on a male adulterer by the wronged husband,[288] though perhaps more in revenge fantasy than in practice.[289] The threat of one man to subject another to anal or oral rape (irrumatio) is a theme of invective poetry, most notably in Catullus's notorious Carmen 16,[290] and was a form of masculine braggadocio.[291][292][293] Sex in the military[edit] The Roman soldier, like any free and respectable Roman male of status, was expected to show self-discipline in matters of sex. Soldiers convicted of adultery were given a dishonorable discharge; convicted adulterers were barred from enlisting. Strict commanders might ban prostitutes and pimps from camp,[294] though in general the Roman army, whether on the march or at a permanent fort (castrum), was attended by a number of camp followers who might include prostitutes. Their presence seems to have been taken for granted, and mentioned mainly when it became a problem;[294] for instance, when Scipio Aemilianus was setting out for Numantia in 133 BC, he dismissed the camp followers as one of his measures for restoring discipline.[295] Perhaps most peculiar is the prohibition against marriage in the Imperial army. In the early period, Rome had an army of citizens who left their families and took up arms as the need arose. During the expansionism of the Middle Republic, Rome began acquiring vast territories to be defended as provinces, and during the time of Gaius Marius (d. 86 BC), the army had been professionalized. The ban on marriage began under Augustus (ruled 27 BC–14 AD), perhaps to discourage families from following the army and impairing its mobility. The marriage ban applied to all ranks up to the centurionate; men of the governing classes were exempt. By the 2nd century AD, the stability of the Empire kept most units in permanent forts, where attachments with local women often developed. Although legally these unions could not be formalized as marriages, their value in providing emotional support for the soldiers was recognized. After a soldier was discharged, the couple were granted the right of legal marriage as citizens (conubium), and any children they already had were considered to have been born to citizens.[296] Septimius Severus rescinded the ban in 197 AD.[297] Other forms of sexual gratification available to soldiers were the use of male slaves, war rape, and same-sex relations.[298] Homosexual behavior among soldiers was subject to harsh penalties, including death,[294] as a violation of military discipline. Polybius (2nd century BC) reports that same-sex activity in the military was punishable by the fustuarium, clubbing to death.[299] Sex among fellow soldiers violated the Roman decorum against intercourse with another freeborn male. A soldier maintained his masculinity by not allowing his body to be used for sexual purposes. This physical integrity stood in contrast to the limits placed on his actions as a free man within the military hierarchy; most strikingly, Roman soldiers were the only citizens regularly subjected to corporal punishment, reserved in the civilian world mainly for slaves. Sexual integrity helped distinguish the status of the soldier, who otherwise sacrificed a great deal of his civilian autonomy, from that of the slave.[300] In warfare, rape signified defeat, another motive for the soldier not to compromise his body sexually.[301] Reverse side of a denarius issued by Julius Caesar, depicting a military trophy with a nude captured Gaul and a female personification of defeated Gallia; Venus is pictured on the obverse An incident related by Plutarch in his biography of Marius illustrates the soldier's right to maintain his sexual integrity. A good-looking young recruit named Trebonius[302] had been sexually harassed over a period of time by his superior officer, who happened to be Marius's nephew, Gaius Luscius. One night, having fended off unwanted advances on numerous occasions, Trebonius was summoned to Luscius's tent. Unable to disobey the command of his superior, he found himself the object of a sexual assault and drew his sword, killing Luscius. A conviction for killing an officer typically resulted in execution. When brought to trial, he was able to produce witnesses to show that he had repeatedly had to fend off Luscius, and "had never prostituted his body to anyone, despite offers of expensive gifts". Marius not only acquitted Trebonius in the killing of his kinsman, but gave him a crown for bravery.[303][304][305][306] Roman historians record other cautionary tales of officers who abuse their authority to coerce sex from their soldiers, and then suffer dire consequences.[307] The youngest officers, who still might retain some of the adolescent attraction that Romans favored in male–male relations, were advised to beef up their masculine qualities, such as not wearing perfume, nor trimming nostril and underarm hair.[308] During wartime, the violent use of war captives for sex was not considered criminal rape.[309] Mass rape was one of the acts of punitive violence during the sack of a city,[310] but if the siege had ended through diplomatic negotiations rather than storming the walls, by custom the inhabitants were neither enslaved nor subjected to personal violence. Mass rape occurred in some circumstances, and is likely to be underreported in the surviving sources, but was not a deliberate or pervasive strategy for controlling a population.[311] An ethical ideal of sexual self-control among enlisted men was vital to preserving peace once hostilities ceased. In territories and provinces brought under treaty with Rome, soldiers who committed rape against the local people might be subjected to harsher punishments than civilians.[312] Sertorius, the long-time governor of Roman Spain whose policies emphasized respect and cooperation with provincials, executed an entire cohort when a single soldier had attempted to rape a local woman.[313][314] Mass rape seems to have been more common as a punitive measure during Roman civil wars than abroad.[315] Female sexuality[edit] See also: Women in ancient Rome Because of the Roman emphasis on family, female sexuality was regarded as one of the bases for social order and prosperity. Female citizens were expected to exercise their sexuality within marriage, and were honored for their sexual integrity (pudicitia) and fecundity: Augustus granted special honors and privileges to women who had given birth to three children (see "Ius trium liberorum"). Control of female sexuality was regarded as necessary for the stability of the state, as embodied most conspicuously in the absolute virginity of the Vestals.[316] A Vestal who violated her vow was entombed alive in a ritual that mimicked some aspects of a Roman funeral; her lover was executed.[317] Female sexuality, either disorderly or exemplary, often impacts state religion in times of crisis for the Republic.[318] The moral legislation of Augustus focused on harnessing the sexuality of women. As was the case for men, free women who displayed themselves sexually, such as prostitutes and performers, or who made themselves available indiscriminately were excluded from legal protections and social respectability.[319] Many Roman literary sources approve of respectable women exercising sexual passion within marriage.[320] While ancient literature overwhelmingly takes a male-centered view of sexuality, the Augustan poet Ovid expresses an explicit and virtually unique interest in how women experience intercourse.[321] The female body[edit] Divine semi-nudity on the Augustan Altar of Peace, combining Roman symbolism with a Greek stylistic influence Roman attitudes toward female nudity differed from but were influenced by those of the Greeks, who idealized the male body in the nude while portraying respectable women clothed. Partial nudity of goddesses in Roman Imperial art, however, can highlight the breasts as dignified but pleasurable images of nurturing, abundance, and peacefulness.[322][166] Erotic art indicates that women with small breasts and wide hips had the ideal body type.[323][324] By the 1st century AD, Roman art shows a broad interest in the female nude engaged in varied activities, including sex.[325] Pornographic art that depicts women presumed to be prostitutes performing sex acts may show the breasts covered by a strophium even when the rest of the body is naked. In the real world as described in literature, prostitutes sometimes displayed themselves naked at the entrance to their brothel cubicles, or wore see-through silk garments; slaves for sale were often displayed naked to allow buyers to inspect them for defects, and to symbolize that they lacked the right to control their own body.[326][327] As Seneca the Elder described a woman for sale: Naked she stood on the shore, at the pleasure of the purchaser; every part of her body was examined and felt. Would you hear the result of the sale? The pirate sold; the pimp bought, that he might employ her as a prostitute.[328] The display of the female body made it vulnerable. Varro said sight was the greatest of the senses, because while the others were limited by proximity, sight could penetrate even to the stars; he thought the Latin word for "sight, gaze", visus, was etymologically related to vis, "force, power". But the connection between visus and vis, he said, also implied the potential for violation, just as Actaeon gazing on the naked Diana violated the goddess.[329][330] The completely nude female body as portrayed in sculpture was thought to embody a universal concept of Venus, whose counterpart Aphrodite is the goddess most often depicted as a nude in Greek art.[331][332] Female genitalia formed from strigils on a mosaic Female genitals[edit] The "basic obscenity" for the female genitalia is cunnus, "cunt", though perhaps not as strongly offensive as the English.[333] Martial uses the word more than thirty times, Catullus once, and Horace thrice only in his early work; it also appears in the Priapea and graffiti.[334] One of the slang words women used for their genitals was porcus, "pig", particularly when mature women spoke of girls. Varro connects this usage of the word to the sacrifice of a pig to the goddess Ceres in preliminary wedding rites.[335] Metaphors of fields, gardens, and meadows are common, as is the image of the masculine "plough" in the feminine "furrow".[336] Other metaphors include cave, ditch, pit, bag, vessel, door, hearth, oven, and altar.[337] Although women's genitals appear often in invective and satiric verse as objects of disgust, they are rarely referred to in Latin love elegy.[338] Ovid, the most heterosexual of the classic love poets, is the only one to refer to giving a woman pleasure through genital stimulation.[339] Martial writes of female genitalia only insultingly, describing one woman's vagina as "loose ... as the foul gullet of a pelican".[340][341] The vagina is often compared to a boy's anus as a receptacle for the phallus.[342][343] The function of the clitoris (landica) was "well understood".[344] In classical Latin, landica was a highly indecorous obscenity found in graffiti and the Priapea; the clitoris was usually referred to with a metaphor, such as Juvenal's crista ("crest").[345][346] Cicero records that a hapless speaker of consular rank broke up the senate just by saying something that sounded like landica: hanc culpam maiorem an il-lam dicam? ("Shall I call this fault greater or that one?" heard as "this greater fault or a clitoris?"). "Could he have been more obscene?" Cicero exclaims, observing at the same time that cum nos, "when we", sounds like cunnus.[347][348][349] A lead sling-bullet uncovered through archaeology was inscribed "I aim for Fulvia's clit" (Fulviae landicam peto), Fulvia being the wife of Mark Antony who commanded troops during the civil wars of the 40s and 30s.[350] Latin lacked a standard word for labia;[351] two terms found in medical writers are orae, "edges" or "shores",[352] and pinnacula, "little wings".[351] The first recorded instance of the word vulva occurs in Varro's work on agriculture (1st century BC), where it refers to the membrane that surrounds a fetus.[353][354] In the early Empire, vulva came into usage for "womb", the usual word for which had been uterus in the Republic, or sometimes more vaguely venter or alvus, both words for "belly". Vulva seems originally to have referred to the womb of animals, but is "extremely common" in Pliny's Natural History for a human uterus.[355] In the Imperial era, vulva can mean "female reproductive organs" collectively or vaguely, or sometimes refers to the vagina alone.[356] Early Latin Bible translators used vulva as the correct and proper word for the womb.[357] At some point during the Imperial era, matrix became the common word for "uterus", particularly in the gynecological writers of late antiquity, who also employ a specialized vocabulary for parts of the reproductive organs.[358] Both women and men often removed their pubic hair,[359] but grooming may have varied over time and by individual preference. A fragment from the early satirist Lucilius refers to penetrating a "hairy bag",[360] and a graffito from Pompeii declares that "a hairy cunt is fucked much better than one which is smooth; it's steamy and wants cock".[361] At the entrance to a caldarium in the bath complex of the House of Menander at Pompeii, an unusual graphic device appears on a mosaic: a phallic oil can is surrounded by strigils in the shape of female genitalia, juxtaposed with an "Ethiopian" water-bearer who has an "unusually large and comically detailed" penis.[362] Breasts[edit] Pompeiian wall painting (Secret Museum, Naples) Latin words for "breasts" include mammae (cf. English "mammary"), papillae (more specifically for "nipples"), and ubera, breasts in their capacity to provide nourishment, including the teats or udder of an animal.[n 7] Papillae is the preferred word when Catullus and the Augustan poets take note of breasts in an erotic context.[363] The breasts of a beautiful woman were supposed to be "unobtrusive." Idealized breasts in the tradition of Hellenistic poetry were compared to apples;[364][365] Martial makes fun of large breasts.[366][367][368] Old women who were stereotypically ugly and undesirable in every way had "pendulous" breasts.[369] On the Roman stage, exaggerated breasts were part of the costuming for comically unattractive female characters, since in classic Roman comedy women's roles were played by male actors in drag.[370] While Greek epigrams describe ideal breasts,[371] Latin poets take limited interest in them, at least as compared to the modern focus on admiring and fondling a woman's breasts.[372] They are observed mainly as aspects of a woman's beauty or perfection of form, though Ovid finds them inviting to touch.[373] In one poem celebrating a wedding, Catullus remarks on the bride's "tender nipples" (teneris ... papillis), which would keep a good husband sleeping with her; erotic appeal supports fidelity within marriage and leads to children and a long life together.[374] A mastos, a breast-shaped drinking cup Because all infants were breastfed in antiquity, the breast was viewed primarily as an emblem of nurturing and of motherhood.[375] Mastoi, breast-shaped drinking cups, and representations of breasts are among the votive offerings (vota) found at sanctuaries of deities such as Diana and Hercules, sometimes having been dedicated by wet nurses.[376][377] The breast-shaped cup may have a religious significance; the drinking of breast milk by an adult who is elderly or about to die symbolized potential rebirth in the afterlife.[378][379][380] In the Etruscan tradition, the goddess Juno (Uni) offers her breast to Hercules as a sign that he may enter the ranks of the immortals.[381][382] The religious meaning may underlie the story of how Pero offered breast milk to her elderly father when he was imprisoned and sentenced to death by starvation (see Roman Charity).[383] The scene is among the moral paintings in a Pompeiian bedroom that belonged to a child, along with the legend "in sadness is the meeting of modesty and piety".[384] Pliny records medicinal uses of breast milk, and ranks it as one of the most useful remedies, especially for ailments of the eyes and ears. Wrapping one's head in a bra was said to cure a headache.[385][386] Pero offering her breast milk to her aged father in an act of "Roman Charity" Baring the breasts is one of the gestures made by women, particularly mothers or nurses, to express mourning or as an appeal for mercy.[387] The baring and beating of breasts ritually in grief was interpreted by Servius as producing milk to feed the dead.[388] In Greek and Latin literature, mythological mothers sometimes expose their breasts in moments of extreme emotional duress to demand that their nurturing role be respected.[389] Breasts exposed with such intensity held apotropaic power.[390][166] Julius Caesar indicates that the gesture had a similar significance in Celtic culture: during the siege of Avaricum, the female heads of household (matres familiae) expose their breasts and extend their hands to ask that the women and children be spared.[391] Tacitus notes Germanic women who exhorted their reluctant men to valorous battle by aggressively baring their breasts.[392] Although in general "the gesture is meant to arouse pity rather than sexual desire", the beauty of the breasts so exposed is sometimes in evidence and remarked upon.[393] Because women were normally portrayed clothed in art, bared breasts can signify vulnerability or erotic availability by choice, accident, or force. Baring a single breast was a visual motif of Classical Greek sculpture, where among other situations, including seductions,[394] it often represented impending physical violence or rape.[395] Some scholars have attempted to find a "code" in which exposing the right breast had an erotic significance, while the left breast signified nurturing.[396] Although art produced by the Romans may imitate or directly draw on Greek conventions, during the Classical period of Greek art images of women nursing were treated as animalistic or barbaric; by contrast, the coexisting Italic tradition emphasized the breast as a focus of the mother–child relationship and as a source of female power.[397] The erogenous power of the breast was not utterly neglected: in comparing sex with a woman to sex with a boy, a Greek novel of the Roman Imperial era notes that "her breast when it is caressed provides its own particular pleasure".[398] Propertius connects breast development with girls reaching an age to "play".[399][400] Tibullus observes that a woman just might wear loose clothing so that her breasts "flash" when she reclines at dinner.[401] An astrological tradition held that mammary intercourse was enjoyed by men born under the conjunction of Venus, Mercury, and Saturn.[402] Even in the most sexually explicit Roman paintings, however, the breasts are sometimes kept covered by the strophium (breast band).[403][404] The women so depicted may be prostitutes, but it can be difficult to discern why an artist decides in a given scenario to portray the breasts covered or exposed.[405] Female–female sex[edit] See also: History of lesbianism, Tribadism, and Homosexuality in ancient Rome Female couple from a series of erotic paintings at the Suburban Baths, Pompeii Greek words for a woman who prefers sex with another woman include hetairistria (compare hetaira, "courtesan" or "companion"), tribas (plural tribades), and Lesbia; Latin words include the loanword tribas, fricatrix ("she who rubs"), and virago.[406] References to sex between women are infrequent in the Roman literature of the Republic and early Principate. Ovid, who advocates generally for a heterosexual lifestyle, finds it "a desire known to no one, freakish, novel ... among all animals no female is seized by desire for female".[407] During the Roman Imperial era, which many Roman writers perceived as more decadent than the Republican period, sources for same-sex relations among women are more abundant, in the form of love spells, medical writing, texts on astrology and the interpretation of dreams, and other sources.[408] A graffito from Pompeii expresses the desire of one woman for another: I wish I could hold to my neck and embrace the little arms, and bear kisses on the tender lips. Go on, doll, and trust your joys to the winds; believe me, light is the nature of men.[409] An early reference to same-sex relations among women as "lesbianism" is found in Lucian (2nd century AD): "They say there are women like that in Lesbos, masculine-looking, but they don't want to give it up for men. Instead, they consort with women, just like men."[410] Since Romans thought a sex act required an active or dominant partner who was "phallic" (see "Phallic sexuality" above), male writers imagined that in lesbian sex one of the women would use a dildo or have an exceptionally large clitoris for penetration, and that she would be the one experiencing pleasure.[411] Martial describes lesbians as having outsized sexual appetites and performing penetrative sex on both women and boys.[412] Imperial portrayals of women who sodomize boys, drink and eat like men, and engage in vigorous physical regimens, may reflect cultural anxieties about the growing independence of Roman women.[413] Rape[edit] Botticelli's Death of Lucretia (c. 1500): in Roman legend, Lucretia's rape and suicide brought about the overthrow of the monarchy and the formation of the Roman Republic The mythology of rape[edit] The rape of women is a pervasive theme in the myths and legends of early Rome. The legendary founders Romulus and Remus were born from the rape of the Vestal Rhea Silvia by the god Mars.[414] Romulus and his "band of freebooters" can transform their all-male settlement into a city only by the "rape" of the Sabine women, that is, by forcibly abducting the daughters of their Sabine neighbors to take as wives. The overthrow of the Roman monarchy and the establishment of the Republic was precipitated by the rape of the much-admired Lucretia by Sextus Tarquinius, the king's son. The legend crystallizes the Roman view of unchecked libido as a form of tyranny.[415] The Augustan historian Livy seems "embarrassed" by the rape motif of early Roman history, and emphasizes the redeeming political dimension of these events.[416] Lucretius condemns rape as a primitive behavior outside the bounds of an advanced civilization,[417] describing it as "a man's use of violent force and imposition of sexual impulse".[418] Rape and the law[edit] Roman law recognized rape as a crime: the rape victim was not guilty of anything.[419] Intercourse by force or compulsion (vis), even if it took place under circumstances that were otherwise unlawful for a woman (see "Moral and legal concepts" above), left the woman legally without blame.[420][421] The official position under Diocletian (reigned 284–305 AD) held that:[422] The laws punish the foul wickedness of those who prostitute their modesty to the lusts of others, but they do not attach blame to those who are compelled to stuprum by force, since it has, moreover, been quite properly decided that their reputations are unharmed and that they are not prohibited from marriage to others.[423] Although literary sources from the Republican era make it clear that rape was wrong and severely penalized, the statutes under which it might be charged as a crime are unknown until passage of the Lex Iulia de vi publica, dating probably to the dictatorship of Julius Caesar in the 40s BC.[424] Rome had no state prosecutors; cases could be prosecuted by any citizen with the legal expertise and speaking ability to do so. Since emancipated women were allowed to bring criminal prosecutions in the Republic,[425] it is conceivable that a rape victim could have brought charges against her rapist herself. Otherwise, the case could be prosecuted by her father or husband, or by anyone who saw fit to do so. There was no statute of limitations for rape; by contrast adultery, which was criminalized under Augustus, had to be prosecuted within five years.[424] Rape was a capital crime.[424] As a matter of law, rape could be committed only against a citizen in good standing. A woman who worked as a prostitute or entertainer lost her social standing and became infamis; by making her body publicly available, she had in effect surrendered her right to be protected from sexual abuse or physical violence.[426][427] Cicero defended a client whose misdeeds included the gang rape of an actress on the grounds that young men took customary license with entertainers.[428][429][430] The rape of a slave could be prosecuted only as damage to her owner's property, under the Lex Aquilia.[431][426] Consent would have been an issue in rape cases only rarely; if the accused argued that the woman had consented, he could still be charged with committing the more general sex crime of stuprum against a citizen, since male sexual freedom was limited to prostitutes or slaves. If rape against a married woman could not be proven, the Augustan legislation criminalizing adultery would make the man liable to a charge of adulterium, criminal adultery, though a charge of either adultery or stuprum without force would implicate the woman as well.[432] An acquittal for rape, as with any other crime, would open the prosecutor to a retaliatory charge of calumnia, malicious prosecution.[433] The prosecution of rape might also be hindered by psychological and social pressures, such as embarrassment or a reluctance to expose one's private life.[432] Attitudes toward rape changed when the Empire became Christianized. St. Augustine interpreted Lucretia's suicide as a possible admission that she had secretly encouraged the rapist,[n 8] and Christian apologists regarded her as having committed the sin of involuntary sexual pleasure.[434] The first Christian emperor Constantine redefined rape as a public offense rather than as a private wrong.[435] Earlier Roman law had blurred the line between abduction and elopement, since in either case it was the right of the paterfamilias to give or withhold his consent to his daughter's marriage that had been violated. The word raptus thus could refer to a successful seduction as well as abduction or rape. If the girl consented, Constantine ordered that she be punished along with the male "abductor" by being burnt alive. If she had not consented, she was still considered an accomplice, "on the grounds that she could have saved herself by screaming for help".[422] As a participant to the rape, she was punished under law by being disinherited, regardless of the wishes of her family.[436] Even if she and her family consented to a marriage as the result of an elopement, the marriage was legally void. In the Republic and the pre-Christian Empire, the consequences of an abduction or an elopement had been up to the couple and their families.[437] Sexuality and children[edit] Roman boy wearing a bulla, which contained a phallic charm Both male and female freeborn children wore the toga praetexta, a purple-bordered garment that marked its wearer as having "inviolable" status.[438] An oath could be sworn upon the "sacred praetexta", a marker of how "we make sacred and venerable the weakness of childhood".[439] It was religiously impermissible (nefas) to use obscene language in front of those wearing the praetexta,[440] and Cato claimed that in front of his son he tried to speak as though Vestal Virgins were present.[441][442] Freeborn Roman boys also wore an apotropaic amulet called the bulla which incorporated a phallic talisman (fascinum) inside a locket of gold, silver, or bronze, or in a leather pouch.[443][444][445] In addition to its magical function, the bulla would have been a visible warning that the boy was sexually off-limits.[446][447][448] The equivalent for the girl was the lunula, a crescent moon amulet.[449] There were laws protecting freeborn children from sexual predators,[450][451] and the rape of a freeborn boy was a capital crime; this severity was directed at protecting the integrity of the young citizen.[452] Fictional license was not a defense; Valerius Maximus reports that a poetic boast of seducing a puer praetextatus ("praetextate boy") and a freeborn virgin (ingenua virgo) was used in court to impugn a prosecutor's moral authority.[453] In denouncing the debaucheries of Quintus Apronius, Cicero builds to the worst offence: Apronius danced naked at a banquet in front of a boy still of an age to wear the praetexta.[454] Although children were taken to dinner parties (convivia) to accustom them to proper adult social behavior, Quintilian scolds parents of his day for being poor role models: they parade their mistresses and male concubines and behave indiscreetly even when their children are present, and think it's cute when their children say things that are age-inappropriate. Quintilian regards this misbehavior as a sign of general moral decline.[455] At weddings, however, boys were by ancient custom given license to speak obscenely, peppering the new couple with dirty jokes, as humor and laughter were thought to promote fertility.[456] Protections applied only to freeborn children, not those born to slaves, sold into slavery, or taken captive in war. The social acceptance of pederasty among the Romans was focused on the exploitation of young male slaves or prostitutes by men of the upper classes.[247][457] Rites of passage[edit] Adolescents in ritual preparation to transition to adult status wore the tunica recta, the "upright tunic", so called because it was woven ritually on the type of upright loom that was the earliest used by Romans.[458] The tunic, worn by both youths and maidens, may have had the purple band of inviolability, though this is unclear from the evidence.[458] Girls wove their own tunica recta.[459] The puberty ritual for the young male involved shaving his first beard and taking off his bulla, which he dedicated to the household gods, the Lares.[460] He assumed the toga virilis ("toga of manhood"), was enrolled as a citizen on the census, and soon began his military service.[461] Traditionally, the ceremony was held on the Liberalia, the festival in honor of the god Liber, who embodied both political and sexual liberty.[462] Following his rite of passage, the young male citizen was permitted the avenues of sexual activity that were generally acceptable for Roman men of his social rank.[459] Often a young man would be introduced to heterosexual intercourse by an experienced female prostitute.[463] Roman women were expected to remain virgins until marriage; the higher a girl's social rank, the earlier she was likely to become betrothed and married.[464] The usual age of betrothal for upper classes girls was 14, but for patricians as early as 12. Weddings were often postponed until the girl was considered mature enough. The wedding ceremony was in part a rite of passage for the bride, as Rome lacked the elaborate female puberty rituals of ancient Greece.[465] On the night before the wedding, the bride bound up her hair with a yellow hairnet she had woven. The confining of her hair signified the harnessing of her sexuality within marriage. Her weaving of the tunica recta and the hairnet demonstrated her skill and her capacity for acting in the traditional matron's role as custos domi, "guardian of the house".[466] On her wedding day, she belted her tunic with the cingulum, made of ewe wool to symbolize fertility, and tied with the "knot of Hercules", which was supposed to be difficult to untie.[467] The knot symbolized wifely chastity, in that it was to be untied only by her husband, but the cingulum also symbolized that the groom was bound to his wife.[468] The bride's hair was ritually styled in "six tresses" (seni crines), and she was veiled until uncovered by her husband at the end of the ceremony, a ritual of surrendering her virginity to him.[469] Sex, marriage, and society[edit] Marital sex[edit] Because men could enjoy sexual relations outside marriage with relative impunity, it has sometimes been assumed that satisfying sex was not an expectation of Roman marriage.[470] The jurist Ulpian noted that "it is not sexual intercourse that makes a marriage but rather marital affection",[471] but the warnings by moralists and philosophers against a preoccupation with sex within marriage recognize the potential for marital passion.[472] Sexual intimacy between a married couple was a private matter, and not usually the subject of literature.[473][474] An exception was the epithalamium, a genre of poetry that celebrated a wedding. A wedding hymn by Catullus, for instance, praises the love goddess Venus because "nothing is possible without you".[475] Ovid, whose love poetry early in his career was directed at fictional mistresses, wrote elegies during his exile in which he longed for his wife.[476] Among the collected letters of Pliny Minor is one he writes about his feelings for his wife: I am seized by an unbelievable longing for you. The reason is above all my love, but secondarily the fact that we are not used to being apart. This is why I spend the greater part of the night haunted by your image; this is why from time to time my feet lead me (the right expression!) of their own accord to your room at the times I was accustomed to frequent you; this is why, in short, I retreat, morbid and disconsolate, like an excluded lover from an unwelcoming doorway. Pliny adopts the rhetoric of love poetry, conventionally directed at an illicit or hard-to-attain lover, as appropriate for expressing his wedded desire.[476] Newlyweds[477] attended by a servant: the bride remains fully clothed and demur (Casa della Farnesina, Rome, c. 19 BC) The accompanying painting depicts the bride's new sexual agency. Although it was a point of pride for a woman to be univira, married only once,[478] there was no stigma attached to divorce. Speedy remarriage after divorce or the death of a spouse was common and even expected among the Roman elite, since marriage was considered right and natural for adults.[479] Although widows were usually expected to wait ten months before remarrying, even a pregnant woman was not barred from taking a new husband, as long as the paternity of her child was not in doubt for legal purposes.[480] If a first marriage ended, women seem to have had more say in arranging subsequent marriages. While having children was a primary goal of marriage, other social and familial bonds were enhanced, not excluding personal companionship and sexual pleasure between husband and wife, as indicated by marriages involving women past their childbearing years.[481] The Trojan royal couple Hector and Andromache became a mythological trope of wedded sex. Latin love elegy focuses on their sex life rather than the tragic end of their marriage with Hector's death at the hands of Achilles.[482] They were known for the "woman on top" position, with a verb suggesting that the woman "rides" the man like a horse.[483] In general, Hector was portrayed as markedly heterosexual[484] and an exemplary husband.[485] The wedding night[edit] See also: Marriage in ancient Rome An epithalamium by Catullus[486] paints the wedding night as a time of ripe eroticism, spiced with humorous and bawdy songs from the guests. "Look inside," the poet advises the bride, who burns with an "intimate flame", "where your man lies on the richly arrayed bed, completely available to you". The husband is reminded that "good Venus" has blessed him, since he can now desire openly what he desires, and need not conceal a "good love". The couple is encouraged to enjoy themselves as they please (ludite ut lubet); the goal is to produce children soon. A pair of paintings in a bedroom of the Casa della Farnesina has been interpreted as "a narrative of the modest bride becoming the immodest lover—perhaps fulfilling a ribald male fantasy".[487] Fidelity and adultery[edit] For the legal aspects, see Adultery in ancient Rome. Some literary passages suggest that a newlywed might break off his outside sexual relations for a time and focus on bonding with his wife in the hope of starting a family.[488] Some Stoics maintained that marital fidelity was as much a virtue for men as for women (see "Stoic sexual morality" above). Legally, however, a Roman husband did not commit adultery when he had sex outside marriage as long as his partner was considered sexually available; sexual misconduct (stuprum) was adultery depending on the status of a female partner. A character in a play by Plautus expresses a man's sexual freedom in comic terms: No one prohibits anyone from going down the public way (publica via); as long as you do not make a path through posted land, as long as you hold off from brides, single women, maidens, the youth and free boys, love whatever you want.[489] A married or marriageable woman and young male citizens are off-limits, just as if they were the property of someone else,[279] and in fact adultery as a crime was committed contrary to the rights of the paterfamilias to control his household.[490] For a man, adultery was a sexual offense committed with a woman who was neither his wife nor a permissible partner such as a prostitute or slave,[491] in effect when his female partner was another man's wife or his unmarried daughter.[492] The later jurists emphasize that adulterium in the strict sense was committed with a married woman.[493] For a married woman, no infidelity was acceptable, and first-time brides were expected to be virgins.[494] According to Cato (2nd century BC), a husband had an ancient right (ius) to kill his wife if he caught her in the act of adultery, but if this "right" existed, it was a matter of custom and not statute law.[495] In the Republic, adultery was normally considered a private matter for families to deal with, not a serious criminal offense requiring the attention of the courts.[496][497][498] No source records the justified killing of a woman for adultery by either a father or husband during the Republican era, though adultery was grounds for divorce.[499] The mythological adultery of Venus and Mars, here attended by Cupid, was a popular subject for painting Following the collapse of the Republic, moral legislation became part of the new political order under Rome's first emperor, Augustus. Laws pertaining to adultery passed in 18 BC were part of his program to restore the mos maiorum, traditional social norms, while consolidating his political authority and codifying a more rigid social hierarchy in the wake of the recent civil wars. The appeal to old-fashioned values cloaked the radical overthrow of the Republic's participatory political institutions by top-down, one-man rule.[500] The Lex Iulia de adulteriis ("Julian Law concerning acts of adultery") was directed at punishing married women who engaged in extra-marital affairs. Scholars have often assumed that the Lex Iulia was meant to address a virulent outbreak of adultery in the Late Republic. An androcentric perspective in the early 20th century held that the Lex Iulia had been "a very necessary check upon the growing independence and recklessness of women".[501] A more sympathetic view in the late 20th to early 21st century saw love affairs as a way for the intelligent, independent women of the elite to form emotionally meaningful relationships outside marriages arranged for political purposes.[502] It is possible, however, that no such epidemic of adultery even existed; the law should perhaps be understood not as addressing a real problem that threatened society, but as one of the instruments of social control exercised by Augustus that cast the state, and by extension himself, in the role of paterfamilias to all Rome.[503] Personal anxieties about infidelity, within marriage or not, are reflected in magic spells intended to "fix" (defixiones) or bind the other person's erotic attachment.[504] Spells were also available for interrogating the beloved about fidelity. One magical papyrus from Roman Egypt recommends placing the heart of a hoopoe on a sleeping woman's genitals to induce truthful answers; another says that the tongue of a hen placed on her lips or breast will cause her to reveal the name of the man she loves.[505] Literature of the Late Republic and Principate, particularly the satires of Horace and Juvenal, offer various depictions, or perhaps fantasies, of how a wronged husband might subject his wife's lover to humiliation and punishment. In these literary treatments, the adulterer is castrated, beaten, raped by the husband himself or his slaves, or penetrated anally with a mullet, a type of prized fish cultivated by elite Romans as a leisure activity (otium). References to such acts do not appear in the letters of Cicero nor the histories of Tacitus, and may be fictional exaggerations.[506] Ovid makes fun of the jealous husband as lacking in sophistication: "The man who's excessively wounded by his wife's adulterous affairs is a hick."[507] Ovid's predecessor Catullus wrote poetry celebrating his adulterous affair with "Lesbia", his social superior, traditionally identified as Clodia. The cultivation of a laissez-faire attitude as a sign of urbanity may have prompted the provision of Augustus's adultery law that required a husband to divorce his wife and bring formal legal charges against her, or face charges himself for pimping (lenocinium).[508] Master-slave relations[edit] Further information: Slavery in ancient Rome Sexuality was a "core feature" of ancient Roman slavery.[509] Because slaves were regarded as property under Roman law, an owner could use them for sex or hire them out to service other people.[510] Some scholars propose that content in Cicero's letters indicate he had a long-term homosexual relationship with his slave Tiro.[511][512] As Eva Cantarella stated bluntly, "the Roman paterfamilias was an absolute master, ... he exercised a power outside any control of society and the state. In this situation why on earth should he refrain from sodomising his houseboys?"[513][n 9] But this form of sexual release thus held little erotic cachet: to use one's own slaves was "one step up from masturbation".[514] In describing the ideal partner in pederasty, Martial prefers a slave boy who "acts more like a free man than his master", that is, one who can frame the affair as a stimulating game of courtship.[515][516] When figures identifiable as slaves appear in erotic art, they are performing routine tasks in the background, not taking part in sex acts.[517] In his work on the interpretation of dreams (c. 170 AD), Artemidorus takes a symbolic view of the sexual value of slaves: to dream of having sex with one's own female slave was a good thing, "for slaves are the dreamer's possession; therefore taking pleasure in them signifies the dreamer's being pleased with his own possessions".[518][519] A Roman could exploit his own slaves for sex, but was not entitled to compel any enslaved person he chose to have sex, since the owner had the right to control his own property.[511] In the pursuit of sex with a slave who belonged to someone else, persuasion or threats might be employed.[516] A charge of rape could not be brought against a free man who forced a slave to have sex, since a slave lacked the legal standing that protected a citizen's body, but the owner could prosecute the rapist under the Lex Aquilia, a law pertaining to property damage.[520] A slave's sexuality was closely controlled. Slaves had no right to legal marriage (conubium), though they could live together as husband and wife (contubernales). An owner usually restricted the heterosexual activities of his male slaves to females he also owned; any children born from these unions added to his wealth.[511] Cato, at a time when Rome's large-scale slave economy was still in early development, thought it good practice to monitor his slaves' sex lives, and required male slaves to pay a fee for access to their female fellow slaves.[521] Grotesque figurine of an ithyphallic slave: in Roman comedy, slaves are often portrayed as oversexed If an owner found that his male slave was having a sexual relationship with a free woman, the law required that he warn the couple three times to break it off. If the affair continued, he had the right to take ownership of the woman.[511] References to women from respectable families having sex with a male slave are infrequent, indicating that male writers were not preoccupied with the risk of it.[522] Cicero offers no examples in either the gossipy parts of his letters or in court cases where he attacks the reputation of a woman: he accuses Clodia of incest and of running her house like a brothel, but not of sleeping with slaves. Not even Messalina or Sallust's Sempronia is accused in the hostile sources of having sex with a slave.[523] Sex with a slave was among the trumped-up charges against Claudia Octavia, the wife of Nero, when Poppaea Sabina campaigned to take her place,[524] but mostly it was a matter for innuendo or insult against a husband who failed to prevent it.[525] Despite the external controls and restrictions placed on a slave's sexuality, Roman art and literature perversely often portray slaves as lascivious, voyeuristic, and even sexually knowing.[526] One of the themes of Roman comedy that distinguishes it from its Greek models is the depiction of master-slave relations.[527] Freeborn Romans who fell into slavery were supposed to be protected from sexual exploitation, as indicated by two different stories recorded by ancient historians.[528] Before the abolition of debt bondage in the 4th century BC,[529] free Romans were sometimes driven to sell themselves or their children into slavery when they were overwhelmed by debt. According to Livy, debt slavery (nexum) was abolished as a direct result of the attempted sexual abuse of a freeborn youth who served as surety for his father's debt[530] with the usurer Lucius Papirius. The boy, Gaius Publilius, was notably beautiful, and Papirius insisted that as a bond slave he was required to provide sexual services. When Publilius refused, Papirius had him stripped and whipped. The youth then took to the streets to display his injuries, and an outcry among the people led the consuls to convene the senate. The political process eventually led to the Lex Poetelia Papiria, which prohibited holding debtors in bondage for their debt and required instead that the debtor's property be used as collateral. The law thus established that the integrity of a Roman citizen's body was fundamental to the concept of libertas, political liberty, in contrast to the uses to which a slave's body was subject.[n 10] In this and a similar incident reported by Valerius Maximus, corporal punishment and sexual abuse are seen as similar violations of the citizen's freedom from physical compulsion, in contrast to the slave's physical vulnerability.[n 11][531] Some sexual protections could be extended to slaves. The conduct of slaves reflected generally on the respectability of the household, and the materfamilias in particular was judged by her female slaves' sexual behavior, which was expected to be moral or at least discreet. This decorum may have limited the exploitation of female slaves that were part of the familia.[532] Seneca expressed Stoic indignation that a male slave should be groomed effeminately and used sexually, because a slave's human dignity should not be debased.[533] The burgeoning trade in eunuch slaves during the early Empire prompted legislation under the emperor Hadrian that prohibited the castration of a slave against his will "for lust or gain".[534] Legal agreements on the sale of a slave might include a ne serva prostituatur covenant that prohibited the employment of the slave as a prostitute. Although concern for the slave's welfare may have been a factor in individual cases, this legal restriction seems also to have been intended to shield the male citizen owner from the shame or infamia associated with pimping and prostitution. The ne serva covenant remained in force for subsequent sales, even if the buyer was initially unaware of it, and if it was violated, the illegally prostituted slave was granted freedom.[535] Prostitution[edit] Main article: Prostitution in ancient Rome Wall painting from the Lupanar (brothel) of Pompeii Prostitution was legal throughout the Roman Empire in all periods.[474] Most prostitutes were slaves or freedwomen. Prostitutes in Rome had to register with the aediles. Despite what might seem to be a clear distinction as a matter of law, the jurist Ulpian opined that an openly promiscuous woman brought the status of prostitute upon herself, even if she accepted no money.[536] The Augustan moral legislation that criminalized adultery exempted prostitutes, who could legally have sex with a married man. Encouraged to think of adultery as a matter of law rather than morality, a few socially prominent women even chose to avoid prosecution for adultery by registering themselves as prostitutes.[537] Confused status frequently results in plot complications in the comedies of Plautus and Terence. Obstacles to love arise when a young man falls in love with, and wishes to marry, a non-citizen prostitute, and are overcome when the young woman's true status as a freeborn virgin is revealed. The well-brought-up freeborn virgin is marriageable, and the non-citizen prostitute is not.[538] The relation of these comic situations to real life is problematic: Plautus and Terence drew on Greek models which are often little known, and so the extent to which they incorporated Roman social behaviors and attitudes is hard to determine. Elaine Fantham has observed that prolonged military campaigning in Greece and Asia Minor had introduced Roman men to a more sophisticated standard of luxury and pleasure, perhaps reflected by comedy: the young man acts out his infatuation with an expensive courtesan instead of a family slave or common prostitute.[539] Prostitutes appear in erotic art in Pompeii and Herculaneum, including wall paintings from buildings identified as brothels, in which they are often nude except for a strapless bra (strophium). The paintings illustrate various sexual positions that contradict some scholarly claims about the preferences of Roman men in heterosexual acts.[540] Literary sources record that prostitutes wore distinctive clothing, often gaudy dresses of see-through silk. They were the only Roman women who wore the toga, the distinctive dress of a free Roman male. This crossing of gender boundaries has been interpreted variously.[541] Pleasure and infamy[edit] Prostitutes were among those persons in Rome categorized as infames, enjoying few legal protections even if they were technically not slaves.[542] Infamia as a legal status once entered into could not be escaped: a prostitute was "not only a woman who practices prostitution, but also one who has formerly done so, even though she has ceased to act in this manner; for the disgrace is not removed even if the practice is subsequently discontinued".[543] In the Roman moral tradition, pleasure (voluptas) was a dubious pursuit. The Stoic moralist Seneca contrasts pleasure with virtue (virtus): Virtue you will find in the temple, in the forum, in the senate house, standing before the city walls, dusty and sunburnt, her hands rough; pleasure you will most often find lurking around the baths and sweating rooms, and places that fear the police, in search of darkness, soft, effete, reeking of wine and perfume, pallid or else painted and made up with cosmetics like a corpse.[544][545] Juvenal thought the retiarius (left), a gladiator who fought with face and flesh exposed, was effeminate and prone to sexual deviance[546] Roman ambivalence toward physical pleasure is expressed by the infamia of those whose bodies provided it publicly.[547] In a technical sense, infamia was an official loss of legal standing for a freeborn person as a result of misconduct, including sexual misconduct, but the word could be used for ill repute in general.[548] Infamia was an "inescapable consequence" of certain professions, including not only prostitutes and pimps but performers such as actors, dancers, and gladiators:[549] "These figures were the objects of other people's desires. They served the pleasure of others. They were tarnished by exposure to the public gaze."[154] Those labeled infames (singular infamis) were liable to corporal punishment, usually reserved for slaves.[550] Under the Republic and early Empire, one of the ways in which the citizen's liberty was defined was through the freedom of his body from physical coercion or punishment such as flogging by authorities.[551] Citizens who chose to become public performers, however, and to use their bodies to offer public pleasure,[552] were excluded from these physical protections, and could be beaten or otherwise subjected to violence.[553] Any free man who became a gladiator took an oath to suffer branding, bondage, and beating, as well as potential death by the sword.[554] Both glamorized and despised, the gladiator was supposed to exert a compelling sexual allure over women.[555][556] Actors were sexually ambiguous, in part because they could imitate women,[557][558] and were attractive to both men and women. The dictator Sulla had a long-term affair with an actor;[559] Maecenas, the arts patron and advisor to Augustus, was in love with an actor named Bathyllus;[560] and women of the Imperial family are alleged to have had affairs with actors.[561] Actresses were assumed to be prostitutes.[541] A man who enjoyed receiving anal sex or providing oral sex, often characterized as a cinaedus, might also be stigmatized as infamis, though if he was a citizen he could retain his legal standing.[562][154] Private sex clubs[edit] See also: Venereum Archaeological evidence, primarily from Pompeii and Herculaneum, and literary sources seem to indicate the existence of private "sex clubs" in some Roman homes (domūs).[563] Most Romans lived in apartments (insulae); the domus was a large, independent dwelling owned by a family of considerable means, and in Rome was central to the family's social identity. A few of these residences have rooms decorated with pornographic art[564] not differing from that found in identified brothels; in some cases, an erotically decorated room has its own exterior door to admit visitors[565] who would normally enter the home through the main doors leading to the atrium, where the family displayed ancestral images and other trophies of respectability. It has been suggested[566] that these rooms were meant to evoke the ambience of a brothel for the hosting of exclusive sex parties, such as the one described by the historian Valerius Maximus as occurring in 52 BC with a consul and the tribunes of the plebs in attendance: Just as notorious was that party arranged for Metellus Scipio when he was consul and for the people's tribunes—by Gemellus, their tribunicial errand boy. He was a free man by birth, but twisted by his business to play the servant's role. Society gave a collective blush: he established a whorehouse in his own house, and pimped out Mucia and Flavia, each of them notable for her father and husband, along with the aristocratic boy Saturninus.[567] Bodies in shameless submission, ready to come for a game of drunken sex! A banquet not for honoring consul and tribunes, but indicting them![568] The existence of sex clubs may provide background for Late Republican political smears about public figures whose party guests included prostitutes,[569] and for the notorious Imperial whorehouse Caligula established on the Palatine, where he prostituted married women and freeborn youths.[570] Sex acts and positions[edit] Around 90 positions for intercourse are recorded in the ancient world.[1] Both Roman erotic art and Latin literature, most famously a passage from Ovid's Art of Love,[571] depict various forms of copulation (concubitus varii) and sexual positions (figurae veneris). The Latin terms are Ovid's, from his description of how the most aristocratic households displayed erotic paintings among their art collections.[572][573] According to Suetonius, Tiberius had a vast collection of sex manuals and erotic art, including a painting of the mythological huntress Atalanta performing oral sex on Meleager, a work that the emperor regarded as worth more than a million sesterces.[39] Sexual variety fascinated Romans. Astrology was thought to influence one's preferences and pursuits: people born when the sun, moon, and planets were in certain astrological signs[574] were supposed to be inclined toward secret vice or "unnatural" forms of intercourse, or to becoming pathici.[575] Lucretius observes that sex acts may have different purposes. Prostitutes employ certain movements aimed at giving their customers pleasure and at avoiding pregnancy. Wives wishing to conceive are advised against moving vigorously during intercourse, since such movements "knock the ploughshare from the furrow and misdirect the sowing of the seed".[576][104] Lucretius recommends "doggy style" (a tergo) for couples trying to conceive, because it mimics the natural procreative sex of animals.[577][578] Male–female sex[edit] The "woman riding" position was a favorite in Roman art[579] The basic obscene verb for a man having sex with a woman is futuo, "I fuck." Although not found in polite literature,[580] futuo was not necessarily insulting or aggressive; it was used transactionally for sex between a prostitute and her client, and in a passionate or loving setting may have been spoken as an arousing intimacy.[581] A fragment from a play by Plautus suggests that acquiring an erotic vocabulary was part of a woman's introduction to sexuality within marriage: a virgin explains that she has not yet learned the words suitable for the wedding night (nupta verba).[582][583] The easy use of the word by a woman in other settings indicates her independence of social norms, and corresponding lack of status. "Either fuck me or let's fight it out," the formidable Fulvia is quoted as challenging the future Augustus.[584] In graffiti at Pompeii written by both men and women, forms of futuo are used to announce prowess, satisfaction, or availability. Thomas Habinek has claimed that "Ovid invents the category of the heterosexual male", since, he says, it was considered normal for a Roman man to have same-sex relations.[585] Ovid radically rejects the Roman tradition of pederasty, and says he takes more pleasure (voluptas) in making love with a woman as his equal. Sexual pleasure, he emphasizes, should be mutual,[586][587] and he advises men not to conclude the sex act without enabling their female partner to achieve orgasm. In one passage, he seems to be recommending simultaneous orgasm: But don't you fail your lady, hoisting bigger sails, and don't let her get ahead of you on the track either; race to the finish together: that's when pleasure is full, when man and woman lie there, equally vanquished.[588] Mulier equitans[edit] "Riding" is a common metaphor for the sex act, particularly used of the woman-on-top position.[589] The mulier equitans ("woman riding") does not appear in Greek vase painting[590] but is popular in Roman art. Ovid recommends it for the petite woman, as a tall woman may not wish to seem too towering in relation to the man.[591] Supposedly favored by the mythological couple Hector and Andromache, even though she was of legendary height, it was jokingly called "the Hector horse".[592] One relief from Roman Gaul showing the mulier equitans plays on the metaphor by picturing a galloping horse within a frame in the background (see first image in gallery below).[593] In art, the mulier equitans convention has the woman posed frontally to expose her body in full to the viewer, often emphasizing her depilated pubic area. The significance of this position in Roman culture has been interpreted variously. Kenneth Dover thought it might represent the relative sexual emancipation of Roman women.[594] From a woman's perspective, the position would grant an independence of movement for her own pleasure.[595] Paul Veyne, however, thought it emphasized that the woman had to do the work of servicing the man, who lies there and receives pleasure without effort.[596] The position may have been favored for art because it pleased both male and female viewers: for men, it offered an unobstructed view of the woman's body, as recommended by Ovid, and of the penis entering the vagina; women saw the visually dominant female figure playing the active role.[597] The position is also called Venus pendula conversa, "perpendicular Venus with the woman facing toward (the man)"; for its reverse (Venus pendula aversa, "perpendicular Venus with the woman facing away"), the man lies down with the woman on top, but she turns her back and faces his feet. This version is rarely mentioned or depicted, but is found in Roman art set in Nilotic Egypt.[598] Relief with inscription[599] Casa del Ristorante On an oil lamp Venus pendula aversa An equestrian metaphor is also found for the cinaedus "riding" on top in anal sex,[600][601] and at least once of lesbians who "take turns riding and move with the Moon as witness".[602][603] Anal sex[edit] "The lioness" position (Casa del Ristorante, Pompeii) The Latin verb for "to penetrate anally, bugger" is pedicare. The object was usually but not always male. Pedicare was a blunt and non-euphemistic word, and can be used in a threatening manner, as notoriously by Catullus in Carmen 16, or in general to mean "fuck you".[604][293] The etymology of pedicare is unclear, but some have thought it derived from Greek paidika, having to do with pederasty.[605] The basic word for "anus" was culus. Common metaphors are ficus, "fig", and anus, "ring," which was considered a decorous term and was standard in medical texts.[606] Men were said to "take it like a woman" (muliebria pati, "to undergo womanly things") when they were anally penetrated, but when a man performed anal sex on a woman, she was thought of as playing the boy's role.[607] Martial, for instance, is emphatic that anal sex is better with boys than with women; when his wife objects that she provides him with anal sex in an effort to preserve his fidelity, he taunts her with the inferiority of her anus compared with a boy's.[608][609] The figura veneris in which the woman crouches to lift her buttocks, called "the lioness", may be intended for anal penetration, since boys in Greek art can be portrayed in the same position; with a female partner, it may be difficult to distinguish in art from a tergo (rear entry).[610] Culibonia ("good anal") was a humorous term for a prostitute with this speciality.[611] Avoiding pregnancy may have been one motive for female prostitutes to offer anal intercourse.[612] Os impurum[edit] Os impurum, "filthy mouth" or "impure mouth", was a term of abuse especially for those who provided oral sex.[613] "Oral turpitude"[614] was a favorite form of invective for Catullus,[615] Horace, and Martial.[614] An accusation of having an os impurum is an "extreme obscenity",[616] so vile that Cicero reserved it for men of lower standing than himself,[617] only implying that their debasement tainted their more powerful patrons who were his real targets.[618] Wall painting from Pompeii depicting cunnilingus It was a convention of obscenely comic verse that oral sex caused bad breath that was nearly toxic.[619][620] "Whores of the alleyways" are contaminated from giving oral sex; Catullus refers to "the foul saliva of a pissed-over whore".[621][619] The urinary function of the penis makes oral sex particularly repulsive to Catullus, who elsewhere reviles a Celtiberian for brushing his teeth in urine.[622] Martial jokes that a fine perfume turned to garum, fish sauce, when it was sniffed by a man whose breath was putrid from oral sex.[623] In another of Martial's epigrams, a fellator breathes on a hot cake to cool it down and turns it to excrement.[624] The bad breath and rotten teeth that are attributed to performing oral sex represent moral decay and a general corruption of the mouth's positive functions as the organ of a citizen's persuasive speech.[625][626][627] Cunnilingus and fellatio[edit] Because of the stigma attached to providing physical pleasure, a man who performed oral sex on a woman was subject to mockery. Cunnilingus typically appears in Roman art only as part of a reciprocal act, with the woman fellating her male partner in some variation of the "69" position.[628] A wall painting from Pompeii, however, represents a virtually unique role reversal in the giving of oral sex. The woman who receives cunnilingus is tall and shapely, well-groomed, and brazenly nude except for jewelry. The male figure is relatively small, crouching subserviently, and fully clothed; he has an anxious or furtive look.[629] The situation is so extreme that it was probably meant to be humorous as well as titillating; other paintings in this group show a series of sex acts, at least some of which could be seen as transgressive or parodic.[630] There is some evidence that women could hire male prostitutes to provide cunnilingus. Graffiti at Pompeii advertise the prices male prostitutes charged for cunnilingus, in the same price range as females performing fellatio; however, the graffiti could be intended as insults to the men named, and not as actual advertisements.[631] One graffito is perhaps intended as political invective: "Vote Isidore for aedile; he's the best at licking cunt!"[632] Woman fellating a man on an oil lamp The Latin verb fellare is usually used for a woman performing oral sex on a man.[293] Accusing a man of fellating another man was possibly the worst insult in all Roman invective.[633] It was an act that might be requested from women who were infames,[293][634] and not something a husband in a respectable household would have expected from his wife.[635] Fellatio was seen as a "somewhat laughable" preference for older men who have trouble maintaining an erection,[293] but graffiti show that the skills of a good fellatrix were enthusiastically utilized.[636] Fellatio was a fairly uncommon subject in Roman art.[635] Irrumatio[edit] Main article: Irrumatio Irrumatio is a forced form of fellatio, almost always against another man. Forcing someone to be a receptacle for oral sex was proof of virility, something to boast about, as indicated by the Priapeia and the poems of Catullus and Martial. It was also threatened as a punishment,[637] particularly for adulterers.[293] Martial urges a wronged husband who has already cut off the adulterous man's ears and nose to complete the humiliation by befouling his mouth with oral rape.[638][293] Group sex[edit] Threesome (from Pompeii) arranged in the manner described by Catullus, poem 56[639] Group sex appears in literary sources, graffiti, and art.[640] Suetonius says that the emperor Tiberius enjoyed watching group sex, and described "chains" arranged of girls and boys: In his retreat at Capri, he put together a bedroom that was the theater of his secret debauches. There he assembled from all over companies of male and female prostitutes, and inventors of monstrous couplings (which he called spintriae), so that, intertwining themselves and forming a triple chain (triplici serie connexi), they mutually prostituted themselves in front of him to fire up his flagging desires.[641] Foursome from the Suburban Baths at Pompeii Most threesomes depict two men penetrating a woman. A medallion from Roman Gaul shows two men reclining on a bed, one on the right and one on the left, with their legs extended under a woman between them. Another shows a woman "riding" a man who reclines, while a man standing behind her parts her legs to enter. A far less common variation has one man entering a woman from the rear while he in turn receives anal sex from a man standing behind him, a scenario found in Catullus, Carmen 56 as well as art. Catullus makes it clear that this concatenation was considered humorous,[642] possibly because the man in the center could be a cinaedus, a male who liked to receive anal sex but who was also considered seductive to women.[643] Foursomes also appear in Roman art, typically with two women and two men, sometimes in same-sex pairings. One example of a foursome from the Suburban Baths at Pompeii demonstrates what Romans saw as the superior role. A woman on the far right kneels beside a bed to perform cunnilingus on a woman lying on it; this woman in turn fellates a man who kneels above her. The man is himself receiving anal sex from a fourth figure, who is represented as the "victor": he acts only to fulfill his own sexual gratification without providing it to others, and looks directly at the viewer with a triumphant wave of the hand.[644] A Latin epigram by the Gallo-Roman poet Ausonius (4th century AD) is a riddle that depends on familiarity with the configurations of group sex: "Three men in bed together: two are committing debauchery (stuprum), two are being debauched." "Doesn't that make four men?" "You're mistaken: the man on either end each counts as a single offense, but the one in the middle both acts and is acted on."[645] Masturbation[edit] See also: History of masturbation Masturbation is little noted in the sources for Roman sexuality.[646] Martial has a few mentions in his poems, but considers it an inferior form of sexual release resorted to by slaves, though he admits to masturbating when a beautiful slave-boy is too expensive to obtain: "my hand relieved me as a substitute for Ganymede".[647][648][649] Masturbation was a longstanding if infrequent theme in Latin satire; one of the few surviving fragments of Lucilius, Rome's earliest satirist, jokes about a personified penis (Mutto) whose girlfriend Laeva ("Lefty") wipes away his "tears".[650] The Romans preferred the left hand for masturbation.[651] A graffito from Pompeii reads "when my worries oppress my body, with my left hand I release my pent-up fluids".[652] The etymology of the Latin verb masturbari is vexed. It has been argued that it is a compound of turbare, "agitate", and mas, "male", in an otherwise unattested usage for "penis".[653] One traditional view sees man(u)-, "hand," with an altered form of stuprare, "to defile, commit a sexual wrong against".[654] Calvert Watkins proposed that it derives from a Proto-Indo-European root meaning "marrow, brain", since ancient medical writers believed that semen descended from the brain through the bones;[655] if this is correct, the word turbare may still have influenced the formation in Latin.[656] Bestiality[edit] Leda and the swan, with a Cupid in attendance (4th-century Roman relief) Leopard attacking a condemned person in the arena (Zliten mosaic, c. 200 AD) The mythological tradition is full of sexual encounters between humans and animals, especially mortal women and gods in the guise of animals. Bestiality is a particular characteristic of intercourse with Jupiter (Greek Zeus), who visits Leda as a swan and Europa as a bull. The Minotaur is born when Pasiphaë feels such sexual attraction for a bull that she has herself disguised as a cow to mate with him. Satyrs, known for their sexual voracity, are often pictured with bestial features. Mock bestiality is recorded as a form of sexual roleplay in Imperial Rome. Nero is supposed to have enjoyed a form of bondage with either male or female partners in which he dressed in animal skins to attack their genitals, just as condemned prisoners were bound and attacked by wild animals in the arena (see Damnatio ad bestias).[657] The historian Dio tells of how a prostitute pretended to be a leopard for the gratification of a senator.[658] The actor Bathyllus was known for an erotic dance in which he dressed as Leda having sex with the swan; the women watching were variously aroused.[659] Bestiality is also a theme of Apuleius' novel Metamorphoses (or The Golden Ass), in which the protagonist, transformed into a donkey, is desired by a wealthy noble matron, just as Pasiphaë desired the bull.[660] There is some indication that violent sexual encounters, like other mythological scenarios, were acted out as punitive entertainments in the arena. The poet Martial praises a scenario for its fidelity to the Pasiphaë myth.[661][662][663] The logistics of staging a sex act between a woman and a bull is a matter of speculation; if "Pasiphaë" were a condemned criminal to be tortured and killed, the animal may have been induced by the application of "vaginal secretion from a cow in season".[664] In Apuleius's novel, a female poisoner condemned ad bestias is scheduled to appear in the arena for intercourse with the protagonist in his bestial form.[665] Hermaphroditism and androgyny[edit] Hermaphroditus warding off a satyr (Pompeii, c. 45–79 AD) Main articles: Hermaphroditus and Aphroditus In his chapter on anthropology and human physiology in the encyclopedic Natural History, Pliny notes that "there are even those who are born of both sexes, whom we call hermaphrodites, at one time androgyni" (andr-, "man", and gyn-, "woman", from the Greek).[666][667] The Sicilian historian Diodorus (1st century BC) wrote that "there are some who declare that the coming into being of creatures of a kind such as these are marvels (terata), and being born rarely, they announce the future, sometimes for evil and sometimes for good".[668] Isidore of Seville (c. 560–636) described a hermaphrodite fancifully as those who "have the right breast of a man and the left of a woman, and after coitus in turn can both sire and bear children".[669] In contemporary English, "hermaphrodite" is used in biology but has acquired pejorative connotations in referring to people born with physical characteristics of both sexes (see intersex); in antiquity, however, the figure of the so-called hermaphrodite was a primary focus of questions pertaining to gender identity.[670][671] The hermaphrodite represented a "violation of social boundaries, especially those as fundamental to daily life as male and female".[672] In traditional Roman religion, a hermaphroditic birth was a kind of prodigium, an occurrence that signalled a disturbance of the pax deorum, Rome's treaty with the gods, as Diodorus indicated.[673] Livy records an incident during the Second Punic War when the discovery of a four-year-old hermaphrodite prompted an elaborate series of expiations: on the advice of the haruspices, the child was enclosed in a chest, carried out to sea, and allowed to drown.[674] Other rituals followed. A hermaphrodite found in 133 BC was drowned in the local river; committing the hermaphroditic person to the element of water seems to have been the prescribed way to repair the perceived violation of the natural order.[675] Pliny observed that while hermaphrodites were once considered portents (prodigia), in his day they had become objects of delight (deliciae); they were among the human curiosities of the sort that the wealthy might acquire at the "monsters' market" at Rome described by Plutarch.[676] Under Roman law, a hermaphrodite had to be classed as either male or female; no third gender existed as a legal category.[677] In the mythological tradition, Hermaphroditus was a beautiful youth who was the son of Hermes (Roman Mercury) and Aphrodite (Venus).[678] Like many other divinities and heroes, he had been nursed by nymphs,[679] but the evidence that he himself received cult devotion among the Greeks is sparse.[671] Ovid wrote the most influential narrative[680][681] of how Hermaphroditus became androgynous, emphasizing that although the handsome youth was on the cusp of sexual adulthood, he rejected love as Narcissus had, and likewise at the site of a reflective pool.[682] There the water nymph Salmacis saw and desired him. He spurned her, and she pretended to withdraw until, thinking himself alone, he undressed to bathe in her waters. She then flung herself upon him, and prayed that they might never be parted. The gods granted this request, and thereafter the body of Hermaphroditus contained both male and female. As a result, men who drank from the waters of the spring Salmacis supposedly "grew soft with the vice of impudicitia", according to the lexicographer Festus.[683][684] The myth of Hylas, the young companion of Hercules who was abducted by water nymphs, shares with Hermaphroditus and Narcissus the theme of the dangers that face the beautiful adolescent male as he transitions to adult masculinity, with varying outcomes for each.[685] Depictions of Hermaphroditus were very popular among the Romans. The dramatic situation in paintings often elicits a "double take" on the part of the viewer, or expresses the theme of sexual frustration.[686] Hermaphroditus is often in the company of a satyr, a figure of bestial sexuality known for subjecting an unsuspecting or often sleeping victim to non-consensual sex; the satyr in scenes with Hermaphroditus is usually shown to be surprised or repulsed, to humorous effect. In a few works, Hermaphroditus is strong enough to ward off his would-be attacker, but in others he shows his willingness to engage in sex, even if the satyr seems no longer inclined:[687] Artistic representations of Hermaphroditus bring to the fore the ambiguities in sexual differences between women and men as well as the ambiguities in all sexual acts. ... Hermaphroditus gives an eternally ambiguous answer to a man's curiosity about a woman's sexual experience—and vice versa. ... (A)rtists always treat Hermaphroditus in terms of the viewer finding out his/her actual sexual identity. ... Hermaphroditus stands for both the physical and, more important, the psychological impossibility of ever understanding the feelings of the beloved. Hermaphroditus is a highly sophisticated representation, invading the boundaries between the sexes that seem so clear in classical thought and representation.[688] Macrobius describes a masculine form of "Venus" (Aphrodite) who received cult on Cyprus; she had a beard and male genitals, but wore women's clothing. The deity's worshippers cross-dressed, men wearing women's clothes, and women men's.[689] The Latin poet Laevius wrote of worshipping "nurturing Venus" whether female or male (sive femina sive mas).[690] The figure was sometimes called Aphroditos. In several surviving examples of Greek and Roman sculpture, she is found in the attitude anasyrmene, from the Greek verb anasyromai, "to pull up one's clothes".[691] The love goddess lifts her garments to reveal her masculine attribute, male genitalia, a gesture that traditionally held apotropaic or magical power.[692] Sexual conquest and imperialism[edit] Sestertius of Vespasian depicting "Captive Judaea" In 55 BC, Pompeius Magnus ("Pompey the Great") opened his theater complex dedicated to Venus Victrix, "Venus the Conqueror," which continued into late antiquity as a venue for performing arts, literature, landscape design, visual art, and architecture.[693] The Theater of Pompey was in many ways the permanent monument of his military triumph six years earlier. Among the displays were portrait galleries of female writers and of courtesans; a series of images illustrated freakish births that had served as war omens. In general, intellectuality and culture are represented as feminine and Hellenized, while war and politics are Roman and masculine.[694] Statues personified fourteen conquered nationes ("nations, peoples") as women in ethnic or "barbarian" dress.[695][696] Other monuments throughout the Empire, including the Sebasteion at Aphrodisias and the altar of the Sanctuary of the Three Gauls at Lugdunum (modern Lyon, France), as well as various coins, embody conquered territories and peoples as women: Roman military power defeats a "feminized" nation.[697][698][699] Although the figures from Pompey's theater have not survived, relief panels from Aphrodisias include scenes such as a heroically nude Claudius forcing the submission of Britannia, whose right breast is bare, and Nero dragging away a dead Armenia, a composition that recalls the defeat of the Amazon Penthesilea by Achilles.[700] A particularly well-documented series of coins depicts Iudaea Capta, a female personification of the Jewish nation as captive, issued after the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem in 70 AD.[701] Sexual conquest is a metaphor widely used by the Romans for imperialism,[700] but not always straightforwardly for Roman domination. Horace famously described the Romans as taken captive by captive Greece: the image of Roman culture colonized from within by a civilization they had defeated but perceived as intellectually and aesthetically superior might be expressed by myths in which a man raped, abducted, or enslaved a woman but fell in love with her, as embodied for instance by Achilles and Briseis.[702] See also[edit] Erotic art in Pompeii and Herculaneum Exoletus History of human sexuality Homosexuality in ancient Greece Homosexuality in ancient Rome Latin profanity Notes[edit] ^ For example, Agatha of Sicily and Febronia of Nisibis; Sebastian P. Brock and Susan Ashbrook Harvey, introduction to Holy Women of the Syrian Orient (University of California Press, 1987), pp. 24–25; Harvey, "Women in Early Byzantine Hagiography: Reversing the Story," in That Gentle Strength: Historical Perspectives on Women in Christianity (University Press of Virginia, 1990), pp. 48–50. The accounts of breast mutilation occur in Christian sources and iconography, not in Roman art and literature. ^ For instance, in the mid-3rd century BC, Naevius uses the word stuprum in his Bellum Punicum for the military disgrace of desertion or cowardice; Fantham, p. 117. ^ Referring to varicocele. ^ "... Kronos is the same as Khronos: for as much as the mythographers offer different versions of Saturn [= Kronos] in their tales, the physical scientists restore him to a certain likeness to the truth. They say that he cut off the genitals of his father, Heaven, and that when these were cast into the sea Venus was engendered, taking the name Aphrodite from the foam [Greek aphros] from which she formed. They interpret this to mean that when chaos existed, time did not, since time is a fixed measurement computed from the rotation of the heavens. Hence Kronos, who as I said is Khronos, is thought to have been born from heaven itself. Because the seeds for engendering all things (semina rerum omnium) after heaven flowed down from heaven, and because all the elements that fill the world took their start from those seeds, when the world was complete in all its parts and members, the process of bringing forth seeds from heaven for the creation of the elements came to an end at a fixed moment in time, since a full complement of elements had by then been created. The capacity for engendering living things in an unbroken sequence of reproduction was transferred from water to Venus, so that all things would thenceforth come into being through the intercourse of male and female": Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.8.6–8, Loeb Classical Library translation by Robert A. Kaster. ^ Until the late Republic, a bath house probably offered women a separate wing or facility, or had a schedule that allowed women and men to bathe at different times. From the late Republic until the rise of Christian dominance in the later Empire, there is clear evidence of mixed bathing. Some scholars have thought that only lower-class women bathed with men, or those such as entertainers or prostitutes who were infames, but Clement of Alexandria observed that women of the highest social classes could be seen naked at the baths. Hadrian prohibited mixed bathing, but the ban seems not to have endured. In short, customs varied not only by time and place, but by facility; see Garrett G. Fagan, Bathing in Public in the Roman World (University of Michigan Press, 1999, 2002), pp. 26–27. ^ In Roman Gaul, the Celtic god identified with the Roman Mercury is sometimes represented triphallically; see for instance Miranda Green, Symbol and Image in Celtic Religious Art (Routledge, 1989), p. 184. In The Sorrows of the Ancient Romans: The Gladiator and the Monster (Princeton University Press, 1993), p. 168, Carlin A. Barton associates polyphallic tintinnabula with the Medusa's head and other grotesques. ^ Breasts are never ubera in Ovid's Amores, but are ubera throughout the Metamorphoses: at 3.31 (metaphorically); 4.324; 10.392; 9.358 (materna ... ubera, "motherly breasts"); 7.321 and 6.342 (lactantia ubera, "milk-producing breasts"); 15.117 and 472. Uber (singular) or ubera is used for animals by Ovid, Ars Amatoria 1.350 (the udder of a cow) and 2.375 (the teats of lactating dogs); by Horace, Sermones 1.1.110, Odes 2.19.10, 4.4.14 and 4.15.5, and elsewhere; by Tibullus, for sheep in 1.3.45; by Propertius, 2.34b. ^ Staples, p. 164, citing Norman Bryson, "Two Narratives of Rape in the Visual Arts: Lucretia and the Sabine Women," in Rape (Blackwell, 1986), p. 199. Augustine's interpretation of the rape of Lucretia (in City of God 1.19) has generated a substantial body of criticism, starting with Machiavelli's satire. In Augustine of Hippo: A Biography (Faber, 1967), Peter Brown characterized this section of Augustine's work as his most vituperative attack on Roman ideals of virtue. See also Carol J. Adams and Marie M. Fortune, Violence against Women and Children: A Christian Theological Sourcebook (Continuum, 1995), p. 219ff.; Melissa M. Matthes, The Rape of Lucretia and the Founding of Republics (Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000), p. 68ff. (also on Machiavelli); Virginia Burrus, Saving Shame: Martyrs, Saints, and Other Abject Subjects (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008), p. 125ff.; Amy Greenstadt, Rape and the Rise of the Author: Gendering Intention in Early Modern England (Ashgate, 2009), p. 71; Melissa E. Sanchez, Erotic Subjects: The Sexuality of Politics in Early Modern English Literature (Oxford University Press, 2011), p. 93ff. Augustine defines sexual integrity (pudicitia) as a purely spiritual quality that physical defilement cannot taint; as indicated throughout this article, the Romans viewed rape and other forms of stuprum within a political context as crimes against the citizen's liberty. ^ Martial (6.39) observed that the power of the paterfamilias was so absolute that having sex with his own son was technically not a transgression (nefas), as noted by John Boswell, Christianity, Social Tolerance, and Homosexuality: Gay People in Western Europe from the Beginning of the Christian Era to the Fourteenth Century (University of Chicago Press, 1980), p. 67. ^ The abolition of debt bondage was facilitated by the spread of chattel slavery for agricultural labor; thus during the period of Roman conquest and expansionism on the Italian peninsula, the distinction arises between a Roman citizen with rights and an "Italian" who might be enslaved; see John W. Rich, "Tiberius Gracchus, Land and Manpower," in Crises and the Roman Empire. Proceedings of the Seventh Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire (Nijmegen, June 20–24, 2006) (Brill, 2007), p. 160. ^ In the similar story from Valerius Maximus, a young man named Titus Veturius, whose father was a bankrupt Roman magistrate, had placed himself in slavery with Publius Plotius, who had attempted to seduce him (stuprare). When Veturius refused, Plotius whipped him. Veturius then complained to the consuls, who took the complaint to the senate. Plotius was jailed. See Cantarella, pp. 104–105 References[edit] ^ a b Paul G.P. Meyboom and Miguel John Versluys, "The Meaning of Dwarfs in Nilotic Scenes," in Nile into Tiber: Egypt in the Roman World. Proceedings of the IIIrd International Conference of Isis Studies, Leiden, May 11–14, 2005 (Brill, 2007), p. 184. ^ Edwards, p. 65. ^ Verstraete, Beert C. and Provencal, Vernon, eds. (2005) Same-Sex Desire and Love in Greco-Roman Antiquity and in the Classical Tradition. Haworth Press. p. 5. For an extended discussion of how the modern perception of Roman sexual decadence can be traced to early Christian polemic, see Alastair J. L. Blanshard, "Roman Vice," in Sex: Vice and Love from Antiquity to Modernity (Wiley-Blackwell, 2010), pp. 1–88. ^ Karl-J. Hölkeskamp, Reconstructing the Roman Republic: An Ancient Political Culture and Modern Research (Princeton University Press, 2010), pp. 17–18. ^ Langlands, p. 17. ^ Langlands, p. 20. ^ Fantham, p. 121 ^ Richlin (1993), p. 556. Under the Empire, the emperor assumed the powers of the censors (p. 560). ^ Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality: The Care of the Self (New York: Vintage Books, 1988), vol. 3, p. 239 (on the contrast with the Christian view of sex as "linked to evil") et passim, as summarized by Inger Furseth and Pål Repstad, An Introduction to the Sociology of Religion: Classical and Contemporary Perspectives (Ashgate, 2006), p. 64. ^ Cantarella, p. xii. ^ Langlands, pp. 37–38. ^ Cantarella, pp. xii–xiii. ^ Clarke, pp. 9, 153ff. ^ Langlands, p. 31, especially note 55 ^ Clarke, p. 11. ^ McGinn (2004), p. 164. ^ Williams, p. 304, citing Saara Lilja, Homosexuality in Republican and Augustan Rome (Societas Scientiarum Fennica, 1983), p. 122. ^ a b c d e Nussbaum, pp. 299–300 ^ a b Hallett, p. 11. ^ a b Langlands, p. 13. ^ Clarke, p. 8, maintains that the ancient Romans "did not have a self-conscious idea of their sexuality". ^ Penner, pp. 15–16 ^ Habinek, pp. 2ff. ^ Edwards, pp. 66–67, especially note 12. ^ Clarke, p. 9. ^ Potter (2009), p. 330. ^ Potter (2009), p. 331. ^ Ovid, Tristia 2.431ff. ^ Griffin, Jasper (2012). "Propertius and Antony". Journal of Roman Studies. 67: 17–26 (20). doi:10.2307/299915. JSTOR 299915. ^ Ovid, Tristia 2.413 and 443–444; Heinz Hofmann, Latin Fiction: The Latin Novel in Context (Routledge, 1999), p. 85. ^ Plutarch, Life of Crassus 32. ^ Clarke, p. 3. ^ Clarke, p. 108. ^ The tabella was a small, portable painting, as distinguished from an architecturally permanent wall painting. ^ Ovid, Tristia 2, as cited in Clarke, pp. 91–92. ^ Clarke, p. 93. ^ Clarke, pp. 3 and 212 ff., quotation on p. 216. ^ As criticized by Suetonius, Life of Horace: Ad res Venerias intemperantior traditur; nam speculato cubiculo scorta dicitur habuisse disposita, ut quocumque respexisset ibi ei imago coitus referretur; Clarke, p. 92. ^ a b Suetonius, Life of Tiberius 44.2; Clarke, pp. 92–93. ^ a b Potter (2009), p. 329. ^ Potter (2009), p. 330. Although there is little question that Ausonius was a Christian, his works contain many indications that he remained at least interested in, if not a practitioner of, traditional Roman and Celtic religions. ^ Anthony King, "Mammals," in The Natural History of Pompeii (Cambridge University Press, 2002), p. 444; John R. Clarke, The Houses of Roman Italy, 100 B.C.–A.D. 250: Ritual, Space and Decoration (University of California Press, 1991), p. 97. ^ Staples ^ Celia E. Schultz, Women's Religious Activity in the Roman Republic (University of North Carolina Press, 2006), pp. 79–81; Michael Lipka, Roman Gods: A Conceptual Approach (Brill, 2009), pp. 141–142 ^ See Flamen Dialis and rex sacrorum. ^ Mary Beard, J.A. North, and S.R.F. Price, Religions of Rome: A History (Cambridge University Press, 1998), vol. 1, p. 53; Robin Lorsch Wildfang, Rome's Vestal Virgins: A Study of Rome's Vestal Priestesses in the Late Republic and Early Empire (Routledge, 2006), p. 20. ^ Staples, p. 149. ^ Cicero, De officiis 1.17.54: nam cum sit hoc natura commune animantium, ut habeant libidinem procreandi, prima societas in ipso coniugio est, proxima in liberis, deinde una domus, communia omnia; id autem est principium urbis et quasi seminarium reipublicae; Sabine MacCormack, "Sin, Citizenship, and the Salvation of Souls: The Impact of Christian Priorities on Late-Roman and Post-Roman Society," Comparative Studies in Society and History 39.4 (1997), p. 651. ^ See also "Roman prostitution and religion". ^ As in the first-line invocation of Venus in Lucretius's epic De rerum natura: "Begetter (genetrix) of the line of Aeneas, the pleasure (voluptas) of human and divine." ^ J. Rufus Fears, "The Theology of Victory at Rome: Approaches and Problem," Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.17.2 (1981), pp. 791–795. Sulla himself may or may not have been an augur at this time. ^ Williams, p. 92. ^ Martin Henig, Religion in Roman Britain (London: Batsford, 1984), pp. 185–186. ^ Pliny, Natural History 28.4.7 (28.39), says that when a general celebrated a triumph, the Vestals hung an effigy of the fascinus on the underside of his chariot to protect him from invidia. ^ Iter amoris, "journey" or "course of love". See Propertius 3.15.3–6; Ovid, Fasti) 3.777–778; Michelle George, "The 'Dark Side' of the Toga," in Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture (University of Toronto Press, 2008), p. 55. Robert E. A. Palmer, "Mutinus Titinus: A Study in Etrusco-Roman Religion and Topography," in Roman Religion and Roman Empire: Five Essays (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1974), pp. 187–206, argued that Mutunus Tutunus was subsumed by the cult of Liber; Augustine, De civitate Dei 7.21, said that a phallus was a divine object used during the Liberalia to repel malevolent influences from the crops. ^ Robert Turcan, The Gods of Ancient Rome (Routledge, 2001; originally published in French 1998), pp. 18–20; Jörg Rüpke, Religion in Republican Rome: Rationalization and Ritual Change (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002), pp. 181–182. ^ Clarke, pp. 46–47. ^ a b c d Langlands, p. 30. ^ Barbette Stanley Spaeth, The Roman Goddess Ceres (University of Texas Press, 1996), pp. 115–116, citing Festus (87 in the edition of Müller) on the torch and noting that priestesses devoted to Ceres in North Africa took a vow of chastity like that of the Vestals (Tertullian, Ad uxorem 1.6 Oehler). Ovid notes that Ceres is pleased by even small offerings, as long as they are casta (Fasti 4.411–412). Statius says that Ceres herself is casta (Silvae 4.311). The goddess's concern with castitas may have to do with her tutelary function over boundaries, including the transition between life and death, as in the mystery religions. ^ H.H.J. Brouwer, Bona Dea: The Sources and a Description of the Cult (Brill, 1989), pp. 367–367, note 319. ^ Mueller, Roman Religion in Valerius Maximus, p. 51; Susanne William Rasmussen, Public Portents in Republican Rome («L'Erma» di Bretschneider, 2003), p. 41. ^ Wildfang, Rome's Vestal Virgins, p. 82 et passim. ^ Crassus's nomen was Licinius; the Vestal's name was Licinia (see Roman naming conventions). His reputation for greed and sharp business dealings helped save him; he objected that he had spent time with Licinia to obtain some real estate she owned. For sources, see Michael C. Alexander, Trials in the Late Roman Republic, 149 BC to 50 BC (University of Toronto Press, 1990), p. 84. The most likely year was 73 BC; Plutarch, Life of Crassus 1.2, implies that the prosecution was motivated by political utility. One or more Vestals were also brought before the College of Pontiffs for incestum in connection with the Catiline Conspiracy (Alexander, Trials, p. 83). ^ The sources on this notorious incident are numerous; Brouwer, Bona Dea, p. 144ff., gathers the ancient accounts. ^ Bruce W. Frier and Thomas A. J. McGinn, A Casebook on Roman Family Law (Oxford University Press, 2004), pp. 38 and 52. ^ Richlin (1983), p. 30. ^ Stuprum cum vi or per vim stuprum: Richlin (1993), p. 562. ^ a b c Fantham, p. 118. ^ Diana C. Moses, "Livy's Lucretia and the Validity of Coerced Consent in Roman Law," in Consent and Coercion to Sex and Marriage in Ancient and Medieval Societies (Dunbarton Oaks, 1993), p. 50; Gillian Clark, Women in Late Antiquity: Pagan and Christian Life-styles (Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 36. ^ Moses, "Livy's Lucretia," pp. 50–51. ^ Hans Dieter Betz, The Greek Magical Papyri in Translation (University of Chicago Press, 1986, 1992), p. xliff. ^ Matthew W. Dickie, Magic and Magicians in the Greco-Roman World (Routledge, 2003), p. 16. ^ Dickie, Magic and Magicians, p. 36. Defixiones are also known as curse tablets; erotic prohibitions are only one form of defixio. ^ Richard Gordon, "Innovation and Authority in Graeco-Egyptian Magic," in Kykeon: Studies in Honour of H. S. Versnel (Brill, 2002), p. 72. ^ Christopher A. Faraone, "Agents and Victims: Constructions of Gender and Desire in Ancient Greek Love Magic," in The Sleep of Reason, p. 410. ^ Marcellus's work was "the last major compilation [of medical treatments] written in Gaul based on the work of ancient and contemporary Greek authors", notes Bonnie Effros, Creating Community with Food and Drink in Merovingian Gaul (Palgrave Macmillan, 2002), p. 55. Marcellus names the father of Ausonius in his preface. ^ Ut eunuchum sine ferro facias, "how you make a eunuch without the iron (blade)": Marcellus of Bordeaux, De medicamentis ^ Marcellus, De medicamentis 33.64. ^ Marcellus, De medicamentis 33.64; compare Pliny the Elder, Natural History 25.75 (37). ^ Marcellus, De medicamentis 33.26. ^ Including artemisia, dittany, opopanax, pepper, saffron, giant fennel, myrrh, and colocynth; John M. Riddle, Contraception and Abortion from the Ancient World to the Renaissance (Harvard University Press, 1992), p. 90. ^ Riddle, Contraception and Abortion from the Ancient World to the Renaissance, p. 91, noting that Marcellus "does not appear expertly knowledgeable about...women and fertility". ^ The Paignia of Democritus, PGM 7.167–186, as cited by James N. Davidson, "Don't Try This at Home: Pliny's Salpe, Salpe's Paignia and Magic," Classical Quarterly 45.2 (1995), p. 591. ^ Pliny, Natural History 28.262, crediting Salpe the obstetrician, as cited by Davidson, "Don't Try This at Home," p. 591. ^ Translation from Brown, p. 151, of Lucretius, De rerum natura, 4.1073–1085: Nec Veneris fructu caret is qui vitat amorem, sed potius quae sunt sine poena commoda sumit; nam certe purast sanis magis inde voluptas quam miseris. etenim potiundi tempore in ipso fluctuat incertis erroribus ardor amantum nec constat quid primum oculis manibusque fruantur. quod petiere, premunt arte faciuntque dolorem corporis et dentes inlidunt saepe labellis osculaque adfligunt, quia non est pura voluptas et stimuli subsunt qui instigant laedere id ipsum quodcumque est, rabies unde illaec germina surgunt. ^ Stuart Gillespie and Philip Hardie, introduction to The Cambridge Companion to Lucretius (Cambridge University Press, 2007), p. 12. ^ Epicurus, Letter to Menoeceus 131. ^ A scholiast gives an example of an unnatural and unnecessary desire as acquiring crowns and setting up statues for oneself; see J.M. Rist, Epicurus: An Introduction (Cambridge University Press, 1972), pp. 116–119. ^ Philip Hardie, "Lucretius and Later Latin Literature in Antiquity," in The Cambridge Companion to Lucretius, p. 121, note 32. ^ Lucretius, De rerum natura, 4.1030–57 ^ Brown, pp. 62–63. ^ Brown, pp. 63, 181–182. ^ Brown, p. 64. ^ Brown, p. 65. Epicurus taught that the soul was a thin tissue of atoms that dissipated into the cosmos upon death; therefore, there is no afterlife and no reason for mortals to live with anxieties about what happens after death. ^ Lucretius, De rerum natura 4.1053–1054 ^ Brown, p. 123. ^ a b Brown, pp. 65–66. ^ a b Brown, p. 67. ^ a b Brown, p. 66. ^ The sex of the child, however, is not determined by the gender of the parent whose traits dominate. ^ Lucretius, De rerum natura 4.1209–1277 ^ Brown, p. 69. ^ David Sedley, Lucretius and the Transformation of Greek Wisdom (Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 195–196. ^ a b c Brown, p. 68. ^ Lucretius, De rerum natura 4.1144ff. ^ Brown, p. 193. ^ Phebe Lowell Bowditch, Horace and the Gifty Economy of Patronage (University of California Press, 2001), p. 215. ^ Lucretius, De rerum natura 4.1076ff. ^ Brown, p. 217. ^ Lucretius, De rerum natura 4.1058, 1073, 1084 ^ Brown, p. 227. ^ Fredrick, p. 105. The "true" gods as conceived by Epicureans bear little resemblance to those found in mythological literature; they don't concern themselves with mortals, much less have sexual relations with them, and dwell in a state of detachment and ideal pleasure. ^ Brown, pp. 69ff. ^ Lucretius, De rerum natura 4.1278–1287; Gordon, "Some Unseen Monster," p. 105. ^ Gordon, "Some Unseen Monster," pp. 90–94. ^ a b c Richlin, Amy, ed. (2008). Marcus Aurelius in Love. University of Chicago Press. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-226-71302-1. ^ Colish, p. 39, pointing out that to the early Stoics, "sexual needs may therefore be met in whatever manner pleases the individual, including prostitution, incest, masturbation, and homosexuality." ^ Gaca, p. 89. Gaca (p. 60) emphasizes that Seneca and Musonius, while highly influential among the Romans, were "unrepresentative" of the Stoic tradition in general. ^ William Loader, Sexuality and the Jesus Tradition (Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2005), p. 186. The relation of Stoic sexual ethics to the formation of Christian sexual ethics is a much-discussed topic of scholarship, but mainstream Christianity regarded celibacy as ideal and sex as inherently sinful, redeemed somewhat if occurring within marriage; see Nussbaum, p. 308. See also Colish. ^ Martha Nussbaum, The Therapy of Desire: Theory and Practice in Hellenistic Ethics (Princeton University Press, 1994, 2009), pp. 359–401. ^ Prudence Allen, The Concept of Woman: The Aristotelian Revolution, 750 BC–AD 1250 (Eden Press, 1985), p. 159. ^ Nussbaum, p. 299. Musonius wrote in Greek under Roman rule; Seneca was a Latin author from Roman Spain. ^ Nussbaum, p. 300. ^ Colish, pp. 37–38. ^ Gretchen Reydams-Schils, The Roman Stoics: Self, Responsibility, and Affection (University of Chicago Press, 2005), p. 151. ^ Nussbaum, pp. 307–308. ^ Nussbaum, p. 308. ^ "Bare pleasure" is psilên hêdonên; Nussbaum, p. 309. ^ Reydams-Schils, The Roman Stoics, p. 152. ^ Gaca, p. 87. ^ Gaca, p. 89. ^ a b Gaca, p. 111. ^ Allen, The Concept of Woman, pp. 147–148. ^ Gaca, p. 111, citing Ad Helviam 13.3: "If one thinks that sexual lust is given to a man not for the purpose of pleasure but for propagating the human race, then all other lust will pass him by unscathed, since the destructive force insidiously fixed in the innards does not violently harm him" (si cogitas libidinem non voluptatis causa homini datam, sed propagandi generis, quem no violaverit hoc secretum et infixum visceribus ipsis exitium, omnis alia cupiditas intactum praeteribit). ^ Gaca, p. 112, citing Seneca, De matrimonio 188 (edition of Frassinetti, as excerpted by Jerome, Against Jovinianus 319a. ^ a b Gaca, p. 112. ^ A view of Epictetus as quoted by Marcus Aurelius, 4.41: "You are a little soul carrying a corpse around, as Epictetus used to say." ^ Marcus Aurelius, Meditations 6.13, as translated by Hard and cited by Reydams-Schils, The Roman Stoics, p. 36. ^ Seneca, Natural Questions 1.16, as discussed by Reydams-Schils, The Roman Stoics, p. 112. ^ Juvenal, Satire 2.8–10, 15–17, as cited by Potter (2009), p. 340, with further references to her more in-depth discussions of Juvenal's portrayal in other studies. ^ Richlin (1993), p. 542, citing Martial 1.24, 1.96, 2.36, 6.56, 7.58, 9.27, and 12.42. ^ Gaca, pp. 60, 92. ^ Colish, p. 320. ^ Cicero, On the Nature of the Gods 2.64. Isidore of Seville says similarly that Saturn "cut off the genitalia of his father Caelus, because nothing is born in the heavens from seeds" (Etymologies 9.11.32). Jane Chance, Medieval Mythography: From Roman North Africa to the School of Chartres, A.D. 433–1177 (University Press of Florida, 1994), pp. 27 and 142. ^ McGinn (1998), p. 326. See the statement preserved by Aulus Gellius 9.12. 1 that " it was an injustice to bring force to bear against the body of those who are free" (vim in corpus liberum non aecum ... adferri). ^ Elaine Fantham, "The Ambiguity of Virtus in Lucan's Civil War and Statius' Thebiad," Arachnion 3 ^ Bell, Andrew J. E. (1997). "Cicero and the Spectacle of Power". The Journal of Roman Studies. 87: 1–22 (9). doi:10.2307/301365. JSTOR 301365. ^ Edwin S. Ramage, “Aspects of Propaganda in the De bello gallico: Caesar’s Virtues and Attributes,” Athenaeum 91 (2003) 331–372; Myles Anthony McDonnell, Roman manliness: virtus and the Roman Republic (Cambridge University Press, 2006) passim; Rhiannon Evans, Utopia Antiqua: Readings of the Golden Age and Decline at Rome (Routledge, 2008), pp. 156–157. ^ a b Williams, p. 18. ^ Cantarella, p. xi ^ See further discussion of how sexual activity defines the free, respectable citizen from the slave or "un-free" person below under Master-slave relations and Pleasure and infamy. ^ Richlin (1983), p. 225. ^ Hallett, pp. 67–68. ^ a b c Hallett, p. 68. ^ Aulus Gellius 15.12.3 ^ Williams, pp. 20–21, 39. ^ Potter (2009), p. 329. The law began to specify harsher punishments for the lower classes (humiliores) than for the elite (honestiores). ^ This is a theme throughout Carlin A. Barton, The Sorrows of the Ancient Romans: The Gladiator and the Monster (Princeton University Press, 1993). ^ Flagiti principium est nudare inter civis corpora: Ennius, as quoted by Cicero, Tusculan Disputations 4.33.70 ^ Williams, pp. 64 and 292, note 12 ^ Younger, p. 134 ^ Simon Goldhill, introduction to Being Greek under Rome: Cultural Identity, the Second Sophistic and the Development of Empire (Cambridge University Press, 2001), p. 2. Originally, flagitium meant a public shaming, and later more generally a disgrace; Fritz Graf, "Satire in a Ritual Context," in The Cambridge Companion to Roman Satire (Cambridge University Press, 2005), pp. 195–197. ^ Habinek, p. 39. ^ a b Crowther, Nigel B. (1980). "Nudity and Morality: Athletics in Italy". Classical Journal. 76 (2): 119–123. JSTOR 3297374. ^ Julia Heskel, "Cicero as Evidence for Attitudes to Dress in the Late Republic," in The World of Roman Costume (University of Wisconsin Press, 2001), p. 138 ^ a b c Bonfante, Larissa (1989). "Nudity as a Costume in Classical Art". American Journal of Archaeology. 93 (4): 543–570. doi:10.2307/505328. JSTOR 505328. ^ Ovid, Fasti 2.283–380. ^ Carole E. Newlands, Playing with Time: Ovid and the Fasti (Cornell University Press, 1995), pp. 59–60. ^ Williams, pp. 69–70. ^ Paul Zanker, The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus (University of Michigan Press, 1988), p. 5ff. ^ Zanker, The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus, pp. 239–240, 249–250 et passim. ^ Plutarch, Life of Cato 20.5 ^ Williams, pp. 69–70 ^ Zanker, The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus, p. 6. ^ Clarke, p. 84 ^ David J. Mattingly, Imperialism, Power, and Identity: Experiencing the Roman Empire (Princeton University Press, 2011), p. 106. ^ Hallett, p. 215. ^ Plan of the Forum Augustum (in yellow) Dominic Montserrat, "Reading Gender in the Roman World," in Experiencing Rome: Culture, Identity, and Power in the Roman Empire (Routledge, 2000), pp. 168–170 (quotation on p. 169), citing also Barbara Kellum, "The Phallus as Signifier: The Forum of Augustus and Rituals of Masculinity," in Sexuality in Ancient Art (Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 170–173, and "Concealing/Revealing: Gender and the Play of Meaning in the Monuments of Ancient Rome," in Habinek, p. 170. "Such readings of major Roman public building projects may seem fanciful, born out of the late twentieth-century fascination which wishes to see everything refracted through its prism," Montserrat notes (p. 170) ^ Fredrick, pp. 248–249. The idea is that the plan would have a apotropaic function mimicking on a grand scale the local effect of the bulla or fascinum. ^ Fredrick, p. 156. ^ Mattingly, Imperialism, Power, and Identity, p. 106. ^ As represented by the glandes Perusinae; Williams, p. 21. ^ Martial, 11.15.8ff., with 48 usages throughout his epigrams ^ a b Adams, p. 9. ^ Cicero, Ad familiares 9.22 ^ It is the most common word for "penis" in the poetry of Catullus, appearing eight times; Adams, pp. 10–11. ^ Eighteen times in inscriptions from Pompeii, thrice in the Graffiti del Palatino, and 26 times in the Priapea; Adams, pp. 10, 12. ^ Adams, p. 13. Verpa appears once each in Catullus (28.12), Martial (11.46.2), and the Priapea (34.5). As a term of vulgar Latin, it appears frequently in graffiti (Adams, pp. 12–13). ^ a b c d e f Hodges, Frederick M. (2001). "The Ideal Prepuce in Ancient Greece and Rome: Male Genital Aesthetics and Their Relation to Lipodermos, Circumcision, Foreskin Restoration, and the Kynodesme" (PDF). Bulletin of the History of Medicine. Johns Hopkins University Press. 75 (Fall 2001): 375–405. doi:10.1353/bhm.2001.0119. PMID 11568485. Retrieved 1 December 2019. ^ Adams, pp. 14–17, 23, 28. ^ Adams, p. 24. ^ Adams, pp. 35–38. ^ Adams, pp. 35–36. ^ Marcellus, De medicamentis 7.20, 33.2, 33.36 ^ Adams, p. 36. ^ Adams, p. 39. ^ Adams, p. 67. ^ Joshua T. Katz, "Testimonia Ritus Italicus: Male Genitalia, Solemn Declarations, and a New Latin Sound Law," Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 98 (1998) 183–217 (quotation from p. 193), pointing to the oaths in the Book of Genesis, chapters 24 and 47; the testicles of ritually slaughtered animals used to affirm testimony in Athenian murder trials, as at Demosthenes, Contra Aristocratem 23.67f.; Rhetorica ad Herennium 3.33, where ram's testicles are a mnemonic device in a courtroom exercise. Katz proposes that the Umbrian hapax urfeta means "testicles" and is related to Latin orbis (as "balls"); thus the Iguvine Tables also make a connection between testicles and "solemn declarations" (Katz, p. 191). ^ a b Katz, "Testimonia Ritus Italicus," p. 189. ^ Richlin (1993), pp. 546–547. ^ Adams, p. 66. ^ a b c d e f g h Rubin, Jody P. (July 1980). "Celsus' Decircumcision Operation: Medical and Historical Implications". Urology. Elsevier. 16 (1): 121–124. doi:10.1016/0090-4295(80)90354-4. PMID 6994325. Retrieved 1 December 2019. ^ a b c Circumcised barbarians, along with any others who revealed the glans penis, were the butt of ribald humor. For Greek art portrays the foreskin, often drawn in meticulous detail, as an emblem of male beauty; and children with congenitally short foreskins were sometimes subjected to a treatment, known as epispasm, that was aimed at elongation. — Jacob Neusner, Approaches to Ancient Judaism, New Series: Religious and Theological Studies (1993), p. 149, Scholars Press. ^ a b Fredriksen, Paula (2018). When Christians Were Jews: The First Generation. London: Yale University Press. pp. 10–11. ISBN 978-0-300-19051-9. ^ Juvenal 14.103–104; Tacitus, Historia 5.5.1–2; Martial 7.30.5, 7.35.3–4, 7.82.5–6, 11.94; Margaret Williams, "Jews and Jewish Communities in the Roman Empire," in Experiencing Rome: Culture, Identity and Power in the Roman Empire (Routledge, 2000), p. 325 ^ Smallwood, p. 431 ^ Jack N. Lightstone, "Roman Diaspora Judaism," in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 362. ^ Eric Orlin, "Urban Religion in the Middle and Late Republic", pp. 63–64, and John Scheid, "Sacrifices for Gods and Ancestors", p. 268, in A Companion to Roman Religion. ^ Dunn, James D. G. (Autumn 1993). "Echoes of Intra-Jewish Polemic in Paul's Letter to the Galatians". Journal of Biblical Literature. Society of Biblical Literature. 112 (3): 459–477. doi:10.2307/3267745. JSTOR 3267745. ; Dunn, James D. G., ed. (2007). "'Neither circumcision nor uncircumcision, but...'". The New Perspective on Paul: Collected Essays. Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament. 185. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck. pp. 314–330. ISBN 978-3-16-149518-2. ^ Thiessen, Matthew (2016). "Gentile Sons and Seed of Abraham". Paul and the Gentile Problem. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 105–115. ISBN 978-0-19-027175-6. ^ Bisschops, Ralph (January 2017). "Metaphor in Religious Transformation: 'Circumcision of the Heart' in Paul of Tarsus" (PDF). In Chilton, Paul; Kopytowska, Monika (eds.). Language, Religion and the Human Mind. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–30. doi:10.1093/oso/9780190636647.003.0012. ISBN 978-0-19-063664-7. Retrieved 1 December 2019. ^ Paul of Tarsus, Galatians 4:21–5:1 ^ Elliott, Susan M. (1999). "Choose Your Mother, Choose Your Master: Galatians 4:21–5:1 in the Shadow of the Anatolian Mother of the Gods". Journal of Biblical Literature. 118 (4): 661–683 (680–681). doi:10.2307/3268109. JSTOR 3268109. ^ "The Rhetorical Situation Revisited: Circumcision and Castration," in Cutting Too Close for Comfort: Paul’s Letter to the Galatians in Its Anatolian Cultic Context (T&T Clark International, 2003) passim. ^ Lightstone, "Roman Diaspora Judaism," p. 363. ^ Several Greco-Roman writers, such as Strabo, regarded the Jews as of Egyptian descent, in what was apparently their understanding of the Exodus. Schafer (1997), pp. 93–94. ^ Smallwood, p. 430 ^ Schafer (1997), pp. 93–94. ^ Schafer (1997), p. 99. ^ Barbier, Patrick (1989). The World of the Castrati: The History of an Extraordinary Operatic Phenomenon. Translated by Crosland, Margaret; Souvenir Press (London). France: Editions Grasset and Fasquelle. p. 167. ^ Williams, pp. 251–252, citing Suetonius, Life of Nero. ^ Schäfer (2003), p. 150, Schafer (1997), p. 103, pointing out this depends on a single note in the Historia Augusta, the historical credibility of which is often cast in doubt. Cassius Dio mentions nothing about circumcision in his account of the Bar Kokhba revolt. See also Smallwood, pp. 430–431, who thinks the ban makes more sense as a punitive measure after the revolt, since it "ran completely counter to the long established Roman policy of guaranteeing Jewish religious liberty." ^ Schäfer (2003), p. 150 ^ Smallwood, p. 467. ^ Smallwood, p. 470. ^ Schafer (1997), p. 103 ^ Smallwood, p. 469, takes Origen as meaning that circumcision was "a solely Jewish rite" by his time. ^ Schäfer (2003), p. 185. ^ a b c d e f Schultheiss, Dirk; Truss, Michael C.; Stief, Christian G.; Jonas, Udo (1998). "Uncircumcision: A Historical Review of Preputial Restoration". Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 101 (7): 1990–8. doi:10.1097/00006534-199806000-00037. PMID 9623850. Retrieved 1 December 2019. ^ Causa decoris: Celsus, De Medicina, 7.25.1A. ^ Schäfer (2003), p. 151. ^ Dugan, pp. 403–404. ^ Dugan, pp. 404–405. Galen's theory is based on that of Aristotle. ^ Galen, De semine 1.16.30–32 (4.588 Kühn = De Lacy 1992, 138–41). ^ Dugan, p. 406. ^ Ann Ellis Hanson, "The Restructuring of Female Physiology at Rome," in Les écoles médicales à Rome (Université de Nantes, 1991), p. 267, citing Priapea 78 and CIL 12.6721(5), one of the Perusine glandes. ^ Martial 6.82, Juvenal 6.73, 379; J.P. Sullivan, Martial, the Unexpected Classic (Cambridge University Press, 1991), p. 189 ^ Schafer (1997), p. 101 ^ Peter J. Ucko, "Penis Sheaths: A Comparative Study," in Material Culture: Critical Concepts in the Social Sciences (Routledge, 2004), p. 260. ^ Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria 11.3.19. ^ Pliny, Natural History 34.166. ^ The Greek word for the involuntary discharge of semen was gonorrhea. Dugan, pp. 403–404. ^ Edwards, pp. 63–64. ^ Edwards, p. 47. ^ The case, which nearly shipwrecked Clodius's political career, is discussed at length by his biographer, W. Jeffrey Tatum, The Patrician Tribune: Publius Clodius Pulcher (University of North Carolina Press, 1999), p. 62ff. ^ P. Clodius, a crocota, a mitra, a muliebribus soleis purpureisque fasceolis, a strophio, a psalterio, <a> flagitio, a stupro est factus repente popularis: Cicero, the speech De Haruspicium Responso 21.44, delivered May 56 BC, and given a Lacanian analysis by Eleanor Winsor Leach, “Gendering Clodius,” Classical World 94 (2001) 335–359. ^ a b Williams ^ Edwards, p. 34 ^ W. Jeffrey Tatum, Always I Am Caesar (Blackwell, 2008), p. 109. ^ Ovid adduces the story of Hercules and Omphale as an explanation for the ritual nudity of the Lupercalia; see under "Male nudity" above and Richard J. King, Desiring Rome: Male Subjectivity and Reading Ovid's Fasti (Ohio State University Press, 2006), pp. 185, 195, 200, 204. ^ Digest 34.2.23.2, as cited in Richlin (1993), p. 540. ^ Cum virginali mundo clam pater: Olson, "The Appearance of the Young Roman Girl," p. 147. ^ Digest 34.2.33, as cited in Richlin (1993), p. 540. ^ a b Seneca the Elder, Controversia 5.6 ^ a b c Richlin (1993), p. 564. ^ Stephen O. Murray, Homosexualities (University of Chicago Press, 2000), pp. 298–303; Mary R. Bachvarova, "Sumerian Gala Priests and Eastern Mediterranean Returning Gods: Tragic Lamentation in Cross-Cultural Perspective," in Lament: Studies in the Ancient Mediterranean and Beyond (Oxford University Press, 2008), pp. 19, 33, 36. See also "Hermaphroditism and androgyny" below. ^ a b c Hallett. p. 55. ^ For an explanation of this principle in a military setting, see Phang (2008), p. 93. ^ Richlin (1993) ^ Williams, p. 85. ^ Catullus, Carmina 24, 48, 81, 99. ^ Tibullus, Book One, elegies 4, 8, and 9. ^ Propertius 4.2. ^ Amy Richlin, "Sexuality in the Roman Empire," in A Companion to the Roman Empire (Blackwell, 2006), p. 335: "The sulks and pride of these boys and their petulant quarrels . . . I prefer to a dowry of a million sesterces." ^ Louis Crompton, Byron and Greek Love (London, 1998), p. 93. ^ As at Metamorphoses 10.155ff. ^ Both Juvenal (for instance, in Satire 2) and Martial describe weddings between men. Suetonius reports that the emperor Nero had two marriages to men, once taking the role of the bride, and once the groom. Williams, p. 28 ^ Karen K. Hersh, The Roman Wedding: Ritual and Meaning in Antiquity (Cambridge University Press, 2010), p. 36; Caroline Vout, Power and Eroticism in Imperial Rome (Cambridge University Press, 2007), pp. 151ff. ^ Michael Groneberg, "Reasons for Homophobia: Three Types of Explanation," in Combatting Homophobia: Experiences and Analyses Pertinent to Education (LIT Verlag, 2011), p. 193. ^ Codex Theodosianus 9.7.3 (4 December 342), introduced by the sons of Constantine in 342. ^ Groneberg, "Reasons for Homophobia," p. 193. ^ Michael Brinkschröde, "Christian Homophobia: Four Central Discourses," in Combatting Homophobia, p. 166. ^ Scholz, Piotr O. (1999). Eunuchs and Castrati: A Cultural History. Markus Wiener. pp. 112–3. ISBN 9781558762015. ^ Richlin (1993), pp. 558–559. ^ Digest 3.1.1.6, as noted in Richlin (1993), p. 559. ^ Williams, pp. 104–105. ^ As recorded in a fragment of the speech De Re Floria by Cato the Elder (frg. 57 Jordan = Aulus Gellius 9.12.7), as noted and discussed in Richlin (1993), p. 561. ^ Rhetorica ad Herennium 4.8.12 ^ a b Richlin (1993), p. 562. ^ Digest 48.6.3.4 and 48.6.5.2. ^ Richlin (1993), pp. 562–563. See also Digest 48.5.35 [34] on legal definitions of rape that included boys. ^ Paulus, Digest 47.11.1.2 ^ Richlin (1993), p. 563. ^ Valerius Maximus 6.1 ^ Quintilian, Institutio oratoria 4.2.69–71 ^ Richlin (1993), p. 565. ^ Richlin (1993), p. 565, citing the same passage by Quintilian. ^ Williams, pp. 27, 76 (with an example from Martial 2.60.2. ^ Edwards, pp. 55–56. ^ Richlin (1983), pp. 27–28, 43 (on Martial), 58. ^ Williams, p. 20 ^ Hallett, p. 12 ^ a b c d e f g Richlin, Amy (1981). "The Meaning of irrumare in Catullus and Martial". Classical Philology. 76 (1): 40–46. JSTOR 269544. ^ a b c McGinn (1998), p. 40. ^ David Potter, "The Roman Army and Navy," in The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, p. 79. ^ Pat Southern, The Roman Army: A Social and Institutional History (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 144. ^ Phang (2001), p. 2. ^ Phang (2001), p. 3. The Bellum Hispaniense, about Caesar's civil war on the front in Roman Spain, mentions an officer who has a male concubine (concubinus) on campaign. ^ Polybius, Histories 6.37.9 (translated as bastinado). ^ Phang (2008), p. 93. See also "Master-slave relations" below. ^ Phang (2008), p. 94. Roman law recognized that a soldier was vulnerable to rape by the enemy: Digest 3.1.1.6, as discussed in Richlin (1993), p. 559. ^ The name is given elsewhere as Plotius. ^ Plutarch, Life of Marius 14.4–8; see also Valerius Maximus 6.1.12 and Cicero, Pro Milone 9, in Dillon and Garland, Ancient Rome, p. 380 ^ Phang (2008), pp. 93–94 ^ Phang (2001), p. 281 ^ Cantarella, pp. 105–106. ^ Phang (2001), pp. 280–282. ^ Phang (2008), p. 97, citing among other examples Juvenal, Satire 14.194–195. ^ Phang (2008), pp. 244, 253–254. ^ Phang (2008), pp. 267–268. ^ C.R. Whittaker, Rome and Its Frontiers: The Dynamics of Empire (Routledge, 2004), pp. 128–132. ^ Phang (2008), pp. 256, 261. ^ Appian, Bellum Civile 1.13.109 ^ Phang (2008), pp. 124 and 257. ^ Whittaker, Rome and Its Frontiers, pp. 131–132. ^ Beth Severy, Augustus and the Family at the Birth of the Roman Empire (Routledge, 2003), p. 39. ^ Hans-Friedrich Mueller, Roman Religion in Valerius Maximus (Routledge, 2002), p. 51. ^ Langlands, p. 57. ^ See further discussion at Pleasure and infamy below. ^ Clarke, p. 103. ^ Roy K. Gibson, Ars Amatoria Book 3 (Cambridge University Press, 2003), pp. 398–399. ^ Cohen, "Divesting the Female Breast," p. 66; Cameron, The Last Pagans, p. 725 ^ Kelly Olson, "The Appearance of the Young Roman Girl," in Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture (University of Toronto Press, 2008), p. 143 ^ Clarke, p. 34. ^ Fredrick, p. 160. ^ Alastair J. L. Blanshard, Sex: Vice and Love from Antiquity to Modernity (Wiley-Blackwell, 2010), p. 24 ^ Harper, pp. 293–294. ^ Seneca, Controversia 1.2. ^ Varro, De lingua latina 6.8, citing a fragment from the Latin tragedian Accius on Actaeon that plays with the verb video, videre, visum, "see," and its presumed connection to vis (ablative vi, "by force") and violare, "to violate": "He who saw what should not be seen violated that with his eyes" (Cum illud oculis violavit is, qui invidit invidendum) ^ Fredrick, pp. 1–2. Ancient etymology was not a matter of scientific linguistics, but of associative interpretation based on similarity of sound and implications of theology and philosophy; see Davide Del Bello, Forgotten Paths: Etymology and the Allegorical Mindset (Catholic University of America Press, 2007). ^ Clement of Alexandria, Protrepticus 4.50 ^ Fredrick, p. 275. ^ Adams, pp. 80–81. ^ Adams, p. 81. ^ Varro, On Agriculture 2.4.9; Karen K. Hersch, The Roman Wedding: Ritual and Meaning in Antiquity (Cambridge University Press, 2010), pp. 122, 276; Barbette Stanley Spaeth, The Roman Goddess Ceres (University of Texas Press, 1996), p. 17. ^ Adams, pp. 82–83. ^ Adams, pp. 85–89. ^ Richlin (1983), pp. xvi, 26, 68–69, 109, 276 et passim. ^ Throughout the Ars Amatoria ("Art of Love"); Gibson, Ars Amatoria Book 3, p. 399. ^ Martial, Epigrams 11.21.1, 10: tam laxa ... quam turpe guttur onocrotali ^ Richlin (1983), p. 27. ^ Richlin (1983), pp. 49, 67 ^ Clarke, pp. 21, 48, 116. ^ Adams, p. 97. ^ Juvenal 6.422 ^ Adams, p. 98. ^ Cicero, Ad familiares 9.22.2 ^ Adams, p. 97 ^ Richard W. Hooper, The Priapus Poems: Erotic Epigrams from Ancient Rome (University of Illinois Press, 1999), p. 136. ^ Hooper, The Priapus Poems, pp. 135–136. See also "Phallic sexuality" above for more on sling bullets inscribed with obscenities. ^ a b Adams, p. 99. ^ Celsus 2.7.15, 7.26.1C, 7.26.4, 7.28.1. ^ Varro, On Agriculture 2.1.19 ^ Adams, p. 101. ^ Adams, pp. 100–101. ^ Adams, pp. 103–105. ^ Adams, p. 105. ^ Adams, pp. 105–109. ^ Clarke, p. 216. This is particularly characteristic of the 1st century AD, the period from which the most explicit erotic art survives. ^ Lucilius, frg. 61 Warmington: in bulgam penetrare pilosam. ^ CIL 4.1830: futuitur cunnus pilossus multo melliur quam glaber; eadem continet vaporem et eadem vellit mentulam; Younger, p. 75. ^ Clarke, pp. 133–134. Romans tended to identify most black Africans as "Ethiopian". ^ Catullus, Carmina 40.12, 61.101, 64.65, 66.81. Ovid takes note of "handy nipples" (Amores 1.4.37, habiles papillae); see also 1.5.20 and 2.15.11, the poem in which he addresses the ring he's giving to his girlfriend, and fantasizes about the various ways it will touch her, "...since I would desire to have touched the breasts of my mistress and to have inserted my left hand within her sheath." The usage of Propertius is more varied; when he wrestles with his naked mistress, her nipples fight back (3.14.20). ^ As for instance at Rufinus 5.60, 62 ^ Richlin (1983), pp. 49, 52. ^ Martial, Epigrams 1.100, 2.52, 14.66, 14.134, 14.149 ^ Richlin (1983), p. 54 ^ Craig A. Williams Epigrams: Martial (Oxford University Press, 2004), p. 181. ^ Richlin (1983), pp. 52, 68. ^ C.W. Marshall, The Stagecraft and Performance of Roman Comedy (Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 65. In the Poenulus of Plautus (line 1416), a flute girl is dismissed as unattractive because both her cheeks and her breasts are overly full; puffing out one's cheeks while playing a wind instrument was considered ugly (as noted by Minerva herself in Ovid's Fasti 6.693–710). By contrast, in Plautus's Casina (line 848), a character exclaims edepol papillam bellulam, "By Pollux, what a pretty little titty!" ^ Richlin (1983), p. 55. ^ Richlin (1983), p. 38. ^ Ovid, Amores 1.5.20, in a catalogue of his mistress's assets, remarks on "the outline of her nipples, ready to be squeezed." See also the catalogue of Philodemus 12 (Palatine Anthology 5.132); Andrew Dalby, Empires of Pleasures: Luxury and Indulgence in the Roman World (Routledge, 2000), pp. 24, 64–65, 263. ^ Catullus 61.97–101, T.P. Wiseman, Catullus and His World: A Reappraisal (Cambridge University Press, 1985, 2002), pp. 114–115. ^ Larissa Bonfante, "Nursing Mothers in Classical Art," in Naked Truths: Women, Sexuality, and Gender in Classical Art and Archaeology (Routledge, 1997, 2000), pp. 174ff., with many examples. The ideal characteristics of the breasts of a wet nurse (nutrix) are enumerated in the Gynaecology of Soranus 2.18–20. ^ Celia E. Schultz, Women's Religious Activity in the Roman Republic (University of North Carolina Press, 2006), pp. 54, 68, 101, 115 ^ Younger, p. 36. Breast vota, like representations of other body parts (compare milagro), can also be dedicated at healing sanctuaries as part of seeking a cure for an ailment of the breast, such as mastitis or various tumors the ancients diagnosed as "cancer." ^ Anthony Corbeill, Nature Embodied: Gesture in Ancient Rome (Princeton University Press, 2004), pp. 101–103 ^ Younger, pp. 35–36 ^ Fritz Graf and Sarah Iles Johnston, Ritual Texts for the Afterlife: Orpheus and the Bacchic Gold Tablets (Routledge, 2007), pp. 128–129. Perhaps also a reference to the "Milky Way" as a path to the heavens. ^ Younger, p. 35 ^ Nancy Thomson de Grummond, Etruscan Myth, Sacred History, and Legend (University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, 2006), pp. 83–84. ^ Valerius Maximus 5.4.1. ^ Clarke, p. 159. ^ Pliny, Natural History 28.73, 123 ^ Hallett, pp. 204–205. ^ Corbeill, Nature Embodied, p. 87 et passim. See for instance Seneca, Phaedra 247, Hercules Oetaeus 926. "One of the commonest literary motifs for mourning in ancient texts is women baring and beating their breasts," notes Alan Cameron, The Last Pagans of Rome (Oxford University Press, 2011), p. 725. ^ Servius, note to Aeneid 5.78; Corbeill, Nature Embodied, pp. 86–87. ^ Beth Cohen, "Divesting the Female Breast of Clothes in Classical Sculpture," in Naked Truths: Women, Sexuality, and Gender in Classical Art and Archaeology (Routledge, 1997), p. 69. ^ Claire L. Lyons and Ann Olga Koloski-Ostrow, introduction to Naked Truths, p. 10; Bonfante, "Nursing Mothers," pp. 187–188, relating it to the evil eye and the gaze of Medusa ^ Julius Caesar, Bellum Gallicum 7.47.5; G. Matherat, “Le première campagne de César contre les Bellovaques et le geste passis manibus," in Hommages à Albert Grenier (Latomus, 1962), vol. 3. ^ Tacitus, Germania 8.1; Bonfante, "Nursing Mothers," p. 187. ^ Mary Lefkowitz and Maureen B. Fant, Women's Life in Greece and Rome, p. 350, note 5. A Greek example is found in Euripides, Hecuba 557–565 when Polyxena, about to become a human sacrifice, shows her courage by exposing "breasts and chest as beautiful as a statue's." ^ Other situations include marking a female figure as an Amazon, as part of athletic attire, or for the purpose of nursing an infant. ^ Cohen, "Divesting the Female Breast," p. 68ff. ^ Cohen, "Divesting the Female Breast," p. 79. ^ Bonfante, "Nursing Mothers," passim and conclusion on p. 188. ^ Achilles Tatius, Leucippe and Clitophon 37.7, as excerpted by Lefkowitz and Fant, Women's Life in Greece and Rome, p. 182. ^ Necdum inclinatae prohibent te ludere mammae, 2.15.21 ^ Thomas Habinek, The World of Roman Song: From Ritualized Speech to Social Order (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005), p. 114. ^ Tibullus 1.6.18; Dalby, Empire of Pleasures, p. 263. ^ Younger, p. 20, citing Manetho 4.312. ^ Clarke, p. 73 ^ Younger, p. 35. ^ Examples throughout Clarke. ^ Bernadette J. Brooten, Love between Women: Early Christian Responses to Female Homoeroticism (University of Chicago Press, 1996), p. 4. ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses 9.727, 733–4, as cited in Potter (2009), p. 346. ^ Brooten, Love between Women, p. 1. ^ The Latin indicates that the I is of feminine gender; CIL 4.5296, as cited in Potter (2009), p. 347. ^ Lucian, Dialogues of the Courtesans 5. ^ Jonathan Walters, "Invading the Roman Body: Manliness and Impenetrability in Roman Thought," pp. 30–31, and Pamela Gordon, "The Lover's Voice in Heroides 15: Or, Why Is Sappho a Man?," p. 283, both in Hallett; Fredrick, p. 168. The dildo is rarely mentioned in Roman sources, but was a popular comic item in Classical Greek literature and art; Potter (2009), p. 351. ^ Martial 1.90 and 7.67, 50; Potter (2009), p. 347 ^ Clarke, p. 228. ^ Livy 1.3.11–4.3. ^ Kuttner, p. 348. ^ Mary Beard, J.A. North, and S.R.F. Price, Religions of Rome: A History (Cambridge University Press, 1998), vol. 1, pp. 1–10, as cited and elaborated by Phyllis Culham, "Women in the Roman Republic," in The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic (Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 158. ^ Fredrick, p. 105. ^ Lucretius, De rerum natura 5.964: Violenta viri vis atque impensa libido. ^ Staples, p. 81. ^ Staples, p. 82 ^ Gardner, pp. 118ff. ^ a b Gardner, p. 120. ^ Digest 9.9.20. ^ a b c Gardner, p. 118. ^ A law passed sometime between 80 and 50 BC banned women from acting as prosecutors in the courtroom; Valerius Maximus 8.3.1; Richard A. Bauman, Women and Politics in Ancient Rome (Routledge, 1992, 1994), p. 50; Joseph Farrell, Latin Language and Latin Culture (Cambridge University Press, 2001), pp. 74–75; Michael C. Alexander, Trials in the Late Roman Republic, 149–50 BC (University of Toronto Press, 1990), p. 180. ^ a b Gardner, p. 119 ^ McGinn (1998), p. 326. ^ Cicero, Pro Planco 30 ^ McGinn (1998), p. 326 ^ Roy K. Olson, Ars Amatoria, Book 3 (Cambridge University Press, 2003), p. 386; J.P. Toner, Leisure and Ancient Rome (Blackwell, 1995), p. 68. ^ McGinn (1998), p. 314 ^ a b Gardner, pp. 120–121. ^ Gardner, p. 121. ^ Staples, p. 164. ^ James A. Brundage, Law, Sex, and Christian Society in Medieval Europe (University of Chicago Press, 1987, 1990), p. 107. ^ Charles Matson Odahl, Constantine and the Christian Empire (Routledge, 2004), p. 179; Timothy David Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius (Harvard University Press, 1981), p. 220; Gillian Clark, Women in Late Antiquity: Pagan and Christian Lifestyles (Oxford University Press, 1993), pp. 36–37, characterizing Constantine's law as "unusually dramatic even for him." ^ Theodosian Code 9.24.1.2–3; Cod. 9.13.1; Brundage, Law, Sex, and Christian Society, p. 107. ^ The purple border appeared also on the togas of magistrates whose duties including presiding over sacrifices, on the toga worn by a mourning son when he carried out a parent's funeral rites, and on the veils of the Vestal Virgins; Judith Lynn Sebesta, "Women's Costume and Feminine Civic Morality in Augustan Rome," Gender & History 9.3 (1997), p. 532, and "Symbolism in the Costume of the Roman Woman," p. 47. ^ In a declamation attributed to Quintilian, Declamatio minor 340.13 as quoted by Sebesta, "Women's Costume," p. 532. Persius, Satire 5.30–31, calls the praetexta the guardian (custos) of childhood. ^ Praetextatis nefas sit obsceno verbo uti: Festus 282–283 L = 245 M). ^ Plutarch, Life of Cato 20.5 ^ Williams, p. 69. ^ Pliny, Natural History 28.29; Varro, De lingua latina 7.97 ^ Habinek, p. 166 ^ Judith Lynn Sebesta, "Symbolism in the Costume of the Roman Woman," in The World of Roman Costume (University of Wisconsin Press, 2001), p. 47. ^ Plutarch, Moralia 288a ^ Habinek, p. 39 ^ Richlin (1993), pp. 545–546. ^ Sebesta, "Symbolism in the Costume of the Roman Woman," pp. 47, 51. There is only slight and ambiguous evidence that they too might wear a bulla, at Plautus, Rudens 1194. ^ Richlin (1993), p. 563 ^ Paulus, Digest 47.11.1.2. ^ Fantham, p. 130 ^ Valerius Maximus 8.1 absol. 8, as cited by Kelly Olson, "The Appearance of the Young Roman Girl," in Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, p. 142. ^ Cicero, Verrine 3.23. ^ Quintiltian, Institution Oratoria 1.2.7–8; Matthew B. Roller, Dining Posture in Ancient Rome (Princeton University Press, 2006), p. 160. ^ Robinson Ellis, A Commentary to Catullus (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1876), p. 180, in reference to Catullus, Carmen 61. ^ Elizabeth Manwell, "Gender and Masculinity," in A Companion to Catullus (Blackwell, 2007), p. 118. ^ a b Sebesta, "Women's Costume," p. 533. ^ a b Sebesta, "Women's Costume," p. 534. ^ Persius 5.30–31. ^ Larissa Bonfante, introduction to The World of Roman Costume, p. 7; Shelley Stone, "The Toga: From National to Ceremonial Costume," in The World of Roman Costume, p. 41; Sebesta, "Women's Costume," p. 533. After the Augustan building program, the rites were held at the new Temple of Mars Ultor in the Forum Augustum: Dominic Montserrat, "Reading Gender in the Roman World," in Experiencing Rome: Culture, Identity, and Power in the Roman Empire (Routledge, 2000), p. 170. ^ Other dates could be chosen for the ceremony. See Staples, p. 89; George, "The 'Dark Side' of the Toga," p. 55; Propertius 3.15.3–6; Ovid, Fasti 3.777–778. ^ Richlin (1993), p. 535, citing Martial 11.78. ^ Judith P. Hallett, Fathers and Daughters in Roman Society: Women and the Elite Family (Princeton University Press, 1984), 142; Beryl Rawson, "The Roman Family in Italy" (Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 21; ^ Girls coming of age dedicated their dolls to Diana, the goddess most concerned with girlhood, or to Venus when they were preparing for marriage; Beryl Rawson, Children and Childhood in Roman Italy (Oxford University Press, 2003), p. 48 on Diana; p. 128, citing Persius 2.70 and the related scholion; p. 145 on comparison with Greece. ^ Sebesta, "Women's Costume," pp. 529, 534, 538. ^ Sebesta, "Women's Costume," pp. 534–535; Festus 55L on the nodus Herculaneus, which was used for its apotropaic powers on jewelry as well. The Roman Hercules was a giver of fertility and a great scatterer of seed: he fathered, according to Verrius Flaccus, seventy children. ^ Cinctus vinctusque, according to Festus 55 (edition of Lindsay); Karen K. Hersch, The Roman Wedding: Ritual and Meaning in Antiquity (Cambridge University Press, 2010), pp. 101, 110, 211 . ^ Sebesta, "Women's Costume," p. 535. ^ Susan Dixon, The Roman Family (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), pp. 86–88. ^ Non enim coitus matrimonium facit, sed maritalis affectio, Ulpian, Ulpianus libro trigesimo tertio ad Sabinum, Digest 24.1.32.13, as cited by Bruce W. Frier and Thomas A.J. McGinn, A Casebook on Family Law (Oxford University Press, 2004), p. 49. ^ Dixon, The Roman Family, pp. 86–88. ^ James A. Brundage, Law, Sex, and Christian Society in Medieval Europe (University of Chicago Press, 1987, 1990), p. 22, citing Philippe Ariès, "L'amour dans le mariage," in Sexualités occidentales, École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales, Centre d'Études Transdisciplinaires, Communications 35 (Paris: Seuil, 1982), p. 121 ^ a b Potter (2009), p. 350. ^ Catullus, Carmen 61: nil potest sine te Venus. ^ a b Dixon, The Roman Family, p. 87. ^ The interpretation of the couple as newlyweds is based on the woman's attire; Clarke, pp. 99–101. ^ Univira is one of the attributes that might be memorialized on a woman's gravestone. ^ Susan Treggiari, Roman Marriage: Iusti Coniuges from the Time of Cicero to the Time of Ulpian (Oxford University Press, 1991), pp. 258–259, 500–502 et passim. ^ Eva Cantarella, "Marriage and Sexuality in Republican Rome: A Roman Conjugal Love Story," in The Sleep of Reason, p. 276. ^ Beryl Rawson, "Finding Roman Women," in A Companion to the Roman Republic (Blackwell, 2010), p. 338. ^ Propertius, 2.22 B, 31–34 Heyworth; Ovid, Amores 1.9.35–36, Ars Amatoria 2.709–710 and 3.107–110, Heroides 5.107; Barbara Graziosi and Johannes Haubold, Homer: Iliad Book VI (Cambridge University Press, 2010), p. 52. See also Martial 11.104.13–14, where the couple's lovemaking is so intensely erotic that it drives the household slaves to masturbate. ^ Helen King, "Sowing the Field: Greek and Roman Sexology," in Sexual Knowledge, Sexual Science: The History of Attitudes to Sexuality (Cambridge University Press, 1994), p. 38. ^ William Armstrong Percy III, "Reconsiderations about Greek Homosexualities," in Same-Sex Desire and Love in Greco-Roman Antiquity, p. 20. ^ Graziosi and Haubold, Homer, p. 52. ^ Catullus, Carmen 61. ^ Clarke, pp. 99–104, quotation pp. 103–104. ^ For example, Catullus 61.123, where a concubinus, a male concubine, expects that his master's wedding will cause him to be abandoned; James L. Butrica, "Some Myths and Anomalies in the Study of Roman Sexuality," in Same-Sex Desire and Love in Greco-Roman Antiquity, pp. 218, 224. ^ Plautus, Curculio 35–38. The passage is something of a topos of Roman sexuality; in addition to Richlin (following), see Fantham, p. 123. ^ Fantham, p. 125. ^ McGinn, Thomas A. J. (1991). "Concubinage and the Lex Iulia on Adultery". Transactions of the American Philological Association. 121: 335–375 (342). doi:10.2307/284457. JSTOR 284457. ^ Nussbaum, p. 305. ^ Fantham, p. 124, citing Papinian, De adulteriis I and Modestinus, Liber Regularum I. ^ Judith P. Hallett, Fathers and Daughters in Roman Society: Women and the Elite Family (Princeton University Press, 1984), 142. ^ Susan Dixon, The Roman Family (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), p. 202. ^ Cantarella, p. 104 ^ Edwards, pp. 34–35 ^ Nussbaum, p. 305, noting that custom "allowed much latitude for personal negotiation and gradual social change." ^ Edwards, p. 38. ^ Hallett, pp. 34ff., 41–42, 67, 89–90. ^ P.E. Corbett, The Roman Law of Marriage (1930), as cited by Edwards, p. 35. ^ Beryl Rawson, The Family in Ancient Rome (Cornell University Press, 1987), p. 27, as cited by Edwards, pp. 35–36. ^ Edwards, pp. 34–36. ^ Matthew W. Dickie, Magic and Magicians in the Greco-Roman World (Routledge, 2003), p. 36. Defixiones are also known as curse tablets; erotic prohibitions are only one form of defixio. ^ Dickie, Magic and Magicians, p. 116. ^ "The men who people the pages of Cicero and Tacitus do not burst into their wives' bedrooms to take violent revenge (even when license was granted by the law)," notes Edwards, pp. 55–56. ^ Edwards, p. 56, citing Ovid, Amores 3.4.37: rusticus est nimium quem laedit adultera coniunx. ^ Edwards, p. 56. ^ Harper, p. 26. ^ Fantham, pp. 118, 128. ^ a b c d Cantarella, p. 103. ^ Neville Morley, "Social Structure and Demography," in A Companion to the Roman Republic, p. 309, describes the relationship as "intimate and affectionate." See Pliny, Epistle 7.4.6, where he claims to preserve an epigram by Cicero on Tiro, which reveals Tiro's "effeminate subordination," as described by Ellen Oliensis, "The Erotics of amicitia: Readings in Tibullus, Propertius, and Horace," in Hallett, p. 171, note 37. See also comments on the epigram by Richlin (1983), pp. 34 and 223, who thinks it may have been Pliny's joke. ^ Cantarella, p. 99. ^ Parker, p. 286. ^ William Fitzgerald, Slavery and the Roman Literary Imagination (Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp. 47–48 ^ a b Hubbard, Thomas K. (2003) Homosexuality in Greece and Rome: A Sourcebook of Basic Documents. University of California Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-520-23430-7. ^ Excluding those presumed to be prostitutes, who might be either slaves or infames; Parker, p. 283. ^ Artemidorus, p. 88.5–12 Pack ^ Potter (2009), p. 340. ^ McGinn (1998), p. 314. ^ Plutarch, Life of the Elder Cato 21.2; Sandra R. Joshel and Sheila Murnaghan, introduction to Women and Slaves in Greco-Roman Culture: Differential Equations (Routledge, 1998), p. 11. ^ Parker, p. 281. ^ Parker, p. 283. ^ Tacitus, Annales 14.60, as cited by Williams, p. 399. ^ Mostly in Juvenal and Martial, as in the latter's epigram 6.39, where the seven children of Cinna were supposedly fathered by various slaves of the household; Parker, p. 292. ^ Harper, pp. 203–204. ^ Williams, pp. 36–38. ^ Livy 8.28 (see also Dionysius of Halicarnassus 16.5); Valerius Maximus 6.1.9. The historicity of these stories is questionable, and they should perhaps be regarded as exempla encapsulating themes of historical events; see Cantarella, pp. 104–105, and Gary Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War (University of California Press, 2005, 2006), p. 313, where the names are seen as "clearly fictitious." ^ By the Lex Poetelia Papiria in 326 BC (or 313, according to Varro). ^ Dionysius's version says the youth went into debt to pay for his father's funeral, an act of Roman piety. ^ Williams, pp. 102–103, emphasizing that the homosexual nature of Plotius's libido is not at issue, but rather his violation of a freeborn Roman male's body; Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome, pp. 313–314; Butrica, "Some Myths and Anomalies in the Study of Roman Sexuality," pp. 214–215. ^ Harper, pp. 294–295. ^ Nussbaum, p. 308, citing Seneca, Epistula 47. ^ Ra'anan Abusch, "CIrcumcision and Castration under Roman Law in the Early Empire," in The Covenant of Circumcision: New Perspectives on an Ancient Jewish Rite (Brandeis University Press, 2003), pp. 77–78. ^ McGinn (1998), p. 288ff., especially p. 297 on manumission. From a legalistic perspective, the covenant was not subject to negotiation for subsequent sales, because that would implicitly violate it. ^ Hallett, p. 76, citing Ulpian, Digest 23.2.43.3. ^ Habinek, p. 29. ^ Langlands, pp. 205–206. ^ Fantham, p. 139. ^ Clarke ^ a b Hallett, p. 81. ^ Hallett, p. 66. ^ According to the Lex Iulia et Papia, as cited in Women's Life in Greece and Rome: A Sourcebook in Translation, edited by Mary R. Lefkowitz and Maureen B. Fant (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005, 3rd ed.), p. 118. ^ Seneca, De vita beata 7.3 ^ Hallett, p. 84. ^ Juvenal, Satires 2 and 8; Michael Carter, "(Un)Dressed to Kill: Viewing the Retiarius," in Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture (University of Toronto Press, 2008), pp. 120–121. ^ Hallett, pp. 66–67. ^ Both the censors and the praetors could impose infamia as a legal status; McGinn (1998), p. 65ff. ^ Hallett, p. 67. The Tabula Heracleensis, "probably from the time of Julius Caesar," lists those who are barred from holding local magistracies, including anyone "who has or shall ... have been hired out for the purpose of fighting as a gladiaor ... or who has or shall have prostituted his person; or who has been or shall have been a trainer of gladiators or actors, or who shall run <or shall have run> a brothel" (as quoted by Hallett, p. 70). Although infamia can be used as a legal term and was codified as such by the time of Hadrian, in the Republic and Principate it also has a non-technical, social sense. ^ Hallett, p. 73. ^ Hallett, pp. 73–74. By the 2nd and 3rd centuries, low-status free persons were increasingly subjected to various forms of corporal punishment, as republican ideals vanished. ^ Even trades which served sensual pleasures (voluptates) were considered less honorable than others, including fishmongers, butchers, cooks, poulterers, fishermen, and perfumers, all of whom Cicero classed with dancers and performers of the ludus talarius (De officiis 1.150, citing the playwright Terence); Hallett, p. 83. ^ Hallett, pp. 74–75. ^ Hallett, p. 77. ^ Hallett, pp. 77–78 ^ Michael Carter, "(Un)Dressed to Kill: Viewing the Retiarius," in Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture (University of Toronto Press, 2008), p. 114 et passim. ^ In tragedy and the literary comedies of Plautus and Terence, female roles were played by masked men in drag. Hallett, p. 80 ^ Juvenal, Satire 3.95–97. ^ Plutarch, Life of Sulla 3.3. ^ Tacitus, Annales 1.54. ^ Including "the wives of Claudius and Domitian": Hallett, p. 80. ^ Richlin (1993), 550–551, 555ff. ^ McGinn (2004), pp. 157–159. ^ "Pornographic" here means portrayals of ordinary human beings having sex, as distinguished from depictions of mythological rapes or aroused satyrs and Priapuses. ^ McGinn (2004), pp. 157–158, sites listed pp. 163–164. ^ McGinn (2004), pp. 158–159. ^ The identity of this boy and his likely family is much debated. ^ Valerius Maximus 9.1.8: Aeque flagitiosum illud conuiuium, quod Gemellus tribunicius uiator ingenui sanguinis, sed officii intra seruilem habitum deformis Metello [et] Scipioni consuli ac tribunis pl. magno cum rubore ciuitatis conparauit: lupanari enim domi suae instituto Muniam et Flauiam, cum a patre tum a uiro utramque inclitam, et nobilem puerum Saturninum in eo prostituit. probrosae patientiae corpora, ludibrio temulentae libidini futura! epulas consuli et tribunis non celebrandas, sed uindicandas! McGinn (2004), p. 159, goes so far as to suggest that this party in particular helped make the Pompeian "sex clubs" fashionable. ^ Cicero makes accusations of this kind against Verres, Piso, and Antony, who is said to have converted his bedrooms into stabula, the cubicles housing prostitutes in a brothel, and his dining room into popinae, common eateries; see In Verrem 2.3.6, 2.4.83, 2.5.81–82, 137; Post Reditum in Senatu 11, 14; Philippicae 2.15, 62–63, 69, as cited by McGinn (2004), p. 163. ^ McGinn (2004), pp. 159, 162. ^ Ovid, Ars Amatoria 3.771ff. ^ Ovid, Tristia 2.1.523 ^ Clarke, pp. 91–92. ^ Capricorn, Aquarius, Taurus or Cancer. ^ Firmicus Maternus 5.2.4, 5.3.11 and 17, 5.6.8, 6.30.15; Vettius Valens 1.1, 2.16, 2.36 and 38, as cited and summarized in Younger, p. 20. ^ Lucretius, De rerum natura 4.1268–1273 ^ Lucretius, De rerum natura 4.1263–1267 ^ Brown, pp. 67–68. ^ Fredrick, p. 159. ^ The verb is not found, for instance, in the writings of Cicero; Adams, p. 118. Futuo appears mainly in graffiti (at least 65 instances) and the Priapea. Martial uses the verb 49 times. It is found seven times in Catullus, and once in the early work of Horace. Although Ausonius revives the general obscenity of Martial, he avoids the use of futuo. ^ Adams, pp. 120–121. ^ Plautus, frg. 68 in the edition of Lindsay ^ Adams, p. 121. ^ Aut futue aut pugnemus, literally "either fuck or let's fight," in Martial 11.20.7; Adams, p. 121. Augustus chooses to sound the call to battle. ^ Habinek, p. 31. ^ Ovid, Ars Amatoria 2.681–684: Women, he says, "need no encouragement to take their pleasure: let both man and woman feel what delights them equally. I hate embraces which fail to satisfy both partners. That is why for me loving boys holds little attraction" (Illis sentitur non inritata voluptas: / Quod iuvet, ex aequo femina virque ferant. / Odi concubitus, qui non utrumque resolvunt; / Hoc est, cur pueri tangar amore minus); Edwards, p. 7 ^ Pollini, John (1999). "The Warren Cup: Homoerotic Love and Symposial Rhetoric in Silver". The Art Bulletin. 81: 21–52 (36). doi:10.2307/3051285. JSTOR 3051285. ^ Ovid, Ars Amatoria 2.725–8, as cited in Potter (2009), p. 343. ^ Adams, p. 165. ^ The position is discussed "in some detail" in Greek literature, and appears in other forms of Greek art; Fredrick, p. 159. ^ Ovid, Ars Amatoria 3.777–778; Gibson, Ars Amatoria Book 3, p. 393. ^ Hectoreus equus (Ars Amatoria 3.777–778); Meyboom and Versluys, "The Meaning of Dwarfs in Nilotic Scenes," in Nile into Tiber, p. 188; Gibson, Ars Amatoria Book 3, p. 393. Trojan imagery, especially in connection with the Trojan horse, became important under the Julio-Claudian emperors, who claimed descent from the Trojan refugee Aeneas, son of Venus. See for instance the "Troy Game". ^ Clarke, p. 258. ^ Kenneth Dover, Greek Homosexuality (Harvard University Press, 1978), p. 107, as cited by Fredrick, p. 159. ^ Catherine Johns, Sex or Symbol? Erotic Images of Greece and Rome (Routledge, 1982), pp. 136–137, as cited in Fredrick, p. 159. ^ Paul Veyne, "La famille et l'amour sous le haut-empire romain," Annales: Économies, sociétés, civilisations 33 (1978) 53–54, as cited in Fredrick, p. 159. ^ Fredrick, pp. 159–160. ^ Meyboom and Versluys, "The Meaning of Dwarfs in Nilotic Scenes," in Nile into Tiber, p. 188. ^ "You see how well you fuck" (Vides quam bene chalas), probably a compliment paid by a prostitute to her client to diminish the domineering effect; Clarke, p. 258.froman ^ Petronius, Satyricon 24.4; CIL 4.1825 ^ Adams, pp. 165–166. ^ Juvenal 6.311 ^ Adams, p. 166. ^ Adams, pp. 123–124 ^ Adams, p. 123. ^ Adams, pp. 112–114. ^ Hallett, p. 31. ^ Martial 12.75 and 96, using the fig metaphor; Williams, p. 27 ^ Richlin (1983), pp. 41–42. ^ "The lionness" as a name for the position was popularized by 4th-century BC Greeks; Clarke, pp. 26, 230. ^ Adams, pp. 110–111. ^ Clarke, p. 230. ^ Valentina Arena, "Roman Oratorical Invective," in A Companion to Roman Rhetoric (Blackwell, 2010), p. 156; Nancy Woman, Abusive Mouths in Classical Athens (Cambridge University Press, 2008), p. 322. ^ a b Woman, Abusive Mouths, p. 322. ^ Catullus, Carmina 39, 78b, 97, 99; William Fitzgerald, Catullan Provocations: Lyric Poetry and the Drama of Position (University of California Press, 1995, 1999), p. 262. ^ A Companion to Catullus (Blackwell, 2011), n.p. ^ Quintus Apronius, the assistant of Verres, at Verres 2.3; Sextus Cloelius, a henchman of Clodius Pulcher, at De domo sua 25, 26, 47–8, 83. ^ Arena, "Roman Oratorical Invective," p. 156. ^ a b Richlin (1983), p. 27 ^ Guillermo Galán Vioque, Martial, Book VII: A Commentary (Brill, 2002), p. 495. ^ Catullus, Carmen 99.10 ^ Richlin (1983), p. 150. ^ Martial, 7.94; Vioque, Martial, Book VII, p. 495. ^ Martial, 3.17; Guillermo Galán Vioque, Martial, Book VII: A Commentary, p. 495. ^ Woman, Abusive Mouths, p. 322f ^ Richlin (1983), p. 99 ^ Marilyn B. Skinner, Catullus in Verona: A Reading of the Elegiac Libellus, Poems 65–116 (Ohio State University Press, 2003), p. 79. ^ Clarke, p. 224. ^ Clarke, p. 223 ^ Clarke, pp. 224–227. ^ Clarke, p. 226. ^ CIL 4.1383, scrawled at an entrance to a shop in Pompeii; Antonio Varone, Erotica Pompeiana: Love Inscriptions on the Walls of Pompeii («L'Erma» di Bretschneider, 2002), p. 81. ^ Fredrick, p. 162. ^ Catullus Carmina 58 and 59; and Martial, Epigrams 4.84, 9.4, 9.67, and 12.55, on women who perform fellatio. ^ a b Fredrick, p. 161. ^ Fredrick, p. 163. ^ Mostly famously in Catullus, Carmen 16 ^ Martial, 2.47.4 ^ Clarke, pp. 233–234. ^ Clark, Looking at Lovemaking, pp. 233–234. ^ Suetonius, Life of Tiberius 43, as quoted by Clarke, p. 234. ^ Clarke, p. 234. ^ Clarke, pp. 234–235. ^ Clarke, p. 255. ^ Ausonius, Epigram 43 Green (39); Matthew Kuefler, The Manly Eunuch: Masculinity, Gender Ambiguity, and Christian Ideology in Late Antiquity (University of Chicago Press, 2001), p. 92. ^ Richlin, "Sexuality in the Roman Empire," p. 351. ^ Martial, 2.43.14 ^ Williams, p. 270 ^ J.P. Sullivan, Martial, the Unexpected Classic: A Literary and Historical Study (Cambridge University Press, 1991), p. 190. Martial describes slaves masturbating behind the door as they watch Andromache ride Hector (11.104.13–14). ^ At laeva lacrimas muttoni absterget amica ("A girlfriend wipes away Mutto's tears—his left hand, that is"): Lucilius 307 and 959. Kirk Freundenburg has dubbed the muttō of Lucilius "clearly the least finicky of all personified penises in Roman satire": Satires of Rome: Threatening Poses from Lucilius to Juvenal (Cambridge University Press, 2001), p. 205. ^ Antonio Varone, Erotica pompeiana: Love Inscriptions on the Walls of Pompeii («L'Erma» di Bretschneider, 2002), p. 95. ^ multa mihi curae cum [pr]esserit artus has ego mancinas, stagna refusa, dabo: CIL 4.2066, as cited by Younger, p. 108. ^ Etymological views as summarized by Joshua T. Katz, "Testimonia Ritus Italici: Male Genitalia, Solemn Declarations, and a New Latin Sound Law," Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 98 (1998), pp. 210–213, citing Judith P. Hallett, "Masturbator, mascarpio", Glotta 54 (1976) 292–308, for turbare + mas, with support for this usage of mas from Douglas Q. Adams, "Latin mas and masturbari", Glotta 63 (1985) 241–247. ^ Adams, pp. 208–211. ^ Calvert Watkins, How to Kill a Dragon: Aspects of Indo-European Poetics (Oxford University Press, 1995), p 533ff. ^ Katz, "Testimonia Ritus Italici," p. 212. ^ Suetonius, Life of Nero 29; Carlin A. Barton, The Sorrows of the Ancient Romans: The Gladiator and the Monster (Princeton University Press, 1993), p. 68. ^ Cassius Dio 76.8.2; Barton, The Sorrows of the Ancient Romans, p. 68. ^ Juvenal, Satire 6.60ff.; Erik Gunderson, "The Libidinal Rhetoric of Satire," in The Cambridge Companion to Roman Satire (Cambridge University Press, 2005), p. 235; Blanshard, Sex: Vice and Love from Antiquity to Modernity, p. 40. ^ Apuleius, Metamorphoses 10.19–22; Barton, The Sorrows of the Ancient Romans, p. 68. ^ Martial, De spectaculis 5 ^ Coleman, K. M. (2012). "Fatal Charades: Roman Executions Staged as Mythological Enactments". Journal of Roman Studies. 80: 44. doi:10.2307/300280. JSTOR 300280. ^ Paul Veyne, Foucault: His Thought, His Character (Polity Press, 2010, originally published 2008 in French), p. 9. ^ Coleman, "Fatal Charades," p. 64. ^ Apuleius, Metamorphoses 10.29.34; Coleman, "Fatal Charades," p. 64. ^ Pliny, Natural History 7.34: gignuntur et utriusque sexus quos hermaphroditos vocamus, olim androgynos vocatos ^ Dasen, Veronique (1997). "Multiple births in Graeco-Roman antiquity". Oxford Journal of Archaeology. 16: 49–63 (61). doi:10.1111/1468-0092.00024. ^ Diodorus Siculus 4.6.5; Will Roscoe, "Priests of the Goddess: Gender Transgression in Ancient Religion," in History of Religions 35.3 (1996), p. 204. ^ Isidore of Seville, Eytmologiae 11.3. 11. ^ Clarke, p. 49 ^ a b Taylor, p. 78. ^ Roscoe, "Priests of the Goddess," p. 204. ^ Veit Rosenberger, "Republican nobiles: Controlling the Res Publica," in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 295. ^ Livy 27.11 (using the term androgynus); Rosenberger, "Republican nobiles," p. 297. ^ Julius Obsequens 27a (androgynus); Rosenberger, "Republican nobiles," p. 298. ^ Plutarch, Moralia 520c; Dasen, "Multiple Births in Graeco-Roman Antiquity," p. 61. ^ Lynn E. Roller, "The Ideology of the Eunuch Priest," Gender & History 9.3 (1997), p. 558. ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses 4.287–88. ^ Spaeth, Barbette Stanley (1994). "The Goddess Ceres in the Ara Pacis Augustae and the Carthage Relief". American Journal of Archaeology. 98: 65–100 (81). doi:10.2307/506222. JSTOR 506222. ^ Taylor, p. 77 ^ Clarke, p. 49. ^ Taylor, p. 78ff. ^ Paulus ex Festo 439L ^ Richlin (1993), p. 549. ^ Taylor, p. 216, note 46. ^ Clarke, p. 50. ^ Clarke, pp. 50–55. ^ Clarke, pp. 54–55. ^ Macrobius, Saturnalia 3.8.2. Macrobius says that Aristophanes called this figure Aphroditos. ^ Venerem igitur almum adorans, sive femina sive mas est, as quoted by Macrobius, Saturnalia 3.8.3. ^ Penner, p. 22. ^ Dominic Montserrat, "Reading Gender in the Roman World," in Experiencing Rome: Culture, Identity, and Power in the Roman Empire (Routledge, 2000), pp. 172–173. ^ Kuttner, p. 343. ^ Kuttner, pp. 348–349. The birth omens are described by Pliny, Natural History 7.34, and other sources. ^ Kuttner, pp. 354–346 ^ Penner, pp. 122, 145. ^ Penner, p. 134 ^ Potter (2009), p. 353 ^ Duncan Fishwick, "The Sixty Gallic Tribes and the Altar of the Three Gauls," Historia 38.1 (1989) 111–112, thinks the 60 Gallic civitates at Lugdunum were represented by inscriptions rather than sculpture. ^ a b Penner, pp. 135–138. ^ Penner, p. 121. ^ Alessandro Barchiesi, "Roman Perspectives on the Greeks", in The Oxford Handbook of Hellenic Studies (Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 104. Cited sources[edit] Adams, J.N. (1982). The Latin Sexual Vocabulary. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-4106-4. Brown, Robert D. (1987). Lucretius on Love and Sex. Brill. Cantarella, Eva (1992). Bisexuality in the Ancient World. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-04844-5. Clarke, John R. (1998). Looking at Lovemaking: Constructions of Sexuality in Roman Art 100 B.C.–A.D. 250. University of California Press. Colish, Marcia l. (1985). The Stoic Tradition from Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages. BRILL. ISBN 90-04-07267-5. Dugan, John (2001). "Preventing Ciceronianism: C. Licinius Calvus' Regimens for Sexual and Oratorical Self-Mastery". Classical Philology. 96 (4): 400–428. doi:10.1086/449558. JSTOR 1215514. Edwards, Catharine (1993). The Politics of Immorality in Ancient Rome. Cambridge University Press. Fantham, Elaine (2011). "Stuprum: Public Attitudes and Penalties for Sexual Offences in Republican Rome". Roman Readings: Roman Response to Greek Literature from Plautus to Statius and Quintilian. Walter de Gruyter. Fredrick, David, ed. (3 October 2002). The Roman Gaze: Vision, Power, and the Body. JHU Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-6961-7. Gaca, Kathy L. (2003). The Making of Fornication: Eros, Ethics and Political Reform in Greek Philosophy and Early Christianity. University of California Press. Gardner, Jane F. (1991). Women in Roman Law and Society. Indiana University Press. Habinek, Thomas; Schiesaro, Alessandro (1997). The Roman Cultural Revolution. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-58092-2. Hallett, Judith P.; Skinner, Marilyn, eds. (1997). Roman Sexualities. Princeton University Press. Kuttner, Ann L. (1999). "Culture and History at Pompey's Museum". Transactions of the American Philological Association. 129: 343–373. doi:10.2307/284436. JSTOR 284436. Langlands, Rebecca (2006). Sexual Morality in Ancient Rome. Cambridge University Press. McGinn, Thomas A.J. (1998). Prostitution, Sexuality and the Law in Ancient Rome. Oxford University Press. McGinn, Thomas A. (2004). The Economy of Prostitution in the Roman World. University of Michigan Press. The Economy of Prostitution in the Roman World. University of Michigan Press. 2004. Nussbaum, Martha C. (2002). "The Incomplete Feminism of Musonius Rufus, Platonist, Stoic, and Roman". The Sleep of Reason: Erotic Experience and Sexual Ethics in Ancient Greece and Rome. University of Chicago Press. Parker, H. (2007). Free Women and Male Slaves, or Mandingo meets the Roman Empire. Presses universitaires de Franche-Comté. ISBN 2848671696. Penner, Todd C. Penner; Stichele, Caroline Van der, eds. (2007). Mapping Gender in Ancient Religious Discourses. BRILL. ISBN 90-04-15447-7. Phang, Sara Elise (2001). The Marriage of Roman Soldiers (13 B.C.–A.D. 235): Law and Family in the Imperial Army. Brill. Phang (2008). Roman Military Service: Ideologies of Discipline in the Late Republic and Early Principate. Cambridge University Press. Potter, David S., ed. (2009). A Companion to the Roman Empire. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4051-9918-6. Richlin, Amy (1983). The Garden of Priapus: Sexuality and Aggression in Roman Humor. Oxford University Press. Richlin, Amy (1993). "Not before Homosexuality: The Materiality of the cinaedus and the Roman Law against Love between Men". Journal of the History of Sexuality. 3 (4): 523–573. JSTOR 3704392. Schäfer, Peter (1997). Judeophobia: Attitudes Toward the Jews in the Ancient World. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-48778-9. Peter Schäfer (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World: The Jews of Palestine from Alexander the Great to the Arab Conquest. Routledge. ISBN 1-134-40316-X. Smallwood, E. Mary (1976). The Jews Under Roman Rule: From Pompey to Diocletian. Brill Archive. ISBN 90-04-04491-4. Staples, Ariadne (1998). From Good Goddess to Vestal Virgins: Sex and Category in Roman Religion. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-13233-6. Taylor, Rabun M. (2008). The Moral Mirror of Roman Art. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-86612-5. Williams, Craig A. (1999). Roman Homosexuality: Ideologies of Masculinity in Classical Antiquity. Oxford University Press. Younger, John G. (2005). Sex in the Ancient World from A to Z. Routledge. Further reading[edit] Ancona, Ronnie, and Greene, Ellen eds. Gender Dynamics in Latin Love Poetry. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005. Skinner, Marilyn. Sexuality in Greek And Roman Culture. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0-631-23234-6. External links[edit] Library resources about Sexuality in ancient Rome Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Sex and Gender: Basic Bibliography, Warwick University. 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en-wikipedia-org-509	----	Latin - Wikipedia Latin From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Indo-European language of the Italic family For other uses, see Latin (disambiguation). Latin lingua latīna Latin inscription, in the Colosseum of Rome, Italy Pronunciation [laˈtiːna] Native to Latium Roman Kingdom / Republic / Empire Ethnicity Latins Era Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, 6th to 9th centuries; the formal language continued as the scholarly lingua franca of medieval Europe and Cilicia, as well as the liturgical language of the Catholic Church. Language family Indo-European Italic Latino-Faliscan Latin Writing system Latin alphabet  Official status Official language in   Holy See Regulated by Antiquity: Roman schools of grammar/rhetoric[1] Today: Pontifical Academy for Latin Language codes ISO 639-1 la ISO 639-2 lat ISO 639-3 lat Glottolog impe1234[2] lati1261[3] Linguasphere 51-AAB-aa to 51-AAB-ac Map indicating the greatest extent of the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan (c. 117 AD) and the area governed by Latin speakers (dark red). Many languages other than Latin were spoken within the empire. Range of the Romance languages, the modern descendants of Latin, in Europe. This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. Latin (latīnum, [laˈtiːnʊ̃] or lingua latīna, [ˈlɪŋɡʷa laˈtiːna]) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken in the area around Rome, known as Latium.[4] Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language in Italy, and subsequently throughout the western Roman Empire. Latin has contributed many words to the English language. In particular, Latin (and Ancient Greek) roots are used in English descriptions of theology, the sciences, medicine, and law. It is the official language in the Holy See (Vatican City). By the late Roman Republic (75 BC), Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin. Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence[5] and author Petronius. Late Latin is the written language from the 3rd century; its colloquial form Vulgar Latin developed in the 6th to 9th centuries into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Sardinian, Venetian, Neapolitan, Sicilian, Piedmontese, Lombard, French, Franco-Provençal, Occitan, Corsican, Ladin, Friulan, Romansh, Catalan/Valencian, Aragonese, Spanish, Asturian, Galician, and Portuguese. Medieval Latin was used as a literary language from the 9th century to the Renaissance which used Renaissance Latin. Later, Early Modern Latin and New Latin evolved. Latin was the language of international communication, scholarship and science until well into the 18th century, when vernaculars (including the Romance languages) supplanted it. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the official language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Latin is a highly inflected language, with three distinct genders, six or seven noun cases, five declensions, four verb conjugations, six tenses, three persons, three moods, two voices, two or three aspects, and two numbers. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets and ultimately from the Phoenician alphabet. Contents 1 History 1.1 Old Latin 1.2 Classical Latin 1.3 Vulgar Latin 1.4 Medieval Latin 1.5 Renaissance Latin 1.6 New Latin 1.7 Contemporary Latin 1.7.1 Religious use 1.7.2 Use of Latin for mottos 1.7.3 Other modern uses 2 Legacy 2.1 Inscriptions 2.2 Literature 2.3 Influence on present-day languages 2.4 Education 2.5 Official status 3 Phonology 3.1 Consonants 3.2 Vowels 3.2.1 Simple vowels 3.2.2 Diphthongs 3.3 Syllables 3.3.1 Length 3.3.2 Stress 4 Orthography 4.1 Alternative scripts 5 Grammar 5.1 Nouns 5.2 Adjectives 5.2.1 First and second-declension adjectives 5.2.2 Third declension adjectives 5.2.3 Participles 5.3 Prepositions 5.4 Verbs 5.4.1 Deponent verbs 6 Vocabulary 7 Phrases (Neo-Latin) 8 Numbers 9 Example text 10 See also 11 References 12 Bibliography 13 External links 13.1 Language tools 13.2 Courses 13.3 Grammar and study 13.4 Phonetics 13.5 Latin language news and audio 13.6 Latin language online communities History[edit] Main article: History of Latin The linguistic landscape of Central Italy at the beginning of Roman expansion A number of historical phases of the language have been recognized, each distinguished by subtle differences in vocabulary, usage, spelling, morphology, and syntax. There are no hard and fast rules of classification; different scholars emphasize different features. As a result, the list has variants, as well as alternative names. In addition to the historical phases, Ecclesiastical Latin refers to the styles used by the writers of the Roman Catholic Church from Late Antiquity onward, as well as by Protestant scholars. After the Western Roman Empire fell in 476 and Germanic kingdoms took its place, the Germanic people adopted Latin as a language more suitable for legal and other, more formal uses.[citation needed] Old Latin[edit] Main article: Old Latin The Lapis Niger, probably the oldest extant Latin inscription, from Rome, c. 600 BC during the semi-legendary Roman Kingdom The earliest known form of Latin is Old Latin, which was spoken from the Roman Kingdom to the later part of the Roman Republic period. It is attested both in inscriptions and in some of the earliest extant Latin literary works, such as the comedies of Plautus and Terence. The Latin alphabet was devised from the Etruscan alphabet. The writing later changed from what was initially either a right-to-left or a boustrophedon[6][7] script to what ultimately became a strictly left-to-right script.[8] Classical Latin[edit] Main article: Classical Latin During the late republic and into the first years of the empire, a new Classical Latin arose, a conscious creation of the orators, poets, historians and other literate men, who wrote the great works of classical literature, which were taught in grammar and rhetoric schools. Today's instructional grammars trace their roots to such schools, which served as a sort of informal language academy dedicated to maintaining and perpetuating educated speech.[9][10] Vulgar Latin[edit] Main articles: Vulgar Latin, Late Latin, and Romance languages Philological analysis of Archaic Latin works, such as those of Plautus, which contain snippets of everyday speech, indicates that a spoken language, Vulgar Latin (termed sermo vulgi, "the speech of the masses", by Cicero), existed concurrently with literate Classical Latin. The informal language was rarely written, so philologists have been left with only individual words and phrases cited by classical authors and those found as graffiti.[11] As it was free to develop on its own, there is no reason to suppose that the speech was uniform either diachronically or geographically. On the contrary, romanised European populations developed their own dialects of the language, which eventually led to the differentiation of Romance languages.[12] The decline of the Roman Empire meant a deterioration in educational standards that brought about Late Latin, a postclassical stage of the language seen in Christian writings of the time. It was more in line with everyday speech, not only because of a decline in education but also because of a desire to spread the word to the masses.[citation needed] Despite dialectal variation, which is found in any widespread language, the languages of Spain, France, Portugal, and Italy retained a remarkable unity in phonological forms and developments, bolstered by the stabilising influence of their common Christian (Roman Catholic) culture. It was not until the Moorish conquest of Spain in 711, cutting off communications between the major Romance regions, that the languages began to diverge seriously.[13] The Vulgar Latin dialect that would later become Romanian diverged somewhat more from the other varieties, as it was largely separated from the unifying influences in the western part of the Empire. One key marker of whether a given Romance feature was found in Vulgar Latin is to compare it with its parallel in Classical Latin. If it was not preferred in Classical Latin, then it most likely came from the undocumented contemporaneous Vulgar Latin. For example, the Romance for "horse" (Italian cavallo, French cheval, Spanish caballo, Portuguese cavalo and Romanian cal) came from Latin caballus. However, Classical Latin used equus. Therefore, caballus was most likely the spoken form.[14] Vulgar Latin began to diverge into distinct languages by the 9th century at the latest, when the earliest extant Romance writings begin to appear. They were, throughout the period, confined to everyday speech, as Medieval Latin was used for writing.[15][16] Medieval Latin[edit] Main article: Medieval Latin The Latin Malmesbury Bible from 1407. Medieval Latin is the written Latin in use during that portion of the postclassical period when no corresponding Latin vernacular existed. The spoken language had developed into the various incipient Romance languages; however, in the educated and official world, Latin continued without its natural spoken base. Moreover, this Latin spread into lands that had never spoken Latin, such as the Germanic and Slavic nations. It became useful for international communication between the member states of the Holy Roman Empire and its allies. Without the institutions of the Roman empire that had supported its uniformity, medieval Latin lost its linguistic cohesion: for example, in classical Latin sum and eram are used as auxiliary verbs in the perfect and pluperfect passive, which are compound tenses. Medieval Latin might use fui and fueram instead.[17] Furthermore, the meanings of many words have been changed and new vocabularies have been introduced from the vernacular. Identifiable individual styles of classically incorrect Latin prevail.[17] Renaissance Latin[edit] Main article: Renaissance Latin Most 15th-century printed books (incunabula) were in Latin, with the vernacular languages playing only a secondary role.[18] The Renaissance briefly reinforced the position of Latin as a spoken language by its adoption by the Renaissance Humanists. Often led by members of the clergy, they were shocked by the accelerated dismantling of the vestiges of the classical world and the rapid loss of its literature. They strove to preserve what they could and restore Latin to what it had been and introduced the practice of producing revised editions of the literary works that remained by comparing surviving manuscripts. By no later than the 15th century they had replaced Medieval Latin with versions supported by the scholars of the rising universities, who attempted, by scholarship, to discover what the classical language had been.[19][15] New Latin[edit] Main article: New Latin During the Early Modern Age, Latin still was the most important language of culture in Europe. Therefore, until the end of the 17th century the majority of books and almost all diplomatic documents were written in Latin. Afterwards, most diplomatic documents were written in French (a Romance language) and later native or other languages. Contemporary Latin[edit] Main articles: Contemporary Latin and Ecclesiastical Latin Despite having no native speakers, Latin is still used for a variety of purposes in the contemporary world. Religious use[edit] The signs at Wallsend Metro station are in English and Latin as a tribute to Wallsend's role as one of the outposts of the Roman Empire. The largest organisation that retains Latin in official and quasi-official contexts is the Catholic Church. Latin remains the language of the Roman Rite; the Tridentine Mass is celebrated in Latin. Although the Mass of Paul VI is usually celebrated in the local vernacular language, it can be and often is said in Latin, in part or in whole, especially at multilingual gatherings. It is the official language of the Holy See, the primary language of its public journal, the Acta Apostolicae Sedis, and the working language of the Roman Rota. Vatican City is also home to the world's only automatic teller machine that gives instructions in Latin.[20] In the pontifical universities postgraduate courses of Canon law are taught in Latin, and papers are written in the same language. In the Anglican Church, after the publication of the Book of Common Prayer of 1559, a Latin edition was published in 1560 for use in universities such as Oxford and the leading "public schools" (English private academies), where the liturgy was still permitted to be conducted in Latin.[21] There have been several Latin translations since, including a Latin edition of the 1979 USA Anglican Book of Common Prayer.[22] The polyglot European Union has adopted Latin names in the logos of some of its institutions for the sake of linguistic compromise, an "ecumenical nationalism" common to most of the continent and as a sign of the continent's heritage (such as the EU Council: Consilium) Use of Latin for mottos[edit] In the Western world, many organizations, governments and schools use Latin for their mottos due to its association with formality, tradition, and the roots of Western culture.[citation needed] Canada's motto A mari usque ad mare ("from sea to sea") and most provincial mottos are also in Latin. The Canadian Victoria Cross is modelled after the British Victoria Cross which has the inscription "For Valour". Because Canada is officially bilingual, the Canadian medal has replaced the English inscription with the Latin Pro Valore. Spain's motto PLVS VLTRA, meaning "further beyond", is also Latin in origin.[23] It is taken from the personal motto of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain (as Charles I), and is a reversal of the original phrase Non terrae plus ultra ("No land further beyond"). This was said to have been inscribed as a warning on the Pillars of Hercules at the Strait of Gibraltar, which marked the edge of the known world. Charles adopted the motto following the discovery of the New World by Columbus, and it also has metaphorical suggestions of taking risks and striving for excellence. Several states of the United States have Latin mottos: such as Connecticut's motto Qui transtulit sustinet ("He who transplanted sustains"); Kansas's Ad astra per aspera ("To the stars through hardships"); Colorado's Nil sine numine ("Nothing without providence"); Michigan's Si quaeris peninsulam amoenam, circumspice ("If you seek a pleasant peninsula, look about you"); Missouri's Salus populi suprema lex esto ("The health of the people should be the highest law"); North Carolina's Esse quam videri ("To be rather than to seem"); Virginia's Sic semper tyrannis ("Thus always to tyrants"); and West Virginia's Montani semper liberi ("Mountaineers are always free"). Many military organizations today have Latin mottos, such as Semper paratus ("always ready"), the motto of the United States Coast Guard; Semper fidelis ("always faithful"), the motto of the United States Marine Corps; and Per ardua ad astra ("Through adversity/struggle to the stars"), the motto of the Royal Air Force (RAF). Some colleges and universities have adopted Latin mottos, for example Harvard University's motto is Veritas ("truth"). Veritas was the goddess of truth, a daughter of Saturn, and the mother of Virtue. Other modern uses[edit] Switzerland has adopted the country's Latin short name Helvetia on coins and stamps, since there is no room to use all of the nation's four official languages. For a similar reason, it adopted the international vehicle and internet code CH, which stands for Confœderatio Helvetica, the country's full Latin name. Some films of ancient settings, such as Sebastiane and The Passion of the Christ, have been made with dialogue in Latin for the sake of realism. Occasionally, Latin dialogue is used because of its association with religion or philosophy, in such film/television series as The Exorcist and Lost ("Jughead"). Subtitles are usually shown for the benefit of those who do not understand Latin. There are also songs written with Latin lyrics. The libretto for the opera-oratorio Oedipus rex by Igor Stravinsky is in Latin. The continued instruction of Latin is often seen as a highly valuable component of a liberal arts education. Latin is taught at many high schools, especially in Europe and the Americas. It is most common in British public schools and grammar schools, the Italian liceo classico and liceo scientifico, the German Humanistisches Gymnasium and the Dutch gymnasium. Occasionally, some media outlets, targeting enthusiasts, broadcast in Latin. Notable examples include Radio Bremen in Germany, YLE radio in Finland (the Nuntii Latini broadcast from 1989 until it was shut down in June 2019),[24] and Vatican Radio & Television, all of which broadcast news segments and other material in Latin.[25][26][27] There are many websites and forums maintained in Latin by enthusiasts. The Latin Wikipedia has more than 100,000 articles. Legacy[edit] Italian, French, Portuguese, Spanish, Romanian, Catalan, Romansh, and other Romance languages are direct descendants of Latin. There are also many Latin derivatives in English as well as a few in German, Dutch, Norwegian, Danish, and Swedish. Latin is still spoken in Vatican City, a city-state situated in Rome that is the seat of the Catholic Church. Inscriptions[edit] Some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL). Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same: volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance and relevant information. The reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. About 270,000 inscriptions are known. Literature[edit] Julius Caesar's Commentarii de Bello Gallico is one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the Golden Age of Latin. The unvarnished, journalistic style of this patrician general has long been taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially spoken and written in the floruit of the Roman Republic. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part, in substantial works or in fragments to be analyzed in philology. They are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. Their works were published in manuscript form before the invention of printing and are now published in carefully annotated printed editions, such as the Loeb Classical Library, published by Harvard University Press, or the Oxford Classical Texts, published by Oxford University Press. Latin translations of modern literature such as The Hobbit, Treasure Island, Robinson Crusoe, Paddington Bear, Winnie the Pooh, The Adventures of Tintin, Asterix, Harry Potter, Le Petit Prince, Max and Moritz, How the Grinch Stole Christmas!, The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, "fabulae mirabiles", are intended to garner popular interest in the language. Additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissner's Latin Phrasebook. Influence on present-day languages[edit] The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. In the Middle Ages, borrowing from Latin occurred from ecclesiastical usage established by Saint Augustine of Canterbury in the 6th century or indirectly after the Norman Conquest, through the Anglo-Norman language. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed "inkhorn terms", as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, but some useful ones survived, such as 'imbibe' and 'extrapolate'. Many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and Dutch vocabularies.[28][29][30] Those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. The influence of Roman governance and Roman technology on the less-developed nations under Roman dominion led to the adoption of Latin phraseology in some specialized areas, such as science, technology, medicine, and law. For example, the Linnaean system of plant and animal classification was heavily influenced by Historia Naturalis, an encyclopedia of people, places, plants, animals, and things published by Pliny the Elder. Roman medicine, recorded in the works of such physicians as Galen, established that today's medical terminology would be primarily derived from Latin and Greek words, the Greek being filtered through the Latin. Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole. Latin law principles have survived partly in a long list of Latin legal terms. A few international auxiliary languages have been heavily influenced by Latin. Interlingua is sometimes considered a simplified, modern version of the language.[dubious – discuss] Latino sine Flexione, popular in the early 20th century, is Latin with its inflections stripped away, among other grammatical changes. The Logudorese dialect of the Sardinian language is the closest contemporary language to Latin.[31] Education[edit] A multivolume Latin dictionary in the University Library of Graz. Throughout European history, an education in the classics was considered crucial for those who wished to join literate circles. Instruction in Latin is an essential aspect. In today's world, a large number of Latin students in the US learn from Wheelock's Latin: The Classic Introductory Latin Course, Based on Ancient Authors. This book, first published in 1956,[32] was written by Frederic M. Wheelock, who received a PhD from Harvard University. Wheelock's Latin has become the standard text for many American introductory Latin courses. The Living Latin movement attempts to teach Latin in the same way that living languages are taught, as a means of both spoken and written communication. It is available at the Vatican and at some institutions in the US, such as the University of Kentucky and Iowa State University. The British Cambridge University Press is a major supplier of Latin textbooks for all levels, such as the Cambridge Latin Course series. It has also published a subseries of children's texts in Latin by Bell & Forte, which recounts the adventures of a mouse called Minimus. Latin and Ancient Greek at Duke University, 2014. In the United Kingdom, the Classical Association encourages the study of antiquity through various means, such as publications and grants. The University of Cambridge,[33] the Open University,[34] a number of prestigious independent schools, for example Eton, Harrow, Haberdashers' Aske's Boys' School, Merchant Taylor’s School, Via Facilis and Rugby,[35] a London-based charity, run Latin courses. In the United States and in Canada, the American Classical League supports every effort to further the study of classics. Its subsidiaries include the National Junior Classical League (with more than 50,000 members), which encourages high school students to pursue the study of Latin, and the National Senior Classical League, which encourages students to continue their study of the classics into college. The league also sponsors the National Latin Exam. Classicist Mary Beard wrote in The Times Literary Supplement in 2006 that the reason for learning Latin is because of what was written in it.[36] Official status[edit] Latin was or is the official language of European states:   Holy See – used in the diocese, with Italian being the official language of Vatican City  Hungary – Latin was an official language in the Kingdom of Hungary from the 11th century to the mid 19th century, when Hungarian became the exclusive official language in 1844. The best known Latin language poet of Croatian-Hungarian origin was Janus Pannonius.  Croatia – Latin was the official language of Croatian Parliament (Sabor) from the 13th to the 19th century (1847). The oldest preserved records of the parliamentary sessions (Congregatio Regni totius Sclavonie generalis) – held in Zagreb (Zagabria), Croatia – date from 19 April 1273. An extensive Croatian Latin literature exists. Latin is still used on Croatian coins on even years.[37]  Poland, Kingdom of Poland – officially recognised and widely used[38][39][40][41] between the 10th and 18th centuries, commonly used in foreign relations and popular as a second language among some of the nobility.[41] Phonology[edit] Main article: Latin phonology and orthography The ancient pronunciation of Latin has been reconstructed; among the data used for reconstruction are explicit statements about pronunciation by ancient authors, misspellings, puns, ancient etymologies, the spelling of Latin loanwords in other languages, and the historical development of Romance languages.[42] Consonants[edit] The consonant phonemes of Classical Latin are as follows:[43] Labial Dental Palatal Velar Glottal plain labial Plosive voiced b d ɡ ɡʷ voiceless p t k kʷ Fricative voiced (z) voiceless f s h Nasal m n (ŋ) Rhotic r Approximant l j w /z/ was not native to Classical Latin. It appeared in Greek loanwords starting around the first century BC, when it was probably pronounced [z] initially and doubled [zz] between vowels, in contrast to Classical Greek [dz] or [zd]. In Classical Latin poetry, the letter ⟨z⟩ between vowels always counts as two consonants for metrical purposes.[44][45] The consonant b usually sounds as [b]; however, when a t or s precedes b then it is pronounced as in [pt] or [ps]. Further, consonants do not blend together. So, ch, ph, and th are all sounds that would be pronounced as [ch], [ph], and [th]. In Latin, q is always followed by the vowel u. Together they make a [kw] sound.[46] In Old and Classical Latin, the Latin alphabet had no distinction between uppercase and lowercase, and the letters ⟨J U W⟩ did not exist. In place of ⟨J U⟩, ⟨I V⟩ were used, respectively; ⟨I V⟩ represented both vowels and consonants. Most of the letterforms were similar to modern uppercase, as can be seen in the inscription from the Colosseum shown at the top of the article. The spelling systems used in Latin dictionaries and modern editions of Latin texts, however, normally use ⟨j u⟩ in place of Classical-era ⟨i v⟩. Some systems use ⟨j v⟩ for the consonant sounds /j w/ except in the combinations ⟨gu su qu⟩ for which ⟨v⟩ is never used. Some notes concerning the mapping of Latin phonemes to English graphemes are given below: Notes Latin grapheme Latin phoneme English examples ⟨c⟩, ⟨k⟩ [k] Always as k in sky (/skaɪ/) ⟨t⟩ [t] As t in stay (/steɪ/) ⟨s⟩ [s] As s in say (/seɪ/) ⟨g⟩ [ɡ] Always as g in good (/ɡʊd/) [ŋ] Before ⟨n⟩, as ng in sing (/sɪŋ/) ⟨n⟩ [n] As n in man (/mæn/) [ŋ] Before ⟨c⟩, ⟨x⟩, and ⟨g⟩, as ng in sing (/sɪŋ/) ⟨l⟩ [l] When doubled ⟨ll⟩ and before ⟨i⟩, as "light L", [l̥] in link ([l̥ɪnk]) (l exilis)[47][48] [ɫ] In all other positions, as "dark L", [ɫ] in bowl ([boʊɫ]) (l pinguis) ⟨qu⟩ [kʷ] Similar to qu in quick (/kwɪk/) ⟨u⟩ [w] Sometimes at the beginning of a syllable, or after ⟨g⟩ and ⟨s⟩, as /w/ in wine (/waɪn/) ⟨i⟩ [j] Sometimes at the beginning of a syllable, as y (/j/) in yard (/jaɹd/) [ij] "y" (/j/), in between vowels, becomes "i-y", being pronounced as parts of two separate syllables, as in capiō (/kapiˈjo:/) ⟨x⟩ [ks] A letter representing ⟨c⟩ + ⟨s⟩: as x in English axe (/æks/) In Classical Latin, as in modern Italian, double consonant letters were pronounced as long consonant sounds distinct from short versions of the same consonants. Thus the nn in Classical Latin annus "year" (and in Italian anno) is pronounced as a doubled /nn/ as in English unnamed. (In English, distinctive consonant length or doubling occurs only at the boundary between two words or morphemes, as in that example.) Vowels[edit] Simple vowels[edit] Front Central Back Close iː ɪ ʊ uː Mid eː ɛ ɔ oː Open a aː In Classical Latin, ⟨U⟩ did not exist as a letter distinct from V; the written form ⟨V⟩ was used to represent both a vowel and a consonant. ⟨Y⟩ was adopted to represent upsilon in loanwords from Greek, but it was pronounced like ⟨u⟩ and ⟨i⟩ by some speakers. It was also used in native Latin words by confusion with Greek words of similar meaning, such as sylva and ὕλη. Classical Latin distinguished between long and short vowels. Then, long vowels, except for ⟨I⟩, were frequently marked using the apex, which was sometimes similar to an acute accent ⟨Á É Ó V́ Ý⟩. Long /iː/ was written using a taller version of ⟨I⟩, called i longa "long I": ⟨ꟾ⟩. In modern texts, long vowels are often indicated by a macron ⟨ā ē ī ō ū⟩, and short vowels are usually unmarked except when it is necessary to distinguish between words, when they are marked with a breve ⟨ă ĕ ĭ ŏ ŭ⟩. However, they would also signify a long vowel by writing the vowel larger than other letters in a word or by repeating the vowel twice in a row.[46] The acute accent, when it is used in modern Latin texts, indicates stress, as in Spanish, rather than length. Long vowels in Classical Latin are, technically, pronounced as entirely different from short vowels. The difference is described in the table below: Pronunciation of Latin vowels Latin grapheme Latin phone modern examples ⟨a⟩ [a] similar to the last a in attack (/ətæk/) [aː] similar to a in father (/fɑːðəɹ/) ⟨e⟩ [ɛ] as e in pet (/pɛt/) [eː] similar to e in hey (/heɪ/) ⟨i⟩ [ɪ] as i in grid (/ɡɹɪd/) [iː] similar to i in machine (/məʃiːn/) ⟨o⟩ [ɔ] as o in cloth (/klɔθ/) [oː] similar to o in rose (/ɹoʊz/) ⟨u⟩ [ʊ] as oo in hood (/hʊd/) [uː] similar to ue in true (/tɹuː/) ⟨y⟩ [ʏ] does not exist in English; as ü in German Stück (/ʃtʏk/) [yː] does not exist in English; as üh in German früh (/fʀyː/) This difference in quality is posited by W. Sidney Allen in his book Vox Latina. However, Andrea Calabrese has disputed that short vowels differed in quality from long vowels, based upon the observation that [ɪ] and [ʊ] do not exist even in very conservative Romance languages such as Sardinian, with the difference in vowel quality more associated with Germanic languages. A vowel letter followed by ⟨m⟩ at the end of a word, or a vowel letter followed by ⟨n⟩ before ⟨s⟩ or ⟨f⟩, represented a long nasal vowel, as in monstrum [mõːstrũː]. Diphthongs[edit] Classical Latin had several diphthongs. The two most common were ⟨ae au⟩. ⟨oe⟩ was fairly rare, and ⟨ui eu ei⟩ were very rare, at least in native Latin words.[49] There has also been debate over whether ⟨ui⟩ is truly a diphthong in Classical Latin, due to its rarity, absence in works of Roman grammarians, and the roots of Classical Latin words (i.e. hui ce to huic, quoi to cui, etc.) not matching or being similar to the pronunciation of classical words if ⟨ui⟩ were to be considered a diphthong.[50] The sequences sometimes did not represent diphthongs. ⟨ae⟩ and ⟨oe⟩ also represented a sequence of two vowels in different syllables in aēnus [aˈeː.nʊs] "of bronze" and coēpit [kɔˈeː.pɪt] "began", and ⟨au ui eu ei ou⟩ represented sequences of two vowels or of a vowel and one of the semivowels /j w/, in cavē [ˈka.weː] "beware!", cuius [ˈkʊj.jʊs] "whose", monuī [ˈmɔn.ʊ.iː] "I warned", solvī [ˈsɔɫ.wiː] "I released", dēlēvī [deːˈleː.wiː] "I destroyed", eius [ˈɛj.jʊs] "his", and novus [ˈnɔ.wʊs] "new". Old Latin had more diphthongs, but most of them changed into long vowels in Classical Latin. The Old Latin diphthong ⟨ai⟩ and the sequence ⟨āī⟩ became Classical ⟨ae⟩. Old Latin ⟨oi⟩ and ⟨ou⟩ changed to Classical ⟨ū⟩, except in a few words whose ⟨oi⟩ became Classical ⟨oe⟩. These two developments sometimes occurred in different words from the same root: for instance, Classical poena "punishment" and pūnīre "to punish".[49] Early Old Latin ⟨ei⟩ usually changed to Classical ⟨ī⟩.[51] In Vulgar Latin and the Romance languages, ⟨ae oe⟩ merged with ⟨e ē⟩. During the Classical Latin period this form of speaking was deliberately avoided by well-educated speakers.[49] Diphthongs classified by beginning sound Front Back Close ui /ui̯/ Mid ei /ei̯/ eu/eu̯/ oe /oe̯/ ou /ou̯/ Open ae /ae̯/ au /au̯/ Syllables[edit] Syllables in Latin are signified by the presence of diphthongs and vowels. The number of syllables is the same as the number of vowel sounds.[46] Further, if a consonant separates two vowels, it will go into the syllable of the second vowel. When there are two consonants between vowels, the last consonant will go with the second vowel. An exception occurs when a phonetic stop and liquid come together. In this situation, they are thought to be a single consonant, and as such, they will go into the syllable of the second vowel.[46] Length[edit] Syllables can also be seen as long. Within a word, a syllable may either be long by nature or long by position.[46] A syllable that is long by nature has a long vowel or diphthong. On the other hand, a syllable that is long by position has a short vowel that is followed by more than one consonant.[46] Stress[edit] There are two rules that define which syllable is stressed in the Latin language.[46] In a word with only two syllables, the emphasis will be on the first syllable. In a word with more than two syllables, there are two cases. If the second-to-last syllable is long, that syllable will have stress. If the second-to-last syllable is not long, the syllable before that one will be stressed instead.[46] Orthography[edit] Main article: Latin alphabet The Duenos Inscription, from the 6th century BC, is one of the earliest known Old Latin texts. Latin was written in the Latin alphabet, derived from the Etruscan alphabet, which was in turn drawn from the Greek alphabet and ultimately the Phoenician alphabet.[52] This alphabet has continued to be used over the centuries as the script for the Romance, Celtic, Germanic, Baltic, Finnic, and many Slavic languages (Polish, Slovak, Slovene, Croatian, Bosnian and Czech); and it has been adopted by many languages around the world, including Vietnamese, the Austronesian languages, many Turkic languages, and most languages in sub-Saharan Africa, the Americas, and Oceania, making it by far the world's single most widely used writing system. The number of letters in the Latin alphabet has varied. When it was first derived from the Etruscan alphabet, it contained only 21 letters.[53] Later, G was added to represent /ɡ/, which had previously been spelled C, and Z ceased to be included in the alphabet, as the language then had no voiced alveolar fricative.[54] The letters Y and Z were later added to represent Greek letters, upsilon and zeta respectively, in Greek loanwords.[54] W was created in the 11th century from VV. It represented /w/ in Germanic languages, not Latin, which still uses V for the purpose. J was distinguished from the original I only during the late Middle Ages, as was the letter U from V.[54] Although some Latin dictionaries use J, it is rarely used for Latin text, as it was not used in classical times, but many other languages use it. Classical Latin did not contain sentence punctuation, letter case,[55] or interword spacing, but apices were sometimes used to distinguish length in vowels and the interpunct was used at times to separate words. The first line of Catullus 3, originally written as lv́géteóveneréscupꟾdinésqve ("Mourn, O Venuses and Cupids") or with interpunct as lv́géte·ó·venerés·cupꟾdinésqve would be rendered in a modern edition as Lugete, o Veneres Cupidinesque or with macrons Lūgēte, ō Venerēs Cupīdinēsque or with apices Lúgéte, ó Venerés Cupídinésque. A replica of the Old Roman Cursive inspired by the Vindolanda tablets, the oldest surviving handwritten documents in Britain. The Roman cursive script is commonly found on the many wax tablets excavated at sites such as forts, an especially extensive set having been discovered at Vindolanda on Hadrian's Wall in Britain. Most notable is the fact that while most of the Vindolanda tablets show spaces between words, spaces were avoided in monumental inscriptions from that era. Alternative scripts[edit] Occasionally, Latin has been written in other scripts: The Praeneste fibula is a 7th-century BC pin with an Old Latin inscription written using the Etruscan script. The rear panel of the early 8th-century Franks Casket has an inscription that switches from Old English in Anglo-Saxon runes to Latin in Latin script and to Latin in runes. Grammar[edit] Main articles: Latin grammar and Latin syntax Latin is a synthetic, fusional language in the terminology of linguistic typology. In more traditional terminology, it is an inflected language, but typologists are apt to say "inflecting". Words include an objective semantic element and markers specifying the grammatical use of the word. The fusion of root meaning and markers produces very compact sentence elements: amō, "I love," is produced from a semantic element, ama-, "love," to which -ō, a first person singular marker, is suffixed. The grammatical function can be changed by changing the markers: the word is "inflected" to express different grammatical functions, but the semantic element usually does not change. (Inflection uses affixing and infixing. Affixing is prefixing and suffixing. Latin inflections are never prefixed.) For example, amābit, "he (or she or it) will love", is formed from the same stem, amā-, to which a future tense marker, -bi-, is suffixed, and a third person singular marker, -t, is suffixed. There is an inherent ambiguity: -t may denote more than one grammatical category: masculine, feminine, or neuter gender. A major task in understanding Latin phrases and clauses is to clarify such ambiguities by an analysis of context. All natural languages contain ambiguities of one sort or another. The inflections express gender, number, and case in adjectives, nouns, and pronouns, a process called declension. Markers are also attached to fixed stems of verbs, to denote person, number, tense, voice, mood, and aspect, a process called conjugation. Some words are uninflected and undergo neither process, such as adverbs, prepositions, and interjections. Nouns[edit] Main article: Latin declension A regular Latin noun belongs to one of five main declensions, a group of nouns with similar inflected forms. The declensions are identified by the genitive singular form of the noun. The first declension, with a predominant ending letter of a, is signified by the genitive singular ending of -ae. The second declension, with a predominant ending letter of us, is signified by the genitive singular ending of -i. The third declension, with a predominant ending letter of i, is signified by the genitive singular ending of -is. The fourth declension, with a predominant ending letter of u, is signified by the genitive singular ending of -ūs. The fifth declension, with a predominant ending letter of e, is signified by the genitive singular ending of -ei. There are seven Latin noun cases, which also apply to adjectives and pronouns and mark a noun's syntactic role in the sentence by means of inflections. Thus, word order is not as important in Latin as it is in English, which is less inflected. The general structure and word order of a Latin sentence can therefore vary. The cases are as follows: Nominative – used when the noun is the subject or a predicate nominative. The thing or person acting: the girl ran: puella cucurrit, or cucurrit puella Genitive – used when the noun is the possessor of or connected with an object: "the horse of the man", or "the man's horse"; in both instances, the word man would be in the genitive case when it is translated into Latin. It also indicates the partitive, in which the material is quantified: "a group of people"; "a number of gifts": people and gifts would be in the genitive case. Some nouns are genitive with special verbs and adjectives: The cup is full of wine. (Poculum plēnum vīnī est.) The master of the slave had beaten him. (Dominus servī eum verberāverat.) Dative – used when the noun is the indirect object of the sentence, with special verbs, with certain prepositions, and if it is used as agent, reference, or even possessor: The merchant hands the stola to the woman. (Mercātor fēminae stolam trādit.) Accusative – used when the noun is the direct object of the subject and as the object of a preposition demonstrating place to which.: The man killed the boy. (Vir puerum necāvit.) Ablative – used when the noun demonstrates separation or movement from a source, cause, agent or instrument or when the noun is used as the object of certain prepositions; adverbial: You walked with the boy. (Cum puerō ambulāvistī.) Vocative – used when the noun is used in a direct address. The vocative form of a noun is often the same as the nominative, with the exception of second-declension nouns ending in -us. The -us becomes an -e in the vocative singular. If it ends in -ius (such as fīlius), the ending is just -ī (filī), as distinct from the nominative plural (filiī) in the vocative singular: "Master!" shouted the slave. ("Domine!" clāmāvit servus.) Locative – used to indicate a location (corresponding to the English "in" or "at"). It is far less common than the other six cases of Latin nouns and usually applies to cities and small towns and islands along with a few common nouns, such as the words domus (house), humus (ground), and rus (country). In the singular of the first and second declensions, its form coincides with the genitive (Roma becomes Romae, "in Rome"). In the plural of all declensions and the singular of the other declensions, it coincides with the ablative (Athēnae becomes Athēnīs, "at Athens"). In the fourth-declension word domus, the locative form, domī ("at home") differs from the standard form of all other cases. Latin lacks both definite and indefinite articles so puer currit can mean either "the boy is running" or "a boy is running". Adjectives[edit] Main article: Latin declension There are two types of regular Latin adjectives: first- and second- declension and third-declension. They are so-called because their forms are similar or identical to first- and second-declension and third-declension nouns, respectively. Latin adjectives also have comparative (more --, -er) and superlative (most --, est) forms. There are also a number of Latin participles. Latin numbers are sometimes declined as adjectives. See Numbers below. First and second-declension adjectives[edit] First and second-declension adjectives are declined like first-declension nouns for the feminine forms and like second-declension nouns for the masculine and neuter forms. For example, for mortuus, mortua, mortuum (dead), mortua is declined like a regular first-declension noun (such as puella (girl)), mortuus is declined like a regular second-declension masculine noun (such as dominus (lord, master)), and mortuum is declined like a regular second-declension neuter noun (such as auxilium (help)). Third declension adjectives[edit] Third-declension adjectives are mostly declined like normal third-declension nouns, with a few exceptions. In the plural nominative neuter, for example, the ending is -ia (omnia (all, everything)), and for third-declension nouns, the plural nominative neuter ending is -a or -ia (capita (heads), animalia (animals)) They can have one, two or three forms for the masculine, feminine, and neuter nominative singular. Participles[edit] Latin participles, like English participles, are formed from a verb. There are a few main types of participles: Present Active Participles, Perfect Passive Participles, Future Active Participles, and Future Passive Participles. Prepositions[edit] Latin sometimes uses prepositions, depending on the type of prepositional phrase being used. Most prepositions are followed by a noun in either the accusative or ablative case: "apud puerum" (with the boy), with "puerum" being the accusative form of "puer", boy, and "sine puero" (without the boy, "puero" being the ablative form of "puer". A few adpositions, however, govern a noun in the genitive (such as "gratia" and "tenus"). Verbs[edit] Main articles: Latin grammar and Latin conjugation A regular verb in Latin belongs to one of four main conjugations. A conjugation is "a class of verbs with similar inflected forms."[56] The conjugations are identified by the last letter of the verb's present stem. The present stem can be found by omitting the -re (-rī in deponent verbs) ending from the present infinitive form. The infinitive of the first conjugation ends in -ā-re or -ā-ri (active and passive respectively): amāre, "to love," hortārī, "to exhort"; of the second conjugation by -ē-re or -ē-rī: monēre, "to warn", verērī, "to fear;" of the third conjugation by -ere, -ī: dūcere, "to lead," ūtī, "to use"; of the fourth by -ī-re, -ī-rī: audīre, "to hear," experīrī, "to attempt".[57] Irregular verbs may not follow the types or may be marked in a different way. The "endings" presented above are not the suffixed infinitive markers. The first letter in each case is the last of the stem so the conjugations are also called a-conjugation, e-conjugation and i-conjugation. The fused infinitive ending is -re or -rī. Third-conjugation stems end in a consonant: the consonant conjugation. Further, there is a subset of the third conjugation, the i-stems, which behave somewhat like the fourth conjugation, as they are both i-stems, one short and the other long.[57] The stem categories descend from Indo-European and can therefore be compared to similar conjugations in other Indo-European languages. There are six general "tenses" in Latin (present, imperfect, future, perfect, pluperfect and future perfect), three moods (indicative, imperative and subjunctive, in addition to the infinitive, participle, gerund, gerundive and supine), three persons (first, second and third), two numbers (singular and plural), two voices (active and passive) and two aspects (perfective and imperfective). Verbs are described by four principal parts: The first principal part is the first-person singular, present tense, active voice, indicative mood form of the verb. If the verb is impersonal, the first principal part will be in the third-person singular. The second principal part is the present active infinitive. The third principal part is the first-person singular, perfect active indicative form. Like the first principal part, if the verb is impersonal, the third principal part will be in the third-person singular. The fourth principal part is the supine form, or alternatively, the nominative singular of the perfect passive participle form of the verb. The fourth principal part can show one gender of the participle or all three genders (-us for masculine, -a for feminine and -um for neuter) in the nominative singular. The fourth principal part will be the future participle if the verb cannot be made passive. Most modern Latin dictionaries, if they show only one gender, tend to show the masculine; but many older dictionaries instead show the neuter, as it coincides with the supine. The fourth principal part is sometimes omitted for intransitive verbs, but strictly in Latin, they can be made passive if they are used impersonally, and the supine exists for such verbs. There are six "tenses" in the Latin language. These are divided into two tense systems: the present system, which is made up of the present, imperfect and future tenses, and the perfect system, which is made up of the perfect, pluperfect and future perfect tenses. Each tense has a set of endings corresponding to the person, number, and voice of the subject. Subject (nominative) pronouns are generally omitted for the first (I, we) and second (you) persons except for emphasis. The table below displays the common inflected endings for the indicative mood in the active voice in all six tenses. For the future tense, the first listed endings are for the first and second conjugations, and the second listed endings are for the third and fourth conjugations: Tense Singular Plural 1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person 1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person Present -ō/m -s -t -mus -tis -nt Future -bō, -am -bis, -ēs -bit, -et -bimus, -ēmus -bitis, -ētis -bunt, -ent Imperfect -bam -bās -bat -bāmus -bātis -bant Perfect -ī -istī -it -imus -istis -ērunt Future Perfect -erō -eris/erīs -erit -erimus/-erīmus -eritis/-erītis -erint Pluperfect -eram -erās -erat -erāmus -erātis -erant Deponent verbs[edit] Some Latin verbs are deponent, causing their forms to be in the passive voice but retain an active meaning: hortor, hortārī, hortātus sum (to urge). Vocabulary[edit] As Latin is an Italic language, most of its vocabulary is likewise Italic, ultimately from the ancestral Proto-Indo-European language. However, because of close cultural interaction, the Romans not only adapted the Etruscan alphabet to form the Latin alphabet but also borrowed some Etruscan words into their language, including persona "mask" and histrio "actor".[58] Latin also included vocabulary borrowed from Oscan, another Italic language. After the Fall of Tarentum (272 BC), the Romans began Hellenising, or adopting features of Greek culture, including the borrowing of Greek words, such as camera (vaulted roof), sumbolum (symbol), and balineum (bath).[58] This Hellenisation led to the addition of "Y" and "Z" to the alphabet to represent Greek sounds.[59] Subsequently, the Romans transplanted Greek art, medicine, science and philosophy to Italy, paying almost any price to entice Greek skilled and educated persons to Rome and sending their youth to be educated in Greece. Thus, many Latin scientific and philosophical words were Greek loanwords or had their meanings expanded by association with Greek words, as ars (craft) and τέχνη (art).[60] Because of the Roman Empire's expansion and subsequent trade with outlying European tribes, the Romans borrowed some northern and central European words, such as beber (beaver), of Germanic origin, and bracae (breeches), of Celtic origin.[60] The specific dialects of Latin across Latin-speaking regions of the former Roman Empire after its fall were influenced by languages specific to the regions. The dialects of Latin evolved into different Romance languages. During and after the adoption of Christianity into Roman society, Christian vocabulary became a part of the language, either from Greek or Hebrew borrowings or as Latin neologisms.[61] Continuing into the Middle Ages, Latin incorporated many more words from surrounding languages, including Old English and other Germanic languages. Over the ages, Latin-speaking populations produced new adjectives, nouns, and verbs by affixing or compounding meaningful segments.[62] For example, the compound adjective, omnipotens, "all-powerful," was produced from the adjectives omnis, "all", and potens, "powerful", by dropping the final s of omnis and concatenating. Often, the concatenation changed the part of speech, and nouns were produced from verb segments or verbs from nouns and adjectives.[63] Phrases (Neo-Latin)[edit] Main article: List of Latin phrases The phrases are mentioned with accents to show where stress is placed.[64] In Latin, words are normally stressed either on the second-to-last (penultimate) syllable, called in Latin paenultima or syllaba paenultima,[65] or on the third-to-last syllable, called in Latin antepaenultima or syllaba antepaenultima.[65] In the following notation, accented short vowels have an acute diacritic, accented long vowels have a circumflex diacritic (representing long falling pitch), and unaccented long vowels are marked simply with a macron. This reflects the tone of the voice with which, ideally, the stress is phonetically realized; but this may not always be clearly articulated on every word in a sentence.[66] Regardless of length, a vowel at the end of a word may be significantly shortened or even altogether deleted if the next word begins with a vowel also (a process called elision), unless a very short pause is inserted. As an exception, the following words: est (English "is"), es ("[you (sg.)] are") lose their own vowel e instead. sálvē to one person / salvête to more than one person – hello ávē to one person / avête to more than one person – greetings válē to one person / valête to more than one person – goodbye cûrā ut váleās – take care exoptâtus to male / exoptâta to female, optâtus to male / optâta to female, grâtus to male / grâta to female, accéptus to male / accépta to female – welcome quômodo válēs?, ut válēs? – how are you? béne – good béne váleō – I'm fine mále – bad mále váleō – I'm not good quaêsō (roughly: ['kwaeso:]/['kwe:so:]) – please amâbō tē – please íta, íta est, íta vêrō, sîc, sîc est, étiam – yes nôn, mínimē – no grâtiās tíbi, grâtiās tíbi ágō – thank you, I give thanks to you mágnās grâtiās, mágnās grâtiās ágō – many thanks máximās grâtiās, máximās grâtiās ágō, ingéntēs grâtiās ágō – thank you very much áccipe sīs to one person / accípite sîtis to more than one person, libénter – you're welcome quā aetâte es? – how old are you? 25 (vīgíntī quînque) ánnōs nâtus sumby male /25 ánnōs nâta sum by female – I am 25 years old úbi lātrîna est? – where is the toilet? scîs (tū) ... – do you speak (literally: "do you know") ... Latînē? – Latin? Graêcē? (roughly: ['graeke:]/['gre:ke:]) – Greek? Ánglicē? – English? Itálicē? – Italian? Gállicē? – French? Hispânicē? – Spanish? (or: Hispânē) Lūsitânē? – Portuguese? Theodíscē?/Germânicē? – German? (sometimes also: Teutónicē) Sînicē? – Chinese? Iapônicē? – Japanese? Coreânē? – Korean? Arábicē? – Arabic? Pérsicē? – Persian? Índicē? – Hindi? Rússicē? – Russian? (sometimes Rutênicē) Cámbricē? – Welsh? Suêticē? – Swedish? (or: Suêcicē) Polônicē? – Polish? ámō tē / tē ámō – I love you Numbers[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Further information: Latin numerals (linguistics) In ancient times, numbers in Latin were written only with letters. Today, the numbers can be written with the Arabic numbers as well as with Roman numerals. The numbers 1, 2 and 3 and every whole hundred from 200 to 900 are declined as nouns and adjectives, with some differences. ūnus, ūna, ūnum (masculine, feminine, neuter) I one duo, duae, duo (m., f., n.) II two trēs, tria (m./f., n.) III three quattuor IIII or IV four quīnque V five sex VI six septem VII seven octō VIII eight novem VIIII or IX nine decem X ten quīnquāgintā L fifty centum C one hundred quīngentī, quīngentae, quīngenta (m., f., n.) D five hundred mīlle M one thousand The numbers from 4 to 100 do not change their endings. As in modern descendants such as Spanish, the gender for naming a number in isolation is masculine, so that "1, 2, 3" is counted as ūnus, duo, trēs. Example text[edit] Commentarii de Bello Gallico, also called De Bello Gallico (The Gallic War), written by Gaius Julius Caesar, begins with the following passage: Gallia est omnis divisa in partes tres, quarum unam incolunt Belgae, aliam Aquitani, tertiam qui ipsorum lingua Celtae, nostra Galli appellantur. Hi omnes lingua, institutis, legibus inter se differunt. Gallos ab Aquitanis Garumna flumen, a Belgis Matrona et Sequana dividit. Horum omnium fortissimi sunt Belgae, propterea quod a cultu atque humanitate provinciae longissime absunt, minimeque ad eos mercatores saepe commeant atque ea quae ad effeminandos animos pertinent important, proximique sunt Germanis, qui trans Rhenum incolunt, quibuscum continenter bellum gerunt. Qua de causa Helvetii quoque reliquos Gallos virtute praecedunt, quod fere cotidianis proeliis cum Germanis contendunt, cum aut suis finibus eos prohibent aut ipsi in eorum finibus bellum gerunt. Eorum una pars, quam Gallos obtinere dictum est, initium capit a flumine Rhodano, continetur Garumna flumine, Oceano, finibus Belgarum; attingit etiam ab Sequanis et Helvetiis flumen Rhenum; vergit ad septentriones. Belgae ab extremis Galliae finibus oriuntur; pertinent ad inferiorem partem fluminis Rheni; spectant in septentrionem et orientem solem. Aquitania a Garumna flumine ad Pyrenaeos montes et eam partem Oceani quae est ad Hispaniam pertinet; spectat inter occasum solis et septentriones. The same text may be marked for all long vowels (before any possible elisions at word boundary) with apices over vowel letters, including customarily before "nf" and "ns" where a long vowel is automatically produced: Gallia est omnis dívísa in partés trés, quárum únam incolunt Belgae, aliam Aquítání, tertiam quí ipsórum linguá Celtae, nostrá Gallí appellantur. Hí omnés linguá, ínstitútís, légibus inter sé differunt. Gallós ab Aquítánís Garumna flúmen, á Belgís Mátrona et Séquana dívidit. Hórum omnium fortissimí sunt Belgae, proptereá quod á cultú atque húmánitáte próvinciae longissimé absunt, miniméque ad eós mercátórés saepe commeant atque ea quae ad efféminandós animós pertinent important, proximíque sunt Germánís, quí tráns Rhénum incolunt, quibuscum continenter bellum gerunt. Quá dé causá Helvétií quoque reliquós Gallós virtúte praecédunt, quod feré cotídiánís proeliís cum Germánís contendunt, cum aut suís fínibus eós prohibent aut ipsí in eórum fínibus bellum gerunt. Eórum úna pars, quam Gallós obtinére dictum est, initium capit á flúmine Rhodanó, continétur Garumná flúmine, Óceanó, fínibus Belgárum; attingit etiam ab Séquanís et Helvétiís flúmen Rhénum; vergit ad septentriónés. Belgae ab extrémís Galliae fínibus oriuntur; pertinent ad ínferiórem partem flúminis Rhéní; spectant in septentriónem et orientem sólem. Aquítánia á Garumná flúmine ad Pýrénaeós montés et eam partem Óceaní quae est ad Hispániam pertinet; spectat inter occásum sólis et septentriónés. See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal Language portal Catholicism portal Accademia Vivarium Novum Classical compound Contemporary Latin Greek and Latin roots in English Hybrid word Latin grammar Latin mnemonics Latin obscenity Latin school Latino sine flexione (Latin without Inflections) List of Greek and Latin roots in English List of Latin abbreviations List of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names List of Latin phrases List of Latin translations of modern literature List of Latin words with English derivatives List of Latinised names Lorem ipsum Romanization (cultural) Toponymy Vulgar Latin References[edit] ^ "Schools". Britannica (1911 ed.). ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Imperial Latin". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Latin". Glottolog 3.0. 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Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-508345-3. Archived from the original on 9 November 2016. ^ Levy, p. 150 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLevy (help) ^ Allen 1978, pp. 45, 46 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFAllen1978 (help) ^ a b c d e f g h Wheelock, Frederic M. (7 June 2011). Wheelock's Latin. LaFleur, Richard A. (7th ed.). New York. ISBN 978-0-06-199721-1. OCLC 670475844. ^ Sihler 2008, p. 174. ^ Allen 2004, pp. 33–34 ^ a b c Allen 2004, pp. 60–63 ^ Husband, Richard (1910). "The Diphthong -ui in Latin". Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association. 41: 19–23. doi:10.2307/282713. JSTOR 282713. [dead link] ^ Allen 2004, pp. 53–55 ^ Diringer 1996, pp. 451, 493, 530 ^ Diringer 1996, p. 536 ^ a b c Diringer 1996, p. 538 ^ Diringer 1996, p. 540 ^ "Conjugation". Webster's II new college dictionary. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 1999. ^ a b Wheelock, Frederic M. (2011). Wheelock's Latin (7th ed.). New York: CollinsReference. ^ a b Holmes & Schultz 1938, p. 13 ^ Sacks, David (2003). Language Visible: Unraveling the Mystery of the Alphabet from A to Z. London: Broadway Books. p. 351. ISBN 978-0-7679-1172-6. ^ a b Holmes & Schultz 1938, p. 14 ^ Norberg, Dag; Johnson, Rand H, Translator (2004) [1980]. "Latin at the End of the Imperial Age". Manuel pratique de latin médiéval. University of Michigan. Retrieved 20 May 2015. ^ Jenks 1911, pp. 3, 46 ^ Jenks 1911, pp. 35, 40 ^ Ebbe Vilborg – Norstedts svensk-latinska ordbok – Second edition, 2009. ^ a b Tore Janson – Latin – Kulturen, historien, språket – First edition, 2009. ^ Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria (95 CE) Bibliography[edit] Allen, William Sidney (2004). Vox Latina – a Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-22049-1. Baldi, Philip (2002). The foundations of Latin. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Bennett, Charles E. (1908). Latin Grammar. Chicago: Allyn and Bacon. ISBN 978-1-176-19706-0. Buck, Carl Darling (1904). A grammar of Oscan and Umbrian, with a collection of inscriptions and a glossary. Boston: Ginn & Company. Clark, Victor Selden (1900). Studies in the Latin of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Lancaster: The New Era Printing Company. Diringer, David (1996) [1947]. The Alphabet – A Key to the History of Mankind. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Private Ltd. ISBN 978-81-215-0748-6. Herman, József; Wright, Roger (Translator) (2000). Vulgar Latin. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 978-0-271-02000-6. Holmes, Urban Tigner; Schultz, Alexander Herman (1938). A History of the French Language. New York: Biblo-Moser. ISBN 978-0-8196-0191-9. Janson, Tore (2004). A Natural History of Latin. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926309-7. Jenks, Paul Rockwell (1911). A Manual of Latin Word Formation for Secondary Schools. New York: D.C. Heath & Co. Palmer, Frank Robert (1984). Grammar (2nd ed.). Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England; New York, N.Y., U.S.A.: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-81-206-1306-5. Sihler, Andrew L (2008). New comparative grammar of Greek and Latin. New York: Oxford University Press. Vincent, N. (1990). "Latin". In Harris, M.; Vincent, N. (eds.). The Romance Languages. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-520829-0. Waquet, Françoise; Howe, John (Translator) (2003). Latin, or the Empire of a Sign: From the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Centuries. Verso. ISBN 978-1-85984-402-1. Wheelock, Frederic (2005). Latin: An Introduction (6th ed.). Collins. ISBN 978-0-06-078423-2. Curtius, Ernst (2013). European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages. Princeton University. ISBN 978-0-691-15700-9. External links[edit] Latin edition of Wikisource, the free library Latin edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Wikiquote has quotations related to: Latin proverbs Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Latin Wikiversity has learning resources about Latin For a list of words relating to Latin, see the Latin language category of words in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Latin language. Language tools[edit] "Latin Dictionary Headword Search". Perseus Hopper. Tufts University. Searches Lewis & Short's A Latin Dictionary and Lewis's An Elementary Latin Dictionary. Online results. "Online Latin Dictionary with conjugator and declension tool". Olivetti Media Communication. Search on line Latin-English and English-Latin dictionary with complete declension or conjugation. Online results. "Latin Word Study Tool". Perseus Hopper. Tufts University. Identifies the grammatical functions of words entered. Online results. Aversa, Alan. "Latin Inflector". University of Arizona. Identifies the grammatical functions of all the words in sentences entered, using Perseus. "Latin Verb Conjugator". Verbix. Displays complete conjugations of verbs entered in first-person present singular form. "Online Latin Verb Conjugator". Archived from the original on 18 May 2016. Retrieved 30 September 2014. Displays conjugation of verbs entered in their infinitive form. Whittaker, William. "Words". Notre Dame Archives. Archived from the original on 18 June 2006. Identifies Latin words entered. Translates English words entered. "Alpheios". Alpheios Project. Combines Whittakers Words, Lewis and Short, Bennett's grammar and inflection tables in a browser addon. Latin Dictionaries at Curlie Dymock, John (1830). A new abridgment of Ainsworth's Dictionary, English and Latin, for the use of Grammar Schools (4th ed.). Glasgow: Hutchison & Brookman. "Classical Language Toolkit" (CLTK). A Natural Language Processing toolkit for Python offering a variety of functionality for Latin and other classical languages. Courses[edit] Latin Lessons (free online through the Linguistics Research Center at UT Austin) Free 47-Lesson Online Latin Course, Learnlangs Learn Latin Grammar, vocabulary and audio Latin Links and Resources, Compiled by Fr. Gary Coulter der Millner, Evan (2007). "Latinum". Latin Latin Course on YouTube and audiobooks. Molendinarius. Retrieved 2 February 2012. Byrne, Carol (1999). "Simplicissimus" (PDF). The Latin Mass Society of England and Wales. Retrieved 20 April 2011. (a course in ecclesiastical Latin). Harsch, Ulrich (1996–2010). "Ludus Latinus Cursus linguae latinae". Bibliotheca Augustiana (in Latin). Augsburg: University of Applied Sciences. Retrieved 24 June 2010. Beginners' Latin on The National Archives (United Kingdom) Grammar and study[edit] Bennett, Charles E. (2005) [1908]. New Latin Grammar (2nd ed.). Project Gutenberg. ISBN 978-1-176-19706-0. Griffin, Robin (1992). A student's Latin Grammar (3rd ed.). University of Cambridge. ISBN 978-0-521-38587-9. Lehmann, Winifred P.; Slocum, Jonathan (2008). "Latin Online". The University of Texas at Austin. Retrieved 17 April 2020. Phonetics[edit] Cui, Ray (2005). "Phonetica Latinae-How to pronounce Latin". Ray Cui. Retrieved 25 June 2010. "Latin Language" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911. Latin language news and audio[edit] Ephemeris, online Latin newspaper Nuntii Latini, from Finnish YLE Radio 1 Nuntii Latini, monthly review from German Radio Bremen (Bremen Zwei) Classics Podcasts in Latin and Ancient Greek, Haverford College Latinum Latin Language course and Latin Language YouTube Index Latin language online communities[edit] Grex Latine Loquentium (Flock of those Speaking Latin) Circulus Latinus Interretialis (Internet Latin Circle) Latinitas Foundation, at the Vatican v t e Italic languages Latino-Faliscan Latin Faliscan Praenestinian Lanuvian Osco-Umbrian Oscan Umbrian Volscian Sabine South Picene Marsian Paeligni Hernican Marrucinian Pre-Samnite Unknown Sicel? (possibly not Italic) Venetic? (possibly Celtic, transitional or independent) Aequian Vestinian Lusitanian? 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en-wikipedia-org-514	----	Juan Boscán Almogáver - Wikipedia Juan Boscán Almogáver From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Juan Boscán) Jump to navigation Jump to search Joan Boscà i Almogàver (Catalan pronunciation: [ʒuˈam busˈka j əlmuˈɣaβə], Spanish: Juan Boscán Almogávar; c. 1490 – 21 September 1542), was a Spanish poet who incorporated hendecasyllable verses into Spanish. Contents 1 Biography 2 Works 3 Later reputation 4 References 5 External links Biography[edit] The exact date of birth for Boscà is unclear, but there is a consensus that he was born anywhere between 1487 and 1492. Boscà was born in Barcelona and was one of three children. His father, Joan Valentí Boscà, was a public official, and his mother was named Violant Almogàver. Boscà's father died in 1492. Around 1507, Boscà left to live in the court of Fernando and Isabel, where he was a student of Lucio Marineo Siculo from Vizzini, Italy,[1] who taught him the skill of translating Italian love poetry, Latin, and Greek lyrics into Spanish. Marineo's teachings evidence the close cultural interactions that existed between Spain and Italy and helped to develop the talent of Boscán. By 1522, Joan Boscà was working as a tutor to Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, Duke of Alba. In this same year, he participated with Garcilaso de la Vega in giving naval assistance to the Isle of Rhodes during a Turkish invasion. Boscà fought against the Turks again in 1532 with Álvarez de Toledo and Charles I in Vienna. During this period, Boscán had made serious progress in his mastery of verse in the Italian style. Boscà is most famous for the incorporation of hendecasyllable verses into Spanish. Although he was preceded by Íñigo López de Mendoza, 1st Marquess of Santillana, who wrote 42 sonnets in the Italian style, Boscà was one of the first people to use the present-day structures of the sonnet in Castilian. His originality and open-minded nature made him an innovator, and his use of hendecasyllabic verse gave his poetry a distinctly creative flare that allowed him to emphasize the emotions and significance of each poem. In the 1520s he came under the influence of Andrea Navagiero, the Venetian ambassador to Spain. It is because of Navagiero's persuasion that Boscà abandoned the traditional eight-syllable verses of Spanish poetry. Boscán was also influenced by another Italian ambassador (a friend of Navagiero) named Count Baldassare Castiglione. Boscán was urged by Castiglione and Garcilaso to translate the ambassador's "Il Cortegiano" into Spanish, which was published on 2 April 1534 to great success. With Boscán's fame came great controversy, because he constantly had to combat with those who preferred the old style of poetry over the new. In 1539, he married Ana Girón de Rebolledo of Valencia and fathered three daughters. Boscán died on 21 September 1542 after becoming ill in Perpignan, while he was preparing some of his poetry for publication. Works[edit] Joan Boscà's most famous works appear in Las obras de Boscán y algunas de Garcilaso de la Vega repartidas en quatro libros (The Works of Boscà and Some of Garcilaso de la Vega Divided in Four Volumes). In volume three, this includes Leandro y Hero (Leander and Hero), based on an ancient Greek fable and Ottava Rima (Royal Octave). A stanza of "Ottava Rima" reads: Amor es todo quanto aquí se trata; es la sazón del tiempo enamorada; todo muere d'amor o d'amor mata; sin amor no veréyes ni una pisada; d'amores se negocia y se barata; toda la tierra en esto es ocupada; si veys bullir d'un árbol una hoja, diréys que amor aquello se os antoja Love is everything treated here; it is love's season; all dies of love or kills for love; without love you'll see hardly a footstep; with love, you trade and barter; the entire world is thus occupied; if a tree's leaf buds you will say that love tickles your desire. Carlos Clavería, who has edited Boscán´s work, affirms that the reader who reaches the third book will find veritable treasures, including the above cited mythological poem based on Musaeus and with touches of Virgil and Hesiod. The reader will also find a Petrarchan poem that has includes a very surprising turn.[2] Capítulo, which begins in a rather conventional manner, but then turns to describe in the last thirty-two tercets a painting from antiquity: Timanthes's The Sacrifice of Iphigenia best known for the veil worn by Agamemnon, her father, since the poet was unable to show his immense suffering. This is one of the earliest ekphrasis found in Iberian Renaissance poetry.[3]What cannot be shown or described in the poem is the extreme jealousy felt by the poetic voice. Later reputation[edit] Boscà's and his close friend Garcilaso de la Vega (who he met at the Spanish court) are seen as very influential in the poetry of the Spanish Renaissance. Boscán was the first poet to introduce the Italian metres to Spain. Boscà's poems were published after his death by his widow around 1543 (Garcilaso died in 1536 and Boscà was given the task of editing some of his works before his own death on September 21, 1542). The collection proved popular: between 1543 and 1597, twenty-one editions were printed throughout Europe. While the collection was supposed to focus mainly on his poetry, Boscà was soon overshadowed by his friend Garcilaso. In contrast to Garcilaso, who explored several genres and themes in the new Italian style, Boscà wrote mostly about love. He has been compared to Fray Luis de León, a poet and professor of the 16th century, who also enjoyed the process of translating and writing poetry. One of his works, Oh Sombra!, was adapted into a song by the British rock band Electrelane in 2004. References[edit] ^ JSTOR: Renaissance Quarterly, Vol. 50, No. 3 (Autumn, 1997 ), pp. 701-722:# Marineo Siculo: A Protagonist of Humanism in Spain(Erika Rummel) ^ Carlos Claveria, editor.Juan Boscan. Madrid: Catedra, 1999. ^ Frederick A. de Armas, 'Un pintor clásico en la poesía del Siglo de Oro: Timantes en Boscán, Garcilaso, Lope de Vega y Argensola,” Serenisima palabra: Actas del X Congreso de la Asociación Internacional Siglo de Oro (Venecia, 14-18 de Julio 2014), eds. Ana Bognolo et al., Biblioteca de Rassegna Iberistica 5. Venezia: Edizione Ca’Foscari, 2017: 49-67. "Juan Boscán." (original name "Joan Boscà") In Sixteenth-Century Spanish Writers. Volume 318: Dictionary of Literary Biography, Edited by Gregory B. Kaplan. Chicago: Bruccoli Clark Layman / Gale, 2005. pp. 14–21. (for the poem)  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Boscán Almogaver, Juan". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. External links[edit] [1] Link to search for more information and critical essays on Juan Boscán in the Literature Resource Center (a database). (in English and Spanish) Juan Boscán (in Spanish) Works by Juan Boscán Almogáver at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Authority control BIBSYS: 90626861 BNE: XX856487 BNF: cb12259519s (data) CANTIC: a10324045 GND: 118662031 ISNI: 0000 0001 1850 6649 LCCN: n83204767 NKC: js20020115037 NTA: 070336687 SNAC: w6960j60 SUDOC: 027627780 VIAF: 165164384 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n83204767 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Juan_Boscán_Almogáver&oldid=989372949" Categories: 1490s births 1542 deaths Writers from Barcelona Catalan poets Catalan translators Translators to Spanish Spanish poets Male poets Hidden categories: Articles containing Spanish-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Articles with Spanish-language sources (es) Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara Français Italiano ქართული Қазақша Magyar مصرى Nederlands Polski Português Română Русский Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 18 November 2020, at 16:39 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5229	----	Pliny the Younger - Wikipedia Pliny the Younger From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search lawyer, author, and magistrate of Ancient Rome Pliny the Younger Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus Statue of Pliny the Younger on the facade of Cathedral of S. Maria Maggiore in Como Born Gaius Caecilius Cilo 61 AD Como Died c. 113 AD (aged approx. 52) Bithynia Occupation Politician, judge, author Parents Lucius Caecilius Cilo (father) Plinia Marcella (mother) Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus, born Gaius Caecilius or Gaius Caecilius Cilo (61 – c. 113), better known as Pliny the Younger (/ˈplɪni/),[1] was a lawyer, author, and magistrate of Ancient Rome. Pliny's uncle, Pliny the Elder, helped raise and educate him. Pliny the Younger wrote hundreds of letters, of which 247 survive, and which are of great historical value. Some are addressed to reigning emperors or to notables such as the historian Tacitus. Pliny served as an imperial magistrate under Trajan (reigned 98–117),[2] and his letters to Trajan provide one of the few surviving records of the relationship between the imperial office and provincial governors.[3] Pliny rose through a series of civil and military offices, the cursus honorum. He was a friend of the historian Tacitus and might have employed the biographer Suetonius on his staff. Pliny also came into contact with other well-known men of the period, including the philosophers Artemidorus and Euphrates the Stoic, during his time in Syria.[4] Contents 1 Background 1.1 Childhood 1.2 Marriages 1.3 Death 2 Career 2.1 Career summary 3 Writings 3.1 Epistulae 3.1.1 Epistles concerning the eruption of Mount Vesuvius 3.1.2 Epistle concerning the Christian religion 3.2 Manuscripts 4 Villas, farms and estates 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Background[edit] Childhood[edit] Como and Lake Como in 1834, painted by Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot Pliny the Younger was born in Novum Comum (Como, Northern Italy) around 61 AD, the son of Lucius Caecilius Cilo, born there, and his wife Plinia Marcella, a sister of Pliny the Elder.[5] He was the grandson of Senator and landowner Gaius Caecilius, revered his uncle, Pliny the Elder (who at this time was extremely famous around the Roman Empire), and provided sketches of how his uncle worked on the Naturalis Historia.[6] Cilo died at an early age, when Pliny was still young. As a result, the boy probably lived with his mother. His guardian and preceptor in charge of his education was Lucius Verginius Rufus,[citation needed] famed for quelling a revolt against Nero in 68 AD. After being first tutored at home, Pliny went to Rome for further education. There he was taught rhetoric by Quintilian, a great teacher and author, and Nicetes Sacerdos of Smyrna. It was at this time that Pliny became closer to his uncle Pliny the Elder. When Pliny the Younger was 17 or 18, his uncle Pliny the Elder died attempting to rescue victims of the Vesuvius eruption, and the terms of the Elder Pliny's will passed his estate to his nephew. In the same document, the younger Pliny was adopted by his uncle. As a result, Pliny the Younger changed his name from Gaius Caecilius Cilo to Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus (his official title was Gaius Plinius Luci filius Caecilius Secundus).[7] The Younger Pliny Reproved, colourized copperplate print by Thomas Burke (1749–1815) There is some evidence that Pliny had a sibling. A memorial erected in Como (now CIL V, 5279) repeats the terms of a will by which the aedile Lucius Caecilius Cilo, son of Lucius, established a fund, the interest of which was to buy oil (used for soap) for the baths of the people of Como. The trustees are apparently named in the inscription: "L. Caecilius Valens and P. Caecilius Secundus, sons of Lucius, and the contubernalis Lutulla." The word contubernalis describing Lutulla is the military term meaning "tent-mate", which can only mean that she was living with Lucius, not as his wife. The first man mentioned, L. Caecilius Valens, is probably the older son. Pliny the Younger confirms[8] that he was a trustee for the largesse "of my ancestors". It seems unknown to Pliny the Elder, so Valens' mother was probably not his sister Plinia; perhaps Valens was Lutulla's son from an earlier relationship.[citation needed] Marriages[edit] Pliny the Younger married three times, firstly, when he was very young (about 18), to a stepdaughter of Veccius Proculus, who died at age 37; secondly, at an unknown date, to the daughter of Pompeia Celerina; and thirdly to Calpurnia, daughter of Calpurnius and granddaughter of Calpurnius Fabatus of Comum. Letters survive in which Pliny recorded this last marriage taking place, his attachment to Calpurnia, and his sadness when she miscarried their child.[9] Death[edit] Pliny is thought to have died suddenly during his convention in Bithynia-Pontus, around 113 AD, since no events referred to in his letters date later than that.[10] Career[edit] Pliny was by birth of equestrian rank, that is, a member of the aristocratic order of equites (knights), the lower (beneath the senatorial order) of the two Roman aristocratic orders that monopolised senior civil and military offices during the early Empire. His career began at the age of 18 and initially followed a normal equestrian route. But, unlike most equestrians, he achieved entry into the upper order by being elected Quaestor in his late twenties.[11] (See Career summary below.) Pliny was active in the Roman legal system, especially in the sphere of the Roman centumviral court, which dealt with inheritance cases. Later, he was a well-known prosecutor and defender at the trials of a series of provincial governors, including Baebius Massa, governor of Baetica; Marius Priscus, governor of Africa; Gaius Caecilius Classicus, governor of Baetica; and most ironically in light of his later appointment to this province, Gaius Julius Bassus and Varenus Rufus, both governors of Bithynia and Pontus.[12] Pliny's career is commonly considered as a summary of the main Roman public charges and is the best-documented example from this period, offering proof for many aspects of imperial culture. Effectively, Pliny crossed all the principal fields of the organization of the early Roman Empire. It is an achievement for a man to have not only survived the reigns of several disparate emperors, especially the much-detested Domitian, but also to have risen in rank throughout.[13] Career summary[edit] c. 81 One of the presiding judges in the centumviral court (decemvir litibus iudicandis) c. 81 Tribunus militum (staff officer) of Legio III Gallica in Syria, probably for six months 80s Officer of the noble order of knights (sevir equitum Romanorum) Later 80s Entered the Senate 88 or 89 Quaestor attached to the Emperor's staff (quaestor imperatoris) 91 Tribune of the People (tribunus plebis) 93 Praetor 94–96 Prefect of the military treasury (praefectus aerarii militaris) 98–100 Prefect of the treasury of Saturn (praefectus aerari Saturni) 100 Suffect consul with Cornutus Tertullus 103–104 Publicly elected Augur 104–106 Superintendent for the banks of the Tiber (curator alvei Tiberis) 104–107 Three times a member of Trajan's judicial council. 110 The imperial governor (legatus Augusti) of Bithynia et Pontus province Writings[edit] Pliny wrote his first work, a tragedy in Greek, at age 14.[14] Additionally, in the course of his life, he wrote numerous poems, most of which are lost. He was also known as a notable orator; though he professed himself a follower of Cicero, Pliny's prose was more magniloquent and less direct than Cicero's. Pliny's only oration that now survives is the Panegyricus Traiani. This was delivered in the Senate in 100 and is a description of Trajan's figure and actions in an adulatory and emphatic form, especially contrasting him with the Emperor Domitian. It is, however, a relevant document that reveals many details about the Emperor's actions in several fields of his administrative power such as taxes, justice, military discipline, and commerce. Recalling the speech in one of his letters, Pliny shrewdly defines his own motives thus: I hoped in the first place to encourage our Emperor in his virtues by a sincere tribute and, secondly, to show his successors what path to follow to win the same renown, not by offering instruction but by setting his example before them. To proffer advice on an Emperor's duties might be a noble enterprise, but it would be a heavy responsibility verging on insolence, whereas to praise an excellent ruler (optimum principem) and thereby shine a beacon on the path posterity should follow would be equally effective without appearing presumptuous.[15] Epistulae[edit] Main article: Epistulae (Pliny) Eruption of Vesuvius, 1826 painting by I.C. Dahl The largest surviving body of Pliny's work is his Epistulae (Letters), a series of personal missives directed to his friends and associates. These letters are a unique testimony of Roman administrative history and everyday life in the 1st century AD. Especially noteworthy among the letters are two in which he describes the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in October 79, during which his uncle Pliny the Elder died (Epistulae VI.16, VI.20), and one in which he asks the Emperor for instructions regarding official policy concerning Christians (Epistulae X.96). Epistles concerning the eruption of Mount Vesuvius[edit] Pliny wrote the two letters describing the eruption of Mount Vesuvius approximately 25 years after the event, and both were sent in response to the request of his friend, the historian Tacitus, who wanted to know more about Pliny the Elder's death. The two letters have great historical value due to their accurate description of the Vesuvius eruption; Pliny's attention to detail in the letters about Vesuvius is so keen that modern volcanologists describe those types of eruptions as "Plinian eruptions".[16] Epistle concerning the Christian religion[edit] Main article: Pliny the Younger on Christians As the Roman governor of Bithynia-Pontus (now in modern Turkey) Pliny wrote a letter to Emperor Trajan around 112 AD and asked for counsel on dealing with Christians. In the letter (Epistulae X.96), Pliny detailed an account of how he conducted trials of suspected Christians who appeared before him as a result of anonymous accusations and asked for the Emperor's guidance on how they should be treated.[17] Pliny had never performed a legal investigation of Christians and thus consulted Trajan in order to be on solid ground regarding his actions. Pliny saved his letters and Trajan's replies[18] and these are the earliest surviving Roman documents to refer to early Christians.[19] Manuscripts[edit] The first – incomplete – edition of Pliny's Epistles was published in Italy in 1471. Sometime between 1495 and 1500 Giovanni Giocondo discovered a manuscript in Paris of Pliny's tenth book of letters, containing his correspondence with Trajan, and published it in Paris, dedicating the work to Louis XII. The first complete edition was produced by the press of Aldus Manutius in 1508.[20] (See Editio princeps for details.) Villas, farms and estates[edit] View of Bellagio in Lake Como. The institution on the hill is Villa Serbelloni, believed to have been constructed on the site of Pliny's villa "Tragedy." Pliny loved villas. Being wealthy, he owned many, and wrote in detail about his villa near Ostia, at Laurentium.[21] Others were the one in Lake Como named "Tragedy" because of its location high on a hill,[clarification needed] and, on the shore of the lake, "Comedy," so called because it was sited low down.[22] Pliny's main estate in Italy was in the north of Umbria, by Tifernum Tiberinum, under the passes of Bocca Trabaria and Bocca Serriola, where wood was harvested for Roman ships and sent to Rome via the Tiber.[23] According to G. E. M. de Ste. Croix, as a response to "declining returns from his north Italian farms", Pliny begins to contemplate switching the administration of his estate to a sharecropping system called colonia partiaria. Under the sharecropping system Pliny's slaves would act as overseers. Ste. Croix speculated this may have been an intermediary period before serfdom fully replaces slavery in later centuries.[24] See also[edit] Herculaneum Misenum Pompeii Stabiae References[edit] ^ Melvyn Bragg (December 12, 2013). "Pliny the Younger". In Our Time (Podcast). BBC Radio 4. Retrieved January 26, 2020. ^ Bennett, Julian (1997). Trajan: Optimus Princeps: A Life and Times. New York & London: Routledge. pp. 113–125. ^ John W. Roberts, ed. (2007). "Pliny the Younger". The Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780192801463. Retrieved March 24, 2014. The tenth bk. of letters contains all of Pliny's correspondence with Trajan. [...] The provincial letters are the only such dossier surviving entire, and are a major source for understanding Roman provincial government. (subscription required) ^ Shelton, Jo-Ann (2013). The Women of Pliny's Letters. Women of the Ancient World Series. New York, NY: Rutledge. pp. 159–161. ISBN 978-0-203-09812-7. ^ Salway, B. (1994). Journal of Roman Studies. 84. pp. 124–145. ^ Pliny Letters 3.5.8–12. See English translation (Plinius the Elder (2)) and Latin text (C. PLINII CAECILII SECVNDI EPISTVLARVM LIBER TERTIVS). ^ Radice, Betty (1975). The Letters of the Younger Pliny. Penguin Classics. p. 13. ^ "I.8, To Saturninus". Letters. I am compelled to the discourse of my own largesse, as well as those of my ancestors. ^ Pliny. Letters. p. 8.10. ^ Hurley, Donna.W (2011). Suetonius The Caesars. Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company. pp. x. ISBN 978-1-60384-313-3. ^ Cf. Pliny: A Self-Portrait in Letters, The Folio Society, London (1978), Intro. pp.9–11 ^ Cf. Pliny: A Self-Portrait in Letters, Intro. pp.10–16 ^ Cf. op. cit., Intro. p.15-18 ^ "quin etiam quattuordecim natus annos Graecam tragoediam scripsi.": Epistulae VII. iv ^ Epistulae III. xviii, here translated by Betty Radice, The Letters of the Younger Pliny, Penguin Classics (1975), p. 104 ^ "VHP Photo Glossary: Plinian eruption". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved June 8, 2010. ^ The Early Christian Church Volume 1 by Philip Carrington (2011) ISBN 0521166411 Cambridge Univ Press p. 429 ^ Pagan Rome and the Early Christians by Stephen Benko (1986) ISBN 0253203856 pp. 5–7 ^ St. Croix, G.E.M (November 1963). "Why Were the Early Christians Persecuted?". Past & Present. 26 (26): 6–38. doi:10.1093/past/26.1.6. JSTOR 649902. ^ "Iohannem Iucundum architectum illum Veronensem, quem annos 1494–1506 in Gallia egisse novimus, codicem decem librorum Parisiis invenisse testis est Gulielmus Budaeus...Eodem ferme tempore Venetias ad Aldum Manutium editionem suam parantem, quae anno 1508 proditura erat, epistulas ex eodem vetustissimo codice descriptas misit ipse Iucundus." (R.A.B. Mynors, C. Plini Caecili Secundi Epistularum Libri Decem, Oxford University Press (1976), Praefatio xviii–xix ^ Letter 2.17 ^ de la Ruffinière Du Prey, Pierre (1994). The villas of Pliny from antiquity to posterity (illustrated ed.). University of Chicago Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-226-17300-9. ^ Letter 4.1 ^ Byres, T. J. (1983). Sharecropping and Sharecroppers. /pl: Frank Cass. p. 7. ISBN 1135780021. Retrieved August 4, 2019. Further reading[edit] Bell, Albert A. (1989). "A Note on Revision and Authenticity in Pliny's Letters". American Journal of Philology. 110 (3): 460–466. doi:10.2307/295220. JSTOR 295220. Bell, Albert A. (2002). All Roads Lead to Murder: A Case from the Notebooks of Pliny the Younger. High Country Publishers. ISBN 978-0-9713045-3-6. Dobson, E.S. (1982). "Pliny the Younger's Depiction of Women". Classical Bulletin. 58: 81–85. Simon Hornblower and Anthony Spawforth, ed. (2003) [1949]. Oxford Classical Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-860641-9. Radice, Betty (1963). The Letters of the Younger Pliny. London: Penguin Classics. ISBN 978-0-14-044127-7. Radice, Betty (1968). "Pliny and the Panegyricus". Greece & Rome. 15 (2): 166–172. doi:10.1017/S0017383500017514. JSTOR 642428. Sands, John Edwin (1911). "Pliny the Younger". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 844–846. Sherwin-White, A.N. (1966). The Letters of Pliny: A Social and Historical Commentary. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-814435-0. Sherwin-White, A.N. (1969). "Pliny, the Man and his Letters". Greece & Rome. Cambridge University Press. 16 (1): 76–90. doi:10.1017/S0017383500016375. JSTOR 642902. Stadler, Thiago David (2013). O Império romano em cartas: glórias romanas em papel e tinta (Plínio, o Jovem e Trajano 98/113 d.C.). Curitiba: Juruá Editora. Stout, Selatie Edgar (1962). Plinius, Epistulae: A Critical Edition. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Syme, Ronald (1968). "People in Pliny". Journal of Roman Studies. Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies. 58 (1 & 2): 135–151. doi:10.2307/299703. JSTOR 299703. Wilken, Robert L. (1984). "Pliny: A Roman Gentleman" in The Christians as the Romans saw Them. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. External links[edit] Library resources about Pliny the Younger Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Pliny the Younger Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Media related to Plinius Minor at Wikimedia Commons Quotations related to Pliny the Younger at Wikiquote Works written by or about Pliny the Younger at Wikisource Works by Pliny the Younger at Perseus Digital Library Works by Pliny the Younger at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Pliny the Younger at Internet Archive Works by Pliny the Younger at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Letters of Pliny the Younger – translation at attalus.org (in English) The younger Pliny's works at the Latin Library (in Latin) Detailed biography at livius.org Political offices Preceded by Quintus Acutius Nerva, and Lucius Fabius Tuscus as suffect consul Suffect Consul of the Roman Empire 100 with Gaius Julius Cornutus Tertullus Succeeded by Lucius Roscius Aelianus Maecius Celer, and 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cfa1f1bb-5bb6-4eb6-8fac-a79f692e2b33 NKC: jn19981001999 NLA: 35685271 NLG: 62816 NLK: KAC200905625 NTA: 068363044 RERO: 02-A000131386 SELIBR: 196569 SUDOC: 027076474 Trove: 1041901 ULAN: 500293708 VcBA: 495/44752 VIAF: 10638270 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79075182 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pliny_the_Younger&oldid=996457898" Categories: 61 births 110s deaths Augurs of the Roman Empire Critics of Christianity Suffect consuls of Imperial Rome Roman governors of Bithynia and Pontus Latin-language writers Latin letter writers Silver Age Latin writers Ancient Roman scientists 1st-century Romans 2nd-century Romans People from Como Ancient Roman writers and early Christianity Caecilii Plinii Adoptees adopted by relations Ancient Roman adoptees Hidden categories: Pages containing links to subscription-only content Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use mdy dates from April 2013 Articles with hCards All articles with 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en-wikipedia-org-5231	----	Elizabeth Tollet - Wikipedia Elizabeth Tollet From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Elizabeth Tollet (March 11, 1694 – February 1, 1754) was a British poet. Her surviving works are varied; she produced translations of classical themes, religious and philosophical poetry and poems arguing for women's involvement in education and intellectual pursuits such as natural philosophy.[1] Unusually, for a woman of her time, her poetry also includes Newtonian imagery and ideas.[1][2][3] Some of her poetry imitates the Latin verse of Horace, Ovid, and Virgil.[3] In some of her poems, Tollet paraphrases the Psalms.[4] She was the daughter of George Tollet who, observing her intelligence, gave her a thorough education in languages, history, poetry and mathematics. Tollet was fluent in Latin, Italian, and French and she achieved a proficiency in Latin that was unconventional for women of her time.[1] The Tollets' social circle included Isaac Newton, who also encouraged her to pursue her education.[3][4] Tollet grew up in the Tower of London where her father lived as a commissioner of the British Navy.[4] She refers to the Tower in several of her poems and expresses her confinement and frustration with it.[1][4] Tollet remained unmarried her whole life.[1][3] Her mother most likely died and Tollet, being the eldest daughter, would've been expected to stay home and care for her siblings.[1] In 1724 she published Poems on Several Occasions, which included her Hypatia, now seen as a feminist protest poem.[4] On Newton's death in 1727 Tollet produced an elegy, On the Death of Sir Isaac Newton.[1] She died in 1754 in the village of Westham, Essex (now known as West Ham) and is buried at All Saints church there.[3] References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g Fara, Patricia (June 2002). "Elizabeth Tollet: A New Newtonian Woman" (PDF). History of Science. Science History Publications Ltd. 40, part 2 (128): 169–187. Bibcode:2002HisSc..40..169F. doi:10.1177/007327530204000203. S2CID 159865038. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 August 2007. Retrieved 18 October 2009. ^ Brown, Susan; Clements, Patricia; Grundy, Isobel. "Elizabeth Tollet; Overview screen". The Orlando Project. Retrieved 18 October 2009. ^ a b c d e Londry, Michael (September 2004). Tollet, Elizabeth (1694–1754). Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 17 October 2009. (library card access). The first edition of this text is available at Wikisource: "Tollet, Elizabeth" . Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885–1900. ^ a b c d e Backscheider, Paula R. (2005). Eighteenth-century women poets and their poetry: inventing agency, inventing genre. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 411. ISBN 0-8018-8169-2. Authority control ISNI: 0000 0000 3235 797X LCCN: n83148910 VIAF: 3850968 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n83148910 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elizabeth_Tollet&oldid=996739796" Categories: English women poets 1694 births 1754 deaths 18th-century women writers Hidden categories: CS1: long volume value Articles incorporating Cite DNB template Use dmy dates from June 2019 Use British English from June 2019 Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Edit links This page was last edited on 28 December 2020, at 10:33 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5265	----	Category:Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers - Wikipedia Help Category:Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This category is for articles with RERO identifiers. Please do not add subcategories. For more information, see Wikipedia:Authority control. Administrators: Please do not delete this category even if it is empty! This category may be empty occasionally or even most of the time. This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a tracking category. It builds and maintains a list of pages primarily for the sake of the list itself. They are not part of the encyclopedia's categorization scheme. 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en-wikipedia-org-5284	----	Roman magistrate - Wikipedia Roman magistrate From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Elected official in Ancient Rome Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e The Roman magistrates were elected officials in Ancient Rome. During the period of the Roman Kingdom, the King of Rome was the principal executive magistrate.[1] His power, in practice, was absolute. He was the chief priest, lawgiver, judge, and the sole commander of the army.[1][2] When the king died, his power reverted to the Roman Senate, which then chose an Interrex to facilitate the election of a new king. During the transition from monarchy to republic, the constitutional balance of power shifted from the executive (the Roman king) to the Roman Senate. When the Roman Republic was founded in 509 BC, the powers that had been held by the king were transferred to the Roman consuls, of which two were to be elected each year. Magistrates of the republic were elected by the people of Rome, and were each vested with a degree of power called "major powers" (maior potestas).[3] Dictators had more "major powers" than any other magistrate, and after the Dictator was the censor, and then the consul, and then the praetor, and then the curule aedile, and then the quaestor. Any magistrate could obstruct ("veto") an action that was being taken by a magistrate with an equal or lower degree of magisterial powers.[4] By definition, plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles were technically not magistrates[5] since they were elected only by the plebeians,[3] and as such, they were independent of all other powerful magistrates[clarify]. During the transition from republic to the Roman empire, the constitutional balance of power shifted from the Roman Senate back to the executive (the Roman Emperor). Theoretically, the senate elected each new emperor; in practice each emperor chose his own successor, though the choice was often overruled by the army or civil war. The powers of an emperor (his imperium) existed, in theory at least, by virtue of his legal standing. The two most significant components to an emperor's imperium were the "tribunician powers" and the "proconsular powers".[6] In theory at least, the tribunician powers (which were similar to those of the plebeian tribunes under the old republic) gave the emperor authority over Rome's civil government, while the proconsular powers (similar to those of military governors, or proconsuls, under the old republic) gave him authority over the Roman army. While these distinctions were clearly defined during the early empire, eventually they were lost, and the emperor's powers became less constitutional and more monarchical.[7] The traditional magistracies that survived the fall of the republic were the consulship, praetorship, plebeian tribunate, aedileship, quaestorship, and military tribunate.[8] Mark Antony abolished the offices of dictator and Master of the Horse during his Consulship in 44 BC, while the offices of Interrex and Roman censor were abolished shortly thereafter. Contents 1 Executive magistrates of the Roman Kingdom 2 Executive magistrates of the Roman Republic 3 Executive magistrates of the Roman Empire 4 See also 5 References 6 Notes 7 Further reading 7.1 Primary sources 7.2 Secondary source material Executive magistrates of the Roman Kingdom[edit] Main articles: Constitution of the Roman Kingdom and Executive magistrates of the Roman Kingdom The executive magistrates of the Roman Kingdom were elected officials of the ancient Roman Kingdom. During the period of the Roman Kingdom, the Roman King was the principal executive magistrate.[1] He was the chief executive, chief priest, chief lawgiver, chief judge, and the sole commander-in-chief of the army.[1][2] His powers rested on law and legal precedent, and he could only receive these powers through the political process of an election. In practice, he had no real restrictions on his power. When war broke out, he had the sole power to organize and levy troops, to select leaders for the army, and to conduct the campaign as he saw fit.[2] He controlled all property held by the state, had the sole power to divide land and war spoils, was the chief representative of the city during dealings with either the Gods or leaders of other communities, and could unilaterally decree any new law.[2] Sometimes he submitted his decrees to either the popular assembly or to the senate for a ceremonial ratification, but a rejection did not prevent the enactment of a decree. The king chose several officers to assist him,[9] and unilaterally granted them their powers. When the king left the city, an Urban Prefect presided over the city in place of the absent king.[9] The king also had two Quaestors as general assistants, while several other officers assisted the king during treason cases. In war, the king occasionally commanded only the infantry, and delegated command over the cavalry to the commander of his personal bodyguards, the Tribune of the Celeres.[9] The king sometimes deferred to precedent, often simply out of practical necessity. While the king could unilaterally declare war, for example, he typically wanted to have such declarations ratified by the popular assembly.[9][10] The period between the death of a king, and the election of a new king, was known as the interregnum.[11] During the interregnum, the senate elected a senator to the office of Interrex[12] to facilitate the election of a new king. Once the Interrex found a suitable nominee for the kingship, he presented this nominee to the senate for an initial approval. If the senate voted in favor of the nominee, that person stood for formal election before the People of Rome in the Curiate Assembly (the popular assembly).[12] After the nominee was elected by the popular assembly, the senate ratified the election by passing a decree.[12] The Interrex then formally declared the nominee to be king. The new king then took the auspices (a ritual search for omens from the Gods), and was vested with legal authority (imperium) by the popular assembly.[12] Executive magistrates of the Roman Republic[edit] Main articles: Constitution of the Roman Republic and Executive magistrates of the Roman Republic Gaius Gracchus, tribune of the people, presiding over the Plebeian Council The Roman magistrates were elected officials of the Roman Republic. Each Roman magistrate was vested with a degree of power.[3] Dictators (a temporary position for emergencies) had the highest level of power. After the Dictator was the Consul (the highest position if not an emergency), and then the Praetor, and then the Censor, and then the curule aedile, and finally the quaestor. Each magistrate could only veto an action that was taken by a magistrate with an equal or lower degree of power. Since plebeian tribunes (as well as plebeian aediles) were technically not magistrates,[5] they relied on the sacrosanctity of their person to obstruct.[13] If one did not comply with the orders of a Plebeian Tribune, the Tribune could interpose the sacrosanctity of his person[14] (intercessio) to physically stop that particular action. Any resistance against the tribune was considered to be a capital offense. The most significant constitutional power that a magistrate could hold was that of "Command" (Imperium), which was held only by consuls and praetors. This gave a magistrate the constitutional authority to issue commands (military or otherwise). Once a magistrate's annual term in office expired, he had to wait ten years before serving in that office again. Since this did create problems for some magistrates, these magistrates occasionally had their command powers extended, which, in effect, allowed them to retain the powers of their office as a promagistrate.[15] The consul of the Roman Republic was the highest ranking ordinary magistrate.[16][17] Two Consuls were elected every year, and they had supreme power in both civil and military matters. Throughout the year, one Consul was superior in rank to the other Consul, and this ranking flipped every month, between the two Consuls.[18] Praetors administered civil law, presided over the courts, and commanded provincial armies.[19] Another magistrate, the Censor, conducted a census, during which time they could appoint people to the senate.[20] Aediles were officers elected to conduct domestic affairs in Rome, and were vested with powers over the markets, and over public games and shows.[21] Quaestors usually assisted the consuls in Rome, and the governors in the provinces with financial tasks.[21] Though they technically were not magistrates, the Plebeian Tribunes and the Plebeian Aediles were considered to be the representatives of the people. Thus, they acted as a popular check over the senate (through their veto powers), and safeguarded the civil liberties of all Roman citizens. In times of military emergency, a Roman Dictator was appointed for a term of six months.[22] Constitutional government dissolved, and the Dictator became the absolute master of the state.[23] The Dictator then appointed a Master of the Horse to serve as his most senior lieutenant.[24] Often the Dictator resigned his office as soon as the matter that caused his appointment was resolved.[22] When the Dictator's term ended, constitutional government was restored. The last ordinary Dictator was appointed in 202 BC. After 202 BC, extreme emergencies were addressed through the passage of the decree senatus consultum ultimum ("ultimate decree of the senate"). This suspended civil government, declared martial law,[25] and vested the consuls with Dictatorial powers. Executive magistrates of the Roman Empire[edit] Main articles: Constitution of the Roman Empire and Executive magistrates of the Roman Empire Augustus, the first Roman Emperor. The executive magistrates of the Roman Empire were elected individuals of the ancient Roman Empire. The powers of an emperor (his imperium) existed, in theory at least, by virtue of his legal standing. The two most significant components to an emperor's imperium were the "tribunician powers" (potestas tribunicia) and the "proconsular powers" (imperium proconsulare).[6] In theory at least, the tribunician powers (which were similar to those of the plebeian tribunes under the old republic) gave the emperor authority over Rome's civil government, while the proconsular powers (similar to those of military governors, or Proconsuls, under the old republic) gave him authority over the Roman army. While these distinctions were clearly defined during the early empire, eventually they were lost, and the emperor's powers became less constitutional and more monarchical.[7] By virtue of his proconsular powers, the emperor held the same grade of military command authority as did the chief magistrates (the Roman consuls and proconsuls) under the republic. However, the emperor was not subject to the constitutional restrictions that the old consuls and proconsuls had been subject to.[26] Eventually, he was given powers that, under the republic, had been reserved for the Roman Senate and the Roman assemblies including the right to declare war, to ratify treaties, and to negotiate with foreign leaders.[27] The emperor's degree of Proconsular power gave him authority over all of Rome's military governors, and thus, over most of the Roman army. The emperor's tribunician powers gave him power over Rome's civil apparatus,[28][29] as well as the power to preside over, and thus to dominate, the assemblies and the senate.[28] When an emperor was vested with the tribunician powers, his office and his person became sacrosanct,[28] and thus it became a capital offense to harm or to obstruct the emperor.[28] The emperor also had the authority to carry out a range of duties that, under the republic, had been performed by the Roman censors. Such duties included the authority to regulate public morality (Censorship) and to conduct a census. As part of the census, the emperor had the power to assign individuals to a new social class, including the senatorial class, which gave the emperor unchallenged control over senate membership.[30] The emperor also had the power to interpret laws and to set precedents.[31] In addition, the emperor controlled the religious institutions, since, as emperor, he was always Pontifex Maximus, and a member of each of the four major priesthoods.[27] Under the empire, the citizens were divided into three classes, and for members of each class, a distinct career path was available (known as the cursus honorum).[8] The traditional magistracies were only available to citizens of the senatorial class. The magistracies that survived the fall of the republic were (by their order of rank per the cursus honorum) the consulship, praetorship, plebeian tribunate, aedileship, quaestorship, and military tribunate.[8] If an individual was not of the senatorial class, he could run for one of these offices if he was allowed to run by the emperor, or otherwise, he could be appointed to one of these offices by the emperor. During the transition from republic to empire, no office lost more power or prestige than the consulship, which was due, in part, to the fact that the substantive powers of republican Consuls were all transferred to the emperor. Imperial Consuls could preside over the senate, could act as judges in certain criminal trials, and had control over public games and shows.[32] The Praetors also lost a great deal of power, and ultimately had little authority outside of the city.[33] The chief Praetor in Rome, the urban praetor, outranked all other Praetors, and for a brief time, they were given power over the treasury.[33] Under the empire, the plebeian tribunes remained sacrosanct,[34] and, in theory at least, retained the power to summon, or to veto, the senate and the assemblies.[34] Augustus divided the college of Quaestors into two divisions, and assigned one division the task of serving in the senatorial provinces, and the other the task of managing civil administration in Rome.[35] Under Augustus, the Aediles lost control over the grain supply to a board of commissioners. It wasn't until after they lost the power to maintain order in the city, however, that they truly became powerless, and the office disappeared entirely during the 3rd century.[34] See also[edit] ‹ The template below (Columns) is being considered for deletion. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus. › Ancient Rome Roman Republic Roman Empire Roman Law Plebeian Council Centuria Curia Roman consul Praetor Roman censor Quaestor Aedile Roman Dictator Master of the Horse Roman Senate Cursus honorum Byzantine Senate Pontifex Maximus Princeps senatus Interrex Procurator (Roman) Acta Senatus References[edit] Abbott, Frank Frost (1901). A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. Elibron Classics (ISBN 0-543-92749-0). Byrd, Robert (1995). The Senate of the Roman Republic. U.S. Government Printing Office, Senate Document 103-23. Cicero, Marcus Tullius (1841). The Political Works of Marcus Tullius Cicero: Comprising his Treatise on the Commonwealth; and his Treatise on the Laws. Translated from the original, with Dissertations and Notes in Two Volumes. By Francis Barham, Esq. London: Edmund Spettigue. Vol. 1. Lintott, Andrew (1999). The Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press ( ISBN 0-19-926108-3). Polybius (1823). The General History of Polybius: Translated from the Greek. By James Hampton. Oxford: Printed by W. Baxter. Fifth Edition, Vol 2. Taylor, Lily Ross (1966). Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar. The University of Michigan Press ( ISBN 0-472-08125-X). Notes[edit] ^ a b c d Abbott, 8 ^ a b c d Abbott, 15 ^ a b c Abbott, 151 ^ Abbott, 154 ^ a b Abbott, 196 ^ a b Abbott, 342 ^ a b Abbott, 341 ^ a b c Abbott, 374 ^ a b c d Abbott, 16 ^ Abbott, 19 ^ Abbott, 12 ^ a b c d Abbott, 14 ^ Holland, 27 ^ Polybius, 136 ^ Lintott, 113 ^ Polybius, 132 ^ Byrd, 20 ^ Cicero, 236 ^ Byrd, 32 ^ Lintott, 119 ^ a b Byrd, 31 ^ a b Byrd, 24 ^ Cicero, 237 ^ Byrd, 42 ^ Abbott, 240 ^ Abbott, 344 ^ a b Abbott, 345 ^ a b c d Abbott, 357 ^ Abbott, 356 ^ Abbott, 354 ^ Abbott, 349 ^ Abbott, 376 ^ a b Abbott, 377 ^ a b c Abbott, 378 ^ Abbott, 379 Further reading[edit] Ihne, Wilhelm. Researches Into the History of the Roman Constitution. William Pickering. 1853. Johnston, Harold Whetstone. Orations and Letters of Cicero: With Historical Introduction, An Outline of the Roman Constitution, Notes, Vocabulary and Index. Scott, Foresman and Company. 1891. Mommsen, Theodor. Roman Constitutional Law. 1871-1888 Tighe, Ambrose. The Development of the Roman Constitution. D. Apple & Co. 1886. Von Fritz, Kurt. The Theory of the Mixed Constitution in Antiquity. Columbia University Press, New York. 1975. The Histories by Polybius Cambridge Ancient History, Volumes 9–13. A. Cameron, The Later Roman Empire (Fontana Press, 1993). M. Crawford, The Roman Republic (Fontana Press, 1978). E. S. Gruen, "The Last Generation of the Roman Republic" (U California Press, 1974) F. Millar, The Emperor in the Roman World (Duckworth, 1977, 1992). A. Lintott, "The Constitution of the Roman Republic" (Oxford University Press, 1999) Primary sources[edit] Cicero's De Re Publica, Book Two Rome at the End of the Punic Wars: An Analysis of the Roman Government; by Polybius Secondary source material[edit] Considerations on the Causes of the Greatness of the Romans and their Decline, by Montesquieu The Roman Constitution to the Time of Cicero What a Terrorist Incident in Ancient Rome Can Teach Us v t e Roman Constitution Ancient Rome History Constitution Senate Assemblies Curiate Century Tribal Plebeian Magistrates Roman Kingdom History Constitution Senate Assemblies Magistrates Roman Republic History Constitution (reforms of Sulla • reforms of Caesar • reforms of Augustus) Senate Assemblies Magistrates Roman Empire History (post Diocletian) Constitution (post Diocletian) Senate Assemblies Magistrates Miscellaneous Sulla's Constitutional Reforms Caesar's Constitutional Reforms Conflict of the Orders Roman law v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra 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Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias 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en-wikipedia-org-5295	----	Samuel Johnson - Wikipedia Samuel Johnson From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the writer. For other people with the same name, see Samuel Johnson (disambiguation). "Johnsonism" redirects here. For the political positions of Boris Johnson, see Boris Johnson § Political positions and ideology. English poet, biographer, essayist, and lexicographer Samuel Johnson Samuel Johnson c. 1772, painted by Sir Joshua Reynolds Born (1709-09-18)18 September 1709 (OS 7 September) Lichfield, Staffordshire, England Died 13 December 1784(1784-12-13) (aged 75) London, England Resting place Westminster Abbey Pen name Dr Johnson Occupation Literary critic biographer essayist lexicographer poet playwright Language English Alma mater Pembroke College, Oxford (no degree) Notable works A Dictionary of the English Language A Journey to the Western Isles of Scotland Spouse Elizabeth Porter (née Jervis) ​ ​ (m. 1735; died 1752)​ Signature Samuel Johnson (18 September 1709 [OS 7 September] – 13 December 1784), often referred to as Dr Johnson, was an English writer who made lasting contributions to English literature as a poet, playwright, essayist, moralist, literary critic, biographer, editor, and lexicographer. Religiously, he was a devout Anglican,[1] and politically a committed Tory. The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography describes Johnson as "arguably the most distinguished man of letters in English history".[2] He is the subject of James Boswell's The Life of Samuel Johnson, described by Walter Jackson Bate as "the most famous single work of biographical art in the whole of literature".[3] Born in Lichfield, Staffordshire, Johnson attended Pembroke College, Oxford, for just over a year, but a lack of funds forced him to leave. After working as a teacher, he moved to London, where he began to write for The Gentleman's Magazine. His early works include the biography Life of Mr Richard Savage, the poems London and The Vanity of Human Wishes, and the play Irene. After nine years of work, Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language was published in 1755. It had a far-reaching effect on Modern English and has been acclaimed as "one of the greatest single achievements of scholarship".[4] This work brought Johnson popularity and success. Until the completion of the Oxford English Dictionary 150 years later, Johnson's was the pre-eminent British dictionary.[5] His later works included essays, an influential annotated edition of The Plays of William Shakespeare, and the widely read tale The History of Rasselas, Prince of Abissinia. In 1763, he befriended James Boswell, with whom he later travelled to Scotland; Johnson described their travels in A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland. Towards the end of his life, he produced the massive and influential Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets, a collection of biographies and evaluations of 17th- and 18th-century poets. Johnson was a tall[a] and robust man. His odd gestures and tics were disconcerting to some on first meeting him. Boswell's Life, along with other biographies, documented Johnson's behaviour and mannerisms in such detail that they have informed the posthumous diagnosis of Tourette syndrome,[6] a condition not defined or diagnosed in the 18th century. After a series of illnesses, he died on the evening of 13 December 1784, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. In the years following his death, Johnson began to be recognised as having had a lasting effect on literary criticism, and he was claimed by some to be the only truly great critic of English literature.[7] Contents 1 Life and career 1.1 Early life and education 1.2 Early career 1.3 A Dictionary of the English Language 1.4 Later career 1.5 Final works 1.6 Final years 2 Literary criticism 3 Character sketch 4 Health 5 Legacy 6 Major works 7 Notes 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Life and career[edit] Early life and education[edit] Main article: Early life of Samuel Johnson Johnson's birthplace in Market Square, Lichfield Samuel Johnson was born on 18 September 1709, to Sarah (née Ford) and Michael Johnson, a bookseller.[8] The birth took place in the family home above his father's bookshop in Lichfield, Staffordshire. His mother was 40 when she gave birth to Johnson. This was considered an unusually late pregnancy, so precautions were taken, and a "man-midwife" and surgeon of "great reputation" named George Hector was brought in to assist.[9] The infant Johnson did not cry, and there were concerns for his health. His aunt exclaimed that "she would not have picked such a poor creature up in the street".[10] The family feared that Johnson would not survive, and summoned the vicar of St Mary's to perform a baptism.[11] Two godfathers were chosen, Samuel Swynfen, a physician and graduate of Pembroke College, Oxford, and Richard Wakefield, a lawyer, coroner, and Lichfield town clerk.[12] Johnson's health improved and he was put to wet-nurse with Joan Marklew. Some time later he contracted scrofula,[13] known at the time as the "King's Evil" because it was thought royalty could cure it. Sir John Floyer, former physician to King Charles II, recommended that the young Johnson should receive the "royal touch",[14] and he did so from Queen Anne on 30 March 1712. However, the ritual proved ineffective, and an operation was performed that left him with permanent scars across his face and body.[15] With the birth of Johnson's brother, Nathaniel, a few months later, their father was unable to pay the debts he had accrued over the years, and the family was no longer able to maintain its standard of living.[16] When he was a child in petticoats, and had learnt to read, Mrs. Johnson one morning put the common prayer-book into his hands, pointed to the collect for the day, and said, 'Sam, you must get this by heart.' She went up stairs, leaving him to study it: But by the time she had reached the second floor, she heard him following her. 'What's the matter?' said she. 'I can say it,' he replied; and repeated it distinctly, though he could not have read it more than twice.[17] Boswell's Life of Samuel Johnson Johnson displayed signs of great intelligence as a child, and his parents, to his later disgust, would show off his "newly acquired accomplishments".[18] His education began at the age of three, and was provided by his mother, who had him memorise and recite passages from the Book of Common Prayer.[19] When Samuel turned four, he was sent to a nearby school, and, at the age of six he was sent to a retired shoemaker to continue his education.[20] A year later Johnson went to Lichfield Grammar School, where he excelled in Latin.[21] During this time, Johnson started to exhibit the tics that would influence how people viewed him in his later years, and which formed the basis for a posthumous diagnosis of Tourette syndrome.[22] He excelled at his studies and was promoted to the upper school at the age of nine.[21] During this time, he befriended Edmund Hector, nephew of his "man-midwife" George Hector, and John Taylor, with whom he remained in contact for the rest of his life.[23] At the age of 16, Johnson stayed with his cousins, the Fords, at Pedmore, Worcestershire.[24] There he became a close friend of Cornelius Ford, who employed his knowledge of the classics to tutor Johnson while he was not attending school.[25] Ford was a successful, well-connected academic, and notorious alcoholic whose excesses contributed to his death six years later.[26] After spending six months with his cousins, Johnson returned to Lichfield, but Mr Hunter, the headmaster, "angered by the impertinence of this long absence", refused to allow Johnson to continue at the school.[27] Unable to return to Lichfield Grammar School, Johnson enrolled at the King Edward VI grammar school at Stourbridge.[25] As the school was located near Pedmore, Johnson was able to spend more time with the Fords, and he began to write poems and verse translations.[27] However, he spent only six months at Stourbridge before returning once again to his parents' home in Lichfield.[28] Entrance of Pembroke College, Oxford During this time, Johnson's future remained uncertain because his father was deeply in debt.[29] To earn money, Johnson began to stitch books for his father, and it is likely that Johnson spent much time in his father's bookshop reading and building his literary knowledge. The family remained in poverty until his mother's cousin Elizabeth Harriotts died in February 1728 and left enough money to send Johnson to university.[30] On 31 October 1728, a few weeks after he turned 19, Johnson entered Pembroke College, Oxford.[31] The inheritance did not cover all of his expenses at Pembroke, and Andrew Corbet, a friend and fellow student at the College, offered to make up the deficit.[32] Johnson made friends at Pembroke and read much. In later life, he told stories of his idleness.[b] His tutor asked him to produce a Latin translation of Alexander Pope's Messiah as a Christmas exercise.[34] Johnson completed half of the translation in one afternoon and the rest the following morning. Although the poem brought him praise, it did not bring the material benefit he had hoped for.[35] The poem later appeared in Miscellany of Poems (1731), edited by John Husbands, a Pembroke tutor, and is the earliest surviving publication of any of Johnson's writings. Johnson spent the rest of his time studying, even during the Christmas holiday. He drafted a "plan of study" called "Adversaria", which he left unfinished, and used his time to learn French while working on his Greek.[36] After thirteen months, a lack of funds forced Johnson to leave Oxford without a degree, and he returned to Lichfield.[30] Towards the end of Johnson's stay at Oxford, his tutor, Jorden, left Pembroke and was replaced by William Adams. Johnson enjoyed Adams' tutoring, but by December, Johnson was already a quarter behind in his student fees, and was forced to return home. He left behind many books that he had borrowed from his father because he could not afford to transport them, and also because he hoped to return to Oxford.[37] He eventually did receive a degree. Just before the publication of his Dictionary in 1755, the University of Oxford awarded Johnson the degree of Master of Arts.[38] He was awarded an honorary doctorate in 1765 by Trinity College Dublin and in 1775 by the University of Oxford.[39] In 1776 he returned to Pembroke with Boswell and toured the college with his former tutor Adams, who by then was the Master of the college. During that visit he recalled his time at the college and his early career, and expressed his later fondness for Jorden.[40] Early career[edit] Little is known about Johnson's life between the end of 1729 and 1731. It is likely that he lived with his parents. He experienced bouts of mental anguish and physical pain during years of illness;[41] his tics and gesticulations associated with Tourette syndrome became more noticeable and were often commented upon.[42] By 1731 Johnson's father was deeply in debt and had lost much of his standing in Lichfield. Johnson hoped to get an usher's position, which became available at Stourbridge Grammar School, but since he did not have a degree, his application was passed over on 6 September 1731.[41] At about this time, Johnson's father became ill and developed an "inflammatory fever" which led to his death in December 1731.[43] Johnson eventually found employment as undermaster at a school in Market Bosworth, run by Sir Wolstan Dixie, who allowed Johnson to teach without a degree.[44] Although Johnson was treated as a servant,[45] he found pleasure in teaching even though he considered it boring. After an argument with Dixie he left the school, and by June 1732 he had returned home.[46] Elizabeth "Tetty" Porter, Johnson's wife Johnson continued to look for a position at a Lichfield school. After being turned down for a job at Ashbourne, he spent time with his friend Edmund Hector, who was living in the home of the publisher Thomas Warren. At the time, Warren was starting his Birmingham Journal, and he enlisted Johnson's help.[47] This connection with Warren grew, and Johnson proposed a translation of Jerónimo Lobo's account of the Abyssinians.[48] Johnson read Abbé Joachim Le Grand's French translations, and thought that a shorter version might be "useful and profitable".[49] Instead of writing the work himself, he dictated to Hector, who then took the copy to the printer and made any corrections. Johnson's A Voyage to Abyssinia was published a year later.[49] He returned to Lichfield in February 1734, and began an annotated edition of Poliziano's Latin poems, along with a history of Latin poetry from Petrarch to Poliziano; a Proposal was soon printed, but a lack of funds halted the project.[50] Johnson remained with his close friend Harry Porter during a terminal illness,[51] which ended in Porter's death on 3 September 1734. Porter's wife Elizabeth (née Jervis) (otherwise known as "Tetty") was now a widow at the age of 45, with three children.[52] Some months later, Johnson began to court her. The Reverend William Shaw claims that "the first advances probably proceeded from her, as her attachment to Johnson was in opposition to the advice and desire of all her relations,"[53] Johnson was inexperienced in such relationships, but the well-to-do widow encouraged him and promised to provide for him with her substantial savings.[54] They married on 9 July 1735, at St Werburgh's Church in Derby.[55] The Porter family did not approve of the match, partly because of the difference in their ages, Johnson was 25 and Elizabeth was 46. Elizabeth's marriage to Johnson so disgusted her son Jervis that he severed all relations with her.[56] However, her daughter Lucy accepted Johnson from the start, and her other son, Joseph, later came to accept the marriage.[57] Edial Hall School In June 1735, while working as a tutor for the children of Thomas Whitby, a local Staffordshire gentleman, Johnson had applied for the position of headmaster at Solihull School.[58] Although Johnson's friend Gilbert Walmisley gave his support, Johnson was passed over because the school's directors thought he was "a very haughty, ill-natured gent, and that he has such a way of distorting his face (which though he can't help) the gents think it may affect some lads".[59] With Walmisley's encouragement, Johnson decided that he could be a successful teacher if he ran his own school.[60] In the autumn of 1735, Johnson opened Edial Hall School as a private academy at Edial, near Lichfield. He had only three pupils: Lawrence Offley, George Garrick, and the 18-year-old David Garrick, who later became one of the most famous actors of his day.[59] The venture was unsuccessful and cost Tetty a substantial portion of her fortune. Instead of trying to keep the failing school going, Johnson began to write his first major work, the historical tragedy Irene.[61] Biographer Robert DeMaria believed that Tourette syndrome likely made public occupations like schoolmaster or tutor almost impossible for Johnson. This may have led Johnson to "the invisible occupation of authorship".[22] Johnson left for London with his former pupil David Garrick on 2 March 1737, the day Johnson's brother died. He was penniless and pessimistic about their travel, but fortunately for them, Garrick had connections in London, and the two were able to stay with his distant relative, Richard Norris.[62] Johnson soon moved to Greenwich near the Golden Hart Tavern to finish Irene.[63] On 12 July 1737 he wrote to Edward Cave with a proposal for a translation of Paolo Sarpi's The History of the Council of Trent (1619), which Cave did not accept until months later.[64] In October 1737 Johnson brought his wife to London, and he found employment with Cave as a writer for The Gentleman's Magazine.[65] His assignments for the magazine and other publishers during this time were "almost unparalleled in range and variety," and "so numerous, so varied and scattered" that "Johnson himself could not make a complete list".[66] The name Columbia, a poetic name for America coined by Johnson, first appears in a 1738 weekly publication of the debates of the British parliament in The Gentleman's Magazine. Title page of London second edition In May 1738 his first major work, the poem London, was published anonymously.[67] Based on Juvenal's Satire III, it describes the character Thales leaving for Wales to escape the problems of London,[68] which is portrayed as a place of crime, corruption, and poverty. Johnson could not bring himself to regard the poem as earning him any merit as a poet.[69] Alexander Pope said that the author "will soon be déterré" (unearthed, dug up), but this would not happen until 15 years later.[67] In August, Johnson's lack of an MA degree from Oxford or Cambridge led to his being denied a position as master of the Appleby Grammar School. In an effort to end such rejections, Pope asked Lord Gower to use his influence to have a degree awarded to Johnson.[10] Gower petitioned Oxford for an honorary degree to be awarded to Johnson, but was told that it was "too much to be asked".[70] Gower then asked a friend of Jonathan Swift to plead with Swift to use his influence at the University of Dublin to have a master's degree awarded to Johnson, in the hope that this could then be used to justify an MA from Oxford,[70] but Swift refused to act on Johnson's behalf.[71] Between 1737 and 1739, Johnson befriended poet Richard Savage.[72] Feeling guilty about living on Tetty's money, Johnson stopped living with her and spent his time with Savage. They were poor and would stay in taverns or sleep in "night-cellars". Some nights they would roam the streets until dawn because they had no money.[73] Savage's friends tried to help him by attempting to persuade him to move to Wales, but Savage ended up in Bristol and again fell into debt. He was committed to debtors' prison and died in 1743. A year later, Johnson wrote Life of Mr Richard Savage (1744), a "moving" work which, in the words of the biographer and critic Walter Jackson Bate, "remains one of the innovative works in the history of biography".[74] A Dictionary of the English Language[edit] See also: A Dictionary of the English Language, The Rambler, The Vanity of Human Wishes, and Irene (play) Johnson's Dictionary Vol. 1 (1755) title page Johnson's Dictionary Vol. 2 (1755) title page In 1746, a group of publishers approached Johnson with an idea about creating an authoritative dictionary of the English language.[67] A contract with William Strahan and associates, worth 1,500 guineas, was signed on the morning of 18 June 1746.[75] Johnson claimed that he could finish the project in three years. In comparison, the Académie Française had 40 scholars spending 40 years to complete their dictionary, which prompted Johnson to claim, "This is the proportion. Let me see; forty times forty is sixteen hundred. As three to sixteen hundred, so is the proportion of an Englishman to a Frenchman."[67] Although he did not succeed in completing the work in three years, he did manage to finish it in eight.[67] Some criticised the dictionary, including Thomas Babington Macaulay, who described Johnson as "a wretched etymologist,"[76] but according to Bate, the Dictionary "easily ranks as one of the greatest single achievements of scholarship, and probably the greatest ever performed by one individual who laboured under anything like the disadvantages in a comparable length of time."[4] Johnson's dictionary was not the first, nor was it unique. It was, however, the most commonly used and imitated for the 150 years between its first publication and the completion of the Oxford English Dictionary in 1928. Other dictionaries, such as Nathan Bailey's Dictionarium Britannicum, included more words,[5] and in the 150 years preceding Johnson's dictionary about twenty other general-purpose monolingual "English" dictionaries had been produced.[77] However, there was open dissatisfaction with the dictionaries of the period. In 1741, David Hume claimed: "The Elegance and Propriety of Stile have been very much neglected among us. We have no Dictionary of our Language, and scarce a tolerable Grammar."[78] Johnson's Dictionary offers insights into the 18th century and "a faithful record of the language people used".[5] It is more than a reference book; it is a work of literature.[77] For a decade, Johnson's constant work on the Dictionary disrupted his and Tetty's living conditions. He had to employ a number of assistants for the copying and mechanical work, which filled the house with incessant noise and clutter. He was always busy, and kept hundreds of books around him.[79] John Hawkins described the scene: "The books he used for this purpose were what he had in his own collection, a copious but a miserably ragged one, and all such as he could borrow; which latter, if ever they came back to those that lent them, were so defaced as to be scarce worth owning."[80] Johnson was also distracted by Tetty's poor health as she began to show signs of a terminal illness.[79] To accommodate both his wife and his work, he moved to 17 Gough Square near his printer, William Strahan.[81] Dr. Johnson in the ante-room of Lord Chesterfield. Coloured engraving by E.M. Ward. In preparation, Johnson wrote a Plan for the Dictionary. Philip Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield, was the patron of the Plan, to Johnson's displeasure.[82] Seven years after first meeting Johnson to go over the work, Chesterfield wrote two anonymous essays in The World recommending the Dictionary.[83] He complained that the English language lacked structure and argued in support of the dictionary. Johnson did not like the tone of the essays, and he felt that Chesterfield had not fulfilled his obligations as the work's patron.[84] In a letter to Chesterfield, Johnson expressed this view and harshly criticised Chesterfield, saying "Is not a patron, my lord, one who looks with unconcern on a man struggling for life in the water, and when he has reached ground, encumbers him with help? The notice which you have been pleased to take of my labours, had it been early, had been kind: but it has been delayed till I am indifferent and cannot enjoy it; till I am solitary and cannot impart it; till I am known and do not want it."[85] Chesterfield, impressed by the language, kept the letter displayed on a table for anyone to read.[85] The Dictionary was finally published in April 1755, with the title page acknowledging that the University of Oxford had awarded Johnson a Master of Arts degree in anticipation of the work.[86] The dictionary as published was a large book. Its pages were nearly 18 inches (46 cm) tall, and the book was 20 inches (51 cm) wide when opened; it contained 42,773 entries, to which only a few more were added in subsequent editions, and it sold for the extravagant price of £4 10s, perhaps the rough equivalent of £350 today.[87] An important innovation in English lexicography was to illustrate the meanings of his words by literary quotation, of which there were approximately 114,000. The authors most frequently cited include William Shakespeare, John Milton and John Dryden.[88] It was years before Johnson's Dictionary, as it came to be known, turned a profit. Authors' royalties were unknown at the time, and Johnson, once his contract to deliver the book was fulfilled, received no further money from its sale. Years later, many of its quotations would be repeated by various editions of the Webster's Dictionary and the New English Dictionary.[89] Besides working on the Dictionary, Johnson also wrote numerous essays, sermons, and poems during these nine years.[90] In 1750, he decided to produce a series of essays under the title The Rambler that were to be published every Tuesday and Saturday and sell for twopence each. Explaining the title years later, he told his friend, the painter Joshua Reynolds: "I was at a loss how to name it. I sat down at night upon my bedside, and resolved that I would not go to sleep till I had fixed its title. The Rambler seemed the best that occurred, and I took it."[91] These essays, often on moral and religious topics, tended to be more grave than the title of the series would suggest; his first comments in The Rambler were to ask "that in this undertaking thy Holy Spirit may not be withheld from me, but that I may promote thy glory, and the salvation of myself and others."[91] The popularity of The Rambler took off once the issues were collected in a volume; they were reprinted nine times during Johnson's life. Writer and printer Samuel Richardson, enjoying the essays greatly, questioned the publisher as to who wrote the works; only he and a few of Johnson's friends were told of Johnson's authorship.[92] One friend, the novelist Charlotte Lennox, includes a defence of The Rambler in her novel The Female Quixote (1752). In particular, the character Mr. Glanville says, "you may sit in Judgment upon the Productions of a Young, a Richardson, or a Johnson. Rail with premeditated Malice at the Rambler; and for the want of Faults, turn even its inimitable Beauties into Ridicule." (Book VI, Chapter XI) Later, she claims Johnson as "the greatest Genius in the present Age."[93] His necessary attendance while his play was in rehearsal, and during its performance, brought him acquainted with many of the performers of both sexes, which produced a more favourable opinion of their profession than he had harshly expressed in his Life of Savage. With some of them he kept up an acquaintance as long as he and they lived, and was ever ready to shew them acts of kindness. He for a considerable time used to frequent the Green Room, and seemed to take delight in dissipating his gloom, by mixing in the sprightly chit-chat of the motley circle then to be found there. Mr. David Hume related to me from Mr. Garrick, that Johnson at last denied himself this amusement, from considerations of rigid virtue; saying, 'I'll come no more behind your scenes, David; for the silk stockings and white bosoms of your actresses excite my amorous propensities.[94] Boswell's Life of Samuel Johnson However, not all of his work was confined to The Rambler. His most highly regarded poem, The Vanity of Human Wishes, was written with such "extraordinary speed" that Boswell claimed Johnson "might have been perpetually a poet".[95] The poem is an imitation of Juvenal's Satire X and claims that "the antidote to vain human wishes is non-vain spiritual wishes".[96] In particular, Johnson emphasises "the helpless vulnerability of the individual before the social context" and the "inevitable self-deception by which human beings are led astray".[97] The poem was critically celebrated but it failed to become popular, and sold fewer copies than London.[98] In 1749, Garrick made good on his promise that he would produce Irene, but its title was altered to Mahomet and Irene to make it "fit for the stage."[99] The show eventually ran for nine nights.[100] Tetty Johnson was ill during most of her time in London, and in 1752 she decided to return to the countryside while Johnson was busy working on his Dictionary. She died on 17 March 1752, and, at word of her death, Johnson wrote a letter to his old friend Taylor, which according to Taylor "expressed grief in the strongest manner he had ever read".[101] He wrote a sermon in her honour, to be read at her funeral, but Taylor refused to read it, for reasons which are unknown. This only exacerbated Johnson's feelings of loss and despair after the death of his wife. Consequently, John Hawkesworth had to organise the funeral. Johnson felt guilty about the poverty in which he believed he had forced Tetty to live, and blamed himself for neglecting her. He became outwardly discontented, and his diary was filled with prayers and laments over her death which continued until his own. She was his primary motivation, and her death hindered his ability to complete his work.[102] Later career[edit] See also: The Plays of William Shakespeare; The Idler (1758–1760); and The History of Rasselas, Prince of Abissinia Johnson, by John Opie On 16 March 1756, Johnson was arrested for an outstanding debt of £5 18s. Unable to contact anyone else, he wrote to the writer and publisher Samuel Richardson. Richardson, who had previously lent Johnson money, sent him six guineas to show his good will, and the two became friends.[103] Soon after, Johnson met and befriended the painter Joshua Reynolds, who so impressed Johnson that he declared him "almost the only man whom I call a friend".[104] Reynolds' younger sister Frances observed during their time together "that men, women and children gathered around him [Johnson]", laughing at his gestures and gesticulations.[105] In addition to Reynolds, Johnson was close to Bennet Langton and Arthur Murphy. Langton was a scholar and an admirer of Johnson who persuaded his way into a meeting with Johnson which led to a long friendship. Johnson met Murphy during the summer of 1754 after Murphy came to Johnson about the accidental republishing of the Rambler No. 190, and the two became friends.[106] Around this time, Anna Williams began boarding with Johnson. She was a minor poet who was poor and becoming blind, two conditions that Johnson attempted to change by providing room for her and paying for a failed cataract surgery. Williams, in turn, became Johnson's housekeeper.[107] To occupy himself, Johnson began to work on The Literary Magazine, or Universal Review, the first issue of which was printed on 19 March 1756. Philosophical disagreements erupted over the purpose of the publication when the Seven Years' War began and Johnson started to write polemical essays attacking the war. After the war began, the Magazine included many reviews, at least 34 of which were written by Johnson.[108] When not working on the Magazine, Johnson wrote a series of prefaces for other writers, such as Giuseppe Baretti, William Payne and Charlotte Lennox.[109] Johnson's relationship with Lennox and her works was particularly close during these years, and she in turn relied so heavily upon Johnson that he was "the most important single fact in Mrs Lennox's literary life".[110] He later attempted to produce a new edition of her works, but even with his support they were unable to find enough interest to follow through with its publication.[111] To help with domestic duties while Johnson was busy with his various projects, Richard Bathurst, a physician and a member of Johnson's Club, pressured him to take on a freed slave, Francis Barber, as his servant.[112] A literary party, 1781, of Johnson (second from left) and other members of "The Club". Johnson's work on The Plays of William Shakespeare took up most of his time. On 8 June 1756, Johnson published his Proposals for Printing, by Subscription, the Dramatick Works of William Shakespeare, which argued that previous editions of Shakespeare were edited incorrectly and needed to be corrected.[113] Johnson's progress on the work slowed as the months passed, and he told music historian Charles Burney in December 1757 that it would take him until the following March to complete it. Before that could happen, he was arrested again, for a debt of £40, in February 1758. The debt was soon repaid by Jacob Tonson, who had contracted Johnson to publish Shakespeare, and this encouraged Johnson to finish his edition to repay the favour. Although it took him another seven years to finish, Johnson completed a few volumes of his Shakespeare to prove his commitment to the project.[114] In 1758, Johnson began to write a weekly series, The Idler, which ran from 15 April 1758 to 5 April 1760, as a way to avoid finishing his Shakespeare. This series was shorter and lacked many features of The Rambler. Unlike his independent publication of The Rambler, The Idler was published in a weekly news journal The Universal Chronicle, a publication supported by John Payne, John Newbery, Robert Stevens and William Faden.[115] Since The Idler did not occupy all Johnson's time, he was able to publish his philosophical novella Rasselas on 19 April 1759. The "little story book", as Johnson described it, describes the life of Prince Rasselas and Nekayah, his sister, who are kept in a place called the Happy Valley in the land of Abyssinia. The Valley is a place free of problems, where any desire is quickly satisfied. The constant pleasure does not, however, lead to satisfaction; and, with the help of a philosopher named Imlac, Rasselas escapes and explores the world to witness how all aspects of society and life in the outside world are filled with suffering. They return to Abyssinia, but do not wish to return to the state of constantly fulfilled pleasures found in the Happy Valley.[116] Rasselas was written in one week to pay for his mother's funeral and settle her debts; it became so popular that there was a new English edition of the work almost every year. References to it appear in many later works of fiction, including Jane Eyre, Cranford and The House of the Seven Gables. Its fame was not limited to English-speaking nations: Rasselas was immediately translated into five languages (French, Dutch, German, Russian and Italian), and later into nine others.[117] James Boswell at 25 By 1762, however, Johnson had gained notoriety for his dilatoriness in writing; the contemporary poet Churchill teased Johnson for the delay in producing his long-promised edition of Shakespeare: "He for subscribers baits his hook / and takes your cash, but where's the book?"[118] The comments soon motivated Johnson to finish his Shakespeare, and, after receiving the first payment from a government pension on 20 July 1762, he was able to dedicate most of his time towards this goal.[118] Earlier that July, the 24-year-old King George III granted Johnson an annual pension of £300 in appreciation for the Dictionary.[39] While the pension did not make Johnson wealthy, it did allow him a modest yet comfortable independence for the remaining 22 years of his life.[119] The award came largely through the efforts of Sheridan and the Earl of Bute. When Johnson questioned if the pension would force him to promote a political agenda or support various officials, he was told by Bute that the pension "is not given you for anything you are to do, but for what you have done".[120] On 16 May 1763, Johnson first met 22-year-old James Boswell—who would later become Johnson's first major biographer—in the bookshop of Johnson's friend, Tom Davies. They quickly became friends, although Boswell would return to his home in Scotland or travel abroad for months at a time.[121] Around the spring of 1763, Johnson formed "The Club", a social group that included his friends Reynolds, Burke, Garrick, Goldsmith and others (the membership later expanded to include Adam Smith and Edward Gibbon, in addition to Boswell himself). They decided to meet every Monday at 7:00 pm at the Turk's Head in Gerrard Street, Soho, and these meetings continued until long after the deaths of the original members.[122] On 9 January 1765, Murphy introduced Johnson to Henry Thrale, a wealthy brewer and MP, and his wife Hester. They struck up an instant friendship; Johnson was treated as a member of the family, and was once more motivated to continue working on his Shakespeare.[123] Afterwards, Johnson stayed with the Thrales for 17 years until Henry's death in 1781, sometimes staying in rooms at Thrale's Anchor Brewery in Southwark.[124] Hester Thrale's documentation of Johnson's life during this time, in her correspondence and her diary (Thraliana), became an important source of biographical information on Johnson after his death.[125] During the whole of the interview, Johnson talked to his Majesty with profound respect, but still in his firm manly manner, with a sonorous voice, and never in that subdued tone which is commonly used at the levee and in the drawing-room. After the King withdrew, Johnson shewed himself highly pleased with his Majesty's conversation and gracious behaviour. He said to Mr Barnard, 'Sir, they may talk of the King as they will; but he is the finest gentleman I have ever seen.'[126] Boswell's Life of Samuel Johnson Johnson's edition of Shakespeare was finally published on 10 October 1765 as The Plays of William Shakespeare, in Eight Volumes ... To which are added Notes by Sam. Johnson in a printing of one thousand copies. The first edition quickly sold out, and a second was soon printed.[127] The plays themselves were in a version that Johnson felt was closest to the original, based on his analysis of the manuscript editions. Johnson's revolutionary innovation was to create a set of corresponding notes that allowed readers to clarify the meaning behind many of Shakespeare's more complicated passages, and to examine those which had been transcribed incorrectly in previous editions.[128] Included within the notes are occasional attacks upon rival editors of Shakespeare's works.[129] Years later, Edmond Malone, an important Shakespearean scholar and friend of Johnson's, stated that Johnson's "vigorous and comprehensive understanding threw more light on his authour than all his predecessors had done".[130] In February 1767, Johnson was granted a special audience with King George III. This took place at the library of the Queen's house, and it was organised by Barnard, the King's librarian.[131] The King, upon hearing that Johnson would visit the library, commanded that Barnard introduce him to Johnson.[132] After a short meeting, Johnson was impressed both with the King himself and with their conversation.[126] Final works[edit] See also: A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland and Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets Johnson (1775) showing his intense concentration and the weakness of his eyes; he did not want to be depicted as "Blinking Sam." This unique portrait showing his nearsightedness is in the Huntington Library in San Marino, California.[133] On 6 August 1773, eleven years after first meeting Boswell, Johnson set out to visit his friend in Scotland, and to begin "a journey to the western islands of Scotland", as Johnson's 1775 account of their travels would put it.[134] The work was intended to discuss the social problems and struggles that affected the Scottish people, but it also praised many of the unique facets of Scottish society, such as a school in Edinburgh for the deaf and mute.[135] Also, Johnson used the work to enter into the dispute over the authenticity of James Macpherson's Ossian poems, claiming they could not have been translations of ancient Scottish literature on the grounds that "in those times nothing had been written in the Earse [i.e. Scots Gaelic] language".[136] There were heated exchanges between the two, and according to one of Johnson's letters, MacPherson threatened physical violence.[137] Boswell's account of their journey, The Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides (1786), was a preliminary step toward his later biography, The Life of Samuel Johnson. Included were various quotations and descriptions of events, including anecdotes such as Johnson swinging a broadsword while wearing Scottish garb, or dancing a Highland jig.[138] In the 1770s, Johnson, who had tended to be an opponent of the government early in life, published a series of pamphlets in favour of various government policies. In 1770 he produced The False Alarm, a political pamphlet attacking John Wilkes. In 1771, his Thoughts on the Late Transactions Respecting Falkland's Islands cautioned against war with Spain.[139] In 1774 he printed The Patriot, a critique of what he viewed as false patriotism. On the evening of 7 April 1775, he made the famous statement, "Patriotism is the last refuge of a scoundrel."[140] This line was not, as widely believed, about patriotism in general, but what Johnson considered to be the false use of the term "patriotism" by John Wilkes and his supporters. Johnson opposed "self-professed Patriots" in general, but valued what he considered "true" patriotism.[141] The last of these pamphlets, Taxation No Tyranny (1775), was a defence of the Coercive Acts and a response to the Declaration of Rights of the First Continental Congress, which protested against taxation without representation.[142] Johnson argued that in emigrating to America, colonists had "voluntarily resigned the power of voting", but they still retained "virtual representation" in Parliament. In a parody of the Declaration of Rights, Johnson suggested that the Americans had no more right to govern themselves than the Cornish, and asked "How is it that we hear the loudest yelps for liberty among the drivers of negroes?"[143] If the Americans wanted to participate in Parliament, said Johnson, they could move to England and purchase an estate.[144] Johnson denounced English supporters of American separatists as "traitors to this country", and hoped that the matter would be settled without bloodshed, but he felt confident that it would end with "English superiority and American obedience".[145] Years before, Johnson had stated that the French and Indian War was a conflict between "two robbers" of Native American lands, and that neither deserved to live there.[108] After the signing of the 1783 Treaty of Paris, marking the colonists' victory over the British, Johnson became "deeply disturbed" with the "state of this kingdom".[146] Mr Thrale's death was a very essential loss to Johnson, who, although he did not foresee all that afterwards happened, was sufficiently convinced that the comforts which Mr Thrale's family afforded him, would now in great measure cease.[147] Boswell's Life of Samuel Johnson On 3 May 1777, while Johnson was trying to save Reverend William Dodd from execution, he wrote to Boswell that he was busy preparing a "little Lives" and "little Prefaces, to a little edition of the English Poets".[148] Tom Davies, William Strahan and Thomas Cadell had asked Johnson to create this final major work, the Lives of the English Poets, for which he asked 200 guineas, an amount significantly less than the price he could have demanded.[149] The Lives, which were critical as well as biographical studies, appeared as prefaces to selections of each poet's work, and they were longer and more detailed than originally expected.[150] The work was finished in March 1781 and the whole collection was published in six volumes. As Johnson justified in the advertisement for the work, "my purpose was only to have allotted to every Poet an Advertisement, like those which we find in the French Miscellanies, containing a few dates and a general character."[151] Johnson was unable to enjoy this success because Henry Thrale, the dear friend with whom he lived, died on 4 April 1781.[152] Life changed quickly for Johnson when Hester Thrale became romantically involved with the Italian singing teacher Gabriel Mario Piozzi, which forced Johnson to change his previous lifestyle.[153] After returning home and then travelling for a short period, Johnson received word that his friend and tenant Robert Levet, had died on 17 January 1782.[154] Johnson was shocked by the death of Levet, who had resided at Johnson's London home since 1762.[155] Shortly afterwards Johnson caught a cold that developed into bronchitis and lasted for several months. His health was further complicated by "feeling forlorn and lonely" over Levet's death, and by the deaths of his friend Thomas Lawrence and his housekeeper Williams.[156] Final years[edit] Hester Thrale and her daughter Queeney Although he had recovered his health by August, he experienced emotional trauma when he was given word that Hester Thrale would sell the residence that Johnson shared with the family. What hurt Johnson most was the possibility that he would be left without her constant company.[157] Months later, on 6 October 1782, Johnson attended church for the final time in his life, to say goodbye to his former residence and life. The walk to the church strained him, but he managed the journey unaccompanied.[158] While there, he wrote a prayer for the Thrale family: To thy fatherly protection, O Lord, I commend this family. Bless, guide, and defend them, that they may pass through this world, as finally to enjoy in thy presence everlasting happiness, for Jesus Christ's sake. Amen.[159] Hester Thrale did not completely abandon Johnson, and asked him to accompany the family on a trip to Brighton.[158] He agreed, and was with them from 7 October to 20 November 1782.[160] On his return, his health began to fail, and he was left alone after Boswell's visit on 29 May 1783.[161] On 17 June 1783, Johnson's poor circulation resulted in a stroke[162] and he wrote to his neighbour, Edmund Allen, that he had lost the ability to speak.[163] Two doctors were brought in to aid Johnson; he regained his ability to speak two days later.[164] Johnson feared that he was dying, and wrote: The black dog I hope always to resist, and in time to drive, though I am deprived of almost all those that used to help me. The neighbourhood is impoverished. I had once Richardson and Lawrence in my reach. Mrs. Allen is dead. My house has lost Levet, a man who took interest in everything, and therefore ready at conversation. Mrs. Williams is so weak that she can be a companion no longer. When I rise my breakfast is solitary, the black dog waits to share it, from breakfast to dinner he continues barking, except that Dr. Brocklesby for a little keeps him at a distance. Dinner with a sick woman you may venture to suppose not much better than solitary. After dinner, what remains but to count the clock, and hope for that sleep which I can scarce expect. Night comes at last, and some hours of restlessness and confusion bring me again to a day of solitude. What shall exclude the black dog from an habitation like this?[165] By this time he was sick and gout-ridden. He had surgery for gout, and his remaining friends, including novelist Fanny Burney (the daughter of Charles Burney), came to keep him company.[166] He was confined to his room from 14 December 1783 to 21 April 1784.[167] A few days before his death, he had asked Sir John Hawkins, one of his executors, where he should be buried; and on being answered, "Doubtless, in Westminster Abbey," seemed to feel a satisfaction, very natural to a Poet.[168] Boswell's Life of Samuel Johnson His health began to improve by May 1784, and he travelled to Oxford with Boswell on 5 May 1784.[167] By July, many of Johnson's friends were either dead or gone; Boswell had left for Scotland and Hester Thrale had become engaged to Piozzi. With no one to visit, Johnson expressed a desire to die in London and arrived there on 16 November 1784. On 25 November 1784, he allowed Burney to visit him and expressed an interest to her that he should leave London; he soon left for Islington, to George Strahan's home.[169] His final moments were filled with mental anguish and delusions; when his physician, Thomas Warren, visited and asked him if he were feeling better, Johnson burst out with: "No, Sir; you cannot conceive with what acceleration I advance towards death."[170] Many visitors came to see Johnson as he lay sick in bed, but he preferred only Langton's company.[170] Burney waited for word of Johnson's condition, along with Windham, Strahan, Hoole, Cruikshank, Des Moulins and Barber.[171] On 13 December 1784, Johnson met with two others: a young woman, Miss Morris, whom Johnson blessed, and Francesco Sastres, an Italian teacher, who was given some of Johnson's final words: "Iam Moriturus" ("I who am about to die").[172] Shortly afterwards he fell into a coma, and died at 7:00 p.m.[171] Langton waited until 11:00 p.m. to tell the others, which led to John Hawkins' becoming pale and overcome with "an agony of mind", along with Seward and Hoole describing Johnson's death as "the most awful sight".[173] Boswell remarked, "My feeling was just one large expanse of Stupor ... I could not believe it. My imagination was not convinced."[172] William Gerard Hamilton joined in and stated, "He has made a chasm, which not only nothing can fill up, but which nothing has a tendency to fill up. –Johnson is dead.– Let us go to the next best: There is nobody; –no man can be said to put you in mind of Johnson."[171] He was buried on 20 December 1784 at Westminster Abbey with an inscription that reads: Samuel Johnson, LL.D. Obiit XIII die Decembris, Anno Domini M.DCC.LXXXIV. Ætatis suœ LXXV.[174] Literary criticism[edit] Main article: Samuel Johnson's literary criticism The Vanity of Human Wishes (1749) title page Plays of William Shakespeare (1773 expanded edition) title page Johnson's works, especially his Lives of the Poets series, describe various features of excellent writing. He believed that the best poetry relied on contemporary language, and he disliked the use of decorative or purposefully archaic language.[175] He was suspicious of the poetic language used by Milton, whose blank verse he believed would inspire many bad imitations. Also, Johnson opposed the poetic language of his contemporary Thomas Gray.[176] His greatest complaint was that obscure allusions found in works like Milton's Lycidas were overused; he preferred poetry that could be easily read and understood.[177] In addition to his views on language, Johnson believed that a good poem incorporated new and unique imagery.[178] In his smaller poetic works, Johnson relied on short lines and filled his work with a feeling of empathy, which possibly influenced Housman's poetic style.[179] In London, his first imitation of Juvenal, Johnson uses the poetic form to express his political opinion and, as befits a young writer, approaches the topic in a playful and almost joyous manner.[180] However, his second imitation, The Vanity of Human Wishes, is completely different; the language remains simple, but the poem is more complicated and difficult to read because Johnson is trying to describe complex Christian ethics.[181] These Christian values are not unique to the poem, but contain views expressed in most of Johnson's works. In particular, Johnson emphasises God's infinite love and shows that happiness can be attained through virtuous action.[182] When it came to biography, Johnson disagreed with Plutarch's use of biography to praise and to teach morality. Instead, Johnson believed in portraying the biographical subjects accurately and including any negative aspects of their lives. Because his insistence on accuracy in biography was little short of revolutionary, Johnson had to struggle against a society that was unwilling to accept biographical details that could be viewed as tarnishing a reputation; this became the subject of Rambler 60.[183] Furthermore, Johnson believed that biography should not be limited to the most famous and that the lives of lesser individuals, too, were significant;[184] thus in his Lives of the Poets he chose both great and lesser poets. In all his biographies he insisted on including what others would have considered trivial details to fully describe the lives of his subjects.[185] Johnson considered the genre of autobiography and diaries, including his own, as one having the most significance; in Idler 84 he explains how a writer of an autobiography would be the least likely to distort his own life.[186] A caricature of Johnson by James Gillray mocking him for his literary criticism; he is shown doing penance for Apollo and the Muses with Mount Parnassus in the background. Johnson's thoughts on biography and on poetry coalesced in his understanding of what would make a good critic. His works were dominated with his intent to use them for literary criticism. This was especially true of his Dictionary of which he wrote: "I lately published a Dictionary like those compiled by the academies of Italy and France, for the use of such as aspire to exactness of criticism, or elegance of style".[187] Although a smaller edition of his Dictionary became the standard household dictionary, Johnson's original Dictionary was an academic tool that examined how words were used, especially in literary works. To achieve this purpose, Johnson included quotations from Bacon, Hooker, Milton, Shakespeare, Spenser, and many others from what he considered to be the most important literary fields: natural science, philosophy, poetry, and theology. These quotations and usages were all compared and carefully studied in the Dictionary so that a reader could understand what words in literary works meant in context.[188] Johnson did not attempt to create schools of theories to analyse the aesthetics of literature. Instead, he used his criticism for the practical purpose of helping others to better read and understand literature.[189] When it came to Shakespeare's plays, Johnson emphasised the role of the reader in understanding language: "If Shakespeare has difficulties above other writers, it is to be imputed to the nature of his work, which required the use of common colloquial language, and consequently admitted many phrases allusive, elliptical, and proverbial, such as we speak and hear every hour without observing them".[190] His works on Shakespeare were devoted not merely to Shakespeare, but to understanding literature as a whole; in his Preface to Shakespeare, Johnson rejects the previous dogma of the classical unities and argues that drama should be faithful to life.[191] However, Johnson did not only defend Shakespeare; he discussed Shakespeare's faults, including his lack of morality, his vulgarity, his carelessness in crafting plots, and his occasional inattentiveness when choosing words or word order.[192] As well as direct literary criticism, Johnson emphasised the need to establish a text that accurately reflects what an author wrote. Shakespeare's plays, in particular, had multiple editions, each of which contained errors caused by the printing process. This problem was compounded by careless editors who deemed difficult words incorrect, and changed them in later editions. Johnson believed that an editor should not alter the text in such a way.[193] Character sketch[edit] Further information: Political views of Samuel Johnson and Religious views of Samuel Johnson Portrait of Samuel Johnson c.1770 Johnson's tall[a] and robust figure combined with his odd gestures were confusing to some; when William Hogarth first saw Johnson standing near a window in Samuel Richardson's house, "shaking his head and rolling himself about in a strange ridiculous manner", Hogarth thought Johnson an "ideot, whom his relations had put under the care of Mr. Richardson".[195] Hogarth was quite surprised when "this figure stalked forwards to where he and Mr. Richardson were sitting and all at once took up the argument ... [with] such a power of eloquence, that Hogarth looked at him with astonishment, and actually imagined that this ideot had been at the moment inspired".[195] Beyond appearance, Adam Smith claimed that "Johnson knew more books than any man alive",[196] while Edmund Burke thought that if Johnson were to join Parliament, he "certainly would have been the greatest speaker that ever was there".[197] Johnson relied on a unique form of rhetoric, and he is well known for his "refutation" of Bishop Berkeley's immaterialism, his claim that matter did not actually exist but only seemed to exist:[198] during a conversation with Boswell, Johnson powerfully stomped a nearby stone and proclaimed of Berkeley's theory, "I refute it thus!"[199] Johnson was a devout, conservative Anglican and a compassionate man who supported a number of poor friends under his own roof, even when unable to fully provide for himself.[39] Johnson's Christian morality permeated his works, and he would write on moral topics with such authority and in such a trusting manner that, Walter Jackson Bate claims, "no other moralist in history excels or even begins to rival him".[200] However, Johnson's moral writings do not contain, as Donald Greene points out, "a predetermined and authorized pattern of 'good behavior'", even though Johnson does emphasise certain kinds of conduct.[201] He did not let his own faith prejudice him against others, and had respect for those of other denominations who demonstrated a commitment to Christ's teachings.[202] Although Johnson respected John Milton's poetry, he could not tolerate Milton's Puritan and Republican beliefs, feeling that they were contrary to England and Christianity.[203] He was an opponent of slavery on moral grounds, and once proposed a toast to the "next rebellion of the negroes in the West Indies".[204] Beside his beliefs concerning humanity, Johnson is also known for his love of cats,[205] especially his own two cats, Hodge and Lily.[205] Boswell wrote, "I never shall forget the indulgence with which he treated Hodge, his cat.[206] After we came out of the church, we stood talking for some time together of Bishop Berkeley's ingenious sophistry to prove the non-existence of matter, and that every thing in the universe is merely ideal. I observed, that though we are satisfied his doctrine is not true, it is impossible to refute it. I never shall forget the alacrity with which Johnson answered, striking his foot with mighty force against a large stone, till he rebounded from it, 'I refute it thus.'[199] Boswell's Life of Samuel Johnson Johnson was also known as a staunch Tory; he admitted to sympathies for the Jacobite cause during his younger years but, by the reign of George III, he came to accept the Hanoverian Succession.[203] It was Boswell who gave people the impression that Johnson was an "arch-conservative", and it was Boswell, more than anyone else, who determined how Johnson would be seen by people years later. However, Boswell was not around for two of Johnson's most politically active periods: during Walpole's control over British Parliament and during the Seven Years' War. Although Boswell was present with Johnson during the 1770s and describes four major pamphlets written by Johnson, he neglects to discuss them because he is more interested in their travels to Scotland. This is compounded by the fact that Boswell held an opinion contradictory to two of these pamphlets, The False Alarm and Taxation No Tyranny, and so attacks Johnson's views in his biography.[207] In his Life of Samuel Johnson Boswell referred to Johnson as 'Dr. Johnson' so often that he would always be known as such, even though he hated being called such. Boswell's emphasis on Johnson's later years shows him too often as merely an old man discoursing in a tavern to a circle of admirers.[208] Although Boswell, a Scotsman, was a close companion and friend to Johnson during many important times of his life, like many of his fellow Englishmen Johnson had a reputation for despising Scotland and its people. Even during their journey together through Scotland, Johnson "exhibited prejudice and a narrow nationalism".[209] Hester Thrale, in summarising Johnson's nationalistic views and his anti-Scottish prejudice, said: "We all know how well he loved to abuse the Scotch, & indeed to be abused by them in return."[210] Health[edit] Main article: Samuel Johnson's health Johnson had several health problems, including childhood tuberculous scrofula resulting in deep facial scarring, deafness in one ear and blindness in one eye, gout, testicular cancer, and a stroke in his final year that left him unable to speak; his autopsy indicated that he had pulmonary fibrosis along with cardiac failure probably due to hypertension, a condition then unknown. Johnson displayed signs consistent with several diagnoses, including depression and Tourette syndrome. Reynolds' 1769 portrait depicting Johnson's "odd gesticulations"[211] There are many accounts of Johnson suffering from bouts of depression and what Johnson thought might be madness. As Walter Jackson Bate puts it, "one of the ironies of literary history is that its most compelling and authoritative symbol of common sense—of the strong, imaginative grasp of concrete reality—should have begun his adult life, at the age of twenty, in a state of such intense anxiety and bewildered despair that, at least from his own point of view, it seemed the onset of actual insanity".[212] To overcome these feelings, Johnson tried to constantly involve himself with various activities, but this did not seem to help. Taylor said that Johnson "at one time strongly entertained thoughts of suicide".[213] Boswell claimed that Johnson "felt himself overwhelmed with an horrible melancholia, with perpetual irritation, fretfulness, and impatience; and with a dejection, gloom, and despair, which made existence misery".[214] Early on, when Johnson was unable to pay off his debts, he began to work with professional writers and identified his own situation with theirs.[215] During this time, Johnson witnessed Christopher Smart's decline into "penury and the madhouse", and feared that he might share the same fate.[215] Hester Thrale Piozzi claimed, in a discussion on Smart's mental state, that Johnson was her "friend who feared an apple should intoxicate him".[125] To her, what separated Johnson from others who were placed in asylums for madness—like Christopher Smart—was his ability to keep his concerns and emotions to himself.[125] Two hundred years after Johnson's death, the posthumous diagnosis of Tourette syndrome became widely accepted.[216] The condition was unknown during Johnson's lifetime, but Boswell describes Johnson displaying signs of Tourette syndrome, including tics and other involuntary movements.[217][218] According to Boswell "he commonly held his head to one side ... moving his body backwards and forwards, and rubbing his left knee in the same direction, with the palm of his hand ... [H]e made various sounds" like "a half whistle" or "as if clucking like a hen", and "... all this accompanied sometimes with a thoughtful look, but more frequently with a smile. Generally when he had concluded a period, in the course of a dispute, by which time he was a good deal exhausted by violence and vociferation, he used to blow out his breath like a whale."[219] There are many similar accounts; in particular, Johnson was said to "perform his gesticulations" at the threshold of a house or in doorways.[220] When asked by a little girl why he made such noises and acted in that way, Johnson responded: "From bad habit."[219] The diagnosis of the syndrome was first made in a 1967 report,[221] and Tourette syndrome researcher Arthur K. Shapiro described Johnson as "the most notable example of a successful adaptation to life despite the liability of Tourette syndrome".[222] Details provided by the writings of Boswell, Hester Thrale, and others reinforce the diagnosis, with one paper concluding: [Johnson] also displayed many of the obsessional-compulsive traits and rituals which are associated with this syndrome ... It may be thought that without this illness Dr Johnson's remarkable literary achievements, the great dictionary, his philosophical deliberations and his conversations may never have happened; and Boswell, the author of the greatest of biographies would have been unknown.[223] Legacy[edit] Statue of Dr Johnson erected in 1838 opposite the house where he was born at Lichfield's Market Square. There are also statues of him in London and Uttoxeter.[224] Johnson was, in the words of Steven Lynn, "more than a well-known writer and scholar";[225] he was a celebrity for the activities and the state of his health in his later years were constantly reported in various journals and newspapers, and when there was nothing to report, something was invented.[226] According to Bate, "Johnson loved biography," and he "changed the whole course of biography for the modern world. One by-product was the most famous single work of biographical art in the whole of literature, Boswell's Life of Johnson, and there were many other memoirs and biographies of a similar kind written on Johnson after his death."[3] These accounts of his life include Thomas Tyers's A Biographical Sketch of Dr Samuel Johnson (1784);[227] Boswell's The Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides (1785); Hester Thrale's Anecdotes of the Late Samuel Johnson, which drew on entries from her diary and other notes;[228] John Hawkins's Life of Samuel Johnson, the first full-length biography of Johnson;[229] and, in 1792, Arthur Murphy's An Essay on the Life and Genius of Samuel Johnson, which replaced Hawkins's biography as the introduction to a collection of Johnson's Works.[230] Another important source was Fanny Burney, who described Johnson as "the acknowledged Head of Literature in this kingdom" and kept a diary containing details missing from other biographies.[231] Above all, Boswell's portrayal of Johnson is the work best known to general readers. Although critics like Donald Greene argue about its status as a true biography, the work became successful as Boswell and his friends promoted it at the expense of the many other works on Johnson's life.[232] In criticism, Johnson had a lasting influence, although not everyone viewed him favourably. Some, like Macaulay, regarded Johnson as an idiot savant who produced some respectable works, and others, like the Romantic poets, were completely opposed to Johnson's views on poetry and literature, especially with regard to Milton.[233] However, some of their contemporaries disagreed: Stendhal's Racine et Shakespeare is based in part on Johnson's views of Shakespeare,[191] and Johnson influenced Jane Austen's writing style and philosophy.[234] Later, Johnson's works came into favour, and Matthew Arnold, in his Six Chief Lives from Johnson's "Lives of the Poets", considered the Lives of Milton, Dryden, Pope, Addison, Swift, and Gray as "points which stand as so many natural centres, and by returning to which we can always find our way again".[235] More than a century after his death, literary critics such as G. Birkbeck Hill and T. S. Eliot came to regard Johnson as a serious critic. They began to study Johnson's works with an increasing focus on the critical analysis found in his edition of Shakespeare and Lives of the Poets.[233] Yvor Winters claimed that "A great critic is the rarest of all literary geniuses; perhaps the only critic in English who deserves that epithet is Samuel Johnson".[7] F. R. Leavis agreed and, on Johnson's criticism, said, "When we read him we know, beyond question, that we have here a powerful and distinguished mind operating at first hand upon literature. This, we can say with emphatic conviction, really is criticism".[236] Edmund Wilson claimed that "The Lives of the Poets and the prefaces and commentary on Shakespeare are among the most brilliant and the most acute documents in the whole range of English criticism".[7] The critic Harold Bloom placed Johnson's work firmly within the Western canon, describing him as "unmatched by any critic in any nation before or after him ... Bate in the finest insight on Johnson I know, emphasised that no other writer is so obsessed by the realisation that the mind is an activity, one that will turn to destructiveness of the self or of others unless it is directed to labour."[237] It is no wonder that his philosophical insistence that the language within literature must be examined became a prevailing mode of literary theory during the mid-20th century.[238] There are many societies formed around and dedicated to the study and enjoyment of Samuel Johnson's life and works. On the bicentennial of Johnson's death in 1984, Oxford University held a week-long conference featuring 50 papers, and the Arts Council of Great Britain held an exhibit of "Johnsonian portraits and other memorabilia". The London Times and Punch produced parodies of Johnson's style for the occasion.[239] In 1999, the BBC Four television channel started the Samuel Johnson Prize, an award for non-fiction.[240] Half of Johnson's surviving correspondence, together with some of his manuscripts, editions of his books, paintings and other items associated with him are in the Donald and Mary Hyde Collection of Dr. Samuel Johnson, housed at Houghton Library at Harvard University since 2003. Materials in the collection may be accessed through the Houghton Reading Room. The collection includes drafts of his Plan for a Dictionary, documents associated with Hester Thrale Piozzi and James Boswell (including corrected proofs of his Life of Johnson) and a teapot owned by Johnson.[241] A Royal Society of Arts blue plaque, unveiled in 1876, commemorates his Gough Square house.[242] On 18 September 2017 Google commemorated Johnson's 308th birthday with a Google Doodle.[243][244] Major works[edit] Bust of Johnson by Joseph Nollekens, 1777. Essays, pamphlets, periodicals, sermons 1732–33   Birmingham Journal 1747 Plan for a Dictionary of the English Language 1750–52   The Rambler 1753–54 The Adventurer 1756 Universal Visiter 1756- The Literary Magazine, or Universal Review 1758–60 The Idler 1770 The False Alarm 1771 Thoughts on the Late Transactions Respecting Falkland's Islands 1774 The Patriot 1775 A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland Taxation No Tyranny 1781 The Beauties of Johnson Poetry 1728 Messiah, a translation into Latin of Alexander Pope's Messiah 1738 London 1747 Prologue at the Opening of the Theatre in Drury Lane 1749 The Vanity of Human Wishes Irene, a Tragedy Biographies, criticism 1735 A Voyage to Abyssinia, by Jerome Lobo, translated from the French 1744 Life of Mr Richard Savage 1745 Miscellaneous Observations on the Tragedy of Macbeth 1756 "Life of Browne" in Thomas Browne's Christian Morals Proposals for Printing, by Subscription, the Dramatick Works of William Shakespeare 1765 Preface to the Plays of William Shakespeare The Plays of William Shakespeare 1779–81 Lives of the Poets Dictionary 1755 Preface to a Dictionary of the English Language A Dictionary of the English Language Novellas 1759 The History of Rasselas, Prince of Abissinia Notes[edit] ^ a b Johnson was 180 cm (5 feet 11 inches) tall when the average height of an Englishman was 165 cm (5 feet 5 inches).[194] ^ Bate (1977) comments that Johnson's standard of effort was very high, so high that Johnson said he had never known a man to study hard.[33] References[edit] Specific ^ Meyers 2008, p. 2 ^ Rogers, Pat (2006), "Johnson, Samuel (1709–1784)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.), Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/14918 (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) ^ a b Bate 1977, p. xix ^ a b Bate 1977, p. 240 ^ a b c Lynch 2003, p. 1 ^ Murray 1979 and Stern, Burza & Robertson 2005 ^ a b c Winters 1943, p. 240 ^ Bate 1977, p. 5 ^ Lane 1975, pp. 15–16 ^ a b Watkins 1960, p. 25 ^ Lane 1975, p. 16 ^ Bate 1977, pp. 5–6 ^ Lane 1975, pp. 16–17 ^ Lane 1975, p. 18 ^ Lane 1975, pp. 19–20 ^ Lane 1975, pp. 20–21 ^ Boswell 1986, p. 38 ^ Bate 1977, pp. 18–19 ^ Bate 1977, p. 21 ^ Lane 1975, pp. 25–26 ^ a b Lane 1975, p.  26 ^ a b DeMaria 1994, pp. 5–6 ^ Bate 1977, p. 23, 31 ^ Lane 1975, p. 29 ^ a b Wain 1974, p. 32 ^ Lane 1975, p. 30 ^ a b Lane 1975, p. 33 ^ Bate 1977, p. 61 ^ Lane 1975, p. 34 ^ a b Bate 1977, p. 87 ^ Lane 1975, p. 39 ^ Bate 1977, p. 88 ^ Bate 1977, pp. 90–100. ^ Boswell 1986, pp. 91–92 ^ Bate 1977, p. 92 ^ Bate 1977, pp. 93–94 ^ Bate 1977, pp. 106–107 ^ Lane 1975, pp. 128–129 ^ a b c Bate 1955, p. 36 ^ Bate 1977, p. 99 ^ a b Bate 1977, p. 127 ^ Wiltshire 1991, p. 24 ^ Bate 1977, p. 129 ^ Boswell 1986, pp. 130–131 ^ Hopewell 1950, p. 53 ^ Bate 1977, pp. 131–132 ^ Bate 1977, p. 134 ^ Boswell 1986, pp. 137–138 ^ a b Bate 1977, p. 138 ^ Boswell 1986, pp. 140–141 ^ Bate 1977, p. 144 ^ Bate 1977, p. 143 ^ Boswell 1969, p. 88 ^ Bate 1977, p. 145 ^ Bate 1977, p. 147 ^ Wain 1974, p. 65 ^ Bate 1977, p. 146 ^ Bate 1977, pp. 153–154 ^ a b Bate 1977, p. 154 ^ Bate 1977, p. 153 ^ Bate 1977, p. 156 ^ Bate 1977, pp. 164–165 ^ Boswell 1986, pp. 168–169 ^ Wain 1974, p. 81; Bate 1977, p. 169 ^ Boswell 1986, pp. 169–170 ^ Bate 1955, p. 14 ^ a b c d e Lynch 2003, p. 5 ^ Bate 1977, p. 172 ^ Bate 1955, p. 18 ^ a b Bate 1977, p. 182 ^ Watkins 1960, pp. 25–26 ^ Watkins 1960, p. 51 ^ Bate 1977, pp. 178–179 ^ Bate 1977, pp. 180–181 ^ Hitchings 2005, p. 54 ^ Winchester 2003, p. 33 ^ a b Lynch 2003, p. 2 ^ Lynch 2003, p. 4 ^ a b Lane 1975, p. 109 ^ Hawkins 1787, p. 175 ^ Lane 1975, p. 110 ^ Lane 1975, pp. 117–118 ^ Lane 1975, p. 118 ^ Lane 1975, p. 121 ^ a b Bate 1977, p. 257 ^ Bate 1977, pp. 256, 318 ^ "Currency Converter", The National Archives, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, retrieved 24 July 2008 ^ Lynch 2003, pp. 8–11 ^ Bate 1955, p. 25 ^ Lane 1975, p. 113 ^ a b Lane 1975, p. 115 ^ Lane 1975, p. 116 ^ Lynn 1997, p. 241 ^ Boswell 1986, p. 67 ^ Bate 1955, p. 22 ^ Weinbrot 1997, p. 49 ^ Bate 1977, p. 281 ^ Lane 1975, pp. 113–114 ^ Lane 1975, p. 114 ^ Bate 1955, p. 17 ^ Bate 1977, pp. 272–273 ^ Bate 1977, pp. 273–275 ^ Bate 1977, p. 321 ^ Bate 1977, p. 324 ^ Murray 1979, p. 1611 ^ Bate 1977, pp. 322–323 ^ Martin 2008, p. 319 ^ a b Bate 1977, p. 328 ^ Bate 1977, p. 329 ^ Clarke 2000, pp. 221–222 ^ Clarke 2000, pp. 223–224 ^ Bate 1977, pp. 325–326 ^ Bate 1977, p. 330 ^ Bate 1977, p. 332 ^ Bate 1977, p. 334 ^ Bate 1977, pp. 337–338 ^ Bate 1977, p. 337 ^ a b Bate 1977, p. 391 ^ Bate 1977, p. 356 ^ Boswell 1986, pp. 354–356 ^ Bate 1977, p. 360 ^ Bate 1977, p. 366 ^ Bate 1977, p. 393 ^ Wain 1974, p. 262 ^ a b c Keymer 1999, p. 186 ^ a b Boswell 1986, p. 135 ^ Bate 1977, p. 395 ^ Bate 1977, p. 397 ^ Wain 1974, p. 194 ^ Bate 1977, p. 396 ^ Boswell 1986, p. 133 ^ Boswell 1986, p. 134 ^ Yung 1984, p. 14 ^ Bate 1977, p. 463 ^ Bate 1977, p. 471 ^ Johnson 1970, pp. 104–105 ^ Wain 1974, p. 331 ^ Bate 1977, pp. 468–469 ^ Bate 1977, pp. 443–445 ^ Boswell 1986, p. 182 ^ Griffin 2005, p. 21 ^ Bate 1977, p. 446 ^ Johnson, Samuel, TAXATION NO TYRANNY; An answer to the resolutions and address of the American congress (1775) ^ Ammerman 1974, p. 13 ^ DeMaria 1994, pp. 252–256 ^ Griffin 2005, p. 15 ^ Boswell 1986, p. 273 ^ Bate 1977, p. 525 ^ Bate 1977, p. 526 ^ Bate 1977, p. 527 ^ Clingham 1997, p. 161 ^ Bate 1977, pp. 546–547 ^ Bate 1977, pp. 557, 561 ^ Bate 1977, p. 562 ^ Rogers, Pat (1996), The Samuel Johnson Encyclopedia, Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, ISBN 978-0-313-29411-2 ^ Martin 2008, pp. 501–502 ^ Bate 1977, p. 566 ^ a b Bate 1977, p. 569 ^ Boswell 1986, p. 284 ^ Bate 1977, p. 570 ^ Bate 1977, p. 575 ^ Wiltshire 1991, p. 51 ^ Watkins 1960, p. 71 ^ Watkins 1960, pp. 71–72 ^ Watkins 1960, p. 72 ^ Watkins 1960, p. 73 ^ a b Watkins 1960, p. 74 ^ Boswell 1986, p. 341 ^ Watkins 1960, pp. 76–77 ^ a b Watkins 1960, p. 78 ^ a b c Watkins 1960, p. 79 ^ a b Bate 1977, p. 599 ^ Hill 1897, p. 160 (Vol. 2) ^ Boswell 1986, pp. 341–342 ^ Needham 1982, pp. 95–96 ^ Greene 1989, p. 27 ^ Greene 1989, pp. 28–30 ^ Greene 1989, p. 39 ^ Greene 1989, pp. 31, 34 ^ Greene 1989, p. 35 ^ Greene 1989, p. 37 ^ Greene 1989, p. 38 ^ Greene 1989, pp. 62–64 ^ Greene 1989, p. 65 ^ Greene 1989, p. 67 ^ Greene 1989, p. 85 ^ Greene 1989, p. 134 ^ Greene 1989, pp. 134–135 ^ Greene 1989, p. 140 ^ Greene 1989, p. 141 ^ a b Greene 1989, p. 142 ^ Needham 1982, p. 134 ^ Greene 1989, p. 143 ^ Meyers 2008, p. 29 ^ a b Bate 1955, p. 16 quoting from Boswell ^ Hill 1897, p. 423 (Vol. 2) ^ Bate 1955, pp. 15–16 ^ Bate 1977, p. 316 ^ a b Boswell 1986, p. 122 ^ Bate 1977, p. 297 ^ Greene 1989, p. 87 ^ Greene 1989, p. 88 ^ a b Bate 1977, p. 537 ^ Boswell 1986, p. 200 ^ a b Skargon 1999 ^ Boswell 1986, p. 294 ^ Greene 2000, p. xxi ^ Boswell 1986, p. 365 ^ Rogers 1995, p. 192 ^ Piozzi 1951, p. 165 ^ Lane 1975, p. 103 ^ Bate 1955, p. 7 ^ Bate 1977, p. 116 ^ Bate 1977, p. 117 ^ a b Pittock 2004, p. 159 ^ Stern, Burza & Robertson 2005 ^ Pearce 1994, p. 396 ^ Murray 1979, p. 1610 ^ a b Hibbert 1971, p. 203 ^ Hibbert 1971, p. 202 ^ McHenry 1967, pp. 152–168 and Wiltshire 1991, p. 29 ^ Shapiro 1978, p. 361 ^ Pearce 1994, p. 398 ^ "Notes and Queries – Oxford Academic" (PDF), OUP Academic ^ Lynn 1997, p. 240 ^ Lynn 1997, pp. 240–241 ^ Hill 1897, p. 335 (Vol. 2) ^ Bloom 1998, p. 75 ^ Davis 1961, p. vii ^ Hill 1897, p. 355 ^ Clarke 2000, pp. 4–5 ^ Boswell 1986, p. 7 ^ a b Lynn 1997, p. 245 ^ Grundy 1997, pp. 199–200 ^ Arnold 1972, p. 351 ^ Wilson 1950, p. 244 ^ Bloom 1995, pp. 183, 200 ^ Greene 1989, p. 139 ^ Greene 1989, pp. 174–175 ^ Samuel Johnson Prize 2008, BBC, retrieved 25 August 2008 ^ The Donald and Mary Hyde Collection of Dr. Samuel Johnson and Early Modern Books and Manuscripts, Harvard College Library, archived from the original on 24 December 2009, retrieved 10 January 2010 ^ Johnson, Dr Samuel (1709–1784), English Heritage, retrieved 23 October 2012 ^ Samuel Johnson's 308th Birthday, 18 September 2017, retrieved 18 September 2017 ^ Cole, Brendan (18 September 2017), "Google marks birthday of Samuel Johnson, pioneer of the 1st 'search tool' the dictionary", International Business Times, retrieved 18 September 2017 General Ammerman, David (1974), In the Common Cause: American Response to the Coercive Acts of 1774, New York: Norton, ISBN 978-0-393-00787-9 . Arnold, Matthew (1972), Ricks, Christopher (ed.), Selected Criticism of Matthew Arnold, New York: New American Library, OCLC 6338231 Bate, Walter Jackson (1977), Samuel Johnson, New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, ISBN 978-0-15-179260-3 . Bate, Walter Jackson (1955), The Achievement of Samuel Johnson, Oxford: Oxford University Press, OCLC 355413 . Bloom, Harold (1998), "Hester Thrale Piozzi 1741–1821", in Bloom, Harold (ed.), Women Memoirists Vol. II, Philadelphia: Chelsea House, pp. 74–76, ISBN 978-0-7910-4655-5 . Bloom, Harold (1995), The Western Canon, London: Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-333-64813-1 . Boswell, James (1969), Waingrow, Marshall (ed.), Correspondence and Other Papers of James Boswell Relating to the Making of the Life of Johnson, New York: McGraw-Hill, OCLC 59269 . Boswell, James (1986), Hibbert, Christopher (ed.), The Life of Samuel Johnson, New York: Penguin Classics, ISBN 978-0-14-043116-2 . Clarke, Norma (2000), Dr Johnson's Women, London: Hambledon, ISBN 978-1-85285-254-2 . Clingham, Greg (1997), "Life and literature in the Lives", in Clingham, Greg (ed.), The Cambridge companion to Samuel Johnson, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 161–191, ISBN 978-0-521-55625-5 Davis, Bertram (1961), "Introduction", in Davis, Bertram (ed.), The Life of Samuel Johnson, LL. D, New York: Macmillan Company, pp. vii–xxx, OCLC 739445 . DeMaria, Robert, Jr. (1994), The Life of Samuel Johnson, Oxford: Blackwell, ISBN 978-1-55786-664-6 . Greene, Donald (1989), Samuel Johnson: Updated Edition, Boston: Twayne Publishers, ISBN 978-0-8057-6962-3 . Greene, Donald (2000), "Introduction", in Greene, Donald (ed.), Political Writings, Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, ISBN 978-0-86597-275-9 . Griffin, Dustin (2005), Patriotism and Poetry in Eighteenth-Century Britain, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-00959-1 . Grundy, Isobel (1997), "Jane Austen and literary traditions", in Copeland, Edward; McMaster, Juliet (eds.), The Cambridge companion to Jane Austen, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 189–210, ISBN 978-0-521-49867-8 . Hawkins, John (1787), Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D, London: J. Buckland, OCLC 173965 . Hibbert, Christopher (1971), The Personal History of Samuel Johnson, New York: Harper & Row, ISBN 978-0-06-011879-2 . Hitchings, Henry (2005), Dr Johnson's Dictionary: The Extraordinary Story of the Book that Defined the World, London: John Murray, ISBN 978-0-7195-6631-8 . Hill, G. Birkbeck, ed. (1897), Johnsonian Miscellanies, London: Oxford Clarendon Press, OCLC 61906024 . Hopewell, Sydney (1950), The Book of Bosworth School, 1320–1920, Leicester: W. Thornley & Son, OCLC 6808364 . Johnson, Samuel (1970), Chapman, R. W. (ed.), Johnson's Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland and Boswell's Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-281072-4 . Keymer, Thomas (1999), "Johnson, Madness, and Smart", in Hawes, Clement (ed.), Christopher Smart and the Enlightenment, New York, NY: St. Martin's Press, ISBN 978-0-312-21369-5 . Lane, Margaret (1975), Samuel Johnson & his World, New York: Harper & Row Publishers, ISBN 978-0-06-012496-0 . Lynch, Jack (2003), "Introduction to this Edition", in Lynch, Jack (ed.), Samuel Johnson's Dictionary, New York: Walker & Co, pp. 1–21, ISBN 978-0-8027-1421-3 . Lynn, Steven (1997), "Johnson's critical reception", in Clingham, Greg (ed.), Cambridge Companion to Samuel Johnson, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-55625-5 Martin, Peter (2008), Samuel Johnson:A Biography, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press, ISBN 978-0-674-03160-9 . McHenry, LC Jr (April 1967), "Samuel Johnson's tics and gesticulations", Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences, 22 (2): 152–168, doi:10.1093/jhmas/XXII.2.152, PMID 5341871 Meyers, J (2008), Samuel Johnson: The Struggle, Basic Books, A Member of the Perseus Books Group, ISBN 978-0-465-04571-6 Murray, TJ (16 June 1979), "Dr Samuel Johnson's movement disorder", British Medical Journal, 1 (6178), pp. 1610–1614, doi:10.1136/bmj.1.6178.1610, PMC 1599158, PMID 380753 . Needham, John (1982), The Completest Mode, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, ISBN 978-0-85224-387-9 . Pearce, JMS (July 1994), "Doctor Samuel Johnson: 'the Great Convulsionary' a victim of Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome", Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 87 (7): 396–399, PMC 1294650, PMID 8046726 . Piozzi, Hester (1951), Balderson, Katharine (ed.), Thraliana: The Diary of Mrs. Hester Lynch Thrale (Later Mrs. Piozzi) 1776–1809, Oxford: Clarendon, OCLC 359617 . Pittock, Murray (2004), "Johnson, Boswell, and their circle", in Keymer, Thomas; Mee, Jon (eds.), The Cambridge companion to English literature from 1740 to 1830, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 157–172, ISBN 978-0-521-00757-3 . Rogers, Pat (1995), Johnson and Boswell: The Transit of Caledonia, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-818259-7 . Shapiro, Arthur K (1978), Gilles de la Tourette syndrome, New York: Raven Press, ISBN 978-0-89004-057-7 . Skargon, Yvonne (1999), The Importance of Being Oscar: Lily and Hodge and Dr. Johnson, London: Primrose Academy, OCLC 56542613 . Stern, JS; Burza, S; Robertson, MM (January 2005), "Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome and its impact in the UK", Postgrad Med J, 81 (951): 12–19, doi:10.1136/pgmj.2004.023614, PMC 1743178, PMID 15640424, It is now widely accepted that Dr Samuel Johnson had Tourette's syndrome . Wain, John (1974), Samuel Johnson, New York: Viking Press, OCLC 40318001 . Watkins, WBC (1960), Perilous Balance: The Tragic Genius of Swift, Johnson, and Sterne, Cambridge, MA: Walker-deBerry, Inc., OCLC 40318001 . Weinbrot, Howard D. (1997), "Johnson's Poetry", in Clingham, Greg (ed.), Cambridge Companion to Samuel Johnson, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-55625-5 . Wilson, Edmund (1950), "Reexamining Dr. Johnson", in Wilson, Edmund (ed.), Classics and Commercials, New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, OCLC 185571431 . Wiltshire, John (1991), Samuel Johnson in the Medical World, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-38326-4 . Winchester, Simon (2003), The Meaning of Everything, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-517500-4 . Winters, Yvor (1943), The Anatomy of Nonsense, Norfolk, Conn.: New Directions, OCLC 191540 . Yung, Kai Kin (1984), Samuel Johnson, 1709–84, London: Herbert Press, ISBN 978-0-906969-45-8 . Further reading[edit] Broadley, A. M. (1909), Doctor Johnson and Mrs Thrale : Including Mrs Thrale's unpublished Journal of the Welsh Tour Made in 1774 and Much Hitherto Unpublished Correspondence of the Streatham Coterie, London: John Lane The Bodley Head Bate, W. Jackson (1998), Samuel Johnson. A Biography, Berkeley: Conterpoint, ISBN 978-1-58243-524-4 Fine, LG (May–June 2006), "Samuel Johnson's illnesses", J Nephrol, 19 (Suppl 10): S110–114, PMID 16874722 . Gopnik, Adam (8 December 2008), "The Critics: A Critic at Large: Man of Fetters: Dr. Johnson and Mrs. Thrale", The New Yorker, 84 (40): 90–96, retrieved 9 July 2011. Johnson, Samuel (1952), Chapman, R. W. (ed.), Letters, Oxford: Clarendon, ISBN 0-19-818538-3 . Johnson, Samuel (1968), Bate, W. Jackson (ed.), Selected Essays from the Rambler, Adventurer, and Idler, New Haven - London: Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0-300-00016-0 . Johnson, Samuel (2000), Greene, Donald (ed.), Major Works, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-284042-8 . Johnston, Freya, "I'm Coming, My Tetsie!" (review of Samuel Johnson, edited by David Womersley, Oxford, 2018, ISBN 978 0 19 960951 2, 1,344 pp.), London Review of Books, vol. 41, no. 9 (9 May 2019), pp. 17–19. ""His attacks on [the pursuit of originality in the writing of literature] were born of the conviction that literature ought to deal in universal truths; that human nature was fundamentally the same in every time and every place; and that, accordingly (as he put it in the 'Life of Dryden'), 'whatever can happen to man has happened so often that little remains for fancy or invention.'" (p. 19.) Kammer, Thomas (2007), "Mozart in the Neurological Department: Who has the Tic?", in Bogousslavsky, Julien; Hennerici, M (eds.), Neurological Disorders in Famous Artists, Part 2, Frontiers of Neurology and Neuroscience, 22, Basel: Karger, pp. 184–92, doi:10.1159/000102880, ISBN 978-3-8055-8265-0, PMID 17495512 . Leavis, FR (1944), "Johnson as Critic", Scrutiny, 12: 187–204 . Murray, TJ (July–August 2003), "Samuel Johnson: his ills, his pills and his physician friends", Clin Med, 3 (4): 368–72, doi:10.7861/clinmedicine.3-4-368, PMC 5351955, PMID 12938754 . Sacks, Oliver (19–26 December 1992), "Tourette's syndrome and creativity", British Medical Journal, 305 (6868): 1515–1516, doi:10.1136/bmj.305.6868.1515, PMC 1884721, PMID 1286364, ... the case for Samuel Johnson having the syndrome, though also circumstantial, is extremely strong and, to my mind, entirely convincing . Stephen, Leslie (1898), "Johnsoniana", Studies of a Biographer, 1, London: Duckworth and Co., pp. 105–146 Uglow, Jenny, "Big Talkers" (review of Leo Damrosch, The Club: Johnson, Boswell, and the Friends Who Shaped an Age, Yale University Press, 473 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVI, no. 9 (23 May 2019), pp. 26–28. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Samuel Johnson. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Samuel Johnson Wikisource has original text related to this article: Samuel Johnson Samuel Johnson at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA) Samuel Johnson and Hodge his Cat Works by Samuel Johnson at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Samuel Johnson at Internet Archive Works by or about Dr Johnson at Internet Archive Works by Samuel Johnson at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Full text of Johnson's essays arranged chronologically BBC Radio 4 audio programs:In Our Time and Great Lives A Monument More Durable Than Brass: The Donald and Mary Hyde Collection of Dr. Samuel Johnson – online exhibition from Houghton Library, Harvard University The Samuel Johnson Sound Bite Page, comprehensive collection of quotations Samuel Johnson at the National Portrait Gallery, London Life of Johnson at Project Gutenberg by James Boswell, abridged by Charles Grosvenor Osgood in 1917 "... omitt[ing] most of Boswell's criticisms, comments and notes, all of Johnson's opinions in legal cases, most of the letters, ..." v t e Samuel Johnson Life and topics Birthplace, home, and museum Early life Health Edial Hall School Dr Johnson's House The Club Literary criticism Political views Religious views Samuel Johnson Prize People Francis Barber James Boswell David Garrick John Hawkins Arthur Murphy Elizabeth Johnson (wife) Henry Thrale Hester Thrale Anna Williams Hodge Essays and periodicals Birmingham Journal The Gentleman's Magazine The Idler The Rambler Biography and criticism Life of Mr Richard Savage Lives of the Poets Miscellaneous Observations on the Tragedy of Macbeth The Plays of William Shakespeare Proposals for an Edition of Shakespeare Preface to Shakespeare Miscellaneous prose A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland A Dictionary of the English Language Letter to Chesterfield Fiction and poetry Messiah translation London Irene The Vanity of Human Wishes The History of Rasselas, Prince of Abissinia Contemporary accounts James Boswell's Life of Samuel Johnson James Boswell's The Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides John Hawkins' Life of Samuel Johnson Arthur Murphy's Essay on the Life and Genius of Samuel Johnson Hester Thrale's Anecdotes of the Late Samuel Johnson Thraliana Thomas Tyer's A Biographical Sketch of Dr Samuel Johnson v t e Age of Enlightenment Topics Atheism Capitalism Civil liberties Counter-Enlightenment Critical thinking Deism Democracy Empiricism Encyclopédistes Enlightened absolutism Free markets Haskalah Humanism Human rights Liberalism Liberté, égalité, fraternité Methodological skepticism Nationalism Natural philosophy Objectivity Rationality Rationalism Reason Reductionism Sapere aude Science Scientific method Socialism Universality Weimar Classicism Thinkers France Jean le Rond d'Alembert René Louis d'Argenson Pierre Bayle Pierre Beaumarchais Nicolas Chamfort Émilie du Châtelet Étienne Bonnot de Condillac Marquis de Condorcet René Descartes Denis Diderot Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle 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Cohen Georges Gilles de la Tourette Tim Howard Jean Marc Gaspard Itard Samuel Johnson James F. Leckman Arthur K. Shapiro Organizations Tourette Association of America Tourette Syndrome Foundation of Canada Tourettes Action Yale Child Study Center Media Front of the Class Hichki I Have Tourette's but Tourette's Doesn't Have Me John's Not Mad "Le Petit Tourette" Maze Motherless Brooklyn Quit It The Secret Life of Lele Pons The Tic Code Tic Talk: Living with Tourette Syndrome Authority control BIBSYS: 90065952 BNE: XX1039065 BNF: cb12035041v (data) CANTIC: a10106984 GND: 118558161 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\000951 ISNI: 0000 0001 2119 3137 LCCN: n78095825 NDL: 00444804 NKC: mzk2010580932 NLA: 35249747 NLI: 000071906 NLK: KAC199614062 NTA: 068463960 SELIBR: 191835 SNAC: w6sb43r1 SUDOC: 028533380 Trove: 881922 ULAN: 500251068 VcBA: 495/109597 VIAF: 7406725 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n78095825 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Samuel_Johnson&oldid=995043223" Categories: Samuel Johnson 1709 births 1784 deaths 18th-century English writers 18th-century male writers Alumni of Pembroke College, Oxford Burials at Westminster Abbey English Anglicans English biographers English book editors English booksellers Schoolteachers from Staffordshire English essayists English lexicographers English literary critics English sermon writers English travel writers James Boswell Members of The Club People educated at King Edward VI School, Lichfield People from Lichfield Writers from London People with mood disorders Streathamites Linguists of English People educated at King Edward VI College, Stourbridge Male essayists English male poets Last of the Romans Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the ODNB Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use British English from August 2011 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Commons link from Wikidata Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with LibriVox links Articles containing French-language text Articles containing Hebrew-language text Articles containing Latin-language text Featured articles Use dmy dates from August 2011 Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages Afrikaans العربية Asturianu تۆرکجه বাংলা Bân-lâm-gú Български Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Italiano עברית Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar മലയാളം मराठी مصرى မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 吴语 Yorùbá 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 18 December 2020, at 22:37 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-52	----	Princeps senatus - Wikipedia Princeps senatus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e The princeps senatus (plural principes senatus) was the first member by precedence of the Roman Senate.[1] Although officially out of the cursus honorum and possessing no imperium, this office conferred prestige on the senator holding it. Contents 1 Overview 1.1 List of known principes senatus 2 Citations 3 References 4 External links Overview[edit] The princeps senatus was not a lifetime appointment. He was chosen by every new pair of censors (that is, every 5 years). Censors could, however, confirm a princeps senatus for a period of another 5 years. He was selected from patrician senators with consular rank, usually former censors. The successful candidate had to be a patrician with an impeccable political record, respected by his fellow senators. The office was established around the year 275 BC.[2] Originally, the position of the princeps was one of honor: he had the privilege of speaking first on the topic presented by the presiding magistrate. This gave the position great dignitas as it allowed the princeps to set the tone of the debate in the Senate. Across the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, the office gained the prerogatives of the presiding magistrates and additional privileges, namely: Summoning and adjourning the Senate; Deciding its agenda; Deciding where the session should take place; Imposing order and other rules of the session; Meeting, in the name of the Senate, with embassies of foreign countries; and Writing, in the name of the Senate, letters and dispatches. By 80 BC, it is believed that the status and function of the office was changed by the constitutional reforms of Lucius Cornelius Sulla. Although the term remained, reflecting the senator who was named first in the roll of the Senate issued by the Censors, the prerogatives of the office were restricted. In particular, the honor of speaking first on any topic debated in the Senate, a measure of their political clout, was removed from them and transported to the consul designate.[3] After the fall of the Roman Republic, the princeps senatus was the Roman Emperor, and during the period of the Principate, no other individual is believed to have held the office (see also: princeps). However, in the emperor's absence, it is possible that a Senator was granted the privilege of holding this role when the Senate met; the notoriously unreliable Historia Augusta claimed that during the Crisis of the Third Century, some others held the position; in particular, it stated that the future emperor Valerian held the office in 238, during the reigns of Maximinus Thrax and Gordian I, and he continued to hold it through to the reign of Decius.[4] The same source also makes the same claim about Tacitus when the Senate acclaimed him emperor in AD 275.[5] List of known principes senatus[edit] Manius Valerius Maximus.[6] Marcus Fabius Ambustus.[6] c. 275/269 BC: Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus.[7] c. 269/265 BC: Gaius Marcius Rutilus Censorinus?[8] In or after 258 BC: Quintus Fabius Maximus Gurges, son of Rullianus[9] c. 247/241 BC: Gnaeus Cornelius Blasio?[8] c. 236/230 BC: Gaius Duilius?[8] c. 225 BC: Manius Valerius Maximus Messalla?[8] c. 220 BC: Aulus Manlius Torquatus Atticus?[8] By 216 BC: Marcus Fabius Buteo.[10] 209 – 203 BC: Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus.[7] 199 – 184/183 BC: Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus.[7] 184/183 – 180 BC: Lucius Valerius Flaccus.[7] 179 – 153/152 BC: Marcus Aemilius Lepidus.[7] 153/152 – c. 147 BC: Position vacant. c. 147 –141 BC: Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Corculum.[7] Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Serapio?[11] c. 136 – 130 BC?: Appius Claudius Pulcher.[7] 130 BC?: Lucius Cornelius Lentulus Lupus.[10] c. 125 BC: Publius Cornelius Lentulus.[7] 115 – c. 89 BC: Marcus Aemilius Scaurus.[7] By 86 BC: Lucius Valerius Flaccus.[7] c. 70 BC: Mamercus Aemilius Lepidus Livianus.[12] 62 - 60 BC?: Quintus Lutatius Catulus (Capitolinus).[11] 55 - 44 BC:Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus.[13] 43 – 43 BC: Marcus Tullius Cicero. (Not a Patrician)[14] 43 – 28 BC: Unknown. 28 BC – Augustus, title cohered with that of Roman emperor until beginning of the Dominate. AD 238 – 251: Valerian. AD 269: Pomponius Bassus - described as "Pomponius Bassus, who then was the first man".[15] AD 275: Tacitus - The Historia Augusta states that Tacitus was "the consular whose right it was to speak his opinion first".[16] Citations[edit] ^ Roberts, John (2007). "Princeps senatus". Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World. Oxford Reference. p. 858. doi:10.1093/acref/9780192801463.001.0001. ISBN 9780192801463. ^ Ryan (1998), p. 170. ^ Broughton, T. Robert S. (1952). The Magistrates of the Roman Republic. II. p. 127. ^ Historia Augusta, The Three Gordians, 9.7; The Two Valerians, 5.4 ^ Historia Augusta, Tacitus, 4.1 ^ a b Mommsen, Willems, and Suolahti. Rejected by Ryan (1998), p. 223. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Mommsen, Willems, Suolahti, and Ryan. ^ a b c d e Ryan. ^ Said also to have succeeded his father as princeps senatus in 265 BC. ^ a b Willems, Suolahti, and Ryan. ^ a b Willems. Rejected by Suolahti and Ryan. ^ Mommsen. Rejected by Willems, Suolahti, and Ryan. ^ Broughton, pg. 127 ^ Willems and Ryan. Rejected by Suolahti. ^ Epitome de Caesaribus, 34.3 ^ Historia Augusta, Tacitus, 4.1 References[edit] Broughton, T. Robert S., The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, Vol II (1952). Mommsen, Theodor (1864). Römische Forschungen. I. and Mommsen, Theodor (1864). "Über den princeps senatus". RHM. 19: 455–457. Ryan, Francis X. (1998). Rank and Participation in the Republican Senate. Suolahti, Jaakko (1972). "Princeps senatus". Arctos. 7: 207–218. Willems, Pierre Gaspard Hubert (1878). Le Sénat de la République romaine. I. External links[edit] The Roman Law Library by Professor Yves Lassard and Alexandr Koptev. v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Princeps_senatus&oldid=989475944" Categories: Ancient Roman titles Ancient Roman politicians Cursus honorum Roman Senate Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Беларуская Dansk Deutsch Español Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Nederlands Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 19 November 2020, at 05:29 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5309	----	Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects - Wikipedia Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The publicly available wikis operated by the Wikimedia Foundation To link sister projects using traditional inline text links, see Help:Interwikimedia links. This page documents an English Wikipedia style guideline. It is a generally accepted standard that editors should attempt to follow, though it is best treated with common sense, and occasional exceptions may apply. Any substantive edit to this page should reflect consensus. When in doubt, discuss first on the talk page. Shortcuts WP:SIS WP:SISP WP:SISTER Wikimedia sister projects are all the publicly available wikis operated by the Wikimedia Foundation, including Wikipedia. This guideline covers Wikipedia's relations to the sister projects, including linking and copying content between a Wikipedia article and a sister project's article. 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en-wikipedia-org-5314	----	Brindisi - Wikipedia Brindisi From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Brundisium) Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Brindisi (disambiguation). Comune in Apulia, Italy Brindisi Brìnnisi  (Sicilian) Brentésion  (Greek) Comune Comune di Brindisi The Roman pillar marking the end of the ancient Via Appia in Brindisi Location of Brindisi Brindisi Location of Brindisi in Italy Show map of Italy Brindisi Brindisi (Apulia) Show map of Apulia Coordinates: 40°38′N 17°56′E / 40.633°N 17.933°E / 40.633; 17.933Coordinates: 40°38′N 17°56′E / 40.633°N 17.933°E / 40.633; 17.933 Country Italy Region Apulia Province Brindisi (BR) Frazioni Tuturano Government  • Mayor Riccardo Rossi Area[1]  • Total 332.98 km2 (128.56 sq mi) Elevation 15 m (49 ft) Population (31 December 2017)[2]  • Total 87,141  • Density 260/km2 (680/sq mi) Demonym(s) Brindisini Time zone UTC+1 (CET)  • Summer (DST) UTC+2 (CEST) Postal code 72100 Dialing code 0831 Patron saint St. Theodore of Amasea and St. Lawrence of Brindisi Saint day First Sunday in September Website comune.brindisi.it Brindisi Cathedral Brindisi (US: /ˈbrɪndɪzi, ˈbriːn-/ BRIN-diz-ee, BREEN-,[3][4] Italian: [ˈbrɪndizi] (listen); Brindisino: Brìnnisi; Latin: Brundisium; Ancient Greek: Βρεντέσιον, romanized: Brentésion; Messapic: Brunda) is a city in the region of Apulia in southern Italy, the capital of the province of Brindisi, on the coast of the Adriatic Sea. Historically, the city has played an important role in trade and culture, due to its strategic position on the Italian Peninsula and its natural port on the Adriatic Sea. The city remains a major port for trade with Greece and the Middle East. Its industries include agriculture, chemical works, and the generation of electricity. The city of Brindisi was the provisional government seat of the Kingdom of Italy from September 1943 to February 1944. Contents 1 Geography 1.1 Territory 1.2 Climate 2 History 2.1 Ancient times 2.2 Middle Ages and modern times 3 Etymology 3.1 Heraldry 4 Main sights 4.1 Natural areas 5 Demography 5.1 Migration 5.2 Ethnic groups 5.3 Languages and dialects 5.4 Religion 6 Culture 6.1 Traditions and folklore 6.2 Education 6.2.1 Libraries 6.2.2 University 6.2.3 Museums 6.3 Music and theatre 7 Brindisini 8 Media 8.1 Radio 8.2 Print 8.3 Television 9 Cuisine 9.1 Beverages, spirits, liquors 9.2 Cheese 9.3 Vegetable products, processed or unprocessed 9.4 Pasta, pastry and confectionery 9.5 Wine 9.6 Events 10 Human geography 10.1 Roman period 10.2 Middle Ages 10.3 Modern era 10.4 Contemporary era 11 Economy 11.1 Agriculture 11.2 Industry 11.2.1 Chemical 11.2.2 Energy production 11.2.3 Aviation 11.3 Tourism 12 Infrastructure and transport 12.1 Roads 12.2 Railways 12.3 Seaport 12.4 International airport 12.5 Public transport 13 Government 13.1 Consulates 14 Sports 14.1 Soccer 14.2 Basketball 14.3 Other clubs 14.4 Sports venues 15 International relations 15.1 Twin towns – sister cities 16 See also 17 References 18 Bibliography 19 External links Geography[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Brindisi is situated on a natural harbour, that penetrates deeply into the Adriatic coast of Apulia. Within the arms of the outer harbour islands are Pedagne, a tiny archipelago, currently not open and in use for military purposes (United Nations Group Schools used it during the intervention in Bosnia). The entire municipality is part of the Brindisi Plain, characterised by high agricultural uses of its land. It is located in the northeastern part of the Salento plains, about 40 kilometres (25 mi) from the Itria Valley, and the low Murge. Not far from the city is the Natural Marine Reserve of the World Wide Fund for Nature of Torre Guaceto. The Ionian Sea is about 45 kilometres (28 mi) away. Territory[edit] The territory of Brindisi is characterised by a wide flat area from which emerge sub deposits of limestone and sand of marine origin, which in turn have a deeper level clay of the Pleistocene era, and an even later Mesozoic carbonate composed of limestone and soils. The development of agriculture, has caused an increase in the use of water resources resulting in an increase of indiscriminate use.[5] Climate[edit] Brindisi experiences a Mediterranean climate (Köppen: Csa). Summers are hot and dry with abundant sunshine. Summer heat indexes can be regularly over 30 °C (86 °F) and occasionally as high as 37 °C during July and August. Winters are mild with moderate rainfall. Brindisi and the mostly topographically flat Salento peninsula is subject to light winds during the majority of the year. The two main winds in Salento are the Bora and the Sirocco. The northerly Bora wind from the Adriatic sea is cooling, moderating summer heat and increasing winter wind chill. The southerly Sirocco wind from the Sahara, brings higher temperatures and humidity to Salento. During spring and autumn, Sirocco winds can bring thunderstorms, occasionally dropping red sand from the Sahara in the region. Snow is rare in Brindisi but occurred during the January 2017 cold spell which brought snow and ice to much of southern Italy. Climate data for Brindisi Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 20.6 (69.1) 22.0 (71.6) 23.6 (74.5) 27.4 (81.3) 35.0 (95.0) 43.4 (110.1) 44.4 (111.9) 43.8 (110.8) 37.0 (98.6) 31.6 (88.9) 27.0 (80.6) 22.4 (72.3) 44.4 (111.9) Average high °C (°F) 12.9 (55.2) 13.0 (55.4) 15.7 (60.3) 18.3 (64.9) 23.2 (73.8) 27.3 (81.1) 29.9 (85.8) 29.9 (85.8) 26.1 (79.0) 21.9 (71.4) 17.9 (64.2) 14.1 (57.4) 20.8 (69.5) Daily mean °C (°F) 9.8 (49.6) 9.9 (49.8) 12.1 (53.8) 14.7 (58.5) 19.1 (66.4) 23.3 (73.9) 26.1 (79.0) 26.0 (78.8) 22.4 (72.3) 18.5 (65.3) 14.4 (57.9) 11.1 (52.0) 17.3 (63.1) Average low °C (°F) 7.2 (45.0) 7.1 (44.8) 9.0 (48.2) 11.3 (52.3) 15.3 (59.5) 19.5 (67.1) 22.1 (71.8) 22.3 (72.1) 19.1 (66.4) 15.5 (59.9) 11.6 (52.9) 8.7 (47.7) 14.1 (57.3) Record low °C (°F) −6.4 (20.5) −2.4 (27.7) −1.6 (29.1) 2.0 (35.6) 5.6 (42.1) 9.8 (49.6) 12.4 (54.3) 13.8 (56.8) 9.0 (48.2) 4.0 (39.2) 1.0 (33.8) −1 (30) −6.4 (20.5) Average precipitation mm (inches) 65.3 (2.57) 79.5 (3.13) 64.2 (2.53) 45.9 (1.81) 23.6 (0.93) 14.8 (0.58) 12.1 (0.48) 23.7 (0.93) 49.4 (1.94) 76.8 (3.02) 84.5 (3.33) 65.1 (2.56) 604.9 (23.81) Average precipitation days (≥ 1 mm) 8.2 8.3 7.1 6.2 3.8 2.3 1.6 2.6 4.6 6.5 7.7 7.8 66.7 Average relative humidity (%) 78 75 74 72 70 71 70 72 74 76 77 77 74 Mean monthly sunshine hours 120.9 124.2 164.3 201.0 266.6 297.0 334.8 303.8 248.0 192.2 132.2 111.6 2,496.6 Source 1: Servizio Meteorologico (1971–2000 data)[6] Source 2: Servizio Meteorologico (1961–1990 data on humidity and sunshine)[7] History[edit] See also: Timeline of Brindisi Ancient times[edit] 16th century map of Brindisi by Piri Reis There are several traditions concerning its founders; one of them claims that it was founded by the legendary hero Diomedes. The geographer Strabo says that it was colonized from Knossos in Crete.[8] Brindisi was originally a Messapian settlement predating the Roman expansion. The Latin name Brundisium, through the Greek Brentesion, is a corruption of the Messapian Brention meaning "deer's head" and probably referring to the shape of the natural harbour. In 267 BC (245 BC, according to other sources) it was conquered by the Romans and became a Latin colony.[9] In the promontory of the Punta lands, which is located in the outer harbor have been identified as a Bronze Age village (16th century BC) where a group of huts, protected by an embankment of stones, yielded fragments of Mycenaean pottery. Herodotus spoke of the Mycenaean origin for these populations. The necropolis of Tor Pisana (south of the old town of Brindisi) returned Corinthian jars in the first half of the 7th century BC. The Brindisi Messapia certainly entertained strong business relationships with the opposite side of the Adriatic and the Greek populations of the Aegean Sea. After the Punic Wars it became a major center of Roman naval power and maritime trade. In the Social War it received Roman citizenship, and was made a free port by Sulla. It suffered, however, from a siege conducted by Caesar in 49 BC, part of Caesar's Civil War (Bell. Civ. i.) and was again attacked in 42 and 40 BC. The poet Pacuvius was born here about 220 BC, and here the famous poet Virgil died in 19 BC. Under the Romans, Brundisium – a large city in its day with some 100,000 inhabitants – was an active port, the chief point of embarkation for Greece and the East, via Dyrrachium or Corcyra. It was connected with Rome by the Via Appia and the Via Traiana. The termination of the Via Appia, at the water's edge, was formerly flanked by two fine pillars. Only one remains, the second having been misappropriated and removed to the neighbouring town of Lecce. Middle Ages and modern times[edit] Church of S. Giovanni al Sepolcro. Later Brindisi was conquered by Ostrogoths, and reconquered by the Byzantine Empire in the 6th century AD. In 674 it was destroyed by the Lombards led by Romuald I of Benevento, but such a fine natural harbor meant that the city was soon rebuilt. In the 9th century, a Saracen settlement existed in the neighborhood of the city, which had been stormed in 836 by pirates. In 1070, it was conquered by the Normans and became part of the Principality of Taranto and the Duchy of Apulia, and was the first rule of the Counts of Conversano and then, after the baronial revolt of 1132, city-owned by the will of Roger II of Sicily, the city recovered some of the splendor of the past during the period of the Crusades, when it regained the Episcopal See, saw the construction of the new cathedral and a castle with an important new arsenal, became a privileged port for the Holy Land. It was in the cathedral of Brindisi that the wedding of Norman Prince Roger III of Sicily took place, son of King Tancred of Sicily. Emperor Frederick II, the heir to the crown of Jerusalem and Isabella of Brienne ( 9 November 1225 )[10] started from the port of Brindisi in 1227 for the Sixth Crusade[11] Frederick II erected a castle, with huge round towers, to guard the inner harbour; it later became a convict prison.[12] Like other Pugliese ports, Brindisi for a short while was ruled by Venice, but was soon reconquered by Spain. A plague devastated Brindisi in 1348; it was plundered in 1352 and 1383; and an earthquake struck the city in 1456.[12] Brindisi fell to Austrian rule in 1707–1734, and afterwards to the Bourbons. Between September 1943 and February 1944 the city functioned as the temporary government seat of Italy, and hosted King Victor Emmanuel III, Pietro Badoglio and a part of the Italian armed forces command in September 1943 after the armistice with Italy. In the 21st century, Brindisi serves as the home base of the San Marco Regiment, a marine brigade originally known as the La Marina Regiment. It was renamed San Marco after its noted defense of Venice at the start of World War I.[13] On 19 May 2012, a bomb, made of three gas cylinders, detonated in front of a vocational school in Brindisi, killing a 16-year-old female student.[14][15] Etymology[edit] The name comes through the Latin Brundisium through the Greek Brentesion and Messapi Brention meaning "head of deer" related with Albanian bri, brî - pl. brirë, brinë ("horn"; "antler") [< late Proto-Albanian *brina < earlier *brena ].[16][17] The city's name appears, therefore, to refer to the shape of the port which recalls the shape of the head of the animal. Heraldry[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The emblem of the city of Brindisi relates to certain unique characteristics of the ancient city of Brindisi, some of them still visible today. The head of deer derives from the Messapic name of the city Brention, a name inspired by the shape of the port city, which is reminiscent of the antlers of a stag. This shape is still clearly visible in satellite photos, which show the two racks, to the east and west, into which the port is divided. The emblem also contains the so-called "terminal pillar" of the Appian Way. Main sights[edit] Bell tower of the church of San Benedetto. Church of Santa Maria del Casale. The Castello Svevo or Castello Grande ("Hohenstaufen Castle" or "Large Castle"), built by Emperor Frederick II. It has a trapezoid plan with massive square towers. Under the Crown of Aragon four towers were added to the original 13th-century structure. After centuries of being abandoned, in 1813 Joachim Murat turned it into a prison; after 1909 it was used by the Italian Navy. During World War II it was briefly the residence of King Victor Emmanuel III. The Aragonese Castle, best known as Forte a Mare ("Sea Fort"). It was built by King Ferdinand I of Naples in 1491 on the S. Andrea island facing the port. It is divided into two sections: the "Red Castle" (from the color of its bricks) and the more recent Fort. Two ancient Roman pillars, symbols of Brindisi. They were once thought to mark the ending points of the Appian Way, instead they were used as a port reference for the antique mariners. Only one of the two, standing at 18.74 metres (61.5 ft), is still visible. The other crumbled in 1582, and the ruins was given to Lecce to hold the statue of Saint Oronzo (Lecce's patron), because Saint Oronzo was reputed to have cured the plague in Brindisi. the Duomo (cathedral), built in Romanesque style in the 11th–12th centuries. What is visible today is the 18th-century reconstruction, after the original was destroyed by an earthquake on 20 February 1743. Parts of the original mosaic pavement can be seen in the interior. Church of Santa Maria del Casale (late 13th century), in Gothic-Romanesque style. The façade has a geometrical pattern of gray and yellow stones, with an entrance cusp-covered portico. The interior has early-14th-century frescoes including, in the counter-façade, a Last Judgement in four sections, by Rinaldo da Taranto. They are in late-Byzantine style. Church of San Benedetto, in Romanesque style. Perhaps built before the 11th century as part of a Benedictine nunnery, it has a massive bell tower with triple-mullioned windows and Lombard bands. A side portal is decorated with 11th-century motifs, while the interior has a nave covered by cross vaults, while the aisles, separated by columns with Romanesque capitals, have half-barrel vaults. The cloister (11th century) has decorated capitals. Portico of the Templars (13th century). Despite the name, it was in reality the loggia of the bishop's palace. It is now the entrance to the Museo Ribezzo. the Fontana Grande (Grand Fountain), built by the Romans on the Appian Way. It was restored in 1192 by Tancred of Lecce. Piazza della Vittoria (Victory Square). It has a 17th-century fountain. Church of Santa Maria degli Angeli (1609). Church of the Sacred Heart. Church of San Giovanni al Sepolcro, with circular plan, dating from the 12th century. Church of the Santissima Trinità (or Santa Lucia, 14th century). It has a late 12th-century crypt. the Monument to Italian Sailors Natural areas[edit] Within the territory of the town of Brindisi environmental protected areas are located, some newly established: The Regional Natural Park of Punta della Contessa Salt: wetland of 87 hectares (214 acres) between Capo di Torre Cavallo and Punta della Contessa The Regional Nature Reserve Forest Cerano: a protected natural area that falls within the territory of Brindisi and San Pietro Vernotico; The Regional Nature Reserve Bosco of Santa Teresa and Lucci: it is a protected natural area composed of two forests whose name it bears. With the EU Directive 92/43 EEC, was included in the list of Sites of Community Importance (SCI) ; The Marine Nature Reserve Guaceto Tower: falling mostly in the municipality of Carovigno, are managed by a consortium which includes the municipalities of Brindisi, Carovigno and the WWF. Brindisi Harbour Demography[edit] Migration[edit] Brindisi has been the subject of extensive emigration during the 20th century, as well as all cities in the South. Emigration focused mainly on the lower strata of society who abandoned the countryside. Emigration can be traced in two great waves. The first, which was at its peak in the years immediately before and after the First World War, was almost exclusively to the Americas (and mostly to the United States, Argentina, and Brazil). The second wave of migrants from Apulia headed instead for Northern Europe after the Second World War. Attracted by the industrial development of some northern areas of the country, many Apulian migrants also settled in the Piedmont and Lombardy regions of northern Italy, and particularly in Milan. Since the 1960s, when the large petrochemical companies were joined by mechanical, naval, and aviation corporations, Brindisi was able to create employment opportunities for technicians and workers. The city experienced a small regional immigration, attracting families from neighboring provinces and regions. Another important chapter in the demography of the town was definitely the exodus of people from Albania in 1990–1991, which lasted almost a decade and led to the port of Brindisi receiving waves of Albanian immigrants.[18] Ethnic groups[edit] The largest non-Italian ethnic community is Albanian. The number of those who decided to stay in the city, however, is negligible in light of the number of immigrants who migrated. Brindisi remains the first step towards western Europe for displaced people from the Balkans.[19] The large number of Americans is largely due to a U.S. Air Force station, between Brindisi and San Vito dei Normanni that operated throughout the second half of the 20th century. Although the base is no longer operational, many soldiers have decided to stay.[19] The British presence is the result of a recent phenomenon of families from Northern Europe, especially English and Irish, settling in the region. Many such settlers are pensioners, buying villas in the Brindisi countryside. This phenomenon is relatively recent in Apulia, known as "Salentoshire", a playful neologism along the lines of "Chiantishire" on the consolidation of British tourism in Tuscany.[19] Languages and dialects[edit] The Brindisi dialect is a variant of Salentino and, although there are minor differences between the various municipalities, the root remains unchanged. It is spoken not only in Brindisi, but in some towns of the province of Taranto. The Brindisi also affects some dialects north of Lecce in the south[20] Religion[edit] Brindisi, along with Ostuni, is home of the Archdiocese of Brindisi-Ostuni (Archidioecesis Brundusina-Ostunensis in Latin), home of the Catholic Church suffragan of Archdiocese of Lecce and part of the ecclesiastical region of Apulia.[21] The diocese was erected in the 4th century, its first bishop was St. Leucio of Alexandria. In the 10th century following the destruction of the city by the Saracens, the bishops established their residence in Oria. It was in this century that established the Diocese of Ostuni, first joined the Diocese of Conversano-Monopoli and likely heir to the ancient diocese of Egnatia. On 30 September 1986, by decree of the Congregation for Bishops, the Archdiocese of Brindisi and Ostuni diocese were united in the Archdiocese of Brindisi-Ostuni plena. The new diocese was recognized civilly 20 October 1986, by decree of the Ministry of Interior. Brindisi contains an Eastern Orthodox Church parish, St. Nicholas of Myra Byzantine Rite. The rite of the Greek presence in Brindisi has long been established since the rule of the Byzantine Empire with a strong spread of the Basilian monks.[22] The Jews were a small but industrious community from 53 AD until the second half of the 16th century. The new Albanian migration has led to the recurrence of some Islamic religious presence. Culture[edit] Traditions and folklore[edit] Significant in Brindisi is the cult of Tarantismo that combines pagan and Christian tradition. In the past it was believed that women who showed forms of hysteria were infected by the bite of a Lycosa tarantula. The only known remedy was to dance continuously for days, so that the poison did not cause greater effect. Through music and dance was created a real exorcism in musical character. Each time a tarantato exhibited symptoms associated with Taranto, the tambourine, fiddle, mandolin, guitar and accordion players went in the house of the tarantato and began to do to play the pinch music with frenetic rhythms. The Brindisi pinch, as opposed to Lecce, is devoid of Christian references[23] and a therapeutic repertoire and musical detail.[24] Education[edit] Libraries[edit] Seminary of Brindisi Library The Provincial Library is a public library located in Commenda avenue. It has over 100,000 books and an extensive newspaper archive and participates in the National Library Service. Inside a modern auditorium, a media office and the secretariats of the university offices of Bari and Lecce operate. The Archbishop Annibale De Leo Library is a prestigious public library housed in the Seminary of Brindisi, in Piazza Duomo. Founded in 1798 by archbishop of Brindisi Annibale De Leo, with an endowment of about 6,000 volumes, today it has over 20,000 volumes, 17 incunable, over 200 16th-century manuscripts. These include some rare works, and various manuscript collections.[25] University[edit] The University of Salento Brindisi has social sciences, politics and geography faculty with courses in Sociology, Social Services and Political Science. The University of Bari has courses in Business Administration, Management and Consulting, Economics, Maritime and Logistics, Information Technology, Design, Nursing and Physiotherapy. Museums[edit] The "F. Ribezzo" Provincial Archaeological Museum is located in Piazza Duomo and has many large rooms, providing visitors with six sections: epigraphy, sculpture, the antiquarium, prehistoric, coins, medieval, modern and bronzes of Punta del Serrone. The Giovanni Tarantini Diocesan Museum is newly established and is housed in the Palazzo del Seminario. It has a collection of paintings, statues, ornaments and vestments from the churches of the diocese. Particularly important is the silver embossed Ark that has the remains of St Theodore of Amasea and a 7th-century pitcher, in which one can recognize the wedding at Cana. The Ethnic Salento Agrilandia Museum of Civilization offers tourists the chance to see many statues in wood and stone. It also features agriculture and interesting tools with the rural culture.[24] Music and theatre[edit] Music and theater in Brindisi have never featured significantly in the cultural life of the city. Having never hosted theatrical and musical training institutes, the city supports amateur companies. Over the past decade the city has developed and consolidated non-amateur theater companies, some dealing with theater for research and actor training. These companies have developed several socio-cultural projects for the promotion of the theater for people with disabilities. The same group of companies has produced six shows.[24] The most important musician from Brindisi is Stefano Miceli, an Italian classical pianist and conductor, globally known for his concerts at Carnegie Hall in New York City, Berlin Philharmonie, Gewandhaus in Leipzig, Forbidden City Concert Hall in Beijing and at the Great Hall in Melbourne. Also a Steinway Artist, he was given a silver medal by the President of Italy Napolitano and has been a visiting and distinguished professor at Boston University, Tanglewood Institute, the University of New Mexico and at many other academical music schools around the world. Brindisini[edit] Flavia Pennetta Marcus Pacuvius (Brundisium, 04.29.220 b.C. – Tarentum, 02.07 130 b.C.) Roman artist, poet and dramatist, nephew of Quintus Ennius. Margaritus of Brindisi (also Margarito; Italian Margaritone or Greek Megareites or Margaritoni [Μαργαριτώνη]: c. 1149–1197), called the new Neptune, was the last great ammiratus ammiratorum (Grand Admiral) of Sicily. First Count of Malta, Prince of Taranto and Duke of Durazzo. St. Lawrence of Brindisi: (born Giulio Cesare Russo, Brindisi, 22 July 1559 – Santa Maria de Belém (Lisbon), 22 July 1619 ) was a priest of the Italian Order of Friars Minor Capuchin. Proclaimed a saint by Pope Leo XIII in 1881, in 1959 was ranked among the Doctors of the Church. Giustino Durano (Brindisi 1923 – Bologna 2002 ), actor Oscar Nuccio (Brindisi 1931-2004), historian of economics Eugenio Barba (Brindisi, 1936 ), director Franco Testini (Brindisi, 7 October 1966) also known as Venerable Shi Yanfan is the first Western Buddhist Monk ever to be ordained at the renowned Songshan Shaolin Temple of China. He is currently the appointed Cultural Ambassador for the Songshan Shaolin Temple. Antonio Benarrivo (Brindisi, 21 August 1968 ) is a former soccer player who held the role of defender. Stefano Miceli (Brindisi, 14 April 1975 ) pianist and conductor Flavia Pennetta (Brindisi, 25 February 1982 ) is a tennis player, reached 6th place in world rankings after winning the 2015 US Open.[26] Cosimo Aldo Cannone (Brindisi, 20 March 1984) is a driver of Powerboating, 2 time world champion, in 2007 and 2008. Antimo Iunco (Brindisi, 10 June 1984 ) is a player for Torino and has the role of attacker. Daniele Vantaggiato (Brindisi, 10 October 1984 ) is a soccer player for Calcio Padova and has the role of attacker . Gianluca Di Giulio (Brindisi, 17 February 1972), footballer Media[edit] Radio[edit] Radio station, CiccioRiccioBrindisi, is heard throughout Apulia, Basilicata, parts of Molise, Campania and Calabria. Radio Dara that started in a workshop, founded in 1980, now broadcasts across the province.[27] Print[edit] As for the press, the La Gazzetta del Mezzogiorno publishes the Brindisi Journal. The Nuovo Quotidiano di Puglia, Salento's newspaper, also covers Brindisi. Senzacolonne, which was founded in 2004, is the only one with a central editorial office in Brindisi.[24] "The Nautilus" national scientific magazine based in Brindisi, reports on the sea, ports, transport and recreational boating. Other newspapers that have their headquarters in the city are BrindisiSera and "Brindisi News". Television[edit] Brindisi is home to the television stations Teleradio Agricoltura Informazione and Puglia TV, which began broadcasts in January 1988 in Brindisi. Cuisine[edit] Brindisi's cuisine is simple with basic ingredients used, starting with flour or unrefined barley, which is less expensive than wheat. Vegetables, snails, and bluefish figure prominently into its cuisine. Among the recipes worth mentioning in particular are "Pettole"(fried yeast dough, sweet or savory to taste stuffed maybe with cod or anchovy, with cauliflower or broccoli), "Patani tajedda rice and mussels" (rice, potatoes and mussels), soup, fish, mashed potatoes with fava beans, broad beans and mussels, and "Racana mussels".[28] Beverages, spirits, liquors[edit] Almond milk: made by infusing water with the finely chopped almonds and then squeezing the same to expel the "milk". The region of Apulia has entered the milk of almonds in its list of traditional Italian food products . Limoncello: a liquor made from the peel of fresh lemons and enriched with water, sugar and alcohol.[28] Cheese[edit] Cacioricotta cheese Brindisi cheeses are mostly from sheep, due to the significant ranching of sheep and goats. In the summer they produce ricotta, which can be eaten fresh or matured for a few months so that it has a stronger flavor. Typical of the winter season are the Pecorino, ricotta and strong ricotta (or cottage cheese). It is used to flavor spaghetti sauce or spread on bruschetta.[28] Fresh popular cheeses are burrata, junket, Manteca cheese, mozzarella or Fior di latte. Vegetable products, processed or unprocessed[edit] Vegetables are the true protagonist of the traditional diet of Salento. Depending on season, are the tops of turnips, various types of cabbage, the beet greens from the thistle, peppers, eggplant and zucchini (all served sun-dried or in olive oil), and artichokes. There are also wild vegetables used in traditional cooking such as chicory, dandelion (or zangune), wild asparagus, the Wild mustard, the thistle, the lampascioni also called pampasciuni or pampasciuli, and capers.[28] Frequent, in the Brindisi kitchen, is the use of green or white tomatoes: mainly used for tomato sauce but they are also consumed in olive oil, after a process of natural drying. Significant is also the consumption of green and black olives, crushed or in brine. Finally, legumes such as beans, peas and Vicia faba, eaten fresh or dried in the spring and during the winter season. Among the dishes prepared with fruit are quince, baked figs and dried figs (prepared with a filling of almonds), jam with orange and lemon, and fig jam.[28] Pasta, pastry and confectionery[edit] Taralli Pasta and bread is made with unrefined flour, and thus takes on a dark colour. Durum wheat is mixed with traditional meal. Special local dishes include lasagna with vegetables, cavatelli, orecchiette (stacchioddi in Brindisi dialect) and ravioli stuffed with ricotta. In breadmaking, local custom favours the use of durum wheat, bread flour and barley bread. For bread made with yeast (called criscituni) and cooked on an oven stone, Brindisi bakers use bundles of olive branches to give the bread a particular scent. One type of traditional bread is made with olives (called puccia). It is made with a much more refined wheat flour than for ordinary bread, to which are added black olives. Also important are frisella, a sort of dehydrated hard bread which can be stored for a long time, and tarallini, also easily stored for long periods. The pucce and uliate cakes are also typical. Among local desserts the central place is occupied by almond paste, obtained by grinding shelled almonds and sugar. Another specialty is cartellate, a pastry, particularly prepared around Christmas, made of a thin strip of a dough made of flour, olive oil, and white wine that is wrapped upon itself, intentionally leaving cavities and openings, to form a sort of "rose" shape; the dough is then deep-fried, dried, and soaked in either lukewarm vincotto or honey.[28] Wine[edit] In the area of Brindisi are produced Aleatico di Puglia Doc, Ostuni Doc, Brindisi Rosso DOC, Rosato Brindisi DOC and Puglia IGT.[28] Some grape varieties grown in Brindisi include: Malvasia Nera di Brindisi, Negroamaro; Ottavianello; Sangiovese; Susumaniello. The Brindisi DOC produces both red and rose wines from grapes limited to a harvest yield of 15 tonnes/ha and must produce a wine with a minimum 12% alcohol level. The wines are usually blends made predominantly from Negaroamaro and Malvasia Nera but Sangiovese is allowed to compose up to 10% of the blend with Montepulciano allowed to compose up to another 20% (or 30% if Sangiovese is not included). If it is to be a Reserva, the wine is aged a minimum of 2 years before release and must attain a minimum alcohol level of 12.5%.[29] Events[edit] The day of Corpus Christi. The Procession to the beach of San Lorenzo and San Teodoro, on the first Saturday of September . The Feast of San Teodoro: Feast with candles, food stands, music, fireworks, in the first week of September. Human geography[edit] Roman period[edit] Roman pillar signaling the end of the Appian Way From an urban point of view [58] [59], the city's earliest signs of human settlement are on the promontory of Punta Terre, a coastal area outside the port. As a Roman colony ( 244 BC ), the city experienced a major urban expansion that ensued economic and social development. According to Pliny the Elder, Brindisi was one of the most important Italian cities. Middle Ages[edit] During the Middle Ages, Brindisi suffered a sharp decline, after it was devastated by the Goths in the 6th century; Procopius describes it as a small city without defensive walls. The town shrank to a smaller area, probably around the San Leucio temple, outside the old town. The port was abandoned for several centuries. The rebirth came with the Byzantine domination (11th century ) and especially with the Normans and the Swabians (12th and 13th century), when it became a prime port for the Crusades. The city was divided into three districts or "pittachi": Santo Stefano (in the vicinity of the columns), Eufemia (in Santa Teresa) and San Toma (in the area of Saint Lucia). Under the Aragonese and the Spanish kings, the main efforts were directed mainly around the ramparts (walls, castle and sea fort to provide relief from mostly the Greeks, Albanians and Slavs.[22] Modern era[edit] Only through the reopening of the Pigott channel (1775), the city experienced a new impetus and reopened traffic with the East mainly due to the establishment of the Suez Canal at the end of the 19th century.[22] Contemporary era[edit] Demographic development in the 20th century led to the modern city overlying the ancient one, at the cost of the demolition of the neighbourhoods around San Pietro degli Schiavoni, Teatro Verdi, and the Clock Tower. Today urban planning demands that settlements of significant architectural impact are built outside the city centre. The city has now expanded beyond the walls of the historic centre to form the new suburbs of Commando, Capuchins, Sant'Angelo (1950–1970 ) and St. Clare, St. Elias, and Bozzano (1980–2000).[22] Economy[edit] Agriculture is still prominent in Brindisi The development of industry led to radical changes in the Brindisi economy and consequent development along the coast. Taking advantage of the location of the port, Brindisi is also a major seaport for Greece and Turkey. Agriculture[edit] Brindisi agriculture includes horticulture, viticulture, fruit and olives. The area that marked the territory for centuries is based on the culture of almonds, olives, tobacco, artichokes, and grain. Livestock consists of cattle, goats and sheep. Industry[edit] Industry in Brindisi is mainly identified with the chemical and aerospace industry. Chemical[edit] The chemical industry, in its various forms (food processing, energy, and pharmaceutical) is highly developed in the territory of Brindisi. The Federchimica association recognizes Brindisi as an industrial chemical center. The various establishments of Eni, located as Polimeri Europa, Snam and EniPower are placed in the petrochemical complex of Brindisi, on the outskirts of the city, overlooking the Adriatic Sea. Energy production[edit] Brindisi is a leader in the production of electricity in Italy.[22] ENEL Federico II is a power plant on 4 sections divided by polycombustible thermoelectric power of 660 MW each, came into service between 1991 and 1993. Edipower Brindisi, located in Costa Morena, in the industrial area of Brindisi. Central EniPower Brindisi is a combined cycle power plant EniPower, once completed, with an installed capacity of 1,170 megawatts, will be the most powerful among those of the Eni Company. Regasification terminal at Brindisi, the construction of a regasification terminal by the company's "Brindisi LNG SpA. will heat the area of Porto Exterior, called Capobianco. The authorization process is currently in the process of completion of the national Environmental Impact Assessment, initiated by the company in January 2008. Photovoltaic system, the largest in Europe photovoltaic park (with power of 11 MWp ), which should start operating in 2010, at the former petrochemical site. The industry group responsible for the construction will be joined by the University of Apulia. Aviation[edit] The Alenia Aeronautica plants (specialized in the modification of aircraft from passenger configuration to cargo) are located in Brindisi. Avio (center for military engines) and Agusta (production of helicopter metal structures) are also located there. Tourism[edit] Byzantine fresco in Santa Maria del Casale The city preserves important archaeological finds and coastline, particularly the north coast, where there are many large sand dunes and beaches. Inland agritourism, displays wine (Wine Appia) or olive oil (Collina di Brindisi oil). Brindisi Tourism, however, remains heavily dependent on the Italian tourists (74%, compared with 26% of foreign demand) and is very seasonal. Infrastructure and transport[edit] Roads[edit] The main roads are represented by Bari-Lecce expressway, connecting with Brindisi, Lecce, with Bari and the A14 . Adriatica SS 16 is the Brindisi bypass connecting the city to San Vito dei Normanni and Lecce * Brindisi-Taranto Brindisi with Taranto. Railways[edit] Rail transport is provided through Brindisi railway station, an important Apulian railway junction and an intersecting point between the Adriatic Railway and the Taranto–Brindisi railway. The station is managed by Centostazioni, and links Brindisi with all destinations served by the Adriatic and Ionian coastal railways. Brindisi Marittima railway station closed in 2006. Seaport[edit] The port of Brindisi has always been at the center of trade with Greece. It is one of the most important commercial and industrial seaports on the Adriatic Sea. The trade is mostly in coal, fuel oil, natural gas, and chemicals. The port consists of three parts: The Outer Harbour: the limits of which are in the southern mainland, east of the Pedagne islands and west of the island from the pier in Costa The port is formed by the average area of sea that is before the Pigott Channel, access to the inner harbor, the basin to the north as the Strait of Apulia. The inner harbor is formed by two long wings that touch the heart of Brindisi both the north and east, they are the "bosom of the west" and "within the east." International airport[edit] Brindisi Airport Brindisi is home to Papola-Casale Airport located 6 kilometres (4 miles) outside the city's center. The airport of Brindisi has daily connections with major Italian and European cities. The airport serves the entire province of Brindisi and partly that of Taranto. In 2017, a total of 2,321,147 passengers passed through. It has two runways, one northwest to southeast that is 3,330 metres (10,930 ft) long, and the other northeast to southwest that is 1,950 metres (6,400 ft) long. Their characteristics allow the landing of large transport aircraft such as the Antonov An-124 and Boeing 747. This airport was originally established as a military airbase in the 1920s. As of 2008 it has officially changed its legal status into civilian airport, still maintaining the military facilities attached to it. These are identified as "Military Airport Orazio Pierozzi", named in memory of an Italian airman of the First World War. The strategic position of the airport in the Mediterranean region, along with its natural potential for multi-modal (the port is a few kilometers away) operations, have made it a base of crucial importance for both national defense and NATO. For the same strategic reasons, in 1994 the airport was chosen as the main worldwide logistics base by the United Nations to support its peacekeeping and peace enforcement operations around the globe, which was since then hosted in Pisa Military Airport "San Giusto". In 2000, also the United Nations humanitarian supply depot moved from Pisa to Brindisi. It has since then been managed by the World Food Programme and officially known as the United Nations Humanitarian Response Depot (UNHRD). On behalf of governments, other UN agencies and NGOs, from UNHRD Brindisi humanitarian aid is directed to the most remote and devastated regions around the world. Public transport[edit] The Public Transport Company of Brindisi provides public transport in the city, and is the link with the other municipalities in the province. Moreover, the company provides transport service by sea into inland waters of the port of Brindisi. Brindisi is also a major ferry port, with routes to Greece and elsewhere.[30] Government[edit] See also: List of mayors of Brindisi Consulates[edit] Brindisi is home to the following consulates: Denmark France Honorary Consulate of Greece Netherlands Sports[edit] Soccer[edit] Football Brindisi 1912 has played in six championship series. Their football strip colours recall those of the province, white and blue. The club plays in the stadium named after the president of the historical association on the Adriatic shore, Commander Franco Fanuzzi Stadium. ASD Appia Brindisi plays in the Regional Championship of the "First Category". Basketball[edit] The main basketball team in the city and in the wider region of Apulia is New Basket Brindisi, which has played for basketball championships in the top of A1 championships in League 2. Their colours are the same as that of all sports associations in the city, white and blue. The club plays their home games in the sports hall "Elio Pentassuglia". Other clubs[edit] NAFTA rugby Brindisi (C1) Aces Amateur Volleyball 2006 (series B1 female). Sports venues[edit] Franco Fanuzzi Stadium: Municipal Stadium PalaPentassuglia: sports hall PalaMelfi: sports hall Brindisi Tennis Club St. Elias Sports Centre: rugby, sports hall, tennis court International relations[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Italy Twin towns – sister cities[edit] Brindisi is twinned with: Lushnje, Albania Patras, Greece Corfu, Greece[31] Amasya, Turkey Charlotte, United States of America See also[edit] References[edit] Notes ^ "Superficie di Comuni Province e Regioni italiane al 9 ottobre 2011". Istat. Retrieved 16 March 2019. ^ "Popolazione Residente al 1° Gennaio 2018". Istat. Retrieved 16 March 2019. ^ "Brindisi". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (5th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Retrieved 30 May 2019. ^ "Brindisi". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved 30 May 2019. ^ Spizzico Michele, Nicola Lopez, Donato Sciannamblo, Roccaldo Tinelli. "The Plains of Brindisi: phenomena of interaction between groundwater aquifers in the area." From the "Journal of Applied Geology 3" 2006. ^ "Brindisi (BR) 10 m. s.l.m. (a.s.l.)" (PDF). Servizio Meteorologico. Retrieved 7 September 2013. ^ "Stazione 320 Brindisi, medie mensili periodo 61 – 90". Servizio Meteorologico. Retrieved 7 September 2013. ^ Strabo, 6,3,6. ^ "Brundisium (Brindisi) Puglia, Italy". Perseus Digital Library. Retrieved 19 April 2006. ^ Documento sulle nozze di Isabella di Brienne ^ Documento sulla VI Crociata partita da Brindisi ^ a b Ashby, Thomas (1911). "Brindisi" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 4 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 572. ^ "Kosovo Force: San Marco". KFOR Chronicle. Retrieved 19 April 2006. ^ "Bomb kills girl outside school in Brindisi, Italy". BBC. 19 May 2012. Retrieved 31 December 2019. ^ "Bomba a Brindisi". La Repubblica. 19 May 2012. Retrieved 31 December 2019. ^ Alessio, Giovanni (1955). Sul nome di Brindisi. Archivio Storico Pugliese VIII (3): 211–238. ^ "CHAPTER III. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF ALBANIA AND OF ALBANIAN", Selection among Alternates in Language Standardization, DE GRUYTER MOUTON, 1976, doi:10.1515/9783110815931.31, ISBN 9783110815931 ^ Immigrazione albanese sulla stampa quotidiana ^ a b c Statistiche ISTAT – La presenza straniera a Brindisi al 31 dicembre 2008 ^ A. Calabrese, The sentential complementation of salentino: a study of a language without infinitival clauses, 1993. ^ L'arcidiocesi di Brindisi-Ostuni ^ a b c d e Alessio, Giovanni (1955). Sul nome di Brindisi ^ Fernando Giannini in "Tre Violini". ^ a b c d Giacomo Carito, Brindisi. Nuova guida, Brindisi, 1994. ^ Il sito della Biblioteca arcivescovile Annibale De Leo ^ "FLAVIA PENNETTA UP TO WORLD NO. 6=WTATENNIS.COM". 28 September 2015. Retrieved 28 September 2015. ^ Il sito dell'emittente Radio Dara ^ a b c d e f g Rosario Jurlaro, Storia e cultura dei monumenti brindisini, Brindisi, 1976. ^ P. Saunders Wine Label Language pg 131 Firefly Books 2004 ISBN 1-55297-720-X ^ "Greek ferries to Greece and the Greek islands". Greek Ferries Club. Retrieved 19 April 2006. ^ "Corfu's Twin Cities". allcorfu.com. Retrieved 25 February 2010. Bibliography[edit] See also: Bibliography of the history of Brindisi External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Brindisi. 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en-wikipedia-org-5320	----	Roman governor - Wikipedia Roman governor From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Position This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (January 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e A Roman governor was an official either elected or appointed to be the chief administrator of Roman law throughout one or more of the many provinces constituting the Roman Empire. A Roman governor is also known as a propraetor or proconsul. The generic term in Roman legal language was Rector provinciae, regardless of the specific titles, which also reflect the province's intrinsic and strategic status, and corresponding differences in authority. By the time of the early empire, there were two types of provinces—senatorial and imperial—and several types of governor would emerge. Only proconsuls and propraetors fell under the classification of promagistrate. Contents 1 Duties of the governor 2 Republican governors 3 Imperial governors 3.1 Imperial provinces 3.2 Senatorial provinces 3.3 Equestrian procurator 4 Late imperial governors 5 See also 6 Sources and references 7 External links Duties of the governor[edit] The governor was the province's chief judge. The governor had the sole right to impose capital punishment, and capital cases were normally tried before him. To appeal a governor's decision necessitated travelling to Rome and presenting one's case before either the Praetor Urbanus, or even the Emperor himself, an expensive, and thus rare, process. An appeal was unlikely to succeed anyway, as a governor wouldn’t generally take the chance of convicting someone contrary to the Emperor's wishes. The governor was also supposed to travel across his province to administer justice in the major towns where his attention was required. Finally, and most importantly, he commanded the military forces within the province. In the more important provinces, this could consist of legions, but elsewhere, there were only auxiliaries. As a part of his standing orders the governor had the authority to use his legions to stamp out organized criminal gangs or rebels in the area without need for the Emperor's or Senate's approval. Every governor had at his disposal a diversity of advisors and staff, who were known as his comites (Latin for "companions"); the number of these depended on the governor's social standing and rank. These comites would serve as the governor's executive council, with each supervising a different aspect of the province, and assisting the governor in decision making. In the provinces with a significant legionary presence, the governor's second-in-command was usually a quaestor, a man elected in Rome and sent to the province to serve a mainly financial role, but who could command the military with the governor's approval. In other provinces, governors themselves appointed non-magistrate prefects or procurators to govern a small part of the province and act as their second-in-command. Republican governors[edit] During the era of the Roman Republic, the council was in charge of appointing governors to Rome's provinces. This was done by appointing promagistrates to serve, either by random casting of lots or by senatus consultum (advice of the Senate); however, these appointments were not formally binding on a legal basis and could be nullified by Roman assemblies. The governor's level of authority was determined by what type of imperium he possessed. Most provinces were governed by propraetors who had served an annual term in the praetorship the year before. The provinces governed by propraetors were usually the more tranquil ones, where chances of revolt or invasion were small, but in some cases propraetors would be given command of more troubled provinces. Provinces that lay on the empire's borders, thereby requiring a permanent military garrison, were governed by proconsuls who had served a term as consul (the highest rank of magistrate) the year before their governorship. They were given the authority to command provinces with actual Roman legions, rather than just using the militia. These promagistrates held equality with other magistrates with the same level of imperium and were attended by the same number of lictors. Generally speaking, they had autocratic power within their provinces. A provincial governor almost possessed unlimited authority and often extorted vast amounts of money from the provincial population—but, though he retained immunity from prosecution as long as he held his imperium, once he left office he became vulnerable to prosecution for his actions during his term. Imperial governors[edit] Imperial provinces[edit] After Augustus established the principate, the Emperor himself was the direct governor of Rome's most important provinces (called imperial provinces) and even in the provinces he did not directly govern, was senior to other provincial governors through holding imperium maius, or supreme imperium. In imperial provinces, the Emperor would appoint legates to govern in his name. The Emperor had sole say in the appointing of these legates, who were lower in rank than other provincial governors, as officially they were only representatives of the province's true governor, the Emperor. The principate did not totally do away with the system of selecting proconsuls and propraetors. In provinces with one legion, a legate bearing praetorian imperium, thus being a propraetor, not only governed the province in the Emperor's name, but also controlled the legion himself. However, in provinces with more than one legion, each legion was commanded by its own legate with praetorian imperium, while the province as a whole was commanded by a legate with consular imperium, who had general command over the entire army stationed there, as well as administering the province as a proconsul. Appointment to these governorships was completely at the whim of the Emperor and could last anywhere from 1 to 5 years. Senatorial provinces[edit] While the Emperor had sole authority in provinces with legions, senatorial provinces were provinces where the Senate had the right to appoint governors. These provinces were away from the Empire's borders and free from the likelihood of rebellion, and so had few, if any, legions stationed in them (thus lessening the chance the Senate might try to seize power from the Emperor). These provinces were under the authority of proconsular or propraetorian senators invariably styled 'proconsul', with little need for intervention by the Emperor (although the Emperor had the power to appoint these governors if he wished). Most senatorial provinces, since they were not under the direct authority of the Emperor, did not grant the governor legions to command. There was one exception to this rule, the province of Africa, where there was always at least a single legion to protect the province from Berber tribes. Augustus decreed that at least ten provinces would be held by the authority of the Roman people through the agency of the Senate. Though all ten were "proconsular", only two of these provinces (Asia and Africa), were actually governed by senators with proconsular imperium, the remaining eight being governed by propraetors. The two proconsular governors served for one year, while the eight praetors served typically for up to 3 years. Each of these men had six lictors who served as bodyguards and also as a symbol of authority and a mark of their position. Equestrian procurator[edit] The Emperor also had under his control a number of smaller, but potentially difficult provinces that did not need an entire legion. These provinces were put under the control of governors of equestrian status. New conquests generally fell into this equestrian category, but most were later changed in status to reflect the changing conditions of Rome's growing empire. Thus, on conquest a province would become a procuratorial province until it was decided that it should become either an imperial or senatorial province and thus governed by either a propraetor or proconsul. Like the other imperial provinces, the equestrian governors could serve any length of time up to 5 years, or even longer. Much like the senatorial province of Africa, the equestrian province of Aegyptus (Egypt) was an exception to the general rule of legions only being stationed in imperial provinces. Egypt was not a normal province; it was considered the personal possession of the Emperor, and its governor, the praefectus Aegypti, was considered the hold the highest ranking equestrian post during the early empire. Later, the post would fall second to that of the praetorian command, but its position remained highly prestigious. Though the practice of appointing equestrians to help manage provinces officially began with Augustus, governors from years before had appointed procurators to help them govern. However, it was not until the reign of Claudius that these procurators received the powers of a governor. Procurators were civilian officials, unlike prefects. It is important to note that procurators were not magistrates, so did not possess imperium, and merely exercised the Emperor’s, or governor's, authority with his approval. Late imperial governors[edit] The provincial governors were the most important officials in the Roman administration for it was they who were responsible for tax collection, justice in the first instance and public order in the first instance. They received, from the prefectures, the tax demands three times a year, which they circulated to the municipalities. Under the Dominate, i.e. the Late Roman Empire, the emperor Diocletian began in AD 293 reforms of the provincial administration that were completed under the Emperor Constantine the Great in 318. Diocletian set up 12 dioceses (later several were split; see under Roman province), originally two to four for each of the four co-emperors under the short-lived Tetrarchy (two senior Augusti, each above a Caesar), each governed by a vicarius ('vicar') who acted on behalf of the praetorian prefect. Each diocese comprised several Roman provinces (known in Greek as eparchies), each under the authority of a provincial governor, whose title varied from province to province (the range of titles includes republican relics such as proconsul, as well as novelties such as corrector provinciae, moderator provinciae, and praeses provinciae). Although the vicar's authority was supreme within his diocese, he was under the authority of praetorian prefect whose power he partook of (see below) or the emperor himself. Constantine completely removed the governors' military commands, a process begun under Diocletian. In those provinces where soldiers were stationed, the dux (Latin for leader) commanded border military units. Some duces commanded units in several provinces: they were watched by the diocesan vicars. Field units were commanded by a comes ('companion', whence count) and later by supreme military commanders, the magistri militum. Constantine, again following Diocletian's lead, organized the Roman Empire into three praetorian prefectures late in his reign. These were based on the territories controlled by the four co-emperors of the Tetrarchy, two of whom, the senior Augusti, had been served by a praetorian prefect as something like a chief of staff. The three prefectures thus created were the prefecture of Gaul, the prefecture of Italy, Africa, and Illyricum (later divided by Constans in 347 or perhaps in 342/47), and the prefecture of the East, each being administered by an imperially-appointed Praetorian prefect. The prefect of each prefecture was the highest civilian officer, being subordinate only to the emperor(s). The prefect was the superior of the vicars and governors. He was the chief appellate judge, head of the administration of the prefecture, chief finance officer, and chief tax collector (though the collection was actually done at municipal and village levels). A list of the provinces within the dioceses and the dioceses within the prefectures can be found on the Roman provinces page. See also[edit] Constitution of the Roman Republic Legatus Augusti pro praetore Legatus Lists of Ancient Roman governors Procurator (Ancient Rome) Sources and references[edit] Notitia dignitatum (authentic imperial chancery document, early 5th century) Pauly-Wissowa External links[edit] Livius.org: Roman governors v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province 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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5322	----	Psalms - Wikipedia Psalms From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Book of the Bible "Psalm", "Psalmody", and "Tehilim" redirect here. For other uses, see Psalm (disambiguation), Psalmody (grape), and Tehilim (film). Gerard van Honthorst, King David Playing the Harp, 1622 Tanakh (Judaism) Torah  (Instruction) Genesis Bereshit Exodus Shemot Leviticus Wayiqra Numbers Bemidbar Deuteronomy Devarim Nevi'im  (Prophets) Former Joshua Yehoshua Judges Shofetim Samuel Shemuel Kings Melakhim Latter Isaiah Yeshayahu Jeremiah Yirmeyahu Ezekiel Yekhezqel Minor Hosea Joel Amos Obadiah Jonah Micah Nahum Habakkuk Zephaniah Haggai Zechariah Malachi Ketuvim  (Writings) Poetic Psalms Tehillim Proverbs Mishlei Job Iyov Five Megillot (Scrolls) Song of Songs Shir Hashirim Ruth Rut Lamentations Eikhah Ecclesiastes Qohelet Esther Ester Historical Daniel Daniyyel Ezra–Nehemiah Ezra Chronicles Divre Hayyamim Old Testament (Christianity) Pentateuch Genesis Exodus Leviticus Numbers Deuteronomy Historical Joshua Judges Ruth 1 and 2 Samuel 1 and 2 Kings 1 and 2 Chronicles Ezra Nehemiah Esther Wisdom Job Psalms Proverbs Ecclesiastes Song of Songs Prophetic Major prophets Isaiah Jeremiah Lamentations Ezekiel Daniel Minor prophets Hosea Joel Amos Obadiah Jonah Micah Nahum Habakkuk Zephaniah Haggai Zechariah Malachi Deuterocanonical Tobit Judith Additions to Esther 1 Maccabees 2 Maccabees Wisdom of Solomon Sirach Baruch / Letter of Jeremiah Additions to Daniel Orthodox only 1 Esdras 2 Esdras Prayer of Manasseh Psalm 151 3 Maccabees 4 Maccabees Odes Orthodox Tewahedo 1 Enoch Jubilees 1, 2, and 3 Meqabyan Paralipomena of Baruch Broader canon Bible portal v t e The Book of Psalms (/sɑːmz/ or /sɔː(l)mz/ SAW(L)MZ; Hebrew: תְּהִלִּים‎, Tehillim, "praises"), commonly referred to simply as Psalms, the Psalter or "the Psalms", is the first book of the Ketuvim ("Writings"), the third section of the Hebrew Bible, and thus a book of the Christian Old Testament.[1] The title is derived from the Greek translation, ψαλμοί, psalmoi, meaning "instrumental music" and, by extension, "the words accompanying the music".[2] The book is an anthology of individual psalms, with 150 in the Jewish and Western Christian tradition and more in the Eastern Christian churches.[3][4] Many are linked to the name of David. In fact, of the 150 Psalms, David is named as the author of 75. David is specifically noted as the author of 73 psalms in the titles of the psalms but his authorship is not accepted by some highly critical modern scholars.[4] Contents 1 Structure 1.1 Benedictions 1.2 Superscriptions 1.3 Numbering 1.4 Additional psalms 2 Primary types 2.1 Hymns 2.2 Communal laments 2.3 Royal psalms 2.4 Individual laments 2.5 Individual thanksgiving psalms 3 Composition 3.1 Origins 3.2 Poetic characteristics 3.3 Editorial agenda 4 The ancient music of the Psalms 5 Themes and execution 6 Later interpretation and influence 6.1 Overview 6.2 Commentaries 6.3 Use in Jewish ritual 6.4 In Christian worship 6.5 Eastern Orthodox Christianity 6.6 Oriental Christianity 6.7 Roman Catholic usage 6.8 Protestant usage 6.9 Anglican usage 6.10 Psalms in the Rastafari movement 7 Psalms set to music 7.1 Multiple psalms as a single composition 7.2 Individual psalm settings 7.3 Bach 7.4 Psalm verses 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Bibliography 12 External links 12.1 Translations 12.2 Commentary and others Structure[edit] For the Orthodox Christian division into twenty kathismata, see below. An 1880 Baxter process illustration of Psalm 23, from the Religious Tract Society's magazine The Sunday at Home Benedictions[edit] The Book of Psalms is divided into five sections, each closing with a doxology (i.e., a benediction)—these divisions were probably introduced by the final editors to imitate the five-fold division of the Torah:[5] Book 1 (Psalms 1–41) Book 2 (Psalms 42–72) Book 3 (Psalms 73–89) Book 4 (Psalms 90–106) Book 5 (Psalms 107–150) Superscriptions[edit] Many psalms (116 of the 150) have individual superscriptions (titles), ranging from lengthy comments to a single word. Over a third appear to be musical directions, addressed to the "leader" or "choirmaster", including such statements as "with stringed instruments" and "according to lilies". Others appear to be references to types of musical composition, such as "A psalm" and "Song", or directions regarding the occasion for using the psalm ("On the dedication of the temple", "For the memorial offering", etc.). Many carry the names of individuals, the most common (73 psalms—75 if including the two Psalms attributed by the New Testament to David) being of David, and thirteen of these relate explicitly to incidents in the king's life.[6] Others named include Asaph (12), the sons of Korah (11), Solomon (2), Moses (1), Ethan the Ezrahite (1), and Heman the Ezrahite (1). The Septuagint, the Peshitta (the Syriac Vulgate), and the Latin Vulgate each associate several Psalms (such as 111 and 145) with Haggai and Zechariah. The Septuagint also attributes several Psalms (like 112 and 135) to Ezekiel and Jeremiah. Numbering[edit] Hebrew numbering (Masoretic) Greek numbering (Septuagint or Vulgate) 1–8 1–8 9–10 9 11–113 10–112 114–115 113 116 114–115 117–146 116–145 147 146–147 148–150 148–150 Psalms are usually identified by a sequence number, often preceded by the abbreviation "Ps." Numbering of the Psalms differs—mostly by one, see table—between the Hebrew (Masoretic) and Greek (Septuagint) manuscripts. Protestant translations (Lutheran, Anglican, Calvinist) use the Hebrew numbering, but other Christian traditions vary: Roman Catholic official liturgical texts, such as the Roman Missal, use the Greek numbering[7] Modern Roman Catholic translations often use the Hebrew numbering (noting the Greek number) Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic translations use the Greek numbering (noting the Hebrew number) For the remainder of this article, the Hebrew numbering is used, unless otherwise noted. The variance between Masorah and Septuagint texts in this numeration is likely enough due to a gradual neglect of the original poetic form of the Psalms; such neglect was occasioned by liturgical uses and carelessness of copyists. It is generally admitted that Pss. 9 and 10 were originally a single acrostic poem; they have been wrongly separated by Massorah, rightly united by the Septuagint and Vulgate.[8] Pss. 42 and 43 are shown by identity of subject (yearning for the house of Yahweh), of metrical structure and of refrain (cf. Heb. Ps. 42:6, 12; 43:5), to be three strophes of one and the same poem. The Hebrew text is correct in counting as one Ps. 146 and Ps. 147. Later liturgical usage would seem to have split up these and several other psalms. Zenner combines into what he deems were the original choral odes: Pss. 1, 2, 3, 4; 6 + 13; 9 + 10; 19, 20, 21; 56 + 57; 69 + 70; 114 + 115; 148, 149, 150.[9] A choral ode would seem to have been the original form of Pss. 14 and 70. The two strophes and the epode are Ps. 14; the two antistrophes are Ps. 70.[10] It is noteworthy that, on the breaking up of the original ode, each portion crept twice into the Psalter: Ps. 14 = 53, Ps. 70 = 40:14–18. Other such duplicated portions of psalms are Ps. 108:2–6 = Ps. 57:8–12; Ps. 108:7–14 = Ps. 60:7–14; Ps. 71:1–3 = Ps. 31:2–4. This loss of the original form of some of the psalms is allowed by the Biblical Commission (1 May 1910) to have been due to liturgical practices, neglect by copyists, or other causes. Verse numbers were first printed in 1509.[11][12] Different traditions exist whether to include the original heading into the counting or not. This leads to inconsistent numbering in 62 psalms, with an offset of 1, sometimes even 2 verses.[13] Additional psalms[edit] The Septuagint, present in Eastern Orthodox churches, includes a Psalm 151; a Hebrew version of this was found in the Psalms Scroll of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Some versions of the Peshitta (the Bible used in Syriac churches in the Middle East) include Psalms 152–155. There are also the Psalms of Solomon, which are a further 18 psalms of Jewish origin, likely originally written in Hebrew, but surviving only in Greek and Syriac translation. These and other indications suggest that the current Western Christian and Jewish collection of 150 psalms were selected from a wider set. Primary types[edit] Hermann Gunkel's pioneering form-critical work on the psalms sought to provide a new and meaningful context in which to interpret individual psalms—not by looking at their literary context within the Psalter (which he did not see as significant), but by bringing together psalms of the same genre (Gattung) from throughout the Psalter. Gunkel divided the psalms into five primary types: Hymns[edit] Hymns, songs of praise for God's work in creation or history. They typically open with a call to praise, describe the motivation for praise, and conclude with a repetition of the call. Two sub-categories are "enthronement psalms", celebrating the enthronement of Yahweh as king, and Zion psalms, glorifying Mount Zion, God's dwelling-place in Jerusalem.[14] Gunkel also described a special subset of "eschatological hymns" which includes themes of future restoration (Psalm 126) or of judgment (Psalm 82).[15] Communal laments[edit] David is depicted giving a psalm to pray for deliverance in this 1860 woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld Communal laments, in which the nation laments some communal disaster.[16] Both communal and individual laments typically but not always include the following elements: address to God, description of suffering, cursing of the party responsible for suffering, protestation of innocence or admission of guilt, petition for divine assistance, faith in God's receipt of prayer, anticipation of divine response, and a song of thanksgiving.[17][18] In general, the individual and communal subtypes can be distinguished by the use of the singular "I" or the plural "we". However, the "I" could also be characterising an individual's personal experience that was reflective of the entire community.[19] Royal psalms[edit] David is depicted giving a penitential psalm in this 1860 woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld Royal psalms, dealing with such matters as the king's coronation, marriage and battles.[16] None of them mentions any specific king by name, and their origin and use remain obscure;[20] several psalms, especially Ps. 93–99, concern the kingship of God, and might relate to an annual ceremony in which Yahweh would be ritually reinstated as king.[21] Individual laments[edit] Individual laments over the fate of the particular individual who utters them. By far the most common type of psalm, they typically open with an invocation of God, followed by the lament itself and pleas for help, and often ending with an expression of confidence.[16] Individual thanksgiving psalms[edit] Individual thanksgiving psalms, the opposite of individual laments, in which the psalmist thanks God for deliverance from personal distress.[16] In addition to these five major genres, Gunkel also recognised a number of minor psalm-types, including: communal thanksgiving psalms, in which the whole nation thanks God for deliverance; wisdom psalms, reflecting the Old Testament wisdom literature; pilgrimage psalms, sung by pilgrims on their way to Jerusalem; entrance and prophetic liturgies; and a group of mixed psalms which could not be assigned to any category.[22] Composition[edit] Scroll of the Psalms Origins[edit] The composition of the psalms spans at least five centuries, from psalm 29 to others clearly from the post-Exilic period (not earlier than the fifth century B.C.) The majority originated in the southern kingdom of Judah and were associated with the Temple in Jerusalem, where they probably functioned as libretto during the Temple worship. Exactly how they did this is unclear, although there are indications in some of them: "Bind the festal procession with branches, up to the horns of the altar," suggests a connection with sacrifices, and "Let my prayer be counted as incense" suggests a connection with the offering of incense.[3] According to Jewish tradition, the Book of Psalms was composed by ten elders, along with David who was one of its principal contributors. Those explicitly named are the First Man (Adam), Melchizedek, Abraham, Moses, Heman, Jeduthun, Asaph, and the three sons of Korah.[23][24] The book, however, is largely attributed unto David on account of his being the arch poet (the largest composer of the psalms), and who is called elsewhere "the sweet psalmist of Israel."[25] The final redaction of the book was made, according to Abraham ibn Ezra, by the Men of the Great Assembly.[26] Saadia Gaon (882–942), dissenting, wrote that "even though one may think that there is in it of what... [had been] sung by someone other than David, such as Asaph and Jeduthun, and Ethan and Moses the man of God, among others, upon consideration of the subject, one should know that the matter is not as it has been portrayed, rather, there is naught that does not belong to David."[27] According to Saadia, David compiled the majority of the psalms to be sung specifically by different people: Psalm 90 (A prayer of Moses), written by David for the descendants of Moses who were contemporaries with David; Psalm 39 (to Jeduthun, a psalm of David), written by David for the sons of Jeduthun; Psalms 50, 73–83 (a psalm of Asaph), written by David for the sons of Asaph mentioned in 1 Chronicles 6:24; Psalms 42, 44, et al. (the sons of Korah), written by David for the sons of Korah; Psalm 88 (the sons of Korah, Heman the Ezrahite), written by David for one of the descendants of Korah, Heman the Ezrahite, mentioned in 1 Chronicles 6:18; Psalm 89 (Ethan the Ezrahite), written by David for one of the Levites, namely, Ethan b. Kishi b. Abdi b. Malluch, mentioned in 1 Chronicles 6:29, and so with all the rest.[28] Where Psalms 72 and 127 speak of being "for Solomon," Saadia explains that David wrote them as a vision in what he saw concerning his son, Solomon.[28] Poetic characteristics[edit] The biblical poetry of Psalms uses parallelism as its primary poetic device. Parallelism is a kind of symmetry, in which an idea is developed by the use of restatement, synonym, amplification, grammatical repetition, or opposition.[29][30] Synonymous parallelism involves two lines expressing essentially the same idea. An example of synonymous parallelism: "The LORD is my light and my salvation; whom shall I fear? The LORD is the stronghold of my life; of whom shall I be afraid?" (Psalm 27:1). Two lines expressing opposites is known as antithetic parallelism. An example of antithetic parallelism: "And he led them in a cloud by day/ and all the night by a fiery light" (Psalm 78:14). Two clauses expressing the idea of amplifying the first claim is known as expansive parallelism. An example of expansive parallelism: "My mouth is filled with your praise/ all the day with your lauding" (Psalm 71:8). Editorial agenda[edit] Psalm 11 in the 9th-century Utrecht Psalter, where the illustration of the text is often literal. Many scholars believe the individual Psalms were redacted into a single collection in Second-Temple times.[31] It had long been recognized that the collection bore the imprint of an underlying message or metanarrative, but that this message remained concealed, as Augustine of Hippo said, "The sequence of the Psalms seems to me to contain the secret of a mighty mystery, but its meaning has not been revealed to me." (Enarr. on Ps. 150.1) Others pointed out the presence of concatenation, that is, adjacent Psalms sharing similar words and themes. In time, this approach developed into recognizing overarching themes shared by whole groups of psalms.[32] In 1985, Gerald H. Wilson's The Editing of the Hebrew Psalter proposed – by parallel with other ancient eastern hymn collections – that psalms at the beginning and end (or "seams") of the five books of Psalms have thematic significance, corresponding in particular with the placement of the royal psalms. He pointed out that there was a progression of ideas, from adversity, through the crux of the collection in the apparent failure of the covenant in Psalm 89, leading to a concert of praise at the end. He concluded that the collection was redacted to be a retrospective of the failure of the Davidic covenant, exhorting Israel to trust in God alone in a non-messianic future.[33] Walter Brueggemann suggested that the underlying editorial purpose was oriented rather towards wisdom or sapiential concerns, addressing the issues of how to live the life of faith. Psalm 1 calls the reader to a life of obedience; Psalm 73 (Brueggemann's crux psalm) faces the crisis when divine faithfulness is in doubt; Psalm 150 represents faith's triumph, when God is praised not for his rewards, but for his being.[34] In 1997, David. C. Mitchell's The Message of the Psalter took a quite different line. Building on the work of Wilson and others,[35] Mitchell proposed that the Psalter embodies an eschatological timetable like that of Zechariah 9–14.[36] This programme includes the gathering of exiled Israel by a bridegroom-king; his establishment of a kingdom; his violent death; Israel scattered in the wilderness, regathered and again imperilled, then rescued by a king from the heavens, who establishes his kingdom from Zion, brings peace and prosperity to the earth and receives the homage of the nations. These three views—Wilson's non-messianic retrospective of the Davidic covenant, Brueggemann's sapiential instruction, and Mitchell's eschatologico-messianic programme—all have their followers, although the sapiential agenda has been somewhat eclipsed by the other two. Shortly before his untimely death in 2005, Wilson modified his position to allow for the existence of messianic prophecy within the Psalms' redactional agenda.[37] Mitchell's position remains largely unchanged, although he now sees the issue as identifying when the historical beginning of the Psalms turns to eschatology.[38] The ancient music of the Psalms[edit] The Psalms were written not merely as poems, but as songs for singing. According to Bible exegete Saadia Gaon (882–942) who served in the geonate of Babylonian Jewry, the Psalms were originally sung in the Temple precincts by the Levites, based on what was prescribed for each psalm (lineage of the singers, designated time and place, instruments used, manner of execution, etc.), but are permitted to be randomly read by anyone at any time and in any place.[39] More than a third of the psalms are addressed to the Director of Music. Some psalms exhort the worshipper to sing (e.g. Pss. 33:1-3; 92:1-3; 96:1-3; 98:1; 101:1; 150). Some headings denote the musical instruments on which the psalm should be played (Pss. 4, 5, 6, 8, 67). Some refer to the Levites who sang one of eight melodies, one of which was known simply as "the eighth" (Hebrew: sheminit) (Pss. 6, 12).[40] And others preserve the name for ancient eastern modes, like ayelet ha-shachar (hind of the dawn; Ps. 22); shoshanim / shushan (lilies / lily; Pss. 45; 60), said to be describing a certain melody;[41] or ʻalmuth / ʻalamoth (mute;[42] Pss. 9, 46), which, according to Saadia Gaon, is "a silent melody, nearly inaudible."[43] Despite the frequently heard view that their ancient music is lost, the means to reconstruct it are still extant. Fragments of temple psalmody are preserved in ancient church and synagogue chant, particularly in the tonus peregrinus melody to Psalm 114.[44] Cantillation signs, to record the melody sung, were in use since ancient times; evidence of them can be found in the manuscripts of the oldest extant copies of Psalms in the Dead Sea Scrolls and are even more extensive in the Masoretic text, which dates to the Early Middle Ages and whose Tiberian scribes claimed to be basing their work on temple-period signs. (See Moshe ben Asher's 'Song of the Vine' colophon to the Codex Cairensis).[45] Several attempts have been made to decode the Masoretic cantillation, but the most successful is that of Suzanne Haïk-Vantoura (1928–2000) in the last quarter of the 20th century.[46] Although some have dismissed Haïk-Vantoura's system, Mitchell has repeatedly defended it, showing that, when applied to the Masoretic cantillation of Psalm 114, it produces a melody recognizable as the tonus peregrinus of church and synagogue.[47] Mitchell includes musical transcriptions of the temple psalmody of Psalms 120–134 in his commentary on the Songs of Ascents. Regardless of academic research, Sephardic Jews have retained a tradition in the Masoretic cantillation.[48] Themes and execution[edit] Most individual psalms involve the praise of God for his power and beneficence, for his creation of the world, and for his past acts of deliverance for Israel. They envision a world in which everyone and everything will praise God, and God in turn will hear their prayers and respond. Sometimes God "hides his face" and refuses to respond, questioning (for the psalmist) the relationship between God and prayer which is the underlying assumption of the Book of Psalms.[49] Some psalms are called "maskil" (maschil), meaning "enlightened" or "wise", because they impart wisdom. Most notable of these is Psalm 142 which is sometimes called the "Maskil of David"; others include Psalm 32 and Psalm 78.[50] A special grouping and division in the Book of Psalms are fifteen psalms (Psalms 120–134) known in the construct case, shir ha-ma'aloth (= "A Song of Ascents", or "A Song of degrees"), and one as shir la-ma'aloth (Psalm 121). According to Saadia Gaon, these songs differed from the other psalms in that they were to be sung by the Levites in a "loud melody" (Judeo-Arabic: בלחן מרתפע‎).[51] Every psalm designated for Asaph (e.g. Psalms 50, 73–83) was sung by his descendants while making use of cymbals, in accordance with 1 Chronicles 16:5.[51] Every psalm wherein is found the introductory phrase "Upon Mahalath" (e.g. Psalms 53 and 88) was sung by the Levites by using large percussion instruments having wide and closed bezels on both sides and beaten with two wooden sticks.[52] Later interpretation and influence[edit] David Playing the Harp by Jan de Bray, 1670 Hebrew text of Psalm 1:1-2 A Jewish man reads Psalm 119 at the Western Wall. Overview[edit] Individual psalms were originally hymns, to be used on various occasions and at various sacred sites; later, some were anthologised, and might have been understood within the various anthologies (e.g., ps. 123 as one of the Psalms of Ascent); finally, individual psalms might be understood within the Psalter as a whole, either narrating the life of David or providing instruction like the Torah. In later Jewish and Christian tradition, the psalms have come to be used as prayers, either individual or communal, as traditional expressions of religious feeling.[53] Commentaries[edit] Many authors have commented on the psalms, including: Hilary of Poitiers[54] Augustine of Hippo[55] Saadia Gaon[56] Thomas Aquinas[57] John Calvin[58] Emmanuel (pseudonym), Jewish Commentary on the Psalms.[59] Use in Jewish ritual[edit] Some of the titles given to the Psalms have descriptions which suggest their use in worship: Some bear the Hebrew description shir (שיר; Greek: ᾠδή, ōdḗ, 'song'). Thirteen have this description. It means the flow of speech, as it were, in a straight line or in a regular strain. This description includes secular as well as sacred song. Fifty-eight Psalms bear the description mizmor (מזמור; ψαλμός), a lyric ode, or a song set to music; a sacred song accompanied with a musical instrument. Psalm 145 alone has the designation tehillah (תהלה; ὕμνος), meaning a song of praise; a song the prominent thought of which is the praise of God. Thirteen psalms are described as maskil ('wise'): 32, 42, 44, 45, 52–55, 74, 78, 88, 89, and 142. Psalm 41:2, although not in the above list, has the description ashrei maskil. Six Psalms (16, 56–60) have the title michtam (מכתם, 'gold').[60] Rashi suggests that michtam refers to an item that a person carries with him at all times, hence, these Psalms contain concepts or ideas that are pertinent at every stage and setting throughout life, deemed vital as part of day-to-day spiritual awareness.[61] Psalm 7 (along with Habakkuk chapter 3)[62] bears the title shigayon (שיגיון). There are three interpretations:[63] (a) According to Rashi and others, this term stems from the root shegaga, meaning "mistake"—David committed some sin and is singing in the form of a prayer to redeem himself from it; (b) shigayon was a type of musical instrument; (c) Ibn Ezra considers the word to mean "longing", as for example in the verse in Proverbs 5:19[64] tishge tamid. Psalms are used throughout traditional Jewish worship. Many complete Psalms and verses from Psalms appear in the morning services (Shacharit). The pesukei dezimra component incorporates Psalms 30, 100 and 145–150. Psalm 145 (commonly referred to as "Ashrei", which is really the first word of two verses appended to the beginning of the Psalm), is read three times every day: once in shacharit as part of pesukei dezimrah, as mentioned, once, along with Psalm 20, as part of the morning's concluding prayers, and once at the start of the afternoon service. On Festival days and Sabbaths, instead of concluding the morning service, it precedes the Mussaf service. Psalms 95–99, 29, 92, and 93, along with some later readings, comprise the introduction (Kabbalat Shabbat) to the Friday night service. Traditionally, a different "Psalm for the Day"—Shir shel yom—is read after the morning service each day of the week (starting Sunday, Psalms: 24, 48, 82, 94, 81, 93, 92). This is described in the Mishnah (the initial codification of the Jewish oral tradition) in the tractate Tamid. According to the Talmud, these daily Psalms were originally recited on that day of the week by the Levites in the Temple in Jerusalem. From Rosh Chodesh Elul until Hoshanah Rabbah, Psalm 27 is recited twice daily following the morning and evening services. There is a Minhag (custom) to recite Psalm 30 each morning of Chanukkah after Shacharit: some recite this in place of the regular "Psalm for the Day", others recite this additionally. When a Jew dies, a watch is kept over the body and tehillim (Psalms) are recited constantly by sun or candlelight, until the burial service. Historically, this watch would be carried out by the immediate family, usually in shifts, but in contemporary practice this service is provided by an employee of the funeral home or chevra kadisha. Many Jews complete the Book of Psalms on a weekly or monthly basis. Each week, some also say a Psalm connected to that week's events or the Torah portion read during that week. In addition, many Jews (notably Lubavitch, and other Chasidim) read the entire Book of Psalms prior to the morning service, on the Sabbath preceding the calculated appearance of the new moon. The reading of psalms is viewed in Jewish tradition as a vehicle for gaining God's favor. They are thus often specially recited in times of trouble, such as poverty, disease, or physical danger; in many synagogues, Psalms are recited after services for the security of the State of Israel. Sefer ha-Chinuch[65] states that this practice is designed not to achieve favor, as such, but rather to inculcate belief in Divine Providence into one's consciousness, consistently with Maimonides' general view on Providence. (Relatedly, the Hebrew verb for prayer, hitpalal התפלל, is in fact the reflexive form of palal פלל, to judge. Thus, "to pray" conveys the notion of "judging oneself": ultimately, the purpose of prayer—tefilah תפלה—is to transform ourselves.)[66] In Christian worship[edit] St. Florian's psalter, 14th or 15th century, Polish translation Children singing and playing music, illustration of Psalm 150 (Laudate Dominum) David is depicted as a psalmist in this 1860 woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld New Testament references show that the earliest Christians used the Psalms in worship, and the Psalms have remained an important part of worship in most Christian Churches. The Eastern Orthodox, Catholic, Presbyterian, Lutheran and Anglican Churches have always made systematic use of the Psalms, with a cycle for the recitation of all or most of them over the course of one or more weeks. In the early centuries of the Church, it was expected that any candidate for bishop would be able to recite the entire Psalter from memory, something they often learned automatically[67] during their time as monks. Paul the Apostle quotes psalms (specifically Psalms 14 and 53, which are nearly identical) as the basis for his theory of original sin, and includes the scripture in the Epistle to the Romans, chapter 3. Several conservative Protestant denominations sing only the Psalms (some churches also sing the small number of hymns found elsewhere in the Bible) in worship, and do not accept the use of any non-Biblical hymns; examples are the Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America, the Presbyterian Reformed Church (North America) and the Free Church of Scotland (Continuing). Psalm 22 is of particular importance during the season of Lent as a Psalm of continued faith during severe testing. Psalm 23, The LORD is My Shepherd, offers an immediately appealing message of comfort and is widely chosen for church funeral services, either as a reading or in one of several popular hymn settings; Psalm 51, Have mercy on me O God, called the Miserere from the first word in its Latin version, in both Divine Liturgy and Hours, in the sacrament of repentance or confession, and in other settings; Psalm 82 is found in the Book of Common Prayer as a funeral recitation. Psalm 137, By the rivers of Babylon, there we sat down and wept, the Eastern Orthodox Church uses this hymn during the weeks preceding Great Lent. New translations and settings of the Psalms continue to be produced. An individually printed volume of Psalms for use in Christian religious rituals is called a Psalter. Furthermore, psalms often serve as the inspiration for much of modern or contemporary Christian worship music in a variety of styles. Some songs are entirely based on a particular psalm or psalms, and many quote directly from the Book of Psalms (and other parts of the Bible).[68] Eastern Orthodox Christianity[edit] See also: Kathisma Orthodox Christians and Greek-Catholics (Eastern Catholics who follow the Byzantine rite) have long made the Psalms an integral part of their corporate and private prayers. The official version of the Psalter used by the Orthodox Church is the Septuagint. To facilitate its reading, the 150 Psalms are divided into 20 kathismata (Greek: καθίσματα; Slavonic: каѳисмы, kafismy; lit. "sittings") and each kathisma (Greek: κάθισμα; Slavonic: каѳисма, kafisma) is further subdivided into three stases (Greek: στάσεις, staseis lit. "standings", sing. στάσις, stasis), so-called because the faithful stand at the end of each stasis for the Glory to the Father .... At Vespers and Matins, different kathismata are read at different times of the liturgical year and on different days of the week, according to the Church's calendar, so that all 150 psalms (20 kathismata) are read in the course of a week. During Great Lent, the number of kathismata is increased so that the entire Psalter is read twice a week. In the twentieth century, some lay Christians have adopted a continuous reading of the Psalms on weekdays, praying the whole book in four weeks. Aside from kathisma readings, Psalms occupy a prominent place in every other Orthodox service including the services of the Hours and the Divine Liturgy. In particular, the penitential Psalm 50 is very widely used. Fragments of Psalms and individual verses are used as Prokimena (introductions to Scriptural readings) and Stichera. The bulk of Vespers would still be composed of Psalms even if the kathisma were to be disregarded; Psalm 119, "The Psalm of the Law", is the centerpiece of Matins on Saturdays, some Sundays, and the Funeral service. The entire book of Psalms is traditionally read out loud or chanted at the side of the deceased during the time leading up to the funeral, mirroring Jewish tradition. Oriental Christianity[edit] Several branches of Oriental Orthodox and those Eastern Catholics who follow one of the Oriental Rites will chant the entire Psalter during the course of a day during the Daily Office. This practice continues to be a requirement of monastics in the Oriental churches. Roman Catholic usage[edit] See also: Responsorial psalmody The Psalms have always been an important part of Catholic liturgy. The Liturgy of the Hours is centered on chanting or recitation of the Psalms, using fixed melodic formulas known as psalm tones. Early Catholics employed the Psalms widely in their individual prayers also; however, as knowledge of Latin (the language of the Roman Rite) became uncommon, this practice ceased among the unlearned. However, until the end of the Middle Ages, it was not unknown for the laity to join in the singing of the Little Office of Our Lady, which was a shortened version of the Liturgy of the Hours providing a fixed daily cycle of twenty-five psalms to be recited, and nine other psalms divided across Matins. The work of Bishop Richard Challoner in providing devotional materials in English meant that many of the psalms were familiar to English-speaking Catholics from the eighteenth century onwards. Challoner translated the entirety of the Little Office into English, as well as Sunday Vespers and daily Compline. He also provided other individual Psalms such as 129/130 for prayer in his devotional books. Bishop Challoner is also noted for revising the Douay–Rheims Bible, and the translations he used in his devotional books are taken from this work. Until the Second Vatican Council the Psalms were either recited on a one-week or, less commonly (as in the case of Ambrosian rite), two-week cycle. Different one-week schemata were employed: most secular clergy followed the Roman distribution, while Monastic Houses almost universally followed that of St Benedict, with only a few congregations (such as the Benedictines of St Maur[citation needed]) following individualistic arrangements. The Breviary introduced in 1974 distributed the psalms over a four-week cycle. Monastic usage varies widely. Some use the four-week cycle of the secular clergy, many retain a one-week cycle, either following St Benedict's scheme or another of their own devising, while others opt for some other arrangement. Official approval was also given to other arrangements[Notes 1] by which the complete Psalter is recited in a one-week or two-week cycle. These arrangements are used principally by Catholic contemplative religious orders, such as that of the Trappists.[Notes 2] The General Instruction of the Liturgy of the Hours, 122 sanctions three modes of singing/recitation for the Psalms: directly (all sing or recite the entire psalm); antiphonally (two choirs or sections of the congregation sing or recite alternate verses or strophes); and responsorially (the cantor or choir sings or recites the verses while the congregation sings or recites a given response after each verse). Of these three the antiphonal mode is the most widely followed.[citation needed] Over the centuries, the use of complete Psalms in the liturgy declined. After the Second Vatican Council (which also permitted the use of vernacular languages in the liturgy), longer psalm texts were reintroduced into the Mass, during the readings. The revision of the Roman Missal after the Second Vatican Council reintroduced the singing or recitation of a more substantial section of a Psalm, in some cases an entire Psalm, after the first Reading from Scripture. This Psalm, called the Responsorial Psalm, is usually sung or recited responsorially, although the General Instruction of the Roman Missal, 61 permits direct recitation. Protestant usage[edit] A singing and dancing David leads the Ark of the Covenant, c. 1650. Psalm 1 in a form of the Sternhold and Hopkins version widespread in Anglican usage before the English Civil War (1628 printing). It was from this version that the armies sang before going into battle. Following the Protestant Reformation, versified translations of many of the Psalms were set as hymns. These were particularly popular in the Calvinist tradition, where in the past they were typically sung to the exclusion of hymns. John Calvin himself made some French translations of the Psalms for church usage, but the completed Genevan Psalter eventually used in church services consisted exclusively of translations by Clément Marot and Théodore de Bèze, on melodies by a number of composers, including Louis Bourgeois and a certain Maistre Pierre. Martin Luther's Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott is based on Psalm 46. Among famous hymn settings of the Psalter were the Scottish Psalter and the paraphrases by Isaac Watts. The first book printed in North America was a collection of Psalm settings, the Bay Psalm Book (1640). By the 20th century, they were mostly replaced by hymns in church services. However, the Psalms are popular for private devotion among many Protestants and still used in many churches for traditional worship.[69] There exists in some circles a custom of reading one Psalm and one chapter of Proverbs a day, corresponding to the day of the month. Metrical Psalms are still very popular among many Reformed Churches. Anglican usage[edit] Anglican chant is a method of singing prose versions of the Psalms. In the early 17th century, when the King James Bible was introduced, the metrical arrangements by Thomas Sternhold and John Hopkins were also popular and were provided with printed tunes. This version and the New Version of the Psalms of David by Tate and Brady produced in the late seventeenth century (see article on Metrical psalter) remained the normal congregational way of singing psalms in the Church of England until well into the nineteenth century. In Great Britain, the 16th-century Coverdale psalter still lies at the heart of daily worship in Cathedrals and many parish churches. The new Common Worship service book has a companion psalter in modern English. The version of the psalter in the American Book of Common Prayer prior to the 1979 edition is the Coverdale psalter. The Psalter in the American Book of Common Prayer of 1979 is a new translation, with some attempt to keep the rhythms of the Coverdale psalter. Psalms in the Rastafari movement[edit] The Psalms are one of the most popular parts of the Bible among followers of the Rastafari movement.[70] Rasta singer Prince Far I released an atmospheric spoken version of the psalms, Psalms for I, set to a roots reggae backdrop from The Aggrovators. Psalms set to music[edit] Verse from Psalm 66 at the Grand Canyon, Arizona. Multiple psalms as a single composition[edit] Psalms have often been set as part of a larger work. The psalms feature large in settings of Vespers, including those by Claudio Monteverdi, Antonio Vivaldi, and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, who wrote such settings as part of their responsibilities as church musicians. Psalms are inserted in Requiem compositions, such as Psalm 126 in A German Requiem of Johannes Brahms and Psalms 130 and 23 in John Rutter's Requiem. Psalmi Davidis poenitentiales (6, 32, 38, 51, 102, 130, 143) by Orlande de Lassus—1584 Melodie na psałterz polski by Mikołaj Gomółka—c. 1600 Psalmen Davids (1619), Symphoniae sacrae I (1629) and Becker Psalter (1661) by Heinrich Schütz Chandos Anthems by George Frideric Handel—1717–18 Zwei englisch Psalmen (1842), Sieben Psalmen nach Lobwasser (1843), Elijah (1846), and Drei Psalmen (1849) by Felix Mendelssohn Eighteen Liturgical Psalms by Louis Lewandowski—1879 Biblické písně by Antonín Dvořák—1894 Le Roi David by Arthur Honegger—1921 Symphony of Psalms (38, 39, 150) by Igor Stravinsky—1930 Chichester Psalms by Leonard Bernstein—1965 Tehillim by Steve Reich—1981 Four Psalms (114, 126, 133, 137) by John Harbison—1998 Individual psalm settings[edit] There are many settings of individual psalms, which are generally mentioned in the article devoted to the particular psalm. They include: Psalms 100, 121 and 124 by Loys Bourgeois (c. 1500–1559) Psalm 38 and Levavi oculos meos (Psalm 121) by Orlando di Lasso (1532–1594) Psalms 112 and 137 by Marc-Antoine Charpentier (1643–1704) Beatus vir (Psalm 112), Dixit Dominus (Psalm 110) by Antonio Vivaldi (1678–1741) Psalm 126 In convertendo Dominus by Jean-Philippe Rameau (1683–1764). Psalm 130 by Jan Dismas Zelenka Psalm 100 (in Utrecht Te Deum and Jubilate) and others by George Frideric Handel (1685–1750) Psalm 148 by William Billings (1746–1800) Psalm 111 by Samuel Wesley (1766–1837) Psalm 23 by Franz Schubert (1797–1828) Psalms 13, 42, 91, 95, 98, 100, 114 and 115 by Felix Mendelssohn (1809–1847) Psalms 13, 18, 23, 116, 129 and 137 by Franz Liszt (1811–1886) Psalm 150 by César Franck (1822–1890) Psalms 23, 113, 116, 147 and 150 by Anton Bruckner (1824–1896) Psalm 13 by Johannes Brahms (1833–1897) Psalm 18 by Camille Saint-Saëns (1835–1921) Psalm 148 by Ralph Vaughan Williams (1872–1958) Psalm 148 by Gustav Holst (1874–1934) Psalms 14, 24, 25, 42, 54, 67, 90, 100, 135 and 150 by Charles Ives (1874–1954) Psalms 121 and 150 by Zoltán Kodály (1882–1967) Psalm 126 In convertendo Dominus, Psalm 137 Super flumina Babylonis and others by Jules Van Nuffel (1883–1953) Psalm 121 by Darius Milhaud (1892–1974) Psalm 24, 129 and 130 by Lili Boulanger (1893–1918) Psalm 121 and Psalm 150 by Howard Hanson (1896–1981) Psalms 147, 148 and 150 by Roger Sessions (1896–1985) Psalm 121 by Henry Cowell (1897–1965) Psalm 150 by Roy Harris (1898–1979) Two Motets (including Psalm 121) by Gerald Finzi (1901–1956) Psalm 29 and 92 by Eric Zeisl (1905–1959) Psalm 28 by Alan Hovhaness (1911–2000) Psalm 29 by Hugo Weisgall (1912–1997) Psalm 150 (1962, op. 67) by Benjamin Britten (1913–1976) Psalm 150 by George Rochberg (1918–2005) I Was Glad (Psalm 122) by Daniel Pinkham (1923–2006) A Psalm (13) and a Proverb by Ned Rorem (b. 1923) A Psalm of David (Psalm 13) by Robert Starer (1924–2001) Psalms 24, 40, 121 and 150 by Samuel Adler (b. 1928) Psalm 95 by Kamilló Lendvay (b. 1928) Psalm 143 by Yehudi Wyner (b. 1929) Psalm 4 by Alexander Goehr (b. 1932) Psalms 67, 150 by William Mathias (1934–1992) Psalm 8 by John Corigliano (b. 1938) Psalms 1–48, 51, 55, 57, 92, 109, 110, 112, 121, 126, 137 and 144 by Mark Alburger (b. 1957) I Was Glad (Psalm 122) by Howard Goodall (b. 1958) House of God, Forever (Psalm 23) by Jon Foreman (b. 1976) Psalm 73 by BarlowGirl Psalm 40 and Psalm 116 by U2 Psalm 50 by Underoath Psalm 63: 2–3 by Matisyahu Psalm 23 (Shadow of Deth) by Megadeth[71] The Hope (Psalm 27) by Frederik Magle Psalm 23 by Dan Nichols "23rd Psalm" by Debbie Friedman Bach[edit] Johann Sebastian Bach used lines from psalms in several of his cantatas, often in the opening chorus: Psalm 19:1,3 in Die Himmel erzählen die Ehre Gottes, BWV 76 Psalm 22:26 in Die Elenden sollen essen, BWV 75 Psalm 29:1 in Bringet dem Herrn Ehre seines Namens, BWV 148 Psalm 38:4 in Es ist nichts Gesundes an meinem Leibe, BWV 25 Psalm 50:23 in Wer Dank opfert, der preiset mich, BWV 17 Psalm 75:1 in Wir danken dir, Gott, wir danken dir, BWV 29 Psalm 103:2 in Lobe den Herrn, meine Seele, BWV 69a Psalm 104:28–29 in Es wartet alles auf dich, BWV 187 Psalm 130 in Aus der Tiefen rufe ich, Herr, zu dir, BWV 131 Psalm 149:1 in Singet dem Herrn ein neues Lied, BWV 190 Psalm 150:4,6 in Singet dem Herrn ein neues Lied, BWV 190 Bach treated complete psalms in German paraphrasing as chorale cantatas: Psalm 124 in Wo Gott der Herr nicht bei uns hält, BWV 178 (1724) Wär Gott nicht mit uns diese Zeit, BWV 14 (1735) Psalm verses[edit] Carl Nielsen set in Tre Motetter three verses from different psalms as motets for unaccompanied chorus, first performed in 1930. See also[edit] Bible portal Psalm 51's use in Benefit of clergy Exclusive psalmody History of music in the biblical period Penitential Psalms Psalm 90 (Ives) Psalm of communal lament Selah They have pierced my hands and my feet Zabur Genevan Psalter Pesher Roizl Fishels Notes[edit] ^ See "Short" Breviaries in the 20th and early 21st century America Archived 18 January 2006 at the Wayback Machine for an in-progress study ^ See for example the Divine Office schedule at New Melleray Abbey References[edit] ^ Mazor 2011, p. 589. ^ Murphy 1993, p. 626. ^ a b Kselman 2007, p. 775. ^ a b Berlin & Brettler 2004, p. 1282. ^ Bullock 2004, p. 58. ^ Hayes 1998, pp. 154–55. ^ For example "Psalmus 117" in Vigilia Paschalis in Nocte Sancta, 66 ^ Clifford 2010, p. 773. ^ Zenner 1896. ^ Zenner, J.K., and Wiesmann, H., Die Psalmen nach dem Urtext, Munster, 1906, 305 ^ A Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature,... Illustrated by Numerous Engravings. Mark H. Newman. 1845. ^ "Erste Versnummerierungen (Verszählungen in gedruckten Bibelausgaben des 16. Jahrhunderts". www.wlb-stuttgart.de. Retrieved 8 July 2020. ^ "Psalm 12 in 5 languages :: BibleServer". www.bibleserver.com. Retrieved 8 July 2020. ^ Day 2003, pp. 11–12. ^ Bray 1996, p. 400. ^ a b c d Day 2003, p. 12. ^ Coogan, M. A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament: The Hebrew Bible in its Context. (Oxford University Press: Oxford 2009) p. 370 ^ Murphy 1993, p. 627. ^ Bray 1996, p. 416. ^ Berlin & Brettler 2004, p. 1285, note to ps.2. ^ Kselman 2007, p. 776. ^ Day 2003, p. 13. ^ Babylonian Talmud (Baba Bathra 14b–15a) ^ Simon 1982, pp. 237–243. ^ 2 Samuel 23:1 ^ Simon 1982, p. 162. ^ Saadia 2010, p. 28. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSaadia2010 (help) ^ a b Saadia 2010, pp. 29-30. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSaadia2010 (help) ^ Coogan, M. A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament: The Hebrew Bible in its Context. (Oxford University Press: Oxford 2009). p. 369; ^ Kugel, James L. The Idea of Biblical Poetry. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press 1981) ^ Haley, Kevin J. (7 October 2012). ""In the Midst of the Congregation I Will Praise You" (Ps 22:23b): The Reinterpretation of the Psalms of the Individual in Judaism and Christianity | Semantic Scholar". undefined. ^ C. Westermann, The Living Psalms (trans. J.R. Porter; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1989; M.E. Tate, Psalms 51–100 (Waco, TX: Word, 1990). ^ G.H. Wilson, The Editing of the Hebrew Psalter (Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1985). ^ W. Brueggemann, 'Bounded by Obedience and Praise: The Psalms as Canon', JSOT 50:63–92. ^ B.S. Childs, Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979) 511–18; J.L. Mays, '"In a Vision": The Portrayal of the Messiah in the Psalms', Ex Auditu 7: 1–8; J. Forbes, Studies on the Book of Psalms (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1888). ^ D.C. Mitchell, The Message of the Psalter: An Eschatological Programme in the Book of Psalms, JSOT Supplement 252 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997). ^ G.H. Wilson, 'King, Messiah, and the Reign of God: Revisiting the Royal Psalms and the Shape of the Psalter' in P.W. Flint and P.D. Miller (eds.), The Book of Psalms: Composition and Reception (Leiden: Brill, 2005). ^ He has expanded his views on some subjects; see '"God Will Redeem My Soul From Sheol": The Psalms of the Sons of Korah', JSOT 30 (2006) 365–84; 'Lord, Remember David: G.H. Wilson and the Message of the Psalter', Vetus Testamentum 56 (2006) 526–48; The Songs of Ascents (Campbell: Newton Mearns, 2015) 211–16; 36–44. ^ Saadia 2010, p. 33. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSaadia2010 (help) ^ Saadia 2010, pp. 61, 70. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSaadia2010 (help) ^ Saadia 2010, pp. 127-28, 150. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSaadia2010 (help) ^ According to Saadia, the word is derived from the Hebrew root אלם‎, signifying a "mute," or person who cannot speak. Although the word עלמות‎ as spelt in the psalm is with the Hebrew character ʻayin ( ע‎), and the Hebrew word for "mute" is spelt with the Hebrew character aleph ( א‎), the two letters are interchangeable. ^ Saadia 2010, pp. 65, 130. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSaadia2010 (help) ^ Werner, The Sacred Bridge (New York: Columba University Press, 1957) 419, 466. ^ For discussion on the origins and antiquity of the Masoretic cantillation, see D.C. Mitchell, The Songs of Ascents (Campbell: Newton Mearns 2015): 122-137. ^ S. Haïk-Vantoura, La musique de la Bible révélée (Robert Dumas: Paris, 1976); Les 150 Psaumes dans leurs melodies antiques (Paris: Fondation Roi David, 1985). ^ D.C. Mitchell, The Songs of Ascents: Psalms 120 to 134 in the Worship of Jerusalem's temples (Campbell: Newton Mearns 2015); 'Resinging the Temple Psalmody', JSOT 36 (2012) 355–78; 'How Can We Sing the Lord's Song?' in S. Gillingham (ed.), Jewish and Christian Approaches to the Psalms (Oxford University Press, 2013) 119–133. ^ "Tehillim". www.sephardichazzanut.com. Retrieved 22 May 2018. ^ Berlin & Brettler 2004, p. 1284. ^ McKenzie, Steven L. (2000). King David: A Biography. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 39–40. ISBN 9780195351019. ^ a b Saadia 2010, p. 31. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSaadia2010 (help) ^ Saadia 2010, pp. 31-32 (note 77). sfn error: no target: CITEREFSaadia2010 (help) ^ Kselman 2007, pp. 776–78. ^ Comments on the Psalms of Hilary of Poitiers, fourth century , Paris, Editions du Cerf , 2008, collection Christian sources No. 515 ^ Discourse on the Psalms, of St. Augustine, the fourth century , 2 vols., Collection "Christian Wisdom", Editions du Cerf ^ Saadia Gaon (1966). Qafih, Yosef (ed.). Psalms, with a Translation and Commentary made by Rabbi Saadia Gaon (in Hebrew). Jerusalem - New York: American Academy for Jewish Studies. OCLC 741065024. ^ Commentary on the Psalms (up to Psalm 54) St. Thomas Aquinas, 1273, Editions du Cerf, 1996 ^ Comment psalms of John Calvin, 1557 ^ Emmanuel, Commentaire juif des psaumes, Editions Payot, 1963 ^ DLC (27 August 2006). "Hebrew Language Detective: katom". Balashon. Retrieved 19 September 2012. ^ "Daily Tehillim". Daily Tehillim. Retrieved 16 April 2014. ^ "Habakkuk 3 / Hebrew – English Bible / Mechon-Mamre". Mechon-mamre.org. Retrieved 17 March 2013. ^ "ארכיון הדף היומי". Vbm-torah.org. ^ "Proverbs 5:19 A loving doe, a graceful deer-may her breasts satisfy you always, may you ever be captivated by her love". Bible.cc. Retrieved 19 September 2012. ^ "ספר החינוך - אהרן, הלוי, מברצלונה, מיחס לו; שעוועל, חיים דב, 1906-1982; רוזנס, יהודה בן שמואל, 1657-1727; ברלין, ישעיה בן יהודה, 1725-1799 (page 637 of 814)". Hebrewbooks.org. ^ For the relationship between prayer and psalms—tefillah and tehillah—see S. R. Hirsch, Horeb §620. See also Jewish services § Philosophy of prayer. ^ Tom Meyer. "Saint Sabas and the Psalms" (PDF). Etrfi.org. Retrieved 14 July 2018. ^ Sarah Eekhoff Zylstra. "Let's Sing the Songs Jesus Sang". Retrieved 8 January 2020. ^ "The Psalms of David – Sung a cappella". Thepsalmssung.org. Retrieved 16 April 2014. ^ Murrell, Nathaniel Samuel. "Tuning Hebrew Psalms to Reggae Rhythms". Retrieved 11 February 2008. ^ "Shadow Of Deth". megadeth.com. Archived from the original on 29 November 2014. Bibliography[edit] Berlin, Adele; Brettler, Marc Zvi (2004). "Psalms". In Berlin, Adele; Brettler, Marc Zvi; Fishbane, Michael A. (eds.). The Jewish Study Bible. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195297515. Bray, G. (1996). Biblical Interpretation: Past and Present. Intervarsity Press. Bullock, C. Hassell (2004). Encountering the Book of Psalms: A Literary and Theological Introduction. Baker Academic. ISBN 9780801027956. Clifford, Richard J. (2010). "Psalms". In Coogan, Michael David; Brettler, Marc Zvi; Newsom, Carol Ann (eds.). The New Oxford Annotated Bible: New Revised Standard Version: with the Apocrypha: an Ecumenical Study Bible. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195289558. Day, John (2003). Psalms. Continuum. ISBN 9780567084545. Harris, Stephen L. (1985). Understanding the Bible. Mayfield. Hayes, John H. (1998). "The Songs of Israel". In McKenzie, Steven L.; Graham, Matt Patrick (eds.). The Hebrew Bible Today: An Introduction to Critical Issues. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 9780664256524. Kselman, John S. (2007). "Psalms". In Coogan, Michael David; Brettler, Marc Zvi; Newsom, Carol Ann (eds.). The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical Books. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-528880-3. Mazor, Lea (2011). "Book of Psalms". In Berlin, Adele; Grossman, Maxine (eds.). The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199730049. Mitchell, David C. (1997). The Message of the Psalter: An Eschatological Programme in the Book of Psalms. JSOT: Sheffield Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-85075-689-7. Mitchell, David C. (2015). The Songs of Ascents: Psalms 120 to 134 in the Worship of Jerusalem's Temples. Campbell: Newton Mearns. Murphy, Roland E. (1993). "Psalms". In Coogan, Michael D.; Metzger, Bruce (eds.). The Oxford Companion to the Bible. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199743919. Prinsloo, Willem S. (2003). "Psalms". In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William (eds.). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802837110. Saadia Gaon (2010). Qafih, Yosef (ed.). Book of Psalms, with a Translation and Commentary made by Rabbi Saadia Gaon (תהלים עם תרגום ופירוש הגאון רבינו סעדיה בן יוסף פיומי זצ"ל) (in Hebrew). Kiryat-Ono: Makhon Moshe (Makhon Mishnat haRambam). OCLC 741156698. Simon, Uriel (1982). Four Approaches to the Book of Psalms: from Saadiah Gaon to Abraham Ibn Ezra (ארבע גישות לספר תהלים) (in Hebrew). Ramat Gan: Bar-Ilan University. ISBN 9652260312. OCLC 10751226. Zenner, Johannes Konrad (1896). Die Chorgesänge im Buche der Psalmen: ihre Existenz und ihre Form nachgewiesen. Herder. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Psalms. Wikisource has original text related to this article: Psalms (Bible) Wikiquote has quotations related to: Psalms Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: Psalmi (Vulgata) Tehillim Online to read psalms of David in Hebrew or transliterated. Full reading and translation of all 150 Psalms Psalms from Dead Sea Scrolls (Psalms 151–154) Book of Psalms Audiobook—King James Version Psalms public domain audiobook at LibriVox Various versions Translations[edit] Jewish translations: Tehillim—Psalms (Judaica Press) translation [with Rashi's commentary] at Chabad.org Christian translations: Book of Psalms—NIV Revised Grail Psalms (see: Grail Psalms) Commentary and others[edit] Online encyclopedia "Psalms." Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Jewish reading of Tehillim—Psalms and many explanation. Psalms (Judaica Press) translation [with Rashi's commentary] at Chabad.org Penetrating beneath the surface level of the Tehillim—Psalms Reading of Tehillim—Psalms in ancient tunes and explanation. Also a free series that teaches how to read the cantilation notes of Psalms Christian St. Augustine of Hippo (1888). Homelies on Psalms. clerus.org. Translated by Philip Schaff. Archived from the original on 11 April 2019. Retrieved 14 April 2019. Spurgeon, Charles H. (1885). The Treasury of David. Commentary on the Psalms by Gordon Churchyard, at www.easyenglish.bible Introduction to the Psalms by Wilbert R. Gawrisch Introduction to the Psalms a Forward Movement publication Fordham, David, ed. (October 1986), The Book of Psalms: In the Authorized Version (illuminated ed.), ISBN 978-0805000467 . Psalms Wisdom literature Preceded by The Twelve Prophets Hebrew Bible Succeeded by Proverbs Preceded by Job Western Old Testament E. Orthodox Old Testament Succeeded by Odes v t e Books of the Bible Principal divisions Hebrew Bible/ Old Testament (protocanon) Genesis Exodus Leviticus Numbers Deuteronomy Joshua Judges Ruth 1–2 Samuel 1–2 Kings 1–2 Chronicles Ezra Nehemiah Esther Job Psalms Proverbs Ecclesiastes Song Isaiah Jeremiah Lamentations Ezekiel Daniel Hosea Joel Amos Obadiah Jonah Micah Nahum Habakkuk Zephaniah Haggai Zechariah Malachi Deuterocanon and Apocrypha Catholic Orthodox Tobit Judith Additions to Esther 1 Maccabees 2 Maccabees Wisdom Sirach Baruch / Letter of Jeremiah Additions to Daniel Susanna Song of the Three Children Bel and the Dragon Orthodox only 1 Esdras 2 Esdras Prayer of Manasseh Psalm 151 3 Maccabees 4 Maccabees Odes Tewahedo Orthodox Enoch Jubilees 1, 2, and 3 Meqabyan Paralipomena of Baruch Broader canon Syriac Letter of Baruch Psalms 152–155 New Testament Matthew Mark Luke John Acts Romans 1 Corinthians 2 Corinthians Galatians Ephesians Philippians Colossians 1 Thessalonians 2 Thessalonians 1 Timothy 2 Timothy Titus Philemon Hebrews James 1 Peter 2 Peter 1 John 2 John 3 John Jude Revelation Subdivisions Chapters and verses Pentateuch Historical books Wisdom books Prophetic books Major prophets Minor prophets Gospels Synoptic Epistles Pauline Johannine Pastoral Catholic Apocalyptic literature Development Old Testament canon New Testament canon Antilegomena Jewish canon Christian canon Dating the Bible Manuscripts Dead Sea Scrolls Samaritan Pentateuch Septuagint Targum Diatessaron Muratorian fragment Peshitta Vetus Latina Vulgate Masoretic Text New Testament manuscript categories New Testament papyri New Testament uncials See also Bible version debate Biblical canon Authorship English Bible translations Other books referenced in the Bible Pseudepigrapha list New Testament apocrypha Studies Synod of Hippo Textual criticism Category Portal WikiProject Book v t e Psalms By number (divergent Greek number) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 (9a) 10 (9b) 11 (10) 12 (11) 13 (12) 14 (13) 15 (14) 16 (15) 17 (16) 18 (17) 19 (18) 20 (19) 21 (20) 22 (21) 23 (22) 24 (23) 25 (24) 26 (25) 27 (26) 28 (27) 29 (28) 30 (29) 31 (30) 32 (31) 33 (32) 34 (33) 35 (34) 36 (35) 37 (36) 38 (37) 39 (38) 40 (39) 41 (40) 42 (41) 43 (42) 44 (43) 45 (44) 46 (45) 47 (46) 48 (47) 49 (48) 50 (49) 51 (50) 52 (51) 53 (52) 54 (53) 55 (54) 56 (55) 57 (56) 58 (57) 59 (58) 60 (59) 61 (60) 62 (61) 63 (62) 64 (63) 65 (64) 66 (65) 67 (66) 68 (67) 69 (68) 70 (69) 71 (70) 72 (71) 73 (72) 74 (73) 75 (74) 76 (75) 77 (76) 78 (77) 79 (78) 80 (79) 81 (80) 82 (81) 83 (82) 84 (83) 85 (84) 86 (85) 87 (86) 88 (87) 89 (88) 90 (89) 91 (90) 92 (91) 93 (92) 94 (93) 95 (94) 96 (95) 97 (96) 98 (97) 99 (98) 100 (99) 101 (100) 102 (101) 103 (102) 104 (103) 105 (104) 106 (105) 107 (106) 108 (107) 109 (108) 110 (109) 111 (110) 112 (111) 113 (112) 114 (113a) 115 (113b) 116 (114–115) 117 (116) 118 (117) 119 (118) 120 (119) 121 (120) 122 (121) 123 (122) 124 (123) 125 (124) 126 (125) 127 (126) 128 (127) 129 (128) 130 (129) 131 (130) 132 (131) 133 (132) 134 (133) 135 (134) 136 (135) 137 (136) 138 (137) 139 (138) 140 (139) 141 (140) 142 (141) 143 (142) 144 (143) 145 (144) 146 (145) 147 (146–147) 148 149 150 Apocrypha or Deuterocanonical 151 (Eastern Orthodox) 152–155 (Syriac Orthodox) Psalms of Solomon Terminology Psalter Hallel Hallelujah Penitential Psalms Selah Song of Ascents Psalm phrases Beatus vir My Cup Runneth Over They have pierced my hands and my feet Related Perek Shirah Wikisource texts Tehillim (Hebrew) Septuagint (Greek) Vulgate (Latin) Wycliffe / King James / American Standard / Episcopal Prayer Book / World English Bible (English) ← Book of Job (Job 42) Portal Bible Book of Proverbs (chapter 1) → v t e Hymns and songs based on psalms Psalm 6: Straf mich nicht in deinem Zorn (Not in Anger, Mighty God) Psalm 12 (11): Ach Gott, vom Himmel sieh darein (O Lord, Look Down from Heaven, Behold) Psalm 14 (13): Es spricht der Unweisen Mund wohl (The Mouth of Fools Doth God Confess) Psalm 19 (18): Dein Lob, Herr, ruft der Himmel aus Psalm 23 (22): The King of Love My Shepherd Is, The Lord's my Shepherd Psalm 31 (30): In dich hab ich gehoffet, Herr Psalm 36 (35): Herr, deine Güt ist unbegrenzt Psalm 39 (38): Lord, let me know mine end Psalm 45 (44): Wie schön leuchtet der Morgenstern (How Lovely Shines the Morning Star) Psalm 46 (45): A Mighty Fortress Is Our God (Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott) Psalm 67 (66): Es woll uns Gott genädig sein (May God Bestow on Us His Grace) Psalm 90 (89): Our God, Our Help in Ages Past Psalm 98 (97): Nun singt ein neues Lied dem Herren Psalm 100 (99): All People that on Earth do Dwell – Nun jauchzt dem Herren, alle Welt Psalm 124 (123): Wär Gott nicht mit uns diese Zeit (If God Had Not Been on Our Side) – Wo Gott der Herr nicht bei uns hält Psalm 130 (129): Aus tiefer Not schrei ich zu dir (Out of the Depths I Cry to Thee) Psalm 133 (132): Hine Ma Tov Psalm 136 (135): Let us with a gladsome mind Psalm 137 (136): An Wasserflüssen Babylon (By the rivers of Babylon) Psalm 138 (137): Mein ganzes Herz erhebet dich Psalm 139 (138): Herr, dir ist nichts verborgen Psalm 146 (145): Du meine Seele singe Psalm 149: Singt dem Herrn ein neues Lied Becker Psalter Biblical Songs Blazhen Muzh Exclusive psalmody Genevan Psalter "Rivers of Babylon" Authority control BNF: cb120082823 (data) GND: 4047632-7 NKC: unn2006374768 SUDOC: 028199111 VIAF: 180246870 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 180246870 v t e Jewish life Birth and infancy Hebrew birthday Shalom Zachar Brit milah Zeved habat Hebrew name Pidyon haben Coming of age Upsherin Wimpel Bar and bat mitzvah Yeshiva Kollel Daily life Ritual washing Prayers and blessings Prayer services Grace after meals Kashrut Honorifics Marriage Marriageable age Role of women Tzniut Yichus Matchmaking Engagement Jewish wedding Ketubah Chuppah Sheva Brachot Niddah Mikvah Divorce Religious practice 613 commandments Customs Torah study Weekly Torah reading Daf Yomi Shiur Siyum Chavrusa Chavurah Chidush 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en-wikipedia-org-5393	----	Louis MacNeice - Wikipedia Louis MacNeice From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Louis MacNeice" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Louis MacNeice MacNeice on the cover of Selected Poems, edited by Michael Longley (1988) Born Frederick Louis MacNeice (1907-09-12)12 September 1907 Belfast, Northern Ireland Died 3 September 1963(1963-09-03) (aged 55) London, England Citizenship British Occupation Poet Frederick Louis MacNeice CBE (12 September 1907 – 3 September 1963) was an Irish poet and playwright from Northern Ireland, and a member of the Auden Group, which also included W. H. Auden, Stephen Spender and Cecil Day-Lewis. MacNeice's body of work was widely appreciated by the public during his lifetime, due in part to his relaxed but socially and emotionally aware style. Never as overtly or simplistically political as some of his contemporaries, he expressed a humane opposition to totalitarianism as well as an acute awareness of his roots. Contents 1 Life 1.1 Ireland, 1907–1917 1.2 School, 1917–1926 1.3 Oxford, 1926–1930 1.4 Birmingham, 1930–1936 1.5 London, 1936–1940 1.6 War and after, 1941–1963 2 Influence 3 Archive 4 Works 4.1 Poetry collections 4.2 Plays 4.3 Books (fiction) 4.4 Books (non-fiction) 5 Notes 6 References 7 External links Life[edit] Ireland, 1907–1917[edit] Plaque at site of MacNeice's childhood home in Carrickfergus Louis MacNeice (known as Freddie until his teens, when he adopted his middle name) was born in Belfast, the youngest son of John Frederick and Elizabeth Margaret ("Lily") MacNeice.[1] Both were originally from the West of Ireland. MacNeice's father, a Protestant minister, would go on to become a bishop of the Church of Ireland and his mother Elizabeth née Cleshan, from Ballymacrony, County Galway, had been a schoolmistress. The family moved to Carrickfergus, County Antrim, soon after MacNeice's birth.[1] When MacNeice was six, his mother was admitted to a Dublin nursing home suffering from severe depression and he did not see her again. She survived uterine cancer but died of tuberculosis in December 1914.[1] MacNeice later described the cause of his mother's death as "obscure", and blamed his mother's cancer on his own difficult birth. His brother William, who had Down's syndrome, had been sent to live in an institution in Scotland during his mother's terminal illness. In 1917, his father remarried to Georgina Greer and MacNeice's sister Elizabeth was sent to board at a preparatory school at Sherborne, England. MacNeice joined her at Sherborne Preparatory School later in the year.[1] School, 1917–1926[edit] MacNeice was generally happy at Sherborne, which gave an education concentrating on the Classics (Greek and Latin) and literature (including the memorising of poetry). He was an enthusiastic sportsman, something which continued when he moved to Marlborough College in 1921, having won a classical scholarship. Marlborough was a less happy place, with a hierarchical and sometimes cruel social structure, but MacNeice's interest in ancient literature and civilisation deepened and expanded to include Egyptian and Norse mythology. In 1922, he was invited to join Marlborough's secret 'Society of Amici'[2] where he was a contemporary of John Betjeman and Anthony Blunt, forming a lifelong friendship with the latter. He also wrote poetry and essays for the school magazines.[3] By the end of his time at the school, MacNeice was sharing a study with Blunt and also sharing his aesthetic tastes, though not his sexual ones; Blunt said MacNeice was "totally, irredeemably heterosexual". In November 1925, MacNeice was awarded a postmastership to Merton College, Oxford,[4] and he left Marlborough in the summer of the following year. He left behind his birth name of Frederick, his accent and his father's faith, although he never lost a sense of his Irishness;[1] (the BBC radio premiere of MacNeice's The Dark Tower in 1947, was preceded by the poet's ten-minute introduction in his distinctive Northern Irish accent.)[5] Oxford, 1926–1930[edit] It was during his first year as a student at Oxford that MacNeice first met W. H. Auden, who had gained a reputation as the university's foremost poet during the preceding year. Stephen Spender and Cecil Day-Lewis were already part of Auden's circle, but MacNeice's closest Oxford friends were John Hilton, Christopher Holme and Graham Shepard, who had been with him at Marlborough. MacNeice threw himself into the aesthetic culture, publishing poetry in literary magazines The Cherwell and Sir Galahad, organising candle-lit readings of Shelley and Marlowe, and visiting Paris with Hilton. Auden would become a lifelong friend who inspired MacNeice to take up poetry seriously.[3] In 1928 he was introduced to the Classics don John Beazley and his stepdaughter Mary Ezra. A year later he thought to soften the news that he had been arrested for drunkenness by telegraphing his father to say he was engaged to be married to Mary. John MacNeice (by now Archdeacon of Connor, and a Bishop a few years later) was horrified to discover his son was engaged to a Jew, while Ezra's family demanded assurances that Louis's brother's Down's syndrome was not hereditary. Amidst this turmoil MacNeice published four poems in Oxford Poetry, 1929 and his first undergraduate collection Blind Fireworks (1929). Published by Gollancz,[1] the volume was dedicated to "Giovanna" (Mary's full name was Giovanna Marie Thérèse Babette [1908-1991]). In 1930 the couple were married at Oxford Register Office, neither set of parents attending the ceremony. He was awarded a first-class degree in literae humaniores, and had already gained an appointment as Assistant Lecturer in Classics at the University of Birmingham.[1][4] Birmingham, 1930–1936[edit] The newlyweds were found lodgings in Birmingham by E. R. Dodds and his wife, Bet – Dodds was Professor of Greek (and later to be MacNeice's literary executor). Bet was a lecturer in the Department of English. The MacNeices lived in a former coachman's cottage in the grounds of a house in Selly Park belonging to another professor, Philip Sargant Florence. Birmingham was a very different university (and city) from Oxford, MacNeice was not a natural lecturer, and he found it difficult to write poetry. He turned instead to a semi-autobiographical novel, Roundabout Way, which was published in 1932 under the name of Louis Malone as he feared a novel by an academic would not be favourably reviewed. He felt that married life was not helping his poetry: "To write poems expressing doubt or melancholy, an anarchist conception of freedom or nostalgia for the open spaces (and these were the things that I wanted to express), seemed disloyal to Mariette. Instead I was disloyal to myself, wrote a novel which purported to be an idyll of domestic felicity.[1] As we predicted, the novel was not well received."[1] The local Classical Association included George Augustus Auden, Professor of Public Health and father of W. H. Auden, and by 1932 MacNeice and Auden's Oxford acquaintance had turned into a close friendship. Auden knew many Marxists, and Blunt had also become a communist by this time, but MacNeice, although sympathetic to the left, was always sceptical of easy answers and "the armchair reformist". The Strings are False (written at the time of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact) describes his wish for a change in society and even revolution, but also his intellectual opposition to Marxism and especially the communism embraced by many of his friends. MacNeice started to write poetry again, and in January 1933 he and Auden led the first edition of Geoffrey Grigson's magazine New Verse. MacNeice also started sending poems to T. S. Eliot at around this time, and although Eliot did not feel that they merited Faber and Faber publishing a volume of poems, several were published in Eliot's journal The Criterion. On 15 May 1934, Louis and Mary's son Daniel John MacNeice was born. In September of that year, MacNeice travelled to Dublin with Dodds, who had republican sympathies, and met William Butler Yeats. Unsuccessful attempts at playwriting and another novel were followed in September 1935 by Poems, the first of his collections for Faber and Faber, who would remain his publishers. This helped establish MacNeice as one of the new poets of the 1930s.[1] In November, Mary left MacNeice and their infant son for a Russian-American graduate student called Charles Katzmann who had been staying with the family.[1] MacNeice engaged a nurse to look after Dan, and his sister and stepmother also helped on occasion. In early 1936, Blunt and MacNeice visited Spain, shortly after the election of the Popular Front government. Auden and MacNeice travelled to Iceland in the summer of that year, which resulted in Letters from Iceland, a collection of poems, letters (some in verse) and essays. In October, MacNeice left Birmingham for a lecturing post in the Department of Greek at Bedford College for Women, part of the University of London. London, 1936–1940[edit] MacNeice was featured in two high-profile collections of modernist poetry of 1936. The Faber Book of Modern Verse, edited by young writer and critic Michael Roberts, collected work published after 1910, printing MacNeice's '"An Eclogue for Christmas", "Sunday Morning", "Perseus", "The Creditor" and "Snow" towards the end of the roughly chronological book.[6] In the book, MacNeice is set in amongst others of the new Auden Group, presenting a version of modernism in which Eliot is the star. MacNeice and his group were also featured in Oxford Book of Modern Verse 1892–1935, edited by Yeats. This collection generally excluded American poets and was less well received critically, but instantaneously became a best-seller.[6] MacNeice moved into Geoffrey Grigson's former flat in Hampstead with Daniel and his nurse. His translation of Aeschylus's Agamemnon was published in late 1936, and produced by the Group Theatre.[1] Shortly afterwards his divorce from Mary was finalised.[1] They continued to write frequent affectionate letters to one another, although Mary married Katzmann shortly after the divorce. MacNeice started an affair with Nancy Coldstream. Nancy was, like her husband Bill, a painter and a friend of Auden who had introduced the couple to MacNeice while they were in Birmingham. MacNeice and Nancy visited the Hebrides in 1937, which resulted in a book of prose and verse written by MacNeice with illustrations by Nancy, I Crossed the Minch.[1][7] August 1937 saw the appearance of Letters from Iceland (which had been finished by the two authors in MacNeice's London home the previous year), and towards the end of the year a play called Out of the Picture was published and produced by the Group Theatre. Music was written for the production by Benjamin Britten, as he had done previously for Agamemnon.[1] In 1938, Faber and Faber published a second collection of poems, The Earth Compels, the Oxford University Press published Modern Poetry, and Nancy once again contributed illustrations to a book about London Zoo, called simply Zoo. As the year – and his relationship with Nancy – drew to a close, he started work on Autumn Journal. By Christmas, Nancy was in love with Stephen Spender's brother Michael, whom she was later to marry, and at the end of the year MacNeice visited Barcelona shortly before the city fell to Franco. The poem was finished by February 1939, and published in May. It is widely viewed as MacNeice's masterpiece, recording his feelings as the Spanish Civil War raged and the United Kingdom headed towards war with Germany, as well as his personal concerns and reflections over the past decade. During the Easter holiday that year, MacNeice made a brief lecture tour of various American universities, also meeting Mary and Charles Katzmann and giving a reading with Auden and Christopher Isherwood in New York attended by John Berryman, and at which Auden met Chester Kallman for the first time. MacNeice also met the writer Eleanor Clark in New York, and arranged to spend the next academic year on sabbatical so that he could be with her. A lectureship at Cornell University was organised, and in December 1939 MacNeice sailed for America, leaving his son in Ireland. Cornell proved a success but the relationship with Eleanor did not, and MacNeice was back in London by the end of 1940. Faber and Faber published Selected Poems in March 1940, which contained 20 poems drawn from Poems 1935, The Earth Compels and Autumn Journal. It went through six impressions by 1945. MacNeice worked as a freelance journalist (he had resigned from his lecturing position at Bedford College while in America) and was awaiting the publication of Plant and Phantom, which was dedicated to Clark (the previous year, the Cuala Press had published The Last Ditch, a limited edition containing some poems that would appear in the new volume). In early 1941, MacNeice was employed by the BBC. War and after, 1941–1963[edit] MacNeice's work for the BBC initially involved writing and producing radio programmes intended to build support for the US, and later Russia – cultural programmes emphasising links between the countries rather than outright propaganda. A critical work on W. B. Yeats (on which he had been working since the poet's death in 1939) was published early in 1941, as were Plant and Phantom and Poems 1925–1940 (an American anthology). At the end of the year, MacNeice started a relationship with Hedli Anderson and they were married in July 1942, three months after the death of his father.[1] Brigid Corinna MacNeice (known by her second name like her parents, or as "Bimba") was born a year later. By the end of the war MacNeice had written well over sixty scripts for the BBC and a further collection of poems, Springboard. The radio play Christopher Columbus, produced in 1942 and later published as a book, featured music by William Walton, conducted by Adrian Boult, and starred Laurence Olivier. 1943's He Had a Date (loosely based on the life and death of MacNeice's friend Graham Shepard but also semi-autobiographical) was also published, as was The Dark Tower (1946, again with music by Britten). Dylan Thomas acted in some of MacNeice's plays during this period, and the two poets, both heavy drinkers, also became social companions. In 1947, the BBC sent MacNeice to report on Indian independence and partition, and he continued to produce plays for the corporation, including a six-part radio adaptation of Goethe's Faust in 1949. 1948's collection of poems, Holes in the Sky, met with a less favourable reception than previous books. In 1950 he was given eighteen months' leave to become Director of the British Institute in Athens, run by the British Council.[4] Patrick Leigh Fermor had previously been Deputy Director of the Institute, and he and his future wife, the Honourable Joan Elizabeth Rayner (née Eyres Monsell), became close friends of the MacNeices. Ten Burnt Offerings, poems written in Greece, were broadcast by the BBC in 1951 and published the following year. The family returned to England in August 1951, and Dan (who had been at an English boarding school) left for America in early 1952 to stay with his mother, to avoid national service. Dan would return to England in 1953, but went to live permanently with his mother after a legal battle with MacNeice. In 1953, MacNeice wrote Autumn Sequel, a long autobiographical poem in terza rima, which critics compared unfavourably with Autumn Journal. The death of Dylan Thomas came partway through the writing of the poem, and MacNeice involved himself in memorials for the poet and attempts to raise money for his family. 1953 and 1954 brought lecture and performance tours of the USA (husband and wife would present an evening of song, monologue and poetry readings), and meetings with John Berryman (on the returning boat in 1953, and later in London) and Eleanor Clark (by now married to Robert Penn Warren). MacNeice travelled to Egypt in 1955 and Ghana in 1956 on lengthy assignments for the BBC. Another poorly received collection of poems, Visitations, was published in 1957, and the MacNeices bought a holiday home on the Isle of Wight from J. B. Priestley (an acquaintance since MacNeice's arrival in London twenty years earlier). However, the marriage was starting to become strained. MacNeice was drinking increasingly heavily, and having more or less serious affairs with other women. At this time MacNeice became increasingly independent of spirit, spending time with other writers, including Dominic Behan with whom he regularly drank to oblivion; the two men spent a particularly drunken night in the home of Cecil Woodham-Smith during a curious meeting in Ireland whilst Behan was working on assignment as a writer for Life magazine and MacNeice on assignment with the BBC. During the trip, which allegedly lasted some weeks, neither writer managed successfully to file their copy. MacNeice was buried at Carrowdore with his mother MacNeice was awarded the CBE in the 1958 New Year's Honours list.[4] A South African trip in 1959 was followed by the start of his final relationship, with the actress Mary Wimbush, who had performed in his plays since the forties. Hedli asked MacNeice to leave the family home in late 1960. In early 1961, Solstices was published, and in the middle of the year MacNeice became a half-time employee at the BBC, leaving him six months a year to work on his own projects. By this time he was "living on alcohol", and eating very little, but still writing (including a commissioned work on astrology, which he viewed as "hack-work"). In August 1963 he went caving in Yorkshire to gather sound effects for his final radio play, Persons from Porlock. Caught in a storm on the moors, he did not change out of his wet clothes until he was home in Hertfordshire. Bronchitis evolved into viral pneumonia, and he was admitted to hospital in London on 27 August, dying there on 3 September, aged 55.[8][3] He was buried in Carrowdore churchyard in County Down, with his mother.[3] His final book of poems, The Burning Perch, was published a few days after his funeral – Auden, who gave a reading at MacNeice's memorial service, described the poems of his last two years as "among his very best".[citation needed] Influence[edit] MacNeice wrote in the introduction to his Autumn Journal, "Poetry in my opinion must be honest before anything else and I refuse to be 'objective' or clear-cut at the cost of honesty."[9] He has inspired many poets since his death, particularly those from Northern Ireland such as Paul Muldoon and Michael Longley.[10] There has been a movement to reclaim him as an Irish writer rather than a satellite of Auden.[11] Longley has edited two selections of his work, and Muldoon gives more space to MacNeice than to any other author in his Faber Book of Contemporary Irish Poetry, which covers the period from the death of W. B. Yeats until 1986. Muldoon and Derek Mahon have both written elegies for MacNeice, Mahon's coming after a pilgrimage to the poet's grave in the company of Longley and Seamus Heaney in 1965. At the time of MacNeice's death, John Berryman described him as "one of my best friends", and wrote an elegy in Dream Song #267. Archive[edit] Louis MacNeice's archive was established at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin in 1964, a year after MacNeice's death. The collection, largely coming from MacNeice's sister Elizabeth Nicholson, includes manuscripts of poetic and dramatic works, a large number of books, correspondence, and books from MacNeice's library.[12] Works[edit] Poetry collections[edit] Blind Fireworks (1929, mainly considered by MacNeice to be juvenilia and excluded from the 1949 Collected Poems) Poems (1935) Letters from Iceland (1937, with W. H. Auden, poetry and prose) The Earth Compels (1938) Autumn Journal (1939) The Last Ditch (1940) Selected Poems (1940) Plant and Phantom (1941) Springboard (1944) Prayer Before Birth (1944) Holes in the Sky (1948) Collected Poems, 1925–1948 (1949) Ten Burnt Offerings (1952) Autumn Sequel (1954) Visitations (1957) Solstices (1961) The Burning Perch (1963) Star-gazer (1963) Selected Poems (1964, edited by W. H. Auden) Collected Poems (1966, edited by E. R. Dodds) Selected Poems (1988, edited by Michael Longley, redesigned and republished by Wake Forest University Press, 2009) Collected Poems (2007, edited by Peter McDonald) Plays[edit] The Agamemnon of Aeschylus (1936, translation) Out of the Picture (1937) Christopher Columbus (1944, radio) & performed, Brighton Dome (2002) He Had a Date (1944, radio, not published separately) The Dark Tower and other radio scripts (1947) Goethe's Faust (1949, published 1951, a translation) The Mad Islands [1962] and The Administrator [1961] (1964, radio) Persons from Porlock [1963] and other plays for radio (1969) One for the Grave: a modern morality play [1958] (1968) Selected Plays of Louis MacNeice, ed. Alan Heuser and Peter McDonald (1993) MacNeice also wrote several plays which were never produced, and many for the BBC which were never published. Books (fiction)[edit] Roundabout Way (1932, as "Louis Malone") The Sixpence That Rolled Away (1956, for children) Books (non-fiction)[edit] First edition dust jacket of Zoo, (1938), illustrations by Nancy Sharp I Crossed the Minch (1938, travel, prose and verse) Modern Poetry: A Personal Essay (1938, criticism) Zoo (1938) The Poetry of W. B. Yeats (1941) The Strings Are False (1941, published 1965, autobiography) Meet the US Army (1943) Astrology (1964) Varieties of Parable (1965, criticism) Selected Prose of Louis MacNeice, ed. Alan Heuser (1990) Notes[edit] Louis MacNeice, Collected Poems, ed. by Peter McDonald, Faber and Faber, 2007. Louis MacNeice: Selected Poems, Longley, Michael (ed. and Introduction), Faber and Faber. ISBN 0-571-15270-8; published in the United States by Wake Forest University Press. Louis MacNeice, The Strings are False (autobiography), Faber and Faber, 1965. ISBN 0-571-11832-1 Jon Stallworthy Louis MacNeice Faber and Faber, 1995. ISBN 0-571-17687-9 References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Poetry Foundation profile. ^ Paths of Progress: A History of Marlborough College by Rt Hon Peter Brooke MP and Thomas Hinde ^ a b c d "BBC NI Learning - Writing Home website - profile of Louis MacNeice". www.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 8 December 2018. ^ a b c d Levens, R.G.C., ed. (1964). Merton College Register 1900-1964. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. p. 184. ^ The broadcast was repeated on BBC Radio 3 May 27, 2020, including MacNeice's introduction. ^ a b Korte, Schneider and Lethbridge (2000), Anthologies of British Poetry: Critical Perspectives from Literary and Cultural Studies, Faber Book of Modern Verse (1936). Editions Rodopi B.V. pp. 156–164 ISBN 90-420-1301-X ^ On p157 of 'I Crossed The Minch' MacNeice writes that he wrote 'Leaving Barra' (Poems, 1937) sitting on a deck-chair in the stern of a ship. The closing verses and particularly the closing line of this poem, "While you are alive beyond question, Like the dazzle on the sea, my darling." fits with his writing in 'The Strings Are False', p171, about spending time in 1937 with someone "of all the people I have known she could be the most radiant." He also writes that she "could be as gloomy as to black-out London," but that "I do not regret the hours and hours of argument and melancholy, the unanswerable lamentations of someone who wanted to be happy in a way that was just not practical." ^ Mahon, Derek (20 December 2012). Genet, Jacqueline; Hellegouarc’h, Wynne (eds.). Studies on Louis MacNeice. Presses universitaires de Caen. pp. 63–77. Retrieved 8 December 2018 – via OpenEdition Books. ^ MacNeice, Louis (1996). Autumn Journal. Faber & Faber. p. 7. ISBN 9780571177769. ^ "Louis MacNeice". poetryarchive.org. ^ K. Devine and A. J. Peacock, Louis MacNeice and His Influence, ISBN 0-86140-391-6 ^ "Louis MacNeice: An Inventory of His Collection at the Harry Ransom Center". norman.hrc.utexas.edu. Retrieved 6 November 2017. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Louis MacNeice Wikimedia Commons has media related to Louis MacNeice. Louis MacNeice Papers at the Harry Ransom Center Local Writing Legends – Louis MacNeice at bbc.co.uk Profile at the Poetry Archive Profile at Poets.org Profile at Poetry Foundation MacNeice at portraits at National Portrait Gallery Arthur Strain, "Writer's life celebrated", BBC News, 12 September 2007. Text and audio file. Louis MacNeice Memorial Programme BBC Radio, 1963 Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library, Emory University: Louis MacNeice collection, 1926-1959 Finding aid to Louis MacNeice papers at Columbia University. Rare Book & Manuscript Library. v t e Irish poetry Topics Irish poetry Chief Ollam of Ireland Irish bardic poetry Irish Literary Revival Metrical Dindshenchas Contention of the bards Aisling Weaver Poets An Gúm Kildare Poems Táin Bó Cúailnge Poets Bardic Mael Ísu Ua Brolcháin Muircheartach Ó Cobhthaigh Gilla Mo Dutu Úa Caiside Baothghalach Mór Mac Aodhagáin Giolla Brighde Mac Con Midhe Gofraidh Fionn Ó Dálaigh Flann mac Lonáin Donnchadh Mór Ó Dálaigh Lochlann Óg Ó Dálaigh Fear Flaith Ó Gnímh Mathghamhain Ó hIfearnáin Cormac Mac Con Midhe Eoghan Carrach Ó Siadhail Fear Feasa Ó'n Cháinte Tadhg Olltach Ó an Cháinte Eochaidh Ó hÉoghusa Proinsias Ó Doibhlin Tarlach Rua Mac Dónaill Gilla Cómáin mac Gilla Samthainde Tadhg Dall Ó hÚigínn Niníne Éces Colmán of Cloyne Cináed ua hArtacáin Muireadhach Albanach Ó Dálaigh Cearbhall Óg Ó Dálaigh Máeleoin Bódur Ó Maolconaire Diarmaid Mac an Bhaird Cú Choigcríche Ó Cléirigh Dallán Forgaill Óengus of Tallaght Sedulius Scottus Saint Dungal Maol Sheachluinn na n-Uirsgéal Ó hÚigínn Philip Ó Duibhgeannain 15th/16th century Tomás Ó Cobhthaigh 17th century Dáibhí Ó Bruadair Piaras Feiritéar Aogán Ó Rathaille 18th century Aogán Ó Rathaille Brian Merriman Jonathan Swift Oliver Goldsmith John Hewitt 19th century Thomas Moore Charles Gavan Duffy James Clarence Mangan Samuel Ferguson William Allingham Douglas Hyde James Henry Antoine Ó Raifteiri Aeneas Coffey Robert Dwyer Joyce Thomas Davis Speranza Katharine Tynan Oscar Wilde 20th century James Joyce Patrick Pearse Joseph Plunkett Thomas MacDonagh Francis Ledwidge Padraic Colum F. R. Higgins Austin Clarke Samuel Beckett Brian Coffey Denis Devlin Thomas MacGreevy Blanaid Salkeld Mary Devenport O'Neill Patrick Kavanagh John Hewitt Louis MacNeice Máirtín Ó Direáin Seán Ó Ríordáin Máire Mhac an tSaoi Michael Hartnett Gabriel Rosenstock Nuala Ní Dhomhnaill Micheál Mac Liammóir Robert Greacen Roy McFadden Padraic Fiacc John Montague Michael Longley Derek Mahon Seamus Heaney Paul Muldoon Thomas Kinsella Michael Smith Trevor Joyce Geoffrey Squires Augustus Young Randolph Healy John Jordan Paul Durcan Basil Payne Eoghan Ó Tuairisc Patrick Galvin Cathal Ó Searcaigh Bobby Sands Rita Ann Higgins Eavan Boland Eiléan Ní Chuilleanáin Medbh McGuckian Paula Meehan Dennis O'Driscoll Seán Dunne Anthony Cronin W. F. Marshall W. B. Yeats 21st century Thomas McCarthy John Ennis Pat Boran Mairéad Byrne Ciarán Carson Patrick Chapman Harry Clifton Tony Curtis Pádraig J. Daly Gerald Dawe Greg Delanty Eamon Grennan Vona Groarke Seamus Heaney Pat Ingoldsby Brendan Kennelly Hugh McFadden Sinéad Morrissey Gerry Murphy Bernard O'Donoghue Conor O'Callaghan Caitriona O'Reilly Justin Quinn Maurice Riordan Maurice Scully William Wall Catherine Walsh Poems Anthologies Faber Book of Irish Verse Epics The Wanderings of Oisin Bardic Timna Cathaír Máir Caithréim Cellaig Le dís cuirthear clú Laighean Is acher in gaíth in-nocht... Is trúag in ces i mbiam Sen dollotar Ulaid ... Sorrow is the worst thing in life ... An Díbirt go Connachta Foraire Uladh ar Aodh A aonmhic Dé do céasadh thrínn A theachtaire tig ón Róimh An sluagh sidhe so i nEamhuin? Cóir Connacht ar chath Laighean Dia libh a laochruidh Gaoidhiol Pangur Bán Liamuin Buile Shuibhne The Prophecy of Berchán Bean Torrach, fa Tuar Broide 18th century The Traveller Suantraí dá Mhac Tabhartha Mná na hÉireann 19th century Tone's Grave The Wind That Shakes the Barley Contemporary Love Songs of Connacht Hi Uncle Sam Meeting The British Horse Latitudes Sweeney Astray Prayer Before Birth D-Day Organizations Poetry Ireland Publications Cyphers Poetry Ireland Review The Lace Curtain Events SoundEye Festival Authority control BNE: XX1011210 BNF: cb121749773 (data) GND: 118575988 ISNI: 0000 0001 0895 7761 LCCN: n79032198 MBA: e04ccd85-d379-40b0-96c9-5074588cf7ea NKC: kup19950000060034 NLG: 123320 NTA: 07002202X SELIBR: 365227 SNAC: w615504j SUDOC: 029360102 Trove: 200698 VIAF: 46802910 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79032198 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Louis_MacNeice&oldid=978585169" Categories: 1907 births 1963 deaths Academics of Bedford College, London Academics of the University of Birmingham Alumni of Merton College, Oxford Anglicans from Northern Ireland Classical scholars of the University of Birmingham Commanders of the Order of the British Empire Formalist poets Male poets from Northern Ireland People educated at Marlborough College Prix Italia winners 20th-century British male writers 20th-century Irish poets Translators of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe Hidden categories: EngvarB from August 2014 Use dmy dates from August 2014 Articles needing additional references from July 2020 All articles needing additional references Articles with hCards All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2020 Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages العربية Català Cymraeg Deutsch Euskara فارسی Français Italiano Polski Русский Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 15 September 2020, at 19:56 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5401	----	Cornelius Nepos - Wikipedia Cornelius Nepos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Cornelius Nepos Cornelius Nepos (/kɔːrˈniːliəs ˈniːpɒs, ˈnɛpɒs/; c. 110 BC – c. 25 BC) was a Roman biographer. He was born at Hostilia, a village in Cisalpine Gaul not far from Verona. Contents 1 Biography 2 Works 3 References 3.1 Citations 3.2 Further reading 4 External links Biography[edit] Nepos's Cisalpine birth is attested by Ausonius, and Pliny the Elder calls him Padi accola ("a dweller on the River Po", Naturalis historia III.127). He was a friend of Catullus, who dedicates his poems to him (I.3), Cicero and Titus Pomponius Atticus. Eusebius places him in the fourth year of the reign of Augustus, which is supposed to be when he began to attract critical acclaim by his writing. Pliny the Elder notes he died in the reign of Augustus (Natural History IX.39, X.23). His simple style of writing has made him, in the UK at least, a standard choice for passages of unseen translation in Latin exams, from prep school, even up to degree level. Works[edit] Nearly all of Nepos' writings are lost, but several allusions to them survive in works by other authors. Aulus Gellius' Attic Nights are of special importance in this respect. Chronica, an epitome of universal history; Catullus seems to allude to the "Chronica" in his dedication to Nepos. Ausonius also mentions it in his sixteenth Epistle to Probus, as does Aulus Gellius in the Noctes Atticae (XVII.21). "Probably a chronological summary which included the history of outside nations as well as of Rome," it is thought to have been written in three books.[1] Exempla, a collection of anecdotes after the style of Valerius Maximus; Exemplorum libri, of which Charisius cites the second book, and Aulus Gellius the fifth (VI.18, 19). The book likely contained "models for imitation, drawn from the early Romans, whose simplicity contrasted with the luxury" of Nepos' era.[2]" letters to Cicero; De Vita Ciceronis. Aulus Gellius corrects an error in this work (XV.28). The book is thought to have been written after the death of the consul, statesman and orator Cicero. According to Roberts, "his friendship for Cicero and Atticus and his access to their correspondence would have made the work an especially valuable one for us." lives of Cato the elder; A complete biography of Cato the Censor, from which Aulus Gellius draws an anecdote of Cato (IX.8). De viris illustribus, parallel lives of distinguished Romans and foreigners, in sixteen books. Epistulae ad Ciceronem, an extract of which survives in Lactantius (Divinarum Institutionum Libri Septem III.15). It is unclear whether they were ever formally published. Pliny the Younger mentions verse written by Nepos, and in his own Life of Dion, Nepos himself refers to a work of his own authorship, De Historicis. If a separate work, this would be from a hypothesized De Historicis Latinis, only one book in the larger De Viris Illustribus (see below), although exclusively comprising biographies of Romans. Pliny also mentions a longer Life of Cato at the end of the extant Life of Cato, written at the request of Titus Pomponius Atticus, the "complete biography" now lost. His only surviving work is the Excellentium Imperatorum Vitae. This book is in fact only one volume of Nepos' larger "De Viris Illustribus," originally containing "descriptions of foreign and Roman kings, generals, lawyers, orators, poets, historians, and philosophers," in addition to this sole surviving (and thought to be complete) book of commanders and generals (imperatores).[3] It appeared in the reign of Theodosius I, as the work of the grammarian Aemilius Probus, who presented it to the emperor with a dedication in Latin verse. He claims it to have been the work of his mother or father (the manuscripts vary) and his grandfather. Despite the obvious questions (such as why the preface addressed to someone named Atticus when the work was supposedly dedicated to Theodosius), no one seemed to have doubted Probus's authorship. Eventually Peter Cornerus[citation needed] discovered in a manuscript of Cicero's letters the biographies of Cato and Atticus. He added them to the other existing biographies, despite the fact that the writer speaks of himself as a contemporary and friend of Atticus, and that the manuscript bore the heading E libro posteriore Cornelii Nepotis ('from the last book of Cornelius Nepos'). At last Dionysius Lambinus's edition of 1569 bore a commentary demonstrating on stylistic grounds that the work must have been of Nepos alone, and not Aemilius Probus. This view has been tempered by more recent scholarship,[citation needed] which agrees with Lambinus that they are the work of Nepos, but that Probus probably abridged the biographies when he added the verse dedication. The Life of Atticus, however, is considered to be the exclusive composition of Nepos. References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Roberts, Arthur W. Selected Lives from Cornelius Nepos. Boston: Ginn & Company, 1895 ^ Roberts. ^ Roberts. Further reading[edit] Bradley, J. R. The Sources of Cornelius Nepos : Selected Lives. New York: Garland Pub., 1991. Conte, Gian Biagio. Latin Literature: a History (trans: Solodow, Joseph B.). Baltimore. 1994. esp. pp. 221–3. Geiger, M. J. Cornelius Nepos and Ancient Political Biography. Stuttgart: Steiner Verlag Wiesbaden, 1985. Hägg, T. The Art of Biography in Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012. Lindsay, H. “The Biography of Atticus : Cornelius Nepos on the Philosophical and Ethical Background of Pomponius Atticus.” Latomus, vol. 57, no. 2, 1998, pp. 324–336. Lord, L. E. “The Biographical Interests of Nepos.” The Classical Journal, vol. 22, no. 7, 1927, pp. 498–503. Malcovati, Enrica. Quae exstant (G.B. Paravia, 1944). Includes a summary of all references to Nepos' lost works ("Deperditorum librorum reliquiae", pp. 177–206). Marshall, P. K. The Manuscript Tradition of Cornelius Nepos. London: Institute of Classical Studies, 1977. Millar, F. “Cornelius Nepos, 'Atticus' and the Roman Revolution.” Greece & Rome, vol. 35, no. 1, 1988, pp. 40–55. Peck, Harry Thurston: "Nepos" (Harper's Dictionary of Classical Antiquities, 1898) Pryzwansky, M. M. “Cornelius Nepos: Key Issues and Critical Approaches.” The Classical Journal, vol. 105, no. 2, 2010, pp. 97–108. Roberts, Arthur W. Selected Lives from Cornelius Nepos. Boston: Ginn & Company, 1895. Stem, S. R. The Political Biographies of Cornelius Nepos. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2012. Titchener, Frances. “Cornelius Nepos and the Biographical Tradition.” Greece & Rome, vol. 50, no. 1, 2003, pp. 85–99. Watson, Rev. John Selby. Justin, Cornelius Nepos, and Eutropius: Literally Translated, with Notes and a General Index. Henry G. Bohn, London 1853. External links[edit] Library resources about Cornelius Nepos Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Cornelius Nepos Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Media related to Cornelius Nepos at Wikimedia Commons  Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: Cornelius Nepos Works by Cornelius Nepos at Perseus Digital Library Dickinson College Commentaries: Life of Hannibal Works of Nepos, in Latin, at the Latin Library Cornelius Nepos at tertullian.org (Rev. John Selby Watson's translation of the Lives, with preface and translation of the fragments by Roger Pearse) Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Nepos, Cornelius" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Authority control BIBSYS: 90368448 BNE: XX1723450 BNF: cb11985468f (data) CANTIC: a10963698 CiNii: DA00787496 GND: 118747681 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\011643 ISNI: 0000 0001 2145 2020 LCCN: n50004515 NDL: 00515218 NKC: jn19981001886 NSK: 000068617 NTA: 069709823 RERO: 02-A000121414 SELIBR: 233613 SUDOC: 02727229X Trove: 1134036 VcBA: 495/43397 VIAF: 100219060 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n50004515 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cornelius_Nepos&oldid=960560936" Categories: Golden Age Latin writers Latin-language writers Roman-era biographers Cornelii 2nd-century BC Romans 1st-century BC Romans 1st-century BC writers 110s BC births 20s BC deaths Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2012 Articles with unsourced statements from August 2014 Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth uncertain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Furlan Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Latina Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Plattdüütsch Polski Português Русский Shqip Sicilianu Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська West-Vlams 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 3 June 2020, at 16:44 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-540	----	List of Roman deities - Wikipedia List of Roman deities From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikipedia list article Religion in ancient Rome Marcus Aurelius (head covered) sacrificing at the Temple of Jupiter Practices and beliefs libation sacrifice votum temples festivals ludi funerals Imperial cult mystery religions Priesthoods Pontifices Augures Vestales Flamines Fetiales Epulones Fratres Arvales Deities List of Roman deities Twelve major gods Capitoline Triad Aventine Triad underworld gods indigitamenta Deified emperors: Divus Julius Divus Augustus Related topics Glossary of ancient Roman religion Roman mythology Ancient Greek religion Etruscan religion Gallo-Roman religion Interpretatio graeca Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism v t e "Roman pantheon" redirects here. It is not to be confused with Pantheon, Rome. The Roman deities most familiar today are those the Romans identified with Greek counterparts (see interpretatio graeca), integrating Greek myths, iconography, and sometimes religious practices into Roman culture, including Latin literature, Roman art, and religious life as it was experienced throughout the Empire. Many of the Romans' own gods remain obscure, known only by name and sometimes function, through inscriptions and texts that are often fragmentary. This is particularly true of those gods belonging to the archaic religion of the Romans dating back to the era of kings, the so-called "religion of Numa", which was perpetuated or revived over the centuries. Some archaic deities have Italic or Etruscan counterparts, as identified both by ancient sources and by modern scholars. Throughout the Empire, the deities of peoples in the provinces were given new theological interpretations in light of functions or attributes they shared with Roman deities. An extensive alphabetical list follows a survey of theological groups as constructed by the Romans themselves.[1] For the cult pertaining to deified Roman emperors (divi), see Imperial cult. Contents 1 Titles and honorifics 1.1 Augustus and Augusta 1.2 Bonus and Bona 1.3 Caelestis 1.4 Invictus 1.5 Mater and Pater 1.5.1 Magna Mater 2 Collectives 2.1 Spatial tripartition 2.2 Di indigetes and novensiles 3 Roman god lists 3.1 Triads 3.2 Groupings of twelve 3.2.1 Lectisternium of 217 BC 3.2.2 Dii Consentes 3.3 Di Flaminales 3.3.1 The three Roman deities cultivated by major flamens[16] 3.3.2 Twelve Roman deities attended by the minor flamens 3.4 Di selecti 3.5 Sabine gods 3.6 Indigitamenta 3.7 Alphabetical list 3.7.1 A 3.7.2 B 3.7.3 C 3.7.4 D 3.7.5 E 3.7.6 F 3.7.7 G 3.7.8 H 3.7.9 I 3.7.10 J 3.7.11 L 3.7.12 M 3.7.13 N 3.7.14 O 3.7.15 P 3.7.16 Q 3.7.17 R 3.7.18 S 3.7.19 T 3.7.20 V 4 See also 5 References Titles and honorifics[edit] Certain honorifics and titles could be shared by different gods, divine personifications, demi-gods and divi (deified mortals). Augustus and Augusta[edit] Augustus, "the elevated or august one" (masculine form) is an honorific and title awarded to Octavian in recognition of his unique status, the extraordinary range of his powers, and the apparent divine approval of his principate. After his death and deification, the title was awarded to each of his successors. It also became a near ubiquitous title or honour for various minor local deities, including the Lares Augusti of local communities, and obscure provincial deities such as the North African Marazgu Augustus. This extension of an Imperial honorific to major and minor deities of Rome and her provinces is considered a ground-level feature of Imperial cult. Augusta, the feminine form, is an honorific and title associated with the development and dissemination of Imperial cult as applied to Roman Empresses, whether living, deceased or deified as divae. The first Augusta was Livia, wife of Octavian, and the title is then shared by various state goddesses including Bona Dea, Ceres, Juno, Minerva, and Ops; by many minor or local goddesses; and by the female personifications of Imperial virtues such as Pax and Victoria. Bonus and Bona[edit] The epithet Bonus, "the Good," is used in Imperial ideology with abstract deities such as Bona Fortuna ("Good Fortune"), Bona Mens ("Good Thinking" or "Sound Mind"), and Bona Spes ("Valid Hope," perhaps to be translated as "Optimism"). During the Republic, the epithet may be most prominent with Bona Dea, "the Good Goddess" whose rites were celebrated by women. Bonus Eventus, "Good Outcome", was one of Varro's twelve agricultural deities, and later represented success in general.[2] Roman Isis in black and white marble, from the time of Apuleius Caelestis[edit] From the middle Imperial period, the title Caelestis, "Heavenly" or "Celestial" is attached to several goddesses embodying aspects of a single, supreme Heavenly Goddess. The Dea Caelestis was identified with the constellation Virgo ("The Virgin"), who holds the divine balance of justice. In the Metamorphoses of Apuleius,[3] the protagonist Lucius prays to the Hellenistic Egyptian goddess Isis as Regina Caeli, "Queen of Heaven", who is said to manifest also as Ceres, "the original nurturing parent"; Heavenly Venus (Venus Caelestis); the "sister of Phoebus", that is, Diana or Artemis as she is worshipped at Ephesus; or Proserpina as the triple goddess of the underworld. Juno Caelestis was the Romanised form of the Carthaginian Tanit.[4] Grammatically, the form Caelestis can also be a masculine word, but the equivalent function for a male deity is usually expressed through syncretization with Caelus, as in Caelus Aeternus Iuppiter, "Jupiter the Eternal Sky." Invictus[edit] Dedication made to the Deus Invictus by a Roman legionary in Brigetio, Pannonia[5] Invictus ("Unconquered, Invincible") was in use as a divine epithet by the early 3rd century BC. In the Imperial period, it expressed the invincibility of deities embraced officially, such as Jupiter, Mars, Hercules, and Sol. On coins, calendars, and other inscriptions, Mercury, Saturn, Silvanus, Fons, Serapis, Sabazius, Apollo, and the Genius are also found as Invictus. Cicero considers it a normal epithet for Jupiter, in regard to whom it is probably a synonym for Omnipotens. It is also used in the Mithraic mysteries.[6] Mater and Pater[edit] Mater ("Mother") was an honorific that respected a goddess's maternal authority and functions, and not necessarily "motherhood" per se. Early examples included Terra Mater (Mother Earth) and the Mater Larum (Mother of the Lares). Vesta, a goddess of chastity usually conceived of as a virgin, was honored as Mater. A goddess known as Stata Mater was a compital deity credited with preventing fires in the city.[7] From the middle Imperial era, the reigning Empress becomes Mater castrorum et senatus et patriae, the symbolic Mother of military camps, the senate, and the fatherland. The Gallic and Germanic cavalry (auxilia) of the Roman Imperial army regularly set up altars to the "Mothers of the Field" (Campestres, from campus, "field," with the title Matres or Matronae).[8] See also Magna Mater (Great Mother) following. Gods were called Pater ("Father") to signify their preeminence and paternal care, and the filial respect owed to them. Pater was found as an epithet of Dis, Jupiter, Mars, and Liber, among others. Magna Mater[edit] "The Great Mother" was a title given to Cybele in her Roman cult. Some Roman literary sources accord the same title to Maia and other goddesses.[9] Collectives[edit] Even in invocations, which generally required precise naming, the Romans sometimes spoke of gods as groups or collectives rather than naming them as individuals. Some groups, such as the Camenae and Parcae, were thought of as a limited number of individual deities, even though the number of these might not be given consistently in all periods and all texts. The following groups, however, are numberless collectives. Spatial tripartition[edit] Varro grouped the gods broadly into three divisions of heaven, earth, and underworld: di superi, the gods above or heavenly gods, whose altars were designated as altaria.[10] di terrestres, "terrestrial gods," whose altars were designated as arae. di inferi, the gods below, that is, the gods of the underworld, infernal or chthonic gods, whose altars were foci, fire pits or specially constructed hearths. More common is a dualistic contrast between superi and inferi. Di indigetes and novensiles[edit] The di indigetes were thought by Georg Wissowa to be Rome's indigenous deities, in contrast to the di novensides or novensiles, "newcomer gods". No ancient source, however, poses this dichotomy, which is not generally accepted among scholars of the 21st century. The meaning of the epithet indiges (singular) has no scholarly consensus, and noven may mean "nine" (novem) rather than "new". Roman god lists[edit] Triads[edit] Archaic Triad: Jupiter, Mars, Quirinus. Capitoline Triad: Jupiter, Juno, Minerva.[11] Plebeian or Aventine Triad: Ceres, Liber, Libera, dating to 493 BC.[12] Groupings of twelve[edit] Lectisternium of 217 BC[edit] A lectisternium is a banquet for the gods, at which they appear as images seated on couches, as if present and participating. In describing the lectisternium of the Twelve Great gods in 217 BC, the Augustan historian Livy places the deities in gender-balanced pairs:[13] Jupiter–Juno Neptune–Minerva Mars–Venus Apollo–Diana Vulcan–Vesta Mercury–Ceres Divine male-female complements such as these, as well as the anthropomorphic influence of Greek mythology, contributed to a tendency in Latin literature to represent the gods as "married" couples or (as in the case of Venus and Mars) lovers.[citation needed] Di Consentes on an altar Dii Consentes[edit] Varro uses the name Dii Consentes for twelve deities whose gilded images stood in the forum. These were also placed in six male-female pairs.[14] Although individual names are not listed, they are assumed to be the deities of the lectisternium. A fragment from Ennius, within whose lifetime the lectisternium occurred, lists the same twelve deities by name, though in a different order from that of Livy: Juno, Vesta, Minerva, Ceres, Diana, Venus, Mars, Mercurius, Jove, Neptunus, Vulcanus, Apollo.[15] The Dii Consentes are sometimes seen as the Roman equivalent of the Greek Olympians. The meaning of Consentes is subject to interpretation, but is usually taken to mean that they form a council or consensus of deities. Di Flaminales[edit] The three Roman deities cultivated by major flamens[16][edit] Jupiter Mars Quirinus Twelve Roman deities attended by the minor flamens[edit] Carmentis Ceres Falacer Flora Furrina Palatua Pomona Portunus Vulcan Volturnus Two other deities whose names are not known[17] Di selecti[edit] Varro[18] gives a list of twenty principal gods of Roman religion: Janus Jupiter Saturn Genius Mercury Apollo Mars Vulcan Neptune Sol Orcus Liber Tellus Ceres Juno Luna Diana Minerva Venus Vesta Sabine gods[edit] Varro, who was himself of Sabine origin, gives a list of Sabine gods who were adopted by the Romans: Feronia Minerva Novensides[19] Pales Salus Fortuna Fons Fides[20] Ops Flora Vediovis Saturn Sol Luna Vulcan Summanus Larunda Terminus Quirinus Vortumnus Lares Diana Lucina Livia, wife of Augustus, dressed as the goddess Ops. Elsewhere, Varro claims Sol Indiges, who had a sacred grove at Lavinium, as Sabine but at the same time equates him with Apollo.[21] Of those listed, he writes, "several names have their roots in both languages, as trees that grow on a property line creep into both fields. Saturn, for instance, can be said to have another origin here, and so too Diana."[22] Varro makes various claims for Sabine origins throughout his works, some more plausible than others, and his list should not be taken at face value.[23] But the importance of the Sabines in the early cultural formation of Rome is evidenced, for instance, by the bride abduction of the Sabine women by Romulus's men, and in the Sabine ethnicity of Numa Pompilius, second king of Rome, to whom are attributed many of Rome's religious and legal institutions.[24] Varro, however, says that the altars to most of these gods were established at Rome by King Tatius as the result of a vow (votum).[25] Indigitamenta[edit] Main article: Indigitamenta The indigitamenta are deities known only or primarily as a name; they may be minor entities, or epithets of major gods. Lists of deities were kept by the College of Pontiffs to assure that the correct names were invoked for public prayers. The books of the Pontiffs are lost, known only through scattered passages in Latin literature. The most extensive lists are provided by the Church Fathers who sought systematically to debunk Roman religion while drawing on the theological works of Varro, also surviving only in quoted or referenced fragments. W.H. Roscher collated the standard modern list of indigitamenta,[26] though other scholars may differ with him on some points. Alphabetical list[edit] Contents 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A[edit] A "lizard-slayer" Apollo on a mosaic from Roman Africa Abundantia, divine personification of abundance and prosperity. Acca Larentia, a diva of complex meaning and origin in whose honor the Larentalia was held. Acis, god of the Acis River in Sicily. Aerecura, goddess possibly of Celtic origin, associated with the underworld and identified with Proserpina. Aequitas, divine personification of fairness. Aesculapius, the Roman equivalent of Asclepius, god of health and medicine. Aeternitas, goddess and personification of eternity. Aion (Latin spelling Aeon), Hellenistic god of cyclical or unbounded time, related to the concepts of aevum or saeculum Aius Locutius, divine voice that warned the Romans of the imminent Gallic invasion. Alernus or Elernus (possibly Helernus), an archaic god whose sacred grove (lucus) was near the Tiber river. He is named definitively only by Ovid.[27] The grove was the birthplace of the nymph Cranea, and despite the obscurity of the god, the state priests still carried out sacred rites (sacra) there in the time of Augustus.[28] Alernus may have been a chthonic god, if a black ox was the correct sacrificial offering to him, since dark victims were offered to underworld gods.[29] Dumézil wanted to make him a god of beans.[30] Angerona, goddess who relieved people from pain and sorrow. Angitia, goddess associated with snakes and Medea. Anna Perenna, early goddess of the "circle of the year", her festival was celebrated March 15. Annona, the divine personification of the grain supply to the city of Rome. Antevorta, goddess of the future and one of the Camenae; also called Porrima. Apollo, god of poetry, music, and oracles, and one of the Dii Consentes. Arimanius, an obscure Mithraic god. Aura, often plural Aurae, "the Breezes". Aurora, goddess of the dawn. Averruncus, a god propitiated to avert calamity. B[edit] A Bacchus from Roman Spain, 2nd century Bacchus, god of wine, sensual pleasures, and truth, originally a cult title for the Greek Dionysus and identified with the Roman Liber. Bellona or Duellona, war goddess. Bona Dea, the "women's goddess"[31] with functions pertaining to fertility, healing, and chastity. Bonus Eventus, divine personification of "Good Outcome". Bubona, goddess of cattle. C[edit] Caca, an archaic fire goddess and "proto-Vesta";[32] the sister of Cacus. Cacus, originally an ancient god of fire, later regarded as a giant. Caelus, god of the sky before Jupiter. Camenae, goddesses with various attributes including fresh water, prophecy, and childbirth. There were four of them: Carmenta, Egeria, Antevorta, and Postvorta. Cardea, goddess of the hinge (cardo), identified by Ovid with Carna (below) Carmenta, goddess of childbirth and prophecy, and assigned a flamen minor. The leader of the Camenae. Carmentes, two goddesses of childbirth: Antevorta and Postvorta or Porrima, future and past. Carna, goddess who preserved the health of the heart and other internal organs. Ceres, goddess of the harvest and mother of Proserpina, and one of the Dii Consentes. The Roman equivalent of Demeter [Greek goddess]. Clementia, goddess of forgiveness and mercy. Cloacina, goddess who presided over the system of sewers in Rome; identified with Venus. Concordia, goddess of agreement, understanding, and marital harmony. Consus, chthonic god protecting grain storage. Cupid, Roman god of love. The son of Venus, and equivalent to Greek Eros. Cura, personification of care and concern who according to a single source[33] created humans from clay. Cybele, an imported tutelary goddess often identified with Magna Mater D[edit] Dea Dia, goddess of growth. Dea Tacita ("The Silent Goddess"), a goddess of the dead; later equated with the earth goddess Larenta. Decima, minor goddess and one of the Parcae (Roman equivalent of the Moirai). The measurer of the thread of life, her Greek equivalent was Lachesis. Diana Nemorensis on a denarius Devera or Deverra, goddess who ruled over the brooms used to purify temples in preparation for various worship services, sacrifices and celebrations; she protected midwives and women in labor. Diana, goddess of the hunt, the moon, virginity, and childbirth, twin sister of Apollo and one of the Dii Consentes. Diana Nemorensis, local version of Diana. The Roman equivalent of Artemis [Greek goddess] Discordia, personification of discord and strife. The Roman equivalent of Eris [Greek goddess] Dius Fidius, god of oaths, associated with Jupiter. Di inferi, deities associated with death and the underworld. Disciplina, personification of discipline. Dis Pater or Dispater, god of wealth and the underworld; perhaps a translation of Greek Plouton (Pluto). E[edit] The Gallo-Roman horse goddess Epona Egeria, water nymph or goddess, later considered one the Camenae. Empanda or Panda, a goddess whose temple never closed to those in need. Epona, Gallo-Roman goddess of horses and horsemanship, usually assumed to be of Celtic origin. F[edit] Falacer, obscure god. He was assigned a minor flamen. Fama, goddess of fame and rumor. Fascinus, phallic god who protected from invidia (envy) and the evil eye. Fauna, goddess of prophecy, but perhaps a title of other goddesses such as Maia. Faunus, god of flocks. Faustitas, goddess who protected herd and livestock. Februus, god of Etruscan origin for whom the month of February was named; concerned with purification Febris, "Fever," goddess with the power to cause or prevent fevers and malaria. Fecunditas, personification of fertility. Felicitas, personification of good luck and success. Ferentina, patron goddess of the city Ferentinum, Latium, protector of the Latin commonwealth. Feronia, goddess concerned with wilderness, plebeians, freedmen, and liberty in a general sense. Fides, personification of loyalty. Flora, goddess of flowers, was assigned a flamen minor. Fornax, goddess probably conceived of to explain the Fornacalia, "Oven Festival." Fontus or Fons, god of wells and springs. Fortuna, goddess of fortune. Fufluns, god of wine, natural growth and health. He was adopted from Etruscan religion. Fulgora, personification of lightning. Furrina, goddess whose functions are mostly unknown, but in archaic times important enough to be assigned a flamen. G[edit] Genius, the tutelary spirit or divinity of each individual Gratiae, Roman term for the Charites or Graces. H[edit] Roman statue of the infant Hercules strangling a snake Hercules, god of strength, whose worship was derived from the Greek hero Heracles but took on a distinctly Roman character. Hermaphroditus, an androgynous Greek god whose mythology was imported into Latin literature. Honos, a divine personification of honor. Hora, the wife of Quirinus. I[edit] Indiges, the deified Aeneas. Intercidona, minor goddess of childbirth; invoked to keep evil spirits away from the child; symbolised by a cleaver. Inuus, god of fertility and sexual intercourse, protector of livestock. Invidia, goddess of envy and wrongdoing. J[edit] A janiform sculpture, perhaps of Janus Punishment of Ixion: in the center is Mercury holding the caduceus and on the right Juno sits on her throne. Behind her Iris stands and gestures. On the left is Vulcan (blond figure) standing behind the wheel, manning it, with Ixion already tied to it. Nephele sits at Mercury's feet; a Roman fresco from the eastern wall of the triclinium in the House of the Vettii, Pompeii, Fourth Style (60-79 AD). Janus, double-faced or two-headed god of beginnings and endings and of doors. Juno, Queen of the gods, goddess of matrimony, and one of the Dii Consentes. Equivalent to Greek Hera. Jupiter, King of the gods, god of storms, lightning, sky, and one of the Dii Consentes; was assigned a flamen maior. Equivalent to Greek Zeus. Justitia, goddess of justice. Juturna, goddess of fountains, wells, and springs. Juventas, goddess of youth. L[edit] Lares, household gods. Latona, goddess of light. Laverna, patroness of thieves, con men and charlatans. Lemures, the malevolent dead. Levana, goddess of the rite through which fathers accepted newborn babies as their own. Letum, personification of death.[citation needed] Liber, a god of male fertility, viniculture and freedom, assimilated to Roman Bacchus and Greek Dionysus. Libera, Liber's female equivalent, assimilated to Roman Proserpina and Greek Persephone. Liberalitas, goddess or personification of generosity. Libertas, goddess or personification of freedom. Libitina, goddess of death, corpses and funerals. Lua, goddess to whom soldiers sacrificed captured weapons, probably a consort of Saturn. Lucifer, god of the morning star Lucina, goddess of childbirth, but often as an aspect of Juno. Luna, goddess of the moon. Lupercus, god of shepherds and wolves; as the god of the Lupercalia, his identity is obscure, but he is sometimes identified with the Greek god Pan. Lympha, often plural lymphae, a water deity assimilated to the Greek nymphs. M[edit] Capitoline Triad of Juno, Jupiter, and Minerva Mana Genita, goddess of infant mortality Manes, the souls of the dead who came to be seen as household deities. Mania, the consort of the Etruscan underworld god Mantus, and perhaps to be identified with the tenebrous Mater Larum; not to be confused with the Greek Maniae. Mantus, an Etruscan god of the dead and ruler of the underworld. Mars, god of war and father of Romulus, the founder of Rome; one of the Archaic Triad assigned a flamen maior; lover of Venus; one of the Dii Consentes.Greek equivalent-Ares. Mater Matuta, goddess of dawn and childbirth, patroness of mariners. Meditrina, goddess of healing, introduced to account for the festival of Meditrinalia. Mefitis or Mephitis, goddess and personification of poisonous gases and volcanic vapours. Mellona or Mellonia, goddess of bees and bee-keeping. Mena or Mene, goddess of fertility and menstruation. Mercury, messenger of the gods and bearer of souls to the underworld, and one of the Dii Consentes. Roman counterpart of the Greek god Hermes. Minerva, goddess of wisdom, war, the arts, industries and trades, and one of the Dii Consentes. Roman equivalent of the Greek goddess Athena. Mithras, god worshipped in the Roman empire; popular with soldiers. Molae, daughters of Mars, probably goddesses of grinding of the grain. Moneta, minor goddess of memory, equivalent to the Greek Mnemosyne. Also used as an epithet of Juno. Mors, personification of death and equivalent of the Greek Thanatos. Morta, minor goddess of death and one of the Parcae (Roman equivalent of the Moirai). The cutter of the thread of life, her Greek equivalent was Atropos. Murcia or Murtia, a little-known goddess who was associated with the myrtle, and in other sources was called a goddess of sloth and laziness (both interpretations arising from false etymologies of her name). Later equated with Venus in the form of Venus Murcia. Mutunus Tutunus, a phallic god. N[edit] Neptune velificans on a 3rd-century mosaic Naenia, goddess of funerary lament. Nascio, personification of the act of birth. Necessitas, goddess of destiny, the Roman equivalent of Ananke. Nemesis, goddess of revenge (Greek), adopted as an Imperial deity of retribution. Neptune, god of the sea, earthquakes, and horses, and one of the Dii Consentes. Greek equivalent is Poseidon. Nerio, ancient war goddess and the personification of valor. The consort of Mars. Neverita, presumed a goddess, and associated with Consus and Neptune in the Etrusco-Roman zodiac of Martianus Capella but otherwise unknown.[34] Nixi, also di nixi, dii nixi, or Nixae, goddesses of childbirth. Nona, minor goddess, one of the Parcae (Roman equivalent of the Moirai). The spinner of the thread of life, her Greek equivalent was Clotho. Nortia a Roman-adopted Etruscan goddess of fate, destiny, and chance from the city of Volsinii, where a nail was driven into a wall of her temple as part a new-year ceremony. Nox, goddess of night, derived from the Greek Nyx. O[edit] Ops or Opis, goddess of resources or plenty. Orcus, a god of the underworld and punisher of broken oaths. P[edit] Palatua, obscure goddess who guarded the Palatine Hill. She was assigned a flamen minor. Pales, deity of shepherds, flocks and livestock. Parcae, the three fates. Pax, goddess of peace; equivalent of Greek Eirene. Aeneas and the Penates, from a 4th-century manuscript Penates or Di Penates, household gods. Picumnus, minor god of fertility, agriculture, matrimony, infants and children. Picus, Italic woodpecker god with oracular powers. Pietas, goddess of duty; personification of the Roman virtue pietas. Pilumnus, minor guardian god, concerned with the protection of infants at birth. Pluto, Greek Plouton, a name for the ruler of the dead popularized through the mystery religions and Greek philosophy, sometimes used in Latin literature and identified with Dis pater or Orcus. Poena, goddess of punishment.[citation needed] Pomona, goddess of fruit trees, gardens and orchards; assigned a flamen minor. Porrima, goddess of the future. Also called Antevorta. One of the Carmentes and the Camenae. Portunus, god of keys, doors, and livestock, he was assigned a flamen minor. Postverta or Prorsa Postverta, goddess of childbirth and the past, one of the two Carmentes (other being Porrima). Priapus, imported phallic guardian of guardians. Proserpina, Queen of the Dead and a grain-goddess, the Roman equivalent of the Greek Persephone. Providentia, goddess of forethought. Pudicitia, goddess and personification of chastity, one of the Roman virtues. Her Greek equivalent was Aidôs. Q[edit] Querquetulanae, nymphs of the oak. Quirinus, Sabine god identified with Mars; Romulus, the founder of Rome, was deified as Quirinus after his death. Quirinus was a war god and a god of the Roman people and state, and was assigned a flamen maior; he was one of the Archaic Triad gods. Quiritis, goddess of motherhood. Originally Sabine or pre-Roman, she was later equated with Juno. R[edit] Robigo or Robigus, a god or goddess who personified grain disease and protected crops. Roma, personification of the Roman state. Rumina, goddess who protected breastfeeding mothers. S[edit] Sol Invictus, or Christ depicted in his guise. 3rd century AD Salacia, goddess of seawater, wife of Neptune. Salus, goddess of the public welfare of the Roman people; came to be equated with the Greek Hygieia. Sancus, god of loyalty, honesty, and oaths. Saturn, a titan, god of harvest and agriculture, the father of Jupiter, Neptune, Juno, and Pluto. Securitas, goddess of security, especially the security of the Roman empire. Silvanus, god of woodlands and forests. Sol Invictus, sun god. Somnus, god of sleep; equates with the Greek Hypnos. Soranus, a god later subsumed by Apollo in the form Apollo Soranus. Sors, god of luck. Spes, goddess of hope. Stata Mater, goddess who protected against fires. Sometimes equated with Vesta. Sterquilinus ("Manure"), god of fertilizer. Also known as Stercutus, Sterculius, Straculius, Struculius. Suadela, goddess of persuasion, her Greek equivalent was Peitho. Summanus, god of nocturnal thunder. Sulis Minerva, a conflation of the Celtic goddess Sul and Minerva T[edit] Talasius, a god of marriage Tellumo or Tellurus, male counterpart of Tellus. Tempestas, a goddess of storms or sudden weather, usually plural as the Tempestates Terra Mater or Tellus, goddess of the earth and land. The Greek equivalent is Gaea, mother of titans, consort of Caelus (Uranus). Terminus, the rustic god of boundaries. Tiberinus, river god; deity of the Tiber river. Tibertus, god of the river Anio, a tributary of the Tiber. Tranquillitas, goddess of peace and tranquility. Trivia, goddess of crossroads and magic, equated with Hecate. V[edit] Venus, Vulcan, Mars, and Cupid on a wall painting from Pompeii Vacuna, ancient Sabine goddess of rest after harvest who protected the farmers' sheep; later identified with Nike and worshipped as a war goddess. Vagitanus, or Vaticanus, opens the newborn's mouth for its first cry. Vediovus or Veiovis, obscure god, a sort of anti-Jupiter, as the meaning of his name suggests. May be a god of the underworld. Venilia or Venelia, sea goddess, wife of Neptune or Faunus.[citation needed] Venti, the winds, equivalent to the Greek Anemoi: North wind Aquilo(n) or Septentrio (Greek Boreas); South wind Auster (Greek Notus); East wind Vulturnus (Eurus); West wind Favonius (Zephyrus); Northwest wind Caurus or Corus (see minor winds). Venus, goddess of love, beauty, sexuality, and gardens; mother of the founding hero Aeneas; one of the Dii Consentes. Veritas, goddess and personification of the Roman virtue of veritas or truth. Verminus, god of cattle worms. Vertumnus, Vortumnus or Vertimnus, god of the seasons, and of gardens and fruit trees. Vesta, goddess of the hearth, the Roman state, and the sacred fire; one of the Dii Consentes. Vica Pota, goddess of victory and competitions. Victoria, goddess of victory. Viduus, god who separated the soul and body after death. Virbius, a forest god, the reborn Hippolytus. Virtus, god or goddess of military strength, personification of the Roman virtue of virtus. Volturnus, god of water, was assigned a flamen minor. Not to be confused with Vulturnus. Voluptas, goddess of pleasure. Vulcan, god of the forge, fire, and blacksmiths, husband to Venus, and one of the Dii Consentes, was assigned a flamen minor. See also[edit] List of Metamorphoses characters Roman polytheistic reconstructionism Seven Factors of Awakening Classical planets Seven churches of Asia Chakra Seven Mesopotamian planetary deities For minor deities known for a single function or by a single name, see: Indigitamenta List of Roman birth and childhood deities List of Roman agricultural deities A number of figures from Greek mythology who were not part of Roman religious practice appear in Latin mythological narratives and as poetic allusions; for these names, see: List of Greek mythological figures References[edit] ^ Robert Schilling, "Roman Gods," Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992, from the French edition of 1981), pp. 75 online and 77 (note 49). Unless otherwise noted, citations of primary sources are Schilling's. ^ Hendrik H.J. Brouwer, Bona Dea: The Sources and a Description of the Cult pp. 245–246. ^ Apuleius, Metamorphoses 11.2. ^ Benko, Stephen, The virgin goddess: studies in the pagan and Christian roots of mariology, Brill, 2004, pp. 112–114: see also pp. 31, 51. ^ CIL 03, 11008"A soldier of the Legio I Adiutrix [dedicated this] to the Unconquered God" (Deo Invicto / Ulpius Sabinus / miles legio/nis primae / (A)diutricis). ^ Steven Ernst Hijmans, Sol: The Sun in the Art and Religions of Rome (diss., University of Groningen 2009), p. 18, with citations from the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. ^ Lawrence Richardson, A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), pp. 156–157. ^ R.W. Davies, "The Training Grounds of the Roman Cavalry," Archaeological Journal 125 (1968), p. 73 et passim. ^ Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.12.16–33. Cited in H.H.J. Brouwer, Bona Dea: The Sources and a Description of the Cult (Brill, 1989), pp. 240, 241. ^ Varro, Divine Antiquities, book 5, frg. 65; see also Livy 1.32.9; Paulus apud Festus, p. 27; Servius Danielis, note to Aeneid 5.54; Lactantius Placidus, note to Statius, Theb. 4.459–60. ^ Livy, 1.38.7, 1.55.1–6. ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus 6.17.2 ^ Livy, 22.10.9. ^ Varro, De re rustica 1.1.4: "eos urbanos, quorum imagines ad forum auratae stant, sex mares et feminae totidem. ^ Ennius, Annales frg. 62, in J. Vahlen, Ennianae Poesis Reliquiae (Leipzig, 1903, 2nd ed.). Ennius's list appears in poetic form, and the word order may be dictated by the metrical constraints of dactylic hexameter. ^ https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/ancient-religions/ancient-religion/flamen ^ Forsythe, Gary, A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War, University of California Press, August, 2006 ^ As recorded by Augustine of Hippo, De civitate Dei 7.2. ^ Or Novensiles: the spelling -d- for -l- is characteristic of the Sabine language ^ For Fides, see also Semo Sancus or Dius Fidius; Roger D. Woodard, Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult p. 184. ^ Varro, De lingua latina 5.10; Paul Rehak, Imperium and Cosmos: Augustus and the Northern Campus Martius (University of Wisconsin Press, 2006), p. 94. ^ e quis nonnulla nomina in utraque lingua habent radices, ut arbores quae in confinio natae in utroque agro serpunt: potest enim Saturnus hic de alia causa esse dictus atque in Sabinis, et sic Diana. ^ Anna Clark, Divine Qualities: Cult and Community in Republican Rome (Oxford University Press, 2007) pp. 37–38; Emma Dench, Romulus' Asylum: Roman Identities from the Age of Alexander to the Age of Hadrian (Oxford University Press, 2005), pp. 317–318. ^ William Warde Fowler, The Religious Experience of the Roman People (London, 1922), p. 108. ^ Tatius is said by Varro to have dedicated altars to "Ops, Flora, Vediovis and Saturn, to Sol, Luna, Vulcan and Summanus, and likewise to Larunda, Terminus, Quirinus, Vortumnus, the Lares, Diana and Lucina." ^ W.H. Roscher, Ausführliches Lexikon der griechischen und römischen Mythologie (Leipzig: Teubner, 1890–94), vol. 2, pt. 1, pp. 187–233. ^ Ovid, Fasti 2.67 and 6.105 (1988 Teubner edition). ^ Ovid, Fasti 6.106. ^ This depends on a proposed emendation of Aternus to Alernus in an entry from Festus, p. 83 in the edition of Lindsay. At Fasti 2.67, a reading of Avernus, though possible, makes no geographical sense. See discussion of this deity by Matthew Robinson, A Commentary on Ovid's Fasti, Book 2 (Oxford University Press, 2011), pp. 100–101. ^ As noted by Robinson, Commentary, p. 101; Georges Dumézil, Fêtes romaines d'été et d'automne (1975), pp. 225ff., taking the name as Helernus in association with Latin holus, holera, "vegetables." The risks and "excessive fluidity" inherent in Dumézil's reconstructions of lost mythologies were noted by Robert Schilling, "The Religion of the Roman Republic: A Review of Recent Studies," in Roman and European Mythologies, pp. 87–88, and specifically in regard to the myth of Carna as a context for the supposed Helernus. ^ Dea feminarum: Macrobius, Saturnalia I.12.28. ^ Marko Marinčič, "Roman Archaeology in Vergil's Arcadia (Vergil Eclogue 4; Aeneid 8; Livy 1.7), in Clio and the Poets: Augustan Poetry and the Traditions of Ancient Historiography (Brill, 2002), p. 158. ^ Hyginus, Fabulae 220; compare Prometheus. ^ de Grummond, N. 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en-wikipedia-org-5427	----	Priscian - Wikipedia Priscian From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Not to be confused with Priscian of Lydia. Priscian, or the Grammar, relief from the bell tower of Florence by Luca della Robbia Priscianus Caesariensis (fl. AD 500), commonly known as Priscian (/ˈprɪʃən/ or /ˈprɪʃiən/), was a Latin grammarian and the author of the Institutes of Grammar, which was the standard textbook for the study of Latin during the Middle Ages. It also provided the raw material for the field of speculative grammar. Contents 1 Life 2 Works 3 Legacy 4 Editions and translations 5 Notes 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Life[edit] The details of Priscian's life are largely unknown. Priscian was born and raised in the North-African city of Caesarea (modern Cherchell, Algeria) the capital of the Roman province of Mauretania Caesariensis – though during his lifetime would be under the control of the post-Roman barbarian kingdom known as the Vandalic Kingdom. According to Cassiodorus, he taught Latin at Constantinople[1] in the early sixth century.[2] His minor works include a panegyric to Anastasius (491—518), written about 512,[3] which helps establish his time period. In addition, the manuscripts of his Institutes contain a subscription to the effect that the work was copied (526, 527) by Flavius Theodorus, a clerk in the imperial secretariat.[4] Works[edit] Institutiones Grammaticae, 1290 circa, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Florence Priscian's most famous work, the Institutes of Grammar (Latin: Institutiones Grammaticae), is a systematic exposition of Latin grammar. The dedication to Julian probably indicates the consul and patrician, not the author of a well-known epitome of Justinian's Novellae, who lived somewhat later than Priscian. The grammar is divided into eighteen books, of which the first sixteen deal mainly with sounds, word-formation and inflexions; the last two, which form from a fourth to a third of the whole work, deal with syntax.[4] Priscian's grammar is based on the earlier works of Herodian and Apollonius. The examples it includes to illustrate the rules preserve numerous fragments from Latin authors which would otherwise have been lost, including Ennius, Pacuvius, Accius, Lucilius, Cato and Varro. But the authors whom he quotes most frequently are Virgil, and, next to him, Terence, Cicero, Plautus; then Lucan, Horace, Juvenal, Sallust, Statius, Ovid, Livy and Persius.[4] The grammar was quoted by several writers in Britain of the 8th century - Aldhelm, Bede, Alcuin - and was abridged or largely used in the next century by Hrabanus Maurus of Fulda and Servatus Lupus of Ferrières. About a thousand manuscripts exist, all ultimately derived from the copy made by Theodorus. Most copies contain only books I—XVI; these are sometimes known as the Priscianus Major ("Greater Priscian"). Others contain only books XVII and XVIII along with the three books to Symmachus; these are known as his work On Construction (De Constructione) or the Priscianus Minor ("Lesser Priscian"). A few copies contain both parts. The earliest manuscripts are from the 9th century, though a few fragments are somewhat earlier.[4] Priscian's minor works include:[4] Three treatises dedicated to Symmachus (the father-in-law of Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius): on weights and measures; on the metres of Terence; and the Praeexercitamina, a translation into Latin of Greek rhetorical exercises from Hermogenes. De nomine, pronomine, et verbo ("On noun, pronoun, and verb"), an abridgment of part of his Institutes for teaching grammar in schools Partitiones xii. versuum Aeneidos principalium: another teaching aid, using question and answer to dissect the first lines of each of the twelve books of the Aeneid. The metre is discussed first, each verse is scanned, and each word thoroughly and instructively examined. The poem on Anastasius mentioned above, in 312 hexameters with a short iambic introduction A translation in 1087 hexameters of the verse-form geographical survey by Dionysius Periegetes. Legacy[edit] Books XVII & XVIII of the Institutes, his work On Construction, was part of the core curriculum of the University of Paris in the 13th century and Roger Bacon's lectures for the class were the probable origin of his own Overview of Grammar, one of the first expositions on the idea of a universal grammar. Dante places Priscian in Hell among sodomites.[5] Editions and translations[edit] Editions Prisciani caesariensis grammatici opera ... Edited by Augvst Krehl. Lipsiae: Weidmann, 1819-20. Prisciani institutionum grammaticalium librorum I-XVI, indices et concordantiae. Curantibus Cirilo Garcia Roman, Marco A. Gutierrez Galindo. Hildesheim, New York: Olms-Weidmann, 2001, ISBN 9783487113081 Prisciani institutionum grammaticalium librorum XVII et XVIII, indices et concordantiae. Curantibus Cirilo Garcia Roman, Marco A. Gutierrez Galindo, Maria del Carmen Diaz de Alda Carlos. Hildesheim, New York: Olms-Weidmann, 1999. Prisciani Caesariensis opuscula. Critical edition edited by Marina Passalacqua with commentary in Italian. Roma: Edizioni di storia e letteratura, 1987 (vol. I: De figuris numerorum. De metris Terentii. Praeexercitamina; vol. II: Institutio de nomine et pronomine et verbo partitiones duodecim versuum aeneidos principalium) German Translations Schönberger, A. 2009. Priscians Darstellung der lateinischen Pronomina: lateinischer Text und kommentierte deutsche Übersetzung des 12. und 13. Buches der Institutiones Grammaticae, Frankfurt am Main: Valentia. ISBN 978-3-936132-34-2 (books XII-XIII; first translation into a modern language.) Schönberger, A. 2008. Priscians Darstellung der lateinischen Präpositionen: lateinischer Text und kommentierte deutsche Übersetzung des 14. Buches der Institutiones Grammaticae, Frankfurt am Main: Valentia, 2008, ISBN 978-3-936132-18-2 (book XIV; first translation into a modern language.) Schönberger, A. 2010. Priscians Darstellung der lateinischen Konjunktionen: lateinischer Text und kommentierte deutsche Übersetzung des 16. Buches der Institutiones Grammaticae, Frankfurt am Main: Valentia. ISBN 978-3-936132-09-0 (of book XVI; first translation into a modern language.) Schönberger, A. 2010. Priscians Darstellung der lateinischen Syntax (I): lateinischer Text und kommentierte deutsche Übersetzung des 17. Buches der Institutiones Grammaticae, Frankfurt am Main: Valentia. ISBN 978-3-936132-10-6 (book XVII = first book of the "Priscianus minor"; first translation into a modern language.) Schönberger, A. 2010. Priscians Darstellung des silbisch gebundenen Tonhöhenmorenakzents des Lateinischen: lateinischer Text und kommentierte deutsche Übersetzung des Buches über den lateinischen Akzent, Frankfurt am Main: Valentia. ISBN 978-3-936132-11-3 (De accentibus; first translation into a modern language). Schönberger, A. 2014: Zur Lautlehre, Prosodie und Phonotaktik des Lateinischen gemäß der Beschreibung Priscians. In: Millennium. Vol. 11, pp. 121–184. French translations Priscien, Grammaire. Livre XIV - XV - XVI, Paris: Vrin 2013. Priscien, Grammaire. Livre XVII – Syntaxe I, Paris: Vrin 2010. Notes[edit] ^ Keil, Gr. Lat. vii. 207 ^ Jones 1964, p. 991. ^ Lejay 1911. ^ a b c d e Chisholm 1911, p. 360. ^ Dante, Inf., Canto XV, l. 109. References[edit] Jones, A.H.M. (1964), The later Roman empire 284-602: A social, economic, and administrative survey, II, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, p. 991, ISBN 0631149651 Lejay, Paul (1911), "Priscianus" , in Herbermann, Charles (ed.), Catholic Encyclopedia, 12, New York: Robert Appleton Company Attribution  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911), "Priscian", Encyclopædia Britannica, 22 (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press, p. 360 Further reading[edit] M. Baratin, B. Colombat, L. Holtz, (eds). 2009. Priscien. Transmission et refondation de la grammaire, de l'antiquité aux modernes, Brepols Publishers. ISBN 978-2-503-53074-1. Luhtala, Anneli. 2005. Grammar and Philosophy in Late Antiquity. A Study of Priscian's Sources. John Benjamins. Series: Studies in the history of the language sciences; 107. Preview available at Google Books as of February 2011. External links[edit] Corpus Grammaticorum Latinorum: complete texts and full bibliography Rhetores latini minores, Carl Halm (ed.), Lipsiae in aedibus B. G. Teubneri, 1863, pp. 551-560. Authority control BIBSYS: 90593473 BNE: XX829554 BNF: cb12046697k (data) CiNii: DA06785595 GND: 118596624 ISNI: 0000 0003 9913 3112 LCCN: n82249198 NKC: jn20011211042 NLG: 231336 NLI: 000107896 NLP: A24434966 NTA: 069014000 RERO: 02-A000133025 SELIBR: 84930 SUDOC: 028681436 VcBA: 495/3730 VIAF: 76294069 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n82249198 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Priscian&oldid=993165554" Categories: Ancient linguists Grammarians of Latin 6th-century Latin writers Ancient Roman rhetoricians Quotation collectors 6th-century Byzantine writers Hidden categories: Articles containing Latin-language text Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLP identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages Asturianu Български Català Čeština Deutsch Español Esperanto Français Gaeilge Galego Hrvatski Italiano Latina Magyar Mirandés Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 9 December 2020, at 03:27 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5428	----	Old Latin - Wikipedia Old Latin From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the "Old Latin" Biblical texts, see Vetus Latina. Old Latin Archaic Latin Prisca Latinitas The Duenos inscription, one of the earliest Old Latin texts Native to Latium, later the Roman Kingdom and Republic Region Italy Ethnicity Latins, Romans Era Developed into Classical Latin during the 1st century BC Language family Indo-European Italic Latino-Faliscan Latin Old Latin Writing system Latin alphabet  Official status Official language in Rome Regulated by Schools of grammar and rhetoric Language codes ISO 639-3 None (mis) Linguist List qbb Glottolog oldl1238[1] Expansion of the Roman Republic during the 2nd century BC. Very little Latin is likely to have been spoken beyond the green area, and other languages were spoken even within it. This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. Old Latin, also known as Early Latin or Archaic Latin, was the Latin language in the period before 75 BC, i.e. before the age of Classical Latin.[2] (In New and Contemporary Latin, this language is called prisca Latinitas ("ancient Latin") rather than vetus Latina ("old Latin"), as vetus Latina is used to refer to a set of Biblical texts written in Late Latin.) It is ultimately descended from the Proto-Italic language. The use of "old", "early" and "archaic" has been standard in publications of Old Latin writings since at least the 18th century. The definition is not arbitrary, but the terms refer to writings with spelling conventions and word forms not generally found in works written under the Roman Empire. This article presents some of the major differences. The earliest known specimen of the Latin language appears on the Praeneste fibula. A new analysis performed in 2011 declared it to be genuine "beyond any reasonable doubt"[3] and dating from the Orientalizing period, in the first half of the seventh century BC.[4] Contents 1 Philological constructs 1.1 The old-time language 1.2 The four Latins of Isidore 1.3 Old Latin 2 Corpus 2.1 Fragments and inscriptions 2.2 Works of literature 3 Script 4 Orthography 5 Phonology 5.1 Stress 5.2 Vowels and diphthongs 5.3 Consonants 6 Morphology 6.1 Nouns 6.1.1 First declension (a) 6.1.2 Second declension (o) 6.1.3 Third declension (consonant/i) 6.1.4 Fourth declension (u) 6.1.5 Fifth declension (e) 6.2 Personal pronouns 6.3 Relative pronoun 6.4 Verbs 6.4.1 Old present and perfects 7 See also 8 References 9 Bibliography 10 Further reading 11 External links Philological constructs[edit] The old-time language[edit] The concept of Old Latin (Prisca Latinitas) is as old as the concept of Classical Latin, both dating to at least as early as the late Roman Republic. In that period Cicero, along with others, noted that the language he used every day, presumably the upper-class city Latin, included lexical items and phrases that were heirlooms from a previous time, which he called verborum vetustas prisca,[5] translated as "the old age/time of language". During the classical period, Prisca Latinitas, Prisca Latina and other idioms using the adjective always meant these remnants of a previous language, which, in the Roman philology, was taken to be much older in fact than it really was. Viri prisci, "old-time men", were the population of Latium before the founding of Rome. The four Latins of Isidore[edit] In the Late Latin period, when Classical Latin was behind them, the Latin- and Greek-speaking grammarians were faced with multiple phases, or styles, within the language. Isidore of Seville reports a classification scheme that had come into existence in or before his time: "the four Latins" ("Moreover, some people have said that there are four Latin languages"; "Latinas autem linguas quattuor esse quidam dixerunt").[6] They were Prisca, spoken before the founding of Rome, when Janus and Saturn ruled Latium, to which he dated the Carmen Saliare; Latina, dated from the time of king Latinus, in which period he placed the laws of the Twelve Tables; Romana, essentially equal to Classical Latin; and Mixta, "mixed" Classical Latin and Vulgar Latin, which is known today as Late Latin. The scheme persisted with little change for some thousand years after Isidore. Old Latin[edit] In 1874, John Wordsworth used this definition: "By Early Latin I understand Latin of the whole period of the Republic, which is separated very strikingly, both in tone and in outward form, from that of the Empire."[7] Although the differences are striking and can be easily identified by Latin readers, they are not such as to cause a language barrier. Latin speakers of the empire had no reported trouble understanding Old Latin, except for the few texts that must date from the time of the kings, mainly songs. Thus, the laws of the Twelve Tables from the early Republic were comprehensible, but the Carmen Saliare, probably written under Numa Pompilius, was not entirely clear (and remains thus). An opinion concerning Old Latin, of a Roman man of letters in the middle Republic, survives: the historian, Polybius,[8] read "the first treaty between Rome and Carthage", which he says "dates from the consulship of Lucius Junius Brutus and Marcus Horatius, the first consuls after the expulsion of the kings". Knowledge of the early consuls is somewhat obscure, but Polybius also states that the treaty was formulated 28 years before Xerxes I crossed into Greece; that is, in 508 BC, about the time of the putative date of the founding of the Roman Republic. Polybius says of the language of the treaty "the ancient Roman language differs so much from the modern that it can only be partially made out, and that after much application by the most intelligent men". There is no sharp distinction between Old Latin, as it was spoken for most of the Republic, and Classical Latin, but the earlier grades into the later. The end of the republic was too late a termination for compilers after Wordsworth; Charles Edwin Bennett said, "'Early Latin' is necessarily a somewhat vague term ... Bell, De locativi in prisca Latinitate vi et usu, Breslau, 1889,[9] sets the later limit at 75 BC. A definite date is really impossible, since archaic Latin does not terminate abruptly, but continues even down to imperial times."[10] Bennett's own date of 100 BC did not prevail but rather Bell's 75 BC became the standard as expressed in the four-volume Loeb Library and other major compendia. Over the 377 years from 452 to 75 BC, Old Latin evolved from being partially comprehensible by classicists with study to being easily read by scholars. Corpus[edit] The Praeneste Fibula, the earliest known specimen of the Latin language and dated to the first half of the seventh century BC. The Forum inscription (Lapis Niger, "black stone"), one of the oldest known Latin inscriptions, from the 6th century BC; it is written boustrophedon, albeit irregularly; from a rubbing by Domenico Comparetti. Old Latin authored works began in the 3rd century BC. These are complete or nearly complete works under their own name surviving as manuscripts copied from other manuscripts in whatever script was current at the time. In addition are fragments of works quoted in other authors. Numerous inscriptions placed by various methods (painting, engraving, embossing) on their original media survive just as they were except for the ravages of time. Some of these were copied from other inscriptions. No inscription can be earlier than the introduction of the Greek alphabet into Italy but none survive from that early date. The imprecision of archaeological dating makes it impossible to assign a year to any one inscription, but the earliest survivals are probably from the 6th century BC. Some texts, however, that survive as fragments in the works of classical authors, had to have been composed earlier than the republic, in the time of the monarchy. These are listed below. Fragments and inscriptions[edit] Notable Old Latin fragments with estimated dates include: The Carmen Saliare (chant put forward in classical times as having been sung by the Salian brotherhood formed by Numa Pompilius, approximate date 700 BC) The Praeneste fibula (date from first half of the seventh century BC.) The Forum inscription (see illustration, c. 550 BC under the monarchy) The Duenos inscription (c. 500 BC) The Castor-Pollux dedication (c. 500 BC) The Garigliano Bowl (c. 500 BC) The Lapis Satricanus (early 5th century BC) The preserved fragments of the laws of the Twelve Tables (traditionally, 449 BC, attested much later) The Tibur pedestal (c. 400 BC) The Scipionum Elogia Epitaph of Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus (c. 280 BC) Epitaph of Lucius Cornelius Scipio (consul 259 BC) Epitaph of Publius Cornelius Scipio P.f. P.n. Africanus (died about 170 BC) The Senatus consultum de Bacchanalibus (186 BC) The Vase Inscription from Ardea The Corcolle Altar fragments The Carmen Arvale Altar to the Unknown Divinity (92 BC) Works of literature[edit] The authors are as follows: Lucius Livius Andronicus (c. 280/260 BC – c. 200 BC), translator, founder of Roman drama Gnaeus Naevius (c. 264–201 BC), dramatist, epic poet Titus Maccius Plautus (c. 254–184 BC), dramatist, composer of comedies Quintus Ennius (239 – c. 169 BC), poet Marcus Pacuvius (c. 220–130 BC), tragic dramatist, poet Statius Caecilius (220 – 168/166 BC), comic dramatist Publius Terentius Afer (195/185 – 159 BC), comic dramatist Quintus Fabius Pictor (3rd century BC), historian Lucius Cincius Alimentus (3rd century BC), military historian Marcus Porcius Cato (234–149 BC), generalist, topical writer Gaius Acilius (2nd century BC), historian Lucius Accius (170 – c. 86 BC), tragic dramatist, philologist Gaius Lucilius (c. 160s – 103/102 BC), satirist Quintus Lutatius Catulus (2nd century BC), public officer, epigrammatist Aulus Furius Antias (2nd century BC), poet Gaius Julius Caesar Strabo Vopiscus (130–87 BC), public officer, tragic dramatist Lucius Pomponius Bononiensis (2nd century BC), comic dramatist, satirist Lucius Cassius Hemina (2nd century BC), historian Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi (2nd century BC), historian Manius Manilius (2nd century BC), public officer, jurist Lucius Coelius Antipater (2nd century BC), jurist, historian Publius Sempronius Asellio (158 BC – after 91 BC), military officer, historian Gaius Sempronius Tuditanus (2nd century BC), jurist Lucius Afranius (2nd and 1st centuries BC), comic dramatist Titus Albucius (2nd and 1st centuries BC), orator Publius Rutilius Rufus (158 BC – after 78 BC), jurist Lucius Aelius Stilo Praeconinus (154–74 BC), philologist Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius (2nd and 1st centuries BC), historian Valerius Antias (2nd and 1st centuries BC), historian Lucius Cornelius Sisenna (121–67 BC), soldier, historian Quintus Cornificius (2nd and 1st centuries BC), rhetorician Script[edit] Main articles: History of the Latin alphabet, Latin alphabet, and Old Italic alphabet Old Latin surviving in inscriptions is written in various forms of the Etruscan alphabet as it evolved into the Latin alphabet. The writing conventions varied by time and place until classical conventions prevailed. Apart of old inscriptions, texts in the original writing system have been lost or transcribed by later copyists. Orthography[edit] Some differences between old and classical Latin were of spelling only; pronunciation is thought to be essentially the same as in classical Latin:[11] Single for double consonants: Marcelus for Marcellus Double vowels for long vowels: aara for āra q for c before u: pequnia for pecunia c for g: Caius for Gaius These differences did not necessarily run concurrently with each other and were not universal; that is, c was used for both c and g. Phonology[edit] See also: History of Latin Diphthong changes from Old Latin (left) to Classical Latin (right)[12] Stress[edit] Old Latin is thought to have had a strong stress on the first syllable of a word until about 250 BC. All syllables other than the first were unstressed and were subjected to greater amounts of phonological weakening. Starting around that year, the Classical Latin stress system began to develop. It passed through at least one intermediate stage, found in Plautus, in which the stress occurred on the fourth last syllable in four-syllable words with all short syllables. Vowels and diphthongs[edit] Most original PIE (Proto-Indo-European) diphthongs were preserved in stressed syllables, including /ai/ (later ae); /ei/ (later ī); /oi/ (later ū, or sometimes oe); /ou/ (from PIE /eu/ and /ou/; later ū). The Old Latin diphthong ei evolves in stages: ei > ẹ̄ > ī. The intermediate sound ẹ̄ was simply written e but must have been distinct from the normal long vowel ē because ẹ̄ subsequently merged with ī while ē did not. It is generally thought that ẹ̄ was a higher sound than e (e.g. perhaps [eː] vs. [ɛː] during the time when both sounds existed). Even after the original vowel /ei/ had merged with ī, the old spelling ei continued to be used for a while, with the result that ei came to stand for ī and began to be used in the spelling of original occurrences of ī that did not evolve from ei (e.g. in the genitive singular -ī, which is always spelled -i in the oldest inscriptions but later on can be spelled either -i or -ei). In unstressed syllables, *oi and *ai had already merged into ei by historic times (except for one possible occurrence of poploe for populī "people" in a late manuscript of one of the early songs). This eventually evolved to ī according to the process described above. Old Latin often had different short vowels from Classical Latin, reflecting sound changes that had not yet taken place. For example, the very early Duenos inscription has the form duenos "good", later found as duonos and still later bonus. A countervailing change wo > we occurred around 150 BC in certain contexts, and many earlier forms are found (e.g. earlier votō, voster, vorsus vs. later vetō, vester, versus). Old Latin frequently preserves original PIE thematic case endings -os and -om (later -us and -um). Consonants[edit] Intervocalic /s/ (pronounced [z]) was preserved up through 350 BC or so, at which point it changed into /r/ (called rhotacism). This rhotacism had implications for declension: early classical Latin, honos, honoris (from honos, honoses); later Classical (by analogy) honor, honoris ("honor"). Some Old Latin texts preserve /s/ in this position, such as the Carmen Arvale's lases for lares. Later instances of single /s/ between vowels are mostly due either to reduction of early /ss/ after long vowels or diphthongs; borrowings; or late reconstructions. There are many unreduced clusters, e.g. iouxmentom (later iūmentum, "beast of burden"); losna (later lūna, "moon") < *lousna < */leuksnā/; cosmis (later cōmis, "courteous"); stlocum, acc. (later locum, "place"). Early du /dw/ becomes later b: duenos > duonos > bonus "good"; duis > bis "twice"; duellom > bellum "war". Final /d/ occurred in ablatives, such as puellād "from the girl" or campōd "from the field", later puellā and campō. In verb conjugation, the third-person ending -d later became -t, e.g. Old Latin faced > Classical facit. Morphology[edit] Nouns[edit] Latin nouns are distinguished by grammatical case, with a termination, or suffix, determining its use in the sentence: subject, predicate, etc. A case for a given word is formed by suffixing a case ending to a part of the word common to all its cases called a stem. Stems are classified by their last letters as vowel or consonant. Vowel stems are formed by adding a suffix to a shorter and more ancient segment called a root. Consonant stems are the root (roots end in consonants). The combination of the last letter of the stem and the case ending often results in an ending also called a case ending or termination. For example, the stem puella- receives a case ending -m to form the accusative case puellam in which the termination -am is evident.[13] In Classical Latin textbooks the declensions are named from the letter ending the stem or First, Second, etc. to Fifth. A declension may be illustrated by a paradigm, or listing of all the cases of a typical word. This method is less frequently applied to Old Latin, and with less validity. In contrast to Classical Latin, Old Latin reflects the evolution of the language from an unknown hypothetical ancestor spoken in Latium. The endings are multiple. Their use depends on time and locality. Any paradigm selected would be subject to these constraints and if applied to the language universally would result in false constructs, hypothetical words not attested in the Old Latin corpus. Nevertheless, the endings are illustrated below by quasi-classical paradigms. Alternative endings from different stages of development are given, but they may not be attested for the word of the paradigm. For example, in the second declension, *campoe "fields" is unattested, but poploe "peoples" is attested. The locative was a separate case in Old Latin but gradually became reduced in function, and the locative singular form eventually merged with the genitive singular by regular sound change. In the plural, the locative was captured by the ablative case in all Italic languages before Old Latin.[14] First declension (a)[edit] The 'A-stem' declension. The stems of nouns of this declension usually end in -ā and are typically feminine.[15] puellā, –ās girl, maiden f. Singular Plural Nominative puellā, puellă puellāī Vocative puella puellai Accusative puellam puellās Genitive puellās, puellāī, puellais puellom, puellāsōm Dative puellāi puelleis, puellabos Ablative puellād Locative (Rōmai) (Syrācūseis) A nominative case ending of -s in a few masculines indicates the nominative singular case ending may have been originally -s: paricidas for later parricida, but the -s tended to get lost.[16] In the nominative plural, -ī replaced original -s as in the genitive singular.[17] In the genitive singular, the -s was replaced with -ī from the second declension, the resulting diphthong shortening to -ai subsequently becoming -ae.[18] The original form is maintained in some formulae, e.g. pater familiās. The genitive plural ending -āsōm (classical -ārum following rhotacism), borrowed from the pronouns, began to overtake original -om.[17] In the dative singular the final i is either long[19] or short.[20] The ending becomes -ae, -a (Feronia) or -e (Fortune).[19] In the accusative singular, Latin regularly shortens a vowel before final m.[20] In the ablative singular, -d was regularly lost after a long vowel.[20] In the dative and ablative plural, the -abos descending from Indo-European *-ābhos[21] is used for feminines only (deabus). *-ais > -eis > -īs is adapted from -ois of the o-declension.[22] The vocative singular had inherited short -a. This later merged with the nominative singular when -ā was shortened to -ă.[20] The locative case would not apply to such a meaning as puella, so Roma, which is singular, and Syracusae, which is plural, have been substituted. The locative plural has already merged with the -eis form of the ablative. Second declension (o)[edit] campos, –ī field, plain m. saxom, –ī rock, stone n. Singular Plural Singular Plural Nominative campos campei < campoi saxom saxā, saxă Vocative campe saxă Accusative campom campōs saxom saxā, saxă Genitive campī campōm saxī saxōm Dative campō campeis < campois saxō saxeis < saxois Ablative campōd saxōd Locative campei saxei The stems of the nouns of the o-declension end in ŏ deriving from the o-grade of Indo-European ablaut.[23] Classical Latin evidences the development ŏ > ŭ. Nouns of this declension are either masculine or neuter. Nominative singulars ending in -ros or -ris syncopate the ending:[24] *agros > *agrs > *agers > *agerr > ager. (The form terr "three times" for later ter < *tris appears in Plautus.) Many alternative spellings occur: As mentioned above, the sound change -ei > -ẹ̄ > -ī leads to numerous variations, including the reverse spelling ei for ī. This spelling eventually appears in the genitive singular as well, although -ī is earliest and the true ending; cf. populi Romanei, "of the Roman people."[25], which both spellings in the same inscription. Likewise, the sound change -os > -us and -ōm > -om > -um affect the nominative and accusative singular, and the genitive plural. One very early text has genitive -osio (the Proto-Indo-European ending) rather than -ī (an ending appearing only in Italo-Celtic).[citation needed]. This form also appears in the closely related Faliscan language. In the genitive plural, -um (from Indo-European *-ōm) survived in classical Latin "words for coins and measures";[26] otherwise it was eventually replaced by -ōrum by analogy with 1st declension -ārum. The nominative/vocative plural masculine -ei comes from the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) pronominal ending *-oi. The original ending -oi appears in a late spelling in the word poploe (i.e. "poploi" = populī "people") in Sextus Pompeius Festus.[27] The dative/ablative/locative plural -eis comes from earlier -ois, a merger of PIE instrumental plural *-ōis and locative plural *-oisu. The form -ois appears in Sextus Pompeius Festus and a few early inscriptions. The Praeneste Fibula has dative singular Numasioi, representing Proto-Indo-European *-ōi. A number of "provincial texts" have nominative plural -eis (later -īs from 190 BC on[28]), with an added s, by some sort of analogy with other declensions. Sihler (1995)[27] notes that this form appears in literature only in pronouns and suggests that inscriptional examples added to nouns may be artificial (i.e. not reflecting actual pronunciation). In the vocative singular, some nouns lose the -e (i.e. have a zero ending) but not necessarily the same as in classical Latin.[29] The -e alternates regularly with -us.[30] Third declension (consonant/i)[edit] The 'consonant-stem' and 'i-stem' declension. This declension contains nouns that are masculine, feminine, and neuter. The stem ends in the root consonant, except in the special case where it ends in -i (i-stem declension). The i-stem, which is a vowel-stem, partially fused with the consonant-stem in the pre-Latin period and went further in Old Latin.[31] I/y and u/w can be treated either as consonants or as vowels; hence their classification as semi-vowels. Mixed-stem declensions are partly like consonant-stem and partly like i-stem. Consonant-stem declensions vary slightly depending on which consonant is root-final: stop-, r-, n-, s-, etc.[32] The paradigms below include a stop-stem (reg-) and an i-stem (igni-). rēx, rēges king m. ignis -is fire m. Singular Plural Singular Plural Nominative rēx rēgeīs, rēgīs, rēgēs, rēgĕs ignis, ignes igneīs, ignēs, ignīs, ignĕs Vocative Accusative rēgem rēgeīs, rēgīs, rēgēs ignim igneīs, ignēs, ignīs Genitive rēges, regis, regos, regus rēgom, rēgum, rēgerum ignis igniom, ignium Dative rēgei, rēgī, rēgē, rēgě rēgebus, rēgebūs, rēgibos, rēgibus igni, igneī, ignē ignebus, ignebūs, ignibos, ignibus Ablative rēgīd, rēgĭd, rēgī, rēgē, rēgĕ ignīd, ignĭd, ignī, ignē, ignĕ Locative rēgī rēgebos ignī ignibos For the consonant declension, in the nominative singular, the -s was affixed directly to the stem consonant, but the combination of the two consonants produced modified nominatives over the Old Latin period. The case appears in different stages of modification in different words diachronically.[33] The Latin neuter form (not shown) is the Indo-European nominative without stem ending; for example, cor < *cord "heart."[34] The genitive singular endings include -is < -es and -us < *-os.[35] In the genitive plural, some forms appear to affix the case ending to the genitive singular rather than the stem: regerum < *reg-is-um.[36] In the dative singular, -ī succeeded -eī and -ē after 200 BC. In the accusative singular, -em < *-ṃ after a consonant.[35] In the ablative singular, the -d was lost after 200 BC.[37] In the dative and ablative plural, the early poets sometimes used -būs.[37] In the locative singular, the earliest form is like the dative but over the period assimilated to the ablative.[38] Fourth declension (u)[edit] The 'u-stem' declension. The stems of the nouns of the u-declension end in ŭ and are masculine, feminine and neuter. In addition there is a ū-stem declension, which contains only a few "isolated" words, such as sūs, "pig", and is not presented here.[39] senātus, –uos senate m. Singular Plural Nominative senātus senātūs Vocative Accusative senātum Genitive senātuos, senātuis, senātī, senātous, senātūs senātuom, senātum Dative senātuī senātubus, senātibus Ablative senātūd, senātud Locative senāti Fifth declension (e)[edit] The 'e-stem' declension. Its morphology matches the Classical language very nearly. rēs, reis thing f. Singular Plural Nominative rēs, reis rēs Vocative rēs Accusative rem Genitive rēis, rēs rēsom Dative reī rēbos Ablative rēd Locative Personal pronouns[edit] Personal pronouns are among the most common thing found in Old Latin inscriptions. In all three persons, the ablative singular ending is identical to the accusative singular. ego, I tu, you suī, himself, herself (etc.) Singular Nominative ego tu — Accusative mēd tēd sēd Genitive mis tis sei Dative mihei, mehei tibei sibei Ablative mēd tēd sēd Plural Nominative nōs vōs — Accusative sēd Genitive nostrōm, -ōrum, -i vostrōm, -ōrum, -i sei Dative nōbeis, nis vōbeis sibei Ablative sēd Relative pronoun[edit] In Old Latin, the relative pronoun is also another common concept, especially in inscriptions. The forms are quite inconsistent and leave much to be reconstructed by scholars. queī, quaī, quod who, what Singular Masculine Feminine Neuter Nominative queī quaī quod Accusative quem quam Genitive quoius, quoios, -a, -um/om (according to gender of whatever is owned) Dative quoī, queī, quoieī, queī Ablative quī, quōd quād quōd Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter Nominative ques, queis quaī qua Accusative quōs quās Genitive quōm, quōrom quōm, quārom quōm, quōrom Dative queis, quīs Ablative Verbs[edit] Old present and perfects[edit] There is little evidence of the inflection of Old Latin verb forms and the few surviving inscriptions hold many inconsistencies between forms.[dubious – discuss] Therefore, the forms below are ones that are both proved by scholars through Old Latin inscriptions, and recreated by scholars based on other early Indo-European languages such as Greek and Italic dialects such as Oscan and Umbrian. Indicative Present: Sum Indicative Present: Facio Old Classical Old Classical Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural First Person (e)som somos, sumos sum sumus fac(e/ī)ō fac(e)imos faciō facimus Second Person es esteīs es estis fac(e/ī)s fac(e/ī)teis facis facitis Third Person est sont est sunt fac(e/ī)d/-(e/i)t fac(e/ī)ont facit faciunt Indicative Perfect: Sum Indicative Perfect: Facio Old Classical Old Classical Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural First Person fuei fuemos fuī fuimus (fe)fecei (fe)fecemos fēcī fēcimus Second Person fuistei fuisteīs fuistī fuistis (fe)fecistei (fe)fecisteis fēcistī fēcistis Third Person fued/fuit fueront/-erom fuit fuērunt (fe)feced/-et (fe)feceront/-erom fēcit fēcērunt/-ēre See also[edit] Italic languages Saturnian (poetry) References[edit] ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Old Latin". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. ^ "Archaic Latin". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. ^ Maras, Daniele F. (Winter 2012). "Scientists declare the Fibula Praenestina and its inscription to be genuine 'beyond any reasonable doubt'" (PDF). Etruscan News. 14. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 February 2012. ^ Maras, Daniele Federico. "Scientists declare the Fibula Prenestina and its inscription to be genuine 'beyond any reasonable doubt'". academia.edu. Archived from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 4 May 2018. ^ De Oratoribus, I.193. ^ Book IX.1.6. ^ Wordsworth 1874, p. v. ^ Histories III.22. ^ Bell, Andreas (1889). De Locativi in prisca latinitate vi et usu, dissertatio inauguralis philologica. Breslau: typis Grassi, Barthi et soc (W. Friedrich). ^ Bennett, 1910 & iii. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBennett1910iii (help) ^ De Forest Allen (1897). p. 8. There were no such names as Caius, Cnaius Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ Allen (1897), p.6 ^ Bennett, Charles Edwin (1915) [1895, 1908]. A Latin grammar. Boston, Chicago: Allyn and Bacon. p. 12. ^ Buck, Carl Darling (2005) [1904]. A Grammar Of Oscan And Umbrian: With A Collection Of Inscriptions And A Glossary. Languages of classical antiquity, vol. 5. Bristol, Pa.: Evolution Publishing. p. 204. ^ Buck (1933), pp. 174–175. ^ Wordsworth (1874), p.45. ^ a b Buck (1933), p. 177. ^ Buck (1933), pp. 175–176. ^ a b Wordsworth (1874), p. 48. ^ a b c d Buck (1933), p. 176. ^ Buck (1933), p. 172. ^ Palmer (1988), p. 242. ^ Buck (1933), p. 173. ^ Buck (1933), pp. 99–100. ^ Lindsay (1894), p. 383. ^ Buck (1933), p. 182. ^ a b Sihler (1995), A New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin. ^ Wordsworth (1874), p.56. ^ Buck (1933), p.181. ^ Grandgent, Charles Hall (1908) [1907]. An introduction to vulgar Latin. Heath's modern language series. Boston: D.C. Heath & Co. p. 89. ^ Buck (1933), p. 197. ^ Buck (1933), pp. 185–193. ^ Wordsworth (1874), pp. 67–73. ^ Buck (1933), p. 185. ^ a b Bennett (1895), p. 117. ^ Roby (1872), p. 162. ^ a b Allen (1897), p. 9. ^ Gildersleeve (1900), p. 18. ^ Buck (1933), pp. 198–201. Bibliography[edit] Allen, Frederic de Forest (1897). Remnants of Early Latin. Ginn. Bennett, Charles Edwin (1895). A Latin Grammar: With Appendix for Teachers and Advanced Students. Allyn and Bacon. Bennett, Charles Edwin (1907). The Latin Language: A Historical Outline of Its Sounds, Inflections, and Syntax. Allyn and Bacon. Bennett, Charles Edwin (1910). Syntax of Early Latin. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Buck, Carl Darling (1933). Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin. Chicago: University of Chicago. Gildersleeve, Basil Lanneau; Lodge, Gonzalez (1900). Gildersleeve's Latin grammar (3rd ed.). New York, Boston, New Orleans, London: University Publishing Company. Lindsay, Wallace Martin (1894). The Latin language: an historical account of Latin sounds, stems and flexions. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Palmer, Leonard Robert (1988) [1954]. The Latin language. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. Roby, Henry John (1872). A grammar of the Latin language from Plautus to Suetonius. Volume I (2nd ed.). London: MacMillan and Co. Wordsworth, John (1874). Fragments and specimens of early Latin, with Introduction and Notes. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Further reading[edit] Goldberg, Sander M. 2007. "Antiquity’s antiquity." In Latinitas Perennis. Vol. 1, The continuity of Latin literature. Edited by Wim Verbaal, Yanick Maes, and Jan Papy, 17–29. Brill's Studies in Intellectual History 144. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. Lembke, Janet. 1973. Bronze and Iron: Old Latin Poetry From Its Beginnings to 100 B.C. Berkeley: University of California Press. Mercado, Angelo. 2012. Italic Verse: A Study of the Poetic Remains of Old Latin, Faliscan, and Sabellic. Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachen und Literaturen der Universität Innsbruck. Vine, Brent. 1993. Studies in Archaic Latin inscriptions. Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Sprachwissenschaft 75. Innsbruck, Austria: Institut für Sprachwissenschaft der Univ. Innsbruck. Warmington, E. H. 1979. Remains of Old Latin. Rev. ed. 4 vols. Loeb Classical Library 294, 314, 329, 359. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press. Warner, R. 1980. "Word Order in Old Latin: Copulative Clauses." Orbis 29, no.1: 251–63. External links[edit] Library resources about Old Latin Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Gippert, Jost (1994–2001). "Old Latin Inscriptions" (in German and English). Titus Didactica. 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en-wikipedia-org-5466	----	Deforestation during the Roman period - Wikipedia Deforestation during the Roman period From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Deforestation during the Roman period was a result of the geographical expansion of the Roman Empire, with its increased population, large-scale agriculture, and unprecedented economic development. Roman expansion marks the transition in the Mediterranean from prehistory (around 1,000 BC) to the historical period beginning around 500 BC. Earth sustained a few million people 8,000 years ago and was still fundamentally pristine,[1] but Rome drove human development in Western Europe and was a leading contributor of the deforestation around the Mediterranean.[2] Contents 1 Causes 1.1 Housing and building 1.2 Fuel 1.3 Agriculture 1.4 Animals and overgrazing 1.5 Military 1.6 Shipbuilding 1.7 Urbanization 2 Consequences of deforestation 2.1 Soil 2.2 Flooding/harbors and ports 2.3 Reflections and awareness 3 Interpretations 3.1 Conjecture on Roman collapse 3.2 Alternative view 4 See also 5 References 6 Sources 7 Further reading Causes[edit] Housing and building[edit] The most basic building supply in the Roman time period was wood. Trees were cut to house increasing populations throughout the Roman Empire. While some Mediterranean houses were built with brick and stone, roof structures, covered with tiles, as well as the floors in multistory apartment buildings were often made of wood.[3] It is estimated that at one point the Roman Empire had a population of 56.8 million people and an estimated one million or more in Rome alone (a population that was not matched in size in Europe until London in the 19th century).[4][5] With such a large population increase, coupled with an enhancement of exuberant lifestyles and a high standard of living for the urbanized communities of the Roman world, resource consumption increased.[citation needed] Fuel[edit] Wood was a primary source of heating and used extensively in industry. Wood fuel constituted about 90 percent of the consumption overall,[citation needed] and was a major factor in Roman deforestation. Wood was essential fuel in industries like mining, smelting, and the making of ceramics.[3] Wood and charcoal were the primary ancient fuels in public facilities, households, public baths and industries that produced light and heat.[citation needed] Forest areas around mining centers were deforested first, consuming all natural resources around the area of work. Once all the natural resources around the area of production were consumed, wood was then shipped and carried in to supply the furnaces and smelters for the mining centers. Eventually, these centers would shut down and move to areas within Roman territory to repeat the same cycle of deforestation, supplying an ever-growing population and consumption demand.[citation needed] Agriculture[edit] Agriculture was the economic base for the Roman Empire. With an ever-increasing population, the clearing of land for crops was a primary cause of initial deforestation. Human hands gave way to the iron plough and the use of animals to clear dense forests to utilize the rich topsoil.[6] Agriculture produced commodities that contributed to the economic prosperity of the Romans, who relied on the crops produced from the slaves/landowners. As a result, in 111 BC Roman law allowed anyone who occupied public land of up to 20 acres (81,000 m2) to keep it, provided it was brought into cultivation.[7] This type of policy created widespread clearing and reflected the importance of agriculture, not only to the affluent, but also to citizens, to the military and to merchants engaged in trade with other regions. In Chapter 5 ("Roman Soil Erosion") of the book by Way of the Soil by Guy Theodore Wrench, the author describes the devastating effects which widespread deforestation and the subsequent overworking of the land to grow increasing amounts of grain for the Roman Empire's burgeoning population had on the land: Animals and overgrazing[edit] A major contributor to the environmental degradation and barrier to the regeneration of forests was the grazing of domestic animals. Animals grazed and destroyed land areas unsuitable for cultivation.[8] The consumption of hillside plants and young trees caused erosion, stripping hillsides of soils and eventually exposing bare rock. Silt and gravel would wash down off the hills and mountains creating other problems such as flooding, siltation, and filled-in marshlands.[9] Military[edit] With natural resources dwindling, maintaining a strong military for the conquering of new lands was vital in Roman times. Military campaigns devastated the countryside. Some farmers were forced to fight instead of caring for the land. When natural resources were depleted in already occupied regions of the Roman Empire, the military was sent to not only to defend lands of the Romans, but also to accumulate other areas of interest that had a plentiful supply of timber to accommodate the needs of the Roman economy. Julius Caesar himself ordered troops to cut down forests to prevent sneak attacks.[10] Deforestation ensured that the forests could not provide cover and camouflage for Rome's enemies. The size of the standing army was about 300,000 and increased to 600,000 toward the late empire period.[11] Roman legions deforested areas where they camped or marched to reduce the cover where their adversaries could hide and or mount a sneak attack.[11] The military utilized these resources and built fortresses, along with tools and transportation to carry supplies where needed. Shipbuilding[edit] Shipbuilding was a major contributor to deforestation and was of great economic and military significance. The importance attached to the supply of timber for building ships cannot be denied; ships were crucial to the burgeoning economic life of the Mediterranean, and sea power was vital in the exercise of political control.[12] Warships had priority over merchant vessels in competition for materials.[13] Thousands of ships were built during this classical period. At times of war, hundreds could be built within a month. This put tremendous pressure on supply of usable timbers. Consequently, one effect of shipbuilding centers was the scarcity of timber in their immediate areas. Then, after immediate areas were depleted of wood resources, the transportation of wood timbers from other areas was the next option. Transportation was expensive, but increasing numbers of ships were needed to maintain naval dominance. Urbanization[edit] Early urbanization of Rome and surrounding areas was focused around the ability to obtain natural resources. Lowland areas and areas close to water transports were highly urbanized first, but as population increased along with trade and manufacturing, imperial expansion and colonization of conquered territories was needed. The environment underwent drastic degradation as pollution from the burning of fuelwood filled the air and smelters that used wood as fuel transmitted heavy metals into the atmosphere. The creation of large cities contributed to deforestation in the classical world. Overcrowding forced citizens to move to the hillsides where forests once stood to build their homes.[11] Consequences of deforestation[edit] Soil[edit] With an increased demand for resources and food, constant pressure was put upon the land and soil to provide food for a growing economy. Regular clearing and plowing exhausted existing soil, which eventually became infertile. Runoff and eroded soil from deforested hillsides increased the amount of silt and impeded the flow of water into agricultural areas.[14] Eventually, due to the Mediterranean climate and the increased depletion of soil nutrients from hundreds of years of harvesting, yields diminished.[14] Rainwater that had been locked into the soil through vegetation and forests was now running off too quickly, with each raindrop unprotected by plants or by a litter layer.[15] Flooding/harbors and ports[edit] Erosion accelerated up to twentyfold in the 3rd century, creating unusable marshlands, which spread diseases such as malaria. Flooding from runoff disrupted water supply to natural springs and rivers, but also increased siltation to coastal areas and harbours at river deltas. Rains washed away the unprotected earth and greatly altered coastlines, in some cases, pushing them many miles farther out to sea as in the case around the mouths of the Po River.[16] The washing away of topsoil and deposits of silt and gravel meant that harbors and ports needed to be moved, causing further burden upon the economy. Even in the city of Rome, floods covered the lower parts of the city and backed up the sewers. The first such flood was noted in 241 BC; records indicate increased flooding of the river from that time onward.[17] Reflections and awareness[edit] Clearing for agricultural needs and for heat was a necessity for long-term survival in Roman times, though there is a debate as to whether the Romans understood the implications of deforestation. Richard Grove said, "states will act to prevent environmental degradation only when their economic interests are shown to be directly threatened." The Romans did have some forms of ecological conservation though. Recycling of glassware was practiced along with architectural design that utilized solar heating. Forests were also under government regulations and protected for future resources.[18] Unfortunately, these attempts may have been too little too late. In the 5th century BC Plato complained that "the loss of timber had denuded the hills and plains surrounding Athens and caused massive soil erosion."[19] Cicero also noted "we (humans) are the masters of what the earth produces," and "all things in this world which men employ have been created and provided for the sake of men."[20] Interpretations[edit] Conjecture on Roman collapse[edit] Further information: Decline of the Roman Empire Tainter argued that "deforestation did not cause the Roman collapse,"[21] but that one could make a case as to being a part of it. As Williams wrote, it is more likely that constant war, ravaging epidemics, rebellion, invasion from outside, a declining population, and an excessive degree of urbanization, separately or in combination, operated on the land in an empire that had extended beyond its means.[22] In the 2011 environmental book Life Without Oil by Steve Hallett, the author argues that the collapse of the Roman Empire may have been linked to a peak wood scenario in the Mediterranean basin. He suggests that, as wood had to be hauled from ever further away, the law of diminishing returns undermined the economic performance of Roman industry, leaving Rome vulnerable to the other, well documented problems of invasion and internal division. They discuss this as cautionary tale comparing it to contemporary society's potential fate under a post-peak oil scenario.[23] Alternative view[edit] Some argue that almost all of the above is based on an unhistorical projection of present concerns, onto the past.[24] This alternative view argues that there are immense complexities of time, space, climate, geology and topography which, when combined with our extremely fragmentary information, makes generalizations almost impossible. Tree crops, dates, figs, olives, chestnuts etc., played a very important role in Roman agriculture. Grains were often intercultivated with these tree crops. Almost all species of trees grow again when cut down. Cutting down a wood does not, by itself, destroy woodland. Coppicing is one way in which wood could be harvested on a sustainable basis for example. Hypocausts were pre-adapted to burn poor quality fuels like straw as well as coal. There is a good reason to believe that both straw and coal were important fuels in antiquity, especially in Roman Britain where coal was abundant in many areas. A great deal of protection against soil erosion arises from terracing hillsides. We do not know how extensive terraces were in antiquity but a good deal of the soil erosion here assumed to be caused by the Romans, may well date to the Dark Ages when the maintenance of terraces broke down. Changes in tree cover may well arise from differences in climate, which are still not well understood. But there is some evidence that the decline of the Roman West is linked to climate change.[25] Slash and burn agriculture, associated with lower populations than the Roman period, can be at least as responsible for deforestation and soil erosion as Roman agriculture. Coastal marshes can be caused by sea level changes quite as much as soil erosion. There may be reasons to believe that tree diseases as early as 6,000 years ago caused the elm decline but that this tree decline was related in some complex way to the practices of Neolithic farmers.[26] See also[edit] Trees portal Classical demography The First Eden: The Mediterranean World and Man References[edit] ^ Boyle, J. F., Gaillard, M.-J., Kaplan, J. O. and Dearing, J. A. (2011). "historic land use and carbon budgets: A critical review". The Holocene. 21: 715–722. doi:10.1177/0959683610386984.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Williams 2006, p. 62. ^ a b Hughes 1994, p. 157. ^ [1] ^ Morley (1996), pp. 33–39 harvp error: no target: CITEREFMorley1996 (help) ^ Williams 2006, p. 63. ^ Williams 2006, p. 68. ^ Hughes 1994, p. 77. ^ Hughes 1994, p. 190. ^ BBC, 2004. ^ a b c Chew 2001, p. 92. ^ Williams 2006, p. 71. ^ Hughes 1994, p. 86. ^ a b Hughes 2001, p. 138. ^ Delano Smith, Catherine. (1996). The "wilderness" in Roman Times. In Shipley, Graham & Salmon, John. Human Landscapes in Classical Antiquities. New York: Routledge, 159. ^ Hughes 2001, p. 84. ^ Hughes 2001, p. 83. ^ Chew 2001, p. 97. ^ Williams 2006, p. 74. ^ Chew 2001, p. 96. ^ Tainter, Joseph (2006). "Archeology of Overshoot and Collapse". Annual Review of Anthropology. 35: 59–74. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.35.081705.123136. ^ Williams 2006, p. 80. ^ Hallett, Steve (2011). Life Without Oil: Why We Must Shift to a New Energy Future. Prometheus Books. Retrieved July 24, 2012. ^ Rackham & Grove 2003, p. 174. ^ Cheyette, F. L. (2008). "The disappearance of the ancient landscape and the climatic anomaly of the early Middle Ages: a question to be pursued". Early Medieval Europe. 16 (2): 127–165. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0254.2008.00225.x. ^ Rasmussen, Peter; Christensen, Kjeld (1999). "The mid-Holocene Ulmus decline: a new way to evaluate the pathogen hypothesis". Archived from the original on 2011-09-28. Retrieved 2008-08-13. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Sources[edit] Hughes, J. Donald (1994). Pan's Travail. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0801853630. Hughes, J. Donald (2001). An Environmental History of the World. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-203-28539-5. Chew, Sing C. (2001). World Ecological Degradation: Accumulation, Urbanization, and Deforestation, 3000BC-AD2000. Walnut Creek: AltaMira. ISBN 978-0759100312. Rackham, Oliver; Grove, Alfred Thomas (2003). The Nature of Mediterranean Europe: An Ecological History (2. printing, with corr. ed.). New Haven, Conn. ;London: Yale University Press. p. 174. ISBN 9780300100556. Williams, Michael (2006). Deforesting the Earth: From Prehistory to Global Crisis. An Abridgement. Chicago: University of Chicago. ISBN 0-226-89926-8. Further reading[edit] Diamond, Jared (2005). Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed. Viking Press. ISBN 0-14-303655-6. Duncan-Jones, Richard (1974). The economy of the Roman Empire. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-20165-9. "Role of Deforestation in the Roman Empire". BBC. March 23, 2004. v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy 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Social forestry Sustainable forestry Urban forestry Ecology and management Arboriculture Controlled burn Dendrology Ecological thinning Even-aged management Fire ecology Forest informatics IPM inventory governance law old-growth pathology protection restoration secondary transition Forest certification ATFS CFS FSC PEFC SFI SmartWood Woodland Carbon Code Forestation afforestation reforestation Growth and yield modelling Horticulture GM trees i-Tree urban Silviculture Sustainable management Tree allometry breeding Tree measurement crown girth height volume Environmental topics Acid rain Carbon sequestration Clearcutting Deforestation Ecosystem services Forest dieback Forest fragmentation High grading Illegal logging Timber mafia Invasive species wilding REDD Shifting cultivation chitemene slash-and-burn slash-and-char svedjebruk Timber recycling Wildfire Industries Coppicing Forest farming Forest gardening Logging Manufacturing lumber plywood pulp and paper sawmilling Products biochar biomass charcoal non-timber palm oil rayon rubber tanbark Rail transport Tree farm Christmas trees Wood engineered fuel mahogany spruce-pine-fir teak Woodworking Occupations Forester Arborist Bucker Choker setter Ecologist Feller Firefighter handcrew hotshot lookout smokejumper River driver Truck driver Log scaler Lumberjack Ranger Resin tapper Rubber tapper Shingle weaver Timber cruiser Tree planter Wood process engineer WikiProject Category Outline v t e Deforestation and desertification Deforestation Assarting Deforestation Deforestation and climate change Deforestation by region Deforestation during the Roman period Illegal logging Mountaintop removal Slash-and-burn Slash-and-char Desertification Aridification Desertification Moisture recycling Soil retrogression and degradation Water scarcity Mitigation Afforestation Arid Lands Information Network Biochar Conservation grazing Desert greening Ecoforestry Ecological engineering Farmer-managed regeneration Flexible Mechanisms Great Green Wall (Africa) Managed intensive rotational grazing Oasification Reforestation Three-North Shelter Forest (China) Related articles Allan Savory Biodiversity Economic impact analysis Environmental philosophy Extinction Forest Landscape Integrity Index Intact forest landscape International Year of Forests Land surface effects on climate Land use, land-use change and forestry Natural landscape Neolithic Richard St. Barbe Baker Satoyama Terraforming Terra preta Wilderness World Forestry Congress Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Deforestation_during_the_Roman_period&oldid=991931015" Categories: Economy of ancient Rome Forests of Italy Economic history of Italy Deforestation by region Deforestation in Turkey Hidden categories: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list Harv and Sfn no-target errors CS1 errors: missing periodical All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2020 Articles with unsourced statements from February 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en-wikipedia-org-547	----	BIBSYS - Wikipedia BIBSYS From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from BIBSYS (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Supplier of library and information data for all the Norwegian university and college libraries Screenshot of the Oria search page, showing a search for "Wikipedia" at the University of Bergen Library Screenshot of the older Ask version of Bibsys, showing the advanced search field BIBSYS is an administrative agency set up and organized by the Ministry of Education and Research in Norway. They provide the exchange, storage and retrieval of data pertaining to research, teaching and learning – historically metadata related to library resources. BIBSYS are collaborating with all Norwegian universities and university colleges as well as research institutions and the National Library of Norway.[1][2] Bibsys is formally organized as a unit at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), located in Trondheim, Norway. The board of directors is appointed by Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research. BIBSYS offer researchers, students and others an easy access to library resources by providing the unified search service Oria.no and other library services. [3] They also deliver integrated products for the internal operation for research and special libraries as well as open educational resources. [4] As a DataCite member BIBSYS act as a national DataCite representative in Norway and thereby allow all of Norway's higher education and research institutions to use DOI on their research data. All their products and services are developed in cooperation with their member institutions. Contents 1 History 2 See also 3 References 4 External links History[edit] BIBSYS began in 1972 as a collaborative project between the Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Letters Library (Det Kongelige Norske Videnskabers Selskabs Bibliotek), the Norwegian Institute of Technology Library and the Computer Centre at the Norwegian Institute of Technology. The purpose of the project was to automate internal library routines. Since 1972 Bibsys has evolved from a library system supplier for two libraries in Trondheim, to developing and operating a national library system for Norwegian research and special libraries. The target group has also expanded to include the customers of research and special libraries, by providing them easy access to library resources. BIBSYS is a public administrative agency answerable to the Ministry of Education and Research, and administratively organised as a unit at NTNU. In addition to BIBSYS Library System, the product portfolio consists of BISBYS Ask, BIBSYS Brage, BIBSYS Galleri and BIBSYS Tyr. All operation of applications and databases is performed centrally by BIBSYS. BIBSYS also offer a range of services, both in connection with their products and separate services independent of the products they supply. See also[edit] Open access in Norway References[edit] ^ Language institute asks hackers to help (archived) in Aftenposten, 7 June 2002 "The Ivar Aasen Center is a member of Bibsys, which is a library data center offering services to all Norwegian University Libraries, the National Library, all college libraries, and a number of research libraries." ^ Kulturell kampanjejournalistikk in Aftenposten 4 March 2009 "Et enkelt søk i Bibsys (et elektronisk biblioteksystem for hele landet, red.anm.)" ^ Pilotprosjekt i det stille in Aftenposten 25 June 2009 "eller du kan låne den fra nærmeste bibliotek gjennom Bibsys." ^ Harvard i spissen for utdanningsrevolusjon in Aftenposten 5 June 2014 "Mellom fem og ti nye studietilbud har meldt sin ankomst til sommeren og høsten, sier Frode Arntsen i Bibsys, som er ansvarlig for nettportalen." External links[edit] Wikidata has the property: BIBSYS ID (P1015) (see uses) Om Bibsys (in Norwegian) v t e Norwegian University of Science and Technology History Norwegian College of General Sciences Norwegian Institute of Technology Campuses Dragvoll Gløshaugen Divisions Bibsys Department of Petroleum Engineering and Applied Geophysics EHR Research Centre Gemini Institute at Athens Moser research environment University Museum NUTS 1 Revolve NTNU St. Olav's University Hospital Trondheim Academy of Fine Art Trondhjem Biological Station Ugelstad Laboratory Student life NTNUI Student Society Student Welfare Organisation Under Dusken v t e Authority control files AAG • ACM DL • ADB • AGSA • autores.uy • AWR • BALaT • BIBSYS • Bildindex • BNC • BNE • BNF • Botanist • BPN • CANTIC • CiNii • CWGC • DAAO • DBLP • DSI • FNZA • GND • HDS • IAAF • ICCU • ICIA • ISNI • Joconde • KulturNav • LCCN • LIR • LNB • Léonore • MBA • MGP • NARA • NBL • NDL • NGV • NKC • NLA • NLG • NLI • NLK • NLP • NLR • NSK • NTA • ORCID • PIC • ResearcherID • RERO • RKD • RKDimages ID • RSL • SELIBR • SIKART • SNAC • SUDOC • S2AuthorId • TA98 • TDVİA • TE • TePapa • TH • TLS • Trove • UKPARL • ULAN • US Congress • VcBA • VIAF • WorldCat Identities Authority control BIBSYS: 90055718 ISNI: 0000 0004 0646 229X VIAF: 1363148997673459870009 WorldCat Identities: viaf-1363148997673459870009 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BIBSYS&oldid=973983974" Categories: Library-related organizations Libraries in Norway Norwegian University of Science and Technology 1972 establishments in Norway Government agencies established in 1972 Library centers Library cataloging and classification Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles with Norwegian-language sources (no) Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans Asturianu Bân-lâm-gú भोजपुरी Български Català Cymraeg Dansk Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia עברית Magyar مصرى Nederlands Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Simple English Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 20 August 2020, at 11:50 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5480	----	Twelve Tables - Wikipedia Twelve Tables From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman statute forming the law Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e The Law of the Twelve tables (Latin: Leges Duodecim Tabularum or Duodecimo Tabulae) was the legislation that stood at the foundation of Roman law. The Tables consolidated earlier traditions into an enduring set of laws.[1][2] Displayed in the Forum, "The Twelve Tables" stated the rights and duties of the Roman citizen. Their formulation was the result of considerable agitation by the plebeian class, who had hitherto been excluded from the higher benefits of the Republic. The law had previously been unwritten and exclusively interpreted by upper-class priests, the pontifices. Something of the regard with which later Romans came to view the Twelve Tables is captured in the remark of Cicero (106–43 BC) that the "Twelve Tables...seems to me, assuredly to surpass the libraries of all the philosophers, both in weight of authority, and in plenitude of utility". Cicero scarcely exaggerated; the Twelve Tables formed the basis of Roman law for a thousand years.[3] The Twelve Tables are sufficiently comprehensive that their substance has been described as a 'code',[4] although modern scholars consider this characterization exaggerated.[2] The Tables were a sequence of definitions of various private rights and procedures. They generally took for granted such things as the institutions of the family and various rituals for formal transactions. The provisions were often highly specific and diverse.[5] Contents 1 Drafting and development 2 Laws of the Twelve Tables [13] 2.1 Table I & II: Procedure for Courts and Judges and Further Enactments on Trials 2.2 Table III: Execution of Judgment 2.3 Table IV: Right of Familial Heads 2.4 Women: Tables V, VI & X 2.5 Table VII: Land Rights and Crimes 2.6 Table VIII: Torts and Delicts (Laws of Injury) 2.7 Table IX: Public Law 2.8 The Supplements: Tables XI & XII 3 Influence and significance 4 Sources 5 Footnotes 6 Works cited 7 Further reading 8 External links Drafting and development[edit] The Twelve Tables of Roman society were said by the Romans to have come about as a result of the long social struggle between patricians and plebeians. After the expulsion of the last king of Rome, Tarquinius Superbus, the Republic was governed by a hierarchy of magistrates. Initially, only patricians were eligible to become magistrates and this, among other plebeian complaints, was a source of discontent for plebeians. In the context of this unequal status, plebeians would take action to secure concessions for themselves using the threat of secession. They would threaten to leave the city with the consequence that it would grind to a halt, as the plebeians were Rome's labor force. Tradition held that one of the most important concessions won in this class struggle was the establishment of the Twelve Tables, establishing basic procedural rights for all Roman citizens in relation to each other.[6] The drafting of the Twelve Tables may have been fomented by a desire for self-regulation by the patricians, or for other reasons.[2] Around 450 BC, the first decemviri (decemvirate, board of "Ten Men") were appointed to draw up the first ten tables. According to Livy, they sent an embassy to Greece to study the legislative system of Athens, known as the Solonian Constitution, but also to find out about the legislation of other Greek cities.[7][8] Some scholars deny that the Romans imitated the Greeks in this respect[9] or suggest that they visited only the Greek cities of Southern Italy, and did not travel all the way to Greece.[10] In 450 BC, the second decemviri started to work on the last two tables. The first decemvirate completed the first ten codes in 450 BC. Here is how Livy describes their creation: "...every citizen should quietly consider each point, then talk it over with his friends, and, finally, bring forward for public discussion any additions or subtractions which seemed desirable." (cf. Liv. III.34) In 449 BC, the second decemvirate completed the last two codes, and after a secessio plebis (secession of the plebes, a plebian protest) to force the Senate to consider them, the Law of the Twelve Tables was formally promulgated.[11] According to Livy (AUC 3.57.10) the Twelve Tables were inscribed on bronze (Pomponius (Dig. 1 tit. 2 s2 §4) alone says on ivory), and posted publicly, so all Romans could read and know them. Some of the provisions are procedural to ensure fairness among all Romans in the courts, while other established legal terms dictating the legality of capital crimes, intentional homicide, treason, perjury, judicial corruption, and writing slanderous poems.[12] The Romans valued keeping peace in the city and the Twelve Tables were a mechanism of establishing and continuing peace and equality.[12] Laws of the Twelve Tables [13][edit] Table 1 Procedure: for courts and trials Table 2 Further enactments on trials Table 3 Execution of judgments Table 4 Rights of familial heads Table 5 Legal guardianship and inheritance laws Table 6 Acquisition and possession Table 7 Land rights and crimes Table 8 Torts and delicts (Laws of injury) Table 9 Public law Table 10 Sacred law Table 11 Supplement I Table 12 Supplement II Table I & II: Procedure for Courts and Judges and Further Enactments on Trials[edit] These two tables are concerned with the Roman court proceedings. Table I covers proceedings between the defendant and the plaintiff, with responses to potential situations such as when age or illness prevents the defendant from making appearance, then transportation has to be arranged to assist them[14]. It also deals with: The failure of appearance by the defendant. If there is a failure to appear by either party, then after noon the judge must make judgement in favor of the one who is present. Provides a time-table for the trial (ends at sunset)[14] Table II sets the amount of financial stake for each party depending on the source of litigation, what to do in case of impairment of the judge, and rules of who must present evidence[14]. Table III: Execution of Judgment[edit] The laws the Twelve Tables covered were a way to publicly display rights that each citizen had in the public and private sphere. These Twelve Tables displayed what was previously understood in Roman society as the unwritten laws. The public display of the copper tablets allowed for a more balanced society between the Roman patricians who were educated and understood the laws of legal transactions, and the Roman plebeians who had little education or experience in understanding law. By revealing the unwritten rules of society to the public, the Twelve Tables provided a means of safeguard for Plebeians allowing them the opportunity to avoid financial exploitation and added balance to the Roman economy Featured within the Twelve Tables are five rules about how to execute judgments, in terms of debtors and creditors. These rules show how the ancient Romans maintained peace with financial policy. In his article Development of the Roman Law of Debt Security, Donald E. Phillipson states the Twelve Tables were, “A set of statutes known as the Twelve Tables that was passed by an early assembly served as the foundation of the Roman private law. The Twelve Tables were enacted in the mid-fifth century B.C. as the result of a conflict among social classes in ancient Rome.” (pp. 1231–1232).[15] In the book, The Twelve Tables, written by an anonymous source due to its origins being collaborated through a series of translations of tablets and ancient references, P.R. Coleman-Norton arranged and translated many of the significant features of debt that the Twelve Tables enacted into law during the 5th century. The translation of the legal features surrounding debt and derived from the known sources of the Twelve Tables are stated as such “1. Of debt acknowledged and for matters judged in court (in iure) thirty days shall be allowed by law [for payment or for satisfaction]. 2. After that [elapse of thirty days without payment] hand shall be laid on (Manus infection) [the debtor]. He shall be brought into court (in ius). 3. Unless he (the debtor) discharge the debtor unless someone appear in court (in iure) to guarantee payment for him, he (the creditor) shall take [the debtor] with him. He shall bind [him] either with thong or with fetters, of which the weight shall be not less than fifteen pounds or shall be more if he (the creditor) choose. 4. If he (the debtor) chooses, he shall live on his own [means]. If he lives not on his own [means], [the creditor,] who shall hold him in bonds, shall give [him] a pound of bread daily; if he (the creditor) shall so desire, he shall give [him] more. 5. Unless they (the debtors) make a compromise, they (the debtors) shall be held in bonds for sixty days. During those days they shall be brought to [the magistrate] into the comitia (meeting-place) on three successive markets […]”[14] The five mandates of the Twelve Tables encompassing debt created a new understanding within social classes in ancient Rome that insured financial exploitation would be limited within legal business transactions. Table IV: Right of Familial Heads[edit] The fourth table of the Twelve Tables deals with the specific rights of Patriarchs of families. One of the first proclamations of the Table IV is that "dreadfully deformed" children must be quickly euthanized. It also explains that sons are born into inheritance of their family. If a husband no longer wants to be married to his wife he can remove her from their household and "order her to mind her own affairs"[16] Not all of the codes of table IV are to the benefit of only the patriarch. If a father attempts to sell his son three times then the son earns his freedom from the father. Women: Tables V, VI & X[edit] The Twelve Tables have three sections that pertain to women as they concern estates and guardianship, ownership and possession, and religion, which give a basic understanding as to the legal rights of females. Table V (Estates and Guardianship): “Female heirs should remain under guardianship even when they have attained the age of majority, but exception is made for the Vestal Virgins.”[12] Table VI (Ownership and Possession): “Where a woman, who has not been united to a man in marriage, lives with him for an entire year without interruption of three nights, she shall pass into his power as his legal wife.”[12] Table X (Religion): “Women shall not during a funeral lacerate their faces, or tear their cheeks with their nails; nor shall they utter loud cries bewailing the dead.”[12] One of the aspects highlighted in the Twelve Tables is a woman's legal status and standing in society. Women were considered to be a form of guardianship similar to that of minors,[17] and sections on ownership and possession give off the impression that women were considered to be akin to a piece of real estate or property due to the use of terms such as "ownership" and "possession".[17] Table VII: Land Rights and Crimes[edit] This table outlines the attitudes towards property. The following are all rules about property[16] Boundary disputes are settled by third-parties. Road widths are eight feet wide on straight parts and double that on turns. People who live near the road are in charge of maintaining it. However if a road is not well maintained then carts and animals can be ridden where the riders want to Property owners can request removal of trees that have been blown onto their property Fruit that falls from a tree onto a neighbor's property still belongs to the original tree owner. Table VIII: Torts and Delicts (Laws of Injury)[edit] Torts are laws dealing with litigating wrongs that occur between citizens. One such situation is that of physical injury, retaliation for which can range from dealing the prepetrator an injury in kind, to monetary compensation to the injured. This table also establishes the legal ramifications for damage dealt to property by animals and damage dealt to crops by people or animals. The penalty for stealing crops is hanging as sacrifice to Ceres[16] The table also describes several laws dealing with theft. Table IX: Public Law[edit] This section of the tables makes it illegal for anyone to define what a citizen of Rome with the exception of the greatest assembly, or maximus comitatus. It also outlaws execution of those unconvicted, bribery of judges, and extradition of a citizen to enemy powers.[16] The Supplements: Tables XI & XII[edit] Table XI (Marriage Between Classes): A person of a certain class shall not partake in marriage with a person of a lower class. Table XII (Binding into Law): Whatever one or more persons have ordered into law, shall be held by the law. Influence and significance[edit] Roman civilians examining the Twelve Tables after they were first implemented. The Twelve Tables are often cited as the foundation for ancient Roman law. The Twelve Tables provided an early understanding of some key concepts such as justice, equality, and punishment.[18] Although legal reform occurred soon after the implementation of the Twelve Tables, these ancient laws provided social protection and civil rights for both the patricians and plebeians. At this time, there was extreme tension between the privileged class and the common people resulting in the need for some form of social order. While the existing laws had major flaws that were in need of reform, the Twelve Tables eased the civil tension and violence between the plebeians and patricians.[19] The Twelve Tables also heavily influenced and are referenced in later Roman Laws texts, especially The Digest of Justinian I. Such laws from The Digest that are derived from the Twelve Tables are the legal recompense for damage caused by an animal, protocol for inheritances, and also laws about structural property damage[20]. The influence of the Twelve Tables is still evident in the modern day. The Twelve Tables play a significant role in the basis of the early American legal system. Political theorists, such as James Madison have highlighted the importance of the Twelve Tables in crafting the United States Bill of Rights.[21] The idea of property was also perpetuated in the Twelve Tables, including the different forms of money, land, and slaves. An additional example, the Twelve Tables are tied into the notion of Jus Commune, which translates as "common law", but is commonly referred to as "civil law" in English-speaking countries. Some countries including South Africa and San Marino still base their current legal system on aspects of jus commune.[19] In addition, law school students throughout the world are still required to study the Twelve Tables as well as other facets of Roman Law in order to better understand the current legal system in place.[22] Sources[edit] The Twelve Tables are no longer extant: although they remained an important source through the Republic, they gradually became obsolete, eventually being only of historical interest.[2] The original tablets may have been destroyed when the Gauls under Brennus burned Rome in 387 BC. Cicero claimed[23] that he learned them by heart as a boy in school, but that no one did so any longer. What we have of them today are brief excerpts and quotations from these laws in other authors, often in clearly updated language. They are written in an archaic, laconic Latin (described as Saturnian verse). As such, though it cannot be determined whether the quoted fragments accurately preserve the original form, what is present gives some insight into the grammar of early Latin. Some claim that the text was written as such so plebeians could more easily memorize the laws, as literacy was not commonplace during early Rome. Roman Republican scholars wrote commentaries upon the Twelve Tables, such as L. Aelius Stilo,[24] teacher of both Varro and Cicero.[25] Like most other early codes of law, they were largely procedural, combining strict and rigorous penalties with equally strict and rigorous procedural forms. In most of the surviving quotations from these texts, the original table that held them is not given. Scholars have guessed at where surviving fragments belong by comparing them with the few known attributions and records, many of which do not include the original lines, but paraphrases. It cannot be known with any certainty from what survives that the originals ever were organized this way, or even if they ever were organized by subject at all.[2] Footnotes[edit] ^ Jolowicz, H.F. Historical Introduction to the Study of Roman Law (Cambridge, 1952), 108 ^ a b c d e Crawford, M.H. 'Twelve Tables' in Simon Hornblower, Antony Spawforth, and Esther Eidinow (eds.) Oxford Classical Dictionary (4th ed.) ^ Book: "The Age of Classical Civilization"; Chapter "The Twelve Tables c. 450 BC"; p. 27 ^ Mommsen, T. The History of Rome trans. W.P. Dickson (London, 1864) 290 ^ Steinberg, S. 'The Twelve Tables and Their Origins: An Eighteenth-Century Debate' Journal of the History of Ideas Vol. 43, No. 3 (1982) 379–396, 381 ^ du Plessis, Paul (2010). Borkowski's Textbook on Roman Law (4th ed.). Oxford. pp. 5–6, 29–30. ISBN 978-0-19-957488-9. ^ Livy, 2002, p. 23 ^ Durant, 1942, p. 23 ^ Steinberg, S. 'The Twelve Tables and Their Origins: An Eighteenth-Century Debate' Journal of the History of Ideas Vol. 43, No. 3 (1982) 379–396 ^ Grant, Michael (1978). History of Rome (1st ed.). Prentice Hall. p. 75. ISBN 0-02-345610-8. ^ McCarty, Nick "Rome The Greatest Empire of the Ancient World", The Rosen Publishing Group, 2008 ^ a b c d e Mellor, Ronald (2013). The historians of ancient Rome: an anthology of the major writings. Routledge. ISBN 978-0415527163. OCLC 819515201. ^ https://avalon.law.yale.edu/ancient/twelve_tables.asp ^ a b c d Coleman-Norton, P.R. (1960). The Twelve Tables. Princeton: Princeton University, Dept. of Classics. ^ Phillipson, D.E. (1968). Development of the Roman Law of Debt Security. Stanford Law Review, 20(6), 1230. doi:10.2307/1227498 ^ a b c d Anonymous (January 24, 2005). The Twelve Tables. http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/14783/pg14783-images.html.utf8.gzip: Gutenberg Press.CS1 maint: location (link) ^ a b Hurri, Samuli (November 2005). "The Twelve Tables" (PDF). NoFo. 1: 13–23. ^ Gary, Forsythe. A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War. 1st ed., University of California Press, 2005, www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/j.ctt1ppxrv. ^ a b "Law in Ancient Rome, The Twelve Tables". www.crystalinks.com. Retrieved 2017-05-08. ^ Watson, Alan (March 12, 2009). The Digest of Justinian, Volume 1. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 276, 379, 315. ISBN 9780812205510. ^ Denis, Fustel De Coulanges Numa. The Ancient City a Study on the Religion, Laws, and Institutions of Greece and Rome. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 2010. Print. ^ Baker, Keir (2016-04-11). "Studying Roman law: Juno it's more useful than you'd think". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2017-05-08. ^ Cic. Leg. 2.59 ^ cf. Funaioli GRF p57 ^ Cicero, Brutus 205; Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights 16.8.2. Works cited[edit] Durant, W. (1942). The Story of Civilization. Simon and Schuster. Livy; De Sélincourt, A.; Ogilvie, R.M.; Oakley, S.P. (2002). The Early History of Rome: Books I–V of The History of Rome from its Foundations. Penguin Classics. ISBN 0-14-044809-8. Goodwin, Frederick (1886). The XII Tables. London: Stevens & Sons. Further reading[edit] Cornell, T.J. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 B.C.). London: Routledge, Routledge History of the Ancient World. Harries, Jill. 2007. “Roman Law Codes and the Roman Legal Tradition.” In Beyond Dogmatics: Law and Society in the Roman World, Edited by Cairns, John W. and Du Plessis, Paul J. Edinburgh studies in law; 3, 85-104. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Pr. Tellegen-Couperus Olga ed. 2011. Law and Religion in the Roman Republic. Mnemosyne supplements. History and Archaeology of Classical Antiquity, 336. Leiden; Boston: Brill. Watson, Alan. 1992. The State, Law and Religion: Pagan Rome. University of Georgia Press. Westbrook, Raymond. 1988. "The Nature and Origins of the Twelve Tables." Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung für Rechtsgeschichte. Romanistische Abteilung, CV, 74-121. External links[edit] Library resources about Twelve Tables Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Wikisource has the text of the 1921 Collier's Encyclopedia article Twelve Tables. 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en-wikipedia-org-5489	----	Maurus Servius Honoratus - Wikipedia Maurus Servius Honoratus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Servius commenting Virgil (France, 15th century). 16th century edition of Virgil with Servius' commentary printed to the left of the text. Maurus Servius Honoratus was a late fourth-century and early fifth-century grammarian, with the contemporary reputation of being the most learned man of his generation in Italy; he was the author of a set of commentaries on the works of Virgil. These works, In tria Virgilii Opera Expositio, constituted the first incunable to be printed at Florence, by Bernardo Cennini, 1471. In the Saturnalia of Macrobius, Servius appears as one of the interlocutors; allusions in that work and a letter from Symmachus to Servius indicate that he was not a convert to Christianity. Contents 1 Commentary on Virgil 2 Other works 3 References 3.1 Citations 3.2 Sources 4 External links Commentary on Virgil[edit] The commentary on Virgil (Latin: In Vergilii Aeneidem commentarii) has survived in two distinct manuscript traditions.[1] The first is a comparatively short commentary, which is attributed to Servius in the superscription in the manuscripts and by other internal evidence. A second class of manuscripts, all deriving from the 10th and 11th centuries, embed the same text in a much expanded commentary. The copious additions are in contrast to the style of the original; none of these manuscripts bears the name of Servius, and the commentary is known traditionally as Servius auctus or Servius Danielis, from Pierre Daniel who first published it in 1600.[2] "The added matter is undoubtedly ancient, dating from a time but little removed from that of Servius, and is founded to a large extent on historical and antiquarian literature which is now lost. The writer is anonymous and probably a Christian",[3] although not if, as is often suggested, he is Aelius Donatus. A third class of manuscripts, written for the most part in Italy, gives the core text with interpolated scholia, which demonstrate the continued usefulness of the Virgilii Opera Expositio. The authentic commentary of Maurus Servius Honoratus is in effect the only complete extant edition of a classic author written before the collapse of the Empire in the West. It is constructed very much on the principle of a modern edition, and is partly founded on an extensive Virgilian critical literature, much of which is known only from the fragments and facts preserved in this commentary. The notices of Virgil's text, though seldom or never authoritative in face of the existing manuscripts, which go back to, or even beyond, the time of Servius, yet supply valuable information concerning the ancient recensions and textual criticism of Virgil. In the grammatical interpretation of his author's language, Servius does not rise above the stiff and overwrought subtleties of his time; while his etymologies, as is natural, violate every modern law of sound and sense in favour of creative excursus. Servius set his face against the prevalent allegorical methods of exposition of text. For the antiquarian and the historian, the abiding value of his work lies in his preservation of facts in Roman history, religion, antiquities and language, which but for him might have perished. Not a little of the laborious erudition of Varro and other ancient scholars has survived in his pages. Other works[edit] Besides the Virgilian commentary, other works of Servius are extant: a collection of notes on the grammar (Ars grammatica) of Aelius Donatus; a treatise on metrical endings in verse (De finalibus); and a tract on the different poetic meters (De centum metris). The edition of Georg Thilo and Hermann Hagen (1878–1902), remains the only edition of the whole of Servius' work. Currently in development is the Harvard Servius (Servianorum in Vergili Carmina Commentariorum Editio Harvardiana); of the projected five volumes, two have so far appeared, i (Aeneid 1–2), 1946, and ii (Aeneid 3–5), 1965. References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ The manuscript tradition is examined by Charles E. Murgia, Prolegomena to Servius 5: the manuscripts (University of California Classical Studies 11), University of California Press, 1975. ^ (in Italian) I. Biffi and C. Marabelli (eds.), Figure del pensiero medievale. Fondamenti e inizi IV-IX secolo, Jaca Book, 2009, p. 306 ^ Encyclopædia Britannica 1911: sub "Servius Maurus Honoratus" Sources[edit] E. K. Rand, "Is Donatus's Commentary on Virgil Lost?" Classical Quarterly 10 (1916), 158–164. Donatus's authorship of the supplementary material. "The Manuscripts of the Commentary of Servius Danielis on Virgil", Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 43 (1932), 77–121; "The Manuscripts of Servius's Commentary on Virgil", Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 45 (1934), 157–204. Casali, Sergio and Fabio Stok (edd.). Servio: stratificazioni esegetiche e modelli culturali / Servius: exegetical stratifications and cultural models (Bruxelles: Éditions Latomus, 2008) (Collection Latomus, 317). External links[edit] Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: Maurus Servius Honoratus Commentary on the Aeneid of Vergil at the Perseus Project in Latin. Commentary on the Eclogues of Vergil at the Perseus Project in Latin. De Centum Metris at Intratext.com De Centum Metris at Forum Romanorum Servii grammatici qui feruntur in Vergilii carmina commentarii, Georius Thilo, Hermannus Hagen (ed.), 3 vol., Lipsiae in aedibus B. G. Teubneri, 1881–1902: vol. 1, vol. 2, vol. 3 part 1, vol. 3 part 2. Authority control BIBSYS: 90786980 BNE: XX1375748 BNF: cb12157706b (data) CANTIC: a11028300 GND: 118796313 ISNI: 0000 0000 1558 7909 LCCN: n82221524 NKC: mzk2003199144 NSK: 000085157 NTA: 070081840 RERO: 02-A003823423 SELIBR: 246563 SUDOC: 030091144 Trove: 1036427 VcBA: 495/57137 VIAF: 10970700 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n82221524 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maurus_Servius_Honoratus&oldid=970007255" Categories: Grammarians of Latin Virgil Aeneid 4th-century Latin writers Byzantine-era pagans 5th-century Latin writers Hidden categories: Articles with Italian-language sources (it) Articles containing Latin-language text Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Asturianu Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Français Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 28 July 2020, at 17:53 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-549	----	Category:8 BC deaths - Wikipedia Help Category:8 BC deaths From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search People who died c. 8 BC. See also: 8 BC births. 0s BC deaths: 9 • 8 • 7 • 6 • 5 • 4 • 3 • 2 • 1 Wikimedia Commons has media related to 8 BC deaths. Pages in category "8 BC deaths" The following 5 pages are in this category, out of 5 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). H Horace J Juya M Gaius Maecenas P Polemon I of Pontus X Empress Xu (Cheng) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:8_BC_deaths&oldid=993942809" Categories: 8 BC 0s BC deaths Deaths by year Hidden categories: Commons category link from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés Беларуская Български Bosanski Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Magyar Македонски मराठी مصرى 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русиньскый Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 13 December 2020, at 08:46 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5502	----	Ancient Roman bathing - Wikipedia Ancient Roman bathing From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Custom of ancient Roman society Some remains of the Baths of Trajan Bathing played a major part in ancient Roman culture and society. It was one of the most common daily activities in Roman culture and was practiced across a wide variety of social classes. Though many contemporary cultures see bathing as a very private activity conducted in the home, bathing in Rome was a communal activity. While the extremely wealthy could afford bathing facilities in their homes, most people bathed in the communal baths (thermae). In some ways, these resembled modern-day destination spas. The Romans raised bathing to high art as they socialized in these communal baths. Communal baths were also available in temples such as The Imperial Fora. Courtship was conducted, as well as sealing business deals, as they built lavish baths on natural hot springs. Such was the importance of baths to Romans that a catalog of buildings in Rome from 354 AD documented 952 baths of varying sizes in the city.[1] Although wealthy Romans might set up a bath in their townhouses or in their country villas, heating a series of rooms or even a separate building especially for this purpose, and soldiers might have a bathhouse provided at their fort (as at Chesters on Hadrian's Wall, or at Bearsden fort), they still often frequented the numerous public bathhouses in the cities and towns throughout the empire. Small bathhouses, called balneum (plural balnea), might be privately owned, while they were public in the sense that they were open to the populace for a fee. Larger baths called thermae were owned by the state and often covered several city blocks. The largest of these, the Baths of Diocletian, could hold up to 3,000 bathers. Fees for both types of baths were quite reasonable, within the budget of most free Roman males. Contents 1 Greek influence 2 Roman bathhouses 3 Criticism and concerns 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading Greek influence[edit] Baths of Caracalla, in 2003 Some of the earliest descriptions of western bathing practices came from Greece. The Greeks began bathing regimens that formed the foundation for modern spa procedures. These Aegean people utilized small bathtubs, washbasins, and foot baths for personal cleanliness. The earliest such findings are the baths in the palace complex at Knossos, Crete, and the luxurious alabaster bathtubs excavated in Akrotiri, Santorini; both date from the mid-2nd millennium BC. They established public baths and showers within their gymnasium complexes for relaxation and personal hygiene. Greek mythology specified that certain natural springs or tidal pools were blessed by the gods to cure disease. Around these sacred pools, Greeks established bathing facilities for those desiring to heal. Supplicants left offerings to the gods for healing at these sites and bathed themselves in hopes of a cure. The Spartans developed a primitive steam bath. At Serangeum, an early Greek balneum (bathhouse, loosely translated), bathing chambers were cut into the hillside into the rock above the chambers held bathers' clothing. One of the bathing chambers had a decorative mosaic floor depicting a driver and chariot pulled by four horses, a woman followed by two dogs, and a dolphin below. Thus the early Greeks used natural features, but expanded them and added their own amenities, such as decorations and shelves. During the later Greek civilization, bathhouses were often built in conjunction with athletic fields. Roman bathhouses[edit] The Romans emulated many of the Greeks' bathing practices and surpassed them in the size of their baths. As in Greece, the Roman bath became a focal center for social and recreational activity. With the expansion of the Roman Empire, the idea of the public bath spread to all parts of the Mediterranean and into regions of Europe and North Africa. By constructing aqueducts, the Romans had enough water not only for domestic, agricultural, and industrial uses but also for their leisurely pursuits. Aqueducts provided water that was later heated for use in the baths. Today, the extent of the Roman bath is revealed at ruins and in archaeological excavations in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East.[2] These Roman baths varied from simple to exceedingly elaborate structures, and they varied in size, arrangement, and decoration. Most contained an apodyterium— a room just inside the entrance where the bather stored his clothes. Next, the bather progressed into the tepidarium (warm room), then into the caldarium (hot room) for a steam, and finally into the frigidarium (cold room) with its tank of cold water. The caldarium, heated by a brazier underneath the hollow floor, contained cold-water basins which the bather could use for cooling. After taking this series of sweat and/or immersion baths, the bather returned to the cooler tepidarium for a massage with oils and final scraping with metal implements called strigils. Some baths also contained a laconicum (a dry, resting room) where the bather completed the process by resting and sweating.[2] The layout of Roman baths contained other architectural features of note. Because wealthy Romans brought slaves to attend to their bathing needs, the bathhouse usually had three entrances: one for men, one for women, and one for slaves. The preference of symmetry in Roman architecture usually meant a symmetrical facade, even though the women's area was usually smaller than the men's because of fewer numbers of patrons. Usually, solid walls or placement on opposite sides of the building separated the men's and women's sections. Roman bathhouses often contained a courtyard, or palaestra, which was an open-air garden used for exercise. In some cases, the builders made the palaestra an interior courtyard, and in other cases, the builders placed the palaestra in front of the bathhouse proper and incorporated it into the formal approach. Sometimes the palestra held a swimming pool. Most often a colonnade outlined the palaestra's edges.[2] Republican bathhouses often had separate bathing facilities for women and men, but by the 1st century AD mixed bathing was common and is a practice frequently referred to in Martial and Juvenal, as well as in Pliny and Quintilian. However, gender separation might have been restored by Emperor Hadrian[3] but there is evidence it wasn't. To many Roman moralists, baths illustrated how far the Rome of their own day had fallen into decline and so became a negative image; Cato the Elder publicly attacked Scipio Africanus for his use of the bathhouses. Roman bathhouses offered amenities in addition to the bathing ritual. Ancillary spaces in the bathhouse proper housed food and perfume-selling booths, libraries, and reading rooms. Stages accommodated theatrical and musical performances. Adjacent stadia provided spaces for exercise and athletic competitions. Inside the bathhouses proper, marble mosaics tiled the elegant floors. The stuccoed walls frequently sported frescoes of trees, birds, and other pastoral images. Sky-blue paint, gold stars, and celestial imagery adorned interior domes. Statuary and fountains decorated the interior and exterior.[2] Roman baths in Bath, England The Romans also constructed baths in their colonies, taking advantage of the natural hot springs occurring in Europe to construct baths at Aix and Vichy in France, Bath and Buxton in England, Aachen and Wiesbaden in Germany, Baden in Austria, and Aquincum in Hungary, among other locations. These baths became centers for recreational and social activities in Roman communities. Libraries, lecture halls, gymnasiums, and formal gardens became part of some bath complexes. In addition, the Romans used the hot thermal waters to relieve their suffering from rheumatism, arthritis, and overindulgence in food and drink.[2] Thus the Romans elevated bathing to fine art, and their bathhouses physically reflected these advancements. The Roman bath, for instance, included a far more complex ritual than a simple immersion or sweating procedure. The various parts of the bathing ritual (undressing, bathing, sweating, receiving a massage and resting), required separated rooms which the Romans built to accommodate those functions. The segregation of the sexes and the additions of diversions not directly related to bathing also had a direct impact on the shape and form of bathhouses. The elaborate Roman bathing ritual and its resultant architecture served as precedents for later European and American bathing facilities. Formal garden spaces and opulent architectural arrangement equal to those of the Romans reappeared in Europe by the end of the eighteenth century. Major American spas followed suit a century later.[2] Criticism and concerns[edit] While the baths were enjoyed by almost every Roman, there were those who criticized them. The water was not renewed often and the remains of oil, dirt or even excrement were kept warm, providing a milieu for bacteria.[4] The emperor Marcus Aurelius complained about the dirtiness.[5] Celsus,[6] while commending its therapeutic virtues, warns not to go with a fresh wound, because of the risk of gangrene. In fact, several tombstones from across the empire claim: 'Baths, wine, and sex corrupt our bodies, but baths, wine, and sex make life worth living.' (“balnea vina Venus / corrumpunt corpora / nostra se<t> vitam faciunt / balnea vina Venus,” epitaph of Tiberius Claudius Secundus, CIL VI.15258, Rome, 1st C.) [7] The objections of the philosopher Seneca were instead about the associated noise that interrupted his work when he resided above a bath.[8] See also[edit] Legacy of the Roman Empire Turkish bath References[edit] ^ Boëthius, Axel; Ward-Perkins, J. B. (1970). Etruscan and Roman architecture. Harmondsworth: Penguin. ISBN 0-14-056032-7. ^ a b c d e f Paige, John C; Laura Woulliere Harrison (1987). Out of the Vapors: A Social and Architectural History of Bathhouse Row, Hot Springs National Park (PDF). U.S. Department of the Interior. ^ Women In Roman Baths* Roy Bowen Ward Miami University, Oxford, Ohio ^ Invisible Romans, Chapter 1, Robert C. Knapp. ^ Such as bathing appears to thee,—oil, sweat, dirt, filthy water, all things disgusting,—so is every part of life and everything.. Meditations, 8.24, Marcus Aurelius. Quoted in Knapp. ^ De Medicina, V, 26, 28d, Aulus Cornelius Celsus. De medicina ^ Brian K Harvey (2016). Daily Life In Ancient Rome: A Sourcebook. Hackett Publishing Company. p. 256. ^ Epistulae morales ad Lucilium 56.1, 2, Seneca the Younger. Quoted in Invisible Romans, chapter 1, Robert C. Knapp. Further reading[edit] ThermeMuseum (Museum of the Thermae) in Heerlen The Economy of Prostitution in the Roman World, Thomas A.J. McGinn, Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 2004. v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_bathing&oldid=995166289" Categories: Ancient Roman baths Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 19 December 2020, at 16:22 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5513	----	Homer - Wikipedia Homer From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on 27 December 2020. Jump to navigation Jump to search name ascribed by the ancient Greeks to the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey For other uses, see Homer (disambiguation). "Homeric" and "Homerus" redirect here. For other uses, see Homeric (disambiguation) and Homerus (disambiguation). "Homeric" redirects here. It is not to be confused with Homerian. Roman bust of Homer from the second century AD, portrayed with traditional iconography, based on a Greek original dating to the Hellenistic period[1] Homer (/ˈhoʊmər/; Ancient Greek: Ὅμηρος Greek pronunciation: [hómɛːros], Hómēros) is the presumed author of the Iliad and the Odyssey, two epic poems that are the foundational works of ancient Greek literature. The Iliad is set during the Trojan War, the ten-year siege of the city of Troy by a coalition of Greek kingdoms. It focuses on a quarrel between King Agamemnon and the warrior Achilles lasting a few weeks during the last year of the war. The Odyssey focuses on the ten-year journey home of Odysseus, king of Ithaca, after the fall of Troy. Many accounts of Homer's life circulated in classical antiquity, the most widespread being that he was a blind bard from Ionia, a region of central coastal Anatolia in present-day Turkey. Modern scholars consider these accounts legendary.[2][3][4] The Homeric Question – concerning by whom, when, where and under what circumstances the Iliad and Odyssey were composed – continues to be debated. Broadly speaking, modern scholarly opinion falls into two groups. One holds that most of the Iliad and (according to some) the Odyssey are the works of a single poet of genius. The other considers the Homeric poems to be the result of a process of working and reworking by many contributors, and that "Homer" is best seen as a label for an entire tradition.[4] It is generally accepted that the poems were composed at some point around the late eighth or early seventh century BC.[5] The poems are in Homeric Greek, also known as Epic Greek, a literary language which shows a mixture of features of the Ionic and Aeolic dialects from different centuries; the predominant influence is Eastern Ionic.[6][7] Most researchers believe that the poems were originally transmitted orally.[8] From antiquity until the present day, the influence of Homeric epic on Western civilization has been great, inspiring many of its most famous works of literature, music, art and film.[9] The Homeric epics were the greatest influence on ancient Greek culture and education; to Plato, Homer was simply the one who "has taught Greece" – ten Hellada pepaideuken.[10][11] Contents 1 Works attributed to Homer 2 Ancient biographical traditions 3 History of Homeric scholarship 3.1 Ancient 3.2 Modern 3.3 Contemporary 4 Historicity of the Homeric epics and Homeric society 5 Homeric language 6 Homeric style 7 Textual transmission 8 See also 9 Notes 10 Selected bibliography 10.1 Editions 10.2 Interlinear translations 10.3 English translations 10.4 General works on Homer 10.5 Influential readings and interpretations 10.6 Commentaries 10.7 Dating the Homeric poems 11 Further reading 12 External links Works attributed to Homer[edit] Homer and His Guide (1874) by William-Adolphe Bouguereau Today only the Iliad and Odyssey are associated with the name 'Homer'. In antiquity, a very large number of other works were sometimes attributed to him, including the Homeric Hymns, the Contest of Homer and Hesiod, the Little Iliad, the Nostoi, the Thebaid, the Cypria, the Epigoni, the comic mini-epic Batrachomyomachia ("The Frog-Mouse War"), the Margites, the Capture of Oechalia, and the Phocais. These claims are not considered authentic today and were by no means universally accepted in the ancient world. As with the multitude of legends surrounding Homer's life, they indicate little more than the centrality of Homer to ancient Greek culture.[12][13][14] Ancient biographical traditions[edit] Further information: Ancient accounts of Homer Many traditions circulated in the ancient world concerning Homer, most of which are lost. Modern scholarly consensus is that they have no value as history.[citation needed] Some claims were established early and repeated often. They include that Homer was blind (taking as self-referential a passage describing the blind bard Demodocus[15][16]), that he was born in Chios, that he was the son of the river Meles and the nymph Critheïs, that he was a wandering bard, that he composed a varying list of other works (the "Homerica"), that he died either in Ios or after failing to solve a riddle set by fishermen, and various explanations for the name "Homer". The two best known ancient biographies of Homer are the Life of Homer by the Pseudo-Herodotus and the Contest of Homer and Hesiod.[17][18] In the early 4th century BC Alcidamas composed a fictional account of a poetry contest at Chalcis with both Homer and Hesiod. Homer was expected to win, and answered all of Hesiod's questions and puzzles with ease. Then, each of the poets was invited to recite the best passage from their work. Hesiod selected the beginning of Works and Days: "When the Pleiades born of Atlas ... all in due season". Homer chose a description of Greek warriors in formation, facing the foe, taken from the Iliad. Though the crowd acclaimed Homer victor, the judge awarded Hesiod the prize; the poet who praised husbandry, he said, was greater than the one who told tales of battles and slaughter.[19] History of Homeric scholarship[edit] Further information: Homeric scholarship and Homeric Question Ancient[edit] Part of an eleventh-century manuscript, "the Townley Homer". The writings on the top and right side are scholia. The study of Homer is one of the oldest topics in scholarship, dating back to antiquity.[20][21][22] Nonetheless, the aims of Homeric studies have changed over the course of the millennia.[20] The earliest preserved comments on Homer concern his treatment of the gods, which hostile critics such as the poet Xenophanes of Colophon denounced as immoral.[22] The allegorist Theagenes of Rhegium is said to have defended Homer by arguing that the Homeric poems are allegories.[22] The Iliad and the Odyssey were widely used as school texts in ancient Greek and Hellenistic cultures.[20][22][23] They were the first literary works taught to all students.[23] The Iliad, particularly its first few books, was far more intently studied than the Odyssey during the Hellenistic and Roman periods.[23] As a result of the poems' prominence in classical Greek education, extensive commentaries on them developed to explain parts of the poems that were culturally or linguistically difficult.[20][22] During the Hellenistic and Roman periods, many interpreters, especially the Stoics, who believed that Homeric poems conveyed Stoic doctrines, regarded them as allegories, containing hidden wisdom.[22] Perhaps partially because of the Homeric poems' extensive use in education, many authors believed that Homer's original purpose had been to educate.[22] Homer's wisdom became so widely praised that he began to acquire the image of almost a prototypical philosopher.[22] Byzantine scholars such as Eustathius of Thessalonica and John Tzetzes produced commentaries, extensions and scholia to Homer, especially in the twelfth century.[24][22] Eustathius's commentary on the Iliad alone is massive, sprawling over nearly 4,000 oversized pages in a twenty-first century printed version and his commentary on the Odyssey an additional nearly 2,000.[22] Modern[edit] Homer as depicted in the 1493 Nuremberg Chronicle In 1488, the Greek scholar Demetrios Chalkokondyles published the editio princeps of the Homeric poems.[22] The earliest modern Homeric scholars started with the same basic approaches towards the Homeric poems as scholars in antiquity.[22][21][20] The allegorical interpretation of the Homeric poems that had been so prevalent in antiquity returned to become the prevailing view of the Renaissance.[22] Renaissance humanists praised Homer as the archetypically wise poet, whose writings contain hidden wisdom, disguised through allegory.[22] In western Europe during the Renaissance, Virgil was more widely read than Homer and Homer was often seen through a Virgilian lens.[25] In 1664, contradicting the widespread praise of Homer as the epitome of wisdom, François Hédelin, abbé d'Aubignac wrote a scathing attack on the Homeric poems, declaring that they were incoherent, immoral, tasteless, and without style, that Homer never existed, and that the poems were hastily cobbled together by incompetent editors from unrelated oral songs.[21] Fifty years later, the English scholar Richard Bentley concluded that Homer did exist, but that he was an obscure, prehistoric oral poet whose compositions bear little relation to the Iliad and the Odyssey as they have been passed down.[21] According to Bentley, Homer "wrote a Sequel of Songs and Rhapsodies, to be sung by himself for small Earnings and good Cheer at Festivals and other Days of Merriment; the Ilias he wrote for men, and the Odysseis for the other Sex. These loose songs were not collected together in the Form of an epic Poem till Pisistratus' time, about 500 Years after."[21] Friedrich August Wolf's Prolegomena ad Homerum, published in 1795, argued that much of the material later incorporated into the Iliad and the Odyssey was originally composed in the tenth century BC in the form of short, separate oral songs,[26][27][21] which passed through oral tradition for roughly four hundred years before being assembled into prototypical versions of the Iliad and the Odyssey in the sixth century BC by literate authors.[26][27][21] After being written down, Wolf maintained that the two poems were extensively edited, modernized, and eventually shaped into their present state as artistic unities.[26][27][21] Wolf and the "Analyst" school, which led the field in the nineteenth century, sought to recover the original, authentic poems which were thought to be concealed by later excrescences.[26][27][21][28] Within the Analyst school were two camps: proponents of the "lay theory", which held that the Iliad and the Odyssey were put together from a large number of short, independent songs,[21] and proponents of the "nucleus theory", which held that Homer had originally composed shorter versions of the Iliad and the Odyssey, which later poets expanded and revised.[21] A small group of scholars opposed to the Analysts, dubbed "Unitarians", saw the later additions as superior, the work of a single inspired poet.[26][27][21] By around 1830, the central preoccupations of Homeric scholars, dealing with whether or not "Homer" actually existed, when and how the Homeric poems originated, how they were transmitted, when and how they were finally written down, and their overall unity, had been dubbed "the Homeric Question".[21] Following World War I, the Analyst school began to fall out of favor among Homeric scholars.[21] It did not die out entirely, but it came to be increasingly seen as a discredited dead end.[21] Starting in around 1928, Milman Parry and Albert Lord, after their studies of folk bards in the Balkans, developed the "Oral-Formulaic Theory" that the Homeric poems were originally composed through improvised oral performances, which relied on traditional epithets and poetic formulas.[29][28][21] This theory found very wide scholarly acceptance[29][28][21] and explained many previously puzzling features of the Homeric poems, including their unusually archaic language, their extensive use of stock epithets, and their other "repetitive" features.[28] Many scholars concluded that the "Homeric question" had finally been answered.[21] Meanwhile, the 'Neoanalysts' sought to bridge the gap between the 'Analysts' and 'Unitarians'.[30][31] The Neoanalysts sought to trace the relationships between the Homeric poems and other epic poems, which have now been lost, but of which modern scholars do possess some patchy knowledge.[21] Neoanalysts hold that knowledge of earlier versions of the epics can be derived from anomalies of structure and detail in the surviving versions of the Iliad and Odyssey. These anomalies point to earlier versions of the Iliad in which Ajax played a more prominent role, in which the Achaean embassy to Achilles comprised different characters, and in which Patroclus was actually mistaken for Achilles by the Trojans. They point to earlier versions of the Odyssey in which Telemachus went in search of news of his father not to Menelaus in Sparta but to Idomeneus in Crete, in which Telemachus met up with his father in Crete and conspired with him to return to Ithaca disguised as the soothsayer Theoclymenus, and in which Penelope recognized Odysseus much earlier in the narrative and conspired with him in the destruction of the suitors.[32] Contemporary[edit] Most contemporary scholars, although they disagree on other questions about the genesis of the poems, agree that the Iliad and the Odyssey were not produced by the same author, based on "the many differences of narrative manner, theology, ethics, vocabulary, and geographical perspective, and by the apparently imitative character of certain passages of the Odyssey in relation to the Iliad."[33][34][35][21] Nearly all scholars agree that the Iliad and the Odyssey are unified poems, in that each poem shows a clear overall design, and that they are not merely strung together from unrelated songs.[21] It is also generally agreed that each poem was composed mostly by a single author, who probably relied heavily on older oral traditions.[21] Nearly all scholars agree that the Doloneia in Book X of the Iliad is not part of the original poem, but rather a later insertion by a different poet.[21] Some ancient scholars believed Homer to have been an eyewitness to the Trojan War; others thought he had lived up to 500 years afterwards.[36] Contemporary scholars continue to debate the date of the poems.[37][38][21] A long history of oral transmission lies behind the composition of the poems, complicating the search for a precise date.[39] At one extreme, Richard Janko has proposed a date for both poems to the eighth century BC based on linguistic analysis and statistics.[37][38] Barry B. Powell dates the composition of the Iliad and the Odyssey to sometime between 800 and 750 BC, based on the statement from Herodotus, who lived in the late fifth century BC, that Homer lived four hundred years before his own time "and not more" (καὶ οὐ πλέοσι), and on the fact that the poems do not mention hoplite battle tactics, inhumation, or literacy.[40] Martin Litchfield West has argued that the Iliad echoes the poetry of Hesiod, and that it must have been composed around 660–650 BC at the earliest, with the Odyssey up to a generation later.[41][42][21] He also interprets passages in the Iliad as showing knowledge of historical events that occurred in the ancient Near East during the middle of the seventh century BC, including the destruction of Babylon by Sennacherib in 689 BC and the Sack of Thebes by Ashurbanipal in 663/4 BC.[21] At the other extreme, a few American scholars such as Gregory Nagy see "Homer" as a continually evolving tradition, which grew much more stable as the tradition progressed, but which did not fully cease to continue changing and evolving until as late as the middle of the second century BC.[37][38][21] "'Homer" is a name of unknown etymological origin, around which many theories were erected in antiquity. One such linkage was to the Greek ὅμηρος (hómēros), "hostage" (or "surety"). The explanations suggested by modern scholars tend to mirror their position on the overall Homeric question. Nagy interprets it as "he who fits (the song) together". West has advanced both possible Greek and Phoenician etymologies.[43][44] Historicity of the Homeric epics and Homeric society[edit] Main article: Historicity of the Homeric epics Greece according to the Iliad Scholars continue to debate questions such as whether the Trojan War actually took place – and if so when and where – and to what extent the society depicted by Homer is based on his own or one which was, even at the time of the poems' composition, known only as legends. The Homeric epics are largely set in the east and center of the Mediterranean, with some scattered references to Egypt, Ethiopia and other distant lands, in a warlike society that resembles that of the Greek world slightly before the hypothesized date of the poems' composition.[45][46][47][48] In ancient Greek chronology, the sack of Troy was dated to 1184 BC. By the nineteenth century, there was widespread scholarly skepticism that the Trojan War had ever happened and that Troy had even existed, but in 1873 Heinrich Schliemann announced to the world that he had discovered the ruins of Homer's Troy at Hissarlik in modern Turkey. Some contemporary scholars think the destruction of Troy VIIa circa 1220 BC was the origin of the myth of the Trojan War, others that the poem was inspired by multiple similar sieges that took place over the centuries.[49] Most scholars now agree that the Homeric poems depict customs and elements of the material world that are derived from different periods of Greek history.[28][50][51] For instance, the heroes in the poems use bronze weapons, characteristic of the Bronze Age in which the poems are set, rather than the later Iron Age during which they were composed;[28][50][51] yet the same heroes are cremated (an Iron Age practice) rather than buried (as they were in the Bronze Age).[28][50][51] In some parts of the Homeric poems, heroes are accurately described as carrying large shields like those used by warriors during the Mycenaean period,[28] but, in other places, they are instead described carrying the smaller shields that were commonly used during the time when the poems were written in the early Iron Age.[28] In the Iliad 10.260–265, Odysseus is described as wearing a helmet made of boar's tusks. Such helmets were not worn in Homer's time, but were commonly worn by aristocratic warriors between 1600 and 1150 BC.[52][53][54] The decipherment of Linear B in the 1950s by Michael Ventris and continued archaeological investigation has increased modern scholars' understanding of Aegean civilisation, which in many ways resembles the ancient Near East more than the society described by Homer.[55] Some aspects of the Homeric world are simply made up;[28] for instance, the Iliad 22.145–56 describes there being two springs that run near the city of Troy, one that runs steaming hot and the other that runs icy cold.[28] It is here that Hector takes his final stand against Achilles.[28] Archaeologists, however, have uncovered no evidence that springs of this description ever actually existed.[28] Homeric language[edit] Main article: Homeric Greek Detail of The Parnassus (painted 1509–1510) by Raphael, depicting Homer wearing a crown of laurels atop Mount Parnassus, with Dante Alighieri on his right and Virgil on his left The Homeric epics are written in an artificial literary language or 'Kunstsprache' only used in epic hexameter poetry. Homeric Greek shows features of multiple regional Greek dialects and periods, but is fundamentally based on Ionic Greek, in keeping with the tradition that Homer was from Ionia. Linguistic analysis suggests that the Iliad was composed slightly before the Odyssey, and that Homeric formulae preserve older features than other parts of the poems.[56][57] Homeric style[edit] The Homeric poems were composed in unrhymed dactylic hexameter; ancient Greek metre was quantity-based rather than stress-based.[58][59] Homer frequently uses set phrases such as epithets ('crafty Odysseus', 'rosy-fingered Dawn', 'owl-eyed Athena', etc.), Homeric formulae ('and then answered [him/her], Agamemnon, king of men', 'when the early-born rose-fingered Dawn came to light', 'thus he/she spoke'), simile, type scenes, ring composition and repetition. These habits aid the extemporizing bard, and are characteristic of oral poetry. For instance, the main words of a Homeric sentence are generally placed towards the beginning, whereas literate poets like Virgil or Milton use longer and more complicated syntactical structures. Homer then expands on these ideas in subsequent clauses; this technique is called parataxis.[60] The so-called 'type scenes' (typische Scenen), were named by Walter Arend in 1933. He noted that Homer often, when describing frequently recurring activities such as eating, praying, fighting and dressing, used blocks of set phrases in sequence that were then elaborated by the poet. The 'Analyst' school had considered these repetitions as un-Homeric, whereas Arend interpreted them philosophically. Parry and Lord noted that these conventions are found in many other cultures.[61][62] 'Ring composition' or chiastic structure (when a phrase or idea is repeated at both the beginning and end of a story, or a series of such ideas first appears in the order A, B, C ... before being reversed as ... C, B, A) has been observed in the Homeric epics. Opinion differs as to whether these occurrences are a conscious artistic device, a mnemonic aid or a spontaneous feature of human storytelling.[63][64] Both of the Homeric poems begin with an invocation to the Muse.[65] In the Iliad, the poet invokes her to sing of "the anger of Achilles",[65] and, in the Odyssey, he asks her to sing of "the man of many ways".[65] A similar opening was later employed by Virgil in his Aeneid.[65] Textual transmission[edit] A Reading from Homer (1885) by Lawrence Alma-Tadema The orally transmitted Homeric poems were put into written form at some point between the eighth and sixth centuries BC. Some scholars believe that they were dictated to a scribe by the poet and that our inherited versions of the Iliad and Odyssey were in origin orally-dictated texts.[66] Albert Lord noted that the Balkan bards that he was studying revised and expanded their songs in their process of dictating.[67] Some scholars hypothesize that a similar process of revision and expansion occurred when the Homeric poems were first written down.[68][69] Other scholars hold that, after the poems were created in the eighth century, they continued to be orally transmitted with considerable revision until they were written down in the sixth century.[70] After textualisation, the poems were each divided into 24 rhapsodes, today referred to as books, and labelled by the letters of the Greek alphabet. Most scholars attribute the book divisions to the Hellenistic scholars of Alexandria, in Egypt.[71] Some trace the divisions back further to the Classical period.[72] Very few credit Homer himself with the divisions.[73] In antiquity, it was widely held that the Homeric poems were collected and organised in Athens in the late sixth century BC by the tyrant Peisistratos (died 528/7 BC), in what subsequent scholars have dubbed the "Peisistratean recension".[74][22] The idea that the Homeric poems were originally transmitted orally and first written down during the reign of Peisistratos is referenced by the first-century BC Roman orator Cicero and is also referenced in a number of other surviving sources, including two ancient Lives of Homer.[22] From around 150 BC, the texts of the Homeric poems seem to have become relatively established. After the establishment of the Library of Alexandria, Homeric scholars such as Zenodotus of Ephesus, Aristophanes of Byzantium and in particular Aristarchus of Samothrace helped establish a canonical text.[75] The first printed edition of Homer was produced in 1488 in Milan, Italy. Today scholars use medieval manuscripts, papyri and other sources; some argue for a "multi-text" view, rather than seeking a single definitive text. The nineteenth-century edition of Arthur Ludwich mainly follows Aristarchus's work, whereas van Thiel's (1991, 1996) follows the medieval vulgate. Others, such as Martin West (1998–2000) or T.W. Allen, fall somewhere between these two extremes.[75] See also[edit] Ancient Greece portal Poetry portal Literature portal Achaeans (Homer) Aeneid Bibliomancy Catalogue of Ships Creophylus of Samos Cyclic Poets Deception of Zeus Epithets in Homer Geography of the Odyssey Greek mythology Hector Historicity of Homer Homeric scholarship Ithaca List of Homeric characters Peisistratos Sortes Homericae Tabula iliaca Telemachy The Golden Bough Trojan Battle Order Trojan War in popular culture Troy VII Venetus A Manuscript Notes[edit] ^ "Portrait Bust". The British Museum. ^ Wilson, Nigel (2013). Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece. Routledge. p. 366. ISBN 978-1136788000. Retrieved 22 November 2016. ^ Romilly, Jacqueline de (1985). A Short History of Greek Literature. University of Chicago Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0226143125. Retrieved 22 November 2016. ^ a b Graziosi, Barbara (2002). Inventing Homer: The Early Reception of Epic. Cambridge University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0521809665. Retrieved 22 November 2016. ^ Croally, Neil; Hyde, Roy (2011). Classical Literature: An Introduction. Routledge. p. 26. ISBN 978-1136736629. Retrieved 23 November 2016. ^ Hose, Martin; Schenker, David (2015). A Companion to Greek Literature. John Wiley & Sons. p. 445. ISBN 978-1118885956. ^ Miller, D. Gary (2013). Ancient Greek Dialects and Early Authors: Introduction to the Dialect Mixture in Homer, with Notes on Lyric and Herodotus. Walter de Gruyter. p. 351. ISBN 978-1614512950. Retrieved 23 November 2016. ^ Ahl, Frederick; Roisman, Hanna (1996). The Odyssey Re-formed. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0801483356. Retrieved 23 November 2016. ^ Latacz, Joachim (1996). Homer, His Art and His World. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0472083534. Retrieved 22 November 2016. ^ Too, Yun Lee (2010). The Idea of the Library in the Ancient World. OUP Oxford. p. 86. ISBN 978-0199577804. Retrieved 22 November 2016. ^ MacDonald, Dennis R. (1994). Christianizing Homer: The Odyssey, Plato, and the Acts of Andrew. Oxford University Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0195358629. Archived from the original on 30 June 2017. Retrieved 22 November 2016. ^ Kelly, Adrian D. (2012). "Homerica". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe0606. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ Graziosi, Barbara; Haubold, Johannes (2005). Homer: The Resonance of Epic. A&C Black. pp. 24–26. ISBN 978-0715632826. ^ Graziosi, Barbara (2002). Inventing Homer: The Early Reception of Epic. Cambridge University Press. pp. 165–168. ISBN 978-0521809665. ^ Graziosi, Barbara (2002). Inventing Homer: The Early Reception of Epic. Cambridge University Press. p. 138. ISBN 978-0521809665. ^ Odyssey, 8:64ff. ^ Lefkowitz, Mary R. (2013). The Lives of the Greek Poets. A&C Black. pp. 14–30. ISBN 978-1472503077. ^ Kelly, Adrian D. (2012). "Biographies of Homer". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe0243. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ West, M. L. Theogony & Works and Days. Oxford University Press. p. xx. ^ a b c d e Dickey, Eleanor (2012). "Scholarship, Ancient". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe1307. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa West, M. L. (December 2011). "The Homeric Question Today". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 155 (4): 383–393. JSTOR 23208780. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Lamberton, Robert (2010). "Homer". In Grafton, Anthony; Most, Glenn W.; Settis, Salvatore (eds.). The Classical Tradition. Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. pp. 449–452. ISBN 978-0-674-03572-0. ^ a b c Hunter, Richard L. (2018). The Measure of Homer: The Ancient Reception of the Iliad and the Odyssey. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 4–7. ISBN 978-1-108-42831-6. ^ Kaldellis, Anthony (2012). "Scholarship, Byzantine". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe1308. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ Heiden, Bruce (2012). "Scholarship, Renaissance through 17th Century". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe1310. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ a b c d e Heiden, Bruce (2012). "Scholarship, 18th Century". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe1311. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ a b c d e Heiden, Bruce (2012). "Scholarship, 19th Century". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe1312. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Taplin, Oliver (1986). "2: Homer". In Boardman, John; Griffin, Jasper; Murray, Oswyn (eds.). The Oxford History of the Classical World. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 50–77. ISBN 978-0198721123. ^ a b Foley, John Miles (1988). The Theory of Oral Composition: History and Methodology. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0253342607. ^ Heiden, Bruce (2012). "Scholarship, 20th Century". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe1313. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ Edwards, Mark W. (2012). "Neoanalysis". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe0968. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ Reece, Steve. "The Cretan Odyssey: A Lie Truer than Truth". American Journal of Philology 115 (1994) 157-173. The_Cretan_Odyssey ^ West, M. L. (1999). "The Invention of Homer". Classical Quarterly. 49 (2): 364–382. doi:10.1093/cq/49.2.364. JSTOR 639863. ^ West, Martin L. (2012). "Homeric Question". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe0605. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ Latacz, Joachim; Bierl, Anton; Olson, S. Douglas (2015). "New Trends in Homeric Scholarship" in Homer's Iliad: The Basel Commentary. De Gruyter. ISBN 978-1614517375. ^ Saïd, Suzanne (2011). Homer and the Odyssey. OUP Oxford. pp. 14–17. ISBN 978-0199542840. ^ a b c Graziosi, Barbara (2002). Inventing Homer: The Early Reception of Epic. Cambridge University Press. pp. 90–92. ISBN 978-0521809665. ^ a b c Fowler, Robert; Fowler, Robert Louis (2004). The Cambridge Companion to Homer. Cambridge University Press. pp. 220–232. ISBN 978-0521012461. ^ Burgess, Jonathan S. (2003). The Tradition of the Trojan War in Homer and the Epic Cycle. JHU Press. pp. 49–53. ISBN 978-0801874819. ^ Barry, Barry B. (1996). Homer and the Origins of the Greek Alphabet. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 217–222. ISBN 978-0-521-58907-9. ^ Hall, Jonathan M. (2002). Hellenicity: Between Ethnicity and Culture. University of Chicago Press. pp. 235–236. ISBN 978-0226313290. ^ West, Martin L. (2012). "Date of Homer". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe0330. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ Graziosi, Barbara (2002). Inventing Homer: The Early Reception of Epic. Cambridge University Press. pp. 51–89. ISBN 978-0521809665. ^ West, M. L. (1997). The East Face of Helicon: West Asiatic Elements in Greek Poetry and Myth. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 622. ^ Raaflaub, Kurt A. (2012). "Historicity of Homer". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe0601. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ Finley, Moses I. (1991). The World of Odysseus. Penguin. ISBN 978-0140136869. ^ Wees, Hans van (2009). War and Violence in Ancient Greece. ISD LLC. ISBN 978-1910589298. ^ Morris, Ian (1986). "The Use and Abuse of Homer". Classical Antiquity. 5 (1): 81–138. doi:10.2307/25010840. JSTOR 25010840. ^ Dowden, Ken; Livingstone, Niall (2011). A Companion to Greek Mythology. John Wiley & Sons. p. 440. ISBN 978-1444396935. ^ a b c Sacks, David; Murray, Oswyn; Brody, Lisa R. (2014). Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World. Infobase Publishing. p. 356. ISBN 978-1438110202. ^ a b c Morris, Ian; Powell, Barry B. (1997). A New Companion to Homer. BRILL. pp. 434–435. ISBN 978-9004217607. ^ Wood, Michael (1996). In Search of the Trojan War. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. p. 130. ISBN 978-0-520-21599-3. Retrieved 1 September 2017. ^ Schofield, Louise (2007). The Mycenaeans. Los Angeles, California: The J. Paul Getty Museum. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-89236-867-9. Retrieved 1 September 2017. ^ Everson, Tim (2004). Warfare in Ancient Greece: Arms and Armour from the Heroes of Homer to Alexander the Great. Brimscombe Port: The History Press. pp. 9–10. ISBN 978-0-7524-9506-4. Retrieved 1 September 2017. ^ Morris, Ian; Powell, Barry B. (1997). A New Companion to Homer. BRILL. p. 625. ISBN 978-9004217607. ^ Willi, Andreas (2012). "Language, Homeric". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe0792. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ Bakker, Egbert J. (2010). A Companion to the Ancient Greek Language. John Wiley & Sons. p. 401. ISBN 978-1444317404. ^ W. Edwards, Mark (2012). "Meter". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe0913. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ Nussbaum, G.B. (1986). Homer's Metre: A Practical Guide for Reading Greek Hexameter Poetry. Bristol Classical Press. ISBN 978-0862921729. ^ Edwards, Mark W. (2012). "Style". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe1377. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ Reece, Steve T. (2012). "Type-Scenes". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe1488. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ Edwards, MW (1992). "Homer and Oral Tradition: The Type-Scene". Oral Tradition. 7: 284–330. ^ Stanley, Keith (2014). The Shield of Homer: Narrative Structure in the Illiad. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1400863372. ^ Minchin, Elizabeth (2012). "Ring Composition". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe1287. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ a b c d Adler, Eve (2003). Vergil's Empire: Political Thought in the Aeneid. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-7425-2167-4. ^ Steve Reece, "Homer's Iliad and Odyssey: From Oral Performance to Written Text", in Mark Amodio (ed.), New Directions in Oral Theory (Tempe: Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 2005) 43-89. ^ Albert B. Lord, The Singer of Tales (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1960). ^ Kirk, G.S. (1976). Homer and the Oral Tradition. Cambridge University Press. p. 117. ISBN 978-0521213097. ^ Foley, John Miles (2012). "Oral Dictated Texts". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe1029. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ Nagy, Gregory (1996). Poetry as Performance: Homer and Beyond. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521558488. ^ U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Homerische Untersuchungen (Berlin, 1884) 369; R. Pfeiffer, History of Classical Scholarship (Oxford, 1968) 116-117. ^ West, Martin L. (2012). "Book Division". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe0253. ISBN 978-1405177689. ; S. West, The Ptolemaic Papyri of Homer (Cologne, 1967) 18-25. ^ P. Mazon, Introduction à l'Iliade (Paris, 1912) 137-40; C.H. Whitman, Homer and the Heroic Tradition (Cambridge [Mass.], 1958) 282-83; G.P. Goold, "Homer and the Alphabet", TAPA 96 (1960) 272-91; K. Stanley, The Shield of Homer (Princeton, 1993) 37, 249ff. ^ Jensen, Minna Skafte (1980). The Homeric Question and the Oral-formulaic Theory. Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 128. ISBN 978-8772890968. ^ a b Haslam, Michael (2012). "Text and Transmission". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe1413. ISBN 978-1405177689. Selected bibliography[edit] Editions[edit] Texts in Homeric Greek Demetrius Chalcondyles editio princeps, Florence, 1488 the Aldine editions (1504 and 1517) 1st ed. with comments, Micyllus and Camerarius, Basel, 1535, 1541 (improved text), 1551 (incl. the Batrachomyomachia) Th. Ridel, Strasbourg, c. 1572, 1588 and 1592. Wolf (Halle, 1794–1795; Leipzig, 1804 1807) Spitzner (Gotha, 1832–1836) Bekker (Berlin, 1843; Bonn, 1858) La Roche (Odyssey, 1867–1868; Iliad, 1873–1876, both at Leipzig) Ludwich (Odyssey, Leipzig, 1889–1891; Iliad, 2 vols., 1901 and 1907) W. Leaf (Iliad, London, 1886–1888; 2nd ed. 1900–1902) William Walter Merry and James Riddell (Odyssey i–xii., 2nd ed., Oxford, 1886) Monro (Odyssey xiii–xxiv. with appendices, Oxford, 1901) Monro and Allen (Iliad), and Allen (Odyssey, 1908, Oxford). D.B. Monro and T.W. Allen 1917–1920, Homeri Opera (5 volumes: Iliad=3rd edition, Odyssey=2nd edition), Oxford. ISBN 0-19-814528-4, ISBN 0-19-814529-2, ISBN 0-19-814531-4, ISBN 0-19-814532-2, ISBN 0-19-814534-9 H. van Thiel 1991, Homeri Odyssea, Hildesheim. ISBN 3-487-09458-4, 1996, Homeri Ilias, Hildesheim. ISBN 3-487-09459-2 M. L. West 1998–2000, Homeri Ilias (2 volumes), Munich/Leipzig. ISBN 3-598-71431-9, ISBN 3-598-71435-1 P. von der Mühll 1993, Homeri Odyssea, Munich/Leipzig. ISBN 3-598-71432-7 M. L. West 2017, Homerus Odyssea, Berlin/Boston. ISBN 3-11-042539-4 Interlinear translations[edit] The Iliad of Homer a Parsed Interlinear Handheldclassics.com (2008) Text ISBN 978-1-60725-298-6 English translations[edit] Main article: English translations of Homer This is a partial list of translations into English of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey. Augustus Taber Murray (1866–1940) Homer: Iliad, 2 vols., revised by William F. Wyatt, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press (1999). Homer: Odyssey, 2 vols., revised by George E. Dimock, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press (1995). Robert Fitzgerald (1910–1985) The Iliad, Farrar, Straus and Giroux (2004) ISBN 0-374-52905-1 The Odyssey, Farrar, Straus and Giroux (1998) ISBN 0-374-52574-9 Robert Fagles (1933–2008) The Iliad, Penguin Classics (1998) ISBN 0-14-027536-3 The Odyssey, Penguin Classics (1999) ISBN 0-14-026886-3 Stanley Lombardo (b. 1943) Iliad, Hackett Publishing Company (1997) ISBN 0-87220-352-2 Odyssey, Hackett Publishing Company (2000) ISBN 0-87220-484-7 Iliad, (Audiobook) Parmenides (2006) ISBN 1-930972-08-3 Odyssey, (Audiobook) Parmenides (2006) ISBN 1-930972-06-7 The Essential Homer, (Audiobook) Parmenides (2006) ISBN 1-930972-12-1 The Essential Iliad, (Audiobook) Parmenides (2006) ISBN 1-930972-10-5 Barry B. Powell (b. 1942) "Iliad", Oxford University Press (2013) ISBN 978-0-19-932610-5 "Odyssey", Oxford University PressI (2014) ISBN 978-0-19-936031-4 Homer's Iliad and Odyssey: The Essential Books, Oxford University Press (2014) ISBN 978-0-19-939407-4 Samuel Butler (1835–1902) The Iliad, Red and Black Publishers (2008) ISBN 978-1-934941-04-1 The Odyssey, Red and Black Publishers (2008) ISBN 978-1-934941-05-8 Herbert Jordan (b. 1938) Iliad, University of Oklahoma Press (2008) ISBN 978-0-8061-3974-6 (soft cover) Emily Wilson (b. 1971) The Odyssey, W.W. Norton & Company (2017) ISBN 978-0-393-08905-9 Rodney Merrill The Iliad, University of Michigan Press (2007) ISBN 978-0-472-11617-1 The Odyssey, University of Michigan Press (2002) ISBN 978-0-472-11231-9 General works on Homer[edit] Carlier, Pierre (1999). Homère (in French). Paris: Les éditions Fayard. ISBN 978-2-213-60381-0. de Romilly, Jacqueline (2005). Homère (5th ed.). Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. ISBN 978-2-13-054830-0. Fowler, Robert, ed. (2004). The Cambridge Companion to Homer. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-01246-1. Latacz, J.; Windle, Kevin, Tr.; Ireland, Rosh, Tr. (2004). Troy and Homer: Towards a Solution of an Old Mystery. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926308-0. In German, 5th updated and expanded edition, Leipzig, 2005. In Spanish, 2003, ISBN 84-233-3487-2. In modern Greek, 2005, ISBN 960-16-1557-1. Monro, David Binning (1911). "Homer" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 12 (11th ed.). pp. 626–39. Morris, Ian; Powell, Barry B., eds. (1997). A New Companion to Homer. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-09989-0. Powell, Barry B. (2007). Homer (2nd ed.). Malden, MA; Oxford, UK; Carlton, Victoria: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-5325-6. Vidal-Naquet, Pierre (2000). Le monde d'Homère (in French). Paris: Perrin. ISBN 978-2-262-01181-9. Wace, A.J.B.; F.H. Stubbings (1962). A Companion to Homer. London: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-07113-7. Influential readings and interpretations[edit] Auerbach, Erich (1953). "Chapter 1". Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-11336-4. (orig. publ. in German, 1946, Bern) de Jong, Irene J.F. (2004). Narrators and Focalizers: the Presentation of the Story in the Iliad (2nd ed.). London: Bristol Classical Press. ISBN 978-1-85399-658-0. Edwards, Mark W. (1987). Homer, Poet of the Iliad. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-3329-8. Fenik, Bernard (1974). Studies in the Odyssey. Hermes, Einzelschriften 30. Wiesbaden: Steiner. Finley, Moses (2002). The World of Odysseus. New York: New York Review of Books. ISBN 978-1-59017-017-5. Nagy, Gregory (1979). The Best of the Achaeans: Concepts of the Hero in Archaic Greek Poetry. Baltimore; London: Johns Hopkins University Press. Nagy, Gregory (2010). Homer: the Preclassic. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-95024-5. Reece, Steve. The Stranger's Welcome: Oral Theory and the Aesthetics of the Homeric Hospitality Scene. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993. Commentaries[edit] Iliad: P.V. Jones (ed.) 2003, Homer's Iliad. A Commentary on Three Translations, London. ISBN 1-85399-657-2 G.S. Kirk (gen. ed.) 1985–1993, The Iliad: A Commentary (6 volumes), Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-28171-7, ISBN 0-521-28172-5, ISBN 0-521-28173-3, ISBN 0-521-28174-1, ISBN 0-521-31208-6, ISBN 0-521-31209-4 J. Latacz (gen. ed.) 2002 Homers Ilias. Gesamtkommentar. Auf der Grundlage der Ausgabe von Ameis-Hentze-Cauer (1868–1913) (6 volumes published so far, of an estimated 15), Munich/Leipzig. ISBN 3-598-74307-6, ISBN 3-598-74304-1 N. Postlethwaite (ed.) 2000, Homer's Iliad: A Commentary on the Translation of Richmond Lattimore, Exeter. ISBN 0-85989-684-6 M.W. Willcock (ed.) 1976, A Companion to the Iliad, Chicago. ISBN 0-226-89855-5 Odyssey: A. Heubeck (gen. ed.) 1990–1993, A Commentary on Homer's Odyssey (3 volumes; orig. publ. 1981–1987 in Italian), Oxford. ISBN 0-19-814747-3, ISBN 0-19-872144-7, ISBN 0-19-814953-0 P. Jones (ed.) 1988, Homer's Odyssey: A Commentary based on the English Translation of Richmond Lattimore, Bristol. ISBN 1-85399-038-8 I.J.F. de Jong (ed.) 2001, A Narratological Commentary on the Odyssey, Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-46844-2 Dating the Homeric poems[edit] Janko, Richard (1982). Homer, Hesiod and the Hymns: Diachronic Development in Epic Diction. Cambridge Classical Studies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-23869-4. Further reading[edit] Buck, Carl Darling (1928). The Greek Dialects. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Evelyn-White, Hugh Gerard (tr.) (1914). Hesiod, the Homeric hymns and Homerica. The Loeb Classical Library. London; New York: Heinemann; MacMillen. Ford, Andrew (1992). Homer : the poetry of the past. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-2700-8. Graziosi, Barbara (2002). Inventing Homer: The Early Perception of Epic. Cambridge Classical Studies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kirk, G.S. (1962). The Songs of Homer. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert (1940). A Greek-English Lexicon (Revised ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press; Perseus Digital Library. Murray, Gilbert (1960). The Rise of the Greek Epic (Galaxy Books ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. Schein, Seth L. (1984). The mortal hero : an introduction to Homer's Iliad. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-05128-7. Silk, Michael (1987). Homer: The Iliad. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-83233-5. Smith, William, ed. (1876). A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. I, II & III. London: John Murray. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Homer. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Homer Wikisource has original works written by or about: Homer Library resources about Homer Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Homer Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Works by Homer at Perseus Digital Library Homer at the Encyclopædia Britannica Works by Homer at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Homer at Internet Archive Works by Homer at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Homer; Murray, A.T. (1925). The Iliad with an English Translation (in Ancient Greek and English). I, Books I–XII. London; New York: William Heinemann Ltd.; G.P. Putnam's Sons; Internet Archive. The Chicago Homer Daitz, Stephen (reader). "Homer, Iliad, Book I, lines 1–52". Society for the Reading of Greek and Latin Literature (SORGLL). Archived from the original on 2011-05-11. Retrieved 2008-05-09. Heath, Malcolm (May 4, 2001). "CLAS3152 Further Greek Literature II: Aristotle's Poetics: Notes on Homer's Iliad and Odyssey". Department of Classics, University of Leeds; Internet Archive. Archived from the original on September 8, 2008. Retrieved 2014-11-07. Bassino, Paola (2014). "Homer: A Guide to Selected Sources". Living Poets: a new approach to ancient history. Durham University. Retrieved November 18, 2014. v t e Works related to Homer in antiquity Attributed to Homer Batrachomyomachia Cercopes Cypria Epigrams (Kiln) Epigoni Homeric Hymns Iliad Little Iliad Margites Nostoi Odyssey Capture of Oechalia Phocais Thebaid About Homer Ancient accounts of Homer Contest of Homer and Hesiod Life of Homer (Pseudo-Herodotus) v t e Ancient Greece Timeline History Geography Periods Cycladic civilization Minoan civilization Mycenaean civilization Greek Dark Ages Archaic period Classical Greece Hellenistic Greece Roman Greece Geography Aegean Sea Aeolis Alexandria Antioch Cappadocia Crete Cyprus Doris Ephesus Epirus Hellespont Ionia Ionian Sea Macedonia Magna Graecia Miletus Peloponnesus Pergamon Pontus Taurica Ancient Greek colonies City states Politics Military City states Argos Athens Byzantion Chalcis Corinth Eretria Kerkyra Larissa Megalopolis Megara Rhodes Samos Sparta Syracuse Thebes Politics Boule Koinon Proxeny Tagus Tyrant Amphictyonic League Athenian Agora 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(2000) Keyhole (2012) TV The Odyssey (1968) Ulysses 31 (1981) The Odyssey (1997) Odysseus and the Isle of the Mists (2007) Star Trek: Odyssey (2007) Literature A True Story (2nd century AD) Les Aventures de Télémaque (1699) The World's Desire (1890) Ulysses (1922) The Odyssey: A Modern Sequel (1938) The Human Comedy (1943) Big Fish: A Novel of Mythic Proportions (1998) Trojan Odyssey (2003) The Penelopiad (2005) The Lost Books of the Odyssey (2010) Poems "Ulysses" (1842) The Odyssey: A Modern Sequel (1938) The Cantos (1962) Pagan Operetta (1998) Stage Current Nobody (play) Cyclops (play) Ithaka (play) Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria (opera) The Golden Apple (musical) Glam Slam Ulysses (musical) Home Sweet Homer (musical) Song "Tales of Brave Ulysses" (song) "The Odyssey" (song) The Odyssey (symphony) Study Homeric scholarship Homeric Question Chorizontes Geography of the Odyssey Historicity of the Homer epics Odysseus Unbound Homer's Ithaca Rediscovering Homer "Odysseus' scar" Hermoniakos' Iliad Hysteron proteron Epithets in Homer Dactylic hexameter Translations "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer" On Translating Homer Video games Odyssey: The Search for Ulysses Wishbone and the Amazing Odyssey Phrases In medias res Between Scylla and Charybdis Related Telemachy Nekyia Trojan Horse Suitors of Penelope The Odyssey Old Man of the Sea The Apotheosis of Homer Contempt Cold Mountain (novel) Cold Mountain (film) Homer's Daughter Parallels between Virgil's Aeneid and Homer's Iliad and Odyssey v t e Homer's Iliad (8th century BC) Characters Achaeans Acamas Achilles Agamemnon (king of Mycenae) Agapenor Ajax the Greater (king of Salamis) Ajax the Lesser Alcimus Anticlus Antilochus Arcesilaus Ascalaphus Automedon Balius and Xanthus Bias Calchas (prophet) Diomedes (king of Argos) Elephenor Epeius Eudoros Euryalus Eurybates Eurydamas Eurypylus Guneus Helen (queen of Sparta) Ialmenus Idomeneus (king of Crete) Iphigenia (princess of Mycenae) Leitus Leonteus Lycomedes Machaon Medon Meges Menelaus (king of Sparta) Menestheus Meriones Neoptolemus Nestor (king of Pylos) Nireus Odysseus (king of Ithaca) Palamedes Patroclus Peneleos Philoctetes Phoenix Podalirius Podarces Polites Polypoetes Promachus Protesilaus Prothoenor Schedius Sinon Stentor Sthenelus Talthybius Teucer Thersites Thoas Thrasymedes Tlepolemus Trojans Aeneas (royal demigod) Aesepus Agenor Alcathous Amphimachus Anchises Andromache Antenor (king's brother-in-law) Antiphates Antiphus Archelochus Asius Asteropaios Astyanax Atymnius Axylus Briseis Calesius Caletor Cassandra (princess of Troy) Chryseis Chryses (priest of Apollo) Clytius Coön Dares Phrygius Deiphobus (prince of Troy) Dolon Epistrophus Euphemus Euphorbus Glaucus Gorgythion Hector (prince of Troy) Hecuba (queen of Troy) Helenus Hyperenor Hypsenor Ilioneus Imbrius Iphidamas Kebriones Laocoön Lycaon (prince of Troy) Melanippus Mentes Mydon Mygdon of Phrygia Othryoneus Pandarus Panthous Paris (prince of Troy) Pedasus Peirous Phorcys Polites Polydamas Polybus Polydorus (prince of Troy) Polyxena (princess of Troy) Priam (king of Troy) Pylaemenes Pylaeus Pyraechmes Rhesus of Thrace Sarpedon (king of Lycia) Theano Ucalegon Major deities Aphrodite Apollo Ares Artemis Athena Hades Hephaestus Hera Hermes Poseidon Zeus Minor deities Deimos Eris Iris Leto Phobos Proteus Scamander Thetis Sections Catalogue of Ships Deception of Zeus Trojan Battle Order Study Homeric scholarship Homeric Question Chorizontes Historicity of the Homeric epics "The Iliad or the Poem of Force" (1939 essay) Milawata letter Rediscovering Homer Dactylic hexameter Parallels between Virgil's Aeneid and Homer's Iliad and Odyssey Manuscripts Ambrosian Iliad Codex Nitriensis Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 20 Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 21 Uncial 098 Venetus A Venetus B Alternate versions Ilias Latina (60–70 CE) Dictys Cretensis Ephemeridos belli Trojani (4th century ?) Daretis Phrygii de excidio Trojae historia (5th century) Hermoniakos' Iliad (14th century) Men in Aida (1983) Translation English translations of Homer "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer" On Translating Homer Literature Verse Priapea 68 De bello Troiano (1183) The Rape of the Lock (1712) "The Shield of Achilles" (1952) War Music (1959) Omeros (1990) Novels The Firebrand (1987) Black Ships Before Troy (1993) Troy (2000) Ilium (2003) Ransom (2009) Starcrossed (2011) Stage Rhesus (5th century BC play) The Trojan War Will Not Take Place (Tiger at the Gates) (1935) The Golden Apple (1954 musical) Films Helena (1924) Helen of Troy (1956) The Trojan Horse (1961) Troy (2004) Television The Myth Makers (1965) In Search of the Trojan War (1985) Helen of Troy (2003 miniseries) Troy: Fall of a City (2018 miniseries) Music King Priam (1961 Tippett opera) The Triumph of Steel (1992 album) "And Then There Was Silence" (2001 song) The Odyssey (Smith symphony) Art Tabula iliaca The Apotheosis of Homer The Ambassadors of Agamemnon in the tent of Achilles The Loves of Paris and Helen Menelaus supporting the body of Patroclus Orestes Pursued by the Furies The Revelers Vase Statue of Zeus at Olympia Phrases "Ever to Excel" "Hold your horses" "In medias res" "Noblesse oblige" Other Warriors: Legends of Troy (video game) Age of Bronze (comics) Sortes Homericae Heraclitus Weighing of souls Where Troy Once Stood Blood rain Authority control BIBSYS: 90069675 BNE: XX907843 BNF: cb11907688f (data) CANTIC: a1010107x CiNii: DA00258983 GND: 11855333X ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\018814 ISNI: 0000 0003 6354 151X LCCN: n78095639 LNB: 000040458 MBA: ebde00ad-8f53-48bb-a6c8-a5b0d7c01705 NDL: 00443699 NKC: jn19981001474 NLA: 35204200 NLG: 34000 NLI: 000064577 NLK: KAC199612729 NSK: 000016617 NTA: 068585764 RERO: 02-A000081090 RSL: 000082457 SELIBR: 189316 SNAC: w6qz9r2d SUDOC: 026924005 Trove: 863914 ULAN: 500279109 VcBA: 495/55034 VIAF: 224924963 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n78095639 Retrieved from 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en-wikipedia-org-5534	----	Odes (Horace) - Wikipedia Odes (Horace) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Carmina) Jump to navigation Jump to search "Carmina" redirects here. For other uses, see Carmina (disambiguation). The Odes (Latin: Carmina) are a collection in four books of Latin lyric poems by Horace. The Horatian ode format and style has been emulated since by other poets. Books 1 to 3 were published in 23 BC. A fourth book, consisting of 15 poems, was published in 13 BC. The Odes were developed as a conscious imitation of the short lyric poetry of Greek originals – Pindar, Sappho and Alcaeus are some of Horace's models. His genius lay in applying these older forms to the social life of Rome in the age of Augustus. The Odes cover a range of subjects – Love, Friendship, Wine, Religion, Morality, Patriotism; poems of eulogy addressed to Augustus and his relations; and verses written on a miscellany of subjects and incidents, including the uncertainty of life, the cultivation of tranquility and contentment, and the observance of moderation or the "golden mean."[1] The Odes have been considered traditionally by English-speaking scholars as purely literary works. Recent evidence by a Horatian scholar suggests they may have been intended as performance art, a Latin re-interpretation of Greek lyric song.[2] The Roman writer Petronius, writing less than a century after Horace's death, remarked on the curiosa felicitas (studied spontaneity) of the Odes (Satyricon 118). The English poet Alfred Lord Tennyson declared that the Odes provided "jewels five-words long, that on the stretched forefinger of all Time / Sparkle for ever" (The Princess, part II, l.355). Contents 1 Book 1 2 Book 2 3 Book 3 4 Book 4 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Book 1[edit] Book 1 consists of 38 poems.[3][4] The phrase Nunc est bibendum, "Now is the time to drink!", is the opening of I.37. I.1, Maecenas atavis edite regibus... – Dedication of the First Three Books of the Odes to Maecenas (Horace's Patron) – Every man is governed by his ruling passion: the Olympian charioteer, the politician, the trader, the husbandman, the merchant, the man of pleasure, the soldier, and the hunter. To win the title of a lyric poet is all that Horace desires. I.2, Iam satis terris nivis atque dirae... – To Augustus, The Deliverer and Hope of the State – The subject of this ode is the overflowing of the Tiber, which recalls to the poet the flood of Deucalion. He imagines that the disaster is caused by the wrath of Ilia (the wife of Tiber), the civil wars, and the assassination of Julius Caesar. Augustus, as Mercury in human shape, is invoked to save the empire. I.3, Sic te diva potens Cypri.. – To Virgil, Setting Out for Greece – The ode begins with a prayer for the safe voyage of Virgil to Athens, which suggests the daring of the earliest mariners and the boldness of men in overcoming difficulties set by Nature. I.4, Solvitur acris hiems... – A Hymn to Springtime – The changing season warns us of the shortness of life. Horace urges his friend Sestius – vitae summa brevis spem nos vetat incohare longam (The brief sum of life forbids us cling to far-off hope). I.5, Quis multa gracilis te puer in rosa... – To the Flirt Pyrrha, who is as faithless as the winds or seas, and whose fancy no lover can hold onto. I.6, Scriberis Vario fortis et hostium victor... – Horace pleads his inability to worthily sing the praises of M. Vipsanius Agrippa, the distinguished Roman Commander. I.7, Laudabunt alii claram Rhodon aut Mytilenen... – Fairest of Spots, O Plancus, is Tibur – There, or wherever you may be, drown your cares in wine. I.8, Lydia, dic, per omnis te deos oro... – To Lydia, who has transformed Sybaris from a hardy athlete into a doting lover. I.9, Vides ut alta stet nive candidum... – Winter Without Bids Us Make Merry Within – (with borrowing from an original by Alcaeus) – To Thaliarchus. The snow is deep and the frost is keen – Pile high the hearth and bring out old wine – Leave all else to the gods. I.10, Mercuri, facunde nepos Atlantis... – Hymn to Mercury – Mercury is addressed as the god of eloquence and the promoter of the civilization of man; as the messenger of the gods and the inventor of the lyre; skilled in craft and cunning; and the conductor of souls to the Underworld. I.11, Tu ne quaesieris... – Carpe Diem! – The poet seeks to dissuade Leuconoe from giving heed to the false arts of astrologers and diviners. It is vain to inquire into the future – Let us enjoy the present, for this is all we can command. It closes with the famous line: carpe diem, quam minimum credula postero (Seize the day, trusting tomorrow as little as possible). I.12, Quem virum aut heroa lyra... – The Praises of Augustus – The poet praises Augustus by associating him with gods and heroes, and distinguished Romans of earlier days. I.13, Cum tu, Lydia... – Jealousy – Addressed to Lydia – The poet contrasts the misery of jealousy with the happiness secured by constancy in love. I.14, O navis, referent in mare te novi fluctus... – The Ship of State – Horace refers to a period during which the Roman state was tossed and nearly wrecked by perpetual storms. He exhorts it to beware of fresh perils and keep safely in harbor. I.15, Pastor cum traheret... – The Prophecy of Nereus – As Paris hurries from Sparta to Troy with Helen, Nereus stills the winds and prophesies – Ilium's doom is inevitable. I.16, O matre pulchra filia pulchrior... – An Apology – The poet has offended some lady by the intemperate utterances of his verse; he now seeks forgiveness for the fault. He describes the sad effects of unbridled anger, and urges her to restrain hers. I.17, Velox amoenum saepe Lucretilem... – An Invitation to Tyndaris to Enjoy the Delights of the Country – Horace invites Tyndaris to his Sabine farm, and describes the air of tranquility and security there, blessed as it is with favoring protection of Faunus and the rural deities. I.18, Nullam, Vare, sacra vite prius seueris arborem... – The Praise of Wine, and the ill effects of intemperance. I.19, Mater saeua Cupidinum... – The Poet's Love for Glycera I.20, Vile potabis modicis Sabinum cantharis... – An Invitation to Maecenas – You will drink poor Sabine wine in modest bowls when you visit the poet. I.21, Dianam tenerae dicite virgines... – Hymn in Praise of Latona and Her Children, Diana and Apollo I.22, Integer vitae scelerisque purus... – Upright of Life and Free from Wickedness – Addressed to Aristius Fuscus – Begins as a solemn praise of honest living and ends in a mock-heroic song of love for sweetly laughing "Lalage" (cf. II.5.16, Propertius IV.7.45). I.23, Vitas hinnuleo me similis, Chloë... – Fear Me Not, Chloe, and do not shun me. I.24, Quis desiderio sit pudor aut modus... – To Virgil – A Lament for the Death of Quinctilius I.25, Parcius iunctas quatiunt fenestras... – Lydia, Thy Charms Are Past – Horace taunts Lydia with her approaching old age and her lack of admirers. I.26, Musis amicus tristitiam et metus tradam... – In Praise of Aelius Lamia – The poet bids the Muses to inspire him to sing the praises of Aelius Lamia, a man distinguished for his exploits in war. I.27, Natis in usum laetitiae scyphis... – Let Moderation Reign – At a wine party, Horace endeavors to restrain his quarrelsome companions – He asks the brother of Megilla of Opus to confide the object of his affections. I.28, Te maris et terrae numeroque... – Death, The Doom of All – Dialogue, between a sailor and the spirit of the philosopher Archytas, on Death, the universal fate, and the duty of giving to the dead the rites of burial. I.29, Icci, beatis nunc Arabum invides... – The Scholar Turned Adventurer – A remonstrance addressed to Iccius on his intention of giving up philosophy and of joining the expedition to Arabia Felix. I.30, O Venus regina Cnidi Paphique... – A Prayer to Venus – Venus is invoked to abandon for a while her beloved Cyprus, and to honor with her presence the temple prepared for her at the home of Glycera. I.31, Quid dedicatum poscit Apollinem vates?... – Prayer to Apollo on the consecration of his temple. I.32, Poscimur. Si quid vacui sub umbra... – Invocation to the Lyre – The poet addresses his lyre, and blends with the address the praises of the Greek poet Alcaeus. I.33, Albi, ne doleas plus nimio memor... – The Faithless Glycera – A consolation to the contemporary poet Tibullus over a lost love. I.34, Parcus deorum cultor et infrequens... – The Poet's Conversion from Error – After hearing thunder in a cloudless sky, Horace renounces his former error and declares his belief in Jupiter, Fortuna, and the superintending providence of the gods. I.35, O diva, gratum quae regis Antium... – Hymn to Fortuna – The poet invokes Fortune as an all-powerful goddess. He implores her to preserve Augustus in his distant expeditions, and to save the state from ruinous civil wars. I.36, Et ture et fidibus iuvat – An Ode of Congratulation to Plotius Numida, on his safe return from Spain, where he had been serving under Augustus in a war against the Cantabrians. I.37, Nunc est bibendum... – Now Is the Time to Drink! – An ode of joy for Augustus's victory at Actium, the capture of Alexandria, and the death of Cleopatra. The tone of triumph over the fallen queen is tempered by a tribute of admiration to her lofty pride and resolute courage. I.38, Persicos odi, puer, apparatus... – Away With Oriental Luxury! – Horace directs his attendant to make the simplest preparations for his entertainment. Book 2[edit] Book 2 consists of 20 poems. II.1, Motum ex Metello consule civicum... – To Asinius Pollio, the writer of tragedy, who is now composing a history of the civil wars. A lament for the carnage caused by the conflicts of the Romans with their fellow-citizens. II.2, Nullus argento color est avaris... – The Wise Use of Money – To Sallustius Crispus (nephew of the historian Sallust). The love of gain grows by self-indulgence. The moderate man is the genuine king. II.3, Aequam memento rebus in arduis... – The Wisdom of Moderation, The Certainty of Death – To Quintus Dellius. Let us enjoy our life while we may, for death will soon strip us all alike of our possessions. II.4, Ne sit ancillae tibi amor pudori... – To Xanthias Phoceus – Horace encourages his friend on his love for Phyllis, his slave. II.5, Nondum subacta ferre iugum valet... – Not Yet! – To a Friend on His Love for Lalage – The maid his friend loves is not yet marriageable and still too young to return his passion – Soon it will be otherwise. II.6, Septimi, Gadis aditure mecum et... – Fairest of All is Tibur – Yet Tarentum, Too, Is Fair – To Horace's friend, the Roman knight Septimius, who would go with him to the ends of the earth. The poet prays that Tibur may be the resting-place of his old age; or, if that may not be, he will choose the country which lies around Tarentum. II.7, O saepe mecum tempus in ultimum... – A Joyful Return – An ode of congratulation to Pompeius Varus, once the poet's comrade in the army of Brutus, on his restoration to civil rights. II.8, Ulla si iuris tibi peierati... – The Baleful Charms of Barine – On Barine's utter faithlessness, which Heaven will not punish – Indeed, her beauty and fascination are ever-increasing. II.9, Non semper imbres nubibus hispidos... – A Truce to Sorrow, Valgius! – To C. Valgius Rufus on the death of his son Mystes. Since all troubles have their natural end, do not mourn overmuch. Rather let us celebrate the latest victories of Augustus. II.10, Rectius vives, Licini, neque altum... – The Golden Mean – To L. Licinius Murena. The moderate life is the perfect life. II.11, Quid bellicosus Cantaber et Scythes... – Enjoy Life Wisely! – Horace in a half-playful tone advises his friend Quinctius Hirpinus to enjoy life wisely, and not to fret. II.12, Nolis longa ferae bella Numantiae... – The Charms of Licymnia – Horace pleads the unfitness of his lyric poetry to record the wars of the Romans or the battles of mythology. He advises Maecenas to write in prose the history of Caesar's campaigns, while he himself will sing the praises of Licymnia (some commentators say that Licymnia was another name for Terentia, the wife of Maecenas). II.13, Ille et nefasto te posuit die... – A Narrow Escape – This ode owes its origin to Horace's narrow escape from sudden death by the falling of a tree on his Sabine estate. (This same event is also alluded to in Odes, II.17 line 28 and III.4 line 27.) After expressing his indignation against the person who planted the tree, he passes to a general reflection on the uncertainty of life and the realms of dark Proserpine. II.14, Eheu fugaces, Postume... – Death Inevitable – Addressed to Postumus, a rich but avaricious friend. Nothing can stay the advance of decay and death, the common doom of all on earth. Men pile up wealth, only for another to waste it. II.15, Iam pauca aratro iugera regiae... – Against Luxury – Horace describes the extravagant luxury prevalent among the rich, and praises the simplicity and frugality of the old Romans. II.16, Otium divos rogat in patenti... – Contentment With Our Lot the Only True Happiness – All men long for repose, which riches cannot buy. Contentment, not wealth, makes genuine happiness. II.17, Cur me querellis exanimas tuis?... – To Maecenas on His Recovery from Illness – Horace says that the same day must of necessity bring death to them both – Their horoscopes are wonderfully alike and they have both been saved from extreme peril. II.18, Non ebur neque aureum... – The Vanity of Riches – The poet, content with his own moderate fortune, inveighs against the blindness of avarice – for the same end awaits all men. II.19, Bacchum in remotis carmina rupibus... – Hymn to Bacchus – The poet celebrates Bacchus as all-powerful, all-conquering, and lord of creation; whom the earth, the sea and all nature obey; to whom men are subject, and the giants and the monsters of Orcus are all brought low. II.20, Non usitata nec tenui ferar... – The Poet Prophesies His Own Immortality – Transformed into a swan, the poet will soar away from the abodes of men, nor will he need the empty honors of a tomb. Book 3[edit] "Justum et tenacem propositi virum" – "a man just and steadfast in purpose", from Horace's Odes, III.3, on the gravestone of Elliot Charles Bovill, Chief Justice of the Straits Settlements, in Fort Canning Green, Singapore The ancient editor Porphyrion read the first six odes of this book as a single sequence, one unified by a common moral purpose and addressed to all patriotic citizens of Rome. These six "Roman odes", as they have since been called (by HT Plüss in 1882), share a common meter and take as a common theme the glorification of Roman virtues and the attendant glory of Rome under Augustus. Ode III.2 contains the famous line "Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori," (It is sweet and honorable to die for one's country). Ode III.5 Caelo tonantem credidimus Jovem makes explicit identification of Augustus as a new Jove destined to restore in modern Rome the valor of past Roman heroes like Marcus Atilius Regulus, whose story occupies the second half of the poem. Book 3 consists of 30 poems. III.1, Odi profanum vulgus et arceo... – On Happiness – Philosophy is a mystery which the uninitiated crowd cannot understand. The worthlessness of riches and rank. The praise of contentment. Care cannot be banished by change of scene. III.2, Angustam amice pauperiem pati... – On Virtue – Horace extols the virtue of endurance and valor in fighting for one's country, of integrity in politics, and of religious honor. III.3, Iustum et tenacem propositi virum... – On Integrity and Perseverance – The merit of integrity and resolution: the examples of Pollux, Hercules and Romulus. Juno's speech to the gods on the destiny of Rome. III.4, Descende caelo et dic age tibia... – On Wise Counsel and Clemency – The Muses have guarded and given counsel to Horace since his youth. They also do so to Augustus, and prompt him to clemency and kindness. The evils of violence and arrogance, on the other hand, are exemplified by the Titans and Giants, and others. III.5, Caelo tonantem credidimus Iovem... – To Augustus – On Virtue and Fortitude – Augustus will be recognized as a god on earth for his subjugation of the Britons and Parthians. The disgraceful actions of the troops of Crassus (who married Parthians after being taken prisoner) are contrasted by the noble example of Regulus (who was released from Carthage to negotiate a peace, but dissuaded the Senate, and then returned to Carthage to be tortured to death). III.6, Delicta maiorum inmeritus lues... – Piety & Chastity – Return to the Old Morals! – Horace condemns the prevailing domestic immorality and contempt of the institutions of religion, and earnestly urges a speedy return to the simpler and purer manners of ancient times. III.7, Quid fles, Asterie, quem tibi candidi... – Constancy, Asterie! – Horace consoles Asterie on the absence of her lover Gyges, and warns her not to be unfaithful to her own vows. III.8, Martis caelebs quid agam Kalendis... – A Happy Anniversary – Horace invites Maecenas to celebrate with him the festival of the Calends of March (the Feast of the Matrons), which was also the anniversary of his narrow escape from sudden death by a falling tree. III.9, Donec gratus eram tibi... – The Reconciliation of Two Lovers – Often referred to as an "Amoebaean" ode (from the Greek αμείβω – to exchange), it describes, in graceful dialogue, a quarrel between two lovers and their reconciliation. III.10, Extremum Tanain si biberes, Lyce... – A Lover's Complaint – Horace warns Lyce that he cannot put up with her unkindness forever. III.11, Mercuri, – nam te docilis magistro... – Take Warning, Lyde, from the Danaids! – To Mercury – Horace begs the god to teach him such melody as will overcome the unkindness of Lyde. The ode concludes with the tale of the daughters of Danaus, and their doom in the underworld. III.12, Miserarum est neque amori dare ludum... – Unhappy Neobule – Joyless is the life of Neobule, ever under the watchful eye of a strict guardian. Only thoughts of handsome Hebrus take her mind off her troubles. III.13, O fons Bandusiae splendidior vitro... – O, Fountain of Bandusia! – Tomorrow a sacrifice will be offered to the fountain of Bandusia, whose refreshing coolness is offered to the flocks and herds, and which is now immortalized in verse. III.14, Herculis ritu modo dictus, o plebs... – The Return of Augustus – Horace proclaims a festal day on the return of Augustus from Spain (c. 24 BC), where he had reduced to subjection the fierce Cantabri. III.15, Uxor pauperis Ibyci... – Chloris, Act Your Age! – Horace taunts Chloris with her attempts to appear young, and with her frivolous life, while she is really an old woman. III.16, Inclusam Danaen turris aenea... – Contentment is Genuine Wealth – Gold is all-powerful, but its possession brings care and restlessness. True contentment is to be satisfied with little, as Horace is with his Sabine farm. III.17, Aeli vetusto nobilis ab Lamo... – Prepare for Storms Tomorrow – To Aelius Lamia – The crow foretells a stormy day tomorrow – Gather some firewood while you may, and spend the day in festivity. III.18, Faune, Nympharum fugientum amator... – Hymn to Faunus – Horace asks Faunus to bless his flocks and fields, for when Faunus is near, the whole countryside is glad. III.19, Quantum distet ab Inacho... – Invitation to a Banquet – Horace invites Telephus to give up for a time his historical researches, and join him at a banquet in honor of Murena. III.20, Non vides quanto moveas periclo... – The Rivals – Horace humorously describes a contest between Pyrrhus and some maiden for the exclusive regards of Nearchus. III.21, O nata mecum consule Manlio... – To a Wine-Jar – Horace, preparing to entertain his friend the orator M. Valerius Messala Corvinus, sings of the manifold virtues of wine. III.22, Montium custos nemorumque virgo – To Diana – Horace dedicates a pine tree to Diana, and vows to the goddess a yearly sacrifice. III.23, Caelo supinas si tuleris manus – Humble Sacrifices Devoutly Offered – Horace assures the rustic Phidyle that the favor of the gods is gained not by costly offerings, but simple sacrifices such as salted meal offered with true feeling. III.24, Intactis opulentior... – The Curse of Mammon – Boundless riches cannot banish fear or avert death. A simple life like that of the Scythians is the healthiest and best. Stringent laws are needed to curb the present luxury and licentiousness. III.25, Quo me, Bacche, rapis tui... – To Bacchus in Honor of Augustus – Horace fancies himself carried along by Bacchus amid woods and wilds to celebrate, in some distant cave, the praises of Augustus. III.26, Vixi puellis nuper idoneus... – Love's Triumphs Are Ended – Scorned by the haughty Chloe, the poet, like a discharged soldier, abandons the arms of love. But he begs of Venus, as a last request, that his slighted love may not go unavenged. III.27, Impios parrae recinentis omen... – Galatea, Beware! – Addressed to Galatea, whom the poet seeks to dissuade from the voyage she intended to make during the stormy season of the year. He bids her to beware, lest the mild aspect of the deceitful skies lead her astray – for it was through lack of caution that Europa was carried away across the sea. III.28, Festo quid potius die... – In Neptune's Honor – An invitation to Lyde to visit the poet on the festival of Neptune, and join him in wine and song. III.29, Tyrrhena regum progenies, tibi... – Invitation to Maecenas – Horace invites Maecenas to leave the smoke and wealth and bustle of Rome, and come to visit him on his Sabine farm. He bids him to remember that we must live wisely and well in the present, as the future is uncertain. III.30, Exegi monumentum aere perennius... – The Poet's Immortal Fame – In this closing poem, Horace confidently predicts his enduring fame as the first and greatest of the lyric poets of Rome. He asserts: Exegi monumentum aere perennius (I have raised a monument more permanent than bronze). Book 4[edit] Horace published a fourth book of Odes in 13 BC consisting of 15 poems. Horace acknowledged the gap in time with the first words of the opening poem of the collection: Intermissa, Venus, diu / rursus bella moves (Venus, you return to battles long interrupted). IV.1, Intermissa, Venus, diu... – Venus, Forbear! – Horace complains that in advancing age he is vexed with new desires by the cruel goddess of love: he pines for Ligurinus. He bids her to turn to a more youthful and worthy subject, his friend Paulus Maximus. IV.2, Pindarum quisquis studet aemulari... – Not for Me to Sing of Augustus! – Horace was asked by Iulus Antonius (the son of Marc Antony and stepson of Augustus' sister Octavia) to sing of Augustus' victories in a Pindaric ode. Horace declines, alleging lack of talent, and requests Iulus to compose the poem himself. IV.3, Quem tu, Melpomene, semel... – To Melpomene, Muse of Lyric Poetry – To the Muse Melpomene Horace ascribes his poetic inspiration and the honors which he enjoys as the lyric poet of Rome. IV.4, Qualem ministrum fulminis alitem... – In Praise of Drusus, the Younger Stepson of Augustus – (A companion to Ode IV.14, which praises Tiberius). This ode praises Drusus, the younger son of the Empress Livia, on his victory over the Raeti and Vindelici. Drusus is compared to a young eagle and lion. His stepfather Augustus is also praised as having trained him to greatness. IV.5, Divis orte bonis, optume Romulae... – Augustus, Return! – Horace begs Augustus to return to Rome, and describes the peace and good order of the principate under his reign. IV.6, Dive, quem proles Niobea magnae... – Invocation to Apollo – In the year 17 BC, Augustus commissioned Horace to write the Carmen Saeculare, a hymn to be sung at the Saecular festival. This ode is an invocation to Apollo, begging help and inspiration for this important task. IV.7, Diffugere nives, redeunt iam... – The Lesson of Spring's Return – An ode on the same springtime theme as I.4 – Addressed to his friend Torquatus. Though the earth renews itself, and the waning moon waxes afresh, yet death is the ending of human life. Let us then make the best of our days while they last. IV.8, Donarem pateras grataque commodus... – In Praise of Poetry – This ode was written to C. Marcius Censorinus and probably sent as a Saturnalian gift. Horace would give bronze vases, or tripods, or gems of Grecian art, but he does not have these. What he has to give instead is the immortality of a poem. IV.9, Ne forte credas interitura quae... – In Praise of Lollius – As in IV.8, Horace promises immortality through his verses, this time to Lollius, a man of wisdom and integrity. IV.10, O crudelis adhuc et Veneris... – Beauty Is Fleeting – An ode to a beautiful boy, Ligurinus, and the inevitability of old age. IV.11, Est mihi nonum superantis annum... – A Joyous Birthday – An invitation to Phyllis to celebrate the birthday of Maecenas at Horace's Sabine farm. IV.12, Iam veris comites... – The Delights of Spring – Addressed to Virgil (although not necessarily the poet). The breezes and birds have returned – An invitation to a feast of Spring – The poet agrees to supply the wine, if Virgil will bring a box of perfumes. IV.13, Audivere, Lyce, di mea vota... – Retribution – Horace taunts Lyce, now growing old, on her desperate attempts to seem young and fascinating. IV.14, Quae cura patrum quaeve Quiritium... – In Praise of Tiberius, the Elder Stepson of Augustus – (A companion to Ode IV.4, which praises Drusus.) Horace honors the courage and exploits of Tiberius, the elder son of the empress Livia, on his victories over the tribes of the Raetian Alps. He then praises Augustus, whom he extols as the glory of the war, the defense of Roman and Italy, and as the undisputed ruler of the world. IV.15, Phoebus volentem proelia me loqui... – The Praises of Augustus – Horace records in song the victories of Augustus – Peace, good order, the establishment of public morals, the extended glory of the Roman name abroad, and security and happiness at home. See also[edit] Prosody (Latin) References[edit] ^ For a discussion of the classification of Horace's Odes, see The Works of Horace Rendered into English Prose by James Lonsdale, M.A. and Samuel Lee, M.A. London: Macmillan and Co., 1883, p. 22 and Horace: The Complete Works by Charles E. Bennett and John Carew Rolfe. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1901, pp. xvii-xxii. ^ Lyons, Stuart (2010). Music in the Odes of Horace. Aris & Phillips. ISBN 978-0-85668-844-7. ^ All Latin text courtesy of thelatinlibrary.com ^ Summaries are taken from: The Works of Horace Rendered into English Prose by James Lonsdale, M.A. and Samuel Lee, M.A. London: Macmillan and Co., 1883; Horace: The Complete Works by Charles E. Bennett and John Carew Rolfe. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1901; The Works of Horace, with Explanatory Notes by Charles Anthon, LL.D. London: Tegg & Son, 1835; The Works of Horace with English Notes by J.L. Lincoln. New York: D. Appleton & Co, 1851. External links[edit] Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: Odes (Horace) Odes in English at the Perseus Project Works of Horace in Latin at The Latin Library Odes public domain audiobook at LibriVox Carmina Horatiana All Carmina of Horace recited in Latin by Thomas Bervoets (mp3). v t e Works by Horace Poetry Satires Epodes Odes Epistles Carmen Saeculare Ars Poetica Collections Satires 2.5 Quote Ut pictura poesis Related Spring of Bandusium Authority control VIAF: 176605032 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 176605032 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Odes_(Horace)&oldid=950433389" Categories: 1st-century BC Latin books Poetry by Horace Hidden categories: Articles containing Latin-language text Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Català Español Français Italiano עברית Latina Nederlands Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 12 April 2020, at 02:14 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5553	----	Carpe diem - Wikipedia Carpe diem From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Latin phrase For other uses, see Carpe diem (disambiguation). A sundial inscribed carpe diem Carpe diem is a Latin aphorism, usually (though questionably) translated "seize the day", taken from book 1 of the Roman poet Horace's work Odes (23 BC).[1] Contents 1 Translation 2 History 2.1 Sources 2.2 In ancient literature 3 Meaning 3.1 Related expressions 3.2 Other Latin 4 Contemporary mentions 5 References 6 External links Translation[edit] Carpe is the second-person singular present active imperative of carpō "pick or pluck" used by Horace to mean "enjoy, seize, use, make use of".[2] Diem is the accusative of dies "day". A more literal translation of carpe diem would thus be "pluck the day [as it is ripe]"—that is, enjoy the moment. It has been argued by various authors that this interpretation is closer to Horace's original meaning [3] History[edit] Sources[edit] Text from Odes 1.11: Tu ne quaesieris, scire nefas, quem mihi, quem tibi finem di dederint, Leuconoe, nec Babylonios temptaris numeros. ut melius, quidquid erit, pati. seu pluris hiemes seu tribuit Iuppiter ultimam, quae nunc oppositis debilitat pumicibus mare Tyrrhenum. Sapias, vina liques et spatio brevi spem longam reseces. dum loquimur, fugerit invida aetas: carpe diem, quam minimum credula postero. Ask not ('tis forbidden knowledge), what our destined term of years, Mine and yours; nor scan the tables of your Babylonish seers. Better far to bear the future, my Leuconoe, like the past, Whether Jove has many winters yet to give, or this our last; This, that makes the Tyrrhene billows spend their strength against the shore. Strain your wine and prove your wisdom; life is short; should hope be more? In the moment of our talking, envious time has ebb'd away. Seize the present; trust tomorrow e'en as little as you may.[4] In ancient literature[edit] Perhaps the first written expression of the concept is the advice given by Siduri to Gilgamesh, telling him to forgo his mourning and embrace life, although some scholars see it as simply urging Gilgamesh to abandon his mourning, "reversing the liminal rituals of mourning and returning to the normal and normative behaviors of Mesopotamian society."[5][6] Meaning[edit] In Horace, the phrase is part of the longer carpe diem, quam minimum credula postero, which is often translated as "Seize the day, put very little trust in tomorrow (the future)". The ode says that the future is unforeseen and that one should not leave to chance future happenings, but rather one should do all one can today to make one's own future better. This phrase is usually understood against Horace's Epicurean background.[7] It has been argued that the meaning of carpe diem as used by Horace is not to ignore the future, but rather not to trust that everything is going to fall into place for you and taking action for the future today.[8] Related expressions[edit] Other Latin[edit] Gather Ye Rosebuds While Ye May, by John William Waterhouse An 1898 German postcard, quoting "Gaudeamus igitur" Collige, virgo, rosas ("gather, girl, the roses") appears at the end of the poem "De rosis nascentibus"[9] ("Of growing roses", also called Idyllium de rosis) attributed to Ausonius or Virgil. It encourages youth to enjoy life before it is too late; compare "Gather ye rosebuds while ye may" from Robert Herrick's 1648 poem "To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time". "De Brevitate Vitae" ("On the Shortness of Life"), often referred to as "Gaudeamus igitur", (Let us rejoice) is a popular academic commercium song, on taking joy in student life, with the knowledge that one will someday die. It is medieval Latin, dating to 1287. Related but distinct is the expression memento mori (remember that you are mortal) which carries some of the same connotation as carpe diem. For Horace, mindfulness of our own mortality is key in making us realize the importance of the moment. "Remember that you are mortal, so seize the day." Over time the phrase memento mori also came to be associated with penitence, as suggested in many vanitas paintings. Today many listeners will take the two phrases as representing almost opposite approaches, with carpe diem urging us to savour life and memento mori urging us to resist its allure. This is not the original sense of the memento mori phrase as used by Horace. Contemporary mentions[edit] In modern English, the expression "YOLO", meaning "you only live once", expresses a similar sentiment.[10][11] In the 1989 American film Dead Poets Society, the English teacher John Keating, played by Robin Williams, famously says: "Carpe diem. Seize the day, boys. Make your lives extraordinary." Later, this line was voted as the 95th greatest movie quote by the American Film Institute.[12] In the 2017 Korean drama series Chicago Typewriter, the club "Carpe Diem" is owned by Shin Yool and is the scene of revolutionary activities of the Joseon Youth Liberation Alliance spearheaded by Seo Hwi-young.[13] Social philosopher Roman Krznaric suggested in his book Carpe Diem Regained (2017) that carpe diem is the answer to consumer cultures schedules, timed work days, consumer culture and planning out our actions over the course of weeks and the weekends, instead of "just do it", with thought experiments for seizing the day rather than placing into calendars.[14][15] References[edit] ^ Quintus Horatius Flaccus, Carmina, Liber I, Carmen XI (in Latin) ^ Lewis, Charlton T. (1890). "carpō". An Elementary Latin Dictionary. New York, Cincinnati, and Chicago: American Book Company. ^ How “Carpe Diem” Got Lost in Translation by Chi Luu JStor Daily 7 August 2019 ^ Translation by John Conington, 1882 ^ Ackerman, Susan (2005). When Heroes Love: The Ambiguity of Eros in the Stories of Gilgamesh and David. Columbia University Press. pp. 130–131. ISBN 978-0231132602. ^ Perdue, Leo G. (2009). Scribes, Sages, and Seers: The Sage in the Eastern Mediterranean World: The Sage in the Mediterranean World. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. p. 57. ISBN 978-3525530832. ^ Harrison, Stephen (2012). The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. pp. 154, 168. ISBN 978-0-521-83002-7. ^ Jacks, Lorra (February 17, 2013). "The 5 Most Frequently Misused Proverbs". Cracked.com. Retrieved 2014-01-02. ^ "De rosis nascentibus" Archived 2007-08-11 at the Wayback Machine in a collection of the works of Virgil under the note Hoc carmen scripsit poeta ignotus (This poem was written by an unknown poet); Bibleotheca Augustana [de], Augsburg University of Applied Sciences ^ "Carpe Diem! How the philosophy of 'seize the day' was hijacked". iNews. 2017-04-18. Retrieved 2018-03-17. ^ "YOLO | Definition of YOLO in English by Oxford Dictionaries". Oxford Dictionaries | English. Retrieved 2018-03-17. ^ American Film Institute. "AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes". Afi.com. Retrieved 2015-03-25. ^ The Caffeinated Kat. "TV Review: Chicago Typewriter (Spoilers!)". The Kat Cafe. Retrieved 6 June 2020. ^ Macdonald, Fiona. "What it really means to 'Seize the day'". bbc.com. Retrieved 16 June 2019. ^ "Reclaiming carpe diem: How do we really seize the day? by Roman Krznaric, The Guardian, 2 April 2017 External links[edit] Media related to Carpe diem at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of carpe diem at Wiktionary v t e Death and mortality in art Themes Carpe diem Consolatio Danse Macabre Death and the Maiden Lamentation of Christ Macabre Memento mori Mono no aware Sic transit gloria mundi Ubi sunt Personifications of death Vanitas Forms Death mask Elegy Funerary art Funerary text Lament Memorial Post-mortem photography Requiem Tomb Tragedy Wreath Artwork Architecture Capuchin Crypt Catacombs of Paris Sedlec Ossuary Film (category) The Seventh Seal Literature Ars moriendi Bardo Thodol Book of Job Book of the Dead Hamlet's soliloquy The Masque of the Red Death Music (category) Danse macabre Der Erlkönig Der Tod und das Mädchen Totentanz Painting (category) Et in Arcadia ego Death and Fire Death and Life Death and the Maiden Death and the Miser Gather Ye Rosebuds While Ye May La Calavera Catrina Plague Pyramid of Skulls Roman Widow Self-Portrait with Death Playing the Fiddle Skull of a Skeleton with Burning Cigarette Sleep and his Half-brother Death The Ambassadors The Garden of Death The Shadow of Death The Three Ages of Man and Death The Triumph of Death Poetry (category) And death shall have no dominion Because I could not stop for Death Der Erlkönig Do not go gentle into that good night v t e Time Key concepts Past history deep time Present Future Futures studies Far future in religion Timeline of the far future Eternity Eternity of the world Measurement and standards Chronometry UTC UT TAI Unit of time Planck time New Earth Time Second Minute Hour Day Week Month Season Year Decade Century Millennium Tropical year Sidereal year Samvatsara Measurement systems 6-hour clock (Italian) 6-hour clock (Thai) 12-hour clock 24-hour clock Daylight saving time Decimal Hexadecimal Metric Sidereal Solar Time zone Calendars Gregorian 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en-wikipedia-org-5570	----	History of Roman and Byzantine domes - Wikipedia History of Roman and Byzantine domes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Part of a series on Domes Symbolism History of Early and simple domes Persian domes Roman and Byzantine domes Medieval Arabic and Western European domes Italian Renaissance domes South Asian domes Early modern period domes Modern period domes Styles Cloister vault Geodesic dome Onion dome Elements Coffer Cupola Lantern Muqarnas Oculus Pendentive Rotunda Squinch Tholobate Whispering gallery Category  Architecture portal v t e Domes were a characteristic element of the architecture of Ancient Rome and of its medieval continuation, the Byzantine Empire. They had widespread influence on contemporary and later styles, from Russian and Ottoman architecture to the Italian Renaissance and modern revivals. The domes were customarily hemispherical, although octagonal and segmented shapes are also known, and they developed in form, use, and structure over the centuries. Early examples rested directly on the rotunda walls of round rooms and featured a central oculus for ventilation and light. Pendentives became common in the Byzantine period, provided support for domes over square spaces. Early wooden domes are known only from a literary source, but the use of wooden formwork, concrete, and unskilled labor enabled domes of monumental size in the late Republic and early Imperial period, such as the so-called "Temple of Mercury" bath hall at Baiae. Nero introduced the dome into Roman palace architecture in the 1st century and such rooms served as state banqueting halls, audience rooms, or throne rooms. The Pantheon's dome, the largest and most famous example, was built of concrete in the 2nd century and may have served as an audience hall for Hadrian. Imperial mausolea, such as the Mausoleum of Diocletian, were domed beginning in the 3rd century. Some smaller domes were built with a technique of using ceramic tubes in place of a wooden centering for concrete, or as a permanent structure embedded in the concrete, but light brick became the preferred building material over the course of the 4th and 5th centuries. Brick ribs allowed for a thinner structure and facilitated the use of windows in the supporting walls, replacing the need for an oculus as a light source. Christian baptisteries and shrines were domed in the 4th century, such as the Lateran Baptistery and the likely wooden dome over the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Constantine's octagonal church in Antioch may have been a precedent for similar buildings for centuries afterward. The first domed basilica may have been built in the 5th century, with a church in southern Turkey being the earliest proposed example, but the 6th century architecture of Justinian made domed church architecture standard throughout the Roman east. His Hagia Sophia and Church of the Holy Apostles inspired copies in later centuries. Cruciform churches with domes at their crossings, such as the churches of Hagia Sophia in Thessaloniki and St. Nicholas at Myra, were typical of 7th and 8th century architecture and bracing a dome with barrel vaults on four sides became the standard structural system. Domes over windowed drums of cylindrical or polygonal shape were standard after the 9th century. In the empire's later period, smaller churches were built with smaller diameter domes, normally less than 6 meters (20 ft) after the 10th century. Exceptions include the 11th century domed-octagons of Hosios Loukas and Nea Moni, and the 12th century Chora Church, among others. The cross-in-square plan, with a single dome at the crossing or five domes in a quincunx pattern, as at the Church of St. Panteleimon, was the most popular type from the 10th century until the fall of Constantinople in 1453. Contents 1 Overview 2 History 2.1 Late Republic and early Imperial period 2.2 First century 2.3 Second century 2.4 Third century 2.5 Fourth century 2.6 Fifth century 2.7 Sixth century 2.8 Seventh and eighth centuries 2.9 Ninth century 2.10 Tenth century 2.11 Eleventh century 2.12 Twelfth century 2.13 Thirteenth century 2.14 Fourteenth and fifteenth centuries 3 Influence 3.1 Armenia 3.2 The Balkans 3.3 The Rus 3.4 Romanesque Europe 3.5 Orthodox Europe 3.6 Italian Renaissance 3.7 Ottoman Empire 3.8 Modern revival 4 See also 5 References 5.1 Citations 5.2 Sources Overview[edit] Rounded arches, vaults, and domes distinguish Roman architecture from that of Ancient Greece and were facilitated by the use of concrete and brick.[1] By varying the weight of the aggregate material in the concrete, the weight of the concrete could be altered, allowing lighter layers to be laid at the top of concrete domes. But concrete domes also required expensive wooden formwork, also called shuttering, to be built and kept in place during the curing process, which would usually have to be destroyed to be removed. Formwork for brick domes need not be kept in place as long and could be more easily reused.[2] The mortar and aggregate of Roman concrete was built up in horizontal layers laid by hand against wooden form-work with the thickness of the layers determined by the length of the workday, rather than being poured into a mold as concrete is today. Roman concrete domes were thus built similarly to the earlier corbel domes of the Mediterranean region, although they have different structural characteristics.[3][4] The aggregate used by the Romans was often rubble, but lightweight aggregate in the upper levels served to reduce stresses.[5] Empty "vases and jugs" could be hidden inside to reduce weight.[6] The dry concrete mixtures used by the Romans were compacted with rams to eliminate voids, and added animal blood acted as a water reducer.[7] Because Roman concrete was weak in tension, it did not provide any structural advantage over the use of brick or stone. But, because it could be constructed with unskilled slave labor, it provided a constructional advantage and facilitated the building of large-scale domes.[8] Roman domes were used in baths, villas, palaces, and tombs. Oculi were common features.[9] They were customarily hemispherical in shape and partially or totally concealed on the exterior. In order to buttress the horizontal thrusts of a large hemispherical masonry dome, the supporting walls were built up beyond the base to at least the haunches of the dome and the dome was then also sometimes covered with a conical or polygonal roof.[10] A variety of other shapes, including shallow saucer domes, segmental domes, and ribbed domes were also sometimes used.[11] The audience halls of many imperial palaces were domed.[12] Domes were also very common over polygonal garden pavilions.[13] Domes were "closely associated with senatorial, imperial, and state-sponsored patrons" and proliferated in the capital cities and other cities with imperial affiliations.[14] Construction and development of domes declined in the west with the decline and fall of the western portion of the empire.[15] In Byzantine architecture, a supporting structure of four arches with pendentives between them allowed the spaces below domes to be opened up. Pendentives allowed for weight loads to be concentrated at just four points on a more practical square plan, rather than a circle.[16] Until the 9th century, domes were low with thick buttressing and did not project much into the exterior of their buildings. Drums were cylindrical when used and likewise low and thick. After the 9th century, domes were built higher and used polygonal drums decorated with engaged columns and arcades. Exterior dome decoration was more elaborate by the 12th century and included engaged columns along with niches, blind arcades, and string courses. Multiple domes on a single building were normal.[17] Domes were important elements of baptisteries, churches, and tombs.[18] They were normally hemispherical and had, with occasional exceptions, windowed drums. Roofing for domes ranged from simple ceramic tile to more expensive, more durable, and more form-fitting lead sheeting.[19] The domes and drums typically incorporated wooden tension rings at several levels to resist deformation in the mortar and allow for faster construction. Metal clamps between stone cornice blocks, metal tie rods, and metal chains were also used to stabilize domed buildings.[20] Timber belts at the bases of domes helped to stabilize the walls below them during earthquakes, but the domes themselves remained vulnerable to collapse.[21] The surviving ribbed or pumpkin dome examples in Constantinople are structurally equivalent and those techniques were used interchangeably, with the number of divisions corresponding to the number of windows. Aided by the small scale of churches after the 6th century, such ribbed domes could be built with formwork only for the ribs. Pumpkin domes could have been built in self-supporting rings and small domical vaults were effectively corbelled, dispensing with formwork altogether.[22] The circular oculus of the Pantheon, at the center of the domed ceiling The dome of Santa Costanza is concealed externally by the buttressing of its cylindrical drum A dome of the former Pantokrator Monastery, showing an exposed external profile and lead roofing A dome at Chora Church, with ribs from between the drum windows converging on a circular fresco image History[edit] Late Republic and early Imperial period[edit] Roman baths played a leading role in the development of domed construction in general, and monumental domes in particular. Modest domes in baths dating from the 2nd and 1st centuries BC are seen in Pompeii, in the cold rooms of the Terme Stabiane and the Terme del Foro.[23][24] These domes are very conical in shape, similar to those on an Assyrian bas-relief found in Nineveh.[25][26] At a Roman era tepidarium in Cabrera de Mar, Spain, a dome has been identified from the middle of the 2nd century BC that used a refined version of the parallel arch construction found in an earlier Hellenistic bath dome in Sicily.[27] According to Vitruvius, the temperature and humidity of domed warm rooms could be regulated by raising or lowering bronze discs located under an oculus.[28] Domes were particularly well suited to the hot rooms of baths circular in plan to facilitate even heating from the walls. However, the extensive use of domes did not occur before the 1st century AD.[29] Varro's book on agriculture describes an aviary with a wooden dome decorated with the eight winds that is compared by analogy to the eight winds depicted on the Tower of the Winds, which was built in Athens at about the same time. This aviary with its wooden dome may represent a fully developed type. Wooden domes in general would have allowed for very wide spans. Their earlier use may have inspired the development and introduction of large stone domes of previously unprecedented size.[23] Complex wooden forms were necessary for dome centering and support during construction, and they seem to have eventually become more efficient and standardized over time.[30] Flooded ruins of the so-called "Temple of Mercury" in Baiae Domes reached monumental size in the Roman Imperial period.[23] Although imprints of the formwork itself have not survived, deformations from the ideal of up to 22 centimeters (8.7 in) at the so-called "Temple of Mercury" in Baiae suggest a centering of eight radiating frames, with horizontal connectors supporting radial formwork for the shallow dome.[31] The building, actually a concrete bath hall dating from the age of Augustus (27 BC – 14 AD), has the first known large Roman dome. There are five openings in the dome: a circular oculus and four square skylights.[23] The dome has a span of 21.5 meters (71 ft) and is the largest known dome built before that of the Pantheon.[32] It is also the earliest preserved concrete dome.[30] First century[edit] While there are earlier examples in the Republican period and early Imperial period, the growth of domed construction increased under Emperor Nero and the Flavians in the 1st century AD, and during the 2nd century. Centrally planned halls become increasingly important parts of palace and palace villa layouts beginning in the 1st century, serving as state banqueting halls, audience rooms, or throne rooms.[33] Formwork was arranged either horizontally or radially, but there is not enough surviving evidence from the 1st and 2nd centuries to say what was typical.[30] The octagonal domed hall found in Nero's Domus Aurea The opulent palace architecture of the Emperor Nero (54 – 68 AD) marks an important development.[34] There is evidence of a dome in his Domus Transitoria at the intersection of two corridors, resting on four large piers, which may have had an oculus at the center. In Nero's Domus Aurea, or "Golden House", planned by Severus and Celer, the walls of a large octagonal room transition to an octagonal domical vault, which then transitions to a dome with an oculus.[35][36] This is the earliest known example of a dome in the city of Rome itself.[31] The Domus Aurea was built after 64 AD and the dome was over 13 meters (43 ft) in diameter.[37] This octagonal and semicircular dome is made of concrete and the oculus is made of brick. The radial walls of the surrounding rooms buttress the dome, allowing the octagonal walls directly beneath it to contain large openings under flat arches and for the room itself to be unusually well lit.[38] Because there is no indication that mosaic or other facing material had ever been applied to the surface of the dome, it may have been hidden behind a tent-like fabric canopy like the pavilion tents of Hellenistic (and earlier Persian) rulers. The oculus is unusually large, more than two-fifths the span of the room, and it may have served to support a lightweight lantern structure or tholos, which would have covered the opening. Circular channels on the upper surface of the oculus also support the idea that this lantern, perhaps itself domed, was the rotating dome referred to in written accounts.[39] According to Suetonius, the Domus Aurea had a dome that perpetually rotated on its base in imitation of the sky.[40] It was reported in 2009 that newly discovered foundations of a round room may be those of a rotating domed dining hall.[41] Also reported in contemporary sources is a ceiling over a dining hall in the palace fitted with pipes so that perfume could rain from the ceiling, although it is not known whether this was a feature of the same dome.[42] The expensive and lavish decoration of the palace caused such scandal that it was abandoned soon after Nero's death and public buildings such as the Baths of Titus and the Colosseum were built at the site.[43] The only intact dome from the reign of Emperor Domitian is a 16.1-meter (53 ft) wide example in what may have been a nymphaeum at his villa at Albano. It is now the church of Santa Maria della Rotunda [it].[37] Domitian's 92 AD Domus Augustana established the apsidal semi-dome as an imperial motif.[12] Square chambers in his palace on the Palatine Hill used pendentives to support domes.[44] His palace contained three domes resting over walls with alternating apses and rectangular openings.[45] An octagonal domed hall existed in the domestic wing.[46] Unlike Nero's similar octagonal dome, its segments extended all the way to the oculus.[12] The dining hall of this private palace, called the Coenatio Jovis, or Dining Hall of Jupiter, contained a rotating ceiling like the one Nero had built, but with stars set into the simulated sky.[47] Second century[edit] During the reign of Emperor Trajan, domes and semi-domes over exedras were standard elements of Roman architecture, possibly due to the efforts of Trajan's architect, Apollodorus of Damascus, who was famed for his engineering ability.[48][49] Two rotundas 20 meters (66 ft) in diameter were finished in 109 AD as part of the Baths of Trajan, built over the Domus Aurea, and exedras 13 and 18 meters (43 and 59 ft) wide were built as part of the markets north-east of his forum. The architecture of Trajan's successor, Hadrian, continued this style.[48] Three 100-foot (30 m) wide exedras at Trajan's Baths have patterns of coffering that, as in the later Pantheon, align with lower niches only on the axes and diagonals and, also as in the Pantheon, that alignment is sometimes with the ribs between the coffers, rather than with the coffers themselves.[49] The Pantheon in Rome The Pantheon in Rome, completed by Emperor Hadrian as part of the Baths of Agrippa, has the most famous, best preserved, and largest Roman dome.[50] Its diameter was more than twice as wide as any known earlier dome.[51] Although considered an example of Hadrianic architecture, there is brickstamp evidence that the rebuilding of the Pantheon in its present form was begun under Trajan.[43] Speculation that the architect of the Pantheon was Apollodorus has not been proven, although there are stylistic commonalities between his large coffered half-domes at Trajan's Baths and the dome of the Pantheon.[49] Dating from the 2nd century, it is an unreinforced concrete dome 43.4 meters (142 ft) wide resting on a circular wall, or rotunda, 6 meters (20 ft) thick. This rotunda, made of brick-faced concrete, contains a large number of relieving arches and voids. Seven interior niches and the entrance way divide the wall structurally into eight virtually independent piers. These openings and additional voids account for a quarter of the rotunda wall's volume. The only opening in the dome is the brick-lined oculus at the top, 9 meters (30 ft) in diameter, that provides light and ventilation for the interior.[52] The shallow coffering in the dome accounts for a less than five percent reduction in the dome's mass, and is mostly decorative. The aggregate material hand-placed in the concrete is heaviest at the base of the dome and changes to lighter materials as the height increases, dramatically reducing the stresses in the finished structure. In fact, many commentators have cited the Pantheon as an example of the revolutionary possibilities for monolithic architecture provided by the use of Roman pozzolana concrete. However, vertical cracks seem to have developed very early, such that in practice the dome acts as an array of arches with a common keystone, rather than as a single unit. The exterior step-rings used to compress the "haunches" of the dome, which would not be necessary if the dome acted as a monolithic structure, may be an acknowledgement of this by the builders themselves. Such buttressing was common in Roman arch construction.[52] The cracks in the dome can be seen from the upper internal chambers of the rotunda, but have been covered by re-rendering on the inside surface of the dome and by patching on the outside of the building.[53] The Pantheon's roof was originally covered with gilt bronze tiles, but these were removed in 663 by Emperor Constans II and replaced with lead roofing.[26][54] The function of the Pantheon remains an open question. Strangely for a temple, its inscription, which attributes this third building at the site to the builder of the first, Marcus Agrippa, does not mention any god or group of gods. Its name, Pantheon, comes from the Greek for "all gods" but is unofficial, and it was not included in the list of temples restored by Hadrian in the Historia Augusta. Circular temples were small and rare, and Roman temples traditionally allowed for only one divinity per room. The Pantheon more resembles structures found in imperial palaces and baths. Hadrian is believed to have held court in the rotunda using the main apse opposite the entrance as a tribune, which may explain its very large size.[55] Later Roman buildings similar to the Pantheon include a temple to Asklepios Soter [de] (c. 145) in the old Hellenistic city of Pergamon and the so-called "Round Temple" at Ostia (c. 230–240), which may have been related to the Imperial cult. The Pergamon dome was about 80 Roman feet wide, versus about 150 for the Pantheon, and made of brick over a cut stone rotunda. The Ostia dome was 60 Roman feet wide and made of brick-faced concrete.[56][57] No later dome built in the Imperial era came close to the span of the Pantheon.[58] It remained the largest dome in the world for more than a millennium and is still the world's largest unreinforced concrete dome.[59] Ruins in the Piazza D'Oro at Hadrian's Villa Use of concrete facilitated the complex geometry of the octagonal domed hall at the 2nd century Small Thermal Baths of Hadrian's Villa in Tivoli. The vaulting has collapsed, but a virtual reconstruction suggests that the walls of the octagonal hall, which alternate flat and convex, merged into a spherical cap.[60] Segmented domes made of radially concave wedges, or of alternating concave and flat wedges, appear under Hadrian in the 2nd century and most preserved examples of the style date from this period. Hadrian's villa has examples at the Piazza D'Oro and in the semidome of the Serapeum. Recorded details of the decoration of the segmented dome at the Piazza D'Oro suggests it was made to evoke a billowing tent, perhaps in imitation of the canopies used by Hellenistic kings. Other examples exist at the Hadrianic baths of Otricoli and the so-called "Temple of Venus" at Baiae. This style of dome required complex centering and radially oriented formwork to create its tight curves, and the earliest surviving direct evidence of radial formwork is found at the caldarium of the Large Baths at Hadrian's villa.[61] Hadrian was an amateur architect and it was apparently domes of Hadrian's like these that Trajan's architect, Apollodorus of Damascus, derisively called "pumpkins" prior to Hadrian becoming emperor. According to Dio Cassius, the memory of this insult contributed to Hadrian as emperor having Apollodorus exiled and killed.[62] In the middle of the 2nd century, some of the largest domes were built near present-day Naples, as part of large bath complexes taking advantage of the volcanic hot springs in the area. At the bath complex at Baiae, there are remains of a collapsed dome spanning 26.3 meters (86 ft), called the "Temple of Venus", and a larger half-collapsed dome spanning 29.5 meters (97 ft) called the "Temple of Diana". The dome of the "Temple of Diana", which may have been a nymphaeum as part of the bath complex, can be seen to have had an ogival section made of horizontal layers of mortared brick and capped with light tufa. It dates to the second half of the 2nd century and is the third largest dome known from the Roman world. The second largest is the collapsed "Temple of Apollo" built nearby along the shore of Lake Avernus. The span cannot be precisely measured due to its ruined state, but it was more than 36 meters (118 ft) in diameter.[63] Octagonal rooms of the Baths of Antoninus in Carthage were covered with cloister vaults and have been dated to 145–160.[64] In the second half of the 2nd century in North Africa, a distinctive type of nozzle tube shape was developed in the tradition of the terracotta tube dome at the Hellenistic era baths of Morgantina, an idea that had been preserved in the use of interlocking terracotta pots for kiln roofs. This tube could be mass-produced on potter's wheels and interlocked to form a permanent centering for concrete domes, avoiding the use of wooden centering altogether. This spread mainly in the western Mediterranean.[65] Although rarely used, the pendentive dome was known in 2nd century Roman architecture, such as the funerary monuments of the Sedia dei Diavolo and the Torracio della Secchina on the Via Nomentana. It would be used much more widely in the Byzantine period.[66] A "Roman tomb in Palestine at Kusr-en-Nêuijîs" had a pendentive dome over the square intersection of cruciform barrel vaults and has been dated to the 2nd century.[67] Third century[edit] Ruins at Villa Gordiani The large rotunda of the Baths of Agrippa, the oldest public baths in Rome, has been dated to the Severan period at the beginning of the 3rd century, but it is not known whether this is an addition or simply a reconstruction of an earlier domed rotunda.[68] In the 3rd century, imperial mausolea began to be built as domed rotundas rather than tumulus structures or other types, following similar monuments by private citizens. Pagan and Christian domed mausolea from this time can be differentiated in that the structures of the buildings also reflect their religious functions. The pagan buildings are typically two story, dimly lit, free-standing structures with a lower crypt area for the remains and an upper area for devotional sacrifice. Christian domed mausolea contain a single well-lit space and are usually attached to a church.[69] The first St. Peter's Basilica would later be built near a preexisting early 3rd century domed rotunda that may have been a mausoleum. In the 5th century the rotunda would be dedicated to St. Andrew and joined to the Mausoleum of Honorius.[70][71] Examples from the 3rd century include the brick dome of the Mausoleum of Diocletian, and the mausoleum at Villa Gordiani.[72] The Villa Gordiani also contains remains of an oval gored dome.[73] The Mausoleum of Diocletian uses small arched squinches of brick built up from a circular base in an overlapping scales pattern, called a "stepped squinches dome". The scales pattern was a popular Hellenistic motif adopted by the Parthians and Sasanians, and such domes are likely related to Persian "squinch vaults".[74] In addition to the mausoleum, the Palace of Diocletian also contains a rotunda near the center of the complex that may have served as a throne room. It has side niches similar to those of an octagonal mausoleum but was located at the end of an apparently barrel-vaulted hall like the arrangement found in later Sasanian palaces.[75] Masonry domes were less common in the Roman provinces, although the 3rd century "Temple of Venus" at Baalbek was built with a stone dome 10 meters (33 ft) in diameter.[13] The technique of building lightweight domes with interlocking hollow ceramic tubes further developed in North Africa and Italy in the late 3rd and early 4th centuries.[76] By the 4th century, the thin and lightweight tubed vaulting had become a vaulting technique in its own right, rather than simply serving as a permanent centering for concrete. It was used in early Christian buildings in Italy.[77] Arranging these terracotta tubes in a continuous spiral created a dome that was not strong enough for very large spans, but required only minimal centering and formwork.[78] The later dome of the Baptistry of Neon in Ravenna is an example.[76] Fourth century[edit] The so-called "Temple of Minerva Medica" in Rome In the 4th century, Roman domes proliferated due to changes in the way domes were constructed, including advances in centering techniques and the use of brick ribbing. The so-called "Temple of Minerva Medica", for example, used brick ribs along with step-rings and lightweight pumice aggregate concrete to form a decagonal dome.[79] The material of choice in construction gradually transitioned during the 4th and 5th centuries from stone or concrete to lighter brick in thin shells.[80] The use of ribs stiffened the structure, allowing domes to be thinner with less massive supporting walls. Windows were often used in these walls and replaced the oculus as a source of light, although buttressing was sometimes necessary to compensate for large openings. The Mausoleum of Santa Costanza has windows beneath the dome and nothing but paired columns beneath that, using a surrounding barrel vault to buttress the structure.[81] The 24-meter (79 ft) dome of the Mausoleum of Galerius was built around 300 AD close to the imperial palace as either a mausoleum or a throne room. It was converted into a church in the 5th century.[82] Also in Thessaloniki, at the Tetrarchic palace, an octagonal building has been excavated with a 24.95 meter span that may have been used as a throne room. It is known not to have been used as a church and was unsuitable as a mausoleum, and was used for some period between about 311 and when it was destroyed before about 450.[83] The octagonal "Domus Aurea", or "Golden Octagon", built by Emperor Constantine in 327 at the imperial palace of Antioch likewise had a domical roof, presumably of wood and covered with gilded lead.[84][85] It was dedicated two years after the Council of Nicea to "Harmony, the divine power that unites Universe, Church, and Empire". It may have been both the cathedral of Antioch as well as the court church of Constantine, and the precedent for the later octagonal plan churches near palaces of Saints Sergius and Bacchus and Hagia Sophia by Justinian and Aachen Cathedral by Charlemagne.[86] The dome was rebuilt by 537–8 with cypress wood from Daphne after being destroyed in a fire. Most domes on churches in the Syrian region were built of wood, like that of the later Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, and the dome of the Domus Aurea survived a series of earthquakes in the 6th century that destroyed the rest of the building. There is no record of the church being rebuilt after the earthquake of 588, perhaps due to the general abandonment of many public buildings in what was no longer a capital of the Empire.[87] The St. George Rotunda and some remains of Serdica can be seen in the foreground Centralized buildings of circular or octagonal plan also became used for baptistries and reliquaries due to the suitability of those shapes for assembly around a single object.[88] Baptisteries began to be built in the manner of domed mausolea during the 4th century in Italy. The octagonal Lateran Baptistery or the baptistery of the Holy Sepulchre may have been the first, and the style spread during the 5th century.[89] Examples include the Baptistery of San Giovanni in Fonte in Milan [it] (late 4th century), a domed baptistery in Naples (4th to 6th centuries), and a baptistery in Aquileia (late 4th century).[90] Part of a baths complex begun in the early 4th century, the brick Church of St. George in Sofia was a caldarium that was converted in the middle of the fifth century. It is a rotunda with four apse niches in the corners.[91] The best preserved example of Roman architecture in the city, it has been used as a baptistery, church, mosque, and mausoleum over the centuries. The dome rises to about 14 m from the floor with a diameter of about 9.5m.[92] In the middle of the 4th century in Rome, domes were built as part of the Baths of Constantine and the Baths of Helena [it]. Domes over the calderia, or hot rooms, of the older Baths of Agrippa and the Baths of Caracalla were also rebuilt at this time. Between the second half of the 4th century and the middle of the 5th century, domed mausolea for wealthy families were built attached to a new type of martyrial basilica before burials within the basilica itself, closer to the martyr's remains, made such attached buildings obsolete.[93] A pagan rotunda from this period located on the Via Sacra was later incorporated into the Basilica of Saints Cosmas and Damian as a vestibule around 526.[70] Christian mausolea and shrines developed into the "centralized church" type, often with a dome over a raised central space.[88] The Church of the Holy Apostles, or Apostoleion, probably planned by Constantine but built by his successor Constantius in the new capital city of Constantinople, combined the congregational basilica with the centralized shrine. With a similar plan to that of the Church of Saint Simeon Stylites, four naves projected from a central rotunda containing Constantine's tomb and spaces for the tombs of the twelve Apostles.[94] Above the center may have been a clerestory with a wooden dome roofed with bronze sheeting and gold accents.[95] The oblong decagon of today's St. Gereon's Basilica in Cologne, Germany, was built upon an extraordinary and richly decorated 4th century Roman building with an apse, semi-domed niches, and dome. A church built in the city's northern cemetery, its original dedication is unknown.[96] It may have been built by Julianus, the governor of Gaul from 355 to 360 who would later become emperor, as a mausoleum for his family.[97] The oval space may have been patterned after imperial audience halls or buildings such as the Temple of Minerva Medica.[98] The largest centrally planned Early Christian church, Milan's San Lorenzo Maggiore, was built in the middle of the 4th century while that city served as the capital of the Western Empire and may have been domed with a light material, such as timber or cane.[99][100] There are two theories about the shape of this dome: a Byzantine-style dome on spherical pendentives with a ring of windows similar to domes of the later Justinian era, or an octagonal cloister vault following Roman trends and like the vaulting over the site's contemporary chapel of Saint Aquiline, possibly built with vaulting tubes, pieces of which had been found in excavations. Although these tubes have been shown to date from a medieval reconstruction, there is evidence supporting the use of Roman concrete in the original.[101] Alternatively, the central covering may have been a square groin vault.[102] Fires in 1071 and 1075 damaged the building and the central covering collapsed in 1103. It was rebuilt with a Romanesque dome that lasted until 1573, when it collapsed and was replaced by the present structure.[103] The original vaulting was concealed by a square drum externally rather than the octagon of today, which dates from the 16th century.[104] The Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem was likely built with a wooden dome over the shrine by the end of the 4th century.[105] The rotunda, 33.7 meters (111 ft) in diameter and centered on the tomb of Christ, consisted of a domed center room surrounded by an ambulatory. The dome rose over a ground floor, gallery, and clerestory and may have had an oculus.[106] The dome was about 21 meters (69 ft) wide.[107] Razed to the ground in 1009 by the Fatimid Caliph, it was rebuilt in 1048 by Emperor Constantine IX Monomachos, reportedly with a mosaic depicting Christ and the Twelve Apostles. The current dome is a 1977 renovation in thin reinforced concrete.[108] Fifth century[edit] The Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna By the 5th century, structures with small-scale domed cross plans existed across the Christian world. Examples include the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, the martyrium attached to the Basilica of San Simpliciano, and churches in Macedonia and on the coast of Asia Minor.[109] In Italy, the Baptistery of San Giovanni in Naples and the Church of Santa Maria della Croce in Casarano have surviving early Christian domes.[110] In Tolentino, the mausoleum of Catervus was modeled on the Pantheon, but at one-quarter scale and with three protruding apses, around 390-410. The Baptistery of Neon in Ravenna was completed in the middle of the 5th century and there were 5th century domes in the baptisteries at Padula and Novara.[90] Small brick domes are also found in towers of Constantinople's early 5th century land walls.[111] Underground cisterns in Constantinople, such as the Cistern of Philoxenos and the Basilica Cistern, were composed of a grid of columns supporting small domes, rather than groin vaults.[112] The square bay with an overhead sail vault or dome on pendentives became the basic unit of architecture in the early Byzantine centuries, found in a variety of combinations.[109] Early examples of Byzantine domes existed over the hexagonal hall of the Palace of Antiochos, the hexagon at Gülhane, the martyium of Sts. Karpos and Papylos, and the rotunda at the Myrelaion.[111] The 5th century St. Mary's church in Ephesus had small rectangular side rooms with sail vaults made of arched brick courses. The brick dome of the baptistery at St. Mary's was composed of a series of tightly arched meridional sections.[113] The Church of Saint Simeon Stylites likely had a wooden polygonal dome over its central 27-meter (89 ft) wide octagon.[114] In the city of Rome, at least 58 domes in 44 buildings are known to have been built before domed construction ended in the middle of the 5th century.[115] The last imperial domed mausoleum in the city was that of Emperor Honorius, built in 415 next to St. Peter's Basilica. It was demolished in 1519 as part of the rebuilding of St. Peter's, but had a dome 15.7 meters wide and its appearance is known from some images.[116] The last domed church in the city of Rome for centuries was Santo Stefano al Monte Celio around 460. It had an unusual centralized plan and a 22 meter wide dome made with vaulting tubes [it], a technique that may have been imported from the new western capital of Ravenna.[117] Although they continued to be built elsewhere in Italy, domes would not be built again within the city until 1453.[118] Other 5th century Italian domes may include a church at Casaranello [it] (first half of the 5th century), the chapel of San Vittore in Milan [it] at the Basilica of Sant'Ambrogio, the chapel of St. Maria Mater Domini in the church of San Felice and Fortunato in Vicenza [it], and Sicily's Cuba [it] of Malvagna (5th or 6th century) and San Pietro ad Baias (5th or 6th century).[119] With the end of the Western Roman Empire, domes became a signature feature of the church architecture of the surviving Eastern Roman Empire.[112][120] A transition from timber-roofed basilicas to vaulted churches seems to have occurred there between the late 5th century and the 7th century, with early examples in Constantinople, Asia Minor, and Cilicia.[121] The first known domed basilica may have been a church at Meriamlik in southern Turkey, dated to between 471 and 494, although the ruins do not provide a definitive answer. It is possible earlier examples existed in Constantinople, where it has been suggested that the plan for the Meriamlik church itself was designed, but no domed basilica has been found there before the 6th century.[122] Sixth century[edit] The 6th century marks a turning point for domed church architecture. Centrally planned domed churches had been built since the 4th century for very particular functions, such as palace churches or martyria, with a slight widening of use around 500 AD, but most church buildings were timber-roofed halls on the basilica plan. The Church of St. Polyeuctus in Constantinople (524–527) may have been built as a large and lavish domed basilica similar to the Meriamlik church of fifty years before—and to the later Hagia Irene of Emperor Justinian—by Anicia Juliana, a descendant of the former imperial house, although the linear walls suggest a timber roof, rather than a brick dome.[123][124] There is a story that she used the contribution to public funds that she had promised Justinian on his ascension to the throne to roof her church in gold.[125] The church included an inscription praising Juliana for having "surpassed Solomon" with the building, and it may have been with this in mind that Justinian would later say of his Hagia Sophia, "Solomon, I have vanquished thee!".[126][127] In the second third of the 6th century, church building by the Emperor Justinian used the domed cross unit on a monumental scale, in keeping with Justinian's emphasis on bold architectural innovation. His church architecture emphasized the central dome and his architects made the domed brick-vaulted central plan standard throughout the Roman east. This divergence with the Roman west from the second third of the 6th century may be considered the beginning of a "Byzantine" architecture.[128] Timber-roofed basilicas, which had previously been the standard church form, would continue to be so in the medieval west.[129] The earliest existing of Justinian's domed buildings may be the central plan Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus in Constantinople, completed by 536. It is called the "Little Hagia Sophia" mosque today, but may have been begun five years earlier than that building. The dome rests on an octagonal base created by eight arches on piers and is divided into sixteen sections. Those sections above the flat sides of the octagon are flat and contain a window at their base, alternating with sections from the corners of the octagon that are scalloped, creating an unusual kind of pumpkin dome.[130] Its dates of construction are disputed and may have begun in 532. The alternating scalloped and flat surfaces of the current dome resemble those in Hadrian's half-dome Serapeum in Tivoli, but may have replaced an original drum and dome similar to that over the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna.[131] The building was built within the precinct of the Palace of Hormistas, the residence of Justinian before his ascension to the throne in 527, and includes an inscription mentioning the "sceptered Justinian" and "God-crowned Theodora".[132] The Hagia Sophia in Istanbul (annotations). After the Nika Revolt destroyed much of the city of Constantinople in 532, including the churches of Hagia Sophia ("Holy Wisdom") and Hagia Irene ("Holy Peace"), Justinian had the opportunity to rebuild. Both had been basilica plan churches and both were rebuilt as domed basilicas, although the Hagia Sophia was rebuilt on a much grander scale.[133] Built by Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus in Constantinople between 532 and 537, the Hagia Sophia has been called the greatest building in the world. It is an original and innovative design with no known precedents in the way it covers a basilica plan with dome and semi-domes. Periodic earthquakes in the region have caused three partial collapses of the dome and necessitated repairs. The precise shape of the original central dome completed in 537 was significantly different from the current one and, according to contemporary accounts, much bolder.[134] Procopius wrote that the original dome seemed "not to rest upon solid masonry, but to cover the space with its golden dome suspended from heaven." Byzantine chronicler John Malalas reported that this dome was 20 byzantine feet lower than its replacement.[135] One theory is that the original dome continued the curve of the existing pendentives (which were partially reconstructed after its collapse), creating a massive sail vault pierced with a ring of windows.[136][137] This vault would have been part of a theoretical sphere 46 meters (151 ft) in diameter (the distance from the base of one pendentive to the base of the one opposite), 7 percent greater than the span of the Pantheon's dome.[138][139] Another theory raises the shallow cap of this dome (the portion above what are today the pendentives) on a relatively short recessed drum containing the windows.[140] This first dome partially collapsed due to an earthquake in 558 and the design was then revised to the present profile. Earthquakes also caused partial collapses of the dome in 989 and 1346, so that the present dome consists of portions dating from the 6th century, on the north and south sides, and portions from the 10th and 14th centuries on the west and east sides, respectively. There are irregularities where these sectors meet.[141] The current central dome, above the pendentives, is about 750 millimeters (30 in) thick.[142] It is about 32 meters (105 ft) wide and contains 40 radial ribs that spring from between the 40 windows at its base. Four of the windows were blocked as part of repairs in the 10th century.[143] The ring of windows at the base of the central dome are in the portion where the greatest hoop tension would have been expected and so they may have been used to help alleviate cracking along the meridians.[144] Iron cramps between the marble blocks of its cornice helped to reduce outward thrusts at the base and limit cracking, like the wooden tension rings used in other Byzantine brick domes.[72] The dome and pendentives are supported by four large arches springing from four piers. Additionally, two huge semi-domes of similar proportion are placed on opposite sides of the central dome and themselves contain smaller semi-domes between an additional four piers.[145] The Hagia Sophia, as both the cathedral of Constantinople and the church of the adjacent Great Palace of Constantinople, has a form of octagonal plan.[146] The Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna The city of Ravenna, Italy, had served as the capital of the Western Roman Empire after Milan from 402 and the capital of the subsequent kingdoms of Odoacer and of Theodoric until Justinian's reconquest in 540. An octagonal building in Ravenna, begun under Theodoric in 525, was completed under the Byzantines in 547 as the Basilica of San Vitale and contains a terracotta dome.[147] It may belong to a school of architecture from 4th and 5th century Milan.[148] The building is similar to the Byzantine Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus and the later Chrysotriklinos, or throne hall and palace church of Constantinople, and it would be used as the model for Charlemagne's palace chapel at Aix-la-Chapelle.[149] Hollow amphorae were fitted inside one another to provide a lightweight structure for the dome and avoid additional buttressing.[150] It is 18 meters (59 ft) in diameter.[13] The amphorae were arranged in a continuous spiral, which required minimal centering and formwork but was not strong enough for large spans.[78] The dome was covered with a timber roof, which would be the favored practice for later medieval architects in Italy although it was unusual at the time.[150] In Constantinople, Justinian also tore down the aging Church of the Holy Apostles and rebuilt it on a grander scale between 536 and 550.[151] The original building was a cruciform basilica with a central domed mausoleum. Justinian's replacement was apparently likewise cruciform but with a central dome and four flanking domes. The central dome over the crossing had pendentives and windows in its base, while the four domes over the arms of the cross had pendentives but no windows.[152] The domes appear to have been radically altered between 944 and 985 by the addition of windowed drums beneath all five domes and by raising the central dome higher than the others.[153] The second most important church in the city after the Hagia Sophia, it fell into disrepair after the Latin occupation of Constantinople between 1204 and 1261 and it was razed to the ground by Mehmed the Conqueror in 1461 to build his Fatih Mosque on the site.[154] Justinian's Basilica of St. John at Ephesus and Venice's St Mark's Basilica are derivative of Holy Apostles.[152] More loosely, the Cathedral of St. Front and the Basilica of Saint Anthony of Padua are also derived from this church.[155] Justinian and his successors modernized frontier fortifications throughout the century. The example at Qasr ibn Wardan (564) in the desert of eastern Syria is particularly impressive, containing a governor's palace, barracks, and a church built with techniques and to plans possibly imported from Constantinople.[156] The church dome is unusual in that the pendentives sprang from an octagonal drum, rather than the four main arches, and in that it was made of brick, which was rare in Syria.[111] The Golden Triclinium, or Chrysotriklinos, of the Great Palace of Constantinople served as an audience hall for the Emperor as well as a palace chapel. Nothing of it has survived except descriptions, which indicate that it had a pumpkin dome containing sixteen windows in its webs and that the dome was supported by the arches of eight niches connecting to adjoining rooms in the building's likely circular plan.[157] Alternatively, the building may have been octagonal in plan, rather than circular.[158] The building was not free-standing and was located at the intersection of the public and private parts of the palace. Smaller windows filled with thin sheets of alabaster may have existed over each of the curtain-covered side niches and below the cornice at the base of the dome.[159] The dome seems to have had webs that alternated straight and concave, like those of the dome of Justinian's Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus, and may have been built about 40 years after that church.[160] It was begun under Emperor Justin II, completed by his successor Tiberius II, and continued to be improved by subsequent rulers. It was connected to the imperial living quarters and was a space used for assembly before religious festivals, high promotions and consultations, as a banqueting hall, a chapel for the emperor, and a throne room. Never fully described in any of its frequent mentions in Byzantine texts, the room was restricted to members of the court and the "most highly rated foreigners". In the 10th century, the throne in the east niche chamber was directly below an icon of an enthroned Christ.[161] Other 6th century examples of domed constructions may include Nostra Segnora de Mesumundu in Siligo, Sardinia (before 534), Sant’Angelo in Perugia, San Miserino [it] near San Donaci (6th or 7th century), and the Trigona of Cittadella near Noto (6th or 7th century).[119] Seventh and eighth centuries[edit] The period of Iconoclasm, roughly corresponding to the 7th to 9th centuries, is poorly documented but can be considered a transitional period.[162] The cathedral of Sofia has an unsettled date of construction, ranging from the last years of Justinian to the middle of the 7th century, as the Balkans were lost to the Slavs and Bulgars. It combines a barrel-vaulted cruciform basilica plan with a crossing dome hidden externally by the drum. It resembles some Romanesque churches of later centuries, although the type would not be popular in later Byzantine architecture.[163] Part of the 5th century basilica of St. Mary at Ephesus seems to have been rebuilt in the 8th century as a cross-domed church, a development typical of the 7th to 8th centuries and similar to the cross-domed examples of Hagia Sophia in Thessaloniki, St. Nicholas at Myra, St. Clement's at Ankara, and the church of the Koimesis at Nicaea.[164] The Hagia Irene in Istanbul With the decline in the empire's resources following losses in population and territory, domes in Byzantine architecture were used as part of more modest new buildings. The large-scale churches of Byzantium were, however, kept in good repair. The upper portion of the Church of Hagia Irene was thoroughly rebuilt after the 740 Constantinople earthquake. The nave was re-covered with an elliptical domical vault hidden externally by a low cylinder on the roof, in place of the earlier barrel vaulted ceiling, and the original central dome from the Justinian era was replaced with one raised upon a high windowed drum. The barrel vaults supporting these two new domes were also extended out over the side aisles, creating cross-domed units.[165] By bracing the dome with broad arches on all four sides, the cross-domed unit provided a more secure structural system.[162] These units, with most domes raised on drums, became a standard element on a smaller scale in later Byzantine church architecture, and all domes built after the transitional period were braced with bilateral symmetry.[166] A small, unisex monastic community in Bithynia, near Constantinople, may have developed the cross-in-square plan church during the Iconoclastic period, which would explain the plan's small scale and unified naos. The ruined church of St. John at Pelekete monastery is an early example.[167] Monks had supported the use of icons, unlike the government-appointed secular clergy, and monasticism would become increasingly popular. A new type of privately funded urban monastery developed from the 9th century on, which may help to explain the small size of subsequent building.[168] Ninth century[edit] Timber-roofed basilicas, which had been the standard form until the 6th century, would be displaced by domed churches from the 9th century onward.[129] In the Middle Byzantine period (c. 843 – 1204), domes were normally built to emphasize separate functional spaces, rather than as the modular ceiling units they had been earlier.[169][162] Resting domes on circular or polygonal drums pierced with windows eventually became the standard style, with regional characteristics.[170] The cross-in-square plan, with a single dome at the crossing or five domes in a quincunx pattern, became widely popular in the Middle Byzantine period.[171] Examples include an early 9th century church in Tirilye, now called the Fatih Mosque, and the palace chapel of the Myrelaion, built around 920.[172] The Nea Ekklesia of Emperor Basil I was built in Constantinople around 880 as part of a substantial building renovation and construction program during his reign. It had five domes, which are known from literary sources, but different arrangements for them have been proposed under at least four different plans. One has the domes arranged in a cruciform pattern like those of the contemporaneous Church of St. Andrew at Peristerai or the much older Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople. Others arrange them in a quincunx pattern, with four minor domes in the corners of a square and a larger fifth in the center, as part of a cross-domed or cross-in-square plan.[173] It is often suggested that the five-domed design of St. Panteleimon at Nerezi, from 1164, is based on that of the Nea Ekklesia.[174] Tenth century[edit] The Hosios Loukas Panagia church near Distomo, Greece In the Middle Byzantine period, more complex plans emerge, such as the integrated chapels of Theotokos of Lips, a monastic church in Constantinople that was built around 907. It included four small chapels on its second floor gallery level that may have been domed.[175] The cross-in-square is the most common church plan from the 10th century until the fall of Constantinople in 1453.[176] This type of plan, with four columns supporting the dome at the crossing, was best suited for domes less than 7 meters (23 ft) wide and, from the 10th to the 14th centuries, a typical Byzantine dome measured less than 6 meters (20 ft) in diameter. For domes beyond that width, variations in the plan were required such as using piers in place of the columns and incorporating further buttressing around the core of the building.[177] The palace chapel of the Myrelaion in Constantinople was built around 920 as a cross-in-square church and remains a good example. The earliest cross-in-square in Greece is the Panagia church at the monastery of Hosios Loukas, dated to the late 10th century, but variations of the type can be found from southern Italy to Russia and Anatolia. They served in a wide variety of church roles, including domestic, parish, monastic, palatial, and funerary.[175] The distinctive rippling eaves design for the roofs of domes began in the 10th century. In mainland Greece, circular or octagonal drums became the most common.[170] Eleventh century[edit] The katholikon of the monastery of Hosios Loukas near Distomo, Greece In Constantinople, drums with twelve or fourteen sides were popular beginning in the 11th century.[170] The 11th century rock-cut churches of Cappadocia, such as Karanlik Kilise and Elmali Kilise in Göreme, have shallow domes without drums due to the dim natural lighting of cave interiors.[178] The domed-octagon plan is a variant of the cross-in-square plan.[168] The earliest extant example is the katholikon at the monastery of Hosios Loukas, with a 9-meter (30 ft) wide dome built in the first half of the 11th century.[179] This hemispherical dome was built without a drum and supported by a remarkably open structural system, with the weight of the dome distributed on eight piers, rather than four, and corbelling used to avoid concentrating weight on their corners. The use of squinches to transition from those eight supports to the base of the dome has led to speculation of a design origin in Arab, Sasanian, or Caucasian architecture, although with a Byzantine interpretation. Similar openness in design was used in the earlier Myrelaion church, as originally built, but the katholikon of Hosios Loukas is perhaps the most sophisticated design since the Hagia Sophia.[180] The smaller monastic church at Daphni, c. 1080, uses a simpler version of this plan.[181] The katholikon of Nea Moni, a monastery on the island of Chios, was built some time between 1042 and 1055 and featured a nine sided, ribbed dome rising 15.62 meters (51.2 ft) above the floor (this collapsed in 1881 and was replaced with the slightly taller present version). The transition from the square naos to the round base of the drum is accomplished by eight conches, with those above the flat sides of the naos being relatively shallow and those in the corners of the being relatively narrow. The novelty of this technique in Byzantine architecture has led to it being dubbed the "island octagon" type, in contrast to the "mainland octagon" type of Hosios Loukas. Speculation on design influences have ranged from Arab influence transmitted via the recently built domed octagon chapels at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem or the Al-Hakim Mosque in Islamic Cairo, to Caucasian buildings such as the Armenian Cathedral of the Holy Cross. Later copies of the Nea Moni, with alterations, include the churches of Agios Georgios Sykousis, Agioi Apostoli at Pyrghi, Panagia Krina, and the Church of the Metamorphosis in Chortiatis.[182] Twelfth century[edit] Kalenderhane Mosque in Istanbul The larger scale of some Byzantine buildings of the 12th century required a more stable support structure for domes than the four slender columns of the cross-in-square type could provide. The Byzantine churches today called Kalenderhane Mosque, Gül Mosque, and the Enez Fatih mosque all had domes greater than 7 meters (23 ft) in diameter and used piers as part of large cruciform plans, a practice that had been out of fashion for several centuries. A variant of the cross-in-square, the "so-called atrophied Greek cross plan", also provides greater support for a dome than the typical cross-in-square plan by using four piers projecting from the corners of an otherwise square naos, rather than four columns. This design was used in the Chora Church of Constantinople in the 12th century after the previous cross-in-square structure was destroyed by an earthquake.[183] The 12th century Pantokrator monastic complex (1118–36) was built with imperial sponsorship as three adjoining churches.[184] The south church, a cross-in-square, has a ribbed dome over the naos, domical vaults in the corners, and a pumpkin dome over the narthex gallery. The north church is also a cross-in-square plan. The middle church, the third to be built, fills the long space between the two earlier churches with two oval domes of the pumpkin and ribbed types over what appear to be separate functional spaces. The western space was an imperial mausoleum, whereas the eastern dome covered a liturgical space.[185] There is a written account by Nicholas Mesarites of a Persian-style muqarnas dome built as part of a late 12th century imperial palace in Constantinople.[186] Called the "Mouchroutas Hall", it may have been built as part of an easing in tensions between the court of Manuel I Komnenos and Kilij Arslan II of the Sultanate of Rum around 1161, evidence of the complex nature of the relations between the two states. The account, written by Nicholas Mesarites shortly before the Fourth Crusade, is part of a description of the coup attempt by John Komnenos in 1200, and may have been mentioned as a rhetorical device to disparage him.[187] Thirteenth century[edit] The Church of the Parigoritissa in Arta, Greece The Late Byzantine Period, from 1204 to 1453, has an unsettled chronology of buildings, especially during the Latin Occupation. The fragmentation of the empire, beginning in 1204, is reflected in a fragmentation of church design and regional innovations.[188] The church of Hagia Sophia in the Empire of Trebizond dates to between 1238 and 1263 and has a variation on the quincunx plan. Heavy with traditional detailing from Asia Minor, and possibly Armenian or Georgian influence, the brick pendentives and drum of the dome remain Byzantine.[189] After 1261, new church architecture in Constantinople consisted mainly of additions to existing monastic churches, such as the Monastery of Lips and Pammakaristos Church, and as a result the building complexes are distinguished in part by an asymmetric array of domes on their roofs. This effect may have been in imitation of the earlier triple-church Pantokrator monastic complex.[190] In the Despotate of Epirus, the Church of the Parigoritissa (1282–9) is the most complex example, with a domed octagon core and domed ambulatory.[191] Built in the capital of Arta, its external appearance resembles a cubic palace. The upper level narthex and galleries have five domes, with the middle dome of the narthex an open lantern. This Greek-cross octagon design, similar to the earlier example at Daphni, is one of several among the various Byzantine principalities. Another is found in the Hagia Theodoroi at Mistra (1290–6).[192] Fourteenth and fifteenth centuries[edit] The Gračanica monastery in Kosovo, built under the medieval Kingdom of Serbia Mistra was ruled from Constantinople after 1262, then was the suzerain of the Despotate of the Morea from 1348 to 1460.[193] In Mistra, there are several basilica plan churches with domed galleries that create a five-domed cross-in-square over a ground-level basilica plan. The Aphentiko at Brontochion Monastery was built c. 1310–22 and the later church of the Pantanassa Monastery (1428) is of the same type.[191] The Aphentiko may have been originally planned as a cross-in-square church, but has a blend of longitudinal and central plan components, with an interior divided into nave and aisles like a basilica. The barrel-vaulted nave and cross arms have a dome at their crossing, and the corner bays of the galleries are also domed to form a quincunx pattern. A remodeling of the Metropolis church in Mistra created an additional example. The Pantanassa incorporates Western elements in that domes in its colonnaded porch are hidden externally, and its domes have ribs of rectangular section similar to those of Salerno, Ravello, and Palermo.[194] In Thessaloniki, a distinctive type of church dome developed in the first two decades of the 14th century. It is characterized by a polygonal drum with rounded colonnettes at the corners, all brick construction, and faces featuring three arches stepped back within one another around a narrow "single-light window".[195] One of the hallmarks of Thessalonian churches was the plan of a domed naos with a peristoon wrapped around three sides.[196] The churches of Hagios Panteleimon, Hagia Aikaterine, and Hagioi Apostoloi have domes on these ambulatory porticoes.[191] The five domes of the Hagioi Apostoloi, or Church of the Holy Apostles, in Thessaloniki (c. 1329) makes it an example of a five-domed cross-in-square church in the Late Byzantine style, as is the Gračanica monastery, built around 1311 in Serbia.[176] The architect and artisans of the Gračanica monastery church probably came from Thessaloniki and its style reflects Byzantine cultural influence.[197] The church has been said to represent "the culmination of Late Byzantine architectural design."[191] A 15th century account of a Russian traveler to Constantinople mentions an abandoned hall, presumably domed, "in which the sun, the moon, and the stars succeeded each other as in heaven."[186] Influence[edit] Armenia[edit] Constantinople's cultural influence extended from Sicily to Russia.[198] Armenia, as a border state between the Roman-Byzantine and Sasanian empires, was influenced by both.[199] The exact relationship between Byzantine architecture and that of the Caucasus is unclear. Georgia and Armenia produced many central planned, domed buildings in the 7th century and, after a lull during the Arab invasions, the architecture flourished again in the Middle Byzantine Period.[162] Armenian church domes were initially wooden structures. Etchmiadzin Cathedral (c. 483) originally had a wooden dome covered by a wooden pyramidal roof before this was replaced with stone construction in 618. Churches with stone domes became the standard type after the 7th century, perhaps benefiting from a possible exodus of stonecutters from Syria, but the long traditions of wooden construction carried over stylistically. Some examples in stone as late as the 12th century are detailed imitations of clearly wooden prototypes.[200] Armenian church building was prolific in the late 6th and 7th centuries and, by the 7th century, the churches tend to be either central plans or combinations of central and longitudinal plans. Domes were supported by either squinches (which were used in the Sasanian Empire but rarely in the Byzantine) or pendentives like those of the Byzantine empire, and the combination of domed-cross plan with the hall-church plan could have been influenced by the architecture of Justinian. Domes and cross arms were added to the longitudinal cathedral of Dvin from 608 to 615 and a church in Tekor. Other domed examples include Ptghnavank in Ptghni (c. 600), a church in T'alinn (662-85), the Cathedral of Mren (629-40), and the Mastara Church (9th and 10th centuries).[201][202] An 11th century Armenian source names an Armenian architect, Trdat, as responsible for the rebuilding of the dome of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople after the 989 earthquake caused a partial collapse of the central dome. Although squinches were the more common supporting system used to support Armenian domes, pendentives are always used beneath the domes attributed to Trdat, which include the 10th century monasteries of Marmasen, Sanahin, and Halpat, as well as the patriarchal cathedral of Argina (c. 985), the Cathedral of Ani (989-1001), and the palace chapel of King Gagik II (c. 1001-1005).[203] The Balkans[edit] In the Balkans, where Byzantine rule weakened in the 7th and 8th centuries, domed architecture may represent Byzantine influence or, in the case of the centrally planned churches of 9th-century Dalmatia, the revival of earlier Roman mausoleum types. An interest in Roman models may have been an expression of the religious maneuvering of the region between the Church of Constantinople and that of Rome. Examples include the Church of Sv. Luka in Kotor, the Church of Sv. Trojce near Split, and the early 9th century Church of Sv. Donat in Zadar. The Church of Sv. Donat, originally domed, may have been built next to a palace and resembles palace churches in the Byzantine tradition. The architectural chronology of the central and eastern Balkans is unsettled during the period of the First Bulgarian Empire, in part because of similarity between Justinian-era churches from the 6th century and what may have been a revival of that style in the late 9th and early 10th centuries under the Christianized Bulgarian tsars. Remains of the Round Church in Preslav, a building traditionally associated with the rule Tsar Simeon (893–927), indicate that it was a domed palace chapel. Its construction features, however, resemble instead 3rd and 4th century Roman mausolea, perhaps due to the association of those structures with the imperial idea.[204] The Rus[edit] Byzantine architecture was introduced to the Rus' people in the 10th century, with churches after the conversion of Prince Vladimir of Kiev being modeled after those of Constantinople, but made of wood. The Russian onion dome was a later development.[205] The earliest architecture of Kiev, the vast majority of which was made of wood, has been lost to fire, but by the 12th century masonry domes on low drums in Kiev and Vladimir-Suzdal were little different than Byzantine domes, although modified toward the "helmet" type with a slight point. The Cathedral of St. Sophia in Kiev (1018–37) was distinctive in having thirteen domes, for Jesus and the twelve Apostles, but they have since been remodeled in the Baroque style and combined with an additional eight domes.[206] The pyramidal arrangement of the domes was a Byzantine characteristic, although, as the largest and perhaps most important 11th century building in the Byzantine tradition, many of the details of this building have disputed origins.[207] Bulbous onion domes on tall drums were a development of northern Russia, perhaps due to the demands of heavy ice and snowfall along with the more rapid innovation permitted by the Novgorod region's emphasis on wooden architecture. The central dome of the Cathedral of St. Sophia (1045–62) in Novgorod dates from the 12th century and shows a transitional stage. Other churches built around this time are those of St. Nicholas (1113), the Nativity of the Virgin (1117), and St. George (1119–30).[208] Eastern European and Orthodox examples Saint Nicholas Cathedral, Novgorod Church of Christ Pantocrator, Nesebar, Bulgaria Ravanica Monastery, Serbia Cathedral of the Assumption, Moscow Romanesque Europe[edit] In Romanesque Italy, Byzantine influence can most clearly be seen in Venice's St Mark's Basilica, from about 1063, but also in the domed churches of southern Italy, such as Canosa Cathedral (1071) and the old Cathedral of Molfetta [it] (c. 1160).[209] In Norman Sicily, architecture was a fusion of Byzantine, Islamic, and Romanesque forms, but the dome of the Palatine Chapel (1132–43) at Palermo was decorated with Byzantine mosaic, as was that of the church of Santa Maria dell'Ammiraglio (1140s).[210] The unusual use of domes on pendentives in a series of seventy Romanesque churches in the Aquitaine region of France strongly suggests a Byzantine influence. St. Mark's Basilica was modeled on the now-lost Byzantine Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople, and Périgueux Cathedral in Aquitaine (c. 1120) likewise has five domes on pendentives in a Greek cross arrangement.[211] Other examples include the domed naves of Angoulême Cathedral (1105–28), Cahors Cathedral (c. 1100–1119), and the Abbey church of Sainte-Marie in Souillac [fr] (c. 1130).[212] Orthodox Europe[edit] Byzantium's neighboring Orthodox powers emerged as architectural centers in their own right during the Late Byzantine Period. The Bulgarian churches of Nesebar are similar to those in Constantinople at this time.[191] The style and vaulting in the Nesebar cross-in-square churches of Christ Pantocrator and St John Aliturgetos, for example, are similar to examples in Constantinople.[213] Following the construction of Gračanica monastery, the architecture of Serbia used the "so-called Athonite plan", for example at Ravanica (1375–7). In Romania, Wallachia was influenced by Serbian architecture and Moldavia was more original, such as in the Voroneț Monastery with its small dome.[191] Moscow emerged as the most important center of architecture following the fall of Constantinople in 1453.[214] The Cathedral of the Assumption (1475–79), built in the Kremlin to house the icon of Our Lady of Vladimir, was designed in a traditional Russian style by an Italian architect.[215] Italian Renaissance[edit] Italian Renaissance architecture combined Roman and Romanesque practices with Byzantine structures and decorative elements, such as domes with pendentives over square bays.[216][217] The Cassinese Congregation used windowed domes in the Byzantine style, and often also in a quincunx arrangement, in their churches built between 1490 and 1546, such as the Abbey of Santa Giustina.[218] The technique of using wooden tension rings at several levels within domes and drums to resist deformation, frequently said to be a later invention of Filippo Brunelleschi, was common practice in Byzantine architecture.[20] The technique of using double shells for domes, although revived in the Renaissance, originated in Byzantine practice.[219] The dome of the Pantheon, as a symbol of Rome and its monumental past, was particularly celebrated and imitated, although copied only loosely. Studied in detail from the early Renaissance on, it was an explicit point of reference for the dome of St. Peter's Basilica and inspired the construction of domed rotundas with temple-front porches throughout western architecture into the modern era. Examples include Palladio's chapel at Maser (1579–80), Bernini's church of S. Maria dell'Assunzione (1662-4), the Library Rotunda of the University of Virginia (1817–26), and the church of St. Mary in Malta (1833–60).[220] Ottoman Empire[edit] Ottoman architecture adopted the Byzantine dome form and continued to develop it.[221] One type of mosque was modeled after Justinian's Church of Sergius and Bacchus with a dome over an octagon or hexagon contained within a square, such as the Üç Şerefeli Mosque (1437–47).[222] The dome and semi-domes of the Hagia Sophia, in particular, were replicated and refined. A "universal mosque design" based upon this development spread throughout the world.[223] The first Ottoman mosque to use a dome and semi-dome nave vaulting scheme like that of Hagia Sophia was the mosque of Beyazit II. Only two others were modeled similarly: Kılıç Ali Pasha Mosque and the Süleymaniye Mosque (1550–57). Other Ottoman mosques, although superficially similar to Hagia Sophia, have been described as structural criticisms of it. When Mimar Sinan set out to build a dome larger than that of Hagia Sophia with Selimiye Mosque (1569–74), he used a more stable octagonal supporting structure.[224] The Selimiye Mosque is of the type originating with the Church of Sergius and Bacchus. Three other Imperial mosques in Istanbul built in this "Classical Style" of Hagia Sophia include four large semi-domes around the central dome, rather than two: Şehzade Camii, Sultan Ahmed I Camii (completed in 1616), and the last to be built: Yeni Cami (1597–1663).[225] Western European and Ottoman examples St Mark's Basilica, Venice Süleymaniye Mosque, Istanbul St. Peter's Basilica, Rome Sultan Ahmed Mosque, Istanbul Modern revival[edit] A Byzantine revival style of architecture occurred in the 19th and 20th centuries. An early example of the revival style in Russia was the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour (1839–84), which was approved by the Tsar to be a model for other churches in the empire.[226] The style's popularity spread through scholarly publications produced after the independence of Greece and the Balkans from the Ottoman Empire.[227] It was used throughout Europe and North America, peaking in popularity between 1890 and 1914. The Greek Orthodox St Sophia's Cathedral (1877–79) and Roman Catholic Westminster Cathedral (begun 1895), both in London, are examples. The throne room of Neuschwanstein Castle (1885–86) was built by King Ludwig II in Bavaria.[228] In the late 19th century, the Hagia Sophia became a widespread model for Greek Orthodox churches.[223] In southeastern Europe, monumental national cathedrals built in the capital cities of formerly Ottoman areas used Neo-Classical or Neo-Byzantine styles. Sofia's Alexander Nevsky Cathedral and Belgrade's Church of Saint Sava are examples, and used Hagia Sophia as a model due to their large sizes.[229] Synagogues in the United States were built in a variety of styles, as they had been in Europe (and often with a mixture of elements from different styles), but the Byzantine Revival style was the most popular in the 1920s. Domed examples include The Temple of Cleveland (1924), the synagogue of KAM Isaiah Israel (1924) in Chicago, based upon San Vitale in Ravenna and Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, and the synagogue of Congregation Emanu-El (1926) in San Francisco.[230] In the United States, Greek Orthodox churches beginning in the 1950s tended to use a large central dome with a ring of windows at its base evocative of the central dome of Hagia Sophia, rather than more recent or more historically common Byzantine types, such as the Greek-cross-octagon or five-domed quincunx plans. Examples include Annunciation Greek Orthodox Church, completed in 1961 but designed by Frank Lloyd Wright in 1957, Ascension Greek Orthodox Cathedral of Oakland (1960), and Annunciation Greek Orthodox Cathedral in Atlanta (1967).[231] The use of a large central dome in American Greek Orthodox churches continued in the 1960s and 1970s before moving toward smaller Middle Byzantine domes, or versions of Early Christian basilicas.[232] See also[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Domes. 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en-wikipedia-org-5576	----	Thomas Drant - Wikipedia Thomas Drant From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Thomas Drant (c.1540–1578) was an English clergyman and poet. Work of his on prosody was known to Sir Philip Sidney and Edmund Spenser.[1] He was in the intellectual court circle known as the 'Areopagus', and including, as well as Sidney, Edward Dyer, Gabriel Harvey, and Daniel Rogers.[2] He translated Horace into English, taking a free line in consideration of the Roman poet's secular status; but he mentioned he found Horace harder than Homer.[3] Drant's translation was the first complete one of the Satires in English, in fourteeners, but makes some radical changes of content.[4] Contents 1 Life 2 Works 3 Notes 4 References Life[edit] The son of Thomas Drant, he was born at Hagworthingham in Lincolnshire. He matriculated as pensioner of St. John's College, Cambridge, 18 March 1558, proceeded B.A. 1561, was admitted fellow of his college 21 March 1561, and commenced M.A. 1564.[5] On the occasion of Queen Elizabeth's visit to the university in August 1564 he composed copies of English, Latin, and Greek verses, which he presented to her majesty. At the commencement in 1565 he performed a public exercise (printed in his Medicinable Morall) on the theme 'Corpus Christi non est ubique.' He was domestic chaplain to Edmund Grindal, who procured for him the post of divinity reader at St. Paul's Cathedral. In 1569 he proceeded B.D., and on 28 July in that year he was admitted by Grindal's influence to the prebend of Chamberlainwood in the church of St. Paul's. On 8 January 1570 he preached before the court at Windsor, strongly rebuking vanity of attire; he also criticized the Queen for her leniency to the northern rebels and Catholics.[6] He was admitted to the prebend of Firles in the church of Chichester 21 January 1570, to the rectory of Slinfold in Sussex 31 January and to the archdeaconry of Lewes 27 February. On Easter Tuesday 1570 he preached a sermon at St. Mary Spital, London, denouncing the sensuality of the citizens; and he preached another sermon at the same place on Easter Tuesday 1572. He had some dispute with William Overton, treasurer of the church of Chichester, whom he accused in the pulpit of pride, hypocrisy, and ignorance. He is supposed to have died about 17 April 1578, since the archdeaconry of Lewes was vacant at that date. Works[edit] Drant is the author of: Impii cuiusdem Epigrammatis qvod edidit Richardus Shacklockus . . . Apomaxis. Also certayne of the special articles of the Epigramme, refuted in Englyshe, 1565, Latin and English. Against Richard Shacklock. A Medicinable Morall, that is, the two Bookes of Horace his Satyres Englyshed. ... The wailyngs of the prophet Hieremiah, done into Englyshe verse. Also epigrammes, 1566. Some copies have at the back of the title a dedicatory inscription, 'To the Right Honorable my Lady Bacon, and my Lady Cicell, sisters, fauourers of learnyng and vertue.' Among the miscellaneous pieces that follow the translation of Jeremiah are the English and Latin verses that Drant presented to the queen on her visit to Cambridge in 1564, English verses to the Earl of Leicester, and Latin verses to Chancellor Cecil. Horace his arte of Poetrie, pistles, and Satyrs, Englished and to the Earle of Ormounte, by Tho. Drant, addressed, 1567. Greg. Nazianzen his Epigrams and Spiritual Sentences, 1568. Two Sermons preached, the one at S. Maries Spittle on Tuesday in Easter weeke 1570, and the other at the Court of Windsor . . . the viij of January . . . 1569. n. d. [1570?]. A fruitful and necessary Sermon specially concernyng almes geving, n. d. [1572 ?], preached at St. Mary Spittle on Easter Tuesday 1572. In Solomonis regis Ecclesiastem . . . paraphrasis poetica, 1572, dedicated to Sir Thomas Heneage. Thomse Drantae Angli Advordingamii Praesul. Ejusdem Sylva, undated, but published not earlier than 1576, There are Latin verses to Queen Elizabeth, Grindal, Matthew Parker, Lord Buckhurst, and others, and on pp. 85–6 are verses in Drant's praise by James Sandford in Greek, Latin, Italian, and French. Commendatory Latin verses by Drant are prefixed to John Foxe's Acts and Monuments, 1570; John Sadler's translation of Vegetius's Tactics, 1572; Peter Carter's annotations to John Seton's Dialectica, 1574; Alexander Neville's Kettus, 1575; Llodowick Lloyd's Pilgrimage of Princes, n. d. He has a copy of English verses before Robert Peterson's Galateo, 1576. Drant's unpublished works included a translation of the Iliad, as far as the fifth book, a translation of the Psalms, and the Book of Solomons Prouerbs, Epigrames, and Sentences spirituall, licensed for press in 1567. Notes[edit] ^ Katherine Duncan-Jones, Sir Philip Sidney: Courtier Poet (1991), p. 191. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2 January 2012. Retrieved 10 December 2011.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ Lori Chamberlain, Gender and the Metaphorics of Translation, p. 310, in Lawrence Venuti (editor), The Translation Studies Reader (2004). ^ Peter France, The Oxford Guide to Literature in English Translation (2000), p. 523. ^ "Drant, Thomas (DRNT557T)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge. ^ Natalie Mears, Queenship and Political Discourse in the Elizabethan Realms (2005), p. 127. References[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Bullen, Arthur Henry (1888). "Drant, Thomas". In Stephen, Leslie (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. 16. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 1–2. Authority control GND: 104074485 ISNI: 0000 0000 5417 8278 LCCN: nr92010772 VIAF: 12733158 WorldCat Identities: lccn-nr92010772 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Drant&oldid=918404895" Categories: 16th-century English Anglican priests Archdeacons of Lewes 16th-century English poets 1540 births 1578 deaths 16th-century English translators People from East Lindsey District English male poets Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge English male non-fiction writers Hidden categories: CS1 maint: archived copy as title Articles incorporating Cite DNB template Articles incorporating DNB text with Wikisource reference Use dmy dates from June 2011 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Français مصرى Edit links This page was last edited on 28 September 2019, at 14:04 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5587	----	Diogenes Laërtius - Wikipedia Diogenes Laërtius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search late antique biographer of classical Greek philosophers For other people named Diogenes, see Diogenes (disambiguation). Diogenes Laërtius Διογένης Λαέρτιος 17th-century engraving Born fl. 3rd century AD Occupation Biographer Diogenes Laërtius (/daɪˌɒdʒɪniːz leɪˈɜːrʃiəs/ dy-OJ-in-eez lay-UR-shee-əs;[1] Greek: Διογένης Λαέρτιος, translit. Dīogénēs Lāértios; fl. 3rd century AD) was a biographer of the Greek philosophers. Nothing is definitively known about his life, but his surviving Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers is a principal source for the history of ancient Greek philosophy. His reputation is controversial among scholars because he often repeats information from his sources without critically evaluating it. He also frequently focuses on trivial or insignificant details of his subjects' lives while ignoring important details of their philosophical teachings and he sometimes fails to distinguish between earlier and later teachings of specific philosophical schools. However, unlike many other ancient secondary sources, Diogenes Laërtius generally reports philosophical teachings without attempting to reinterpret or expand on them, which means his accounts are often closer to the primary sources. Due to the loss of so many of the primary sources on which Diogenes relied, his work has become the foremost surviving source on the history of Greek philosophy. Contents 1 Life 2 Writings 3 Legacy and assessment 4 Editions and translations 5 Notes 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Life[edit] Laërtius must have lived after Sextus Empiricus (c. 200), whom he mentions, and before Stephanus of Byzantium and Sopater of Apamea (c. 500), who quote him. His work makes no mention of Neoplatonism, even though it is addressed to a woman who was "an enthusiastic Platonist".[2] Hence he is assumed to have flourished in the first half of the 3rd century, during the reign of Alexander Severus (222–235) and his successors.[3] The precise form of his name is uncertain. The ancient manuscripts invariably refer to a "Laertius Diogenes", and this form of the name is repeated by Sopater[4] and the Suda.[5] The modern form "Diogenes Laertius" is much rarer, used by Stephanus of Byzantium,[6] and in a lemma to the Greek Anthology.[7] He is also referred to as "Laertes"[8] or simply "Diogenes".[9] The origin of the name "Laertius" is also uncertain. Stephanus of Byzantium refers to him as "Διογένης ὁ Λαερτιεύς" (Diogenes ho Laertieus),[10] implying that he was the native of some town, perhaps the Laerte in Caria (or another Laerte in Cilicia). Another suggestion is that one of his ancestors had for a patron a member of the Roman family of the Laërtii.[11] The prevailing modern theory is that "Laertius" is a nickname (derived from the Homeric epithet Diogenes Laertiade, used in addressing Odysseus) used to distinguish him from the many other people called Diogenes in the ancient world.[12] His home town is unknown (at best uncertain, even according to a hypothesis that Laertius refers to his origin). A disputed passage in his writings has been used to suggest that it was Nicaea in Bithynia.[13][14] It has been suggested that Diogenes was an Epicurean or a Pyrrhonist. He passionately defends Epicurus[15] in Book 10, which is of high quality and contains three long letters attributed to Epicurus explaining Epicurean doctrines.[16] He is impartial to all schools, in the manner of the Pyrrhonists, and he carries the succession of Pyrrhonism further than that of the other schools. At one point, he even seems to refer to the Pyrrhonists as "our school."[13] On the other hand, most of these points can be explained by the way he uncritically copies from his sources. It is by no means certain that he adhered to any school, and he is usually more attentive to biographical details.[17] In addition to the Lives, Diogenes was the author of a work in verse on famous men, in various metres, which he called Epigrammata or Pammetros (Πάμμετρος).[3] Writings[edit] Main article: Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers The work by which he is known, Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, was written in Greek and professes to give an account of the lives and sayings of the Greek philosophers. Diogenes divides his subjects into two "schools" which he describes as the Ionian/Ionic and the Italian/Italic; the division is somewhat dubious and appears to be drawn from the lost doxography of Sotion. The biographies of the "Ionian school" begin with Anaximander and end with Clitomachus, Theophrastus and Chrysippus; the "Italian" begins with Pythagoras and ends with Epicurus. The Socratic school, with its various branches, is classed with the Ionic, while the Eleatics and Pyrrhonists are treated under the Italic. Legacy and assessment[edit] The Italian Renaissance scholar, painter, philosopher, and architect Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472) modeled his own autobiography on Diogenes Laërtius's Life of Thales.[18] Henricus Aristippus, the archdeacon of Catania, produced a Latin translation of Diogenes Laertius's book in southern Italy in the late 1150s, which has since been lost or destroyed.[18] Geremia da Montagnone used this translation as a source for his Compedium moralium notabilium (1285) and an anonymous Italian author used it as a source for work entitled Liber de vita et moribus philosophorum (written c. 1317–1320), which reached international popularity in the Late Middle Ages.[18] The monk Ambrogio Traversari (1386–1439) produced another Latin translation in Florence between 1424 and 1433, for which far better records have survived.[18] The Italian Renaissance scholar, painter, philosopher, and architect Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472) borrowed from Traversari's translation of the Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers in Book 2 of his Libri della famiglia[18] and modeled his own autobiography on Diogenes Laërtius's Life of Thales.[18] Diogenes Laërtius's work has had a complicated reception in modern times.[19] The value of his Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers as an insight into the private lives of the Greek sages led the French Renaissance philosopher Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592) to exclaim that he wished that, instead of one Laërtius, there had been a dozen.[20] Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831) criticized Diogenes Laërtius for his lack of philosophical talent and categorized his work as nothing more than a compilation of previous writers' opinions.[18] Nonetheless, he admitted that Diogenes Laërtius's compilation was an important one given the information that it contained.[18] Hermann Usener (1834–1905) deplored Diogenes Laërtius as a "complete ass" (asinus germanus) in his Epicurea (1887).[18] Werner Jaeger (1888–1961) damned him as "that great ignoramus".[21] In the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, however, scholars have managed to partially redeem Diogenes Laertius's reputation as a writer by reading his book in a Hellenistic literary context.[19] Nonetheless, modern scholars treat Diogenes's testimonia with caution, especially when he fails to cite his sources. Herbert S. Long warns: "Diogenes has acquired an importance out of all proportion to his merits because the loss of many primary sources and of the earlier secondary compilations has accidentally left him the chief continuous source for the history of Greek philosophy."[22] Robert M. Strozier offers a somewhat more positive assessment of Diogenes Laertius's reliability, noting that many other ancient writers attempt to reinterpret and expand on the philosophical teachings they describe, something which Diogenes Laërtius rarely does.[23] Strozier concludes, "Diogenes Laertius is, when he does not conflate hundreds of years of distinctions, reliable simply because he is a less competent thinker than those on whom he writes, is less liable to re-formulate statements and arguments, and especially in the case of Epicurus, less liable to interfere with the texts he quotes. He does, however, simplify."[23] Despite his importance to the history of western philosophy and the controversy surrounding him, according to Gian Mario Cao, Diogenes Laërtius has still not received adequate philological attention.[18] Both modern critical editions of his book, by H. S. Long (1964) and by M. Marcovich (1999) have received extensive criticism from scholars.[18] He is criticized primarily for being overly concerned with superficial details of the philosophers' lives and lacking the intellectual capacity to explore their actual philosophical works with any penetration. However, according to statements of the 14th-century monk Walter Burley in his De vita et moribus philosophorum, the text of Diogenes seems to have been much fuller than that which we now possess. Editions and translations[edit] Diogenis Laertii Vitae philosophorum edidit Miroslav Marcovich, Stuttgart-Lipsia, Teubner, 1999–2002. Bibliotheca scriptorum Graecorum et Romanorum Teubneriana, vol. 1: Books I–X ISBN 9783598713163; vol. 2: Excerpta Byzantina; v. 3: Indices by Hans Gärtner. Lives of Eminent Philosophers, edited by Tiziano Dorandi, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013 (Cambridge Classical Texts and Commentaries, vol. 50, new radically improved critical edition). Translation by R.D. Hicks:  "Index" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library. 1925. Lives of Eminent Philosophers. I. Harvard University Press, Loeb Classical Library. 1925. ISBN 978-0-674-99203-0. Lives of Eminent Philosophers. II. Harvard University Press, Loeb Classical Library. 1925. ISBN 978-0-674-99204-7. Notes[edit] ^ "Diogenes Laërtius", The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 2013 ^ Laërtius 1925a, § 47. ^ a b Chisholm1911, p. 282. ^ Sopater, ap. Photius, Biblioth. 161 ^ Suda, Tetralogia ^ Stephanus of Byzantium, Druidai ^ Lemma to Anthologia Palatina, vii. 95 ^ Eustathius, on Iliad, M. 153 ^ Stephanus of Byzantium, Enetoi ^ Stephanus of Byzantium, Cholleidai ^ Smith 1870, p. 1028. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSmith1870 (help) ^ Long 1972, p. xvi. ^ a b Laërtius 1925b, § 109. Specifically, Diogenes refers to "our Apollonides of Nicaea". This has been conjectured to mean either "my fellow-citizen" or "a Sceptic like myself". ^ Craig 1998, p. 86. ^ Laërtius 1925c, § 3–12. ^ Laërtius 1925c, § 34–135. ^ Long 1972, pp. xvii–xviii. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Cao 2010, p. 271. ^ a b Cao 2010, pp. 271–272. ^ Montaigne, Essays II.10 "Of Books" Archived February 14, 2009, at the Wayback Machine. ^ Werner, p. 330 n.2. ^ Long 1972, p. xix. ^ a b Strozier 1985, p. 15. References[edit] Cao, Gian Mario (2010), "Diogenes Laertius", in Grafton, Anthony; Most, Glenn W.; Settis, Salvatore (eds.), The Classical Tradition, Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, pp. 271–272, ISBN 978-0-674-03572-0 Craig, Edward, ed. (1998). "Diogenes Laertius (c. AD 300–50)". Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 4. p. 86.  Laërtius, Diogenes (1925a). "Plato" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. 1:3. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library.  Laërtius, Diogenes (1925b). "Others: Timon" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. 2:9. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library.  Laërtius, Diogenes (1925c). "Epicurus" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. 2:10. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library. Long, Herbert S. (1972). Introduction. Lives of Eminent Philosophers. By Laërtius, Diogenes. 1 (reprint ed.). Loeb Classical Library. p. xvi.  Smith, William, ed. (1870). "Diogenes Laertius". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Strozier, Robert M. (1985), Epicurus and Hellenistic Philosophy, Lanham, Maryland and London, England: University Press of America, ISBN 978-0-8191-4405-8 Werner, Jaeger. Paideia: The Ideals of Greek Culture. III. p. 330 n.2. [full citation needed] Attribution:  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Diogenes Laërtius". Encyclopædia Britannica. 8 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 282. Further reading[edit] Barnes, Jonathan. 1992. "Diogenes Laertius IX 61–116: The Philosophy of Pyrrhonism." In Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt: Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung. Vol. 2: 36.5–6. Edited by Wolfgang Haase, 4241–4301. Berlin: W. de Gruyter. Barnes, Jonathan. 1986. "Nietzsche and Diogenes Laertius." Nietzsche-Studien 15:16–40. Dorandi, Tiziano. 2009. Laertiana: Capitoli sulla tradizione manoscritta e sulla storia del testo delle Vite dei filosofi di Diogene Laerzio. Berlin; New York: Walter de Gruyter. Eshleman, Kendra Joy. 2007. "Affection and Affiliation: Social Networks and Conversion to Philosophy." The Classical Journal 103.2: 129–140. Grau, Sergi. 2010. "How to Kill a Philosopher: The Narrating of Ancient Greek Philosophers' Deaths in Relation to the Living. Ancient Philosophy 30.2: 347-381 Hägg, Tomas. 2012. The Art of Biography in Antiquity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Kindstrand, Jan Frederik. 1986. "Diogenes Laertius and the Chreia Tradition." Elenchos 7:217–234. Long, Anthony A. 2006. "Diogenes Laertius, Life of Arcesilaus." In From Epicurus to Epictetus: Studies in Hellenistic and Roman Philosophy. Edited by Anthony A. Long, 96–114. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Mansfeld, Jaap. 1986. "Diogenes Laertius on Stoic Philosophy." Elenchos 7: 295–382. Mejer, Jørgen. 1978. Diogenes Laertius and his Hellenistic Background. Wiesbaden: Steiner. Mejer, Jørgen. 1992. "Diogenes Laertius and the Transmission of Greek Philosophy." In Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt: Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung. Vol. 2: 36.5–6. Edited by Wolfgang Haase, 3556–3602. Berlin: W. de Gruyter. Morgan, Teresa J. 2013. "Encyclopaedias of Virtue?: Collections of Sayings and Stories About Wise Men in Greek." In Encyclopaedism from Antiquity to the Renaissance. Edited by Jason König and Greg Woolf, 108–128. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. Sassi, Maria Michela. 2011. Ionian Philosophy and Italic Philosophy: From Diogenes Laertius to Diels. In The Presocratics from the Latin Middle Ages to Hermann Diels. Edited by Oliver Primavesi and Katharina Luchner, 19–44. Stuttgart: Steiner. Sollenberger, Michael. 1992. The Lives of the Peripatetics: An Analysis of the Content and Structure of Diogenes Laertius’ “Vitae philosophorum” Book 5. In Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt: Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung. Vol. 2: 36.5–6. Edited by Wolfgang Haase, 3793–3879. Berlin: W. de Gruyter. Vogt, Katja Maria, ed. 2015. Pyrrhonian Skepticism in Diogenes Laertius. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck. Warren, James. 2007. "Diogenes Laertius, Biographer of Philosophy." In Ordering Knowledge in the Roman Empire. Edited by Jason König and Tim Whitmars, 133–149. Cambridge; New York : Cambridge University Press. External links[edit] Wikisource has original works written by or about: Diogenes Laërtius Wikiquote has quotations related to: Diogenes Laërtius Wikimedia Commons has media related to Diogenes Laërtius. Library resources about Diogenes Laërtius Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Diogenes Laërtius Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Works by Diogenes Laertius at Perseus Digital Library Works by Diogenes Laërtius at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Diogenes Laërtius at Internet Archive Works by Diogenes Laërtius at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Ancient Greek text of Diogenes's Lives Article on the Manuscript versions at the Tertullian Project A bibliography on the Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers Libro de la vita de philosophi et delle loro elegantissime sentencie. Venice, Joannes Rubeus Vercellensis, 20 May 1489. From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress Digitized Manuscript of Diogenes Laertius' Vitae Philosophorum (Arundel MS 531) at the British Library website Authority control BIBSYS: 90658783 BNE: XX908420 BNF: cb119002352 (data) CANTIC: a10074107 CiNii: DA01729815 GND: 118525859 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\036435 ISNI: 0000 0000 8120 1306 LCCN: n80067474 LNB: 000034669 NDL: 00437967 NKC: jn19990001787 NLA: 35900166 NLG: 17956 NLI: 000039707 NLK: KAC200905515 NSK: 000176991 NTA: 069906211 RERO: 02-A000051708 SELIBR: 49280 SNAC: w6wn19k5 SUDOC: 031171990 Trove: 1137643 VcBA: 495/14058 VIAF: 41839141 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n80067474 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diogenes_Laërtius&oldid=994968740" Categories: 3rd-century Romans 3rd-century Greek people 3rd-century philosophers 3rd-century writers Ancient Greek biographers Ancient Greek writers Quotation collectors Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles with hCards Wikipedia articles incorporating the template Lives of the Eminent Philosophers Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM without a Wikisource reference All articles with incomplete citations Articles with incomplete citations from March 2016 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Commons category link is on Wikidata Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers AC with 25 elements Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Қазақша Latina Limburgs Magyar മലയാളം مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 18 December 2020, at 14:11 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5622	----	Samnites - Wikipedia Samnites From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Italic people living in Samnium in south-central Italy The Samnites were an ancient Italic people who lived in Samnium in south-central Italy. They became involved in several wars with the Roman Republic until the 1st century BC. An Oscan-speaking people, the Samnites probably originated as an offshoot of the Sabines. The Samnites formed a confederation, consisting of four tribes: the Hirpini, Caudini, Caraceni, and Pentri. They allied with Rome against the Gauls in 354 BC, but later became enemies of the Romans and were soon involved in a series of three wars (343–341 BC, 327–304 BC, and 298–290 BC) against the Romans. Despite an overwhelming victory over the Romans at the Battle of the Caudine Forks (321 BC), the Samnites were eventually subjugated. Although severely weakened, the Samnites later helped Pyrrhus and some went over to Hannibal in their wars (280–275 BC and 218-201 BC) against Rome. They also fought from 91 BC in the Social War and later in the civil war (82 BC) as allies of the Roman consuls Papirius Carbo and Gaius Marius against Lucius Cornelius Sulla, who defeated them and their leader Pontius Telesinus at the Battle of the Colline Gate (82 BC).[1] They were eventually assimilated by the Romans, and ceased to exist as distinct people.[2] Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 3 List of tribes 4 Notable Samnites 4.1 Gentes of Samnite origin 4.2 Leaders of the Samnites 4.3 Uprising against Sulla 4.4 Romans of Samnite origin 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links Etymology[edit] This section's factual accuracy may be compromised due to out-of-date information. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (September 2015) Samnite soldiers from a tomb frieze in Nola 4th century BC. The population of Samnium were called Samnites by the Romans. Their own endonyms were Safinim for the country (attested in one inscription and one coin legend) and Safineis for the people.[3] Etymologically, the name Samnium is generally recognized to be a form of the name of the Sabines, who were Umbrians.[4] From Safinim, Sabinus, Sabellus and Samnis, an Indo-European root can be extracted, *sabh-, which becomes Sab- in Latino-Faliscan and Saf- in Osco-Umbrian: Sabini and *Safineis.[2] The eponymous god of the Sabines, Sabus, seems to support this view. The Greek terms, Saunitai and Saunitis, remain outside the group. Nothing is known of their origin. At some point in prehistory, a population speaking a common language extended over both Samnium and Umbria. Salmon conjectures that it was common Italic and puts forward a date of 600 BC, after which the common language began to separate into dialects. This date does not necessarily correspond to any historical or archaeological evidence; developing a synthetic view of the ethnology of proto-historic Italy is an incomplete and ongoing task. Linguist Julius Pokorny carries the etymology somewhat further back. Conjecturing that the -a- was altered from an -o- during some prehistoric residence in Illyria, he derives the names from an o-grade extension *swo-bho- of an extended e-grade *swe-bho- of the possessive adjective, *s(e)we-, of the reflexive pronoun, *se-, "oneself" (the source of English self). The result is a set of Indo-European tribal names (if not the endonym of the Indo-Europeans): Germanic Suebi and Semnones, Suiones; Celtic Senones; Slavic Serbs and Sorbs; Italic Sabelli, Sabini, etc., as well as a large number of kinship terms.[5] History[edit] Map of ancient Samnium from The Historical Atlas by William R. Shepherd, 1911. The earliest written record of the people is a treaty with the Romans from 354 BC, which set their border at the Liris River. Shortly thereafter, the Samnite Wars broke out; they won an important battle against the Roman army in 321 BC, and their imperium reached its peak in 316 BC, after further gains from the Romans. By 290 BC, the Romans were able to break the Samnites' power after some hard-fought battles. The Samnites were one of the Italian peoples that allied with King Pyrrhus of Epirus during the Pyrrhic War. After Pyrrhus left for Sicily, the Romans invaded Samnium and were crushed at the Battle of the Cranita hills, but after the defeat of Pyrrhus, the Samnites could not resist on their own and surrendered to Rome. Some of them joined and aided Hannibal during the Second Punic War, but most stayed loyal to Rome. The Samnites and several other Italic people rebelled against Rome and started the Social War, after Romans refused to grant them Roman citizenship. The war lasted almost four years, and resulted in a Roman victory. However, Samnites and other Italic tribes were granted Roman citizenship, to avoid another war. The Samnites supported the Populares in the civil war against Lucius Cornelius Sulla, but unfortunately for them, Sulla ended up winning the war and was declared the dictator of Rome. Sulla ordered all those who went against him to be punished. Thousands of people in Rome and all over Italy were brutally hunted down and killed. Samnites, who were some of the most prominent supporters of the Populares, were punished so severely that it was recorded "some of their cities have now dwindled into villages, some indeed being entirely deserted." Samnites did not play any prominent role in history after this, and they eventually became Latinized and assimilated into the Roman world.[6][2] List of tribes[edit] Caraceni Caudini Frentani Hirpini Pentri Notable Samnites[edit] Gentes of Samnite origin[edit] Cassia gens Decimia gens Egnatia gens Gavia gens Gellia gens Herennia gens Obellia (gens) Ofilia (gens) Oppidia gens Opsidia gens Otacilia gens Paccia gens Pacidia gens Papia (gens) Papinia (gens) Percennia (gens) Petreia (gens) Pontia gens Scutaria gens Vibia gens Leaders of the Samnites[edit] Gaius Pontius ca. 320s BC Gellius Egnatius ca. 296 BC Pontius Telesinus, 82 BC Uprising against Sulla[edit] Gaius Papius Mutilus 90-89 Romans of Samnite origin[edit] Gaius Cassius Longinus - assassin of Julius Caesar Pontius Pilate - the 5th Prefect of the Roman province of Judaea from AD 26–36. He ordered the crucifixion of Jesus See also[edit] Aeclanum Compsa Samnite Wars List of ancient Italic peoples Sabellians Notes[edit] ^ "Samnite (people)". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 29 November 2012. ^ a b c Edward Togo Salmon (1967). Samnium and the Samnites. Cambridge University Press. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-521-06185-8. ^ Salmon 1967, p. 28 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSalmon1967 (help). ^ Salmon 1967, p. 29 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSalmon1967 (help). ^ Pokorny 1959, pp. 882–884 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFPokorny1959 (help) under se. ^ Strabo, Geography, Book V, Section 4.11. References[edit] Salmon, Edward Togo. Samnium and the Samnites. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1967. Further reading[edit] Forsythe, Gary. A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005. Jones, Howard. Samnium: Settlement and Cultural Change: the Proceedings of the Third E. Togo Salmon Conference On Roman Studies. Providence, RI: Center for Old World Archaeology and Art, 2004. Paget, R. F. Central Italy: An Archaeological Guide; the Prehistoric, Villanovan, Etruscan, Samnite, Italic, and Roman Remains, and the Ancient Road Systems. 1st U.S. ed. Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Press, 1973. Salvucci, Claudio R. A Vocabulary of Oscan: Including the Oscan and Samnite Glosses. Southampton, Pa.: Evolution Pub., 1999. Stek, Tesse. Cult Places and Cultural Change In Republican Italy: A Contextual Approach to Religious Aspects of Rural Society After the Roman Conquest. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2010. External links[edit] Library resources about Samnites Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries The Battles of Bovianum, 311 BC - article about a problematical campaign of the Second Samnite War The Samnite Pilum Warriors of the Samnite Wars Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Samnites&oldid=995700729" Categories: Samnites Ancient Italic peoples History of Abruzzo History of Campania Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles with obsolete information from September 2015 All Wikipedia articles in need of updating Articles with text in Indo-European languages Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Lietuvių Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Nederlands Napulitano Norsk bokmål Plattdüütsch Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 December 2020, at 12:35 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5627	----	Quintus Aurelius Symmachus - Wikipedia Quintus Aurelius Symmachus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Consul of the Roman Empire in 391, orator Probable depiction of Q. Aurelius Symmachus from an ivory diptych depicting his apotheosis. Quintus Aurelius Symmachus /ˈsɪməkəs/[needs Latin IPA] (c. 345 – 402) was a Roman statesman, orator, and man of letters. He held the offices of governor of proconsular Africa in 373, urban prefect of Rome in 384 and 385, and consul in 391. Symmachus sought to preserve the traditional religions of Rome at a time when the aristocracy was converting to Christianity, and led an unsuccessful delegation of protest against Gratian, when he ordered the Altar of Victory removed from the curia, the principal meeting place of the Roman Senate in the Forum Romanum. Two years later he made a famous appeal to Gratian's successor, Valentinian II, in a dispatch that was rebutted by Ambrose, the bishop of Milan. Symmachus's career was temporarily derailed when he supported the short-lived usurper Magnus Maximus, but he was rehabilitated and three years later appointed consul. After the death of Theodosius I, he became an ally of Stilicho, the guardian of emperor Honorius. In collaboration with Stilicho he was able to restore some of the legislative powers of the Senate. Much of his writing has survived: nine books of letters; a collection of Relationes or official dispatches; and fragments of various orations. Contents 1 Life 2 Writings 3 Family 4 See also 5 Notes 6 Further reading 7 External links Life[edit] Symmachus was the son of a prominent aristocrat, Lucius Aurelius Avianius Symmachus, who was a member of the patrician gens Aurelia, and the daughter of Fabius Titianus, who had been twice urban prefect of Rome.[1] Symmachus was educated in Gaul,[2] apparently at Bordeaux or Toulouse. In early life he became devoted to literature. In 369 he met Ausonius; their friendship proved mutually beneficial.[3] Having discharged the functions of quaestor and praetor, he was appointed Corrector of Lucania and the Bruttii in 365;[4] in 373[5] he was proconsul of Africa, and became, probably about the same time, a member of the pontifical college. As a representative of the political cursus honorum, Symmachus sought to preserve the ancient religion of Rome at a time when the senatorial aristocracy was converting to Christianity. Probable depiction of Symmachus arriving in heaven following his apotheosis. The genii who bear him skyward, as well as the Sun god and zodiacal signs, attest to Symmachus' pagan convictions. In 382, the Emperor Gratian, a Christian, ordered the Altar of Victory removed from the Curia, the Roman Senate house in the Forum, and curtailed the sums annually allowed for the maintenance of the Vestal Virgins, and for the public celebration of sacred rites. Symmachus was chosen by the Senate on account of his eloquence to lead a delegation of protest, which the emperor refused to receive. Two years later, Gratian was assassinated in Lugdunum, and Symmachus, now urban prefect of Rome, addressed an elaborate epistle to Gratian's successor, Valentinian II, in a famous dispatch that was rebutted by Ambrose, the bishop of Milan. In an age when all religious communities credited the divine power with direct involvement in human affairs, Symmachus argues that the removal of the altar had caused a famine and its restoration would be beneficial in other ways. Subtly he pleads for tolerance for traditional cult practices and beliefs that Christianity was poised to suppress in the Theodosian edicts of 391. It was natural for Symmachus to sympathise with Magnus Maximus who had defeated Gratian. When Maximus was threatening to invade Italy in 387, his cause was openly advocated by Symmachus, who upon the arrival of Theodosius I was impeached for treason, and forced to take refuge in a sanctuary. Having been pardoned through the intervention of numerous and powerful friends he expressed his contrition and gratitude in an apologetic address to Theodosius, by whom he was not only forgiven, but was received into favour and elevated to the consulship in 391, and during the remainder of his life he appears to have taken an active part in public affairs. The date of his death is unknown, but one of his letters[6] was written as late as 402. His leisure hours were devoted exclusively to literary pursuits, as is evident from the numerous allusions in his letters to the studies in which he was engaged. His friendship with Ausonius and other distinguished authors of the era proves that he delighted in associating and corresponding with the learned. His wealth must have been prodigious, for in addition to his town mansion on the Caelian Hill,[7] and several houses in the city which he lent to his friends, he possessed upwards of a dozen villas in Italy, many detached farms, together with estates in Sicily and Mauritania. Symmachus, and his real-life associates Vettius Agorius Praetextatus and Virius Nicomachus Flavianus, are the main characters of the Saturnalia of Macrobius Ambrosius Theodosius, which was written in the 5th century but set in 384. These three aristocratic intellectuals lead nine others, consisting of fellow noble and non-noble intellectuals, in a discussion of learned topics, dominated by the many-sided erudition of the poet Vergil. Writings[edit] The Symmachus family monogram. Of his many writings, the following have survived: Nine or ten books of letters, published by his son. Many of the letters are notes extending to a few lines only, addressed to a wide circle of relations, friends, and acquaintances. They relate for the most part to matters of little importance. The most famous letter is the most highly finished and important piece in the collection, the celebrated epistle to "Valentinian, Theodosius, and Arcadius" entreating them to restore the Altar of Victory to its ancient position in the senate house. A collection of Relationes or official dispatches, which is chiefly composed of the letters written by him when prefect of Rome to the emperors under whom he served. Panegyrics, written in his youth, two on Valentinian I and one on the youthful Gratian. Fragments of various orations, discovered by Angelo Mai in palimpsests in the Ambrosian library and the Vatican. According to one of his letters (dated to 401), Symmachus also engaged in the preparation of an edition of Livy's Ab Urbe Condita.[8] Seven manuscripts of the first decade of Livy's extensive work (books 1-10) bear subscriptions including Symmachus' name along with Tascius Victorianus, Appius Nicomachus Dexter, and Nicomachus Flavianus; J.E.G. Zetzel has identified some of their effects to this tradition of the transmission of this portion of Livy's work.[9] In other letters, Symmachus describes preparations for his shows in the arena. He managed to procure antelopes, gazelles, leopards, lions, bears, bear-cubs, and even some crocodiles. Symmachus also purchased Saxon slaves to fight and die in the games. He was annoyed when twenty-nine of the Saxons strangled each other in their cells on the night before their final scheduled appearance.[10] One quote of Symmachus from "The Memorial of Symmachus, Prefect of the City" reads (in translation), "We gaze up at the same stars; the sky covers us all; the same universe encompasses us. Does it matter what practical system we adopt in our search for the Truth? The heart of so great a mystery cannot be reached by following one road only."[11] The style of Symmachus was widely admired in his own time and into the early Middle Ages, but modern scholars have been frustrated by the lack of solid information about the events of his times to be found in these writings. As a consequence, little of his work has been translated into English. Family[edit] Symmachi–Nicomachi diptych; the left leaf is at the Musée National du Moyen Âge, Paris, the right leaf is at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London. It is possible that this diptych, honouring the bond between the two aristocratic and pagan families of the Symmachi and Nicomachi, was issued in occasion of Memmius' marriage with a woman of the Nicomachi in 401. Symmachus married Rusticana, the daughter of Memmius Vitrasius Orfitus, twice urban prefect of Rome (353-355; 357-359). Their children included: Galla, their oldest child who married Symmachus' friend Nicomachus Flavianus Quintus Fabius Memmius Symmachus, aristocrat See also[edit] Symmachi–Nicomachi diptych Quintus Fabius Memmius Symmachus, his son, who edited Aurelius' letters for publication Notes[edit] ^ Alan Cameron, "The Antiquity of the Symmachi", Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, 48, (1999), p. 502 ^ Symmachus, Ep. ix. 83 ^ Trout, Dennis E., Paulinus of Nola: Life, Letters, and Poems, University of California Press, 1999, p. 33 ISBN 9780520922327 ^ Cod. Theod. VIII.5.25 ^ Cod. Theod. XII.1.73; compare Symmachus, Ep. viii. 10, x. 3 ^ Symmachus, Ep. vii. 50 ^ Symmachus, Ep. iii. 12, 88, vii. 18 ^ Epistulae 9.13 ^ Zetzel, "The Subscriptions in the Manuscripts of Livy and Fronto and the Meaning of Emendatio", Classical Philology, 75 (1980), pp. 38-59 ^ Keith Hopkins (June 1983). "Murderous Games: Gladiatorial Contests in Ancient Rome". History Today. 33 (6). Retrieved 2015-05-21. ^ Q. Aurelius Symmachus (384). "Memorial of Symmachus 10". The Altar of Victory Controversy: Symmachus and Ambrose. Retrieved 2015-05-21. Further reading[edit] Q. Aurelii Symmachi quae supersunt, ed. by Otto Seeck (Berlin, 1883; reprinted Munich, 2001), ISBN 3-921575-19-2. All surviving writings of Symmachus: letters, speeches and official reports, in the original Latin. This volume is Volume 6 of the series Monumenta Germaniae Historica. The letters are also published in a supplementary volume XIII in the Patrologia Latina. More recently, Symmaque: Lettres, ed. by Jean-Pierre Callu in four volumes (Paris, 1972–2002) published by Les Belles Lettres contains the letters of Symmachus in Latin with facing-page French translation. This has the fullest text and translation. R.H. Barrow, Prefect and Emperor; the Relationes of Symmachus, A.D. 384, with translation and notes by R.H. Barrow (parallel Latin text and English translation), Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973. Richard Klein, Symmachus. Eine tragische Gestalt des ausgehenden Heidentums. Darmstadt (Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft [Impulse der Forschung, Band 2]) 1971, ISBN 3-534-04928-4. Richard Klein, Der Streit um den Victoriaaltar. Darmstadt (WBG [Texte zur Forschung Band 7]) 1972, ISBN 3-534-05169-6. J.F. Matthews, "The Letters of Symmachus" in Latin Literature of the Fourth Century (edited by J.W. Binns), pp. 58–99. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1974, discusses them. J.F. Matthews, Western Aristocracies and Imperial Court, AD 364-425. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990. ISBN 0-19-814499-7 Jillian M. Mitchell, "The Case of the Strangled Saxons" (regarding a letter in which Symmachus complains that 29 gladiators strangled each other rather than fight at games held for Symmachus' son) Cristiana Sogno, Q. Aurelius Symmachus: A Political Biography. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2006. ISBN 978-0-472-11529-7 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Quintus Aurelius Symmachus. "Symmachus (Family)" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 26 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 286. Libri Decem Epistolarum  (in Latin) (10 Books of Letter ed.) – via Wikisource. Symmachus's letter on behalf of the Senate, petitioning the three emperors, at Medieval Sourcebook; Symmachus requests that the old religion be restored, and the Altar of Victory again erected in the Senate House. Ambrose, Epistle xvii and xviii "Relatio III of Symmachus" (in Latin). Political offices Preceded by Flavius Valentinianus Iunior Augustus IV Flavius Neoterius Consul of the Roman Empire 391 with Flavius Eutolmius Tatianus Succeeded by Flavius Arcadius Augustus II Preceded by Aventius Praefectus urbi of Rome Summer 384 – Jan/Feb 385 Succeeded by Pinianus Authority control BIBSYS: 90350216 BNE: XX1441243 BNF: cb119258460 (data) CANTIC: a19200006 CiNii: DA01396122 GND: 118758101 ISNI: 0000 0001 2144 8435 LCCN: n82050820 LNB: 000040264 NKC: jn19981002180 NLA: 35535532 NLI: 000128784 NSK: 000678021 NTA: 06924796X RERO: 02-A000159081 SELIBR: 199519 SNAC: w66144r2 SUDOC: 02715288X Trove: 988097 VcBA: 495/25705 VIAF: 98247027 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n82050820 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quintus_Aurelius_Symmachus&oldid=996631628" Categories: 340s births 402 deaths 4th-century Romans Ancient Roman proconsuls Aurelii Symmachi 4th-century Christianity Imperial Roman consuls 4th-century Latin writers 5th-century Latin writers Latin letter writers Roman governors of Africa Urban prefects of Rome Pagan restorations Byzantine-era pagans Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles needing IPA Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference CS1 Latin-language sources (la) Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth uncertain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Asturianu Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina Magyar Nederlands Norsk bokmål Polski Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 27 December 2020, at 19:41 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5636	----	Quaestor - Wikipedia Quaestor From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the historical Roman official. For other uses, see Quaestor (disambiguation). Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e A quaestor (/ˈkwiːstər/ KWEE-stər, Latin: [ˈkʷae̯stɔr]; "investigator")[1] was a public official in Ancient Rome. The position served different functions depending on the period. In the Roman Kingdom, quaestores parricidii (quaestors with judicial powers) were appointed by the king to investigate and handle murders. In the Roman Republic, quaestors (Lat. quaestores) were elected officials who supervised the state treasury and conducted audits. It was the lowest ranking position in the cursus honorum (course of offices). However, this means that in the political environment of Rome, it was quite common for many aspiring politicians to take the position of quaestor as an early rung on the political ladder. In the Roman Empire, the position, which was initially replaced by the praefectus (prefect), reemerged during the late empire as quaestor intra Palatium, a position appointed by the emperor to lead the imperial council and respond to petitioners.[2] Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Origins 2.2 Roman Republic 2.3 Late Antiquity 3 Powers and responsibilities 3.1 Roman Republic 3.2 Roman Empire 3.3 Byzantine Empire 4 Notable quaestors 4.1 Gaius Gracchus 4.2 Marcus Antonius 4.3 Gaius Julius Caesar 4.4 Marcus Tullius Cicero 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Etymology[edit] Quaestor derives from the Latin verb quaero, quaerere, meaning "to inquire". The job title has traditionally been understood as deriving from the original investigative function of the quaestores parricidii.[3][4] Ancient authors, perhaps influenced by etymology, reasoned that the investigative role of the quaestores parricidii had evolved to include financial matters, giving rise to the similarly-named later offices. However, this connection has been questioned by modern scholars.[5][6] History[edit] Origins[edit] The earliest quaestors were quaestores parricidii (quaestors with judicial power), an office dating back to the Kingdom of Rome. Quaestores parricidii were chosen to investigate capital crimes, and may have been appointed as needed rather than holding a permanent position. Ancient authors disagree on the exact manner of selection for this office as well as on its earliest institution, with some dating it to the mythical reign of Romulus.[7] Roman Republic[edit] In the Roman Republic, quaestors were elected officials who supervised the treasury and financial accounts of the state, its armies and its officers. The quaestors tasked with financial supervision were also called quaestores aerarii, because they oversaw the aerarium (public treasury) in the Temple of Saturn.[8] The earliest origins of the office is obscure, but by about 420 BC there were four quaestors elected each year by the Comitia Tributa (Assembly of the People). After 267 BC, the number was expanded to ten. The office of quaestor, usually a former broad-striped tribune, was adopted as the first official post of the cursus honorum (lit. course of offices), the standard sequence that made up a career in public service. Once elected as quaestor, a Roman man earned the right to sit in the Senate and began progressing through the cursus honorum. Quaestors were not provided any lictors (civil servant bodyguards) while in the city of Rome, but while in the provinces, they were allowed to have the fasces (a bound bundle of wooden rods symbolizing a magistrate's authority and jurisdiction).[9] Every Roman consul, the highest elected official in the cursus honorum, and every provincial governor was appointed a quaestor. Some quaestors were assigned to work in the city and others in the provinces where their responsibilities could include being recruited into the military. Some provincial quaestors were assigned as staff to military generals or served as second-in-command to governors in the Roman provinces. Still others were assigned to oversee military finances. Lucius Cornelius Sulla's reforms in 81 BC raised the number of quaestors to 20 and the minimum age for a quaestorship was 30 for patricians (members of ruling class families) and 32 for plebeians (commoners). Additionally, the reforms granted quaestors automatic membership in the Senate upon being elected, whereas previously, membership in the Senate was granted only after censors revised the Senate rolls, which occurred less frequently than the annual induction of quaestors. There were at that time (B.C. 75) twenty Quæstors elected annually, some of whom remained in Rome; but most of the number were stationed about the Empire, there being always one as assistant to each Proconsul. When a Consul took the field with an army, he always had a Quæstor with him. This had become the case so generally that the Quæstor became, as it were, something between a private secretary and a senior lieutenant to a governor. The arrangement came to have a certain sanctity attached to it, as though there was something in the connection warmer and closer than that of mere official life; so that a Quæstor has been called a Proconsul’s son for the time, and was supposed to feel that reverence and attachment that a son entertains for his father. — Anthony Trollope, The Life of Cicero This relationship between a consul and a quaestor was similar to that between a patron and a client. The quaestor was essentially a client to their superior. There was some level of mutual respect between the two individuals, but a defined sense of place and knowledge of each other's roles. This relationship often continued past the designated terms of either individual, and the quaestor could be called upon for assistance or other needs by the consul. Breaking this pact or doing harm by a former superior would make the quaestor seem dishonorable or even treasonous.[10] Late Antiquity[edit] See also: quaestor sacri palatii, quaesitor, and quaestura exercitus Constantine the Great created the office quaestor sacri palatii (quaestor of the sacred place) which functioned as the Roman Empire's senior legal official. Emperor Justinian I also created the offices quaesitor, a judicial and police official for Constantinople, and quaestor exercitus (quaestor of the army), a short-lived joint military-administrative post covering the border of the lower Danube. The quaestor sacri palatii survived long into the Byzantine Empire, although its duties were altered to match the quaesitor. The term is last attested in 14th century Byzantium as a purely honorific title. Powers and responsibilities[edit] Roman Republic[edit] In the early republic, there were two quaestors, and their duties were maintaining the public treasury, both taking in funds and deciding whom to pay them to. This continued until 421 BCE when the number of quaestors was doubled to 4. While two continued with the same duties of those that had come before, the other two had additional responsibilities, each being in service to the one of the consuls.[11] When consuls went to war, each was assigned a quaestor. The quaestor's main responsibilities involved the distribution of war spoils between the aerarium, or public treasury, and the army. The key responsibility of the quaestor was the administration of public funds to higher-ranking officials in order to pursue their goals, whether those involve military conquests which require funding for armies or public works projects.[10] The office of quaestor was a position bound to their superior, whether that be a consul, governor, or other magistrate, and the duties would often reflect their superiors. For example, Gaius Gracchus was quaestor under the consul Orestes in Sardinia, and many of his responsibilities involved leading military forces. While not in direct command of the army, the quaestor would be in charge of organizational and lesser duties that were a necessary part of the war machine.[12] Roman Empire[edit] See also: Quaestor sacri palatii During the reign of the Emperor Constantine I, the office of quaestor was reorganized into a judicial position known as the quaestor sacri palatii. The office functioned as the primary legal adviser to the emperor, and was charged with the creation of laws as well as answers petitions to the emperor.[13] From 440 onward, the office of the quaestor worked in conjunction with the praetorian prefect of the East to oversee the supreme tribunal, or supreme court, at Constantinople. There they heard appeals from the various subordinate courts and governors. Byzantine Empire[edit] Under the Emperor Justinian I, an additional office named quaestor was created to control police and judicial matters in Constantinople. In this new position, a quaestor was responsible for wills, as well as supervision of complaints by tenants regarding their landlords, and finally over the homeless.[13] Notable quaestors[edit] See also Category: Roman Quaestors. Gaius Gracchus[edit] See also: Gaius Gracchus Following the death of his brother Tiberius Gracchus, Gaius Gracchus stayed out of the political spotlight for a period until he was forced to defend a good friend of his named Vettius in court. Hearing his vocal abilities, the Senate began to fear that Gaius would arouse the people in the same manner as his brother and appointed him quaestor to Gnaeus Aufidius Orestes in Sardinia to prevent him from becoming a tribune. Gaius used his position as quaestor to successfully defeat his enemies as well as gain a large amount of loyalty among his troops. Following an incident where Gaius won the support of a local village to provide for his troops, the Senate attempted to keep Gaius in Sardinia indefinitely by reappointing Orestes to stay in Sardinia. Gaius was not pleased by this and returned to Rome demanding an explanation, actions which eventually led to his election as a tribune of the people.[12] Marcus Antonius[edit] See also: Mark Antony Marcus Antonius, or Mark Antony, who is most well known for his civil war with Octavian, started off his political career in the position of quaestor after being a prefect in Syria and then one of Julius Caesar's legates in Gaul. Through a combination of Caesar's favor and his oratory skills defending the legacy of Publius Clodius, Antony was able to win the quaestorship in 51 BCE. This then led to Antony's election as augur and tribune of the people in 50 BC due to Caesar's efforts to reward his ally.[14] Gaius Julius Caesar[edit] While Julius Caesar served as Quaestor to the Governor or Proconsul/Propraetor in Hispania Ulterior he took major military action against the rebellious tribes of the region. His time as Quaestor was uneventful although when he became Governor there, he settled the disputes. Marcus Tullius Cicero[edit] Marcus Tullius Cicero was the Quaestor to the Propraetor/Proconsul of Sicily. He fixed major agricultural problems in the region and improved on the purchase and selling of grain. The farmers after this loved Cicero and began to travel to Rome to vote for him in elections every year. See also[edit] Constitution of the Roman Republic Obultronius Sabinus List of Roman quaestors Roman magistrate References[edit] ^ "quaestor". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.) ^ The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica (2016), "Quaestor: Ancient Roman Official", Encyclopædia Britannica Online, Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., retrieved 1 August 2016 ^ Covino, Ralph (2011). Anne Mackay (ed.). "The Fifth century, the decemvirate, and the quaestorship" (PDF). ASCS 32 Selected Proceedings. Australasian Society for Classical Studies. Retrieved 2012-08-11. ^ Smith, William (1875). A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. John Murray. Retrieved 2012-08-12. ^ Gaughan, Judy E. (2009). Murder Was Not a Crime: Homicide and Power in the Roman Republic. University of Texas Press. ISBN 0292721110. Retrieved 2012-08-11. ^ Latte, Kurt (1936). "The Origin of the Roman Quaestorship". Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association. 67: 23–24. JSTOR 283224. ^ Titus Livius, "The History of Rome, Book 2", Benjamin Oliver Foster, Ph.D., Ed, retrieved 5 May 2017 ^ Livy (1881). J. R. Seeley (ed.). Livy, Book I, with Introduction, Historical Examination, and Notes. Clarendon Press. Retrieved 2012-08-12. ^ Smith, William (1875). "LacusCurtius • Fasces (Smith's Dictionary, 1875)". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2018-12-28. ^ a b Thompson, L. A. (1962), "The Relationship between Provincial Quaestors and Their Commanders-in-Chief.", Historia: Zeitschrift Für Alte Geschichte, JSTOR 4434751 ^ Polybbius, The Histories: Book VI, Loeb Classical Library, 1922, retrieved 1 May 2017 ^ a b Plutarch, Life of Gaius Gracchus, Loeb Classical Library, 1921, retrieved 1 May 2017 ^ a b Kazhdan, Alexander, Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, 1991, retrieved 1 May 2017 ^ van der Blom, Henriette (2016), Oratory and Political Career in the Late Roman Republic, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016, retrieved 21 Apr 2017 Further reading[edit] Bourne, Frank (Princeton University). "A History of the Romans" Boston, MA. 1967, D.C. Heath and Company External links[edit] v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quaestor&oldid=990795898" Categories: Ancient Roman titles Latin political words and phrases Roman quaestors Cursus honorum Hidden categories: Articles containing Latin-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto Euskara Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 26 November 2020, at 15:26 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5646	----	Pomponius Mela - Wikipedia Pomponius Mela From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 1st century AD Roman geographer Reconstruction of Pomponius Mela's world map by Konrad Miller (1898). Pomponius Mela's description of Europe (F. Nansen, 1911) Pomponius Mela, who wrote around AD 43, was the earliest Roman geographer. He was born in Tingentera (now Algeciras) and died c. AD 45.[1] His short work (De situ orbis libri III.) remained in use nearly to the year 1500.[2] It occupies less than one hundred pages of ordinary print, and is described by the Encyclopædia Britannica (1911) as "dry in style and deficient in method, but of pure Latinity, and occasionally relieved by pleasing word-pictures."[3] Except for the geographical parts of Pliny's Historia naturalis (where Mela is cited as an important authority), the De situ orbis is the only formal treatise on the subject in Classical Latin. Contents 1 Biography 2 Geographical knowledge 2.1 Descriptive method 3 Editions 4 References 5 Sources Biography[edit] Little is known of the author except his name and birthplace—the small town of Tingentera or Cingentera in southern Spain, on Algeciras Bay (Mela ii. 6, § 96; but the text is here corrupt). The date of his writing may be approximately fixed by his allusion (iii. 6 § 49) to a proposed British expedition of the reigning emperor, almost certainly that of Claudius in AD 43. That this passage cannot refer to Julius Caesar is evidenced by several references to events of Augustus's reign; especially to certain new names given to Spanish towns. It has been conjectured that Pomponius Mela may have been related in some way to Marcus Annaeus Mela, who was the son of Seneca the Elder and father of Lucan.[4][5][6] Geographical knowledge[edit] The general views of the De situ orbis mainly agree with those current among Greek writers from Eratosthenes to Strabo; the latter was probably unknown to Mela. But Pomponius is unique among ancient geographers in that, after dividing the Earth into five zones, of which two only were habitable, he asserts the existence of antichthones, inhabiting the southern temperate zone inaccessible to the folk of the northern temperate regions from the unbearable heat of the intervening torrid belt. On the divisions and boundaries of Europe, Asia and Africa, he repeats Eratosthenes; like all classical geographers from Alexander the Great (except Ptolemy) he regards the Caspian Sea as an inlet of the Northern Ocean, corresponding to the Persian and Arabian (Red Sea) gulfs on the south. The shores of Codanus sinus (southwestern Baltic Sea) in red with its many islands in green. His Indian conceptions are inferior to those of some earlier Greek writers; he follows Eratosthenes in supposing that country to occupy the south-eastern angle of Asia, whence the coast trended northwards to Scythia, and then swept round westward to the Caspian Sea. As usual, he places the Rhipaean Mountains and the Hyperboreans near the Scythian Ocean. In western Europe his knowledge (as was natural in a Spanish subject of Imperial Rome) was somewhat in advance of the Greek geographers. He defines the western coast-line of Spain and Gaul and its indentation by the Bay of Biscay more accurately than Eratosthenes or Strabo, his ideas of the British Isles and their position are also clearer than his predecessors. He is the first to name the Orcades or Orkney Islands, which he defines and locates pretty correctly. Of northern Europe his knowledge was imperfect, but he speaks of a great bay ("Codanus sinus") to the north of Germany, among whose many islands was one, "Codanovia", of pre-eminent size; this name reappears in Pliny the Elder's work as Scatinavia. Codanovia and Scatinavia were both Latin renderings of the Proto-Germanic *Skaðinawio, the Germanic name for Scandinavia.[citation needed] Descriptive method[edit] Mela's descriptive method follows ocean coasts, in the manner of a periplus, probably because it was derived from the accounts of navigators. He begins at the Straits of Gibraltar, and describes the countries adjoining the south coast of the Mediterranean; then he moves round by Syria and Asia Minor to the Black Sea, and so returns to Spain along the north shore of the Euxine, Propontis, etc. After treating the Mediterranean islands, he next takes the ocean littoral—to west, north, east and south successively—from Spain and Gaul round to India, from India to Persia, Arabia and Ethiopia; and so again works back to Spain round South Africa. Like most classical geographers he conceives of the continent as surrounded by sea and not extending very far south. Editions[edit] Cover of a 1518 edition The editio princeps of Mela was published at Milan in 1471; the first critical edition was by Vadianus (Basel, 1522), superseded by those of Johann Heinrich Voss (1658), Johann Friedrich Gronovius (1685 and 1696), A. Gronovius (1722 and 1728), and Tzschucke (1806–1807), in seven parts (Leipzig; the most elaborate of all); G. Paithey's (Berlin, 1867) for its text. The English translation by Arthur Golding (1585) was celebrated; see also Edward Bunbury, Ancient Geography, ii. 352–368, and D. Detlefsen, Quellen und Forschungen zur alten Gesch. und Geog. (1908).[3] A recent English translation is that of F. E. Romer, originally published in 1998. References[edit] ^ Tegg, Thomas (1824). Chronology, or The historian's companion (3rd ed.). London: Thomas Tegg. p. 284. ^ Kish, George (1978). A Source Book in Geography. Harvard University Press. p. 128. ISBN 9780674822702. Retrieved 6 May 2018. ^ a b  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Mela, Pomponius". Encyclopædia Britannica. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ^ Walter C. A. Ker (1919). Martial's Epigrams. London: William Heinemann. [By 'Seneca's house illustrious for its triple names'] M. means Seneca, the philosopher and tutor of Nero, his brother Gallio, and Annaeus Pomponius Mela, the writer on geography. J. Wight Duff characterizes this as "a serious confusion between Annaeus Mela, who was Seneca's brother, and Pomponius Mela, the geographer." ^ J. Wight Duff (November–December 1920). "Martial: Epigrams (review)". The Classical Review. London: John Murray. 34 (7–8): 177. ^ Romer 1998, "Introduction", p. 4. Sources[edit] Romer, Frank E. (1998). Pomponius Mela's Description of the World. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 9780472084524. Attribution  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Mela, Pomponius". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Authority control BIBSYS: 95003437 BNE: XX821711 BNF: cb121174358 (data) CANTIC: a12270301 CiNii: DA0322341X GND: 118783025 ISNI: 0000 0000 7973 2132 LCCN: n80139084 NKC: jn19981001843 NSK: 000233712 NTA: 070032963 SELIBR: 258152 SNAC: w6q340mz SUDOC: 029578019 Trove: 1088255 VcBA: 495/30348 VIAF: 34489209 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n80139084 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pomponius_Mela&oldid=995115858" Categories: 45 deaths Roman-era geographers 1st-century Romans Romans from Hispania Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2011 Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages Azərbaycanca Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Furlan Galego Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Lietuvių Magyar Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Shqip Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 19 December 2020, at 08:56 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5647	----	List of Graeco-Roman geographers - Wikipedia List of Graeco-Roman geographers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikipedia list article Pre-Hellenistic Classical Greece Reconstruction of the Oikumene (inhabited world) as described by Herodotus in the 5th century BC. Reconstruction of Hecataeus' map Homer Anaximander Hecataeus of Miletus Massaliote Periplus Scylax of Caryanda (6th century BC) Herodotus Hellenistic period Pytheas (died c. 310 BC) Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax (3rd or 4th century BC) Megasthenes (died c. 290 BC) Autolycus of Pitane (died c. 290 BC) Dicaearchus (died c. 285 BC) Deimakos (3rd century BC) Timosthenes (fl. 270s BC) Eratosthenes (c. 276-194 BC) Scymnus (fl. 180s BC) Hipparchus (c. 190-120 BC) Agatharchides (2nd century BC) Posidonius (c. 135-51 BC) Pseudo-Scymnus (c. 90 BC) Diodorus Siculus (c. 90-30 BC) Alexander Polyhistor (1st century BC) Roman Empire period 15th century reconstruction of Ptolemy's map. Periplus of the Erythraean Sea Strabo (64 BC - 24 AD) Pomponius Mela (fl. 40s AD) Isidore of Charax (1st century AD) Mucianus (1st century AD) Pliny the Elder (23-79 AD), Natural History Marinus of Tyre (c. 70-130)[1] Ptolemy (90-168), Geography Pausanias (2nd century) Agathedaemon of Alexandria (2nd century) Dionysius of Byzantium (2nd century) Agathemerus (3rd century) Tabula Peutingeriana (4th century) Alypius of Antioch (4th century) Marcian of Heraclea (4th century) Expositio totius mundi et gentium (AD 350-362) Julius Honorius (very uncertain: 4th, 5th or 6th century) Byzantine Empire Hierocles (author of Synecdemus) (6th century) Cosmas Indicopleustes (6th century) Stephanus of Byzantium (6th century) See also[edit] History of geography References[edit] ^ Hubert Cancik and Helmuth Schneider (ed.): "Marinus", Brill's New Pauly, Brill, 2010: M. of Tyre (Μαρῖνος; Marînos), Greek geographer, 2nd cent. AD External links[edit] Karl Wilhelm Ludwig Müller: Geographi graeci minores, Carolus Muellerus (ed.), 2 voll., Parisiis, editoribus Firmin-Didot et sociis, 1855-61: vol. 1 (1882 reprint), vol. 2, tabulae. Gottfried Bernhardy: Geographi graeci minores, Godofredi Bernhardy (ed.), Lipsiae in libraria Weidmannia, 1828: vol. 1. v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers&oldid=990568883" Categories: Classical antiquity Ancient Roman geography Ancient Greek geographers Roman-era geographers Classical geography History of geography Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية বাংলা Català Ελληνικά Español Français Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Română Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 25 November 2020, at 06:54 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5658	----	Arrian - Wikipedia Arrian From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For others with this name, see Arrianus (disambiguation). Arrian Bust of Arrian Born Lucius Flavius Arrianus c. 86 Nicomedia, Bithynia, Anatolia Died c. 160[1] (aged 73–74) Athens Nationality Greek Occupation Historian, public servant, military commander and philosopher Arrian of Nicomedia (/ˈæriən/; Greek: Ἀρριανός Arrianos; Latin: Lucius Flavius Arrianus;[2] c. 86/89 – c. after 146/160 AD)[3][4] was a Greek historian, public servant, military commander and philosopher of the Roman period.[4] The Anabasis of Alexander by Arrian is considered the best source on the campaigns of Alexander the Great. However, more recently, even though modern scholars have generally preferred Arrian to other extant primary sources, this attitude towards Arrian is beginning to change in the light of studies into Arrian's method.[5][6] Contents 1 Arrian's life 2 Works 2.1 Periplus of the Euxine Sea 2.2 Discourses of Epictetus and Enchiridion of Epictetus 2.3 Homiliai Epiktetou 2.4 Anabasis of Alexander 2.5 Ta met' Alexandron 2.6 Parthica 2.7 Bithyniaca 2.8 Nicomediensis Scripta minora 2.9 Indica 2.10 Techne Taktike 2.11 Kynēgetikos 2.12 Ektaxis kata Alanon 2.13 Biographical series 3 Sources, transmission, translations and publications 4 References 5 Further reading 6 External links Arrian's life[edit] Arrian was born in Nicomedia (present-day İzmit), the provincial capital of Bithynia. Dio called him Flavius Arrianus Nicomediansis. In respect of his birth date, sources provide similar dates for his birth; within a few years prior to 90, 89, and 85–90 AD. The line of reasoning for dates belonging to 85-90 AD is from the fact of Arrian being made a consul around 130 AD, and the usual age for this, during this period, being forty-two years of age. (ref. p. 312, & SYME 1958, same page). His family was from the Greek provincial aristocracy, and his full name, L. Flavius Arrianus, indicates that he was a Roman citizen, suggesting that the citizenship went back several generations, probably to the time of the Roman conquest some 170 years before.[4][7][8][9][10][11][12] Sometime during the 2nd century AD (117 to 120 AD) while in Epirus, probably Nicopolis, Arrian attended lectures of Epictetus of Nicopolis, and proceeded within a time to fall into his pupillage, a fact attested to by Lucian. All that is known about the life of Epictetus is due to Arrian, in that Arrian left an Encheiridion (Handbook) of Epictetus' philosophy. After Epirus he went to Athens, and while there he became known as the young Xenophon as a consequence of the similarity of his relation to Epictetus as Xenophon had to Socrates.[13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20] For a period, some time about 126 AD, he was a friend of the emperor Hadrian, who appointed him to the Senate. He was appointed to the position consul suffectus around 130 AD, and then, in 132 AD (although Howatson shows 131), he was made prefect or legate (governor) of Cappadocia by Hadrian, a service he continued for six years. When he retired, Arrian went to live in Athens, where he became archon sometime during 145 or 146 (EJ Chinnock shows, he retired to Nicomedia and was appointed priest to Demeter and Persephone while there). He died in the reign of Marcus Aurelius.[13][16][20][21][22][23][24][25] Arrian referred to himself as the second Xenophon, on account of his reputation and the esteem in which he was held. Lucian stated him to be:[17][26] a Roman of the first rank with a life-long attachment to learning — quote of Lucian in P. E. Easterling, B. M. W. Knox, p.143 This quality is identified as paideia (παιδεία) which is the quality considered to be of one who is known as an educated and learned personage, i.e., one who is highly esteemed and important.[17][27][28][29][30][31] Works[edit] Alexandri anabasis, 1575 There are eight extant works (cf. Syvänne, footnote of p. 260). The Indica and the Anabasis are the only works completely intact. His entire remaining oeuvre is known as FGrH 156 to designate those collected fragments which exist.[13][24][32][33] Periplus of the Euxine Sea[edit] Main article: Periplus of the Euxine Sea This work is the earliest extant work that is dated with any confidence. It is a writing addressed to the Emperor Hadrian.[34][35][36] Discourses of Epictetus and Enchiridion of Epictetus[edit] Main articles: Discourses of Epictetus and Enchiridion of Epictetus Arrian was a pupil of Epictetus around 108 AD, and, according to his own account, he was moved to publish his notes of Epictetus' lectures, which are known as Discourses of Epictetus, by their unauthorized dissemination.[14][37] According to George Long, Arrian noted from Epictetus' lectures for his private use and some time later made of these, the Discourses. Photius states that Arrian produced two books the Dissertations and the Discourses. The Discourses are also known as Diatribai and are apparently a verbatim recording of Epictetus' lectures.[21][38][39] The Enchiridion is a short compendium of all Epictetus' philosophical principles. It is also known as a handbook, and A Mehl considers the Enchiridion to have been a vade mecum for Arrian. The Enchiridion is apparently a summary of the Discourses.[7][15][24][40][21] JB Stockdale considered that Arrian wrote eight books of which four were lost by the Middle Ages and the remaining ones became the Discourses. In a comparison of the contents of the Enchiridion with the Discourses, it is apparent that the former contains material not present within the latter, suggesting an original lost source for the Enchiridion.[14][41][42] Homiliai Epiktetou[edit] Friendly conversations with Epictetus (Homiliai Epiktetou) is a 12 book work mentioned by Photius in his Bibliotheca, of which only fragments remain.[16][19] Anabasis of Alexander[edit] Main article: The Anabasis of Alexander The Anabasis of Alexander comprises seven books.[16] Arrian used Xenophon's account of the March of Cyrus as the basis for this work.[43] Ta met' Alexandron[edit] History of the Diadochi or Events after Alexander is a work originally of ten books; a commentary on this work was written by Photius (FW Walbank, p. 8).[24][44][3][45] Three extant fragments are the Vatican Palimpsest (of the 10th century AD), PSI 12.1284 (Oxyrhynchus), and the Gothenburg palimpsest (of the 10th century also), these possibly stemming originally from Photius.[3][16][46] The writing is about the successors of Alexander the Great, circa 323 – 321 or 319. Parthica[edit] A lost work of seventeen books, fragments of Parthica were maintained by the Suda and Stephen of Byzantium. The work survives only in adaptations made later by Photius and Syncellus. Translated, the title is History of the Parthians. Arrian's aim in the work was to set forth events of the Parthian war of Trajan. The writing mentioned that the Parthians trace their origins to Artaxerxes II.[47][25][48][49][50] Bithyniaca[edit] A work of eight books, Bibliotheca (via Photius) states it is the fourth to have been written by Arrian.[25][51] Nicomediensis Scripta minora[edit] A work translated a Nicodemian script (minor).[52][53] Indica[edit] Main article: Indica (Arrian) Indica is a work on a variety of things pertaining to India, and the voyage of Nearchus in the Persian Gulf. The first part of Indica was based largely on the work of the same name of Megasthenes, the second part based on a journal written by Nearchus.[54][55][56][20] Techne Taktike[edit] Written 136/137 AD (in the 20th year of Hadrian[34]), Techne Taktike is a treatise on Roman cavalry and military tactics, and includes information on the nature, arms and discipline of the phalanx. The hippika gymnasia is a particular concern of Arrian in the treatise.[25][57][58][59][60][61][62][63] Another translation of the title is Ars tactica, which, in Greek, is Τέχνη τακτική.[64][65] This work has generally been considered in large part a panegyric to Hadrian, written for the occasion of his vicenallia, although some scholars have argued that its second half may have had practical use.[66][67] Kynēgetikos[edit] Cynegeticus (Κυνηγετικός), translated as the hunting man,[21] is a work about hunting dogs, canes venatici, the Celtic grey-hound.[68][22][69][70][71][72][73] The work is based on an earlier exposition made by Xenophon, whom Arrian thought to be the authority on the subject of hunting.[74][75] Ektaxis kata Alanon[edit] Ektaxis kata Alanon (Ἔκταξις κατὰ Ἀλανῶν) is a work of a now fragmentary nature; the title is translated as Deployment against the Alani or The order of battle against the Alans or referred to simply as Alanica. It is thought not have been written as a presentation of facts but for literary reasons. Pertaining to the relevant historical facts, though, while governor of Cappadocia, Arrian repelled an invasion of the Alani sometime during 135 AD, a struggle in which Arrian's two legions were victorious.[76][77][23][55][78][79][80][81] Within the work, Arrian explicitly identified the particular means of pursuing warfare as being based on Greek methods.[82][83][84] Ektaxis kata Alanon is also translated as Acies contra Alanos. The work was known for a time as A History of the Alani (Alanike via Photius[55]). A fragment describing a plan of battle against the Alani was found in Milan around the 17th century which was thought at that time to belong to the History.[85] Biographical series[edit] There were also a number of monographs or biographies, including of Dion of Syracuse, Timoleon of Corinth, and Tilliborus, a brigand or robber of Asia minor, which are now lost.[86][87][88][89][90] Sources, transmission, translations and publications[edit] Everything known of his life derives from the 9th century writing of Photius in his Bibliotheca, and from those few references which exist within Arrian's own writings. The knowledge of his consulship, is derived at the least from literature produced by Suidas. Arnobius (c. 3rd century AD[91]) mentions Arrian. Arrian was also known of by Aulus Gellius. Pliny the Younger addressed seven of his epistles to him. Simplicius made a copy of the Encheridion, which was transmitted under the name of the monastic father Nilus during the 5th century, and as a result found in every monastery library.[16][92][7][93][14][94] Nicholas Blancard made translations of Arrian in 1663 and 1668.[95] The voyage of Nearchus and Periplus of the Erythrean Sea were translated from the Greek by the then Dean of Westminster, William Vincent, and published in 1809. Vincent published a commentary in 1797 on The voyage of Nearchus. The work was also translated into French by M. Billecocq, under the auspices of the government (cf. p. 321).[96] References[edit] ^ "Arrian". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2010-01-07. Arrian born c. AD 86, Nicomedia, Bithynia [now İzmit, Tur.] died c. AD 160, Athens? [Greece]. ^ Stadter's suggestion that his official name was Lucius Flavius Arrianus Xenophon (Stadter, Philip (1967). "Flavius Arrianus: The New Xenophon". Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies. Retrieved April 14, 2016. ) is disproven by epigraphic evidence: Bowie, E. L. “Greeks and Their Past in the Second Sophistic.” Past & Present, 46 (1970): 25 n. 72. ^ a b c FW Walbank (November 1984). F. W. Walbank (ed.). The Cambridge Ancient History. Cambridge University Press, 6 Sep 1984. ISBN 0-521-23445-X. Retrieved 2015-04-01. ^ a b c "Arrian". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2010-01-07. Arrian (born c. ad 86, Nicomedia, Bithynia [now İzmit, Tur.] died c. 160, Athens? [Greece]) Greek historian and philosopher who was one of the most distinguished authors of the 2nd-century Roman Empire. Wolfgang Haase; Hildegard Temporini (1990). Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt: Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung, Volume 2;Volume 34. Walter de Gruyter. p. 228. ISBN 3-11-010376-1. Arrian was of Greek stock, from the provincial aristocracy of Bithynia. His full name, L. Flavius Arrianus, demonstrates that he was a Roman citizen and suggests that the citizenship went back several generations, probably to the triumphal period. Arrian’s home city was the Bithynian capital, Nicomedia, where he held the priesthood of Demeter and Kore, its patron deities. Arrian; Sélincourt, Aubrey De (1971). The campaigns of Alexander. Penguin Classics. p. 13. ISBN 0-14-044253-7. Flavius Arrianus Xenophon, to give him his full name, was a Greek, born at Nicomedia, the capital of the Roman province of Bithynia, probably a few years before A.D. 90. Grant, Michael (1992). Readings in the classical historians. Scribner's. p. 544. ISBN 0-684-19245-4. ARRIAN: GREEK HISTORIAN Arrian was an approximate contemporary of Appian, born about AD 95. Like him a Greek, he came from Nicomedia (İzmit) in Bithynia (north-western Asia-Minor) where his family was prominent. ^ Heckel, Waldemar (2004). The History of Alexander. Penguin. pp. 5 & 269. ^ Bosworth, A.B. (1976). "Errors in Arrian". Classical Quarterly. 26: 117–139. doi:10.1017/s0009838800033905. ^ a b c Le Clerc, Jean, Rooke, John. Arrian's History of Alexander's expedition. Translated from the Greek. With notes historical, geographical, and critical. By Mr. Rooke. To which is prefix'd, Mr. Le Clerc's Criticism upon Quintus Curtius. And some remarks upon Mr. Perizonius's vindication of the author. London, Printed for T. Worrall etc., etc. 1729. Retrieved 2015-04-06.CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link) ^ N. G. L. Hammond (2007-08-13). Sources for Alexander the Great: An Analysis of Plutarch's 'Life' and Arrian's 'Anabasis Alexandrou'. Cambridge University Press, 13 Aug 2007. ISBN 978-0-521-71471-6. Retrieved 2015-04-04. ^ EL Bowie (January 2002). PA Stadter; L. Van der Stockt (eds.). Sage and Emperor: Plutarch, Greek Intellectuals, and Roman Power in the Time of Trajan (98-117 A.D.). Leuven University Press, 1 Jan 2002. ISBN 9058672395. Retrieved 2015-04-04. ^ AM Devine – Oxford (H Temporini, W Haase, J Vogt) - (1993). Aufstieg U Niedergang D Roemwelt Teil 2 Bd 34/1, Volume 2; Volume 31; Volume 34. Walter de Gruyter, 1993. ISBN 3-11-010376-1. Retrieved 2015-04-04.CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link) ^ FP Polo, The Consul at Rome: The Civil Functions of the Consuls in the Roman Republic Cambridge University Press, 24 Feb 2011 ISBN 1-139-49599-2 [Retrieved 2015-04-04] (ed. used p.1-3 to identify nature of < consulship >) ^ "Arrian". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2010-01-07. Arrian (born c. ad 86, Nicomedia, Bithynia [now İzmit, Tur.] died c. 160, Athens? [Greece]) Greek historian and philosopher who was one of the most distinguished authors of the 2nd-century Roman Empire. Wolfgang Haase; Hildegard Temporini (1990). Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt: Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung, Volume 2;Volume 34. Walter de Gruyter. p. 228. ISBN 3-11-010376-1. Arrian was of Greek stock, from the provincial aristocracy of Bithynia. His full name, L. Flavius Arrianus, demonstrates that he was a Roman citizen and suggests that the citizenship went back several generations, probably to the triumphal period. Arrian’s home city was the Bithynian capital, Nicomedia, where he held the priesthood of Demeter and Kore, its patron deities. Arrian; Sélincourt, Aubrey De (1971). The campaigns of Alexander. Penguin Classics. p. 13. ISBN 0-14-044253-7. Flavius Arrianus Xenophon, to give him his full name, was a Greek, born at Nicomedia, the capital of the Roman province of Bithynia, probably a few years before A.D. 90. Grant, Michael (1992). Readings in the classical historians. Scribner's. p. 544. ISBN 0-684-19245-4. ARRIAN: GREEK HISTORIAN Arrian was an approximate contemporary of Appian, born about AD 95. Like him a Greek, he came from Nicomedia in Bithynia (north-western Asia-Minor) where his family was prominent. ^ a b c I Syvänne (2013-10-21). Philosophers of War: The Evolution of History's Greatest Military Thinkers [2 Volumes]: The Evolution of History's Greatest Military Thinkers. ABC-CLIO, 21 Oct 2013. ISBN 978-0-313-07033-4. Retrieved 2015-04-01. ^ a b c d Hans-Josef Klauck (2003-05-01). Religious Context of Early Christianity: A Guide To Graeco-Roman Religions (p.350). A&C Black, 1 May 2003 (reprint, revised). ISBN 0-567-08943-6. Retrieved 2015-04-06. ^ a b JS Romm (2005-03-11). Alexander The Great: Selections from Arrian, Diodorus, Plutarch, and Quintus Curtius (p.xix). Hackett Publishing, 11 Mar 2005. ISBN 1-60384-333-7. Retrieved 2015-04-08. ^ a b c d e f EJ Chinnock. The Anabasis of Alexander or, The History of the Wars and Conquests of Alexander the Great. Hodder & Stoughton 1884 (Project Gutenberg – September 27, 2014). Retrieved 2015-04-03. (information was also retrieved during the 5th and 6th of April 2015) ^ a b c P. E. Easterling; B. M. W. Knox (1989). The Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Volume 1, Greek Literature, Part 4, The Hellenistic Period and the Empire (p.143 - ). Cambridge University Press, 4 May 1989. ISBN 0-521-35984-8. Retrieved 2015-04-05. ^ Oxford Dictionaries: attest, pupilage Oxford University Press [Retrieved 2015-04-05] ^ a b G Long, Epictetus (2010-01-01). Enchiridion and Selections from the Discourses of Epictetus, p.6. Digireads.com Publishing, 1 Jan 2010. ISBN 978-1-4209-3522-6. Retrieved 2015-04-03. ^ a b c JW McCrindle (1816). The Invasion of India by Alexander the Great, p.9-10. Retrieved 2015-04-03. ^ a b c d M.C. Howatson (2013-08-22). The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (p.73). Oxford University Press, 22 Aug 2013 (reprint). ISBN 978-0-19-954855-2. (.... Enchiridion a summary of the Discourses) ^ a b AB Bosworth (2012-03-29). The Oxford Classical Dictionary – edited by S Hornblower, A Spawforth, E Eidinow. Oxford University Press, 29 Mar 2012. ISBN 978-0-19-954556-8. Retrieved 2015-04-02. ^ a b N Fields (2009-03-31). The Roman Army of the Principate 27 BC-AD 117 p.41-42. Osprey Publishing, 2009. ISBN 978-1-84603-386-5. Retrieved 2015-04-01. ^ a b c d A Mehl (2011-01-18). Roman Historiography. John Wiley & Sons, 18 Jan 2011. ISBN 978-1-4051-2183-5. Retrieved 2015-04-06. (ed. this the first source for < History of the Diadochi >) ^ a b c d A. B. Bosworth (1972). "Arrian's Literary Development The Classical Quarterly New Series, Vol. 22, No. 1 (May, 1972), pp. 163-185". The Classical Quarterly. Cambridge University Press. 22 (1): 163–185. doi:10.1017/S0009838800034170. JSTOR 637903. ^ Peter Beckford (... perhaps, the writing is slightly illegible) or a Country Squire — Essays on Hunting. Containing a philosophical enquiry into the nature and properties of the scent; observations on ... hounds ... also directions for the choice of a hunter, etc., extracted from “An Essay on Hunting, by a Country Squire,” published in 1733., With Six letters upon Hunting” by J. S. Gardiner., With an introduction by the editor, W. Blane, p.xvii Southampton T. Baker and others 1781 [Retrieved 2015-04-02] (ed. this source not the first source for ed. of this factor) ^ S Swain (1996). Hellenism and Empire: Language, Classicism, and Power in the Greek World, AD (p.328ff.). Oxford University Press, 1996. ISBN 0-19-814772-4. Retrieved 2015-04-05. ^ definitions of paideia — Merriam-Webster, University Press [Retrieved 2015-04-05] ^ Werner Jaeger (translated by Gilbert Highet), Paideia: The Ideals of Greek Culture: II. In Search of the Divine Centre Volume 2 of Paideia: The Ideals of Greek Culture Oxford University Press, 23 Oct 1986 (reprint – 1st published 1943) ISBN 0-19-504047-3 [Retrieved 2015-04-05] ^ Perseus Project: Latin Word Study Tool: paideia [Retrieved 2015-04-05] ^ Oxford Dictionaries: personage Oxford University Press [Retrieved 2015-04-05] ^ R Waterfield (2012-08-02). Dividing the Spoils: The War for Alexander the Great's Empire. Oxford University Press, 2 Aug 2012. ISBN 978-0-19-964700-2. Retrieved 2015-04-06. ^ SB Ferrario was the first source for FGrH 156 ^ a b EL Bowie (2013-01-11). Studies in Ancient Society (Routledge Revivals) p.191-192. Routledge, 11 Jan 2013. ISBN 978-1-136-50564-5. Retrieved 2015-04-02. ^ Arrian's voyage round the Euxine Sea translated: and accompanied with a geographical dissertation, and maps J. Cook, 1805 [Retrieved 2015-3-31] (ed. 1st source) ^ William Thomas Lowndes, The bibliographer's manual of English literature, containing an account of rare, curious, and useful books, publ. in or relating to Great Britain and Ireland 1857 [Retrieved 2015-3-31] ^ EL Bowie, Sage and Emperor: Plutarch, Greek Intellectuals, and Roman Power in the Time of Trajan (98-117 A.D.) (p.48) Leuven University Press, 1 Jan 2002 (edited by PA Stadter, L. Van der Stockt), ISBN 9058672395 [Retrieved 2015-04-05] ^ George Long, Arrian : The Discourses of Epictetus – Special Edition (p.vii) Archived 2015-04-14 at the Wayback Machine Special Edition Books, 2010 ISBN 1-934255-31-9 [Retrieved 2015-04-05] ^ Nathaniel Lardner, The works of Nathaniel Lardner, D.D. with a life by Dr. Kippis ... W. Bal, 1838 [Retrieved 2015-04-05] ^ Definitions of < vade mecum > Oxford University, Merriam-Webster [Retrieved 2015-04-05] ^ Vice Admiral JB Stockdale, Courage Under Fire: Testing Epictetus's Doctrines in a Laboratory of Human Behavior Hoover Press, 1 Jan 1993 ISBN 0-8179-3692-0 [Retrieved 2015-04-05] ^ KH Seddon – Epictetus Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy [Retrieved 2015-04-06] ^ Encyclopædia Iranica Anabasis Archived May 17, 2015, at the Wayback Machine [Retrieved 2015-04-06] ^ G Hill (2010-09-23). A History of Cyprus, Volume 1. Cambridge University Press, 23 Sep 2010. ISBN 978-1-108-02062-6. Retrieved 2015-04-06. (p.156 footnote 4 is the location of < Ta met' Alexandron >. ^ SB Ferrario, Historical Agency and the 'Great Man' in Classical Greece (p.6 footnote 17) Cambridge University Press, 2 Oct 2014 ISBN 1-107-03734-4 [Retrieved 2015-04-05] (ed. this source used only for the addition of < Ta meta tou Alexandrou >) ^ EM Anson (2014-04-24). Alexander's Heirs: The Age of the Successors. John Wiley & Sons, 24 Apr 2014. ISBN 978-1-118-86240-7. Retrieved 2015-04-02. ^ CG Starr, A History of the Ancient World Oxford University Press, 1991 ISBN 0-19-506628-6 [Retrieved 2015-04-03] (ed. supporting / secondary source for < lost >) ^ Encyclopædia Iranica (general editor: E Yarshater). Arrian. Retrieved 2015-04-03. ^ J Wiesehofer, Ancient Persia (p.131 – the link opens p.133) I.B.Tauris, 18 Aug 2001 ISBN 1-86064-675-1 [Retrieved 2015-04-02] ^ E. Yarshater, The Cambridge History of Iran: Seleucid Parthian (p.697) Cambridge University Press, 14 Apr 1983 ISBN 0-521-24693-8 [Retrieved 2015-04-03] ^ LJ Sanders referencing AB Bosworth referencing Photius, The Legend of Dion (p.173 footnote 379) Dundurn, 15 Mar 2008 ISBN 1-4597-1094-0 [Retrieved 2015-04-04] ^ Arriani Nicomediensis Scripta Minora Rudolfus Hercher iterum recognovit (ed. 1st source) ^ Arrian, R Hercher, Nicomediensis Scripta minora (Latin) Publisher: Sumptibus et typis B.G . Teubneri 1854 (Book from the collections of: New York Public Library) [Retrieved 2015-04-01] ^ Alexander the Great: The Anabasis and the Indica (p.227 onward) Translated by M Hammond Oxford University Press, 14 Feb 2013 ISBN 0-19-958724-8 [Retrieved 2015-04-01] ^ a b c William Smith (1844). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, Volume 3. Retrieved 2015-04-03. (ed. this source used for < Ινσικη >) ^ The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica (scroll down for a list of editors) Encyclopædia Britannica [Retrieved 2015-04-01] (ed. this the 1st source of < Indica > for this ed.) ^ AB Bosworth, Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, Volume 81, p.234 Harvard University Press, 1 Jan 1977 (edited by G. P. Goold) ISBN 0-674-37928-4 [Retrieved 2015-04-02] ^ P Sidnell, Warhorse: Cavalry in Ancient Warfare (p.268) Bloomsbury Publishing, 10 Oct 2007 ISBN 0-8264-2105-9 [Retrieved 2015-04-03] ^ T E Rihll, Greek Science (p.84 footnote 11) Cambridge University Press, 11 Nov 1999 ISBN 0-19-922395-5 [Retrieved 2015-3-31] (ed. 1st source for < Tekhne Taktike >) ^ I Syvänne, The Age of Hippotoxotai: Art of War in Roman Military Revival and Disaster (491-636) Volume 994 of Acta Universitatis Tamperensis Tampere University Press, 2004 ISBN 9514459180 [Retrieved 2015-3-31] ^ S Jamess (R Collins, F McIntosh, eds.), Life in the Limes: Studies of the people and objects of the Roman frontiers, p.102 Oxbow Books, 31 Mar 2014 ISBN 1-78297-254-4 [Retrieved 2015-04-01] ^ Edward Gibbon, The life of Edward Gibbon, by himself, with selections from his correspondence, and illustrustrated by the rev. H.H. Milman. To which is added, Essay on the study of literature p.100 footnote 22d Paris Baudry's European Library 1840 [Retrieved 2015-04-02] ^ KR. Dixon, P Southern, The Roman Cavalry, p.126 onward Routledge, 11 Jan 2013 ISBN 1-135-11407-2 [Retrieved 2015-04-02] ^ Perseus Tufts Latin Word Study Tool: – texnh [Retrieved 2015-04-01] (ed. < texnh > located at < JG DeVoto > in http://www.karwansaraypublishers.com/ - used in verification of Ars tactica as same work)) ^ PA Stadter - (1978). "The Ars Tactica of Arrian: Tradition and Originality – Classical Philology Vol. 73, No. 2 (Apr., 1978), pp. 117-128". Classical Philology. The University of Chicago Press. 73 (2): 117–128. JSTOR 268990. ^ M Peachin, Frontinus and the Curae of the Curator Aquarum (p.92 – footnote 21) Volume 39 of Heidelberger althistorische Beiträge und epigraphische Studien Franz Steiner Verlag, 2004 ISBN 3-515-08636-6 [Retrieved 2015-04-08] ^ J Mancini, Vicennalia Treccani – La Cultura Italiana [Retrieved 2015-04-08] (ed. this source used only to identify the nature of the word < vicennalia >) ^ p.51 – Arrian on Coursing. The Cynegeticus of the Younger Xenophon ... with Classical and Practical Annotations, and a Brief Sketch of the Life and Writings of the Author ; To which is Added an Appendix Containing Some Account of the Canes Venatici of Classical Antiquity, Bohn, 1831 [Retrieved 2015-3-31] (ed. this was the first source for < Cynegeticus >) ^ Delabere Pritchett Blaine, p.391 – An Encyclopaedia of Rural Sports: Or a Complete Account, Historical, Practical, and Descriptive, of Hunting, Shooting, Fishing, Racing, and Other Field Sports and Athletic Amusements of the Present Day, Volume 1 Longman, Orme, Brown, Green and Longmans, 1840 [Retrieved 2015-3-31] ^ The Quarterly Review, Volume 118 John Murray, 1865 [Retrieved 2015-3-31] ^ Thomas Keith, A new treatise on the use of the globes ... The sixth edition, corrected and improved 1824 [Retrieved 2015-3-31] ^ AA Phillips, MM Willcock, Xenophon and Arrian, On Hunting (Kynēgetikos) Aris & Phillips, 1 Jan 1999 ISBN 0-85668-705-7 [Retrieved 2015-04-04] (ed. source of word < Kynēgetikos > ^ M. I. Finley, Studies in Ancient Society (Routledge Revivals) (p.193) Routledge, 11 Jan 2013 ISBN 1-136-50564-4 [Retrieved 2015-04-04] (ed. source for < κυνηγεττικός >) ^ J. Mossman, F. Titchener, Virtues for the People: Aspects of Plutarchan Ethics (p.277) (edited by G Roskam, L. Van der Stockt) Universitaire Pers Leuven, 2011 ISBN 905867858X [Retrieved 2015-04-04] (ed. this source being not the first source for this fact for ed.) ^ Oxford Dictionary: exposition, Oxford University Press [Retrieved 2015-04-04] ^ N. J. E. Austin, N. B. Rankov, Exploratio: Military & Political Intelligence in the Roman World from the Second Punic War to the Battle of Adrianople, p.4 Routledge, 1 Jun 2002 ISBN 1-317-59385-5 [Retrieved 2015-04-01] ^ EL Wheeler (edited by P Erdkamp – Research Fellow in Ancient History at Leiden University) (2011-03-31). A Companion to the Roman Army. John Wiley & Sons, 31 Mar 2011. ISBN 978-1-4443-9376-7. Retrieved 2015-04-04. (the word < Deployment > in search criteria was taken from J. E. Lendon ISBN 0-300-11979-8, p.267) ^ Encyclopædia Britannica [Retrieved 2015-04-01] ^ Details of a publication (JG DeVoto) Archived 2015-04-02 at the Wayback Machine [Retrieved 2015-04-01] ^ P Southern, The Roman Army: A Social and Institutional History, p.24 Oxford University Press, 2007 ISBN 0-19-532878-7 [Retrieved 2015-04-02] ^ D Hoyos, A Roman Army Reader: Twenty-One Selections from Literary, Epigraphic, and Other Documents (p.xliii) Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, 1 Oct 2013 ISBN 0-86516-715-X [Retrieved 2015-04-04] ^ J. E. Lendon, Soldiers & Ghosts: A History of Battle in Classical Antiquity Yale University Press, 1 Aug 2006 ISBN 0-300-11979-8 [Retrieved 2015-04-04(ed. ascertained Lendon' – Deployment at this) ^ Oxford Dictionaries: explicit, explicate Oxford University Press [Retrieved 2015-04-04] ^ ICRC: Methods and means of warfare – 29-10-2010 Overview [Retrieved 2015-04-04] (ed. used for clarity on concept < method of war > in J. E. Lendon) ^ Perseus Digital Library: R Hercher, A. Eberhard, Ed. [Retrieved 2015-04-01] ^ M. I. Finley, Studies in Ancient Society (Routledge Revivals)(p.193) Routledge, 11 Jan 2013 ISBN 1-136-50564-4 [Retrieved 2015-04-04] (ed. this source the primary source) ^ C Schrader, Concordantia in Flavii Arriani Indicam historiam Georg Olms Verlag, 1 Jan 1995 ISBN 3-487-10017-7 [Retrieved 2015-04-04] (used as verification of primary, and used word < biography >) ^ Oxford Dictionary – monograph Oxford University Press [Retrieved 2015-04-04] ^ EJ Chinnock, The Anabasis of Alexander [Retrieved 2015-04-04] ^ L Boia – Great Historians from Antiquity to 1800: An International Dictionary, Volume 1 Greenwood Press, 1 Jan 1989 ISBN 0-313-24517-7 (ed. first source for Tilliborus, found here [1] (Retrieved 2015-04-04] ^ MP Carroll, The Cult of the Virgin Mary: Psychological Origins (p.101) Princeton University Press, 1992 ISBN 0-691-02867-2 [Retrieved 2015-04-06] ^ Fortescue, A. (1912), The Catholic Encyclopedia – Suidas (ed. K Knight) New York: Robert Appleton Company [Retrieved 2015-04-06] (ed. this source used to identify the nature of < Suidas > only) ^ E Ferguson (2013-10-08). Encyclopedia of Early Christianity, Second Edition (p.379). Routledge, 8 Oct 2013. ISBN 978-1-136-61158-2. Retrieved 2015-04-06. ^ P Kelemen, El Greco Revisited: Candia, Venice, Toledo – Page 110 Macmillan, 1961 (176 pages) [Retrieved 2015-04-06] ^ Alexander Chalmers, The General Biographical Dictionary: Containing an Historical and Critical Account of the Lives and Writings of the Most Eminent Persons in Every Nation: Particularly the British and Irish; from the Earliest Accounts to the Present Time, Volumes 5-6, p.396-7 J. Nichols, 1812 [Retrieved 2015-04-02] ^ The British Critic: A New Review, Volume 34 F. and C. Rivington, 1810 [Retrieved 2015-04-02] Further reading[edit] Arrian, The Campaigns of Alexander, translated by Aubrey de Sélincourt, Penguin Classics, 1958 and numerous subsequent editions. Phillips, A. A., and M. M. Willcock (eds.). Xenophon and Arrian On Hunting with Hounds. Cynegeticus. Oxford: Aris & Phillips, 1999. ISBN 0-85668-706-5. P. A. Stadter, Arrian of Nicomedia, Chapel Hill, 1980. R. Syme, 'The Career of Arrian', Harvard Studies in Classical Philology vol.86 (1982), pp. 171–211. E. L. Wheeler, Flavius Arrianus: a political and military biography, Duke University, 1977.nn Cartledge, Paul; Romm, James S.; Strassler, Robert B.; Pamela Mensch (2010). The Landmark Arrian: The Campaigns of Alexander. New York: Pantheon. ISBN 978-0-375-42346-8. Yardley, J. & Heckel, W. (2004) The History of Alexander, Penguin, London, pp. 5 & 269. Brodersen, K. (2017) Arrianos / Asklepiodotos: Die Kunst der Taktik. Greek and German, De Gruyter, Berlin ISBN 978-3-11-056216-3. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Arrian Wikisource has original text related to this article: Arrian Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Arrian Works by Arrian at Project Gutenberg Livius, Arrian of Nicomedia by Jona Lendering Arrian On Coursing: the Cynegeticus William Dansey 1831 Arrianus's voyage round the Euxine Sea: translated and accompanied with a geographical dissertation and maps Texts online Collected works: Flavii Arriani quae exstant omnia, A. G. Roos (ed.), 2 vols., Lipsiae, in aedibus B. G. Teubneri, 1967–68. Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri, Teubner monolingual Greek edition, edited by A.G. Roos (1907) Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri, translated by E.J. Chinnock (1893) Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri, (section 1.13-16) (pdf, pp. 18-19), Battle of Granicus, from the Loeb Classical Library edition. Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri, (section 4.18.4-19.6), Sogdian Rock, translated by Aubrey de Sélincourt Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri, (Section 7.5.1-16), translated by John Yardley Arrian, Cynegeticus, translated and edited by William Dansey (1831) Arrian, Events after Alexander (from Photius' Bibliotheca) translated by John Rooke, edited by Tim Spalding Arrian, The Indica translated by E. Iliff Robson. Arrian, Array against the Alans (Ἔκταξις κατὰ Ἀλανῶν) translated by Sander van Dorst, with the Greek (transliterated) and copious notes. Photius' excerpt of Arrian's Anabasis, translated by J. S. Freese Photius' excerpt of Arrian's Bithynica, translated by J. S. Freese Photius' excerpt of Arrian's Parthica, translated by J. S. Freese Photius' excerpt of Arrian's Events after Alexander, translated by J. S. Freese Authority control BIBSYS: 90114192 BNE: XX953896 BNF: cb130917071 (data) CANTIC: a10324811 CiNii: DA01660730 GND: 118504436 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CNCV\000898 ISNI: 0000 0001 2145 1319 LCCN: n79023201 NDL: 00431769 NKC: jn19981000151 NLA: 36187190 NLG: 15167 NLI: 000011934 NLK: KAC201736551 NSK: 000060674 NTA: 069603596 RERO: 02-A000009800 SELIBR: 175882 SNAC: w6tf1mw7 SUDOC: 02720698X Trove: 1225909 VcBA: 495/44196 VIAF: 100192636 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79023201 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arrian&oldid=995258680" Categories: Roman-era Greek historians Flavii Roman-era Greeks 80s births 2nd-century deaths Ancient Roman generals Suffect consuls of Imperial Rome Roman governors of Cappadocia Alexander the Great Ancient Greek military writers Ionic Greek writers Attic Greek writers People from Bithynia Historians from Roman Anatolia 1st-century Romans 2nd-century Romans 1st-century Greek people 2nd-century Greek people 2nd-century historians Eponymous archons Hidden categories: CS1 maint: uses authors parameter Webarchive template wayback links Articles with hCards Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Latin-language text Articles with Project Gutenberg links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages العربية Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Latina Lëtzebuergesch Magyar मराठी Nederlands 日本語 Napulitano Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 20 December 2020, at 01:36 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5701	----	Luis de León - Wikipedia Luis de León From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Fray Luis de León) Jump to navigation Jump to search "Luis Ponce de León" redirects here. For the Spanish judge, see Luis Ponce de León (governor of New Spain). Fray Luis de León An image of Luis, depicted by Francisco Pacheco c. 1599 in El libro de descripción de verdaderos retratos, ilustres y memorables varones (The book of description of real portraits, illustrious and memorable men). Born 1527 Belmonte, Cuenca Died August 23, 1591(1591-08-23) (aged 63–64) Madrigal de las Altas Torres, Crown of Castile Education Universidad de Salamanca Occupation Lyric poet, Augustinian friar, theologian and academic Luis de León OESA (Belmonte, Cuenca, 1527 – Madrigal de las Altas Torres, Castile, Spain, 23 August 1591), was a Spanish lyric poet, Augustinian friar, theologian and academic, active during the Spanish Golden Age. Contents 1 Early life 2 Academic career 3 Imprisonment 4 Later life 5 Major works 5.1 Cantar de los Cantares (translation of Song of Songs) 5.2 In Cantica Canticorum Salomonis explanatio (Commentary on the Song of Solomon) 5.3 La Perfecta Casada (The Perfect Wife) 5.4 De los Nombres de Cristo (The Names of Christ) 5.5 F Luysii Legionensis Augustiniani Theologiae Doctoris, & Divinorum Librorum primi apud Salmanticenses interpretis explanatiorum in eosdem 5.6 Exposición del Libro de Job (Commentary on the Book of Job) 5.7 Twenty three original poems in Spanish 6 Poetry Selections 6.1 The Life Removed 6.2 Ode to Salinas 7 Later reputation 8 See also 9 References 10 Modern translations 11 Further reading 12 External links Early life[edit] Luis de León was born in Belmonte, in the Province of Cuenca, in 1527 or 1528.[1] His parents were Lope de León and Inés de Varela, and they had five children.[2] His father practiced law, and it was due to his profession that the family moved to Madrid in 1534, and later to Valladolid.[3] Luis obtained a very thorough and extensive education, and was devoted to the interpretation and translation of religious texts and ideas. He was proficient in Greek, Hebrew, and Latin. He entered the University of Salamanca at the age of fourteen, in 1541, to study Canon Law under the care of his uncle Francisco. At some point between 1541 and 1543 (Thompson states that it was about 5-6 months after beginning his studies, while other authors often claim it was 1543), Luis abandoned his studies and instead entered the Order of the Hermits of St. Augustine. After a novitiate of uncertain duration he joined the Priory of San Pedro on 29 January 1544. The first record of León as a student of theology is in the matriculation book at the University of Salamanca for 1546-7. In 1552, Fray Luis graduated with a bachelor's degree in theology from the University of Toledo and continued his education as a student of Hebrew and Biblical interpretation at the University of Alcalá de Henares. Academic career[edit] Hall of Fray Luis de León in the old building of the Universidad de Salamanca. Having returned to Salamanca the previous year, in 1560 he graduated from the University of Salamanca as a licentiate (7 May) and Master of Theology (30 June), and in the following year he won the election to the Chair of St Thomas, a chair in Theology, at the same university (Salamanca was unusual in that all Chairs were subject to an election for the position). This was a minor Chair, with a limited four-year tenure. In 1565, he won the Chair of St Durandus, to which he was re-elected in 1569 (he lost it in 1573 because he was in prison while the elections took place). In 1566 he was named administrator of the Augustinian College of San Guillermo in Salamanca, and in 1567 he took on the position of vice rector of the University. In 1571 he attained the Chair of Sacred Letters as well. While at the university, he translated classical and biblical literature and wrote on religious themes. He was widely known for his works. Imprisonment[edit] In 1571 Dominican professors Bartolomé de Medina and Castro put forth seventeen propositions to the Inquisition documenting Fray Luis' allegedly heretical opinions. His translation into Spanish and commentary of the Song of Solomon was the biggest evidence presented for their case against him. Another charge touched on his criticizing the text of the Vulgate. As a result, he was imprisoned at Valladolid from 27 March 1572 until December 1576, fell ill and remained in bad health throughout his imprisonment. Though he suffered greatly from his isolation and less than desirable conditions, Fray Luis continued to actively write and study during his confinement. At the end of 1576, the tables turned, and on 11 December Fray Luis was cleared of all charges and released from prison with an admonishment to be more careful and reserved in his publications and speech. He returned to Salamanca on 30 December in triumph. Tradition has it that he began his university lecture on 29 January 1577, his first after returning from four years' imprisonment, with the words Dicebamus hesterna die ("As we were saying yesterday...."). Later life[edit] Statue of Fray Luis de León in Salamanca, Spain Fray Luis continued to teach at the university, being awarded a special chair at the end of 1576, shortly after his acquittal. In 1578 he obtained, for life, the chair of Moral Philosophy, and in 1579 was elected to the most significant chair in the university, the Chair of Holy Scripture (sometimes known as the chair of Biblical Studies or the Bible Chair). He went on to earn a Master of the Arts degree from the University of Sahagún. Fray Luis did not pay heed to the cautionary admonishments of the Inquisitorial committee after his earlier imprisonment. In 1582, he had another Inquisitional run-in, following three disputations held on the subject of the merits of Christ and human predestination, but was not this time imprisoned. He was absolved two years later, in 1584. Fray Luis's first published Spanish and Latin works emerged in 1580, some having been begun in prison; most of his works were printed during this decade. Between 1583 and 1585 he published the three books of his celebrated treatise, The Names of Christ, which he had written in prison. In 1583 also appeared the most popular of his prose works, The Perfect Wife, an instruction for newly married women. In 1588, Fray Luis published the first collected edition of the writings of Teresa of Ávila.[4] To produce this work, he had performed the task of collating her manuscripts, checking references and notes, and preparing a definitive text (although Teresa and León were both in Salamanca in late 1570, it is not believed they ever met in their lifetimes). He died at the age of 64 on 23 August 1591, in Madrigal de las Altas Torres, Ávila,[5] and is buried in Salamanca in the Priory of San Agustín.[6] Ten days before his death he was elected Vicar General of the Augustinian Order.[7] Major works[edit] Statue of Fray Luis de León on display outside the Gran Teatro in Santiago de los Caballeros in the Dominican Republic. Cantar de los Cantares (translation of Song of Songs)[edit] In 1561, he began translating the Song of Songs into Spanish for his cousin, Isabel Osorio, a nun in Salamanca who could not read the Latin text, and wrote an accompanying commentary. This was León's first major translation of a biblical text, and was probably inspired by a commentary his contemporary Arias Montano had lent to him when he passed through Salamanca in 1561. Translation of biblical texts into Spanish had been banned by the Council of Trent, so there was a certain risk in this undertaking. The manuscript, however, was popular amongst his friends, who copied it and circulated it privately. However, the translations formed part of the accusations levelled against León when he was denounced to the Inquisition in 1572. Because of the controversial nature of the text, it was not published until 1798. In Cantica Canticorum Salomonis explanatio (Commentary on the Song of Solomon)[edit] This was published in 1580, and built on an earlier Spanish commentary. He revised and enlarged it in a 1589 edition. La Perfecta Casada (The Perfect Wife)[edit] This book is Fray Luis’ interpretation of the Proverbs of Solomon, and was written as a moral exposition to his newly married young niece. It advises all young women on the proper behavior and duties of a married woman, both in regard to her husband and her children. The book quickly became a popular wedding gift to young women of the era, as it was an instruction manual for marriage. In addition, this book was a revolutionary defense of women’s roles in society at the time. It was first published in 1583, and was popular, appearing in six editions by 1632. De los Nombres de Cristo (The Names of Christ)[edit] Another well-known work, this was written as a guide to the layman about the essential principles of the church. It is written in dialogue form about three friends who discuss fourteen of the Scriptural names of Christ over a period of two days in a country estate. Each book ends in a lyrical meditation expressed in a poem. The predominant theme is the centrality and universality of Christ. The work grew by stages. The first edition of 1583 is made up of only two books, considering nine names in total. The second edition of 1585 adds a third book, considering four names, and adds the name 'shepherd' to the first book. Finally, the posthumous edition of 1595 includes one extra name, 'lamb'. The structure of the third edition was used for the 1984 English translation.[8] The work quickly became popular in Spain: seven editions were printed by 1605. F Luysii Legionensis Augustiniani Theologiae Doctoris, & Divinorum Librorum primi apud Salmanticenses interpretis explanatiorum in eosdem[edit] In 1589, Fray Luis published a volume of Latin commentaries on Obadiah, 2 Thessalonians, Galatians and the Song of Songs. These represent the summit of his achievement as a Biblical scholar. Exposición del Libro de Job (Commentary on the Book of Job)[edit] This is another contribution made by Fray Luis to make Scripture available to those who could not read Latin. In other words, he wanted ordinary people to be exposed to the Biblical message. The story tells of Job's patience and suffering, and also serves as a correctional guide to man's behavior. It is written in both verse and dialogue, to make it both enjoyable and informative. León began the work while in prison, and had completed thirty-five chapters by the end of 1580. He resumed work on it ten years later and finished the work in 1591, a few months before his death. He dedicated the work to Mother Ana de Jesús, to whom John of the Cross had dedicated his Spiritual Canticle. Fray Luis had come to know her in recent years, both in preparing the first edition of the works of Teresa of Avila, and in defending the privileges of the Discalced Carmelite nuns against proposed changes in the Teresan constitution. It was first published in 1779. Twenty three original poems in Spanish[edit] Fray Luis composed a number of poems, the majority probably between 1559 and 1584. He did not publish them, but circulated them among his friends.[9] They were first published in 1631, when Quevedo printed them. The canon of Fray Luis's poetry, as fixed by Hispanists, consists of twenty-nine poems. See two of his most well-known examples below: The Life Removed and Ode to Salinas. Poetry Selections[edit] The Life Removed[edit] In the poem The Life Removed, of which an excerpt is shown below, Fray Luis, following the beatus ille theme introduced by Horace, expounds upon the notion of choice and its consequences. He says that those irrational men who aspire to power and wealth and are guided by the talk and opinion of others will not achieve the peace, happiness, and liberty assured to those who travel the hidden path. The poem continues on to mention a ship in a storm, and how the sailors aboard are motivated only by greed and ambition, and they will not meet the harmonious end of those who travel the hidden path. "La Vida Retirada" ¡Qué descansada vida la del que huye el mundanal ruïdo y sigue la escondida senda por donde han ido los pocos sabios que en el mundo han sido! Que no le enturbia el pecho de los soberbios grandes el estado, ni del dorado techo se admira, fabricado del sabio moro, en jaspes sustentado. No cura si la fama canta con voz su nombre pregonera, ni cura si encarama la lengua lisonjera lo que condena la verdad sincera. "The Life Removed" How tranquil is the life Of him who, shunning the vain world’s uproar, May follow, free from strife, The hidden path, of yore Trod by the few who conned true wisdom’s lore! For he with thoughts aloof By proud men’s great estate is not oppressed, Nor marvels at the roof Of gold, built to attest The Moor’s skill and on jasper piles to rest. He cares not though his name Be raised aloft, to winds of rumour flung, He cares not for the fame Of cunning flatterer’s tongue, Not that which truth sincere would leave unsung. —Peers 165 Ode to Salinas[edit] Another well-known poem composed by Fray Luis is an ode written for his friend Francisco de Salinas. They frequently spoke about art and poetry, and listened to music together. Salinas was an organist and composer, who shared Fray Luis's belief that music can make one more religious, and that it inspires man to contemplate spiritual matters. The ode, an excerpt of which is listed below, includes numerous positive images about music as a means to contemplate the divine and to overcome ignorance and foolishness. "Oda III - A Francisco de Salinas" ¡Oh, desmayo dichoso! ¡Oh, muerte que das vida! ¡Oh, dulce olvido! ¡Durase en tu reposo, sin ser restituido jamás a aqueste bajo y vil sentido! A este bien os llamo, gloria del apolíneo sacro coro, amigos a quien amo sobre todo tesoro; que todo lo visible es triste lloro. ¡Oh, suene de contino, Salinas, vuestro son en mis oídos, por quien al bien divino despiertan los sentidos quedando a lo demás amortecidos! "Ode to Salinas" O blessed swoon! O life- bestowing death! O sweet oblivion! Would that I could linger in your bliss and never be restored to this lower, viler sense. Glory of Apollo's sacred choir, I call you to this rapture, friends I love above all treasure, for all the rest is but sad plaint. O let your strains ring always in my ears, Salinas, by which my senses wake to heavenly good while to all else they stay asleep. —Translated by M. Smith Later reputation[edit] In subsequent centuries, Fray Luis was especially praised in Spain as a poet.[10] In 1631, the poet Francisco de Quevedo prepared an edition of León's poems.[11] In the eighteenth century he was the source of inspiration to various Neoclassical poets.[12] See also[edit] Gilbert Luis Centina III Spanish Renaissance literature References[edit] ^ Ramajo Caño, Antonio (2008) [1994]. "El carácter proemial de la Oda primera de fray Luis (y un excurso sobre la "Priamel" en la poesía de los Siglos de Oro)". Romanische Forschungen. Alicante: Vittorio Klostermann GmbH. 106 (106): 84–117. JSTOR 27940531 – via Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes. ^ San José Lera, Javier. "El autor: Cronología". Fundación Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes (in Spanish). Retrieved 10 August 2018. ^ San José Lera, Javier. "El autor: Apunte biográfico". Fundación Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes (in Spanish). Retrieved 10 August 2018. ^ Los libros de Madre Teresa de Jesús, ed León, (Salamanca, 1588) ^ García Lucas, Pedro (23 August 2011). "1591: Fallece fray Luis de León". Libertad Digital (in Spanish). Retrieved 10 August 2018. ^ Aznar López, Mercedes (1991). El Siglo de Frai Luis de León: Salamanca y el Renacimiento : Colegio del Arzobispo Fonseca, Escuelas Menores, Antigua Universidad, Salamanca, octubre-diciembre 1991. Universidad de Salamanca. p. 38. ISBN 9788474837841. ^ Gascón Bernal, Jesús (2006). Gutiérrez Robledo, José Luis; García-Gutiérrez Mosteiro, Javier (eds.). "Estudio histórico del convento agustino extramuros de Madrigal de las Altas Toores y la intervención clasicista del arquitecto Juan del Ribero Rada" (PDF) (in Spanish). I. Universidad Politécnica de Madrid: 519. Retrieved 10 August 2018. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ Fray Luis de León, The Names of Christ, translation and introduction by Manuel Durán and William Kluback, (New York: Paulist Press, 1984), p16 ^ Ramajo Caño, Antonio. "Poesía de Fray Luis de León" (PDF). Biblioteca Clásica de la Real Academia Española (in Spanish). Madrid: Real Academia Española. 38: 851. ^ Morreale, Margherita; de León, Luis (2007). Homenaje a Fray Luis de León. Universidad de Salamanca. p. 697. ISBN 9788478003730. ^ Cuevas García, Cristóbal (2003). "La poética imporsible de Quevedo: (Don Francisco, editor de Fray Luis)" (PDF). La Perinola (in Spanish). Universidad de Navarra. 7. doi:10.15581/017.7.191-208 (inactive 2020-12-20). Retrieved 10 August 2018.CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of December 2020 (link) ^ Palacios Fernández, Emilio. "Evolución de la poesía en el siglo XVIII". Fundación Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes (in Spanish). Retrieved 10 August 2018.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Luis de León". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Modern translations[edit] The unknown light: the poems of Fray Luis de León, translation and introduction by Willis Barnstone, (Albany, 1979) Rivers, Elias L, Fray Luis de León: The Original Poems, (London: Grant & Cutler, 1983). Fray Luis de León, The Names of Christ, translation and introduction by Manuel Durán and William Kluback, (New York: Paulist Press, 1984) [translation of Nombres de Christo] A bilingual edition of Fray Luis de León's La perfecta casada: the role of married women in sixteenth-century Spain, translated and introduction by John A. Jones and Javier San José Lera, (Lewiston, NY; Lampeter, UK: E. Mellen, 1999) Luis de León, Luis de León: Ode to Francisco Salinas, trans Michael Smith, (Shearsman Books, 2006). [1]. Further reading[edit] Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "León, Luis Ponce de" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 16 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 442. F. H. Reusch, Luis de León und die spanische Inquisition, Bonn, 1873. M. Gutierrez, Fray Luis de León y la filosofia española, Madrid, 1885. M. Menéndez y Pelayo, Estudios de crítica literaria, Madrid, 1893. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. León, Luis Ponce de. Columbia University Press, 2005. Encyclopædia Britannica. Luis Ponce de León. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2005.  Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Luis de León". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Alvarez Turienzo, S. Fray Luis de León: El Fraile, el humanista, el teólogo. Salamanca: Imprenta Kadmos, 1992. Bultman, Dana C. “Fray Luis de León.” Dictionary of Literary Biography: Sixteenth Century Spanish Writers. Ed. Gregory B. Kaplan. Detroit: Thomson Gale (2006): 138-46. Fitzmaurice-Kelly, James. Fray Luis de León: A Biographical Fragment. Milford, Eng.: Oxford UP, 1921. Peers, E. Allison. Spanish Mysticism. London: Methuen & Co, 1924. Thompson, Colin P. The Strife of Tongues: Fray Luis de León and the Golden Age of Spain. New York: Cambridge UP, 1988. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Fray Luis de León. Cervantes Virtual Library - Fray Luis de León (in Spanish) Collection of the author's works and studies on them Oda XXIII set to music. Musical version in mp3 of Oda XXIII. Works by Luis de León at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Authority control BNE: XX1719599 BNF: cb11912469m (data) CANTIC: a10463641 GND: 118727532 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\094958 ISNI: 0000 0001 2119 2417 LCCN: n79065135 NKC: jn20011024015 NLA: 35514887 NLI: 000084082 NSK: 000107928 NTA: 067816029 RERO: 02-A000104521 SELIBR: 221409 SNAC: w6m05gj8 SUDOC: 026983516 Trove: 980794 VcBA: 495/343262 VIAF: 7393179 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79065135 v t e History of Catholic theology Key figures General History of the Catholic Church Timeline History of the papacy Papal primacy Ecumenical councils Catholic Bible Vulgate Biblical canon History of Christian theology Early Church Paul Clement of Rome First Epistle of Clement Didache Ignatius of Antioch Polycarp Epistle of Barnabas The Shepherd of Hermas Aristides of Athens Justin Martyr Epistle to Diognetus Irenaeus Montanism Tertullian Origen Antipope Novatian Cyprian Constantine to Pope Gregory I Eusebius Athanasius of Alexandria Arianism Pelagianism Nestorianism Monophysitism Ephrem the Syrian Hilary of Poitiers Cyril of Jerusalem Basil of Caesarea Gregory of Nazianzus Gregory of Nyssa Ambrose John Chrysostom Jerome Augustine of Hippo John Cassian Orosius Cyril of Alexandria Peter Chrysologus Pope Leo I Boethius Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite Pope Gregory I Early Middle Ages Isidore of Seville John Climacus Maximus the Confessor Monothelitism Ecthesis Bede John of Damascus Iconoclasm Transubstantiation dispute Predestination disputes Paulinus II of Aquileia Alcuin Benedict of Aniane Rabanus Maurus Paschasius Radbertus John Scotus Eriugena High Middle Ages Roscellinus Gregory of Narek Berengar of Tours Peter Damian Anselm of Canterbury Joachim of Fiore Peter Abelard Decretum Gratiani Bernard of Clairvaux Peter Lombard Anselm of Laon Hildegard of Bingen Hugh of Saint Victor Dominic de Guzmán Robert Grosseteste Francis of Assisi Anthony of Padua Beatrice of Nazareth Bonaventure Albertus Magnus Boetius of Dacia Henry of Ghent Thomas Aquinas Siger of Brabant Thomism Roger Bacon Mysticism and reforms Ramon Llull Duns Scotus Dante Alighieri William of Ockham Richard Rolle John of Ruusbroec Catherine of Siena Bridget of Sweden Meister Eckhart Johannes Tauler Walter Hilton The Cloud of Unknowing Heinrich Seuse Geert Groote Devotio Moderna Julian of Norwich Thomas à Kempis Nicholas of Cusa Marsilio Ficino Girolamo Savonarola Giovanni Pico della Mirandola Reformation Counter-Reformation Erasmus Thomas Cajetan Thomas More John Fisher Johann Eck Francisco de Vitoria Thomas of Villanova Ignatius of Loyola Francisco de Osuna John of Ávila Francis Xavier Teresa of Ávila Luis de León John of the Cross Peter Canisius Luis de Molina (Molinism) Robert Bellarmine Francisco Suárez Lawrence of Brindisi Francis de Sales Baroque period to French Revolution Tommaso Campanella Pierre de Bérulle Pierre Gassendi René Descartes Mary of Jesus of Ágreda António Vieira Jean-Jacques Olier Louis Thomassin Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet François Fénelon Cornelius Jansen (Jansenism) Blaise Pascal Nicolas Malebranche Giambattista Vico Alphonsus Liguori Louis de Montfort Maria Gaetana Agnesi Alfonso Muzzarelli Johann Michael Sailer Clement Mary Hofbauer Bruno Lanteri 19th century Joseph Görres Felicité de Lamennais Luigi Taparelli Antonio Rosmini Ignaz von Döllinger John Henry Newman Henri Lacordaire Jaime Balmes Gaetano Sanseverino Giovanni Maria Cornoldi Wilhelm Emmanuel Freiherr von Ketteler Giuseppe Pecci Joseph Hergenröther Tommaso Maria Zigliara Matthias Joseph Scheeben Émile Boutroux Modernism Neo-Scholasticism Léon Bloy Désiré-Joseph Mercier Friedrich von Hügel Vladimir Solovyov Marie-Joseph Lagrange George Tyrrell Maurice Blondel Thérèse of Lisieux 20th century G. 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en-wikipedia-org-5706	----	Roman province - Wikipedia Roman province From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Not to be confused with Province of Rome. This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Roman province" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize its key points. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. The reason given is: Does not summarize entire article well. (April 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Major Roman administrative territorial entity outside of Italy Roman Empire under Augustus (31 BC – AD 14). Yellow: 31BC. dark green 31–19 BC, light green 19–9 BC, pale green 9–6 BC. mauve: client states The Roman empire under Hadrian (125) showing the provinces as then organised History of geography Graeco-Roman Chinese Islamic Age of Discovery History of cartography Historical geography Environmental determinism Regional geography Quantitative revolution Critical geography v t e Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e The Roman provinces (Latin: provincia, pl. provinciae) were the administrative regions of the Roman Empire outside of Italy that were controlled by the Romans under the Republic and later under the Empire. Each province was ruled by a Roman appointed as governor. Contents 1 Overview 2 Republican provinces 2.1 List of republican provinces 3 Imperial provinces during the principate 3.1 List of provinces created during the principate 3.1.1 Under Augustus 3.1.2 Under Tiberius 3.1.3 Under Claudius 3.1.4 Under Nero 3.1.5 Under Vespasian 3.1.6 Under Domitian 3.1.7 Under Trajan 3.1.8 Under Septimius Severus 3.1.9 Under Caracalla 3.1.10 Under Aurelian 4 Late Antiquity 5 Primary sources for lists of provinces 5.1 Early Roman Empire provinces 5.2 Late Roman Empire provinces 6 See also 7 References 7.1 Inline citations 7.2 Sources referenced 8 External links Overview[edit] A province was the basic and, until the tetrarchy (from 293 AD), the largest territorial and administrative unit of the empire's territorial possessions outside Italy. The word province in Modern English has its origins in the Latin term used by the Romans. Provinces were generally governed by politicians of senatorial rank, usually former consuls or former praetors. A later exception was the province of Egypt, which was incorporated by Augustus after the death of Cleopatra and was ruled by a governor of only equestrian rank, perhaps as a discouragement to senatorial ambition. That exception was unique but not contrary to Roman law, as Egypt was considered Augustus's personal property, following the tradition of the kings of the earlier Hellenistic period. The Latin term provincia also had a more general meaning of "jurisdiction". Republican provinces[edit] The Latin word provincia originally meant any task or set of responsibilities assigned by the Roman Senate to an individual who held imperium (right of command), which was often a military command within a specified theatre of operations.[1][2] Under the Roman Republic, the magistrates were elected to office for a period of one year, and those serving outside the city of Rome, such as consuls acting as generals on a military campaign, were assigned a particular provincia, the scope of authority within which they exercised their command. The territory of a people who were defeated in war might be brought under various forms of treaty, in some cases entailing complete subjection (deditio). The formal annexation of a territory created a province, in the modern sense of an administrative unit that is geographically defined. Republican-period provinces were administered in one-year terms by the consuls and praetors who had held office the previous year and were invested with imperium.[3] Rome started expanding beyond Italy during the First Punic War. The first permanent provinces to be annexed were Sicilia in 241 BC and Corsica et Sardinia in 237 BC. Militarized expansionism kept increasing the number of these administrative provinces until there were no longer enough qualified individuals to fill the posts. [4][5] The terms of provincial governors often had to be extended for multiple years (prorogatio), and on occasion, the Senate awarded imperium even to private citizens (privati), most notably Pompey the Great.[6][7] Prorogation undermined the republican constitutional principle of annually-elected magistracies and the amassing of disproportionate wealth and military power by a few men through their provincial commands was a major factor in the transition from a republic to an imperial autocracy.[8][9][10][11] List of republican provinces[edit] 241 BC – Sicilia (Sicily) taken over from the Carthaginians and annexed at the end of the First Punic War 237 BC – Corsica et Sardinia; these two islands were taken over from the Carthaginians and annexed soon after the Mercenary War, in 238 BC and 237 BC respectively 197 BC – Hispania Citerior; along the east coast of the Iberian Peninsula; part of the territories taken over from the Carthaginians 197 BC – Hispania Ulterior; along the southern coast of the Iberian Peninsula; part of the territories taken over from the Carthaginians in the Second Punic War 147 BC – Macedonia was annexed after a rebellion by the Achaean League. 146 BC – Africa (modern day Tunisia and western Libya) home territory of Carthage; annexed after the destruction of Carthage in the Third Punic War 129 BC – Asia, formerly the Kingdom of Pergamon, in western Anatolia (modern Turkey) by its last king, Attalus III, in 133 BC 120 BC – Gallia Narbonensis (southern France); prior to its annexation it was called Gallia Transalpina (Gallia on the other side of the Alps) to distinguish it from Gallia Cisalpina (Gaul on this same side of the Alps, in northern Italy). It was annexed following attacks on the allied Greek city of Massalia (Marseille). 67 BC – Creta et Cyrenae; Cyrenaica was bequeathed to Rome in 78 BC. However, it was not organised as a province. It was incorporated into the province of Creta et Cyrenae when Crete was annexed in 67 BC. 63 BC – Pontus et Bithynia; the Kingdom of Bithynia (in North-western Anatolia – Turkey) was bequeathed to Rome by its last king, Nicomedes IV in 74 BC. It was organised as a Roman province at the end of the Third Mithridatic War (73–63 BC) by Pompey, who incorporated the eastern part of the defeated Kingdom of Pontus into it in 63 BC. 63 BC – Syria; Pompey annexed Syria at the end of the Third Mithridatic War 58 BC – Cilicia et Cyprus; Cilicia was created as a province in the sense of area of military command in 102 BC in a campaign against piracy. The Romans controlled only a small area. In 74 BC Lycia and Pamphylia (to the east) were added to the small Roman possessions in Cilicia. Cilicia came fully under Roman control towards the end of the Third Mithridatic War – 73–63 BC. The province was reorganised by Pompey in 63 BC. Cyprus was annexed and added to this province in 58 BC. 46 BC – Africa Nova (eastern Numidia – Algeria), Julius Caesar annexed eastern Numidia and the new province called Africa Nova (new Africa) to distinguish it from the older province of Africa, which become known as Africa Vetus (old Africa). Gallia Cisalpina (in northern Italy) was a province in the sense of an area of military command, but was never a province in the sense of an administrative unit. During Rome's expansion in the Italian peninsula, the Romans assigned some areas as provinces in the sense of areas of military command assigned to consuls and praetors (not proconsuls or propraetors as in the case of administrative provinces) due to risks of rebellions or invasions. This was applied to Liguria because there was a series of rebellions, Bruttium and to (Calabria) because of perceived risks of rebellion. In the early days of the Roman presence in Gallia Cisalpina, the issue was rebellion. Later, the issue was risk of invasions by warlike peoples east of Italy. The city of Aquileia was founded to protect northern Italy from invasions. Gaius Julius Caesar granted the inhabitants of this region Roman citizenship and incorporated the region into Italy. Imperial provinces during the principate[edit] The Roman Empire at its greatest extent, under Trajan (117); imperial provinces are shaded green, senatorial provinces are shaded pink, and client states are shaded gray In the so-called Augustan Settlement of 27 BC, which established the Roman Empire, the governance of the provinces was regulated. Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, having emerged from the civil wars as the undisputed victor and master of Rome, officially laid down his powers and, in theory, restored the authority of the Roman Senate. Octavian himself assumed the title "Augustus" and was given to govern, in addition to Egypt, the strategically-important provinces of Gaul, Hispania and Syria (including Cilicia and Cyprus). Under Augustus, Roman provinces were classified as either public or imperial, depending on whether power was exercised by the Senate or the emperor. Generally, the older provinces that had existed under the Republic were public. Public provinces were, as they had been under the Republic, governed by a proconsul, who was chosen by lot among the ranks of senators who were ex-consuls or ex-praetors, depending on the province that was assigned. The major imperial provinces were under a legatus Augusti pro praetore, also a senator of consular or praetorian rank. Egypt and some smaller provinces in which no legions were based were ruled by a procurator (praefectus in Egypt), whom the emperor selected from non-senators of equestrian rank. The status of a province could change from time to time. In AD 68, of a total 36 provinces, 11 were public and 25 imperial. Of the latter, 15 were under legati and 10 under procuratores or praefecti. During the principate, the number and size of provinces also changed, through conquest or the division of existing provinces. The larger or most heavily-garrisoned provinces (for example Syria and Moesia) were subdivided into smaller provinces to prevent any single governor from holding too much power. List of provinces created during the principate[edit] Under Augustus[edit] 30 BC – Aegyptus, taken over by Augustus after his defeat of Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII of Egypt in 30 BC. It was the first imperial province in that it was Augustus' own domain as the Egyptians recognised him as their new pharaoh. Its proper initial name was Alexandrea et Aegyptus. It was governed by Augustus' praefectus, Alexandreae et Aegypti. 27 BC – Achaia (southern and central Greece), Augustus separated it from Macedonia (senatorial propraetorial province) 27 BC – Hispania Tarraconensis; former Hispania Citerior (northern, central and eastern Spain), created with the reorganisation of the provinces in Hispania by Augustus (imperial proconsular province). 27 BC – Hispania Baetica; former Hispania Ulterior (southern Spain); created with the reorganisation of the provinces in Hispania by Augustus (senatorial propraetorial province). The name derives from Betis, the Latin name for the Guadalquivir River. 27 BC – Lusitania (Portugal and Extremadura in Spain), created with the reorganisation of the provinces in Hispania by Augustus (imperial proconsular province) 27 BC – Illyricum, Augustus conquered Illyria and southern Pannonia in 35–33 BC. Created as a senatorial province in 27 BC. Northern Pannonia was conquered during the Pannonian War (14–10 BC). Subdivided into Dalmatia (a new name for Illyria) and Pannonia, which were officially called Upper and Lower Illyricum respectively in 9 BC, towards the end of the Batonian War. Initially a senatorial province, it became an imperial propraetorial province in 11 BC, during the Pannonian War. It was dissolved and the new provinces of Dalmatia and Pannonia were created during the reign of Vespasian (69–79). In 107 Pannonia was divided into Pannonia Superior and Pannonia Inferior – imperial provinces (proconsular and propraetorial respectively). 27 BC or 16–13 BC – Aquitania (south-western France) province created in the territories in Gaul conquered by Julius Caesar; there is uncertainty as to whether it was created with Augustus’ first visit and the first census on Gaul or during Augustus' visit in 16–13 (imperial proconsular province) 27 BC or 16–13 BC – Gallia Lugdunensis (central and part of northern France) province created in the territories in Gaul conquered by Julius Caesar; there is uncertainty as to whether it was created with Augustus’ first visit and the first census on Gaul or during Augustus’ visit in 16–13 (imperial proconsular province) 27 BC or 16–13 BC – Gallia Belgica (Netherlands south of the Rhine river, Belgium, Luxembourg, part of northern France and Germany west of the Rhine; there is uncertainty as to whether it was created with Augustus’ first visit and the first census on Gaul or during Augustus' visit in 16–13 (imperial proconsular province) 25 BC – Galatia (central Anatolia, Turkey), formerly a client kingdom, it was annexed by Augustus when Amyntas, its last king died (imperial propraetorial province) 15 BC – Raetia (imperial procuratorial province) 12 BC – Germania Magna, lost after three Roman legions were routed in 9 AD 6 AD? – Moesia (on the east and south bank of the River Danube part of modern Serbia, the north part of North Macedonia, northern Bulgaria), Conquered in 28 BC, originally it was a military district under the province of Macedonia. The first mention of a provincial governor was for 6 AD, at the beginning of the Batonian War. In 85 Moesia was divided into Moesia Superior and Moesia Inferior (imperial proconsular provinces). 6 AD – Judaea, imperial procuratorial province (reverted to status of client kingdom in 41 AD and became province again in 44 AD; renamed Syria Palaestina by Hadrian in 135 AD and upgraded to proconsular province). Under Tiberius[edit] 17 AD – Cappadocia (central Anatolia – Turkey); imperial propraetorial (later proconsular) province. Under Claudius[edit] 42 AD – Mauretania Tingitana (northern Morocco); after the death of Ptolemy, the last king of Mauretania, in 40 AD, his kingdom was annexed. It was begun by Caligula and was completed by Claudius with the defeat of the rebels. In 42 AD, Claudius divided it into two provinces (imperial procuratorial province). 42 AD – Mauretania Caesariensis, (western and central Algeria), after the death of Ptolemy, the last king of Mauretania, in 40 AD, his kingdom was annexed. It was begun by Caligula and was completed by Claudius with the defeat of the rebels. In 42 AD Claudius divided it into two provinces( imperial procuratorial province). 41/53 AD – Noricum (central Austria, north-eastern Slovenia and part of Bavaria), it was incorporated into the empire in 16 BC. It was called a province, but it remained a client kingdom under the control of an imperial procurator. It was turned into a proper province during the reign of Claudius (41–54) (imperial propraetorial province). 43 AD – Britannia; Claudius initiated the invasion of Britannia. Up to 60 AD, the Romans controlled the area south a line from the River Humber to the Severn Estuary. Wales was finally subdued in 78. In 78–84 Agricola conquered the north of England and Scotland. Scotland was then abandoned (imperial proconsular province). In 197 Septimius Severus divided Britannia into Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. Imperial provinces (proconsular and propraetorial respectively). 43 AD – Lycia annexed by Claudius (in 74 AD merged with Pamphylia to form Lycia et Pamphylia). 46 AD – Thracia (Thrace, north-eastern Greece, south-eastern Bulgaria and European Turkey), it was annexed by Claudius (imperial procuratorial province). 47 AD? – Alpes Atrectianae et Poeninae (between Italy and Switzerland), Augustus subdued its inhabitants, the Salassi, in 15 BC. It was incorporated into Raetia. The date of the creation of the province is uncertain. It is usually set at the date of Claudius' foundation of Forum Claudii Vallensium (Martigny), which became its capital (imperial procuratorial province). Under Nero[edit] 63 AD? – Alpes Maritimae (on the French Alps), created as a protectorate by Augustus, it probably became a province under Nero when Alpes Cottiae became a province (imperial procuratorial province) 63 AD – Alpes Cottiae (between France and Italy), in 14 BC it became a nominal prefecture which was run by the ruling dynasty of the Cotii. It was named after the king, Marcus Julius Cottius. It became a province in 63 (imperial procuratorial province). Under Vespasian[edit] 72 AD – Commagene, its client king was deposed and Commagene was annexed to Syria. 74 AD – Lycia et Pamphylia. Vespasian (reigned AD 69–79) merged Lycia, annexed by Claudius, and Pamphylia which had been a part of the province of Galatia. Under Domitian[edit] 83/84 AD – Germania Superior (southern Germany) The push into southern Germany up to the Agri Decumates by Domitian created the necessity to create this province, which had been a military district in Gallia Belgica when it was restricted to the west bank of the River Rhine (imperial proconsular province). 83/84 AD – Germania Inferior (Netherlands south of the River Rhine, part of Belgium, and part of Germany west of the Rhine) originally a military district under Gallia Belgica, created when Germania Superior was created (imperial proconsular province). Under Trajan[edit] 106 AD – Arabia, formerly the Kingdom of Nabataea, it was annexed without resistance by Trajan (imperial propraetorial province) 107 AD – Dacia "Trajana" (the Romanian regions of south-eastern Transylvania, the Banat, and Oltenia), conquered by Trajan in the Dacian Wars (imperial proconsular province). Divided into Dacia Superior and Dacia Inferior in 158 by Antoninus Pius. Divided into three provinces (Tres Daciae) in 166 by Marcus Aurelius: Porolissensis, Apulensis and Malvensis (imperial procuratorial provinces). Abandoned by Aurelian in 271. 103/114 AD Epirus Nova (in western Greece and southern Albania), Epirus was originally under the province of Macedonia. It was placed under Achaia in 27 BC except for its northernmost part, which remained part of Macedonia. It became a separate province under Trajan, sometime between 103 and 114 AD and was renamed Epirus Nova (New Epirus) (imperial procuratorial province). 114 AD – Armenia, annexed by Trajan, who deposed its client king. In 118 Hadrian restored this client kingdom 116 AD – Mesopotamia (Iraq) seized from the Parthians and annexed by Trajan, who invaded the Parthian Empire in late 115. Given back to the Parthians by Hadrian in 118. In 198 Septimius Severus conquered a small area in the north and named it Mesopotamia. It was attacked twice by the Persians (imperial praefectorial province). 116 AD – Assyria, Trajan suppressed a revolt by Assyrians in Mesopotamia and created the province. Hadrian relinquished it in 118. Under Septimius Severus[edit] 193 AD – Numidia, was separated from Africa Proconsularis by Septimius Severus (imperial propraetorial province). 194 AD – Syria Coele and Syria Phoenice, Septimius Severus divided Syria into these two units in the north and the south respectively. Imperial provinces (proconsular and propraetorial respectively). Under Caracalla[edit] 214 AD – Osrhoene, this kingdom (in northern Mesopotamia, in parts of today's Iraq, Syria and Turkey) was annexed. Under Aurelian[edit] 271 AD – Dacia Aureliana (most of Bulgaria and Serbia) created by Aurelian in the territory of the former Moesia Superior after his evacuation of Dacia Trajana beyond the River Danube. Many of the above provinces were under Roman military control or under the rule of Roman clients for a long time before being officially constituted as civil provinces. Only the date of the official formation of the province is marked above, not the date of conquest. Late Antiquity[edit] See also: List of Late Roman provinces The Roman Empire and its administrative divisions, c. 395 Emperor Diocletian introduced a radical reform known as the tetrarchy (284–305), with a western and an eastern Augustus or senior emperor, each seconded by a junior emperor (and designated successor) styled caesar, and each of these four defending and administering a quarter of the empire. In the 290s, Diocletian divided the empire anew into almost a hundred provinces, including Italy. Their governors were hierarchically ranked, from the proconsuls of Africa Proconsularis and Asia through those governed by consulares and correctores to the praesides. These last were the only ones recruited from the equestrian class. The provinces in turn were grouped into (originally twelve) dioceses, headed usually by a vicarius, who oversaw their affairs. Only the proconsuls and the urban prefect of Rome (and later Constantinople) were exempt from this, and were directly subordinated to the tetrarchs. Although the Caesars were soon eliminated from the picture, the four administrative resorts were restored in 318 by Emperor Constantine I, in the form of praetorian prefectures, whose holders generally rotated frequently, as in the usual magistracies but without a colleague. Constantine also created a new capital, known after him as Constantinople, which was sometimes called 'New Rome' because it became the permanent seat of the government. In Italy itself, Rome had not been the imperial residence for some time and 286 Diocletian formally moved the seat of government to Mediolanum (modern Milan), while taking up residence himself in Nicomedia. During the 4th century, the administrative structure was modified several times, including repeated experiments with Eastern-Western co-emperors. Provinces and dioceses were split to form new ones, the praetorian prefecture of Illyricum was abolished and reformed. In the end, with the rise of Odoacer in 476 and the death of Julius Nepos in 480, administration of the effectively reduced Empire was permanently unified in Constantinople. Detailed information on the arrangements during this period is contained in the Notitia Dignitatum (Record of Offices), a document dating from the early 5th century. Most data is drawn from this authentic imperial source, as the names of the areas governed and titles of the governors are given there. There are however debates about the source of some data recorded in the Notitia, and it seems clear that some of its own sources are earlier than others. It is interesting to compare this with the list of military territories under the duces, in charge of border garrisons on so-called limites, and the higher ranking Comites rei militaris, with more mobile forces, and the later, even higher magistri militum. Justinian I made the next great changes in 534–536 by abolishing, in some provinces, the strict separation of civil and military authority that Diocletian had established. This process was continued on a larger scale with the creation of extraordinary Exarchates in the 580s and culminated with the adoption of the military theme system in the 640s, which replaced the older administrative arrangements entirely. Some scholars use the reorganization of the empire into themata in this period as one of the demarcations between the Dominate and the Byzantine (or the Later Roman) period. As a matter of scholarly convenience, the medieval phase of the Roman Empire is today conventionally referred to as Byzantine, named after the original name of the city that Constantine rebuilt into the new capital of Constantinople. Primary sources for lists of provinces[edit] Early Roman Empire provinces[edit] Germania (ca. 100) Geography (Ptolemy) (ca. 140) Late Roman Empire provinces[edit] Laterculus Veronensis (ca. 310) Notitia dignitatum (ca. 400–420) Laterculus Polemii Silvii (ca. 430) Synecdemus (ca. 520) See also[edit] Ancient geography Classical antiquity Early world maps Ecumene Geography History of cartography History of the Mediterranean region Latin spelling and pronunciation List of Graeco-Roman geographers List of historical maps Local government (ancient Roman) References[edit] Inline citations[edit] ^ Richardson, John (2011). "Fines provinciae". Frontiers in the Roman World. Proceedings of the Ninth Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire (Durhan, 16–19 April 2009). Brill. p. 2ff. ^ "The Administration of the Empire". The Cambridge Ancient History. Cambridge University Press. 9: 564–565, 580. 1994. ^ Ando, Clifford (2010). "The Administration of the Provinces". A Companion to the Roman Empire. Blackwell Publishers. p. 179. ^ Lintott, Andrew (1999). The Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press. p. 113ff. ^ Brennan, T. Corey (2000). The Praetorship in the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press. pp. 626–627. ^ Lintott, Andrew. The Constitution of the Roman Republic. p. 114. ^ Brennan, T. Corey. The Praetorship in the Roman Republic. p. 636. ^ Nicolet, Claude (1991) [1988]. Space, Geography, and Politics in the Early Roman Empire. University of Michigan Press. pp. 1, 15. ^ Hekster, Olivier; Kaizer, Ted. Frontiers in the Roman World. p. 8. ^ Lintott, Andrew. The Constitution of the Roman Republic. p. 114. ^ Eder, W. (1993). "The Augustan Principate as Binding Link". Between Republic and Empire. University of California Press. p. 98. Sources referenced[edit] Early Imperial Roman provinces, at livius.org Pauly–Wissowa Lintott, Andrew (1993). Imperium Romanum. London: Routledge. Mommsen, Theodor (1909). The Provinces of the Roman Empire. 2 vols. London: Ares Publishers. Scarre, Chris (1995). "The Eastern Provinces," The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Rome. London: Penguin Books, 74–75. Westermann, Großer Atlas zur Weltgeschichte (in German) Loewenstein, Karl (1973). The Governance of Rome. Springer. ISBN 90-247-1458-3. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Roman provinces. Map of the Roman Empire Map of the Roman Empire in the year 300 https://web.archive.org/web/20060409205643/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-dgra/ v t e Provinces of the early Roman Empire (117 AD) Achaea Aegyptus Africa proconsularis Alpes Cottiae Alpes Maritimae Alpes Poeninae Arabia Petraea Armenia Asia Assyria Bithynia and Pontus Britannia Cappadocia Cilicia Corsica and Sardinia Crete and Cyrenaica Cyprus Dacia Dalmatia Epirus Galatia Gallia Aquitania Gallia Belgica Gallia Lugdunensis Gallia Narbonensis Germania Inferior Germania Superior Hispania Baetica Hispania Lusitania Hispania Tarraconensis Italia † Iudaea Lycia et Pamphylia Macedonia Mauretania Caesariensis Mauretania Tingitana Mesopotamia Moesia Inferior Moesia Superior Noricum Pannonia Inferior Pannonia Superior Raetia Sicilia Syria Thracia † Italy was never constituted as a province, instead retaining a special juridical status until Diocletian's reforms. v t e Late Roman and Byzantine provinces (4th–7th centuries AD) History As found in the Notitia Dignitatum. Provincial administration reformed and dioceses established by Diocletian, c. 293. Permanent praetorian prefectures established after the death of Constantine I. Empire permanently partitioned after 395. Exarchates of Ravenna and Africa established after 584. After massive territorial losses in the 7th century, the remaining provinces were superseded by the theme system in c. 640–660, although in Asia Minor and parts of Greece they survived under the themes until the early 9th century. Western Roman Empire (395–476) Praetorian Prefecture of Gaul Diocese of Gaul Alpes Poeninae et Graiae Belgica I Belgica II Germania I Germania II Lugdunensis I Lugdunensis II Lugdunensis III Lugdunensis IV Maxima Sequanorum Diocese of Vienne1 Alpes Maritimae Aquitanica I Aquitanica II Narbonensis I Narbonensis II Novempopulania Viennensis Diocese of Spain Baetica Balearica Carthaginensis Gallaecia Lusitania Mauretania Tingitana Tarraconensis Diocese of the Britains Britannia I Britannia II Flavia Caesariensis Maxima Caesariensis Valentia (?) Praetorian Prefecture of Italy Diocese of Suburbicarian Italy Apulia et Calabria Campania Corsica Lucania et Bruttii Picenum Suburbicarium Samnium Sardinia Sicilia Tuscia et Umbria Valeria Diocese of Annonarian Italy Alpes Cottiae Flaminia et Picenum Annonarium Liguria et Aemilia Raetia I Raetia II Venetia et Histria Diocese of Africa2 Africa proconsularis (Zeugitana) Byzacena Mauretania Caesariensis Mauretania Sitifensis Numidia (divided as Cirtensis and Militiana during the Tetrarchy) Tripolitania Eastern Roman/Byzantine Empire (395–c. 640) Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum Diocese of Pannonia3 Dalmatia Noricum mediterraneum Noricum ripense Pannonia I Pannonia II Savia Valeria ripensis Diocese of Dacia Dacia Mediterranea Dacia Ripensis Dardania Moesia I Praevalitana Diocese of Macedonia Achaea Creta Epirus Nova Epirus Vetus Macedonia Prima Macedonia II Salutaris Thessalia Praetorian Prefecture of the East Diocese of Thrace5 Europa Haemimontus Moesia II4 Rhodope Scythia4 Thracia Diocese of Asia5 Asia Caria4 Hellespontus Islands4 Lycaonia (370) Lycia Lydia Pamphylia Pisidia Phrygia Pacatiana Phrygia Salutaris Diocese of Pontus5 Armenia I5 Armenia II5 Armenia Maior5 Armenian Satrapies5 Armenia III (536) Armenia IV (536) Bithynia Cappadocia I5 Cappadocia II5 Galatia I5 Galatia II Salutaris5 Helenopontus5 Honorias5 Paphlagonia5 Pontus Polemoniacus5 Diocese of the East5 Arabia Cilicia I Cilicia II Cyprus4 Euphratensis Isauria Mesopotamia Osroene Palaestina I Palaestina II Palaestina III Salutaris Phoenice I Phoenice II Libanensis Syria I Syria II Salutaris Theodorias (528) Diocese of Egypt5 Aegyptus I Aegyptus II Arcadia Augustamnica I Augustamnica II Libya Superior Libya Inferior Thebais Superior Thebais Inferior Other territories Taurica Quaestura exercitus (536) Spania (552) 1 Later the Septem Provinciae 2 Re-established after reconquest by the Eastern Empire in 534 as the separate Prefecture of Africa 3 Later the Diocese of Illyricum 4 Placed under the Quaestura exercitus in 536 5 Affected (i.e. boundaries modified, abolished or renamed) by Justinian I's administrative reorganization in 534–536 v t e Designations for types of administrative division English terms Common English terms1 Area Insular area Local government area Special area Borough County borough Metropolitan borough Canton Half-canton Capital Federal capital Imperial capital City Autonomous city Charter city Independent city Incorporated city Imperial city Free imperial city Royal free city Community Autonomous community Residential community County Administrative county Autonomous county Consolidated city-county Metropolitan county Non-metropolitan county Viscounty Country Overseas country Department Overseas department District Capital district City district Congressional district Electoral district Federal district Indian government district Land district Metropolitan district Non-metropolitan district Military district Municipal district Police district Regional district Rural district Sanitary district Service district Educational service district Local service district School district Intermediate school district Special district in the US Subdistrict Urban district Division Census division Police division Subdivision of India Municipality City municipality County municipality Regional county municipality Direct-controlled municipality District municipality Neutral municipality Regional municipality Resort municipality Mountain resort municipality Rural municipality Specialized municipality Prefecture Autonomous prefecture Subprefecture Super-prefecture Praetorian prefecture Province Autonomous province Overseas province Roman province Region Administrative region Special administrative region Autonomous region Capital region National capital region Development region Mesoregion Microregion Overseas region Subregion Reserve Biosphere reserve Ecological reserve Game reserve Indian reserve Nature reserve State City-state Federal state Free state Sovereign state Territory Capital territory Federal capital territory National capital territory Dependent territory Federal territory Incorporated territory Organized incorporated territory Overseas territory Union territory Unorganized territory Town Census town Market town Township Charter township Civil township Paper township Survey township Urban township Unit Regional unit Territorial unit Autonomous territorial unit Zone Economic zone Exclusive economic zone Free economic zone Special economic zone Exclusion zone Military exclusion zone Free speech zone Neutral zone Self-administered zone Trade zone Free-trade zone Other English terms Current Alpine resort Bailiwick Banner Autonomous Block Cadastre Circle Circuit Colony Commune Condominium Constituency Duchy Eldership Emirate Federal dependency Governorate Hamlet Ilkhanate Indian reservation Manor Royal Muftiate Neighbourhood Parish Periphery Precinct Principality Protectorate Quarter Regency Autonomous republic Riding Sector Autonomous Shire Sultanate Suzerainty Townland Village Summer Ward Historical Agency Barony Burgh Exarchate Hide Hundred Imperial Circle March Monthon Presidency Residency Roman diocese Seat Tenth Tithing 1 Used by ten or more countries or having derived terms. Historical derivations in italics. Non-English or loanwords Current Amt Bakhsh Barangay Bezirk Regierungsbezirk Comune Frazione Fu Gemeinde Austria Germany South Tyrol Switzerland Gemeente Gmina Județ Kampong Kommun / kunta Finland Sweden Län (Sweden) Landskap (Finland) Località Maakunta Megye Muban Mukim Oblast Autonomous Okrug Ostān Poblacion Purok Shahrestān Sum Sýsla Tehsil Vingtaine Historical Commote Gau Heerlijkheid Köping Län / lääni Landskap (Sweden) Landskommun Maalaiskunta Nome Egypt Greece Pagus Pargana Plasă Satrapy Socken Subah Syssel Zhou See also: Census division, Electoral district, and List of administrative divisions by country Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_province&oldid=992833303" Categories: Ancient Roman provinces Historical regions Provinces Hidden categories: Articles needing additional references from September 2012 All articles needing additional references Wikipedia introduction cleanup from April 2018 All pages needing cleanup Articles covered by WikiProject Wikify from April 2018 All articles covered by WikiProject Wikify Articles with multiple maintenance issues Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text Articles with German-language sources (de) Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Asturianu Bân-lâm-gú Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Kiswahili Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan پنجابی Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 7 December 2020, at 10:05 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-572	----	Themistius - Wikipedia Themistius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman era philosopher (317-388) For Themistius Calonymus, 6th-century deacon of Alexandria and heretic, see Agnoetae. Themistius (Greek: Θεμίστιος, Themistios; 317, Paphlagonia – c. 390 AD, Constantinople), nicknamed Euphrades, Εὐφραδής (eloquent),[1] was a statesman, rhetorician, and philosopher. He flourished in the reigns of Constantius II, Julian, Jovian, Valens, Gratian, and Theodosius I; and he enjoyed the favour of all those emperors, notwithstanding their many differences, and the fact that he himself was not a Christian. He was admitted to the senate by Constantius in 355, and he was prefect of Constantinople in 384 on the nomination of Theodosius.[2] Of his many works, thirty-three orations of his have come down to us, as well as various commentaries and epitomes of the works of Aristotle. Contents 1 Life 2 Work 3 Works 3.1 Translations 4 Notes 5 References 6 Further reading Life[edit] He was born in Paphlagonia and taught at Phasis.[3] Apart from a short sojourn in Rome, he resided in Constantinople during the rest of his life.[2] He was the son of Eugenius, who was also a distinguished philosopher, and who is more than once mentioned in the orations of Themistius. Themistius was instructed by his father in philosophy, and devoted himself chiefly to Aristotle, though he also studied Pythagoreanism and Platonism. While still a youth he wrote commentaries on Aristotle, which were made public without his consent, and obtained for him a high reputation. He passed his youth in Asia Minor and Syria. He first met with Constantius II when the emperor visited Ancyra in Galatia in the eleventh year of his reign, 347, on which occasion Themistius delivered the first of his extant orations, Peri Philanthropias. It was not long after that he moved to Constantinople, where he taught philosophy for twenty years. In 355 he was made a senator; and the letter is still extant, in which Constantius recommends him to the senate, and speaks in the highest terms both of Themistius himself and of his father. We also possess the oration of thanks which Themistius addressed to the senate of Constantinople early in 356, in reply to the emperor's letter.[4] In 357 he recited in the senate of Constantinople two orations in honour of Constantius, which were intended to have been delivered before the emperor himself, who was then at Rome.[5] As a reward, Constantius conferred upon him the honour of a bronze statue; and, in 361, he was appointed to the praetorian rank by a decree still extant.[6] In 358–359, Themistius may have served as proconsul of Constantinople in 358; he was the last to hold that office, before the position was elevated to the status of urban prefect.[7] Constantius died in 361; but Themistius, as a philosopher and non-Christian, naturally retained the favour of Julian, who spoke of him as the worthy senator of the whole world, and as the first philosopher of his age.[8] The Suda states that Julian made Themistius prefect of Constantinople; but this is disproved by the speech delivered by Themistius, when he was really appointed to that office under Theodosius. Shortly before the death of Julian in 363, Themistius delivered an oration in honour of him, which is no longer extant, but which is referred to at some length by Libanius, in a letter to Themistius.[9] In 364 he went, as one of the deputies from the senate, to meet Jovian at Dadastana, on the border of Galatia and Bithynia, and to confer the consulate upon him; and on this occasion he delivered an oration, which he afterwards repeated at Constantinople, in which he claims full liberty of conscience to practice any religion.[10] In the same year he delivered an oration at Constantinople, in honour of the accession of Valentinian I and Valens, in the presence of the latter. His next oration is addressed to Valens, congratulating him on his victory over Procopius in June 366, and interceding for some of the rebels; it was delivered in 367.[11] In the next year he accompanied Valens to the Danube in the second campaign of the Gothic war, and delivered before the emperor, at Marcianopolis, a congratulatory oration upon his Quinquennalia, 368.[12] His next orations are to the young Valentinian II upon his consulship, 369,[13] and to the senate of Constantinople, in the presence of Valens, in honour of the peace granted to the Goths, 370.[14] On March 28, 373, he addressed to Valens, who was then in Syria, a congratulatory address upon the emperor's entrance on the tenth year of his reign.[15] It was also while Valens was in Syria, that Themistius addressed to him an oration by which he persuaded him to cease from his persecution of the Catholic party.[16] In addition to these orations, which prove that the orator was in high favour with the emperor, we have the testimony of Themistius himself to his influence with Valens.[17] In 377 we find him at Rome, where he appears to have gone on an embassy to Gratian, to whom he there delivered his oration entitled Erotikos.[18] On the association of Theodosius I in the empire by Gratian, at Sirmium, in 379, Themistius delivered an elegant oration, congratulating the new emperor on his elevation.[19] Of his remaining orations some are public and some private; but few of them demand special notice as connected with the events of his life. In 384, (about the first of September), he was made prefect of Constantinople,[20] an office which had been offered to him, but declined, several times before.[21] He only held the prefecture a few months, as we learn from an oration delivered after he had laid down the office,[22] in which he mentions, as he had done even six years earlier,[19] and more than once in the interval,[23] his old age and ill-health. From the thirty-fourth oration we also learn that he had previously held the offices of princeps senatus and praefectus annonae, besides his embassy to Rome; in another oration he mentions ten embassies on which he had been sent before his prefecture;[24] and in another, composed probably about 387, he says that he has been engaged for nearly forty years in public business and in embassies.[25] So great was the confidence placed in him by Theodosius, that, though Themistius was not a Christian, the emperor, when departing for the West to oppose Magnus Maximus, entrusted his son Arcadius to the tutorship of the philosopher, 387-388.[26] Nothing is known about Themistius after this time; and he may have died around 390. Besides the emperors, he numbered among his friends the chief orators and philosophers of the age, Christian and non-Christian. Not only Libanius, but Gregory of Nazianzus also was his friend and correspondent, and the latter, in an epistle still extant, calls him the "king of arguments."[27] Work[edit] Main article: Byzantine Aristotelianism The orations of Themistius, extant in the time of Photius (9th century), were thirty-six in number.[28] Of these, thirty-three have come down to us in Greek.[29] Two of them, however, (Orations 23 and 33, and perhaps Oration 28) are not fully preserved, and one (Oration 25) is a brief statement, not a full oration.[29] Modern editions of the Orations have thirty-four pieces, because a Latin address to Valens has been included as Oration 12.[29] It is now believed though that this Latin address is a 16th-century creation.[29] The final oration (Oration 34) was discovered as recently as 1816 by Angelo Mai in the Ambrosian Library at Milan. There are, in addition, a few other fragments which may come from lost Orations, as well as an additional work which survives in Syriac and another preserved in Arabic.[29] The philosophical works of Themistius must have been very voluminous; for Photius tells us that he wrote commentaries on all the books of Aristotle, besides useful abstracts of the Posterior Analytics, the books On the Soul, and the Physics, and that there were works of his on Plato; "and, in a word, he is a lover and eager student of philosophy."[28] The Suda mentions his epitome of the Physics of Aristotle, in eight books; of the Prior Analytics, in two books; of the Posterior Analytics, in two books; of the treatise On the Soul, in seven books; and of the Categories in one book. The epitomes which survive are:[30] On the Posterior Analytics On the Physics On Aristotle's On the Soul On Aristotle's On the Heavens, in a Hebrew translation only On the Metaphysics 12, in a Hebrew translation only In addition to these works, two surviving anonymous paraphrases were mistakenly attributed to him in the Byzantine era, and are now assigned to a Pseudo-Themistius:[30] On the Prior Analytics On the Parva naturalia His paraphrases of Aristotle's Posterior Analytics, Physics and On the Soul are valuable; but the orations in which he panegyrizes successive emperors, comparing them to Plato's true philosopher, and even to the idea itself, are intended to flatter. Boëthius describes him as, disertissimus (or diligentissimus[31]) scriptor ac lucidus, et omnia ad facilitatem intelligentiae revocans.[2] In philosophy Themistius was an eclectic. He held that Plato and Aristotle were in substantial agreement, that God has made men free to adopt the mode of worship they prefer, and that Christianity and Hellenism were merely two forms of the one universal religion.[2] Works[edit] W. Dindorf edition of the orations (Leipzig, 1832): Themistii Orationes, ex codice Mediolanensi emendatae, a Guilielmo Dindorfio, Lipsiae: C. Cnobloch 1832. Themistii paraphrases Aristotelis librorum quae supersunt, ed. Leonhard von Spengel (Leipzig, 1866), Teubner series (reprinted 1998) Translations[edit] Commentaire sur le traité de l'Âme d'Aristote, traduction de Guillaume de Moerbeke (Latin). Louvain, 1957 Themistius on Aristotle On the Soul, trans. Robert B. Todd. London and Ithaca, 1996 (Ancient Commentators on Aristotle) Themistius on Aristotle Physics 1-3, trans. Robert B. Todd. London and Ithaca, 2011 (Ancient Commentators on Aristotle) Themistius on Aristotle's Physics 4, trans. Robert B. Todd. London and Ithaca, 2003 (Ancient Commentators on Aristotle) Themistius on Aristotle Physics 5-8, trans. Robert B. Todd. London, 2008 (Ancient Commentators on Aristotle) The Private Orations of Themistius, trans. R. Penella. Berkeley, 2000 Notes[edit] ^ Simplicius, in Cael., C.A.G. vol. 7, p. 72, in Cat. v. 8 p. 1, in Phys. v. 9, p. 42 and v. 10, p. 968; Sophonias, Paraphr. in...de Anima, C.A.G. v. 23, p. 1. ^ a b c d Chisholm 1911. ^ John Vanderspoel, Themistius and the imperial court, p. 37 ^ Themistius, Orat. ii. ^ Themistius, Orat. iii. iv. ^ Cod. Theodos. vi. tit. 4. s. 12; comp. Orat. xxxi. ^ Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Vol. 1, p. 890 ^ Themist. Orat. xxxi. ^ Libanius, Ep. 1061 ^ Themistius, Orat. v.; Socrat. Hist. Ev. iii. 26. ^ Themistius, Orat. vii. ^ Themistius, Orat. viii. ^ Themistius, Orat. ix. ^ Themistius, Orat. x. ^ Themistius, Orat. xi. ^ Socrat. Hist. Ev. iv. 32; Sozom. Hist. Ev. vi. 36 ^ Themistius, Orat. xxxi. ^ Themistius, Orat. xiii. ^ a b Themistius, Orat. xiv. ^ Themistius, Orat. xvii, ^ Themistius, Orat. xxxiv. 13 ^ Themistius, Orat. xxxiv. ^ Themistius, Orat. xv. xvi. ^ Themistius, Orat. xvii. ^ Themistius, Orat. xxi. ^ Socrat. Hist. Ev. iv. 32; Sozom. Hist. Ev. vi. 36; Niceph. Hist. Ev. xi. 46. ^ Greg. Naz. Epist. 140 ^ a b Photius, Bibl. Cod. 74 ^ a b c d e Robert J. Penella, 2000, The private orations of Themistius, page 5. University of California Press ^ a b Todd, Robert B. (2003). "Themistius" (PDF). Catalogus Translationum et Commentariorum. 8: 59. Retrieved 25 August 2015. ^ Boethius, De differentiis topicis, Patrologia Latina edition [1] References[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Themistius". Encyclopædia Britannica. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 758.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Missing or empty |title= (help) Further reading[edit] Todd, Robert B. (2003). "Themistius" (PDF). Catalogus Translationum et Commentariorum. 8: 59. Retrieved 25 August 2015. Heather, Peter & Moncur, David, trans. (2001) Politics, Philosophy, and Empire in the Fourth Century: selected orations of Themistius, with an introduction. Liverpool U. P. ISBN 0-85323-106-0 Swain, Simon. (2014) Themistius, Julian, and Greek Political Theory under Rome: Texts, Translations, and Studies of Four Key Works, Cambridge University Press ISBN 9781107026575 v t e Peripatetic philosophers Greek era Aristotle Eudemus Theophrastus Aristoxenus Chamaeleon Phaenias Praxiphanes Dicaearchus Nicomachus Demetrius of Phalerum Strato of Lampsacus Clearchus Hieronymus of Rhodes Lyco of Troas Aristo of Ceos Satyrus Critolaus Diodorus of Tyre Roman era Cratippus Andronicus of Rhodes Boethus of Sidon Aristocles of Messene Aspasius Adrastus Alexander of Aphrodisias Themistius Olympiodorus the Elder Authority control BIBSYS: 90365042 BNE: XX1134804 BNF: cb121553209 (data) CANTIC: a10476647 CiNii: DA01482304 GND: 118801783 ISNI: 0000 0001 0928 6445 LCCN: n79127090 NKC: jn20010601458 NLG: 18940 NSK: 000085109 NTA: 07353157X RERO: 02-A010157797 SELIBR: 264323 SUDOC: 030060575 Trove: 990945 VcBA: 495/44792 VIAF: 100219934 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79127090 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Themistius&oldid=991446351" Categories: 317 births 380s deaths 4th-century philosophers 4th-century Romans Deist philosophers Commentators on Aristotle Correspondents of Libanius Roman-era Peripatetic philosophers Roman-era philosophers Urban prefects of Constantinople 4th-century Byzantine writers Hidden categories: Articles containing Latin-language text Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Pages with citations lacking titles Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM with no wstitle or title parameter Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikisource Languages العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano Latina Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 30 November 2020, at 02:48 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5746	----	List of Roman women - Wikipedia List of Roman women From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The list below includes Roman women who were notable for their family connections, or their sons or husbands, or their own actions. In the earlier periods, women came to the attention of (later) historians either as poisoners of their husbands (a very few cases), or as wives, daughters, and mothers of great men such as Scipio Africanus. In later periods, women exercised or tried to exercise political power either through their husbands (as did Fulvia and Livia Drusilla) or political intrigues (as did Clodia and Servilia), or directly (as did Agrippina the younger and later Roman empresses). Even the Severan dynasty from the beginning to the end was completely dominated by four powerful and calculating women. Contents 1 Roman Kingdom (753 BC–509 BC) 2 Distinguished women of the Roman Republic (509 - 27 BC) 3 Distinguished women of the Julio-Claudian dynasty (c. 27 BC - 68 AD) 4 Distinguished women of the Classical Roman Empire 5 See also 6 References Roman Kingdom (753 BC–509 BC)[edit] Name Image Dates Details Rhea Silvia c. 700s BC According to the founding myth of Rome, Rhea Silvia was a Vestal Virgin who got pregnant by Mars and gave birth to the twins Romulus and Remus, who went on to found the city, with Romulus becoming its first king. Hersilia c. 700s BC Hersilia was the wife of Romulus and following the abduction of the Sabine women, helped end the conflict between the Romans and Sabines. Tarpeia c. 700s BC Tarpeia was the daughter of the Roman commander Spurius Tarpeius and a Vestal Virgin who betrayed Rome to the Sabines at the time of their women's abduction for what she thought would be a reward of jewellery. Tatia c. 700s–600s BC Tatia was the daughter of Sabine king Titus Tatius and first wife of Numa Pompilius, who would become Rome's second king. Lucretia (Queen of Rome) c. 700s–600s BC Lucretia was the second wife of Roman King Titus Tatius. Tanaquil died c. 575 BC Tanaquil came from a powerful Etruscan family and was Queen of Rome through her marriage to Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, Rome's fifth King. Tarquinia c. 600s–500s BC Tarquinia was the daughter of Rome's fifth King, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, and his wife Tanaquil. Tullia Major died c. 535 BC Tullia Major was the first daughter of Rome's sixth King, Servius Tullius, elder sister of Tullia Major. She was married to Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, while her younger sister married Arruns Tarquinius. She was assassinated by her husband and younger sister, so that they could marry and become monarchs. Tullia Minor died after 509 BC Tullia Major was the second daughter of Rome's sixth King, Servius Tullius, and the young sister of Tullia Major. She was originally married to Arruns Tarquinius, while her sister married Lucius Tarquinius Superbus. Dominating her husband, she conspired with her brother-in-law to kill her husband and sister. After their assassination and that of her father, they got married and she became the last Queen of Rome. Following Lucretia's suicide and the overthrow of the monarchy, she and her family was exiled. Lucretia died c. 510 BC Lucretia was a noblewoman whose rape and eventual suicide led to the overthrow of the Roman monarchy. Distinguished women of the Roman Republic (509 - 27 BC)[edit] Valeria, the name of the women of the Valeria gens Valeria, first priestess of Fortuna Muliebris in 488 BC[1] Aemilia Tertia (с. 230 - 163 or 162 BC), wife of Scipio Africanus and mother of Cornelia (see below), noted for the unusual freedom given her by her husband, her enjoyment of luxuries, and her influence as role model for elite Roman women after the Second Punic War. Her date of birth, marriage, and death are all unknown. Her husband's birth and death dates are also not known precisely, but approximated. Cornelia (с. 190s - c. 115 BC), virtually deified by Roman women as a model of feminine virtues and Stoicism, but never officially deified. The first Roman woman, whose approximate birth year and whose year of death is known, thanks to a law she had passed to allow her granddaughter to inherit. Licinia, the name of the women of the gens Licinius. Notable members include Licinia, a woman killed by her relatives in 153 BC for murdering her husband Pomponia (mother of Scipio) (2nd century BC), daughter, niece, wife, and mother of consuls; born a plebeian noblewoman but married to a patrician. Mother of Scipio Africanus and Scipio Asiaticus. She was reportedly very religious and devout, but nothing else is known of her including the year of her marriage or death. Publilia (1st century BC), the name of a woman of the gens Publilius. She was killed in 154 BC for poisoning her husband, the consul of the preceding year. Distinguished women of the Julio-Claudian dynasty (c. 27 BC - 68 AD)[edit] Agrippina the Elder (c. 14 BC - AD 33), wife of Germanicus, granddaughter of Augustus, mother of emperor Caligula and Agrippina the Younger (below) Agrippina the Younger (1st century), niece and wife of emperor Claudius, mother of emperor Nero; held up as a bad example. Aurelia (1st century BC), Mother of Julius Caesar Antonia the Elder (1st century BC), grandmother of Emperor Nero Antonia Minor (1st century BC-1st century AD), mother of Emperor Claudius and Germanicus, favorite niece of Augustus Caesar, considered a role model for women in the Roman Empire after she refused to remarry and spent the rest of her life raising her children and grandchildren. Atia Balba Caesonia, mother of Augustus and Octavia Minor Claudia Pulchra, wife of Publius Quinctilius Varus Claudia Marcella, nieces of Caesar Augustus Domitia Lepida the Elder, aunt of Emperor Nero Domitia Lepida the Younger, sister of the following, Mother of the Empress Valeria Messalina Domitia Longina, wife of Emperor Domitian Domitia Calvilla, mother of Emperor Marcus Aurelius Domitia Paulina, Aelia Domitia Paulina, Julia Serviana Paulina, female relatives of Emperor Hadrian Julia the Elder, daughter of Augustus Julia Livia (1st century), granddaughter of Emperor Tiberius Livia Drusilla (1st century BC), wife of Tiberius Claudius Nero, mother of the Emperor Tiberius, and then wife of Augustus Caesar. The first woman to be officially deified. Livilla (1st century), granddaughter of Livia Marcia, sister of the consul Quintus Marcius Rex, wife of Gaius Julius Caesar II, paternal grandmother of Julius Caesar Messalina, Emperor Claudius' wife, notorious for her promiscuity. Octavia the Younger, sister of Caesar Augustus and fourth wife of Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony) Plautia Urgulanilla, Emperor Claudius' first wife Scribonia, second wife of Augustus and mother of his only legitimate child (whom she apparently ignored until her exile) Vipsania Agrippina, first wife of Tiberius and the only one he loved Vipsania Julia (19 BC - c. AD 29), granddaughter of Augustus Distinguished women of the Classical Roman Empire[edit] Claudia Metrodora (1st century AD), Greco-Roman public benefactor, lived on Kos. Lucilla, (2nd century AD) Roman Empress, failed in her coup attempt on brother Commodus. Aquilia Severa (3rd century), Vestal Virgin and wife of Elagabalus. Clodia (1st century BC), possibly Catullus's Lesbia Domitia Decidiana - wife of Roman General Gnaeus Julius Agricola and mother-in-law to historian Tacitus. Galla Placidia, (5th century) Julia Avita Mamaea (3rd century AD), mother of emperor Alexander Severus, she played a leading and magistral role in commanding the Roman Empire throughout her son's reign, she (who also did not have the official title), exercised the her regency during the young of the her son, first with the help and support of her mother Julia Maesa and then herself alone. Mamea indeed had a good reputation for modesty, prudence and loyalty to the dynasty. The her son decided to name her, once she reached the age of majority, as a consors imperii ("partner in rule"), a qualification that made her "associated in command". she and her son were killed by rebel soldiers during a military campaign against the Germans. Julia Soaemias (3rd century AD), mother of emperor Elagabalus, she (who also did not have the official title), exercised the her regency during the young of the her son, with the support and companionship of her mother Julia Maesa. She attended meetings of the senate, and even held a "Women's Senate" deciding on matters of fashion and protocol, After an uprising led by the Praetorian Guard, Julia entered the camp to protect her son, but was slain along with Elagabalus by the Praetorian Guard in 222. Julia Domna (3rd century AD), wife of Septimius Severus and Mother of Caracalla and Geta, she for more than two decades, with her rare and enormous influence, she determined the fate of the Roman Empire and helped her husband and sons in administering the empire until her death. Julia supported and consulted with artists, thinkers, and scholars in many fields, creating an influential circle at court devoted to the advancement of philosophy. She often accompanied Severus and after their son and his successor Caracalla on campaign, earning her the title “Mother of the Invincible Camps” from 195 CE. She became a deity after her death. Julia Maesa (3rd century), grandmother of Elagabalus and Alexander Severus, who was the major power behind the throne in the reigns of her grandsons, as powerful Augusta of the Roman Empire from 218 to her death. She is best known for her plotting and scheming which resulted in the restoration of the Severan dynasty to the Roman throne after the assassination of Caracalla and the usurpation of the throne by Macrinus. she was later deified in Syria along with her sister. Pomponia Graecina, possibly the saint Lucina, a descendant of Vipsania (above). Saint Procula wife of Pontius Pilate. Servilia, mother of Brutus and lover of Julius Caesar. Ulpia Severina (3rd century AD), wife of emperor Aurelian. There's evidence to suppose that, after Aurelian's death, she ruled the Roman Empire for a short period of time, until the new emperor, Marcus Claudius Tacitus was chosen by the Senate. This is the only moment before Rome's conversion to Christianity that the ruler was a woman, a handful of women would rule as Empress in their own right from the 5th century onwards, such as Pulcheria. This list is incomplete; you can help by adding missing items with reliable sources. See also[edit] Women in Ancient Rome List of Vestal Virgins References[edit] ^ Dion.Hal. 8.55.4; cf. 8.39-55 Broughton, vol I, 1951 p.19 v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Roman_women&oldid=993979400" Categories: Lists of Roman women Hidden categories: Incomplete lists from August 2008 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español Edit links This page was last edited on 13 December 2020, at 14:55 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5666	----	Roman Empire - Wikipedia Roman Empire From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Not to be confused with Latin Empire or Holy Roman Empire. For other uses, see Roman Empire (disambiguation). Period of Imperial Rome following the Roman Republic (27 BC–476 AD) Roman Empire Senatus Populusque Romanus  (Latin) Imperium Romanum[n 1]  (Latin) Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων (Ancient Greek) Basileía Rhōmaíōn 27 BC – AD 476 (traditional dates)[1][2] AD 395 – 476/480 (Western) AD 395–1453 (Eastern) Vexillum with the imperial aquila Imperial aquila The Roman Empire in 117 AD at its greatest extent, at the time of Trajan's death (with its vassals in pink)[3] Capital Rome (de facto and de jure from 27 BC to 286 AD, only de jure from 286 to 476) Mediolanum (286–402, Western) Ravenna (402–476, Western) Nicomedia (286–330, Eastern) Constantinople (330–1453, Eastern)[n 2] Common languages Latin (official until 610 AD) Greek (official after 610 AD) Regional / local languages Religion Imperial cult-driven polytheism (Before 274 AD) Joined by the henotheistic solar cult of Sol Invictus (Before AD 380) Nicene Christianity (officially, from 380) Government Semi-elective, functionally absolute monarchy Emperor   • 27 BC – AD 14 Augustus (first) • 98–117 Trajan • 270–275 Aurelian • 284–305 Diocletian • 306–337 Constantine I • 379–395 Theodosius I[n 3] • 474–480 Julius Nepos[n 4] • 475–476 Romulus Augustus • 527–565 Justinian I • 610–641 Heraclius • 780–797 Constantine VI[n 5] • 976–1025 Basil II • 1449–1453 Constantine XI[n 6] Legislature Senate Historical era Classical era to Late Middle Ages • Final War of the Roman Republic 32–30 BC • Empire established 30–2 BC • Constantinople becomes capital 11 May 330 • Final East-West divide 17 Jan 395 • Deposition of Romulus Augustus 4 Sep 476 • Murder of Julius Nepos 25 Apr 480 • Fourth Crusade 12 Apr 1204 • Reconquest of Constantinople 25 Jul 1261 • Fall of Constantinople 29 May 1453 • Fall of Trebizond 15 August 1461 Area 25 BC[4] 2,750,000 km2 (1,060,000 sq mi) 117 AD[4][5] 5,000,000 km2 (1,900,000 sq mi) 390 AD[4] 4,400,000 km2 (1,700,000 sq mi) Population • 25 BC[6] 56,800,000 Currency sestertius,[n 7] aureus, solidus, nomisma Preceded by Succeeded by Roman Republic Western Roman Empire Eastern Roman Empire The Roman Empire (Latin: Imperium Romanum [ɪmˈpɛri.ũː roːˈmaːnũː]; Koinē Greek: Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, romanized: Basileía tōn Rhōmaíōn) was the post-Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity it included large territorial holdings around the Mediterranean Sea in Europe, Northern Africa, and Western Asia ruled by emperors. From the accession of Caesar Augustus to the military anarchy of the 3rd century, it was a principate with Italy as metropole of the provinces and the city of Rome as sole capital (27 BC – 286 AD). After the military crisis, the empire was ruled by multiple emperors who shared rule over the Western Roman Empire and over the Eastern Roman Empire (also known as the Byzantine Empire). Rome remained the nominal capital of both parts until 476 AD, when the imperial insignia were sent to Constantinople, following the capture of Ravenna by the barbarians of Odoacer and the subsequent deposition of Romulus Augustulus. The fall of the Western Roman Empire to Germanic kings, along with the hellenization of the Eastern Roman Empire into the Byzantine Empire, conventionally marks the end of Ancient Rome and the beginning of the Middle Ages. The predecessor state of the Roman Empire, the Roman Republic (which had replaced Rome's monarchy in the 6th century BC) became severely destabilized in a series of civil wars and political conflicts. In the mid-1st century BC, Julius Caesar was appointed as perpetual dictator and then assassinated in 44 BC. Civil wars and proscriptions continued, culminating in the victory of Octavian, Caesar's adopted son, over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. The following year Octavian conquered Ptolemaic Egypt, ending the Hellenistic period that had begun with the conquests of Alexander the Great of Macedon in the 4th century BC. Octavian's power then became unassailable, and in 27 BC the Roman Senate formally granted him overarching power and the new title Augustus, effectively making him the first Roman emperor. The first two centuries of the Empire saw a period of unprecedented stability and prosperity known as the Pax Romana ("Roman Peace"). Rome reached its greatest territorial expanse during the reign of Trajan (98–117 AD). A period of increasing trouble and decline began with the reign of Commodus (177–192). In the 3rd century the Empire underwent a crisis that threatened its existence, as the Gallic Empire and Palmyrene Empire broke away from the Roman state, and a series of short-lived emperors, often from the legions, led the empire. The empire was reunified under Aurelian (r. 270–275). In an effort to stabilize it, Diocletian set up two different imperial courts in the Greek East and Latin West in 286. Christians rose to positions of power in the 4th century following the Edict of Milan of 313. Shortly after, the Migration Period, involving large invasions by Germanic peoples and by the Huns of Attila, led to the decline of the Western Roman Empire. With the fall of Ravenna to the Germanic Herulians and the deposition of Romulus Augustus in 476 AD by Odoacer, the Western Roman Empire finally collapsed; the Eastern Roman Emperor Zeno formally abolished it in 480 AD. Nonetheless, some states in the territories of the former Western Roman Empire would later claim to have inherited the supreme power of the emperors of Rome, most notably the Holy Roman Empire. The Eastern Roman Empire survived for another millennium, until Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks of Sultan Mehmed II in 1453.[n 8] Due to the Roman Empire's vast extent and long endurance, the institutions and culture of Rome had a profound and lasting influence on the development of language, religion, art, architecture, philosophy, law, and forms of government in the territory it governed, and far beyond. The Latin language of the Romans evolved into the Romance languages of the medieval and modern world, while Medieval Greek became the language of the Eastern Roman Empire. The Empire's adoption of Christianity led to the formation of medieval Christendom. Greek and Roman art had a profound impact on the Italian Renaissance. Rome's architectural tradition served as the basis for Romanesque, Renaissance and Neoclassical architecture, and also had a strong influence on Islamic architecture. The corpus of Roman law has its descendants in many legal systems of the world today, such as the Napoleonic Code, while Rome's republican institutions have left an enduring legacy, influencing the Italian city-state republics of the medieval period, as well as the early United States and other modern democratic republics. Contents 1 History 1.1 Transition from Republic to Empire 1.2 The Pax Romana 1.3 Fall in the West and survival in the East 2 Geography and demography 3 Languages 3.1 Local languages and linguistic legacy 4 Society 4.1 Legal status 4.1.1 Women in Roman law 4.1.2 Slaves and the law 4.1.3 Freedmen 4.2 Census rank 4.2.1 Unequal justice 5 Government and military 5.1 Central government 5.2 Military 5.3 Provincial government 5.4 Roman law 5.5 Taxation 6 Economy 6.1 Currency and banking 6.2 Mining and metallurgy 6.3 Transportation and communication 6.4 Trade and commodities 6.5 Labour and occupations 6.6 GDP and income distribution 7 Architecture and engineering 8 Daily life 8.1 City and country 8.2 Food and dining 8.3 Recreation and spectacles 8.3.1 Personal training and play 8.4 Clothing 9 Arts 9.1 Portraiture 9.2 Sculpture 9.2.1 Sarcophagi 9.3 Painting 9.4 Mosaic 9.5 Decorative arts 9.6 Performing arts 10 Literacy, books, and education 10.1 Primary education 10.2 Secondary education 10.3 Educated women 10.4 Shape of literacy 11 Literature 12 Religion 13 Political legacy 14 See also 15 Notes 16 References 16.1 Citations 16.2 Cited sources 17 External links History Main article: History of the Roman Empire See also: Campaign history of the Roman military and Roman Kingdom Transition from Republic to Empire Main article: Roman Republic The Augustus of Prima Porta (early 1st century AD) Rome had begun expanding shortly after the founding of the republic in the 6th century BC, though it did not expand outside the Italian peninsula until the 3rd century BC. Then, it was an "empire" long before it had an emperor.[7][8][9][10] The Roman Republic was not a nation-state in the modern sense, but a network of towns left to rule themselves (though with varying degrees of independence from the Roman Senate) and provinces administered by military commanders. It was ruled, not by emperors, but by annually elected magistrates (Roman Consuls above all) in conjunction with the Senate.[11] For various reasons, the 1st century BC was a time of political and military upheaval, which ultimately led to rule by emperors.[8][12][13][14] The consuls' military power rested in the Roman legal concept of imperium, which literally means "command" (though typically in a military sense).[15] Occasionally, successful consuls were given the honorary title imperator (commander), and this is the origin of the word emperor (and empire) since this title (among others) was always bestowed to the early emperors upon their accession.[16] Rome suffered a long series of internal conflicts, conspiracies and civil wars from the late second century BC onward, while greatly extending its power beyond Italy. This was the period of the Crisis of the Roman Republic. Towards the end of this era, in 44 BC, Julius Caesar was briefly perpetual dictator before being assassinated. The faction of his assassins was driven from Rome and defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC by an army led by Mark Antony and Caesar's adopted son Octavian. Antony and Octavian's division of the Roman world between themselves did not last and Octavian's forces defeated those of Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, ending the Final War of the Roman Republic. In 27 BC the Senate and People of Rome made Octavian princeps ("first citizen") with proconsular imperium, thus beginning the Principate (the first epoch of Roman imperial history, usually dated from 27 BC to 284 AD), and gave him the name "Augustus" ("the venerated"). Though the old constitutional machinery remained in place, Augustus came to predominate it. Although the republic stood in name, contemporaries of Augustus knew it was just a veil and that Augustus had all meaningful authority in Rome.[17] Since his rule ended a century of civil wars and began an unprecedented period of peace and prosperity, he was so loved that he came to hold the power of a monarch de facto if not de jure. During the years of his rule, a new constitutional order emerged (in part organically and in part by design), so that, upon his death, this new constitutional order operated as before when Tiberius was accepted as the new emperor. The Pax Romana Main article: Pax Romana The so-called Five Good Emperors (from left to right): Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius The 200 years that began with Augustus's rule is traditionally regarded as the Pax Romana ("Roman Peace"). During this period, the cohesion of the empire was furthered by a degree of social stability and economic prosperity that Rome had never before experienced. Uprisings in the provinces were infrequent, but put down "mercilessly and swiftly" when they occurred.[18] The success of Augustus in establishing principles of dynastic succession was limited by his outliving a number of talented potential heirs. The Julio-Claudian dynasty lasted for four more emperors—Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius and Nero—before it yielded in 69 AD to the strife-torn Year of Four Emperors, from which Vespasian emerged as victor. Vespasian became the founder of the brief Flavian dynasty, to be followed by the Nerva–Antonine dynasty which produced the "Five Good Emperors": Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and the philosophically-inclined Marcus Aurelius. Fall in the West and survival in the East Main article: Fall of the Western Roman Empire See also: Barbarian kingdoms and Byzantine Empire The Barbarian Invasions consisted of the movement of (mainly) ancient Germanic peoples into Roman territory. Even though northern invasions took place throughout the life of the Empire, this period officially began in the 4th century and lasted for many centuries, during which the western territory was under the dominion of foreign northern rulers, a notable one being Charlemagne. Historically, this event marked the transition between classical antiquity and the Middle Ages. In the view of the Greek historian Dio Cassius, a contemporary observer, the accession of the emperor Commodus in 180 AD marked the descent "from a kingdom of gold to one of rust and iron"[19]—a famous comment which has led some historians, notably Edward Gibbon, to take Commodus' reign as the beginning of the decline of the Roman Empire.[20][21] In 212 AD, during the reign of Caracalla, Roman citizenship was granted to all freeborn inhabitants of the empire. But despite this gesture of universality, the Severan dynasty was tumultuous—an emperor's reign was ended routinely by his murder or execution—and, following its collapse, the Roman Empire was engulfed by the Crisis of the Third Century, a period of invasions, civil strife, economic disorder, and plague.[22] In defining historical epochs, this crisis is sometimes viewed as marking the transition from Classical Antiquity to Late Antiquity. Aurelian (reigned 270–275) brought the empire back from the brink and stabilized it. Diocletian completed the work of fully restoring the empire, but declined the role of princeps and became the first emperor to be addressed regularly as domine, "master" or "lord".[23] Diocletian's reign also brought the empire's most concerted effort against the perceived threat of Christianity, the "Great Persecution". Diocletian divided the empire into four regions, each ruled by a separate emperor, the Tetrarchy.[24] Confident that he fixed the disorders that were plaguing Rome, he abdicated along with his co-emperor, and the Tetrarchy soon collapsed. Order was eventually restored by Constantine the Great, who became the first emperor to convert to Christianity, and who established Constantinople as the new capital of the eastern empire. During the decades of the Constantinian and Valentinian dynasties, the empire was divided along an east–west axis, with dual power centres in Constantinople and Rome. The reign of Julian, who under the influence of his adviser Mardonius attempted to restore Classical Roman and Hellenistic religion, only briefly interrupted the succession of Christian emperors. Theodosius I, the last emperor to rule over both East and West, died in 395 AD after making Christianity the official religion of the empire.[25] The Roman Empire by 476 The Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate in the early 5th century as Germanic migrations and invasions overwhelmed the capacity of the empire to assimilate the migrants and fight off the invaders. The Romans were successful in fighting off all invaders, most famously Attila,[26] though the empire had assimilated so many Germanic peoples of dubious loyalty to Rome that the empire started to dismember itself.[27] Most chronologies place the end of the Western Roman Empire in 476, when Romulus Augustulus was forced to abdicate to the Germanic warlord Odoacer.[28][29][30] By placing himself under the rule of the Eastern Emperor, rather than naming a puppet emperor of his own, Odoacer ended the Western Empire. He did this by sending the imperial regalia to the Eastern Emperor Zeno, in effect declaring Zeno sole emperor, and placing himself as his nominal subordinate. In reality Italy was now ruled by Odoacer alone.[28][29][31] The Eastern Roman Empire, also called the Byzantine Empire by later historians, continued to exist until the reign of Constantine XI Palaiologos. The last Roman Emperor, he died in battle on 29 May 1453 against Mehmed II "the Conqueror" and his Ottoman forces in the final stages of the Siege of Constantinople. Mehmed II would himself also claim the title of caesar or Kayser-i Rum in an attempt to claim a connection to the Roman Empire.[32][33] Geography and demography Main articles: Demography of the Roman Empire and Borders of the Roman Empire Further information: Classical demography The Roman Empire was one of the largest in history, with contiguous territories throughout Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East.[34] The Latin phrase imperium sine fine ("empire without end"[35]) expressed the ideology that neither time nor space limited the Empire. In Vergil's epic poem the Aeneid, limitless empire is said to be granted to the Romans by their supreme deity Jupiter.[35][36][37][38][39] This claim of universal dominion was renewed and perpetuated when the Empire came under Christian rule in the 4th century.[n 9] In addition to annexing large regions in their quest for empire-building, the Romans were also very large sculptors of their environment who directly altered their geography. For instance, entire forests were cut down to provide enough wood resources for an expanding empire. In his book Critias, Plato described that deforestation: where there was once "an abundance of wood in the mountains," he could now only see "the mere skeleton of the land."[40] In reality, Roman expansion was mostly accomplished under the Republic, though parts of northern Europe were conquered in the 1st century AD, when Roman control in Europe, Africa, and Asia was strengthened. During the reign of Augustus, a "global map of the known world" was displayed for the first time in public at Rome, coinciding with the composition of the most comprehensive work on political geography that survives from antiquity, the Geography of the Pontic Greek writer Strabo.[41] When Augustus died, the commemorative account of his achievements (Res Gestae) prominently featured the geographical cataloguing of peoples and places within the Empire.[42] Geography, the census, and the meticulous keeping of written records were central concerns of Roman Imperial administration.[43] The cities of the Roman world in the Imperial Period. Data source: Hanson, J. W. (2016), Cities database, (OXREP databases). Version 1.0. (link). A segment of the ruins of Hadrian's Wall in northern England The Empire reached its largest expanse under Trajan (reigned 98–117),[39] encompassing an area of 5 million square kilometres.[4][5] The traditional population estimate of 55–60 million inhabitants[44] accounted for between one-sixth and one-fourth of the world's total population[45] and made it the largest population of any unified political entity in the West until the mid-19th century.[46] Recent demographic studies have argued for a population peak ranging from 70 million to more than 100 million.[47][48] Each of the three largest cities in the Empire—Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch—was almost twice the size of any European city at the beginning of the 17th century.[49] As the historian Christopher Kelly has described it: Then the empire stretched from Hadrian's Wall in drizzle-soaked northern England to the sun-baked banks of the Euphrates in Syria; from the great Rhine–Danube river system, which snaked across the fertile, flat lands of Europe from the Low Countries to the Black Sea, to the rich plains of the North African coast and the luxuriant gash of the Nile Valley in Egypt. The empire completely circled the Mediterranean ... referred to by its conquerors as mare nostrum—'our sea'.[44] Trajan's successor Hadrian adopted a policy of maintaining rather than expanding the empire. Borders (fines) were marked, and the frontiers (limites) patrolled.[39] The most heavily fortified borders were the most unstable.[12] Hadrian's Wall, which separated the Roman world from what was perceived as an ever-present barbarian threat, is the primary surviving monument of this effort.[50][51][52] Languages This section may contain misleading parts. Please help clarify this article according to any suggestions provided on the talk page. (September 2016) Main article: Languages of the Roman Empire The language of the Romans was Latin, which Virgil emphasizes as a source of Roman unity and tradition.[53][54][55] Until the time of Alexander Severus (reigned 222–235), the birth certificates and wills of Roman citizens had to be written in Latin.[56] Latin was the language of the law courts in the West and of the military throughout the Empire,[57] but was not imposed officially on peoples brought under Roman rule.[58][59] This policy contrasts with that of Alexander the Great, who aimed to impose Greek throughout his empire as the official language.[60] As a consequence of Alexander's conquests, koine Greek had become the shared language around the eastern Mediterranean and into Asia Minor.[61][62] The "linguistic frontier" dividing the Latin West and the Greek East passed through the Balkan peninsula.[63] A 5th-century papyrus showing a parallel Latin-Greek text of a speech by Cicero[64] Romans who received an elite education studied Greek as a literary language, and most men of the governing classes could speak Greek.[65] The Julio-Claudian emperors encouraged high standards of correct Latin (Latinitas), a linguistic movement identified in modern terms as Classical Latin, and favoured Latin for conducting official business.[66] Claudius tried to limit the use of Greek, and on occasion revoked the citizenship of those who lacked Latin, but even in the Senate he drew on his own bilingualism in communicating with Greek-speaking ambassadors.[66] Suetonius quotes him as referring to "our two languages".[67] In the Eastern empire, laws and official documents were regularly translated into Greek from Latin.[68] The everyday interpenetration of the two languages is indicated by bilingual inscriptions, which sometimes even switch back and forth between Greek and Latin.[69][70] After all freeborn inhabitants of the empire were universally enfranchised in 212 AD, a great number of Roman citizens would have lacked Latin, though Latin remained a marker of "Romanness."[71] Among other reforms, the emperor Diocletian (reigned 284–305) sought to renew the authority of Latin, and the Greek expression hē kratousa dialektos attests to the continuing status of Latin as "the language of power."[72] In the early 6th century, the emperor Justinian engaged in a quixotic effort to reassert the status of Latin as the language of law, even though in his time Latin no longer held any currency as a living language in the East.[73] Local languages and linguistic legacy Bilingual Latin-Punic inscription at the theatre in Leptis Magna, Roman Africa (present-day Libya) References to interpreters indicate the continuing use of local languages other than Greek and Latin, particularly in Egypt, where Coptic predominated, and in military settings along the Rhine and Danube. Roman jurists also show a concern for local languages such as Punic, Gaulish, and Aramaic in assuring the correct understanding and application of laws and oaths.[74] In the province of Africa, Libyco-Berber and Punic were used in inscriptions and for legends on coins during the time of Tiberius (1st century AD). Libyco-Berber and Punic inscriptions appear on public buildings into the 2nd century, some bilingual with Latin.[75] In Syria, Palmyrene soldiers even used their dialect of Aramaic for inscriptions, in a striking exception to the rule that Latin was the language of the military.[76] The Babatha Archive is a suggestive example of multilingualism in the Empire. These papyri, named for a Jewish woman in the province of Arabia and dating from 93 to 132 AD, mostly employ Aramaic, the local language, written in Greek characters with Semitic and Latin influences; a petition to the Roman governor, however, was written in Greek.[77] The dominance of Latin among the literate elite may obscure the continuity of spoken languages, since all cultures within the Roman Empire were predominantly oral.[75] In the West, Latin, referred to in its spoken form as Vulgar Latin, gradually replaced Celtic and Italic languages that were related to it by a shared Indo-European origin. Commonalities in syntax and vocabulary facilitated the adoption of Latin.[78][79][80] After the decentralization of political power in late antiquity, Latin developed locally into branches that became the Romance languages, such as Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian, Catalan and Romanian, and a large number of minor languages and dialects. Today, more than 900 million people are native speakers worldwide.[81] As an international language of learning and literature, Latin itself continued as an active medium of expression for diplomacy and for intellectual developments identified with Renaissance humanism up to the 17th century, and for law and the Roman Catholic Church to the present.[82][83] "Gate of Domitian and Trajan" at the northern entrance of the Temple of Hathor, and Roman Emperor Domitian as Pharaoh of Egypt on the same gate, together with Egyptian hieroglyphs. Dendera, Egypt.[84][85] Although Greek continued as the language of the Byzantine Empire, linguistic distribution in the East was more complex. A Greek-speaking majority lived in the Greek peninsula and islands, western Anatolia, major cities, and some coastal areas.[62] Like Greek and Latin, the Thracian language was of Indo-European origin, as were several now-extinct languages in Anatolia attested by Imperial-era inscriptions.[62][75] Albanian is often seen as the descendant of Illyrian, although this hypothesis has been challenged by some linguists, who maintain that it derives from Dacian or Thracian.[86] (Illyrian, Dacian, and Thracian, however, may have formed a subgroup or a Sprachbund; see Thraco-Illyrian.) Various Afroasiatic languages—primarily Coptic in Egypt, and Aramaic in Syria and Mesopotamia—were never replaced by Greek. The international use of Greek, however, was one factor enabling the spread of Christianity, as indicated for example by the use of Greek for the Epistles of Paul.[62] Several references to Gaulish in late antiquity may indicate that it continued to be spoken. In the second century AD there was explicit recognition of its usage in some legal manners,[87] soothsaying[88] and pharmacology.[89] Sulpicius Severus, writing in the 5th century AD in Gallia Aquitania, noted bilingualism with Gaulish as the first language.[88] The survival of the Galatian dialect in Anatolia akin to that spoken by the Treveri near Trier was attested by Jerome (331–420), who had first-hand knowledge.[90] Much of historical linguistics scholarship postulates that Gaulish was indeed still spoken as late as the mid to late 6th century in France.[91] Despite considerable Romanization of the local material culture, the Gaulish language is held to have survived and had coexisted with spoken Latin during the centuries of Roman rule of Gaul.[91] The last reference to Galatian was made by Cyril of Scythopolis, claiming that an evil spirit had possessed a monk and rendered him able to speak only in Galatian,[92] while the last reference to Gaulish in France was made by Gregory of Tours between 560 and 575, noting that a shrine in Auvergne which "is called Vasso Galatae in the Gallic tongue" was destroyed and burnt to the ground.[93][91] After the long period of bilingualism, the emergent Gallo-Romance languages including French were shaped by Gaulish in a number of ways; in the case of French these include loanwords and calques (including oui,[94] the word for "yes"),[95][94] sound changes,[96][97] and influences in conjugation and word order.[95][94][98] Society Further information: Ancient Roman society A multigenerational banquet depicted on a wall painting from Pompeii (1st century AD) Spread of Seuso at Lacus Pelso (Lake Balaton) The Roman Empire was remarkably multicultural, with "a rather astonishing cohesive capacity" to create a sense of shared identity while encompassing diverse peoples within its political system over a long span of time.[99] The Roman attention to creating public monuments and communal spaces open to all—such as forums, amphitheatres, racetracks and baths—helped foster a sense of "Romanness".[100] Roman society had multiple, overlapping social hierarchies that modern concepts of "class" in English may not represent accurately.[101] The two decades of civil war from which Augustus rose to sole power left traditional society in Rome in a state of confusion and upheaval,[102] but did not effect an immediate redistribution of wealth and social power. From the perspective of the lower classes, a peak was merely added to the social pyramid.[103] Personal relationships—patronage, friendship (amicitia), family, marriage—continued to influence the workings of politics and government, as they had in the Republic.[104] By the time of Nero, however, it was not unusual to find a former slave who was richer than a freeborn citizen, or an equestrian who exercised greater power than a senator.[105] The blurring or diffusion of the Republic's more rigid hierarchies led to increased social mobility under the Empire,[106][107] both upward and downward, to an extent that exceeded that of all other well-documented ancient societies.[108] Women, freedmen, and slaves had opportunities to profit and exercise influence in ways previously less available to them.[109] Social life in the Empire, particularly for those whose personal resources were limited, was further fostered by a proliferation of voluntary associations and confraternities (collegia and sodalitates) formed for various purposes: professional and trade guilds, veterans' groups, religious sodalities, drinking and dining clubs,[110] performing arts troupes,[111] and burial societies.[112] Legal status Main articles: Status in Roman legal system and Roman citizenship Citizen of Roman Egypt (Fayum mummy portrait) According to the jurist Gaius, the essential distinction in the Roman "law of persons" was that all human beings were either free (liberi) or slaves (servi).[113][114] The legal status of free persons might be further defined by their citizenship. Most citizens held limited rights (such as the ius Latinum, "Latin right"), but were entitled to legal protections and privileges not enjoyed by those who lacked citizenship. Free people not considered citizens, but living within the Roman world, held status as peregrini, non-Romans.[115] In 212 AD, by means of the edict known as the Constitutio Antoniniana, the emperor Caracalla extended citizenship to all freeborn inhabitants of the empire. This legal egalitarianism would have required a far-reaching revision of existing laws that had distinguished between citizens and non-citizens.[116] Women in Roman law Main article: Women in ancient Rome Freeborn Roman women were considered citizens throughout the Republic and Empire, but did not vote, hold political office, or serve in the military. A mother's citizen status determined that of her children, as indicated by the phrase ex duobus civibus Romanis natos ("children born of two Roman citizens").[n 10] A Roman woman kept her own family name (nomen) for life. Children most often took the father's name, but in the Imperial period sometimes made their mother's name part of theirs, or even used it instead.[117] Left image: Roman fresco of a blond maiden reading a text, Pompeian Fourth Style (60–79 AD), Pompeii, Italy Right image: Bronze statuette (1st century AD) of a young woman reading, based on a Hellenistic original The archaic form of manus marriage in which the woman had been subject to her husband's authority was largely abandoned by the Imperial era, and a married woman retained ownership of any property she brought into the marriage. Technically she remained under her father's legal authority, even though she moved into her husband's home, but when her father died she became legally emancipated.[118] This arrangement was one of the factors in the degree of independence Roman women enjoyed relative to those of many other ancient cultures and up to the modern period:[119][120] although she had to answer to her father in legal matters, she was free of his direct scrutiny in her daily life,[121] and her husband had no legal power over her.[122] Although it was a point of pride to be a "one-man woman" (univira) who had married only once, there was little stigma attached to divorce, nor to speedy remarriage after the loss of a husband through death or divorce.[123] Girls had equal inheritance rights with boys if their father died without leaving a will.[124][125][126] A Roman mother's right to own property and to dispose of it as she saw fit, including setting the terms of her own will, gave her enormous influence over her sons even when they were adults.[127] As part of the Augustan programme to restore traditional morality and social order, moral legislation attempted to regulate the conduct of men and women as a means of promoting "family values". Adultery, which had been a private family matter under the Republic, was criminalized,[128] and defined broadly as an illicit sex act (stuprum) that occurred between a male citizen and a married woman, or between a married woman and any man other than her husband.[n 11] Childbearing was encouraged by the state: a woman who had given birth to three children was granted symbolic honours and greater legal freedom (the ius trium liberorum). Because of their legal status as citizens and the degree to which they could become emancipated, women could own property, enter contracts, and engage in business,[129][130] including shipping, manufacturing, and lending money. Inscriptions throughout the Empire honour women as benefactors in funding public works, an indication they could acquire and dispose of considerable fortunes; for instance, the Arch of the Sergii was funded by Salvia Postuma, a female member of the family honoured, and the largest building in the forum at Pompeii was funded by Eumachia, a priestess of Venus.[131] Slaves and the law Main article: Slavery in ancient Rome At the time of Augustus, as many as 35% of the people in Italy were slaves,[132] making Rome one of five historical "slave societies" in which slaves constituted at least a fifth of the population and played a major role in the economy.[133] Slavery was a complex institution that supported traditional Roman social structures as well as contributing economic utility.[134] In urban settings, slaves might be professionals such as teachers, physicians, chefs, and accountants, in addition to the majority of slaves who provided trained or unskilled labour in households or workplaces. Agriculture and industry, such as milling and mining, relied on the exploitation of slaves. Outside Italy, slaves made up on average an estimated 10 to 20% of the population, sparse in Roman Egypt but more concentrated in some Greek areas. Expanding Roman ownership of arable land and industries would have affected preexisting practices of slavery in the provinces.[135][136] Although the institution of slavery has often been regarded as waning in the 3rd and 4th centuries, it remained an integral part of Roman society until the 5th century. Slavery ceased gradually in the 6th and 7th centuries along with the decline of urban centres in the West and the disintegration of the complex Imperial economy that had created the demand for it.[137] Slave holding writing tablets for his master (relief from a 4th-century sarcophagus) Laws pertaining to slavery were "extremely intricate".[138] Under Roman law, slaves were considered property and had no legal personhood. They could be subjected to forms of corporal punishment not normally exercised on citizens, sexual exploitation, torture, and summary execution. A slave could not as a matter of law be raped since rape could be committed only against people who were free; a slave's rapist had to be prosecuted by the owner for property damage under the Aquilian Law.[139][140] Slaves had no right to the form of legal marriage called conubium, but their unions were sometimes recognized, and if both were freed they could marry.[141] Following the Servile Wars of the Republic, legislation under Augustus and his successors shows a driving concern for controlling the threat of rebellions through limiting the size of work groups, and for hunting down fugitive slaves.[142] Technically, a slave could not own property,[143] but a slave who conducted business might be given access to an individual account or fund (peculium) that he could use as if it were his own. The terms of this account varied depending on the degree of trust and co-operation between owner and slave: a slave with an aptitude for business could be given considerable leeway to generate profit and might be allowed to bequeath the peculium he managed to other slaves of his household.[144] Within a household or workplace, a hierarchy of slaves might exist, with one slave in effect acting as the master of other slaves.[145] Over time slaves gained increased legal protection, including the right to file complaints against their masters. A bill of sale might contain a clause stipulating that the slave could not be employed for prostitution, as prostitutes in ancient Rome were often slaves.[146] The burgeoning trade in eunuch slaves in the late 1st century AD prompted legislation that prohibited the castration of a slave against his will "for lust or gain."[147][148] Roman slavery was not based on race.[149][150] Slaves were drawn from all over Europe and the Mediterranean, including Gaul, Hispania, Germany, Britannia, the Balkans, Greece... Generally, slaves in Italy were indigenous Italians,[151] with a minority of foreigners (including both slaves and freedmen) born outside of Italy estimated at 5% of the total in the capital at its peak, where their number was largest. Those from outside of Europe were predominantly of Greek descent, while the Jewish ones never fully assimilated into Roman society, remaining an identifiable minority. These slaves (especially the foreigners) had higher mortality rates and lower birth rates than natives, and were sometimes even subjected to mass expulsions.[152] The average recorded age at death for the slaves of the city of Rome was extraordinarily low: seventeen and a half years (17.2 for males; 17.9 for females).[153] During the period of Republican expansionism when slavery had become pervasive, war captives were a main source of slaves. The range of ethnicities among slaves to some extent reflected that of the armies Rome defeated in war, and the conquest of Greece brought a number of highly skilled and educated slaves into Rome. Slaves were also traded in markets and sometimes sold by pirates. Infant abandonment and self-enslavement among the poor were other sources.[135] Vernae, by contrast, were "homegrown" slaves born to female slaves within the urban household or on a country estate or farm. Although they had no special legal status, an owner who mistreated or failed to care for his vernae faced social disapproval, as they were considered part of his familia, the family household, and in some cases might actually be the children of free males in the family.[154][155] Talented slaves with a knack for business might accumulate a large enough peculium to justify their freedom, or be manumitted for services rendered. Manumission had become frequent enough that in 2 BC a law (Lex Fufia Caninia) limited the number of slaves an owner was allowed to free in his will.[156] Freedmen Cinerary urn for the freedman Tiberius Claudius Chryseros and two women, probably his wife and daughter Rome differed from Greek city-states in allowing freed slaves to become citizens. After manumission, a slave who had belonged to a Roman citizen enjoyed not only passive freedom from ownership, but active political freedom (libertas), including the right to vote.[157] A slave who had acquired libertas was a libertus ("freed person," feminine liberta) in relation to his former master, who then became his patron (patronus): the two parties continued to have customary and legal obligations to each other. As a social class generally, freed slaves were libertini, though later writers used the terms libertus and libertinus interchangeably.[158][159] A libertinus was not entitled to hold public office or the highest state priesthoods, but he could play a priestly role in the cult of the emperor. He could not marry a woman from a family of senatorial rank, nor achieve legitimate senatorial rank himself, but during the early Empire, freedmen held key positions in the government bureaucracy, so much so that Hadrian limited their participation by law.[159] Any future children of a freedman would be born free, with full rights of citizenship. The rise of successful freedmen—through either political influence in imperial service or wealth—is a characteristic of early Imperial society. The prosperity of a high-achieving group of freedmen is attested by inscriptions throughout the Empire, and by their ownership of some of the most lavish houses at Pompeii, such as the House of the Vettii. The excesses of nouveau riche freedmen were satirized in the character of Trimalchio in the Satyricon by Petronius, who wrote in the time of Nero. Such individuals, while exceptional, are indicative of the upward social mobility possible in the Empire. Census rank See also: Senate of the Roman Empire, Equestrian order, and Decurion (administrative) The Latin word ordo (plural ordines) refers to a social distinction that is translated variously into English as "class, order, rank," none of which is exact. One purpose of the Roman census was to determine the ordo to which an individual belonged. The two highest ordines in Rome were the senatorial and equestrian. Outside Rome, the decurions, also known as curiales (Greek bouleutai), were the top governing ordo of an individual city. Fragment of a sarcophagus depicting Gordian III and senators (3rd century) "Senator" was not itself an elected office in ancient Rome; an individual gained admission to the Senate after he had been elected to and served at least one term as an executive magistrate. A senator also had to meet a minimum property requirement of 1 million sestertii, as determined by the census.[160][161] Nero made large gifts of money to a number of senators from old families who had become too impoverished to qualify. Not all men who qualified for the ordo senatorius chose to take a Senate seat, which required legal domicile at Rome. Emperors often filled vacancies in the 600-member body by appointment.[162][163] A senator's son belonged to the ordo senatorius, but he had to qualify on his own merits for admission to the Senate itself. A senator could be removed for violating moral standards: he was prohibited, for instance, from marrying a freedwoman or fighting in the arena.[164] In the time of Nero, senators were still primarily from Rome and other parts of Italy, with some from the Iberian peninsula and southern France; men from the Greek-speaking provinces of the East began to be added under Vespasian.[165] The first senator from the most eastern province, Cappadocia, was admitted under Marcus Aurelius.[166] By the time of the Severan dynasty (193–235), Italians made up less than half the Senate.[167] During the 3rd century, domicile at Rome became impractical, and inscriptions attest to senators who were active in politics and munificence in their homeland (patria).[164] Senators had an aura of prestige and were the traditional governing class who rose through the cursus honorum, the political career track, but equestrians of the Empire often possessed greater wealth and political power. Membership in the equestrian order was based on property; in Rome's early days, equites or knights had been distinguished by their ability to serve as mounted warriors (the "public horse"), but cavalry service was a separate function in the Empire.[n 12] A census valuation of 400,000 sesterces and three generations of free birth qualified a man as an equestrian.[168] The census of 28 BC uncovered large numbers of men who qualified, and in 14 AD, a thousand equestrians were registered at Cadiz and Padua alone.[n 13][169] Equestrians rose through a military career track (tres militiae) to become highly placed prefects and procurators within the Imperial administration.[170][171] The rise of provincial men to the senatorial and equestrian orders is an aspect of social mobility in the first three centuries of the Empire. Roman aristocracy was based on competition, and unlike later European nobility, a Roman family could not maintain its position merely through hereditary succession or having title to lands.[172][173] Admission to the higher ordines brought distinction and privileges, but also a number of responsibilities. In antiquity, a city depended on its leading citizens to fund public works, events, and services (munera), rather than on tax revenues, which primarily supported the military. Maintaining one's rank required massive personal expenditures.[174] Decurions were so vital for the functioning of cities that in the later Empire, as the ranks of the town councils became depleted, those who had risen to the Senate were encouraged by the central government to give up their seats and return to their hometowns, in an effort to sustain civic life.[175] In the later Empire, the dignitas ("worth, esteem") that attended on senatorial or equestrian rank was refined further with titles such as vir illustris, "illustrious man".[176] The appellation clarissimus (Greek lamprotatos) was used to designate the dignitas of certain senators and their immediate family, including women.[177] "Grades" of equestrian status proliferated. Those in Imperial service were ranked by pay grade (sexagenarius, 60,000 sesterces per annum; centenarius, 100,000; ducenarius, 200,000). The title eminentissimus, "most eminent" (Greek exochôtatos) was reserved for equestrians who had been Praetorian prefects. The higher equestrian officials in general were perfectissimi, "most distinguished" (Greek diasêmotatoi), the lower merely egregii, "outstanding" (Greek kratistos).[178] Unequal justice Condemned man attacked by a leopard in the arena (3rd-century mosaic from Tunisia) As the republican principle of citizens' equality under the law faded, the symbolic and social privileges of the upper classes led to an informal division of Roman society into those who had acquired greater honours (honestiores) and those who were humbler folk (humiliores). In general, honestiores were the members of the three higher "orders," along with certain military officers.[179][180] The granting of universal citizenship in 212 seems to have increased the competitive urge among the upper classes to have their superiority over other citizens affirmed, particularly within the justice system.[180][181][182] Sentencing depended on the judgment of the presiding official as to the relative "worth" (dignitas) of the defendant: an honestior could pay a fine when convicted of a crime for which an humilior might receive a scourging.[180] Execution, which had been an infrequent legal penalty for free men under the Republic even in a capital case,[183][184] could be quick and relatively painless for the Imperial citizen considered "more honourable", while those deemed inferior might suffer the kinds of torture and prolonged death previously reserved for slaves, such as crucifixion and condemnation to the beasts as a spectacle in the arena.[185] In the early Empire, those who converted to Christianity could lose their standing as honestiores, especially if they declined to fulfill the religious aspects of their civic responsibilities, and thus became subject to punishments that created the conditions of martyrdom.[180][186] Government and military Main article: Constitution of the Roman Empire Reconstructed statue of Augustus as Jove, holding scepter and orb (first half of 1st century AD).[187] The Imperial cult of ancient Rome identified emperors and some members of their families with the divinely sanctioned authority (auctoritas) of the Roman State. The rite of apotheosis (also called consecratio) signified the deceased emperor's deification and acknowledged his role as father of the people similar to the concept of a pater familias' soul or manes being honoured by his sons.[188] Forum of Gerasa (Jerash in present-day Jordan), with columns marking a covered walkway (stoa) for vendor stalls, and a semicircular space for public speaking The three major elements of the Imperial Roman state were the central government, the military, and provincial government.[189] The military established control of a territory through war, but after a city or people was brought under treaty, the military mission turned to policing: protecting Roman citizens (after 212 AD, all freeborn inhabitants of the Empire), the agricultural fields that fed them, and religious sites.[190] Without modern instruments of either mass communication or mass destruction, the Romans lacked sufficient manpower or resources to impose their rule through force alone. Cooperation with local power elites was necessary to maintain order, collect information, and extract revenue. The Romans often exploited internal political divisions by supporting one faction over another: in the view of Plutarch, "it was discord between factions within cities that led to the loss of self-governance".[191][192][193] Communities with demonstrated loyalty to Rome retained their own laws, could collect their own taxes locally, and in exceptional cases were exempt from Roman taxation. Legal privileges and relative independence were an incentive to remain in good standing with Rome.[194] Roman government was thus limited, but efficient in its use of the resources available to it.[195] Central government See also: Roman emperor and Senate of the Roman Empire The dominance of the emperor was based on the consolidation of certain powers from several republican offices, including the inviolability of the tribunes of the people and the authority of the censors to manipulate the hierarchy of Roman society.[196] The emperor also made himself the central religious authority as Pontifex Maximus, and centralized the right to declare war, ratify treaties, and negotiate with foreign leaders.[197] While these functions were clearly defined during the Principate, the emperor's powers over time became less constitutional and more monarchical, culminating in the Dominate.[198] Antoninus Pius (reigned 138–161), wearing a toga (Hermitage Museum) The emperor was the ultimate authority in policy- and decision-making, but in the early Principate he was expected to be accessible to individuals from all walks of life, and to deal personally with official business and petitions. A bureaucracy formed around him only gradually.[199] The Julio-Claudian emperors relied on an informal body of advisors that included not only senators and equestrians, but trusted slaves and freedmen.[200] After Nero, the unofficial influence of the latter was regarded with suspicion, and the emperor's council (consilium) became subject to official appointment for the sake of greater transparency.[201] Though the senate took a lead in policy discussions until the end of the Antonine dynasty, equestrians played an increasingly important role in the consilium.[202] The women of the emperor's family often intervened directly in his decisions. Plotina exercised influence on both her husband Trajan and his successor Hadrian. Her influence was advertised by having her letters on official matters published, as a sign that the emperor was reasonable in his exercise of authority and listened to his people.[203] Access to the emperor by others might be gained at the daily reception (salutatio), a development of the traditional homage a client paid to his patron; public banquets hosted at the palace; and religious ceremonies. The common people who lacked this access could manifest their general approval or displeasure as a group at the games held in large venues.[204] By the 4th century, as urban centres decayed, the Christian emperors became remote figureheads who issued general rulings, no longer responding to individual petitions.[205] Although the senate could do little short of assassination and open rebellion to contravene the will of the emperor, it survived the Augustan restoration and the turbulent Year of Four Emperors to retain its symbolic political centrality during the Principate.[206] The senate legitimated the emperor's rule, and the emperor needed the experience of senators as legates (legati) to serve as generals, diplomats, and administrators.[207][208] A successful career required competence as an administrator and remaining in favour with the emperor, or over time perhaps multiple emperors.[209] The practical source of an emperor's power and authority was the military. The legionaries were paid by the Imperial treasury, and swore an annual military oath of loyalty to the emperor (sacramentum).[210] The death of an emperor led to a crucial period of uncertainty and crisis. Most emperors indicated their choice of successor, usually a close family member or adopted heir. The new emperor had to seek a swift acknowledgement of his status and authority to stabilize the political landscape. No emperor could hope to survive, much less to reign, without the allegiance and loyalty of the Praetorian Guard and of the legions. To secure their loyalty, several emperors paid the donativum, a monetary reward. In theory, the Senate was entitled to choose the new emperor, but did so mindful of acclamation by the army or Praetorians.[208] Military The Roman empire under Hadrian (ruled 117–138) showing the location of the Roman legions deployed in 125 AD Main articles: Imperial Roman army and Structural history of the Roman military After the Punic Wars, the Imperial Roman army was composed of professional soldiers who volunteered for 20 years of active duty and five as reserves. The transition to a professional military had begun during the late Republic, and was one of the many profound shifts away from republicanism, under which an army of conscripts had exercised their responsibilities as citizens in defending the homeland in a campaign against a specific threat. For Imperial Rome, the military was a full-time career in itself.[211] The Romans expanded their war machine by "organizing the communities that they conquered in Italy into a system that generated huge reservoirs of manpower for their army... Their main demand of all defeated enemies was they provide men for the Roman army every year."[212] The primary mission of the Roman military of the early empire was to preserve the Pax Romana.[213] The three major divisions of the military were: the garrison at Rome, which includes both the Praetorians and the vigiles who functioned as police and firefighters; the provincial army, comprising the Roman legions and the auxiliaries provided by the provinces (auxilia); the navy. The pervasiveness of military garrisons throughout the Empire was a major influence in the process of cultural exchange and assimilation known as "Romanization," particularly in regard to politics, the economy, and religion.[214] Knowledge of the Roman military comes from a wide range of sources: Greek and Roman literary texts; coins with military themes; papyri preserving military documents; monuments such as Trajan's Column and triumphal arches, which feature artistic depictions of both fighting men and military machines; the archeology of military burials, battle sites, and camps; and inscriptions, including military diplomas, epitaphs, and dedications.[215] Through his military reforms, which included consolidating or disbanding units of questionable loyalty, Augustus changed and regularized the legion, down to the hobnail pattern on the soles of army boots. A legion was organized into ten cohorts, each of which comprised six centuries, with a century further made up of ten squads (contubernia); the exact size of the Imperial legion, which is most likely to have been determined by logistics, has been estimated to range from 4,800 to 5,280.[216] Relief panel from Trajan's Column showing the building of a fort and the reception of a Dacian embassy In 9 AD, Germanic tribes wiped out three full legions in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. This disastrous event reduced the number of the legions to 25. The total of the legions would later be increased again and for the next 300 years always be a little above or below 30.[217] The army had about 300,000 soldiers in the 1st century, and under 400,000 in the 2nd, "significantly smaller" than the collective armed forces of the territories it conquered. No more than 2% of adult males living in the Empire served in the Imperial army.[218] Augustus also created the Praetorian Guard: nine cohorts, ostensibly to maintain the public peace, which were garrisoned in Italy. Better paid than the legionaries, the Praetorians served only sixteen years.[219] The auxilia were recruited from among the non-citizens. Organized in smaller units of roughly cohort strength, they were paid less than the legionaries, and after 25 years of service were rewarded with Roman citizenship, also extended to their sons. According to Tacitus[220] there were roughly as many auxiliaries as there were legionaries. The auxilia thus amounted to around 125,000 men, implying approximately 250 auxiliary regiments.[221] The Roman cavalry of the earliest Empire were primarily from Celtic, Hispanic or Germanic areas. Several aspects of training and equipment, such as the four-horned saddle, derived from the Celts, as noted by Arrian and indicated by archeology.[222][223] The Roman navy (Latin: classis, "fleet") not only aided in the supply and transport of the legions, but also helped in the protection of the frontiers along the rivers Rhine and Danube. Another of its duties was the protection of the crucial maritime trade routes against the threat of pirates. It patrolled the whole of the Mediterranean, parts of the North Atlantic coasts, and the Black Sea. Nevertheless, the army was considered the senior and more prestigious branch.[224] Provincial government The Pula Arena in Croatia is one of the largest and most intact of the remaining Roman amphitheatres. An annexed territory became a province in a three-step process: making a register of cities, taking a census of the population, and surveying the land.[225] Further government recordkeeping included births and deaths, real estate transactions, taxes, and juridical proceedings.[226] In the 1st and 2nd centuries, the central government sent out around 160 officials each year to govern outside Italy.[11] Among these officials were the "Roman governors", as they are called in English: either magistrates elected at Rome who in the name of the Roman people governed senatorial provinces; or governors, usually of equestrian rank, who held their imperium on behalf of the emperor in provinces excluded from senatorial control, most notably Roman Egypt.[227] A governor had to make himself accessible to the people he governed, but he could delegate various duties.[228] His staff, however, was minimal: his official attendants (apparitores), including lictors, heralds, messengers, scribes, and bodyguards; legates, both civil and military, usually of equestrian rank; and friends, ranging in age and experience, who accompanied him unofficially.[228] Other officials were appointed as supervisors of government finances.[11] Separating fiscal responsibility from justice and administration was a reform of the Imperial era. Under the Republic, provincial governors and tax farmers could exploit local populations for personal gain more freely.[229] Equestrian procurators, whose authority was originally "extra-judicial and extra-constitutional," managed both state-owned property and the vast personal property of the emperor (res privata).[228] Because Roman government officials were few in number, a provincial who needed help with a legal dispute or criminal case might seek out any Roman perceived to have some official capacity, such as a procurator or a military officer, including centurions down to the lowly stationarii or military police.[230][231] Roman law Main article: Roman law Roman portraiture frescos from Pompeii, 1st century AD, depicting two different men wearing laurel wreaths, one holding the rotulus (blondish figure, left), the other a volumen (brunet figure, right), both made of papyrus Roman courts held original jurisdiction over cases involving Roman citizens throughout the empire, but there were too few judicial functionaries to impose Roman law uniformly in the provinces. Most parts of the Eastern empire already had well-established law codes and juridical procedures.[102] In general, it was Roman policy to respect the mos regionis ("regional tradition" or "law of the land") and to regard local laws as a source of legal precedent and social stability.[102][232] The compatibility of Roman and local law was thought to reflect an underlying ius gentium, the "law of nations" or international law regarded as common and customary among all human communities.[233] If the particulars of provincial law conflicted with Roman law or custom, Roman courts heard appeals, and the emperor held final authority to render a decision.[102][234][235] In the West, law had been administered on a highly localized or tribal basis, and private property rights may have been a novelty of the Roman era, particularly among Celtic peoples. Roman law facilitated the acquisition of wealth by a pro-Roman elite who found their new privileges as citizens to be advantageous.[102] The extension of universal citizenship to all free inhabitants of the Empire in 212 required the uniform application of Roman law, replacing the local law codes that had applied to non-citizens. Diocletian's efforts to stabilize the Empire after the Crisis of the Third Century included two major compilations of law in four years, the Codex Gregorianus and the Codex Hermogenianus, to guide provincial administrators in setting consistent legal standards.[236] The pervasive exercise of Roman law throughout Western Europe led to its enormous influence on the Western legal tradition, reflected by the continued use of Latin legal terminology in modern law. Taxation Taxation under the Empire amounted to about 5% of the Empire's gross product.[237] The typical tax rate paid by individuals ranged from 2 to 5%.[238] The tax code was "bewildering" in its complicated system of direct and indirect taxes, some paid in cash and some in kind. Taxes might be specific to a province, or kinds of properties such as fisheries or salt evaporation ponds; they might be in effect for a limited time.[239] Tax collection was justified by the need to maintain the military,[45][240] and taxpayers sometimes got a refund if the army captured a surplus of booty.[241] In-kind taxes were accepted from less-monetized areas, particularly those who could supply grain or goods to army camps.[242] Personification of the River Nile and his children, from the Temple of Serapis and Isis in Rome (1st century AD) The primary source of direct tax revenue was individuals, who paid a poll tax and a tax on their land, construed as a tax on its produce or productive capacity.[238] Supplemental forms could be filed by those eligible for certain exemptions; for example, Egyptian farmers could register fields as fallow and tax-exempt depending on flood patterns of the Nile.[243] Tax obligations were determined by the census, which required each head of household to appear before the presiding official and provide a head count of his household, as well as an accounting of property he owned that was suitable for agriculture or habitation.[243] A major source of indirect-tax revenue was the portoria, customs and tolls on imports and exports, including among provinces.[238] Special taxes were levied on the slave trade. Towards the end of his reign, Augustus instituted a 4% tax on the sale of slaves,[244] which Nero shifted from the purchaser to the dealers, who responded by raising their prices.[245] An owner who manumitted a slave paid a "freedom tax", calculated at 5% of value.[246] An inheritance tax of 5% was assessed when Roman citizens above a certain net worth left property to anyone but members of their immediate family. Revenues from the estate tax and from a 1% sales tax on auctions went towards the veterans' pension fund (aerarium militare).[238] Low taxes helped the Roman aristocracy increase their wealth, which equalled or exceeded the revenues of the central government. An emperor sometimes replenished his treasury by confiscating the estates of the "super-rich", but in the later period, the resistance of the wealthy to paying taxes was one of the factors contributing to the collapse of the Empire.[45] Economy Main article: Roman economy A green Roman glass cup unearthed from an Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220 AD) tomb in Guangxi, southern China; the earliest Roman glassware found in China was discovered in a Western Han tomb in Guangzhou, dated to the early 1st century BC, and ostensibly came via the maritime route through the South China Sea[247] Moses Finley was the chief proponent of the primitivist view that the Roman economy was "underdeveloped and underachieving," characterized by subsistence agriculture; urban centres that consumed more than they produced in terms of trade and industry; low-status artisans; slowly developing technology; and a "lack of economic rationality."[248] Current views are more complex. Territorial conquests permitted a large-scale reorganization of land use that resulted in agricultural surplus and specialization, particularly in north Africa.[249] Some cities were known for particular industries or commercial activities, and the scale of building in urban areas indicates a significant construction industry.[249] Papyri preserve complex accounting methods that suggest elements of economic rationalism,[250] and the Empire was highly monetized.[251] Although the means of communication and transport were limited in antiquity, transportation in the 1st and 2nd centuries expanded greatly, and trade routes connected regional economies.[252] The supply contracts for the army, which pervaded every part of the Empire, drew on local suppliers near the base (castrum), throughout the province, and across provincial borders.[253] The Empire is perhaps best thought of as a network of regional economies, based on a form of "political capitalism" in which the state monitored and regulated commerce to assure its own revenues.[254] Economic growth, though not comparable to modern economies, was greater than that of most other societies prior to industrialization.[250] Socially, economic dynamism opened up one of the avenues of social mobility in the Roman Empire. Social advancement was thus not dependent solely on birth, patronage, good luck, or even extraordinary ability. Although aristocratic values permeated traditional elite society, a strong tendency towards plutocracy is indicated by the wealth requirements for census rank. Prestige could be obtained through investing one's wealth in ways that advertised it appropriately: grand country estates or townhouses, durable luxury items such as jewels and silverware, public entertainments, funerary monuments for family members or coworkers, and religious dedications such as altars. Guilds (collegia) and corporations (corpora) provided support for individuals to succeed through networking, sharing sound business practices, and a willingness to work.[179] Currency and banking See also: Roman currency and Roman finance The early Empire was monetized to a near-universal extent, in the sense of using money as a way to express prices and debts.[255] The sestertius (plural sestertii, English "sesterces", symbolized as HS) was the basic unit of reckoning value into the 4th century,[256] though the silver denarius, worth four sesterces, was used also for accounting beginning in the Severan dynasty.[257] The smallest coin commonly circulated was the bronze as (plural asses), one-fourth sestertius.[258] Bullion and ingots seem not to have counted as pecunia, "money," and were used only on the frontiers for transacting business or buying property. Romans in the 1st and 2nd centuries counted coins, rather than weighing them—an indication that the coin was valued on its face, not for its metal content. This tendency towards fiat money led eventually to the debasement of Roman coinage, with consequences in the later Empire.[259] The standardization of money throughout the Empire promoted trade and market integration.[255] The high amount of metal coinage in circulation increased the money supply for trading or saving.[260] Currency denominations[261] 211 BC 14 AD 286-296 AD Denarius = 10 asses Aureus = 25 denarii Aurei = 60 per pound of gold Sesterce = 5 asses Denarii = 16 asses Silver coins (contemporary name unknown) = 96 to a pound of silver Sestertius = 2.5 asses Sesterces = 4 asses Bronze coins (contemporary name unknown) = value unknown Asses = 1 Asses = 1 Rome had no central bank, and regulation of the banking system was minimal. Banks of classical antiquity typically kept less in reserves than the full total of customers' deposits. A typical bank had fairly limited capital, and often only one principal, though a bank might have as many as six to fifteen principals. Seneca assumes that anyone involved in commerce needs access to credit.[259] Solidus issued under Constantine II, and on the reverse Victoria, one of the last deities to appear on Roman coins, gradually transforming into an angel under Christian rule[262] A professional deposit banker (argentarius, coactor argentarius, or later nummularius) received and held deposits for a fixed or indefinite term, and lent money to third parties. The senatorial elite were involved heavily in private lending, both as creditors and borrowers, making loans from their personal fortunes on the basis of social connections.[259][263] The holder of a debt could use it as a means of payment by transferring it to another party, without cash changing hands. Although it has sometimes been thought that ancient Rome lacked "paper" or documentary transactions, the system of banks throughout the Empire also permitted the exchange of very large sums without the physical transfer of coins, in part because of the risks of moving large amounts of cash, particularly by sea. Only one serious credit shortage is known to have occurred in the early Empire, a credit crisis in 33 AD that put a number of senators at risk; the central government rescued the market through a loan of 100 million HS made by the emperor Tiberius to the banks (mensae).[264] Generally, available capital exceeded the amount needed by borrowers.[259] The central government itself did not borrow money, and without public debt had to fund deficits from cash reserves.[265] Emperors of the Antonine and Severan dynasties overall debased the currency, particularly the denarius, under the pressures of meeting military payrolls.[256] Sudden inflation during the reign of Commodus damaged the credit market.[259] In the mid-200s, the supply of specie contracted sharply.[256] Conditions during the Crisis of the Third Century—such as reductions in long-distance trade, disruption of mining operations, and the physical transfer of gold coinage outside the empire by invading enemies—greatly diminished the money supply and the banking sector by the year 300.[256][259] Although Roman coinage had long been fiat money or fiduciary currency, general economic anxieties came to a head under Aurelian, and bankers lost confidence in coins legitimately issued by the central government. Despite Diocletian's introduction of the gold solidus and monetary reforms, the credit market of the Empire never recovered its former robustness.[259] Mining and metallurgy Main article: Roman metallurgy See also: Mining in Roman Britain Landscape resulting from the ruina montium mining technique at Las Médulas, Spain, one of the most important gold mines in the Roman Empire The main mining regions of the Empire were the Iberian Peninsula (gold, silver, copper, tin, lead); Gaul (gold, silver, iron); Britain (mainly iron, lead, tin), the Danubian provinces (gold, iron); Macedonia and Thrace (gold, silver); and Asia Minor (gold, silver, iron, tin). Intensive large-scale mining—of alluvial deposits, and by means of open-cast mining and underground mining—took place from the reign of Augustus up to the early 3rd century AD, when the instability of the Empire disrupted production. The gold mines of Dacia, for instance, were no longer available for Roman exploitation after the province was surrendered in 271. Mining seems to have resumed to some extent during the 4th century.[266] Hydraulic mining, which Pliny referred to as ruina montium ("ruin of the mountains"), allowed base and precious metals to be extracted on a proto-industrial scale.[267] The total annual iron output is estimated at 82,500 tonnes.[268][269][270] Copper was produced at an annual rate of 15,000 t,[267][271] and lead at 80,000 t,[267][272][273] both production levels unmatched until the Industrial Revolution;[271][272][273][274] Hispania alone had a 40% share in world lead production.[272] The high lead output was a by-product of extensive silver mining which reached 200 t per annum. At its peak around the mid-2nd century AD, the Roman silver stock is estimated at 10,000 t, five to ten times larger than the combined silver mass of medieval Europe and the Caliphate around 800 AD.[273][275] As an indication of the scale of Roman metal production, lead pollution in the Greenland ice sheet quadrupled over its prehistoric levels during the Imperial era and dropped again thereafter.[276] Transportation and communication See also: Cursus publicus The Tabula Peutingeriana (Latin for "The Peutinger Map") an Itinerarium, often assumed to be based on the Roman cursus publicus, the network of state-maintained roads. The Roman Empire completely encircled the Mediterranean, which they called "our sea" (mare nostrum).[277] Roman sailing vessels navigated the Mediterranean as well as the major rivers of the Empire, including the Guadalquivir, Ebro, Rhône, Rhine, Tiber and Nile.[278] Transport by water was preferred where possible, and moving commodities by land was more difficult.[279] Vehicles, wheels, and ships indicate the existence of a great number of skilled woodworkers.[280] Land transport utilized the advanced system of Roman roads, which were called "viae". These roads were primarily built for military purposes,[281] but also served commercial ends. The in-kind taxes paid by communities included the provision of personnel, animals, or vehicles for the cursus publicus, the state mail and transport service established by Augustus.[242] Relay stations were located along the roads every seven to twelve Roman miles, and tended to grow into a village or trading post.[282] A mansio (plural mansiones) was a privately run service station franchised by the imperial bureaucracy for the cursus publicus. The support staff at such a facility included muleteers, secretaries, blacksmiths, cartwrights, a veterinarian, and a few military police and couriers. The distance between mansiones was determined by how far a wagon could travel in a day.[282] Mules were the animal most often used for pulling carts, travelling about 4 mph.[283] As an example of the pace of communication, it took a messenger a minimum of nine days to travel to Rome from Mainz in the province of Germania Superior, even on a matter of urgency.[284] In addition to the mansiones, some taverns offered accommodations as well as food and drink; one recorded tab for a stay showed charges for wine, bread, mule feed, and the services of a prostitute.[285] Trade and commodities See also: Roman commerce, Indo-Roman trade and relations, and Sino-Roman relations A map of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a Greco-Roman Periplus Roman provinces traded among themselves, but trade extended outside the frontiers to regions as far away as China and India.[278] The main commodity was grain.[286] Chinese trade was mostly conducted overland through middle men along the Silk Road; Indian trade, however, also occurred by sea from Egyptian ports on the Red Sea. Along these trade paths, the horse, upon which Roman expansion and commerce depended, was one of the main channels through which disease spread.[287] Also in transit for trade were olive oil, various foodstuffs, garum (fish sauce), slaves, ore and manufactured metal objects, fibres and textiles, timber, pottery, glassware, marble, papyrus, spices and materia medica, ivory, pearls, and gemstones.[288] Though most provinces were capable of producing wine, regional varietals were desirable and wine was a central item of trade. Shortages of vin ordinaire were rare.[289][290] The major suppliers for the city of Rome were the west coast of Italy, southern Gaul, the Tarraconensis region of Hispania, and Crete. Alexandria, the second-largest city, imported wine from Laodicea in Syria and the Aegean.[291] At the retail level, taverns or specialty wine shops (vinaria) sold wine by the jug for carryout and by the drink on premises, with price ranges reflecting quality.[292] Labour and occupations Workers at a cloth-processing shop, in a painting from the fullonica of Veranius Hypsaeus in Pompeii Inscriptions record 268 different occupations in the city of Rome, and 85 in Pompeii.[218] Professional associations or trade guilds (collegia) are attested for a wide range of occupations, including fishermen (piscatores), salt merchants (salinatores), olive oil dealers (olivarii), entertainers (scaenici), cattle dealers (pecuarii), goldsmiths (aurifices), teamsters (asinarii or muliones), and stonecutters (lapidarii). These are sometimes quite specialized: one collegium at Rome was strictly limited to craftsmen who worked in ivory and citrus wood.[179] Work performed by slaves falls into five general categories: domestic, with epitaphs recording at least 55 different household jobs; imperial or public service; urban crafts and services; agriculture; and mining. Convicts provided much of the labour in the mines or quarries, where conditions were notoriously brutal.[293] In practice, there was little division of labour between slave and free,[102] and most workers were illiterate and without special skills.[294] The greatest number of common labourers were employed in agriculture: in the Italian system of industrial farming (latifundia), these may have been mostly slaves, but throughout the Empire, slave farm labour was probably less important than other forms of dependent labour by people who were technically not enslaved.[102] Textile and clothing production was a major source of employment. Both textiles and finished garments were traded among the peoples of the Empire, whose products were often named for them or a particular town, rather like a fashion "label".[295] Better ready-to-wear was exported by businessmen (negotiatores or mercatores) who were often well-to-do residents of the production centres.[296] Finished garments might be retailed by their sales agents, who travelled to potential customers, or by vestiarii, clothing dealers who were mostly freedmen; or they might be peddled by itinerant merchants.[296] In Egypt, textile producers could run prosperous small businesses employing apprentices, free workers earning wages, and slaves.[297] The fullers (fullones) and dye workers (coloratores) had their own guilds.[298] Centonarii were guild workers who specialized in textile production and the recycling of old clothes into pieced goods.[n 14] Roman hunters during the preparations, set-up of traps, and in-action hunting near Tarraco GDP and income distribution Further information: Roman economy § Gross domestic product Economic historians vary in their calculations of the gross domestic product of the Roman economy during the Principate.[299] In the sample years of 14, 100, and 150 AD, estimates of per capita GDP range from 166 to 380 HS. The GDP per capita of Italy is estimated as 40[300] to 66%[301] higher than in the rest of the Empire, due to tax transfers from the provinces and the concentration of elite income in the heartland. In regard to Italy, "there can be little doubt that the lower classes of Pompeii, Herculaneum and other provincial towns of the Roman Empire enjoyed a high standard of living not equaled again in Western Europe until the 19th century AD".[302] In the Scheidel–Friesen economic model, the total annual income generated by the Empire is placed at nearly 20 billion HS, with about 5% extracted by central and local government. Households in the top 1.5% of income distribution captured about 20% of income. Another 20% went to about 10% of the population who can be characterized as a non-elite middle. The remaining "vast majority" produced more than half of the total income, but lived near subsistence.[303] The elite were 1.2–1.7% and the middling "who enjoyed modest, comfortable levels of existence but not extreme wealth amounted to 6–12% (...) while the vast majority lived around subsistence".[304] Architecture and engineering Main articles: Ancient Roman architecture, Roman engineering, and Roman technology Amphitheatres of the Roman Empire Construction on the Flavian Amphitheatre, more commonly known as the Colosseum (Italy), began during the reign of Vespasian. The chief Roman contributions to architecture were the arch, vault and the dome. Even after more than 2,000 years some Roman structures still stand, due in part to sophisticated methods of making cements and concrete.[305][306] Roman roads are considered the most advanced roads built until the early 19th century. The system of roadways facilitated military policing, communications, and trade. The roads were resistant to floods and other environmental hazards. Even after the collapse of the central government, some roads remained usable for more than a thousand years. Roman bridges were among the first large and lasting bridges, built from stone with the arch as the basic structure. Most utilized concrete as well. The largest Roman bridge was Trajan's bridge over the lower Danube, constructed by Apollodorus of Damascus, which remained for over a millennium the longest bridge to have been built both in terms of overall span and length.[307][308][309] The Romans built many dams and reservoirs for water collection, such as the Subiaco Dams, two of which fed the Anio Novus, one of the largest aqueducts of Rome.[310][311][312] They built 72 dams just on the Iberian peninsula, and many more are known across the Empire, some still in use. Several earthen dams are known from Roman Britain, including a well-preserved example from Longovicium (Lanchester). The Pont du Gard aqueduct, which crosses the Gardon River in southern France, is on UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. The Romans constructed numerous aqueducts. A surviving treatise by Frontinus, who served as curator aquarum (water commissioner) under Nerva, reflects the administrative importance placed on ensuring the water supply. Masonry channels carried water from distant springs and reservoirs along a precise gradient, using gravity alone. After the water passed through the aqueduct, it was collected in tanks and fed through pipes to public fountains, baths, toilets, or industrial sites.[313] The main aqueducts in the city of Rome were the Aqua Claudia and the Aqua Marcia.[314] The complex system built to supply Constantinople had its most distant supply drawn from over 120 km away along a sinuous route of more than 336 km.[315] Roman aqueducts were built to remarkably fine tolerance, and to a technological standard that was not to be equalled until modern times.[316] The Romans also made use of aqueducts in their extensive mining operations across the empire, at sites such as Las Medulas and Dolaucothi in South Wales.[317] Insulated glazing (or "double glazing") was used in the construction of public baths. Elite housing in cooler climates might have hypocausts, a form of central heating. The Romans were the first culture to assemble all essential components of the much later steam engine, when Hero built the aeolipile. With the crank and connecting rod system, all elements for constructing a steam engine (invented in 1712)—Hero's aeolipile (generating steam power), the cylinder and piston (in metal force pumps), non-return valves (in water pumps), gearing (in water mills and clocks)—were known in Roman times.[318] Daily life Main articles: Culture of ancient Rome and Agriculture in ancient Rome Cityscape from the Villa Boscoreale (60s AD) City and country In the ancient world, a city was viewed as a place that fostered civilization by being "properly designed, ordered, and adorned."[319] Augustus undertook a vast building programme in Rome, supported public displays of art that expressed the new imperial ideology, and reorganized the city into neighbourhoods (vici) administered at the local level with police and firefighting services.[320] A focus of Augustan monumental architecture was the Campus Martius, an open area outside the city centre that in early times had been devoted to equestrian sports and physical training for youth. The Altar of Augustan Peace (Ara Pacis Augustae) was located there, as was an obelisk imported from Egypt that formed the pointer (gnomon) of a horologium. With its public gardens, the Campus became one of the most attractive places in the city to visit.[320] City planning and urban lifestyles had been influenced by the Greeks from an early period,[321] and in the eastern Empire, Roman rule accelerated and shaped the local development of cities that already had a strong Hellenistic character. Cities such as Athens, Aphrodisias, Ephesus and Gerasa altered some aspects of city planning and architecture to conform to imperial ideals, while also expressing their individual identity and regional preeminence.[322][323] In the areas of the western Empire inhabited by Celtic-speaking peoples, Rome encouraged the development of urban centres with stone temples, forums, monumental fountains, and amphitheatres, often on or near the sites of the preexisting walled settlements known as oppida.[324][325][n 15] Urbanization in Roman Africa expanded on Greek and Punic cities along the coast.[282] Aquae Sulis in Bath, England: architectural features above the level of the pillar bases are a later reconstruction. The network of cities throughout the Empire (coloniae, municipia, civitates or in Greek terms poleis) was a primary cohesive force during the Pax Romana.[326] Romans of the 1st and 2nd centuries AD were encouraged by imperial propaganda to "inculcate the habits of peacetime".[319][327] As the classicist Clifford Ando has noted: Most of the cultural appurtenances popularly associated with imperial culture—public cult and its games and civic banquets, competitions for artists, speakers, and athletes, as well as the funding of the great majority of public buildings and public display of art—were financed by private individuals, whose expenditures in this regard helped to justify their economic power and legal and provincial privileges.[328] Even the Christian polemicist Tertullian declared that the world of the late 2nd century was more orderly and well-cultivated than in earlier times: "Everywhere there are houses, everywhere people, everywhere the res publica, the commonwealth, everywhere life."[329] The decline of cities and civic life in the 4th century, when the wealthy classes were unable or disinclined to support public works, was one sign of the Empire's imminent dissolution.[330] Public toilets (latrinae) from Ostia Antica In the city of Rome, most people lived in multistory apartment buildings (insulae) that were often squalid firetraps. Public facilities—such as baths (thermae), toilets that were flushed with running water (latrinae), conveniently located basins or elaborate fountains (nymphea) delivering fresh water,[325] and large-scale entertainments such as chariot races and gladiator combat—were aimed primarily at the common people who lived in the insulae.[331] Similar facilities were constructed in cities throughout the Empire, and some of the best-preserved Roman structures are in Spain, southern France, and northern Africa. The public baths served hygienic, social and cultural functions.[332] Bathing was the focus of daily socializing in the late afternoon before dinner.[333] Roman baths were distinguished by a series of rooms that offered communal bathing in three temperatures, with varying amenities that might include an exercise and weight-training room, sauna, exfoliation spa (where oils were massaged into the skin and scraped from the body with a strigil), ball court, or outdoor swimming pool. Baths had hypocaust heating: the floors were suspended over hot-air channels that circulated warmth.[334] Mixed nude bathing was not unusual in the early Empire, though some baths may have offered separate facilities or hours for men and women. Public baths were a part of urban culture throughout the provinces, but in the late 4th century, individual tubs began to replace communal bathing. Christians were advised to go to the baths for health and cleanliness, not pleasure, but to avoid the games (ludi), which were part of religious festivals they considered "pagan". Tertullian says that otherwise Christians not only availed themselves of the baths, but participated fully in commerce and society.[335] Reconstructed peristyle garden based on the House of the Vettii Rich families from Rome usually had two or more houses, a townhouse (domus, plural domūs) and at least one luxury home (villa) outside the city. The domus was a privately owned single-family house, and might be furnished with a private bath (balneum),[334] but it was not a place to retreat from public life.[336] Although some neighbourhoods of Rome show a higher concentration of well-to-do houses, the rich did not live in segregated enclaves. Their houses were meant to be visible and accessible. The atrium served as a reception hall in which the paterfamilias (head of household) met with clients every morning, from wealthy friends to poorer dependents who received charity.[320] It was also a centre of family religious rites, containing a shrine and the images of family ancestors.[337] The houses were located on busy public roads, and ground-level spaces facing the street were often rented out as shops (tabernae).[338] In addition to a kitchen garden—windowboxes might substitute in the insulae—townhouses typically enclosed a peristyle garden that brought a tract of nature, made orderly, within walls.[339][340] Birds and fountain within a garden setting, with oscilla (hanging masks)[341] above, in a painting from Pompeii The villa by contrast was an escape from the bustle of the city, and in literature represents a lifestyle that balances the civilized pursuit of intellectual and artistic interests (otium) with an appreciation of nature and the agricultural cycle.[342] Ideally a villa commanded a view or vista, carefully framed by the architectural design.[343] It might be located on a working estate, or in a "resort town" situated on the seacoast, such as Pompeii and Herculaneum. The programme of urban renewal under Augustus, and the growth of Rome's population to as many as 1 million people, was accompanied by a nostalgia for rural life expressed in the arts. Poetry praised the idealized lives of farmers and shepherds. The interiors of houses were often decorated with painted gardens, fountains, landscapes, vegetative ornament,[343] and animals, especially birds and marine life, rendered accurately enough that modern scholars can sometimes identify them by species.[344] The Augustan poet Horace gently satirized the dichotomy of urban and rural values in his fable of the city mouse and the country mouse, which has often been retold as a children's story.[345][346][347] On a more practical level, the central government took an active interest in supporting agriculture.[348] Producing food was the top priority of land use.[349] Larger farms (latifundia) achieved an economy of scale that sustained urban life and its more specialized division of labour.[348] Small farmers benefited from the development of local markets in towns and trade centres. Agricultural techniques such as crop rotation and selective breeding were disseminated throughout the Empire, and new crops were introduced from one province to another, such as peas and cabbage to Britain.[350] Maintaining an affordable food supply to the city of Rome had become a major political issue in the late Republic, when the state began to provide a grain dole (Cura Annonae) to citizens who registered for it.[348] About 200,000–250,000 adult males in Rome received the dole, amounting to about 33 kg. per month, for a per annum total of about 100,000 tons of wheat primarily from Sicily, north Africa, and Egypt.[351] The dole cost at least 15% of state revenues,[348] but improved living conditions and family life among the lower classes,[352] and subsidized the rich by allowing workers to spend more of their earnings on the wine and olive oil produced on the estates of the landowning class.[348] Bread stall, from a Pompeiian wall painting The grain dole also had symbolic value: it affirmed both the emperor's position as universal benefactor, and the right of all citizens to share in "the fruits of conquest".[348] The annona, public facilities, and spectacular entertainments mitigated the otherwise dreary living conditions of lower-class Romans, and kept social unrest in check. The satirist Juvenal, however, saw "bread and circuses" (panem et circenses) as emblematic of the loss of republican political liberty:[353][354] The public has long since cast off its cares: the people that once bestowed commands, consulships, legions and all else, now meddles no more and longs eagerly for just two things: bread and circuses.[355] Food and dining Main article: Food and dining in the Roman Empire See also: Grain supply to the city of Rome and Ancient Rome and wine Most apartments in Rome lacked kitchens, though a charcoal brazier could be used for rudimentary cookery.[356][357] Prepared food was sold at pubs and bars, inns, and food stalls (tabernae, cauponae, popinae, thermopolia).[358] Carryout and restaurant dining were for the lower classes; fine dining could be sought only at private dinner parties in well-to-do houses with a chef (archimagirus) and trained kitchen staff,[359] or at banquets hosted by social clubs (collegia).[360] Most people would have consumed at least 70% of their daily calories in the form of cereals and legumes.[361] Puls (pottage) was considered the aboriginal food of the Romans.[362][363] The basic grain pottage could be elaborated with chopped vegetables, bits of meat, cheese, or herbs to produce dishes similar to polenta or risotto.[364] An Ostian taberna for eating and drinking; the faded painting over the counter pictured eggs, olives, fruit and radishes.[365] Urban populations and the military preferred to consume their grain in the form of bread.[361] Mills and commercial ovens were usually combined in a bakery complex.[366] By the reign of Aurelian, the state had begun to distribute the annona as a daily ration of bread baked in state factories, and added olive oil, wine, and pork to the dole.[348][367][368] The importance of a good diet to health was recognized by medical writers such as Galen (2nd century AD), whose treatises included one On Barley Soup. Views on nutrition were influenced by schools of thought such as humoral theory.[369] Roman literature focuses on the dining habits of the upper classes,[370] for whom the evening meal (cena) had important social functions.[371] Guests were entertained in a finely decorated dining room (triclinium), often with a view of the peristyle garden. Diners lounged on couches, leaning on the left elbow. By the late Republic, if not earlier, women dined, reclined, and drank wine along with men.[372] The most famous description of a Roman meal is probably Trimalchio's dinner party in the Satyricon, a fictional extravaganza that bears little resemblance to reality even among the most wealthy.[373] The poet Martial describes serving a more plausible dinner, beginning with the gustatio ("tasting" or "appetizer"), which was a salad composed of mallow leaves, lettuce, chopped leeks, mint, arugula, mackerel garnished with rue, sliced eggs, and marinated sow udder. The main course was succulent cuts of kid, beans, greens, a chicken, and leftover ham, followed by a dessert of fresh fruit and vintage wine.[374] The Latin expression for a full-course dinner was ab ovo usque mala, "from the egg to the apples," equivalent to the English "from soup to nuts."[375] Still life on a 2nd-century Roman mosaic A book-length collection of Roman recipes is attributed to Apicius, a name for several figures in antiquity that became synonymous with "gourmet."[376] Roman "foodies" indulged in wild game, fowl such as peacock and flamingo, large fish (mullet was especially prized), and shellfish. Luxury ingredients were brought by the fleet from the far reaches of empire, from the Parthian frontier to the Straits of Gibraltar.[377] Refined cuisine could be moralized as a sign of either civilized progress or decadent decline.[378] The early Imperial historian Tacitus contrasted the indulgent luxuries of the Roman table in his day with the simplicity of the Germanic diet of fresh wild meat, foraged fruit, and cheese, unadulterated by imported seasonings and elaborate sauces.[379] Most often, because of the importance of landowning in Roman culture, produce—cereals, legumes, vegetables, and fruit—was considered a more civilized form of food than meat. The Mediterranean staples of bread, wine, and oil were sacralized by Roman Christianity, while Germanic meat consumption became a mark of paganism,[380] as it might be the product of animal sacrifice. Some philosophers and Christians resisted the demands of the body and the pleasures of food, and adopted fasting as an ideal.[381] Food became simpler in general as urban life in the West diminished, trade routes were disrupted,[380] and the rich retreated to the more limited self-sufficiency of their country estates. As an urban lifestyle came to be associated with decadence, the Church formally discouraged gluttony,[382] and hunting and pastoralism were seen as simple, virtuous ways of life.[380] Recreation and spectacles See also: Ludi, Chariot racing, and Gladiator Wall painting depicting a sports riot at the amphitheatre of Pompeii, which led to the banning of gladiator combat in the town[383][384] When Juvenal complained that the Roman people had exchanged their political liberty for "bread and circuses", he was referring to the state-provided grain dole and the circenses, events held in the entertainment venue called a circus in Latin. The largest such venue in Rome was the Circus Maximus, the setting of horse races, chariot races, the equestrian Troy Game, staged beast hunts (venationes), athletic contests, gladiator combat, and historical re-enactments. From earliest times, several religious festivals had featured games (ludi), primarily horse and chariot races (ludi circenses).[385] Although their entertainment value tended to overshadow ritual significance, the races remained part of archaic religious observances that pertained to agriculture, initiation, and the cycle of birth and death.[n 16] Under Augustus, public entertainments were presented on 77 days of the year; by the reign of Marcus Aurelius, the number of days had expanded to 135.[386] Circus games were preceded by an elaborate parade (pompa circensis) that ended at the venue.[387] Competitive events were held also in smaller venues such as the amphitheatre, which became the characteristic Roman spectacle venue, and stadium. Greek-style athletics included footraces, boxing, wrestling, and the pancratium.[388] Aquatic displays, such as the mock sea battle (naumachia) and a form of "water ballet", were presented in engineered pools.[389] State-supported theatrical events (ludi scaenici) took place on temple steps or in grand stone theatres, or in the smaller enclosed theatre called an odeum.[390] A victor in his four-horse chariot Circuses were the largest structure regularly built in the Roman world,[391] though the Greeks had their own architectural traditions for the similarly purposed hippodrome. The Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the Colosseum, became the regular arena for blood sports in Rome after it opened in 80 AD.[392] The circus races continued to be held more frequently.[393] The Circus Maximus could seat around 150,000 spectators, and the Colosseum about 50,000 with standing room for about 10,000 more.[394] Many Roman amphitheatres, circuses and theatres built in cities outside Italy are visible as ruins today.[392] The local ruling elite were responsible for sponsoring spectacles and arena events, which both enhanced their status and drained their resources.[185] The physical arrangement of the amphitheatre represented the order of Roman society: the emperor presiding in his opulent box; senators and equestrians watching from the advantageous seats reserved for them; women seated at a remove from the action; slaves given the worst places, and everybody else packed in-between.[395][396][397] The crowd could call for an outcome by booing or cheering, but the emperor had the final say. Spectacles could quickly become sites of social and political protest, and emperors sometimes had to deploy force to put down crowd unrest, most notoriously at the Nika riots in the year 532, when troops under Justinian slaughtered thousands.[398][399][400][401] The Zliten mosaic, from a dining room in present-day Libya, depicts a series of arena scenes: from top, musicians playing a Roman tuba, a water pipe organ and two horns; six pairs of gladiators with two referees; four beast fighters; and three convicts condemned to the beasts[402] The chariot teams were known by the colours they wore, with the Blues and Greens the most popular. Fan loyalty was fierce and at times erupted into sports riots.[399][403][404] Racing was perilous, but charioteers were among the most celebrated and well-compensated athletes.[405] One star of the sport was Diocles, from Lusitania (present-day Portugal), who raced chariots for 24 years and had career earnings of 35 million sesterces.[406][407] Horses had their fans too, and were commemorated in art and inscriptions, sometimes by name.[408][409] The design of Roman circuses was developed to assure that no team had an unfair advantage and to minimize collisions (naufragia, "shipwrecks"),[410][411] which were nonetheless frequent and spectacularly satisfying to the crowd.[412][413] The races retained a magical aura through their early association with chthonic rituals: circus images were considered protective or lucky, curse tablets have been found buried at the site of racetracks, and charioteers were often suspected of sorcery.[407][414][415][416][417] Chariot racing continued into the Byzantine period under imperial sponsorship, but the decline of cities in the 6th and 7th centuries led to its eventual demise.[391] The Romans thought gladiator contests had originated with funeral games and sacrifices in which select captive warriors were forced to fight to expiate the deaths of noble Romans. Some of the earliest styles of gladiator fighting had ethnic designations such as "Thracian" or "Gallic".[418][419][420] The staged combats were considered munera, "services, offerings, benefactions", initially distinct from the festival games (ludi).[419][420] Throughout his 40-year reign, Augustus presented eight gladiator shows in which a total of 10,000 men fought, as well as 26 staged beast hunts that resulted in the deaths of 3,500 animals.[421][422][423] To mark the opening of the Colosseum, the emperor Titus presented 100 days of arena events, with 3,000 gladiators competing on a single day.[392][424][425] Roman fascination with gladiators is indicated by how widely they are depicted on mosaics, wall paintings, lamps, and even graffiti drawings.[426] Gladiators were trained combatants who might be slaves, convicts, or free volunteers.[427] Death was not a necessary or even desirable outcome in matches between these highly skilled fighters, whose training represented a costly and time-consuming investment.[425][428][429] By contrast, noxii were convicts sentenced to the arena with little or no training, often unarmed, and with no expectation of survival. Physical suffering and humiliation were considered appropriate retributive justice for the crimes they had committed.[185] These executions were sometimes staged or ritualized as re-enactments of myths, and amphitheatres were equipped with elaborate stage machinery to create special effects.[185][430][431] Tertullian considered deaths in the arena to be nothing more than a dressed-up form of human sacrifice.[432][433][434] Modern scholars have found the pleasure Romans took in the "theatre of life and death"[435] to be one of the more difficult aspects of their civilization to understand and explain.[436][437] The younger Pliny rationalized gladiator spectacles as good for the people, a way "to inspire them to face honourable wounds and despise death, by exhibiting love of glory and desire for victory even in the bodies of slaves and criminals".[438][439] Some Romans such as Seneca were critical of the brutal spectacles, but found virtue in the courage and dignity of the defeated fighter rather than in victory[440]—an attitude that finds its fullest expression with the Christians martyred in the arena. Even martyr literature, however, offers "detailed, indeed luxuriant, descriptions of bodily suffering",[441] and became a popular genre at times indistinguishable from fiction.[442][443][444][445][446][447] Personal training and play Boys and girls playing ball games (2nd century relief from the Louvre) In the plural, ludi almost always refers to the large-scale spectator games. The singular ludus, "play, game, sport, training," had a wide range of meanings such as "word play," "theatrical performance," "board game," "primary school," and even "gladiator training school" (as in Ludus Magnus, the largest such training camp at Rome).[448][449] Activities for children and young people included hoop rolling and knucklebones (astragali or "jacks"). The sarcophagi of children often show them playing games. Girls had dolls, typically 15–16 cm tall with jointed limbs, made of materials such as wood, terracotta, and especially bone and ivory.[450] Ball games include trigon, which required dexterity, and harpastum, a rougher sport.[451] Pets appear often on children's memorials and in literature, including birds, dogs, cats, goats, sheep, rabbits and geese.[452] So-called "bikini girls" mosaic from the Villa del Casale, Roman Sicily, 4th century After adolescence, most physical training for males was of a military nature. The Campus Martius originally was an exercise field where young men developed the skills of horsemanship and warfare. Hunting was also considered an appropriate pastime. According to Plutarch, conservative Romans disapproved of Greek-style athletics that promoted a fine body for its own sake, and condemned Nero's efforts to encourage gymnastic games in the Greek manner.[453] Some women trained as gymnasts and dancers, and a rare few as female gladiators. The famous "bikini girls" mosaic shows young women engaging in apparatus routines that might be compared to rhythmic gymnastics.[n 17][454] Women in general were encouraged to maintain their health through activities such as playing ball, swimming, walking, reading aloud (as a breathing exercise), riding in vehicles, and travel.[455] Stone game board from Aphrodisias: boards could also be made of wood, with deluxe versions in costly materials such as ivory; game pieces or counters were bone, glass, or polished stone, and might be coloured or have markings or images[456] People of all ages played board games pitting two players against each other, including latrunculi ("Raiders"), a game of strategy in which opponents coordinated the movements and capture of multiple game pieces, and XII scripta ("Twelve Marks"), involving dice and arranging pieces on a grid of letters or words.[457] A game referred to as alea (dice) or tabula (the board), to which the emperor Claudius was notoriously addicted, may have been similar to backgammon, using a dice-cup (pyrgus).[456] Playing with dice as a form of gambling was disapproved of, but was a popular pastime during the December festival of the Saturnalia with its carnival, norms-overturned atmosphere. Clothing Main article: Clothing in ancient Rome In a status-conscious society like that of the Romans, clothing and personal adornment gave immediate visual clues about the etiquette of interacting with the wearer.[458] Wearing the correct clothing was supposed to reflect a society in good order.[459] The toga was the distinctive national garment of the Roman male citizen, but it was heavy and impractical, worn mainly for conducting political business and religious rites, and for going to court.[460][461] The clothing Romans wore ordinarily was dark or colourful, and the most common male attire seen daily throughout the provinces would have been tunics, cloaks, and in some regions trousers.[462] The study of how Romans dressed in daily life is complicated by a lack of direct evidence, since portraiture may show the subject in clothing with symbolic value, and surviving textiles from the period are rare.[461][463][464] Women from the wall painting at the Villa of the Mysteries, Pompeii The basic garment for all Romans, regardless of gender or wealth, was the simple sleeved tunic. The length differed by wearer: a man's reached mid-calf, but a soldier's was somewhat shorter; a woman's fell to her feet, and a child's to its knees.[465] The tunics of poor people and labouring slaves were made from coarse wool in natural, dull shades, with the length determined by the type of work they did. Finer tunics were made of lightweight wool or linen. A man who belonged to the senatorial or equestrian order wore a tunic with two purple stripes (clavi) woven vertically into the fabric: the wider the stripe, the higher the wearer's status.[465] Other garments could be layered over the tunic. The Imperial toga was a "vast expanse" of semi-circular white wool that could not be put on and draped correctly without assistance.[460] In his work on oratory, Quintilian describes in detail how the public speaker ought to orchestrate his gestures in relation to his toga.[459][461][466] In art, the toga is shown with the long end dipping between the feet, a deep curved fold in front, and a bulbous flap at the midsection.[461] The drapery became more intricate and structured over time, with the cloth forming a tight roll across the chest in later periods.[467] The toga praetexta, with a purple or purplish-red stripe representing inviolability, was worn by children who had not come of age, curule magistrates, and state priests. Only the emperor could wear an all-purple toga (toga picta).[468] Claudius wearing an early Imperial toga (see a later, more structured toga above), and the pallium as worn by a priest of Serapis,[469] sometimes identified as the emperor Julian In the 2nd century, emperors and men of status are often portrayed wearing the pallium, an originally Greek mantle (himation) folded tightly around the body. Women are also portrayed in the pallium. Tertullian considered the pallium an appropriate garment both for Christians, in contrast to the toga, and for educated people, since it was associated with philosophers.[459][461][470] By the 4th century, the toga had been more or less replaced by the pallium as a garment that embodied social unity.[471] Roman clothing styles changed over time, though not as rapidly as fashions today.[472] In the Dominate, clothing worn by both soldiers and government bureaucrats became highly decorated, with woven or embroidered stripes (clavi) and circular roundels (orbiculi) applied to tunics and cloaks. These decorative elements consisted of geometrical patterns, stylized plant motifs, and in more elaborate examples, human or animal figures.[473] The use of silk increased, and courtiers of the later Empire wore elaborate silk robes. The militarization of Roman society, and the waning of cultural life based on urban ideals, affected habits of dress: heavy military-style belts were worn by bureaucrats as well as soldiers, and the toga was abandoned.[474] Arts Main article: Roman art The Wedding of Zephyrus and Chloris (54–68 AD, Pompeian Fourth Style) within painted architectural panels from the Casa del Naviglio People visiting or living in Rome or the cities throughout the Empire would have seen art in a range of styles and media on a daily basis. Public or official art—including sculpture, monuments such as victory columns or triumphal arches, and the iconography on coins—is often analysed for its historical significance or as an expression of imperial ideology.[475][476] At Imperial public baths, a person of humble means could view wall paintings, mosaics, statues, and interior decoration often of high quality.[477] In the private sphere, objects made for religious dedications, funerary commemoration, domestic use, and commerce can show varying degrees of esthetic quality and artistic skill.[478] A wealthy person might advertise his appreciation of culture through painting, sculpture, and decorative arts at his home—though some efforts strike modern viewers and some ancient connoisseurs as strenuous rather than tasteful.[479] Greek art had a profound influence on the Roman tradition, and some of the most famous examples of Greek statues are known only from Roman Imperial versions and the occasional description in a Greek or Latin literary source.[480] Despite the high value placed on works of art, even famous artists were of low social status among the Greeks and Romans, who regarded artists, artisans, and craftsmen alike as manual labourers. At the same time, the level of skill required to produce quality work was recognized, and even considered a divine gift.[481] Portraiture Main article: Roman portraiture Two portraits circa 130 AD: the empress Vibia Sabina (left); and the Antinous Mondragone, one of the abundant likenesses of Hadrian's famously beautiful male companion Antinous Portraiture, which survives mainly in the medium of sculpture, was the most copious form of imperial art. Portraits during the Augustan period utilize youthful and classical proportions, evolving later into a mixture of realism and idealism.[482] Republican portraits had been characterized by a "warts and all" verism, but as early as the 2nd century BC, the Greek convention of heroic nudity was adopted sometimes for portraying conquering generals.[483] Imperial portrait sculptures may model the head as mature, even craggy, atop a nude or seminude body that is smooth and youthful with perfect musculature; a portrait head might even be added to a body created for another purpose.[484] Clothed in the toga or military regalia, the body communicates rank or sphere of activity, not the characteristics of the individual.[485] Women of the emperor's family were often depicted dressed as goddesses or divine personifications such as Pax ("Peace"). Portraiture in painting is represented primarily by the Fayum mummy portraits, which evoke Egyptian and Roman traditions of commemorating the dead with the realistic painting techniques of the Empire. Marble portrait sculpture would have been painted, and while traces of paint have only rarely survived the centuries, the Fayum portraits indicate why ancient literary sources marvelled at how lifelike artistic representations could be.[486] The bronze Drunken Satyr, excavated at Herculaneum and exhibited in the 18th century, inspired an interest among later sculptors in similar "carefree" subjects.[487] Sculpture Main article: Roman sculpture Examples of Roman sculpture survive abundantly, though often in damaged or fragmentary condition, including freestanding statues and statuettes in marble, bronze and terracotta, and reliefs from public buildings, temples, and monuments such as the Ara Pacis, Trajan's Column, and the Arch of Titus. Niches in amphitheatres such as the Colosseum were originally filled with statues,[488][489] and no formal garden was complete without statuary.[490] Temples housed the cult images of deities, often by famed sculptors.[491] The religiosity of the Romans encouraged the production of decorated altars, small representations of deities for the household shrine or votive offerings, and other pieces for dedicating at temples. Divine and mythological figures were also given secular, humorous, and even obscene depictions.[citation needed] On the Ludovisi sarcophagus, an example of the battle scenes favoured during the Crisis of the Third Century, the "writhing and highly emotive" Romans and Goths fill the surface in a packed, anti-classical composition[492] Sarcophagi Main article: Ancient Roman sarcophagi Elaborately carved marble and limestone sarcophagi are characteristic of the 2nd to the 4th centuries[493] with at least 10,000 examples surviving.[494] Although mythological scenes have been most widely studied,[495] sarcophagus relief has been called the "richest single source of Roman iconography,"[496] and may also depict the deceased's occupation or life course, military scenes, and other subject matter. The same workshops produced sarcophagi with Jewish or Christian imagery.[497] The Primavera of Stabiae, perhaps the goddess Flora Painting Much of what is known of Roman painting is based on the interior decoration of private homes, particularly as preserved at Pompeii and Herculaneum by the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD. In addition to decorative borders and panels with geometric or vegetative motifs, wall painting depicts scenes from mythology and the theatre, landscapes and gardens, recreation and spectacles, work and everyday life, and frank pornography. Birds, animals, and marine life are often depicted with careful attention to realistic detail.[citation needed] A unique source for Jewish figurative painting under the Empire is the Dura-Europos synagogue, dubbed "the Pompeii of the Syrian Desert,"[n 18] buried and preserved in the mid-3rd century after the city was destroyed by Persians.[498][499] Mosaic Main article: Roman mosaic The Triumph of Neptune floor mosaic from Africa Proconsularis (present-day Tunisia), celebrating agricultural success with allegories of the Seasons, vegetation, workers and animals viewable from multiple perspectives in the room (latter 2nd century)[500] Mosaics are among the most enduring of Roman decorative arts, and are found on the surfaces of floors and other architectural features such as walls, vaulted ceilings, and columns. The most common form is the tessellated mosaic, formed from uniform pieces (tesserae) of materials such as stone and glass.[501] Mosaics were usually crafted on site, but sometimes assembled and shipped as ready-made panels. A mosaic workshop was led by the master artist (pictor) who worked with two grades of assistants.[502] Figurative mosaics share many themes with painting, and in some cases portray subject matter in almost identical compositions. Although geometric patterns and mythological scenes occur throughout the Empire, regional preferences also find expression. In North Africa, a particularly rich source of mosaics, homeowners often chose scenes of life on their estates, hunting, agriculture, and local wildlife.[500] Plentiful and major examples of Roman mosaics come also from present-day Turkey, Italy, southern France, Spain, and Portugal. More than 300 Antioch mosaics from the 3rd century are known.[503] Opus sectile is a related technique in which flat stone, usually coloured marble, is cut precisely into shapes from which geometric or figurative patterns are formed. This more difficult technique was highly prized, and became especially popular for luxury surfaces in the 4th century, an abundant example of which is the Basilica of Junius Bassus.[504] Decorative arts See also: Ancient Roman pottery and Roman glass Decorative arts for luxury consumers included fine pottery, silver and bronze vessels and implements, and glassware. The manufacture of pottery in a wide range of quality was important to trade and employment, as were the glass and metalworking industries. Imports stimulated new regional centres of production. Southern Gaul became a leading producer of the finer red-gloss pottery (terra sigillata) that was a major item of trade in 1st-century Europe.[505] Glassblowing was regarded by the Romans as originating in Syria in the 1st century BC, and by the 3rd century Egypt and the Rhineland had become noted for fine glass.[506][507] Silver cup, from the Boscoreale Treasure (early 1st century AD) Finely decorated Gallo-Roman terra sigillata bowl Gold earrings with gemstones, 3rd century Glass cage cup from the Rhineland, 4th century Performing arts Main articles: Theatre of ancient Rome and Music of ancient Rome In Roman tradition, borrowed from the Greeks, literary theatre was performed by all-male troupes that used face masks with exaggerated facial expressions that allowed audiences to "see" how a character was feeling. Such masks were occasionally also specific to a particular role, and an actor could then play multiple roles merely by switching masks. Female roles were played by men in drag (travesti). Roman literary theatre tradition is particularly well represented in Latin literature by the tragedies of Seneca. The circumstances under which Seneca's tragedies were performed are however unclear; scholarly conjectures range from minimally staged readings to full production pageants. More popular than literary theatre was the genre-defying mimus theatre, which featured scripted scenarios with free improvization, risqué language and jokes, sex scenes, action sequences, and political satire, along with dance numbers, juggling, acrobatics, tightrope walking, striptease, and dancing bears.[508][509][510] Unlike literary theatre, mimus was played without masks, and encouraged stylistic realism in acting. Female roles were performed by women, not by men.[511] Mimus was related to the genre called pantomimus, an early form of story ballet that contained no spoken dialogue. Pantomimus combined expressive dancing, instrumental music and a sung libretto, often mythological, that could be either tragic or comic.[512][513] All-male theatrical troupe preparing for a masked performance, on a mosaic from the House of the Tragic Poet Although sometimes regarded as foreign elements in Roman culture, music and dance had existed in Rome from earliest times.[514] Music was customary at funerals, and the tibia (Greek aulos), a woodwind instrument, was played at sacrifices to ward off ill influences.[515] Song (carmen) was an integral part of almost every social occasion. The Secular Ode of Horace, commissioned by Augustus, was performed publicly in 17 BC by a mixed children's choir. Music was thought to reflect the orderliness of the cosmos, and was associated particularly with mathematics and knowledge.[516] Various woodwinds and "brass" instruments were played, as were stringed instruments such as the cithara, and percussion.[515] The cornu, a long tubular metal wind instrument that curved around the musician's body, was used for military signals and on parade.[515] These instruments are found in parts of the Empire where they did not originate, and indicate that music was among the aspects of Roman culture that spread throughout the provinces. Instruments are widely depicted in Roman art.[517] The hydraulic pipe organ (hydraulis) was "one of the most significant technical and musical achievements of antiquity", and accompanied gladiator games and events in the amphitheatre, as well as stage performances. It was among the instruments that the emperor Nero played.[515] Although certain forms of dance were disapproved of at times as non-Roman or unmanly, dancing was embedded in religious rituals of archaic Rome, such as those of the dancing armed Salian priests and of the Arval Brothers, priesthoods which underwent a revival during the Principate.[518] Ecstatic dancing was a feature of the international mystery religions, particularly the cult of Cybele as practiced by her eunuch priests the Galli[519] and of Isis. In the secular realm, dancing girls from Syria and Cadiz were extremely popular.[520] Like gladiators, entertainers were infames in the eyes of the law, little better than slaves even if they were technically free. "Stars", however, could enjoy considerable wealth and celebrity, and mingled socially and often sexually with the upper classes, including emperors.[521] Performers supported each other by forming guilds, and several memorials for members of the theatre community survive.[522] Theatre and dance were often condemned by Christian polemicists in the later Empire,[514] and Christians who integrated dance traditions and music into their worship practices were regarded by the Church Fathers as shockingly "pagan."[523] St. Augustine is supposed to have said that bringing clowns, actors, and dancers into a house was like inviting in a gang of unclean spirits.[524][525] Literacy, books, and education This article is missing information about the use of papyrus or parchment scrolls, which were very common before the invention of the codex. Please expand the article to include this information. Further details may exist on the talk page. (April 2017) Main article: Education in ancient Rome Pride in literacy was displayed in portraiture through emblems of reading and writing, as in this example of a couple from Pompeii (Portrait of Paquius Proculo). Estimates of the average literacy rate in the Empire range from 5 to 30% or higher, depending in part on the definition of "literacy".[526][527][528][529] The Roman obsession with documents and public inscriptions indicates the high value placed on the written word.[530][531][532][533][534] The Imperial bureaucracy was so dependent on writing that the Babylonian Talmud declared "if all seas were ink, all reeds were pen, all skies parchment, and all men scribes, they would be unable to set down the full scope of the Roman government's concerns."[535] Laws and edicts were posted in writing as well as read out. Illiterate Roman subjects would have someone such as a government scribe (scriba) read or write their official documents for them.[528][536] Public art and religious ceremonies were ways to communicate imperial ideology regardless of ability to read.[537] The Romans had an extensive priestly archive, and inscriptions appear throughout the Empire in connection with statues and small votives dedicated by ordinary people to divinities, as well as on binding tablets and other "magic spells", with hundreds of examples collected in the Greek Magical Papyri.[538][539][540][541] The military produced a vast amount of written reports and service records,[542] and literacy in the army was "strikingly high".[543] Urban graffiti, which include literary quotations, and low-quality inscriptions with misspellings and solecisms indicate casual literacy among non-elites.[544][545][n 19][80] In addition, numeracy was necessary for any form of commerce.[531][546] Slaves were numerate and literate in significant numbers, and some were highly educated.[547] Books were expensive, since each copy had to be written out individually on a roll of papyrus (volumen) by scribes who had apprenticed to the trade.[548] The codex—a book with pages bound to a spine—was still a novelty in the time of the poet Martial (1st century AD),[549][550] but by the end of the 3rd century was replacing the volumen[548][551] and was the regular form for books with Christian content.[552] Commercial production of books had been established by the late Republic,[553] and by the 1st century AD certain neighbourhoods of Rome were known for their bookshops (tabernae librariae), which were found also in Western provincial cities such as Lugdunum (present-day Lyon, France).[554][555] The quality of editing varied wildly, and some ancient authors complain about error-ridden copies,[553][556] as well as plagiarism or forgery, since there was no copyright law.[553] A skilled slave copyist (servus litteratus) could be valued as highly as 100,000 sesterces.[557][558] Reconstruction of a writing tablet: the stylus was used to inscribe letters into the wax surface for drafts, casual letterwriting, and schoolwork, while texts meant to be permanent were copied onto papyrus. Collectors amassed personal libraries,[559] such as that of the Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum, and a fine library was part of the cultivated leisure (otium) associated with the villa lifestyle.[560] Significant collections might attract "in-house" scholars; Lucian mocked mercenary Greek intellectuals who attached themselves to philistine Roman patrons.[561] An individual benefactor might endow a community with a library: Pliny the Younger gave the city of Comum a library valued at 1 million sesterces, along with another 100,000 to maintain it.[562][563] Imperial libraries housed in state buildings were open to users as a privilege on a limited basis, and represented a literary canon from which disreputable writers could be excluded.[564][565] Books considered subversive might be publicly burned,[566] and Domitian crucified copyists for reproducing works deemed treasonous.[567][568] Literary texts were often shared aloud at meals or with reading groups.[569][570] Scholars such as Pliny the Elder engaged in "multitasking" by having works read aloud to them while they dined, bathed or travelled, times during which they might also dictate drafts or notes to their secretaries.[571] The multivolume Attic Nights of Aulus Gellius is an extended exploration of how Romans constructed their literary culture.[572] The reading public expanded from the 1st through the 3rd century, and while those who read for pleasure remained a minority, they were no longer confined to a sophisticated ruling elite, reflecting the social fluidity of the Empire as a whole and giving rise to "consumer literature" meant for entertainment.[573] Illustrated books, including erotica, were popular, but are poorly represented by extant fragments.[574] Primary education A teacher with two students, as a third arrives with his loculus, a writing case that would contain pens, ink pot, and a sponge to correct errors[575] Traditional Roman education was moral and practical. Stories about great men and women, or cautionary tales about individual failures, were meant to instil Roman values (mores maiorum). Parents and family members were expected to act as role models, and parents who worked for a living passed their skills on to their children, who might also enter apprenticeships for more advanced training in crafts or trades.[576] Formal education was available only to children from families who could pay for it, and the lack of state intervention in access to education contributed to the low rate of literacy.[577][578] Young children were attended by a pedagogus, or less frequently a female pedagoga, usually a Greek slave or former slave.[579] The pedagogue kept the child safe, taught self-discipline and public behaviour, attended class and helped with tutoring.[580] The emperor Julian recalled his pedagogue Mardonius, a Gothic eunuch slave who reared him from the age of 7 to 15, with affection and gratitude. Usually, however, pedagogues received little respect.[581] Primary education in reading, writing, and arithmetic might take place at home for privileged children whose parents hired or bought a teacher.[582] Others attended a school that was "public," though not state-supported, organized by an individual schoolmaster (ludimagister) who accepted fees from multiple parents.[583] Vernae (homeborn slave children) might share in home- or public-schooling.[584] Schools became more numerous during the Empire, and increased the opportunities for children to acquire an education.[578] School could be held regularly in a rented space, or in any available public niche, even outdoors. Boys and girls received primary education generally from ages 7 to 12, but classes were not segregated by grade or age.[585] For the socially ambitious, bilingual education in Greek as well as Latin was a must.[578] Quintilian provides the most extensive theory of primary education in Latin literature. According to Quintilian, each child has in-born ingenium, a talent for learning or linguistic intelligence that is ready to be cultivated and sharpened, as evidenced by the young child's ability to memorize and imitate. The child incapable of learning was rare. To Quintilian, ingenium represented a potential best realized in the social setting of school, and he argued against homeschooling. He also recognized the importance of play in child development,[n 20] and disapproved of corporal punishment because it discouraged love of learning—in contrast to the practice in most Roman primary schools of routinely striking children with a cane (ferula) or birch rod for being slow or disruptive.[586] Secondary education Mosaic from Pompeii depicting the Academy of Plato At the age of 14, upperclass males made their rite of passage into adulthood, and began to learn leadership roles in political, religious, and military life through mentoring from a senior member of their family or a family friend.[587] Higher education was provided by grammatici or rhetores.[588] The grammaticus or "grammarian" taught mainly Greek and Latin literature, with history, geography, philosophy or mathematics treated as explications of the text.[589] With the rise of Augustus, contemporary Latin authors such as Vergil and Livy also became part of the curriculum.[590] The rhetor was a teacher of oratory or public speaking. The art of speaking (ars dicendi) was highly prized as a marker of social and intellectual superiority, and eloquentia ("speaking ability, eloquence") was considered the "glue" of a civilized society.[591] Rhetoric was not so much a body of knowledge (though it required a command of references to the literary canon[592]) as it was a mode of expression and decorum that distinguished those who held social power.[593] The ancient model of rhetorical training—"restraint, coolness under pressure, modesty, and good humour"[594]—endured into the 18th century as a Western educational ideal.[595] In Latin, illiteratus (Greek agrammatos) could mean both "unable to read and write" and "lacking in cultural awareness or sophistication."[596] Higher education promoted career advancement, particularly for an equestrian in Imperial service: "eloquence and learning were considered marks of a well-bred man and worthy of reward".[597] The poet Horace, for instance, was given a top-notch education by his father, a prosperous former slave.[598][599][600] Urban elites throughout the Empire shared a literary culture embued with Greek educational ideals (paideia).[601] Hellenistic cities sponsored schools of higher learning as an expression of cultural achievement.[602] Young men from Rome who wished to pursue the highest levels of education often went abroad to study rhetoric and philosophy, mostly to one of several Greek schools in Athens. The curriculum in the East was more likely to include music and physical training along with literacy and numeracy.[603] On the Hellenistic model, Vespasian endowed chairs of grammar, Latin and Greek rhetoric, and philosophy at Rome, and gave teachers special exemptions from taxes and legal penalties, though primary schoolmasters did not receive these benefits. Quintilian held the first chair of grammar.[604][605] In the eastern empire, Berytus (present-day Beirut) was unusual in offering a Latin education, and became famous for its school of Roman law.[606] The cultural movement known as the Second Sophistic (1st–3rd century AD) promoted the assimilation of Greek and Roman social, educational, and esthetic values, and the Greek proclivities for which Nero had been criticized were regarded from the time of Hadrian onward as integral to Imperial culture.[607] Educated women Portrait of a literary woman from Pompeii (ca. 50 AD) Literate women ranged from cultured aristocrats to girls trained to be calligraphers and scribes.[608][609] The "girlfriends" addressed in Augustan love poetry, although fictional, represent an ideal that a desirable woman should be educated, well-versed in the arts, and independent to a frustrating degree.[610][611] Education seems to have been standard for daughters of the senatorial and equestrian orders during the Empire.[584] A highly educated wife was an asset for the socially ambitious household, but one that Martial regards as an unnecessary luxury.[608] The woman who achieved the greatest prominence in the ancient world for her learning was Hypatia of Alexandria, who educated young men in mathematics, philosophy, and astronomy, and advised the Roman prefect of Egypt on politics. Her influence put her into conflict with the bishop of Alexandria, Cyril, who may have been implicated in her violent death in 415 at the hands of a Christian mob.[612] Shape of literacy Literacy began to decline, perhaps dramatically, during the socio-political Crisis of the Third Century.[613] After the Christianization of the Roman Empire the Christians and Church Fathers adopted and used Latin and Greek pagan literature, philosophy and natural science with a vengeance to biblical interpretation.[614] Edward Grant writes that: With the total triumph of Christianity at the end of the fourth century, the Church might have reacted against Greek pagan learning in general, and Greek philosophy in particular, finding much in the latter that was unacceptable or perhaps even offensive. They might have launched a major effort to suppress pagan learning as a danger to the Church and its doctrines. But they did not. Why not? Perhaps it was in the slow dissemination of Christianity. After four centuries as members of a distinct religion, Christians had learned to live with Greek secular learning and to utilize it for their own benefit. Their education was heavily infiltrated by Latin and Greek pagan literature and philosophy... Although Christians found certain aspects of pagan culture and learning unacceptable, they did not view them as a cancer to be cut out of the Christian body.[615] Julian, the only emperor after the conversion of Constantine to reject Christianity, banned Christians from teaching the Classical curriculum, on the grounds that they might corrupt the minds of youth.[605] While the book roll had emphasized the continuity of the text, the codex format encouraged a "piecemeal" approach to reading by means of citation, fragmented interpretation, and the extraction of maxims.[616] In the 5th and 6th centuries, due to the gradual decline and fall of the Western Roman Empire, reading became rarer even for those within the Church hierarchy.[617] However, in the Eastern Roman Empire, also known as Byzantine Empire, reading continued throughout the Middle Ages as reading was of primary importance as an instrument of the Byzantine civilization.[618] Literature Main article: Latin literature See also: Roman historiography, Church Fathers, and Latin poetry Statue in Constanța, Romania (the ancient colony Tomis), commemorating Ovid's exile In the traditional literary canon, literature under Augustus, along with that of the late Republic, has been viewed as the "Golden Age" of Latin literature, embodying the classical ideals of "unity of the whole, the proportion of the parts, and the careful articulation of an apparently seamless composition."[619] The three most influential Classical Latin poets—Vergil, Horace, and Ovid—belong to this period. Vergil wrote the Aeneid, creating a national epic for Rome in the manner of the Homeric epics of Greece. Horace perfected the use of Greek lyric metres in Latin verse. Ovid's erotic poetry was enormously popular, but ran afoul of the Augustan moral programme; it was one of the ostensible causes for which the emperor exiled him to Tomis (present-day Constanța, Romania), where he remained to the end of his life. Ovid's Metamorphoses was a continuous poem of fifteen books weaving together Greco-Roman mythology from the creation of the universe to the deification of Julius Caesar. Ovid's versions of Greek myths became one of the primary sources of later classical mythology, and his work was so influential in the Middle Ages that the 12th and 13th centuries have been called the "Age of Ovid."[620] The principal Latin prose author of the Augustan age is the historian Livy, whose account of Rome's founding and early history became the most familiar version in modern-era literature. Vitruvius's book De Architectura, the only complete work on architecture to survive from antiquity, also belongs to this period. Latin writers were immersed in the Greek literary tradition, and adapted its forms and much of its content, but Romans regarded satire as a genre in which they surpassed the Greeks. Horace wrote verse satires before fashioning himself as an Augustan court poet, and the early Principate also produced the satirists Persius and Juvenal. The poetry of Juvenal offers a lively curmudgeon's perspective on urban society. The period from the mid-1st century through the mid-2nd century has conventionally been called the "Silver Age" of Latin literature. Under Nero, disillusioned writers reacted to Augustanism.[621] The three leading writers—Seneca the philosopher, dramatist, and tutor of Nero; Lucan, his nephew, who turned Caesar's civil war into an epic poem; and the novelist Petronius (Satyricon)—all committed suicide after incurring the emperor's displeasure. Seneca and Lucan were from Hispania, as was the later epigrammatist and keen social observer Martial, who expressed his pride in his Celtiberian heritage.[80] Martial and the epic poet Statius, whose poetry collection Silvae had a far-reaching influence on Renaissance literature,[622] wrote during the reign of Domitian. The so-called "Silver Age" produced several distinguished writers, including the encyclopedist Pliny the Elder; his nephew, known as Pliny the Younger; and the historian Tacitus. The Natural History of the elder Pliny, who died during disaster relief efforts in the wake of the eruption of Vesuvius, is a vast collection on flora and fauna, gems and minerals, climate, medicine, freaks of nature, works of art, and antiquarian lore. Tacitus's reputation as a literary artist matches or exceeds his value as a historian;[623] his stylistic experimentation produced "one of the most powerful of Latin prose styles."[624] The Twelve Caesars by his contemporary Suetonius is one of the primary sources for imperial biography. Among Imperial historians who wrote in Greek are Dionysius of Halicarnassus, the Jewish historian Josephus, and the senator Cassius Dio. Other major Greek authors of the Empire include the biographer and antiquarian Plutarch, the geographer Strabo, and the rhetorician and satirist Lucian. Popular Greek romance novels were part of the development of long-form fiction works, represented in Latin by the Satyricon of Petronius and The Golden Ass of Apuleius. From the 2nd to the 4th centuries, the Christian authors who would become the Latin Church Fathers were in active dialogue with the Classical tradition, within which they had been educated. Tertullian, a convert to Christianity from Roman Africa, was the contemporary of Apuleius and one of the earliest prose authors to establish a distinctly Christian voice. After the conversion of Constantine, Latin literature is dominated by the Christian perspective.[625] When the orator Symmachus argued for the preservation of Rome's religious traditions, he was effectively opposed by Ambrose, the bishop of Milan and future saint—a debate preserved by their missives.[626] Brescia Casket, an ivory box with Biblical imagery (late 4th century) In the late 4th century, Jerome produced the Latin translation of the Bible that became authoritative as the Vulgate. Augustine, another of the Church Fathers from the province of Africa, has been called "one of the most influential writers of western culture", and his Confessions is sometimes considered the first autobiography of Western literature. In The City of God against the Pagans, Augustine builds a vision of an eternal, spiritual Rome, a new imperium sine fine that will outlast the collapsing Empire. In contrast to the unity of Classical Latin, the literary esthetic of late antiquity has a tessellated quality that has been compared to the mosaics characteristic of the period.[627] A continuing interest in the religious traditions of Rome prior to Christian dominion is found into the 5th century, with the Saturnalia of Macrobius and The Marriage of Philology and Mercury of Martianus Capella. Prominent Latin poets of late antiquity include Ausonius, Prudentius, Claudian, and Sidonius Apollinaris. Ausonius (d. ca. 394), the Bordelaise tutor of the emperor Gratian, was at least nominally a Christian, though throughout his occasionally obscene mixed-genre poems, he retains a literary interest in the Greco-Roman gods and even druidism. The imperial panegyrist Claudian (d. 404) was a vir illustris who appears never to have converted. Prudentius (d. ca. 413), born in Hispania Tarraconensis and a fervent Christian, was thoroughly versed in the poets of the Classical tradition,[628] and transforms their vision of poetry as a monument of immortality into an expression of the poet's quest for eternal life culminating in Christian salvation.[629] Sidonius (d. 486), a native of Lugdunum, was a Roman senator and bishop of Clermont who cultivated a traditional villa lifestyle as he watched the Western empire succumb to barbarian incursions. His poetry and collected letters offer a unique view of life in late Roman Gaul from the perspective of a man who "survived the end of his world".[627][630] Religion A Roman priest, his head ritually covered with a fold of his toga, extends a patera in a gesture of libation (2nd–3rd century) Main articles: Religion in ancient Rome and Imperial cult (ancient Rome) See also: History of the Jews in the Roman Empire, Early Christianity, and Religious persecution in the Roman Empire The Roman siege and destruction of Jerusalem, from a Western religious manuscript, c.1504 Religion in the Roman Empire encompassed the practices and beliefs the Romans regarded as their own, as well as the many cults imported to Rome or practiced by peoples throughout the provinces. The Romans thought of themselves as highly religious, and attributed their success as a world power to their collective piety (pietas) in maintaining good relations with the gods (pax deorum). The archaic religion believed to have been handed down from the earliest kings of Rome was the foundation of the mos maiorum, "the way of the ancestors" or "tradition", viewed as central to Roman identity. There was no principle analogous to "separation of church and state". The priesthoods of the state religion were filled from the same social pool of men who held public office, and in the Imperial era, the Pontifex Maximus was the emperor. Roman religion was practical and contractual, based on the principle of do ut des, "I give that you might give." Religion depended on knowledge and the correct practice of prayer, ritual, and sacrifice, not on faith or dogma, although Latin literature preserves learned speculation on the nature of the divine and its relation to human affairs. For ordinary Romans, religion was a part of daily life.[631] Each home had a household shrine at which prayers and libations to the family's domestic deities were offered. Neighbourhood shrines and sacred places such as springs and groves dotted the city. Apuleius (2nd century) described the everyday quality of religion in observing how people who passed a cult place might make a vow or a fruit offering, or merely sit for a while.[632][633] The Roman calendar was structured around religious observances. In the Imperial era, as many as 135 days of the year were devoted to religious festivals and games (ludi).[634] Women, slaves, and children all participated in a range of religious activities. In the wake of the Republic's collapse, state religion had adapted to support the new regime of the emperors. As the first Roman emperor, Augustus justified the novelty of one-man rule with a vast programme of religious revivalism and reform. Public vows formerly made for the security of the republic now were directed at the wellbeing of the emperor. So-called "emperor worship" expanded on a grand scale the traditional Roman veneration of the ancestral dead and of the Genius, the divine tutelary of every individual. Upon death, an emperor could be made a state divinity (divus) by vote of the Senate. Imperial cult, influenced by Hellenistic ruler cult, became one of the major ways Rome advertised its presence in the provinces and cultivated shared cultural identity and loyalty throughout the Empire. Cultural precedent in the Eastern provinces facilitated a rapid dissemination of Imperial cult, extending as far as the Augustan military settlement at Najran, in present-day Saudi Arabia.[635] Rejection of the state religion became tantamount to treason against the emperor. This was the context for Rome's conflict with Christianity, which Romans variously regarded as a form of atheism and novel superstitio. Statuettes representing Roman and Gallic deities, for personal devotion at private shrines The Romans are known for the great number of deities they honoured, a capacity that earned the mockery of early Christian polemicists.[n 21] As the Romans extended their dominance throughout the Mediterranean world, their policy in general was to absorb the deities and cults of other peoples rather than try to eradicate them.[n 22] One way that Rome promoted stability among diverse peoples was by supporting their religious heritage, building temples to local deities that framed their theology within the hierarchy of Roman religion. Inscriptions throughout the Empire record the side-by-side worship of local and Roman deities, including dedications made by Romans to local gods.[631][636][637][638] By the height of the Empire, numerous cults of pseudo-foreign gods (Roman reinventions of foreign gods) were cultivated at Rome and in the provinces, among them cults of Cybele, Isis, Epona, and of solar gods such as Mithras and Sol Invictus, found as far north as Roman Britain. Because Romans had never been obligated to cultivate one god or one cult only, religious tolerance was not an issue in the sense that it is for competing monotheistic systems.[639] The Pompeii Lakshmi, an ivory statuette from the Indian subcontinent found in the ruins of Pompeii Mystery religions, which offered initiates salvation in the afterlife, were a matter of personal choice for an individual, practiced in addition to carrying on one's family rites and participating in public religion. The mysteries, however, involved exclusive oaths and secrecy, conditions that conservative Romans viewed with suspicion as characteristic of "magic", conspiracy (coniuratio), and subversive activity. Sporadic and sometimes brutal attempts were made to suppress religionists who seemed to threaten traditional morality and unity. In Gaul, the power of the druids was checked, first by forbidding Roman citizens to belong to the order, and then by banning druidism altogether. At the same time, however, Celtic traditions were reinterpreted (interpretatio romana) within the context of Imperial theology, and a new Gallo-Roman religion coalesced, with its capital at the Sanctuary of the Three Gauls in Lugdunum (present-day Lyon, France). The sanctuary established precedent for Western cult as a form of Roman-provincial identity.[640] This funerary stele from the 3rd century is among the earliest Christian inscriptions, written in both Greek and Latin: the abbreviation D.M. at the top refers to the Di Manes, the traditional Roman spirits of the dead, but accompanies Christian fish symbolism. Relief from the Arch of Titus in Rome depicting a menorah and other spoils from the Temple of Jerusalem carried in Roman triumph. The monotheistic rigour of Judaism posed difficulties for Roman policy that led at times to compromise and the granting of special exemptions. Tertullian noted that the Jewish religion, unlike that of the Christians, was considered a religio licita, "legitimate religion." Wars between the Romans and the Jews occurred when conflict, political as well as religious, became intractable. When Caligula wanted to place a golden statue of his deified self in the Temple in Jerusalem, the potential sacrilege and likely war were prevented only by his timely death.[641] The Siege of Jerusalem in 70 AD led to the sacking of the temple and the dispersal of Jewish political power (see Jewish diaspora). Christianity emerged in Roman Judea as a Jewish religious sect in the 1st century AD. The religion gradually spread out of Jerusalem, initially establishing major bases in first Antioch, then Alexandria, and over time throughout the Empire as well as beyond. Imperially authorized persecutions were limited and sporadic, with martyrdoms occurring most often under the authority of local officials.[642][643][644][645][646][647] The first persecution by an emperor occurred under Nero, and was confined to the city of Rome. Tacitus reports that after the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, some among the population held Nero responsible and that the emperor attempted to deflect blame onto the Christians.[648] After Nero, a major persecution occurred under the emperor Domitian[649][650] and a persecution in 177 took place at Lugdunum, the Gallo-Roman religious capital. A surviving letter from Pliny the Younger, governor of Bithynia, to the emperor Trajan describes his persecution and executions of Christians.[651] The Decian persecution of 246–251 was a serious threat to the Church, but ultimately strengthened Christian defiance.[652] Diocletian undertook what was to be the most severe persecution of Christians, lasting from 303 to 311. In the early 4th century, Constantine I became the first emperor to convert to Christianity. During the rest of the fourth century Christianity became the dominant religion of the Empire. The emperor Julian, under the influence of his adviser Mardonius made a short-lived attempt to revive traditional and Hellenistic religion and to affirm the special status of Judaism, but in 380 (Edict of Thessalonica), under Theodosius I Christianity became the official state church of the Roman Empire, to the exclusion of all others. From the 2nd century onward, the Church Fathers had begun to condemn the diverse religions practiced throughout the Empire collectively as "pagan."[653] Pleas for religious tolerance from traditionalists such as the senator Symmachus (d. 402) were rejected by the efforts of Pope Damasus I and Ambrose – Roman administrator turned bishop of Milan (374-397); Christian monotheism became a feature of Imperial domination. Christian heretics as well as non-Christians were subject to exclusion from public life or persecution, but Rome's original religious hierarchy and many aspects of its ritual influenced Christian forms,[654][655] and many pre-Christian beliefs and practices survived in Christian festivals and local traditions. Political legacy Main article: Legacy of the Roman Empire Several states claimed to be the Roman Empire's successors after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The Holy Roman Empire, an attempt to resurrect the Empire in the West, was established in 800 when Pope Leo III crowned Frankish King Charlemagne as Roman Emperor on Christmas Day, though the empire and the imperial office did not become formalized for some decades. After the fall of Constantinople, the Russian Tsardom, as inheritor of the Byzantine Empire's Orthodox Christian tradition, counted itself the Third Rome (Constantinople having been the second). These concepts are known as Translatio imperii.[656] When the Ottomans, who based their state on the Byzantine model, took Constantinople in 1453, Mehmed II established his capital there and claimed to sit on the throne of the Roman Empire.[657] He even went so far as to launch an invasion of Italy with the purpose of re-uniting the Empire and invited European artists to his capital, including Gentile Bellini.[658] In the medieval West, "Roman" came to mean the church and the Pope of Rome. The Greek form Romaioi remained attached to the Greek-speaking Christian population of the Eastern Roman Empire, and is still used by Greeks in addition to their common appellation.[659] The Roman Empire's territorial legacy of controlling the Italian peninsula would influence Italian nationalism and the unification of Italy (Risorgimento) in 1861.[660] Further Roman imperialism was claimed by fascist ideology, particularly by the Italian Empire and Nazi Germany. The Virginia State Capitol (left), built in the late 1700s, was modelled after the Maison Carrée, a Gallo-Roman temple built around 16 BC under Augustus. In the United States, the founders were educated in the classical tradition,[661] and used classical models for landmarks and buildings in Washington, D.C., to avoid the feudal and religious connotations of European architecture such as castles and cathedrals.[662][663][664][665][666][667][668] In forming their theory of the mixed constitution, the founders looked to Athenian democracy and Roman republicanism for models, but regarded the Roman emperor as a figure of tyranny.[669][670] They nonetheless adopted Roman Imperial forms such as the dome, as represented by the US Capitol and numerous state capitol buildings, to express classical ideals through architecture.[662][671] Thomas Jefferson saw the Empire as a negative political lesson, but was a chief proponent of its architectural models. Jefferson's design for the Virginia State Capitol, for instance, is modelled directly from the Maison Carrée, a Gallo-Roman temple built under Augustus.[662][663][665][672][673] The renovations of the National Mall at the beginning of the 20th century have been viewed as expressing a more overt imperialist kinship with Rome.[674][675][676] See also Ancient Rome portal History portal Asia portal Daqin ("Great Qin"), the ancient Chinese name for the Roman Empire; see also Sino-Roman relations Fall of the Western Roman Empire Imperial Italy List of Roman dynasties Notes ^ Other ways of referring to the "Roman Empire" among the Romans and Greeks themselves included Res publica Romana or Imperium Romanorum (also in Greek: Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων – Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn – ["Dominion (literally 'kingdom' but also interpreted as 'empire') of the Romans"]) and Romania. Res publica means Roman "commonwealth" and can refer to both the Republican and the Imperial eras. Imperium Romanum (or "Romanorum") refers to the territorial extent of Roman authority. Populus Romanus ("the Roman people") was/is often used to indicate the Roman state in matters involving other nations. The term Romania, initially a colloquial term for the empire's territory as well as a collective name for its inhabitants, appears in Greek and Latin sources from the 4th century onward and was eventually carried over to the Eastern Roman Empire (see R. L. Wolff, "Romania: The Latin Empire of Constantinople" in Speculum 23 (1948), pp. 1–34 and especially pp. 2–3). ^ Between 1204 and 1261 there was an interregnum when the empire was divided into the Empire of Nicaea, the Empire of Trebizond and the Despotate of Epirus – all contenders for rule of the empire. The Empire of Nicaea is considered[by whom?] the legitimate continuation of the Roman Empire because it managed to re-take Constantinople. ^ The final emperor to rule over all of the Roman Empire's territories before its conversion to a diarchy. ^ Officially the final emperor of the Western empire. ^ Final ruler to be universally recognized as Roman Emperor, including by the surviving empire in the East, the Papacy, and by kingdoms in Western Europe. ^ Last emperor of the Eastern (Byzantine) empire. ^ Abbreviated "HS". Prices and values are usually expressed in sesterces; see #Currency and banking for currency denominations by period. ^ The Ottomans sometimes called their state the "Empire of Rûm" (Ottoman Turkish: دولت علنإه روم‎, lit. 'Exalted State of Rome'). In this sense, it could be argued that a "Roman" Empire survived until the early 20th century. See the following: Roy, Kaushik (2014). Military Transition in Early Modern Asia, 1400-1750: Cavalry, Guns, Government and Ships. Bloomsbury Studies in Military History. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 37. ISBN 978-1-78093-800-4. Retrieved 4 January 2020. After the capture of Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire became the capital of the Ottoman Empire. The Osmanli Turks called their empire the Empire of Rum (Rome).) ^ Prudentius (348–413) in particular Christianizes the theme in his poetry, as noted by Marc Mastrangelo, The Roman Self in Late Antiquity: Prudentius and the Poetics of the Soul (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008), pp. 73, 203. St. Augustine, however, distinguished between the secular and eternal "Rome" in The City of God. See also J. Rufus Fears, "The Cult of Jupiter and Roman Imperial Ideology," Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.17.1 (1981), p. 136, on how Classical Roman ideology influenced Christian Imperial doctrine; Bang, Peter Fibiger (2011) "The King of Kings: Universal Hegemony, Imperial Power, and a New Comparative History of Rome," in The Roman Empire in Context: Historical and Comparative Perspectives. John Wiley & Sons; and the Greek concept of globalism (oikouménē). ^ The civis ("citizen") stands in explicit contrast to a peregrina, a foreign or non-Roman woman: A.N. Sherwin-White (1979) Roman Citizenship. Oxford University Press. pp. 211 and 268; Frier, pp. 31–32, 457. In the form of legal marriage called conubium, the father's legal status determined the child's, but conubium required that both spouses be free citizens. A soldier, for instance, was banned from marrying while in service, but if he formed a long-term union with a local woman while stationed in the provinces, he could marry her legally after he was discharged, and any children they had would be considered the offspring of citizens—in effect granting the woman retroactive citizenship. The ban was in place from the time of Augustus until it was rescinded by Septimius Severus in 197 AD. See Sara Elise Phang, The Marriage of Roman Soldiers (13 B.C.–A.D. 235): Law and Family in the Imperial Army (Brill, 2001), p. 2, and Pat Southern, The Roman Army: A Social and Institutional History (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 144. ^ That is, a double standard was in place: a married woman could have sex only with her husband, but a married man did not commit adultery if he had sex with a prostitute, slave, or person of marginalized status. See McGinn, Thomas A. J. (1991). "Concubinage and the Lex Iulia on Adultery". Transactions of the American Philological Association. 121: 335–375 (342). doi:10.2307/284457. JSTOR 284457. ; Martha C. Nussbaum (2002) "The Incomplete Feminism of Musonius Rufus, Platonist, Stoic, and Roman," in The Sleep of Reason: Erotic Experience and Sexual Ethics in Ancient Greece and Rome. University of Chicago Press. p. 305, noting that custom "allowed much latitude for personal negotiation and gradual social change"; Elaine Fantham, "Stuprum: Public Attitudes and Penalties for Sexual Offences in Republican Rome," in Roman Readings: Roman Response to Greek Literature from Plautus to Statius and Quintilian (Walter de Gruyter, 2011), p. 124, citing Papinian, De adulteriis I and Modestinus, Liber Regularum I. Eva Cantarella, Bisexuality in the Ancient World (Yale University Press, 1992, 2002, originally published 1988 in Italian), p. 104; Edwards, pp. 34–35. ^ The relation of the equestrian order to the "public horse" and Roman cavalry parades and demonstrations (such as the Lusus Troiae) is complex, but those who participated in the latter seem, for instance, to have been the equites who were accorded the high-status (and quite limited) seating at the theatre by the Lex Roscia theatralis. Senators could not possess the "public horse." See Wiseman, pp. 78–79. ^ Ancient Gades, in Roman Spain, and Patavium, in the Celtic north of Italy, were atypically wealthy cities, and having 500 equestrians in one city was unusual. Strabo 3.169, 5.213 ^ Vout, p. 212. The college of centonarii is an elusive topic in scholarship, since they are also widely attested as urban firefighters; see Jinyu Liu (2009) Collegia Centonariorum: The Guilds of Textile Dealers in the Roman West. Brill. Liu sees them as "primarily tradesmen and/or manufacturers engaged in the production and distribution of low- or medium-quality woolen textiles and clothing, including felt and its products." ^ Julius Caesar first applied the Latin word oppidum to this type of settlement, and even called Avaricum (Bourges, France), a center of the Bituriges, an urbs, "city." Archaeology indicates that oppida were centers of religion, trade (including import/export), and industrial production, walled for the purposes of defense, but they may not have been inhabited by concentrated populations year-round: see Harding, D.W. (2007) The Archaeology of Celtic Art. Routledge. pp. 211–212. ISBN 113426464X; Collis, John (2000) "'Celtic' Oppida," in A Comparative Study of Thirty City-state Cultures. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. pp. 229–238; Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems. Cambridge University Press, 1995, 1999, p. 61. ^ Such as the Consualia and the October Horse sacrifice: Humphrey, pp. 544, 558; Auguste Bouché-Leclercq, Manuel des Institutions Romaines (Hachette, 1886), p. 549; "Purificazione," in Thesaurus Cultus et Rituum Antiquorum (LIMC, 2004), p. 83. ^ Scholars are divided in their relative emphasis on the athletic and dance elements of these exercises: Lee, H. (1984). "Athletics and the Bikini Girls from Piazza Armerina". Stadion. 10: 45–75. sees them as gymnasts, while M. Torelli, "Piazza Armerina: Note di iconologia", in La Villa romana del Casale di Piazza Armerina, edited by G. Rizza (Catania, 1988), p. 152, thinks they are dancers at the games. ^ By Michael Rostovtzeff, as noted by Robin M. Jensen (1999) "The Dura-Europos Synagogue, Early-Christian Art and Religious Life in Dura Europos," in Jews, Christians and Polytheists in the Ancient Synagogue: Cultural Interaction during the Greco-Roman Period. Routledge. p. 154. ^ Political slogans and obscenities are widely preserved as graffiti in Pompeii: Antonio Varone, Erotica Pompeiana: Love Inscriptions on the Walls of Pompeii ("L'Erma" di Bretschneider, 2002). Soldiers sometimes inscribed sling bullets with aggressive messages: Phang, "Military Documents, Languages, and Literacy," p. 300. ^ Bloomer, W. Martin (2011) The School of Rome: Latin Studies and the Origins of Liberal Education (University of California Press, 2011), pp. 93–99; Morgan, Literate Education in the Hellenistic and Roman Worlds, p. 250. Quintilian uses the metaphor acuere ingenium, "to sharpen talent," as well as agricultural metaphors. ^ For an overview of the representation of Roman religion in early Christian authors, see R.P.C. Hanson, "The Christian Attitude to Pagan Religions up to the Time of Constantine the Great," and Carlos A. 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Osprey. pp. 7–9. ISBN 184176843X. ^ Wickham, Chris (2009) The Inheritance of Rome. Penguin Books. p. 106. ISBN 978-0-670-02098-0 ^ Kousser, p. 1 ^ Potter (2009), pp. 75–76. ^ Potter (2009), pp. 82–83. ^ Gazda, Elaine K. (1991) "Introduction", in Roman Art in the Private Sphere: Architecture and Décor of the Domus, Villa, and Insula. University of Michigan Press. pp. 1–3. ISBN 047210196X. ^ Paul Zanker, Pompeii: Public and Private Life, translated by Deborah Lucas Schneider (Harvard University Press, 1998, originally published 1995 in German), p. 189. ^ Kousser, pp. 4–5, 8. ^ Gagarin, pp. 312–313. ^ Toynbee, J. M. C. (December 1971). "Roman Art". The Classical Review. 21 (3): 439–442. doi:10.1017/S0009840X00221331. JSTOR 708631. ^ Zanker, Paul (1988) The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus. University of Michigan Press. p. 5ff. ^ Gagarin, p. 451. ^ Fejfer, Jane (2008) Roman Portraits in Context. Walter de Gruyter. p. 10. ^ Gagarin, p. 453. ^ Mattusch, Carol C. (2005) The Villa dei Papiri at Herculaneum: Life and Afterlife of a Sculpture Collection. Getty Publications. p. 322. ^ Kousser, p. 13 ^ Strong, Donald (1976, 1988) Roman Art. Yale University Press. 2nd ed., p. 11. ^ Gagarin, pp. 274–275. ^ Gagarin, p. 242. ^ Kleiner, Fred S. (2007) A History of Roman Art. Wadsworth. p. 272. ^ Newby, Zahra (2011) "Myth and Death: Roman Mythological Sarcophagi," in A Companion to Greek Mythology. Blackwell. p. 301. ^ Elsner, p. 1. ^ Elsner, p. 12. ^ Elsner, p. 14. ^ Elsner, pp. 1, 9. ^ Hachlili, Rachel (1998) Ancient Jewish Art and Archaeology in the Diaspora. Brill. pp. 96ff. ^ Schreckenberg, Heinz and Schubert, Kurt (1991) Jewish Historiography and Iconography in Early and Medieval Christianity. Fortress Press. pp. 171ff. ^ a b Gagarin, p. 463. ^ Gagarin, p. 459. ^ Gagarin, pp. 459–460. ^ "Antioch and the Bath of Apolausis - History of the excavations". J. Paul Getty Museum. Retrieved 16 June 2020. ^ Dunbabin, Katherine M.D. (1999) Mosaics of the Greek and Roman World. Cambridge University Press. p. 254ff. ISBN 0-521-00230-3. ^ Gagarin, p. 202. ^ Butcher, Kevin (2003) Roman Syria and the Near East. Getty Publications. p. 201ff. ISBN 0-89236-715-6. ^ Bowman, p. 421. ^ Fantham, R. Elaine (1989). "Mime: The Missing Link in Roman Literary History". The Classical World. 82 (3): 153–163. doi:10.2307/4350348. JSTOR 4350348. ^ Slater, William J. (2002). "Mime Problems: Cicero Ad fam. 7.1 and Martial 9.38". Phoenix. 56 (3/4): 315–329. doi:10.2307/1192603. JSTOR 1192603. ^ Potter (1999), p. 257. ^ Gian Biagio Conte (1994) Latin Literature: A History. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 128. ^ Franklin, James L. (1987). "Pantomimists at Pompeii: Actius Anicetus and His Troupe". The American Journal of Philology. 108 (1): 95–107. doi:10.2307/294916. JSTOR 294916. ^ Starks, John H. Jr. (2008) "Pantomime Actresses in Latin Inscriptions," in New Directions in Ancient Pantomime. Oxford University Press. p. 95; p. 14ff. ^ a b Naerebout, p. 146. ^ a b c d Ginsberg‐Klar, Maria E. (2010). "The archaeology of musical instruments in Germany during the Roman period". World Archaeology. 12 (3): 313–320. doi:10.1080/00438243.1981.9979806. JSTOR 124243. ^ Habinek (2005), p. 90ff. ^ Sonia Mucznik. Musicians and Musical Instruments in Roman and Early Byzantine Mosaics of the Land of Israel: Sources, Precursors and Significance. Tel Aviv University. ^ Naerebout, pp. 146ff. ^ Naerebout, pp. 154, 157. ^ Naerebout, pp. 156–157. ^ Richlin, Amy (1993). "Not before Homosexuality: The Materiality of the cinaedus and the Roman Law against Love between Men". Journal of the History of Sexuality. 3 (4): 539–540. JSTOR 3704392. ^ Csapo, Eric and Slater, William J. (1994) The Context of Ancient Drama. University of Michigan Press. p. 377. ^ MacMullen, Ramsay (1984) Christianizing the Roman Empire: (A. D. 100–400). Yale University Press. pp. 74–75, 84. ^ As quoted by Alcuin, Epistula 175 (Nescit homo, qui histriones et mimos et saltatores introduct in domum suam, quam magna eos immundorum sequitur turba spiritum) ^ Hen, Yitzhak (1995) Culture and Religion in Merovingian Gaul, AD 481–751. Brill. p. 230. ^ Harris, p. 5 ^ Johnson (2009), pp. 3–4 ^ a b Kraus, T.J. (2000). "(Il)literacy in Non-Literary Papyri from Graeco-Roman Egypt: Further Aspects of the Educational Ideal in Ancient Literary Sources and Modern Times". Mnemosyne. 53 (3): 322–342 (325–327). doi:10.1163/156852500510633. JSTOR 4433101. ^ Peachin, pp. 89, 97–98. ^ Mattern, Susan P. (1999) Rome and the Enemy: Imperial Strategy in the Principate. University of California Press. p. 197 ^ a b Morgan, Teresa (1998) Literate Education in the Hellenistic and Roman Worlds. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–2 ^ Johnson (2009), pp. 46ff. ^ Peachin, p. 97. ^ Clifford Ando poses the question as "what good would 'posted edicts' do in a world of low literacy?' in Ando, p. 101 (see also p. 87 on "the government's obsessive documentation"). ^ Ando, pp. 86–87. ^ Ando, p. 101 ^ Ando, pp. 152, 210. ^ Beard, Mary (1991) "Ancient Literacy and the Written Word in Roman Religion," in Literacy in the Roman World. University of Michigan Press. p. 59ff ^ Dickie, Matthew (2001) Magic and Magicians in the Greco-Roman World. Routledge. pp. pp. 94–95, 181–182, and 196 ^ Potter (2009), p. 555 ^ Harris, pp. 29, 218–219. ^ Phang, Sara Elise (2011) "Military Documents, Languages, and Literacy," in A Companion to the Roman Army. Blackwell. pp. 286–301. ^ Mattern, Rome and the Enemy, p. 197, citing Harris, pp. 253–255. ^ Harris, pp. 9, 48, 215, 248, 258–269 ^ Johnson (2009), pp. 47, 54, 290ff. ^ Mattern, Rome and the Enemy, p. 197 ^ Gagarin, pp. 19–20. ^ a b Johnson (2010), pp. 17–18. ^ Martial, Epigrams 1.2 and 14.184–92, as cited by Johnson (2010), p. 17 ^ Cavallo, pp. 83–84. ^ Cavallo, pp. 84–85. ^ Cavallo, p. 84. ^ a b c Marshall, p. 253. ^ Cavallo, p. 71 ^ Marshall, p. 253, citing on the book trade in the provinces Pliny the Younger, Epistulae 9.11.2; Martial, Epigrams 7.88; Horace, Carmina 2.20.13f. and Ars Poetica 345; Ovid, Tristia 4.9.21 and 4.10.128; Pliny the Elder, Natural History 35.2.11; Sidonius, Epistulae 9.7.1. ^ Strabo 13.1.54, 50.13.419; Martial, Epigrams 2.8; Lucian, Adversus Indoctum 1 ^ According to Seneca, Epistulae 27.6f. ^ Marshall, p. 254. ^ Marshall, pp. 252–264. ^ Cavallo, pp. 67–68. ^ Marshall, pp. 257, 260. ^ Pliny, Epistulae 1.8.2; CIL 5.5262 (= ILS 2927) ^ Marshall, p. 255. ^ Marshall, 261–262 ^ Cavallo, p. 70. ^ Tacitus, Agricola 2.1 and Annales 4.35 and 14.50; Pliny the Younger, Epistulae 7.19.6; Suetonius, Augustus 31, Tiberius 61.3, and Caligula 16 ^ Suetonius, Domitian 10; Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria 9.2.65 ^ Marshall, p. 263. ^ Johnson (2009), pp. 114ff., pp. 186ff. ^ Potter (2009), p. 372. ^ Johnson (2010) p. 14. ^ Johnson (2009), pp. 320ff. ^ Cavallo, pp. 68–69, 78–79. ^ Cavallo, pp. 81–82. ^ Peachin, p. 95. ^ Peachin, pp. 84–85. ^ Laes, p. 108 ^ a b c Peachin, p. 89. ^ Laes, pp. 113–116. ^ Peachin, pp. 90, 92 ^ Laes, pp. 116–121. ^ Peachin, pp. 87–89. ^ Laes, p. 122. ^ a b Peachin, p. 90. ^ Laes, pp. 107–108, 132. ^ Peachin, pp. 93–94. ^ Peachin, pp. 88, 106 ^ Laes, p. 109. ^ Laes, p. 132. ^ Potter (2009), pp. 439, 442. ^ Peachin, pp. 102–103, 105. ^ Peachin, pp. 104–105. ^ Peachin, pp. 103, 106. ^ Peachin, p. 110. ^ Peachin, p. 107. ^ Harris, p. 5. ^ Saller, R. 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(1998) The Politics of Latin Literature: Writing, Identity, and Empire in Ancient Rome. Princeton University Press. pp. 122–123 ^ Rawson (2003), p. 80. ^ James, Sharon L. (2003) Learned Girls and Male Persuasion: Gender and Reading in Roman Love Elegy. University of California Press. pp. 21–25 ^ Johnson, W.R. "Propertius," pp. 42–43, and Sharon L. James, "Elegy and New Comedy," p. 262, both in A Companion to Roman Love Elegy. Blackwell, 2012. ^ Gagarin, p. 20. ^ Harris, p. 3. ^ Numbers, Ronald (2009). Galileo Goes to Jail and Other Myths about Science and Religion. Harvard University Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-674-03327-6. ^ Grant, Edvard. (1996) "The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press. 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(1990) "Tacitus' Historical Works: A Survey and Appraisal," Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.33.2, p. 853. ^ Albrecht, p. 1294. ^ Albrecht, p. 1443. ^ a b Roberts, p. 70. ^ Albrecht, p. 1359ff. ^ "Not since Vergil had there been a Roman poet so effective at establishing a master narrative for his people": Marc Mastrangelo, The Roman Self in Late Antiquity: Prudentius and the Poetics of the Soul (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008), p. 3. ^ Bowersock, p. 694 ^ a b Rüpke, p. 4. ^ Apuleius, Florides 1.1 ^ Rüpke, p. 279. ^ Matthew Bunson, A Dictionary of the Roman Empire (Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 246. ^ The caesareum at Najaran was possibly known later as the "Kaaba of Najran": جواد علي, المفصل في تاريخ العرب قبل الإسلام (Jawad Ali, Al-Mufassal fi Tarikh Al-'Arab Qabl Al-Islam; "Commentary on the History of the Arabs Before Islam"), Baghdad, 1955–1983; P. Harland, "Imperial Cults within Local Cultural Life: Associations in Roman Asia", originally published in Ancient History Bulletin / Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 17 (2003) 91–103. ^ Isaac, Benjamin H. (2004) The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity. Princeton University Press. p. 449 ^ Frend, W.H.C. (1967) Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church: A Study of Conflict from the Maccabees to Donatus. Doubleday. p. 106 ^ Huskinson, Janet (2000) Experiencing Rome: Culture, Identity and Power in the Roman Empire. Routledge. p. 261. See, for instance, the altar dedicated by a Roman citizen and depicting a sacrifice conducted in the Roman manner for the Germanic goddess Vagdavercustis in the 2nd century AD. ^ Momigliano, Arnaldo (1986). "The Disadvantages of Monotheism for a Universal State". Classical Philology. 81 (4): 285–297. doi:10.1086/367003. JSTOR 269977. S2CID 161203730. ^ Fishwick, Duncan (1991). 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ISBN 978-0-8018-3692-3. Sullivan, Richard, D. (1990). Near Eastern Royalty and Rome, 100-30 BC. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-2682-8. Vout, Caroline (2009). "The Myth of the Toga: Understanding the History of Roman Dress". Greece and Rome. 43 (2): 204–220. doi:10.1093/gr/43.2.204. JSTOR 643096. Winterling, Aloys (2009). Politics and Society in Imperial Rome. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4051-7969-0. Wiseman, T.P. (1970). "The Definition of Eques Romanus". Historia. 19 (1): 67–83. Wood, Gordon S. (2011). The Idea of America: Reflections on the Birth of the United States. Penguin Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-101-51514-3. 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Roman-Empire.net, learning resources and re-enactments The Historical Theater in the Year 400 AD, in Which Both Romans and Barbarians Resided Side by Side in the Eastern Part of the Roman Empire v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor 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Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Links to related articles v t e History of the Roman and Byzantine Empire in modern territories Albania (Classical - Medieval) Algeria Armenia (Classical - Late Antique) Azerbaijan Austria Balkans Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria (Classical - High Medieval) Britain (England) Crimea (Classical - Medieval) Croatia Cyprus (Classical - Medieval) Egypt (Classical ~ Late Antique) France (Corsica (Classical - Early Medieval)) Georgia Germany Greece (Classical - Medieval) (Crete (Classical - Medieval)) Hungary Israel (Classical ~ Late Antique) Italy (Classical - Medieval) (Sicily (Classical - Medieval), Sardinia (Classical - Early Medieval)) Lebanon (Classical ~ Late Antique) Libya Liechtenstein Luxembourg Malta Macedonia Monaco Montenegro Morocco The Netherlands North Africa Palestine (Classical ~ Late Antique) Portugal Romania Scotland Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain (Classical - Late Antique) Switzerland Syria (Classical ~ Late Antique) Tunisia (Roman Carthage) Turkey (Classical - Medieval) (Thrace (Classical - Medieval)) Wales v t e Territories with limited Roman Empire occupation and contact Occupied temporarily Arabia Azerbaijan Roman Armenia Byzantine Armenia Assyria Roman Crimea Cherson Dacia Georgia Germany Mesopotamia Netherlands Persia Slovakia Scotland Sudan Contacts & explorations Canary Islands China India Ireland Scandinavia Somalia Sub-Saharan Africa Equatorial Africa See also Borders of the Roman Empire v t e Empires Ancient (Colonies) Akkadian Neo-Sumerian Old Babylonian Egyptian Old Kingdom Middle Kingdom New Kingdom Assyrian Neo-Babylonian Phoenician Carthaginian Chinese Shang Qin Han Three Kingdoms Jin North and South Hellenistic Macedonian Seleucid Hittite Indian Nanda Maurya Satavahana Shunga Gupta Harsha Iranian Median Achaemenid Parthian Sasanian Kushan Mongol Xianbei Roman Western Eastern Teotihuacan Post-classical Aksum Arab Rashidun Umayyad Abbasid Fatimid Córdoba Aragonese Angevin Aztec Benin Bornu Bruneian Bulgarian First Second Byzantine Nicaea Thessalonica Trebizond Calakmul Castilian Chinese Sui Tang Liao Song Jīn 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Lombard rule (568–774) Duchy of Benevento Duchy of Friuli Duchy of Ivrea Duchy of Spoleto Duchy of Tridentum Byzantine Empire (584–751) Exarchate of Ravenna (584–751) Duchy of Rome (533–751) Duchy of Perugia (554–752) Duchy of the Pentapolis (554–752) Exarchate of Africa (585–698) Holy Roman Empire and other independent states Bishopric of Bressanone City of Fiume and its District Commune of Rome County of Gorizia Princely County of Gorizia and Gradisca County of Guastalla Duchy of Guastalla Kingdom of Italy Ancona Ceva Finale March of Friuli Patria del Friuli (Patriarchate of Aquileia) Ivrea Istria Mantua Milan March of Montferrat Duchy of Montferrat Tyrol Trieste Turin Tuscany Verona Duchy of Ivrea Duchy of Mantua Duchy of Massa and Carrara Duchy of Merania Duchy of Mirandola Duchy of Modena and Reggio Principality of Piombino Duchy of Reggio Marquisate of Saluzzo Duchy of Spoleto Bishopric of Tarantasia Bishopric of Trento Grand Duchy of Tuscany Papal States (754–1870) Duchy of Castro Duchy of Ferrara Holy See Duchy of Parma Duchy of Urbino Republics Republic of Cospaia Republic of Ancona Republic of Florence Republic of Genoa Republic of Noli Republic of Lucca Republic of Massa Republic of Pisa Republic of Siena Republic of Venice (697–1797) Dogado Domini di Terraferma Stato da Màr Southern Italy (774–1139) Byzantine Duchy of Amalfi Duchy of Gaeta Catepanate of Italy Longobardia Theme of Lucania Duchy of Naples Theme of Sicily and Byzantine Sicily Duchy of Sorrento Arab Emirate of Bari Emirate of Sicily Lombard Principality of Benevento Principality of Salerno Principality of Capua Norman County of Apulia and Calabria County of Aversa County of Sicily Principality of Taranto Sardinia and Corsica (9th century–1420) Judicates Agugliastra Arborea Cagliari Gallura Logudoro Oristano Republic of Sassari Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica Corsican Republic (1755–1769) Kingdom of Sicily (1130–1816) and Kingdom of Naples (1282–1816) State of the Presidi Duke of San 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(1848–1849) Roman Republic (1849) United Provinces of Central Italy (1859–1860) Kingdom of Sardinia (1814–1860) Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (1816–1861) Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia (1815–1866) Papal States (1814–1870) Post-unification Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946) Julian March Italian Empire (1882–1960) Free State of Fiume (1920–1924) Italian Social Republic (1943–1945) Free Territory of Trieste (1947–1954) v t e Ancient Syria and Mesopotamia Syria Northern Mesopotamia Southern Mesopotamia c. 3500–2350 BCE Semitic nomads Sumerian city-states c. 2350–2200 BCE Akkadian Empire c. 2200–2100 BCE Gutians c. 2100–2000 BCE Third Dynasty of Ur (Sumerian Renaissance) c. 2000–1800 BCE Mari and other Amorite city-states Old Assyrian Empire (Northern Akkadians) Isin/Larsa and other Amorite city-states c. 1800–1600 BCE Old Hittite Kingdom Old Babylonian Empire (Southern Akkadians) c. 1600–1400 BCE Mitanni (Hurrians) Karduniaš (Kassites) c. 1400–1200 BCE Middle Hittite Kingdom Middle Assyria c. 1200–1150 BCE Bronze Age Collapse ("Sea Peoples") Arameans c. 1150–911 BCE Phoenicia Neo-Hittite city-states Aram- Damascus Arameans Middle Babylonia Chal- de- ans 911–729 BCE Neo-Assyrian Empire 729–609 BCE 626–539 BCE Neo-Babylonian Empire (Chaldeans) 539–331 BCE Achaemenid Empire 336–301 BCE Macedonian Empire (Ancient Greeks and Macedonians) 311–129 BCE Seleucid Empire 129–63 BCE Seleucid Empire Parthian Empire 63 BCE–243 CE Roman Empire/Byzantine Empire (Syria) 243–636 CE Sassanid Empire v t e History of Europe Prehistory Paleolithic Europe Neolithic Europe Bronze Age Europe Iron Age Europe Classical antiquity Classical Greece Roman Republic Hellenistic period Roman Empire Early Christianity Christianity in late antiquity Crisis of the Third Century Fall of the Western Roman Empire Late antiquity Middle Ages Early Middle Ages Migration Period Christianity in the Middle Ages Christianization Francia Byzantine Empire Papal States Bulgarian Empire First Second Maritime republics Venice Genoa Pisa Amalfi Viking Age Kievan Rus' Crown of Aragon Holy Roman Empire High Middle Ages Republic of Florence Feudalism Crusades Mongol invasion Serbian Empire Late Middle Ages Black Death Hundred Years' War Kalmar Union Early modern Renaissance Christianity in the modern era Reformation Age of Discovery Baroque Grand Duchy of Tuscany Thirty Years' War Absolute monarchy Ottoman Empire Portuguese Empire Spanish Empire Early modern France Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Cossack Hetmanate Swedish Empire Dutch Republic British Empire Habsburg Monarchy Russian Empire Age of Enlightenment Modern Great Divergence Industrial Revolution French Revolution Napoleonic Wars Nationalism Revolutions of 1848 World War I Russian Revolution Interwar period World War II Cold War European integration COVID-19 pandemic See also Art of Europe Genetic history of Europe History of Christianity History of the Mediterranean region History of the European Union History of Western civilization Maritime 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en-wikipedia-org-5718	----	Translation - Wikipedia Translation From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about language translation. For other uses, see Translation (disambiguation). "Translator" redirects here. For other uses, see Translator (disambiguation). For article translations in Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Translation. Not to be confused with Transliteration. Communication of the meaning of a source–language text by means of an equivalent target–language text King Charles V the Wise commissions a translation of Aristotle. First square shows his ordering the translation; second square, the translation being made. Third and fourth squares show the finished translation being brought to, and then presented to, the King. Part of a series on Translation Types Legal Literary Bible Quran Kural Linguistic validation Medical Regulatory Technical Interpretation Cultural Word-for-word vs. Sense-for-sense Homophonic Theory Translation studies Skopos theory Translation project Translation criticism Dynamic and formal equivalence Contrastive linguistics Technologies CAT Machine translation Mobile (machine) translation Translation management system Dubbing Subtitling Pre-editing Postediting Multimedia translation Localization Glocalization Internationalization and localization Language localisation Game localization Dub localization Website localization software localization Institutional Associations Awards Organizations Schools Related topics Transcription Transliteration Video relay service (VRS) Telephone interpreting Language barrier Fan translation Fansub Fandub Scanlation Journalistic translation Books and magazines on translation Bible translations by language Translated books Translators Kural translations by language v t e Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source–language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.[1] The English language draws a terminological distinction (which does not exist in every language) between translating (a written text) and interpreting (oral or signed communication between users of different languages); under this distinction, translation can begin only after the appearance of writing within a language community. A translator always risks inadvertently introducing source–language words, grammar, or syntax into the target–language rendering. On the other hand, such "spill-overs" have sometimes imported useful source–language calques and loanwords that have enriched target languages. Translators, including early translators of sacred texts, have helped shape the very languages into which they have translated.[2] Because of the laboriousness of the translation process, since the 1940s efforts have been made, with varying degrees of success, to automate translation or to mechanically aid the human translator.[3] More recently, the rise of the Internet has fostered a world-wide market for translation services and has facilitated "language localization".[4] Contents 1 Etymology 2 Theories 2.1 Western theory 2.2 Other traditions 2.2.1 Near East 2.2.2 Asia 2.2.3 Islamic world 3 Fidelity and transparency 3.1 Equivalence 3.2 Back-translation 3.3 Source and target languages 3.3.1 Source and target texts 4 Translators 4.1 Interpreting 4.2 Sworn translation 4.3 Telephone 4.4 Internet 4.5 Computer assist 5 Machine translation 6 Literary translation 6.1 History 6.2 Modern translation 6.3 Poetry 6.4 Book titles 6.5 Plays 6.6 Chinese literature 6.7 Sung texts 6.8 Religious texts 6.9 Experimental literature 6.10 Science fiction 7 Technical translation 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Bibliography 12 Further reading 13 External links Etymology[edit] Rosetta Stone, a secular icon for the art of translation[5] The English word "translation" derives from the Latin word translatio,[6] which comes from trans, "across" + ferre, "to carry" or "to bring" (-latio in turn coming from latus, the past participle of ferre). Thus translatio is "a carrying across" or "a bringing across" – in this case, of a text from one language to another.[7] Some Slavic languages and the Germanic languages (other than Dutch and Afrikaans) have calqued their words for the concept of "translation" on translatio, substituting their respective Slavic or Germanic root words for the Latin roots.[7][8][a][9] The remaining Slavic languages instead calqued their words for "translation" from an alternative Latin word, trāductiō, itself derived from trādūcō ("to lead across" or "to bring across")—from trans ("across") + dūcō, ("to lead" or "to bring").[10] The West and East Slavic languages (except for Russian) adopted the translātiō pattern, whereas Russian and the South Slavic languages adopted the trāductiō pattern. The Romance languages, deriving directly from Latin, did not need to calque their equivalent words for "translation"; instead, they simply adapted the second of the two alternative Latin words, trāductiō.,[11] The Ancient Greek term for "translation", μετάφρασις (metaphrasis, "a speaking across"), has supplied English with "metaphrase" (a "literal", or "word-for-word", translation)—as contrasted with "paraphrase" ("a saying in other words", from παράφρασις, paraphrasis).[7] "Metaphrase" corresponds, in one of the more recent terminologies, to "formal equivalence"; and "paraphrase", to "dynamic equivalence".[12] Strictly speaking, the concept of metaphrase—of "word-for-word translation"—is an imperfect concept, because a given word in a given language often carries more than one meaning; and because a similar given meaning may often be represented in a given language by more than one word. Nevertheless, "metaphrase" and "paraphrase" may be useful as ideal concepts that mark the extremes in the spectrum of possible approaches to translation.[b] Theories[edit] Western theory[edit] John Dryden Discussions of the theory and practice of translation reach back into antiquity and show remarkable continuities. The ancient Greeks distinguished between metaphrase (literal translation) and paraphrase. This distinction was adopted by English poet and translator John Dryden (1631–1700), who described translation as the judicious blending of these two modes of phrasing when selecting, in the target language, "counterparts," or equivalents, for the expressions used in the source language: When [words] appear... literally graceful, it were an injury to the author that they should be changed. But since... what is beautiful in one [language] is often barbarous, nay sometimes nonsense, in another, it would be unreasonable to limit a translator to the narrow compass of his author's words: 'tis enough if he choose out some expression which does not vitiate the sense.[7] Cicero Dryden cautioned, however, against the license of "imitation", i.e., of adapted translation: "When a painter copies from the life... he has no privilege to alter features and lineaments..."[12] This general formulation of the central concept of translation—equivalence—is as adequate as any that has been proposed since Cicero and Horace, who, in 1st-century-BCE Rome, famously and literally cautioned against translating "word for word" (verbum pro verbo).[12] Despite occasional theoretical diversity, the actual practice of translation has hardly changed since antiquity. Except for some extreme metaphrasers in the early Christian period and the Middle Ages, and adapters in various periods (especially pre-Classical Rome, and the 18th century), translators have generally shown prudent flexibility in seeking equivalents—"literal" where possible, paraphrastic where necessary—for the original meaning and other crucial "values" (e.g., style, verse form, concordance with musical accompaniment or, in films, with speech articulatory movements) as determined from context.[12] Samuel Johnson In general, translators have sought to preserve the context itself by reproducing the original order of sememes, and hence word order—when necessary, reinterpreting the actual grammatical structure, for example, by shifting from active to passive voice, or vice versa. The grammatical differences between "fixed-word-order" languages[14] (e.g. English, French, German) and "free-word-order" languages[15] (e.g., Greek, Latin, Polish, Russian) have been no impediment in this regard.[12] The particular syntax (sentence-structure) characteristics of a text's source language are adjusted to the syntactic requirements of the target language. Martin Luther When a target language has lacked terms that are found in a source language, translators have borrowed those terms, thereby enriching the target language. Thanks in great measure to the exchange of calques and loanwords between languages, and to their importation from other languages, there are few concepts that are "untranslatable" among the modern European languages.[12] A greater problem, however, is translating terms relating to cultural concepts that have no equivalent in the target language.[16] For full comprehension, such situations require the provision of a gloss. Generally, the greater the contact and exchange that have existed between two languages, or between those languages and a third one, the greater is the ratio of metaphrase to paraphrase that may be used in translating among them. However, due to shifts in ecological niches of words, a common etymology is sometimes misleading as a guide to current meaning in one or the other language. For example, the English actual should not be confused with the cognate French actuel ("present", "current"), the Polish aktualny ("present", "current," "topical", "timely", "feasible"),[17] the Swedish aktuell ("topical", "presently of importance"), the Russian актуальный ("urgent", "topical") or the Dutch actueel ("current"). The translator's role as a bridge for "carrying across" values between cultures has been discussed at least since Terence, the 2nd-century-BCE Roman adapter of Greek comedies. The translator's role is, however, by no means a passive, mechanical one, and so has also been compared to that of an artist. The main ground seems to be the concept of parallel creation found in critics such as Cicero. Dryden observed that "Translation is a type of drawing after life..." Comparison of the translator with a musician or actor goes back at least to Samuel Johnson's remark about Alexander Pope playing Homer on a flageolet, while Homer himself used a bassoon.[17] Johann Gottfried Herder If translation be an art, it is no easy one. In the 13th century, Roger Bacon wrote that if a translation is to be true, the translator must know both languages, as well as the science that he is to translate; and finding that few translators did, he wanted to do away with translation and translators altogether.[18] Ignacy Krasicki The translator of the Bible into German, Martin Luther (1483–1546), is credited with being the first European to posit that one translates satisfactorily only toward his own language. L.G. Kelly states that since Johann Gottfried Herder in the 18th century, "it has been axiomatic" that one translates only toward his own language.[19] Compounding the demands on the translator is the fact that no dictionary or thesaurus can ever be a fully adequate guide in translating. The Scottish historian Alexander Tytler, in his Essay on the Principles of Translation (1790), emphasized that assiduous reading is a more comprehensive guide to a language than are dictionaries. The same point, but also including listening to the spoken language, had earlier, in 1783, been made by the Polish poet and grammarian Onufry Kopczyński.[20] The translator's special role in society is described in a posthumous 1803 essay by "Poland's La Fontaine", the Roman Catholic Primate of Poland, poet, encyclopedist, author of the first Polish novel, and translator from French and Greek, Ignacy Krasicki: [T]ranslation... is in fact an art both estimable and very difficult, and therefore is not the labor and portion of common minds; [it] should be [practiced] by those who are themselves capable of being actors, when they see greater use in translating the works of others than in their own works, and hold higher than their own glory the service that they render their country.[21] Other traditions[edit] Due to Western colonialism and cultural dominance in recent centuries, Western translation traditions have largely replaced other traditions. The Western traditions draw on both ancient and medieval traditions, and on more recent European innovations. Though earlier approaches to translation are less commonly used today, they retain importance when dealing with their products, as when historians view ancient or medieval records to piece together events which took place in non-Western or pre-Western environments. Also, though heavily influenced by Western traditions and practiced by translators taught in Western-style educational systems, Chinese and related translation traditions retain some theories and philosophies unique to the Chinese tradition. Near East[edit] This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (March 2012) Traditions of translating material among the languages of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Assyria (Syriac language), Anatolia, and Israel (Hebrew language) go back several millennia. There exist partial translations of the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh (c. 2000 BCE) into Southwest Asian languages of the second millennium BCE.[22] An early example of a bilingual document is the 1274 BCE Treaty of Kadesh between the ancient Egyptian and Hittie empires. Asia[edit] Further information: Chinese translation theory Buddhist Diamond Sutra, translated into Chinese by Kumārajīva: world's oldest known dated printed book (868 CE) There is a separate tradition of translation in South, Southeast and East Asia (primarily of texts from the Indian and Chinese civilizations), connected especially with the rendering of religious, particularly Buddhist, texts and with the governance of the Chinese empire. Classical Indian translation is characterized by loose adaptation, rather than the closer translation more commonly found in Europe; and Chinese translation theory identifies various criteria and limitations in translation. In the East Asian sphere of Chinese cultural influence, more important than translation per se has been the use and reading of Chinese texts, which also had substantial influence on the Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese languages, with substantial borrowings of Chinese vocabulary and writing system. Notable is the Japanese kanbun, a system for glossing Chinese texts for Japanese speakers. Though Indianized states in Southeast Asia often translated Sanskrit material into the local languages, the literate elites and scribes more commonly used Sanskrit as their primary language of culture and government. Perry Link Some special aspects of translating from Chinese are illustrated in Perry Link's discussion of translating the work of the Tang Dynasty poet Wang Wei (699–759 CE).[23] Some of the art of classical Chinese poetry [writes Link] must simply be set aside as untranslatable. The internal structure of Chinese characters has a beauty of its own, and the calligraphy in which classical poems were written is another important but untranslatable dimension. Since Chinese characters do not vary in length, and because there are exactly five characters per line in a poem like [the one that Eliot Weinberger discusses in 19 Ways of Looking at Wang Wei (with More Ways)], another untranslatable feature is that the written result, hung on a wall, presents a rectangle. Translators into languages whose word lengths vary can reproduce such an effect only at the risk of fatal awkwardness.... Another imponderable is how to imitate the 1-2, 1-2-3 rhythm in which five-syllable lines in classical Chinese poems normally are read. Chinese characters are pronounced in one syllable apiece, so producing such rhythms in Chinese is not hard and the results are unobtrusive; but any imitation in a Western language is almost inevitably stilted and distracting. Even less translatable are the patterns of tone arrangement in classical Chinese poetry. Each syllable (character) belongs to one of two categories determined by the pitch contour in which it is read; in a classical Chinese poem the patterns of alternation of the two categories exhibit parallelism and mirroring.[24] Once the untranslatables have been set aside, the problems for a translator, especially of Chinese poetry, are two: What does the translator think the poetic line says? And once he thinks he understands it, how can he render it into the target language? Most of the difficulties, according to Link, arise in addressing the second problem, "where the impossibility of perfect answers spawns endless debate." Almost always at the center is the letter-versus-spirit dilemma. At the literalist extreme, efforts are made to dissect every conceivable detail about the language of the original Chinese poem. "The dissection, though," writes Link, "normally does to the art of a poem approximately what the scalpel of an anatomy instructor does to the life of a frog."[24] Chinese characters, in avoiding grammatical specificity, offer advantages to poets (and, simultaneously, challenges to poetry translators) that are associated primarily with absences of subject, number, and tense.[25] It is the norm in classical Chinese poetry, and common even in modern Chinese prose, to omit subjects; the reader or listener infers a subject. The grammars of some Western languages, however, require that a subject be stated (although this is often avoided by using a passive or impersonal construction). Most of the translators cited in Eliot Weinberger's 19 Ways of Looking at Wang Wei supply a subject. Weinberger points out, however, that when an "I" as a subject is inserted, a "controlling individual mind of the poet" enters and destroys the effect of the Chinese line. Without a subject, he writes, "the experience becomes both universal and immediate to the reader." Another approach to the subjectlessness is to use the target language's passive voice; but this again particularizes the experience too much.[25] Nouns have no number in Chinese. "If," writes Link, "you want to talk in Chinese about one rose, you may, but then you use a "measure word" to say "one blossom-of roseness."[25] Chinese verbs are tense-less: there are several ways to specify when something happened or will happen, but verb tense is not one of them. For poets, this creates the great advantage of ambiguity. According to Link, Weinberger's insight about subjectlessness—that it produces an effect "both universal and immediate"—applies to timelessness as well.[25] Link proposes a kind of uncertainty principle that may be applicable not only to translation from the Chinese language, but to all translation: Dilemmas about translation do not have definitive right answers (although there can be unambiguously wrong ones if misreadings of the original are involved). Any translation (except machine translation, a different case) must pass through the mind of a translator, and that mind inevitably contains its own store of perceptions, memories, and values. Weinberger [...] pushes this insight further when he writes that "every reading of every poem, regardless of language, is an act of translation: translation into the reader's intellectual and emotional life." Then he goes still further: because a reader's mental life shifts over time, there is a sense in which "the same poem cannot be read twice."[25] Islamic world[edit] Translation of material into Arabic expanded after the creation of Arabic script in the 5th century, and gained great importance with the rise of Islam and Islamic empires. Arab translation initially focused primarily on politics, rendering Persian, Greek, even Chinese and Indic diplomatic materials into Arabic. It later focused on translating classical Greek and Persian works, as well as some Chinese and Indian texts, into Arabic for scholarly study at major Islamic learning centers, such as the Al-Karaouine (Fes, Morocco), Al-Azhar (Cairo, Egypt), and the Al-Nizamiyya of Baghdad. In terms of theory, Arabic translation drew heavily on earlier Near Eastern traditions as well as more contemporary Greek and Persian traditions. Arabic translation efforts and techniques are important to Western translation traditions due to centuries of close contacts and exchanges. Especially after the Renaissance, Europeans began more intensive study of Arabic and Persian translations of classical works as well as scientific and philosophical works of Arab and oriental origins. Arabic, and to a lesser degree Persian, became important sources of material and perhaps of techniques for revitalized Western traditions, which in time would overtake the Islamic and oriental traditions. In the 19th century, after the Middle East's Islamic clerics and copyists had conceded defeat in their centuries-old battle to contain the corrupting effects of the printing press, [an] explosion in publishing ... ensued. Along with expanding secular education, printing transformed an overwhelmingly illiterate society into a partly literate one. In the past, the sheikhs and the government had exercised a monopoly over knowledge. Now an expanding elite benefitted from a stream of information on virtually anything that interested them. Between 1880 and 1908... more than six hundred newspapers and periodicals were founded in Egypt alone. The most prominent among them was al-Muqtataf ... [It] was the popular expression of a translation movement that had begun earlier in the century with military and medical manuals and highlights from the Enlightenment canon. (Montesquieu's Considerations on the Romans and Fénelon's Telemachus had been favorites.)[26] A translator who contributed mightily to the advance of the Islamic Enlightenment was the Egyptian cleric Rifaa al-Tahtawi (1801–73), who had spent five years in Paris in the late 1820s, teaching religion to Muslim students. After returning to Cairo with the encouragement of Muhammad Ali (1769–1849), the Ottoman viceroy of Egypt, al–Tahtawi became head of the new school of languages and embarked on an intellectual revolution by initiating a program to translate some two thousand European and Turkish volumes, ranging from ancient texts on geography and geometry to Voltaire's biography of Peter the Great, along with the Marseillaise and the entire Code Napoléon. This was the biggest, most meaningful importation of foreign thought into Arabic since Abbasid times (750–1258).[27] In France al-Tahtawi had been struck by the way the French language... was constantly renewing itself to fit modern ways of living. Yet Arabic has its own sources of reinvention. The root system that Arabic shares with other Semitic tongues such as Hebrew is capable of expanding the meanings of words using structured consonantal variations: the word for airplane, for example, has the same root as the word for bird.[28] Muhammad Abduh The movement to translate English and European texts transformed the Arabic and Ottoman Turkish languages, and new words, simplified syntax, and directness came to be valued over the previous convolutions. Educated Arabs and Turks in the new professions and the modernized civil service expressed skepticism, writes Christopher de Bellaigue, "with a freedom that is rarely witnessed today ... No longer was legitimate knowledge defined by texts in the religious schools, interpreted for the most part with stultifying literalness. It had come to include virtually any intellectual production anywhere in the world." One of the neologisms that, in a way, came to characterize the infusion of new ideas via translation was "darwiniya", or "Darwinism".[26] One of the most influential liberal Islamic thinkers of the time was Muhammad Abduh (1849–1905), Egypt's senior judicial authority—its chief mufti—at the turn of the 20th century and an admirer of Darwin who in 1903 visited Darwin's exponent Herbert Spencer at his home in Brighton. Spencer's view of society as an organism with its own laws of evolution paralleled Abduh's ideas.[29] After World War I, when Britain and France divided up the Middle East's countries, apart from Turkey, between them, pursuant to the Sykes-Picot agreement—in violation of solemn wartime promises of postwar Arab autonomy—there came an immediate reaction: the Muslim Brotherhood emerged in Egypt, the House of Saud took over the Hijaz, and regimes led by army officers came to power in Iran and Turkey. "[B]oth illiberal currents of the modern Middle East," writes de Bellaigue, "Islamism and militarism, received a major impetus from Western empire-builders."As often happens in countries undergoing social crisis, the aspirations of the Muslim world's translators and modernizers, such as Muhammad Abduh, largely had to yield to retrograde currents.[30] Fidelity and transparency[edit] Dryden Fidelity (or "faithfulness") and felicity[31] (or transparency), dual ideals in translation, are often (though not always) at odds. A 17th-century French critic coined the phrase "les belles infidèles" to suggest that translations can be either faithful or beautiful, but not both.[c] Fidelity is the extent to which a translation accurately renders the meaning of the source text, without distortion. Transparency is the extent to which a translation appears to a native speaker of the target language to have originally been written in that language, and conforms to its grammar, syntax and idiom. John Dryden (1631–1700) wrote in his preface to the translation anthology Sylvae: Where I have taken away some of [the original authors'] Expressions, and cut them shorter, it may possibly be on this consideration, that what was beautiful in the Greek or Latin, would not appear so shining in the English; and where I have enlarg'd them, I desire the false Criticks would not always think that those thoughts are wholly mine, but that either they are secretly in the Poet, or may be fairly deduc'd from him; or at least, if both those considerations should fail, that my own is of a piece with his, and that if he were living, and an Englishman, they are such as he wou'd probably have written.[33] A translation that meets the criterion of fidelity (faithfulness) is said to be "faithful"; a translation that meets the criterion of transparency, "idiomatic". Depending on the given translation, the two qualities may not be mutually exclusive. The criteria for judging the fidelity of a translation vary according to the subject, type and use of the text, its literary qualities, its social or historical context, etc. The criteria for judging the transparency of a translation appear more straightforward: an unidiomatic translation "sounds wrong"; and, in the extreme case of word-for-word translations generated by many machine-translation systems, often results in patent nonsense. Schleiermacher Nevertheless, in certain contexts a translator may consciously seek to produce a literal translation. Translators of literary, religious, or historic texts often adhere as closely as possible to the source text, stretching the limits of the target language to produce an unidiomatic text. Also, a translator may adopt expressions from the source language in order to provide "local color". Venuti While current Western translation practice is dominated by the dual concepts of "fidelity" and "transparency", this has not always been the case. There have been periods, especially in pre-Classical Rome and in the 18th century, when many translators stepped beyond the bounds of translation proper into the realm of adaptation. Adapted translation retains currency in some non-Western traditions. The Indian epic, the Ramayana, appears in many versions in the various Indian languages, and the stories are different in each. Similar examples are to be found in medieval Christian literature, which adjusted the text to local customs and mores. Many non-transparent-translation theories draw on concepts from German Romanticism, the most obvious influence being the German theologian and philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher. In his seminal lecture "On the Different Methods of Translation" (1813) he distinguished between translation methods that move "the writer toward [the reader]", i.e., transparency, and those that move the "reader toward [the author]", i.e., an extreme fidelity to the foreignness of the source text. Schleiermacher favored the latter approach; he was motivated, however, not so much by a desire to embrace the foreign, as by a nationalist desire to oppose France's cultural domination and to promote German literature. In recent decades, prominent advocates of such "non-transparent" translation have included the French scholar Antoine Berman, who identified twelve deforming tendencies inherent in most prose translations,[34] and the American theorist Lawrence Venuti, who has called on translators to apply "foreignizing" rather than domesticating translation strategies.[35] Equivalence[edit] Main article: Dynamic and formal equivalence The question of fidelity vs. transparency has also been formulated in terms of, respectively, "formal equivalence" and "dynamic [or functional] equivalence" – expressions associated with the translator Eugene Nida and originally coined to describe ways of translating the Bible; but the two approaches are applicable to any translation. "Formal equivalence" corresponds to "metaphrase", and "dynamic equivalence" to "paraphrase". "Formal equivalence" (sought via "literal" translation) attempts to render the text literally, or "word for word" (the latter expression being itself a word-for-word rendering of the classical Latin verbum pro verbo) – if necessary, at the expense of features natural to the target language. By contrast, "dynamic equivalence" (or "functional equivalence") conveys the essential thoughts expressed in a source text—if necessary, at the expense of literality, original sememe and word order, the source text's active vs. passive voice, etc. There is, however, no sharp boundary between formal and functional equivalence. On the contrary, they represent a spectrum of translation approaches. Each is used at various times and in various contexts by the same translator, and at various points within the same text – sometimes simultaneously. Competent translation entails the judicious blending of formal and functional equivalents.[36] Common pitfalls in translation, especially when practiced by inexperienced translators, involve false equivalents such as "false friends"[37] and false cognates. Back-translation[edit] A "back-translation" is a translation of a translated text back into the language of the original text, made without reference to the original text. Comparison of a back-translation with the original text is sometimes used as a check on the accuracy of the original translation, much as the accuracy of a mathematical operation is sometimes checked by reversing the operation. But the results of such reverse-translation operations, while useful as approximate checks, are not always precisely reliable.[38] Back-translation must in general be less accurate than back-calculation because linguistic symbols (words) are often ambiguous, whereas mathematical symbols are intentionally unequivocal. In the context of machine translation, a back-translation is also called a "round-trip translation." When translations are produced of material used in medical clinical trials, such as informed-consent forms, a back-translation is often required by the ethics committee or institutional review board.[39] Mark Twain back-translated his own story, "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County". Mark Twain provided humorously telling evidence for the frequent unreliability of back-translation when he issued his own back-translation of a French translation of his short story, "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County". He published his back-translation in a 1903 volume together with his English-language original, the French translation, and a "Private History of the 'Jumping Frog' Story". The latter included a synopsized adaptation of his story that Twain stated had appeared, unattributed to Twain, in a Professor Sidgwick's Greek Prose Composition (p. 116) under the title, "The Athenian and the Frog"; the adaptation had for a time been taken for an independent ancient Greek precursor to Twain's "Jumping Frog" story.[40] When a document survives only in translation, the original having been lost, researchers sometimes undertake back-translation in an effort to reconstruct the original text. An example involves the novel The Saragossa Manuscript by the Polish aristocrat Jan Potocki (1761–1815), who wrote the novel in French and anonymously published fragments in 1804 and 1813–14. Portions of the original French-language manuscript were subsequently lost; however, the missing fragments survived in a Polish translation, made by Edmund Chojecki in 1847 from a complete French copy that has since been lost. French-language versions of the complete Saragossa Manuscript have since been produced, based on extant French-language fragments and on French-language versions that have been back-translated from Chojecki's Polish version.[41] Many works by the influential Classical physician Galen survive only in medieval Arabic translation. Some survive only in Renaissance Latin translations from the Arabic, thus at a second remove from the original. To better understand Galen, scholars have attempted back-translation of such works in order to reconstruct the original Greek.[citation needed] When historians suspect that a document is actually a translation from another language, back-translation into that hypothetical original language can provide supporting evidence by showing that such characteristics as idioms, puns, peculiar grammatical structures, etc., are in fact derived from the original language. For example, the known text of the Till Eulenspiegel folk tales is in High German but contains puns that work only when back-translated to Low German. This seems clear evidence that these tales (or at least large portions of them) were originally written in Low German and translated into High German by an over-metaphrastic translator. Supporters of Aramaic primacy—the view that the Christian New Testament or its sources were originally written in the Aramaic language—seek to prove their case by showing that difficult passages in the existing Greek text of the New Testament make much more sense when back-translated to Aramaic: that, for example, some incomprehensible references are in fact Aramaic puns that do not work in Greek. Due to similar indications, it is believed that the 2nd century Gnostic Gospel of Judas, which survives only in Coptic, was originally written in Greek. John Dryden (1631–1700), the dominant English-language literary figure of his age, illustrates, in his use of back-translation, translators' influence on the evolution of languages and literary styles. Dryden is believed to be the first person to posit that English sentences should not end in prepositions because Latin sentences cannot end in prepositions.[42][43] Dryden created the proscription against "preposition stranding" in 1672 when he objected to Ben Jonson's 1611 phrase, "the bodies that those souls were frighted from", though he did not provide the rationale for his preference.[44] Dryden often translated his writing into Latin, to check whether his writing was concise and elegant, Latin being considered an elegant and long-lived language with which to compare; then he back-translated his writing back to English according to Latin-grammar usage. As Latin does not have sentences ending in prepositions, Dryden may have applied Latin grammar to English, thus forming the controversial rule of no sentence-ending prepositions, subsequently adopted by other writers.[45][d] Source and target languages[edit] In the practice of translation, the source language is the language being translated from, while the target language, also called the receptor language,[46] is the language being translated into.[47] Difficulties in translating can arise from lexical and syntactical differences between the source language and the target language, which differences tend to be greater between two languages belonging to different language families.[48] Often the source language is the translator's second language, while the target language is the translator's first language.[49] In some geographical settings, however, the source language is the translator's first language because not enough people speak the source language as a second language.[50] For instance, a 2005 survey found that 89% of professional Slovene translators translate into their second language, usually English.[50] In cases where the source language is the translator's first language, the translation process has been referred to by various terms, including "translating into a non-mother tongue", "translating into a second language", "inverse translation", "reverse translation", "service translation", and "translation from A to B".[50] Translation for specialized or professional fields requires a working knowledge, as well, of the pertinent terminology in the field. For example, translation of a legal text requires not only fluency in the respective languages but also familiarity with the terminology specific to the legal field in each language.[51] While the form and style of the source language often cannot be reproduced in the target language, the meaning and content can. Linguist Roman Jakobson went so far as to assert that all cognitive experience can be classified and expressed in any living language.[47] Linguist Ghil'ad Zuckermann suggests that the limits are not of translation per se but rather of elegant translation.[52]:219 Source and target texts[edit] See also: Source text In translation, a source text (ST) is a text written in a given source language which is to be, or has been, translated into another language, while a target text (TT) is a translated text written in the intended target language, which is the result of a translation from a given source text. According to Jeremy Munday's definition of translation, "the process of translation between two different written languages involves the changing of an original written text (the source text or ST) in the original verbal language (the source language or SL) into a written text (the target text or TT) in a different verbal language (the target language or TL)".[53] The terms 'source text' and 'target text' are preferred over 'original' and 'translation' because they do not have the same positive vs. negative value judgment. Translation scholars including Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark have represented the different approaches to translation as falling broadly into source-text-oriented or target-text-oriented categories.[54] Translators[edit] Competent translators show the following attributes: a very good knowledge of the language, written and spoken, from which they are translating (the source language); an excellent command of the language into which they are translating (the target language); familiarity with the subject matter of the text being translated; a profound understanding of the etymological and idiomatic correlates between the two languages, including sociolinguistic register when appropriate; and a finely tuned sense of when to metaphrase ("translate literally") and when to paraphrase, so as to assure true rather than spurious equivalents between the source and target language texts.[55] A competent translator is not only bilingual but bicultural. A language is not merely a collection of words and of rules of grammar and syntax for generating sentences, but also a vast interconnecting system of connotations and cultural references whose mastery, writes linguist Mario Pei, "comes close to being a lifetime job."[56] The complexity of the translator's task cannot be overstated; one author suggests that becoming an accomplished translator—after having already acquired a good basic knowledge of both languages and cultures—may require a minimum of ten years' experience. Viewed in this light, it is a serious misconception to assume that a person who has fair fluency in two languages will, by virtue of that fact alone, be consistently competent to translate between them.[20] Emily Wilson, a professor of classical studies at the University of Pennsylvania and herself a translator, writes: "[I]t is [hard] to produce a good literary translation. This is certainly true of translations of ancient Greek and Roman texts, but it is also true of literary translation in general: it is very difficult. Most readers of foreign languages are not translators; most writers are not translators. Translators have to read and write at the same time, as if always playing multiple instruments in a one-person band. And most one-person bands do not sound very good."[57] The translator's role in relation to a text has been compared to that of an artist, e.g., a musician or actor, who interprets a work of art. Translation, like other human activities,[58] entails making choices, and choice implies interpretation.[17][e] Mark Polizzotti writes: "A good translation offers not a reproduction of the work but an interpretation, a re-representation, just as the performance of a play or a sonata is a representation of the script or the score, one among many possible representations."[59] The English-language novelist Joseph Conrad, whose writings Zdzisław Najder has described as verging on "auto-translation" from Conrad's Polish and French linguistic personae,[60] advised his niece and Polish translator Aniela Zagórska: "[D]on't trouble to be too scrupulous ... I may tell you (in French) that in my opinion il vaut mieux interpréter que traduire [it is better to interpret than to translate] ...Il s'agit donc de trouver les équivalents. Et là, ma chère, je vous prie laissez vous guider plutôt par votre tempérament que par une conscience sévère ... [It is, then, a question of finding the equivalent expressions. And there, my dear, I beg you to let yourself be guided more by your temperament than by a strict conscience....]"[61] Conrad advised another translator that the prime requisite for a good translation is that it be "idiomatic". "For in the idiom is the clearness of a language and the language's force and its picturesqueness—by which last I mean the picture-producing power of arranged words."[62] Conrad thought C.K. Scott Moncrieff's English translation of Marcel Proust's À la recherche du temps perdu (In Search of Lost Time—or, in Scott Moncrieff's rendering, Remembrance of Things Past) to be preferable to the French original.[63][f] Emily Wilson writes that "translation always involves interpretation, and [requires] every translator... to think as deeply as humanly possible about each verbal, poetic, and interpretative choice."[64] Translation of other than the simplest brief texts requires painstakingly close reading of the source text and the draft translation, so as to resolve the ambiguities inherent in language and thereby to asymptotically approach the most accurate rendering of the source text.[65] Part of the ambiguity, for a translator, involves the structure of human language. Psychologist and neural scientist Gary Marcus notes that "virtually every sentence [that people generate] is ambiguous, often in multiple ways. Our brain is so good at comprehending language that we do not usually notice."[66] An example of linguistic ambiguity is the "pronoun disambiguation problem" ("PDP"): a machine has no way of determining to whom or what a pronoun in a sentence—such as "he", "she" or "it"—refers.[67] Such disambiguation is not infallible by a human, either. Ambiguity is a concern to both translators and, as the writings of poet and literary critic William Empson have demonstrated, to literary critics. Ambiguity may be desirable, indeed essential, in poetry and diplomacy; it can be more problematic in ordinary prose.[68] Christopher Kasparek also cautions that "Competent translation – analogously to the dictum, in mathematics, of Kurt Gödel's incompleteness theorems... – generally requires more information about the subject matter than is present in the source text itself." Therefore translation of a text of any complexity typically requires some research on the part of the translator.[69] A translator is faced with two contradictory tasks: when translating, to strive for omniscience; when reviewing the resulting translation, to assume (the naive reader's) ignorance. Analogously, "[i]n the process, the translator is also constantly seesawing between the respective linguistic and cultural features of his two languages."[70] Thus, writes Kasparek, "Translating a text of any complexity, like the performing of a musical or dramatic work, involves interpretation: choices must be made, which entails interpretation. Bernard Shaw, aspiring to felicitous understanding of literary works, wrote in the preface to his 1901 volume, Three Plays for Puritans: 'I would give half a dozen of Shakespeare's plays for one of the prefaces he ought to have written.'"[71] It is due to the inescapable necessity of interpretation that – pace the story about the 3rd century BCE Septuagint translations of some biblical Old Testament books from Hebrew into Koine Greek – no two translations of a literary work, by different hands or by the same hand at different times, are likely to be identical. As has been observed – by Leonardo da Vinci? Paul Valery? E.M. Forster? Pablo Picasso? by all of them? – "A work of art is never finished, only abandoned."[72] Translators may render only parts of the original text, provided that they inform readers of that action. But a translator should not assume the role of censor and surreptitiously delete or bowdlerize passages merely to please a political or moral interest.[73] Translating has served as a school of writing for many an author, much as the copying of masterworks of painting has schooled many a novice painter.[74] A translator who can competently render an author's thoughts into the translator's own language, should certainly be able to adequately render, in his own language, any thoughts of his own. Translating (like analytic philosophy) compels precise analysis of language elements and of their usage. In 1946 the poet Ezra Pound, then at St. Elizabeth's Hospital, in Washington, D.C., advised a visitor, the 18-year-old beginning poet W.S. Merwin: "The work of translation is the best teacher you'll ever have."[75][g] Merwin, translator-poet who took Pound's advice to heart, writes of translation as an "impossible, unfinishable" art.[77] Translators, including monks who spread Buddhist texts in East Asia, and the early modern European translators of the Bible, in the course of their work have shaped the very languages into which they have translated. They have acted as bridges for conveying knowledge between cultures; and along with ideas, they have imported from the source languages, into their own languages, loanwords and calques of grammatical structures, idioms, and vocabulary. Interpreting[edit] Hernán Cortés and La Malinche meet Moctezuma II in Tenochtitlan, 8 November 1519. Lewis and Clark and their Native American interpreter, Sacagawea Main article: Interpreting Interpreting is the facilitation of oral or sign-language communication, either simultaneously or consecutively, between two, or among three or more, speakers who are not speaking, or signing, the same language. The term "interpreting," rather than "interpretation," is preferentially used for this activity by Anglophone translators, to avoid confusion with other meanings of the word "interpretation." Unlike English, many languages do not employ two separate words to denote the activities of written and live-communication (oral or sign-language) translators.[h] Even English does not always make the distinction, frequently using "translating" as a synonym for "interpreting." Interpreters have sometimes played crucial roles in history. A prime example is La Malinche, also known as Malintzin, Malinalli and Doña Marina, an early-16th-century Nahua woman from the Mexican Gulf Coast. As a child she had been sold or given to Maya slave-traders from Xicalango, and thus had become bilingual. Subsequently given along with other women to the invading Spaniards, she became instrumental in the Spanish conquest of Mexico, acting as interpreter, adviser, intermediary and lover to Hernán Cortés.[79] Lin Shu Nearly three centuries later, in the United States, a comparable role as interpreter was played for the Lewis and Clark Expedition of 1804–6 by Sacagawea. As a child, the Lemhi Shoshone woman had been kidnapped by Hidatsa Indians and thus had become bilingual. Sacagawea facilitated the expedition's traverse of the North American continent to the Pacific Ocean.[80] The famous Chinese man of letters Lin Shu (1852 – 1924), who knew no foreign languages, rendered Western literary classics into Chinese with the help of his friend Wang Shouchang (王壽昌), who had studied in France. Wang interpreted the texts for Lin, who rendered them into Chinese. Lin's first such translation, 巴黎茶花女遺事 (Past Stories of the Camellia-woman of Paris – Alexandre Dumas, fils's, La Dame aux Camélias), published in 1899, was an immediate success and was followed by many more translations from the French and the English.[81] Sworn translation[edit] Sworn translation, also called "certified translation," aims at legal equivalence between two documents written in different languages. It is performed by someone authorized to do so by local regulations, which vary widely from country to country. Some countries recognize self-declared competence. Others require the translator to be an official state appointee. In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, certain government institutions require that translators be accredited by certain translation institutes or associations in order to be able to carry out certified translations. Telephone[edit] Many commercial services exist that will interpret spoken language via telephone. There is also at least one custom-built mobile device that does the same thing. The device connects users to human interpreters who can translate between English and 180 other languages.[82] Internet[edit] Web-based human translation is generally favored by companies and individuals that wish to secure more accurate translations. In view of the frequent inaccuracy of machine translations, human translation remains the most reliable, most accurate form of translation available.[83] With the recent emergence of translation crowdsourcing,[84][85] translation memory techniques, and internet applications,[86] translation agencies have been able to provide on-demand human-translation services to businesses, individuals, and enterprises. While not instantaneous like its machine counterparts such as Google Translate and Babel Fish (now defunct), web-based human translation has been gaining popularity by providing relatively fast, accurate translation of business communications, legal documents, medical records, and software localization.[87] Web-based human translation also appeals to private website users and bloggers.[88] Contents of websites are translatable but urls of websites are not translatable into other languages. Language tools on the internet provide help in understanding text. Computer assist[edit] Main article: Computer-assisted translation Computer-assisted translation (CAT), also called "computer-aided translation," "machine-aided human translation" (MAHT) and "interactive translation," is a form of translation wherein a human translator creates a target text with the assistance of a computer program. The machine supports a human translator. Computer-assisted translation can include standard dictionary and grammar software. The term, however, normally refers to a range of specialized programs available to the translator, including translation memory, terminology-management, concordance, and alignment programs. These tools speed up and facilitate human translation, but they do not provide translation. The latter is a function of tools known broadly as machine translation. Machine translation[edit] Main article: Machine translation Machine translation (MT) is a process whereby a computer program analyzes a source text and, in principle, produces a target text without human intervention. In reality, however, machine translation typically does involve human intervention, in the form of pre-editing and post-editing.[89] With proper terminology work, with preparation of the source text for machine translation (pre-editing), and with reworking of the machine translation by a human translator (post-editing), commercial machine-translation tools can produce useful results, especially if the machine-translation system is integrated with a translation memory or translation management system.[90] Unedited machine translation is publicly available through tools on the Internet such as Google Translate, Babel Fish (now defunct), Babylon, and StarDict. These produce rough translations that, under favorable circumstances, "give the gist" of the source text. With the Internet, translation software can help non-native-speaking individuals understand web pages published in other languages. Whole-page-translation tools are of limited utility, however, since they offer only a limited potential understanding of the original author's intent and context; translated pages tend to be more erroneously humorous and confusing than enlightening. Interactive translations with pop-up windows are becoming more popular. These tools show one or more possible equivalents for each word or phrase. Human operators merely need to select the likeliest equivalent as the mouse glides over the foreign-language text. Possible equivalents can be grouped by pronunciation. Also, companies such as Ectaco produce pocket devices that provide machine translations. Claude Piron Relying exclusively on unedited machine translation, however, ignores the fact that communication in human language is context-embedded and that it takes a person to comprehend the context of the original text with a reasonable degree of probability. It is certainly true that even purely human-generated translations are prone to error; therefore, to ensure that a machine-generated translation will be useful to a human being and that publishable-quality translation is achieved, such translations must be reviewed and edited by a human.[i] Claude Piron writes that machine translation, at its best, automates the easier part of a translator's job; the harder and more time-consuming part usually involves doing extensive research to resolve ambiguities in the source text, which the grammatical and lexical exigencies of the target language require to be resolved.[92] Such research is a necessary prelude to the pre-editing necessary in order to provide input for machine-translation software, such that the output will not be meaningless.[89] The weaknesses of pure machine translation, unaided by human expertise, are those of artificial intelligence itself.[93] As of 2018, professional translator Mark Polizzotti held that machine translation, by Google Translate and the like, was unlikely to threaten human translators anytime soon, because machines would never grasp nuance and connotation.[94] Literary translation[edit] A 1998 nonfiction book by Robert Wechsler on literary translation as a performative, rather than creative, art Translation of literary works (novels, short stories, plays, poems, etc.) is considered a literary pursuit in its own right. Notable in Canadian literature specifically as translators are figures such as Sheila Fischman, Robert Dickson, and Linda Gaboriau; and the Canadian Governor General's Awards annually present prizes for the best English-to-French and French-to-English literary translations. Other writers, among many who have made a name for themselves as literary translators, include Vasily Zhukovsky, Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński, Vladimir Nabokov, Jorge Luis Borges, Robert Stiller, Lydia Davis, Haruki Murakami, Achy Obejas, and Jhumpa Lahiri. In the 2010s a substantial gender imbalance was noted in literary translation into English,[95] with far more male writers being translated than women writers. In 2014 Meytal Radzinski launched the Women in Translation campaign to address this.[96][97][98] History[edit] The first important translation in the West was that of the Septuagint, a collection of Jewish Scriptures translated into early Koine Greek in Alexandria between the 3rd and 1st centuries BCE. The dispersed Jews had forgotten their ancestral language and needed Greek versions (translations) of their Scriptures.[99] Throughout the Middle Ages, Latin was the lingua franca of the western learned world. The 9th-century Alfred the Great, king of Wessex in England, was far ahead of his time in commissioning vernacular Anglo-Saxon translations of Bede's Ecclesiastical History and Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy. Meanwhile, the Christian Church frowned on even partial adaptations of St. Jerome's Vulgate of c. 384 CE,[100] the standard Latin Bible. In Asia, the spread of Buddhism led to large-scale ongoing translation efforts spanning well over a thousand years. The Tangut Empire was especially efficient in such efforts; exploiting the then newly invented block printing, and with the full support of the government (contemporary sources describe the Emperor and his mother personally contributing to the translation effort, alongside sages of various nationalities), the Tanguts took mere decades to translate volumes that had taken the Chinese centuries to render.[citation needed] The Arabs undertook large-scale efforts at translation. Having conquered the Greek world, they made Arabic versions of its philosophical and scientific works. During the Middle Ages, translations of some of these Arabic versions were made into Latin, chiefly at Córdoba in Spain.[101] King Alfonso X the Wise of Castile in the 13th century promoted this effort by founding a Schola Traductorum (School of Translation) in Toledo. There Arabic texts, Hebrew texts, and Latin texts were translated into the other tongues by Muslim, Jewish, and Christian scholars, who also argued the merits of their respective religions. Latin translations of Greek and original Arab works of scholarship and science helped advance European Scholasticism, and thus European science and culture. The broad historic trends in Western translation practice may be illustrated on the example of translation into the English language. Geoffrey Chaucer The first fine translations into English were made in the 14th century by Geoffrey Chaucer, who adapted from the Italian of Giovanni Boccaccio in his own Knight's Tale and Troilus and Criseyde; began a translation of the French-language Roman de la Rose; and completed a translation of Boethius from the Latin. Chaucer founded an English poetic tradition on adaptations and translations from those earlier-established literary languages.[101] The first great English translation was the Wycliffe Bible (c. 1382), which showed the weaknesses of an underdeveloped English prose. Only at the end of the 15th century did the great age of English prose translation begin with Thomas Malory's Le Morte Darthur—an adaptation of Arthurian romances so free that it can, in fact, hardly be called a true translation. The first great Tudor translations are, accordingly, the Tyndale New Testament (1525), which influenced the Authorized Version (1611), and Lord Berners' version of Jean Froissart's Chronicles (1523–25).[101] Marsilio Ficino Meanwhile, in Renaissance Italy, a new period in the history of translation had opened in Florence with the arrival, at the court of Cosimo de' Medici, of the Byzantine scholar Georgius Gemistus Pletho shortly before the fall of Constantinople to the Turks (1453). A Latin translation of Plato's works was undertaken by Marsilio Ficino. This and Erasmus' Latin edition of the New Testament led to a new attitude to translation. For the first time, readers demanded rigor of rendering, as philosophical and religious beliefs depended on the exact words of Plato, Aristotle and Jesus.[101] Non-scholarly literature, however, continued to rely on adaptation. France's Pléiade, England's Tudor poets, and the Elizabethan translators adapted themes by Horace, Ovid, Petrarch and modern Latin writers, forming a new poetic style on those models. The English poets and translators sought to supply a new public, created by the rise of a middle class and the development of printing, with works such as the original authors would have written, had they been writing in England in that day.[101] The Elizabethan period of translation saw considerable progress beyond mere paraphrase toward an ideal of stylistic equivalence, but even to the end of this period, which actually reached to the middle of the 17th century, there was no concern for verbal accuracy.[102] In the second half of the 17th century, the poet John Dryden sought to make Virgil speak "in words such as he would probably have written if he were living and an Englishman". As great as Dryden's poem is, however, one is reading Dryden, and not experiencing the Roman poet's concision. Similarly, Homer arguably suffers from Alexander Pope's endeavor to reduce the Greek poet's "wild paradise" to order. Both works live on as worthy English epics, more than as a point of access to the Latin or Greek.[102] Edward FitzGerald Throughout the 18th century, the watchword of translators was ease of reading. Whatever they did not understand in a text, or thought might bore readers, they omitted. They cheerfully assumed that their own style of expression was the best, and that texts should be made to conform to it in translation. For scholarship they cared no more than had their predecessors, and they did not shrink from making translations from translations in third languages, or from languages that they hardly knew, or—as in the case of James Macpherson's "translations" of Ossian—from texts that were actually of the "translator's" own composition.[102] Benjamin Jowett The 19th century brought new standards of accuracy and style. In regard to accuracy, observes J.M. Cohen, the policy became "the text, the whole text, and nothing but the text", except for any bawdy passages and the addition of copious explanatory footnotes.[j] In regard to style, the Victorians' aim, achieved through far-reaching metaphrase (literality) or pseudo-metaphrase, was to constantly remind readers that they were reading a foreign classic. An exception was the outstanding translation in this period, Edward FitzGerald's Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam (1859), which achieved its Oriental flavor largely by using Persian names and discreet Biblical echoes and actually drew little of its material from the Persian original.[102] In advance of the 20th century, a new pattern was set in 1871 by Benjamin Jowett, who translated Plato into simple, straightforward language. Jowett's example was not followed, however, until well into the new century, when accuracy rather than style became the principal criterion.[102] Modern translation[edit] As a language evolves, texts in an earlier version of the language—original texts, or old translations—may become difficult for modern readers to understand. Such a text may therefore be translated into more modern language, producing a "modern translation" (e.g., a "modern English translation" or "modernized translation"). Such modern rendering is applied either to literature from classical languages such as Latin or Greek, notably to the Bible (see "Modern English Bible translations"), or to literature from an earlier stage of the same language, as with the works of William Shakespeare (which are largely understandable by a modern audience, though with some difficulty) or with Geoffrey Chaucer's Middle-English Canterbury Tales (which is understandable to most modern readers only through heavy dependence on footnotes). In 2015 the Oregon Shakespeare Festival commissioned professional translation of the entire Shakespeare canon, including disputed works such as Edward III,[103] into contemporary vernacular English; in 2019, off-off-Broadway, the canon was premiered in a month-long series of staged readings.[104] Modern translation is applicable to any language with a long literary history. For example, in Japanese the 11th-century Tale of Genji is generally read in modern translation (see "Genji: modern readership"). Modern translation often involves literary scholarship and textual revision, as there is frequently not one single canonical text. This is particularly noteworthy in the case of the Bible and Shakespeare, where modern scholarship can result in substantive textual changes. Anna North writes: "Translating the long-dead language Homer used — a variant of ancient Greek called Homeric Greek — into contemporary English is no easy task, and translators bring their own skills, opinions, and stylistic sensibilities to the text. The result is that every translation is different, almost a new poem in itself." An example is Emily Wilson's 2017 translation of Homer's Odyssey, where by conscious choice Wilson "lays bare the morals of its time and place, and invites us to consider how different they are from our own, and how similar."[105] Modern translation meets with opposition from some traditionalists. In English, some readers prefer the Authorized King James Version of the Bible to modern translations, and Shakespeare in the original of ca. 1600 to modern translations. An opposite process involves translating modern literature into classical languages, for the purpose of extensive reading (for examples, see "List of Latin translations of modern literature"). Poetry[edit] Hofstadter Jakobson Nabokov Views on the possibility of satisfactorily translating poetry show a broad spectrum, depending largely on the degree of latitude to be granted the translator in regard to a poem's formal features (rhythm, rhyme, verse form, etc.). Douglas Hofstadter, in his 1997 book, Le Ton beau de Marot, argued that a good translation of a poem must convey as much as possible not only of its literal meaning but also of its form and structure (meter, rhyme or alliteration scheme, etc.).[106] The Russian-born linguist and semiotician Roman Jakobson, however, had in his 1959 paper "On Linguistic Aspects of Translation", declared that "poetry by definition [is] untranslatable". Vladimir Nabokov, another Russian-born author, took a view similar to Jakobson's. He considered rhymed, metrical, versed poetry to be in principle untranslatable and therefore rendered his 1964 English translation of Alexander Pushkin's Eugene Onegin in prose. Hofstadter, in Le Ton beau de Marot, criticized Nabokov's attitude toward verse translation. In 1999 Hofstadter published his own translation of Eugene Onegin, in verse form. However, a host of more contemporary literary translators of poetry lean toward Alexander von Humboldt's notion of language as a "third universe" existing "midway between the phenomenal reality of the 'empirical world' and the internalized structures of consciousness."[107] Perhaps this is what poet Sholeh Wolpé, translator of the 12th-century Iranian epic poem The Conference of the Birds, means when she writes: Twelfth-century Persian and contemporary English are as different as sky and sea. The best I can do as a poet is to reflect one into the other. The sea can reflect the sky with its moving stars, shifting clouds, gestations of the moon, and migrating birds—but ultimately the sea is not the sky. By nature, it is liquid. It ripples. There are waves. If you are a fish living in the sea, you can only understand the sky if its reflection becomes part of the water. Therefore, this translation of The Conference of the Birds, while faithful to the original text, aims at its re-creation into a still living and breathing work of literature.[108] Poet Sherod Santos writes: "The task is not to reproduce the content, but with the flint and the steel of one's own language to spark what Robert Lowell has called 'the fire and finish of the original.'"[109] According to Walter Benjamin: While a poet's words endure in his own language, even the greatest translation is destined to become part of the growth of its own language and eventually to perish with its renewal. Translation is so far removed from being the sterile equation of two dead languages that of all literary forms it is the one charged with the special mission of watching over the maturing process of the original language and the birth pangs of its own.[110] Gregory Hays, in the course of discussing Roman adapted translations of ancient Greek literature, makes approving reference to some views on the translating of poetry expressed by David Bellos, an accomplished French-to-English translator. Hays writes: Among the idées reçues [received ideas] skewered by David Bellos is the old saw that "poetry is what gets lost in translation." The saying is often attributed to Robert Frost, but as Bellos notes, the attribution is as dubious as the idea itself. A translation is an assemblage of words, and as such it can contain as much or as little poetry as any other such assemblage. The Japanese even have a word (chōyaku, roughly "hypertranslation") to designate a version that deliberately improves on the original.[111] Book titles[edit] Book-title translations can be either descriptive or symbolic. Descriptive book titles, for example Antoine de Saint-Exupéry's Le Petit Prince (The Little Prince), are meant to be informative, and can name the protagonist, and indicate the theme of the book. An example of a symbolic book title is Stieg Larsson's The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo, whose original Swedish title is Män som hatar kvinnor (Men Who Hate Women). Such symbolic book titles usually indicate the theme, issues, or atmosphere of the work. When translators are working with long book titles, the translated titles are often shorter and indicate the theme of the book.[112] Plays[edit] The translation of plays poses many problems such as the added element of actors, speech duration, translation literalness, and the relationship between the arts of drama and acting. Successful play translators are able to create language that allows the actor and the playwright to work together effectively.[113] Play translators must also take into account several other aspects: the final performance, varying theatrical and acting traditions, characters' speaking styles, modern theatrical discourse, and even the acoustics of the auditorium, i.e., whether certain words will have the same effect on the new audience as they had on the original audience.[114] Audiences in Shakespeare's time were more accustomed than modern playgoers to actors having longer stage time.[115] Modern translators tend to simplify the sentence structures of earlier dramas, which included compound sentences with intricate hierarchies of subordinate clauses.[116][117] Chinese literature[edit] In translating Chinese literature, translators struggle to find true fidelity in translating into the target language. In The Poem Behind the Poem, Barnstone argues that poetry "can't be made to sing through a mathematics that doesn't factor in the creativity of the translator".[118] A notable piece of work translated into English is the Wen Xuan, an anthology representative of major works of Chinese literature. Translating this work requires a high knowledge of the genres presented in the book, such as poetic forms, various prose types including memorials, letters, proclamations, praise poems, edicts, and historical, philosophical and political disquisitions, threnodies and laments for the dead, and examination essays. Thus the literary translator must be familiar with the writings, lives, and thought of a large number of its 130 authors, making the Wen Xuan one of the most difficult literary works to translate.[119] Translation generally, much as with Kurt Gödel's conception of mathematics, requires, to varying extents, more information than appears in the page of text being translated. Sung texts[edit] Translation of a text that is sung in vocal music for the purpose of singing in another language—sometimes called "singing translation"—is closely linked to translation of poetry because most vocal music, at least in the Western tradition, is set to verse, especially verse in regular patterns with rhyme. (Since the late 19th century, musical setting of prose and free verse has also been practiced in some art music, though popular music tends to remain conservative in its retention of stanzaic forms with or without refrains.) A rudimentary example of translating poetry for singing is church hymns, such as the German chorales translated into English by Catherine Winkworth.[k] Translation of sung texts is generally much more restrictive than translation of poetry, because in the former there is little or no freedom to choose between a versified translation and a translation that dispenses with verse structure. One might modify or omit rhyme in a singing translation, but the assignment of syllables to specific notes in the original musical setting places great challenges on the translator. There is the option in prose sung texts, less so in verse, of adding or deleting a syllable here and there by subdividing or combining notes, respectively, but even with prose the process is almost like strict verse translation because of the need to stick as closely as possible to the original prosody of the sung melodic line. Other considerations in writing a singing translation include repetition of words and phrases, the placement of rests and/or punctuation, the quality of vowels sung on high notes, and rhythmic features of the vocal line that may be more natural to the original language than to the target language. A sung translation may be considerably or completely different from the original, thus resulting in a contrafactum. Translations of sung texts—whether of the above type meant to be sung or of a more or less literal type meant to be read—are also used as aids to audiences, singers and conductors, when a work is being sung in a language not known to them. The most familiar types are translations presented as subtitles or surtitles projected during opera performances, those inserted into concert programs, and those that accompany commercial audio CDs of vocal music. In addition, professional and amateur singers often sing works in languages they do not know (or do not know well), and translations are then used to enable them to understand the meaning of the words they are singing. Religious texts[edit] Further information: Bible translations and Quran translations Jerome, patron saint of translators and encyclopedists An important role in history has been played by translation of religious texts. Such translations may be influenced by tension between the text and the religious values the translators wish to convey.[120] For example, Buddhist monks who translated the Indian sutras into Chinese occasionally adjusted their translations to better reflect China's distinct culture, emphasizing notions such as filial piety. One of the first recorded instances of translation in the West was the 3rd century BCE rendering of some books of the biblical Old Testament from Hebrew into Koine Greek. The translation is known as the "Septuagint", a name that refers to the supposedly seventy translators (seventy-two, in some versions) who were commissioned to translate the Bible at Alexandria, Egypt. According to legend, each translator worked in solitary confinement in his own cell, and, according to legend, all seventy versions proved identical. The Septuagint became the source text for later translations into many languages, including Latin, Coptic, Armenian, and Georgian. Still considered one of the greatest translators in history, for having rendered the Bible into Latin, is Jerome (347–420 CE), the patron saint of translators. For centuries the Roman Catholic Church used his translation (known as the Vulgate), though even this translation stirred controversy. By contrast with Jerome's contemporary, Augustine of Hippo (354–430 CE), who endorsed precise translation, Jerome believed in adaptation, and sometimes invention, in order to more effectively bring across the meaning. Jerome's colorful Vulgate translation of the Bible includes some crucial instances of "overdetermination". For example, Isaiah's prophecy announcing that the Savior will be born of a virgin, uses the word 'almah, which is also used to describe the dancing girls at Solomon's court, and simply means young and nubile. Jerome, writes Marina Warner, translates it as virgo, "adding divine authority to the virulent cult of sexual disgust that shaped Christian moral theology (the [Moslem] Quran, free from this linguistic trap, does not connect Mariam/Mary's miraculous nature with moral horror of sex)." The apple that Eve offered to Adam, according to Mark Polizzotti, could equally well have been an apricot, orange, or banana; but Jerome liked the pun malus/malum (apple/evil).[31] Pope Francis has suggested that the phrase "lead us not into temptation", in the Lord's Prayer found in the Gospels of Matthew (the first Gospel, written c. 80–90 CE) and Luke (the third Gospel, written c. 80–110 CE), should more properly be translated, "do not let us fall into temptation", commenting that God does not lead people into temptation—Satan does.[l] Some important early Christian authors interpreted the Bible's Greek text and Jerome's Latin Vulgate similarly to Pope Francis. A.J.B. Higgins[122] in 1943 showed that among the earliest Christian authors, the understanding and even the text of this devotional verse underwent considerable changes. These ancient writers suggest that, even if the Greek and Latin texts are left unmodified, something like "do not let us fall" could be an acceptable English rendering. Higgins cited Tertullian, the earliest of the Latin Church Fathers (c. 155–c. 240 CE, "do not allow us to be led") and Cyprian (c. 200–258 CE, "do not allow us to be led into temptation"). A later author, Ambrose (C. 340–397 CE), followed Cyprian's interpretation. Augustine of Hippo (354–430), familiar with Jerome's Latin Vulgate rendering, observed that "many people... say it this way: 'and do not allow us to be led into temptation.'"[123] In 863 CE the brothers Saints Cyril and Methodius, the Byzantine Empire's "Apostles to the Slavs", began translating parts of the Bible into the Old Church Slavonic language, using the Glagolitic script that they had devised, based on the Greek alphabet. The periods preceding and contemporary with the Protestant Reformation saw translations of the Bible into vernacular (local) European languages—a development that contributed to Western Christianity's split into Roman Catholicism and Protestantism over disparities between Catholic and Protestant renderings of crucial words and passages (and due to a Protestant-perceived need to reform the Roman Catholic Church). Lasting effects on the religions, cultures, and languages of their respective countries were exerted by such Bible translations as Martin Luther's into German (the New Testament, 1522), Jakub Wujek's into Polish (1599, as revised by the Jesuits), and William Tyndale's (New Testament, 1526 and revisions) and the King James Version into English (1611). Mistranslation: Michelangelo's horned Moses Efforts to translate the Bible into English had their martyrs. William Tyndale (c. 1494–1536) was convicted of heresy at Antwerp, was strangled to death while tied at the stake, and then his dead body was burned.[124] Earlier, John Wycliffe (c. mid-1320s – 1384) had managed to die a natural death, but 30 years later the Council of Constance in 1415 declared him a heretic and decreed that his works and earthly remains should be burned; the order, confirmed by Pope Martin V, was carried out in 1428, and Wycliffe's corpse was exhumed and burned and the ashes cast into the River Swift. Debate and religious schism over different translations of religious texts continue, as demonstrated by, for example, the King James Only movement. A famous mistranslation of a Biblical text is the rendering of the Hebrew word קֶרֶן‎ (keren), which has several meanings, as "horn" in a context where it more plausibly means "beam of light": as a result, for centuries artists, including sculptor Michelangelo, have rendered Moses the Lawgiver with horns growing from his forehead. Chinese translation, verses 33–34 of Quran's surah (chapter) 36 Such fallibility of the translation process has contributed to the Islamic world's ambivalence about translating the Quran (also spelled Koran) from the original Arabic, as received by the prophet Muhammad from Allah (God) through the angel Gabriel incrementally between 609 and 632 CE, the year of Muhammad's death. During prayers, the Quran, as the miraculous and inimitable word of Allah, is recited only in Arabic. However, as of 1936, it had been translated into at least 102 languages.[125] A fundamental difficulty in translating the Quran accurately stems from the fact that an Arabic word, like a Hebrew or Aramaic word, may have a range of meanings, depending on context. This is said to be a linguistic feature, particularly of all Semitic languages, that adds to the usual similar difficulties encountered in translating between any two languages.[125] There is always an element of human judgment—of interpretation—involved in understanding and translating a text. Muslims regard any translation of the Quran as but one possible interpretation of the Quranic (Classical) Arabic text, and not as a full equivalent of that divinely communicated original. Hence such a translation is often called an "interpretation" rather than a translation.[126] To complicate matters further, as with other languages, the meanings and usages of some expressions have changed over time, between the Classical Arabic of the Quran, and modern Arabic. Thus a modern Arabic speaker may misinterpret the meaning of a word or passage in the Quran. Moreover, the interpretation of a Quranic passage will also depend on the historic context of Muhammad's life and of his early community. Properly researching that context requires a detailed knowledge of hadith and sirah, which are themselves vast and complex texts. Hence, analogously to the translating of Chinese literature, an attempt at an accurate translation of the Quran requires a knowledge not only of the Arabic language and of the target language, including their respective evolutions, but also a deep understanding of the two cultures involved. Experimental literature[edit] Experimental literature, such as Kathy Acker’s novel Don Quixote (1986) and Giannina Braschi’s novel Yo-Yo Boing! (1998), features a translative writing that highlights discomforts of the interlingual and translingual encounters and literary translation as a creative practice.[127][128] These authors weave their own translations into their texts. Acker's Postmodern fiction both fragments and preserves the materiality of Catullus’s Latin text in ways that tease out its semantics and syntax without wholly appropriating them, a method that unsettles the notion of any fixed and finished translation.[127] Whereas Braschi's trilogy of experimental works (Empire of Dreams, 1988; Yo-Yo Boing!, 1998, and United States of Banana, 2011) deals with the very subject of translation.[129] Her trilogy presents the evolution of the Spanish language through loose translations of dramatic, poetic, and philosophical writings from the Medieval, Golden Age, and Modernist eras into contemporary Caribbean, Latin American, and Nuyorican Spanish expressions. Braschi’s translations of classical texts in Iberian Spanish (into other regional and historical linguistic and poetic frameworks) challenge the concept of national languages.[130] In the case of Alejandra Pizarnik, her prose poems translate phrases in Old Provençal Spanish, Castellano, and English[127] to create lyrical storyworlds drawn from dark fairy tales.[131] Science fiction[edit] Science fiction being a genre with a recognizable set of conventions and literary genealogies, in which language often includes neologisms, neosemes,[clarification needed] and invented languages, techno-scientific and pseudoscientific vocabulary,[132] and fictional representation of the translation process,[133][134] the translation of science-fiction texts involves specific concerns.[135] The science-fiction translator tends to acquire specific competences and assume a distinctive publishing and cultural agency.[136][137] As in the case of other mass-fiction genres, this professional specialization and role often is not recognized by publishers and scholars.[138] Translation of science fiction accounts for the transnational nature of science fiction's repertoire of shared conventions and tropes. After World War II, many European countries were swept by a wave of translations from the English.[139][140] Due to the prominence of English as a source language, the use of pseudonyms and pseudotranslations became common in countries such as Italy[135] and Hungary,[141] and English has often been used as a vehicular language to translate from languages such as Chinese and Japanese.[142] More recently, the international market in science-fiction translations has seen an increasing presence of source languages other than English.[142] Technical translation[edit] Main article: Technical translation Technical translation renders documents such as manuals, instruction sheets, internal memos, minutes, financial reports, and other documents for a limited audience (who are directly affected by the document) and whose useful life is often limited. Thus, a user guide for a particular model of refrigerator is useful only for the owner of the refrigerator, and will remain useful only as long as that refrigerator model is in use. Similarly, software documentation generally pertains to a particular software, whose applications are used only by a certain class of users.[143] See also[edit] Languages portal American Literary Translators Association Applied linguistics Bible translations Bilingual dictionary Certified translation Code mixing Contrastive linguistics Dictionary-based machine translation European Master's in Translation Example-based machine translation Hindi to Punjabi Machine Translation System Homophonic translation Humour in translation ("howlers") Hybrid word International Federation of Translators Interpreting notes Inttranet Language brokering Language industry Language professional Language transfer Legal translation Lexicography Linguistic validation List of translators List of women translators Medical translation Mobile translation National Translation Mission (NTM) Neural machine translation Phono-semantic matching Postediting Pre-editing Pseudotranslation Rule-based machine translation Self-translation Skopos theory Statistical machine translation Transcription (linguistics) Translation associations Translation criticism Translation scholars Translation services of the European Parliament Translation studies Translation-quality standards Transliteration Notes[edit] ^ The Dutch overzetting (noun) and overzetten (verb) in the sense of "translation" and "to translate", respectively, are considered archaic. While omzetting may still be found in early modern literary works, it has been replaced entirely in modern Dutch by vertaling. ^ "Ideal concepts" are useful as well in other fields, such as physics and chemistry, which include the concepts of perfectly solid bodies, perfectly rigid bodies, perfectly plastic bodies, perfectly black bodies, perfect crystals, perfect fluids, and perfect gases.[13] ^ French philosopher and writer Gilles Ménage (1613-92) commented on translations by humanist Perrot Nicolas d'Ablancourt (1606-64): "They remind me of a woman whom I greatly loved in Tours, who was beautiful but unfaithful."[32] ^ Cf. a supposed comment by Winston Churchill: "This is the type of pedantry up with which I will not put." ^ "Interpretation" in this sense is to be distinguished from the function of an "interpreter" who translates orally or by the use of sign language. ^ See "Poetry", below, for a similar observation concerning the occasional superiority of the translation over the original. ^ Elsewhere Merwin recalls Pound saying: "[A]t your age you don't have anything to write about. You may think you do, but you don't. So get to work translating. The Provençal is the real source...."[76] ^ For example, in Polish, a "translation" is "przekład" or "tłumaczenie." Both "translator" and "interpreter" are "tłumacz." For a time in the 18th century, however, for "translator," some writers used a word, "przekładowca," that is no longer in use.[78] ^ J.M. Cohen observes: "Scientific translation is the aim of an age that would reduce all activities to techniques. It is impossible however to imagine a literary-translation machine less complex than the human brain itself, with all its knowledge, reading, and discrimination."[91] ^ For instance, Henry Benedict Mackey's translation of St. Francis de Sales's "Treatise on the Love of God" consistently omits the saint's analogies comparing God to a nursing mother, references to Bible stories such as the rape of Tamar, and so forth. ^ For another example of poetry translation, including translation of sung texts, see Rhymes from Russia. ^ MJC Warren, Lecturer in Biblical and Religious Studies, University of Sheffield, points out (more explicitly than Charles McNamara) that Luke gives a shorter version of Jesus's Lord's Prayer, leaving off the request that God "deliver us from evil"; that (as Charles McNamara also says) accurate translation is not the question here; and that the Bible records a number of incidents when God commands evil actions, such as that Abraham kill his only son, Isaac (whose execution is canceled at the last moment).[121] References[edit] ^ The Oxford Companion to the English Language, Namit Bhatia, ed., 1992, pp. 1,051–54. ^ Christopher Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", The Polish Review, vol. XXVIII, no. 2, 1983, pp. 84-87. ^ W.J. Hutchins, Early Years in Machine Translation: Memoirs and Biographies of Pioneers, Amsterdam, John Benjamins, 2000. ^ M. Snell-Hornby, The Turns of Translation Studies: New Paradigms or Shifting Viewpoints?, Philadelphia, John Benjamins, 2006, p. 133. ^ "Rosetta Stone", The Columbia Encyclopedia, 5th ed., 1994, p. 2,361. ^ Vélez, Fabio. Antes de Babel. pp. 3–21. ^ a b c d Christopher Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 83. ^ The Dutch for "translation" is vertaling, from the verb vertalen, itself derived from taal, "language", plus prefix ver-. The Afrikaans for "translation", derived from the Dutch, is vertaling. ^ "overzetting" in Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal, IvdNT ^ Christopher Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 83. ^ Christopher Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 83. ^ a b c d e f Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 84. ^ Władysław Tatarkiewicz, On Perfection (first published in Polish in 1976 as O doskonałości); English translation by Christopher Kasparek subsequently serialized in 1979–1981 in Dialectics and Humanism: The Polish Philosophical Quarterly, and reprinted in Władysław Tatarkiewicz, On Perfection, Warsaw University Press, 1992. ^ Typically, analytic languages. ^ Typically, synthetic languages. ^ Some examples of this are described in the article, "Translating the 17th of May into English and other horror stories", retrieved 15 April 2010. ^ a b c Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 85. ^ Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", pp. 85-86. ^ L.G. Kelly, cited in Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 86. ^ a b Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 86. ^ Cited by Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 87, from Ignacy Krasicki, "O tłumaczeniu ksiąg" ("On Translating Books"), in Dzieła wierszem i prozą (Works in Verse and Prose), 1803, reprinted in Edward Balcerzan, ed., Pisarze polscy o sztuce przekładu, 1440–1974: Antologia (Polish Writers on the Art of Translation, 1440–1974: an Anthology), p. 79. ^ J.M. Cohen, "Translation", Encyclopedia Americana, 1986, vol. 27, p. 12. ^ Perry Link, "A Magician of Chinese Poetry" (review of Eliot Weinberger, with an afterword by Octavio Paz, 19 Ways of Looking at Wang Wei (with More Ways), New Directions; and Eliot Weinberger, The Ghosts of Birds, New Directions), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXIII, no. 18 (24 November 2016), pp. 49–50. ^ a b Perry Link, "A Magician of Chinese Poetry", The New York Review of Books, vol. LXIII, no. 18 (November 24, 2016), p. 49. ^ a b c d e Perry Link, "A Magician of Chinese Poetry", The New York Review of Books, vol. LXIII, no. 18 (24 November 2016), p. 50. ^ a b Christopher de Bellaigue, "Dreams of Islamic Liberalism" (review of Marwa Elshakry, Reading Darwin in Arabic, 1860–1950, University of Chicago Press), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXII, no. 10 (June 4, 2015), p. 77. ^ Malise Ruthven, "The Islamic Road to the Modern World" (review of Christopher de Bellaigue, The Islamic Enlightenment: The Struggle between Faith and Reason, 1798 to Modern Times, Liveright; and Wael Abu-'Uksa, Freedom in the Arab World: Concepts and Ideologies in Arabic Thought in the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge University Press), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXIV, no. 11 (22 June 2017), p. 22. ^ Malise Ruthven, "The Islamic Road to the Modern World" (review of Christopher de Bellaigue, The Islamic Enlightenment: The Struggle between Faith and Reason, 1798 to Modern Times, Liveright; and Wael Abu-'Uksa, Freedom in the Arab World: Concepts and Ideologies in Arabic Thought in the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge University Press), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXIV, no. 11 (22 June 2017), p. 24. ^ Christopher de Bellaigue, "Dreams of Islamic Liberalism" (review of Marwa Elshakry, Reading Darwin in Arabic, 1860–1950), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXII, no. 10 (4 June 2015), p. 77–78. ^ Christopher de Bellaigue, "Dreams of Islamic Liberalism" (review of Marwa Elshakry, Reading Darwin in Arabic, 1860–1950), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXII, no. 10 (4 June 2015), p. 78. ^ a b Marina Warner, "The Politics of Translation" (a review of Kate Briggs, This Little Art, 2017; Mireille Gansel, translated by Ros Schwartz, 2017; Mark Polizzotti, Sympathy for the Traitor: A Translation Manifesto, 2018; Boyd Tonkin, ed., The 100 Best Novels in Translation, 2018; Clive Scott, The Work of Literary Translation, 2018), London Review of Books, vol. 40, no. 19 (11 October 2018), p. 22. ^ Quoted in Amparo Hurtado Albir, La notion de fidélité en traduction (The Idea of Fidelity in Translation), Paris, Didier Érudition, 1990, p. 231. ^ Dryden, John. "Preface to Sylvae". Bartelby.com. Retrieved 27 April 2015. ^ Antoine Berman, L'épreuve de l'étranger, 1984. ^ Lawrence Venuti, "Call to Action", in The Translator's Invisibility, 1994. ^ Christopher Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", pp. 83-87. ^ "How to Overcome These 5 Challenges of English to Spanish Translation". Jr Language. 23 June 2017. Retrieved 30 September 2017. ^ Crystal, Scott. "Back Translation: Same questions – different continent" (PDF). Communicate (Winter 2004): 5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 May 2006. Retrieved 20 November 2007. ^ "Back Translation for Quality Control of Informed Consent Forms" (PDF). Journal of Clinical Research Best Practices. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 May 2006. Retrieved 1 February 2006. ^ Mark Twain, The Jumping Frog: In English, Then in French, and Then Clawed Back into a Civilized Language Once More by Patient, Unremunerated Toil, illustrated by F. Strothman, New York and London, Harper & Brothers, Publishers, MCMIII [1903. ^ Czesław Miłosz, The History of Polish Literature, pp. 193–94. ^ Gilman, E. Ward (ed.). 1989. "A Brief History of English Usage", Webster's Dictionary of English Usage. Springfield (Mass.): Merriam-Webster, pp. 7a-11a, Archived 1 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine ^ Greene, Robert Lane. "Three Books for the Grammar Lover in Your Life : NPR". NPR. Retrieved 18 May 2011. ^ Rodney Huddleston and Geoffrey K. Pullum, 2002, The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge (UK): Cambridge University Press, p. 627f. ^ Stamper, Kory (1 January 2017). Word by Word: The Secret Life of Dictionaries. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 47. ISBN 9781101870945. ^ Willis Barnstone, The Poetics of Translation (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), p. 228. ^ a b Basil Hatim and Jeremy Munday, Translation: An Advanced Resource Book, Introduction, pg. 10. Milton Park: Routledge, 2004. ISBN 9780415283052 ^ Bai Liping, "Similarity and difference in Translation." Taken from Similarity and Difference in Translation: Proceedings of the International Conference on Similarity and Translation, pg. 339. Eds. Stefano Arduini and Robert Hodgson. 2nd ed. Rome: Edizioni di storia e letteratura, 2007. ISBN 9788884983749 ^ Carline FéRailleur-Dumoulin, A Career in Language Translation: Insightful Information to Guide You in Your Journey as a Professional Translator, pgs. 1-2. Bloomington: AuthorHouse, 2009. ISBN 9781467052047 ^ a b c Pokorn, Nike K. (2007). "In defense of fuzziness". Target. 19 (2): 190-191. doi:10.1075/target.19.2.10pok. ^ Gerard-Rene de Groot, "Translating legal information." Taken from Translation in Law, vol. 5 of the Journal of Legal Hermeneutics, pg. 132. Ed. Giuseppe Zaccaria. Hamburg: LIT Verlag Munster, 2000. ISBN 9783825848620 ^ Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2020). Revivalistics: From the Genesis of Israeli to Language Reclamation in Australia and Beyond. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199812790. ISBN 9780199812776 ^ Munday, Jeremy (2016). Introducing Translation Studies: theories and applications (4th ed.). London/New York: Routledge. pp. 8. ISBN 978-1138912557. ^ Munday, Jeremy (2016). Introducing Translation Studies: theories and applications (4th ed.). London/New York: Routledge. pp. 67–74. ISBN 978-1138912557. ^ *Christopher Kasparek, "Prus' Pharaoh and Curtin's Translation," The Polish Review, vol. XXXI, nos. 2–3 (1986), p. 135. ^ Mario Pei, The Story of Language, p. 424. ^ Emily Wilson, "Ah, how miserable!" (review of three separate translations of The Oresteia by Aeschylus: by Oliver Taplan, Liveright, November 2018; by Jeffrey Scott Bernstein, Carcanet, April 2020; and by David Mulroy, Wisconsin, April 2018), London Review of Books, vol. 42, no. 19 (8 October 2020), pp. 9–12, 14. (Quotation: p. 14.) ^ Stephen Greenblatt, "Can We Ever Master King Lear?", The New York Review of Books, vol. LXIV, no. 3 (23 February 2017), p. 36. ^ Mark Polizzotti, quoted in Marina Warner, "The Politics of Translation" (a review of Kate Briggs, This Little Art, 2017; Mireille Gansel, Translation as Transhumance, translated by Ros Schwartz, 2017; Mark Polizzotti, Sympathy for the Traitor: A Translation Manifesto, 2018; Boyd Tonkin, ed., The 100 Best Novels in Translation, 2018; Clive Scott, The Work of Literary Translation, 2018), London Review of Books, vol. 40, no. 19 (11 October 2018), p. 21. ^ Zdzisław Najder, Joseph Conrad: A Life, 2007, p. IX. ^ Zdzisław Najder, Joseph Conrad: A Life, 2007, p. 524. ^ Zdzisław Najder, Joseph Conrad: A Life, 2007, p. 332. ^ Walter Kaiser, "A Hero of Translation" (a review of Jean Findlay, Chasing Lost Time: The Life of C.K. Scott Moncrieff: Soldier, Spy, and Translator), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXII, no. 10 (4 June 2015), p. 55. ^ Emily Wilson, "A Doggish Translation" (review of The Poems of Hesiod: Theogony, Works and Days, and The Shield of Herakles, translated from the Greek by Barry B. Powell, University of California Press, 2017, 184 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXV, no. 1 (18 January 2018), p. 36. ^ Christopher Kasparek, translator's foreword to Bolesław Prus, Pharaoh, translated from the Polish, with foreword and notes, by Christopher Kasparek, Amazon Kindle e-book, 2020, ASIN:BO8MDN6CZV. ^ Gary Marcus, "Am I Human?: Researchers need new ways to distinguish artificial intelligence from the natural kind", Scientific American, vol. 316, no. 3 (March 2017), p. 63. ^ Gary Marcus, "Am I Human?: Researchers need new ways to distinguish artificial intelligence from the natural kind", Scientific American, vol. 316, no. 3 (March 2017), p. 61. ^ David Bromwich, "In Praise of Ambiguity" (a review of Michael Wood, On Empson, Princeton University Press, 2017), The New York Review of Books), vol. LXIV, no. 16 (26 October 2017), pp. 50–52. ^ Christopher Kasparek, translator's foreword to Bolesław Prus, Pharaoh, translated from the Polish, with foreword and notes, by Christopher Kasparek, Amazon Kindle e-book, 2020, ASIN:BO8MDN6CZV. ^ Christopher Kasparek, translator's foreword to Bolesław Prus, Pharaoh, translated from the Polish, with foreword and notes, by Christopher Kasparek, Amazon Kindle e-book, 2020, ASIN:BO8MDN6CZV. ^ Christopher Kasparek, translator's foreword to Bolesław Prus, Pharaoh, translated from the Polish, with foreword and notes, by Christopher Kasparek, Amazon Kindle e-book, 2020, ASIN:BO8MDN6CZV. ^ Christopher Kasparek, translator's foreword to Bolesław Prus, Pharaoh, translated from the Polish, with foreword and notes, by Christopher Kasparek, Amazon Kindle e-book, 2020, ASIN:BO8MDN6CZV. ^ Billiani, Francesca (2001) ^ Anka Muhlstein, "Painters and Writers: When Something New Happens", The New York Review of Books, vol. LXIV, no. 1 (19 January 2017), p. 35. ^ W.S. Merwin: To Plant a Tree: one-hour documentary shown on PBS. ^ Ange Mlinko, "Whole Earth Troubador" (review of The Essential W.S. Merlin, edited by Michael Wiegers, Copper Canyon, 338 pp., 2017), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXIV, no. 19 (7 December 2017), p. 45. ^ Merwin's introduction to his 2013 Selected Translations, quoted by Ange Mlinko, "Whole Earth Troubador" (review of The Essential W.S. Merlin, edited by Michael Wiegers, Copper Canyon, 338 pp., 2017), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXIV, no. 19 (7 December 2017), p. 45. ^ Edward Balcerzan, Pisarze polscy o sztuce przekładu, 1440–1974: Antologia (Polish Writers on the Art of Translation, 1440–1974: an Anthology), 1977, passim. ^ Hugh Thomas, Conquest: Montezuma, Cortes and the Fall of Old Mexico, New York, Simon and Schuster, 1993, pp. 171-72. ^ "Sacagawea", The Encyclopedia Americana, 1986, volume 24, p. 72. ^ Chen, Weihong; Cheng, Xiaojuan (1 June 2014). "An Analysis of Lin Shu's Translation Activity from the Cultural Perspective" (PDF). Theory and Practice in Language Studies. 4 (6): 1201–1206. doi:10.4304/tpls.4.6.1201-1206. ISSN 1799-2591. ^ "Translation, Please: Hand-Held Device Bridges Language Gap". NPR. Retrieved 9 October 2014. ^ "The many voices of the web". The Economist. 4 March 2010. ^ Graham, Paul. "How Ackuna wants to fix language translation by crowdsourcing it | Wired UK". Wired.co.uk. Archived from the original on 17 May 2012. Retrieved 1 May 2012. ^ "Translation Services USA's Crowdsourcing Translator, Ackuna.com, Raises the Bar for More Accurate Machine Translations". Benzinga. Retrieved 1 May 2012. ^ "Translation Cloud Application for Facebook Releases Version 2.0". Digital Journal. 24 June 2011. Retrieved 1 May 2012. ^ Boutin, Paul (26 March 2010). "Speaklike offers human-powered translation for blogs". VentureBeat. ^ Toto, Serkan (11 January 2010). "MyGengo Is Mechanical Turk For Translations". The Washington Post. ^ a b See the annually performed NIST tests since 2001 and Bilingual Evaluation Understudy ^ Vashee, Kirti (2007). "Statistical machine translation and translation memory: An integration made in heaven!". ClientSide News Magazine. 7 (6): 18–20. Archived from the original on 28 September 2007. ^ J.M. Cohen, "Translation", Encyclopedia Americana, 1986, vol. 27, p. 14. ^ Claude Piron, Le défi des langues (The Language Challenge), Paris, L'Harmattan, 1994. ^ Gary Marcus, "Am I Human?: Researchers need new ways to distinguish artificial intelligence from the natural kind", Scientific American, vol. 316, no. 3 (March 2017), pp. 58–63. ^ Wilson, Emily, "The Pleasures of Translation" (review of Mark Polizzotti, Sympathy for the Traitor: A Translation Manifesto, MIT Press, 2018, 182 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXV, no. 9 (24 May 2018), p. 47. ^ Anderson, Alison (14 May 2013). "Where Are the Women in Translation?". Words Without Borders. Retrieved 28 July 2018. ^ "Women in Translation: An Interview with Meytal Radzinski". 25 July 2016. ^ "Meytal Radzinski - The Bookseller". www.thebookseller.com. ^ Radzinski, Meytal (3 July 2018). "Biblibio: Exclusion is a choice - Bias in "Best of" lists". ^ J.M. Cohen, p. 12. ^ J.M Cohen, pp. 12-13. ^ a b c d e J.M. Cohen, p. 13. ^ a b c d e J.M. Cohen, p. 14. ^ Schuessler, Jennifer (30 September 2016). "Translating Shakespeare? 36 Playwrights Taketh the Big Risk". New York Times. Retrieved 11 August 2019. ^ Schuessler, Jennifer (3 April 2019). "A Shakespeare Festival Presents Modern Translations. Cue the Debate (Again)". New York Times. Retrieved 11 August 2019. ^ North, Anna (20 November 2017). "Historically, men translated the Odyssey. Here's what happened when a woman took the job". Vox. Retrieved 9 September 2020. ^ A discussion of Hofstadter's otherwise latitudinarian views on translation is found in Tony Dokoupil, "Translation: Pardon My French: You Suck at This," Newsweek, 18 May 2009, p. 10. ^ Steiner, George. (2013). After Babel : Aspects of Language and Translation. Open Road Media. p. 85. ISBN 978-1-4804-1185-2. OCLC 892798474. ^ ʻAṭṭār, Farīd al-Dīn, -approximately 1230 (2017). The conference of the birds. Wolpé, Sholeh (First ed.). New York. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-393-29218-3. OCLC 951070853.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Santos, Sherod, 1948- (2000). A poetry of two minds. University of Georgia Press. p. 107. ISBN 0-8203-2204-0. OCLC 43114993.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Benjamin, Walter, 1892-1940. (©1996-2003). Selected writings. Bullock, Marcus Paul, 1944-, Jennings, Michael William., Eiland, Howard., Smith, Gary, 1954-. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press. p. 256. ISBN 978-0-674-00896-0. OCLC 34705134. Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Gregory Hays, "Found in Translation" (review of Denis Feeney, Beyond Greek: The Beginnings of Latin Literature, Harvard University Press), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXIV, no. 11 (22 June 2017), p. 58. ^ Jiří Levý, The Art of Translation, Philadelphia, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2011, p. 122. ^ Carlson, Harry G. (1964). "Problems in Play Translation". Educational Theatre Journal. 16 (1): 55–58 [55]. doi:10.2307/3204378. JSTOR 3204378. ^ Jiří Levý, The Art of Translation, Philadelphia, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2011, pp. 129-39. ^ Carlson, Harry G. (1964). "Problems in Play Translation". Educational Theatre Journal. 16 (1): 55–58 [56]. doi:10.2307/3204378. JSTOR 3204378. ^ Jiří Levý, The Art of Translation, Philadelphia, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2011, p. 129. ^ Kruger, Loren (2007). "Keywords and Contexts: Translating Theatre Theory". Theatre Journal. 59 (3): 355–58. doi:10.1353/tj.2007.0146. JSTOR 25070054. S2CID 191603013. ^ Frank Stewart, The Poem Behind the Poem, Washington, Copper Canyon Press, 2004. ^ Eugene Eoyang and Lin Yao-fu, Translating Chinese Literature, Indiana University Press, 1995, pp. 42–43. ^ Tobler, Stefan; Sabău, Antoaneta (1 April 2018). "Translating Confession, Editorial RES 1/2018". Review of Ecumenical Studies Sibiu. 10 (1): 5–9. doi:10.2478/ress-2018-0001. S2CID 188019915. ^ MJC Warren, "‘Lead us not into temptation’: why Pope Francis is wrong about the Lord’s Prayer", The Conversation, 8 December 2017 [1] ^ A.J.B. Higgins, "'Lead Us Not into Temptation': Some Latin Variants", Journal of Theological Studies, 1943. ^ Charles McNamara, "Lead Us Not into Temptation? Francis Is Not the First to Question a Key Phrase of the Lord's Prayer", Commonweal, 1 January 2018. [2] ^ Farris, Michael (2007), From Tyndale to Madison, p. 37 . ^ a b Fatani, Afnan (2006). "Translation and the Qur'an". In Leaman, Oliver (ed.). The Qur'an: An Encyclopaedia. Routledge. pp. 657–669. ISBN 978-0415775298. ^ Malise Ruthven, Islam in the World, Granta, 2006, p. 90, ISBN 978-1-86207-906-9. ^ a b c Fisher, Abigail (October 2020). "These lips that are not (d)one: Writing with the 'pash' of translation" (PDF). TEXT: Journal of writing and writing courses. 24 (2): 1–25. Braschi and Acker employ certain techniques to produce writing that eschews fixed meaning in favour of facilitating the emergence of fluid and interpermeating textual resonances, as well as to establish a meta-discourse on the writing and translation process. ^ Moreno Fernandez, Francisco (2020). Yo-Yo Boing! Or Literature as a Translingual Practice (Poets, Philosophers, Lovers: on the writings of Giannina Braschi). Aldama, Frederick Luis; Stavans, Ilan; O'Dwyer, Tess. Pittsburgh, Pa.: U Pittsburgh. ISBN 978-0-8229-4618-2. OCLC 1143649021. This epilinguistic awareness is apparent in the constant language games and in the way in which she so often plays with this translingual reality and with all the factors with which it contrasts and among which it moves so liquidly. ^ Stanchich, Maritza. Bilingual Big Bang: Giannina Braschi's Trilogy Levels the Spanish-English Playing Field (Poets, Philosophers, Lovers). Pittsburgh: U Pittsburgh. pp. 63–75. Carrión notes, the idea of an only tongue ruling over a considerable number of different nations and peoples is fundamentally questioned. ^ Carrión, María M. (1 January 1996). "Geography, (M)Other Tongues and the Role of Translation in Giannina Braschi's El imperio de los sueños". Studies in 20th & 21st Century Literature. 20 (1). doi:10.4148/2334-4415.1385. ISSN 2334-4415. ^ Phipps, Mathew (10 February 2017). "Write the Things That Burn: The Poems of Alejandra Pizarnik". The Millions. Retrieved 6 November 2020. ^ Jr, Istvan Csicsery-Ronay (2008). The Seven Beauties of Science Fiction. Wesleyan University Press. pp. 13–46. ISBN 9780819568892. ^ Transfiction : Research into the Realities of Translation Fiction. Kaindl, Klaus., Spitzel, Karlheinz. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. 2014. pp. 345–362. ISBN 9789027270733. OCLC 868285393.CS1 maint: others (link) ^ Mossop, Brian (1 April 1996). "The Image of Translation in Science Fiction & Astronomy". The Translator. 2 (1): 1–26. doi:10.1080/13556509.1996.10798961. ISSN 1355-6509. ^ a b Iannuzzi, Giulia (2 November 2018). "Science fiction, cultural industrialization and the translation of techno-science in post-World War II Italy". Perspectives. 26 (6): 885–900. doi:10.1080/0907676X.2018.1496461. hdl:11368/2930475. ISSN 0907-676X. S2CID 69992861. ^ Iannuzzi, Giulia (2017). "Traduttore, consulente editoriale, intellettuale: Riccardo Valla e la fantascienza angloamericana in Italia". Rivista Internazionale di Tecnica della Traduzione : International Journal of Translation (in Italian). ISSN 1722-5906. ^ Iannuzzi, Giulia (2019). Un laboratorio di fantastici libri. Riccardo Valla intellettuale, editore, traduttore. Con un'appendice di lettere inedite a cura di Luca G. Manenti. Chieti (Italy). ISBN 9788833051031. ^ Milton, John (2000), "The Translation of Mass Fiction", in Beeby, Allison; Ensinger, Doris; Presas, Marisa (eds.), Investigating Translation, Benjamins Translation Library, 32, John Benjamins Publishing Company, pp. 171–179, doi:10.1075/btl.32.21mil, ISBN 9789027216373, retrieved 6 April 2019 ^ Gouanvic, Jean-Marc (1 November 1997). "Translation and the Shape of Things to Come". The Translator. 3 (2): 125–152. doi:10.1080/13556509.1997.10798995. ISSN 1355-6509. ^ Sohár, Anikó (1999). The Cultural Transfer of Science Fiction and Fantasy in Hungary 1989-1995. Peter Lang. ISBN 9780820443485. ^ Sohár, Anikó (August 2000). "The speech bewrayeth thee: thou shalt not steal the prestige of foregin literatures Pseudotranslations in Hungary after 1989". Hungarian Studies. 14 (1): 56–82. doi:10.1556/HStud.14.2000.1.3. ISSN 0236-6568. ^ a b Iannuzzi, Giulia (2015). "The Translation of East Asian Science Fiction in Italy: An Essay on Chinese and Japanese Science Fiction, Anthological Practices and Publishing Strategies beyond the Anglo-American Canon". doi:10.5281/zenodo.3604992. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ Byrne, Jody (2006). Technical Translation: Usability Strategies for Translating Technical Documentation. Dordrecht: Springer. Bibliography[edit] Baker, Mona; Saldanha, Gabriela (2008). Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies. New York: Routledge. ISBN 9780415369305. Balcerzan, Edward, ed. (1977). Pisarze polscy o sztuce przekładu, 1440-1974: Antologia [Polish Writers on the Art of Translation, 1440-1974: an Anthology] (in Polish). Poznań: Wydawnictwo Poznańskie. OCLC 4365103.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) Bassnett, Susan (1990). Translation studies. London & New York: Routledge. ISBN 9780415065283. Berman, Antoine (1984). L'épreuve de l'étranger: culture et traduction dans l'Allemagne romantique: Herder, Goethe, Schlegel, Novalis, Humboldt, Schleiermacher, Hölderlin (in French). Paris: Gallimard, Essais. ISBN 9782070700769. Excerpted in English in Venuti, Lawrence (2004) [2002]. The translation studies reader (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge. ISBN 9780415319201. Berman, Antoine (1995). Pour une critique des traductions: John Donne (in French). Paris: Gallimard. ISBN 9782070733354. English translation: Berman, Antoine (author); Massardier-Kenney, Françoise (translator) (2009). Toward a translation criticism: John Donne. Ohio: Kent State University Press. ISBN 9781606350096. Billiani, Francesca (2001), "Ethics", in Baker, Mona (ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies, New York: Routledge, ISBN 9780415255172. Bromwich, David, "In Praise of Ambiguity" (a review of Michael Wood, On Empson, Princeton University Press, 2017), The New York Review of Books), vol. LXIV, no. 16 (26 October 2017), pp. 50–52. Darwish, Ali (1999). "Towards a theory of constraints in translation". Cite journal requires |journal= (help) [self-published source?] Work in progress version (pdf). Dryden, John. "Preface to Sylvae". Bartelby.com. Retrieved 27 April 2015. Fatani, Afnan, "Translation and the Qur'an", in Oliver Leaman, The Qur'an: An Encyclopaedia, Routledge, 2006, pp. 657–69. Galassi, Jonathan (June 2000). "FEATURE: Como conversazione: on translation". The Paris Review. 42 (155): 255–312. Poets and critics Seamus Heaney, Charles Tomlinson, Tim Parks, and others discuss the theory and practice of translation. Godayol, Pilar (February 2013). "Metaphors, women and translation: from les belles infidèles to la frontera". Gender and Language. 7 (1): 97–116. doi:10.1558/genl.v7i1.97. Gouadec, Daniel (2007). Translation as a profession. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. ISBN 9789027216816. Greenblatt, Stephen, "Can We Ever Master King Lear?", The New York Review of Books, vol. LXIV, no. 3 (23 February 2017), pp. 34–36. Hays, Gregory, "Found in Translation" (review of Denis Feeney, Beyond Greek: The Beginnings of Latin Literature, Harvard University Press), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXIV, no. 11 (22 June 2017), pp. 56, 58. Kaiser, Walter, "A Hero of Translation" (a review of Jean Findlay, Chasing Lost Time: The Life of C.K. Scott Moncrieff: Soldier, Spy, and Translator, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 351 pp., $30.00), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXII, no. 10 (4 June 2015), pp. 54–56. Kasparek, Christopher (1983). "The translator's endless toil (book reviews)". The Polish Review. XXVIII (2): 83–87. JSTOR 25777966. Includes a discussion of European-language cognates of the term, "translation". Kasparek, Christopher, translator's foreword to Bolesław Prus, Pharaoh, translated from the Polish, with foreword and notes, by Christopher Kasparek, Amazon Kindle e-book, 2020, ASIN:BO8MDN6CZV. Kelly, Louis (1979). The true interpreter: A history of translation theory and practice in the West. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 9780631196402. Link, Perry, "A Magician of Chinese Poetry" (review of Eliot Weinberger, with an afterword by Octavio Paz, 19 Ways of Looking at Wang Wei (with More Ways), New Directions, 88 pp., $10.95 [paper]; and Eliot Weinberger, The Ghosts of Birds, New Directions, 211 pp., $16.95 [paper]), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXIII, no. 18 (24 November 2016), pp. 49–50. Marcus, Gary, "Am I Human?: Researchers need new ways to distinguish artificial intelligence from the natural kind", Scientific American, vol. 316, no. 3 (March 2017), pp. 58–63. Multiple tests of artificial-intelligence efficacy are needed because, "just as there is no single test of athletic prowess, there cannot be one ultimate test of intelligence." One such test, a "Construction Challenge", would test perception and physical action—"two important elements of intelligent behavior that were entirely absent from the original Turing test." Another proposal has been to give machines the same standardized tests of science and other disciplines that schoolchildren take. A so far insuperable stumbling block to artificial intelligence is an incapacity for reliable disambiguation. "[V]irtually every sentence [that people generate] is ambiguous, often in multiple ways." A prominent example is known as the "pronoun disambiguation problem": a machine has no way of determining to whom or what a pronoun in a sentence—such as "he", "she" or "it"—refers. Miłosz, Czesław (1983). The history of Polish literature (2nd ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 9780520044777. Ange Mlinko, "Whole Earth Troubador" (review of The Essential W.S. Merlin, edited by Michael Wiegers, Copper Canyon, 338 pp., 2017), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXIV, no. 19 (7 December 2017), pp. 45–46. Muhlstein, Anka, "Painters and Writers: When Something New Happens", The New York Review of Books, vol. LXIV, no. 1 (19 January 2017), pp. 33–35. Munday, Jeremy (2016). Introducing Translation Studies: theories and applications (4th ed.). London/New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1138912557. Najder, Zdzisław (author); Najder, Halina (translator) (2007). Joseph Conrad: a life. Rochester, New York: Camden House. ISBN 9781571133472. North, Anna (20 November 2017). "Historically, men translated the Odyssey. Here's what happened when a woman took the job". Vox. Retrieved 9 September 2020. Parks, Tim (2007). Translating style: a literary approach to translation - a translation approach to literature. New York: Routledge. ISBN 9781905763047. Pei, Mario (1984). The story of language. New York: New American Library. ISBN 9780452008700. Introduction by Stuart Berg Flexner, revised edition. Piron, Claude (1994). Le défi des langues: du gâchis au bon sens [The language challenge: from chaos to common sense] (in French). Paris: L'Harmattan. ISBN 9782738424327. Polizzotti, Mark, Sympathy for the Traitor: A Translation Manifesto, MIT, 168 pp., 2018, ISBN 978 0 262 03799 0. Rose, Marilyn Gaddis (guest editor) (January 1980). Translation: agent of communication: an international review of arts and ideas (volume 5, issue 1, special issue). Hamilton, New Zealand: Outrigger Publishers. OCLC 224073589. Ruthven, Malise, "The Islamic Road to the Modern World" (review of Christopher de Bellaigue, The Islamic Enlightenment: The Struggle between Faith and Reason, 1798 to Modern Times, Liveright; and Wael Abu-'Uksa, Freedom in the Arab World: Concepts and Ideologies in Arabic Thought in the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge University Press), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXIV, no. 11 (22 June 2017), pp. 22, 24–25. Schleiermacher, Friedrich (author); Bernofsky, Susan (translator) (2004) [2002], "On the different methods of translating (Über die verschiedenen Methoden des Übersetzens 1813)", in Venuti, Lawrence (ed.), The translation studies reader (2nd ed.), New York: Routledge, pp. 43–63, ISBN 9780415319201. Simms, Norman T. (guest editor) (1983). Nimrod's sin: treason and translation in a multilingual world (volume 8, issue 2). Hamilton, New Zealand: Outrigger Publishers. OCLC 9719326. Snell-Hornby, Mary; Schopp, Jürgen F. (2013). "Translation", European History Online, Mainz, Institute of European History, retrieved 29 August 2013. Tatarkiewicz, Władysław (author); Kasparek, Christopher (Polish-to-English translator) (1980). A history of six ideas: an essay in aesthetics. The Hague, Boston, London: Martinus Nijhoff. ISBN 978-8301008246. Tatarkiewicz, Władysław, O doskonałości (On Perfection), Warsaw, Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1976; English translation by Christopher Kasparek subsequently serialized in Dialectics and Humanism: The Polish Philosophical Quarterly, vol. VI, no. 4 (autumn 1979)—vol. VIII, no 2 (spring 1981), and reprinted in Władysław Tatarkiewicz, On Perfection, Warsaw University Press, Center of Universalism, 1992, pp. 9–51 (the book is a collection of papers by and about Professor Tatarkiewicz). Tobler, Stefan; Sabău, Antoaneta (2018). Translating Confession, Review of Ecumenical Studies, ISSN: 2359-8093. Vélez, Fabio (2016). Antes de Babel. Una historia retórica de la traducción. Granada, Spain: Comares. ISBN 978-8490454718. Venuti, Lawrence (1994). The translator's invisibility. New York: Routledge. ISBN 9780415115384. Marina Warner, "The Politics of Translation" (a review of Kate Briggs, This Little Art, 2017; Mireille Gansel, Translation as Transhumance, translated by Ros Schwartz, 2017; Mark Polizzotti, Sympathy for the Traitor: A Translation Manifesto, 2018; Boyd Tonkin, ed., The 100 Best Novels in Translation, 2018; Clive Scott, The Work of Literary Translation, 2018), London Review of Books, vol. 40, no. 19 (11 October 2018), pp. 21–24. Wilson, Emily, "A Doggish Translation" (review of The Poems of Hesiod: Theogony, Works and Days, and The Shield of Herakles, translated from the Greek by Barry B. Powell, University of California Press, 2017, 184 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXV, no. 1 (18 January 2018), pp. 34–36. Wilson, Emily, "Ah, how miserable!" (review of three separate translations of The Oresteia by Aeschylus: by Oliver Taplan, Liveright, November 2018; by Jeffrey Scott Bernstein, Carcanet, April 2020; and by David Mulroy, Wisconsin, April 2018), London Review of Books, vol. 42, no. 19 (8 October 2020), pp. 9–12, 14. Zethsen, Karen Korning; Askehave, Inger (February 2013). "Talking translation: Is gender an issue?". Gender and Language. 7 (1): 117–134. doi:10.1558/genl.v7i1.117. Further reading[edit] Davis, Lydia, "Eleven Pleasures of Translating", The New York Review of Books, vol. LXIII, no. 19 (8 December 2016), pp. 22–24. "I like to reproduce the word order, and the order of ideas, of the original [text] whenever possible. [p. 22] [T]ranslation is, eternally, a compromise. You settle for the best you can do rather than achieving perfection, though there is the occasional perfect solution [to the problem of finding an equivalent expression in the target language]." (p. 23.) Flesch, Rudolf, The Art of Clear Thinking, chapter 5: "Danger! Language at Work" (pp. 35–42), chapter 6: "The Pursuit of Translation" (pp. 43–50), Barnes & Noble Books, 1973. Kelly, Nataly; Zetzsche, Jost (2012). Found in Translation: How Language Shapes Our Lives and Transforms the World. TarcherPerigee. ISBN 978-0399537974. Nabokov, Vladimir (4 August 1941). "The Art of Translation". The New Republic. Retrieved 19 January 2020. Ross Amos, Flora, "Early Theories of Translation", Columbia University Studies in English and Comparative Literature, 1920. At Project Gutenberg. Sharma, Sandeep, Translation and Translation Studies, India, HP University, 2017. https://www.academia.edu/36609128/Translation_and_Translation_Studies. Wechsler, Robert, Performing Without a Stage: The Art of Literary Translation, Catbird Press, 1998. Wills, Garry, "A Wild and Indecent Book" (review of David Bentley Hart, The New Testament: A Translation, Yale University Press, 577 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXV, no. 2 (8 February 2018), pp. 34–35. Discusses some pitfalls in interpreting and translating the New Testament Wilson, Emily, "The Pleasures of Translation" (review of Mark Polizzotti, Sympathy for the Traitor: A Translation Manifesto, MIT Press, 2018, 182 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXV, no. 9 (24 May 2018), pp. 46–47. 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en-wikipedia-org-571	----	Religion in ancient Rome - Wikipedia Religion in ancient Rome From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancestral ethnic religion of the city of Rome Defaced Dea Roma holding Victory and regarding an altar with a cornucopia and other offerings, copy of a relief panel from an altar or statue base Augustus as Pontifex Maximus (Via Labicana Augustus) Religion in ancient Rome Marcus Aurelius (head covered) sacrificing at the Temple of Jupiter Practices and beliefs libation sacrifice votum temples festivals ludi funerals Imperial cult mystery religions Priesthoods Pontifices Augures Vestales Flamines Fetiales Epulones Fratres Arvales Deities List of Roman deities Twelve major gods Capitoline Triad Aventine Triad underworld gods indigitamenta Deified emperors: Divus Julius Divus Augustus Related topics Glossary of ancient Roman religion Roman mythology Ancient Greek religion Etruscan religion Gallo-Roman religion Interpretatio graeca Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism v t e Religion in ancient Rome includes the ancestral ethnic religion of the city of Rome that the Romans used to define themselves as a people, as well as the religious practices of peoples brought under Roman rule, in so far as they became widely followed in Rome and Italy. The Romans thought of themselves as highly religious, and attributed their success as a world power to their collective piety (pietas) in maintaining good relations with the gods. The Romans are known for the great number of deities they honored, a capacity that earned the mockery of early Christian polemicists.[1] The presence of Greeks on the Italian peninsula from the beginning of the historical period influenced Roman culture, introducing some religious practices that became as fundamental as the cult of Apollo. The Romans looked for common ground between their major gods and those of the Greeks (interpretatio graeca), adapting Greek myths and iconography for Latin literature and Roman art, as the Etruscans had. Etruscan religion was also a major influence, particularly on the practice of augury. According to legends, most of Rome's religious institutions could be traced to its founders, particularly Numa Pompilius, the Sabine second king of Rome, who negotiated directly with the gods. This archaic religion was the foundation of the mos maiorum, "the way of the ancestors" or simply "tradition", viewed as central to Roman identity. Cybele enthroned, with lion, cornucopia and Mural crown. Roman marble, c. 50 AD. Getty Museum Roman religion was practical and contractual, based on the principle of do ut des, "I give that you might give". Religion depended on knowledge and the correct practice of prayer, ritual, and sacrifice, not on faith or dogma, although Latin literature preserves learned speculation on the nature of the divine and its relation to human affairs. Even the most skeptical among Rome's intellectual elite such as Cicero, who was an augur, saw religion as a source of social order. As the Roman Empire expanded, migrants to the capital brought their local cults, many of which became popular among Italians. Christianity was in the end the most successful of these, and in 380 became the official state religion. For ordinary Romans, religion was a part of daily life.[2] Each home had a household shrine at which prayers and libations to the family's domestic deities were offered. Neighborhood shrines and sacred places such as springs and groves dotted the city.[3] The Roman calendar was structured around religious observances. Women, slaves, and children all participated in a range of religious activities. Some public rituals could be conducted only by women, and women formed what is perhaps Rome's most famous priesthood, the state-supported Vestals, who tended Rome's sacred hearth for centuries, until disbanded under Christian domination. Contents 1 Overview 2 Founding myths and divine destiny 3 Roman deities 4 Greco-Roman Mystery Cults 5 Holidays and festivals 6 Temples and shrines 7 Religious practice 7.1 Prayers, vows, and oaths 7.2 Sacrifice 7.2.1 Animal sacrifice 7.2.2 Human sacrifice 7.3 Domestic and private cult 8 Religio and the state 8.1 Public priesthoods and religious law 8.1.1 The Vestals 8.2 Augury 8.2.1 Haruspicy 8.2.2 Omens and prodigies 9 Funerals and the afterlife 10 Religion and the military 11 Women and religion 12 Superstitio and magic 13 History of Roman religion 13.1 Religion and politics 13.2 Early Republic 13.3 Later Republic to Principate 13.4 Roman Empire 13.4.1 Eastern Influence 13.4.2 Absorption of cults 13.4.3 Imperial cult 13.4.4 Jews and Roman religion 13.4.5 Christianity in the Roman Empire 13.4.6 Emperor Constantine and Christianity 13.4.7 Transition to Christian hegemony 14 See also 15 References 15.1 Citations 15.2 Sources 16 External links Overview[edit] The priesthoods of public religion were held by members of the elite classes. There was no principle analogous to separation of church and state in ancient Rome. During the Roman Republic (509–27 BC), the same men who were elected public officials might also serve as augurs and pontiffs. Priests married, raised families, and led politically active lives. Julius Caesar became pontifex maximus before he was elected consul. The augurs read the will of the gods and supervised the marking of boundaries as a reflection of universal order, thus sanctioning Roman expansionism as a matter of divine destiny. The Roman triumph was at its core a religious procession in which the victorious general displayed his piety and his willingness to serve the public good by dedicating a portion of his spoils to the gods, especially Jupiter, who embodied just rule. As a result of the Punic Wars (264–146 BC), when Rome struggled to establish itself as a dominant power, many new temples were built by magistrates in fulfillment of a vow to a deity for assuring their military success. As the Romans extended their dominance throughout the Mediterranean world, their policy in general was to absorb the deities and cults of other peoples rather than try to eradicate them,[4] since they believed that preserving tradition promoted social stability.[5] One way that Rome incorporated diverse peoples was by supporting their religious heritage, building temples to local deities that framed their theology within the hierarchy of Roman religion. Inscriptions throughout the Empire record the side-by-side worship of local and Roman deities, including dedications made by Romans to local gods.[6] By the height of the Empire, numerous international deities were cultivated at Rome and had been carried to even the most remote provinces, among them Cybele, Isis, Epona, and gods of solar monism such as Mithras and Sol Invictus, found as far north as Roman Britain. Foreign religions increasingly attracted devotees among Romans, who increasingly had ancestry from elsewhere in the Empire. Imported mystery religions, which offered initiates salvation in the afterlife, were a matter of personal choice for an individual, practiced in addition to carrying on one's family rites and participating in public religion. The mysteries, however, involved exclusive oaths and secrecy, conditions that conservative Romans viewed with suspicion as characteristic of "magic", conspiratorial (coniuratio), or subversive activity. Sporadic and sometimes brutal attempts were made to suppress religionists who seemed to threaten traditional morality and unity, as with the Senate's efforts to restrict the Bacchanals in 186 BC. Because Romans had never been obligated to cultivate one god or one cult only, religious tolerance was not an issue in the sense that it is for monotheistic systems.[7] The monotheistic rigor of Judaism posed difficulties for Roman policy that led at times to compromise and the granting of special exemptions, but sometimes to intractable conflict. For example, religious disputes helped cause the First Jewish–Roman War and the Bar Kokhba revolt. In the wake of the Republic's collapse, state religion had adapted to support the new regime of the emperors. Augustus, the first Roman emperor, justified the novelty of one-man rule with a vast program of religious revivalism and reform. Public vows formerly made for the security of the republic now were directed at the well-being of the emperor. So-called "emperor worship" expanded on a grand scale the traditional Roman veneration of the ancestral dead and of the Genius, the divine tutelary of every individual. The Imperial cult became one of the major ways in which Rome advertised its presence in the provinces and cultivated shared cultural identity and loyalty throughout the Empire. Rejection of the state religion was tantamount to treason. This was the context for Rome's conflict with Christianity, which Romans variously regarded as a form of atheism and novel superstitio, while Christians considered Roman religion to be paganism. Ultimately, Roman polytheism was brought to an end with the adoption of Christianity as the official religion of the empire. Founding myths and divine destiny[edit] Relief panel from an altar to Venus and Mars depicting Romulus and Remus suckling the she-wolf, and gods representing Roman topography such as the Tiber and Palatine Hill See also: Roman mythology and Founding of Rome The Roman mythological tradition is particularly rich in historical myths, or legends, concerning the foundation and rise of the city. These narratives focus on human actors, with only occasional intervention from deities but a pervasive sense of divinely ordered destiny. For Rome's earliest period, history and myth are difficult to distinguish.[8] According to mythology, Rome had a semi-divine ancestor in the Trojan refugee Aeneas, son of Venus, who was said to have established the nucleus of Roman religion when he brought the Palladium, Lares and Penates from Troy to Italy. These objects were believed in historical times to remain in the keeping of the Vestals, Rome's female priesthood. Aeneas, according to classical authors, had been given refuge by King Evander, a Greek exile from Arcadia, to whom were attributed other religious foundations: he established the Ara Maxima, "Greatest Altar", to Hercules at the site that would become the Forum Boarium, and, so the legend went, he was the first to celebrate the Lupercalia, an archaic festival in February that was celebrated as late as the 5th century of the Christian era.[9] The myth of a Trojan founding with Greek influence was reconciled through an elaborate genealogy (the Latin kings of Alba Longa) with the well-known legend of Rome's founding by Romulus and Remus. The most common version of the twins' story displays several aspects of hero myth. Their mother, Rhea Silvia, had been ordered by her uncle the king to remain a virgin, in order to preserve the throne he had usurped from her father. Through divine intervention, the rightful line was restored when Rhea Silvia was impregnated by the god Mars. She gave birth to twins, who were duly exposed by order of the king but saved through a series of miraculous events. Romulus and Remus regained their grandfather's throne and set out to build a new city, consulting with the gods through augury, a characteristic religious institution of Rome that is portrayed as existing from earliest times. The brothers quarrel while building the city walls, and Romulus kills Remus, an act that is sometimes seen as sacrificial. Fratricide thus became an integral part of Rome's founding myth.[10] Romulus was credited with several religious institutions. He founded the Consualia festival, inviting the neighbouring Sabines to participate; the ensuing rape of the Sabine women by Romulus's men further embedded both violence and cultural assimilation in Rome's myth of origins. As a successful general, Romulus is also supposed to have founded Rome's first temple to Jupiter Feretrius and offered the spolia opima, the prime spoils taken in war, in the celebration of the first Roman triumph. Spared a mortal's death, Romulus was mysteriously spirited away and deified.[11] Aeneas urged by the Penates to continue his journey to found Rome (4th century AD illustration)[12] His Sabine successor Numa was pious and peaceable, and credited with numerous political and religious foundations, including the first Roman calendar; the priesthoods of the Salii, flamines, and Vestals; the cults of Jupiter, Mars, and Quirinus; and the Temple of Janus, whose doors stayed open in times of war but in Numa's time remained closed. After Numa's death, the doors to the Temple of Janus were supposed to have remained open until the reign of Augustus.[13] Each of Rome's legendary or semi-legendary kings was associated with one or more religious institutions still known to the later Republic. Tullus Hostilius and Ancus Marcius instituted the fetial priests. The first "outsider" Etruscan king, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, founded a Capitoline temple to the triad Jupiter, Juno and Minerva which served as the model for the highest official cult throughout the Roman world. The benevolent, divinely fathered Servius Tullius established the Latin League, its Aventine Temple to Diana, and the Compitalia to mark his social reforms. Servius Tullius was murdered and succeeded by the arrogant Tarquinius Superbus, whose expulsion marked the beginning of Rome as a republic with annually elected magistrates.[14] Roman historians[15] regarded the essentials of Republican religion as complete by the end of Numa's reign, and confirmed as right and lawful by the Senate and people of Rome: the sacred topography of the city, its monuments and temples, the histories of Rome's leading families, and oral and ritual traditions.[16] According to Cicero, the Romans considered themselves the most religious of all peoples, and their rise to dominance was proof they received divine favor in return.[17] Roman deities[edit] Twelve principal deities (Di Consentes) corresponding to those honored at the lectisternium of 217 BC, represented on a 1st-century altar from Gabii that is rimmed by the zodiac. See also: List of Roman deities Rome offers no native creation myth, and little mythography to explain the character of its deities, their mutual relationships or their interactions with the human world, but Roman theology acknowledged that di immortales (immortal gods) ruled all realms of the heavens and earth. There were gods of the upper heavens, gods of the underworld and a myriad of lesser deities between. Some evidently favoured Rome because Rome honoured them, but none were intrinsically, irredeemably foreign or alien. The political, cultural and religious coherence of an emergent Roman super-state required a broad, inclusive and flexible network of lawful cults. At different times and in different places, the sphere of influence, character and functions of a divine being could expand, overlap with those of others, and be redefined as Roman. Change was embedded within existing traditions.[18] Several versions of a semi-official, structured pantheon were developed during the political, social and religious instability of the Late Republican era. Jupiter, the most powerful of all gods and "the fount of the auspices upon which the relationship of the city with the gods rested", consistently personified the divine authority of Rome's highest offices, internal organization and external relations. During the archaic and early Republican eras, he shared his temple, some aspects of cult and several divine characteristics with Mars and Quirinus, who were later replaced by Juno and Minerva.[19] Three goddesses on a panel of the Augustan Ara Pacis, consecrated in 9 BC; the iconography is open to multiple interpretations A conceptual tendency toward triads may be indicated by the later agricultural or plebeian triad of Ceres, Liber and Libera, and by some of the complementary threefold deity-groupings of Imperial cult.[20] Other major and minor deities could be single, coupled, or linked retrospectively through myths of divine marriage and sexual adventure. These later Roman pantheistic hierarchies are part literary and mythographic, part philosophical creations, and often Greek in origin. The Hellenization of Latin literature and culture supplied literary and artistic models for reinterpreting Roman deities in light of the Greek Olympians, and promoted a sense that the two cultures had a shared heritage.[21] The impressive, costly, and centralised rites to the deities of the Roman state were vastly outnumbered in everyday life by commonplace religious observances pertaining to an individual's domestic and personal deities, the patron divinities of Rome's various neighborhoods and communities, and the often idiosyncratic blends of official, unofficial, local and personal cults that characterised lawful Roman religion.[22] In this spirit, a provincial Roman citizen who made the long journey from Bordeaux to Italy to consult the Sibyl at Tibur did not neglect his devotion to his own goddess from home: I wander, never ceasing to pass through the whole world, but I am first and foremost a faithful worshiper of Onuava. I am at the ends of the earth, but the distance cannot tempt me to make my vows to another goddess. Love of the truth brought me to Tibur, but Onuava's favorable powers came with me. Thus, divine mother, far from my home-land, exiled in Italy, I address my vows and prayers to you no less.[23] Greco-Roman Mystery Cults[edit] Main article: Greco-Roman mysteries Throughout the life of Rome, a numerous array of "mystery cults" appeared. These cults were generally founded upon legends or sacred stories, such as the tale of Orpheus. Several had a basis in other cultures, such as the Cult of Isis, an Egyptian goddess. The members generally knew the stories were pure legend, but they provided a model for their followers to obey. These cults had often expensive, long, or trying initiation processes, which differed between cults, but prospective members were promised with a path to a better atmosphere and an atmosphere that fostered social bonds, known as mystai. These bonds were generated due to the fact that most of these cults regularly practiced common meals among members, dances, ceremonies and rituals, and the aforementioned initiations. The focus of the cult, such as the focus on Orpheus among Orphic cults, did not necessarily dictate the theology of its members. The legendary tales were meant to guide members, but the deities involved tended to be a lesser focus. Mystery cults were present and generally accepted throughout much of Rome and provided a unique theological experience for their members.[24][25] Holidays and festivals[edit] See also: Roman festivals, Fasti, Roman calendar, Ludi, and Roman triumph Roman calendars show roughly forty annual religious festivals. Some lasted several days, others a single day or less: sacred days (dies fasti) outnumbered "non-sacred" days (dies nefasti).[26] A comparison of surviving Roman religious calendars suggests that official festivals were organized according to broad seasonal groups that allowed for different local traditions. Some of the most ancient and popular festivals incorporated ludi ("games", such as chariot races and theatrical performances), with examples including those held at Palestrina in honour of Fortuna Primigenia during Compitalia, and the Ludi Romani in honour of Liber.[27] Other festivals may have required only the presence and rites of their priests and acolytes,[28] or particular groups, such as women at the Bona Dea rites.[29] This fresco from outside Pompeii shows Roman men celebrating a religious festival, probably the Compitalia Other public festivals were not required by the calendar, but occasioned by events. The triumph of a Roman general was celebrated as the fulfillment of religious vows, though these tended to be overshadowed by the political and social significance of the event. During the late Republic, the political elite competed to outdo each other in public display, and the ludi attendant on a triumph were expanded to include gladiator contests. Under the Principate, all such spectacular displays came under Imperial control: the most lavish were subsidised by emperors, and lesser events were provided by magistrates as a sacred duty and privilege of office. Additional festivals and games celebrated Imperial accessions and anniversaries. Others, such as the traditional Republican Secular Games to mark a new era (saeculum), became imperially funded to maintain traditional values and a common Roman identity. That the spectacles retained something of their sacral aura even in late antiquity is indicated by the admonitions of the Church Fathers that Christians should not take part.[30] The meaning and origin of many archaic festivals baffled even Rome's intellectual elite, but the more obscure they were, the greater the opportunity for reinvention and reinterpretation – a fact lost neither on Augustus in his program of religious reform, which often cloaked autocratic innovation, nor on his only rival as mythmaker of the era, Ovid. In his Fasti, a long-form poem covering Roman holidays from January to June, Ovid presents a unique look at Roman antiquarian lore, popular customs, and religious practice that is by turns imaginative, entertaining, high-minded, and scurrilous;[31] not a priestly account, despite the speaker's pose as a vates or inspired poet-prophet, but a work of description, imagination and poetic etymology that reflects the broad humor and burlesque spirit of such venerable festivals as the Saturnalia, Consualia, and feast of Anna Perenna on the Ides of March, where Ovid treats the assassination of the newly deified Julius Caesar as utterly incidental to the festivities among the Roman people.[32] But official calendars preserved from different times and places also show a flexibility in omitting or expanding events, indicating that there was no single static and authoritative calendar of required observances. In the later Empire under Christian rule, the new Christian festivals were incorporated into the existing framework of the Roman calendar, alongside at least some of the traditional festivals.[33] Temples and shrines[edit] Portico of the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina, later incorporated into a church Main article: Roman temple Public religious ceremonies of the official Roman religion took place outdoors, and not within the temple building. Some ceremonies were processions that started at, visited, or ended with a temple or shrine, where a ritual object might be stored and brought out for use, or where an offering would be deposited. Sacrifices, chiefly of animals, would take place at an open-air altar within the templum or precinct, often to the side of the steps leading up to the raised portico. The main room (cella) inside a temple housed the cult image of the deity to whom the temple was dedicated, and often a small altar for incense or libations. It might also display art works looted in war and rededicated to the gods. It is not clear how accessible the interiors of temples were to the general public. The Latin word templum originally referred not to the temple building itself, but to a sacred space surveyed and plotted ritually through augury: "The architecture of the ancient Romans was, from first to last, an art of shaping space around ritual."[34] The Roman architect Vitruvius always uses the word templum to refer to this sacred precinct, and the more common Latin words aedes, delubrum, or fanum for a temple or shrine as a building. The ruins of temples are among the most visible monuments of ancient Roman culture. Temple buildings and shrines within the city commemorated significant political settlements in its development: the Aventine Temple of Diana supposedly marked the founding of the Latin League under Servius Tullius.[35] Many temples in the Republican era were built as the fulfillment of a vow made by a general in exchange for a victory. Religious practice[edit] Prayers, vows, and oaths[edit] All sacrifices and offerings required an accompanying prayer to be effective. Pliny the Elder declared that "a sacrifice without prayer is thought to be useless and not a proper consultation of the gods."[36] Prayer by itself, however, had independent power. The spoken word was thus the single most potent religious action, and knowledge of the correct verbal formulas the key to efficacy.[37] Accurate naming was vital for tapping into the desired powers of the deity invoked, hence the proliferation of cult epithets among Roman deities.[38] Public prayers (prex) were offered loudly and clearly by a priest on behalf of the community. Public religious ritual had to be enacted by specialists and professionals faultlessly; a mistake might require that the action, or even the entire festival, be repeated from the start.[39] The historian Livy reports an occasion when the presiding magistrate at the Latin festival forgot to include the "Roman people" among the list of beneficiaries in his prayer; the festival had to be started over.[40] Even private prayer by an individual was formulaic, a recitation rather than a personal expression, though selected by the individual for a particular purpose or occasion.[41] Oaths—sworn for the purposes of business, clientage and service, patronage and protection, state office, treaty and loyalty—appealed to the witness and sanction of deities. Refusal to swear a lawful oath (sacramentum) and breaking a sworn oath carried much the same penalty: both repudiated the fundamental bonds between the human and divine.[38] A votum or vow was a promise made to a deity, usually an offer of sacrifices or a votive offering in exchange for benefits received. Sacrifice[edit] Roman relief depicting a scene of sacrifice, with libations at a flaming altar and the victimarius carrying the sacrificial axe In Latin, the word sacrificium means the performance of an act that renders something sacer, sacred. Sacrifice reinforced the powers and attributes of divine beings, and inclined them to render benefits in return (the principle of do ut des). Offerings to household deities were part of daily life. Lares might be offered spelt wheat and grain-garlands, grapes and first fruits in due season, honey cakes and honeycombs, wine and incense,[42] food that fell to the floor during any family meal,[43] or at their Compitalia festival, honey-cakes and a pig on behalf of the community.[44] Their supposed underworld relatives, the malicious and vagrant Lemures, might be placated with midnight offerings of black beans and spring water.[45] Animal sacrifice[edit] Further information: October Horse, Tauromachy, Taurobolium, and Haruspicy The most potent offering was animal sacrifice, typically of domesticated animals such as cattle, sheep and pigs. Each was the best specimen of its kind, cleansed, clad in sacrificial regalia and garlanded; the horns of oxen might be gilded. Sacrifice sought the harmonisation of the earthly and divine, so the victim must seem willing to offer its own life on behalf of the community; it must remain calm and be quickly and cleanly dispatched.[46] Sacrifice to deities of the heavens (di superi, "gods above") was performed in daylight, and under the public gaze. Deities of the upper heavens required white, infertile victims of their own sex: Juno a white heifer (possibly a white cow); Jupiter a white, castrated ox (bos mas) for the annual oath-taking by the consuls. Di superi with strong connections to the earth, such as Mars, Janus, Neptune and various genii – including the Emperor's – were offered fertile victims. After the sacrifice, a banquet was held; in state cults, the images of honoured deities took pride of place on banqueting couches and by means of the sacrificial fire consumed their proper portion (exta, the innards). Rome's officials and priests reclined in order of precedence alongside and ate the meat; lesser citizens may have had to provide their own.[47] Denarius issued under Augustus, with a bust of Venus on the obverse, and ritual implements on the reverse: clockwise from top right, the augur's staff (lituus), libation bowl (patera), tripod, and ladle (simpulum) Chthonic gods such as Dis pater, the di inferi ("gods below"), and the collective shades of the departed (di Manes) were given dark, fertile victims in nighttime rituals. Animal sacrifice usually took the form of a holocaust or burnt offering, and there was no shared banquet, as "the living cannot share a meal with the dead".[48] Ceres and other underworld goddesses of fruitfulness were sometimes offered pregnant female animals; Tellus was given a pregnant cow at the Fordicidia festival. Color had a general symbolic value for sacrifices. Demigods and heroes, who belonged to the heavens and the underworld, were sometimes given black-and-white victims. Robigo (or Robigus) was given red dogs and libations of red wine at the Robigalia for the protection of crops from blight and red mildew.[47] A sacrifice might be made in thanksgiving or as an expiation of a sacrilege or potential sacrilege (piaculum);[49] a piaculum might also be offered as a sort of advance payment; the Arval Brethren, for instance, offered a piaculum before entering their sacred grove with an iron implement, which was forbidden, as well as after.[50] The pig was a common victim for a piaculum.[51] The same divine agencies who caused disease or harm also had the power to avert it, and so might be placated in advance. Divine consideration might be sought to avoid the inconvenient delays of a journey, or encounters with banditry, piracy and shipwreck, with due gratitude to be rendered on safe arrival or return. In times of great crisis, the Senate could decree collective public rites, in which Rome's citizens, including women and children, moved in procession from one temple to the next, supplicating the gods.[52] Extraordinary circumstances called for extraordinary sacrifice: in one of the many crises of the Second Punic War, Jupiter Capitolinus was promised every animal born that spring (see ver sacrum), to be rendered after five more years of protection from Hannibal and his allies.[53] The "contract" with Jupiter is exceptionally detailed. All due care would be taken of the animals. If any died or were stolen before the scheduled sacrifice, they would count as already sacrificed, since they had already been consecrated. Normally, if the gods failed to keep their side of the bargain, the offered sacrifice would be withheld. In the imperial period, sacrifice was withheld following Trajan's death because the gods had not kept the Emperor safe for the stipulated period.[54] In Pompeii, the Genius of the living emperor was offered a bull: presumably a standard practise in Imperial cult, though minor offerings (incense and wine) were also made.[55] The exta were the entrails of a sacrificed animal, comprising in Cicero's enumeration the gall bladder (fel), liver (iecur), heart (cor), and lungs (pulmones).[56] The exta were exposed for litatio (divine approval) as part of Roman liturgy, but were "read" in the context of the disciplina Etrusca. As a product of Roman sacrifice, the exta and blood are reserved for the gods, while the meat (viscera) is shared among human beings in a communal meal. The exta of bovine victims were usually stewed in a pot (olla or aula), while those of sheep or pigs were grilled on skewers. When the deity's portion was cooked, it was sprinkled with mola salsa (ritually prepared salted flour) and wine, then placed in the fire on the altar for the offering; the technical verb for this action was porricere.[57] Human sacrifice[edit] Human sacrifice in ancient Rome was rare but documented. After the Roman defeat at Cannae two Gauls and two Greeks were buried under the Forum Boarium, in a stone chamber "which had on a previous occasion [228 BC] also been polluted by human victims, a practice most repulsive to Roman feelings".[58] Livy avoids the word "sacrifice" in connection with this bloodless human life-offering; Plutarch does not. The rite was apparently repeated in 113 BC, preparatory to an invasion of Gaul. Its religious dimensions and purpose remain uncertain.[59] In the early stages of the First Punic War (264 BC) the first known Roman gladiatorial munus was held, described as a funeral blood-rite to the manes of a Roman military aristocrat.[60] The gladiator munus was never explicitly acknowledged as a human sacrifice, probably because death was not its inevitable outcome or purpose. Even so, the gladiators swore their lives to the gods, and the combat was dedicated as an offering to the Di Manes or the revered souls of deceased human beings. The event was therefore a sacrificium in the strict sense of the term, and Christian writers later condemned it as human sacrifice.[61] The small woollen dolls called Maniae, hung on the Compitalia shrines, were thought a symbolic replacement for child-sacrifice to Mania, as Mother of the Lares. The Junii took credit for its abolition by their ancestor L. Junius Brutus, traditionally Rome's Republican founder and first consul.[62] Political or military executions were sometimes conducted in such a way that they evoked human sacrifice, whether deliberately or in the perception of witnesses; Marcus Marius Gratidianus was a gruesome example. Officially, human sacrifice was obnoxious "to the laws of gods and men". The practice was a mark of the barbarians, attributed to Rome's traditional enemies such as the Carthaginians and Gauls. Rome banned it on several occasions under extreme penalty. A law passed in 81 BC characterised human sacrifice as murder committed for magical purposes. Pliny saw the ending of human sacrifice conducted by the druids as a positive consequence of the conquest of Gaul and Britain. Despite an empire-wide ban under Hadrian, human sacrifice may have continued covertly in North Africa and elsewhere.[63] Domestic and private cult[edit] Small bronze statues of gods for a lararium (1st to 3rd century AD, Vindobona) The mos maiorum established the dynastic authority and obligations of the citizen-paterfamilias ("the father of the family" or the "owner of the family estate"). He had priestly duties to his lares, domestic penates, ancestral Genius and any other deities with whom he or his family held an interdependent relationship. His own dependents, who included his slaves and freedmen, owed cult to his Genius.[64][65] Genius was the essential spirit and generative power – depicted as a serpent or as a perennial youth, often winged – within an individual and their clan (gens (pl. gentes). A paterfamilias could confer his name, a measure of his genius and a role in his household rites, obligations and honours upon those he fathered or adopted. His freed slaves owed him similar obligations.[66] A pater familias was the senior priest of his household. He offered daily cult to his lares and penates, and to his di parentes/divi parentes at his domestic shrines and in the fires of the household hearth.[67] His wife (mater familias) was responsible for the household's cult to Vesta. In rural estates, bailiffs seem to have been responsible for at least some of the household shrines (lararia) and their deities. Household cults had state counterparts. In Vergil's Aeneid, Aeneas brought the Trojan cult of the lares and penates from Troy, along with the Palladium which was later installed in the temple of Vesta.[68] Religio and the state[edit] Portrait of the emperor Antoninus Pius (reigned 138–161 AD) in ritual attire as an Arval Brother Roman religio (religion) was an everyday and vital affair, a cornerstone of the mos maiorum, Roman tradition or ancestral custom. Care for the gods, the very meaning of religio, had therefore to go through life, and one might thus understand why Cicero wrote that religion was "necessary". Religious behavior – pietas in Latin, eusebeia in Greek – belonged to action and not to contemplation. Consequently religious acts took place wherever the faithful were: in houses, boroughs, associations, cities, military camps, cemeteries, in the country, on boats. 'When pious travelers happen to pass by a sacred grove or a cult place on their way, they are used to make a vow, or a fruit offering, or to sit down for a while' (Apuleius, Florides 1.1).[69] Religious law centered on the ritualised system of honours and sacrifice that brought divine blessings, according to the principle do ut des ("I give, that you might give"). Proper, respectful religio brought social harmony and prosperity. Religious neglect was a form of atheism: impure sacrifice and incorrect ritual were vitia (impious errors). Excessive devotion, fearful grovelling to deities and the improper use or seeking of divine knowledge were superstitio. Any of these moral deviations could cause divine anger (ira deorum) and therefore harm the State.[70] The official deities of the state were identified with its lawful offices and institutions, and Romans of every class were expected to honour the beneficence and protection of mortal and divine superiors. Participation in public rites showed a personal commitment to their community and its values.[71] Official cults were state funded as a "matter of public interest" (res publica). Non-official but lawful cults were funded by private individuals for the benefit of their own communities. The difference between public and private cult is often unclear. Individuals or collegial associations could offer funds and cult to state deities. The public Vestals prepared ritual substances for use in public and private cults, and held the state-funded (thus public) opening ceremony for the Parentalia festival, which was otherwise a private rite to household ancestors. Some rites of the domus (household) were held in public places but were legally defined as privata in part or whole. All cults were ultimately subject to the approval and regulation of the censor and pontifices.[72] Public priesthoods and religious law[edit] Flamines wearing their distinctive pointed headgear (grouped to the left), in a panel from the Ara Pacis Rome had no separate priestly caste or class. The highest authority within a community usually sponsored its cults and sacrifices, officiated as its priest and promoted its assistants and acolytes. Specialists from the religious colleges and professionals such as haruspices and oracles were available for consultation. In household cult, the paterfamilias functioned as priest, and members of his familia as acolytes and assistants. Public cults required greater knowledge and expertise. The earliest public priesthoods were probably the flamines (the singular is flamen), attributed to king Numa: the major flamines, dedicated to Jupiter, Mars and Quirinus, were traditionally drawn from patrician families. Twelve lesser flamines were each dedicated to a single deity, whose archaic nature is indicated by the relative obscurity of some. Flamines were constrained by the requirements of ritual purity; Jupiter's flamen in particular had virtually no simultaneous capacity for a political or military career.[73] In the Regal era, a rex sacrorum (king of the sacred rites) supervised regal and state rites in conjunction with the king (rex) or in his absence, and announced the public festivals. He had little or no civil authority. With the abolition of monarchy, the collegial power and influence of the Republican pontifices increased. By the late Republican era, the flamines were supervised by the pontifical collegia. The rex sacrorum had become a relatively obscure priesthood with an entirely symbolic title: his religious duties still included the daily, ritual announcement of festivals and priestly duties within two or three of the latter but his most important priestly role – the supervision of the Vestals and their rites – fell to the more politically powerful and influential pontifex maximus.[74] Public priests were appointed by the collegia. Once elected, a priest held permanent religious authority from the eternal divine, which offered him lifetime influence, privilege and immunity. Therefore, civil and religious law limited the number and kind of religious offices allowed an individual and his family. Religious law was collegial and traditional; it informed political decisions, could overturn them, and was difficult to exploit for personal gain.[75] Priesthood was a costly honour: in traditional Roman practice, a priest drew no stipend. Cult donations were the property of the deity, whose priest must provide cult regardless of shortfalls in public funding – this could mean subsidy of acolytes and all other cult maintenance from personal funds.[76] For those who had reached their goal in the Cursus honorum, permanent priesthood was best sought or granted after a lifetime's service in military or political life, or preferably both: it was a particularly honourable and active form of retirement which fulfilled an essential public duty. For a freedman or slave, promotion as one of the Compitalia seviri offered a high local profile, and opportunities in local politics; and therefore business.[77] During the Imperial era, priesthood of the Imperial cult offered provincial elites full Roman citizenship and public prominence beyond their single year in religious office; in effect, it was the first step in a provincial cursus honorum. In Rome, the same Imperial cult role was performed by the Arval Brethren, once an obscure Republican priesthood dedicated to several deities, then co-opted by Augustus as part of his religious reforms. The Arvals offered prayer and sacrifice to Roman state gods at various temples for the continued welfare of the Imperial family on their birthdays, accession anniversaries and to mark extraordinary events such as the quashing of conspiracy or revolt. Every 3 January they consecrated the annual vows and rendered any sacrifice promised in the previous year, provided the gods had kept the Imperial family safe for the contracted time.[78] The Vestals[edit] A Roman sculpture depicting a Vestal The Vestals were a public priesthood of six women devoted to the cultivation of Vesta, goddess of the hearth of the Roman state and its vital flame. A girl chosen to be a Vestal achieved unique religious distinction, public status and privileges, and could exercise considerable political influence. Upon entering her office, a Vestal was emancipated from her father's authority. In archaic Roman society, these priestesses were the only women not required to be under the legal guardianship of a man, instead answering directly to the Pontifex Maximus.[79] A Vestal's dress represented her status outside the usual categories that defined Roman women, with elements of both virgin bride and daughter, and Roman matron and wife.[80] Unlike male priests, Vestals were freed of the traditional obligations of marrying and producing children, and were required to take a vow of chastity that was strictly enforced: a Vestal polluted by the loss of her chastity while in office was buried alive.[81] Thus the exceptional honor accorded a Vestal was religious rather than personal or social; her privileges required her to be fully devoted to the performance of her duties, which were considered essential to the security of Rome.[82] The Vestals embody the profound connection between domestic cult and the religious life of the community.[83] Any householder could rekindle their own household fire from Vesta's flame. The Vestals cared for the Lares and Penates of the state that were the equivalent of those enshrined in each home. Besides their own festival of Vestalia, they participated directly in the rites of Parilia, Parentalia and Fordicidia. Indirectly, they played a role in every official sacrifice; among their duties was the preparation of the mola salsa, the salted flour that was sprinkled on every sacrificial victim as part of its immolation.[84] One mythological tradition held that the mother of Romulus and Remus was a Vestal virgin of royal blood. A tale of miraculous birth also attended on Servius Tullius, sixth king of Rome, son of a virgin slave-girl impregnated by a disembodied phallus arising mysteriously on the royal hearth; the story was connected to the fascinus that was among the cult objects under the guardianship of the Vestals. Augustus' religious reformations raised the funding and public profile of the Vestals. They were given high-status seating at games and theatres. The emperor Claudius appointed them as priestesses to the cult of the deified Livia, wife of Augustus.[85] They seem to have retained their religious and social distinctions well into the 4th century, after political power within the Empire had shifted to the Christians. When the Christian emperor Gratian refused the office of pontifex maximus, he took steps toward the dissolution of the order. His successor Theodosius I extinguished Vesta's sacred fire and vacated her temple. Augury[edit] Main article: Augur Public religion took place within a sacred precinct that had been marked out ritually by an augur. The original meaning of the Latin word templum was this sacred space, and only later referred to a building.[47] Rome itself was an intrinsically sacred space; its ancient boundary (pomerium) had been marked by Romulus himself with oxen and plough; what lay within was the earthly home and protectorate of the gods of the state. In Rome, the central references for the establishment of an augural templum appear to have been the Via Sacra (Sacred Way) and the pomerium.[86] Magistrates sought divine opinion of proposed official acts through an augur, who read the divine will through observations made within the templum before, during and after an act of sacrifice.[87] Divine disapproval could arise through unfit sacrifice, errant rites (vitium) or an unacceptable plan of action. If an unfavourable sign was given, the magistrate could repeat the sacrifice until favourable signs were seen, consult with his augural colleagues, or abandon the project. Magistrates could use their right of augury (ius augurum) to adjourn and overturn the process of law, but were obliged to base their decision on the augur's observations and advice. For Cicero, himself an augur, this made the augur the most powerful authority in the Late Republic.[88] By his time (mid 1st century BC) augury was supervised by the college of pontifices, whose powers were increasingly woven into the magistracies of the cursus honorum.[89] Haruspicy[edit] Main article: haruspex The bronze Liver of Piacenza is an Etruscan artifact that probably served as an instructional model for the haruspex Haruspicy was also used in public cult, under the supervision of the augur or presiding magistrate. The haruspices divined the will of the gods through examination of entrails after sacrifice, particularly the liver. They also interpreted omens, prodigies and portents, and formulated their expiation. Most Roman authors describe haruspicy as an ancient, ethnically Etruscan "outsider" religious profession, separate from Rome's internal and largely unpaid priestly hierarchy, essential but never quite respectable.[90] During the mid-to-late Republic, the reformist Gaius Gracchus, the populist politician-general Gaius Marius and his antagonist Sulla, and the "notorious Verres" justified their very different policies by the divinely inspired utterances of private diviners. The Senate and armies used the public haruspices: at some time during the late Republic, the Senate decreed that Roman boys of noble family be sent to Etruria for training in haruspicy and divination. Being of independent means, they would be better motivated to maintain a pure, religious practice for the public good.[91] The motives of private haruspices – especially females – and their clients were officially suspect: none of this seems to have troubled Marius, who employed a Syrian prophetess.[92] Omens and prodigies[edit] Omens observed within or from a divine augural templum – especially the flight of birds – were sent by the gods in response to official queries. A magistrate with ius augurium (the right of augury) could declare the suspension of all official business for the day (obnuntiato) if he deemed the omens unfavourable.[93] Conversely, an apparently negative omen could be re-interpreted as positive, or deliberately blocked from sight.[94] Prodigies were transgressions in the natural, predictable order of the cosmos – signs of divine anger that portended conflict and misfortune. The Senate decided whether a reported prodigy was false, or genuine and in the public interest, in which case it was referred to the public priests, augurs and haruspices for ritual expiation.[95] In 207 BC, during one of the Punic Wars' worst crises, the Senate dealt with an unprecedented number of confirmed prodigies whose expiation would have involved "at least twenty days" of dedicated rites.[96] Livy presents these as signs of widespread failure in Roman religio. The major prodigies included the spontaneous combustion of weapons, the apparent shrinking of the sun's disc, two moons in a daylit sky, a cosmic battle between sun and moon, a rain of red-hot stones, a bloody sweat on statues, and blood in fountains and on ears of corn: all were expiated by sacrifice of "greater victims". The minor prodigies were less warlike but equally unnatural; sheep become goats, a hen become a cock (and vice versa) – these were expiated with "lesser victims". The discovery of an androgynous four-year-old child was expiated by its drowning[97] and the holy procession of 27 virgins to the temple of Juno Regina, singing a hymn to avert disaster: a lightning strike during the hymn rehearsals required further expiation.[98] Religious restitution is proved only by Rome's victory.[99][100] In the wider context of Graeco-Roman religious culture, Rome's earliest reported portents and prodigies stand out as atypically dire. Whereas for Romans, a comet presaged misfortune, for Greeks it might equally signal a divine or exceptionally fortunate birth.[101] In the late Republic, a daytime comet at the murdered Julius Caesar's funeral games confirmed his deification; a discernible Greek influence on Roman interpretation.[102] Funerals and the afterlife[edit] Main article: Roman funerals and burial Roman beliefs about an afterlife varied, and are known mostly for the educated elite who expressed their views in terms of their chosen philosophy. The traditional care of the dead, however, and the perpetuation after death of their status in life were part of the most archaic practices of Roman religion. Ancient votive deposits to the noble dead of Latium and Rome suggest elaborate and costly funeral offerings and banquets in the company of the deceased, an expectation of afterlife and their association with the gods.[103] As Roman society developed, its Republican nobility tended to invest less in spectacular funerals and extravagant housing for their dead, and more on monumental endowments to the community, such as the donation of a temple or public building whose donor was commemorated by his statue and inscribed name.[104] Persons of low or negligible status might receive simple burial, with such grave goods as relatives could afford. This funerary stele, one of the earliest Christian inscriptions (3rd century), combines the traditional abbreviation D. M., for Dis Manibus, "to the Manes," with the Christian motto Ikhthus zōntōn ("fish of the living") in Greek; the deceased's name is in Latin. Funeral and commemorative rites varied according to wealth, status and religious context. In Cicero's time, the better-off sacrificed a sow at the funeral pyre before cremation. The dead consumed their portion in the flames of the pyre, Ceres her portion through the flame of her altar, and the family at the site of the cremation. For the less well-off, inhumation with "a libation of wine, incense, and fruit or crops was sufficient". Ceres functioned as an intermediary between the realms of the living and the dead: the deceased had not yet fully passed to the world of the dead and could share a last meal with the living. The ashes (or body) were entombed or buried. On the eighth day of mourning, the family offered further sacrifice, this time on the ground; the shade of the departed was assumed to have passed entirely into the underworld. They had become one of the di Manes, who were collectively celebrated and appeased at the Parentalia, a multi-day festival of remembrance in February.[105] A standard Roman funerary inscription is Dis Manibus (to the Manes-gods). Regional variations include its Greek equivalent, theoîs katachthoníois[106] and Lugdunum's commonplace but mysterious "dedicated under the trowel" (sub ascia dedicare).[107] In the later Imperial era, the burial and commemorative practises of Christian and non-Christians overlapped. Tombs were shared by Christian and non-Christian family members, and the traditional funeral rites and feast of novemdialis found a part-match in the Christian Constitutio Apostolica.[108] The customary offers of wine and food to the dead continued; St Augustine (following St Ambrose) feared that this invited the "drunken" practices of Parentalia but commended funeral feasts as a Christian opportunity to give alms of food to the poor. Christians attended Parentalia and its accompanying Feralia and Caristia in sufficient numbers for the Council of Tours to forbid them in AD 567. Other funerary and commemorative practices were very different. Traditional Roman practice spurned the corpse as a ritual pollution; inscriptions noted the day of birth and duration of life. The Christian Church fostered the veneration of saintly relics, and inscriptions marked the day of death as a transition to "new life".[109] Religion and the military[edit] A genius of the legion (2nd–3rd century CE) Military success was achieved through a combination of personal and collective virtus (roughly, "manly virtue") and the divine will: lack of virtus, civic or private negligence in religio and the growth of superstitio provoked divine wrath and led to military disaster. Military success was the touchstone of a special relationship with the gods, and to Jupiter Capitolinus in particular; triumphal generals were dressed as Jupiter, and laid their victor's laurels at his feet.[110][111] Roman commanders offered vows to be fulfilled after success in battle or siege; and further vows to expiate their failures. Camillus promised Veii's goddess Juno a temple in Rome as incentive for her desertion (evocatio), conquered the city in her name, brought her cult statue to Rome "with miraculous ease" and dedicated a temple to her on the Aventine Hill.[112] Roman camps followed a standard pattern for defense and religious ritual; in effect they were Rome in miniature. The commander's headquarters stood at the centre; he took the auspices on a dais in front. A small building behind housed the legionary standards, the divine images used in religious rites and in the Imperial era, the image of the ruling emperor. In one camp, this shrine is even called Capitolium. The most important camp-offering appears to have been the suovetaurilia performed before a major, set battle. A ram, a boar and a bull were ritually garlanded, led around the outer perimeter of the camp (a lustratio exercitus) and in through a gate, then sacrificed: Trajan's column shows three such events from his Dacian wars. The perimeter procession and sacrifice suggest the entire camp as a divine templum; all within are purified and protected.[113] Panel from Trajan's Column depicting the lustral procession of the suovetaurilia victims under military standards Each camp had its own religious personnel; standard bearers, priestly officers and their assistants, including a haruspex, and housekeepers of shrines and images. A senior magistrate-commander (sometimes even a consul) headed it, his chain of subordinates ran it and a ferocious system of training and discipline ensured that every citizen-soldier knew his duty. As in Rome, whatever gods he served in his own time seem to have been his own business; legionary forts and vici included shrines to household gods, personal deities and deities otherwise unknown.[114] From the earliest Imperial era, citizen legionaries and provincial auxiliaries gave cult to the emperor and his familia on Imperial accessions, anniversaries and their renewal of annual vows. They celebrated Rome's official festivals in absentia, and had the official triads appropriate to their function – in the Empire, Jupiter, Victoria and Concordia were typical. By the early Severan era, the military also offered cult to the Imperial divi, the current emperor's numen, genius and domus (or familia), and special cult to the Empress as "mother of the camp". The near ubiquitous legionary shrines to Mithras of the later Imperial era were not part of official cult until Mithras was absorbed into Solar and Stoic Monism as a focus of military concordia and Imperial loyalty.[115][116][117] A votive statue of Jupiter Dolichenus dedicated by a centurion for the wellbeing of the emperor (Carnuntum, 3rd century) The devotio was the most extreme offering a Roman general could make, promising to offer his own life in battle along with the enemy as an offering to the underworld gods. Livy offers a detailed account of the devotio carried out by Decius Mus; family tradition maintained that his son and grandson, all bearing the same name, also devoted themselves. Before the battle, Decius is granted a prescient dream that reveals his fate. When he offers sacrifice, the victim's liver appears "damaged where it refers to his own fortunes". Otherwise, the haruspex tells him, the sacrifice is entirely acceptable to the gods. In a prayer recorded by Livy, Decius commits himself and the enemy to the dii Manes and Tellus, charges alone and headlong into the enemy ranks, and is killed; his action cleanses the sacrificial offering. Had he failed to die, his sacrificial offering would have been tainted and therefore void, with possibly disastrous consequences.[118] The act of devotio is a link between military ethics and those of the Roman gladiator. The efforts of military commanders to channel the divine will were on occasion less successful. In the early days of Rome's war against Carthage, the commander Publius Claudius Pulcher (consul 249 BC) launched a sea campaign "though the sacred chickens would not eat when he took the auspices". In defiance of the omen, he threw them into the sea, "saying that they might drink, since they would not eat. He was defeated, and on being bidden by the Senate to appoint a dictator, he appointed his messenger Glycias, as if again making a jest of his country's peril." His impiety not only lost the battle but ruined his career.[119] Women and religion[edit] See also: Women in ancient Rome § Religious life Roman women were present at most festivals and cult observances. Some rituals specifically required the presence of women, but their active participation was limited. As a rule women did not perform animal sacrifice, the central rite of most major public ceremonies.[120] In addition to the public priesthood of the Vestals, some cult practices were reserved for women only. The rites of the Bona Dea excluded men entirely.[121] Because women enter the public record less frequently than men, their religious practices are less known, and even family cults were headed by the paterfamilias. A host of deities, however, are associated with motherhood. Juno, Diana, Lucina, and specialized divine attendants presided over the life-threatening act of giving birth and the perils of caring for a baby at a time when the infant mortality rate was as high as 40 percent. Literary sources vary in their depiction of women's religiosity: some represent women as paragons of Roman virtue and devotion, but also inclined by temperament to self-indulgent religious enthusiasms, novelties and the seductions of superstitio.[122] Superstitio and magic[edit] See also: Magic in the Greco-Roman world Mosaic from Pompeii depicting masked characters in a scene from a play: two women consult a witch Excessive devotion and enthusiasm in religious observance were superstitio, in the sense of "doing or believing more than was necessary",[123] to which women and foreigners were considered particularly prone.[124] The boundary between religio and superstitio is not clearly defined. The famous tirade of Lucretius, the Epicurean rationalist, against what is usually translated as "superstition" was in fact aimed at excessive religio. Roman religion was based on knowledge rather than faith,[125] but superstitio was viewed as an "inappropriate desire for knowledge"; in effect, an abuse of religio.[123] In the everyday world, many individuals sought to divine the future, influence it through magic, or seek vengeance with help from "private" diviners. The state-sanctioned taking of auspices was a form of public divination with the intent of ascertaining the will of the gods, not foretelling the future. Secretive consultations between private diviners and their clients were thus suspect. So were divinatory techniques such as astrology when used for illicit, subversive or magical purposes. Astrologers and magicians were officially expelled from Rome at various times, notably in 139 BC and 33 BC. In 16 BC Tiberius expelled them under extreme penalty because an astrologer had predicted his death. "Egyptian rites" were particularly suspect: Augustus banned them within the pomerium to doubtful effect; Tiberius repeated and extended the ban with extreme force in AD 19.[126] Despite several Imperial bans, magic and astrology persisted among all social classes. In the late 1st century AD, Tacitus observed that astrologers "would always be banned and always retained at Rome".[127][128][129] In the Graeco-Roman world, practitioners of magic were known as magi (singular magus), a "foreign" title of Persian priests. Apuleius, defending himself against accusations of casting magic spells, defined the magician as "in popular tradition (more vulgari)... someone who, because of his community of speech with the immortal gods, has an incredible power of spells (vi cantaminum) for everything he wishes to."[130] Pliny the Elder offers a thoroughly skeptical "History of magical arts" from their supposed Persian origins to Nero's vast and futile expenditure on research into magical practices in an attempt to control the gods.[131] Philostratus takes pains to point out that the celebrated Apollonius of Tyana was definitely not a magus, "despite his special knowledge of the future, his miraculous cures, and his ability to vanish into thin air".[132] Lucan depicts Sextus Pompeius, the doomed son of Pompey the Great, as convinced "the gods of heaven knew too little" and awaiting the Battle of Pharsalus by consulting with the Thessalian witch Erichtho, who practices necromancy and inhabits deserted graves, feeding on rotting corpses. Erichtho, it is said, can arrest "the rotation of the heavens and the flow of rivers" and make "austere old men blaze with illicit passions". She and her clients are portrayed as undermining the natural order of gods, mankind and destiny. A female foreigner from Thessaly, notorious for witchcraft, Erichtho is the stereotypical witch of Latin literature,[133] along with Horace's Canidia. Bound tablets with magic inscriptions from late antiquity The Twelve Tables forbade any harmful incantation (malum carmen, or 'noisome metrical charm'); this included the "charming of crops from one field to another" (excantatio frugum) and any rite that sought harm or death to others. Chthonic deities functioned at the margins of Rome's divine and human communities; although sometimes the recipients of public rites, these were conducted outside the sacred boundary of the pomerium. Individuals seeking their aid did so away from the public gaze, during the hours of darkness. Burial grounds and isolated crossroads were among the likely portals.[134] The barrier between private religious practices and "magic" is permeable, and Ovid gives a vivid account of rites at the fringes of the public Feralia festival that are indistinguishable from magic: an old woman squats among a circle of younger women, sews up a fish-head, smears it with pitch, then pierces and roasts it to "bind hostile tongues to silence". By this she invokes Tacita, the "Silent One" of the underworld. Archaeology confirms the widespread use of binding spells (defixiones), magical papyri and so-called "voodoo dolls" from a very early era. Around 250 defixiones have been recovered just from Roman Britain, in both urban and rural settings. Some seek straightforward, usually gruesome revenge, often for a lover's offense or rejection. Others appeal for divine redress of wrongs, in terms familiar to any Roman magistrate, and promise a portion of the value (usually small) of lost or stolen property in return for its restoration. None of these defixiones seem produced by, or on behalf of the elite, who had more immediate recourse to human law and justice. Similar traditions existed throughout the empire, persisting until around the 7th century AD, well into the Christian era.[135] History of Roman religion[edit] Religion and politics[edit] Temple of Bacchus ("Temple of the Sun"), c. 150 AD A fresco from Herculaneum depicting Heracles and Achelous from Greco-Roman mythology, 1st century AD Rome's government, politics and religion were dominated by an educated, male, landowning military aristocracy. Approximately half Rome's population were slave or free non-citizens. Most others were plebeians, the lowest class of Roman citizens. Less than a quarter of adult males had voting rights; far fewer could actually exercise them. Women had no vote.[136] However, all official business was conducted under the divine gaze and auspices, in the name of the Senate and people of Rome. "In a very real sense the senate was the caretaker of the Romans’ relationship with the divine, just as it was the caretaker of their relationship with other humans".[137] The links between religious and political life were vital to Rome's internal governance, diplomacy and development from kingdom, to Republic and to Empire. Post-regal politics dispersed the civil and religious authority of the kings more or less equitably among the patrician elite: kingship was replaced by two annually elected consular offices. In the early Republic, as presumably in the regal era, plebeians were excluded from high religious and civil office, and could be punished for offenses against laws of which they had no knowledge.[138] They resorted to strikes and violence to break the oppressive patrician monopolies of high office, public priesthood, and knowledge of civil and religious law. The Senate appointed Camillus as dictator to handle the emergency; he negotiated a settlement, and sanctified it by the dedication of a temple to Concordia.[139] The religious calendars and laws were eventually made public. Plebeian tribunes were appointed, with sacrosanct status and the right of veto in legislative debate. In principle, the augural and pontifical colleges were now open to plebeians.[140] In reality, the patrician and to a lesser extent, plebeian nobility dominated religious and civil office throughout the Republican era and beyond.[141] While the new plebeian nobility made social, political and religious inroads on traditionally patrician preserves, their electorate maintained their distinctive political traditions and religious cults.[142] During the Punic crisis, popular cult to Dionysus emerged from southern Italy; Dionysus was equated with Father Liber, the inventor of plebeian augury and personification of plebeian freedoms, and with Roman Bacchus. Official consternation at these enthusiastic, unofficial Bacchanalia cults was expressed as moral outrage at their supposed subversion, and was followed by ferocious suppression. Much later, a statue of Marsyas, the silen of Dionysus flayed by Apollo, became a focus of brief symbolic resistance to Augustus' censorship. Augustus himself claimed the patronage of Venus and Apollo; but his settlement appealed to all classes. Where loyalty was implicit, no divine hierarchy need be politically enforced; Liber's festival continued.[143][144] The Augustan settlement built upon a cultural shift in Roman society. In the middle Republican era, even Scipio's tentative hints that he might be Jupiter's special protege sat ill with his colleagues.[145] Politicians of the later Republic were less equivocal; both Sulla and Pompey claimed special relationships with Venus. Julius Caesar went further; he claimed her as his ancestress, and thus an intimate source of divine inspiration for his personal character and policies. In 63 BC, his appointment as pontifex maximus "signaled his emergence as a major player in Roman politics".[146] Likewise, political candidates could sponsor temples, priesthoods and the immensely popular, spectacular public ludi and munera whose provision became increasingly indispensable to the factional politics of the Late Republic.[147] Under the principate, such opportunities were limited by law; priestly and political power were consolidated in the person of the princeps ("first citizen"). "Because of you we are living, because of you we can travel the seas, because of you we enjoy liberty and wealth." A thanksgiving prayer offered in Naples' harbour to the princeps Augustus, on his return from Alexandria in 14 AD, shortly before his death.[148] Early Republic[edit] A fresco depicting Theseus, from Herculaneum (Ercolano), Italy, 45-79 AD By the end of the regal period Rome had developed into a city-state, with a large plebeian, artisan class excluded from the old patrician gentes and from the state priesthoods. The city had commercial and political treaties with its neighbours; according to tradition, Rome's Etruscan connections established a temple to Minerva on the predominantly plebeian Aventine; she became part of a new Capitoline triad of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, installed in a Capitoline temple, built in an Etruscan style and dedicated in a new September festival, Epulum Jovis.[149] These are supposedly the first Roman deities whose images were adorned, as if noble guests, at their own inaugural banquet. Rome's diplomatic agreement with its neighbours of Latium confirmed the Latin league and brought the cult of Diana from Aricia to the Aventine.[150] and established on the Aventine in the "commune Latinorum Dianae templum":[151] At about the same time, the temple of Jupiter Latiaris was built on the Alban mount, its stylistic resemblance to the new Capitoline temple pointing to Rome's inclusive hegemony. Rome's affinity to the Latins allowed two Latin cults within the pomoerium:[152] and the cult to Hercules at the ara maxima in the Forum Boarium was established through commercial connections with Tibur.[153] and the Tusculan cult of Castor as the patron of cavalry found a home close to the Forum Romanum:[154] Juno Sospita and Juno Regina were brought from Italy, and Fortuna Primigenia from Praeneste. In 217, Venus was brought from Sicily and installed in a temple on the Capitoline hill.[155] Later Republic to Principate[edit] Livy attributed the disasters of the early part of Rome's second Punic War to a growth of superstitious cults, errors in augury and the neglect of Rome's traditional gods, whose anger was expressed directly in Rome's defeat at Cannae (216 BC). The Sibilline books were consulted. They recommended a general vowing of the ver sacrum[156] and in the following year, the burial of two Greeks and two Gauls; not the first nor the last of its kind, according to Livy. The introduction of new or equivalent deities coincided with Rome's most significant aggressive and defensive military forays. In 206 BC the Sibylline books commended the introduction of a cult to the aniconic Magna Mater (Great Mother) from Pessinus, installed on the Palatine in 191 BC. The mystery cult to Bacchus followed; it was suppressed as subversive and unruly by decree of the Senate in 186 BC.[157] Greek deities were brought within the sacred pomerium: temples were dedicated to Juventas (Hebe) in 191 BC,[158] Diana (Artemis) in 179 BC, Mars (Ares) in 138 BC), and to Bona Dea, equivalent to Fauna, the female counterpart of the rural Faunus, supplemented by the Greek goddess Damia. Further Greek influences on cult images and types represented the Roman Penates as forms of the Greek Dioscuri. The military-political adventurers of the Later Republic introduced the Phrygian goddess Ma (identified with the Roman Bellona, the Egyptian mystery-goddess Isis and the Persian Mithras.) A 3rd-century Roman Pallas Athena mosaic from Tusculum, now in the Vatican Museums The spread of Greek literature, mythology and philosophy offered Roman poets and antiquarians a model for the interpretation of Rome's festivals and rituals, and the embellishment of its mythology. Ennius translated the work of Graeco-Sicilian Euhemerus, who explained the genesis of the gods as apotheosized mortals. In the last century of the Republic, Epicurean and particularly Stoic interpretations were a preoccupation of the literate elite, most of whom held – or had held – high office and traditional Roman priesthoods; notably, Scaevola and the polymath Varro. For Varro – well versed in Euhemerus' theory – popular religious observance was based on a necessary fiction; what the people believed was not itself the truth, but their observance led them to as much higher truth as their limited capacity could deal with. Whereas in popular belief deities held power over mortal lives, the skeptic might say that mortal devotion had made gods of mortals, and these same gods were only sustained by devotion and cult. Just as Rome itself claimed the favour of the gods, so did some individual Romans. In the mid-to-late Republican era, and probably much earlier, many of Rome's leading clans acknowledged a divine or semi-divine ancestor and laid personal claim to their favour and cult, along with a share of their divinity. Most notably in the very late Republic, the Julii claimed Venus Genetrix as an ancestor; this would be one of many foundations for the Imperial cult. The claim was further elaborated and justified in Vergil's poetic, Imperial vision of the past.[9] Polyphemus hears of the arrival of Galatea; Roman fresco painted in the "Fourth Style" of Pompeii (45-79 AD) In the late Republic, the Marian reforms lowered an existing property bar on conscription and increased the efficiency of Rome's armies but made them available as instruments of political ambition and factional conflict.[159] The consequent civil wars led to changes at every level of Roman society. Augustus' principate established peace and subtly transformed Rome's religious life – or, in the new ideology of Empire, restored it (see below). Towards the end of the Republic, religious and political offices became more closely intertwined; the office of pontifex maximus became a de facto consular prerogative.[89] Augustus was personally vested with an extraordinary breadth of political, military and priestly powers; at first temporarily, then for his lifetime. He acquired or was granted an unprecedented number of Rome's major priesthoods, including that of pontifex maximus; as he invented none, he could claim them as traditional honours. His reforms were represented as adaptive, restorative and regulatory, rather than innovative; most notably his elevation (and membership) of the ancient Arvales, his timely promotion of the plebeian Compitalia shortly before his election and his patronage of the Vestals as a visible restoration of Roman morality.[160] Augustus obtained the pax deorum, maintained it for the rest of his reign and adopted a successor to ensure its continuation. This remained a primary religious and social duty of emperors. Roman Empire[edit] Eastern Influence[edit] Under the rule of Augustus, there existed a deliberate campaign to reinstate previously held belief systems amongst the Roman population. These once held ideals had been eroded and met with cynicism by this time.[161] The imperial order emphasized commemoration of great men and events which led to the concept and practice of divine kingship. Emperors postceding Augustus subsequently held the office of Chief Priest (pontifex maximus) combining both political and religious supremacy under one title.[162] Another result of eastern influence in the Roman Empire was the emergence of the mystery cults with ideals originating from the east which operated through a hierarchy consisting of transference of knowledge, virtues and powers to those initiated through secret rites of passage. The cult of Mithras was the most notable among these, particularly popular among soldiers, which was based upon the Zoroastrian deity, Mithra.[162] A common theme among the eastern mystery religions present in Rome became disillusionment with material possessions, a focus on death and a preoccupation with regards to the afterlife. These attributes later led to the appeal to Christianity, which in its early stages was often viewed as mystery religion itself.[162] Absorption of cults[edit] Mithras in a Roman wall painting The Roman Empire expanded to include different peoples and cultures; in principle, Rome followed the same inclusionist policies that had recognised Latin, Etruscan and other Italian peoples, cults and deities as Roman. Those who acknowledged Rome's hegemony retained their own cult and religious calendars, independent of Roman religious law.[163] Newly municipal Sabratha built a Capitolium near its existing temple to Liber Pater and Serapis. Autonomy and concord were official policy, but new foundations by Roman citizens or their Romanised allies were likely to follow Roman cultic models.[164] Romanisation offered distinct political and practical advantages, especially to local elites. All the known effigies from the 2nd century AD forum at Cuicul are of emperors or Concordia. By the middle of the 1st century AD, Gaulish Vertault seems to have abandoned its native cultic sacrifice of horses and dogs in favour of a newly established, Romanised cult nearby: by the end of that century, Sabratha's so-called tophet was no longer in use.[165] Colonial and later Imperial provincial dedications to Rome's Capitoline Triad were a logical choice, not a centralised legal requirement.[166] Major cult centres to "non-Roman" deities continued to prosper: notable examples include the magnificent Alexandrian Serapium, the temple of Aesculapeus at Pergamum and Apollo's sacred wood at Antioch.[167] The overall scarcity of evidence for smaller or local cults does not always imply their neglect; votive inscriptions are inconsistently scattered throughout Rome's geography and history. Inscribed dedications were an expensive public declaration, one to be expected within the Graeco-Roman cultural ambit but by no means universal. Innumerable smaller, personal or more secretive cults would have persisted and left no trace.[168] Military settlement within the empire and at its borders broadened the context of Romanitas. Rome's citizen-soldiers set up altars to multiple deities, including their traditional gods, the Imperial genius and local deities – sometimes with the usefully open-ended dedication to the diis deabusque omnibus (all the gods and goddesses). They also brought Roman "domestic" deities and cult practices with them.[169] By the same token, the later granting of citizenship to provincials and their conscription into the legions brought their new cults into the Roman military.[170] Traders, legions and other travellers brought home cults originating from Egypt, Greece, Iberia, India and Persia. The cults of Cybele, Isis, Mithras, and Sol Invictus were particularly important. Some of those were initiatory religions of intense personal significance, similar to Christianity in those respects. Imperial cult[edit] The Maison Carrée in Nîmes, one of the best-preserved Roman temples. It is a mid-sized Augustan provincial temple of the Imperial cult. Main article: Imperial cult of ancient Rome In the early Imperial era, the princeps (lit. "first" or "foremost" among citizens) was offered genius-cult as the symbolic paterfamilias of Rome. His cult had further precedents: popular, unofficial cult offered to powerful benefactors in Rome: the kingly, god-like honours granted a Roman general on the day of his triumph; and in the divine honours paid to Roman magnates in the Greek East from at least 195 BC.[171][172] The deification of deceased emperors had precedent in Roman domestic cult to the dii parentes (deified ancestors) and the mythic apotheosis of Rome's founders. A deceased emperor granted apotheosis by his successor and the Senate became an official State divus (divinity). Members of the Imperial family could be granted similar honours and cult; an Emperor's deceased wife, sister or daughter could be promoted to diva (female divinity). The first and last Roman known as a living divus was Julius Caesar, who seems to have aspired to divine monarchy; he was murdered soon after. Greek allies had their own traditional cults to rulers as divine benefactors, and offered similar cult to Caesar's successor, Augustus, who accepted with the cautious proviso that expatriate Roman citizens refrain from such worship; it might prove fatal.[173] By the end of his reign, Augustus had appropriated Rome's political apparatus – and most of its religious cults – within his "reformed" and thoroughly integrated system of government. Towards the end of his life, he cautiously allowed cult to his numen. By then the Imperial cult apparatus was fully developed, first in the Eastern Provinces, then in the West.[174] Provincial Cult centres offered the amenities and opportunities of a major Roman town within a local context; bathhouses, shrines and temples to Roman and local deities, amphitheatres and festivals. In the early Imperial period, the promotion of local elites to Imperial priesthood gave them Roman citizenship.[175] In an empire of great religious and cultural diversity, the Imperial cult offered a common Roman identity and dynastic stability. In Rome, the framework of government was recognisably Republican. In the Provinces, this would not have mattered; in Greece, the emperor was "not only endowed with special, super-human abilities, but... he was indeed a visible god" and the little Greek town of Akraiphia could offer official cult to "liberating Zeus Nero for all eternity".[176] In Rome, state cult to a living emperor acknowledged his rule as divinely approved and constitutional. As princeps (first citizen) he must respect traditional Republican mores; given virtually monarchic powers, he must restrain them. He was not a living divus but father of his country (pater patriae), its pontifex maximus (greatest priest) and at least notionally, its leading Republican. When he died, his ascent to heaven, or his descent to join the dii manes was decided by a vote in the Senate. As a divus, he could receive much the same honours as any other state deity – libations of wine, garlands, incense, hymns and sacrificial oxen at games and festivals. What he did in return for these favours is unknown, but literary hints and the later adoption of divus as a title for Christian Saints suggest him as a heavenly intercessor.[177] In Rome, official cult to a living emperor was directed to his genius; a small number refused this honour and there is no evidence of any emperor receiving more than that. In the crises leading up to the Dominate, Imperial titles and honours multiplied, reaching a peak under Diocletian. Emperors before him had attempted to guarantee traditional cults as the core of Roman identity and well-being; refusal of cult undermined the state and was treasonous.[178] Jews and Roman religion[edit] Jewish ritual objects in 2nd-century gold glass from Rome See also: Fiscus Judaicus, Religio licita, and History of the Jews in the Roman Empire For at least a century before the establishment of the Augustan principate, Jews and Judaism were tolerated in Rome by diplomatic treaty with Judaea's Hellenised elite. Diaspora Jews had much in common with the overwhelmingly Hellenic or Hellenised communities that surrounded them. Early Italian synagogues have left few traces; but one was dedicated in Ostia around the mid-1st century BC and several more are attested during the Imperial period. Judaea's enrollment as a client kingdom in 63 BC increased the Jewish diaspora; in Rome, this led to closer official scrutiny of their religion. Their synagogues were recognised as legitimate collegia by Julius Caesar. By the Augustan era, the city of Rome was home to several thousand Jews.[179][180] In some periods under Roman rule, Jews were legally exempt from official sacrifice, under certain conditions. Judaism was a superstitio to Cicero, but the Church Father Tertullian described it as religio licita (an officially permitted religion) in contrast to Christianity.[181] Christianity in the Roman Empire[edit] See also: Pentarchy, History of Christianity, Persecution of religion in ancient Rome, and State church of the Roman Empire Roman investigations into early Christianity found it an irreligious, novel, disobedient, even atheistic sub-sect of Judaism: it appeared to deny all forms of religion and was therefore superstitio. By the end of the Imperial era, Nicene Christianity was the one permitted Roman religio; all other cults were heretical or pagan superstitiones.[182] After the Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD, Emperor Nero accused the Christians as convenient scapegoats, who were later persecuted and killed. From that point on, Roman official policy towards Christianity tended towards persecution. During the various Imperial crises of the 3rd century, "contemporaries were predisposed to decode any crisis in religious terms", regardless of their allegiance to particular practices or belief systems. Christianity drew its traditional base of support from the powerless, who seemed to have no religious stake in the well-being of the Roman State, and therefore threatened its existence.[183] The majority of Rome's elite continued to observe various forms of inclusive Hellenistic monism; Neoplatonism in particular accommodated the miraculous and the ascetic within a traditional Graeco-Roman cultic framework. Christians saw these practices as ungodly, and a primary cause of economic and political crisis. In the wake of religious riots in Egypt, the emperor Decius decreed that all subjects of the Empire must actively seek to benefit the state through witnessed and certified sacrifice to "ancestral gods" or suffer a penalty: only Jews were exempt.[184] Decius' edict appealed to whatever common mos maiores might reunite a politically and socially fractured Empire and its multitude of cults; no ancestral gods were specified by name. The fulfillment of sacrificial obligation by loyal subjects would define them and their gods as Roman.[185][186] Apostasy was sought, rather than capital punishment.[187] A year after its due deadline, the edict expired.[188] Valerian singled out Christianity as a particularly self-interested and subversive foreign cult, outlawed its assemblies and urged Christians to sacrifice to Rome's traditional gods.[189][190] In another edict, he described Christianity as a threat to Empire – not yet at its heart but close to it, among Rome's equites and Senators. Christian apologists interpreted his eventual fate – a disgraceful capture and death – as divine judgement. The next forty years were peaceful; the Christian church grew stronger and its literature and theology gained a higher social and intellectual profile, due in part to its own search for political toleration and theological coherence. Origen discussed theological issues with traditionalist elites in a common Neoplatonist frame of reference – he had written to Decius' predecessor Philip the Arab in similar vein – and Hippolytus recognised a "pagan" basis in Christian heresies.[191] The Christian churches were disunited; Paul of Samosata, Bishop of Antioch was deposed by a synod of 268 both for his doctrines, and for his unworthy, indulgent, elite lifestyle.[192] Meanwhile, Aurelian (270-75) appealed for harmony among his soldiers (concordia militum), stabilised the Empire and its borders and successfully established an official, Hellenic form of unitary cult to the Palmyrene Sol Invictus in Rome's Campus Martius.[193] In 295, Maximilian of Tebessa refused military service; in 298 Marcellus renounced his military oath. Both were executed for treason; both were Christians.[189] At some time around 302, a report of ominous haruspicy in Diocletian's domus and a subsequent (but undated) dictat of placatory sacrifice by the entire military triggered a series of edicts against Christianity.[194] The first (303 AD) "ordered the destruction of church buildings and Christian texts, forbade services to be held, degraded officials who were Christians, re-enslaved imperial freedmen who were Christians, and reduced the legal rights of all Christians... [Physical] or capital punishments were not imposed on them" but soon after, several Christians suspected of attempted arson in the palace were executed.[195] The second edict threatened Christian priests with imprisonment and the third offered them freedom if they performed sacrifice.[196] An edict of 304 enjoined universal sacrifice to traditional gods, in terms that recall the Decian edict. In some cases and in some places the edicts were strictly enforced: some Christians resisted and were imprisoned or martyred. Others complied. Some local communities were not only pre-dominantly Christian, but powerful and influential; and some provincial authorities were lenient, notably the Caesar in Gaul, Constantius Chlorus, the father of Constantine I. Diocletian's successor Galerius maintained anti-Christian policy until his deathbed revocation in 311, when he asked Christians to pray for him. "This meant an official recognition of their importance in the religious world of the Roman empire, although one of the tetrarchs, Maximinus Daia, still oppressed Christians in his part of the empire up to 313."[197] Emperor Constantine and Christianity[edit] The Aula Palatina of Trier, Germany (then part of the Roman province of Gallia Belgica), built during the reign of Constantine I (r. 306-337 AD) The conversion of Constantine I ended the Christian persecutions. Constantine successfully balanced his own role as an instrument of the pax deorum with the power of the Christian priesthoods in determining what was (in traditional Roman terms) auspicious – or in Christian terms, what was orthodox. The edict of Milan (313) redefined Imperial ideology as one of mutual toleration. Constantine had triumphed under the signum (sign) of the Christ: Christianity was therefore officially embraced along with traditional religions and from his new Eastern capital, Constantine could be seen to embody both Christian and Hellenic religious interests. He passed laws to protect Christians from persecution;[198] he also funded the building of churches, including Saint Peter's basilica. He may have officially ended – or attempted to end – blood sacrifices to the genius of living emperors, though his Imperial iconography and court ceremonial outstripped Diocletian's in their supra-human elevation of the Imperial hierarch.[199] Constantine promoted orthodoxy in Christian doctrine, so that Christianity might become a unitary force, rather than divisive. He summoned Christian bishops to a meeting, later known as the First Council of Nicaea, at which some 318 bishops (mostly easterners) debated and decided what was orthodox, and what was heresy. The meeting reached consensus on the Nicene Creed.[200][201] At Constantine's death, he was honored as a Christian and as an Imperial "divus".[202] Later, Philostorgius would criticize those Christians who offered sacrifice at statues of the divus Constantine.[203] Transition to Christian hegemony[edit] Main article: Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism See also: Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire Monogramme of Christ (the Chi Rho) on a plaque of a sarcophagus, 4th century CE, marble, Musei Vaticani, on display in a temporary exhibition at the Colosseum in Rome, Italy Christianity and traditional Roman religion proved incompatible. From the 2nd century onward, the Church Fathers had condemned the diverse non-Christian religions practiced throughout the Empire as "pagan".[204] Constantine's actions have been regarded by some scholars as causing the rapid growth of Christianity,[205] though revisionist scholars disagree.[206][207] Constantine's unique form of Imperial orthodoxy did not outlast him. After his death in 337, two of his sons, Constantius II and Constans, took over the leadership of the empire and re-divided their Imperial inheritance. Constantius was an Arian and his brothers were Nicene Christians. Constantine's nephew Julian rejected the "Galilean madness" of his upbringing for an idiosyncratic synthesis of neo-Platonism, Stoic asceticism and universal solar cult. Julian became Augustus in 361 and actively but fostered a religious and cultural pluralism, attempting a restitution of non-Christian practices and rights.[208] He proposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem's temple as an Imperial project and argued against the "irrational impieties" of Christian doctrine.[209] His attempt to restore an Augustan form of principate, with himself as primus inter pares ended with his death in 363 in Persia, after which his reforms were reversed or abandoned. The empire once again fell under Christian control, this time permanently. In 380, under Theodosius I, Nicene Christianity became the official state religion of the Roman Empire. Christian heretics as well as non-Christians were subject to exclusion from public life or persecution, though Rome's original religious hierarchy and many aspects of its ritual influenced Christian forms,[210] and many pre-Christian beliefs and practices survived in Christian festivals and local traditions. The Western emperor Gratian refused the office of pontifex maximus, and against the protests of the Senate, removed the altar of Victory from the Senate house and began the disestablishment of the Vestals. Theodosius I briefly re-united the Empire: in 391 he officially adopted Nicene Christianity as the Imperial religion and ended official support for all other creeds and cults. He not only refused to restore Victory to the senate-house, but extinguished the Sacred fire of the Vestals and vacated their temple: the senatorial protest was expressed in a letter by Quintus Aurelius Symmachus to the Western and Eastern emperors. Ambrose, the influential Bishop of Milan and future saint, wrote urging the rejection of Symmachus's request for tolerance.[211] Yet Theodosius accepted comparison with Hercules and Jupiter as a living divinity in the panegyric of Pacatus, and despite his active dismantling of Rome's traditional cults and priesthoods could commend his heirs to its overwhelmingly Hellenic Senate in traditional Hellenic terms.[clarification needed] He was the last emperor of both East and West.[212][213] See also[edit] Hellenistic religion Italo-Roman neopaganism Sibylline Oracles References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ For an overview of the representation of Roman religion in early Christian authors, see R.P.C. Hanson, "The Christian Attitude to Pagan Religions up to the Time of Constantine the Great" and Carlos A. Contreras, "Christian Views of Paganism" in Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.23.1 (1980) 871–1022. ^ Jörg Rüpke, "Roman Religion – Religions of Rome" in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 4. ^ Apuleius, Florides 1.1; John Scheid, "Sacrifices for Gods and Ancestors" in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 279. ^ "This mentality," notes John T. Koch, "lay at the core of the genius of cultural assimilation which made the Roman Empire possible"; entry on "Interpretatio romana" in Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia (ABC-Clio, 2006), p. 974. ^ Rüpke, "Roman Religion – Religions of Rome", p. 4; Benjamin H. Isaac, The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity (Princeton University Press, 2004, 2006), p. 449; W.H.C. Frend, Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church: A Study of Conflict from the Maccabees to Donatus (Doubleday, 1967), p. 106. ^ Janet Huskinson, Experiencing Rome: Culture, Identity and Power in the Roman Empire (Routledge, 2000), p. 261. See, for instance, the altar dedicated by a Roman citizen and depicting a sacrifice conducted in the Roman manner for the Germanic goddess Vagdavercustis in the 2nd century CE. ^ A classic essay on this topic is Arnaldo Momigliano, "The Disadvantages of Monotheism for a Universal State", Classical Philology 81.4 (1986) 285–297. ^ Alexandre Grandazzi, The Foundation of Rome: Myth and History (Cornell University Press, 1997), pp. 45–46. ^ a b Beard et al., Vol. 1, 1; 189 – 90 (Aeneas and Vesta): 123 – 45 (Aeneas and Venus as Julian ancestors). See also Vergil, Aeneid. ^ T.P. Wiseman, Remus: A Roman Myth (Cambridge University Press, 1995), passim. ^ Or else was murdered by his resentful Senate, who successfully concealed their crime. See Beard et al., Vol. 1, 1; Vol. 2, 4.8a for Livy, 1.9 & 5 – 7 (Sabines and temple to Jupiter) and Plutarch, Romulus, 11, 1 – 4. ^ Illustration of Vergil, Aeneid 3.147; MS Vat. lat. 3225, folio 28 recto ^ Beard et al., Vol. 1, 1 – 2 & Vol. 2: 1.2, (Livy, 1.19.6): 8.4a (Plutarch, Numa, 10). For Augustus' closure of Janus's temple doors, see Augustus, Res Gestae, 13. Festus connects Numa to the triumphal spolia opima and Jupiter Feretrius. ^ Beard et al., Vol. 1, 3, and footnotes 4 & 5. ^ The Augustan historian Livy places Rome's foundation more than 600 years before his own time. His near contemporary Dionysius of Halicarnassus appear to share some common sources, including an earlier history by Quintus Fabius Pictor, of which only a terse summary survives. See also Diocles of Peparethus, Romulus and Remus and Plutarch, The Parallel Lives, Life of Romulus, 3. Loeb edn. available at Thayer's site: [1]. Fragments of an important earlier work (now lost) of Quintus Ennius are cited by various later Roman authors. On the chronological problems of the kings' list, see Cornell, pp. 21–26, and 199–122. ^ Beard et al., Vol. 1, 8-10; Cornell, pp. 1–30; Feeney, in Rüpke (ed), 129 – 42, on religious themes in Roman Historiography and epic; Smith, in Rüpke (ed), 31 – 42 for broad discussion of sources, modern schools of thought and divergent interpretations. ^ Cicero, On the Responses of the Haruspices, 19. ^ Rüpke, in Rüpke (ed) 4 and Beard et al., Vol. 1, 10 – 43; in particular, 30 – 35. ^ The reasons for this change remain unclear, though they are attributed to Etruscan influence. For a summary of Jupiter's complex development from the Regal to Republican eras, see Beard et al.,, Vol. 1, 59 – 60. Jupiter's image in the Republican and Imperial Capitol bore regalia associated with Rome's ancient kings and the highest consular and Imperial honours. Jupiter, Mars and Quirinus were collectively and individually associated with Rome's agricultural economy, social organisation and success in war. ^ Beard et al., Vol. 1, 134 – 5, 64 – 67. ^ Orlin, in Rüpke (ed), 58. For related conceptual and interpretive difficulties offered by Roman deities and their cults, see Rüpke, in Rüpke (ed) 1 – 7. ^ Rüpke, in Rüpke (ed), 4 – 5. ^ CIL 13.581, quotation from Van Andringa, in Rüpke (ed), 91. ^ https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/myst/hd_myst.htm ^ "Mystery religion | Greco-Roman religion". ^ Beard et al., 6 – 7; those titled in capital letters on Roman calendars were probably more important and ancient than those titled in small letters: it is not known how ancient they were, nor to whom they were important. Their attribution to Numa or Romulus is doubtful. The oldest surviving religious calendars date to the late Republic; the most detailed are Augustan and later. Beard et al., Vol. 1, 6: a selection of festivals is given in Vol. 2, 3.1 – 3. For a list of Fasti, with bibliography and sources, see Degrassi, Inscriptiones Italiae, Vol. XIII – Fasti et elogia, fasc. II – Fasti anni Numani et Iuliani, Rome, 1963. See also Scullard, 1981. ^ Beard et al, Vol. 1, 134 – 5, 64 – 67: citing Cicero. ^ Rüpke, in Rüpke (ed), 4. ^ Beard et al., Vol. 1, 47 – 49, 296. ^ Beard et al., Religions of Rome, p. 262. ^ Beard et al., Vol. 2, 6.4a; Vol. 1, 174 – 6 & 207 – 8. ^ Carole E. Newlands, Playing with Time: Ovid and the Fasti (Cornell University Press, 1995), passim; "Transgressive Acts: Ovid's Treatment of the Ides of March", Classical Philology 91.4 (1996) 320-338. ^ See the Calendar of Filocalus (AD 354), cited in Beard et al., Vol. 1, 250, and that of Polemius Silvius. See also early and later Christian festivals in Beard et al., Vol. 1, 378 – 80, 382 – 3. ^ Clarke, 1, citing Frank E. Brown, Roman Architecture, (New York) 1961, 9. ^ Beard, et al., Vol. 1, 321 – 3 ^ Pliny, Natural History 28.10. ^ Halm, in Rüpke (ed), 235–236 et passim. The Roman belief in the power of the word may be reflected also in the importance of persuasive speech, formally oratory, in political life and the law courts. ^ a b Halm, in Rüpke (ed), 241 – 2. ^ Hahn, in Rüpke (ed), 239 – 45. ^ Livy, 41.16.1. ^ Hahn, in Rüpke (ed), 235 – 6. ^ Orr, 23. ^ Pliny the Elder, Natural History, 28, 27. ^ Lott, 31: Dionysius of Halicarnassus claims the Compitalia contribution of honey-cakes as a Servian institution. ^ Ovid, Fasti, 2.500 – 539. See also Thaniel, G., Lemures and Larvae, The American Journal of Philology, 94.2, (1973) 182–187: the offering of black beans is distinctively chthonic. Beans were considered seeds of life. Lemures may have been the restless dead who had not passed into the underworld, and still craved the life they had lost. Beans were a ritual pollution for Jupiter's priesthood, possibly because his offerings must be emasculated and thus devoid of generative power. ^ Halm, in Rüpke (ed), 239. ^ a b c Scheid, in Rüpke (ed), 263 – 271. ^ Though the household Lares do just that, and at least some Romans understood them to be ancestral spirits. Sacrifices to the spirits of deceased mortals are discussed below in Funerals and the afterlife. ^ Jörg Rüpke, Religion of the Romans (Polity Press, 2007, originally published in German 2001), p. 81 online. ^ William Warde Fowler, The Religious Experience of the Roman People (London, 1922), p. 191. ^ Robert E.A. Palmer, "The Deconstruction of Mommsen on Festus 462/464 L, or the Hazards of Interpretation", in Imperium sine fine: T. Robert S. Broughton and the Roman Republic (Franz Steiner, 1996), p. 99, note 129 online; Roger D. Woodard, Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult (University of Illinois Press, 2006), p. 122 online. The Augustan historian Livy (8.9.1–11) says P. Decius Mus is "like" a piaculum when he makes his vow to sacrifice himself in battle (devotio). ^ Hahn, in Rüpke (ed), 238. ^ Beard et al., Vol 1, 32-36. ^ Gradel, 21: but this need not imply sacrifice as a mutual contract, breached in this instance. Evidently the gods had the greater power and freedom of choice in the matter. See Beard et al., 34: "The gods would accept as sufficient exactly what they were offered – no more, no less." Human error in the previous annual vows and sacrifice remains a possibility. ^ Gradel, 78, 93 ^ Cicero, De divinatione 2.12.29. According to Pliny (Natural History 11.186), before 274 BC the heart was not included among the exta. ^ Robert Schilling, "The Roman Religion", in Historia Religionum: Religions of the Past (Brill, 1969), vol. 1, pp. 471–472, and "Roman Sacrifice", Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992), p. 79; John Scheid, An Introduction to Roman Religion (Indiana University Press, 2003, originally published in French 1998), p. 84. ^ Livy 22.55-57 ^ Livy, 22.57.4; Plutarch, Roman Questions, 83 & Marcellus, 3. For further context and interpretive difficulties, see Beard et al., Vol. 1, 81: the live burial superficially resembles the punishment of Vestals who broke their vows. A living entombment assuages the blood-guilt of the living: the guilty are consigned to earth deities. But the Vestals are entombed outside the city limits, not its centre; no sacrificial victims are burned in either case, and the Gauls and Greeks appear to be personally guiltless. ^ Welch, 18-19: citing Livy, summary 16. ^ For example, Prudentius, Contra Symmachum 1.379–398; see Donald G. Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome (Routledge, 1998, 2001), p. 59. ^ The sacrifice was demanded by an oracle during the reign of the last king, the Etruscan Tarquinius Superbus. See Macrobius, Saturnalia, 1.7 & Lilly Ross Taylor, "The Mother of the Lares", American Journal of Archaeology, 29.3, (July – September 1925), pp 299 – 313. ^ Beard et al., Vol. 1, 233 – 4, 385. ^ Gradel, 36-8: the paterfamilias held – in theory at least, and through ancient right – powers of life and death over every member of his extended familia, including children, slaves and freedmen. In practice, the extreme form of this right was seldom exercised, and was eventually limited by law. ^ See also Severy, 9-10 for interpretation of the social, economic and religious role of the paterfamilias within the immediate and extended family and the broader community. ^ Beard et al., vol 1, 67-8. ^ Brent, 62-3. ^ Beard et al., 1997, 2-3, citing Vergil, Aeneid, 8,306-58. ^ Belayche, (verbatim) in Rüpke (ed), 279. ^ Beard et al., Vol. 1, 217. ^ Gradel, 3, 15. ^ Gradel, 9-15: citing legal definitions from Festus (epitome of Verrius Flaccus) "De verborum significatu" p.284 L: in Wissowa, 1912, 398ff: and Geiger, 1914): see also Beard et al., Vol. 1, 251. ^ Smith, in Rüpke (ed), 39 – 40. ^ Beard et al., Vol. 1, 18 – 34, 54 – 61: "[the underlying purpose being that] whoever bore the title rex should never again be in a position to threaten the city with tyranny." See also Religion and politics in this article. ^ Beard et al., Vol. 1, 104 – 8: there can be no doubt that politicians attempted to manipulate religious law and priesthoods for gain; but were compelled to do so lawfully, and often failed. ^ Horster, in Rüpke (ed), 331 – 2. ^ See Gradel, 9-15. ^ Gradel, 21. ^ Gary Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War (University of California Press, 2005, 2006), p. 141. ^ Beard et al., Vol. 1, 52 – 53. ^ Beard et al., Vol. 1, 51 – 54, 70 – 71, 297. For comparison of Vestal constraints to those of Jupiter's flamen, see Smith, in Rüpke (ed), 39 – 40 ^ Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome, p. 141. ^ Beard et al., Vol. 1, 50 – 53. ^ Ariadne Staples, From Good Goddess to Vestal Virgins: Sex and Category in Roman Religion (Routledge, 1998), pp. 154–155. ^ Beard et al., Vol. 1, 193-4. ^ Smith, in Rüpke (ed), 36. ^ Beard et al., Vol 1, 12-20. ^ Brent, 17-20: citing Cicero, De Natura Deorum, 2.4. ^ a b Brent, 21-25. ^ Beard et al., Vol 1, 12-20. See also Scheid, in Rüpke (ed), 266. ^ Horster, in Rüpke (ed) 336 – 7. ^ Cicero finds all forms of divination false, except those used in State rituals; most Romans were less skeptical. See Rosenberger, in Rüpke (ed), 300, and Orlin, in Rüpke (ed), 67. ^ Caesar used his ius augurium to declare obnuntiato to Cicero's disadvantage: and vice versa. ^ Orlin, in Rüpke (ed), 65 – 66. ^ Orlin, in Rüpke (ed), 60. ^ Rosenberger, in Rüpke (ed), 297. ^ Rosenberger, in Rüpke (ed), 295 – 8: the task fell to the haruspex, who set the child to drown in the sea. The survival of such a child for four years after its birth would have between regarded as extreme dereliction of religious duty. ^ Livy, 27.37.5–15; the hymn was composed by the poet Livius Andronicus. Cited by Halm, in Rüpke (ed) 244. For remainder, see Rosenberger, in Rüpke (ed), 297. ^ See Livy, 22.1 ff: The expiatory burial of living human victims in the Forum Boarium followed Rome's defeat at Cannae in the same wars. In Livy's account, Rome's victory follows its discharge of religious duties to the gods. ^ For Livy's use of prodigies and portents as markers of Roman impiety and military failure, see Feeney, in Rüpke (ed), 138 – 9. For prodigies in the context of political decision-making, see Rosenberger, in Rüpke (ed), 295 – 8. ^ Rosenberger, in Rüpke (ed), 293. ^ Hertz, in Rüpke (ed), 315. ^ Smith, in Rüpke (ed), 35 – 6: Rome's Latin neighbours significantly influenced the development of its domestic and funerary architecture. ^ Smith, in Rüpke (ed), 35 – 6. ^ Scheid, in Rüpke (ed), 267, 270 – 71. ^ From a Romano-Athenian veteran's tomb; Cagnat, René, Inscriptiones Graecae ad res Romanas pertinentes. Paris 1906–27, 3.917. ^ Haensch, in Rüpke, (ed) 186 – 7. ^ This recommended Christian commemorative rites on the 3rd, 9th & 30th days after death. ^ Saltzman, in Rüpke, (ed), 114 – 116. ^ Orlin, in Rüpke (ed), 58. ^ Beard et al., Vol. 1, 44, 59 – 60, 143. ^ Cornell, T., in Walbank et al., 299, citing Livy 21.8-9 and 22.3-6. Livy describes this as evocatio (a "calling forth") initiated by Roman soldiers who snatched the goddess's sacrificial portion during her Veiian rites; the Veiian priest had announced that whoever possessed the sacred entrails would win the coming battle. Preview via googlebooks [2] ^ Moede, in Rüpke (ed), 171, & Beard et al., Vol. 1, 326 – 7. ^ Beard et al., Vol. 1, 324 – 6. ^ Brent, 268-9. ^ Books.Google.co.uk, Le Bohec, 249: limited preview available via Google Books ^ Books.Google.co.uk, Dixon, 78: limited preview available from Google Books ^ Livy, 5.21.3., & 8.9.8; Beard et al., Vol 1, 35 – 36; Hertz, in Rüpke (ed), 312; Halm, in Rüpke (ed), 239. ^ Rosenberger, in Rüpke (ed), 3OO, citing Suetonius, Tiberius, 2.2. ^ Beard et al., Vol. 1, 297. ^ Beard et al., Vol. 1, 296 – 7. This exclusion prompted prurient speculation on the part of men, and a scandalous, impious intrusion by Publius Clodius Pulcher. ^ Beard et al., Vol. 1, 297. Ibid 217, citing the obituary of a woman whose virtues included "religio without superstitio" (ILS 8393.30-31 of "Turia"). ^ a b Rüpke, in Rüpke (ed), 5. ^ See Beard et al., Vol. 1, 217. ^ Clifford Ando, The Matter of the Gods: Religion and the Roman Empire (University of California Press, 2008), p. 13. ^ Beard et al., 230 – 31. ^ Phillips, in Rüpke (ed), 14. ^ Ogden, in Flint et al., 83: citing Pliny, Natural History, 28.17 – 18; Seneca, Natural Questions, 4.7.2. ^ Beard et al., Vol. 1, 231 – 233, citing Tacitus, Histories, 1.22. Tacitus' prediction was accurate: in the late 3rd century, Diocletian issued a general ban on astrology. ^ Apuleius, Apologia, 26.6. ^ Pliny the Elder, Natural History, 30.1 – 18; see also Beard et al., Vol. 1, 219. ^ Beard et al., Vol. 1, 217 – 219 & 224, citing Philostratus, Life of Apollonius, I.2, IV.18, V.12, VII.11,20,33-4,39, VIII.5,7,19,30. ^ Beard et al., Vol. 1, 219 – 20, citing Lucan, Pharsalia,VI.413 – 830. ^ Scheid, in Rüpke (ed), 263. ^ Haensch, in Rüpke (ed), 186: about 200 of these British defixiones are from Sulla-Minerva's spring in urban Bath and the remainder from a shrine to a Celtic deity (Nodens), at rural Uley. For defixiones as direct appeals to divine justice, see Belayche, in Rüpke (ed), 286. For the widespread persistence of curse-tablet rituals, see Ogden, in Flint et al., 3 – 5. ^ During the Augustan era, the city of Rome probably housed around a million people, including an unknown number of provincials: by Mouritsen's estimate, around 200,000 Roman citizens were eligible to vote in Rome itself during the late Republican era but during major elections, the influx of rural voters and the bottleneck of the city's ancient electoral apparatus meant that perhaps 12% of eligible citizens actually voted. This nevertheless represents a substantial increase from the estimated 1% adult male enfranchisement rights of 145 BC. At any time, the overwhelming majority of citizens – meaning the plebs – had minimal direct involvement in central government. See Henrik Mouritsen, Plebs and Politics in the Late Roman Republic (Cambridge, U.K., Cambridge University Press, 2001), 32ff. ^ Orlin, in Rüpke (ed), 61. ^ Orlin, in Rüpke (ed), 59 – 60. ^ Belayche, in Rüpke (ed), 283: citing Plutarch, Camillus, 42. Belayche describes this as a votive offering (uotum), which "offered a supernatural legitimacy for decisions or actions... [and] entailed being assisted and reassured, through the forwarding of hopes or dis- appointments, anger or contentment, to superior powers." See also Versnel, Henrik S., (ed), "Religious mentality in ancient prayer," in Versnel, Henrik S., Faith, Hope and Worship: Aspects of Religious Mentality in the Ancient World, Leyden, 1981, pp 1 – 64. ^ The collegia were opened to plebs by the Lex Ogulnia of 300 BC. ^ "The change that comes about at the end of the republic and solidifies under Augustus is not political, but cultural". Galinsky, in Rüpke (ed), 72: citing Habinek, T., and Schiesaro, A., (eds.) The Roman Cultural Revolution. Princeton, New Jersey, 1997 & Wallace-Hadrill, A., "Mutatas formas: the Augustan transformation of Roman knowledge", in: Galinsky, K., (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Augustus, Cambridge, 2005, pp 55 – 84: contra Syme, R., The Roman Revolution, 1939. ^ Smith, in Rüpke (ed), 42. ^ Galinsky, in Rüpke (ed), 72: "...the change that comes about at the end of the republic and solidifies under Augustus is not political, but cultural. Most of the members of the priestly colleges in Augustus’ time continued to be aristocrats, but the real power and control over religion and the calendar now flowed from professional experts, such as the polymath Varro, because they had the power of knowledge. ^ Two centuries later, when Decius and Diocletian required universal sacrifice to Roman gods as a test of loyalty, any traditional gods served the purpose: loyal compliance with Imperial dictat made them Roman. ^ Scipio did not claim personal connections with Jupiter; but he did not deny rumours to that effect. Contrary to usual practice, his imago (funeral mask) was stored in the Temple of Jupiter. ^ Orlin, in Rüpke (ed), 66. ^ Otherwise, electoral bribery (ambitus): see Cicero, Letters to friends, 2.3: see also Beard et al., Vol. 1, 65 – 67. ^ Hertz, in Rüpke (ed), 310. ^ "From Etruria the Romans derived the idea of housing a deity in a temple and of providing him with a cult statue. ... The most famous... dedicated in the first year of the Republic to the Etruscan triad, Tinia, Uni and Minerva. Of these deities, however, two were Italian, Juno and Minerva, while Tinia was identified with Jupiter." Howard Hayes Scullard, (2003), A History of the Roman World, 753 to 146 BC, page 397. Routledge ^ "Her cult at Aricia was first attested in Latin literature by Cato the Elder, in a surviving quote by the late grammarian Priscian. Supposed Greek origins for the Aricia cult are strictly a literary topos." Arthur E. Gordon, "On the Origin of Diana", Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 63 (1932, pp. 177-192) page 178 note, and page 181. ^ Varro, Ling. Lat. v. 43 ^ Pomoerium, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, page 930-1. London, 1875. ^ Ara Maxima Herculis, A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome, page 253-4. Oxford University Press, 1929. ^ "Traditionally in 499, the cult of Castor and Pollux was introduced from Tusculum and temple was erected in the Forum." Howard Hayes Scullard, (2003), A History of the Roman World, 753 to 146 BC, page 398. Routledge ^ Livy, 23.31. ^ Ver Sacrum, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, page 1189, London, 1875. ^ Dionysius and the Bacchanalia, 186 B.C. from Livy: History of Rome. ^ Hebe entry in A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 1867 ^ Orlin, in Rüpke, (ed), 65 ^ Galinsky, in Rüpke (ed), 76. See also Res Gestae. ^ McLaughlin, Raoul (2010). Rome and the distant East : trade routes to the ancient lands of Arabia, India and China. London: Continuum. ISBN 978-1-4411-6223-6. OCLC 667274301. ^ a b c Roberts, J. M. (John Morris), 1928-2003. (1993). History of the world. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-521043-3. OCLC 28378422.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Pliny the Younger, Epistles, 10.50. ^ As at Narbonne and Salona. See Andringa, in Rüpke (ed), 89. ^ Van Andringa, in Rüpke (ed), 89. ^ Beard et al. 1998 ^ Van Andringa, in Rüpke (ed), 88. ^ Haensch, in Rüpke (ed), 180 – 3. ^ Kaufmann-Heinimann, in Rüpke (ed), 200. ^ Haensch, in Rüpke (ed), 184. ^ Gradel, 32-52. ^ Beard, 272-5. ^ Fishwick, Vol 3, part 1, 3: citing Cassius Dio, 51, 20, 6-7 ^ Fishwick, Vol 1, book 1, 77 & 126-30. ^ Fishwick, Vol 1, book 1, 97-149. ^ Hertz, in Rüpke (ed), 309. ^ Gradel, 263-8, 199. ^ Rees, 46-56, 73-4. ^ Beard et al., Vol. 1, 266 – 7, 270. ^ Smallwood, 2-3, 4-6: the presence of practicing Jews in Rome is attested "at least a century" before 63 BC. Smallwood describes the preamble to Judaea's clientage as the Hellenising of ruling Jewish dynasties, their claims to kingly messianism and their popular, traditionalist rejection in the Maccabaean revolt. In Rome, the more "characteristically Jewish" beliefs and customs were subjects of scorn and mockery.Books.Google.co.uk Ibid, 120-143 for early Roman responses to Judaistic practice; but see also Tessa Rajack, "Was there a Roman Charter for the Jews?" Journal of Roman Studies, 74, (1984) 107-23; no "Roman charter" for Judaism should be inferred from local, ad hoc attempts to suppress anti-Jewish acts (as in Josephus' account); Judaism as religio licita is only found later, in Tertullian. Cicero, pro Flacco, 66, refers to Judaism as superstitio. ^ Smallwood, 2-3, 4-6: superstitio in Cicero, pro Flacco, 66, but legislation by Julius Caesar recognised the synagogues in Rome as legitimate collegia and Augustus maintained their status. Josephus infers an early "charter" offering protection to Jews, but Tessa Rajack, "Was there a Roman Charter for the Jews?" Journal of Roman Studies, 74, (1984) 107-23, finds evidence only for Rome's official suppression of anti-Jewish activities. Religio licita is first found much later than this, in Tertullian. ^ Beard et al., vol. 1, 225: citing Pliny the Younger, Letters, 10.96.8, & Beard et al., Vol. 2, 11.11a: citing Tacitus, Annals, 15.44.5. ^ Leppin, in Rüpke (ed), 98. ^ Potter, 241-3: see 242 for Decian "libellus" (certificate) of oath and sacrifice on papyrus, dated to 250 AD. ^ Beard et al., Vol. 1, 241. ^ Roman oaths of loyalty were traditionally collective; the Decian oath has been interpreted as a design to root out individual subversives and suppress their cults: see Leppin, in Rüpke, (ed), 100. ^ Books.Google.co.uk, Rees, 60. Limited preview available at Google Books ^ Bowman et al., 622-33. Books.Google.co.uk, Limited preview available at Google Books ^ a b Rees, 60. ^ Beard et al., 241. ^ See Leppin, in Rüpke (ed), 98 – 99; citing Eusebius, Historia ecclesiastica 6.19.15; 21.3–4; 36.3 ^ Leppin, in Rüpke (ed), 99; citing Eusebius, Historia ecclesiastica, 7.29–30: Paul actually remained in office until "Aurelian's victory over Palmyra in 272, when he was forced to leave the 'building of the church'... Political conflicts, local rivalry, and theological debates converged in this quarrel." ^ Cascio, in Bowman et al. (eds), 171. ^ Lactantius, II.6.10.1-4. A date of 302 is regarded as likely. Eusebius also says the persecutions of Christians began in the army; see Eusebius, II.8.1.8. ^ Leppin, in Rüpke (ed), 103: citing Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum, 14.2; Eusebius, Historia ecclesiastica, 8.6.6. ^ Eusebius, Historia ecclesiastica 8.2.5, 8.6.10. ^ Leppin, in Rüpke (ed), 103: citing Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum, 34 & 13 & ; Eusebius, Historia ecclesiastica 8.17.3–10 & 8.2.3–4. ^ Kelly, Christopher (2006). The Roman Empire: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford UP. ^ Constantine's permission for a new cult temple to himself and his family in Umbria is extant: the terms are vague – cult "should not be polluted by the deception of any contagious superstition". See Momigliano, 104. ^ Morgan, Julian (2003). Constantine Ruler of Christian Rome. New York: Rosen Central. ^ "Roman Emperor Constantine I". Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia. Retrieved 3 February 2013. ^ Bunson, Matthew (2002). Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire (revised ed.). Facts on File. ^ Momigliano, 104. ^ See Peter Brown, in Bowersock et al., Late antiquity: a guide to the postclassical world, Harvard University Press, (1999), for "pagan" as a mark of socio-religious inferiority in Latin Christian polemic: [3] ^ Ramsay MacMullen, Christianizing the Roman empire. A.D.100-400. Yale University Press. p. 51 ^ Paul Stephenson, Constantine: Unconquered emperor, Christian victor (2009) p. 5 ^ Rodney Stark, The Triumph of Christianity: How the Jesus Movement Became the World's Largest Religion (Harper Collins 2011) pp. 169-182 ^ A summary of relevant legislation is available online at the Wisconsin Lutheran College website – FourthCentury.com (accessed 30 August 2009) ^ See Julian's Against the Galilaeans (trans. Wright, from Cyril of Alexandria's later refutation, Contra Julianum) at Tertullian.org (accessed 30 August 2009). Julian admired the work of the Platonist (or neo-Platonist) Iamblichus. ^ Stefan Heid, "The Romanness of Roman Christianity", in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), pp. 406–426; on vocabulary in particular, Robert Schilling, "The Decline and Survival of Roman Religion", Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992, from the French edition of 1981), p. 110. ^ The correspondence is available online at Internet Medieval Sourcebook: Letter of St. Ambrose, trans. H. De Romestin, 1896., Fordham.edu (accessed 29 August 2009) ^ Books.Google.co.uk, Williams & Friell, 65-67. Limited preview at googlebooks ^ Nixon & Rodgers, 437-48: Full text of Latinus Pacata Drepanius, Panegyric of Theodosius (389) with commentary and context. Sources[edit] Beard, M., North, J., Price, S., Religions of Rome, Volume I, illustrated, reprint, Cambridge University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-521-31682-0 Beard, M., North, J., Price, S., Religions of Rome, Volume II, illustrated, reprint, Cambridge University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-521-45646-0 Beard, M., The Roman Triumph, The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., and London, England, 2007. ISBN 978-0-674-02613-1 Clarke, John R., The Houses of Roman Italy, 100 BC-AD 250. Ritual, Space and Decoration, illustrated, University Presses of California, Columbia and Princeton, 1992. ISBN 978-0-520-08429-2 Cornell, T., The beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c.1000–264 BC), Routledge, 1995. ISBN 978-0-415-01596-7 Feeney, Denis. Literature and Religion at Rome: Cultures, Contexts, and Beliefs. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1998. Fishwick, Duncan. The Imperial Cult in the Latin West: Studies in the Ruler Cult of the Western Provinces of the Roman Empire, volume 1, Brill Publishers, 1991. ISBN 90-04-07179-2 Fishwick, Duncan. The Imperial Cult in the Latin West: Studies in the Ruler Cult of the Western Provinces of the Roman Empire, volume 3, Brill Publishers, 2002. ISBN 90-04-12536-1 Flint, Valerie I. J., et al.., Athlone History of Witchcraft and Magic in Europe: Ancient Greece and Rome, Vol. 2, Continuum International Publishing Group Ltd., 1998. ISBN 978-0-485-89002-0 Fox, R. L., Pagans and Christians Lott, John. B., The Neighborhoods of Augustan Rome, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-521-82827-9 MacMullen, R., Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries, Yale University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-300-08077-8 MacMullen, R., Paganism in the Roman Empire, Yale University Press, 1984. Momigliano, Arnaldo, On Pagans, Jews, and Christians, reprint, Wesleyan University Press, 1987. ISBN 0-8195-6218-1 North, J. A. Roman Religion. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2000. Orr, D. G., Roman domestic religion: the evidence of the household shrines, Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt, II, 16, 2, Berlin, 1978, 1557‑91. Rees, Roger. Diocletian and the Tetrarchy. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2004. Revell, L., "Religion and Ritual in the Western Provinces", Greece and Rome, volume 54, number 2, October 2007. Rüpke, Jörg, ed. A Companion to Roman Religion. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2007. Scheid, John. An Introduction to Roman Religion. Translated by Janet Lloyd. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 2003. Spaeth, Barbette Stanley. The Roman Goddess Ceres. Austin: Univ. of Texas Press, 1996. Takács, Sarolta A. 2008. Vestal Virgins, Sibyls, and Matrons: Women in Roman Religion. Austin: Univ. of Texas Press. External links[edit] Library resources about Ancient Roman Religion Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Roman Religion. 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en-wikipedia-org-5743	----	Dante Alighieri - Wikipedia Dante Alighieri From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Dante) Jump to navigation Jump to search Italian poet, writer and philosopher For the sculpture by Ettore Ximenes, see Dante Alighieri (Ximenes). "Dante" redirects here. For other uses, see Dante (disambiguation). Dante Alighieri Posthumous portrait in tempera by Sandro Botticelli, 1495 Born c. 1265 Florence, Republic of Florence Died September 13 or 14, 1321 (aged around 56) Ravenna, Papal States Resting place Tomb of Dante Occupation Statesman, poet, language theorist, political theorist Language Italian Tuscan Nationality Florentine Period Late Middle Ages Literary movement Dolce Stil Novo Notable works Divine Comedy Spouse Gemma Donati Children 4 Dante Alighieri (Italian: [ˈdante aliˈɡjɛːri]), probably baptized Durante di Alighiero degli Alighieri[note 1] and often referred to simply as Dante (/ˈdɑːnteɪ, ˈdænteɪ, ˈdænti/,[2][3] also US: /ˈdɑːnti/;[4] c. 1265 – 1321), was an Italian poet, writer and philosopher.[5] His Divine Comedy, originally called Comedìa (modern Italian: Commedia) and later christened Divina by Giovanni Boccaccio,[6] is widely considered the most important poem of the Middle Ages and the greatest literary work in the Italian language.[7][8] Dante is known for establishing the use of the vernacular in literature at a time when most poetry was written in Latin, making it accessible only to the most educated readers. His De vulgari eloquentia (On Eloquence in the Vernacular) was one of the first scholarly defenses of the vernacular. His use of the Tuscan dialect for works such as The New Life (1295) and Divine Comedy helped establish the modern-day standardized Italian language, and set a precedent that important later Italian writers such as Petrarch and Boccaccio would follow. Dante was instrumental in establishing the literature of Italy, and his depictions of Hell, Purgatory and Heaven provided inspiration for the larger body of Western art.[9][10] He is cited as an influence on Geoffrey Chaucer, John Milton and Alfred Tennyson, among many others. In addition, the first use of the interlocking three-line rhyme scheme, or the terza rima, is attributed to him. He is described as the "father" of the Italian language,[11] and in Italy he is often referred to as il Sommo Poeta ("the Supreme Poet"). Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio are also called the tre corone ("three crowns") of Italian literature. Contents 1 Life 1.1 Early life 1.2 Education and poetry 1.3 Florence and politics 1.4 Exile and death 2 Legacy 3 Works 3.1 List of works 4 Notes 5 Citations 6 References 7 External links Life[edit] Early life[edit] Dante was born in Florence, Republic of Florence, in what is now Italy. The exact date of his birth is unknown, although it is generally believed to be around 1265. This can be deduced from autobiographic allusions in the Divine Comedy. Its first section, the Inferno, begins, "Nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita" ("Midway upon the journey of our life"), implying that Dante was around 35 years old, since the average lifespan according to the Bible (Psalm 89:10, Vulgate) is 70 years; and since his imaginary travel to the netherworld took place in 1300, he was most probably born around 1265. Some verses of the Paradiso section of the Divine Comedy also provide a possible clue that he was born under the sign of Gemini: "As I revolved with the eternal twins, I saw revealed, from hills to river outlets, the threshing-floor that makes us so ferocious" (XXII 151–154). In 1265, the sun was in Gemini between approximately May 11 and June 11 (Julian calendar).[12] Dante Alighieri, attributed to Giotto, in the chapel of the Bargello palace in Florence. This oldest picture of Dante was painted just prior to his exile and has since been heavily restored. Portrait of Dante, from a fresco in the Palazzo dei Giudici, Florence Giovanni Boccaccio described Dante's appearance and demeanor as follows: "the poet was of middle height, and in his later years he walked somewhat bent over, with a grave and gentle gait. He was clad always in most seemly attire, such as befitted his ripe years. His face was long, his nose aquiline, and his eyes big rather than small. His jaws were large, and his lower lip protruded. He had a brown complexion, his hair and beard were thick, black, and curly, and his countenance was always melancholy and thoughtful."[13] Dante claimed that his family descended from the ancient Romans (Inferno, XV, 76), but the earliest relative he could mention by name was Cacciaguida degli Elisei (Paradiso, XV, 135), born no earlier than about 1100. Dante's father, Alighiero[14] or Alighiero di Bellincione, was a White Guelph who suffered no reprisals after the Ghibellines won the Battle of Montaperti in the middle of the 13th century. This suggests that Alighiero or his family may have enjoyed some protective prestige and status, although some suggest that the politically inactive Alighiero was of such low standing that he was not considered worth exiling.[15] Dante's family was loyal to the Guelphs, a political alliance that supported the Papacy and which was involved in complex opposition to the Ghibellines, who were backed by the Holy Roman Emperor. The poet's mother was Bella, probably a member of the Abati family.[14] She died when Dante was not yet ten years old, and Alighiero soon married again, to Lapa di Chiarissimo Cialuffi. It is uncertain whether he really married her, since widowers were socially limited in such matters, but this woman definitely bore him two children, Dante's half-brother Francesco and half-sister Tana (Gaetana). When Dante was 12, he was promised in marriage to Gemma di Manetto Donati, daughter of Manetto Donati, member of the powerful Donati family.[14] Contracting marriages at this early age was quite common and involved a formal ceremony, including contracts signed before a notary. But by this time Dante had fallen in love with another, Beatrice Portinari (known also as Bice), whom he first met when he was only nine. Years after his marriage to Gemma he claims to have met Beatrice again; he wrote several sonnets to Beatrice but never mentioned Gemma in any of his poems though other Donati relations, notably Forese and Piccarda, appear in his Divine Comedy. The exact date of his marriage is not known: the only certain information is that, before his exile in 1301, he had three children (Pietro, Jacopo and Antonia).[14] Dante fought with the Guelph cavalry at the Battle of Campaldino (June 11, 1289).[16] This victory brought about a reformation of the Florentine constitution. To take any part in public life, one had to enroll in one of the city's many commercial or artisan guilds, so Dante entered the Physicians' and Apothecaries' Guild. In the following years, his name is occasionally recorded as speaking or voting in the various councils of the republic. A substantial portion of minutes from such meetings in the years 1298–1300 was lost, however, so the true extent of Dante's participation in the city's councils is uncertain. Gemma bore Dante several children. Although several others subsequently claimed to be his offspring, it is likely that only Jacopo, Pietro, Giovanni, and Antonia were his actual children. Antonia later became a nun, taking the name Sister Beatrice. Education and poetry[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Mural of Dante in the Uffizi, Florence, by Andrea del Castagno, c. 1450 Not much is known about Dante's education; he presumably studied at home or in a chapter school attached to a church or monastery in Florence. It is known that he studied Tuscan poetry and that he admired the compositions of the Bolognese poet Guido Guinizelli—whom in Purgatorio XXVI he characterized as his "father"—at a time when the Sicilian School (Scuola poetica Siciliana), a cultural group from Sicily, was becoming known in Tuscany. His interests brought him to discover the Provençal poetry of the troubadours, such as Arnaut Daniel, and the Latin writers of classical antiquity, including Cicero, Ovid and especially Virgil.[17] Dante said he first met Beatrice Portinari, daughter of Folco Portinari, at age nine, and claimed to have fallen in love with her "at first sight", apparently without even talking with her.[18] He saw her frequently after age 18, often exchanging greetings in the street, but never knew her well. In effect, he set an example of so-called courtly love, a phenomenon developed in French and Provençal poetry of prior centuries. Dante's experience of such love was typical, but his expression of it was unique. It was in the name of this love that Dante left his imprint on the dolce stil novo (sweet new style, a term which Dante himself coined), and he would join other contemporary poets and writers in exploring never-before-emphasized aspects of love (Amore). Love for Beatrice (as Petrarch would show for Laura somewhat differently) would be his reason for poetry and for living, together with political passions. In many of his poems, she is depicted as semi-divine, watching over him constantly and providing spiritual instruction, sometimes harshly. When Beatrice died in 1290, Dante sought refuge in Latin literature.[19] The Convivio chronicles his having read Boethius's De consolatione philosophiae and Cicero's De Amicitia. He then dedicated himself to philosophical studies at religious schools like the Dominican one in Santa Maria Novella. He took part in the disputes that the two principal mendicant orders (Franciscan and Dominican) publicly or indirectly held in Florence, the former explaining the doctrines of the mystics and of St. Bonaventure, the latter expounding on the theories of St. Thomas Aquinas.[20] At 18, Dante met Guido Cavalcanti, Lapo Gianni, Cino da Pistoia and soon after Brunetto Latini; together they became the leaders of the dolce stil novo. Brunetto later received special mention in the Divine Comedy (Inferno, XV, 28) for what he had taught Dante: Nor speaking less on that account I go With Ser Brunetto, and I ask who are his most known and most eminent companions.[21] Some fifty poetical commentaries by Dante are known (the so-called Rime, rhymes), others being included in the later Vita Nuova and Convivio. Other studies are reported, or deduced from Vita Nuova or the Comedy, regarding painting and music. Florence and politics[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Further information: Guelphs and Ghibellines Statue of Dante at the Uffizi Statue of Dante in the Piazza Santa Croce in Florence, Enrico Pazzi, 1865 Dante, like most Florentines of his day, was embroiled in the Guelph–Ghibelline conflict. He fought in the Battle of Campaldino (June 11, 1289), with the Florentine Guelphs against Arezzo Ghibellines;[16][22] then in 1294 he was among the escorts of Charles Martel of Anjou (grandson of Charles I of Anjou) while he was in Florence. To further his political career, he became a pharmacist. He did not intend to practice as one, but a law issued in 1295 required nobles aspiring to public office to be enrolled in one of the Corporazioni delle Arti e dei Mestieri, so Dante obtained admission to the Apothecaries' Guild. This profession was not inappropriate since at that time books were sold from apothecaries' shops. As a politician, he accomplished little but held various offices over some years in a city rife with political unrest. After defeating the Ghibellines, the Guelphs divided into two factions: the White Guelphs (Guelfi Bianchi)—Dante's party, led by Vieri dei Cerchi—and the Black Guelphs (Guelfi Neri), led by Corso Donati. Although the split was along family lines at first, ideological differences arose based on opposing views of the papal role in Florentine affairs, with the Blacks supporting the Pope and the Whites wanting more freedom from Rome. The Whites took power first and expelled the Blacks. In response, Pope Boniface VIII planned a military occupation of Florence. In 1301, Charles of Valois, brother of King Philip IV of France, was expected to visit Florence because the Pope had appointed him peacemaker for Tuscany. But the city's government had treated the Pope's ambassadors badly a few weeks before, seeking independence from papal influence. It was believed that Charles had received other unofficial instructions, so the council sent a delegation to Rome to ascertain the Pope's intentions. Dante was one of the delegates. Exile and death[edit] Pope Boniface quickly dismissed the other delegates and asked Dante alone to remain in Rome. At the same time (November 1, 1301), Charles of Valois entered Florence with the Black Guelphs, who in the next six days destroyed much of the city and killed many of their enemies. A new Black Guelph government was installed, and Cante dei Gabrielli da Gubbio was appointed podestà of the city. In March 1302, Dante, a White Guelph by affiliation, along with the Gherardini family, was condemned to exile for two years and ordered to pay a large fine.[23] Dante was accused of corruption and financial wrongdoing by the Black Guelphs for the time that Dante was serving as city prior (Florence's highest position) for two months in 1300.[24] The poet was still in Rome in 1302 where the Pope, who had backed the Black Guelphs, had "suggested" that Dante stay. Florence under the Black Guelphs therefore considered Dante an absconder.[25] Dante did not pay the fine, in part because he believed he was not guilty and in part because all his assets in Florence had been seized by the Black Guelphs. He was condemned to perpetual exile; if he returned to Florence without paying the fine, he could have been burned at the stake. (In June 2008, nearly seven centuries after his death, the city council of Florence passed a motion rescinding Dante's sentence.)[26] Dante in Verona, by Antonio Cotti He took part in several attempts by the White Guelphs to regain power, but these failed due to treachery. Dante, bitter at the treatment he received from his enemies, grew disgusted with the infighting and ineffectiveness of his erstwhile allies and vowed to become a party of one. He went to Verona as a guest of Bartolomeo I della Scala, then moved to Sarzana in Liguria. Later he is supposed to have lived in Lucca with a woman called Gentucca, who made his stay comfortable (and was later gratefully mentioned in Purgatorio, XXIV, 37). Some speculative sources claim he visited Paris between 1308 and 1310, and other sources even less trustworthy took him to Oxford: these claims, first occurring in Boccaccio's book on Dante several decades after his death, seem inspired by readers who were impressed with the poet's wide learning and erudition. Evidently, Dante's command of philosophy and his literary interests deepened in exile and when he was no longer busy with the day-to-day business of Florentine domestic politics, and this is evidenced in his prose writings in this period, but there is no real evidence that he ever left Italy. Dante's Immensa Dei dilectione testante to Henry VII of Luxembourg confirms his residence "beneath the springs of Arno, near Tuscany" in March 1311. In 1310, Holy Roman Emperor Henry VII of Luxembourg marched into Italy at the head of 5,000 troops. Dante saw in him a new Charlemagne who would restore the office of the Holy Roman Emperor to its former glory and also retake Florence from the Black Guelphs. He wrote to Henry and several Italian princes, demanding that they destroy the Black Guelphs. Mixing religion and private concerns in his writings, he invoked the worst anger of God against his city and suggested several particular targets that were also his personal enemies. It was during this time that he wrote De Monarchia, proposing a universal monarchy under Henry VII. At some point during his exile, he conceived of the Comedy, but the date is uncertain. The work is much more assured and on a larger scale than anything he had produced in Florence; it is likely he would have undertaken such a work only after he realized his political ambitions, which had been central to him up to his banishment, had been halted for some time, possibly forever. It is also noticeable that Beatrice has returned to his imagination with renewed force and with a wider meaning than in the Vita Nuova; in Convivio (written c. 1304–07) he had declared that the memory of this youthful romance belonged to the past. An early indication that the poem was underway is a notice by Francesco da Barberino, tucked into his Documenti d'Amore (Lessons of Love), probably written in 1314 or early 1315. Francesco notes that Dante followed the Aeneid in a poem called "Comedy" and that the setting of this poem (or part of it) was the underworld; i.e., hell.[27] The brief note gives no incontestable indication that he himself had seen or read even the Inferno or that this part had been published at the time, but it indicates composition was well underway and that the sketching of the poem might have begun some years before. (It has been suggested that a knowledge of Dante's work also underlies some of the illuminations in Francesco da Barberino's earlier Officiolum [c. 1305–08], a manuscript that came to light only in 2003.[28]) It is known that the Inferno had been published by 1317; this is established by quoted lines interspersed in the margins of contemporary dated records from Bologna, but there is no certainty as to whether the three parts of the poem were each published in full or, rather, a few cantos at a time. Paradiso seems to have been published posthumously. In Florence, Baldo d'Aguglione pardoned most of the White Guelphs in exile and allowed them to return. However, Dante had gone too far in his violent letters to Arrigo (Henry VII) and his sentence was not revoked. Statue of Dante Alighieri in Verona In 1312 Henry assaulted Florence and defeated the Black Guelphs, but there is no evidence that Dante was involved. Some say he refused to participate in the attack on his city by a foreigner; others suggest that he had become unpopular with the White Guelphs, too, and that any trace of his passage had carefully been removed. Henry VII died (from a fever) in 1313, and with him any hope for Dante to see Florence again. He returned to Verona, where Cangrande I della Scala allowed him to live in certain security and, presumably, in a fair degree of prosperity. Cangrande was admitted to Dante's Paradise (Paradiso, XVII, 76). During the period of his exile Dante corresponded with Dominican theologian Fr. Nicholas Brunacci OP [1240–1322] who had been a student of Thomas Aquinas at the Santa Sabina studium in Rome, later at Paris,[29][30] and of Albert the Great at the Cologne studium.[31] Brunacci became lector at the Santa Sabina studium, forerunner of the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, and later served in the papal curia.[32] In 1315, Florence was forced by Uguccione della Faggiuola (the military officer controlling the town) to grant an amnesty to those in exile, including Dante. But for this, Florence required public penance in addition to a heavy fine. Dante refused, preferring to remain in exile. When Uguccione defeated Florence, Dante's death sentence was commuted to house arrest on condition that he go to Florence to swear he would never enter the town again. He refused to go, and his death sentence was confirmed and extended to his sons. He still hoped late in life that he might be invited back to Florence on honorable terms. For Dante, exile was nearly a form of death, stripping him of much of his identity and his heritage. He addressed the pain of exile in Paradiso, XVII (55–60), where Cacciaguida, his great-great-grandfather, warns him what to expect: ... Tu lascerai ogne cosa diletta più caramente; e questo è quello strale che l'arco de lo essilio pria saetta. Tu proverai sì come sa di sale lo pane altrui, e come è duro calle lo scendere e 'l salir per l'altrui scale ... ... You shall leave everything you love most: this is the arrow that the bow of exile shoots first. You are to know the bitter taste of others' bread, how salty it is, and know how hard a path it is for one who goes ascending and descending others' stairs ... As for the hope of returning to Florence, he describes it as if he had already accepted its impossibility (in Paradiso, XXV, 1–9): Se mai continga che 'l poema sacro al quale ha posto mano e cielo e terra, sì che m'ha fatto per molti anni macro, vinca la crudeltà che fuor mi serra del bello ovile ov'io dormi' agnello, nimico ai lupi che li danno guerra; con altra voce omai, con altro vello ritornerò poeta, e in sul fonte del mio battesmo prenderò 'l cappello ... If it ever comes to pass that the sacred poem to which both heaven and earth have set their hand so as to have made me lean for many years should overcome the cruelty that bars me from the fair sheepfold where I slept as a lamb, an enemy to the wolves that make war on it, with another voice now and other fleece I shall return a poet and at the font of my baptism take the laurel crown ... Dante's tomb exterior and interior in Ravenna, built in 1780 Dante accepted Prince Guido Novello da Polenta's invitation to Ravenna in 1318. He finished Paradiso and died in 1321 (aged 56) while returning to Ravenna from a diplomatic mission to Venice, possibly of malaria contracted there. He was buried in Ravenna at the Church of San Pier Maggiore (later called Basilica di San Francesco). Bernardo Bembo, praetor of Venice, erected a tomb for him in 1483.[33][34] On the grave, a verse of Bernardo Canaccio, a friend of Dante, is dedicated to Florence: parvi Florentia mater amoris Florence, mother of little love Legacy[edit] The first formal biography of Dante was the Vita di Dante (also known as Trattatello in laude di Dante), written after 1348 by Giovanni Boccaccio.[35] Although several statements and episodes of it have been deemed unreliable on the basis of modern research, an earlier account of Dante's life and works had been included in the Nuova Cronica of the Florentine chronicler Giovanni Villani.[36] Cenotaph in Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence Florence eventually came to regret Dante's exile, and the city made repeated requests for the return of his remains. The custodians of the body in Ravenna refused, at one point going so far as to conceal the bones in a false wall of the monastery. Nonetheless, a tomb was built for him in Florence in 1829, in the Basilica of Santa Croce. That tomb has been empty ever since, with Dante's body remaining in Ravenna, far from the land he had loved so dearly. The front of his tomb in Florence reads Onorate l'altissimo poeta—which roughly translates as "Honor the most exalted poet". The phrase is a quote from the fourth canto of the Inferno, depicting Virgil's welcome as he returns among the great ancient poets spending eternity in limbo. The ensuing line, L'ombra sua torna, ch'era dipartita ("his spirit, which had left us, returns"), is poignantly absent from the empty tomb. Recreated death mask of Dante Alighieri in Palazzo Vecchio, Florence A copy of Dante's so-called death mask has been displayed since 1911 in the Palazzo Vecchio; scholars today believe it is not a true death mask and was probably carved in 1483, perhaps by Pietro and Tullio Lombardo.[37][38] Italy's first dreadnought battleship was completed in 1913 and named Dante Alighieri in honor of him. On April 30, 1921, in honor of the 600th anniversary of Dante's death, Pope Benedict XV promulgated an encyclical named In praeclara summorum, calling him one "of the many celebrated geniuses of whom the Catholic faith can boast" and the "pride and glory of humanity".[39] In 2007, a reconstruction of Dante's face was undertaken in a collaborative project. Artists from Pisa University and engineers at the University of Bologna at Forlì constructed the model, portraying Dante's features as somewhat different from what was once thought.[40][41] In 2008, the Municipality of Florence officially apologized for expelling Dante 700 years earlier.[42][43][44][45] A celebration was held in 2015 at Italy's Senate of the Republic for the 750th anniversary of Dante's birth. It included a commemoration from Pope Francis.[46][47] Works[edit] See also: Category:Works by Dante Alighieri Divina Commedia (1472) Dante, poised between the mountain of purgatory and the city of Florence, displays the incipit Nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita in a detail of Domenico di Michelino's painting, Florence, 1465 Most of Dante's literary work was composed after his exile in 1301. La Vita Nuova ("The New Life") is the only major work that predates it; it is a collection of lyric poems (sonnets and songs) with commentary in prose, ostensibly intended to be circulated in manuscript form, as was customary for such poems.[48] It also contains, or constructs, the story of his love for Beatrice Portinari, who later served as the ultimate symbol of salvation in the Comedy, a function already indicated in the final pages of the Vita Nuova. The work contains many of Dante's love poems in Tuscan, which was not unprecedented; the vernacular had been regularly used for lyric works before, during all the thirteenth century. However, Dante's commentary on his own work is also in the vernacular—both in the Vita Nuova and in the Convivio—instead of the Latin that was almost universally used. The Divine Comedy describes Dante's journey through Hell (Inferno), Purgatory (Purgatorio), and Paradise (Paradiso); he is first guided by the Roman poet Virgil and then by Beatrice. Of the books, Purgatorio is arguably the most lyrical of the three, referring to more contemporary poets and artists than Inferno; Paradiso is the most heavily theological, and the one in which, many scholars have argued, the Divine Comedy's most beautiful and mystic passages appear (e.g., when Dante looks into the face of God: "all'alta fantasia qui mancò possa"—"at this high moment, ability failed my capacity to describe," Paradiso, XXXIII, 142). With its seriousness of purpose, its literary stature and the range—both stylistic and thematic—of its content, the Comedy soon became a cornerstone in the evolution of Italian as an established literary language. Dante was more aware than most early Italian writers of the variety of Italian dialects and of the need to create a literature and a unified literary language beyond the limits of Latin writing at the time; in that sense, he is a forerunner of the Renaissance, with its effort to create vernacular literature in competition with earlier classical writers. Dante's in-depth knowledge (within the limits of his time) of Roman antiquity, and his evident admiration for some aspects of pagan Rome, also point forward to the 15th century. Ironically, while he was widely honored in the centuries after his death, the Comedy slipped out of fashion among men of letters: too medieval, too rough and tragic, and not stylistically refined in the respects that the high and late Renaissance came to demand of literature. Dante Alighieri, detail from Luca Signorelli's fresco, Chapel of San Brizio, Orvieto Cathedral He wrote the Comedy in a language he called "Italian", in some sense an amalgamated literary language mostly based on the regional dialect of Tuscany, but with some elements of Latin and other regional dialects.[49] He deliberately aimed to reach a readership throughout Italy including laymen, clergymen and other poets. By creating a poem of epic structure and philosophic purpose, he established that the Italian language was suitable for the highest sort of expression. In French, Italian is sometimes nicknamed la langue de Dante. Publishing in the vernacular language marked Dante as one of the first in Roman Catholic Western Europe (among others such as Geoffrey Chaucer and Giovanni Boccaccio) to break free from standards of publishing in only Latin (the language of liturgy, history and scholarship in general, but often also of lyric poetry). This break set a precedent and allowed more literature to be published for a wider audience, setting the stage for greater levels of literacy in the future. However, unlike Boccaccio, Milton or Ariosto, Dante did not really become an author read across Europe until the Romantic era. To the Romantics, Dante, like Homer and Shakespeare, was a prime example of the "original genius" who set his own rules, created persons of overpowering stature and depth, and went far beyond any imitation of the patterns of earlier masters; and who, in turn, could not truly be imitated.[citation needed] Throughout the 19th century, Dante's reputation grew and solidified; and by 1865, the 600th anniversary of his birth, he had become established as one of the greatest literary icons of the Western world. New readers often wonder how such a serious work may be called a "comedy". In the classical sense the word comedy refers to works which reflect belief in an ordered universe, in which events tend toward not only a happy or amusing ending but one influenced by a Providential will that orders all things to an ultimate good. By this meaning of the word, as Dante himself wrote in a letter to Cangrande I della Scala, the progression of the pilgrimage from Hell to Paradise is the paradigmatic expression of comedy, since the work begins with the pilgrim's moral confusion and ends with the vision of God. Dante's other works include Convivio ("The Banquet"),[50] a collection of his longest poems with an (unfinished) allegorical commentary; De Monarchia,[51] a summary treatise of political philosophy in Latin which was condemned and burned after Dante's death[52][53] by the Papal Legate Bertrando del Poggetto, which argues for the necessity of a universal or global monarchy to establish universal peace in this life, and this monarchy's relationship to the Roman Catholic Church as guide to eternal peace; and De vulgari eloquentia ("On the Eloquence in the Vernacular"),[54] on vernacular literature, partly inspired by the Razos de trobar of Raimon Vidal de Bezaudun. List of works[edit] Il Fiore and Detto d'Amore (1283–7) La Vita Nuova ("The New Life", 1294) De vulgari eloquentia ("On the Eloquence in the Vernacular", 1302–5; Latin essay) Convivio ("The Banquet", 1307) De Monarchia (1313; Latin treatise on secular and religious power) Divine Comedy (1320) Eclogues (1320) Quaestio de aqua et terra ("A Question of the Water and of the Land", 1320; Latin discussion of a problem in medieval cosmology) Le Rime (collected and ordered by modern critics) Illustration for Purgatorio (of The Divine Comedy) by Gustave Doré Illustration for Paradiso (of The Divine Comedy) by Gustave Doré Illustration for Paradiso (of The Divine Comedy) by Gustave Doré Notes[edit] ^ The name 'Dante' is understood to be a hypocorism of the name 'Durante', though no document known to survive from Dante's lifetime refers to him as such (including his own writings). A document prepared for Dante's son Jacopo refers to "Durante, often called Dante". He may have been named for his maternal grandfather Durante degli Abati.[1] Citations[edit] ^ Gorni, Guglielmo (2009). "Nascita e anagrafe di Dante". Dante: storia di un visionario. Rome: Gius. Laterza & Figli. ISBN 9788858101742. ^ "Dante". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Retrieved May 20, 2019. ^ "Dante" (US) and "Dante". Oxford Dictionaries UK Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Retrieved May 20, 2019. ^ "Dante". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved May 20, 2019. ^ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Dante Alighieri. ^ Hutton, Edward (1910).Giovanni Boccaccio, a Biographical Study. p. 273. ^ Bloom, Harold (1994). The Western Canon. ^ Shaw, Prue (2014). Reading Dante: From Here to Eternity. New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation. pp. Introduction. ISBN 978-0-87140-742-9. ^ Haller, Elizabeth K. (2012). "Dante Alighieri". In Matheson, Lister M. (ed.). Icons of the Middle Ages: Rulers, Writers, Rebels, and Saints. 1. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood. p. 244. ISBN 978-0-313-34080-2. ^ Murray, Charles A. (2003). Human accomplishment: the pursuit of excellence in the arts and sciences, 800 B.C. to 1950 (1st ed.). New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-019247-1. OCLC 52047270. ^ Barański, Zygmunt G.; Gilson, Simon, eds. (2018). The Cambridge Companion to Dante's 'Commedia'. Cambridge University Press. p. 108. ISBN 9781108421294. ^ His birth date is listed as "probably in the end of May" by Robert Hollander in "Dante" in Dictionary of the Middle Ages, volume 4. According to Boccaccio, the poet himself said he was born in May. See "Alighieri, Dante" in the Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani. ^ Holbrook, Richard. "Portraits of Dante from Giotto to Raffael: a critical study, with a concise iconography". 1911. London: P.L. Warner; Boston, New York, Houghton Mifflin company. p. 16. ^ a b c d Chimenz, S.A. Alighieri, Dante. Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani (in Italian). Enciclopedia Italiana. Retrieved March 7, 2016. ^ Santagata, Marco (2012). Dante: Il romanzo della sua vita. Milan: Mondadori. p. 21. ISBN 978-88-04-62026-6. ^ a b Davenport, John (2005). Dante: Poet, Author, and Proud Florentine. Infobase Publishing. p. 53. ISBN 978-1-4381-0415-7. Retrieved March 7, 2016. ^ "Dante Alighieri". poets.org. Academy of American Poets. Retrieved December 20, 2019. ^ Dante Alighieri (2013). Delphi Complete Works of Dante Alighieri. 6 (Illustrated ed.). Delphi Classics. ISBN 978-1-909496-19-4. ^ Alleen Pace Nilsen, Don L.F. Nilsen (2007). Names and Naming in Young Adult Literature. 27. Scarecrow Press. p. 133. ISBN 978-0-8108-6685-0. ^ Dante Alighieri (1904). Philip Henry Wicksteed, Herman Oelsner (ed.). The Paradiso of Dante Alighieri (fifth ed.). J.M. Dent and Company. p. 129. ^ Jay Ruud (2008). Critical Companion to Dante. Infobase Publishing. p. 138. ISBN 978-1-4381-0841-4. ^ "Guelphs and Ghibellines". Dante Alighieri Society of Massachusetts. Archived from the original on December 12, 2015. Retrieved December 30, 2015. ^ Dino Compagni, Cronica delle cose occorrenti ne' tempi suoi ^ Robert Harrison, "Dante on Trial", NY Review of Books, February 19, 2015, pp. 36–37 ^ Harrison, p. 36. ^ Malcolm Moore "Dante's infernal crimes forgiven", The Daily Telegraph, June 17, 2008. Retrieved June 18, 2008. ^ See Bookrags.com and Tigerstedt, E.N. 1967, Dante; Tiden Mannen Verket (Dante; The Age, the Man, the Work), Bonniers, Stockholm, 1967.[dead link] ^ Fabio M. Bertolo (2003). "L′Officiolum ritrovato di Francesco da Barberino". Spolia – Journal of Medieval Studies. Retrieved August 18, 2012. ^ "Aquinatis: Vida de Santo Tomás de Aquino". Aquinatis.blogspot.com. May 22, 2008. Retrieved March 27, 2017. ^ "Le famiglie Brunacci". Brunacci.it. Retrieved March 27, 2017. ^ Eugenio Garin (2008). History of Italian Philosophy: VIBS. p. 85. ISBN 978-90-420-2321-5. Retrieved March 27, 2017. ^ "Frater Nicolaus Brunatii [† 1322] sacerdos et predicator gratiosus, fuit lector castellanus, arectinus, perusinus, urbevetanus et romanus apud Sanctam Sabinam tempore quo papa erat in Urbe, viterbiensis et florentinus in studio generali legens ibidem annis tribus (Cr Pg 37v). Cuius sollicita procuratione conventus perusinus meruit habere gratiam a summo pontifice papa Benedicto XI ecclesiam scilicet et parrochiam Sancti Stephani tempore quo [maggio 13041 ipse prior actu in Perusio erat (Cr Pg 38r)". E-theca.net. Retrieved May 9, 2011. ^ http://www.theflorentine.net/art-culture/2017/04/dante-ravenna-florence-battle-of-bones/, Dante’s Tomb ^ https://www.italymagazine.com/news/dantes-tomb, Dante’s Tomb ^ "Dante Alighieri". The Catholic Encyclopedia. Retrieved May 2, 2010. ^ Vauchez, André; Dobson, Richard Barrie; Lapidge, Michael (2000). Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers. p. 1517. ; Caesar, Michael (1989). Dante, the Critical Heritage, 1314(?)–1870. London: Routledge. p. xi. ^ https://www.florenceinferno.com/dante-death-mask/, DANTE DEATH MASK ^ https://listverse.com/2014/10/22/10-controversial-death-masks-of-famous-people/, 10 Controversial Death Masks Of Famous People ^ "In praeclara summorum: Encyclical of Pope Benedict XV on Dante". The Holy See. Retrieved November 7, 2014. ^ Pullella, Philip (January 12, 2007). "Dante gets posthumous nose job – 700 years on". Statesman. Reuters. Retrieved November 5, 2007. ^ Benazzi, S (2009). "The Face of the Poet Dante Alighieri, Reconstructed by Virtual Modeling and Forensic Anthropology Techniques". Journal of Archaeological Science. 36 (2): 278–283. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.006. ^ Florence sorry for banishing Dante ^ Israely, Jeff (July 31, 2008). "A City's Infernal Dante Dispute". Time. ISSN 0040-781X. Retrieved September 25, 2018. ^ Duff, Mark (June 18, 2008). "Florence 'to revoke Dante exile'". BBC. ^ "Firenze riabilita Dante Alighieri: L'iniziativa a 700 anni dall'esilio". La Repubblica. March 30, 2008. ^ "Messaggio del Santo Padre al Presidente del Pontificio Consiglio della Cultura in occasione della celebrazione del 750° anniversario della nascita di Dante Alighieri". Press.vatican.va. Archived from the original on May 4, 2015. Retrieved October 21, 2015. ^ "Translator". Microsofttranslator.com. Retrieved October 21, 2015. ^ "New Life". Dante online. Retrieved September 2, 2008. ^ Dante at the Encyclopædia Britannica ^ "Banquet". Dante online. Archived from the original on September 27, 2008. Retrieved September 2, 2008. ^ "Monarchia". Dante online. Archived from the original on September 27, 2008. Retrieved September 2, 2008. ^ Anthony K. Cassell The Monarchia Controversy. The Monarchia stayed on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum from its inception until 1881. ^ Giuseppe Cappelli, La divina commedia di Dante Alighieri, in Italian. ^ "De vulgari Eloquentia". Dante online. Archived from the original on September 27, 2008. Retrieved September 2, 2008. References[edit] Allitt, John Stewart (2011). Dante, il Pellegrino (in Italian) (Edizioni Villadiseriane ed.). Villa di Serio (BG). Teodolinda Barolini (ed.). Dante's Lyric Poetry: Poems of Youth and of the 'Vita Nuova'. University of Toronto Press, 2014. Gardner, Edmund Garratt (1921). Dante. London: Oxford University Press. OCLC 690699123. Retrieved March 7, 2016. Hede, Jesper (2007). Reading Dante: The Pursuit of Meaning. Lanham: Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0-7391-2196-2. Miles, Thomas (2008). "Dante: Tours of Hell: Mapping the Landscape of Sin and Despair". In Stewart, Jon (ed.). Kierkegaard and the Patristic and Medieval Traditions. Ashgate. pp. 223–236. ISBN 978-0-7546-6391-1. Raffa, Guy P. (2009). The Complete Danteworlds: A Reader's Guide to the Divine Comedy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-70270-4. Scartazzini, Giovanni Andrea (1874–1890). La Divina Commedia riveduta e commentata (4 volumes). OCLC 558999245. Scartazzini, Giovanni Andrea (1896–1898). Enciclopedia dantesca: dizionario critico e ragionato di quanto concerne la vita e le opere di Dante Alighieri (2 volumes). OCLC 12202483. Scott, John A. (1996). Dante's Political Purgatory. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-585-12724-8. Seung, T.K. (1962). The Fragile Leaves of the Sibyl: Dante's Master Plan. Westminster, MD: Newman Press. OCLC 1426455. Toynbee, Paget (1898). A Dictionary of the Proper Names and Notable Matters in the Works of Dante. London: The Clarendon Press. OCLC 343895. Retrieved March 7, 2016. Whiting, Mary Bradford (1922). Dante the Man and the Poet. Cambridge: W. Heffer & Sons. OCLC 224789. Guénon, René (1925). The Esoterism of Dante, trans. by C.B. Berhill, in the Perennial Wisdom Series. Ghent, NY: Sophia Perennis et Universalis, 1996. viii, 72 p. N.B.: Originally published in French, entitled L'Esoterisme de Danté, in 1925. ISBN 0-900588-02-0 External links[edit] Dante Alighieriat Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Data from Wikidata Dante at the Encyclopædia Britannica Dante Alighieri at Curlie Works by Dante Alighieri at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Dante Alighieri at Internet Archive Works by Dante Alighieri at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Works by Dante Alighieri at One More Library (Works in English, Italian, Latin, Arabic, German, French and Spanish) Wetherbee, Winthrop. "Dante Alighieri". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The Dante Museum in Florence: his life, his books and a history & literature blog about Dante The World of Dante multimedia, texts, maps, gallery, searchable database, music, teacher resources, timeline The Princeton Dante Project texts and multimedia The Dartmouth Dante Project searchable database of commentary Dante Online manuscripts of works, images and text transcripts by Società Dantesca Italiana Digital Dante – Divine Comedy with commentary, other works, scholars on Dante Open Yale Course on Dante by Yale University DanteSources project about Dante's primary sources developed by ISTI-CNR and the University of Pisa Works Italian and Latin texts, concordances and frequency lists by IntraText Dante Today citings and sightings of Dante in contemporary culture Bibliotheca Dantesca journal dedicated to all tendencies in Dante studies v t e Dante Alighieri Works in Latin De vulgari eloquentia De Monarchia Eclogues Works in Italian La Vita Nuova Le Rime Convivio Divine Comedy Inferno 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aleppe" "Raphèl mai amècche zabì almi" Adaptations Classical music Après une Lecture de Dante: Fantasia quasi Sonata (Liszt, 1849) Dante Symphony (Liszt, 1857) Francesca da Rimini (Tchaikovsky, 1876) Francesca da Rimini (Rachmaninoff, 1904) Francesca da Rimini (Zandonai, 1914) Gianni Schicchi (Puccini, 1918) The Divine Comedy (Smith, 1996) Paintings The Barque of Dante (Delacroix, 1822) The Wood of the Self-Murderers: The Harpies and the Suicides (Blake, 1827) Francesca da Rimini and Paolo Malatesta Appraised by Dante and Virgil (Scheffer, 1835) Dante in Hell (Flandrin, 1835) The Barque of Dante (1850s, Manet) Pia de' Tolomei (Rossetti, 1868) Paolo and Francesca da Rimini (Rossetti, 1885) La barca de Aqueronte (Hidalgo, 1887) La Laguna Estigia (Hidalgo, 1887) Sculptures The Kiss (Rodin, 1882) The Thinker (Rodin, 1904) The Gates of Hell (Rodin, 1917) Architecture Danteum (Terragni, 1938) Modern music Inferno (1973 album) "Dante's Inferno" (1995 song) Dante XXI (2006 album) A Place Where 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en-wikipedia-org-5750	----	Augustan literature - Wikipedia Augustan literature From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the period of Latin literature for which the English design is named, see Augustan literature (ancient Rome). This article possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (March 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Distrest Poet, William Hogarth's portrait of a Grub Street poet starving to death and trying to write a new poem to get money. The "hack" (hired) writer was a response to the newly increased demand for reading matter in the Augustan period. Augustan literature (sometimes referred to misleadingly as Georgian literature) is a style of British literature produced during the reigns of Queen Anne, King George I, and George II in the first half of the 18th century and ending in the 1740s, with the deaths of Alexander Pope and Jonathan Swift, in 1744 and 1745, respectively. It was a literary epoch that featured the rapid development of the novel, an explosion in satire, the mutation of drama from political satire into melodrama and an evolution toward poetry of personal exploration. In philosophy, it was an age increasingly dominated by empiricism, while in the writings of political economy, it marked the evolution of mercantilism as a formal philosophy, the development of capitalism and the triumph of trade. The chronological boundary points of the era are generally vague, largely since the label's origin in contemporary 18th-century criticism has made it a shorthand designation for a somewhat nebulous age of satire. Samuel Johnson, whose famous A Dictionary of the English Language was published in 1755, is also "to some extent" associated with the Augustan period.[1] The new Augustan period exhibited exceptionally bold political writings in all genres, with the satires of the age marked by an arch, ironic pose, full of nuance and a superficial air of dignified calm that hid sharp criticisms beneath. While the period is generally known for its adoption of highly regulated and stylised literary forms, some of the concerns of writers of this period, with the emotions, folk and a self-conscious model of authorship, foreshadowed the preoccupations of the later Romantic era. In general, philosophy, politics and literature underwent a turn away from older courtly concerns towards something closer to a modern sensibility. Contents 1 Historical context 1.1 Political and religious context 1.2 History and literature 2 Prose 2.1 Essays and journalism 2.2 Dictionaries and Lexicons 2.3 Philosophy and religious writing 2.3.1 After 1750 2.4 The novel 2.4.1 After 1740: Sentimental novel 2.5 Satire 3 Poetry 3.1 Precursors of Romanticism 4 Drama 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 7.1 General history 7.2 Literary criticism 7.3 Anthologies Historical context[edit] Alexander Pope, who had been imitating Horace, wrote an Epistle to Augustus that was in fact addressed to George II of Great Britain and seemingly endorsed the notion of his age being like that of Augustus, when poetry became more mannered, political and satirical than in the era of Julius Caesar.[2] Later, Voltaire and Oliver Goldsmith (in his History of Literature in 1764) used the term "Augustan" to refer to the literature of the 1720s and the 1730s.[3] Outside poetry, however, the Augustan era is generally known by other names. Partially because of the rise of empiricism and partially because of the self-conscious naming of the age in terms of ancient Rome, two rather imprecise labels have been affixed to the age. One is that it is the age of neoclassicism; the other is that it is the Age of Reason. While neoclassical criticism from France was imported to English letters, the English had abandoned their strictures in all but name by the 1720s. Critics disagree over the applicability of the concept of "the Enlightenment" to the literary history of this period. Donald Greene argued forcefully that the age should rather be known as "The Age of Exuberance", and T. H. White made a case for "The Age of Scandal". More recently, Roy Porter put forward the notion of a distinctively "English Enlightenment" to characterise the intellectual climate of the period.[4] An auctioneer sells books from the estate of a condemned doctor, about 1700, in Moorfields. The books contain pornography, medicine, and classics. The print satirises "new men" wanting to collect libraries without collecting learning. One of the most critical elements of the 18th century was the increasing availability of printed material, both for readers and authors. Books fell in price dramatically and used books were sold at Bartholomew Fair and other fairs. Additionally, a brisk trade in chapbooks and broadsheets carried London trends and information out to the farthest reaches of the kingdom. That was furthered with the establishment of periodicals, including The Gentleman's Magazine and the London Magazine. People in York aware of the happenings of Parliament and the court, but people in London were also more aware than before of the happenings of York. Furthermore, before copyright, pirate editions were commonplace, especially in areas without frequent contact with London. Pirate editions thereby encouraged booksellers to increase their shipments to outlying centres like Dublin, which further increased awareness across the whole realm. That was compounded by the end of the Press Restriction Act in 1693, which allowed for provincial printing presses to be established, creating a printing structure that was no longer under government control (Clair 158–176). All types of literature were spread quickly in all directions. Newspapers began and even multiplied. Furthermore, the newspapers were immediately compromised, as the political factions created their own newspapers, planted stories and bribed journalists. Leading clerics had their sermon collections printed, which were top selling books. Since dissenting, Establishment and Independent divines were in print, the constant movement of these works helped defuse any region's religious homogeneity and fostered emergent latitudinarianism. Periodicals were exceedingly popular, and the art of essay writing was at nearly its apex. Furthermore, the happenings of the Royal Society were published regularly, and they were digested and explained or celebrated in more popular presses. The latest books of scholarship had "keys", "indexes" and "digests" made of them that could popularise, summarise and explain them to a wide audience. The cross-index, now commonplace, was a novelty in the 18th century, and several persons created indexes for older books of learning to allow anyone to find what an author had to say about a given topic at a moment's notice. Books of etiquette, of correspondence and of moral instruction and hygiene multiplied. Economics began as a serious discipline but did so in the form of numerous "projects" for solving England, Ireland and Scotland's ills. Sermon collections, dissertations on religious controversy, and prophecies, both new and old and explained, cropped up in endless variety. In short, readers in the 18th century were overwhelmed by competing voices. Truth and falsehood sat side by side on the shelves, and anyone could be a published author, just as anyone could quickly pretend to be a scholar by using indexes and digests (Clair 45, 158–187). The positive side of the explosion in information was that the 18th century was markedly more generally educated than the centuries before. Education was less confined to the upper classes than it had been in prior centuries so contributions to science, philosophy, economics, and literature came from all parts of the kingdom. It was the first time that literacy and a library were all that stood between a person and education. It was an age of "enlightenment" in the sense that the insistence and drive for reasonable explanations of nature and mankind was a rage. It was an "age of reason" in that it was an age that accepted clear, rational methods as superior to tradition. However, there was a dark side to such literacy as well, which authors of the 18th century felt at every turn, which was that nonsense and insanity were also getting more adherents than ever before. Charlatans and mountebanks were fooling more, just as sages were educating more, and alluring and lurid apocalypses vied with sober philosophy on the shelves. As with the Worldwide Web in the 21st century, the democratisation of publishing meant that older systems for determining value and uniformity of view were both in shambles. Thus, it was increasingly difficult to trust books in the 18th century, as books were increasingly easy to make and buy. Political and religious context[edit] Queen Anne The Restoration period ended with the exclusion crisis and the Glorious Revolution, where Parliament set up a new rule for succession to the British throne that would always prefer Protestantism over consanguinity. That had brought William III and Mary II to the throne instead of James II, and that was codified in the Act of Settlement 1701. James had fled to France from where his son, James Francis Edward Stuart, launched an attempt to retake the throne in 1715. Another attempt was launched by the latter's son Charles Edward Stuart in 1745. The attempted invasions are often referred to as "the 15" and "the 45". When William died, Anne Stuart came to the throne. Anne's reign saw two wars and great triumphs by John Churchill, the Duke of Marlborough. Marlborough's wife, Sarah Churchill, was Anne's best friend, and many supposed that she secretly controlled the Queen in every respect. With the belief that true power rested in the hands of the leading ministers, the two factions of politics stepped up their opposition to each other, and Whig and Tory were at each other's throats. That weakness at the throne would lead quickly to the expansion of the powers of the party leader in Parliament and the establishment in all but name of the Prime Minister office in the form of Robert Walpole. When Anne died without surviving issue, George I, Elector of Hanover, came to the throne. George I spoke poor English, and his isolation from the English people was instrumental in keeping his power relatively irrelevant. His son, George II, on the other hand, spoke some English and some more French, and his rule was the first full Hanoverian rule in England. By then, the powers of Parliament had silently expanded, and his power was perhaps only equal to that of Parliament. London's population exploded spectacularly. During the Restoration, it had grown from around 350,000 to 600,000 in 1700 (Old Bailey) (Millwall history). By 1800, it had reached 950,000. Not all of the residents were prosperous, as the Enclosure Acts had destroyed lower-class farming in the countryside, and rural areas experienced painful poverty. Communities of the country poor were forced to migrate or suffer (see Thompson, Whigs) so young people from the country often moved to London with hopes of achieving success, which swelled the ranks of the urban poor and cheap labour for city employers. It also meant an increase in numbers of criminals, prostitutes and beggars. The fears of property crime, rape and starvation found in Augustan literature should be kept in the context of London's growth and the depopulation of the countryside. William Hogarth's Gin Lane is not entirely caricature, as in 1750, over a fourth of all houses in St Giles were gin shops, all unlicensed. Partially because of the population pressures, property crime became a business both for the criminals and those who fed off of the criminals. Major crime lords like Jonathan Wild invented new schemes for stealing, and newspapers were eager to report crime. Biographies of the daring criminals became popular, which spawned fictional biographies of fictional criminals. Cautionary tales of country women abused by sophisticated rakes (such as Anne Bond) and libertines in the city were popular fare, and they prompted fictional accounts of exemplary women abused (or narrowly escaping abuse). Increased population also meant that urban discontent was never particularly difficult to find for political opportunists, and London suffered a number of riots, most of them against supposed Roman Catholic provocateurs. When highly potent, inexpensive distilled spirits were introduced, matters worsened and authors and artists protested the innovation of gin (see, e.g. William Hogarth's Gin Lane). From 1710, the government encouraged distilling as a source of revenue and trade goods, and there were no licenses required for the manufacturing or selling of gin. There were documented instances of women drowning their infants to sell the child's clothes for gin, and the facilities created both the fodder for riots and the conditions against which riots would occur (Loughrey and Treadwell, 14). Dissenters (Protestants not conforming to the Church of England) recruited and preached to the poor of the city, and various offshoots of the Puritan and "Independent" (Baptist) movements increased their numbers substantially. One theme of the ministers was the danger of the Roman Catholic Church, which they frequently saw as the Whore of Babylon. While Anne tended to favor the High Church faction, particularly towards the close of her reign, the court of George I was more closely allied with Low Church and latitudinarian elements and was warmer to nonconformists. The convocation was effectively disbanded by George I, who was struggling with the House of Lords, and George II was pleased to keep it in abeyance. Additionally, both Georges were concerned with James Francis Edward Stuart and Charles Edward Stuart, who had considerable support in Scotland and Ireland, and many were suspected of being closet Jacobites. Walpole inflated fears of Stuart sympathisers from any group that did not support him. History and literature[edit] The literature of the 18th century, particularly the early 18th century, which is what "Augustan" most commonly indicates, is explicitly political in ways that few others are. Because the professional author was still not distinguishable from the hack-writer, those who wrote poetry, novels, and plays were frequently either politically active or politically funded. At the same time, an aesthetic of artistic detachment from the everyday world had yet to develop, and the aristocratic ideal of an author so noble as to be above political concerns was largely archaic and irrelevant. The period may be an "Age of Scandal", as authors dealt specifically with the crimes and the vices of their world. Satire, in prose, drama and poetry, was the genre that attracted the most energetic and voluminous writing. The satires that were produced during the Augustan period were occasionally gentle and nonspecific, commentaries on the comically flawed human condition, but they were at least as frequently specific critiques of specific policies, actions and persons. Even the works studiously nontopical were, in fact, transparently political statements in the 18th century. Consequently, readers of 18th-century literature now need to understand the history of the period more than most readers of other literature do. The authors were writing for an informed audience and only secondarily for posterity. Even the authors, who criticised writing that lived for only a day (like Jonathan Swift and Alexander Pope, in The Dedication to Prince Posterity of A Tale of a Tub and The Dunciad, among other pieces) were criticising specific authors, who are unknown to those without historical knowledge of the period. Poetry of all forms was in constant dialogue, and each author was responding and commenting upon the others. Novels were written against other novels (like the battles between Samuel Richardson and Henry Fielding, who, along with Eliza Haywood, wrote a novel satirising Richardson's Pamela, and between Laurence Sterne and Tobias Smollett). Plays were written to make fun of plays or to counter the success of plays (like the reaction against and for Cato and, later, Fielding's The Author's Farce). Therefore, history and literature are linked in a way rarely seen at other times. On one hand, the metropolitan and political writing can seem like coterie or salon work, but on the other hand, it was the literature of people deeply committed to sorting out a new type of government, new technologies and newly-vexatious challenges to philosophical and religious certainty. Prose[edit] Main article: Augustan prose An engraved ticket for Francis Woods's circulating library in London from some time after mid-century. The essay, satire, and dialogue (in philosophy and religion) thrived in the age, and the English novel was truly begun as a serious art form. Literacy in the early 18th century passed into the working classes, as well as the middle and upper classes (Thompson, Class). Furthermore, literacy was not confined to men, though rates of female literacy are very difficult to establish. For those who were literate, circulating libraries in England began in the Augustan period. Libraries were open to all, but they were mainly associated with female patronage and novel reading. Essays and journalism[edit] English essayists were aware of Continental models, but they developed their form independently from that tradition, and periodical literature grew between 1692 and 1712. Periodicals were inexpensive to produce, quick to read, and a viable way of influencing public opinion, and consequently there were many broadsheet periodicals headed by a single author and staffed by hirelings (so-called "Grub Street" authors). One periodical outsold and dominated all others, however, and that was The Spectator, written by Joseph Addison and Richard Steele (with occasional contributions from their friends). The Spectator developed a number of pseudonymous characters, including "Mr. Spectator," Roger de Coverley, and "Isaac Bickerstaff", and both Addison and Steele created fictions to surround their narrators. The dispassionate view of the world (the pose of a spectator, rather than participant) was essential for the development of the English essay, as it set out a ground wherein Addison and Steele could comment and meditate upon manners and events. Samuel Johnson's command of words and his practical wisdom gained a following as he published more than 200 essays offering insights into the follies of human nature and moral perseverance. Rather than being philosophers like Montesquieu, the English essayist could be an honest observer and his reader's peer. After the success of The Spectator, more political periodicals of comment appeared. However, the political factions and coalitions of politicians very quickly realized the power of this type of press, and they began funding newspapers to spread rumors. The Tory ministry of Robert Harley (1710–1714) reportedly spent over 50,000 pounds sterling on creating and bribing the press (Butt); this figure is known because their successors publicized it, but they (the Walpole government) were suspected of spending even more. Politicians wrote papers, wrote into papers, and supported papers, and it was well known that some of the periodicals, like Mist's Journal, were party mouthpieces. Dictionaries and Lexicons[edit] The 18th century was a time of enlightenment progression occurring in all intellectual fields. However, the English language was deteriorating into a tangled mess. A group of London booksellers commissioned well-known essayist Samuel Johnson to compile a set of rules governing the English Language. After nine years and the help of six assistants the first edition of A Dictionary of the English Language was published in 1755. Johnson's great knowledge of letters, words and literature brought uniqueness to his dictionary. Each word defined in detail, with descriptions of their various uses and numerous literary quotes as illustrations. This was the first dictionary of its kind, containing 40,000 words and nearly 114,000 quotes packed together with Johnson's personal touch. A warm reception greeted Johnson's Dictionary as it was the first dictionary that could be read with pleasure. The definitions full of wit and depth of thought supported by passages from beloved poets and philosophers, which a reader could be content spending an evening poring over its pages. Johnson's choice of structure and format has certainly shaped future English dictionaries and lexicons and the role they play in language development. Philosophy and religious writing[edit] A woodcut of Daniel Defoe The Augustan period showed less literature of controversy than the Restoration. There were Puritan authors, however, and one of the names usually associated with the novel is perhaps the most prominent in Puritan writing: Daniel Defoe. After the coronation of Anne, dissenter hopes of reversing the Restoration were at an ebb, and dissenter literature moved from the offensive to the defensive, from revolutionary to conservative. Defoe's infamous volley in the struggle between high and low church came in the form of The Shortest Way with the Dissenters; Or, Proposals for the Establishment of the Church. The work is satirical, attacking all of the worries of Establishment figures over the challenges of dissenters. It is, in other words, defensive. Later still, the most majestic work of the era, and the one most quoted and read, was William Law's A Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life (1728). The Meditations of Robert Boyle remained popular as well. Both Law and Boyle called for revivalism, and they set the stage for the later development of Methodism and George Whitefield's sermon style. However, their works aimed at the individual, rather than the community. The age of revolutionary divines and militant evangelists in literature was over for a considerable time. Also in contrast to the Restoration, when philosophy in England was fully dominated by John Locke, the 18th century had a vigorous competition among followers of Locke. Bishop Berkeley extended Locke's emphasis on perception to argue that perception entirely solves the Cartesian problem of subjective and objective knowledge by saying "to be is to be perceived." Only, Berkeley argued, those things that are perceived by a consciousness are real. For Berkeley, the persistence of matter rests in the fact that God perceives those things that humans are not, that a living and continually aware, attentive, and involved God is the only rational explanation for the existence of objective matter. In essence, then, Berkeley's skepticism leads to faith. David Hume, on the other hand, took empiricist skepticism to its extremes, and he was the most radically empiricist philosopher of the period. He attacked surmise and unexamined premises wherever he found them, and his skepticism pointed out metaphysics in areas that other empiricists had assumed were material. Hume doggedly refused to enter into questions of his personal faith in the divine, but he assaulted the logic and assumptions of theodicy and cosmogeny, and he concentrated on the provable and empirical in a way that would lead to utilitarianism and naturalism later. In social and political philosophy, economics underlies much of the debate. Bernard de Mandeville's The Fable of the Bees (1714) became a centre-point of controversy regarding trade, morality, and social ethics. Mandeville argued that wastefulness, lust, pride, and all the other "private" vices were good for the society at large, for each led the individual to employ others, to spend freely, and to free capital to flow through the economy. Mandeville's work is full of paradox and is meant, at least partially, to problematize what he saw as the naive philosophy of human progress and inherent virtue. However, Mandeville's arguments, initially an attack on graft of the War of the Spanish Succession, would be quoted often by economists who wished to strip morality away from questions of trade. After 1750[edit] Adam Smith is remembered by lay persons as the father of capitalism, but his Theory of Moral Sentiments of 1759 also attempted to strike out a new ground for moral action. His emphasis on "sentiment" was in keeping with the era, as he emphasized the need for "sympathy" between individuals as the basis of fit action. These ideas, and the psychology of David Hartley, were influential on the sentimental novel and even the nascent Methodist movement. If sympathetic sentiment communicated morality, would it not be possible to induce morality by providing sympathetic circumstances? Smith's greatest work was An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations in 1776. What it held in common with de Mandeville, Hume, and Locke was that it began by analytically examining the history of material exchange, without reflection on morality. Instead of deducing from the ideal or moral to the real, it examined the real and tried to formulate inductive rules. The novel[edit] The ground for the novel had been laid by journalism, drama and satire. Long prose satires like Swift's Gulliver's Travels (1726) had a central character who goes through adventures and may (or may not) learn lessons. However, the most important single satirical source for the writing of novels came from Cervantes's Don Quixote (1605, 1615). In general, one can see these three axes, drama, journalism and satire, as blending in and giving rise to three different types of novel. Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe (1719) was the first major novel of the new century and was published in more editions than any other works besides Gulliver's Travels (Mullan 252). Defoe worked as a journalist during and after its composition, and therefore he encountered the memoirs of Alexander Selkirk, who had been stranded in South America on an island for some years. Defoe took aspects of the actual life and, from that, generated a fictional life, satisfying an essentially journalistic market with his fiction (Hunter 331–338). In the 1720s, Defoe interviewed famed criminals and produced accounts of their lives. In particular, he investigated Jack Sheppard and Jonathan Wild and wrote True Accounts of the former's escapes (and fate) and the latter's life. From his reportage on the prostitutes and criminals, Defoe may have become familiar with the real-life Mary Mollineaux, who may have been the model for Moll in Moll Flanders (1722). In the same year, Defoe produced A Journal of the Plague Year (1722), which summoned up the horrors and tribulations of 1665 for a journalistic market for memoirs, and an attempted tale of a working-class male rise in Colonel Jack (1722). His last novel returned to the theme of fallen women in Roxana (1724). Thematically, Defoe's works are consistently Puritan. They all involve a fall, a degradation of the spirit, a conversion, and an ecstatic elevation. This religious structure necessarily involved a bildungsroman, for each character had to learn a lesson about him or herself and emerge the wiser. After 1740: Sentimental novel[edit] A plate from the 1742 deluxe edition of Richardson's Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded showing Mr. B intercepting Pamela's first letter home to her mother The sentimental novel, or "novel of sentiment", developed after 1740, and among the most famous examples in English are Samuel Richardson's Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded (1740), Oliver Goldsmith's Vicar of Wakefield (1766), Laurence Sterne's Tristram Shandy (1759–67), Sentimental Journey (1768), Henry Brooke's The Fool of Quality (1765–70), Henry Mackenzie's The Man of Feeling (1771) and Maria Edgeworth's Castle Rackrent (1800). Continental examples are Jean-Jacques Rousseau's novel Julie, or the New Heloise, his autobiography The Confessions (1764–70) and Goethe's novel The Sorrows of Young Werther (1774).[5] Although there were novels in the interim, Samuel Richardson's Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded (1740) is the next landmark development in the English novel. Richardson's generic models were quite distinct from those of Defoe. Instead of working from the journalistic biography, Richardson had in mind the books of improvement that were popular at the time. Pamela Andrews enters the employ of a "Mr. B". As a dutiful girl, she writes to her mother constantly, and as a Christian girl, she is always on guard for her "virtue" (i.e. her virginity), for Mr. B lusts after her. The novel ends with her marriage to her employer and her rising to the position of lady. Pamela, like its author, presents a dissenter's and a Whig's view of the rise of the classes. The work drew a nearly instantaneous set of satires, of which Henry Fielding's Shamela, or an Apology for the Life of Miss Shamela Andrews (1742) is the most memorable. Fielding continued to bait Richardson with Joseph Andrews (1742), the tale of Shamela's brother, Joseph, who goes through his life trying to protect his own virginity, thus reversing the sexual predation of Richardson and satirizing the idea of sleeping one's way to rank. However, Joseph Andrews is not a parody of Richardson, for Fielding proposed his belief in "good nature", which is a quality of inherent virtue that is independent of class and which can always prevail. Joseph's friend Parson Adams, although not a fool, is a naïf and possessing good nature. His own basic good nature blinds him to the wickedness of the world, and the incidents on the road (for most of the novel is a travel story) allow Fielding to satirize conditions for the clergy, rural poverty (and squires), and the viciousness of businessmen. In 1747 through 1748, Samuel Richardson published Clarissa in serial form. Unlike Pamela, it is not a tale of virtue rewarded. Instead, it is a highly tragic and affecting account of a young girl whose parents try to force her into an uncongenial marriage, thus pushing her into the arms of a scheming rake named Lovelace. In the end, Clarissa dies by her own will. The novel is a masterpiece of psychological realism and emotional effect, and when Richardson was drawing to a close in the serial publication, even Henry Fielding wrote to him, begging him not to kill Clarissa. As with Pamela, Richardson emphasized the individual over the social and the personal over the class. Even as Fielding was reading and enjoying Clarissa, he was also writing a counter to its messages. His Tom Jones of 1749 offers up the other side of the argument from Clarissa. Tom Jones agrees substantially in the power of the individual to be more or less than his or her birth would indicate, but it again emphasizes the place of the individual in society and the social ramifications of individual choices. Fielding answers Richardson by featuring a similar plot device (whether a girl can choose her own mate) but showing how family and village can complicate and expedite matches and felicity. A portrait of Tobias Smollett Two other novelists should be mentioned, for they, like Fielding and Richardson, were in dialogue through their works. Laurence Sterne's and Tobias Smollett's works offered up oppositional views of the self in society and the method of the novel. The clergyman Laurence Sterne consciously set out to imitate Jonathan Swift with his Tristram Shandy (1759–1767). Tristram seeks to write his autobiography, but like Swift's narrator in A Tale of a Tub, he worries that nothing in his life can be understood without understanding its context. For example, he tells the reader that at the very moment he was conceived, his mother was saying, "Did you wind the clock?". To clarify how he knows this, he explains that his father took care of winding the clock and "other family business" on one day a month. To explain why the clock had to be wound then, he has to explain his father. In other words, the biography moves backward rather than forward in time, only to then jump forward years, hit another knot, and move backward again. It is a novel of exceptional energy, of multi-layered digressions, of multiple satires, and of frequent parodies. Journalist, translator and historian Tobias Smollett, on the other hand, wrote more seemingly traditional novels. He concentrated on the picaresque novel, where a low-born character would go through a practically endless series of adventures. Sterne thought that Smollett's novels always paid undue attention to the basest and most common elements of life, that they emphasized the dirt. Although this is a superficial complaint, it points to an important difference between the two as authors. Sterne came to the novel from a satirical background, while Smollett approached it from journalism. In the 19th century, novelists would have plots much nearer to Smollett's than either Fielding's or Sterne's or Richardson's, and his sprawling, linear development of action would prove most successful. In the midst of this development of the novel, other trends were also taking place. Women were writing novels and moving away from the old romance plots that had dominated before the Restoration. There were utopian novels, like Sarah Scott's Millennium Hall (1762), autobiographical women's novels like Frances Burney's works, female adaptations of older, male motifs, such as Charlotte Lennox's The Female Quixote (1752) and many others. These novels do not generally follow a strict line of development or influence. Satire[edit] An illustration from Jonathan Swift's A Tale of a Tub showing the three "stages" of human life: the pulpit, the theatre, and the gallows The Augustan era is considered a high point of British satiric writing, and its masterpieces were Swift's Gulliver's Travels and A Modest Proposal, Pope's Dunciads, Horatian Imitations, and Moral Essays, Samuel Johnson's The Vanity of Human Wishes and London, Henry Fielding's Shamela and Jonathan Wild, and John Gay's The Beggar's Opera. There were several thousand other satirical works written during the period, which have until recently been, by widespread consensus, ignored. The central group of "Scriblerians"—Pope, Swift, Gay, and their colleague John Arbuthnot—are considered to have had common satiric aims. Until recently, these writers formed a "school" of satire. After Swift and Pope died, the emergent "Age of Sensibility" discouraged the often cruel and abrasive tenor of the Augustans, and satire was rendered gentler and more diffuse.[6] Many scholars of the era argue that a single name overshadows all others in 18th-century prose satire: Jonathan Swift.[7] Swift wrote poetry as well as prose, and his satires range over all topics. Critically, Swift's satire marked the development of prose parody away from simple satire or burlesque. A burlesque or lampoon in prose would imitate a despised author and quickly move to reductio ad absurdum by having the victim say things coarse or idiotic. On the other hand, other satires would argue against a habit, practice, or policy by making fun of its reach or composition or methods. What Swift did was to combine parody, with its imitation of form and style of another, and satire in prose. Swift's works would pretend to speak in the voice of an opponent and imitate the style of the opponent and have the parodic work itself be the satire. Swift's first major satire was A Tale of a Tub (1703–1705), which introduced an ancients/moderns division that would serve as a distinction between the old and new conception of value. The "moderns" sought trade, empirical science, the individual's reason above the society's, while the "ancients" believed in inherent and immanent value of birth, and the society over the individual's determinations of the good. In Swift's satire, the moderns come out looking insane and proud of their insanity, and dismissive of the value of history. In Swift's most significant satire, Gulliver's Travels (1726), autobiography, allegory, and philosophy mix together in the travels. Thematically, Gulliver's Travels is a critique of human vanity, of pride. Book one, the journey to Liliput, begins with the world as it is. Book two shows that the idealized nation of Brobdingnag with a philosopher king is no home for a contemporary Englishman. Book four depicts the land of the Houyhnhnms, a society of horses ruled by pure reason, where humanity itself is portrayed as a group of "yahoos" covered in filth and dominated by base desires. It shows that, indeed, the very desire for reason may be undesirable, and humans must struggle to be neither Yahoos nor Houyhnhnms, for book three shows what happens when reason is unleashed without any consideration of morality or utility (i.e. madness, ruin, and starvation). There were other satirists who worked in a less virulent way, who took a bemused pose and only made lighthearted fun. Tom Brown, Ned Ward, and Tom D'Urfey were all satirists in prose and poetry whose works appeared in the early part of the Augustan age. Tom Brown's most famous work in this vein was Amusements Serious and Comical, Calculated for the Meridian of London (1700). Ned Ward's most memorable work was The London Spy (1704–1706). The London Spy, before The Spectator, took up the position of an observer and uncomprehendingly reporting back. Tom D'Urfey's Wit and Mirth: or Pills to Purge Melancholy (1719) was another satire that attempted to offer entertainment, rather than a specific bit of political action, in the form of coarse and catchy songs. Particularly after Swift's success, parodic satire had an attraction for authors throughout the 18th century. A variety of factors created a rise in political writing and political satire, and Robert Walpole's success and domination of House of Commons was a very effective proximal cause for polarized literature and thereby the rise of parodic satire. The parodic satire takes apart the cases and plans of policy without necessarily contrasting a normative or positive set of values. Therefore, it was an ideal method of attack for ironists and conservatives—those who would not be able to enunciate a set of values to change toward but could condemn present changes as ill-considered. Satire was present in all genres during the Augustan period. Perhaps primarily, satire was a part of political and religious debate. Every significant politician and political act had satires to attack it. Few of these were parodic satires, but parodic satires, too, emerged in political and religious debate. So omnipresent and powerful was satire in the Augustan age that more than one literary history has referred to it as the "Age of satire" in literature.[citation needed] Poetry[edit] Main article: Augustan poetry In the Augustan era, poets wrote in direct counterpoint and direct expansion of one another, with each poet writing satire when in opposition. There was a great struggle over the nature and role of the pastoral in the early part of the century, reflecting two simultaneous movements: the invention of the subjective self as a worthy topic, with the emergence of a priority on individual psychology, against the insistence on all acts of art being performance and public gesture designed for the benefit of society at large. The development seemingly agreed upon by both sides was a gradual adaptation of all forms of poetry from their older uses. Odes would cease to be encomium, ballads cease to be narratives, elegies cease to be sincere memorials, satires no longer be specific entertainments, parodies no longer be performance pieces without sting, song no longer be pointed, and the lyric would become a celebration of the individual rather than a lover's complaint. These developments can be seen as extensions of Protestantism, as Max Weber argued, for they represent a gradual increase in the implications of Martin Luther's doctrine of the priesthood of all believers, or they can be seen as a growth of the power and assertiveness of the bourgeoisie and an echo of the displacement of the worker from the home in growing industrialization, as Marxists such as E.P. Thompson have argued. It can be argued that the development of the subjective individual against the social individual was a natural reaction to trade over other methods of economic production. Whatever the prime cause, a largely conservative set of voices argued for a social person and largely emergent voices argued for the individual person. Alexander Pope, the single poet who most influenced the Augustan Age. The entire Augustan age's poetry was dominated by Alexander Pope. His lines were repeated often enough to lend quite a few clichés and proverbs to modern English usage. Pope had few poetic rivals, but he had many personal enemies and political, philosophical, or religious opponents, and Pope himself was quarrelsome in print. Pope and his enemies (often called "the Dunces" because of Pope's successful satirizing of them in The Dunciad) fought over central matters of the proper subject matter for poetry and the proper pose of the poetic voice. There was a great struggle over the nature and role of the pastoral in the early part of the century. After Pope published his Pastorals of the four seasons in 1709, an evaluation in the Guardian praised Ambrose Philips's pastorals above Pope's, and Pope replied with a mock praise of Philips's Pastorals that heaped scorn on them. Pope quoted Philips's worst lines, mocked his execution, and delighted in pointing out his empty lines. Pope later explained that any depictions of shepherds and their mistresses in the pastoral must not be updated shepherds, that they must be icons of the Golden Age: "we are not to describe our shepherds as shepherds at this day really are, but as they may be conceived then to have been, when the best of men followed the employment" (Gordon). Philips's Pastorals were not particularly awful poems, but they did reflect his desire to "update" the pastoral. In 1724, Philips would update poetry again by writing a series of odes dedicated to "all ages and characters, from Walpole, the steerer of the realm, to Miss Pulteney in the nursery." Henry Carey was one of the best at satirizing these poems, and his Namby Pamby became a hugely successful obliteration of Philips and Philips's endeavor. What is notable about Philips against Pope, however, is the fact that both poets were adapting the pastoral and the ode, both altering it. Pope's insistence upon a Golden Age pastoral no less than Philips's desire to update it meant making a political statement. While it is easy to see in Ambrose Philips an effort at modernist triumph, it is no less the case that Pope's artificially restricted pastoral was a statement of what the ideal should be. Portrait of John Gay from Samuel Johnson's Lives of the English Poets, the 1779 edition. Gay's gentle satire was a contrast with the harsher Pope and Swift. Pope's friend John Gay also adapted the pastoral. Gay, working at Pope's suggestion, wrote a parody of the updated pastoral in The Shepherd's Week. He also imitated the Satires of Juvenal with his Trivia. In 1728, his The Beggar's Opera was an enormous success, running for an unheard-of eighty performances. All of these works have in common a gesture of compassion. In Trivia, Gay writes as if commiserating with those who live in London and are menaced by falling masonry and bedpan slops, and The Shepherd's Week features great detail of the follies of everyday life and eccentric character. Even The Beggar's Opera, which is a satire of Robert Walpole, portrays its characters with compassion: the villains have pathetic songs in their own right and are acting out of exigency rather than boundless evil. Throughout the Augustan era the "updating" of Classical poets was a commonplace. These were not translations, but rather they were imitations of Classical models, and the imitation allowed poets to veil their responsibility for the comments they made. Alexander Pope would manage to refer to the King himself in unflattering tones by "imitating" Horace in his Epistle to Augustus. Similarly, Samuel Johnson wrote a poem that falls into the Augustan period in his "imitation of Juvenal" entitled London. The imitation was inherently conservative, since it argued that all that was good was to be found in the old classical education, but these imitations were used for progressive purposes, as the poets who used them were often doing so to complain of the political situation. In satire, Pope achieved two of the greatest poetic satires of all time in the Augustan period. The Rape of the Lock (1712 and 1714) was a gentle mock-heroic. Pope applies Virgil's heroic and epic structure to the story of a young woman (Arabella Fermor) having a lock of hair snipped by an amorous baron (Lord Petre). The structure of the comparison forces Pope to invent mythological forces to overlook the struggle, and so he creates an epic battle, complete with a mythology of sylphs and metempsychosis, over a game of Ombre, leading to a fiendish appropriation of the lock of hair. Finally, a deux ex machina appears and the lock of hair experiences an apotheosis. To some degree, Pope was adapting Jonathan Swift's habit, in A Tale of a Tub, of pretending that metaphors were literal truths, and he was inventing a mythos to go with the everyday. The poem was an enormous public success. One of the scabrous satirical prints directed against Pope after his Dunciad of 1727 A decade after the gentle, laughing satire of The Rape of the Lock, Pope wrote his masterpiece of invective and specific opprobrium in The Dunciad. The story is that of the goddess Dulness choosing a new Avatar. She settles upon one of Pope's personal enemies, Lewis Theobald, and the poem describes the coronation and heroic games undertaken by all of the dunces of Great Britain in celebration of Theobald's ascension. When Pope's enemies responded to The Dunciad with attacks, Pope produced the Dunciad Variorum, with a "learned" commentary upon the original Dunciad. In 1743, he added a fourth book and changed the hero from Lewis Theobald to Colley Cibber. In the fourth book of the new Dunciad, Pope expressed the view that, in the battle between light and dark (enlightenment and the Dark Ages), Night and Dulness were fated to win, that all things of value were soon going to be subsumed under the curtain of unknowing. John Gay and Alexander Pope belong on one side of a line separating the celebrants of the individual and the celebrants of the social. Pope wrote The Rape of the Lock, he said, to settle a disagreement between two great families, to laugh them into peace. Even The Dunciad, which seems to be a serial killing of everyone on Pope's enemies list, sets up these figures as expressions of dangerous and antisocial forces in letters. Theobald and Cibber are marked by vanity and pride, by having no care for morality. The hireling pens Pope attacks mercilessly in the heroic games section of the Dunciad are all embodiments of avarice and lies. Similarly, Gay writes of political society, of social dangers, and of follies that must be addressed to protect the greater whole. Gay's individuals are microcosms of the society at large. On the other side of this line were people who agreed with the politics of Gay and Pope (and Swift), but not in approach. They include, early in the Augustan Age, James Thomson and Edward Young. Precursors of Romanticism[edit] In the year 1726 two poems were published describing landscape from a personal point of view and taking their feeling and moral lessons from direct observation. One was John Dyer's "Grongar Hill", the other was James Thomson's "Winter", soon to be followed by all the seasons (1726–30). Both are unlike Pope's notion of the Golden Age pastoral as exemplified in his "Windsor Forest". Mythology is at a minimum and there is no celebration of Britain or the crown. Where the octosyllabic couplets of Dyer's poem celebrate the natural beauty of a mountain view and are quietly meditative, the declamatory blank verse of Thomson's winter meditation is melancholy and soon to establish that emotion as proper for poetic expression. One notable successor in that line was Edward Yonge's Night Thoughts (1742–1744). It was, even more than "Winter", a poem of deep solitude, melancholy and despair. In these poems, there are the stirrings of the lyric as the Romantics would see it: the celebration of the private individual's idiosyncratic, yet paradigmatic, responses to the visions of the world. A portrait of Thomas Gray with the churchyard in the background These hints at the solitary poet were carried into a new realm with Thomas Gray, whose Elegy Written in a Country Church-Yard (1750) set off a new craze for poetry of melancholy reflection. It was written in the "country", and not in or as opposed to London, and the poem sets up the solitary observer in a privileged position. It is only by being solitary that the poet can speak of a truth that is wholly individually realized. After Gray, a group often referred to as the Churchyard Poets began imitating his pose and almost as often his style. Alternative models were adopted by Oliver Goldsmith (The Deserted Village), Thomas Warton, and even Thomas Percy (The Hermit of Warkworth), who, also conservative by and large and Classicist (Gray himself was a professor of Greek), took up the new poetry of solitude and loss. When the Romantics emerged at the end of the 18th century, they were not assuming a radically new invention of the subjective self themselves, but merely formalizing what had gone before. Similarly, the later 18th century saw a ballad revival, with Thomas Percy's Reliques of Ancient English Poetry. The relics were not always very ancient, as many of the ballads dated from only the 17th century (e.g. the Bagford Ballads or The Dragon of Wantley in the Percy Folio), and so what began as an antiquarian movement soon became a folk movement. When this folk-inspired impulse combined with the solitary and individualistic impulse of the Churchyard Poets, Romanticism was nearly inevitable. Drama[edit] Main article: Augustan drama The Augustan era is difficult to define chronologically in prose and poetry, but it is very easy to date its end in drama. The Augustan era's drama ended definitively in 1737, with the Licensing Act. Prior to 1737, however, the English stage was changing rapidly from the Restoration comedy and Restoration drama, and their noble subjects, to the quickly developing melodrama (Munns 97–100).[discuss] George Lillo and Richard Steele wrote the trend-setting plays of the early Augustan period. Lillo's plays consciously turned from heroes and kings and toward shopkeepers and apprentices. They emphasized drama on a household scale, rather than a national scale, and the hamartia and agon in his tragedies are the common flaws of yielding to temptation and the commission of Christian sin. The plots are resolved with Christian forgiveness and repentance. Steele's The Conscious Lovers (1722) hinges upon his young hero avoiding fighting a duel. The plays set up a new set of values for the stage. Instead of amusing the audience or inspiring the audience, they sought to instruct the audience and to ennoble it. Also, the plays were popular precisely because they seemed to reflect the audience's own lives and concerns (Legouis 782–787, 879–883). Joseph Addison also wrote a play, entitled Cato, in 1713, which concerned the Roman statesman Cato the Younger. The year of its première was important, with Queen Anne in serious illness at the time, and both the Tory ministry of the day and the Whig opposition (already being led by Robert Walpole) were concerned about the succession. Both groups were contacting the Old Pretender about bringing the Young Pretender over. Londoners sensed the anxiety, as Anne had no heirs, and all of the natural successors in the Stuart family were Roman Catholic or unavailable. Therefore, the figure of Cato was a transparent symbol of Roman integrity, and the Whigs saw in him a champion of Whig values, and the Tories saw in him an embodiment of Tory sentiments or, like the Tory Examiner, tried to claim that Cato was above political "faction". Both sides cheered the play, but Addison was himself clearly a Whig (Bloom and Bloom 266, 269). John Home's play Douglas (1756) would have a similar fate to Cato in the next generation, after the Licensing Act. A print by William Hogarth entitled A Just View of the British Stage from 1724 depicting the managers of Drury Lane (Robert Wilks, Colley Cibber and Barton Booth) rehearsing a play consisting of nothing but special effects, and they used the scripts for Macbeth, Hamlet, Julius Caesar and The Way of the World for toilet paper. The battle of effects was a common subject of satire for the literary wits, including Pope in The Dunciad. As during the Restoration, economics drove the stage in the Augustan period. Under Charles II court patronage meant economic success and so the Restoration stage featured plays that would suit the monarch and/or court. The drama that celebrated kings and told the history of Britain's monarchs was fit fare for the crown and courtiers. Charles II was a philanderer and so Restoration comedy featured a highly sexualized set of plays. However, after the reign of William and Mary, the court and the crown stopped taking a great interest in the playhouse. Theatres had to get their money from the audience of city dwellers, and plays that reflected city anxieties and celebrated the lives of citizens drew and were staged (Munns 96–99). Thus, there were quite a few plays that were not literary that were staged more often than the literary plays. John Rich and Colley Cibber duelled over special theatrical effects. They put on plays that were actually just spectacles, and the text of the play was almost an afterthought. Dragons, whirlwinds, thunder, ocean waves and even actual elephants were on stage. Battles, explosions and horses were put on the boards. Rich specialized in pantomime and was famous as the character "Lun" in harlequin presentations. The plays put on in this manner are not generally preserved or studied, but their monopoly on the theatres infuriated established literary authors. Additionally, opera made its way to England during this period. Inasmuch as opera combined singing with acting, it was a mixed genre, which violated all the strictures of neoclassicism. Also, high melodies would cover the singers' expressions of grief or joy, thus breaking "decorum". To add insult to injury, the casts and celebrated stars were foreigners, and, as with Farinelli, castrati. The satirists saw in opera the non plus ultra of invidiousness. As Pope put it in Dunciad B: "Joy to Chaos! let Division reign: Chromatic tortures soon shall drive them [the muses] hence, Break all their nerves, and fritter all their sense: One Trill shall harmonize joy, grief, and rage, Wake the dull Church, and lull the ranting Stage; To the same notes thy sons shall hum, or snore, And all thy yawning daughters cry, encore." (IV 55–60) Frontispiece to Fielding's Tom Thumb, a play satirising plays (and Robert Walpole) John Gay parodied the opera with his satirical Beggar's Opera (1728) and offered up a parody of Robert Walpole's actions during the South Sea Bubble. Superficially, the play is about a man named Macheath who keeps being imprisoned by a thief named Peachum and who escapes prison over and over again because the daughter of the jailor, Lucy Lockitt, is in love with him. That is an obvious parallel with the case of Jonathan Wild (Peachum) and Jack Sheppard (Macheath). However, it was also the tale of Robert Walpole (Peachum) and the South Sea directors (Macheath). The play was a hit, and its songs were printed up and sold. However, when Gay wrote a sequel called Polly, Walpole had the play suppressed before performance (Winn 112–114). Playwrights were therefore in straits. On the one hand, the playhouses were doing without plays by turning out hack-written pantomimes. On the other hand, when a satirical play appeared, the Whig ministry would suppress it. The antagonism was picked up by Henry Fielding, who was not afraid to fight Walpole. His Tom Thumb (1730) was a satire on all of the tragedies written before him, with quotations from all the worst plays patched together for absurdity, and the plot concerned the eponymous tiny man attempting to run things. It was, in other words, an attack on Robert Walpole and the way that he was referred to as "the Great Man". Here, the Great Man is made obviously deficient by being a midget. Walpole responded, and Fielding's revision of the play was in print only. It was written by "Scribblerus Secundus". Its title page announced it was the Tragedy of Tragedies, which functioned as a clearly Swiftian parodic satire. Anti-Walpolean sentiment also showed in increasingly political plays. A particular play of unknown authorship entitled A Vision of the Golden Rump was cited when Parliament passed the Licensing Act of 1737. The Licensing Act required all plays to go to a censor before staging, and only the plays passed by the censor were allowed to be performed. The first play to be banned by the new Act was Gustavus Vasa by Henry Brooke. Samuel Johnson wrote a Swiftian parodic satire of the licensers entitled A Complete Vindication of the Licensers of the English Stage. The satire was, of course, not a vindication at all, but rather a reductio ad absurdum of the position for censorship. Had the licensers not exercised their authority in a partisan manner, the Act might not have chilled the stage so dramatically, but the public was well aware of the bannings and censorship and so any play that passed the licensers was regarded with suspicion by the public. Therefore, the playhouses had little choice but to present old plays and pantomime and other plays that had no conceivable political content. In other words, William Shakespeare's reputation grew enormously, as his plays saw a quadrupling of performances, and sentimental comedy and melodrama were the only choices. Very late in the 18th century Oliver Goldsmith attempted to resist the tide of sentimental comedy with She Stoops to Conquer (1773), and Richard Brinsley Sheridan would mount several satirical plays after Robert Walpole's death. See also[edit] Augustan drama Augustan poetry Augustan prose Jonathan Wild The Mint Novel Restoration literature Restoration drama Restoration spectacular Romantic poetry References[edit] "Proceedings of the Old Bailey". Retrieved July 1, 2005. Edward Yonge on bibliomania.com. Retrieved July 1, 2005. Bloom, Edward and Bloom, Lillian (editors). "Addison the Dramatist" in Joseph Addison and Richard Steele: The Critical Heritage. Routledge, 1995. Clair, Colin. A History of Printing in Britain. New York: Oxford University Press, 1966. Davis, Caroline. "Publishing in the Eighteenth Century: Popular Print Genres". Retrieved June 22, 2005. Defoe, Daniel. The Shortest Way with the Dissenters; Or, Proposals for the Establishment of the Church. Retrieved June 20, 2005. de Mandeville, Bernard. Excerpts from The Fable of the Bees, 1705. Retrieved June 21, 2005. D'Urfey, Tom. Wit and Mirth: or Pills to Purge Melancholy. 6 vol. London: Jacob Tonson, 1719–1720. "The Contemplator's Short Biography of Thomas D'Urfey (1653–1723)". Retrieved June 27, 2005. Fielding, Henry. Tragedy of Tragedies, or Tom Thumb. 1731. Fussell, Paul. Rhetorical World of Augustan Humanism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1965. Gay, John. The Beggar's Opera. Bryan Loughrey and T. O. Treadwell, eds. London: Penguin Books, 1986. Gordon, I. R. F. "Pastorals 1709". Retrieved June 29, 2005. Greene, Donald. The Age of Exuberance: Backgrounds to Eighteenth-Century Literature, 1660–1785. New York: McGraw Hill Companies, 1970. Huber, Alexander, ed. The Thomas Gray Archive, Oxford University. Retrieved July 1, 2005. Hunter, J. Paul. "The 'Occasion' of Robinson Crusoe" in Robinson Crusoe Ed. Michael Shinagel. New York: Norton, 1994. Landry, Donna. "Alexander Pope, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, and the literature of social comment" in The Cambridge Companion to English Literature 1650–1740 Ed. Steven Zwicker. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Macaulay, Thomas Babington. History of England. 1848. Law, William. A Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life. 1728. Retrieved June 20, 2005. Legouis, Emile. A History of English Literature, trans W. D. MacInnes and Emile Legouis. New York: Macmillan Company, 1957. The Millwall History Files, an account of the Great Fire of London. Retrieved June 15, 2005. Miller, H. K., G. S. Rousseau and Eric Rothstein, The Augustan Milieu: Essays Presented to Louis A. Landa (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970). ISBN 0-19-811697-7 Mullan, John. "Swift, Defoe, and narrative forms" in The Cambridge Companion to English Literature 1650–1740 Ed. Steven Zwicker. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Munns, Jessica. "Theatrical culture I: politics and theatre" in The Cambridge Companion to English Literature 1650–1740 Ed. Steven Zwicker. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Newman, Gerald and Brown, Leslie. Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837. Taylor & Francis, 1997. Pope, Alexander. The Poetic Works of Alexander Pope. John Butt, ed. New Haven: Yale UP. Porter, Roy (2000). The Creation of the Modern World. New York: W. W. Norton. Shelley, Henry C. Inns and Taverns of Old London: Setting forth the historic and literary associations of those ancient hostelries, together with an account of the most notable coffee-houses, clubs and pleasure gardens of the British metropolis. Boston: L.C. Page and Company, 1909. Sherbo, Arthur. Studies in the Eighteenth Century English Novel. Michigan State University Press, 1969. Seidel, Michael. "Satire, lampoon, libel, slander" in The Cambridge Companion to English Literature 1650–1740 Ed. Steven Zwicker. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Sterne, Laurence. Tristram Shandy. Retrieved July 1, 2005. Sutherland, Donald R. "The Religion of Gerrard Winstanley and Digger Communism", from Essays in History. Retrieved June 20, 2005. Thompson, E. P. The Making of the English Working Class, 1963. Thompson, E. P. Whigs and Hunters: The Origin of the Black Act. London: Allen Lane, 1975. Thornton, Francis. Alexander Pope. New York: Pellegrini & Cudahy, 1952. Ward, A.W., A.R. Waller, W. P. Trent, J. Erskine, S.P. Sherman, and C. Van Doren. The Cambridge history of English and American literature: An encyclopedia in eighteen volumes. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1921. Ibid. "'Hudibras' and Hudibrastic Verse", on bartleby.com. Retrieved July 1, 2005. Watt, Ian. The Rise of the Novel: Studies in Defoe, Richardson and Fielding. Los Angeles: U California Press, 1957. Weber, Max. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, German original 1904–05, English ed. 1920. Retrieved July 3, 2005. Weinbrot, Howard Augustus Caesar in 'Augustan' England. White, T. H. The Age of Scandal. Penguin Books, 1964. Winn, James "Theatrical culture 2: theatre and music" in The Cambridge Companion to English Literature 1650–1740 Ed. Steven Zwicker. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. ^ J. A. Cuddon,A Dictionary of Literary Terms, London: Penguin, 1999, p. 61. ^ Thornton 275) ^ Newman and Brown 32 ^ Porter ^ J. A. Cuddon, The Penguin Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory, 4th edition (London: Penguin Books, 1999), p.809; M. H. Abrams, A Glossary of Literary Terms, 7th edition (Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace,1999), p.283. ^ Jack, Ian R.J., Augustan Satire: Intention and Idiom in English Poetry, 1660–1750, Claredon Press, 1952, 163 pages. ^ Damrosch, Leo. Jonathan Swift: His Life and His World. Yale University Press, 2013. 573 pages. Further reading[edit] General history[edit] Rogers, Pat The Augustan Vision (London: Methuen, 1974) ISBN 0416709702 (pbk.) An overview of the literary milieu, major authors, and literary forms. Literary criticism[edit] Battestin, Martin C. The Providence of Wit: Aspects of Form in Augustan Literature and the Arts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1974) ISBN 0198120524. Offers a reading of works by Pope, Gay, Fielding, Goldsmith, Swift, and Sterne. McKeon, Michael, The Origins of the English Novel (London: Century Hutchinson, 1988) ISBN 0091729653. A critical response to Watt's 'triple-rise' theory of the novel's eighteenth century origins. Nokes, David Raillery and Rage: a Study of Eighteenth-Century Satire (Brighton: Harvester, 1987) ISBN 9780710812315. A detailed exploration of one of the period's most important literary forms. Watt, Ian The Rise of the Novel: Studies of Defoe, Richardson, and Fielding (London: Pimlico, 2000) ISBN 9780712664271. A major scholarly work, examining the socio-economic conditions that gave rise to the Augustan novel form. Anthologies[edit] Price, Martin (ed.) The Oxford Anthology of English Literature: Restoration and Eighteenth Century (London: Oxford University Press, 1973) ISBN 0-19-501614-9 (pbk.) 4,500 pages of Restoration and Augustan literature. Major works like Pope's An Essay on Criticism and Swift's A Tale of a Tub are merely excerpted. Annotated with a bibliography. Greenblatt, Stephen; Lipking, Lawrence and James Noggle (eds.) The Norton Anthology of English Literature, Volume C: The Restoration and the Eighteenth Century (New York: W. W. Norton and Co., 2006) ISBN 0393927199 (pbk.) Offers a more comprehensive selection than the Oxford Anthology, and likewise annotated with a bibliography. Preceded by Restoration literature Augustan literature 1700–1789 Succeeded by Romanticism v t e English literature Historical Old English Middle English Early English Jewish Elizabethan Restoration Augustan Romanticism Victorian Twentieth Century Regional American African American American Sign Language Arab American Asian American Catholic Chicago Franco American Hawaii Jewish American Latino New England New York Native American Southern Bangladeshi British Scottish Welsh Canadian Caribbean Filipino Indian Irish Oceanic Australian New Zealand Pakistani South African Related topics Anglo-Norman literature Celtic literature English drama English poetry English studies European literature Jèrriais literature Postcolonial literature Women's writing in English Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Augustan_literature&oldid=974282170" Categories: Early Modern English literature Hidden categories: Articles that may contain original research from March 2012 All articles that may contain original research All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from November 2010 Pages using div col with small parameter Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Català Español 日本語 Occitan Edit links This page was last edited on 22 August 2020, at 03:29 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5749	----	Ancient Rome - Wikipedia Ancient Rome From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the history of Rome in antiquity. For a general overview, see Rome. For other uses, see Ancient Rome (disambiguation). Ancient Rome Roma 753 BC–476 AD Senatus Populusque Romanus Territories of the Roman civilization:   Roman Republic   Roman Empire   Western Roman Empire   Eastern Roman Empire Capital Rome, several others during the late Empire, notably Constantinople and Ravenna. Common languages Latin Government Kingdom (753–509 BC) Republic (509–27 BC) Empire (27 BC–476 AD) Historical era Ancient history • Founding of Rome 753 BC • Overthrow of Tarquin the Proud 509 BC • Octavian proclaimed Augustus 27 BC • Collapse of the Western Roman Empire 476 AD Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e In historiography, ancient Rome is Roman civilization from the founding of the Italian city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD, encompassing the Roman Kingdom (753 BC–509 BC), Roman Republic (509 BC–27 BC) and Roman Empire (27 BC–476 AD) until the fall of the western empire.[1] The civilisation began as an Italic settlement in the Italian Peninsula, traditionally dated to 753 BC, that grew into the city of Rome and which subsequently gave its name to the empire over which it ruled and to the widespread civilisation the empire developed. The civilization was led and ruled by the Romans, alternately considered an ethnic group or a nationality. The Roman Empire expanded to become one of the largest empires in the ancient world, still ruled from the city, with an estimated 50 to 90 million inhabitants (roughly 20% of the world's population at the time) and covering 5 million square kilometres (1.9 million square miles) at its height in AD 117.[2][3] In its many centuries of existence, the Roman state evolved from an elective monarchy to a democratic classical republic and then to an increasingly autocratic semi-elective military dictatorship during the Empire. Through conquest, cultural, and linguistic assimilation, at its height it controlled the North African coast, Egypt, Southern Europe, and most of Western Europe, the Balkans, Crimea and much of the Middle East, including Anatolia, Levant and parts of Mesopotamia and Arabia. It is often grouped into classical antiquity together with ancient Greece, and their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco-Roman world. Ancient Roman civilisation has contributed to modern language, religion, society, technology, law, politics, government, warfare, art, literature, architecture and engineering. Rome professionalised and expanded its military and created a system of government called res publica, the inspiration for modern republics such as the United States and France.[4][5][6] It achieved impressive technological and architectural feats, such as the construction of an extensive system of aqueducts and roads, as well as the construction of large monuments, palaces, and public facilities. The Punic Wars with Carthage were decisive in establishing Rome as a world power. In this series of wars, Rome gained control of the strategic islands of Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily; took Hispania (modern Spain and Portugal); and destroyed the city of Carthage in 146 BC, giving Rome supremacy in the Mediterranean. By the end of the Republic (27 BC), Rome had conquered the lands around the Mediterranean and beyond: its domain extended from the Atlantic to Arabia and from the mouth of the Rhine to North Africa. The Roman Empire emerged with the end of the Republic and the dictatorship of Augustus. Seven-hundred and twenty-one years of Roman–Persian Wars started in 92 BC with the first struggle against Parthia. It would become the longest conflict in human history, and have major lasting effects and consequences for both empires. Under Trajan, the Empire reached its territorial peak. It stretched from the entire Mediterranean Basin to the beaches of the North Sea in the north, to the shores of the Red and Caspian Seas in the East. Republican mores and traditions started to decline during the imperial period, with civil wars becoming a prelude common to the rise of a new emperor.[7][8][9] Splinter states, such as the Palmyrene Empire, would temporarily divide the Empire during the crisis of the 3rd century before some stability was restored in the Tetrarchy phase of imperial rule. Plagued by internal instability and attacked by various migrating peoples, the western part of the empire broke up into independent barbarian kingdoms in the 5th century.[a] The eastern part of the empire remained a power through the Middle Ages until its fall in 1453 AD.[b] Contents 1 Founding myth 2 Kingdom 3 Republic 3.1 Punic Wars 4 Late Republic 4.1 Marius and Sulla 4.2 Caesar and the First Triumvirate 4.3 Octavian and the Second Triumvirate 5 Empire – the Principate 5.1 Julio-Claudian dynasty 5.1.1 Augustus 5.1.2 From Tiberius to Nero 5.2 Flavian dynasty 5.2.1 Vespasian 5.2.2 Titus and Domitian 5.3 Nerva–Antonine dynasty 5.3.1 Trajan 5.3.2 From Hadrian to Commodus 5.4 Severan dynasty 5.4.1 Septimius Severus 5.4.2 From Caracalla to Alexander Severus 5.5 Crisis of the Third Century 6 Empire – The Tetrarchy 6.1 Diocletian 6.2 Constantine and Christianity 7 Fall of the Western Roman Empire 8 Society 8.1 Law 8.2 Class structure 8.3 Education 8.4 Government 8.5 Military 8.6 Economy 8.7 Family 9 Culture 9.1 Language 9.2 Religion 9.3 Ethics and morality 9.4 Art, music and literature 9.5 Cuisine 9.6 Games and recreation 10 Technology 11 Legacy 12 Genetics 13 Historiography 13.1 In Roman times 13.2 In modern times 14 See also 15 References 15.1 Sources 16 Further reading 17 External links Founding myth Main article: Founding of Rome According to the founding myth of Rome, the city was founded on 21 April 753 BC on the banks of the river Tiber in central Italy, by the twin brothers Romulus and Remus, who descended from the Trojan prince Aeneas,[11] and who were grandsons of the Latin King Numitor of Alba Longa. King Numitor was deposed by his brother, Amulius, while Numitor's daughter, Rhea Silvia, gave birth to the twins.[12][13] Since Rhea Silvia had been raped and impregnated by Mars, the Roman god of war, the twins were considered half-divine. According to legend, Rome was founded in 753 BC by Romulus and Remus, who were raised by a she-wolf The new king, Amulius, feared Romulus and Remus would take back the throne, so he ordered them to be drowned.[13] A she-wolf (or a shepherd's wife in some accounts) saved and raised them, and when they were old enough, they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor.[14][13] The twins then founded their own city, but Romulus killed Remus in a quarrel over the location of the Roman Kingdom, though some sources state the quarrel was about who was going to rule or give his name to the city.[15] Romulus became the source of the city's name.[13] In order to attract people to the city, Rome became a sanctuary for the indigent, exiled, and unwanted. This caused a problem, in that Rome came to have a large male population but was bereft of women. Romulus visited neighboring towns and tribes and attempted to secure marriage rights, but as Rome was so full of undesirables he was refused. Legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins with the Sabines.[16] Another legend, recorded by Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus, says that Prince Aeneas led a group of Trojans on a sea voyage to found a new Troy, since the original was destroyed at the end of the Trojan War. After a long time in rough seas, they landed on the banks of the Tiber River. Not long after they landed, the men wanted to take to the sea again, but the women who were traveling with them did not want to leave. One woman, named Roma, suggested that the women burn the ships out at sea to prevent their leaving. At first, the men were angry with Roma, but they soon realized that they were in the ideal place to settle. They named the settlement after the woman who torched their ships.[17] The Roman poet Virgil recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the Aeneid, where the Trojan prince Aeneas is destined by the gods to found a new Troy. In the epic, the women also refuse to go back to the sea, but they were not left on the Tiber. After reaching Italy, Aeneas, who wanted to marry Lavinia, was forced to wage war with her former suitor, Turnus. According to the poem, the Alban kings were descended from Aeneas, and thus Romulus, the founder of Rome, was his descendant. Kingdom Main article: Roman Kingdom Etruscan painting; dancer and musicians, Tomb of the Leopards, in Tarquinia, Italy The city of Rome grew from settlements around a ford on the river Tiber, a crossroads of traffic and trade.[14] According to archaeological evidence, the village of Rome was probably founded some time in the 8th century BC, though it may go back as far as the 10th century BC, by members of the Latin tribe of Italy, on the top of the Palatine Hill.[18][19] The Etruscans, who had previously settled to the north in Etruria, seem to have established political control in the region by the late 7th century BC, forming an aristocratic and monarchical elite. The Etruscans apparently lost power by the late 6th century BC, and at this point, the original Latin and Sabine tribes reinvented their government by creating a republic, with much greater restraints on the ability of rulers to exercise power.[20] Roman tradition and archaeological evidence point to a complex within the Forum Romanum as the seat of power for the king and the beginnings of the religious center there as well. Numa Pompilius the second king of Rome, succeeding Romulus, began Rome's building projects with his royal palace the Regia and the complex of the Vestal virgins. Republic Main article: Roman Republic This bust from the Capitoline Museums is traditionally identified as a portrait of Lucius Junius Brutus, Roman bronze sculpture, 4th to late 3rd centuries BC According to tradition and later writers such as Livy, the Roman Republic was established around 509 BC,[21] when the last of the seven kings of Rome, Tarquin the Proud, was deposed by Lucius Junius Brutus and a system based on annually elected magistrates and various representative assemblies was established.[22] A constitution set a series of checks and balances, and a separation of powers. The most important magistrates were the two consuls, who together exercised executive authority such as imperium, or military command.[23] The consuls had to work with the senate, which was initially an advisory council of the ranking nobility, or patricians, but grew in size and power.[24] Other magistrates of the Republic include tribunes, quaestors, aediles, praetors and censors.[25] The magistracies were originally restricted to patricians, but were later opened to common people, or plebeians.[26] Republican voting assemblies included the comitia centuriata (centuriate assembly), which voted on matters of war and peace and elected men to the most important offices, and the comitia tributa (tribal assembly), which elected less important offices.[27] Italy (as defined by today's borders) in 400 BC. In the 4th century BC, Rome had come under attack by the Gauls, who now extended their power in the Italian peninsula beyond the Po Valley and through Etruria. On 16 July 390 BC, a Gallic army under the leadership of tribal chieftain Brennus, met the Romans on the banks of the Allia River ten miles north of Rome. Brennus defeated the Romans, and the Gauls marched to Rome. Most Romans had fled the city, but some barricaded themselves upon the Capitoline Hill for a last stand. The Gauls looted and burned the city, then laid siege to the Capitoline Hill. The siege lasted seven months. The Gauls then agreed to give the Romans peace in exchange for 1,000 pounds (450 kg) of gold.[28] According to later legend, the Roman supervising the weighing noticed that the Gauls were using false scales. The Romans then took up arms and defeated the Gauls. Their victorious general Camillus remarked "With iron, not with gold, Rome buys her freedom."[29] The Romans gradually subdued the other peoples on the Italian peninsula, including the Etruscans.[30] The last threat to Roman hegemony in Italy came when Tarentum, a major Greek colony, enlisted the aid of Pyrrhus of Epirus in 281 BC, but this effort failed as well.[31][30] The Romans secured their conquests by founding Roman colonies in strategic areas, thereby establishing stable control over the region of Italy they had conquered.[30] Punic Wars Main article: Punic Wars See also: Roman conquest of the Iberian peninsula This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Rome and Carthage possession changes during the Punic Wars   Carthaginian possessions   Roman possessions One of the most famous Roman sieges was that of the Celtiberian stronghold of Numantia in present north-central Spain by Scipio Aemilianus in 133 BC[32] Roman bronze bust of Scipio Africanus the Elder from the Naples National Archaeological Museum (Inv. No. 5634), dated mid 1st century BC[33] Excavated from the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum by Karl Jakob Weber, 1750–65[34] In the 3rd century BC Rome faced a new and formidable opponent: Carthage. Carthage was a rich, flourishing Phoenician city-state that intended to dominate the Mediterranean area. The two cities were allies in the times of Pyrrhus, who was a menace to both, but with Rome's hegemony in mainland Italy and the Carthaginian thalassocracy, these cities became the two major powers in the Western Mediterranean and their contention over the Mediterranean led to conflict. The First Punic War began in 264 BC, when the city of Messana asked for Carthage's help in their conflicts with Hiero II of Syracuse. After the Carthaginian intercession, Messana asked Rome to expel the Carthaginians. Rome entered this war because Syracuse and Messana were too close to the newly conquered Greek cities of Southern Italy and Carthage was now able to make an offensive through Roman territory; along with this, Rome could extend its domain over Sicily.[35] Although the Romans had experience in land battles, defeating this new enemy required naval battles. Carthage was a maritime power, and the Roman lack of ships and naval experience made the path to the victory a long and difficult one for the Roman Republic. Despite this, after more than 20 years of war, Rome defeated Carthage and a peace treaty was signed. Among the reasons for the Second Punic War[36] was the subsequent war reparations Carthage acquiesced to at the end of the First Punic War.[37] The Second Punic War is famous for its brilliant generals: on the Punic side Hannibal and Hasdrubal; on the Roman, Marcus Claudius Marcellus, Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus and Publius Cornelius Scipio. Rome fought this war simultaneously with the First Macedonian War. The war began with the audacious invasion of Hispania by Hannibal, the Carthaginian general who had led operations on Sicily in the First Punic War. Hannibal, son of Hamilcar Barca, rapidly marched through Hispania to the Italian Alps, causing panic among Rome's Italian allies. The best way found to defeat Hannibal's purpose of causing the Italians to abandon Rome was to delay the Carthaginians with a guerrilla war of attrition, a strategy propounded by Quintus Fabius Maximus, who would be nicknamed Cunctator ("delayer" in Latin), and whose strategy would be forever after known as Fabian. Due to this, Hannibal's goal was unachieved: he could not bring enough Italian cities to revolt against Rome and replenish his diminishing army, and he thus lacked the machines and manpower to besiege Rome. Still, Hannibal's invasion lasted over 16 years, ravaging Italy. Finally, when the Romans perceived the depletion of Hannibal's supplies, they sent Scipio, who had defeated Hannibal's brother Hasdrubal in modern-day Spain, to invade the unprotected Carthaginian hinterland and force Hannibal to return to defend Carthage itself. The result was the ending of the Second Punic War by the famously decisive Battle of Zama in October 202 BC, which gave to Scipio his agnomen Africanus. At great cost, Rome had made significant gains: the conquest of Hispania by Scipio, and of Syracuse, the last Greek realm in Sicily, by Marcellus. More than a half century after these events, Carthage was humiliated and Rome was no more concerned about the African menace. The Republic's focus now was only to the Hellenistic kingdoms of Greece and revolts in Hispania. However, Carthage, after having paid the war indemnity, felt that its commitments and submission to Rome had ceased, a vision not shared by the Roman Senate. When in 151 BC Numidia invaded Carthage, Carthage asked for Roman intercession. Ambassadors were sent to Carthage, among them was Marcus Porcius Cato, who after seeing that Carthage could make a comeback and regain its importance, ended all his speeches, no matter what the subject was, by saying: "Ceterum censeo Carthaginem esse delendam" ("Furthermore, I think that Carthage must be destroyed"). As Carthage fought with Numidia without Roman consent, the Third Punic War began when Rome declared war against Carthage in 149 BC. Carthage resisted well at the first strike, with the participation of all the inhabitants of the city. However, Carthage could not withstand the attack of Scipio Aemilianus, who entirely destroyed the city and its walls, enslaved and sold all the citizens and gained control of that region, which became the province of Africa. Thus ended the Punic War period. All these wars resulted in Rome's first overseas conquests (Sicily, Hispania and Africa) and the rise of Rome as a significant imperial power and began the end of democracy. [38][39] Late Republic After defeating the Macedonian and Seleucid Empires in the 2nd century BC, the Romans became the dominant people of the Mediterranean Sea.[40][41] The conquest of the Hellenistic kingdoms brought the Roman and Greek cultures in closer contact and the Roman elite, once rural, became a luxurious and cosmopolitan one. At this time Rome was a consolidated empire—in the military view—and had no major enemies. Gaius Marius, a Roman general and politician who dramatically reformed the Roman military Foreign dominance led to internal strife. Senators became rich at the provinces' expense; soldiers, who were mostly small-scale farmers, were away from home longer and could not maintain their land; and the increased reliance on foreign slaves and the growth of latifundia reduced the availability of paid work.[42][43] Income from war booty, mercantilism in the new provinces, and tax farming created new economic opportunities for the wealthy, forming a new class of merchants, called the equestrians.[44] The lex Claudia forbade members of the Senate from engaging in commerce, so while the equestrians could theoretically join the Senate, they were severely restricted in political power.[44][45] The Senate squabbled perpetually, repeatedly blocked important land reforms and refused to give the equestrian class a larger say in the government. Violent gangs of the urban unemployed, controlled by rival Senators, intimidated the electorate through violence. The situation came to a head in the late 2nd century BC under the Gracchi brothers, a pair of tribunes who attempted to pass land reform legislation that would redistribute the major patrician landholdings among the plebeians. Both brothers were killed and the Senate passed reforms reversing the Gracchi brother's actions.[46] This led to the growing divide of the plebeian groups (populares) and equestrian classes (optimates). Marius and Sulla Gaius Marius, a novus homo, who started his political career with the help of the powerful Metelli family soon become a leader of the Republic, holding the first of his seven consulships (an unprecedented number) in 107 BC by arguing that his former patron Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus was not able to defeat and capture the Numidian king Jugurtha. Marius then started his military reform: in his recruitment to fight Jugurtha, he levied the very poor (an innovation), and many landless men entered the army; this was the seed of securing loyalty of the army to the General in command. Lucius Cornelius Sulla was born into a poor family that used to be a patrician family. He had a good education but became poor when his father died and left none of his will. Sulla joined the theater and found many friends there, prior to becoming a general in the Jugurthine war.[47] At this time, Marius began his quarrel with Sulla: Marius, who wanted to capture Jugurtha, asked Bocchus, son-in-law of Jugurtha, to hand him over. As Marius failed, Sulla, a general of Marius at that time, in a dangerous enterprise, went himself to Bocchus and convinced Bocchus to hand Jugurtha over to him. This was very provocative to Marius, since many of his enemies were encouraging Sulla to oppose Marius. Despite this, Marius was elected for five consecutive consulships from 104 to 100 BC, as Rome needed a military leader to defeat the Cimbri and the Teutones, who were threatening Rome. Lucius Cornelius Sulla After Marius's retirement, Rome had a brief peace, during which the Italian socii ("allies" in Latin) requested Roman citizenship and voting rights. The reformist Marcus Livius Drusus supported their legal process but was assassinated, and the socii revolted against the Romans in the Social War. At one point both consuls were killed; Marius was appointed to command the army together with Lucius Julius Caesar and Sulla.[48] By the end of the Social War, Marius and Sulla were the premier military men in Rome and their partisans were in conflict, both sides jostling for power. In 88 BC, Sulla was elected for his first consulship and his first assignment was to defeat Mithridates VI of Pontus, whose intentions were to conquer the Eastern part of the Roman territories. However, Marius's partisans managed his installation to the military command, defying Sulla and the Senate, and this caused Sulla's wrath. To consolidate his own power, Sulla conducted a surprising and illegal action: he marched to Rome with his legions, killing all those who showed support to Marius's cause and impaling their heads in the Roman Forum. In the following year, 87 BC, Marius, who had fled at Sulla's march, returned to Rome while Sulla was campaigning in Greece. He seized power along with the consul Lucius Cornelius Cinna and killed the other consul, Gnaeus Octavius, achieving his seventh consulship. In an attempt to raise Sulla's anger, Marius and Cinna revenged their partisans by conducting a massacre.[48][49] Marius died in 86 BC, due to age and poor health, just a few months after seizing power. Cinna exercised absolute power until his death in 84 BC. Sulla after returning from his Eastern campaigns, had a free path to reestablish his own power. In 83 BC he made his second march in Rome and began a time of terror: thousands of nobles, knights and senators were executed. Sulla also held two dictatorships and one more consulship, which began the crisis and decline of Roman Republic.[48] Caesar and the First Triumvirate This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Landing of the Romans in Kent, 55 BC: Caesar with 100 ships and two legions made an opposed landing, probably near Deal. After pressing a little way inland against fierce opposition and losing ships in a storm, he retired back across the English Channel to Gaul from what was a reconnaissance in force, only to return the following year for a more serious invasion. In the mid-1st century BC, Roman politics were restless. Political divisions in Rome became identified with two groupings, populares (who hoped for the support of the people) and optimates (the "best", who wanted to maintain exclusive aristocratic control). Sulla overthrew all populist leaders and his constitutional reforms removed powers (such as those of the tribune of the plebs) that had supported populist approaches. Meanwhile, social and economic stresses continued to build; Rome had become a metropolis with a super-rich aristocracy, debt-ridden aspirants, and a large proletariat often of impoverished farmers. The latter groups supported the Catilinarian conspiracy—a resounding failure, since the consul Marcus Tullius Cicero quickly arrested and executed the main leaders of the conspiracy. Onto this turbulent scene emerged Gaius Julius Caesar, from an aristocratic family of limited wealth. His aunt Julia was Marius' wife,[50] and Caesar identified with the populares. To achieve power, Caesar reconciled the two most powerful men in Rome: Marcus Licinius Crassus, who had financed much of his earlier career, and Crassus' rival, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (anglicized as Pompey), to whom he married his daughter. He formed them into a new informal alliance including himself, the First Triumvirate ("three men"). This satisfied the interests of all three: Crassus, the richest man in Rome, became richer and ultimately achieved high military command; Pompey exerted more influence in the Senate; and Caesar obtained the consulship and military command in Gaul.[51] So long as they could agree, the three were in effect the rulers of Rome. In 54 BC, Caesar's daughter, Pompey's wife, died in childbirth, unraveling one link in the alliance. In 53 BC, Crassus invaded Parthia and was killed in the Battle of Carrhae. The Triumvirate disintegrated at Crassus' death. Crassus had acted as mediator between Caesar and Pompey, and, without him, the two generals manoeuvred against each other for power. Caesar conquered Gaul, obtaining immense wealth, respect in Rome and the loyalty of battle-hardened legions. He also became a clear menace to Pompey and was loathed by many optimates. Confident that Caesar could be stopped by legal means, Pompey's party tried to strip Caesar of his legions, a prelude to Caesar's trial, impoverishment, and exile. To avoid this fate, Caesar crossed the Rubicon River and invaded Rome in 49 BC. Pompey and his party fled from Italy, pursued by Caesar. The Battle of Pharsalus was a brilliant victory for Caesar and in this and other campaigns he destroyed all of the optimates' leaders: Metellus Scipio, Cato the Younger, and Pompey's son, Gnaeus Pompeius. Pompey was murdered in Egypt in 48 BC. Caesar was now pre-eminent over Rome, attracting the bitter enmity of many aristocrats. He was granted many offices and honours. In just five years, he held four consulships, two ordinary dictatorships, and two special dictatorships: one for ten years and another for perpetuity. He was murdered in 44 BC, on the Ides of March by the Liberatores.[52] Octavian and the Second Triumvirate The Battle of Actium, by Laureys a Castro, painted 1672, National Maritime Museum, London Caesar's assassination caused political and social turmoil in Rome; without the dictator's leadership, the city was ruled by his friend and colleague, Marcus Antonius. Soon afterward, Octavius, whom Caesar adopted through his will, arrived in Rome. Octavian (historians regard Octavius as Octavian due to the Roman naming conventions) tried to align himself with the Caesarian faction. In 43 BC, along with Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, Caesar's best friend,[53] he legally established the Second Triumvirate. This alliance would last for five years. Upon its formation, 130–300 senators were executed, and their property was confiscated, due to their supposed support for the Liberatores.[54] In 42 BC, the Senate deified Caesar as Divus Iulius; Octavian thus became Divi filius,[55] the son of the deified. In the same year, Octavian and Antony defeated both Caesar's assassins and the leaders of the Liberatores, Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus, in the Battle of Philippi. The Second Triumvirate was marked by the proscriptions of many senators and equites: after a revolt led by Antony's brother Lucius Antonius, more than 300 senators and equites involved were executed on the anniversary of the Ides of March, although Lucius was spared.[56] The Triumvirate proscribed several important men, including Cicero, whom Antony hated;[57] Quintus Tullius Cicero, the younger brother of the orator; and Lucius Julius Caesar, cousin and friend of the acclaimed general, for his support of Cicero. However, Lucius was pardoned, perhaps because his sister Julia had intervened for him.[58] The Triumvirate divided the Empire among the triumvirs: Lepidus was given charge of Africa, Antony, the eastern provinces, and Octavian remained in Italia and controlled Hispania and Gaul. The Second Triumvirate expired in 38 BC but was renewed for five more years. However, the relationship between Octavian and Antony had deteriorated, and Lepidus was forced to retire in 36 BC after betraying Octavian in Sicily. By the end of the Triumvirate, Antony was living in Ptolemaic Egypt, an independent and rich kingdom ruled by Antony's lover, Cleopatra VII. Antony's affair with Cleopatra was seen as an act of treason, since she was queen of another country. Additionally, Antony adopted a lifestyle considered too extravagant and Hellenistic for a Roman statesman.[59] Following Antony's Donations of Alexandria, which gave to Cleopatra the title of "Queen of Kings", and to Antony's and Cleopatra's children the regal titles to the newly conquered Eastern territories, war between Octavian and Antony broke out. Octavian annihilated Egyptian forces in the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide. Now Egypt was conquered by the Roman Empire, and for the Romans, a new era had begun. Empire – the Principate Main article: Roman Empire In 27 BC and at the age of 36, Octavian was the sole Roman leader. In that year, he took the name Augustus. That event is usually taken by historians as the beginning of Roman Empire—although Rome was an "imperial" state since 146 BC, when Carthage was razed by Scipio Aemilianus and Greece was conquered by Lucius Mummius. Officially, the government was republican, but Augustus assumed absolute powers.[60][61] His reform of the government brought about a two-century period colloquially referred to by Romans as the Pax Romana. Julio-Claudian dynasty The Julio-Claudian dynasty was established by Augustus. The emperors of this dynasty were: Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius and Nero. The dynasty is so-called due to the gens Julia, family of Augustus, and the gens Claudia, family of Tiberius. The Julio-Claudians started the destruction of republican values, but on the other hand, they boosted Rome's status as the central power in the world.[62] While Caligula and Nero are usually remembered as dysfunctional emperors in popular culture, Augustus and Claudius are remembered as emperors who were successful in politics and the military. This dynasty instituted imperial tradition in Rome[63] and frustrated any attempt to reestablish a Republic.[64] Augustus The Augustus of Prima Porta, 1st century AD, depicting Augustus, the first Roman emperor Augustus gathered almost all the republican powers under his official title, princeps: he had powers of consul, princeps senatus, aedile, censor and tribune—including tribunician sacrosanctity.[65] This was the base of an emperor's power. Augustus also styled himself as Imperator Gaius Julius Caesar divi filius, "Commander Gaius Julius Caesar, son of the deified one". With this title he not only boasted his familial link to deified Julius Caesar, but the use of Imperator signified a permanent link to the Roman tradition of victory. He also diminished the Senatorial class influence in politics by boosting the equestrian class. The senators lost their right to rule certain provinces, like Egypt; since the governor of that province was directly nominated by the emperor. The creation of the Praetorian Guard and his reforms in the military, creating a standing army with a fixed size of 28 legions, ensured his total control over the army.[66] Compared with the Second Triumvirate's epoch, Augustus' reign as princeps was very peaceful. This peace and richness (that was granted by the agrarian province of Egypt)[67] led the people and the nobles of Rome to support Augustus increasing his strength in political affairs.[68] In military activity, Augustus was absent at battles. His generals were responsible for the field command; gaining such commanders as Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Nero Claudius Drusus and Germanicus much respect from the populace and the legions. Augustus intended to extend the Roman Empire to the whole known world, and in his reign, Rome conquered Cantabria, Aquitania, Raetia, Dalmatia, Illyricum and Pannonia.[69] Under Augustus's reign, Roman literature grew steadily in what is known as the Golden Age of Latin Literature. Poets like Virgil, Horace, Ovid and Rufus developed a rich literature, and were close friends of Augustus. Along with Maecenas, he stimulated patriotic poems, as Virgil's epic Aeneid and also historiographical works, like those of Livy. The works of this literary age lasted through Roman times, and are classics. Augustus also continued the shifts on the calendar promoted by Caesar, and the month of August is named after him.[70] Augustus brought a peaceful and thriving era to Rome, known as Pax Augusta or Pax Romana. Augustus died in 14 AD, but the empire's glory continued after his era. From Tiberius to Nero Extent of the Roman Empire under Augustus. The yellow legend represents the extent of the Republic in 31 BC, the shades of green represent gradually conquered territories under the reign of Augustus, and pink areas on the map represent client states; areas under Roman control shown here were subject to change even during Augustus' reign, especially in Germania. The Julio-Claudians continued to rule Rome after Augustus' death and remained in power until the death of Nero in 68 AD.[71] Augustus' favorites for succeeding him were already dead in his senescence: his nephew Marcellus died in 23 BC, his friend and military commander Agrippa in 12 BC and his grandson Gaius Caesar in 4 AD. Influenced by his wife, Livia Drusilla, Augustus appointed her son from another marriage, Tiberius, as his heir.[72] The Senate agreed with the succession, and granted to Tiberius the same titles and honors once granted to Augustus: the title of princeps and Pater patriae, and the Civic Crown. However, Tiberius was not an enthusiast of political affairs: after agreement with the Senate, he retired to Capri in 26 AD,[73] and left control of the city of Rome in the hands of the praetorian prefect Sejanus (until 31 AD) and Macro (from 31 to 37 AD). Tiberius was regarded as an evil and melancholic man, who may have ordered the murder of his relatives, the popular general Germanicus in 19 AD,[74] and his own son Drusus Julius Caesar in 23 AD.[74] Tiberius died (or was killed)[74] in 37 AD. The male line of the Julio-Claudians was limited to Tiberius' nephew Claudius, his grandson Tiberius Gemellus and his grand-nephew Caligula. As Gemellus was still a child, Caligula was chosen to rule the Empire. He was a popular leader in the first half of his reign, but became a crude and insane tyrant in his years controlling government.[75][76] Suetonius states that he committed incest with his sisters, killed some men just for amusement and nominated a horse for a consulship.[77] The Praetorian Guard murdered Caligula four years after the death of Tiberius,[78] and, with belated support from the senators, proclaimed his uncle Claudius as the new emperor.[79] Claudius was not as authoritarian as Tiberius and Caligula. Claudius conquered Lycia and Thrace; his most important deed was the beginning of the conquest of Britannia.[80] Claudius was poisoned by his wife, Agrippina the Younger in 54 AD.[81] His heir was Nero, son of Agrippina and her former husband, since Claudius' son Britannicus had not reached manhood upon his father's death. Nero sent his general, Suetonius Paulinus, to invade modern-day Wales, where he encountered stiff resistance. The Celts in modern-day Wales were independent, tough and resistant to tax collectors and fought Paulinus, as he battled his way across from East to West. It took him a long time to reach the North West coast and in 60 AD he finally crossed the Menai Strait to the sacred island of Mona (modern-day Anglesey), the last stronghold of the Druids.[82] His soldiers attacked the island and massacred the Druids, men, women and children,[83] destroyed the shrine and the sacred groves and threw many of the sacred standing stones into the sea. While Paulinus and his troops were massacring Druids in Mona, the tribes of modern-day East Anglia staged a revolt led by queen Boadicea of the Iceni.[84] The rebels sacked and burned Camulodunum, Londinium and Verulamium (modern-day Colchester, London and St Albans respectively) before they were crushed by Paulinus.[85] Boadicea, like Cleopatra before her, committed suicide to avoid the disgrace of being paraded in triumph in Rome.[86] The fault of Nero in this rebellion is debatable but there was certainly an impact (both positive and negative) upon the prestige of his regime.[citation needed] Nero is widely known as the first persecutor of Christians and for the Great Fire of Rome, rumoured to have been started by the emperor himself.[87][88] In 59 AD he murdered his mother and in 62 AD, his wife Claudia Octavia. Never very stable, he allowed his advisers to run the government while he slid into debauchery, excess, and madness. He was married three times, and had numerous affairs with both men and women, and, according to some rumors, even his mother. A conspiracy against Nero in 65 AD under Calpurnius Piso failed, but in 68 AD the armies under Julius Vindex in Gaul and Servius Sulpicius Galba in modern-day Spain revolted. Deserted by the Praetorian Guards and condemned to death by the senate, Nero killed himself.[89] Flavian dynasty Bust of Vespasian, founder of the Flavian dynasty The Flavians were the second dynasty to rule Rome.[90] By 68 AD, year of Nero's death, there was no chance of return to the old and traditional Roman Republic, thus a new emperor had to rise. After the turmoil in the Year of the Four Emperors, Titus Flavius Vespasianus (anglicized as Vespasian) took control of the Empire and established a new dynasty. Under the Flavians, Rome continued its expansion, and the state remained secure.[91][92] The most significant military campaign undertaken during the Flavian period, was the siege and destruction of Jerusalem in 70 by Titus. The destruction of the city was the culmination of the Roman campaign in Judea following the Jewish uprising of 66. The Second Temple was completely demolished, after which Titus's soldiers proclaimed him imperator in honor of the victory. Jerusalem was sacked and much of the population killed or dispersed. Josephus claims that 1,100,000 people were killed during the siege, of which a majority were Jewish.[93] 97,000 were captured and enslaved, including Simon bar Giora and John of Giscala. Many fled to areas around the Mediterranean. Titus reportedly refused to accept a wreath of victory, as there is "no merit in vanquishing people forsaken by their own God". Vespasian Vespasian was a general under Claudius and Nero. He fought as a commander in the First Jewish-Roman War along with his son Titus. Following the turmoil of the Year of the Four Emperors, in 69 AD, four emperors were enthroned: Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and, lastly, Vespasian, who crushed Vitellius' forces and became emperor.[94] He reconstructed many buildings which were uncompleted, like a statue of Apollo and the temple of Divus Claudius ("the deified Claudius"), both initiated by Nero. Buildings once destroyed by the Great Fire of Rome were rebuilt, and he revitalized the Capitol. Vespasian also started the construction of the Flavian Amphitheater, more commonly known as the Colosseum.[95] The historians Josephus and Pliny the Elder wrote their works during Vespasian's reign. Vespasian was Josephus' sponsor and Pliny dedicated his Naturalis Historia to Titus, son of Vespasian. Vespasian sent legions to defend the eastern frontier in Cappadocia, extended the occupation in Britannia (modern-day England, Wales and southern Scotland) and reformed the tax system. He died in 79 AD. Titus and Domitian Titus had a short-lived rule; he was emperor from 79 to 81 AD. He finished the Flavian Amphitheater, which was constructed with war spoils from the First Jewish-Roman War, and promoted games celebrating the victory over the Jews that lasted for a hundred days. These games included gladiatorial combats, chariot races and a sensational mock naval battle on the flooded grounds of the Colosseum.[96][97] Titus died of fever in 81 AD, and was succeeded by his brother Domitian. As emperor, Domitian assumed totalitarian characteristics,[98] thought he could be a new Augustus, and tried to make a personal cult of himself. Domitian ruled for fifteen years, and his reign was marked by his attempts to compare himself to the gods. He constructed at least two temples in honour of Jupiter, the supreme deity in Roman religion. He also liked to be called "Dominus et Deus" ("Master and God").[99] Nerva–Antonine dynasty The Roman Empire reached its greatest extent under Trajan in AD 117 The Nerva–Antonine dynasty from 96 AD to 192 AD was the rule of the emperors Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, Lucius Verus, and Commodus. During their rule, Rome reached its territorial and economical apogee.[100] This was a time of peace for Rome. The criteria for choosing an emperor were the qualities of the candidate and no longer ties of kinship; additionally, there were no civil wars or military defeats in this period. Following Domitian's murder, the Senate rapidly appointed Nerva to hold imperial dignity. This was the first time that senators chose the emperor since Octavian was honored with the titles of princeps and Augustus. Nerva had a noble ancestry, and he had served as an advisor to Nero and the Flavians. His rule restored many of the liberties once assumed by Domitian[101] and started the last golden era of Rome. Trajan The Justice of Trajan (fragment) by Eugène Delacroix Nerva died in 98 AD and his successor and heir was the general Trajan. Trajan was born in a non-patrician family from Hispania Baetica (modern-day Andalusia) and his preeminence emerged in the army, under Domitian. He is the second of the Five Good Emperors, the first being Nerva. Trajan was greeted by the people of Rome with enthusiasm, which he justified by governing well and without the bloodiness that had marked Domitian's reign. He freed many people who had been unjustly imprisoned by Domitian and returned private property that Domitian had confiscated; a process begun by Nerva before his death.[102] Trajan conquered Dacia (roughly modern-day Romania and Moldova), and defeated the king Decebalus, who had defeated Domitian's forces. In the First Dacian War (101–102), the defeated Dacia became a client kingdom; in the Second Dacian War (105–106), Trajan completely devastated the enemy's resistance and annexed Dacia to the Empire. Trajan also annexed the client state of Nabatea to form the province of Arabia Petraea, which included the lands of southern Syria and northwestern Arabia.[103] He erected many buildings that survive to this day, such as Trajan's Forum, Trajan's Market and Trajan's Column. His main architect was Apollodorus of Damascus; Apollodorus made the project of the Forum and of the Column, and also reformed the Pantheon. Trajan's triumphal arches in Ancona and Beneventum are other constructions projected by him. In the Second Dacian War, Apollodorus made a great bridge over the Danube for Trajan.[104] Trajan's final war was against Parthia. When Parthia appointed a king for Armenia who was unacceptable to Rome (Parthia and Rome shared dominance over Armenia), he declared war. He probably wanted to be the first Roman leader to conquer Parthia, and repeat the glory of Alexander the Great, conqueror of Asia, whom Trajan next followed in the clash of Greek-Romans and the Persian cultures.[105] In 113 he marched to Armenia and deposed the local king. In 115 Trajan turned south into the core of Parthian hegemony, took the Northern Mesopotamian cities of Nisibis and Batnae, organized a province of Mesopotamia (116), and issued coins announcing that Armenia and Mesopotamia was under the authority of the Roman people.[106] In that same year, he captured Seleucia and the Parthian capital Ctesiphon (near modern Baghdad).[107] After defeating a Parthian revolt and a Jewish revolt, he withdrew due to health issues. In 117, his illness grew and he died of edema. He nominated Hadrian as his heir. Under Trajan's leadership the Roman Empire reached the peak of its territorial expansion;[108] Rome's dominion now spanned 5.0 million square kilometres (1.9 million square miles).[3] From Hadrian to Commodus Map showing the location of Hadrian's Wall and the Antonine Wall in Scotland and Northern England Many Romans emigrated to Hispania (modern-day Spain and Portugal) and stayed for generations, in some cases intermarrying with Iberians; one of these families produced the emperor Hadrian.[109] Hadrian withdrew all the troops stationed in Parthia, Armenia and Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq), abandoning Trajan's conquests. Hadrian's army crushed a revolt in Mauretania and the Bar Kokhba revolt in Judea. This was the last large-scale Jewish revolt against the Romans, and was suppressed with massive repercussions in Judea. Hundreds of thousands of Jews were killed. Hadrian renamed the province of Judea "Provincia Syria Palaestina," after one of Judea's most hated enemies.[110] He constructed fortifications and walls, like the celebrated Hadrian's Wall which separated Roman Britannia and the tribes of modern-day Scotland. Hadrian promoted culture, especially the Greek. He also forbade torture and humanized the laws. His many building projects included aqueducts, baths, libraries and theaters; additionally, he travelled nearly every province in the Empire to check the military and infrastructural conditions.[111] Following Hadrian's death in 138 AD, his successor Antoninus Pius built temples, theaters, and mausoleums, promoted the arts and sciences, and bestowed honours and financial rewards upon the teachers of rhetoric and philosophy. On becoming emperor, Antoninus made few initial changes, leaving intact as far as possible the arrangements instituted by his predecessor. Antoninus expanded Roman Britannia by invading what is now southern Scotland and building the Antonine Wall.[112] He also continued Hadrian's policy of humanizing the laws. He died in 161 AD. The Pantheon, Rome, built during the reign of Hadrian, which still contains the largest unreinforced concrete dome in the world Marcus Aurelius, known as the Philosopher, was the last of the Five Good Emperors. He was a stoic philosopher and wrote the Meditations. He defeated barbarian tribes in the Marcomannic Wars as well as the Parthian Empire.[113] His co-emperor, Lucius Verus died in 169 AD, probably victim of the Antonine Plague, a pandemic that killed nearly five million people through the Empire in 165–180 AD.[114] From Nerva to Marcus Aurelius, the empire achieved an unprecedented status. The powerful influence of laws and manners had gradually cemented the union of the provinces. All the citizens enjoyed and abused the advantages of wealth. The image of a free constitution was preserved with decent reverence. The Roman senate appeared to possess the sovereign authority, and devolved on the emperors all the executive powers of government.[clarification needed] The Five Good Emperors' rule is considered the golden era of the Empire.[115] Commodus, son of Marcus Aurelius, became emperor after his father's death. He is not counted as one of the Five Good Emperors. Firstly, this was due to his direct kinship with the latter emperor; in addition, he was militarily passive compared to his predecessors, who had frequently led their armies in person. Commodus usually participated in gladiatorial combats, which were frequently brutal and rough. He killed many citizens, and Cassius Dio identifies his reign as the beginning of Roman decadence: "(Rome has transformed) from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust."[116] Severan dynasty Commodus was killed by a conspiracy involving Quintus Aemilius Laetus and his wife Marcia in late 192 AD. The following year is known as the Year of the Five Emperors, during which Helvius Pertinax, Didius Julianus, Pescennius Niger, Clodius Albinus and Septimius Severus held the imperial dignity. Pertinax, a member of the senate who had been one of Marcus Aurelius's right hand men, was the choice of Laetus, and he ruled vigorously and judiciously. Laetus soon became jealous and instigated Pertinax's murder by the Praetorian Guard, who then auctioned the empire to the highest bidder, Didius Julianus, for 25,000 sesterces per man.[117] The people of Rome were appalled and appealed to the frontier legions to save them. The legions of three frontier provinces—Britannia, Pannonia Superior, and Syria—resented being excluded from the "donative" and replied by declaring their individual generals to be emperor. Lucius Septimius Severus Geta, the Pannonian commander, bribed the opposing forces, pardoned the Praetorian Guards and installed himself as emperor. He and his successors governed with the legions' support. The changes on coinage and military expenditures were the root of the financial crisis that marked the Crisis of the Third Century. Septimius Severus The Severan Tondo, c. 199, Severus, Julia Domna, Caracalla and Geta, whose face is erased Severus was enthroned after invading Rome and having Didius Julianus killed. His two other rivals, Pescennius Niger and Clodius Albinus, were both were hailed by other factions as Imperator. Severus quickly subdued Niger in Byzantium and promised to Albinus the title of Caesar (which meant he would be a co-emperor).[118] However, Severus betrayed Albinus by blaming him for a plot against his life. Severus marched to Gaul and defeated Albinus. For these acts, Machiavelli said that Severus was "a ferocious lion and a clever fox"[119] Severus attempted to revive totalitarianism and, addressing the Roman people and Senate, praised the severity and cruelty of Marius and Sulla, which worried the senators.[120] When Parthia invaded Roman territory, Severus waged war against that country and seized the cities of Nisibis, Babylon and Seleucia. Reaching Ctesiphon, the Parthian capital, he ordered plundering and his army slew and captured many people. Notwithstanding this military success, Severus failed in invading Hatra, a rich Arabian city. Severus killed his legate, who was gaining respect from the legions; and his soldiers fell victim to famine. After this disastrous campaign, he withdrew.[121] Severus also intended to vanquish the whole of Britannia. To achieve this, he waged war against the Caledonians. After many casualties in the army due to the terrain and the barbarians' ambushes, Severus himself went to the field. However, he became ill and died in 211 AD, at the age of 65. From Caracalla to Alexander Severus Bust of Caracalla from the Pergamon Museum, Berlin Upon the death of Severus, his sons Caracalla and Geta were made emperors. During their youth, their squabbles had divided Rome. In that same year Caracalla had his brother, a youth, assassinated in his mother's arms, and may have murdered 20,000 of Geta's followers. Like his father, Caracalla was warlike. He continued Severus' policy and gained respect from the legions. A cruel man, Caracalla was pursued by the guilt of his brother's murder. He ordered the death of people of his own circle, like his tutor, Cilo, and a friend of his father, Papinian. Knowing that the citizens of Alexandria disliked him and were denigrating his character, Caracalla served a banquet for its notable citizens, after which his soldiers killed all the guests. From the security of the temple of Sarapis, he then directed an indiscriminate slaughter of Alexandria's people.[122][123] In 212, he issued the Edict of Caracalla, giving full Roman citizenship to all free men living in the Empire, and at the same time raised the inheritance tax, levied only on Roman citizens, to ten percent. A report that a soothsayer had predicted that the Praetorian prefect Macrinus and his son were to rule over the empire was dutifully sent to Caracalla. But the report fell into the hands of Macrinus, who felt he must act or die. Macrinus conspired to have Caracalla assassinated by one of his soldiers during a pilgrimage to the Temple of the Moon in Carrhae, in 217 AD. The incompetent Macrinus assumed power, but soon removed himself from Rome to the east and Antioch. His brief reign ended in 218, when the youngster Bassianus, high priest of the temple of the Sun at Emesa, and supposedly illegitimate son of Caracalla, was declared Emperor by the disaffected soldiers of Macrinus. Bribes gained Bassianus support from the legionaries and they fought against Macrinus and his Praetorian guards. He adopted the name of Antoninus but history has named him after his Sun god Elagabalus, represented on Earth in the form of a large black stone. An incompetent and lascivious ruler,[38] Elagabalus offended all but his favourites. Cassius Dio, Herodian and the Historia Augusta give many accounts of his notorious extravagance. Elagabalus adopted his cousin Alexander Severus, as Caesar, but subsequently grew jealous and attempted to assassinate him. However, the Praetorian guard preferred Alexander, murdered Elagabalus, dragged his mutilated corpse through the streets of Rome, and threw it into the Tiber. Alexander Severus then succeeded him. Alexander waged war against many foes, including the revitalized Persia and also the Germanic peoples, who invaded Gaul. His losses generated dissatisfaction among his soldiers, and some of them murdered him during his Germanic campaign in 235 AD.[124] Crisis of the Third Century Main article: Crisis of the Third Century The Roman Empire suffered internal schisms, forming the Palmyrene Empire and the Gallic Empire A disastrous scenario emerged after the death of Alexander Severus: the Roman state was plagued by civil wars, external invasions, political chaos, pandemics and economic depression.[125][38] The old Roman values had fallen, and Mithraism and Christianity had begun to spread through the populace. Emperors were no longer men linked with nobility; they usually were born in lower-classes of distant parts of the Empire. These men rose to prominence through military ranks, and became emperors through civil wars. There were 26 emperors in a 49-year period, a signal of political instability. Maximinus Thrax was the first ruler of that time, governing for just three years. Others ruled just for a few months, like Gordian I, Gordian II, Balbinus and Hostilian. The population and the frontiers were abandoned, since the emperors were mostly concerned with defeating rivals and establishing their power. The economy also suffered during that epoch. The massive military expenditures from the Severi caused a devaluation of Roman coins. Hyperinflation came at this time as well. The Plague of Cyprian broke out in 250 and killed a huge portion of the population.[126] In 260 AD, the provinces of Syria Palaestina, Asia Minor and Egypt separated from the rest of the Roman state to form the Palmyrene Empire, ruled by Queen Zenobia and centered on Palmyra. In that same year the Gallic Empire was created by Postumus, retaining Britannia and Gaul.[127] These countries separated from Rome after the capture of emperor Valerian by the Sassanids of Persia, the first Roman ruler to be captured by his enemies; it was a humiliating fact for the Romans.[126] The crisis began to recede during the reigns of Claudius Gothicus (268–270), who defeated the Gothic invaders, and Aurelian (271–275), who reconquered both the Gallic and Palmyrene Empires.[128][129] The crisis was overcome during the reign of Diocletian. Empire – The Tetrarchy Main article: Roman Empire Diocletian A Roman follis depicting the profile of Diocletian In 284 AD, Diocletian was hailed as Imperator by the eastern army. Diocletian healed the empire from the crisis, by political and economic shifts. A new form of government was established: the Tetrarchy. The Empire was divided among four emperors, two in the West and two in the East. The first tetrarchs were Diocletian (in the East), Maximian (in the West), and two junior emperors, Galerius (in the East) and Flavius Constantius (in the West). To adjust the economy, Diocletian made several tax reforms.[130] Diocletian expelled the Persians who plundered Syria and conquered some barbarian tribes with Maximian. He adopted many behaviors of Eastern monarchs, like wearing pearls and golden sandals and robes. Anyone in the presence of the emperor had now to prostrate himself—a common act in the East, but never practiced in Rome before.[131] Diocletian did not use a disguised form of Republic, as the other emperors since Augustus had done.[132] Between 290 and 330, half a dozen new capitals had been established by the members of the Tetrarchy, officially or not: Antioch, Nicomedia, Thessalonike, Sirmium, Milan, and Trier.[133] Diocletian was also responsible for a significant Christian persecution. In 303 he and Galerius started the persecution and ordered the destruction of all the Christian churches and scripts and forbade Christian worship.[134] Diocletian abdicated in 305 AD together with Maximian, thus, he was the first Roman emperor to resign. His reign ended the traditional form of imperial rule, the Principate (from princeps) and started the Tetrarchy. The Aula Palatina of Trier, Germany (then part of the Roman province of Gallia Belgica), a Christian basilica built during the reign of Constantine I (r. 306–337 AD) Constantine and Christianity Constantine assumed the empire as a tetrarch in 306. He conducted many wars against the other tetrarchs. Firstly he defeated Maxentius in 312. In 313, he issued the Edict of Milan, which granted liberty for Christians to profess their religion.[135] Constantine was converted to Christianity, enforcing the Christian faith. He began the Christianization of the Empire and of Europe—a process concluded by the Catholic Church in the Middle Ages. He was defeated by the Franks and the Alamanni during 306–308. In 324 he defeated another tetrarch, Licinius, and controlled all the empire, as it was before Diocletian. To celebrate his victories and Christianity's relevance, he rebuilt Byzantium and renamed it Nova Roma ("New Rome"); but the city soon gained the informal name of Constantinople ("City of Constantine").[136][137] The reign of Julian, who under the influence of his adviser Mardonius attempted to restore Classical Roman and Hellenistic religion, only briefly interrupted the succession of Christian emperors. Constantinople served as a new capital for the Empire. In fact, Rome had lost its central importance since the Crisis of the Third Century—Mediolanum was the western capital from 286 to 330, until the reign of Honorius, when Ravenna was made capital, in the 5th century.[138] Constantine's administrative and monetary reforms, that reunited the Empire under one emperor, and rebuilt the city of Byzantium changed the high period of the ancient world. Fall of the Western Roman Empire Main article: Fall of the Western Roman Empire In the late 4th and 5th centuries the Western Empire entered a critical stage which terminated with the fall of the Western Roman Empire.[139] Under the last emperors of the Constantinian dynasty and the Valentinianic dynasty, Rome lost decisive battles against the Sasanian Empire and Germanic barbarians: in 363, emperor Julian the Apostate was killed in the Battle of Samarra, against the Persians and the Battle of Adrianople cost the life of emperor Valens (364–378); the victorious Goths were never expelled from the Empire nor assimilated.[140] The next emperor, Theodosius I (379–395), gave even more force to the Christian faith, and after his death, the Empire was divided into the Eastern Roman Empire, ruled by Arcadius and the Western Roman Empire, commanded by Honorius, both of which were Theodosius' sons.[citation needed] Ending invasions on Roman Empire between AD 100–500. Visigoths entering Athens. The Sack of Rome by the Barbarians in 410 by Joseph-Noël Sylvestre. The situation became more critical in 408, after the death of Stilicho, a general who tried to reunite the Empire and repel barbarian invasion in the early years of the 5th century. The professional field army collapsed. In 410, the Theodosian dynasty saw the Visigoths sack Rome.[141] During the 5th century, the Western Empire experienced a significant reduction of its territory. The Vandals conquered North Africa, the Visigoths claimed the southern part of Gaul, Gallaecia was taken by the Suebi, Britannia was abandoned by the central government, and the Empire suffered further from the invasions of Attila, chief of the Huns.[142][143][144][145][146][147] General Orestes refused to meet the demands of the barbarian "allies" who now formed the army, and tried to expel them from Italy. Unhappy with this, their chieftain Odoacer defeated and killed Orestes, invaded Ravenna and dethroned Romulus Augustus, son of Orestes. This event of 476, usually marks the end of Classical antiquity and beginning of the Middle Ages.[148][149] The Roman noble and former emperor Julius Nepos continued to rule as emperor from Dalmatia even after the deposition of Romulus Augustus until his death in 480. Some historians consider him to be the last emperor of the Western Empire instead of Romulus Augustus.[150] After some 1200 years of independence and nearly 700 years as a great power, the rule of Rome in the West ended.[151] Various reasons for Rome's fall have been proposed ever since, including loss of Republicanism, moral decay, military tyranny, class war, slavery, economic stagnation, environmental change, disease, the decline of the Roman race, as well as the inevitable ebb and flow that all civilizations experience. At the time many pagans argued that Christianity and the decline of traditional Roman religion were responsible; some rationalist thinkers of the modern era attribute the fall to a change from a martial to a more pacifist religion that lessened the number of available soldiers; while Christians such as Augustine of Hippo argued that the sinful nature of Roman society itself was to blame.[152] The Eastern Empire had a different fate. It survived for almost 1000 years after the fall of its Western counterpart and became the most stable Christian realm during the Middle Ages. During the 6th century, Justinian reconquered the Italian peninsula from the Ostrogoths, North Africa from the Vandals, and southern Hispania from the Visigoths. But within a few years of Justinian's death, Byzantine possessions in Italy were greatly reduced by the Lombards who settled in the peninsula.[153] In the east, partially due to the weakening effect of the Plague of Justinian, the Byzantines were threatened by the rise of Islam. Its followers rapidly brought about the conquest of the Levant, the conquest of Armenia and the conquest of Egypt during the Arab–Byzantine wars, and soon presented a direct threat to Constantinople.[154][155] In the following century, the Arabs also captured southern Italy and Sicily.[156] On the west, Slavic populations were also able to penetrate deep into the Balkans. The Byzantines, however, managed to stop further Islamic expansion into their lands during the 8th century and, beginning in the 9th century, reclaimed parts of the conquered lands.[154][157] In 1000 AD, the Eastern Empire was at its height: Basil II reconquered Bulgaria and Armenia, and culture and trade flourished.[158] However, soon after, this expansion was abruptly stopped in 1071 with the Byzantine defeat in the Battle of Manzikert. The aftermath of this battle sent the empire into a protracted period of decline. Two decades of internal strife and Turkic invasions ultimately led Emperor Alexios I Komnenos to send a call for help to the Western European kingdoms in 1095.[154] The West responded with the Crusades, eventually resulting in the Sack of Constantinople by participants of the Fourth Crusade. The conquest of Constantinople in 1204 fragmented what remained of the Empire into successor states; the ultimate victor was the Empire of Nicaea.[159] After the recapture of Constantinople by Imperial forces, the Empire was little more than a Greek state confined to the Aegean coast. The Byzantine Empire collapsed when Mehmed the Conqueror conquered Constantinople on 29 May, 1453.[160] Society The Roman Forum, the political, economic, cultural, and religious center of the city during the Republic and later Empire This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The imperial city of Rome was the largest urban center in the empire, with a population variously estimated from 450,000 to close to one million.[161][162][163] The public spaces in Rome resounded with such a din of hooves and clatter of iron chariot wheels that Julius Caesar had once proposed a ban on chariot traffic during the day. Historical estimates show that around 20 percent of the population under jurisdiction of ancient Rome (25–40%, depending on the standards used, in Roman Italy)[164] lived in innumerable urban centers, with population of 10,000 and more and several military settlements, a very high rate of urbanization by pre-industrial standards. Most of those centers had a forum, temples, and other buildings similar to Rome's. Average life expectancy was about 28.[165][timeframe?] Law Main article: Roman law The roots of the legal principles and practices of the ancient Romans may be traced to the Law of the Twelve Tables promulgated in 449 BC and to the codification of law issued by order of Emperor Justinian I around 530 AD (see Corpus Juris Civilis). Roman law as preserved in Justinian's codes continued into the Byzantine Empire, and formed the basis of similar codifications in continental Western Europe. Roman law continued, in a broader sense, to be applied throughout most of Europe until the end of the 17th century. The major divisions of the law of ancient Rome, as contained within the Justinian and Theodosian law codes, consisted of Ius Civile, Ius Gentium, and Ius Naturale. The Ius Civile ("Citizen Law") was the body of common laws that applied to Roman citizens.[166] The Praetores Urbani (sg. Praetor Urbanus) were the people who had jurisdiction over cases involving citizens. The Ius Gentium ("Law of nations") was the body of common laws that applied to foreigners, and their dealings with Roman citizens.[167] The Praetores Peregrini (sg. Praetor Peregrinus) were the people who had jurisdiction over cases involving citizens and foreigners. Ius Naturale encompassed natural law, the body of laws that were considered common to all beings. Class structure Main articles: Social class in ancient Rome and Status in Roman legal system The Patrician Torlonia bust of Cato the Elder, 1st century BC The Orator, c. 100 BC, an Etrusco-Roman bronze statue depicting Aule Metele (Latin: Aulus Metellus), an Etruscan man wearing a Roman toga while engaged in rhetoric; the statue features an inscription in the Etruscan language Roman society is largely viewed as hierarchical, with slaves (servi) at the bottom, freedmen (liberti) above them, and free-born citizens (cives) at the top. Free citizens were also divided by class. The broadest, and earliest, division was between the patricians, who could trace their ancestry to one of the 100 Patriarchs at the founding of the city, and the plebeians, who could not. This became less important in the later Republic, as some plebeian families became wealthy and entered politics, and some patrician families fell economically. Anyone, patrician or plebeian, who could count a consul as his ancestor was a noble (nobilis); a man who was the first of his family to hold the consulship, such as Marius or Cicero, was known as a novus homo ("new man") and ennobled his descendants. Patrician ancestry, however, still conferred considerable prestige, and many religious offices remained restricted to patricians. A class division originally based on military service became more important. Membership of these classes was determined periodically by the Censors, according to property. The wealthiest were the Senatorial class, who dominated politics and command of the army. Next came the equestrians (equites, sometimes translated "knights"), originally those who could afford a warhorse, and who formed a powerful mercantile class. Several further classes, originally based on the military equipment their members could afford, followed, with the proletarii, citizens who had no property at all, at the bottom. Before the reforms of Marius they were ineligible for military service and are often described as being just above freed slaves in wealth and prestige. Voting power in the Republic depended on class. Citizens were enrolled in voting "tribes", but the tribes of the richer classes had fewer members than the poorer ones, all the proletarii being enrolled in a single tribe. Voting was done in class order, from top down, and stopped as soon as most of the tribes had been reached, so the poorer classes were often unable to cast their votes. Women shared some basic rights with their male counterparts, but were not fully regarded as citizens and were thus not allowed to vote or take part in politics. At the same time the limited rights of women were gradually expanded (due to emancipation) and women reached freedom from paterfamilias, gained property rights and even had more juridical rights than their husbands, but still no voting rights, and were absent from politics.[168] Allied foreign cities were often given the Latin Right, an intermediary level between full citizens and foreigners (peregrini), which gave their citizens rights under Roman law and allowed their leading magistrates to become full Roman citizens. While there were varying degrees of Latin rights, the main division was between those cum suffragio ("with vote"; enrolled in a Roman tribe and able to take part in the comitia tributa) and sine suffragio ("without vote"; could not take part in Roman politics). Most of Rome's Italian allies were given full citizenship after the Social War of 91–88 BC, and full Roman citizenship was extended to all free-born men in the Empire by Caracalla in 212. Education Main article: Roman school In the early Republic, there were no public schools, so boys were taught to read and write by their parents, or by educated slaves, called paedagogi, usually of Greek origin.[169][170][171] The primary aim of education during this period was to train young men in agriculture, warfare, Roman traditions, and public affairs.[169] Young boys learned much about civic life by accompanying their fathers to religious and political functions, including the Senate for the sons of nobles.[170] The sons of nobles were apprenticed to a prominent political figure at the age of 16, and campaigned with the army from the age of 17 (this system was still in use among some noble families into the imperial era).[170] Educational practices were modified after the conquest of the Hellenistic kingdoms in the 3rd century BC and the resulting Greek influence, although Roman educational practices were still much different from Greek ones.[170][172] If their parents could afford it, boys and some girls at the age of 7 were sent to a private school outside the home called a ludus, where a teacher (called a litterator or a magister ludi, and often of Greek origin) taught them basic reading, writing, arithmetic, and sometimes Greek, until the age of 11.[170][171][173] Beginning at age 12, students went to secondary schools, where the teacher (now called a grammaticus) taught them about Greek and Roman literature.[170][173] At the age of 16, some students went on to rhetoric school (where the teacher, usually Greek, was called a rhetor).[170][173] Education at this level prepared students for legal careers, and required that the students memorize the laws of Rome.[170] Pupils went to school every day, except religious festivals and market days. There were also summer holidays. Government Main articles: Roman Constitution and History of the Roman Constitution Further information: History of citizenship § Roman conceptions of citizenship This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Initially, Rome was ruled by kings, who were elected from each of Rome's major tribes in turn.[174] The exact nature of the king's power is uncertain. He may have held near-absolute power, or may also have merely been the chief executive of the Senate and the people. At least in military matters, the king's authority (Imperium) was likely absolute. He was also the head of the state religion. In addition to the authority of the King, there were three administrative assemblies: the Senate, which acted as an advisory body for the King; the Comitia Curiata, which could endorse and ratify laws suggested by the King; and the Comitia Calata, which was an assembly of the priestly college that could assemble the people to bear witness to certain acts, hear proclamations, and declare the feast and holiday schedule for the next month. Representation of a sitting of the Roman Senate: Cicero attacks Catilina, from a 19th-century fresco The class struggles of the Roman Republic resulted in an unusual mixture of democracy and oligarchy. The word republic comes from the Latin res publica, which literally translates to "public business". Roman laws traditionally could only be passed by a vote of the Popular assembly (Comitia Tributa). Likewise, candidates for public positions had to run for election by the people. However, the Roman Senate represented an oligarchic institution, which acted as an advisory body. In the Republic, the Senate held actual authority (auctoritas), but no real legislative power; it was technically only an advisory council. However, as the Senators were individually very influential, it was difficult to accomplish anything against the collective will of the Senate. New Senators were chosen from among the most accomplished patricians by Censors (Censura), who could also remove a Senator from his office if he was found "morally corrupt"; a charge that could include bribery or, as under Cato the Elder, embracing one's wife in public. Later, under the reforms of the dictator Sulla, Quaestors were made automatic members of the Senate, though most of his reforms did not survive. The Republic had no fixed bureaucracy, and collected taxes through the practice of tax farming. Government positions such as quaestor, aedile, or praefect were funded by the office-holder. To prevent any citizen from gaining too much power, new magistrates were elected annually and had to share power with a colleague. For example, under normal conditions, the highest authority was held by two consuls. In an emergency, a temporary dictator could be appointed. Throughout the Republic, the administrative system was revised several times to comply with new demands. In the end, it proved inefficient for controlling the ever-expanding dominion of Rome, contributing to the establishment of the Roman Empire. In the early Empire, the pretense of a republican form of government was maintained. The Roman Emperor was portrayed as only a princeps, or "first citizen", and the Senate gained legislative power and all legal authority previously held by the popular assemblies. However, the rule of the Emperors became increasingly autocratic, and the Senate was reduced to an advisory body appointed by the Emperor. The Empire did not inherit a set bureaucracy from the Republic, since the Republic did not have any permanent governmental structures apart from the Senate. The Emperor appointed assistants and advisers, but the state lacked many institutions, such as a centrally planned budget. Some historians have cited this as a significant reason for the decline of the Roman Empire. Military Main articles: Military history of ancient Rome, Military of ancient Rome, Structural history of the Roman military, Roman army, and Roman navy Part of a series on the Military of ancient Rome 753 BC – AD 476 Structural history Army Unit types and ranks Decorations and punishments Legions Auxilia Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Campaign history Wars and battles Technological history Military engineering Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Political history   Strategy and tactics Infantry tactics Frontiers and fortifications Limes Limes Britannicus Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Limes Germanicus Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes Norican Limes Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannonian Limes Limes Alutanus Limes Moesiae Trajan's Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmatiae Limes Arabicus Limes Tripolitanus Limes Mauretaniae  Ancient Rome portal •  War portal v t e Modern replica of lorica segmentata type armor, used in conjunction with the popular chainmail after the 1st century AD Roman tower (reconstruction) at Limes – Taunus / Germany The early Roman army (c. 500 BC) was, like those of other contemporary city-states influenced by Greek civilization, a citizen militia that practiced hoplite tactics. It was small (the population of free men of military age was then about 9,000) and organized in five classes (in parallel to the comitia centuriata, the body of citizens organized politically), with three providing hoplites and two providing light infantry. The early Roman army was tactically limited and its stance during this period was essentially defensive.[175][176][177] By the 3rd century BC, the Romans abandoned the hoplite formation in favor of a more flexible system in which smaller groups of 120 (or sometimes 60) men called maniples could maneuver more independently on the battlefield. Thirty maniples arranged in three lines with supporting troops constituted a legion, totalling between 4,000 and 5,000 men.[175][176] The early Republican legion consisted of five sections, each of which was equipped differently and had different places in formation: the three lines of manipular heavy infantry (hastati, principes and triarii), a force of light infantry (velites), and the cavalry (equites). With the new organization came a new orientation toward the offensive and a much more aggressive posture toward adjoining city-states.[175][176] At nominal full strength, an early Republican legion included 4,000 to 5,000 men: 3,600 to 4,800 heavy infantry, several hundred light infantry, and several hundred cavalrymen.[175][178][179] Legions were often significantly understrength from recruitment failures or following periods of active service due to accidents, battle casualties, disease and desertion. During the Civil War, Pompey's legions in the east were at full strength because they were recently recruited, while Caesar's legions were often well below nominal strength after long active service in Gaul. This pattern also held true for auxiliary forces.[180][181] Until the late Republican period, the typical legionary was a property-owning citizen farmer from a rural area (an adsiduus) who served for particular (often annual) campaigns,[182] and who supplied his own equipment and, in the case of equites, his own mount. Harris suggests that down to 200 BC, the average rural farmer (who survived) might participate in six or seven campaigns. Freedmen and slaves (wherever resident) and urban citizens did not serve except in rare emergencies.[183] After 200 BC, economic conditions in rural areas deteriorated as manpower needs increased, so that the property qualifications for service were gradually reduced. Beginning with Gaius Marius in 107 BC, citizens without property and some urban-dwelling citizens (proletarii) were enlisted and provided with equipment, although most legionaries continued to come from rural areas. Terms of service became continuous and long—up to twenty years if emergencies required although six- or seven-year terms were more typical.[184] Beginning in the 3rd century BC, legionaries were paid stipendium (amounts are disputed but Caesar famously "doubled" payments to his troops to 225 denarii a year), could anticipate booty and donatives (distributions of plunder by commanders) from successful campaigns and, beginning at the time of Marius, often were granted allotments of land upon retirement.[175][185] Cavalry and light infantry attached to a legion (the auxilia) were often recruited in the areas where the legion served. Caesar formed a legion, the Fifth Alaudae, from non-citizens in Transalpine Gaul to serve in his campaigns in Gaul.[186] By the time of Caesar Augustus, the ideal of the citizen-soldier had been abandoned and the legions had become fully professional. Legionaries received 900 sesterces a year and could expect 12,000 sesterces on retirement.[187] At the end of the Civil War, Augustus reorganized Roman military forces, discharging soldiers and disbanding legions. He retained 28 legions, distributed through the provinces of the Empire.[188] During the Principate, the tactical organization of the Army continued to evolve. The auxilia remained independent cohorts, and legionary troops often operated as groups of cohorts rather than as full legions. A new versatile type of unit—the cohortes equitatae—combined cavalry and legionaries in a single formation. They could be stationed at garrisons or outposts and could fight on their own as balanced small forces or combine with other similar units as a larger legion-sized force. This increase in organizational flexibility helped ensure the long-term success of Roman military forces.[189] The Emperor Gallienus (253–268 AD) began a reorganization that created the last military structure of the late Empire. Withdrawing some legionaries from the fixed bases on the border, Gallienus created mobile forces (the Comitatenses or field armies) and stationed them behind and at some distance from the borders as a strategic reserve. The border troops (limitanei) stationed at fixed bases continued to be the first line of defense. The basic unit of the field army was the "regiment", legiones or auxilia for infantry and vexellationes for cavalry. Evidence suggests that nominal strengths may have been 1,200 men for infantry regiments and 600 for cavalry, although many records show lower actual troop levels (800 and 400).[190] Many infantry and cavalry regiments operated in pairs under the command of a comes. In addition to Roman troops, the field armies included regiments of "barbarians" recruited from allied tribes and known as foederati. By 400 AD, foederati regiments had become permanently established units of the Roman army, paid and equipped by the Empire, led by a Roman tribune and used just as Roman units were used. In addition to the foederati, the Empire also used groups of barbarians to fight along with the legions as "allies" without integration into the field armies. Under the command of the senior Roman general present, they were led at lower levels by their own officers.[190] Military leadership evolved over the course of the history of Rome. Under the monarchy, the hoplite armies were led by the kings of Rome. During the early and middle Roman Republic, military forces were under the command of one of the two elected consuls for the year. During the later Republic, members of the Roman Senatorial elite, as part of the normal sequence of elected public offices known as the cursus honorum, would have served first as quaestor (often posted as deputies to field commanders), then as praetor.[191][192] Julius Caesar's most talented, effective and reliable subordinate in Gaul, Titus Labienus, was recommended to him by Pompey.[193] Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus, c. 122 BC; the altar shows two Roman infantrymen equipped with long scuta and a cavalryman with his horse. All are shown wearing chain mail armour. Following the end of a term as praetor or consul, a Senator might be appointed by the Senate as a propraetor or proconsul (depending on the highest office held before) to govern a foreign province. More junior officers (down to but not including the level of centurion) were selected by their commanders from their own clientelae or those recommended by political allies among the Senatorial elite.[191] Under Augustus, whose most important political priority was to place the military under a permanent and unitary command, the Emperor was the legal commander of each legion but exercised that command through a legatus (legate) he appointed from the Senatorial elite. In a province with a single legion, the legate commanded the legion (legatus legionis) and also served as provincial governor, while in a province with more than one legion, each legion was commanded by a legate and the legates were commanded by the provincial governor (also a legate but of higher rank).[194] During the later stages of the Imperial period (beginning perhaps with Diocletian), the Augustan model was abandoned. Provincial governors were stripped of military authority, and command of the armies in a group of provinces was given to generals (duces) appointed by the Emperor. These were no longer members of the Roman elite but men who came up through the ranks and had seen much practical soldiering. With increasing frequency, these men attempted (sometimes successfully) to usurp the positions of the Emperors who had appointed them. Decreased resources, increasing political chaos and civil war eventually left the Western Empire vulnerable to attack and takeover by neighboring barbarian peoples.[195] Less is known about the Roman navy than the Roman army. Prior to the middle of the 3rd century BC, officials known as duumviri navales commanded a fleet of twenty ships used mainly to control piracy. This fleet was given up in 278 AD and replaced by allied forces. The First Punic War required that Rome build large fleets, and it did so largely with the assistance of and financing from allies. This reliance on allies continued to the end of the Roman Republic. The quinquereme was the main warship on both sides of the Punic Wars and remained the mainstay of Roman naval forces until replaced by the time of Caesar Augustus by lighter and more maneuverable vessels.[196] As compared with a trireme, the quinquereme permitted the use of a mix of experienced and inexperienced crewmen (an advantage for a primarily land-based power), and its lesser maneuverability permitted the Romans to adopt and perfect boarding tactics using a troop of about 40 marines in lieu of the ram. Ships were commanded by a navarch, a rank equal to a centurion, who was usually not a citizen. Potter suggests that because the fleet was dominated by non-Romans, the navy was considered non-Roman and allowed to atrophy in times of peace.[196] Information suggests that by the time of the late Empire (350 AD), the Roman navy comprised several fleets including warships and merchant vessels for transportation and supply. Warships were oared sailing galleys with three to five banks of oarsmen. Fleet bases included such ports as Ravenna, Arles, Aquilea, Misenum and the mouth of the Somme River in the West and Alexandria and Rhodes in the East. Flotillas of small river craft (classes) were part of the limitanei (border troops) during this period, based at fortified river harbors along the Rhine and the Danube. That prominent generals commanded both armies and fleets suggests that naval forces were treated as auxiliaries to the army and not as an independent service. The details of command structure and fleet strengths during this period are not well known, although fleets were commanded by prefects.[197] Economy Main articles: Roman agriculture, Roman commerce, Roman finance, and Roman currency Night view of Trajan's Market, built by Apollodorus of Damascus Ancient Rome commanded a vast area of land, with tremendous natural and human resources. As such, Rome's economy remained focused on farming and trade. Agricultural free trade changed the Italian landscape, and by the 1st century BC, vast grape and olive estates had supplanted the yeoman farmers, who were unable to match the imported grain price. The annexation of Egypt, Sicily and Tunisia in North Africa provided a continuous supply of grains. In turn, olive oil and wine were Italy's main exports. Two-tier crop rotation was practiced, but farm productivity was low, around 1 ton per hectare. Industrial and manufacturing activities were smaller. The largest such activities were the mining and quarrying of stones, which provided basic construction materials for the buildings of that period. In manufacturing, production was on a relatively small scale, and generally consisted of workshops and small factories that employed at most dozens of workers. However, some brick factories employed hundreds of workers. The economy of the early Republic was largely based on smallholding and paid labor. However, foreign wars and conquests made slaves increasingly cheap and plentiful, and by the late Republic, the economy was largely dependent on slave labor for both skilled and unskilled work. Slaves are estimated to have constituted around 20% of the Roman Empire's population at this time and 40% in the city of Rome. Only in the Roman Empire, when the conquests stopped and the prices of slaves increased, did hired labor become more economical than slave ownership. Although barter was used in ancient Rome, and often used in tax collection, Rome had a very developed coinage system, with brass, bronze, and precious metal coins in circulation throughout the Empire and beyond—some have even been discovered in India. Before the 3rd century BC, copper was traded by weight, measured in unmarked lumps, across central Italy. The original copper coins (as) had a face value of one Roman pound of copper, but weighed less. Thus, Roman money's utility as a unit of exchange consistently exceeded its intrinsic value as metal. After Nero began debasing the silver denarius, its legal value was an estimated one-third greater than its intrinsic value. Horses were expensive and other pack animals were slower. Mass trade on the Roman roads connected military posts, where Roman markets were centered.[198] These roads were designed for wheels.[199] As a result, there was transport of commodities between Roman regions, but increased with the rise of Roman maritime trade in the 2nd century BC. During that period, a trading vessel took less than a month to complete a trip from Gades to Alexandria via Ostia, spanning the entire length of the Mediterranean.[108] Transport by sea was around 60 times cheaper than by land, so the volume for such trips was much larger. Some economists consider the Roman Empire a market economy, similar in its degree of capitalistic practices to 17th century Netherlands and 18th century England.[200] Family A gold glass portrait of a family from Roman Egypt. The Greek inscription on the medallion may indicate either the name of the artist or the pater familias who is absent in the portrait.[201] The basic units of Roman society were households and families.[167] Households included the head (usually the father) of the household, pater familias (father of the family), his wife, children, and other relatives. In the upper classes, slaves and servants were also part of the household.[167] The power of the head of the household was supreme (patria potestas, "father's power") over those living with him: He could force marriage (usually for money) and divorce, sell his children into slavery, claim his dependents' property as his own, and even had the right to punish or kill family members (though this last right apparently ceased to be exercised after the 1st century BC).[202] Patria potestas even extended over adult sons with their own households: A man was not considered a paterfamilias, nor could he truly hold property, while his own father lived.[202][203] During the early period of Rome's history, a daughter, when she married, fell under the control (manus) of the paterfamilias of her husband's household, although by the late Republic this fell out of fashion, as a woman could choose to continue recognizing her father's family as her true family.[204] However, as Romans reckoned descent through the male line, any children she had belonged to her husband's family.[205] Little affection was shown for the children of Rome. The mother or an elderly relative often raised both boys and girls. Unwanted children were often sold as slaves.[206] Children might have waited on tables for the family, but they could not have participated in the conversation. In noble families a Greek nurse usually taught the children Latin and Greek. Their father taught the boys how to swim and ride, although he sometimes hired a slave to teach them instead. At seven, a boy began his education. Having no school building, classes were held on a rooftop (if dark, the boy had to carry a lantern to school). Wax-covered boards were used as paper, papyrus, and parchment were too expensive—or he could just write in the sand. A loaf of bread to be eaten was also carried.[207] Groups of related households formed a family (gens). Families were based on blood ties or adoption, but were also political and economic alliances. Especially during the Roman Republic, some powerful families, or Gentes Maiores, came to dominate political life. In ancient Rome, marriage was often regarded more as a financial and political alliance than as a romantic association, especially in the upper classes (see marriage in ancient Rome). Fathers usually began seeking husbands for their daughters when these reached an age between twelve and fourteen. The husband was usually older than the bride. While upper-class girls married very young, there is evidence that lower-class women often married in their late teens or early 20s. Culture Main article: Culture of ancient Rome The seven hills of Rome Life in ancient Rome revolved around the city of Rome, located on seven hills. The city had a vast number of monumental structures like the Colosseum, the Forum of Trajan and the Pantheon. It had theatres, gymnasiums, marketplaces, functional sewers, bath complexes complete with libraries and shops, and fountains with fresh drinking water supplied by hundreds of miles of aqueducts. Throughout the territory under the control of ancient Rome, residential architecture ranged from modest houses to country villas. In the capital city of Rome, there were imperial residences on the elegant Palatine Hill, from which the word palace derives. The low Plebeian and middle Equestrian classes lived in the city center, packed into apartments, or Insulae, which were almost like modern ghettos. These areas, often built by upper class property owners to rent, were often centred upon collegia or taberna. These people, provided with a free supply of grain, and entertained by gladiatorial games, were enrolled as clients of patrons among the upper class Patricians, whose assistance they sought and whose interests they upheld. Language Main article: Latin Roman fresco of a blond maiden reading a text, Pompeian Fourth Style (60–79 AD), Pompeii, Italy The native language of the Romans was Latin, an Italic language the grammar of which relies little on word order, conveying meaning through a system of affixes attached to word stems.[208] Its alphabet was based on the Etruscan alphabet, which was in turn based on the Greek alphabet.[209] Although surviving Latin literature consists almost entirely of Classical Latin, an artificial and highly stylized and polished literary language from the 1st century BC, the spoken language of the Roman Empire was Vulgar Latin, which significantly differed from Classical Latin in grammar and vocabulary, and eventually in pronunciation.[210] Speakers of Latin could understand both until the 7th century when spoken Latin began to diverge so much that 'Classical' or 'Good Latin' had to be learned as a second language[211] While Latin remained the main written language of the Roman Empire, Greek came to be the language spoken by the well-educated elite, as most of the literature studied by Romans was written in Greek. In the eastern half of the Roman Empire, which later became the Byzantine Empire, Latin was never able to replace Greek, and after the death of Justinian, Greek became the official language of the Byzantine government.[212] The expansion of the Roman Empire spread Latin throughout Europe, and Vulgar Latin evolved into dialects in different locations, gradually shifting into many distinct Romance languages. Religion Main articles: Religion in ancient Rome, Roman mythology, and Roman temple Further information: Constantine the Great and Christianity and State church of the Roman Empire Punishment of Ixion: in the center is Mercury holding the caduceus and on the right Juno sits on her throne. Behind her Iris stands and gestures. On the left is Vulcan (blond figure) standing behind the wheel, manning it, with Ixion already tied to it. Nephele sits at Mercury's feet; a Roman fresco from the eastern wall of the triclinium in the House of the Vettii, Pompeii, Fourth Style (60–79 AD). Archaic Roman religion, at least concerning the gods, was made up not of written narratives, but rather of complex interrelations between gods and humans.[213] Unlike in Greek mythology, the gods were not personified, but were vaguely defined sacred spirits called numina. Romans also believed that every person, place or thing had its own genius, or divine soul. During the Roman Republic, Roman religion was organized under a strict system of priestly offices, which were held by men of senatorial rank. The College of Pontifices was uppermost body in this hierarchy, and its chief priest, the Pontifex Maximus, was the head of the state religion. Flamens took care of the cults of various gods, while augurs were trusted with taking the auspices. The sacred king took on the religious responsibilities of the deposed kings. In the Roman Empire, emperors were deified,[214][215] and the formalized imperial cult became increasingly prominent. As contact with the Greeks increased, the old Roman gods became increasingly associated with Greek gods.[216] Thus, Jupiter was perceived to be the same deity as Zeus, Mars became associated with Ares, and Neptune with Poseidon. The Roman gods also assumed the attributes and mythologies of these Greek gods. Under the Empire, the Romans absorbed the mythologies of their conquered subjects, often leading to situations in which the temples and priests of traditional Italian deities existed side by side with those of foreign gods.[217] Beginning with Emperor Nero in the 1st century AD, Roman official policy towards Christianity was negative, and at some points, simply being a Christian could be punishable by death. Under Emperor Diocletian, the persecution of Christians reached its peak. However, it became an officially supported religion in the Roman state under Diocletian's successor, Constantine I, with the signing of the Edict of Milan in 313, and quickly became dominant. All religions except Christianity were prohibited in 391 AD by an edict of Emperor Theodosius I.[218] Ethics and morality Like many ancient cultures, concepts of ethics and morality, while sharing some commonalities with modern society, differed greatly in several important ways. Because ancient civilizations like Rome were under constant threat of attack from marauding tribes, their culture was necessarily militaristic with martial skills being a prized attribute.[219] Whereas modern societies consider compassion a virtue, Roman society considered compassion a vice, a moral defect. Indeed, one of the primary purposes of the gladiatorial games was to inoculate Roman citizens from this weakness.[220][219][221] Romans instead prized virtues such as courage and conviction (virtus), a sense of duty to one's people, moderation and avoiding excess (moderatio), forgiveness and understanding (clementia), fairness (severitas), and loyalty (pietas).[222] Contrary to popular descriptions, Roman society had well-established and restrictive norms related to sexuality, though as with many societies, the lion's share of the responsibilities fell on women. Women were generally expected to be monogamous having only a single husband during their life (univira), though this was much less regarded by the elite, especially under the empire. Women were expected to be modest in public avoiding any provocative appearance and to demonstrate absolute fidelity to their husbands (pudicitia). Indeed, wearing a veil was a common expectation to preserve modesty. Sex outside of marriage was generally frowned upon for men and women and indeed was made illegal during the imperial period.[223] Nevertheless, prostitution was seen entirely differently and indeed was an accepted and regulated practice.[224] Art, music and literature Main articles: Roman art, Latin literature, Music of ancient Rome, Roman sculpture, and Theatre of ancient Rome Woman playing a kithara, from the Villa Boscoreale, 40–30 BC Frescoes from the Villa of the Mysteries in Pompeii, Italy, Roman artwork dated to the mid-1st century BC Roman painting styles show Greek influences, and surviving examples are primarily frescoes used to adorn the walls and ceilings of country villas, though Roman literature includes mentions of paintings on wood, ivory, and other materials.[225][226] Several examples of Roman painting have been found at Pompeii, and from these art historians divide the history of Roman painting into four periods. The first style of Roman painting was practiced from the early 2nd century BC to the early- or mid-1st century BC. It was mainly composed of imitations of marble and masonry, though sometimes including depictions of mythological characters. The second style of Roman painting began during the early 1st century BC, and attempted to depict realistically three-dimensional architectural features and landscapes. The third style occurred during the reign of Augustus (27 BC – 14 AD), and rejected the realism of the second style in favor of simple ornamentation. A small architectural scene, landscape, or abstract design was placed in the center with a monochrome background. The fourth style, which began in the 1st century AD, depicted scenes from mythology, while retaining architectural details and abstract patterns. Portrait sculpture during the period[which?] utilized youthful and classical proportions, evolving later into a mixture of realism and idealism. During the Antonine and Severan periods, ornate hair and bearding, with deep cutting and drilling, became popular. Advancements were also made in relief sculptures, usually depicting Roman victories. Latin literature was, from its start, influenced heavily by Greek authors. Some of the earliest extant works are of historical epics telling the early military history of Rome. As the Republic expanded, authors began to produce poetry, comedy, history, and tragedy. Roman music was largely based on Greek music, and played an important part in many aspects of Roman life.[227] In the Roman military, musical instruments such as the tuba (a long trumpet) or the cornu (similar to a French horn) were used to give various commands, while the bucina (possibly a trumpet or horn) and the lituus (probably an elongated J-shaped instrument), were used in ceremonial capacities.[228] Music was used in the amphitheaters between fights and in the odea, and in these settings is known to have featured the cornu and the hydraulis (a type of water organ).[229] Most religious rituals featured musical performances, with tibiae (double pipes) at sacrifices, cymbals and Tambourines at orgiastic cults, and rattles and hymns across the spectrum.[230] Some music historians believe that music was used at almost all public ceremonies.[227] Music historians are not certain if Roman musicians made a significant contribution to the theory or practice of music.[227] The graffiti, brothels, paintings, and sculptures found in Pompeii and Herculaneum suggest that the Romans had a sex-saturated culture.[231] Cuisine Main article: Ancient Roman cuisine Ancient Roman cuisine changed over the long duration of this ancient civilization. Dietary habits were affected by the influence of Greek culture, the political changes from kingdom to republic to empire, and empire's enormous expansion, which exposed Romans to many new, provincial culinary habits and cooking techniques. In the beginning the differences between social classes were relatively small, but disparities evolved with the empire's growth. Men and women drank wine with their meals, a tradition that has been carried through to the present day.[232] Games and recreation This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Choregos and theater actors, from the House of the Tragic Poet, Pompeii, Italy. Naples National Archeological Museum The "bikini girls" mosaic, showing women playing sports, from the Villa Romana del Casale, Roman province of Sicilia (Sicily), 4th century AD The youth of Rome had several forms of athletic play and exercise, such as jumping, wrestling, boxing, and racing.[233] In the countryside, pastimes for the wealthy also included fishing and hunting.[234] The Romans also had several forms of ball playing, including one resembling handball.[233] Dice games, board games, and gamble games were popular pastimes.[233] Women did not take part in these activities. For the wealthy, dinner parties presented an opportunity for entertainment, sometimes featuring music, dancing, and poetry readings.[225] Plebeians sometimes enjoyed similar parties through clubs or associations, but for most Romans, recreational dining usually meant patronizing taverns.[225] Children entertained themselves with toys and such games as leapfrog.[234][225] Public games were sponsored by leading Romans who wished to advertise their generosity and court popular approval; in the Imperial era, this usually meant the emperor. Several venues were developed specifically for public games. The Colisseum was built in the Imperial era to host, among other events, gladiatorial combats. These combats had begun as funeral games around the 4th century BC, and became popular spectator events in the late Republic and Empire. Gladiators had an exotic and inventive variety of arms and armour. They sometimes fought to the death, but more often to an adjudicated victory, dependent on a referee's decision. The outcome was usually in keeping with the mood of the watching crowd. Shows of exotic animals were popular in their own right; but sometimes animals were pitted against human beings, either armed professionals or unarmed criminals who had been condemned to a spectacular and theatrical public death in the arena. Some of these encounters were based on episodes from Roman or Greek mythology. Chariot racing was extremely popular among all classes. In Rome, these races were usually held at the Circus Maximus, which had been purpose-built for chariot and horse-racing and, as Rome's largest public place, was also used for festivals and animal shows.[235] It could seat around 150,000 people;[236] The charioteers raced in teams, identified by their colours. The track was divided lengthwise by a barrier that contained obelisks, temples, statues and lap-counters. The best seats were at the track-side, close to the action; they were reserved for Senators. Behind them sat the equites (knights), and behind the knights were the plebs (commoners) and non-citizens. The donor of the games sat on a high platform in the stands alongside images of the gods, visible to all. Large sums were bet on the outcomes of races. Some Romans offered prayers and sacrifices on behalf of their favourites, or laid curses on the opposing teams, and some aficionados were members of extremely, even violently partisan circus factions. Technology Main article: Roman technology This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Pont du Gard in France is a Roman aqueduct built in c. 19 BC. It is a World Heritage Site. Ancient Rome boasted impressive technological feats, using many advancements that were lost in the Middle Ages and not rivaled again until the 19th and 20th centuries. An example of this is insulated glazing, which was not invented again until the 1930s. Many practical Roman innovations were adopted from earlier Greek designs. Advancements were often divided and based on craft. Artisans guarded technologies as trade secrets.[237] Roman civil engineering and military engineering constituted a large part of Rome's technological superiority and legacy, and contributed to the construction of hundreds of roads, bridges, aqueducts, baths, theaters and arenas. Many monuments, such as the Colosseum, Pont du Gard, and Pantheon, remain as testaments to Roman engineering and culture. The Romans were renowned for their architecture, which is grouped with Greek traditions into "Classical architecture". Although there were many differences from Greek architecture, Rome borrowed heavily from Greece in adhering to strict, formulaic building designs and proportions. Aside from two new orders of columns, composite and Tuscan, and from the dome, which was derived from the Etruscan arch, Rome had relatively few architectural innovations until the end of the Republic. The Appian Way (Via Appia), a road connecting the city of Rome to the southern parts of Italy, remains usable even today In the 1st century BC, Romans started to use concrete widely. Concrete was invented in the late 3rd century BC. It was a powerful cement derived from pozzolana, and soon supplanted marble as the chief Roman building material and allowed many daring architectural forms.[238] Also in the 1st century BC, Vitruvius wrote De architectura, possibly the first complete treatise on architecture in history. In the late 1st century BC, Rome also began to use glassblowing soon after its invention in Syria about 50 BC. Mosaics took the Empire by storm after samples were retrieved during Lucius Cornelius Sulla's campaigns in Greece. The Romans also largely built using timber, causing a rapid decline of the woodlands surrounding Rome and in much of the Apennine Mountains due to the demand for wood for construction, shipbuilding and fire. The first evidence of long-distance wood trading come from the discovery of wood planks, felled between A.D. 40 and 60, coming from the Jura mountains in northeastern France and ending up more than 1,055 miles away, in the foundations of a lavish portico that was part of a vast wealthy patrician villa, in Central Rome. It is suggested that timber, around 4 meters long, came up to Rome via the Tiber River via ships traveling across the Mediterranean Sea from the confluence of the Saône and Rhône rivers in what is now the city of Lyon in present-day France.[239] With solid foundations and good drainage,[240] Roman roads were known for their durability and many segments of the Roman road system were still in use a thousand years after the fall of Rome. The construction of a vast and efficient travel network throughout the Empire dramatically increased Rome's power and influence. They allowed Roman legions to be deployed rapidly, with predictable marching times between key points of the empire, no matter the season.[241] These highways also had enormous economic significance, solidifying Rome's role as a trading crossroads—the origin of the saying "all roads lead to Rome". The Roman government maintained a system of way stations, known as the cursus publicus, that provided refreshments to couriers at regular intervals along the roads and established a system of horse relays allowing a dispatch to travel up to 80 km (50 mi) a day. The Romans constructed numerous aqueducts to supply water to cities and industrial sites and to aid in their agriculture. By the third century, the city of Rome was supplied by 11 aqueducts with a combined length of 450 km (280 mi). Most aqueducts were constructed below the surface, with only small portions above ground supported by arches.[242][243] Sometimes, where valleys deeper than 500 m (1,640 ft) had to be crossed, inverted siphons were used to convey water across a valley.[48] The Romans also made major advancements in sanitation. Romans were particularly famous for their public baths, called thermae, which were used for both hygienic and social purposes. Many Roman houses came to have flush toilets and indoor plumbing, and a complex sewer system, the Cloaca Maxima, was used to drain the local marshes and carry waste into the Tiber river. Some historians have speculated that lead pipes in the sewer and plumbing systems led to widespread lead poisoning, which contributed to the decline in birth rate and general decay of Roman society leading up to the fall of Rome. However, lead content would have been minimized because the flow of water from aqueducts could not be shut off; it ran continuously through public and private outlets into the drains, and only a few taps were in use.[244] Other authors have raised similar objections to this theory, also pointing out that Roman water pipes were thickly coated with deposits that would have prevented lead from leaching into the water.[245] Legacy Main articles: Legacy of the Roman Empire and Classics External video Ancient Rome[246] (13:47), Smarthistory at Khan Academy Ancient Rome is the progenitor of Western civilization.[247][248][249] The customs, religion, law, technology, architecture, political system, military, literature, languages, alphabet, government and many factors and aspects of western civilization are all inherited from Roman advancements. The rediscovery of Roman culture revitalized Western civilization, playing a role in the Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment.[250][251] Genetics See also: Latins (Italic tribe) § Genetic studies A genetic study published in Science in November 2019 examined the genetic history of Rome from the Mesolithic up to modern times.[252] The Mesolithic inhabitants of Rome were determined to be Western Hunter Gatherers (WHGs), who were almost entirely replaced by Early European Farmers (EEFs) around 6,000 BC coming from Anatolia and the Fertile Crescent.[253] However, the authors observe that the EEF farmers studied carry a small amount of another component that is found at high levels in Neolithic Iranian farmers and Caucasus hunter-gatherers (CHG),[254] suggesting different or additional population contributions from Near Eastern farmers during the Neolithic transition, according to the authors. Between 2,900 BC and 900 BC, the EEF/WHG descended population of Rome was overwhelmed by peoples with steppe ancestry largely tracing their origin to the Pontic-Caspian steppe.[253] The Iron Age Latin founding population of Rome which subsequently emerged overwhelmingly carried the paternal haplogroup R-M269,[255] and were of about 35% steppe ancestry.[253] However, two out of six individuals from Latin burials were found to be a mixture of local Iron Age ancestry and a Near Eastern population. In addition, one out of four individuals from Etruscan burials, a female, was found to be a mixture of local Iron Age ancestry and a North African population. Overall, the genetic differentiation between the Latins, Etruscans and the preceding proto-villanovan population of Italy was found to be insignificant.[254] Examined individuals from Rome during the time of the Roman Empire (27 BCE – 300 CE) bore almost no genetic resemblance to Rome's founding populations, and were instead shifted towards the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East.[256] The Imperial population of Rome was found to have been extremely diverse, with barely any of the examined individuals being of primarily European ancestry.[257] It was suggested that the observed genetic replacement of Rome's founding populations was a result of heavy migration of merchants and slaves from the populous urban centres of the Middle East.[258] During late antiquity, Rome's population was drastically reduced as a result of political instability, epidemics and economic changes. Repeated invasions of barbarians brought European ancestry back into Rome, resulting in the loss of genetic link to the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East.[257] By the Middle Ages, the people of Rome again genetically resembled European populations.[257] Historiography Main article: Roman historiography This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Although there has been a diversity of works on ancient Roman history, many of them are lost. As a result of this loss, there are gaps in Roman history, which are filled by unreliable works, such as the Historia Augusta and other books from obscure authors. However, there remains a number of reliable accounts of Roman history. In Roman times The first historians used their works for the lauding of Roman culture and customs. By the end of Republic, some historians distorted their histories to flatter their patrons—especially at the time of Marius's and Sulla's clash.[259] Caesar wrote his own histories to make a complete account of his military campaigns in Gaul and during the Civil War. In the Empire, the biographies of famous men and early emperors flourished, examples being The Twelve Caesars of Suetonius, and Plutarch's Parallel Lives. Other major works of Imperial times were that of Livy and Tacitus. Polybius – The Histories Sallust – Bellum Catilinae and Bellum Jugurthinum Julius Caesar – De Bello Gallico and De Bello Civili Livy – Ab urbe condita Dionysius of Halicarnassus – Roman Antiquities Pliny the Elder – Naturalis Historia Josephus – The Jewish War Suetonius – The Twelve Caesars (De Vita Caesarum) Tacitus – Annales and Histories Plutarch – Parallel Lives (a series of biographies of famous Roman and Greek men) Cassius Dio – Historia Romana Herodian – History of the Roman Empire since Marcus Aurelius Ammianus Marcellinus – Res Gestae In modern times Part of a series on the History of Italy Early Prehistoric Italy Etruscan civilization (12th–6th c. BC) Magna Graecia (8th–3rd c. BC) Ancient Rome Kingdom (753 BC–509 BC) Republic (509 BC–27 BC) Empire (27 BC–286 AD) Roman Italy Western Empire (286 AD–476 AD) Praetorian prefecture of Italy Post-Roman Kingdoms Odoacer's 476-493 Ostrogothic 493-553 Vandal 435-534 Lombard (independence) 565-774 Lombard (under the Frankish rule) 774-885 Frankish (as part of the Carolingian Empire) 885-961 Germanic (as part of the Holy Roman Empire) 961-1801 Medieval Italy in the Middle Ages Byzantine reconquest of Italy (6th–8th c.) Islam and Normans in southern Italy Maritime republics and Italian city-states Guelphs and Ghibellines Early modern Italian Renaissance (14th–16th c.) Italian Wars (1494–1559) Catholic revival (1545-1648) Foreign dominations Napoleonic Italy (1801–1814) Republic Kingdom Risorgimento (1815–1871) Young Italy Thousand Modern Monarchy (1861–1946) Colonial Empire (1882–1960) Italy in World War I (1914–1918) Fascism (1922–1943) Italy in World War II (1940–1945) Fascist Italian Social Republic, Partisans and Civil War (1943–1945) Republic (1946–present) Years of Lead (1970s–1980s) Maxi Trial (1986–1992) Mani pulite (1992–2001) Great Recession (2007–2009) European migrant crisis (2014–present) Coronavirus pandemic (2019–present) By topic List of historic states Citizenship Currency Economy Fashion Genetic Military Music Postage Railway Timeline  Italy portal v t e Interest in studying, and even idealizing, ancient Rome became prevalent during the Italian Renaissance, and continues until the present day. Charles Montesquieu wrote a work Reflections on the Causes of the Grandeur and Declension of the Romans. The first major work was The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire by Edward Gibbon, which encompassed the Roman civilization from the end of the 2nd century to the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453.[260] Like Montesquieu, Gibbon paid tribute to the virtue of Roman citizens. Barthold Georg Niebuhr was a founder of the examination of ancient Roman history and wrote The Roman History, tracing the period until the First Punic war. Niebuhr tried to determine the way the Roman tradition evolved. According to him, Romans, like other people, had an historical ethos preserved mainly in the noble families. During the Napoleonic period a work titled The History of Romans by Victor Duruy appeared. It highlighted the Caesarean period popular at the time. History of Rome, Roman constitutional law and Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, all by Theodor Mommsen,[261] became very important milestones. Later the work Greatness and Decline of Rome by Guglielmo Ferrero was published. The Russian work Очерки по истории римского землевладения, преимущественно в эпоху Империи (The Outlines on Roman Landownership History, Mainly During the Empire) by Ivan Grevs contained information on the economy of Pomponius Atticus, one of the largest landowners at the end of the Republic. Edward Gibbon (1737–1794) – The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire John Bagnall Bury (1861–1927) – History of the Later Roman Empire Michael Grant (1914–2004) – The Roman World[262] Barbara Levick (born 1932) – Claudius[263] Barthold Georg Niebuhr (1776–1831) Michael Rostovtzeff (1870–1952) Howard Hayes Scullard (1903–1983) – The History of the Roman World[264] Ronald Syme (1903–1989) – The Roman Revolution[265] Adrian Goldsworthy (born 1969) – Caesar: The Life of a Colossus and How Rome fell[266] See also Civilizations portal  Ancient Rome portal Ancient Roman architecture Daqin, the Chinese name for the Roman Empire, see Sino-Roman relations Outline of classical studies Outline of ancient Rome Constitution of the Roman Republic History of Rome Timeline of Roman history Legacy of the Roman Empire Regions in Greco-Roman antiquity Roman agriculture List of ancient Romans List of Roman Emperors Roman culture List of Roman civil wars and revolts References Footnotes ^ This splintering is a landmark historians use to divide the ancient period of universal history from the pre-medieval "Dark Ages" of Europe. ^ Although the citizens of the empire made no distinction, the empire is most commonly referred to as the "Byzantine Empire" by modern historians to differentiate between the state in antiquity and the state during the Middle Ages.[10] Citations ^ "ancient Rome | Facts, Maps, & History". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 5 September 2017. ^ There are several different estimates for the population of the Roman Empire. Scheidel (2006, p. 2) estimates 60. Goldsmith (1984, p. 263) estimates 55. Beloch (1886, p. 507) estimates 54. Maddison (2006, pp. 51, 120) estimates 48. Roman Empire Population estimates 65 (while mentioning several other estimates between 55 and 120). McLynn, Frank (2011). Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor. Random House. p. 3. ISBN 9781446449332. [T]he most likely estimate for the reign of Marcus Aurelius is somewhere between seventy and eighty million. McEvedy and Jones (1978). an average of figures from different sources as listed at the US Census Bureau's Historical Estimates of World Population Archived 13 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine Kremer, Michael (1993). "Population Growth and Technological Change: One Million B.C. to 1990" in The Quarterly Journal of Economics 108(3): 681–716. ^ a b * Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.". Social Science History. 3 (3/4): 125. doi:10.2307/1170959. JSTOR 1170959. Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D (December 2006). "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires". Journal of World-Systems Research. 12 (2): 222. doi:10.5195/JWSR.2006.369. ISSN 1076-156X. ^ Furet, François; Ozouf, Mona, eds. (1989). A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution. Harvard University Press. p. 793. ISBN 978-0674177284. ^ Luckham, Robin; White, Gordon (1996). Democratization in the South: The Jagged Wave. Manchester University Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0719049422. ^ Sellers, Mortimer N. (1994). American Republicanism: Roman Ideology in the United States Constitution. NYU Press. p. 90. ISBN 978-0814780053. ^ Ferrero, Guglielmo (1909). The Greatness and Decline of Rome, Volume 2. Translated by Zimmern, Sir Alfred Eckhard; Chaytor, Henry John. G.P. Putnam's Sons. p. 215. ^ Hadfield, Andrew Hadfield (2005). Shakespeare and Republicanism. Cambridge University Press. p. 68. ISBN 978-0521816076. ^ Gray, Christopher B (1999). The Philosophy of Law: An Encyclopedia, Volume 1. Taylor & Francis. p. 741. ISBN 978-0815313441. ^ Cartwright, Mark (19 September 2018). "Byzantine Empire". Ancient History Encyclopedia. ^ Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy (1998). Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-19-512332-6. ^ Cavazzi, F. "The Founding of Rome". Illustrated History of the Roman Empire. Retrieved 8 March 2007. ^ a b c d Livius, Titus (Livy) (1998). The Rise of Rome, Books 1–5. Translated by Luce, T.J. Oxford: Oxford World's Classics. pp. 8–11. ISBN 978-0-19-282296-3. ^ a b Durant, Will; Durant, Ariel (1944). The Story of Civilization – Volume III: Caesar and Christ. Simon and Schuster, Inc. pp. 12–14. ISBN 978-1567310238. ^ Roggen, Hesse, Haastrup, Omnibus I, H. Aschehoug & Co 1996 ^ Myths and Legends- Rome, the Wolf, and Mars. Retrieved 8 March 2007. ^ Mellor, Ronald and McGee Marni, The Ancient Roman World p. 15 (Cited 15 March 2009) ^ Matyszak, Philip (2003). Chronicle of the Roman Republic. London: Thames & Hudson. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-500-05121-4. ^ Duiker, William; Spielvogel, Jackson (2001). World History (Third ed.). Wadsworth. p. 129. ISBN 978-0-534-57168-9. ^ Ancient Rome and the Roman Empire by Michael Kerrigan. Dorling Kindersley, London: 2001. ISBN 0-7894-8153-7. p. 12. ^ Langley, Andrew and Souza, de Philip, "The Roman Times", Candle Wick Press, Massachusetts ^ Matyszak, Philip (2003). Chronicle of the Roman Republic. London: Thames & Hudson. pp. 43–44. ISBN 978-0-500-05121-4. ^ Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy (1998). Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 41–42. ISBN 978-0-19-512332-6. ^ Hooker, Richard (6 June 1999). "Rome: The Roman Republic". Washington State University. Archived from the original on 14 May 2011. ^ Magistratus by George Long, M.A. Appearing on pp. 723–724 of A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities by William Smith, D.C.L., LL.D. Published by John Murray, London, 1875. Website, 8 December 2006. Retrieved 24 March 2007. ^ Livius, Titus (Livy) (1998). "Book II". The Rise of Rome, Books 1–5. Translated by Luce, T.J. Oxford: Oxford World's Classics. ISBN 978-0-19-282296-3. ^ Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy (1998). Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-19-512332-6. ^ These are literally Roman "libra," from which the pound is derived. ^ [1] Plutarch, Parallel Lives, Life of Camillus, XXIX, 2. ^ a b c Haywood, Richard (1971). The Ancient World. United States: David McKay Company, Inc. pp. 350–358. ^ Pyrrhus of Epirus (2) and Pyrrhus of Epirus (3) by Jona Lendering. Livius.org. Retrieved 21 March 2007. ^ Bennett, Matthew; Dawson, Doyne; Field, Ron; Hawthornwaite, Philip; Loades, Mike (2016). The History of Warfare: The Ultimate Visual Guide to the History of Warfare from the Ancient World to the American Civil War. p. 61. ^ AncientRome.ru. "The Database of Ancient Art." Retrieved 25 August 2016. ^ AncientRome.ru. "Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus." Retrieved 25 August 2016. ^ [2] Cassius Dio, Roman History, XI, XLIII. ^ New historical atlas and general history By Robert Henlopen Labberton. p. 35. ^ Hugh Chisholm (1911). The Encyclopædia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature and General Information. Encyclopædia Britannica Company. p. 652. ^ a b c Haywood, Richard (1971). The Ancient World. United States: David McKay Company, Inc. pp. 376–393. ^ Rome: The Punic Wars by Richard Hooker. Washington State University. 6 June 1999. Retrieved 22 March 2007. ^ Bury, John Bagnell (1889). History of the Later Roman Empire. London, New York: MacMillan and Co. ^ Rome: The Conquest of the Hellenistic Empires Archived 1 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine by Richard Hooker. Washington State University. 6 June 1999. Retrieved 22 March 2007. ^ Duiker, William; Spielvogel, Jackson (2001). World History (Third ed.). Wadsworth. pp. 136–137. ISBN 978-0-534-57168-9. ^ Fall of the Roman Republic, 133–27 BC. Purdue University. Retrieved 24 March 2007. ^ a b Eques (Knight) by Jona Lendering. Livius.org. Retrieved 24 March 2007. ^ Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy (1998). Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-19-512332-6. ^ Tuma, Elias H. (1965). Twenty-six Centuries of Agrarian Reform: A Comparative Analysis. University of California Press. p. 34. ^ Plutarch. Life of Sulla. ^ a b c William Harrison De Puy (1893). The Encyclopædia britannica: a dictionary of arts, sciences, and general literature; the R.S. Peale reprint, with new maps and original American articles. Werner Co. p. 760. ^ Henry George Liddell (1855). A history of Rome, to the establishment of the empire. p. 305. ^ Plutarch Parallel Lives, Life of Caesar, I,2 ^ Scullard, Howard Hayes (1982). From the Gracchi to Nero (5th ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-02527-0. Chapters VI–VIII. ^ Julius Caesar (100–44 BC). BBC. Retrieved 21 March 2007. ^ [3] Plutarch, Life of Caesar. Retrieved 1 October 2011 ^ Augustus (31 BC – 14 AD) by Garrett G. Fagan. De Imperatoribus Romanis. 5 July 2004. Retrieved 21 March 2007. ^ Coins of the Emperor Augustus Archived 25 May 2009 at the Wayback Machine; examples are a coin of 38 BC inscribed "Divi Iuli filius", and another of 31 BC bearing the inscription "Divi filius" (Auguste vu par lui-même et par les autres by Juliette Reid Archived 19 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine). ^ [4] Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, Augustus, XV. ^ [5] Plutarch, Parallel Lives, Life of Antony, II, 1. ^ Ancient Library Archived 5 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine. 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American Association for the Advancement of Science. 366 (6466): 708–714. doi:10.1126/science.aay6826. PMC 7093155. PMID 31699931. Cary, M. (1967). A History of Rome Down to the Reign of Constantine (2nd ed.). New York: St. Martin's Press. Casson, Lionel (1998). Everyday Life in Ancient Rome. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-5992-2. Dio, Cassius (January 2004). Dio's Rome, Volume V., Books 61–76 (AD 54–211). Retrieved 17 December 2006. Duiker, William; Jackson Spielvogel (2001). World History (Third ed.). Wadsworth. ISBN 978-0-534-57168-9. Durant, Will (1944). The Story of Civilization, Volume III: Caesar and Christ. Simon and Schuster, Inc. Elton, Hugh (1996). Warfare in Roman Europe AD 350–425. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-815241-5. Flower (editor), Harriet I. (2004). The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-00390-2.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith (2008). Caesar: Life of a Colossus. Yale University Press Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith (1996). The Roman Army at War 100 BC – AD 200. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-815057-2. Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith (2003). The Complete Roman Army. London: Thames and Hudson, Ltd. ISBN 978-0-500-05124-5. Grant, Michael (2005). Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii and Herculaneum. London: Phoenix Press. ISBN 978-1-898800-45-3. Haywood, Richard (1971). The Ancient World. David McKay Company, Inc. Keegan, John (1993). A History of Warfare. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-394-58801-8. Livy. The Rise of Rome, Books 1–5, translated from Latin by T.J. Luce, 1998. Oxford World's Classics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-282296-9. Mackay, Christopher S. (2004). Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-80918-4. Matyszak, Philip (2003). Chronicle of the Roman Republic. London: Thames & Hudson, Ltd. ISBN 978-0-500-05121-4. O'Connell, Robert (1989). Of Arms and Men: A History of War, Weapons, and Aggression. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-505359-3. Scarre, Chris (September 1995). The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Rome. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-051329-5. Scullard, H.H. (1982). From the Gracchi to Nero. (5th edition). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-02527-0. Ward-Perkins, John Bryan (1994). Roman Imperial Architecture. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-05292-3. Wade, Lizzie (8 November 2019). "Immigrants from the Middle East shaped Rome". Science. American Association for the Advancement of Science. 366 (6466): 673. doi:10.1126/science.366.6466.673. PMID 31699914. Werner, Paul (1978). Life in Rome in Ancient Times. translated by David Macrae. Geneva: Editions Minerva S.A. Willis, Roy (2000). World Mythology: The Illustrated Guide. Collingwood, Victoria: Ken Fin Books. ISBN 978-1-86458-089-1. Further reading Coarelli, Filippo. Rome and environs: An archaeological guide. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 2007. Cornell, Tim J. The beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000–264 BC). London: Routledge, 1995. Coulston, J. C, and Hazel Dodge, editors. Ancient Rome: The archaeology of the eternal city. Oxford: Oxford University School of Archaeology, 2000. Forsythe, Gary. A critical history of early Rome. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005. Fox, Matthew. Roman historical myths: The regal period in Augustan literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. Gabba, Emilio. Dionysius and the history of Archaic Rome. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991. Holloway, R. Ross. The archaeology of early Rome and Latium. London: Routledge, 1994. Keaveney, Arthur. Rome and the unification of Italy. 2nd edition. Bristol: Bristol Phoenix, 2005. Kraus, Christina Shuttleworth, and A.J. Woodman. Latin historians. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. Mitchell, Richard E. Patricians and plebeians: The origin of the Roman state. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990. Potter, T.W. Roman Italy. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987. Raaflaub, Kurt A., editors. Social struggles in Archaic Rome: New perspectives on the conflict of the orders. 2nd edition. Oxford: Blackwell, 2004. Rosenstein, Nathan S., and Robert Morstein-Marx, editors. A companion to the Roman Republic. Oxford: Blackwell, 2006. Scheidel, Walter, Richard P Saller, and Ian Morris. The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007. Smith, Christopher J. Early Rome and Latium: Economy and society c. 1000–500 BC. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. Stewart, Roberta. Public office in early Rome: Ritual procedure and political practice. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998. Woolf, Greg. Rome: An Empire's Story. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. Wyke, Maria. Projecting the Past: Ancient Rome, Cinema, and History. New York: Routledge, 1997. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ancient Rome. Library resources about Ancient Rome Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Ancient Rome resources for students from the Courtenay Middle School Library. History of ancient Rome OpenCourseWare from the University of Notre Dame providing free resources including lectures, discussion questions, assignments, and exams. Gallery of the Ancient Art: Ancient Rome Lacus Curtius Livius.Org United Nations of Roma Victrix (UNRV) History Water and Wastewater Systems in Imperial Rome Roman DNA project v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex 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Bellona Bona Dea Carmenta Castor and Pollux Ceres Cloacina Cupid Dea Dia Diana Dies Dīs Pater Egeria Fauna Faunus Flora Genius Hercules Janus Juno Jupiter Lares Liber Libertas Mars Mercury Minerva Neptune Orcus Penates Pluto Pomona Priapus Proserpina Quirinus Saturn Silvanus Sol Venus Veritas Vesta Vulcan Abstract deities Abundantia Aequitas Aeternitas Africa Annona Averruncus Concordia Feronia Fides Fortuna Fontus Laverna Pietas Roma Salus Securitas Spes Tranquillitas Victoria Terra Legendary figures Aeneas Rhea Silvia Romulus and Remus Numa Pompilius Tullus Hostilius Servius Tullius Ancus Marcius Lucius Tarquinius Priscus Lucius Tarquinius Superbus Texts Virgil Aeneid Ovid Metamorphoses Fasti Propertius Apuleius The Golden Ass Varro Concepts and practices Religion in ancient Rome Festivals Interpretatio graeca Imperial cult Pomerium Temples Philosophy Cynicism Epicureanism Neoplatonism Peripateticism Pythagoreanism Stoicism See also Glossary Greek mythology Myth and ritual Roman polytheism (List) Classical mythology Conversion to Christianity Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism v t e Roman Constitution Ancient Rome History Constitution Senate Assemblies Curiate Century Tribal Plebeian Magistrates Roman Kingdom History Constitution Senate Assemblies Magistrates Roman Republic History Constitution (reforms of Sulla • reforms of Caesar • reforms of Augustus) Senate Assemblies Magistrates Roman Empire History (post Diocletian) Constitution (post Diocletian) Senate Assemblies Magistrates Miscellaneous Sulla's Constitutional Reforms Caesar's Constitutional Reforms Conflict of the Orders Roman law v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–284 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic Emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius Chlorus Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daia (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo the Thracian Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian the Great Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. v t e Ancient Greek and Roman wars Ancient Greece Trojan War First Messenian War Second Messenian War Lelantine War Greek–Punic Wars (Sicilian Wars) Greco-Persian Wars Aeginetan War Wars of the Delian League Samian War Peloponnesian War Corinthian War First / Second / Third Sacred War Social War (357–355 BC) Expansion of Macedonia Wars of Alexander the Great Wars of the Diadochi Lamian War Chremonidean War Cleomenean War Social War (220–217 BC) Cretan War Aetolian War War against Nabis Maccabean Revolt Roman Republic Roman–Latin wars (First Latin War (Battle of Lake Regillus) Second Latin War) Samnite Wars Pyrrhic War Punic Wars (First Second Third) Macedonian Wars (Illyrian First Macedonian Second Macedonian Seleucid Third Macedonian Fourth Macedonian) Jugurthine War Cimbrian War Roman Servile Wars (First Second Third) Social War (91–87 BC) Sulla's civil wars (First Second) Mithridatic Wars (First Second Third) Gallic Wars Julius Caesar's civil war Augustus' rise to power (Battle of Mutina Liberators' civil war Sicilian revolt Perusine War (Fulvia's civil war) Final War of the Roman Republic) Roman Empire Germanic wars (Marcomannic Alemannic Gothic Visigothic) Conquest of Britain Wars of Boudica Armenian War Four Emperors Jewish wars Domitian's Dacian War Trajan's Dacian Wars Parthian Wars Wars against Persia Third-century civil wars Decline and fall of the Western Empire Military history v t e Colonies of Ancient Rome With correspondence to modern geography Europe Britannia Superior Camulodunum Lindum Colonia Londinium Britannia Inferior Eboracum Roman Dacia Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa Gallia 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en-wikipedia-org-5762	----	Pomponius Porphyrion - Wikipedia Pomponius Porphyrion From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Pomponius Porphyrio) Jump to navigation Jump to search Pomponius Porphyrion (or Porphyrio)[citation needed] was a Latin grammarian and commentator on Horace. Contents 1 Biography 2 Works 3 Editions 4 References 5 External links Biography[edit] He was possibly a native of Africa, and flourished during the 2nd century A.D. (according to some, much later). Works[edit] His scholia on Horace, which are still extant, mainly consist of rhetorical and grammatical explanations. We probably do not possess the original work, which must have suffered from alterations and interpolations at the hands of the copyists of the Middle Ages, but on the whole the scholia form a valuable aid to the student of Horace. Editions[edit] Acronis et Porphyrionis commentarii in Q. Horatium Flaccum. Edidit Ferdinandus Hauthal, vol. 1, vol. 2, Berolini sumptibus Julii Springeri, 1864. Pomponii Porhyrionis commentarii in Q. Horatium Flaccum, recensuit Gulielmus Meyer spirensis, Lipsiae in aedibus B. G. Teubneri, 1874. Pomponi Porfyrionis commentum in Horatium Flaccum, A. Holder, ed., Arno Press, 1894. See also C. F. Urba, Meletemata porphyrionea (1885). References[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Porphyrio, Pomponius". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. This work in turn cites: E. Schweikert, De Porphyrionis . . . scholiis Horatianis (1865) F. Pauly, Quaestiones criticae de . . . Porphyrionis commentariis Horatianis (1858) External links[edit] Pomponi Porphyrionis commentarium in Horatium Flaccum at www.horatius.net. Authority control BIBSYS: 90648191 BNE: XX1074816 BNF: cb12554636z (data) GND: 100250408 ISNI: 0000 0000 8344 4045 LCCN: nr97044688 NKC: ola2008481304 NLA: 45037542 NTA: 068034768 RERO: 02-A003705817 SELIBR: 336559 SUDOC: 034835881 Trove: 1465766 VcBA: 495/44769 VIAF: 68839172 WorldCat Identities: lccn-nr97044688 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pomponius_Porphyrion&oldid=790459273" Categories: Grammarians of Latin Post–Silver Age Latin writers Horace Pomponii Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from November 2014 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Asturianu Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Italiano Magyar Polski Русский Slovenčina Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 13 July 2017, at 21:54 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5776	----	Livius Andronicus - Wikipedia Livius Andronicus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Greco-Roman dramatist and epic poet Not to be confused with Titus Livius, known as Livy. Lucius Livius Andronicus Livius Andonicus Naples National Archaeological Museum. Born c. 284 BC Tarentum Died c. 205 BC Rome Occupation writer; playwright; poet Language Latin Notable works Odyssey Ancient theater at Syracuse, Sicily, originally Greek Lucius Livius Andronicus (/ˈlɪviəs/; c. 284 – c. 205 BC)[1] was a Greco-Roman dramatist and epic poet of the Old Latin period. He began as an educator in the service of a noble family at Rome by translating Greek works into Latin, including Homer's Odyssey.[2] They were meant at first as educational devices in the school he founded. He wrote works for the stage—both tragedies and comedies—which are regarded as the first dramatic works written in the Latin language of ancient Rome. His comedies were based on Greek New Comedy and featured characters in Greek costume. Thus, the Romans referred to this new genre by the term comoedia palliata (fabula palliata). The Roman biographer Suetonius later coined the term "half-Greek" of Livius and Ennius (referring to their genre, not their ethnic backgrounds).[3] The genre was imitated by the next dramatists to follow in Andronicus' footsteps and on that account he is regarded as the father of Roman drama and of Latin literature in general; that is, he was the first man of letters to write in Latin.[4] Varro, Cicero, and Horace, all men of letters during the subsequent Classical Latin period, considered Livius Andronicus to have been the originator of Latin literature. He is the earliest Roman poet whose name is known.[5] Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Name 1.2 Dates 1.3 Events 2 Works 2.1 Odusia 2.2 Plays 2.3 The hymn 3 Notes 4 Further reading 5 External links Biography[edit] Name[edit] In ancient sources, Livius Andronicus is either given that name or is simply called Livius. Andronicus is the Latinization of a Greek name, which was held by a number of Greek historical figures of the period. It is generally considered that Andronicus came from his Greek name and that Livius, a name originally local to Latium, was the gentilicium, the family name, of his patron (patronus). His career at Rome was launched from servitude and he became a freedman (libertus) by the grace of his enslaver, one of the Livia gens. The praenomen Lucius is given by Aulus Gellius[6] and Cassiodorus.[7] Dates[edit] Livius' dates are based mainly on Cicero[8][9] and Livy.[10] Cicero says, "This Livius exhibited his first performance at Rome in the Consulship of M. Tuditanus, and C. Clodius the son of Caecus, the year before Ennius was born," that is, in 240 BC. Cicero goes on to relate the point of view of Accius, that Livius was captured from Tarentum in 209, and produced a play in 197. Cicero disagrees with this view on the grounds that it would make Livius younger than Plautus and Naevius, though he was supposed to have been the first to produce a play. Livy says, "The pontiffs also decreed that three bands of maidens, each consisting of nine, should go through the city singing a hymn. This hymn [the parthenion) was composed by the poet, Livius." This action was taken to expiate the gods after a series of evil portents in the consulship of "C. Claudius Nero for the first time, M. Livius for the second;" that is, in 207. Only the dates of 240 and 207 seem exempt from controversy.[11] Events[edit] Jerome has some additional detail that tends to support the capture at Tarentum and enslavement. His entry for the year of Abraham 1829, the second year of the 148th Olympiad (186/185 BC), of his Chronicon, reads Titus Livius tragoediarum scriptor clarus habetur, qui ob ingenii meritum a Livio Salinatore, cuius liberos erudiebat, libertate donatus est. Titus Livius, author of tragedies, is held to be outstanding. He was given liberty by Livius Salinator, whose children he was educating, by merit of his intelligence. Jerome is the only author to name him Titus. The passage is ambiguous concerning the events actually happening in Olympiad 148; Andronicus could have been being given liberty or simply have been being honoured, having been liberated long ago. Livius Salinator might be Gaius Livius Salinator, his father Marcus Livius Salinator, or his grandfather Marcus. If Jerome means that the liberation took place in 186, then he seems to be following Accius' view, which might have been presented in the missing portions of Suetonius' de Poetis and read by Jerome.[12] The passage is not conclusive about anything. However, the mixed name of Livius and his being associated with Salinator suggests that he was captured at the first fall of Tarentum in 272, sold to the first Marcus Livius Salinator, tutored the second and was set free to have an independent career when the task was complete. Works[edit] Odusia[edit] Livius made a translation of the Odyssey, entitled the Odusia in Latin, for his classes in Saturnian verse. All that survives is parts of 46 scattered lines from 17 books of the Greek 24-book epic. In some lines, he translates literally, though in others more freely.[5] His translation of the Odyssey had a great historical importance. Livius' translation made this fundamental Greek text accessible to Romans, and advanced literary culture in Latin. This project was one of the first examples of translation as an artistic process; the work was to be enjoyed on its own, and Livius strove to preserve the artistic quality of the original. Since there was no tradition of epic in Italy before him[dubious – discuss], Livius must have faced enormous problems. For example, he used archaising forms to make his language more solemn and intense. His innovations would be important in the history of Latin poetry.[11] In the fragments we have, it is clear that Livius had a desire to remain faithful to the original and to be clear, while having to alter untranslatable phrases and ideas. For example, the phrase "equal to the gods", which would have been unacceptable to Romans, was changed to "summus adprimus", "greatest and of first rank".[citation needed] Also, early Roman poetry made use of pathos, expressive force, and dramatic tension, so Livius interprets Homer with a mind to these ideas as well.[13] In general, Livius did not make arbitrary changes to the text; rather, he attempted to remain faithful to Homer and to the Latin language.[14] Plays[edit] Roman fresco of a theatre scene Livius' first play, according to Cicero, was staged in 240. Livy tells us that Livius was the first to create a play with a plot. One story says that after straining his voice, Livius, who was also an actor, was the first to leave the singing to singers and limited the actors to dialogue. His dramatic works were written in the iambic senarius and trochaic septenarius. They included both lyric passages (cantica) and dialogue (diverbia). His dramatic works had large element of solos for chief actor, often himself. It is not known whether he had a chorus. These dramatic works of Livius Andronicus were consistent with Greek requirements of drama and probably had Greek models, and we have no more than 60 fragments, as quoted in other authors. The titles of his known tragedies are Achilles, Aegisthus, Aiax Mastigophorus (Ajax with the Whip), Andromeda, Antiopa, Danae, Equus Troianus, Hermiona, and Tereus. Two titles of his comedies are certain, Gladiolus and Ludius, though the third, Virgo, is probably corrupt. They were all composed on the model of Greek New Comedy, adapting stories from the Greek. The Romans called this sort of adaptation of comedy by Livius and his immediate successors fabulae palliatae, or comoedia palliata, named from the pallium, or short cloak, worn by the actors.[15] Of Andronicus' palliata we have 6 fragments of 1 verse each and 1 title, Gladiolus, (Little Saber). The hymn[edit] According to Livy,[10] Livius also composed a hymn for a chorus of 27 girls in honour of Juno to be performed in public as part of religious ceremonies in 207. Because of the success of this hymn, Livius received public honours when his professional organization, the collegium scribarum histrionumque was installed in the Temple of Minerva on the Aventine. Actors and writers would gather here and offer gifts. Notes[edit] ^ "Lucius Livius Andronicus". Encyclopædia Britannica. ^ Brockett and Hildy (2003, 47). ^ Monroe, Paul (1902). "Selections from the Lives of Eminent Grammarians, by Suetonius". Source book of the history of education for the Greek and Roman period. New York, London: Macmillan Co. pp. 349–350. ...for the earliest men of learning, who were both poets and orators, may be considered as half-Greek: I speak of Livius and Ennius, who are acknowledged to have taught both languages as well at Rome as in foreign parts. ^ Livingston (2004, xi). ^ a b Rose (1954, 21). ^ Aulus Gellius. "Book 18, Chapter 9". Attic Nights. For in the library at Patrae I found a manuscript of Livius Andronicus .... ^ Livingston (2004, xii). ^ Brutus 18.72–74. ^ Cicero, Marcus Tullius. "Section 50". De Senectute. I myself [ Cato the Elder ] saw Livius Andronicus when he was an old man, who, though he brought out a play in the consulship of Cento and Tuditanus [240 BC], six years before I was born, yet continued to live until I was a young man. ^ a b 27.37.7 ^ a b Conte (1994, 40). ^ Livingston, Ivy J. (2004). A linguistic commentary on Livius Andronicus. New York: Routledge Taylor & Francos Group. p. xii. ^ Conte (1994, 41). ^ von Albrecht (1997, 115) ^ Ashmore (1908, 14) Further reading[edit] Albrecht, Michael von. (1997). A History of Roman Literature: From Livius Andronicus to Boethius. With special regard to its influence on world literature. 2 vols. Revised by Gareth L. Schmeling and Michael von Albrecht. Mnemosyne Supplement 165. Leiden: Brill. Boyle, A. J., ed. (1993). Roman Epic. London and New York: Routledge. Brockett, Oscar G.; Hildy, Franklin J. (2003). History of the Theatre (Ninth International ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. ISBN 978-0205410507. Büchner, Karl. (1979). "Livius Andronicus und die erste künstlerische Übersetzung der europäischen Kultur." Symbolae Osloenses 54: 37–70. Conte, Gian Biagio; Solodow, Joseph B. (Translator) (1994). Latin Literature: A History. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Erasmi, G. (1979). "The Saturnian and Livius Andronicus." Glotta, 57(1/2), 125–149. Farrell, Joseph. (2005). "The Origins and Essence of Roman Epic." In A Companion to Ancient Epic. Edited by John Miles Foley, 417–428. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World, Literature and Culture. Malden: Blackwell. Fantham, Elaine. (1989). "The Growth of Literature and Criticism at Rome." In The Cambridge History of Literary Criticism. Vol. 1, Classical Ccriticism. Edited by George A. Kennedy, 220–244. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Horsfall, N. (1976). "The Collegium Poetarum." Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies, (23), 79–95. Kearns, J. (1990). "Semnoths and Dialect Gloss in the Odussia of Livius Andronicus." The American Journal of Philology, 111(1), 40–52. Rose, H. J. (1954). A Handbook of Latin Literature from the Earliest Times to the Death of St. Augustine. London: Methuen. Sciarrino, E. (2006). "The Introduction of Epic in Rome: Cultural Thefts and Social Contests." Arethusa 39(3), 449–469. The Johns Hopkins University Press. Sheets, G. A. (1981). "The Dialect Gloss, Hellenistic Poetics and Livius Andronicus." The American Journal of Philology, 102(1), 58–78. Waszink, J. (1960). "Tradition and Personal Achievement in Early Latin Literature." Mnemosyne, 13(1), fourth series, 16–33. Wright, John. (1974). Dancing in Chains: The Stylistic Unity of the comoedia palliata. Papers and Monographs of the American Academy in Rome 25. Rome: American Academy in Rome. External links[edit] Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Livius Andronicus. Library resources about Livius Andronicus Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Livius Andronicus Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries  Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: Livius Andronicus "Livius Andronicus". Corpus Scriptorum Latinorum. Retrieved 15 October 2009. Lucius Livius Andronicus PHI Latin Texts Authority control BIBSYS: 90154405 BNE: XX1001143 BNF: cb12415198c (data) CiNii: DA06188574 GND: 118728636 ISNI: 0000 0001 3993 751X LCCN: n80049661 NKC: osd2013772911 NTA: 07002040X SELIBR: 255159 SUDOC: 03326886X VcBA: 495/32834 VIAF: 178307060 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n80049661 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Livius_Andronicus&oldid=996451424" Categories: Ancient Roman tragic dramatists Ancient Tarantines Latin-language writers Old Latin-language writers People from Taranto Roman-era Greeks Greco-Roman relations in classical antiquity Ancient Greeks in Rome 3rd-century BC Romans 3rd-century BC Greek people Livii 280s BC births 200s BC deaths Translators of Homer Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata All accuracy disputes Articles with disputed statements from February 2015 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2012 Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Use dmy dates from October 2019 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Asturianu تۆرکجه Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Furlan Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Íslenska Italiano ქართული Latina Latviešu Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Malagasy مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tarandíne Türkçe Українська Winaray 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 26 December 2020, at 18:14 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-577	----	SPQR - Wikipedia SPQR From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Latin initialism for "The Senate and People of Rome" This article is about the Latin initialism. For other uses, see SPQR (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "SPQR" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e SPQR, an abbreviation for Senātus Populusque Rōmānus (Classical Latin: [sɛˈnaːtʊs pɔpʊˈlʊskʷɛ roː'maːnʊs ]; English: "The Roman Senate and People"; or more freely "The Senate and People of Rome"), is an emblematic abbreviated phrase referring to the government of the ancient Roman Republic. It appears on Roman currency, at the end of documents made public by an inscription in stone or metal, and in dedications of monuments and public works. The full phrase appears in Roman political, legal, and historical literature, such as the speeches of Cicero and Ab Urbe Condita Libri ("Books from the Founding of the City") of Livy. Contents 1 Translation 2 Historical context 3 Modern use 3.1 Civic references 3.2 Use by white nationalists 4 Gallery 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links Translation[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) SPQR: Senātus Populusque Rōmānus. In Latin, Senātus is a nominative singular noun meaning "Senate". Populusque is compounded from the nominative noun Populus, "the People", and -que, an enclitic particle meaning "and" which connects the two nominative nouns. The last word, Rōmānus ("Roman") is an adjective modifying the whole of Senātus Populusque: the "Roman Senate and People", taken as a whole. Thus, the phrase is translated literally as "The Roman Senate and People", or more freely as "The Senate and People of Rome". Historical context[edit] A modern recreation of a Roman standard. This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The title's date of establishment is unknown, but it first appears in inscriptions of the Late Republic, from c. 80 BC onwards. Previously, the official name of the Roman state, as evidenced on coins, was simply ROMA. The abbreviation last appears on coins of Constantine the Great (ruled 312–337 AD), the first Roman emperor to support Christianity. The two legal entities mentioned, Senātus and the Populus Rōmānus, are sovereign when combined. However, where populus is sovereign alone, Senātus is not. Under the Roman Kingdom, neither entity was sovereign. The phrase, therefore, can be dated to no earlier than the foundation of the Republic. This signature continued in use under the Roman Empire. The emperors were considered the de jure representatives of the people even though the senātūs consulta, or decrees of the Senate, were made at the de facto pleasure of the emperor. Populus Rōmānus in Roman literature is a phrase meaning the government of the People. When the Romans named governments of other countries, they used populus in the singular or plural, such as populī Prīscōrum Latīnōrum, "the governments of the Old Latins". Rōmānus is the established adjective used to distinguish the Romans, as in cīvis Rōmānus, "Roman citizen". The Roman people appear very often in law and history in such phrases as dignitās, maiestās, auctoritās, lībertās populī Rōmānī, the "dignity, majesty, authority, freedom of the Roman people". They were a populus līber, "a free people". There was an exercitus, imperium, iudicia, honorēs, consulēs, voluntās of this same populus: "the army, rule, judgments, offices, consuls and will of the Roman people". They appear in early Latin as Popolus and Poplus, so the habit of thinking of themselves as free and sovereign was quite ingrained. The Romans believed that all authority came from the people. It could be said that similar language seen in more modern political and social revolutions directly comes from this usage. People in this sense meant the whole government. The latter, however, was essentially divided into the aristocratic Senate, whose will was executed by the consuls and praetors, and the comitia centuriāta, "committee of the centuries", whose will came to be safeguarded by the Tribunes. One of the ways the emperor Commodus (180–192) paid for his donatives and mass entertainments was to tax the senatorial order, and on many inscriptions, the traditional order is provocatively reversed (Populus Senatusque...). Beginning in 1184, the Commune of Rome struck coins in the name of the SENATVS P Q R. From 1414 until 1517, the Roman Senate struck coins with a shield inscribed SPQR.[1] During the regime of Benito Mussolini, SPQR was emblazoned on a number of public buildings and manhole covers in an attempt to promote his dictatorship as a "New Roman Empire".[citation needed] Modern use[edit] Modern coat of arms of Rome municipality. Even in contemporary usage, SPQR is still used in the municipal coat of arms of Rome and as abbreviation for the comune of Rome in official documents.[2][3] The Italians have long used a different and humorous expansion of this abbreviation, "Sono Pazzi Questi Romani" (literally: "They're crazy, these Romans").[4] In Spain, SPQR is also used in the flag and coat of arms of Sabiñánigo. In business, in English-speaking countries, SPQR is sometimes (humorously) used to mean ‘Small Profit, Quick Return’, often by people who have studied Latin at school. Civic references[edit] SPQH - Hamburg Rathaus This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) SPQx is sometimes used as an assertion of municipal pride and civic rights. The Italian town of Reggio Emilia, for instance, has SPQR in its coat of arms, standing for Senatus Populusque Regiensis. There have been confirmed usages and reports of the deployment of the "SPQx" template in; City Country SPQx Latin Where has it been used Alkmaar  Netherlands SPQA On the facade of the Waag building. Amsterdam  Netherlands SPQA Senatus Populusque Amstelodamensis[5] At one of the major theatres[which?][citation needed] and some of the bridges.[5] Antwerp  Belgium SPQA Senatus Populusque Antverpensis On Antwerp City Hall.[6] Basel   Switzerland SPQB Senatus Populusque Basilea On the Webern-Brunnen in Steinenvorstadt.[7] Benevento  Italy SPQB[8] Senatus Populusque Beneventanus[8] On manhole covers.[8] Bremen  Germany SPQB In the Bremen City Hall.[9] Bruges  Belgium SPQB On its coat of arms.[10] Brussels  Belgium SPQB Found repeatedly on the Palais de Justice,[11], over the main stage of La Monnaie,[citation needed] and on the ceiling of the hemicycle of the Belgian Senate in the Palais de la Nation. Capua  Italy SPQC Catania  Italy SPQC Can be found on manhole covers. Chicago  United States SPQC Can be found on the George N. Leighton Cook County Criminal Courthouse. Dublin  Ireland SPQH Senatus Populusque Hibernia On the City Hall, built in 1769. Florence  Italy SPQF[8] Senatus Populusque Florianopolitanus[8] Franeker  Netherlands SPQF At the a gate on the Westerbolwerk and Academiestraat 16.[12] Freising  Germany SPQF Above the door of the town hall. Ghent  Belgium SPQG Senatus Populusque Gandavensis On the Opera, Theater and some other major buildings. Inscribed on a shield on coins struck in Ghent in 1583, during the Dutch Revolt.[13] The Hague  Netherlands SPQH Above the stage in Koninklijke Schouwburg. Hamburg  Germany SPQH On a door in the Hamburg Rathaus.[14] Hanover  Germany Haarlem  Netherlands SPQH On the face of the town hall at the "Grote Markt". Hasselt  Belgium SPQH Kortrijk  Belgium SPQC Senatus Populusque Cortoriacum City hall. La Plata  Argentina SPQR On a monument outside of the city's "casco urbano". Leeuwarden  Netherlands SPQL Senatus Populusque Leovardia On the mayor's chain of office.[15] Liverpool  United Kingdom SPQL Senatus Populusque Liverpudliensis On various gold doors in St George's Hall.[16] City of London  United Kingdom SPQL Senatus Populusque Londinii On historic variants of the City's coat of arms[17][18] Lübeck  Germany SPQL Senatus Populusque Lubecca On the Holstentor.[19] Lucerne   Switzerland Milan  Italy SPQM The Holy Roman Emperor Charles V struck coins at Milan with the inscription S P Q Mediol Optimo Principi.[20] Modica  Italy SPQM On the coat of arms.[21] Molfetta  Italy SPQM On the coat of arms.[22] Naples  Italy SPQN Senatus Populusque Neāpolis Inscribed on a shield on coins struck during Masaniello's 1647 revolt.[23] Noto  Italy SPQN Senatus Populusque Netum On the coat of arms.[24] and the façade of Noto Cathedral Nuremberg  Germany SPQN Senatus Populusque Norimbergensis) On the Fleisch Bridge (one of the major bridges over river Pegnitz in the inner city). Oudenburg  Belgium SPQO Senatus Populusque Odenburgensis On its water pump next to the market square.[25] Olomouc  Czechia SPQO[8] Senatus Populusque Olomucium On its coat of arms."Olomouc". Heraldry of the World.</ref> Palermo  Italy SPQP [26] Penne, Abruzzo  Italy SPQP [26] Rieti  Italy SPQS Senatus Populusque Sabinus On the coat of arms. Present also in the modern composite Lazio coat-of-arms. Rotterdam  Netherlands SPQR On a wall painting in the Rotterdam City Hall [nl]. Severn Beach  United Kingdom SPQR On the crest of Pilning & Severn Beach Parish Council. Seville  Spain SPQH Senatus Populusque Hispalensis On the historic banner of the city. Siena  Italy SPQS On the base of a status of the Capitoline Wolf.[27] Solothurn   Switzerland SPQS Senatus Populusque Solodori On the Cathedral of St Ursus and Victor. Terracina  Italy SPQT [28] Tivoli, Lazio  Italy SPQT [29] Valencia  Spain SPQV Senatus Populusque Valentinus In several places and buildings, including the Silk Exchange[30] and the University of Valencia Historic Building.[31] Verviers  Belgium SPQV On the Grand Theatre.[32] Vienna  Austria SPQV[8] Senatus Populusque Viennensis[8] Use by white nationalists[edit] Some members of white nationalist groups use the acronym SPQR on flags, on their person (such as tattoos) and other forms of identification.[33][34][35][36] However, the Anti-Defamation League does not include SPQR in its hate symbol database, and the organization's Mark Pitcavage said that the abbrevation is used "just as much or more often by nonextremists than extremists".[37] Gallery[edit] The inscription in the Arch of Titus Manhole cover in Rome with SPQR inscription SPQR in the coat of arms of Reggio Emilia Detail from the mosaic floor in the Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II in Milan "Superiority of the warrior class. State 2." Etching by Wenceslaus Hollar, (University of Toronto) Arch of Septimius Severus top inscription Dedicatory plaque to Federico Fellini on Via Veneto Mural in the Burgerzaal of Rotterdam City Hall [nl] References[edit] ^ Monete e Zecche Medievalli Italiane, Elio Biaggi, coins 2081 and 2141 ^ "Roma Capitale - Sito Istituzionale - Home" (in Italian). Archived from the original on 18 October 2019. Retrieved 29 October 2019. ^ "OGGETTO: Revoca deleghe Consigliera Nathalie Naim" (PDF) (in Italian). S.P.Q.R. - ROMA CAPITALE - MUNICIPIO ROMA CENTRO STORICO. 2 February 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 October 2019. Retrieved 29 October 2019. ^ See, e.g. von Hefner, Otto Titan (1861). Handbuch der theoretischen und praktischen Heraldik. Munich. p. 106. ^ a b "Heraldic symbols of Amsterdam". Livius. 2 December 2006. Archived from the original on 10 December 2006. ^ Woesinger (5 January 2007). "SPQA". Flickr. Retrieved 17 February 2014. ^ "Webern-Brunnen" [Webern Fountain]. Basler Brunnenführer (in German). 1 January 2003. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 30 October 2015. ^ a b c d e f g h "Rome - Historical Flags (Italy)". Flags of the World. 14 November 2003. Archived from the original on 8 February 2007. Retrieved 6 February 2007. ^ International Council on Monuments and Sites (2003). "Evaluations of Cultural Properties" (PDF). UNESCO. pp. 39–42. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 June 2020. Retrieved 17 February 2014. ^ "Crest of Brugge". Heraldry of the World. Archived from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 17 February 2014. ^ "SPQB sign on the court of Justice of Brussels". Eupedia. Archived from the original on 17 April 2010. Retrieved 17 February 2014. ^ "Franeker". gevelstenen.net. Archived from the original on 27 January 2018. Retrieved 26 January 2018. ^ Carew Hazlitt, W. Coinage of the European Continent. p. 216. ^ "Hamburg". Nefers Hapiland (in German). Archived from the original on 3 November 2008. Retrieved 6 January 2009. ^ "De Ambtsketen Van De Burgemeester" [The Mayor's Office]. gemeentearchief.nl (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 19 July 2011. ^ Coslett, Paul. "St George's Hall". BBC Liverpool. Archived from the original on 25 September 2015. Retrieved 17 February 2014. ^ Corporation of London Records Office. "The City Arms" (PDF). cityoflondon.gov.uk. The Corporation of the City of London. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 September 2011. The letters SPQL [Senatus Populusque Londinii – literally, The Senate and People of London] also occasionally appear in imitation of the SPQR of ancient Rome. ^ Brunet, Alex (2013) [1839]. Regal Armorie of Great Britain. London: Forgotten Books. pp. 156–7. ^ Roberto (1 March 2007). "Holstentor - SPQL: Senatus Populusque Lubecensis". Flickr. Archived from the original on 9 December 2019. Retrieved 17 February 2014. ^ Potter, W. J. The Coinage of Milan. p. 19. coin 4. ^ "Modica". Heraldry of the World. Archived from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 26 July 2020. ^ "Molfetta". Heraldry of the World. Archived from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 26 July 2020. ^ Italian Coinage Medieval to Modern, The Collection of Ercole Gnecchi, coin 3683 ^ "Noto". Heraldry of the World. Archived from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 26 July 2020. ^ "Stadspomp, Oudenburg". Flickr. Archived from the original on 26 January 2019. Retrieved 20 December 2017. ^ a b mypixbox (5 December 2007). "SPQP". Flickr. Archived from the original on 4 November 2012. Retrieved 17 February 2014. ^ Moree (17 June 2008). "SPQS". Flickr. Retrieved 17 February 2014. ^ Dilke, O. A. W.; Dilke, Margaret S. (October 1961). "Terracina and the Pomptine Marshes". Greece & Rome. Cambridge University Press. II:8 (2): 172–178. ISSN 0017-3835. OCLC 51206579. ^ "Walking in Pomata". Tibursuperbum. Con il patrocinio del Comune di Tivoli Assessorato al Turismo. Archived from the original on 25 December 2008. Retrieved 17 February 2014. ^ "Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes". Cervantesvirtual.com. Archived from the original on 22 September 2013. Retrieved 17 February 2014. ^ Gallardo, Elena. "SPQV". Flickr. ^ "Le Grand-Théâtre de Verviers". bestofverviers.be (in French). Archived from the original on 12 November 2014. ^ Bond, Sarah E. (30 August 2018). "The misuse of an ancient Roman acronym by white nationalist groups". Hyperallergic. Archived from the original on 11 April 2019. Retrieved 16 April 2019. ^ Angell, Ben; et al. (27 July 2018). "Scholars Respond to SPQR and White Nationalism". Pharos. Retrieved 16 April 2019. ^ Angell, Ben; et al. (15 June 2018). "SPQR and White Nationalism". Pharos. Archived from the original on 16 April 2019. Retrieved 16 April 2019. ^ "Flags and Other Symbols Used By Far-Right Groups in Charlottesville". Southern Poverty Law Center. 12 August 2017. Archived from the original on 13 August 2017. Retrieved 16 April 2019. ^ Robertson, Gary D. (12 August 2020). "NC candidate defends posts; says he despises racism". Associated Press. Retrieved 13 August 2020. Further reading[edit] Beneš, Carrie E. (2009). "Whose SPQR? Sovereignty and semiotics in medieval Rome". Speculum. 84 (4): 874–904. doi:10.1017/s0038713400208130. Moatti, Claudia (2017). "Res publica, forma rei publicae, and SPQR". Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies of the University of London. 60 (1): 34–48. doi:10.1111/2041-5370.12046. External links[edit] Library resources about SPQR Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Look up SPQR in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to SPQR. Instances of "Roman Senate and People" in www.Perseus.edu Lewis & Short dictionary entry for populus on www.Perseus.edu Polybius on the Senate and People (6.16) SPQR street light lamp in Rome v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor 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en-wikipedia-org-5784	----	Prosody (Latin) - Wikipedia Prosody (Latin) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Latin prosody (from Middle French prosodie, from Latin prosōdia, from Ancient Greek προσῳδία prosōidía, "song sung to music, pronunciation of syllable") is the study of Latin poetry and its laws of meter.[1] The following article provides an overview of those laws as practised by Latin poets in the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire, with verses by Catullus, Horace, Virgil and Ovid as models. Except for the early Saturnian poetry, which may have been accentual, Latin poets borrowed all their verse forms from the Greeks, despite significant differences between the two languages. Contents 1 Latin verse: a Greek gift 1.1 A brief history 1.2 Two rhythms 2 Prosody 2.1 Quantity 2.2 Feet 2.2.1 Cola: a different way to look at it 2.3 Elision 2.4 Caesura 3 Meters 3.1 Guide to symbols used 3.2 Dactylic meters 3.2.1 Dactylic hexameter 3.2.2 Dactylic pentameter 3.2.2.1 Elegiac couplet 3.2.2.2 First Archilochian 3.2.3 Dactylic tetrameter catalectic 3.2.3.1 Alcmanian strophe 3.3 Iambic meters 3.3.1 Iambic trimeter and Senarius 3.3.2 Iambic dimeter 3.3.2.1 Iambic distich 3.3.2.2 Second Archilochian 3.3.2.3 Third Archilochian 3.3.2.4 Pythiambics 3.3.3 Iambic tetrameter catalectic 3.3.4 Choliambics 3.4 Hendecasyllables 4 Post-classical poetry 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Bibliography Latin verse: a Greek gift[edit] A brief history[edit] The start of Latin literature is usually dated to the first performance of a play by Livius Andronicus in Rome in 240 BC.[2] Livius, a Greek slave, translated Greek New Comedy for Roman audiences. He not only established the genre fabula palliata, but also adapted meters from Greek drama to meet the needs of Latin. He set a precedent followed by all later writers of the genre, notably Plautus and Terence.[3] The principles of scansion observed by Plautus and Terence (i.e. the rules for identifying short and long syllables, the basis of Greek and Latin meter) are mostly the same as for classical Latin verses.[nb 1] Livius, a versatile author, also translated Homer's Odyssey into a rugged native meter known as Saturnian, but it was his near contemporary, Ennius (239–169 BC), who introduced the traditional meter of Greek epic, the dactylic hexameter, into Latin literature. Ennius employed a poetic diction and style well suited to the Greek model, thus providing a foundation for later poets such as Lucretius and Virgil to build on.[4] The late republic saw the emergence of Neoteric poets. They were rich young men from the Italian provinces, conscious of metropolitan sophistication. They, and especially Catullus, looked to the scholarly Alexandrian poet Callimachus for inspiration.[5] The Alexandrians' preference for short poems influenced Catullus to experiment with a variety of meters borrowed from Greece, including Aeolian forms such as hendecasyllabic verse, the Sapphic stanza and Greater Asclepiad, as well as iambic verses such as the choliamb and the iambic tetrameter catalectic (a dialogue meter borrowed from Old Comedy).[6] Horace, whose career spanned both republic and empire, followed Catullus' lead in employing Greek lyrical forms, though he calls himself the first to bring Aeolic verse to Rome.[7] He identified with, among others, Sappho and Alcaeus of Mytilene, composing Sapphic and Alcaic stanzas, and with Archilochus, composing poetic invectives in the Iambus tradition (in which he adopted the metrical form of the epode or "iambic distich"). Horace also wrote verses in dactylic hexameter, employing a conversational and epistolary style. Virgil, his contemporary, composed dactylic hexameters on light and serious themes and his verses are generally regarded as "the supreme metrical system of Latin literature".[8] Modern scholars have developed different theories about how Latin prosody was influenced by these adaptations from Greek models. Two rhythms[edit] English meter is said to be stress timed: the regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables produces an "accentual rhythm." Classical Greek meter is said to be mora timed: the alternation of long and short syllables produces a "quantitative rhythm." Classical Latin meter obeyed rules of syllable length, like the Greek, even though Latin has a strong word accent like English. Modern scholars have had differing opinions about how these different influences affect the way Latin verse was sounded out. Accentual rhythm in Latin may have been observed in pre-classical verse (in Saturnian meter) and in some medieval verse,[9] but otherwise the rhythm of Latin verse appears ambivalent and complex. Latin, like English, was characterized by a stress accent, whereas ancient Greek was characterized by a pitch accent. In English poetry, accent governs the stress-timed rhythm. In ancient Greek poetry, on the other hand, pitch accent rose and fell independently of the mora timed rhythm, just as musical pitch is not governed by the duration of musical notes. Some modern scholars have suggested that the stress accent in Latin turned into a pitch accent under the Greek influence and thus Latin verse could have functioned in the melodic manner of Greek verse,[10] yet most scholars today reject such a theory as unrealistic.[11] Latin poets might instead have recited long and short syllables as if they were stressed and unstressed, or, more probably, they gave words their natural stress, so that the quantitative metrical pattern acted like an orderly undercurrent to natural speech.[12] Here, for example, is dactylic verse from Virgil's Georgics when the words are given their natural stress: quíd fáciat laétas ségetes, quó sídere térram, and here is the same verse when the metrical pattern is allowed to determine the stress: quíd faciát laetás segetés, quo sídere térram. Possibly the rhythm was held in suspense until stress and meter happened to coincide (as in "sídere térram" above).[13] English-speaking, as opposed to e.g. German-speaking, readers of Latin tend to observe the natural word stress, an approach to Latin verse that was also practised in ancient times (a 5th-century AD papyrus shows hexameter verse with accents recorded separately from the meter), yet there is also an ancient precedent for letting the meter produce an artificial stress accent.[14] In the hands of a master poet such as Vergil, however, the natural stress accent may be thought to function as a second rhythm, whose interplay with the quantitative rhythm can even be regarded as a source of unique aesthetic effects.[15] Prosody[edit] Quantity[edit] Generally a syllable in Latin verse is long "by nature" when it has a long vowel or diphthong (scrī-bae) or it ends in two consonants or a compound consonant (dant, dux) and long "by position" when it ends in a consonant and is followed by a syllable that begins with a consonant (mul-tos; dat sonitum) or it is the final syllable in a line of verse i.e. brevis in longo. Otherwise syllables are counted as short. Syllables ending in a vowel are called open syllables, and those ending in a consonant are called closed syllables. Only the nucleus and coda of the syllable are relevant for metrical purposes: the quantity of a syllable is not affected by consonants preceding the vowel. Long syllables are sometimes called heavy and short ones light, using terminology borrowed from Sanskrit. For the above rules to apply the digraphs ch, th, ph, representing single Greek letters, count as one consonant; h at the beginning of a word is ignored; qu counts as one consonant; the consonants x [ks] and z [zz] count as two consonants; A plosive (p, b, t, d, c, g) plus a liquid (r, l) can count as either one consonant or two, at the poet's discretion. Thus the first syllable of words like agrum or patris can be long (ag-rum, pat-ris) or short (a-grum, pa-tris). This choice is not permitted, as a rule, in compound words (e.g. ab-rumpo begins with a long syllable and will not be resyllabified *a-brumpo), nor is it available for all plosive-liquid combinations. If a final short open vowel stands before a plosive followed by a liquid in the same line, it remains short, save for some very rare occurrences such as Virgil's "lappaeque tribolique", where the first -que is scanned as long. A short open final vowel may not stand before other double consonants, including x and z, in the same line, again with rare exceptions such as Ovid's "alta Zacynthus", where the short final a remains short. In the comedies of Plautus and Terence some other exceptions to these rules are found, most notably the phenomenon called brevis brevians (see Metres of Roman comedy#Brevis brevians (iambic shortening)), in which a theoretically long syllable, if unstressed, can be shortened after a short one, e.g. vidēn hanc? ("do you see this woman?"), which is scanned u u –.[16] Another exception found in early poetry (including Lucretius) is that a final -is or -us can sometimes count as short (as in omnibu(s) rēbu(s) profundant, Lucretius 4.1035, scanned – u u – u u – –).[17] Feet[edit] Verses were divided into "feet" by ancient grammarians and poets, such as Ovid himself, who called the elegiac couplet "eleven-footed poetry" (Amores 1.30). This practice is followed by traditionalists among modern scholars, especially, perhaps, those who compose Latin verses. In foot-based analysis, the "metrically dominant" part of the foot is sometimes called the "rise" and the other is called the "fall," the Greek terms for which are arsis and thesis. In Greek, these terms were applied to the movement of human feet in dancing and/or marching, Arsis signifying the lifting of a foot, and Thesis its placement. In the Greek scheme Thesis was the dominant part of the meter, but the Romans applied the terms to the voice rather than to the feet, so that Arsis came to signify the lifting of the voice and thus the dominant part of the meter (William W. Goodwin, Greek Grammar, MacMillan Education (1894), page 348). This caused confusion, as some authors followed the Greek custom and others the Latin; thus these terms are no longer generally used. Sometimes the dominant part of the foot, in either quantitative or stressed verse, is called the ictus. Long and short syllables are marked (-) and (u) respectively. The main feet in Latin are: Iamb: 1 short + 1 long syllable (cărō) Trochee: 1 long + 1 short (mēnsă) Dactyl: 1 long + 2 shorts (lītŏră) Anapaest: 2 shorts + 1 long (pătŭlaē) Spondee: 2 longs (fātō) Tribrach: 3 shorts (tĕmĕrĕ) According to the laws of quantity, 1 long = 2 shorts. Thus a Tribrach, Iamb and Trochee all equate to the same durations or morae: each of them comprises 3 morae. Similarly a Dactyl, an Anapaest and a Spondee are quantitatively equal, each being 4 morae. These equivalences allow for easy substitutions of one foot by another e.g. a spondee can be substituted for a dactyl. In certain circumstances, however, unequal substitutions are also permitted. It is often more convenient to consider iambics, trochaics and anapests in terms of metra rather than feet; for each of these families, a metron is two feet. Thus the iambic metron is u-u-, the trochaic -u-u and the anapestic uu-uu-. Cola: a different way to look at it[edit] The division into feet is a tradition that produces arbitrary metrical rules, because it does not follow the actual metrical structure of the verse (see for example the listed variations in the tables below). In particular, though a long syllable and two short ones have the same number of morae, they are not always interchangeable: some metres permit substitutions where others do not. Thus a more straightforward analysis, favoured by recent scholarship, is by cola, considered to be the actual building blocks of the verse. A colon (from the Greek for "limb") is a unit of (typically) 5 to 10 syllables that can be re-used in various metrical forms.[18] Standard cola include the hemiepes, the glyconic, and the lekythion. Elision[edit] A vowel at the end of a word does not count as a syllable if the following word begins with a vowel or h: thus Phyllida amo ante alias reads as Phyllid' am' ant' alias. This is called elision. At the (rare) discretion of the poet, however, the vowel can be retained, and is said to be in Hiatus. An example of this, in Virgil's fémineó ululátú the "o" is not elided. A word ending in vowel + m is similarly elided (sometimes this is called Ecthlipsis): thus nec durum in pectore ferrum reads as nec dur' in pectore ferrum.[19] Caesura[edit] The last syllable of a foot might or might not coincide with the ending of a word. A too frequent repetition of this coincidence apparently grated on the Roman ear, as in the following example of a poorly composed dactylic hexameter, where each of the first four feet consists of a spondaic word (the feet are marked out by vertical lines): spārsīs | hāstīs | lōngīs| cāmpūs | splēndĕt ĕt | hōrrĕt.[20] The ending of a word and foot together, as in this line, is termed diaeresis. To avoid such lines, caesuras, or "cuttings", were employed, a caesura being a place where a word ends within a foot, here marked ||. For convenience, in the following two examples from Virgil the foot endings are marked -|- when they occur within words and | when they occur between words. Tīty̆rĕ | tū || pătŭ-|-laē || rĕcŭ-|-bāns || sūb | tēgmĭnĕ | fāgī nōn om-|-nīs || ar-|-busta || iu-|-vant, || humi-|-lēsque || myr-|-īcae There are two kinds of caesura: strong caesura, when the caesura occurs after a long syllable; weak caesura, when the caesura occurs after a short syllable (none in the first line above, two in the second). Meters[edit] The dividing of verse into long and short syllables and analysis of the metrical family or pattern is called 'scanning' or 'scansion.' The names of the metrical families come from the names of the cola or feet in use, such as iambic, trochaic, dactylic and anapaestic meters. Sometimes meter is named after the subject matter (as in epic or heroic meter), sometimes after the musical instrument that accompanied the poetry (such as lyric meter, accompanied by the lyre), and sometimes according to the verse form (such as Sapphic, Alcaic and elegiac meter). Guide to symbols used[edit] — for long syllable or long element u for short syllable or short element ῡ for brevis in longo | for end of foot ‖ main caesura Notes: words are hyphenated wherever they include the end of a foot e.g Trō-iae below; long and short vowels are marked with - and u directly above them e.g. Ā, ă, ĭ, ī, ō, ŏ, ŭ, ū (these don't indicate syllable lengths) There are four basic families of verse: dactylic, iambic (and trochaic), Aeolic, and anapestic. In the dactylic family short syllables come in pairs, and these pairs may be contracted (two short replaced by one long). In the iambic/trochaic family short syllables come one at a time, and some long elements may be resolved (one long replaced by two short). In the anapestic family short syllables come in pairs, and both contraction and resolution are allowed. In the Aeolic family there are both paired and single short syllables, and neither contraction nor resolution is allowed. Other important metres are hendecasyllabics and the Asclepiads, and Catullus composed important poetry in Glyconics. There are individual Wikipedia entries on various metres. A would-be composer in any metre, however, would need a more detailed knowledge than can be found here. Dactylic meters[edit] The "dactyl," as a foot, is — u u; the name comes from the Greek for "finger," because it looks like the three bones of a finger, going outward from the palm. The principal colon of dactylic verse is the "hemiepes" or "half-epic" colon, — u u — u u — (sometimes abbreviated D). The two short syllables (called a biceps element) may generally be contracted, but never in the second half of a pentameter, and only rarely in the fifth foot of a hexameter. The long syllable (the princeps element) may never be resolved. Roman poets use two dactylic forms, the hexameter and the elegiac couplet. Dactylic hexameter[edit] Dactylic hexameter was used for the most serious Latin verse. Influenced by Homer's Greek epics, it was considered the best meter for weighty and important matters, and long narrative or discursive poems generally. Thus it was used in Ennius's Annals, Lucretius's On The Nature of Things, Virgil's "Aeneid" and Ovid's "Metamorphoses"; also in Juvenal's caustic satires and Horace's genial Talks and Letters. A dactylic hexameter consists of a hemiepes, a biceps, a second hemiepes, and a final long element, so DuuD—. This is conventionally re-analyzed into six "feet," all dactyls with the last one either catalectic or necessarily contracted. Roman poets rarely contract the fifth foot.[nb 2] Since Latin was richer in long syllables than was Greek, contraction of biceps elements (producing the so-called spondee) was more common among Roman poets. Neoteric poets of the late republic, such as Catullus, sometimes employed a spondee in the fifth foot, a practice Greek poets generally avoided and which became rare among later Roman poets.[21] Variations 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th[nb 3] dactyls — u u — u u — u u — u u — u u — — spondees — — — — — — — — There will be a caesura in the third or fourth foot (or in both). If there is a weak caesura, or none, in the third foot, there will usually be a strong one in the fourth, as in these two examples from Virgil: sī nescīs, meus ille caper fuit, et mihi Dāmōn ... et nōbīs īdem Alcimedōn duo pōcula fēcit ... but here is a line from Virgil with only one caesura, a weak one: frangeret indēprēnsus et irremeābilis error. Variations are common, and are used to avoid monotony. Their absence would be a definite fault of versification. Various positions for caesura (in the foot-based analysis) have traditional names: the caesura "in the third foot" is called penthemimeral, that in the fourth hephthemimeral, and that in the second trihemimeral. These names refer to the number of half-feet before the position of the caesura.[22] Dactylic hexameter often has a bucolic diaeresis (a diaeresis between the fourth and fifth feet of a line), as in the first of the following lines from the introduction to Virgil's epic poem, the Aeneid. - u u| - u u| -|| -| - -| - u u |- - Ărmă vĭ-rŭmquĕ că-nō, Trō-iae quī prīmŭs ăb ōrīs - u u|- -| - || u u| - -| - u u| - - Ītălĭ-ǎm fā-tō prŏfŭ-gŭs Lā-vīniăquĕ vēnĭt - u u | - - | - - | - || - | - u u |- - lītŏră, mŭlt(um) ĭl-l(e) ĕt tĕr-rīs iăc-tātŭs ĕt ăltō - u u| - || - | - u u| - -| - u u |- - vī sŭpĕ-rŭm, sae-vae mĕmŏ-rĕm Iū-nōnĭs ŏb īrăm; There are two elisions in line 3 and a bucolic diaeresis in line 1 (quī | prīmus ). Venit and iram at the ends of lines 2 and 4 count as spondees by brevis in longo, despite their naturally short second syllables. The 'i' in 'Troiae' and 'iactatus', the first 'i' in 'Iunonis' and the second 'i' in 'Laviniaque' are all treated as consonants. Bucolic diaeresis has this name because it is common in bucolic or pastoral verse. (NB, however, that this term is sometimes, or even usually, reserved for lines where the fourth foot is a dactyl, as in forte sub argūtā cōnsīdĕrăt īlice Daphnis.) Dactylic hexameters regularly end with a disyllabic or a trisyllabic word. Exceptions tend to be Greek words. Dactylic pentameter[edit] The name "pentameter" comes from the fact that it consists of two separate parts, with a word-break between them, with each part, or hemiepes, having two and a half feet, summing to five (thus giving Ovid his count of eleven feet in a couplet). The first hemiepes may have contraction, the second may not. By Ovid's time there was a rule, with very few exceptions, that the last word should be of two syllables, and it was almost always a noun, verb, personal pronoun (mihi, tibi or sibi) or pronominal adjective (meus etc.). The last syllable would either be closed, or a long open vowel or a diphthong: very seldom an open short vowel. Variations 1st 2nd ½ 3rd 4th ½ — u u — u u — — u u — u u — spondees — — — — There is a strong danger of monotony in this rigid structure, which poets were able to alleviate, up to a point, by keeping the first half of a line out of conformity with the stricter rules governing the second half, and by varying as much as possible the word-pattern of the second half. Elegiac couplet[edit] An elegiac couplet is a dactylic hexameter followed by a dactylic pentameter. The sense of the hexameter frequently runs into the pentameter, an effect known as enjambement, but a pentameter comparatively seldom runs on into a following hexameter. The pentameter came into Latin usage later than the hexameter and therefore it was not always handled with rigour by Catullus, compared for example with the later poets, especially Ovid. Catullus used elisions very freely, and sometimes he even allowed an elision to span the central diaeresis (e.g. Carmina 77.4). The following is from one of his most famous elegies, mourning for a lost brother (Carmina 101).[23] - - | - - | - ||- | - u u | - u u| - - Mŭltās pĕr gĕn-tēs ĕt mŭltă pĕr aequŏră vĕctŭs - u u | - u u |- || - u u |- u u|- ădvĕnĭ(o) hās mĭsĕr-ās, frātĕr, ăd īnfĕrĭ-ās - -| - -| -||- |- - | - u u| - - ŭt tē pŏstrē-mō dōn-ārĕm mūnĕrĕ mŏrtĭs - -| - -| - || - u u| - u u| - ĕt mū-tăm nē-quīqu-(am) adlŏquĕ-rĕr cĭnĕ-rĕm, Note: the diaeresis after the first hemiepes is marked here like a caesura (a conventional practice.)[24] Observe the elisions in line 2 (o) and line 4 (am). The latter elision spans the diaeresis in the last line. First Archilochian[edit] If only one hemiepes is employed, instead of a full pentameter, the elegiac couplet takes the form known as the First Archilochian, named after the Greek poet Archilochus. An example is found in the fourth book of Horace's Odes (Carmina 4.7), which A. E. Housman once described as "the most beautiful poem in ancient literature",[25] introduced with these two lines: - -| - u u| - || uu| - - | - u u | - - Dīffū-gērĕ nĭ-vēs, rĕdĕ-ŭnt iăm grāmĭnă cămpīs - u u| - u u | - ărbŏrĭ-bŭsquĕ cŏm-ae; Dactylic tetrameter catalectic[edit] Most extant examples of this meter are found in Lyric poetry, such as Horace's Carmina 1.7 and 1.28, but also in Iambi. Variations 1st 2nd 3rd 4th — u u — u u — u u — — spondees — — Note: the final syllable in the 4th foot is marked long or short in some schemes to indicate natural syllable length but it is always long by position. Alcmanian strophe[edit] A dactylic tetrameter catalectic is sometimes joined to the dactylic hexameter to form a couplet termed the Alcmanian Strophe, named after the lyric poet Alcman (some scholars however refer to the Alcmanian Strophe as the First Archilochian, as indeed there is a strong likeness between the two forms). Examples of the form are found in Horace's Odes (carmina) and Epodes, as here in his Epode 12.[26] - u u | - - |- || - | - u u |- u u | - - Ō ĕgŏ | nōn fēl-īx, quăm tū fŭgĭs ŭt păvĕt ācrīs - u u| - u u| - u u|- - ăgnă lŭ-pōs căprĕ-aēquĕ lĕ-ōnēs Note that the plosive + liquid combination pr in 'capreaeque', syllabified ca.pre.ae.que, leaves the first open syllable (ca) metrically short. Iambic meters[edit] The iambic family has short syllables one at a time, not in pairs like the dactylic family, and it allows resolution of long elements. In this family there may also be anceps positions, that is, positions in which either a long or a short syllable is allowed. Iambic trimeter and Senarius[edit] Further information: Metres of Roman comedy Used for the theatre by poets such as Plautus and Terence, an iambic line of six feet allowed for numerous variations and it is known as an iambic senarius ('senarius' = 'grouped in sixes'). Poets such as Horace and Catullus however employed iambic feet in pairs, each called a metron, in which fewer variations were allowed. Such a line of verse has three metra and the meter in that case is called 'iambic trimeter'. Here is the list of variations found in Horace,[27] which are more numerous than those in Catullus.[28] Some variations are due to resolution (replacing a long with two shorts) and some are due to anceps (when a syllable may be either long or short—see following Note and the article iambic trimeter). Others are the result of outright substitution (prosody), such as the anapaest in the first foot below. Variations 1a 1b 2a 2b 3a 3b u — u — u — u — u — u — spondees — — — — — — tribrachs uuu uuu uuu uuu dactyls —uu —uu anapests uu— Note: The caesura usually follows the first syllable of the third foot (2a), and sometimes the first syllable of the fourth foot (2b). A short syllable can be replaced by a long syllable in certain positions, here marked bold: i.e. the first short syllable in feet 1a, 2a, 3a may be long. These short/long syllables are said to be in anceps. Some variations never appear; thus for example there is no resolution in foot 3a and therefore no tribrach or dactyl in that foot. The following example of iambic trimeter is from Horace's Epode 5: - u u |u u u| u|| - | u - |u - |u - | Cānĭdĭ-ă brĕvi-bus ĭmp-lĭcāt-ă vīp-ĕrīs Note that the first syllable Ca- in Canidia is long and it is thus in anceps, while -idi- is the equivalent of a long syllable and it is said to be resolved into two shorts—thus the first foot appears as if a dactyl has been substituted for an iamb. Long syllables are resolved into two shorts (uu) in the first metron (1a-1b), an effect that may have been intended to suggest the quick movement of tiny snakes that Canidia has tied to her hair.[29] The second foot (1b) is read as a tribrach (uuu) since 'br' in 'brevibus' can be taken as a single consonant, making the preceding 'a' short. Iambic dimeter[edit] Iambic verse of four feet, paired to make two metra, hence the name 'iambic dimeter'. It is constituted like the first and third metra of the iambic trimeter (1a, 1b, 3a, 3b), with which it is often joined to form couplets known as Iambic Distich. Variations 1a 1b 2a 2b u — u — u — u — spondees — — — — tribrachs uuu uuu dactyls —uu anapests uu— Note: The short syllables in 1a and 2a (marked bold) are in anceps and can be replaced by long syllables. Iambic distich[edit] The iambic distich—a couplet comprising an iambic trimeter and iambic dimeter—is the basis of many poems of a genre known as Iambus, in which the poet abuses and censures individuals or even communities, whether real or imaginary. Iambic rhythms were felt to be especially suited to this role. The Greek poet Archilochus was one of the main exponents of the iambic distich and he provided a model for Horace's Epodes 1-10. The following couplet forms the first two lines of Epode 7. - - | u - | - uu| u || - | - - | u - Quo quo sceles-ti rui-tis? aut cur dex-teris - - | u - | - - | u - aptan-tur en-ses con-diti? Note that the first syllables in both lines (Quo and ap) are in anceps and thus a spondee appears to have been substituted for an iamb in both the initial feet. Also ti in scelesti is long by nature and it too is in anceps; the third foot would otherwise be a tribrach (uuu) thanks to the resolution of a long syllable into the two shorts in rui. As a result of all these variations, the 3rd foot instead resembles a dactyl (-uu). Second Archilochian[edit] An iambic dimeter may be followed by a hemiepes to form the second line of a couplet, in which the first line is dactylic hexameter. This combination is called the second Archilochian. The iambic dimeter functions like an independent line, however, since it keeps the elements of a line-end i.e. it is marked off from the hemiepes by a pause through brevis in longo, or through a hiatus. An example of this system is found in Horace's epode 13, lines 9–10 - - | - - | - u u | - u u | - -| - - pěrfun-dī nār-dō iuvǎt ět fĭdě Cyllē-naeā u - | u -| - - | u ῡ|| - u u | - u u| - lĕvār-ĕ dī-rīs pĕc-tǒră sǒllĭcĭ-tūdĭnĭ-bŭs Note that the 5th foot in this example is a spondee—this is rare for Horace and it is meant to evoke the affectation of Neoteric poets like Catullus, thus complementing the sense of being suffused with perfume while listening to the lyre at a drinking party (the Greek word Cyllenaea, which creates the double spondee, adds to the exotic aura).[30] Observe also that the iambic dimeter ends with brevis in longo, the short syllable a in pectora becoming long by the addition of a pause. The hemiepes also ends with brevis in longo. Third Archilochian[edit] Here an iambic trimeter forms the first line of the couplet, and the positions of the iambic dimeter and hemiepes are reversed to form the second line, the hemiepes now coming before the iambic dimeter. The hemiepes still functions as if it were independent, retaining the pause of a line-end through brevis in longo or hiatus. An example has survived in Horace's Epode 11, as in lines 5-6 here: - - | u- | - -| u ||- | - - |u - hīc těr-tĭŭs Dēcĕm-bĕr, ĕx quō dēs-tĭtī - u u |- u u |ῡ || - - | u -| - - | u - Iānăchĭ-ā fŭrĕr-ĕ, sĭlvīs hŏnō-rĕm dē-cŭtĭt. Pythiambics[edit] Another couplet is formed when a line of dactylic hexameter is followed by a line of iambic dimeter, and this is called the First Pythiambic. The Greek poet Archilochus composed in this form but only fragments remain. Two of Horace's epodes (14 and 15) provide complete examples in Latin. The following couplet introduces his Epode 15: - u u |- - |- || - | - - | - u u |- - Nŏx ĕrăt ĕt cae-lō fŭl-gē-băt lūnă sĕ-rēnō - - | u -| u - |u ῡ ĭntĕr mĭnō-ră sīd-ĕră The Second Pythiambic features an iambic trimeter instead of iambic dimeter in the second line. Horace's Epode 16 is an example. Iambic tetrameter catalectic[edit] Usually associated with the comic theatre, it consists of seven feet with an extra syllable at the end instead of a full iambic foot. In that case it is called iambic septenarius ('septenarius' means grouped in sevens). Used outside the theatre, the feet are paired and then it is called iambic tetrameter catalectic (catalectic means that the meter is incomplete). The stage allowed many variations but poets were quite strict in their use of it and Catullus allowed variations only in the first and fifth feet:[31] Variations 1a 1b 2a 2b 3a 3b 4a 4b u — u — u — u — u — u — u — — spondees — — — — An example is found in Catullus' Carmina 25, beginning with these two lines: u - | u - | u - | u -| u -| u - |u - | - Cĭnae-dĕ Thăl-lĕ, mŏl-lĭŏr cŭnī-cŭlī căpĭl-lō u - | u - | u - | u -| u -| u - |u - | - vĕl ān-sĕrĭs mĕdŭl-lŭlā vĕl ī-mŭl(ā) ōr-ĭcĭl-lā Catullus uses no variations at all here and he employs diminutives (cuniculi, medullula, imula, oricila) contemptuously in a description of the 'soft' Thallus. Note that doubling of the consonant l lengthens several syllables that are naturally short, thus enabling a strict iambic rhythm. Choliambics[edit] This meter was originated by the Greek iambic poet, Hipponax. The name choliambics means lame iambics and sometimes it is called scazons or limpers. ("Lame trochaics" exist as well, being a trochaic tetrameter catalectic with the same ending as the iambic.) It is intended to be graceless and awkward "...in order to mirror in symbolically appropriate fashion the vices and crippled perversions of mankind."[32] It was taken up by the neoteric poets Catullus and his friend Calvus but with fewer variations than Hipponax had employed. It is basically an iambic trimeter but with a surprise ending in the last foot, featuring a trochee or spondee that cripples the iambic rhythm. As used by Catullus, the variations are as follows: Variations 1a 1b 2a 2b 3a 3b u — u — u — u — u — — — spondees — — — — — — tribrachs uuu dactyls —uu —uu Caesuras are found after the first syllable either in the third or fourth feet, sometimes in both. Lines 2 and 3 of Catullus' Carmina 59 about the grave-robbing wife of Menenius offer a good example: - -| u -|- || - | u - | u - | - - ŭxŏr Mĕnē-nī, sae-pĕ qu(ăm) ĭn sĕpŭl-crētīs - - | u - | -||u u |u - | u -| - - vīdĭs-tĭs ĭp-sō răpĕr-ĕ dē rŏgō cēnăm The dactyl in the third foot of the second line reinforces the meaning, as she greedily reaches for food from the funeral pyre without regard for taboos. Martial used more variations, such as an anapaest in the fourth foot and a tribrach in the third. Hendecasyllables[edit] The hendecasyllable is an 11-syllable line used extensively by Catullus and Martial, for example in Catullus's famous poem (Catullus 5), which begins: - -|- uu| - u |- u|- - vīvāmus mea Lesbi(a) atqu(e) amēmus - -|- u u|- u|- u|- - rūmōrēsque senum sevēriōrum - - |- uu | - u|- u |- - omnēs ūnius aestimēmus assis! "Let us live, my Lesbia, and let us love, and as for the mutterings of over-strict old men let us count them all as worth one dime!" Poems in hendecasyllables all run on in the same meter, namely spondee (but see below), dactyl, trochee, trochee, spondee. Catullus is rather freer than Martial, in that he will occasionally start a line with a trochee or iambus, as in lines 2 and 4 respectively of the opening poem of his book, whereas Martial keeps to a spondaic opening. Post-classical poetry[edit] After the classical period, the pronunciation of Latin changed and the distinction between long and short vowels was lost in the popular language. Some authors continued writing verse in the classical meters, but this way of pronouncing long and short vowels was not natural to them; they used it only in poetry. Popular poetry, including the bulk of Christian Latin poetry, continued to be written in accentual meters (sometimes incorporating rhyme, which was never systematically used in classical verse) just like modern European languages. This accentual Latin verse was called sequentia, especially when used for a Christian sacred subject. See also[edit] Metres of Roman comedy Brevis in longo Anceps Biceps (prosody) Resolution (meter) Clausula (rhetoric) Golden line Latin spelling and pronunciation Notes[edit] ^ Two significant differences are that word-final s may not be counted as making a heavy syllable, and mute-plus-liquid combinations never make a syllable heavy. R. H. Martin, Terence: Adelphoe, Cambridge University Press (1976), page 32 ^ According to the stress-timed theory of Latin prosody, there is a strong tendency to harmonize word-stress and verse-ictus in the final two feet of a hexameter. The fifth foot, therefore, is almost always a dactyl whereas the sixth foot always consists of a spondee; this line ending is perhaps the most notable feature of the meter. In classical times, it was the only readily audible metrical feature, and Romans unfamiliar with Greek literature and versification often heard no sound pattern at all save in the stress-pattern of the last two feet (William Sidney Allen, Vox Latina: a Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin, 2nd edition, Cambridge University Press (2003) ISBN 0-521-37936-9, pages 86, 127). ^ In some schemes, the final syllable in the 6th foot is marked either long or short to reflect the natural syllable length, but it is always long by position and it is therefore only marked long in this table. References[edit] ^ B. H. Kennedy and James Mountford, The Revised Latin Primer, Longman (1962), page 201 ^ See Goldberg for details. ^ R. H. Martin, Terence: Adelphoe, Cambridge University Press (1976), page 1 ^ P. G. McBrown, 'The First Roman Literature' in The Oxford History of the Classical World, J.Boardman, J.Griffin and O.Murray (eds), Oxford University Press (1995) page 450-52 ^ Robin Nisbet, 'The Poets of the Late Republic' in The Oxford History of the Classical World, J.Boardman, J.Griffin and O.Murray (eds), Oxford University Press (1995) page 487-90 ^ Peter Green, The Poems of Catullus, University of California Press (2005), pages 32-7 ^ "Princeps Aeolium carmen ad Italum," Odes 3.30.13; for Horace's engagement with Catullus see Putnam (2006). ^ Richard F. Thomas, Virgil: Georgics Vol. I, Cambridge University Press (1988), page 28 ^ For the contrast between stress-based and quantitative verse, and for developments after the classical period, see especially Gasparov. For Saturnians, Halporn et al. say "most Saturnians make some kind of sense if we assume that the natural word accent alone carries the rhythm" (p. 60-61). See also Parsons, Freeman, Cole, Mahoney. ^ R.G. Kent, The alleged conflict of accents in Latin verse, T.A.P.A. 51 (1920), pages 19-29) ^ Richard F. Thomas, Virgil: Georgics Vol. I, Cambridge University Press (1988), pages 29 ^ L.P. Wilkinson, Golden Latin Artistry, Cambridge (1963), page 94 ^ William Sidney Allen, Vox Latina: a Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin, 2nd edition, Cambridge University Press (2003) ISBN 0-521-37936-9, pages 83-88 ^ Richard F. Thomas, Virgil: Georgics Vol. I, Cambridge University Press (1988), pages 28-9 ^ R. D. Williams, The Aeneid of Virgil, Books I-VI, MacMillan (1972), Introduction page xxvii; W. F. Jackson Knight, Accentual Symmetry in Virgil, Basil Blackwell (1950) ^ Article "Brevis Brevians", Oxford Classical Dictionary, 2nd edition. ^ Bailey, C. (1947) Titi Lucreti Cari De Rerum Natura Libri Sex, vol 1. pp. 123-126. ^ See Halporn, Ostwald, Rosenmeyer (1994). ^ B. H. Kennedy and James Mountford, The Revised Latin Primer, Longman (1962), page 203 ^ B. H. Kennedy and James Mountford, The Revised Latin Primer, Longman (1962), page 204 ^ Peter Green, The Poems of Catullus, University of California Press (2005), pages 40 ^ B. H. Kennedy and James Mountford, The Revised Latin Primer, Longman (1962), pages 204-5) ^ Peter Green, The Poems of Catullus, University of California Press (2005), pages 40-1 ^ see for example Peter Green, The Poems of Catullus, University of California Press (2005), page 40 ^ William Flesch, The facts on File Companion to British Poetry, 19th Century, Facts on File, Inc. (2010), page 98; see Google preview ^ David Mankin, Horace: Epodes, Cambridge University Press (1995), pages 20-22 ^ B. H. Kennedy and James Mountford, The Revised Latin Primer, Longman (1962), pages 206) ^ Peter Green, The Poems of Catullus, University of California Press (2005), pages 34 ^ David Mankin, Horace: Epodes, Cambridge University Press (1995), note 15 page 114 ^ David Mankin, Horace: Epodes, Cambridge university Press (1995), pages 219-20 ^ Peter Green, The Poems of Catullus, University of California Press (2005), pages 34-5 ^ Peter Green, The Poems of Catullus, University of California Press (2005), pages 33 Bibliography[edit] Allen, William Sidney (2003). Vox Latina — a Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-37936-9. Cole, Thomas (1972). "The Saturnian Verse". Yale Classical Studies. 21: 3–73. Fortson, Benjamin W. 2011. "Latin Prosody and Metrics." In A Companion to the Latin Language. Edited by James Clackson, 92–104. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell Freeman, Philip (1998). "Saturnian Verse and Early Latin Poetics". Journal of Indo-European Studies. 26: 61–90. Gasparov, M. L. (1996). A History of European Versification. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-815879-3. Goldberg, Sander (2005). Constructing Literature in the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-85461-X. Halporn, James W.; Martin Ostwald; Thomas G. Rosenmeyer (1994) [1963]. The Meters of Greek and Latin Poetry. Hackett. ISBN 0-87220-244-5. Mahoney, Anne (2001). "Alliteration in Saturnians". New England Classical Journal. 28: 78–82. Morgan, Llewelyn. (2010). Musa Pedestris: Metre and Meaning in Roman Verse. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Parsons, J (1999). "A New Approach to the Saturnian Verse". Transactions of the American Philological Association. 129: 117–137. Probert, Philomen. 2002. "On the Prosody of Latin Enclitics." Oxford University Working Papers in Linguistics, Philology and Phonetics 7:181–206. Putnam, Michael C. J. (2006). Poetic Interplay: Catullus and Horace. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-12537-4. Raven, David S. (1965). Latin Metre: An Introduction. London: Faber and Faber. Watkins, Calvert (1995). How to Kill a Dragon: Aspects of Indo-European Poetics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-508595-7. Wilkinson, L. Patrick. 1963. Golden Latin Artistry. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prosody_(Latin)&oldid=982146865" Categories: Latin poetry Poetry movements Prosodies by language Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Македонски Edit links This page was last edited on 6 October 2020, at 12:34 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. 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en-wikipedia-org-5808	----	James Boswell - Wikipedia James Boswell From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 18th-century Scottish lawyer, diarist, and author This article is about the 18th-century writer. For other persons of the same name, see James Boswell (disambiguation). James Boswell Portrait by Sir Joshua Reynolds, 1785 Born (1740-10-29)29 October 1740 (N.S.)[1] Edinburgh, Scotland Died 19 May 1795(1795-05-19) (aged 54) London, England Occupation Lawyer, diarist, biographer Language English Nationality Scottish Citizenship Great Britain Alma mater University of Edinburgh University of Glasgow Utrecht University Notable works Life of Johnson Spouse Margaret Montgomerie ​ ​ (m. 1769; died 1789)​ Children Sir Alexander Boswell, 1st Baronet James Boswell Veronica Boswell Euphemia Boswell Elizabeth Boswell Charles Boswell (extramarital) Sally (extramarital) James Boswell, 9th Laird of Auchinleck (/ˈbɒzwɛl, -wəl/; 29 October 1740 (N.S.)[1] – 19 May 1795), was a Scottish biographer, diarist, and lawyer, born in Edinburgh. He is best known for his biography of his friend and older contemporary, the English writer Samuel Johnson, which is commonly said to be the greatest biography written in the English language.[2][3] A great mass of Boswell's diaries, letters and private papers were recovered from the 1920s to the 1950s, and their ongoing publication by Yale University has transformed his reputation. Contents 1 Early life 2 European travels 3 Mature life 4 Life of Samuel Johnson 5 Slavery 6 Discovery of papers 7 Freemasonry 8 In fiction and popular culture 9 Major works 10 Published journals 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links Early life[edit] Boswell was born in Blair's Land on the east side of Parliament Close behind St Giles' Cathedral in Edinburgh on 29 October 1740 (N.S.).[1] He was the eldest son of a judge, Alexander Boswell, Lord Auchinleck, and his wife Euphemia Erskine. As the eldest son, he was heir to his family's estate of Auchinleck in Ayrshire. Boswell's mother was a strict Calvinist, and he felt that his father was cold to him. As a child, he was delicate. Kay Jamison, Professor of Psychiatry at Johns Hopkins, in her book Touched with Fire, believes that Boswell may have suffered from bipolar disorder,[4] and this condition would afflict him sporadically all through his life. At the age of five, he was sent to James Mundell's academy, an advanced institution by the standards of the time, where he was instructed in English, Latin, writing and arithmetic. The eight-year-old Boswell was unhappy there, and suffered from nightmares and extreme shyness. Consequently, he was removed from the academy and educated by a string of private tutors. The most notable and supportive of these, John Dunn, exposed Boswell to modern literature, such as the Spectator essays, and religion. Dunn was also present during Boswell's serious affliction of 1752, when he was confined to the town of Moffat in northern Dumfriesshire. This afforded Boswell his first experience of genuine society. His recovery was rapid and complete, and Boswell may have decided that travel and entertainment exerted a calming therapeutic effect on him. Boswell's Edinburgh. In his journals he often mentions using the "Back Stairs" behind Parliament Close. His birthplace was the family's town house on the east side of the close, just around the corner at the top of the steps. At thirteen, Boswell was enrolled into the arts course at the University of Edinburgh, studying there from 1753 to 1758. Midway through his studies, he suffered an episode of serious depression but recovered fully. Boswell had swarthy skin, black hair and dark eyes; he was of average height, and he tended to plumpness. His appearance was alert and masculine. He also had an ingratiating sense of humour. Upon turning nineteen, he was sent to continue his studies at the University of Glasgow, where he attended the lectures of Adam Smith. While at Glasgow, Boswell decided to convert to Catholicism and become a monk. Upon learning of this, his father ordered him home. Instead of obeying, though, Boswell ran away to London, where he spent three months, living the life of a libertine, before he was taken back to Scotland by his father. Upon returning, he was re-enrolled at Edinburgh University and forced by his father to sign away most of his inheritance in return for an allowance of £100 a year. On 30 July 1762, Boswell passed his oral law exam, after which his father decided to raise his allowance to £200 a year and permitted him to return to London. In this period, Boswell wrote his London Journal and, on 16 May 1763, met Johnson for the first time. The pair became friends almost immediately, though Johnson became more of a parental figure in Boswell's eyes.[5] Johnson eventually nicknamed him "Bozzy". The first conversation between Johnson and Boswell is quoted in Life of Samuel Johnson as follows: [Boswell:] "Mr Johnson, I do indeed come from Scotland, but I cannot help it." [Johnson:] "That, Sir, I find, is what a very great many of your countrymen cannot help."[6] European travels[edit] It was around three months after this first encounter with Johnson that Boswell departed for Europe with the initial goal of continuing his law studies at Utrecht University. He spent a year there and although desperately unhappy the first few months, eventually quite enjoyed his time in Utrecht. He befriended and fell in love with Isabelle de Charrière, also known as Belle van Zuylen, a vivacious young Dutchwoman of unorthodox opinions, his social and intellectual superior. Boswell admired the young widow Geelvinck who refused to marry him. After this, Boswell spent most of the next two years travelling around the continent, his Grand Tour. During this time he met Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Voltaire with a recommendation letter of Constant d'Hermenches, and made a pilgrimage to Rome, where his portrait was painted by George Willison. Boswell also travelled to Corsica to meet one of his heroes, the independence leader Pasquale Paoli. His well-observed diaries and correspondence of this time have been compiled into two books, Boswell in Holland and Boswell on the Grand Tour. Mature life[edit] James Boswell by George Willison in Rome in 1765. Scottish National Gallery, Edinburgh. Boswell returned to London in February 1766 accompanied by Rousseau's mistress, with whom he had a brief affair on the journey home.[7] After spending a few weeks in the capital, he returned to Scotland, buying (or perhaps renting) the former house of David Hume on James Court on the Lawnmarket.[8] He studied for his final law exam at Edinburgh University. He passed the exam and became an advocate. He practised for over a decade, during which time he spent no more than a month every year with Johnson. Nevertheless, he returned to London annually to mingle with Johnson and the rest of the London literary crowd, and to escape his mundane existence in Scotland. He found enjoyment in playing the intellectual rhyming game crambo with his peers. Some of his journal entries and letters from this period describe his amatory exploits. Thus, in 1767, in a letter to William Johnson Temple, he wrote, "I got myself quite intoxicated, went to a Bawdy-house and past a whole night in the arms of a Whore. She indeed was a fine strong spirited Girl, a Whore worthy of Boswell if Boswell must have a whore."[9] A few years earlier, he wrote that during a night with an actress named Louisa, "five times was I fairly lost in supreme rapture. Louisa was madly fond of me; she declared I was a prodigy and asked me if this was not extraordinary for human nature."[10] Though he sometimes used a condom for protection,[11] he contracted venereal disease at least seventeen times.[12] Boswell was a major supporter of the Corsican Republic. Following the island's invasion by France in 1768, Boswell attempted to raise public awareness and rally support for the Corsicans. He sent arms and money to the Corsican fighters, who were ultimately defeated at the Battle of Ponte Novu in 1769. Boswell attended the masquerade held at the Shakespeare Jubilee in Stratford-upon-Avon in September 1769 dressed as a Corsican Chief.[13] Boswell married his cousin, Margaret Montgomerie, in November 1769. She remained faithful to Boswell, despite his frequent liaisons with prostitutes, until her death from tuberculosis in 1789. After his infidelities, he would deliver tearful apologies to her and beg her forgiveness, before again promising her, and himself, that he would reform. James and Margaret had four sons and three daughters. Two sons died in infancy; the other two were Alexander (1775–1822) and James (1778–1822). Their daughters were Veronica (1773–1795), Euphemia (1774 – c. 1834) and Elizabeth, known as 'Betsy', (1780–1814). Boswell also had at least two extramarital children, Charles (1762–1764) and Sally (1767 – c. 1768). A commemorative plaque to Boswell at his former home at James Court, Lawnmarket, Edinburgh. Despite his relative literary success with accounts of his European travels, Boswell was only a moderately successful advocate, with the exception of the copyright infringement case of Donaldson v Beckett, where Boswell represented the Scottish bookseller Alexander Donaldson. By the late 1770s, Boswell descended further and further into alcoholism and gambling addiction. Throughout his life, from childhood until death, he was beset by severe swings of mood. His depressions frequently encouraged and were exacerbated by his various vices. His happier periods usually saw him relatively vice-free. His character mixed a superficial Enlightenment sensibility for reason and taste with a genuine and somewhat romantic love of the sublime and a propensity for occasionally puerile whimsy. The latter, along with his tendency for drink and other vices, caused many contemporaries and later observers to regard him as being too lightweight to be an equal in the literary crowd that he wanted to be a part of. However, his humour and innocent good nature won him many lifelong friends. In 1773 Boswell bought the house of David Hume (who moved to a new house on South St David Street/St Andrew Square) on the south east corner of James Court.[14][15] He lived there until 1786.[16] Boswell's residency at James Court has been well established, but not the exact location. For example, a later edition of Traditions of Edinburgh by Robert Chambers suggests that Boswell's residence at James Court was actually in the Western wing. His James Court flat was notable for having two levels, and although a modern renovation in the Eastern section reveals such a possibility, it is likely that Boswell's residence was a similarly equipped one in the Western section that no longer exists, having burned down in the mid 1800s. Boswell was a frequent guest of Lord Monboddo at Monboddo House, a setting where he gathered significant observations for his writings by association with Samuel Johnson, Lord Kames and other luminaries. After Johnson's death in 1784, Boswell moved to London to try his luck at the English Bar, which proved even less successful than his career in Scotland. In 1792 Boswell lobbied the Home Secretary to help gain royal pardons for four Botany Bay escapees, including Mary Bryant. He also offered to stand for Parliament but failed to get the necessary support, and he spent the final years of his life writing his Life of Samuel Johnson. During this time his health began to fail due to venereal disease and his years of drinking. Boswell died in London in 1795. Close to the end of his life he became strongly convinced that the "Shakespeare papers", including two previously unknown plays Vortigern and Rowena and Henry II, allegedly discovered by William Henry Ireland, were genuine. After Boswell's death they proved to be forgeries created by Ireland himself.[17] Boswell's remains were interred in the crypt of the Boswell family mausoleum in what is now the old Auchinleck Kirkyard in Ayrshire. The mausoleum is attached to the old Auchinleck Kirk. Life of Samuel Johnson[edit] Main article: Life of Samuel Johnson A literary party at Sir Joshua Reynolds' – 1781. The painting shows the friends of Reynolds including Boswell at left. When the Life of Samuel Johnson was published in 1791 it at once commanded the admiration that Boswell had sought for so long, and it has since suffered no diminution. Its style was unique in that, unlike other biographies of that era, it directly incorporated conversations that Boswell had noted down at the time for his journals. He also included far more personal and human details than those to which contemporary readers were accustomed. Instead of writing a respectful and dry record of Johnson's public life in the style of the time, he painted a vivid portrait of the complete man, brought to life through a "dramatic" style of dialogue. It has often been described as the greatest biography ever written. Macaulay and Carlyle, among others, have attempted to explain how a man such as Boswell could have produced so remarkable a work as the Life of Johnson. The former argued that Boswell's uninhibited folly and candour were his greatest qualifications; the latter replied that beneath such traits was a mind to discern excellence and a heart to appreciate it, aided by the power of accurate observation and considerable dramatic ability.[18] Slavery[edit] Boswell was present at the meeting of the Committee for the Abolition of the Slave Trade in May 1787 set up to persuade William Wilberforce to lead the abolition movement in Parliament. However, the abolitionist Thomas Clarkson records that by 1788 Boswell "after having supported the cause ... became inimical to it".[19] Boswell's most prominent display of support for slavery was his 1791 poem "No Abolition of Slavery; or the Universal Empire of Love", which lampooned Clarkson, Wilberforce and Pitt. The poem also supports the common suggestion of the pro-slavery movement, that the slaves actually enjoyed their lot: "The cheerful gang! – the negroes see / Perform the task of industry." Discovery of papers[edit] In the 1920s a great part of Boswell's private papers, including intimate journals for much of his life, were discovered at Malahide Castle, north of Dublin. These provide a hugely revealing insight into the life and thoughts of the man. They were sold to the American collector Ralph H. Isham and have since passed to Yale University, which has published popular and scholarly editions of his journals and correspondence. A second cache was discovered soon after and also purchased by Isham. A substantially longer edition of The Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides was published in 1936 based on his original manuscript, edited by L. F. Powell. His London Journal 1762–63, the first of the Yale journal publications, appeared in 1950. The last popular edition, The Great Biographer, 1789–1795, was published in 1989. Publication of the research edition of Boswell's journals and letters, each including never before published material, is ongoing. These detailed and frank journals include voluminous notes on the Grand Tour of Europe that he took as a young man and, subsequently, of his tour of Scotland with Johnson. His journals also record meetings and conversations with eminent individuals belonging to The Club, including Lord Monboddo, David Garrick, Edmund Burke, Joshua Reynolds and Oliver Goldsmith. It is since the discovery of these journals that Boswell has become recognized as a major literary artist. His openness to every nuance of feeling, his delicacy in capturing fugitive sentiments and revealing gestures, his comic self-regard and (at times) self-contempt. Boswell was willing to express what other authors of the time repressed.[20] Freemasonry[edit] Boswell was initiated into Freemasonry in Lodge Canongate Kilwinning on 14 August 1759. He subsequently became Master of that Lodge in 1773 and in that year was Senior Grand Warden of the Grand Lodge of Scotland. From 1776 to 1777 he was the Depute Grand Master of that Grand Lodge.[21][22] In fiction and popular culture[edit] Boswell's surname has passed into the English language as a term (Boswell, Boswellian, Boswellism) for a constant companion and observer, especially one who records those observations in print. In "A Scandal in Bohemia", Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's character Sherlock Holmes affectionately says of Dr. Watson, who narrates the tales, "I am lost without my Boswell."[23] The comedy Young Auchinleck (1962) by Scottish playwright Robert McLellan depicts Boswell's various courtships and troubled relations with his father in the period after his return to Scotland in 1766, culminating in his eventual marriage to his cousin Margaret Montgomery (Peggy) in 1769 on the same day as his father's second marriage in a different part of the country. The play was first produced at the Edinburgh International Festival in 1962 and adapted for BBC Television in 1965. Boswell was played by John Sessions in Boswell & Johnson's Tour of the Western Isles a 1993 BBC 2 play[24] In February and March 2015, BBC Radio 4 broadcast three episodes of "Boswell's Lives", writer Jon Canter's comedic take on Boswell meeting later historical figures (Sigmund Freud, Maria Callas and Harold Pinter, respectively) for the purposes of biographing them.[25] Boswell was played by Miles Jupp. American novelist Philip Baruth wrote a fictional account of James Boswell's early life in The Brothers Boswell (Soho Press 2009). The novel, which includes scenes that feature Samuel Johnson, is a thriller that focuses on the tense relationship between James and his younger brother John. On 14 November 2020, New York Times columnist Maureen Dowd called reporter Maggie Haberman "Trump's Boswell", referring to Ms. Habermans tenacious and in depth reporting of Donald Trumps presidential years.[26] Major works[edit] The Cub at Newmarket[27] (1762, published by James Dodsley) Letters Between the Honourable Andrew Erskine, and James Boswell, Esq. (1763) Dorando, a Spanish Tale (1767, anonymously) Account of Corsica, The Journal of a Tour to That Island, and Memoirs of Pascal Paoli (1768) Account of Corsica, 1768 "The Rampager" (1770–82, a series of 20 essays published sporadically in the Public Advertiser)[28] The Hypochondriack (1777–83, a series of 70 essays published monthly in the London Magazine) The Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides with Samuel Johnson, LL.D (1785) The Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D 2 vols. (1791, reprinted in Everyman's Library) No Abolition of Slavery (1791) (poem) Published journals[edit] After Boswell's private papers were recovered, and brought together by Ralph Isham, they were acquired by Yale University, where a dedicated office was established to edit and publish his journals and correspondence. The journals have been published in 13 volumes, as follows. Boswell's London Journal, 1762–1763, ed. F. A. Pottle (1950) Boswell in Holland, 1763–1764, including his correspondence with Belle de Zuylen (Zelide), ed. F. A. Pottle (1952) Boswell on the Grand Tour: Germany and Switzerland, 1764, ed. F. A. Pottle (1953) Boswell on the Grand Tour: Italy, Corsica, and France, 1765–1766, ed. Frank Brady and F. A. Pottle (1955) Boswell in Search of a Wife, 1766–1769, ed. Frank Brady and F. A. Pottle (1957) Boswell for the Defence, 1769–1774, ed. W. A. Wimsatt and F. A. Pottle (1960) Boswell: the Ominous Years, 1774–1776, ed. Charles Ryskamp and F. A. Pottle (1963) Boswell in Extremes, 1776–1778, ed. C. McC. Weis and F. A. Pottle (1970) Boswell, Laird of Auchinleck, 1778–1782, ed. J. W. Reed and F. A. Pottle (1977) Boswell: The Applause of the Jury, 1782–1785, ed. I. S. Lustig and F. A. Pottle (1981) Boswell: The English Experiment, 1785–1789, ed. I. S. Lustig and F. A. Pottle (1986) Boswell: The Great Biographer, 1789–1795, ed. Marlies K. Danziger and Frank Brady (1989) References[edit] Notes ^ a b c Here "N.S." (New Style) means the date is given in the Gregorian calendar, for consistency with the remainder of the article, even though Scotland used the Julian calendar until 1752. ^ Root, Douglas (2014). "Two 'Most Un-Clubbable Men': Samuel Johnson, Benjamin Franklin, and Their Social Circles". In Baird, Ileana (ed.). Social Networks in the Long Eighteenth Century: Clubs, Literary Salons, Textual Coteries. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars. p. 256. ISBN 978-1443866781. Retrieved 30 July 2017. ^ Rollyson, Carl, ed. (2005). British Biography: A Reader. New York: iUniverse. p. 77. ISBN 0595364098. Retrieved 30 July 2017. ^ Kay Redfield Jamison. Touched with Fire: Manic-Depressive Illness and the Artistic Temperament. Free Press,1996. ISBN 978-0684831831 ^ Price, Martin, 1920–2010 (1973). The restoration and the eighteenth century. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 498. ISBN 0-19-501614-9. OCLC 2341106.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ James Boswell Life of Samuel Johnson, [1992] Everyman ed, p247 ^ Correspondence of James Boswell and William Johnson Temple, Edinburgh 1997, page 140 footnote 4 [1] ^ Grants Old and New Edinburgh vol1, p. 97 ^ Boswell, James; Temple, William Johnston (1997). Boswell Correspondence, letter of 26 June 1767. ISBN 9780748607587. Retrieved 2 May 2011. ^ MacCubbin, Robert Purks (1987). Tis Nature's Fault: Unauthorized Sexuality during the Enlightenment by R.P.Macubbin, page 64. ISBN 9780521347686. Retrieved 2 May 2011. ^ Spacks, Patricia Meyer (June 2003). Privacy: concealing the eighteenth-century self by P Spacks page 141. ISBN 9780226768601. Retrieved 2 May 2011. ^ Greaves, Richard L. (2002). Glimpses of Glory by R. L Greaves page 381. ISBN 9780804745307. Retrieved 2 May 2011. ^ Pierce pp. 9–10 ^ Williamsons Edinburgh Street Directory 1773 ^ Edinburgh and District: Ward Lock Travel Guide 1930 ^ Plaque to Boswell on James Court ^ Pierce pp. 92–93 ^ "A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature by John W. Cousin – Full Text Free Book (Part 2/13)". Fullbooks.com. Retrieved 2 May 2011. ^ Clarkson, Thomas (1836). The History of the Rise, Progress, and Accomplishment of the Abolition of the African Slave-trade, by the British Parliament. 1. John S. Taylor. p. 194. ^ Price, Martin, 1920–2010 (1973). The restoration and the eighteenth century. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-501614-9. OCLC 2341106.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ History of Lodge Canongate Kilwinning, No. 2. Compiled from the Records, 1677–1888. p. 238. By Allan MacKenzie. Edinburgh. Published 1888. ^ "Famous Freemasons". Lodge St. Patrick No.468 Irish Constitution in New Zealand. Archived from the original on 8 February 2013. Retrieved 13 November 2018. ^ Conan Doyle, Sir Arthur (18 April 2011). "A Scandal in Bohemia". The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes. Project Gutenberg. Retrieved 17 February 2014. ^ https://genome.ch.bbc.co.uk/3599c536d45f4586bd0c59716be19102 ^ "BBC Radio 4 – Boswell's Lives, Series 1 – Episode guide". BBC. ^ https://www.nytimes.com/2020/11/14/opinion/donald-trump-defeat.html ^ BOSWELL, JAMES. (2018). CUB, AT NEWMARKET : a tale. [Place of publication not identified]: GALE ECCO, PRINT EDITIONS. ISBN 978-1-379-83122-8. OCLC 1035466633. ^ Boswell, James, 1740–1795 (10 June 2014). Facts and inventions : selections from the journalism of James Boswell. Tankard, Paul. New Haven. pp. 108–221. ISBN 9780300141269. OCLC 861676836.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Sources Pierce, Patricia. The Great Shakespeare Fraud: The Strange, True Story of William-Henry Ireland. Sutton Publishing, 2005.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Cousin, John William (1910). "Boswell, James". A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature. London: J. M. Dent & Sons – via Wikisource. Further reading[edit] Boswell, James. Boswell's Book of Bad Verse (A Verse Self-Portrait) or 'Love Poems and Other Verses by James Boswell'. Edited with Notes by Jack Werner. London. White Lion, 1974. ISBN 0-85617-487-4. Boswell, James. Boswell's Column. Being his Seventy Contributions to The London Magazine under the pseudonym The Hypochondriack from 1777 to 1783 here First Printed in Book Form in England. Introduction and Notes by Margery Bailey. London. William Kimber, 1951. Boswell, James. Facts and Inventions: Selections from the Journalism of James Boswell. Edited by Paul Tankard. New Haven. Yale University Press, 2014. ISBN 978-0-300-14126-9 Boswell, James. The Journal of a Tour to Corsica; and Memoirs of Pascal Paoli. Edited, with an Introduction, by Morchard Bishop. London. Williams & Norgate, 1951. Boswell, James. Letters of James Boswell to the Rev. W. J. Temple. Introduction by Thomas Seccombe. London. Sidgwick & Jackson, 1908. Finlayson, Iain. The Moth and the Candle. A Life of James Boswell. London. Constable, 1984. ISBN 0-09-465540-5. McLaren, Moray: The Highland Jaunt. A Study of James Boswell and Samuel Johnson upon their Highland and Hebridean Tour of 1773. London. Jarrolds,1954. Mallory, George. Boswell the Biographer. London. Smith, Elder, 1912. Martin, Peter. "A Life of James Boswell". London. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1999. Pottle, Frederick A. Boswell and the Girl from Botany Bay. London. Heinemann, 1938. Tinker, Chauncey Brewster. Young Boswell. Chapters on James Boswell the Biographer Based Largely on New Material. Boston. Atlantic Monthly, 1922. Uglow, Jenny, "Big Talkers" (review of Leo Damrosch, The Club: Johnson, Boswell, and the Friends Who Shaped an Age, Yale University Press, 473 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVI, no. 9 (23 May 2019), pp. 26–28. Wyndham Lewis, D.B. The Hooded Hawk or The Case of Mr. Boswell. London. Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1946. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: James Boswell Wikisource has original works written by or about: James Boswell James Boswell at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA) Works by James Boswell at Project Gutenberg Works by or about James Boswell at Internet Archive Works by James Boswell at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Essay on Johnson, Boswell and the Abolition of Slavery Blog on Boswell's London Journal Online catalogue (in progress) of James Boswell's library at LibraryThing James Boswell – a Guide James Boswell's "An Account of Corsica" – Full text and illustrations Young Boswell, by Chauncey Brewster Tinker, Boston: Atlantic monthly press, 1922, University of Michigan Library (Digital Collection) Boswell Book Festival celebrates the art of biography and memoir at Boswell's home, Auchinleck House, in Ayrshire, Scotland "Archival material relating to James Boswell". UK National Archives. Portraits of James Boswell at the National Portrait Gallery, London Portraits of James Boswell and Dr. Johnson at the Scottish National Portrait Gallery v t e Samuel Johnson Life and topics Birthplace, home, and museum Early life Health Edial Hall School Dr Johnson's House The Club Literary criticism Political views Religious views Samuel Johnson Prize People Francis Barber James Boswell David Garrick John Hawkins Arthur Murphy Elizabeth Johnson (wife) Henry Thrale Hester Thrale Anna Williams Hodge Essays and periodicals Birmingham Journal The Gentleman's Magazine The Idler The Rambler Biography and criticism Life of Mr Richard Savage Lives of the Poets Miscellaneous Observations on the Tragedy of Macbeth The Plays of William Shakespeare Proposals for an Edition of Shakespeare Preface to Shakespeare Miscellaneous prose A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland A Dictionary of the English Language Letter to Chesterfield Fiction and poetry Messiah translation London Irene The Vanity of Human Wishes The History of Rasselas, Prince of Abissinia Contemporary accounts James Boswell's Life of Samuel Johnson James Boswell's The Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides John Hawkins' Life of Samuel Johnson Arthur Murphy's Essay on the Life and Genius of Samuel Johnson Hester Thrale's Anecdotes of the Late Samuel Johnson Thraliana Thomas Tyer's A Biographical Sketch of Dr Samuel Johnson Authority control BNE: XX1210787 BNF: cb11893082f (data) CANTIC: a11253678 GND: 118513923 HDS: 041771 ISNI: 0000 0001 2136 3095 LCCN: n79018795 NDL: 00433939 NKC: skuk0000146 NLA: 35020553 NLI: 000610813 NTA: 068411170 SELIBR: 178795 SNAC: w6m32t04 SUDOC: 026741180 Trove: 794790 ULAN: 500274533 VcBA: 495/109596 VIAF: 64002337 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79018795 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Boswell&oldid=996462067" Categories: James Boswell 1740 births 1795 deaths Alumni of the University of Edinburgh Alumni of the University of Glasgow Members of The Club People from East Ayrshire Writers from Edinburgh Samuel Johnson People educated at James Mundell's School 18th-century biographers 18th-century Scottish writers Proslavery activists Scottish Freemasons Hidden categories: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata EngvarB from August 2013 Use dmy dates from October 2020 Wikipedia articles incorporating text from A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with HDS identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages العربية تۆرکجه Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Français Frysk Հայերեն Italiano עברית Қазақша Latina Magyar Македонски മലയാളം مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål پنجابی Polski Português Русский Scots Simple English Suomi Svenska اردو 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 26 December 2020, at 19:21 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-580	----	National and University Library in Zagreb - Wikipedia National and University Library in Zagreb From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from NSK (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search National library of Croatia and central library of the University of Zagreb This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (December 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This article may rely excessively on sources too closely associated with the subject, potentially preventing the article from being verifiable and neutral. Please help improve it by replacing them with more appropriate citations to reliable, independent, third-party sources. (August 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) National and University Library in Zagreb Nacionalna i sveučilišna knjižnica u Zagrebu National and University Library building Country Croatia Established 1607 (413 years ago) (1607) Location Zagreb Collection Size 3 million items Legal deposit Yes, since 1816 Access and use Population served 357,291 (2011) 718,850 online (2011) Members 19,360 Other information Director Dr Ivanka Stričević Website www.nsk.hr/en/ Map National and University Library in Zagreb (NSK) (Croatian: Nacionalna i sveučilišna knjižnica u Zagrebu, NSK; formerly Nacionalna i sveučilišna biblioteka u Zagrebu, NSB) is the national library of Croatia and central library of the University of Zagreb. The Library was established in 1607.[1] Its primary mission is the development and preservation of Croatian national written heritage. It holds around 3 million items. Since 1995 the NSK has been located in a purpose-built cubical building in central Zagreb. Contents 1 Services 2 The Library in numbers 2.1 Holdings 2.2 Premises 2.3 User facilities 2.4 User statistics (2018) 3 Tasks 4 Collections 4.1 Digital collections 4.2 Special collections 4.3 Reading rooms collections 5 Historical overview 6 References 7 External links Services[edit] Services provided include lending and reference services (bibliographic-reference and catalogue information, subject search, science citation index search); interlibrary loan; national bibliographic database; IT services (reprographic services, microfilming, digitization, use of computer equipment); and learning programmes for users. Exhibitions are mounted, and parts of the Library’s premises may be leased. The Library in numbers[edit] Holdings[edit] Library’s total holdings: approximately 3.5 million items New items acquired in 2018 through regular acquisition and legal deposit procedures: Croatian monographs: 14,192 items Croatian serial publications: 37,657 items Special book material: 733 items Non-book material: 963 items Music: 1,715 items Electronic resources: 550 items Premises[edit] Net floor area: 36,478 m2 Gross floor area: 44,432m2 Closed stacks: 110,000m of mobile shelving Open Access Reading Rooms: 12,900m of shelving User facilities[edit] 1,100 seats 64 seats in Special Collections Reading Rooms 8 audio booths 7 rooms for individual study 2 rooms for group study 10 study cubicles 100-seat conference room 150 seats in the late hours reading room (21.00 – 24.00) User statistics (2018)[edit] Registered users: 10,537 Active memberships: 15,056 Library visitors: 169,059 Visitors using late hours study services: 14,160 Online visits: 496,671 Unique online visitors: 247,688 Online pages visited: 2,118,307 Tasks[edit] Some of the principal tasks of the Library are: 1. the assembling and organizing of the Croatian national collection of library materials and the coordination of the acquisition of international scientific works at both the national and the University level, 2. the preservation and restoration of library materials in the context of the international Preservation and Conservation programme (PAC), 3. the promotion of Croatian printed and electronic publications, 4. the integration of the Library’s bibliographic activities and information services into international programmes, 5. the organization of the Library as the centre of the library system of the Republic of Croatia and the University of Zagreb, 6. scientific research in the field of library and information sciences, 7. publishing and various promotional activities and the organization of exhibitions. Collections[edit] Digital collections[edit] NSK Digital Collections (Croatian version only) Historical Newspapers Historical Journals Croatian Web Archive Croatian Digital Dissertations Repository Croatian Digital Theses Repository Sounds of the Past Special collections[edit] The Manuscripts and Old Books Collection The Collection assembles, preserves, processes and makes available the items from the richest Croatian collection of national manuscripts and old books, as well as the manuscripts and numerous rare and old books belonging to other cultures. The Manuscripts and Old Books Collection contains a vast legacy of manuscripts – correspondence including nearly 100,000 letters and 3,670 call numbers for individual manuscripts (1,720 in Croatian, 920 in Latin, 454 in German, 230 in Italian, etc.). The Collection also includes the photographic collection containing 865 items. In total the Collection contains 9,236 items (10,295 volumes).[2] The Print Collection Valuable drawings and prints have constituted a significant part of the holdings of the National and University Library in Zagreb since the foundation of the Library four hundred years ago, while the Print Collection, as a separate organizational unit of the Library, was established in 1919. Apart from being the oldest Croatian collection of this type, the Print Collection of the National and University Library in Zagreb is also the largest print collection in Croatia. In addition to the works by many great names of the Croatian visual arts, the holdings of the Collection include works by numerous leading world artists. The collection includes works by the 16th-century artist Andrija Medulić, architectural drawings by Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach from the 18th century, and many more modern Croatian artists.[3] The Map Collection The Collection assembles, preserves, processes and makes available all types of maps and atlases. Special attention is given to older and more valuable cartographic items, national cartographic materials and the control of legal deposit procedures. The members of the Collection supply users with information in the field of cartography and provide professional assistance for researchers and students in the preparation and writing of their papers, articles or theses. The Collection comprises nearly 42,000 maps, almost 1,500 atlases, and approximately 600 books in the accompanying reference library.[4] The Music Collection The Collection assembles, processes, archives and makes available sheet music, the rich legacy of Croatian composers as well as a large stock of sound recordings. All materials in the collection are available to the users of the National and University Library in Zagreb and they include nearly 17,000 printed music scores, 3,000 manuscript scores, 23,600 gramophone records, 5,700 cassettes, and 7,447 CDs.[5] Reading rooms collections[edit] Reference Collection LIS Collection Doctoral and Master’s Theses Collection Homeland War Book Collection Official Publications Collection Foreign Croatica Collection (Croatian version only) Historical overview[edit] In 1607 the Jesuit order established itself in Zagreb. In addition to founding a grammar school, the Jesuits founded a Jesuit College with an accompanying library. By 1645 the library was housed in a special hall, it had a librarian and rules were established regarding the preservation and lending of books. In 1669 the Jesuit College acquired the status of an Academy by the Charter of King Leopold I and became Academia Zagrabiensis. The library and its holdings were moved into an old building of the abandoned Dominican monastery in today’s 5 St. Catherine’s Square in the Old Town of Zagreb. The Jesuit order was disbanded in 1773. The College continued with its provisional activities until 1776, when the library became part of the Royal Zagreb Academy of Sciences (Regia Academia Zagrabiensis) as an academy of law, philosophy and theology. The following year the library received a bequest containing historical material from the clergyman Adam Baltazar Krčelić, with a stipulation that this material be made available to the wider public. As a result of legal deposit regulations introduced in 1816 bearing on the University of Pest, the library's national importance began to increase. Such legal deposit regulations were extended to the whole territory of Croatia and Slavonia in 1837. Antun Kukuljević, politician and the founder of the Croatian educational system, changed the name of the library to the Latin name, Nationalis Academica Bibliotheca, highlighting the dual nature of the library’s educational and national functions, which it has jointly developed since then and symbolically preserved in its name to this day. The Franz Josef I Royal University in Zagreb was founded in 1874, and the Academy library (Bibliotheca Regiae Academiae Zagrabiensis) became part of the University and changed its name to University Library, increasing its significance and role in higher education. In 1913 the library with its approximately 110,000 volumes moved from the building of the present-day Rector’s Office into an impressive Art Nouveau edifice located in 21 Marko Marulić Square, the first building built specifically for the purposes of the library. As it was designed to house 500,000 volumes, its premises soon become inadequate for the library’s 2,500,000 volumes – books, journals, newspapers and the particularly valuable items of the library’s special collections.[6] A new library building, the Pantheon of the Croatian Book, was commissioned: its foundation stone was laid in 1988 and the building opened on 28 May 1995 as part of the celebration of the fifth anniversary of Croatia’s independence. This modern edifice was designed by Croatian architects Velimir Neidhardt, Marijan Hržić, Zvonimir Krznarić and Davor Mance.[6] References[edit] ^ Aleksandar Stipčević (2007). The National and University Library in Zagreb 1607-2007: On the Occasion of the 400th Anniversary. National and University Library. ISBN 9789535000587. ^ "Manuscripts and Old Books Collection". National and University Library in Zagreb Web Site. Retrieved 2018-01-04. ^ "Print Collection". National and University Library in Zagreb Web Site. Retrieved 2018-01-04. ^ "Map Collection". National and University Library in Zagreb Web Site. Retrieved 2018-01-04. ^ "Music Collection". National and University Library in Zagreb Web Site. Retrieved 2018-01-04. ^ a b David H. Stam (8 January 2016). International Dictionary of Library Histories. Routledge. p. 457. ISBN 978-1-136-77785-1. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to National and University Library in Zagreb. Official website v t e Zagreb History Timeline Golden Bull of 1242 Gradec Kaptol Krvavi most 1880 earthquake 1895 Emperor Franz Joseph visit In World War II Train disaster Bombing of Banski dvori Murder of the Zec family Rocket attacks 1995–97 Zagreb crisis Assassination of Ivo Pukanić Kajzerica shooting 2020 earthquake 2020 shooting Mayors Districts Brezovica Črnomerec Donja Dubrava Donji grad Gornja Dubrava Gornji Grad–Medveščak Maksimir Novi Zagreb-istok Novi Zagreb-zapad Peščenica-Žitnjak Podsljeme Podsused-Vrapče Sesvete Stenjevec Trešnjevka-jug Trešnjevka-sjever Trnje Buildings and landmarks 1 Ilica Street Banski dvori Cibona Tower Esplanade Zagreb Hotel General Post Office Kallina House Lotrščak Tower Medvedgrad Meštrović Pavilion Mirogoj Cemetery National Home palace Nine Views Old City Hall Rudolf barracks Stone Gate Villa Rebar Zagrepčanka Sky Office Tower Adriatic Bridge Homeland Bridge HOTO Tower Eurotower Squares and streets Ban Jelačić Square British Square Croatian Nobles Square Dolac Market Eugen Kvaternik Square Ilica Street Krvavi Most Lenuci Horseshoe Nova Ves Oktogon Republic of Croatia Square Nikola Šubić Zrinski Square St. Mark's Square Tkalčićeva Street Square of the Victims of Fascism Parks, gardens and recreation Lenuci Horseshoe Nikola Šubić Zrinski Square Maksimir Park Botanical Garden Bundek Jarun Medvednica Zagreb Zoo Places of worship Zagreb Cathedral St. Mark's Church St. Catherine's Church Orthodox Cathedral Zagreb Mosque Zagreb Synagogue Evangelical Church Greek Catholic Co-cathedral Basilica of the Heart of Jesus Church of Saint Blaise Culture Croatian National Theatre Gavella Drama Theatre Vatroslav Lisinski Concert Hall National and University Library Zagreb Philharmonic Orchestra The Cravat Regiment Galleries and museums Archaeological Museum Art Pavilion Croatian History Museum Croatian Museum of Naïve Art Croatian Natural History Museum Croatian Railway Museum Ethnographic Museum Ferdinand Budicki Automobile Museum Glyptotheque Klovićevi Dvori Gallery Lauba Mimara Museum Modern Gallery Museum of Arts and Crafts Museum of Broken Relationships Museum of Contemporary Art Strossmayer Gallery Technical Museum Zagreb City Museum Education High schools in Zagreb Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts University of Zagreb Academies: Dramatic Art Fine Arts Music Faculties: Architecture Chemical Engineering Dental Medicine Economics and Business Electrical Engineering and Computing Geodesy Humanities and Social Sciences Medicine Science Teacher Education Sports venues Arena Zagreb Dom Sportova Dražen Petrović Basketball Hall Maksimir Stadium Kranjčevićeva Stadium ŠRC Sesvete Stadium NŠC Stjepan Spajić Stadium Transport Zagreb International Airport Zagreb Glavni kolodvor Zagreb Zapadni railway station Funicular Trams Commuter Rail Metro (proposed) Events Animafest Zagreb INmusic Festival Music Biennale Zagreb Zagreb Film Festival ZagrebDox Zagreb Fair Subversive Festival Sport events Golden Spin Hanžeković 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TLS • Trove • UKPARL • ULAN • US Congress • VcBA • VIAF • WorldCat Identities Authority control BNF: cb12106951f (data) GND: 127698-0 ISNI: 0000 0001 2253 8088 LCCN: n81056539 NKC: kn20020520004 SELIBR: 289017 SUDOC: 029443261 VIAF: 124024049 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n81056539 Coordinates: 45°47′48″N 15°58′39″E / 45.79667°N 15.97750°E / 45.79667; 15.97750 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=National_and_University_Library_in_Zagreb&oldid=991101458" Categories: 1607 establishments in Europe Academic libraries in Croatia Buildings and structures in Zagreb Culture in Zagreb Library buildings completed in 1995 National libraries Public libraries University of Zagreb Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles lacking in-text citations from December 2017 All articles lacking in-text citations Articles lacking reliable references from August 2015 All articles lacking reliable references Articles with multiple 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Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Беларуская Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Italiano עברית مصرى Bahasa Melayu Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 28 November 2020, at 07:38 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5832	----	Muses - Wikipedia Muses From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Muse) Jump to navigation Jump to search Inspirational goddesses of literature, science, and the arts "Muse" redirects here. For the English rock band, see Muse (band). For other uses, see Muse (disambiguation). Muse, perhaps Clio, reading a scroll (Attic red-figure lekythos, Boeotia, c. 430 BC) In ancient Greek religion and mythology, the Muses (Ancient Greek: Μοῦσαι, romanized: Moûsai, Greek: Μούσες, romanized: Múses) are the inspirational goddesses of literature, science, and the arts. They were considered the source of the knowledge embodied in the poetry, lyric songs, and myths that were related orally for centuries in ancient Greek culture. The word "muse" can refer in general to anyone or anything which inspires an artist, musician, or writer.[1] Contents 1 Etymology 2 Number and names 3 Mythology 3.1 Children 4 Cult 5 Emblems 6 Functions 6.1 In society 6.2 In literature 6.3 In cults and modern museums 6.4 In modern art, film, literature 6.5 Places named after the Muses 7 Gallery 8 See also 9 References 9.1 Bibliography 10 External links Etymology[edit] Print of Clio, made in the 16th-17th century. Preserved in the Ghent University Library.[2] The word "Muses" (Ancient Greek: Μοῦσαι, romanized: Moûsai) perhaps came from the o-grade of the Proto-Indo-European root *men- (the basic meaning of which is "put in mind" in verb formations with transitive function and "have in mind" in those with intransitive function),[3] or from root *men- ("to tower, mountain") since all the most important cult-centres of the Muses were on mountains or hills.[4] R. S. P. Beekes rejects the latter etymology and suggests that a Pre-Greek origin is also possible.[5] Number and names[edit] Gustave Moreau: Hesiod and the Muse (1891)—Musée d'Orsay, Paris The earliest known records of the Nine Muses are from Boeotia, the homeland of Hesiod. Some ancient authorities thought that the Nine Muses were of Thracian origin.[6] There, a tradition persisted that the Muses had once been three in number.[7] In the first century BC, Diodorus Siculus cited Homer and Hesiod to the contrary, observing: Writers similarly disagree also concerning the number of the Muses; for some say that there are three, and others that there are nine, but the number nine has prevailed since it rests upon the authority of the most distinguished men, such as Homer and Hesiod and others like them.[8] Diodorus states (Book I.18) that Osiris first recruited the nine Muses, along with the satyrs, while passing through Aethiopia, before embarking on a tour of all Asia and Europe, teaching the arts of cultivation wherever he went. According to Hesiod's account (c. 600 BC), generally followed by the writers of antiquity, the Nine Muses were the nine daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne (i.e., "Memory" personified), figuring as personifications of knowledge and the arts, especially poetry, literature, dance and music. The Roman scholar Varro (116–27 BC) relates that there are only three Muses: one born from the movement of water, another who makes sound by striking the air, and a third who is embodied only in the human voice. They were called Melete or "Practice", Mneme or "Memory" and Aoide or "Song". Three ancient Muses were also reported in Plutarch's (46–120 AD) Quaestiones Convivales[9] (9.I4.2–4).[10] However, the classical understanding of the Muses tripled their triad and established a set of nine goddesses, who embody the arts and inspire creation with their graces through remembered and improvised song and mime, writing, traditional music, and dance. It was not until Hellenistic times that the following systematic set of functions was assigned to them, and even then there was some variation in both their names and their attributes: Calliope (epic poetry), Clio (history), Euterpe (flutes and lyric poetry), Thalia (comedy and pastoral poetry), Melpomene (tragedy), Terpsichore (dance), Erato (love poetry), Polyhymnia (sacred poetry), and Urania (astronomy). The nine Muses on a Roman sarcophagus (second century AD)—Louvre, Paris According to Pausanias in the later second century AD,[11] there were originally three Muses, worshipped on Mount Helicon in Boeotia: Aoide ("song" or "tune"), Melete ("practice" or "occasion"), and Mneme ("memory").[12] Together, these three form the complete picture of the preconditions of poetic art in cult practice. In Delphi three Muses were worshiped as well, but with other names: Nete, Mese, and Hypate, which are assigned as the names of the three chords of the ancient musical instrument, the lyre.[13] Alternatively, later they were called Cephisso, Apollonis, and Borysthenis, names which characterize them as daughters of Apollo.[14] In a later tradition, a set of four Muses were recognized: Thelxinoë, Aoide, Archē, and Melete, said to be daughters of Zeus and Plusia or of Ouranos.[15] Apollo and the Muses on Mount Parnassus, c. 1650, by Johann Christoph Storer. Held at National Gallery of Art One of the people frequently associated with the Muses was Pierus. By some he was called the father (by a Pimpleian nymph, called Antiope by Cicero) of a total of seven Muses, called Neilṓ (Νειλώ), Tritṓnē (Τριτώνη), Asōpṓ (Ἀσωπώ), Heptápora (Ἑπτάπορα), Achelōís, Tipoplṓ (Τιποπλώ), and Rhodía (Ῥοδία).[16][17] Mythology[edit] Thalia, Muse of comedy, holding a comic mask (detail from the "Muses Sarcophagus") Apollo and the Muses on Mount Helicon (1680) by Claude Lorrain According to Hesiod's Theogony (seventh century BC), they were daughters of Zeus, king of the gods, and Mnemosyne, Titan goddess of memory. Hesiod in Theogony narrates that the Muses brought to people forgetfulness, that is, the forgetfulness of pain and the cessation of obligations.[18] For Alcman and Mimnermus, they were even more primordial, springing from the early deities Ouranos and Gaia. Gaia is Mother Earth, an early mother goddess who was worshipped at Delphi from prehistoric times, long before the site was rededicated to Apollo, possibly indicating a transfer to association with him after that time. Sometimes the Muses are referred to as water nymphs, associated with the springs of Helicon and with Pieris. It was said that the winged horse Pegasus touched his hooves to the ground on Helicon, causing four sacred springs to burst forth, from which the Muses, also known as pegasides, were born.[19][20] Athena later tamed the horse and presented him to the Muses (compare the Roman inspiring nymphs of springs, the Camenae, the Völva of Norse Mythology and also the apsaras in the mythology of classical India). Classical writers set Apollo as their leader, Apollon Mousagetēs ("Apollo Muse-leader").[21] In one myth, the Muses judged a contest between Apollo and Marsyas. They also gathered the pieces of the dead body of Orpheus, son of Calliope, and buried them in Leivithra. In a later myth, Thamyris challenged them to a singing contest. They won and punished Thamyris by blinding him and robbing him of his singing ability. According to a myth from Ovid's Metamorphoses—alluding to the connection of Pieria with the Muses—Pierus, king of Macedon, had nine daughters he named after the nine Muses, believing that their skills were a great match to the Muses. He thus challenged the Muses to a match, resulting in his daughters, the Pierides, being turned into chattering jays (with κίσσα often erroneously translated as magpies) for their presumption.[22] Pausanias records a tradition of two generations of Muses; the first are the daughters of Ouranos and Gaia, the second of Zeus and Mnemosyne. Another, rarer genealogy is that they are daughters of Harmonia (the daughter of Aphrodite and Ares), which contradicts the myth in which they were dancing at the wedding of Harmonia and Cadmus. Children[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Calliope had Ialemus and Orpheus with Apollo. But according to a variation, the father of Orpheus was actually Oeagrus, but Apollo adopted the boy and taught him the skill of lyre. Calliope trained him in singing. Linus was said[by whom?] to have been the son of Apollo and one of the Muses, either Calliope or Terpsichore or Urania. Rhesus was the son of Strymon and Calliope or Euterpe. The sirens were the children of Achelous and Melpomene or Terpsichore. Kleopheme was the daughter of Erato and Malos. Hyacinthus was the son of Clio, according to an unpopular account. Hymenaeus was assigned as Apollo's son by one of the muses, either Calliope, or Clio, or Terpsichore, or Urania. Corybantes were the children of Thalia and Apollo. Cult[edit] The Muses had several temples and shrines in ancient Greece, their two main cult centres being Mount Helikon in Boiotia and Pieria in Makedonia. Strabo wrote: "Helikon, not far distant from Parnassos, rivals it both in height and in circuit; for both are rocky and covered with snow, and their circuit comprises no large extent of territory. Here are the temple of the Mousai and Hippukrene and the cave of the Nymphai called the Leibethrides; and from this fact one might infer that those who consecrated Helikon to the Mousai were Thrakians, the same who dedicated Pieris and Leibethron and Pimpleia [in Pieria] to the same goddesses. The Thrakians used to be called Pieres, but, now that they have disappeared, the Makedonians hold these places."[23] The cult of the Muses was also commonly connected to that of Apollo. Emblems[edit] Polyhymnia, the Muse of sacred poetry, sacred hymn and eloquence as well as agriculture and pantomime. Muse Domain Emblem Calliope Epic poetry Writing tablet, Stylus, Lyre Clio History Scrolls, Books, Cornett, Laurel wreath Erato Love poetry Cithara (an ancient Greek musical instrument in the lyre family) Euterpe Music, Song, and Lyric poetry Aulos (an ancient Greek musical instrument like a flute), panpipes, laurel wreath Melpomene Tragedy Tragic mask, Sword (or any kind of blade), Club, Kothornos (boots) Polyhymnia Hymns Veil, Grapes (referring to her as an agricultural goddess) Terpsichore Dance Lyre, Plectrum Thalia Comedy Comic mask, Shepherd's crook (the vaudeville act of pulling someone off the stage with a hook is a reference to Thalia's crook), Ivy wreath Urania Astronomy (Christian poetry in later times) Globe and compass Some Greek writers give the names of the nine Muses as Kallichore, Helike, Eunike, Thelxinoë, Terpsichore, Euterpe, Eukelade, Dia, and Enope.[24] In Renaissance and Neoclassical art, the dissemination of emblem books such as Cesare Ripa's Iconologia (1593 and many further editions) helped standardize the depiction of the Muses in sculpture and painting, so they could be distinguished by certain props. These props, or emblems, became readily identifiable by the viewer, enabling one immediately to recognize the Muse and the art with which she had become associated. Here again, Calliope (epic poetry) carries a writing tablet; Clio (history) carries a scroll and books; Euterpe (song and elegiac poetry) carries a flute, the aulos; Erato (lyric poetry) is often seen with a lyre and a crown of roses; Melpomene (tragedy) is often seen with a tragic mask; Polyhymnia (sacred poetry) is often seen with a pensive expression; Terpsichore (choral dance and song) is often seen dancing and carrying a lyre; Thalia (comedy) is often seen with a comic mask; and Urania (astronomy) carries a pair of compasses and the celestial globe. Functions[edit] In society[edit] The Muses Clio, Euterpe, and Thalia, by Eustache Le Sueur, c. 1652-1655 The Greek word mousa is a common noun as well as a type of goddess: it literally means "art" or "poetry". According to Pindar, to "carry a mousa" is "to excel in the arts". The word derives from the Indo-European root men-, which is also the source of Greek Mnemosyne and mania, English "mind", "mental" and "monitor", Sanskrit mantra and Avestan Mazda.[25] The Muses Melpomene, Erato, and Polyhymnia, by Eustache Le Sueur, c. 1652-1655 The Muses, therefore, were both the embodiments and sponsors of performed metrical speech: mousike (whence the English term "music") was just "one of the arts of the Muses". Others included Science, Geography, Mathematics, Philosophy, and especially Art, Drama, and inspiration. In the archaic period, before the widespread availability of books (scrolls), this included nearly all of learning. The first Greek book on astronomy, by Thales, took the form of dactylic hexameters, as did many works of pre-Socratic philosophy. Both Plato and the Pythagoreans explicitly included philosophy as a sub-species of mousike.[26] The Histories of Herodotus, whose primary medium of delivery was public recitation, were divided by Alexandrian editors into nine books, named after the nine Muses. For poet and "law-giver" Solon,[27] the Muses were "the key to the good life"; since they brought both prosperity and friendship. Solon sought to perpetuate his political reforms by establishing recitations of his poetry—complete with invocations to his practical-minded Muses—by Athenian boys at festivals each year. He believed that the Muses would help inspire people to do their best. In literature[edit] Melpomene and Polyhymnia, Palacio de Bellas Artes, Mexico Ancient authors and their imitators invoke Muses when writing poetry, hymns or epic history. The invocation occurs near the beginning of their work. It asks for help or inspiration from the Muses, or simply invites the Muse to sing directly through the author. Originally, the invocation of the Muse was an indication that the speaker was working inside the poetic tradition, according to the established formulas. For example: Sing to me of the man, Muse, the man of twists and turns driven time and again off course, once he had plundered the hallowed heights of Troy. —Homer, in Book I of The Odyssey (Robert Fagles translation, 1996) O Muse! the causes and the crimes relate; What goddess was provok'd, and whence her hate; For what offense the Queen of Heav'n began To persecute so brave, so just a man; [...] —Virgil, in Book I of the Aeneid (John Dryden translation, 1697) Besides Homer and Virgil, other famous works that included an invocation of the Muse are the first of the carmina by Catullus, Ovid's Metamorphoses and Amores, Dante's Inferno (Canto II), Chaucer's Troilus and Criseyde (Book II), Shakespeare's Henry V (Act 1, Prologue), his 38th sonnet, and Milton's Paradise Lost (openings of Books 1 and 7). In cults and modern museums[edit] The Car of History, a chariot clock by Carlo Franzoni, 1819, depicting Clio (housed in the National Statuary Hall Collection of the United States Capitol) When Pythagoras arrived at Croton, his first advice to the Crotoniates was to build a shrine to the Muses at the center of the city, to promote civic harmony and learning. Local cults of the Muses often became associated with springs or with fountains. The Muses themselves were sometimes called Aganippids because of their association with a fountain called Aganippe. Other fountains, Hippocrene and Pirene, were also important locations associated with the Muses. Some sources occasionally referred to the Muses as "Corycides" (or "Corycian nymphs") after a cave on Mount Parnassos, called the Corycian Cave. Pausanias referred to the Muses by the surnames "Ardalides" or "Ardaliotides", because of a sanctuary to them at Troezen said to have been built by the mythical Ardalus. The Muses were venerated especially in Boeotia, in the Valley of the Muses near Helicon, and in Delphi and the Parnassus, where Apollo became known as Mousagetes ("Muse-leader") after the sites were rededicated to his cult. Often Muse-worship was associated with the hero-cults of poets: the tombs of Archilochus on Thasos and of Hesiod and Thamyris in Boeotia all played host to festivals in which poetic recitations accompanied sacrifices to the Muses. The Library of Alexandria and its circle of scholars formed around a mousaion (i.e., "museum" or shrine of the Muses) close to the tomb of Alexander the Great. Many Enlightenment figures sought to re-establish a "Cult of the Muses" in the 18th century. A famous Masonic lodge in pre-Revolutionary Paris was called Les Neuf Soeurs ("The Nine Sisters", that is, the Nine Muses); Voltaire, Benjamin Franklin, Danton, and other influential Enlightenment figures attended it. As a side-effect of this movement the word "museum" (originally, "cult place of the Muses") came to refer to a place for the public display of knowledge. In modern art, film, literature[edit] The Muses are explicitly used in modern English to refer to an artistic inspiration, as when one cites one's own artistic muse, and also implicit in words and phrases such as "amuse", "museum" (Latinised from mouseion—a place where the Muses were worshipped), "music", and "musing upon".[28] In current literature, the influential role that the Muse plays has been extended to the political sphere.[29] Places named after the Muses[edit] In New Orleans, Louisiana, there are streets named for all nine Muses. It is commonly held that the local pronunciation of the names has been colorfully anglicized in an unusual manner by the "Yat" dialect. The pronunciations are actually in line with the French, Spanish and Creole roots of the city.[30] Gallery[edit] Terpsichore Erato Clio Thalia Polyhymnia Calliope Apollo and the Muses Euterpe Parnassus Urania and Melpomene See also[edit] Apsara Artistic inspiration Divine inspiration Leibethra Pimpleia Saraswati Muses in popular culture References[edit] ^ "muse". The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Retrieved February 15, 2009. ^ "Clio". lib.ugent.be. Retrieved 2020-09-28. ^ West 2007, p. 34. ^ * A. B. Cook (1914), Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion, Vol. I, p. 104, Cambridge University Press. ^ R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. 972. ^ H. Munro Chadwick, Nora K. Chadwick (2010). "The Growth of Literature". Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781108016155. ^ At least, this was reported to Pausanias in the second century AD. Cfr. Karl Kerényi: The Gods of the Greeks, Thames & Hudson, London 1951, p. 104 and note 284. ^ Diodorus Siculus, 4.7.1–2 (on-line text) ^ See also the Italian article on this writer. ^ Diodorus, Plutarch and Pausanias are all noted by Susan Scheinberg, in reporting other Hellenic maiden triads, in "The Bee Maidens of the Homeric Hymn to Hermes", Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, 83 (1979:1–28), p. 2. ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 9.29.1. ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 9.39.3 ^ Plutarch Symposium 9.14 ^ Eumelus fr. 35 as cited from Tzetzes on Hesiod, 23 ^ Cicero, De Natura Deorum 3.21, Epicharmis, Tzetzes on Hes. 23 ^ Epicharmis, Tzetzes on Hes. 23 ^ Smith, William; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873). "Musae" . ^ Collective work by scholars and expertise (1980). Επιστήμη & Ζωή (Printed Edition). Greece: CHATZIAKOVOU S.A. pp. Vol.13, p.151. ^ "Elysium Gates - Historical Pegasus". Archived from the original on 2009-06-16. Retrieved 2010-02-26. ^ Ovid, Heroides 15.27: "the daughters of Pegasus" in the English translation; Propertius, Poems 3.1.19: "Pegasid Muses" in the English translation. ^ For example, Plato, Laws 653d. ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses 5.677–78: "Now their previous eloquence also remained in the birds, as well as their strident chattering and their great zeal for speaking." See also Antoninus Liberalis 9. ^ Strabo, Geography 9. 2. 25 (trans. Jones) ^ Tzetzes, Scholia in Hesiodi Opera 1,23 ^ Calvert Watkins, ed., The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots, 3d ed., p. 56. ^ Strabo 10.3.10. ^ Solon, fragment 13. ^ OED derives "amuse" from French a- ("from") and muser, "to stare stupidly or distractedly". ^ Sorkin, Adam J. (1989) Politics and the Muse. Studies in the Politics of Recent American Literature. Bowling Green State University Popular Press, Bowling Green OH. ^ NOLA.com. "How to pronounce New Orleans Muses Streets" – via YouTube. Bibliography[edit] West, Martin L. (2007). Indo-European Poetry and Myth. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-928075-9. Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Muses, The" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 19 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 59–60. External links[edit] Wikisource has the text of The New Student's Reference Work article "Muses". Look up Muse#English or Muse in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Muses. 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en-wikipedia-org-5895	----	Roman siege engines - Wikipedia Roman siege engines From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Part of a series on the Military of ancient Rome 753 BC – AD 476 Structural history Army Unit types and ranks Decorations and punishments Legions Auxilia Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Campaign history Wars and battles Technological history Military engineering Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Political history   Strategy and tactics Infantry tactics Frontiers and fortifications Limes Limes Britannicus Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Limes Germanicus Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes Norican Limes Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannonian Limes Limes Alutanus Limes Moesiae Trajan's Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmatiae Limes Arabicus Limes Tripolitanus Limes Mauretaniae  Ancient Rome portal •  War portal v t e Roman siege engines were, for the most part, adapted from Hellenistic siege technology. Relatively small efforts were made to develop the technology; however, the Romans brought an unrelentingly aggressive style to siege warfare[1] that brought them repeated success. Up to the first century BC, the Romans utilized siege weapons only as required and relied for the most part on ladders, towers and rams to assault a fortified town. Ballistae were also employed, but held no permanent place within a legion's roster, until later in the republic, and were used sparingly. Julius Caesar took great interest in the integration of advanced siege engines, organizing their use for optimal battlefield efficiency.[2] Contents 1 Army engineering corps 2 Artillery 2.1 Ballista 2.1.1 Early Roman ballistae 2.1.2 First invasion of Britain 2.1.3 Siege of Alesia 2.2 Onager 2.3 Scorpio 3 Breaking the walls 3.1 Battering ram 3.2 Siege tower 3.3 Mine 3.4 Corvus 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References Army engineering corps[edit] Roman springald Main article: Roman military engineering To facilitate this organization and the army's self-sufficiency, an engineering corps was developed. An officer of engineers, or praefectus fabrum, is referenced in armies of the late republic, but this post is not verifiable in all accounts and may have simply been a military advisor on the personal staff of a commanding officer.[2] There were legion architects (whose rank is yet unknown) who were responsible for the construction of war machines who would also assure that all artillery constructions in the field were level. Ensuring that constructions were level was the job of the libratores, who would also launch missiles and other projectiles (on occasion) during battle (Le Bohec 1994: 52). The engineering corps was in charge of massive production, frequently prefabricating artillery and siege equipment to facilitate its transportation.[1] Artillery[edit] Roman siege engines Roman artillery was very efficient at that time, and during a siege the Romans would attack the weakest area of their enemy's defenses and attempt to breach the walls at that point. To support this effort, artillery fire would commence, with three main objectives:[3] to cause damage to defenses, casualties among the opposing army, and loss of enemy morale. It would also provide cover fire for troops building siege ramps or those in siege towers. There were machines called tormenta , which would launch (sometimes incendiary) projectiles such as javelins, arrows, rocks, or beams. These devices were on wheeled platforms to follow the line's advance. All were "predicated on a principle of physics: a lever was inserted into a skein of twisted horsehair to increase torsion, and when the arm was released, a considerable amount of energy was thus freed".[3] It was later stated that sinew, instead of twisted hair, provided a better “spring.” These weapons were high-maintenance devices and vulnerable to having their leather, sinew, or hemp skeins affected by wet or even damp, which would cause them to slacken and lose tension, rendering the engine useless.[4] It is somewhat difficult to clearly define and describe Roman artillery, as names are easily confused and historians still do not agree on all definitions. Perhaps best known are the ballista, the onager, and the scorpio. Ballista[edit] Main article: Ballista Roman arrow machine One talent ballista (26 kg weight projectile). The heaviest versions could shoot up to three talents (78 kg), possibly much more.[5] A ballista After the absorption of the ancient Greek city states into the Roman Republic in 146 BC, some advanced Greek technologies began to spread across many areas of Roman influence. This included the hugely advantageous military advances the Greeks had made (most notably by Dionysus of Syracuse), as well as all the scientific, mathematical, political and artistic developments. The Romans 'inherited' the torsion powered ballistae which had by now spread to several cities around the Mediterranean, all of which became Roman spoils of war in time, including one from Pergamum, which was depicted among a pile of 'trophy' weapons in relief on a balustrade. The torsion ballista, developed by Alexander, was a far more complicated weapon than its predecessor, and the Romans developed it even further. Vitruvius, in his De Architectura book X, describes the construction and tuning of ballistae. Every century (group of 60-100 men) in the Roman army had a ballista by the 1st century AD.[6] It was the command of the chief of the ballistae, under whom were the artillery experts, or doctores ballistarum and finally, the artillerymen, or ballistarii.[7] Ballistae were heavy missile weapons, hurling large rocks great distances to damage rampart walls. They resembled large crossbows, rather than catapults. They were powered by two horizontal like arms, which were inserted into two vertical and tightly wound "skein" springs contained in a rectangular frame structure making up the head or principal part of the weapon. The arms were drawn rearward with a winch lever to further twist the skeins and thus gain the torsion power to cast a projectile.[4] It has been said that the whirring sound of a ballista-fired stone struck fear and dread into the hearts of those inside the walls of besieged cities. The stones chosen to be used in the ballista had to be a particular sort. According to Vegetius, river stones were best, since they are round, smooth, and dense. Ballista stones found at the site of Masada were chiseled to make them as round as possible.[8] Early Roman ballistae[edit] Roman 'catapult-nest' on Trajan's Column Ballista The early Roman ballistae were made of wood, and held together with iron plates around the frames and iron nails in the stand. The main stand had a slider on the top, into which were loaded the bolts or stone 'shot'. Attached to this, at the back, was a pair of winches and a claw, used to ratchet the bowstring back to the armed firing position. A slider passed through the field frames of the weapon, in which were located the torsion springs (rope made of animal sinew), which were twisted around the bow arms, which in turn were attached to the bowstring. Drawing the bowstring back with the winches twisted the already taut springs, storing the energy to fire the projectiles. The ballista was a highly accurate weapon (there are many accounts right from its early history of single soldiers being picked off by the operators), but some design aspects meant it could compromise its accuracy for range. The lightweight bolts could not gain the high momentum of the stones over the same distance as those thrown by the later onagers, trebuchets, or mangonels; these could be as heavy as 90–135 kg (200-300 pounds). The Romans continued the development of the ballista, and it became a highly prized and valued weapon in the army of the Roman Empire. It was used, just before the start of the empire, by Julius Caesar during his conquest of Gaul and on both of his expeditions to Britain. Both attempted invasions of Britain and the siege of Alesia are recorded in his own commentarii (journal), The Gallic Wars (De Bello Gallico). First invasion of Britain[edit] The first invasion of Britain took place in 55 BC, after a rapid and successful initial conquest of Gaul, in part as an exploratory expedition, and more practically to try to put an end to the re-enforcements sent by the native Britons to fight the Romans in Gaul. A total of eighty transports, carrying two legions, attempted to land on the British shore, only to be driven back by the many British warriors assembled along the shoreline. The ships had to unload their troops on the beach, as it was the only one suitable for many kilometers, yet the massed ranks of British charioteers and javeliners were making it impossible. Seeing this, Caesar ordered the warships – which were swifter and easier to handle than the transports, and likely to impress the natives more by their unfamiliar appearance – to be removed a short distance from the others, and then be rowed hard and run ashore on the enemy’s right flank, from which position the slings, bows and artillery could be used by men on deck to drive them back. This manoeuvre was highly successful. Scared by the strange shape of the warships, the motion of the oars, and the unfamiliar machines, the natives halted and then retreated a little. (Caesar, The Conquest of Gaul, p. 99) Siege of Alesia[edit] In Gaul, the stronghold of Alesia was under a Roman siege in 52 BC, and surrounded by Roman fortifications. As was standard siege technique at the time, ballistae were placed up in the towers with other soldiers armed with either bows or slings. Onager[edit] Main article: Onager (siege weapon) Sketch of an Onager, from Antique technology by Diels The onager was a post-classical Roman siege engine, which derived its name from the kicking action of the machine, similar to that of an onager (wild ass). It is a type of catapult that uses torsional pressure, generally from twisted rope, to store energy for the shot. The onager consisted of a frame placed on the ground to whose front end a vertical frame of solid timber was rigidly fixed; through the vertical frame ran an axle, which had a single stout spoke. On the extremity of the spoke was a sling used to launch a projectile. In action the spoke was forced down, against the tension of twisted ropes or other springs, by a windlass, and then suddenly released. The spoke thus kicked the crosspiece of the vertical frame, and the projectile at its extreme end was shot forward. The onagers of the Roman Empire were mainly used for besieging forts or settlements. They would often be loaded with large stones or rocks that could be covered with a flammable substance and set alight. In the Middle Ages (recorded from around 1200 A.D.) a less powerful version of the onager was used that employed a fixed bowl rather than a sling, so that many small projectiles could be thrown, as opposed to a single large one. This engine was sometimes called the mangonel, although the same name may have been used for a variety of siege engines. Scorpio[edit] Main article: Scorpio (dart-thrower) Modern reconstruction of a Scorpio The scorpio was a crossbow-like device that fired smaller arrows with deadly accuracy[2] used both in the field and in sieges. They were so-named for their deadly, armor-piercing sting and could be operated by just one or two men. Scorpios were meant to kill and injure enemy troops, rather than break down enemy fortifications. Thanks to their smaller size, they could be mounted on or in siege towers. During the Siege of Amida, a scorpio-fired arrow killed the son of Grumbates, king of the Chionitae, when he was approaching the city to surrender.[9] There has been some research done into the existence of the self-loading, serial-fire scorpio or polybolos. Legionaries either side would continuously keep turning cranks which turned a chain, which operated the various mechanisms to load and fire the catapult. All that was needed was for another soldier to keep feeding in more arrows.[10] Breaking the walls[edit] Battering ram[edit] Main article: Battering ram Roman battering ram. A battering ram (aries) with a shed (testudo). After a relief on Septimius Severus' triumphal arc in Rome. Roman battering rams, or aries, were an effective weapon for breaking down an enemy's walls, as well as their morale. Under Roman law, any defenders who failed to surrender before the first ram touched their wall were denied any rights.[11] The moment they heard the ram hit the wall, those inside the city knew that the siege proper had begun and there was no turning back.[12] The remains of the Roman siege-ramp at Masada Josephus describes the battering ram used at Jotapata thus:[13] It is an immense beam, similar to a ship’s mast, with one end covered with iron shaped into a ram’s head; hence its name. It is suspended from another beam like a balance arm by cables around its middle, and this in turn is supported at both ends by posts fixed in the ground. It is drawn back by a huge number of men who then push it forward in unison with all their might so that it hits the wall with its iron head. There is no tower strong enough nor any wall thick enough to withstand repeated blows of this kind, and many cannot resist the first shock. Vitruvius in De Architectura Book X describes the construction and use of battering rams. For protection, a battering ram was suspended in a mobile shelter called a tortoise, or testudo. According to Vegetius, it was given this name because the ram would swing out of the shelter much like a tortoise's head comes out of its shell. Such shelters would provide the men within protection against missiles and incendiary devices. They were constructed from a framework of strong timbers with planks and wicker hurdles on the sides. The entire shelter would then be covered with a fireproof material such as uncured hides.[14] According to Apollodorus of Damascus, the shelter should be fixed to the ground while the ram was being used to both prevent skidding and strain on the axles from the weight of the moving apparatus. This would also increase the strength of the impact on the walls.[15] Siege tower[edit] Siege machine Main article: Siege towers According to Josephus, the Roman siege towers at Jotapata were 50 feet high and iron-plated to protect them from fire; those at Masada were reported to be 75 feet high. It was possible to have many different devices on siege towers, such as artillery, draw bridges and rams. Those at the top of the tower were to keep defenders off the walls while those below them attempted to breach the wall using ramps. In the battle of Jerusalem in 70 AD the Romans began assault on the third defensive wall within Jerusalem, the tower stood 75 ft tall and was compromised when the Jewish resistance tunneled underneath the tower leading it to collapse.[16] Following a basic design, details of tower construction varied from siege to siege and there is no known treatise which specifies at which level siege equipment should be placed. Vegetius noted that, “besiegers sometimes built a tower with another turret inside it that could suddenly be raised by ropes and pulleys to over-top the wall”.[17] Mine[edit] Mines could be dug under city walls as a means of entering a city secretly and capturing it but were more frequently constructed to weaken city walls. Once dug, sappers would underpin the walls with wood and cause the walls to collapse by firing the supports with resin, sulfur and other incendiary materials.[18] Corvus[edit] Main article: Corvus (boarding device) In chapter 1.22 "The Victory of Mylae" of his History, Polybius writes: "Now their ships were badly fitted out and not easy to manage, and so some one suggested to them as likely to serve their turn in a fight the construction of what were afterwards called "crows"".[19] Corvus means "crow" or "raven" in Latin and was the name given to a Roman boarding device first documented during the First Punic War against Carthage. Polybius goes on to describe this siege engine as a bridge used to span the distance between two ships in battle. The device was a plank, 4 ft wide and 36 ft long, affixed to the Roman vessel around a pole. This construction allowed the bridge to be swung port to starboard and therefore used on either side of the ship. A pulley at the top of the pole allowed the planks to be raised and lowered on command. At the end of the bridge there was a heavy metal spike that when dropped on the deck of an enemy ship would, with the aid of gravity, become imbedded in the deck. By connecting the two ships in such a way, Roman soldiers could gain access to the deck of the enemy ship and engage in a more hand to hand based combat styles instead of depending on naval combat styles. Polybius also includes an insight on how these siege engines would have practically functioned in battle: "And as soon as the "crows" were fixed in the planks of the decks and grappled the ships together, if the ships were alongside of each other, the men leaped on board anywhere along the side, but if they were prow to prow, they used the "crow" itself for boarding, and advanced over it two abreast. The first two protected their front by holding up before them their shields, while those who came after them secured their sides by placing the rims of their shields upon the top of the railing. Such were the preparations which they made; and having completed them they watched an opportunity of engaging at sea."[19] Based on this historical description the Corvus used some mechanisms seen in the more complex siege towers or the sheds constructed around battering rams. They protected, to an extent, the Roman soldiers as they gained entry to the enemy's space where they could engage in combat. See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal War portal Roman engineering Roman military personal equipment Vitruvius Notes[edit] ^ a b Goldsworthy 2000: 144 ^ a b c Keppie 1984: 99 ^ a b Le Bohec 1994: 138 ^ a b Catapulta at LegionXXIV ^ Werner Soedel, Vernard Foley: “Ancient Catapults”, Scientific American, Vol. 240, No. 3 (March 1979), p.120-128 (121ff.) ^ Le Bohec 1994: p. 138 ^ Le Bohec 1994: p. 49 ^ Garrison 1997. ^ Goldsworthy 2000: 191 ^ Siege weapons at roman-empire.net ^ Goldsworthy 2000: p. 145 ^ Gilliver 1999: p. 140 ^ Le Bohec 1994: p. 139 ^ Gilliver 1999: pp. 134-135 ^ Gilliver 1999: p. 138 ^ Gilliver 1999: pp. 136-137. ^ Gilliver 1999: 138 ^ Gilliver 1999: 140 ^ a b Histories. Polybius. Evelyn S. Shuckburgh. translator. London, New York. Macmillan. 1889. Reprint Bloomington 1962.http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Plb.+1.22&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0234 References[edit] James V. Garrison (1997). "Casting stones: ballista, stones as weapons, and death by stoning". Brigham Young University Studies. 36 (3): 351–352. Gilliver, C.M. (1999). The Roman Art of War. Charleston, SC: Tempus. ISBN 0-7524-1939-0. Goldsworthy, Adrian (2000). Roman Warfare. London: Cassell. ISBN 0-304-35265-9. Keppie, Lawrence (1984). The Making of the Roman Army from Empire to Republic. Totowa, NJ: Barnes & Noble Books. ISBN 0-389-20447-1. Le Bohec, Yann (1994). The Imperial Roman Army. London: B.T. Batsford Ltd. ISBN 0-7134-7166-2. Shuckburgh, Evelyn S. (1962). Translation of "The Histories" by Polybius. Bloomington. p. 1.22. v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_siege_engines&oldid=991852532" Categories: Roman siege engines Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Français Italiano Nederlands 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 2 December 2020, at 03:47 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5904	----	Promagistrate - Wikipedia Promagistrate From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Roman office For the duties of a promagistrate as a governor of a province, see Roman governor. For the legal procedure that led to the creation of promagistracies, see Prorogatio. Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e In ancient Rome a promagistrate (Latin: pro magistratu) was an ex-consul or ex-praetor whose imperium (the power to command an army) was extended at the end of his annual term of office or later. They were called proconsuls and propraetors. This was an innovation created during the Roman Republic. Initially it was intended to provide additional military commanders to support the armies of the consuls (the two annually elected heads of the Republic and its army) or to lead an additional army. With the acquisitions of territories outside Italy which were annexed as provinces, proconsuls and propraetors became provincial governors or administrators. A third type of promagistrate were the proquaestors. Contents 1 History 1.1 3rd century BC 1.2 1st century BC 2 Quaestors 3 Praefecti 4 Non-Roman usage 5 Usage in the Roman Catholic Church 6 See also 7 Notes History[edit] The first type of promagistrate was the proconsul. In the early days of the Roman Republic, when Roman territory was small, Rome had only two legions, each commanded by one of the two consuls. Rome was continually under attack by neighboring peoples (the Etruscans in the north, the Sabines in the east and the Volsci and Aequi in the south). Dionysius of Halicarnassus recorded five instances when a proconsul was appointed between 480 BC and 464 BC. In 480 BC a proconsul led the left wing of an army which combined the two consular legions while the consuls led the centre and the other wing. In 478 BC two proconsuls are mentioned. One served under the consul who went to fight the Etruscans in the north. Another one commanded a third legion. An extra legion was deployed so that two enemies in the south (the Volsci and Aequi) could be confronted individually with two armies. In 464 BC a proconsul led an irregular force of volunteers and reservists to support a consul whose army was insufficient to match the combined forces of two enemies. Dionysius did not specify the role of the proconsuls on the other occasion. Dionysius described these men as 'legates and proconsuls,' which implied proconsular imperium was directly delegated by the incumbent consul and that the proconsul acted as a sort of deputy of the consul in the military action.[1] It was a temporary measure adopted to deal with an immediate military emergency. In the last of the mentioned occasions, the proconsul was appointed by a decree of the senate and Livy noted that this "form of a decree has ever been deemed to be one of extreme exigency."[2] It seems that in these instances an extra commander was drawn from men who had previously been consuls because they had prior experience of commanding an army. The concept of promagistracy originally involved the notion of the promagistrate acting on behalf of a magistrate: pro consule (on behalf of the consul), pro preaetore (on behalf of the praetor). However, in practice this changed when there was a more regular need to create additional military commanders. In 366 BC the office of the praetor was created. This was the city's chief justice. He also had the power to command an army. During the Second Samnite War (326–304 BC) Rome increased the number of its legions. Several proconsuls were appointed to conduct specific operations. Proconsular imperium became an extension (prorogatio) of the imperium of a consul. During the Third Samnite War (298–290 BC) the propraetors were also created. These were praetors whose imperium was extended and who were given the task of commanding reserve armies. Prorogatio was the extension of imperium beyond the one-year term of the consul or praetor. It was a dispensation from the limit of the existing term of office which applied only outside the city walls of Rome. It did not have effect within the city walls. Therefore, it was an exertion of the military command of the consul or praetor, but not of his public office. It was an exclusively military measure. 3rd century BC[edit] As Rome acquired territories beyond Italy which she annexed as provinces there was a need to send governors there. In 227 BC, after the annexation of the first two Roman provinces, (Sicilia in 241 BC and Corsica et Sardinia in 238 BC), two praetors were added to the two praetors who acted as chief justices in the city of Rome and were assigned the administration of these two provinces. Two more praetors were added when the provinces of Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior were created in 197 BC. After this no new praetors were added even though the number of provinces increased. The Romans began to extend the imperium of the consuls and the praetors in Rome at the end of their annual term. The provinces were assigned by lot to the proconsuls and propraetors. The proconsuls were given the provinces which required a larger number of troops.[3] A promagistrate held equal formal status to the equivalent magistrate and was attended by the same number of lictors. 1st century BC[edit] In 81 BC Lucius Cornelius Sulla added two new praetors so that two proconsuls and six propraetors could be created to govern the ten provinces Rome had acquired by then. The praetors who had previously governed the first four provinces were reassigned to judicial affairs in Rome as the judicial load in the city had increased. Sulla made the governorships annual and required the holder to leave the province within thirty days after the arrival of his successor.[4] In 52 BC Pompey introduced a law which provided that the promagitracies were to be assigned five years after the term of office of the consuls and praetors. Julius Caesar repealed it.[5] Pompey's provision was re-enacted by Augustus.[6] The concept of delegated authority was sometimes used to confer proconsular imperium on someone who had never held consular power before. During the Second Punic War (218–201 BC) Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus volunteered to lead the second Roman expedition against the Carthaginians in Hispania. He was too young to have been a consul. Therefore, proconsular imperium was bestowed on him by a vote of the people. This was an extraordinary measure, but it set a precedent. When Scipio left Hispania after his victory in 205 BC, Lucius Cornelius Lentulus and Lucius Manlius Acidinus were sent there with proconsular power "without magistracy" ("sine magistratus", without holding public office). Neither of them had been a consul before. Therefore, they were sent to Hispania without having held consular public office, but they were given proconsular power so that they could command armies there. This was a constitutional oddity. It gave the Roman territory in Hispania a somewhat unofficial status.[7] This situation continued until 198 BC when it was decided to create two new provinces: Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior (they were instituted in 197 BC). In 77 BC Pompey the Great was sent to Hispania to support Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius to fight against Quintus Sertorius in the Sertorian War (80–72 BC). For this purpose the senate gave him proconsular imperium even through he had never been a consul.[8] The term provincia referred to a field of responsibility, rather than a geographical administrative area. For example, the judicial responsibility of the urban praetor, who was a chief justice, was called provincia. The term often applied to military responsibility and was used to refer to the areas of military responsibility assigned to the consuls to deal with rebellions or threats of invasions; in other words, the area where imperium was exercised. It was in the Late Republic that the term provincia also referred to an administrative area outside Italy. When provinces in the modern sense of the word were established, they were originally the areas where the promagistrates exercised their military power. These governors performed judicial roles in arbitrating disputes between Romans and locals and between the local themselves. They gave the final pronouncements in cases where the laws of the locals did not apply or when there was an appeal. The foundation of this was the governor's ability to enforce his rulings through his military power.[9] In theory, the Senate was meant to supervise the governors, but the distance of many provinces from Rome made this impracticable. Like the magistrates, the promagistrates were accountable for their actions while in office and liable to prosecution after their term of office was over. However, prosecution would occur post facto and there was a reluctance to convict members of the elites. Impunity was the general rule. Alternatively, the defendants could go into self-imposed exile in other cities to escape punishment. In 171 BC envoys from the provinces of Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior presented complaints about extortion against three former propraetors in the two provinces. They were put on trial. The trial of one of them was adjourned twice and on the third session he was acquitted. The other two cases were also adjourned and the other two men went into exile outside Roman territory before the new trial. One of the charges was unjust valuation of grain received as tribute. The senate decreed that no Roman official was to be allowed to set the price of grain or force the locals to sell the levied 5% quota at the price he wished. The senate appointed the recuperatores (recuperators) to investigate extortion and maladministration by the propraetors and to recover damages for provincial plaintiffs.[10] In 149 BC the Calpurnian Law established the standing court of recovery of property (quaestio de pecuniis repetundis) which was instituted to deal with cases of extortion.[11] The lex de rebus repetundis passed by Gaius Gracchus in 133 BC transferred the judges of these courts from the senatorial order (from which the promagistrates were drawn) to the equestrian order. This was the main means by which the provincials could prosecute former governors. If an ex governor was found guilty, he would have to restore twice the value of what he had misappropriated and face disgrace. However, such persecutions were to be undertaken in Rome and it was expensive for provincials to travel there and stay there. Moreover, there still was the possibility of the accused leaving Rome to escape prosecution. Verres, who had been governor in Sicily between 73 and 70 BC, was prosecuted by Cicero when he returned to Rome for maladministration, fraud and extortion. When he realised that he stood no chance of acquittal, he fled to Marseilles, where he lived off the money he misappropriated in Sicily.[12] Quaestors[edit] The quaestors also served in a provincial administration. When a quaestor died in his province, the governors appointed a proquaestor in his stead.[13] In Rome the quaestors were the treasurers. In the provinces they were in charge of the finances of the province. Originally there were only two quaestors who supervised the aerarium in Rome. In 421 BC their number was doubled. From then on when the consuls undertook a military campaign they were accompanied by one quaestor each. The quaestors who remained in Rome came to be called quaestores urbani. Initially the role of these travelling quaestors was to oversee the sale of the war booty, part of which was given to the troops and part of which was given to the aerarium.[14] Later they kept the treasury's fund from the army and gave the soldiers their pay.[15] In 265 BC the number of quaestors was increased to eight.[16] One quaestor became the quaestor ostiensis. He was based at Ostia, Rome's port, and was in charge of the grain provisions for the city. Three other quaestors were sent to towns in Italy to raise those parts of the revenue which were not farmed by the publicani (see below) and to control them. Two were sent to Sicily.[17] Lucius Cornelius Sulla increased their number to twenty and Julius Caesar to forty.[18][19] The quaestors who were seconded to the proconsuls or propraetors in the provinces most probably performed the same functions as those who accompanied the consuls on their campaigns. An important part of their role was paying the soldiers and procuring provisions for the army. Like the quaestors in Italian cities, they also levied those parts of the public revenue in the province which were not farmed by the publicani controlled them. They had to send the raised revenues and their account to the aerarium. When the governor was absent from the province the quaestor took his place in an acting capacity and was then attended by lictors.[20] The quaestor in the provinces also performed the duties of the curule aedile.[21] The relationship between governor and quaestor was according to ancient custom regarded as resembling that between a father and his son. Sicily, the first Roman province, had two quaestors owing to the presence of Carthaginian and Greek territories when it was annexed. One was based in Syracuse and one in Lilybaeum.[22] In the period of rule by emperors the quaestors continued to serve in the senatorial provinces. In the imperial provinces they were replaced by the procuratores Augusti (see below). In 27 BC, when Augustus established rule by emperors, the provinces of the Roman Empire were divided into imperial provinces and senatorial provinces. Augustus professed that the senate would keep the finest portion of the empire while he would take on the hardship and danger of defending precarious provinces which were vulnerable to internal rebellions or to external attacks (in the case of provinces along the borders of the empire). In reality he kept the provinces where the bulk of the legions were stationed and left the senators provinces which would be unarmed and unprepared for battle. Among the senatorial provinces, Asia and Africa were assigned to ex-consuls, and the others to ex-praetors. It was established that only this class of senators could pronounce a death sentence. The propraetors chose their provincial assessors from their peers or from their inferiors. The proconsuls chose three assessors form those of equal rank, subject to the emperor's approval. In the imperial provinces which had more than one legion, the governors, the legati Augusti pro praetore, were lieutenants of the emperor appointed by him and were usually propraetors, although sometimes they were ex-quaestors or men who had held other offices below the praetorship.[23] With the propraetors in the imperial provinces being subordinates of the emperor, the latter could exercise better control over the administration of their governors. Many of the letters written by Pliny the Younger have survived. Book 10 of this collection contains the correspondence he had with the emperor Trajan during his governorship in Bithynia et Pontus in 110–113. In these letters Pliny informed the emperor about affairs in his province and often asked for instructions on specific matters. Trajan provided them in his replies.[24] During the period of the Roman Republic tax collection was tendered to private companies owned by the publicani (singular publicanus). These extracted money form the provincials unscrupulously to line their pockets. Livy wrote: "wherever there is a publicanus either public law is disregarded or the liberty of the allies is reduced to nothing." [25] Julius Caesar abolished this system of tax collection and restored the custom of assigning this task to the cities in the provinces. Augustus handed this task to his own officials. In the imperial provinces the quaestors were replaced by the procuratores Augusti (imperial procurators) as the chief financial officers, who took direct charge of financial matters, including tax collection. These financial procurators were appointed by the emperor and were the agents of the emperor. The term procurator originally applied to agents, especially those who went away for Rome for some time on state business. They were direct subordinates of the emperor and therefore worked independently from the governors. They were responsible for the collection of rent in the imperial estates (Augustus has acquired large amounts of land from previous local rulers and potentates), tax collection, the supervision of mines and from paying civil servants and the soldiers. Thus, the financial system operated as an independent executive system. Good collaboration between legati Augusti pro praetore and procurators was advisable as the latter were the paymasters to the army. The building of fortifications was also supervised by the procurators. They belonged to the equestrian order or were freedmen who had been imperial slaves and thus they were not connected with the senatorial order. With the procurators the emperors gained direct control over finances in the imperial province. These men were also a source of independent information for the emperor. There were also procurators in the senatorial provinces to supervise the imperial estates in those provinces as well.[26][27] Tacitus wrote that Augustus conferred judicial power to the equestrian governors of the province of Egypt and that later a large number of judicial cases which had been presided over by the praetors both in Rome and in the other provinces were similarly transferred. The emperor Claudius (reigned 41–54) remarked that the judgement of his procurators ought to have the same validity as the rulings of the emperor and handed the judicial power over to them in full.[28] In this manner the emperor gained direct control over judicial matters via their procuratorial agents in Rome. The role of the praetors in Rome was reduced to organising public games. With regard to the provinces, Tacitus did not specify whether this applied to both imperial and senatorial provinces. He did not use the term propraetor either. Given that in the senatorial provinces the role of the procurators was restricted to supervising the imperial estates, it is unlikely that they took on judicial roles there. The mentioned correspondence between Pliny the Younger and Trajan, who reigned later (98–117), indicates that the governor of Bithynia et Pontus, a senatorial province, did preside over judicial cases. In 359 AD Constantius II (the son of Constantine the Great) tried to revive the old judicial role of the praetors in Constantinople by assigning cases regarding guardianship, the emancipation of sons from the legal authority of their fathers (patria potestas) and the manumission of slaves to them.[29] Praefecti[edit] This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2016) Procurators were also appointed as governors of small provinces. Under Augustus and Tiberius they were called praefecti (singular praefectus).[30] Non-Roman usage[edit] The power of a promagistrate in the Roman provinces has led to the term proconsul being used to designate any high-ranking and authoritative official appointed from above (or from without) to govern a territory without regard for local political institutions (i.e., one who is not elected and whose authority supersedes that of local officials). One of the most prominent examples of this is Douglas MacArthur, who was given vast powers to implement reform and recovery efforts in Japan after World War II, and has been described occasionally as "the American proconsul of Japan". Usage in the Roman Catholic Church[edit] It was formerly the rule that the heads of all Curial Congregations must be cardinals, and until the later 20th century they were titled pro-prefects until they were raised to that dignity. On their appointment, nuncios are also appointed bishops. In the time of Pope Pius XII, some priests were appointed Nuncios without being raised to the status of bishop. They were not called "pro-nuncios", a title that historically was given to nuncios from the moment their appointment as cardinals was announced until their departure for Rome, and that was revived for some twenty years (ending in 1991) as a distinct title for nuncios accredited to those countries that did not follow the tradition of considering the nuncio as Dean of the Diplomatic Corps from the moment he presented his credentials. See also[edit] Constitution of the Roman Republic Notes[edit] ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, 9.11.2, 12.5, 16.3.-4, 63.2 [1] ^ Livy, The History of Rome, 3.4.9-11 [2] ^ Livy, The History of Rome, 41.8 ^ Cicero, Letters to Friends, 3.6 ^ Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, Julius Caesar, 28 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 53.14.2 [3] ^ Richardson, J. S, Hispaniae, Spain and the development of Roman Imperialism, 218–82 BC, pp. 64–71 ^ Plutarch, Parallel Lives, The Life of Pompey, 17 ^ Richardson, J, Roman Provincial Administration, p. 47-49 ^ Livy, The History of Rome, 43.2 ^ Gruen E., S., Roman Politics and the Criminal Courts (1968), p 10 ^ Richardson, J., Roman Provincial Administration, pp. 27–28, 44–45 ^ Cicero, Against Verres. l.C ^ Livy, The History of Rome, 4.53 ^ Polybius, The Histories, 7.39 ^ Livy, Periochae, 15.8 ^ Cic. pro Murena, 8, pro Sextius Pro Roscio Amerino, 17; In Vatinium, 5 ^ Tacitus, Annals, 11.22 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 43.47, 51 ^ Cicero, Letters to Friends, 2.15 ^ Gaius, Institutes, 1.6 ^ William Smith, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities ^ Cassius Dio, Roman history, 53.14–15 ^ Letters of Pliny the Younger ^ Livy, The History of Rome, 45.18.4 ^ Richardson, J, Roman Provincial Administration, pp. 62–63 ^ Rogan, J, Roman Provincial Administration, p.64-5, 72 ^ Tacitus, Annals, 12.60 ^ Harries, 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en-wikipedia-org-5944	----	Theodoret - Wikipedia Theodoret From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Influential 5th century Christian theologian of the School of Antioch, biblical commentator and bishop of Cyrrhus This article is about the theologian. For the martyr, see Theodoret of Antioch. Mar Theodoret of Cyrus Born c. 393 Antioch, Eastern Roman Empire Died c. 458 Cyrrhus, Eastern Roman Empire Venerated in Church of the East Eastern Orthodox Church Theodoret of Cyrus or Cyrrhus (Greek: Θεοδώρητος Κύρρου; c. AD 393 – c. 458/466) was an influential theologian of the School of Antioch, biblical commentator, and Christian bishop of Cyrrhus (423–457). He played a pivotal role in several 5th-century Byzantine Church controversies that led to various ecumenical acts and schisms. He wrote against Cyril of Alexandria's 12 Anathemas which were sent to Nestorius and did not personally condemn Nestorius until the Council of Chalcedon. His writings against Cyril were included in the Three Chapters Controversy and were condemned at the Second Council of Constantinople. Some Chalcedonian and East Syriac Christians regard him as a "full" saint.[a] Contents 1 Biography 2 The Nestorian controversy 3 Works 3.1 Exegetical 3.2 Dogmatic 3.3 Apologetic, historical 3.4 Letters 3.5 Linguistic interest 4 Translations 5 Notes 6 References 7 Sources 8 External links Biography[edit] According to Tillemont, he was born at Antioch in 393, and died either at Cyrrhus ("about a two-days' journey east of Antioch" or eighty Roman miles), or at the monastery near Apamea (fifty-four miles south-east of Antioch) about 457. The following facts about his life are gleaned mainly from his Epistles and his Religious History (Philotheos historia). He was the child of a prosperous Antiochene couple who had been childless for many years. Encouraged by the fact that his mother had been cured of a serious eye complaint and converted to a sober life by Peter the Galatian, an ascetic living in an unoccupied in the locality,[3] Theodoret's parents sought further help from the local holy men, since she had been childless for twelve years. For years their hopes were fed but not fulfilled. Eventually, Theodoret's birth was promised by a hermit named Macedonius the Barley-Eater on the condition of his dedication to God, whence the name Theodoret ("gift of God").[4] Theodoret received an extensive religious and secular education. The actual evidence given to us by Theodoret suggests that his education was exclusively religious. He paid weekly visits to Peter the Galatian, was instructed by Macedonius and other ascetics, and at an early age became a lector among the clergy of Antioch. Though he speaks of Diodore of Tarsus and Theodore of Mopsuestia as his teachers, this is improbable - though it was certainly their theological tradition in which he was brought up. He clearly, also, though, received an extensive classical education, unsurprisingly for the child of prosperous parents in a city which had long been a centre of secular learning and culture. His correspondents included the sophists Aerius and Isokasius. He understood Syriac as well as Greek, but was not acquainted with either Hebrew or Latin.[5] In his letters he quotes from Homer, Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes, Demosthenes and Thucydides.[6] When he was twenty-three years old and both parents were dead, he divided his fortune among the poor (Epist. cxiii; P.G., LXXXIII, 1316) and became a monk in the monastery of Nicerte not far from Apamea.[7] There he lived for about seven years. In 423 he left as he had been appointed Bishop of Cyrrhus, over a diocese about forty miles square and embracing 800 parishes, but with an insignificant town as its see city. Theodoret, supported only by the appeals of the intimate hermits, himself in personal danger, zealously guarded purity of the doctrine. He converted more than 1,000 Marcionites in his diocese,[8] besides many Arians and Macedonians;[9] more than 200 copies of Tatian's Diatessaron he retired from the churches; and he erected churches and supplied them with relics. His philanthropic and economic interests were extensive and varied: he endeavoured to secure relief for the people oppressed with taxation; he divided his inheritance among the poor; from his episcopal revenues he erected baths, bridges, halls, and aqueducts; he summoned rhetoricians and physicians, and reminded the officials of their duties. To the persecuted Christians of Persian Armenia he sent letters of encouragement, and to the Carthaginian Celestiacus, who had fled the rule of the Vandals, he gave refuge. The Nestorian controversy[edit] Theodoret stands out prominently in the Christological controversies aroused by Cyril of Alexandria. Theodoret shared in the petition of John I of Antioch to Nestorius to approve of the term theotokos ("mother of God"),[5] and upon the request of John wrote against Cyril's anathemas. He may have prepared the Antiochian symbol which was to secure the emperor's true understanding of the Nicene Creed, and he was a member and spokesman of the deputation of eight from Antioch called by the emperor to Chalcedon. To the condemnation of Nestorius he could not assent. John, reconciled to Cyril by the emperor's order, sought to bring Theodoret to submission by entrenching upon his eparchy. Theodoret was determined to preserve the peace of the Church by seeking the adoption of a formula avoiding the unconditional condemnation of Nestorius, and toward the close of 434 strove earnestly for the reconciliation between the Eastern churches. But Cyril refused to compromise and when he opened his attack (437) upon Diodorus of Tarsus and Theodore, John sided with them and Theodoret assumed the defence of the Antiochian party (c. 439).[5] Domnus II, the successor of John, took him as his counsellor. After the death of Cyril, adherents of the Antiochian theology were appointed to bishoprics. Irenaeus the friend of Nestorius, with the cooperation of Theodoret, became bishop of Tyre, in spite of the protests of Dioscorus, Cyril's successor, who now turned specially against Theodoret; and secured the order from the court confining Theodoret to Cyrrhus. Theodoret now composed the Eranistes (see below). In vain were his efforts at court at self-justification against the charges of Dioscurus, as well as the countercharge of Domnus against Eutyches of Apollinarism. The court excluded Theodoret from the Second Council of Ephesus in 449 because of his antagonism to Cyril. Here, because of his Epistle 151 against Cyril and his defence of Diodorus and Theodore, he was condemned without a hearing and excommunicated and his writings were directed to be burned. Even Domnus gave his assent. Theodoret was compelled to leave Cyrrhus and retire to his monastery at Apamea. He made an appeal to Leo the Great, but not until after the death of Theodosius II in 450 was his appeal for a revocation of the judgments against him granted by imperial edict. He was ordered to participate in the Council of Chalcedon, which created violent opposition. He was first to take part only as accuser, yet among the bishops. Then he was constrained (October 26, 451) by the friends of Dioscurus to pronounce the anathema over Nestorius. His conduct shows (though hindered from a statement to that effect) that he performed this with his previous reservation; namely, without application beyond the teaching of two sons in Christ and the denial of the theotokos. Upon this he was declared orthodox and rehabilitated. The only thing known concerning him following the Council of Chalcedon is the letter of Leo charging him to guard the Chalcedonian victory (PG, lxxxiii. 1319 sqq.). With Diodorus and Theodore he was no less hated by the Miaphysites than Nestorius himself, and held by them and their friends as a heretic. After Chalcedon, he lived in Cyrrhus until his death, which may have been in 460.[10][11] The Three-Chapter Controversy led to the condemnation of his writings against Cyril in the Second Council of Constantinople (553). Works[edit] Exegetical[edit] The most significant works of Theodoret are those of exegesis. A chronology of the composition of these works can be developed by studying references in the latter works to the earlier works. The commentary on the Song of Songs, written while he was a young bishop, though not before 430, precedes Psalms; the commentaries on the prophets were begun with Daniel, followed by Ezekiel, and then the Minor Prophets. Next that on the Psalms was completed before 436; and those on Isaiah, Jeremiah, and the Pauline Epistles (including Hebrews), before 448. Theodoret's last exegetical works were the interpretations of difficult passages in the Octateuch and Quaestiones dealing with the books of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles, written about 452 to 453. Excepting the commentary on Isaiah (fragments preserved in the catenae) and on Galatians ii.6-13, the exegetical writings of Theodoret are extant. Exegetical material on the Gospels under his name in the catenae may have come from his other works, and foreign interpolations occur in his comments on the Octateuch. His representation of orthodox doctrine consists of a collocation of Scripture passages. The biblical authors are, for Theodoret, merely the mouthpieces of the Holy Spirit, though they do not lose their individual peculiarities. By the unavoidable imperfection of the translations, he states, the understanding is encumbered. Not familiar with Hebrew, Theodoret uses the Syriac translation, the Greek versions, and the Septuagint. In principle his exegesis is grammatical-historical; and he criticizes the intrusion of the author's own ideas. His aim is to avoid a one-sidedness of literalness as well as of allegory. Hence he protests against the attributing of The Song of Songs to Solomon and the like as degrading the Holy Spirit. Rather is it to be said that the Scripture speaks often "figuratively" and "in riddles." In the Old Testament everything has typological significance and prophetically it embodies already the Christian doctrine. The divine illumination affords the right understanding after the apostolic suggestion and the New Testament fulfilment. Valuable though not binding is the exegetical tradition of the ecclesiastical teachers. Theodoret likes to choose the best among various interpretations before him, preferably Theodore's, and supplements from his own. He is clear and simple in thought and statement; and his merit is to have rescued the exegetical heritage of the school of Antioch as a whole for the Christian Church. Dogmatic[edit] Many of Theodoret's dogmatic works have perished; five, however, have survived. His chief Christological work is the Eranistes etoi polymorphos (Beggar or Multiform, or perhaps The Collector) in three dialogues, describing the Monophysites as beggars passing off their doctrines gathered by scraps from diverse heretical sources and himself as the orthodox. The work is interspersed with lengthy florilegia (anthologies of patristic citations), which may be the reason for its preservation. These florilegia provide evidence of Theodoret's considerable learning, with 238 texts drawn from 88 works, including pre-Nicene writers such as Ignatius, Irenaeus and Hippolytus, as well as theologians such as Athanasius and the Cappadocian Fathers. This use of florilegia heralds a new stage in doctrinal development, in that it creates a new authority for Christian theology: that of the 'Fathers'.[12][13] Two works, On the Holy and Life-giving Trinity and On the Incarnation of the Lord, have survived through ascription to his opponent Cyril of Alexandria.[12][14][15] Another surviving work by Theodoret is his Refutation of the Anathemas, his rejection of the twelve anathemas pronounced on him by Cyril of Alexandria, which has been preserved in Cyril's defence.[16] He detects Apollinarianism in Cyril's teaching, and declines a "contracting into one" of two natures of the only begotten, as much as a separation into two sons (Epist. Cxliii). Instead of a "union according to hypostases," he would accept only one that "manifests the essential properties or modes of the natures." The man united to God was born of Mary; between God the Logos and the form of a servant a distinction must be drawn. Another surviving work is the Expositio rectae fidei. This was preserved among the writings of Justin Martyr. However, both Lebon (1930) and Sellers (1945) independently recognised it as the work of Theodoret, probably pre-dating the outbreak of the Christological controversies.[17] Only minor fragments (cf. Epist. 16) of Theodoret's defence of Diodorus and Theodore (438-444) have been preserved.[18] There are many lost works. Theodoret mentions having written against Arius and Eunomius,[19] probably one work, to which were joined the three treatises against the Macedonians. There were, besides, two works against the Apollinarians, and of the Opus adversus Marcionem nothing has been preserved. God is immutable also in becoming man, the two natures are separate in Christ, and God the Logos is ever immortal and impassive. Each nature remained "pure" after the union, retaining its properties to the exclusion of all transmutation and intermixture. Of the twenty-seven orations in defence of various propositions, the first six agree in their given content with Theodoret. A few extracts from the five orations on Chrysostom were preserved by Photius (codex 273). Apologetic, historical[edit] Among apologetic writings was the Ad quaestiones magorum (429-436), now lost, in which Theodoret justified the Old Testament sacrifices as alternatives in opposition to the Egyptian idolatry,[20] and exposed the fables of the Magi who worshipped the elements (Church History v. 38). De providentia, or Ten Discourses on Providence, consists of apologetic discourses, proving the divine providence from the physical order (chapters i-iv), and from the moral and social order (chapters vi-x). They were most probably delivered to the cultured Greek congregation of Antioch, sometime between 431 and 435. Unlike most sermons, they are reasoned arguments, lectures rather than homilies on scriptural texts. The Graecarum Affectionum Curatio or Cure of the Greek Maladies, subtitled The Truth of the Gospel proved from Greek Philosophy, arranged in twelve books, was an attempt to prove the truth of Christianity from Greek philosophy and in contrast with the pagan ideas and practises. As such, it forms one of the last Apologies written, since in an age when Christianity was dominant, the need for apologies gradually died out. The truth is self-consistent where it is not obscured with error and approves itself as the power of life; philosophy is only a presentiment of it. This work is distinguished for clearness of arrangement and style.[21] The Ecclesiastical History of Theodoret, which begins with the rise of Arianism and closes with the death of Theodore in 429 (despite being completed in 449-450) is very different in style from those of Socrates Scholasticus and Sozomen. It contains many sources otherwise lost, specially letters on the Arian controversy; however, the book is extremely partisan, the heretics being consistently blackened and described as afflicted with the 'Arian plague'. The narrative is more compressed than in the other historians, and Theodoret often strings documents together, with only brief comments between. Original material of Antiochian information appears chiefly in the latter books. Theodoret's sources are in dispute. According to Valesius these were mainly Socrates and Sozomen; Albert Guldenpenning's thorough research placed Rufinus first, and next to him, Eusebius of Caesarea, Athanasius, Sozomen, Sabinus, Philostorgius, Gregory Nazianzen, and, least of all, Socrates. N. Glubokovskij counts Eusebius, Rufinus, Philostorgius, and, perhaps, Sabinus. The Religious History, with an appendix on divine love, contains the biographies of thirty (ten living) ascetics, held forth as religious models. It is a document of remarkable significance for understanding the complexities of the role of early monastics, both in society and in the church; it is also remarkable for presenting a model of ascetic authority which runs strongly against Athanasius's Life of Antony. Upon the request of a high official named Sporacius, Theodoret compiled a Compendium of Heretical Accounts (Haereticarum fabularum compendium), including a heresiology (books i-iv) and a "compendium of divine dogmas" (book v), which, apart from Origen's De principiis and the theological work of John of Damascus, is the only systematic representation of the theology of the Greek Fathers. Letters[edit] Compared to the more than 500 letters known to Nicephorus Callistus in the fourteenth century, only about half that number had survived to the twentieth century. Three collections survive, though there is some overlap between them. 179 letters were edited by J Sirmond in the seventeenth century. To these, J. Sakkelion added another 47 letters he published from a manuscript he found at the Monastery of Patmos in 1855.[22] 36 letters have been preserved in conciliar records. These letters provide glimpses of rural Christianity in northern Syria, as well as insight into episcopal relationships; hints of the development of Christological issues between the Councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon can be seen; there are letters of consolation and commendation; throughout there is revealed the generous and sensitive soul of a pastor.[12] An English translation of the surviving letters is part of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers (2 ser., iii. 250-348).[23] Linguistic interest[edit] In several works, Theodoret demonstrated an interest for linguistic issues related to translations of sacred texts and theological works, with emphasis on literary exchange between two languages, Greek and Syriac.[24][25] Theodoret himself belonged to the highly Hellenized urban landscape of Roman Syria,[26] but his Aramaic background,[27] accompanied with knowledge of Aramaic language (called Syriac among Greeks), enabled him to note several features of his ancestral language. Aware of regional diversities of Aramaic dialects, he recorded that "the Osroënians, the Syrians, the people of the Euphrates, the Palestinians, and the Phoenicians all speak Syriac, but with many differences in pronunciation".[28] Theodoret′s regional (provincial) differentiation of Aramaic dialects included an explicit distinction between the "Syrians" (as Aramaic speakers of Syria proper, western of Euphrates), and the "Osroenians" as Aramaic speakers of Osroene (eastern region, centered in Edessa), thus showing that dialect of the "Syrians" (Aramaic speakers of proper Syria) was known to have somewhat different pronunciation from that of the "Osroenians" (speakers of Edessan Aramaic).[29][30] Translations[edit] Translations of some of Theodoret's writings can be found in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. A bilingual edition of the Eranistes was published by Oxford University Press in 1974. Ettlinger, GH, 2003. Theodoret: Eranistes, FC, Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press. Petruccione, John F and RC Hill, 2007. Theodoret of Cyrus. The Questions on the Octateuch, Greek text and English translation, Washington, DC, Catholic University of America Press RC Hill has published translations into English of the Commentary on the Psalms (2000, 2001), the Commentary on the Songs of Songs (2001), and the Commentary on the Letters of St Paul (2001) István Pásztori-Kupán, Theodoret of Cyrus, (Routledge, 2006), includes full translations of On the Trinity, On the Incarnation, and excerpts from A Cure of Greek Maladies and A Compendium of Heretical Mythification.[31] An English translation of the Ecclesiastical History is available as an e-book from Munseys.com. Bilingual editions (Greek text with parallel French translation) of several of the texts mentioned above have been published in recent years in Sources Chrétiennes. Notes[edit] ^ Although the Eastern Orthodox Protopresbyter Michael Pomazansky repeatedly refers to him as "Blessed",[1] there is no evidence in his work that this is the official position of any Eastern Orthodox jurisdiction. Hieromonk Seraphim Rose also refers to Theodoret as "Blessed" in his book The Place of Blessed Augustine in the Orthodox Church while explaining the nature of the term "Blessed" in the Russian Orthodox Church, referring to how both Sts. Augustine and Jerome are referred to as "Blessed" too despite being part of the Orthodox Saints Calendar.[2] References[edit] ^ Orthodox Dogmatic Theology ^ Rose, Seraphim (1983). The Place of Blessed Augustine in the Orthodox Church. Platina, California: Saint Herman of Alaska Brotherhood. p. 33. ^ Theodoret, Historia Religiosa, 9 ^ Theodoret, Historia Religiosa, 13 ^ a b c Baur, Chrysostom. "Theodoret." The Catholic Encyclopedia Vol. 14. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1912. 8 February 2019 ^ Young & Teal 2004, p. 323. ^ This evidence is assumed because, when later deprived of his see, he begs permission to return to this monastery, explaining it is 75 miles from Antioch and 20 miles from his episcopal city. (Ep 119). Young & Teal 2004, p. 324 ^ Chisholm 1911. ^ Young & Teal 2004, p. 324. ^ 457 is the traditional date, 466 has held the field for some decades (by E Honigmann (1953)) but 460 is now proposed (by Y Azema(1984). ^ Louth 2004, p. 349. ^ a b c Louth 2004, p. 350. ^ Young & Teal 2004, pp. 333-338. ^ In the nineteenth century, A Ehrhard showed that these two works, though ascribed to Cyril, in fact present the doctrinal views of Theodoret; some fragments, quotations cited under Theodoret's name, prove that these are in fact works by Theodoret, not Cyril. Young & Teal 2004, p. 328 ^ To the same belong chapters xiii-xv, xvii, and brief parts of other chapters of the fragments which Jean Garnier (Auctarium) included under the title, Pentology of Theodoret on the Incarnation as well as three of the five fragments referred by Marius Mercator to the fifth book of some writing of Theodoret. They are polemics against Arianism and Apollinarianism. ^ PG, cxxvi. 392 sqq. ^ Young & Teal 2004, p. 328. ^ Glubokovskij ii. 142 ^ (Epist. cxiii, cxvi) ^ Qquestion [sic?] 1, Lev., PG, lxxx. 297 sqq. ^ "Plato And Theodoret Christian Appropriation Platonic Philosophy And Hellenic Intellectual Resistance :: Ancient philosophy :: Cambridge University Press". Cambridge.org. Retrieved 14 October 2013. ^ M. Monica Wagner, "A Chapter in Byzantine Epistolography the Letters of Theodoret of Cyrus", Dumbarton Oaks Papers, 4 (1948), p. 126 ^  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Theodoret". Encyclopædia Britannica. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ^ Guinot 1993, p. 60-71. ^ Lehmann 2008, p. 187-216. ^ Millar 2007, p. 105-125. ^ Canivet 1957, p. 27. ^ Petruccione & Hill 2007b, p. 343. ^ Brock 1994, p. 149. ^ Taylor 2002, p. 302. ^ Pásztori-Kupán 2006. Sources[edit] Brock, Sebastian P. (1994). "Greek and Syriac in Late Antique Syria". Literacy and Power in the Ancient World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 149–160, 234–235. Canivet, Pierre (1957). Histoire d’une entreprise apologétique au Ve siècle. Paris: Bloud & Gay. Canivet, Pierre (1977). Le monachisme syrien selon Théodoret de Cyr. Paris: Beauchesne. Grillmeier, Aloys (1975) [1965]. Christ in Christian Tradition: From the Apostolic Age to Chalcedon (451). 1 (2nd revised ed.). Atlanta: John Knox Press. Guinot, Jean-Noël (1993). "Qui est 'le Syrien' dans les commentaries de Théodoret de Cyr?". Studia Patristica. 25: 60–71. Lehmann, Henning J. (2008). "What was Theodoret's Mother Tongue? - Is the Question Open or Closed?". Students of the Bible in 4th and 5th Century Syria: Seats of Learning, Sidelights and Syriacisms. Aarhus: Aarhus University Press. pp. 187–216. Louth, Andrew (2004). "John Chrysostom to Theodoret of Cyrrhus". The Cambridge History of Early Christian Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 342–352. Meyendorff, John (1989). Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450-680 A.D. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. Millar, Fergus (2007). "Theodoret of Cyrrhus: A Syrian in Greek Dress?". From Rome to Constantinople: Studies in Honour of Averil Cameron. Leuven: Peeters Publishers. pp. 105–125. Pásztori-Kupán, István (2006). Theodoret of Cyrus. London & New York: Routledge. Petruccione, John F.; Hill, Robert C., eds. (2007a). Theodoret of Cyrus: The Questions on the Octateuch. 1. Washington: COA Press. Petruccione, John F.; Hill, Robert C., eds. (2007b). Theodoret of Cyrus: The Questions on the Octateuch. 2. Washington: COA Press. Taylor, David G. K. (2002). "Bilingualism and Diglossia in Late Antique Syria and Mesopotamia". Bilingualism in Ancient Society: Language Contact and the Written Word. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 298–331. Young, Frances; Teal, Andrew (2004). From Nicaea to Chalcedon: A Guide to the Literature and its Background (2nd ed.). External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Theodoret Wikisource has original works written by or about: Theodoret "Theodoret of Cyrus". The Crossroads Iniative. Theodoret's works at CCEL Greek Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Graeca, with analytical indexes and concordances made on the whole writings István Pásztori-Kupán: Theodoret of Cyrus’s Double Treatise On the Trinity and On the Incarnation: The Antiochene Pathway to Chalcedon (PhD thesis) Authority control BIBSYS: 90272305 BNE: XX1135019 BNF: cb130916726 (data) CANTIC: a10446904 CiNii: DA01043563 GND: 118756796 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\013164 ISNI: 0000 0001 2102 5168 LCCN: n81119785 NKC: skuk0005572 NLA: 35866542 NLG: 167973 NSK: 000164655 NTA: 06876846X RERO: 02-A003895214 SELIBR: 200034 SNAC: w60g63zq SUDOC: 027159132 Trove: 1122634 VcBA: 495/24540 VIAF: 77111352 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n81119785 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theodoret&oldid=994527194" Categories: 390s births 450s deaths Church Fathers Assyrian Church of the East Christian anti-Gnosticism Syrian bishops Ancient Christians involved in controversies 5th-century Byzantine people 5th-century bishops Apamea, Syria Bible commentators Nestorianism People from Cyrrhus 5th-century Byzantine writers 5th-century historians Byzantine historians Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Articles with short description Articles with long short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Kiswahili Latina Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Tagalog Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 16 December 2020, at 04:46 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5955	----	Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski - Wikipedia Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski (in Latin, Matthias Casimirus Sarbievius; Lithuanian: Motiejus Kazimieras Sarbievijus; Sarbiewo, Poland, 24 February 1595[1] – 2 April 1640,[1] Warsaw, Poland), was Europe's most prominent Latin poet of the 17th century, and a renowned theoretician of poetics. Contents 1 Life 2 Gallery 3 See also 4 Notes 5 External links Life[edit] Poeta laureatus Anonymous portrait Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski was the first Polish poet to become widely celebrated abroad [1], and the most popular Polish author before Henryk Sienkiewicz. He became known as Horationis par ("the peer of Horace"), "the Sarmatian Horace" and "the last Latin poet." His European fame came from his first collection of poetry, Lyricorum libri tres (Three Books of Lyrics). An expanded edition, Lyricorum libri IV (Four Books of Lyrics), was so successful in Europe that it was released in 60 editions in different countries. During a stay in Rome, Sarbiewski was crowned poeta laureatus (poet laureate) by Pope Urban VIII, who entrusted him with the task of revising the hymns of the breviary. Sarbiewski was a Jesuit priest at Vilnius University and court preacher to Polish King Władysław IV Vasa.[2] Sarbiewski's poetry was extremely popular in Great Britain and was copiously translated into English. In 2008 a collected edition of English translations was published as Casimir Britannicus: English Translations, Paraphrases and Emulations of the Poetry of Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski, edited by Krzysztof Fordoński and Piotr Urbański. The collection was published again in 2010 in an expanded and corrected version. Gallery[edit] Sarbiewski portrait at the Church of St. Johns in Vilnius (by Sofija Veiverytė) Scraffito painting at the Vilnius University Faculty of Philology (by Rimantas Gibavičius) One of the Vilnius University courtyards is named after M.K. Sarbiewski See also[edit] List of Poles History of the concept of creativity Notes[edit] ^ a b (in Polish) Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski's biography by Mirosław Korolko in: Sarbiewski, Maciej Kazimierz (1980). Lyrica (Liryki). Warsaw: Instytut Wydawniczy "PAX". pp. VI–XIII. ISBN 83-211-0082-1. ^ "Motiejus Kazimieras Sarbievijus – poetas laureatas?". ldkistorija.lt. Retrieved 29 October 2019. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Mathias Casimir Sarbiewski". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Works by Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski at Internet Archive Sarbiewski's Latin poems International Days of Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski, SI - Academia Europea Sarbieviana English Translations of Sarbiewski's poetry 2008 edition Authority control BIBSYS: 90652093 BNF: cb121036318 (data) CiNii: DA13756473 GND: 119055031 ISNI: 0000 0001 1229 848X LCCN: n85049185 LNB: 000045662 NKC: jn20031111015 NLA: 61543916 NLI: 000116660 NLP: A11802315 NSK: 000662689 NTA: 071185518 SELIBR: 274792 SUDOC: 029400678 VcBA: 495/250502 VIAF: 36947664 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n85049185 This article about a poet from Poland is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maciej_Kazimierz_Sarbiewski&oldid=994736643" Categories: 1595 births 1640 deaths 17th-century Latin-language writers Polish nobility Polish poets Polish male writers New Latin-language poets Vilnius University alumni Vilnius University faculty 17th-century male writers Polish poet stubs Hidden categories: Articles with Polish-language sources (pl) Commons category link is on Wikidata Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Articles incorporating text from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLP identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages Беларуская Čeština Deutsch Dolnoserbski Español Esperanto Français Italiano Latina Lietuvių Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 17 December 2020, at 08:08 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5956	----	Asconius Pedianus - Wikipedia Asconius Pedianus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 1st century AD Roman writer and historian This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (January 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Quintus Asconius Pedianus (c. 9 BC – c. AD 76) was a Roman historian. In his later years he lived in Rome, and there he died, after having been blind for twelve years, at the age of eighty-five. During the reigns of Claudius and Nero he compiled for his sons, from various sources—e.g. the Gazette (Aetablica)–shorthand reports or skeletons (commentarii) of Cicero's unpublished speeches, Tiro's life of Cicero, speeches and letters of Cicero's contemporaries, various historical writers, e.g. Varro, Atticus, Antias, Tuditanus and Fenestella (a contemporary of Livy whom he often criticizes) -- historical commentaries on Cicero's speeches, of which only five, viz, in Pisonem, pro Scauro, pro Milone, pro Cornelio and In Toga Candida, in a very mutilated edition, are preserved,[1] under the modern title Q. Asconii Pediani Orationvm Ciceronis qvinqve enarratio. In a note upon the speech pro Scauro, he speaks of Longus Caecina (died AD 57) as still living, while his words imply that Claudius (died AD 54) was not alive. This statement, therefore, must have been written between AD 54 and 57. These valuable notes, written in good Latin, relate chiefly to historical and antiquarian matters.[1] A commentary, of superior Latinity and mainly of a grammatical character, on Cicero's Verrine orations, was transmitted alongside the commentaries of Asconius but is regarded as a 4th or 5th century work.[citation needed] Both works were found by Poggio in a manuscript at St Gallen in 1416. This manuscript is lost, but three transcripts were made by Poggio, Zomini (Sozomenus) of Pistoia and Bartolommeo da Montepulciano. That of Poggio is now at Madrid (Matritensis X. 81), and that of Zomini is in the Forteguerri library at Pistoia (No. 37). A copy of Bartolommeo's transcript exists in Florence (Laur. 5). The later manuscripts are derived from Poggio's copy.[1] Other works attributed to Asconius were: a life of Sallust a defence of Virgil against his detractors a treatise (perhaps a symposium in imitation of Plato) on health and long life.[1] Editions[edit] Kiessling and Scholl (1875) Albert Curtis Clark (Oxford, 1907), contains a previously unpublished collation of Poggio's manuscript. Asconius online on Attalus.org References[edit] ^ a b c d  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Asconius Pedianus, Quintus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 723. General references[edit] Johan Nicolai Madvig, De Asconio Pediano (1828). B. A. Marshall, A historical commentary on Asconius. Columbia: Univ. of Missouri Press, 1985. 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en-wikipedia-org-5963	----	Roman engineering - Wikipedia Roman engineering From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Reconstruction of a 10.4 m (34 ft) high Roman Polyspastos in Germany The ancient Romans were famous for their advanced engineering accomplishments. Technology for bringing running water into cities was developed in the east, but transformed by the Romans into a technology inconceivable in Greece. The architecture used in Rome was strongly influenced by Greek and Etruscan sources. Roads were common at that time, but the Romans improved their design and perfected the construction to the extent that many of their roads are still in use today. Their accomplishments surpassed most other civilizations of their time, and after their time, and many of their structures have withstood the test of time to inspire others, especially during the Renaissance. Moreover, their contributions were described in some detail by authors such as and Pliny the Elder, so there is a printed record of their many inventions and achievements. Contents 1 Aqueducts 2 Bridges 3 Dams 4 Architecture 5 Materials 6 Roads 7 Mining 8 Military engineering 9 Power technology 10 See also 11 References 12 Bibliography 13 Further reading Aqueducts[edit] Main article: Roman aqueduct Aqueduct of Segovia, Spain. 1,000 cubic metres (260,000 US gal) of water were brought into Rome by 11 different aqueducts each day. Per capita water usage in ancient Rome matched that of modern-day cities like New York City or modern Rome. Most water was for public use, such as baths and sewers. De aquaeductu is the definitive two volume treatise on 1st century aqueducts of Rome, written by Frontinus. The aqueducts could stretch from 10–100 km (10–60 mi) long, and typically descended from an elevation of 300 m (1,000 ft) above sea level at the source, to 100 m (330 ft) when they reached the reservoirs around the city. Roman engineers used inverted siphons to move water across a valley if they judged it impractical to build a raised aqueduct. The Roman legions were largely responsible for building the aqueducts. Maintenance was often done by slaves.[1] The Romans were among the first civilizations to harness the power of water. They built some of the first watermills outside of Greece for grinding flour and spread the technology for constructing watermills throughout the Mediterranean region. A famous example occurs at Barbegal in southern France, where no fewer than 16 overshot mills built into the side of a hill were worked by a single aqueduct, the outlet from one feeding the mill below in a cascade. They were also skilled in mining, building aqueducts needed to supply equipment used in extracting metal ores, e.g. hydraulic mining, and the building of reservoirs to hold the water needed at the minehead. It is known that they were also capable of building and operating mining equipment such as crushing mills and dewatering machines. Large diameter vertical wheels of Roman vintage, for raising water, have been excavated from the Rio Tinto mines in Southwestern Spain. They were closely involved in exploiting gold resources such as those at Dolaucothi in south west Wales and in north-west Spain, a country where gold mining developed on a very large scale in the early part of the first century AD, such as at Las Medulas. Bridges[edit] Alcántara Bridge, Spain Main article: Roman bridge Roman bridges were among the first large and lasting bridges ever built. They were built with stone, employing the arch as basic structure. Most utilized concrete as well. Built in 142 BC, the Pons Aemilius, later named Ponte Rotto (broken bridge) is the oldest Roman stone bridge in Rome, Italy. The biggest Roman bridge was Trajan's bridge over the lower Danube, constructed by Apollodorus of Damascus, which remained for over a millennium; the longest bridge to have been built both in terms of overall and span length. They were normally at least 18 meters above the body of water. An example of temporary military bridge construction is the two Caesar's Rhine bridges. Dams[edit] The Romans built many dams for water collection, such as the Subiaco dams, two of which fed Anio Novus, the largest aqueduct supplying Rome. One of the Subiaco dams was reputedly the highest ever found or inferred. They built 72 dams in Spain, such as those at Mérida, and many more are known across the empire. At one site, Montefurado in Galicia, they appear to have built a dam across the river Sil to expose alluvial gold deposits in the bed of the river. The site is near the spectacular Roman gold mine of Las Medulas. Several earthen dams are known from Britain, including a well-preserved example from Roman Lanchester, Longovicium, where it may have been used in industrial-scale smithing or smelting, judging by the piles of slag found at this site in northern England. Tanks for holding water are also common along aqueduct systems, and numerous examples are known from just one site, the gold mines at Dolaucothi in west Wales. Masonry dams were common in North Africa for providing a reliable water supply from the wadis behind many settlements. Architecture[edit] The Colosseum in Rome. Main article: Roman architecture The buildings and architecture of Ancient Rome was impressive even by modern standards. The Circus Maximus, for example, was large enough to be used as a stadium. The Colosseum also provides an example of Roman architecture at its finest. One of many stadiums built by the Romans, the Colosseum exhibits the arches and curves commonly associated with Roman buildings. The Pantheon in Rome still stands a monument and tomb, and the Baths of Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla are remarkable for their state of preservation, the former still possessing intact domes. Such massive public buildings were copied in numerous provincial capitals and towns across the empire, and the general principles behind their design and construction are described by Vitruvius writing at the turn of millennium in his monumental work De architectura. The technology developed for the baths was especially impressive, especially the widespread use of the hypocaust for one of the first types of central heating developed anywhere. That invention was used not just in the large public buildings, but spread to domestic buildings such as the many villas which were built across the Empire. Materials[edit] The most common materials used were brick, stone or masonry, cement, concrete and marble. Brick came in many different shapes. Curved bricks were used to build columns, and triangular bricks were used to build walls. Marble was mainly a decorative material. Augustus Caesar once boasted that he had turned Rome from a city of bricks to a city of marble. The Romans had originally brought marble over from Greece, but later found their own quarries in northern Italy. Cement was made of hydrated lime (calcium oxide) mixed with sand and water. The Romans discovered that substituting or supplementing the sand with a pozzolanic additive, such as volcanic ash, would produce a very hard cement, known as hydraulic mortar or hydraulic cement. They used it widely in structures such as buildings, public baths and aqueducts, ensuring their survival into the modern era. Roads[edit] Diagram of Roman road construction [2] Main article: Roman roads Roman roads were constructed to be immune to floods and other environmental hazards. Some roads built by the Romans are still in use today. There were several variations on a standard Roman road. Most of the higher quality roads were composed of five layers. The bottom layer, called pavimentum, was one inch thick and made of mortar. Above this were four strata of masonry. The layer directly above the pavimentum was called the statumen. It was one foot thick, and was made of stones bound together by cement or clay. Above that, there were the rudens, which were made of ten inches of rammed concrete. The next layer, the nucleus, was made of twelve to eighteen inches of successively laid and rolled layers of concrete. Summa crusta of silex or lava polygonal slabs, one to three feet in diameter and eight to twelve inches thick, were laid on top of the rudens. The final upper surface was made of concrete or well smoothed and fitted flint. Generally, when a road encountered an obstacle, the Romans preferred to engineer a solution to the obstacle rather than redirecting the road around it: Bridges were constructed over all sizes of waterway; marshy ground was handled by the construction of raised causeways with firm foundations; hills and outcroppings were frequently cut or tunneled through rather than avoided (the tunnels were made with square hard rock block). Mining[edit] Drainage wheel from Rio Tinto mines. The Romans were the first to exploit mineral deposits using advanced technology, especially the use of aqueducts to bring water from great distances to help operations at the pithead. Their technology is most visible at sites in Britain such as Dolaucothi where they exploited gold deposits with at least 5 long aqueducts tapping adjacent rivers and streams. They used the water to prospect for ore by unleashing a wave of water from a tank to scour away the soil and so reveal the bedrock with any veins exposed to sight. They used the same method (known as hushing) to remove waste rock, and then to quench hot rocks weakened by fire-setting. Such methods could be very effective in opencast mining, but fire-setting was very dangerous when used in underground workings. They were made redundant with the introduction of explosives, although hydraulic mining is still used on alluvial tin ores. They were also used to produce a controlled supply to wash the crushed ore. It is highly likely that they also developed water-powered stamp mills to crush hard ore, which could be washed to collect the heavy gold dust. At alluvial mines, they applied their hydraulic mining methods on a vast scale, such as Las Medulas in north-west Spain. Traces of tanks and aqueducts can be found at many other early Roman mines. The methods are described in great detail by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia. He also described deep mining underground, and mentions the need to dewater the workings using reverse overshot water-wheels, and actual examples have been found in many Roman mines exposed during later mining attempts. The copper mines at Rio Tinto were one source of such artifacts, where a set of 16 was found in the 1920s. They also used Archimedean screws to remove water in a similar way. Military engineering[edit] Main article: Roman military engineering Engineering was also institutionally ingrained in the Roman military, who constructed forts, camps, bridges, roads, ramps, palisades, and siege equipment amongst others. One of the most notable examples of military bridge-building in the Roman Republic was Julius Caesar's bridge over the Rhine River. This bridge was completed in only ten days by a dedicated team of engineers. Their exploits in the Dacian wars under Trajan in the early 2nd century AD are recorded on Trajan's column in Rome. The army was also closely involved in gold mining and probably built the extensive complex of leats and cisterns at the Roman gold mine of Dolaucothi in Wales shortly after conquest of the region in 75 AD. Power technology[edit] Arles Aqueduct Mills below aqueduct Water wheel technology was developed to a high level during the Roman period, a fact attested both by Vitruvius (in De Architectura) and by Pliny the Elder (in Naturalis Historia). The largest complex of water wheels existed at Barbegal near Arles, where the site was fed by a channel from the main aqueduct feeding the town. It is estimated that the site comprised 16 separate overshot water wheels arranged in two parallel lines down the hillside. The outflow from one wheel became the input to the next one down in the sequence. Twelve kilometers north of Arles, at Barbegal, near Fontvieille, where the aqueduct arrived at a steep hill, the aqueduct fed a series of parallel water wheels to power a flourmill. There are two aqueducts which join just north of the mill complex, and a sluice which enabled the operators to control the water supply to the complex. There are substantial masonry remains of the water channels and foundations of the individual mills, together with a staircase rising up the hill upon which the mills are built. The mills apparently operated from the end of the 1st century until about the end of the 3rd century.[3] The capacity of the mills has been estimated at 4.5 tons of flour per day, sufficient to supply enough bread for the 12,500 inhabitants occupying the town of Arelate at that time.[4] Scheme of the water-driven Roman sawmill at Hierapolis, Asia Minor. The Hierapolis sawmill was a Roman water-powered stone saw mill at Hierapolis, Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey). Dating to the second half of the 3rd century AD,[5] the sawmill is the earliest known machine to combine a crank with a connecting rod.[6] The watermill is shown on a raised relief on the sarcophagus of Marcus Aurelius Ammianos, a local miller. A waterwheel fed by a mill race is shown powering two frame saws via a gear train cutting rectangular blocks.[7] Further crank and connecting rod mechanisms, without gear train, are archaeologically attested for the 6th century AD water-powered stone sawmills at Gerasa, Jordan, and Ephesus, Turkey.[8] Literary references to water-powered marble saws in Trier, now Germany, can be found in Ausonius' late 4th century AD poem Mosella. They attest a diversified use of water-power in many parts of the Roman Empire.[9] A complex of mills also existed on the Janiculum in Rome fed by the Aqua Traiana. The Aurelian Walls were carried up the hill apparently to include the water mills used to grind grain towards providing bread flour for the city. The mill was thus probably built at the same time as or before the walls were built by the emperor Aurelian (reigned 270–275 AD). The mills were supplied from an aqueduct, where it plunged down a steep hill.[10] The site thus resembles Barbegal, although excavations in the late 1990s suggest that they may have been undershot rather than overshot in design. The mills were in use in 537 AD when the Goths besieging the city cut off their water supply. However they were subsequently restored and may have remained in operation until at least the time of Pope Gregory IV (827–44).[11] Many other sites are reported from across the Roman Empire, although many remain unexcavated. See also[edit] De architectura De aquaeductu Frontinus List of Roman watermills Naturalis Historia Pliny the Elder Roman agriculture Roman aqueducts Roman metallurgy Roman mining Roman technology Vitruvius References[edit] ^ Vinati, Simona and Piaggi, Marco de. “Roman Aqueducts, Aqueducts in Rome.” Rome.info. Web. 5/1/2012 ^ Duruy, Victor, and J. P. Mahaffy. History of Rome and the Roman People: From Its Origin to the Establishment of the Christian Empire. London: K. Paul, Trench & Co, 1883. Page 17 ^ Ville d'Histoire et de Patrimonie Archived 2013-12-06 at the Wayback Machine ^ La meunerie de Barbegal ^ Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007, p. 140 ^ Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007, p. 161 ^ Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007, pp. 139–141 ^ Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007, pp. 149–153 ^ Wilson 2002, p. 16 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWilson2002 (help) ^ Örjan Wikander, 'Water-mills in Ancient Rome' Opuscula Romana XII (1979), 13–36. ^ Örjan Wikander, 'Water-mills in Ancient Rome' Opuscula Romana XII (1979), 13–36. Bibliography[edit] Davies, Oliver (1935). Roman Mines in Europe. Oxford. Healy, A.F. (1999). Pliny the Elder on Science and Technology. Oxford: Clarendon. Hodge, T. (2001). Roman aqueducts and Water supply (2nd ed.). Duckworth. Ritti, Tullia; Grewe, Klaus; Kessener, Paul (2007), "A Relief of a Water-powered Stone Saw Mill on a Sarcophagus at Hierapolis and its Implications", Journal of Roman Archaeology, 20: 138–163 Smith, Norman (1972). A History of Dams. Citadel Press. Further reading[edit] Library resources about Roman engineering Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Cuomo, Serafina. 2008. "Ancient written sources for engineering and technology." In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 15–34. New York: Oxford Univ. Press. Greene, Kevin. 2003. "Archaeology and technology." In A companion to archaeology. Edited by John L. Bintliff, 155–173. Oxford: Blackwell. Humphrey, John W. 2006. Ancient technology. Westport, CT: Greenwood. McNeil, Ian, ed. 1990. An encyclopedia of the history of technology. London: Routledge. Oleson, John P., ed. 2008. The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. New York: Oxford Univ. Press. Rihll, Tracey E. 2013. Technology and society in the ancient Greek and Roman worlds. Washington, DC: American Historical Society. White, Kenneth D. 1984. Greek and Roman technology. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press. v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_engineering&oldid=992308596" Categories: History of engineering Ancient Roman technology Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Harv and Sfn no-target errors Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Català Deutsch Español Italiano Português Edit links This page was last edited on 4 December 2020, at 16:33 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5974	----	Secular Games - Wikipedia Secular Games From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The Saecular Games[1] (Latin: Ludi saeculares, originally Ludi Terentini) was a Roman religious celebration involving sacrifices and theatrical performances, held in ancient Rome for three days and nights to mark the end of a saeculum and the beginning of the next. A saeculum, supposedly the longest possible length of human life, was considered as either 100 or 110 years in length.[2][3] According to Roman mythology, the Secular Games began when a Sabine man called Valesius prayed for a cure for his children's illness and was supernaturally instructed to sacrifice on the Campus Martius to Dis Pater and Proserpina, deities of the underworld. Some ancient authors traced official celebrations of the Games as far back as 509 BC, but the only clearly attested celebrations under the Roman Republic took place in 249 and in the 140s BC. They involved sacrifices to the underworld gods over three consecutive nights. The Games were revived in 17 BC by Rome's first emperor Augustus, with the nocturnal sacrifices on the Campus Martius now transferred to the Moerae (fates), the Ilythiae (goddesses of childbirth), and Terra Mater ("Mother Earth"). The Games of 17 BC also introduced day-time sacrifices to Roman deities on the Capitoline and Palatine hills. Certain sacrifices were unusually specified to be performed by married women.[4] Each sacrifice was followed by theatrical performances.[5] Later emperors held celebrations in AD 88 and 204, after intervals of roughly 110 years. However, they were also held by Claudius in AD 47 to celebrate the 800th anniversary of Rome's foundation, which led to a second cycle of Games in 148 and 248. The Games were abandoned under later Christian emperors. Contents 1 The Republic 2 Augustus 3 The later Principate 4 Notes 5 References 6 External links The Republic[edit] According to Roman mythology told by Zosimus, the Secular Games originated with a Sabine man called Valesius, ancestor of the Valerii.[6] When his children became seriously ill, he prayed to his household gods for their cure, offering to give up his own life in exchange. A voice told him to take them to Tarentum and to give them water from the Tiber to drink, heated on an altar of Dis Pater and Proserpina.[7] Assuming that he had to travel to the Greek colony of Tarentum in southern Italy, he set out with his children on the journey. Sailing along the Tiber, he was instructed by the voice to stop on the Campus Martius, at a place which happened also to be called Tarentum. When he warmed water from the river and gave it to the children, they were miraculously cured and fell asleep. When they woke up, they informed Valesius that a figure had appeared to them in a dream and told the family to sacrifice to Dis Pater and Proserpina. Upon digging, Valesius found that an altar to those deities was buried on the site, and performed the ritual as instructed.[8][9] Celebrations of the Games under the Roman Republic are poorly documented. Although some Roman antiquarians traced them as far back as 509 BC,[10] some modern scholars consider that the first celebration well attested as having taken place was that of 249 BC, during the First Punic War.[11][12] According to Varro, an antiquarian of the 1st century BC, the Games were introduced after a series of portents led to a consultation of the Sibylline Books by the quindecimviri.[13] In accordance with the instructions contained in these books, sacrifices were offered at the Tarentum on the Campus Martius over three nights, to the underworld deities of Dis Pater and Proserpina. Varro also states that a vow was made that the Games would be repeated every hundred years, and another celebration did indeed take place in either 149 or 146 BC, at the time of the Third Punic War.[12][14] However, Beard, North and Price suggest that the Games of 249 and the 140s BC were both held because of the immediate pressures of war, and that it was only with the revival in the 140s that they came to be considered as a regular centennial celebration.[15] This sequence would have led to a celebration in 49 BC, but the civil wars apparently prevented this. Augustus[edit] The Games were revived in 17 BC by Rome's first emperor Augustus. The date was justified by a Sibylline oracle that called for the Games to be celebrated every 110 years, and a new reconstruction of the Games' Republican history which placed a first celebration in 456 BC.[16] Before the Games themselves, heralds went around the city and invited the people to "a spectacle, such as they had never witnessed and never would again".[9] The quindecimviri sat on the Capitol and in the temple of Apollo on the Palatine, and handed out to the free citizens torches, sulphur and asphalt, to be burnt as a means of purification. (This may have been modelled on the purificatory rituals of the Parilia, the anniversary of Rome's foundation.)[17] Offerings of wheat, barley, and beans were also made.[9] The Senate decreed that an inscribed record of the Games should be set up in the Tarentum, a site in the Campus Martius.[18] This inscription has partially survived,[19] and offers information about the ceremonies.[20] The night-time sacrifices were made not to the underworld deities Dis Pater and Proserpina, but to the Moerae (fates), the Ilythiae (goddesses of childbirth), and Terra Mater (the "Earth mother"). These were "more beneficent honorands, who nonetheless shared with Dis Pater and Proserpina the twin characteristics of being Greek in nomenclature and without cult in the Roman state".[21] The nocturnal sacrifices to Greek deities on the Campus Martius alternated with day-time sacrifices to Roman deities on the Capitoline and Palatine hills. Date Time Location Deities Sacrifices May 31 Night Campus Martius Moerae 9 female lambs, 9 she-goats June 1 Day Capitoline Hill Jupiter Optimus Maximus 2 bulls June 1 Night Campus Martius Ilythiae (Εἰλείθυια) 27 sacrificial cakes (9 of each of three types) June 2 Day Capitoline Hill Juno Regina 2 cows June 2 Night Campus Martius Terra Mater Pregnant sow June 3 Day Palatine Hill Apollo and Diana 27 sacrificial cakes (9 of each of three types) The key roles were played by Augustus and his son-in-law Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, in their capacity as members of the quindecimviri; Augustus participated alone in the night-time sacrifices but was joined by Agrippa for those during the day. After the sacrifices of June 3, choirs of boys and girls sang the Carmen Saeculare, composed for the occasion by the poet Horace.[22] This hymn was sung both on the Palatine and then on the Capitoline, but its words focus on the Palatine deities Apollo and Diana, which were more closely associated with Augustus. The hymn adds a further level of complexity to the alternation of sacrifices between Greek and Roman deities by addressing the Greek deities under Latin names.[21] Each sacrifice was followed by theatrical performances. Once the major sacrifices were over, the days between June 5 and June 11 were devoted to Greek and Latin plays, and June 12 saw chariot racing and displays of hunting.[20] The later Principate[edit] The Games continued to be celebrated under later emperors, but two different systems of calculation were used to determine their dates. Claudius held them in AD 47 to celebrate the 800th year from the foundation of Rome.[14][23] According to Suetonius, a herald's proclamation of a spectacle "which no one had ever seen or would ever see again" amused his listeners, some of whom had attended the Games under Augustus.[24] Under subsequent emperors, Games were celebrated on both the Augustan and the Claudian systems. Domitian held his in AD 88,[14][25] possibly 110 years from a planned Augustan celebration in 22 BC,[26] and he was followed by Septimius Severus in AD 204, 220 years from the actual Augustan celebration.[9][14] On both occasions, the procedure used in 17 BC was followed closely.[27] Antoninus Pius in 148 and Philip I in 248 followed Claudius in celebrating the 900- and 1000-year anniversaries of Rome's foundation, respectively. These involved rituals at the Temple of Venus and Roma instead of the Tarentum, and the date was probably changed to April 21, the Parilia.[27] By 314, 110 years from the Games of Septimius Severus, the Christian Constantine I was emperor, and no Secular Games were held. The pagan historian Zosimus (fl. c. 498–518), who wrote the most detailed extant account of the Games, blamed this neglect of the traditional ritual for the decline of the Roman Empire.[9] Notes[edit] ^ Formerly translated 'Secular Games', but recent scholarship prefers 'Saecular Games' to avoid confusion with the modern concept of the secular that implies disconnection from religious matters. See, for example, Rüpke, Jörg (2018). Pantheon: A new history of Roman religion. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. 193–203. ISBN 978-1-4008-8885-6. ^ Haase, Mareile; Rüpke, Jörg (2002). "Saeculum". In Hubert Cancik; Helmuth Schneider; Christine F. Salazar; David E. Orton (eds.). Brill's New Pauly: Encyclopaedia of the ancient world. Leiden: Brill. doi:10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e1027080. ISBN 978-90-04-12259-8. ^ Bilynskyj Dunning, Susan (November 2017). "Saeculum". Oxford Classical Dictionary. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.8233. ^ Darja, Šterbenc Erker (2018-05-02). "Augustus' "New" Festival: The Centrality of Married Women's Rituals at the Ludi Saeculares of 17 BCE". Numen. 65 (4): 377–404. doi:10.1163/15685276-12341504. ISSN 1568-5276. ^ Boyce, Aline Abaecherli (1941). "Processions in the Acta Ludorum Saecularium". Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association. 72: 36–48. doi:10.2307/283039. JSTOR 283039. ^ Bilynskyj Dunning, Susan (March 2016). "Secular Games". Oxford Classical Dictionary. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.5781. ^ Watkins, Calvert (1991). "Latin tarentum Accas, the ludi Saeculares, and Indo-European Eschatology". In Winfred P. Lehmann; Helen-Jo Jakusz Hewitt (eds.). Language typology 1988: Typological models in reconstruction. Amsterdam studies in the theory and history of linguistic science. Amsterdam: Benjamins. p. 135. doi:10.1075/cilt.81.10wat. ISBN 978-90-272-3578-7. ^ Valerius Maximus 2.4.5. ^ a b c d e Zosimus 2. ^ Censorinus 17.10. ^ Beard et al., vol. 1, pp. 71–72. ^ a b Livy, Periochae 49.6. ^ Varro in Censorinus 17.8. ^ a b c d Censorinus 17.11. ^ Beard et al., vol. 1, pp. 71–72, 111. ^ Beard et al., vol. 1, p. 205. The oracle is preserved in Zosimus 2, and is also translated by Braund, no. 770. This cycle would logically have led to Games in 16 rather than 17 BC; the reason for the discrepancy is unclear (Beard et al., vol. 1, p. 205 and n. 126). ^ Beard et al., vol. 1, p. 203. ^ Braund, no. 768. ^ Inscription CIL VI, 32323 = AE 2002, 192, with English translation. ^ a b Beard et al., vol. 2, no. 5.7b = Braund, no. 769. ^ a b Feeney, Dennis (2003). "The Ludi Saeculares and the Carmen Saeculare". In Ando, Clifford (ed.). Roman religion. Edinburgh readings on the ancient world. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 106–116. doi:10.3366/edinburgh/9780748615650.003.0027. ISBN 978-0-7486-1565-0. JSTOR 10.3366/j.ctt1r2b8s.15. ^ Bollók, János (2001). "A Carmen saeculare és a Ludi Saeculares". Antik Tanulmányok. 45 (1): 63–73. doi:10.1556/AntTan.45.2001.1-2.7. ISSN 0003-567X. ^ Tacitus, Annals 11.11. ^ Suetonius, Claudius 21.2. ^ Sobocinski, Melanie Grunow (2006). "Visualizing Ceremony: The Design and Audience of the Ludi Saeculares Coinage of Domitian". American Journal of Archaeology. 110 (4): 581–602. doi:10.3764/aja.110.4.581. JSTOR 40025059. ^ Suetonius, Domitian 4.3, with Jones and Milns, p. 130. ^ a b Beard et al., vol. 1, p. 206. References[edit] Beard, Mary; North, John A.; Price, Simon (1998). Religions of Rome. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-30401-6. (vol. 1). ISBN 978-0-521-45646-3 (vol. 2). Braund, David C. (1985). Augustus to Nero: A Sourcebook on Roman History 31 BC–AD 68. Totowa: Barnes and Noble. ISBN 978-0-389-20536-4. Jones, Brian; Robert Milns (2002). Suetonius: The Flavian Emperors: A Historical Commentary. London: Bristol Classical Press. ISBN 978-1-85399-613-9. Pighi, Giovanni Battista (1965). De ludis saecularibus populi Romani Quiritium (2nd ed.). Amsterdam: Schippers.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Secular Games". Encyclopædia Britannica. 24 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 573. External links[edit] Coins commemorating secular celebrations and games under Antoninus Pius, Septimius Severus and Philip I v t e Roman festivals and games (ludi) Agonalia Ambarvalia Amburbium Argei Armilustrium Augustalia Brumalia Capitoline Games Caprotinia Caristia Carmentalia Cerealia Compitalia Consualia Epulum Jovis Equirria Februa Feralia Floralia Fordicidia Furrinalia Larentalia Latin Festival Lemuria Liberalia Lucaria Ludi Apollinares Ludi Romani Lupercalia Matronalia Meditrinalia Megalesia Mercuralia Nemoralia Neptunalia October Horse Opiconsivia Parentalia Parilia Poplifugia Plebeian Games Quinquatria Quirinalia Regifugium Robigalia Saturnalia Rosalia Secular Games Sementivae Septimontium Taurian Games Terminalia Tubilustrium Veneralia Vinalia Volturnalia Vulcanalia Authority control BNF: cb16652999x (data) LCCN: sh85119457 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Secular_Games&oldid=981019645" Categories: Ancient Roman festivals May observances June observances Recurring sporting events established before 1750 Hidden categories: Articles containing Latin-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Беларуская Català Deutsch Español Français Հայերեն Italiano עברית Latina Lietuvių Magyar Polski Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 29 September 2020, at 20:21 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5978	----	Pontifex maximus - Wikipedia Pontifex maximus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Pontifex Maximus) Jump to navigation Jump to search Chief high priest in ancient Rome Augustus as pontifex maximus (Via Labicana Augustus) The pontifex maximus (Latin, "greatest priest"[1][2][3]) was the chief high priest of the College of Pontiffs (Collegium Pontificum) in ancient Rome. This was the most important position in the ancient Roman religion, open only to patricians until 254 BC, when a plebeian first occupied this post. Although in fact the most powerful office of Roman priesthood, the pontifex maximus was officially ranked fifth in the ranking of the highest Roman priests (ordo sacerdotum), behind the rex sacrorum and the flamines maiores (Flamen Dialis, Flamen Martialis, Flamen Quirinalis).[4] A distinctly religious office under the early Roman Republic, it gradually became politicized until, beginning with Augustus (r. 27 BC – 14 AD), it was subsumed into the position of emperor in the Roman imperial period. Subsequent emperors were styled pontifex maximus well into Late Antiquity, including Gratian (r. 367–383), but during Gratian's reign the phrase was replaced in imperial titulature with the Latin phrase: pontifex inclytus, an example followed by Gratian's junior co-emperor Theodosius the Great and which was used by emperors thereafter including the co-augusti Valentinian III (r. 425–455) and Marcian (r. 450–457) and the augustus Anastasius Dicorus (r. 491–518). The first to adopt the inclytus alternative to maximus may have been the rebel augustus Magnus Maximus (r. 383–388). The word pontifex and its derivative "pontiff" became terms used for Christian bishops,[5] including the Bishop of Rome,[6][7] and the title of pontifex maximus was applied to the Catholic Church for the pope as its chief bishop and appears on buildings, monuments and coins of popes of Renaissance and modern times. The official list of titles of the pope given in the Annuario Pontificio includes "supreme pontiff" (Latin: summus pontifex) as the fourth title, the first being "bishop of Rome".[8] Contents 1 Etymology 2 Origins in the Regal period 3 Roman Republic 3.1 Election and number 3.2 Extraordinary appointment of dictators 3.2.1 Duties 4 Roman Empire 4.1 Late Antiquity 4.1.1 Pontifex inclytus 5 Middle Ages 6 Catholic Church use of the title 7 See also 8 References 9 Bibliography 10 External links Etymology[edit] Priesthoods of ancient Rome Flamen (250–260 CE) Major colleges Pontifices · Augures · Septemviri epulonum Quindecimviri sacris faciundis Other colleges or sodalities Fetiales · Fratres Arvales · Salii Titii · Luperci · Sodales Augustales Priests Pontifex Maximus · Rex Sacrorum Flamen Dialis · Flamen Martialis Flamen Quirinalis · Rex Nemorensis Curio maximus Priestesses Virgo Vestalis Maxima Flaminica Dialis · Regina sacrorum Related topics Religion in ancient Rome · Imperial cult Glossary of ancient Roman religion Gallo-Roman religion v t e The etymology of "pontifex" is uncertain, but the word has been used since Roman times. The word appears to consist of the Latin word for "bridge" and the suffix for "maker". However, there is a possibility that this definition is a folk etymology for an Etruscan term,[9] since Roman religion was heavily influenced by Etruscan religion, and very little is known about the Etruscan language, which is not Indo-European. According to the common interpretation, the term pontifex means "bridge-builder" (pons + facere); "maximus" means "greatest". This was perhaps originally meant in a literal sense: the position of bridge-builder was indeed an important one in Rome, where the major bridges were over the Tiber, the sacred river (and a deity): only prestigious authorities with sacral functions could be allowed to "disturb" it with mechanical additions. However, it was always understood in its symbolic sense as well: the pontifices were the ones who smoothed the "bridge" between gods and men.[10] The interpretation of the word pontifex as "bridge-builder" was that of Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Marcus Terentius Varro. Plutarch pointed out that the term existed before there were any bridges in Rome and derived the word from Old Latin pontis (sic) meaning a powerful or absolute master, while others derived it from potis facere in the sense of "able to sacrifice".[11] The last derivation is mentioned also by Varro, who rejected it,[12] but it was the view of pontifex maximus Quintus Scaevola.[13] Others have held that the word was originally pompifex (leader of public processions).[13] The word pons originally meant "way" and pontifex would thus mean "maker of roads and bridges".[13] Another opinion is that the word is a corruption of a similar-sounding but etymologically unrelated Etruscan word.[14] Yet another hypothesis[15] considers the word as a loan from the Sabine language, in which it would mean a member of a college of five, from Osco-Umbrian ponte, five.[16] This explanation takes into account the fact that the college was established by Sabine king Numa Pompilius and the institution is Italic: the expressions pontis and pomperias found in the Iguvine Tablets may denote a group or division of five or by five. The pontifex would thence be a member of a sacrificial college known as pomperia (Latin quinio).[17] The Roman title pontifex maximus was rendered in Greek inscriptions and literature of the time as Koinē Greek: ἀρχιερεύς, romanized: archiereús, lit. 'Archpriest'[18] or by a more literal translation and order of words as Koinē Greek: ἀρχιερεὺς μέγιστος, romanized: archireús mégistos, lit. 'greatest archpriest'.[19] The term ἀρχιερεύς is used in the Greek Septuagint text of the Old Testament and in the New Testament to refer to the High Priest of Israel, including in 2 Maccabees (2 Maccabees 4:7). The word pontifex, Latin for "pontiff", was used in ancient Rome to designate a member of the College of Pontiffs. In the Latin Vulgate translation of the New Testament, it is sometimes used to designate the Jewish high priest, as in the Gospel of John and Epistle to the Hebrews (John 11:49; Hebrews 5:1). From perhaps as early as the 3rd century, it has been used to denote a Christian bishop. In the Vulgate, the term summus pontifex was originally applied to the High Priest of Israel, as in the Book of Judith (Judith 15:19), whose place, each in his own diocese, the Christian bishops were regarded as holding, based on an interpretation of the First Epistle of Clement (I Clement 40).[20] Origins in the Regal period[edit] The Collegium Pontificum (College of Pontiffs) was the most important priesthood of ancient Rome. The foundation of this sacred college and the office of pontifex maximus is attributed to the second king of Rome, Numa Pompilius.[21] Much of what is known about the Regal period in Roman history is semi-legendary or mythical. The Collegium presumably acted as advisers to the rex (king) in religious matters. The collegium was headed by the pontifex maximus, and all the pontifices held their office for life. But the pontifical records of early Rome were most likely destroyed when the city was sacked by the Gauls in 387 BCE, and the earliest accounts of Archaic Rome come from the literature of the Republic, most of it from the 1st century BC and later. According to the Augustan-era historian Livy, Numa Pompilius, a Sabine, devised Rome's system of religious rites, including the manner and timing of sacrifices, the supervision of religious funds, authority over all public and private religious institutions, instruction of the populace in the celestial and funerary rites including appeasing the dead, and expiation of prodigies. Numa is said to have founded Roman religion after dedicating an altar on the Aventine Hill to Jupiter Elicius and consulting the gods by means of augury.[21] Numa wrote down and sealed these religious instructions, and gave them to the first pontifex maximus, Numa Marcius. Roman Republic[edit] See also: List of Pontifices Maximi and College of Pontiffs In the Roman Republic, the pontifex maximus was the highest office in the state religion of ancient Rome and directed the College of Pontiffs. According to Livy, after the overthrow of the monarchy, the Romans created the priesthood of the rex sacrorum, or "king of sacred rites," to carry out certain religious duties and rituals previously performed by the king. The rex sacrorum was explicitly deprived of military and political power, but the pontifices were permitted to hold both magistracies and military commands.[22] The official residence of the pontifex maximus was the Domus Publica ("State House") which stood between the House of the Vestal Virgins and the Via Sacra, close to the Regia, in the Roman Forum. His religious duties were carried out from the Regia. Unless the pontifex maximus was also a magistrate, he was not allowed to wear the toga praetexta, i.e. toga with the purple border. In artistic representations, he can be recognized by his holding an iron knife (secespita)[9] or the patera,[23] and the distinctive robes or toga with part of the mantle covering the head (capite velato), in keeping with Roman practice. The Pontifex was not simply a priest. He had both political and religious authority. It is not clear which of the two came first or had the most importance. In practice, particularly during the late Republic, the office of pontifex maximus was generally held by a member of a politically prominent family. It was a coveted position mainly for the great prestige it conferred on the holder; Julius Caesar became pontifex in 73 BC and pontifex maximus in 63 BCE. The major Republican source on the pontiffs would have been the theological writings of Varro, which survive only in fragments preserved by later authors such as Aulus Gellius and Nonius Marcellus. Other sources are Cicero, Livy, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Valerius Maximus, Plutarch's Life of Numa Pompilius, Festus's summaries of Verrius Flaccus, and in later writers, including several of the Church Fathers. Some of these sources present an extensive list of everyday prohibitions for the pontifex maximus; it seems difficult to reconcile these lists with evidence that many pontifices maximi were prominent members of society who lived normal, non-restricted lives. Election and number[edit] The number of Pontifices, elected by co-optatio (i.e. the remaining members nominate their new colleague) for life, was originally five, including the pontifex maximus.[24][9] The pontifices, moreover, could only come from the old nobility, the patricians. However, in 300–299 BCE the lex Ogulnia opened the office of pontifex maximus to public election and permitted the plebs (plebeians) to be co-opted as priests, so that part of the exclusivity of the title was lost. But it was only in 254 BCE that Tiberius Coruncanius became the first plebeian pontifex maximus.[25] The lex Ogulnia also increased the number of pontiffs to nine (the pontifex maximus included). In 104 BCE the lex Domitia prescribed that the election of all pontiffs would henceforward be voted by the comitia tributa (an assembly of the people divided into voting districts); by the same law only 17 tribes, chosen by lot from the 35 tribes of the city, could vote. The law's promulgator, L[ucius] Domitius Ahenobarbus, was shortly afterwards elected pontifex maximus after the death of the incumbent Metellus Dalmaticus: Something of a personal revenge because, the previous year, he had expected to be co-opted as a pontiff to replace his late father, but the pontifical college had appointed another candidate in his place. The office's next holder, Q[uintus] Mucius Scaevola, was also elected under the same law, though without controversy or opposition since he was a former consul and long-serving pontiff. This law was abolished in 81 BCE by Sulla in his dictatorship, in the lex Cornelia de Sacerdotiis, which restored to the great priestly colleges their full right of co-optatio.[26][27][28] Also under Sulla, the number of pontifices was increased to fifteen, the pontifex maximus included, and Sulla nominated Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius as the next holder of the office – the only truly unelected pontifex maximus in history, since even the other pontiffs did not get a vote in the matter. In 63 BC, the law of Sulla was abolished by the tribune Titus Labienus, and a modified form of the lex Domitia was reinstated providing for election by comitia tributa once again: Gaius Julius Caesar followed Ahenobarbus's precedent by being elected by public vote, although Caesar at least had previously been a pontiff. Marcus Antonius later restored the right of co-optatio to the college[29], in time for the election of Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. Also under Julius Caesar, the number of pontifices were increased to sixteen, the pontifex maximus included. (Possibly because Caesar's own long absences from Rome necessitated the appointment of a deputy pontiff for those occasions when fifteen needed to be present.) The number of pontifices varied during the Empire but is believed to have been regular at fifteen.[24] Extraordinary appointment of dictators[edit] The office came into its own with the abolition of the monarchy, when most sacral powers previously vested in the King were transferred either to the pontifex maximus or to the Rex Sacrorum, though traditionally a (non-political) dictator[30] was formally mandated by the Senate for one day, to perform a specific rite. According to Livy in his "History of Rome", an ancient instruction written in archaic letters commands: "Let him who is the Praetor Maximus fasten a nail on the Ides of September." This notice was fastened up on the right side of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, next to the chapel of Minerva. This nail is said to have marked the number of the year. It was in accordance with this direction that the consul Horatius dedicated the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus in the year following the expulsion of the kings; from the Consuls the ceremony of fastening the nails passed to the Dictators, because they possessed greater authority. As the custom had been subsequently dropped, it was felt to be of sufficient importance to require the appointment of a Dictator. L[ucius] Manlius was accordingly nominated but his appointment was due to political rather than religious reasons. He was eager to command in the war with the Hernici. He caused a very angry feeling among the men liable to serve by the inconsiderate way in which he conducted the enrolment. At last, in consequence of the unanimous resistance offered by the tribunes of the plebs, he gave way, either voluntarily or through compulsion, and laid down his Dictatorship. Since then, this rite has been performed by the Rex Sacrorum.[31] Duties[edit] The main duty of the Pontifices was to maintain the pax deorum or "peace of the gods."[32][33][34] The immense authority of the sacred college of pontiffs was centered on the pontifex maximus, the other pontifices forming his consilium or advising body. His functions were partly sacrificial or ritualistic, but these were the least important. His real power lay in the administration of ius divinum or divine law;[35] the information collected by the pontifices related to the Roman religious tradition was bound in a corpus which summarized dogma and other concepts. The chief departments of jus divinum may be described as follows: Denarius depicting Julius Caesar as pontifex maximus The regulation of all expiatory ceremonials needed as a result of pestilence, lightning, etc. The consecration of all temples and other sacred places and objects dedicated to the gods. The regulation of the calendar; both astronomically and in detailed application to the public life of the state. The administration of the law relating to burials and burying-places, and the worship of the manes or dead ancestors. The superintendence of all marriages by conferratio, i.e. originally of all legal patrician marriages. The administration of the law of adoption and of testamentary succession. The regulation of the public morals, and fining and punishing offending parties. The pontifices had many relevant and prestigious functions such as being in charge of caring for the state archives, the keeping the official minutes of elected magistrates[36] and list of magistrates, and they kept the records of their own decisions (commentarii) and of the chief events of each year, the so-called "public diaries", the Annales maximi.[37] The pontifex maximus was also subject to several taboos. Among them was the prohibition to leave Italy. Plutarch described Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Serapio (141–132 BCE) as the first to leave Italy, after being forced by the Senate to do so, and thus break the sacred taboo. Publius Licinius Crassus Dives Mucianus (132–130 BCE) was the first to leave Italy voluntarily. Afterwards it became common and no longer against the law for the pontifex maximus to leave Italy. Among the most notable of those who did was Julius Caesar (63–44 BCE). The Pontifices were in charge of the Roman calendar and determined when intercalary months needed to be added to synchronize the calendar to the seasons. Since the Pontifices were often politicians, and because a Roman magistrate's term of office corresponded with a calendar year, this power was prone to abuse: a Pontifex could lengthen a year in which he or one of his political allies was in office, or refuse to lengthen one in which his opponents were in power. This caused the calendar to become out of step with the seasons; for example, Caesar's crossing of the Rubicon in January 49 BCE actually took place in mid-autumn. Under his authority as pontifex maximus, Julius Caesar introduced the calendar reform that created the Julian calendar, with a fault of less than a day per century, and which remained the standard till the Gregorian reform in the 16th century. Pontifex maximus and augustus Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180) performing sacrifice in a relief from the Arch of Marcus Aurelius (Capitoline Museums) Roman Empire[edit] After Julius Caesar's assassination in 44 BCE, his ally Marcus Aemilius Lepidus was selected as pontifex maximus. Though Lepidus eventually fell out of political favor and was sent into exile as Augustus consolidated power, he retained the priestly office until his death in 13 BCE, at which point Augustus was selected to succeed him and given the right to appoint other pontifices. Thus, from the time of Augustus, the election of pontifices ended and membership in the sacred college was deemed a sign of imperial favour.[9] With this attribution, the new office of Emperor was given a religious dignity and the responsibility for the entire Roman state cult. Most authors contend that the power of naming the Pontifices was not really used as an instrumentum regni, an enforcing power. From this point on, pontifex maximus was one of the many titles of the Emperor, slowly losing its specific and historical powers and becoming simply a referent for the sacral aspect of imperial duties and powers. During the Imperial period, a promagister (vice-master) performed the duties of the pontifex maximus in lieu of the emperors whenever they were absent.[10] In post-Severan times (after 235 CE), the small number of pagan senators interested in becoming pontiffs led to a change in the pattern of office holding. In Republican and Imperial times no more than one family member of a gens was member of the College of Pontiffs, nor did one person hold more than one priesthood in this collegium. However, these rules were obviously loosened in the later part of the 3rd century A.D. In periods of joint rule, at first only one of the emperors bore this title, as it occurred for the first time during the reign of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, when only Marcus Aurelius was pontifex maximus, but later two pontifices maximi could serve together, as Pupienus and Balbinus did in 238 AD—a situation unthinkable in Republican times. Late Antiquity[edit] When Tertullian, a Montanist, furiously applied the term to some bishop with whom he was at odds (either Pope Callixtus I or Agrippinus of Carthage),[38][39] c 220, over a relaxation of the Church's penitential discipline allowing repentant adulterers and fornicators back into the Church, it was in bitter irony: In opposition to this [modesty], could I not have acted the dissembler? I hear that there has even been an edict sent forth, and a peremptory one too. The "Pontifex Maximus," that is the "bishop of bishops," issues an edict: "I remit, to such as have discharged [the requirements of] repentance, the sins both of adultery and of fornication." O edict, on which cannot be inscribed, "Good deed!"... Far, far from Christ's betrothed be such a proclamation! — Tertullian, On Modesty ch. 1 In the Crisis of the Third Century, emperors continued to assume the title pontifex maximus. The early Christian emperors, including Constantine the Great (r. 306–337) and the rest of the Constantinian dynasty, continued to use it; it was only relinquished by Gratian, possibly in 376 at the time of his visit to Rome,[10] or more probably in 383 when a delegation of pagan senators implored him to restore the Altar of Victory in Roman Senate's Curia Julia.[40] Its last use with reference to the emperors is in inscriptions of Gratian.[41][24][9] The Edict of Thessalonica of 27 February 380 was enacted in Thessalonica (Thessaloniki) and published in Constantinople (Istanbul) for the whole empire. By it, Theodosius I established Nicene Christianity as the state church of the Roman Empire. The Latin text refers to the bishop of Rome, Damasus, as a pontifex, and the bishop of Alexandria, Peter, as an episcopus:[42] ... the profession of that religion which was delivered to the Romans by the divine Apostle Peter, as it has been preserved by faithful tradition and which is now professed by the Pontiff Damasus and by Peter, Bishop of Alexandria ... We authorize the followers of this law to assume the title Catholic Christians ...[43] Various forms of summus pontifex ('highest pontiff' or bishop) were for centuries used not only of the Bishop of Rome but of other bishops also.[20] Hilary of Arles (d. 449) is styled summus pontifex by Eucherius of Lyon (P. L., vol. L, col. 773) Pontifex inclytus[edit] During Gratian's reign or immediately afterwards the phrase pontifex maximus – which had unwelcome associations with traditional Roman religion during the Christianization of the Roman Empire – was replaced in imperial titulature with the phrase: pontifex inclytus.[44] The first to adopt the inclytus alternative to maximus may have been the rebel augustus and devout Christian close to bishop Martin of Tours, Magnus Maximus (r. 383–388), who killed Gratian in August 383.[44] This practice was followed by Gratian's junior co-emperor Theodosius the Great and was used by emperors thereafter, including the co-augusti Valentinian III (r. 425–455) and Marcian (r. 450–457) and the augustus Anastasius Dicorus (r. 491–518), for whom examples of official usage survive.[44] Another inscription dedicated to Justin II (r. 565–574) and naming him pontifex has long been recognized as a forgery, though there is no evidence to suggest the title could not have been used by Justinian the Great (r. 527–565) or even by Constantine IV (r. 654–685).[44] Middle Ages[edit] Lanfranc is termed primas et pontifex summus by his biographer, Milo Crispin (P. L., vol. CL, 10). but from the 11th century it appears to be applied only to the Pope.[20] Engraving by Christoph Weigel the Elder of Pope Clement XI, giving him the title pontifex maximus Catholic Church use of the title[edit] Papal coin of Pius VI from 1795, marked on the reverse: ·pivs· ·sextus· pontifex maximus mdccxcv Pius the Sixth Pontifex Maximus 1795 Inscription of Pope Pius IX (r. 1846–1878) on the Colosseum describing him as pivs ix pont· max· and commemorating the 19th-century restoration Gate to the Vatican inscribed Benedictus XVI Pont[ifex] Max[imus] Anno Domini MMV Pont[ificatus] I ("Benedict XVI, Supreme Pontiff, in the year of Our Lord 2005, in the first year of his pontificate") See also: Pontiff § Catholicism In the 15th century, when the Renaissance stirred up new interest in ancient Rome, pontifex maximus became a regular title of honour for Popes.[45] After the Fall of the Eastern Roman Empire with the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire and the death of the final Roman emperor Constantine XI in 1453, pontifex maximus became part of the papacy's official titulature of the Bishop of Rome.[46] The name given to the book containing the liturgical rites to be performed by any bishop, the Roman Pontifical, and to the form of liturgy known as Pontifical High Mass witness to the continued use of pontifex to refer to bishops in general. While the title pontifex maximus has for some centuries been used in inscriptions referring to the Popes, it has never been included in the official list of papal titles published in the Annuario Pontificio. The official list of titles of the Pope given in the Annuario Pontificio includes "Supreme Pontiff of the whole Church" (in Latin, Summus Pontifex Ecclesiae Universalis) as the fourth title, the first being "Bishop of Rome". The title pontifex maximus appears in inscriptions on buildings and on coins and medallions. In December 2012 Pope Benedict XVI adopted @pontifex as his Twitter handle,[47] prompting users to pose questions with the #askpontifex hashtag.[48][49] This has been maintained by his successor Pope Francis, who now uses it as his Twitter handle.[50] See also[edit] College of Pontiffs – High priests of ancient Rome Pontiff References[edit] ^ Peck, Harry Thurston (1896). "s. v. Pontifex". Harper's Dictionary of Classical Antiquities. New York: Harper & Brothers. p. 1299. ^ Lewis, Chartlon T.; Short, Charles (1879). "s. v. pontifex". A Latin Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press – via Perseus Project. ^ "s. v. pontifex". American Heritage Dictionary (Fifth ed.). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. 2019. ^ Forsythe, Gary (January 1, 2006). A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War. University of California Press. p. 136. ISBN 978-0-520-24991-2. Retrieved September 2, 2016. ^ Pascal, Paul (February 1966). "Medieval Uses of Antiquity". The Classical Journal. The Classical Association of the Middle West and South, Inc. 61 (5): 193–197. JSTOR 3294702. In the matter of hierarchical nomenclature, one of the most striking instances is the adoption of the term pontifex for a bishop ^ Edictum Gratiani, Valentiani et Theodosii de fide catholica. The Roman Law Library. February 27, 380. Archived from the original on April 27, 2014. Retrieved January 6, 2018. ^ "Pontiff: 1a. The pope. b. A bishop. 2. A pontifex.". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (Fourth ed.). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. 2000. Retrieved June 27, 2019. ^ Annuario Pontificio. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. 2012. p. 23. ISBN 978-88-209-8722-0. ^ a b c d e Lendering, Jona. "Pontifex Maximus". Archived from the original on January 12, 2012. Retrieved August 21, 2011 – via Livius.org. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ a b c Van Haeperen, Françoise (2003). "Des pontifes païens aux pontifes chrétiens". Revue belge de Philologie et d'Histoire. 81 (1): 137–159. doi:10.3406/rbph.2003.4718. Retrieved 3 March 2020. ^ Nathaniel Hooke, The Roman History (1830), vol. I, p. 81 ^ Mary Beard, John North, Simon Price (editors), Religions of Rome (Cambridge University Press 1998 ISBN 978-0-52145646-3), vol. 2, p. 195 ^ a b c Rodolfo Lanciani, New Tales of Ancient Rome (Kessinger Publishing 2005 (reprint) ISBN 978-1-41790821-9), p. 54 ^ "Pontifex", Online Etymology Dictionary ^ First proposed by F. Ribezzo in "Pontifices 'quinionalis sacrificii effectores'", Rivista Indo-Greco-Italica di Filologia-Lingua-Antichità 15 1931 p. 56. ^ Cf. Greek πέντε ^ For a review of the proposed hypotheses cfr. J. P. Hallet "Over Troubled Waters: The Meaning of the Title Pontifex" in Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 101 1970 p. 219 ff. ^ Polybius 23.1.2 and 32.22.5; Corpus Inscriptionum Atticarum 3.43, 3.428 und 3.458 ^ Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum 2.2696 and 3.346; Plutarch Numa 9.4 ^ a b c Joyce, George Hayward (1911). "Pope § Titles" . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. 12. New York: Robert Appleton Company. ^ a b Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:20 ^ Roman Public Religion Archived March 18, 2011, at the Wayback Machine Roman Civilization, bates.edu retrieved August 17, 2006 ^ Panel Reliefs of Marcus Aurelius and Roman Imperial Iconography State University of New York, College at Oneonta retrieved Sep 14, 2006 ^ a b c Smith, William (1875). "Pontifex Maximus". A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. London: John Murray. pp. 939–942. Retrieved August 15, 2006 – via LacusCurtius. ^ Titus Livius. Ex Libro XVIII Periochae, from livius.org retrieved August 16, 2006 ^ Liv. Epit. 89 ^ Pseudo-Ascon. in Divinat. p 102, ed. Orelli ^ Dion Cass. xxxvii. 37 ^ Dion Cass. xliv. 53 ^ see also: basileus, interrex ^ Livy (Titus Livius). "History of Rome". Ancient History Sourcebook: Accounts of Roman State Religion, c. 200 BCE – 250 CE. Paul Halsall © August 1998 (public domain), Fordham University; halsall@murray.fordham.edu. Retrieved August 23, 2006. ^ The Roman Persecution of Christians By Neil Manzullo February 8, 2000 Persuasive Writing, retrieved August 17, 2006 ^ Pax Deorum everything2.com retrieved August 17, 2006 ^ "Roman Mythology" Archived May 21, 2006, at the Wayback Machine, Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006. Retrieved August 17, 2006 ^ jus divinum, Merriam–Webster Online Dictionary retrieved August 24, 2006 ^ Ovid, Fasti ^ Fowler, William Warde (1911). "Pontifex" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 66. ^ Francis Aloysius Sullivan, From Apostles to Bishops (Paulist Press 2001 ISBN 978-0-8091-0534-2), p. 165 ^ David E. Wilhite, Tertullian the African (De Gruyter, Walter 2007 ISBN 978-3-11-019453-1), p. 174 ^ A. Cameron, A. (1969). Gratian's repudiation of the pontifical robe. The Journal of Roman Studies, 58: 96–102. The confusion in dates arises from Zosimus, who writes that it was repudiated at Gratian's accession, impossible from epigraphic and literary references ^ Tikkanen, Amy (February 3, 2008). "Gratian". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved June 27, 2019 – via Encyclopædia Britannica Online. ^ Unlike episcopus (from Greek ἐπίσκοπος), the word used for the bishop from the Greek-speaking East, pontifex is a word of purely Latin derivation. ^ Theodosian Code XVI.1.2; and Sozomen, "Ecclesiastical History", VII, iv. Emperor Theodosius I. "IMPERATORIS THEODOSIANI CODEX Liber Decimus Sextus" (web). ancientrome.ru. Retrieved December 4, 2006. ^ a b c d Cameron, Alan (2007). "The Imperial Pontifex". Harvard Studies in Classical Philology. 103: 341–384. ISSN 0073-0688. JSTOR 30032227. ^ Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), article Pontifex Maximus ^ Nicholson, Oliver; Gwynn, David (2018), Nicholson, Oliver (ed.), "Pontifex Maximus", The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-866277-8, retrieved November 1, 2020 ^ Winfield, Nicole (December 3, 2012). "Pope joins tweeting masses with Pontifex handle". AP. Retrieved December 3, 2012. ^ Ask the pope @pontifex: With Twitter account, Benedict XVI just a tweet away, Michelle Boorstein, Washington Post December 4, 2012 ^ Pope Benedict to launch new Twitter account, Vatican Radio, December 3, 2012. ^ The official Twitter page of Pope Francis Bibliography[edit] Cameron, Alan (2016). "Pontifex Maximus: from Augustus to Gratian – and Beyond" (PDF). Collegium: 139–159. Dijkstra, Roald; Espelo, Dorine Van (2017). "Anchoring Pontifical Authority: A Reconsideration of the Papal Employment of the Title Pontifex Maximus". Journal of Religious History. 41 (3): 312–325. doi:10.1111/1467-9809.12400. External links[edit] article Pontifex in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities Annotated pontifex maximus list List of roman consuls (Fasti consulares) 300 BCE – 60 CE at http://www.tyndale.cam.ac.uk/Egypt/ptolemies/chron/chronology.htm – in the list of consuls the column on the right (pontifex maximus) lists those that are known in this period. Joyce, George Hayward (1911). "Pope § V. Primacy of Honour: Titles and Insignia" . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. 12. 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en-wikipedia-org-6028	----	Henry Vaughan - Wikipedia Henry Vaughan From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other people named Henry Vaughan, see Henry Vaughan (disambiguation). Henry Vaughan Born 17 April 1621 Newton St Bridget, Brecknockshire, Wales Died 23 April 1695(1695-04-23) (aged 73–74) Scethrog House, Llansantffraed, Brecknockshire, Wales Occupation Poet Nationality Welsh Period 17th century Genre Poetry Notable works Silex Scintillans Spouse Catherine Vaughan, Elizabeth Vaughan Relatives Thomas Vaughan Henry Vaughan (17 April 1621 – 23 April 1695) was a Welsh metaphysical poet, author, translator and physician, writing in English. He is chiefly known for religious poetry published in Silex Scintillans in 1650, with a second part in 1655.[1] In 1646 his poems, with the Tenth Satyre of Juvenal Englished, were published, followed by a second volume in 1647. Meanwhile, he had been persuaded by reading the religious poet George Herbert to give up "idle verse". The prose Mount of Olives or Solitary Devotions (1652) shows the depth of his religious convictions and authenticity of his genius. Two more volumes of secular verse followed, ostensibly without his sanction, but it is his religious verse that has been acclaimed. He also translated short moral and religious works and two medical works in prose. In the 1650s he began a lifelong practise in medicine.[2] Contents 1 Early life 2 Education 3 Secular works 4 Conversion and sacred poetry 5 Poetic influences 6 Death and legacy 7 Musical settings 8 Works 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 External links Early life[edit] Henry Vaughan was born at Newton by Usk in the parish of Llansantffraed (St. Bridget's), Brecknockshire, the eldest known child of Thomas Vaughan (c. 1586–1658) of Tretower, and Denise Jenkin (c. 1593) only daughter and heir of David and Gwenllian Morgan of Llansantffraed.[3] Vaughan had a twin brother called Thomas Vaughan, who became a philosopher and alchemist.[4] Vaughan could claim kinship with two powerful Welsh families, one Catholic and one Protestant. His paternal grandfather, William, owned Tretower Court.[5] His paternal grandmother, Frances, was the natural daughter of Thomas Somerset, who spent some 24 years in the Tower of London for his adherence to Catholicism.[6]:pp. 6–7 and 243–44 As she survived into Vaughan's boyhood, there may have been some direct Catholic influence upon his early nurturing. Vaughan shared ancestry with the Herbert family through the daughter of the famous warrior of Agincourt Dafydd ap Llywelyn, the "Davy Gam, esquire" of Shakespeare's Henry V. He is not known to have claimed kinship with George Herbert, but may have been aware of the connection. Education[edit] Thomas Vaughan later remarked that "English is a Language the Author was not born to."[7] Both boys were sent to school under Matthew Herbert, rector of Llangattock, to whom both wrote tributes. Since their interest was so clearly shared, the two brothers' intimate acquaintance with hermeticism may have dated from those years. Matthew Herbert may have reinforced a devotion to church and monarchy that the boys would have learned at home. Like several others among Vaughan's clerical acquaintances, he later proved uncompromising during the interregnum. He was imprisoned, his property was seized, and he narrowly avoided banishment.[8] The buttery books of Jesus College, Oxford show Thomas Vaughan being admitted in May 1638, and it has long been assumed that Henry went up at the same time, although Wood states, "He made his first entry into Jesus College in Michaelmas term 1638, aged 17 years. There is no clear record to establish Henry's residence or matriculation, but the assumption of his association with Oxford, supported by his inclusion in Athenae Oxoniensis, is reasonable enough." Recent research in the Jesus College archives, however, suggests that Henry did not enter Jesus College before 1641, unless he did so in 1639 without matriculating or paying an admission fee, and left before the record in the surviving buttery books resumes in December of that year.[9] It has been suggested that Henry went to Oxford later, after Thomas, on the basis of a comparison of the poems each wrote for the 1651 edition of the Comedies, Tragi-Comedies, with Other Poems of William Cartwright, who had died in 1643. Thomas had clearly attended Cartwright's lectures, which were a great draw at the time: "When He did read, how did we flock to hear!"[10] Henry, however, apparently had not, since he begins his poem "Upon the poems and plays of the ever-memorable Mr William Cartwright" with the words, "I did but see thee."[11] This and the 1647 poem "Upon Mr Fletcher's plays" are both celebrations of Royalist volumes that implied "a reaffirmation of Cavalier ideals and a gesture of defiance against the society which had repudiated them."[12] As the Civil War developed, he was recalled home from London, initially to serve as a secretary to Sir Marmaduke Lloyd, a chief justice on the Brecknockshire circuit and staunch royalist. Vaughan is thought to have served briefly in the Royalist army[13] and, upon his return, began to practise medicine. By 1646, he had married Catherine Wise, with whom he reared a son, Thomas, and three daughters, Lucy, Frances, and Catherine. His courtship with his first wife is reflected in "Upon the Priory Grove", in his first volume of poetry, Poems with the Tenth Satire of Juvenal Englished (1646). After his first wife's death, he married her sister, Elizabeth, probably in 1655.[14] Secular works[edit] Vaughan took his literary inspiration from his native environment and chose the descriptive name "Silurist", derived from his homage to the Silures, a Celtic tribe of pre-Roman south Wales that strongly resisted the Romans. The name reflects the love Vaughan felt for the Welsh mountains of his home in what is now part of the Brecon Beacons National Park and the River Usk valley, where he spent most of his early and professional life. By 1647 Henry Vaughan, with his wife and children, had chosen life in the country. This was the setting in which Vaughan wrote Olor Iscanus (The Swan of Usk). However, it was not published until 1651, over three years after it was written, which presumably reflects some crisis in Vaughan's life.[15] During those years, his grandfather William Vaughan died and he was evicted from his living in Llansantffraed. Vaughan later decried the publication, having "long ago condemned these poems to obscurity." Olor Iscanus is filled with odd words and similes that beg attention, despite its dark and morbid cognitive appeal. It is founded on crises felt in Vaughan's homeland, Brecknockshire. During the Civil War there was never a major battle fought there, but the effects of the war were deeply felt by Vaughan and his community. The Puritan Parliament visited misfortune, ejecting Anglicans and Royalists. Vaughan also lost his home at that time.[16]:p40 There is a marked difference in the atmosphere Vaughan attempts to convey in this work and in his most famous work, Silex Scintillans. Olor Iscanus directly represents a specific period in Vaughan's life, which emphasises other secular writers and provides allusions to debt and happy living. A fervent topic of Vaughan throughout the poems is the Civil War, and it reveals Vaughan's somewhat paradoxical thinking, which ultimately fails to indicate whether he participated or not. Vaughan states his complete satisfaction at being clean of "innocent blood", but also provides seemingly eyewitness accounts of battles and his own "soldiery". Although Vaughan is thought to have been a royalist, these poems express contempt for all current authority and lack of zeal for the royalist cause.[8]:s9, p. 21 His poems generally reflect a sense of severe decline, which may mean he lamented the effects of the war on the monarchy and society. His short poem "The Timber", ostensibly about a dead tree, concludes: "thy strange resentment after death / Means only those who broke – in life – thy peace." Olor Iscanus includes translations from the Latin of Ovid, Boethius, and the Polish poet Casimir Sarbiewski. Conversion and sacred poetry[edit] It was not until the writing of Silex Scintillans that Vaughan received significant acclaim. The period shortly preceding the publication of the first volume of this work (1650) marked an important period of his life. Certain indications in the first volume and explicit statements in the preface to the second volume (1655) suggest that Vaughan suffered a prolonged sickness that inflicted much pain. Vaughan interprets this experience to be an encounter with death that alerted him to a "misspent youth". Vaughan believed he had been spared to make amends and start a new course not only in his life but in the literature he would produce. He described his previous work as foul and a contribution to "corrupt literature". Perhaps the most notable mark of Vaughan's conversion is how much it is credited to George Herbert. Vaughan claims he is the least of Herbert's many "pious converts".[8] It was during this period of Vaughan's life, around 1650, that he adopted the saying "moriendo, revixi" – "by dying, I gain new life".[16]:p132 The first volume of Silex Scintillans was followed by The Mount of Olives, or Solitary Devotions (1652), a prose book of devotions. It provides prayers for different stages of the day, for prayer in church, and for other purposes. It is written as a "companion volume" to the Book of Common Prayer, to which it alludes frequently, though it had been outlawed under the Commonwealth. The work was also influenced by Lancelot Andrewes's Preces Privatae (1615) and John Cosin's Collection of Private Devotions (1627).[17] Flores Solitudinis (1654) contains translations from the Latin of two works by the Spanish Jesuit Juan Eusebio Nieremberg, one by a 5th-century Bishop of Lyon, Eucherius, and by Paulinus of Nola, of whom Vaughan wrote a prose life. Vaughan practised medicine, perhaps as early as the 1640s, and attached to the second volume of Silex Scintillans (1655) a translation of Henry Nollius's Hermetical Physick. He went on to produce a translation of Nollius's The Chymists Key in 1657.[1] Poetic influences[edit] Vaughan was greatly indebted to George Herbert, who provided a model for Vaughan's newly founded spiritual life and literary career,[8] in which he displayed "spiritual quickening and the gift of gracious feeling"[18]:p2 derived from Herbert. Archbishop Trench took the view, "As a divine Vaughan may be inferior [to Herbert], but as a poet he is certainly superior."[18]:p2 Critics praise Vaughan's use of literary elements. Vaughan's use of monosyllables and long-drawn alliterations, and his ability to compel the reader place him as "more than the equal of George Herbert". Yet others say the two are not even comparable, because Herbert is in fact the Master. While these commentators admit that Henry Vaughan's use of words can be superior to Herbert's, they believe his poetry is, in fact, worse. Herbert's profundity as well as consistency are said to be the key to his superiority.[18]:p4 Certainly Vaughan would have never written the way he did without Herbert's direction. The explicit spiritual influence here[16]:p2 is undeniable, and is all but proclaimed in the preface to Silex Scintillans. The prose of Vaughan exemplifies this as well. For instance, The Temple, by Herbert, is often seen as the inspiration and model on which Vaughan created his work. Silex Scintillans is most often classed with this collection of Herbert's. Silex Scintillans borrows the same themes, experience, and beliefs as The Temple. Herbert's influence is evident both in the shape and spirituality of Vaughan's poetry. For example, the opening to Vaughan's poem 'Unprofitableness': How rich, O Lord! How fresh thy visits are! is reminiscent of Herbert's 'The Flower': How fresh, O Lord, how sweet and clean Are thy returns! ev'n as the flowers in spring Another work of Vaughan's that clearly parallels George Herbert is Mount of Olives, e. g., the passage, "Let sensual natures judge as they please, but for my part, I shall hold it no paradoxe to affirme, there are no pleasures in the world. Some coloured griefes of blushing woes there are, which look as clear as if they were true complexions; but it is very sad and tyred truth, that they are but painted." This echoes Herbert's Rose:[16]:p2 In this world of sugar's lies, And to use a larger measure Than my strict yet welcome size. First, there is no pleasure here: Coloure'd griefs indeed there are, Blushing woes that look as clear, As if they could beauty spare. Critics have complained that Vaughan is enslaved to Herbert's works, using similar "little tricks" such as abrupt introductions and whimsical titles as a framework for his work, and "failing to learn" from Herbert. Vaughan carried an inability to know his limits and focused more on the intensity of the poem, meanwhile losing the attention of his audience.[18]:pp5–6 However, Alexander Grosart denies that Henry Vaughan was solely an imitator of Herbert.[18]:p3 There are moments when the reader can identify Vaughan's true self, rather than an imitation of Herbert. In these Vaughan is seen to show naturalness, immediacy and ability to relate the concrete through poetry.[16]:p63 In some instances, Vaughan derives observations from Herbert's language that are distinctly his own. It is as if Vaughan takes proprietorship of some of Herbert's work, yet makes it completely unique to himself.[16]:p66 Vaughan takes another step away from Herbert in his manner of presenting his poetry. Herbert in The Temple, which is most often the source of comparison between the two writers, lays down explicit instructions on its reading. This contrasts with the attitude of Vaughan, who saw the experience of reading as the best guide to his meanings and promoted no special reading method.[16]:p140 In these times he shows himself different from any other poet. Much of his distinction derives from an apparent lack of sympathy with the world around him. His aloof appeal to his surroundings detaches him and encourages his love of nature and mysticism, which in turn influenced other later poets, Wordsworth among others. Vaughan's mind thinks in terms of a physical and spiritual world and the obscure relation between the two.[16]:p132 Vaughan's mind often moved to original, unfamiliar and remote places, and this is reflected in his poetry. He was loyal to the themes of the Anglican Church and religious festivals, but found his true voice in the more mystical themes of eternity, communion with the dead, nature, and childhood. He was a "poet of revelation" who uses the Bible, Nature and his own experience to illustrate his vision of eternity.[19] This gives Vaughan's poetry a particularly modern sound. Alliteration, conspicuous in Welsh poetry, is more extensively used by Vaughan than by most of his contemporaries writing English verse, noticeably in the opening to "The Water-fall".[6] Vaughan drew on personal loss in two well-known poems: "The World" and "They Are All Gone into the World of Light". Another poem, "The Retreat", combines the theme of loss with the corruption of childhood, which is yet another consistent theme of Vaughan's. Vaughan's new-found personal voice and persona are seen as a result of the death of a younger brother. This is an example of an especially beautiful fragment of one of his poems entitled 'The World': I saw Eternity the other night, Like a great ring of pure and endless light, All calm, as it was bright, And round beneath it, Time in hours, days, years Driv'n by the spheres Like a vast shadow mov'd; in which the world And all her train were hurl'd.[20] Death and legacy[edit] Henry Vaughan was acclaimed less in his lifetime than after his death, on 23 April 1695, aged 74. He was buried in the churchyard of St Bride's, Llansantffraed, Powys, where he had spent most of his life.[21] The grave is visited by enthusiasts and has been the inspiration for other poets, including Siegfried Sassoon,[22] Roland Mathias[23] and Brian Morris.[24] Vaughan is recognised as an "example of a poet who can write both graceful and effective prose".[6] He influenced the work of poets such as Wordsworth, Tennyson and Siegfried Sassoon. The American science fiction writer Philip K. Dick also named Vaughan as a key influence. Musical settings[edit] Several poems by Vaughan from Silex Scintillans have been set to music, including: "The Evening-Watch" was used in "The Evening-Watch: Dialogue between Body and Soul" by Gustav Holst (1924). The Eucharistic poem "Welcome, sweet and sacred feast" was set by Gerald Finzi as the anthem Welcome, sweet and sacred feast, from Three anthems, Op. 27 (1953).[25] Peace was set as the first of Hubert Parry's Songs of Farewell (1916–18), "My soul, there is a country".[26] Several poems were set by Daniel Jones (composer) in his cantata The Country Beyond the Stars. "Christ's Nativity" and "Peace" were set by the American composer Timothy Hoekman in his 1992 sequence of three songs entitled The Nativity for soprano and orchestra. Works[edit] Poems with the Tenth Satire of Juvenal Englished (1646) Olor Iscanus (1647) Silex Scintillans (1650 and 1655) Mount of Olives, or Solitary Devotions (1652) Flores Solitudinis (1654) Hermetical Physics (1655), translated from the Latin of Henry Nollius The Chymists Key (1657), translated from the Latin of Henry Nollius Several translations from the Latin contributed to Thomas Powell's Humane Industry (1661) Thalia Rediviva (1678), a joint collection of poetry with his brother Thomas Vaughan, after Thomas's death[27] See also[edit] Poetry portal Physician writer Notes[edit] ^ a b Oxford Companion to English Literature, s. v. Henry Vaughan ^ Britannica. Retrieved 24 November 2018. ^ Hutchinson 1947, p. 14, citing Martin's first edition, p. 667. ^ Powys Literary Links – Henry Vaughan BBC Mid Wales, 3 January 2006 ^ VAUGHAN family, of Tretower Court in Welsh Biography Online, at National Library of Wales. "William Vaughan's children included Thomas Vaughan (died 1658), who m. the heiress of Newton in Llansantffraed; Henry Vaughan the Silurist (q. v.) and Thomas Vaughan (q. v.) were their sons." ^ a b c Hutchinson, F. E. (1947). Henry Vaughan, A life and Interpretation, Oxford: Clarenden Press. ^ Works of Thomas Vaughan, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1984, ed. Alan Rudrum with Jennifer Drake-Brockman, a.k.a. Jennifer Speake. ^ a b c d A. W. Ward and A. R. Waller (eds) The Sacred Poets, The Cambridge History of English and American Literature, Vol 7. :s9, p. 21 ^ Brigid Allen, "The Vaughans at Jesus College, Oxford, 1638–48", Scintilla, The Journal of the Usk Valley Vaughan Association, 4:2000, pp. 68–78, cited by Alan Rudrum, in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. ^ Rudrum, "Works of Thomas Vaughan," p. 582. ^ Rudrum, "Complete Poems of Henry Vaughan, p. 88. ^ P. W. Thomas, "Sir John Berkenhead 1617–1679. A Royalist Career in Politics and Polemics (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1969), p. 177. ^ Mathias, Roland (1975). Roland (ed.). "In Search of the Silurist". Poetry Wales. Swansea: Christopher Davies. 11 (2): 6–35. ^ Vaughan, Henry in Welsh Biography Online, at National Library of Wales; Oxford Companion to English Literature, s.v. Henry Vaughan. ^ His conversion in The Cambridge History of English and American Literature. ^ a b c d e f g h Calhoun, Thomas O. Henry Vaughan: The Achievement of the Silex Scintillans. New Jersey: Associated University Presses, Inc, 1981. ^ Oxford Companion to English Literature, s.v. Henry Vaughan Retrieved 24 November 2018. ^ a b c d e Grosart, Rev. Alexander B. (ed.). Essay on the Life and Writings of Henry Vaughan, Silurist --in The Works in Verse and Prose Complete of Henry Vaughan, Silurist, Vol. II. London UK: Gale 1995. pp. ix–ci Blackburn, 1871, reprinted in Literature Criticism from 1400 to 1800, Vol. 27, ed. Person J E.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) ^ Thomas, Noel K.,Henry Vaughan, Poet of Revelation, Churchman Publishing, Worthing, 1985. ISBN 1 85093 042 2. ^ Henry Vaughan, 'The World' – RPO ^ Images of Wales: St Bride's Church, Llansantffraed juxta Usk, Breconshire. Accessed 19 April 2014. ^ Edmund Blunden (1 January 1927). On the Poems of Henry Vaughan: Characteristics and Intimations. R. Cobden-Sanderson. p. 8. ^ Malcolm Ballin (1 June 2013). Welsh Periodicals in English: 1882–2012. University of Wales Press. p. 79. ISBN 978-0-7083-2615-2. ^ Brian Morris (2001). The Collected Poems of Brian Morris. Rare Books & Berry Limited. ISBN 978-0-9539951-0-3. ^ [1] ^ [2] ^ Oxford Companion to English Literature, s.v. Henry Vaughan; T. O. Calhoun, The achievement of Silex Scintillans, East Brunswick, New Jersey, 1981, p. 235.] References[edit] Thomas O. Calhoun: Henry Vaughan: The Achievement of the Silex Scintillans. Associated University Presses, Inc, 1981. East Brunswick, New Jersey Harold Fisch: The Dual Image. London: World Jewish Library, 1971, p. 41, Katz, Philo-Semitism, pp. 185–186 Rev. Alexander B. Grosart (ed.): "Essay on the Life and Writings of Henry Vaughan, Silurist", in The Works in Verse and Prose Complete of Henry Vaughan, Silurist, Vol. II. Blackburn, 1871, pp. ix–ci. Reprinted in Literature Criticism from 1400 to 1800, Vol. 27 F. E. Hutchinson: The Works of George Herbert. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1945; to Henry Vaughan from the edition by The Works of Henry Vaughan, L. C. Martin, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2nd ed., 1957 Nabil I. Matar, "George Herbert, Henry Vaughan, and the Conversion of the Jews". Studies in English Literature (Rice), 00393657, Winter 90, Vol. 30, Issue 1 Ceri Sullivan: The Rhetoric of the Conscience in Donne, Herbert, and Vaughan. Oxford University Press, 2008 External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Henry Vaughan Wikisource has original text related to this article: Author:Henry Vaughan Works by Henry Vaughan at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Henry Vaughan at Internet Archive Works by Henry Vaughan at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Henry Vaughan (PoetSeers website) Index entry for Henry Vaughan at Poets' Corner The Sacred Poets. Ch. 9–13 − The Cambridge History of English and American Literature. Henry Vaughan at Find a Grave Examples of Henry Vaughan's varied poetic forms [3] v t e Metaphysical poetry Major poets John Donne (1572–1631) George Herbert (1593–1633) Andrew Marvell (1621–1678) Abraham Cowley (1618–1667) Robert Southwell (c. 1561–1595) Richard Crashaw (c. 1613–1649) Thomas Traherne (1636/1637–1674) Henry Vaughan (1622–1695) Minor poets Anne Bradstreet (c. 1612–1672) Thomas Carew (1595–1640) George Chapman (c. 1559–1634) John Hall (c. 1627–1656) Edward Herbert (1583–1648) Richard Leigh (1649-1728) Katherine Philips (1632–1664) Sir John Suckling (1609–1642) Edward Taylor (c. 1642–1729) Critics Samuel Johnson T. S. Eliot Authority control BNF: cb11930100r (data) GND: 118626280 ISNI: 0000 0001 1058 911X LCCN: n80021762 MBA: 003ef04e-841b-4cff-b44c-4356f77c1b43 NDL: 01052860 NKC: mub2015892788 NLA: 35578517 NLI: 000426688 NTA: 069265119 SELIBR: 280583 SNAC: w6029vc6 SUDOC: 027209113 Trove: 1002138 VIAF: 41848288 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n80021762 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Henry_Vaughan&oldid=979637703" Categories: 1621 births 1695 deaths 17th-century Welsh medical doctors 17th-century Welsh poets 17th-century Christian mystics Anglo-Welsh poets Alumni of Jesus College, Oxford Protestant mystics Twin people from Wales Welsh male poets 17th-century male writers Hidden categories: CS1 maint: extra text: authors list EngvarB from August 2014 Use dmy dates from August 2014 Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikiquote Wikisource Languages العربية تۆرکجه Cymraeg Deutsch Español Esperanto Français Italiano ಕನ್ನಡ Latina مصرى Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 21 September 2020, at 21:35 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6037	----	John Milton - Wikipedia John Milton From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other people named John Milton, see John Milton (disambiguation). 17th-century English poet and civil servant John Milton Portrait of Milton, circa 1629 Born (1608-12-09)9 December 1608 Bread Street, Cheapside, London, England Died 8 November 1674(1674-11-08) (aged 65) Bunhill, London, England Resting place St Giles-without-Cripplegate Occupation Poet, prose polemicist, civil servant Language English, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, French, Spanish, Italian, Old English, Dutch Alma mater Christ's College, Cambridge Spouse Mary Powell ​ ​ (m. 1642; died 1652)​ Katherine Woodcock ​ ​ (m. 1656; died 1658)​ Elizabeth Mynshull ​ (m. 1663)​ Children 5 Signature John Milton (9 December 1608 – 8 November 1674) was an English poet and intellectual who served as a civil servant for the Commonwealth of England under its Council of State and later under Oliver Cromwell. He wrote at a time of religious flux and political upheaval, and is best known for his epic poem Paradise Lost (1667), written in blank verse, and widely considered to be one of the greatest works of literature ever written. Writing in English, Latin, Greek, and Italian, he achieved international renown within his lifetime; his celebrated Areopagitica (1644), written in condemnation of pre-publication censorship, is among history's most influential and impassioned defences of freedom of speech and freedom of the press. His desire for freedom extended into his style: he introduced new words (coined from Latin and Ancient Greek) to the English language, and was the first modern writer to employ unrhymed verse outside of the theatre or translations. William Hayley's 1796 biography called him the "greatest English author",[1] and he remains generally regarded "as one of the preeminent writers in the English language",[2] though critical reception has oscillated in the centuries since his death (often on account of his republicanism). Samuel Johnson praised Paradise Lost as "a poem which...with respect to design may claim the first place, and with respect to performance, the second, among the productions of the human mind", though he (a Tory and recipient of royal patronage) described Milton's politics as those of an "acrimonious and surly republican".[3] Poets such as William Blake, William Wordsworth and Thomas Hardy revered him. Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Early life 1.2 Study, poetry, and travel 1.3 Civil war, prose tracts, and marriage 1.4 Secretary for Foreign Tongues 1.5 The Restoration 1.6 Death 1.7 Family 2 Poetry 2.1 Paradise Lost 3 Views 3.1 Philosophy 3.2 Political thought 3.3 Theology 3.4 Religious toleration 3.5 Divorce 3.6 History 4 Legacy and influence 4.1 Early reception of the poetry 4.2 Blake 4.3 Romantic theory 4.4 Later legacy 4.5 Literary legacy 4.6 Musical settings 5 Works 5.1 Poetry and drama 5.2 Prose 6 Notes 7 References 8 Sources 9 External links Biography[edit] The phases of Milton's life parallel the major historical and political divisions in Stuart Britain. Milton studied, travelled, wrote poetry mostly for private circulation, and launched a career as pamphleteer and publicist under the increasingly personal rule of Charles I and its breakdown into constitutional confusion and war. The shift in accepted attitudes in government placed him in public office under the Commonwealth of England, from being thought dangerously radical and even heretical, and he even acted as an official spokesman in certain of his publications. The Restoration of 1660 deprived Milton, now completely blind, of his public platform, but this period saw him complete most of his major works of poetry. Milton's views developed from his very extensive reading, as well as travel and experience, from his student days of the 1620s to the English Civil War.[4] By the time of his death in 1674, Milton was impoverished and on the margins of English intellectual life, yet famous throughout Europe and unrepentant for his political choices. Early life[edit] Main article: Early life of John Milton Blue plaque in Bread Street, London, where Milton was born John Milton was born in Bread Street, London on 9 December 1608, the son of composer John Milton and his wife Sarah Jeffrey. The senior John Milton (1562–1647) moved to London around 1583 after being disinherited by his devout Catholic father Richard "the Ranger" Milton for embracing Protestantism.[5] In London, the senior John Milton married Sarah Jeffrey (1572–1637) and found lasting financial success as a scrivener.[6] He lived in and worked from a house on Bread Street, where the Mermaid Tavern was located in Cheapside. The elder Milton was noted for his skill as a musical composer, and this talent left his son with a lifelong appreciation for music and friendships with musicians such as Henry Lawes.[7] Milton's father's prosperity provided his eldest son with a private tutor, Thomas Young, a Scottish Presbyterian with an M.A. from the University of St. Andrews. Research suggests that Young's influence served as the poet's introduction to religious radicalism.[8] After Young's tutorship, Milton attended St Paul's School in London. There he began the study of Latin and Greek, and the classical languages left an imprint on both his poetry and prose in English (he also wrote in Italian and Latin). John Milton at age 10 by Cornelis Janssens van Ceulen. In Milton's Cottage, Chalfont St Giles. Milton's first datable compositions are two psalms done at age 15 at Long Bennington. One contemporary source is the Brief Lives of John Aubrey, an uneven compilation including first-hand reports. In the work, Aubrey quotes Christopher, Milton's younger brother: "When he was young, he studied very hard and sat up very late, commonly till twelve or one o'clock at night". Aubrey adds, "His complexion exceeding faire—he was so faire that they called him the Lady of Christ's College."[9] In 1625, Milton began attending Christ's College, Cambridge. He graduated with a B.A. in 1629,[10] ranking fourth of 24 honours graduates that year in the University of Cambridge.[11] Preparing to become an Anglican priest, Milton stayed on and obtained his Master of Arts degree on 3 July 1632. Milton may have been rusticated (suspended) in his first year for quarrelling with his tutor, Bishop William Chappell. He was certainly at home in London in the Lent Term 1626; there he wrote his Elegia Prima, a first Latin elegy, to Charles Diodati, a friend from St Paul's. Based on remarks of John Aubrey, Chappell "whipt" Milton.[9] This story is now disputed, though certainly Milton disliked Chappell.[12] Historian Christopher Hill cautiously notes that Milton was "apparently" rusticated, and that the differences between Chappell and Milton may have been either religious or personal.[13] It is also possible that, like Isaac Newton four decades later, Milton was sent home because of the plague, by which Cambridge was badly affected in 1625. In 1626, Milton's tutor was Nathaniel Tovey. At Cambridge, Milton was on good terms with Edward King, for whom he later wrote "Lycidas". He also befriended Anglo-American dissident and theologian Roger Williams. Milton tutored Williams in Hebrew in exchange for lessons in Dutch.[14] Despite developing a reputation for poetic skill and general erudition, Milton experienced alienation from his peers and university life as a whole. Having once watched his fellow students attempting comedy upon the college stage, he later observed 'they thought themselves gallant men, and I thought them fools'.[15] Milton was disdainful of the university curriculum, which consisted of stilted formal debates conducted in Latin on abstruse topics. His own corpus is not devoid of humour, notably his sixth prolusion and his epitaphs on the death of Thomas Hobson. While at Cambridge, he wrote a number of his well-known shorter English poems, among them "On the Morning of Christ's Nativity", his "Epitaph on the admirable Dramaticke Poet, W. Shakespeare" (his first poem to appear in print), L'Allegro, and Il Penseroso. Study, poetry, and travel[edit] Further information: Early life of John Milton It appears in all his writings that he had the usual concomitant of great abilities, a lofty and steady confidence in himself, perhaps not without some contempt of others; for scarcely any man ever wrote so much, and praised so few. Of his praise he was very frugal; as he set its value high, and considered his mention of a name as a security against the waste of time, and a certain preservative from oblivion.[16] – Samuel Johnson, Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets Upon receiving his M.A. in 1632, Milton retired to Hammersmith, his father's new home since the previous year. He also lived at Horton, Berkshire, from 1635 and undertook six years of self-directed private study. Hill argues that this was not retreat into a rural idyll; Hammersmith was then a "suburban village" falling into the orbit of London, and even Horton was becoming deforested and suffered from the plague.[17] He read both ancient and modern works of theology, philosophy, history, politics, literature, and science in preparation for a prospective poetical career. Milton's intellectual development can be charted via entries in his commonplace book (like a scrapbook), now in the British Library. As a result of such intensive study, Milton is considered to be among the most learned of all English poets. In addition to his years of private study, Milton had command of Latin, Greek, Hebrew, French, Spanish, and Italian from his school and undergraduate days; he also added Old English to his linguistic repertoire in the 1650s while researching his History of Britain, and probably acquired proficiency in Dutch soon after.[18] Commemorative blue plaque 'John Milton lived here 1632–1638' at Berkyn Manor Farm, Horton, Berkshire Milton continued to write poetry during this period of study; his Arcades and Comus were both commissioned for masques composed for noble patrons, connections of the Egerton family, and performed in 1632 and 1634 respectively. Comus argues for the virtuousness of temperance and chastity. He contributed his pastoral elegy Lycidas to a memorial collection for one of his fellow-students at Cambridge. Drafts of these poems are preserved in Milton's poetry notebook, known as the Trinity Manuscript because it is now kept at Trinity College, Cambridge. In May 1638, Milton embarked upon a tour of France and Italy that lasted until July or August 1639.[19] His travels supplemented his study with new and direct experience of artistic and religious traditions, especially Roman Catholicism. He met famous theorists and intellectuals of the time, and was able to display his poetic skills. For specific details of what happened within Milton's "grand tour", there appears to be just one primary source: Milton's own Defensio Secunda. There are other records, including some letters and some references in his other prose tracts, but the bulk of the information about the tour comes from a work that, according to Barbara Lewalski, "was not intended as autobiography but as rhetoric, designed to emphasise his sterling reputation with the learned of Europe."[20] He first went to Calais and then on to Paris, riding horseback, with a letter from diplomat Henry Wotton to ambassador John Scudamore. Through Scudamore, Milton met Hugo Grotius, a Dutch law philosopher, playwright, and poet. Milton left France soon after this meeting. He travelled south from Nice to Genoa, and then to Livorno and Pisa. He reached Florence in July 1638. While there, Milton enjoyed many of the sites and structures of the city. His candour of manner and erudite neo-Latin poetry earned him friends in Florentine intellectual circles, and he met the astronomer Galileo who was under house arrest at Arcetri, as well as others.[21] Milton probably visited the Florentine Academy and the Accademia della Crusca along with smaller academies in the area, including the Apatisti and the Svogliati. In [Florence], which I have always admired above all others because of the elegance, not just of its tongue, but also of its wit, I lingered for about two months. There I at once became the friend of many gentlemen eminent in rank and learning, whose private academies I frequented—a Florentine institution which deserves great praise not only for promoting humane studies but also for encouraging friendly intercourse.[22] – Milton's account of Florence in Defensio Secunda He left Florence in September to continue to Rome. With the connections from Florence, Milton was able to have easy access to Rome's intellectual society. His poetic abilities impressed those like Giovanni Salzilli, who praised Milton within an epigram. In late October, Milton attended a dinner given by the English College, Rome, despite his dislike for the Society of Jesus, meeting English Catholics who were also guests—theologian Henry Holden and the poet Patrick Cary.[23] He also attended musical events, including oratorios, operas, and melodramas. Milton left for Naples toward the end of November, where he stayed only for a month because of the Spanish control.[24] During that time, he was introduced to Giovanni Battista Manso, patron to both Torquato Tasso and to Giambattista Marino.[25] Originally, Milton wanted to leave Naples in order to travel to Sicily and then on to Greece, but he returned to England during the summer of 1639 because of what he claimed in Defensio Secunda[26] were "sad tidings of civil war in England."[27] Matters became more complicated when Milton received word that his childhood friend Diodati had died. Milton in fact stayed another seven months on the continent, and spent time at Geneva with Diodati's uncle after he returned to Rome. In Defensio Secunda, Milton proclaimed that he was warned against a return to Rome because of his frankness about religion, but he stayed in the city for two months and was able to experience Carnival and meet Lukas Holste, a Vatican librarian who guided Milton through its collection. He was introduced to Cardinal Francesco Barberini who invited Milton to an opera hosted by the Cardinal. Around March, Milton travelled once again to Florence, staying there for two months, attending further meetings of the academies, and spending time with friends. After leaving Florence, he travelled through Lucca, Bologna, and Ferrara before coming to Venice. In Venice, Milton was exposed to a model of Republicanism, later important in his political writings, but he soon found another model when he travelled to Geneva. From Switzerland, Milton travelled to Paris and then to Calais before finally arriving back in England in either July or August 1639.[28] Civil war, prose tracts, and marriage[edit] Main article: Milton's antiprelatical tracts Title page of the 1644 edition of Areopagitica On returning to England where the Bishops' Wars presaged further armed conflict, Milton began to write prose tracts against episcopacy, in the service of the Puritan and Parliamentary cause. Milton's first foray into polemics was Of Reformation touching Church Discipline in England (1641), followed by Of Prelatical Episcopacy, the two defences of Smectymnuus (a group of Presbyterian divines named from their initials; the "TY" belonged to Milton's old tutor Thomas Young), and The Reason of Church-Government Urged against Prelaty. He vigorously attacked the High-church party of the Church of England and their leader William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury, with frequent passages of real eloquence lighting up the rough controversial style of the period, and deploying a wide knowledge of church history. He was supported by his father's investments, but Milton became a private schoolmaster at this time, educating his nephews and other children of the well-to-do. This experience and discussions with educational reformer Samuel Hartlib led him to write his short tract Of Education in 1644, urging a reform of the national universities. In June 1642, Milton paid a visit to the manor house at Forest Hill, Oxfordshire, and returned with 16-year-old bride Mary Powell.[29][30] Mary found life difficult with the severe 35-year-old schoolmaster and pamphleteer, and she returned to her family a month later. She did not return until 1645, partly because of the outbreak of the Civil War.[29] In the meantime, her desertion prompted Milton to publish a series of pamphlets over the next three years arguing for the legality and morality of divorce. (Anna Beer, one of Milton's most recent biographers, points to a lack of evidence and the dangers of cynicism in urging that it was not necessarily the case that the private life so animated the public polemicising.) In 1643, Milton had a brush with the authorities over these writings, in parallel with Hezekiah Woodward, who had more trouble.[31] It was the hostile response accorded the divorce tracts that spurred Milton to write Areopagitica; A speech of Mr. John Milton for the Liberty of Unlicenc'd Printing, to the Parlament of England, his celebrated attack on pre-printing censorship. In Areopagitica, Milton aligns himself with the parliamentary cause, and he also begins to synthesize the ideal of neo-Roman liberty with that of Christian liberty.[32][33] Secretary for Foreign Tongues[edit] With the parliamentary victory in the Civil War, Milton used his pen in defence of the republican principles represented by the Commonwealth. The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates (1649) defended the right of the people to hold their rulers to account, and implicitly sanctioned the regicide; Milton's political reputation got him appointed Secretary for Foreign Tongues by the Council of State in March 1649. His main job description was to compose the English Republic's foreign correspondence in Latin and other languages, but he also was called upon to produce propaganda for the regime and to serve as a censor.[34] The back of no 19 York Street (1848). In 1651, Milton moved into a "pretty garden-house" in Petty France, Westminster. He lived there until the Restoration. Later it became No. 19 York Street, belonged to Jeremy Bentham, was occupied successively by James Mill and William Hazlitt, and finally was demolished in 1877.[35] In October 1649, he published Eikonoklastes, an explicit defence of the regicide, in response to the Eikon Basilike, a phenomenal best-seller popularly attributed to Charles I that portrayed the King as an innocent Christian martyr. Milton tried to break this powerful image of Charles I (the literal translation of Eikonoklastes is 'the image breaker'). A month later, however, the exiled Charles II and his party published the defence of monarchy Defensio Regia pro Carolo Primo, written by leading humanist Claudius Salmasius. By January of the following year, Milton was ordered to write a defence of the English people by the Council of State. Milton worked more slowly than usual, given the European audience and the English Republic's desire to establish diplomatic and cultural legitimacy, as he drew on the learning marshalled by his years of study to compose a riposte. On 24 February 1652, Milton published his Latin defence of the English people Defensio pro Populo Anglicano, also known as the First Defence. Milton's pure Latin prose and evident learning exemplified in the First Defence quickly made him a European reputation, and the work ran to numerous editions.[36] He addressed his Sonnet 16 to 'The Lord Generall Cromwell in May 1652' beginning "Cromwell, our chief of men...", although it was not published until 1654.[37] In 1654, Milton completed the second defence of the English nation Defensio secunda in response to an anonymous Royalist tract "Regii Sanguinis Clamor ad Coelum Adversus Parricidas Anglicanos" [The Cry of the Royal Blood to Heaven Against the English Parricides], a work that made many personal attacks on Milton.[38] The second defence praised Oliver Cromwell, now Lord Protector, while exhorting him to remain true to the principles of the Revolution. Alexander Morus, to whom Milton wrongly attributed the Clamor (in fact by Peter du Moulin), published an attack on Milton, in response to which Milton published the autobiographical Defensio pro se in 1655. Milton held the appointment of Secretary for Foreign Tongues to the Commonwealth Council of State until 1660, although after he had become totally blind, most of the work was done by his deputies, Georg Rudolph Wecklein, then Philip Meadows, and from 1657 by the poet Andrew Marvell.[39] By 1652, Milton had become totally blind;[40] the cause of his blindness is debated but bilateral retinal detachment or glaucoma are most likely.[41] His blindness forced him to dictate his verse and prose to amanuenses who copied them out for him; one of these was the poet Andrew Marvell. One of his best-known sonnets, When I Consider How My Light is Spent, titled by a later editor, John Newton, "On His Blindness", is presumed to date from this period.[42] The Restoration[edit] Engraving by William Faithorne, 1670 Cromwell's death in 1658 caused the English Republic to collapse into feuding military and political factions. Milton, however, stubbornly clung to the beliefs that had originally inspired him to write for the Commonwealth. In 1659, he published A Treatise of Civil Power, attacking the concept of a state-dominated church (the position known as Erastianism), as well as Considerations touching the likeliest means to remove hirelings, denouncing corrupt practises in church governance. As the Republic disintegrated, Milton wrote several proposals to retain a non-monarchical government against the wishes of parliament, soldiers, and the people.[43][44] A Letter to a Friend, Concerning the Ruptures of the Commonwealth, written in October 1659, was a response to General Lambert's recent dissolution of the Rump Parliament. Proposals of certain expedients for the preventing of a civil war now feared, written in November 1659. The Ready and Easy Way to Establishing a Free Commonwealth, in two editions, responded to General Monck's march towards London to restore the Long Parliament (which led to the restoration of the monarchy). The work is an impassioned, bitter, and futile jeremiad damning the English people for backsliding from the cause of liberty and advocating the establishment of an authoritarian rule by an oligarchy set up by unelected parliament. Upon the Restoration in May 1660, Milton, fearing for his life, went into hiding, while a warrant was issued for his arrest and his writings were burnt. He re-emerged after a general pardon was issued, but was nevertheless arrested and briefly imprisoned before influential friends intervened, such as Marvell, now an MP. Milton married for a third and final time on 24 February 1663, marrying Elizabeth (Betty) Minshull, aged 24, a native of Wistaston, Cheshire. He spent the remaining decade of his life living quietly in London, only retiring to a cottage during the Great Plague of London—Milton's Cottage in Chalfont St. Giles, his only extant home. During this period, Milton published several minor prose works, such as the grammar textbook Art of Logic and a History of Britain. His only explicitly political tracts were the 1672 Of True Religion, arguing for toleration (except for Catholics), and a translation of a Polish tract advocating an elective monarchy. Both these works were referred to in the Exclusion debate, the attempt to exclude the heir presumptive from the throne of England—James, Duke of York—because he was Roman Catholic. That debate preoccupied politics in the 1670s and 1680s and precipitated the formation of the Whig party and the Glorious Revolution. Death[edit] Milton’s statue and memorial in St Giles-without-Cripplegate church, London Milton died of consumption (not gout, state the Parish books of Bunhill Fields) on 8 November 1674 and was buried in the church of St Giles-without-Cripplegate, Fore Street, London.[45] According to an early biographer, his funeral was attended by "his learned and great Friends in London, not without a friendly concourse of the Vulgar."[46] A monument was added in 1793, sculpted by John Bacon the Elder. Family[edit] Milton and his first wife Mary Powell (1625–1652) had four children:[47] Anne (born 29 July 1646) Mary (born 25 October 1648) John (16 March 1651 – June 1652) Deborah (2 May 1652 – 10 August 1727[48]) Mary Powell died on 5 May 1652 from complications following Deborah's birth. Milton's daughters survived to adulthood, but he always had a strained relationship with them. On 12 November 1656, Milton was married to Katherine Woodcock at St Margaret's, Westminster.[49] She died on 3 February 1658, less than four months after giving birth to her daughter Katherine, who also died. Milton married for a third time on 24 February 1663 to Elizabeth Mynshull or Minshull (1638–1728), the niece of Thomas Mynshull, a wealthy apothecary and philanthropist in Manchester. The marriage took place at St Mary Aldermary in the City of London. Despite a 31-year age gap, the marriage seemed happy, according to John Aubrey, and lasted more than 12 years until Milton's death. (A plaque on the wall of Mynshull's House in Manchester describes Elizabeth as Milton's "3rd and Best wife".) Samuel Johnson, however, claims that Mynshull was "a domestic companion and attendant" and that Milton's nephew Edward Phillips relates that Mynshull "oppressed his children in his lifetime, and cheated them at his death".[50] His nephews, Edward and John Phillips (sons of Milton's sister Anne), were educated by Milton and became writers themselves. John acted as a secretary, and Edward was Milton's first biographer. Poetry[edit] Milton's poetry was slow to see the light of day, at least under his name. His first published poem was "On Shakespeare" (1630), anonymously included in the Second Folio edition of William Shakespeare's plays in 1632. An annoted copy of the First Folio has been suggested to contain marginal notes by Milton.[51] Milton collected his work in 1645 Poems in the midst of the excitement attending the possibility of establishing a new English government. The anonymous edition of Comus was published in 1637, and the publication of Lycidas in 1638 in Justa Edouardo King Naufrago was signed J. M. Otherwise. The 1645 collection was the only poetry of his to see print until Paradise Lost appeared in 1667. Paradise Lost[edit] Main article: Paradise Lost Milton Dictates the Lost Paradise to His Three Daughters, ca. 1826, by Eugène Delacroix Milton's magnum opus, the blank-verse epic poem Paradise Lost, was composed by the blind and impoverished Milton from 1658 to 1664 (first edition), with small but significant revisions published in 1674 (second edition). As a blind poet, Milton dictated his verse to a series of aides in his employ. It has been argued that the poem reflects his personal despair at the failure of the Revolution yet affirms an ultimate optimism in human potential. Some literary critics have argued that Milton encoded many references to his unyielding support for the "Good Old Cause".[52] On 27 April 1667,[53] Milton sold the publication rights for Paradise Lost to publisher Samuel Simmons for £5 (equivalent to approximately £770 in 2015 purchasing power),[54] with a further £5 to be paid if and when each print run sold out of between 1,300 and 1,500 copies.[55] The first run was a quarto edition priced at three shillings per copy (about £23 in 2015 purchasing power equivalent), published in August 1667, and it sold out in eighteen months.[56] Milton followed up the publication Paradise Lost with its sequel Paradise Regained, which was published alongside the tragedy Samson Agonistes in 1671. Both of these works also reflect Milton's post-Restoration political situation. Just before his death in 1674, Milton supervised a second edition of Paradise Lost, accompanied by an explanation of "why the poem rhymes not", and prefatory verses by Andrew Marvell. In 1673, Milton republished his 1645 Poems, as well as a collection of his letters and the Latin prolusions from his Cambridge days. Views[edit] An unfinished religious manifesto, De doctrina christiana, probably written by Milton, lays out many of his heterodox theological views, and was not discovered and published until 1823. Milton's key beliefs were idiosyncratic, not those of an identifiable group or faction, and often they go well beyond the orthodoxy of the time. Their tone, however, stemmed from the Puritan emphasis on the centrality and inviolability of conscience.[57] He was his own man, but he was anticipated by Henry Robinson in Areopagitica.[clarification needed] Philosophy[edit] While Milton's beliefs are generally considered to be consistent with Protestant Christianity, Stephen Fallon argues that by the late 1650s, Milton may have at least toyed with the idea of monism or animist materialism, the notion that a single material substance which is "animate, self-active, and free" composes everything in the universe: from stones and trees and bodies to minds, souls, angels, and God.[58] Fallon claims that Milton devised this position to avoid the mind-body dualism of Plato and Descartes as well as the mechanistic determinism of Hobbes. According to Fallon, Milton's monism is most notably reflected in Paradise Lost when he has angels eat (5.433–39)[clarification needed] and apparently engage in sexual intercourse (8.622–29)[clarification needed] and the De Doctrina, where he denies the dual natures of man and argues for a theory of Creation ex Deo. Political thought[edit] Main article: John Milton's politics Milton was a "passionately individual Christian Humanist poet."[59] He appears on the pages of seventeenth century English Puritanism, an age characterized as "the world turned upside down."[60] He is a Puritan and yet is unwilling to surrender conscience to party positions on public policy. Thus, Milton's political thought, driven by competing convictions, a Reformed faith and a Humanist spirit, led to enigmatic outcomes. Milton’s apparently contradictory stance on the vital problems of his age, arose from religious contestations, to the questions of the divine rights of kings. In both the cases, he seems in control, taking stock of the situation arising from the polarization of the English society on religious and political lines. He fought with the Puritans against the Cavaliers i.e. the King’s party, and helped win the day. But the very same constitutional and republican polity, when tried to curtail freedom of speech, Milton, given his humanistic zeal, wrote Areopagitica . . .[61] Title page of John Milton's 1644 edition of Areopagitica Milton's political thought may be best categorized according to respective periods in his life and times. The years 1641–42 were dedicated to church politics and the struggle against episcopacy. After his divorce writings, Areopagitica, and a gap, he wrote in 1649–54 in the aftermath of the execution of Charles I, and in polemic justification of the regicide and the existing Parliamentarian regime. Then in 1659–60 he foresaw the Restoration, and wrote to head it off.[62] Milton's own beliefs were in some cases both unpopular and dangerous, and this was true particularly to his commitment to republicanism. In coming centuries, Milton would be claimed as an early apostle of liberalism.[63] According to James Tully: ... with Locke as with Milton, republican and contraction conceptions of political freedom join hands in common opposition to the disengaged and passive subjection offered by absolutists such as Hobbes and Robert Filmer.[64] A friend and ally in the pamphlet wars was Marchamont Nedham. Austin Woolrych considers that although they were quite close, there is "little real affinity, beyond a broad republicanism", between their approaches.[65] Blair Worden remarks that both Milton and Nedham, with others such as Andrew Marvell and James Harrington, would have taken their problem with the Rump Parliament to be not the republic itself, but the fact that it was not a proper republic.[66] Woolrych speaks of "the gulf between Milton's vision of the Commonwealth's future and the reality".[67] In the early version of his History of Britain, begun in 1649, Milton was already writing off the members of the Long Parliament as incorrigible.[68] He praised Oliver Cromwell as the Protectorate was set up; though subsequently he had major reservations. When Cromwell seemed to be backsliding as a revolutionary, after a couple of years in power, Milton moved closer to the position of Sir Henry Vane, to whom he wrote a sonnet in 1652.[69][70] The group of disaffected republicans included, besides Vane, John Bradshaw, John Hutchinson, Edmund Ludlow, Henry Marten, Robert Overton, Edward Sexby and John Streater; but not Marvell, who remained with Cromwell's party.[71] Milton had already commended Overton, along with Edmund Whalley and Bulstrode Whitelocke, in Defensio Secunda.[72] Nigel Smith writes that ... John Streater, and the form of republicanism he stood for, was a fulfilment of Milton's most optimistic ideas of free speech and of public heroism [...][73] As Richard Cromwell fell from power, he envisaged a step towards a freer republic or "free commonwealth", writing in the hope of this outcome in early 1660. Milton had argued for an awkward position, in the Ready and Easy Way, because he wanted to invoke the Good Old Cause and gain the support of the republicans, but without offering a democratic solution of any kind.[74] His proposal, backed by reference (amongst other reasons) to the oligarchical Dutch and Venetian constitutions, was for a council with perpetual membership. This attitude cut right across the grain of popular opinion of the time, which swung decisively behind the restoration of the Stuart monarchy that took place later in the year.[75] Milton, an associate of and advocate on behalf of the regicides, was silenced on political matters as Charles II returned. Theology[edit] Main article: John Milton's religion Milton was neither a clergyman nor a theologian; however, theology, and particularly English Calvinism, formed the great palette on which John Milton created his greatest thoughts. John Milton wrestled with the great doctrines of the Church amidst the theological crosswinds of his age. The great Poet was undoubtedly Reformed (though his grandfather, Richard "the Ranger" Milton had been Roman Catholic).[76][5] However, Milton's Calvinism had to find expression in a broad-spirited Humanism. Like many Renaissance artists before him, Milton attempted to integrate Christian theology with classical modes. In his early poems, the poet narrator expresses a tension between vice and virtue, the latter invariably related to Protestantism. In Comus, Milton may make ironic use of the Caroline court masque by elevating notions of purity and virtue over the conventions of court revelry and superstition. In his later poems, Milton's theological concerns become more explicit. His use of biblical citation was wide-ranging; Harris Fletcher, standing at the beginning of the intensification of the study of the use of scripture in Milton's work (poetry and prose, in all languages Milton mastered), notes that typically Milton clipped and adapted biblical quotations to suit the purpose, giving precise chapter and verse only in texts for a more specialized readership. As for the plenitude of Milton's quotations from scripture, Fletcher comments, "For this work, I have in all actually collated about twenty-five hundred of the five to ten thousand direct Biblical quotations which appear therein".[77] Milton's customary English Bible was the Authorized King James.[78] When citing and writing in other languages, he usually employed the Latin translation by Immanuel Tremellius, though "he was equipped to read the Bible in Latin, in Greek, and in Hebrew, including the Targumim or Aramaic paraphrases of the Old Testament, and the Syriac version of the New, together with the available commentaries of those several versions".[77] Milton embraced many heterodox Christian theological views. He has been accused of rejecting the Trinity, believing instead that the Son was subordinate to the Father, a position known as Arianism; and his sympathy or curiosity was probably engaged by Socinianism: in August 1650 he licensed for publication by William Dugard the Racovian Catechism, based on a non-trinitarian creed.[79][80] Milton's alleged Arianism, like much of his theology, is still subject of debate and controversy. Rufus Wilmot Griswold argued that "In none of his great works is there a passage from which it can be inferred that he was an Arian; and in the very last of his writings he declares that "the doctrine of the Trinity is a plain doctrine in Scripture."[81] In Areopagitica, Milton classified Arians and Socinians as "errorists" and "schismatics" alongside Arminians and Anabaptists.[82] A source has interpreted him as broadly Protestant, if not always easy to locate in a more precise religious category. In his 1641 treatise, Of Reformation, Milton expressed his dislike for Catholicism and episcopacy, presenting Rome as a modern Babylon, and bishops as Egyptian taskmasters. These analogies conform to Milton's puritanical preference for Old Testament imagery. He knew at least four commentaries on Genesis: those of John Calvin, Paulus Fagius, David Pareus and Andreus Rivetus.[83] Through the Interregnum, Milton often presents England, rescued from the trappings of a worldly monarchy, as an elect nation akin to the Old Testament Israel, and shows its leader, Oliver Cromwell, as a latter-day Moses. These views were bound up in Protestant views of the Millennium, which some sects, such as the Fifth Monarchists predicted would arrive in England. Milton, however, would later criticise the "worldly" millenarian views of these and others, and expressed orthodox ideas on the prophecy of the Four Empires.[84] The Restoration of the Stuart monarchy in 1660 began a new phase in Milton's work. In Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained and Samson Agonistes, Milton mourns the end of the godly Commonwealth. The Garden of Eden may allegorically reflect Milton's view of England's recent Fall from Grace, while Samson's blindness and captivity—mirroring Milton's own lost sight—may be a metaphor for England's blind acceptance of Charles II as king. Illustrated by Paradise Lost is mortalism, the belief that the soul lies dormant after the body dies.[85] Despite the Restoration of the monarchy, Milton did not lose his personal faith; Samson shows how the loss of national salvation did not necessarily preclude the salvation of the individual, while Paradise Regained expresses Milton's continuing belief in the promise of Christian salvation through Jesus Christ. Though he maintained his personal faith in spite of the defeats suffered by his cause, the Dictionary of National Biography recounted how he had been alienated from the Church of England by Archbishop William Laud, and then moved similarly from the Dissenters by their denunciation of religious tolerance in England. Milton had come to stand apart from all sects, though apparently finding the Quakers most congenial. He never went to any religious services in his later years. When a servant brought back accounts of sermons from nonconformist meetings, Milton became so sarcastic that the man at last gave up his place. Writing of the enigmatic and often conflicting views of Milton in the Puritan age, David Daiches wrote convincingly, "Christian and Humanist, Protestant, patriot and heir of the golden ages of Greece and Rome, he faced what appeared to him to be the birth-pangs of a new and regenerate England with high excitement and idealistic optimism.”[59] A fair theological summary may be: that John Milton was a Puritan, though his tendency to press further for liberty of conscience, sometimes out of conviction and often out of mere intellectual curiosity, made the great man, at least, a vital if not uncomfortable ally in the broader Puritan movement.[61][76] Religious toleration[edit] Milton called in the Areopagitica for "the liberty to know, to utter, and to argue freely according to conscience, above all liberties" to the conflicting Protestant denominations.[86] According to American historian William Hunter, "Milton argued for disestablishment as the only effective way of achieving broad toleration. Rather than force a man's conscience, government should recognise the persuasive force of the gospel."[87] Divorce[edit] Main article: Milton's divorce tracts Milton wrote The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce in 1643, at the beginning of the English Civil War. In August of that year, he presented his thoughts to the Westminster Assembly of Divines, which had been created by the Long Parliament to bring greater reform to the Church of England. The Assembly convened on 1 July against the will of King Charles I. Milton's thinking on divorce caused him considerable trouble with the authorities. An orthodox Presbyterian view of the time was that Milton's views on divorce constituted a one-man heresy: The fervently Presbyterian Edwards had included Milton's divorce tracts in his list in Gangraena of heretical publications that threatened the religious and moral fabric of the nation; Milton responded by mocking him as "shallow Edwards" in the satirical sonnet "On the New Forcers of Conscience under the Long Parliament", usually dated to the latter half of 1646.[88] Even here, though, his originality is qualified: Thomas Gataker had already identified "mutual solace" as a principal goal in marriage.[89] Milton abandoned his campaign to legitimise divorce after 1645, but he expressed support for polygamy in the De Doctrina Christiana, the theological treatise that provides the clearest evidence for his views.[90] Milton wrote during a period when thoughts about divorce were anything but simplistic; rather, there was active debate among thinkers and intellectuals at the time. However, Milton's basic approval of divorce within strict parameters set by the biblical witness was typical of many influential Christian intellectuals, particularly the Westminster divines. Milton addressed the Assembly on the matter of divorce in August 1643,[91] at a moment when the Assembly was beginning to form its opinion on the matter. In the Doctrine & Discipline of Divorce, Milton argued that divorce was a private matter, not a legal or ecclesiastical one. Neither the Assembly nor Parliament condemned Milton or his ideas. In fact, when the Westminster Assembly wrote the Westminster Confession of Faith they allowed for divorce ('Of Marriage and Divorce,' Chapter 24, Section 5) in cases of infidelity or abandonment. Thus, the Christian community, at least a majority within the 'Puritan' sub-set, approved of Milton's views. Nevertheless, reaction among Puritans to Milton's views on divorce was mixed. Herbert Palmer, a member of the Westminster Assembly, condemned Milton in the strongest possible language: If any plead Conscience ... for divorce for other causes than Christ and His Apostles mention; Of which a wicked booke is abroad and uncensured, though deserving to be burnt, whose Author, hath been so impudent as to set his Name to it, and dedicate it to your selves ... will you grant a Toleration for all this? — The Glasse of God's Providence Towards His Faithfull Ones, 1644, p. 54.[92] Palmer expressed his disapproval in a sermon addressed to the Westminster Assembly. The Scottish commissioner Robert Baillie described Palmer's sermon as one "of the most Scottish and free sermons that ever I heard any where."[93] History[edit] History was particularly important for the political class of the period, and Lewalski considers that Milton "more than most illustrates" a remark of Thomas Hobbes on the weight placed at the time on the classical Latin historical writers Tacitus, Livy, Sallust and Cicero, and their republican attitudes.[94] Milton himself wrote that "Worthy deeds are not often destitute of worthy relaters", in Book II of his History of Britain. A sense of history mattered greatly to him:[95] The course of human history, the immediate impact of the civil disorders, and his own traumatic personal life, are all regarded by Milton as typical of the predicament he describes as "the misery that has bin since Adam".[96] Legacy and influence[edit] Once Paradise Lost was published, Milton's stature as epic poet was immediately recognised. He cast a formidable shadow over English poetry in the 18th and 19th centuries; he was often judged equal or superior to all other English poets, including Shakespeare. Very early on, though, he was championed by Whigs, and decried by Tories: with the regicide Edmund Ludlow he was claimed as an early Whig,[97] while the High Tory Anglican minister Luke Milbourne lumped Milton in with other "Agents of Darkness" such as John Knox, George Buchanan, Richard Baxter, Algernon Sidney and John Locke.[98] The political ideas of Milton, Locke, Sidney, and James Harrington strongly influenced the Radical Whigs, whose ideology in turn was central to the American Revolution.[99] Modern scholars of Milton's life, politics, and work are known as Miltonists: "his work is the subject of a very large amount of academic scholarship".[100] In 2008, John Milton Passage, a short passage by Bread Street into St Mary-le-Bow Churchyardin, London was unveiled.[101] Early reception of the poetry[edit] Title page of a 1752–1761 edition of "The Poetical Works of John Milton with Notes of Various Authors by Thomas Newton" printed by J. & R. Tonson in the Strand John Dryden, an early enthusiast, in 1677 began the trend of describing Milton as the poet of the sublime.[102] Dryden's The State of Innocence and the Fall of Man: an Opera (1677) is evidence of an immediate cultural influence. In 1695, Patrick Hume became the first editor of Paradise Lost, providing an extensive apparatus of annotation and commentary, particularly chasing down allusions.[103] In 1732, the classical scholar Richard Bentley offered a corrected version of Paradise Lost.[104] Bentley was considered presumptuous, and was attacked in the following year by Zachary Pearce. Christopher Ricks judges that, as critic, Bentley was both acute and wrong-headed, and "incorrigibly eccentric"; William Empson also finds Pearce to be more sympathetic to Bentley's underlying line of thought than is warranted.[105][106] There was an early, partial translation of Paradise Lost into German by Theodore Haak, and based on that a standard verse translation by Ernest Gottlieb von Berge. A subsequent prose translation by Johann Jakob Bodmer was very popular; it influenced Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock. The German-language Milton tradition returned to England in the person of the artist Henry Fuseli. Many enlightenment thinkers of the 18th century revered and commented on Milton's poetry and non-poetical works. In addition to John Dryden, among them were Alexander Pope, Joseph Addison, Thomas Newton, and Samuel Johnson. For example, in The Spectator,[107] Joseph Addison wrote extensive notes, annotations, and interpretations of certain passages of Paradise Lost. Jonathan Richardson, senior, and Jonathan Richardson, the younger, co-wrote a book of criticism.[108] In 1749, Thomas Newton published an extensive edition of Milton's poetical works with annotations provided by himself, Dryden, Pope, Addison, the Richardsons (father and son) and others. Newton's edition of Milton was a culmination of the honour bestowed upon Milton by early Enlightenment thinkers; it may also have been prompted by Richard Bentley's infamous edition, described above. Samuel Johnson wrote numerous essays on Paradise Lost, and Milton was included in his Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets (1779–1781). In The Age of Louis XIV, Voltaire said "Milton remains the glory and the wonder (l'admiration) of England."[109] Blake[edit] Frontispiece to Milton: A Poem in Two Books William Blake considered Milton the major English poet. Blake placed Edmund Spenser as Milton's precursor, and saw himself as Milton's poetical son.[110] In his Milton: A Poem in Two Books, Blake uses Milton as a character. Romantic theory[edit] Edmund Burke was a theorist of the sublime, and he regarded Milton's description of Hell as exemplary of sublimity as an aesthetic concept. For Burke, it was to set alongside mountain-tops, a storm at sea, and infinity.[111] In The Beautiful and the Sublime, he wrote: "No person seems better to have understood the secret of heightening, or of setting terrible things, if I may use the expression, in their strongest light, by the force of a judicious obscurity than Milton."[112] The Romantic poets valued his exploration of blank verse, but for the most part rejected his religiosity. William Wordsworth began his sonnet "London, 1802" with "Milton! thou should'st be living at this hour"[113] and modelled The Prelude, his own blank verse epic, on Paradise Lost. John Keats found the yoke of Milton's style uncongenial;[114] he exclaimed that "Miltonic verse cannot be written but in an artful or rather artist's humour."[115] Keats felt that Paradise Lost was a "beautiful and grand curiosity", but his own unfinished attempt at epic poetry, Hyperion, was unsatisfactory to the author because, amongst other things, it had too many "Miltonic inversions".[115] In The Madwoman in the Attic, Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar note that Mary Shelley's novel Frankenstein is, in the view of many critics, "one of the key 'Romantic' readings of Paradise Lost."[116] Later legacy[edit] The Victorian age witnessed a continuation of Milton's influence, George Eliot[117] and Thomas Hardy being particularly inspired by Milton's poetry and biography. Hostile 20th-century criticism by T. S. Eliot and Ezra Pound did not reduce Milton's stature.[118] F. R. Leavis, in The Common Pursuit, responded to the points made by Eliot, in particular the claim that "the study of Milton could be of no help: it was only a hindrance", by arguing, "As if it were a matter of deciding not to study Milton! The problem, rather, was to escape from an influence that was so difficult to escape from because it was unrecognized, belonging, as it did, to the climate of the habitual and 'natural'."[119] Harold Bloom, in The Anxiety of Influence, wrote that "Milton is the central problem in any theory and history of poetic influence in English [...]".[120] Milton's Areopagitica is still cited as relevant to the First Amendment to the United States Constitution.[121] A quotation from Areopagitica—"A good book is the precious lifeblood of a master spirit, embalmed and treasured up on purpose to a life beyond life"—is displayed in many public libraries, including the New York Public Library. The title of Philip Pullman's His Dark Materials trilogy is derived from a quotation, "His dark materials to create more worlds", line 915 of Book II in Paradise Lost. Pullman was concerned to produce a version of Milton's poem accessible to teenagers,[122] and has spoken of Milton as "our greatest public poet".[123] Titles of a number of other well-known literary works are also derived from Milton's writings. Examples include Thomas Wolfe's Look Homeward, Angel, Aldous Huxley's Eyeless in Gaza, Arthur Koestler's Darkness at Noon, and William Golding's Darkness Visible.[124] T. S. Eliot believed that "of no other poet is it so difficult to consider the poetry simply as poetry, without our theological and political dispositions... making unlawful entry".[125] Literary legacy[edit] Milton is commemorated in the temple of British Worthies, Stowe, Buckinghamshire Milton's use of blank verse, in addition to his stylistic innovations (such as grandiloquence of voice and vision, peculiar diction and phraseology) influenced later poets. At the time, poetic blank verse was considered distinct from its use in verse drama, and Paradise Lost was taken as a unique examplar.[126] Said Isaac Watts in 1734, "Mr. Milton is esteemed the parent and author of blank verse among us".[127] "Miltonic verse" might be synonymous for a century with blank verse as poetry, a new poetic terrain independent from both the drama and the heroic couplet. Lack of rhyme was sometimes taken as Milton's defining innovation. He himself considered the rhymeless quality of Paradise Lost to be an extension of his own personal liberty: This neglect then of Rhime ... is to be esteem'd an example set, the first in English, of ancient liberty recover'd to heroic Poem from the troublesom and modern bondage of Rimeing.[128] This pursuit of freedom was largely a reaction against conservative values entrenched within the rigid heroic couplet.[129] Within a dominant culture that stressed elegance and finish, he granted primacy to freedom, breadth and imaginative suggestiveness, eventually developed into the romantic vision of sublime terror. Reaction to Milton's poetic worldview included, grudgingly, acknowledgement that of poet's resemblance to classical writers (Greek and Roman poetry being unrhymed). Blank verse came to be a recognised medium for religious works and for translations of the classics. Unrhymed lyrics like Collins' Ode to Evening (in the meter of Milton's translation of Horace's Ode to Pyrrha) were not uncommon after 1740.[130] A second aspect of Milton's blank verse was the use of unconventional rhythm: His blank-verse paragraph, and his audacious and victorious attempt to combine blank and rhymed verse with paragraphic effect in Lycidas, lay down indestructible models and patterns of English verse-rhythm, as distinguished from the narrower and more strait-laced forms of English metre.[131] Before Milton, "the sense of regular rhythm ... had been knocked into the English head so securely that it was part of their nature".[132] The "Heroick measure", according to Samuel Johnson, "is pure ... when the accent rests upon every second syllable through the whole line ... The repetition of this sound or percussion at equal times, is the most complete harmony of which a single verse is capable".[133] Caesural pauses, most agreed, were best placed at the middle and the end of the line. In order to support this symmetry, lines were most often octo- or deca-syllabic, with no enjambed endings. To this schema Milton introduced modifications, which included hypermetrical syllables (trisyllabic feet), inversion or slighting of stresses, and the shifting of pauses to all parts of the line.[134] Milton deemed these features to be reflective of "the transcendental union of order and freedom".[135] Admirers remained hesitant to adopt such departures from traditional metrical schemes: "The English ... had been writing separate lines for so long that they could not rid themselves of the habit".[136] Isaac Watts preferred his lines distinct from each other, as did Oliver Goldsmith, Henry Pemberton, and Scott of Amwell, whose general opinion it was that Milton's frequent omission of the initial unaccented foot was "displeasing to a nice ear".[137] It was not until the late 18th century that poets (beginning with Gray) began to appreciate "the composition of Milton's harmony ... how he loved to vary his pauses, his measures, and his feet, which gives that enchanting air of freedom and wilderness to his versification".[138] By the 20th century, American poet and critic John Hollander would go so far as to say that Milton "was able, by plying that most remarkable instrument of English meter ... to invent a new mode of image-making in English poetry."[139] While neo-classical diction was as restrictive as its prosody, and narrow imagery paired with uniformity of sentence structure resulted in a small set of 800 nouns circumscribing the vocabulary of 90% of heroic couplets ever written up to the eighteenth century,[140] and tradition required that the same adjectives attach to the same nouns, followed by the same verbs, Milton's pursuit of liberty extended into his vocabulary as well. It included many Latinate neologisms, as well as obsolete words already dropped from popular usage so completely that their meanings were no longer understood. In 1740, Francis Peck identified some examples of Milton's "old" words (now popular).[141] The "Miltonian dialect", as it was called, was emulated by later poets; Pope used the diction of Paradise Lost in his Homer translation, while the lyric poetry of Gray and Collins was frequently criticised for their use of "obsolete words out of Spenser and Milton".[142] The language of Thomson's finest poems (e.g. The Seasons, The Castle of Indolence) was self-consciously modelled after the Miltonian dialect, with the same tone and sensibilities as Paradise Lost. Following to Milton, English poetry from Pope to John Keats exhibited a steadily increasing attention to the connotative, the imaginative and poetic, value of words.[143] Musical settings[edit] Milton's ode At a solemn Musick was set for choir and orchestra as Blest Pair of Sirens by Hubert Parry (1848–1918), and Milton's poem On the Morning of Christ's Nativity was set as a large-scale choral work by Cyril Rootham (1875–1938). Norma Wendelburg used Milton's words for her choral work Song on May Morning. Milton also wrote the hymn Let us with a gladsome mind, a versification of Psalm 136. His 'L'Allegro' and 'Il Penseroso', with additional material, were magnificently set by Handel (1740). Works[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Poetry and drama[edit] 1629: On the Morning of Christ's Nativity 1630: On Shakespeare 1631: On Arriving at the Age of Twenty-Three 1632: L'Allegro 1632: Il Penseroso 1634: A Mask Presented at Ludlow Castle, 1634, commonly known as Comus (a masque) 1637: Lycidas 1645: Poems of Mr John Milton, Both English and Latin 1652: When I Consider How My Light is Spent (Commonly referred to as "On his blindness", though Milton did not use this title)[a] 1655: On the Late Massacre in Piedmont 1667: Paradise Lost 1671: Paradise Regained 1671: Samson Agonistes 1673: Poems, &c, Upon Several Occasions Arcades: a masque. (date is unknown). On his Deceased wife, To The Nightingale, On reaching the Age of twenty four. Prose[edit] Of Reformation (1641) Of Prelatical Episcopacy (1641) Animadversions (1641) The Reason of Church-Government Urged against Prelaty (1642) Apology for Smectymnuus (1642) Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce (1643) Judgement of Martin Bucer Concerning Divorce (1644) Of Education (1644) Areopagitica (1644) Tetrachordon (1645) Colasterion (1645) The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates (1649) Eikonoklastes (1649) Defensio pro Populo Anglicano [First Defence] (1651) Defensio Secunda [Second Defence] (1654) A Treatise of Civil Power (1659) The Likeliest Means to Remove Hirelings from the Church (1659) The Ready and Easy Way to Establish a Free Commonwealth (1660) Brief Notes Upon a Late Sermon (1660) Accedence Commenced Grammar (1669) The History of Britain (1670) Artis logicae plenior institutio [Art of Logic] (1672) Of True Religion (1673) Epistolae Familiaries (1674) Prolusiones (1674) A brief History of Moscovia, and other less known Countries lying Eastward of Russia as far as Cathay, gathered from the writings of several Eye-witnesses (1682) De Doctrina Christiana (1823) Notes[edit] ^ "When I consider how my light is spent" is one of the best known of Milton's sonnets. The last three lines (concluding with "They also serve who only stand and wait") are particularly well known, though rarely in context. The poem may have been written as early as 1652, although most scholars believe it was composed sometime between June and October 1655, when Milton's blindness was essentially complete. References[edit] ^ McCalman 2001 p. 605. ^ Contemporary Literary Criticism. "Milton, John – Introduction". ^ Murphy, Arthur (1837). The Works of Samuel Johnson, LL. D.: An essay on the life and genius of Samuel Johnson. New York, NY: George Dearborn. ^ Masson 1859 pp. v–vi. ^ a b Jenks, Tudor (1905). In the Days of Milton. New York: A.S. Barnes & Company. pp. 35–36. ^ Forsyth, Neil (2008). "St. Paul's". John Milton A Biography (1st ed.). Wilkinson House, Jordan Hill Road, Oxford OX2 8DR, England: Lion Hudson. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-7459-5310-6.CS1 maint: location (link) ^ Lewalski 2003 p. 3. ^ Skerpan-Wheeler, Elizabeth. "John Milton." British Rhetoricians and Logicians, 1500–1660: Second Series. Ed. Edward A. Malone. Detroit: Gale, 2003. Dictionary of Literary Biography Vol. 281. Literature Resource Center. ^ a b Dick 1962 pp. 270–75. ^ "Milton, John (MLTN624J)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge. ^ Hunter 1980 p. 99. ^ Wedgwood 1961 p. 178. ^ Hill 1977 p. 34. ^ Pfeiffer 1955 pp. 363–73. ^ Milton 1959 pp. 887–88. ^ Johnson 1826 Vol. I. p. 64. ^ Hill 1977 p. 38. ^ Lewalski 2003 p. 103. ^ Chaney 1985 and 2000. ^ Lewalski 2003 pp. 87–88. ^ Lewalski 2003 pp. 88–94. ^ Milton 1959 Vol. IV part I. pp. 615–17. ^ Chaney 1985 and 2000 and Lewalski p. 96. ^ Chaney 1985 p. 244–51 and Chaney 2000 p. 313. ^ Lewalski 2003 pp. 94–98. ^ Lewalski 2003 p. 98. ^ Milton 1959 Vol. IV part I pp. 618–19. ^ Lewalski 2003 pp. 99–109. ^ a b Campbell, Gordon (2004). "Milton, John (1608–1674)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. 1 (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/18800. Retrieved 25 October 2013. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) ^ Lobel 1957 pp. 122–34. ^ Lewalski 2003 pp. 181–82, 600. ^ Ann Hughes, 'Milton, Areopagitica, and the Parliamentary Cause', The Oxford Handbook of Milton, ed. Nicholas McDowell and Nigel Smith, Oxford University Press, 2009 ^ Blair Hoxby, 'Areopagitica and Liberty', The Oxford Handbook of Milton, ed. Nicholas McDowell and Nigel Smith, Oxford University Press, 2009 ^ C. Sullivan, 'Milton and the Beginning of Civil Service', in Literature in the Public Service (2013), Ch. 2. ^  Stephen, Leslie (1894). "Milton, John (1608-1674)". In Lee, Sidney (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. 38. London: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 32. ^ von Maltzahn 1999 p. 239. ^ POOLEY, ROGER (1993). "The poets' Cromwell". Critical Survey. 5 (3): 223–234. JSTOR 41555744. ^ Corns, Thomas N. (2012). The Milton Encyclopedia. Yale University Press. p. 216. ISBN 978-0300094442. ^ "Milton appointed Latin Secretary | History Today". www.historytoday.com. Retrieved 3 August 2018. ^ John Leonard, in the introduction to "Paradise Lost", Penguin Classics page ix 2000 ^ Sorsby, A. (1930). "On The Nature of Milton's Blindness". British Journal of Ophthalmology. 14 (7): 339–54. doi:10.1136/bjo.14.7.339. PMC 511199. PMID 18168884. ^ Shawcross, John T. (1986). "The Poet in the Poem: John Milton's Presence in "Paradise Lost"". CEA Critic. 48/49: 32–55. JSTOR 44378181. ^ "Milton's Works". Milton's Works. Christ's College Cambridge. 3 February 2017. ^ Lewalski, Barbara Kiefer (1959). "Milton: Political Beliefs and Polemical Methods, 1659–60". PMLA. 74 (3): 191–202. doi:10.2307/460581. JSTOR 460581. ^ Walter Thornbury, 'Cripplegate', in Old and New London: Volume 2 (London, 1878), pp. 229-245. British History Online http://www.british-history.ac.uk/old-new-london/vol2/pp229-245 [accessed 7 July 2020]. ^ Toland 1932 p. 193. ^ Dates in this section are taken from John Milton's autograph memoranda in his Bible, in the British Library, shelfmark Add MS 32310. ^ The Monthly Mirror: Reflecting Men and Manners. Edinburgh: Harding & Wright. 1810. p. 49 – via Google Books. ^ 'Milton, John', in Journal of the Society of Arts, 8 November 1867, p. 755 ^ Johnson 1826 Vol. I 86. ^ Flood, Alison, When Milton met Shakespeare: poet's notes on Bard appear to have been found , The Guardian, 16 September 2019 ^ Hill 1977. ^ Lindenbaum, Peter (1995). "Authors and Publishers in the Late Seventeenth Century: New Evidence on their Relations". The Library. Oxford University Press. s6-17 (3): 250–69. doi:10.1093/library/s6-17.3.250. ISSN 0024-2160. ^ MeasuringWorth, 2010, "Purchasing Power of British Pounds from 1264 to Present". Access date: 13 January 2017. ^ Darbishire, Helen (October 1941). "The Printing of the First Edition of Paradise Lost". The Review of English Studies. Oxford University Press. 17 (68): 415–27. doi:10.1093/res/os-XVII.68.415. JSTOR 509858. ^ "John Milton's Paradise Lost". The Morgan Library & Museum. Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 25 April 2011. ^ See, for instance, Barker, Arthur. Milton and the Puritan Dilemma, 1641–1660. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1942: 338 and passim; Wolfe, Don M. Milton in the Puritan Revolution. New York: T. Nelson and Sons, 1941: 19. ^ Stephen Fallon, Milton Among the Philosophers (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991), p. 81. ^ a b Daiches, David (1960). A Critical History of English Literature, Vol. I. London: Seeker & Warburg. p. 457. ^ Hill, Christopher (1984). The world turned upside down : radical ideas during the English revolution. London: Penguin. ISBN 9780140137323. ^ a b Khan, Abdul Hamid (July–September 2016). "The Conflict of Puritanism in Milton: An Analysis" (PDF). The Dialogue. XI: 355–356 – via Qurtuba University. ^ Blair Worden, Literature and Politics in Cromwellian England: John Milton, Andrew Marvell and Marchamont Nedham (2007), p. 154. ^ Milton and Republicanism, ed. David Armitage, Armand Himy, and Quentin Skinner (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995). ^ James Tully, An Approach to Political Philosophy: Locke in Contexts (1993), p. 301. ^ Austin Woolrych, Commonwealth to Protectorate (1982), p. 34. ^ Worden p. 149. ^ Austin Woolrych, Commonwealth to Protectorate (1982), p. 101. ^ G. E. Aylmer (editor), The Interregnum: The Quest for Settlement 1646–1660 (1972), p. 17. ^ Christopher Hill, God's Englishman (1972 edition), p. 200. ^ To S r Henry Vane the younger. – The Poetical Works of John Milton. ^ Creaser, John W. (March 2000). "John W. Creaser – Prosodic Style and Conceptions of Liberty in Milton and Marvell – Milton Quarterly 34:1". Milton Quarterly. Muse.jhu.edu. 34 (1): 1–13. doi:10.1111/j.1094-348X.2000.tb00613.x. S2CID 162341986. Retrieved 9 December 2008. ^ William Riley Parker and Gordon Campbell, Milton (1996), p. 444. ^ Nigel Smith, Popular Republicanism in the 1650s: John Streater's 'heroick mechanics', p. 154, in David Armitage, Armand Himy, Quentin Skinner (editors), Milton and Republicanism (1998). ^ Blair Worden, Literature and Politics in Cromwellian England: John Milton, Andrew Marvell and Marchamont Nedham (2007), Ch. 14, Milton and the Good Old Cause. ^ Austin Woolrych, Last Quest for Settlement 1657–1660, p. 202, in G. E. Aylmer (editor), The Interregnum: The Quest for Settlement 1646–1660 (1972), p. 17. ^ a b Shawcross, John T. (2004). The Arms of the Family: The Significance of John Milton's Relatives and Associates. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. p. 7. ISBN 978-0813122915. ^ a b Fletcher, -Harris (1927). "Milton's Use of Biblical Quotations". The Journal of English and Germanic Philology. 26 (2): 145–165. JSTOR 27703025. ^ Baldwin, E. C. (1921). "The Authorized Version's Influence Upon Milton's Diction". Modern Language Notes. xxxvi (6): 376–7. doi:10.2307/2914990. JSTOR 2914990. ^ Lewalski, Life of Milton, p. 253. ^ William Bridges Hunter, A Milton Encyclopedia (1980), Vol. VIII, p. 13. ^ John Milton, The Prose Works of John Milton: With a Biographical Introduction by Rufus Wilmot Griswold. In Two Volumes (Philadelphia: John W. Moore, 1847). Vol. 1. The Prose Works of John Milton, Biographical introduction ^ W.F. Draper, "The Religious Life and Opinions of John Milton." In "The Bibliotheca Sacra and Biblical Repository," Volume 17 (1860) p. 38. ^ Arnold Williams, Renaissance Commentaries on "Genesis" and Some Elements of the Theology of Paradise Lost, PMLA, Vol. 56, No. 1 (Mar. 1941), pp. 151–64. ^ Walter S. H. Lim, John Milton, Radical Politics, and Biblical Republicanism (2006), p. 141. ^ John Rogers, The Matter of Revolution (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998), p. xi. ^ Hill, C. Milton and the English Revolution. Faber & Faber. 1977. pp. 155–57 ^ Hunter, William Bridges. A Milton Encyclopedia, Volume 8 (East Brunswick, NJ: Associated University Presses, 1980). pp. 71, 72. ISBN 0-8387-1841-8. ^ (PDF) Nicholas McDowell, Family Politics; Or, How John Phillips Read His Uncle's Satirical Sonnets, Milton Quarterly Vol. 42 Issue 1, pp. 1–21. Published online: 17 April 2008.[dead link] ^ Christopher Hill, Milton and the English Revolution (1977), p. 127. ^ John Milton, The Christian Doctrine in Complete Poems and Major Prose, ed. Merritt Hughes (Hackett: Indianapolis, 2003), pp. 994–1000; Leo Miller, John Milton among the Polygamophiles (New York: Loewenthal Press, 1974). ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 4 July 2013. Retrieved 10 May 2013.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ Ernest Sirluck, "Introduction", Complete Prose Works of John Milton, New Haven: Yale U. Press, 1959, II, 103 ^ Baillie, Letters and Journals, Edinburgh, 1841, II, 220. ^ Lewalski, Life of Milton, p. 199. ^ Nicholas Von Maltzahn, Milton's History of Britain: republican historiography in the English Revolution, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991 ^ Timothy Kenyon, Utopian Communism and Political Thought in Early Modern England (1989), p. 34. ^ Kevin Sharpe, Remapping Early Modern England: The Culture of Seventeenth-century Politics (2000), p. 7. ^ J. P. Kenyon, Revolution Principles (1977), p. 77. ^ Robert Middlekauff (2005), The Great Cause: The American Revolution, 1763–1789, Revised and Expanded Edition, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-531588-2, pp. 51, 136ff ^ Zagorin, Perez (2002). "The World of Milton Scholarship". Virginia Quarterly Review. Retrieved 11 May 2016. ^ Forsyth, Neil (2008). John Milton: A Biography. Lion Books. p. 15. ISBN 978-0745953106. ^ Al-Zubi, Hasan A. (2007). "Audience and human nature in the poetry of Milton and Dryden/Milton ve Dryden'in siirlerinde izleyici ve insan dogasi – Interactions – Find Articles at BNET". Archived from the original on 24 January 2011. Retrieved 9 December 2008 – via Find Articles. ^ Joseph M. Levine, The Battle of the Books: History and Literature in the Augustan Age (1994), p. 247. ^ "Online text of one book". Andromeda.rutgers.edu. Retrieved 4 January 2010. ^ Christopher Ricks, Milton's Grand Style (1963), pp. 9, 14, 57. ^ William Empson, Some Versions of Pastoral (1974 edition), p. 147. ^ Nos 267, 273, 279, 285, 291, 297, 303, 309, 315, 321, 327, 333, 339, 345, 351, 357, 363, and 369. ^ Explanatory Notes and Remarks on Milton's Paradise Lost (1734). ^ Voltaire, Le Siecle de Louis XIV 2, Paris: Garnier-Flammarion, 1966, p.66. ^ S. Foster Damon, A Blake Dictionary (1973), p. 274. ^ Bill Beckley, Sticky Sublime (2001), p. 63. ^ Part II, Section I: Adelaide.edu.au Archived 26 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine. ^ "Francis T. Palgrave, ed. (1824–1897). The Golden Treasury. 1875". Bartleby.com. Retrieved 4 January 2010. ^ Thomas N. Corns, A Companion to Milton (2003), p. 474. ^ a b Leader, Zachary. "Revision and Romantic Authorship". Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. 298. ISBN 0-19-818634-7. ^ Cited from the original in J. Paul Hunter (editor), Frankenstein by Mary Shelley (1996), p. 225. ^ Nardo, Anna K. George Eliot's Dialogue with Milton. ^ Printz-Påhlson, Göran. Letters of Blood and Other Works in English. [1] pp. 10–14 ^ Leavis, F. R. The Common Pursuit. https://books.google.com/books?id=9Yl1ax4_hukC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false ^ Harold Bloom, The Anxiety of Influence: A theory of poetry (1997), p. 33. ^ "Milton's Areopagitica and the Modern First Amendment by Vincent Blasi". Nationalhumanitiescenter.org. Archived from the original on 14 December 2007. Retrieved 4 January 2010. ^ "Imitating Milton: The Legacy of Paradise Lost". University of Cambridge. Archived from the original on 1 February 2008. Retrieved 4 January 2010. ^ "Philip Pullman opens Bodleian Milton exhibition". University of Oxford. Archived from the original on 12 January 2009. Retrieved 4 January 2010. ^ Rosen, J. "Return to Paradise". The New Yorker, 2 June 2008, pp. 72–6. ^ Eliot 1947 p. 63. ^ Saintsbury 1908 ii. 443. ^ Watts 1810 iv. 619. ^ Milton 1668 xi. ^ Gordon 2008 p. 234. ^ Dexter 1922 p. 46. ^ Saintsbury 1908 ii. 457. ^ Saintsbury 1916 p. 101. ^ Johnson 1751 no. 86. ^ Dexter 1922 p. 57. ^ Saintsbury 1908 ii. 458–59. ^ Dexter 1922 p. 59. ^ Saintsbury 1916 p. 114. ^ Gray 1748 Observations on English Metre. ^ Hollander, John (1975). Vision and resonance : two senses of poetic form. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 116. ISBN 0-19-501898-2. OCLC 1530446. ^ Hobsbaum 1996 p. 40. ^ They included "self-same", "hue", "minstrelsy", "murky", "carol", and "chaunt". Among Milton's naturalized Latin words were "humid", "orient", "hostil", "facil", "fervid", "jubilant", "ire", "bland", "reluctant", "palpable", "fragil", and "ornate". Peck 1740 pp. 110–11. ^ Scott 1785 63. ^ Saintsbury 1908 ii. 468. Sources[edit] Beer, Anna. Milton: Poet, Pamphleteer, and Patriot. New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2008. Campbell, Gordon and Corns, Thomas. John Milton: Life, Work, and Thought. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. Chaney, Edward, The Grand Tour and the Great Rebellion: Richard Lassels and 'The Voyage of Italy' in the Seventeenth Century (Geneva, CIRVI, 1985) and "Milton's Visit to Vallombrosa: A literary tradition", The Evolution of the Grand Tour, 2nd ed (Routledge, London, 2000). Dexter, Raymond. The Influence of Milton on English Poetry. London: Kessinger Publishing. 1922 Dick, Oliver Lawson. Aubrey's Brief Lives. Harmondsworth, Middl.: Penguin Books, 1962. Eliot, T. S. "Annual Lecture on a Master Mind: Milton", Proceedings of the British Academy 33 (1947). Fish, Stanley. Versions of Antihumanism: Milton and Others. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. ISBN 978-1-107-00305-7. Gray, Thomas. Observations on English Metre. "The Works of Thomas Gray". ed. Mitford. London: William Pickering, 1835. Hawkes, David, John Milton: A Hero of Our Time (Counterpoint Press: London and New York, 2009) ISBN 1582434379 Hill, Christopher. Milton and the English Revolution. London: Faber, 1977. Hobsbaum, Philip. "Meter, Rhythm and Verse Form". New York: Routledge, 1996. Hunter, William Bridges. A Milton Encyclopedia. Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press, 1980. Johnson, Samuel. "Rambler #86" 1751. Johnson, Samuel. Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets. London: Dove, 1826. Leonard, John. Faithful Labourers: A Reception History of Paradise Lost, 1667–1970. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013. Lewalski, Barbara K. The Life of John Milton. Oxford: Blackwells Publishers, 2003. A History of the County of Oxford: Volume 5: Bullingdon Hundred. 1957. pp. 122–34. Masson, David. The Life of John Milton and History of His Time, Vol. 1. Oxford: 1859. McCalman, Iain. et al., An Oxford Companion to the Romantic Age: British Culture, 1776–1832. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001. Milner, Andrew. John Milton and the English Revolution: A Study in the Sociology of Literature. London: Macmillan, 1981. Milton, John. Complete Prose Works 8 Vols. gen. ed. Don M. Wolfe. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1959. Milton, John. The Verse, "Paradise Lost". London, 1668. Peck, Francis. "New Memoirs of Milton". London, 1740. Pfeiffer, Robert H. "The Teaching of Hebrew in Colonial America", The Jewish Quarterly Review (April 1955). Rosenfeld, Nancy. The Human Satan in Seventeenth-Century English Literature: From Milton to Rochester. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2008. Saintsbury, George. "The Peace of the Augustans: A Survey of Eighteenth Century Literature as a Place of Rest and Refreshment". London: Oxford University Press. 1946. Saintsbury, George. "A History of English Prosody: From the Twelfth Century to the Present Day". London: Macmillan and Co., 1908. Scott, John. "Critical Essays". London, 1785. Stephen, Leslie (1902). "New Lights on Milton" . Studies of a Biographer. 4. London: Duckworth & Co. pp. 86–129. Sullivan, Ceri. Literature in the Public Service: Divine Bureaucracy (2013). Toland, John. Life of Milton in The Early Lives of Milton. Ed. Helen Darbishere. London: Constable, 1932. von Maltzahn, Nicholas. "Milton's Readers" in The Oxford Companion to Milton. ed. Dennis Richard Danielson, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. Watts, Isaac. "Miscellaneous Thoughts" No. lxxiii. Works 1810 Wedgwood, C. V. Thomas Wentworth, First Earl of Strafford 1593–1641. New York: Macmillan, 1961. Wilson, A. N. The Life of John Milton. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to John Milton. 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en-wikipedia-org-6062	----	Mark Antony - Wikipedia Mark Antony From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other Romans with a similar name, see Marcus Antonius (disambiguation). For other people with a similar name, see Mark Anthony. Roman politician and general Mark Antony Marcus Antonius Bust of Antony made during the Flavian dynasty (69—96 AD) Born 14 January 83 BC Rome, Italy, Roman Republic Died 1 August 30 BC (aged 53) Alexandria, Ptolemaic Egypt Cause of death Suicide Nationality Roman Office Triumvir (43–33 BC) Consul (44, 34 BC) Magister equitum (48 BC) Political party Populares Spouse(s) Fadia (dates unknown) Antonia Hybrida Minor (?–47 BC) Fulvia (46–40 BC) Octavia Minor (40–32 BC) Cleopatra (32–30 BC) Children Antonia Marcus Antonius Antyllus Iullus Antonius Antonia Major Antonia Minor Alexander Helios Cleopatra Selene II Ptolemy Philadelphus Parents Marcus Antonius Creticus (father) Julia (mother) Military career Allegiance   Roman Republic Julius Caesar Populares Branch Roman army Years 54–30 BC Battles/wars Gallic Wars Caesar's Civil War Battle of Forum Gallorum Battle of Mutina Liberators' civil war Antony's Parthian War Battle of Actium Battle of Alexandria Marcus Antonius (14 January 83 BC – 1 August 30 BC), commonly known in English as Mark Antony or Anthony, was a Roman politician and general who played a critical role in the transformation of the Roman Republic from a constitutional republic into the autocratic Roman Empire. Antony was a supporter of Julius Caesar, and served as one of his generals during the conquest of Gaul and the Civil War. Antony was appointed administrator of Italy while Caesar eliminated political opponents in Greece, North Africa, and Spain. After Caesar's death in 44 BC, Antony joined forces with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, another of Caesar's generals, and Octavian, Caesar's great-nephew and adopted son, forming a three-man dictatorship known to historians as the Second Triumvirate. The Triumvirs defeated Caesar's murderers, the Liberatores, at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC, and divided the government of the Republic between themselves. Antony was assigned Rome's eastern provinces, including the client kingdom of Egypt, then ruled by Cleopatra VII Philopator, and was given the command in Rome's war against Parthia. Relations among the triumvirs were strained as the various members sought greater political power. Civil war between Antony and Octavian was averted in 40 BC, when Antony married Octavian's sister, Octavia. Despite this marriage, Antony carried on a love affair with Cleopatra, who bore him three children, further straining Antony's relations with Octavian. Lepidus was expelled from the association in 36 BC, and in 33 BC disagreements between Antony and Octavian caused a split between the remaining Triumvirs. Their ongoing hostility erupted into civil war in 31 BC, as the Roman Senate, at Octavian's direction, declared war on Cleopatra and proclaimed Antony a traitor. Later that year, Antony was defeated by Octavian's forces at the Battle of Actium. Antony and Cleopatra fled to Egypt, where after a minor victory at the Battle of Alexandria they committed suicide. With Antony dead, Octavian became the undisputed master of the Roman world. In 27 BC, Octavian was granted the title of Augustus, marking the final stage in the transformation of the Roman Republic into an empire, with himself as the first Roman emperor. Contents 1 Early life 2 Early career 2.1 Military service 2.2 Service under Caesar 2.2.1 Gallic Wars 2.2.2 Civil War 2.2.3 Governor of Italy 2.3 Assassination of Caesar 2.3.1 Ides of March 2.3.2 Leader of the Caesarian Party 2.3.3 First conflict with Octavian 2.4 The Second Triumvirate 2.4.1 Forming the Alliance 2.4.2 War against the Liberators 3 Master of the Roman East 3.1 Division of the Republic 3.2 Activities in the East 3.3 Fulvia's Civil War 3.4 Antony's Parthian War 3.4.1 Roman–Parthian relations 3.4.2 Parthian Invasion 3.4.3 Conflict with Sextus Pompey 3.4.4 Reconquest of Judea 3.4.5 Parthian Campaign 3.5 Antony and Cleopatra 3.6 Death 4 Aftermath and legacy 5 Marriages and issue 6 Descendants 7 Artistic portrayals 7.1 Novels 7.2 Poetry 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 10.1 Citations 10.2 Primary sources 10.3 Secondary sources 11 External links Early life[edit] A member of the plebeian Antonia gens, Antony was born in Rome on 14 January 83 BC.[1][2] His father and namesake was Marcus Antonius Creticus, son of the noted orator by the same name who had been murdered during the Marian Terror of the winter of 87–86 BC.[3] His mother was Julia, a third cousin of Julius Caesar. Antony was an infant at the time of Lucius Cornelius Sulla's march on Rome in 82 BC.[4][note 1] Antony's brother Lucius, on a coin issued at Ephesus during his consulship in 41 BC According to the Roman orator Marcus Tullius Cicero, Antony's father was incompetent and corrupt, and was only given power because he was incapable of using or abusing it effectively.[5] In 74 BC he was given military command to defeat the pirates of the Mediterranean, but he died in Crete in 71 BC without making any significant progress.[3][5][6] The elder Antony's death left Antony and his brothers, Lucius and Gaius, in the care of their mother, Julia, who later married Publius Cornelius Lentulus Sura, an eminent member of the old Patrician nobility. Lentulus, despite exploiting his political success for financial gain, was constantly in debt due to the extravagance of his lifestyle. He was a major figure in the Second Catilinarian Conspiracy and was summarily executed on the orders of the consul Cicero in 63 BC for his involvement.[7] Antony's early life was characterized by a lack of proper parental guidance. According to the historian Plutarch, he spent his teenage years wandering through Rome with his brothers and friends gambling, drinking, and becoming involved in scandalous love affairs.[6] Antony's contemporary and enemy, Cicero, charged that he had a homosexual relationship with Gaius Scribonius Curio.[8] This form of slander was popular during this time in the Roman Republic to demean and discredit political opponents by accusing them of having an inappropriate sexual affair.[9][10] There is little reliable information on his political activity as a young man, although it is known that he was an associate of Publius Clodius Pulcher and his street gang.[11] He may also have been involved in the Lupercal cult as he was referred to as a priest of this order later in life.[12] By age twenty, Antony had amassed an enormous debt. Hoping to escape his creditors, Antony fled to Greece in 58 BC, where he studied philosophy and rhetoric at Athens. Early career[edit] Military service[edit] In 57 BC, Antony joined the military staff of Aulus Gabinius, the Proconsul of Syria, as chief of the cavalry.[13] This appointment marks the beginning of his military career.[14] As consul the previous year, Gabinius had consented to the exile of Cicero by Antony's mentor, Publius Clodius Pulcher. Hyrcanus II, the Roman-supported Hasmonean High Priest of Judea, fled Jerusalem to Gabinius to seek protection against his rival and son-in-law Alexander. Years earlier in 63 BC, the Roman general Pompey had captured him and his father, King Aristobulus II, during his war against the remnant of the Seleucid Empire. Pompey had deposed Aristobulus and installed Hyrcanus as Rome's client ruler over Judea.[15] Antony achieved his first military distinctions after securing important victories at Alexandrium and Machaerus.[16] With the rebellion defeated by 56 BC, Gabinius restored Hyrcanus to his position as High Priest in Judea. Hellenistic bust of Pharaoh Ptolemy XII Auletes. The following year, in 55 BC, Gabinius intervened in the political affairs of Ptolemaic Egypt. Pharaoh Ptolemy XII Auletes had been deposed in a rebellion led by his daughter Berenice IV in 58 BC, forcing him to seek asylum in Rome. During Pompey's conquests years earlier, Ptolemy had received the support of Pompey, who named him an ally of Rome.[17] Gabinius' invasion sought to restore Ptolemy to his throne. This was done against the orders of the senate but with the approval of Pompey, then Rome's leading politician, and only after the deposed king provided a 10,000 talent bribe. The Greek historian Plutarch records it was Antony who convinced Gabinius to finally act.[16] After defeating the frontier forces of the Egyptian kingdom, Gabinius' army proceeded to attack the palace guards but they surrendered before a battle commenced.[18] With Ptolemy XII restored as Rome's client king, Gabinius garrisoned two thousand Roman soldiers, later known as the Gabiniani, in Alexandria to ensure Ptolemy's authority. In return for its support, Rome exercised considerable power over the kingdom's affairs, particularly control of the kingdom's revenues and crop yields.[19] During the campaign in Egypt, Antony first met Cleopatra, the 14-year-old daughter of Ptolemy XII.[citation needed] While Antony was serving Gabinius in the East, the domestic political situation had changed in Rome. In 60 BC, a secret agreement (known as the "First Triumvirate") was entered into between three men to control the Republic: Marcus Licinius Crassus, Gnaeus Pompey Magnus, and Gaius Julius Caesar. Crassus, Rome's wealthiest man, had defeated the slave rebellion of Spartacus in 70 BC; Pompey conquered much of the Eastern Mediterranean in the 60's BC; Caesar was Rome's Pontifex Maximus and a former general in Spain. In 59 BC, Caesar, with funding from Crassus, was elected consul to pursue legislation favourable to Crassus and Pompey's interests. In return, Caesar was assigned the governorship of Illyricum, Cisalpine Gaul, and Transalpine Gaul for five years beginning in 58 BC. Caesar used his governorship as a launching point for his conquest of free Gaul. In 55 BC, Crassus and Pompey served as consuls while Caesar's command was extended for another five years. Rome was effectively under the absolute power of these three men.[20][21] The Triumvirate used Publius Clodius Pulcher, Antony's patron, to exile their political rivals, notably Cicero[22] and Cato the Younger. During his early military service, Antony married his cousin Antonia Hybrida Minor, the daughter of Gaius Antonius Hybrida. Sometime between 54 and 47 BC, the union produced a single known child, Antonia. It is unclear if this was Antony's first marriage.[note 2] Service under Caesar[edit] Gallic Wars[edit] See also: Gallic Wars The ancient Mediterranean in 50 BC at the end of Caesar's Gallic Wars, with the territory of Rome in yellow. Antony's association with Publius Clodius Pulcher allowed him to achieve greater prominence. Clodius, through the influence of his benefactor Marcus Licinius Crassus, had developed a positive political relationship with Julius Caesar. Clodius secured Antony a position on Caesar's military staff in 54 BC, joining his conquest of Gaul. Serving under Caesar, Antony demonstrated excellent military leadership. Despite a temporary alienation later in life, Antony and Caesar developed friendly relations which would continue until Caesar's assassination in 44 BC. Caesar's influence secured greater political advancement for Antony. After a year of service in Gaul, Caesar dispatched Antony to Rome to formally begin his political career, receiving election as quaestor for 52 BC as a member of the Populares faction. Assigned to assist Caesar, Antony returned to Gaul and commanded Caesar's cavalry during his victory at the Battle of Alesia against the Gallic chieftain Vercingetorix. Following his year in office, Antony was promoted by Caesar to the rank of Legate and assigned command of two legions (approximately 7,500 total soldiers).[23] Meanwhile, the alliance among Caesar, Pompey and Crassus had effectively ended. Caesar's daughter Julia, who had married Pompey to secure the alliance, died in 54 BC while Crassus was killed at the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC. Without the stability they provided, the divide between Caesar and Pompey grew ever larger.[24] Caesar's glory in conquering Gaul had served to further strain his alliance with Pompey,[24] who, having grown jealous of his former ally, had drifted away from Caesar's democratic Populares party towards the oligarchic Optimates faction led by Cato. The supporters of Caesar, led by Clodius, and the supporters of Pompey, led by Titus Annius Milo, routinely clashed. In 52 BC, Milo succeeded in assassinating Clodius, resulting in widespread riots and the burning of the senate meeting house, the Curia Hostilia, by Clodius' street gang. Anarchy resulted, causing the senate to look to Pompey. Fearing the persecutions of Lucius Cornelius Sulla only thirty years earlier, they avoided granting Pompey the dictatorship by instead naming him sole consul for the year, giving him extraordinary but limited powers. Pompey ordered armed soldiers into the city to restore order and to eliminate the remnants of Clodius' gang.[25] Antony remained on Caesar's military staff until 50 BC, helping mopping-up actions across Gaul to secure Caesar's conquest. With the war over, Antony was sent back to Rome to act as Caesar's protector against Pompey and the other Optimates. With the support of Caesar, who as Pontifex Maximus was head of the Roman religion, Antony was appointed the College of Augurs, an important priestly office responsible for interpreting the will of the gods by studying the flight of birds. All public actions required favorable auspices, granting the college considerable influence. Antony was then elected as one of the ten plebeian tribunes for 49 BC. In this position, Antony could protect Caesar from his political enemies, by vetoing any actions unfavorable to his patron. Civil War[edit] See also: Caesar's Civil War Cato the Younger, a member of the Optimates faction, was one of the chief architects of the decree which provoked Caesar into civil war. The feud between Caesar and Pompey erupted into open confrontation by early 49 BC. The consuls for the year, Gaius Claudius Marcellus Maior and Lucius Cornelius Lentulus Crus, were firm Optimates opposed to Caesar.[26] Pompey, though remaining in Rome, was then serving as the governor of Spain and commanded several legions. Upon assuming office in January, Antony immediately summoned a meeting of the senate to resolve the conflict: he proposed both Caesar and Pompey lay down their commands and return to the status of mere private citizens.[27] His proposal was well received by most of the senators but the consuls and Cato vehemently opposed it. Antony then made a new proposal: Caesar would retain only two of his eight legions, and the governorship of Illyrium if he was allowed to stand for the consulship in absentia. This arrangement ensured his immunity from suit would continue: he had needed the consulship to protect himself from prosecution by Pompey. Though Pompey found the concession satisfactory, Cato and Lentulus refused to back down, with Lentulus even expelling Antony from the senate meeting by force. Antony fled Rome, fearing for his life, and returned to Caesar's camp on the banks of the Rubicon, the southern limit of Caesar's lawful command. Within days of Antony's expulsion, on 7 January 49 BC, the senate reconvened. Under the leadership of Cato and with the tacit support of Pompey, the senate passed a senatus consultum ultimum, a decree stripping Caesar of his command and ordering him to return to Rome and stand trial for war crimes. The senate further declared Caesar a traitor and a public enemy if he did not immediately disband his army.[28] With all hopes of finding a peaceful solution gone after Antony's expulsion, Caesar used Antony as a pretext for marching on Rome. As tribune, Antony's person was sacrosanct, so it was unlawful to harm him or to refuse to recognize his veto. Three days later, on 10 January, Caesar crossed the Rubicon, initiating the Civil War.[29] During the southern march, Caesar placed Antony as his second in command. Caesar's rapid advance surprised Pompey, who, along with the other chief members of the Optimates, fled Italy for Greece. After entering Rome, instead of pursuing Pompey, Caesar marched to Spain to defeat the Pompeian loyalists there. Meanwhile, Antony, with the rank of propraetor—despite never having served as praetor—was installed as governor of Italy and commander of the army, stationed there while Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, one of Caesar's staff officers, ran the provisional administration of Rome itself.[30][31] Though Antony was well liked by his soldiers, most other citizens despised him for his lack of interest in the hardships they faced from the civil war.[32] By the end of the year 49 BC, Caesar, already the ruler of Gaul, had captured Italy, Spain, Sicily, and Sardinia out of Optimates control. In early 48 BC, he prepared to sail with seven legions to Greece to face Pompey. Caesar had entrusted the defense of Illyricum to Gaius Antonius, Antony's younger brother, and Publius Cornelius Dolabella. Pompey's forces, however, defeated them and assumed control of the Adriatic Sea along with it. Additionally, the two legions they commanded defected to Pompey. Without their fleet, Caesar lacked the necessary transport ships to cross into Greece with his seven legions. Instead, he sailed with only two and placed Antony in command of the remaining five at Brundisium with instructions to join him as soon as he was able. In early 48 BC, Lucius Scribonius Libo was given command of Pompey's fleet, comprising some fifty galleys.[33][34] Moving off to Brundisium, he blockaded Antony. Antony, however, managed to trick Libo into pursuing some decoy ships, causing Libo's squadron to be trapped and attacked. Most of Libo's fleet managed to escape, but several of his troops were trapped and captured.[33][35] With Libo gone, Antony joined Caesar in Greece by March 48 BC. The Battle of Pharsalus: the decisive battle of Caesar's Civil War. Antony commanded the left wing of Caesar's army. During the Greek campaign, Plutarch records that Antony was Caesar's top general, and second only to him in reputation.[36] Antony joined Caesar at the western Balkan Peninsula and besieged Pompey's larger army at Dyrrhachium. With food sources running low, Caesar, in July, ordered a nocturnal assault on Pompey's camp, but Pompey's larger forces pushed back the assault. Though an indecisive result, the victory was a tactical win for Pompey. Pompey, however, did not order a counterassault on Caesar's camp, allowing Caesar to retreat unhindered. Caesar would later remark the civil war would have ended that day if only Pompey had attacked him.[37] Caesar managed to retreat to Thessaly, with Pompey in pursuit. Assuming a defensive position at the plain of Pharsalus, Caesar's army prepared for pitched battle with Pompey's, which outnumbered his own two to one. At the Battle of Pharsalus on 9 August 48 BC, Caesar commanded the right wing opposite Pompey while Antony commanded the left, indicating Antony's status as Caesar's top general.[36] The resulting battle was a decisive victory for Caesar. Though the civil war had not ended at Pharsulus, the battle marked the pinnacle of Caesar's power and effectively ended the Republic.[38] The battle gave Caesar a much needed boost in legitimacy, as prior to the battle much of the Roman world outside Italy supported Pompey and the Optimates as the legitimate government of Rome. After Pompey's defeat, most of the senate defected to Caesar, including many of the soldiers who had fought under Pompey. Pompey himself fled to Ptolemaic Egypt, but Pharaoh Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator feared retribution from Caesar and had Pompey assassinated upon his arrival. Governor of Italy[edit] A cameo carving of Mark Antony depicted as Alexander the Great, c. 40 BC Instead of immediately pursuing Pompey and the remaining Optimates, Caesar returned to Rome and was appointed Dictator with Antony as his Master of the Horse and second in command.[39] Caesar presided over his own election to a second consulship for 47 BC and then, after eleven days in office, resigned this dictatorship.[40] Caesar then sailed to Egypt, where he deposed Ptolemy XIII in favor of his sister Cleopatra in 47 BC. The young Cleopatra became Caesar's mistress and bore him a son, Caesarion. Caesar's actions further strengthened Roman control over the already Roman-dominated kingdom.[41] While Caesar was away in Egypt, Antony remained in Rome to govern Italy and restore order.[42] Without Caesar to guide him, however, Antony quickly faced political difficulties and proved himself unpopular. The chief cause of his political challenges concerned debt forgiveness. One of the tribunes for 47 BC, Publius Cornelius Dolabella, a former general under Pompey, proposed a law which would have canceled all outstanding debts. Antony opposed the law for political and personal reasons: he believed Caesar would not support such massive relief and suspected Dolabella had seduced his wife Antonia Hybrida Minor. When Dolabella sought to enact the law by force and seized the Roman Forum, Antony responded by unleashing his soldiers upon the assembled masses.[43] The resulting instability, especially among Caesar's veterans who would have benefited from the law, forced Caesar to return to Italy by October 47 BC.[42] Antony's handling of the affair with Dolabella caused a cooling of his relationship with Caesar. Antony's violent reaction had caused Rome to fall into a state of anarchy. Caesar sought to mend relations with the populist leader; he was elected to a third term as consul for 46 BC, but proposed the senate should transfer the consulship to Dolabella. When Antony protested, Caesar was forced to withdraw the motion out of shame. Later, Caesar sought to exercise his prerogatives as Dictator and directly proclaim Dolabella as consul instead.[44] Antony again protested and, in his capacity as an Augur, declared the omens were unfavorable and Caesar again backed down.[45] Seeing the expediency of removing Dolabella from Rome, Caesar ultimately pardoned him for his role in the riots and took him as one of his generals in his campaigns against the remaining Optimates resistance.[36] Antony, however, was stripped of all official positions and received no appointments for the year 46 BC or 45 BC. Instead of Antony, Caesar appointed Marcus Aemilius Lepidus to be his consular colleague for 46 BC. While Caesar campaigned in North Africa, Antony remained in Rome as a mere private citizen. After returning victorious from North Africa, Caesar was appointed Dictator for ten years and brought Cleopatra and their son to Rome. Antony again remained in Rome while Caesar, in 45 BC, sailed to Spain to defeat the final opposition to his rule. When Caesar returned in late 45 BC, the civil war was over. During this time Antony married his third wife, Fulvia. Following the scandal with Dolabella, Antony had divorced his second wife and quickly married Fulvia. Fulvia had previously been married to both Publius Clodius Pulcher and Gaius Scribonius Curio, having been a widow since Curio's death in the battle of the Bagradas in 49 BC. Though Antony and Fulvia were formally married in 47 BC, Cicero suggests the two had been in a relationship since at least 58 BC.[46][47] The union produced two children: Marcus Antonius Antyllus (born 47) and Iullus Antonius (born 45) Assassination of Caesar[edit] Main article: Assassination of Julius Caesar Ides of March[edit] Whatever conflicts existed between himself and Caesar, Antony remained faithful to Caesar, ensuring their estrangement did not last long. Antony reunited with Caesar at Narbo in 45 BC with full reconciliation coming in 44 BC when Antony was elected consul alongside Caesar. Caesar planned a new invasion of Parthia and desired to leave Antony in Italy to govern Rome in his name. The reconciliation came soon after Antony rejected an offer by Gaius Trebonius, one of Caesar's generals, to join a conspiracy to assassinate Caesar.[48][49] The Death of Julius Caesar, as depicted by Vincenzo Camuccini. Caesar was assassinated on the Ides of March (15 March) 44 BC. Soon after they assumed office together, the Lupercalia festival was held on 15 February 44 BC. The festival was held in honor of Lupa, the she-wolf who suckled the infant orphans Romulus and Remus, the founders of Rome.[50] The political atmosphere of Rome at the time of the festival was deeply divided. Caesar had enacted a number of constitutional reforms which centralized effectively all political powers within his own hands. He was granted further honors, including a form of semi-official cult, with Antony as his high priest.[51] Additionally, the day before the festival, Caesar had been named Dictator for Life, effectively granting unlimited power. Caesar's political rivals feared these reforms were his attempts at transforming the Republic into an open monarchy. During the festival's activities, Antony publicly offered Caesar a diadem, which Caesar refused. The event presented a powerful message: a diadem was a symbol of a king. By refusing it, Caesar demonstrated he had no intention of making himself King of Rome. Antony's motive for such actions is not clear and it is unknown if he acted with Caesar's prior approval or on his own.[52] "Marc Antony's Oration at Caesar's Funeral" as depicted by George Edward Robertson A group of senators resolved to kill Caesar to prevent him from seizing the throne. Chief among them were Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus. Although Cassius was "the moving spirit" in the plot, winning over the chief assassins to the cause of tyrannicide, Brutus, with his family's history of deposing Rome's kings, became their leader.[53] Cicero, though not personally involved in the conspiracy, later claimed Antony's actions sealed Caesar's fate as such an obvious display of Caesar's preeminence motivated them to act.[54] Originally, the conspirators had planned to eliminate not only Caesar but also many of his supporters, including Antony, but Brutus rejected the proposal, limiting the conspiracy to Caesar alone.[55] With Caesar preparing to depart for Parthia in late March, the conspirators prepared to act when Caesar appeared for the senate meeting on the Ides of March (15 March). Antony was supposed to attend with Caesar, but was waylaid at the door by one of the plotters and prevented from intervening. According to the Greek historian Plutarch, as Caesar arrived at the senate, Lucius Tillius Cimber presented him with a petition to recall his exiled brother.[56] The other conspirators crowded round to offer their support. Within moments, the entire group, including Brutus, was striking out at the dictator. Caesar attempted to get away, but, blinded by blood, he tripped and fell; the men continued stabbing him as he lay defenseless on the lower steps of the portico. According to Roman historian Eutropius, around 60 or more men participated in the assassination. Caesar was stabbed 23 times and died from the blood loss attributable to multiple stab wounds.[57][58] Leader of the Caesarian Party[edit] In the turmoil surrounding the assassination, Antony escaped Rome dressed as a slave, fearing Caesar's death would be the start of a bloodbath among his supporters. When this did not occur, he soon returned to Rome. The conspirators, who styled themselves the Liberatores ("The Liberators"), had barricaded themselves on the Capitoline Hill for their own safety. Though they believed Caesar's death would restore the Republic, Caesar had been immensely popular with the Roman middle and lower classes, who became enraged upon learning a small group of aristocrats had killed their champion. Antony, as the sole consul, soon took the initiative and seized the state treasury. Calpurnia, Caesar's widow, presented him with Caesar's personal papers and custody of his extensive property, clearly marking him as Caesar's heir and leader of the Caesarian faction.[59] Caesar's Master of the Horse Marcus Aemilius Lepidus marched over 6,000 troops into Rome on 16 March to restore order and to act as the bodyguards of the Caesarian faction. Lepidus wanted to storm the Capitol, but Antony preferred a peaceful solution as a majority of both the Liberators and Caesar's own supporters preferred a settlement over civil war.[60] On 17 March, at Antony's arrangement, the senate met to discuss a compromise, which, due to the presence of Caesar's veterans in the city, was quickly reached. Caesar's assassins would be pardoned of their crimes and, in return, all of Caesar's actions would be ratified.[61] In particular, the offices assigned to both Brutus and Cassius by Caesar were likewise ratified. Antony also agreed to accept the appointment of his rival Dolabella as his consular colleague to replace Caesar.[62] Having neither troops, money, nor popular support, the Liberatores were forced to accept Antony's proposal. This compromise was a great success for Antony, who managed to simultaneously appease Caesar's veterans, reconcile the senate majority, and appear to the Liberatores as their partner and protector.[63] Octavian, Julius Caesar's adopted son. Antony would struggle with Octavian for leadership of the Caesarian party following Caesar's assassination. On 19 March, Caesar's will was opened and read. In it, Caesar posthumously adopted his great-nephew Gaius Octavius and named him his principal heir. Then only nineteen years old and stationed with Caesar's army in Macedonia, the youth became a member of Caesar's Julian clan, changing his name to "Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus" (Octavian) in accordance with the conventions of Roman adoption. Though not the chief beneficiary, Antony did receive some bequests.[64] Shortly after the compromise was reached, as a sign of good faith, Brutus, against the advice of Cassius and Cicero, agreed Caesar would be given a public funeral and his will would be validated. Caesar's funeral was held on 20 March. Antony, as Caesar's faithful lieutenant and incumbent consul, was chosen to preside over the ceremony and to recite the elegy. During the demagogic speech, he enumerated the deeds of Caesar and, publicly reading his will, detailed the donations Caesar had left to the Roman people. Antony then seized the blood-stained toga from Caesar's body and presented it to the crowd. Worked into a fury by the bloody spectacle, the assembly rioted. Several buildings in the Forum and some houses of the conspirators were burned to the ground. Panicked, many of the conspirators fled Italy.[65] Under the pretext of not being able to guarantee their safety, Antony relieved Brutus and Cassius of their judicial duties in Rome and instead assigned them responsibility for procuring wheat for Rome from Sicily and Asia. Such an assignment, in addition to being unworthy of their rank, would have kept them far from Rome and shifted the balance towards Antony. Refusing such secondary duties, the two traveled to Greece instead. Additionally, Cleopatra left Rome to return to Egypt. Despite the provisions of Caesar's will, Antony proceeded to act as leader of the Caesarian faction, including appropriating for himself a portion of Caesar's fortune rightfully belonging to Octavian. Antony enacted the Lex Antonia, which formally abolished the Dictatorship, in an attempt to consolidate his power by gaining the support of the senatorial class. He also enacted a number of laws he claimed to have found in Caesar's papers to ensure his popularity with Caesar's veterans, particularly by providing land grants to them. Lepidus, with Antony's support, was named Pontifex Maximus to succeed Caesar. To solidify the alliance between Antony and Lepidus, Antony's daughter Antonia Prima was engaged to Lepidus' son, also named Lepidus. Surrounding himself with a bodyguard of over six thousand of Caesar's veterans, Antony presented himself as Caesar's true successor, largely ignoring Octavian.[66] First conflict with Octavian[edit] Octavian arrived in Rome in May to claim his inheritance. Although Antony had amassed political support, Octavian still had opportunity to rival him as the leading member of the Caesarian faction. The senatorial Republicans increasingly viewed Antony as a new tyrant. Antony had lost the support of many Romans and supporters of Caesar when he opposed the motion to elevate Caesar to divine status.[67] When Antony refused to relinquish Caesar's vast fortune to him, Octavian borrowed heavily to fulfill the bequests in Caesar's will to the Roman people and to his veterans, as well as to establish his own bodyguard of veterans.[68] This earned him the support of Caesarian sympathizers who hoped to use him as a means of eliminating Antony.[69] The senate, and Cicero in particular, viewed Antony as the greater danger of the two. By summer 44 BC, Antony was in a difficult position due to his actions regarding his compromise with the Liberatores following Caesar's assassination. He could either denounce the Liberatores as murderers and alienate the senate or he could maintain his support for the compromise and risk betraying the legacy of Caesar, strengthening Octavian's position. In either case, his situation as ruler of Rome would be weakened. Roman historian Cassius Dio later recorded that while Antony, as consul, maintained the advantage in the relationship, the general affection of the Roman people was shifting to Octavian due to his status as Caesar's son.[70][71] A denarius of Marcus Antonius struck in 42 BC Supporting the senatorial faction against Antony, Octavian, in September 44 BC, encouraged the leading senator Marcus Tullius Cicero to attack Antony in a series of speeches portraying him as a threat to the Republican order.[72][73] Risk of civil war between Antony and Octavian grew. Octavian continued to recruit Caesar's veterans to his side, away from Antony, with two of Antony's legions defecting in November 44 BC. At that time, Octavian, only a private citizen, lacked legal authority to command the Republic's armies, making his command illegal. With popular opinion in Rome turning against him and his consular term nearing its end, Antony attempted to secure a favorable military assignment to secure an army to protect himself. The senate, as was custom, assigned Antony and Dolabella the provinces of Macedonia and Syria, respectively, to govern in 43 BC after their consular terms expired. Antony, however, objected to the assignment, preferring to govern Cisalpine Gaul which had been assigned to Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus, one of Caesar's assassins.[74][75] When Decimus refused to surrender his province, Antony marched north in December 44 BC with his remaining soldiers to take the province by force, besieging Decimus at Mutina.[76] The senate, led by a fiery Cicero, denounced Antony's actions and declared him an outlaw. Ratifying Octavian's extraordinary command on 1 January 43 BC, the senate dispatched him along with consuls Hirtius and Pansa to defeat Antony and his five legions.[77][78] Antony's forces were defeated at the Battle of Mutina in April 43 BC, forcing Antony to retreat to Transalpine Gaul. Both consuls were killed, however, leaving Octavian in sole command of their armies, some eight legions.[79][80] The Second Triumvirate[edit] Main article: Second Triumvirate Forming the Alliance[edit] With Antony defeated, the senate, hoping to eliminate Octavian and the remainder of the Caesarian party, assigned command of the Republic's legions to Decimus. Sextus Pompey, son of Caesar's old rival Pompey Magnus, was given command of the Republic's fleet from his base in Sicily while Brutus and Cassius were granted the governorships of Macedonia and Syria respectively. These appointments attempted to renew the "Republican" cause.[81] However, the eight legions serving under Octavian, composed largely of Caesar's veterans, refused to follow one of Caesar's murderers, allowing Octavian to retain his command. Meanwhile, Antony recovered his position by joining forces with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, who had been assigned the governorship of Transalpine Gaul and Nearer Spain.[82] Antony sent Lepidus to Rome to broker a conciliation. Though he was an ardent Caesarian, Lepidus had maintained friendly relations with the senate and with Sextus Pompey. His legions, however, quickly joined Antony, giving him control over seventeen legions, the largest army in the West.[83] Map of the Roman Republic in 43 BC after the establishment of the Second Triumvirate:   Antony   Lepidus   Octavian   Triumvirs collectively   Sextus Pompey   The Liberators   Rome's client kingdoms   Ptolemaic Egypt By mid-May, Octavian began secret negotiations to form an alliance with Antony to provide a united Caesarian party against the Liberators. Remaining in Cisalpine Gaul, Octavian dispatched emissaries to Rome in July 43 BC demanding he be appointed consul to replace Hirtius and Pansa and that the decree declaring Antony a public enemy be rescinded.[84] When the senate refused, Octavian marched on Rome with his eight legions and assumed control of the city in August 43 BC. Octavian proclaimed himself consul, rewarded his soldiers, and then set about prosecuting Caesar's murderers. By the lex Pedia, all of the conspirators and Sextus Pompey were convicted ″in absentia″ and declared public enemies. Then, at the instigation of Lepidus, Octavian went to Cisalpine Gaul to meet Antony. In November 43 BC, Octavian, Lepidus, and Antony met near Bononia.[85] After two days of discussions, the group agreed to establish a three man dictatorship to govern the Republic for five years, known as the "Three Men for the Restoration of the Republic" (Latin: "Triumviri Rei publicae Constituendae"), known to modern historians as the Second Triumvirate. They shared military command of the Republic's armies and provinces among themselves: Antony received Gaul, Lepidus Spain, and Octavian (as the junior partner) Africa. They jointly governed Italy. The Triumvirate would have to conquer the rest of Rome's holdings; Brutus and Cassius held the Eastern Mediterranean, and Sextus Pompey held the Mediterranean islands.[86] On 27 November 43 BC, the Triumvirate was formally established by a new law, the lex Titia. Octavian and Antony reinforced their alliance through Octavian's marriage to Antony's stepdaughter, Claudia. The vengeance of Fulvia by Francisco Maura Y Montaner, 1888, depicting Fulvia, Antony's wife, inspecting the severed head of Cicero The primary objective of the Triumvirate was to avenge Caesar's death and to make war upon his murderers. Before marching against Brutus and Cassius in the East, the Triumvirs issued proscriptions against their enemies in Rome. The Dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla had taken similar action to purge Rome of his opponents in 82 BC. The proscribed were named on public lists, stripped of citizenship, and outlawed. Their wealth and property were confiscated by the state, and rewards were offered to anyone who secured their arrest or death. With such encouragements, the proscription produced deadly results; two thousand Roman knights were executed, and one third of the senate, among them Cicero, who was executed on 7 December. The confiscations helped replenish the State Treasury, which had been depleted by Caesar's civil war the decade before; when this seemed insufficient to fund the imminent war against Brutus and Cassius, the Triumvirs imposed new taxes, especially on the wealthy. By January 42 BC the proscription had ended; it had lasted two months, and though less bloody than Sulla's, it traumatized Roman society. A number of those named and outlawed had fled to either Sextus Pompey in Sicily or to the Liberators in the East.[87] Senators who swore loyalty to the Triumvirate were allowed to keep their positions; on 1 January 42 BC, the senate officially deified Caesar as "The Divine Julius", and confirmed Antony's position as his high priest. War against the Liberators[edit] Main articles: Liberators' civil war and Battle of Philippi Due to the infighting within the Triumvirate during 43 BC, Brutus and Cassius had assumed control of much of Rome's eastern territories, and amassed a large army. Before the Triumvirate could cross the Adriatic Sea into Greece where the Liberators had stationed their army, the Triumvirate had to address the threat posed by Sextus Pompey and his fleet. From his base in Sicily, Sextus raided the Italian coast and blockaded the Triumvirs. Octavian's friend and admiral Quintus Salvidienus Rufus thwarted an attack by Sextus against the southern Italian mainland at Rhegium, but Salvidienus was then defeated in the resulting naval battle because of the inexperience of his crews. Only when Antony arrived with his fleet was the blockade broken. Though the blockade was defeated, control of Sicily remained in Sextus' hand, but the defeat of the Liberators was the Triumvirate's first priority. First Battle of Philippi – 3 October 42 BC Second Battle of Philippi – 23 October 42 BC In the summer of 42 BC, Octavian and Antony sailed for Macedonia to face the Liberators with nineteen legions, the vast majority of their army[88] (approximately 100,000 regular infantry plus supporting cavalry and irregular auxiliary units), leaving Rome under the administration of Lepidus. Likewise, the army of the Liberators also commanded an army of nineteen legions; their legions, however, were not at full strength while the legions of Antony and Octavian were.[88] While the Triumvirs commanded a larger number of infantry, the Liberators commanded a larger cavalry contingent.[89] The Liberators, who controlled Macedonia, did not wish to engage in a decisive battle, but rather to attain a good defensive position and then use their naval superiority to block the Triumvirs' communications with their supply base in Italy. They had spent the previous months plundering Greek cities to swell their war-chest and had gathered in Thrace with the Roman legions from the Eastern provinces and levies from Rome's client kingdoms. Brutus and Cassius held a position on the high ground along both sides of the via Egnatia west of the city of Philippi. The south position was anchored to a supposedly impassable marsh, while the north was bordered by impervious hills. They had plenty of time to fortify their position with a rampart and a ditch. Brutus put his camp on the north while Cassius occupied the south of the via Egnatia. Antony arrived shortly and positioned his army on the south of the via Egnatia, while Octavian put his legions north of the road. Antony offered battle several times, but the Liberators were not lured to leave their defensive stand. Thus, Antony tried to secretly outflank the Liberators' position through the marshes in the south. This provoked a pitched battle on 3 October 42 BC. Antony commanded the Triumvirate's army due to Octavian's sickness on the day, with Antony directly controlling the right flank opposite Cassius. Because of his health, Octavian remained in camp while his lieutenants assumed a position on the left flank opposite Brutus. In the resulting first battle of Philippi, Antony defeated Cassius and captured his camp while Brutus overran Octavian's troops and penetrated into the Triumvirs' camp but was unable to capture the sick Octavian. The battle was a tactical draw but due to poor communications Cassius believed the battle was a complete defeat and committed suicide to prevent being captured. Brutus assumed sole command of the Liberator army and preferred a war of attrition over open conflict. His officers, however, were dissatisfied with these defensive tactics and his Caesarian veterans threatened to defect, forcing Brutus to give battle at the second battle of Philippi on 23 October. While the battle was initially evenly matched, Antony's leadership routed Brutus' forces. Brutus committed suicide the day after the defeat and the remainder of his army swore allegiance to the Triumvirate. Over fifty thousand Romans died in the two battles. While Antony treated the losers mildly, Octavian dealt cruelly with his prisoners and even beheaded Brutus' corpse.[90][91][92] The battles of Philippi ended the civil war in favor of the Caesarian faction. With the defeat of the Liberators, only Sextus Pompey and his fleet remained to challenge the Triumvirate's control over the Republic. Master of the Roman East[edit] Division of the Republic[edit] Map of the Roman Republic in 42 BC after the Battle of Philippi:   Antony   Lepidus   Octavian   Triumvirs collectively   Sextus Pompey   Parthian Empire   Rome's client kingdoms   Ptolemaic Egypt The victory at Philippi left the members of the Triumvirate as masters of the Republic, save Sextus Pompey in Sicily. Upon returning to Rome, the Triumvirate repartitioned rule of Rome's provinces among themselves, with Antony as the clear senior partner. He received the largest distribution, governing all of the Eastern provinces while retaining Gaul in the West. Octavian's position improved, as he received Spain, which was taken from Lepidus. Lepidus was then reduced to holding only Africa, and he assumed a clearly tertiary role in the Triumvirate. Rule over Italy remained undivided, but Octavian was assigned the difficult and unpopular task of demobilizing their veterans and providing them with land distributions in Italy.[93][94] Antony assumed direct control of the East while he installed one of his lieutenants as the ruler of Gaul. During his absence, several of his supporters held key positions in Rome to protect his interests there. The East was in need of reorganization after the rule of the Liberators in the previous years. In addition, Rome contended with the Parthian Empire for dominance of the Near East. The Parthian threat to the Triumvirate's rule was urgent due to the fact that the Parthians supported the Liberators in the recent civil war, aid which included the supply troops at Philippi.[95] As ruler of the East, Antony also assumed responsibility for overseeing Caesar's planned invasion of Parthia to avenge the defeat of Marcus Licinius Crassus at the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC. In 42 BC, the Roman East was composed of several directly controlled provinces and client kingdoms. The provinces included Macedonia, Asia, Bithynia, Cilicia, Cyprus, Syria, and Cyrenaica. Approximately half of the eastern territory was controlled by Rome's client kingdoms, nominally independent kingdoms subject to Roman direction. These kingdoms included: Odrysian Thrace in Eastern Europe The Bosporan Kingdom along the northern coast of the Black Sea Galatia, Pontus, Cappadocia, Armenia, and several smaller kingdoms in Asia Minor Judea, Commagene, and the Nabataean kingdom in the Middle East Ptolemaic Egypt in Africa Activities in the East[edit] Further information: Early life of Cleopatra VII and Reign of Cleopatra VII Left image: Cleopatra VII bust in the Altes Museum, Antikensammlung Berlin, Roman artwork, 1st century BC Right: bust of Cleopatra VII, dated 40–30 BC, Vatican Museums, showing her with a 'melon' hairstyle and Hellenistic royal diadem worn over her head Antony spent the winter of 42 BC in Athens, where he ruled generously towards the Greek cities. A proclaimed philhellene ("Friend of all things Greek"), Antony supported Greek culture to win the loyalty of the inhabitants of the Greek East. He attended religious festivals and ceremonies, including initiation into the Eleusinian Mysteries,[96] a secret cult dedicated to the worship of the goddesses Demeter and Persephone. Beginning in 41 BC, he traveled across the Aegean Sea to Anatolia, leaving his friend Lucius Marcius Censorius as governor of Macedonia and Achaea. Upon his arrival in Ephesus in Asia, Antony was worshiped as the god Dionysus born anew.[97] He demanded heavy taxes from the Hellenic cities in return for his pro-Greek culture policies, but exempted those cities which had remained loyal to Caesar during the civil war and compensated those cities which had suffered under Caesar's assassins, including Rhodes, Lycia, and Tarsus. He granted pardons to all Roman nobles living in the East who had supported the Optimate cause, except for Caesar's assassins. Ruling from Ephesus, Antony consolidated Rome's hegemony in the East, receiving envoys from Rome's client kingdoms and intervening in their dynastic affairs, extracting enormous financial "gifts" from them in the process. Though King Deiotarus of Galatia supported Brutus and Cassius following Caesar's assassination, Antony allowed him to retain his position. He also confirmed Ariarathes X as king of Cappadocia after the execution of his brother Ariobarzanes III of Cappadocia by Cassius before the Battle of Philippi. In Hasmonean Judea, several Jewish delegations complained to Antony of the harsh rule of Phasael and Herod, the sons of Rome's assassinated chief Jewish minister Antipater the Idumaean. After Herod offered him a large financial gift, Antony confirmed the brothers in their positions. Subsequently, influenced by the beauty and charms of Glaphyra, the widow of Archelaüs (formerly the high priest of Comana), Antony deposed Ariarathes, and appointed Glaphyra's son, Archelaüs, to rule Cappadocia.[98] Antony and Cleopatra (1883) by Lawrence Alma-Tadema depicting Antony's meeting with Cleopatra in 41 BC. In October 41, Antony requested Rome's chief eastern vassal, the queen of Ptolemaic Egypt Cleopatra, meet him at Tarsus in Cilicia. Antony had first met a young Cleopatra while campaigning in Egypt in 55 BC and again in 48 BC when Caesar had backed her as queen of Egypt over the claims of her half-sister Arsinoe. Cleopatra would bear Caesar a son, Caesarion, in 47 BC and the two living in Rome as Caesar's guests until his assassination in 44 BC. After Caesar's assassination, Cleopatra and Caesarion returned to Egypt, where she named the child as her co-ruler. In 42 BC, the Triumvirate, in recognition for Cleopatra's help towards Publius Cornelius Dolabella in opposition to the Liberators, granted official recognition to Caesarion's position as king of Egypt. Arriving in Tarsus aboard her magnificent ship, Cleopatra invited Antony to a grand banquet to solidify their alliance. [note 3] As the most powerful of Rome's eastern vassals, Egypt was indispensable in Rome's planned military invasion of the Parthian Empire. At Cleopatra's request, Antony ordered the execution of Arsinoe, who, though marched in Caesar's triumphal parade in 46 BC,[99] had been granted sanctuary at the temple of Artemis in Ephesus. Antony and Cleopatra then spent the winter of 41 BC together in Alexandria. Cleopatra bore Antony twin children, Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene II, in 40 BC, and a third, Ptolemy Philadelphus, in 36 BC. Antony also granted formal control over Cyprus, which had been under Egyptian control since 47 BC during the turmoil of Caesar's civil war, to Cleopatra in 40 BC as a gift for her loyalty to Rome.[100] Antony, in his first months in the East, raised money, reorganized his troops, and secured the alliance of Rome's client kingdoms. He also promoted himself as Hellenistic ruler, which won him the affection of the Greek peoples of the East but also made him the target of Octavian's propaganda in Rome. According to some ancient authors, Antony led a carefree life of luxury in Alexandria.[101][102] Upon learning the Parthian Empire had invaded Rome's territory in early 40 BC, Antony left Egypt for Syria to confront the invasion. However, after a short stay in Tyre, he was forced to sail with his army to Italy to confront Octavian due to Octavian's war against Antony's wife and brother. Fulvia's Civil War[edit] See also: Perusine War Following the defeat of Brutus and Cassius, while Antony was stationed in the East, Octavian had authority over the West.[note 4] Octavian's chief responsibility was distributing land to tens of thousands of Caesar's veterans who had fought for the Triumvirate. Additionally, tens of thousands of veterans who had fought for the Republican cause in the war also required land grants. This was necessary to ensure they would not support a political opponent of the Triumvirate.[103] However, the Triumvirs did not possess sufficient state-controlled land to allot to the veterans. This left Octavian with two choices: alienating many Roman citizens by confiscating their land, or alienating many Roman soldiers who might back a military rebellion against the Triumvirate's rule. Octavian chose the former.[104] As many as eighteen Roman towns through Italy were affected by the confiscations of 41 BC, with entire populations driven out.[105] Led by Fulvia, the wife of Antony, the senators grew hostile towards Octavian over the issue of the land confiscations. According to the ancient historian Cassius Dio, Fulvia was the most powerful woman in Rome at the time.[106] According to Dio, while Publius Servilius Vatia and Lucius Antonius were the consuls for the year 41 BC, real power was vested in Fulvia. As the mother-in-law of Octavian and the wife of Antony, no action was taken by the senate without her support.[107] Fearing Octavian's land grants would cause the loyalty of the Caesarian veterans to shift away from Antony, Fulvia traveled constantly with her children to the new veteran settlements in order to remind the veterans of their debt to Antony.[108][109] Fulvia also attempted to delay the land settlements until Antony returned to Rome, so that he could share credit for the settlements. With the help of Antony's brother, the consul of 41 BC Lucius Antonius, Fulvia encouraged the senate to oppose Octavian's land policies. Map of the Roman Republic in 39 BC after the Treaty of Brundisium and the Treaty of Misenum:   Antony   Lepidus   Octavian   Triumvirs collectively   Sextus Pompey   Parthian Empire   Rome's client kingdoms   Ptolemaic Egypt The conflict between Octavian and Fulvia caused great political and social unrest throughout Italy. Tensions escalated into open war, however, when Octavian divorced Claudia, Fulvia's daughter from her first husband Publius Clodius Pulcher. Outraged, Fulvia, supported by Lucius, raised an army to fight for Antony's rights against Octavian. According to the ancient historian Appian, Fulvia's chief reason for the war was her jealousy of Antony's affairs with Cleopatra in Egypt and desire to draw Antony back to Rome.[110] Lucius and Fulvia took a political and martial gamble in opposing Octavian and Lepidus, however, as the Roman army still depended on the Triumvirs for their salaries.[105] Lucius and Fulvia, supported by their army, marched on Rome and promised the people an end to the Triumvirate in favor of Antony's sole rule. However, when Octavian returned to the city with his army, the pair was forced to retreat to Perusia in Etruria. Octavian placed the city under siege while Lucius waited for Antony's legions in Gaul to come to his aid.[111][112] Away in the East and embarrassed by Fulvia's actions, Antony gave no instructions to his legions.[113][note 5] Without reinforcements, Lucius and Fulvia were forced to surrender in February 40 BC. While Octavian pardoned Lucius for his role in the war and even granted him command in Spain as his chief lieutenant there, Fulvia was forced to flee to Greece with her children. With the war over, Octavian was left in sole control over Italy. When Antony's governor of Gaul died, Octavian took over his legions there, further strengthening his control over the West.[114] Despite the Parthian Empire's invasion of Rome's eastern territories, Fulvia's civil war forced Antony to leave the East and return to Rome in order to secure his position. Meeting her in Athens, Antony rebuked Fulvia for her actions before sailing on to Italy with his army to face Octavian, laying siege to Brundisium. This new conflict proved untenable for both Octavian and Antony, however. Their centurions, who had become important figures politically, refused to fight due to their shared service under Caesar. The legions under their command followed suit.[115][116] Meanwhile, in Sicyon, Fulvia died of a sudden and unknown illness.[117] Fulvia's death and the mutiny of their soldiers allowed the triumvirs to effect a reconciliation through a new power sharing agreement in September 40 BC. The Roman world was redivided, with Antony receiving the Eastern provinces, Octavian the Western provinces, and Lepidus relegated to a clearly junior position as governor of Africa. This agreement, known as the Treaty of Brundisium, reinforced the Triumvirate and allowed Antony to begin preparing for Caesar's long-awaited campaign against the Parthian Empire. As a symbol of their renewed alliance, Antony married Octavia, Octavian's sister, in October 40 BC. Antony's Parthian War[edit] Main article: Antony's Parthian War Roman–Parthian relations[edit] A map of the Parthian Empire. Parthia shared its western border along the Euphrates River with Rome. The rise of the Parthian Empire in the 3rd century BC and Rome's expansion into the Eastern Mediterranean during the 2nd century BC brought the two powers into direct contact, causing centuries of tumultuous and strained relations. Though periods of peace developed cultural and commercial exchanges, war was a constant threat. Influence over the buffer state of the Kingdom of Armenia, located to the north-east of Roman Syria, was often a central issue in the Roman-Parthian conflict. In 95 BC, Parthian Shah Mithridates II, installed Tigranes the Great as Parthian's client-king over Armenia. Tigranes would wage a series of three wars against Rome before being ultimately defeated by Pompey in 66 BC.[118] Thereafter, with his son Artavasdes II in Rome as a hostage, Tigranes would rule Armenia as an ally of Rome until his death in 55 BC.[119] Rome then installed Artavasdes II as king and continued its influence over Armenia. In 53 BC, Rome's governor of Syria, Marcus Licinius Crassus, led an expedition across the Euphrates River into Parthian territory to confront the Parthian Shah Orodes II. Artavasdes II offered Crassus the aid of nearly forty thousand troops to assist his Parthian expedition on the condition that Crassus invade through Armenia as the safer route.[120] Crassus refused, choosing instead the more direct route by crossing the Euphrates directly into desert Parthian territory. Crassus' actions proved disastrous as his army was defeated at the Battle of Carrhae by a numerically inferior Parthian force. Crassus' defeat forced Armenia to shift its loyalty to Parthia, with Artavasdes II's sister marrying Orodes' son and heir Pacorus.[121] In early 44 BC, Julius Caesar announced his intentions to invade Parthia and restore Roman power in the East. His reasons were to punish the Parthians for assisting Pompey in the recent civil war, to avenge Crassus' defeat at Carrhae, and especially to match the glory of Alexander the Great for himself.[122] Before Caesar could launch his campaign, however, he was assassinated. As part of the compromise between Antony and the Republicans to restore order following Caesar's murder, Publius Cornelius Dolabella was assigned the governorship of Syria and command over Caesar's planned Parthian campaign. The compromise did not hold, however, and the Republicans were forced to flee to the East. The Republicans directed Quintus Labienus to attract the Parthians to their side in the resulting war against Antony and Octavian. After the Republicans were defeated at the Battle of Philippi, Labienus joined the Parthians.[123][124] Despite Rome's internal turmoil during the time, the Parthians did not immediately benefit from the power vacuum in the East due to Orodes II's reluctance despite Labienus' urgings to the contrary.[125] In the summer of 41 BC, Antony, to reassert Roman power in the East, conquered Palmyra on the Roman-Parthian border.[125] Antony then spent the winter of 41 BC in Alexandria with Cleopatra, leaving only two legions to defend the Syrian border against Parthian incursions. The legions, however, were composed of former Republican troops and Labienus convinced Orodes II to invade. Parthian Invasion[edit] Main article: Pompeian–Parthian invasion of 40 BC Roman aureus bearing the portraits of Marcus Antonius (left) and Octavianus (right), issued in 41 BC to celebrate the establishment of the Second Triumvirate by Octavianus, Antonius and Marcus Lepidus in 43 BC. A denarius of both Octavianus and Marcus Antonius struck in 41 BC A Parthian army, led by Orodes II's eldest son Pacorus, invaded Syria in early 40 BC. Labienus, the Republican ally of Brutus and Cassius, accompanied him to advise him and to rally the former Republican soldiers stationed in Syria to the Parthian cause. Labienus recruited many of the former Republican soldiers to the Parthian campaign in opposition to Antony. The joint Parthian–Roman force, after initial success in Syria, separated to lead their offensive in two directions: Pacorus marched south toward Hasmonean Judea while Labienus crossed the Taurus Mountains to the north into Cilicia. Labienus conquered southern Anatolia with little resistance. The Roman governor of Asia, Lucius Munatius Plancus, a partisan of Antony, was forced to flee his province, allowing Labienus to recruit the Roman soldiers stationed there. For his part, Pacorus advanced south to Phoenicia and Palestine. In Hasmonean Judea, the exiled prince Antigonus allied himself with the Parthians. When his brother, Rome's client king Hyrcanus II, refused to accept Parthian domination, he was deposed in favor of Antigonus as Parthia's client king in Judea. Pacorus' conquest had captured much of the Syrian and Palestinian interior, with much of the Phoenician coast occupied as well. The city of Tyre remained the last major Roman outpost in the region.[126] Antony, then in Egypt with Cleopatra, did not respond immediately to the Parthian invasion. Though he left Alexandria for Tyre in early 40 BC, when he learned of the civil war between his wife and Octavian, he was forced to return to Italy with his army to secure his position in Rome rather than defeat the Parthians.[126] Instead, Antony dispatched Publius Ventidius Bassus to check the Parthian advance. Arriving in the East in spring 39 BC, Ventidius surprised Labienus near the Taurus Mountains, claiming victory at the Cilician Gates. Ventidius ordered Labienus executed as a traitor and the formerly rebellious Roman soldiers under his command were reincorporated under Antony's control. He then met a Parthian army at the border between Cilicia and Syria, defeating it and killing a large portion of the Parthian soldiers at the Amanus Pass. Ventidius' actions temporarily halted the Parthian advance and restored Roman authority in the East, forcing Pacorus to abandon his conquests and return to Parthia.[127] In the spring of 38 BC, the Parthians resumed their offensive with Pacorus leading an army across the Euphrates. Ventidius, in order to gain time, leaked disinformation to Pacorus implying that he should cross the Euphrates River at their usual ford. Pacorus did not trust this information and decided to cross the river much farther downstream; this was what Ventidius hoped would occur and gave him time to get his forces ready.[128] The Parthians faced no opposition and proceeded to the town of Gindarus in Cyrrhestica where Ventidius' army was waiting. At the Battle of Cyrrhestica, Ventidius inflicted an overwhelming defeat against the Parthians which resulted in the death of Pacorus. Overall, the Roman army had achieved a complete victory with Ventidius' three successive victories forcing the Parthians back across the Euphrates.[129] Pacorus' death threw the Parthian Empire into chaos. Shah Orodes II, overwhelmed by the grief of his son's death, appointed his younger son Phraates IV as his successor. However, Phraates IV assassinated Orodes II in late 38 BC, succeeding him on the throne.[130][131] Ventidius feared Antony's wrath if he invaded Parthian territory, thereby stealing his glory; so instead he attacked and subdued the eastern kingdoms, which had revolted against Roman control following the disastrous defeat of Crassus at Carrhae.[132] One such rebel was King Antiochus of Commagene, whom he besieged in Samosata. Antiochus tried to make peace with Ventidius, but Ventidius told him to approach Antony directly. After peace was concluded, Antony sent Ventidius back to Rome where he celebrated a triumph, the first Roman to triumph over the Parthians.[note 6] Conflict with Sextus Pompey[edit] Antony and Octavia on the obverse of a tetradrachm issued at Ephesus in 39 BC. Antony and his brother-in-law, Octavian, enacted a new treaty that year which redivided control over the Roman world. While Antony and the other Triumvirs ratified the Treaty of Brundisium to redivide the Roman world among themselves, the rebel general Sextus Pompey, the son of Caesar's rival Pompey the Great, was largely ignored. From his stronghold on Sicily, he continued his piratical activities across Italy and blocked the shipment of grain to Rome. The lack of food in Rome caused the public to blame the Triumvirate and shift its sympathies towards Pompey. This pressure forced the Triumvirs to meet with Sextus in early 39 BC.[133] While Octavian wanted an end to the ongoing blockade of Italy, Antony sought peace in the West in order to make the Triumvirate's legions available for his service in his planned campaign against the Parthians. Though the Triumvirs rejected Sextus' initial request to replace Lepidus as the third man within the Triumvirate, they did grant other concessions. Under the terms of the Treaty of Misenum, Sextus was allowed to retain control over Sicily and Sardinia, with the provinces of Corsica and Greece being added to his territory. He was also promised a future position with the Priestly College of Augurs and the consulship for 35 BC. In exchange, Sextus agreed to end his naval blockade of Italy, supply Rome with grain, and halt his piracy of Roman merchant ships.[134] However, the most important provision of the Treaty was the end of the proscription the Trimumvirate had begun in late 43 BC. Many of the proscribed senators, rather than face death, fled to Sicily seeking Sextus' protection. With the exception of those responsible for Caesar's assassination, all those proscribed were allowed to return to Rome and promised compensation. This caused Sextus to lose many valuable allies as the formerly exiled senators gradually aligned themselves with either Octavian or Antony. To secure the peace, Octavian betrothed his three-year-old nephew and Antony's stepson Marcus Claudius Marcellus to Sextus' daughter Pompeia.[135] With peace in the West secured, Antony planned to retaliate against Parthia by invading their territory. Under an agreement with Octavian, Antony would be supplied with extra troops for his campaign. With this military purpose on his mind, Antony sailed to Greece with Octavia, where he behaved in a most extravagant manner, assuming the attributes of the Greek god Dionysus in 39 BC. A Roman bust of Mark Antony, late 1st century AD, Vatican Museums The peace with Sextus was short lived, however. When Sextus demanded control over Greece as the agreement provided, Antony demanded the province's tax revenues be to fund the Parthian campaign. Sextus refused.[136] Meanwhile, Sextus' admiral Menas betrayed him, shifting his loyalty to Octavian and thereby granting him control of Corsica, Sardinia, three of Sextus' legions, and a larger naval force. These actions worked to renew Sextus' blockade of Italy, preventing Octavian from sending the promised troops to Antony for the Parthian campaign. This new delay caused Antony to quarrel with Octavian, forcing Octavia to mediate a truce between them. Under the Treaty of Tarentum, Antony provided a large naval force for Octavian's use against Sextus while Octavian promised to raise new legions for Antony to support his invasion of Parthia.[137] As the term of the Triumvirate was set to expire at the end of 38 BC, the two unilaterally extended their term of office another five years until 33 BC without seeking approval of the senate or the popular assemblies. To seal the Treaty, Antony's elder son Marcus Antonius Antyllus, then only 6 years old, was betrothed to Octavian's only daughter Julia, then only an infant. With the Treaty signed, Antony returned to the East, leaving Octavia in Italy. Reconquest of Judea[edit] With Publius Ventidius Bassus returned to Rome in triumph for his defensive campaign against the Parthians, Antony appointed Gaius Sosius as the new governor of Syria and Cilicia in early 38 BC. Antony, still in the West negotiating with Octavian, ordered Sosius to depose Antigonus, who had been installed in the recent Parthian invasion as the ruler of Hasmonean Judea, and to make Herod the new Roman client king in the region. Years before in 40 BC, the Roman senate had proclaimed Herod "King of the Jews" because Herod had been a loyal supporter of Hyrcanus II, Rome's previous client king before the Parthian invasion, and was from a family with long standing connections to Rome.[138] The Romans hoped to use Herod as a bulwark against the Parthians in the coming campaign.[139] Advancing south, Sosius captured the island-city of Aradus on the coast of Phoenicia by the end of 38 BC. The following year, the Romans besieged Jerusalem. After a forty-day siege, the Roman soldiers stormed the city and, despite Herod's pleas for restraint, acted without mercy, pillaging and killing all in their path, prompting Herod to complain to Antony.[140] Herod finally resorted to bribing Sosius and his troops in order that they would not leave him "king of a desert".[141] Antigonus was forced to surrender to Sosius, and was sent to Antony for the triumphal procession in Rome. Herod, however, fearing that Antigonus would win backing in Rome, bribed Antony to execute Antigonus. Antony, who recognized that Antigonus would remain a permanent threat to Herod, ordered him beheaded in Antioch. Now secure on his throne, Herod would rule the Herodian Kingdom until his death in 4 BC, and would be an ever-faithful client king of Rome. Parthian Campaign[edit] Main article: Antony's Parthian War This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) With the Triumvirate renewed in 38 BC, Antony returned to Athens in the winter with his new wife Octavia, the sister of Octavian. With the assassination of the Parthian king Orodes II by his son Phraates IV, who then seized the Parthian throne, in late 38 BC, Antony prepared to invade Parthia himself. A late Ptolemaic or Roman sculpted head of an Alexandrian nobleman, perhaps a depiction of Mark Antony, Brooklyn Museum Antony, however, realized Octavian had no intention of sending him the additional legions he had promised under the Treaty of Tarentum. To supplement his own armies, Antony instead looked to Rome's principal vassal in the East: his lover Cleopatra. In addition to significant financial resources, Cleopatra's backing of his Parthian campaign allowed Antony to amass the largest army Rome had ever assembled in the East. Wintering in Antioch during 37, Antony's combined Roman–Egyptian army numbered some 200,000, including sixteen legions (approximately 160,000 soldiers) plus an additional 40,000 auxiliaries.[citation needed] Such a force was twice the size of Marcus Licinius Crassus's army from his failed Parthian invasion of 53 BC and three times those of Lucius Licinius Lucullus and Lucius Cornelius Sulla during the Mithridatic Wars.[citation needed] The size of his army indicated Antony's intention to conquer Parthia, or at least receive its submission by capturing the Parthian capital of Ecbatana. Antony's rear was protected by Rome's client kingdoms in Anatolia, Syria, and Judea, while the client kingdoms of Cappadocia, Pontus, and Commagene would provide supplies along the march. Antony's first target for his invasion was the Kingdom of Armenia. Ruled by King Artavasdes II of Armenia, Armenia had been an ally of Rome since the defeat of Tigranes the Great by Pompey the Great in 66 BC during the Third Mithridatic War. However, following Marcus Licinius Crassus's defeat at the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC, Armenia was forced into an alliance with Parthia due to Rome's weakened position in the East. Antony dispatched Publius Canidius Crassus to Armenia, receiving Artavasdes II's surrender without opposition. Canidius then led an invasion into the Transcaucasia, subduing Iberia. There, Canidius forced the Iberian King Pharnavaz II into an alliance against Zober, king of neighboring Albania, subduing the kingdom and reducing it to a Roman protectorate. With Armenia and the Caucasus secured, Antony marched south, crossing into the Parthian province of Media Atropatene. Though Antony desired a pitched battle, the Parthians would not engage, allowing Antony to march deep into Parthian territory by mid-August of 36 BC. This forced Antony to leave his logistics train in the care of two legions (approximately 10,000 soldiers), which was then attacked and completely destroyed by the Parthian army before Antony could rescue them. Though the Armenian King Artavasdes II and his cavalry were present during the massacre, they did not intervene. Despite the ambush, Antony continued the campaign. However, Antony was soon forced to retreat in mid-October after a failed two-month siege of the provincial capital. The retreat soon proved a disaster as Antony's demoralized army faced increasing supply difficulties in the mountainous terrain during winter while constantly being harassed by the Parthian army. According to the Greek historian Plutarch, eighteen battles were fought between the retreating Romans and the Parthians during the month-long march back to Armenia, with approximately 20,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry dying during the retreat alone. Once in Armenia, Antony quickly marched back to Syria to protect his interests there by late 36 BC, losing an additional 8,000 soldiers along the way. In all, two-fifths of his original army (some 80,000 men) had died during his failed campaign.[citation needed] Antony and Cleopatra[edit] Further information: Early life of Cleopatra VII and Reign of Cleopatra VII Meanwhile, in Rome, the triumvirate was no more. Octavian forced Lepidus to resign after the older triumvir attempted to take control of Sicily after the defeat of Sextus. Now in sole power, Octavian was occupied in wooing the traditional Republican aristocracy to his side. He married Livia and started to attack Antony in order to raise himself to power. He argued that Antony was a man of low morals to have left his faithful wife abandoned in Rome with the children to be with the promiscuous queen of Egypt. Antony was accused of everything, but most of all, of "going native", an unforgivable crime to the proud Romans. Several times Antony was summoned to Rome, but remained in Alexandria with Cleopatra.[142] A map of the Donations of Alexandria (by Mark Antony to Cleopatra and her children) in 34 BC.   Unallotted Roman territory   Donations to Cleopatra's Children   Cleopatra's Original Kingdom Again with Egyptian money, Antony invaded Armenia, this time successfully. In the return, a mock Roman triumph was celebrated in the streets of Alexandria. The parade through the city was a pastiche of Rome's most important military celebration. For the finale, the whole city was summoned to hear a very important political statement. Surrounded by Cleopatra and her children, Antony ended his alliance with Octavian. He distributed kingdoms among his children: Alexander Helios was named king of Armenia, Media and Parthia (territories which were not for the most part under the control of Rome), his twin Cleopatra Selene got Cyrenaica and Libya, and the young Ptolemy Philadelphus was awarded Syria and Cilicia. As for Cleopatra, she was proclaimed Queen of Kings and Queen of Egypt, to rule with Caesarion (Ptolemy XV Caesar, son of Cleopatra by Julius Caesar), King of Kings and King of Egypt. Most important of all, Caesarion was declared legitimate son and heir of Caesar. These proclamations were known as the Donations of Alexandria and caused a fatal breach in Antony's relations with Rome. While the distribution of nations among Cleopatra's children was hardly a conciliatory gesture, it did not pose an immediate threat to Octavian's political position. Far more dangerous was the acknowledgment of Caesarion as legitimate and heir to Caesar's name. Octavian's base of power was his link with Caesar through adoption, which granted him much-needed popularity and loyalty of the legions. To see this convenient situation attacked by a child borne by the richest woman in the world was something Octavian could not accept. The triumvirate expired on the last day of 33 BC and was not renewed. Another civil war was beginning. During 33 and 32 BC, a propaganda war was fought in the political arena of Rome, with accusations flying between sides. Antony (in Egypt) divorced Octavia and accused Octavian of being a social upstart, of usurping power, and of forging the adoption papers by Caesar. Octavian responded with treason charges: of illegally keeping provinces that should be given to other men by lots, as was Rome's tradition, and of starting wars against foreign nations (Armenia and Parthia) without the consent of the senate. Antony was also held responsible for Sextus Pompey's execution without a trial. In 32 BC, the senate deprived him of his powers and declared war against Cleopatra – not Antony, because Octavian had no wish to advertise his role in perpetuating Rome's internecine bloodshed. Both consuls, Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Gaius Sosius, and a third of the senate abandoned Rome to meet Antony and Cleopatra in Greece. The Battle of Actium (1672) by Laureys a Castro (National Maritime Museum, London) In 31 BC, the war started. Octavian's general Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa captured the Greek city and naval port of Methone, loyal to Antony. The enormous popularity of Octavian with the legions secured the defection of the provinces of Cyrenaica and Greece to his side. On 2 September, the naval Battle of Actium took place. Antony and Cleopatra's navy was overwhelmed, and they were forced to escape to Egypt with 60 ships. Death[edit] Main article: Death of Cleopatra Further information: Epaphroditus (freedman of Augustus) and Tomb of Antony and Cleopatra This mid-1st-century-BC Roman wall painting in Pompeii, Italy, showing Venus holding a cupid is most likely a depiction of Cleopatra VII of Ptolemaic Egypt as Venus Genetrix, with her son Caesarion as the cupid, similar in appearance to the now lost statue of Cleopatra erected by Julius Caesar in the Temple of Venus Genetrix (within the Forum of Caesar). The owner of the House of Marcus Fabius Rufus at Pompeii walled off the room with this painting, most likely in immediate reaction to the execution of Caesarion on orders of Augustus in 30 BC, when artistic depictions of Caesarion would have been considered a sensitive issue for the ruling regime.[143][144] Octavian, now close to absolute power, did not intend to give Antony and Cleopatra any rest. In August, 30 BC, assisted by Agrippa, he invaded Egypt. With no other refuge to escape to, Antony stabbed himself with his sword in the mistaken belief that Cleopatra had already done so. When he found out that Cleopatra was still alive, his friends brought him to Cleopatra's monument in which she was hiding, and he died in her arms. Cleopatra was allowed to conduct Antony's burial rites after she had been captured by Octavian. Realising that she was destined for Octavian's triumph in Rome, she made several attempts to take her life and finally succeeded in mid-August. Octavian had Caesarion and Antyllus killed, but he spared Iullus as well as Antony's children by Cleopatra, who were paraded through the streets of Rome. Aftermath and legacy[edit] Cicero's son, Cicero Minor, announced Antony's death to the senate.[145] Antony's honours were revoked and his statues removed,[146] but he was not subject to a complete damnatio memoriae.[147] Cicero Minor also made a decree that no member of the Antonii would ever bear the name Marcus again.[148] "In this way Heaven entrusted the family of Cicero the final acts in the punishment of Antony."[149] When Antony died, Octavian became uncontested ruler of Rome. In the following years, Octavian, who was known as Augustus after 27 BC, managed to accumulate in his person all administrative, political, and military offices. When Augustus died in AD 14, his political powers passed to his adopted son Tiberius; the Roman Empire had begun. The rise of Caesar and the subsequent civil war between his two most powerful adherents effectively ended the credibility of the Roman oligarchy as a governing power and ensured that all future power struggles would centre upon which one individual would achieve supreme control of the government, eliminating the senate and the former magisterial structure as important foci of power in these conflicts. Thus, in history, Antony appears as one of Caesar's main adherents, he and Octavian Augustus being the two men around whom power coalesced following the assassination of Caesar, and finally as one of the three men chiefly responsible for the demise of the Roman Republic.[150] Marriages and issue[edit] Fragmentary portrait bust from Smyrna thought to depict Octavia, sister of Octavian and Antony's wife A tetradrachm of Marcus Antonius and Cleopatra VII of Ptolemaic Egypt Antony was known to have an obsession with women, and sex.[151][152][153][154][155] He had many mistresses (including Cytheris) and had been married in succession to Fadia, Antonia, Fulvia, Octavia and Cleopatra, and left behind him a number of children.[156][157] Through his daughters by Octavia, he would be ancestor to the Roman Emperors Caligula, Claudius and Nero. Marriage to Fadia, a daughter of a freedman. According to Cicero, Fadia bore Antony several children. Nothing is known about Fadia or their children. Cicero is the only Roman source that mentions Antony's first wife. Marriage to first paternal cousin Antonia Hybrida Minor. According to Plutarch, Antony threw her out of his house in Rome because she slept with his friend, the tribune Publius Cornelius Dolabella. This occurred by 47 BC and Antony divorced her. By Antonia, he had a daughter: Antonia, granddaughter of Gaius Antonius Hybrida, married the wealthy Greek Pythodoros of Tralles. Marriage to Fulvia, by whom he had two sons: Marcus Antonius Antyllus, murdered by Octavian in 30 BC. Iullus Antonius, married Claudia Marcella the Elder, daughter of Octavia. Marriage to Octavia the Younger, sister of Octavian, later Emperor Augustus; they had two daughters: Antonia the Elder married Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 16 BC); maternal grandmother of the Empress Valeria Messalina and paternal grandmother of the Emperor Nero. Antonia the Younger married Nero Claudius Drusus, the younger son of the Empress Livia Drusilla and brother of the Emperor Tiberius; mother of the Emperor Claudius, paternal grandmother of the Emperor Caligula and Empress Agrippina the Younger, and maternal great-grandmother of the emperor Nero. Children with the Queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt, the former lover of Julius Caesar: Alexander Helios Cleopatra Selene II, married King Juba II of Numidia and later Mauretania; the queen of Syria, Zenobia of Palmyra, was reportedly descended from Selene and Juba II. Ptolemy Philadelphus. Descendants[edit] Through his daughters by Octavia, he would become the paternal great grandfather of Roman Emperor Caligula, the maternal grandfather of Emperor Claudius, and both maternal great-great-grandfather and paternal great-great uncle of the Emperor Nero of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, the very family, as represented by Octavian Augustus, that he had fought to defeat. Through his eldest daughter, he would become ancestor to the long line of kings and co-rulers of the Bosporan Kingdom, the longest-living Roman client kingdom, as well as the rulers and royalty of several other Roman client states. Through his daughter by Cleopatra, Antony would become ancestor to the royal family of Mauretania, another Roman client kingdom, while through his sole surviving son Iullus, he would be ancestor to several famous Roman statesmen. Descendants of Mark Antony 1. Antonia, born 50 BC, had 1 child A. Pythodorida of Pontus, 30 BC or 29 BC – 38 AD, had 3 children I. Artaxias III, King of Armenia, 13 BC – 35 AD, died without issue II. Polemon II, King of Pontus, 12 BC or 11 BC – 74 AD, died without issue III. Antonia Tryphaena, Queen of Thrace, 10 BC – 55 AD, had 4 children a. Rhoemetalces II, King of Thrace, died 38 AD, died without issue b. Gepaepyris, Queen of the Bosporan Kingdom, had 2 children i. Tiberius Julius Mithridates, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 68 AD, died without issue ii. Tiberius Julius Cotys I, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, had 1 child i. Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis I, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 90 AD, had 1 child i. Tiberius Julius Sauromates I, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, had 1 child i. Tiberius Julius Cotys II, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, had 1 child i. Rhoemetalces, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 153 AD, had 1 child i. Eupator, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 174 AD, had 1 child i. Tiberius Julius Sauromates II, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 210 AD or 211 AD, had 2 children i. Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis II, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 227 AD, had 1 child i. Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis III, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 227 AD ii. Tiberius Julius Cotys III, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 235 AD, had 3 children i. Tiberius Julius Sauromates III, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 232 AD ii. Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis IV, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 235 AD iii. Tiberius Julius Ininthimeus, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 240 AD, had 1 child i. Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis V, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 276 AD, had 3 children i. Tiberius Julius Pharsanzes, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 254 AD ii. Synges, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 276 AD iii. Tiberius Julius Teiranes, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 279 AD, had 2 children i. Tiberius Julius Sauromates IV, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 276 AD ii. Theothorses, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 309 AD, had 3 children i. Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis VI, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 342 AD ii. Rhadamsades, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 323 AD iii. Nana, Queen of Caucasian Iberia, died 363 AD i. Rev II of Iberia i. Sauromaces II of Iberia ii. Trdat of Iberia ii. Aspacures II of Iberia c. Cotys IX, King of Lesser Armenia d. Pythodoris II of Thrace, died without issue 2. Marcus Antonius Antyllus, 47–30 BC, died without issue 3. Iullus Antonius, 43–2 BC, had 3 children A. Antonius, died young, no issue B. Lucius Antonius, 20 BC – 25 AD, issue unknown C. Iulla Antonia ?? born after 19 BC, issue unknown 4. Prince Alexander Helios of Egypt, born 40 BC, died without issue (presumably)[158] 5. Cleopatra Selene, Queen of Mauretania, 40 BC – 6 AD, had 2 children A. Ptolemy, King of Mauretania, 1 BC – 40 AD, had 1 child I. Drusilla, Queen of Emesa, 38–79 AD, had 1 child a. Gaius Julius Alexio, King of Emesa, had 1 child B. Princess Drusilla of Mauretania, born 5 AD or 8 BC 6. Antonia Major, 39 BC – before 25 AD, had 3 children A. Domitia Lepida the Elder, c. 19 BC – 59 AD, had 1 child I. Quintus Haterius Antoninus B. Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, 17 BC – 40 AD, had 1 child I. Nero (Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus) (see line of Antonia Minor below) C. Domitia Lepida the Younger, 10 BC – 54 AD, had 3 children I. Marcus Valerius Messala Corvinus II. Valeria Messalina, 17 or 20–48 AD, had 2 children a. (Messalina was the mother of the two youngest children of the Roman Emperor Claudius listed below) III. Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix, 22–62 AD, had 1 child a. a son (this child and the only child of the Claudia Antonia listed below are the same person) 7. Antonia Minor, 36 BC – 37 AD, had 3 children A. Germanicus Julius Caesar, 16 or 15 BC – 19 AD, had 6 children I. Nero Julius Caesar Germanicus, 6–30 AD, died without issue II. Drusus Julius Caesar Germanicus, 7–33 AD, died without issue III. Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (Caligula), 12–41 AD, had 1 child; a. Julia Drusilla, 39–41 AD, died young IV. Julia Agrippina (Agrippina the Younger), 15–59 AD, had 1 child; a. Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, 37–68 AD, had 1 child; i. Claudia Augusta, January 63 AD – April 63 AD, died young V. Julia Drusilla, 16–38 AD, died without issue VI. Julia Livilla, 18–42 AD, died without issue B. Claudia Livia Julia (Livilla), 13 BC – 31 AD, had three children I. Julia Livia, 5–43 AD, had 4 children a. Gaius Rubellius Plautus, 33–62 AD, had several children[159] b. Rubellia Bassa, born between 33 AD and 38 AD, had at least 1 child[160] i. Octavius Laenas, had at least 1 child i. Sergius Octavius Laenas Pontianus c. Gaius Rubellius Blandus d. Rubellius Drusus II. Tiberius Julius Caesar Nero Gemellus, 19–37 or 38 AD, died without issue III. Tiberius Claudius Caesar Germanicus II Gemellus, 19–23 AD, died young C. Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, 10 BC – 54 AD, had 4 children I. Tiberius Claudius Drusus, died young II. Claudia Antonia, c. 30–66 AD, had 1 child a. a son, died young III. Claudia Octavia, 39 or 40–62 AD, died without issue IV. Tiberius Claudius Caesar Britannicus, 41–55 AD, died without issue 8. Prince Ptolemy Philadelphus of Egypt, 36–29 BC, died without issue (presumably)[158] Artistic portrayals[edit] Antony (George Coulouris) addresses the crowd in the Mercury Theatre production of Caesar (1937), Orson Welles's modern-dress adaptation of Shakespeare's tragedy Works in which the character of Mark Antony plays a central role: William Shakespeare's Julius Caesar Julius Caesar (1953 film) based on this (played by Marlon Brando) Julius Caesar (1970 film) based on this (played by Charlton Heston) Antony and Cleopatra, several works with that title John Dryden's All for Love The 1934 film Cleopatra (played by Henry Wilcoxon) The 1953 film Serpent of the Nile (played by Raymond Burr) The 1963 film Cleopatra (played by Richard Burton) The 1964 film Carry On Cleo (played by Sid James) The 1983 miniseries The Cleopatras (played by Christopher Neame) The TV series Xena: Warrior Princess (played by Manu Bennett) In the Age of Empires: The Rise of Rome, Mark Antony featured as a short swordsman. The 1999 film Cleopatra (played by Billy Zane) The Capcom video game Shadow of Rome, in which he is depicted as the main antagonist The 2005 TV mini series Empire (played by Vincent Regan) The 2005–2007 HBO/BBC TV series Rome (played by James Purefoy) The 2009–2013 TV series Horrible Histories (played by Mathew Baynton), and the 2015 reboot series of the same name (portrayed by Tom Stourton in 2019) The 2006 BBC One docudrama Ancient Rome: The Rise and Fall of an Empire (played by Alex Ferns) As Cleopatra's guardian and level boss (of Lust) in the Xbox 360 game Dante's Inferno released by Visceral Games in 2010. The Choices: Stories You Play visual novel A Courtesan of Rome, in which he is depicted as a love interest option. Orson Welles innovative 1937 adaptation of William Shakespeare at Mercury Theatre has George Coulouris as Marcus Antonius[161] Novels[edit] In Colleen McCullough's Masters of Rome series (1990–2007), Antony is portrayed as a deeply flawed character, a brave warrior but sexually promiscuous, often drunk and foolish, and a monster of vanity who loves riding in a chariot drawn by lions. Margaret George's The Memoirs of Cleopatra (1997) Conn Iggulden's Emperor novels (2003–13) Michael Livingston's The Shards of Heaven (2015)[162][163] Poetry[edit] Constantine P. Cavafy's poem The God Abandons Antony, a hymn to human dignity, depicts the imaginary last moments of Mark Antony while he sees his fortunes turning around. Lytle, William Haines (1826–1863), Antony and Cleopatra See also[edit] Flamen Divi Julii, priest of the cult of Caesar, of which Mark Antony was the first to serve. Antonia gens, the ancestral gens of Mark Antony. Notes[edit] ^ As recorded by a calendar inscription known as the Fasti Verulani (c. 17–37 AD) for 14 January = Degrassi, Inscriptiones Italiae 13.2.397–98, as cited by Jerzy Linderski and Anna Kaminska-Linderski, "The Quaestorship of Marcus Antonius," Phoenix 28.2 (1974), p. 217, note 24. The religious prohibition placed by Augustus on the day, marked as a dies vitiosus ("defective" day), is explained by Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2187–88. 14 January is accepted as Antony's birthday also by C.B.R. Pelling, Plutarch: Life of Antony (Cambridge University Press, 1988), p. 299, commentary to Plutarch, Antony 73.5; Nikos Kokkino, Antonia Augusta (Routledge, 1992), p. 11; Pat Southern, Mark Antony (Tempus, 1998), p. ii; Adrian Goldsworthy, Antony and Cleopatra (Yale University Press, 2010), n.p.. According to Suetonius (Claudius 11.3), the emperor Claudius, Antony's grandson through maternal lineage, evaded the prohibition on commemorating Antony's birthday by calculations showing that had he been born under the Julian calendar he would have shared his birthday with Drusus, the emperor's father. Drusus was born in late March or early April, based on a reference that he was born "within the third month" after his mother Livia married Augustus on 17 January; G. Radke, "Der Geburtstag des älteren Drusus," Wurzburger Jahrbucher fur die Altertumswissenschaft 4 (1978), pp. 211–13, proposed that a birth date of 28 March for Drusus would resolve the chronological difficulties. Radke's proposal is summarized in English by the commentary on Suetonius' sentence by Donna W. Hurley, Suetonius: Divus Claudius (Cambridge University Press, 2001), p. 106, and by Marleen B. Flory, "The Symbolism of Laurel in Cameo Portraits of Livia," in Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome (University of Michigan Press, 1995), vol. 40, p. 56, note 48. ^ Cicero is the only ancient source to mention a first marriage to an otherwise unknown Fadia (Philippics, XIII, 10) ^ Ancient writers (e.g. Appian, Civil Wars 5.8.1) place the beginning of their famous romance at this meeting with Antony totally surrendering to Cleopatra's beauty but modern historians reject this notion as retrospective historical propaganda on the part of Augustus. ^ Lepidus, though still a member of the Triumvirate, was relegated to a junior position within the three-man dictatorship as Antony and Octavian established themselves. ^ It is also speculated that Antony's legions, composed largely of Caesarian veterans, did not wish to fight the adoptive son of their former general. ^ After celebrating his triumph, Ventidius disappears from the historical record. References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Plutarch, Life of Antony 86.5. ^ Suerbaum 1980, 327–34. ^ a b Huzar 1978, p. 14 ^ Goldsworthy, 2010, p. 39 ^ a b Huzar 1978, p. 15 ^ a b Scullard 1980, p. 154 ^ Huzar 1978, p. 17 ^ Eyben 1993, p. 236 ^ "In ancient Rome, political discourse was sometimes like an internet fight". ZME Science. 24 August 2018. Retrieved 10 December 2019. ^ History, Mindy Weisberger 2018-09-02T12:12:50Z. "Think Politics Today Is Ugly? Politicians in Ancient Rome Were Insulting, Too". livescience.com. Retrieved 10 December 2019. ^ Eyben 1993, p. 58 ^ Huzar 1978, p. 25 ^ Weigall, 1931, p. 102 ^ Jallet-Huant, 2009, p. 25 ^ Rocca ^ a b Plutarch, Antony, 3 ^ Siani-Davis, 1997, p. 316 ^ Bradford, 2000, p. 43 ^ Siani-Davis, 1997, 388 ^ Jallet-Huant, 2009, pp. 27–31 ^ Martin, 2003, pp. 174–77 ^ Haskell, 1964, p. 201 ^ Jallet-Huant, 2009, p. 33 ^ a b Holland, Rubicon, p. 287 ^ Gruen, 1974, pp. 233–34 ^ Caesar, B.G. 8.50 ^ Plutarch, Antony, 6 ^ Caesar, B.C. i.5 ^ Plutarch, Pompey, 56.4 ^ Hinard, 2000, p. 786 ^ Jallet-Huant, 2009, pp. 39–40 ^ Plutarch, Antony, 8 ^ a b Broughton, p. 281 ^ Holmes, p. 127 ^ Holmes, p. 128 ^ a b c Plutarch, Antony, 10 ^ Plutarch, Pompey, 65 ^ Davis, 1999, p. 59 ^ Plutarch, Caesar 37.2 ^ Jehne, 1987, pp. 15–38 ^ Jallet-Huant, 2009, pp. 52–53 ^ a b Hinard, 2000, pp. 796, 798 ^ Plutarch: Antony, c. 9, in Plutarch, Roman Lives ISBN 978-0-19-282502-5 ^ Dio 43.51.8. ^ Plutarch, Antony, 11.3, less clear from Dio. ^ Cicero.Phil.2.48. ^ Cicero.Phil.2.99. ^ Broughton, p. 299 ^ Bringmann, p. 272 ^ Ovid, Fasti: Lupercalia ^ Fuller, Chapter 13 ^ Plutarch, Antony, 12 ^ Broughton, p. 320 ^ Cicero, 2nd Philippic, 34 ^ Velleius Paterculus, 2.58.5; Plutarch, Brutus, 18.2–6. ^ Plutarch – Life of Brutus ^ Woolf ^ Suetonius, Julius, c. 82. ^ David, 2000, p. 246 ^ Jallet-Huant, 2009, p. 64 ^ Plutarch, Antony, 14 ^ Bramstedt, 2004, p. 143 ^ Hinard, 2000, 827 ^ Hinard, 2000, p. 832 ^ Eck (2003), p. 10 ^ Hinard, 2000, p. 248 ^ Eck, 2003, p. 11. ^ Boatwright, Mary (2012). The Romans From Village to Empire. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 272–73. ISBN 9780199730575. ^ Syme, 1939, pp. 114–20. ^ Dio Cassius, Roman History, XLV, 11 ^ Bleicken, 1998, p. 58 ^ Chisholm, 1981, p. 26. ^ Rowell, 1962, p. 30 ^ Eck 2003, pp. 11–12. ^ Rowell, 1962, p. 21 ^ Rowell, 1962, p. 24 ^ Eck, 2003, p. 12 ^ Syme, 1939, p. 167 ^ Syme, 1939, pp. 173–74 ^ Scullard, 1982, p. 157. ^ Hinard, 2000, p. 838 ^ Syme, 1939, pp. 176–86. ^ Hinard, 2000, pp. 839–40 ^ Rowell, 1962, pp. 26–27 ^ Eck, 2003, p. 15 ^ Hinard, 2000, pp. 841–42 ^ Hinard, 2000, pp. 846–47 ^ a b Appian, The Civil Wars, Book 14, CVIII ^ Hinard, 2000, p. 850 ^ Jallet-Huant, 2009, pp. 144–53 ^ Hindard, 2000, pp. 850–51 ^ Cosme, 2009, pp. 56–57 ^ Hinard, 2000, p. 854 ^ Hinard, 2000, p. 253 ^ Bivar, 1968, pp. 56–57 ^ Hinard 2000, p. 854 ^ Lepelley, 1998, p. 435 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 49.32; Appian, Civil Wars, 5.7; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. I, p. 263 ("Archelaus", Nos. 3, 4), vol. II, p. 272 ("Glaphyra"). ^ Dio, 43.19.2–3; Appian, 2.101.420 ^ Mitford, pp. 1289–97. ^ Plutarch, Antony, 28–30 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, l. 48. ^ Eck, p. 18 ^ Eck, pp. 18–19. ^ a b Eck, p. 19 ^ Cassius Dio.48.4.1–6 ^ Cassius Dio.48.4.1 ^ Appian. B.Civ.5.2.14 ^ Appian. Bel.Civ.5.3.19. ^ Appian.B.Civ.5.3.19. ^ Appian.B.Civ.5.4.32. ^ Cassius Dio 48.15.1. ^ David, 2000, p. 254 ^ Southern, 2001, p. 78 ^ Eck, 2003, p. 21. ^ Eder, 2005, p. 19 ^ Plutarch.Vit.Ant.30.3. ^ Scullard, 1984, p. 106 ^ Fuller, 1965, p. 45 ^ Plutarch. Life of Crassus. 19.1–3. ^ Plutarch, Crassus 19; 22; 33. ^ Hinard, 2000, p. 820 ^ Morello, Antonio (2005). Titus Labienus et Cingulum, Quintus Labienus Parthicus Volume 9 of Nummus et historia. Circolo numismatico Mario Rasile. ^ "Coins of Rome about Parthia: Quintus Labienus (42-39 B.C.)". Retrieved 5 February 2013. ^ a b Hinard, 2000, p. 857 ^ a b Hinard, 2000, p. 858 ^ Hinard, 2000, p. 877 ^ Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, pp. 1239 ^ Dando-Collins, 2008, pp. 36–39 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, Book 49, 23 ^ Hinard, 2000, pp. 879, 883 ^ Plutarch, Antony, Chapter 34 ^ Appian, The Civil Wars, Book 5, 69 ^ Ward, Allen M., et al. A History of the Roman People. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 2003. ^ Appian, The Civil Wars, Book 5, 73 ^ Appian, The Civil Wars, Book 5, 77 ^ Appian, The Civil Wars, Book 5, 95 ^ Armstrong, p. 126 ^ Josephus, The Wars of the Jews, 1.14.4 ^ Rocca, 2008, pp. 45–47 ^ Josephus, The Jewish Wars, 1:355 ^ Boatwright, Mary (2012). The Romans From Village to Empire. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 269–71. ISBN 9780199735075. ^ Roller (2010), 175. ^ Walker (2008), 35, 42–44. ^ Dio 51.19.4. ^ Plut. Ant. 49.4; Dio 51.19.3. ^ Akert, Nick. "Antony, Augustus, and Damnatio Memoriae". University of Pennsylvania. Discentes. Retrieved 6 May 2017. ^ Plut. Ant. 49.4; Dio 51.19.4. ^ Plut. Ant. 49.4. ^ Boatwright, Mary (2012). The Romans From Village to Empire. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 269–79. ISBN 9780199730575. ^ "5 Fascinating Facts About Mark Antony". HistoryCollection.co. 28 February 2017. Retrieved 7 May 2019. ^ "Mark Antony". www.ancient.eu. Retrieved 7 May 2019. ^ classics, N. S. Gill N. S. Gill is a freelance; linguistics, ancient history writer She has a master's degree in; teacher, is a former Latin. "How Many Wives Did Mark Anthony Have?". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 7 May 2019. ^ Southern, Pat (2012). Mark Antony : a life. Stroud: Amberley. ISBN 9781445608631. OCLC 784578800. ^ Huzar, Eleanor G. "Mark Antony: Marriages vs. Careers." The Classical Journal, vol. 81, no. 2, 1985, pp. 97–111. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3296739. ^ Strong, Anise K. (July 2016). "Powerful concubines and influential courtesans". Prostitutes and Matrons in the Roman World. pp. 62–96. doi:10.1017/CBO9781316563083.004. ISBN 9781316563083. Retrieved 10 December 2019. ^ Gibbon, Edward (1854). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Little, Brown. ^ a b Roller, The World of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene pp. 84–89 ^ Their names are unknown, but it is known that all of them were killed by Nero, thus descent from this line is extinct ^ Sir Ronald Syme claims that Sergius Octavius Laenas Pontianus, consul in 131 under Emperor Hadrian, set up a dedication to his grandmother, Rubellia Bassa. ^ France 1977, p. 186. ^ "The Shards of Heaven by Michael Livingston". Publishers Weekly. Retrieved 29 January 2016. ^ "Review: The Shards of Heaven by Michael Livingston". Kirkus Reviews. 3 September 2015. Retrieved 29 January 2016. Primary sources[edit] Dio Cassius xli.–liii Appian, Bell. Civ. i.–v. 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David, Jean-Michel (2000). La République romaine de la deuxième guerre punique à la bataille d'Actium [The Roman Republic of the Second Punic War to the Battle of Actium]. ISBN 978-2-020-23959-2. Davis, Paul K. (1999). 100 Decisive Battles from Ancient Times to the Present: The World's Major Battles and How They Shapped History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. De Ruggiero, Paolo (2013). Mark Antony: A Plain Blunt Man. Barnsley, South Yorkshire: Pen and Sword. ISBN 978-1-783-46270-4. Eck, Werner (2003). The Age of Augustus. Translated by Deborah Lucas Schneider. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0-631-22957-5. Eyben, Emiel (1993). Restless youth in ancient Rome. Psychology Press. ISBN 0-415-04366-2. France, Richard (1977). The Theatre of Orson Welles. Lewisburg, Pennsylvania: Bucknell University Press. ISBN 0-8387-1972-4. Fuller, J. F. C. (1965). Julius Caesar: Man, Soldier, and Tyrant. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. Goldsworthy, Adrian (2010). Antony and Cleopatra. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-16700-9. Gowing, Alain M. (1992). The Triumviral Narratives of Appian and Cassius Dio. Michigan Monographs in Classical Antiquity. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Gruen, Erich S. (1974). The Last Generation of the Roman Republic. Berkeley: University of California Press. Haskell, H. J. (1942). "This Was Cicero: Modern Politics in a Roman Toga". Classical Journal. 38 (6). Hinard, Francois, ed. (2000). Histoire romaine des origines à Auguste [The History of Rome from its Origins to Augustus]. ISBN 978-2-213-03194-1. Holland, Tom (2004). Rubicon: The Triumph and Tragedy of the Roman Republic. London: Abacus. ISBN 0-349-11563-X. Holmes, T. Rice (1923). The Roman Republic and the Founder of the Empire, Vol. III. Huzar, Eleanor G. (1978). Mark Antony: A Biography. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0-8166-0863-6. Jallet-Huant, Monique (2009). Marc Antoine: généralissime, prince d'orient et acteur dans la chute de la république romaine [Mark Antony: Generalissimo, Oriental Prince, and Player in the Fall of the Roman Republic]. ISBN 978-2-84772-070-9. Jehne, Martin (1987). Der Staat des Dicators Caesar [The State of the Dictator Caesar]. Bohlau. ISBN 978-3-412-06786-1. Jones, A.M.H. (1938). The Herods of Judaea. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Lepelley, Claude (1998). Rome et l'intégration de l'Empire, 44 avant J.C. – 260 après J.C., tome 2 : Approche régionnales du Haut-Empire [Rome and the Integration of the Empire, 44 BC – 260 AD, Volume 2: Regional Approaches of the Early Empire]. University of France Press. ISBN 978-2-130-48711-1. Lindsay, Jack (1936). Marc Antony, His World and His Contemporaries. London: G. Routledge & Sons. Martin, Jean-Pierre (2003). Histoire romaine [Roman History]. ISBN 978-2-200-26587-8. Mitford, Terence (1980). Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt [Rise and Decline of the Roman World]. Renucci, Pierre. Marc Antoine, un destin inachevé entre César et Cléopâtre(2014) ISBN 978-2-262-03778-9 Rocca, Samuel (2008). The Forts of Judaea 168 BC – AD 73: From the Maccabees to the Fall of Masada. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 9781846031717. Roller, Duane, W. (2010). Cleopatra: a biography. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195365535. Scullard, Howard Hayes (1984). From the Gracchi to Nero: A History of Rome from 133 BC to AD 68. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-02527-3. Siani-Davis, Mary (1997). "Ptolemy XII Auletes and the Romans". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. Suerbaum, Werner (1980). "Merkwürdige Geburtstage". Chiron (10): 327–55. Southern, Pat (1998). Mark Antony. Stroud: Tempus Publishing. ISBN 0-7524-1406-2. Southern, Pat (2001). Augustus. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-4152-5855-3. Syme, Ronald (1939). The Roman Revolution. Oxford: Clarendon. Walker, Susan (2008). "Cleopatra in Pompeii". Papers of the British School at Rome. 76: 35–46, 345–8. doi:10.1017/S0068246200000404. Weigall, Arthur (1931). The Life and Times of Marc Antony. New York: G.P. Putnam and Sons. Wolf, Greg (2006). Et Tu Brute? – The Murder of Caesar and Political Assassination. ISBN 1-86197-741-7.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Antonius". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Marcus Antonius. Chaumont, M. L. (1986). "Antony, Mark". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 2. pp. 136–138. MarkAntony.org Shakespeare´s Funeral Oration of Mark Antony in English and Latin translation The Life of Marc Antony, in BTM Format Political offices Preceded by C. Caninius Rebilus C. Trebonius as suffecti Consul of Rome 44 BC With: Julius Caesar P. Cornelius Dolabella (suffect) Succeeded by C. Vibius Pansa Aulus Hirtius Preceded by Sextus Pompeius P. Cornelius Dolabella Consul of Rome 1 January 34 BC With: L. Scribonius Libo Succeeded by L. Sempronius Atratinus v t e The works of Plutarch Works Parallel Lives Moralia "De genio Socratis" "On the Malice of Herodotus" Pseudo-Plutarch Lives Alcibiades and Coriolanus1 Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar Aratus of Sicyon / Artaxerxes and Galba / Otho2 Aristides and Cato the Elder1 Crassus and Nicias1 Demetrius and Antony1 Demosthenes and Cicero1 Dion and Brutus1 Fabius and Pericles1 Lucullus and Cimon1 Lysander and Sulla1 Numa and Lycurgus1 Pelopidas and Marcellus1 Philopoemen and Flamininus1 Phocion and Cato the Younger Pompey and Agesilaus1 Poplicola and Solon1 Pyrrhus and Gaius Marius Romulus and Theseus1 Sertorius and Eumenes1 Agis / Cleomenes1 and Tiberius Gracchus / Gaius Gracchus Timoleon and Aemilius Paulus1 Themistocles and Camillus Translators and editors Jacques Amyot Arthur Hugh Clough John Dryden Philemon Holland Thomas North 1 Comparison extant 2 Four unpaired Lives v t e Julius Caesar Major life events Early life and career First Triumvirate Lucca Conference Gallic Wars Caesar's Civil War Crossing the Rubicon Constitutional reforms Dictator perpetuo Assassination Military campaigns Gallic Wars Arar Bibracte Vosges Axona Sabis Atuatuci Octodurus Invasions of Britain Ambiorix's revolt Avaricum Gergovia Alesia Uxellodunum Civil War Corfinium Brundisium Ilerda Dyrrhachium Gomphi Pharsalus Nile Alexandria Zela Ruspina Thapsus Munda Planned invasion of the Parthian Empire Works Laudatio Iuliae amitae Anticato Commentarii de Bello Civili Commentarii de Bello Gallico De analogia Poems by Julius Caesar Portraits Green Caesar Tusculum portrait Arles bust Buildings Forum of Caesar Curia Julia Basilica Julia Temple of Venus Genetrix Caesar's Rhine bridges Quotes Alea iacta est Veni, vidi, vici Ut est rerum omnium magister usus last words Family Wives Cossutia (disputed) Cornelia Pompeia Calpurnia Children Julia Caesarion Augustus (adopted) Other Gaius Julius Caesar (father) Aurelia (mother) Julia Major (sister) Julia Minor (sister) Legacy Cultural depictions of Julius Caesar Temple of Caesar Caesar's Comet Caesarism Julio-Claudian dynasty Related Julia gens Mark Antony Cleopatra Servilia Marcus Junius Brutus Category v t e William Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra Characters Mark Antony Octavius Caesar Lepidus Cleopatra Sextus Pompey Domitius Enobarbus Ventidius Canidius Scarus Octavia Maecenas Agrippa Taurus Dolabella Gallus Menas Charmian Sources Parallel Lives Stage adaptations The False One (c.1620) All for Love (1677) Opera Antony and Cleopatra (1966) On screen 1908 1913 1959 (TV) The Spread of the Eagle (1963; 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en-wikipedia-org-6079	----	Plautus - Wikipedia Plautus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the Roman noble, see Rubellius Plautus. For the genus also known as Pinguinus, see Great auk. Roman comic playwright of the Old Latin period Roman comic playwright of the Old Latin period Plautus Bust of Plautus Born c. 254 BC Sarsina, Roman Republic Died 184 BC Rome, Roman Republic Nationality Roman Period Ancient Rome Genre Comedy Titus Maccius Plautus (/ˈplɔːtəs/; c. 254 – 184 BC), commonly known as Plautus, was a Roman playwright of the Old Latin period. His comedies are the earliest Latin literary works to have survived in their entirety. He wrote Palliata comoedia, the genre devised by the innovator of Latin literature, Livius Andronicus. The word Plautine /ˈplɔːtaɪn/ refers to both Plautus's own works and works similar to or influenced by his. Contents 1 Biography 2 Manuscript tradition 3 Surviving plays 4 Fragmentary plays 5 Historical context 5.1 Roman society deities 5.2 Second Punic War and Macedonian War 6 Influences 6.1 Greek Old Comedy 6.2 Greek New Comedy 6.3 Father–son relationships 6.4 Farce 6.5 Prologues 6.6 Character 6.6.1 The Clever Slave 6.7 Understanding of Greek by Plautus' audience 6.8 Disputed originality 6.9 Contaminatio 7 Stagecraft 7.1 The importance of the ludi 7.2 Geography of the stage 7.3 Relationship with the audience 7.4 Stock characters 7.4.1 The clever slave 7.4.2 The lustful old man 7.5 Female characters 7.6 Unnamed characters 8 Language and style 8.1 Overview 8.2 Archaic features 8.3 Means of expression 8.4 Poetic devices 8.5 Jokes and wordplay 8.6 Meter 8.7 Vigor and immediacy 9 Influence 9.1 The Middle Ages and early Renaissance 9.2 Shakespeare 9.3 Later periods 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 Further reading 14 External links Biography[edit] Not much is known about Titus Maccius Plautus' early life. It is believed that he was born in Sarsina, a small town in Emilia Romagna in northern Italy, around 254 BC.[1] According to Morris Marples, Plautus worked as a stage-carpenter or scene-shifter in his early years.[2] It is from this work, perhaps, that his love of the theater originated. His acting talent was eventually discovered; and he adopted the names "Maccius" (a clownish stock-character in popular farces) and "Plautus" (a term meaning either "flat-footed" or "flat-eared", like the ears of a hound).[3] Tradition holds that he made enough money to go into the nautical business, but that the venture collapsed. He is then said to have worked as a manual laborer and to have studied Greek drama—particularly the New Comedy of Menander—in his leisure. His studies allowed him to produce his plays, which were released between c. 205 and 184 BC. Plautus attained such a popularity that his name alone became a hallmark of theatrical success. Plautus's comedies are mostly adapted from Greek models for a Roman audience, and are often based directly on the works of the Greek playwrights. He reworked the Greek texts to give them a flavour that would appeal to the local Roman audiences. They are the earliest surviving intact works in Latin literature. Plautus's epitaph read: postquam est mortem aptus Plautus, Comoedia luget, scaena est deserta, dein Risus, Ludus Iocusque et Numeri innumeri simul omnes conlacrimarunt. Since Plautus is dead, Comedy mourns, The stage is deserted; then Laughter, Jest and Wit, And all Melody's countless numbers wept together. Manuscript tradition[edit] Plautus wrote around 130 plays,[4] of which 20 have survived intact, making him the most prolific ancient dramatist in terms of surviving work. Only short fragments, mostly quotations by later writers of antiquity, survive from 31 other plays. Despite this, the manuscript tradition of Plautus is poorer than that of any other ancient dramatist, something not helped by the failure of scholia on Plautus to survive. The chief manuscript of Plautus is a palimpsest, known as the Ambrosian palimpsest (A), in which Plautus' plays had been scrubbed out to make way for Augustine's Commentary on the Psalms. The monk who performed this was more successful in some places than others. He seems to have begun furiously, scrubbing out Plautus' alphabetically arranged plays with zest before growing lazy, then finally regaining his vigor at the end of the manuscript to ensure not a word of Plautus was legible. Although modern technology has allowed classicists to view much of the effaced material, plays beginning in letters early in the alphabet have very poor texts (e.g. the end of Aulularia and start of Bacchides are lost), plays with letters in the middle of the alphabet have decent texts, while only traces survive of the play Vidularia. A second manuscript tradition is represented by manuscripts of the Palatine family, so called because two of its most important manuscripts were once kept in the library of the Elector Palatine in Heidelberg in Germany.[5] The archetype of this family is now lost but it can be reconstructed from various later manuscripts, some of them containing either only the first half or the second half of the plays. The most important manuscript of this group is "B", of the 10th or early 11th century, now kept in the Vatican library. Surviving plays[edit] Amphitryon (missing large segments towards end) Asinaria Aulularia (missing ending) Bacchides (twenty large fragments) Captivi Casina Cistellaria (missing large segments) Curculio Epidicus Menaechmi Mercator Miles Gloriosus Mostellaria Persa Poenulus Pseudolus Rudens Stichus Trinummus Truculentus Fragmentary plays[edit] Only the titles and various fragments of these plays have survived. Acharistio Addictus Ambroicus, or Agroicus ("The Rustic Man") Artamo ("The Mainsail") Astraba Baccharia Bis Compressa ("The Twice-Seduced Woman") Boeotia Caecus ("The Blind Man"), or Praedones ("Plunderers") Calceolus ("The Little Shoe") Carbonaria ("The Female Charcoal-Burner") Clitellaria, or Astraba Colax ("The Flatterer") Commorientes ("Those Dying Together") Condalium ("The Slave Ring") Cornicularia Dyscolus ("The Grouch") Foeneratrix ("The Lady Moneylender") Fretum ("The Strait", or "Channel") Frivolaria ("Trifles") Fugitivi ("The Runaways"—possibly by Turpilius [la]) Gastrion, or Gastron Hortulus ("Little Garden") Kakistus (possibly by Accius) Lenones Gemini ("The Twin Pimps") Nervolaria Parasitus Medicus ("The Parasite Physician") Parasitus Piger ("The Lazy Parasite"), or Lipargus Phagon ("The Glutton") Plociona Saturio Scytha Liturgus Sitellitergus ("The Toilet Cleaner") Trigemini ("Triplets") Vidularia Historical context[edit] The historical context within which Plautus wrote can be seen, to some extent, in his comments on contemporary events and persons. Plautus was a popular comedic playwright while Roman theatre was still in its infancy and still largely undeveloped. At the same time, the Roman Republic was expanding in power and influence.[citation needed] Roman society deities[edit] Plautus was sometimes accused of teaching the public indifference and mockery of the gods. Any character in his plays could be compared to a god. Whether to honour a character or to mock him, these references were demeaning to the gods. These references to the gods include a character comparing a mortal woman to a god, or saying he would rather be loved by a woman than by the gods. Pyrgopolynices from Miles Gloriosus (vs. 1265), in bragging about his long life, says he was born one day later than Jupiter. In Curculio, Phaedrome says "I am a God" when he first meets with Planesium. In Pseudolus, Jupiter is compared to Ballio the pimp. It is not uncommon, too, for a character to scorn the gods, as seen in Poenulus and Rudens. However, when a character scorns a god, it is usually a character of low standing, such as a pimp. Plautus perhaps does this to demoralize the characters.[original research?] Soldiers often bring ridicule among the gods. Young men, meant to represent the upper social class, often belittle the gods in their remarks. Parasites, pimps, and courtesans often praise the gods with scant ceremony. Tolliver argues that drama both reflects and foreshadows social change. It is likely that there was already much skepticism about the gods in Plautus' era. Plautus did not make up or encourage irreverence to the gods, but reflected ideas of his time. The state controlled stage productions, and Plautus' plays would have been banned, had they been too risqué.[6] Second Punic War and Macedonian War[edit] The Second Punic War occurred from 218–201 BC; its central event was Hannibal's invasion of Italy. M. Leigh has devoted an extensive chapter about Plautus and Hannibal in his 2004 book, Comedy and the Rise of Rome. He says that "the plays themselves contain occasional references to the fact that the state is at arms...".[7] One good example is a piece of verse from the Miles Gloriosus, the composition date of which is not clear but which is often placed in the last decade of the 3rd century BC.[8] A. F. West believes that this is inserted commentary on the Second Punic War. In his article "On a Patriotic Passage in the Miles Gloriosus of Plautus", he states that the war "engrossed the Romans more than all other public interests combined".[9] The passage seems intended to rile up the audience, beginning with hostis tibi adesse, or "the foe is near at hand".[10] At the time, the general Scipio Africanus wanted to confront Hannibal, a plan "strongly favored by the plebs".[11] Plautus apparently pushes for the plan to be approved by the senate, working his audience up with the thought of an enemy in close proximity and a call to outmaneuver him. Therefore, it is reasonable to say that Plautus, according to P. B. Harvey, was "willing to insert [into his plays] highly specific allusions comprehensible to the audience".[12] M. Leigh writes in his chapter on Plautus and Hannibal that "the Plautus who emerges from this investigation is one whose comedies persistently touch the rawest nerves in the audience for whom he writes".[13] Later, coming off the heels of the conflict with Hannibal, Rome was preparing to embark on another military mission, this time in Greece. While they would eventually move on Philip V in the Second Macedonian War, there was considerable debate beforehand about the course Rome should take in this conflict. But starting this war would not be an easy task considering those recent struggles with Carthage—many Romans were too tired of conflict to think of embarking on another campaign. As W. M. Owens writes in his article "Plautus' Stichus and the Political Crisis of 200 B.C.", "There is evidence that antiwar feeling ran deep and persisted even after the war was approved."[14] Owens contends that Plautus was attempting to match the complex mood of the Roman audience riding the victory of the Second Punic War but facing the beginning of a new conflict.[15] For instance, the characters of the dutiful daughters and their father seem obsessed over the idea of officium, the duty one has to do what is right. Their speech is littered with words such as pietas and aequus, and they struggle to make their father fulfill his proper role.[16] The stock parasite in this play, Gelasimus, has a patron-client relationship with this family and offers to do any job in order to make ends meet; Owens puts forward that Plautus is portraying the economic hardship many Roman citizens were experiencing due to the cost of war.[17] With the repetition of responsibility to the desperation of the lower class, Plautus establishes himself firmly on the side of the average Roman citizen. While he makes no specific reference to the possible war with Greece or the previous war (that might be too dangerous), he does seem to push the message that the government should take care of its own people before attempting any other military actions. Influences[edit] Greek Old Comedy[edit] In order to understand the Greek New Comedy of Menander and its similarities to Plautus, it is necessary to discuss, in juxtaposition with it, the days of Greek Old Comedy and its evolution into New Comedy. The ancient Greek playwright who best embodies Old Comedy is Aristophanes. A playwright of 5th century Athens, he wrote works of political satire such as The Wasps and The Clouds. Aristophanes' work is noted for its critical commentary on politics and societal values,[18] which is the key component of Old Comedy: consciousness of the world in which it is written, and analysis of this world. Comedy and theater were means for the political commentary of the time—the public conscience. Unlike Aristophanes, Plautus avoided discussion of current events (in a narrow sense of the term) in his comedies.[19] Greek New Comedy[edit] Greek New Comedy greatly differs from those plays of Aristophanes. The most notable difference, according to Dana F. Sutton, is that New Comedy, in comparison to Old Comedy, is "devoid of a serious political, social or intellectual content" and "could be performed in any number of social and political settings without risk of giving offense".[20] The risk-taking for which Aristophanes is known is noticeably lacking in the New Comedy plays of Menander. Instead, there is much more of a focus on the home and the family unit—something that the Romans, including Plautus, could easily understand and adopt for themselves later in history. Father–son relationships[edit] One main theme of Greek New Comedy is the father–son relationship. For example, in Menander's Dis Exapaton there is a focus on the betrayal between age groups and friends. The father-son relationship is very strong and the son remains loyal to the father. The relationship is always a focus, even if it's not the focus of every action taken by the main characters. In Plautus, on the other hand, the focus is still on the relationship between father and son, but we see betrayal between the two men that wasn't seen in Menander. There is a focus on the proper conduct between a father and son that, apparently, was so important to Roman society at the time of Plautus. This becomes the main difference and, also, similarity between Menander and Plautus. They both address "situations that tend to develop in the bosom of the family".[20] Both authors, through their plays, reflect a patriarchal society in which the father-son relationship is essential to proper function and development of the household.[21] It is no longer a political statement, as in Old Comedy, but a statement about household relations and proper behavior between a father and his son. But the attitudes on these relationships seem much different—a reflection of how the worlds of Menander and Plautus differed. Farce[edit] For the Italian tradition of farce, see Atellan farce. There are differences not just in how the father-son relationship is presented, but also in the way in which Menander and Plautus write their poetry. William S. Anderson discusses the believability of Menander versus the believability of Plautus and, in essence, says that Plautus' plays are much less believable than those plays of Menander because they seem to be such a farce in comparison. He addresses them as a reflection of Menander with some of Plautus' own contributions. Anderson claims that there is unevenness in the poetry of Plautus that results in "incredulity and refusal of sympathy of the audience."[22] Prologues[edit] The poetry of Menander and Plautus is best juxtaposed in their prologues. Robert B. Lloyd makes the point that "albeit the two prologues introduce plays whose plots are of essentially different types, they are almost identical in form..."[23] He goes on to address the specific style of Plautus that differs so greatly from Menander. He says that the "verbosity of the Plautine prologues has often been commented upon and generally excused by the necessity of the Roman playwright to win his audience."[23] However, in both Menander and Plautus, word play is essential to their comedy. Plautus might seem more verbose, but where he lacks in physical comedy he makes up for it with words, alliteration and paronomasia (punning).[24] See also "jokes and wordplay" below. Plautus is well known for his devotion to puns, especially when it comes to the names of his characters. In Miles Gloriosus, for instance, the female concubine's name, Philocomasium, translates to "lover of a good party"—which is quite apt when we learn about the tricks and wild ways of this prostitute. Character[edit] Plautus' characters—many of which seem to crop up in quite a few of his plays—also came from Greek stock, though they too received some Plautine innovations. Indeed, since Plautus was adapting these plays it would be difficult not to have the same kinds of characters—roles such as slaves, concubines, soldiers, and old men. By working with the characters that were already there but injecting his own creativity, as J.C.B. Lowe wrote in his article "Aspects of Plautus' Originality in the Asinaria", "Plautus could substantially modify the characterization, and thus the whole emphasis of a play."[25] The Clever Slave[edit] One of the best examples of this method is the Plautine slave, a form that plays a major role in quite a few of Plautus' works. The "clever slave" in particular is a very strong character; he not only provides exposition and humor, but also often drives the plot in Plautus' plays. C. Stace argues that Plautus took the stock slave character from New Comedy in Greece and altered it for his own purposes. In New Comedy, he writes, "the slave is often not much more than a comedic turn, with the added purpose, perhaps, of exposition".[26] This shows that there was precedent for this slave archetype, and obviously some of its old role continues in Plautus (the expository monologues, for instance). However, because Plautus found humor in slaves tricking their masters or comparing themselves to great heroes, he took the character a step further and created something distinct.[27] Understanding of Greek by Plautus' audience[edit] Of the approximate 270 proper names in the surviving plays of Plautus, about 250 names are Greek.[28] William M. Seaman proposes that these Greek names would have delivered a comic punch to the audience because of its basic understanding of the Greek language.[29] This previous understanding of Greek language, Seaman suggests, comes from the "experience of Roman soldiers during the first and second Punic wars. Not only did men billeted in Greek areas have opportunity to learn sufficient Greek for the purpose of everyday conversation, but they were also able to see plays in the foreign tongue."[30] Having an audience with knowledge of the Greek language, whether limited or more expanded, allowed Plautus more freedom to use Greek references and words. Also, by using his many Greek references and showing that his plays were originally Greek, "It is possible that Plautus was in a way a teacher of Greek literature, myth, art and philosophy; so too was he teaching something of the nature of Greek words to people, who, like himself, had recently come into closer contact with that foreign tongue and all its riches."[31] At the time of Plautus, Rome was expanding, and having much success in Greece. W.S. Anderson has commented that Plautus "is using and abusing Greek comedy to imply the superiority of Rome, in all its crude vitality, over the Greek world, which was now the political dependent of Rome, whose effete comic plots helped explain why the Greeks proved inadequate in the real world of the third and second centuries, in which the Romans exercised mastery".[32] Disputed originality[edit] Plautus was known for the use of Greek style in his plays, as part of the tradition of the variation on a theme. This has been a point of contention among modern scholars. One argument states that Plautus writes with originality and creativity—the other, that Plautus is a copycat of Greek New Comedy and that he makes no original contribution to playwriting.[citation needed] A single reading of the Miles Gloriosus leaves the reader with the notion that the names, place, and play are all Greek, but one must look beyond these superficial interpretations. W.S. Anderson would steer any reader away from the idea that Plautus' plays are somehow not his own or at least only his interpretation. Anderson says that, "Plautus homogenizes all the plays as vehicles for his special exploitation. Against the spirit of the Greek original, he engineers events at the end... or alter[s] the situation to fit his expectations."[33] Anderson's vehement reaction to the co-opting of Greek plays by Plautus seems to suggest that they are in no way like their originals were. It seems more likely that Plautus was just experimenting putting Roman ideas in Greek forms. Contaminatio[edit] One idea that is important to recognize is that of contaminatio, which refers to the mixing of elements of two or more source plays. Plautus, it seems, is quite open to this method of adaptation, and quite a few of his plots seem stitched together from different stories. One excellent example is his Bacchides and its supposed Greek predecessor, Menander's Dis Exapaton. The original Greek title translates as "The Man Deceiving Twice", yet the Plautine version has three tricks.[34] V. Castellani commented that: Plautus' attack on the genre whose material he pirated was, as already stated, fourfold. He deconstructed many of the Greek plays' finely constructed plots; he reduced some, exaggerated others of the nicely drawn characters of Menander and of Menander's contemporaries and followers into caricatures; he substituted for or superimposed upon the elegant humor of his models his own more vigorous, more simply ridiculous foolery in action, in statement, even in language.[35] By exploring ideas about Roman loyalty, Greek deceit, and differences in ethnicity, "Plautus in a sense surpassed his model."[36] He was not content to rest solely on a loyal adaptation that, while amusing, was not new or engaging for Rome. Plautus took what he found but again made sure to expand, subtract, and modify. He seems to have followed the same path that Horace did, though Horace is much later, in that he is putting Roman ideas in Greek forms. He not only imitated the Greeks, but in fact distorted, cut up, and transformed the plays into something entirely Roman. In essence it is Greek theater colonized by Rome and its playwrights. Stagecraft[edit] In Ancient Greece during the time of New Comedy, from which Plautus drew so much of his inspiration, there were permanent theaters that catered to the audience as well as the actor. The greatest playwrights of the day had quality facilities in which to present their work and, in a general sense, there was always enough public support to keep the theater running and successful. However, this was not the case in Rome during the time of the Republic, when Plautus wrote his plays. While there was public support for theater and people came to enjoy tragedy and comedy alike, no permanent theater existed in Rome until Pompey dedicated one in 55 BC in the Campus Martius.[37] The lack of a permanent space was a key factor in Roman theater and Plautine stagecraft. In their introduction to the Miles Gloriosus, Hammond, Mack and Moskalew say that "the Romans were acquainted with the Greek stone theater, but, because they believed drama to be a demoralizing influence, they had a strong aversion to the erection of permanent theaters".[38] This worry rings true when considering the subject matter of Plautus' plays. The unreal becomes reality on stage in his work. T. J. Moore notes that, "all distinction between the play, production, and 'real life' has been obliterated [Plautus' play Curculio]".[39] A place where social norms were upended was inherently suspect. The aristocracy was afraid of the power of the theater. It was merely by their good graces and unlimited resources that a temporary stage would have been built during specific festivals. The importance of the ludi[edit] Main article: Ludi Roman drama, specifically Plautine comedy, was acted out on stage during the ludi or festival games. In his discussion of the importance of the ludi Megalenses in early Roman theater, John Arthur Hanson says that this particular festival "provided more days for dramatic representations than any of the other regular festivals, and it is in connection with these ludi that the most definite and secure literary evidence for the site of scenic games has come down to us".[40] Because the ludi were religious in nature, it was appropriate for the Romans to set up this temporary stage close to the temple of the deity being celebrated. S.M. Goldberg notes that "ludi were generally held within the precinct of the particular god being honored."[41] T. J. Moore notes that "seating in the temporary theaters where Plautus' plays were first performed was often insufficient for all those who wished to see the play, that the primary criterion for determining who was to stand and who could sit was social status".[42] This is not to say that the lower classes did not see the plays; but they probably had to stand while watching. Plays were performed in public, for the public, with the most prominent members of the society in the forefront. The wooden stages on which Plautus' plays appeared were shallow and long with three openings in respect to the scene-house. The stages were significantly smaller than any Greek structure familiar to modern scholars. Because theater was not a priority during Plautus' time, the structures were built and dismantled within a day. Even more practically, they were dismantled quickly due to their potential as fire-hazards.[43] Geography of the stage[edit] Often the geography of the stage and more importantly the play matched the geography of the city so that the audience would be well oriented to the locale of the play. Moore says that, "references to Roman locales must have been stunning for they are not merely references to things Roman, but the most blatant possible reminders that the production occurs in the city of Rome".[44] So, Plautus seems to have choreographed his plays somewhat true-to-life. To do this, he needed his characters to exit and enter to or from whatever area their social standing would befit. Two scholars, V. J. Rosivach and N. E. Andrews, have made interesting observations about stagecraft in Plautus: V. J. Rosivach writes about identifying the side of the stage with both social status and geography. He says that, for example, "the house of the medicus lies offstage to the right. It would be in the forum or thereabouts that one would expect to find a medicus."[45] Moreover, he says that characters that oppose one another always have to exit in opposite directions. In a slightly different vein, N.E. Andrews discusses the spatial semantics of Plautus; she has observed that even the different spaces of the stage are thematically charged. She states: Plautus' Casina employs these conventional tragic correlations between male/outside and female/inside, but then inverts them in order to establish an even more complex relationship among genre, gender and dramatic space. In the Casina, the struggle for control between men and women... is articulated by characters' efforts to control stage movement into and out of the house.[46] Andrews makes note of the fact that power struggle in the Casina is evident in the verbal comings and goings. The words of action and the way that they are said are important to stagecraft. The words denoting direction or action such as abeo ("I go off"), transeo ("I go over"), fores crepuerunt ("the doors creak"), or intus ("inside"), which signal any character's departure or entrance, are standard in the dialogue of Plautus' plays. These verbs of motion or phrases can be taken as Plautine stage directions since no overt stage directions are apparent. Often, though, in these interchanges of characters, there occurs the need to move on to the next act. Plautus then might use what is known as a "cover monologue". About this S.M. Goldberg notes that, "it marks the passage of time less by its length than by its direct and immediate address to the audience and by its switch from senarii in the dialogue to iambic septenarii. The resulting shift of mood distracts and distorts our sense of passing time."[47] Relationship with the audience[edit] The small stages had a significant effect on the stagecraft of ancient Roman theater. Because of this limited space, there was also limited movement. Greek theater allowed for grand gestures and extensive action to reach the audience members who were in the very back of the theater. However the Romans would have had to depend more on their voices than large physicality. There was not an orchestra available as there was for the Greeks and this is reflected in the notable lack of a chorus in Roman drama. The replacement character that acts as the chorus would in Greek drama is often called the "prologue".[48] Goldberg says that "these changes fostered a different relationship between actors and the space in which they performed and also between them and their audiences".[49] Actors were thrust into much closer audience interaction. Because of this, a certain acting style became required that is more familiar to modern audiences. Because they would have been in such close proximity to the actors, ancient Roman audiences would have wanted attention and direct acknowledgement from the actors.[50] Because there was no orchestra, there was no space separating the audience from the stage. The audience could stand directly in front of the elevated wooden platform. This gave them the opportunity to look at the actors from a much different perspective. They would have seen every detail of the actor and hear every word he said. The audience member would have wanted that actor to speak directly to them. It was a part of the thrill of the performance, as it is to this day.[51] Stock characters[edit] Plautus' range of characters was created through his use of various techniques, but probably the most important is his use of stock characters and situations in his various plays. He incorporates the same stock characters constantly, especially when the character type is amusing to the audience. As Walter Juniper wrote, "Everything, including artistic characterization and consistency of characterization, were sacrificed to humor, and character portrayal remained only where it was necessary for the success of the plot and humor to have a persona who stayed in character, and where the persona by his portrayal contributed to humor."[52] For example, in Miles Gloriosus, the titular "braggart soldier" Pyrgopolynices only shows his vain and immodest side in the first act, while the parasite Artotrogus exaggerates Pyrgopolynices' achievements, creating more and more ludicrous claims that Pyrgopolynices agrees to without question. These two are perfect examples of the stock characters of the pompous soldier and the desperate parasite that appeared in Plautine comedies. In disposing of highly complex individuals, Plautus was supplying his audience with what it wanted, since "the audience to whose tastes Plautus catered was not interested in the character play,"[53] but instead wanted the broad and accessible humor offered by stock set-ups. The humor Plautus offered, such as "puns, word plays, distortions of meaning, or other forms of verbal humor he usually puts them in the mouths of characters belonging to the lower social ranks, to whose language and position these varieties of humorous technique are most suitable,"[54] matched well with the stable of characters. The clever slave[edit] In his article "The Intriguing Slave in Greek Comedy," Philip Harsh gives evidence to show that the clever slave is not an invention of Plautus. While previous critics such as A. W. Gomme believed that the slave was "[a] truly comic character, the devisor of ingenious schemes, the controller of events, the commanding officer of his young master and friends, is a creation of Latin comedy," and that Greek dramatists such as Menander did not use slaves in such a way that Plautus later did, Harsh refutes these beliefs by giving concrete examples of instances where a clever slave appeared in Greek comedy.[55] For instance, in the works of Athenaeus, Alciphron, and Lucian there are deceptions that involve the aid of a slave, and in Menander's Dis Exapaton there was an elaborate deception executed by a clever slave that Plautus mirrors in his Bacchides. Evidence of clever slaves also appears in Menander's Thalis, Hypobolimaios, and from the papyrus fragment of his Perinthia. Harsh acknowledges that Gomme's statement was probably made before the discovery of many of the papyri that we now have. While it was not necessarily a Roman invention, Plautus did develop his own style of depicting the clever slave. With larger, more active roles, more verbal exaggeration and exuberance, the slave was moved by Plautus further into the front of the action.[56] Because of the inversion of order created by a devious or witty slave, this stock character was perfect for achieving a humorous response and the traits of the character worked well for driving the plot forward. The lustful old man[edit] Another important Plautine stock character, discussed by K.C. Ryder, is the senex amator. A senex amator is classified as an old man who contracts a passion for a young girl and who, in varying degrees, attempts to satisfy this passion. In Plautus these men are Demaenetus (Asinaria), Philoxenus and Nicobulus (Bacchides), Demipho (Cistellaria), Lysidamus (Casina), Demipho (Mercator), and Antipho (Stichus). Periplectomenos (Miles Gloriosus) and Daemones (Rudens) are regarded as senes lepidi because they usually keep their feelings within a respectable limit. All of these characters have the same goal, to be with a younger woman, but all go about it in different ways, as Plautus could not be too redundant with his characters despite their already obvious similarities. What they have in common is the ridicule with which their attempts are viewed, the imagery that suggests that they are motivated largely by animal passion, the childish behavior, and the reversion to the love-language of their youth.[57] Female characters[edit] In examining the female role designations of Plautus's plays, Z.M. Packman found that they are not as stable as their male counterparts: a senex will usually remain a senex for the duration of the play but designations like matrona, mulier, or uxor at times seem interchangeable. Most free adult women, married or widowed, appear in scene headings as mulier, simply translated as "woman". But in Plautus' Stichus the two young women are referred to as sorores, later mulieres, and then matronae, all of which have different meanings and connotations. Although there are these discrepancies, Packman tries to give a pattern to the female role designations of Plautus. Mulier is typically given to a woman of citizen class and of marriageable age or who has already been married. Unmarried citizen-class girls, regardless of sexual experience, were designated virgo. Ancilla was the term used for female household slaves, with Anus reserved for the elderly household slaves. A young woman who is unwed due to social status is usually referred to as meretrix or "courtesan". A lena, or adoptive mother, may be a woman who owns these girls.[58] Unnamed characters[edit] Like Packman, George Duckworth uses the scene headings in the manuscripts to support his theory about unnamed Plautine characters. There are approximately 220 characters in the 20 plays of Plautus. Thirty are unnamed in both the scene headings and the text and there are about nine characters who are named in the ancient text but not in any modern one. This means that about 18% of the total number of characters in Plautus are nameless. Most of the very important characters have names while most of the unnamed characters are of less importance. However, there are some abnormalities—the main character in Casina is not mentioned by name anywhere in the text. In other instances, Plautus will give a name to a character that only has a few words or lines. One explanation is that some of the names have been lost over the years; and for the most part, major characters do have names.[59] Language and style[edit] Overview[edit] The language and style of Plautus are not easy or simple. He wrote in a colloquial style far from the codified form of Latin that is found in Ovid or Virgil. This colloquial style is the everyday speech that Plautus would have been familiar with, yet that means that most students of Latin are unfamiliar with it. Adding to the unfamiliarity of Plautine language is the inconsistency of the irregularities that occur in the texts. In one of his prolific word-studies, A.W. Hodgman noted that: the statements that one meets with, that this or that form is "common," or "regular," in Plautus, are frequently misleading, or even incorrect, and are usually unsatisfying.... I have gained an increasing respect for the manuscript tradition, a growing belief that the irregularities are, after all, in a certain sense regular. The whole system of inflexion—and, I suspect, of syntax also and of versification—was less fixed and stable in Plautus' time than it became later.[60] Archaic features[edit] The diction of Plautus, who used the colloquial speech of his own day, is distinctive and non-standard from the point of view of the later, classical period. M. Hammond, A.H. Mack, and W. Moskalew have noted in the introduction to their edition of the Miles Gloriosus that Plautus was "free from convention... [and] sought to reproduce the easy tone of daily speech rather than the formal regularity of oratory or poetry. Hence, many of the irregularities which have troubled scribes and scholars perhaps merely reflect the everyday usages of the careless and untrained tongues which Plautus heard about him."[61] Looking at the overall use of archaic forms in Plautus, one notes that they commonly occur in promises, agreements, threats, prologues, or speeches. Plautus's archaic forms are metrically convenient, but may also have had a stylistic effect on his original audience. These forms are frequent and of too great a number for a complete list here,[62] but some of the most noteworthy features which from the classical perspective will be considered irregular or obsolete are: the use of uncontracted forms of some verbs such as mavolo ("prefer") for later malo[63] the emendation of the final -e of singular imperatives the retention of -u- in place of the later -i- in words such as maxumus, proxumus, lacrumare etc. (see Latin spelling and pronunciation §Sonus medius), and of -vo- before r, s or t, where the use after ca. 150 BC[64] would favor -ve- (as vostrum for later vestrum) the use of the -ier ending for the present passive and deponent infinitive (e.g. exsurgier for exsurgī) the forms of sum often joined to the preceding word, which is called prodelision (as bonumst "it's good" for bonum est "it is good") the dropping of the final -s of 2nd-singular verb forms and the final -e of the question-particle -ne when the two are joined (as viden? for videsne? "you see? you get it?") the retention of short -ǒ in noun endings in the second declension for later -ŭ the retention in many words of qu- instead of later c- (as in quom instead of cum) the use of the -āī genitive singular ending, disyllabic, besides -ae the retention of final -d after long vowel in the pronouns mēd, tēd, sēd (accusative and ablative, forms without -d also occur) the occasional addition of a final -pte, -te, or -met to pronouns the use of -īs as an accusative plural and occasionally nominative plural ending.[65] These are the most common linguistic peculiarities (from the later perspective) in the plays of Plautus, some of them being also found in Terence, and noting them helps in the reading of his works and gives insight into early Roman language and interaction. Means of expression[edit] There are certain ways in which Plautus expressed himself in his plays, and these individual means of expression give a certain flair to his style of writing. The means of expression are not always specific to the writer, i.e., idiosyncratic, yet they are characteristic of the writer. Two examples of these characteristic means of expression are the use of proverbs and the use of Greek language in the plays of Plautus. Plautus employed the use of proverbs in many of his plays. Proverbs would address a certain genre such as law, religion, medicine, trades, crafts, and seafaring. Plautus' proverbs and proverbial expressions number into the hundreds. They sometimes appear alone or interwoven within a speech. The most common appearance of proverbs in Plautus appears to be at the end of a soliloquy. Plautus does this for dramatic effect to emphasize a point. Further interwoven into the plays of Plautus and just as common as the use of proverbs is the use of Greek within the texts of the plays. J. N. Hough suggests that Plautus's use of Greek is for artistic purposes and not simply because a Latin phrase will not fit the meter. Greek words are used when describing foods, oils, perfumes, etc. This is similar to the use of French terms in the English language such as garçon or rendezvous. These words give the language a French flair just as Greek did to the Latin-speaking Romans. Slaves or characters of low standing speak much of the Greek. One possible explanation for this is that many Roman slaves were foreigners of Greek origin. Plautus would sometimes incorporate passages in other languages as well in places where it would suit his characters. A noteworthy example is the use of two prayers in Punic in Poenulus, spoken by the Carthaginian elder Hanno, which are significant to Semitic linguistics because they preserve the Carthaginian pronunciation of the vowels. Unlike Greek, Plautus most probably did not speak Punic himself, nor was the audience likely to understand it. The text of the prayers themselves was probably provided by a Carthaginian informant, and Plautus incorporated it to emphasize the authenticity and foreignness of Hanno's character.[66] Poetic devices[edit] Plautus also used more technical means of expression in his plays. One tool that Plautus used for the expression of his servus callidus stock character was alliteration. Alliteration is the repetition of sounds in a sentence or clause; those sounds usually come at the beginning of words. In the Miles Gloriosus, the servus callidus is Palaestrio. As he speaks with the character, Periplectomenus, he uses a significant amount of alliteration in order to assert his cleverness and, therefore, his authority. Plautus uses phrases such as "falsiloquom, falsicum, falsiiurium" (MG l. 191). These words express the deep and respectable knowledge that Palaestrio has of the Latin language. Alliteration can also happen at the endings of words as well. For example, Palaestrio says, "linguam, perfidiam, malitiam atque audaciam, confidentiam, confirmitatem, fraudulentiam" (MG ll. 188-9). Also used, as seen above, is the technique of assonance, which is the repetition of similar-sounding syllables. Jokes and wordplay[edit] Plautus' comedies abound in puns and word play, which is an important component of his poetry. One well known instance in the Miles Gloriosus is Sceledre, scelus. Some examples stand in the text in order to accentuate and emphasize whatever is being said, and others to elevate the artistry of the language. But a great number are made for jokes, especially riddle jokes, which feature a "knock knock - who's there?" pattern. Plautus is especially fond of making up and changing the meaning of words, as Shakespeare does later.[67] Meter[edit] Further information: Metres of Roman comedy Further emphasizing and elevating the artistry of the language of the plays of Plautus is the use of meter, which simply put is the rhythm of the play. There seems to be great debate over whether Plautus found favor in strong word accent or verse ictus, stress. Plautus did not follow the meter of the Greek originals that he adapted for the Roman audience. Plautus used a great number of meters, but most frequently he used the trochaic septenarius. Iambic words, though common in Latin, are difficult to fit in this meter, and naturally occur at the end of verses. G.B. Conte has noted that Plautus favors the use of cantica instead of Greek meters. This vacillation between meter and word stress highlights the fact that Latin literature was still in its infancy, and that there was not yet a standard way to write verse. Vigor and immediacy[edit] The servus callidus functions as the exposition in many of Plautus' plays. According to C. Stace, "slaves in Plautus account for almost twice as much monologue as any other character... [and] this is a significant statistic; most of the monologues being, as they are, for purposes of humor, moralizing, or exposition of some kind, we can now begin to see the true nature of the slave's importance."[68] Because humor, vulgarity,[69] and "incongruity" are so much a part of the Plautine comedies, the slave becomes the essential tool to connect the audience to the joke through his monologue and direct connection to the audience. He is, then, not only a source for exposition and understanding, but connection—specifically, connection to the humor of the play, the playfulness of the play. The servus callidus is a character that, as McCarthy says, "draws the complete attention of the audience, and, according to C. Stace, 'despite his lies and abuse, claims our complete sympathy'".[70] He does this, according to some scholarship, using monologue, the imperative mood and alliteration—all of which are specific and effective linguistic tools in both writing and speaking. The specific type of monologue (or soliloquy) in which a Plautine slave engages is the prologue. As opposed to simple exposition, according to N.W. Slater, "these...prologues...have a far more important function than merely to provide information."[71] Another way in which the servus callidus asserts his power over the play—specifically the other characters in the play—is through his use of the imperative mood. This type of language is used, according to E. Segal, for "the forceful inversion, the reduction of the master to an abject position of supplication ... the master-as-suppliant is thus an extremely important feature of the Plautine comic finale".[72] The imperative mood is therefore used in the complete role-reversal of the normal relationship between slave and master, and "those who enjoy authority and respect in the ordinary Roman world are unseated, ridiculed, while the lowliest members of society mount to their pedestals...the humble are in face exalted".[73] Influence[edit] Intellectual and academic critics have often judged Plautus's work as crude; yet his influence on later literature is impressive—especially on two literary giants, Shakespeare and Molière. Playwrights throughout history have looked to Plautus for character, plot, humor, and other elements of comedy. His influence ranges from similarities in idea to full literal translations woven into plays. The playwright's apparent familiarity with the absurdity of humanity and both the comedy and tragedy that stem from this absurdity have inspired succeeding playwrights centuries after his death. The most famous of these successors is Shakespeare—Plautus had a major influence on the Bard's early comedies. The Middle Ages and early Renaissance[edit] Plautus was apparently read in the 9th century. His form was too complex to be fully understood, however, and, as indicated by the Terentius et delusor, it was unknown at the time if Plautus was writing in prose or verse. W. B. Sedgwick has provided a record of the Amphitruo, perennially one of Plautus' most famous works. It was the most popular Plautine play in the Middle Ages, and publicly performed at the Renaissance; it was the first Plautine play to be translated into English. The influence of Plautus's plays was felt in the early 16th century. Limited records suggest that the first known university production of Plautus in England was of Miles Gloriosus at Oxford in 1522–3. The magnum jornale of Queens College contains a reference to a comoedia Plauti in either 1522 or 1523. This fits directly with comments made in the poems of Leland about the date of the production. The next production of Miles Gloriosus that is known from limited records was given by the Westminster School in 1564.[74] Other records also tell us about performances of the Menaechmi. From our knowledge, performances were given in the house of Cardinal Wolsey by boys of St. Paul's School as early as 1527.[75] Shakespeare[edit] Shakespeare borrowed from Plautus as Plautus borrowed from his Greek models. C.L. Barber says that "Shakespeare feeds Elizabethan life into the mill of Roman farce, life realized with his distinctively generous creativity, very different from Plautus' tough, narrow, resinous genius."[76] The Plautine and Shakespearean plays that most parallel each other are, respectively, The Menaechmi and The Comedy of Errors. According to Marples, Shakespeare drew directly from Plautus "parallels in plot, in incident, and in character,"[77] and was undeniably influenced by the classical playwright's work. H. A. Watt stresses the importance of recognizing the fact that the "two plays were written under conditions entirely different and served audiences as remote as the poles."[78] The differences between The Menaechmi and The Comedy of Errors are clear. In The Menaechmi, Plautus uses only one set of twins—twin brothers. Shakespeare, on the other hand, uses two sets of twins, which, according to William Connolly, "dilutes the force of [Shakespeare's] situations".[78] One suggestion is that Shakespeare got this idea from Plautus' Amphitruo, in which both twin masters and twin slaves appear. It can be noted that the doubling is a stock situation of Elizabethan comedy. On the fusion between Elizabethan and Plautine techniques, T. W. Baldwin writes, "...Errors does not have the miniature unity of Menaechmi, which is characteristic of classic structure for comedy".[79] Baldwin notes that Shakespeare covers a much greater area in the structure of the play than Plautus does. Shakespeare was writing for an audience whose minds weren't restricted to house and home, but looked toward the greater world beyond and the role that they might play in that world. Another difference between the audiences of Shakespeare and Plautus is that Shakespeare's audience was Christian. At the end of Errors, the world of the play is returned to normal when a Christian abbess interferes with the feuding. Menaechmi, on the other hand, "is almost completely lacking in a supernatural dimension".[80] A character in Plautus' play would never blame an inconvenient situation on witchcraft—something that is quite common in Shakespeare. The relationship between a master and a clever servant is also a common element in Elizabethan comedy. Shakespeare often includes foils for his characters to have one set off the other. In Elizabethan romantic comedy, it is common for the plays to end with multiple marriages and couplings of pairs. This is something that is not seen in Plautine comedy. In the Comedy of Errors, Aegeon and Aemilia are separated, Antipholus and Adriana are at odds, and Antipholus and Luciana have not yet met. At the end, all the couples are happily together. By writing his comedies in a combination of Elizabethan and Plautine styles, Shakespeare helps to create his own brand of comedy, one that uses both styles.[78] Also, Shakespeare uses the same kind of opening monologue so common in Plautus's plays. He even uses a "villain" in The Comedy of Errors of the same type as the one in Menaechmi, switching the character from a doctor to a teacher but keeping the character a shrewd, educated man.[78] Watt also notes that some of these elements appear in many of his works, such as Twelfth Night or A Midsummer Night's Dream, and had a deep impact on Shakespeare's writing.[78] Later playwrights also borrowed Plautus's stock characters. One of the most important echoes of Plautus is the stock character of the parasite. Certainly the best example of this is Falstaff, Shakespeare's portly and cowardly knight. As J. W. Draper notes, the gluttonous Falstaff shares many characteristics with a parasite such as Artotrogus from Miles Gloriosus. Both characters seem fixated on food and where their next meal is coming from. But they also rely on flattery in order to gain these gifts, and both characters are willing to bury their patrons in empty praise.[81] Of course, Draper notes that Falstaff is also something of a boastful military man, but notes, "Falstaff is so complex a character that he may well be, in effect, a combination of interlocking types."[81] As well as appearing in Shakespearean comedy, the Plautine parasite appears in one of the first English comedies. In Ralph Roister Doister, the character of Matthew Merrygreeke follows in the tradition of both Plautine Parasite and Plautine slave, as he both searches and grovels for food and also attempts to achieve his master's desires.[81] Indeed, the play itself is often seen as borrowing heavily from or even being based on the Plautine comedy Miles Gloriosus.[82] H. W. Cole discusses the influence of Plautus and Terence on the Stonyhurst Pageants. The Stonyhurst Pageants are manuscripts of Old Testament plays that were probably composed after 1609 in Lancashire. Cole focuses on Plautus' influence on the particular Pageant of Naaman. The playwright of this pageant breaks away from the traditional style of religious medieval drama and relies heavily on the works of Plautus. Overall, the playwright cross-references eighteen of the twenty surviving plays of Plautus and five of the six extant plays by Terence. It is clear that the author of the Stonyhurst Pageant of Naaman had a great knowledge of Plautus and was significantly influenced by this.[83] There is evidence of Plautine imitation in Edwardes' Damon and Pythias and Heywood's Silver Age as well as in Shakespeare's Errors. Heywood sometimes translated whole passages of Plautus. By being translated as well as imitated, Plautus was a major influence on comedy of the Elizabethan era. In terms of plot, or perhaps more accurately plot device, Plautus served as a source of inspiration and also provided the possibility of adaptation for later playwrights. The many deceits that Plautus layered his plays with, giving the audience the feeling of a genre bordering on farce, appear in much of the comedy written by Shakespeare and Molière. For instance, the clever slave has important roles in both L'Avare and L'Etourdi, two plays by Molière, and in both drives the plot and creates the ruse just like Palaestrio in Miles Gloriosus.[84] These similar characters set up the same kind of deceptions in which many of Plautus' plays find their driving force, which is not a simple coincidence. Later periods[edit] 20th century musicals based on Plautus include A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum (Larry Gelbart and Burt Shevelove, book, Stephen Sondheim, music and lyrics). Roman Laughter: The Comedy of Plautus, a 1968 book by Erich Segal, is a scholarly study of Plautus' work. The British TV sitcom Up Pompeii uses situations and stock characters from Plautus's plays. In the first series Willie Rushton plays Plautus who pops up on occasion to provide comic comments on what is going on in the episode. See also[edit] A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum History of theater Menander Molière Prosody (Latin) Second Punic War Shakespeare Terence Theatre of ancient Rome Notes[edit] ^ The Concise Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (1996) Ed. M.C. Howatson and Ian Chilvers, Oxford University Press, Oxford Reference Online ^ M. Marples. "Plautus," Greece & Rome 8.22(1938), p. 1. ^ S. O'Bryhim. Greek and Roman Comedy (University of Texas Press, 2001), p. 149. ^ "FJCL Latin Literature Study Guide" (PDF). Florida Junior Classical League. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 2 March 2014. ^ Walter de Melo, Plautus: Amphitryon (etc.), (Loeb Classical Library), introduction, p. cvi. ^ H.M. Tolliver. "Plautus and the State Gods of Rome", The Classical Journal 48.2(1952), pp. 49-57. ^ M. Leigh. Comedy and the Rise of Rome. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. p. 24 ^ A. F. West. "On a Patriotic Passage in the Miles Gloriosus of Plautus," The American Journal of Philology 8.1(1887), p. 18. ^ West, 24. ^ West, 26. ^ West, 28. ^ P.B. Harvey. "Historical Topicality in Plautus," Classical World 79 (1986), pp. 297-304. ^ Leigh, 26. ^ W. M. Owens. "Plautus' 'Stichus' and the Political Crisis of 200 B.C.," The American Journal of Philology 121.3 (2000), p. 388. ^ Owens, 386. ^ Owens, 392. ^ Owens, 395-396. ^ Sutton, D. F., Ancient Comedy: The War of the Generations (New York, 1993), p.56. ^ Writings and career of Plautus in The Drama: Its History, Literature and Influence on Civilization, vol. 2. ed. Alfred Bates. London: Historical Publishing Company, 1906. pp. 159-165. ^ a b Sutton 1993, p. 57. ^ Sutton 1993, p. 59. ^ Lloyd, R. F., "Two Prologues: Menander and Plautus," The American Journal of Philology 84.2 (1963, April), p. 141. ^ a b Lloyd 1963, p. 149. ^ Lloyd 1963, p. 150. ^ Lowe, J.C.B., "Aspects of Plautus' Originality in the Asinaria," The Classical Quarterly 42 (1992), p. 155. ^ Stace, C., "The Slaves of Plautus," Greece & Rome 15 (1968), p. 75. ^ Stace 1968, pp. 73-74. ^ Seaman, W.M., "The Understanding of Greek by Plautus' Audience," Classical Journal 50 (1954), p. 115. ^ Seaman 1954, p. 116. ^ Seaman 1954, p. 115. ^ Seaman 1954, p. 119. ^ W.S. Anderson, "The Roman Transformation of Greek Domestic Comedy," The Classical World 88.3 (1995), pp. 171-180. ^ Anderson 1995, p. 178. ^ Owens, W. M., "The Third Deception in Bacchides: Fides and Plautus' Originality," The American Journal of Philology 115 (1994), pp. 381-382. ^ V. Castellani. "Plautus versus Komoidia: popular farce at Rome," in Farce, ed. 5 J. Redmond (Cambridge and New York, 1988), pp. 53-82. ^ Owens 1994, p. 404. ^ S. M. Goldberg. "Plautus on the Palatine," The Journal of Roman Studies 88 (1998), p. 2. ^ M. Hammond, A.M. Mack, W. Moskalew. "Introduction: The Stage and Production," in Miles Gloriosus. Ed. M. Hammond, A. Mack, W. Moskalew. London and Cambridge, 1997 repr., pp. 15-29. ^ T. J. Moore. "Palliata Togata: Plautus, Curculio 462-86," The American Journal of Philology 112.3 (1991), pp. 343-362. ^ J. A. Hanson, Roman Theater—Temples, (Princeton, NJ, 1959), p. 13. ^ Goldberg, 1998, pp. 1-20. ^ T.J. Moore, "Seats and Social Status in the Plautine Theater," The Classical Journal 90.2 (1995), pp. 113-123. ^ M. Bieber, The History of the Greek and Roman Theater, (Princeton, NJ, 1961.), p. 168. ^ Moore, 1991, p. 347. ^ V. J. Rosivach, "Plautine Stage Settings," Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 101 (1970), pp. 445-461. ^ N. E. Andrews, "Tragic Re-Presentation and the Semantics of Space in Plautus," Mnemosyne 57.4 (2004), pp. 445-464. ^ S.M. Goldberg, "Act to Action in Plautus' Bacchides," Classical Philology 85.3 (1990), pp. 191-201. ^ Goldberg, 1998, p.19. ^ Goldberg, 1998, p.16. ^ P.G. Brown, "Actors and Actor–Managers at Rome in the Time of Plautus and Terence," in Greek and Roman Actors: Aspects of an Ancient Profession, Ed. P. Easterling and E. Hall. (Cambridge, 2002.), p. 228. ^ Goldberg, 1998, p. 19. ^ W.H. Juniper, "Character Portrayals in Plautus." The Classical Journal 31 (1936), p. 279. ^ Juniper, 1936, p. 278. ^ J.N. Hough, "The Reverse Comic Foil in Plautus." The American Philological Association 73 (1942), p. 108. ^ P.W. Harsh, "The Intriguing Slave in Greek Comedy," Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, 86 (1955), pp. 135-142. ^ Harsh, 1955, p. 135-142. ^ K.C. Ryder, "The Senex Amator in Plautus," Greece & Rome 31.2. (Oct., 1984), pp.181-189. ^ Z.M. Packman, "Feminine Role Designations in the Comedies of Plautus," The American Journal of Philology 120.2. (1999), pp. 245-258. ^ G.E. Duckworth, "The Unnamed Characters in the Plays of Plautus," Classical Philology 33.2. (1938), pp. 167-282. ^ A.W. Hodgman. "Verb Forms in Plautus," The Classical Quarterly 1.1(1907), pp. 42-52. ^ Ed. M. Hammond, A.H. Mack, & W. Moskalew, Miles Gloriosus (Cambridge and London, 1997 repr.), pp. 39-57. ^ The reader is directed to the word studies of A.W. Hodgman (Nouns 1902; Verbs 107) to grasp fully the use of archaic forms in Plautine diction. ^ From magis volo "want more". ^ R.H. Martin, Terence: Phormio (London: Methuen, 1969). P. 86 n. 29. ^ This list compiled from a number of word studies and syntactic texts listed in the reference section. ^ Sznycer, Maurice (1967). Les passages punique en transcription latine dans le Poenulus de Plaute. Paris: Librairie C. Klincksieck. ^ M. Fontaine, Funny Words in Plautine Comedy, Oxford, 2010. ^ C. Stace. "The Slaves of Plautus," Greece and Rome 2.15 (1968), pp. 64-77. ^ Easterling '76, p.12 "the delight in low humour we associate with Plautus" ^ Stace 1968, pp. 64-77. ^ N.W. Slater. Plautus in Performance: The Theatre of the Mind. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985, p. 152 ^ E. Segal. Roman Laughter: The Comedy of Plautus. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1968, p. 122 ^ Segal 1968, p. 136 ^ L. Bradner. "The First Cambridge Production of Miles Gloriosus." Modern Language Notes, 70.6 (1955), pp. 400-403. ^ H.W. Cole. "The Influence of Plautus and Terence Upon the Stonyhurst Pageants." Modern Language Notes 38 (1923) 393-399. ^ C.L. Barber, "Shakespearian Comedy in the Comedy of Errors," College English 25.7 (1964), p. 493. ^ M. Marples, "Plautus." Greece & Rome 8.22 (1938), p. 2. ^ a b c d e H. A. Watt. "Plautus and Shakespeare: Further Comments on Menaechmi and The Comedy of Errors." The Classical Journal 20 (1925), pp. 401-407. ^ T.W. Baldwin. On the Compositional Genetics of The Comedy of Errors. (Urbana 1965), pp. 200-209. ^ N. Rudd. The Classical Tradition in Operation. (Toronto 1994), pp. 32-60. ^ a b c J. W. Draper. "Falstaff and the Plautine Parasite." The Classical Journal 33(1938), pp. 390-401. ^ H. W. Cole. "The Influence of Plautus and Terence Upon the Stonyhurst Pageants," Modern Language Notes 38 (1923), pp. 393-399. ^ H. W. Cole. "The Influence of Plautus and Terrence Upon the Stonyhurst Pageants," Modern Language Notes 38.7 (1923), pp. 393-399. ^ S. V. Cole. "Plautus Up-to-Date." The Classical Journal 16 (1921), pp. 399-409. References[edit] Anderson, W. S. Barbarian Play: Plautus' Roman Comedy (Toronto, 1993). Anderson, W.S. "The Roman Transformation of Greek Domestic Comedy," The Classical World 88.3 (1995), pp. 171–180. Andrews, N.E. "Tragic Re-Presentation and the Semantics of Space in Plautus," Mnemosyne 57.4 (2004), pp. 445–464. Arnott, W. G. "A Note on the Parallels between Menander's 'Dyskolos' and Plautus' 'Aulularia," Phoenix 18.3 (1964), pp. 232–237. Baldwin, T.W. The Compositional Genetics of The Comedy of Errors. (Urbana 1965), pp. 200–209. Barber, C.L. "Shakespearian Comedy in the Comedy of Errors," College English 25.7(1964), pp. 493–497. Beede, G.L. "Proverbial Expressions in Plautus," The Classical Journal 44.6(1949), pp. 357–362. Bieber, M. The History of the Greek and Roman Theater. (Princeton 1961.). Bradner, L. "The First Cambridge Production of Miles Gloriosus," Modern Language Notes 70.6 (1965), pp. 400–403. Brown, PG. "Actors and Actor – Managers at Rome in the Time of Plautus and Terence," in Greek and Roman Actors: Aspects of an Ancient Profession. Ed. P. Easterling and E. Hall. (Cambridge 2002.). Castellani, V. "Plautus Versus Komoidia: Popular Farce at Rome," in Farce, Ed. J. Redmond (Cambridge and New York, 1988), pp. 53–82. Christenson, D. Plautus' Amphitruo. (Cambridge 2000). Christenson, D. "Grotesque Realism in Plautus' Amphitruo," Classical Journal 96.3 (2001), pp. 243–60. Cole, H.W. "The Influence of Plautus and Terence Upon the Stonyhurst Pageants," Modern Language Notes 38 (1923), pp. 393–399. Cole, S.V. "Plautus Up-to-Date." The Classical Journal 16 (1921), pp. 399–409. Coleman, R.G.G. "Poetic Diction, Poetic Discourse and the Poetic Register," in Aspects of the Language of Latin Poetry. Ed. J.N. Adams & R.G. Mayer. (Oxford and New York 1999), pp. 21–96. Connors, C. "Monkey Business: Imitation, Authenticity, and Identity from Pithekoussai to Plautus," Classical Antiquity 23.2 (2004), pp. 179–207. Conte, G.B. Latin Literature: A History. (Baltimore 1994). Draper, J.W. "Falstaff and the Plautine Parasite," The Classical Journal 33 (1938), pp. 390–401. Duckworth, G.E. "The Unnamed Characters in the Plays of Plautus," Classical Philology 33.2 (1938), pp. 167–282. Echols, E.C. "The Quid-Greeting in Plautus and Terence," The Classical Journal 45.4(1950), pp. 188–190. Ed. Dorey, T.A. and Dudley, D.R. Roman Drama, (New York, 1965). P. E. Easterling, Philip Hardie, Richard Hunter, E. J. Kenney Plautus' Casina 1976 Cambridge University Press ISBN 0-521-29022-8 Fantham, E. "The Curculio of Plautus: An Illustration of Plautine Methods in Adaptation," The Classical Quarterly 15.1 (1965), pp. 84–100. Fontaine, M. Funny Words in Plautine Comedy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.[1] Fortson IV, Bejamin W. 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Hodgman, A.W. "Adjectival Forms in Plautus," The Classical Review 16.9(1902), pp. 446–452. Hodgman, A.W. "Adverbial Forms in Plautus," The Classical Review 17.6(1903), pp. 296–303. Hodgman, A.W. "Noun Declension in Plautus," The Classical Review 16.6(1902), pp. 294–305. Hodgman, A.W. "Verb Forms in Plautus (continued)," The Classical Quarterly 1.2(1907), pp. 97–134. Hodgman, A.W. "Verb Forms in Plautus," The Classical Quarterly 1.1(1907), pp. 42–52. Hoffmann, M.E. "Conversation Openings in the Comedies of Plautus," in Latin Linguistics and Linguistic Theory: Proceedings of the First International Colloquium on Latin Linguistics. Ed. H. Pinkster. (Amsterdam 1981), pp. 217–226. Hough, J.N. "The Development of Plautus' Art," Classical Philology 30.1(1935), pp. 43–57. Hough, J.N. "The Reverse Comic Foil in Plautus," The American Philological Association 73 (1942), pp. 108–118. Jocelyn, H.D. "Gods, Cult, and Cultic Language in Plautus' Epidicus," in Studien zu Plautus' Epidicus. Ed. U. 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Sedgwick, W.B. "The History of a Latin Comedy," The Review of English Studies 3.11 (1927), 346–349. Segal, E. Roman Laughter: The Comedy of Plautus. (Cambridge 1968). Slater, N.W. Plautus In Performance: The Theatre of the Mind. (Princeton 1985). Stace, C. "The Slaves of Plautus," Greece & Rome 15 (1968), pp. 64–77. Sutton, D. F. Ancient Comedy: The War of the Generations (New York 1993). Waite, S. "Word Position in Plautus: Interplay of Verse Ictus and Word Stress," in The Computer in Literary and Linguistic Studies. Ed. A. Jones & R.F. Churchhouse. (Cardiff 1976), pp. 92–105. Watt, H. A. "Plautus and Shakespeare: Further Comments on Menaechmi and The Comedy of Errors." The Classical Journal 20 (1925), pp. 401–407. Wiles, D. "Recent Critical Approaches to Plautus," in Farce. Ed. J. Redmond. (Cambridge 1988), pp. 261–272. Wymer, R. "Shakespeare and the Mystery Cycles," English Literary Renaissance 34.3 (2004), pp. 265–285. Further reading[edit] Plautus (2007)The Rope and Other Plays, Penguin UK. ISBN 9780141937915 Plautus (2004) The Pot of Gold and Other Plays, Penguin UK. ISBN 9780141911229 Richlin, Amy (2005), Rome and the Mysterious Orient: Three Plays by Plautus, translated with introductions and notes. University of California Press. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Plautus. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Plautus Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: Plautus Library resources about Plautus, Titus Maccius Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Plautus, Titus Maccius Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Works by Plautus at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Plautus at Internet Archive Works by Plautus at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Biographical material on Plautus. Works by Plautus T. Macci Plauti Comoediae ex recensione Georgii Goetz et Friderici Schoell, 7 voll., Lipsiae, in aedibus B. G. Teubneri, 1893-6: voll. 1-4 (1909 re-edition), voll. 5-7. 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en-wikipedia-org-6080	----	Iliad - Wikipedia Iliad From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Iliad (disambiguation). Epic poem attributed to Homer Trojan War Achilles tending the wounded Patroclus (Attic red-figure kylix, c. 500 BC) The war Setting: Troy (modern Hisarlik, Turkey) Period: Bronze Age Traditional dating: c. 1194–1184 BC Modern dating: c. 1260–1180 BC Outcome: Greek victory, destruction of Troy See also: Historicity of the Iliad Literary sources Iliad Epic Cycle Aeneid, Book 2 Iphigenia in Aulis Philoctetes Ajax The Trojan Women Posthomerica See also: Trojan War in popular culture Episodes Judgement of Paris Seduction of Helen Trojan Horse Sack of Troy The Returns Wanderings of Odysseus Aeneas and the Founding of Rome Greeks and allies Agamemnon Achilles Helen Menelaus Nestor Odysseus Ajax Diomedes Patroclus Thersites Achaeans Myrmidons See also: Catalogue of Ships Trojans and allies Priam Hecuba Hector Paris Cassandra Andromache Aeneas Memnon Troilus Penthesilea and the Amazons Sarpedon See also: Trojan Battle Order Participant gods Caused the war: Eris On the Greek side: Athena Hephaestus Hera Hermes Thetis Poseidon On the Trojan side: Aphrodite Apollo Ares Artemis Leto Scamander Zeus Related topics Homeric Question Archaeology of Troy Mycenae Mycenaean warfare v t e The Iliad (/ˈɪliəd/;[1] Ancient Greek: Ἰλιάς, Iliás, Attic Greek pronunciation: [iː.li.ás]; sometimes referred to as the Song of Ilion or Song of Ilium) is an ancient Greek epic poem in dactylic hexameter, traditionally attributed to Homer. Set during the Trojan War, the ten-year siege of the city of Troy (Ilium) by a coalition of Mycenean Greek states (Achaeans), it tells of the battles and events during the weeks of a quarrel between King Agamemnon and the warrior Achilles. Although the story covers only a few weeks in the final year of the war, the Iliad mentions or alludes to many of the Greek legends about the siege; the earlier events, such as the gathering of warriors for the siege, the cause of the war, and related concerns tend to appear near the beginning. Then the epic narrative takes up events prophesied for the future, such as Achilles' imminent death and the fall of Troy, although the narrative ends before these events take place. However, as these events are prefigured and alluded to more and more vividly, when it reaches an end the poem has told a more or less complete tale of the Trojan War. The Iliad is paired with something of a sequel, the Odyssey, also attributed to Homer. Along with the Odyssey, the Iliad is among the oldest extant works of Western literature, and its written version is usually dated to around the 8th century BC.[2] In the modern vulgate (the standard accepted version), the Iliad contains 15,693 lines; it is written in Homeric Greek, a literary amalgam of Ionic Greek and other dialects. Contents 1 Synopsis 2 Major characters 2.1 Achaeans 2.1.1 Achilles and Patroclus 2.2 Trojans 2.3 Gods 2.3.1 Divine intervention 3 Themes 3.1 Fate 3.2 Kleos 3.3 Nostos 3.4 Pride 3.5 Timē 3.6 Hybris (hubris) 3.7 Menis 4 Date and textual history 4.1 As oral tradition 4.2 Today 5 Depiction of warfare 5.1 Depiction of infantry combat 5.2 Modern reconstructions of armor, weapons and styles 5.3 Influence on classical Greek warfare 6 Influence on arts and pop culture 6.1 20th-century arts 6.2 Contemporary popular culture 7 English translations 8 Manuscripts 9 See also 10 References 10.1 Notes 10.2 Citations 10.3 Bibliography 11 Further reading 12 External links Synopsis[edit] The first verses of the Iliad Note: Book numbers are in parentheses and come before the synopsis of the book. (1) After an invocation to the Muses, the story launches in medias res towards the end of the Trojan War between the Trojans and the besieging Achaeans. Chryses, a Trojan priest of Apollo, offers the Achaeans wealth for the return of his daughter Chryseis, held captive by Agamemnon, the Achaean leader from. Although most of the Achaean army is in favour of the offer, Agamemnon refuses. Chryses prays for Apollo's help, and Apollo causes a plague to afflict the Achaean army. After nine days of plague, Achilles, the leader of the Myrmidon contingent, calls an assembly to deal with the problem. Under pressure, Agamemnon agrees to return Chryseis to her father, but decides to take Achilles' captive, Briseis, as compensation. Achilles furiously declares that he and his men will no longer fight for Agamemnon and will go home. Odysseus takes a ship and returns Chryseis to her father, whereupon Apollo ends the plague. In the meantime, Agamemnon's messengers take Briseis away. Achilles becomes very upset, sits by the seashore, and prays to his mother, Thetis.[3] Achilles asks his mother to ask Zeus to bring the Achaeans to the breaking point by the Trojans, so Agamemnon will realize how much the Achaeans need Achilles. Thetis does so, and Zeus agrees. (2) Zeus sends a dream to Agamemnon, urging him to attack Troy. Agamemnon heeds the dream but first decides to test the Achaean army's morale, by telling them to go home. The plan backfires, and only the intervention of Odysseus, inspired by Athena, stops a rout. Odysseus confronts and beats Thersites, a common soldier who voices discontent about fighting Agamemnon's war. After a meal, the Achaeans deploy in companies upon the Trojan plain. The poet takes the opportunity to describe the provenance of each Achaean contingent. When news of the Achaean deployment reaches King Priam, the Trojans respond in a sortie upon the plain. In a list similar to that for the Achaeans, the poet describes the Trojans and their allies. (3) The armies approach each other, but before they meet, Paris offers to end the war by fighting a duel with Menelaus, urged by his brother and head of the Trojan army, Hector. The initial cause of the entire war is alluded to here, when Helen is said to be "embroidering the struggles between Trojans and Achaeans, that Ares had made them fight for her sake." This allusion is then made definitive at the paragraph's close, when Helen is told that Paris and "Menelaus are going to fight about yourself, and you are to be the wife of him who is the victor." Both sides swear a truce and promise to abide by the outcome of the duel. Paris is beaten, but Aphrodite rescues him and leads him to bed with Helen before Menelaus can kill him. (4) Pressured by Hera's hatred of Troy, Zeus arranges for the Trojan Pandaros to break the truce by wounding Menelaus with an arrow. Agamemnon rouses the Achaeans, and battle is joined. (5) In the fighting, Diomedes kills many Trojans, including Pandaros, and defeats Aeneas, whom Aphrodite rescues, but Diomedes attacks and wounds the goddess. Apollo faces Diomedes and warns him against warring with gods. Many heroes and commanders join in, including Hector, and the gods supporting each side try to influence the battle. Emboldened by Athena, Diomedes wounds Ares and puts him out of action. (6) Hector rallies the Trojans and prevents a rout; the Achaean Diomedes and the Trojan Glaukos find common ground and exchange unequal gifts. Hector enters the city, urges prayers and sacrifices, incites Paris to battle, bids his wife Andromache and son Astyanax farewell on the city walls, and rejoins the battle. (7) Hector duels with Ajax, but nightfall interrupts the fight, and both sides retire. The Achaeans agree to burn their dead, and build a wall to protect their ships and camp, while the Trojans quarrel about returning Helen. Paris offers to return the treasure he took and give further wealth as compensation, but not Helen, and the offer is refused. A day's truce is agreed for burning the dead, during which the Achaeans also build their wall and a trench. (8) The next morning, Zeus prohibits the gods from interfering, and fighting begins anew. The Trojans prevail and force the Achaeans back to their wall, while Hera and Athena are forbidden to help. Night falls before the Trojans can assail the Achaean wall. They camp in the field to attack at first light, and their watchfires light the plain like stars. Iliad, Book VIII, lines 245–53, Greek manuscript, late 5th, early 6th centuries AD. (9) Meanwhile, the Achaeans are desperate. Agamemnon admits his error, and sends an embassy composed of Odysseus, Ajax, Phoenix, and two heralds to offer Briseis and extensive gifts to Achilles, who has been camped next to his ships throughout, if only he will return to the fighting. Achilles and his companion Patroclus receive the embassy well, but Achilles angrily refuses Agamemnon's offer and declares that he would only return to battle if the Trojans reached his ships and threatened them with fire. The embassy returns empty-handed. (10) Later that night, Odysseus and Diomedes venture out to the Trojan lines, kill the Trojan Dolon, and wreak havoc in the camps of some Thracian allies of Troy's. (11) In the morning, the fighting is fierce, and Agamemnon, Diomedes, and Odysseus are all wounded. Achilles sends Patroclus from his camp to inquire about the Achaean casualties, and while there Patroclus is moved to pity by a speech of Nestor's. (12) The Trojans attack the Achaean wall on foot. Hector, ignoring an omen, leads the terrible fighting. The Achaeans are overwhelmed and routed, the wall's gate is broken, and Hector charges in. (13) Many fall on both sides. The Trojan seer Polydamas urges Hector to fall back and warns him about Achilles, but is ignored. (14) Hera seduces Zeus and lures him to sleep, allowing Poseidon to help the Greeks, and the Trojans are driven back onto the plain. (15) Zeus awakes and is enraged by Poseidon's intervention. Against the mounting discontent of the Achaean-supporting gods, Zeus sends Apollo to aid the Trojans, who once again breach the wall, and the battle reaches the ships. (16) Patroclus cannot stand to watch any longer and begs Achilles to be allowed to defend the ships. Achilles relents and lends Patroclus his armor, but sends him off with a stern admonition not to pursue the Trojans, lest he take Achilles' glory. Patroclus leads the Myrmidons into battle and arrives as the Trojans set fire to the first ships. The Trojans are routed by the sudden onslaught, and Patroclus begins his assault by killing Zeus's son Sarpedon, a leading ally of the Trojans. Patroclus, ignoring Achilles' command, pursues and reaches the gates of Troy, where Apollo himself stops him. Patroclus is set upon by Apollo and Euphorbos, and is finally killed by Hector. (17) Hector takes Achilles' armor from the fallen Patroclus, but fighting develops around Patroclus' body. (18) Achilles is mad with grief when he hears of Patroclus' death and vows to take vengeance on Hector; his mother Thetis grieves, too, knowing that Achilles is fated to die young if he kills Hector. Achilles is urged to help retrieve Patroclus' body but has no armour. Bathed in a brilliant radiance by Athena, Achilles stands next to the Achaean wall and roars in rage. The Trojans are dismayed by his appearance, and the Achaeans manage to bear Patroclus' body away. Polydamas urges Hector again to withdraw into the city; again Hector refuses, and the Trojans camp on the plain at nightfall. Patroclus is mourned. Meanwhile, at Thetis' request, Hephaestus fashions a new set of armor for Achilles, including a magnificently wrought shield. (19) In the morning, Agamemnon gives Achilles all the promised gifts, including Briseis, but Achilles is indifferent to them. Achilles fasts while the Achaeans take their meal, straps on his new armor, and takes up his great spear. His horse Xanthos prophesies to Achilles his death. Achilles drives his chariot into battle. (20) Zeus lifts the ban on the gods' interference, and the gods freely help both sides. Achilles, burning with rage and grief, slays many. (21) Driving the Trojans before him, Achilles cuts off half their number in the river Skamandros and proceeds to slaughter them, filling the river with the dead. The river, angry at the killing, confronts Achilles but is beaten back by Hephaestus' firestorm. The gods fight among themselves. The great gates of the city are opened to receive the fleeing Trojans, and Apollo leads Achilles away from the city by pretending to be a Trojan. (22) When Apollo reveals himself to Achilles, the Trojans have retreated into the city, all except for Hector, who, having twice ignored the counsels of Polydamas, feels the shame of the rout and resolves to face Achilles, despite the pleas of his parents, Priam and Hecuba. When Achilles approaches, Hector's will fails him, and he is chased around the city by Achilles. Finally, Athena tricks him into stopping, and he turns to face his opponent. After a brief duel, Achilles stabs Hector through the neck. Before dying, Hector reminds Achilles that he, too, is fated to die in the war. Achilles takes Hector's body and dishonours it by dragging it behind his chariot. (23) The ghost of Patroclus comes to Achilles in a dream, urging him to carry out his burial rites and to arrange for their bones to be entombed together. The Achaeans hold a day of funeral games, and Achilles gives out the prizes. (24) Dismayed by Achilles' continued abuse of Hector's body, Zeus decides that it must be returned to Priam. Led by Hermes, Priam takes a wagon out of Troy, across the plains, and into the Achaean camp unnoticed. He clasps Achilles by the knees and begs for his son's body. Achilles is moved to tears, and the two lament their losses in the war. After a meal, Priam carries Hector's body back into Troy. Hector is buried, and the city mourns. Major characters[edit] Main article: List of characters in the Iliad See also: Category: Deities in the Iliad Hypnos and Thanatos carrying the body of Sarpedon from the battlefield of Troy; detail from an Attic white-ground lekythos, c. 440 BC. The many characters of the Iliad are catalogued; the latter half of Book II, the "Catalogue of Ships", lists commanders and cohorts; battle scenes feature quickly slain minor characters. Achaeans[edit] The Achaeans (Ἀχαιοί), Danaans (Δαναοί) or Argives (Ἀργεĩοι) Agamemnon – King of Mycenae, leader of the Achaeans. Menelaus – King of Sparta, husband of Helen and brother of Agamemnon. Achilles – Leader of the Myrmidons and King of Phthia.[4], son of Peleus and divine Thetis, the foremost warrior. Odysseus – King of Ithaca, Greek commander, the smartest warrior. Nestor – King of Pylos and trusted advisor to Agamemnon, the wisest warrior. Ajax the Great – King of Salamis, son of Telamon. Diomedes – King of Argos, son of Tydeus . Ajax the Lesser – Commander of the Locrians, son of Oileus. Idomeneus – Commander of the Cretans Patroclus – Achilles' closest companion. Neoptolemus – Leader of the Myrmidons after Achilles death, killer of Priam. Achilles and Patroclus[edit] Main article: Achilles and Patroclus Much debate has surrounded the nature of the relationship of Achilles and Patroclus, as to whether it can be described as a homoerotic one or not. Some Classical and Hellenistic Athenian scholars perceived it as pederastic,[i] while others perceived it as a platonic warrior-bond.[5] Achilles Lamenting the Death of Patroclus (1855) by the Russian history painter Nikolai Ge (Belarusian National Arts Museum, Minsk) Trojans[edit] The Trojan men Dardanos – First king of Troy, and he originally named the city Dardania.[6] Hector – Prince of Troy, son of King Priam, and the foremost Trojan warrior. Aeneas – son of Anchises and Aphrodite. Deiphobus – brother of Hector and Paris. Paris – Prince of Troy, son of King Priam, and Helen's lover/abductor. Priam – the aged King of Troy. Polydamas – a prudent commander whose advice is ignored; he is Hector's foil. Agenor – son of Antenor, a Trojan warrior who attempts to fight Achilles (Book XXI). Sarpedon, son of Zeus – killed by Patroclus. Was friend of Glaucus and co-leader of the Lycians (fought for the Trojans). Glaucus, son of Hippolochus – friend of Sarpedon and co-leader of the Lycians (fought for the Trojans). Euphorbus – first Trojan warrior to wound Patroclus. Dolon – a spy upon the Greek camp (Book X). Antenor – King Priam's advisor, who argues for returning Helen to end the war. Polydorus – son of Priam and Laothoe. Pandarus – famous archer and son of Lycaon. The Trojan women Hecuba (Ἑκάβη, Hekábe) – Priam's wife; mother of Hector, Cassandra, Paris, and others. Helen (Ἑλένη) – daughter of Zeus; Menelaus's wife; espoused first to Paris, then to Deiphobus; her being taken by Paris back to Troy precipitated the war. Andromache – Princess of Troy, Hector's wife, mother of Astyanax. Cassandra – Priam's daughter. Briseis – a Trojan woman captured by Achilles from a previous siege, over whom Achilles's quarrel with Agamemnon began. Gods[edit] In the literary Trojan War of the Iliad, the Olympian gods, goddesses, and minor deities fight among themselves and participate in human warfare, often by interfering with humans to counter other gods. Unlike their portrayals in Greek religion, Homer's portrayal of gods suited his narrative purpose. The gods in traditional thought of fourth-century Athenians were not spoken of in terms familiar to us from Homer.[7] The Classical-era historian Herodotus says that Homer and Hesiod, his contemporary, were the first writers to name and describe the gods' appearance and character.[8] Mary Lefkowitz (2003)[9] discusses the relevance of divine action in the Iliad, attempting to answer the question of whether or not divine intervention is a discrete occurrence (for its own sake), or if such godly behaviors are mere human character metaphors. The intellectual interest of Classic-era authors, such as Thucydides and Plato, was limited to their utility as "a way of talking about human life rather than a description or a truth", because, if the gods remain religious figures, rather than human metaphors, their "existence"—without the foundation of either dogma or a bible of faiths—then allowed Greek culture the intellectual breadth and freedom to conjure gods fitting any religious function they required as a people.[9][10] The religion had no founder and was not the creation of an inspired teacher which were popular origins of existing religions in the world.[11] The individuals were free to believe what they wanted, as the Greek religion was created out of a consensus of the people. These beliefs coincide to the thoughts about the gods in polytheistic Greek religion. Adkins and Pollard (2020/1998), agree with this by saying, “the early Greeks personalized every aspect of their world, natural and cultural, and their experiences in it. The earth, the sea, the mountains, the rivers, custom-law (themis), and one’s share in society and its goods were all seen in personal as well as naturalistic terms.”[12] As a result of this thinking, each god or goddess in Polytheistic Greek religion is attributed to an aspect of the human world. For example, Poseidon is the god of the sea, Aphrodite is the goddess of beauty, Ares is the god of war, and so on and so forth for many other gods. This is how Greek culture was defined as many Athenians felt the presence of their gods through divine intervention in significant events in their lives. Oftentimes they found these events to be mysterious and inexplicable.[7] Psychologist Julian Jaynes (1976)[13] uses the Iliad as a major piece of evidence for his theory of the Bicameral Mind, which posits that until about the time described in the Iliad, humans had a far different mentality from present day humans. He says that humans during that time were lacking what we today call consciousness. He suggests that humans heard and obeyed commands from what they identified as gods, until the change in human mentality that incorporated the motivating force into the conscious self. He points out that almost every action in the Iliad is directed, caused, or influenced by a god, and that earlier translations show an astonishing lack of words suggesting thought, planning, or introspection. Those that do appear, he argues, are misinterpretations made by translators imposing a modern mentality on the characters.[13] Divine intervention[edit] Some scholars believe that the gods may have intervened in the mortal world because of quarrels they may have had among each other. Homer interprets the world at this time by using the passion and emotion of the gods to be determining factors of what happens on the human level.[14] An example of one of these relationships in the Iliad occurs between Athena, Hera, and Aphrodite. In the final book of the poem Homer writes, “He offended Athena and Hera—both goddesses.”[15] Athena and Hera are envious of Aphrodite because of a beauty pageant on Mount Olympus in which Paris chose Aphrodite to be the most beautiful goddess over both Hera and Athena. Wolfgang Kullmann further goes on to say, “Hera’s and Athena’s disappointment over the victory of Aphrodite in the Judgement of Paris determines the whole conduct of both goddesses in The Iliad and is the cause of their hatred for Paris, the Judge, and his town Troy.”[14] Hera and Athena then continue to support the Achaean forces throughout the poem because Paris is part of the Trojans, while Aphrodite aids Paris and the Trojans. The emotions between the goddesses often translate to actions they take in the mortal world. For example, in Book 3 of The Iliad, Paris challenges any of the Achaeans to a single combat and Menelaus steps forward. Menelaus was dominating the battle and was on the verge of killing Paris. “Now he’d have hauled him off and won undying glory but Aphrodite, Zeus’s daughter was quick to the mark, snapped the rawhide strap.”[15] Aphrodite intervened out of her own self-interest to save Paris from the wrath of Menelaus because Paris had helped her to win the beauty pageant. The partisanship of Aphrodite towards Paris induces constant intervention by all of the gods, especially to give motivational speeches to their respective proteges, while often appearing in the shape of a human being they are familiar with.[14] This connection of emotions to actions is just one example out of many that occur throughout the poem.[citation needed] The major deities: Zeus (Neutral) Hera (Achaeans) Artemis (Trojans) Apollo (Trojans) Hades (Neutral) Aphrodite (Trojans) Ares (Achaeans, then Trojans) Athena (Achaeans) Hermes (Neutral/Achaeans) Poseidon (Achaeans) Hephaestus (Achaeans) The minor deities: Eris (Trojans) Iris (Neutral) Thetis (Achaeans) Leto (Trojans) Proteus (Achaeans) Scamander (Trojans) Phobos (Trojans) Deimos (Trojans) Hypnos (Achaeans) Themes[edit] Fate[edit] Fate (κήρ, kēr, 'fated death') propels most of the events of the Iliad. Once set, gods and men abide it, neither truly able nor willing to contest it. How fate is set is unknown, but it is told by the Fates and by Zeus through sending omens to seers such as Calchas. Men and their gods continually speak of heroic acceptance and cowardly avoidance of one's slated fate.[16] Fate does not determine every action, incident, and occurrence, but it does determine the outcome of life—before killing him, Hector calls Patroclus a fool for cowardly avoidance of his fate, by attempting his defeat;[citation needed] Patroclus retorts: [17] No, deadly destiny, with the son of Leto, has killed me, and of men it was Euphorbos; you are only my third slayer. And put away in your heart this other thing that I tell you. You yourself are not one who shall live long, but now already death and powerful destiny are standing beside you, to go down under the hands of Aiakos' great son, Achilleus.[18] Here, Patroclus alludes to fated death by Hector's hand, and Hector's fated death by Achilles's hand. Each accepts the outcome of his life, yet, no-one knows if the gods can alter fate. The first instance of this doubt occurs in Book XVI. Seeing Patroclus about to kill Sarpedon, his mortal son, Zeus says: Ah me, that it is destined that the dearest of men, Sarpedon, must go down under the hands of Menoitios' son Patroclus.[19] About his dilemma, Hera asks Zeus: Majesty, son of Kronos, what sort of thing have you spoken? Do you wish to bring back a man who is mortal, one long since doomed by his destiny, from ill-sounding death and release him? Do it, then; but not all the rest of us gods shall approve you.[20] In deciding between losing a son or abiding fate, Zeus, King of the Gods, allows it. This motif recurs when he considers sparing Hector, whom he loves and respects. This time, it is Athene who challenges him: Father of the shining bolt, dark misted, what is this you said? Do you wish to bring back a man who is mortal, one long since doomed by his destiny, from ill-sounding death and release him? Do it, then; but not all the rest of us gods shall approve you.[21] Again, Zeus appears capable of altering fate, but does not, deciding instead to abide set outcomes; similarly, fate spares Aeneas, after Apollo convinces the over-matched Trojan to fight Achilles. Poseidon cautiously speaks: But come, let us ourselves get him away from death, for fear the son of Kronos may be angered if now Achilleus kills this man. It is destined that he shall be the survivor, that the generation of Dardanos shall not die…[22] Divinely aided, Aeneas escapes the wrath of Achilles and survives the Trojan War. Whether or not the gods can alter fate, they do abide it, despite its countering their human allegiances; thus, the mysterious origin of fate is a power beyond the gods. Fate implies the primeval, tripartite division of the world that Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades effected in deposing their father, Cronus, for its dominion. Zeus took the Air and the Sky, Poseidon the Waters, and Hades the Underworld, the land of the dead—yet they share dominion of the Earth. Despite the earthly powers of the Olympic gods, only the Three Fates set the destiny of Man. Kleos[edit] Kleos (κλέος, "glory, fame") is the concept of glory earned in heroic battle.[23] Yet, Achilles must choose only one of the two rewards, either nostos or kleos.[24] In Book IX (IX.410–16), he poignantly tells Agamemnon's envoys—Odysseus, Phoenix, Ajax—begging his reinstatement to battle about having to choose between two fates (διχθαδίας κήρας, 9.411).[25] The passage reads: μήτηρ γάρ τέ μέ φησι θεὰ Θέτις ἀργυρόπεζα (410) διχθαδίας κῆρας φερέμεν θανάτοιο τέλος δέ. εἰ μέν κ’ αὖθι μένων Τρώων πόλιν ἀμφιμάχωμαι, ὤλετο μέν μοι νόστος, ἀτὰρ κλέος ἄφθιτον ἔσται εἰ δέ κεν οἴκαδ’ ἵκωμι φίλην ἐς πατρίδα γαῖαν, ὤλετό μοι κλέος ἐσθλόν, ἐπὶ δηρὸν δέ μοι αἰὼν (415) ἔσσεται, οὐδέ κέ μ’ ὦκα τέλος θανάτοιο κιχείη.[26] For my mother Thetis the goddess of silver feet tells me I carry two sorts of destiny toward the day of my death. Either, if I stay here and fight beside the city of the Trojans, my return home is gone, but my glory shall be everlasting; but if I return home to the beloved land of my fathers, the excellence of my glory is gone, but there will be a long life left for me, and my end in death will not come to me quickly.[27] —Translated by Richmond Lattimore In forgoing his nostos, he will earn the greater reward of kleos aphthiton (κλέος ἄφθιτον, "fame imperishable").[25] In the poem, aphthiton (ἄφθιτον, "imperishable") occurs five other times,[28] each occurrence denotes an object: Agamemnon's sceptre, the wheel of Hebe's chariot, the house of Poseidon, the throne of Zeus, the house of Hephaestus. Translator Lattimore renders kleos aphthiton as forever immortal and as forever imperishable—connoting Achilles's mortality by underscoring his greater reward in returning to battle Troy. Kleos is often given visible representation by the prizes won in battle. When Agamemnon takes Briseis from Achilles, he takes away a portion of the kleos he had earned. Achilles' shield, crafted by Hephaestus and given to him by his mother Thetis, bears an image of stars in the centre. The stars conjure profound images of the place of a single man, no matter how heroic, in the perspective of the entire cosmos. Nostos[edit] Nostos (νόστος, "homecoming") occurs seven times in the poem,[29] making it a minor theme in the Iliad itself. Yet the concept of homecoming is much explored in other Ancient Greek literature, especially in the post-war homeward fortunes experienced by the Atreidae (Agamemnon and Menelaus), and Odysseus (see the Odyssey). Pride[edit] Pride drives the plot of the Iliad. The Achaeans gather on the plain of Troy to wrest Helen from the Trojans. Though the majority of the Trojans would gladly return Helen to the Achaeans, they defer to the pride of their prince, Alexandros, also known as Paris. Within this frame, Homer's work begins. At the start of the Iliad, Agamemnon's pride sets forth a chain of events that leads him to take from Achilles, Briseis, the girl that he had originally given Achilles in return for his martial prowess. Due to this slight, Achilles refuses to fight and asks his mother, Thetis, to make sure that Zeus causes the Achaeans to suffer on the battlefield until Agamemnon comes to realize the kharm he has done to Achilles. Achilles’ pride allows him to beg Thetis for the deaths of his Achaean friends. When in Book 9 his friends urge him to return, offering him loot and his girl, Briseis, he refuses, stuck in his vengeful pride. Achilles remains stuc until the very end, when his anger at himself for Patroclus’ death overcomes his pride at Agamemnon's slight and he returns to kill Hector. He overcomes his pride again when he keeps his anger in check and returns Hector to Priam at epic's close. From epic start to epic finish, pride drives the plot.[ii][30] Timē[edit] Akin to kleos is timē (τιμή, "respect, honor"), the concept denoting the respectability an honorable man accrues with accomplishment (cultural, political, martial), per his station in life. In Book I, the Achaean troubles begin with King Agamemnon's dishonorable, unkingly behavior—first, by threatening the priest Chryses (1.11), then, by aggravating them in disrespecting Achilles, by confiscating Briseis from him (1.171). The warrior's consequent rancor against the dishonorable king ruins the Achaean military cause. Hybris (hubris)[edit] Hybris (Ὕβρις) plays a part similar to timê. The epic takes as its thesis the anger of Achilles and the destruction it brings. Anger disturbs the distance between human beings and the gods. Uncontrolled anger destroys orderly social relationships and upsets the balance of correct actions necessary to keep the gods away from human beings. (footnote Thompson). Despite the epic's focus on Achilles’ rage, hybris plays a prominent role also, serving as both kindling and fuel for many destructive events. Agamemnon refuses to ransom Chriseis up out of hybris and harms Achilles’ pride when he demands Briseis. Hubris forces Paris to fight against Menelaus. Agamemnon spurs the Achaean to fight, by calling into question Odysseus, Diomedes, and Nestor's pride, asking why they were cowering and waiting for help when they should be the ones leading the charge. While the events of the Iliad focus on the Achilles’ rage and the destruction it brings on, hybris fuels and stokes them both.[31] Menis[edit] The Wrath of Achilles (1819), by Michel Drolling. The poem's initial word, μῆνιν (mēnin; acc. μῆνις, mēnis, "wrath," "rage," "fury"), establishes the Iliad's principal theme: The "Wrath of Achilles".[32] His personal rage and wounded soldier's pride propel the story: the Achaeans' faltering in battle, the slayings of Patroclus and Hector, and the fall of Troy. In Book I, the Wrath of Achilles first emerges in the Achilles-convoked meeting, between the Greek kings and the seer Calchas. King Agamemnon dishonours Chryses, the Trojan priest of Apollo, by refusing with a threat the restitution of his daughter, Chryseis—despite the proffered ransom of "gifts beyond count."[33] The insulted priest prays his god's help, and a nine-day rain of divine plague arrows falls upon the Achaeans. Moreover, in that meeting, Achilles accuses Agamemnon of being "greediest for gain of all men."[34] To that, Agamemnon replies: But here is my threat to you. Even as Phoibos Apollo is taking away my Chryseis. I shall convey her back in my own ship, with my own followers; but I shall take the fair-cheeked Briseis, your prize, I myself going to your shelter, that you may learn well how much greater I am than you, and another man may shrink back from likening himself to me and contending against me.[35] After that, only Athena stays Achilles's wrath. He vows to never again obey orders from Agamemnon. Furious, Achilles cries to his mother, Thetis, who persuades Zeus's divine intervention—favouring the Trojans—until Achilles's rights are restored. Meanwhile, Hector leads the Trojans to almost pushing the Achaeans back to the sea (Book XII). Later, Agamemnon contemplates defeat and retreat to Greece (Book XIV). Again, the Wrath of Achilles turns the war's tide in seeking vengeance when Hector kills Patroclus. Aggrieved, Achilles tears his hair and dirties his face. Thetis comforts her mourning son, who tells her: So it was here that the lord of men Agamemnon angered me. Still, we will let all this be a thing of the past, and for all our sorrow beat down by force the anger deeply within us. Now I shall go, to overtake that killer of a dear life, Hektor; then I will accept my own death, at whatever time Zeus wishes to bring it about, and the other immortals.[36] Accepting the prospect of death as fair price for avenging Patroclus, he returns to battle, dooming Hector and Troy, thrice chasing him 'round the Trojan walls, before slaying him, then dragging the corpse behind his chariot, back to camp. Achilles Slays Hector, by Peter Paul Rubens (1630–35). Date and textual history[edit] Further information: Homeric question and Historicity of the Iliad The poem dates to the archaic period of Classical Antiquity. Scholarly consensus mostly places it in the 8th century BC, although some favour a 7th-century date.[citation needed] In any case, the terminus ante quem for the dating of the Iliad is 630 BC, as evidenced by reflection in art and literature.[37] Herodotus, having consulted the Oracle at Dodona, placed Homer and Hesiod at approximately 400 years before his own time, which would place them at c. 850 BC.[38] The historical backdrop of the poem is the time of the Late Bronze Age collapse, in the early 12th century BC. Homer is thus separated from his subject matter by about 400 years, the period known as the Greek Dark Ages. Intense scholarly debate has surrounded the question of which portions of the poem preserve genuine traditions from the Mycenaean period. The Catalogue of Ships in particular has the striking feature that its geography does not portray Greece in the Iron Age, the time of Homer, but as it was before the Dorian invasion. The title Ἰλιάς (Ilias; gen. Ἰλιάδος, Iliados) is an ellipsis of ἡ ποίησις Ἰλιάς, he poíesis Iliás, meaning "the Trojan poem". Ἰλιάς, 'of Troy', is the specifically feminine adjective form from Ἴλιον, 'Troy'. The masculine adjective form would be Ἰλιακός or Ἴλιος.[39] It is used by Herodotus.[40] Venetus A, copied in the 10th century AD, is the oldest fully extant manuscript of the Iliad.[41] The first edition of the "Iliad", editio princeps, edited by Demetrius Chalcondyles and published by Bernardus Nerlius, and Demetrius Damilas in Florence in 1488/89.[42] As oral tradition[edit] In antiquity, the Greeks applied the Iliad and the Odyssey as the bases of pedagogy. Literature was central to the educational-cultural function of the itinerant rhapsode, who composed consistent epic poems from memory and improvisation, and disseminated them, via song and chant, in his travels and at the Panathenaic Festival of athletics, music, poetics, and sacrifice, celebrating Athena's birthday.[43] Originally, Classical scholars treated the Iliad and the Odyssey as written poetry, and Homer as a writer. Yet, by the 1920s, Milman Parry (1902–1935) had launched a movement claiming otherwise. His investigation of the oral Homeric style—"stock epithets" and "reiteration" (words, phrases, stanzas)—established that these formulae were artifacts of oral tradition easily applied to a hexametric line. A two-word stock epithet (e.g. "resourceful Odysseus") reiteration may complement a character name by filling a half-line, thus, freeing the poet to compose a half-line of "original" formulaic text to complete his meaning.[44] In Yugoslavia, Parry and his assistant, Albert Lord (1912–1991), studied the oral-formulaic composition of Serbian oral poetry, yielding the Parry/Lord thesis that established oral tradition studies, later developed by Eric Havelock, Marshall McLuhan, Walter Ong, and Gregory Nagy. In The Singer of Tales (1960), Lord presents likenesses between the tragedies of the Achaean Patroclus, in the Iliad, and of the Sumerian Enkidu, in the Epic of Gilgamesh, and claims to refute, with "careful analysis of the repetition of thematic patterns", that the Patroclus storyline upsets Homer's established compositional formulae of "wrath, bride-stealing, and rescue"; thus, stock-phrase reiteration does not restrict his originality in fitting story to rhyme.[45] Likewise, James Armstrong (1958)[46] reports that the poem's formulae yield richer meaning because the "arming motif" diction—describing Achilles, Agamemnon, Paris, and Patroclus—serves to "heighten the importance of…an impressive moment," thus, "[reiteration] creates an atmosphere of smoothness," wherein, Homer distinguishes Patroclus from Achilles, and foreshadows the former's death with positive and negative turns of phrase.[47][46] In the Iliad, occasional syntactic inconsistency may be an oral tradition effect—for example, Aphrodite is "laughter-loving", despite being painfully wounded by Diomedes (Book V, 375); and the divine representations may mix Mycenaean and Greek Dark Age (c. 1150–800 BC) mythologies, parallelling the hereditary basileis nobles (lower social rank rulers) with minor deities, such as Scamander, et al.[48] Today[edit] In modern Greece children are educated by Iliad and Odyssey at school, as specific mandatory lessons. Through these, they learn mythology, history, ancient customs and ethics of their homeland and they analyze the poetry of Homer.[citation needed] Depiction of warfare[edit] Depiction of infantry combat[edit] Despite Mycenae and Troy being maritime powers, the Iliad features no sea battles.[49] So, the Trojan shipwright (of the ship that transported Helen to Troy), Phereclus, fights afoot, as an infantryman.[50] The battle dress and armour of hero and soldier are well-described. They enter battle in chariots, launching javelins into the enemy formations, then dismount—for hand-to-hand combat with yet more javelin throwing, rock throwing, and if necessary hand to hand sword and a shoulder-borne hoplon (shield) fighting.[51] Ajax the Greater, son of Telamon, sports a large, rectangular shield (σάκος, sakos) with which he protects himself and Teucer, his brother: Ninth came Teucer, stretching his curved bow. He stood beneath the shield of Ajax, son of Telamon. As Ajax cautiously pulled his shield aside, Teucer would peer out quickly, shoot off an arrow, hit someone in the crowd, dropping that soldier right where he stood, ending his life—then he'd duck back, crouching down by Ajax, like a child beside its mother. Ajax would then conceal him with his shining shield.[52] Ajax's cumbersome shield is more suitable for defence than for offence, while his cousin, Achilles, sports a large, rounded, octagonal shield that he successfully deploys along with his spear against the Trojans: Just as a man constructs a wall for some high house, using well-fitted stones to keep out forceful winds, that's how close their helmets and bossed shields lined up, shield pressing against shield, helmet against helmet man against man. On the bright ridges of the helmets, horsehair plumes touched when warriors moved their heads. That's how close they were to one another.[53] In describing infantry combat, Homer names the phalanx formation,[54] but most scholars do not believe the historical Trojan War was so fought.[55] In the Bronze Age, the chariot was the main battle transport-weapon (e.g. the Battle of Kadesh). The available evidence, from the Dendra armour and the Pylos Palace paintings, indicate the Mycenaeans used two-man chariots, with a long-spear-armed principal rider, unlike the three-man Hittite chariots with short-spear-armed riders, and unlike the arrow-armed Egyptian and Assyrian two-man chariots. Nestor spearheads his troops with chariots; he advises them: In your eagerness to engage the Trojans, don't any of you charge ahead of others, trusting in your strength and horsemanship. And don't lag behind. That will hurt our charge. Any man whose chariot confronts an enemy's should thrust with his spear at him from there. That's the most effective tactic, the way men wiped out city strongholds long ago — their chests full of that style and spirit.[56] Although Homer's depictions are graphic, it can be seen in the very end that victory in war is a far more somber occasion, where all that is lost becomes apparent. On the other hand, the funeral games are lively, for the dead man's life is celebrated. This overall depiction of war runs contrary to many other[citation needed] ancient Greek depictions, where war is an aspiration for greater glory. Modern reconstructions of armor, weapons and styles[edit] Few modern (archeologically, historically and Homerically accurate) reconstructions of arms, armor and motifs as described by Homer exist. Some historical reconstructions have been done by Salimbeti et al. [57] Influence on classical Greek warfare[edit] While the Homeric poems (particularly, the Iliad) were not necessarily revered scripture of the ancient Greeks, they were most certainly seen as guides that were important to the intellectual understanding of any educated Greek citizen. This is evidenced by the fact that in the late fifth century BC, "it was the sign of a man of standing to be able to recite the Iliad and Odyssey by heart."[58]:36 Moreover, it can be argued that the warfare shown in the Iliad, and the way in which it was depicted, had a profound and very traceable effect on Greek warfare in general. In particular, the effect of epic literature can be broken down into three categories: tactics, ideology, and the mindset of commanders. In order to discern these effects, it is necessary to take a look at a few examples from each of these categories. Much of the detailed fighting in the Iliad is done by the heroes in an orderly, one-on-one fashion. Much like the Odyssey, there is even a set ritual which must be observed in each of these conflicts. For example, a major hero may encounter a lesser hero from the opposing side, in which case the minor hero is introduced, threats may be exchanged, and then the minor hero is slain. The victor often strips the body of its armor and military accoutrements.[58]:22–3 Here is an example of this ritual and this type of one-on-one combat in the Iliad: There Telamonian Ajax struck down the son of Anthemion, Simoeisios in his stripling's beauty, whom once his mother descending from Ida bore beside the banks of Simoeis when she had followed her father and mother to tend the sheepflocks. Therefore they called him Simoeisios; but he could not render again the care of his dear parents; he was short-lived, beaten down beneath the spear of high-hearted Ajax, who struck him as he first came forward beside the nipple of the right breast, and the bronze spearhead drove clean through the shoulder.[59] The biggest issue in reconciling the connection between the epic fighting of the Iliad and later Greek warfare is the phalanx, or hoplite, warfare seen in Greek history well after Homer's Iliad. While there are discussions of soldiers arrayed in semblances of the phalanx throughout the Iliad, the focus of the poem on the heroic fighting, as mentioned above, would seem to contradict the tactics of the phalanx. However, the phalanx did have its heroic aspects. The masculine one-on-one fighting of epic is manifested in phalanx fighting on the emphasis of holding one's position in formation. This replaces the singular heroic competition found in the Iliad.[58]:51 One example of this is the Spartan tale of 300 picked men fighting against 300 picked Argives. In this battle of champions, only two men are left standing for the Argives and one for the Spartans. Othryades, the remaining Spartan, goes back to stand in his formation with mortal wounds while the remaining two Argives go back to Argos to report their victory. Thus, the Spartans claimed this as a victory, as their last man displayed the ultimate feat of bravery by maintaining his position in the phalanx.[60] In terms of the ideology of commanders in later Greek history, the Iliad has an interesting effect. The Iliad expresses a definite disdain for tactical trickery, when Hector says, before he challenges the great Ajax: I know how to storm my way into the struggle of flying horses; I know how to tread the measures on the grim floor of the war god. Yet great as you are I would not strike you by stealth, watching for my chance, but openly, so, if perhaps I might hit you.[61] However, despite examples of disdain for this tactical trickery, there is reason to believe that the Iliad, as well as later Greek warfare, endorsed tactical genius on the part of their commanders. For example, there are multiple passages in the Iliad with commanders such as Agamemnon or Nestor discussing the arraying of troops so as to gain an advantage. Indeed, the Trojan War is won by a notorious example of Achaean guile in the Trojan Horse. This is even later referred to by Homer in the Odyssey. The connection, in this case, between guileful tactics of the Achaeans and theTrojans in the Iliad and those of the later Greeks is not a difficult one to find. Spartan commanders, often seen as the pinnacle of Greek military prowess, were known for their tactical trickery, and, for them, this was a feat to be desired in a commander. Indeed, this type of leadership was the standard advice of Greek tactical writers.[58]:240 Ultimately, while Homeric (or epic) fighting is certainly not completely replicated in later Greek warfare, many of its ideals, tactics, and instruction are.[58] Hans van Wees argues that the period that the descriptions of warfare relate can be pinned down fairly specifically—to the first half of the 7th century BC.[62] Influence on arts and pop culture[edit] Main article: Trojan War in popular culture The Iliad was a standard work of great importance already in Classical Greece and remained so throughout the Hellenistic and Byzantine periods. Subjects from the Trojan War were a favourite among ancient Greek dramatists. Aeschylus' trilogy, the Oresteia, comprising Agamemnon, The Libation Bearers, and The Eumenides, follows the story of Agamemnon after his return from the war. Homer also came to be of great influence in European culture with the resurgence of interest in Greek antiquity during the Renaissance, and it remains the first and most influential work of the Western canon. In its full form the text made its return to Italy and Western Europe beginning in the 15th century, primarily through translations into Latin and the vernacular languages. Prior to this reintroduction, however, a shortened Latin version of the poem, known as the Ilias Latina, was very widely studied and read as a basic school text. The West tended to view Homer as unreliable as they believed they possessed much more down to earth and realistic eyewitness accounts of the Trojan War written by Dares and Dictys Cretensis, who were supposedly present at the events. These late antique forged accounts formed the basis of several eminently popular medieval chivalric romances, most notably those of Benoît de Sainte-Maure and Guido delle Colonne. These in turn spawned many others in various European languages, such as the first printed English book, the 1473 Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye. Other accounts read in the Middle Ages were antique Latin retellings such as the Excidium Troiae and works in the vernaculars such as the Icelandic Troy Saga. Even without Homer, the Trojan War story had remained central to Western European medieval literary culture and its sense of identity. Most nations and several royal houses traced their origins to heroes at the Trojan War. Britain was supposedly settled by the Trojan Brutus, for instance.[citation needed] William Shakespeare used the plot of the Iliad as source material for his play Troilus and Cressida, but focused on a medieval legend, the love story of Troilus, son of King Priam of Troy, and Cressida, daughter of the Trojan soothsayer Calchas. The play, often considered to be a comedy, reverses traditional views on events of the Trojan War and depicts Achilles as a coward, Ajax as a dull, unthinking mercenary, etc. William Theed the elder made an impressive bronze statue of Thetis as she brought Achilles his new armor forged by Hephaesthus. It has been on display in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City since 2013. Robert Browning's poem Development discusses his childhood introduction to the matter of the Iliad and his delight in the epic, as well as contemporary debates about its authorship. According to Suleyman al-Boustani, a 19th-century poet who made the first Arabic translation of the Iliad to Arabic, the epic may have been widely circulated in Syriac and Pahlavi translations during the early Middle Ages. Al-Boustani credits Theophilus of Edessa with the Syriac translation, which was supposedly (along with the Greek original) widely read or heard by the scholars of Baghdad in the prime of the Abbasid Caliphate, although those scholars never took the effort to translate it to the official language of the empire; Arabic. The Iliad was also the first full epic poem to be translated to Arabic from a foreign language, upon the publication of Al-Boustani's complete work in 1904.[63] 20th-century arts[edit] Simone Weil wrote the essay "The Iliad or the Poem of Force" in 1939, shortly after the commencement of World War II. The essay describes how the Iliad demonstrates the way force, exercised to the extreme in war, reduces both victim and aggressor to the level of the slave and the unthinking automaton.[64] The 1954 Broadway musical The Golden Apple, by librettist John Treville Latouche and composer Jerome Moross, was freely adapted from the Iliad and the Odyssey, re-setting the action to America's Washington state in the years after the Spanish–American War, with events inspired by the Iliad in Act One and events inspired by the Odyssey in Act Two. Christopher Logue's poem War Music, an "account", not a translation, of the Iliad, was begun in 1959 as a commission for radio. He continued working on it until his death in 2011. Described by Tom Holland as "one of the most remarkable works of post-war literature", it has been an influence on Kae Tempest and Alice Oswald, who says that it "unleashes a forgotten kind of theatrical energy into the world."[65] Christa Wolf's novel Cassandra (1983) is a critical engagement with the Iliad. Wolf's narrator is Cassandra, whose thoughts we hear at the moment just before her murder by Clytemnestra in Sparta. Wolf's narrator presents a feminist's view of the war, and of war in general. Cassandra's story is accompanied by four essays which Wolf delivered as the Frankfurter Poetik-Vorlesungen. The essays present Wolf's concerns as a writer and rewriter of this canonical story and show the genesis of the novel through Wolf's own readings and in a trip she took to Greece. David Melnick's Men in Aida (cf. μῆνιν ἄειδε) (1983) is a postmodern homophonic translation of Book One into a farcical bathhouse scenario, preserving the sounds but not the meaning of the original. Marion Zimmer Bradley's 1987 novel The Firebrand retells the story from the point of view of Kassandra, a princess of Troy and a prophetess who is cursed by Apollo. Contemporary popular culture[edit] Eric Shanower's Image Comics series Age of Bronze, which began in 1998, retells the legend of the Trojan War.[66][67][68] Dan Simmons' epic science fiction adaptation/tribute Ilium was released in 2003, receiving a Locus Award for best science fiction novel of 2003.[citation needed] Troy (2004), a loose film adaptation of the Iliad, received mixed reviews but was a commercial success, particularly in international sales. It grossed $133 million in the United States and $497 million worldwide, making it the 188th top-grossing movie of all time.[69] Madeline Miller's 2011 debut novel The Song of Achilles[70] tells the story of Achilles' and Patroclus' life together as children, lovers, and soldiers. The novel, which won the 2012 Women's Prize for Fiction, draws on the Iliad as well as the works of other classical authors such as Statius, Ovid, and Virgil.[71] Alice Oswald's sixth collection, Memorial (2011),[72] is based on but departs from the narrative form of the Iliad to focus on, and so commemorate, the individually-named characters whose deaths are mentioned in that poem.[73][74][75] Later in October 2011, Memorial was shortlisted for the T. S. Eliot Prize,[76] but in December 2011, Oswald withdrew the book from the shortlist,[77][78] citing concerns about the ethics of the prize's sponsors.[79] The Rage of Achilles, by American author and Yale Writers' Conference founder Terence Hawkins, recounts the Iliad as a novel in modern, sometimes graphic language. Informed by Julian Jaynes' theory of the bicameral mind and the historicity of the Trojan War, it depicts its characters as real men to whom the gods appear only as hallucinations or command voices during the sudden and painful transition to truly modern consciousness.[citation needed] English translations[edit] Wenceslas Hollar's engraved title page of a 1660 edition of the Iliad, translated by John Ogilby. Further information: English translations of Homer Sampling of translations and editions of Iliad in English George Chapman published his translation of the Iliad, in installments, beginning in 1598, published in "fourteeners", a long-line ballad metre that "has room for all of Homer's figures of speech and plenty of new ones, as well as explanations in parentheses. At its best, as in Achilles' rejection of the embassy in Iliad Nine; it has great rhetorical power."[80]:351 It quickly established itself as a classic in English poetry. In the preface to his own translation, Pope praises "the daring fiery spirit" of Chapman's rendering, which is "something like what one might imagine Homer, himself, would have writ before he arrived at years of discretion." John Keats praised Chapman in the sonnet On First Looking into Chapman's Homer (1816). John Ogilby's mid-seventeenth-century translation is among the early annotated editions; Alexander Pope's 1715 translation, in heroic couplet, is "The classic translation that was built on all the preceding versions,"[80]:352 and, like Chapman's, it is a major poetic work in its own right. William Cowper's Miltonic, blank verse 1791 edition is highly regarded for its greater fidelity to the Greek than either the Chapman or the Pope versions: "I have omitted nothing; I have invented nothing," Cowper says in prefacing his translation. In the lectures On Translating Homer (1861), Matthew Arnold addresses the matters of translation and interpretation in rendering the Iliad to English; commenting upon the versions contemporarily available in 1861, he identifies the four essential poetic qualities of Homer to which the translator must do justice: [i] that he is eminently rapid; [ii] that he is eminently plain and direct, both in the evolution of his thought and in the expression of it, that is, both in his syntax and in his words; [iii] that he is eminently plain and direct in the substance of his thought, that is, in his matter and ideas; and, finally, [iv] that he is eminently noble. After a discussion of the metres employed by previous translators, Arnold argues for a poetical dialect hexameter translation of the Iliad, like the original. "Laborious as this meter was, there were at least half a dozen attempts to translate the entire Iliad or Odyssey in hexameters; the last in 1945. Perhaps the most fluent of them was by J. Henry Dart [1862] in response to Arnold."[80]:354 In 1870, the American poet William Cullen Bryant published a blank verse version, that Van Wyck Brooks describes as "simple, faithful." An 1898 translation by Samuel Butler was published by Longmans. Butler had read Classics at Cambridge University, graduating during 1859.[81] Since 1950, there have been several English translations. Richmond Lattimore's version (1951) is "a free six-beat" line-for-line rendering that explicitly eschews "poetical dialect" for "the plain English of today." It is literal, unlike older verse renderings. Robert Fitzgerald's version (Oxford World's Classics, 1974) strives to situate the Iliad in the musical forms of English poetry. His forceful version is freer, with shorter lines that increase the sense of swiftness and energy. Robert Fagles (Penguin Classics, 1990) and Stanley Lombardo (1997) are bolder than Lattimore in adding dramatic significance to Homer's conventional and formulaic language. Rodney Merrill's translation (University of Michigan Press, 2007) not only renders the work in English verse like the dactylic hexameter of the original, but also conveys the oral-formulaic nature of the epic song, to which that musical meter gives full value. Barry B. Powell's translation (Oxford University Press, 2014) renders the Homeric Greek with a simplicity and dignity reminiscent of the original. Caroline Alexander published the first full-length English translation by a woman in 2015.[82] Manuscripts[edit] There are more than 2000 manuscripts of Homer.[83][84] Some of the most notable manuscripts include: Rom. Bibl. Nat. gr. 6 + Matriti. Bibl. Nat. 4626 from 870–890 AD Venetus A = Venetus Marc. 822 from the 10th century Venetus B = Venetus Marc. 821 from the 11th century Ambrosian Iliad Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 20 Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 21 Codex Nitriensis (palimpsest) See also[edit]  Ancient Greece portal  Religion portal Mask of Agamemnon Parallels between Virgil's Aeneid and Homer's Iliad and Odyssey Heinrich Schliemann References[edit] Notes[edit] ^ Aeschylus does portray it so in Fragment 134a. ^ Frobish (2003:24) writes that the war "starts with his pride and immaturity, yet is finished with his skill and bravery on the battlefield.” Citations[edit] ^ "Iliad". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary. ^ Vidal-Naquet, Pierre. Le monde d'Homère (The World of Homer), Perrin (2000), p. 19 ^ Homer. The Iliad. New York: Norton Books. p. 115. ^ Lattimore, Richmond (2011). The Iliad of Homer. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Book 1, line 155, p. 79. ISBN 978-0-226-47049-8. ^ Hornblower, S. and A. Spawforth (1998). The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization. pp. 3, 347, 352. ^ Homer, Iliad (3:38, 7:89) ^ a b Mikalson, Jon (1991). Honor Thy Gods: Popular Religion in Greek Tragedy. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ^ Homer's Iliad, Classical Technology Center. ^ a b Lefkowitz, Mary (2003). Greek Gods, Human Lives: What We Can Learn From Myths. New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press. ^ Taplin, Oliver (2003). "Bring Back the Gods." The New York Times (14 December). ^ Lawson, John (2012). Modern Greek Folklore and Ancient Greek Religion:A Study in Survivals. Cambridge University Press. p. 2. ^ Adkins, A. W. H.; Pollard, John R. T. (Mar 2, 2020) [1998]. "Greek religion". Encyclopædia Britannica. ^ a b Jaynes, Julian. (1976) The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind. p. 221 ^ a b c Kullmann, Wolfgang (1985). "Gods and Men in the Iliad and the Odyssey". Harvard Studies in Classical Philology. 89: 1–23. doi:10.2307/311265. JSTOR 311265. ^ a b Homer (1998). The Iliad. Translated by Fagles, Robert; Knox, Bernard. New York: Penguin Books. p. 589. ^ Fate as presented in Homer's "The Iliad", Everything2 ^ Dunkle, Roger (1986). "ILIAD," in The Classical Origins of Western Culture, The Core Studies 1 Study Guide. Brooklyn College. Archived from the original December 5, 2007. ^ Homer, Iliad 16.849–54 (Lattimore 1951). ^ Homer. The Iliad. 16.433–34 (Lattimore 1951). ^ Homer. The Iliad 16.440–43 (Lattimore 1951). ^ Homer. The Iliad 22.178–81 (Lattimore 1951). ^ Homer. The Iliad 20.300–04 (Lattimore 1951). ^ "The Concept of the Hero in Greek Civilization". Athome.harvard.edu. Archived from the original on 2010-04-21. Retrieved 2010-04-18. ^ "Heroes and the Homeric Iliad". Uh.edu. Retrieved 2010-04-18. ^ a b Volk, Katharina. "ΚΛΕΟΣ ΑΦΘΙΤΟΝ Revisited". Classical Philology, Vol. 97, No. 1 (Jan., 2002), pp. 61–68. ^ 9.410–416 ^ Homer. The Iliad (Lattimore 1951). ^ II.46, V.724, XIII.22, XIV.238, XVIII.370 ^ 2.155, 2.251, 9.413, 9.434, 9.622, 10.509, 16.82 ^ Frobish, T.S. (2003). “An Origin of a Theory: A Comparison of Ethos in the Homeric Iliad with That Found in Aristotle’s Rhetoric.” Rhetoric 22(1):16-30. ^ Thompson, Diane P. “Achilles’ Wrath and the Plan of Zeus.” ^ Rouse, W.H.D. (1938). The Iliad. p. 11. ^ Homer, Iliad 1.13 (Lattimore 1951). ^ Homer, Iliad 1.122 (Lattimore 1951). ^ Homer, Iliad 1.181–87 (Lattimore 1951). ^ Homer, Iliad 18.111–16 (Lattimore 1951). ^ West, M. L. (1999). "The Invention of Homer". The Classical Quarterly. 49 (2): 364–382. doi:10.1093/cq/49.2.364. ISSN 0009-8388. JSTOR 639863. ^ Herodotus (de Sélincourt 1954), p. 41. ^ Ἰλιάς, Ἰλιακός, Ἴλιος. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project ^ Hist. 2.116 ^ Blackwell, Amy Hackney (2007). "Robot Scans Ancient Manuscript in 3-D." Wired.[unreliable source?] ^ "Homerus, [Τὰ σωζόμενα]". Onassis Library. Retrieved 2017-09-03. ^ The Columbia Encyclopedia (5 ed.) (1994). p. 173. ^ Porter, John. The Iliad as Oral Formulaic Poetry (8 May 2006) University of Saskatchewan. Retrieved 26 November 2007. ^ Lord, Albert (1960). The Singer of Tales. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. p. 190, 195. ^ a b Armstrong, James I. (1958). "The Arming Motif in the Iliad." American Journal of Philology 79(4):337–54. ^ Iliad, Book XVI, 130–54 ^ Toohey, Peter (1992). Reading Epic: An Introduction to the Ancient Narrative. New Fetter Lane, London: Routledge. ^ Iliad 3.45–50 ^ Iliad 59–65 ^ Keegan, John (1993). A History of Warfare. p. 248. ^ Homer, Iliad 8.267–72, translated by Ian Johnston. ^ Homer, Iliad 16.213–17 (translated by Ian Johnston). ^ Iliad 6.6 ^ Cahill, Tomas (2003). Sailing the Wine Dark Sea: Why the Greeks Matter. ^ Homer, Iliad 4.301–09 (translated by Ian Johnston). ^ http://www.salimbeti.com/micenei/armour5.htm ^ a b c d e Lendon, J.E. (2005). Soldiers and Ghosts: A History of Battle in Classical Antiquity. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ^ Homer, Iliad 4.473–83 (Lattimore 2011). ^ 5.17 ^ Homer, Iliad 7.237–43 (Lattimore 2011) ^ Van Wees, Hans. Greek Warfare: Myth and Realities. p. 249. ^ Al-Boustani, Suleyman (2012). الإلياذة (Iliad). Cairo, Egypt: Hindawi. pp. 26–27. ISBN 978-977-719-184-5. ^ Bruce B. Lawrence and Aisha Karim (2008). On Violence: A Reader. Duke University Press. p. 377. ISBN 978-0-8223-3769-0. ^ Logue, Christopher (2015). "Introduction by Christopher Reid". War Music, an account of Homer's Iliad. Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-31449-2. ^ A Thousand Ships (2001, ISBN 1-58240-200-0) ^ Sacrifice (2004, ISBN 1-58240-360-0) ^ Betrayal, Part One (2008, ISBN 978-1-58240-845-3) ^ "All Time Worldwide Box Office Grosses". Box Office Mojo. ^ Miller, Madeline. (2011). The song of Achilles. London: Bloomsbury Pub Ltd. ISBN 978-1-4088-1603-5. OCLC 740635377. ^ Ciabattari, Jane (March 21, 2012). "Madeline Miller Discusses 'The Song of Achilles'". The Daily Beast. Retrieved June 1, 2012. ^ Oswald, Alice (2011). Memorial: An Excavation of the Iliad. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-27416-1. Archived from the original on 2012-06-06. ^ Holland, Tom (17 October 2011). "The Song of Achilles by Madeline Miller / Memorial by Alice Oswald. Surfing the rip tide of all things Homeric". The New Statesman. London: New Statesman. Retrieved 1 June 2012. ^ Kellaway, Kate (2 October 2011). "Memorial by Alice Oswald – review". The Observer. London: Guardian News and Media Limited. Retrieved 1 June 2012. ^ Higgins, Charlotte (28 October 2011). "The Song of Achilles by Madeline Miller, and more – review". The Guardian. London: Guardian News and Media Limited. Retrieved 1 June 2012. ^ Flood, Alison (20 October 2011). "TS Eliot prize 2011 shortlist revealed". The Guardian. London: Guardian News and Media Limited. Retrieved 1 June 2012. ^ Waters, Florence (6 December 2011). "Poet withdraws from TS Eliot prize over sponsorship". The Telegraph. London: Telegraph Media Group Limited. Retrieved 2012-02-13. ^ Flood, Alison (6 December 2011). "Alice Oswald withdraws from TS Eliot prize in protest at sponsor Aurum". The Guardian. London: Guardian News and Media Limited. Retrieved 2012-02-13. ^ Oswald, Alice (12 December 2011). "Why I pulled out of the TS Eliot poetry prize". The Guardian. London: Guardian News and Media Limited. Retrieved 2012-02-13. ^ a b c The Oxford Guide to English Literature in Translation. ^ St John's College – The Iliad (1898) Cambridge University [Retrieved 2016-06-16] ^ Wolff, Karl. "The Iliad: A New Translation by Caroline Alexander." New York Journal of Books. ^ OCLC 722287142 ^ Bird, Graeme D. (2010). Multitextuality in the Homeric Iliad: The Witness of the Ptolemaic Papyr. Washington, D.C.: Center for Hellenic Studies. ISBN 978-0-674-05323-6. Bibliography[edit] Budimir, Milan (1940). On the Iliad and Its Poet. Herodotus (1975) [first published 1954]. Burn, A. R.; de Sélincourt, Aubrey (eds.). The Histories. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-051260-8. Lattimore, Richmond, trans. (1951), The Iliad by Homer, Chicago: University of Chicago Press Mueller, Martin (1984). The Iliad. London: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 0-04-800027-2. Nagy, Gregory (1979). The Best of the Achaeans. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-2388-9. Powell, Barry B. (2004). Homer. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-5325-6. Seaford, Richard (1994). Reciprocity and Ritual. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-815036-9. West, Martin (1997). The East Face of Helicon. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-815221-3. Fox, Robin Lane (2008). Travelling Heroes: Greeks and their myths in the epic age of Homer. Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0-7139-9980-8. Further reading[edit] De Jong, Irene (2012). Iliad. Book XXII, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521709774 Edwards, Mark W.; Janko, Richard; Kirk, G.S., The Iliad: A Commentary: Volume IV, Books 13–16, Cambridge University Press, 1992. ISBN 0-521-28171-7 Edwards, Mark W.; Kirk, G.S., The Iliad: A Commentary: Volume V, Books 17–20, Cambridge University Press, 1991. ISBN 0-521-30959-X Graziosi, Barbara; Haubold, Johannes, Iliad: Book VI, Cambridge University Press, 2010. ISBN 9780521878845 Hainsworth, Bryan; Kirk, G.S., The Iliad: A Commentary: Volume III, Books 9–12, Cambridge University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-521-23711-4] Kirk, G.S., The Iliad: A Commentary: Volume I, Books 1–4, Cambridge University Press, 1985. ISBN 0-521-23709-2 Kirk, G.S., The Iliad: A Commentary: Volume II, Books 5–8, Cambridge University Press, 1990. ISBN 0-521-23710-6 Murray, A.T.; Wyatt, William F., Homer: The Iliad, Books I–XII, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 1999, ISBN 978-0-674-99579-6 Richardson, Nicholas; Kirk, G.S., The Iliad: A Commentary: Volume VI, Books 21–24, Cambridge University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-521-30960-3 West, Martin L., Studies in the text and transmission of the Iliad, München : K.G. Saur, 2001. ISBN 3-598-73005-5 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Iliad. Wikisource has original text related to this article: The Iliad Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Ἰλιάς Library resources about Iliad Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries D. B. Monro, Homer: Iliad, Books I–XII, with an Introduction, a Brief Homeric Grammar, and Notes (3rd ed., 1890) D. B. Monro, Homer: Iliad, Books XIII–XXIV, with Notes (4th ed., 1903) D. B. Monro, A Grammar of the Homeric Dialect (2nd ed., 1891) Iliad : from the Perseus Project (PP), with the Murray and Butler translations and hyperlinks to mythological and grammatical commentary Gods, Achaeans and Troyans. An interactive visualization of The Iliad's characters flow and relations. The Iliad: A Study Guide Comments on background, plot, themes, authorship, and translation issues by 2008 translator Herbert Jordan. Flaxman illustrations of the Iliad The Iliad study guide, themes, quotes, teacher resources The Iliad, trans. by William Cullen Bryant at Standard Ebooks The Iliad of Homer, by George Chapman, at Project Gutenberg The Iliad of Homer, by Alexander Pope, at Project Gutenberg The Iliad of Homer, by William Cowper, at Project Gutenberg The Iliad of Homer, by Theodore Alois Buckley, at Project Gutenberg The Iliad of Homer, by Edward, Earl of Derby, at Project Gutenberg The Iliad of Homer, by Andrew Lang, Walter Leaf and Ernest Meyers, at Project Gutenberg The Iliad of Homer, by Samuel Butler, at Project Gutenberg The Opening to the Iliad (Proem), Read in Ancient Greek with a simultaneous translation. The Iliad Map, map of locations in The Iliad Published English translations of Homer, with samples and some reviews by translator and scholar Ian Johnston Digital facsimile of the first printed publication (editio princeps) of the Iliad in Homeric Greek by Demetrios Chalkokondyles, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek The Iliad public domain audiobook at LibriVox v t e Epic Cycle Cypria Iliad Aethiopis Little Iliad Iliupersis Nostoi Odyssey Telegony v t e Works related to Homer in antiquity Attributed to Homer Batrachomyomachia Cercopes Cypria Epigrams (Kiln) Epigoni Homeric Hymns Iliad Little Iliad Margites Nostoi Odyssey Capture of Oechalia Phocais Thebaid About Homer Ancient accounts of Homer Contest of Homer and Hesiod Life of Homer (Pseudo-Herodotus) v t e Kings of Thebes Kings Calydnus Ogyges Cadmus Pentheus Polydorus Nycteus (regent for Labdacus) and Lycus I (regent for Labdacus) Labdacus Lycus I (regent for Laius) Laius Amphion and Zethus Laius (second rule) Creon Oedipus Creon (second rule) (regent for Eteocles and Polynices) Polynices and Eteocles Creon (third rule) (regent for Laodamas) Lycus II (usurper) Laodamas Thersander Peneleos (regent for Tisamenus) Tisamenus Autesion Damasichthon Ptolemy Xanthos In literature Antigone Antigone (Euripides play) The Bacchae Herakles Iliad Oedipus Oedipus at Colonus Oedipus Rex The Phoenician Women Seven Against Thebes The Thebans Related articles Thebes Necklace of Harmonia Book:Theban Kings Category:Theban kings Portal:Ancient Greece v t e Homer's Iliad (8th century BC) Characters Achaeans Acamas Achilles Agamemnon (king of Mycenae) Agapenor Ajax the Greater (king of Salamis) Ajax the Lesser Alcimus Anticlus Antilochus Arcesilaus Ascalaphus Automedon Balius and Xanthus Bias Calchas (prophet) Diomedes (king of Argos) Elephenor Epeius Eudoros Euryalus Eurybates Eurydamas Eurypylus Guneus Helen (queen of Sparta) Ialmenus Idomeneus (king of Crete) Iphigenia (princess of Mycenae) Leitus Leonteus Lycomedes Machaon Medon Meges Menelaus (king of Sparta) Menestheus Meriones Neoptolemus Nestor (king of Pylos) Nireus Odysseus (king of Ithaca) Palamedes Patroclus Peneleos Philoctetes Phoenix Podalirius Podarces Polites Polypoetes Promachus Protesilaus Prothoenor Schedius Sinon Stentor Sthenelus Talthybius Teucer Thersites Thoas Thrasymedes Tlepolemus Trojans Aeneas (royal demigod) Aesepus Agenor Alcathous Amphimachus Anchises Andromache Antenor (king's brother-in-law) Antiphates Antiphus Archelochus Asius Asteropaios Astyanax Atymnius Axylus Briseis Calesius Caletor Cassandra (princess of Troy) Chryseis Chryses (priest of Apollo) Clytius Coön Dares Phrygius Deiphobus (prince of Troy) Dolon Epistrophus Euphemus Euphorbus Glaucus Gorgythion Hector (prince of Troy) Hecuba (queen of Troy) Helenus Hyperenor Hypsenor Ilioneus Imbrius Iphidamas Kebriones Laocoön Lycaon (prince of Troy) Melanippus Mentes Mydon Mygdon of Phrygia Othryoneus Pandarus Panthous Paris (prince of Troy) Pedasus Peirous Phorcys Polites Polydamas Polybus Polydorus (prince of Troy) Polyxena (princess of Troy) Priam (king of Troy) Pylaemenes Pylaeus Pyraechmes Rhesus of Thrace Sarpedon (king of Lycia) Theano Ucalegon Major deities Aphrodite Apollo Ares Artemis Athena Hades Hephaestus Hera Hermes Poseidon Zeus Minor deities Deimos Eris Iris Leto Phobos Proteus Scamander Thetis Sections Catalogue of Ships Deception of Zeus Trojan Battle Order Study Homeric scholarship Homeric Question Chorizontes Historicity of the Homeric epics "The Iliad or the Poem of Force" (1939 essay) Milawata letter Rediscovering Homer Dactylic hexameter Parallels between Virgil's Aeneid and Homer's Iliad and Odyssey Manuscripts Ambrosian Iliad Codex Nitriensis Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 20 Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 21 Uncial 098 Venetus A Venetus B Alternate versions Ilias Latina (60–70 CE) Dictys Cretensis Ephemeridos belli Trojani (4th century ?) 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en-wikipedia-org-6104	----	Fiction set in ancient Rome - Wikipedia Fiction set in ancient Rome From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Contents 1 Historical novels arranged by the period of their setting 1.1 Rome as a Kingdom 1.2 Early Republic (before 264 BC) 1.3 Middle Republic (264–133 BC) 1.4 Late Republic (after 132 BC) 1.5 Early/High Empire (27 BC to AD 192) 1.5.1 The Julio-Claudian Dynasty 1.5.2 The Flavian Dynasty 1.5.3 The Nervan-Antonian (Ulpio-Aelia) Dynasty 1.6 Middle Empire (AD 193–293) 1.7 Late Empire: West (AD 293–457) 1.8 Byzantine Empire (AD 457–1453) 2 Unknown period 3 Detective fiction 4 Science fiction/time travel novels 4.1 Alternate history 5 Comic books 6 Movies 7 Plays 8 Television 9 Video games 10 Works inspired by Roman history, or by works of fiction and non-fiction about Rome 10.1 Science fiction 10.2 Comic books 11 See also 12 References 13 External links Historical novels arranged by the period of their setting[edit] Rome as a Kingdom[edit] If you know of works set in the pre-Republican era, please expand this section. Founding Fathers (1959) by Alfred Duggan. Originally titled Children of the Wolf, this novel tells the story of King Romulus and the founding of Rome through the eyes of a variety of characters who come to the new city. Roma (2007) by Steven Saylor. According to the author's website, the book covers part of Rome's early history.[1] The Seven Kings of Rome series: The Arms of Quirinus (2005), The Scent of Hyacinth (2005), The Warrior's Dance (2008) by Sherrie Seibert Goff Early Republic (before 264 BC)[edit] If you know of works set in the Early Republic, please expand this section. Roma, published March 6, 2007, by Steven Saylor. According to the author's website, the book covers part of Rome's early history.[1] The Wedding Shroud, published September 2010 by Elisabeth Storrs. This book is set on the cusp of the 5th and 4th centuries BC, about a Roman girl married to an Etruscan man in the events leading up to the war between Rome and Veii. The great Roman general Marcus Furius Camillus is featured. The Etruscan by Mika Waltari. Part of the story is set on the first few years of the Republic. Traitors’ Legion (Ace G-532,1963) by Jay Scotland, a swashbucker about a disgraced legion, set in Hannibal's time. Middle Republic (264–133 BC)[edit] If you know of works set in the Middle Republic, please expand this section. Roma, published March 6, 2007, by Steven Saylor. According to the author's website, the book covers part of Rome's Republican history.[1] Scipio: A Novel, published March 1998 by Ross Leckie (Scottish writer). This is the second book in a loose trilogy about the Second Punic War. Scipio trilogy by Santiago Posteguillo (the Punic Wars general Publius Cornelius Scipio) Africanus, el hijo del cónsul Las legiones malditas La traición de Roma Of Merchants & Heroes, published 2008 by Paul Waters. Set at the end of the 3rd century BC, about the life of a fictional Roman called Marcus. In the novel Marcus becomes involved in the war against Philip V of Macedon, which was led by Titus Quinctius Flamininus, who later became Consul and is a major character in the story. "The Shield of Rome", published 2011 by William Kelso. 216 BC. The novel is set during "Rome's finest hour" after the battle of Cannae when Hannibal threatens the very existence of the Republic. "The Fortune of Carthage", published 2012 by William Kelso. 207 BC. The novel is set during the 2nd Punic War and covers Hasdrubal Barca's attempt to link up with the Carthaginian army of his brother Hannibal. Numancia by José Luis Corral (2nd century BC, Numantia) Late Republic (after 132 BC)[edit] Viriato by João Aguiar (late 2nd, early 1st century BC, Viriathus) Alberix the Celt, books 1 and 2 (2014-2015) by Albert Noyer, as Julius Caesar's territory is threatened, he invades Gaul. Attracted to Roman institutions, Alberix survives the war and is elected a magistrate. Covers the years 59 B.C. to 43 B.C. The Bow of Heaven (2011) by Andrew Levkoff, a novel of events leading up to the battle of Carrhae, and the triumvir responsible for one of the greatest defeats suffered by Republican Rome, Marcus Licinius Crassus Young Caesar (1958) by Rex Warner Imperium and Lustrum (novel) by Robert Harris, the first two volumes of a trilogy of fictionalized biography told by his slave, later freedman, Tiro depicting Cicero's rise to the consulship in 63 BC and subsequent role in the final days of the Republic. A Pillar of Iron (1965) by Taylor Caldwell, a fictionalized biography of Cicero. Imperial Caesar (1960) also by Rex Warner The Ides of March (1948) by Thornton Wilder, culminating in Caesar's assassination. The Key (1988), The Door in the Wall (1994), The Lock (2002) by Benita Kane Jaro Catiline (2007) by Brandon Winningham Barbarians in the Republic: The Long Journey to Rome (2005) by Skarr One Caesar, Antony by Allan Massie Freedom, farewell! by Phyllis Bentley. The Roma Sub Rosa series by Steven Saylor is set in the later years of the Republic and the beginning of the Augustan period. Roma, published March 6, 2007, by Steven Saylor. According to the author's website, the book covers part of Rome's early history.[1] The Emperor Series (2003-2013), by Conn Iggulden, Julius Caesar's life 10th Legion: Battle Born (2015) by Ben Soden the first book in a series based on a fictional group of Roman Legionary anti-heroes who join the 10th legion in Hispania culminating in the beginnings of the Helvetian campaigns. The Last King: Rome's Greatest Enemy (2005) by Michael Curtis Ford. The career of Mithridates VI (134-63 BC) The Masters of Rome series by Colleen McCullough. Beginning before the birth of Julius Caesar to after his death, it details the self-immolation of the Roman Republic. Spartacus by Howard Fast Spartacus by Lewis Grassic Gibbon Three's Company (1958) by Alfred Duggan. The career of Lepidus, triumvir with Octavian and Marcus Antonius after the death of Julius Caesar. Winter Quarters (1956) by Alfred Duggan. Two Gauls in the time of Julius Caesar, one of whom is under a curse from the Mother Goddess, whose worship he finds throughout the Roman world. The Conquered by Naomi Mitchison (1923). Gaul & the Gallic Wars 1st century BC Beric the Briton: A Story of the Roman Invasion (1893) by G. A. Henty Imperial Caesar (1960) also by Rex Warner Marius' Mules (2009) by S.J.A. Turney. Fictionalised account of Caesar's Gallic Wars from the point of view of a fictional legate. Series ongoing at 10 books to 2017 "Marching with Caesar Series" by R.W. Peake A mostly accurate fiction that takes place during the rise of Julius Caesar, with his first campaign in Gaul, onwards and beyond his life, from the perspective of a soldier as he rises through the ranks[2] Early/High Empire (27 BC to AD 192)[edit] Hay luz en casa de Publio Fama by Juan Miñana (Barcino 60s AD) Someday Never Comes by Mk Kayem An Imaginary Life by David Malouf. A fictional account of the poet Ovid's exile from Rome. The Quest For the Lost Roman Legions by Tony Clunn, Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, with his account of his discovery of the battlefield Persona Non Grata, Terra Incognita, Medicus and Caveat Emptor, a series of mysteries featuring the "reluctant sleuth" Gaius Petreius Ruso by Ruth Downie, set around 120 AD. Three Legions series by Rosemary Sutcliff set in Roman Britain c. 130 AD. The three novels consist of The Eagle of the Ninth (1954), The Silver Branch (1957), and The Lantern Bearers (1959). The three were first collected in one volume as Three Legions in 1980. Empire published August 31, 2010, by Steven Saylor. The book follows two families through Rome's Imperial history, from the reign of Augustus to the reign of Hadrian. The sequel to Roma. Vespasian series by Robert Fabbri. The series details the early career and rise to power of Vespasian. Empire series by Anthony Riches. The series follows the fortunes Marcus Corvus during the reign of Commodus. The Julio-Claudian Dynasty[edit] The Nero Prediction by Humphry Knipe The Roman (1964) by Mika Waltari The Tribune: A Novel of Ancient Rome by Patrick Larkin Augustus by John Williams Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula and Nero's Heirs by Allan Massie Empire: The Novel of Imperial Rome by Steven Saylor Let the Emperor Speak: A novel of Caesar Augustus by Allan Massie, Doubleday & Company, Inc, New York, 1987 (First published in Great Britain in 1986 by the Bodley Head as Augustus). Also by this author: Caesar, Anthony, Tiberius, Caligula and Nero's Heirs. "Pretender" by Lion Feuchtwanger "Feast of Sorrow" by Crystal King (2017) about Roman gourmand Marcus Gavius Apicius Books about early Christians or the Christ include: Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ (1880) by Lew Wallace; famously made into a film starring Charlton Heston; set in the reign of Tiberius in Judaea, the Mediterranean, and Rome. Epilogues carry the story into the reign of Nero I Am a Barbarian (1967, written 1941) by Edgar Rice Burroughs; the fictionalized memoirs of Caligula's slave. A Voice in the Wind (1994) by Francine Rivers; the story of Hadassah, a Christian slave taken from Jerusalem and taken to Rome in the time of Titus and his father Mark of the Lion Trilogy book 1 An Echo in the Darkness (1995) by Francine Rivers; the continuing story of Hadassah and Marcus. Mark of the Lion Trilogy book 2 As Sure as the Dawn (1995) by Francine Rivers; the continuing story of Atretes. Mark of the Lion Trilogy book 3 The Centurion's Wife (2009) by Davis Bunn, Janette Oke life for an early Christian woman and her marriage to a Roman soldier. Acts of Faith book 1 The Hidden Flame (2009) by Davis Bunn, Janette Oke Acts of Faith book 2 The Damascus Way (2010) by Davis Bunn, Janette Oke Acts of Faith book 3 The Seventh Season (1965) by Emmanuel of Samaria; features a meeting between St Andrew and Nero. The Robe (1942), by Lloyd C. Douglas, set in the same period as Ben-Hur; like Ben-Hur, more famous as a film. Books about Claudius or set in his reign include: I, Claudius (1934) and its sequel, Claudius the God (1935), by Robert Graves. The classic and influential dramatised account of the life of the emperor Claudius, made into a popular TV series (see below). The Eagle series by Nigerian-born British novelist Simon Scarrow. The first book Under the Eagle (part of the Eagle series) was published 2000 by Simon Scarrow. Story of Roman invasion of Britain, featuring a young Vespasian. Other books in the series include The Eagle's Conquest (2001 set in 42 AD (introducing Boudicca at the end); When the Eagle Hunts (2002) set in 44 AD. Other books in the series include The Eagle and the Wolves (2003), The Eagle's Prey (2004), The Eagle's Prophecy (2005), The Eagle in the Sand (2006), and the forthcoming Centurion (January - 2008). Books set in Nero's reign include: Beric the Briton, A Story of the Roman Invasion (1893) by G. A. Henty; the story of a Romanized Briton captured as a rebel and sent to Rome as a gladiator Quo Vadis (1895/1896), by Henryk Sienkiewicz set in the reign of Nero in 64 AD. The Flames of Rome by Paul L. Maier A Song for Nero (2003) by Tom Holt, writing as Thomas Holt. Letters from the Realms of Nero (2007) by George Kapo; story of British slave girl in household of Seneca Rubies of the Viper (2010) and its sequel The Viper Amulet (2017) by Martha Marks; interwoven stories of a Roman woman who inherits a fortune when her brother is murdered and a Greek slave who comes into her possession as part of the estate; set in AD 53–67. Nero, the Bloody Poet by Dezső Kosztolányi The Ides of April by Mary Ray: Part of the Roman Empire Sequence.[3] Imperial Governor (1968, reprinted 2002), George Shipway, the Icenii revolt under Boudicca. The Roman (1964) by Mika Waltari The Cleft by Doris Lessing is a book supposedly written by an historian during Nero's reign. The Flavian Dynasty[edit] Josephus Trilogy (1959), by Lion Feuchtwanger about Flavius Josephus, but set in Ancient Rome during Reign of Vespasianus and Titus "In the Shadow of Tyranny" (2013), the first novel by Chris Westcott tells the story of Gaius whose fate and fortune is aligned to the reigns of Vespasian, Titus and the tyranny of Domitian. The Course of Honour (1998), the first novel by Lindsey Davis (later author of the Marcus Didius Falco mysteries, which also take place during the reign on Vespasianus) narrates the history of Vespasian's imperial freedwoman mistress Antonia Caenis. The Light Bearer (1994), by Donna Gillespie tells the story of a Germanic female warrior who becomes a gladiator in Rome in the reign of Domitian. Mistress of Rome by Kate Quinn is the story of a young Jewish slave who rises to become the mistress of Emperor Domitian. Daughters of Rome by Kate Quinn is set during the Year of Four Emperors and ends with the rise of Vespasian. Trajan trilogy by Santiago Posteguillo (Trajan life) Los asesinos del emperador (Domitian death) Circo Máximo (Trajan's Dacian Wars) The Last Days of Pompeii by E.G.Bulwer-Lytton Pompeii by Robert Harris, tells the story of Pompeii and the volcano Vesuveus during the reign of Titus. The Veteran of Rome Series by William Kelso tells the story of a Roman military family in Roman Britain from 83 AD to 106 AD. "In the Shadow of Tyranny" by Chris Westcott set in the reigns of Vespasian, Titus and Domitian "The Jew of Rome" by Lion Feuchtwanger The Nervan-Antonian (Ulpio-Aelia) Dynasty[edit] Empress of the Seven Hills by Kate Quinn is set during the reign of Trajan. Lady of the Eternal City by Kate Quinn is set during the reign of Hadrian. The Equinox (1966) by Carol Saylor, of Rome in the time of Commodus Memoirs of Hadrian (1951) by Marguerite Yourcenar The Emperor by Georg Ebers, another fictitious biography of Hadrian A God Strolling in the Cool of the Evening (1994) by Mario de Carvalho, set mainly in Roman Lusitania Romanike (2000-2014) by Codex Regius, a series of six novels set mainly on both sides of the Upper-Germanic Limes Middle Empire (AD 193–293)[edit] Family Favourites (1960), by Alfred Duggan; a tale of court life under the teenage emperor Elagabalus, as recounted by his personal bodyguard Warrior Of Rome series by historian Harry Sidebottom, takes place in the years 238 to 264, mostly from 256 to 264, six books so far published Iron And Rust also by historian Harry Sidebottom, takes place before the Warrior Of Rome series Late Empire: West (AD 293–457)[edit] “Flavius Aetius: the Last Conqueror and Flavius Aetius: Twilight of Empines” by Jose Gomez Rivera III (2014, 2017) set in the religious-olitival struggles of Russia "The Saint's Day Deaths" by Albert Noyer, (2000) Set in ancient Mainz, A.D. 406: citizens are found murdered on their namesake's feast day and in the same grisly manner the saint was martyred. Who is doing this, why, and who will be next? "The Secundus Papyrus" by Albert Noyer, (2003) A Getorius and Arcadia Mystery. A.D. 439: Terms of a "Last Will and Test-ament" of Christ will bring chaos to the Roman world. What did Christ leave and to whom; is it genuine; what happened to it? "The Cybelene Conspiracy" by Albert Noyer, (2005) A Getorius and Arcadia Mystery. A.D. 440: Two products smuggled into Italy from China could change the course of western history. What are they and what happened to them? "Death at Pergamum" by Albert Noyer, (2013) A Getorius and Arcadia Mystery. A.D. 440: a woman minister stages a bizarre Egypto-Christian resurrection on the 'Throne of Satan' to discredit a pagan physician at the Asklepion healing shrine. Unholy Sepulcher" by Albert Noyer, (2014) A Getorius and Arcadia Mystery. A.D. 440: A body found in Jerusalem's Holy Sepulcher leads to Arcadia's abduction by a cult member, where a Bedouin warlord will sell her to the highest bidder. "The Kashat Deception" By Albert Noyer, (2015) A Getorius and Arcadia Mystery. Prologue. A.D. 1 / Story A.D. 441: A papyrus concealed in a Kushite prince's mummy reveals a youthful Jesus raised in an Egyptian tradition of diviners and healers. If genuine, orthodox Christianity is threatened. The Young Julian by Thomas J. Hairston Helena by Evelyn Waugh; follows the quest of the Empress Helena, a Christian and the mother of Emperor Constantine to uncover the remains of the cross upon which Christ was crucified. Julian (1964) by Gore Vidal, fictionalized biography of the emperor Julian the Apostate, who tried to revive Paganism The Last Legion: A Novel by Valerio Massimo Manfredi; fictionalized story of the emperor Romulus Augustulus and what might have happened to his surviving retinue. Eagle in the Snow (1970) by Wallace Breem; set in Britannia and Germania in the late 4th and early 5th century; features a Mithraic Roman general. The Little Emperors (1951) by Alfred Duggan. A succession of coups in late-Roman Britain. Gods And Legions: A Novel of the Roman Empire (2002) by Michael Curtis Ford The Sword of Attila: A Novel of the Last Years of Rome (2005) by Michael Curtis Ford The Fall of Rome: A Novel of a World Lost (2007) by Michael Curtis Ford Raptor (1993) by Gary Jennings is an historical novel set in the late 5th and early 6th centuries. It purports to be the memoirs of an Ostrogoth, Thorn, who has a secret. Threshold of Fire: A Novel of Fifth Century Rome (1966) by Hella Hasse Legionary (2011) by Gordon Doherty Legionary: Viper of the North (2012) by Gordon Doherty Legionary: Land of the Sacred Fire (2013) by Gordon Doherty Legionary: The Scourge of Thracia (2015) by Gordon Doherty Legionary: Gods & Emperors (2015) by Gordon Doherty Legionary: Empire of Shades (2017) by Gordon Doherty Legionary: The Blood Road (2018) by Gordon Doherty Legionary: Dark Eagle (2020) by Gordon Doherty Legionary: Eagles in the Desert (2020) by Gordon Doherty Embers of Empire, The Veiled Assassin (2013) by Q. V. Hunter espionage adventure series set during reigns of Constantius II and Julian the Apostate Embers of Empire, Usurpers (2013) by Q. V. Hunter Embers of Empire, The Back Door to Hell (2013) by Q. V. Hunter Embers of Empire, The Wolves of Ambition (2015) by Q. V. Hunter Embers of Empire, The Deadly Caesar (2015) by Q. V. Hunter Embers of Empire, The Burning Stakes (2016) by Q. V. Hunter Sons of Rome (2020) by Gordon Doherty & S.J.A. Turney Masters of Rome (2021) by Gordon Doherty & S.J.A. Turney Byzantine Empire (AD 457–1453)[edit] Anna of Byzantium, 1999 Bélisaire Belisarius series Count Belisarius (1938), by Robert Graves, set in the 6th century, in the reign of Justinian The Dancing Bear (1972), by Peter Dickinson. Young adult. Justinian, a novel, by H N Turteltaub (Harry Turtledove), August 1998 The Palaeologian Dynasty. The Rise and Fall of Byzantium Roma Eterna (2003), by Robert Silverberg A Struggle for Rome (1876), by Felix Dahn Tirant lo Blanch (finished posthumously by Martí Joan de Galba, published 1490), by Joanot Martorell Up the Line (1969), by Robert Silverberg You with the Roses - What are You Selling?, (1966) a novel by James Wellard, fictionalised biography of the Empress Theodora Strategos: Born in the Borderlands (2011) by Gordon Doherty Strategos: Rise of the Golden Heart (2011) by Gordon Doherty Strategos: Island in the Storm (2011) by Gordon Doherty Unknown period[edit] Avventura nel primo secolo by Paolo Monelli Sand of the Arena by James Duffy In the Army of Marcus Batallius by David M. Ross 68 A.D. by D.G. Bellenger Three's Company, Winter Quarters, Conscience of the King, The Little Emperors and Family Favourites by Alfred Duggan Domitia & Domitian by David Corson Games of Venus by Sylvia Shults Antonia by Brenda Jagger The Virgin's Tale by Sherri Smith Den of Wolves by Luke Devenish Nest of Vipers by Luke Devenish The Tribune: A Novel of Ancient Rome by Patrick Larkin Hadrian's Wall: A Novel by William Dietrich The Centurion: A Novel (1986) by Jan de Hartog The Nero Prediction by Humphry Knipe Detective fiction[edit] Search the Seven Hills (The Quirinal Hill Affair) (1987) by Barbara Hambly The Roma Sub Rosa series (1991–2012) by Steven Saylor, starts with Roman Blood (1991); the books cover the period 92 BC to 46 BC. The Marcus Didius Falco series by Lindsey Davis, starts with The Silver Pigs; set in the reign of Vespasian. The SPQR series by John Maddox Roberts. The I, Claudia series of novels by Marilyn Todd featuring her picaresque heroine Claudia Seferius The Publius Aurelius series by Danila Comastri Montanari The Marcus_Corvinus_(fictional_character)series by David Wishart Roman Justice: SPQR: Too Roman To Handle, by Anne Hart The Roman Mysteries young adults' detective/drama series by Caroline Lawrence The Caius Trilogy by German author Henry Winterfeld: Caius ist ein Dummkopf (Caius is an Idiot); Caius geht ein Licht auf (Caius has an Inspiration), and Caius in der Klemme (Caius in a Fix). The first part was published in English with the alternate title Detectives in Togas. The second was published in English with the alternate title Mystery of the Roman Ransom. The Third Princess: A Septimus Severus Quistus Roman Mystery by Philip Boast Rubies of the Viper (2010) by Martha Marks. A Roman woman sets out to uncover the identity of her brother's murderer. The Eagle series by Simon Scarrow (see above) The Germanicus Mosaic series by Rosemary Rowe - set in later Roman Britain Science fiction/time travel novels[edit] Caesar's Bicycle (1997) (Timeline Wars series) by John Barnes The Green Bronze Mirror (1966) by Lynne Ellison (young adult); set in reign of Nero Arria Marcella (1852) by Théophile Gautier set in 79 AD in Pompeii Household Gods (1999), by Judith Tarr and Harry Turtledove set in the reign of Marcus Aurelius The Time Travelling Cat and the Roman Eagle (2001) by Julia Jarman Toss of the Coin (Time Rangers) (1998) by Rob Childs In Daniel Godfrey's New Pompeii (Titan Books, 2016), the population of ancient Pompeii is transported through time to the present day and into a replica of their town. "Codex Alera" Jim Butcher's fantasy take on what happened to the Lost Roman Legion. Alternate history[edit] The following alternate history novels are set in fictional universes where Rome's struggle with Carthago went differently The Seven Hills (2005) by John Maddox Roberts Alejandro y las águilas de Roma by Javier Negrete (Alexander the Great doesn't die in Babylon and goes on to Italy to fight Rome) Delenda Est by Poul Anderson Lest Darkness Fall (1939) by L. Sprague de Camp; a time-travelling American alters history, set in 535 AD. Agent of Byzantium by Harry Turtledove set in an alternate 14th century with no Islam. Hannibal's Children (2002) and its sequel The Seven Hills by John Maddox Roberts. A victorious Hannibal sends all the Romans into exile, but they found a new city and their descendants return for vengeance. The following alternate history novels are set in fictional universes where the Roman Empire never fell, and has endured to the present day: Romanitas (2005), by Sophia McDougall Rome Burning (2006), sequel to Romanitas, by Sophia McDougall Roma Eterna, a 2003 novel by Robert Silverberg Warlords of Utopia by Lance Parkin Gunpowder Empire by Harry Turtledove The Aquiliad (1983), by Somtow Sucharitkul. Circa 50 AD. A light-hearted novel in which Roman legions discover America, battle the Aztecs, encounter Big Foot, and drive off flying saucers. Oebis (2002), by Scott Mackay. Romans return to a modern-day Earth to retake it from alien invaders who exiled them centuries ago and imposed a strange form of Christianity. The Germanicus trilogy, a collection of books by Kirk Mitchell. Emperor (2006), by Stephen Baxter. After a Celtic chieftain obeys an ancient prophecy, and sides with the invaders, the history of Roman Britain takes a different path. First in a series. The following alternate history novels are set in fictional universes where Julius Caesar survived his assassination attempt: "Caesar Ascending" series by R.W. Peake. Caesar survives his assassination and carries out his plans to invade Parthia. Comic books[edit] The Adventures of Alix (1948-now) series by Jacques Martin of which some titles are set in Rome and the Ancient World. This series has a spin-off, called The travels of Alix, that gives illustrated information on famous places and empires of the Ancient World during the Roman Era. Astérix (1959-now) series by René Goscinny (stories) and Albert Uderzo (illustrations). A tiny village in Gaul holds out against the Roman Army, and its doughtiest warriors meet all the famous Romans. Murena (1997-now) series by Jean Dufaux and Philippe Delaby Le Fléau des Dieux (2000–2006) series by Valérie Mangin and Aleksa Gajic. Science fiction set in a remote future Movies[edit] Main article: List of films set in ancient Rome Quo Vadis - U.S. 1951 director Mervyn LeRoy The Robe - U.S. 1953 director Henry Koster Demetrius and the Gladiators - U.S. 1954 director Delmer Daves (sequel to The Robe) Jupiter's Darling - U.S. 1955 director George Sidney, based on a play by Robert E. Sherwood Ben-Hur - U.S. 1959 director William Wyler Spartacus - U.S. 1960 director Stanley Kubrick King of Kings - U.S. 1961 director Nicholas Ray Cleopatra - U.S. 1963 director Joseph L. Mankiewicz The Fall of the Roman Empire - U.S. 1964 director Anthony Mann The Greatest Story Ever Told - U.S. 1965 director George Stevens A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum - U.S. 1966 director Richard Lester Fellini Satyricon - Italy 1969 director Federico Fellini Jesus Christ Superstar - U.S. 1973 director Norman Jewison Sebastiane - UK 1976 director Derek Jarman Caligula - U.S. 1979 director Tinto Brass Monty Python's Life of Brian - U.K. 1979 director Terry Jones History of the World Part 1 - U.S. 1981 director Mel Brooks The Last Temptation of Christ - U.S. 1988 director Martin Scorsese Titus - U.S. 1999 director Julie Taymor Gladiator - U.S. 2000 director Ridley Scott Quo Vadis - Polish/U.S. 2001 director Jerzy Kawalerowicz, remake of 1951 film King Arthur - U.S. 2004 director Antoine Fuqua The Passion of the Christ - U.S. 2004 director Mel Gibson The Nativity Story - U.S. 2006 director Catherine Hardwicke Agora - Spain 2009 director Alejandro Amenábar Centurion - UK 2010 director Neil Marshall The Eagle - UK 2011 director Kevin Macdonald Plays[edit] Joseph Addison Cato Albert Camus Caligula Pierre Corneille Cinna Henrik Ibsen Emperor and Galilean Ben Jonson Sejanus, His Fall Heinrich von Kleist Die Hermannsschlacht William Shakespeare Titus Andronicus Julius Caesar Antony and Cleopatra Coriolanus Cymbeline Robert Sherwood The Road to Rome (1927), on which a little-known 1955 film Jupiter's Darling was based. Stephen Sondheim A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum Television[edit] I, Claudius Julius Caesar minisieries by Uli Edel Masada Mystery Science Theater 3000 (part of season 8) Pompeii: The Last Day a dramatized documentary The Roman Holidays Rome Spartacus miniseries by Robert Dornhelm (director) Spartacus: Blood and Sand Up Pompeii! Bread and Circuses (Star Trek: The Original Series) Video games[edit] Video Game Year Platform Score[4] Hegemony Rome: Rise of Caesar 2014 Microsoft Windows Ryse: Son of Rome 2013 Microsoft Windows, Xbox One 60 Total War: Rome II 2013 Mac, Microsoft Windows 76 Roman Empire 2013 Microsoft Windows Phone, Microsoft Windows 76 Gods & Heroes: Rome Rising 2011 Microsoft Windows 50 Gladiator Begins 2010 PSP 59 Tournament of Legends 2010 Wii 45 Grand Ages: Rome 2009 Microsoft Windows 72 Cradle of Rome 2008 Nintendo DS, Wii 63 Europa Universalis: Rome 2008 Microsoft Windows, Mac 73 Imperium Romanum 2008 Microsoft Windows 63 Caesar IV 2006 Microsoft Windows 74 CivCity: Rome 2006 Microsoft Windows 67 Glory of the Roman Empire 2006 Microsoft Windows 66 Colosseum: Road to Freedom 2005 PlayStation 2 56 Imperivm: Great Battles of Rome 2005 Microsoft Windows Legion Arena 2005 Mac, Microsoft Windows 65 Shadow of Rome 2005 PlayStation 2 75 Spartan: Total Warrior 2005 PlayStation 2, GameCube, Xbox 74 Against Rome 2004 Windows Nemesis of the Roman Empire 2004 74 Rome: Total War 2004 Microsoft Windows, Mac 92 Gladius 2003 GameCube, PlayStation 2, Xbox 82 Praetorians 2003 PC 78 Celtic Kings: Rage of War 2002 PC 82 Circus Maximus: Chariot Wars 2002 PlayStation 2, Xbox 67 The Eternal City 2001 Catechumen 2000 Windows Nethergate 1999 Mac, Windows Age of Empires: The Rise of Rome 1998 Microsoft Windows Caesar III 1998 Mac, Microsoft Windows The Settlers II 1996 Mac, MS-DOS, Nintendo DS SPQR: The Empire's Darkest Hour 1996 Windows Caesar II 1995 Mac, MS-DOS, Microsoft Windows Cohort II - Fighting for Rome[5][6] 1993 Walls of Rome 1993 DOS Caesar I 1992 Amiga, Atari ST, DOS Rome: Pathway to Power 1992 Amiga, DOS Warrior of Rome II 1992 Sega Mega Drive, Sega Genesis Warrior of Rome 1991 Sega Mega Drive, Sega Genesis Centurion: Defender of Rome 1990 IBM PC DOS, Amiga, Mega Drive Legions of Death 1987 Amstrad CPC, Commodore 64, ZX Spectrum Annals of Rome 1986 Amiga, Amstrad CPC, Atari ST, Commodore 64, MS-DOS, ZX Spectrum Legionnaire 1982 Apple II, Atari 8-bit, Commodore 64 Works inspired by Roman history, or by works of fiction and non-fiction about Rome[edit] Science fiction[edit] Empire of the Atom, by A. E. van Vogt, translates Graves' novel about Claudius(above) into a science fiction context. The Foundation series by Isaac Asimov, about the fall of a galactic empire, is derived from Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Dominic Flandry series by Poul Andersen, a space empire similarly inspired by Gibbon's history (and by Asimov) is decaying and about to collapse into a Long Night of barbarism; a heroic secret agent fights to stave off this fate. Julian Comstock by Robert Charles Wilson, about a post-apocalyptic America transformed into a neo-Roman Empire, and a high born youth who, like Julian the Apostate, fights the power of the Church. Bread and Circuses (Star Trek: The Original Series) Tarzan and the Lost Empire by Edgar Rice Burroughs, a surviving fragment of the Roman Empire is discovered hidden in a corner of 20th century Africa. In Philip K. Dick's VALIS ancient Rome is superimposed over the present (California in the 20th century) and the far future world of The Android Cried Me a River to reveal "the Empire" – a supra- or trans-temporal constant. Furthermore, it is often repeated that the empire never fell. Also the novel's protagonist is described as living in two spacetime-continua with one of the personalities presently living in ancient Rome. Ancient Rome is also described as to breaking through into the modern world and "real time" is speculated as to having ceased in 70 AD with Roman times still being present.[7] Comic books[edit] Leading Comics - in the 1940s, a series called "Nero Fox" (about a funny animal named Nero Fox, who was emperor of Rome) was published as a backup series in this comic title. Trigan Empire was a Science Fiction comic series telling of adventures on the planet Elekton with many similarities to the Roman Empire See also[edit] Novels portal Fiction set in the Roman empire Fiction set in Ancient Greece Fiction set in Ancient Egypt List of fictional Romans List of historical fiction by time period References[edit] ^ a b c d http://www.stevensaylor.com/ Saylor, Steven. "Steven Saylor website". Retrieved May 16, 2007 ^ "Marching With Caesar Book Series - Historical Fiction by RW Peake — Marching With Caesar Book Series". marchingwithcaesarbookseries.com. ^ "The Ides of April (Roman Empire Sequence, #2)". Goodreads. Retrieved 2016-07-16. ^ Metacritic Score ^ http://www.atarimania.com/game-atari-st-cohort-ii-fighting-for-rome_8952.html ^ http://www.lemonamiga.com/games/details.php?id=272 ^ Dick, Philip K. The VALIS Trilogy. Retrieved 21 July 2015. External links[edit] Fictional Rome The Detective and the Toga - Roman mysteries This literature-related list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it. 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en-wikipedia-org-6136	----	Velleius Paterculus - Wikipedia Velleius Paterculus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman historian, soldier and senator (c.19 BC - c. AD 31) Early 16th century publication edited by Beatus Rhenanus Marcus Velleius Paterculus (/vɛˈliːəs, -ˈleɪəs/; c. 19 BC – c. AD 31) was a Roman historian, soldier and senator. His Roman history, written in a highly rhetorical style, covered the period from the end of the Trojan War to AD 30, but is most useful for the period from the death of Caesar in 44 BC to the death of Augustus in AD 14. Contents 1 Biography 2 History 3 Style 4 Legacy 5 Early editions 6 Newer edition 7 Commentaries 7.1 Translation with Latin text 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Biography[edit] Few details of Velleius' life are known with certainty; even his praenomen is uncertain. Priscian, the only ancient author to mention it, calls him "Marcus", but the title page of the editio princeps, printed in 1520, calls him "Publius", probably due to confusion with a Publius Velleius mentioned in Tacitus. Elsewhere, the same volume calls him Gaius.[1] Some modern writers use the latter name, based on an inscription found on a milestone at El Harrouch in Algeria, once part of Roman Numidia;[2] but the inscription identifies this Gaius Velleius Paterculus as legatus Augusti, an office that the historian is not known to have held, and it is thought to date from the reigns of Claudius or Nero, by which time he is thought to have been dead.[3] The Gaius Velleius Paterculus referred to may be the same man who was consul in AD 60, and a Lucius Velleius Paterculus was consul in the following year; but it is not apparent how either of them were related to the historian.[4] Our remaining information comes from Velleius' own brief description of his life, included in his history. He was born into a noble Campanian family about 19 BC, although the place of his birth is unknown. He was a great-great-great-grandson of Minatus Magius of Aeculanum in Samnium, who received the Roman franchise for his actions during the Social War. Several of his ancestors in subsequent generations held important magistracies or military commands, including his uncle, Capito, who was a member of the Roman Senate.[5] As a young man, Velleius served as a military tribune in Rome's eastern provinces. In AD 2, he was with the army of Gaius Caesar, and personally witnessed the meeting between the young general and Phraates V of Parthia on the banks of the Euphrates. Two years later, Velleius was a cavalry prefect serving in the command of Tiberius in Germania, having already held the office of praefectus castrorum. He continued as a senior member of Tiberius' staff until the future emperor's return to Rome in AD 12. While serving under Tiberius, Velleius was also elected quaestor, an important step on the cursus honorum, filling that office in AD 7.[2][5] Before his death in AD 14, the emperor Augustus designated Velleius and his brother, Magius Celer, for the praetorship. The emperor died before the comitia could be held, and so the two brothers were formally elected under Tiberius, serving their year of office in AD 15. Few other particulars of Velleius' life are known; he dedicated his history to Marcus Vinicius, and from his description of events during the latter's consulship in AD 30, Velleius must still have been alive that year. But Velleius was among the friends of Sejanus, whom he praises in his writing, and as there is no evidence that the historian survived his friend's downfall by any great length of time, it seems likely that he shared his fate.[2][5][6] History[edit] The original title of Velleius' history is uncertain. The editio princeps styles it C. Vellei Paterculi Historiae Romanae ad M. Vinicium Cos., The Roman Histories of Gaius Velleius Paterculus to the Consul Marcus Vinicius, but this was probably assigned the work by a copyist, or by one of the grammarians.[7][5] The work is frequently referred to as a "compendium of Roman history," which has also been used as the title, as have the more abbreviated Historiae Romanae, or Roman History, or simply Historiae or History.[2][5][7] The work consists of two books, and was apparently conceived as a universal history.[5] The first covers the period from the aftermath of the Trojan War to the destruction of Carthage at the end of the Third Punic War, in 146 BC. The volume is missing several portions, including the beginning, and a section following the eighth chapter, which deals with the founding of Rome.[5][8] The second book, which continues the history from the age of the Gracchi to the consulship of Marcus Vinicius, in AD 30, is intact.[2][5] It is particularly useful as the only connected narrative of events during this period; the portions of Livy's history dealing with the late Republic have been lost, and are known only from a brief epitome, while other historians covered only portions of the span.[8] The period from the death of Caesar to that of Augustus is especially detailed.[2] Velleius' subject matter consists largely of historical highlights and character portraits, omitting subtler if equally important details. He draws upon the historical writings of Cato the Elder, Quintus Hortensius, Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus, Cornelius Nepos, and Livy, most of which have been lost.[2] He also devotes some attention to Greek and Roman literature, and records unique details about Lucius Afranius and Lucius Pomponius, but he curiously omits any mention of important figures such as Plautus, Horace, and Propertius.[2][9] According to Velleius, the peak of perfection in any literary field is arrived at quickly by the first arrivals. However, this was not an original insight, but a standard view of his time.[10] Style[edit] Velleius' style is characterized by the showy rhetoric, hyperbole, and exaggerated figures of speech that were typical of Silver Age Latin. Modern appraisals of his approach and its results vary considerably. In the Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, William Smith writes, In the execution of his work, Velleius has shown great skill and judgment, and has adopted the only plan by which an historical abridgement can be rendered either interesting or instructive. He does not attempt to give a consecutive account of all the events of history; he omits entirely a vast number of facts, and seizes only upon a few of the more prominent occurrences, which he describes at sufficient length to leave them impressed upon the recollection of his hearers. He also exhibits great tact in the manner in which he passes from one subject to another; his reflections are striking and apposite; and his style, which is a close imitation of Sallust's, is characterized by clearness, conciseness, and energy, but at the same time exhibits some of the faults of writers of his age in a fondness for strange and out-of-the-way expressions. As a historian Velleius is entitled to no mean rank; in his narrative he displays impartiality and love of truth, and in his estimate of the characters of the leading actors in Roman history he generally exhibits both discrimination and judgment.[5] A more critical view appears in the 1911 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica: The author is a vain and shallow courtier, and destitute of real historical insight, although generally trustworthy in his statements of individual facts. He may be regarded as a courtly annalist rather than a historian. His knowledge is superficial, his blunders, numerous, his chronology inconsistent. He labours at portrait-painting, but his portraits are daubs... The repeitions, redundancies, and slovenliness of expression which disfigure the work may be partly due to the haste with which (as the author frequently reminds us) it was written. Some blemishes of style, particularly the clumsy and involved structure of his sentences, may perhaps be ascribed to insufficient literary training. The inflated rhetoric, the straining after effect by means of hyperbole, antithesis and epigram, mark the degenerate taste of the Silver Age, of which Paterculus is the earliest example.[2] In his introduction to Velleius Paterculus, Frederick W. Shipley takes a middle ground: A compendium of Roman history, hastily compiled by an army officer... could hardly be expected to rise to the level either of great history or great literature. And yet, taken for what it is, a rapid sketch of some ten centuries of history, it is, in spite of its many defects... the most successful and most readable of all the abridgements of Roman history which have come down to us. Abridgements are usually little more than skeletons; but Velleius has succeeded, in spite of the brief compass of his work, in clothing the bare bones with real flesh, and in endowing his compendium with more than a mere shadow of vitality, thanks to his own enthusiastic interest in the human side of the great characters of history... [I]t has certain excellences of its own in the treatment of special subjects, especially the chapters on literary history, in which the author has a genuine if not very critical interest, the chapters on the Roman colonies, and those on the history of the organization of the Roman provinces, and in some of the character portraits of the great figures of Roman history.[8] Legacy[edit] Velleius' treatise was not intended as a careful and comprehensive study of history. The author acknowledged as much, and stated his desire to write a more detailed work, which he indicated would give a fuller account of the Civil War, and the campaigns of his patron, Tiberius, but there is no reason to believe that he ever did so.[2] His history does not seem to have been widely known in antiquity. According to the scholiast, he was read by Lucan; the Chronica of Sulpicius Severus seems to have been modeled on Velleius' history; and he is mentioned by Priscian, but this seems to be the extent of his influence prior to the discovery of a badly damaged manuscript at Murbach Abbey in Alsace in 1515. Although corrupt and since lost, this formed the basis for the editio princeps published by Beatus Rhenanus in 1520, and a later copy acquired by Orelli.[2][5] Early editions[edit] Historia Romana, 1600 Editio princeps, Beatus Rhenanus, 1520 early editions by Justus Lipsius, 1591 Jan Gruter, 1607 Gerardus Vossius, 1639 Johan Henrik Boeclerus, 1642 Antonius Thysius the Younger, 1653 Nikolaes Heinsius the Elder, 1678 John Hudson, 1693 Pieter Burman the Elder, 1719 Ruhnken, 1789, reprinted by Karl Heinrich Frotscher, 1830–1839 later editions Johann Caspar von Orelli, 1835 Justus Friedrich Kritz, 1848 Friedrich Gottlob Haase, 1858 Karl Felix Halm, 1876 Robinson Ellis, 1898, reviewed by William Warde Fowler in Classical Review, May 1899 On the sources see F. Burmeister, "De Fontibus Vellei Paterculi," in Berliner Studien für classische Philologie (1894), xv. English translation by J. S. Watson in Bohn's Classical Library. Newer edition[edit] Velleius Paterculus, Historiarum Libri Duo, ed. W. S. Watt (2nd ed. 1998. Saur, Stuttgart.) = Bibliotheca scriptorum Graecorum et Romanorum Teubneriana ISBN 3-598-71873-X Commentaries[edit] A. J. Woodman, Velleius Paterculus: The Caesarian and Augustan Narrative (2.41-93) (1983 Cambridge U.P.; repr. 2004 paperback) = Cambridge Classical texts and commentaries 25. ISBN 0-521-60702-7 Velleius Paterculus: The Tiberian Narrative (1977 Cambridge U.P.; repr. 2004 paperback) = Cambridge Classical texts and commentaries 19. ISBN 0-521-60935-6) Translation with Latin text[edit] Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History, trans. F. W. Shipley; Loeb Classical Library 152 (Harvard University Press, 1924; ISBN 0-674-99168-0) References[edit] ^ Shipley, introduction to Velleius Paterculus' Roman History, note 1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Encyclopædia Britannica, 1911 ed., vol. 27, p. 979 ("Velleius Paterculus, Marcus"). ^ CIL VIII, 10311. ^ AE 2006, 306, AE 2006, 307, AE 1998, 1056. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography, vol. III, pp. 134, 135 ("C. Velleius Paterculus"). ^ Syme, "Seianus on the Aventine", p. 265. ^ a b Shipley, introduction to Velleius Paterculus' Roman History, note 2. ^ a b c Shipley, introduction to Velleius Paterculus' Roman History. ^ H.J. Rose, A Handbook of Latin Literature, London (1966), pp. 81, 148. ^ The Oxford History of the Classical World, J. Boardman, ed., Oxford (1986), p. 678. Further reading[edit] Balmaceda, C. (2014). Virtues of Tiberius in Velleius’ "Histories." Historia 63.3: 340–363. Connal, R. T. (2013). Velleius Paterculus: The Soldier and the Senator. Classical World 107(1), 49–62. Cowan, E. ed., (2011). Velleius Paterculus: Making History. Swansea: Classical Press of Wales. Gowing, A. M. (2010). Caesar Grabs my Pen: Writing on Civil War under Tiberius. In Citizens of Discord: Rome and Its Civil Wars. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Gowing, A. M. (2005). Empire and Memory. The Representation of the Roman Republic in Imperial Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kramer, E. A. (2005). Book One of Velleius’ History: Scope, Levels of Treatment, and Non-Roman Elements. Historia 54.2: 144–161. Schultze, C. (2010). Universal and Particular in Velleius Paterculus. In Historiae Mundi: Studies in Universal Historiography. Edited by P. Liddel and A. Fear, 116–130. London: Duckworth. Starr, R. J. (1980). Velleius’ Literary Techniques and the Organization of his History. Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 110: 287–301. Sumner, G. V. (1970). The Truth about Velleius Paterculus: Prolegomena. Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 74: 257–297. Syme, R. (1978). Mendacity in Velleius. American Journal of Philology. 99: 45–63. Syme, R. (1956). "Seianus on the Aventine". Hermes. Franz Steiner Verlag. 84 (3): 257–266. JSTOR 4474933. Woodman, A. J. (1975). Velleius Paterculus. In Empire and Aftermath. Silver Latin II. Edited by T. A. Dorey, 1–25. London: Routledge.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Velleius Paterculus, Marcus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. External links[edit] Library resources about Velleius Paterculus Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Velleius Paterculus Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Velleius Paterculus: History of Rome (Latin original, English translation) Livius.org: Marcus Velleius Paterculus Authority control BIBSYS: 90808972 BNE: XX825163 BNF: cb11887817z (data) CANTIC: a11354227 CiNii: DA01412105 GND: 118767925 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\050047 ISNI: 0000 0001 2283 4207 LCCN: n79041642 NKC: jn19990210646 NLG: 217125 NSK: 000086222 NTA: 067557856 SELIBR: 99468 SUDOC: 026674211 Trove: 986171 VcBA: 495/49014 VIAF: 100171160 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79041642 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Velleius_Paterculus&oldid=993983707" Categories: 10s BC births 30s deaths 1st-century historians 1st-century Romans Ancient Roman soldiers Latin historians People from Campania Silver Age Latin writers Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikisource Languages العربية Asturianu Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto Estremeñu Français Furlan Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano ქართული Latina Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 13 December 2020, at 15:23 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6137	----	Diogenes - Wikipedia Diogenes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search ancient Greek Cynic philosopher from Sinope For other uses, see Diogenes (disambiguation). Diogenes Diogenes (1882) by John William Waterhouse Born c. 412 BC Sinope Died 323 BC (aged roughly 89) Corinth Era Ancient Greek philosophy Region Western philosophy School Cynicism Main interests Asceticism, Cynicism Notable ideas Cynic philosophy Cosmopolitanism Solvitur ambulando Influences Antisthenes, Socrates Influenced Crates of Thebes, other Cynics, Epicurus, the Stoics, Wolfi Landstreicher, Han Ryner, Michel Onfray, Søren Kierkegaard, Nietzsche Diogenes (/daɪˈɒdʒɪniːz/ dy-OJ-in-eez; Ancient Greek: Διογένης, romanized: Diogénēs [di.oɡénɛ͜ɛs]), also known as Diogenes the Cynic (Διογένης ὁ Κυνικός, Diogénēs ho Kynikós), was a Greek philosopher and one of the founders of Cynic philosophy. He was born in Sinope, an Ionian colony on the Black Sea coast of modern day Turkey,[1] in 412 or 404 BC and died at Corinth in 323 BC.[2] Diogenes was a controversial figure. His father minted coins for a living, and Diogenes was banished from Sinope when he took to debasement of currency.[1] After being exiled, he moved to Athens and criticized many cultural conventions of the city. He modelled himself on the example of Heracles, and believed that virtue was better revealed in action than in theory. He used his simple lifestyle and behaviour to criticize the social values and institutions of what he saw as a corrupt, confused society. He had a reputation for sleeping and eating wherever he chose in a highly non-traditional fashion, and took to toughening himself against nature. He declared himself a cosmopolitan and a citizen of the world rather than claiming allegiance to just one place. There are many tales about his dog Antisthenes' footsteps and becoming his "faithful hound".[3] Diogenes Searching for an Honest Man (1640–1647) by Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione held at the National Gallery of Art Diogenes made a virtue of poverty. He begged for a living and often slept in a large ceramic jar, or pithos, in the marketplace.[4] He became notorious for his philosophical stunts, such as carrying a lamp during the day, claiming to be looking for a man (often rendered in English as "looking for an honest man"). He criticized Plato, disputed his interpretation of Socrates, and sabotaged his lectures, sometimes distracting listeners by bringing food and eating during the discussions. Diogenes was also noted for having mocked Alexander the Great, both in public and to his face when he visited Corinth in 336 BC.[5][6][7] Diogenes was captured by pirates and sold into slavery, eventually settling in Corinth. There he passed his philosophy of Cynicism to Crates, who taught it to Zeno of Citium, who fashioned it into the school of Stoicism, one of the most enduring schools of Greek philosophy. No writings of Diogenes survive but there are some details of his life from anecdotes (chreia), especially from Diogenes Laërtius' book Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers and some other sources.[8] Contents 1 Life 1.1 In Athens 1.2 In Corinth 1.3 Diogenes and Alexander 1.4 Death 2 Philosophy 2.1 Cynicism 2.2 Obscenity 2.3 Diogenes as dogged or dog-like 2.4 Contemporary theory 3 Diogenes syndrome 4 Depictions 4.1 Art 4.2 Comics 4.3 Literature 5 References 6 Sources 7 Further reading 8 External links Life[edit] Part of a series on Individualism Topics and concepts Autonomy Civil liberties Do it yourself Eremitism Free love Freethought Human rights Individual Individual rights Individual reclamation Individuation Laissez-faire Libertine Liberty Methodological individualism Negative liberty Personal property Positive liberty Private property Self-actualization Self-ownership Self-sufficiency Subjectivity Thinkers Antiphon Aristippus Aristotle Armand Camus Diogenes Emerson Epicurus Godwin Goldman Hayek Hess Igualada Jefferson Laozi Libertad Locke Hipparchia Mencken Mill Mises Montaigne Nietzsche Novatore Nozick Onfray Palante Quelle Rand Rothbard Ryner Sade Schopenhauer Smith Spencer Spooner Stirner Thoreau Tucker Walker Warren Wilde Zeno Yang Philosophies Autarchism Anarchism Individualist anarchism Egoist anarchism Left-wing market anarchism Social anarchism Anarcho-capitalism Egoism Ethical egoism Rational egoism Existentialism Hedonism Humanism Individualist feminism Equity feminism Liberal feminism Liberalism Classical liberalism Libertarianism Left-libertarianism Libertarian socialism Right-libertarianism Minarchism Mutualism Objectivism Voluntaryism Principal concerns Anti-individualism Authoritarianism Collectivism Conformity Dogmatism Group rights Herd mentality Indoctrination Mass society Mobbing Social engineering Statism Tyranny Tyranny of the majority Theocracy Totalitarianism v t e Nothing is known about Diogenes' early life except that his father, Hicesias, was a banker.[9] It seems likely that Diogenes was also enrolled into the banking business aiding his father. At some point (the exact date is unknown), Hicesias and Diogenes became involved in a scandal involving the adulteration or debasement of the currency,[10] and Diogenes was exiled from the city and lost his citizenship and all his material possessions.[11][12] This aspect of the story seems to be corroborated by archaeology: large numbers of defaced coins (smashed with a large chisel stamp) have been discovered at Sinope dating from the middle of the 4th century BC, and other coins of the time bear the name of Hicesias as the official who minted them.[13] During this time there was much counterfeit money circulating in Sinope.[11] The coins were deliberately defaced in order to render them worthless as legal tender.[11] Sinope was being disputed between pro-Persian and pro-Greek factions in the 4th century, and there may have been political rather than financial motives behind the act. In Athens[edit] Diogenes Sitting in His Tub by Jean-Léon Gérôme (1860) According to one story,[12] Diogenes went to the Oracle at Delphi to ask for her advice and was told that he should "deface the currency". Following the debacle in Sinope, Diogenes decided that the oracle meant that he should deface the political currency rather than actual coins. He traveled to Athens and made it his life's goal to challenge established customs and values. He argued that instead of being troubled about the true nature of evil, people merely rely on customary interpretations. This distinction between nature ("physis") and custom ("nomos") is a favourite theme of ancient Greek philosophy, and one that Plato takes up in The Republic, in the legend of the Ring of Gyges.[14] Diogenes arrived in Athens with a slave named Manes who escaped from him shortly thereafter. With characteristic humor, Diogenes dismissed his ill fortune by saying, "If Manes can live without Diogenes, why not Diogenes without Manes?"[15] Diogenes would mock such a relation of extreme dependency. He found the figure of a master who could do nothing for himself contemptibly helpless. He was attracted by the ascetic teaching of Antisthenes, a student of Socrates. When Diogenes asked Antisthenes to mentor him, Antisthenes ignored him and reportedly "eventually beat him off with his staff".[1] Diogenes responds, "Strike, for you will find no wood hard enough to keep me away from you, so long as I think you've something to say."[1] Diogenes became Antisthenes' pupil, despite the brutality with which he was initially received.[16] Whether the two ever really met is still uncertain,[17][18][19] but he surpassed his master in both reputation and the austerity of his life. He considered his avoidance of earthly pleasures a contrast to and commentary on contemporary Athenian behaviors. This attitude was grounded in a disdain for what he regarded as the folly, pretence, vanity, self-deception, and artificiality of human conduct. Diogenes Searching for an Honest Man, attributed to J. H. W. Tischbein (c. 1780) The stories told of Diogenes illustrate the logical consistency of his character. He inured himself to the weather by living in a clay wine jar[4][20] belonging to the temple of Cybele.[21] He destroyed the single wooden bowl he possessed on seeing a peasant boy drink from the hollow of his hands. He then exclaimed: "Fool that I am, to have been carrying superfluous baggage all this time!"[22][23] It was contrary to Athenian customs to eat within the marketplace, and still he would eat there, for, as he explained when rebuked, it was during the time he was in the marketplace that he felt hungry. He used to stroll about in full daylight with a lamp; when asked what he was doing, he would answer, "I am looking for a man."[24] (Modern sources often say that Diogenes was looking for an "honest man", but in ancient sources he is simply "looking for a human" – "ἄνθρωπον ζητῶ".[1] The unreasoning behavior of the people around him means that they do not qualify as human.) Diogenes looked for a human being but reputedly found nothing but rascals and scoundrels.[25] According to Diogenes Laërtius, when Plato gave the tongue-in-cheek[26] definition of man as "featherless bipeds," Diogenes plucked a chicken and brought it into Plato's Academy, saying, "Behold! I've brought you a man," and so the Academy added "with broad flat nails" to the definition.[27] In Corinth[edit] According to a story which seems to have originated with Menippus of Gadara,[28] Diogenes was captured by pirates while on voyage to Aegina and sold as a slave in Crete to a Corinthian named Xeniades. Being asked his trade, he replied that he knew no trade but that of governing men, and that he wished to be sold to a man who needed a master. Xeniades liked his spirit and hired Diogenes to tutor his children. As tutor to Xeniades's two sons,[29] it is said that he lived in Corinth for the rest of his life, which he devoted to preaching the doctrines of virtuous self-control. There are many stories about what actually happened to him after his time with Xeniades's two sons. There are stories stating he was set free after he became "a cherished member of the household", while one says he was set free almost immediately, and still another states that "he grew old and died at Xeniades's house in Corinth."[30] He is even said to have lectured to large audiences at the Isthmian Games.[31] Although most of the stories about his living in a jar[4] are located in Athens, there are some accounts of his living in a jar near the Craneum gymnasium in Corinth: A report that Philip was marching on the town had thrown all Corinth into a bustle; one was furbishing his arms, another wheeling stones, a third patching the wall, a fourth strengthening a battlement, every one making himself useful somehow or other. Diogenes having nothing to do—of course no one thought of giving him a job—was moved by the sight to gather up his philosopher's cloak and begin rolling his tub-dwelling energetically up and down the Craneum; an acquaintance asked, and got, the explanation: "I do not want to be thought the only idler in such a busy multitude; I am rolling my tub to be like the rest."[32] Diogenes and Alexander[edit] Alexander the Great Visits Diogenes at Corinth by W. Matthews (1914) Main article: Diogenes and Alexander It was in Corinth that a meeting between Alexander the Great and Diogenes is supposed to have taken place.[33] These stories may be apocryphal. The accounts of Plutarch and Diogenes Laërtius recount that they exchanged only a few words: while Diogenes was relaxing in the morning sunlight, Alexander, thrilled to meet the famous philosopher, asked if there was any favour he might do for him. Diogenes replied, "Yes, stand out of my sunlight." Alexander then declared, "If I were not Alexander, then I should wish to be Diogenes." "If I were not Diogenes, I would still wish to be Diogenes," Diogenes replied.[5][6][7] In another account of the conversation, Alexander found the philosopher looking attentively at a pile of human bones. Diogenes explained, "I am searching for the bones of your father but cannot distinguish them from those of a slave."[34] Death[edit] There are conflicting accounts of Diogenes' death. His contemporaries alleged he had held his breath until he expired; although other accounts of his death say he had become ill from eating raw octopus;[35] or to have suffered an infected dog bite.[36] When asked how he wished to be buried, he left instructions to be thrown outside the city wall so wild animals could feast on his body. When asked if he minded this, he said, "Not at all, as long as you provide me with a stick to chase the creatures away!" When asked how he could use the stick since he would lack awareness, he replied: "If I lack awareness, then why should I care what happens to me when I am dead?"[37] In the end, Diogenes made fun of people's excessive concern with the "proper" treatment of the dead. The Corinthians erected to his memory a pillar on which rested a dog of Parian marble.[38] Philosophy[edit] Cynicism[edit] Diogenes (1873) by Jules Bastien-Lepage Along with Antisthenes and Crates of Thebes, Diogenes is considered one of the founders of Cynicism. The ideas of Diogenes, like those of most other Cynics, must be arrived at indirectly. No writings of Diogenes survive even though he is reported to have authored over ten books, a volume of letters and seven tragedies.[39] Cynic ideas are inseparable from Cynic practice; therefore what we know about Diogenes is contained in anecdotes concerning his life and sayings attributed to him in a number of scattered classical sources. Diogenes maintained that all the artificial growths of society were incompatible with happiness and that morality implies a return to the simplicity of nature. So great was his austerity and simplicity that the Stoics would later claim him to be a wise man or "sophos". In his words, "Humans have complicated every simple gift of the gods."[40] Although Socrates had previously identified himself as belonging to the world, rather than a city,[41] Diogenes is credited with the first known use of the word "cosmopolitan". When he was asked from where he came, he replied, "I am a citizen of the world (cosmopolites)".[42] This was a radical claim in a world where a man's identity was intimately tied to his citizenship of a particular city-state. An exile and an outcast, a man with no social identity, Diogenes made a mark on his contemporaries. Plato and Diogenes (17th century) by Mattia Preti Diogenes had nothing but disdain for Plato and his abstract philosophy.[43] Diogenes viewed Antisthenes as the true heir to Socrates, and shared his love of virtue and indifference to wealth,[44] together with a disdain for general opinion.[45] Diogenes shared Socrates's belief that he could function as doctor to men's souls and improve them morally, while at the same time holding contempt for their obtuseness. Plato once described Diogenes as "a Socrates gone mad."[46] Obscenity[edit] Diogenes taught by living example. He tried to demonstrate that wisdom and happiness belong to the man who is independent of society and that civilization is regressive. He scorned not only family and socio-political organization, but also property rights and reputation. He even rejected normal ideas about human decency. Diogenes is said to have eaten in the marketplace,[47] urinated on some people who insulted him,[48] defecated in the theatre,[49] and masturbated in public. When asked about his eating in public he said, "If taking breakfast is nothing out of place, then it is nothing out of place in the marketplace. But taking breakfast is nothing out of place, therefore it is nothing out of place to take breakfast in the marketplace." [50] On the indecency of his masturbating in public he would say, "If only it were as easy to banish hunger by rubbing my belly."[50][51] Diogenes as dogged or dog-like[edit] Many anecdotes of Diogenes refer to his dog-like behavior, and his praise of a dog's virtues. It is not known whether Diogenes was insulted with the epithet "doggish" and made a virtue of it, or whether he first took up the dog theme himself. When asked why he was called a dog he replied, "I fawn on those who give me anything, I yelp at those who refuse, and I set my teeth in rascals."[20] Diogenes believed human beings live artificially and hypocritically and would do well to study the dog. Besides performing natural body functions in public with ease, a dog will eat anything, and make no fuss about where to sleep. Dogs live in the present without anxiety, and have no use for the pretensions of abstract philosophy. In addition to these virtues, dogs are thought to know instinctively who is friend and who is foe.[52] Unlike human beings who either dupe others or are duped, dogs will give an honest bark at the truth. Diogenes stated that "other dogs bite their enemies, I bite my friends to save them."[53] Statue of Diogenes at his birthplace in Sinop, Turkey The term "cynic" itself derives from the Greek word κυνικός, kynikos, "dog-like" and that from κύων, kyôn, "dog" (genitive: kynos).[54] One explanation offered in ancient times for why the Cynics were called dogs was that Antisthenes taught in the Cynosarges gymnasium at Athens.[55] The word Cynosarges means the place of the white dog. Later Cynics also sought to turn the word to their advantage, as a later commentator explained: There are four reasons why the Cynics are so named. First because of the indifference of their way of life, for they make a cult of indifference and, like dogs, eat and make love in public, go barefoot, and sleep in tubs and at crossroads. The second reason is that the dog is a shameless animal, and they make a cult of shamelessness, not as being beneath modesty, but as superior to it. The third reason is that the dog is a good guard, and they guard the tenets of their philosophy. The fourth reason is that the dog is a discriminating animal which can distinguish between its friends and enemies. So do they recognize as friends those who are suited to philosophy, and receive them kindly, while those unfitted they drive away, like dogs, by barking at them.[56] As noted (see Death), Diogenes' association with dogs was memorialized by the Corinthians, who erected to his memory a pillar on which rested a dog of Parian marble.[38] Contemporary theory[edit] Diogenes is discussed in a 1983 book by German philosopher Peter Sloterdijk (English language publication in 1987). In Sloterdijk's Critique of Cynical Reason, Diogenes is used as an example of Sloterdijk's idea of the "kynical" – in which personal degradation is used for purposes of community comment or censure. Calling the practice of this tactic "kynismos", Sloterdijk theorizes that the kynical actor actually embodies the message he is trying to convey and that the kynical actor's goal is typically a false regression that mocks authority – especially authority that the kynical actor considers corrupt, suspect or unworthy.[57] There is another discussion of Diogenes and the Cynics in Michel Foucault's book Fearless Speech. Here Foucault discusses Diogenes' antics in relation to the speaking of truth (parrhesia) in the ancient world. Foucault expands this reading in his last course at the Collège de France, The Courage of Truth. In this course Foucault tries to establish an alternative conception of militancy and revolution through a reading of Diogenes and Cynicism.[58] Diogenes syndrome[edit] Main article: Diogenes syndrome Diogenes' name has been applied to a behavioural disorder characterised by apparently involuntary self-neglect and hoarding.[59] The disorder afflicts the elderly and is quite inappropriately named, as Diogenes deliberately rejected common standards of material comfort, and was anything but a hoarder.[60] Depictions[edit] Art[edit] Alexander and Diogenes by Caspar de Crayer (c. 1650) Statue of Diogenes with Alexander the Great in Corinth Both in ancient and in modern times, Diogenes' personality has appealed strongly to sculptors and to painters. Ancient busts exist in the museums of the Vatican, the Louvre, and the Capitol. The interview between Diogenes and Alexander is represented in an ancient marble bas-relief found in the Villa Albani. Among artists who have painted the famous encounter of Diogenes with Alexander, there are works by de Crayer, de Vos, Assereto, Langetti, Sevin, Sebastiano Ricci, Gandolfi, Johann Christian Thomas Wink [de], Abildgaard, Monsiau, Martin, and Daumier. The famous story of Diogenes searching for an "honest man" has been depicted by Jordaens, van Everdingen, van der Werff, Pannini, Steen and Corinth. Others who have painted him with his famous lantern include de Ribera, Castiglione, Petrini, Gérôme, Bastien-Lepage, and Waterhouse. The scene in which Diogenes discards his cup has been painted by Poussin, Rosa, and Martin; and the story of Diogenes begging from a statue has been depicted by Restout. In Raphael's fresco The School of Athens, a lone reclining figure in the foreground represents Diogenes.[61] Diogenes, c. 1527, Ugo da Carpi, Parmigianino in the collection of the National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC. Diogenes has also been the subject of sculptures, with famous bas-relief images by Puget and Pajou. Comics[edit] In The Adventures of Nero album Het Zeespook (1948) Nero meets a character who claims to be Diogenes. Two scenes in the comic depict famous anecdotes of Diogenes' life, namely the moment when he was looking for a human and the moment when he asked Alexander to get out of his sun. He is also portrayed living in a barrel.[62] In the Suske en Wiske album De Mottenvanger Suske and Wiske travel back to ancient Greece, where they meet Diogenes.[63] Literature[edit] A 17th century depiction of Diogenes Diogenes is referred to in Anton Chekhov's story "Ward No. 6"; William Blake's The Marriage of Heaven and Hell; François Rabelais' Gargantua and Pantagruel; Goethe's poem Genialisch Treiben; Denis Diderot's philosophical novella Rameau's Nephew; as well as in the first sentence of Søren Kierkegaard's novelistic treatise Repetition. The story of Diogenes and the lamp is referenced by the character Foma Fomitch in Fyodor Dostoevsky's "The Friend of the Family" as well as "The Idiot". In Cervantes' short story "The Man of Glass" ("El licenciado Vidriera"), part of the Novelas Ejemplares collection, the (anti-)hero unaccountably begins to channel Diogenes in a string of tart chreiai once he becomes convinced that he is made of glass. Diogenes gives his own life and opinions in Christoph Martin Wieland's novel Socrates Mainomenos (1770; English translation Socrates Out of His Senses, 1771). Diogenes is the primary model for the philosopher Didactylos in Terry Pratchett's Small Gods. He is mimicked by a beggar-spy in Jacqueline Carey's Kushiel's Scion and paid tribute to with a costume in a party by the main character in its sequel, Kushiel's Justice. The character Lucy Snowe in Charlotte Brontë's novel Villette is given the nickname Diogenes. Diogenes also features in Part Four of Elizabeth Smart's By Grand Central Station I Sat Down and Wept. He is a figure in Seamus Heaney's The Haw Lantern. In Christopher Moore's Lamb: The Gospel According to Biff, Christ's Childhood Pal, one of Jesus' apostles is a devotee of Diogenes, complete with his own pack of dogs which he refers to as his own disciples. His story opens the first chapter of Dolly Freed's 1978 book Possum Living.[64] The dog that Paul Dombey befriends in Charles Dickens' Dombey and Son is called Diogenes. Alexander's meeting with Diogenes is portrayed in Valerio Manfredi's (Alexander Trilogy) "The Ends of the Earth".[65] William S. Burroughs has been described as "Diogenes with a knife and gun." [66] The many allusions to dogs in Shakespeare's Timon of Athens are references to the school of Cynicism that could be interpreted as suggesting a parallel between the misanthropic hermit, Timon, and Diogenes; but Shakespeare would have had access to Michel de Montaigne's essay, "Of Democritus and Heraclitus", which emphasised their differences: Timon actively wishes men ill and shuns them as dangerous, whereas Diogenes esteems them so little that contact with them could not disturb him.[67] "Timonism" is in fact often contrasted with "Cynicism": "Cynics saw what people could be and were angered by what they had become; Timonists felt humans were hopelessly stupid & uncaring by nature and so saw no hope for change."[68] The philosopher's name was adopted by the fictional Diogenes Club, an organization that Sherlock Holmes' brother Mycroft Holmes belongs to in the story "The Greek Interpreter" by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. It is called such as its members are educated, yet untalkative and have a dislike of socialising, much like the philosopher himself[citation needed]. The group is the focus of a number of Holmes pastiches by Kim Newman. In the Rodgers and Hart musical The Boys From Syracuse (1938), the song Oh Diogenes!—which extols the philosopher's virtues—contains the lyrics "there was an old zany/ who lived in a tub;/ he had so many flea-bites / he didn't know where to rub." References[edit] ^ a b c d Diogenes of Sinope "The Zen of Disengagement: Diogene of Sinope". Voice in the Wilderness. Archived from the original on 2015-10-17. ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, VI:79, Plutarch, Moralia, 717c. says that he died on the same day as Alexander the Great, which puts his death at 323 BC. Diogenes Laërtius's statement that Diogenes died "nearly 90" would put his year of birth at 412 BC. But Censorinus (De die natali, 15.2) says that he died at age 81, which puts his year of birth at 404 BC. The Suda puts his birth at the time of the Thirty Tyrants, which also gives 404 BC. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 6, 18, 21; Dio Chrysostom, Orations, viii. 1–4; Aelian, x. 16; Stobaeus, Florilegium, 13.19 ^ a b c The original Greek word describing Diogenes' "jar" is pithos, a large jar for storing wine, grain, or olive oil. Modern variations include barrel, tub, vat, wine-vat, and kennel. Desmond, William (2008). Cynics. University of California Press. p. 21. ISBN 9780520258358. Archived from the original on 2017-04-29. Retrieved 2016-02-23. ^ a b Laërtius & Hicks 1925, VI:32; Plutarch, Alexander, 14, On Exile, 15. ^ a b Plutarch, Alexander 14 ^ a b John M. Dillon (2004). Morality and Custom in Ancient Greece. Indiana University Press. pp. 187–88. ISBN 978-0-253-34526-4. ^ Diogenes of Sinope "The Basics of Philosophy". Archived from the original on 2012-05-05. Retrieved 2012-04-06. Retrieved November 13, 2011. ^ (Laërtius & Hicks 1925, VI:20). A trapezites was a banker/money-changer who could exchange currency, arrange loans, and was sometimes entrusted with the minting of currency. ^ Navia, Diogenes the Cynic, p. 226: "The word paracharaxis can be understood in various ways such as the defacement of currency or the counterfeiting of coins or the adulteration of money." ^ a b c Examined Lives from Socrates to Nietzsche by James Miller p. 76 ^ a b Laërtius & Hicks 1925, VI:20–21 ^ C. T. Seltman, Diogenes of Sinope, Son of the Banker Hikesias, in Transactions of the International Numismatic Congress 1936 (London 1938). ^ Plato, Republic, 2.359–2.360. ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, VI:55; Seneca, De Tranquillitate Animi, 8.7.; Aelian, Varia Historia, 13.28. ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, VI:21; Aelian, Varia Historia, 10.16.; Jerome, Adversus Jovinianum, 2.14. ^ Long 1996, p. 45 ^ Dudley 1937, p. 2 ^ Prince 2005, p. 77 ^ a b Examined Lives from Socrates to Nietzsche by James Miller p. 78 ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, VI:23 ; Jerome, Adversus Jovinianum, 2.14. ^ Examined lives from Socrates to Nietzsche by James Miller ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, VI:37; Seneca, Epistles, 90.14.; Jerome, Adversus Jovinianum, 2.14. ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, VI:41 ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, VI:32 ^ Desmond, William (1995). Being and the Between: Political Theory in the American Academy. SUNY Press. p. 106. ISBN 9780791422717. ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, VI:40 ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, VI:29 ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, VI:30–31 ^ "Diogenes of Sinope". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2006-04-26. Archived from the original on 2011-11-03. Retrieved 2011-11-13. ^ Dio Chrysostom, Or. 8.10 ^ Lucian (1905), "3", How to Write History ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, VI:38; Cicero, Tusculanae Quaestiones, 5.32.; Plutarch, Alexander, 14, On Exile, 15; Dio Chrysostom, Or. 4.14 ^ There is a similar anecdote in one of the dialogues of Lucian (Menippus Archived 2015-09-24 at the Wayback Machine, 15) but that story concerns Menippus in the underworld. ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, VI:76; Athenaeus, 8.341. ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, VI:77 ^ Cicero, Tusculanae Quaestiones, 1.43. ^ a b Laërtius & Hicks 1925, VI:78; Greek Anthology, 1.285.; Pausanias, 2.2.4. ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, VI:80 ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, VI:44 ^ Cicero, Tusculanae Quaestiones, 5.37.; Plutarch, On Exile, 5.; Epictetus, Discourses, i.9.1. ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, VI:63. Compare: Laërtius & Hicks 1925, VI:72, Dio Chrysostom, Or. 4.13, Epictetus, Discourses, iii.24.66. ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, VI:24 ^ Plato, Apology Archived 2009-09-24 at the Wayback Machine, 41e. ^ Xenophon, Apology Archived 2009-09-24 at the Wayback Machine, 1. ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, VI:54 ; Aelian, Varia Historia, 14.33. ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, VI:58, 69. Eating in public places was considered bad manners. ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, VI:46 ^ Dio Chrysostom, Or. 8.36; Julian, Orations, 6.202c. ^ a b Examined Lives from Socrates to Nietzsche by James Miller p. 80 ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, VI:34–35; Epictetus, Discourses, iii.2.11. Pointing with one's middle finger was considered insulting; with the finger pointing up instead of to another person, the finger gesture is considered obscene in modern times. ^ Cf. Plato, Republic Book II ^ Diogenes of Sinope, quoted by Stobaeus, Florilegium, iii. 13. 44. ^ "No document found". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Archived from the original on 2008-02-23. Retrieved 2018-08-07. ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, VI:13. Cf. The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature, 2nd edition, p. 165. ^ Scholium on Aristotle's Rhetoric, quoted in Dudley 1937, p. 5 ^ Sloterdijk, Peter (1983). Critique of Cynical Reason. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. pp. 1–600. ISBN 978-0816615865. ^ See the 7 March lecture Michel Foucault, The Courage of the Truth Lectures at the Collège de France (Palgrave Macmillan, 2011) ^ Hanon C, Pinquier C, Gaddour N, Saïd S, Mathis D, Pellerin J (2004). "[Diogenes syndrome: a transnosographic approach]". Encephale (in French). 30 (4): 315–22. doi:10.1016/S0013-7006(04)95443-7. PMID 15538307.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) ^ Navia, Diogenes the Cynic, p. 31 ^ Michelangelo and the Pope's Ceiling, by Ross King ^ "60 Jaar Nero". www.stripspeciaalzaak.be. Archived from the original on 2012-06-07. Retrieved 2016-12-16. ^ "Stripspeciaalzaak.be > De Honderd Hoogtepunten van Willy Vandersteen". www.stripspeciaalzaak.be. Archived from the original on 2016-04-06. Retrieved 2016-12-16. ^ "Possum Living by Dolly Freed". Archived from the original on January 21, 2009. ^ Manfredi, Valerio (2001). Alexander: The Ends of the Earth by Valerio Manfredi. ISBN 9780743434386. Archived from the original on 2017-04-29. Retrieved 2013-04-15. ^ Richard Seaver, "Rebel, Rebel," Los Angeles Times, 10 Aug 1997 online Archived 2016-02-22 at the Wayback Machine ^ Hugh Grady, "A Companion to Shakespeare's Works", Dutton. R & Howard J., Blakewell Publishing, 2003, ISBN 0-631-22632-X, pp. 443–44. ^ Paul Ollswang, "Cynicism: A Series of Cartoons on a Philosophical Theme", January 1988, page B at official site Archived 2012-03-22 at the Wayback Machine; repr. in The Best Comics of the Decade 1980-1990 Vol. 1, Seattle, 1990, ISBN 1-56097-035-9, p. 23. Sources[edit] Desmond, William D. 2008. Cynics. Acumen / University of California Press. Dudley, Donald R. (1937). A History of Cynicism from Diogenes to the 6th Century A.D. Cambridge.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Laërtius, Diogenes; Plutarch (1979). Herakleitos & Diogenes. Translated by Guy Davenport. Bolinas, California: Grey Fox Press. ISBN 978-0-912516-36-3. (Contains 124 sayings of Diogenes) Laërtius, Diogenes (1972) [1925]. "Διογένης (Diogenes)". Βίοι καὶ γνῶμαι τῶν ἐν φιλοσοφίᾳ εὐδοκιμησάντων [Lives of eminent philosophers]. Volume 2. Translated by Robert Drew Hicks (Loeb Classical Library ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-99204-7. Long, A. A. (1996). "The Socratic Tradition: Diogenes, Crates, and Hellenistic Ethics". In Bracht Branham, R.; Goulet-Cazé, Marie-Odile (eds.). The Cynics: The Cynic Movement in Antiquity and Its Legacy. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-21645-7.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Navia, Luis E. (2005). Diogenes The Cynic: The War Against The World. Amherst, N.Y: Humanity Books. ISBN 978-1-59102-320-3.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Prince, Susan (2005). "Socrates, Antisthenes, and the Cynics". In Ahbel-Rappe, Sara; Kamtekar, Rachana (eds.). A Companion to Socrates. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4051-0863-8.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Sloterdijk, Peter (1987). Critique of Cynical Reason. Translation by Michael Eldred; foreword by Andreas Huyssen. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-1586-5.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Further reading[edit] Cutler, Ian (2005). Cynicism from Diogenes to Dilbert. Jefferson, Va.: McFarland & Company, Inc. ISBN 978-0-7864-2093-3. Mazella, David (2007). The making of modern cynicism. Charlottesville, Va.: University of Virginia Press. ISBN 978-0-8139-2615-5. Navia, Luis E. (1996). Classical cynicism : a critical study. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-30015-8. Navia, Luis E. (1998). Diogenes of Sinope : the man in the tub. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-30672-3. Hard, Robin (2012). Diogenes the Cynic: Sayings and Anecdotes, With Other Popular Moralists, Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-958924-1 Shea, Louisa (2010). The cynic enlightenment : Diogenes in the salon. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-9385-8. External links[edit] Wikisource has original works written by or about: Diogenes of Sinope Wikiquote has quotations related to: Diogenes of Sinope Wikimedia Commons has media related to Diogenes of Sinope. "Diogenes of Sinope". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 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Related articles Casuistry Christian ethics Descriptive ethics Ethics in religion Evolutionary ethics Feminist ethics History of ethics Ideology Islamic ethics Jewish ethics Moral psychology Philosophy of law Political philosophy Population ethics Social philosophy Category Authority control BIBSYS: 95001377 BNE: XX1040046 BNF: cb134989147 (data) CANTIC: a10488297 GND: 118525867 ISNI: 0000 0000 9260 571X LCCN: n50060366 LNB: 000072807 NKC: ola2008481283 NLG: 45316 NTA: 069915547 RERO: 02-A005492126 SUDOC: 068525354 Trove: 1105724 ULAN: 500354445 VcBA: 495/14055 VIAF: 13557547 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n50060366 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diogenes&oldid=995707183" Categories: Diogenes 410s BC births 323 BC deaths 4th-century BC philosophers Ancient Greek agnostics Ancient Greek bankers Ancient Greek ethicists Ancient Greek slaves and freedmen Ancient Pontic Greeks Anti-consumerists Ascetics Cosmopolitanism Cultural critics Cynic philosophers Founders of philosophical traditions Hermits Metic philosophers in Classical Athens Moral philosophers People from Sinop, Turkey Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great Philosophers of culture Philosophers of economics Philosophers of ethics and morality Philosophers of mind Proto-anarchists Simple living Simple living advocates Social commentators Social critics Social philosophers Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links CS1 maint: ref=harv CS1 French-language sources (fr) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles with hCards Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2014 CS1: long volume value Commons category link is on Wikidata Articles with Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages Аҧсшәа العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Башҡортса Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Català Чӑвашла Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം مصرى Nederlands Nedersaksies 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پښتو Piemontèis Polski Ποντιακά Português Română Русский Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Võro Winaray 吴语 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 December 2020, at 13:32 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-619	----	Category:Golden Age Latin writers - Wikipedia Help Category:Golden Age Latin writers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Authors writing in Latin from the first century BC to the end of the reign of Augustus Caesar. See also: Category:Silver Age Latin writers. Pages in category "Golden Age Latin writers" The following 50 pages are in this category, out of 50 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). A Marcus Actorius Naso Valerius Aedituus Lucius Afranius (poet) Marcus Antistius Labeo Varro Atacinus C Aulus Caecina Severus (writer) Gaius Cassius Parmensis Cassius Severus Catullus Cicero Cincius Cornelius Severus Cornificia D Domitius Marsus F Fenestella Nigidius Figulus Verrius Flaccus Marcus Furius Bibaculus G Granius Flaccus Grattius H Aulus Hirtius Horace J Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Hyginus L Decimus Laberius Licinius Macer Calvus Livy Lucretius M Aemilius Macer Licinius Macer Gaius Maecenas Gaius Matius Gaius Maecenas Melissus N Cornelius Nepos O Ovid P Albinovanus Pedo Propertius R Lucius Varius Rufus Publius Rutilius Rufus S Sabinus (Ovid) Sallust Abronius Silo Sulpicia Publilius Syrus T Tibullus Plotius Tucca V Valgius Rufus Marcus Terentius Varro Virgil Vitruvius Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Golden_Age_Latin_writers&oldid=953191063" Categories: 1st-century BC writers Classical Latin-language writers Hidden categories: CatAutoTOC generates no TOC Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Ελληνικά فارسی Հայերեն Scots اردو Edit links This page was last edited on 26 April 2020, at 04:05 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-620	----	Joachim du Bellay - Wikipedia Joachim du Bellay From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Joachim du Bellay" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (November 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (February 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Joachim du Bellay Born c. 1522 Liré, Anjou, France Died (1560-01-01)1 January 1560 Paris, France Occupation Poet Nationality French Period 16th century Genre Poetry Notable works Les Regrets French literature by category French literary history Medieval Renaissance 17th 18th 19th 20th century Contemporary French writers Chronological list Writers by category Essayists Novelists Playwrights Poets Short story writers Children's writers Portals France Literature v t e Joachim du Bellay (also Joachim Du Bellay; French: [ʒoaʃɛ̃ dy bɛlɛ]; c. 1522 – 1 January 1560)[1] was a French poet, critic, and a founder of the Pléiade. He notably wrote the manifesto of the group: Défense et illustration de la langue française, which aimed at promoting French as an artistic language, equal to Greek and Latin. Contents 1 Biography 2 Last works and death 3 Bibliography 4 References 5 Further reading 6 External links Biography[edit] Joachim du Bellay was born at the Castle of La Turmelière, not far from Liré, near Angers, being the son of Jean du Bellay, Lord of Gonnor, first cousin of the cardinal Jean du Bellay and of Guillaume du Bellay. His mother was Renée Chabot, daughter of Perceval Chabot and heiress of La Turmelière (Plus me plaît le séjour qu'ont bâti mes aïeux). Both his parents died while he was still a child, and he was left to the guardianship of his elder brother, René du Bellay, who neglected his education, leaving him to run wild at La Turmelière. When he was twenty-three, however, he received permission to study law at the University of Poitiers, no doubt with a view to his obtaining preferment through his kinsman the Cardinal Jean du Bellay. At Poitiers he came in contact with the humanist Marc Antoine Muret, and with Jean Salmon Macrin (1490–1557), a Latin poet famous in his day. There too he probably met Jacques Peletier du Mans, who had published a translation of the Ars Poetica of Horace, with a preface in which much of the program advocated later by La Pléiade is to be found in outline. It was probably in 1547 that du Bellay met Ronsard in an inn on the way to Poitiers, an event which may justly be regarded as the starting-point of the French school of Renaissance poetry. The two had much in common, and became fast friends. Du Bellay returned with Ronsard to Paris to join the circle of students of the humanities attached to Jean Dorat at the Collège de Coqueret. While Ronsard and Jean-Antoine de Baïf were most influenced by Greek models, du Bellay was more especially a Latinist, and perhaps his preference for a language so nearly connected with his own had some part in determining the more national and familiar note of his poetry. In 1548 appeared the Art poétique of Thomas Sébillet, who enunciated many of the ideas that Ronsard and his followers had at heart, though with essential differences in the point of view, since he held up as models Clément Marot and his disciples. Ronsard and his friends dissented violently from Sébillet on this and other points, and they doubtless felt a natural resentment at finding their ideas forestalled and, moreover, inadequately presented. The famous manifesto of the Pléiade, the Défense et illustration de la langue française (Defense and Illustration of the French Language, 1549), was at once a complement and a refutation of Sébillet's treatise. This book (inspired in part by Sperone Speroni's Dialogo delle lingue, 1542) was the expression of the literary principles of the Pléiade as a whole, but although Ronsard was the chosen leader, its redaction was entrusted to du Bellay. This work also bolstered French political debate as a means of learned men to reform their country.[2] To obtain a clear view of the reforms aimed at by the Pléiade, the Defence should be further considered in connection with Ronsard's Abrégé d'art poétique and his preface to the Franciade. Du Bellay maintained that the French language as it was then constituted was too poor to serve as a medium for the higher forms of poetry, but he contended that by proper cultivation it might be brought on a level with the classical tongues. He condemned those who despaired of their mother tongue, and used Latin for their more serious and ambitious work. For translations from the ancients he would substitute imitations, though he does not in the Defense explain precisely how one is to go about this. Not only were the forms of classical poetry to be imitated, but a separate poetic language and style, distinct from those employed in prose, were to be used. The French language was to be enriched by a development of its internal resources and by discreet borrowing from Italian, Latin and Greek. Both du Bellay and Ronsard laid stress on the necessity of prudence in these borrowings, and both repudiated the charge of wishing to Latinize their mother tongue. The book was a spirited defence of poetry and of the possibilities of the French language; it was also a declaration of war on those writers who held less heroic views. The violent attacks made by du Bellay on Marot and his followers, and on Sébillet, did not go unanswered. Sébillet replied in the preface to his translation of the Iphigenia of Euripides; Guillaume des Autels, a Lyonnese poet, reproached du Bellay with ingratitude to his predecessors, and showed the weakness of his argument for imitation as opposed to translation in a digression in his Réplique aux furieuses defenses de Louis Meigret (Lyons, 1550); Barthélemy Aneau, regent of the Collège de la Trinité at Lyons, attacked him in his Quintil Horatian (Lyons, 1551), the authorship of which was commonly attributed to Charles Fontaine. Aneau pointed out the obvious inconsistency of inculcating imitation of the ancients and depreciating native poets in a work professing to be a defence of the French language. Du Bellay replied to his various assailants in a preface to the second edition (1550) of his sonnet sequence Olive, with which he also published two polemical poems, the Musagnaeomachie, and an ode addressed to Ronsard, Contre les envieux fioles. Olive, a collection of sonnets modeled after the poetry of Petrarch, Ariosto, and contemporary Italians published by Gabriele Giolito de' Ferrari, first appeared in 1549. With it were printed thirteen odes entitled Vers lyriques. Olive has been supposed to be an anagram for the name of a Mlle Viole, but there is little evidence of real passion in the poems, and they may perhaps be regarded as a Petrarchan exercise, especially as, in the second edition, the dedication to his lady is exchanged for one to Marguerite de Valois, daughter of Henry II. Du Bellay did not actually introduce the sonnet into French poetry, but he acclimatized it; and when the fashion of sonneteering became a mania he was one of the first to ridicule its excesses. About this time du Bellay had a serious illness of two years' duration, from which dates the beginning of his deafness. He had further anxieties in the guardianship of his nephew. The boy died in 1553, and Joachim, who had up to this time borne the title of sieur de Liré, became seigneur of Gonnor. In 1549 he had published a Recueil de poésies dedicated to the Princess Marguerite. This was followed in 1552 by a version of the fourth book of the Aeneid, with other translations and some occasional poems. In the next year he went to Rome as one of the secretaries of Cardinal du Bellay. To the beginning of his four and a half years' residence in Italy belong the forty-seven sonnets of his Antiquités de Rome, published in 1558. Sonnet III of the Antiquités, "Nouveau venu qui cherches Rome en Rome," has been shown to reflect the direct influence of a Latin poem by a Renaissance writer named Jean or Janis Vitalis. The Antiquités were rendered into English by Edmund Spenser (The Ruins of Rome, 1591), and the sonnet "Nouveau venu qui cherches Rome en Rome" was rendered into Spanish by Francisco de Quevedo ("A Roma sepultada en sus ruinas," 1650).[3] These sonnets were more personal and less imitative than the Olive sequence, and struck a note which was revived in later French literature by Volney and Chateaubriand. His stay in Rome was, however, a real exile. His duties were those of an attendant. He had to meet the cardinal's creditors and to find money for the expenses of the household. Nevertheless, he found many friends among Italian scholars, and formed a close friendship with another exiled poet whose circumstances were similar to his own, Olivier de Magny. Towards the end of his sojourn in Rome he fell violently in love with a Roman lady called Faustine, who appears in his poetry as Columba and Columbelle. This passion finds its clearest expression in the Latin poems. Faustine was guarded by an old and jealous husband, and du Bellay's eventual conquest may have had something to do with his departure for Paris at the end of August 1557. In the next year he published the poems he had brought back with him from Rome, the Latin Poemata, the Antiquités de Rome, the Divers Jeux Rustiques, and the 191 sonnets of the Regrets, the greater number of which were written in Italy. The Regrets show that he had moved away from the theories of the Défence. The simplicity and tenderness specially characteristic of du Bellay appear in the sonnets telling of his unlucky passion for Faustine, and of his nostalgia for the banks of the Loire. Among them are some satirical sonnets describing Roman manners, and the later ones written after his return to Paris are often appeals for patronage. His intimate relations with Ronsard were not renewed, but he formed a close friendship with the scholar Jean de Morel, whose house was the centre of a learned society. In 1559 du Bellay published at Poitiers La Nouvelle Manière de faire son profit des lettres, a satirical epistle translated from the Latin of Adrien Turnèbe, and with it Le Poète courtisan, which introduced the formal satire into French poetry. The Nouvelle Manière is believed to be directed at Pierre de Paschal, who was elected as royal historiographer, and who had promised to write Latin biographies of the great, but who in fact never wrote anything of the sort. Both works were published under the pseudonym of J Quintil du Troussay, and the courtier-poet was generally supposed to be Mellin de Saint-Gelais, with whom du Bellay had always, however, been on friendly terms. Last works and death[edit] A long and eloquent Discours au roi (detailing the duties of a prince, and translated from a Latin original written by Michel de l'Hôpital, now lost) was dedicated to Francis II in 1559, and is said to have secured for the poet a tardy pension, although it was not published until 1567, after his death.[1] In Paris he was still in the employ of the cardinal, who delegated to him the lay patronage which he still retained in the diocese. In the exercise of these functions Joachim quarrelled with Eustache du Bellay, bishop of Paris, who prejudiced his relations with the cardinal, less cordial since the publication of the outspoken Regrets. His chief patron, Marguerite de Valois, to whom he was sincerely attached, had gone to Savoy. Du Bellay's health was weak; his deafness seriously hindered his official duties; and on 1 January 1560 he died at the age of 38. There is no evidence that he was in priest's orders, but he was a clerk, and as such held various preferments. He had at one time been a canon of Notre Dame of Paris, and was accordingly buried in the cathedral. The statement that he was nominated archbishop of Bordeaux during the last year of life is unauthenticated by documentary evidence and is in itself extremely improbable. Bibliography[edit] The best edition of his collected works in French is still that produced by Henri Chamard in six volumes. Also, there are the Œuvres francaises (2 vols., 1866–1867), edited with introduction and notes by C. Marty-Laveaux in his Pléiade française. His Œuvres choisies were published by L. Becq de Fouquières in 1876. The chief source of his biography is his own poetry, especially the Latin elegy addressed to Jean de Morel, "Elegia ad Janum Morellum Ebredunensem, Pytadem suum," printed with a volume of Xenia (Paris, 1569). A study of his life and writings by H. Chamard, forming vol. viii. of the Travaux et mémoires de l'université de Lille (Lute, 1900), contains all the available information and corrects many common errors. References[edit] ^ a b Smith, Malcolm (1974). Joachim Du Bellay's Veiled Victim: With an Edition of the Xenia, Seu Illustrium Quorundam Nominum Allusiones. Librairie Droz. pp. 50–. ISBN 978-2-600-03901-7. ^ Jones, Colin (1994). The Cambridge Illustrated History of France (1st ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 133. ISBN 0-521-43294-4. ^ Zarucchi, Jeanne Morgan (1997). "Du Bellay, Spenser, and Quevedo Search for Rome: A Teacher's Peregrination". The French Review. 17:2: 192–203.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Du Bellay, Joachim". Encyclopædia Britannica. 8 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 616–617. Further reading[edit] Sainte-Beuve, Tableau de la poésie française au XVI siècle (1828) La Défense et illust. de la langue française (1905), with biographical and critical introduction by Léon Séché, who also wrote Joachim du Bellay--documents nouveaux et inédits (1880), and published in 1903 the first volume of a new edition of the Œuvres Lettres de Joachim du Bellay (1884), edited by Pierre de Nolhac Walter Pater, "Joachim du Bellay", essay in The Renaissance (1873) [1] pp. 155–176 George Wyndham, Ronsard and La Pléiade (1906) Hilaire Belloc, Avril (1905) Arthur Tilley, The Literature of the French Renaissance (2 vols., 1904). Ursula Hennigfeld, Der ruinierte Körper. Petrarkistische Sonette in transkultureller Perspektive. Königshausen & Neuman, Würzburg (2008). External links[edit] Works by or about Joachim du Bellay at Internet Archive Works by Joachim du Bellay at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Biography, Bibliography, Analysis (in French) University of Virginia's Gordon Project A 1569 edition of du Bellay's works and background information The first complete translation into English of Du Bellay's Antiquités de Rome since Spenser Lyrics of the French Renaissance: Marot, Du Bellay, Ronsard By Norman R. Shapiro - (in French and English) - Google books Authority control BIBSYS: 90077184 BNE: XX1721244 BNF: cb123220047 (data) CANTIC: a11398450 GND: 118527649 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\074850 ISNI: 0000 0001 2278 5556 LCCN: n50047295 LNB: 000085095 MBA: 777c52d9-615b-4d03-893a-a26801918571 NDL: 00551903 NKC: jn19981000776 NLA: 35046440 NLI: 000411298 NSK: 000127993 NTA: 070354405 SELIBR: 210860 SNAC: w6p26zk6 SUDOC: 032130759 Trove: 811032 VcBA: 495/19085 VIAF: 39447168 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n50047295 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joachim_du_Bellay&oldid=992682469" Categories: 1520s births 1560 deaths People from Maine-et-Loire 16th-century male writers 16th-century Latin-language writers University of Poitiers alumni Clerks French Renaissance New Latin-language poets Sonneteers 16th-century French poets French male poets Du Bellay family Hidden categories: Articles needing additional references from November 2018 All articles needing additional references Articles lacking in-text citations from February 2012 All articles lacking in-text citations Articles with multiple maintenance issues Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with LibriVox links Articles with French-language sources (fr) Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages العربية Asturianu تۆرکجه Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Қазақша Latina Magyar Македонски مازِرونی Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 December 2020, at 15:31 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-622	----	Equites - Wikipedia Equites From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the play by Aristophanes called equites in Latin, see The Knights. Part of a series of articles on Monarchy Central concepts Monarch Monarchism Imperialism Divine right of kings Mandate of Heaven Types Absolute Chinese Legalist Composite Constitutional Crowned republic Diarchy Dual Elective Emirate Ethnarch Federal Hereditary Personal union Non-sovereign Popular Regency Coregency Tetrarch Triarchy Universal History Birth of the Roman Empire Magna Carta Foundation of the Ottoman Empire Glorious Revolution French Revolution Trienio Liberal First French Empire Liberal Wars Second French Empire Italian unification Meiji Restoration Austro-Hungarian Compromise German unification 5 October 1910 Revolution Proclamation of the Republic in Brazil Chinese Revolution Russian Revolution Siamese revolution of 1932 Birth of the Italian Republic Spanish transition to democracy Iranian Revolution Modern Cambodia Nepalese Civil War Related topics Aristocracy Nobility Autocracy Chamberlain Conservatism Despotism Dynasty List Enlightened absolutism Thomas Hobbes Legitimists Orléanist Oligarchy Peerage Philosopher king Primogeniture Rank Royalism Regicide Regnal number Royal family Style Ultra-royalist Politics portal v t e Part of a series on Imperial, royal, noble, gentry and chivalric ranks in Europe Emperor · Empress · King-Emperor · Queen-Empress · Kaiser · Tsar · Tsarina High king · High queen · Great king · Great queen King · Queen Archduke · Archduchess · Tsesarevich Grand prince · Grand princess Grand duke · Grand duchess Prince-elector · Prince · Princess · Crown prince · Crown princess · Foreign prince · Prince du sang · Infante · Infanta · Dauphin · Dauphine · Królewicz · Królewna · Jarl · Tsarevich · Tsarevna Duke · Duchess · Herzog · Knyaz · Princely count Sovereign prince · Sovereign princess · Fürst · Fürstin · Boyar Marquess · Marquis · Marchioness · Margrave · Marcher Lord  · Landgrave · Count palatine Count · Countess · Earl · Graf · Châtelain · Castellan · Burgrave Viscount · Viscountess · Vidame Baron · Baroness · Freiherr · Advocatus · Lord of Parliament · Thane · Lendmann Baronet · Baronetess · Scottish Feudal Baron · Scottish Feudal Baroness · Ritter · Imperial Knight Eques · Knight · Chevalier · Ridder · Lady · Dame · Sir · Sire · Madam · Edelfrei · Seigneur · Lord · Laird Lord of the manor · Gentleman · Gentry · Esquire · Edler · Jonkheer · Junker · Younger · Maid · Don Ministerialis v t e The equites (/ˈɛkwɪtiːz/; Latin: eques nom. singular; sometimes referred to as "knights" in modern times) constituted the second of the property-based classes of ancient Rome, ranking below the senatorial class. A member of the equestrian order was known as an eques. Contents 1 Description 2 Regal era (753–509 BC) 3 Early republic (509–338 BC) 4 Later republic (338–30 BC) 4.1 Transformation of state and army (338–290) 4.2 Political role 4.3 Military officer role 4.4 Cavalry role 4.5 Ethos 4.6 Business activities 4.7 Privileges 5 Augustan equestrian order (Principate era) 5.1 Differentiation of the senatorial order 5.2 Ordo equester under Augustus 5.3 Equestrian public careers 5.4 Relations with the emperor 5.5 Oligarchical rule in the early principate (to AD 197) 5.6 Equestrian hierarchy 6 Equestrians in the later empire (AD 197–395) 6.1 Rise of the military equestrians (3rd century) 6.2 Idle aristocracy (4th century) 7 Notes 8 See also 9 Citations 10 References 10.1 Ancient 10.2 Modern 11 Further reading 12 External links Description[edit] During the Roman kingdom and the first century of the Roman Republic, legionary cavalry was recruited exclusively from the ranks of the patricians, who were expected to provide six centuriae of cavalry (300 horses for each consular legion). Around 400 BC, 12 more centuriae of cavalry were established and these included non-patricians (plebeians). Around 300 BC the Samnite Wars obliged Rome to double the normal annual military levy from two to four legions, doubling the cavalry levy from 600 to 1,200 horses. Legionary cavalry started to recruit wealthier citizens from outside the 18 centuriae. These new recruits came from the first class of commoners in the Centuriate Assembly organisation, and were not granted the same privileges. By the time of the Second Punic War (218–202 BC), all the members of the first class of commoners were required to serve as cavalrymen. The presence of equites in the Roman cavalry diminished steadily in the period 200–88 BC as only equites could serve as the army's senior officers; as the number of legions proliferated fewer were available for ordinary cavalry service. After c. 88 BC, equites were no longer drafted into the legionary cavalry, although they remained technically liable to such service throughout the principate era (to AD 284). They continued to supply the senior officers of the army throughout the principate. With the exception of the purely hereditary patricians, the equites were originally defined by a property threshold. The rank was passed from father to son, although members of the order who at the regular quinquennial census no longer met the property requirement were usually removed from the order's rolls by the Roman censors. In the late republic, the property threshold stood at 50,000 denarii and was doubled to 100,000 by the emperor Augustus (sole rule 30 BC – AD 14) – roughly the equivalent to the annual salaries of 450 contemporary legionaries. In the later republican period, Roman senators and their offspring became an unofficial elite within the equestrian order. As senators' abilities to engage in commerce was strictly limited by law, the bulk of non-agricultural activities were in the hands of non-senatorial equites. As well as holding large landed estates, equites came to dominate mining, shipping and manufacturing industry. In particular, tax farming companies (publicani) were almost all in the hands of equites. Under Augustus, the senatorial elite was given formal status (as the ordo senatorius) with a higher wealth threshold (250,000 denarii, or the pay of 1,100 legionaries) and superior rank and privileges to ordinary equites. During the principate, equites filled the senior administrative and military posts of the imperial government. There was a clear division between jobs reserved for senators (the most senior) and those reserved for non-senatorial equites. But the career structure of both groups was broadly similar: a period of junior administrative posts in Rome or Roman Italy, followed by a period (normally a decade) of military service as a senior army officer, followed by senior administrative or military posts in the provinces. Senators and equites formed a tiny elite of under 10,000 members who monopolised political, military and economic power in an empire of about 60 million inhabitants. During the 3rd century AD, power shifted from the Italian aristocracy to a class of equites who had earned their membership by distinguished military service, often rising from the ranks: career military officers from the provinces (especially the Balkan provinces) who displaced the Italian aristocrats in the top military posts, and under Diocletian (ruled 284–305) from the top civilian positions also. This effectively reduced the Italian aristocracy to an idle, but immensely wealthy, group of landowners. During the 4th century, the status of equites was debased to insignificance by excessive grants of the rank. At the same time the ranks of senators were swollen to over 4,000 by the establishment of the Byzantine Senate, a second senate in Constantinople and the tripling of the membership of both senates. The senatorial order of the 4th century was thus the equivalent of the equestrian order of the principate. Regal era (753–509 BC)[edit] According to Roman legend, Rome was founded by its first king, Romulus, in 753 BC. However, archaeological evidence suggests that Rome did not acquire the character of a unified city-state (as opposed to a number of separate hilltop settlements) until c. 625 BC.[1] Roman tradition relates that the Order of Knights was founded by Romulus, who supposedly established a cavalry regiment of 300 men called the Celeres ("Swift Squadron") to act as his personal escort, with each of the three Roman "tribes" (actually voting constituencies) supplying 100 horses. This cavalry regiment was supposedly doubled in size to 600 men by King Lucius Tarquinius Priscus (traditional dates 616–578 BC).[2] That the cavalry was increased to 600 during the regal era is plausible, as in the early republic the cavalry fielded remained 600-strong (two legions with 300 horses each).[3] However, according to Livy, King Servius Tullius (traditional reign-dates 578–535 BC) established a further 12 centuriae of equites, a further tripling of the cavalry.[4] Yet this is probably anachronistic, as it would have resulted in a contingent of 1,800 horse, incongruously large, compared to the heavy infantry, which was probably only 6,000 strong in the late regal period. Instead, the additional 12 centuriae were probably created at a later stage, perhaps around 400 BC, but these new units were political not military, most likely designed to admit plebeians to the Order of Knights.[5] Apparently, equites were originally provided with a sum of money by the state to purchase a horse for military service and for its fodder. This was known as an equus publicus.[4] Theodor Mommsen argues that the royal cavalry was drawn exclusively from the ranks of the patricians (patricii), the aristocracy of early Rome, which was purely hereditary.[6] Apart from the traditional association of the aristocracy with horsemanship, the evidence for this view is the fact that, during the republic, six centuriae (voting constituencies) of equites in the comitia centuriata (electoral assembly) retained the names of the original six royal cavalry centuriae.[4][Note 1] These are very likely the "centuriae of patrician nobles" in the comitia mentioned by the lexicologist Sextus Pompeius Festus. If this view is correct, it implies that the cavalry was exclusively patrician (and therefore hereditary) in the regal period. (However, Cornell considers the evidence tenuous).[7] Early republic (509–338 BC)[edit] It is widely accepted that the Roman monarchy was overthrown by a patrician coup, probably provoked by the Tarquin dynasty's populist policies in favour of the plebeian class.[Note 2] Alfoldi suggests that the coup was carried out by the celeres themselves.[10] According to the Fraccaro interpretation, when the Roman monarchy was replaced with two annually elected praetores (later called "consuls"), the royal army was divided equally between them for campaigning purposes, which, if true, explains why Polybius later said that a legion's cavalry contingent was 300 strong.[11] The 12 additional centuriae ascribed by Livy to Servius Tullius were, in reality, probably formed around 400 BC. In 403 BC, according to Livy, in a crisis during the siege of Veii, the army urgently needed to deploy more cavalry, and "those who possessed equestrian rating but had not yet been assigned public horses" volunteered to pay for their horses out of their own pockets. By way of compensation, pay was introduced for cavalry service, as it had already been for the infantry (in 406 BC).[12] The persons referred to in this passage were probably members of the 12 new centuriae who were entitled to public horses, but temporarily waived that privilege. Mommsen, however, argues that the passage refers to members of the first class of commoners being admitted to cavalry service in 403 BC for the first time as an emergency measure. If so, this group may be the original so-called equites equo privato, a rank that is attested throughout the history of the republic (in contrast to equites equo publico). However, due to a lack of evidence, the origins and definition of equo privato equites remain obscure. It is widely agreed that the 12 new centuriae were open to non-patricians.[13] Thus, from this date if not earlier, not all equites were patricians. The patricians, as a closed hereditary caste, steadily diminished in numbers over the centuries, as families died out. Around 450 BC, there are some 50 patrician gentes (clans) recorded, whereas just 14 remained at the time of Julius Caesar (dictator of Rome 48–44 BC), whose own Iulii clan was patrician.[14] In contrast, the ranks of equites, although also hereditary (in the male line), were open to new entrants who met the property requirement and who satisfied the Roman censors that they were suitable for membership.[15] As a consequence, patricians rapidly became only a small minority of the equestrian order. However, patricians retained political influence greatly out of proportion with their numbers. Until 172 BC, one of the two consuls elected each year had to be a patrician.[14] In addition, patricians may have retained their original six centuriae, which gave them a third of the total voting-power of the equites, even though they constituted only a tiny minority of the order by 200 BC. Patricians also enjoyed official precedence, such as the right to speak first in senatorial debates, which were initiated by the princeps senatus (Leader of the Senate), a position reserved for patricians. In addition, patricians monopolized certain priesthoods and continued to enjoy enormous prestige.[16] Later republic (338–30 BC)[edit] Transformation of state and army (338–290)[edit] The period following the end of the Latin War (340–338 BC) and of the Samnite Wars (343–290) saw the transformation of the Roman Republic from a powerful but beleaguered city-state into the hegemonic power of the Italian peninsula. This was accompanied by profound changes in its constitution and army. Internally, the critical development was the emergence of the senate as the all-powerful organ of state.[17] By 280 BC, the senate had assumed total control of state taxation, expenditure, declarations of war, treaties, raising of legions, establishing colonies and religious affairs. In other words, of virtually all political power. From an ad hoc group of advisors appointed by the consuls, the senate had become a permanent body of around 300 life peers who, as largely former Roman magistrates, boasted enormous experience and influence.[17] At the same time, the political unification of the Latin nation, under Roman rule after 338 BC, gave Rome a populous regional base from which to launch its wars of aggression against its neighbours.[18] The grueling contest for Italian hegemony that Rome fought against the Samnite League led to the transformation of the Roman army from the Greek-style hoplite phalanx that it was in the early period, to the Italian-style manipular army described by Polybius. It is believed that the Romans copied the manipular structure from their enemies the Samnites, learning through hard experience its greater flexibility and effectiveness in the mountainous terrain of central Italy.[19] It is also from this period that every Roman army that took the field was regularly accompanied by at least as many troops supplied by the socii (Rome's Italian military confederates, often referred to as "Latin allies").[20] Each legion would be matched by a confederate ala (literally: "wing"), a formation that contained roughly the same number of infantry as a legion, but three times the number of horses (900).[21] Legionary cavalry also probably underwent a transformation during this period, from the light, unarmoured horsemen of the early period to the Greek-style armoured cuirassiers described by Polybius.[22] As a result of the demands of the Samnite hostilities, a normal consular army was doubled in size to two legions, making four legions raised annually overall. Roman cavalry in the field thus increased to approximately 1,200 horses.[19] This now represented only 25% of the army's total cavalry contingent, the rest being supplied by the Italian confederates. A legion's modest cavalry share of 7% of its 4,500 total strength was thus increased to 12% in a confederate army, comparable with (or higher than) any other forces in Italy except the Gauls and also similar to those in Greek armies such as Pyrrhus's.[23] Political role[edit] Despite an ostensibly democratic constitution based on the sovereignty of the people, the Roman Republic was in reality a classic oligarchy, in which political power was monopolised by the richest social echelon.[24] Probably by 300 BC, the centuriate organisation of the Roman citizen body for political purposes achieved the evolved form described by Polybius and Livy. The comitia centuriata was the most powerful people's assembly, as it promulgated Roman laws and annually elected the Roman magistrates, the executive officers of the state: consuls, praetors, aediles and quaestors.[25] In the assembly, the citizen body was divided into 193 centuriae, or voting constituencies. Of these, 18 were allocated to equites (including patricians) and a further 80 to the first class of commoners, securing an absolute majority of the votes (98 out of 193) for the wealthiest echelon of society, although it constituted only a small minority of the citizenry. (The lowest class, the proletarii, rated at under 400 drachmae, had just one vote, despite being the most numerous).[25] As a result, the wealthiest echelon could ensure that the elected magistrates were always their own members. In turn, this ensured that the senate was dominated by the wealthy classes, as its membership was composed almost entirely of current and former magistrates.[25] Analysis of Roman centuriate organisation[26] Class Property rating (drachmae: denarii after 211 BC) No. of votes in electoral assembly Military service Aristocrats Patricii (patricians) n.a. (hereditary) 6 Officers and legionary cavalry Equites (knights) hereditary/over 25,000?* 12 Officers and legionary cavalry Commoners First class 10,000 – 25,000? 80 Legionary cavalry Second class 7,500 – 10,000 20 Legionary infantry Third class 5,000 – 7,500 20 Legionary infantry Fourth class 2,500 – 5,000 20 Legionary infantry Fifth class 400 (or 1,100) – 2,500 30 Legionary infantry (velites) Proletarii (capite censi) Under 400 (or 1,100) 1 Fleets (oarsmen) Military officer role[edit] A Roman senior officer (centre) of the time of Polybius, as depicted on a bas-relief from the Altar of Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus, c. 122 BC. Probably a tribunus militum (joint legionary commander), the officer wears a decorated bronze cuirass, pteruges, mantle, and Attic-style helmet with horsehair plume. The sash around his cuirass probably denoted knightly rank. In the republican army, tribuni were elected by the comitia centuriata (main people's assembly) from the members of the equestrian order. Musée du Louvre, Paris. A Roman coin issued during the Second Punic War (218–201 BC) showing (obverse) the god of war Mars and (reverse) probably the earliest image of a Roman cavalryman of the republican era. Helmet with horsehair plume, long spear (hasta), small round shield (parma equestris), and flowing mantle. Roman cavalry was levied from the equites, and from volunteers of the second property class, until the early 1st century BC. Bronze quincunx from Larinum mint. In the "polybian" army of the mid-republic (338 – 88 BC), equites held the exclusive right to serve as senior officers of the army.[27] These were the six tribuni militum in each legion who were elected by the comitia at the start of each campaigning season and took turns to command the legion in pairs; the praefecti sociorum, commanders of the Italian confederate alae, who were appointed by the consuls; and the three decurions that led each squadron (turma) of legionary cavalry (a total of 30 decurions per legion).[28] Cavalry role[edit] Main article: Roman cavalry As their name implies, equites were liable to cavalry service in the legion of the mid-republic. They originally provided a legion's entire cavalry contingent, although from an early stage (probably from c. 400 and not later than c. 300 BC), when equestrian numbers had become insufficient, large numbers of young men from the first class of commoners were regularly volunteering for the service, which was considered more glamorous than the infantry.[29] The cavalry role of equites dwindled after the Second Punic War (218–201 BC), as the number of equestrians became insufficient to provide the senior officers of the army and general cavalrymen as well. Equites became exclusively an officer-class, with the first class of commoners providing the legionary cavalry. Ethos[edit] From the earliest times and throughout the Republican period, Roman equites subscribed, in their role as Roman cavalrymen, to an ethos of personal heroism and glory. This was motivated by the desire to justify their privileged status to the lower classes that provided the infantry ranks, to enhance the renown of their family name, and to augment their chances of subsequent political advancement in a martial society. For equites, a focus of the heroic ethos was the quest for spolia militaria, the stripped armour and weapons of a foe whom they had killed in single combat. There are many recorded instances. For example, Servilius Geminus Pulex, who went on to become Consul in 202 BC, was reputed to have gained spolia 23 times.[30] The higher the rank of the opponent killed in combat, the more prestigious the spolia, and none more so than spolia duci hostium detracta, spoils taken from an enemy leader himself.[Note 3] Many equites attempted to gain such an honour, but very few succeeded for the reason that enemy leaders were always surrounded by large numbers of elite bodyguards.[35] One successful attempt, but with a tragic twist, was that of the decurion Titus Manlius Torquatus in 340 BC during the Latin War. Despite strict orders from the consuls (one of whom was his own father) not to engage the enemy, Manlius could not resist accepting a personal challenge from the commander of the Tusculan cavalry, which his squadron encountered while on reconnaissance. There ensued a fiercely contested joust with the opposing squadrons as spectators. Manlius won, spearing his adversary after the latter was thrown by his horse. But when the triumphant young man presented the spoils to his father, the latter ordered his son's immediate execution for disobeying orders. "Orders of Manlius" (Manliana imperia) became a proverbial army term for orders that must on no account be disregarded.[36] Business activities[edit] In 218 BC, the lex Claudia restricted the commercial activity of senators and their sons, on the grounds that it was incompatible with their status. Senators were prohibited from owning ships of greater capacity than 300 amphorae (about seven tonnes) - this being judged sufficient to carry the produce of their own landed estates but too small to conduct large-scale sea transportation.[37] From this time onwards, senatorial families mostly invested their capital in land. All other equestrians remained free to invest their wealth, greatly increased by the growth of Rome's overseas empire after the Second Punic War, in large-scale commercial enterprises including mining and industry, as well as land.[38] Equestrians became especially prominent in tax farming and, by 100 BC, owned virtually all tax-farming companies (publicani).[39] During the late republican era, the collection of most taxes was contracted out to private individuals or companies by competitive tender, with the contract for each province awarded to the publicanus who bid the highest advance to the state treasury on the estimated tax-take of the province. The publicanus would then attempt to recoup his advance, with the right to retain any surplus collected as his profit. This system frequently resulted in extortion from the common people of the provinces, as unscrupulous publicani often sought to maximise their profit by demanding a much higher rates of tax than originally set by the government. The provincial governors whose duty it was to curb illegal demands were often bribed into acquiescence by the publicani.[40] The system also led to political conflict between ''equites publicani and the majority of their fellow-equites, especially senators, who as large landowners wanted to minimise the tax on land outside Italy (tributum solis), which was the main source of state revenue.[41] This system was terminated by the first Roman emperor, Augustus (sole rule 30 BC – 14 AD), who transferred responsibility for tax collection from the publicani to provincial local authorities (civitates peregrinae).[42] Although the latter also frequently employed private companies to collect their tax quotas, it was in their own interests to curb extortion. During the imperial era, tax collectors were generally paid an agreed percentage of the amount collected. equites publicani became prominent in banking activities such as money-lending and money-changing.[40] Privileges[edit] The official dress of equestrians was the tunica angusticlavia (narrow-striped tunic), worn underneath the toga, in such a manner that the stripe over the right shoulder was visible (as opposed to the broad stripe worn by senators.[43]) equites bore the title eques Romanus, were entitled to wear an anulus aureus (gold ring) on their left hand, and, from 67 BC, enjoyed privileged seats at games and public functions (just behind those reserved for senators).[44] Augustan equestrian order (Principate era)[edit] Bridle ornament inscribed Plinio Praefecto ("Property of the prefect Pliny"), found at Castra Vetera legionary base (Xanten, Germany), believed to have belonged to the classical author Pliny the Elder when he was a praefectus alae (commander of an auxiliary cavalry regiment) in Germania Inferior. Pliny was a hereditary Roman knight of the imperial era who became celebrated for his writings on geography and natural history. He also had a distinguished career as a public servant, in a series of posts reserved for equestrians. He served as a military officer in 44–54, as equestrian governor (procurator Augusti) of two minor provinces in the period 70–77 and then as a secretary of state in Rome to the emperor Vespasian. By 79, he was praefectus classis (admiral commanding) of the main imperial fleet at Misenum in the bay of Naples. In that year, the nearby volcano Mount Vesuvius erupted, burying the surrounding towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum. From his base across the bay, Pliny led out his fleet in an attempt to rescue thousands of survivors trapped by lava-flows on the shore beneath Vesuvius. But after reaching port at Stabiae, Pliny's ships were prevented from putting to sea again for several hours by a strong in-shore gale. Whilst awaiting a change of wind-direction, Pliny died on a nearby beach from inhaling toxic gases.[45] (Source: British Museum, London) Differentiation of the senatorial order[edit] The senate as a body was formed of sitting senators, whose number was held at around 600 by the founder of the principate, Augustus (sole rule 30 BC – AD 14) and his successors until 312. Senators' sons and further descendants technically retained equestrian rank unless and until they won a seat in the senate. But Talbert argues that Augustus established the existing senatorial elite as a separate and superior order (ordo senatorius) to the equites for the first time.[43] The evidence for this includes: Augustus, for the first time, set a minimum property requirement for admission to the senate, of 250,000 denarii, two and a half times the 100,000 denarii that he set for admission to the equestrian order.[44] Augustus, for the first time, allowed the sons of senators to wear the tunica laticlavia (tunic with broad purple stripes that was the official dress of senators) on reaching their majority even though they were not yet members of the senate.[46] Senators' sons followed a separate cursus honorum (career-path) to other equites before entering the senate: first an appointment as one of the vigintiviri ("Committee of Twenty", a body that included officials with a variety of minor administrative functions), or as an augur (priest), followed by at least a year in the military as tribunus militum laticlavius (deputy commander) of a legion. This post was normally held before the tribune had become a member of the senate. A marriage law of 18 BC (the lex Julia) seems to define not only senators but also their descendants unto the third generation (in the male line) as a distinct group.[47] There was thus established a group of men with senatorial rank (senatorii) wider than just sitting senators (senatores). A family's senatorial status depended not only on continuing to match the higher wealth qualification, but on their leading member holding a seat in the senate. Failing either condition, the family would revert to ordinary knightly status. Although sons of sitting senators frequently won seats in the senate, this was by no means guaranteed, as candidates often outnumbered the 20 seats available each year, leading to intense competition. Ordo equester under Augustus[edit] As regards the equestrian order, Augustus apparently abolished the rank of equo privato, according all its members equo publico status. In addition, Augustus organised the order in a quasi-military fashion, with members enrolled into six turmae (notional cavalry squadrons). The order's governing body were the seviri ("Committee of Six"), composed of the "commanders" of the turmae. In an attempt to foster the equites esprit de corps, Augustus revived a defunct republican ceremony, the recognitio equitum (inspection of the equites), in which equites paraded every five years with their horses before the consuls.[13] At some stage during the early principate, equites acquired the right to the title "egregius" ("distinguished gentleman"), while senators were styled "clarissimus", "most distinguished").[44] Beyond equites with equus publicus, Augustus' legislation permitted any Roman citizen who was assessed in an official census as meeting the property requirement of 100,000 denarii to use the title of eques and wear the narrow-striped tunic and gold ring. But such "property-qualified equites" were not apparently admitted to the ordo equester itself, but simply enjoyed equestrian status.[48][49] Only those granted an equus publicus by the emperor (or who inherited the status from their fathers) were enrolled in the order. Imperial equites were thus divided into two tiers: a few thousand mainly Italian equites equo publico, members of the order eligible to hold the public offices reserved for the equites; and a much larger group of wealthy Italians and provincials (estimated at 25,000 in the 2nd century) of equestrian status but outside the order.[48][49] Equestrians could in turn be elevated to senatorial rank (e.g. Pliny the Younger), but in practice this was much more difficult than elevation from commoner to equestrian rank. To join the upper order, not only was the candidate required to meet the minimum property requirement of 250,000 denarii, but also had to be elected a member of the senate. There were two routes for this, both controlled by the emperor: The normal route was election to the post of quaestor, the most junior magistracy (for which the minimum eligible age was 27 years), which carried automatic membership of the senate. Twenty quaestors were appointed each year, a number that evidently broadly matched the average annual vacancies (caused by death or expulsion for misdemeanors or insufficient wealth) so that the 600-member limit was preserved. Under Augustus, senators' sons had the right to stand for election, while equestrians could only do so with the emperor's permission. Later in the Julio-Claudian period, the rule became established that all candidates required imperial leave. Previously conducted by the people's assembly (comitia centuriata), the election was in the hands, from the time of Tiberius onwards, of the senate itself, whose sitting members inevitably favored the sons of their colleagues. Since the latter alone often outnumbered the number of available places, equestrian candidates stood little chance unless they enjoyed the special support of the emperor.[50] The exceptional route was direct appointment to a senate seat by the emperor (adlectio), technically using the powers of Roman censor (which also entitled him to expel members). Adlectio was, however, generally used sparingly in order not to breach the 600-member ceiling. It was chiefly resorted to in periods when senate numbers became severely depleted e.g. during the Civil War of 68–69, following which the emperor Vespasian made large-scale adlectiones.[51] Equestrian public careers[edit] In public service, equites equo publico had their own version of the senatorial cursus honorum, or conventional career-path, which typically combined military and administrative posts. After an initial period of a few years in local government in their home regions as administrators (local aediles or duumviri) or as priests (augures), equites were required to serve as military officers for about 10 years before they would be appointed to senior administrative or military posts.[52] Tombstone of the knight Titus Cornasidius Sabinus, detailing a typical equestrian career in the imperial period. Sabinus initially held posts in the local government of Lavinium, a town in Latium, then served as a military officer, first as praefectus (commander) of cohors I Montanorum (in Pannonia), then tribunus militum of legio II Augusta (in Britannia), and finally praefectus of ala veterana Gallorum (in Aegyptus). Then, after a stint as subpraefectus classis (deputy commander) of the imperial fleet at Ravenna, Sabinus was governor of the Alpes Poeninae and then of Dacia Apulensis provinces. His son, who erected the memorial, is described as of equo publico rank. Dated to the early Severan period (193–211). Equestrians exclusively provided the praefecti (commanders) of the imperial army's auxiliary regiments and five of the six tribuni militum (senior staff officers) in each legion. The standard equestrian officer progression was known as the "tres militiae" ("three services"): praefectus of a cohors (auxiliary infantry regiment), followed by tribunus militum in a legion, and finally praefectus of an ala (auxiliary cavalry regiment). From the time of Hadrian, a fourth militia was added for exceptionally gifted officers, commander of an ala milliaria (double-strength ala). Each post was held for three to four years.[53] Most of the top posts in the imperial administration were reserved for senators, who provided the governors of the larger provinces (except Egypt), the legati legionis (legion commanders) of all legions outside Egypt, and the praefectus urbi (prefect of the city of Rome), who controlled the Cohortes Urbanae (public order battalions), the only fully armed force in the city apart from the Praetorian Guard. Nevertheless, a wide range of senior administrative and military posts were created and reserved for equestrians by Augustus, though most ranked below the senatorial posts.[54] In the imperial administration, equestrian posts included that of the governorship (praefectus Augusti) of the province of Egypt, which was considered the most prestigious of all the posts open to equites, often the culmination of a long and distinguished career serving the state. In addition, equites were appointed to the governorship (procurator Augusti) of some smaller provinces and sub-provinces e.g. Judaea, whose governor was subordinate to the governor of Syria.[55] Equestrians were also the chief financial officers (also called procuratores Augusti) of the imperial provinces, and the deputy financial officers of senatorial provinces. At Rome, equestrians filled numerous senior administrative posts such as the emperor's secretaries of state (from the time of Claudius e.g. correspondence and treasury) and the praefecti annonae (director of grain supplies).[55] In the military, equestrians provided the praefecti praetorio (commanders of the Praetorian Guard) who also acted as the emperor's chiefs of military staff. There were normally two of these, but at times irregular appointments resulted in just a single incumbent or even three at the same time.[55] Equestrians also provided the praefecti classis (admirals commanding) of the two main imperial fleets at Misenum in the bay of Naples and at Ravenna on the Italian Adriatic coast. The command of Rome's fire brigade and minor constabulary, the vigiles, was likewise reserved for equites.[52] Not all equites followed the conventional career-path. Those equestrians who specialised in a legal or administrative career, providing judges (iudices) in Rome's law courts and state secretaries in the imperial government, were granted dispensation from military service by Emperor Hadrian (r. AD 117–138).[56] At the same time, many equites became career military officers, remaining in the army for much longer than 10 years. After completing their tres militiae, some would continue to command auxiliary regiments, moving across units and provinces.[57] Already wealthy to start with, equites equo publico accumulated even greater riches through holding their reserved senior posts in the administration, which carried enormous salaries (although they were generally smaller than senatorial salaries).[41] For example, the salaries of equestrian procuratores (fiscal and gubernatorial) ranged from 15,000 to a maximum of 75,000 denarii (for the governor of Egypt) per annum, whilst an equestrian praefectus of an auxiliary cohort was paid about 50 times as much as a common foot soldier (about 10,000 denarii). A praefectus could thus earn in one year the same as two of his auxiliary rankers combined earned during their entire 25-year service terms.[58][59] Relations with the emperor[edit] It was suggested by ancient writers, and accepted by many modern historians, that Roman emperors trusted equestrians more than men of senatorial rank, and used the former as a political counterweight to the senators. According to this view, senators were often regarded as potentially less loyal and honest by the emperor, as they could become powerful enough, through the command of provincial legions, to launch coups.[60] They also had greater opportunities for peculation as provincial governors. Hence the appointment of equestrians to the most sensitive military commands. In Egypt, which supplied much of Italy's grain needs, the governor and the commanders of both provincial legions were drawn from the equestrian order, since placing a senator in a position to starve Italy was considered too risky.[60] The commanders of the Praetorian Guard, the principal military force close to the emperor at Rome, were also usually drawn from the equestrian order.[44] Also cited in support of this view is the appointment of equestrian fiscal procuratores, reporting direct to the emperor, alongside senatorial provincial governors. These would supervise the collection of taxes and act as watchdogs to limit opportunities for corruption by the governors (as well as managing the imperial estates in the province). According to Talbert, however, the evidence suggests that equites were no more loyal or less corrupt than senators.[61] For example, c. 26 BC, the equestrian governor of Egypt, Cornelius Gallus, was recalled for politically suspect behaviour and sundry other misdemeanours. His conduct was deemed sufficiently serious by the senate to warrant the maximum penalty of exile and confiscation of assets.[62] Under Tiberius, both the senatorial governor and the equestrian fiscal procurator of Asia province were convicted of corruption.[63] There is evidence that emperors were as wary of powerful equites as they were of senators. Augustus enforced a tacit rule that senators and prominent equestrians must obtain his express permission to enter the province of Egypt, a policy that was continued by his successors.[60][64] Also, the command of the Praetorian Guard was normally split between two equites, to reduce the potential for a successful coup d'état. At the same time, command of the second military force in Rome, the cohortes urbanae, was entrusted to a senator. Oligarchical rule in the early principate (to AD 197)[edit] Because the senate was limited to 600 members, equites equo publico, numbering several thousands, greatly outnumbered men of senatorial rank.[48] Even so, senators and equites combined constituted a tiny elite in a citizen-body of about 6 million (in AD 47) and an empire with a total population of 60–70 million.[65][66] This immensely wealthy elite monopolised political, military and economic power in the empire. It controlled the major offices of state, command of all military units, ownership of a significant proportion of the empire's arable land (e.g. under Nero (r.54–68), half of all land in Africa proconsularis province was owned by just six senators) and of most major commercial enterprises.[67] Overall, senators and equites cooperated smoothly in the running of the empire. In contrast to the chaotic civil wars of the late republic, the rule of this tiny oligarchy achieved a remarkable degree of political stability. In the first 250 years of the principate (30 BC – AD 218), there was only a single episode of major internal strife: the civil war of 68–69. Equestrian hierarchy[edit] It seems that from the start the equestrians in the imperial service were organised on a hierarchical basis reflecting their pay-grades. According to Suetonius, writing in the early part of the second century AD, the equestrian procurators who "performed various administrative duties throughout the empire" were from the time of Emperor Claudius I organised into four pay-grades, the trecenarii the ducenarii, the centenarii, and the sexagenarii, receiving 300,000, 200,000, 100,000, and 60,000 sesterces per annum respectively.[68] Cassius Dio, writing a century later, attributed the beginnings of this process to the first emperor, Augustus, himself.[69] There is almost no literary or epigraphic evidence for the use of these ranks until towards the end of the 2nd century. However, it would seem that the increasing employment of equestrians by the emperors in civil and military roles had had social ramifications for it is then that there begin to appear the first references to a more far-reaching hierarchy with three distinct classes covering the whole of the order: the Viri Egregii (Select Men); the Viri Perfectissimi ("Best of Men"); and the Viri Eminentissimi ("Most Eminent of Men"). The mechanisms by which the equestrians were organised into these classes and the distinctions enforced is not known. However, it is generally assumed that the highest class, the Viri Eminentissimi, was confined to the Praetorian Prefects, while the Viri Perfectissimi were the heads of the main departments of state, and the great prefectures, including Egypt, the city watch (vigiles), the corn supply (annona) etc. and men commissioned to carry out specific tasks by the emperor himself such as the military duces. The defining characteristic of the perfectissimate seems to have been that its members were of or associated socially (i.e. as clientes - see Patronage in ancient Rome of Great Men) with the imperial court circle and were office-holders known to the emperor and appointed by his favour. It is also possible that system was intended to indicate the hierarchy of office-holders in situations where this might be disputed.[70] The Viri Egregii comprehended the rest of the Equestrian Order, in the service of the emperors. The Viri Egregii included officials of all four pay-grades. Ducenariate procurators governing provinces not reserved for senators were of this category[71] as were the praefecti legionum, after Gallienus opened all legionary commands to equestrians.[72] However, it seems that after 270 AD the procuratores ducenarii were elevated into the ranks of the Viri Perfectissimi.[73] Equestrians in the later empire (AD 197–395)[edit] The emperor Maximinus I (Thrax) (ruled 235–8), whose career epitomises the soldier-equestrians who took over command of the army during the 3rd century. A Thracian shepherd who had led a group of peasant vigilantes against rural robbers in his home region, he joined the army as a cavalryman in c. 197 under Septimius Severus and was probably granted an equus publicus by Caracalla towards the end of his rule (218). Under Alexander Severus he was given command of a legion and later served as provincial governor (praeses pro legato) in Mauretania Tingitana and in Germania before seizing supreme power in a coup d'état in 235. Rise of the military equestrians (3rd century)[edit] The 3rd century saw two major trends in the development of the Roman aristocracy: the gradual takeover of the top positions in the empire's administration and army by military equestrians and the concomitant exclusion of the Italian aristocracy, both senators and equites and the growth in hierarchy within the aristocratic orders. Augustus instituted a policy, followed by his successors, of elevating to the ordo equester the primus pilus (chief centurion) of each legion, at the end of his single year in the post.[74] This resulted in about 30 career-soldiers, often risen from the ranks, joining the order every year. These equites primipilares and their descendants formed a section of the order that was quite distinct from the Italian aristocrats who had become nearly indistinguishable from their senatorial counterparts.[44] They were almost entirely provincials, especially from the Danube provinces where about half the Roman army was deployed. These Danubians mostly came from Pannonia, Moesia, Thrace, Illyria and Dalmatia. They were generally far less wealthy than the landowning Italians (not benefiting from centuries of inherited wealth) and they rarely held non-military posts.[75] Their professionalism led emperors to rely on them ever more heavily, especially in difficult conflicts such as the Marcomannic Wars (166–180). But because they were only equestrians, they could not be appointed to the top military commands, those of legatus Augusti pro praetore (governor of an imperial province, where virtually all military units were deployed) and legatus legionis (commander of a legion). In the later 2nd century, emperors tried to circumvent the problem by elevating large numbers of primipilares to senatorial rank by adlectio.[76] But this met resistance in the senate, so that in the 3rd century, emperors simply appointed equestrians directly to the top commands, under the fiction that they were only temporary substitutes (praeses pro legato). Septimius Severus (r. AD 193–211) appointed primipilares to command the three new legions that he raised in 197 for his Parthian War, Legio I, II & III Parthica[76] Gallienus (r. AD 253–268) completed the process by appointing equites to command all the legions.[77] These appointees were mostly provincial soldier-equestrians, not Italian aristocrats.[78] Under the reforming emperor Diocletian (r. AD 284–305), himself an Illyrian equestrian officer, the military equestrian "takeover" was brought a stage further, with the removal of hereditary senators from most administrative, as well as military posts. Hereditary senators were limited to administrative jobs in Italy and a few neighbouring provinces (Sicily, Africa, Achaea and Asia), despite the fact that senior administrative posts had been greatly multiplied by the tripling of the number of provinces and the establishment of dioceses (super-provinces). The exclusion of the old Italian aristocracy, both senatorial and equestrian, from the political and military power that they had monopolised for many centuries was thus complete. The senate became politically insignificant, although it retained great prestige.[79] The 3rd and 4th centuries saw the proliferation of hierarchical ranks within the aristocratic orders, in line with the greater stratification of society as a whole, which became divided into two broad classes, with discriminatory rights and privileges: the honestiores (more noble) and humiliores (more base). Among the honestiores, equestrians were divided into five grades, depending on the salary-levels of the offices they held.[80] These ranged from egregii or sexagenarii (salary of 60,000 sesterces = 15,000 denarii) to the eminentissimi (most exalted), limited to the two commanders of the Praetorian Guard and, with the establishment of Diocletian's tetrarchy, the four praefecti praetorio (not to be confused with the commanders of the Praetorian Guard in Rome) that assisted the tetrarchs, each ruling over a quarter of the empire.[80] Idle aristocracy (4th century)[edit] From the reign of Constantine I the Great (312–37) onwards, there was an explosive increase in the membership of both aristocratic orders. Under Diocletian, the number of sitting members of the senate remained at around 600, the level it had retained for the whole duration of the principate.[80] But Constantine established Byzantium as a twin capital of the empire, with its own senate, initially of 300 members. By 387, their number had swollen to 2,000, while the senate in Rome probably reached a comparable size, so that the upper order reached total numbers similar to the equo publico equites of the early principate.[81] By this time, even some commanders of military regiments were accorded senatorial status.[82] At the same time the order of equites was also expanded vastly by the proliferation of public posts in the late empire, most of which were now filled by equestrians. The Principate had been a remarkably slim-line administration, with about 250 senior officials running the vast empire, relying on local government and private contractors to deliver the necessary taxes and services. During the 3rd century the imperial 'bureaucracy,' all officials and ranks expanded. By the time of the Notitia Dignitatum, dated to 395 A.D. comparable senior positions had grown to approximately 6,000, a 24-fold increase.[83] The total number enrolled in the imperial civilian service, the militia inermata ('unarmed service') is estimated to have been 30-40,000: the service was professionalized with a staff made up almost entirely of free men on salary, and enrolled in a fictional legion, I Audiutrix.[84] In addition, large numbers of decuriones (local councillors) were granted equestrian rank, often obtaining it by bribery. Officials of ever lower rank were granted equestrian rank as reward for good service e.g. in 365, the actuarii (accountants) of military regiments. This inflation in the number of equites inevitably led to the debasement of the order's prestige. By AD 400, equites were no longer an echelon of nobility, but just a title associated with mid-level administrative posts.[56] Constantine established a third order of nobility, the comites (companions (of the emperor), singular form comes, the origin of the medieval noble rank of count). This overlapped with senators and equites, drawing members from both. Originally, the comites were a highly exclusive group, comprising the most senior administrative and military officers, such as the commanders of the comitatus, or mobile field armies. But comites rapidly followed the same path as equites, being devalued by excessive grants until the title became meaningless by 450.[82] In the late 4th and in the 5th century, therefore, the senatorial class at Rome and Byzantium became the closest equivalent to the equo publico equestrian class of the early principate. It contained many ancient and illustrious families, some of whom claimed descent from the aristocracy of the republic, but had, as described, lost almost all political and military power.[85] Nevertheless, senators retained great influence due to their enormous inherited wealth and their role as the guardians of Roman tradition and culture.[86] Centuries of capital accumulation, in the form of vast landed estates (latifundia) across many provinces resulted in enormous wealth for most senators. Many received annual rents in cash and in kind of over 5,000 lbs of gold, equivalent to 360,000 solidi (or 5 million Augustan-era denarii), at a time when a miles (common soldier) would earn no more than four solidi a year in cash. Even senators of middling wealth could expect an income 1,000–1,500 lbs of gold.[87] The 4th-century historian Ammianus Marcellinus, a former high-ranking military staff officer who spent his retirement years in Rome, bitterly attacked the Italian aristocracy, denouncing their extravagant palaces, clothes, games and banquets and above all their lives of total idleness and frivolity.[88] In his words can be heard the contempt for the senatorial class of a career soldier who had spent his lifetime defending the empire, a view clearly shared by Diocletian and his Illyrian successors. But it was the latter who reduced the aristocracy to that state, by displacing them from their traditional role of governing the empire and leading the army.[89] Notes[edit] ^ 6 centuriae: The original three cavalry centuriae were named after the tribes from which they were drawn: Ramnes, Tities and Luceres. When an additional three centuriae were established by King Priscus, the latter took the tribal names with the suffix posteriores, with the original three being called priores ^ Roman kingship: The Roman monarchy, although an autocracy, was not hereditary and based on "divine right", but elective and subject to the ultimate sovereignty of the people. The king (rex) was elected by the people's assembly (the comitia curiata originally) although there is strong evidence that the process was, in practice, controlled by the patricians. Most kings were non-Romans brought in from abroad, doubtless as neutral figures who could be seen as above patrician factions. Although blood relations could and did succeed, they were still required to submit to election.[8] The position and powers of a Roman king were thus similar to those of Julius Caesar when he was appointed dictator-for-life in 44 BC. That was why Caesar's assassin, Marcus Junius Brutus, felt a moral obligation to emulate his claimed ancestor, Lucius Junius Brutus, "the Liberator", the man who, Roman tradition averred, in 509 BC, led the coup that overthrew the last king, Tarquin the Proud, and established the republic.[9] ^ Spolia opima: The highest form of spolia duci hostium detracta were known as the spolia opima (rich spoils), which were displayed in the Temple of Jupiter Feretrius in Rome. According to the most widely understood version of the tradition, to earn the spolia opima one had to be a Roman commander-in-chief who killed the enemy paramount leader in single combat. The spolia opima was won only three times: by Romulus for killing Acro, king of the Caeninenses (c. 750 BC); by Aulus Cornelius Cossus for killing Lars Tolumnius, king of the Veientes (in 437 or 425 BC); and by Marcus Claudius Marcellus for killing Viridomarus, king of the Celtic Gaesatae (in 222 BC).[31] However, the award to Cossus was a matter for some controversy, as, according to Livy, he was only a tribunus militum, and not commander-in-chief of the army at the time.[32] A minority tradition, originally preserved by Marcus Terentius Varro, antiquarian of the late republic, held that spolia opima could be won by any Roman soldier who killed the enemy leader in battle.[33] According to Varro, there were three classes of spolia opima: first class, spoils taken by the Roman commander-in-chief, which alone could be dedicated to Jupiter Feretrius; second class, spoils taken by a Roman officer; and third class, those taken by a common soldier.[34] See also[edit] Publican Hippeus Citations[edit] ^ Cornell (1995) 94, 102 ^ Livy I.36 ^ Polybius ^ a b c Livy I.43 ^ Cornell (1995) 193 ^ Cornell (1995) 245 ^ Cornell (1995) 250 ^ Cornell (1995) 141–42 ^ Plutarch Brutus 10–2 ^ Cornell (1995) 238, 446 note 32 ^ Cornell (1995) 182 ^ Livy V.7 ^ a b Online 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica equites ^ a b Oxford Patricians ^ Livy XXXIX.19, 44 ^ Online Encyclopædia Britannica Patricians ^ a b Cornell (1995) 369 ^ Cornell (1995) 351 ^ a b Cornell (1995) 354 ^ Cornell (1995) 366 ^ Polybius VI.26 ^ Polybius VI.25 ^ Sidnell (2006) 152 ^ Cornell (1995) 372 ^ a b c Cornell (1995) 379-80 ^ Based on Polybius VI.19, 20; Livy I.43 and Cornell (1995) 380 ^ Smith (1890) equites ^ Polybius VI.19, 26 ^ Goldsworthy (2000) 49 ^ Livy, XLV.39.16; Plutarch Aemilius Paullus 31.2 ^ Plutarch Romulus; Marcellus ^ Livy IV.20 ^ Festus Lexicon "Opima Spolia" ^ Smith (1890) Spolia ^ Sidnell (2006) 153–4 ^ Livy VIII.7–8 ^ Livy XXI.63 ^ Jones (1964) 6 ^ Tacitus Annales IV.6 ^ a b Encyclopædia Britannica Online Publicani ^ a b Talbert (1996) 341 ^ Burton (1987) 426 ^ a b Talbert (1996) 326 ^ a b c d e Jones (1964) 8 ^ Pliny the Younger Letters VI.19 ^ Suetonius Augustus 38.2 ^ Online Roman Law Library Lex Iulia de maritandis ordinibus ^ a b c Jones (1964) 7, 8 ^ a b Encyclopædia Britannica Online Ancient Rome ^ Talbert (1996) 333 ^ Eck in CAH XI (2000) 215–6 ^ a b Talbert (1996) 340 ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 65 ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 60, 64, 65 ^ a b c Goldsworthy (2003) 64–5 ^ a b Jones (1964) ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 66 ^ Birley (1988) 46 ^ Jones (1964) 31 ^ a b c Tacitus Annales II.59 ^ Talbert (1996) 342 ^ Dio Cassius LIII.23 ^ Tacitus Annales IV.13 ^ Ritner (1998) 1–2. ^ Tacitus Annales XI.25 ^ Scheidel (2006) 9 ^ Thompson (1987) 556 ^ Suet:Claud(24) ^ Cassius Dio(53:14) ^ Potter, Prof. D.S. (2004). The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180-385. London / New York: Routledge. p. 258. ^ Christol(xx) ^ Nagy(1965:305-7) ^ Pflaum(xx) ^ Goldsworthy (2000) 129 ^ Goldsworthy (2000) 164–5 ^ a b Goldsworthy (2000) 164 ^ Tomlin (1988) 108 ^ Holder (1982) 65 ^ Jones (1964) 50, 525, 526 ^ a b c Jones (1964) 525 ^ Jones (1964) 527 ^ a b Jones (1964) 528 ^ Heather (2005) 228 ^ Peter Heather, CAH XIII, pp. 189-190, 209; Christopher Kelly, Ruling the Later Roman Empire, p. 69 ^ Jones (1964) 545–56 ^ Jones (1964) 561–62 ^ Jones (1964) 554 ^ Ammianus XXVIII.4 ^ Jones (1964) 50, 525 References[edit] Ancient[edit] Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae (c. 390 AD) Dio Cassius, Roman History (c. 250 AD) Livy, Ab urbe condita (c. 15 AD) Plutarch, Lives (c. 100 AD) Polybius, Histories (c. 150 BC) Suetonius, Caesares XII (c. 100 AD) Tacitus, Annales (c. 100 AD) Tacitus, Historiae (c. 100 AD) Modern[edit] Birley, Anthony (2002). Band of Brothers: Garrison Life at Vindolanda. Burton, G. (1987): "Government and the Provinces". In J. Wacher, ed., The Roman World Vol I Bury, J.B. (1898). The History of the Roman Empire from its Foundation to the death of Marcus Aurelius (27 BC-180 AD). Cambridge University Press. (Bury (1898)): Cornell, T.J. (1995): The Beginnings of Rome Eck, Werner (2000): "Emperor, Senate & Magistrates". In Cambridge Ancient History 2nd ed., Vol XI Goldsworthy, Adrian (2000): Roman Warfare Goldsworthy, Adrian (2003): The Complete Roman Army Heather, Peter (2005): Fall of the Roman Empire Jones, A.H.M. (1964): Later Roman Empire Keppie, Lawrence (1996). "The Army and the Navy" in Cambridge Ancient History 2nd ed., Vol X (The Augustan Empire 30BC - 69 AD). Ritner, R.K. (1998): "Egypt Under Roman Rule: the Legacy of Ancient Egypt". In Cambridge History of Egypt, Vol I. Ed. C.F. Petry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Scheidel, Walter (2006): Population & Demography (Princeton-Stanford Working Papers in Classics) Sidnell, Philip (2006): Warhorse Smith W. (1890): Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities Talbert, Richard (1996): "The Senate and Senatorial and Equestrian Posts". In Cambridge Ancient History 2nd ed., Vol X. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Tomlin, R.S.O. (1988). The Army of the Late Empire. In The Roman World (ed. J. Wacher). Further reading[edit] Berry, D. H. 2003. "Eqvester Ordo Tvvs Est: Did Cicero Win His Cases Because of His Support for the Eqvites?" The Classical Quarterly 53, no. 1: 222–34. doi:10.1093/cq/53.1.222. Breeze, David. 1969. "The organization of the legion: The first cohort and the equites legionis". Journal of Roman Studies, 59:50–55. --. 1974. "The organisation of the career structure of the immunes and principales of the Roman army". Bonner Jahrbücher, 174: 245–92. Coulston, Jonathan. 2000. "'Armed and belted men': The soldiery in imperial Rome". In Ancient Rome: The archaeology of the eternal city. Edited by Jonathan Coulston and Hazel Dodge, 76–118. Oxford: Oxbow. Duncan-Jones, Richard. 2016. Power and Privilege In Roman Society. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Speidel, Michael P. 1994. Riding for Caesar: The Roman Emperor’s horseguards. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. External links[edit] "Roman Social Class and Public Display". 2009. Lendering, Jona (16 August 2012). "Eques (Knight)". 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en-wikipedia-org-6239	----	Hiero I of Syracuse - Wikipedia Hiero I of Syracuse From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Hieron of Syracuse) Jump to navigation Jump to search This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (February 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Hieron I (Greek: Ἱέρων Α΄; usually Latinized Hiero) was the son of Deinomenes, the brother of Gelon and tyrant of Syracuse in Sicily from 478 to 467 BC. In succeeding Gelon, he conspired against a third brother, Polyzelos. Life[edit] Helmet commemorating the Battle of Cumae now in the British Museum's collection During his reign, he greatly increased the power of Syracuse. He removed the inhabitants of Naxos and Catania to Leontini, peopled Catania (which he renamed Aetna) with Dorians, concluded an alliance with Acragas (Agrigentum) and espoused the cause of the Locrians against Anaxilas, tyrant of Rhegium. His most important military achievement was the defeat of the Etruscans and Carthaginians at the Battle of Cumae (474 BC), by which he saved the Greeks of Campania from Etruscan domination. A bronze helmet (now in the British Museum[1]), with an inscription commemorating the event, was dedicated at Olympia. Hieron's reign was marked by the creation of the believed first secret police in Greek history, and he was a liberal patron of literature and culture. The poets Simonides, Pindar, Bacchylides, Aeschylus, and Epicharmus were active at his court, as well the philosopher Xenophanes. He was an active participant in panhellenic athletic contests, winning several victories in the single horse race and also in the chariot race. He won the chariot race at Delphi in 470 (a victory celebrated in Pindar's first Pythian ode) and at Olympia in 468 (this, his greatest victory, was commemorated in Bacchylides' third victory ode). Other odes dedicated to him include Pindar's first Olympian Ode, his second and third Pythian odes, and Bacchylides' fourth and fifth victory odes. He died at Catania/Aetna in 467 and was buried there, but his grave was later destroyed when the former inhabitants of Catania returned to the city. The tyranny at Syracuse lasted only a year or so after his death. References[edit] ^ British Museum collection Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Hiero" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 13 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 453. Diodorus Siculus XI 38, 48, 49, 51, 53, 66, 67; Xenophon, Hiero, 6. 2; E. Lübbert, Syrakus zur Zeit des Gelon und Hieron (1875). N. Luraghi, Tirannidi archaiche in Sicilia e Magna Grecia (Florence, 1994) Further reading[edit] The Extant Odes of Pindar: "Pindar's Ode to Hieron", BiblioBazaar, 2008, p. 81. Preceded by: Gelo Tyrant of Gela 485 BC – 478 BC Succeeded by: Polyzelos Preceded by: Gelo Tyrant of Syracuse 478 BC – 467 BC Succeeded by: Thrasybulus v t e Ancient Olympic Games General Archaeological Museum of Olympia Ancient Greek Olympic festivals Hellanodikai Stadium at Olympia Sports Foot races Diaulos Dolichos Hoplitodromos Stadion Horse races Apene Chariot of polos Decapolon Kalpe Keles Perfect chariot Polos Synoris Synoris of polos Tethrippon Tethrippon of polos Combat Boxing Pankration Wrestling Special Herald and Trumpet contest Pentathlon Winners Acanthus of Sparta Agasias of Arcadia Agesarchus of Tritaea Alcibiades of Athens Alexander I of Macedon Anaxilas of Messenia Aratus of Sicyon Archelaus I of Macedon Arrhichion of Phigalia Arsinoe II Astylos of Croton Berenice I of Egypt Bilistiche Chaeron of Pellene Chilon of Patras Chionis of Sparta Cimon Coalemos Coroebus of Elis Cylon of Athens Cynisca of Sparta Damarchus Demaratus of Sparta Desmon of Corinth Diagoras of Rhodes Diocles of Corinth Ergoteles of Himera Euryleonis Herodorus of Megara Hiero I of Syracuse Hypenus of Elis Hysmon of Elis Iccus of Taranto Leonidas of Rhodes Leophron Milo of Croton Nero Caesar Augustus Oebotas of Dyme Onomastus of Smyrna Orsippus of Megara Peisistratos of Athens Phanas of Pellene Philinus of Cos Philip II of Macedon Philippus of Croton Phrynon of Athens Polydamas of Skotoussa Pythagoras of Laconia Pythagoras of Samos Sostratus of Pellene Theagenes of Thasos Theron of Acragas Tiberius Caesar Augustus Timasitheus of Delphi Troilus of Elis Varazdat of Armenia Xenophon of Aegium Xenophon of Corinth Lists of winners Ancient Olympic victors Stadion race Archaic period Classical period Hellenistic period Roman period Category Authority control GND: 118704664 ISNI: 0000 0000 2219 2024 LCCN: n93104590 VIAF: 5725505 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n93104590 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hiero_I_of_Syracuse&oldid=986217210" Categories: 467 BC deaths 5th-century BC Greek people Ancient Greek generals Sicilian tyrants 5th-century BC Syracusans Ancient Geloans Ancient Pythian athletes Ancient Olympic competitors Ancient Greek chariot racers Hidden categories: Articles lacking in-text citations from February 2012 All articles lacking in-text citations Articles containing Greek-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français Italiano עברית Latina Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Shqip Sicilianu Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 30 October 2020, at 14:20 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6212	----	William Ewart Gladstone - Wikipedia William Ewart Gladstone From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from William Gladstone) Jump to navigation Jump to search British statesman and Liberal politician and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (1809-1898) "Gladstone" redirects here. For other uses, see Gladstone (disambiguation). The Right Honourable William Ewart Gladstone FRS FSS Prime Minister of the United Kingdom In office 15 August 1892 – 2 March 1894 Monarch Victoria Preceded by The Marquess of Salisbury Succeeded by The Earl of Rosebery In office 1 February 1886 – 20 July 1886 Monarch Victoria Preceded by The Marquess of Salisbury Succeeded by The Marquess of Salisbury In office 23 April 1880 – 9 June 1885 Monarch Victoria Preceded by The Earl of Beaconsfield Succeeded by The Marquess of Salisbury In office 3 December 1868 – 17 February 1874 Preceded by Benjamin Disraeli Succeeded by Benjamin Disraeli Chancellor of the Exchequer In office 28 April 1880 – 16 December 1882 Monarch Victoria Prime Minister Himself Preceded by Stafford Northcote Succeeded by Hugh Childers In office 11 August 1873 – 17 February 1874 Monarch Victoria Prime Minister Himself Preceded by Robert Lowe Succeeded by Stafford Northcote In office 18 June 1859 – 26 June 1866 Monarch Victoria Prime Minister The Viscount Palmerston The Earl Russell Preceded by Benjamin Disraeli Succeeded by Benjamin Disraeli In office 28 December 1852 – 28 February 1855 Monarch Victoria Prime Minister The Earl of Aberdeen Preceded by Benjamin Disraeli Succeeded by George Cornewall Lewis Secretary of State for War and the Colonies In office 23 December 1845 – 27 June 1846 Monarch Victoria Prime Minister Robert Peel Preceded by The Earl of Derby Succeeded by The Earl of Grey President of the Board of Trade In office 15 May 1843 – 5 February 1845 Monarch Victoria Prime Minister Robert Peel Preceded by The Earl of Ripon Succeeded by The Earl of Dalhousie Member of Parliament In office 26 August 1847 – 7 August 1895 Preceded by Thomas Grimston Estcourt Succeeded by Thomas Gibson-Carmichael Constituency Oxford University (1847–65) South Lancashire (1865–68) Greenwich (1868–80) Midlothian (1880–95) In office 8 January 1833 – 30 January 1846 Preceded by Thomas Wilde Succeeded by John Stuart Constituency Newark Monarch Victoria Personal details Born (1809-12-29)29 December 1809 62 Rodney Street, Liverpool, Lancashire, England Died 19 May 1898(1898-05-19) (aged 88) Hawarden Castle, Flintshire, Wales Resting place Westminster Abbey Nationality British Political party Tory (1828–1834) Conservative (1834–1846) Peelite (1846–1859) Liberal (1859–1898) Spouse(s) Catherine Glynne ​ (m. 1839)​ Children 8; including William, Helen, Henry, Herbert Parents Sir John Gladstone Anne MacKenzie Robertson Alma mater Christ Church, Oxford Signature William Ewart Gladstone FRS FSS (/ˈɡlædstən/; 29 December 1809 – 19 May 1898) was a British statesman and Liberal politician. In a career lasting over 60 years, he served for 12 years as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, spread over four terms beginning in 1868 and ending in 1894. He also served as Chancellor of the Exchequer four times, serving over 12 years. Gladstone was born in Liverpool to Scottish parents. He first entered the House of Commons in 1832, beginning his political career as a High Tory, a grouping which became the Conservative Party under Robert Peel in 1834. Gladstone served as a minister in both of Peel's governments, and in 1846 joined the breakaway Peelite faction, which eventually merged into the new Liberal Party in 1859. He was Chancellor under Lord Aberdeen (1852–1855), Lord Palmerston (1859–1865) and Lord Russell (1865–1866). Gladstone's own political doctrine—which emphasised equality of opportunity and opposition to trade protectionism—came to be known as Gladstonian liberalism. His popularity amongst the working-class earned him the sobriquet "The People's William". In 1868, Gladstone became Prime Minister for the first time. Many reforms were passed during his first ministry, including the disestablishment of the Church of Ireland and the introduction of secret voting. After electoral defeat in 1874, Gladstone resigned as leader of the Liberal Party. From 1876 he began a comeback based on opposition to Turkey's reaction to the Bulgarian April Uprising. His Midlothian Campaign of 1879–80 was an early example of many modern political campaigning techniques.[1][2] After the 1880 general election, Gladstone formed his second ministry (1880–1885), which saw the passage of the Third Reform Act as well as crises in Egypt (culminating in the Fall of Khartoum) and Ireland, where his government passed repressive measures but also improved the legal rights of Irish tenant farmers. Back in office in early 1886, Gladstone proposed home rule for Ireland but was defeated in the House of Commons. The resulting split in the Liberal Party helped keep them out of office – with one short break – for 20 years. Gladstone formed his last government in 1892, at the age of 82. The Government of Ireland Bill 1893 passed through the Commons but was defeated in the House of Lords in 1893. Gladstone left office in March 1894, aged 84, as both the oldest person to serve as Prime Minister and the only Prime Minister to have served four terms. He left Parliament in 1895 and died three years later. Gladstone was known affectionately by his supporters as "The People's William" or the "G.O.M." ("Grand Old Man", or, to political rivals "God's Only Mistake").[3] Historians often call him one of Britain's greatest leaders.[4][5][6][7] Contents 1 Early life 2 House of Commons 2.1 First term 2.2 Attitude towards slavery 2.3 Opposition to the Opium Wars 3 Minister under Peel (1841–1846) 4 Opposition MP (1846–1851) 5 Chancellor of the Exchequer (1852–1855) 6 Opposition (1855–1859) 7 Chancellor of the Exchequer (1859–1866) 7.1 American Civil War 7.2 Electoral reform 7.3 Leader of the Liberal Party, from 1867 8 First premiership (1868–1874) 9 Opposition (1874–1880) 9.1 Anti-Catholicism 9.2 Self help and opposition to socialism 9.3 Bulgarian Horrors 10 Second premiership (1880–1885) 10.1 Foreign policy 10.2 Ireland 10.3 Franchise 10.4 Failure 11 Third premiership (1886) 12 Opposition (1886–1892) 13 Fourth premiership (1892–1894) 14 Final years (1894–1898) 15 Religion 16 Marriage and family 16.1 Descendants 17 Legacy 17.1 Rivalry with Disraeli 18 Monuments and archives 19 Gallery 20 In popular culture 21 Portrayal in film and television 22 Works 23 See also 24 Notes 25 References 26 Further reading 26.1 Biographies 26.2 Special studies 26.3 Midlothian campaign 26.4 Historiography 26.5 Primary sources 27 External links Early life[edit] Born in 1809 in Liverpool, at 62 Rodney Street, William Ewart Gladstone was the fourth son of the merchant John Gladstone, and his second wife, Anne MacKenzie Robertson. In 1835, the family name was changed from Gladstones to Gladstone by royal licence. His father was made a baronet, of Fasque and Balfour, in 1846.[8] Although born and raised in Liverpool, William Gladstone was of purely Scottish ancestry.[9] His grandfather Thomas Gladstones (1732–1809) was a prominent merchant from Leith, and his maternal grandfather, Andrew Robertson, was Provost of Dingwall and a Sheriff-Substitute of Ross-shire.[8] His biographer John Morley described him as "a highlander in the custody of a lowlander", and an adversary as "an ardent Italian in the custody of a Scotsman". One of his earliest childhood memories was being made to stand on a table and say "Ladies and gentlemen" to the assembled audience, probably at a gathering to promote the election of George Canning as MP for Liverpool in 1812. In 1814, young "Willy" visited Scotland for the first time, as he and his brother John travelled with their father to Edinburgh, Biggar and Dingwall to visit their relatives. Willy and his brother were both made freemen of the burgh of Dingwall.[10] In 1815, Gladstone also travelled to London and Cambridge for the first time with his parents. Whilst in London, he attended a service of thanksgiving with his family at St Paul's Cathedral following the Battle of Waterloo, where he saw the Prince Regent.[11] William Gladstone was educated from 1816 to 1821 at a preparatory school at the vicarage of St. Thomas' Church at Seaforth, close to his family's residence, Seaforth House.[9] In 1821, William followed in the footsteps of his elder brothers and attended Eton College before matriculating in 1828 at Christ Church, Oxford, where he read Classics and Mathematics, although he had no great interest in the latter subject. In December 1831, he achieved the double first-class degree he had long desired. Gladstone served as President of the Oxford Union, where he developed a reputation as an orator, which followed him into the House of Commons. At university, Gladstone was a Tory and denounced Whig proposals for parliamentary reform. Gladstone in the 1830s Following the success of his double first, William travelled with his brother John on a Grand Tour of western Europe. Although Gladstone entered Lincoln's Inn in 1833, with intentions of becoming a barrister, by 1839 he had requested that his name should be removed from the list because he no longer intended to be called to the Bar.[9] House of Commons[edit] First term[edit] When Gladstone was 22 the Duke of Newcastle, a Conservative party activist, provided him with one of two seats at Newark where he controlled about a fourth of the very small electorate. The Duke spent thousands of pounds entertaining the voters. Gladstone displayed remarkably strong technique as a campaigner and stump speaker.[12] He won his seat at the 1832 United Kingdom general election with 887 votes.[13] Initially a disciple of High Toryism, Gladstone's maiden speech as a young Tory was a defence of the rights of West Indian sugar plantation magnates — slave-owners — among whom his father was prominent. He immediately came under attack from anti-slavery elements. He also surprised the duke by urging the need to increase pay for unskilled factory workers.;[14] After new bills to protect child workers were proposed following the publication of the Sadler report, he voted against the 1833 Factory Acts that would regulate the hours of work and welfare of minors employed in cotton mills.[15] Attitude towards slavery[edit] Gladstone's early attitude towards slavery was highly shaped by his father, Sir John Gladstone, one of the largest slave owners in the British Empire. Both father and son opposed emancipation, saying the slaves first had to have better morals. They also opposed the international slave trade (which lowered the value of the slaves the father already owned).[16][17][18] The antislavery movement demanded the immediate abolition of slavery. Gladstone opposed this and said in 1832 that emancipation should come after moral emancipation through the adoption of an education and the inculcation of "honest and industrious habits" among the slaves Then "with the utmost speed that prudence will permit, we shall arrive at that exceedingly desired consummation, the utter extinction of slavery."[19] In 1831, when the Oxford Union considered a motion in favour of the immediate emancipation of the slaves in the West Indies, Gladstone moved an amendment in favour of gradual manumission along with better protection for the personal and civil rights of the slaves and better provision for their Christian education.[20] His early Parliamentary speeches followed a similar line: in June 1833, Gladstone concluded his speech on the ‘slavery question’ by declaring that though he had dwelt on "the dark side" of the issue, he looked forward to "a safe and gradual emancipation".[21] In 1834, when slavery was abolished across the British Empire, the owners were paid full value for the slaves. Gladstone helped his father obtain £106,769 in official reimbursement by the government for the 2,508 slaves he owned across nine plantations in the Caribbean.[22] In later years Gladstone's attitude towards slavery became more critical as his father's influence over his politics diminished. In 1844 Gladstone broke with his father when, as President of the Board of Trade, he advanced proposals to half duties on foreign sugar not produced by slave labour, in order to "secure the effectual exclusion of slave-grown sugar" and to encourage Brazil and Spain to end slavery.[23] Sir John Gladstone, who opposed any reduction in duties on foreign sugar, wrote a letter to The Times criticizing the measure.[24] Looking back late in life, Gladstone named the abolition of slavery as one of ten great achievements of the previous sixty years where the masses had been right and the upper classes had been wrong.[25] Opposition to the Opium Wars[edit] The opium trade faced intense opposition from Gladstone.[26][27] Gladstone called it "most infamous and atrocious" referring to the opium trade between China and British India in particular.[28] Gladstone was fiercely against both of the Opium Wars Britain waged in China, in the First Opium War initiated in 1840 and the Second Opium War initiated in 1857, denouncing British violence against Chinese, and was ardently opposed to the British trade of opium in China.[29] Gladstone lambasted it as "Palmerston's Opium War" and said that he felt "in dread of the judgements of God upon England for our national iniquity towards China" in May 1840.[30] A famous speech was made by Gladstone in Parliament against the First Opium War.[31][32] Gladstone criticised it as "a war more unjust in its origin, a war more calculated in its progress to cover this country with permanent disgrace".[33] His hostility to opium stemmed from the effects of opium upon his sister Helen.[34] Due to the First Opium war brought on by Palmerston, there was initial reluctance to join the government of Peel on the part of Gladstone before 1841.[35] Minister under Peel (1841–1846)[edit] Gladstone was re-elected in 1841. In September 1842 he lost the forefinger of his left hand in an accident while reloading a gun. Thereafter he wore a glove or finger sheath (stall). In the second ministry of Robert Peel he served as President of the Board of Trade (1843–1845). Gladstone was responsible for the Railways Act 1844—regarded by historians as the birth of the regulatory state, of network industry regulation, of rate of return regulation, and telegraph regulation. Examples of its foresight are the clauses empowering government to take control of railway in time of war, the concept of Parliamentary trains limited in cost to a penny a mile, of universal service and of control of the recently invented electric telegraph which ran alongside railway lines. Railways were the largest investment (as a percentage of GNP) in human history and this Bill the most heavily lobbied in Parliamentary history. Gladstone succeeded in guiding the Act through Parliament at the height of the railway bubble.[36] Gladstone became concerned with the situation of "coal whippers". These were the men who worked on London docks, "whipping" in baskets from ships to barges or wharves all incoming coal from the sea. They were called up and relieved through public houses, therefore a man could not get this job unless he possessed the favourable opinion of the publican, who looked most favourably upon those who drank. The man's name was written down and the "score" followed. Publicans issued employment solely on the capacity of the man to pay, and men often left the pub to work drunk. They spent their savings on drink to secure the favourable opinion of publicans and therefore further employment. Gladstone passed the Coal Vendors Act 1843 to set up a central office for employment. When this Act expired in 1856 a Select Committee was appointed by the Lords in 1857 to look into the question. Gladstone gave evidence to the Committee: "I approached the subject in the first instance as I think everyone in Parliament of necessity did, with the strongest possible prejudice against the proposal [to interfere]; but the facts stated were of so extraordinary and deplorable a character, that it was impossible to withhold attention from them. Then the question being whether legislative interference was required I was at length induced to look at a remedy of an extraordinary character as the only one I thought applicable to the case ... it was a great innovation".[37] Looking back in 1883, Gladstone wrote that "In principle, perhaps my Coalwhippers Act of 1843 was the most Socialistic measure of the last half century".[38] He resigned in 1845 over the Maynooth Grant issue, a matter of conscience for him.[39] To improve relations with the Catholic Church, Peel's government proposed increasing the annual grant paid to Maynooth Seminary for training Catholic priests in Ireland. Gladstone, who had previously argued in a book that a Protestant country should not pay money to other churches, nevertheless supported the increase in the Maynooth grant and voted for it in Commons, but resigned rather than face charges that he had compromised his principles to remain in office. After accepting Gladstone's resignation, Peel confessed to a friend, "I really have great difficulty sometimes in exactly comprehending what he means."[40] Gladstone returned to Peel's government as Colonial Secretary in December 1845. "As such, he had to stand for re-election, but the strong protectionism of the Duke of Newcastle, his patron in Newark, meant that he could not stand there and no other seat was available. Throughout the corn law crisis of 1846, therefore, Gladstone was in the highly anomalous and possibly unique position of being a secretary of state without a seat in either house and thus unanswerable to parliament."[41] Opposition MP (1846–1851)[edit] In 1846 Peel's government fell over the repeal of the Corn Laws and Gladstone followed his leader into a course of separation from mainstream Conservatives. After Peel's death in 1850, Gladstone emerged as the leader of the Peelites in the House of Commons. He was re-elected for the University of Oxford (i.e. representing the MA graduates of the University) at the General Election in 1847—Peel had once held this seat but had lost it because of his espousal of Catholic Emancipation in 1829. Gladstone became a constant critic of Lord Palmerston.[42] In 1847 Gladstone helped to establish Glenalmond College, then The Holy and Undivided Trinity College at Glenalmond. The school was set up as an episcopal foundation to spread the ideas of Anglicanism in Scotland, and to educate the sons of the gentry.[43] As a young man Gladstone had treated his father's estate, Fasque, in Forfarshire, southwest of Aberdeen, as home, but as a younger son he would not inherit it. Instead, from the time of his marriage, he lived at his wife's family's estate at Hawarden in Flintshire, Wales. He never actually owned Hawarden, which belonged first to his brother-in-law Sir Stephen Glynne, and was then inherited by Gladstone's eldest son in 1874. During the late 1840s, when he was out of office, he worked extensively to turn Hawarden into a viable business.[44] In 1848 he founded the Church Penitentiary Association for the Reclamation of Fallen Women. In May 1849 he began his most active "rescue work" and met prostitutes late at night on the street, in his house or in their houses, writing their names in a private notebook. He aided the House of Mercy at Clewer near Windsor (which exercised extreme in-house discipline) and spent much time arranging employment for ex-prostitutes. In a "Declaration" signed on 7 December 1896 and only to be opened after his death, Gladstone wrote, "I desire to record my solemn declaration and assurance, as in the sight of God and before His Judgement Seat, that at no period of my life have I been guilty of the act which is known as that of infidelity to the marriage bed."[45] In 1850/51 Gladstone visited Naples. Italy, for the benefit of his daughter Mary's eyesight. Giacomo Lacaita, legal adviser to the British embassy, was at the time imprisoned by the Neapolitan government, as were other political dissidents. Gladstone became concerned at the political situation in Naples and the arrest and imprisonment of Neapolitan liberals. In February 1851 Gladstone visited the prisons where thousands of them were held and was extremely outraged. In April and July he published two Letters to the Earl of Aberdeen against the Neapolitan government and responded to his critics in An Examination of the Official Reply of the Neapolitan Government in 1852. Gladstone's first letter described what he saw in Naples as "the negation of God erected into a system of government".[46] Chancellor of the Exchequer (1852–1855)[edit] A pensive Gladstone, from the book Great Britain and Her Queen, by Anne E. Keeling In 1852, following the appointment of Lord Aberdeen as Prime Minister, head of a coalition of Whigs and Peelites, Gladstone became Chancellor of the Exchequer. The Whig Sir Charles Wood and the Tory Disraeli had both been perceived to have failed in the office and so this provided Gladstone with a great political opportunity.[47] His first budget in 1853 almost completed the work begun by Peel eleven years before in simplifying Britain's tariff of duties and customs.[48] 123 duties were abolished and 133 duties were reduced.[49] The income tax had legally expired but Gladstone proposed to extend it for seven years to fund tariff reductions: We propose, then, to re-enact it for two years, from April, 1853, to April, 1855, at the rate of 7d. in the £; from April, 1855, to enact it for two more years at 6d. in the £; and then for three years more ... from April, 1857, at 5d. Under this proposal, on 5 April 1860, the income-tax will by law expire.[50] Gladstone wanted to maintain a balance between direct and indirect taxation and to abolish income tax. He knew that its abolition depended on a considerable retrenchment in government expenditure. He therefore increased the number of people eligible to pay it by lowering the threshold from £150 to £100. The more people that paid income tax, Gladstone believed, the more the public would pressure the government into abolishing it.[51] Gladstone argued that the £100 line was "the dividing line ... between the educated and the labouring part of the community" and that therefore the income tax payers and the electorate were to be the same people, who would then vote to cut government expenditure.[51] The budget speech (delivered on 18 April), nearly five hours long, raised Gladstone "at once to the front rank of financiers as of orators".[52] H.C.G. Matthew has written that Gladstone "made finance and figures exciting, and succeeded in constructing budget speeches epic in form and performance, often with lyrical interludes to vary the tension in the Commons as the careful exposition of figures and argument was brought to a climax".[53] The contemporary diarist Charles Greville wrote of Gladstone's speech: ... by universal consent it was one of the grandest displays and most able financial statement that ever was heard in the House of Commons; a great scheme, boldly, skilfully, and honestly devised, disdaining popular clamour and pressure from without, and the execution of it absolute perfection. Even those who do not admire the Budget, or who are injured by it, admit the merit of the performance. It has raised Gladstone to a great political elevation, and, what is of far greater consequence than the measure itself, has given the country assurance of a man equal to great political necessities, and fit to lead parties and direct governments.[54] During wartime, he insisted on raising taxes and not borrowing funds to pay for the war. The goal was to turn wealthy Britons against expensive wars. Britain entered the Crimean War in February 1854, and Gladstone introduced his budget on 6 March. He had to increase expenditure on the military and a vote of credit of £1,250,000 was taken to send a force of 25,000 to the front. The deficit for the year would be £2,840,000 (estimated revenue £56,680,000; estimated expenditure £59,420,000). Gladstone refused to borrow the money needed to rectify this deficit and instead increased income tax by half, from sevenpence to tenpence-halfpenny in the pound (from 2.92% to 4.38%). By May another £6,870,000 was needed for the war and Gladstone raised the income tax from tenpence halfpenny to fourteen pence in the pound to raise £3,250,000. Spirits, malt, and sugar were taxed to raise the rest of the money needed.[55] He proclaimed: The expenses of a war are the moral check which it has pleased the Almighty to impose upon the ambition and lust of conquest that are inherent in so many nations ... The necessity of meeting from year to year the expenditure which it entails is a salutary and wholesome check, making them feel what they are about, and making them measure the cost of the benefit upon which they may calculate[56] He served until 1855, a few weeks into Lord Palmerston's first premiership, and resigned along with the rest of the Peelites after a motion was passed to appoint a committee of inquiry into the conduct of the war. Opposition (1855–1859)[edit] Gladstone in 1859, painted by George Frederic Watts. The Conservative Leader Lord Derby became Prime Minister in 1858, but Gladstone—who like the other Peelites was still nominally a Conservative—declined a position in his government, opting not to sacrifice his free trade principles. Between November 1858 and February 1859, Gladstone, on behalf of Lord Derby's government, was made Extraordinary Lord High Commissioner of the Ionian Islands embarking via Vienna and Trieste on a twelve-week mission to the southern Adriatic entrusted with complex challenges that had arisen in connection with the future of the British protectorate of the United States of the Ionian Islands.[57] In 1858, Gladstone took up the hobby of tree felling, mostly of oak trees, an exercise he continued with enthusiasm until he was 81 in 1891. Eventually, he became notorious for this activity, prompting Lord Randolph Churchill to observe: "For the purposes of recreation he has selected the felling of trees; and we may usefully remark that his amusements, like his politics, are essentially destructive. Every afternoon the whole world is invited to assist at the crashing fall of some beech or elm or oak. The forest laments in order that Mr Gladstone may perspire."[58] Less noticed at the time was his practice of replacing the trees felled by planting new saplings. Gladstone was a lifelong bibliophile.[59] In his lifetime, he read around 20,000 books, and eventually owned a library of over 32,000.[60] Chancellor of the Exchequer (1859–1866)[edit] Gladstone in 1861, photographed by John Mayall. In 1859, Lord Palmerston formed a new mixed government with Radicals included, and Gladstone again joined the government (with most of the other remaining Peelites) as Chancellor of the Exchequer, to become part of the new Liberal Party. Gladstone inherited a deficit of nearly £5,000,000, with income tax now set at 5d (fivepence). Like Peel, Gladstone dismissed the idea of borrowing to cover the deficit. Gladstone argued that "In time of peace nothing but dire necessity should induce us to borrow".[61] Most of the money needed was acquired through raising the income tax to 9d. Usually not more than two-thirds of a tax imposed could be collected in a financial year so Gladstone therefore imposed the extra four pence at a rate of 8d. during the first half of the year so that he could obtain the additional revenue in one year. Gladstone's dividing line set up in 1853 had been abolished in 1858 but Gladstone revived it, with lower incomes to pay 6½d. instead of 9d. For the first half of the year the lower incomes paid 8d. and the higher incomes paid 13d. in income tax.[62] On 12 September 1859 the Radical MP Richard Cobden visited Gladstone, who recorded it in his diary: "... further conv. with Mr. Cobden on Tariffs & relations with France. We are closely & warmly agreed".[63] Cobden was sent as Britain's representative to the negotiations with France's Michel Chevalier for a free trade treaty between the two countries. Gladstone wrote to Cobden: "... the great aim—the moral and political significance of the act, and its probable and desired fruit in binding the two countries together by interest and affection. Neither you nor I attach for the moment any superlative value to this Treaty for the sake of the extension of British trade. ... What I look to is the social good, the benefit to the relations of the two countries, and the effect on the peace of Europe".[64] Gladstone's budget of 1860 was introduced on 10 February along with the Cobden–Chevalier Treaty between Britain and France that would reduce tariffs between the two countries.[65] This budget "marked the final adoption of the Free Trade principle, that taxation should be levied for Revenue purposes alone, and that every protective, differential, or discriminating duty ... should be dislodged".[66] At the beginning of 1859, there were 419 duties in existence. The 1860 budget reduced the number of duties to 48, with 15 duties constituting the majority of the revenue. To finance these reductions in indirect taxation, the income tax, instead of being abolished, was raised to 10d. for incomes above £150 and at 7d. for incomes above £100.[67] In 1860 Gladstone intended to abolish the duty on paper - a controversial policy - because the duty traditionally inflated the cost of publishing and hindered the dissemination of radical working-class ideas. Although Palmerston supported continuation of the duty, using it and income tax revenue to buy arms, a majority of his Cabinet supported Gladstone. The Bill to abolish duties on paper narrowly passed Commons but was rejected by the House of Lords. No money bill had been rejected by Lords for over 200 years, and a furore arose over this vote. The next year, Gladstone included the abolition of paper duty in a consolidated Finance Bill (the first ever) to force the Lords to accept it, and accept it they did. The proposal in the Commons of one bill only per session for the national finances was a precedent uniformly followed from that date until 1910, and it has been ever since the rule.[68] Gladstone steadily reduced Income tax over the course of his tenure as Chancellor. In 1861 the tax was reduced to ninepence (£0–0s–9d), in 1863 to sevenpence, in 1864 to fivepence and in 1865 to fourpence.[69] Gladstone believed that government was extravagant and wasteful with taxpayers' money and so sought to let money "fructify in the pockets of the people" by keeping taxation levels down through "peace and retrenchment". In 1859 he wrote to his brother, who was a member of the Financial Reform Association at Liverpool: "Economy is the first and great article (economy such as I understand it) in my financial creed. The controversy between direct and indirect taxation holds a minor, though important place".[70] He wrote to his wife on 14 January 1860: "I am certain, from experience, of the immense advantage of strict account-keeping in early life. It is just like learning the grammar then, which when once learned need not be referred to afterwards".[71][incomplete short citation] [a] Due to his actions as Chancellor, Gladstone earned the reputation as the liberator of British trade and the working man's breakfast table, the man responsible for the emancipation of the popular press from "taxes upon knowledge" and for placing a duty on the succession of the estates of the rich.[73] Gladstone's popularity rested on his taxation policies which meant to his supporters balance, social equity and political justice.[74] The most significant expression of working-class opinion was at Northumberland in 1862 when Gladstone visited. George Holyoake recalled in 1865: When Mr Gladstone visited the North, you well remember when word passed from the newspaper to the workman that it circulated through mines and mills, factories and workshops, and they came out to greet the only British minister who ever gave the English people a right because it was just they should have it ... and when he went down the Tyne, all the country heard how twenty miles of banks were lined with people who came to greet him. Men stood in the blaze of chimneys; the roofs of factories were crowded; colliers came up from the mines; women held up their children on the banks that it might be said in after life that they had seen the Chancellor of the People go by. The river was covered like the land. Every man who could ply an oar pulled up to give Mr Gladstone a cheer. When Lord Palmerston went to Bradford the streets were still, and working men imposed silence upon themselves. When Mr Gladstone appeared on the Tyne he heard cheer no other English minister ever heard ... the people were grateful to him, and rough pitmen who never approached a public man before, pressed round his carriage by thousands ... and thousands of arms were stretched out at once, to shake hands with Mr Gladstone as one of themselves.[75] When Gladstone first joined Palmerston's government in 1859, he had opposed further electoral reform, but he changed his position during Palmerston's last premiership, and by 1865 he was firmly in favour of enfranchising the working classes in towns. The policy caused friction with Palmerston, who strongly opposed enfranchisement. At the beginning of each session, Gladstone would passionately urge the Cabinet to adopt new policies, while Palmerston would fixedly stare at a paper before him. At a lull in Gladstone's speech, Palmerston would smile, rap the table with his knuckles, and interject pointedly, "Now, my Lords and gentlemen, let us go to business".[76] Although he personally was not a Nonconformist, and rather disliked them in person, he formed a coalition with the Nonconformists that gave the Liberals a powerful base of support.[77] American Civil War[edit] Shortly after the outbreak of the American Civil War Gladstone wrote to his friend the Duchess of Sutherland that "the principle announced by the vice-president of the South...which asserts the superiority of the white man, and therewith founds on it his right to hold the black in slavery, I think that principle detestable, and I am wholly with the opponents of it" but that he felt that the North was wrong to try to restore the Union by military force, which he believed would end in failure.[78] Palmerston's government adopted a position of British neutrality throughout the war, while declining to recognise the independence of the Confederacy. In October 1862 Gladstone made a speech in Newcastle in which he said that Jefferson Davis and the other Confederate leaders had "made a nation", that the Confederacy seemed certain to succeed in asserting its independence from the North, and that the time might come when it would be the duty of the European powers to "offer friendly aid in compromising the quarrel."[79] The speech caused consternation on both sides of the Atlantic and led to speculation that the Britain might be about to recognise the Confederacy."[80][81] Gladstone was accused of sympathising with the South, a charge he rejected.[82][83] Gladstone was forced to clarify in the press that his comments in Newcastle had not been intended to signal a change in Government policy, but to express his belief that the North's efforts to defeat the South would fail, due to Southern resistance.[84][85] In a memorandum to the Cabinet later that month Gladstone wrote that, although he believed the Confederacy would probably win the war, it was "seriously tainted by its connection with slavery" and argued that the European powers should use their influence on the South to effect the "mitigation or removal of slavery."[86] Electoral reform[edit] In May 1864 Gladstone said that he saw no reason in principle why all mentally able men could not be enfranchised, but admitted that this would only come about once the working classes themselves showed more interest in the subject. Queen Victoria was not pleased with this statement, and an outraged Palmerston considered it a seditious incitement to agitation.[87] Gladstone's support for electoral reform and disestablishment of the (Anglican) Church of Ireland won support from Nonconformists but alienated him from constituents in his Oxford University seat, and he lost it in the 1865 general election. A month later he stood as a candidate in South Lancashire, where he was elected third MP (South Lancashire at this time elected three MPs). Palmerston campaigned for Gladstone in Oxford because he believed that his constituents would keep him "partially muzzled"; many Oxford graduates were Anglican clergymen at that time. A victorious Gladstone told his new constituency, "At last, my friends, I am come among you; and I am come—to use an expression which has become very famous and is not likely to be forgotten—I am come 'unmuzzled'."[88] On Palmerston's death in October, Earl Russell formed his second ministry.[89] Russell and Gladstone (now the senior Liberal in the House of Commons) attempted to pass a reform bill, which was defeated in the Commons because the "Adullamite" Whigs, led by Robert Lowe, refused to support it. The Conservatives then formed a ministry, in which after long Parliamentary debate Disraeli passed the Second Reform Act of 1867; Gladstone's proposed bill had been totally outmanoeuvred; he stormed into the Chamber, but too late to see his arch-enemy pass the bill. Gladstone was furious; his animus commenced a long rivalry that would only end on Disraeli's death and Gladstone's encomium in the Commons in 1881.[90] Leader of the Liberal Party, from 1867[edit] Lord Russell retired in 1867 and Gladstone became leader of the Liberal Party.[91] In 1868 the Irish Church Resolutions was proposed as a measure to reunite the Liberal Party in government (on the issue of disestablishment of the Church of Ireland—this would be done during Gladstone's First Government in 1869 and meant that Irish Roman Catholics did not need to pay their tithes to the Anglican Church of Ireland).[92] When it was passed Disraeli took the hint and called a General Election. First premiership (1868–1874)[edit] Main articles: First premiership of William Gladstone, First Gladstone ministry, and Foreign Policy of William Ewart Gladstone Gladstone's Cabinet of 1868, painted by Lowes Cato Dickinson.[93] Use a cursor to see who is who.[94] In the next general election in 1868, the South Lancashire constituency had been broken up by the Second Reform Act into two: South East Lancashire and South West Lancashire. Gladstone stood for South West Lancashire and for Greenwich, it being quite common then for candidates to stand in two constituencies simultaneously.[95] To his great surprise he was defeated in South Lancashire but winning in Greenwich was able to remain in Parliament. He became Prime Minister for the first time and remained in the office until 1874. Evelyn Ashley famously described the scene in the grounds of Hawarden Castle on 1 December 1868: One afternoon...in the Park at Hawarden, I was standing by Mr. Gladstone holding his coat on my arm while he, in his shirt sleeves, was wielding an axe to cut down a tree. Up came a telegraph messenger. He took the telegram, opened it and read it, then handed it to me, speaking only two words, namely, 'Very significant', and at once resumed his work. The message merely stated that General Grey would arrive that evening from Windsor. This, of course, implied that a mandate was coming from the Queen charging Mr. Gladstone with the formation of his first Government. I said nothing, but waited while the well-directed blows resounded in regular cadence. After a few minutes the blows ceased and Mr. Gladstone, resting on the handle of his axe, looked up, and with deep earnestness in his voice, and great intensity in his face, exclaimed: 'My mission is to pacify Ireland.' He then resumed his task, and never said another word till the tree was down.[96] In the 1860s and 1870s, Gladstonian Liberalism was characterised by a number of policies intended to improve individual liberty and loosen political and economic restraints. First was the minimisation of public expenditure on the premise that the economy and society were best helped by allowing people to spend as they saw fit. Secondly, his foreign policy aimed at promoting peace to help reduce expenditures and taxation and enhance trade. Thirdly, laws that prevented people from acting freely to improve themselves were reformed. When an unemployed miner (Daniel Jones) wrote to him to complain of his unemployment and low wages, Gladstone gave what H. C. G. Matthew has called "the classic mid-Victorian reply" on 20 October 1869: The only means which have been placed in my power of 'raising the wages of colliers' has been by endeavouring to beat down all those restrictions upon trade which tend to reduce the price to be obtained for the product of their labour, & to lower as much as may be the taxes on the commodities which they may require for use or for consumption. Beyond this I look to the forethought not yet so widely diffused in this country as in Scotland, & in some foreign lands; & I need not remind you that in order to facilitate its exercise the Government have been empowered by Legislation to become through the Dept. of the P.O. the receivers & guardians of savings.[97] Gladstone's first premiership instituted reforms in the British Army, civil service, and local government to cut restrictions on individual advancement. The Local Government Board Act 1871 put the supervision of the Poor Law under the Local Government Board (headed by G.J. Goschen) and Gladstone's "administration could claim spectacular success in enforcing a dramatic reduction in supposedly sentimental and unsystematic outdoor poor relief, and in making, in co-operation with the Charity Organization Society (1869), the most sustained attempt of the century to impose upon the working classes the Victorian values of providence, self-reliance, foresight, and self-discipline".[98] Gladstone was associated with the Charity Organization Society's first annual report in 1870.[99] Some leading Conservatives at this time were contemplating an alliance between the aristocracy and the working class against the capitalist class, an idea called the New Social Alliance.[100] At a speech at Blackheath on 28 October 1871, he warned his constituents against these social reformers: ... they are not your friends, but they are your enemies in fact, though not in intention, who teach you to look to the Legislature for the radical removal of the evils that afflict human life. ... It is the individual mind and conscience, it is the individual character, on which mainly human happiness or misery depends. (Cheers.) The social problems that confront us are many and formidable. Let the Government labour to its utmost, let the Legislature labour days and nights in your service; but, after the very best has been attained and achieved, the question whether the English father is to be the father of a happy family and the centre of a united home is a question which must depend mainly upon himself. (Cheers.) And those who ... promise to the dwellers in towns that every one of them shall have a house and garden in free air, with ample space; those who tell you that there shall be markets for selling at wholesale prices retail quantities—I won't say are impostors, because I have no doubt they are sincere; but I will say they are quacks (cheers); they are deluded and beguiled by a spurious philanthropy, and when they ought to give you substantial, even if they are humble and modest boons, they are endeavouring, perhaps without their own consciousness, to delude you with fanaticism, and offering to you a fruit which, when you attempt to taste it, will prove to be but ashes in your mouths. (Cheers.)[101] Gladstone as caricatured by Vanity Fair in 1869. Gladstone instituted abolition of the sale of commissions in the army: he also instituted the Cardwell Reforms in 1869 that made peacetime flogging illegal. In 1871 his government passed the Trade Union Act allowing trade unions to organise and operate legally for the first time (although picketing remained illegal). Gladstone later counted this reform as one of the most significant of the previous half century, saying that prior to its passage the law had effectively "compelled the British workman to work...in chains."[102] He secured passage of the Ballot Act for secret ballots, and the Licensing Act 1872. In 1873, his leadership led to the passage of laws restructuring the High Courts. In 1870, the Irish Land Act and Forster's Education Act. In 1871, he instituted the Universities Tests Act. In foreign affairs his over-riding aim was to promote peace and understanding, characterised by his settlement of the Alabama Claims in 1872 in favour of the Americans. Gladstone unexpectedly dissolved Parliament in January 1874 and called a general election. [b] Gladstone's proposals went some way to meet working-class demands, such as the realisation of the free breakfast table through repealing duties on tea and sugar, and reform of local taxation which was increasing for the poorer ratepayers.[104] According to the working-class financial reformer Thomas Briggs, writing in the trade unionist newspaper The Bee-Hive, the manifesto relied on "a much higher authority than Mr. Gladstone...viz., the late Richard Cobden".[105] The dissolution itself was reported in The Times on 24 January. On 30 January, the names of the first fourteen MPs for uncontested seats were published. By 9 February a Conservative victory was apparent. In contrast to 1868 and 1880 when the Liberal campaign lasted several months, only three weeks separated the news of the dissolution and the election. The working-class newspapers were so taken by surprise they had little time to express an opinion on Gladstone's manifesto before the election was over.[106] Unlike the efforts of the Conservatives, the organisation of the Liberal Party had declined since 1868 and they had also failed to retain Liberal voters on the electoral register. George Howell wrote to Gladstone on 12 February: "There is one lesson to be learned from this Election, that is Organization. ... We have lost not by a change of sentiment so much as by want of organised power".[107] The Liberals received a majority of the vote in each of the constituent countries of the United Kingdom and 189,000 more votes nationally than the Conservatives. However, they obtained a minority of seats in the House of Commons.[108] Opposition (1874–1880)[edit] Gladstone in 1874, painted by Franz von Lenbach. In the wake of Benjamin Disraeli's victory, Gladstone retired from the leadership of the Liberal party, although he retained his seat in the House. Anti-Catholicism[edit] Further information: Anti-Catholicism in the United Kingdom Gladstone had a complex ambivalence about Catholicism. He was attracted by its international success in majestic traditions. More important, he was strongly opposed to the authoritarianism of its pope and bishops, its profound public opposition to liberalism, and its refusal to distinguish between secular allegiance on the one hand and spiritual obedience on the other. The danger came when the pope or bishops attempted to exert temporal power, as in the Vatican decrees of 1870 as the climax of the papal attempt to control churches in different nations, despite their independent nationalism.[109] On the other hand, when ritual practices in the Church of England—such as vestments and incense—came under attack as too ritualistic and too much akin to Catholicism, Gladstone strongly opposed passage of the Public Worship Regulation Act in 1874.[110] In November 1874, he published the pamphlet The Vatican Decrees in their Bearing on Civil Allegiance, directed at the First Vatican Council's dogmatising Papal Infallibility in 1870, which had outraged him.[111] Gladstone claimed that this decree had placed British Catholics in a dilemma over conflicts of loyalty to the Crown. He urged them to reject papal infallibility as they had opposed the Spanish Armada of 1588. The pamphlet sold 150,000 copies by the end of 1874. A second pamphlet followed in Feb 1875, a defence of the earlier pamphlet and a reply to his critics, entitled Vaticanism: an Answer to Reproofs and Replies.[112] He described the Catholic Church as "an Asian monarchy: nothing but one giddy height of despotism, and one dead level of religious subservience". He further claimed that the Pope wanted to destroy the rule of law and replace it with arbitrary tyranny, and then to hide these "crimes against liberty beneath a suffocating cloud of incense".[113] Portrait of Gladstone at Hawarden in 1877 Self help and opposition to socialism[edit] In a speech to the Hawarden Amateur Horticultural Society on 17 August 1876, Gladstone remarked "I am delighted to see how many young boys and girls have come forward to obtain honourable marks of recognition on this occasion,—if any effectual good is to be done to them, it must be done by teaching and encouraging them and helping them to help themselves. All the people who pretend to take your own concerns out of your own hands and to do everything for you, I won't say they are impostors; I won't even say they are quacks; but I do say they are mistaken people. The only sound, healthy description of countenancing and assisting these institutions is that which teaches independence and self-exertion".[114] Lord Kilbracken, one of Gladstone's secretaries added: It will be borne in mind that the Liberal doctrines of that time, with their violent anti-socialist spirit and their strong insistence on the gospel of thrift, self-help, settlement of wages by the higgling of the market, and non-interference by the State.... I think that Mr. Gladstone was the strongest anti-socialist that I have ever known among persons who gave any serious thought to social and political questions. It is quite true, as has been often said, that “we are all socialists up to a certain point”; but Mr. Gladstone fixed that point lower, and was more vehement against those who went above it, than any other politician or official of my acquaintance. I remember his speaking indignantly to me of the budget of 1874 as “That socialistic budget of Northcote's,” merely because of the special relief which it gave to the poorer class of income-tax payers. His strong belief in Free Trade was only one of the results of his deep-rooted conviction that the Government's interference with the free action of the individual, whether by taxation or otherwise, should be kept at an irreducible minimum. It is, indeed, not too much to say that his conception of Liberalism was the negation of Socialism.[115] Bulgarian Horrors[edit] Further information: April Uprising of 1876 A pamphlet Gladstone published on 6 September 1876, Bulgarian Horrors and the Question of the East,[116][117][118] attacked the Disraeli government for its indifference to the Ottoman Empire's violent repression of the Bulgarian April uprising. Gladstone made clear his hostility focused on the Turkish people, rather than on the Muslim religion. The Turks he said: were, upon the whole, from the black day when they first entered Europe, the one great anti-human specimen of humanity. Wherever they went, a broad line of blood marked the track behind them; and as far as their dominion reached, civilisation disappeared from view. They represented everywhere government by force, as opposed to government by law. For the guide of this life they had a relentless fatalism: for its reward hereafter, a sensual paradise.[119] Gladstone in 1879, painted by John Everett Millais. The historian Geoffrey Alderman has described Gladstone as 'unleashing the full fury of his oratorical powers against Jews and Jewish influence' during the Bulgarian Crisis (1885–88), telling a journalist in 1876 that: "I deeply deplore the manner in which, what I may call Judaic sympathies, beyond as well as within the circle of professed Judaism, are now acting on the question of the East'.[120] Gladstone similarly refused to speak out against the persecution of Romanian Jews in the 1870s and Russian Jews in the early 1880s.[120] In response, the Jewish Chronicle attacked Gladstone in 1888, arguing that 'Are we, because there was once a Liberal Party, to bow down and worship Gladstone—the great Minister who was too Christian in his charity, too Russian in his proclivities, to raise voice or finger' to defend Russian Jews...[121] Alderman attributes these developments, along with other factors, to the collapse of the previously strong ties between British Jews and Liberalism.[120] During the 1879 election campaign, called the Midlothian campaign, he rousingly denounced Disraeli's foreign policies during the ongoing Second Anglo-Afghan War in Afghanistan. (See Great Game). He saw the war as "great dishonour" and also criticised British conduct in the Zulu War. Gladstone also (on 29 November) condemned what he saw as the Conservative government's profligate spending: ...the Chancellor of the Exchequer shall boldly uphold economy in detail; and it is the mark ... of ... a chicken-hearted Chancellor of the Exchequer, when he shrinks from upholding economy in detail, when, because it is a question of only £2,000 or £3,000, he says that is no matter. He is ridiculed, no doubt, for what is called saving candle-ends and cheese-parings. No Chancellor of the Exchequer is worth his salt who is not ready to save what are meant by candle-ends and cheese-parings in the cause of his country. No Chancellor of the Exchequer is worth his salt who makes his own popularity either his first consideration, or any consideration at all, in administrating the public purse. You would not like to have a housekeeper or steward who made her or his popularity with the tradesmen the measure of the payments that were to be delivered to them. In my opinion the Chancellor of the Exchequer is the trusted and confidential steward of the public. He is under a sacred obligation with regard to all that he consents to spend.... I am bound to say hardly ever in the six years that Sir Stafford Northcote has been in office have I heard him speak a resolute word on behalf of economy.[122] Second premiership (1880–1885)[edit] Main articles: Second premiership of William Ewart Gladstone and Second Gladstone ministry The Cabinet Council, 1883 by Théobald Chartran, published in Vanity Fair, 27 November 1883 In 1880, the Liberals won again and the Liberal leaders, Lord Hartington (leader in the House of Commons) and Lord Granville, retired in Gladstone's favour. Gladstone won his constituency election in Midlothian and also in Leeds, where he had also been adopted as a candidate. As he could lawfully only serve as MP for one constituency, Leeds was passed to his son Herbert. One of his other sons, Henry, was also elected as an MP. Queen Victoria asked Lord Hartington to form a ministry, but he persuaded her to send for Gladstone. Gladstone's second administration—both as Prime Minister and again as Chancellor of the Exchequer till 1882—lasted from June 1880 to June 1885. He originally intended to retire at the end of 1882, the 50th anniversary of his entry into politics, but did not do so.[123] Foreign policy[edit] Main article: Foreign Policy of William Ewart Gladstone Historians have debated the wisdom of Gladstone's foreign-policy during his second ministry.[124][125] Paul Hayes says it "provides one of the most intriguing and perplexing tales of muddle and incompetence in foreign affairs, unsurpassed in modern political history until the days of Grey and, later, Neville Chamberlain."[126] Gladstone opposed himself to the "colonial lobby" pushing for the scramble for Africa. His term saw the end of the Second Anglo-Afghan War, the First Boer War, and the war against the Mahdi in Sudan. On 11 July 1882, Gladstone ordered the bombardment of Alexandria, starting the short, Anglo-Egyptian War of 1882. The British won decisively, and although they repeatedly promised to depart in a few years, the actual result was British control of Egypt for four decades, largely ignoring Ottoman nominal ownership. France was seriously unhappy, having lost control of the canal that it built and financed and had dreamed of for decades. Gladstone's role in the decision to invade was described as relatively hands-off, and the ultimate responsibility was borne by certain members of his cabinet such as Lord Hartington, Secretary of State for India, Thomas Baring, 1st Earl of Northbrook, First Lord of the Admiralty, Hugh Childers, Secretary of State for War, and Granville Leveson-Gower, 2nd Earl Granville, the Foreign Secretary.[127] Historian A.J.P. Taylor says that the seizure of Egypt "was a great event; indeed, the only real event in international relations between the Battle of Sedan and the defeat of Russia in the Russo-Japanese war."[128] Taylor emphasizes long-term impact: The British occupation of Egypt altered the balance of power. It not only gave the British security for their route to India, it made them masters of the Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East. It made it unnecessary for them to stand in the front line against Russia at the Straits....And thus prepared the way for the Franco-Russian Alliance ten years later.[129] Gladstone and the Liberals had a reputation for strong opposition to imperialism, so historians have long debated the explanation for this reversal of policy. The most influential was a study by John Robinson and Ronald Gallagher, Africa and the Victorians (1961) Which focused on The Imperialism of Free Trade and was promoted by the Cambridge School of historiography. They argue there was no long-term Liberal plan in support of imperialism. Instead they saw the urgent necessity to act to protect the Suez Canal in the face of what appeared to be a radical collapse of law and order, and a nationalist revolt focused on expelling the Europeans, regardless of the damage it would do to international trade and the British Empire. Gladstone's decision came against strained relations with France, and maneuvering by "men on the spot" in Egypt. Critics such as Cain and Hopkins have stressed the need to protect large sums invested by British financiers and Egyptian bonds, while downplaying the risk to the viability of the Suez Canal. Unlike the Marxists, they stress "gentlemanly" financial and commercial interests, not the industrial capitalism that Marxists believe was always central.[130] More recently, specialists on Egypt have been interested primarily in the internal dynamics among Egyptians that produce the failed Urabi Revolt.[131][132] Ireland[edit] Main article: Irish issue in British politics In 1881 he established the Irish Coercion Act, which permitted the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland to detain people for as "long as was thought necessary", as there was rural disturbance in Ireland between landlords and tenants as Cavendish, the Irish Secretary, had been assassinated by Irish rebels in Dublin.[133] He also passed the Second Land Act (the First, in 1870, had entitled Irish tenants, if evicted, to compensation for improvements which they had made on their property, but had had little effect) which gave Irish tenants the "3Fs"—fair rent, fixity of tenure and free sale.[134] He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1881.[135] Franchise[edit] Gladstone in 1884, photographed by Rupert Potter Gladstone extended the vote to agricultural labourers and others in the 1884 Reform Act, which gave the counties the same franchise as the boroughs—adult male householders and £10 lodgers—and added six million to the total number of people who could vote in parliamentary elections. Parliamentary reform continued with the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885.[136] Gladstone was increasingly uneasy about the direction in which British politics was moving. In a letter to Lord Acton on 11 February 1885, Gladstone criticised Tory Democracy as "demagogism" that "put down pacific, law-respecting, economic elements that ennobled the old Conservatism" but "still, in secret, as obstinately attached as ever to the evil principle of class interests". He found contemporary Liberalism better, "but far from being good". Gladstone claimed that this Liberalism's "pet idea is what they call construction,—that is to say, taking into the hands of the state the business of the individual man". Both Tory Democracy and this new Liberalism, Gladstone wrote, had done "much to estrange me, and had for many, many years".[137] Failure[edit] Historian Sneh Mahajan has concluded, "Gladstone's second ministry remained barren of any achievement in the domestic sphere."[138] His downfall came in Africa, where he delayed the mission to rescue General Gordon's force which had been under siege in Khartoum for 10 months. It arrived in January 1885 two days after a massacre killed thousands. The disaster proved a major blow to Gladstone's popularity. Queen Victoria sent him a telegram of rebuke which found its way into the press. Critics said Gladstone had neglected military affairs and had not acted promptly enough to save the besieged Gordon. Critics inverted his acronym, "G.O.M." (for "Grand Old Man"), to "M.O.G." (for "Murderer of Gordon"). He resigned as Prime Minister in June 1885 and declined Queen Victoria's offer of an earldom.[139] Third premiership (1886)[edit] Main articles: Third premiership of William Ewart Gladstone and Third Gladstone ministry A political cartoon depicting Gladstone "kicked out of office" in 1886 The Hawarden Kite was a December 1885 press release by Gladstone's son and aide Herbert Gladstone announcing that he had become convinced that Ireland needed a separate parliament.[140][141] The bombshell announcement resulted in the fall of Lord Salisbury's Conservative government. Irish Nationalists, led by Charles Parnell's Irish Parliamentary Party, held the balance of power in Parliament. Gladstone's conversion to Home Rule convinced them to switch away from the Conservatives and support the Liberals using the 86 seats in Parliament they controlled. The main purpose of this administration was to deliver Ireland a reform which would give it a devolved assembly, similar to those which would be eventually put in place in Scotland and Wales in 1999. In 1886 Gladstone's party allied with Irish Nationalists to defeat Lord Salisbury's government. Gladstone regained his position as Prime Minister and combined the office with that of Lord Privy Seal. During this administration he first introduced his Home Rule Bill for Ireland. The issue split the Liberal Party (a breakaway group went on to create the Liberal Unionist party) and the bill was thrown out on the second reading, ending his government after only a few months and inaugurating another headed by Lord Salisbury. Gladstone, says his biographer, "totally rejected the widespread English view that the Irish had no taste for justice, common sense, moderation or national prosperity and looked only to perpetual strife and dissension".[142] The problem for Gladstone was that his rural English supporters would not support home rule for Ireland. A large faction of Liberals, led by Joseph Chamberlain, formed a Unionist faction that supported the Conservative party. Whenever the Liberals were out of power, home rule proposals languished. Opposition (1886–1892)[edit] Gladstone in 1886, as painted by Franz von Lenbach. Gladstone supported the London dockers in their strike of 1889. After their victory he gave a speech at Hawarden on 23 September in which he said: "In the common interests of humanity, this remarkable strike and the results of this strike, which have tended somewhat to strengthen the condition of labour in the face of capital, is the record of what we ought to regard as satisfactory, as a real social advance [that] tends to a fair principle of division of the fruits of industry".[143] This speech has been described by Eugenio Biagini as having "no parallel in the rest of Europe except in the rhetoric of the toughest socialist leaders".[144] Visitors at Hawarden in October were "shocked...by some rather wild language on the Dock labourers question".[145] Gladstone was impressed with workers unconnected with the dockers' dispute who "intended to make common cause" in the interests of justice. On 23 October at Southport, Gladstone delivered a speech where he said that the right to combination, which in London was "innocent and lawful, in Ireland would be penal and...punished by imprisonment with hard labour". Gladstone believed that the right to combination used by British workers was in jeopardy when it could be denied to Irish workers.[146] In October 1890 Gladstone at Midlothian claimed that competition between capital and labour, "where it has gone to sharp issues, where there have been strikes on one side and lock-outs on the other, I believe that in the main and as a general rule, the labouring man has been in the right".[147] On 11 December 1891 Gladstone said that: "It is a lamentable fact if, in the midst of our civilisation, and at the close of the nineteenth century, the workhouse is all that can be offered to the industrious labourer at the end of a long and honourable life. I do not enter into the question now in detail. I do not say it is an easy one; I do not say that it will be solved in a moment; but I do say this, that until society is able to offer to the industrious labourer at the end of a long and blameless life something better than the workhouse, society will not have discharged its duties to its poorer members".[148] On 24 March 1892 Gladstone said that the Liberals had: ...come generally...to the conclusion that there is something painful in the condition of the rural labourer in this great respect, that it is hard even for the industrious and sober man, under ordinary conditions, to secure a provision for his own old age. Very large propositions, involving, some of them, very novel and very wide principles, have been submitted to the public, for the purpose of securing such a provision by means independent of the labourer himself....our duty [is] to develop in the first instance, every means that we may possibly devise whereby, if possible, the labourer may be able to make this provision for himself, or to approximate towards making such provision far more efficaciously and much more closely than he can now do.[149][150] Gladstone wrote on 16 July 1892 in autobiographica that "In 1834 the Government...did themselves high honour by the new Poor Law Act, which rescued the English peasantry from the total loss of their independence".[151] There were many who disagreed with him. Gladstone wrote to Herbert Spencer, who contributed the introduction to a collection of anti-socialist essays (A Plea for Liberty, 1891), that "I ask to make reserves, and of one passage, which will be easily guessed, I am unable even to perceive the relevancy. But speaking generally, I have read this masterly argument with warm admiration and with the earnest hope that it may attract all the attention which it so well deserves".[152] The passage Gladstone alluded to was one where Spencer had spoken of "the behaviour of the so-called Liberal party".[153] Fourth premiership (1892–1894)[edit] Main articles: Fourth premiership of William Ewart Gladstone, Fourth Gladstone ministry, and Foreign Policy of William Ewart Gladstone A political cartoon depicting Gladstone as a radical bent on abolishing the House of Lords The general election of 1892 resulted in a minority Liberal government with Gladstone as Prime Minister. The electoral address had promised Irish Home Rule and the disestablishment of the Scottish and Welsh Churches.[154] In February 1893 he introduced the Second Home Rule Bill, which was passed in the Commons at second reading on 21 April by 43 votes and third reading on 1 September by 34 votes. The House of Lords defeated the bill by voting against by 419 votes to 41 on 8 September. The Elementary Education (Blind and Deaf Children) Act, passed in 1893, required local authorities to provide separate education for blind and deaf children.[155] Conservative MP Colonel Howard Vincent questioned Gladstone in the Commons on what his government would do about unemployment on 1 September 1893. Gladstone replied: I cannot help regretting that the honourable and gallant Gentleman has felt it his duty to put the question. It is put under circumstances that naturally belong to one of those fluctuations in the condition of trade which, however unfortunate and lamentable they may be, recur from time to time. Undoubtedly I think that questions of this kind, whatever be the intention of the questioner, have a tendency to produce in the minds of people, or to suggest to the people, that these fluctuations can be corrected by the action of the Executive Government. Anything that contributes to such an impression inflicts an injury upon the labouring population.[156][157] In December 1893, an Opposition motion proposed by Lord George Hamilton called for an expansion of the Royal Navy. Gladstone opposed increasing public expenditure on the naval estimates, in the tradition of free trade liberalism of his earlier political career as Chancellor. All his Cabinet colleagues believed in some expansion of the navy. He declared in the Commons on 19 December that naval rearmament would commit the government to expenditure over a number of years and would subvert "the principle of annual account, annual proposition, annual approval by the House of Commons, which...is the only way of maintaining regularity, and that regularity is the only talisman which will secure Parliamentary control".[158] In January 1894, Gladstone wrote that he would not "break to pieces the continuous action of my political life, nor trample on the tradition received from every colleague who has ever been my teacher" by supporting naval rearmament.[159] Gladstone also opposed Chancellor Sir William Harcourt's proposal to implement a graduated death duty. In a fragment of autobiography dated 25 July 1894, Gladstone denounced the tax as ...by far the most Radical measure of my lifetime. I do not object to the principle of graduated taxation: for the just principle of ability to pay is not determined simply by the amount of income.... But, so far as I understand the present measure of finance from the partial reports I have received, I find it too violent. It involves a great departure from the methods of political action established in this country, where reforms, and especially financial reforms, have always been considerate and even tender.... I do not yet see the ground on which it can be justly held that any one description of property should be more heavily burdened than others, unless moral and social grounds can be shown first: but in this case the reasons drawn from those sources seem rather to verge in the opposite direction, for real property has more of presumptive connection with the discharge of duty than that which is ranked as personal...the aspect of the measure is not satisfactory to a man of my traditions (and these traditions lie near the roots of my being).... For the sudden introduction of such change there is I think no precedent in the history of this country. And the severity of the blow is greatly aggravated in moral effect by the fact that it is dealt only to a handful of individuals.[160] Gladstone had his last audience with Queen Victoria on 28 February 1894 and chaired his last Cabinet on 1 March—the last of 556 he had chaired. On that day he gave his last speech to the House of Commons, saying that the government would withdraw opposition to the Lords' amendments to the Local Government Bill "under protest" and that it was "a controversy which, when once raised, must go forward to an issue".[161] He resigned from the premiership on 2 March. The Queen did not ask Gladstone who should succeed him, but sent for Lord Rosebery (Gladstone would have advised on Lord Spencer).[162] He retained his seat in the House of Commons until 1895. He was not offered a peerage, having earlier declined an earldom. Gladstone is both the oldest person to form a government—aged 82 at his appointment—and the oldest person to occupy the Premiership—being 84 at his resignation.[163] Final years (1894–1898)[edit] Gladstone in old age In 1895, at the age of 85, Gladstone bequeathed £40,000 (equivalent to approximately £4.65 million today)[164] and much of his 32,000 volume library to found St Deiniol's Library in Hawarden, Wales.[165] It had begun with just 5,000 items at his father's home Fasque, which were transferred to Hawarden for research in 1851. On 8 January 1896, in conversation with L.A. Tollemache, Gladstone explained that: "I am not so much afraid of Democracy or of Science as of the love of money. This seems to me to be a growing evil. Also, there is a danger from the growth of that dreadful military spirit".[166] On 13 January, Gladstone claimed he had strong Conservative instincts and that "In all matters of custom and tradition, even the Tories look upon me as the chief Conservative that is".[167] On 15 January Gladstone wrote to James Bryce, describing himself as "a dead man, one fundamentally a Peel–Cobden man".[168] In 1896, in his last noteworthy speech, he denounced Armenian massacres by Ottomans in a talk delivered at Liverpool. On 2 January 1897, Gladstone wrote to Francis Hirst on being unable to draft a preface to a book on liberalism: "I venture on assuring you that I regard the design formed by you and your friends with sincere interest, and in particular wish well to all the efforts you may make on behalf of individual freedom and independence as opposed to what is termed Collectivism".[169][170] In the early months of 1897, Gladstone and his wife stayed in Cannes. Gladstone met Queen Victoria, and she shook hands with him for (to his recollection) the first time in the 50 years he had known her.[171] One of the Gladstones' neighbours observed that "He and his devoted wife never missed the morning service on Sunday ... One Sunday, returning from the altar rail, the old, partially blind man stumbled at the chancel step. One of the clergy sprang involuntarily to his assistance, but retreated with haste, so withering was the fire which flashed from those failing eyes."[172] The Gladstones returned to Hawarden Castle at the end of March and he received the Colonial Premiers in their visit for the Queen's Jubilee. At a dinner in November with Edward Hamilton, his former private secretary, Hamilton noted that "What is now uppermost in his mind is what he calls the spirit of jingoism under the name of Imperialism which is now so prevalent". Gladstone riposted "It was enough to make Peel and Cobden turn in their graves".[173] On the advice of his doctor Samuel Habershon in the aftermath of an attack of facial neuralgia, Gladstone stayed at Cannes from the end of November 1897 to mid-February 1898. He gave an interview for The Daily Telegraph.[174] Gladstone then travelled to Bournemouth, where a swelling on his palate was diagnosed as cancer by the leading cancer surgeon Sir Thomas Smith on 18 March. On 22 March, he retired to Hawarden Castle. Despite being in pain he received visitors and quoted hymns, especially Cardinal Newman's "Praise to the Holiest in the Height". Gladstone's grave in Westminster Abbey His last public statement was dictated to his daughter Helen in reply to receiving the Vice-Chancellor of the University of Oxford's "sorrow and affection": "There is no expression of Christian sympathy that I value more than that of the ancient University of Oxford, the God-fearing and God-sustaining University of Oxford. I served her perhaps mistakenly, but to the best of my ability. My most earnest prayers are hers to the uttermost and to the last".[175] He left the house for the last time on 9 April. After 18 April he did not come down to the ground floor but still came out of bed to lie on the sofa. The Bishop of St Andrews, Dunkeld and Dunblane George Wilkinson recorded when he ministered to him along with Stephen Gladstone: Shall I ever forget the last Friday in Passion Week, when I gave him the last Holy Communion that I was allowed to administer to him? It was early in the morning. He was obliged to be in bed, and he was ordered to remain there, but the time had come for the confession of sin and the receiving of absolution. Out of his bed he came. Alone he knelt in the presence of his God till the absolution has been spoken, and the sacred elements received.[176] Gladstone died on 19 May 1898 at Hawarden Castle, Hawarden, aged 88. He had been cared for by his daughter Helen who had resigned her job to care for her father and mother.[177] The cause of death is officially recorded as "Syncope, Senility". "Syncope" meant failure of the heart and "senility" in the 19th century was an infirmity of advanced old age, rather than a loss of mental faculties.[178] The House of Commons adjourned on the afternoon of Gladstone's death, with A.J. Balfour giving notice for an Address to the Queen praying for a public funeral and a public memorial in Westminster Abbey. The day after, both Houses of Parliament approved of the Address and Herbert Gladstone accepted a public funeral on behalf of the Gladstone family.[179] His coffin was transported on the London Underground before his state funeral at Westminster Abbey, at which the Prince of Wales (the future King Edward VII) and the Duke of York (the future King George V) acted as pallbearers.[180] His wife, Catherine Gladstone (née Glynne), died two years later on 14 June 1900; and was buried next to him. Religion[edit] Gladstone's intensely religious mother was an evangelical of Scottish Episcopal origins,[181] and his father joined the Church of England, having been a Presbyterian when he first settled in Liverpool. As a boy William was baptised into the Church of England. He rejected a call to enter the ministry, and on this his conscience always tormented him. In compensation he aligned his politics with the evangelical faith in which he fervently believed.[182] In 1838 Gladstone nearly ruined his career when he tried to force a religious mission upon the Conservative Party. His book The State in its Relations with the Church argued that England had neglected its great duty to the Church of England. He announced that since that church possessed a monopoly of religious truth, nonconformists and Roman Catholics ought to be excluded from all government positions. The historian Thomas Babington Macaulay and other critics ridiculed his arguments and refuted them. Sir Robert Peel, Gladstone's chief, was outraged because this would upset the delicate political issue of Catholic Emancipation and anger the Nonconformists. Since Peel greatly admired his protégé, he redirected his focus from theology to finance.[183] Gladstone altered his approach to religious problems, which always held first place in his mind. Before entering Parliament he had already substituted a high church Anglican attitude, with its dependence on authority and tradition, for the evangelical outlook of his boyhood, with its reliance upon the direct inspiration of the Bible. In middle life he decided that the individual conscience would have to replace authority as the inner citadel of the Church. That view of the individual conscience affected his political outlook and changed him gradually from a Conservative into a Liberal.[184] Marriage and family[edit] Gladstone c. 1835, painted by William Cubley. Gladstone's early attempts to find a wife proved unsuccessful, with his being rejected by Caroline Eliza Farquhar (daughter of Sir Thomas Harvie Farquhar, 2nd Baronet) in 1835, and by Lady Frances Harriet Douglas (daughter of George Douglas, 17th Earl of Morton) in 1837.[185] The following year, having met her in 1834 at the London home of Old Etonian friend and then fellow-Conservative MP James Milnes Gaskell,[186] he married Catherine Glynne, to whom he remained married until his death 59 years later. They had eight children together: William Henry Gladstone MP (3 June 1840 – 4 July 1891); married Hon. Gertrude Stuart (daughter of Charles Stuart, 12th Lord Blantyre) on 30 September 1875. They had three children. Agnes Gladstone (18 October 1842 – 9 May 1931); she married Very Rev. Edward Wickham on 27 December 1873. They had three children. The Rev. Stephen Edward Gladstone (4 April 1844 – 23 April 1920); he married Annie Wilson on 29 January 1885. They had five children and were ancestors of the Gladstone baronets after 1945. Catherine Jessy Gladstone (27 July 1845 – 9 April 1850) Mary Gladstone (23 November 1847 – 1 January 1927); she married Reverend Harry Drew on 2 February 1886. They had two daughters. Helen Gladstone (28 August 1849 – 19 August 1925), Vice-Principal of Newnham College, Cambridge Henry Neville Gladstone (2 April 1852 – 28 April 1935); he married Hon. Maud Rendel on 30 January 1890. Herbert John Gladstone MP (7 January 1854 – 6 March 1930); he married Dorothy Paget on 2 November 1901. Gladstone's eldest son William (known as "Willy" to distinguish him from his father), and youngest, Herbert, both became Members of Parliament. William Henry predeceased his father by seven years. Gladstone's private secretary was his nephew Spencer Lyttelton.[187] Descendants[edit] Gladstone at Hawarden with his grandchild Dorothy Drew (1890-1982),[188] daughter of Mary Gladstone Two of Gladstone's sons and a grandson, William Glynne Charles Gladstone, followed him into parliament, making for four generations of MPs in total. One of his collateral descendants, George Freeman, has been the Conservative Member of Parliament for Mid Norfolk since 2010.[189] Sir Albert Gladstone, 5th baronet and Sir Charles Gladstone, 6th baronet (from whom the 7th and 8th baronets are descended) were also grandsons. Legacy[edit] The historian H. C. G. Matthew states that Gladstone's chief legacy lay in three areas: his financial policy, his support for Home Rule (devolution) that modified the view of the unitary state of the United Kingdom and his idea of a progressive, reforming party broadly based and capable of accommodating and conciliating varying interests, along with his speeches at mass public meetings.[190] Historian Walter L. Arnstein concludes: Notable as the Gladstonian reforms had been, they had almost all remained within the 19th-century Liberal tradition of gradually removing the religious, economic and political barriers that prevented men of varied creeds and classes from exercising their individual talents in order to improve themselves and their society. As the third quarter of the century drew to a close, the essential bastions of Victorianism still held firm: respectability; a government of aristocrats and gentlemen now influenced not only by middle-class merchants and manufacturers but also by industrious working people: a prosperity that seemed to rest largely on the tenets of laissez-faire economics; and a Britannia that ruled the waves and many a dominion beyond.[191] Lord Acton wrote in 1880 that he considered Gladstone one "of the three greatest Liberals" (along with Edmund Burke and Lord Macaulay).[192] In 1909 the Liberal Chancellor David Lloyd George introduced his "People's Budget", the first budget which aimed to redistribute wealth. The Liberal statesman Lord Rosebery ridiculed it by asserting Gladstone would reject it, "Because in his eyes, and in my eyes, too as his humble disciple, Liberalism and Liberty were cognate terms; they were twin-sisters."[193] Lloyd George had written in 1913 that the Liberals were "carving the last few columns out of the Gladstonian quarry".[194] Lloyd George said of Gladstone in 1915: "What a man he was! Head and shoulders above anyone else I have ever seen in the House of Commons. I did not like him much. He hated Nonconformists and Welsh Nonconformists in particular and he had no real sympathy with the working classes. But he was far and away the best Parliamentary speaker I have ever heard. He was not so good in exposition."[195] Asquithian Liberals continued to advocate traditional Gladstonian policies of sound finance, peaceful foreign relations and the better treatment of Ireland. They often compared Lloyd George unfavourably with Gladstone.[citation needed] Writing in 1944 the classical liberal economist Friedrich Hayek said of the change in political attitudes that had occurred since the Great War: "Perhaps nothing shows this change more clearly than that, while there is no lack of sympathetic treatment of Bismarck in contemporary English literature, the name of Gladstone is rarely mentioned by the younger generation without a sneer over his Victorian morality and naive utopianism".[196] In the latter half of the 20th century Gladstone's economic policies came to be admired by Thatcherite Conservatives. Margaret Thatcher proclaimed in 1983: "We have a duty to make sure that every penny piece we raise in taxation is spent wisely and well. For it is our party which is dedicated to good housekeeping—indeed, I would not mind betting that if Mr. Gladstone were alive today he would apply to join the Conservative Party".[197] In 1996, she said: "The kind of Conservatism which he and I...favoured would be best described as 'liberal', in the old-fashioned sense. And I mean the liberalism of Mr Gladstone, not of the latter-day collectivists".[198] Nigel Lawson, one of Thatcher's Chancellors, believed Gladstone to be the "greatest Chancellor of all time".[199] A. J. P. Taylor wrote: William Ewart Gladstone was the greatest political figure of the nineteenth century. I do not mean by that that he was necessarily the greatest statesman, certainly not the most successful. What I mean is that he dominated the scene.[200] Rivalry with Disraeli[edit] Historical writers have often played Disraeli and Gladstone against each other as great rivals.[201] Roland Quinault, however, cautions us not to exaggerate the confrontation: they were not direct antagonists for most of their political careers. Indeed initially they were both loyal to the Tory party, the Church and the landed interest. Although their paths diverged over the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846 and later over fiscal policy more generally, it was not until the later 1860s that their differences over parliamentary reform, Irish and Church policy assumed great partisan significance. Even then their personal relations remained fairly cordial until their dispute over the Eastern Question in the later 1870s.[202] Monuments and archives[edit] Thomas Edison's European agent, Colonel Gouraud, recorded Gladstone's voice several times on phonograph. The accent on one of the recordings is North Welsh.[203] The National Library of Wales holds many pamphlets that were sent to Gladstone during his political career. These pamphlets show the concerns of people from all strands of society and together form a historical resource of the social and economical conditions of mid to late nineteenth century Britain. Many of the pamphlets bear the handwriting of Gladstone, which provides direct evidence of Gladstone's interest in various topics. A statue of Gladstone by Albert Bruce-Joy and erected in 1882, stands near the front gate of St. Marys Church in Bow, London. Paid for by the industrialist Theodore Bryant, it is viewed as a symbol of the later 1888 match girls strike, which took place at the nearby Bryant & May Match Factory. Led by the socialist Annie Besant, hundreds of women working in the factory, where many sickened and died from poisoning from the white phosphorus used in the matches, went on strike to demand improved working conditions and pay, eventually winning their cause. In recent years, the statue of Gladstone has been repeatedly daubed with red paint, suggesting that it was paid for with the "blood of the match girls".[204] A statue of Gladstone in bronze by Sir Thomas Brock, erected in 1904, stands in St John's Gardens, Liverpool.[205] A statue of Gladstone erected in 1905 stands at Aldwych, London, near the Royal Courts of Justice.[206] A Grade II listed statue of Gladstone stands in Albert Square, Manchester.[207] A monument to Gladstone, Member of Parliament for Midlothian 1880–1895 was unveiled in Edinburgh in 1917 (and moved to its present location in 1955). It stands in Coates Crescent Gardens. The sculptor was James Pittendrigh MacGillivray.[208] A statue to Gladstone, who was Rector of the University of Glasgow 1877–1880 was unveiled in Glasgow in 1902. It stands in George Square. The sculptor was Sir William Hamo Thornycroft.[209] A bust of Gladstone is in the Hall of Heroes of the National Wallace Monument in Stirling. Dollis House, Gladstone Park, as seen from the gardens Gladstone Park in the Municipal Borough of Willesden, London was named after him in 1899. Dollis Hill House, within what later became the park, was occupied by Sir Dudley Coutts Marjoribanks, who subsequently became Lord Tweedmouth. In 1881 Lord Tweedmouth's daughter and her husband, Lord Aberdeen, took up residence. They often had Gladstone to stay as a guest. In 1897 Lord Aberdeen was appointed Governor-General of Canada and the Aberdeens moved out. When Willesden acquired the house and land in 1899, they named the park Gladstone Park after the old Prime Minister.[citation needed] Near Hawarden in the town of Mancot, there is a small hospital named after Catherine Gladstone. A statue of Gladstone stands prominently in the front grounds of the eponymous Gladstone's Library (formerly known as St. Deiniol's), near the commencement of Gladstone Way at Hawarden.[citation needed] Gladstone Rock, a large boulder about 12 ft high in Cwm Llan on the Watkin Path on the south side of Snowdon where Gladstone made a speech in 1892, was named for him. A plaque on the rock states that he "addressed the people of Eryri upon justice to Wales".[210] A statue of Gladstone stands in front of the Kapodistrian University building in the centre of Athens.[211] Gladstone, Oregon, Gladstone, New Jersey, Gladstone, Michigan,[212] and Gladstone, New Mexico, in the United States are named for him. The city of Gladstone, Queensland, Australia, was named after him and has a 19th-century marble statue on display in its town museum.[213] Gladstone, Manitoba, was named after him in 1882.[214] Streets in the cities of Athens, Sofia, Plovdiv, Varna, Burgas, Ruse, Stara Zagora, Limassol, Springs, Newark-on-Trent, Waterford City, Clonmel, Brighton, Bradford, Scarborough, Swindon, Vancouver (including a school), Windsor, Ottawa, Halifax and Brisbane are named for him. There is also Gladstone Avenue and adjoining Ewart Road in his hometown of Liverpool in a part of the city where he was a landowner.[215] There is a Gladstone statue at Glenalmond College, unveiled in 2010, which is located in Front Quad.[216] A Gladstone memorial was unveiled on 23 February 2013 in Seaforth, Liverpool by MP Frank Field. It is located in the grounds of Our Lady Star of the Sea Church facing the former site of St Thomas's Church where Gladstone was educated from 1816 to 1821. The Seaglam (Seaforth Gladstone Memorial) Project, whose chairman is local historian Brenda Murray (BEM), was started to raise the profile of Seaforth Village by installing a memorial to Gladstone. Funds for the memorial were raised by voluntary effort and additional funding was provided by the Heritage Lottery Fund. Sculptor Tom Murphy created the bronze bust.[217] Gallery[edit] Statue at Aldwych, London, near to the Royal Courts of Justice and opposite Australia House Statue in Albert Square, Manchester, Manchester Statue on the Gladstone Monument in Coates Crescent Gardens, Edinburgh A statue in Athens A high school named after Gladstone in Sofia, Bulgaria In popular culture[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Gladstone was popularly known in his later years as the "Grand Old Man" or "G.O.M.". The term was used occasionally during the Midlothian election campaign, first became widely associated with him during the 1880 general election, and was ubiquitous in the press by 1882. Henry Labouchère and Sir Stafford Northcote have both been credited with coining it; it appears to have been in use before either of them used it publicly, though they may have helped popularise it. While it was originally used to show affectionate reverence, it was quickly adopted more sarcastically by his opponents, using it to emphasise his age. The acronym was sometimes satirised as "God's Only Mistake", or after the fall of Khartoum, inverted to "M.O.G.", "Murderer of Gordon". (Disraeli is often credited with the former, but Lord Salisbury is a more likely origin). The term is still widely used today and is virtually synonymous with Gladstone.[218] A Gladstone bag, a light travelling bag, is named after him.[219] Gladstone's burial in 1898 was commemorated in a poem by William McGonagall.[220] There is a scene in the Turkish film Free Man about Islamic scholar Said Nursi who is deeply troubled by Gladstone. Nursi reads in a newspaper report of a speech made in the House of Commons by Gladstone: "So long as the Muslims have the Qur'an, we shall be unable to dominate them. We must either take it from them, or make them lose their love of it." He was filled with zeal. It overturned his ideas and changed the direction of his interest. Thus, the explicit threats of Gladstone to the Qur'an and Islamic world caused a revolution in Nursi's ideas, clarifying them and setting him in the direction he would now follow. The threats caused him to declare: "I shall prove and demonstrate to the world that the Qur'an is an undying, inextinguishable Sun!"[221] Portrayal in film and television[edit] Since 1937, Gladstone has been portrayed some 37 times in film and television.[222] Portrayals include: Montagu Love in the film Parnell (1937) Arthur Young in the films Victoria the Great (1937) and The Lady with a Lamp (1951) Malcolm Keen in the film Sixty Glorious Years (1938) Stephen Murray in the film The Prime Minister (1941) Gordon Richards in the film The Imperfect Lady (1947) Ralph Richardson in the film Khartoum (1966)[223] Graham Chapman in the Monty Python's Flying Circus episode Sex and Violence (1969) Willoughby Gray in the film Young Winston (1972) David Steuart in the television serial Jennie: Lady Randolph Churchill (1974) Michael Hordern in the television series Edward the Seventh (1975) John Carlisle in the television serial Disraeli (1978) John Phillips in the television series Lillie (1978) Roland Culver in the television series The Life and Times of David Lloyd George (1981) Denis Quilley in the television series Number 10 (1983) Works[edit] Gladstone, William Ewart (1841). The State in its relations with the Church (4th ed.). London: John Murray. Retrieved 13 October 2017 – via Internet Archive. Gladstone, William Ewart (1858). Studies on Homer and the Homeric Age. Oxford: At The University Press – via Internet Archive. , volume 1, volume 2, volume 3. Gladstone, William Ewart (1868). A Chapter of Autobiography. London: John Murray. Retrieved 14 October 2017 – via Internet Archive. Gladstone, William Ewart (1870). Juventus Mundi: The Gods and Men of the Heroic Age (2nd ed.). London: Macmillan and Co. Retrieved 13 October 2017 – via Internet Archive. Gladstone, William Ewart (1890). On books and the Housing of them. New York: Dodd, Mead & Company. Retrieved 11 October 2017 – via Internet Archive. A treatise on the storing of books and the design of bookshelves as employed in his personal library. Gladstone, William Ewart (1890). The impregnable rock of Holy Scripture (Revised and Enlarged from Good Words). London: Isbister and Company – via Internet Archive. William Ewart Gladstone, Baron Arthur Hamilton-Gordon Stanmore (1961). Gladstone-Gordon correspondence, 1851–1896: selections from the private correspondence of a British Prime Minister and a colonial Governor, Volume 51. American Philosophical Society. p. 116. ISBN 9780871695147. Retrieved 28 June 2010. (Volume 51, Issue 4 of new series, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society) (Original from the University of California) See also[edit] Liberalism in the United Kingdom Notes[edit] ^ The Austrian economist, Joseph Schumpeter, described Gladstonian finance in his History of Economic Analysis: ... there was one man who not only united high ability with unparalleled opportunity but also knew how to turn budgets into political triumphs and who stands in history as the greatest English financier of economic liberalism, Gladstone. ... The greatest feature of Gladstonian finance ... was that it expressed with ideal adequacy both the whole civilisation and the needs of the time, ex visu of the conditions of the country to which it was to apply; or, to put it slightly differently, that it translated a social, political, and economic vision, which was comprehensive as well as historically correct, into the clauses of a set of co-ordinated fiscal measures. ... Gladstonian finance was the finance of the system of 'natural liberty,' laissez-faire, and free trade ... the most important thing was to remove fiscal obstructions to private activity. And for this, in turn, it was necessary to keep public expenditure low. Retrenchment was the victorious slogan of the day ... it means the reduction of the functions of the state to a minimum ... retrenchment means rationalisation of the remaining functions of the state, which among other things implies as small a military establishment as possible. The resulting economic development would in addition, so it was believed, make social expenditures largely superfluous. ... Equally important was it ... to raise the revenue that would still have to be raised in such a way as to deflect economic behaviour as little as possible from what it would have been in the absence of all taxation ('taxation for revenue only'). And since the profit motive and the propensity to save were considered of paramount importance for the economic progress of all classes, this meant in particular that taxation should as little as possible interfere with the net earnings of business. ... As regards indirect taxes, the principle of least interference was interpreted by Gladstone to mean that taxation should be concentrated on a few important articles, leaving the rest free. ... Last, but not least, we have the principle of the balanced budget.[72] ^ In his election address to his constituents on 23 January, Gladstone said: Upon a review of the finance of the last five years, we are enabled to state that, notwithstanding the purchase of the telegraphs for a sum exceeding 9,000,000l., the aggregate amount of the national debt has been reduced by more than 20,000,000l.; that taxes have been lowered or abolished (over and above any amount imposed) to the extent of 12,500,000l.; that during the present year the Alabama Indemnity has been paid, and the charge of the Ashantee War will be met out of revenue; and that in estimating, as we can now venture to do, the income of the coming year (and, for the moment assuming the general scale of charge to continue as it was fixed during the last Session), we do not fear to anticipate as the probable balance a surplus exceeding rather than falling short of 5,000,000l. ... The first item ... which I have to set down in the financial arrangements proper for the first year is relief, but relief coupled with reform, of local taxation. ... It has ... been the happy fortune of Mr. Lowe to bring it [the income tax] down, first from 6d. to 4d., and then from 4d. to 3d., in the pound. The proceeds of the Income Tax for the present year are expected to be between 5,000,000l. and 6,000,000l., and at a sacrifice for the financial year of something less than 5,500,000l. the country may enjoy the advantage and relief of its total repeal. I do not hesitate to affirm that an effort should now be made to attain this advantage, nor to declare that, according to my judgment, it is in present circumstances practicable ... we ought not to aid the rates, and remove the Income Tax, without giving to the general consumer, and giving him simultaneously, some marked relief in the class of articles of popular consumption. ... I for one could not belong to a Government which did not on every occasion seek to enlarge its resources by a wise economy.[103] References[edit] ^ Wiesner-Hanks, Merry E.; Evans, Andrew D.; Wheeler, William Bruce; Ruff, Julius (2014). Discovering the Western Past, Volume II: Since 1500. Cengage Learning. p. 336. ISBN 978-1111837174. ^ Price, Richard (1999). British Society 1680–1880: Dynamism, Containment and Change. Cambridge University Press. p. 289. ISBN 978-0521657013. ^ Gardham, Duncan (12 June 2008). "David Davis's Victorian inspiration: William Gladstone". The Daily Telegraph. London. ^ J.F.C. Harrison (2013). Late Victorian Britain 1875–1901. p. 31. ISBN 978-1136116445. ^ Richard Aldous (2007). The Lion and the Unicorn: Gladstone Vs Disraeli. p. 4. ISBN 978-0393065701. ^ Paul Brighton (2016). Original Spin: Downing Street and the Press in Victorian Britain. I.B.Tauris. p. 193. ISBN 978-1780760599. ^ Paul Grey; et al. (2016). 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Bebbington, William Ewart Gladstone: Faith and Politics in Victorian Britain (1990) p. 226 ^ Gladstone, William Ewart (1874). The Vatican Decrees in their Bearing on Civil Allegiance: A Political Expostulation (1 ed.). London: John Murray. Retrieved 10 June 2016 – via Internet Archive. ^ Gladstone, William Ewart (1875). Vaticanism: an Answer to Reproofs and Replies (1 ed.). London: John Murray. Retrieved 10 June 2016 – via Internet Archive. ^ Philip Magnus, Gladstone: A Biography (London: John Murray, 1963), pp. 235–36. ^ 'Mr. Gladstone On Cottage Gardening', The Times (18 August 1876), p. 9. ^ Lord Kilbracken, Reminiscences of Lord Kilbracken (Macmillan, 1931), pp. 83–84. ^ "[W]illiam [E]wart Gladstone, "Bulgarian Horrors and the Question of the East" (1876) | W.T. Stead Resource Site". attackingthedevil.co.uk. ^ Gladstone, William Ewart (1876). Bulgarian Horrors and the Question of the East (1 ed.). London: John Murray. Retrieved 10 June 2016 – via Internet Archive. ^ "Gladstone, Disraeli and the Bulgarian Horrors | History Today". www.historytoday.com. Retrieved 16 November 2019. ^ Gladstone, William Ewart (1876). Bulgarian Horrors and the Question of the East (1 ed.). London : J. Murray. p. 9. Retrieved 10 June 2016 – via Internet Archive. ^ a b c Alderman, Geoffrey. Modern British Jewry. Oxford: Clarendon, 1992, p. 100 ^ Alderman, Geoffrey. Modern British Jewry. Oxford: Clarendon, 1992, p. 101 ^ W.E. Gladstone, Midlothian Speeches. 1879 (Leicester University Press, 1971), p. 148. ^ Justin H. McCarthy, England under Gladstone, 1880-1885 (1885) pp 6-20.online ^ Ian St John, The Historiography of Gladstone and Disraeli (Anthem Press, 2016) pp. 188-209. ^ Paul Knaplund, Gladstone's foreign policy (1935) is favourable. ^ Paul Hayes, Modern British Foreign Policy: The Twentieth Century: 1880–1939 (1978) p. 1 ^ Shannon, Gladstone 2: 298–307 ^ He adds, "All the rest were maneuvers which left the combatants at the close of the day exactly where they had started. A.J.P. Taylor, "International Relations" in F.H. Hinsley, ed., The New Cambridge Modern History: XI: Material Progress and World-Wide Problems, 1870–98 (1962): 554. ^ Taylor, "International Relations" p. 554 ^ Peter J. Cain and Anthony G. Hopkins, "Gentlemanly capitalism and British expansion overseas II: new imperialism, 1850–1945." Economic History Review 40.1 (1987): 1–26. online ^ Donald Malcolm Reid, "The 'Urabi revolution and the British conquest, 1879–1882", in M.W. Daly, ed., The Cambridge History of Egypt, vol. 2: Modern Egypt, from 1517 to the end of the twentieth century (1998) p. 219. ^ John S. Galbraith and Afaf Lutfi al-Sayyid-Marsot, "The British occupation of Egypt: another view." International Journal of Middle East Studies 9.4 (1978): 471–488. ^ Olson, James; Shadle, Robert (1996). Historical Dictionary of the British Empire. Greenwood. pp. 271–72. ISBN 978-0313293665. ^ Daniel Webster Hollis (2001). The History of Ireland. Greenwood. p. 105. ISBN 978-0313312816. ^ "Fellows of the Royal Society". London: Royal Society. Archived from the original on 16 March 2015. ^ Partridge, Michael (2003). Gladstone. Routledge. p. 178. ISBN 978-1134606382. ^ Morley, Life of Gladstone: III, p. 173. ^ Sneh Mahajan (2003). British Foreign Policy 1874–1914: The Role of India. Routledge. p. 58. ISBN 978-1134510559. ^ Brook Miller, "Our Abdiel: The British Press and the Lionization of 'Chinese' Gordon." 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ISBN 9780435331603. ^ "The Unemployed. (Hansard, 1 September 1893)". Hansard.millbanksystems.com. Retrieved 1 May 2010. ^ Matthew, Gladstone. 1875–1898, p. 322. ^ David Brooks, "Gladstone's Fourth Administration, 1892–1894", in David Bebbington and Roger Swift (eds.), Gladstone Centenary Essays (Liverpool University Press, 2000), p. 239. ^ Anthony Howe, 'Gladstone and Cobden', in David Bebbington and Roger Swift (eds.), Gladstone Centenary Essays (Liverpool University Press, 2000), p. 115. ^ Brooke and Sorensen, pp. 165–66. ^ Matthew, Gladstone. 1875–1898, p. 355. ^ Magnus, p. 423. ^ Daisy Sampson, The Politics Companion (London: Robson Books Ltd, 2004), pp. 80, 91. ^ UK Retail Price Index inflation figures are based on data from Clark, Gregory (2017). "The Annual RPI and Average Earnings for Britain, 1209 to Present (New Series)". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved 2 February 2020. ^ H.C.G. Matthew (1997). Gladstone 1809–1898. Clarendon Press. p. 620. ISBN 978-0191584275. ^ Tollemache, pp. 166–67. ^ Tollemache, p. 123. ^ Howe, p. 114. ^ F.W. Hirst, In the Golden Days (Frederick Muller, 1947), p. 158. ^ Six Oxford Men, Essays in Liberalism (Cassell, 1897), p. x. ^ Matthew, Gladstone. 1875–1898, p. 379. ^ Matthew, Gladstone. 1875–1898, p. 380. ^ Shannon, Gladstone: Heroic Minister, 1865–1898, p. 588. ^ published on 5 January 1898 as Personal Recollections of Arthur H. Hallam ^ Matthew, Gladstone. 1875–1898, p. 381. ^ Matthew, Gladstone. 1875–1898, p. 382. ^ Sheila Fletcher, ‘Gladstone, Helen (1849–1925)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, May 2006 accessed 10 March 2017 ^ Matthew, Gladstone. 1875–1898, p. 382, n. ‡. ^ Matthew, Gladstone. 1875–1898, p. 383. ^ "CardinalBook History of Peace and War". Cardinalbook.com. 19 March 1998. Archived from the original on 10 May 2010. Retrieved 1 May 2010. ^ M. Partridge, Gladstone (2003) p. 18 ^ Ramm, Agatha (1985). "Gladstone's Religion". The Historical Journal. 28 (2): 327–340. doi:10.1017/S0018246X00003137. JSTOR 2639101. ^ H.C.G. Matthew, Gladstone, 1809–1874 (1986), pp. 42, 62, 66. ^ David Bebbington, William Ewart Gladstone: Faith and Politics in Victorian Britain (1993). ^ Checkland, p. 300. ^ Weyman, Henry T. (1902). "Members of Parliament for Wenlock". Transactions of the Shropshire Archaeological Society, Series 3, Volume II. pp. 353–54. ^ M. Kienholz (2008). Opium Traders and Their Worlds-Volume One: A Revisionist Exposé of the World's Greatest Opium Traders. iUniverse. pp. 190–. ISBN 978-0595910786. ^ https://ancestors.familysearch.org/en/LVSW-21Q/dorothy-mary-catherine-drew-1890-1982 ^ Mance, Henry (5 August 2017). "Tory activists plan Conservative answer to Glastonbury". Financial Times. Retrieved 6 August 2017. Mr Freeman—a descendant of the Liberal prime minister William Gladstone and a former biotechnology investor—said he envisions the Conservative Ideas Festival as a “cross between Hay-on-Wye and the Latitude festival”. ^ H.C.G. Matthew, "Gladstone, William Ewart (1809–1898)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, May 2011. Retrieved 28 August 2012. ^ Qalter L. Arnstein, Britain Yesterday and Today: 1832 the Present (6th ed. 1992) p. 125 ^ Herbert Paul (ed.), Letters of Lord Acton to Mary Gladstone (George Allen, 1904), p. 57. ^ Lord Rosebery, The Budget. Its Principles and Scope. A Speech Delivered to the Commercial Community of Glasgow, 10 September 1909 (London: Arthur L. Humphreys, 1909), pp. 30–31. ^ Chris Wrigley, "‘Carving the Last Few Columns out of the Gladstonian Quarry’: The Liberal Leaders and the Mantle of Gladstone, 1898–1929", in David Bebbington and Roger Swift (eds), Gladstone Centenary Essays (Liverpool University Press, 2000), p. 247. ^ Wrigley, p. 247. ^ F.A. Hayek, The Road to Serfdom (Routledge, 2001), p. 188. ^ Margaret Thatcher, 'Speech to the Conservative Party Conference', 14 October 1983. ^ Margaret Thatcher, ‘Keith Joseph Memorial Lecture', 11 January 1996. ^ Nigel Lawson, The View From No. 11: Memoirs of a Tory Radical (Bantam, 1992), p. 279. ^ Michael Partridge (2003). Gladstone. Psychology Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0415216265. ^ Dick Leonard, The Great Rivalry: Gladstone and Disraeli (2013) is popular, while Richard Aldous, The Lion and The Unicorn: Gladstone and Disraeli (2007) is scholarly. For the historiography see Roland Quinault, "Gladstone and Disraeli: a Reappraisal of their Relationship." History 91#304 (2006): 557–76. ^ Roland Quinault, "The Great Rivalry," History Today (Nov 2013) 63#11 p. 61. ^ Matthew, Gladstone. 1875–1898, p. 300, n. §. ^ "London's Hidden History Bow Church". Modern Gent. Archived from the original on 6 July 2013. Retrieved 1 March 2009. ^ "St John's Garden". Liverpool City Council. Retrieved 7 September 2008. ^ "Statue, W.E. Gladstone Monument". Art and architecture. Retrieved 7 September 2008. ^ Historic England. "Gladstone's Statue, Albert Square (1197823)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 19 June 2009. ^ "City of Edinburgh Council". City of Edinburgh Council. Retrieved 23 January 2009. [dead link] ^ Nisbet, Gary. "Sir William Hamo Thornycroft (1850–1925), sculptor, a biography". www.glasgowsculpture.com. Retrieved 15 January 2017. ^ Stephen, Graham (31 May 2010). "Gladstone Rock, Watkin Path, Snowdon". GeoTopoi. Retrieved 31 October 2016. ^ "Old National University of Athens". www.athens-greece.us. Retrieved 26 January 2018. ^ Romig, Walter (1986). Michigan Place Names: The History of the Founding and Naming of More than Five Thousand Past and Present Michigan Communities. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. p. 224. ISBN 978-0814318386. ^ "Gladstone Regional Art Gallery and Museum". Retrieved 26 July 2011. ^ "History of Manitoban Names". Retrieved 21 May 2010. ^ Echo, Liverpool (26 December 2009). "One of Liverpool's most influential sons - William Gladstone". liverpoolecho. Retrieved 4 February 2020. ^ "History of Glenalmond College – Scottish Independent Schools". glenalmondcollege.co.uk. ^ "William Gladstone | Tom Murphy – Liverpool Sculptor". Retrieved 30 January 2019. ^ Scully, R. J. (21 January 2014). "The Origins of William Ewart Gladstone's Nickname, 'The Grand Old Man'". Notes and Queries. 61 (1): 95–100. doi:10.1093/notesj/gjt270. ^ The Secret Agent, by Joseph Conrad, ISBN 978-0141194394, on notes of chapter IX, at p. 256. ^ McGonagall, William (1898). "The Burial of Mr Gladstone – The Great Political Hero". McGonagall Online. ^ Biography of Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, Translator: Şükran Vahide, Sözler Pub. 2000, ISBN 9754320241 p. 48 ^ There are 29 films cited in Denis Gifford, British Film Catalogue (2 vol. 2001). ^ Jeffrey Richards (2014). Visions of Yesterday. Taylor & Francis. p. 223. ISBN 978-1317928607. Further reading[edit] Biographies[edit] External video Presentation by Roy Jenkins on Gladstone: A Biography at the Library of Congress, February 10, 1997, C-SPAN Interview with Roy Jenkins on Gladstone: A Biography, March 20, 1997, C-SPAN Bebbington, D.W. William Ewart Gladstone (1993). Biagini, Eugenio F. Gladstone (2000). Brand, Eric. William Gladstone (1986) ISBN 0877545286. Feuchtwanger, E.J. Gladstone (1975). 272 pp. Feuchtwanger, E.J. "Gladstone and the Rise and Fall of Victorian Liberalism" History Review (Dec 1996) v. 26 online; also online Jagger, Peter J., ed. Gladstone (2007), 256 pp. Jenkins, Roy. Gladstone: A Biography (2002) Magnus, Philip M. Gladstone: A biography (1954) online Matthew, H.C.G. "Gladstone, William Ewart (1809–1898)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, (2004; online edition, May 2006. Matthew, H.C.G. Gladstone, 1809–1874 (1988); Gladstone, 1875–1898 (1995) online complete Matthew, Gladstone: 1809–1898 (1997) is an unabridged one-volume version. online Morley, John (1903). The Life of William Ewart Gladstone. London & New York: Macmillan and CO. Limited and The Macmillan Company. volume I; volume II, volume III via Internet Archive. Partridge, M. Gladstone (2003) Reid, Sir Wemyss, ed. (1899). The Life of William Ewart Gladstone. London, Paris, New York, Melbourne: Cassell and Company. Limited. Retrieved 13 October 2017. . Russell, George W.E (1891). The Right Honourable William Ewart Gladstone. London: Sampson, Low, Marston & Company. Retrieved 13 October 2017 – via Internet Archive. . Russell, Michael. Gladstone: A Bicentenary Portrait (2009). ISBN 978-0859553179 Shannon, Richard. Gladstone: Peel's Inheritor, 1809–1865 (1985), ISBN 0807815918; Gladstone: Heroic Minister, 1865–1898 (1999), ISBN 0807824860, a scholarly biography vol 1 online Shut, M.L. (2008). "Gladstone, William Ewart (1809–1898)". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. SAGE. pp. 206–07. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n123. ISBN 978-1412965804. Special studies[edit] Aldous, Richard. The Lion and the Unicorn: Gladstone vs Disraeli (2007). Barker, Michael. Gladstone and Radicalism. The Reconstruction of Liberal Policy in Britain. 1885–1894 (The Harvester Press, 1975). Beales, Derek. From Castlereagh to Gladstone, 1815–1885 (1969), survey of political history online Bebbington, D.W. The Mind of Gladstone: Religion, Homer and Politics (2004). Bebbington, David and Roger Swift (eds.), Gladstone Centenary Essays (Liverpool University Press, 2000). Biagini, E.F. Liberty, Retrenchment and Reform. Popular Liberalism in the Age of Gladstone, 1860–1880 (Cambridge University Press, 1992). Biagini, Eugenio. and Alastair Reid (eds.), Currents of Radicalism. Popular Radicalism, Organised Labour and Party Politics in Britain, 1850–1914 (Cambridge University Press, 1991). Boyce, D. George and Alan O'Day, eds. Gladstone and Ireland: Politics, Religion, and Nationality in the Victorian Age (Palgrave Macmillan; 2011), 307 pp. Bright, J. Franck. A History Of England. Period 4: Growth Of Democracy: Victoria 1837–1880 (1902)online 608pp; highly detailed older political narrative A History of England: Period V. Imperial Reaction, Victoria, 1880‒1901 (1904) online Butler, P. Gladstone, church, state, and Tractarianism: a study of his religious ideas and attitudes, 1809–1859 (1982). Buxton, Sydney. Finance and Politics. An Historical Study. 1783–1885. Volume I (John Murray, 1888) Gopal, S. "Gladstone and the Italian Question." History 41#141 (1956): 113–21. in JSTOR Guedalla, Philip. Queen and Mr. Gladstone (2 vols, 1933) online edition Hirst, F.W. Gladstone as Financier and Economist (1931). Hirst, F.W. In the Golden Days (Frederick Muller, 1947). Isba, Anne. Gladstone and Women (2006), London: Hambledon Continuum, ISBN 1852854715. Hammond, J.L. Gladstone and the Irish nation (1938) online edition. Jenkins, T.A. Gladstone, whiggery and the liberal party, 1874–1886 (1988). Langer, William L. The Diplomacy of Imperialism: 1890–1902 (2nd ed. 1950), a standard diplomatic history of Europe Loughlin, J. Gladstone, home rule and the Ulster question, 1882–1893 (1986). online Machin, G. I. T. "Gladstone and Nonconformity in the 1860s: The Formation of an Alliance." Historical Journal 17, no. 2 (1974): 347–64. online. Parry, J. P. Democracy and religion: Gladstone and the liberal party, 1867–1875 (1986). Quinault, Roland, et al. eds William Gladstone: New Studies and Perspectives (2012). Quinault, Roland. "Chamberlain and Gladstone: An Overview of Their Relationship." in Joseph Chamberlain: International Statesman, National Leader, Local Icon ed. by I. Cawood, C. Upton, (Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2016). 97–115. Quinault, Roland. "Gladstone and slavery." The Historical Journal 52.2 (2009): 363–383. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0018246X0900750X Schreuder, D. M. Gladstone and Kruger: Liberal government and colonial ‘home rule’, 1880–85 (1969). Schreuder, D. M. "Gladstone and Italian unification, 1848–70: the making of a Liberal?", The English historical review, (1970) vol. 85 (n. 336), pp. 475–501 . in JSTOR Schumpeter, Joseph A. History of Economic Analysis (George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1954). Seton-Watson, R.W. Disraeli, Gladstone and the eastern question: a study in diplomacy and party politics (1935). Shannon, Richard. The crisis of imperialism, 1865–1915 (1976), pp. 76–100, 142–98. Shannon, Richard. Gladstone and the Bulgarian agitation, 1876 (1975) online Taylor, Michael. "The British West India interest and its allies, 1823–1833." English Historical Review 133.565 (2018): 1478–1511. https://doi.org/10.1093/ehr/cey336, focus on slavery Vincent, J. Gladstone and Ireland (1978). Vincent, J. The Formation of the Liberal Party, 1857–1868 (1966) online. Midlothian campaign[edit] Blair, Kirstie. "The People’s William and the People’s Poets: William Gladstone and the Midlothian Campaign." The People’s Voice (2018) online. Brooks, David. "Gladstone and Midlothian: The Background to the First Campaign," Scottish Historical Review (1985) 64#1 pp 42–67. Fitzsimons, M. A. "Midlothian: the Triumph and Frustration of the British Liberal Party," Review of Politics (1960) 22#2 pp 187–201. in JSTOR Kelley, Robert. "Midlothian: A Study In Politics and Ideas," Victorian Studies (1960) 4#2 pp 119–140. Matthew, H. C. G Gladstone: 1809-1898 (1997) pp 293–313 Whitehead, Cameron Ean Alfred. "The Bulgarian Horrors: culture and the international history of the Great Eastern Crisis, 1876-1878" (PhD. Dissertation, University of British Columbia, 2014) online Yildizeli, Fahriye Begum. "W.E. Gladstone and British Policy Towards the Ottoman Empire." (PhD dissertation, University of Exeter, 2016) online. Historiography[edit] St. John, Ian. The Historiography of Gladstone and Disraeli (Anthem Press, 2016) 402 pp excerpt Primary sources[edit] Gladstone, W.E. Midlothian Speeches. 1879 (Leicester University Press, 1971). Gladstone, William E. Midlothian Speeches 1884 with an Introduction by M. R. D. Foot, (New York: Humanities Press, 1971) online Guedalla, Philip, ed. Gladstone and Palmerston: Being the Correspondence of Lord Palmerston with Mr. Gladstone, 1851-1865 (1928) Guedalla, Philip, ed. Queen And Mr. Gladstone (1933) online Lord Kilbracken, Reminiscences of Lord Kilbracken (Macmillan, 1931). Russell, G.W.E. (1911). One Look Back. London: Wells Gardner, Darton and Co., LTD. Retrieved 13 October 2017 – via Internet Archive. . Tollemache, Lionel A. (1898). Talks with Mr. Gladstone (1 ed.). London: Edward Arnold. Retrieved 13 October 2017 – via Internet Archive. . Matthew, H.C.G. and M.R.D. Foot, eds. Gladstone Diaries. With Cabinet Minutes & Prime-Ministerial Correspondence (13 vol; vol 14 is the index; 1968–1994); includes diaries, important selections from cabinet minutes and key political correspondence. online at Questia are vol 1, 4, 6, 7, and 11–14.; vol 14, pp. 1–284 includes brief identification of the 20,000+ people mentioned by Gladstone. Partridge, Michael, and Richard Gaunt, eds. Lives of Victorian Political Figures Part 1: Palmerston, Disraeli and Gladstone (4 vol. Pickering & Chatto. 2006) reprints 27 original pamphlets on Gladstone. Ramm, Agatha, ed. The Political Correspondence of Gladstone and Lord Granville 1876-1886. (2 vol Clarendon, 1962) online Temperley, Harold and L.M. Penson, eds. Foundations of British Foreign Policy: From Pitt (1792) to Salisbury (1902) (1938), primary sources online External links[edit] William Ewart Gladstoneat Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Data from Wikidata Portraits of William Ewart Gladstone at the National Portrait Gallery, London Hansard 1803–2005: contributions in Parliament by William Gladstone William Gladstone - Harry Furniss Caricatures - UK Parliament Living Heritage Mr. Gladstone (character sketch by W.T. Stead, in the Review of Reviews, 1892). Works by William Ewart Gladstone at Project Gutenberg Works by or about William Ewart Gladstone at Internet Archive Works by William Ewart Gladstone at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) More about William Ewart Gladstone on the Downing Street website. William Ewart Gladstone 1809–98 biography from the Liberal Democrat History Group. BBC Radio – Programme Two contains a recording of Gladstone's voice. "Archival material relating to William Ewart Gladstone". UK National Archives. Parliament of the United Kingdom Preceded by William Farnworth Handley Thomas Wilde Member of Parliament for Newark 1832–1845 With: William Farnworth Handley 1832–1835 Thomas Wilde 1835–1841 Lord John Manners 1841–1845 Succeeded by Lord John Manners John Stuart Preceded by Thomas Estcourt Sir Robert Inglis Member of Parliament for Oxford University 1847–1865 With: Sir Robert Inglis 1847–1854 Sir William Heathcote 1854–1865 Succeeded by Sir William Heathcote Gathorne Hardy Preceded by Algernon Egerton William Legh Charles Turner Member of Parliament for South Lancashire 1865–1868 With: Algernon Egerton Charles Turner Constituency abolished Preceded by Charles Tilston Bright David Salomons Member of Parliament for Greenwich 1868–1880 With: David Salomons 1868–1873 Thomas Boord 1873–1880 Succeeded by Thomas Boord Baron Henry de Worms Preceded by Earl of Dalkeith Member of Parliament for Midlothian 1880–1895 Succeeded by Sir Thomas Gibson-Carmichael Political offices Preceded by John Stuart-Wortley Under-Secretary of State for War and the Colonies 1835 Succeeded by Sir George Grey Preceded by Fox Maule Vice-President of the Board of Trade 1841–1843 Succeeded by The Earl of Dalhousie Preceded by The Earl of Ripon President of the Board of Trade 1843–1845 Preceded by The Lord Stanley Secretary of State for War and the Colonies 1845–1846 Succeeded by The Earl Grey Preceded by Benjamin Disraeli Chancellor of the Exchequer 1852–1855 Succeeded by Sir George Lewis Preceded by Sir John Young Lord High Commissioner of the Ionian Islands 1859 Succeeded by Sir Henry Knight Storks Preceded by Benjamin Disraeli Chancellor of the Exchequer 1859–1866 Succeeded by Benjamin Disraeli Preceded by The Viscount Palmerston Leader of the House of Commons 1865–1866 Preceded by Benjamin Disraeli Prime Minister of the United Kingdom 3 December 1868 – 17 February 1874 Preceded by Robert Lowe Chancellor of the Exchequer 1873–1874 Succeeded by Sir Stafford Northcote Preceded by The Earl of Beaconsfield Prime Minister of the United Kingdom 23 April 1880 – 9 June 1885 Succeeded by The Marquess of Salisbury Preceded by Sir Stafford Northcote Chancellor of the Exchequer 1880–1882 Succeeded by Hugh Childers Leader of the House of Commons 1880–1885 Succeeded by Sir Michael Hicks-Beach Preceded by The Marquess of Salisbury Prime Minister of the United Kingdom 1 February 1886 – 20 July 1886 Succeeded by The Marquess of Salisbury Preceded by Sir Michael Hicks-Beach Leader of the House of Commons 1886 Succeeded by Lord Randolph Churchill Preceded by The Earl of Harrowby Lord Privy Seal 1886 Succeeded by The Earl Cadogan Preceded by The Marquess of Salisbury Prime Minister of the United Kingdom 15 August 1892 – 2 March 1894 Succeeded by The Earl of Rosebery Preceded by Arthur Balfour Leader of the House of Commons 1892–1894 Succeeded by Sir William Harcourt Preceded by The Earl Cadogan Lord Privy Seal 1892–1894 Succeeded by The Lord Tweedmouth Party political offices Preceded by The Earl Russell Leader of the British Liberal Party 1866–1875 Succeeded by The Earl Granville Marquess of Hartington Preceded by The Earl Granville Marquess of Hartington Leader of the British Liberal Party 1880–1894 Succeeded by The Earl of Rosebery Preceded by The Viscount Palmerston Liberal Leader in the Commons 1865–1875 Succeeded by Marquess of Hartington Preceded by Marquess of Hartington Liberal Leader in the Commons 1880–1894 Succeeded by William Vernon Harcourt Academic offices New institution Rector of the University of Edinburgh 1859–1865 Succeeded by Thomas Carlyle Preceded by The Earl of Beaconsfield Rector of the University of Glasgow 1877–1880 Succeeded by John Bright Records Preceded by The Earl of Beaconsfield Oldest living British prime minister 1881–1898 Succeeded by The Marquess of Salisbury Honorary titles Preceded by The Earl Grey Senior Privy Counsellor 1894–1898 Succeeded by The Duke of Rutland Spencer Horatio Walpole Professional and academic associations Preceded by Edward Cust President of the Historic Society of Lancashire and Cheshire 1863–66 Succeeded by Joseph Mayer William Ewart Gladstone navigational boxes v t e Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom Kingdom of Great Britain Walpole (Orford) Wilmington Pelham Newcastle Devonshire Newcastle Bute G. 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en-wikipedia-org-625	----	Cursus honorum - Wikipedia Cursus honorum From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search See also: Cursus (disambiguation) The sequential order of public offices held by politicians in Ancient Rome Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e The cursus honorum (pronounced [ˈkʊrsʊs hɔˈnoːrũː]; Latin for 'course of honor', or more colloquially 'ladder of offices') was the sequential order of public offices held by aspiring politicians in the Roman Republic and the early Roman Empire. It was designed for men of senatorial rank. The cursus honorum comprised a mixture of military and political administration posts. Each office had a minimum age for election. There were minimum intervals between holding successive offices and laws forbade repeating an office.[citation needed] These rules were altered and flagrantly ignored in the course of the last century of the Republic. For example, Gaius Marius held consulships for five years in a row between 104 BC and 100 BC. He was consul seven times in all, also serving in 107 and 86. Officially presented as opportunities for public service, the offices often became mere opportunities for self-aggrandizement. The reforms of Sulla required a ten-year interval before holding the same office again for another term.[1] To have held each office at the youngest possible age (suo anno, "in his own year") was considered a great political success. For instance, to miss out on a praetorship at 39 meant that one could not become consul at 42. Cicero expressed extreme pride not only in being a novus homo ("new man"; comparable to a "self-made man") who became consul even though none of his ancestors had ever served as a consul, but also in having become consul "in his year".[2][3] The Roman cursus honorum Contents 1 Military tribune 2 Quaestor 3 Aedile 4 Praetor 5 Consul 6 Governor 7 Censor 8 Tribune of the Plebs 9 Princeps senatus 10 Dictator and magister equitum 11 See also 12 References 13 External links Military tribune[edit] Main article: Military tribune For the military career track for equestrians, see Tres militiae. This section's factual accuracy is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on Talk:Cursus honorum. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are reliably sourced. (October 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The cursus honorum began with ten years of military duty in the Roman cavalry (the equites) or in the staff of a general who was a relative or a friend of the family.[4] The ten years of service were intended to be mandatory in order to qualify for political office,[5] but in practice, the rule was not always rigidly applied. A more prestigious position was that of a military tribune.[6] In the early Roman Republic, 24 men at the age of around 20 were elected by the Tribal Assembly to serve as commanders on a rotating basis; each commander retained six tribunes on his staff. Tribunes could also be appointed by the consuls or by military commanders in the field as necessary. After the reforms of Gaius Marius in 107 BC, the six tribunes acted as staff officers for the legionary legatus and were appointed tasks and command of units of troops whenever the need arose.[citation needed] The subsequent steps of the cursus honorum were achieved by direct election every year.[citation needed] Quaestor[edit] Main article: Quaestor The first official post was that of quaestor. Candidates had to be at least 30 years old. However, men of patrician rank could subtract two years from this and other minimum age requirements.[citation needed] Twenty quaestors served in the financial administration at Rome or as second-in-command to a governor in the provinces. They could also serve as the paymaster for a legion. A young man who obtained this job was expected to become a very important official. An additional task of all quaestors was the supervision of public games. As a quaestor, an official was allowed to wear the toga praetexta, but was not escorted by lictors, nor did he possess imperium.[citation needed] Aedile[edit] Main article: Aedile At 36 years of age, proquaestor could stand for election to one of the aedile (pronounced EE-dyle /ˈiːdaɪl/, from aedes, "temple edifice") positions. Of these aediles, two were plebeian and two were patrician, with the patrician aediles called Curule Aediles. The plebeian aediles were elected by the Plebeian Council and the curule aediles were either elected by the Tribal Assembly or appointed by the reigning consul. The aediles had administrative responsibilities in Rome. They had to take care of the temples (whence their title, from the Latin aedes, "temple"), organize games, and be responsible for the maintenance of the public buildings in Rome. Moreover, they took charge of Rome's water and food supplies; in their capacity as market superintendents, they served sometimes as judges in mercantile affairs.[citation needed] The Aedile was the supervisor of public works; the words "edifice" and "edification" stem from the same root. He oversaw the public works, temples and markets. Therefore, the Aediles would have been in some cooperation with the current Censors, who had similar or related duties. Also they oversaw the organization of festivals and games (ludi), which made this a very sought-after office for a career minded politician of the late republic, as it was a good means of gaining popularity by staging spectacles.[citation needed][7] Cursus Honorum as during Julius Caesar's career (1st century BC) Curule Aediles were added at a later date in the 4th century BC, and their duties do not differ substantially from plebeian aediles. However, unlike plebeian aediles, curule aediles were allowed certain symbols of rank—the sella curulis or 'curule chair,' for example—and only patricians could stand for election to curule aedile. This later changed, and both Plebeians and Patricians could stand for Curule Aedileship.[citation needed] The elections for Curule Aedile were at first alternated between Patricians and Plebeians, until late in the 2nd century BC, when the practice was abandoned and both classes became free to run during all years.[citation needed] While part of the cursus honorum, this step was optional and not required to hold future offices. Though the office was usually held after the quaestorship and before the praetorship, there are some cases with former praetors serving as aediles.[8] Praetor[edit] Main article: Praetor After serving either as quaestor or as aedile, a man of 39 years could run for praetor. The number of praetors elected varied through history, generally increasing with time. During the republic, six or eight were generally elected each year to serve judicial functions throughout Rome and other governmental responsibilities. In the absence of the consuls, a praetor would be given command of the garrison in Rome or in Italy. Also, a praetor could exercise the functions of the consuls throughout Rome, but their main function was that of a judge. They would preside over trials involving criminal acts, grant court orders and validate "illegal" acts as acts of administering justice. A praetor was escorted by six lictors, and wielded imperium. After a term as praetor, the magistrate would serve as a provincial governor with the title of propraetor, wielding propraetor imperium, commanding the province's legions, and possessing ultimate authority within his province(s).[9] Two of the praetors were more prestigious than the others. The first was the Praetor Peregrinus, who was the chief judge in trials involving one or more foreigners. The other was the Praetor Urbanus, the chief judicial office in Rome. He had the power to overturn any verdict by any other courts, and served as judge in cases involving criminal charges against provincial governors. The Praetor Urbanus was not allowed to leave the city for more than ten days. If one of these two Praetors was absent from Rome, the other would perform the duties of both.[citation needed] Consul[edit] Main article: Roman consul The office of consul was the most prestigious of all of the offices on the cursus honorum, and represented the summit of a successful career. The minimum age was 42. Years were identified by the names of the two consuls elected[10] for a particular year; for instance, M. Messalla et M. Pisone consulibus, "in the consulship of Messalla and Piso,"[11][12][13] dates an event to 61 BC. Consuls were responsible for the city's political agenda, commanded large-scale armies and controlled important provinces. The consuls served for only a year (a restriction intended to limit the amassing of power by individuals) and could only rule when they agreed, because each consul could veto the other's decision.[citation needed] The consuls would alternate monthly as the chairman of the Senate. They also were the supreme commanders in the Roman army, with each being granted two legions during their consular year. Consuls also exercised the highest juridical power in the Republic, being the only office with the power to override the decisions of the Praetor Urbanus. Only laws and the decrees of the Senate or the People's assembly limited their powers, and only the veto of a fellow consul or a tribune of the plebs could supersede their decisions.[citation needed] A consul was escorted by twelve lictors, held imperium and wore the toga praetexta. Because the consul was the highest executive office within the Republic, they had the power to veto any action or proposal by any other magistrate, save that of the Tribune of the Plebs. After a consulship, a consul was assigned one of the more important provinces and acted as the governor in the same way that a Propraetor did, only owning Proconsular imperium. A second consulship could only be attempted after an interval of 10 years to prevent one man holding too much power.[citation needed] Governor[edit] Main article: Roman governor Although not part of the Cursus Honorum, upon completing a term as either Praetor or Consul, an officer was required to serve a term as Propraetor and Proconsul, respectively, in one of Rome's many provinces. These Propraetors and Proconsuls held near autocratic authority within their selected province or provinces. Because each governor held equal imperium to the equivalent magistrate, they were escorted by the same number of lictors (12) and could only be vetoed by a reigning Consul or Praetor. Their abilities to govern were only limited by the decrees of the Senate or the people's assemblies, and the Tribune of the Plebs was unable to veto their acts as long as the governor remained at least a mile outside of Rome. Censor[edit] Main article: Roman censor After a term as consul, the final step in the Cursus Honorum was the office of censor. This was the only office in the Roman Republic whose term was a period of eighteen months instead of the usual twelve. Censors were elected every five years and although the office held no military imperium, it was considered a great honour. The censors took a regular census of the people and then apportioned the citizens into voting classes on the basis of income and tribal affiliation. The censors enrolled new citizens in tribes and voting classes as well. The censors were also in charge of the membership roll of the Senate, every five years adding new senators who had been elected to the requisite offices. Censors could also remove unworthy members from the Senate. This ability was lost during the dictatorship of Sulla. Censors were also responsible for construction of public buildings and the moral status of the city.[citation needed] Censors also had financial duties, in that they had to put out to tender projects that were to be financed by the state. Also, the censors were in charge of the leasing out of conquered land for public use and auction. Though this office owned no imperium, meaning no lictors for protection, they were allowed to wear the toga praetexta.[citation needed] Tribune of the Plebs[edit] Main article: Tribune of the Plebs The office of Tribune of the Plebs was an important step in the political career of plebeians. Patricians could not hold the office. The Tribune was an office first created to protect the right of the common man in Roman politics and served as the head of the Plebeian Council. In the mid-to-late Republic, however, plebeians were often just as, and sometimes more, wealthy and powerful than patricians. Those who held the office were granted sacrosanctity (the right to be legally protected from any physical harm), the power to rescue any plebeian from the hands of a patrician magistrate, and the right to veto any act or proposal of any magistrate, including another tribune of the people and the consuls. The tribune also had the power to exercise capital punishment against any person who interfered in the performance of his duties. The tribunes could even convene a Senate meeting and lay legislation before it and arrest magistrates. Their houses had to remain open for visitors even during the night, and they were not allowed to be more than a day's journey from Rome. Due to their unique power of sacrosanctity, the Tribune had no need for lictors for protection and owned no imperium, nor could they wear the toga praetexta.[citation needed] For a period after Sulla's reforms, a person who had held the office of Tribune of the Plebs could no longer qualify for any other office, and the powers of the tribunes were more limited, but these restrictions were subsequently lifted. Princeps senatus[edit] Main article: Princeps senatus Another office not officially a step in the cursus honorum was the princeps senatus, an extremely prestigious office for a patrician. The princeps senatus served as the leader of the Senate and was chosen to serve a five-year term by each pair of Censors every five years. Censors could, however, confirm a princeps senatus for a period of another five years. The princeps senatus was chosen from all Patricians who had served as a Consul, with former Censors usually holding the office. The office originally granted the holder the ability to speak first at session on the topic presented by the presiding magistrate, but eventually gained the power to open and close the senate sessions, decide the agenda, decide where the session should take place, impose order and other rules of the session, meet in the name of the senate with embassies of foreign countries, and write in the name of the senate letters and dispatches. This office, like the Tribune, did not own imperium, was not escorted by lictors, and could not wear the toga praetexta.[citation needed] Dictator and magister equitum[edit] Main articles: Roman dictator and Magister equitum Of all the offices within the Roman Republic, none granted as much power and authority as the position of dictator, known as the Master of the People. In times of emergency, the Senate would declare that a dictator was required, and the current consuls would appoint a dictator. This was the only decision that could not be vetoed by the Tribune of the Plebs. The dictator was the sole exception to the Roman legal principles of having multiple magistrates in the same office and being legally able to be held to answer for actions in office. Essentially by definition, only one dictator could serve at a time, and no dictator could ever be held legally responsible for any action during his time in office for any reason.[citation needed] The dictator was the highest magistrate in degree of imperium and was attended by twenty-four lictors (as were the former Kings of Rome). Although his term lasted only six months instead of twelve (except for the Dictatorships of Sulla and Caesar), all other magistrates reported to the dictator (except for the tribunes of the plebs - although they could not veto any of the dictator's acts), granting the dictator absolute authority in both civil and military matters throughout the Republic. The Dictator was free from the control of the Senate in all that he did, could execute anyone without a trial for any reason, and could ignore any law in the performance of his duties. The Dictator was the sole magistrate under the Republic that was truly independent in discharging his duties. All of the other offices were extensions of the Senate's executive authority and thus answerable to the Senate. Since the Dictator exercised his own authority, he did not suffer this limitation, which was the cornerstone of the office's power.[citation needed] When a Dictator entered office, he appointed to serve as his second-in-command a magister equitum, the Master of the Horse, whose office ceased to exist once the Dictator left office. The magister equitum held Praetorian imperium, was attended by six lictors, and was charged with assisting the Dictator in managing the State. When the Dictator was away from Rome, the magister equitum usually remained behind to administer the city. The magister equitum, like the Dictator, had unchallengeable authority in all civil and military affairs, with his decisions only being overturned by the Dictator himself.[citation needed] The Dictatorship was definitively abolished in 44 BC after the assassination of Gaius Julius Caesar (Lex Antonia). See also[edit] Outline of ancient Rome – Overview of and topical guide to ancient Rome Political institutions of ancient Rome Roman Senate – Political institution in ancient Rome Vigintisexviri – College of minor magistrates of the Roman Republic Tres militiae - the equestrian order version of the cursus honorum. References[edit] ^ Abbott, Frank Frost (1901). A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. Ginn and Company. p. 105. ISBN 0-543-92749-0. ^ Marcus Tullius Cicero; Sallust; Johnston, Harold Whetstone; Kingery, Hugh Macmaster (1910). Selected orations and letters of Cicero: To which is added the Catiline of Sallust ; with historical introduction, an outline of the Roman constitution, notes, vocabulary and index. Chicago: Scott, Foresman & Co. p. 99. ^ Goldsworthy, Adrian (28 August 2014). Augustus: First Emperor of Rome. Yale University Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-300-21666-0. ^ Collar, Anna (12 December 2013). Religious Networks in the Roman Empire. Cambridge University Press. p. 44. ISBN 9781107043442. ^ Gill, N.S. (28 February 2018). "Hierarchy of Roman Offices in the Cursus Honorum". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 12 May 2018. ^ Belliotti, Raymond Angelo (15 August 2009). Roman Philosophy and the Good Life. Lexington Books. p. 231. ISBN 9780739139714. ^ Beck, Hans (2009). Career and hierarchy: the Roman aristocracy and the beginnings of the cursus honorum in the middle republic. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 9783050048468. ^ "Aedile | Roman official". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-09-07. ^ Shelton, Jo-Ann (1998). As the Romans did: a sourcebook in Roman Social History (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 207–215. ISBN 9780195089745. ^ That is, a suffect consul did not give his name to the year. ^ Caesar, Julius. Commentarii de Bello Gallico. 1.2.1. ^ Allen; Greenough (1975). Greenough, J. B.; Howard, A. A.; Kittredge, G. L.; D'Ooge, Benj. L. (eds.). New Latin Grammar (PDF). New York: Ginn and Company. p. 263. ^ Hale, William Gardner; Buck, Carl Darling (1903). A Latin Grammar. University of Alabama Press. p. 220. LCCN 03017596. OCLC 01561348. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cursus honorum. 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en-wikipedia-org-6266	----	Edmund Quincy (1703–1788) - Wikipedia Edmund Quincy (1703–1788) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Edmund Quincy (1703-1788)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Edmund Quincy IV (/ˈkwɪnzi/; 1703-1788) was a prominent Boston merchant during much of the 18th century.[1][2] Contents 1 Early life and career 2 Family and personal life 3 See also 4 References Early life and career[edit] Coat of Arms of Edmund Quincy IV Edmund Quincy was one of four children born to Edmund Quincy III (1681-1737) and Dorothy Flynt Quincy of Braintree (now Quincy) and Boston. He graduated from Harvard College in 1722, and went into the commerce and shipbuilding business with his younger brother Josiah and brother-in-law Edward Jackson. In 1748, the Bethell, a merchant ship they owned, took out a letter of marque to protect itself from Spanish privateers during King George's War. Armed with fourteen guns and six fake wooden guns, the Bethell accidentally came upon a much larger and more heavily armed Spanish ship at night in the Atlantic Ocean. Unable to escape, the Bethell instead demanded that the Spanish ship surrender, and, mistaking the Bethell for a British sloop-of-war, it complied without a fight. The Spanish ship's cargo, consisting of 161 chests of silver, 2 of gold, and various valuable commodities, was brought safely back to Boston and valued at around one hundred thousand pounds sterling.[3][4][5] Josiah Quincy retired shortly after this windfall, while Edmund remained in business, entering into a partnership with his sons. Though well respected, he suffered financial reverses and was declared bankrupt in 1757.[4][6] He later retired to his paternal estate and, in 1765, published A Treatise on Hemp Husbandry.[7][8] Quincy was also an acting magistrate of Suffolk County until the time of his death, and was referred to as "Squire" or "Justice" Quincy.[4][6][7] Family and personal life[edit] Quincy married Elizabeth Wendell in 1725. Together they had nine children, including Dorothy Quincy, who married John Hancock; Esther Quincy, who married Jonathan Sewall; and Elizabeth Quincy, who was the mother of Samuel Sewall.[9] After his first wife's death in 1769, Quincy married Anna Gerrish.[6] Quincy was also a Freemason, and was a member of Master's Lodge along with Richard Gridley.[10] Edmund Quincy died July 4, 1788, at the age of 85.[11] John Hancock Dorothy (Quincy) Hancock Lydia Henchman Hancock (1776-1777) John George Washington Hancock (1778-1787) See also[edit] Quincy political family References[edit] ^ Massachusetts Historical Society (1896). Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society. Massachusetts Historical Society. p. 45. Retrieved 2009-03-20. ^ Howard, R.H.; Crocker, Henry E. (1879). A History of New England. Crocker & Co. p. 223. Retrieved 2009-03-20. ^ Quincy, Edmund (1874). Life of Josiah Quincy. Little, Brown, and Company. pp. 4–5. Retrieved 2009-03-20. ^ a b c Massachusetts Historical Society (1860). Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society. Massachusetts Historical Society. pp. 42–43. Retrieved 2009-03-20. ^ Historical Society of Pennsylvania (1879). "Josiah Quincy, Snr". The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography: 182. Retrieved 2009-03-20. ^ a b c Massachusetts Historical Society: Quincy, Wendell, Holmes, and Upham Family Papers, 1633-1910 ^ a b Quincy, Josiah; Quincy, Eliza Susan Morton (1875). Memoir of the Life of Josiah Quincy, Junior, of Massachusetts Bay, 1744-1775. Little, Brown. pp. 3. Retrieved 2009-03-20. ^ Adams, Oscar Fay (1904). A dictionary of American authors (5th ed.). Houghton, Mifflin and company. pp. 306. Retrieved 2009-03-20. ^ Stark, James Henry (1910). The Loyalists of Massachusetts and the Other Side of the American Revolution. Salem Press. pp. 455. Retrieved 2009-03-20. ^ Triber, Jayne E. (2001). A True Republican: The Life of Paul Revere. Univ of Massachusetts Press. p. 206. ISBN 978-1-55849-294-3. Retrieved 2009-03-20. ^ Allen, William (1857). The American biographical dictionary. J.P. Jewett and Company. pp. 688. 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en-wikipedia-org-6271	----	Ancient Roman cuisine - Wikipedia Ancient Roman cuisine From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search A mosaic depicting a banquet during a hunting trip from the Late Roman Villa Romana del Casale in Sicily Ancient Roman cuisine changed greatly over the duration of the civilization's existence. Dietary habits were affected by the political changes from kingdom to republic to empire, and the empire's enormous expansion, which exposed Romans to many new provincial culinary habits and cooking methods. In the beginning, dietary differences between Roman social classes were not great, but disparities developed with the empire's growth. Contents 1 Archaeology 2 Meals 3 Foods and ingredients 4 Cooking 5 Alcoholic drinks 6 Desserts 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links Archaeology[edit] Most organic foods decay under ordinary conditions, but ashes and animal bones offer some archaeological details about the Ancient Roman diet. Phytoliths have been found at a cemetery in Tarragona, Spain. Imported figs were among the charred foods preserved when Boudica and her army burned down a Roman shop in Colchester. Chickpeas and bowls of fruit are known from Herculaneum, preserved since Vesuvius destroyed the town in 79 AD. Remains of small fish bones, sea urchin spines and mineralized plants have survived in the city's sewers; among the plants archaeologists have identified dill, coriander, flax, lentil, cabbage, opium poppy and various other nuts, fruits and legumes, as well as a diverse variety of fish and shellfish. At Pompeii, grapes, bread and pastry were burned and buried in peristyle courtyard gardens as offerings to household Lares.[1] Meals[edit] Further information: Food and dining in the Roman Empire Traditionally, a breakfast called ientaculum[2] was served at dawn. At mid-day to early afternoon, Romans ate cena,[2] the main meal of the day, and at nightfall a light supper called vesperna.[3] With the increased importation of foreign foods, the cena grew larger in size and included a wider range of foods. Thus, it gradually shifted to the evening, while the vesperna[3] was abandoned completely over the course of the years. The mid-day meal prandium became a light meal to hold one over until cena.[2] Among the lower classes of the Roman society, these changes were less pronounced as the traditional routines corresponded closely to the daily rhythms of manual labour. Roman spoons with duck or swan handles However, among the upper classes, who normally did not engage in manual labour, it became customary to schedule all business obligations in the morning. After the prandium, the last responsibilities would be discharged, and a visit would be made to the baths. Around 2 p.m.,[4] the cena would begin. This meal could last until late in the night, especially if guests were invited, and would often be followed by comissatio, a round of alcoholic beverages (usually wine.) In the period of the kings and the early Republic, but also in later periods (for the working classes), the cena essentially consisted of a kind of porridge, the puls.[5] The simplest kind would be made from emmer, water, salt and fat. A more sophisticated variation was made with olive oil, and consumed with an accompaniment of assorted vegetables when available. The wealthy commonly ate their puls with eggs, cheese, and honey and it was also occasionally served with meat or fish. Over the course of the Republican period, the Cena developed into two courses: the main course and a dessert with fruit and seafood (e.g. molluscs, shrimp). By the end of the Republic, it was usual for the meal to be served in three parts: an appetiser (gustatio), main course (primae mensae), and dessert (secundae mensae). The Roman legions' staple ration of food was wheat. In the 4th century, most legionaries ate as well as anyone in Rome. They were supplied with rations of bread and vegetables along with meats such as beef, mutton, or pork. Rations also depended on where the legions were stationed or were campaigning. Mutton was popular in Northern Gaul and Britannica, but pork was the main meat ration of the legions.[6] Foods and ingredients[edit] A carbonised loaf of ancient Roman bread from Pompeii. Bread was a staple food in the Roman world. From 123 BC, a ration of unmilled wheat (as much as 33 kg), known as the frumentatio, was distributed to as many as 200,000 people every month by the Roman state.[7] There was originally a charge for this but from 58 BC this charge was abolished by the plebeian tribune Publius Clodius Pulcher. Individuals had to be citizens and domiciled in Rome to receive the frumentatio.[7] Originally flat, round loaves made of emmer (a cereal grain closely related to wheat) with a bit of salt were eaten; among the upper classes, eggs, cheese, and honey, along with milk and fruit were also consumed. In the Imperial period, around 1 AD, bread made of wheat was introduced; with time, more and more wheaten foods began to replace emmer loaves. There were many kinds of bread of differing quality. Typically white bread was baked for the elite, with darker bread baked for the middle class, and the darkest bread for the poor peasants.[8] The bread was sometimes dipped in wine and eaten with olives, cheese, and grapes. At the time of the destruction of Pompeii in AD 79, there were at least 33 bakeries in that city.[9] Roman chefs made sweet buns flavored with blackcurrants and cheese cakes made with flour, honey, eggs, ricotta-like cheese and poppy seed. Sweet wine cakes were made with honey, reduced red wine and cinnamon. Fruit tarts were popular with the upper class, but the lower classes couldn't afford to personally make them or purchase them from markets and vendors. The ancient Roman diet included many items that are staples of modern Italian cooking. Pliny the Elder discussed more than 30 varieties of olive, 40 kinds of pear, figs (native and imported from Africa and the eastern provinces), and a wide variety of vegetables.[a][11] Some of these vegetables are no longer present in the modern world, while others have undergone significant changes. Carrots of different colours were consumed, but not in orange.[12] Many kinds of vegetables were cultivated and consumed.[13] These included celery, garlic, some flower bulbs, cabbage and other brassicas (such as kale and broccoli), lettuce, endive, onion, leek, asparagus, radishes, turnips, parsnips, carrots, beets, green peas, chard, French beans[citation needed], cardoons, olives, and cucumber.[13] Some vegetables were illustrated in reliefs.[14] The potato, tomato and chili pepper from the New World were not available in ancient Roman times, nor was maize (the modern source of polenta).[14] However, some foods considered characteristic of modern Italian cuisine were not used.[15] In particular, spinach and eggplant (aubergine) were introduced later from the Arab world, and tomatoes and capsicum peppers only appeared in Europe following the discovery of the New World and the Columbian Exchange.[15] The Romans knew of rice, but it was very rarely available to them. There were also few citrus fruits.[15] Lemons were known in Italy from the second century AD but were not widely cultivated.[16] Butcher's meat was an uncommon luxury. The most popular meat was pork, especially sausages.[17] Beef was uncommon in ancient Rome, being more common in ancient Greece – it is not mentioned by Juvenal or Horace.[17] Seafood, game, and poultry, including ducks and geese, were more usual. For instance, on his triumph, Caesar gave a public feast to 260,000 humiliores (poorer people) which featured all three of these foods, but no butcher's meat.[17] John E. Stambaugh writes that meat "was scarce except at sacrifices and the dinner parties of the rich".[18] Cows were prized for their milk; bulls as plough and draft animals. The beef was tough and unappetizing. Veal was eaten sometimes. Apicius gives only four recipes for beef but the same recipes call for lamb or pork as options. There is only one recipe for beef stew and another for veal scallopini.[19] Fish was more common than meat.[18] Aquaculture was sophisticated, with large-scale industries devoted to oyster farming.[18] The Romans also engaged in snail farming and oak grub farming.[18] Some fish were greatly esteemed and fetched high prices, such as mullet raised in the fishery at Cosa, and "elaborate means were invented to assure its freshness".[18] Dormice were eaten and considered a delicacy.[20] It was a status symbol among wealthy Romans, and some even had dormice weighed in front of dinner guests.[21] A sumptuary law enacted under Marcus Aemilius Scaurus forbade the eating of dormice, but failed to stop the practice.[22] A still life with fruit basket and vases (Pompeii, c. AD 70) The thermopolium (eatery) of Pompeii, Italy, 1st century AD. Fruit was eaten fresh when in season, and dried or preserved over winter. Popular fruit included apples, pears, figs, grapes, quinces, citron, strawberries, blackberries, elderberries, currants, damson plums, dates, melons, rose hips and pomegranates.[18] Less common fruits were the more exotic azeroles and medlars. Cherries and apricots, both introduced in the 1st century BC, were popular. Peaches were introduced in the 1st century AD from Persia. Oranges and lemons were known but used more for medicinal purposes than in cookery.[18] Although known to the ancient Romans, lemons were not cultivated in Italy until the Principate.[18][23] At least 35 cultivars of pear were grown in Rome, along with three types of apples. Cato described pear culture methods similar to modern techniques.[24] There are recipes for pear and peach creams and milk puddings flavored with honey, pepper and a little garum. While the precursors of Brussels sprouts, artichokes, peas, rutabaga, and possibly cauliflower probably existed in Roman times, the modern cultivated forms we think of were not developed until the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance times. Cabbage was eaten both raw (sometimes dipped in vinegar) and cooked.[14] Cato greatly esteemed cabbage, believing it to be good for the digestion, and also believed that if a sick person ate a great deal of cabbage and bathed in his urine, he would recover.[25] Legumes were limited to dried peas, fava beans (broad beans), chickpeas, lentils, and Lupines. The Romans knew several varieties of chickpea, such as venus, ram, and punic. They were either cooked down into a broth or roasted as a snack. The Roman cookbook Apicius gives several recipes for chickpeas.[26] The ancient Romans ate walnuts, almonds, pistachios, chestnuts, hazelnuts (filberts), pine nuts, and sesame seeds, which they sometimes pulverized to thicken spiced, sweet wine sauces for roast meat and fowl to serve on the side or over the meat as a glaze. Nuts were also used in savoury pesto-like sauces for cold cuts. Nuts were used in pastries, tarts and puddings sweetened with honey. The Roman colonies provided many foods to Rome; the city received ham from Belgium, oysters from Brittany, garum from Mauritania, wild game from Tunisia, silphium (laser) from Cyrenaica, flowers from Egypt, lettuce from Cappadocia, and fish from Pontus.[27] A re-creation of Moretum, a herb and cheese spread eaten with bread Cheese was eaten and its manufacture was well-established by the Roman Empire period.[28] It was part of the standard rations for Roman soldiers and was popular among civilians as well. The Emperor Diocletian (284–305 CE) fixed maximum prices for cheese.[28] The manufacture of cheese and its quality and culinary uses are mentioned by a number of Roman authors: Pliny the Elder described cheese's dietary and medicinal uses in Book 28 of Historia Naturalis, and Varro in De Agricultura described the Roman cheesemaking season (spring and summer) and compared soft, new cheeses with drier, aged cheeses. The most extensive description of Roman cheese-making comes from Columella, from his treatise on Roman agriculture, De Re Rustica.[29] Juscellum was a broth with grated bread, eggs, sage and saffron, described in Apicius, a Roman recipe book of the late 4th or early 5th century.[30] Garum was the distinctive fish sauce of ancient Rome.[31] It was used as a seasoning, in place of salt; as a table condiment; and as a sauce. There were four major fish sauce types: garum, liquamen, muria, and allec.[31] It was made in different qualities, from fish such as tuna, mullet, and sea bass.[31] It could be flavoured, for example mixed with wine, or diluted with water (hydrogarum), a form popular among Roman soldiers, although the emperor Elagabalus asserted that he was the first to serve it at public banquets in Rome.[31] The most costly garum was garum sociorum, made from mackerel (scomber) at the New Carthage fisheries in Spain, and widely traded.[31] Pliny wrote in his Natural History that two congii (7 litres) of this sauce cost 1,000 sesterces.[32] One thousand sesterces in the Early Empire was equal to 110 g of gold. Cooking[edit] A boy holding a platter of fruits and what may be a bucket of crabs, in a kitchen with fish and squid, on the June panel from a mosaic depicting the months (3rd century)[33] One of many modes of cooking in ancient Rome was the focus, a hearth that was placed in front of the lararium, the household altar which contained small sculptures of the household deity (the lares, or guardian ancestor-spirits, and the penates, who were believed to protect the floor, the larder).[34] In homes where the lararium was built into the wall, the focus was sometimes built of raised brick into four sides, constructed against a baseboard on which a fire was lit. More common was a focus that was rectangular and portable, consisting simply of a moveable hearth with stone or bronze feet.[35] After the development of separate kitchens, the focus began to be used only for religious offerings and for warmth, rather than for cooking.[35] Portable stoves and ovens were used by the Romans, and some had water pots and grills laid onto them. At Pompeii, most houses had separate kitchens, most fairly small, but a few large; the Villa of the Mysteries covers a nine-by-twelve meter area.[36] A number of kitchens at Pompeii had no roofs, resembling courtyards more than ordinary rooms; this allowed smoke to ventilate.[36] Kitchens that did have roofs must have been extremely smokey, since the only ventilation would come from high windows or holes in the ceiling; while the Romans built chimneys for their bakeries and smithies, they were unknown in private dwellings until about the 12th century A.D, well after the collapse of Roman civilization.[37][38] Many Roman kitchens had an oven (furnus or fornax), and some (such as the kitchen of the Villa of the Mysteries) had two.[39] A square or dome-shaped construction of brick or stone, these ovens had a flat floor, often of granite and sometimes lava, which were filled with dry twigs and then lit.[39] On the walls of kitchens were hooks and chains for hanging cooking equipment, including various pots and pans, knives, meat forks, sieves, graters, spits, tongs, cheese-slicers, nutcrackers, jugs for measuring, and pâté moulds.[39] Alcoholic drinks[edit] See also: Ancient Rome and wine Roman fresco with a banquet scene from the Casa dei Casti Amanti, Pompeii In Ancient Rome, wine was normally mixed with water immediately before drinking, since the fermentation was not controlled and the alcohol grade was high. Wine was sometimes adjusted and "improved" by its makers: instructions survive for making white wine from red and vice versa, as well as for rescuing wine that is turning to vinegar.[40] Those instructions as well as detailed descriptions of Roman viticulture date back to 160 BC in the first known text written in Latin prose.[41] Wine was also variously flavored. For example, there was passum, a strong and sweet raisin wine, for which the earliest known recipe is of Carthaginian origin; mulsum, a freshly made mixture of wine and honey (called a pyment today); and conditum, a mixture of wine, honey and spices made in advance and matured. One specific recipe, Conditum Paradoxum, is for a mixture of wine, honey, pepper, laurel, dates, mastic, and saffron, cooked and stored for later use. Another recipe called for the addition of seawater, pitch and rosin to the wine. A Greek traveler reported that the beverage was apparently an acquired taste.[40] Sour wine mixed with water and herbs (posca) was a popular drink for the lower classes and a staple part of the Roman soldier's ration.[42] Beer (cerevisia) was known but considered vulgar, and was associated with barbarians.[43][44] Desserts[edit] While lacking necessary ingredients commonly used in the modern era for sweets such as refined sugar or properly churned butter, ancient Rome had an abundance of desserts to serve after they had completed their meals served with wine.[40] The most renowned were large platters of various fruits picked fresh; some of the more exotic fruits that were not able to grow in Rome were even shipped in from distant continents for the wealthy. Due to the lack of a sweetener such as sugar there was always a desire for the sweetest fruits that were available. Sprias were a type of sweet pastry that were readily available during this time that were always spent with a thin cake-like crust while sometimes containing fruit in them. Enkythoi is another common type of Roman pastry that was softer and like a modern sponge cake. See also[edit] Food portal History portal Ancient Greek cuisine Byzantine cuisine, Eastern Roman Empire Italian cuisine List of ancient dishes Spice use in Antiquity Notes[edit] ^ Jacques André listed 54 cultivated and 43 wild vegetables in ancient Rome.[10] References[edit] ^ Wilkins, John. A Companion to Food in the Ancient World. Wiley Blackwell. pp. 105–109. ^ a b c Artman, John:"Ancient Rome- Independent Learning Unit", page 26, Good Apple, 1991. ^ a b Artman, John::"Ancient Rome- Independent Learning Unit", page 26, Good Apple,1991. ^ Guy, John:"Roman Life", page 8, Ticktock Publishing LTD,1998. ^ Greg Woolf (2007). Ancient civilizations: the illustrated guide to belief, mythology, and art. Barnes & Noble. p. 388. ISBN 978-1-4351-0121-0. ^ Giacosa, Ilaria Gozzini (1992). A taste of Ancient Rome. chicago: University of Chicago. ^ a b Garnsey, Peter (1998). Scheidel, Walter (ed.). Cities, Peasants and Food in Classical Antiquity: Essays in Social and Economic History. Cambridge University Press. pp. 237–238. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511585395. ISBN 9780521591478. ^ Feldman, Charles (2005-03-01). "Roman Taste". Food, Culture & Society. 8 (1): 7–30. doi:10.2752/155280105778055407. ISSN 1552-8014. S2CID 218839911. ^ Berry, Joanne (17 February 2011). "Bakery". Pompeii Art and Architecture Gallery. BBC. Retrieved 23 September 2016. ^ André, Jacques. L'alimentation et la cuisine à Rome. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1981. ^ Phyllis Pray Bober, Art, Culture, and Cuisine: Ancient and Medieval Gastronomy, University of Chicago Press (2001), pp. 187–188. ^ Phyllis Pray Bober, Art, Culture, and Cuisine: Ancient and Medieval Gastronomy, University of Chicago Press (2001), p. 188. ^ a b Patrick Faas, Around the Roman Table: Food and Feasting in Ancient Rome, University of Chicago Press (2005), p. 209. ^ a b c Patrick Faas, Around the Roman Table: Food and Feasting in Ancient Rome, University of Chicago Press (2005), pp. 209, 210–239, 362–371 ^ a b c Phyllis Pray Bober, Art, Culture, and Cuisine: Ancient and Medieval Gastronomy, University of Chicago Press (2001), p. 187. ^ Julia F. Morton, Lemon in Fruits of Warm Climates, 1987 pp. 160–168|url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/lemon.html#Description%7Cpublisher=Purdue University} ^ a b c Maguelonne Toussaint-Samat, A History of Food, John Wiley & Sons (2009), p. 93. ^ a b c d e f g h John E. Stambaugh, The Ancient Roman City, JHU Press (1988), p. 148. ^ Ilaria Gozzini Giacosa, A Taste of Rome, 1992, pp. 91–92, ISBN 0-226-29032-8 ^ John E. Stambaugh, The Ancient Roman City, JHU Press (1988), p. 148; George A. Feldhamer, Mammalogy: Adaptation, Diversity, Ecology, JHU Press (2007), p. 359. ^ Maurice Burton & Robert Burton, International Wildlife Encyclopedia (2002), p. 701. ^ Patrick Faas, Around the Roman Table: Food and Feasting in Ancient Rome, University of Chicago Press (2005), p. 289-90. ^ Wilhelmina F. Jashernski, Frederick G. Meyer, & Massumino Ricciardi, Plants: Evidence from Wall Paintings, Mosaics, Sculpture, Plant Remains, Graffiti, Inscriptions, and Ancient Authors, in The Natural History of Pompeii (Wilhelmina Feemster Jashemski & Frederick G. Meyer, eds), Cambridge University Press, (2002), p. 102. ^ J.F. Hancock & G.A. Lobos, Pears, in The Future of Drylands: International Scientific Conference on Desertification and Drylands Research, Tunis, Tunisia (2006), Springer (2008), p. 304. ^ Patrick Faas, Around the Roman Table: Food and Feasting in Ancient Rome, University of Chicago Press (2005), p. 233. ^ Wikipedia entry for chickpea ^ Patrick Faas, Around the Roman Table: Food and Feasting in Ancient Rome, University of Chicago Press (2005), p. 27. ^ a b P.F. Fox and P.L.H. McSweeney, Cheese: An Overview, in Cheese: Chemistry, Physics, and Microbiology Vol. 1 (3d ed.), p. 2-3. ^ P.F. Fox and P.L.H. McSweeney, Cheese: An Overview, in Cheese: Chemistry, Physics, and Microbiology Vol. 1 (3d ed.), p. 2-3 ^ Way, A. (1843). Promptorium parvulorum sive clericorum, lexicon Anglo-Latinum princeps, recens. A. Way. Camden Society. p. 268. Retrieved May 18, 2016. ^ a b c d e Harlan Walker, Fish: Food from the Waters, Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery, 105-06 (1998). ^ Harlan Walker, Fish: Food from the Waters, Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery, 106 (1998). ^ J. Carson Webster, The Labors of the Months in Antique and Mediaeval Art to the End of the Twelfth Century, Studies in the Humanities 4 (Northwestern University Press, 1938), p. 128. In the collections of the Hermitage Museum. ^ Faas, p. 50-52. ^ a b Faas, p. 52. ^ a b Faas, p. 130. ^ Faas, p. 140. ^ James Burke, Connections (Little, Brown and Co.) 1978/1995, ISBN 0-316-11672-6, p. 159 ^ a b c Faas, p. 132. ^ a b c Erdoes, Richard (1981), 1000 Remarkable Facts about Booze, New York: The Rutledge Press, p. 88, ISBN 978-0831709587 ^ Stilo, Aelius. "Wine and Rome". University of Chicago. Retrieved 11 December 2014. ^ Dalby, Andrew (2003). Posca. Food in the Ancient World from A to Z. Routledge. p. 270. ISBN 978-0-415-23259-3. ^ Stambaugh, John E. (1988), The Ancient Roman City, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, p. 149, ISBN 978-0801835742 ^ Bonfante, Larissa (2011), The Barbarians of Ancient Europe: Realities and Interactions, New York: Cambridge University Press, p. 23, ISBN 9780521194044 Further reading[edit] Gold, Barbara K.; Donahue, John F. (2005). Roman Dining: A Special Issue of American Journal of Philology. JHU Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-8202-9. Faas, Patrick; Whiteside, Shaun (2005). Around the Roman Table: Food and Feasting in Ancient Rome. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-23347-5. Dalby, Andrew (2003). Food in the ancient world from A to Z. London, New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-23259-3. Dalby, Andrew (2000). Empire of Pleasures. London, New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-18624-7. Grocock, Christopher; Grainger, Sally (2006). Apicius. A critical edition with an introduction and an English translation. Totnes: Prospect Books. ISBN 978-1-903018-13-2. [includes Vinidarius] Ricotti, Eugenia Salza Prina (1995). Dining as a Roman emperor: how to cook ancient Roman recipes today. Rome: L'Erma di Bretschneider. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Food in ancient Rome. 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en-wikipedia-org-6273	----	View source for Horace - Wikipedia View source for Horace ← Horace Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ==Translations== * [[John Dryden]] successfully adapted three of the ''Odes'' (and one Epode) into verse for readers of his own age. [[Samuel Johnson]] favored the versions of [[Philip Francis (translator)|Philip Francis]]. Others favor unrhymed translations. * In 1964 James Michie published a translation of the ''Odes''—many of them fully rhymed—including a dozen of the poems in the original [[Sapphic stanza|Sapphic]] and [[Alcaic]] metres. * More recent verse translations of the Odes include those by David West (free verse), and Colin Sydenham (rhymed). * ''[[Ars Poetica (Horace)|Ars Poetica]]'' was first translated into English by [[Ben Jonson]] and later by Lord Byron. * ''Horace's Odes and the Mystery of Do-Re-Mi'' Stuart Lyons (rhymed) Aris & Phillips {{ISBN|978-0-85668-790-7}} Return to Horace. 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en-wikipedia-org-6278	----	Stoicism - Wikipedia Stoicism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Stoics) Jump to navigation Jump to search School of Hellenistic Greek philosophy Zeno of Citium, the founder of Stoicism, in the Farnese collection, Naples – Photo by Paolo Monti, 1969. Part of a series on Stoicism Epictetus, Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius Background Socrates Plato Aristotle Crates of Thebes Philosophy Apatheia Ekpyrosis Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Stoic logic Stoic categories Stoic passions Stoic physics Virtue ethics Stoics Zeno of Citium Cleanthes Chrysippus Panaetius Posidonius Seneca the Younger Publius Clodius Thrasea Paetus Epictetus Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Stoic works Discourses of Epictetus Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium The Meditations Similar positions Cynicism Aristotelianism Middle Platonism Contrary positions Pyrrhonism Academic Skepticism Epicureanism  Philosophy portal v t e Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy founded by Zeno of Citium in Athens in the early 3rd century BC. It is a philosophy of personal ethics informed by its system of logic and its views on the natural world. According to its teachings, as social beings, the path to eudaimonia (happiness, or blessedness) is found in accepting the moment as it presents itself, by not allowing oneself to be controlled by the desire for pleasure or by the fear of pain, by using one's mind to understand the world and to do one's part in nature's plan, and by working together and treating others fairly and justly. The Stoics are especially known for teaching that "virtue is the only good" for human beings, and those external things—such as health, wealth, and pleasure—are not good or bad in themselves (adiaphora), but have value as "material for virtue to act upon." Alongside Aristotelian ethics, the Stoic tradition forms one of the major founding approaches to virtue ethics.[1] The Stoics also held that certain destructive emotions resulted from errors of judgment, and they believed people should aim to maintain a will (called prohairesis) that is "in accordance with nature." Because of this, the Stoics thought the best indication of an individual's philosophy was not what a person said but how a person behaved.[2] To live a good life, one had to understand the rules of the natural order since they thought everything was rooted in nature. Many Stoics—such as Seneca and Epictetus—emphasized that because "virtue is sufficient for happiness," a sage would be emotionally resilient to misfortune. This belief is similar to the meaning of the phrase "stoic calm," though the phrase does not include the "radical ethical" Stoic views that only a sage can be considered truly free and that all moral corruptions are equally vicious.[3] Stoicism flourished throughout the Roman and Greek world until the 3rd century AD, and among its adherents was Emperor Marcus Aurelius. It experienced a decline after Christianity became the state religion in the 4th century AD. Since then it has seen revivals, notably in the Renaissance (Neostoicism) and in the contemporary era (modern Stoicism).[4] Contents 1 Name 1.1 Origins 1.2 Modern usage 2 Basic tenets 3 History 4 Logic 4.1 Propositional logic 4.2 Categories 4.3 Epistemology 5 Physics 6 Ethics 6.1 The doctrine of "things indifferent" 6.2 Spiritual exercise 7 Social philosophy 8 Influence on Christianity 9 Stoic philosophers 10 See also 11 References 12 Further reading 12.1 Primary sources 12.2 Studies 13 External links Name[edit] Origins[edit] Stoicism was originally known as "Zenonism", after the founder Zeno of Citium. However, this name was soon dropped, likely because the Stoics did not consider their founders to be perfectly wise, and to avoid the risk of the philosophy becoming a cult of personality.[5] The name "Stoicism" derives from the Stoa Poikile (Ancient Greek: ἡ ποικίλη στοά), or "painted porch", a colonnade decorated with mythic and historical battle scenes, on the north side of the Agora in Athens, where Zeno and his followers gathered to discuss their ideas.[6][7] Sometimes Stoicism is therefore referred to as "The Stoa", or the philosophy of "The Porch".[5] Modern usage[edit] The word "stoic" commonly refers to someone who is indifferent to pain, pleasure, grief, or joy.[8] The modern usage as a "person who represses feelings or endures patiently" was first cited in 1579 as a noun and in 1596 as an adjective.[9] In contrast to the term "Epicurean", the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy's entry on Stoicism notes, "the sense of the English adjective 'stoical' is not utterly misleading with regard to its philosophical origins."[10] Basic tenets[edit] Philosophy does not promise to secure anything external for man, otherwise it would be admitting something that lies beyond its proper subject-matter. For as the material of the carpenter is wood, and that of statuary bronze, so the subject-matter of the art of living is each person's own life. — Epictetus, Discourses 1.15.2, Robin Hard revised translation The Stoics provided a unified account of the world, constructed from ideals of logic, monistic physics and naturalistic ethics. Of these, they emphasized ethics as the main focus of human knowledge, though their logical theories were of more interest for later philosophers. Stoicism teaches the development of self-control and fortitude as a means of overcoming destructive emotions; the philosophy holds that becoming a clear and unbiased thinker allows one to understand the universal reason (logos). Stoicism's primary aspect involves improving the individual's ethical and moral well-being: "Virtue consists in a will that is in agreement with Nature."[11] This principle also applies to the realm of interpersonal relationships; "to be free from anger, envy, and jealousy,"[12] and to accept even slaves as "equals of other men, because all men alike are products of nature".[13] The Stoic ethic espouses a deterministic perspective; in regard to those who lack Stoic virtue, Cleanthes once opined that the wicked man is "like a dog tied to a cart, and compelled to go wherever it goes".[11] A Stoic of virtue, by contrast, would amend his will to suit the world and remain, in the words of Epictetus, "sick and yet happy, in peril and yet happy, dying and yet happy, in exile and happy, in disgrace and happy,"[12] thus positing a "completely autonomous" individual will, and at the same time a universe that is "a rigidly deterministic single whole". This viewpoint was later described as "Classical Pantheism" (and was adopted by Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza).[14] History[edit] Antisthenes, founder of the Cynic school of philosophy Beginning around 301 BC, Zeno taught philosophy at the Stoa Poikile ("Painted Porch"), from which his philosophy got its name.[15] Unlike the other schools of philosophy, such as the Epicureans, Zeno chose to teach his philosophy in a public space, which was a colonnade overlooking the central gathering place of Athens, the Agora. Zeno's ideas developed from those of the Cynics, whose founding father, Antisthenes, had been a disciple of Socrates. Zeno's most influential follower was Chrysippus, who was responsible for molding what is now called Stoicism. Later Roman Stoics focused on promoting a life in harmony within the universe, over which one has no direct control. Bust of Seneca Scholars usually divide the history of Stoicism into three phases: Early Stoa, from Zeno's founding to Antipater. Middle Stoa, including Panaetius and Posidonius. Late Stoa, including Musonius Rufus, Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius. No complete works survive from the first two phases of Stoicism. Only Roman texts from the Late Stoa survive.[16] Stoicism became the foremost popular philosophy among the educated elite in the Hellenistic world and the Roman Empire,[17] to the point where, in the words of Gilbert Murray "nearly all the successors of Alexander [...] professed themselves Stoics."[18] Logic[edit] Main article: Stoic logic Propositional logic[edit] Diodorus Cronus, who was one of Zeno's teachers, is considered the philosopher who first introduced and developed an approach to logic now known as propositional logic, which is based on statements or propositions, rather than terms, making it very different from Aristotle's term logic. Later, Chrysippus developed a system that became known as Stoic logic and included a deductive system, Stoic Syllogistic, which was considered a rival to Aristotle's Syllogistic (see Syllogism). New interest in Stoic logic came in the 20th century, when important developments in logic were based on propositional logic. Susanne Bobzien wrote, "The many close similarities between Chrysippus's philosophical logic and that of Gottlob Frege are especially striking."[19] Bobzien also notes that "Chrysippus wrote over 300 books on logic, on virtually any topic logic today concerns itself with, including speech act theory, sentence analysis, singular and plural expressions, types of predicates, indexicals, existential propositions, sentential connectives, negations, disjunctions, conditionals, logical consequence, valid argument forms, theory of deduction, propositional logic, modal logic, tense logic, epistemic logic, logic of suppositions, logic of imperatives, ambiguity and logical paradoxes."[19] Categories[edit] Main article: Stoic categories The Stoics held that all beings (ὄντα)—though not all things (τινά)—are material.[20] Besides the existing beings they admitted four incorporeals (asomata): time, place, void, and sayable.[21] They were held to be just 'subsisting' while such a status was denied to universals.[22] Thus, they accepted Anaxagoras's idea (as did Aristotle) that if an object is hot, it is because some part of a universal heat body had entered the object. But, unlike Aristotle, they extended the idea to cover all accidents. Thus if an object is red, it would be because some part of a universal red body had entered the object. They held that there were four categories. substance (ὑποκείμενον) The primary matter, formless substance, (ousia) that things are made of quality (ποιόν) The way matter is organized to form an individual object; in Stoic physics, a physical ingredient (pneuma: air or breath), which informs the matter somehow disposed (πως ἔχον) Particular characteristics, not present within the object, such as size, shape, action, and posture Make for yourself a definition or description of the thing which is presented to you, so as to see distinctly what kind of a thing it is in its substance, in its nudity, in its complete entirety, and tell yourself its proper name, and the names of the things of which it has been compounded, and into which it will be resolved. For nothing is so productive of elevation of mind as to be able to examine methodically and truly every object that is presented to you in life, and always to look at things so as to see at the same time what kind of universe this is, and what kind of use everything performs in it, and what value everything has with reference to the whole. — Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, iii. 11 Somehow disposed in relation to something (πρός τί πως ἔχον) Characteristics related to other phenomena, such as the position of an object within time and space relative to other objects Stoics outlined what we have control over categories of our own action, thoughts and reaction. The opening paragraph of The Enchiridion states the categories as: "Things in our control are opinion, pursuit, desire, aversion, and, in a word, whatever are our own actions. Things not in our control are body, property, reputation, command, and, in a word, whatever are not our own actions." These suggest a space that is within our own control. Epistemology[edit] The Stoics propounded that knowledge can be attained through the use of reason. Truth can be distinguished from fallacy—even if, in practice, only an approximation can be made. According to the Stoics, the senses constantly receive sensations: pulsations that pass from objects through the senses to the mind, where they leave an impression in the imagination (phantasiai) (an impression arising from the mind was called a phantasma).[23] The mind has the ability to judge (συγκατάθεσις, synkatathesis)—approve or reject—an impression, enabling it to distinguish a true representation of reality from one that is false. Some impressions can be assented to immediately, but others can achieve only varying degrees of hesitant approval, which can be labeled belief or opinion (doxa). It is only through reason that we gain clear comprehension and conviction (katalepsis). Certain and true knowledge (episteme), achievable by the Stoic sage, can be attained only by verifying the conviction with the expertise of one's peers and the collective judgment of humankind. Physics[edit] Main article: Stoic physics See also: De Mundo According to the Stoics, the Universe is a material reasoning substance (logos),[24] known as God or Nature, which was divided into two classes: the active and the passive. The passive substance is matter, which "lies sluggish, a substance ready for any use, but sure to remain unemployed if no one sets it in motion".[25] The active substance, which can be called Fate or Universal Reason (logos),[24] is an intelligent aether or primordial fire, which acts on the passive matter: The universe itself is God and the universal outpouring of its soul; it is this same world's guiding principle, operating in mind and reason, together with the common nature of things and the totality that embraces all existence; then the foreordained might and necessity of the future; then fire and the principle of aether; then those elements whose natural state is one of flux and transition, such as water, earth, and air; then the sun, the moon, the stars; and the universal existence in which all things are contained. — Chrysippus, in Cicero, De Natura Deorum, i. 39 Everything is subject to the laws of Fate, for the Universe acts according to its own nature, and the nature of the passive matter it governs. The souls of humans and animals are emanations from this primordial Fire, and are, likewise, subject to Fate: Constantly regard the universe as one living being, having one substance and one soul; and observe how all things have reference to one perception, the perception of this one living being; and how all things act with one movement; and how all things are the cooperating causes of all things that exist; observe too the continuous spinning of the thread and the structure of the web. — Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, iv. 40 Individual souls are perishable by nature, and can be "transmuted and diffused, assuming a fiery nature by being received into the seminal reason ("logos spermatikos") of the Universe".[26] Since right Reason is the foundation of both humanity and the universe, it follows that the goal of life is to live according to Reason, that is, to live a life according to Nature. Stoic theology is a fatalistic and naturalistic pantheism: God is never fully transcendent but always immanent, and identified with Nature. Abrahamic religions personalize God as a world-creating entity, but Stoicism equates God with the totality of the universe; according to Stoic cosmology, which is very similar to the Hindu conception of existence, there is no absolute start to time, as it is considered infinite and cyclic. Similarly, the space and Universe have neither start nor end, rather they are cyclical. The current Universe is a phase in the present cycle, preceded by an infinite number of Universes, doomed to be destroyed ("ekpyrōsis", conflagration) and re-created again,[27] and to be followed by another infinite number of Universes. Stoicism considers all existence as cyclical, the cosmos as eternally self-creating and self-destroying (see also Eternal return). Stoicism, just like Indian religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, does not posit a beginning or end to the Universe.[28] According to the Stoics, the logos was the active reason[24] or anima mundi pervading and animating the entire Universe. It was conceived as material and is usually identified with God or Nature. The Stoics also referred to the seminal reason ("logos spermatikos"), or the law of generation in the Universe, which was the principle of the active reason working in inanimate matter. Humans, too, each possess a portion of the divine logos, which is the primordial Fire and reason that controls and sustains the Universe.[29] The first philosophers to explicitly describe nominalist arguments were the Stoics, especially Chrysippus.[30][31] Ethics[edit] Ancient stoics are often misunderstood because the terms they used pertained to different concepts than today. The word "stoic" has since come to mean "unemotional" or indifferent to pain because Stoic ethics taught freedom from "passion" by following "reason." The Stoics did not seek to extinguish emotions; rather, they sought to transform them by a resolute "askēsis", that enables a person to develop clear judgment and inner calm.[32] Logic, reflection, and focus were the methods of such self-discipline, temperance is split into self-control, discipline, and modesty. Borrowing from the Cynics, the foundation of Stoic ethics is that good lies in the state of the soul itself; in wisdom and self-control. Stoic ethics stressed the rule: "Follow where reason leads."[citation needed] One must therefore strive to be free of the passions, bearing in mind that the ancient meaning of "passion" was "anguish" or "suffering",[33] that is, "passively" reacting to external events, which is somewhat different from the modern use of the word. A distinction was made between pathos (plural pathe) which is normally translated as passion, propathos or instinctive reaction (e.g., turning pale and trembling when confronted by physical danger) and eupathos, which is the mark of the Stoic sage (sophos). The eupatheia are feelings that result from the correct judgment in the same way that passions result from incorrect judgment. The idea was to be free of suffering through apatheia (Greek: ἀπάθεια; literally, "without passion") or peace of mind,[34] where peace of mind was understood in the ancient sense—being objective or having "clear judgment" and the maintenance of equanimity in the face of life's highs and lows. For the Stoics, reason meant using logic and understanding the processes of nature—the logos or universal reason, inherent in all things. According to reason and virtue, living according to reason and virtue is to live in harmony with the divine order of the universe, in recognition of the common reason and essential value of all people. The four cardinal virtues (aretai) of Stoic philosophy is a classification derived from the teachings of Plato (Republic IV. 426–435): Wisdom (Greek: φρόνησις "phronesis" or σοφία "sophia", Latin: prudentia or sapientia) Courage (Greek: ανδρεία "andreia", Latin: fortitudo) Justice (Greek: δικαιοσύνη "dikaiosyne", Latin: iustitia) Temperance (Greek: σωφροσύνη "sophrosyne", Latin: temperantia) Following Socrates, the Stoics held that unhappiness and evil are the results of human ignorance of the reason in nature. If someone is unkind, it is because they are unaware of their own universal reason, which leads to the conclusion of unkindness. The solution to evil and unhappiness then is the practice of Stoic philosophy: to examine one's own judgments and behavior and determine where they diverge from the universal reason of nature. The Stoics accepted that suicide was permissible for the wise person in circumstances that might prevent them from living a virtuous life.[35] Plutarch held that accepting life under tyranny would have compromised Cato's self-consistency (constantia) as a Stoic and impaired his freedom to make the honorable moral choices.[36] Suicide could be justified if one fell victim to severe pain or disease,[35] but otherwise suicide would usually be seen as a rejection of one's social duty.[37] In an article for ABC News, Mick Mulroy the former Deputy Secretary of Defense for the Middle East under Secretary Jim Mattis and also a retired U.S. Marine, advocated for using stoicism as the philosophy for the U.S. Military due to its views on controlling anger and fear as well as the stoic concept of universal brotherhood. [38] The doctrine of "things indifferent"[edit] Main article: Adiaphora See also: Eudaimonia In philosophical terms, things that are indifferent are outside the application of moral law—that is without tendency to either promote or obstruct moral ends. Actions neither required nor forbidden by the moral law, or that do not affect morality, are called morally indifferent. The doctrine of things indifferent (ἀδιάφορα, adiaphora) arose in the Stoic school as a corollary of its diametric opposition of virtue and vice (καθήκοντα kathekonta, "convenient actions", or actions in accordance with nature; and ἁμαρτήματα hamartemata, mistakes). As a result of this dichotomy, a large class of objects were left unassigned and thus regarded as indifferent. Eventually three sub-classes of "things indifferent" developed: things to prefer because they assist life according to nature; things to avoid because they hinder it; and things indifferent in the narrower sense. The principle of adiaphora was also common to the Cynics. Philipp Melanchthon revived the doctrine of things indifferent during the Renaissance. Spiritual exercise[edit] Marcus Aurelius, the Stoic Roman emperor Philosophy for a Stoic is not just a set of beliefs or ethical claims; it is a way of life involving constant practice and training (or "askēsis"). Stoic philosophical and spiritual practices included logic, Socratic dialogue and self-dialogue, contemplation of death, mortality salience, training attention to remain in the present moment (similar to mindfulness and some forms of Buddhist meditation), and daily reflection on everyday problems and possible solutions e.g. with journaling. Philosophy for a Stoic is an active process of constant practice and self-reminder. In his Meditations, Marcus Aurelius defines several such practices. For example, in Book II.I: Say to yourself in the early morning: I shall meet today ungrateful, violent, treacherous, envious, uncharitable men. All of the ignorance of real good and ill...I can neither be harmed by any of them, for no man will involve me in wrong, nor can I be angry with my kinsman or hate him; for we have come into the world to work together... Prior to Aurelius, Epictetus in his Discourses, distinguished between three types of act: judgment, desire, and inclination.[39] According to French philosopher Pierre Hadot, Epictetus identifies these three acts with logic, physics and ethics respectively.[40] Hadot writes that in the Meditations, "Each maxim develops either one of these very characteristic topoi [i.e., acts], or two of them or three of them."[41] Seamus Mac Suibhne has described the practices of spiritual exercises as influencing those of reflective practice.[42] Many parallels between Stoic spiritual exercises and modern cognitive behavioral therapy have been identified.[43] Stoics were also known for consolatory orations, which were part of the consolatio literary tradition. Three such consolations by Seneca have survived. Stoics commonly employ ‘The View from Above’, reflecting on society and otherness in guided visualization, aiming to gain a "bigger picture", to see ourselves in context relevant to others, to see others in the context of the world, to see ourselves in the context of the world to help determine our role and the importance of happenings. Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, in Book 7.48 it is stated; A fine reflection from Plato. One who would converse about human beings should look on all things earthly as though from some point far above, upon herds, armies, and agriculture, marriages and divorces, births and deaths, the clamour of law courts, deserted wastes, alien peoples of every kind, festivals, lamentations, and markets, this intermixture of everything and ordered combination of opposites. Social philosophy[edit] A distinctive feature of Stoicism is its cosmopolitanism; according to the Stoics, all people are manifestations of the one universal spirit and should live in brotherly love and readily help one another. In the Discourses, Epictetus comments on man's relationship with the world: "Each human being is primarily a citizen of his own commonwealth; but he is also a member of the great city of gods and men, whereof the city political is only a copy."[44] This sentiment echoes that of Diogenes of Sinope, who said, "I am not an Athenian or a Corinthian, but a citizen of the world."[45] They held that external differences, such as rank and wealth, are of no importance in social relationships. Instead, they advocated the brotherhood of humanity and the natural equality of all human beings. Stoicism became the most influential school of the Greco-Roman world, and produced a number of remarkable writers and personalities, such as Cato the Younger and Epictetus. In particular, they were noted for their urging of clemency toward slaves. Seneca exhorted, "Kindly remember that he whom you call your slave sprang from the same stock, is smiled upon by the same skies, and on equal terms with yourself breathes, lives, and dies."[46] Influence on Christianity[edit] See also: Neostoicism Justus Lipsius, founder of Neostoicism In St. Ambrose of Milan's Duties, "The voice is the voice of a Christian bishop, but the precepts are those of Zeno."[47][48] Regarding what he called "the Divine Spirit", Stanisforth wrote: Cleanthes, wishing to give more explicit meaning to Zeno's 'creative fire', had been the first to hit upon the term pneuma, or 'spirit', to describe it. Like fire, this intelligent 'spirit' was imagined as a tenuous substance akin to a current of air or breath, but essentially possessing the quality of warmth; it was immanent in the universe as God, and in man as the soul and life-giving principle. Clearly, it is not a long step from this to the 'Holy Spirit' of Christian theology, the 'Lord and Giver of life', visibly manifested as tongues of fire at Pentecost and ever since associated—in the Christian as in the Stoic mind—with the ideas of vital fire and beneficient warmth.[49] Regarding the Trinity, Staniforth wrote: Again in the doctrine of the Trinity, the ecclesiastical conception of Father, Word, and Spirit finds its germ in the different Stoic names of the Divine Unity. Thus Seneca, writing of the supreme Power which shapes the universe, states, 'This Power we sometimes call the All-ruling God, sometimes the incorporeal Wisdom, sometimes the Holy Spirit, sometimes Destiny.' The Church had only to reject the last of these terms to arrive at its own acceptable definition of the Divine Nature; while the further assertion 'these three are One', which the modern mind finds paradoxical, was no more than commonplace to those familiar with Stoic notions.[49] The apostle Paul met with Stoics during his stay in Athens, reported in Acts 17:16–18. In his letters, Paul reflected heavily from his knowledge of Stoic philosophy, using Stoic terms and metaphors to assist his new Gentile converts in their understanding of Christianity.[50] Stoic influence can also be seen in the works of St. Ambrose, Marcus Minucius Felix, and Tertullian.[51] The Fathers of the Church regarded Stoicism as a "pagan philosophy";[52][53] nonetheless, early Christian writers employed some of the central philosophical concepts of Stoicism. Examples include the terms "logos", "virtue", "Spirit", and "conscience".[28] But the parallels go well beyond the sharing and borrowing of terminology. Both Stoicism and Christianity assert an inner freedom in the face of the external world, a belief in human kinship with Nature or God, a sense of the innate depravity—or "persistent evil"—of humankind,[28] and the futility and temporary nature of worldly possessions and attachments. Both encourage Ascesis with respect to the passions and inferior emotions, such as lust, and envy, so that the higher possibilities of one's humanity can be awakened and developed. Stoic writings such as Meditations by Marcus Aurelius have been highly regarded by many Christians throughout the centuries. The Eastern Orthodox Church and Oriental Orthodox Church accept the Stoic ideal of dispassion to this day. Middle and Roman Stoics taught that sex is just within marriage, for unitive and procreative purposes only.[54][55] This teaching is accepted by the Catholic Church to this day.[56] Saint Ambrose of Milan was known for applying Stoic philosophy to his theology. Stoic philosophers[edit] Main article: List of Stoic philosophers Zeno of Citium (332–262 BC), founder of Stoicism and the Stoic Academy (Stoa) in Athens Aristo of Chios (fl. 260 BC), pupil of Zeno; Herillus of Carthage (fl. 3rd century BC) Cleanthes (of Assos) (330–232 BC), second head of Stoic Academy Chrysippus (280–204 BC), third head of the academy Diogenes of Babylon (230–150 BC) Antipater of Tarsus (210–129 BC) Panaetius of Rhodes (185–109 BC) Posidonius of Apameia (c. 135 BC – 51 BC) Diodotus (c. 120 BC – 59 BC), teacher of Cicero Cato the Younger (94–46 BC) Seneca (4 BC – AD 65) Gaius Musonius Rufus (1st century AD) Rubellius Plautus (AD 33–62) Publius Clodius Thrasea Paetus (1st century AD) Lucius Annaeus Cornutus (1st century AD) Epictetus (AD 55–135) Hierocles (2nd century AD) Marcus Aurelius (AD 121–180) See also[edit] 4 Maccabees Ecclesiastes Dehellenization Deixis Glossary of Stoic terms Ekpyrosis, palingenesis, apocatastasis Ekpyrotic universe (cosmological theory) List of Stoic philosophers Megarian school Oikeiôsis Paradoxa Stoicorum Plank of Carneades Pneuma Sage (philosophy) Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta "Stoic Opposition" References[edit] ^ Sharpe, Matthew. "Stoic Virtue Ethics." Handbook of Virtue Ethics, 2013, 28–41. ^ John Sellars. Stoicism, 2006, p. 32. ^ Stoicism, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ Becker, Lawrence C. (2001). A New Stoicism. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 9781400822447. ^ a b Robertson, Donald (2018). Stoicism and the Art of Happiness. Great Britain: John Murray. ^ "Definition of STOIC". ^ Williamson, D. (1 April 2015). Kant's Theory of Emotion: Emotional Universalism. Palgrave Macmillan US. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-137-49810-6. ^ "Modern Stoicism | Build The Fire". Build The Fire. 9 February 2016. Retrieved 22 June 2016. ^ Harper, Douglas (November 2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary – Stoic". Retrieved 2 September 2006. ^ Baltzly, Dirk (13 December 2004). "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy – Stoicism". Retrieved 2 September 2006. ^ a b Russell, Bertrand. A History of Western Philosophy, p. 254 ^ a b Russell, Bertrand. A History of Western Philosophy, p. 264 ^ Russell, Bertrand. A History of Western Philosophy, p. 253. ^ Charles Hartshorne and William Reese, "Philosophers Speak of God," Humanity Books, 1953 ch 4 ^ Becker, Lawrence (2003). A History of Western Ethics. New York: Routledge. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-415-96825-6. ^ A.A.Long, Hellenistic Philosophy, p. 115. ^ Amos, H. (1982). These Were the Greeks. Chester Springs: Dufour Editions. ISBN 978-0-8023-1275-4. OCLC 9048254. ^ Gilbert Murray, The Stoic Philosophy (1915), p. 25. In Bertrand Russell, A History of Western Philosophy (1946). ^ a b Ancient Logic by Susanne Bobzien. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ Jacques Brunschwig, Stoic Metaphysics in The Cambridge Companion to Stoics, ed. B. Inwood, Cambridge, 2006, p.206-32 ^ Sextus Empiricus, Adversus Mathematicos 10.218. (chronos, topos, kenon, lekton) ^ Marcelo D. Boeri, The Stoics on Bodies and Incorporeals, The Review of Metaphysics, Vol. 54, No. 4 (Jun., 2001), pp. 723-752 ^ Diogenes Laërtius (2000). Lives of eminent philosophers. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. VII.49 ^ a b c Brenk, Frederick (January 2016). "Pagan Monotheism and Pagan Cult". “Theism” and Related Categories in the Study of Ancient Religions. SCS/AIA Annual Meeting. 75.4. Philadelphia: Society for Classical Studies (University of Pennsylvania). Archived from the original on 6 May 2017. Retrieved 14 October 2020. Historical authors generally refer to “the divine” (to theion) or “the supernatural” (to daimonion) rather than simply “God.” [...] The Stoics, believed in a God identifiable with the logos or hegemonikon (reason or leading principle) of the universe and downgraded the traditional gods, who even disappear during the conflagration (ekpyrosis). Yet, the Stoics apparently did not practice a cult to this God. Middle and Later Platonists, who spoke of a supreme God, in philosophical discourse, generally speak of this God, not the gods, as responsible for the creation and providence of the universe. They, too, however, do not seem to have directly practiced a religious cult to their God. ^ Seneca, Epistles, lxv. 2. ^ Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, iv. 21. ^ Michael Lapidge, Stoic Cosmology, in: John M. Rist, The Stoics, Cambridge University Press, 1978, pp. 182–183. ^ a b c Ferguson, Everett. Backgrounds of Early Christianity. 2003, p. 368. ^ Tripolitis, A., Religions of the Hellenistic-Roman Age, pp. 37–38. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ^ John Sellars, Stoicism, Routledge, 2014, pp. 84–85: "[Stoics] have often been presented as the first nominalists, rejecting the existence of universal concepts altogether. ... For Chrysippus there are no universal entities, whether they be conceived as substantial Platonic Forms or in some other manner.". ^ Chrysippus – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy ^ Graver, Margaret (2009). Stoicism and Emotion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-30558-5. OCLC 430497127. ^ "Passion". Merriam-Webster. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 29 January 2011. ^ Seddon, Keith (2005). Epictetus' Handbook and the Tablet of Cebes. New York: Routledge. p. 217. ISBN 978-0-415-32451-9. OCLC 469313282. ^ a b Don E. Marietta, (1998), Introduction to ancient philosophy, pp. 153–54. Sharpe ^ Zadorojnyi, Alexei V. (2007). "Cato's suicide in Plutarch AV Zadorojnyi". The Classical Quarterly. 57 (1): 216–230. doi:10.1017/S0009838807000195. ^ William Braxton Irvine, (2009), A guide to the good life: the ancient art of Stoic joy, p. 200. Oxford University Press ^ http://abcnewsradioonline.com/world-news/where-philosophy-intersects-with-war-training-stoic-soldiers.html ^ Davidson, A.I. (1995) Pierre Hadot and the Spiritual Phenomenon of Ancient Philosophy, in Philosophy as a Way of Life, Hadot, P. Oxford Blackwells, pp. 9–10 ^ Hadot, P. (1992) La Citadelle intérieure. Introduction aux Pensées de Marc Aurèle. Paris, Fayard, pp. 106–15 ^ Hadot, P. (1987) Exercices spirituels et philosophie antique. Paris, 2nd ed., p. 135. ^ Mac Suibhne, S. (2009). "'Wrestle to be the man philosophy wished to make you': Marcus Aurelius, reflective practitioner". Reflective Practice. 10 (4): 429–36. doi:10.1080/14623940903138266. S2CID 219711815. ^ Robertson, D (2010). The Philosophy of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy: Stoicism as Rational and Cognitive Psychotherapy. London: Karnac. ISBN 978-1-85575-756-1. ^ Epictetus, Discourses, ii. 5. 26 ^ Epictetus, Discourses, i. 9. 1 ^ Seneca, Moral letters to Lucilius, Letter 47: On master and slave, 10, circa AD 65. ^ "On the Duties of the Clergy". www.newadvent.org. Retrieved 1 March 2017. ^ Aurelius, Marcus (1964). Meditations. London: Penguin Books. p. 26. ISBN 978-0-140-44140-6. ^ a b Marcus Aurelius (1964). Meditations. London: Penguin Books. p. 25. ISBN 978-0-140-44140-6. ^ Kee, Howard and Franklin W. Young, Understanding The New Testament, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice Hall, Inc. 1958, p. 208. ISBN 978-0139365911 ^ Encyclopædia Britannica. Stoicism. §Stoic elements in Pauline and patristic thought ^ Agathias. Histories, 2.31. ^ David, Sedley. "Ancient philosophy". In E. Craig (ed.). Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 18 October 2008. ^ Musonius Rufus. "Lecture XII "On Sexual Indulgence"." Musonius Rufus: The Roman Socrates (Lectures and Fragments), Introduction and Translation by Cora E. Lutz, From Volume X of the Yale Classical Studies, Yale University Press, 1947 ^ The Making of Fornication: Eros, Ethics, and Political Reform in Greek Philosophy and Early Christianity. From University of California Press, 2003 ^ "CCC, 2366". Vatican.va. Further reading[edit] Primary sources[edit] A. A. Long and D. N. Sedley, The Hellenistic Philosophers Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. Inwood, Brad & Gerson Lloyd P. (eds.) The Stoics Reader: Selected Writings and Testimonia Indianapolis: Hackett 2008. Long, George Enchiridion by Epictetus, Prometheus Books, Reprint Edition, January 1955. Gill C. Epictetus, The Discourses, Everyman 1995. Irvine, William, A Guide to the Good Life: The Ancient Art of Stoic Joy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008) ISBN 978-0-19-537461-2 Hadas, Moses (ed.), Essential Works of Stoicism, Bantam Books 1961. Harvard University Press Epictetus Discourses Books 1 and 2, Loeb Classical Library Nr. 131, June 1925. Harvard University Press Epictetus Discourses Books 3 and 4, Loeb Classical Library Nr. 218, June 1928. Long, George, Discourses of Epictetus, Kessinger Publishing, January 2004. Lucius Annaeus Seneca the Younger (transl. Robin Campbell), Letters from a Stoic: Epistulae Morales Ad Lucilium (1969, reprint 2004) ISBN 0-14-044210-3 Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, translated by Maxwell Staniforth; ISBN 0-14-044140-9, or translated by Gregory Hays; ISBN 0-679-64260-9. Oates, Whitney Jennings, The Stoic and Epicurean Philosophers, The Complete Extant Writings of Epicurus, Epictetus, Lucretius and Marcus Aurelius, Random House, 9th printing 1940. Studies[edit] Bakalis, Nikolaos, Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics. Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing, May 2005, ISBN 1-4120-4843-5 Becker, Lawrence C., A New Stoicism (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1998) ISBN 0-691-01660-7 Brennan, Tad, The Stoic Life (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005; paperback 2006) Brooke, Christopher. Philosophic Pride: Stoicism and Political Thought from Lipsius to Rousseau (Princeton UP, 2012) excerpts Inwood, Brad (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to The Stoics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003) Lachs, John, Stoic Pragmatism (Indiana University Press, 2012) ISBN 0-253-22376-8 Long, A. A., Stoic Studies (Cambridge University Press, 1996; repr. University of California Press, 2001) ISBN 0-520-22974-6 Robertson, Donald, The Philosophy of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy: Stoicism as Rational and Cognitive Psychotherapy (London: Karnac, 2010) ISBN 978-1-85575-756-1 Robertson, Donald, How to Think Like a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius. 'New York: St. Martin's Press, 2019. Sellars, John, Stoicism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006) ISBN 1-84465-053-7 Stephens, William O., Stoic Ethics: Epictetus and Happiness as Freedom (London: Continuum, 2007) ISBN 0-8264-9608-3 Strange, Steven (ed.), Stoicism: Traditions and Transformations (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2004) ISBN 0-521-82709-4 Zeller, Eduard; Reichel, Oswald J., The Stoics, Epicureans and Sceptics, Longmans, Green, and Co., 1892 External links[edit] Library resources about Stoicism Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Wikiquote has quotations related to: Stoicism Listen to this article (19.9 megabytes) This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 30 September 2019 (2019-09-30), and does not reflect subsequent edits. (Audio help · More spoken articles) Baltzly, Dirk. "Stoicism". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. "Stoicism". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. "Stoic Ethics". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. "Stoic Philosophy of Mind". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Hicks, Robert Drew (1911). "Stoics" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). The Stoic Library The Stoic Library Stoic Logic: The Dialectic from Zeno to Chrysippus Annotated Bibliography on Ancient Stoic Dialectic "A bibliography on Stoicism by the Stoic Foundation". Archived from the original on 23 September 2012. Retrieved 14 September 2012. 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en-wikipedia-org-6291	----	File:Quinto Orazio Flacco.jpg - Wikipedia File:Quinto Orazio Flacco.jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage No higher resolution available. Quinto_Orazio_Flacco.jpg ‎(454 × 600 pixels, file size: 43 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Summary Giacomo Di Chirico: Quinto Orazio Flacco Artist Giacomo Di Chirico  (1844–1883)   Alternative names Giacomo di Chirico; Giacomo DiChirico; Giacomo Dichirico; Cherico; Chirico; de chirico; di Chirico Description Italian painter Date of birth/death 27 January 1844  26 December 1883  Location of birth/death Venosa Naples Work location Italy  Authority control : Q1396092 VIAF: 877475 ISNI: 0000 0001 1558 0448 ULAN: 500053408 LCCN: no2009011243 Open Library: OL6577484A WorldCat artist QS:P170,Q1396092 Title Quinto Orazio Flacco Date 1871date QS:P571,+1871-00-00T00:00:00Z/9 Medium painting Source/Photographer http://www.giacomodichirico.com/cms/images/phocagallery/olio/thumbs/phoca_thumb_l_dip_negtv_30_quinto%20orazio%20flacco%2090x120.jpg Licensing This is a faithful photographic reproduction of a two-dimensional, public domain work of art. 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Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensions User Comment current 11:26, 27 February 2011 454 × 600 (43 KB) Generale Lee {{Information |Description ={{it|1=Quinto Orazio Flacco, opera di Giacomo Di Chirico}} |Source =http://www.giacomodichirico.com/cms/index.php?option=com_phocagallery&view=category&id=2%3Aolio-su-tela&Itemid=55&lang=it&limitstart=20 |Author File usage The following pages on the English Wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Giacomo Di Chirico Horace Theory of Literature Global file usage The following other wikis use this file: Usage on ca.wikiquote.org Horaci Plantilla:27 de novembre Usage on diq.wikipedia.org Horatius Usage on en.wikiquote.org Horace Knowledge John Conington Wikiquote:Quote of the day/December 2016 Wikiquote:Quote of the day/December 8, 2016 Wikiquote:Quote of the day/December 2017 Wikiquote:Quote of the day/December 8, 2017 Wikiquote:Quote of the day/December 2018 Wikiquote:Quote of the day/December 8, 2018 Usage on es.wikipedia.org Giacomo Di Chirico Usage on es.wikiquote.org Wikiquote:Archivo de la Frase célebre del día/noviembre/2011 Plantilla:1127/doc Plantilla:1127 Wikiquote:Archivo de la Frase célebre del día/noviembre/2012 Wikiquote:Archivo de la Frase célebre del día/noviembre/2010 Wikiquote:Archivo de la Frase célebre del día/noviembre/2019 Usage on eu.wikipedia.org Giacomo Di Chirico Usage on fi.wikipedia.org Pulvis et umbra sumus Usage on fr.wikipedia.org Giacomo Di Chirico Usage on hu.wikipedia.org Sablon:Évfordulók/’3 és ’8/11-27 Usage on ia.wikipedia.org Carmen Saeculare Usage on it.wikipedia.org Quinto Orazio Flacco Carmen saeculare Basilicata Giacomo Di Chirico Usage on ja.wikipedia.org ジャコモ・ディ・キリコ Usage on mr.wikipedia.org होरेस Usage on nl.wikipedia.org Gebruiker:JvdZwaag/Kladblok Giacomo Di Chirico Usage on no.wikipedia.org Horats Litteraturteori Giacomo Di Chirico Usage on roa-tara.wikipedia.org Quinde Orazio Flacco Usage on ru.wikipedia.org Кирико, Джакомо ди Usage on sl.wikipedia.org Horacij Usage on tr.wikiquote.org Horatius Usage on www.wikidata.org Q1246446 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Quinto_Orazio_Flacco.jpg" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces File Talk Variants Views Read View on Commons More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Upload file Special pages Printable version Page information Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6292	----	Status in Roman legal system - Wikipedia Status in Roman legal system From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Not to be confused with Social status in ancient Rome. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Status in Roman legal system" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) A fresco portrait of a man holding a papyrus roll, Pompeii, Italy, 1st century AD Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e In Roman law, status describes a person's legal status. The individual could be a Roman citizen (status civitatis), unlike foreigners; or he could be free (status libertatis), unlike slaves; or he could have a certain position in a Roman family (status familiae) either as head of the family (pater familias), or as a lower member (filii familias). Contents 1 Status civitatis 2 Status familiae 3 Status libertatis 3.1 Legal status 3.2 Means of becoming a slave 3.3 Termination of slave status 4 References 5 External links Status civitatis[edit] Main article: Roman citizenship In the Roman state, according to Roman civil law (ius civile), only Roman citizens had the full civil and political rights. In regard to status civitatis, in the Roman state, there were cives, Latini and peregrini, and foreigners. Outside the Roman state, there were externi, barbari and hostes. Status familiae[edit] Main article: Paterfamilias Status familiae is the legal status of an individual in the family. The pater familias had the authority in the family (patria potestas), and everyone was subjected to him based on adgnatio (kinship only from father's side). This had an impact in private law. There is a distinction between alieni iuris (persons under patria potestas) and sui iuris (persons autonomous of patria potestas, who could only be the pater familias himself). Filius familias had ius suffragii and ius honorum, but in the area of private law he was restricted because of patria potestas. Status libertatis[edit] Main article: Slavery in ancient Rome The social and legal status of slaves in the Roman state was different in different epochs. In the time of old civil law (ius civile Quiritium) slavery had a patriarchal shape (a slave did the same job and lived under the same conditions as his master and family). After Rome's victorious wars, from the 3rd century BC, huge numbers of slaves came to Rome, and that resulted in slave trade and increased exploitation of slaves. From that time on, a slave became only a thing (res)- servi pro nullis habentur. Legal status[edit] The legal state of slaves was based on the fact that the slave was not a subject but an object of law. A master had the right of ownership over the slave. He could sell him, give him in pawn but certainly could not harm or kill him. If someone injured his slave, a master could initiate legal proceedings and demand protection. The ownership over the slave was called dominica potestas, and not dominium like the ownership of objects and animals. In the Roman legal system, a slave did not have a family. His sexual relationships with other slaves was not marriage (matrimonium), but a cohabitation without legal consequences (contubernium). Masters could also give over a certain amount of property (such as land, buildings), known as peculium, to a slave for his management and use. This peculium was protected under Roman law and inaccessible by the owner. This was another tool slaves could use to purchase their freedom.[1] Means of becoming a slave[edit] The oldest means of becoming a slave was to be captured as an enemy in war. However, even a foreigner could become free again and even a Roman citizen could become a slave. Slavery was hereditary, and the child of a slave woman became a slave no matter who the father was. However, according to classical law, a child of a slave became free (ingenuus), if his or her mother was free, even for a short period of time, during the pregnancy. There were a number of means by which a free man could become a slave in Roman society. According to Twelve Tables: Æris confessi rebusque iure iudicatis XXX dies iusti sunto. A person who admits to owing money or has been adjudged to owe money must be given 30 days to pay. Post deinde manus iniectio esto. In ius ducito. Ni iudicatum facit aut quis endo eo in iure vindicit, secum ducito, vincito aut nervo aut compedibus XV pondo, ne maiore aut si volet minore vincito. Si volet suo vivito, ni suo vivit, qui eum vinctum habebit, libras faris endo dies dato. Si volet, plus dato. After that, the creditor can lay hands on him and haul him to court. If he does not satisfy the judgment and no one is surety for him, the creditor may take the defendant with him in stocks or chains... Also citizens involved in the false presentation of slavery for benefit could become slaves. If a free man were sold as a slave, then after proving that he is free he shared proceeds from the sale with the party that sold him. A praetor could deprive the seller of his freedom (vindicatio in libertatem). Convicts (most of them sentenced to death), could become slaves and their property would belong to state. A female Roman citizen could become a slave (under senatus consultum Claudianum form 52) if she had "mutual living" (contubernium) with another man's slave despite the master's objection. Termination of slave status[edit] After the Punic wars, Rome started the mass exploitation of slaves. However, the development of industry, trade and other branches of economy required skilled free workers that took interest in their jobs. A slave could get free by the act of manumission, by which a master would release him from his authority. Manumissions were different in different epochs. The old civil law (ius civile Quiritium) recognized three kinds of manumissions:[clarification needed] Manumissio censu, was done by a master in the time of the Centuriate assembly. A master wishing to free his slave needed only to enter him in the censor's list as a citizen. Manumissio vindicta, was the liberation of a slave by a fictitious plea for freedom (vindicatio in libertatem). It was done before a magistrate when some citizen (adsertor libertatis) touched a slave by a stick (vindicta), and by right words said that the slave is a free man. If a master did not object to that claim (in iure cessio), a magistrate would validate the slave's freedom (addictio). This had been done under the old civil law (ius civile Quiricium) Manumissio testamento, was the liberation of a slave by a will. In a will master usually said "Stichus servus meus liber esto", and the slave would be free and without patron. Manumissio testamento fideicommissaria, was when a master asked his successor to release a slave. If that slave was made free, the man who released him became his patron. Manumissio inter amicos, was liberation of a slave by a statement in front of friends. Praetors protected these free slaves (by the Lex Junia Norbana, these people lived as free but died as slaves). This kind of manumission originated at the end of the republic. Manumissio per epistulam, same as above, just done by a statement in a letter. Manumissio per mensam was similar to the above manumissions. This one was not as formal as manumissions in time of old civil law, but had the same value as praetoric manumissions. Manumissions of this kind originated in the time of empire. Manumissio in ecclesia, were manumissions made in the time of Christian emperors in front of a priest. At the beginning of the empire, because of the number of manumissions, legal limitations of manumissions were made. These limitations were implemented by two laws: Lex Fufia Caninia and Lex Aelia Sentia. According to Roman law, slaves that were freed (libertinus, in regard to his master libertus) became Roman citizens, but they had many fewer rights than Roman citizens that were born free (ingenuus). The slave's former master now became his patron (patronus), and the libertus still had obligations towards him (this was regulated by law). The libertus had to be obedient and respectful to his patron (obsequium et reverentia). The patron could punish a disobedient libertus, In older times he could even kill him (ius vitae necisque), but later he could not. In some circumstances he could even ask a magistrate to turn the libertus into a slave once again (accusatio ingrati). References[edit] ^ Temin, Peter (2006). "The economy of the early Roman Empire". Journal of Economic Perspectives. 1. 20: 133–151. doi:10.1257/089533006776526148. External links[edit] The Roman Law Library Symbols Status Civitatis v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Status_in_Roman_legal_system&oldid=996795962" Categories: Roman law Social status Hidden categories: Articles needing additional references from December 2012 All articles needing additional references Wikipedia articles needing clarification from December 2020 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Latina Edit links This page was last edited on 28 December 2020, at 17:30 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-633	----	Petronius - Wikipedia Petronius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 1st century AD Roman courtier and author of the Satyricon This article is about the Roman author. For other uses, see Petronius (disambiguation). Petronius Born c. 27 AD Massalia (ancient Marseille) Died c. 66 AD Cumae Occupation Novelist Notable works The Satyricon Gaius Petronius Arbiter[1] (/pɪˈtroʊniəs/, Classical Latin: [ˈɡaː.i.ʊs peːˈt̪roː.ni.ʊs ˈar.bɪ.t̪ɛr]; c. AD 27 – 66; sometimes Titus Petronius Niger)[1] was a Roman courtier during the reign of Nero. He is generally believed to be the author of the Satyricon, a satirical novel believed to have been written during the Neronian era (54–68 AD). Contents 1 Life 1.1 As a writer 1.2 Death 2 Apocryphal quotation 3 See also 4 Notes 5 Further reading 6 External links Life[edit] Tacitus, Plutarch and Pliny the Elder describe Petronius as the elegantiae arbiter (also phrased arbiter elegantiarum), "judge of elegance", in the court of the emperor Nero. He served as suffect consul in 62.[2] Later, he became a member of the senatorial class who devoted themselves to a life of pleasure. His relationship to Nero was apparently akin to that of a fashion advisor. Tacitus gives this account of Petronius in his historical work the Annals (XVI.18): He spent his days in sleep, his nights in attending to his official duties or in amusement, that by his dissolute life he had become as famous as other men by a life of energy, and that he was regarded as no ordinary profligate, but as an accomplished voluptuary. His reckless freedom of speech, being regarded as frankness, procured him popularity. Yet during his provincial government, and later when he held the office of consul, he had shown vigour and capacity for affairs. Afterwards returning to his life of vicious indulgence, he became one of the chosen circle of Nero's intimates, and was looked upon as an absolute authority on questions of taste [elegantiae arbiter; note the pun on Petronius' cognomen] in connection with the science of luxurious living.[3] None of the ancient sources give any further detail about his life, or mention that he was a writer. However, a medieval manuscript written around 1450 of the Satyricon credited a "Titus Petronius" as the author of the original work. Traditionally, this reference is linked with Petronius Arbiter, since the novel appears to have been written or at least set during his lifetime. The link, however, remains speculative and disputed. As a writer[edit] Petronius' development of his characters in the Satyricon, namely Trimalchio, transcends the traditional style of writing of ancient literature. In the literature written during Petronius' lifetime, the emphasis was always on the typical considerations of plot, which had been laid down by classical rules.[citation needed] The character, which was hardly known in ancient literature, was secondary. Petronius goes beyond these literary limitations in his exact portrayals of detailed speech, behaviour, surroundings, and appearance of the characters. Another literary device Petronius employs in his novel is a collection of specific allusions. The allusions to certain people and events are evidence that the Satyricon was written during Nero's time. These also suggest that it was aimed at a contemporary audience which consisted in part of Nero's courtiers and even Nero himself. One such allusion, found in chapter 9, refers to the story of the good wife Lucretia which was well known at the time: "If you're a Lucretia," he said, "You've found a Tarquin". The message Petronius tries to convey in his work is far from moral and does not intend to produce reform, but is written above all to entertain and should be considered artistically. Nevertheless, his writings can be a valuable tool to better comprehend the customs and ways of life of Roman society at that particular time, since the author strives to preserve the plausibility of his representation, as can be noted by the frequent use of allusions and detailed descriptions of characters and behaviours. As the title implies, the Satyricon is a satire, specifically a Menippean satire, in which Petronius satirizes nearly anything, using his taste as the only standard. It is speculated that Petronius' depiction of Trimalchio mirrors that of Nero. Although the author's own opinion is never alluded to, the opinions of the characters involved in the story are evident, as is how Encolpius criticizes Trimalchio. Death[edit] Petronius' high position soon made him the object of envy for those around him. Having attracted the jealousy of Tigellinus, the commander of the emperor's guard, he was accused of treason.[4] He was arrested at Cumae in 65 AD but did not wait for a sentence. Instead, he chose to take his own life. Tacitus again records his elegant suicide in the sixteenth book of the Annals: Yet he did not fling away life with precipitate haste, but having made an incision in his veins and then, according to his humour, bound them up, he again opened them, while he conversed with his friends, not in a serious strain or on topics that might win for him the glory of courage. And he listened to them as they repeated, not thoughts on the immortality of the soul or on the theories of philosophers, but light poetry and playful verses. To some of his slaves he gave liberal presents, a flogging to others. He dined, indulged himself in sleep, that death, though forced on him, might have a natural appearance. Even in his will he did not, as did many in their last moments, flatter Nero or Tigellinus or any other of the men in power. On the contrary, he described fully the prince's shameful excesses, with the names of his male and female companions and their novelties in debauchery, and sent the account under seal to Nero. Then he broke his signet-ring, that it might not be subsequently available for imperilling others. According to Pliny the Elder: "T. Petronius, a consular, when he was going to die through Nero's jealousy and envy, broke his fluorspar wine-dipper so that the emperor's table would not inherit it. It had cost 300,000 sesterces". T. Petronius and G. Petronius have been said to have been the same man.[5] Apocryphal quotation[edit] In recent times, a popular quotation, actually written by Charlton Ogburn in 1957,[6] on reorganization is often spuriously[7][8] attributed to a Gaius Petronius. In one version it reads: We trained hard ... but it seemed that every time we were beginning to form up into teams we would be reorganized. I was to learn later in life that we tend to meet any new situation by reorganizing; and a wonderful method it can be for creating the illusion of progress while producing confusion, inefficiency, and demoralization. See also[edit] See also … Works at Domínio Público Works at Dominio Público Asteroid 3244 Petronius, named after the satirist Supplements to the Satyricon Notes[edit] ^ a b "Gaius Petronius Arbiter". Britannica.com. ^ Paul Gallivan, "Some Comments on the Fasti for the Reign of Nero", Classical Quarterly, 24 (1974), p. 302 ^  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Petronius". Encyclopædia Britannica. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 333–335. ^ Romm, James (11 March 2014). Dying Every Day: Seneca at the Court of Nero (Paperback) (First ed.). New York: Vintage Books. p. 196. ISBN 978-0-307-74374-9. Retrieved 24 May 2017. ^ Rudich, Vasily (20 March 1997). Dissidence and Literature Under Nero: The Price of Rhetoricization. Routledge. ISBN 978-0415095013. Retrieved 20 July 2017. ^ "The Quotations Page". Retrieved 14 September 2007. ^ "Petronius Arbiter, Time Traveller". Archived from the original on 18 July 2013. Retrieved 23 January 2015. ^ "ARTICLES FROM THE PETRONIAN SOCIETY NEWSLETTER". Retrieved 22 May 2008. Further reading[edit] Breitenstein, Natalie, Petronius, Satyrica 1–15. Text, Übersetzung, Kommentar (2009. Berlin – New York: De Gruyter) (Texte und Kommentare, 32). Conte, Gian Biagio, The Hidden Author: An Interpretation of Petronius' Satyricon (1997. Berkeley: University of California Press). Connors, Catherine, Petronius the Poet: Verse and Literary Tradition in the Satyricon (1998. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). Habermehl, Peter, Petronius, Satyrica 79–141. Ein philologisch–literarischer Kommentar. Band I : Satyrica 79–110. Berlin : de Gruyter 2006. Habermehl, Peter, Petronius, Satyrica 79–141. Ein philologisch–literarischer Kommentar. Band II : Satyrica 111–118. Berlin : de Gruyter 2020. Jensson, Gottskalk, The Recollections of Encolpius. The Satyrica of Petronius as Milesian Fiction (2004. Groningen: Barkhuis Publishing and Groningen University Library) (Ancient narrative Suppl. 2). Prag, Jonathan and Ian Repath (eds), Petronius: A Handbook (2009. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell). Reeve, Michael D. 1983. Petronius. In Texts and Transmission: A Survey of the Latin Classics. Edited by Leighton D. Reynolds, 295–300. Oxford: Clarendon. Repath, Ian. 2010. "Plato in Petronius: Petronius in Platanona". The Classical Quarterly, 60(2), new series, 577–595. Rose, Kenneth F. C. 1971. "The Date and Author of the Satyricon". Mnemosyne, Bibliotheca Classica Batava, Supplementum 16. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill. Schmeling, Gareth. 2011. A Commentary on the Satyrica of Petronius. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Slater, Niall W. 1990. Reading Petronius. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press. Sullivan, John P. 1985. "Petronius’ Satyricon and its Neronian Context". In Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt: Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neuren Forschung, Vol. II, Part 32.3. Edited by Hildegard Temporini and Wolfgang Haase, 1666–1686. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Vannini, Giulio, Petronius 1975–2005: bilancio critico e nuove proposte (2007. Goettingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht) (Lustrum, 49). Vannini, Giulio, Petronii Arbitri Satyricon 100–115. Edizione critica e commento (2010. Berlin – New York: De Gruyter) (Beiträge zur Altertumskunde, 281). External links[edit] Library resources about Petronius Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Petronius Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Media related to Petronius Arbiter at Wikimedia Commons Works written by or about Petronius at Wikisource Quotations related to Petronius at Wikiquote Works by Petronius at Perseus Digital Library Works by Petronius at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Petronius at Internet Archive Works by Petronius at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Latin text of the Satyricon from The Latin Library Petronii satirae et liber priapeorum, iterum edidit Franciscus Buecheler, adiectae sunt Varronis et Senecae satirae similesque reliquiae, Berolini apud Weidmannos, 1871. Political offices Preceded by Publius Marius, and Lucius Afinius Gallus as Ordinary consuls Suffect consul of the Roman Empire 62 with Quintus Manlius Ancharius Tarquitius Saturninus Succeeded by Quintus Junius Marullus, Titus Clodius Eprius Marcellus as Suffect consuls v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune 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control BIBSYS: 90229948 BNE: XX924749 BNF: cb119194470 (data) CANTIC: a10137026 CiNii: DA01249671 GND: 118593293 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\015971 ISNI: 0000 0000 8167 8155 LCCN: n79142770 LNB: 000063961 MBA: 0ed98fac-7d22-4cda-baeb-f2beaf161860 NDL: 00472994 NKC: jn19981001972 NLA: 36222313 NLG: 62703 NLI: 000105097 NLK: KAC199621546 NSK: 000024721 NTA: 068973241 RERO: 02-A000129794 RSL: 000043220 SELIBR: 196579 SNAC: w6z4236k SUDOC: 027441245 Trove: 1232082 VcBA: 495/9547 VIAF: 95155909 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79142770 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Petronius&oldid=996702541" Categories: 20s births 66 deaths Suffect consuls of Imperial Rome Ancient Romans who committed suicide Classical Latin novelists Roman-era poets Silver Age Latin writers Suicides by sharp instrument in Italy Ancient Roman male writers who committed suicide 1st-century Romans 1st-century writers Roman-era satirists Petronii People from Marseille Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles 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en-wikipedia-org-634	----	Category:Roman-era poets - Wikipedia Help Category:Roman-era poets From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ancient Roman poets. See also: Category:Virgil and Category:Catullus History portal Subcategories This category has the following 6 subcategories, out of 6 total. - ► 1st-century BC Roman poets‎ (4 C, 26 P) 0–9 ► 1st-century Roman poets‎ (1 C, 19 P) ► 4th-century Roman poets‎ (11 P) ► 5th-century Roman poets‎ (21 P) P ► Latin panegyrists‎ (1 P) S ► Roman-era satirists‎ (7 P) Pages in category "Roman-era poets" The following 81 pages are in this category, out of 81 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more).   List of Roman Latin poets and writers from North Africa A Valerius Aedituus Aelius Saturninus Lucius Afranius (poet) Alphius Avitus Ambrose Titus Annianus Anser (poet) Arator Aemilius Magnus Arborius Marcus Argentarius Varro Atacinus Ausonius B Babrius Balbinus Caesius Bassus Saleius Bassus Bavius C Titus Calpurnius Siculus Christodorus Commodian Corippus Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Gaetulicus (consul 26) Cornificia D Pope Damasus I Domitius Marsus Double Heroides Dracontius F Gaius Valerius Flaccus (poet) Works attributed to Florus Marcus Furius Bibaculus G Cornelius Gallus Grattius H Helvius Cinna Horace Hostius J Julius Florus Juvencus L Laevius Licinius Macer Calvus Lollius Bassus Lucan Lucilius Junior Lucretius M Aemilius Macer Gaius Maecenas Marcus Manilius Gaius Maecenas Melissus Gaius Memmius (poet) N Gnaeus Naevius Nemesianus Nestor of Laranda O Ovid Juventinus Albius Ovidius P Albinovanus Pedo Peisander of Laranda Persius Petronius Philippus of Thessalonica Publius Pomponius Secundus Clutorius Priscus Faltonia Betitia Proba Propertius Q Quintus Smyrnaeus R Gaius Rabirius (poet) Valgius Rufus Lucius Varius Rufus S Sabinus (Ovid) Serenus Sammonicus Severus Sanctus Endelechius Silius Italicus Abronius Silo Statius Straton of Sardis Sulpicia Sulpicia (satirist) T Tibullus Tigellius V Publius Valerius Cato Virgil Volcatius Sedigitus Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Roman-era_poets&oldid=953202536" Categories: Latin-language writers Ancient Roman writers Poets Latin poetry Ancient poets Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata CatAutoTOC generates no TOC Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés বাংলা Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ भोजपुरी Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge 한국어 Հայերեն Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Lietuvių Magyar മലയാളം मराठी Монгол Nederlands Polski Português Română Русский Sardu Scots Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Татарча/tatarça Türkçe Українська اردو Vepsän kel’ 粵語 Edit links This page was last edited on 26 April 2020, at 05:50 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6363	----	MusicBrainz - Wikipedia MusicBrainz From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from MBA (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Online music metadata database MusicBrainz MusicBrainz homepage Type of site Online music encyclopedia[1] Available in English Owner MetaBrainz Foundation Created by Robert Kaye URL musicbrainz.org Commercial No Registration Optional (required for editing data) Users ~250,000 active ever[2] Launched July 17, 2000; 20 years ago (2000-07-17)[3] Current status Online Content license Part Creative Commons Zero (open data) and part CC-BY-NC-SA (not open); commercial licensing available Written in Perl with PostgreSQL database MusicBrainz is a project which aims to create a collaborative music database that is similar to the freedb project. MusicBrainz was founded in response to the restrictions placed on the Compact Disc Database (CDDB), a database for software applications to look up audio CD information on the Internet. MusicBrainz has expanded its goals to reach beyond a CD metadata (this is information about the performers, artists, songwriters, etc.) storehouse to become a structured online database for music.[4][5] MusicBrainz captures information about artists, their recorded works, and the relationships between them. Recorded works entries capture at a minimum the album title, track titles, and the length of each track. These entries are maintained by volunteer editors who follow community written style guidelines. Recorded works can also store information about the release date and country, the CD ID, cover art, acoustic fingerprint, free-form annotation text and other metadata. As of September 2020[update], MusicBrainz contained information on roughly 1.7 million artists, 2.6 million releases, and 23 million recordings.[2] End-users can use software that communicates with MusicBrainz to add metadata tags to their digital media files, such as ALAC, FLAC, MP3, Ogg Vorbis or AAC. Contents 1 Cover Art Archive 2 Fingerprinting 2.1 Proprietary services 2.2 AcoustID and Chromaprint 3 Licensing 4 Client software 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Cover Art Archive[edit] MusicBrainz allows contributors to upload cover art images of releases to the database; these images are hosted by Cover Art Archive (CAA), a joint project between Internet Archive and MusicBrainz started in 2012. Internet Archive provides the bandwidth, storage and legal protection for hosting the images, while MusicBrainz stores metadata and provides public access through the web and via an API for third parties to use. As with other contributions, the MusicBrainz community is in charge of maintaining and reviewing the data.[6] Cover art is also provided for items on sale at Amazon.com and some other online resources, but CAA is now preferred because it gives the community more control and flexibility for managing the images. Fingerprinting[edit] Besides collecting metadata about music, MusicBrainz also allows looking up recordings by their acoustic fingerprint. A separate application, such as MusicBrainz Picard, must be used for this. Proprietary services[edit] In 2000, MusicBrainz started using Relatable's patented TRM (a recursive acronym for TRM Recognizes Music) for acoustic fingerprint matching. This feature attracted many users and allowed the database to grow quickly. However, by 2005 TRM was showing scalability issues as the number of tracks in the database had reached into the millions. This issue was resolved in May 2006 when MusicBrainz partnered with MusicIP (now AmpliFIND), replacing TRM with MusicDNS.[7] TRMs were phased out and replaced by MusicDNS in November 2008. In October 2009 MusicIP was acquired by AmpliFIND.[8] Some time after the acquisition, the MusicDNS service began having intermittent problems. AcoustID and Chromaprint[edit] Since the future of the free identification service was uncertain, a replacement for it was sought. The Chromaprint acoustic fingerprinting algorithm, the basis for AcoustID identification service, was started in February 2010 by a long-time MusicBrainz contributor Lukáš Lalinský.[9] While AcoustID and Chromaprint are not officially MusicBrainz projects, they are closely tied with each other and both are open source. Chromaprint works by analyzing the first two minutes of a track, detecting the strength in each of 12 pitch classes, storing these 8 times per second. Additional post-processing is then applied to compress this fingerprint while retaining patterns.[10] The AcoustID search server then searches from the database of fingerprints by similarity and returns the AcoustID identifier along with MusicBrainz recording identifiers if known. Licensing[edit] Since 2003,[11] MusicBrainz's core data (artists, recordings, releases, and so on) are in the public domain, and additional content, including moderation data (essentially every original content contributed by users and its elaborations), is placed under the Creative Commons CC-BY-NC-SA-2.0 license.[12] The relational database management system is PostgreSQL. The server software is covered by the GNU General Public License. The MusicBrainz client software library, libmusicbrainz, is licensed under the GNU Lesser General Public License, which allows use of the code by proprietary software products. In December 2004, the MusicBrainz project was turned over to the MetaBrainz Foundation, a non-profit group, by its creator Robert Kaye.[13] On 20 January 2006, the first commercial venture to use MusicBrainz data was the Barcelona, Spain-based Linkara in their Linkara Música service.[14] On 28 June 2007, BBC announced that it had licensed MusicBrainz's live data feed to augment their music web pages. The BBC online music editors would also join the MusicBrainz community to contribute their knowledge to the database.[15] On 28 July 2008, the beta of the new BBC Music site was launched, which publishes a page for each MusicBrainz artist.[16][17] Client software[edit] Amarok – KDE audio player Banshee – multi-platform audio player Beets – automatic CLI music tagger/organiser for Unix-like systems Clementine – multi-platform audio player CDex – Microsoft Windows CD ripper Demlo – a dynamic and extensible music manager using a CLI iEatBrainz – Mac OS X, deprecated foo_musicbrainz component for foobar2000 – music library/pudio Player Jaikoz – Java mass tag editor Max – Mac OS X CD ripper and audio transcoder Mp3tag – Windows metadata editor and music organizer MusicBrainz Picard – cross-platform album-oriented tag editor MusicBrainz Tagger – deprecated Microsoft Windows tag editor puddletag – a tag editor for PyQt under the GPLv3 Rhythmbox music player – an audio player for Unix-like systems Sound Juicer – GNOME CD ripper Zortam Mp3 Media Studio – Windows music organizer and ID3 tag editor Freedb clients could also access MusicBrainz data through the freedb protocol by using the MusicBrainz to FreeDB gateway service, mb2freedb. The gateway was shutdown on March 18, 2019.[18] See also[edit] List of online music databases References[edit] ^ "About". MusicBrainz. MetaBrainz. Archived from the original on 2015-05-08. Retrieved 4 May 2015. ^ a b "Database Statistics". MusicBrainz. Archived from the original on 2011-07-22. Retrieved 2018-09-20. ^ "WHOIS Lookup". ICANN. Archived from the original on 2015-04-02. Retrieved 23 March 2015. ^ Highfield, Ashley. "Keynote speech given at IEA Future Of Broadcasting Conference Archived 2008-04-22 at the Wayback Machine", BBC Press Office, 2007-06-27. Retrieved on 2008-02-11. ^ Swartz, A. (2002). "MusicBrainz: A semantic Web service" (PDF). IEEE Intelligent Systems. 17: 76–77. doi:10.1109/5254.988466. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-04-03. Retrieved 2015-08-28. ^ Fabian Scherschel (10 October 2012). "MusicBrainz and Internet Archive create cover art database". The H. Archived from the original on 7 December 2013. ^ "New fingerprinting technology available now!" (Press release). MusicBrainz community blog. 2006-03-12. Archived from the original on 2008-08-07. Retrieved 2006-08-03. ^ AmpliFIND Music Services: News Archived 2013-09-21 at the Wayback Machine ^ "Introducing Chromaprint – Lukáš Lalinský". Oxygene.sk. 2010-07-24. Archived from the original on 2018-10-10. Retrieved 2018-04-10. ^ Jang, Dalwon; Yoo, Chang D; Lee, Sunil; Kim, Sungwoong; Kalker, Ton (2011-01-18). "How does Chromaprint work? – Lukáš Lalinský". IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security. 4 (4): 995–1004. doi:10.1109/TIFS.2009.2034452. S2CID 1502596. Retrieved 2018-04-10. ^ "MusicBrainz Licenses". Archived from the original on April 13, 2003. Retrieved 2015-10-23.CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link) ^ MusicBrainz License as of 13-11-2010. ^ Kaye, Robert (2006-03-12). "The MetaBrainz Foundation launches!" (Press release). MusicBrainz community blog. Archived from the original on 2011-05-19. Retrieved 2006-08-03. ^ Kaye, Robert (2006-01-20). "Introducing: Linkara Musica". MusicBrainz. Archived from the original on 2008-09-07. Retrieved 2006-08-12. ^ Kaye, Robert (2007-06-28). "The BBC partners with MusicBrainz for Music Metadata". MusicBrainz. Archived from the original on 2007-06-30. Retrieved 2007-07-10. ^ Shorter, Matthew (2008-07-28). "BBC Music Artist Pages Beta". BBC. Archived from the original on 2009-01-24. Retrieved 2009-02-12. ^ MusicBrainz and the BBC Archived 2018-02-20 at the Wayback Machine as of 2013-03-16 ^ "Freedb gateway: End of life notice, March 18, 2019". MetaBrainz Blog. 2018-09-18. Retrieved 2020-02-12. Further reading[edit] Making Metadata: The Case of MusicBrainz. Jess Hemerly. Master's project at UC Berkeley. 2011. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to MusicBrainz. Official website Cover Art Archive – official site MusicBrainz info at the BBC Music site v t e Authority control files AAG • ACM DL • ADB • AGSA • autores.uy • AWR • BALaT • BIBSYS • Bildindex • BNC • BNE • BNF • Botanist • BPN • CANTIC • CiNii • CWGC • DAAO • DBLP • DSI • FNZA • GND • HDS • IAAF • ICCU • ICIA • ISNI • Joconde • KulturNav • LCCN • LIR • LNB • Léonore • MBA • MGP • NARA • NBL • NDL • NGV • NKC • NLA • NLG • NLI • NLK • NLP • NLR • NSK • NTA • ORCID • PIC • ResearcherID • RERO • RKD • RKDimages ID • RSL • SELIBR • SIKART • SNAC • SUDOC • S2AuthorId • TA98 • TDVİA • TE • TePapa • TH • TLS • Trove • UKPARL • ULAN • US Congress • VcBA • VIAF • WorldCat Identities Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MusicBrainz&oldid=995624185" Categories: MusicBrainz Acoustic fingerprinting Free-content websites Library 2.0 Library cataloging and classification Metadata registry Multilingual websites Online music and lyrics databases Tag editors that use Qt American online encyclopedias Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing potentially dated statements from September 2020 All articles containing potentially dated statements Commons category link from Wikidata Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية বাংলা Bân-lâm-gú भोजपुरी Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Magyar Македонски مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 December 2020, at 01:19 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6375	----	Wilfred Owen - Wikipedia Wilfred Owen From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on 27 December 2020. Jump to navigation Jump to search English poet and soldier (1893–1918) For the politician, see Wilfrid Owen. Wilfred Owen A plate from his 1920 Poems by Wilfred Owen, depicting him Born Wilfred Edward Salter Owen 18 March 1893 Oswestry, Shropshire, England Died 4 November 1918(1918-11-04) (aged 25) Sambre–Oise Canal, France Cause of death Killed in action Nationality British Period First World War Genre War poetry Website www.wilfredowen.org.uk Wilfred Edward Salter Owen, MC (18 March 1893 – 4 November 1918) was an English poet and soldier. He was one of the leading poets of the First World War. His war poetry on the horrors of trenches and gas warfare was much influenced by his mentor Siegfried Sassoon and stood in contrast to the public perception of war at the time and to the confidently patriotic verse written by earlier war poets such as Rupert Brooke. Among his best-known works – most of which were published posthumously – are "Dulce et Decorum est", "Insensibility", "Anthem for Doomed Youth", "Futility", "Spring Offensive" and "Strange Meeting". Contents 1 Early life 2 War service 3 Death 4 Poetry 5 Relationship with Sassoon 6 Memory 7 Wilfred Owen Association 8 Depictions in popular culture 8.1 In literature and films 8.2 In music 8.3 Other 9 References 10 External links Early life[edit] Owen was born on 18 March 1893 at Plas Wilmot, a house in Weston Lane, near Oswestry in Shropshire. He was the eldest of Thomas and (Harriett) Susan Owen (née Shaw)'s four children; his siblings were Mary Millard, (William) Harold, and Colin Shaw Owen. When Wilfred was born, his parents lived in a comfortable house owned by his grandfather, Edward Shaw. After Edward's death in January 1897, and the house's sale in March,[1] the family lodged in the back streets of Birkenhead. There Thomas Owen temporarily worked in the town employed by a railway company. Thomas transferred to Shrewsbury in April 1897 where the family lived with Thomas' parents in Canon Street.[2] Thomas Owen transferred back to Birkenhead, again in 1898 when he became stationmaster at Woodside station.[2] The family lived with him at three successive homes in the Tranmere district,[3] They then moved back to Shrewsbury in 1907.[4] Wilfred Owen was educated at the Birkenhead Institute[5] and at Shrewsbury Technical School (later known as the Wakeman School). Owen discovered his poetic vocation in about 1904[6] during a holiday spent in Cheshire. He was raised as an Anglican of the evangelical type, and in his youth was a devout believer, in part thanks to his strong relationship with his mother, which lasted throughout his life. His early influences included the Bible and the Romantic poets, particularly John Keats.[7] Owen's last two years of formal education saw him as a pupil-teacher at the Wyle Cop school in Shrewsbury.[8] In 1911 he passed the matriculation exam for the University of London, but not with the first-class honours needed for a scholarship, which in his family's circumstances was the only way he could have afforded to attend. In return for free lodging, and some tuition for the entrance exam (this has been questioned[citation needed]) Owen worked as lay assistant to the Vicar of Dunsden near Reading,[9] living in the vicarage from September 1911 to February 1913. During this time he attended classes at University College, Reading (now the University of Reading), in botany and later, at the urging of the head of the English Department, took free lessons in Old English. His time spent at Dunsden parish led him to disillusionment with the Church, both in its ceremony and its failure to provide aid for those in need.[10][11] From 1913 he worked as a private tutor teaching English and French at the Berlitz School of Languages in Bordeaux, France, and later with a family. There he met the older French poet Laurent Tailhade, with whom he later corresponded in French.[12] When war broke out, Owen did not rush to enlist – and even considered the French army – but eventually returned to England.[9] War service[edit] On 21 October 1915, he enlisted in the Artists Rifles Officers' Training Corps. For the next seven months, he trained at Hare Hall Camp in Essex.[11] On 4 June 1916, he was commissioned as a second lieutenant (on probation) in the Manchester Regiment.[13] Initially Owen held his troops in contempt for their loutish behaviour, and in a letter to his mother described his company as "expressionless lumps".[14] However, his imaginative existence was to be changed dramatically by a number of traumatic experiences. He fell into a shell hole and suffered concussion; he was caught in the blast of a trench mortar shell and spent several days unconscious on an embankment lying amongst the remains of one of his fellow officers. Soon afterward, Owen was diagnosed as suffering from neurasthenia or shell shock and sent to Craiglockhart War Hospital in Edinburgh for treatment. It was while recuperating at Craiglockhart that he met fellow poet Siegfried Sassoon, an encounter that was to transform Owen's life. Whilst at Craiglockhart he made friends in Edinburgh's artistic and literary circles, and did some teaching at the Tynecastle High School, in a poor area of the city. In November he was discharged from Craiglockhart, judged fit for light regimental duties. He spent a contented and fruitful winter in Scarborough, North Yorkshire, and in March 1918 was posted to the Northern Command Depot at Ripon.[15] While in Ripon he composed or revised a number of poems, including "Futility" and "Strange Meeting". His 25th birthday was spent quietly at Ripon Cathedral, which is dedicated to his namesake, St. Wilfrid of Hexham. Owen returned in July 1918, to active service in France, although he might have stayed on home-duty indefinitely. His decision to return was probably the result of Sassoon's being sent back to England, after being shot in the head in an apparent "friendly fire" incident, and put on sick-leave for the remaining duration of the war. Owen saw it as his duty to add his voice to that of Sassoon, that the horrific realities of the war might continue to be told. Sassoon was violently opposed to the idea of Owen returning to the trenches, threatening to "stab [him] in the leg" if he tried it. Aware of his attitude, Owen did not inform him of his action until he was once again in France. At the very end of August 1918, Owen returned to the front line – perhaps imitating Sassoon's example. On 1 October 1918, Owen led units of the Second Manchesters to storm a number of enemy strong points near the village of Joncourt. For his courage and leadership in the Joncourt action, he was awarded the Military Cross, an award he had always sought in order to justify himself as a war poet, but the award was not gazetted until 15 February 1919.[16] The citation followed on 30 July 1919: 2nd Lt, Wilfred Edward Salter Owen, 5th Bn. Manch. R., T.F., attd. 2nd Bn. For conspicuous gallantry and devotion to duty in the attack on the Fonsomme Line on October 1st/2nd, 1918. On the company commander becoming a casualty, he assumed command and showed fine leadership and resisted a heavy counter-attack. He personally manipulated a captured enemy machine gun from an isolated position and inflicted considerable losses on the enemy. Throughout he behaved most gallantly.[17] Death[edit] Owen's grave, in Ors communal cemetery Owen was killed in action on 4 November 1918 during the crossing of the Sambre–Oise Canal, exactly one week (almost to the hour) before the signing of the Armistice which ended the war, and was promoted to the rank of Lieutenant the day after his death. His mother received the telegram informing her of his death on Armistice Day, as the church bells in Shrewsbury were ringing out in celebration.[9][18] Owen is buried at Ors Communal Cemetery, Ors, in northern France.[19] The inscription on his gravestone, chosen by his mother Susan, is based on a quote from his poetry: "SHALL LIFE RENEW THESE BODIES? OF A TRUTH ALL DEATH WILL HE ANNUL" W.O.[19][20] Poetry[edit] Owen is regarded by many as the greatest poet of the First World War,[21] known for his verse about the horrors of trench and gas warfare. He had been writing poetry for some years before the war, himself dating his poetic beginnings to a stay at Broxton by the Hill when he was ten years old.[22] The poetry of William Butler Yeats was a significant influence for Owen, but Yeats did not reciprocate Owen's admiration, excluding him from The Oxford Book of Modern Verse, a decision Yeats later defended, saying Owen was "all blood, dirt, and sucked sugar stick" and "unworthy of the poet's corner of a country newspaper". Yeats elaborated: "In all the great tragedies, tragedy is a joy to the man who dies ... If war is necessary in our time and place, it is best to forget its suffering as we do the discomfort of fever ..."[23] The Romantic poets Keats and Shelley influenced much of his early writing and poetry. His great friend, the poet Siegfried Sassoon, later had a profound effect on his poetic voice, and Owen's most famous poems ("Dulce et Decorum est" and "Anthem for Doomed Youth") show direct results of Sassoon's influence. Manuscript copies of the poems survive, annotated in Sassoon's handwriting. Owen's poetry would eventually be more widely acclaimed than that of his mentor. While his use of pararhyme with heavy reliance on assonance was innovative, he was not the only poet at the time to use these particular techniques. He was, however, one of the first to experiment with it extensively. Anthem for Doomed Youth What passing-bells for these who die as cattle? Only the monstrous anger of the guns. Only the stuttering rifles' rapid rattle Can patter out their hasty orisons. No mockeries now for them; no prayers nor bells, Nor any voice of mourning save the choirs, – The shrill, demented choirs of wailing shells; And bugles calling for them from sad shires. What candles may be held to speed them all? Not in the hands of boys, but in their eyes Shall shine the holy glimmers of goodbyes. The pallor of girls' brows shall be their pall; Their flowers the tenderness of patient minds, And each slow dusk a drawing down of blinds. 1920[24] His poetry itself underwent significant changes in 1917. As a part of his therapy at Craiglockhart, Owen's doctor, Arthur Brock, encouraged Owen to translate his experiences, specifically the experiences he relived in his dreams, into poetry. Sassoon, who was becoming influenced by Freudian psychoanalysis, aided him here, showing Owen through example what poetry could do. Sassoon's use of satire influenced Owen, who tried his hand at writing "in Sassoon's style". Further, the content of Owen's verse was undeniably changed by his work with Sassoon. Sassoon's emphasis on realism and "writing from experience" was contrary to Owen's hitherto romantic-influenced style, as seen in his earlier sonnets. Owen was to take both Sassoon's gritty realism and his own romantic notions and create a poetic synthesis that was both potent and sympathetic, as summarised by his famous phrase "the pity of war". In this way, Owen's poetry is quite distinctive, and he is, by many, considered a greater poet than Sassoon. Nonetheless, Sassoon contributed to Owen's popularity by his strong promotion of his poetry, both before and after Owen's death, and his editing was instrumental in the making of Owen as a poet. Owen's poems had the benefit of strong patronage, and it was a combination of Sassoon's influence, support from Edith Sitwell, and the preparation of a new and fuller edition of the poems in 1931 by Edmund Blunden that ensured his popularity, coupled with a revival of interest in his poetry in the 1960s which plucked him out of a relatively exclusive readership into the public eye.[9] Though he had plans for a volume of verse, for which he had written a "Preface", he never saw his own work published apart from those poems he included in The Hydra, the magazine he edited at Craiglockhart War Hospital, and "Miners", which was published in The Nation. There were many other influences on Owen's poetry, including his mother. His letters to her provide an insight into Owen's life at the front, and the development of his philosophy regarding the war. Graphic details of the horror Owen witnessed were never spared. Owen's experiences with religion also heavily influenced his poetry, notably in poems such as "Anthem for Doomed Youth", in which the ceremony of a funeral is re-enacted not in a church, but on the battlefield itself, and "At a Calvary near the Ancre", which comments on the Crucifixion of Christ. Owen's experiences in war led him further to challenge his religious beliefs, claiming in his poem "Exposure" that "love of God seems dying". Only five of Owen's poems were published before his death, one in fragmentary form. His best known poems include "Anthem for Doomed Youth", "Futility", "Dulce Et Decorum Est", "The Parable of the Old Men and the Young" and "Strange Meeting". However, most of them were published posthumously: Poems (1920),The Poems of Wilfred Owen (1931),The Collected Poems of Wilfred Owen (1963),The Complete Poems and Fragments (1983); fundamental in this last collection is the poem Soldier's Dream, that deals with Owen's conception of war. Owen's full unexpurgated opus is in the academic two-volume work The Complete Poems and Fragments (1994) by Jon Stallworthy. Many of his poems have never been published in popular form. In 1975 Mrs. Harold Owen, Wilfred's sister-in-law, donated all of the manuscripts, photographs and letters which her late husband had owned to the University of Oxford's English Faculty Library. As well as the personal artifacts, this also includes all of Owen's personal library and an almost complete set of The Hydra – the magazine of Craiglockhart War Hospital. These can be accessed by any member of the public on application in advance to the English Faculty librarian. The Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center at the University of Texas at Austin holds a large collection of Owen's family correspondence. An important turning point in Owen scholarship occurred in 1987 when the New Statesman published a stinging polemic 'The Truth Untold' by Jonathan Cutbill,[25] the literary executor of Edward Carpenter, which attacked the academic suppression of Owen as a poet of homosexual experience.[26] Amongst the points it made was that the poem "Shadwell Stair", previously alleged to be mysterious, was a straightforward elegy to homosexual soliciting in an area of the London docks once renowned for it. Relationship with Sassoon[edit] Owen held Siegfried Sassoon in an esteem not far from hero-worship, remarking to his mother that he was "not worthy to light [Sassoon's] pipe". The relationship clearly had a profound impact on Owen, who wrote in his first letter to Sassoon after leaving Craiglockhart "You have fixed my life – however short". Sassoon wrote that he took "an instinctive liking to him",[27] and recalled their time together "with affection".[28] On the evening of 3 November 1917 they parted, Owen having been discharged from Craiglockhart. He was stationed on home-duty in Scarborough for several months, during which time he associated with members of the artistic circle into which Sassoon had introduced him, which included Robbie Ross and Robert Graves. He also met H. G. Wells and Arnold Bennett, and it was during this period he developed the stylistic voice for which he is now recognised. Many of his early poems were penned while stationed at the Clarence Garden Hotel, now the Clifton Hotel in Scarborough's North Bay. A blue tourist plaque on the hotel marks its association with Owen. Robert Graves[29] and Sacheverell Sitwell[30] (who also personally knew him) stated that Owen was homosexual, and homoeroticism is a central element in much of Owen's poetry.[31][32][33][34] Through Sassoon, Owen was introduced to a sophisticated homosexual literary circle which included Oscar Wilde's friend Robbie Ross, writer and poet Osbert Sitwell, and Scottish writer C. K. Scott Moncrieff, the translator of Marcel Proust. This contact broadened Owen's outlook, and increased his confidence in incorporating homoerotic elements into his work.[35][36] Historians have debated whether Owen had an affair with Scott Moncrieff in May 1918; he had dedicated various works to a "Mr W.O.",[37] but Owen never responded.[38] Throughout Owen's lifetime and for decades after, homosexual activity between men was a punishable offence in British law, and the account of Owen's sexual development has been somewhat obscured because his brother Harold removed what he considered discreditable passages in Owen's letters and diaries after the death of their mother.[39] Andrew Motion wrote of Owen's relationship with Sassoon: "On the one hand, Sassoon's wealth, posh connections and aristocratic manner appealed to the snob in Owen: on the other, Sassoon's homosexuality admitted Owen to a style of living and thinking that he found naturally sympathetic." [40] Sassoon, by his own account, was not actively homosexual at this time.[41] Sassoon and Owen kept in touch through correspondence, and after Sassoon was shot in the head in July 1918 and sent back to England to recover, they met in August and spent what Sassoon described as "the whole of a hot cloudless afternoon together."[42] They never saw each other again. About three weeks later, Owen wrote to bid Sassoon farewell, as he was on the way back to France, and they continued to communicate. After the Armistice, Sassoon waited in vain for word from Owen, only to be told of his death several months later. The loss grieved Sassoon greatly, and he was never "able to accept that disappearance philosophically."[43] Memory[edit] There are memorials to Owen at Gailly,[44] Ors,[45] Oswestry,[46] Birkenhead (Central Library) and Shrewsbury.[47] On 11 November 1985, Owen was one of the 16 Great War poets commemorated on a slate stone unveiled in Westminster Abbey's Poet's Corner.[48] The inscription on the stone is taken from Owen's "Preface" to his poems: "My subject is War, and the pity of War. The Poetry is in the pity."[49] There is also a small museum dedicated to Owen and Sassoon at the Craiglockhart War Hospital, now a Napier University building. The forester's house in Ors where Owen spent his last night, Maison forestière de l'Ermitage, has been transformed by Turner Prize nominee Simon Patterson into an art installation and permanent memorial to Owen and his poetry, which opened to the public on 1 October 2011.[50] Susan Owen's letter to Rabindranath Tagore marked, Shrewsbury, 1 August 1920, reads: "I have been trying to find courage to write to you ever since I heard that you were in London – but the desire to tell you something is finding its way into this letter today. The letter may never reach you, for I do not know how to address it, tho' I feel sure your name upon the envelope will be sufficient. It is nearly two years ago, that my dear eldest son went out to the War for the last time and the day he said goodbye to me – we were looking together across the sun-glorified sea – looking towards France, with breaking hearts – when he, my poet son, said those wonderful words of yours – beginning at 'When I go from hence, let this be my parting word' – and when his pocket book came back to me – I found these words written in his dear writing – with your name beneath."[51] Wilfred Owen Association[edit] To commemorate Wilfred's life and poetry, The Wilfred Owen Association was formed in 1989.[52][53] Since its formation the Association has established permanent public memorials in Shrewsbury and Oswestry. In addition to readings, talks, visits and performances, it promotes and encourages exhibitions, conferences, awareness and appreciation of Owen's poetry. Peter Owen, Wilfred Owen's nephew, was President of the Association until his death in July 2018.[54] Dr Rowan Williams (Archbishop of Canterbury 2002–2012), Sir Daniel Day-Lewis and Grey Ruthven, 2nd Earl of Gowrie are Patrons.[55][56] The Association presents a biennial Poetry Award to honour a poet for a sustained body of work that includes memorable war poems; previous recipients include Sir Andrew Motion (Poet Laureate 1999–2009), Dannie Abse, Christopher Logue, Gillian Clarke and Seamus Heaney. Owen Sheers was awarded the prize in September 2018.[57][58][59] In November 2015, actor Jason Isaacs unveiled a tribute to Owen at the former Craiglockhart War Hospital in Edinburgh where Owen was treated for shell shock during WWI.[60] Depictions in popular culture[edit] In literature and films[edit] Stephen MacDonald's play Not About Heroes (first performed in 1982) takes as its subject matter the friendship between Owen and Sassoon, and begins with their meeting at Craiglockhart during World War I.[61] Pat Barker's historical novel Regeneration (1991) describes the meeting and relationship between Sassoon and Owen,[62] acknowledging that, from Sassoon's perspective, the meeting had a profoundly significant effect on Owen. Owen's treatment with his own doctor, Arthur Brock, is also touched upon briefly. Owen's death is described in the third book of Barker's Regeneration trilogy, The Ghost Road (1995).[63] In the 1997 film Regeneration, Stuart Bunce played Owen.[64] Owen is the subject of the BBC docudrama Wilfred Owen: A Remembrance Tale (2007), in which he is played by Samuel Barnett.[65] Owen was mentioned as a source of inspiration for one of the correspondents in the epistolary novel, The Guernsey Literary and Potato Peel Pie Society (2008), by Mary Ann Shaffer and Annie Barrows.[66] In Harry Turtledove's multi-novel Southern Victory Series, the title of the third volume, Walk in Hell, is taken from a line in "Mental Cases". This part of the series is set during an alternate history version of World War I which sees Canada invaded and occupied by United States troops. Owen is acknowledged on the title page as the source of the quote. A film named The Burying Party (released August 2018), depicts Owen's final year from Craiglockhart Hospital to the Battle of the Sambre (1918). Matthew Staite stars as Owen and Joyce Branagh as his mother Susan.[67][68][69] In music[edit] His poetry has been reworked into various formats. For example, Benjamin Britten incorporated eight of Owen's poems into his War Requiem, along with words from the Latin Mass for the Dead (Missa pro Defunctis). The Requiem was commissioned for the reconsecration of Coventry Cathedral and first performed there on 30 May 1962.[70] Derek Jarman adapted it for the screen in 1988, with the 1963 recording as the soundtrack.[71] The Ravishing Beauties recorded Owen's poem "Futility" in an April 1982 John Peel session.[72] Also in 1982, 10,000 Maniacs recorded a song titled "Anthem for Doomed Youth", loosely based on the poem, in Fredonia, New York. The recording appeared on their first EP release Human Conflict Number Five and later on the compilation Hope Chest. Also appearing on the Hope Chest album was the song "The Latin One", a reference to the title of Owen's poem "Dulce et Decorum Est" on which the song is based. Additionally in 1982, singer Virginia Astley set the poem "Futility" to music she had composed.[73] In 1992, Anathema released The Crestfallen EP, with the song "They Die" quoting lines from Owen's poem "The End", which also formed the epitaph on his grave in Ors. Wirral musician Dean Johnson created the musical Bullets and Daffodils, based on music set to Owen's poetry, in 2010.[74] In 2015, the British indie rock band, The Libertines, released an album entitled Anthems For Doomed Youth; this featured the track "Anthem for Doomed Youth", named after Owen's poem. His poetry is sampled multiple times on the 2000 Jedi Mind Tricks album Violent by Design.[75][76] Producer Stoupe the Enemy of Mankind has been widely acclaimed for his sampling on the album, and inclusion of Owen's poetry. Other[edit] Owen appears in episode 7, The Piper, of British horror podcast The Magnus Archives.[77] References[edit] ^ Stallworthy, Jon (1974). Wilfred Owen, A Biography. Oxford University Press and Chatto and Windus. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-19-2117199. ^ a b Wilfred Owen, A Biography. p. 13. ^ Wilfred Owen, A Biography. pp. 13–14. ^ Wilfred Owen, A Biography. pp. 35–36. ^ "Wilfred Owen – Spirit of Birkenhead Institute". Freewebs.com. Retrieved 25 July 2012. ^ Paul Farley, "Wilfred Owen: Journey to the Trenches", The Independent, November 2006 ^ Sandra M. Gilbert. "'Anthem for Doomed Youth' and 'Dulce et Decorum Est': tracing the influence of John Keats". British Library. Retrieved 1 December 2019. ^ Dickins, Gordon (1987). An Illustrated Literary Guide to Shropshire. Shropshire Libraries. p. 54. ISBN 978-0-903802-37-6. ^ a b c d Stallworthy, Jon (2004). Wilfred Owen: Poems selected by Jon Stallworthy. London: Faber and Faber. pp. vii–xix. ISBN 978-0-571-20725-1. ^ McDowell, Margaret B. "Wilfred Owen (18 March 1893 – 4 November 1918)." British Poets, 1914–1945, edited by Donald E. Stanford, vol. 20, Gale, 1983, p. 259. Dictionary of Literary Biography Main Series. ^ a b "History of Wilfred Owen in Dunsden researched". Henleystandard.co.uk. ^ Sitwell, Osbert, Noble Essences, London: Macmillan, 1950, pp. 93–4. ^ "No. 29617". The London Gazette (Supplement). 6 June 1916. p. 5726. ^ "Ox.ac.uk". Oucs.ox.ac.uk. Retrieved 27 March 2012. ^ Welcome to Ripon Cathedral Archived 3 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine ^ "No. 31183". The London Gazette (Supplement). 14 February 1919. p. 2378. ^ "No. 31480". The London Gazette (Supplement). 29 July 1919. p. 9761. ^ "Armistice Touches" (PDF). The Ringing World. 13 December 1918. p. 397 (189 of online pdf). Retrieved 20 October 2017. ^ a b "Casualty Details: Owen, Wilfred Edward Salter". Commonwealth War Graves Commission. Retrieved 4 February 2018. ^ "The End". The Wilfred Owen Society. Retrieved 4 February 2018. ^ "BBC – Poetry Season – Poets – Wilfred Owen". Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 23 March 2019. ^ Sitwell, O. op. cit. p. 93. ^ Poets of World War I: Wilfred Owen & Isaac Rosenberg. 2002. p. 9. ^ "Poetry Season – Poems – Anthem For Doomed Youth by Wilfred Owen". BBC. Retrieved 2 April 2012. ^ Cutbill, Jonathan (16 January 1987). "The Truth Untold". The New Statesman. ^ Featherstone, Simon (1995). War Poetry: An Introductory Reader. Routledge. p. 126. ^ Sassoon, Siegfried: "Siegfried's Journey" p. 58, Faber and Faber, first published in 1946. ^ Sassoon, Siegfried: "Siegfried's Journey", p. 61, Faber and Faber, 1946. ^ Graves, Robert, Goodbye To All That: An Autobiography, NY, 1929 ("Owen was an idealistic homosexual"); 1st edn only: quote subsequently excised. See: Cohen, Joseph Conspiracy of Silence, New York Review of Books, Vol. 22, No. 19. ^ Hibbard, Dominic, The Truth Untold, p. 513. ^ Hibberd, Dominic. Wilfred Owen, The Truth Untold (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2002), ISBN 0-460-87921-9, p. xxii. ^ Fussell, Paul.The Great War and Modern Memory (Oxford University Press, 2000), ISBN 0-19-513331-5, p. 286. ^ Owen, Wilfred. The Complete Poems and Fragments, by Wilfred Owen; edited by Jon Stallworthy (W. W. Norton, 1984), ISBN 0-393-01830-X ^ Caesar, Adrian. Taking It Like a Man: Suffering, Sexuality and the War Poets (Manchester University Press, 1993) ISBN 0-7190-3834-0, pp. 1–256. ^ Hibberd, ibid. pp. 337, 375. ^ Hoare, Philip. Oscar Wilde's Last Stand: decadence, conspiracy, and the most outrageous trial of the century(Arcade Publishing, 1998), ISBN 1-55970-423-3, p. 24. ^ Hibberd, p. 155. ^ Hipp, Daniel W. (2005). The Poetry of Shell Shock. McFarland. pp. 88–89. ISBN 978-0-7864-2174-9. ^ Hibberd (2002), p. 20. ^ Motion, Andrew (2008). Ways of Life: On Places, Painters and Poets. Faber and Faber. p. 218. ISBN 978-0-5712-2365-7. ^ Jean Moorcroft Wilson (2003). Siegfried Sassoon: The Journey from the Trenches : a Biography (1918–1967). Routledge. p. 19. ISBN 0415967139. ^ Sassoon, Siegfried: "Siegfried's Journey", p. 71, Faber and Faber, 1946. ^ Sassoon, Siegfried: "Siegfried's Journey", p. 72, Faber and Faber, 1946. ^ Memorial at Gailly, 1914–18.co.uk. Accessed 5 December 2008. ^ Memorial at Ors, 1914–18.co.uk. Accessed 5 December 2008 ^ Memorial at Oswestry, 1914–18.co.uk. Accessed 5 December 2008. ^ Memorial at Shrewsbury, 1914–18.co.uk. Accessed 5 December 2008. ^ Writers and Literature of The Great War, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University. Accessed 5 December 2008. ^ "Wilfred Owen: Preface to Edition". Poets of the Great War. Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University. ^ "Simon Patterson / La Maison Forestière". artconnexion. ^ "Latest News, India, Bengal News, Breaking News, Opinion, Bollywood News, Cricket, Football". The Statesman. 4 March 2018. Retrieved 23 March 2019. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 20 June 2017. Retrieved 21 January 2018.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ "The Wilfred Owen Association". Centenarynews.com. Retrieved 23 March 2019. ^ "Peter Owen". Wilfred Owen Association. 31 July 2018. ^ Stewart, Stephen (27 June 2017). "Legendary war poet returns from WW1 killing fields to meet today's veterans". Dailyrecord.co.uk. Retrieved 23 March 2019. ^ "The Wilfred Owen Association". Wilfredowen.org.uk. Retrieved 23 March 2019. ^ "Wilfred Owen Poetry Award". Wilfred Owen Association. 1 September 2018. ^ "Sir Andrew Motion awarded the Wilfred Owen Poetry Award at the British Academy". The British Academy. Retrieved 23 March 2019. ^ "The Wilfred Owen Association". Wilfredowen.org.uk. Retrieved 23 March 2019. ^ "War poet honoured at hospital site". Bbc.co.uk. 30 November 2015. Retrieved 23 March 2019. ^ Meyer-Dinkgräfe, Daniel (2005). Biographical Plays About Famous Artists. Cambridge Scholars Press. pp. 24–29. ISBN 978-1-904303-47-3. ^ "The War Poets at Craiglockhart". Sites.scran.ac.uk. Retrieved 5 December 2008. ^ Brown, Dennis (2005). Monteith, Sharon (ed.). Critical Perspectives on Pat Barker. University of South Carolina Press. pp. 187–202. ISBN 978-1-57003-570-8. ^ Regeneration on IMDb ^ Wilfred Owen: A Remembrance Tale on IMDb ^ Shaffer, Mary Ann (2008). The Guernsey Literary and Potato Peel Pie Society. The Dial Press. pp. 72–73. ISBN 978-0-385-34099-1. ^ "The Burying Party". The Burying Party. ^ Jones, Lauren. "New Wilfred Owen film 'The Burying Party' on the hunt for filming locations". Wirral Globe. ^ "The Burying Party". IMDb.com. 23 August 2018. ^ Behroozi, Cyrus; Niday, Thomas. "the War Requiem". Benjamin Britten Page, Caltech. Retrieved 5 December 2008. ^ Cooke, Mervyn (1996). Britten: "War Requiem". Cambridge Music Handbook. ISBN 978-0-521-44089-9. ^ "Peel Sessions: The Ravishing Beauties". BBC Radio 1. 14 April 1982. Retrieved 5 December 2008. ^ "Virginia Astley Discography | Compilations". Virginiaastley.com. Archived from the original on 25 April 2012. Retrieved 27 March 2012. ^ Welsh Daily Post (17 February 2012). "Bullet Points" (PDF). Retrieved 23 July 2012. ^ "Jedi Mind Tricks – Muerte". Genius.com. ^ "Jedi Mind Tricks – Violent by Design (album review)". Sputnikmusic.com. ^ "The Magnus Archives - Horror Podcast". External links[edit] This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references. (March 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Poetry portal Biography portal England portal Wikisource has original works written by or about: Wilfred Owen Wikiquote has quotations related to: Wilfred Owen Wikimedia Commons has media related to Wilfred Owen. Wilfred Owen profile and poems at Poets.org The Wilfred Owen Collection, in The First World War Poetry Digital Archive by Oxford University The Wilfred Owen resource page at warpoetry.co.uk Works by Wilfred Owen at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Wilfred Owen at Internet Archive Works by Wilfred Owen at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Wilfred Owen at BBC Poetry Season Selected Poetry of Wilfred Owen – Biography and 7 poems (Anthem for Doomed Youth, Arms and the Boy, Dulce et Decorum Est, Exposure, Futility, Spring Offensive, Strange Meeting) Wilfred Owen Association the Dunsden Owen Association, including a trail app Anthems For Doomed Youth radio Wilfred Owen at the British Library Roy, Pinaki. Wilfred Owen: The Man, the Soldier, the Poet. Kolkata: Books Way, 2013 ( ISBN 978-93-81672-59-4) Finding aid to Wilfred Owen papers at Columbia University. Rare Book & Manuscript Library. v t e Poems by Wilfred Owen Poems (1920) "A Terre" "Anthem for Doomed Youth" "Apologia Pro Poemate Meo" "Arms and the Boy" "The Dead-Beat" "Disabled" "Dulce et Decorum est" "Futility" "Insensibility" "Mental Cases" "The Parable of the Old Man and the Young" "Spring Offensive" "Strange Meeting" "Wild with All Regrets" Other poems "1914" "Asleep" "At a Calvary near the Ancre" "Cramped in that Funnelled Hole" "Elegy in April and September" "The End" "Has Your Soul Sipped?" "I Saw His Round Mouth's Crimson" "The Last Laugh" "The Letter" "Miners" "A New Heaven" "The Next War" "Soldier's Dream" "Sonnet On Seeing a Piece of our Heavy Artillery Brought into Action" "To Eros" "Training" "With an Identity Disc" Authority control BIBSYS: 90174905 BNE: XX1497972 BNF: cb12440916t (data) CANTIC: a11242735 CWGC: 336417 GND: 118787454 ISNI: 0000 0001 0863 0654 LCCN: n79006808 MBA: 09ccce69-cfeb-4a29-a849-4ecbf4f1d2b1 NDL: 00451957 NKC: ola2003172354 NLA: 35404183 NLI: 001861471 NLK: KAC201731639 NTA: 069058504 SELIBR: 219702 SNAC: w651415w SUDOC: 033552347 Trove: 940754 VIAF: 2564947 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79006808 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wilfred_Owen&oldid=996519797" Categories: 1893 births 1918 deaths Alumni of the University of Reading Artists' Rifles soldiers British Army personnel of World War I British military personnel killed in World War I English World War I poets People with post-traumatic stress disorder 20th-century British male writers English people of Welsh descent Gay writers LGBT writers from England Manchester Regiment officers People from Oswestry Recipients of the Military Cross War writers 20th-century English poets LGBT poets English male poets People from Birkenhead Hidden categories: CS1: Julian–Gregorian uncertainty Pages containing London Gazette template with parameter supp set to y Webarchive template wayback links CWGC person ID same as Wikidata CS1 maint: archived copy as title Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia pending changes protected pages Use dmy dates from October 2020 Articles with hCards All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2014 Wikipedia external links cleanup from March 2019 Wikipedia spam cleanup from March 2019 Commons category link from Wikidata Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CWGC identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages العربية تۆرکجه বাংলা Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge 한국어 हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ಕನ್ನಡ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Português Русский Simple English کوردی Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Тоҷикӣ Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 27 December 2020, at 02:26 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6416	----	Suetonius - Wikipedia Suetonius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 1st/2nd century Roman historian This article is about the Roman historian. For the Roman general who put down the rebellion of Boudica, see Gaius Suetonius Paulinus. This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in German. (October 2018) Click [show] for important translation instructions. Machine translation like DeepL or Google Translate is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Wikipedia. Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article. You must provide copyright attribution in the edit summary accompanying your translation by providing an interlanguage link to the source of your translation. A model attribution edit summary Content in this edit is translated from the existing German Wikipedia article at [[:de:]]; see its history for attribution. You should also add the template {{Translated page}} to the talk page. For more guidance, see Wikipedia:Translation. Suetonius A generalized representation of Suetonius from the 15th-century Nuremberg Chronicle[1] Born Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus c. 69 AD Died After c. 122 AD Occupation Secretary, historian Genre Biography Subject History, biography, oratory Literary movement Silver Age of Latin Notable works The Lives of the Twelve Caesars Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus (Latin: [ˈɡaːi.ʊs sweːˈtoːni.ʊs traŋˈkᶣɪlːʊs]), commonly known as Suetonius (/swɪˈtoʊniəs/; c. 69 – after 122 AD),[2] was a Roman historian who wrote during the early Imperial era of the Roman Empire. His most important surviving work is a set of biographies of twelve successive Roman rulers, from Julius Caesar to Domitian, entitled De Vita Caesarum. Other works by Suetonius concern the daily life of Rome, politics, oratory, and the lives of famous writers, including poets, historians, and grammarians. A few of these books have partially survived, but many have been lost. Contents 1 Life 2 Works 2.1 The Twelve Caesars 2.2 Other works 2.2.1 Partly extant 2.2.2 Lost works 3 Editions 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 External links Life[edit] Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus was probably born about 69 AD, a date deduced from his remarks describing himself as a "young man" twenty years after Nero's death. His place of birth is disputed, but most scholars place it in Hippo Regius, a small north African town in Numidia, in modern-day Algeria.[3] It is certain that Suetonius came from a family of moderate social position, that his father, Suetonius Laetus,[4] was a tribune belonging to the equestrian order (tribunus angusticlavius) in Legio XIII Gemina, and that Suetonius was educated when schools of rhetoric flourished in Rome. Suetonius was a close friend of senator and letter-writer Pliny the Younger. Pliny describes him as "quiet and studious, a man dedicated to writing." Pliny helped him buy a small property and interceded with the Emperor Trajan to grant Suetonius immunities usually granted to a father of three, the ius trium liberorum, because his marriage was childless.[5] Through Pliny, Suetonius came into favour with Trajan and Hadrian. Suetonius may have served on Pliny’s staff when Pliny was Proconsul of Bithynia and Pontus (northern Asia Minor) between 110 and 112. Under Trajan he served as secretary of studies (precise functions are uncertain) and director of Imperial archives. Under Hadrian, he became the Emperor's secretary. But Hadrian later dismissed Suetonius for the latter's alleged affair with the empress Sabina.[6][7] Works[edit] The Twelve Caesars[edit] Main article: The Twelve Caesars A bust of Gaius Julius Caesar He is mainly remembered as the author of De Vita Caesarum—translated as The Life of the Caesars although a more common English title is The Lives of the Twelve Caesars or simply The Twelve Caesars—his only extant work except for the brief biographies and other fragments noted below. The Twelve Caesars, probably written in Hadrian's time, is a collective biography of the Roman Empire's first leaders, Julius Caesar (the first few chapters are missing), Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero, Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian, Titus and Domitian. The book was dedicated to his friend Gaius Septicius Clarus, a prefect of the Praetorian Guard in 119.[8] The work tells the tale of each Caesar's life according to a set formula: the descriptions of appearance, omens, family history, quotes, and then a history are given in a consistent order for each Caesar. He recorded the earliest accounts of Julius Caesar's epileptic seizures. Other works[edit] Partly extant[edit] De Viris Illustribus ("On Famous Men" — in the field of literature), to which belong: De Illustribus Grammaticis ("Lives of the Grammarians"; 20 brief lives, apparently complete) De Claris Rhetoribus ("Lives of the Rhetoricians"; 5 brief lives out of an original 16 survive) De Poetis ("Lives of the Poets"; the life of Virgil, as well as fragments from the lives of Terence, Horace and Lucan, survive) De Historicis ("Lives of the historians"; a brief life of Pliny the Elder is attributed to this work) Peri ton par' Hellesi paidion ("Greek Games") Peri blasphemion ("Greek Terms of Abuse") The two last works were written in Greek. They apparently survive in part in the form of extracts in later Greek glossaries. Lost works[edit] The below listed lost works of Suetonius are from the foreword written by Robert Graves in his translation of the Twelve Caesars.[9] Royal Biographies Lives of Famous Whores Roman Manners and Customs The Roman Year The Roman Festivals Roman Dress Greek Games Offices of State On Cicero’s Republic Physical Defects of Mankind Methods of Reckoning Time An Essay on Nature Greek Objurations Grammatical Problems Critical Signs Used in Books The introduction to Loeb edition of Suetonius, translated by J. C. Rolfe, with an introduction by K. R. Bradley, references the Suda with the following titles: On Greek games On Roman spectacles and games On the Roman year On critical signs in books On Cicero's Republic On names and types of clothes On insults On Rome and its customs and manners The volume then goes on to add other titles not testified within the Suda. On famous courtesans On kings On the institution of offices On physical defects On weather signs On names of seas and rivers On names of winds Two other titles may also be collections of some of the aforelisted: Pratum (Miscellany) On various matters Editions[edit] Edwards, Catherine Lives of the Caesars. Oxford World’s Classics. (Oxford University Press, 2008). Robert Graves (trans.), Suetonius: The Twelve Caesars (Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin Books, Ltd, 1957) Donna W. Hurley (trans.), Suetonius: The Caesars (Indianapolis/London: Hackett Publishing Company, 2011). J.C. Rolfe (trans.), Lives of the Caesars, Volume I (Loeb Classical Library 31, Harvard University Press, 1997). J.C. Rolfe (trans.), Lives of the Caesars, Volume II (Loeb Classical Library 38, Harvard University Press, 1998). C. Suetonii Tranquilli De vita Caesarum libros VIII et De grammaticis et rhetoribus librum, ed. Robert A. Kaster (Oxford: 2016). See also[edit] Suetonius on Christians Notes[edit] ^ The same woodcut is used throughout the chronicle for writers, priests and philosophers of different time periods and different national backgrounds. See Nuremberg Chronicle, digital edition (University of Cambridge), ff. 40v, 59r, 80v, 82v, 118r, 158v, 227r, and 240r. ^ The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Suetonius". Encyclopædia Britannica. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 15 May 2017. ^ Suetonius (1997). Lives of the Caesars. 1. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Loeb Classical Library. p. 4. ^ Suetonius. Vita Othonis. 10, 1. ^ Pliny the Younger. "10.95". Letters. ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Suetonius Tranquillus, Gaius" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ^ Hadrianus. "11:3". Historia Augusta. claims that Hadrian "removed from office Septicius Clarus, the prefect of the guard, and Suetonius Tranquillus, the imperial secretary, and many others besides, because without his consent they had been conducting themselves toward his wife, Sabina, in a more informal fashion than the etiquette of the court demanded." ^ Reynolds, Leighton Durham (1980). Texts and Transmission: A Survey of the Latin Classics. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 509. ISBN 9780198144564. The dedication, in the lost preface, is recorded by a sixth-century source when the text was still complete ^ Suetonius (1957). "Foreword". In Rives, James (ed.). Suetonius: The Twelve Caesars. Translated by Graves, Robert (1st ed.). Hamondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin Books. p. 7. References[edit] Barry Baldwin, Suetonius: Biographer of the Caesars. Amsterdam: A. M. Hakkert, 1983. Gladhill, Bill. “The Emperor's No Clothes: Suetonius and the Dynamics of Corporeal Ecphrasis.” Classical Antiquity, vol. 31, no. 2, 2012, pp. 315–348. Lounsbury, Richard C. The Arts of Suetonius: An Introduction. Frankfurt: Lang, 1987. Mitchell, Jack “Literary Quotation as Literary Performance in Suetonius.” The Classical Journal, vol. 110, no. 3, 2015, pp. 333–355 Newbold, R.F. “Non-Verbal Communication in Suetonius and ‘The Historia Augusta:' Power, Posture and Proxemics.” Acta Classica, vol. 43, 2000, pp. 101–118. Power, Tristan and Roy K. Gibson (ed.), Suetonius, the Biographer: Studies in Roman Lives. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2014 Syme, Ronald. "The Travels of Suetonius Tranquillus." Hermes 109:105–117, 1981. Trentin, Lisa. “Deformity in the Roman Imperial Court.” Greece & Rome, vol. 58, no. 2, 2011, pp. 195–208. Trevor, Luke “Ideology and Humor in Suetonius' ‘Life of Vespasian’ 8.” The Classical World, vol. 103, no. 4, 2010, pp. 511–527. Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew F. Suetonius: The Scholar and his Caesars. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press, 1983. Wardle, David. "Did Suetonius Write in Greek?" Acta Classica 36:91–103, 1993. Wardle, David. “Suetonius on Augustus as God and Man.” The Classical Quarterly, vol. 62, no. 1, 2012, pp. 307–326. Kaster, Robert A., Studies on the Text of Suetonius’ “De vita Caesarum” (Oxford: 2016). External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Suetonius Wikisource has original works written by or about: Suetonius Wikimedia Commons has media related to Suetonius. Library resources about Suetonius Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Suetonius Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries The Lives of the Twelve Caesars at LacusCurtius (Latin original, English translation) Suetonius' works at Latin Library (Latin) Works by Suetonius at Project Gutenberg The Lives of the Twelve Caesars at Project Gutenberg (English translation including the Lives Of The Grammarians, Rhetoricians, And Poets) Works by or about Suetonius at Internet Archive Works by Suetonius at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Gai Suetoni Tranquilli De vita Caesarum libri III-VI Cornell University Library Historical Monographs Collection. Lewis E 195 Vitae XII caesarium (Lives of the twelve caesars), fragment and Book of Hours leaf at OPenn Livius.org: Suetonius v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular 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n50053072 LNB: 000104443 NDL: 00458032 NKC: jn19990218099 NLA: 36012686 NLG: 218954 NLK: KAC199626796 NSK: 000013179 NTA: 15245831X RERO: 02-A000156631 SELIBR: 94808 SNAC: w6kd2413 SUDOC: 027151387 Trove: 1185283 ULAN: 500050468 VcBA: 495/59238 VIAF: 89599270 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n50053072 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Suetonius&oldid=982112236" Categories: 69 births 2nd-century deaths Roman-era biographers 2nd-century historians Latin historians Silver Age Latin writers 2nd-century Romans Ancient Roman equites Suetonii Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles to be expanded from October 2018 All articles to be expanded Articles needing translation from German Wikipedia Commons category link is on Wikidata Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Articles 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en-wikipedia-org-6483	----	Eusebius - Wikipedia Eusebius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Eusebius of Caesaria) Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Eusebius (disambiguation). 2nd/3rd century Greek historian of Christianity, exegete and Christian polemicist Eusebius of Caesarea Eusebius in a modern imagining Born Eusebius 260/265 Died 339/340 (aged 74–79) Occupation Bishop, historian, theologian Period Constantinian dynasty Notable works Ecclesiastical History, On the Life of Pamphilus, Chronicle, On the Martyrs The Holy Saint Eusebius of Caesarea[1] "Abba Garima III Saint (Eusebius) in a laurel frame (AG II, fol. 259v)"[2][3] Father of Church History, Bishop of Caesarea Venerated in Coptic Orthodox Church[4][5] Ethiopian Orthodox Church[6] Influences Origen, St. Pamphilis the Martyr Eusebius of Caesarea (/juːˈsiːbiəs/; Greek: Εὐσέβιος τῆς Καισαρείας, Eusébios tés Kaisareías; AD 260/265 – 339/340), also known as Eusebius Pamphili (from the Greek: Εὐσέβιος τοῦ Παμϕίλου), was a historian of Christianity, exegete, and Christian polemicist. He became the bishop of Caesarea Maritima about AD 314. Together with Pamphilus, he was a scholar of the Biblical canon and is regarded as one of the most learned Christians of his time.[7] He wrote Demonstrations of the Gospel, Preparations for the Gospel and On Discrepancies between the Gospels, studies of the Biblical text. As "Father of Church History" (not to be confused with the title of Church Father), he produced the Ecclesiastical History, On the Life of Pamphilus, the Chronicle and On the Martyrs. He also produced a biographical work on Constantine the Great, the first Christian Emperor, who was augustus between AD 306 and AD 337. A portrait of St. Eusebius of Caesarea (left) and Ammonius of Alexandria (right), prefacing the letter Eusebius wrote to him in the Rabbula Gospels (6th cent. AD) Although Eusebius' works are regarded as giving insight into the history of the early church, he was not without prejudice, especially in regard to the Jews, for while "Eusebius indeed blames the Jews for the crucifixion of Jesus, he nevertheless also states that forgiveness can be granted even for this sin and that the Jews can receive salvation."[8] Nor can his works be trusted to be free from subjectivism, for some scholars believe that "Eusebius is a notoriously unreliable historian, and so anything he reports should be critically scrutinized."[9] This is especially true of his Life of Constantine, which he wrote as a eulogy shortly after the emperor's death in AD 337, and which is "often maligned for perceived factual errors, deemed by some so hopelessly flawed that it cannot be the work of Eusebius at all."[10] Yet others see him as a "Constantinian flunky"[11] for, as a trusted adviser to Constantine, it was politically expedient for him to present Constantine in the best light possible. He is recognized as a saint in the Egyptian Coptic Church and the Ethiopian Church. Contents 1 Sources 2 Early life 3 Bishop of Caesarea 4 Death 5 Works 5.1 Onomasticon 5.2 Biblical text criticism 5.3 Chronicle 5.4 Church History 5.5 Life of Constantine 5.5.1 Conversion of Constantine according to Eusebius 5.6 Minor historical works 5.7 Apologetic and dogmatic works 5.8 Exegetical and miscellaneous works 6 Doctrine 6.1 Nicene Creed 7 Assessment 8 Bibliography 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 11.1 Citations 11.2 Sources 12 Further reading 13 External links Sources[edit] Little is known about the life of Eusebius. His successor at the See of Caesarea, Acacius, wrote a Life of Eusebius, a work that has since been lost. Eusebius' own surviving works probably only represent a small portion of his total output. Beyond notices in his extant writings, the major sources are the 5th-century ecclesiastical historians Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret, and the 4th-century Christian author Jerome. There are assorted notices of his activities in the writings of his contemporaries Athanasius, Arius, Eusebius of Nicomedia, and Alexander of Alexandria. Eusebius' pupil, Eusebius of Emesa, provides some incidental information.[12] Early life[edit] Most scholars date the birth of Eusebius to some point between AD 260 and AD 265 .[7][13] He was most likely born in or around Caesarea Maritima.[7][14] Nothing is known about his parents.[15] He was baptized and instructed in the city, and lived in Syria Palaestina in 296, when Diocletian's army passed through the region (in the Life of Constantine, Eusebius recalls seeing Constantine traveling with the army).[16][17] Eusebius was made presbyter by Agapius of Caesarea.[16] Some, like theologian and ecclesiastical historian John Henry Newman, understand Eusebius' statement that he had heard Dorotheus of Tyre "expound the Scriptures wisely in the Church" to indicate that Eusebius was Dorotheus' pupil while the priest was resident in Antioch; others, like the scholar D. S. Wallace-Hadrill, deem the phrase too ambiguous to support the contention.[18] Through the activities of the theologian Origen (185/6–254) and the school of his follower Pamphilus (later 3rd century – 309), Caesarea became a center of Christian learning. Origen was largely responsible for the collection of usage information, or which churches were using which gospels, regarding the texts which became the New Testament. The information used to create the late-fourth-century Easter Letter, which declared accepted Christian writings, was probably based on the Ecclesiastical History [HE] of Eusebius of Caesarea, wherein he uses the information passed on to him by Origen to create both his list at HE 3:25 and Origen's list at HE 6:25. Eusebius got his information about what texts were accepted by the third-century churches throughout the known world, a great deal of which Origen knew of firsthand from his extensive travels, from the library and writings of Origen.[19] On his deathbed, Origen had made a bequest of his private library to the Christian community in the city.[20] Together with the books of his patron Ambrosius, Origen's library (including the original manuscripts of his works[21][note 1]) formed the core of the collection that Pamphilus established.[23] Pamphilus also managed a school that was similar to (or perhaps a re-establishment of[24]) that of Origen.[25] Pamphilus was compared to Demetrius of Phalerum and Pisistratus, for he had gathered Bibles "from all parts of the world".[26] Like his model Origen, Pamphilus maintained close contact with his students. Eusebius, in his history of the persecutions, alludes to the fact that many of the Caesarean martyrs lived together, presumably under Pamphilus.[27] Soon after Pamphilus settled in Caesarea (ca. 280s), he began teaching Eusebius, who was then somewhere between twenty and twenty-five.[28] Because of his close relationship with his schoolmaster, Eusebius was sometimes called Eusebius Pamphili: "Eusebius, son of Pamphilus".[note 2] The name may also indicate that Eusebius was made Pamphilus' heir.[31] Pamphilus gave Eusebius a strong admiration for the thought of Origen.[32] Neither Pamphilus nor Eusebius knew Origen personally;[33] Pamphilus probably picked up Origenist ideas during his studies under Pierius (nicknamed "Origen Junior"[34]) in Alexandria.[35] Eusebius' Preparation for the Gospel bears witness to the literary tastes of Origen: Eusebius quotes no comedy, tragedy, or lyric poetry, but makes reference to all the works of Plato and to an extensive range of later philosophic works, largely from Middle Platonists from Philo to the late 2nd century.[36] Whatever its secular contents, the primary aim of Origen and Pamphilus' school was to promote sacred learning. The library's biblical and theological contents were more impressive: Origen's Hexapla and Tetrapla; a copy of the original Aramaic version of the Gospel of Matthew; and many of Origen's own writings.[28] Marginal comments in extant manuscripts note that Pamphilus and his friends and pupils, including Eusebius, corrected and revised much of the biblical text in their library.[28] Their efforts made the hexaplaric Septuagint text increasingly popular in Syria and Palestine.[37] Soon after joining Pamphilus' school, Eusebius started helping his master expand the library's collections and broaden access to its resources. At about this time Eusebius compiled a Collection of Ancient Martyrdoms, presumably for use as a general reference tool.[28] Eusebius of Caesarea and Carpianus depicted as Saints in a gospel book from monastery at Amba Geshan In the 290s, Eusebius began work on his most important work, the Ecclesiastical History, a narrative history of the Church and Christian community from the Apostolic Age to Eusebius' own time. At about the same time, he worked on his Chronicle, a universal calendar of events from the Creation to, again, Eusebius' own time. He completed the first editions of the Ecclesiastical History and Chronicle before 300.[38] Bishop of Caesarea[edit] Eusebius succeeded Agapius as Bishop of Caesarea soon after 313 and was called on by Arius who had been excommunicated by his bishop Alexander of Alexandria. An episcopal council in Caesarea pronounced Arius blameless.[39] Eusebius enjoyed the favor of the Emperor Constantine. Because of this he was called upon to present the creed of his own church to the 318 attendees of the Council of Nicaea in 325.[40] However, the anti-Arian creed from Palestine prevailed, becoming the basis for the Nicene Creed.[41] The theological views of Arius, that taught the subordination of the Son to the Father, continued to be controversial. Eustathius of Antioch strongly opposed the growing influence of Origen's theology, as the root of Arianism. Eusebius, an admirer of Origen, was reproached by Eustathius for deviating from the Nicene faith. Eusebius prevailed and Eustathius was deposed at a synod in Antioch. However, Athanasius of Alexandria became a more powerful opponent and in 334 he was summoned before a synod in Caesarea (which he refused to attend). In the following year, he was again summoned before a synod in Tyre at which Eusebius of Caesarea presided. Athanasius, foreseeing the result, went to Constantinople to bring his cause before the Emperor. Constantine called the bishops to his court, among them Eusebius. Athanasius was condemned and exiled at the end of 335. Eusebius remained in the Emperor's favour throughout this time and more than once was exonerated with the explicit approval of the Emperor Constantine. After the Emperor's death (c.337), Eusebius wrote the Life of Constantine, an important historical work because of eyewitness accounts and the use of primary sources.[42] Death[edit] Much like his birth, the exact date of Eusebius' death is unknown. However, there is primary text evidence from a council held in Antioch that by the year 341, his successor Acacius had already filled the seat as Bishop. Socrates and Sozomen write about Eusebius' death, and place it just before Constantine's son Constantine II died, which was in early 340. They also say that it was after the second banishment of Athanasius, which began in mid 339. This means that his death occurred some time between the second half of 339 and early 340.[43][44] Works[edit] Armenian translation of Chronicon. 13th century manuscript Of the extensive literary activity of Eusebius, a relatively large portion has been preserved. Although posterity suspected him of Arianism, Eusebius had made himself indispensable by his method of authorship; his comprehensive and careful excerpts from original sources saved his successors the painstaking labor of original research. Hence, much has been preserved, quoted by Eusebius, which otherwise would have been lost. The literary productions of Eusebius reflect on the whole the course of his life. At first, he occupied himself with works on Biblical criticism under the influence of Pamphilus and probably of Dorotheus of Tyre of the School of Antioch. Afterward, the persecutions under Diocletian and Galerius directed his attention to the martyrs of his own time and the past, and this led him to the history of the whole Church and finally to the history of the world, which, to him, was only a preparation for ecclesiastical history. Then followed the time of the Arian controversies, and dogmatic questions came into the foreground. Christianity at last found recognition by the State; and this brought new problems – apologies of a different sort had to be prepared. Lastly, Eusebius wrote eulogies in praise of Constantine. To all this activity must be added numerous writings of a miscellaneous nature, addresses, letters, and the like, and exegetical works that extended over the whole of his life and that include both commentaries and an important treatise on the location of biblical place names and the distances between these cities. Onomasticon[edit] Main article: Onomasticon (Eusebius) Biblical text criticism[edit] Eusebius's canon tables were often included in Early Medieval Gospel books Pamphilus and Eusebius occupied themselves with the textual criticism of the Septuagint text of the Old Testament and especially of the New Testament. An edition of the Septuagint seems to have been already prepared by Origen, which, according to Jerome, was revised and circulated by Eusebius and Pamphilus. For an easier survey of the material of the four Evangelists, Eusebius divided his edition of the New Testament into paragraphs and provided it with a synoptical table so that it might be easier to find the pericopes that belong together. These canon tables or "Eusebian canons" remained in use throughout the Middle Ages, and illuminated manuscript versions are important for the study of early medieval art, as they are the most elaborately decorated pages of many Gospel books. Eusebius detailed in Epistula ad Carpianum how to use his canons. Chronicle[edit] Main article: Chronicon (Eusebius) The Chronicle (Παντοδαπὴ Ἱστορία (Pantodape historia)) is divided into two parts. The first part, the Chronography (Χρονογραφία (Chronographia)), gives an epitome of universal history from the sources, arranged according to nations. The second part, the Canons (Χρονικοὶ Κανόνες (Chronikoi kanones)), furnishes a synchronism of the historical material in parallel columns, the equivalent of a parallel timeline.[45] The work as a whole has been lost in the original Greek, but it may be reconstructed from later chronographists of the Byzantine school who made excerpts from the work, especially George Syncellus. The tables of the second part have been completely preserved in a Latin translation by Jerome, and both parts are still extant in an Armenian translation. The loss of the Greek originals has given the Armenian translation a special importance; thus, the first part of Eusebius' Chronicle, of which only a few fragments exist in the Greek, has been preserved entirely in Armenian, though with lacunae. The Chronicle as preserved extends to the year 325.[46] Church History[edit] Main article: Church History (Eusebius) In his Church History or Ecclesiastical History, Eusebius wrote the first surviving history of the Christian Church as a chronologically-ordered account, based on earlier sources, complete from the period of the Apostles to his own epoch.[47] The time scheme correlated the history with the reigns of the Roman Emperors, and the scope was broad. Included were the bishops and other teachers of the Church, Christian relations with the Jews and those deemed heretical, and the Christian martyrs through 324.[48] Although its accuracy and biases have been questioned,[49] it remains an important source on the early church due to Eusebius's access to materials now lost.[50] Life of Constantine[edit] Eusebius' Life of Constantine (Vita Constantini) is a eulogy or panegyric, and therefore its style and selection of facts are affected by its purpose, rendering it inadequate as a continuation of the Church History. As the historian Socrates Scholasticus said, at the opening of his history which was designed as a continuation of Eusebius, "Also in writing the life of Constantine, this same author has but slightly treated of matters regarding Arius, being more intent on the rhetorical finish of his composition and the praises of the emperor than on an accurate statement of facts." The work was unfinished at Eusebius' death. Some scholars have questioned the Eusebian authorship of this work. Conversion of Constantine according to Eusebius[edit] Main article: Constantine the Great and Christianity Writing decades after Constantine had died, Eusebius claimed that the emperor himself had recounted to him that some time between the death of his father – the augustus Constantius – and his final battle against his rival Maxentius as augustus in the West, Constantine experienced a vision in which he and his soldiers beheld a Christian symbol, "a cross-shaped trophy formed from light", above the sun at midday.[51][52] Attached to the symbol was the phrase "by this conquer" (ἐν τούτῳ νίκα, en toútōi níka), a phrase often rendered into Latin as "in hoc signo vinces".[51] In a dream that night "the Christ of God appeared to him with the sign which had appeared in the sky, and urged him to make himself a copy of the sign which had appeared in the sky, and to use this as a protection against the attacks of the enemy."[52] Eusebius relates that this happened "on a campaign he [Constantine] was conducting somewhere".[52][51] It is unclear from Eusebius's description whether the shields were marked with a Christian cross or with a chi-rho, a staurogram, or another similar symbol.[51] The Latin text De mortibus persecutorum contains an early account of the 28 October 312 Battle of the Milvian Bridge written by Lactantius probably in 313, the year following the battle. Lactantius does not mention a vision in the sky but describes a revelatory dream on the eve of battle.[53] Eusebius's work of that time, his Church History, also makes no mention of the vision.[51] The Arch of Constantine, constructed in AD 315, neither depicts a vision nor any Christian insignia in its depiction of the battle. In his posthumous biography of Constantine, Eusebius agrees with Lactantius that Constantine received instructions in a dream to apply a Christian symbol as a device to his soldiers' shields, but unlike Lactantius and subsequent Christian tradition, Eusebius does not date the events to October 312 and does not connect Constantine's vision and dream-vision with the Battle of the Milvian Bridge.[51] Minor historical works[edit] Before he compiled his church history, Eusebius edited a collection of martyrdoms of the earlier period and a biography of Pamphilus. The martyrology has not survived as a whole, but it has been preserved almost completely in parts. It contained: an epistle of the congregation of Smyrna concerning the martyrdom of Polycarp; the martyrdom of Pionius; the martyrdoms of Carpus, Papylus, and Agathonike; the martyrdoms in the congregations of Vienne and Lyon; the martyrdom of Apollonius. Of the life of Pamphilus, only a fragment survives. A work on the martyrs of Palestine in the time of Diocletian was composed after 311; numerous fragments are scattered in legendaries which have yet to be collected. The life of Constantine was compiled after the death of the emperor and the election of his sons as Augusti (337). It is more a rhetorical eulogy on the emperor than a history but is of great value on account of numerous documents incorporated into it. Apologetic and dogmatic works[edit] To the class of apologetic and dogmatic works belong: The Apology for Origen, the first five books of which, according to the definite statement of Photius, were written by Pamphilus in prison, with the assistance of Eusebius. Eusebius added the sixth book after the death of Pamphilus. We possess only a Latin translation of the first book, made by Rufinus. A treatise against Hierocles (a Roman governor), in which Eusebius combated the former's glorification of Apollonius of Tyana in a work entitled A Truth-loving Discourse (Greek: Philalethes logos); in spite of manuscript attribution to Eusebius, however, it has been argued (by Thomas Hagg[54] and more recently, Aaron Johnson)[55] that this treatise "Against Hierocles" was written by someone other than Eusebius of Caesarea. Praeparatio evangelica (Preparation for the Gospel), commonly known by its Latin title, which attempts to prove the excellence of Christianity over every pagan religion and philosophy. The Praeparatio consists of fifteen books which have been completely preserved. Eusebius considered it an introduction to Christianity for pagans. But its value for many later readers is more because Eusebius studded this work with so many lively fragments from historians and philosophers which are nowhere else preserved. Here alone is preserved Pyrrho's translation of the Buddhist Three marks of existence upon which Pyrrho based Pyrrhonism. Here alone is a summary of the writings of the Phoenician priest Sanchuniathon of which the accuracy has been shown by the mythological accounts found on the Ugaritic tables. Here alone is the account from Diodorus Siculus's sixth book of Euhemerus' wondrous voyage to the island of Panchaea where Euhemerus purports to have found his true history of the gods. And here almost alone is preserved writings of the neo-Platonist philosopher Atticus along with so much else. Demonstratio evangelica (Proof of the Gospel) is closely connected to the Praeparatio and comprised originally twenty books of which ten have been completely preserved as well as a fragment of the fifteenth. Here Eusebius treats of the person of Jesus Christ. The work was probably finished before 311; Another work which originated in the time of the persecution, entitled Prophetic Extracts (Eclogae propheticae). It discusses in four books the Messianic texts of Scripture. The work is merely the surviving portion (books 6–9) of the General elementary introduction to the Christian faith, now lost. The fragments given as the Commentary on Luke in the PG have been claimed to derive from the missing tenth book of the General Elementary Introduction (see D. S. Wallace-Hadrill); however, Aaron Johnson has argued that they cannot be associated with this work.[56] The treatise On Divine Manifestation or On the Theophania (Peri theophaneias), of unknown date. It treats of the incarnation of the Divine Logos, and its contents are in many cases identical with the Demonstratio evangelica. Only fragments are preserved in Greek, but a complete Syriac translation of the Theophania survives in an early 5th-century manuscript. Samuel Lee, the editor (1842) and translator (1843) of the Syriac Theophania, thought that the work must have been written "after the general peace restored to the Church by Constantine, and before either the 'Praeparatio,' or the 'Demonstratio Evangelica,' was written ...It appears probable ... therefore, that this was one of the first productions of Eusebius, if not the first after the persecutions ceased."[57] Hugo Gressmann, noting in 1904 that the Demonstratio seems to be mentioned at IV. 37 and V. 1, and that II. 14 seems to mention the extant practice of temple prostitution at Hieropolis in Phoenica, concluded that the Theophania was probably written shortly after 324. Others have suggested a date as late as 337.[58] A polemical treatise against Marcellus of Ancyra, the Against Marcellus, dating from about 337; A supplement to the last-named work, also against Marcellus, entitled Ecclesiastical Theology, in which he defended the Nicene doctrine of the Logos against the party of Athanasius. A number of writings, belonging in this category, have been entirely lost. Exegetical and miscellaneous works[edit] All of the exegetical works of Eusebius have suffered damage in transmission. The majority of them are known to us only from long portions quoted in Byzantine catena-commentaries. However these portions are very extensive. Extant are: An enormous Commentary on the Psalms; A commentary on Isaiah, discovered more or less complete in a manuscript in Florence early in the 20th century and published 50 years later; Small fragments of commentaries on Romans and 1 Corinthians. Eusebius also wrote a work Quaestiones ad Stephanum et Marinum, On the Differences of the Gospels (including solutions). This was written for the purpose of harmonizing the contradictions in the reports of the different Evangelists. This work was recently (2011) translated into the English language by David J. Miller and Adam C. McCollum and was published under the name Eusebius of Caesarea: Gospel Problems and Solutions.[59] The original work was also translated into Syriac, and lengthy quotations exist in a catena in that language, and also in Coptic and Arabic catenas.[60] Eusebius also wrote treatises on the Biblical past; these three treatises have been lost. They were: A work on the Greek equivalents of Hebrew Gentilic nouns; A description of old Judea with an account of the loss of the ten tribes; A plan of Jerusalem and the Temple of Solomon. The addresses and sermons of Eusebius are mostly lost, but some have been preserved, e.g., a sermon on the consecration of the church in Tyre and an address on the thirtieth anniversary of the reign of Constantine (336). Most of Eusebius' letters are lost. His letters to Carpianus and Flacillus exist complete. Fragments of a letter to the empress Constantia also exists. Doctrine[edit] This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (December 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Eusebius is fairly unusual in his preterist, or fulfilled, eschatological view. Saying "the Holy Scriptures foretell that there will be unmistakable signs of the Coming of Christ. Now there were among the Hebrews three outstanding offices of dignity, which made the nation famous, firstly the kingship, secondly that of prophet, and lastly the high priesthood. The prophecies said that the abolition and complete destruction of all these three together would be the sign of the presence of the Christ. And that the proofs that the times had come, would lie in the ceasing of the Mosaic worship, the desolation of Jerusalem and its Temple, and the subjection of the whole Jewish race to its enemies. ...The holy oracles foretold that all these changes, which had not been made in the days of the prophets of old, would take place at the coming of the Christ, which I will presently shew to have been fulfilled as never before in accordance with the predictions" (Demonstratio Evangelica VIII). From a dogmatic point of view, Eusebius stands entirely upon the shoulders of Origen. Like Origen, he started from the fundamental thought of the absolute sovereignty (monarchia) of God. God is the cause of all beings. But he is not merely a cause; in him everything good is included, from him all life originates, and he is the source of all virtue. God sent Christ into the world that it may partake of the blessings included in the essence of God. Eusebius expressly distinguishes the Son as distinct from Father as a ray is also distinct from its source the sun.[citation needed] Eusebius held that men were sinners by their own free choice and not by the necessity of their natures. Eusebius said: The Creator of all things has impressed a natural law upon the soul of every man, as an assistant and ally in his conduct, pointing out to him the right way by this law; but, by the free liberty with which he is endowed, making the choice of what is best worthy of praise and acceptance, he has acted rightly, not by force, but from his own free-will, when he had it in his power to act otherwise, As, again, making him who chooses what is worst, deserving of blame and punishment, because he has by his own motion neglected the natural law, and becoming the origin and fountain of wickedness, and misusing himself, not from any extraneous necessity, but from free will and judgment. The fault is in him who chooses, not in God. For God has not made nature or the substance of the soul bad; for he who is good can make nothing but what is good. Everything is good which is according to nature. Every rational soul has naturally a good free-will, formed for the choice of what is good. But when a man acts wrongly, nature is not to be blamed; for what is wrong, takes place not according to nature, but contrary to nature, it being the work of choice, and not of nature.[61] A letter Eusebius is supposed to have written to Constantine's daughter Constantina, refusing to fulfill her request for images of Christ, was quoted in the decrees (now lost) of the Iconoclast Council of Hieria in 754, and later quoted in part in the rebuttal of the Hieria decrees in the Second Council of Nicaea of 787, now the only source from which some of the text is known. The authenticity or authorship of the letter remains uncertain.[62] Nicene Creed[edit] In the June 2002 issue of the Church History journal, Pier Beatrice reports that Eusebius testified that the word homoousios (consubstantial) "was inserted in the Nicene Creed solely by the personal order of Constantine."[63] According to Eusebius of Caesarea, the word homoousios was inserted in the Nicene Creed solely by the personal order of Constantine. But this statement is highly problematic. It is very difficult to explain the seeming paradoxical fact that this word, along with the explanation given by Constantine, was accepted by the "Arian" Eusebius, whereas it has left no traces at all in the works of his opponents, the leaders of the anti-Arian party such as Alexander of Alexandria, Ossius of Cordova, Marcellus of Ancyra, and Eustathius of Antioch, who are usually considered Constantine's theological advisers and the strongest supporters of the council. Neither before nor during Constantine's time is there any evidence of a normal, well-established Christian use of the term homoousios in its strictly Trinitarian meaning. Having once excluded any relationship of the Nicene homoousios with the Christian tradition, it becomes legitimate to propose a new explanation, based on an analysis of two pagan documents which have so far never been taken into account. The main thesis of this paper is that homoousios came straight from Constantine's Hermetic background. As can be clearly seen in the Poimandres, and even more clearly in an inscription mentioned exclusively in the Theosophia, in the theological language of Egyptian paganism the word homoousios meant that the Nous-Father and the Logos-Son, who are two distinct beings, share the same perfection of the divine nature. — Pier Franco Beatrice, "The Word 'Homoousios' from Hellenism to Christianity", Church History, Volume 71, № 2, June 2002, p. 243 Assessment[edit] Edward Gibbon openly distrusted the writings of Eusebius concerning the number of martyrs, by noting a passage in the shorter text of the Martyrs of Palestine attached to the Ecclesiastical History (Book 8, Chapter 2) in which Eusebius introduces his description of the martyrs of the Great Persecution under Diocletian with: "Wherefore we have decided to relate nothing concerning them except the things in which we can vindicate the Divine judgment. ...We shall introduce into this history in general only those events which may be useful first to ourselves and afterwards to posterity." In the longer text of the same work, chapter 12, Eusebius states: "I think it best to pass by all the other events which occurred in the meantime: such as ... the lust of power on the part of many, the disorderly and unlawful ordinations, and the schisms among the confessors themselves; also the novelties which were zealously devised against the remnants of the Church by the new and factious members, who added innovation after innovation and forced them in unsparingly among the calamities of the persecution, heaping misfortune upon misfortune. I judge it more suitable to shun and avoid the account of these things, as I said at the beginning." When his own honesty was challenged by his contemporaries,[64] Gibbon appealed to a chapter heading in Eusebius' Praeparatio evangelica (Book XII, Chapter 31)[65] in which Eusebius discussed "that it will be necessary sometimes to use falsehood as a remedy for the benefit of those who require such a mode of treatment."[66] Although Gibbon refers to Eusebius as the "gravest" of the ecclesiastical historians,[67] he also suggests that Eusebius was more concerned with the passing political concerns of his time than with his duty as a reliable historian.[68] Jacob Burckhardt (19th century cultural historian) dismissed Eusebius as "the first thoroughly dishonest historian of antiquity". Other critics of Eusebius' work cite the panegyrical tone of the Vita, plus the omission of internal Christian conflicts in the Canones, as reasons to interpret his writing with caution.[69] Alternate views have suggested that Gibbon's dismissal of Eusebius is inappropriate: With reference to Gibbon's comments, Joseph Barber Lightfoot (late 19th century theologian and former Bishop of Durham) pointed out[70] that Eusebius' statements indicate his honesty in stating what he was not going to discuss, and also his limitations as a historian in not including such material. He also discusses the question of accuracy. "The manner in which Eusebius deals with his very numerous quotations elsewhere, where we can test his honesty, is a sufficient vindication against this unjust charge." Lightfoot also notes that Eusebius cannot always be relied on: "A far more serious drawback to his value as a historian is the loose and uncritical spirit in which he sometimes deals with his materials. This shows itself in diverse ways. He is not always to be trusted in his discrimination of genuine and spurious documents." Averil Cameron (professor at King's College London and Oxford) and Stuart Hall (historian and theologian), in their recent translation of the Life of Constantine, point out that writers such as Burckhardt found it necessary to attack Eusebius in order to undermine the ideological legitimacy of the Habsburg empire, which based itself on the idea of Christian empire derived from Constantine, and that the most controversial letter in the Life has since been found among the papyri of Egypt.[71] In Church History (Vol. 59, 1990), Michael J. Hollerich (assistant professor at the Jesuit Santa Clara University, California) replies to Burckhardt's criticism of Eusebius, that "Eusebius has been an inviting target for students of the Constantinian era. At one time or another they have characterized him as a political propagandist, a good courtier, the shrewd and worldly adviser of the Emperor Constantine, the great publicist of the first Christian emperor, the first in a long succession of ecclesiastical politicians, the herald of Byzantinism, a political theologian, a political metaphysician, and a caesaropapist. It is obvious that these are not, in the main, neutral descriptions. Much traditional scholarship, sometimes with barely suppressed disdain, has regarded Eusebius as one who risked his orthodoxy and perhaps his character because of his zeal for the Constantinian establishment." Hollerich concludes that "the standard assessment has exaggerated the importance of political themes and political motives in Eusebius's life and writings and has failed to do justice to him as a churchman and a scholar". While many have shared Burckhardt's assessment, particularly with reference to the Life of Constantine, others, while not pretending to extol his merits, have acknowledged the irreplaceable value of his works which may principally reside in the copious quotations that they contain from other sources, often lost. Bibliography[edit] Eusebius of Caesarea. Historia Ecclesiastica (Church History) first seven books ca. 300, eighth and ninth book ca. 313, tenth book ca. 315, epilogue ca. 325. Migne, J.P., ed. Eusebiou tou Pamphilou, episkopou tes en Palaistine Kaisareias ta euriskomena panta (in Greek). Patrologia Graeca 19–24. Paris, 1857. Online at Khazar Skeptik and Documenta Catholica Omnia. Accessed 4 November 2009. McGiffert, Arthur Cushman, trans. Church History. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent and CCEL. Accessed 28 September 2009. Williamson, G.A., trans. Church History. London: Penguin, 1989. Contra Hieroclem (Against Hierocles). Onomasticon (On the Place-Names in Holy Scripture). Klostermann, E., ed. Eusebius' Werke 3.1 (Die griechischen christlichen Schrifsteller der ersten (drei) Jahrhunderte 11.1. Leipzig and Berlin, 1904). Online at the Internet Archive. Accessed 29 January 2010. Wolf, Umhau, trans. The Onomasticon of Eusebius Pamphili: Compared with the version of Jerome and annotated. Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 1971. Online at Tertullian. Accessed 29 January 2010. Taylor, Joan E., ed. Palestine in the Fourth Century. The Onomasticon by Eusebius of Caesarea, translated by Greville Freeman-Grenville, and indexed by Rupert Chapman III (Jerusalem: Carta, 2003). De Martyribus Palestinae (On the Martyrs of Palestine). McGiffert, Arthur Cushman, trans. Martyrs of Palestine. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent and CCEL. Accessed June 9, 2009. Cureton, William, trans. History of the Martyrs in Palestine by Eusebius of Caesarea, Discovered in a Very Antient Syriac Manuscript. London: Williams & Norgate, 1861. Online at Tertullian. Accessed September 28, 2009. Praeparatio Evangelica (Preparation for the Gospel). Demonstratio Evangelica (Demonstration of the Gospel). Theophania (Theophany). Laudes Constantini (In Praise of Constantine) 335. Migne, J.P., ed. Eusebiou tou Pamphilou, episkopou tes en Palaistine Kaisareias ta euriskomena panta (in Greek). Patrologia Graeca 19–24. Paris, 1857. Online at Khazar Skeptik. Accessed 4 November 2009. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Oration in Praise of Constantine. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent. Accessed 19 October 2009. Vita Constantini (The Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine) ca. 336–39. Migne, J.P., ed. Eusebiou tou Pamphilou, episkopou tes en Palaistine Kaisareias ta euriskomena panta (in Greek). Patrologia Graeca 19–24. Paris, 1857. Online at Khazar Skeptik. Accessed 4 November 2009. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Life of Constantine. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent. Accessed 9 June 2009. Cameron, Averil and Stuart Hall, trans. Life of Constantine. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Gregory Thaumaturgus. Oratio Panegyrica. Salmond, S.D.F., trans. From Ante-Nicene Fathers, Vol. 6. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent. Accessed 31 January 2010. Jerome. Chronicon (Chronicle) ca. 380. Fotheringham, John Knight, ed. The Bodleian Manuscript of Jerome's Version of the Chronicle of Eusebius. Oxford: Clarendon, 1905. Online at the Internet Archive. Accessed 8 October 2009. Pearse, Roger, et al., trans. The Chronicle of St. Jerome, in Early Church Fathers: Additional Texts. Tertullian, 2005. Online at Tertullian. Accessed 14 August 2009. de Viris Illustribus (On Illustrious Men) 392. Herding, W., ed. De Viris Illustribus (in Latin). Leipzig: Teubner, 1879. Online at Internet Archive. Accessed 6 October 2009. Liber de viris inlustribus (in Latin). Texte und Untersuchungen 14. Leipzig, 1896. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. De Viris Illustribus (On Illustrious Men). From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 3. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent. Accessed 15 August 2009. Epistulae (Letters). Fremantle, W.H., G. Lewis and W.G. Martley, trans. Letters. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 6. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1893. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent and CCEL. Accessed 19 October 2009. Origen. De Principiis (On First Principles). See also[edit] Church Fathers Constantine I and Christianity Early Christianity Fifty Bibles of Constantine Travelogues of Palestine Notes[edit] ^ Pamphilus might not have obtained all of Origen's writings, however: the library's text of Origen's commentary on Isaiah broke off at 30:6, while the original commentary was said to have taken up thirty volumes.[22] ^ There are three interpretations of this term: (1) that Eusebius was the "spiritual son", or favored pupil, of Pamphilus;[29] (2) that Eusebius was literally adopted by Pamphilus;[28] and (3) that Eusebius was Pamphilus' biological son. The third explanation is the least popular among scholars. The scholion on the Preparation for the Gospels 1.3 in the Codex Paris. 451 is usually adduced in support of the thesis. Most reject the scholion as too late or misinformed, but E. H. Gifford, an editor and translator of the Preparation, believes it to have been written by Arethas, the tenth-century archbishop of Caesarea, who was in a position to know the truth of the matter.[30] References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Ayad, Mariam. Studies in Coptic Culture: Transmission and Interaction. New York:The American University in Cairo Press, 2016, p. 31, footnote 37. ^ https://marginalia.lareviewofbooks.org/discoveries-ethiopian-desert/ ^ McKenzie, Judith S, & Watson, Francis. The Garima Gospels: Early Illuminated Gospel Books from Ethiopia. Manar al-Athar, 2016, pp. 146 & 154 ^ "For these reasons I am satisfied that our present passages in Luke Chapter 2 from the Coptic Cantenado belong to Eusebius of Caesarea, despite his designation in Fr. Copt. 12 as 'the holy' or 'Saint' Eusebius, because the discussion of Mary bringing forth her 'first-born son' and the language used in this context seems so clearly to reflect the creedal formula of Caesarea, as mentioned above, and do not seem appropriate material for St. Eusebius of Vercelli or for Eusebius' student, Eusebius of Emesa; in addition, the name Eusebius appeared for a long time in the calendar of Saints, even though it was sometimes doubtful whether it was always Eusebius of Caesarea being referred to." Ayad, Mariam. Studies in Coptic Culture: Transmission and Interaction. New York:The American University in Cairo Press, 2016, p. 26. ^ https://www.roger-pearse.com/weblog/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Eusebius_Gospel_problems_and_solutions_2010.pdf , contains Fragment 12 of the Coptic Cantena described in the above reference. ^ McKenzie, Judith S, & Watson, Francis. The Garima Gospels: Early Illuminated Gospel Books from Ethiopia. Manar al-Athar, 2016, pp. 145-163 ^ a b c Gonzalez, Justo L. (2010-08-10). The Story of Christianity: Volume 1: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation. Zondervan. pp. 149–150. ISBN 978-0-06-185588-7.CS1 maint: date and year (link) ^ Pamphili, Eusebius (2013). Elowsky (ed.). Commentary on Isaiah. Downers Grove, Illinois: IVP Academic. pp. xxxii. ISBN 9780830829132. ^ Lang, T.J. (1015). Mystery and the Making of a Christian Historical Consciousness. Berlin/Boston: Walter de Gruyter. p. 195. ISBN 978-3-11-044267-0. ^ Ferguson, Thomas C. (2005). The Past is Prologue: The Revolution of Nicene Historiography. Leiden/Boston: Brill. pp. 10. ISBN 90-04-14457-9. ^ Ferguson (15 June 2005). The Past is Prologue: The Revolution of Nicene Historiography. p. 49. ISBN 9789047407836. ^ Wallace-Hadrill, 11. ^ Barnes, Timothy David (1981). Constantine and Eusebius. Harvard University Press. p. 277. ISBN 978-0-674-16531-1. Between 260-265 birth of Eusebius ^ Louth, "Birth of church history", 266; Quasten, 3.309. ^ "CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Eusebius of Caesarea". www.newadvent.org. Retrieved 2020-05-29. ^ a b Wallace-Hadrill, 12, citing Socrates, Historia Ecclesiastica 1.8; Theodoret, Historia Ecclesiastica 1.11. ^ Wallace-Hadrill, 12, citing Vita Constantini 1.19. ^ Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 7.32.4, qtd. and tr. D. S. Wallace-Hadrill, 12; Wallace-Hadrill cites J. H. Newman, The Arians of the Fourth Century (1890), 262, in 12 n. 4. ^ C.G. Bateman, Origen’s Role in the Formation of the New Testament Canon, 2010. ^ Quasten, 3.309. ^ Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 6.32.3–4; Kofsky, 12. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 333 n. 114, citing Eusebius, HE 6.32.1; In Is. pp. 195.20–21 Ziegler. ^ Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 6.32.3–4; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 93; idem., "Eusebius of Caesarea", 2 col. 2. ^ Levine, 124–25. ^ Kofsky, 12, citing Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 7.32.25. On Origen's school, see: Gregory, Oratio Panegyrica; Kofsky, 12–13. ^ Levine, 125. ^ Levine, 122. ^ a b c d e Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 94. ^ Quasten, 3.310. ^ Wallace-Hadrill, 12 n. 1. ^ Wallace-Hadrill, 11–12. ^ Quasten, 3.309–10. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 93, 95; Louth, "Birth of church history", 266. ^ Jerome, de Viris Illustribus 76, qtd. and tr. Louth, "Birth of church history", 266. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 93, 95. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 93–94. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 95. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 277; Wallace-Hadrill, 12–13. ^ Vermes, Geza (2012). Christian Beginnings from Nazareth to Nicea. Allen Lane the Penguin Press. p. 228. ^ Walker, Williston (1959). A History of the Christian Church. Scribner. p. 108. ^ Bruce L. Shelley, Church History in Plain Language, (2nd ed. Dallas, Texas: Word Publishing, 1995.), p.102. ^ Cameron, Averil; Hall, Stuart G., eds. (1999). Eusebius' Life of Constantine. Clarendon Ancient History. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158847-1. ^ Schaff, Philip and Rev. Arthur Cushman McGiffert, Ph.D. Eusebius Pamphilius: Church History, Life of Constantine, Oration in Praise of Constantine. Grand Rapids, MI: Christian Classics Ethereal Library, (1890). 27. ^ Colm Luibheid, The Essential Eusebius : The Story of the First Centuries of the Christian Church in the Words of Its Greatest Historian, Mentor-Omega Press, 1966, p 31. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 112. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 112–13, 340 n. 58. ^ Chesnut, Glenn F. (1986), "Introduction", The First Christian Histories: Eusebius, Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret, and Evagrius ^ Maier, Paul L. (2007), Eusebius: The Church History – Translation and Commentary by Paul L. Maier, p. 9 and 16 ^ See, e.g., James the Brother of Jesus (book) by Robert Eisenman. ^ "Ecclesiastical History", Catholic Encyclopedia, New Advent ^ a b c d e f Bardill, Jonathan; Bardill (2012). Constantine, Divine Emperor of the Christian Golden Age. Cambridge University Press. pp. 159–170. ISBN 978-0-521-76423-0. ^ a b c Eusebius of Caesarea, Vita Constantini, 1.29 ^ Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum, 44.5–6 ^ Thomas Hagg, "Hierocles the Lover of Truth and Eusebius the Sophist," SO 67 (1992): 138–50 ^ Aaron Johnson, "The Author of the Against Hierocles: A Response to Borzì and Jones," JTS 64 (2013): 574–594) ^ Aaron Johnson, "The Tenth Book of Eusebius' General Elementary Introduction: A Critique of the Wallace-Hadrill Thesis," Journal of Theological Studies, 62.1 (2011): 144–160 ^ Eusebius, Bishop of Caesarea On the Theophania, or Divine Manifestation of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ (Cambridge, 1843), pp. xxi–xxii. Lee's full passage is as follows: "As to the period at which it was written, I think it must have been, after the general peace restored to the Church by Constantine, and before either the "Praeparatio", or the "Demonstratio Evangelica", was written. My reason for the first of these suppositions is: Our author speaks repeatedly of the peace restored to the Church; of Churches and Schools restored, or then built for the first time : of the nourishing state of the Church of Caesarea; of the extended, and then successfully extending, state of Christianity : all of which could not have been said during the times of the last, and most severe persecution. My reasons for the second of these suppositions are, the considerations that whatever portions of this Work are found, either in the "Praeparatio", |22 the "Demonstratio Evangelica", or the " Oratio de laudibus Constantini", they there occur in no regular sequence of argument as they do in this Work: especially in the latter, into which they have been carried evidently for the purpose of lengthening out a speech. Besides, many of these places are amplified in these works, particularly in the two former as remarked in my notes; which seems to suggest, that such additions were made either to accommodate these to the new soil, into which they had been so transplanted, or, to supply some new matter, which had suggested itself to our author. And again, as both the "Praeparatio" and "Demonstratio Evangelica", are works which must have required very considerable time to complete them, and which would even then be unfit for general circulation; it appears probable to me, that this more popular, and more useful work, was first composed and published, and that the other two,--illustrating as they generally do, some particular points only,--argued in order in our Work,-- were reserved for the reading and occasional writing of our author during a considerable number of years, as well for the satisfaction of his own mind, as for the general reading of the learned. It appears probable to me therefore, that this was one of the first productions of Eusebius, if not the first after the persecutions ceased." ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius (Harvard, 1981), p. 367, n.176. Note that Lee (p. 285) thinks that the passage in V. 1 refers to an earlier section within the Theophania itself, rather than to the Demonstratio. ^ Caesaea, Eusebius of; Miller, David J. D.; McCollum, Adam C.; Downer, Carol; Zamagni, Claudio (2010-03-06). Eusebius of Caesarea: Gospel Problems and Solutions (Ancient Texts in Translation): Roger Pearse, David J Miller, Adam C McCollum: 9780956654014: Amazon.com: Books. ISBN 978-0956654014. ^ Georg Graf, Geschichte der christlichen arabischen Literatur vol. 1 ^ The Christian Examiner, Volume One, published by James Miller, 1824 Edition, p. 66 ^ David M. Gwynn, "From Iconoclasm to Arianism: The Construction of Christian Tradition in the Iconoclast Controversy" [Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 47 (2007) 225–251], p. 227-245. ^ Beatrice, Pier Franco (June 2002). "The Word "Homoousios" from Hellenism to Christianity". Church History. 71 (2): 243–272. doi:10.1017/S0009640700095688. JSTOR 4146467. ^ See Gibbon's Vindication for examples of the accusations that he faced. ^ "Eusebius of Caesarea: Praeparatio Evangelica (translated by E.H. Gifford)". tertullian.org. Retrieved 2013-03-04. ^ "Data for discussing the meaning of pseudos and Eusebius in PE XII, 31". tertullian.org. Retrieved 2008-02-01. ^ "The gravest of the ecclesiastical historians, Eusebius himself, indirectly confesses, that he has related whatever might redound to the glory, and that he has suppressed all that could tend to the disgrace, of religion." (History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol II, Chapter XVI) ^ "Such an acknowledgment will naturally excite a suspicion that a writer who has so openly violated one of the fundamental laws of history has not paid a very strict regard to the observance of the other; and the suspicion will derive additional credit from the character of Eusebius, which was less tinctured with credulity, and more practised in the arts of courts, than that of almost any of his contemporaries." (History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol II, Chapter XVI) ^ Burgess, R. W., and Witold Witakowski. 1999. Studies in Eusebian and Post-Eusebian chronography 1. The "Chronici canones" of Eusebius of Caesarea: structure, content and chronology, AD 282–325 – 2. The "Continuatio Antiochiensis Eusebii": a chronicle of Antioch and the Roman Near East during the Reigns of Constantine and Constantius II, AD 325–350. Historia (Wiesbaden, Germany), Heft 135. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner. Page 69. ^ "J.B. Lightfoot, Eusebius of Caesarea". tertullian.org. Retrieved 2008-02-01. ^ Averil Cameron, Stuart G. Hall, Eusebius' Life of Constantine. Introduction, translation and commentary. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. Pp. xvii + 395. ISBN 0-19-814924-7. Reviewed in BMCR Sources[edit] Barnes, Timothy D. (1981). Constantine and Eusebius. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-16530-4. Eusebius (1999). Life of Constantine. Averil Cameron and Stuart G. Hall, trans. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814924-8. Drake, H. A. (2002). Constantine and the bishops the policy of intolerance. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-7104-7. Kofsky, Aryeh (2000). Eusebius of Caesarea against paganism. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-11642-9. Lawlor, Hugh Jackson (1912). Eusebiana: essays on the Ecclesiastical history of Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Levine, Lee I. (1975). Caesarea under Roman rule. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-04013-7. Louth, Andrew (2004). "Eusebius and the Birth of Church History". In Young, Frances; Ayres, Lewis; Louth, Andrew (eds.). The Cambridge history of early Christian literature. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. pp. 266–274. ISBN 978-0-521-46083-5. Momigliano, Arnaldo (1989). On pagans, Jews, and Christians. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press. ISBN 978-0-8195-6218-0. Newman, John Henry (1890). The Arians of the Fourth Century (7th ed.). London: Longmans, Green and Co. Sabrina Inowlocki & Claudio Zamagni (eds), Reconsidering Eusebius: Collected papers on literary, historical, and theological issues (Leiden, Brill, 2011) (Vigiliae Christianae, Supplements, 107). Wallace-Hadrill, D. S. (1960). Eusebius of Caesarea. London: A. R. Mowbray. Further reading[edit] Attridge, Harold W.; Hata, Gohei, eds. (1992). Eusebius, Christianity, and Judaism. Detroit: Wayne State Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-8143-2361-8. Chesnut, Glenn F. (1986). The first Christian histories : Eusebius, Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret, and Evagrius (2nd ed.). Macon, GA: Mercer University Press. ISBN 978-0-86554-164-1. Drake, H. A. (1976). In praise of Constantine : a historical study and new translation of Eusebius' Tricennial orations. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-09535-9. Eusebius (1984). The History of the Church from Christ to Constantine. G.A. Williamson, trans. New York: Dorset Press. ISBN 978-0-88029-022-7. Grant, Robert M. (1980). Eusebius as Church Historian. Oxford: Clarendon Pr. ISBN 978-0-19-826441-5. Valois, Henri de (1833). "Annotations on the Life and Writings of Eusebius Pamphilus". The Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius Pamphilus. S. E. Parker, trans. Philadelphia: Davis. External links[edit] WMF project links Media related to Eusebius of Caesarea at Wikimedia Commons Quotations related to Eusebius at Wikiquote Works written by or about Eusebius of Caesarea at Wikisource Primary sources Church History (Eusebius); The Life of Constantine (Eusebius), online at ccel.org. History of the Martyrs in Palestine (Eusebius), English translation (1861) William Cureton. Website tertullian.org. Eusebius of Caesarea, The Gospel Canon Tables Eusebius, Six extracts from the Commentary on the Psalms. Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Graeca with analytical indexes complete Greek text of Eusebius' works Works by or about Eusebius at Internet Archive Works by Eusebius at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Secondary sources "Eusebius" in New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia (1917) Eusebius of Caesarea at the Tertullian Project Extensive bibliography at EarlyChurch.org Chronological list of Eusebius's writings Titles of the Great Christian Church Preceded by Agapius of Caesarea Bishop of Caesarea c. 313–339 Succeeded by Acacius v t e History of Catholic theology Key figures General History of the Catholic Church Timeline History of the papacy Papal primacy Ecumenical councils Catholic Bible Vulgate Biblical canon History of Christian theology Early Church Paul Clement of Rome First Epistle of Clement Didache Ignatius of Antioch Polycarp Epistle of Barnabas The Shepherd of Hermas Aristides of Athens Justin Martyr Epistle to Diognetus Irenaeus Montanism Tertullian Origen Antipope Novatian Cyprian Constantine to Pope Gregory I Eusebius Athanasius of Alexandria Arianism Pelagianism Nestorianism Monophysitism Ephrem the Syrian Hilary of Poitiers Cyril of Jerusalem Basil of Caesarea Gregory of Nazianzus Gregory of Nyssa Ambrose John Chrysostom Jerome Augustine of Hippo John Cassian Orosius Cyril of Alexandria Peter Chrysologus Pope Leo I Boethius Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite Pope Gregory I Early Middle Ages Isidore of Seville John Climacus Maximus the Confessor Monothelitism Ecthesis Bede John of Damascus Iconoclasm Transubstantiation dispute Predestination disputes Paulinus II of Aquileia Alcuin Benedict of Aniane Rabanus Maurus Paschasius Radbertus John Scotus Eriugena High Middle Ages Roscellinus Gregory of Narek Berengar of Tours Peter Damian Anselm of Canterbury Joachim of Fiore Peter Abelard Decretum Gratiani Bernard of Clairvaux Peter Lombard Anselm of Laon Hildegard of Bingen Hugh of Saint Victor Dominic de Guzmán Robert Grosseteste Francis of Assisi Anthony of Padua Beatrice of Nazareth Bonaventure Albertus Magnus Boetius of Dacia Henry of Ghent Thomas Aquinas Siger of Brabant Thomism Roger Bacon Mysticism and reforms Ramon Llull Duns Scotus Dante Alighieri William of Ockham Richard Rolle John of Ruusbroec Catherine of Siena Bridget of Sweden Meister Eckhart Johannes Tauler Walter Hilton The Cloud of Unknowing Heinrich Seuse Geert Groote Devotio Moderna Julian of Norwich Thomas à Kempis Nicholas of Cusa Marsilio Ficino Girolamo Savonarola Giovanni Pico della Mirandola Reformation Counter-Reformation Erasmus Thomas Cajetan Thomas More John Fisher Johann Eck Francisco de Vitoria Thomas of Villanova Ignatius of Loyola Francisco de Osuna John of Ávila Francis Xavier Teresa of Ávila Luis de León John of the Cross Peter Canisius Luis de Molina (Molinism) Robert Bellarmine Francisco Suárez Lawrence of Brindisi Francis de Sales Baroque period to French Revolution Tommaso Campanella Pierre de Bérulle Pierre Gassendi René Descartes Mary of Jesus of Ágreda António Vieira Jean-Jacques Olier Louis Thomassin Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet François Fénelon Cornelius Jansen (Jansenism) Blaise Pascal Nicolas Malebranche Giambattista Vico Alphonsus Liguori Louis de Montfort Maria Gaetana Agnesi Alfonso Muzzarelli Johann Michael Sailer Clement Mary Hofbauer Bruno Lanteri 19th century Joseph Görres Felicité de Lamennais Luigi Taparelli Antonio Rosmini Ignaz von Döllinger John Henry Newman Henri Lacordaire Jaime Balmes Gaetano Sanseverino Giovanni Maria Cornoldi Wilhelm Emmanuel Freiherr von Ketteler Giuseppe Pecci Joseph Hergenröther Tommaso Maria Zigliara Matthias Joseph Scheeben Émile Boutroux Modernism Neo-Scholasticism Léon Bloy Désiré-Joseph Mercier Friedrich von Hügel Vladimir Solovyov Marie-Joseph Lagrange George Tyrrell Maurice Blondel Thérèse of Lisieux 20th century G. 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en-wikipedia-org-6503	----	Roman economy - Wikipedia Roman economy From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search See also: Roman currency and Roman finance Total GDP around 1 CE for various regions of the Roman Empire[1] During the Roman Republic, the Roman economy was largely agrarian, centered on the trading of commodities such as grain and wine.[2] Financial markets were established through such trade, and financial institutions which extended credit for personal use and public infrastructure, were established primarily through inter-family wealth.[3] In times of agricultural and cash shortfall, Roman officials and moneyers tended to respond by coining money; this happened during the prolonged crisis of the First Punic War, and created economic distortion and difficulties. Beginning in the early Roman Empire, the economy, in the sense of using money to express prices and debts, and a basic banking system was formed.[4] Emperors issued coinage stamped with their portraits to disseminate propaganda, to create public goodwill, and to symbolize their wealth and power.[5] The Roman Imperial economy was often unstable, inflated in part by Emperors who issued money to fund high-profile imperial projects such as public building works, or costly wars that offered opportunities for propaganda, but little or no material gain.[4] Solidus issued under Constantine II, and on the reverse Victoria, one of the last deities to appear on Roman coins, gradually transforming into an angel under Christian rule[6] The setup of the banking system under the Empire allowed the exchange of extremely large sums without the physical transfer of coins, which led to fiat money. With no central bank, a professional deposit banker (argentarius, coactor argentarius, or later nummularius) received and held deposits for a fixed or indefinite term, and lent money to third parties.[7] Generally, available capital exceeded the amount needed by borrowers, so loans were made and credit was extended on risky terms.[8] [9] The senatorial elite were involved heavily in private lending, both as creditors and borrowers, making loans from their personal fortunes on the basis of social connections.[4] Banks of classical antiquity typically kept less in reserves than the full total of customers' deposits, as they had no incentive to ensure that customers' deposits would be insured in the event of a bank run.[4] It was common consensus among Romans at the time, especially due to Seneca's ideologies, that anyone involved in commerce should have access to credit.[10] This tendency toward fiat money caused the money supply to fluctuate consistently.[10] Emperors of the Antonine and Severan dynasties overall debased the currency, particularly the denarius, under the pressures of meeting military payrolls.[11] Sudden inflation during the reign of Commodus damaged the credit market.[8] In the mid-200s, the supply of specie contracted sharply.[12] Conditions during the Crisis of the Third Century—such as reductions in long-distance trade, disruption of mining operations, and the physical transfer of gold coinage outside the empire by invading enemies—greatly diminished the money supply and the banking sector by the year 300.[13] Although Roman coinage had long been fiat money or fiduciary currency, general economic anxieties came to a head under Aurelian, and bankers lost confidence in coins legitimately issued by the central government. Despite Diocletian's introduction of the gold solidus and monetary reforms, the credit market of the Empire never recovered its former robustness.[8] Contents 1 Mining and metallurgy 2 Transportation and communication 3 Trade and commodities 4 Labour and occupations 5 GDP and income distribution 5.1 Regional breakdown 5.2 Taxation 6 State revenues 7 Historical financial crises 7.1 The Financial Crisis of 33 A.D. 8 See also 9 Notes and references 10 Sources 11 Further reading 12 External links Mining and metallurgy[edit] Main article: Roman metallurgy See also: Mining in Roman Britain Landscape resulting from the ruina montium mining technique at Las Médulas, Roman Spain, one of the most important gold mines in the Roman Empire The main mining regions of the Empire were Spain (gold, silver, copper, tin, lead); Gaul (gold, silver, iron); Britain (mainly iron, lead, tin), the Danubian provinces (gold, iron); Macedonia and Thrace (gold, silver); and Asia Minor (gold, silver, iron, tin). Intensive large-scale mining—of alluvial deposits, and by means of open-cast mining and underground mining—took place from the reign of Augustus up to the early 3rd century AD, when the instability of the Empire disrupted production. The gold mines of Dacia, for instance, were no longer available for Roman exploitation after the province was surrendered in 271. Mining seems to have resumed to some extent during the 4th century.[14] World production of lead, estimated from Greenland ice cores, peaked in the 1st century AD, and strongly declined thereafter.[15] World production would only surpass Roman levels in the middle of the 18th century. Hydraulic mining, which Pliny referred to as ruina montium ("ruin of the mountains"), allowed base and precious metals to be extracted on a proto-industrial scale.[16] The total annual iron output is estimated at 82,500 tonnes,.[17] Copper was produced at an annual rate of 15,000 t,[18] and lead at 80,000 t,[19] both production levels unmatched until the Industrial Revolution;[20] Spain alone had a 40 percent share in world lead production.[21] The high lead output was a by-product of extensive silver mining which reached 200 t per annum.[22] At its peak around the mid-2nd century AD, the Roman silver stock is estimated at 10,000 t, five to ten times larger than the combined silver mass of medieval Europe and the Caliphate around 800 AD.[23] As an indication of the scale of Roman metal production, lead pollution in the Greenland ice sheet quadrupled over its prehistoric levels during the Imperial era, and dropped again thereafter.[24] The invention and widespread application of hydraulic mining, namely hushing and ground-sluicing, aided by the ability of the Romans to plan and execute mining operations on a large scale, allowed various base and precious metals to be extracted on a proto-industrial scale only rarely, if ever, matched until the Industrial Revolution.[25] The most common fuel by far for smelting and forging operations, as well as heating purposes, was wood and particularly charcoal, which is nearly twice as efficient.[26] In addition, coal was mined in some regions to a fairly large extent: Almost all major coalfields in Roman Britain were exploited by the late 2nd century AD, and a lively trade along the English North Sea coast developed, which extended to the continental Rhineland, where bituminous coal was already used for the smelting of iron ore.[27] Annual metal production in metric tons Output per annum Comment Iron 82,500 t[28] Based on estimate of iron production at 1.5 kg per head in Roman Britain, extrapolated to population size of 55 million for entire empire[29] Copper 15,000 t[30] Largest preindustrial producer[31] Lead 80,000 t[32] Largest preindustrial producer[33] Silver 11,200 t[34] At its peak around the mid-2nd century AD, Roman stock is estimated at 10,000 t, five to ten times larger than the combined silver mass of medieval Europe and the Caliphate around 800 AD.[35] Gold 11,119 t[36] Production in Asturia, Callaecia, and Lusitania (all Iberian Peninsula) alone Transportation and communication[edit] See also: Roman roads The Roman Empire completely encircled the Mediterranean, which they called "our sea" (mare nostrum).[37] Roman sailing vessels navigated the Mediterranean as well as the major rivers of the Empire, including the Guadalquivir, Ebro, Rhône, Rhine, Tiber and Nile.[38] Transport by water was preferred where possible, as moving commodities by land was more difficult.[39] Vehicles, wheels, and ships indicate the existence of a great number of skilled woodworkers.[40] Land transport utilized the advanced system of Roman roads. The in-kind taxes paid by communities included the provision of personnel, animals, or vehicles for the cursus publicus, the state mail and transport service established by Augustus. Relay stations were located along the roads every seven to twelve Roman miles, and tended to grow into a village or trading post.[41] A mansio (plural mansiones) was a privately run service station franchised by the imperial bureaucracy for the cursus publicus. The support staff at such a facility included muleteers, secretaries, blacksmiths, cartwrights, a veterinarian, and a few military police and couriers. The distance between mansiones was determined by how far a wagon could travel in a day.[41] Mules were the animal most often used for pulling carts, travelling about 4 mph.[42] As an example of the pace of communication, it took a messenger a minimum of nine days to travel to Rome from Mainz in the province of Germania Superior, even on a matter of urgency.[43] In addition to the mansiones, some taverns offered accommodations as well as food and drink; one recorded tab for a stay showed charges for wine, bread, mule feed, and the services of a prostitute.[44] Trade and commodities[edit] See also: Roman commerce, Indo-Roman trade and relations, and Sino-Roman relations Green Roman glass cup unearthed from an Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220 AD) tomb, Guangxi, China; the first Roman glassware discovered in China, dating to the early 1st century BC, was excavated from a Western Han tomb in the southern port city of Guangzhou, most likely arriving via the Indian Ocean and South China Sea.[45] Roman provinces traded among themselves, but trade extended outside the frontiers to regions as far away as China and India.[46] The main commodity was grain.[47] Chinese trade was mostly conducted overland through middle men along the Silk Road; Indian trade, however, also occurred by sea from Egyptian ports on the Red Sea. Also traded were olive oil, various foodstuffs, garum (fish sauce), slaves, ore and manufactured metal objects, fibres and textiles, timber, pottery, glassware, marble, papyrus, spices and materia medica, ivory, pearls, and gemstones.[48] Though most provinces were capable of producing wine, regional varietals were desirable and wine was a central item of trade. Shortages of vin ordinaire were rare.[49] The major suppliers for the city of Rome were the west coast of Italy, southern Gaul, the Tarraconensis region of Spain, and Crete. Alexandria, the second-largest city, imported wine from Laodicea in Syria and the Aegean.[50] At the retail level, taverns or specialty wine shops (vinaria) sold wine by the jug for carryout and by the drink on premises, with price ranges reflecting quality.[51] Trade in the early Roman Empire allowed Rome to become as vast and great as it did. Emperor Augustus, despite his intense public and private spending, took control of trade from the government and expanded Roman influence by opening new trading markets in overseas areas such as Britain, Germany, and Africa.[52] Rome dominated trade and influence over the world in the age of the Roman Empire but could not advance in their industrial and manufacturing processes.[52] This ultimately threatened the expanding trading and commerce industries that Augustus brought about, as well as the strong standing of the Empire in the eyes of the Romans and the world. Whereas the Roman Economy was able to thrive in the first few centuries AD thanks to its advanced trade and commerce, the boom was tempered as their ways of conducting business changed drastically. Due to Augustus and the aristocracy holding the large majority of land and wealth in Rome,[52] trade and commerce in the basic everyday commodities began to decline. Trade began to only take place for the more luxurious commodities, effectively excluding the majority of Romans due to their poverty.[52] Foreign trade was also incredibly significant to the rise and complexity of the Roman Economy, and the Romans traded commodities such as wine, oil, grain, salt, arms, and iron to countries primarily in the West.[52][38] When those countries came under decline in around 2nd century AD, and respective trade between them and the Roman Empire had to cease as a result, this put a dent in the strength of the Roman economy as foreign trade was a major factor of economic growth for the superfluously resourced Roman Empire.[52] Compounded with their inability to make proper production advancements to keep up with their growing and evolving economy, these events hindered Roman trade, limited their array of commodities and harmed the economy. Labour and occupations[edit] Workers at a cloth-processing shop, in a painting from the fullonica of Veranius Hypsaeus in Pompeii Inscriptions record 268 different occupations in the city of Rome, and 85 in Pompeii.[53] Professional associations or trade guilds (collegia) are attested for a wide range of occupations, including fishermen (piscatores), salt merchants (salinatores), olive oil dealers (olivarii), entertainers (scaenici), cattle dealers (pecuarii), goldsmiths (aurifices), teamsters (asinarii or muliones), and stonecutters (lapidarii).[54] These are sometimes quite specialized: one collegium at Rome was strictly limited to craftsmen who worked in ivory and citrus wood.[55] Work performed by slaves falls into five general categories: domestic, with epitaphs recording at least 55 different household jobs; imperial or public service; urban crafts and services; agriculture; and mining.[56] Convicts provided much of the labour in the mines or quarries, where conditions were notoriously brutal.[57] In practice, there was little division of labour between slave and free,[58] and most workers were illiterate and without special skills.[59] The greatest number of common labourers were employed in agriculture: in the Italian system of industrial farming (latifundia), these may have been mostly slaves, but throughout the Empire, slave farm labour was probably less important than other forms of dependent labour by people who were technically not enslaved.[58] Textile and clothing production was a major source of employment. Both textiles and finished garments were traded among the peoples of the Empire, whose products were often named for them or a particular town, rather like a fashion "label".[60] Better ready-to-wear was exported by businessmen (negotiatores or mercatores) who were often well-to-do residents of the production centres.[61] Finished garments might be retailed by their sales agents, who travelled to potential customers, or by vestiarii, clothing dealers who were mostly freedmen; or they might be peddled by itinerant merchants.[61] In Egypt, textile producers could run prosperous small businesses employing apprentices, free workers earning wages, and slaves.[62] The fullers (fullones) and dye workers (coloratores) had their own guilds.[63] Centonarii were guild workers who specialized in textile production and the recycling of old clothes into pieced goods.[64] GDP and income distribution[edit] Further information: Roman economy § Gross domestic product Economic historians vary in their calculations of the gross domestic product of the Roman economy during the Principate.[65] In the sample years of 14, 100, and 150 AD, estimates of per capita GDP range from 166 to 380 sestertii. The GDP per capita of Italy is estimated as 40[66] to 66 percent[67] higher than in the rest of the Empire, due to a more advanced level of urbanization and trade, as well as tax transfers from the provinces and the concentration of elite income in the heartland. In the Scheidel–Friesen economic model, the total annual income generated by the Empire is placed at nearly 20 billion sestertii, with about 5 percent extracted by central and local government. Households in the top 1.5 percent of income distribution captured about 20 percent of income. Another 20 percent went to about 10 percent of the population who can be characterized as a non-elite middle. The remaining "vast majority" produced more than half of the total income, but lived near subsistence.[68] All cited economic historians stress the point that any estimate can only be regarded as a rough approximation to the realities of the ancient economy, given the general paucity of surviving pertinent data. Estimates of Roman per-capita and total GDP[A] Unit Goldsmith 1984[69] Hopkins 1995/96[70] Temin 2006[71] Maddison 2007[72] Bang 2008[73] Scheidel/Friesen 2009[74] Lo Cascio/Malanima 2009[66] GDP per capita in Sestertii 380 225 166 380 229 260 – Wheat equivalent (kg) 843 491 614 843 500 680 – 2019 dollars – – – 1,115 – 1,213 1,840 Population (Approx. year) 55 million (14 AD) 60 million (14 AD) 55 million (100 AD) 44 million (14 AD) 60 million (150 AD) 70 million (150 AD) – (14 AD) Total GDP in Sestertii 20.9 billion 13.5 billion - 16.7 billion 13.7 billion 17-19 billion – Wheat equivalent (Mt) 46.4 29.5 33.8 37.1 30 50 – 2019 dollars – – – $49 billion – $85 billion – "–" indicates unknown value. A ^ Decimal fractions rounded to the nearest tenth. Italic numbers not directly given by the authors; they are obtained by multiplying the respective value of GDP per capita by estimated population size. Regional breakdown[edit] Maddison's breakdown per region (14 AD)[75] Region Population (thousands) NDI per capita (2019 dollars) Total NDI (millions of 2019 dollars) Roman Europe (including Italy) 23,100 1,160 26,789 Roman Europe (excluding Italy) 16,100 935 15,047 Roman Asia 12,200 1,076 13,131 Roman Africa 8,700 1,059 9,217 Total Roman Empire 44,000 1,115 49,137 Angus Maddison is the only economist cited who offers a detailed breakdown of the national disposable income (NDI) of the various parts of the Roman Empire. His "highly provisional" estimate (see right) relies on a low-count of the Roman population of only 44 million at the time of the death of Augustus in 14 AD. Italia is considered to have been the richest region, due to tax transfers from the provinces and the concentration of elite income in the heartland; its NDI per capita is estimated at having been between 40%[66] and 66%[67] higher than in the rest of the empire. Besides Italy, the wealthiest province was Egypt, in terms of NDI per capita.[76] The European NDI per capita was higher than in the Asian and African provinces if Italy is included, but without it, the rest of Europe had a lower NDI per capita than the Asian and African provinces.[75] The Hellenistic Eastern provinces (Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt) were about 20% wealthier than their mostly Latin-speaking Western counterparts, with Egypt alone being about 28% wealthier. However, Italia, which was not administered as a province, enjoyed a higher per capita income than any one of them.[77] Taxation[edit] Taxation under the Empire amounted to about 5% of the Empire's gross product.[78] The typical tax rate paid by individuals ranged from 2 to 5%.[79] The tax code was "bewildering" in its complicated system of direct and indirect taxes, some paid in cash and some in kind. Taxes might be specific to a province, or kinds of properties such as fisheries or salt evaporation ponds; they might be in effect for a limited time.[80] Tax collection was justified by the need to maintain the military,[81][82] and taxpayers sometimes got a refund if the army captured a surplus of booty.[83] In-kind taxes were accepted from less-monetized areas, particularly those who could supply grain or goods to army camps.[84] Personification of the River Nile and his children, from the Temple of Serapis and Isis in Rome (1st century AD) The primary source of direct tax revenue was individuals, who paid a poll tax and a tax on their land, construed as a tax on its produce or productive capacity.[79] Supplemental forms could be filed by those eligible for certain exemptions; for example, Egyptian farmers could register fields as fallow and tax-exempt depending on flood patterns of the Nile.[85] Tax obligations were determined by the census, which required each head of household to appear before the presiding official and provide a head count of his household, as well as an accounting of property he owned that was suitable for agriculture or habitation.[85] A major source of indirect-tax revenue was the portoria, customs and tolls on imports and exports, including among provinces.[79] Special taxes were levied on the slave trade. Towards the end of his reign, Augustus instituted a 4% tax on the sale of slaves,[86] which Nero shifted from the purchaser to the dealers, who responded by raising their prices.[87] An owner who manumitted a slave paid a "freedom tax", calculated at 5% of value.[88] An inheritance tax of 5% was assessed when Roman citizens above a certain net worth left property to anyone but members of their immediate family. Revenues from the estate tax and from a 1% sales tax on auctions went towards the veterans' pension fund (aerarium militare).[79] Low taxes helped the Roman aristocracy increase their wealth, which equalled or exceeded the revenues of the central government. An emperor sometimes replenished his treasury by confiscating the estates of the "super-rich", but in the later period, the resistance of the wealthy to paying taxes was one of the factors contributing to the collapse of the Empire.[81] State revenues[edit] With the conclusion of the Third Mithridatic War in 63 BC, the Roman Republic now incorporated the Kingdom of Pontus, Cilicia, most of Syria, and the island of Crete into its growing dominion, as well as turning the Kingdom of Judea into a client state.[89] The Roman historian Plutarch records that after Pompey's return to Rome as a renowned conqueror of the east, tablets were presented showing that state revenues had increased from 50 million denarii to 85 million, an increase from 200 to 340 million sesterces from new taxes levied.[89] Yet this was apparently roughly the size of the entire state budget of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Hellenistic Egypt. Both Cicero and Strabo related how at the beginning of the reign of Ptolemy XII Auletes (80-51 BC) his kingdom received an annual revenue of 12,500 talents, the equivalent of 75 million denarii, or 300 million sesterces.[89] Hence, with the Roman conquest of Egypt in the Final War of the Roman Republic (32-30 BC) and transformation of Egypt into a Roman province, one would readily assume a considerable increase in state revenues was made. The revenues garnered in Egypt in 80 BC alone was seven times the amount of tax money contemporary Roman Gaul offered to the Roman coffers following its conquest by Julius Caesar, a mere 40 million sesterces.[89] Yet this was roughly the same amount of taxes Rome was able to levy from Egypt (i.e. 40 million sesterces) after its conquest by Octavian, bringing the total figure for state revenues up to 420 million (which included 40 million from newly conquered Egypt, 40 million from Gaul, and 340 million from all other provinces).[90] The whole of Roman Britain after its conquest produced only about 11 million sesterces in revenues whereas the city of Alexandria in Egypt alone generated roughly 36 million sesterces.[91] Gold mining from the Roman provinces of Hispania on the Iberian Peninsula produced roughly 80 million sesterces every year.[91] During the 1st century AD, the total value of imported goods form the maritime trade coming from the Indian Ocean region (including the silk and spice trade) was roughly 1,000 million sesterces, allowing the Roman state to garner 250 million sesterces of that figure in tax revenue.[92] Even after the reduction in the number of Roman legions from about fifty to twenty-eight (500,000 down to 300,000 full-time soldiers and auxiliaries) the Roman state under Augustus still spent 640 million sesterces on military costs alone per annum (with total state expenses hovering around 1,000 million).[93] Raoul McLaughlin stresses that "as long as international commerce thrived, the Roman Empire could meet these high-level military costs."[93] A further 25 million sesterces in state revenues was gathered by taxing the Roman exported goods loaded on ships destined for Arabia and India (worth roughly 100 million in total).[94] Historical financial crises[edit] The Financial Crisis of 33 A.D.[edit] The financial crisis of 33 A.D. is largely considered to be caused by policies that Tiberius took in order to limit the aristocrats' wealth and land-ownership, and done in response to Augustus's massive private and public expenditures. Augustus engaged in lavish spending in the public and private sector, while greatly encouraging land ownership and investment in real estate.[95][96] Augustus thought that all citizens should have access to land and money. As a result, he aggressively engaged in a massive extension of credit into the real estate and public sector, and engaged in riskier and riskier loans.[96] Due to his policies, land and real estate prices rose dramatically, benefitting his wealthy and noble land-owner friends who owned large amounts of property and invested heavily in real estate.[96] Tiberius noticed such collusion, and looked to curb the amount of land that the wealthy and elites owned, as well as control the rapidly inflating money supply. He engaged in heavy austerity policies such as ordering for all loans be paid off immediately, and began confiscating property from the wealthy land-owners.[96] By restricting loans for land purchasing, and the demand to pay loans in full, debtors were forced to sell off their property and real estate, which drastically dropped real estate and land prices.[95] Tiberius' credit restriction policies and the Senate's passing a resolution that people continue to invest in land despite the massive deflation caused the financial markets to collapse.[95][96] To stem the crisis Tiberius provided a huge amount of credit at zero interest which stemmed the tide of bankruptcies and steadied money lending.[97] See also[edit] Economic sectors Agriculture in ancient Rome Roman commerce Roman finance Slavery in ancient Rome Provinces Roman Britain: Economy Economy of Hispania Related economies Ancient Greek economy Byzantine economy Economy of Ancient China Notes and references[edit] ^ "Statistics on World Population, GDP and Per Capita GDP, 1–f>". ^ Garnsey, Peter, et al. The Roman Empire: Economy, Society and Culture. 2nd ed., University of California Press, 2015, www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/j.ctt9qh25h. ^ Temin, Peter. “Financial Intermediation in the Early Roman Empire.” The Journal of Economic History, vol. 64, no. 3, 2004, pp. 705–733., www.jstor.org/stable/3874817. ^ a b c d Andreau, Banking and Business in the Roman World, p. 2; Harris, "The Nature of Roman Money," n.p. ^ Bond, Shelagh (October 1957). "The Coinage of the Early Roman Empire". Greece & Rome. 4 (2): 149–159. doi:10.1017/S001738350001593X. JSTOR 642136. ^ J. Rufus Fears, "The Theology of Victory at Rome: Approaches and Problem," Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.17.2 (1981), pp. 752 and 824, and in the same volume, "The Cult of Virtues and Roman Imperial Ideology," p. 908. ^ Jean Andreau, Banking and Business in the Roman World (Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. 2. ^ a b c Harris, "The Nature of Roman Money," in The Monetary Systems of the Greeks and Romans, n.p. ^ name=":18">David Kessler and Peter Temin, "Money and Prices in the Early Roman Empire," in The Monetary Systems of the Greeks and Romans, in The Monetary Systems of the Greeks and Romans (Oxford University Press, 2008), n.p. ^ a b W.V. Harris, "The Nature of Roman Money," in The Monetary Systems of the Greeks and Romans, n.p. ^ Harl, Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700, p. 125–136. ^ Harl, Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700, pp. 128–129. ^ Harris, "The Nature of Roman Money," in The Monetary Systems of the Greeks and Romans, n.p.; Harl, Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700, pp. 128–129. ^ "Mining," in Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World p. 579. ^ Hong, Sungmin; Candelone, Jean-Pierre; Patterson, Clair C.; Boutron, Claude F. (1994). "Greenland Ice Evidence of Hemispheric Lead Pollution Two Millennia Ago by Greek and Roman Civilizations". Science. 265 (5180): 1841–1843. Bibcode:1994Sci...265.1841H. doi:10.1126/science.265.5180.1841. PMID 17797222. S2CID 45080402. ^ Wilson, Andrew (2002): "Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy", The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 92, pp. 1–32 (17–21, 25, 32) ^ Craddock, Paul T. (2008): "Mining and Metallurgy", in: Oleson, John Peter (ed.): The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-518731-1, p. 108; Sim, David; Ridge, Isabel (2002): Iron for the Eagles. The Iron Industry of Roman Britain, Tempus, Stroud, Gloucestershire, ISBN 0-7524-1900-5, p. 23; Healy, John F. (1978): Mining and Metallurgy in the Greek and Roman World, Thames and Hudson, London, ISBN 0-500-40035-0, p. 196. Assumes a productive capacity of c. 1.5 kg per capita. Healy, John F. (1978): Mining and Metallurgy in the Greek and Roman World, Thames and Hudson, London, ISBN 0-500-40035-0, p. 196 ^ Hong, Sungmin; Candelone, Jean-Pierre; Patterson, Clair C.; Boutron, Claude F. (1996): "History of Ancient Copper Smelting Pollution During Roman and Medieval Times Recorded in Greenland Ice", Science, Vol. 272, No. 5259, pp. 246–249 (366–369); cf. also Wilson, Andrew (2002): "Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy", The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 92, pp. 1–32 (25–29) ^ Hong, Sungmin; Candelone, Jean-Pierre; Patterson, Clair C.; Boutron, Claude F. (1994): "Greenland Ice Evidence of Hemispheric Lead Pollution Two Millennia Ago by Greek and Roman Civilizations", Science, Vol. 265, No. 5180, pp. 1841–1843; Callataÿ, François de (2005): "The Graeco-Roman Economy in the Super Long-Run: Lead, Copper, and Shipwrecks", Journal of Roman Archaeology, Vol. 18, pp. 361–372 (361–365); Settle, Dorothy M.; Patterson, Clair C. (1980): "Lead in Albacore: Guide to Lead Pollution in Americans", Science, Vol. 207, No. 4436, pp. 1167–1176 (1170f.); cf. also Wilson, Andrew (2002): "Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy", The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 92, pp. 1–32 (25–29) ^ Callataÿ, François de (2005): "The Graeco-Roman Economy in the Super Long-Run: Lead, Copper, and Shipwrecks", Journal of Roman Archaeology, Vol. 18, pp. 361–372 (361–369); Hong, Sungmin; Candelone, Jean-Pierre; Patterson, Clair C.; Boutron, Claude F. (1996): "History of Ancient Copper Smelting Pollution During Roman and Medieval Times Recorded in Greenland Ice", Science, Vol. 272, No. 5259, pp. 246–249 (247, fig. 1 and 2; 248, table 1); Hong, Sungmin; Candelone, Jean-Pierre; Patterson, Clair C.; Boutron, Claude F. (1994): "Greenland Ice Evidence of Hemispheric Lead Pollution Two Millennia Ago by Greek and Roman Civilizations", Science, Vol. 265, No. 5180, pp. 1841–1843; Settle, Dorothy M.; Patterson, Clair C. (1980): "Lead in Albacore: Guide to Lead Pollution in Americans", Science, Vol. 207, No. 4436, pp. 1167–1176 (1170f.) ^ Hong, Sungmin; Candelone, Jean-Pierre; Patterson, Clair C.; Boutron, Claude F. (1994). "Greenland Ice Evidence of Hemispheric Lead Pollution Two Millennia Ago by Greek and Roman Civilizations". Science. 265 (5180): 1841–1843. Bibcode:1994Sci...265.1841H. doi:10.1126/science.265.5180.1841. PMID 17797222. S2CID 45080402. ^ Patterson, C. C. (1972): "Silver Stocks and Losses in Ancient and Medieval Times", The Economic History Review, Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 205–235 (228, table 6); Callataÿ, François de (2005): "The Graeco-Roman Economy in the Super Long-Run: Lead, Copper, and Shipwrecks", Journal of Roman Archaeology, Vol. 18, pp. 361–372 (365f.) ^ Patterson, C. C. (1972): "Silver Stocks and Losses in Ancient and Medieval Times", The Economic History Review, Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 205–235 (216, table 2); Callataÿ, François de (2005): "The Graeco-Roman Economy in the Super Long-Run: Lead, Copper, and Shipwrecks", Journal of Roman Archaeology, Vol. 18, pp. 361–372 (365f.) ^ Hopkins, The Political Economy of the Roman Empire, p. 197. ^ Wilson 2002, pp. 17–21, 25, 32 ^ Cech 2010, p. 20 ^ Smith 1997, pp. 322–324 ^ Craddock 2008, p. 108; Sim, Ridge 2002, p. 23; Healy 1978, p. 196 ^ Sim, Ridge 2002, p. 23; Healy 1978, p. 196 ^ World output, the large bulk of which is attributed to Roman mining and smelting activities (mainly in Spain, Cyprus and Central Europe): Hong, Candelone, Patterson, Boutron 1996, p. 247; Callataÿ 2005, pp. 366–369; cf. also Wilson 2002, pp. 25–29 ^ Hong, Candelone, Patterson, Boutron 1996, p. 247, fig. 1 & 2; 248, table 1; Callataÿ 2005, pp. 366–369 ^ World output, the large bulk of which is attributed to Roman silver mining and smelting activities (in Central Europe, Britain, the Balkans, Greece, Asia Minor and, above all, Spain, with a 40% share in world production alone): Hong, Candelone, Patterson, Boutron 1994, p. 1841–1843; Callataÿ 2005, pp. 361–365; Settle, Patterson 1980, pp. 1170f.; cf. also Wilson 2002, pp. 25–29 ^ Hong, Candelone, Patterson, Boutron 1994, p. 1841–1843; Settle, Patterson 1980, pp. 1170f.; Callataÿ 2005, pp. 361–365 follows the aforementioned authors, but cautions that the Greco-Roman levels may have already been surpassed by the end of the Middle Ages (p. 365). ^ Patterson 1972, p. 228, table 6; Callataÿ 2005, pp. 365f.; cf. also Wilson 2002, pp. 25–29 ^ Patterson 1972, p. 216, table 2; Callataÿ 2005, pp. 365f. ^ Pliny: Naturalis Historia, 33.21.78, in: Wilson 2002, p. 27 ^ Kevin Greene, The Archaeology of the Roman Economy p. 17. ^ a b W.V. Harris, "Trade," in The Cambridge Ancient History: The High Empire A.D. 70–192 (Cambridge University Press, 2000), vol. 11, p. 713. ^ Harris, "Trade," in CAH 11, p. 714. ^ Roger Bradley Ulrich, Roman Woodworking (Yale University Press, pp. 1–2. ^ a b Stambaugh, The Ancient Roman City, p. 253. ^ Ray Laurence, "Land Transport in Roman Italy: Costs, Practice and the Economy," in Trade, Traders and the Ancient City (Routledge, 1998), p. 129. ^ Keith Hopkins, "The Political Economy of the Roman Empire," in The Dynamics of Ancient Empires : State Power from Assyria to Byzantium (Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 187. ^ Holleran, Shopping in Ancient Rome, p. 142. ^ An, Jiayao. (2002), "When Glass Was Treasured in China," in Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner (eds), Silk Road Studies VII: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road, 79–94, Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, ISBN 2503521789, p. 83. ^ Harris, "Trade," in CAH 11, p. 713. ^ Harris, "Trade," in CAH 11, p. 710. ^ Harris, "Trade," in CAH 11, pp. 717–729. ^ Mireille Corbier, "Coinage, Society, and Economy," in Cambridge Ancient History: The Crisis of Empire, A.D. 193–337 (Cambridge University Press, 2005), vol. 12, p. 404; Harris, "Trade," in CAH 11, p. 719. ^ Harris, "Trade," in CAH 11, p. 720. ^ Holleran, Shopping in Ancient Rome, pp. 146–147. ^ a b c d e f West, Louis C. (November 1932). "The Economic Collapse of the Roman Empire". The Classical Journal. 28 (2): 98. JSTOR 3290252. ^ Hopkins, "The Political Economy of the Roman Empire," p. 196. ^ Verboven, "The Associative Order: Status and Ethos among Roman Businessmen," preprint pp. 18, 23. ^ Eborarii and citriarii: Verboven, "The Associative Order: Status and Ethos among Roman Businessmen," preprint p. 21. ^ "Slavery in Rome," in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome (Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 323. ^ "Slavery in Rome," in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome, p. 323. ^ a b Garnsey and Saller, The Roman Empire: Economy, Society and Culture, p. 111. ^ Peter Temin, "The Labor Market of the Early Roman Empire," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 34.1 (2004), p. 517. ^ A.H.M. Jones, "The Cloth Industry under the Roman Empire," Economic History Review 13.2 (1960), pp. 184–185. ^ a b Jones, "The Cloth Industry under the Roman Empire,"p. 192. ^ Jones, "The Cloth Industry under the Roman Empire," pp. 188–189. ^ Jones, "The Cloth Industry under the Roman Empire," pp. 190–191. ^ Vout, "The Myth of the Toga," p. 212. The college of centonarii is an elusive topic in scholarship, since they are also widely attested as urban firefighters; see Jinyu Liu, Collegia Centonariorum: The Guilds of Textile Dealers in the Roman West (Brill, 2009). Liu sees them as "primarily tradesmen and/or manufacturers engaged in the production and distribution of low- or medium-quality woolen textiles and clothing, including felt and its products." ^ Scheidel, Walter; Morris, Ian; Saller, Richard, eds. (2007): The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-78053-7 ^ a b c Lo Cascio, Elio; Malanima, Paolo (Dec. 2009): "GDP in Pre-Modern Agrarian Economies (1–1820 AD). A Revision of the Estimates", Rivista di storia economica, Vol. 25, No. 3, pp. 391–420 (391–401) ^ a b Maddison 2007, pp. 47–51 ^ Scheidel, Walter; Friesen, Steven J. (2009). "The Size of the Economy and the Distribution of Income in the Roman Empire". Journal of Roman Studies. 99: 62–63. doi:10.3815/007543509789745223. ^ Goldsmith 1984, pp. 263–288 ^ Hopkins 1995/96, pp. 41–75. His estimates are upward revisions from Hopkins 1980, pp. 101–125, where he lays out his basic method. ^ Temin 2006, pp. 31–54 ^ Maddison 2007, pp. 43–47; 50, table 1.10; 54, table 1.12 ^ Bang 2008, pp. 86–91 ^ Scheidel, Friesen Nov. 2009, pp. 61–91 ^ a b Maddison 2007, p. 54, table 1.12 ^ Maddison 2007, p. 55, table 1.14 ^ Maddison 2007, p. 57, table 1.14 ^ Morris, p. 183. ^ a b c d Potter (2009), p. 187. ^ Potter (2009), pp. 185–187. ^ a b Morris, p. 184. ^ Potter (2009), p. 185 ^ Potter (2009), p. 185. ^ Potter (2009), p. 188. ^ a b Potter (2009), p. 186. ^ Cassius Dio 55.31.4. ^ Tacitus, Annales 13.31.2. ^ This was the vicesima libertatis, "the twentieth for freedom"; Potter (2009), p. 187. ^ a b c d Raoul McLaughlin (2014). The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean: the Ancient World Economy and the Kingdoms of Africa, Arabia, and India. Barnsley: Pen & Sword Military. ISBN 978-1-78346-381-7, p. 6. ^ Raoul McLaughlin (2014). The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean: the Ancient World Economy and the Kingdoms of Africa, Arabia, and India. Barnsley: Pen & Sword Military. ISBN 978-1-78346-381-7, p. 7. ^ a b Raoul McLaughlin (2014). The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean: the Ancient World Economy and the Kingdoms of Africa, Arabia, and India. Barnsley: Pen & Sword Military. ISBN 978-1-78346-381-7, p. 12. ^ Raoul McLaughlin (2014). The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean: the Ancient World Economy and the Kingdoms of Africa, Arabia, and India. Barnsley: Pen & Sword Military. ISBN 978-1-78346-381-7, p. 14. ^ a b Raoul McLaughlin (2014). The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean: the Ancient World Economy and the Kingdoms of Africa, Arabia, and India. Barnsley: Pen & Sword Military. ISBN 978-1-78346-381-7, p. 16. ^ Raoul McLaughlin (2014). The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean: the Ancient World Economy and the Kingdoms of Africa, Arabia, and India. Barnsley: Pen & Sword Military. ISBN 978-1-78346-381-7, p. 19. ^ a b c [Financial Panic of 33 A.D. ." Financial Panic of 33 A.D. | Armstrong Economics. Armstrong Economics, 2017. Web. 25 Apr. 2017. "Financial Panic of 33 A.D."] Check |url= value (help). Armstrong Economics. ^ a b c d e Frank, Tenney. “The Financial Crisis of 33 A. D.” The American Journal of Philology, vol. 56, no. 4, 1935, pp. 336–341., www.jstor.org/stable/289972. ^ The triggering event was one of the richest men in Rome, Publius Spinther, a wealthy nobleman who notified his bankers at Balbus & Ollius that he wished to withdraw $30,000,000 sesterces he had on deposit with the bank in order to meet his land investment requirements. The bank was unable to return his deposit and two days later closed their doors. The bankruptcy of Balbus & Ollius, like Lehman Brothers centuries later, triggered a run on the major banking houses and spread throughout the empire. After Balbus & Olius closed their doors, a few days later the Corinthian bank of Leucippus became insolvent. It didn’t stop there as rumors swirled saying that a strong banking house in Carthage was on the verge of closing along with two banks in Lyons and others in Byzantium. The surviving banks along the Via Sacra announced they must have timely notice before paying their depositors. One bank after another closed in succession. Legal interest rates were set at zero by anyone flush with cash and ready to lend it. The praetor’s court was filled with throngs of creditors demanding the auctioning of debtors assets from homes, slaves, warehouse stock, furniture, jewelry, or anything of value that could be sold and liquidated. Valuable items were sold for a mere trifle triggered by the panic leaving many men of fortune reduced to beggary. 33 AD: There's Nothing New Under the Sun WED, FEB 13, 2019 - 4:00PMJames J. Puplava, CFP®, CTS™, CIS, CES President, Founder, Financial Sense® Wealth Management Sources[edit] Bang, Peter Fibiger (2008): The Roman Bazaar: A Comparative Study of Trade and Markets in a Tributary Empire, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-85532-2, pp. 86–91 Bang, Peter Fibiger (2009). "The Ancient Economy and New Institutional Economics". The Journal of Roman Studies. 99: 194–206. doi:10.3815/007543509789744783. Callataÿ, François de (2005). "The Graeco-Roman Economy in the Super Long-Run: Lead, Copper, and Shipwrecks". Journal of Roman Archaeology. 18: 361–372. doi:10.1017/S104775940000742X. Cech, Brigitte (2010): Technik in der Antike, Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt, ISBN 978-3-8062-2080-3 Cleere, H. & Crossley, D. (1995): The Iron industry of the Weald. 2nd edition, Merton Priory Press, Cardiff, ISBN 1-898937-04-4: republishing the 1st edition (Leicester University Press 1985) with a supplement. Cleere, Henry. 1981. The Iron Industry of Roman Britain. Wealden Iron Research Group. p. 74-75 Craddock, Paul T. (2008): "Mining and Metallurgy", in: Oleson, John Peter (ed.): The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-518731-1, pp. 93–120 Goldsmith, Raymond W. (1984). "An Estimate of the Size and Structure of the National Product of the Early Roman Empire". Review of Income and Wealth. 30 (3): 263–288. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4991.1984.tb00552.x. Healy, John F. (1978): Mining and Metallurgy in the Greek and Roman World, Thames and Hudson, London, ISBN 0-500-40035-0 Hong, Sungmin; Candelone, Jean-Pierre; Patterson, Clair C.; Boutron, Claude F. (1994). "Greenland Ice Evidence of Hemispheric Lead Pollution Two Millennia Ago by Greek and Roman Civilizations". Science. 265 (5180): 1841–1843. Bibcode:1994Sci...265.1841H. doi:10.1126/science.265.5180.1841. PMID 17797222. S2CID 45080402. Hong, Sungmin; Candelone, Jean-Pierre; Patterson, Clair C.; Boutron, Claude F. (1996). "History of Ancient Copper Smelting Pollution During Roman and Medieval Times Recorded in Greenland Ice". Science. 272 (5259): 246–249. Bibcode:1996Sci...272..246H. doi:10.1126/science.272.5259.246. S2CID 176767223. Hopkins, Keith (1980). "Taxes and Trade in the Roman Empire (200 B.C.–A.D. 400)". The Journal of Roman Studies. 70: 101–125. doi:10.2307/299558. JSTOR 299558. Hopkins, Keith (1995/6): "Rome, Taxes, Rents, and Trade", Kodai, Vol. 6/7, pp. 41–75 Lo Cascio, Elio; Malanima, Paolo (2009). "GDP in Pre-Modern Agrarian Economies (1–1820 AD). A Revision of the Estimates". Rivista di storia economica. 25 (3): 391–420. Maddison, Angus (2007): "Contours of the World Economy, 1–2030 AD. Essays in Macro-Economic History", Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-922721-1 Parker, A. J. (1992): "Ancient Shipwrecks of the Mediterranean and the Roman Provinces", Archaeopress (British Archaeological Reports (BAR) International S.), ISBN 0-86054-736-1 Patterson, C. C. (1972). "Silver Stocks and Losses in Ancient and Medieval Times". The Economic History Review. 25 (2): 205–235. doi:10.2307/2593904. JSTOR 2593904. Scheidel, Walter (April 2006): Population and Demography, Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics, Version 1.0 Scheidel, Walter; Friesen, Steven J. (2009). "The Size of the Economy and the Distribution of Income in the Roman Empire". The Journal of Roman Studies. 99: 61–91. doi:10.3815/007543509789745223. Settle, Dorothy M.; Patterson, Clair C. (1980). "Lead in Albacore: Guide to Lead Pollution in Americans". Science. 207 (4436): 1167–1176. Bibcode:1980Sci...207.1167S. doi:10.1126/science.6986654. PMID 6986654. Sim, David; Ridge, Isabel (2002): Iron for the Eagles. The Iron Industry of Roman Britain, Tempus, Stroud, Gloucestershire, ISBN 0-7524-1900-5 Smith, A. H. V. (1997). "Provenance of Coals from Roman Sites in England and Wales". Britannia. 28: 297–324. doi:10.2307/526770. JSTOR 526770. Temin, Peter (2006): "Estimating GDP in the Early Roman Empire", Lo Cascio, Elio (ed.): Innovazione tecnica e progresso economico nel mondo romano, Edipuglia, Bari, ISBN 978-88-7228-405-6, pp. 31–54 Wilson, Andrew (2002). "Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy". The Journal of Roman Studies. 92: 1–32. doi:10.1017/s0075435800032135. Library resources about Roman Economy Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Further reading[edit] Bowman, A. K. and Wilson, A. I. (eds) (2009), Quantifying the Roman Economy: Methods and Problems, Oxford Studies in the Roman Economy 1. Oxford University Press, Oxford Bowman, A. K. and Wilson, A. I. (eds) (2012), Settlement, Urbanisation and Population, Oxford Studies in the Roman Economy 2. Oxford University Press, Oxford Scheidel, Walter; Morris, Ian; Saller, Richard, eds. (2007): The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-78053-7 Temin, Peter (2006). "The Economy of the Early Roman Empire". Journal of Economic Perspectives. 20 (1): 133–151. doi:10.1257/089533006776526148. ISSN 0895-3309. Temin, Peter. "Price Behaviour in the Roman Empire". - Presentation for the "Long-Term Quantification in Mediterranean Ancient History" conference in October 2009, held in Brussels, Belgium External links[edit] The Oxford Roman Economy Project v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune 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en-wikipedia-org-6444	----	Augustine of Hippo - Wikipedia Augustine of Hippo From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Catholic theologian, philosopher, Church Father, bishop and Christian saint (354– 430) "Augustine", "Saint Augustine", and "Augustinus" redirect here. For other uses, see Augustine (disambiguation), Saint Augustine (disambiguation), and Augustinus (disambiguation). Saint Augustine of Hippo Bishop of Hippo Regius The Triumph of Saint Augustine painted by Claudio Coello, c. 1664 Bishop and Doctor of the Church Born 13 November 354 Thagaste, Numidia Cirtensis, Western Roman Empire (modern-day Souk Ahras, Algeria) Died 28 August 430 (aged 75) Hippo Regius, Numidia Cirtensis, Western Roman Empire (modern-day Annaba, Algeria) Resting place Pavia, Italy Venerated in All Christian denominations which venerate saints Canonized Pre-Congregation Major shrine San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro, Pavia, Italy Feast 28 August (Latin Church, Western Christianity) 15 June (Eastern Christianity) 4 November (Assyrian) Attributes Child Dove Pen Shell Pierced heart Holding book with a small church Pectoral cross Crozier Miter Patronage Brewers, Printers, Theologians, Sore eyes Bridgeport, Connecticut, Cagayan de Oro, Philippines, San Agustin, Isabela, Mendez, Cavite, Tanza, Cavite Augustine of Hippo Portrait of Saint Augustine of Hippo receiving the Most Sacred Heart of Jesus, by Philippe de Champaigne, c. 17th century Born Aurelius Augustinus Nationality Roman African Notable work Confessions On Christian Doctrine On the Trinity City of God Era Ancient philosophy Medieval philosophy Region Western philosophy School Augustinianism Notable students Paul Orosius[17] Main interests Anthropology Biblical criticism Epistemology Ethics Metaphysics Pedagogy Philosophy of religion Theodicy Theology Notable ideas   Filioque[1] Original sin Free will Augustinian predestination Just war theory Absence of good[2] Concupiscence[3] Sacramental character[4] Augustinian hypothesis[5] Augustinian theodicy Augustinian values[6] Divine command theory[7] Amillennialism You are Christ[8] Deity[9] Solvitur ambulando[10] Heroic virtue[11] Incurvatus in se[12] Genesis as an allegory[13][14] Divine illumination Theocentricism[15] Limbo[16] Influences Ambrose Aristotle Cicero Cyprian Monica Paul Plato Plotinus Victorinus Virgil Influenced Virtually all of subsequent Western philosophy and Catholic theology, as well as a significant amount of Protestant theology. Ordination history of Augustine of Hippo History Priestly ordination Date 391 Place Hippo Regius, Africa, Roman Empire Episcopal consecration Consecrated by Megalius Date 396 Source(s):[18][19] Part of a series on Augustinianism Saint Augustine Thoughts Platonic realism Filioque Original sin Free will Augustinian predestination Just war theory Absence of good Concupiscence Sacramental character Augustinian theodicy Augustinian values Divine command theory Amillennialism Deity Church invisible Divine illumination Theocentricism Limbo Phrases Solvitur ambulando Heroic virtue Incurvatus in se Biblical criticism Augustinian hypothesis Allegorical interpretations of Genesis Influences and precursors Homer Socrates Plato Cicero Virgil Paul Seneca Tertullian Cyprian Origen Plotinus Augustinian thinkers Boethius Isidore of Seville John Scotus Eriugena Anselm of Canterbury Bonaventure Giles of Rome Duns Scotus Gregory of Rimini René Descartes Nicolas Malebranche John Henry Newman Joseph Ratzinger Other similar developments Scholastic method Anselmianism Thomism Scotism Christian humanism Molinism Contrary positions Pelagianism Thomistic Epistemology Palamism Calvinism Jansenism Related Western Christianity Catholic theology Neoplatonism and Christianity  Christianity portal v t e Part of a series on Augustine of Hippo Augustine in The Four Doctors of the Western Church Augustinianism Divine command Amillennialism Original sin Invisible church Predestination Incurvatus in se Augustinian hypothesis Just war Augustinian theodicy Works The City of God Confessions On Christian Doctrine Soliloquies Enchiridion On the Trinity Influences and followers Plotinus Saint Monica Ambrose Possidius Anselm Aquinas Bonaventure Luther Calvin Jansen Newman Related topics Augustinians Neoplatonism Pelagianism Scholasticism Jansenism Order of Saint Augustine Great Schism of 1054 Related categories ► Augustine of Hippo  Catholicism portal  Christianity portal  Philosophy portal This box: view talk edit v t e Augustine of Hippo (/ɔːˈɡʌstɪn/; Latin: Aurelius Augustinus Hipponensis; 13 November 354 – 28 August 430[20]), also known as Saint Augustine, was a theologian, philosopher, and the bishop of Hippo Regius in Numidia, Roman North Africa. His writings influenced the development of Western philosophy and Western Christianity, and he is viewed as one of the most important Church Fathers of the Latin Church in the Patristic Period. His many important works include The City of God, On Christian Doctrine, and Confessions. According to his contemporary, Jerome, Augustine "established anew the ancient Faith".[a] In his youth he was drawn to the major Persian religion, Manichaeism, and later to Neoplatonism. After his conversion to Christianity and baptism in 386, Augustine developed his own approach to philosophy and theology, accommodating a variety of methods and perspectives.[21] Believing the grace of Christ was indispensable to human freedom, he helped formulate the doctrine of original sin and made significant contributions to the development of just war theory. When the Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate, Augustine imagined the Church as a spiritual City of God, distinct from the material Earthly City.[22] His thoughts profoundly influenced the medieval worldview. The segment of the Church that adhered to the concept of the Trinity as defined by the Council of Nicaea and the Council of Constantinople[23] closely identified with Augustine's On the Trinity. Augustine is recognized as a saint in the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Anglican Communion. He is also a preeminent Catholic Doctor of the Church and the patron of the Augustinians. His memorial is celebrated on 28 August, the day of his death. Augustine is the patron saint of brewers, printers, theologians, and a number of cities and dioceses.[24] Many Protestants, especially Calvinists and Lutherans, consider him one of the theological fathers of the Protestant Reformation due to his teachings on salvation and divine grace.[25][26][27] Protestant Reformers generally, and Martin Luther in particular, held Augustine in preeminence among early Church Fathers. Luther was, from 1505 to 1521, a member of the Order of the Augustinian Eremites. In the East, his teachings are more disputed and were notably attacked by John Romanides.[28] But other theologians and figures of the Eastern Orthodox Church have shown significant approbation of his writings, chiefly Georges Florovsky.[29] The most controversial doctrine associated with him, the filioque,[30] was rejected by the Orthodox Church.[31] Other disputed teachings include his views on original sin, the doctrine of grace, and predestination.[30] Nevertheless, though considered to be mistaken on some points, he is still considered a saint and has influenced some Eastern Church Fathers, most notably Gregory Palamas.[32] In the Orthodox Church his feast day is celebrated on 15 June.[30][33] Historian Diarmaid MacCulloch has written: "Augustine's impact on Western Christian thought can hardly be overstated; only his beloved example Paul of Tarsus, has been more influential, and Westerners have generally seen Paul through Augustine's eyes."[34] Contents 1 Life 1.1 Background 1.2 Childhood and education 1.3 Move to Carthage, Rome, Milan 1.4 Conversion to Christianity and priesthood 2 Death and sainthood 2.1 Relics 3 Views and thought 3.1 Theology 3.1.1 Christian anthropology 3.1.2 Creation 3.1.3 Ecclesiology 3.1.4 Eschatology 3.1.5 Mariology 3.1.6 Natural knowledge and biblical interpretation 3.1.7 Original sin 3.1.8 Predestination 3.1.9 Sacramental theology 3.2 Philosophy 3.2.1 Astrology 3.2.2 Epistemology 3.2.3 Just war 3.2.4 Free will 3.3 Sociology, morals and ethics 3.3.1 Slavery 3.3.2 Jews 3.3.3 Sexuality 3.3.4 Pedagogy 3.3.5 Coercion 3.3.5.1 The context 3.3.5.2 The theology 4 Works 5 Influence 5.1 In philosophy 5.2 In theology 5.3 Oratorio, music 5.4 In popular art 6 See also 7 References 7.1 Notes 7.2 Citations 7.3 Cited sources 7.4 Further reading 8 External links 8.1 General 8.2 Bibliography 8.3 Works by Augustine 8.4 Biography and criticism Life[edit] Background[edit] Augustine of Hippo (/ɔːˈɡʌstɪn/,[20] /əˈɡʌstɪn/,[35] or /ˈɔːɡʌstɪn/;[36] Latin: Aurelius Augustinus Hipponensis;[b] 13 November 354 – 28 August 430), also known as Saint Augustine or Saint Austin,[38] is known by various cognomens throughout the many denominations of the Christian world, including Blessed Augustine and the Doctor of Grace[18] (Latin: Doctor gratiae). Hippo Regius, where Augustine was the bishop, was in modern-day Annaba, Algeria.[39][40] Childhood and education[edit] The Saint Augustine Taken to School by Saint Monica. by Niccolò di Pietro 1413–15 Augustine was born in 354 in the municipium of Thagaste (now Souk Ahras, Algeria) in the Roman province of Numidia.[41][42][43][44][45] His mother, Monica or Monnica,[c] was a devout Christian; his father Patricius was a pagan who converted to Christianity on his deathbed.[46] He had a brother named Navigius and a sister whose name is lost but is conventionally remembered as Perpetua.[47] Scholars generally agree Augustine and his family were Berbers, an ethnic group indigenous to North Africa,[48][49][50] but were heavily Romanized, speaking only Latin at home as a matter of pride and dignity.[48] In his writings, Augustine leaves some information as to the consciousness of his African heritage. For example, he refers to Apuleius as "the most notorious of us Africans,"[48][51] to Ponticianus as "a country man of ours, insofar as being African,"[48][52] and to Faustus of Mileve as "an African Gentleman".[48][53] It is important to note that in Augustine's time, 'Africa' was a Roman term for the territories surrounding Carthage. It did not refer to sub-Saharan Africa, or the continent as a whole. Augustine's family name, Aurelius, suggests his father's ancestors were freedmen of the gens Aurelia given full Roman citizenship by the Edict of Caracalla in 212. Augustine's family had been Roman, from a legal standpoint, for at least a century when he was born.[54] It is assumed his mother, Monica, was of Berber origin, on the basis of her name,[55][56] but as his family were honestiores, an upper class of citizens known as honorable men, Augustine's first language was likely Latin.[55] At the age of 11, Augustine was sent to school at Madaurus (now M'Daourouch), a small Numidian city about 19 miles (31 km) south of Thagaste. There he became familiar with Latin literature, as well as pagan beliefs and practices.[57] His first insight into the nature of sin occurred when he and a number of friends stole fruit they did not want from a neighborhood garden. He tells this story in his autobiography, The Confessions. He remembers he stole the fruit, not because he was hungry, but because "it was not permitted."[58] His very nature, he says, was flawed. 'It was foul, and I loved it. I loved my own error—not that for which I erred, but the error itself."[58] From this incident he concluded the human person is naturally inclined to sin, and in need of the grace of Christ. At the age of 17, through the generosity of his fellow citizen Romanianus,[59] Augustine went to Carthage to continue his education in rhetoric, though it was above the financial means of his family.[60] In spite of the good warnings of his mother, as a youth Augustine lived a hedonistic lifestyle for a time, associating with young men who boasted of their sexual exploits. The need to gain their acceptance forced inexperienced boys like Augustine to seek or make up stories about sexual experiences.[61] It was while he was a student in Carthage that he read Cicero's dialogue Hortensius (now lost), which he described as leaving a lasting impression, enkindling in his heart the love of wisdom and a great thirst for truth. It started his interest in philosophy.[62] Although raised Catholic, Augustine became a Manichaean, much to his mother's chagrin.[63] At about the age of 17, Augustine began a relationship with a young woman in Carthage. Though his mother wanted him to marry a person of his class, the woman remained his lover[64] for over fifteen years[65] and gave birth to his son Adeodatus (372–388), which means "Gift from God",[66] who was viewed as extremely intelligent by his contemporaries. In 385, Augustine ended his relationship with his lover in order to prepare to marry a ten-year-old heiress. (He had to wait for two years because the legal age of marriage for women was twelve.) By the time he was able to marry her, however, he had decided to become a Catholic priest and the marriage did not happen.[65][67] Augustine was from the beginning a brilliant student, with an eager intellectual curiosity, but he never mastered Greek[68] – he tells us his first Greek teacher was a brutal man who constantly beat his students, and Augustine rebelled and refused to study. By the time he realized he needed to know Greek, it was too late; and although he acquired a smattering of the language, he was never eloquent with it. However, his mastery of Latin was another matter. He became an expert both in the eloquent use of the language and in the use of clever arguments to make his points. Move to Carthage, Rome, Milan[edit] The earliest known portrait of Saint Augustine in a 6th-century fresco, Lateran, Rome Augustine taught grammar at Thagaste during 373 and 374. The following year he moved to Carthage to conduct a school of rhetoric and remained there for the next nine years.[59] Disturbed by unruly students in Carthage, he moved to establish a school in Rome, where he believed the best and brightest rhetoricians practiced, in 383. However, Augustine was disappointed with the apathetic reception. It was the custom for students to pay their fees to the professor on the last day of the term, and many students attended faithfully all term, and then did not pay. Manichaean friends introduced him to the prefect of the City of Rome, Symmachus, who had been asked by the imperial court at Milan[18] to provide a rhetoric professor. Augustine won the job and headed north to take his position in Milan in late 384. Thirty years old, he had won the most visible academic position in the Latin world at a time when such posts gave ready access to political careers. Although Augustine spent ten years as a Manichaean, he was never an initiate or "elect", but an "auditor", the lowest level in this religion's hierarchy.[18][69] While still at Carthage a disappointing meeting with the Manichaean Bishop, Faustus of Mileve, a key exponent of Manichaean theology, started Augustine's scepticism of Manichaeanism.[18] In Rome, he reportedly turned away from Manichaeanism, embracing the scepticism of the New Academy movement. Because of his education, Augustine had great rhetorical prowess and was very knowledgeable of the philosophies behind many faiths.[70] At Milan, his mother's religiosity, Augustine's own studies in Neoplatonism, and his friend Simplicianus all urged him towards Catholicism.[59] Not coincidentally, this was shortly after the Roman emperor Theodosius I had issued a decree of death for all Manichaean monks in 382 and shortly before he declared Christianity to be the only legitimate religion for the Roman Empire in 391.[71] Initially Augustine was not strongly influenced by Christianity and its ideologies, but after coming in contact with Ambrose of Milan, Augustine reevaluated himself and was forever changed. Saint Augustine and his mother, Saint Monica (1846) by Ary Scheffer Augustine arrived in Milan and visited Ambrose, having heard of his reputation as an orator. Like Augustine, Ambrose was a master of rhetoric, but older and more experienced.[72] Soon, their relationship grew, as Augustine wrote, "And I began to love him, of course, not at the first as a teacher of the truth, for I had entirely despaired of finding that in thy Church—but as a friendly man."[73] Eventually, Augustine says he was spiritually led into Catholicism.[73] Augustine was very much influenced by Ambrose, even more than by his own mother and others he admired. In his Confessions, Augustine states, "That man of God received me as a father would, and welcomed my coming as a good bishop should."[73] Ambrose adopted Augustine as a spiritual son after the death of Augustine's father.[74] Augustine's mother had followed him to Milan and arranged a respectable marriage for him. Although Augustine acquiesced, he had to dismiss his concubine and grieved for having forsaken his lover. He wrote, "My mistress being torn from my side as an impediment to my marriage, my heart, which clave to her, was racked, and wounded, and bleeding." Augustine confessed he had not been a lover of wedlock so much as a slave of lust, so he procured another concubine since he had to wait two years until his fiancée came of age. However, his emotional wound was not healed.[75] It was during this period that he uttered his famously insincere prayer, "Grant me chastity and continence, but not yet."[76] There is evidence Augustine may have considered this former relationship to be equivalent to marriage.[77] In his Confessions, he admitted the experience eventually produced a decreased sensitivity to pain. Augustine eventually broke off his engagement to his eleven-year-old fiancée, but never renewed his relationship with either of his concubines. Alypius of Thagaste steered Augustine away from marriage, saying they could not live a life together in the love of wisdom if he married. Augustine looked back years later on the life at Cassiciacum, a villa outside of Milan where he gathered with his followers, and described it as Christianae vitae otium – the leisure of Christian life.[78] Conversion to Christianity and priesthood[edit] The Conversion of St. Augustine by Fra Angelico In late August of 386,[d] at the age of 31, having heard of Ponticianus's and his friends' first reading of the life of Anthony of the Desert, Augustine converted to Christianity. As Augustine later told it, his conversion was prompted by hearing a child's voice say "take up and read" (Latin: tolle, lege). Resorting to the Sortes Sanctorum, he opened a book of St. Paul's writings (codex apostoli, 8.12.29) at random and read Romans 13: 13–14: Not in rioting and drunkenness, not in chambering and wantonness, not in strife and envying, but put on the Lord Jesus Christ, and make no provision for the flesh to fulfill the lusts thereof.[79] He later wrote an account of his conversion in his Confessions (Latin: Confessiones), which has since become a classic of Christian theology and a key text in the history of autobiography. This work is an outpouring of thanksgiving and penitence. Although it is written as an account of his life, the Confessions also talks about the nature of time, causality, free will, and other important philosophical topics.[80] The following is taken from that work: Belatedly I loved thee, O Beauty so ancient and so new, belatedly I loved thee. For see, thou wast within and I was without, and I sought thee out there. Unlovely, I rushed heedlessly among the lovely things thou hast made. Thou wast with me, but I was not with thee. These things kept me far from thee; even though they were not at all unless they were in thee. Thou didst call and cry aloud, and didst force open my deafness. Thou didst gleam and shine, and didst chase away my blindness. Thou didst breathe fragrant odors and I drew in my breath; and now I pant for thee. I tasted, and now I hunger and thirst. Thou didst touch me, and I burned for thy peace.[81] The vision of St. Augustine by Ascanio Luciano Ambrose baptized Augustine and his son Adeodatus, in Milan on Easter Vigil, 24–25 April 387.[82] A year later, in 388, Augustine completed his apology On the Holiness of the Catholic Church.[18] That year, also, Adeodatus and Augustine returned home to Africa.[59] Augustine's mother Monica died at Ostia, Italy, as they prepared to embark for Africa.[63] Upon their arrival, they began a life of aristocratic leisure at Augustine's family's property.[83] Soon after, Adeodatus, too, died.[84] Augustine then sold his patrimony and gave the money to the poor. He only kept the family house, which he converted into a monastic foundation for himself and a group of friends.[59] In 391 Augustine was ordained a priest in Hippo Regius (now Annaba), in Algeria. He became a famous preacher (more than 350 preserved sermons are believed to be authentic), and was noted for combating the Manichaean religion, to which he had formerly adhered.[18] In 395, he was made coadjutor Bishop of Hippo and became full Bishop shortly thereafter,[85] hence the name "Augustine of Hippo"; and he gave his property to the church of Thagaste.[86] He remained in that position until his death in 430. He wrote his autobiographical Confessions in 397–398. His work The City of God was written to console his fellow Christians shortly after the Visigoths had sacked Rome in 410. Augustine worked tirelessly to convince the people of Hippo to convert to Christianity. Though he had left his monastery, he continued to lead a monastic life in the episcopal residence. Much of Augustine's later life was recorded by his friend Possidius, bishop of Calama (present-day Guelma, Algeria), in his Sancti Augustini Vita. Possidius admired Augustine as a man of powerful intellect and a stirring orator who took every opportunity to defend Christianity against its detractors. Possidius also described Augustine's personal traits in detail, drawing a portrait of a man who ate sparingly, worked tirelessly, despised gossip, shunned the temptations of the flesh, and exercised prudence in the financial stewardship of his see.[87] Death and sainthood[edit] Shortly before Augustine's death, the Vandals, a Germanic tribe that had converted to Arianism, invaded Roman Africa. The Vandals besieged Hippo in the spring of 430, when Augustine entered his final illness. According to Possidius, one of the few miracles attributed to Augustine, the healing of an ill man, took place during the siege.[88] According to Possidius, Augustine spent his final days in prayer and repentance, requesting the penitential Psalms of David be hung on his walls so he could read them. He directed the library of the church in Hippo and all the books therein should be carefully preserved. He died on 28 August 430.[89] Shortly after his death, the Vandals lifted the siege of Hippo, but they returned soon after and burned the city. They destroyed all but Augustine's cathedral and library, which they left untouched.[90] Augustine was canonized by popular acclaim, and later recognized as a Doctor of the Church in 1298 by Pope Boniface VIII.[91] His feast day is 28 August, the day on which he died. He is considered the patron saint of brewers, printers, theologians, and a number of cities and dioceses. He is invoked against sore eyes.[24] Relics[edit] Augustine's arm bones, Saint Augustin Basilica, Annaba, Algeria According to Bede's True Martyrology, Augustine's body was later translated or moved to Cagliari, Sardinia, by the Catholic bishops expelled from North Africa by Huneric. Around 720, his remains were transported again by Peter, bishop of Pavia and uncle of the Lombard king Liutprand, to the church of San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro in Pavia, in order to save them from frequent coastal raids by Saracens. In January 1327, Pope John XXII issued the papal bull Veneranda Santorum Patrum, in which he appointed the Augustinians guardians of the tomb of Augustine (called Arca), which was remade in 1362 and elaborately carved with bas-reliefs of scenes from Augustine's life. In October 1695, some workmen in the Church of San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro in Pavia discovered a marble box containing human bones (including part of a skull). A dispute arose between the Augustinian hermits (Order of Saint Augustine) and the regular canons (Canons Regular of Saint Augustine) as to whether these were the bones of Augustine. The hermits did not believe so; the canons affirmed they were. Eventually Pope Benedict XIII (1724–1730) directed the Bishop of Pavia, Monsignor Pertusati, to make a determination. The bishop declared that, in his opinion, the bones were those of Saint Augustine.[92] The Augustinians were expelled from Pavia in 1700, taking refuge in Milan with the relics of Augustine, and the disassembled Arca, which were removed to the cathedral there. San Pietro fell into disrepair, but was finally rebuilt in the 1870s, under the urging of Agostino Gaetano Riboldi, and reconsecrated in 1896 when the relics of Augustine and the shrine were once again reinstalled.[93][94] In 1842, a portion of Augustine's right arm (cubitus) was secured from Pavia and returned to Annaba.[95] It now rests in the Saint Augustin Basilica within a glass tube inserted into the arm of a life-size marble statue of the saint. Views and thought[edit] Part of a series on Christianity Jesus Christ Nativity Crucifixion Resurrection Bible Foundations Old Testament New Testament Gospel Canon Books of the Bible Church Creed New Covenant Theology God Trinity Father Son Holy Spirit Apologetics Baptism Christology History of theology Mission Salvation History Tradition Apostles Peter Paul Mary Early Christianity Church Fathers Constantine Councils Augustine East–West Schism Crusades Aquinas Reformation Luther Denominations Groups Western Roman Catholic Protestant Adventist Anabaptist Anglican Baptist Calvinist Evangelical Holiness Lutheran Methodist Pentecostal Eastern Eastern Catholic Eastern Orthodox Oriental Orthodox Church of the East (Nestorian) Nontrinitarian Jehovah's Witness Latter Day Saint Oneness Pentecostal Related topics Art Criticism Ecumenism Music Other religions Prayer Sermon Symbolism Worship  Christianity portal v t e Part of a series on Catholic philosophy   Aquinas, Scotus, and Ockham Ethics Cardinal virtues Just price Just war Probabilism Natural law Personalism Social teaching Virtue ethics Schools Augustinianism Cartesianism Molinism Occamism Salamanca Scholasticism Neo-scholasticism Scotism Thomism Philosophers Ancient Ambrose Athanasius the Great Augustine of Hippo Clement of Alexandria Cyprian of Carthage Cyril of Alexandria Gregory of Nyssa Irenaeus of Lyons Jerome John Chrysostom John of Damascus Justin Martyr Origen Paul the Apostle Tertullian Postclassical Pseudo-Dionysius Boethius Isidore of Seville Scotus Eriugena Bede Anselm of Canterbury Hildegard of Bingen Peter Abelard Symeon the New Theologian Bernard of Clairvaux Hugh of Saint Victor Thomas Aquinas Benedict of Nursia Pope Gregory I Peter Lombard Bonaventure Albertus Magnus Duns Scotus Roger Bacon Giles of Rome James of Viterbo Giambattista Vico Gregory of Rimini William of Ockham Catherine of Siena Paul of Venice Modern Baltasar Gracián Erasmus of Rotterdam Thomas Cajetan Nicholas of Cusa Luis de Molina Teresa of Ávila Thomas More Francis de Sales Francisco de Vitoria Domingo de Soto Martín de Azpilcueta Tomás de Mercado Antoine Arnauld René Descartes Robert Bellarmine Ignacy Krasicki Hugo Kołłątaj François Fénelon Alphonsus Liguori Nicolas Malebranche Blaise Pascal Francisco Suárez Giovanni Botero Felicité de Lamennais Antonio Rosmini John Henry Newman Contemporary Pope Benedict XVI Pope John Paul II G. E. M. Anscombe Hans Urs von Balthasar Maurice Blondel G. K. Chesterton Yves Congar Henri de Lubac John Finnis Reginald Garrigou-Lagrange Étienne Gilson René Girard Nicolás Gómez Dávila Romano Guardini John Haldane Dietrich von Hildebrand Bernard Lonergan Marshall McLuhan Alasdair MacIntyre Gabriel Marcel Jean-Luc Marion Jacques Maritain Emmanuel Mounier Josef Pieper Karl Rahner Edith Stein Charles Taylor  Catholicism portal  Philosophy portal v t e Augustine's large contribution of writings covered diverse fields including theology, philosophy and sociology. Along with John Chrysostom, Augustine was among the most prolific scholars of the early church by quantity. Theology[edit] Christian anthropology[edit] Augustine was one of the first Christian ancient Latin authors with a very clear vision of theological anthropology.[96] He saw the human being as a perfect unity of soul and body. In his late treatise On Care to Be Had for the Dead, section 5 (420) he exhorted respect for the body on the grounds it belonged to the very nature of the human person.[97] Augustine's favourite figure to describe body-soul unity is marriage: caro tua, coniunx tua – your body is your wife.[98][99][100] Initially, the two elements were in perfect harmony. After the fall of humanity they are now experiencing dramatic combat between one another. They are two categorically different things. The body is a three-dimensional object composed of the four elements, whereas the soul has no spatial dimensions.[101] Soul is a kind of substance, participating in reason, fit for ruling the body.[102] Augustine was not preoccupied, as Plato and Descartes were, in detailed efforts to explain the metaphysics of the soul-body union. It sufficed for him to admit they are metaphysically distinct: to be a human is to be a composite of soul and body, with the soul superior to the body. The latter statement is grounded in his hierarchical classification of things into those that merely exist, those that exist and live, and those that exist, live, and have intelligence or reason.[103][104] Like other Church Fathers such as Athenagoras,[105] Tertullian,[106] Clement of Alexandria and Basil of Caesarea,[107] Augustine "vigorously condemned the practice of induced abortion", and although he disapproved of an abortion during any stage of pregnancy, he made a distinction between early and later abortions.[108] He acknowledged the distinction between "formed" and "unformed" fetuses mentioned in the Septuagint translation of Exodus 21:22–23, which incorrectly translates the word "harm" (from the original Hebrew text) as "form" in the Koine Greek of the Septuagint. His view was based on the Aristotelian distinction "between the fetus before and after its supposed 'vivification'". Therefore, he did not classify as murder the abortion of an "unformed" fetus since he thought it could not be known with certainty the fetus had received a soul.[108][109] Augustine held that "the timing of the infusion of the soul was a mystery known to God alone".[110] However, he considered procreation as one of the goods of marriage; abortion figured as a means, along with drugs that cause sterility, of frustrating this good. It lay along a continuum that included infanticide as an instance of 'lustful cruelty' or 'cruel lust.' Augustine called the use of means to avoid the birth of a child an 'evil work:’ a reference to either abortion or contraception or both."[111] Creation[edit] See also: Allegorical interpretations of Genesis In City of God, Augustine rejected both the contemporary ideas of ages (such as those of certain Greeks and Egyptians) that differed from the Church's sacred writings.[112] In The Literal Interpretation of Genesis Augustine argued God had created everything in the universe simultaneously and not over a period of six days. He argued the six-day structure of creation presented in the Book of Genesis represents a logical framework, rather than the passage of time in a physical way – it would bear a spiritual, rather than physical, meaning, which is no less literal. One reason for this interpretation is the passage in Sirach 18:1, creavit omnia simul ("He created all things at once"), which Augustine took as proof the days of Genesis 1 had to be taken non-literalistically.[113] As an additional support for describing the six days of creation as a heuristic device, Augustine thought the actual event of creation would be incomprehensible by humans and therefore needed to be translated.[114] Augustine also does not envision original sin as causing structural changes in the universe, and even suggests the bodies of Adam and Eve were already created mortal before the Fall.[115][116][117] Ecclesiology[edit] See also: Ecclesiology St. Augustine by Carlo Crivelli Augustine developed his doctrine of the Church principally in reaction to the Donatist sect. He taught there is one Church, but within this Church there are two realities, namely, the visible aspect (the institutional hierarchy, the Catholic sacraments, and the laity) and the invisible (the souls of those in the Church, who are either dead, sinful members or elect predestined for Heaven). The former is the institutional body established by Christ on earth which proclaims salvation and administers the sacraments, while the latter is the invisible body of the elect, made up of genuine believers from all ages, and who are known only to God. The Church, which is visible and societal, will be made up of "wheat" and "tares", that is, good and wicked people (as per Mat. 13:30), until the end of time. This concept countered the Donatist claim that only those in a state of grace were the "true" or "pure" church on earth, and that priests and bishops who were not in a state of grace had no authority or ability to confect the sacraments.[118] Augustine's ecclesiology was more fully developed in City of God. There he conceives of the church as a heavenly city or kingdom, ruled by love, which will ultimately triumph over all earthly empires which are self-indulgent and ruled by pride. Augustine followed Cyprian in teaching that bishops and priests of the Church are the successors of the Apostles,[26] and their authority in the Church is God-given. Eschatology[edit] Augustine originally believed in premillennialism, namely that Christ would establish a literal 1,000-year kingdom prior to the general resurrection, but later rejected the belief, viewing it as carnal. He was the first theologian to expound a systematic doctrine of amillennialism, although some theologians and Christian historians believe his position was closer to that of modern postmillennialists. The Catholic Church during the Medieval period built its system of eschatology on Augustinian amillennialism, where Christ rules the earth spiritually through his triumphant church.[119] During the Reformation theologians such as John Calvin accepted amillennialism. Augustine taught that the eternal fate of the soul is determined at death,[120][121] and that purgatorial fires of the intermediate state purify only those who died in communion with the Church. His teaching provided fuel for later theology.[120] Mariology[edit] Although Augustine did not develop an independent Mariology, his statements on Mary surpass in number and depth those of other early writers. Even before the Council of Ephesus, he defended the Ever-Virgin Mary as the Mother of God, believing her to be "full of grace" (following earlier Latin writers such as Jerome) on account of her sexual integrity and innocence.[122] Likewise, he affirmed that the Virgin Mary "conceived as virgin, gave birth as virgin and stayed virgin forever".[123] Natural knowledge and biblical interpretation[edit] Augustine took the view that, if a literal interpretation contradicts science and humans' God-given reason, the Biblical text should be interpreted metaphorically. While each passage of Scripture has a literal sense, this "literal sense" does not always mean the Scriptures are mere history; at times they are rather an extended metaphor.[124] Original sin[edit] See also: Original sin Painting of Saint Augustine by Tomás Giner, year 1458, tempera on panel Diocesan Museum of Zaragoza, Aragon, Spain. Augustine taught that the sin of Adam and Eve was either an act of foolishness (insipientia) followed by pride and disobedience to God or that pride came first.[e] The first couple disobeyed God, who had told them not to eat of the Tree of the knowledge of good and evil (Gen 2:17).[125] The tree was a symbol of the order of creation.[126] Self-centeredness made Adam and Eve eat of it, thus failing to acknowledge and respect the world as it was created by God, with its hierarchy of beings and values.[f] They would not have fallen into pride and lack of wisdom if Satan hadn't sown into their senses "the root of evil" (radix Mali).[127] Their nature was wounded by concupiscence or libido, which affected human intelligence and will, as well as affections and desires, including sexual desire.[g] In terms of metaphysics, concupiscence is not a being but bad quality, the privation of good or a wound.[128] Augustine's understanding of the consequences of original sin and the necessity of redeeming grace was developed in the struggle against Pelagius and his Pelagian disciples, Caelestius and Julian of Eclanum,[26] who had been inspired by Rufinus of Syria, a disciple of Theodore of Mopsuestia.[129][130] They refused to agree original sin wounded human will and mind, insisting human nature was given the power to act, to speak, and to think when God created it. Human nature cannot lose its moral capacity for doing good, but a person is free to act or not act in a righteous way. Pelagius gave an example of eyes: they have capacity for seeing, but a person can make either good or bad use of it.[131][132] Like Jovinian, Pelagians insisted human affections and desires were not touched by the fall either. Immorality, e.g. fornication, is exclusively a matter of will, i.e. a person does not use natural desires in a proper way. In opposition, Augustine pointed out the apparent disobedience of the flesh to the spirit, and explained it as one of the results of original sin, punishment of Adam and Eve's disobedience to God.[133] Augustine had served as a "Hearer" for the Manichaeans for about nine years,[134] who taught that the original sin was carnal knowledge.[135] But his struggle to understand the cause of evil in the world started before that, at the age of nineteen.[136] By malum (evil) he understood most of all concupiscence, which he interpreted as a vice dominating people and causing in men and women moral disorder. Agostino Trapè insists Augustine's personal experience cannot be credited for his doctrine about concupiscence. He considers Augustine's marital experience to be quite normal, and even exemplary, aside from the absence of Christian wedding rites.[137] As J. Brachtendorf showed, Augustine used Ciceronian Stoic concept of passions, to interpret Paul's doctrine of universal sin and redemption.[138] St. Augustine by Peter Paul Rubens The view that not only human soul but also senses were influenced by the fall of Adam and Eve was prevalent in Augustine's time among the Fathers of the Church.[139][140][141] It is clear the reason for Augustine's distancing from the affairs of the flesh was different from that of Plotinus, a Neoplatonist[h] who taught that only through disdain for fleshly desire could one reach the ultimate state of mankind.[142] Augustine taught the redemption, i.e. transformation and purification, of the body in the resurrection.[143] Some authors perceive Augustine's doctrine as directed against human sexuality and attribute his insistence on continence and devotion to God as coming from Augustine's need to reject his own highly sensual nature as described in the Confessions.[i] Augustine taught that human sexuality has been wounded, together with the whole of human nature, and requires redemption of Christ. That healing is a process realized in conjugal acts. The virtue of continence is achieved thanks to the grace of the sacrament of Christian marriage, which becomes therefore a remedium concupiscentiae – remedy of concupiscence.[145][146] The redemption of human sexuality will be, however, fully accomplished only in the resurrection of the body.[147] The sin of Adam is inherited by all human beings. Already in his pre-Pelagian writings, Augustine taught that Original Sin is transmitted to his descendants by concupiscence,[148] which he regarded as the passion of both, soul and body,[j] making humanity a massa damnata (mass of perdition, condemned crowd) and much enfeebling, though not destroying, the freedom of the will.[149] Although earlier Christian authors taught the elements of physical death, moral weakness, and a sin propensity within original sin, Augustine was the first to add the concept of inherited guilt (reatus) from Adam whereby an infant was eternally damned at birth.[150] Although Augustine's anti-Pelagian defense of original sin was confirmed at numerous councils, i.e. Carthage (418), Ephesus (431), Orange (529), Trent (1546) and by popes, i.e. Pope Innocent I (401–417) and Pope Zosimus (417–418), his inherited guilt eternally damning infants was omitted by these councils and popes.[151] Anselm of Canterbury established in his Cur Deus Homo the definition that was followed by the great 13th-century Schoolmen, namely that Original Sin is the "privation of the righteousness which every man ought to possess", thus separating it from concupiscence, with which some of Augustine's disciples had defined it[152][153] as later did Luther and Calvin.[149] In 1567, Pope Pius V condemned the identification of Original Sin with concupiscence.[149] Predestination[edit] See also: Predestination Augustine taught that God orders all things while preserving human freedom.[154] Prior to 396, he believed predestination was based on God's foreknowledge of whether individuals would believe in Christ, that God's grace was "a reward for human assent".[155] Later, in response to Pelagius, Augustine said that the sin of pride consists in assuming "we are the ones who choose God or that God chooses us (in his foreknowledge) because of something worthy in us", and argued that God's grace causes individual act of faith.[156] Scholars are divided over whether Augustine's teaching implies double predestination, or the belief God chooses some people for damnation as well as some for salvation. Catholic scholars tend to deny he held such a view while some Protestants and secular scholars have held that Augustine did believe in double predestination.[157] About 412, Augustine became the first Christian to understand predestination as a divine unilateral pre-determination of individuals' eternal destinies independently of human choice, although his prior Manichaean sect did teach this concept.[158][159][160][161] Some Protestant theologians, such as Justo L. González[162] and Bengt Hägglund,[25] interpret Augustine's teaching that grace is irresistible, results in conversion, and leads to perseverance. In On Rebuke and Grace (De correptione et gratia), Augustine wrote: "And what is written, that He wills all men to be saved, while yet all men are not saved, may be understood in many ways, some of which I have mentioned in other writings of mine; but here I will say one thing: He wills all men to be saved, is so said that all the predestinated may be understood by it, because every kind of men is among them."[27] Speaking of the twins Jacob and Esau, Augustine wrote in his book On the Gift of Perseverance, "[I]t ought to be a most certain fact that the former is of the predestinated, the latter is not."[163] Sacramental theology[edit] St. Augustine in His Study by Vittore Carpaccio, 1502 Also in reaction against the Donatists, Augustine developed a distinction between the "regularity" and "validity" of the sacraments. Regular sacraments are performed by clergy of the Catholic Church, while sacraments performed by schismatics are considered irregular. Nevertheless, the validity of the sacraments do not depend upon the holiness of the priests who perform them (ex opere operato); therefore, irregular sacraments are still accepted as valid provided they are done in the name of Christ and in the manner prescribed by the Church. On this point Augustine departs from the earlier teaching of Cyprian, who taught that converts from schismatic movements must be re-baptised.[26] Augustine taught that sacraments administered outside the Catholic Church, though true sacraments, avail nothing. However, he also stated that baptism, while it does not confer any grace when done outside the Church, does confer grace as soon as one is received into the Catholic Church.[164] Augustine upheld the early Christian understanding of the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, saying that Christ's statement, "This is my body" referred to the bread he carried in his hands,[165][166] and that Christians must have faith the bread and wine are in fact the body and blood of Christ, despite what they see with their eyes.[167] For instance he stated that "He [Jesus] walked here in the same flesh, and gave us the same flesh to be eaten unto salvation. But no one eats that flesh unless first he adores it; and thus it is discovered how such a footstool of the Lord's feet is adored; and not only do we not sin by adoring, we do sin by not adoring."[168] Nevertheless, in some of his writings, Augustine expressed a symbolic view of the Eucharist.[169] For example, in his work On Christian Doctrine, Augustine referred to the Eucharist as a "figure" and a "sign."[170] Against the Pelagians, Augustine strongly stressed the importance of infant baptism. About the question whether baptism is an absolute necessity for salvation, however, Augustine appears to have refined his beliefs during his lifetime, causing some confusion among later theologians about his position. He said in one of his sermons that only the baptized are saved.[171] This belief was shared by many early Christians. However, a passage from his City of God, concerning the Apocalypse, may indicate Augustine did believe in an exception for children born to Christian parents.[172] Philosophy[edit] Saint Augustine in the Nuremberg Chronicle Astrology[edit] Augustine's contemporaries often believed astrology to be an exact and genuine science. Its practitioners were regarded as true men of learning and called mathemathici. Astrology played a prominent part in Manichaean doctrine, and Augustine himself was attracted by their books in his youth, being particularly fascinated by those who claimed to foretell the future. Later, as a bishop, he warned that one should avoid astrologers who combine science and horoscopes. (Augustine's term "mathematici", meaning "astrologers", is sometimes mistranslated as "mathematicians".) According to Augustine, they were not genuine students of Hipparchus or Eratosthenes but "common swindlers".[173][174][175][176] Epistemology[edit] Epistemological concerns shaped Augustine's intellectual development. His early dialogues [Contra academicos (386) and De Magistro (389)], both written shortly after his conversion to Christianity, reflect his engagement with sceptical arguments and show the development of his doctrine of divine illumination. The doctrine of illumination claims God plays an active and regular part in human perception (as opposed to God designing the human mind to be reliable consistently, as in, for example, Descartes' idea of clear and distinct perceptions) and understanding by illuminating the mind so human beings can recognize intelligible realities God presents. According to Augustine, illumination is obtainable to all rational minds and is different from other forms of sense perception. It is meant to be an explanation of the conditions required for the mind to have a connection with intelligible entities.[177] Augustine also posed the problem of other minds throughout different works, most famously perhaps in On the Trinity (VIII.6.9), and developed what has come to be a standard solution: the argument from analogy to other minds.[178] In contrast to Plato and other earlier philosophers, Augustine recognized the centrality of testimony to human knowledge and argued that what others tell us can provide knowledge even if we don't have independent reasons to believe their testimonial reports.[179] Just war[edit] See also: Just war theory Augustine asserted Christians should be pacifists as a personal, philosophical stance.[180] However, peacefulness in the face of a grave wrong that could only be stopped by violence would be a sin. Defence of one's self or others could be a necessity, especially when authorized by a legitimate authority. While not breaking down the conditions necessary for war to be just, Augustine coined the phrase in his work The City of God.[181] In essence, the pursuit of peace must include the option of fighting for its long-term preservation.[182] Such a war could not be pre-emptive, but defensive, to restore peace.[183] Thomas Aquinas, centuries later, used the authority of Augustine's arguments in an attempt to define the conditions under which a war could be just.[184][185] Free will[edit] Included in Augustine's earlier theodicy is the claim God created humans and angels as rational beings possessing free will. Free will was not intended for sin, meaning it is not equally predisposed to both good and evil. A will defiled by sin is not considered as "free" as it once was because it is bound by material things, which could be lost or be difficult to part with, resulting in unhappiness. Sin impairs free will, while grace restores it. Only a will that was once free can be subjected to sin's corruption.[186] After 412, Augustine changed his theology, teaching that humanity had no free will to believe in Christ but only a free will to sin: "I in fact strove on behalf of the free choice of the human 'will,’ but God's grace conquered" (Retract. 2.1).[187] The early Christians opposed the deterministic views (e.g., fate) of Stoics, Gnostics, and Manichaeans prevalent in the first four centuries.[188] Christians championed the concept of a relational God who interacts with humans rather than a Stoic or Gnostic God who unilaterally foreordained every event (yet Stoics still claimed to teach free will).[189] Patristics scholar Ken Wilson argues that every early Christian author with extant writings who wrote on the topic prior to Augustine of Hippo (412) advanced human free choice rather than a deterministic God.[190] According to Wilson, Augustine taught traditional free choice until 412, when he reverted to his earlier Manichaean and Stoic deterministic training when battling the Pelagians.[191] Only a few Christians accepted Augustine's view of free will until the Protestant Reformation when both Luther and Calvin embraced Augustine's deterministic teachings wholeheartedly.[192][193] The Catholic Church considers Augustine's teaching to be consistent with free will.[194] He often said that anyone can be saved if they wish.[194] While God knows who will and won't be saved, with no possibility for the latter to be saved in their lives, this knowledge represents God's perfect knowledge of how humans will freely choose their destinies.[194] Sociology, morals and ethics[edit] Slavery[edit] Augustine led many clergy under his authority at Hippo to free their slaves "as an act of piety".[195] He boldly wrote a letter urging the emperor to set up a new law against slave traders and was very much concerned about the sale of children. Christian emperors of his time for 25 years had permitted sale of children, not because they approved of the practice, but as a way of preventing infanticide when parents were unable to care for a child. Augustine noted that the tenant farmers in particular were driven to hire out or to sell their children as a means of survival.[196] In his book, The City of God, he presents the development of slavery as a product of sin and as contrary to God's divine plan. He wrote that God "did not intend that this rational creature, who was made in his image, should have dominion over anything but the irrational creation – not man over man, but man over the beasts". Thus he wrote that righteous men in primitive times were made shepherds of cattle, not kings over men. "The condition of slavery is the result of sin", he declared.[197] In The City of God, Augustine wrote he felt the existence of slavery was a punishment for the existence of sin, even if an individual enslaved person committed no sin meriting punishment. He wrote: "Slavery is, however, penal, and is appointed by that law which enjoins the preservation of the natural order and forbids its disturbance."[198] Augustine believed slavery did more harm to the slave owner than the enslaved person himself: "the lowly position does as much good to the servant as the proud position does harm to the master."[198] Augustine proposes as a solution to sin a type of cognitive reimagining of one's situation, where slaves "may themselves make their slavery in some sort free, by serving not in crafty fear, but in faithful love," until the end of the world eradicated slavery for good: "until all unrighteousness pass away, and all principality and every human power be brought to nothing, and God be all in all."[198] Jews[edit] Against certain Christian movements, some of which rejected the use of Hebrew Scripture, Augustine countered that God had chosen the Jews as a special people,[199] and he considered the scattering of Jewish people by the Roman Empire to be a fulfillment of prophecy.[200] He rejected homicidal attitudes, quoting part of the same prophecy, namely "Slay them not, lest they should at last forget Thy law" (Psalm 59:11). Augustine, who believed Jewish people would be converted to Christianity at "the end of time", argued God had allowed them to survive their dispersion as a warning to Christians; as such, he argued, they should be permitted to dwell in Christian lands.[201] The sentiment sometimes attributed to Augustine that Christians should let the Jews "survive but not thrive" (it is repeated by author James Carroll in his book Constantine's Sword, for example)[202] is apocryphal and is not found in any of his writings.[203] Sexuality[edit] For Augustine, the evil of sexual immorality was not in the sexual act itself, but in the emotions that typically accompany it. In On Christian Doctrine Augustine contrasts love, which is enjoyment on account of God, and lust, which is not on account of God.[204] Augustine claims that, following the Fall, sexual lust (concupiscentia) has become necessary for copulation (as required to stimulate male erection), sexual lust is an evil result of the Fall, and therefore, evil must inevitably accompany sexual intercourse (On marriage and concupiscence 1.19, see footnote[205]). Therefore, following the Fall, even marital sex carried out merely to procreate inevitably perpetuates evil (On marriage and concupiscence 1.27; A Treatise against Two Letters of the Pelagians 2.27). For Augustine, proper love exercises a denial of selfish pleasure and the subjugation of corporeal desire to God. The only way to avoid evil caused by sexual intercourse is to take the "better" way (Confessions 8.2) and abstain from marriage (On marriage and concupiscence 1.31). Sex within marriage is not, however, for Augustine a sin, although necessarily producing the evil of sexual lust. Based on the same logic, Augustine also declared the pious virgins raped during the sack of Rome to be innocent because they did not intend to sin nor enjoy the act.[206][207] Before the Fall, Augustine believed sex was a passionless affair, "just like many a laborious work accomplished by the compliant operation of our other limbs, without any lascivious heat",[208] that the seed "might be sown without any shameful lust, the genital members simply obeying the inclination of the will".[209] After the Fall, by contrast, the penis cannot be controlled by mere will, subject instead to both unwanted impotence and involuntary erections: "Sometimes the urge arises unwanted; sometimes, on the other hand, it forsakes the eager lover, and desire grows cold in the body while burning in the mind... It arouses the mind, but it does not follow through what it has begun and arouse the body also" (City of God 14.16). Augustine censured those who try to prevent the creation of offspring when engaging in sexual relations, saying that though they may be nominally married they are not really, but are using that designation as a cloak for turpitude. When they allow their unwanted children to die of exposure, they unmask their sin. Sometimes they use drugs to produce sterility, or other means to try to destroy the fetus before they are born. Their marriage is not wedlock but debauchery.[210] Augustine believed Adam and Eve had both already chosen in their hearts to disobey God's command not to eat of the Tree of Knowledge before Eve took the fruit, ate it, and gave it to Adam.[211][212] Accordingly, Augustine did not believe Adam was any less guilty of sin.[211][213] Augustine praises women and their role in society and in the Church. In his Tractates on the Gospel of John, Augustine, commenting on the Samaritan woman from [John 4:1–42], uses the woman as a figure of the Church in agreement with the New Testament teaching that the Church is the bride of Christ. "Husbands, love your wives, as Christ loved the church and gave himself up for her."[Eph 5:25] Pedagogy[edit] Saint Augustine in His Study by Sandro Botticelli, 1494, Uffizi Gallery Augustine is considered an influential figure in the history of education. A work early in Augustine's writings is De Magistro (On the Teacher), which contains insights about education. His ideas changed as he found better directions or better ways of expressing his ideas. In the last years of his life Augustine wrote his Retractationes (Retractations), reviewing his writings and improving specific texts. Henry Chadwick believes an accurate translation of "retractationes" may be "reconsiderations". Reconsiderations can be seen as an overarching theme of the way Augustine learned. Augustine's understanding of the search for understanding, meaning, and truth as a restless journey leaves room for doubt, development, and change.[214] Augustine was a strong advocate of critical thinking skills. Because written works were limited during this time, spoken communication of knowledge was very important. His emphasis on the importance of community as a means of learning distinguishes his pedagogy from some others. Augustine believed dialectic is the best means for learning and that this method should serve as a model for learning encounters between teachers and students. Augustine's dialogue writings model the need for lively interactive dialogue among learners.[214] He recommended adapting educational practices to fit the students' educational backgrounds: the student who has been well-educated by knowledgeable teachers; the student who has had no education; and the student who has had a poor education, but believes himself to be well-educated. If a student has been well educated in a wide variety of subjects, the teacher must be careful not to repeat what they have already learned, but to challenge the student with material they do not yet know thoroughly. With the student who has had no education, the teacher must be patient, willing to repeat things until the student understands, and sympathetic. Perhaps the most difficult student, however, is the one with an inferior education who believes he understands something when he does not. Augustine stressed the importance of showing this type of student the difference between "having words and having understanding" and of helping the student to remain humble with his acquisition of knowledge. Under the influence of Bede, Alcuin, and Rabanus Maurus, De catechizandis rudibus came to exercise an important role in the education of clergy at the monastic schools, especially from the eighth century onwards.[215] Augustine believed students should be given an opportunity to apply learned theories to practical experience. Yet another of Augustine's major contributions to education is his study on the styles of teaching. He claimed there are two basic styles a teacher uses when speaking to the students. The mixed style includes complex and sometimes showy language to help students see the beautiful artistry of the subject they are studying. The grand style is not quite as elegant as the mixed style, but is exciting and heartfelt, with the purpose of igniting the same passion in the students' hearts. Augustine balanced his teaching philosophy with the traditional Bible-based practice of strict discipline. Coercion[edit] Augustine of Hippo had to deal with issues of violence and coercion throughout his entire career due largely to the Donatist-Catholic conflict. He is one of very few authors in Antiquity who ever truly theoretically examined the ideas of religious freedom and coercion.[216]:107 However, it is his teaching on coercion that has most "embarrassed his modern defenders and vexed his modern detractors,"[217]:116 making him appear "to generations of religious liberals as le prince et patriarche de persecuteurs."[216]:107 Russell says Augustine's theory of coercion "was not crafted from dogma, but in response to a unique historical situation" and is therefore context dependent, while others see it as inconsistent with his other teachings.[218]:125 The context[edit] During the Great Persecution, "When Roman soldiers came calling, some of the [Catholic] officials handed over the sacred books, vessels, and other church goods rather than risk legal penalties" over a few objects.[219]:ix Maureen Tilley[220] says this was a problem by 305, that became a schism by 311, because many of the North African Christians had a long established tradition of a "physicalist approach to religion."[219]:xv The sacred scriptures were not simply books to them, but were the Word of God in physical form, therefore they saw handing over the Bible, and handing over a person to be martyred, as "two sides of the same coin."[219]:ix Those who cooperated with the authorities became known as traditores. The term originally meant one who hands over a physical object, but it came to mean "traitor."[219]:ix According to Tilley, after the persecution ended, those who had apostatized wanted to return to their positions in the church.[219]:xiv The North African Christians, (the rigorists who became known as Donatists), refused to accept them.[219]:ix, x Catholics were more tolerant and wanted to wipe the slate clean.[221]:xiv, 69 For the next 75 years, both parties existed, often directly alongside each other, with a double line of bishops for the same cities.[219]:xv Competition for the loyalty of the people included multiple new churches and violence.[k]:334 No one is exactly sure when the Circumcellions and the Donatists allied, but for decades, they fomented protests and street violence, accosted travelers and attacked random Catholics without warning, often doing serious and unprovoked bodily harm such as beating people with clubs, cutting off their hands and feet, and gouging out eyes.[222]:172, 173, 222, 242, 254 Augustine became coadjutor Bishop of Hippo in 395, and since he believed that conversion must be voluntary, his appeals to the Donatists were verbal. For several years, he used popular propaganda, debate, personal appeal, General Councils, appeals to the emperor and political pressure to bring the Donatists back into union with the Catholics, but all attempts failed.[222]:242, 254 The harsh realities Augustine faced can be found in his Letter 28 written to bishop Novatus around 416. Donatists had attacked, cut out the tongue and cut off the hands of a Bishop Rogatus who had recently converted to Catholicism. An unnamed count of Africa had sent his agent with Rogatus, and he too had been attacked; the count was "inclined to pursue the matter."[217]:120 Russell says Augustine demonstrates a "hands on" involvement with the details of his bishopric, but at one point in the letter, he confesses he does not know what to do. "All the issues that plague him are there: stubborn Donatists, Circumcellion violence, the vacillating role of secular officials, the imperative to persuade, and his own trepidations."[217]:120,121 The empire responded to the civil unrest with law and its enforcement, and thereafter, Augustine changed his mind on using verbal arguments alone. Instead, he came to support the state's use of coercion.[216]:107–116 Augustine did not believe the empire's enforcement would "make the Donatists more virtuous" but he did believe it would make them "less vicious."[218]:128 The theology[edit] The primary 'proof text' of what Augustine thought concerning coercion is from Letter 93, written in 408, as a reply to the bishop Vincentius, of Cartenna (Mauretania, North Africa). This letter shows that both practical and biblical reasons led Augustine to defend the legitimacy of coercion. He confesses that he changed his mind because of "the ineffectiveness of dialogue and the proven efficacy of laws."[223]:3 He had been worried about false conversions if force was used, but "now," he says, "it seems imperial persecution is working." Many Donatists had converted.[218]:116 "Fear had made them reflect, and made them docile."[223]:3 Augustine continued to assert that coercion could not directly convert someone, but concluded it could make a person ready to be reasoned with.[224]:103–121 According to Mar Marcos, Augustine made use of several biblical examples to legitimize coercion, but the primary analogy in Letter 93 and in Letter 185, is the parable of the Great Feast in Luke 14.15-24 and its statement compel them to come in.[223]:1 Russell says, Augustine uses the Latin term cogo, instead of the compello of the Vulgate, since to Augustine, cogo meant to "gather together" or "collect" and was not simply "compel by physical force."[218]:121 In 1970, Robert Markus[225] argued that, for Augustine, a degree of external pressure being brought for the purpose of reform was compatible with the exercise of free will.[217] Russell asserts that Confessions 13 is crucial to understanding Augustine's thought on coercion; using Peter Brown's explanation of Augustine's view of salvation, he explains that Augustine's past, his own sufferings and "conversion through God's pressures," along with his biblical hermeneutics, is what led him to see the value in suffering for discerning truth.[218]:116–117 According to Russell, Augustine saw coercion as one among many conversion strategies for forming "a pathway to the inner person."[218]:119 In Augustine's view, there is such a thing as just and unjust persecution. Augustine explains that when the purpose of persecution is to lovingly correct and instruct, then it becomes discipline and is just.[223]:2 He said the church would discipline its people out of a loving desire to heal them, and that, "once compelled to come in, heretics would gradually give their voluntary assent to the truth of Christian orthodoxy."[218]:115 Frederick H. Russell[226] describes this as "a pastoral strategy in which the church did the persecuting with the dutiful assistance of Roman authorities,"[218]:115 adding that it is "a precariously balanced blend of external discipline and inward nurturance."[218]:125 Augustine placed limits on the use of coercion, recommending fines, imprisonment, banishment, and moderate floggings, preferring beatings with rods which was a common practice in the ecclesial courts.[227]:164 He opposed severity, maiming, and the execution of heretics.[228]:768 While these limits were mostly ignored by Roman authorities, Michael Lamb says that in doing this, "Augustine appropriates republican principles from his Roman predecessors..." and maintains his commitment to liberty, legitimate authority, and the rule of law as a constraint on arbitrary power. He continues to advocate holding authority accountable to prevent domination, but affirms the state's right to act.[229] H. A. Deane,[230] on the other hand, says there is a fundamental inconsistency between Augustine's political thought and "his final position of approval of the use of political and legal weapons to punish religious dissidence" and others have seconded this view.[l] Brown asserts that Augustine's thinking on coercion is more of an attitude than a doctrine, since it is "not in a state of rest," but is instead marked by "a painful and protracted attempt to embrace and resolve tensions."[216]:107 According to Russell it is possible to see how Augustine himself had evolved from his earlier Confessions to this teaching on coercion and the latter's strong patriarchal nature: "Intellectually, the burden has shifted imperceptibly from discovering the truth to disseminating the truth."[218]:129 The bishops had become the church's elite with their own rationale for acting as "stewards of the truth." Russell points out that Augustine's views are limited to time and place and his own community, but later, others took what he said and applied it outside those parameters in ways Augustine never imagined or intended.[218]:129 Works[edit] Main article: Augustine of Hippo bibliography Saint Augustine painting by Antonio Rodríguez Augustine was one of the most prolific Latin authors in terms of surviving works, and the list of his works consists of more than one hundred separate titles.[231] They include apologetic works against the heresies of the Arians, Donatists, Manichaeans and Pelagians; texts on Christian doctrine, notably De Doctrina Christiana (On Christian Doctrine); exegetical works such as commentaries on Genesis, the Psalms and Paul's Letter to the Romans; many sermons and letters; and the Retractationes, a review of his earlier works which he wrote near the end of his life. Apart from those, Augustine is probably best known for his Confessions, which is a personal account of his earlier life, and for De civitate Dei (The City of God, consisting of 22 books), which he wrote to restore the confidence of his fellow Christians, which was badly shaken by the sack of Rome by the Visigoths in 410. His On the Trinity, in which he developed what has become known as the 'psychological analogy' of the Trinity, is also considered to be among his masterpieces, and arguably of more doctrinal importance than the Confessions or the City of God.[232] He also wrote On Free Choice of the Will (De libero arbitrio), addressing why God gives humans free will that can be used for evil. Influence[edit] Saint Augustine Disputing with the Heretics painting by Vergós Group In both his philosophical and theological reasoning, Augustine was greatly influenced by Stoicism, Platonism and Neoplatonism, particularly by the work of Plotinus, author of the Enneads, probably through the mediation of Porphyry and Victorinus (as Pierre Hadot has argued). Some Neoplatonic concepts are still visible in Augustine's early writings.[233] His early and influential writing on the human will, a central topic in ethics, would become a focus for later philosophers such as Schopenhauer, Kierkegaard, and Nietzsche. He was also influenced by the works of Virgil (known for his teaching on language), and Cicero (known for his teaching on argument).[177] In philosophy[edit] Philosopher Bertrand Russell was impressed by Augustine's meditation on the nature of time in the Confessions, comparing it favourably to Kant's version of the view that time is subjective.[234] Catholic theologians generally subscribe to Augustine's belief that God exists outside of time in the "eternal present"; that time only exists within the created universe because only in space is time discernible through motion and change. His meditations on the nature of time are closely linked to his consideration of the human ability of memory. Frances Yates in her 1966 study The Art of Memory argues that a brief passage of the Confessions, 10.8.12, in which Augustine writes of walking up a flight of stairs and entering the vast fields of memory[235] clearly indicates that the ancient Romans were aware of how to use explicit spatial and architectural metaphors as a mnemonic technique for organizing large amounts of information. Augustine's philosophical method, especially demonstrated in his Confessions, had continuing influence on Continental philosophy throughout the 20th century. His descriptive approach to intentionality, memory, and language as these phenomena are experienced within consciousness and time anticipated and inspired the insights of modern phenomenology and hermeneutics.[236] Edmund Husserl writes: "The analysis of time-consciousness is an age-old crux of descriptive psychology and theory of knowledge. The first thinker to be deeply sensitive to the immense difficulties to be found here was Augustine, who laboured almost to despair over this problem."[237] Martin Heidegger refers to Augustine's descriptive philosophy at several junctures in his influential work Being and Time.[m] Hannah Arendt began her philosophical writing with a dissertation on Augustine's concept of love, Der Liebesbegriff bei Augustin (1929): "The young Arendt attempted to show that the philosophical basis for vita socialis in Augustine can be understood as residing in neighbourly love, grounded in his understanding of the common origin of humanity."[238] Jean Bethke Elshtain in Augustine and the Limits of Politics tried to associate Augustine with Arendt in their concept of evil: "Augustine did not see evil as glamorously demonic but rather as absence of good, something which paradoxically is really nothing. Arendt ... envisioned even the extreme evil which produced the Holocaust as merely banal [in Eichmann in Jerusalem]."[239] Augustine's philosophical legacy continues to influence contemporary critical theory through the contributions and inheritors of these 20th-century figures. Seen from a historical perspective, there are three main perspectives on the political thought of Augustine: first, political Augustinianism; second, Augustinian political theology; and third, Augustinian political theory.[240] In theology[edit] Part of a series on Scholasticism Scholastic schools Thomism Scotism Occamism Major scholastic works Summa Theologica Cur Deus Homo Summa Grammatica Summa logicae Opus Oxoniense Libri Quattuor Sententiarum Precursors Augustine of Hippo Boethius Pope Gregory I Alcuin of York John Scotus Eriugena People Thomas Aquinas ("Doctor Angelicus") Duns Scotus ("Doctor Subtilis") William of Ockham ("Doctor Invincibilis") Francisco Suárez ("Doctor Eximius") Averroes ("The Commentator") Albertus Magnus ("Doctor Universalis") Peter Lombard ("The Master") Bonaventure ("Doctor Seraphicus") Anselm of Canterbury ("Doctor Marianus") Peter Abelard ("Doctor Scholasticus") Related Philosophy Aristotelianism Dominican Order Franciscan Order Catholic theology Islamic philosophy Empiricism Neoplatonism Neo-Thomism Problem of universals  Philosophy portal  Catholicism portal v t e Thomas Aquinas was influenced heavily by Augustine. On the topic of original sin, Aquinas proposed a more optimistic view of man than that of Augustine in that his conception leaves to the reason, will, and passions of fallen man their natural powers even after the Fall, without "supernatural gifts".[241] While in his pre-Pelagian writings Augustine taught that Adam's guilt as transmitted to his descendants much enfeebles, though does not destroy, the freedom of their will, Protestant reformers Martin Luther and John Calvin affirmed that Original Sin completely destroyed liberty (see total depravity).[149] According to Leo Ruickbie, Augustine's arguments against magic, differentiating it from miracle, were crucial in the early Church's fight against paganism and became a central thesis in the later denunciation of witches and witchcraft. According to Professor Deepak Lal, Augustine's vision of the heavenly city has influenced the secular projects and traditions of the Enlightenment, Marxism, Freudianism and eco-fundamentalism.[242] Post-Marxist philosophers Antonio Negri and Michael Hardt rely heavily on Augustine's thought, particularly The City of God, in their book of political philosophy Empire. Augustine has influenced many modern-day theologians and authors such as John Piper. Hannah Arendt, an influential 20th-century political theorist, wrote her doctoral dissertation in philosophy on Augustine, and continued to rely on his thought throughout her career. Ludwig Wittgenstein extensively quotes Augustine in Philosophical Investigations for his approach to language, both admiringly, and as a sparring partner to develop his own ideas, including an extensive opening passage from the Confessions.[citation needed] Contemporary linguists have argued that Augustine has significantly influenced the thought of Ferdinand de Saussure, who did not 'invent' the modern discipline of semiotics, but rather built upon Aristotelian and Neoplatonic knowledge from the Middle Ages, via an Augustinian connection: "as for the constitution of Saussurian semiotic theory, the importance of the Augustinian thought contribution (correlated to the Stoic one) has also been recognized. Saussure did not do anything but reform an ancient theory in Europe, according to the modern conceptual exigencies."[243] In his autobiographical book Milestones, Pope Benedict XVI claims Augustine as one of the deepest influences in his thought. Oratorio, music[edit] Marc-Antoine Charpeentier, Motet "Pour St Augustin mourant", H.419, for 2 voices and contino (1687), and "Pour St Augustin", H.307, for 2 voices and continuo (1670s). The Consecration of Saint Augustine by Jaume Huguet Much of Augustine's conversion is dramatized in the oratorio La conversione di Sant'Agostino (1750) composed by Johann Adolph Hasse. The libretto for this oratorio, written by Duchess Maria Antonia of Bavaria, draws upon the influence of Metastasio (the finished libretto having been edited by him) and is based on an earlier five-act play Idea perfectae conversionis dive Augustinus written by the Jesuit priest Franz Neumayr.[244] In the libretto Augustine's mother Monica is presented as a prominent character that is worried that Augustine might not convert to Christianity. As Dr. Andrea Palent[245] says: Maria Antonia Walpurgis revised the five-part Jesuit drama into a two-part oratorio liberty in which she limits the subject to the conversion of Augustine and his submission to the will of God. To this was added the figure of the mother, Monica, so as to let the transformation appear by experience rather than the dramatic artifice of deus ex machina. Throughout the oratorio Augustine shows his willingness to turn to God, but the burden of the act of conversion weighs heavily on him. This is displayed by Hasse through extended recitative passages. In popular art[edit] Augustine has been the subject of songs by Bob Dylan and The Chairman Dances.[246] In his poem "Confessional", Frank Bidart compares the relationship between Augustine and his mother, Saint Monica, to the relationship between the poem's speaker and his mother.[247] See also[edit] Cogito, ergo sum Rule of Saint Augustine References[edit] Notes[edit] ^ Jerome wrote to Augustine in 418: "You are known throughout the world; Catholics honour and esteem you as the one who has established anew the ancient Faith" (conditor antiquae rursum fidei). Cf. Epistola 195;TeSelle 2002, p. 343 ^ The nomen Aurelius is virtually meaningless, signifying little more than Roman citizenship.[37] ^ "[T]he names Monnica and Nonnica are found on tombstones in the Libyan language—as such Monnica is the only Berber name commonly used in English."Brett & Fentress 1996, p. 293 ^ Brown 2000, p. 64 places Augustine's garden conversion at the end of August, 386. ^ He explained to Julian of Eclanum that it was a most subtle job to discern what came first: Sed si disputatione subtilissima et elimatissima opus est, ut sciamus utrum primos homines insipientia superbos, an insipientes superbia fecerit. (Contra Julianum, V, 4.18; PL 44, 795) ^ Augustine explained it in this way: "Why therefore is it enjoined upon mind, that it should know itself? I suppose, in order that, it may consider itself, and live according to its own nature; that is, seek to be regulated according to its own nature, viz., under Him to whom it ought to be subject, and above those things to which it is to be preferred; under Him by whom it ought to be ruled, above those things which it ought to rule. For it does many things through vicious desire, as though in forgetfulness of itself. For it sees some things intrinsically excellent, in that more excellent nature which is God: and whereas it ought to remain steadfast that it may enjoy them, it is turned away from Him, by wishing to appropriate those things to itself, and not to be like to Him by His gift, but to be what He is by its own, and it begins to move and slip gradually down into less and less, which it thinks to be more and more." ("On the Trinity" (De Trinitate), 5:7; CCL 50, 320 [1–12]) ^ In one of Augustine's late works, Retractationes, he made a significant remark indicating the way he understood difference between spiritual, moral libido and the sexual desire: "Libido is not good and righteous use of the libido" ("libido non-est bonus et rectus usus libidinis"). See the whole passage: Dixi etiam quodam loco: «Quod enim est cibus ad salutem hominis, hoc est concubitus ad salutem generis, et utrumque non-est sine delectatione carnali, quae tamen modificata et temperantia refrenante in usum naturalem redacta, libido esse non-potest». Quod ideo dictum est, quoniam "libido non-est bonus et rectus usus libidinis". Sicut enim malum est male uti bonis, ita bonum bene uti malis. De qua re alias, maxime contra novos haereticos Pelagianos, diligentius disputavi. Cf. De bono coniugali, 16.18; PL 40, 385; De nuptiis et concupiscentia, II, 21.36; PL 44, 443; Contra Iulianum, III, 7.16; PL 44, 710; ibid., V, 16.60; PL 44, 817. See also Idem (1983). Le mariage chrétien dans l'oeuvre de Saint Augustin. Une théologie baptismale de la vie conjugale. Paris: Études Augustiniennes. p. 97. ^ Although Augustine praises him in the Confessions, 8.2., it is widely acknowledged that Augustine's attitude towards that pagan philosophy was very much of a Christian apostle, as Clarke 1958, p. 151 writes: Towards Neoplatonism there was throughout his life a decidedly ambivalent attitude; one must expect both agreement and sharp dissent, derivation but also repudiation. In the matter which concerns us here, the agreement with Neoplatonism (and with the Platonic tradition in general) centers on two related notions: immutability as primary characteristic of divinity, and likeness to divinity as the primary vocation of the soul. The disagreement chiefly concerned, as we have said, two related and central Christian dogmas: the Incarnation of the Son of God and the resurrection of the flesh. Cf. É. Schmitt's chapter 2: L'idéologie hellénique et la conception augustinienne de réalités charnelles in: Idem (1983). Le mariage chrétien dans l'oeuvre de Saint Augustin. Une théologie baptismale de la vie conjugale. Paris: Études Augustiniennes. pp. 108–123. O'Meara, J.J. (1954). The Young Augustine: The Growth of St. Augustine's Mind up to His Conversion. London. pp. 143–151 and 195f. Madec, G. Le "platonisme" des Pères. p. 42. in Idem (1994). Petites Études Augustiniennes. «Antiquité» 142. Paris: Collection d'Études Augustiniennes. pp. 27–50. Thomas Aq. STh I q84 a5; Augustine of Hippo, City of God (De Civitate Dei), VIII, 5; CCL 47, 221 [3–4]. ^ "It is, of course, always easier to oppose and denounce than to understand."[144] ^ In 393 or 394 he commented: Moreover, if unbelief is fornication, and idolatry unbelief, and covetousness idolatry, it is not to be doubted that covetousness also is fornication. Who, then, in that case can rightly separate any unlawful lust whatever from the category of fornication, if covetousness is fornication? And from this we perceive, that because of unlawful lusts, not only those of which one is guilty in acts of uncleanness with another's husband or wife, but any unlawful lusts whatever, which cause the soul making a bad use of the body to wander from the law of God, and to be ruinously and basely corrupted, a man may, without crime, put away his wife, and a wife her husband, because the Lord makes the cause of fornication an exception; which fornication, in accordance with the above considerations, we are compelled to understand as being general and universal. ("On the Sermon on the Mount", De sermone Domini in monte, 1:16:46; CCL 35, 52). ^ French archaeology has shown the north African landscape of this time period became "covered with a white robe of churches" with Catholics and Donatists building multiple churches with granaries to feed the poor as they competed for the loyalty of the people.[216] ^ See: C. Kirwan, Augustine (London, 1989), pp. 209–218; and J. M. Rist. Augustine: Ancient Thought Baptized (Canbridge, 1994), pp. 239–245. ^ For example, Martin Heidegger's articulations of how "Being-in-the-world" is described through thinking about seeing: "The remarkable priority of 'seeing' was noticed particularly by Augustine, in connection with his Interpretation of concupiscentia." Heidegger then quotes theConfessions: "Seeing belongs properly to the eyes. But we even use this word 'seeing' for the other senses when we devote them to cognizing... We not only say, 'See how that shines', ... 'but we even say, 'See how that sounds'". Being and Time, Trs. Macquarrie & Robinson. New York: Harpers, 1964, p. 171. Citations[edit] ^ Siecienski 2010. ^ Augustine. "What Is Called Evil in the Universe Is But the Absence of Good". Enchridion. Retrieved 17 November 2012. ^ Greenblatt 2017. ^ Ryan 1908. ^ St. Augustine, The Harmony of the Gospels, Book 1 chapter 2 paragraph 4. from hypothesis.com ^ Esmeralda n.d. ^ Austin 2006. ^ Online, Catholic. "Jesus Christ Prayers - Prayers". Catholic Online. ^ "Deity". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 6 June 2017. ^ Huffington 2013. ^ Wilhelm 1910. ^ Jenson 2006. ^ Literal Interpretation of Genesis 1:19–20, Chapt. 19 ^ The Literal Interpretation of Genesis 2:9 ^ Demacopoulos & Papanikolaou 2008, p. 271. ^ "CHURCH FATHERS: On Merit and the Forgiveness of Sins, and the Baptism of Infants, Book I (Augustine)". www.newadvent.org. ^ Nguyen & Prior 2014, p. 66. ^ a b c d e f g Portalié 1907a. ^ "Augustine of Hippo, Bishop and Theologian". justus.anglican.org. Society of Archbishop Justus. Archived from the original on 24 August 2017. Retrieved 22 January 2018. ^ a b Wells 2000, p. 54. ^ TeSelle 2002, p. 343. ^ Durant 1992. ^ Wilken 2003, p. 291. ^ a b Know Your Patron Saint. catholicapologetics.info ^ a b Hägglund 2007, pp. 139–140. ^ a b c d González 1987. ^ a b St. Augustine of Hippo. "On Rebuke and Grace". In Philip Schaff (ed.). Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, First Series, Vol. 5. Translated by Peter Holmes and Robert Ernest Wallis, and revised by Benjamin B. Warfield (revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight) (1887 ed.). Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co. ^ "Some Underlying Positions of This Website". www.romanity.org. Retrieved 30 September 2015. ^ "Limits of Church". www.fatheralexander.org. Retrieved 30 September 2015. ^ a b c Papademetriou, George C. "Saint Augustine in the Greek Orthodox Tradition". goarch.org Archived 5 November 2010 at the Wayback Machine ^ Siecienski 2010, pp. 53–67. ^ Kappes, Christiaan (30 September 2015). "Gregory Palamas' Use of Augustine's De Trinitate for Original Sin and its Application to the Theotokos & Scholarius' Palamitico-Augustinianism of the Immaculate Conception (Stockholm 28.VI.15)". Stolcholm University Press. ^ Archimandrite. "Book Review: The Place of Blessed Augustine in the Orthodox Church". Orthodox Tradition. II (3&4): 40–43. Archived from the original on 10 July 2007. Retrieved 28 June 2007. ^ MacCulloch 2010, p. 319. ^ "Augustine", in Webster's New Biographical Dictionary (1988), Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, ISBN 0-87779-543-6 . ^ "Augustin (e, n. (and adj.)". Oxford English Dictionary. March 2011. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 25 May 2011. ^ Salway 1994, pp. 124-125. ^ The American Heritage College Dictionary. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. 1997. p. 91. ISBN 978-0-395-66917-4. ^ Chadwick 2001, p. 26. ^ Oakes 2008, p. 183. ^ "Saint Augustine – Biography, Philosophy, & Major Works". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 28 January 2018. ^ Magill 2003, p. 172. ^ Saint Augustine (Bishop of Hippo.) (1999). On Christian Teaching. Oxford University Press. p. 26. ISBN 978-0-19-283928-2. ^ Jones 2017, p. 39. ^ Jayapalan 2001, p. 51. ^ Vesey, Mark, trans. (2007) "Confessions Saint Augustine", introduction, ISBN 978-1-59308-259-8. ^ Bonner 1986. ^ a b c d e Hollingworth 2013, pp. 50-51. ^ Leith 1990, p. 24. ^ Catholic World, Volumes 175–176. Paulist Fathers. 1952. p. 376. The whole of North Africa was a glory of Christendom with St. Augustine, himself a Berber, its chief ornament. ^ Ep., CXXXIII, 19. English version, Latin version ^ Confess., VIII, 6, 14. English version, Latin version ^ Contra Faustum, I, 1. English version, Latin version ^ Lancel 2002, p. 5. ^ a b Power 1999, pp. 353-354. ^ Brett & Fentress 1996, pp. 71, 293. ^ Knowles & Penkett 2004, Ch. 2. ^ a b Augustine of Hippo, Confessions, 2:4 ^ a b c d e Encyclopedia Americana, v. 2, p. 685. Danbury, Connecticut: Grolier, 1997. ISBN 0-7172-0129-5. ^ Augustine of Hippo, Confessions, 2:3.5 ^ Augustine of Hippo, Confessions, 2:3.7 ^ Augustine of Hippo, Confessions, 3:4 ^ a b Pope 1911. ^ Ranke-Heinemann 1990. ^ a b Boyce, James (May 2015) "Don't Blame the Devil: St Augustine and Original Sin". Utne Reader. ^ Augustine of Hippo, Confessions, 4:2 ^ Brown 2000, p. 63. ^ O'Donnell 2005. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFO'Donnell2005 (help) ^ Chadwick 2001, p. 14. ^ Kishlansky, Geary & O'Brien 2005, pp. 142–143. ^ Doniger 1999, pp. 689-690. ^ BeDuhn 2010, p. 163. ^ a b c Outler, Albert. ""Medieval Sourcebook." Internet History Sourcebooks Project". Fordham University, Medieval Sourcebook. Fordham University. Retrieved 30 October 2014. ^ Wilson 2018, p. 90. ^ Augustine of Hippo, Confessions, 6:15 ^ Augustine of Hippo, Confessions, 8:7.17 ^ Burrus 2011, pp. 1-20. ^ Ferguson 1999, p. 208. ^ Augustine of Hippo (2008). Confessions. Chadwick, Henry transl. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 152–153. ^ Augustine of Hippo, Bishop and Theologian. Justus.anglican.org. Retrieved on 17 June 2015. ^ Augustine, Confessions 10.27.38, tr. Albert C. Outler. https://faculty.georgetown.edu/jod/augustine/conf.pdf ^ Brown 2000, p. 117. ^ Possidius 2008, 3.1. ^ A'Becket 1907. ^ Brown 2000. ^ Augustine, ep.126.1 ^ Possidius 2008. ^ Possidius 2008, p. 43. ^ Possidius 2008, p. 57. ^ "St Augustine of Hippo" at PhilosophyBasics.com. Retrieved 30 September 2011. ^ Oestreich 1907. ^ Augustine's tomb, Augnet Archived 22 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Augnet.org (22 April 2007). Retrieved on 2015-06-17. ^ Dale 2001, p. 55. ^ Stone 2002. ^ Schnaubelt & Van Fleteren 1999, p. 165. ^ "Saint Augustine – Philosophical Anthropology". Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford. 2016. ^ Augustine of Hippo, De cura pro mortuis gerenda CSEL 41, 627 [13–22]; PL 40, 595: Nullo modo ipsa spernenda sunt corpora. (...)Haec enim non-ad ornamentum vel adiutorium, quod adhibetur extrinsecus, sed ad ipsam naturam hominis pertinent. ^ Augustine of Hippo, Enarrationes in psalmos, 143, 6. ^ CCL 40, 2077 [46] – 2078 [74]; 46, 234–35. ^ Augustine of Hippo, De utilitate ieiunii, 4, 4–5. ^ Augustine of Hippo, De quantitate animae 1.2; 5.9. ^ Augustine of Hippo, De quantitate animae 13.12: Substantia quaedam rationis particeps, regendo corpori accomodata. ^ Augustine of Hippo, On the free will (De libero arbitrio) 2.3.7–6.13. ^ Mann 1999, pp. 141–142. ^ the Athenian, Athenagoras. "A Plea for the Christians". New advent. ^ Flinn 2007, p. 4. ^ Luker 1985, p. 12. ^ a b Bauerschmidt 1999, p. 1. ^ Respect for Unborn Human Life: the Church's Constant Teaching. U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops ^ Lysaught et al. 2012, p. 676. ^ "Modern Look at Abortion Not Same as St. Augustine's". www.ewtn.com. Retrieved 4 December 2016. ^ Augustine of Hippo. 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John Hammond Taylor SJ; BA 49,28 and 50–52; PL 34, 377; cf. idem, De Trinitate, XII, 12.17; CCL 50, 371–372 [v. 26–31; 1–36]; De natura boni 34–35; CSEL 25, 872; PL 42, 551–572 ^ Augustine of Hippo, On the Literal Meaning of Genesis (De Genesi ad litteram), VIII, 4.8; BA 49, 20 ^ Augustine of Hippo, Nisi radicem mali humanus tunc reciperet sensus ("Contra Julianum", I, 9.42; PL 44, 670) ^ Non substantialiter manere concupiscentiam, sicut corpus aliquod aut spiritum; sed esse affectionem quamdam malae qualitatis, sicut est languor. (De nuptiis et concupiscentia), I, 25. 28; PL 44, 430; cf. Contra Julianum, VI, 18.53; PL 44, 854; ibid. VI, 19.58; PL 44, 857; ibid., II, 10.33; PL 44, 697; Contra Secundinum Manichaeum, 15; PL 42, 590. ^ Marius Mercator Lib. subnot.in verb. Iul. Praef.,2,3; PL 48,111 /v.5-13/ ^ Bonner 1987, p. 35. ^ Bonner 1986, pp. 355–356. ^ Augustine of Hippo, De gratia Christi et de peccato originali, I, 15.16; CSEL 42, 138 [v. 24–29]; Ibid., I,4.5; CSEL 42, 128 [v.15–23]. ^ Augustine of Hippo, Against Two Letters of the Pelagians 1.31–32 ^ Brown 2000, p. 35. ^ "The Manichaean Version of Genesis 2–4". Archived from the original on 29 October 2005. Retrieved 25 March 2008. . Translated from the Arabic text of Ibn al-Nadīm, Fihrist, as reproduced by G. Flügel in Mani: Seine Lehre und seine Schriften (Leipzig, 1862; reprinted, Osnabrück: Biblio Verlag, 1969) 58.11–61.13. ^ Augustine of Hippo, De libero arbitrio 1,9,1. ^ Trapè 1987, p. 113–114. ^ Brachtendorf 1997, p. 307. ^ Sfameni Gasparro 2001, pp. 250–251. ^ Somers 1961, p. 115. ^ Cf. John Chrysostom, Περι παρθενίας (De Sancta Virginitate), XIV, 6; SCh 125, 142–145; Gregory of Nyssa, On the Making of Man, 17; SCh 6, 164–165; and On Virginity, 12.2; SCh 119, 402 [17–20]. Cf. Augustine of Hippo, On the Good of Marriage, 2.2; PL 40, 374. ^ Gerson 1999, p. 203. ^ Augustine of Hippo, "Enarrations on the Psalms" (Enarrationes in psalmos), 143:6; CCL 40, 2077 [46] – 2078 [74]; On the Literal Meaning of Genesis (De Genesi ad Litteram), 9:6:11, trans. John Hammond Taylor SJ, vol. 2, pp. 76–77; PL 34, 397. ^ Bonner 1986, p. 312. ^ Augustine of Hippo, De continentia, 12.27; PL 40, 368; Ibid., 13.28; PL 40, 369; Contra Julianum, III, 15.29, PL 44, 717; Ibid., III, 21.42, PL 44, 724. ^ Burke 2006, pp. 481–536. ^ Merits and Remission of Sin, and Infant Baptism (De peccatorum meritis et remissione et de baptismo parvulorum), I, 6.6; PL 44, 112–113; cf. On the Literal Meaning of Genesis (De Genesi ad litteram) 9:6:11, trans. John Hammond Taylor SJ, vol. 2, pp. 76–77; PL 34, 397. ^ Augustine of Hippo, Imperfectum Opus contra Iulianum, II, 218 ^ a b c d Cross & Livingstone 2005, pp. 1200–1204. ^ Wilson 2018, pp. 93, 127, 140, 146, 231–233, 279–280. ^ Wilson 2018, pp. 221, 231, 267, 296. ^ Bonner 1986, p. 371. ^ Southern 1953, pp. 234-237. ^ Levering 2011, p. 44. ^ Levering 2011, pp. 48–49. ^ Levering 2011, pp. 47–48. ^ James 1998, p. 102. ^ Widengren 1977, pp. 63–65, 90. ^ Stroumsa 1992, pp. 344–345. ^ Wilson 2018, pp. 286–293. ^ van Oort 2010, p. 520. ^ González 1987, p. 44. ^ Augustine of Hippo, On the Gift of Perseverance, Chapter 21 ^ Augustine of Hippo (2012). St. Augustine's Writings Against The Manichaeans And Against The Donatists (eBook ed.). Jazzybee Verlag. ISBN 9783849621094. ^ Augustine of Hippo, Explanations of the Psalms 33:1:10 [405] ^ Augustine of Hippo, Sermons 227 [411] ^ Augustine of Hippo, Sermons 272 ^ Jurgens 1970, p. 20, §1479a. ^ Ambrose 1919, p. 39. ^ Augustine of Hippo, On Christian Doctrine, Book II, Chapter 3; Book III, Chapter 9; Book III, Chapter 16 ^ Augustine of Hippo, A Sermon to Catechumens on the Creed, Paragraph 16 ^ Augustine of Hippo, City of God, Book 20, Chapter 8 ^ Van Der Meer 1961, p. 60. ^ Bonner 1986, p. 63. ^ Testard 1958, pp. 100-106. ^ Augustine of Hippo, Confessions 5,7,12; 7,6 ^ a b Mendelson, Michael (24 March 2000). "Saint Augustine". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 21 December 2012. ^ Matthews 1992. ^ King & Ballantyne 2020, p. 195. sfn error: no target: CITEREFKingBallantyne2020 (help) ^ "A Time For War?" Christianity Today (9 January 2001). Retrieved on 2013-04-28. ^ Augustine of Hippo. Crusades-encyclopedia.com. 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London: Sovereign Grace Union. p. 38. ^ a b c Portalié 1907b. ^ Augustine, "Of the Work of Monks", p. 25, Vol. 3, Nicene & Post-Nicene Fathers, Eerdman's, Grand Rapids, Michigan, Reprinted 1986 ^ The Saints, Pauline Books & Media, Daughters of St. Paul, Editions du Signe (1998), p. 72 ^ Augustine, The City of God, Ch. 15, p. 411, Vol. II, Nicene & Post-Nicene Fathers, Eerdman's, Grand Rapids, Michigan, Reprinted 1986 ^ a b c "Church Fathers: City of God, Book XIX (St. Augustine)". www.newadvent.org. Retrieved 31 July 2018. ^ MacCulloch 2010, p. 8. ^ Augustine of Hippo, City of God, book 18, chapter 46. ^ Edwards 1999, pp. 33-35. ^ Carroll 2002, p. 219. ^ Van Biema 2008. ^ Augustine of Hippo, On Christian Doctrine, 3.37 ^ Latin text: "Carnis autem concupiscentia non est nuptiis imputanda, sed toleranda. Non enim est ex naturali connubio veniens bonum, sed ex antiquo peccato accidens malum." (Carnal concupiscence, however, must not be ascribed to marriage: it is only to be tolerated in marriage. It is not a good which comes out of the essence of marriage, but an evil which is the accident of original sin.) ^ Russell 1945, p. 356. ^ Augustine of Hippo, City of God, Book I, Ch. 16, 18. ^ On marriage and concupiscence 2.26, Latin text: "Sine qua libidine poterat opus fieri conjugum in generatione filiorum, sicut multa opera fiunt obedientia caeterorum sine illo ardore membrorum, quae voluptatis nutu moventur, non aestu libidinis concitantur." ^ On marriage and concupiscence 2.29, Latin text: "sereretur sine ulla pudenda libidine, ad voluntatis nutum membris obsequentibus genitalibus"; cf. City of God 14.23 ^ On marriage and concupiscence 1.17, Latin text: "Aliquando eo usque pervenit haec libidinosa crudelitas vel libido crudelis, ut etiam sterilitatis venena procuret et si nihil valuerit, conceptos fetus aliquo modo intra viscera exstinguat ac fundat, volendo suam prolem prius interire quam vivere, aut si in utero iam vivebat, occidi ante quam nasci. Prorsus si ambo tales sunt, coniuges non sunt; et si ab initio tales fuerunt, non sibi per connubium, sed per stuprum potius convenerunt." ^ a b Augustine of Hippo, City of God, 14.13 ^ Clark 1996. ^ Clark 1986, pp. 139–62. ^ a b McCloskey 2008. ^ Howie 1969, p. 150–153. ^ a b c d e Brown, P. (1964). "St. Augustine's Attitude to Religious Coercion". Journal of Roman Studies. 54 (1–2): 107–116. doi:10.2307/298656. JSTOR 298656. ^ a b c d R. A. Markus, Saeculum: History and Society in the Theology of St.Augustine (Cambridge, 1970), pages 149-153 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Russell, Frederick H. (1999). 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Le motivazioni protologiche della continenza e della verginità nel christianesimo del primi secoli e nello gnosticismo. Studia Ephemeridis «Augustinianum» 20. Rome. Schnaubelt, Joseph C.; Van Fleteren, Frederick (1 January 1999). Augustine in Iconography: History and Legend. P. Lang. ISBN 978-0-8204-2291-6. Siecienski, A. Edward (2010). The Filioque: History of a Doctrinal Controversy. OUP USA. ISBN 978-0-19-537204-5. Smither, Howard E. (1977). A History of the Oratorio. UNC Press Books. ISBN 978-0807812747. Somers, H. (1961). "S.J. : Image de Dieu. Les sources de l'exégèse augustinienne". Revue d'Études Augustiniennes et Patristiques. 7 (2): 105–125. doi:10.1484/J.REA.5.104017. ISSN 1768-9260. Southern, R.W. (1953). The Making of the Middle Ages. London. Stone, Harold Samuel (2002). St. Augustine's Bones: A Microhistory. University of Massachusetts Press. ISBN 978-1-55849-387-2. Stroumsa, Gediliahu (1992). "Titus of Bostra and Alexander of Lycopolis: A Christian and a Platonic Refutation of Manichaean Dualism". In Richard T. Wallis; Jay Bregman (eds.). Neoplatonism and Gnosticism. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-1-4384-2313-5. TeSelle, Eugene (2002). Augustine the Theologian. Wipf and Stock. ISBN 978-1-57910-918-9. Testard, M (1958). Saint Augustin et Cicéron, I. Cicéron dans la formation et l'oeuvre de saint Augustin (in French). Paris: Études Augustiniennes. Teske, Roland J. (1999). "Genesi ad litteram liber imperfectus, De". In Fitzgerald, Allan D. (ed.). Augustine through the Ages: An Encyclopedia. Wm B Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-3843-8. Tinder, Glenn (1997). "Review of Augustine and the Limits of Politics, by Jean Bethke Elshtain". American Political Science Review. 91 (2): 432–433. doi:10.2307/2952372. JSTOR 2952372. Trapè, Agostino (1987). S. Agostino, introduzione alla dottrina della grazia [St. Augustine, introduction to the doctrine of grace] (in Italian). Volume 1. Città Nuova. ISBN 978-88-311-3402-6. Van Biema, David (7 December 2008), "Paula Fredriksen Was Saint Augustine Good for the Jews?", Time magazine Van Der Meer, F (1961). Augustine the Bishop. The Life and Work of the Father of the Church. London & New York. van Oort, Johannes (2010). "Manichaean Christians in Augustine's Life and Work". History and Religious Culture. 90. Wells, J. (2000). Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (2 ed.). New York: Longman. ISBN 978-0-582-36467-7. Widengren, Geo (1977). Der Manichäismus. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. Wilhelm, Joseph (1910). "Heroic virtue" . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. 7. New York: Robert Appleton Company.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Wilken, Robert L. (2003). The Spirit of Early Christian Thought. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-10598-8. Wilson, Kenneth M. (2018). Augustine's Conversion from Traditional Free Choice to "Non-free Free Will": A Comprehensive Methodology. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 978-3-16-155753-8. Wilson, Ken (2019). The Foundation of Augustinian-Calvinism. Independently Published. ISBN 978-1-08-280035-1. Woo, B. Hoon (2015). "Pilgrim's Progress in Society – Augustine's Political Thought in The City of God". Political Theology. 16 (5): 421–441. doi:10.1179/1462317X14Z.000000000113. S2CID 218691369. Wright, Frederick Adam; Sinclair, Thomas Alan (1931). A History of Later Latin Literature. Routledge. Further reading[edit] Ancient Christian Writers: The Works of the Fathers in Translation. New York: Newman Press. 1978. Augustine, Saint (1974). Vernon Joseph Bourke (ed.). The Essential Augustine (2nd ed.). Indianapolis: Hackett. Ayres, Lewis (2010). Augustine and the Trinity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-83886-3. Bourke, Vernon Joseph (1945). Augustine's Quest of Wisdom. Milwaukee: Bruce. Bourke, Vernon Joseph (1984). Wisdom From St. Augustine. Houston: Center for Thomistic Studies. Brachtendorf J (1997). "Cicero and Augustine on the Passions". Revue des Études Augustiniennes. 43 (1997): 289–308. doi:10.1484/J.REA.5.104767. hdl:2042/23075. Burke, Cormac (1990). "St. Augustine and Conjugal Sexuality". Communio. IV (17): 545–565. Burnaby, John (1938). Amor Dei: A Study of the Religion of St. Augustine. The Canterbury Press Norwich. ISBN 978-1-85311-022-1. Conybeare, Catherine (2006). The Irrational Augustine. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-199-26208-3. Clark, Mary T. (1994). Augustine. Geoffrey Chapman. ISBN 978-0-225-66681-6. Deane, Herbert A. (1963). The Political and Social Ideas of St. Augustine. New York: Columbia University Press. de Paulo, Craig J.N. (2011). Augustinian Just War Theory and the Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq: Confessions, Contentions and the Lust for Power. Peter Lang. ISBN 978-1-4331-1232-4. Doull, James A. (1979). "Augustinian Trinitarianism and Existential Theology". Dionysius. III: 111–159. Doull, James A. (1988). "What is Augustinian "Sapientia"?". Dionysius. XII: 61–67. Gilson, Etienne (1960). The Christian Philosophy of St. Augustine. L.E.M. Lynch, trans. New York: Random House. Green, Bradley G. Colin Gunton and the Failure of Augustine: The Theology of Colin Gunton in the Light of Augustine, James Clarke and Co. (2012), ISBN 978-0227680056 Kolbet, Paul R. (2010). Augustine and the Cure of Souls: Revising a Classical Ideal. Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press. ISBN 978-0268033217. Lawless, George P. (1987). Augustine of Hippo and His Monastic Rule. Oxford: Clarendon Press. LeMoine, Fannie; Kleinhenz, Christopher, eds. (1994). Saint Augustine the Bishop: A Book of Essays. Garland Medieval Casebooks. 9. New York: Garland. Lubin, Augustino (1659). Orbis Augustinianus sive conventuum ordinis eremitarum Sancti Augustini – chorographica et topographica descriptio. Paris. Archived from the original on 21 March 2005.CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link) Mackey, Louis (2011). Faith Order Understanding: Natural Theology in the Augustinian Tradition. Totonto: PIMS. ISBN 978-0-88844-421-9. Markus, R.A., ed. (1972). Augustine: A Collection of Critical Essays. Garden City, NY: Anchor. Matthews, Gareth B. (2005). Augustine. Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-23348-0. Mayer, Cornelius P. (ed.). Augustinus-Lexikon. Basel: Schwabe AG. Miles, Margaret R. (2012). Augustine and the Fundamentalist's Daughter, Lutterworth Press, ISBN 978-0718892623. Nash, Ronald H (1969). The Light of the Mind: St Augustine's Theory of Knowledge. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. Nelson, John Charles (1973). "Platonism in the Renaissance". In Wiener, Philip (ed.). Dictionary of the History of Ideas. 3. New York: Scribner. pp. 510–515 (vol. 3). ISBN 978-0-684-13293-8. (...) Saint Augustine asserted that Neo-Platonism possessed all spiritual truths except that of the Incarnation. (...) O'Daly, Gerard (1987). Augustine's Philosophy of the Mind. Berkeley: University of California Press. O'Donnell, James (2005). Augustine: A New Biography. New York: ECCO. ISBN 978-0-06-053537-7. Pagels, Elaine (1989). Adam, Eve, and the Serpent: Sex and Politics in Early Christianity. Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-679-72232-8. Park, Jae-Eun (2013), "Lacking Love or Conveying Love? The Fundamental Roots of the Donatists and Augustine's Nuanced Treatment of Them", The Reformed Theological Review, 72 (2): 103–121 . Plumer, Eric Antone (2003). Augustine's Commentary on Galatians. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-924439-3. Pollman, Karla (2007). Saint Augustine the Algerian. Göttingen: Edition Ruprecht. ISBN 978-3-89744-209-2. Pottier, René (2006). Saint Augustin le Berbère (in French). Fernand Lanore. ISBN 978-2-85157-282-0. Règle de St. Augustin pour les religieuses de son ordre; et Constitutions de la Congrégation des Religieuses du Verbe-Incarné et du Saint-Sacrament (Lyon: Chez Pierre Guillimin, 1662), pp. 28–29. Cf. later edition published at Lyon (Chez Briday, Libraire,1962), pp. 22–24. English edition, (New York: Schwartz, Kirwin, and Fauss, 1893), pp. 33–35. Starnes, Colin (1990). Augustine's Conversion: A Guide to the Arguments of Confessions I–IX. Waterloo, Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press. Tanquerey, Adolphe (2001). The Spiritual Life: A Treatise on Ascetical and Mystical Theology. Rockford, Illinois: Tan Books & Publishers. p. 37). ISBN 978-0-89555-659-2. Trapè, A. (1990). S. Agostino: Introduzione alla Dottrina della Grazia. Collana di Studi Agostiniani 4. I – Natura e Grazia. Rome: Città Nuova. p. 422. ISBN 978-88-311-3402-6. von Heyking, John (2001). Augustine and Politics as Longing in the World. Columbia: University of Missouri Press. ISBN 978-0-8262-1349-5. Woo, B. Hoon (2013). "Augustine's Hermeneutics and Homiletics in De doctrina christiana". Journal of Christian Philosophy. 17: 97–117. Zumkeller O.S.A., Adolar (1986). Augustine's Ideal of the Religious Life. New York: Fordham University Press. ISBN 978-0-8232-1105-0. Zumkeller O.S.A., Adolar (1987). Augustine's Rule. Villanova: Augustinian Press. ISBN 978-0-941491-06-8. External links[edit] Wikisource has original works written by or about: Augustine of Hippo Wikiquote has quotations related to: Augustine of Hippo Wikimedia Commons has media related to Augustinus. Library resources about Augustine of Hippo Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Augustine of Hippo Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries General[edit] "Complete Works of Saint Augustine (in English)" from Augustinus.it "Complete Works of Saint Augustine (in French)" from Abbey Saint Benoît de Port-Valais "Complete Works of Saint Augustine (in Spanish)" from Mercaba, Catholic leaders' website "Works by Saint Augustine" from CCEL.org Works by Augustine at Perseus Digital Library Mendelson, Michael. "Saint Augustine". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. "Augustine". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. "Augustine's Political and Social Philosophy". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. "St. Augustine, Bishop and Confessor, Doctor of the Church", Butler's Lives of the Saints Augustine of Hippo edited by James J. O'Donnell – texts, translations, introductions, commentaries, etc. Augustine's Theory of Knowledge "Saint Augustine of Hippo" at the Christian Iconography website "The Life of St. Austin, or Augustine, Doctor" from the Caxton translation of the Golden Legend David Lindsay: Saint Augustine – Doctor Gratiae St. Augustine – A Male Chauvinist? [1], Fr. Edmund Hill, OP. Talk given to the Robert Hugh Benson Graduate Society at Fisher House, Cambridge, on 22 November 1994. St. Augustine Timeline – Church History Timelines Giovanni Domenico Giulio: Nachtgedanken des heiligen Augustinus. Trier 1843 Digitized Bibliography[edit] Augustine of Hippo at EarlyChurch.org.uk – extensive bibliography and on-line articles Bibliography on St. Augustine – Started by T.J. van Bavel O.S.A., continued at the Augustinian historical Institute in Louvain, Belgium Works by Augustine[edit] Works by Aurelius Augustine at Project Gutenberg Works by Saint Augustine at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Saint Augustine at Internet Archive Works by Augustine of Hippo at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) St. Augustine at the Christian Classics Ethereal Library Augustine against Secundinus in English. Aurelius Augustinus at "IntraText Digital Library" – texts in several languages, with concordance and frequency list Augustinus.it – Latin, Spanish and Italian texts Sanctus Augustinus at Documenta Catholica Omnia – Latin City of God, Confessions, Enchiridion, Doctrine audio books Saint Augustine (2008). The Happy Life; Answer to Sceptics; Divine Providence and the Problem of Evil; Soliloquies. US: CUA Press. ISBN 978-0-8132-1551-8. Digitized manuscript created in France between 1275 and 1325 with extract of Augustine of Hippo works at SOMNI Expositio Psalmorum beati Augustini – digitized codex created between 1150 and 1175, also known as "Enarrationes in Psalmos. 1–83", at SOMNI Aurelii Agustini Hipponae episcopi super loannem librum – digitized codex created in 1481; his sermons about John's Gospel at SOMNI Sententiae ex omnibus operibus Divi Augustini decerptae – digitized codex created in 1539; at Library of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences Lewis E 19 In epistolam Johannis ad Parthos (Sermons on the first epistle of Saint John) at OPenn Lewis E 21 De sermone domini in monte habito (On the sermon on the mount) and other treatises; De superbia (On pride) and other treatises; Expositio dominice orationis (Exposition on the lord's prayer) at OPenn Lewis E 22 Enarrationes in psalmos (Expositions on the psalms); Initials (ABC); Prayer at OPenn Lewis E 23 Sermons at OPenn Lewis E 213 Rule of Saint Augustine; Sermon on Matthew 25:6 at OPenn Lehigh Codex 3 Bifolium from De civitate Dei, Book 22 at OPenn Biography and criticism[edit] Order of St Augustine Blessed Augustine of Hippo: His Place in the Orthodox Church Augustine's World: An Introduction to His Speculative Philosophy by Donald Burt, OSA, member of the Augustinian Order, Villanova University Tabula in librum Sancti Augustini De civitate Dei by Robert Kilwardby, digitized manuscript of 1464 at SOMNI v t e Saints of the Catholic Church Stages of canonization: Servant of God   →   Venerable   →   Blessed   →   Saint Virgin Mary Mother of God (Theotokos) Immaculate Conception Perpetual virginity Assumption Marian apparition Titles of Mary Joseph (husband) Apostles Andrew Barnabas Bartholomew James of Alphaeus James the Great John Jude Matthew Matthias Paul Peter Philip Simon Thomas Archangels Gabriel Michael Raphael Confessors Anatolius Anthony of Kiev Athanasius the Confessor Chariton the Confessor Dominic Edward the Confessor Francis of 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Philosophers Laozi Socrates Plato Aristotle Diogenes Valluvar Cicero Confucius Augustine of Hippo Mencius Mozi Xunzi Thomas Aquinas Baruch Spinoza David Hume Immanuel Kant Georg W. F. Hegel Arthur Schopenhauer Jeremy Bentham John Stuart Mill Søren Kierkegaard Henry Sidgwick Friedrich Nietzsche G. E. Moore Karl Barth Paul Tillich Dietrich Bonhoeffer Philippa Foot John Rawls John Dewey Bernard Williams J. L. Mackie G. E. M. Anscombe William Frankena Alasdair MacIntyre R. M. Hare Peter Singer Derek Parfit Thomas Nagel Robert Merrihew Adams Charles Taylor Joxe Azurmendi Christine Korsgaard Martha Nussbaum more... 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en-wikipedia-org-6578	----	Antioch - Wikipedia Antioch From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient city in Turkey For other places with the same name, see Antioch (disambiguation). This article is about the historical city. For the modern city, see Antakya. Antioch on the Orontes Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου (in Ancient Greek) Map of Antioch in Roman and early Byzantine times Shown within Turkey Alternative name Syrian Antioch Location Antakya, Hatay Province, Turkey Coordinates 36°12′17″N 36°10′54″E / 36.20472°N 36.18167°E / 36.20472; 36.18167Coordinates: 36°12′17″N 36°10′54″E / 36.20472°N 36.18167°E / 36.20472; 36.18167 Type Settlement Area 15 km2 (5.8 sq mi) History Builder Seleucus I Nicator Founded 300 BC Periods Hellenistic to Medieval Cultures Greek, Roman, Armenian, Arab, Turkish Events First Crusade Site notes Excavation dates 1932–1939 Condition Mostly buried Antioch on the Orontes (/ˈænti.ɒk/; Ancient Greek: Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου, Antiókheia hē epì Oróntou; also Syrian Antioch)[note 1] was an ancient Greek city[1] on the eastern side of the Orontes River. Its ruins lie near the current city of Antakya, Turkey, to which the ancient city lends its name. Antioch was founded near the end of the fourth century BC by Seleucus I Nicator, one of Alexander the Great's generals. The city's geographical, military, and economic location benefited its occupants, particularly such features as the spice trade, the Silk Road, and the Royal Road. It eventually rivaled Alexandria as the chief city of the Near East. The city was the capital of the Seleucid Empire until 63 BC, when the Romans took control, making it the seat of the governor of the province of Syria. From the early fourth century, the city was the seat of the Count of the Orient, head of the regional administration of sixteen provinces.[citation needed] It was also the main center of Hellenistic Judaism at the end of the Second Temple period. Antioch was one of the most important cities in the eastern Mediterranean half of the Roman Empire. It covered almost 1,100 acres (4.5 km2) within the walls of which one quarter was mountain, leaving 750 acres (3.0 km2) about one-fifth the area of Rome within the Aurelian Walls. Antioch was called "the cradle of Christianity" as a result of its longevity and the pivotal role that it played in the emergence of both Hellenistic Judaism and early Christianity.[2] The Christian New Testament asserts that the name "Christian" first emerged in Antioch.[3] It was one of the four cities of Seleucis of Syria, and its residents were known as Antiochenes. The city may have had up to 250,000 people during Augustan times,[4] but it declined to relative insignificance during the Middle Ages because of warfare, repeated earthquakes, and a change in trade routes, which no longer passed through Antioch from the far east following the Mongol invasions and conquests. Contents 1 Geography 2 History 2.1 Prehistory 2.2 Foundation by Seleucus I 2.3 Hellenistic age 2.4 Roman period 2.4.1 Age of Julian and Valens 2.4.2 Christianity 2.4.3 Theodosius and after 2.4.4 Arab conquest and Byzantine reconquest 2.5 Crusader era 2.5.1 Second Crusade 2.5.2 After the Second Crusade 2.5.3 Third Crusade 2.5.4 Battles for sovereignty 2.5.5 Fifth Crusade and afterwards 2.5.6 Fall of Antioch 3 Archaeology 4 Notable people 5 See also 6 References and sources 6.1 Notes 6.2 References 6.3 Sources 7 External links Geography[edit] Two routes from the Mediterranean Sea, lying through the Orontes river gorge and the Belen Pass, converge in the plain of the Antioch Lake, now called Lake Amik, and are met there by the road from the Amanian Gate (Baghche Pass) and western Kingdom of Commagene, which descends the valley of the Karasu to the Afrin River the roads from eastern Commagene and the Euphratean crossings at Samosata (now Samsat) and Apamea Zeugma (Birejik), which descend the valleys of the Afrin and the Queiq, and the road from the Euphratean ford at Thapsacus, which skirts the fringe of the Syrian steppe. A single route proceeds south in the Orontes valley.[5] History[edit] King Šuppiluliuma of Patina/Unqi, ca. 860 BCE in Hatay Archaeology Museum An artifact from the middle and late Bronze Age, 2000–1200 BC in Hatay Archaeology Museum Prehistory[edit] The settlement called Meroe pre-dated Antioch. A shrine of the Semitic goddess Anat, called by Herodotus the "Persian Artemis", was located here. This site was included in the eastern suburbs of Antioch. There was a village on the spur of Mount Silpius named Io, or Iopolis. This name was always adduced as evidence by Antiochenes (e.g. Libanius) anxious to affiliate themselves to the Attic Ionians—an eagerness which is illustrated by the Athenian types used on the city's coins. Io may have been a small early colony of trading Greeks (Javan). John Malalas also mentions an archaic village, Bottia, in the plain by the river.[5] Foundation by Seleucus I[edit] Alexander the Great is said to have camped on the site of Antioch and dedicated an altar to Zeus Bottiaeus; it lay in the northwest of the future city.[5] This account is found only in the writings of Libanius, a fourth-century orator from Antioch,[6] and may be legend intended to enhance Antioch's status. But the story is not unlikely in itself.[7] After Alexander's death in 323 BC, his generals, the Diadochi, divided up the territory he had conquered. After the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC, Seleucus I Nicator won the territory of Syria, and he proceeded to found four "sister cities" in northwestern Syria, one of which was Antioch, a city named in honor of his father Antiochus;[8] according to the Suda, it might be named after his son Antiochus.[9] He is reputed to have built sixteen Antiochs.[10] Seleucus founded Antioch on a site chosen through ritual means. An eagle, the bird of Zeus, had been given a piece of sacrificial meat and the city was founded on the site to which the eagle carried the offering. Seleucus did this on the 22nd day of the month of Artemísios in the twelfth year of his reign, equivalent to May 300 BC.[11] Antioch soon rose above Seleucia Pieria to become the Syrian capital. Mosaic of Eros standing on the wings of two Psyches and whipping them on in Hatay Archaeology Museum Dionysus mosaic in Hatay Archaeology Museum Hellenistic age[edit] The original city of Seleucus was laid out in imitation of the grid plan of Alexandria by the architect Xenarius. Libanius describes the first building and arrangement of this city (i. p. 300. 17). The citadel was on Mount Silpius and the city lay mainly on the low ground to the north, fringing the river. Two great colonnaded streets intersected in the centre. Shortly afterwards a second quarter was laid out, probably on the east and by Antiochus I Soter, which, from an expression of Strabo, appears to have been the native, as contrasted with the Greek, town. It was enclosed by a wall of its own.[5] In the Orontes, north of the city, lay a large island, and on this Seleucus II Callinicus began a third walled "city", which was finished by Antiochus III the Great. A fourth and last quarter was added by Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175–164 BC); thenceforth Antioch was known as Tetrapolis. From west to east the whole was about 6 kilometres (4 miles) in diameter and a little less from north to south. This area included many large gardens.[5] The new city was populated by a mix of local settlers that Athenians brought from the nearby city of Antigonia, Macedonians, and Jews (who were given full status from the beginning). The total free population of Antioch at its foundation has been estimated at between 17,000 and 25,000, not including slaves and native settlers.[7] During the late Hellenistic period and Early Roman period, Antioch's population reached its peak of over 500,000 inhabitants (estimates generally are 200,000–250,000) and was the third largest city in the Empire after Rome and Alexandria. In the second half of the 4th century Libanius gives the figure 150,000 and John Chrysostom, 200,000 (without children and slaves counted).[12] About 6 kilometres (4 miles) west and beyond the suburb Heraclea lay the paradise of Daphne, a park of woods and waters, in the midst of which rose a great temple to the Pythian Apollo, also founded by Seleucus I and enriched with a cult-statue of the god, as Musagetes, by Bryaxis. A companion sanctuary of Hecate was constructed underground by Diocletian. The beauty and the lax morals of Daphne were celebrated all over the western world; and indeed Antioch as a whole shared in both these titles to fame.[13] Antioch became the capital and court-city of the western Seleucid Empire under Antiochus I, its counterpart in the east being Seleucia; but its paramount importance dates from the battle of Ancyra (240 BC), which shifted the Seleucid centre of gravity from Anatolia, and led indirectly to the rise of Pergamon.[14] The Seleucids reigned from Antioch. We know little of it in the Hellenistic period, apart from Syria, all our information coming from authors of the late Roman time. Among its great Greek buildings we hear only of the theatre, of which substructures still remain on the flank of Silpius, and of the royal palace, probably situated on the island. It enjoyed a reputation for being "a populous city, full of most erudite men and rich in the most liberal studies",[15] but the only names of distinction in these pursuits during the Seleucid period that have come down to us are Apollophanes, the Stoic, and one Phoebus, a writer on dreams. The nicknames which they gave to their later kings were Aramaic; and, except Apollo and Daphne, the great divinities of north Syria seem to have remained essentially native, such as the "Persian Artemis" of Meroe and Atargatis of Hierapolis Bambyce.[14] The epithet "Golden" suggests that the external appearance of Antioch was impressive, but the city needed constant restoration owing to the seismic disturbances to which the district has always been subjected. The first great earthquake in recorded history was related by the native chronicler John Malalas. It occurred in 148 BC and did immense damage.[14][16] Local politics were turbulent. In the many dissensions of the Seleucid house the population took sides, and frequently rose in rebellion, for example against Alexander Balas in 147 BC, and Demetrius II Nicator in 129 BC. The latter, enlisting a body of Jews, punished his capital with fire and sword. In the last struggles of the Seleucid house, Antioch turned against its feeble rulers, invited Tigranes the Great to occupy the city in 83 BC, tried to unseat Antiochus XIII Asiaticus in 65 BC, and petitioned Rome against his restoration in the following year. Antioch's wish prevailed, and it passed with Syria to the Roman Republic in 64 BC, but remained a civitas libera.[14] Roman period[edit] Ancient Roman road located in Syria which connected Antioch and Chalcis. This argenteus was struck in the Antioch mint, under Constantius Chlorus. Rare Domitian Tetradrachm struck in the Antioch Mint. Only 23 known examples. Note the realist portrait, typical of the Antioch Mint. A Greek rider seizes a mounted Amazonian warrior (armed with a double-headed axe) by her Phrygian cap; Roman mosaic emblema (marble and limestone), 2nd half of the 4th century AD; from Daphne, a suburb of Antioch-on-the-Orontes (now Antakya in Turkey) The Roman emperors favored the city from the first moments, seeing it as a more suitable capital for the eastern part of the empire than Alexandria could be, because of the isolated position of Egypt. To a certain extent they tried to make it an eastern Rome. Julius Caesar visited it in 47 BC, and confirmed its freedom. A great temple to Jupiter Capitolinus rose on Silpius, probably at the insistence of Octavian, whose cause the city had espoused. A forum of Roman type was laid out. Tiberius built two long colonnades on the south towards Silpius.[14] Agrippa and Tiberius enlarged the theatre, and Trajan finished their work. Antoninus Pius paved the great east to west artery with granite. A circus, other colonnades and great numbers of baths were built, and new aqueducts to supply them bore the names of Caesars, the finest being the work of Hadrian. The Roman client, King Herod (most likely the great builder Herod the Great), erected a long stoa on the east, and Agrippa (c. 63–12 BC) encouraged the growth of a new suburb south of this.[14] One of the most famous urban additions to Antioch, done by the Romans probably under Augustus when the city had more than half a million inhabitants, was the Circus of Antioch: it was a Roman hippodrome. Used for chariot racing, it was modelled on the Circus Maximus in Rome and other circus buildings throughout the empire. Measuring more than 490 metres (1,610 feet) in length and 30 metres (98 feet) of width,[17] the Circus could house up to 80,000 spectators. Zarmanochegas (Zarmarus) a monk of the Sramana tradition of India, according to Strabo and Dio Cassius, met Nicholas of Damascus in Antioch around 13 AD as part of a Mission to Augustus.[18][19] At Antioch Germanicus died in 19 AD, and his body was burnt in the forum.[14] An earthquake that shook Antioch in AD 37 caused the emperor Caligula to send two senators to report on the condition of the city. Another quake followed in the next reign.[14] Titus set up the Cherubim, captured from the Jewish temple, over one of the gates.[14] In 115 AD, during Trajan's travel there during his war against Parthia, the whole site was convulsed by a huge earthquake. The landscape altered, and the emperor himself was forced to take shelter in the circus for several days.[14] He and his successor restored the city, but the population was reduced to less than 400,000 inhabitants and many sections of the city were abandoned. Commodus (r. 177–192 AD) had Olympic games celebrated at Antioch.[14] The Antioch Chalice, first half of 6th century, Metropolitan Museum of Art. In 256 AD, the town was suddenly raided by the Persians under Shapur I, and many of the people were slain in the theatre.[14] It was recaptured by the Roman emperor Valerian the following year. Age of Julian and Valens[edit] When the emperor Julian visited in 362 on a detour to Persia, he had high hopes for Antioch, regarding it as a rival to the imperial capital of Constantinople. Antioch had a mixed pagan and Christian population, which Ammianus Marcellinus implies lived quite harmoniously together. However Julian's visit began ominously as it coincided with a lament for Adonis, the doomed lover of Aphrodite. Thus, Ammianus wrote, the emperor and his soldiers entered the city not to the sound of cheers but to wailing and screaming. After being advised that the bones of 3rd-century martyred bishop Babylas were suppressing the oracle of Apollo at Daphne,[20] he made a public-relations mistake in ordering the removal of the bones from the vicinity of the temple. The result was a massive Christian procession. Shortly after that, when the temple was destroyed by fire, Julian suspected the Christians and ordered stricter investigations than usual. He also shut up the chief Christian church of the city, before the investigations proved that the fire was the result of an accident.[21][22] Julian found much else about which to criticize the Antiochene; Julian had wanted the empire's cities to be more self-managing, as they had been some 200 years before. However Antioch's city councilmen showed themselves unwilling to shore up Antioch's food shortage with their own resources, so dependent were they on the emperor. Ammianus wrote that the councilmen shirked their duties by bribing unwitting men in the marketplace to do the job for them. The city's impiety to the old religion was clear to Julian when he attended the city's annual feast of Apollo. To his surprise and dismay the only Antiochene present was an old priest clutching a goose. The Antiochenes in turn hated Julian for worsening the food shortage with the burden of his billeted troops, wrote Ammianus. The soldiers were often to be found gorged on sacrificial meat, making a drunken nuisance of themselves on the streets while Antioch's hungry citizens looked on in disgust. The Christian Antiochenes and Julian's pagan Gallic soldiers also never quite saw eye to eye. Even Julian's piety was distasteful to the Antiochenes even to those who kept the old religion. Julian's brand of paganism was very much unique to himself, with little support outside the most educated Neoplatonist circles. The irony of Julian's enthusiasm for large scale animal sacrifice could not have escaped the hungry Antiochenes. Julian gained no admiration for his personal involvement in the sacrifices, only the nickname axeman, wrote Ammianus. The emperor's high-handed, severe methods and his rigid administration prompted Antiochene lampoons about, among other things, Julian's unfashionably pointed beard.[23] Julian's successor, Valens, who endowed Antioch with a new forum, including a statue of Valentinian on a central column, reopened the great church of Constantine, which stood until the Persian sack in 538, by Chosroes.[14] Christianity[edit] Antioch was a chief center of early Christianity during Roman times.[24] The city had a large population of Jewish origin in a quarter called the Kerateion, and so attracted the earliest missionaries.[25] Evangelized, among others, by Peter himself, according to the tradition upon which the Patriarch of Antioch[citation needed] still rests its claim for primacy,[26] and certainly later[27] by Barnabas and Paul during Paul's first missionary journey. Its converts were the first to be called Christians.[28] This is not to be confused with Antioch in Pisidia, to which the early missionaries later travelled.[29] Surrounding the city were a number of Greek, Syrian, Armenian, and Latin monasteries.[30] A bronze coin from Antioch depicting the emperor Julian. Note the pointed beard. The Christian population was estimated by Chrysostom at about 100,000 people at the time of Theodosius I. Between 252 and 300 AD, ten assemblies of the church were held at Antioch and it became the seat of one of the five original patriarchates,[14] along with Constantinople, Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Rome (see Pentarchy). The Maronite Catholic Church's patriarch is called the Patriarch of Antioch and all the East. He currently resides in Bkerke - Lebanon. The Maronites continue the Antiochene liturgical tradition and the use of the Syrian-Aramaic (Syro-Aramaic or Western Aramaic) language in their liturgies.[31][circular reference] One of the canonical Eastern Orthodox churches is still called the Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch, although it moved its headquarters from Antioch to Damascus, Syria, several centuries ago (see list of Patriarchs of Antioch), and its prime bishop retains the title "Patriarch of Antioch", somewhat analogous to the manner in which several Popes, heads of the Roman Catholic Church remained "Bishop of Rome" even while residing in Avignon, France in the 14th century. Syriac Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch and All the East, is an Oriental Orthodox Church with autocephalous patriarchate founded by Saint Peter and Saint Paul in the 1st century, according to its tradition. The Syriac Orthodox Church is part of Oriental Orthodoxy, a distinct communion of churches claiming to continue the patristic and Apostolic Christology before the schism following the Council of Chalcedon in 451. Theodosius and after[edit] In 387 AD, there was a great sedition caused by a new tax levied by order of Theodosius I, and the city was punished by the loss of its metropolitan status.[14] He divided the Roman Empire, and since then Antioch was under Constantinople's rule. The Peutinger Map showing Antioch, Alexandria and Seleucia in the 4th century. Antioch and its port, Seleucia Pieria, were severely damaged by the great earthquake of 526. Seleucia Pieria, which was already fighting a losing battle against continual silting, never recovered.[32] Justinian I renamed Antioch Theopolis ("City of God") and restored many of its public buildings, but the destructive work was completed by the Persian king, Khosrau I, twelve years later, who deported the population to a newly built city in Persian Mesopotamia, Weh Antiok Khosrow. Antioch lost as many as 300,000 people. Justinian I made an effort to revive it, and Procopius describes his repairing of the walls; but its glory was past.[14] During the Byzantine–Sassanid War of 602–628 the Emperor Heraclius confronted the invading Persian army of Khosrow II outside Antioch in 613. The Byzantines were defeated by forces under the generals Shahrbaraz and Shahin Vahmanzadegan at the Battle of Antioch, after which the city fell to the Sassanians, together with much of Syria and eastern Anatolia. Antioch gave its name to a certain school of Christian thought, distinguished by literal interpretation of the Scriptures and insistence on the human limitations of Jesus. Diodorus of Tarsus and Theodore of Mopsuestia were the leaders of this school. The principal local saint was Simeon Stylites, who lived an extremely ascetic life atop a pillar for 40 years some 65 kilometres (40 miles) east of Antioch. His body was brought to the city and buried in a building erected under the emperor Leo.[14] Arab conquest and Byzantine reconquest[edit] Byzantine recapture of Antioch in 969 The ramparts of Antioch climbing Mons Silpius during the Crusades (lower left on the map, above left) In 637, during the reign of the Byzantine emperor Heraclius, Antioch was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate during the Battle of the Iron Bridge. The city became known in Arabic as (Arabic: أنطاكيّة‎, romanized: Anṭākīyyah). Since the Umayyad dynasty was unable to penetrate the Anatolian plateau, Antioch found itself on the frontline of the conflicts between two hostile empires during the next 350 years, so that the city went into a precipitous decline. In 969, the city was recovered for the Byzantine Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas by Michael Bourtzes and the stratopedarches Peter. It soon became the seat of a doux, the civil governor of the homonymous theme, but also the seat of the somewhat more important Domestic of the Schools of the Orient, the supreme military commander of the imperial forces on the eastern frontier. Sometimes both offices were held by the same person, usually military officers such as Nikephoros Ouranos, or Philaretos Brachamios, who managed to retain the integrity of the eastern borderline after the Seljuk conquest of Anatolia. As the empire disintegrated rapidly before the Komnenian restoration, Dux of Antioch & Domestic of the Schools of the East Philaretos Brachamios held the city until the Seljuk Turks captured it from him in 1084. The Sultanate of Rum held it only fourteen years before the Crusaders arrived. Crusader era[edit] Main article: Principality of Antioch See also: Timeline of the Principality of Antioch The Capture of Antioch by Bohemund of Taranto in June 1098. The Crusaders' Siege of Antioch conquered the city in 1098. At this time, the bulk of far eastern trade traveled through Egypt, but in the second half of the 12th century Nur ed-Din and later Saladin brought order to Muslim Syria, opening up long-distance trade routes, including to Antioch and on to its new port, St Symeon, which had replaced Seleucia Pieria. However, the Mongol conquests of the 13th century altered the main trade routes from the far east, as they encouraged merchants to take the overland route through Mongol territory to the Black Sea, reducing the prosperity of Antioch.[33] In 1100, Tancred became the regent of Antioch after his uncle and predecessor Bohemond I of Antioch was taken prisoner for three years (1100–03) by Gazi Gümüshtigin of the Danishmends at the Battle of Melitene. Tancred expanded the territory of Antioch by conquering Byzantine Cilicia, Tarsus, and Adana in 1101 and founding the principality, Byzantine Latakia, in 1103. In 1107 Bohemond enraged by an earlier defeat when he, allianced with Edessa, attacked Aleppo, and Baldwin of Bourcq and Joscelin of Courtenay (Bourcq's most powerful vassal) were briefly captured, as well as the Byzantines recapturing of Cilicia and the harbor and lower town of Lattakieh, he renamed Tancred as the regent of Antioch and sailed for Europe with the intent of gaining support for an attack against the Greeks.[34][35] From 1107 to 1108, Bohemond led a 'crusade' against Byzantium, with the Latins crossing the Adriatic in October 1107 and laying siege to the city of Durrës (in modern Albania), which is often regarded as the western gate of the Greek empire. Bohemond was outwitted by Alexius, who deployed his forces to cut the invaders' supply lines whilst avoiding direct confrontation. The Latins were weakened by hunger and proved unable to break the defenses of Durrës. Bohemond capitulated in September 1108 and was forced to accede to a peace accord, the Treaty of Devol. The terms of this agreement stipulated that Bohemond was to hold Antioch for the remainder of his life as the emperor's subject and the Greek patriarch was to be restored to power in the city. However Tancred refused to honor the Treaty of Devol in which Bohemond swore an oath, and it is not until 1158 that it truly became a vassal state of the Byzantine Empire.[36][37] Six months after the Treaty of Devol Bohemond died, and Tancred remained regent of Antioch until his death during a typhoid epidemic in 1112. After the death of Tancred, the principality passed to Roger of Salerno, who helped rebuild Antioch after an earthquake destroyed its foundations in 1114. With the defeat of Roger's crusading army and his death at the Battle of Ager Sanguinis in 1119 the role of regent was assumed by Baldwin II of Jerusalem, lasting until 1126, with the exception from 1123 to 1124 when he was briefly captured by the Artuqids and held captive alongside Joscelin of Courtenay. In 1126 Bohemond II arrived from Apulia in order to gain regency over Antioch. In February 1130 Bohemond was lured into an ambush by Leo I, Prince of Armenia who allied with the Danishmend Gazi Gümüshtigin, and was killed in the subsequent battle, his head was then embalmed, placed in a silver box, and sent as a gift to the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad.[38][39] Antioch was again ruled by a regency, firstly being Baldwin II, after his daughter and Bohemond II's wife, Alice of Antioch attempted to block Baldwin from entering Antioch, but failed when Antiochene nobles such as Fulk of Jerusalem (Alice's brother-in-law) opened up the gates for representatives of Baldwin II. Alice was then expelled from Antioch. With the death of Balwin in 1131, Alice briefly took control of Antioch and allied herself with Pons of Tripoli and Joscelin II of Edessa in an attempt to prevent Fulk, King of Jerusalem from marching north in 1132, however this attempt failed and Fulk and Pons fought a brief battle before peace was made and Alice was exiled again. In 1133 the king chose Raymond of Poitiers as a groom for Constance of Antioch, daughter of Bohemund II of Antioch and Alice, princess of Jerusalem.[40] The marriage took place in 1136 between the 21-year-old Raymond and the 9-year-old Constance. Immediately after assuming control, Raymond was involved in conflicts with the Byzantine Emperor John II Comnenus who had come south to recover Cilicia from Leo of Armenia, and to reassert his rights over Antioch. The engagement lasted until 1137 when emperor John II arrived with an army before the walls of Antioch. Although the basileus did not enter the city, his banner was raised atop the citadel and Raymond was compelled to do homage. Raymond agreed with the emperor that if he was capable of capturing Aleppo, Shaizar, and Homs, he would exchange Antioch for them.[41] John went on to attack Aleppo with the aid of Antioch and Edessa, and failed to capture it, with the Franks withdrawing their support when he moved on to capture Shaizar. John returned to Antioch ahead of his army and entered Antioch, only to be forced to leave when Joscelin II, Count of Edessa rallied the citizens to oust him. In 1142 John then returned but Raymond refused to submit and John was forced to return to Cilicia again due to the coming winter, to plan an attack the following season. However the emperor died on April 8, 1143.[41] Second Crusade[edit] The following year after the death of John II Comnenus, Imad ad-Din Zengi lay siege to Edessa, the crusader capital, and with the death of Imad ad-Din Zengi in 1146, he was succeeded by his son, Nur ad-Din Zangi. Zangi attacked Antioch in both 1147 and 1148 and succeeded during the second venture in occupying most of the territory east of the Orontes including Artah, Kafar Latha, Basarfut, and Balat, but failing to capture Antioch itself. With the Second Crusades army previously nearly entirely defeated by the Turks and by sickness, Louis VII of France arrived in Antioch on March 19, 1148 after being delayed by storms. Louis was welcomed by the uncle of his spouse Eleanor of Aquitaine, Raymond of Poitiers. Louis refused to help Antioch defend against the Turks and to lead an expedition against Aleppo, and instead decided to finish his pilgrimage to Jerusalem rather than focus on the military aspect of the Crusades. With Louis quickly leaving Antioch again and the Crusades returning home in 1149,[42] Nur ad-Din launched an offensive against the territories which were dominated by the Castle of Harim, situated on the eastern bank of the Orontes, after which Nur besieged the castle of Inag. Raymond of Poitiers quickly came to the aid of the citadel, where he was defeated and killed at the Battle of Inab, Raymond's head was then cut off and sent to Nur, who sent it to the caliph in Baghdad. However, Nur ad-Din did not attack Antioch itself and was content with capturing all of Antiochene territory that lay east of the Orontes.[43][44] After the Second Crusade[edit] With Raymond dead and Bohemond III only five years of age, the principality came under the control of Raymond's widow Constance of Antioch, however real control lay with Aimery of Limoges. In 1152 Baldwin III of Jerusalem came of age, but from 1150 he had proposed three different but respectable suitors for Constance's hand in marriage, all of whom she rejected. In 1153 however, she chose Raynald of Châtillon and married him in secret without consulting her first cousin and liege lord, Baldwin III, and neither Baldwin nor Aimery of Limoges approved of her choice.[45] In 1156 Raynald claimed that the Byzantine emperor Manuel I Comnenus had reneged on his promises to pay Raynald a sum of money, and vowed to attack the island of Cyprus in revenge. However Aimery refused to finance Raynald's expedition, so in turn Raynald had the Patriarch seized, beaten, stripped naked, covered in honey, and had him left in the burning sun on top of the citadel to be attacked by insects. When the Patriarch was released, he collapsed in exhaustion and agreed to finance Raynald's expedition.[46] In the meantime, Raynald had allied himself with the Armenian prince, Thoros II. In 1156 Raynald's forces attacked Cyprus, ravaging the island over a three-week period, with rapine, killing, and plundering its citizens. After which, Manuel I Comnenus raised an army and began their march towards Syria, as a result Raynald threw himself to the mercy of the emperor who insisted on the installation of a Greek Patriarch and the surrender of the citadel in Antioch. The following spring, Manuel made a triumphant entry into the city and established himself as the unquestioned suzerain of Antioch. In 1160 Raynald was captured by Muslims during a plundering raid against the Syrian and Armenian peasants of the neighborhood of Marash. He was held captive for sixteen years, and as the stepfather of the Empress Maria, he was ransomed by Manuel for 120,000 gold dinars in 1176 (about 500 kg of gold, worth approximately £16 million or US$26 million as of October 2010[update]). With Raynald disposed of for a long time, the patriarch Aimery became the new regent, chosen by Baldwin III. To further consolidate his own claim over Antioch, Manuel chose Maria of Antioch as his bride, daughter of Constance of Antioch and Raymond of Poitiers. But the government of Antioch remained in crisis up until 1163, when Constance asked the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia to help maintain her rule, as a result the citizens of Antioch exiled her and installed her son Bohemond III and now brother-in-law to the emperor, as regent.[47] One year later, Nur ad-Din Zangi captured Bohemond III when he defeated a joint Antiochene-Tripolitan army. Bohemond III was soon released, however Harem, Syria which Raynald had recaptured in 1158, was lost again and the frontier of Antioch was permanently placed west of the Orontes. Byzantine influence remained in Antioch and in 1165, Bohemond III married a niece of the emperor, Maria of Antioch, and installed a Greek patriarch in the city, Athanasius II, Patriarch of Antioch, who remained in his position until he died in an earthquake five years later.[48][49] Third Crusade[edit] On October 29, 1187, Pope Gregory VIII issued the papal bull Audita tremendi, his call for the Third Crusade.[50] Frederick I Barbarossa, Richard I of England, and Philip II of France answered the summons. With Richard and Philip deciding to take a sea route, Frederick lacked the necessary ships and took a land route where he pushed on through Anatolia, defeating the Turks in the Battle of Iconium, however upon reaching Christian territory in Lesser Armenia (Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia) the emperor drowned in the river Saleph. The emperor was buried at Antioch and the Germans became an insignificant contingent during the crusade. Throughout the Third Crusade Antioch remained neutral, however with the end of the Third Crusade (1192), they were included in the Treaty of Ramla between Richard and Saladin.[51][52][53][54] Battles for sovereignty[edit] With no heir after the death of Raymond III, Count of Tripoli in the Battle of Hattin he left his godson, Raymond IV, Count of Tripoli, the eldest son of Bohemond III. However Bohemond installed his younger, the future prince Bohemond IV of Antioch, as count of Tripoli. Shortly after the end of the Third Crusade, Raymond IV, Count of Tripoli married Alice of Armenia, the niece of Leo II, or Leo I, King of Armenia, and a vassal to Antioch. Alice bore Raymond IV a son in 1199, Raymond-Roupen, after which Raymond IV died in the coming months. In 1194 Leo II tricked Bohemond III making him believe that the new born prince had been captured by the Roupenians. Leo made a failed attempt at capturing Antioch believing the city would be weakened with the absence of Bohemond. Henry II, Count of Champagne nephew to both Richard I and Philip II, travelled to Lesser Armenia and managed to persuade Leo that in exchange for Antioch, renouncing its overlordship to Lesser Armenia and to release Bohemond, who in 1201 died. With the death of Bohemond III there followed a 15-year struggle for power of Antioch, between Tripoli and Lesser Armenia. According to the rules of primogeniture Leo's great nephew Raymond-Roupen was the rightful heir of Antioch, and Leo's position was supported by the pope. However, on the other hand, the city commune of Antioch supported Bohemond IV of Antioch, on the grounds that he was the closest blood relative to the last ruling prince, Bohemond III. In 1207 Bohemond IV installed a Greek patriarch in Antioch, despite the East-West Schism, under the help of Aleppo, Bohemond IV drove Leo out of Antioch.[55][56] Fifth Crusade and afterwards[edit] See also: Armeno-Mongol relations In 1213 Pope Innocent III's papal bull Quia maior called for all of Christendom to lead a new (Fifth) crusade. This strengthened the support of sultan al-Adil I (العادل), an Ayyubid-Egyptian general who supported Raymond-Roupen's claims in Antioch. In 1216 Leo installed Raymond-Roupen as prince of Antioch, and ending all military aspect of the struggle between Tripoli and Lesser Armenia, but the citizens again revolted against Raymond-Roupen in c. 1219 and Bohemond of Tripoli was recognised as the fourth prince of that name. Bohemond IV and his son Bohemond V remained neutral in the struggles of the Guelphs and Ghibellines to the south which arose when Frederich II married Isabella II, and in 1233 Bohemond IV died. From 1233 onwards Antioch declined and appeared rarely in records for 30 years, and in 1254 the altercations of the past between Antioch and Armenia were laid to rest when Bohemond VI of Antioch married the then 17‑year‑old Sibylla of Armenia, and Bohemond VI became a vassal of the Armenian kingdom. Effectively, the Armenian kings ruled Antioch while the prince of Antioch resided in Tripoli. The Armenians drew up a treaty with the Mongols, who were now ravaging Muslim lands, and under protection they extended their territory into the lands of the Seljuq dynasty in the north and the Aleppo territory to the south. Antioch was part of this Armeno-Mongol alliance. Bohemond VI managed to retake Lattakieh and reestablished the land bridge between Antioch and Tripoli, while the Mongols insisted he install the Greek patriarch there rather than a Latin one, due to the Mongols attempting to strengthen ties with the Byzantine Empire. This earned Bohemond the enmity of the Latins of Acre, and Bohemond was excommunicated by the Patriarch of Jerusalem, Pope Urban IV,[57] which was later suspended.[58][59] Fall of Antioch[edit] See also: Siege of Antioch (1268) In 1259 the Mongols captured the Syrian city of Damascus, and eventually in 1260, Aleppo. The Mamluk sultan Saif ad-Din Qutuz looked to ally with the Franks, who declined. In September 1260, the Mamluks defeated the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut, shortly after Qutuz was assassinated at Al-Salihiyya, and according to various sources his successor Baibars was involved in his murder.[60][61] (Baibars "came to power with [the] regicide [of Qutuz] on his conscience" according to Tschanz.) Despite this, Baibars was named sultan, and in 1263 sacked Nazareth, threatened Antioch with invasion, and appeared before the walls of Acre. In January 1265 Baibars launched an offensive against the Latins, starting with Acre, the capital of the remnant of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, but was unable to take it, but defeated the Crusaders in many other battles in Arsuf, Athlith, Haifa, etc. And in 1268 Baibars besieged Antioch, capturing the city on May 18. Baibars promised to spare the lives of the inhabitants, but broke his promise and razed the city, killing or enslaving nearly the entire population upon their surrender.[62] Antioch's ruler, Prince Bohemond VI was then left with no territories except the County of Tripoli. Without any southern fortifications and with Antioch isolated it could not withstand the onslaught of resurgent Muslim forces, and with the fall of the city, the remainder of northern Syria eventually capitulated, ending the Latin presence in Syria.[63] The Mamluk armies killed or enslaved every Christian in Antioch.[64] In 1355 it still had a considerable population, but by 1432 there were only about 300 inhabited houses within its walls, mostly occupied by Turcomans.[65] Archaeology[edit] The Týkhē (Fortune) of Antioch, Galleria dei Candelabri, the Vatican Museums. Few traces of the once great Roman city are visible today aside from the massive fortification walls that snake up the mountains to the east of the modern city, several aqueducts, and the Church of St Peter (St Peter's Cave Church, Cave-Church of St. Peter), said to be a meeting place of an Early Christian community.[66] The majority of the Roman city lies buried beneath deep sediments from the Orontes River, or has been obscured by recent construction. Between 1932 and 1939, archaeological excavations of Antioch were undertaken under the direction of the "Committee for the Excavation of Antioch and Its Vicinity", which was made up of representatives from the Louvre Museum, the Baltimore Museum of Art, the Worcester Art Museum, Princeton University, Wellesley College, and later (1936) also the Fogg Art Museum at Harvard University and its affiliate Dumbarton Oaks. The excavation team failed to find the major buildings they hoped to unearth, including Constantine's Great Octagonal Church or the imperial palace. However, a great accomplishment of the expedition was the discovery of high-quality Roman mosaics from villas and baths in Antioch, Daphne and Seleucia Pieria. The principal excavations of Mosaics at Antioch led by Princeton University in March 1932 recovered nearly 300 mosaics. Many of these mosaics were originally displayed as floor mosaics in private homes during the 2nd through 6th centuries AD, while others were displayed in baths and other public buildings. The majority of the Antioch mosaics are from the fourth and fifth centuries, Antioch's golden age, though others from earlier times have survived as well .[67] The mosaics depict a variety of images including animals, plants, and mythological beings, as well as scenes from the daily lives of people living in the area at the time. Each mosaic is bordered by intricate designs and contains bold, vibrant colors.[68] One mosaic includes a border that depicts a walk from Antioch to Daphne, showing many ancient buildings along the way. The mosaics are now displayed in the Hatay Archaeology Museum in Antakya. A collection of mosaics on both secular and sacred subjects which were once in churches, private homes, and other public spaces now hang in the Princeton University Art Museum[69] and museums of other sponsoring institutions. A statue in the Vatican and a number of figurines and statuettes perpetuate the type of its great patron goddess and civic symbol, the Tyche (Fortune) of Antioch – a majestic seated figure, crowned with the ramparts of Antioch's walls and holding wheat stalks in her right hand, with the river Orontes as a youth swimming under her feet. According to William Robertson Smith the Tyche of Antioch was originally a young virgin sacrificed at the time of the founding of the city to ensure its continued prosperity and good fortune.[citation needed] The northern edge of Antakya has been growing rapidly over recent years, and this construction has begun to expose large portions of the ancient city, which are frequently bulldozed and rarely protected by the local museum. In April 2016, archaeologists discovered a Greek mosaic showing a skeleton lying down with a wine pitcher and loaf of bread alongside a text that reads: "Be cheerful, enjoy your life", it is reportedly from the 3rd century BC. Described as the "reckless skeleton" or "skeleton mosaic", the mosaic is once thought to have belonged in the dining room of an upper-class home.[70][71] Notable people[edit] Saint Barnabas Saint Domnius, Bishop of Salona and patron saint of Split George of Antioch Ignatius of Antioch, Patriarch of Antioch John Malalas, a Greek chronicler John Chrysostom (349–407) Patriarch of Constantinople Libanius, 4th century AD, pagan sophist and confidant of Emperor Julian Saint Luke, 1st century AD, Christian evangelist and author of the Gospel of St. Luke and Acts of the Apostles Severus of Antioch Aulus Licinius Archias, Greek poet Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus, Roman Politician and General Saint Maron, Patriarch of the Maronite Church See also[edit] Antiochene Rite Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch from Monty Python List of Greek place names The Martyr of Antioch Theophilus of Antioch References and sources[edit] Notes[edit] ^ Koinē Greek: Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου; or Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Δάφνῃ "Antioch on Daphne"; orἈντιόχεια ἡ Μεγάλη "Antioch the Great"}}; Latin: Antiochia ad Orontem; Armenian: Անտիոք Antiokʽ; Syriac: ܐܢܛܝܘܟܝܐ‎ Anṭiokya; Hebrew: אנטיוכיה‎, Anṭiyokhya; Arabic: انطاكية‎, Anṭākiya; Persian: انطاکیه‎; Turkish: Antakya. References[edit] ^ Sacks, David; Oswyn Murray (2005). Lisa R. Brody (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World (Facts on File Library of World History). Facts on File Inc. p. 32. ISBN 978-0816057221. ^ "The mixture of Roman, Greek, and Jewish elements admirably adapted Antioch for the great part it played in the early history of Christianity. The city was the cradle of the church." — "Antioch," Encyclopaedia Biblica, Vol. I, p. 186 (p. 125 of 612 in online .pdf file. Warning: Takes several minutes to download). ^ "Acts of the Apostles 11:26". ^ Kloeg, Paul. “Antioch the Great: Population and Economy of Second-Century Antioch.” Masters, Leiden University, 2013. https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/handle/1887/21549. ^ a b c d e Rockwell 1911, p. 130. ^ Libanius (2000). Antioch as a Centre of Hellenic Culture as Observed by Libanius. Translated with an introduction by A.F. Norman. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-85323-595-8. ^ a b Glanville Downey, Ancient Antioch (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1963). Available as PDF[permanent dead link] ^ "Syrian Antioch and Pisidian Antioch". Bible Wise. Retrieved 22 September 2017. ^ "s.v. Ἀντιόχεια". Suda. At the Suda On Line project of the Stoa Consortium. ^  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Easton, Matthew George (1897). Easton's Bible Dictionary (New and revised ed.). T. Nelson and Sons. Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ John Malalas, Book 8, pp.199–202 ^ A.H.M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire, Vol. II 1984 pp. 1040 and 1409 ISBN 0-8018-3354-X ^ Rockwell 1911, pp. 130-131. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Rockwell 1911, p. 131. ^ Cicero Pro Archia, 4 ^ John Malalas, Book 8, pp.207–208 ^ John Humphrey (13 February 1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Charioteers. University of California Press. pp. 446–. ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5. Retrieved 25 August 2012. ^ Strabo, 15.7.73 [1]. ^ Dio Cassius, liv, 9. ^ "St John Chrysostom's homily on Saint Babylas". Archived from the original on 2008-07-06. Retrieved 2012-01-24. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 22.12.8 – 22.13.3 ^ Socrates of Constantinople, Historia ecclesiastica, 3.18 ^ Ridebatur enim ut Cercops...barbam prae se ferens hircinam. Ammianus XXII 14. ^ Edwards, Robert W., "Antioch (Seleukia Pieria)" (2016). The Eerdmans Encyclopedia of Early Christian Art and Archaeology, ed., Paul Corby Finney. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 73–74. ISBN 978-0-8028-9016-0. ^ Acts 11:19 ^ Acts 11 ^ Acts 11:22 ^ Acts 11:26 ^ Acts 13:14–50 ^ Byzantine Religious Culture: Studies in Honor of Alice-Mary Talbot, Alice-Mary Maffry Talbot, Denis Sullivan, Elizabeth A. Fisher, Stratis Papaioannou, p.281 ^ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maronite_Catholic_Patriarchate_of_Antioch. Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ Seleucia in Pieria, Ancient Warfare Magazine ^ Steven Runciman, A History of the Crusades, Volume 3, The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades, Cambridge University Press, 1955, pp. 326, 354–359 ^ A short history of Antioch, 300 B.C.-A.D. 1268. Oxford, Blackwell. 1921. Retrieved 2013-03-25. ^ Antioch (International Internet Preservation Consortium) ^ The Crusades The War For The Holy Land by Thomas Asbridge page 114 (p.3) to page 115 ^ Ibn al-Athir vol. 2, p. 320; Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic perspectives, pp. 175–85 ^ A History of the Crusades – Volume II.: The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East: 1100–1187. ^ The Armenian Kingdom in Cilicia during the Crusades: The Integration of Cilician Armenians with the Latins (1080–1393). ^ Usmah Ibn Munqidh (1095–1188): Autobiography: Excerpts on the Franks, c. 1175 CE. ^ a b Annales Herbipolenses, s.a. 1147: A Hostile View of the Crusade ^ The Crusades: A Documentary Survey Brundage ^ Studies in the History of Relations between Orient and Occident in the Middle Ages. Cairo 2003 ^ Islamic Imperialism: A History By Efraim Karsh ^ Les Familles d'Outremer ^ od's War: A New History of the Crusade ^ Religious and Military Crusader Orders in Syria in the 12th and 13th Centuries. Amman 2003. ^ Seeing Islam as Others Saw Athanasius II ^ Earthquakes in Syria during the Crusades. Cairo 1996. ^ J. N. Kelly, The Oxford Dictionary of Popes, New York: Oxford UP, 1986, 183. ^ Axelrod, Alan and Charles L. Phillips, editors. "Encyclopedia of Historical Treaties and Alliances, Vol. 1". Zenda Inc., New York, 2001 ^ Wolff p.113 ^ Konstam, Historical Atlas of the Crusades, 162 ^ Comyn, pg. 267 ^ A short history of Antioch, 300 B.C.-A.D. 1268 (1921) ^ Riley-Smith, Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades ^ Runciman, pp. 306–307. "To the Latins at Acre Bohemond's subservience seemed disgraceful, especially as it involved the humiliation of the Latin Church at Antioch...Bohemond was excommunicated by the Pope for this alliance (Urban IV, Registres, 26 May 1263) ^ Jean Richard, The Crusades: c. 1071 – c. 1291, pp 423–426 ^ "Ghazan resumed his plans against Egypt in 1297: the Franco-Mongol cooperation had thus survived, in spite of the loss of Acre by the Franks, and the conversion of the Persian Mongols to Islam. It was to remain one of the political factors of the policy of the Crusades, until the peace treaty with the Mumluks, which was only signed in 1322 by the khan Abu Said", Jean Richard, p.468 ^ Al-Maqrizi, p. 519/vol. 1. ^ See Perry (p. 150), Riley-Smith (p. 237, Baybars ... murdered Qutuz"), Amitai-Preiss (p. 47, "a conspiracy of amirs, which included Baybars and was probably under his leadership"), Holt et al. ^ Zahiriyya Madrasa and Mausoleum of Sultan al-Zahir Baybars Archived 2009-01-08 at the Wayback Machine ^ New scourge from Egypt, A History of Armenia by Vahan M. Kurkjian ^ Michaud, The History of the Crusades, Vol. 3, p. 18; available in full at Internet Archive. Note that in a footnote Michaud claims reliance on "the chronicle of Ibn Ferat" (Michaud, Vol.3, p.22) for much of the information he has concerning the Mussulmans. ^ Runciman, op. cit., p. 326. ^ "Sacred Destinations". Retrieved 2008-07-01. ^ Downey, Glanville (1938). "Personifications of Abstract Ideas in the Antioch Mosaics". Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association. 6: 349–363. doi:10.2307/283184. JSTOR 283184. ^ Fant, Clyde E.; Reddish, Mitchell G. (2003). A Guide to Biblical Sites in Greece and Turkey. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. p. 150. ISBN 978-0-19-513918-1. ^ Jones, Frances F (1981). "Antioch Mosaics in Princeton". Record of the Art Museum, Princeton University. 40 (2): 2–26. doi:10.2307/3774611. JSTOR 3774611. ^ Archaeologists discover ancient mosaic with message: 'Be cheerful, enjoy your life' ^ 2,400 year-old mosaic found in southern Turkey says 'be cheerful, enjoy your life' Sources[edit] Karl Otfried Müller, Antiquitates Antiochenae (1839) Albin Freund, Beiträge zur antiochenischen und zur konstantinopolitanischen Stadtchronik (1882) R. Forster, in Jahrbuch of Berlin Arch. Institute, xii. (1897) Ulrich Wickert. "Antioch." In The Encyclopedia of Christianity, edited by Erwin Fahlbusch and Geoffrey William Bromiley, 81–82. Vol. 1. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1999. ISBN 0802824137  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Rockwell, William Walker (1911). "Antioch". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 130–132. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Antioch. The Ancient City of Antioch Map Richard Stillwell, ed. 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Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films v t e Colonies of Ancient Rome With correspondence to modern geography Europe Britannia Superior Camulodunum Lindum Colonia Londinium Britannia Inferior Eboracum Roman Dacia Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa Gallia Lugdunensis Lugdunum Gallia Narbonensis Narbo Martius Germania Inferior Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium Mogontiacum Hispania Emerita Augusta Italia Aelia Augusta Aeclanum Castra Taurinorum Florentia Mediolanum Placentia Moesia Singidunum Levant Of legion veterans Berytus Caesarea Maritima 2 Aelia Capitolina 1 3 Ptolemais 1 Of late Empire Laodicea Antioch Seleucia Emesa Heliopolis 1 Palmyra 1 3 Damascus 1 3 Arca Caesarea Sidon Tyrus 1 Sebaste Bostra 1 3 Petra 1 Neapolis Philippopolis Dura-Europos 2 Possible colonies Gaza Ascalon Gerasa Gadara Emmaus Nicopolis Neronias Locations with modern names Israel and the Palestinian territories Jerusalem: Aelia Capitolina Acre: Ptolemais Caesarea: Caesarea Maritima Imwas: Emmaus Nicopolis Banias: Neronias Jordan Petra: Petra Umm Qais: Gadara Jerash: Gerasa Lebanon Arqa: Arca Caesarea Beirut: Berytus Baalbek: Heliopolis Saida: Sidon Tyre: Tyrus Syria Bosra: Bostra Damascus: Damascus Dura-Europos: Dura-Europus Homs: Emesa Latakia: Laodicea Shahba: Philippopolis Tadmur: Palmyra Turkey Antakya: Antioch Samandağ: Seleucia 1 UNESCO World Heritage Sites; 2 Proposed; 3 in Danger See also: Legacy of the Roman Empire v t e Ancient settlements in Turkey Aegean Achaion Limen Acharaca Acmonia Adramyttium Agatheira Aegae Airai Aizanoi Alabanda Alinda Allianoi Almura Amnista Amorium Amos Amynanda Amyzon Anaua Anineta Annaea Antandrus Antioch on the Maeander Apamea in Phrygia Aphrodisias Apollonia in Mysia Apollonia Salbaces Apollonis Apollonos Hieron Appia Appolena Aragokome Araukome Arilla Aroma Aspaneus Astragon Astyra near Adramyttium Astyra near Pergamon Astyria Atarneus Atarneus sub Pitanem Attea Attuda Aulae Aurelia Neapolis Aureliopolis in Lydia Aurokra Bageis Bargasa Bargasa in northern Caria Bargylia Beudos Beycesultan Birgena Blaundus Bonitai Boukolion Boutheia Briula Bruzus Bybassus Cadi Callipolis Caloe Canae Carene Carmylessus Carura Caryanda Castabus Casystes Cedreae Celaenae Ceramus Chalcetor Choria Chrysaoris Chytrium Cidramus Cindye Cisthene Clannuda Claros Colophon Colossae Conium Coryphas Cybeleia Cyllandus Cyme Daldis Dareioukome Dideiphyta Didyma Digda Dioclea Dionysiopolis Dios Hieron in Ionia Dios Hieron in Lydia Dioskome Docimium Doroukome Eibos Eiokome Elaea Embatum Emoddi Ephesus Erines Erythrae Erythras Etsyena Eukarpia Euhippe Eumeneia Euromus Euthenae Euxine Gambrium Gerga Gergitha Gerriadai Glauke Gryneium Halicarnassus Halisarna Harpasa Helos Heraclea at Latmus Heraclea in Aeolis Heraclea in Lydia Heraclea Salbace Hermocapelia Hierapolis Hierapolis of the Phyrgian Pentapolis Hierocaesarea Homadena Hydai Hydas Hydissus Hygassos Hyllarima Hypaepa Hypokremnos Hyrcanis Iasos Iaza Idyma Ioniapolis Ioudda Ipsus Isinda in Ionia Iskome Kadyie Kaira Kalabantia Kasara Kasossos Kaualena Kaunos Kilaraza Kildara Klazomenai Kleimaka Kleros Politike Knidos Koddinou Petra Koraia Korakoe Koresa Kouara Kyllene Kymnissa Kys Labraunda Lagina Lalandos Lamyana Lankena Laodicea on the Lycus Larisa in Caria Larisa in Ionia Larisa in Lydia Larissa Phrikonis Larymna Lasnedda Latmus Lebedus Leimon Leucae Leucophrys Limantepe Lobolda Lunda Lydae Lyrna Lysimachia Madnasa Maeandropolis Magnesia ad Sipylum Magnesia on the Maeander Maiboza Maionia in Lydia Malene Marathesium Mastaura Meiros Meiros Megale Melampagos Meloukome Metropolis in Lydia Metropolis in southern Phrygia Miletus Mylasa Mobolla Mokolda Mossyna Mostene Motella Myloukome Myndus Myrina Myus Nais Nasos Naulochon Naulochus Naxia Neapolis Neonteichos Nisyra Notion Nymphaeum Nysa on the Maeander Odon Oenoanda Olaeis Olymos Oroanna Orthoisa Ortygia Otrus Palaemyndus Panasion Panormus near Miletus Panormus near Halicarnassus Parsada Parthenium Passala Passanda Pedasa Pepuza Pergamon Perperene Philadelphia in Lydia Phocaea Phoenix in Caria Physcus Phyteia Pidasa Pinara Pisilis Pisye Pitane Pladasa Plarasa Polichna in Ionia Polichne in Ionia Polybotus Pordoselene Priene Prymnessus Pteleum Pydnae Pygela Pyrnus Pyrrha Saouenda Sardis Satala in Lydia Sebaste in Phrygia Sebastopolis in Caria Setae Side in Caria Sidussa Silandus Sillyos Skolopoeis Smyrna Soa Spore Stadia Stectorium Stratonicea in Lydia Stratonicea in Caria Strobilos Syangela Symbra Synaus Syneta Synnada Syrna Tabae Tabala Tateikome Taza Teichiussa Telandrus Temenothyra Temnos Tempsis Tendeba Teos Termera Teuthrania Thasthara Theangela Thebe Hypoplakia Thebes Thera Thyaira Thyatira Thymbrara Thyssanus Tisna Tlos in Caria Tomara Traianopolis Trapezopolis Trarium Triopium Tripolis on the Meander Troketta Tyanollos Tymion Tymnos Ula Uranium Zemmeana Zingotos Kome Black Sea Abonoteichos Aegialus Aiginetes Alaca Höyük Amasia Amastris Ancon Anticinolis Argyria Armene Bonita Boon Cabira Cales Callistratia Carambis Carissa Carussa Cerasus Chadisia Cinolis Cizari Colonia in Armenia Colussa Comana in the Pontus Coralla Cordyle Cratia Crenides Cromen Cromna Cyptasia Cytorus Dia Diacopa Elaeus Endeira Erythini Euchaita Eusene Gadilon Garius Garzoubanthon Gaziura Gozalena Hadrianopolis in Paphlagonia Hattusa Heraclea Pontica Heracleium Hermonassa Hieron Oros Hüseyindede Tepe Hyssus Ibora Ischopolis Karza Kelesa Kimista Laodicea Pontica Libiopolis Lillium Metroon Mokata Naustathmus Nerik Nicopolis Ophis Oxinas Patara Pharnacia Phazemon Philocaleia Pida Pimolisa Polemonium Pompeiopolis Potami Prusias ad Hypium Pteria in Paphlagonia Salatiwara Samuha Sandaraca Sapinuwa Satala Saurania Sebastopolis in Pontus Stephane Syderos Themiscyra Thymena Timolaeum Tium Tripolis Virasia Yazılıkaya Zagorus Zaliche Zephyrium in Paphlagonia Ziporea Central Anatolia Abouadeineita Alişar Hüyük Amblada Anadynata Andabalis Anisa Anniaca Ano Kotradis Antoniopolis Anzoulada Aquae Saravenae Aralla Arasaxa Archalla Ardistama Ariaramneia Ariarathia Armaxa Artiknos Aspenzinsos Astra Atenia Balbissa Balgatia Barate Bathys Rhyax Binbirkilise Blucium Borissos Campae Camuliana Candara Carus Vicus Çatalhöyük Cimiata Ciscissus Cinna Claneus Comitanassus Congustus Corna Corniaspa Coropassus Cotenna Cybistra Cyzistra Dadastana Dasmenda Derbe Diocaesarea Doara Dometiopolis Dorylaeum Ecdaumava Ecobriga Ergobrotis Euaissa Eudocia (Cappadocia) Eudocia (Phrygia) Eulepa Faustinopolis Germa Gorbeus Gordium Hadrianopolis in Phrygia Heraclea Cybistra Herpha Hieropotamon Homana Hyde Ilistra Irenopolis Juliopolis Kaman-Kalehöyük Kanotala Karbala Keissia Kerkenes Kilistra Kindyria Kobara Kodylessos Korama Koron Kültepe (Kanesh) Lageina Lamatorma Laodicea Combusta Laroumada Lauzadus Limnae Lystra Malandasa Malus in Galatia Malus in Phrygia Meloë Metropolis in northern Phrygia Midaeium Mistea Mnizus Mokissos Mourisa Moutalaske Musbanda Myrika Nakoleia Nazianzus Nitazi Nora Nyssa Ochras Olosada Orcistus Papirion Parnassus Pedachtoë Pedaia Peium Perta Pessinus Pharax Phlara Pillitokome Pissia Pithoi Pontanena Posala Pteria Purushanda Pyrgoi Sadagolthina Salamboreia Salarama Sasima Savatra Sbida Sedasa Senzousa Sereana Sibora Sidamaria Skandos Soanda Soandos Sora Takourtha Tavium Thebasa Thouththourbia Tiberiopolis Trocmades Tyana Tynna Tyriaeum Vasada Zeita Zenopolis Zizima Eastern Anatolia Altıntepe Ani Arsamosata Cafer Höyük Dadima Melid Sugunia Tushpa Marmara Abydos Achaiion Achilleion Ad Statuas Adrasteia Aegospotami Agora Aianteion in Thrace Aianteion in the Troad Ainos Alexandria Troas Alopeconnesus Ammoi Amycus Anaplous Apamea Myrlea Aphrodisias Apollonia on the Rhyndacus Aprus Apsoda Arbeila Argiza Argyria Argyronion Argyropolis Arisba Artace Artaiouteichos Artanes Assos Astacus Astyra in Troad Aureliane Aureliopolis Baradendromia Basilica Therma Basilinopolis Bathonea Beodizo Bergule Birytis Bitenas Bithynium Blachernae Bolos Boradion Brunca Burtudizon Bythias Byzantium Byzapena Caenophrurium Callum Calpe Canopus Cardia Cebrene Cenon Gallicanon Chalcaea Chalcedon Charax Charmidea Chelae on the Black Sea Chelae on the Asian coast of the Bosphorus Chelae on the European coast of the Bosphorus Choiragria Chryse Chrysopolis Cius Clitae Cobrys Cocylium Colla Cremaste Crenides Cressa Crithote Cypasis Cypsela Cyzicus Dadokome Dacibyza Damalis Daphne Mainomene Daphnus Dardanus Dascylium Dascylium in Bithynia Dekaton in Bithynia Dekaton in Thrace Delkos Delphin Deris Desa Didymateiche Diolkides Drabus Drizipara/Drusipara Eirakla Elaea in Bithynia Elaeus Elekosmioi Embolos Ergasteria Eribolum Gargara Gentinos Gergis Germa Germanicopolis Hadriani ad Olympum Hadriania Hadrianotherae Hamaxitus Harpagion Hebdomon Helenopolis/Drepanum Heracleium Hieria Hierion Iasonion Ide Ilieon Kome Kabia Kalamos Kalasyrta Kale Peuke Kalos Agros Kampos Kassa Katapaspanas Kepos Kizoura Koila Kolonai Kosilaos Koubaita Kyparodes Kypra Lamponeia Lampsacus Larisa in Troad Lasthenes Leptoia Liada Libum Libyssa Limnae in Bithynia Limnae in Thrace Linus Lupadium Lygos Lysimachia Madytus Mantineion Marpessos Miletopolis Mocasura Mochadion Modra Morzapena Mossynea Moukaporis Myrileion Narco Nassete Nausikleia Nausimachion Neandreia Neapolis on the Bosphorus Neapolis on the Thracian Chersonese Neonteichos Nerola Nicomedia Oka Ontoraita Ophryneion Orestias Orni Ostreodes Pactya Paeon Paesus Palodes Panion Pantichium Parabolos Parium Paulines Pegae in Mysia Pegae in Thrace Pege Pentephyle Percote Pericharaxis Perinthus Petrozetoi Pharmakia Phidalia Petra Phiela Philia Phosphorus Pionia Pitheci Portus Placia Ploketta Poemanenum Poleatikon Polymedium Potamoi Potamonion Praenetus Pratomysia Prepa Priapus Prindea Proconnesus Proochthoi Prusa Psarela Psyllium Pyrrhias Cyon Pytheion Rhebas Rhegion Rhesion Rhoiteion Rouphinianai Salmydessus Sangarus Scamandria Scamandrus Scepsis Scylace Scylla Selymbria Semystra Serrion Teichos Sestos Sigeion Sirkanos Smintheion Soka Strobilos Sykai Syllanta Tarpodizo Tarsus in Bithynia Tattaios Tenba Terbos Tesderamoska Tetrakomia Tipaso Tragasai Thynias Traron Tricomia in Bithynia Troy (Hisarlik) Tyrodiza Tzurulum Urisio Utsurgae Zeleia Mediterranean Acalissus Acarassus Adada Adrasus Aegae Agrae Alalakh Amelas Anabura in Pisidia Anazarbus Anchiale Andeda Andriaca Anemurium Antigonia Antioch on the Orontes Antioch of Pisidia Antiochia Lamotis Antioch on the Cragus Antioch on the Pyramis Antiphellus Aperlae Aphrodisias of Cilicia Apollonia in Lycia Arabissus Araxa Ariassus Arima Arnabanda Arneae Arsada Arsinoe Artanada Arycanda Aspendos Augai Augusta Aulae Aunesis Bab al-Hawa Border Crossing Balbura Baris Bindaios Bubon Cabassus Cadrema Cadyanda Callimache Calynda Carallia Carmylessus Casae Castabala Ceretapa Cestrus Charadrus Choma Cibyra Mikra Claudiopolis Colybrassus Comama Comana in Cappadocia Comba Conana Coracesium Corycium Antrum Corycus (Kızkalesi) Corydala Cremna Cretopolis Crya Cyaneae Cyrrhus Daedala Dalisandus in Isauria Dalisandus in Pamphylia Damasei Dias Diocaesarea Domuztepe Elaiussa Sebaste Elbessos Emirzeli Epiphania Erymna Etenna Eudocia (Lycia) Eudocias (Pamphylia) Flaviopolis Gagae Gözlükule Hacilar Hadrianopolis in Pisidia Halae Hamaxia Hippucome Holmi Hyia Idebessos Idyros Iotape Irenopolis Isaura Nea Isaura Palaea Isba Isinda in Lycia Isinda in Pisidia Issus Istlada Juliosebaste Kalanthia Kalelibelen Kandyba Kanytelis Karakabaklı Karatepe Karkabo Kastellon Keraia Kibyra Kiphisos Kirkota Kitanaura Kodroula Kolbasa Korasion Korma Kynosarion Laertes Lagbe Lamos Lebessus Legeita Limnae in Pamphylia Limnae in Pisidia Limyra Lissa Lycae Lyrbe Lysinia Magarsa Magastara Magydus Mallus Malus in Pisidia Mampsoukrenai Mamure Castle Manava Mandane Marciana Marmara (Mnara) Mastaura Meloë Melanippe Meriana Mezgitkale Moatra Mopsucrene Mopsuestia Morka Moron Hydor Moumoustra Mylae Mylios Myra Myriandus Nagidos Nauloi Neapolis in Pisidia Nephelis Nisa Octapolis Olba Olbasa Olbia Olympus Öküzlü Onobara Orokenda Otanada Ouerbe Padyandus Panemotichus Panhormus Pargais Parlais Patara Pednelissus Perga Perminounda Phaselis Phellus Philadelphia in Cilicia Philaea Phoenicus Phoenix in Lycia Pisarissos Pisurgia Placoma Platanus Podalia Pogla Prostanna Pseudokorasion Ptolemais Rhodiapolis Rhoscopus Rhosus Rygmanoi Sabandus Sagalassos Sandalium Saraganda Sebeda Seleucia in Pamphylia Seleucia Pieria Seleucia Sidera Selge Selinus Seroiata Serraepolis Sia Sibidounda Sibyla Side Siderus Sidyma Sillyon Simena Sinda Siricae Soli Solyma Sozopolis Sura Syca Syedra Takina Tapureli Tardequeia Tarsus Teimiussa Tell Tayinat Telmessos Telmessos (Caria) Tenedos Termessos Tetrapyrgia in Cappadocia Tetrapyrgia in Pamphylia Titiopolis Tityassus Tlos Toriaeum Tragalassus Trebendae Trebenna Trysa Tyberissus Tyinda Tymandus Tynada Typallia Xanthos Yanıkhan Yumuktepe Zephyrium on the Calycadnus Southeastern Anatolia Amida Antioch in the Taurus Antioch in Mesopotamia (Constantia) Apamea on the Euphrates Carcathiocerta Carchemish Çayönü Dabanas Dara Doliche Edessa Göbekli Tepe Hallan Çemi Tepesi Harran Khashshum Kussara Nevalı Çori Nicopolis in Cilicia Nisibis Sakçagözü Sam'al Samosata Sareisa Seleucia at the Zeugma Sitai Sultantepe Tille Tushhan Urima Urshu Zeugma v t e People and things in the Quran Characters Non-humans Allāh ("The God") Names of Allah found in the Quran, such as Karīm (Generous) Animals Related The baqarah (cow) of Israelites The dhiʾb (wolf) that Jacob feared could attack Joseph The fīl (elephant) of the Abyssinians Ḥimār (Domesticated donkey) The hud-hud (hoopoe) of Solomon The kalb (dog) of the sleepers of the cave The namlah (female ant) of Solomon The nūn (fish or whale) of Jonah The nāqat (she-camel) of Saleh Non-related ʿAnkabūt (Female spider) Dābbat al-Arḍ (Beast of the Earth) Ḥimār (Wild ass) Naḥl (Honey bee) Qaswarah ("Lion", "beast of prey" or "hunter") Malāʾikah (Angels) Angels of Hell Mālik Zabāniyah Bearers of the Throne Harut and Marut Kirāman Kātibīn (Honourable Scribes) Raqib Atid Munkar and Nakir Riḍwan Archangels Jibrīl (Gabriel, chief) Ar-Rūḥ ("The Spirit") Ar-Rūḥ al-Amīn ("The Trustworthy Spirit") Ar-Rūḥ al-Qudus ("The Holy Spirit") Angel of the Trumpet (Isrāfīl or Raphael) Malakul-Mawt (Angel of Death, Azrael) Mīkāil (Michael) Jinn (Genies) Jann ʿIfrīt Qarīn Shayāṭīn (Demons or Devils) Iblīs ash-Shayṭān (the (chief) Devil) Mārid ("Rebellious one") Others Ghilmān or Wildān Ḥūr Prophets Mentioned Ādam (Adam) Al-Yasaʿ (Elisha) Ayyūb (Job) Dāwūd (David) Dhūl-Kifl (Ezekiel?) Hārūn (Aaron) Hūd (Eber?) Idrīs (Enoch?) Ilyās (Elijah) ʿImrān (Joachim the father of Maryam) Isḥāq (Isaac) Ismāʿīl (Ishmael) Dhabih Ullah Lūṭ (Lot) Ṣāliḥ Shuʿayb (Jethro, Reuel or Hobab?) Sulaymān ibn Dāwūd (Solomon son of David) ʿUzair (Ezra?) Yaḥyā ibn Zakariyyā (John the Baptist the son of Zechariah) Yaʿqūb (Jacob) Isrāʾīl (Israel) Yūnus (Jonah) Dhūn-Nūn ("He of the Fish (or Whale)" or "Owner of the Fish (or Whale)") Ṣāḥib al-Ḥūt ("Companion of the Whale") Yūsuf ibn Ya‘qūb (Joseph son of Jacob) Zakariyyā (Zechariah) Ulul-ʿAzm ("Those of the Perseverance and Strong Will") Muḥammad Aḥmad Other names and titles of Muhammad ʿĪsā (Jesus) Al-Masīḥ (The Messiah) Ibn Maryam (Son of Mary) Mūsā Kalīmullāh (Moses He who spoke to God) Ibrāhīm Khalīlullāh (Abraham Friend of God) Nūḥ (Noah) Debatable ones Dhūl-Qarnain Luqmān Maryam (Mary) Ṭālūt (Saul or Gideon?) Implied Irmiyā (Jeremiah) Ṣamūʾīl (Samuel) Yūshaʿ ibn Nūn (Joshua, companion and successor of Moses) People of Prophets Good ones Adam's immediate relatives Martyred son Wife Believer of Ya-Sin Family of Noah Father Lamech Mother Shamkhah bint Anush or Betenos Luqman's son People of Aaron and Moses Egyptians Believer (Hizbil or Hizqil ibn Sabura) Imraʾat Firʿawn (Āsiyá bint Muzāḥim the Wife of Pharaoh, who adopted Moses) Magicians of the Pharaoh Wise, pious man Moses' wife Moses' sister-in-law Mother Sister People of Abraham Mother Abiona or Amtelai the daughter of Karnebo Ishmael's mother Isaac's mother People of Jesus Disciples (including Peter) Mary's mother Zechariah's wife People of Joseph Brothers (including Binyāmin (Benjamin) and Simeon) Egyptians ʿAzīz (Potiphar, Qatafir or Qittin) Malik (King Ar-Rayyān ibn Al-Walīd)) Wife of ʿAzīz (Zulaykhah) Mother People of Solomon Mother Queen of Sheba Vizier Zayd (Muhammad's adopted son) Evil ones Āzar (possibly Terah) Firʿawn (Pharaoh of Moses' time) Hāmān Jālūt (Goliath) Qārūn (Korah, cousin of Moses) As-Sāmirī Abū Lahab Slayers of Saleh's she-camel (Qaddar ibn Salif and Musda' ibn Dahr) Implied or not specified Abraha Abu Bakr Bal'am/Balaam Barṣīṣā Caleb or Kaleb the companion of Joshua Luqman's son Nebuchadnezzar II Nimrod Rahmah the wife of Ayyub Shaddad Groups Mentioned Aṣḥāb al-Jannah People of Paradise People of the Burnt Garden Aṣḥāb as-Sabt (Companions of the Sabbath) Christian apostles Ḥawāriyyūn (Disciples of Jesus) Companions of Noah's Ark Aṣḥāb al-Kahf war-Raqīm (Companions of the Cave and Al-Raqaim? Companions of the Elephant People of al-Ukhdūd People of a township in Surah Ya-Sin People of Yathrib or Medina Qawm Lūṭ (People of Sodom and Gomorrah) Nation of Noah Tribes, ethnicities or families Aʿrāb (Arabs or Bedouins) ʿĀd (people of Hud) Companions of the Rass Qawm Tubbaʿ (People of Tubba) People of Sabaʾ or Sheba Quraysh Thamūd (people of Saleh) Aṣḥāb al-Ḥijr ("Companions of the Stoneland") ‘Ajam Ar-Rūm (literally "The Romans") Banī Isrāʾīl (Children of Israel) Muʾtafikāt (The overthrown cities of Sodom and Gomorrah) People of Ibrahim People of Ilyas People of Nuh People of Shuaib Ahl Madyan People of Madyan) Aṣḥāb al-Aykah ("Companions of the Wood") Qawm Yūnus (People of Jonah) Ya'juj and Ma'juj/Gog and Magog Ahl al-Bayt ("People of the Household") Household of Abraham Brothers of Yūsuf Lot's daughters Progeny of Imran Household of Moses Household of Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Abdul-Muttalib ibn Hashim Daughters of Muhammad Muhammad's wives Household of Salih People of Fir'aun Current Ummah of Islam (Ummah of Muhammad) Aṣḥāb Muḥammad (Companions of Muhammad) Anṣār (Muslims of Medina who helped Muhammad and his Meccan followers, literally 'Helpers') Muhajirun (Emigrants from Mecca to Medina) People of Mecca Wife of Abu Lahab Children of Ayyub Sons of Adam Wife of Nuh Wife of Lut Yaʾjūj wa Maʾjūj (Gog and Magog) Son of Nuh Implicitly mentioned Amalek Ahl as-Suffa (People of the Verandah) Banu Nadir Banu Qaynuqa Banu Qurayza Iranian people Umayyad Dynasty Aus and Khazraj People of Quba Religious groups Ahl al-Dhimmah Kāfirūn disbelievers Majūs Zoroastrians Munāfiqūn (Hypocrites) Muslims Believers Ahl al-Kitāb (People of the Book) Naṣārā (Christian(s) or People of the Injil) Ruhban (Christian monks) Qissis (Christian priest) Yahūd (Jews) Ahbār (Jewish scholars) Rabbani/Rabbi Sabians Polytheists Meccan polytheists at the time of Muhammad Mesopotamian polytheists at the time of Abraham and Lot Locations Mentioned Al-Arḍ Al-Muqaddasah ("The Holy Land") 'Blessed' Land In the Arabian Peninsula (excluding Madyan) Al-Aḥqāf ("The Sandy Plains," or "the Wind-curved Sand-hills") Iram dhāt al-ʿImād (Iram of the Pillars) Al-Madīnah (formerly Yathrib) ʿArafāt and [Al-Ḥarām] Al-Ḥijr (Hegra) Badr Ḥunayn Makkah (Mecca) Bakkah Ḥaraman Āminan ("Sanctuary (which is) Secure") Kaʿbah (Kaaba) Maqām Ibrāhīm (Station of Abraham) Safa and Marwa Sabaʾ (Sheba) ʿArim Sabaʾ (Dam of Sheba) Rass Al-Jannah (Paradise, literally "The Garden") Jahannam (Hell) In Mesopotamia: Al-Jūdiyy Munzalanm-Mubārakan ("Place-of-Landing Blessed") Bābil (Babylon) Qaryat Yūnus ("Township of Jonah," that is Nineveh) Door of Hittah Madyan (Midian) Majmaʿ al-Baḥrayn Miṣr (Mainland Egypt) Salsabīl (A river in Paradise) Sinai Region or Tīh Desert Al-Wād Al-Muqaddas Ṭuwan (The Holy Valley of Tuwa) Al-Wādil-Ayman (The valley on the 'righthand' side of the Valley of Tuwa and Mount Sinai) Al-Buqʿah Al-Mubārakah ("The Blessed Place") Mount Sinai or Mount Tabor Religious locations Bayʿa (Church) Miḥrāb Monastery Masjid (Mosque, literally "Place of Prostration") Al-Mashʿar Al-Ḥarām ("The Sacred Grove") Al-Masjid Al-Aqṣā (Al-Aqsa Mosque, literally "The Farthest Place-of-Prostration") Al-Masjid Al-Ḥarām (The Sacred Mosque of Mecca) Masjid al-Dirar A Mosque in the area of Medina, possibly: Masjid Qubāʾ (Quba Mosque) The Prophet's Mosque Salat (Synagogue) Implied Antioch Antakya Arabia Al-Ḥijāz (literally "The Barrier") Black Stone (Al-Ḥajar al-Aswad) & Al-Hijr of Isma'il Cave of Hira Ghār ath-Thawr (Cave of the Bull) Hudaybiyyah Ta'if Ayla Barrier of Dhul-Qarnayn Bayt al-Muqaddas & 'Ariha Bilād ar-Rāfidayn (Mesopotamia) Canaan Cave of Seven Sleepers Dār an-Nadwa Jordan River Nile River Palestine River Paradise of Shaddad Plant matter Baṣal (Onion) Fūm (Garlic or wheat) Shaṭʾ (Shoot) Sūq (Plant stem) Zarʿ (Seed) Fruits ʿAdas (Lentil) Baql (Herb) Ḥabb dhul-ʿaṣf (Corn of the husk) Qith-thāʾ (Cucumber) Rummān (Pomegranate) Tīn (Fig) Ukul khamṭ (Bitter fruit or food of Sheba) Zaytūn (Olive) In Paradise Forbidden fruit of Adam Bushes, trees or plants Plants of Sheba Athl (Tamarisk) Sidr (Lote-tree) Līnah (Tender Palm tree) Nakhl (Date palm) Rayḥān (Scented plant) Sidrat al-Muntahā Zaqqūm Holy books Al-Injīl (The Gospel of Jesus) Al-Qurʾān (The Book of Muhammad) Ṣuḥuf-i Ibrāhīm (Scroll(s) of Abraham) At-Tawrāt (The Torah) Ṣuḥuf-i-Mūsā (Scroll(s) of Moses) Tablets of Stone Az-Zabūr (The Psalms of David) Umm al-Kitāb ("Mother of the Book(s)") Objects of people or beings Heavenly Food of Christian Apostles Noah's Ark Staff of Musa Tābūt as-Sakīnah (Casket of Shekhinah) Throne of Bilqis Trumpet of Israfil Mentioned idols (cult images) 'Ansāb Jibt and Ṭāghūt (False god) Of Israelites Baʿal The ʿijl (golden calf statue) of Israelites Of Noah's people Nasr Suwāʿ Wadd Yaghūth Yaʿūq Of Quraysh Al-Lāt Al-ʿUzzā Manāt Celestial bodies Maṣābīḥ (literally 'lamps'): Al-Qamar (The Moon) Kawākib (Planets) Al-Arḍ (The Earth) Nujūm (Stars) Ash-Shams (The Sun) Liquids Māʾ (Water or fluid) Nahr (River) Yamm (River or sea) Sharāb (Drink) Events, incidents, occasions or times Incident of Ifk Laylat al-Qadr Event of Mubahala Sayl al-ʿArim (Flood of the Great Dam of Ma'rib in Sheba) The Farewell Pilgrimage Treaty of Hudaybiyyah Battles or military expeditions Battle of al-Aḥzāb ("the Confederates") Battle of Badr Battle of Hunayn Battle of Khaybar Battle of Uhud Expedition of Tabuk Conquest of Mecca Days Al-Jumuʿah (The Friday) As-Sabt (The Sabbath or Saturday) Days of battles Days of Hajj Doomsday Months of the Islamic calendar 12 months: Four holy months Ash-Shahr Al-Ḥarām (The Sacred or Forbidden Month) Ramaḍān Pilgrimages Al-Ḥajj (literally "The Pilgrimage", the Greater Pilgrimage) Al-ʿUmrah (The Lesser Pilgrimage) Times for Prayer or Remembrance Times for Duʿāʾ ('Invocation'), Ṣalāh and Dhikr ('Remembrance', including Taḥmīd ('Praising'), Takbīr and Tasbīḥ): Al-ʿAshiyy (The Afternoon or the Night) Al-Ghuduww ("The Mornings") Al-Bukrah ("The Morning") Aṣ-Ṣabāḥ ("The Morning") Al-Layl ("The Night") Al-ʿIshāʾ ("The Late-Night") Aẓ-Ẓuhr ("The Noon") Dulūk ash-Shams ("Decline of the Sun") Al-Masāʾ ("The Evening") Qabl al-Ghurūb ("Before the Setting (of the Sun)") Al-Aṣīl ("The Afternoon") Al-ʿAṣr ("The Afternoon") Qabl ṭulūʿ ash-Shams ("Before the rising of the Sun") Al-Fajr ("The Dawn") Implied Event of Ghadir Khumm Laylat al-Mabit The first pilgrimage Note: The names are sorted alphabetically. Standard form: Islamic name / Biblical name (title or relationship) v t e Journeys of Paul the Apostle First journey 1. Antioch 2. Seleucia 3. Cyprus 3a. Salamis 3b. Paphos 4. Perga 5. Antioch of Pisidia 6. Konya (Iconium) 7. Derbe 8. Lystra 9. Antalya 10. Antioch (returns to beginning of journey) Second journey 1. Cilicia 2. Derbe 3. Lystra 4. Phrygia 5. Galatia 6. Mysia (Alexandria Troas) 7. Samothrace 8. Neapolis 9. Philippi 9. Amphipolis 10. Apollonia 11. Thessalonica 12. Beroea 13. Athens 14. Corinth 15. Cenchreae 16. Ephesus 17. Syria 18. Caesarea 19. Jerusalem 20. Antioch Third journey 1. Galatia 2. Phrygia 3. Ephesus 4. Macedonia 5. Corinth 6. Cenchreae 7. Macedonia (again) 8. Troas 9. Assos 10. Mytilene 11. Chios 12. Samos 13. Miletus 14. Cos 15. Rhodes 16. Patara 17. Tyre 18. Ptolemais 19. Caesarea 20. Jerusalem Authority control GND: 4112544-7 VIAF: 240814297 WorldCat Identities: viaf-240814297 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Antioch&oldid=996545597" Categories: History of Antioch Ancient Greek cities in Anatolia Roman towns and cities in Turkey Populated places along the Silk Road Former populated places in Turkey Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Turkey Archaeological sites in Hatay Province Coloniae (Roman) Crusade places Geography of Hatay Province Holy cities New Testament cities Roman sites in Turkey Seleucid colonies in Anatolia Populated places established in the 4th century BC 290s BC establishments Razed cities Hidden categories: Articles containing Koinē Greek-language text Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Latin-language text Articles containing Armenian-language text Articles containing Syriac-language text Articles containing Hebrew-language text Articles containing Arabic-language text Articles containing Persian-language text Articles containing Turkish-language text All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with permanently dead external links Pages with citations lacking titles Wikipedia articles incorporating text from Easton's Bible Dictionary Pages with citations having bare URLs Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles with Ancient Greek-language sources (grc) Coordinates on Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2019 Articles with unsourced statements from December 2018 All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from October 2020 Articles containing potentially dated statements from October 2010 All articles containing potentially dated statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2010 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية ܐܪܡܝܐ Asturianu تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Kiswahili Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu Монгол Nederlands 日本語 Napulitano Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan پنجابی Português Română Русский Scots Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray Wolof 吴语 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 27 December 2020, at 06:36 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-657	----	Ancient Roman architecture - Wikipedia Ancient Roman architecture From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Roman architecture" redirects here. For the architecture of the city, see Architecture of Rome. Ancient architecture This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (November 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Colosseum in Rome, Italy; the classical orders are used, but purely for aesthetic effect. The Castel Sant'Angelo and Ponte Sant'Angelo in Rome, Italy Aqueduct of Segovia in Spain; one of the best preserved Roman aqueducts today. The Maison Carrée at Nîmes in France, one of the best preserved Roman temples. A mid-sized Augustan provincial temple of the Imperial cult. The Alcántara Bridge, Spain, a masterpiece of ancient bridge building The Baths of Diocletian, Rome The Severan Basilica in Leptis Magna The Odeon of Herodes Atticus, a Roman theatre in Athens, Greece Ruin of Forum of Augustus in Rome, Italy Ancient Roman architecture adopted the external language of classical Greek architecture for the purposes of the ancient Romans, but was different from Greek buildings, becoming a new architectural style. The two styles are often considered one body of classical architecture. Roman architecture flourished in the Roman Republic and even more so under the Empire, when the great majority of surviving buildings were constructed. It used new materials, particularly Roman concrete, and newer technologies such as the arch and the dome to make buildings that were typically strong and well-engineered. Large numbers remain in some form across the empire, sometimes complete and still in use to this day. Roman architecture covers the period from the establishment of the Roman Republic in 509 BC to about the 4th century AD, after which it becomes reclassified as Late Antique or Byzantine architecture. Almost no substantial examples survive from before about 100 BC, and most of the major survivals are from the later empire, after about 100 AD. Roman architectural style continued to influence building in the former empire for many centuries, and the style used in Western Europe beginning about 1000 is called Romanesque architecture to reflect this dependence on basic Roman forms. The Romans only began to achieve significant originality in architecture around the beginning of the Imperial period, after they had combined aspects of their original Etruscan architecture with others taken from Greece, including most elements of the style we now call classical architecture. They moved from trabeated construction mostly based on columns and lintels to one based on massive walls, punctuated by arches, and later domes, both of which greatly developed under the Romans. The classical orders now became largely decorative rather than structural, except in colonnades. Stylistic developments included the Tuscan and Composite orders; the first being a shortened, simplified variant on the Doric order and the Composite being a tall order with the floral decoration of the Corinthian and the scrolls of the Ionic. The period from roughly 40 BC to about 230 AD saw most of the greatest achievements, before the Crisis of the Third Century and later troubles reduced the wealth and organizing power of the central government. The Romans produced massive public buildings and works of civil engineering, and were responsible for significant developments in housing and public hygiene, for example their public and private baths and latrines, under-floor heating in the form of the hypocaust, mica glazing (examples in Ostia Antica), and piped hot and cold water (examples in Pompeii and Ostia). Contents 1 Overview 1.1 Origins 1.2 Roman Architectural Revolution 1.3 Domes 2 Influence on later architecture 3 Materials 3.1 Stone 3.2 Roman brick 3.3 Roman concrete 4 City design 5 Building types 5.1 Amphitheatre 5.2 Basilica 5.3 Circus 5.4 Forum 5.5 Horreum 5.6 Insula 5.7 Lighthouses 5.8 Thermae 5.9 Temples 5.10 Theatres 5.11 Villa 5.12 Watermills 6 Decorative structures 6.1 Monoliths 6.2 Obelisks 6.3 Roman gardens 6.4 Triumphal arches 6.5 Victory columns 7 Infrastructure 7.1 Roads 7.2 Aqueduct 7.3 Bridges 7.4 Canals 7.5 Cisterns 7.6 Dams 7.7 Defensive walls 8 Architectural features 8.1 Mosaics 8.2 Hypocaust 8.3 Roman roofs 8.4 Spiral stairs 9 Significant buildings and areas 9.1 Public buildings 9.2 Private architecture 9.3 Civil engineering 9.4 Military engineering 10 See also 11 References 11.1 Footnotes 11.2 Works cited 12 Further reading 13 External links Overview[edit] Despite the technical developments of the Romans, which took their buildings far away from the basic Greek conception where columns were needed to support heavy beams and roofs, they were very reluctant to abandon the classical orders in formal public buildings, even though these had become essentially decorative.[citation needed] However, they did not feel entirely restricted by Greek aesthetic concerns and treated the orders with considerable freedom.[citation needed] Innovation started in the 3rd or 2nd century BC with the development of Roman concrete as a readily available adjunct to, or substitute for, stone and brick. More daring buildings soon followed, with great pillars supporting broad arches and domes. The freedom of concrete also inspired the colonnade screen, a row of purely decorative columns in front of a load-bearing wall. In smaller-scale architecture, concrete's strength freed the floor plan from rectangular cells to a more free-flowing environment. Factors such as wealth and high population densities in cities forced the ancient Romans to discover new architectural solutions of their own. The use of vaults and arches, together with a sound knowledge of building materials, enabled them to achieve unprecedented successes in the construction of imposing infrastructure for public use. Examples include the aqueducts of Rome, the Baths of Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla, the basilicas and Colosseum. These were reproduced at a smaller scale in most important towns and cities in the Empire. Some surviving structures are almost complete, such as the town walls of Lugo in Hispania Tarraconensis, now northern Spain. The administrative structure and wealth of the empire made possible very large projects even in locations remote from the main centers,[1] as did the use of slave labor, both skilled and unskilled. Especially under the empire, architecture often served a political function, demonstrating the power of the Roman state in general, and of specific individuals responsible for building. Roman architecture perhaps reached its peak in the reign of Hadrian, whose many achievements include rebuilding the Pantheon in its current form and leaving his mark on the landscape of northern Britain with Hadrian's Wall. Origins[edit] While borrowing much from the preceding Etruscan architecture, such as the use of hydraulics and the construction of arches, Roman prestige architecture remained firmly under the spell of Ancient Greek architecture and the classical orders.[2] This came initially from Magna Graecia, the Greek colonies in southern Italy, and indirectly from Greek influence on the Etruscans, but after the Roman conquest of Greece directly from the best classical and Hellenistic examples in the Greek world.[citation needed] The influence is evident in many ways; for example, in the introduction and use of the triclinium in Roman villas as a place and manner of dining. Roman builders employed Greeks in many capacities, especially in the great boom in construction in the early Empire.[citation needed] Roman Architectural Revolution[edit] The Roman Pantheon The Roman Architectural Revolution, also known as the Concrete Revolution,[3][4][5] was the widespread use in Roman architecture of the previously little-used architectural forms of the arch, vault, and dome. For the first time in history, their potential was fully exploited in the construction of a wide range of civil engineering structures, public buildings, and military facilities. These included amphitheatres, aqueducts, baths, bridges, circuses, dams, domes, harbours, temples, and theatres. A crucial factor in this development, which saw a trend toward monumental architecture, was the invention of Roman concrete (opus caementicium), which led to the liberation of shapes from the dictates of the traditional materials of stone and brick.[6] These enabled the building of the many aqueducts throughout the empire, such as the Aqueduct of Segovia, the Pont du Gard, and the eleven aqueducts of Rome. The same concepts produced numerous bridges, some of which are still in daily use, for example the Puente Romano at Mérida in Spain, and the Pont Julien and the bridge at Vaison-la-Romaine, both in Provence, France.[citation needed] The dome permitted construction of vaulted ceilings without crossbeams and made possible large covered public space such as public baths and basilicas, such as Hadrian's Pantheon, the Baths of Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla, all in Rome.[citation needed] The Romans first adopted the arch from the Etruscans and implemented it in their own building.[7] The use of arches that spring directly from the tops of columns was a Roman development, seen from the 1st century AD, that was very widely adopted in medieval Western, Byzantine and Islamic architecture.[citation needed] Domes[edit] Main article: History of Roman and Byzantine domes Further information: List of Roman domes Dome of the Pantheon, inner view The Romans were the first builders in the history of architecture to realize the potential of domes for the creation of large and well-defined interior spaces.[8] Domes were introduced in a number of Roman building types such as temples, thermae, palaces, mausolea and later also churches. Half-domes also became a favoured architectural element and were adopted as apses in Christian sacred architecture. Monumental domes began to appear in the 1st century BC in Rome and the provinces around the Mediterranean Sea. Along with vaults, they gradually replaced the traditional post and lintel construction which makes use of the column and architrave. The construction of domes was greatly facilitated by the invention of concrete, a process which has been termed the Roman Architectural Revolution.[9] Their enormous dimensions remained unsurpassed until the introduction of structural steel frames in the late 19th century (see List of the world's largest domes).[8][10][11] Influence on later architecture[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Roman architecture supplied the basic vocabulary of Pre-Romanesque and Romanesque architecture, and spread across Christian Europe well beyond the old frontiers of the empire, to Ireland and Scandinavia for example. In the East, Byzantine architecture developed new styles of churches, but most other buildings remained very close to Late Roman forms. The same can be said in turn of Islamic architecture, where Roman forms long continued, especially in private buildings such as houses and the Turkish bath, and civil engineering such as fortifications and bridges. Palladian Stowe House, by William Kent In Europe the Italian Renaissance saw a conscious revival of correct classical styles, initially purely based on Roman examples. Vitruvius was respectfully reinterpreted by a series of architectural writers, and the Tuscan and Composite orders formalized for the first time, to give five rather than three orders. After the flamboyance of Baroque architecture, the Neoclassical architecture of the 18th century revived purer versions of classical style, and for the first time added direct influence from the Greek world. Numerous local classical styles developed, such as Palladian architecture, Georgian architecture and Regency architecture in the English-speaking world, Federal architecture in the United States, and later Stripped Classicism and PWA Moderne. Roman influences may be found around us today, in banks, government buildings, great houses, and even small houses, perhaps in the form of a porch with Doric columns and a pediment or in a fireplace or a mosaic shower floor derived from a Roman original, often from Pompeii or Herculaneum. The mighty pillars, domes and arches of Rome echo in the New World too, where in Washington, D.C. stand the Capitol building, the White House, the Lincoln Memorial, and other government buildings. All across the US the seats of regional government were normally built in the grand traditions of Rome, with vast flights of stone steps sweeping up to towering pillared porticoes, with huge domes gilded or decorated inside with the same or similar themes that were popular in Rome. In Britain, a similar enthusiasm has seen the construction of thousands of neoclassical buildings over the last five centuries, both civic and domestic, and many of the grandest country houses and mansions are purely Classical in style, an obvious example being Buckingham Palace. Materials[edit] Frigidarium of Baths of Diocletian, today Santa Maria degli Angeli Stone[edit] Marble is not found especially close to Rome, and was only rarely used there before Augustus, who famously boasted that he had found Rome made of brick and left it made of marble, though this was mainly as a facing for brick or concrete. The Temple of Hercules Victor of the late 2nd century BC is the earliest surviving exception in Rome. From Augustus' reign the quarries at Carrara were extensively developed for the capital, and other sources around the empire exploited,[12] especially the prestigious Greek marbles like Parian. Travertine limestone was found much closer, around Tivoli, and was used from the end of the Republic; the Colosseum is mainly built of this stone, which has good load-bearing capacity, with a brick core.[13] Other more or less local stones were used around the empire.[14] The Romans were extremely fond of luxury imported coloured marbles with fancy veining, and the interiors of the most important buildings were very often faced with slabs of these, which have usually now been removed even where the building survives. Imports from Greece for this purpose began in the 2nd century BC.[15] Roman brick[edit] Close-up view of the wall of the Roman shore fort at Burgh Castle, Norfolk, showing alternating courses of flint and brickwork. Main article: Roman brick The Romans made fired clay bricks from about the beginning of the Empire, replacing earlier sun-dried mud-brick. Roman brick was almost invariably of a lesser height than modern brick, but was made in a variety of different shapes and sizes.[16] Shapes included square, rectangular, triangular and round, and the largest bricks found have measured over three feet in length.[17] Ancient Roman bricks had a general size of 1½ Roman feet by 1 Roman foot, but common variations up to 15 inches existed. Other brick sizes in ancient Rome included 24" x 12" x 4", and 15" x 8" x 10". Ancient Roman bricks found in France measured 8" x 8" x 3". The Constantine Basilica in Trier is constructed from Roman bricks 15" square by 1½" thick.[18] There is often little obvious difference (particularly when only fragments survive) between Roman bricks used for walls on the one hand, and tiles used for roofing or flooring on the other, so archaeologists sometimes prefer to employ the generic term ceramic building material (or CBM). The St. George Rotunda (4th century) and remains of Serdica, Sofia, Bulgaria The Romans perfected brick-making during the first century of their empire and used it ubiquitously, in public and private construction alike. The Romans took their brickmaking skills everywhere they went, introducing the craft to the local populations.[18] The Roman legions, which operated their own kilns, introduced bricks to many parts of the empire; bricks are often stamped with the mark of the legion that supervised their production. The use of bricks in southern and western Germany, for example, can be traced back to traditions already described by the Roman architect Vitruvius. In the British Isles, the introduction of Roman brick by the ancient Romans was followed by a 600–700 year gap in major brick production. Roman concrete[edit] Example of opus caementicium on a tomb on the ancient Appian Way in Rome. The original covering has been removed. Main article: Roman concrete Concrete quickly supplanted brick as the primary building material,[citation needed] and more daring buildings soon followed, with great pillars supporting broad arches and domes rather than dense lines of columns suspending flat architraves. The freedom of concrete also inspired the colonnade screen, a row of purely decorative columns in front of a load-bearing wall. In smaller-scale architecture, concrete's strength freed the floor plan from rectangular cells to a more free-flowing environment.[citation needed] Most of these developments are described by Vitruvius, writing in the first century BC in his work De architectura. Although concrete had been used on a minor scale in Mesopotamia, Roman architects perfected Roman concrete and used it in buildings where it could stand on its own and support a great deal of weight. The first use of concrete by the Romans was in the town of Cosa sometime after 273 BC. Ancient Roman concrete was a mixture of lime mortar, aggregate, pozzolana, water, and stones, and was stronger than previously-used concretes. The ancient builders placed these ingredients in wooden frames where they hardened and bonded to a facing of stones or (more frequently) bricks. The aggregates used were often much larger than in modern concrete, amounting to rubble. When the framework was removed, the new wall was very strong, with a rough surface of bricks or stones. This surface could be smoothed and faced with an attractive stucco or thin panels of marble or other coloured stones called a "revetment". Concrete construction proved to be more flexible and less costly than building solid stone buildings. The materials were readily available and not difficult to transport. The wooden frames could be used more than once, allowing builders to work quickly and efficiently. Concrete is arguably the Roman contribution most relevant to modern architecture. City design[edit] Further information: Centuriation, Decumanus Maximus, and Cardo The Temple of Claudius to the south (left) of the Colosseum (model of Imperial Rome at the Museo della civiltà romana in Rome) Model of the 1st century Philippopolis (Plovdiv, Bulgaria) in the Roman period created by arch. Matey Mateev The ancient Romans employed regular orthogonal structures on which they molded their colonies.[19][20][21] They probably were inspired by Greek and Hellenic examples, as well as by regularly planned cities that were built by the Etruscans in Italy.[22] (see Marzabotto) The Romans used a consolidated scheme for city planning, developed for military defense and civil convenience. The basic plan consisted of a central forum with city services, surrounded by a compact, rectilinear grid of streets, and wrapped in a wall for defense. To reduce travel times, two diagonal streets crossed the square grid, passing through the central square. A river usually flowed through the city, providing water, transport, and sewage disposal.[23] Hundreds of towns and cities were built by the Romans throughout their empire. Many European towns, such as Turin, preserve the remains of these schemes, which show the very logical way the Romans designed their cities. They would lay out the streets at right angles, in the form of a square grid. All roads were equal in width and length, except for two, which were slightly wider than the others. One of these ran east–west, the other, north–south, and they intersected in the middle to form the center of the grid. All roads were made of carefully fitted flag stones and filled in with smaller, hard-packed rocks and pebbles. Bridges were constructed where needed. Each square marked off by four roads was called an insula, the Roman equivalent of a modern city block. Each insula was 80 yards (73 m) square, with the land within it divided. As the city developed, each insula would eventually be filled with buildings of various shapes and sizes and crisscrossed with back roads and alleys. Most insulae were given to the first settlers of a Roman city, but each person had to pay to construct his own house. The city was surrounded by a wall to protect it from invaders and to mark the city limits. Areas outside city limits were left open as farmland. At the end of each main road was a large gateway with watchtowers. A portcullis covered the opening when the city was under siege, and additional watchtowers were constructed along the city walls. An aqueduct was built outside the city walls. The development of Greek and Roman urbanization is relatively well-known, as there are relatively many written sources, and there has been much attention to the subject, since the Romans and Greeks are generally regarded as the main ancestors of modern Western culture. It should not be forgotten, though, that the Etruscans had many considerable towns and there were also other cultures with more or less urban settlements in Europe, primarily of Celtic origin.[24] Building types[edit] Amphitheatre[edit] Main article: Roman amphitheatre Further information: List of Roman amphitheatres The amphitheatre was, with the triumphal arch and basilica, the only major new type of building developed by the Romans.[25] Some of the most impressive secular buildings are the amphitheatres, over 200 being known and many of which are well preserved, such as that at Arles, as well as its progenitor, the Colosseum in Rome. They were used for gladiatorial contests, public displays, public meetings and bullfights, the tradition of which still survives in Spain and Portugal. Their typical shape, functions and name distinguish them from Roman theatres, which are more or less semicircular in shape; from the circuses (akin to hippodromes) whose much longer circuits were designed mainly for horse or chariot racing events; and from the smaller stadia, which were primarily designed for athletics and footraces.[26] The Amphitheatre of Pompeii, built around 70 BC and buried by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius 79 AD, once hosted spectacles with gladiators The earliest Roman amphitheatres date from the middle of the first century BC, but most were built under Imperial rule, from the Augustan period (27 BC–14 AD) onwards.[27] Imperial amphitheatres were built throughout the Roman empire; the largest could accommodate 40,000–60,000 spectators, and the most elaborate featured multi-storeyed, arcaded façades and were elaborately decorated with marble, stucco and statuary.[28] After the end of gladiatorial games in the 5th century and of animal killings in the 6th, most amphitheatres fell into disrepair, and their materials were mined or recycled. Some were razed, and others converted into fortifications. A few continued as convenient open meeting places; in some of these, churches were sited.[29] Architecturally, they are typically an example of the Roman use of the classical orders to decorate large concrete walls pierced at intervals, where the columns have nothing to support. Aesthetically, however, the formula is successful. Basilica[edit] Northern aisle of the Basilica of Maxentius in Rome The Aula Palatina of Trier, Germany (then part of the Roman province of Gallia Belgica), built during the reign of Constantine I (r. 306–337 AD) The Roman basilica was a large public building where business or legal matters could be transacted. They were normally where the magistrates held court, and used for other official ceremonies, having many of the functions of the modern town hall. The first basilicas had no religious function at all. As early as the time of Augustus, a public basilica for transacting business had been part of any settlement that considered itself a city, used in the same way as the late medieval covered market houses of northern Europe, where the meeting room, for lack of urban space, was set above the arcades, however. Although their form was variable, basilicas often contained interior colonnades that divided the space, giving aisles or arcaded spaces on one or both sides, with an apse at one end (or less often at each end), where the magistrates sat, often on a slightly raised dais. The central aisle tended to be wide and was higher than the flanking aisles, so that light could penetrate through the clerestory windows. The oldest known basilica, the Basilica Porcia, was built in Rome in 184 BC by Cato the Elder during the time he was Censor. Other early examples include the basilica at Pompeii (late 2nd century BC). After Christianity became the official religion, the basilica shape was found appropriate for the first large public churches, with the attraction of avoiding reminiscences of the Greco-Roman temple form. Circus[edit] The Roman circus was a large open-air venue used for public events in the ancient Roman Empire. The circuses were similar to the ancient Greek hippodromes, although circuses served varying purposes and differed in design and construction. Along with theatres and amphitheatres, Circuses were one of the main entertainment sites of the time. Circuses were venues for chariot races, horse races, and performances that commemorated important events of the empire were performed there. For events that involved re-enactments of naval battles, the circus was flooded with water. The performance space of the Roman circus was normally, despite its name, an oblong rectangle of two linear sections of race track, separated by a median strip running along the length of about two thirds the track, joined at one end with a semicircular section and at the other end with an undivided section of track closed (in most cases) by a distinctive starting gate known as the carceres, thereby creating a circuit for the races. Forum[edit] Further information: Roman Forum and List of monuments of the Roman Forum The Roman Forum A forum was a central public open space in a Roman municipium, or any civitas, primarily used as a marketplace, along with the buildings used for shops and the stoas used for open stalls. Other large public buildings were often sited at the edges or close by. Many forums were constructed at remote locations along a road by the magistrate responsible for the road, in which case the forum was the only settlement at the site and had its own name, such as Forum Popili or Forum Livi.[30] During the years of the Republic, Augustus claimed he "found the city in brick and left it in marble".[31] While chances are high that this was an exaggeration, there is something to be said for the influx of marble use in Roman Forum from 63 BC onwards. During Augustus reign, the Forum was described to have been "a larger, freer space than was the Forum of imperial times."[32] The Forum began to take on even more changes upon the arrival of Julius Casear who drew out extensive plans for the market hub. While Casear's death came prematurely, the ideas himself, as well as Augustus had in regards to the Forum proved to be the most influential for years to come. According to Walter Dennison's The Roman Forum As Cicero Saw It, the author writes that "the diverting of public business to the larger and splendid imperial fora erected in the vicinity resulted in leaving the general design of the Forum Romanum".[32] Every city had at least one forum of varying size. In addition to its standard function as a marketplace, a forum was a gathering place of great social significance, and often the scene of diverse activities, including political discussions and debates, rendezvous, meetings, etc. Much the best known example is the Roman Forum, the earliest of several in Rome. In new Roman towns the forum was usually located at, or just off, the intersection of the main north–south and east–west streets (the cardo and decumanus). All forums would have a Temple of Jupiter at the north end, and would also contain other temples, as well as the basilica; a public weights and measures table, so customers at the market could ensure they were not being sold short measures; and would often have the baths nearby. A panoramic view of the Forum Trajanum, with the Trajan's Column on the far left. Horreum[edit] A horreum was a type of public warehouse used during the ancient Roman period. Although the Latin term is often used to refer to granaries, Roman horrea were used to store many other types of consumables; the giant Horrea Galbae in Rome were used not only to store grain but also olive oil, wine, foodstuffs, clothing and even marble.[33] By the end of the imperial period, the city of Rome had nearly 300 horrea to supply its demands.[34] The biggest were enormous, even by modern standards; the Horrea Galbae contained 140 rooms on the ground floor alone, covering an area of some 225,000 square feet (21,000 m2).[35] The Horrea Epagathiana et Epaphroditiana, a horreum in Ostia (Rome), Italy, built c. 145–150 AD The first horrea were built in Rome towards the end of the 2nd century BC,[36] with the first known public horreum being constructed by the ill-fated tribune, Gaius Gracchus in 123 BC.[37] The word came to be applied to any place designated for the preservation of goods; thus it was often used refer to cellars (horrea subterranea), but it could also be applied to a place where artworks were stored,[38] or even to a library.[39] Some public horrea functioned somewhat like banks, where valuables could be stored, but the most important class of horrea were those where foodstuffs such as grain and olive oil were stored and distributed by the state.[40] The word itself is thought to have linguist roots tied to the word hordeum which in Latin means 'barley'.[41] In the Johns Hopkins University Press, The Classical Weekly states that "Pliny the Elder does indeed make a distinction between the two words. He describes the horreum as a structure made of brick, the walls of which were not less than three feet thick; it had no windows or openings for ventilation".[42] Furthermore, the storehouses would also host oil and wine and also utilize large jars that could serve as cache's for large amounts of products. These storehouses were also used to house keep large sums of money and were used much like personal storage units today are. Romans were "These horrea were divided and subdivided, so that one could hire only so much space as one wanted, a whole room (cella), a closet (armarium), or only a chest or strong box (arca, arcula, locus, loculus)."[42] Insula[edit] Main article: Insula (building) Insula in Ostia Antica Multi-story apartment blocks called insulae catered to a range of residential needs. The cheapest rooms were at the top owing to the inability to escape in the event of a fire and the lack of piped water. Windows were mostly small, facing the street, with iron security bars. Insulae were often dangerous, unhealthy, and prone to fires because of overcrowding and haphazard cooking arrangements.[citation needed] There are examples in the Roman port town of Ostia, that date back to the reign of Trajan, but they seem to have been found only in Rome and a few other places. Elsewhere writers report them as something remarkable, but Livy and Vituvius refer to them in Rome.[43] External walls were in "Opus Reticulatum" and interiors in "Opus Incertum", which would then be plastered and sometimes painted. To lighten up the small dark rooms, tenants able to afford a degree of painted colourful murals on the walls. Examples have been found of jungle scenes with wild animals and exotic plants. Imitation windows (trompe-l'œil) were sometimes painted to make the rooms seem less confined. Ancient Rome had elaborate and luxurious houses owned by the elite. The average house, or in cities apartment, of a commoner or plebe did not contain many luxuries. The domus, or single-family residence, was only for the well-off in Rome, with most having a layout of the closed unit, consisting of one or two rooms. Between 312 and 315 A.D. Rome had 1781 domus and 44,850 of insulae.[44] Insulae have been the subject of great debate for historians of Roman culture, defining the various meanings of the word.[45] Insula was a word used to describe apartment buildings, or the apartments themselves,[46] meaning apartment, or inhabitable room, demonstrating just how small apartments for Plebes were. Urban divisions were originally street blocks, and later began to divide into smaller divisions, the word insula referring to both blocks and smaller divisions. The insula contained cenacula, tabernae, storage rooms under the stairs, and lower floor shops. Another type of housing unit for Plebes was a cenaculum, an apartment, divided into three individual rooms: cubiculum, exedra, and medianum. Common Roman apartments were mainly masses of smaller and larger structures, many with narrow balconies that present mysteries as to their use, having no doors to access them, and they lacked the excessive decoration and display of wealth that aristocrats’ houses contained. Luxury in houses was not common, as the life of the average person did not consist of being in their houses, as they instead would go to public baths, and engage in other communal activities. The Tower of Hercules, a Roman lighthouse in Spain Lighthouses[edit] Main article: Roman lighthouse Many lighthouses were built around the Mediterranean and the coasts of the empire, including the Tower of Hercules at A Coruña in northern Spain, a structure which survives to this day. A smaller lighthouse at Dover, England also exists as a ruin about half the height of the original. The light would have been provided by a fire at the top of the structure. Thermae[edit] Main article: Thermae Further information: List of Roman public baths All Roman cities had at least one thermae, a popular facility for public bathing, exercising and socializing. Exercise might include wrestling and weight-lifting, as well as swimming. Bathing was an important part of the Roman day, where some hours might be spent, at a very low cost subsidized by the government. Wealthier Romans were often accompanied by one or more slaves, who performed any required tasks such as fetching refreshment, guarding valuables, providing towels, and at the end of the session, applying olive oil to their masters' bodies which was then scraped off with a strigil, a scraper made of wood or bone. Romans did not wash with soap and water as we do now. Roman bath-houses were also provided for private villas, town houses and forts. They were normally supplied with water from an adjacent river or stream, or by aqueduct. The design of thermae is discussed by Vitruvius in De architectura. Temples[edit] Main article: Roman temple Further information: List of Ancient Roman temples "Roman Baroque" Temple of Bacchus at Baalbek, Lebanon Roman temples were among the most important and richest buildings in Roman culture, though only a few survive in any sort of complete state. Their construction and maintenance was a major part of ancient Roman religion, and all towns of any importance had at least one main temple, as well as smaller shrines. The main room (cella) housed the cult image of the deity to whom the temple was dedicated, and often a small altar for incense or libations. Behind the cella was a room or rooms used by temple attendants for storage of equipment and offerings. Some remains of many Roman temples survive, above all in Rome itself, but the relatively few near-complete examples were nearly all converted to Christian churches (and sometimes subsequently to mosques), usually a considerable time after the initial triumph of Christianity under Constantine. The decline of Roman religion was relatively slow, and the temples themselves were not appropriated by the government until a decree of the Emperor Honorius in 415. Some of the oldest surviving temples include the Temple of Hercules Victor (mid 2nd century BC) and Temple of Portunus (120–80 BC), both standing within the Forum Boarium. The Temple of Hercules Victor, Rome, built in the mid-2nd century BC, most likely by Lucius Mummius Achaicus, who won the Achaean War. The form of the Roman temple was mainly derived from the Etruscan model, but using Greek styles[citation needed]. Roman temples emphasised the front of the building, which followed Greek temple models and typically consisted of wide steps leading to a portico with columns, a pronaos, and usually a triangular pediment above, which was filled with statuary in the most grand examples; this was as often in terracotta as stone, and no examples have survived except as fragments. However, unlike the Greek models, which generally gave equal treatment to all sides of the temple, which could be viewed and approached from all directions, the sides and rear of Roman temples might be largely undecorated (as in the Pantheon, Rome and Vic), inaccessible by steps (as in the Maison Carrée and Vic), and even back on to other buildings. As in the Maison Carrée, columns at the side might be half-columns, emerging from ("engaged with" in architectural terminology) the wall.[47] The platform on which the temple sat was typically raised higher in Roman examples than Greek, with up ten or twelve or more steps rather than the three typical in Greek temples; the Temple of Claudius was raised twenty steps. These steps were normally only at the front, and typically not the whole width of that. The Temple of Portunus, god of grain storage, keys, livestock and ports.[48] Rome, built between 120 and 80 BC The Greek classical orders in all their details were closely followed in the façades of temples, as in other prestigious buildings. However the idealized proportions between the different elements set out by the only significant Roman writer on architecture to survive, Vitruvius, and subsequent Italian Renaissance writers, do not reflect actual Roman practice, which could be very variable, though always aiming at balance and harmony. Following a Hellenistic trend, the Corinthian order and its variant the Composite order were most common in surviving Roman temples, but for small temples like that at Alcántara, a simple Tuscan order could be used.[49] There was considerable local variation in style, as Roman architects often tried to incorporate elements the population expected in its sacred architecture. This was especially the case in Egypt and the Near East, where different traditions of large stone temples were already millennia old. The Romano-Celtic temple was a simple style for small temples found in the Western Empire, and by far the most common type in Roman Britain. It often lacked any of the distinctive classical features, and may have had considerable continuity with pre-Roman temples of the Celtic religion. Theatres[edit] Roman Theatre (Mérida), Spain Roman theatres were built in all areas of the empire from Spain, to the Middle East. Because of the Romans' ability to influence local architecture, we see numerous theatres around the world with uniquely Roman attributes.[50] These buildings were semi-circular and possessed certain inherent architectural structures, with minor differences depending on the region in which they were constructed. The scaenae frons was a high back wall of the stage floor, supported by columns. The proscaenium was a wall that supported the front edge of the stage with ornately decorated niches off to the sides. The Hellenistic influence is seen through the use of the proscaenium. The Roman theatre also had a podium, which sometimes supported the columns of the scaenae frons. The scaenae was originally not part of the building itself, constructed only to provide sufficient background for the actors. Eventually, it became a part of the edifice itself, made out of concrete. The theatre itself was divided into the stage (orchestra) and the seating section (auditorium). Vomitoria or entrances and exits were made available to the audience.[51] Villa[edit] Villa of the Mysteries just outside Pompeii, seen from above Main article: Roman villa See also: Villa rustica, List of Roman villas in England, and List of Roman villas in Belgium A Roman villa was a country house built for the upper class, while a domus was a wealthy family's house in a town. The Empire contained many kinds of villas, not all of them lavishly appointed with mosaic floors and frescoes. In the provinces, any country house with some decorative features in the Roman style may be called a "villa" by modern scholars.[52] Some, like Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli, were pleasure palaces such as those that were situated in the cool hills within easy reach of Rome or, like the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum, on picturesque sites overlooking the Bay of Naples. Some villas were more like the country houses of England or Poland, the visible seat of power of a local magnate, such as the famous palace rediscovered at Fishbourne in Sussex. Suburban villas on the edge of cities were also known, such as the Middle and Late Republican villas that encroached on the Campus Martius, at that time on the edge of Rome, and which can be also seen outside the city walls of Pompeii, including the Villa of the Mysteries, famous for its frescos. These early suburban villas, such as the one at Rome's Auditorium site[53] or at Grottarossa in Rome, demonstrate the antiquity and heritage of the villa suburbana in Central Italy. It is possible that these early, suburban villas were also in fact the seats of power (maybe even palaces) of regional strongmen or heads of important families (gentes). A third type of villa provided the organizational center of the large farming estates called latifundia; such villas might be lacking in luxuries. By the 4th century, villa could simply mean an agricultural estate or holding: Jerome translated the Gospel of Mark (xiv, 32) chorion, describing the olive grove of Gethsemane, with villa, without an inference that there were any dwellings there at all (Catholic Encyclopedia "Gethsemane"). With the colossal Diocletian's Palace, built in the countryside but later turned into a fortified city, a form of residential castle emerges, that anticipates the Middle Ages. Watermills[edit] Further information: List of ancient watermills The initial invention of the watermill appears to have occurred in the hellenized eastern Mediterranean in the wake of the conquests of Alexander the Great and the rise of Hellenistic science and technology.[54][55][56] In the subsequent Roman era, the use of water-power was diversified and different types of watermills were introduced. These include all three variants of the vertical water wheel as well as the horizontal water wheel.[57][58] Apart from its main use in grinding flour, water-power was also applied to pounding grain,[59][60][61] crushing ore,[62] sawing stones[63] and possibly fulling and bellows for iron furnaces.[64] Decorative structures[edit] Monoliths[edit] Further information: List of ancient Greek and Roman monoliths The capital of Trajan's Column, Rome In architecture, a monolith is a structure which has been excavated as a unit from a surrounding matrix or outcropping of rock.[65] Monoliths are found in all types of Roman buildings. They were either: quarried without being moved; or quarried and moved; or quarried, moved and lifted clear off the ground into their position (e.g. architraves); or quarried, moved and erected in an upright position (e.g. columns). Transporting was done by land or water (or a combination of both), in the later case often by special-built ships such as obelisk carriers.[66] For lifting operations, ancient cranes were employed since c. 515 BC,[67] such as in the construction of Trajan's Column.[68] Obelisks[edit] Further information: List of obelisks in Rome An obelisk is a tall, four-sided, narrow tapering monument which ends in a pyramid-like shape at the top. These were originally called "tekhenu" by the builders, the ancient Egyptians. The Greeks who saw them used the Greek 'obeliskos' to describe them, and this word passed into Latin and then English.[69] The Romans commissioned obelisks in an ancient Egyptian style. Examples include: Arles, France – the Arles Obelisk, in Place de la République, a 4th-century obelisk of Roman origin Benevento, Italy – three Roman obelisks[70][71] Munich – obelisk of Titus Sextius Africanus, Staatliches Museum Ägyptischer Kunst, Kunstareal, 1st century AD, 5.80 m Rome – there are five ancient Roman obelisks in Rome. Roman gardens[edit] Gardens in Conimbriga, Portugal Roman gardens were influenced by Egyptian, Persian, and Greek gardening techniques[citation needed]. In Ancient Latium, a garden was part of every farm. According to Cato the Elder, every garden should be close to the house and should have flower beds and ornamental trees.[72] Horace wrote that during his time flower gardens became a national indulgence.[73] Gardens were not reserved for the extremely wealthy. Excavations in Pompeii show that gardens attaching to residences were scaled down to meet the space constraints of the home of the average Roman. Modified versions of Roman garden designs were adopted in Roman settlements in Africa, Gaul, and Britannia. As town houses were replaced by tall insula (apartment buildings), these urban gardens were replaced by window boxes or roof gardens.[citation needed] Triumphal arches[edit] Further information: List of Roman triumphal arches A triumphal arch is a monumental structure in the shape of an archway with one or more arched passageways, often designed to span a road. The origins of the Roman triumphal arch are unclear. There were precursors to the triumphal arch within the Roman world; in Italy, the Etruscans used elaborately decorated single bay arches as gates or portals to their cities. Surviving examples of Etruscan arches can still be seen at Perugia and Volterra.[74] The two key elements of the triumphal arch – a round-topped arch and a square entablature – had long been in use as separate architectural elements in ancient Greece. The Arch of Titus in Rome, an early Roman imperial triumphal arch with a single archway The innovation of the Romans was to use these elements in a single free-standing structure. The columns became purely decorative elements on the outer face of arch, while the entablature, liberated from its role as a building support, became the frame for the civic and religious messages that the arch builders wished to convey.[75] Little is known about how the Romans viewed triumphal arches. Pliny the Elder, writing in the first century AD, was the only ancient author to discuss them.[76] He wrote that they were intended to "elevate above the ordinary world" an image of an honoured person usually depicted in the form of a statue with a quadriga.[76] The first recorded Roman triumphal arches were set up in the time of the Roman Republic.[77] Generals who were granted a triumph were termed triumphators and would erect fornices or honorific arches bearing statues to commemorate their victories.[78] Roman triumphal practices changed significantly at the start of the imperial period when the first Roman Emperor Augustus decreed that only emperors would be granted triumphs. The triumphal arch changed from being a personal monument to being an essentially propagandistic one, serving to announce and promote the presence of the ruler and the laws of the state.[74] Arches were not necessarily built as entrances, but – unlike many modern triumphal arches – they were often erected across roads and were intended to be passed through, not round.[79] The Arch of Augustus in Rimini (Ariminum), dedicated to Augustus by the Roman Senate in 27 BC, the oldest surviving Roman triumphal arch Most Roman triumphal arches were built during the imperial period. By the fourth century AD there were 36 such arches in Rome, of which three have survived – the Arch of Titus (AD 81), the Arch of Septimius Severus (203–205) and the Arch of Constantine (312). Numerous arches were built elsewhere in the Roman Empire.[77] The single arch was the most common, but many triple arches were also built, of which the Triumphal Arch of Orange (c. AD 21) is the earliest surviving example. From the 2nd century AD, many examples of the arcus quadrifrons – a square triumphal arch erected over a crossroads, with arched openings on all four sides – were built, especially in North Africa. Arch-building in Rome and Italy diminished after the time of Trajan (AD 98–117) but remained widespread in the provinces during the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD; they were often erected to commemorate imperial visits.[78] The ornamentation of an arch was intended to serve as a constant visual reminder of the triumph and triumphator. The façade was ornamented with marble columns, and the piers and attics with decorative cornices. Sculpted panels depicted victories and achievements, the deeds of the triumphator, the captured weapons of the enemy or the triumphal procession itself. The spandrels usually depicted flying Victories, while the attic was often inscribed with a dedicatory inscription naming and praising the triumphator. The piers and internal passageways were also decorated with reliefs and free-standing sculptures. The vault was ornamented with coffers. Some triumphal arches were surmounted by a statue or a currus triumphalis, a group of statues depicting the emperor or general in a quadriga.[74][78] Inscriptions on Roman triumphal arches were works of art in themselves, with very finely cut, sometimes gilded letters. The form of each letter and the spacing between them was carefully designed for maximum clarity and simplicity, without any decorative flourishes, emphasizing the Roman taste for restraint and order. This conception of what later became the art of typography remains of fundamental importance down to the present day.[79] Victory columns[edit] Further information: List of Roman victory columns Infrastructure[edit] Roads[edit] Via Appia antica Roman roads were vital to the maintenance and development of the Roman state, and were built from about 500 BC through the expansion and consolidation of the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire.[80] They provided efficient means for the overland movement of armies, officials and civilians, and the inland carriage of official communications and trade goods.[81] At the peak of Rome's development, no fewer than 29 great military highways radiated from the capital, and the Late Empire's 113 provinces were interconnected by 372 great road links.[82][83] Roman road builders aimed at a regulation width (see Laws and standards above), but actual widths have been measured at between 3.6 ft (1.1 m) and more than 23 ft (7.0 m). Today, the concrete has worn from the spaces around the stones, giving the impression of a very bumpy road, but the original practice was to produce a surface that was no doubt much closer to being flat. Aqueduct[edit] Main article: Roman aqueduct Further information: List of aqueducts in the Roman Empire The Pont du Gard, near Vers-Pont-du-Gard, France The Romans constructed numerous aqueducts in order to bring water from distant sources into their cities and towns, supplying public baths, latrines, fountains and private households. Waste water was removed by complex sewage systems and released into nearby bodies of water, keeping the towns clean and free from effluent. Aqueducts also provided water for mining operations, milling, farms and gardens. Aqueducts moved water through gravity alone, being constructed along a slight downward gradient within conduits of stone, brick or concrete. Most were buried beneath the ground, and followed its contours; obstructing peaks were circumvented or, less often, tunnelled through. Where valleys or lowlands intervened, the conduit was carried on bridgework, or its contents fed into high-pressure lead, ceramic or stone pipes and siphoned across. Most aqueduct systems included sedimentation tanks, sluices and distribution tanks to regulate the supply at need. Rome's first aqueduct supplied a water-fountain sited at the city's cattle market. By the third century AD, the city had eleven aqueducts, sustaining a population of over a million in a water-extravagant economy; most of the water supplied the city's many public baths. Cities and municipalities throughout the Roman Empire emulated this model, and funded aqueducts as objects of public interest and civic pride, "an expensive yet necessary luxury to which all could, and did, aspire."[84] Most Roman aqueducts proved reliable, and durable; some were maintained into the early modern era, and a few are still partly in use. Methods of aqueduct surveying and construction are noted by Vitruvius in his work De Architectura (1st century BC). The general Frontinus gives more detail in his official report on the problems, uses and abuses of Imperial Rome's public water supply. Notable examples of aqueduct architecture include the supporting piers of the Aqueduct of Segovia, and the aqueduct-fed cisterns of Constantinople. Bridges[edit] Main article: Roman bridge Further information: List of Roman bridges Roman bridges, built by ancient Romans, were the first large and lasting bridges built.[85] Roman bridges were built with stone and had the arch as the basic structure (see arch bridge). Most utilized concrete as well, which the Romans were the first to use for bridges. Puente Romano over the Guadiana River at Mérida, Spain Roman arch bridges were usually semicircular, although a few were segmental (such as Alconétar Bridge). A segmental arch is an arch that is less than a semicircle.[86] The advantages of the segmental arch bridge were that it allowed great amounts of flood water to pass under it, which would prevent the bridge from being swept away during floods and the bridge itself could be more lightweight. Generally, Roman bridges featured wedge-shaped primary arch stones (voussoirs) of the same in size and shape. The Romans built both single spans and lengthy multiple arch aqueducts, such as the Pont du Gard and Segovia Aqueduct. Their bridges featured from an early time onwards flood openings in the piers, e.g. in the Pons Fabricius in Rome (62 BC), one of the world's oldest major bridges still standing. Roman engineers were the first and until the industrial revolution the only ones to construct bridges with concrete, which they called Opus caementicium. The outside was usually covered with brick or ashlar, as in the Alcántara bridge. The Romans also introduced segmental arch bridges into bridge construction. The 330 m long Limyra Bridge in southwestern Turkey features 26 segmental arches with an average span-to-rise ratio of 5.3:1,[87] giving the bridge an unusually flat profile unsurpassed for more than a millennium. Trajan's bridge over the Danube featured open-spandrel segmental arches made of wood (standing on 40 m high concrete piers). This was to be the longest arch bridge for a thousand years both in terms of overall and individual span length, while the longest extant Roman bridge is the 790 m long Puente Romano at Mérida. Canals[edit] Further information: List of Roman canals Roman canals were typically multi-purpose structures, intended for irrigation, drainage, land reclamation, flood control and navigation where feasible. Some navigational canals were recorded by ancient geographers and are still traceable by modern archaeology. Channels which served the needs of urban water supply are covered at the List of aqueducts in the Roman Empire. Cisterns[edit] Further information: List of Roman cisterns The Basilica Cistern in Constantinople provided water for the Imperial Palace. Freshwater reservoirs were commonly set up at the termini of aqueducts and their branch lines, supplying urban households, agricultural estates, imperial palaces, thermae or naval bases of the Roman navy.[88] Dams[edit] Further information: List of Roman dams and reservoirs Roman dam construction began in earnest in the early imperial period.[89] For the most part, it concentrated on the semi-arid fringe of the empire, namely the provinces of North Africa, the Near East, and Hispania.[90][91][92] The relative abundance of Spanish dams below is due partly to more intensive field work there; for Italy only the Subiaco Dams, created by emperor Nero (54–68 AD) for recreational purposes, are attested.[93][89] These dams are noteworthy, though, for their extraordinary height, which remained unsurpassed anywhere in the world until the Late Middle Ages.[89] The most frequent dam types were earth- or rock-filled embankment dams and masonry gravity dams.[94] These served a wide array of purposes, such as irrigation, flood control, river diversion, soil-retention, or a combination of these functions.[95] The impermeability of Roman dams was increased by the introduction of waterproof hydraulic mortar and especially opus caementicium in the Concrete Revolution. These materials also allowed for bigger structures to be built,[96] like the Lake Homs Dam, possibly the largest water barrier today,[97] and the sturdy Harbaqa Dam, both of which consist of a concrete core. Roman builders were the first to realize the stabilizing effect of arches and buttresses, which they integrated into their dam designs. Previously unknown dam types introduced by the Romans include arch-gravity dams,[92][98] arch dams,;[99][100][101][102][103] buttress dams,[104] and multiple-arch buttress dams.[105][106][98][107] Defensive walls[edit] Main article: Ancient Roman defensive walls Roman walls of Lugo, Spain The Romans generally fortified cities rather than fortresses, but there are some fortified camps such as the Saxon Shore forts like Porchester Castle in England. City walls were already significant in Etruscan architecture, and in the struggle for control of Italy under the early Republic many more were built, using different techniques. These included tightly fitting massive irregular polygonal blocks, shaped to fit exactly in a way reminiscent of later Inca work. The Romans called a simple rampart wall an agger; at this date great height was not necessary. The Servian Wall around Rome was an ambitious project of the early 4th century BC. The wall was up to 10 metres (32.8 ft) in height in places, 3.6 metres (12 ft) wide at its base, 11 km (7 mi) long,[108] and is believed to have had 16 main gates, though many of these are mentioned only from writings, with no other known remains. Some of it had a fossa or ditch in front, and an agger behind, and it was enough to deter Hannibal. Later the Aurelian Wall replaced it, enclosing an expanded city, and using more sophisticated designs, with small forts at intervals. The Romans walled major cities and towns in areas they saw as vulnerable, and parts of many walls remain incorporated in later defensive fortifications, as at Córdoba (2nd century BC), Chester (earth and wood in the 70s AD, stone from c. 100), and York (from 70s AD). Strategic walls across open country were far rarer, and Hadrian's Wall (from 122) and the Antonine Wall (from 142, abandoned only 8 years after completion) are the most significant examples, both on the Pictish frontier of Roman Britain... Architectural features[edit] Mosaics[edit] Main article: Roman mosaic The Centaur mosaic (2nd-century), found at Hadrian's Villa in Tivoli, Italy. Altes Museum, Berlin On his return from campaigns in Greece, the general Sulla brought back what is probably the most well-known element of the early imperial period, the mosaic, a decoration made of colourful chips of stone inserted into cement. This tiling method took the empire by storm in the late first century and the second century and in the Roman home joined the well known mural in decorating floors, walls, and grottoes with geometric and pictorial designs. There were two main techniques in Greco-Roman mosaic: opus vermiculatum used tiny tesserae, typically cubes of 4 millimeters or less, and was produced in workshops in relatively small panels which were transported to the site glued to some temporary support. The tiny tesserae allowed very fine detail, and an approach to the illusionism of painting. Often small panels called emblemata were inserted into walls or as the highlights of larger floor-mosaics in coarser work. The normal technique, however, was opus tessellatum, using larger tesserae, which were laid on site.[109] There was a distinct native Italian style using black on a white background, which was no doubt cheaper than fully coloured work.[110] A specific genre of Roman mosaic obtained the name asaroton (Greek "unswept floor"). It represented an optical illusion of the leftovers from a feast on the floor of rich houses.[111] Hypocaust[edit] Hypocaust in Saint-Rémy-de-Provence, France A hypocaust was an ancient Roman system of underfloor heating, used to heat houses with hot air. The Roman architect Vitruvius, writing about the end of the 1st century BC, attributes their invention to Sergius Orata. Many remains of Roman hypocausts have survived throughout Europe, western Asia, and northern Africa. The hypocaust was an invention which improved the hygiene and living conditions of citizens, and was a forerunner of modern central heating. Hypocausts were used for heating hot baths (thermae), houses and other buildings, whether public or private. The floor was raised above the ground by pillars, called pilae stacks, with a layer of tiles, then a layer of concrete, then another of tiles on top; and spaces were left inside the walls so that hot air and smoke from the furnace would pass through these enclosed areas and out of flues in the roof, thereby heating but not polluting the interior of the room. Roman roofs[edit] Further information: List of ancient Greek and Roman roofs In Sicily truss roofs presumably appeared as early as 550 BC.[112] Their potential was fully realized in the Roman period, which saw trussed roofs over 30 wide spanning the rectangular spaces of monumental public buildings such as temples, basilicas, and later churches. Such spans were three times as wide as the widest prop-and-lintel roofs and only surpassed by the largest Roman domes.[113] The largest truss roof by span of ancient Rome covered the Aula Regia (throne room) built for emperor Domitian (81–96 AD) on the Palatine Hill, Rome. The timber truss roof had a width of 31.67 m, slightly surpassing the postulated limit of 30 m for Roman roof constructions. Tie-beam trusses allowed for much larger spans than the older prop-and-lintel system and even concrete vaulting. Nine out of the ten largest rectangular spaces in Roman architecture were bridged this way, the only exception being the groin vaulted Basilica of Maxentius.[113] Spiral stairs[edit] Further information: List of ancient spiral stairs The spiral stair is a type of stairway which, due to its complex helical structure, was introduced relatively late into architecture. Although the oldest example dates back to the 5th century BC,[114] it was only in the wake of the influential design of Trajan's Column that this space-saving new type permanently caught hold in Roman architecture.[115] Apart from the triumphal columns in the imperial cities of Rome and Constantinople, other types of buildings such as temples, thermae, basilicas and tombs were also fitted with spiral stairways.[115] Their notable absence in the towers of the Aurelian Wall indicates that although used in medieval castles, they did not yet figure prominently in Roman military engineering.[115] By late antiquity, separate stair towers were constructed adjacent to the main buildings, as in the Basilica of San Vitale. The construction of spiral stairs passed on both to Christian and Islamic architecture. Significant buildings and areas[edit] The Baths of Caracalla Canopo at Hadrian's Villa, Tivoli, Italy Verona Arena at dawn Public buildings[edit] Baths of Trajan – these were a massive thermae, a bathing and leisure complex, built in ancient Rome starting from 104 AD and dedicated during the Kalends of July in 109. Baths of Diocletian – in ancient Rome, these were the grandest of the public baths (thermae), built by successive emperors Baths of Caracalla Colosseum Trajan's Column, in Rome Circus Maximus, in Rome Curia Hostilia (Senate House), in Rome Domus Aurea (former building) Forum of Augustus Hadrian's Villa Pantheon Tower of Hercules Tropaeum Traiani Verona Arena, in Verona Rotunda Church of St. George, Serdika, Sofia, Bulgaria Roman theatre, Philippopolis, Plovdiv, Bulgaria Roman Stadium, Philippopolis, Plovdiv, Bulgaria Roman baths, Odessos, Varna, Bulgaria Roman city walls of Diocletianopolis (Thrace), Hisarya, Bulgaria Roman tomb, Primorsko, Bulgaria [116] Private architecture[edit] Alyscamps – a necropolis in Arles, France, one of the most famous necropolises of the ancient world Domus Catacombs of Rome Roman villa Pompeii and Herculaneum Hadrian's Wall, built in 122 AD in Roman Britain, in what is now Northern England Civil engineering[edit] Roman engineering – Romans are famous for their advanced engineering accomplishments, although some of their own inventions were improvements on older ideas, concepts and inventions. Roman watermill Military engineering[edit] Antonine Wall, in Scotland Hadrian's Wall Limes Germanicus See also[edit] Outline of ancient Rome Outline of architecture Ancient Greek architecture Architecture of Mesopotamia Achaemenid architecture Roman technology Ancient Rome portal Italy portal History portal Architecture portal References[edit] Footnotes[edit] ^ Henig, 26 ^ Henig, 27 ^ DeLaine 1990, p. 407. ^ Rook 1992, pp. 18f.. ^ Gardner 2005, p. 170. ^ Ward-Perkins 1956. ^ Frothingham, A. L. (1915). "The Roman Territorial Arch". American Journal of Archaeology. 19 (2): 155–174. doi:10.2307/497176. ISSN 0002-9114. JSTOR 497176. ^ a b Rasch 1985, p. 117. ^ Lechtman & Hobbs 1986. ^ Mark & Hutchinson 1986, p. 24. ^ Heinle & Schlaich 1996, p. 27. ^ Henig, 28 ^ Henig, 32 ^ Favro, (ii) Materials and construction techniques ^ Henig, 22; Favro, (ii) Materials and construction techniques, which lists major quarries ^ Juracek 1996, p. 310. ^ Peet 1911, pp. 35–36. ^ a b Walters & Birch 1905, p. 330–40. ^ Morris 1972, pp. 39–41, 51–60. ^ Kolb 1984, pp. 169–238. ^ Benevolo 1993, pp. 256–267. ^ Harris 1989, pp. 375–392: "The Etruscans were, in their turn, probably also influenced in this respect by Greek and Hellenic culture." ^ Vitrivius 1914. ^ Demandt 1998: "In fact, many sites where the Romans created towns, such as Paris, Vienna and Bratislava, had previously been Celtic settlements of more or less urban character." ^ Henig, 26. Blagg also mentions baths, granaries, insulae and large villas. ^ Bomgardner 2000, p. 37. ^ Bomgardner 2000, p. 59. ^ Bomgardner 2000, p. 62. ^ Bomgardner 2000, pp. 201–223. ^ Abbott & Johnson 1926, p. 12. ^ "A Page from Latin Notes Supplement XV, Entitled SOME STORIES ABOUT THE ROMAN FORUM". Latin Notes. 3 (6). 1926. JSTOR 43943460. ^ a b Dennison, Walter (June 1908). "The Roman Forum as Cicero Saw It". The Classical Journal. 3 (8): 318–326. JSTOR 3287491. ^ Richardson 1992, p. 193. ^ Lampe 2006, p. 61. ^ Potter & Mattingly 1999, p. 180. ^ Patrich 1996, p. 149. ^ Métreaux 1998, pp. 14–15. ^ Pliny, Epist. VIII.18 ^ Seneca, Epist. 45 ^ Schmitz 1875, p. 618. ^ Kaufman, David (2 December 1929). "Horrea Romana: Roman Storehouses". The Classical Weekly. 23 (7): 49–54. doi:10.2307/4389377. JSTOR 4389377. ^ a b Kaufman, David (2 December 1929). "Horrea Romana: Roman Storehouses". The Classical Weekly. 23 (7): 49–54. doi:10.2307/4389377. JSTOR 4389377. ^ EERA, 134 ^ Hermansen 1970. ^ Storey 2002. ^ Storey 2004. ^ Wheeler, 89 ^ Fowler, W. Warde (1899). Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic. Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press. pp. 202–204. ^ Summerson, 8–13 ^ Wilson Jones 2000. ^ Ros 1996. ^ Ward-Perkins 2000, p. 333. ^ La Villa Romana dell'Auditorium ^ Wikander 2000a, pp. 396f.. ^ Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002, p. 11. ^ Wilson 2002, pp. 7f.. ^ Wikander 2000a, pp. 373–378. ^ Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002, pp. 12–15. ^ Wikander 1985, p. 158. ^ Wikander 2000b, p. 403. ^ Wilson 2002, p. 16. ^ Wikander 2000b, p. 407. ^ Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007. ^ Wikander 2000b, pp. 406f.. ^ Michael D. Gunther. "Glossary and Index of (mostly) Asian Art". Old Stones: The Monuments of Art History. Archived from the original on 5 April 2007. Retrieved 24 September 2014. [self-published source] ^ Wirsching 2000. ^ Coulton 1974, pp. 7, 16. ^ Lancaster 1999, pp. 419–439. ^ Baker & Baker 2001, p. 69. ^ "Museo del Sannio". Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 4 October 2014. ^ "Three Obelisks in Benevento". Archived from the original on 13 December 2012. Retrieved 4 October 2014. ^ Semple 1929, p. 435. ^ Semple 1929, p. 436. ^ a b c Zaho 2004, pp. 18–25. ^ Sullivan 2006, pp. 133–134. ^ a b Fürst & Grundmann 1998, p. 43. ^ a b Triumphal Arch at the Encyclopædia Britannica ^ a b c F. B. Sear and Richard John. "Triumphal arch." Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. 30 Jul. 2010 ^ a b Honour & Fleming 2005. ^ Forbes 1993, p. 146. ^ Kaszynski 2000, p. 9. ^ Bunson 2009, p. 195. ^ O'Flaherty 2002, p. 2. ^ Gagarin & Fantham 2010, p. 145. ^ O'Connor 1993, p. 1. ^ Beall, Christine (1988). "Designing the segmental arch" (PDF). ebuild.com. Retrieved 8 May 2010. 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Wirsching, Armin (2000), "How the Obelisks Reached Rome: Evidence of Roman Double-Ships", The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 29 (2): 273–283, doi:10.1111/j.1095-9270.2000.tb01456.x Zaho, Margaret Ann (2004). Imago triumphalis: the function and significance of triumphal imagery for Italian Renaissance rulers. Peter Lang. ISBN 978-0-8204-6235-6. Further reading[edit] Adam, Jean Pierre. Roman Building: Materials and Techniques. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994. Anderson, James C. Roman Architecture and Society. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997. Boëthius, Axel. Etruscan and Early Roman Architecture. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994. Fant, J. Clayton. "Quarrying and Stoneworking." In The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World, edited by John P. Oleson, 121–135. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. Hopkins, John North. The Genesis of Roman Architecture. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2016. Lancaster, Lynne C. Concrete Vaulted Construction In Imperial Rome: Innovations In Context. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. --. "Roman Engineering and Construction." In The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World, edited by John P. Oleson, 256–284. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2008. MacDonald, William Lloyd. The Architecture of the Roman Empire. Rev. ed. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982. Macready, Sarah, and F. H. Thompson. Roman architecture in the Greek world. London: Society of Antiquaries, 1987. Sear, Frank. Roman Architecture. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983. Thomas, Edmund V. Monumentality and the Roman Empire: Architecture in the Antonine age. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007. Ulrich, Roger B. Roman Woodworking. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007. Ulrich, Roger B., and Caroline K Quenemoen. A Companion to Roman Architecture. Somerset: Wiley, 2013. 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en-wikipedia-org-6585	----	Metre (poetry) - Wikipedia Metre (poetry) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Meter (poetry)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Basic rhythmic structure of a verse or lines in verse This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Metre" poetry – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) In poetry, metre (British) or meter (American; see spelling differences) is the basic rhythmic structure of a verse or lines in verse. Many traditional verse forms prescribe a specific verse metre, or a certain set of metres alternating in a particular order. The study and the actual use of metres and forms of versification are both known as prosody. (Within linguistics, "prosody" is used in a more general sense that includes not only poetic metre but also the rhythmic aspects of prose, whether formal or informal, that vary from language to language, and sometimes between poetic traditions.) Contents 1 Characteristics 1.1 Qualitative versus quantitative metre 1.2 Feet 1.2.1 Classification 1.3 Caesura 1.4 Enjambment 1.5 Metric variations 2 Modern English 2.1 Metrical systems 2.2 Frequently used metres 3 Other languages 3.1 Sanskrit 3.2 Greek and Latin 3.3 Classical Arabic 3.3.1 The Arabic metres 3.4 Classical Persian 3.5 Classical Chinese 3.6 Old English 3.7 French 3.8 Spanish 3.9 Italian 3.10 Turkish 3.11 Ottoman Turkish 3.12 Portuguese 3.13 Welsh 4 History 5 Dissent 6 See also 7 References 7.1 Citations 7.2 Sources Characteristics[edit] An assortment of features can be identified when classifying poetry and its metre. Qualitative versus quantitative metre[edit] The metre of most poetry of the Western world and elsewhere is based on patterns of syllables of particular types. The familiar type of metre in English-language poetry is called qualitative metre, with stressed syllables coming at regular intervals (e.g. in iambic pentameters, usually every even-numbered syllable). Many Romance languages use a scheme that is somewhat similar but where the position of only one particular stressed syllable (e.g. the last) needs to be fixed. The metre of the old Germanic poetry of languages such as Old Norse and Old English was radically different, but was still based on stress patterns. Some classical languages, in contrast, used a different scheme known as quantitative metre, where patterns were based on syllable weight rather than stress. In the dactylic hexameters of Classical Latin and Classical Greek, for example, each of the six feet making up the line was either a dactyl (long-short-short) or a spondee (long-long): a "long syllable" was literally one that took longer to pronounce than a short syllable: specifically, a syllable consisting of a long vowel or diphthong or followed by two consonants. The stress pattern of the words made no difference to the metre. A number of other ancient languages also used quantitative metre, such as Sanskrit and Classical Arabic (but not Biblical Hebrew). Finally, non-stressed languages that have little or no differentiation of syllable length, such as French or Chinese, base their verses on the number of syllables only. The most common form in French is the Alexandrin, with twelve syllables a verse, and in classical Chinese five characters, and thus five syllables. But since each Chinese character is pronounced using one syllable in a certain tone, classical Chinese poetry also had more strictly defined rules, such as thematic parallelism or tonal antithesis between lines. Feet[edit] In many Western classical poetic traditions, the metre of a verse can be described as a sequence of feet,[1] each foot being a specific sequence of syllable types — such as relatively unstressed/stressed (the norm for English poetry) or long/short (as in most classical Latin and Greek poetry). Iambic pentameter, a common metre in English poetry, is based on a sequence of five iambic feet or iambs, each consisting of a relatively unstressed syllable (here represented with "-" above the syllable) followed by a relatively stressed one (here represented with "/" above the syllable) — "da-DUM" = "- /" : - / - / - / - / - / So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see, - / - / - / - / - / So long lives this, and this gives life to thee. This approach to analyzing and classifying metres originates from Ancient Greek tragedians and poets such as Homer, Pindar, Hesiod, and Sappho. However some metres have an overall rhythmic pattern to the line that cannot easily be described using feet. This occurs in Sanskrit poetry; see Vedic metre and Sanskrit metre. (Although this poetry is in fact specified using feet, each "foot" is more or less equivalent to an entire line.) It also occurs in some Western metres, such as the hendecasyllable favoured by Catullus and Martial, which can be described as: x x — ∪ ∪ — ∪ — ∪ — — (where "—" = long, "∪" = short, and "x x" can be realized as "— ∪" or "— —" or "∪ —") Classification[edit] Foot type Style Stress pattern Syllable count Iamb Iambic Unstressed + Stressed Two Trochee Trochaic Stressed + Unstressed Two Spondee Spondaic Stressed + Stressed Two Anapest or anapaest Anapestic Unstressed + Unstressed + Stressed Three Dactyl Dactylic Stressed + Unstressed + Unstressed Three Amphibrach Amphibrachic Unstressed + Stressed + Unstressed Three Pyrrhic Pyrrhic Unstressed + Unstressed Two [1] If the line has only one foot, it is called a monometer; two feet, dimeter; three is trimeter; four is tetrameter; five is pentameter; six is hexameter, seven is heptameter and eight is octameter. For example, if the feet are iambs, and if there are five feet to a line, then it is called an iambic pentameter.[1] If the feet are primarily dactyls and there are six to a line, then it is a dactylic hexameter.[1] Caesura[edit] Sometimes a natural pause occurs in the middle of a line rather than at a line-break. This is a caesura (cut). A good example is from The Winter's Tale by William Shakespeare; the caesurae are indicated by '/': It is for you we speak, / not for ourselves: You are abused / and by some putter-on That will be damn'd for't; / would I knew the villain, I would land-damn him. / Be she honour-flaw'd, I have three daughters; / the eldest is eleven In Latin and Greek poetry, a caesura is a break within a foot caused by the end of a word. Each line of traditional Germanic alliterative verse is divided into two half-lines by a caesura. This can be seen in Piers Plowman: A fair feeld ful of folk / fond I ther bitwene— Of alle manere of men / the meene and the riche, Werchynge and wandrynge / as the world asketh. Somme putten hem to the plough / pleiden ful selde, In settynge and sowynge / swonken ful harde, And wonnen that thise wastours / with glotonye destruyeth. Enjambment[edit] Main article: Enjambment By contrast with caesura, enjambment is incomplete syntax at the end of a line; the meaning runs over from one poetic line to the next, without terminal punctuation. Also from Shakespeare's The Winter's Tale: I am not prone to weeping, as our sex Commonly are; the want of which vain dew Perchance shall dry your pities; but I have That honourable grief lodged here which burns Worse than tears drown. Metric variations[edit] Poems with a well-defined overall metric pattern often have a few lines that violate that pattern. A common variation is the inversion of a foot, which turns an iamb ("da-DUM") into a trochee ("DUM-da"). A second variation is a headless verse, which lacks the first syllable of the first foot. A third variation is catalexis, where the end of a line is shortened by a foot, or two or part thereof – an example of this is at the end of each verse in Keats' 'La Belle Dame sans Merci': And on thy cheeks a fading rose (4 feet) Fast withereth too (2 feet) Modern English[edit] Most English metre is classified according to the same system as Classical metre with an important difference. English is an accentual language, and therefore beats and offbeats (stressed and unstressed syllables) take the place of the long and short syllables of classical systems. In most English verse, the metre can be considered as a sort of back beat, against which natural speech rhythms vary expressively. The most common characteristic feet of English verse are the iamb in two syllables and the anapest in three. (See Foot (prosody) for a complete list of the metrical feet and their names.) Metrical systems[edit] The number of metrical systems in English is not agreed upon.[2] The four major types[3] are: accentual verse, accentual-syllabic verse, syllabic verse and quantitative verse.[4] The alliterative verse of Old English could also be added to this list, or included as a special type of accentual verse. Accentual verse focuses on the number of stresses in a line, while ignoring the number of offbeats and syllables; accentual-syllabic verse focuses on regulating both the number of stresses and the total number of syllables in a line; syllabic verse only counts the number of syllables in a line; quantitative verse regulates the patterns of long and short syllables (this sort of verse is often considered alien to English).[5] The use of foreign metres in English is all but exceptional.[6] Frequently used metres[edit] The most frequently encountered metre of English verse is the iambic pentameter, in which the metrical norm is five iambic feet per line, though metrical substitution is common and rhythmic variations practically inexhaustible. John Milton's Paradise Lost, most sonnets, and much else besides in English are written in iambic pentameter. Lines of unrhymed iambic pentameter are commonly known as blank verse.[7] Blank verse in the English language is most famously represented in the plays of William Shakespeare and the great works of Milton, though Tennyson (Ulysses, The Princess) and Wordsworth (The Prelude) also make notable use of it. A rhymed pair of lines of iambic pentameter make a heroic couplet,[8] a verse form which was used so often in the 18th century that it is now used mostly for humorous effect (although see Pale Fire for a non-trivial case). The most famous writers of heroic couplets are Dryden and Pope. Another important metre in English is the ballad metre, also called the "common metre", which is a four-line stanza, with two pairs of a line of iambic tetrameter followed by a line of iambic trimeter; the rhymes usually fall on the lines of trimeter, although in many instances the tetrameter also rhymes. This is the metre of most of the Border and Scots or English ballads. In hymnody it is called the "common metre", as it is the most common of the named hymn metres used to pair many hymn lyrics with melodies, such as Amazing Grace:[9] Amazing Grace! how sweet the sound That saved a wretch like me; I once was lost, but now am found; Was blind, but now I see. Emily Dickinson is famous for her frequent use of ballad metre: Great streets of silence led away To neighborhoods of pause — Here was no notice — no dissent — No universe — no laws. Other languages[edit] Sanskrit[edit] Main articles: Sanskrit prosody and Vedic metre Versification in Classical Sanskrit poetry is of three kinds. Syllabic (akṣaravṛtta) metres depend on the number of syllables in a verse, with relative freedom in the distribution of light and heavy syllables. This style is derived from older Vedic forms. An example is the Anuṣṭubh metre found in the great epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, which has exactly eight syllables in each line, of which only some are specified as to length. Syllabo-quantitative (varṇavṛtta) metres depend on syllable count, but the light-heavy patterns are fixed. An example is the Mandākrāntā metre, in which each line has 17 syllables in a fixed pattern. Quantitative (mātrāvṛtta) metres depend on duration, where each line has a fixed number of morae, grouped in feet with usually 4 morae in each foot. An example is the Arya metre, in which each verse has four lines of 12, 18, 12, and 15 morae respectively. In each 4-mora foot there can be two long syllables, four short syllables, or one long and two short in any order. Standard traditional works on metre are Pingala's Chandaḥśāstra and Kedāra's Vṛttaratnākara. The most exhaustive compilations, such as the modern ones by Patwardhan and Velankar contain over 600 metres. This is a substantially larger repertoire than in any other metrical tradition. Greek and Latin[edit] Main article: Prosody (Latin) Further information: Prosody (Greek) The metrical "feet" in the classical languages were based on the length of time taken to pronounce each syllable, which were categorized according to their weight as either "long" syllables or "short" syllables (indicated as dum and di below). These are also called "heavy" and "light" syllables, respectively, to distinguish from long and short vowels. The foot is often compared to a musical measure and the long and short syllables to whole notes and half notes. In English poetry, feet are determined by emphasis rather than length, with stressed and unstressed syllables serving the same function as long and short syllables in classical metre. The basic unit in Greek and Latin prosody is a mora, which is defined as a single short syllable. A long syllable is equivalent to two morae. A long syllable contains either a long vowel, a diphthong, or a short vowel followed by two or more consonants. Various rules of elision sometimes prevent a grammatical syllable from making a full syllable, and certain other lengthening and shortening rules (such as correption) can create long or short syllables in contexts where one would expect the opposite. The most important Classical metre is the dactylic hexameter, the metre of Homer and Virgil. This form uses verses of six feet. The word dactyl comes from the Greek word daktylos meaning finger, since there is one long part followed by two short stretches.[10] The first four feet are dactyls (daa-duh-duh), but can be spondees (daa-daa). The fifth foot is almost always a dactyl. The sixth foot is either a spondee or a trochee (daa-duh). The initial syllable of either foot is called the ictus, the basic "beat" of the verse. There is usually a caesura after the ictus of the third foot. The opening line of the Æneid is a typical line of dactylic hexameter: Armă vĭ | rumquĕ că | nō, Troi | ae quī | prīmŭs ăb | ōrīs ("I sing of arms and the man, who first from the shores of Troy...") In this example, the first and second feet are dactyls; their first syllables, "Ar" and "rum" respectively, contain short vowels, but count as long because the vowels are both followed by two consonants. The third and fourth feet are spondees, the first of which is divided by the main caesura of the verse. The fifth foot is a dactyl, as is nearly always the case. The final foot is a spondee. The dactylic hexameter was imitated in English by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow in his poem Evangeline: This is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the hemlocks, Bearded with moss, and in garments green, indistinct in the twilight, Stand like Druids of old, with voices sad and prophetic, Stand like harpers hoar, with beards that rest on their bosoms. Notice how the first line: This is the | for-est pri | me-val. The | mur-muring | pines and the | hem-locks Follows this pattern: dum diddy | dum diddy | dum diddy | dum diddy | dum diddy | dum dum Also important in Greek and Latin poetry is the dactylic pentameter. This was a line of verse, made up of two equal parts, each of which contains two dactyls followed by a long syllable, which counts as a half foot. In this way, the number of feet amounts to five in total. Spondees can take the place of the dactyls in the first half, but never in the second. The long syllable at the close of the first half of the verse always ends a word, giving rise to a caesura. Dactylic pentameter is never used in isolation. Rather, a line of dactylic pentameter follows a line of dactylic hexameter in the elegiac distich or elegiac couplet, a form of verse that was used for the composition of elegies and other tragic and solemn verse in the Greek and Latin world, as well as love poetry that was sometimes light and cheerful. An example from Ovid's Tristia: Vergĭlĭ | um vī | dī tan | tum, nĕc ă | māră Tĭ | bullō Tempŭs ă | mīcĭtĭ | ae || fātă dĕ | dērĕ mĕ | ae. ("Virgil I merely saw, and the harsh Fates gave Tibullus no time for my friendship.") The Greeks and Romans also used a number of lyric metres, which were typically used for shorter poems than elegiacs or hexameter. In Aeolic verse, one important line was called the hendecasyllabic, a line of eleven syllables. This metre was used most often in the Sapphic stanza, named after the Greek poet Sappho, who wrote many of her poems in the form. A hendecasyllabic is a line with a never-varying structure: two trochees, followed by a dactyl, then two more trochees. In the Sapphic stanza, three hendecasyllabics are followed by an "Adonic" line, made up of a dactyl and a trochee. This is the form of Catullus 51 (itself an homage to Sappho 31): Illĕ mī pār essĕ dĕō vĭdētur; illĕ, sī fās est, sŭpĕrārĕ dīvōs, quī sĕdēns adversŭs ĭdentĭdem tē spectăt ĕt audit ("He seems to me to be like a god; if it is permitted, he seems above the gods, who sitting across from you gazes at you and hears you again and again.") The Sapphic stanza was imitated in English by Algernon Charles Swinburne in a poem he simply called Sapphics: Saw the white implacable Aphrodite, Saw the hair unbound and the feet unsandalled Shine as fire of sunset on western waters; Saw the reluctant... Classical Arabic[edit] See also: Arabic prosody The metrical system of Classical Arabic poetry, like those of classical Greek and Latin, is based on the weight of syllables classified as either "long" or "short". The basic principles of Arabic poetic metre Arūḍ or Arud (Arabic: العروض‎ al-ʿarūḍ) Science of Poetry (Arabic: علم الشعر‎ ʿilm aš-šiʿr), were put forward by Al-Farahidi (786 - 718 CE) who did so after noticing that poems consisted of repeated syllables in each verse. In his first book, Al-Ard (Arabic: العرض‎ al-ʿarḍ), he described 15 types of verse. Al-Akhfash described one extra, the 16th. A short syllable contains a short vowel with no following consonants. For example, the word kataba, which syllabifies as ka-ta-ba, contains three short vowels and is made up of three short syllables. A long syllable contains either a long vowel or a short vowel followed by a consonant as is the case in the word maktūbun which syllabifies as mak-tū-bun. These are the only syllable types possible in Classical Arabic phonology which, by and large, does not allow a syllable to end in more than one consonant or a consonant to occur in the same syllable after a long vowel. In other words, syllables of the type -āk- or -akr- are not found in classical Arabic. Each verse consists of a certain number of metrical feet (tafāʿīl or ʾaǧzāʾ) and a certain combination of possible feet constitutes a metre (baḥr). The traditional Arabic practice for writing out a poem's metre is to use a concatenation of various derivations of the verbal root F-ʿ-L (فعل). Thus, the following hemistich قفا نبك من ذكرى حبيبٍ ومنزلِ Would be traditionally scanned as: فعولن مفاعيلن فعولن مفاعلن That is, Romanized and with traditional Western scansion: Western: ⏑ – – ⏑ – – – ⏑ – – ⏑ – ⏑ – Verse: Qifā nabki min ḏikrā ḥabībin wa-manzili Mnemonic: fa`ūlun mafā`īlun fa`ūlun mafā`ilun Al-Kʰalīl b. ˀAḫmad al-Farāhīdī's contribution to the study of Arabic prosody is undeniably significant: he was the first scholar to subject Arabic poetry to a meticulous, painstaking metrical analysis. Unfortunately, he fell short of producing a coherent theory; instead, he was content to merely gather, classify, and categorize the primary data—a first step which, though insufficient, represents no mean accomplishment. Therefore al-Kʰalīl has left a formulation of utmost complexity and difficulty which requires immense effort to master; even the accomplished scholar cannot utilize and apply it with ease and total confidence. Dr. ˀIbrāhīm ˀAnīs, one of the most distinguished and celebrated pillars of Arabic literature and the Arabic language in the 20th century, states the issue clearly in his book Mūsīqā al-Sʰiˁr: “I am aware of no [other] branch of Arabic studies which embodies as many [technical] terms as does [al-Kʰalīl’s] prosody, few and distinct as the meters are: al-Kʰalīl’s disciples employed a large number of infrequent items, assigning to those items certain technical denotations which—invariably—require definition and explanation. …. As to the rules of metric variation, they are numerous to the extent that they defy memory and impose a taxing course of study. …. In learning them, a student faces severe hardship which obscures all connection with an artistic genre—indeed, the most artistic of all—namely, poetry. ………. It is in this fashion that [various] authors dealt with the subject under discussion over a period of eleven centuries: none of them attempted to introduce a new approach or to simplify the rules. ………. Is it not time for a new, simple presentation which avoids contrivance, displays close affinity to [the art of] poetry, and perhaps renders the science of prosody palatable as well as manageable?” In the 20th and the 21st centuries, numerous scholars have endeavored to supplement al-Kʰalīl's contribution. The Arabic metres[edit] Main article: Arabic prosody Classical Arabic has sixteen established metres. Though each of them allows for a certain amount of variation, their basic patterns are as follows, using: "–" for 1 long syllable "⏑" for 1 short syllable "x" for a position that can contain 1 long or 1 short "o" for a position that can contain 1 long or 2 shorts "S" for a position that can contain 1 long, 2 shorts, or 1 long + 1 short Circle Name (Romanized) Name (Arabic) Scansion Mnemonic 1 Ṭawīl الطويل ⏑ – x ⏑ – x – ⏑ – x ⏑ – ⏑ – فعولن مفاعيلن فعولن مفاعلن 1 Madīd المديد x ⏑ – – x ⏑ – x ⏑ – – فاعلاتن فاعلن فاعلاتن 1 Basīṭ البسيط x – ⏑ – x ⏑ – x – ⏑ – ⏑ ⏑ – مستفعلن فاعلن مستفعلن فعلن 2 Kāmil الكامل o – ⏑ – o – ⏑ – o – ⏑ – متفاعلن متفاعلن متفاعلن 2 Wāfir الوافر ⏑ – o – ⏑ – o – ⏑ – – مفاعلتن مفاعلتن فعولن 3 Hazaj الهزج ⏑ – – x ⏑ – – x مفاعيلن مفاعيلن 3 Rajaz الرجز x – ⏑ – x – ⏑ – x – ⏑ – مستفعلن مستفعلن مستفعلن 3 Ramal الرمل x ⏑ – – x ⏑ – – x ⏑ – فاعلاتن فاعلاتن فاعلن 4 Sarī` السريع x x ⏑ – x x ⏑ – – ⏑ – مستفعلن مستفعلن فاعلن 4 Munsariħ المنسرح x – ⏑ – – x – ⏑ – ⏑ ⏑ – مستفعلن فاعلاتُ مستفعلن 4 Khafīf الخفيف x ⏑ – x – – ⏑ – x ⏑ – x فاعلاتن مستفعلن فاعلاتن 4 Muḍāri` المضارع ⏑ – x x – ⏑ – – مفاعلن فاعلاتن 4 Muqtaḍab المقتضب x ⏑ – ⏑ – ⏑ ⏑ – فاعلاتُ مفتعلن 4 Mujtathth المجتث x – ⏑ – x ⏑ – – مستفعلن فاعلاتن 5 Mutadārik المتدارك S – S – S – فاعلن فاعلن فاعلن فاعلن 5 Mutaqārib المتقارب ⏑ – x ⏑ – x ⏑ – x ⏑ – فعولن فعولن فعولن فعول Classical Persian[edit] Further information: Persian metres The terminology for metrical system used in classical and classical-style Persian poetry is the same as that of Classical Arabic, even though these are quite different in both origin and structure. This has led to serious confusion among prosodists, both ancient and modern, as to the true source and nature of the Persian metres, the most obvious error being the assumption that they were copied from Arabic.[11] Persian poetry is quantitative, and the metrical patterns are made of long and short syllables, much as in Classical Greek, Latin and Arabic. Anceps positions in the line, however, that is places where either a long or short syllable can be used (marked "x" in the schemes below), are not found in Persian verse except in some metres at the beginning of a line. Persian poetry is written in couplets, with each half-line (hemistich) being 10-14 syllables long. Except in the ruba'i (quatrain), where either of two very similar metres may be used, the same metre is used for every line in the poem. Rhyme is always used, sometimes with double rhyme or internal rhymes in addition. In some poems, known as masnavi, the two halves of each couplet rhyme, with a scheme aa, bb, cc and so on. In lyric poetry, the same rhyme is used throughout the poem at the end of each couplet, but except in the opening couplet, the two halves of each couplet do not rhyme; hence the scheme is aa, ba, ca, da. A ruba'i (quatrain) also usually has the rhyme aa, ba. A particular feature of classical Persian prosody, not found in Latin, Greek or Arabic, is that instead of two lengths of syllables (long and short), there are three lengths (short, long, and overlong). Overlong syllables can be used anywhere in the line in place of a long + a short, or in the final position in a line or half line.[12][13] When a metre has a pair of short syllables (⏑ ⏑), it is common for a long syllable to be substituted, especially at the end of a line or half-line. About 30 different metres are commonly used in Persian. 70% of lyric poems are written in one of the following seven metres:[14] ⏑ – ⏑ – ⏑ ⏑ – – ⏑ – ⏑ – ⏑ ⏑ – – – ⏑ – ⏑ – ⏑ ⏑ – – ⏑ – ⏑ – – ⏑ – – – ⏑ – – – ⏑ – – – ⏑ – x ⏑ – – ⏑ ⏑ – – ⏑ ⏑ – – ⏑ ⏑ – x ⏑ – – ⏑ – ⏑ – ⏑ ⏑ – ⏑ – – – ⏑ – – – ⏑ – – – ⏑ – – – – – ⏑ ⏑ – – ⏑ ⏑ – – ⏑ ⏑ – – Masnavi poems (that is, long poems in rhyming couplets) are always written in one of the shorter 11 or 10-syllable metres (traditionally seven in number) such as the following: ⏑ – – ⏑ – – ⏑ – – ⏑ – (e.g. Ferdowsi's Shahnameh) ⏑ – – – ⏑ – – – ⏑ – – (e.g. Gorgani's Vis o Ramin) – ⏑ – – – ⏑ – – – ⏑ – (e.g. Rumi's Masnavi-e Ma'navi) – – ⏑ ⏑ – ⏑ – ⏑ – – (e.g. Nezami's Leyli o Majnun) The two metres used for ruba'iyat (quatrains), which are only used for this, are the following, of which the second is a variant of the first: – – ⏑ ⏑ – – ⏑ ⏑ – – ⏑ ⏑ – – – ⏑ ⏑ – ⏑ – ⏑ – – ⏑ ⏑ – Classical Chinese[edit] Main article: Classical Chinese poetry forms Classical Chinese poetic metric may be divided into fixed and variable length line types, although the actual scansion of the metre is complicated by various factors, including linguistic changes and variations encountered in dealing with a tradition extending over a geographically extensive regional area for a continuous time period of over some two-and-a-half millennia. Beginning with the earlier recorded forms: the Classic of Poetry tends toward couplets of four-character lines, grouped in rhymed quatrains; and, the Chuci follows this to some extent, but moves toward variations in line length. Han Dynasty poetry tended towards the variable line-length forms of the folk ballads and the Music Bureau yuefu. Jian'an poetry, Six Dynasties poetry, and Tang Dynasty poetry tend towards a poetic metre based on fixed-length lines of five, seven, (or, more rarely six) characters/verbal units tended to predominate, generally in couplet/quatrain-based forms, of various total verse lengths. The Song poetry is specially known for its use of the ci, using variable line lengths which follow the specific pattern of a certain musical song's lyrics, thus ci are sometimes referred to as "fixed-rhythm" forms. Yuan poetry metres continued this practice with their qu forms, similarly fixed-rhythm forms based on now obscure or perhaps completely lost original examples (or, ur-types). Not that Classical Chinese poetry ever lost the use of the shi forms, with their metrical patterns found in the "old style poetry" (gushi) and the regulated verse forms of (lüshi or jintishi). The regulated verse forms also prescribed patterns based upon linguistic tonality. The use of caesura is important in regard to the metrical analysis of Classical Chinese poetry forms. Old English[edit] The metric system of Old English poetry was different from that of modern English, and related more to the verse forms of most of the older Germanic languages such as Old Norse. It used alliterative verse, a metrical pattern involving varied numbers of syllables but a fixed number (usually four) of strong stresses in each line. The unstressed syllables were relatively unimportant, but the caesurae (breaks between the half-lines) played a major role in Old English poetry.[15] In place of using feet, alliterative verse divided each line into two half-lines. Each half-line had to follow one of five or so patterns, each of which defined a sequence of stressed and unstressed syllables, typically with two stressed syllables per half line. Unlike typical Western poetry, however, the number of unstressed syllables could vary somewhat. For example, the common pattern "DUM-da-DUM-da" could allow between one and five unstressed syllables between the two stresses. The following is a famous example, taken from The Battle of Maldon, a poem written shortly after the date of that battle (AD 991): Hige sceal þe heardra, || heorte þe cēnre, mōd sceal þe māre, || swā ūre mægen lȳtlað ("Will must be the harder, courage the bolder, spirit must be the more, as our might lessens.") In the quoted section, the stressed syllables have been underlined. (Normally, the stressed syllable must be long if followed by another syllable in a word. However, by a rule known as syllable resolution, two short syllables in a single word are considered equal to a single long syllable. Hence, sometimes two syllables have been underlined, as in hige and mægen.) The German philologist Eduard Sievers (died 1932) identified five different patterns of half-line in Anglo-Saxon alliterative poetry. The first three half-lines have the type A pattern "DUM-da-(da-)DUM-da", while the last one has the type C pattern "da-(da-da-)DUM-DUM-da", with parentheses indicating optional unstressed syllables that have been inserted. Note also the pervasive pattern of alliteration, where the first and/or second stressed syllables alliterate with the third, but not with the fourth. French[edit] In French poetry, metre is determined solely by the number of syllables in a line. A silent 'e' counts as a syllable before a consonant, but is elided before a vowel (where h aspiré counts as a consonant). At the end of a line, the "e" remains unelided but is hypermetrical (outside the count of syllables, like a feminine ending in English verse), in that case, the rhyme is also called "feminine", whereas it is called "masculine" in the other cases. The most frequently encountered metre in Classical French poetry is the alexandrine, composed of two hemistiches of six syllables each. Two famous alexandrines are La fille de Minos et de Pasiphaë (Jean Racine) (the daughter of Minos and of Pasiphaë), and Waterloo ! Waterloo ! Waterloo ! Morne plaine! (Victor Hugo) (Waterloo! Waterloo! Waterloo! Gloomy plain!) Classical French poetry also had a complex set of rules for rhymes that goes beyond how words merely sound. These are usually taken into account when describing the metre of a poem. Spanish[edit] In Spanish poetry the metre is determined by the number of syllables the verse has. Still it is the phonetic accent in the last word of the verse that decides the final count of the line. If the accent of the final word is at the last syllable, then the poetic rule states that one syllable shall be added to the actual count of syllables in the said line, thus having a higher number of poetic syllables than the number of grammatical syllables. If the accent lies on the second to last syllable of the last word in the verse, then the final count of poetic syllables will be the same as the grammatical number of syllables. Furthermore, if the accent lies on the third to last syllable, then one syllable is subtracted from the actual count, having then less poetic syllables than grammatical syllables. Spanish poetry uses poetic licenses, unique to Romance languages, to change the number of syllables by manipulating mainly the vowels in the line. Regarding these poetic licenses one must consider three kinds of phenomena: (1) syneresis, (2) dieresis and (3) hiatus Syneresis. A diphthong is made from two consecutive vowels in a word which do not normally form one: poe-ta, leal-tad instead of the standard po-e-ta ('poet'), le-al-tad ('loyalty'). Dieresis. The opposite of syneresis. A syllable break is inserted between two vowels which usually make a diphthong, thus eliminating it: ru-i-do, ci-e-lo for the standard rui-do ('noise'), cie-lo ('sky' or 'heaven'). This is sometimes marked by placing a dieresis sign over the vowel which would otherwise be the weak one in the diphthong: rüido, cïelo. Synalepha (Spanish sinalefa). The final vowel of a word and the initial one of the next are pronounced in one syllable. For example: Cuando salí de Collores, fue en una jaquita baya, por un sendero entre mayas, arropás de cundiamores... This stanza from Valle de Collores by Luis Lloréns Torres, uses eight poetic syllables. Given that all words at the end of each line have their phonetic accent on the second to last syllables, no syllables in the final count are added or subtracted. Still, in the second and third verse the grammatical count of syllables is nine. Poetic licenses permit the union of two vowels that are next to each other but in different syllables and count them as one. "Fue en..." has actually two syllables, but applying this license both vowels unite and form only one, giving the final count of eight syllables. "Sendero entre..." has five grammatical syllables, but uniting the "o" from "sendero" and the first "e" from "entre", gives only four syllables, permitting it to have eight syllables in the verse as well. Hiatus. It is the opposite phenomenon to synalepha. Two neighboring vowels in different words are kept in separate syllables: ca-be-llo - de - án-gel, with six poetic syllables, instead of the more common ca-be-llo - de ͜ án-gel, with five. There are many types of licenses, used either to add or subtract syllables, that may be applied when needed after taking in consideration the poetic rules of the last word. Yet all have in common that they only manipulate vowels that are close to each other and not interrupted by consonants. Some common metres in Spanish verse are: Septenary: A line with seven poetic syllables Octosyllable: A line with eight poetic syllables. This metre is commonly used in romances, narrative poems similar to English ballads, and in most proverbs. Hendecasyllable: A line with eleven poetic syllables. This metre plays a similar role to pentameter in English verse. It is commonly used in sonnets, among other things. Alexandrine: A line consisting of fourteen syllables, commonly separated into two hemistichs of seven syllables each (In most languages, this term denotes a line of twelve or sometimes thirteen syllables, but not in Spanish). Italian[edit] In Italian poetry, metre is determined solely by the position of the last accent in a line, the position of the other accents being however important for verse equilibrium. Syllables are enumerated with respect to a verse which ends with a paroxytone, so that a Septenary (having seven syllables) is defined as a verse whose last accent falls on the sixth syllable: it may so contain eight syllables (Ei fu. Siccome immobile) or just six (la terra al nunzio sta). Moreover, when a word ends with a vowel and the next one starts with a vowel, they are considered to be in the same syllable (synalepha): so Gli anni e i giorni consists of only four syllables ("Gli an" "ni e i" "gior" "ni"). Even-syllabic verses have a fixed stress pattern. Because of the mostly trochaic nature of the Italian language, verses with an even number of syllables are far easier to compose, and the Novenary is usually regarded as the most difficult verse. Some common metres in Italian verse are: Sexenary: A line whose last stressed syllable is on the fifth, with a fixed stress on the second one as well (Al Re Travicello / Piovuto ai ranocchi, Giusti) Septenary: A line whose last stressed syllable is the sixth one. Octosyllable: A line whose last accent falls on the seventh syllable. More often than not, the secondary accents fall on the first, third and fifth syllable, especially in nursery rhymes for which this metre is particularly well-suited. Hendecasyllable: A line whose last accent falls on the tenth syllable. It therefore usually consists of eleven syllables; there are various kinds of possible accentuations. It is used in sonnets, in ottava rima, and in many other types of poetry. The Divine Comedy, in particular, is composed entirely of hendecasyllables, whose main stress pattern is on the 4th and 10th syllable.[16] Turkish[edit] Apart from Ottoman poetry, which was heavily influenced by Persian traditions[17] and created a unique Ottoman style, traditional Turkish poetry features a system in which the number of syllables in each verse must be the same, most frequently 7, 8, 11, 14 syllables. These verses are then divided into syllable groups depending on the number of total syllables in a verse: 4+3 for 7 syllables, 4+4 or 5+3 for 8, 4+4+3 or 6+5 for 11 syllables. The end of each group in a verse is called a "durak" (stop), and must coincide with the last syllable of a word. The following example is by Faruk Nafiz Çamlıbel (died 1973), one of the most devoted users of traditional Turkish metre: Derinden derine ırmaklar ağlar, Uzaktan uzağa çoban çeşmesi. Ey suyun sesinden anlayan bağlar, Ne söyler şu dağa çoban çeşmesi? In this poem the 6+5 metre is used, so that there is a word-break (durak = "stop" or caesura) after the sixth syllable of every line, as well as at the end of each line. Ottoman Turkish[edit] In the Ottoman Turkish language, the structures of the poetic foot (تفعل tef'ile) and of poetic metre (وزن vezin) were imitated from Persian poetry. About twelve of the most common Persian metres were used for writing Turkish poetry. As was the case with Persian, no use at all was made of the commonest metres of Arabic poetry (the tawīl, basīt, kāmil, and wāfir).[18] However, the terminology used to described the metres was indirectly borrowed from the Arabic poetic tradition through the medium of the Persian language. As a result, Ottoman poetry, also known as Dîvân poetry, was generally written in quantitative, mora-timed metre. The moras, or syllables, are divided into three basic types: Open, or light, syllables (açık hece) consist of either a short vowel alone, or a consonant followed by a short vowel Examples: a-dam ("man"); zir-ve ("summit, peak") Closed, or heavy, syllables (kapalı hece) consist of either a long vowel alone, a consonant followed by a long vowel, or a short vowel followed by a consonant Examples: Â-dem ("Adam"); kâ-fir ("non-Muslim"); at ("horse") Lengthened, or superheavy, syllables (meddli hece) count as one closed plus one open syllable and consist of a vowel followed by a consonant cluster, or a long vowel followed by a consonant Examples: kürk ("fur"); âb ("water") In writing out a poem's poetic metre, open syllables are symbolized by "." and closed syllables are symbolized by "–". From the different syllable types, a total of sixteen different types of poetic foot—the majority of which are either three or four syllables in length—are constructed, which are named and scanned as follows:       fa‘ (–) fe ul (. –) fa‘ lün (– –) fe i lün (. . –)       fâ i lün (– . –) fe û lün (. – –) mef’ û lü (– – .) fe i lâ tün (. . – –)       fâ i lâ tün (– . – –) fâ i lâ tü (– . – .) me fâ i lün (. – . –) me fâ’ î lün (. – – –)       me fâ î lü (. – – .) müf te i lün (– . . –) müs tef i lün (– – . –) mü te fâ i lün (. . – . –) These individual poetic feet are then combined in a number of different ways, most often with four feet per line, so as to give the poetic metre for a line of verse. Some of the most commonly used metres are the following: me fâ’ î lün / me fâ’ î lün / me fâ’ î lün / me fâ’ î lün . – – – / . – – – / . – – – / . – – –       Ezelden şāh-ı ‘aşḳuñ bende-i fermānıyüz cānā Maḥabbet mülkinüñ sulţān-ı ‘ālī-şānıyüz cānā Oh beloved, since the origin we have been the slaves of the shah of love Oh beloved, we are the famed sultan of the heart's domain[19] —Bâkî (1526–1600) me fâ i lün / fe i lâ tün / me fâ i lün / fe i lün . – . – / . . – – / . – . – / . . –       Ḥaţā’ o nerkis-i şehlādadır sözümde degil Egerçi her süḥanim bī-bedel beġendiremem Though I may fail to please with my matchless verse The fault lies in those languid eyes and not my words —Şeyh Gâlib (1757–1799) fâ i lâ tün / fâ i lâ tün / fâ i lâ tün / fâ i lün – . – – / – . – – / – . – – / – . –       Bir şeker ḥand ile bezm-i şevķa cām ettiñ beni Nīm ṣun peymāneyi sāḳī tamām ettiñ beni At the gathering of desire you made me a wine-cup with your sugar smile Oh saki, give me only half a cup of wine, you've made me drunk enough[20] —Nedîm (1681?–1730) fe i lâ tün / fe i lâ tün / fe i lâ tün / fe i lün . . – – / . . – – / . . – – / . . –       Men ne ḥācet ki ḳılam derd-i dilüm yāra ‘ayān Ḳamu derd-i dilümi yār bilübdür bilübem What use in revealing my sickness of heart to my love I know my love knows the whole of my sickness of heart —Fuzûlî (1483?–1556) mef’ û lü / me fâ î lü / me fâ î lü / fâ û lün – – . / . – – . / . – – . / – – .       Şevḳuz ki dem-i bülbül-i şeydāda nihānuz Ḥūnuz ki dil-i ġonçe-i ḥamrāda nihānuz We are desire hidden in the love-crazed call of the nightingale We are blood hidden in the crimson heart of the unbloomed rose[21] —Neşâtî (?–1674) Portuguese[edit] Portuguese poetry uses a syllabic metre in which the verse is classified according to the last stressed syllable. The Portuguese system is quite similar to those of Spanish and Italian, as they are closely related languages. The most commonly used verses are: Redondilha menor: composed of 5 syllables. Redondilha maior: composed of 7 syllables. Decasyllable (decassílabo): composed of 10 syllables. Mostly used in Parnassian sonnets. It is equivalent to the Italian hendecasyllable. Heroic (heróico): stresses on the sixth and tenth syllables. Sapphic (sáfico): stresses on the fourth, eighth and tenth syllables. Martelo: stresses on the third, sixth and tenth syllables. Gaita galega or moinheira: stresses on the fourth, seventh and tenth syllables. Dodecasyllable (dodecassílabo): composed of 12 syllables. Alexandrine (alexandrino): divided into two hemistiches, the sixth and the twelfth syllables are stressed. Barbarian (bárbaro): composed of 13 or more syllables. Lucasian (lucasiano): composed of 16 syllables, divided into two hemistiches of 8 syllables each. Welsh[edit] Main article: Cerdd dafod There is a continuing tradition of strict metre poetry in the Welsh language that can be traced back to at least the sixth century. At the annual National Eisteddfod of Wales a bardic chair is awarded to the best awdl, a long poem that follows the conventions of cynghanedd regarding stress, alliteration and rhyme. History[edit] Further information: History of poetry Metrical texts are first attested in early Indo-European languages. The earliest known unambiguously metrical texts, and at the same time the only metrical texts with a claim of dating to the Late Bronze Age, are the hymns of the Rigveda. That the texts of the Ancient Near East (Sumerian, Egyptian or Semitic) should not exhibit metre is surprising, and may be partly due to the nature of Bronze Age writing.[citation needed] There were, in fact, attempts to reconstruct metrical qualities of the poetic portions of the Hebrew Bible, e.g. by Gustav Bickell[22] or Julius Ley,[23] but they remained inconclusive[24] (see Biblical poetry). Early Iron Age metrical poetry is found in the Iranian Avesta and in the Greek works attributed to Homer and Hesiod. Latin verse survives from the Old Latin period (c. 2nd century BC), in the Saturnian metre. Persian poetry[25] arises in the Sassanid era. Tamil poetry of the early centuries AD may be the earliest known non-Indo-European Medieval poetry was metrical without exception, spanning traditions as diverse as European Minnesang, Trouvère or Bardic poetry, Classical Persian and Sanskrit poetry, Tang dynasty Chinese poetry or the Japanese Nara period Man'yōshū. Renaissance and Early Modern poetry in Europe is characterized by a return to templates of Classical Antiquity, a tradition begun by Petrarca's generation and continued into the time of Shakespeare and Milton. Dissent[edit] Not all poets accept the idea that metre is a fundamental part of poetry. 20th-century American poets Marianne Moore, William Carlos Williams and Robinson Jeffers believed that metre was an artificial construct imposed upon poetry rather than being innate to poetry. In an essay titled "Robinson Jeffers, & The Metric Fallacy" Dan Schneider echoes Jeffers' sentiments: "What if someone actually said to you that all music was composed of just 2 notes? Or if someone claimed that there were just 2 colors in creation? Now, ponder if such a thing were true. Imagine the clunkiness & mechanicality of such music. Think of the visual arts devoid of not just color, but sepia tones, & even shades of gray." Jeffers called his technique "rolling stresses". Moore went further than Jeffers, openly declaring her poetry was written in syllabic form, and wholly denying metre. These syllabic lines from her famous poem "Poetry" illustrate her contempt for metre and other poetic tools. Even the syllabic pattern of this poem does not remain perfectly consistent: nor is it valid to discriminate against "business documents and school-books": all these phenomena are important. One must make a distinction however: when dragged into prominence by half poets, the result is not poetry Williams tried to form poetry whose subject matter was centered on the lives of common people. He came up with the concept of the variable foot. Williams spurned traditional metre in most of his poems, preferring what he called "colloquial idioms." Another poet who turned his back on traditional concepts of metre was Britain's Gerard Manley Hopkins. Hopkins' major innovation was what he called sprung rhythm. He claimed most poetry was written in this older rhythmic structure inherited from the Norman side of the English literary heritage,[citation needed] based on repeating groups of two or three syllables, with the stressed syllable falling in the same place on each repetition.[citation needed] Sprung rhythm is structured around feet with a variable number of syllables, generally between one and four syllables per foot, with the stress always falling on the first syllable in a foot. See also[edit] Foot (prosody) Generative metrics Line (poetry) List of classical metres Metre (hymn) Metre (music) Scansion Anisometric verse References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ a b c d Michael J. Cummings (2006). "metre in Poetry and Verse: A Study Guide". Cummings Study Guides. Retrieved 2010-12-07. metre is determined by the type of foot and the number of feet in a line. Thus, a line with three iambic feet is known as iambic trimeter. A line with six dactylic feet is known as dactylic hexameter. ^ Wallace, Robert (1993), Meter in English (essay) asserts that there is only one metre in English: Accentual-Syllabic. The essay is reprinted in Baker, David, ed. (1996), Meter in English, A Critical Engagement, University of Arkansas Press, ISBN 1-55728-444-X . ^ Fussell, Paul (1979) [1965], Poetic metre and Poetic Form, McGraw Hill, ISBN 0-07-553606-4 . ^ Hollander 1981, p. 5. ^ Hartman, Charles O (1996), Free Verse: An Essay on Prosody, Northwestern University Press, 1980, p. 34, ISBN 0-8101-1316-3, [quantitative metres] continue to resist importation in English . ^ Malcovati, Leonardo (2006), Prosody in England and Elsewhere: A Comparative Approach, Gival Press, ISBN 1-928589-26-X, [very] little of it is native . ^ Hollander 1981, p. 12. ^ Hollander 1981, p. 15. ^ The ballad metre commonality among a wide range of song lyrics allow words and music to be interchanged seamlessly between various songs, such as "Amazing Grace", the "Ballad of Gilligan's Isle", "House of the Rising Sun", theme from the Mickey Mouse Club, and others. ^ Boyd, Barbara Weiden (2008). "Vergil's Aeneid". Bolchazy-Carducci. ISBN 9780865165847. Retrieved 2010-12-07. Dactyl is one long two short syllables from dactyl, meaning "finger" (Greek: daktylos). ^ Elwell-Sutton, L. P. "ʿARŪŻ". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 9 March 2016. ^ Elwell-Sutton, L.P. The Persian Metres (1976). ^ Hayes, Bruce (1979) "The rhythmic sructure of Persian verse" Edebiyat 4:193-242, p. ^ Elwell-Sutton (1976) The Persian Metres, p. 162. ^ Hollander 1981, p. 22. ^ Hardison, O.B. (1999). Prosody and purpose in the English renaissance. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0801837227. ^ [1] ^ Deo, Ashwini; Kiparsky, Paul (2011). "Poetries in Contact: Arabic, Persian, and Urdu". In Maria-Kristina Lotman and Mihhail Lotman ed. Proceedings of International Conference on Frontiers in Comparative Metrics, Estonia, pp. 147–173. (See p. 156 of the pdf). ^ Andrews, p. 93. sfn error: no target: CITEREFAndrews (help) ^ Andrews, p. 134. sfn error: no target: CITEREFAndrews (help) ^ Andrews, p. 131. sfn error: no target: CITEREFAndrews (help) ^ "Metrices biblicae regulae exemplis illustratae", 1879, "Carmina Vet. Test. metrice", 1882 ^ "Leitfaden der Metrik der hebräischen Poesie", 1887 ^ The Catholic Encyclopedia s.v. Hebrew Poetry of the Old Testament calls them 'Procrustean'. ^ Fereydoon Motamed La Metrique Diatemporelle: Quantitative poetic metric analysis and pursuit of reasoning on aesthetics of linguistics and poetry in Indo-European languages. Sources[edit] Abdel-Malek, Zaki N. (2019), Towards a New Theory of Arabic Prosody, 5th edition (Revised), Posed online with free access. Andrews, Walter G (1997), Ottoman Lyric Poetry: An Anthology, ISBN 0-292-70472-0 . Ciardi, John (1959), How Does a Poem Mean?, Houghton Mifflin, ASIN B002CCGG8O . Deutsch, Babette (1957), Poetry Handbook, ISBN 978-0-06-463548-6 . Hollander, John (1981), Rhyme's Reason: A Guide to English Verse, Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-02740-0 . v t e Poetic meters Meter Monometer Dimeter Trimeter Tetrameter Hexameter Octameter Iambic heptameter Iambic pentameter Iambic tetrameter Dactyl Dactylic hexameter Trochee/Trochaic Trochaic tetrameter Basīṭ Hazaj Kāmil Mutaqārib Madīd Rajaz Tawīl Wāfir Authority control GND: 4169752-2 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Metre_(poetry)&oldid=996277448" Categories: Poetic rhythm Hidden categories: Articles containing Spanish-language text Articles containing Turkish-language text Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use British English from July 2018 Articles needing additional references from February 2009 All articles needing additional references Articles containing French-language text Articles containing Arabic-language text Articles containing Welsh-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2016 Articles with unsourced statements from February 2014 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Català Чӑвашла Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego 贛語 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Ido Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ Latina Latviešu മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu Nederlands नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский संस्कृतम् Sicilianu Simple English Slovenščina کوردی Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 25 December 2020, at 16:07 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6608	----	Anton von Werner - Wikipedia Anton von Werner From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in German. (October 2016) Click [show] for important translation instructions. Machine translation like DeepL or Google Translate is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Wikipedia. Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article. You must provide copyright attribution in the edit summary accompanying your translation by providing an interlanguage link to the source of your translation. A model attribution edit summary Content in this edit is translated from the existing German Wikipedia article at [[:de:]]; see its history for attribution. You should also add the template {{Translated page}} to the talk page. For more guidance, see Wikipedia:Translation. Anton von Werner Self portrait, 1885 Born (1843-05-09)9 May 1843 Frankfurt (Oder), Brandenburg, Kingdom of Prussia Died 4 January 1915(1915-01-04) (aged 71) Berlin, German Empire Nationality German Known for History painting Anton Alexander von Werner (9 May 1843 – 4 January 1915) was a German painter known for his history paintings of notable political and military events in the Kingdom of Prussia.[1] One of the most famous painters of his time, he is regarded a main protagonist of the Wilhelmine Period. Contents 1 Biography 2 Works 3 Works 4 Proteges and students 5 References 6 External links Biography[edit] Werner was born in Frankfurt (Oder) in the Prussian Province of Brandenburg, the son of a carpenter. His family originally came from East Prussia and was ennobled (von) in 1701. He began an apprenticeship as a decorative painter in 1857 and from 1860 onwards studied painting at the Prussian Academy of Arts in Berlin. One year later, he pursued his studies at the Academy of Fine Arts in Karlsruhe, where he studied with Johann Wilhelm Schirmer, Ludwig des Coudres, Adolf Schroedter, and Karl Friedrich Lessing. In Karlsruhe, Werner met with artists like Eduard Devrient, Johannes Brahms and Clara Schumann, Paul Heyse, and the Norwegian painter Hans Gude. The author Joseph Victor von Scheffel, who became a close friend, introduced him to Grand Duke Frederick I of Baden, and Werner illustrated several printed editions of Scheffel's works. Werner visited Paris in 1865 and again from March 1867 to July 1868, preparing the International Exposition of 1867. He was strongly influenced by the history paintings of Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, Eugène Delacroix, Ernest Meissonier, and Léon Cogniet whom he also met personally. Having obtained a travelling scholarship upon the exhibition of his early works at the International Exposition, he moved to Italy in 1868 and stayed with Anselm Feuerbach in Rome until November 1869. On his return to Baden, he received several state commissions.[2] The Proclamation of the German Empire (3rd version; 1885) Upon the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War, Werner was sent with the staff of the 3rd Corps d'Armée under the command of Prince Frederick William of Prussia in October 1870. In January 1871, he was summoned to the Prussian headquarters in Versailles[2][3] and commissioned to immortalize the proclamation of the German Empire at the Hall of Mirrors. This painting marked Werner's final breakthrough, he became acquainted with numerous German federal princes he portrayed, met with Chancellor Otto von Bismarck and Field Marshal Helmuth von Moltke, as well as with Emperor Wilhelm I. Afterwards he returned to Berlin, now the German capital, and married Malwine Schroedter, daughter of his tutor Adolf Schroedter in August 1871.[4] In Berlin, Werner designed a large velarium stretching over the Unter den Linden boulevard at the triumphant arrival of the victorious German troops. He received further public commissions to create the mural decorations in the portico of the Victory Column, whereby he used his velarium as a cartoon for an innovative stained glass mosaic. He continued to commemorate the Franco-Prussian War in several commissioned paintings. In 1873 Werner was appointed professor at the Berlin Academy.[2] His career reached its peak when he became, in 1875, director of the Academy. After 1888, while in William II's court, Werner tutored the emperor to become a painter.[1] In 1909, he succeeded Hugo von Tschudi in directing the Nationalgalerie in Berlin.[5] He died in Berlin in 1915 and was interred at the Alter Zwölf-Apostel-Kirchhof in the Schöneberg neighborhood of Berlin. Works[edit] Crown Prince Frederick Wilhelm contemplating the corpse of French general Abel Douay, 1888) Im Etappenquartier vor Paris (A Billet Outside Paris; 1894) Unveiling of the Richard Wagner Monument in the Tiergarten (1908) Werner's more important works include The Capitulation of Sedan, Proclamation of the German Empire at Versailles, Moltke before Paris, Moltke at Versailles, The Meeting of Bismarck and Napoleon III, Christ and the Tribute Money, William I visiting the Tombs, The Congress of Berlin, and some decorations executed in mosaic for the Berlin Victory Column. Werner's work is chiefly interesting for the historic value of his pictures of the events of the Franco-Prussian War.[2] Werner was good friends with Norwegian painter Hans Gude whom he met at the Karlsruhe school, and whom he would later work with at the Berlin Academy.[6] Gude wrote of Werner in 1873, Even then [Werner] manifested a versatile and rich talent, besides incredible assiduity and capacity for work; he was one of the best on our side. He was also tireless in inventing all sorts of high jinks to amuse us on the Sunday afternoons when the entire group assembled. — Hans Gude[6] Works[edit] Martin Luther at Worms (1877) 1864 Kinderkopf im Profil (Child's Head in Profile) 1867 Kauernder Jüngling (Crouching Boy) 1872 Allegorie auf die Entstehung der deutschen Einheit (eine Vorstudie zum Mosaik an der Siegessäule in Berlin) 1873 Husar und älterer Offizier (Hussar and An Older Officer) 1877 Die Proklamation des Deutschen Kaiserreiches (The Proclamation of the German Empire). Destroyed in World War II; another version was painted in 1885 1879 Taufe in meinem Hause (Baptism in My House) 1881 Wilhelm I of Prussia at the sarcophagus of his mother Queen Louise in the Charlottenburg Mausoleum (July 19, 1870) 1883 Sedan Panorama 1886 Kaiserin Gigi 1888 Frederick III contemplating the corpse of French general Abel Douay 1893 Man with newspaper", oil on wood, private collection 1894 Im Etappenquartier vor Paris Proteges and students[edit] One of his students at the Prussian Academy of Arts was Emil Fuchs;[7] another was August von Brandis. References[edit] ^ a b Fulbrook, Mary and John Breuilly (1997) German History Since 1800 "Oxford University Press US". 640 p. ISBN 0-340-69200-6. ^ a b c d  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Werner, Anton Alexander von". Encyclopædia Britannica. 28 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 523. This work in turn cites: Kunst für Alle, vol. i Knackfuss, Künstler-Monographieen, No. 9 ^ Biographie:Anton von Werner, 1843-1915, "German Historical Museum" accessed on May 2, 2006. ^ Dr. Joachim Reinhardt, Anton von Werner "Dr. Joachim Reinhardt" accessed on May 2, 2006. ^ Malyon, John. ART / 4 / 2Day "Estate of Bernard Safran". accessed on May 2, 2006. ^ a b Haverkamp, Frode. Hans Fredrik Gude: From National Romanticism to Realism in Landscape (in Norwegian). trans. Joan Fuglesang. ^ Quoted on Tate website: Ronald Alley, Catalogue of the Tate Gallery's Collection of Modern Art other than Works by British Artists, Tate Gallery and Sotheby Parke-Bernet, London 1981, pp.227-8 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Anton von Werner. "Werner, Anton von" . The American Cyclopædia. 1879. Authority control BNF: cb12064253s (data) CANTIC: a11092087 GND: 118932756 ISNI: 0000 0000 6675 1668 LCCN: n85044454 NKC: mzk2003202436 NLI: 000467879 NTA: 070737274 RKD: 83691 SELIBR: 252606 SNAC: w60310sj SUDOC: 028903218 ULAN: 500010971 VIAF: 13106560 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n85044454 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anton_von_Werner&oldid=994167386" Categories: 1843 births 1915 deaths People from Frankfurt (Oder) 19th-century German painters German male painters German history painters 20th-century German painters German people of the Franco-Prussian War People from the Province of Brandenburg 19th-century war artists German war artists Prussian Academy of Arts faculty Prussian Academy of Arts alumni Members of the Bavarian Maximilian Order for Science and Art 19th-century male artists Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica CS1 Norwegian-language sources (no) Articles to be expanded from October 2016 All articles to be expanded Articles needing translation from German Wikipedia Articles with hCards Pages using infobox artist with unknown parameters Commons link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from The American Cyclopaedia Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from The American Cyclopaedia with a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RKDartists identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Bosanski Català Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Français Italiano Latina Latviešu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Português Română Русский Suomi Svenska Türkçe 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 December 2020, at 12:06 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6646	----	Pliny the Elder - Wikipedia Pliny the Elder From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 1st century Roman military commander and writer Pliny the Elder Gaius Plinius Secundus Statue of Pliny the Elder on the facade of Cathedral of S. Maria Maggiore in Como Born AD 23 or 24 Novum Comum (Como), Roman Italy, Roman Empire Died AD 79 (aged 55 or 56) Stabiae, Campania, Roman Empire Citizenship Roman Education Rhetoric, grammar Occupation Lawyer, author, natural philosopher, naturalist, military commander, provincial governor Notable work Naturalis Historia Children Pliny the Younger (nephew, later adopted son) Parent(s) Gaius Plinius Celer and Marcella Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/24 – 79), called Pliny the Elder (/ˈplɪni/),[1] was a Roman author, a naturalist and natural philosopher, a naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of emperor Vespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic Naturalis Historia ("Natural History"), which became an editorial model for encyclopedias. He spent most of his spare time studying, writing, and investigating natural and geographic phenomena in the field. His nephew, Pliny the Younger, wrote of him in a letter to the historian Tacitus: For my part I deem those blessed to whom, by favour of the gods, it has been granted either to do what is worth writing of, or to write what is worth reading; above measure blessed those on whom both gifts have been conferred. In the latter number will be my uncle, by virtue of his own and of your compositions.[2] Among Pliny's greatest works was the twenty-volume work, Bella Germaniae ("The History of the German Wars"), which is no longer extant. Bella Germaniae, which began where Aufidius Bassus' Libri Belli Germanici ("The War with the Germans") left off, was used as a source by other prominent Roman historians, including Plutarch, Tacitus and Suetonius. Tacitus — who most scholars agree had never travelled in Germania — used Bella Germaniae as the primary source for his work, De origine et situ Germanorum ("On the Origin and Situation of the Germans").[3] Pliny the Elder died in AD 79 in Stabiae while attempting the rescue of a friend and his family by ship from the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, which had already destroyed the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum.[4] The wind caused by the sixth and largest pyroclastic surge of the volcano's eruption did not allow his ship to leave port, and Pliny died during that event, probably by exposure to volcanic fallout.[5] Contents 1 Life and times 1.1 Background 1.2 Student and lawyer 1.3 Junior officer 1.4 Literary interlude 1.5 Senior officer 1.6 Noted author 2 "Natural History" 3 Death 4 See also 5 References 6 Sources 6.1 Secondary material 7 External links Life and times[edit] Background[edit] One of the Xanten Horse-Phalerae located in the British Museum, measuring 10.5 cm (4.1 in).[6] It bears an inscription formed from punched dots: PLINIO PRAEF EQ; i.e. Plinio praefecto equitum, "Pliny prefect of cavalry". It was perhaps issued to every man in Pliny's unit. The figure is the bust of the emperor. Pliny's dates are pinned to the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79 and a statement by his nephew that he died in his 56th year, which would put his birth in AD 23 or 24. Pliny was the son of an equestrian Gaius Plinius Celer and his wife Marcella. Neither the younger nor the elder Pliny mention the names. Their ultimate source is a fragmentary inscription (CIL V 1 3442) found in a field in Verona and recorded by the 16th-century Augustinian monk Onofrio Panvinio. The form is an elegy. The most commonly accepted reconstruction is PLINIVS SECVNDVS AVGV. LERI. PATRI. MATRI. MARCELLAE. TESTAMENTO FIERI IVSSO The Vs represent Us. It should say Plinius Secundus augur ordered this to be made as a testament to his father [Ce]ler and his mother [Grania] Marcella The actual words are fragmentary. The reading of the inscription depends on the reconstruction,[7] but in all cases the names come through. Whether he was an augur and whether she was named Grania Marcella are less certain.[8] Jean Hardouin presents a statement from an unknown source that he claims was ancient, that Pliny was from Verona and that his parents were Celer and Marcella.[9] Hardouin also cites the conterraneity (see below) of Catullus.[7] City and Lake of Como, painted by Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot, 1834 How the inscription got to Verona is unknown, but it could have arrived by dispersal of property from Pliny the Younger's then Tuscan (now Umbrian) estate at Colle Plinio, north of Città di Castello, identified with certainty by his initials in the roof tiles. He kept statues of his ancestors there. Pliny the Elder was born at Como, not at Verona: it is only as a native of old Gallia Transpadana that he calls Catullus of Verona his conterraneus, or fellow-countryman, not his municeps, or fellow-townsman.[10][11] A statue of Pliny on the façade of the Como Cathedral celebrates him as a native son. He had a sister, Plinia, who married into the Caecilii and was the mother of his nephew, Pliny the Younger, whose letters describe his work and study regimen in detail. In one of his letters to Tacitus (avunculus meus), Pliny the Younger details how his uncle's breakfasts would be light and simple (levis et facilis) following the customs of our forefathers (veterum more interdiu). Pliny the Younger wanted to convey that Pliny the Elder was a "good Roman", which means that he maintained the customs of the great Roman forefathers. This statement would have pleased Tacitus. Two inscriptions identifying the hometown of Pliny the Younger as Como take precedence over the Verona theory. One (CIL V 5262) commemorates the younger's career as the imperial magistrate and details his considerable charitable and municipal expenses on behalf of the people of Como. Another (CIL V 5667) identifies his father Lucius' village as present-day Fecchio (tribe Oufentina), a hamlet of Cantù, near Como. Therefore, Plinia likely was a local girl and Pliny the Elder, her brother, was from Como.[12] Gaius was a member of the Plinia gens: the Insubric root Plina still persists, with rhotacism, in the local surname "Prina". He did not take his father's cognomen, Celer, but assumed his own, Secundus. As his adopted son took the same cognomen, Pliny founded a branch, the Plinii Secundi. The family was prosperous; Pliny the Younger's combined inherited estates made him so wealthy that he could found a school and a library, endow a fund to feed the women and children of Como, and own multiple estates around Rome and Lake Como, as well as enrich some of his friends as a personal favor. No earlier instances of the Plinii are known. In 59 BC, only about 82 years before Pliny's birth, Julius Caesar founded Novum Comum (reverting to Comum) as a colonia to secure the region against the Alpine tribes, whom he had been unable to defeat. He imported a population of 4,500 from other provinces to be placed in Comasco and 500 aristocratic Greeks to found Novum Comum itself.[13] The community was thus multi-ethnic and the Plinies could have come from anywhere. Whether any conclusions can be drawn from Pliny's preference for Greek words, or Julius Pokorny's derivation of the name from north Italic as "bald"[14] is a matter of speculative opinion. No record of any ethnic distinctions in Pliny's time is apparent — the population considered themselves to be Roman citizens. Pliny the Elder did not marry and had no children. In his will, he adopted his nephew, which entitled the latter to inherit the entire estate. The adoption is called a "testamental adoption" by writers on the topic, who assert that it applied to the name change only, but Roman jurisprudence recognizes no such category. Pliny the Younger thus became the adopted son of Pliny the Elder after the latter's death.[15] For at least some of the time, however, Pliny the Elder resided in the same house in Misenum with his sister and nephew (whose husband and father, respectively, had died young); they were living there when Pliny the Elder decided to investigate the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, and was sidetracked by the need for rescue operations and a messenger from his friend asking for assistance. Student and lawyer[edit] Pliny's father took him to Rome to be educated in lawmaking.[16] Pliny relates that he saw Marcus Servilius Nonianus. Junior officer[edit] In AD 46, at about age 23, Pliny entered the army as a junior officer, as was the custom for young men of equestrian rank. Ronald Syme, Plinian scholar, reconstructs three periods at three ranks.[17][18] Pliny's interest in Roman literature attracted the attention and friendship of other men of letters in the higher ranks, with whom he formed lasting friendships. Later, these friendships assisted his entry into the upper echelons of the state; however, he was trusted for his knowledge and ability, as well. According to Syme, he began as a praefectus cohortis, a "commander of a cohort" (an infantry cohort, as junior officers began in the infantry), under Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo, himself a writer (whose works did not survive) in Germania Inferior. In AD 47, he took part in the Roman conquest of the Chauci and the construction of the canal between the rivers Maas and Rhine.[16] His description of the Roman ships anchored in the stream overnight having to ward off floating trees has the stamp of an eyewitness account.[19] Map of Castra Vetera, a large permanent base (castra stativa) of Germania Inferior, where Pliny spent the last of his 10-year term as a cavalry commander: The proximity of a naval base there means that he trained also in ships, as the Romans customarily trained all soldiers in all arms whenever possible. The location is on the lower Rhine River. At some uncertain date, Pliny was transferred to the command of Germania Superior under Publius Pomponius Secundus with a promotion to military tribune,[17] which was a staff position, with duties assigned by the district commander. Pomponius was a half-brother of Corbulo.[20] They had the same mother, Vistilia, a powerful matron of the Roman upper classes, who had seven children by six husbands, some of whom had imperial connections, including a future empress. Pliny's assignments are not clear, but he must have participated in the campaign against the Chatti of AD 50, at age 27, in his fourth year of service. Associated with the commander in the praetorium, he became a familiar and close friend of Pomponius, who also was a man of letters. At another uncertain date, Pliny was transferred back to Germania Inferior. Corbulo had moved on, assuming command in the east. This time, Pliny was promoted to praefectus alae, "commander of a wing", responsible for a cavalry battalion of about 480 men.[21] He spent the rest of his military service there. A decorative phalera, or piece of harness, with his name on it has been found at Castra Vetera, modern Xanten, then a large Roman army and naval base on the lower Rhine.[17] Pliny's last commander there, apparently neither a man of letters nor a close friend of his, was Pompeius Paullinus, governor of Germania Inferior AD 55–58.[22] Pliny relates that he personally knew Paulinus to have carried around 12,000 pounds of silver service on which to dine on campaign against the Germans (a practice which would not have endeared him to the disciplined Pliny).[23] According to his nephew,[21] during this period, he wrote his first book (perhaps in winter quarters when more spare time was available), a work on the use of missiles on horseback, De Jaculatione Equestri ("On the Use of the Dart by Cavalry").[16] It has not survived, but in "Natural History", he seems to reveal at least part of its content, using the movements of the horse to assist the javelin-man in throwing missiles while astride its back.[24] During this period, he also dreamed that the spirit of Drusus Nero begged him to save his memory from oblivion.[21] The dream prompted Pliny to begin forthwith a history of all the wars between the Romans and the Germans,[16] which he did not complete for some years. Colossal head of Titus, son of Vespasian. Glyptothek, Munich Literary interlude[edit] At the earliest time Pliny could have left the service, Nero, the last of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, had been emperor for two years. He did not leave office until AD 68, when Pliny was 45 years old. During that time, Pliny did not hold any high office or work in the service of the state. In the subsequent Flavian dynasty, his services were in such demand that he had to give up his law practice, which suggests that he had been trying not to attract the attention of Nero, who was a dangerous acquaintance. Under Nero, Pliny lived mainly in Rome. He mentions the map of Armenia and the neighbourhood of the Caspian Sea, which was sent to Rome by the staff of Corbulo in 58.[25][16] He also witnessed the construction of Nero's Domus Aurea or "Golden House" after the Great Fire of Rome in 64.[26] Besides pleading law cases, Pliny wrote, researched, and studied. His second published work was "The Life of Pomponius Secundus," a two-volume biography of his old commander, Pomponius Secundus.[21] Meanwhile, he was completing his monumental work Bella Germaniae, the only authority expressly quoted in the first six books of the Annales of Tacitus,[16] and probably one of the principal authorities for the same author's Germania.[3] It disappeared in favor of the writings of Tacitus (which are far shorter), and, early in the fifth century, Symmachus had little hope of finding a copy.[27] Like Caligula, Nero seemed to grow gradually more insane as his reign progressed. Pliny devoted much of his time to writing on the comparatively safe subjects of grammar and rhetoric.[16] He published a three-book, six-volume educational manual on rhetoric, entitled Studiosus, "The Student". Pliny the Younger says of it: "The orator is trained from his very cradle and perfected."[21] It was followed by eight books entitled Dubii sermonis,[16] "Of Doubtful Phraseology". These are both now lost works. His nephew relates: "He wrote this under Nero, in the last years of his reign, when every kind of literary pursuit which was in the least independent or elevated had been rendered dangerous by servitude." In 68, Nero no longer had any friends and supporters. He committed suicide, and the reign of terror was at an end, as was the interlude in Pliny's obligation to the state. Senior officer[edit] Bust of Vespasian, Pushkin Museum, Moscow At the end of AD 69, after a year of civil war consequent on the death of Nero, Vespasian, a successful general, became emperor. Like Pliny, he had come from the equestrian class, rising through the ranks of the army and public offices and defeating the other contenders for the highest office. His main tasks were to re-establish peace under imperial control and to place the economy on a sound footing. He needed in his administration all the loyalty and assistance he could find. Pliny, apparently trusted without question, perhaps (reading between the lines) recommended by Vespasian's son Titus, was put to work immediately and was kept in a continuous succession of the most distinguished procuratorships, according to Suetonius.[28] A procurator was generally a governor of an imperial province. The empire was perpetually short of, and was always seeking, officeholders for its numerous offices. Throughout the latter stages of Pliny's life, he maintained good relations with Emperor Vespasian. As is written in the first line of Pliny the Younger's Avunculus Meus: Ante lucem ibat ad Vespasianum imperatorem (nam ille quoque noctibus utebatur), deinde ad officium sibi delegatum. Before dawn he was going to Emperor Vespasian (for he also made use of the night), then he did the other duties assigned to him. In this passage, Pliny the Younger conveys to Tacitus that his uncle was ever the academic, always working. The word ibat (imperfect, "he used to go") gives a sense of repeated or customary action. In the subsequent text, he mentions again how most of his uncle's day was spent working, reading, and writing. He notes that Pliny "was indeed a very ready sleeper, sometimes dropping off in the middle of his studies and then waking up again."[29] A definitive study of the procuratorships of Pliny was compiled by the classical scholar Friedrich Münzer, which was reasserted by Ronald Syme and became a standard reference point. Münzer hypothesized four procuratorships, of which two are certainly attested and two are probable but not certain. However, two does not satisfy Suetonius' description of a continuous succession.[30] Consequently, Plinian scholars present two to four procuratorships, the four comprising (i) Gallia Narbonensis in 70, (ii) Africa in 70–72, (iii) Hispania Tarraconensis in 72–74, and (iv) Gallia Belgica in 74–76. According to Syme, Pliny may have been "successor to Valerius Paulinus", procurator of Gallia Narbonensis (southeastern France), early in AD 70. He seems to have a "familiarity with the provincia", which, however, might otherwise be explained.[31] For example, he says[32] In the cultivation of the soil, the manners and civilization of the inhabitants, and the extent of its wealth, it is surpassed by none of the provinces, and, in short, might be more truthfully described as a part of Italy than as a province. denoting a general popular familiarity with the region. Oasis at Gabès Pliny certainly spent some time in Africa Province, most likely as a procurator.[33] Among other events or features that he saw are the provoking of rubetae, poisonous toads (Bufonidae), by the Psylli;[34] the buildings made with molded earthen walls, "superior in solidity to any cement;"[35] and the unusual, fertile seaside oasis of Gabès (then Tacape), Tunisia, currently a World Heritage Site.[36] Syme assigns the African procuratorship to AD 70-72. The procuratorship of Hispania Tarraconensis was next. A statement by Pliny the Younger that his uncle was offered 400,000 sesterces for his manuscripts by Larcius Licinius while he (Pliny the Elder) was procurator of Hispania makes it the most certain of the three.[21] Pliny lists the peoples of "Hither Hispania", including population statistics and civic rights (modern Asturias and Gallaecia). He stops short of mentioning them all for fear of "wearying the reader".[37] As this is the only geographic region for which he gives this information, Syme hypothesizes that Pliny contributed to the census of Hither Hispania conducted in 73/74 by Vibius Crispus, legate from the Emperor, thus dating Pliny's procuratorship there.[38] Las Médulas, Spain, site of a large Roman mine During his stay in Hispania, he became familiar with the agriculture and especially the gold mines of the north and west of the country.[39] His descriptions of the various methods of mining appear to be eyewitness judging by the discussion of gold mining methods in his "Natural History". He might have visited the mine excavated at Las Médulas. The Porta Nigra Roman gate, Trier, Germany The last position of procurator, an uncertain one, was of Gallia Belgica, based on Pliny's familiarity with it. The capital of the province was Augusta Treverorum (Trier), named for the Treveri surrounding it. Pliny says that in "the year but one before this" a severe winter killed the first crops planted by the Treviri; they sowed again in March and had "a most abundant harvest."[40] The problem is to identify "this", the year in which the passage was written. Using 77 as the date of composition Syme[41] arrives at AD 74-75 as the date of the procuratorship, when Pliny is presumed to have witnessed these events. The argument is based entirely on presumptions; nevertheless, this date is required to achieve Suetonius' continuity of procuratorships, if the one in Gallia Belgica occurred. Pliny was allowed home (Rome) at some time in AD 75–76. He was presumably at home for the first official release of "Natural History" in 77. Whether he was in Rome for the dedication of Vespasian's Temple of Peace in the Forum in 75, which was in essence a museum for display of art works plundered by Nero and formerly adorning the Domus Aurea, is uncertain, as is his possible command of the vigiles (night watchmen), a lesser post. No actual post is discernible for this period. On the bare circumstances, he was an official agent of the emperor in a quasiprivate capacity. Perhaps he was between posts. In any case, his appointment as commander of the imperial fleet at Misenum[42] took him there, where he resided with his sister and nephew. Vespasian died of disease on June 23, 79. Pliny outlived him by two months. Noted author[edit] During Nero's reign of terror, Pliny avoided working on any writing that would attract attention to himself. His works on oratory in the last years of Nero's reign (67, 68) focused on form rather than on content. He began working on content again probably after Vespasian's rule began in AD 69, when the terror clearly was over and would not be resumed. It was to some degree reinstituted (and later cancelled by his son Titus) when Vespasian suppressed the philosophers at Rome, but not Pliny, who was not among them, representing, as he says, something new in Rome, an encyclopedist (certainly, a venerable tradition outside Italy). In his next work, Bella Germaniae, Pliny completed the history which Aufidius Bassus left unfinished. Pliny's continuation of Bassus's History was one of the authorities followed by Suetonius and Plutarch.[16] Tacitus also cites Pliny as a source. He is mentioned concerning the loyalty of Burrus, commander of the Praetorian Guard, whom Nero removed for disloyalty.[43] Tacitus portrays parts of Pliny's view of the Pisonian conspiracy to kill Nero and make Piso emperor as "absurd"[44] and mentions that he could not decide whether Pliny's account or that of Messalla was more accurate concerning some of the details of the Year of the Four Emperors.[45] Evidently Pliny's extension of Bassus extended at least from the reign of Nero to that of Vespasian. Pliny seems to have known it was going to be controversial, as he deliberately reserved it for publication after his death:[16] It has been long completed and its accuracy confirmed; but I have determined to commit the charge of it to my heirs, lest I should have been suspected, during my lifetime, of having been unduly influenced by ambition. By this means I confer an obligation on those who occupy the same ground with myself; and also on posterity, who, I am aware, will contend with me, as I have done with my predecessors.[46] "Natural History"[edit] Main article: Natural History (Pliny) Pliny's last work, according to his nephew, was the Naturalis Historia ("Natural History"), an encyclopedia into which he collected much of the knowledge of his time.[21] It comprised 37 books. His sources were personal experience, his own prior works (such as the work on Germania), and extracts from other works. These extracts were collected in the following manner: One servant would read aloud, and another would write the extract as dictated by Pliny. He is said to have dictated extracts while taking a bath. In winter, he furnished the copier with gloves and long sleeves so his writing hand would not stiffen with cold (Pliny the Younger in avunculus meus). His extract collection finally reached about 160 volumes, which Larcius Licinius, the Praetorian legate of Hispania Tarraconensis, vainly offered to purchase for 400,000 sesterces.[21] That would have been in 73/74 (see above). Pliny bequeathed the extracts to his nephew. When composition of "Natural History" began is unknown. Since he was preoccupied with his other works under Nero and then had to finish the history of his times, he is unlikely to have begun before 70. The procuratorships offered the ideal opportunity for an encyclopedic frame of mind. The date of an overall composition cannot be assigned to any one year. The dates of different parts must be determined, if they can, by philological analysis (the post mortem of the scholars). Laocoon and his Sons, a sculpture admired by Pliny The closest known event to a single publication date, that is, when the manuscript was probably released to the public for borrowing and copying, and was probably sent to the Flavians, is the date of the Dedication in the first of the 37 books. It is to the imperator Titus. As Titus and Vespasian had the same name, Titus Flavius Vespasianus, earlier writers hypothesized a dedication to Vespasian. Pliny's mention of a brother (Domitian) and joint offices with a father, calling that father "great", points certainly to Titus.[47] Pliny also says that Titus had been consul six times.[48] The first six consulships of Titus were in 70, 72, 74, 75, 76, and 77, all conjointly with Vespasian, and the seventh was in 79. This brings the date of the Dedication probably to 77. In that year, Vespasian was 68. He had been ruling conjointly with Titus for some years.[47] The title imperator does not indicate that Titus was sole emperor, but was awarded for a military victory, in this case that in Jerusalem in 70.[49] Aside from minor finishing touches, the work in 37 books was completed in AD 77.[50] That it was written entirely in 77 or that Pliny was finished with it then cannot be proved. Moreover, the dedication could have been written before publication, and it could have been published either privately or publicly earlier without the dedication. The only certain fact is that Pliny did no further work on it after AD 79. "Natural History" is one of the largest single works to have survived from the Roman Empire and purports to cover the entire field of ancient knowledge, based on the best authorities available to Pliny. He claims to be the only Roman ever to have undertaken such a work. It encompasses the fields of botany, zoology, astronomy, geology, and mineralogy, as well as the exploitation of those resources. It remains a standard work for the Roman period and the advances in technology and understanding of natural phenomena at the time. His discussions of some technical advances are the only sources for those inventions, such as hushing in mining technology or the use of water mills for crushing or grinding grain. Much of what he wrote about has been confirmed by archaeology. It is virtually the only work that describes the work of artists of the time, and is a reference work for the history of art. As such, Pliny's approach to describing the work of artists was to inform Lorenzo Ghiberti in writing his commentaries and Giorgio Vasari who wrote the celebrated Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects. The work became a model for all later encyclopedias in terms of the breadth of subject matter examined, the need to reference original authors, and a comprehensive index list of the contents. It is the only work by Pliny to have survived, and the last that he published, lacking a final revision at his sudden and unexpected death in the AD 79 eruption of Mount Vesuvius. Death[edit] Plaster casts of the casualties from pyroclastic surges, whose remains vanished, leaving cavities in the pumice at Pompeii Pliny, who had been appointed praefectus classis in the Roman navy by Vespasian, was stationed with the fleet at Misenum at the time of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius.[42] He organized and led a rescue mission upon receiving a message from his friend Rectina, who had been left stranded in Stabiae during the eruption. Pliny boarded one of several galleys that he dispatched across the Gulf of Naples to Stabiae.[2] As Pliny's vessel approached the shore near Herculaneum, cinders and pumice began to fall on it. The helmsman advised turning back, to which Pliny replied, "Fortune favours the bold; steer to where Pomponianus is." Upon reaching Stabiae, they found Senator Pomponianus, but the same winds that brought them there prevented them from leaving. The group waited for the wind to abate, but they decided to leave later that evening for fear their houses would collapse. The group fled when a plume of hot toxic gases engulfed them. Pliny (a corpulent man who suffered from a chronic respiratory condition, possibly asthma) however was left behind, as he had died from asphyxiation caused by the toxic gases. Upon the group's return three days later after the plume had dispersed, Pliny's body was found, with no apparent external injuries.[2] 27 years later, upon a request from Tacitus, Pliny the Younger provided an account (obtained from the survivors from Stabiae) of his uncle's death.[2][21][16] Suetonius wrote that Pliny approached the shore only from scientific interest and then asked a slave to kill him to avoid heat from the volcano.[51] Jacob Bigelow, after summarizing the information about Pliny's death contained in Pliny the Younger's letter to Tacitus, concluded that Pliny had died from apoplexy or heart disease.[52] In 1967, science historian Conway Zirkle similarly stated that "there is widespread and persisting misinformation" about Pliny's death. He suggested that despite his rescue attempt, Pliny never came within miles of Mount Vesuvius and no evidence has been found that shows he died from breathing in fumes, and like Bigelow, concluded that he died of a heart attack.[53] See also[edit] Plinian eruption Plinius, lunar crater References[edit] ^ Melvyn Bragg (8 Jul 2010). "Pliny the Elder". In Our Time (Podcast). BBC Radio 4. Retrieved 26 Jan 2020. ^ a b c d Pliny the Younger. "VI.16 To Tacitus". Letters. ^ a b Gudeman, Alfred (1900). "The Sources of the Germania of Tacitus". Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association. 31: 93–111. doi:10.2307/282642. JSTOR 282642. ^ Katherine J. Wu (January 27, 2020). "This 2,000-Year-Old Skull May Belong to Pliny the Elder". Smithsonian Magazine. ^ Francis, Peter & Oppenheimer, Clive (2004). Volcanoes. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-925469-9. ^ "Military horse trapping inscribed with the name of Pliny the Elder". The British Museum: Highlights. Archived from the original on 2013-12-03. ^ a b Gaius Plinius Secundus; Jean Harduin (commentator) (1827). "Ad Pliniam Vitam Excursus I: de Plinii Patria". Caii Plinii Secundi Historiae Naturalis Libri XXXVII. Bibliotheca Classica Latina (in Latin and French). 1. C. Alexandre; N.E. Lemaire (editors and contributors). Paris: Didot. pp. XLIX–L. ^ So also is the further speculation by Metello that she was the daughter of Titus, which suggests a possible connection with the Titii Pomponii on his mother's side, and a connection with the Caecilii (Celer was a cognomen used by that Gens) on his father's side: Metello, Manuel Arnao; João Carlos Metello de Nápoles (1998). Metellos de Portugal, Brasil e Roma: compilações genealógicas (in Portuguese). Lisboa: Edição Nova Arrancada. ISBN 978-972-8369-18-7. ^ Allain, Eugène (1902). Pline le Jeune et ses héritiers (in French). 3 (ouvrage illustré d'environ 100 photogravures et de 15 cartes ou plans ed.). A. Fontemoing. pp. 281–282. ^  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Charles Peter Mason (1870). "C. Plinius Secundus". In Smith, William (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 3. p. 414. ^ "I, Dedication". Natural History. if I may be allowed to shelter myself under the example of Catullus, my fellow-countryman ^ Pliny the Younger; Betty Radice (Editor, Translator, Contributor) (1969). "Appendix A: Inscriptions". The letters of the younger Pliny (6, revised, reprint, reissue, illustrated ed.). Penguin Classics. ISBN 978-0-14-044127-7.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Hardy, Ernest George (2007). "V Caesar's Colony at Novum Comum in 59 BC". Some Problems in Roman History: Ten Essays Bearing on the Administrative and Legislative Work of Julius Caesar. The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd. pp. 126–149. ISBN 978-1-58477-753-3. ^ Pokorny, Julius. "Indogermanisches Etymologisches Woerterbuch" (in German). University of Leiden. p. 834. Archived from the original on 2006-09-27. ^ Pliny the Younger; Constantine E. Prichard; Edward R. Bernard (Editors) (1896). Selected Letters. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 1.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) ^ a b c d e f g h i j k  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Sands, John Edwin (1911). "Pliny the Elder". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 841–844. ^ a b c Beagon (2005) p.3. ^ Syme (1969), p. 207. ^ "XVI.2". Natural History. Many is the time that these trees have struck our fleets with alarm, when the waves have driven them, almost purposely it would seem, against their prows as they stood at anchor in the night; and the men, destitute of all remedy and resource, have had to engage in naval combat with a forest of trees! ^ Levick, Barbara (1999). Tiberius the politician (2, revised, illustrated ed.). Routledge. p. 290. ISBN 978-0-415-21753-8. ^ a b c d e f g h i Pliny the Younger. "III.5 To Baebius Macer". Letters. ^ Griffin (1992), p. 438. ^ "XXXIII.50". Natural History. to my own knowledge, Pompeius Paulinus... had with him, when serving with the army, and that, too, in a war against the most savage nations, a service of silver plate that weighed twelve thousand pounds! ^ "VIII.65". Natural History. Those who have to use the javelin are well aware how the horse, by its exertions and the supple movements of its body, aids the rider in any difficulty he may have in throwing his weapon. ^ "VI.15". Natural History. ^ "XXXVI.24". Natural History. ^ Symmachus. "IV.18". Letters. ^ Syme (1969), p. 224. ^ Epistles, III v ^ Griffin (1992), p. 439. ^ Syme (1969), p. 225. ^ "III.5 (.4)". Natural History. ^ Syme (1969), pp. 214-215. ^ "XXV.76". Natural History. I myself have seen the Psylli, in their exhibitions, irritate them by placing them upon flat vessels made red hot, their bite being fatal more instantaneously than the sting even of the asp. ^ "XXXV.48 (14.)". Natural History. ^ "XVIII.51". Natural History. ^ "III.4 (.3) Of Nearer Spain". Natural History. ^ Syme (1969), p. 216. ^ "XXXIII.21". Natural History. Asturia, Gallæcia, and Lusitania furnish in this manner, yearly, according to some authorities, twenty thousand pounds' weight of gold, the produce of Asturia forming the major part. Indeed, there is no part of the world that for centuries has maintained such a continuous fertility in gold. ^ "XVIII.49 (.19)". Natural History. ^ Syme (1969), p. 213. ^ a b Ariel David (August 31, 2017). "Pompeii Hero Pliny the Elder May Have Been Found 2,000 Years Later". Haaretz. Tel Aviv. ^ Tacitus. "13.20". The Annals. ^ Tacitus. "15.53". The Annals. ^ Tacitus. "3.29". The Histories. ^ Pliny. "Preface, 20". Natural History. ^ a b Beagon (2005), p. 7. ^ Gaius Plinius Secundus (1855). "Book I:Dedication". The Natural History of Pliny. 1. Translated by John Bostock and Henry Thomas Riley. London: Henry G. Bohn. You, who have had the honour of a triumph, and of the censorship, have been six times consul, and have shared in the tribunate.... ^ "Roman Emperors - DIR Titus". ^ The New Encyclopædia Britannica. 14 (15 ed.). 1977. p. 572a. Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus (1914). "The Life of Pliny the Elder". In Page, T.E.; Rouse, William Henry Denham (eds.). Suetonius - The Lives of Illustrious Men. The Loeb Classical Library. II. New York: The Macmillan Company. pp. 504–5. ^ Bigelow, Jacob (1859). "On the Death of Pliny the Elder". Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. 6 (2): 223–7. doi:10.2307/25057949. JSTOR 25057949. ^ Zirkle, Conway. (1967). The Death of Gaius Plinius Secundus (23-79 A.D.). Isis 58: 553-559. Sources[edit] Beagon, Mary. (1992). Roman Nature: The Thought of Pliny the Elder. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Beagon, Mary (translator) (2005). The elder Pliny on the human animal: Natural History, Book 7. Oxford University press. ISBN 0-19-815065-2. Carey, Sorcha (2006). Pliny's Catalogue of Culture: Art and Empire in the Natural history. Oxford University press. ISBN 0-19-920765-8. Doody, Aude. (2010). Pliny's Encyclopedia: The Reception of the Natural History. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge Univ. Press. Griffin, Miriam Tamara (1992). Seneca: A Philosopher in Politics (reprint ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814774-9. Fane-Saunders, Peter. (2016). Pliny the Elder and the Emergence of Renaissance Architecture. New York: Cambridge University Press. French, Roger, and Frank Greenaway, eds. (1986). Science in the Early Roman Empire: Pliny the Elder, His Sources and Influence. London: Croom Helm. Gibson, Roy and Ruth Morello eds. (2011). Pliny the Elder: Themes and Contexts. Leiden: Brill. Healy, John F. (1999). Pliny the Elder on science and technology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814687-6. Isager, Jacob (1991). Pliny on Art and Society: The Elder Pliny's Chapters on the History of Art. London & New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-06950-5. Laehn, Thomas R. (2013). Pliny's Defense of Empire. Routledge Innovations in Political Theory. New York: Routledge. Murphy, Trevor (2004). Pliny the Elder's Natural History: the Empire in the Encyclopedia. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-926288-8. Ramosino, Laura Cotta (2004). Plinio il Vecchio e la tradizione storica di Roma nella Naturalis historia (in Italian). Alessandria: Edizioni del'Orso. ISBN 88-7694-695-0. Syme, Ronald (1969). "Pliny the Procurator". In Department of the Classics, Harvard University (ed.). Harvard studies in classical philology (illustrated ed.). Harvard University Press. pp. 201–236. ISBN 978-0-674-37919-0. Pliny the Elder; William P. Thayer (contributor). "Pliny the Elder: the Natural History" (in Latin and English). University of Chicago. Retrieved 24 May 2009. Pliny the Elder (1855). "The Natural History". John Bostock, Henry Thomas Riley (translators and editors); Gregory R. Crane (Chief editor). Taylor and Francis; Tufts University: Perseus Digital Library. Retrieved 24 May 2009. Fisher, Richard V. "Derivation of the name 'Plinian'". University of California at Santa Barbara: The Volcano Information Center. Secondary material[edit] Lendering, Jona (1996–2009). "Pliny the Elder (1)". Livius Articles on Ancient History. Retrieved 15 May 2009. Lendering, Jona (1996–2009). "Pliny the Elder (2)". Livius Articles on Ancient History. Retrieved 15 May 2009. Pearse, Roger (2013). "The manuscripts of Pliny the Elder". Tertullian.org. Retrieved 22 June 2013. 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Cott (Adaptive Coloration in Animals) Niko Tinbergen (The Study of Instinct) Konrad Lorenz (On Aggression) Karl von Frisch (The Dancing Bees) Ronald Lockley (Shearwaters) Topics Natural history museums (List) Parson-naturalists (List) Natural History Societies List of natural history dealers Authority control BIBSYS: 90258260 BNE: XX1722536 BNF: cb11887294r (data) CANTIC: a10138675 CiNii: DA00344531 GND: 118595083 HDS: 010308 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\014715 ISNI: 0000 0001 2321 3947 LCCN: n79042075 LNB: 000012071 NDL: 00452970 NKC: jn19981002000 NLA: 36557178 NLG: 62594 NLI: 000106341 NTA: 069391327 RKD: 444927 SELIBR: 196568 SNAC: w6sn19n4 SUDOC: 026668149 Trove: 1290885 ULAN: 500330558 VcBA: 495/19336 VIAF: 100219162 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79042075 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pliny_the_Elder&oldid=996766490" Categories: Ancient Roman admirals Ancient Roman antiquarians Ancient Roman soldiers Classical geography Classical Latin literature Deaths in volcanic eruptions People from Como Ancient Roman scientists Philosophers of Roman Italy Pre-Linnaean botanists Roman encyclopedists Roman-era geographers Roman-era philosophers Silver Age Latin writers 1st-century Romans 20s births 79 deaths Plinii Hidden categories: CS1 Latin-language sources (la) CS1 French-language sources (fr) CS1 Portuguese-language sources (pt) Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM with no wstitle or title parameter Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 maint: extra text: authors list Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Pages with citations lacking titles Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles with hCards Articles containing Latin-language text CS1 Italian-language sources (it) Commons link is locally defined Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with HDS identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RKDartists identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers AC with 25 elements Year of birth uncertain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Arpetan Asturianu Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Hausa Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Kiswahili Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Limburgs Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം მარგალური مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Napulitano Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Polski Português Română Rumantsch Русский Scots Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 28 December 2020, at 14:20 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6647	----	Scholia - Wikipedia Scholia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Type of comment in the manuscript of an ancient author Not to be confused with Skolion or Scoliosis. For the Wikidata project, see wikidata:Wikidata:Scholia. Scholia (singular scholium or scholion, from Ancient Greek: σχόλιον, "comment, interpretation") are grammatical, critical, or explanatory comments — original or copied from prior commentaries — which are inserted in the margin of the manuscript of ancient authors, as glosses. One who writes scholia is a scholiast. The earliest attested use of the word dates to the 1st century BC.[1] Contents 1 History 2 Important sets of scholia 2.1 Greek 2.2 Latin 3 List of ancient commentaries 4 Other uses 5 See also 6 References 6.1 Citations 6.2 Sources 7 External links History[edit] Ernst Maass, Scholia Graeca in Homeri Iliadem Townleyana (1887), a collection of scholia of Homer's Iliad. Ancient scholia are important sources of information about many aspects of the ancient world, especially ancient literary history. The earliest scholia, usually anonymous, date to the 5th or 4th century BC (such as the "a" scholia on the Iliad). The practice of compiling scholia continued to late Byzantine times, outstanding examples being Archbishop Eustathius' massive commentaries to Homer in the 12th century and the scholia recentiora of Thomas Magister and Demetrius Triclinius in the 14th. Scholia were altered by successive copyists and owners of the manuscript, and in some cases, increased to such an extent that there was no longer room for them in the margin, and it became necessary to make them into a separate work. At first, they were taken from one commentary only, subsequently from several. This is indicated by the repetition of the lemma ("headword"), or by the use of such phrases as "or thus", "alternatively", "according to some", to introduce different explanations, or by the explicit quotation of different sources. Important sets of scholia[edit] Greek[edit] The most important are those on the Homeric Iliad, especially those found in the 10th-century manuscripts discovered by Villoison in 1781 in the Biblioteca Marciana in Venice (see further Venetus A, Homeric scholarship), which are based on Aristarchus and his school.[2] The scholia on Hesiod, Pindar, Sophocles, Aristophanes and Apollonius Rhodius are also extremely important.[citation needed] Latin[edit] In Latin, the most important are those of Servius on Virgil;[3] of Acro and Porphyrio on Horace;[4] and of Donatus on Terence.[5] Also of interest are the scholia on Juvenal attached to the good manuscript P;[6] while there are also scholia on Statius,[7] especially associated with the name Lactantius Placidus.[8] List of ancient commentaries[edit] Some ancient scholia are of sufficient quality and importance to be labelled "commentaries" instead. The existence of a commercial translation is often used to distinguish between "scholia" and "commentaries". The following is a chronological list of ancient commentaries written defined as those for which commercial translations have been made: Asconius (c. 55 AD) on Cicero's Pro Scauro, In Pisonem, Pro Milone, Pro Cornelio and In Toga Candida Servius (c. 400 AD) on Virgil's Aeneid Macrobius (c. 400 AD) on Cicero's Dream of Scipio Proclus (c. 440 AD) on Plato's Parmenides and Timaeus and Euclid's Elements Boethius (c. 520 AD) on Cicero's Topics Other uses[edit] Benedict Spinoza provided his own scholia to many of the propositions in his Ethics, commentaries upon and expansions of the individual propositions, or sometimes short conclusions to sections of argumentation running over a number of propositions. In modern mathematics texts, scholia are marginal notes which may amplify a line of reasoning or compare it with proofs given earlier. A famous example is Bayes' scholium, in which he presents a justification for assuming a continuous uniform distribution for the prior of the parameter of a Bernoulli process.[9] Another famous example of a somewhat different use is to be found in Brook Taylor's Methodus Incrementorum, in which the propositions demonstrated are often followed by a scholium which further explains the significance of the proposition. Scholia is an academic journal in the field of classical studies.[10] Search engine relying on wikidata, mainly for scientific publications: Scholia Nicolás Gómez Dávila was one of the most radical critics of modernity whose work consists almost entirely of aphorisms which he called "escolios" ("glosses") of an implicit text. See also[edit] The dictionary definition of scholium at Wiktionary References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Cicero Ad Atticum 16.7. ^ J E Sandys, A Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (London 1894) p. 65 ^ J E Sandys, A Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (London 1894) p. 683 ^ A Palmer, The Satires of Horace (London 1920) p. xxxvii ^ J E Sandys, A Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (London 1894) p. 197 ^ J D Duff, Fourteen Satires of Juvenal (Cambridge 1925) p. xliii ^ R Sweeny, Prolegomena to an Edition of Scholia on Statius (1969) p. 2-8 ^ H J Rose, A Handbook of Latin Literature (1967) p. 483 ^ Murray, F. H. (February 1930). "Note on a scholium of Bayes". Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society. American Mathematical Society. 36 (2): 129–132. doi:10.1090/s0002-9904-1930-04907-1. Retrieved 3 January 2018. ^ Scholia, Scholia reviews Archived 1 July 2001 at the Wayback Machine Sources[edit] Dickey, Eleanor. Ancient Greek Scholarship: A Guide to Finding, Reading, and Understanding Scholia, Commentaries, Lexica, and Grammatical Treatises. Oxford: OUP for the APA, 2007. ISBN 0-19-531293-7. Reynolds, L.D. and N.G. Wilson. Scribes & Scholars: a Guide to the Transmission of Greek & Latin Literature, 3rd ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991. ISBN 0-19-872146-3.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Scholium". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. External links[edit] Online scholia on Euripides Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scholia&oldid=995191321" Categories: Documents Classical philology Christian genres Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from April 2012 Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2020 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español فارسی Français Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar Nederlands Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 19 December 2020, at 18:53 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6654	----	Plebeians - Wikipedia Plebeians From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Plebs) Jump to navigation Jump to search The general body of free ancient Roman citizens who were not patricians For other uses, see Plebs (spider) and Plebs (TV series). Part of a series on Ancient Rome and the fall of the Republic People Mark Antony Augustus Brutus Cato Cicero Cleopatra Clodius Pulcher Crassus Lepidus Pompey Sextus Pompey Events First Triumvirate Caesar's Civil War Assassination of Caesar Second Triumvirate Liberators' Civil War Sicilian Revolt Final War of the Roman Republic Places Caesareum Comitium Curia Julia Curia Hostilia Rostra Theatre of Pompey v t e This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Plebeians" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The plebeians, also called plebs, were, in ancient Rome, the general body of free Roman citizens who were not patricians, as determined by the census, or in other words "commoners". The precise origins of the group and the term are unclear, though it may be that they began as a limited political movement in opposition to the elite (patricians) which became more widely applied and known as the conflict of orders.[1] For more on how plebeians fit into social classes in ancient Rome, see Social class in ancient Rome. Contents 1 In ancient Rome 1.1 Noble plebeians 2 Conflict of the Orders 2.1 First Secession (494 BCE) 2.2 Second Secession (449 BCE) 2.3 Third Secession 2.4 Fifth Secession (287 BCE) 3 Life 3.1 Childhood and education 3.2 Living quarters 3.3 Attire 3.4 Meals 4 Derivatives 4.1 United States military academies 4.2 British Empire 5 In popular culture 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links In ancient Rome[edit] In Latin, the word plebs is a singular collective noun, and its genitive is plebis. Plebeians were not a monolithic social class. Those who resided in the city and were part of the 4 urban tribes are sometimes called the plebs urbana, while those who lived in the country and were part of the 31 smaller rural tribes are sometimes differentiated by using the label plebs rustica.[2] (List of Roman tribes) The origin of the separation into orders is unclear, and it is disputed when the Romans were divided under the early kings into patricians and plebeians, or whether the clientes (dependents) of the patricians formed a third group. Certain gentes ("clans") were patrician, as identified by the nomen (family name), but a gens might have both patrician and plebeian branches that shared a nomen but were distinguished by a cognomen, as was the case with the gens Claudia. The 19th-century historian Barthold Georg Niebuhr held that plebeians began to appear at Rome during the reign of Ancus Marcius and were possibly foreigners from other parts of Italy settling in Rome as naturalized citizens. In any case, at the outset of the Roman Republic, the patricians had a near monopoly on political and social institutions. Plebeians were excluded from magistracies and religious colleges, and they were not permitted to know the laws by which they were governed. Plebeians served in the army, but rarely became military leaders. Dissatisfaction with the status quo occasionally mounted to the point that the plebeians engaged in a sort of general strike, a secessio plebis, during which they would withdraw to the mountain Mons Sacer as a form of protest, leaving the patricians to themselves. From 494 to 287 BC, five such actions during the so-called "Conflict of the Orders" resulted in the establishment of plebeian offices (the tribunes and plebeian aediles), the publication of the laws (the Law of the Twelve Tables), the establishment of the right of plebeian–patrician intermarriage (by the passage of the lex Canuleia), the opening of the highest offices of government and some state priesthoods to the plebeians and passage of legislation (the lex Hortensia) that made resolutions passed by the assembly of plebeians, the concilium plebis, binding on all citizens.[3] Noble plebeians[edit] During the Second Samnite War (326–304 BC), plebeians who had risen to power through these social reforms began to acquire the aura of nobilitas ("nobility", more lit. 'notability'), marking the creation of a ruling elite of nobiles that allied the interests of patricians and noble plebeians.[4] From the mid-4th century to the early 3rd century BC, several plebeian–patrician "tickets" for the consulship repeated joint terms, suggesting a deliberate political strategy of cooperation.[5] Although nobilitas was not a formal social rank during the Republican era, in general, a plebeian who had attained the consulship was regarded as having brought nobility to his family. Such a man was a novus homo ("new man"), a self-made noble, and his sons and descendants were nobiles.[6] Marius and Cicero are notable examples of novi homines in the late Republic, when many of Rome's richest and most powerful men—such as Lucullus, Crassus, and Pompeius—were plebeian nobles. Some or perhaps many noble plebeians, including Cicero and Lucullus, aligned their political interests with the faction of Optimates, conservatives who sought to preserve senatorial prerogatives. By contrast, the Populares, which sought to champion the plebs in the sense of "common people", were sometimes led by patricians such as Julius Caesar and Clodius Pulcher.[7][8][9] Conflict of the Orders[edit] Main article: Conflict of the Orders In 494 BCE, plebeians decided it was time to revolt against patrician officials in a pacifist manner. The struggle was known as the Conflict of the Orders. This conflict lasted approximately 200 years, finally coming to a halt in 287 BCE. Even though the conflict ended, many problems continued to arise in the feud between plebs and patricians. Prior to this struggle, patricians were in control of relatively any sort of power, with plebs and slaves having no status quo, plebs decided to protest their rights going through a series of secessions known as secessio plebis (secession of the plebs). First Secession (494 BCE)[edit] Main article: First secessio plebis Due to the increasing tax on the working class with no benefits to show from it, the plebs decided to go on strike and flee to Mons Sacer. The plebs established their own assembly known as the Council of Plebs, from which 10 tribunes of plebs were elected. Their job was to protect the concerns for plebs against patrician officials.[10] Second Secession (449 BCE)[edit] Patricians were the only ones allowed to interpret early Roman law; many unwritten laws were known more as traditions due to the fact they were not made official. The decemvirs were in charge of composing new laws which did not show more significance to plebeians but was also made available to the general public. The final composition of laws would be known as the Law of Twelve Tables.[10] Third Secession[edit] Gaius Canuleius proposed a law (the Canuleian law) that granted plebeian and patricians to intermarry.[10] Fifth Secession (287 BCE)[edit] The final secession brought about a new law which would truly bring some form equality between plebs and patricians in the political offices. A new law was brought about known as Hortensian law, which banned the senate's veto of the plebeian council.[11] That brought a halt to aristocracy-based offices based on wealth. Rome was beginning to become like a democracy. Life[edit] Childhood and education[edit] Childhood for plebeians was very different compared to their patrician counterparts since they were expected to enter the workforce at a much earlier age. Plebeians typically belonged to a lower socio-economic class than their patrician counterparts, and therefore did not have as many household servants. As a result, plebeian children were responsible for maintaining the household and caring for their aging parents. Education was limited to what their parent would teach them, which consisted of only learning the very basics of writing, reading and mathematics. Wealthier plebeians were able to send their children to schools or hire a private tutor.[12] Living quarters[edit] Ruins of insulae Plebeians in ancient Rome lived in buildings called insula, apartment buildings that housed many families. These apartments usually lacked running water and heat. Not all plebeians lived in these run-down conditions, as some wealthier plebs were able to live in single-family homes, called a domus.[12] Attire[edit] Plebeian men wore a tunic with a belt at the waist, and women wore a long dress called a stola.[12] Meals[edit] Since meat was very expensive, animal products such as pork, beef and veal would have been considered a delicacy to plebeians. Instead, a plebeian diet mainly consisted of bread and vegetables. Common flavouring for their food included honey, vinegar and different herbs and spices. A well-known condiment to this day known as 'garum', which is a fish sauce was also largely consumed.[12] Derivatives[edit] United States military academies[edit] See also: Plebe Summer Plebes (first-year students) marching in front of Bancroft Hall, United States Naval Academy In the U.S. military, plebes are freshmen at the U.S. Military Academy, U.S. Naval Academy, Valley Forge Military Academy and College, the Marine Military Academy, the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy, Georgia Military College, and California Maritime Academy. The term is also used for new cadets at the Philippine Military Academy. British Empire[edit] Early public schools in the United Kingdom would enroll pupils as "plebeians", as opposed to sons of gentry and aristocrats. In British, Irish, Australian, New Zealand and South African English, the back-formation pleb, along with the more recently derived adjectival form plebby,[13] is used as a derogatory term for someone considered unsophisticated or uncultured.[14] In popular culture[edit] A British comedy show, Plebs has since 2013 followed plebeians during Ancient Rome in a comical manner.[15] See also[edit] Bread and circuses – Figure of speech referring to a superficial means of appeasement Capite censi – The lowest class of citizens of ancient Rome Plebeian Council – The principal assembly of the ancient Roman Republic Proletariat – A class of wage-earners in an economic society whose only possession of significant material value is their labour-power Roman Republic – Period of ancient Roman civilization (509–27 BC) Plebgate (aka Plodgate or Gategate), a 2012 British political scandal involving the use of the word as a slur Notes[edit] ^ See for example Momigliano, Arnaldo (1967). "Osservazioni sulla distinzione fra patrizi e plebei". In Gjerstad, Einar (ed.). Les origines de la République romaine: neuf exposés suivis de discussions. Fondation Hardt pour l'étude de l'antiquité classique. pp. 199–221. ^ Adam, Alexander. "Roman antiquities: or, An account of the manners and customs of the Romans". London, 1835. ^ https://www.britannica.com/topic/plebeian ^ E.T. Salmon, Samnium and the Samnites (Cambridge University Press, 1967), p. 217. ^ Gary Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War (University of California Press, 2005), p. 269. ^ Fergus Millar, "The Political Character of the Classical Roman Republic, 200–151 B.C.," as reprinted in Rome, the Greek World, and the East (University of North Carolina Press, 2002), p. 126; P.A. Brunt, "Nobilitas and novitas," Journal of Roman Studies 72 (1982) 1–17.< ^ Wiseman. Review: Novi Homines; Reviewed Work: New Men in the Roman Senate (Vol. 24, No. 2 (Nov., 1974) ed.). Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Classical Association. p. 261. JSTOR 708820. ^ LokiS54cero. "Novi Homines Cicero Rome Cato". SameDayPapers.me. ^ Amazon S3. "The Novus Homo: a study in politics and social mobility in ancient Rome" (PDF) (List of famous homines novi): 2. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ a b c Mathisen, Ralph W., 1947- (2019). Ancient Roman civilization : history and sources, 753 BCE to 640 CE. Based on (work): Mathisen, Ralph W., 1947-, Based on (work): Mathisen, Ralph W., 1947-. New York, NY. pp. 80–90. ISBN 978-0-19-084960-3. OCLC 1038024098.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Harris, Karen. "Secession of the Plebs: When the Peasants Went on Strike". History Daily. Retrieved 2020-04-15. ^ a b c d Karen, Harris. "Life as a Plebeian" (PDF). Retrieved 14 April 2020. ^ "plebby". Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 24 September 2012. ^ "pleb". Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 24 September 2012. ^ Plebs (TV Series 2013– ) - IMDb, retrieved 2020-04-15 References[edit] Jackson J. Spielvogel (2008). World History: Journey Across Time. New York: Glencoe/McGraw-Hill. Scott Wertsching (2008). What is a Pleb?. Rome: Glencoe/McGraw-Hill. Library resources about Plebs Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Further reading[edit] Ferenczy, Endre (1976). From the Patrician State to the Patricio-Plebeian State. Amsterdam: A.M. Hakkert. Horsfall, Nicholas (2003). The Culture of the Roman Plebs. London: Duckworth. Millar, Fergus (2002). The Crowd In Rome In the Late Republic. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Mitchell, Richard E. (1990). Patricians and plebeians: The origin of the Roman state. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Morstein-Marx, Robert (2004). Mass Oratory and Political Power in the Late Roman Republic. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511482878. ISBN 9780511482878. Mouritsen, Henrik (2001). Plebsand Politics in the Late Roman Republic. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511482885. ISBN 9780511482885. Raaflaub, Kurt A, ed. (2005). Social Struggles in Archaic Rome. doi:10.1002/9780470752753. ISBN 9780470752753. Vanderbroeck, Paul J.J. (1987). Popular leadership and collective behavior in the late Roman Republic (ca. 80–50 B.C.). Amsterdam: Gieben. Vishnia, Rachel Feig (1996). State, Society, and Popular Leaders In Mid-Republican Rome 241-167 BC. London: Routledge. Williamson, Caroline (2005). The Laws of the Roman People. doi:10.3998/mpub.15992. ISBN 9780472110537. External links[edit] Look up pleb in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, article Plebs Livius.org: Plebs Texts on Wikisource: "Plebeians". Collier's New Encyclopedia. 1921. "Plebeians". Encyclopedia Americana. 1920. "Plebs". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911. v t e Social class Status Stratum Economic classes Theories Gilbert model Marxian Mudsill theory New class Spoon class theory Weberian (three-component) Related​ topics Caste Chattering classes Class conflict Class discrimination Classicide Classless society Class society Euthenics Nouveau riche / Parvenu Poverty Ranked society Snobbery Social cleansing Social exclusion Social mobility Social orphan Social position Social stigma Subaltern By demographic By status Administrative detainee Alien illegal immigrant refugee Citizen dual or multiple native-born naturalized second-class Convicted Migrant worker Political prisoner Stateless Clique Adolescent By "collar" Blue Green Grey New Pink White By type Ruling Aristocracy Hanseaten Patrician Political Royal family Intellectual Clergy Knowledge worker Professor Warrior Harii Kshatriya Yadav Nair Chhetri Cossacks Hashashin Knight Vanniyar Samurai Cuāuh Ocēlōtl Spartiate Upper Bourgeoisie Business magnate Elite Gentry Lord Nobility Old money Overclass Robber baron Russian oligarch Seigneur Superclass Creative Bohemians Middle Lower middle class Upper middle class Bourgeoisie Petite bourgeoisie Working Working poor Proletariat Lumpenproletariat Under Ant tribe Rat tribe Commoner Outcast Outlaw / Prisoner Peasant / Serf Plebeian Slave Untouchable By country or region United States Affluence American Dream Conflict History Mobility Classes Upper Black Donor Gentry Middle Black Mexican-American Upper Middle Underprivileged Lower Under Income Household Inequality Personal Poverty Standard of living Education Homelessness Home-ownership Wealth Other regions​ or countries Africa Cambodia China Colombia Ecuador France Haiti India Iran Italy Nepal New Zealand Romania Sri Lanka Tibet United Kingdom United States Historic Ancient Greece Ancient Rome Aztec Ottoman Empire Soviet Union Pre-industrial East Asia Pre-industrial Europe Category Authority control LCCN: sh85103443 NDL: 00575632 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plebeians&oldid=995564520" Categories: Social classes in ancient Rome Social history of the United Kingdom Class-related slurs Hidden categories: CS1 errors: missing periodical CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles needing additional references from February 2018 All articles needing additional references Articles containing Latin-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from Collier's Encyclopedia Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the Encyclopedia Americana with a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Қазақша Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски മലയാളം مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русиньскый Русский Scots Seeltersk Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська 吴语 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 21 December 2020, at 19:08 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6661	----	Nicolaus of Damascus - Wikipedia Nicolaus of Damascus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Nicolaus of Damascus (Greek: Νικόλαος Δαμασκηνός, Nikolāos Damaskēnos; Latin: Nicolaus Damascenus) was a Jewish historian and philosopher who lived during the Augustan age of the Roman Empire. His name is derived from that of his birthplace, Damascus. He was born around 64 BC.[1] Nicolaus is known to have had a brother named Ptolemy, who served in the court of Herod as a type of book-keeper or accountant. He was an intimate friend of Herod the Great, whom he survived by a number of years. He was also the tutor of the children of Mark Antony and Cleopatra (born in c.68 BC), according to Sophronius.[2] He went to Rome with Herod Archelaus, to defend the young man's claim to the throne upon the death of his father Herod the Great.[3] Given that Book 4 of his History was on Abraham, Nicolaus was most likely a Jew, though one who had been thoroughly Hellenised. As such, he may well have known his contemporary Philo of Alexandria. Since Nicolaus wrote a work On the Psyche, he may well have been, like Philo, in the school of the Pythagoreans or Platonists and been part of the syncretisation of Judaic monotheism with the monotheism (the Monad/The Good) of those two schools. His output was vast, but is nearly all lost. His chief work was a universal history in 144 books. He also wrote an autobiography, a life of Augustus, a life of Herod, some philosophical works, and some tragedies and comedies. There is an article on him in the Suda.[4] Contents 1 History 2 Life of Augustus 3 Autobiography 4 Compendium on Aristotle 5 On the Psyche 6 On Plants 7 Other works 8 The Embassy of an Indian King to Augustus 9 References 10 Sources 11 External links History[edit] Towards the end of his life he composed a universal history in 144 books,[5] although the Suda mentions only 80 books. But references to books 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, (8), 96, 103, 104, 107, 108, 110, 114, 123 and 124 are known.[6] Extensive fragments of the first seven books are preserved in quotation in the Excerpta compiled at the order of Constantine Porphyrogenitus.[7] These cover the history of the Assyrians, Medes, Greeks, Lydians, and Persians, and are important also for Biblical history. Josephus probably used this work for his history of Herod (Ant. 15-17) because where Nicolaus stops, in the reign of Herod Archelaus, the account of Josephus suddenly becomes more cursory.[8] For portions dealing with Greek myth and oriental history he was dependent on other, now lost works, of variable quality. Where he relied on Ctesias, the value of his work is slim. Robert Drews has written: Classical scholars are agreed that Nicolaus's history of the East, and especially his story of Cyrus, was taken from Ctesias's Persica, a work written early in the fourth century B.C. This work has with justification been denounced by both Assyriologists and classicists as a totally unreliable guide to Mesopotamian history.[9] Life of Augustus[edit] We have considerable remains of two works of his old age; a life of Augustus, and his own life. He wrote a Life of Augustus (Bios Kaisaros), which seems to have been completed after the death of the emperor in AD 14, when Nicolaus was 78. Two long chunks remain, the first concerning Octavius' youth, the second Caesar's assassination.[8] Autobiography[edit] He also wrote an autobiography, the date of which is uncertain. It mentions that he wanted to retire, in 4 BC, but was persuaded to travel with Herod Archelaus to Rome. The fragments that remain deal mainly with Jewish history.[8] Compendium on Aristotle[edit] He composed commentaries on Aristotle. A compendium of excerpts from these is extant in a Syriac manuscript discovered in Cambridge in 1901, (shelfmark Gg. 2. 14). This dates later than 1400, was acquired by Cambridge in 1632, and is very tatty and disarranged. The majority of the manuscript is a work by Dionysius Bar Salibi.[10] The work was probably written in Rome ca. AD 1, when he attracted criticism for being too involved in philosophy to court the wealthy and powerful.[11] On the Psyche[edit] Porphyrius in On the Faculties of the Soul mentions that Nicolaus of Damascus wrote a book On the Psyche, which stated that the division of the psyche-soul was not founded on quantity, but on quality, like the division of an art or a science. Clearly, by ‘parts’ of the psyche-soul, Nicolaus meant its different faculties.[12] On Plants[edit] Main article: On Plants An Arabic translation of his work De Plantis, once attributed to Aristotle, was discovered in Istanbul in 1923. It also exists in a Syriac manuscript at Cambridge.[13] Other works[edit] He composed some tragedies and comedies, which are now lost.[7] The Embassy of an Indian King to Augustus[edit] One of the most famous passages is his account of an embassy sent by an Indian king "named Pandion (Pandyan kingdom) or, according to others, Porus" to Augustus around AD 13. He met with the embassy at Antioch. The embassy was bearing a diplomatic letter in Greek, and one of its members was a sramana who burnt himself alive in Athens to demonstrate his faith. The event made a sensation and was quoted by Strabo[14] and Dio Cassius.[15] A tomb was made to the sramana, still visible in the time of Plutarch, which bore the mention "ΖΑΡΜΑΝΟΧΗΓΑΣ ΙΝΔΟΣ ΑΠΟ ΒΑΡΓΟΣΗΣ" (Zarmanochēgas indos apo Bargosēs – Zarmanochegas, Indian from Bargosa): To these accounts may be added that of Nicolaus Damascenus. This writer states that at Antioch, near Daphne, he met with ambassadors from the Indians, who were sent to Augustus Caesar. It appeared from the letter that several persons were mentioned in it, but three only survived, whom he says he saw. The rest had died chiefly in consequence of the length of the journey. The letter was written in Greek upon a skin; the import of it was, that Porus was the writer, that although he was sovereign of six hundred kings, yet that he highly esteemed the friendship of Cæsar; that he was willing to allow him a passage through his country, in whatever part he pleased, and to assist him in any undertaking that was just. Eight naked servants, with girdles round their waists, and fragrant with perfumes, presented the gifts which were brought. The presents were a Hermes (i. e. a man) born without arms, whom I have seen, large snakes, a serpent ten cubits in length, a river tortoise of three cubits in length, and a partridge larger than a vulture. They were accompanied by the person, it is said, who burnt himself to death at Athens. This is the practice with persons in distress, who seek escape from existing calamities, and with others in prosperous circumstances, as was the case with this man. For as everything hitherto had succeeded with him, he thought it necessary to depart, lest some unexpected calamity should happen to him by continuing to live; with a smile, therefore, naked, anointed, and with the girdle round his waist, he leaped upon the pyre. On his tomb was this inscription: ZARMANOCHEGAS, AN INDIAN, A NATIVE OF BARGOSA, HAVING IMMORTALIZED HIMSELF ACCORDING TO THE CUSTOM OF HIS COUNTRY, HERE LIES.[16] This accounts suggests that it may not have been impossible to encounter an Indian religious man in the Levant during the time of Jesus. The Jewish historian Josephus references the fourth book of Nicolaus' history concerning Abram (Abraham).[17] References[edit] ^ Nicolaus, Autobiography, Fr.136.8 ^ Patrologia Graeca, Vol. 87, 3. col. 3622D; F.Jacoby, FGrH.90.T2. ^ Nicolaus, Autobiography, Fr.136.8-11 ^ Suda ν 393, [1]. ^ Athenaeus, vi. 249. ^ Karl Wilhelm Ludwig Müller, et al., Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum, Vol. 3, p. 345. ^ a b Lulofs, H. J. Drossart. On the Philosophy of Aristotle, by Nicolaus Damascenus. Brill, 1969, p. 1f. ^ a b c Jewish Encyclopedia Article ^ Drews, Robert, "Sargon, Cyrus and Mesopotamian Folk History" Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 33, No. 4, (Oct., 1974), pp. 387-393. ^ Lulofs, H. J. Drossart. On the Philosophy of Aristotle, by Nicolaus Damascenus. Brill, 1969, p. 46. ^ Lulofs, H. J. Drossart. On the Philosophy of Aristotle, by Nicolaus Damascenus. Brill, 1969, p. 5. ^ On the Faculties of the Soul by Porphyrius ^ H. J. Drossaart Lulofs & E. L. J. Poortman, Nicolaus Damascenus: De Plantis. Five Translations, Amsterdam 1989. ^ Strabo, xv, 1, on the immolation of the Sramana in Athens (Paragraph 73). ^ Dio Cassius, liv, 9. ^ Strabo, xv, 1.73. ^ Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, i.158 (ch.7) Sources[edit] Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities, Harper and Brothers, New York, 1898: "Nicolaus" Lightfoot, J. B. 1875. On Some Points Connected with the Essenes: II."Origin and Affinity of the Essenes", Note Wacholder, B. Z. 1962. Nicolaus of Damascus. University of California Studies in History 75. Yarrow, L. M. 2006. Historiography at the End of the Republic. Oxford University Press, pp. 67–77. External links[edit] Life of Augustus Excerpts from the Autobiography of Nicolaus Ludwig August Dindorf's edition of Nicolaus' fragments in his 1870 Historici Graeci minores Authority control BIBSYS: 90357380 BNE: XX1381868 BNF: cb122500611 (data) CANTIC: a20071127 CiNii: DA08435459 GND: 119163594 ISNI: 0000 0000 8938 555X LCCN: n85344961 NLG: 144393 NTA: 069878072 RERO: 02-A000122085 SELIBR: 195927 SUDOC: 031248055 VcBA: 495/8329 VIAF: 19649480 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n85344961 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nicolaus_of_Damascus&oldid=973116973" Categories: 1st-century deaths 1st-century philosophers 1st-century historians Commentators on Aristotle People from Damascus Syrian philosophers Syrian historians Roman-era Greek historians Roman-era philosophers 64 BC births 1st-century BC Greek people 1st-century Greek people Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Беларуская Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar Nederlands Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska தமிழ் Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 15 August 2020, at 13:09 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6682	----	Wall poems in Leiden - Wikipedia Wall poems in Leiden From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search A wall poem in Russian by Alexander Blok Wall Poems (Dutch: Muurgedichten, alternatively Gedichten op muren or Dicht op de Muur) is a project in which more than 110 poems in many different languages were painted on the exterior walls of buildings in the city of Leiden, The Netherlands.[1][2][3] Contents 1 History and description 2 Guides 3 Gallery 4 Influence 5 Publications 6 See also 7 References 8 External links History and description[edit] The Wall Poems project was partly funded by the private Tegen-Beeld foundation of Ben Walenkamp and Jan-Willem Bruins, the project's two artists, with additional funding from several corporations and the city of Leiden.[2][4] It began in 1992 with a poem in Russian by Marina Tsvetaeva and (temporarily) finished in 2005 with the Spanish poem De Profundis by Federico García Lorca.[4] Other poets included in the set include E. E. Cummings, Langston Hughes, Jan Hanlo, Du Fu, Louis Oliver, Pablo Neruda, Rainer Maria Rilke, William Shakespeare, and W. B. Yeats,[3][5] as well as local writers Piet Paaltjens and J. C. Bloem.[4] One of the more obscure poems in the collection is written in the Buginese language on a canal wall near the Royal Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies; it and many of the other poems are accompanied by plaques with translations into Dutch and English.[2] Guides[edit] A guide available on the web describes a walking tour for visitors to Leiden that takes in 25 of the 101 poems.[6] The first 43 poems have been collected in a book by Marleen van der Weij, Dicht op de muur: gedichten in Leiden, and the rest are described in a second volume, published in 2005.[7] Gallery[edit] William Shakespeare E.E. Cummings Du Fu Seiichi Niikuni Cesare Simonetti Marina Tsvetaeva Louis Oliver Federico García Lorca Osip Mandelstam Cees van Hoore Filippo Tommaso Marinetti Jabra Ibrahim Jabra Nils Ferlin Bashō Ranggawarsita Influence[edit] The poem Le bateau ivre on a wall in Paris Based on the success of the Leiden poetry project, wall poems have also been painted in several other Dutch cities.[8][9] In 2004 the Dutch embassy to Bulgaria launched a similar project in Sofia,[10] and in 2012 the Tegen-Beeld foundation collaborated with the International Society of Friends of Rimbaud to paint a poem by Arthur Rimbaud, "Le Bateau ivre", on a government building in the 6th arrondissement of Paris.[11] In 2012 a poem by Marsman was painted on a wall in Berlin. Publications[edit] Marleen van der Weij: Dicht op de muur. Gedichten in Leiden. Gemeente Leiden, Dienst Bouwen en Wonen, 1996. ISBN 9080139580 (2nd ed.: 1996, 3rd ed.: 1997). 6th, rev. ed.: Burgersdijk & Niermans, Leiden, 2000. ISBN 9075089082 [Description of the first 43 poems]. Marleen van der Weij: Dicht op de muur 2. Gedichten in Leiden. Burgersdijk & Niermans, Leiden, 2005. ISBN 9075089112 [Description of the poems 44-101] See also[edit] Poems on the Underground, a public display of poetry in the London Underground References[edit] ^ Beatley, Timothy (2004), Native to Nowhere: Sustaining Home And Community In A Global Age, Island Press, pp. 193–194, ISBN 9781559634533, archived from the original on 2014-01-01, retrieved 2019-01-14 . ^ a b c Khouw, Ida Indawati (July 15, 2001), "Leiden, the Dutch city of poems", Jakarta Post, archived from the original on March 4, 2016 . ^ a b Fihn, Stephan (2005), "Poetry on the Wall", in Garg, Anu (ed.), Another Word A Day: An All-new Romp through Some of the Most Unusual and Intriguing Words In English, John Wiley & Sons, p. 59, ISBN 9780471718451 . ^ a b c The Wall Poems of Leiden, archived from the original on 2012-07-03, retrieved 2012-06-04 . ^ Crerand, Patrick J. (2008), The Land of Good Deeds, Ph.D. thesis, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, p. 5, ISBN 9780549627180 . ^ Wandeling langs de Muurgedichten van Leiden (in Dutch), archived from the original on 2012-01-25, retrieved 2012-06-04 . ^ Dienst Bouwen en Wonen, Leiden, 1996, reprinted 2000 and 2005 by Burgersdijk & Niermans, Leiden; see worldcat. A second volume, published in 2005, (Dicht op de muur 2) describes the poems 44-101. ^ "Gedichten op murenroute Veenendaal van start", VeenendalseKrant (in Dutch), December 14, 2009 . ^ Wall-to-Wall Poetry in A&W, Archipel Willemspark, archived from the original on 2012-10-25, retrieved 2012-06-04 . ^ Dikov, Ivan (January 27, 2010), Wall-to-Wall Poetry: How the Dutch Bring European 'Unity in Diversity' to Sofia, Novinite.com (Sofia News Agency), archived from the original on 2011-09-20, retrieved 2012-06-04 . ^ Le bateau ivre bien ancré dans le 6e (in French), City Hall of the 6th arrondissement, retrieved 2012-06-04 . External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Wall poems in Leiden. Complete list of all poems, with some background information on the project and the poems Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wall_poems_in_Leiden&oldid=991001832" Categories: Buildings and structures in Leiden Murals Dutch poetry collections 1992 introductions Hidden categories: CS1 Dutch-language sources (nl) CS1 French-language sources (fr) Articles containing Dutch-language text Commons category link from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages فارسی Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Nederlands Svenska 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 27 November 2020, at 19:06 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6683	----	Template:Ancient Rome topics - Wikipedia Template:Ancient Rome topics From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Initial visibility: currently defaults to collapsed To set this template's initial visibility, the |state= parameter may be used: |state=collapsed: {{Ancient Rome topics|state=collapsed}} to show the template collapsed, i.e., hidden apart from its title bar |state=expanded: {{Ancient Rome topics|state=expanded}} to show the template expanded, i.e., fully visible |state=autocollapse: {{Ancient Rome topics|state=autocollapse}} shows the template collapsed to the title bar if there is a {{navbar}}, a {{sidebar}}, or some other table on the page with the collapsible attribute shows the template in its expanded state if there are no other collapsible items on the page If the |state= parameter in the template on this page is not set, the template's initial visibility is taken from the |default= parameter in the Collapsible option template. 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en-wikipedia-org-6687	----	Roman commerce - Wikipedia Roman commerce From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search A Roman fresco from Pompeii, 1st century AD, depicting a Maenad in silk dress, Naples National Archaeological Museum; silks came from the Han dynasty of China along the Silk Road, a valuable trade commodity in the Roman world, whereas Roman glasswares made their way to Han China via land and sea.[1] The commerce of the Roman Empire was a major sector of the Roman economy during the early Republic and throughout most of the imperial period. Fashions and trends in historiography and in popular culture have tended to neglect the economic basis of the empire in favor of the lingua franca of Latin and the exploits of the Roman legions. The language and the legions were supported by trade while being at the same time part of its backbone. Romans were businessmen and the longevity of their empire was due to their commercial trade. Whereas in theory members of the Roman Senate and their sons were restricted when engaging in trade,[2] the members of the Equestrian order were involved in businesses, despite their upper class values that laid the emphasis on military pursuits and leisure activities. Plebeians and freedmen held shop or manned stalls at markets, while vast quantities of slaves did most of the hard work. The slaves were themselves also the subject of commercial transactions. Probably due to their high proportion in society (compared to that in Classical Greece), and the reality of runaways; as well as, the Servile Wars and minor uprisings, they gave a distinct flavor to Roman commerce. The intricate, complex, and extensive accounting of Roman trade was conducted with counting boards and the Roman abacus. The abacus, using Roman numerals, was ideally suited to the counting of Roman currency and tallying of Roman measures. Contents 1 Negotiatores, mercatores and pedlars 2 Commercial infrastructure 2.1 Land routes 2.2 Sea routes 2.3 Standard weights and measures 3 Contacts with India and China 3.1 India 3.2 China 4 Commerce and religion 5 The Elite and a dual mentality on trade 6 Commercial Classes 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Negotiatores, mercatores and pedlars[edit] Roman 4-wheeled wagon The negotiatores were in part bankers because they lent money on interest. They also bought and sold staples in bulk or did commerce in wholesale quantities of goods. The argentarii acted as agents in public or private auctions, kept deposits of money for individuals, cashed cheques (prescriptiones) and served as moneychangers. They kept strict books, or tabulae, which were considered as legal proof by the courts. In some instances the argentarii are considered as a subset of the negotiatores and in others as a group apart. The argentarii sometimes did the same kind of work as the mensarii, who were public bankers appointed by the state. The mercatores were usually plebeians or freedmen. They were present in all the open-air markets or covered shops, manning stalls or hawking goods by the side of the road. They were also present near Roman military camps during campaigns, where they sold food and clothing to the soldiers and paid cash for any booty coming from military activities. There is some information on the economy of Roman Palestine from Jewish sources of around the 3rd century AD. Itinerant pedlars (rochel) took spices and perfumes to the rural population.[3] This suggests that the economic benefits of the Empire did reach, at least, the upper levels of the peasantry. Commercial infrastructure[edit] Further information: Roman economy Principal Roman trade routes, internal and external in 180AD The Forum Cuppedinis in ancient Rome was a market which offered general goods. At least four other large markets specialized in specific goods such as cattle, wine, fish and herbs and vegetables, but the Roman Forum drew the bulk of the traffic. All new cities, like Timgad, were laid out according to an orthogonal grid plan which facilitated transportation and commerce. The cities were connected by good roads. Navigable rivers were extensively used and some canals were dug but neither leave such clear archaeology as roads and consequently they tend to be underestimated. Maintaining peace was a major factor in the expansion of trade. All settlements, especially the smaller ones, could be located in economically rational positions. Before and after the Roman Empire, hilltop defensive positions were preferred for small settlements and piracy made coastal settlement particularly hazardous for all but the largest cities. River vessel carrying barrels, assumed to be wine By the 1st century, the provinces of the Roman Empire were trading huge volumes of commodities to one another by sea routes. There was an increasing tendency for specialization, particularly in manufacturing, agriculture and mining. Some provinces specialized in producing certain types of goods, such as grain in Egypt and North Africa and wine and olive oil in Italy, Hispania, and Greece. Knowledge of the Roman economy is extremely patchy. The vast bulk of traded goods, being agricultural, normally leave no direct remains. Very exceptionally, as at Berenice, there is evidence of long distance trade in pepper, almonds, hazelnuts, stone pine cones, walnuts, coconuts, apricots and peaches besides the more expected figs, raisins and dates (Cappers). The wine, olive oil and garum (fermented fish sauce) trades were exceptional in leaving amphorae behind. There is a single reference of the Syrian export of kipi stiff quince jam or marmalade to Rome.[4][5] Land routes[edit] See also: Sino-Roman relations Even before the republic, the Roman Kingdom was engaged in regular commerce using the river Tiber. Before the Punic Wars completely changed the nature of commerce in the Mediterranean, the Roman republic had important commercial exchanges with Carthage. It entered into several commercial and political agreements with its rival city in addition to engaging in simple retail trading. The Roman Empire traded with the Chinese (via Parthian and other intermediaries) over the Silk Road. Sea routes[edit] Further information: Indo-Roman trade relations Maritime archeology and ancient manuscripts from classical antiquity show evidence of vast Roman commercial fleets. The most substantial remains from this commerce are the infrastructure remains of harbors, moles, warehouses and lighthouses at ports such as Civitavecchia, Ostia, Portus, Leptis Magna and Caesarea Maritima. At Rome itself, Monte Testaccio is a tribute to the scale of this commerce. As with most Roman technology, the Roman seagoing commercial ships had no significant advances over Greek ships of the previous centuries, though the lead sheeting of hulls for protection seems to have been more common. The Romans used round hulled sailing ships. Continuous Mediterranean "police" protection over several centuries was one of the main factors of success of Roman commerce, given that Roman roads were designed more for feet or hooves--with most land trade moving by pack mule--than for wheels, and could not support the economical transport of goods over long distances. The Roman ships used would have been easy prey for pirates had it not been for the fleets of Liburna galleys and triremes of the Roman navy. A small coaster Bulky, low-value commodities, like grain and construction materials, were traded only by sea routes, since the cost of sea transportation was 60 times lower than land.[6] Staple goods and commodities like cereals for making bread and papyrus scrolls for book production were imported from Ptolemaic Egypt to Italy in a continuous fashion. The trade over the Indian Ocean blossomed in the 1st and 2nd century AD. The sailors made use of the monsoon to cross the ocean from the ports of Berenice, Leukos Limen[7] and Myos Hormos on the Red Sea coast of Roman Egypt to the ports of Muziris and Nelkynda in the Malabar Coast. The main trading partners in southern India were the Tamil dynasties of the Pandyas, Cholas and Cheras. Many Roman artifacts have been found in India; for example, at the archaeological site of Arikamedu, in Puducherry. Meticulous descriptions of the ports and items of trade around the Indian Ocean can be found in the Greek work Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (see article on Indo-Roman trade). Standard weights and measures[edit] Main article: Ancient Roman units of measurement A standard amphora, the amphora capitolina, was kept in the temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill in Rome, so that others could be compared to it. The Roman system of measurement was built on the Greek system with Egyptian influences. Much of it was based on weight. The Roman units were accurate and well documented. Distances were measured, and systematically inscribed on stone by agents of the government. A fairly standard and fairly stable and abundant currency, at least up to circa 200 AD, did much to facilitate trade. (Egypt had its own currency in this period and some provincial cities also issued their own coins.) Contacts with India and China[edit] Alexander the Great had conquered as far as India, and the Roman god Bacchus was also said to have journeyed there. The Far East, like sub-Saharan Africa, was a mysterious land to the Romans. India[edit] Main article: Roman trade with India Gold coin of Claudius (50-51 CE) excavated in South India. There was an Indian in Augustus's retinue (Plut. Alex. 69.9), and he received embassies from India (Res Gestae, 31); one which met him in Spain in 25 BC, and one at Samos in 20 BC. The trade over the Indian Ocean blossomed in the 1st and 2nd century AD. The sailors made use of the monsoon to cross the ocean from the ports of Berenice, Leulos Limen and Myos Hormos on the Red Sea coast of Roman Egypt to the ports of Muziris and Nelkynda in Malabar coast[8] and.[9] The main trading partners in southern India were the Tamil dynasties of the Pandyas, Cholas and Cheras. Meticulous descriptions of the ports and items of trade around the Indian Ocean can be found in the Greek Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. In Latin texts, the term Indians (Indi) designated all Asians, Indian and beyond. The main articles imported from India were spices such as pepper, cardamom, cloves, cinnamon, sandal wood and gems such as pearls, rubies, diamonds, emeralds and ivory. In exchange the Romans traded silver and gold. Hoards of Roman coins have been found in southern India during the history of Roman-India trade. Roman objects have been found in India in the seaside port city of Arikamedu, which was one of the trade centers.[10] Pomponius Mela argued for the existence of Northeast Passage through the northward strait out of the Caspian Sea (which in Antiquity was usually thought to be open to Oceanus in the north). [11] China[edit] See also: Romano-Chinese relations, Roman glass, and Smuggling of silkworm eggs into the Byzantine Empire Left image: A Roman gilded silver plate with a relief image of Dionysus, dated 2nd-3rd century AD and originally made in the Eastern Mediterranean, found at an archaeological site in Jingyuan County, Gansu, China[12] Right image: Bronze coin of Constantius II (337–361), found in Karghalik, modern China Green Roman glass cup unearthed from an Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220 AD) tomb, Guangxi, China; the first Roman glassware discovered in China, dated early 1st century BC, was excavated from a Western Han tomb in the southern port city of Guangzhou, most likely arriving via the Indian Ocean and South China Sea.[13] There is suggestive archaeological evidence that Roman traders were present in Southeast Asia, which was roughly mapped out by Ptolemy in his Geography where he labelled the land bordering the Magnus Sinus (i.e. the Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea) as the Sinae.[14] Their port city of "Cattigara", lying beyond the Golden Chersonese (Malay Peninsula) where a Greek sailor named Alexander allegedly visited, was quite possibly the ancient settlement at Oc Eo, Vietnam, where Roman artefacts from the Antonine period such as medallions from the reigns of Antoninus Pius (r. 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (r. 161-180) have been found.[15] An event recorded in the Chinese Weilue and Book of Later Han for the year 166 seems directly connected to this activity, since these texts claim that an embassy from "Daqin" (i.e. the Roman Empire) sent by their ruler "An Dun" (Chinese: 安敦; i.e. either Antoninus Pius or Marcus Aurelius Antoninus) landed in the southern province of Jiaozhi (i.e. northern Vietnam) and presented tributary gifts to the Chinese ruler Emperor Huan of Han.[16] Rafe de Crespigny and Warwick Ball contend that these were most likely Roman merchants, not official diplomats sent by Marcus Aurelius (given the absence of this event in Roman sources).[17][18] Despite two other Roman embassies recorded in Chinese sources for the 3rd century and several more by the later Byzantine Empire (Chinese: 拂菻; Pinyin: Fú lǐn),[16][18] only sixteen Roman coins from the reigns of Tiberius (r. 14-37 AD) to Aurelian (r. 270-275 AD) have been found in China at Xi'an that predate the greater amount of Eastern Roman (i.e. Byzantine) coins from the 4th century onwards.[19][20] Yet this is also dwarfed by the amount of Roman coins found in India, which would suggest that this was the region where the Romans purchased most of their Chinese silk.[19] For that matter, the spice trade remained more important to the Roman economy than the silk one.[21] From the 3rd century a Chinese text, the Weilüe, describes the products of the Roman Empire and the routes to it.[22] Commerce and religion[edit] Mercury, who was originally only the god of the mercatores and the grain trade[citation needed] eventually became the god of all who were involved in commercial activities. On the Mercuralia on May 14, a Roman merchant would do the proper rituals of devotion to Mercury and beseech the god to remove from him and from his belongings the guilt coming from all the cheating he had done to his customers and suppliers. The Elite and a dual mentality on trade[edit] While Livy makes reference to the Lex Claudia (218BC) restricting senators and sons of senators from owning a ship with greater than 300 amphorae capacity (about seven tons), they were still undoubtedly partaking in trade as Cicero mentions this law when attacking Verres, although he makes no move to charge him.[23] Senators were still allowed to own and make use of ships under the size restriction, Cato when advising where to build a farm specifically mentions to have it built near an accessible river, road or port to allow transport of goods[24] which is in direct conflict to Livy’s assertion that all profit made through trade by a senator was dishonorable.[25] Senators often utilized free and enslaved agents as a loophole to legal restrictions, thereby allowing themselves to diversify their sources of income.[26] That is not to say that the acquisition of wealth was not to be desired, Pliny notes that a Roman man should by honorable means acquire a large fortune[27] and Polybius draws a comparison between the attitudes of Carthage and Rome towards profit from trade.[28] Thus starts the confusion in the role of the elite in trade as Terrence writes that there is nothing wrong with large scale trade, it is in fact completely honorable and legitimate to import large quantities of product from around the world especially if it happens to lead to a successful trader buying land and investing in Roman agriculture; what is dishonorable is trade on a small scale.[29] Small trade is again shown as vulgar by Tacitus as he describes the involvement of Sempronius Gracchus in petty trade.[30] Cato himself was involved with trade, although he himself cautioned against it as it was a risky occupation,[31] perhaps this was part of the reasoning to keep senators excluded from the trade business, as if they had a severe misfortune with trading they could fall below the financial threshold of being a senator, whereas comparatively land owning was a far safer investment. Plutarch describes Cato’s involvement in trade in great detail, depicting how he would use a proxy (a freedman by the name of Quintio) to run his business through a group of fifty other men.[32] The restriction on senators trading was itself passed initially through the tribune of the plebeians, a class of people who the restrictions would not apply to. It is suspected that this reform could have been the equites and other wealthy merchants trying to muscle the senators out from the rapidly expanding trade business. Commercial Classes[edit] The majority of the people of the Roman Empire were living in rural areas, with a small part of the population engaged in commerce being much poorer than the elite. The industrial output was quite low, due to the fact that the poor majority could not pay for the products. Technological advance was hampered by this fact. Urbanization in the western part of the empire was also limited. Slaves accounting for most of the means of industrial output, rather than technology.[33] See also[edit] Roman Britain: Trade Roman currency Roman finance Roman glass References[edit] ^ An, Jiayao. (2002), "When Glass Was Treasured in China," in Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner (eds), Silk Road Studies VII: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road, 79–94, Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, ISBN 2503521789, pp 83-84. ^ Livy, The History of Rome 21.63[dead link] ^ Safrai, Ze'ev (1994). The Economy of Roman Palestine. London: Routledge. p. 78. ISBN 0203204867. ^ Grant, Mark (2000). Galen on Food and Diet. London: Routledge. p. 129. ISBN 0415232325. ^ Cappers, R. T. J. (2006). Foodprints at Berenike: Archaeobotanical evidence of subsistence and trade in the Eastern desert of Egypt. Monograph. 55. Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology UCLA. ISBN 1931745269. ^ Hopkins, Keith (2017). Sociological Studies in Roman History. Cambridge University Press. p. 169. ISBN 9781139093552. ^ Young, Gary K. - "Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC - AD 305" - Ed. Routledge, (2003) ISBN 1134547935, 9781134547937 p. 35-48 ^ "Radio 4 - Unearthing Mysteries". BBC. Retrieved 2012-11-07. ^ "South Asia | Search for India's ancient city". BBC News. 2006-06-11. Retrieved 2012-11-07. ^ Haywood, John (2000). Historical atlas of the classical world, 500 BC–AD 600. Barnes & Noble Books. p. 46. ISBN 0-7607-1973-X. Arikamedu was a trading port in the 1st century AD: many Roman artifacts have been excavated there. ^ Book III, Chapter 5 Archived 2006-07-28 at the Wayback Machine, copied by Pliny the Elder. ^ Harper, P.O. (2002), "Iranian Luxury Vessels in China From the Late First Millennium B.C.E. to the Second Half of the First Millennium C.E.," in Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner (eds), Silk Road Studies VII: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road, 95–113, Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, ISBN 2503521789, pp 106-107. ^ An, Jiayao. (2002), "When Glass Was Treasured in China," in Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner (eds), Silk Road Studies VII: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road, 79–94, Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, ISBN 2503521789, p. 83. ^ Raoul McLaughlin (2010), Rome and the Distant East: Trade Routes to the Ancient Lands of Arabia, India, and China, London & New York: Continuum, ISBN 9781847252357, pp 58-59. ^ Gary K. Young (2001), Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy, 31 BC - AD 305, London & New York: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-24219-3, p. 29. ^ a b Friedrich Hirth (2000) [1885]. Jerome S. Arkenberg (ed.). "East Asian History Sourcebook: Chinese Accounts of Rome, Byzantium and the Middle East, c. 91 B.C.E. - 1643 C.E." Fordham.edu. Fordham University. Retrieved 2016-09-19. ^ de Crespigny, Rafe (2007), A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23-220 AD), Leiden: Koninklijke Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0, p. 600, ^ a b Warwick Ball (2016), Rome in the East: Transformation of an Empire, 2nd edition, London & New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-72078-6, p. 152. ^ a b Warwick Ball (2016), Rome in the East: Transformation of an Empire, 2nd edition, London & New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-72078-6, p. 154. ^ The following source, although printed in 2012, is outdated compared to Ball (2016: 154) in regards to the Principate-era coins found at Xi'an: Valerie Hansen (2012), The Silk Road: A New History, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp 97-98, ISBN 978-0-19-993921-3. ^ Warwick Ball (2016), Rome in the East: Transformation of an Empire, 2nd edition, London & New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-72078-6, pp 154, 156. ^ "Weilue: The Peoples of the West". Depts.washington.edu. 2004-05-23. Retrieved 2012-11-07. ^ II Verr.V18 ^ Cato De.Agr 1.3 ^ 21.63.3-4 ^ John H. D’Arms, Commerce and Social Standing in Ancient Rome, Harvard University Press, 1981, chapter 3 ^ Pliny NH 7.140 ^ 6.56.1-3) ^ Terrence 151 ^ Tacitus annas 4.13.2 ^ de.Agr. Praefatio ^ Plutarch Cato the Elder 21.5ff ^ Haywood, John (2000). Historical atlas of the classical world, 500 BC–AD 600. Barnes & Noble Books. p. 27. ISBN 0-7607-1973-X. the empire's commercial classes remained small and enjoyed neither wealth nor the status of the landowning aristocracy...most production in the empire was small scale and under-capitalized, the rich preferring to invest in land. It is in any case doubtful, in view of the poverty of most of the empire's population, whether the markets existed to support a greater degree of industrial production. This is probably one of the factors behind the surprising lack of technological innovation in the empire...The ready availability of cheap slave labor may also have deterred investment in expensive machinery....But most of the west was too poor and under-populated to support this level of urbanization and towns remained primarily administrative or military centers. Further reading[edit] Bowman, Alan K., and Andrew Wilson. Quantifying the Roman Economy: Methods and Problems. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. Callataÿ, François de. Quantifying the Greco-Roman Economy and Beyond. Bari: Edipuglia, 2014. Duncan-Jones, Richard. Structure and Scale In the Roman Economy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Garnsey, Peter, and Richard P. Saller. The Roman Empire: Economy, Society and Culture. 2nd edition. Oakland, CA: University of California Press, 2015. Greene, Kevin. The Archaeology of the Roman Economy. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986. Jones, A. H. M. The Roman Economy: Studies In Ancient Economic and Administrative History. Oxford: Blackwell, 1974. Lewit, Tamara. Agricultural Production In the Roman Economy, A.D. 200-400. Oxford: Tempus Reparatum, 1991. Peacock, D. P. S., and D. F. Williams. Amphorae and the Roman Economy: An Introductory Guide. London: Longman, 1986. Russell, Ben. The Economics of the Roman Stone Trade. 1st edition. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013. Scheidel, Walter. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Economy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012. Scheidel, Walter, Richard P. Saller, and Ian Morris. The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007. Temin, Peter. The Roman Market Economy. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013. Tomber, R. Indo-Roman Trade: From Pots to Pepper. London: Duckworth, 2008. Vrba, Eric Michael. Ancient German Identity In the Shadow of the Roman Empire: The Impact of Roman Trade and Contact Along the Middle Danube Frontier, 10 BC - AD 166. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2008. 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en-wikipedia-org-6701	----	Mediolanum - Wikipedia Mediolanum From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about Roman Milan. For other uses, see Mediolanum (disambiguation). A section of Roman wall (11 m high) with a 24-sided tower Mediolanum, the ancient city where Milan now stands, was originally an Insubrian city, but afterwards became an important Roman city in northern Italy. The city was settled by the Insubres around 600 BC, conquered by the Romans in 222 BC, and developed into a key centre of Western Christianity and informal capital of the Western Roman Empire. It declined under the ravages of the Gothic War, its capture by the Lombards in 569, and their decision to make Ticinum the capital of their Kingdom of Italy. During the Principate the population was 40,000 in AD 200; when the city became capital of the Western Roman Empire under emperor Maximian (r. 286–305), the population rose to 100,000 people and thus Milan became one of the largest cities in Roman Italy.[1][2][3] Contents 1 History 2 Extant structures 3 Legacy 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 External links History[edit] Ruins of the Emperor's palace 45°27′54.43″N 09°10′50.15″E / 45.4651194°N 9.1805972°E / 45.4651194; 9.1805972 in Milan. Here Constantine and Licinius issued the Edict of Milan. Arcadius solidus, from the Mediolanum mint, c 395-408. Arena games: ivory cup depicting staged hunts and chariot races, found in Milan, 4th-5th century. Roman columns in front of basilica di San Lorenzo Mediolanum appears to have been founded around 390 BC by the Celtic Insubres, after whom this region of northern Italy was called Insubria. According to the legend reported by Livy, the Gaulish king Ambicatus sent his nephew Bellovesus into northern Italy at the head of a party drawn from various Gaulish tribes; this Bellovesus was said to have founded Mediolanum (in the time of Tarquinius Priscus, according to this legend).[4] The Romans, led by consul Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus, fought the Insubres and captured the city in 222 BC; the chief of the Insubres submitted to Rome, giving the Romans control of the city.[5] They eventually conquered the entirety of the region, calling the new province Cisalpine Gaul – "Gaul this side of the Alps" – and may have given the site its Latinized Celtic name: in Gaulish *medio – meant "middle, center" and the name element -lanon is the Celtic equivalent of Latin -planum "plain", thus *Mediolanon (Latinized as Mediolānum) meant "(settlement) in the midst of the plain."[6][7] Mediolanum was important for its location as a hub in the road network of northern Italy. Polybius describes the country as abounding in wine, and every kind of grain, and in fine wool. Herds of swine, both for public and private supply, were bred in its forests, and the people were well known for their generosity.[8] During the Augustan age Mediolanum was famous for its schools; it possessed a theater and an amphitheatre (129.5 X 109.3 m[9]). A large stone wall encircled the city in Caesar's time, and later was expanded in the late third century AD, by Maximian. Mediolanum was made the seat of the prefect of Liguria (Praefectus Liguriae) by Hadrian, and Constantine made it the seat of the vicar of Italy (Vicarius Italiae). In the third century Mediolanum possessed a mint,[10] a horreum and imperial mausoleum. In 259, Roman legions under the command of Emperor Gallienus soundly defeated the Alemanni in the Battle of Mediolanum. In 286, Diocletian moved the capital of the Western Roman Empire from Rome to Mediolanum. He chose to reside at Nicomedia in the Eastern Empire, leaving his colleague Maximian at Mediolanum. Maximian built several gigantic monuments, the large circus (470 x 85 metres), the thermae or "Baths of Hercules", a large complex of imperial palaces and other services and buildings of which fewer visible traces remain. Maximian increased the city area surrounded by a new, larger stone wall (about 4.5 km long) encompassing an area of 375 acres with many 24-sided towers. The monumental area had twin towers; one that was included in the convent of San Maurizio Maggiore remains 16,60 m high. It was from Mediolanum that the Emperor Constantine issued what is now known as the Edict of Milan in AD 313, granting tolerance to all religions within the Empire, thus paving the way for Christianity to become the dominant religion of the Empire. Constantine was in Mediolanum to celebrate the wedding of his sister to the Eastern Emperor, Licinius. There were Christian communities in Mediolanum, which contributed its share of martyrs during the persecutions,[11] but the first bishop of Milan who has a firm historical presence is Merocles, who was at the Council of Rome of 313. In the mid-fourth century, the Arian controversy divided the Christians of Mediolanum; Constantius supported Arian bishops and at times there were rival bishops. Auxentius of Milan (died 374) was a respected Arian theologian. At the time of the bishop St. Ambrose (bishop 374–397), who quelled the Arians, and emperor Theodosius I, Mediolanum reached the height of its ancient power.[12] The city also possessed a number of basilicas, added in the late fourth century AD. These are San Simpliciano, San Nazaro, San Lorenzo and the chapel of San Vittore, located in the basilica of Sant'Ambrogio. In general, the Late Empire encouraged the development of the applied arts in Mediolanum, with ivory and silver work being common in public building projects. In the crypt of the Duomo survive ruins of the ancient church of Saint Tecla and the baptisty where St. Augustine of Hippo was baptized. In 402, the city was besieged by the Goths and the Imperial residence was moved to Ravenna. In 452, it was besieged again by Attila, but the real break with its Imperial past came in 538, during the Gothic War, when Mediolanum was laid to waste by Uraia, a nephew of Witiges, King of the Goths, with great loss of life.[13] The Lombards took Ticinum as their capital (renaming it ‘Papia’, hence the modern Pavia), and Early Medieval Milan was left to be governed by its archbishops. Extant structures[edit] Some of the monuments of the Roman Mediolanum still to be seen in Milan: in the basilica of S. Ambrogio: the Chapel of S. Vittore, with Late Antique mosaics the so‑called "Tomb of Stilicho", assembled from a Roman sarcophagus and other material. a large collection of inscriptions. the Colonne di San Lorenzo, a colonnade in front of the church of S. Lorenzo. Roman lapidary material in the Archi di Porta Nuova. the scant remains of a large amphitheatre, now in an archaeological park dedicated to their preservation. a tower (16.6 m high) of the circus, now inside the Convento di San Maurizio Maggiore. a bit of moenia (walls) and a tower with 24 sides (Maximian, 3rd century) the church of San Lorenzo (IV-V sec.) and the San Aquilino chapel. ruins of the imperial palace. some ruins from the Baths of Hercules; further remains of ceilings and floors are in the archaeological museum. the body of St. Ambrose (d. 397) and those possibly of SS. Gervasius and Protasius — or at any rate, of earlier men, found in St. Ambrose's time, are still seen in the crypt of the church of S. Ambrogio. crypt of San Giovanni in Conca a bit of the moenia and some remnants of pavements in piazza Missori and in the namesake station of Milan Metro. Legacy[edit] The ancient city name is commemorated in the Mediolanum Forum at Assago and the Mediolanum Corporate University, Milan. See also[edit] Milan#History, for the medieval and modern history of Milan Walls of Milan Diocletian Notes[edit] ^ Morley, Neville (19 December 2002). Metropolis and Hinterland: The City of Rome and the Italian Economy, 200 BC-AD 200. Cambridge University Press. p. 182. ISBN 9780521893312. ^ A Companion to Latin Studies. CUP Archive. 1963. p. 356. ^ Macadam, Alta; Rossiter, Stuart; Blanchard, Paul; Muirhead, Findlay; Bertarelli, Luigi Vittorio (1971). Northern Italy, from Alps to Florence. A & C Black. ^ Livius, Ab Urbe condita 5.34-35.3. ^ Polybius, Histories ^ Delamarre, Xavier (2003). Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise (in French) (2nd ed.). Paris: Errance. pp. 221–222. ISBN 2-87772-237-6. ^ Compare G. Quintela and V. Marco '"Celtic Elements in Northwestern Spain in Pre-Roman times" e-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies, 2005, referring to "a toponym, clearly in the second part of the composite Medio-lanum (=Milan), meaning 'plain' or flat area..." ^ Harry Thurston Peck, Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (1898): "Gallia Cisalpina" ^ Benario, Herbert W. (1981). "Amphitheatres of the Roman World". The Classical Journal. 76 (3): 255–258. JSTOR 3297328. Measurements as given p. 257; it was not, as is sometimes claimed, the third largest in the world after the Flavian Amphitheatre in Rome and the vast amphitheatre in Capua. ^ Though Trajan Decius may have struck coinage at Mediolanum, the sequence begins with Gallienus, c 258; the mint at Mediolanum, transferred to Ticinum by Aurelian, ranked with Rome and Siscia (modern Sisak in Croatia) as one of the three great mints of the Empire. Mattingly, H. (1921). "The Mints of the Empire: Vespasian to Diocletian". Journal of Roman Studies. 11: 254–264 [p. 259]. doi:10.2307/295905. JSTOR 295905. ^ There were Milanese cults of Saints Gervasius and Protasius, St. Victor Maurus (304), Sts. Nabor and Felix, and Sts. Nazarius and Celsus and the legendary Saint Sebastian. ^ The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites (eds. Richard Stillwell, William L. MacDonald, Marian Holland McAllister) ^ According to Procopius, the losses at Milan amounted to 300,000 men. References[edit] Polybius (1889). Histories. London, New York: Macmillan. [1] Thurston Peck, Harry (1898). Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities. New York: Harper and Brothers. [2] MacDonald Stillwell, Richard; McAlister, William L.; Holland, Marian (1976). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691035423. [3] External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Milano. Map and some original pics of Mediolanum remains Look up Mediolanum in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. v t e Colonies of Ancient Rome With correspondence to modern geography Europe Britannia Superior Camulodunum Lindum Colonia Londinium Britannia Inferior Eboracum Roman Dacia Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa Gallia Lugdunensis Lugdunum Gallia Narbonensis Narbo Martius Germania Inferior Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium Mogontiacum Hispania Emerita Augusta Italia Aelia Augusta Aeclanum Castra Taurinorum Florentia Mediolanum Placentia Moesia Singidunum Levant Of legion veterans Berytus Caesarea Maritima 2 Aelia Capitolina 1 3 Ptolemais 1 Of late Empire Laodicea Antioch Seleucia Emesa Heliopolis 1 Palmyra 1 3 Damascus 1 3 Arca Caesarea Sidon Tyrus 1 Sebaste Bostra 1 3 Petra 1 Neapolis Philippopolis Dura-Europos 2 Possible colonies Gaza Ascalon Gerasa Gadara Emmaus Nicopolis Neronias Locations with modern names Israel and the Palestinian territories Jerusalem: Aelia Capitolina Acre: Ptolemais Caesarea: Caesarea Maritima Imwas: Emmaus Nicopolis Banias: Neronias Jordan Petra: Petra Umm Qais: Gadara Jerash: Gerasa Lebanon Arqa: Arca Caesarea Beirut: Berytus Baalbek: Heliopolis Saida: Sidon Tyre: Tyrus Syria Bosra: Bostra Damascus: Damascus Dura-Europos: Dura-Europus Homs: Emesa Latakia: Laodicea Shahba: Philippopolis Tadmur: Palmyra Turkey Antakya: Antioch Samandağ: Seleucia 1 UNESCO World Heritage Sites; 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en-wikipedia-org-6735	----	Phaedrus (fabulist) - Wikipedia Phaedrus (fabulist) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Phaedrus, 1745 engraving Gaius Julius Phaedrus (/ˈfiːdrəs/; Greek: Φαῖδρος; Phaîdros) was a 1st-century CE Roman fabulist and the first versifier of a collection of Aesop's fables into Latin. Few facts are known about him for certain and there was little mention of his work during late antiquity. It was not until the discovery of a few imperfect manuscripts during and following the Renaissance that his importance emerged, both as an author and in the transmission of the fables. Contents 1 Biography 2 Work 3 Editions 4 References 5 Further reading 6 External links Biography[edit] A recent statement of the few facts that past scholars have tried to deduce from autobiographical hints given by Phaedrus in his poems has summarised them as follows: He was born in Macedonia, probably in Pydna, about 15 BCE, came to Rome as a slave and was freed by Augustus. He probably had some teaching function between then and the time of Tiberius, under whom the first book of his poems appeared. Envious competitors interpreted the morals of some fables as being critical of the regime and he was tried by Sejanus, probably at the time of the latter’s fall. In the prologue to his third book, we find Phaedrus pleading with a certain Eutychus to intercede on his behalf. Surviving the turbulent times into old age, possibly under Caligula and Claudius, he produced two more books and died towards the middle of the first century CE. There is, however, no evidence to support any of this and certain facts conflict with the traditional account. What Phaedrus had to say about himself might as plausibly be reinterpreted to prove that he was born in Rome and spent the whole of his life there as a free citizen.[1] Work[edit] Phaedrus is now recognized as the first writer to compile entire books of fables in Latin, retelling the Aesopic tales in senarii, a loose iambic metre.[2] The dates of composition and publication are unknown. However, Seneca the Younger, writing between 41 and 43 CE, recommended in a letter to Claudius' freedman Polybius that he turn his hand to Latinising Aesop, ‘a task hitherto not attempted by Roman genius’ (Ad Polybium 8.3). This suggests that nothing was known of Phaedrus’ work at that date. By the mid-80s Martial was imitating him and mentions his mischievous humour (improbi jocos Phaedri). The next reference is a homage by his fellow fabulist Avianus near the start of the 5th century, who claims the five books of fables as one of his sources in the dedication of his own work.[3] A 9th century manuscript of the fables of Phaedrus was only discovered in France towards the end of the 16th century. This was published in 1596 by Pierre Pithou as Fabularum Aesopiarum libri quinque and was followed by two more editions before century’s end. Near the beginning of the 18th century, a manuscript of the 15th-century bishop Niccolò Perotti was discovered at Parma containing sixty-four fables of Phaedrus, of which some thirty were previously unknown. These new fables were first published in 1808, and their versions were afterwards superseded by the discovery of a much better preserved manuscript of Perotti in the Vatican Library, published in 1831. Scholars realised that Phaedrus’ work had also served as the basis for Mediaeval fable collections that went by the name of Romulus and at the start of the 20th century the Swedish scholar Carl Magnus Zander (1845–1923) reconstructed 30 additional fables from their prose recensions there.[4] What had survived of Phaedrus’ five books in Pithou's manuscript was of unequal length and seemed to indicate that material has been lost. This was supported by the apology in the prologue to the first book for including talking trees, of which there are no examples in the text that survives although there was one in the Perotti appendix. In fact only 59 out of 94 in the Pithou manuscript were even animal fables. The author’s aim at the start was to follow Aesop in creating a work that “moves one to mirth and warns with wise advice”.[5] As the work progressed, however, he widened his focus and now claimed to be “refining” Aesopic material and even adding to it. In later books we find tales of Roman events well after the time of Aesop such as “Tiberius and the slave” (II.5) and “Augustus and the accused wife” (III.9), as well as the poet’s personal reply to envious detractors (IV.21); there are also anecdotes in which Aesop figures from the later biographical tradition (II.3; III.3; IV.5; and items 9 and 20 in Perotti’s appendix). Finally he makes a distinction between matter and manner in the epilogue to the fifth book, commenting that I write in Esop’s style, not in his name, And for the most part I the subject claim. Tho’ some brief portion Esop might indite, The more I from my own invention write, The style is ancient but the matter’s new.[6] He also claims a place in the Latin literary tradition by echoing well-known and respected writers. It is to be noticed, however, that where Phaedrus and the slightly earlier poet Horace adapted the same fable to satirical themes, they often used different versions of it. In Horace a crow (cornicula) is the subject of The Bird in Borrowed Feathers; in Phaedrus it is a jackdaw (graculus). In the case of The Horse that Lost its Liberty, Phaedrus has it disputing with a boar and Horace with a stag. Neither do they agree in their account of The Frog and the Ox. Horace follows the story found in Greek sources; the frog’s motivation is different in Phaedrus, and it is his version that Martial follows later.[7] Moreover, in following the model of Aesop, the enfranchised slave, Phaedrus' satire is sharper and restores “the ancient function of the fable as a popular expression against the dominant classes”.[8] Another commentator points out that “the Aesopian fable has been a political creature from its earliest origins, and Phaedrus, (who was La Fontaine’s model), though more openly subversive, has claims to be the first proletarian satiric poet”.[9] Editions[edit] The fables of Phaedrus soon began to be published as school editions, both in the original Latin and in prose translation.[10][11] Since the 18th century there have also been four complete translations into English verse. The first was by Christopher Smart into octosyllabic couplets (London 1753).[12] Brooke Boothby’s “The Esopean Fables of Phedrus” were included in his Fables and Satires (Edinburgh, 1809)[13] and also used octosyllables but in a more condensed manner: What Esop taught his beasts in Greek, Phedrus in Latin made them speak: In English, I from him translate, And his brief manner imitate.[14] It was followed by the Reverend Frederick Toller’s A poetical version of the fables of Phædrus (London, 1854).[15] These were translated more diffusely into irregular verses of five metrical feet and each fable was followed by a prose commentary. The most recent translation by P. F. Widdows also includes the fables in the Perotti appendix and all are rendered into a free version of Anglo-Saxon alliterative verse.[16] Phaedrus versions were translated individually by a variety of other poets into different languages. A small selection in various poetic forms appeared in the Poems & Translations (London 1769) of Ashley Cowper (1701–88).[17] There were many more poems distinctively styled in La Fontaine's Fables; others followed by Ivan Krylov in Russian; Gregory Skovoroda and Leonid Hlibov in Ukrainian; and a more complete collection by Volodymyr Lytvynov in 1986.[18] References[edit] ^ Edward Champlin (2005), pp. 97–117 ^ Charles Anthon, A Classical Dictionary, New York 1845, p.1022 ^ Michael von Albrecht, A History of Roman Literature, Brill 1996, pp.1002-6 ^ Hanna Vámos, "The Mediaeval Tradition of the Fables of Romulus", Graeco-Latina Brunensia 18.1, 2013, pp.185-6 ^ Text online ^ Frederick Toller's translation (see below), p.217 ^ Champlin 2005, pp.117-18 ^ Francisco Rodríguez Adrados, History of the Graeco-Latin Fable Brill 2000, II, p.173 ^ Anne Becher, “Phaedrus, a new found yet ancient author”, Paradigm 23 (July, 1997) ^ Æsops fables, with the fables of Phaedrus moralized, London 1646 ^ The Fables of Phaedrus translated into English prose, London 1745 ^ Gutenberg ^ Google Books ^ "Prologue", p.3 ^ Google Books ^ The Fables of Phaedrus, University of Texas 1992 ^ pp.83-112 ^ Osnovy Publishing Further reading[edit] The fables of Phædrus, with a literal English translation, London 1828 Champlin, Edward. “Phaedrus the Fabulous.” The Journal of Roman Studies 95, 2005, pp. 97–123. Glauthier, Patrick. “Phaedrus, Callimachus and the Recusatio to Success.” Classical Antiquity, 28.2, 2009, pp. 248–278. Henderson, John. “Phaedrus' "Fables:" The Original Corpus.” Mnemosyne, 52.3, 1999, pp. 308–329. Henderson, John. Telling Tales on Caesar: Roman Stories from Phaedrus. Oxford University Press, 2001. Jennings, Victoria. "Borrowed Plumes: Phaedrus' Fables, Phaedrus' Failures." Writing Politics in Imperial Rome. Leiden/Boston: Brill, 2009. Lefkowitz, Jeremy B. "Grand Allusions: Vergil in Phaedrus." AJPh 137.3, 2016, pp. 487-509. Lefkowitz, Jeremy B. "Innovation and Artistry in Phaedrus' Morals." Mnemosyne 70.3, 2017, pp. 417-435. Libby, Brigitte B. “The Intersection of Poetic and Imperial Authority in Phaedrus' Fables.” The Classical Quarterly, 60.2, 2010, pp. 545–558. Polt, Christopher B. “Polity Across the Pond: Democracy, Republic and Empire in Phaedrus' Fables 1.2.” The Classical Journal, 110.2, 2015, pp. 161–190. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Phaedrus (fabulist) Pithou's editio princeps (Troyes: Jean Oudot, 1596) Works by Phaedrus at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Authority control BIBSYS: 90235911 BNE: XX1164815 BNF: cb11985800x (data) CANTIC: a10488509 CiNii: DA01523955 GND: 118593730 ISNI: 0000 0001 1821 9332 LCCN: n50047685 LNB: 000047421 NDL: 00677041 NKC: jn19981001978 NSK: 000118405 NTA: 069089086 RERO: 02-A000130090 SELIBR: 228545 SNAC: w6z6102v SUDOC: 027918769 VIAF: 100219094 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n50047685 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phaedrus_(fabulist)&oldid=990104627" Categories: 1st-century Romans Fabulists Latin-language writers Silver Age Latin writers Roman Imperial era slaves and freedmen Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from June 2012 Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara Français Furlan Galego Հայերեն Italiano Latina Magyar Nederlands Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Seeltersk Sicilianu Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 22 November 2020, at 21:05 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6743	----	Sanitation in ancient Rome - Wikipedia Sanitation in ancient Rome From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sanitation in ancient Rome was well advanced compared to other ancient cities Sanitation in ancient Rome was well advanced compared to other ancient cities and was providing water supply and sanitation services to residents of Rome. Contents 1 Sewer systems 2 Public latrines 3 Aqueducts 4 Health impacts 5 See also 6 References 6.1 Bibliography 7 External links Sewer systems[edit] The Romans had a complex system of sewers covered by stones, much like modern sewers. Waste flushed from the latrines flowed through a central channel into the main sewage system and thence into a nearby river or stream. However, it was not uncommon for Romans to throw waste out of windows into the streets (at least according to Roman satirists)[citation needed]. Despite this, Roman waste management is admired for its innovation. A system of eleven Roman aqueducts provided the inhabitants of Rome with water of varying quality, the best being reserved for potable supplies. Poorer-quality water was used in public baths and in latrines. Latrine systems have been found in many places, such as Housesteads, a Roman fort on Hadrian's Wall, in Pompeii, Herculaneum, and elsewhere that flushed waste away with a stream of water. It is estimated that the first sewers of ancient Rome were built between 800 and 735 BC. Drainage systems evolved slowly, and began primarily as a means to drain marshes and storm runoff. The sewers were mainly for the removal of surface drainage and underground water.[1] The sewage system as a whole did not really take off until the arrival of the Cloaca Maxima, an open channel that was later covered, and one of the best-known sanitation artifacts of the ancient world. Most sources believe it was built during the reign of the three Etruscan kings in the sixth century BC. This "greatest sewer" of Rome was originally built to drain the low-lying land around the Forum. It is not known how effective the sewers were, especially in removing excrement.[2] From very early times the Romans, in imitation of the Etruscans, made underground channels to drain rainwater that might otherwise wash away precious topsoil, used ditches to drain swamps (such as the Pontine Marshes), and dug subterranean channels to drain marshy areas. Over time, the Romans expanded the network of sewers that ran through the city and linked most of them, including some drains, to the Cloaca Maxima, which emptied into the Tiber River. The Cloaca Maxima was built in the fourth century BC, and was largely reconstructed and enclosed under the authority of Agrippa as an aedile in 33 BC.[3] It still drains the Forum Romanum and surrounding hills. Strabo, a Greek author who lived from about 60 BC to AD 24, admired the ingenuity of the Romans in his Geographica, writing: The sewers, covered with a vault of tightly fitted stones, have room in some places for hay wagons to drive through them. And the quantity of water brought into the city by aqueducts is so great that rivers, as it were, flow through the city and the sewers; almost every house has water tanks, and service pipes, and plentiful streams of water...In short, the ancient Romans gave little thought to the beauty of Rome because they were occupied with other, greater and more necessary matters. A law was eventually passed to protect innocent bystanders from assault by wastes thrown into the street. The violator was forced to pay damages to whomever his waste hit, if that person sustained an injury. This law was enforced only in the daytime, it is presumed, because one then lacked the excuse of darkness for injuring another by careless waste disposal. Around AD 100, direct connections of homes to sewers began, and the Romans completed most of the sewer system infrastructure. Sewers were laid throughout the city, serving public and some private latrines, and also served as dumping grounds for homes not directly connected to a sewer. It was mostly the wealthy whose homes were connected to the sewers, through outlets that ran under an extension of the latrine. Public latrines[edit] The latrines are the best-preserved feature at Housesteads Roman Fort on Hadrian's Wall. The soldiers sat on wooden boards with holes, which covered one big trench. Water ran in a big ditch at the soldiers' feet. In general, poorer residents used pots that they were supposed to empty into the sewer, or visited public latrines. Public latrines date back to the 2nd century BC. Whether intentionally or not, they became places to socialise. Long bench-like seats with keyhole-shaped openings cut in rows offered little privacy. Some latrines were free, for others small charges were made.[4] According to Lord Amulree, the site where Julius Caesar was assassinated, the Hall of Curia in the Theatre of Pompey, was turned into a public latrine because of the dishonor it had witnessed. The sewer system, like a little stream or river, ran beneath it, carrying the waste away to the Cloaca Maxima. The Romans recycled public bath waste water by using it as part of the flow that flushed the latrines. Terra cotta piping was used in the plumbing that carried waste water from homes. The Romans were the first to seal pipes in concrete to resist the high water pressures developed in siphons and elsewhere. Beginning around the 5th century BC, aediles, among their other functions, supervised the sanitary systems. They were also responsible for the efficiency of the drainage and sewage systems, the cleansing of the streets, prevention of foul smells, and general oversight of baths. In the first century AD, the Roman sewage system was very efficient. In his Natural History, Pliny remarked that of all the things Romans had accomplished, the sewers were "the most noteworthy things of all". Aqueducts[edit] Remains of aqueducts Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus, integrated into the Aurelian Wall Main article: Roman aqueducts The aqueducts provided the large volumes of water that—after serving drinking, bathing, and other needs—flushed through the sewers. A system of eleven aqueducts supplied the city with water from as far away as the river Anio. Anio Novus and Aqua Claudia were two of the biggest systems. The distribution system was carefully designed so that all waste water drained into the Cloaca Maxima. The management and maintenance involved in keeping the aqueducts flowing is well described by Frontinus, a general appointed by the emperor Nerva as water commissioner toward the end of the first century AD. He described his work on the distribution system in De aquaeductu published at the end of the first century AD. When first appointed, he surveyed and mapped the entire system, and strove to investigate the many abuses of the water supply, such as the act of tapping into pipes illegally. He also systematized aqueduct maintenance with gangs of specially trained workmen. He also tried to separate the supply, so that the best-quality water went to drinking and cooking, while second-quality water flowed to the fountains, baths, and, finally, sewers. Pont du Gard in France The system in Rome was copied in all provincial towns and cities of the Roman Empire, and even down to villas that could afford the plumbing. Roman citizens came to expect high standards of hygiene, and the army was also well provided with latrines and bath houses, or thermae. Aqueducts were used everywhere in the empire not just to supply drinking water for private houses but to supply other needs such as irrigation, public fountains, and thermae. Indeed, many of the provincial aqueducts survive in working order to the present day, although modernized and updated. Of the eleven ancient aqueducts serving Rome, eight of them entered Rome close to each other on the Esquiline Hill.[5] Also, the first aqueduct was the Aqua Appia built in 312 BC by the censor Appius.[5] Other aqueducts of importance to Roman sanitation was the Aqua Marcia built between 144-140 BC, which provided large amounts of quality water to Rome.[6] One Aqueduct with some major importance to Rome was Traiana, which tapped from the clear springs of the northern and western slopes above lake Bracciano.[6] It is said that the “Romans fully appreciated the importance of plentiful and wholesome supply of water, for domestic purposes to health of the Community.[7] It was stated by Amulree that for 441 years after the building of Rome, it depended on water from the Tiber for drinking and other domestic purposes, but in 312 BC Appius Claudius Crassus provide Rome with water from the Springs of the Alban hills and brought to consumers by the means of Aqueducts.[7] The Amulree notes state that this practice is in line with the teachings of Hippocrates: that stagnant water should be refused, not the spring water from the hills or rain water.[7] Roman rubbish was often left to collect in alleys between buildings in the poor districts of the city. It sometimes became so thick that stepping stones were needed. "Unfortunately its functions did not include house-to-house garbage collection, and this led to indiscriminate refuse dumping, even to the heedless tossing of trash from windows." [8] As a consequence, the street level in the city rose, as new buildings were constructed on top of rubble and rubbish. Health impacts[edit] Although there were many sewers, public latrines, baths and other sanitation infrastructure, disease was still rampant. Most dwellings were not connected to street drains or sewers. Some apartment buildings (insulae) might have had a latrine and a fountain on the ground floor. This didn't stop the residents on the upper floors from dumping their waste onto the street. There was no street cleaning service in Rome. Thus, the neighborhoods were plagued with disease.[9] The baths are known to symbolise the "great hygiene of Rome." Although the baths may have made the Romans smell good, they were a cesspool of disease. Doctors commonly prescribed their patients a bath. Consequently, the diseased and healthy sometimes bathed together. The sick generally preferred to visit the baths during the afternoon or night to avoid the healthy, but the baths were not constantly being cleaned. This means the healthy who bathe the next day might catch the disease from the sick who bathed the previous day.[9] Latrines could be found in many places such as in baths, forts and the colosseum. The Romans wiped themselves after defecating with a sea sponge on a stick named tersorium.[10] This might be shared by all of those using the latrine, or people would bring their own sponge. To clean the sponge, they washed it in a bucket with water and salt or vinegar.[11] This became a breeding ground for bacteria, causing the spread of disease in the latrine.[9] It is commonly believed the Romans used sea sponges on a stick and dipped in vinegar after defecation (for anal hygiene), but the practice is only attested to once.[12] See also[edit] Aqueduct (Roman) Cloaca Maxima Frontinus Roman architecture Roman engineering Roman technology History of water supply and sanitation Sanitation of the Indus Valley Civilization References[edit] ^ Farnsworth 1940, p. 942. ^ Gowers 1995, p. 27. ^ Howatson 2013, p.159. ^ Amulree 1973, p. 247 ^ a b Aicher 1995, p. 34. ^ a b Aicher 1995, p. 36. ^ a b c Amulree 1973, p. 244. ^ Casson 1998 ^ a b c "Death and Disease in Ancient Rome". www.innominatesociety.com. Retrieved 2018-01-02. ^ Mirsky, Steve (2013). "Getting to the Bottom". Scientific American. 308 (3): 85. Bibcode:2013SciAm.308c..85M. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0313-85. ^ "What Did Ancient Romans Do Without Toilet Paper?". SAPIENS. Retrieved 2018-04-05. ^ Mirsky, Steve (2013). "Getting to the Bottom". Scientific American. 308 (3): 85. Bibcode:2013SciAm.308c..85M. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0313-85. Bibliography[edit] Casson, Lionel. Everyday Life in Ancient Rome, revised and expanded edition. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998. p. 40. Aicher, Peter. Guide to Aqueducts of Ancient Rome. Wauconda, Illinois: Bolchazy-Carducci Inc., 1995. Amulree, Lord. “Hygienic Conditions in Ancient Rome and Modern London.” Medical History.(Great Britain), 1973, 17(3) pp. 244–255. Coates-Stephens, Robert. "The Walls and Aqueducts of Rome in the Early Middle Ages, A.D. 500-1000." The Journal of Roman Studies Vol. 88 (1998): 167-78. Farnsworth Gray, Harold. "Sewerage in Ancient and Mediaeval Times." Sewage Works Journal Vol.12.5 (1940): 939-46. Gowers, Emily. "The Anatomy of Rome from Capitol to Cloaca." The Journal of Roman Studies Vol.85 (1995): 23-32. Greene, William Chase. The Achievement of Rome; A Chapter in Civilization. Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1938 Howatson, M.C. "The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature." Oxford University Press, 2013 James, Peter and Nick Thorpe. Ancient Inventions. New York: Balentine Books, 1994. Owens, E.J. The City in the Greek and Roman World. London: Routledge, 1991. Shelton, Joann. As the Romans Did: A Source Book in Roman Social History. New York: Oxford University Press,1988 Stambaugh, John E. The Ancient Roman City. Maryland: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988. 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en-wikipedia-org-6746	----	Lord Byron - Wikipedia Lord Byron From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the 6th Baron Byron. For other Lords Byron, see Baron Byron and Byron King-Noel, Viscount Ockham. "George Gordon Byron" redirects here. For the archaeologist, see George Byron Gordon (archaeologist). "George Gordon, Lord Byron" redirects here. It is not to be confused with Lord George Gordon. "Byron" redirects here. For the hamburger chain, see Byron Hamburgers. For the personal name, see Byron (name). English poet and a leading figure in the Romantic movement (1788-1824) The Right Honourable The Lord Byron FRS Portrait of Byron by Thomas Phillips, c. 1813 Member of the House of Lords Lord Temporal In office 13 March 1809 – 19 April 1824 Hereditary peerage Preceded by The 5th Baron Byron Succeeded by The 7th Baron Byron Personal details Born George Gordon Byron (1788-01-22)22 January 1788 London, England Died 19 April 1824(1824-04-19) (aged 36) Missolonghi, Aetolia, Ottoman Empire (present-day Aetolia-Acarnania, Greece) Cause of death Fever Resting place Church of St. Mary Magdalene, Hucknall, Nottinghamshire Nationality British Spouse(s) Anne Isabella Milbanke ​ ​ (m. 1815; separated 1816)​ Domestic partner Claire Clairmont Children Ada Lovelace Allegra Byron Elizabeth Medora Leigh (presumably) Relatives Capt. John "Mad Jack" Byron (father) Catherine Gordon (mother) Vice-Admiral The Hon. John Byron (grandfather) Education Harrow (1801–1805) Alma mater Trinity College, Cambridge (1805–1808) Occupation Poet, politician Signature George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron, FRS (22 January 1788 – 19 April 1824), known simply as Lord Byron, was an English peer, who was a poet and politician.[1] He was one of the leading figures of the Romantic movement[2][3][4] and is regarded as one of the greatest English poets.[5] He remains widely read and influential. Among his best-known works are the lengthy narrative poems Don Juan and Childe Harold's Pilgrimage; many of his shorter lyrics in Hebrew Melodies also became popular. He travelled extensively across Europe, especially in Italy, where he lived for seven years in the cities of Venice, Ravenna, and Pisa. During his stay in Italy he frequently visited his friend and fellow poet Percy Bysshe Shelley.[6] Later in life Byron joined the Greek War of Independence fighting the Ottoman Empire and died of disease leading a campaign during that war, for which Greeks revere him as a national hero.[7] He died in 1824 at the age of 36 from a fever contracted after the First and Second Siege of Missolonghi. His only legitimate child, Ada Lovelace, is regarded as a foundational figure in the field of computer programming based on her notes for Charles Babbage's Analytical Engine.[8][9][10] Byron's illegitimate children include Allegra Byron, who died in childhood, and possibly Elizabeth Medora Leigh, daughter of his half-sister Augusta Leigh. Contents 1 Family and early life 2 Education 3 Career 3.1 Early career 3.2 First travels to the East 3.3 England 1811–1816 4 Life abroad (1816–1824) 4.1 The Shelleys 4.2 Italy 4.3 Greece 4.4 Death 4.4.1 Post mortem 5 Personal life 5.1 Relationships and scandals 5.2 Children 5.3 Sea and swimming 5.4 Fondness for animals 6 Health and appearance 6.1 Character and psyche 6.2 Deformed foot 6.3 Physical appearance 7 Political career 8 Poetic works 8.1 Don Juan 8.2 Irish Avatar 9 Parthenon marbles 10 Legacy and influence 10.1 Byronic hero 10.2 In popular culture 11 Bibliography 11.1 Major works 11.2 Selected shorter lyric poems 12 See also 13 References 13.1 Notes 13.2 Bibliography 14 Further reading 15 External links Family and early life[edit] Main article: Early life of Lord Byron An engraving of Byron's father, Captain John "Mad Jack" Byron, date unknown George Gordon Byron was born on 22 January 1788, on Holles Street in London – his birthplace is now supposedly occupied by a branch of the department store John Lewis. Byron was the only child of Captain John Byron (known as 'Jack') and his second wife Catherine Gordon, heiress of the Gight estate in Aberdeenshire, Scotland. Byron's paternal grandparents were Vice-Admiral John Byron and Sophia Trevanion.[11] Having survived a shipwreck as a teenage midshipman, Vice Admiral John Byron set a new speed record for circumnavigating the globe. After he became embroiled in a tempestous voyage during the American Revolutionary War, John was nicknamed 'Foul-Weather Jack' Byron by the press.[12] Byron's father had previously been somewhat scandalously married to Amelia, Marchioness of Carmarthen, with whom he had been having an affair – the wedding took place just weeks after her divorce from her husband, and she was around eight months pregnant.[13] The marriage was not a happy one, and their first two children – Sophia Georgina, and an unnamed boy – died in infancy.[14] Amelia herself died in 1784 almost exactly a year after the birth of their third child, the poet's half-sister Augusta Mary.[15] Though Amelia succumbed to a wasting illness, probably tuberculosis, the press reported that her heart had been broken out of remorse for leaving her husband. Much later, 19th-century sources blamed Jack's own "brutal and vicious" treatment of her.[16] Jack then married Catherine Gordon of Gight on 13 May 1785, by all accounts only for her fortune.[17] To claim his second wife's estate in Scotland, Byron's father took the additional surname "Gordon", becoming "John Byron Gordon", and occasionally styled himself "John Byron Gordon of Gight". Byron's mother had to sell her land and title to pay her new husband's debts, and in the space of two years, the large estate, worth some £23,500, had been squandered, leaving the former heiress with an annual income in trust of only £150.[16] In a move to avoid his creditors, Catherine accompanied her profligate husband to France in 1786, but returned to England at the end of 1787 to give birth to her son. The boy was born on 22 January in lodgings at Holles Street in London, and christened at St Marylebone Parish Church as "George Gordon Byron". His father appears to have wished to call his son 'William', but as her husband remained absent, his mother named him after her own father George Gordon of Gight.[18] (His grandfather was a descendant of James I of Scotland, and had committed suicide in 1779.)[19] Catherine Gordon, Byron's mother, by Thomas Stewardson Catherine moved back to Aberdeenshire in 1790, where Byron spent his childhood.[19] His father soon joined them in their lodgings in Queen Street, but the couple quickly separated. Catherine regularly experienced mood swings and bouts of melancholy,[19] which could be partly explained by her husband's continuingly borrowing money from her. As a result, she fell even further into debt to support his demands. It was one of these importunate loans that allowed him to travel to Valenciennes, France, where he died of a "long & suffering illness" – probably tuberculosis – in 1791.[20] When Byron's great-uncle, who was posthumously labelled the "wicked" Lord Byron, died on 21 May 1798, the 10-year-old boy became the sixth Baron Byron of Rochdale and inherited the ancestral home, Newstead Abbey, in Nottinghamshire. His mother proudly took him to England, but the Abbey was in an embarrassing state of disrepair and, rather than living there, she decided to lease it to Lord Grey de Ruthyn, among others, during Byron's adolescence. Described as "a woman without judgment or self-command," Catherine either spoiled and indulged her son or vexed him with her capricious stubbornness. Her drinking disgusted him and he often mocked her for being short and corpulent, which made it difficult for her to catch him to discipline him. Byron had been born with a deformed right foot; his mother once retaliated and, in a fit of temper, referred to him as "a lame brat."[21] However, Byron's biographer, Doris Langley-Moore, in her 1974 book, Accounts Rendered, paints a more sympathetic view of Mrs Byron, showing how she was a staunch supporter of her son and sacrificed her own precarious finances to keep him in luxury at Harrow and Cambridge. Langley-Moore questions 19th-century biographer John Galt's claim that she over-indulged in alcohol. Upon the death of Byron's mother-in-law Judith Noel, the Hon. Lady Milbanke, in 1822, her will required that he change his surname to "Noel" so as to inherit half of her estate. He obtained a Royal Warrant, allowing him to "take and use the surname of Noel only" and to "subscribe the said surname of Noel before all titles of honour". From that point he signed himself "Noel Byron" (the usual signature of a peer being merely the peerage, in this case simply "Byron"). It is speculated that this was so that his initials would read "N.B.", mimicking those of his hero, Napoleon Bonaparte. Lady Byron eventually succeeded to the Barony of Wentworth, becoming "Lady Wentworth". Education[edit] Byron received his early formal education at Aberdeen Grammar School, and in August 1799 entered the school of Dr. William Glennie, in Dulwich.[22] Placed under the care of a Dr. Bailey, he was encouraged to exercise in moderation but could not restrain himself from "violent" bouts in an attempt to overcompensate for his deformed foot. His mother interfered with his studies, often withdrawing him from school, with the result that he lacked discipline and his classical studies were neglected. In 1801, he was sent to Harrow, where he remained until July 1805.[19] An undistinguished student and an unskilled cricketer, he did represent the school during the very first Eton v Harrow cricket match at Lord's in 1805.[23] His lack of moderation was not restricted to physical exercise. Byron fell in love with Mary Chaworth, whom he met while at school,[19] and she was the reason he refused to return to Harrow in September 1803. His mother wrote, "He has no indisposition that I know of but love, desperate love, the worst of all maladies in my opinion. In short, the boy is distractedly in love with Miss Chaworth."[19] In Byron's later memoirs, "Mary Chaworth is portrayed as the first object of his adult sexual feelings."[24] John FitzGibbon, 2nd Earl of Clare Byron finally returned in January 1804,[19] to a more settled period which saw the formation of a circle of emotional involvements with other Harrow boys, which he recalled with great vividness: "My school friendships were with me passions (for I was always violent)."[25] The most enduring of those was with John FitzGibbon, 2nd Earl of Clare—four years Byron's junior—whom he was to meet unexpectedly many years later in Italy (1821).[26] His nostalgic poems about his Harrow friendships, Childish Recollections (1806), express a prescient "consciousness of sexual differences that may in the end make England untenable to him."[27] Letters to Byron in the John Murray archive contain evidence[citation needed] of a previously unremarked if short-lived romantic relationship with a younger boy at Harrow, John Thomas Claridge. The following autumn, he went up to Trinity College, Cambridge,[28] where he met and formed a close friendship with the younger John Edleston. About his "protégé" he wrote, "He has been my almost constant associate since October, 1805, when I entered Trinity College. His voice first attracted my attention, his countenance fixed it, and his manners attached me to him for ever." In his memory Byron composed Thyrza, a series of elegies.[29] In later years, he described the affair as "a violent, though pure love and passion". This statement, however, needs to be read in the context of hardening public attitudes toward homosexuality in England and the severe sanctions (including public hanging) against convicted or even suspected offenders.[30] The liaison, on the other hand, may well have been "pure" out of respect for Edleston's innocence, in contrast to the (probably) more sexually overt relations experienced at Harrow School.[31] The poem "The Cornelian" was written about the cornelian that Byron received from Edleston.[32] Byron spent three years at Trinity College, engaging in sexual escapades, boxing, horse riding and gambling.[33] Also while at Cambridge he formed lifelong friendships with men such as John Cam Hobhouse, who initiated him into the Cambridge Whig Club, which endorsed liberal politics,[33] and Francis Hodgson, a Fellow at King's College, with whom he corresponded on literary and other matters until the end of his life. Career[edit] Early career[edit] Byron's house, Burgage Manor, in Southwell, Nottinghamshire While not at school or college, Byron dwelt at his mother's residence Burgage Manor in Southwell, Nottinghamshire.[19] While there, he cultivated friendships with Elizabeth Bridget Pigot and her brother, John, with whom he staged two plays for the entertainment of the community. During this time, with the help of Elizabeth Pigot, who copied many of his rough drafts, he was encouraged to write his first volumes of poetry. Fugitive Pieces was printed by Ridge of Newark, which contained poems written when Byron was only 17.[34] However, it was promptly recalled and burned on the advice of his friend, the Reverend J. T. Becher, on account of its more amorous verses, particularly the poem To Mary.[35] Hours of Idleness, which collected many of the previous poems, along with more recent compositions, was the culminating book. The savage, anonymous criticism this received (now known to be the work of Henry Peter Brougham) in the Edinburgh Review prompted his first major satire,[36] English Bards and Scotch Reviewers (1809). It was put into the hands of his relation, R. C. Dallas, requesting him to "...get it published without his name."[37] Alexander Dallas gave a large series of changes and alterations, as well as the reasoning for some of them. He also stated that Byron had originally intended to prefix an argument to this poem, and Dallas quoted it.[38] Although the work was published anonymously, by April, R. C. Dallas wrote that "you are already pretty generally known to be the author."[39] The work so upset some of his critics they challenged Byron to a duel; over time, in subsequent editions, it became a mark of prestige to be the target of Byron's pen.[36] Autograph letter signed to John Hanson, Byron's lawyer and business agent. Fondazione BEIC After his return from travels he again entrusted R. C. Dallas as his literary agent to publish his poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage, which Byron thought of little account. The first two cantos of Childe Harold's Pilgrimage were published in 1812 and were received with acclaim.[40][41] In his own words, "I awoke one morning and found myself famous."[42] He followed up his success with the poem's last two cantos, as well as four equally celebrated "Oriental Tales": The Giaour, The Bride of Abydos, The Corsair, and Lara. About the same time, he began his intimacy with his future biographer, Thomas Moore. First travels to the East[edit] Byron's Stone in Tepelenë, Albania Teresa Makri in 1870 Byron racked up numerous debts as a young man, owing to what his mother termed a "reckless disregard for money".[19] She lived at Newstead during this time, in fear of her son's creditors.[19] He had planned to spend early 1808 cruising with his cousin, George Bettesworth, who was captain of the 32-gun frigate HMS Tartar. Bettesworth's death at the Battle of Alvøen in May 1808 made that impossible. From 1809 to 1811,[43] Byron went on the Grand Tour, then customary for a young nobleman. He travelled with Hobhouse for the first year and his entourage of servants included Byron's trustworthy valet, William Fletcher. Fletcher was often the butt of Hobhouse and Byron’s humour. The Napoleonic Wars forced him to avoid most of Europe, and he instead turned to the Mediterranean. The journey provided the opportunity to flee creditors, as well as a former love, Mary Chaworth (the subject of his poem from this time, "To a Lady: On Being Asked My Reason for Quitting England in the Spring").[36] Letters to Byron from his friend Charles Skinner Matthews reveal that a key motive was also the hope of homosexual experience.[44] Attraction to the Levant was probably also a reason; he had read about the Ottoman and Persian lands as a child, was attracted to Islam (especially Sufi mysticism), and later wrote, "With these countries, and events connected with them, all my really poetical feelings begin and end."[45][46] Byron began his trip in Portugal from where he wrote a letter to his friend Mr Hodgson in which he describes his mastery of the Portuguese language, consisting mainly of swearing and insults. Byron particularly enjoyed his stay in Sintra that is described in Childe Harold's Pilgrimage as "glorious Eden". From Lisbon he travelled overland to Seville, Jerez de la Frontera, Cádiz, and Gibraltar, and from there by sea on to Sardinia, Malta, and Greece.[47] While in Athens, Byron met 14-year-old Nicolo Giraud, with whom he became quite close and who taught him Italian. It has been suggested that the two had an intimate relationship involving a sexual affair.[48] Byron sent Giraud to school at a monastery in Malta and bequeathed him a sizeable sum of £7,000 pounds sterling. The will, however, was later cancelled.[49] "I am tired of pl & opt Cs, the last thing I could be tired of", Byron wrote to Hobhouse from Athens (an abbreviation of "coitum plenum et optabilem" – complete intercourse to one's heart's desire, from Petronius' Satyricon), which, as an earlier letter establishes, was their shared code for homosexual experience.[50] In 1810 in Athens, Byron wrote "Maid of Athens, ere we part" for a 12-year-old girl, Teresa Makri (1798–1875). Byron and Hobhouse made their way to Smyrna, where they cadged a ride to Constantinople on HMS Salsette. While Salsette was anchored awaiting Ottoman permission to dock at the city, on 3 May 1810 Byron and Lieutenant Ekenhead, of Salsette's Marines, swam the Hellespont. Byron commemorated this feat in the second canto of Don Juan. He returned to England from Malta in July 1811 aboard HMS Volage.[51] England 1811–1816[edit] Portrait by Richard Westall Byron became a celebrity with the publication of the first two cantos of Childe Harold's Pilgrimage (1812). "He rapidly became the most brilliant star in the dazzling world of Regency London. He was sought after at every society venue, elected to several exclusive clubs, and frequented the most fashionable London drawing-rooms."[22] During this period in England he produced many works, including The Giaour, The Bride of Abydos (1813), Parisina, and The Siege of Corinth (1815). On the initiative of the composer Isaac Nathan, he produced in 1814–1815 the Hebrew Melodies (including what became some of his best-known lyrics, such as "She Walks in Beauty" and "The Destruction of Sennacherib"). Involved at first in an affair with Lady Caroline Lamb (who called him "mad, bad and dangerous to know") and with other lovers and also pressed by debt, he began to seek a suitable marriage, considering – amongst others – Annabella Millbanke.[52] However, in 1813 he met for the first time in four years his half-sister, Augusta Leigh. Rumours of incest surrounded the pair; Augusta's daughter Medora (b. 1814) was suspected to have been Byron's. To escape from growing debts and rumours, Byron pressed his determination to marry Annabella, who was said to be the likely heiress of a rich uncle. They married on 2 January 1815, and their daughter, Ada, was born in December of that year. However, Byron's continuing obsession with Augusta (and his continuing sexual escapades with actresses such as Charlotte Mardyn[53][54] and others) made their marital life a misery. Annabella considered Byron insane, and in January 1816 she left him, taking their daughter, and began proceedings for a legal separation. Their separation was made legal in a private settlement in March 1816. The scandal of the separation, the rumours about Augusta, and ever-increasing debts forced him to leave England in April 1816, never to return.[22] Life abroad (1816–1824)[edit] The Shelleys[edit] Percy Bysshe Shelley, 1819 Mary Shelley, 1840 Claire Clairmont After this break-up of his domestic life, Byron left England and never returned. (Despite his dying wishes, however, his body was returned for burial in England.) He journeyed through Belgium and continued up the Rhine river. In the summer of 1816 he settled at the Villa Diodati by Lake Geneva, Switzerland, with his personal physician, John William Polidori. There Byron befriended the poet Percy Bysshe Shelley and Shelley's future wife, Mary Godwin. He was also joined by Mary's stepsister, Claire Clairmont, with whom he had had an affair in London.[55] Several times Byron went to see Germaine de Staël and her Coppet group, which turned out to be a valid intellectual and emotional support to Byron at the time.[56] Frontispiece to a c. 1825 edition of Childe Harold's Pilgrimage Kept indoors at the Villa Diodati by the "incessant rain" of "that wet, ungenial summer" over three days in June, the five turned to reading fantastical stories, including Fantasmagoriana, and then devising their own tales. Mary Shelley produced what would become Frankenstein, or The Modern Prometheus, and Polidori produced The Vampyre,[57] the progenitor of the Romantic vampire genre.[58][59] The Vampyre was the inspiration for a fragmentary story of Byron's, "A Fragment".[60] Byron's story fragment was published as a postscript to Mazeppa; he also wrote the third canto of Childe Harold. Byron wintered in Venice, pausing his travels when he fell in love with Marianna Segati, in whose Venice house he was lodging, and who was soon replaced by 22-year-old Margarita Cogni; both women were married.[61] Cogni could not read or write, and she left her husband to move into Byron's Venice house.[61] Their fighting often caused Byron to spend the night in his gondola; when he asked her to leave the house, she threw herself into the Venetian canal.[61] Italy[edit] Byron's visit to San Lazzaro as depicted by Ivan Aivazovsky (1899) In 1816, Byron visited San Lazzaro degli Armeni in Venice, where he acquainted himself with Armenian culture with the help of the monks belonging to the Mechitarist Order. With the help of Father Pascal Aucher (Harutiun Avkerian), he learned the Armenian language[61] and attended many seminars about language and history. He co-authored Grammar English and Armenian in 1817, an English textbook written by Aucher and corrected by Byron, and A Grammar Armenian and English in 1819, a project he initiated of a grammar of Classical Armenian for English speakers, where he included quotations from classical and modern Armenian.[61] Byron later participated in the compilation of the English Armenian dictionary (Barraran angleren yev hayeren, 1821) and wrote the preface, in which he explained Armenian oppression by the Turkish pashas and the Persian satraps and the Armenian struggle of liberation. His two main translations are the Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians, two chapters of Movses Khorenatsi's History of Armenia, and sections of Nerses of Lambron's Orations.[62] His fascination was so great that he even considered a replacement of the Cain story of the Bible with that of the legend of Armenian patriarch Haik.[62] He may be credited with the birth of Armenology and its propagation.[62] His profound lyricism and ideological courage has inspired many Armenian poets, the likes of Ghevond Alishan, Smbat Shahaziz, Hovhannes Tumanyan, Ruben Vorberian, and others.[62] In 1817, he journeyed to Rome. On returning to Venice, he wrote the fourth canto of Childe Harold. About the same time, he sold Newstead and published Manfred, Cain, and The Deformed Transformed. The first five cantos of Don Juan were written between 1818 and 1820. During this period he met the 18-year-old Countess Guiccioli, who found her first love in Byron, and asked her to elope with him.[61] Led by love for the local aristocratic, young, and newly married Teresa Guiccioli, Byron lived in Ravenna from 1819 to 1821. Here he continued Don Juan and wrote the Ravenna Diary and My Dictionary and Recollections. Around this time he received visits from Percy Bysshe Shelley, as well as from Thomas Moore, to whom he confided his autobiography or "life and adventures", which Moore, Hobhouse, and Byron's publisher, John Murray,[61] burned in 1824, a month after Byron's death.[40] Of Byron's lifestyle in Ravenna we know more from Shelley, who documented some of its more colourful aspects in a letter: "Lord Byron gets up at two. I get up, quite contrary to my usual custom … at 12. After breakfast we sit talking till six. From six to eight we gallop through the pine forest which divide Ravenna from the sea; we then come home and dine, and sit up gossiping till six in the morning. I don’t suppose this will kill me in a week or fortnight, but I shall not try it longer. Lord B.’s establishment consists, besides servants, of ten horses, eight enormous dogs, three monkeys, five cats, an eagle, a crow, and a falcon; and all these, except the horses, walk about the house, which every now and then resounds with their unarbitrated quarrels, as if they were the masters of it… . [P.S.] I find that my enumeration of the animals in this Circean Palace was defective … . I have just met on the grand staircase five peacocks, two guinea hens, and an Egyptian crane. I wonder who all these animals were before they were changed into these shapes."[63] "Byron's Grotto" in Porto Venere, Italy, named in his honour, because according to a local legend he meditated here and drew inspiration from this place for his literary works Statue of Lord Byron in Athens In 1821 Byron left Ravenna and went to live in the Tuscan city of Pisa, to which Teresa had also relocated. From 1821 to 1822, Byron finished Cantos 6–12 of Don Juan at Pisa, and in the same year he joined with Leigh Hunt and Shelley in starting a short-lived newspaper, The Liberal, in whose first number The Vision of Judgment appeared. For the first time since his arrival in Italy, Byron found himself tempted to give dinner parties; his guests included the Shelleys, Edward Ellerker Williams, Thomas Medwin, John Taaffe, and Edward John Trelawny; and "never", as Shelley said, "did he display himself to more advantage than on these occasions; being at once polite and cordial, full of social hilarity and the most perfect good humour; never diverging into ungraceful merriment, and yet keeping up the spirit of liveliness throughout the evening."[64] Shelley and Williams rented a house on the coast and had a schooner built. Byron decided to have his own yacht, and engaged Trelawny's friend, Captain Daniel Roberts, to design and construct the boat. Named the Bolivar, it was later sold to Charles John Gardiner, 1st Earl of Blessington, and Marguerite, Countess of Blessington, when Byron left for Greece in 1823.[65][66] Byron attended the funeral of Shelley, which was orchestrated by Trelawny after Williams and Shelley drowned in a boating accident on 8 July 1822. His last Italian home was Genoa. While living there he was accompanied by the Countess Guiccioli and the Blessingtons. Lady Blessington based much of the material in her book, Conversations with Lord Byron, on the time spent together there. This book became an important biographical text about Byron’s life just prior to his death. Greece[edit] Further information: Greek War of Independence Lord Byron in Albanian dress by Thomas Phillips, 1813. Venizelos Mansion, Athens (the British Ambassador's residence). Byron was living in Genoa when, in 1823, while growing bored with his life there, he accepted overtures for his support from representatives of the movement for Greek independence from the Ottoman Empire.[67] At first, Byron did not wish to leave his 22-year-old mistress, Countess Teresa Guiccioli, who had abandoned her husband to live with him; ultimately Guiccioli's father, Count Gamba, was allowed to leave his exile in the Romagna under the condition that his daughter return to him, without Byron.[68] At the same time that the philhellene Edward Blaquiere was attempting to recruit him, Byron was confused as to what he was supposed to do in Greece, writing: "Blaquiere seemed to think that I might be of some use-even here;—though what he did not exactly specify".[68] With the assistance of his banker and Captain Daniel Roberts, Byron chartered the brig Hercules to take him to Greece. When Byron left Genoa, it caused "passionate grief" from Guiccioli, who wept openly as he sailed away to Greece. The Hercules was forced to return to port shortly afterwards. When it set sail for the final time, Guiccioli had already left Genoa.[69] On 16 July, Byron left Genoa, arriving at Kefalonia in the Ionian Islands on 4 August. His voyage is covered in detail in Donald Prell's Sailing with Byron from Genoa to Cephalonia.[70] Prell also wrote of a coincidence in Byron's chartering the Hercules. The vessel was launched only a few miles south of Seaham Hall, where in 1815 Byron married Annabella Milbanke. Between 1815 and 1823 the vessel was in service between England and Canada. Suddenly in 1823, the ship's Captain decided to sail to Genoa and offer the Hercules for charter. After taking Byron to Greece, the ship returned to England, never again to venture into the Mediterranean. The Hercules was aged 37 when, on 21 September 1852, she went aground near Hartlepool, only 25 miles south of Sunderland, where in 1815, her keel was laid; Byron's "keel was laid" nine months before his official birth date, 22 January 1788; therefore in ship-years, he was aged 37, when he died in Missolonghi.[71] Byron initially stayed on the island of Kefalonia, where he was besieged by agents of the rival Greek factions, all of whom wanted to recruit Byron to their own cause.[72] The Ionian islands, of which Kefalonia is one, were under British rule until 1864. Byron spent £4,000 of his own money to refit the Greek fleet.[73] When Byron travelled to the mainland of Greece on the night of 28 December 1823, Byron's ship was surprised by an Ottoman warship, which did not attack his ship as the Ottoman captain mistook Byron's boat for a fireship.[74] To avoid the Ottoman Navy, which he encountered several times on his voyage, Byron was forced to take a roundabout route and only reached Missolonghi on 5 January 1824.[74] After arriving in Missolonghi, Byron joined forces with Alexandros Mavrokordatos, a Greek politician with military power. Byron moved to the second floor of a two-story house and was forced to spend much of his time dealing with unruly Souliotes who demanded that Byron pay them the back-pay owed to them by the Greek government.[75] Byron gave the Souliotes some £6,000 pounds.[76] Byron was supposed to lead an attack on the Ottoman fortress of Navpaktos, whose Albanian garrison were unhappy due to pay arrears and who offered to put up only token resistance if Byron was willing to bribe them into surrendering. However, Ottoman commander Yussuf Pasha executed the mutinous Albanian officers who were offering to surrender Navpaktos to Byron and arranged to have some of the pay arrears paid out to the rest of the garrison.[77] Byron never led the attack on Navpaktos because the Souliotes kept demanding that Byron pay them more and more money before they would march; Byron grew tired of their blackmail and sent them all home on 15 February 1824.[77] Byron wrote in a note to himself: "Having tried in vain at every expence-considerable trouble—and some danger to unite the Suliotes for the good of Greece-and their own—I have come to the following resolution—I will have nothing more to do with the Suliotes-they may go to the Turks or the devil...they may cut me into more pieces than they have dissensions among them, sooner than change my resolution".[77] At the same time, Guiccioli's brother, Pietro Gamba, who had followed Byron to Greece, exasperated Byron with his incompetence as he consistently made expensive mistakes. For example, when asked to buy some cloth from Corfu, Gamba ordered the wrong cloth in excess, leading to the bill being 10 times higher than what Byron wanted.[78] Byron wrote about his right-hand man: "Gamba—who is anything but lucky—had something to do with it—and as usual—the moment he had—matters went wrong".[76] The reception of Lord Byron at Missolonghi To help raise money for the revolution, Byron sold his estate Rochdale Manor in England, which raised some £11,250 pound sterling; this led Byron to estimate that he now had some £20,000 pounds at his disposal, all of which he planned to spend on the Greek cause.[79] In today's money Byron would have been a millionaire many times over, and the news that a fabulously wealthy British aristocrat known for his generosity in spending money had arrived in Greece made Byron the object of much solicitation in a desperately poor country like Greece.[79] Byron wrote to his business agent in England, "I should not like to give the Greeks but a half helping hand", saying he would have wanted to spend his entire fortune on Greek freedom.[79] Byron found himself besieged by various people, both Greek and foreign, who tried to persuade Byron to open up his pocketbook to support them. By the end of March 1824, the so-called "Byron brigade" of 30 philhellene officers and about 200 men had been formed, paid for entirely by Byron.[80] Leadership of the Greek cause in the Roumeli region was divided between two rival leaders: a former Klepht (bandit), Odysseas Androutsos; and a wealthy Phanariot merchant, Alexandros Mavrokordatos. Byron used his prestige to attempt to persuade the two rival leaders to come together to focus on defeating the Ottomans.[81] At same time, other leaders of the Greek factions like Petrobey Mavromichalis and Theodoros Kolokotronis wrote letters to Byron telling him to disregard all of the Roumeliot leaders and to come to their respective areas in the Peloponnese. This drove Byron to distraction; he complained that the Greeks were hopelessly disunited and spent more time feuding with each other than trying to win independence.[82] Byron's friend Edward John Trelawny had aligned himself with Androutsos, who ruled Athens, and was now pressing for Byron to break with Mavrokordatos in favour of backing his rival Androutsos.[80] Androutsos, having won over Trelawny to his cause, was now anxious to persuade Byron to put his wealth behind his claim to be the leader of Greece.[83] Byron wrote with disgust about how one of the Greek captains, former Klepht Georgios Karaiskakis, attacked Missolonghi on 3 April 1824 with some 150 men supported by the Souliotes as he was unhappy with Mavrokordatos's leadership, leading to a brief bout of inter-Greek fighting before Karaiskakis was chased away by 6 April.[84] Byron adopted a nine-year-old Turkish Muslim girl called Hato whose parents had been killed by the Greeks, whom he ultimately sent to safety in Kefalonia, knowing well that religious hatred between the Orthodox Greeks and Muslim Turks was running high and that any Muslim in Greece, even a child, was in serious danger.[85] Until 1934, most Turks did not have surnames, so Hato's lack of a surname was quite typical for a Turkish family at this time. During this time, Byron pursued his Greek page, Lukas Chalandritsanos, with whom he had fallen madly in love, but the affections went unrequited.[40][85] Byron was infatuated with the teenage Chalandritsanos, whom he spoiled outrageously, spending some £600 (the equivalent to about £24,600 in today's money) to cater to his every whim over the course of six months and writing his last poems about his passion for the Greek boy, but Chalandritsanos was only interested in Byron's money.[85] When the famous Danish sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen heard about Byron's heroics in Greece, he voluntarily resculpted his earlier bust of Byron in Greek marble.[61] Death[edit] Lord Byron on His Deathbed, by Joseph Denis Odevaere (c. 1826). Oil on canvas, 166 × 234.5 cm Groeningemuseum, Bruges. (Note the sheet covering his misshapen right foot.) Mavrokordatos and Byron planned to attack the Turkish-held fortress of Lepanto, at the mouth of the Gulf of Corinth. Byron employed a fire-master to prepare artillery, and he took part of the rebel army under his own command, despite his lack of military experience. Before the expedition could sail, on 15 February 1824, he fell ill, and bloodletting weakened him further.[86] He made a partial recovery, but in early April he caught a violent cold, which therapeutic bleeding, insisted on by his doctors, aggravated. This treatment, carried out with unsterilised medical instruments, may have caused him to develop sepsis. He contracted a violent fever and died in Missolonghi on 19 April.[86] His physician at the time, Julius van Millingen, son of Dutch–English archaeologist James Millingen, was unable to prevent his death. It has been said that if Byron had lived and had gone on to defeat the Ottomans, he might have been declared King of Greece. However, contemporary scholars have found such an outcome unlikely.[40] The British historian David Brewer wrote that in one sense, Byron was a failure in Greece as he failed to persuade the rival Greek factions to unite, won no victories and was successful only in the humanitarian sphere, using his great wealth to help the victims of the war, Muslim and Christian, but this did not affect the outcome of the Greek war of independence at all.[87] Brewer went on to argue, In another sense, though, Byron achieved everything he could have wished. His presence in Greece, and in particular his death there, drew to the Greek cause not just the attention of sympathetic nations, but their increasing active participation ... Despite the critics, Byron is primarily remembered with admiration as a poet of genius, with something approaching veneration as a symbol of high ideals, and with great affection as a man: for his courage and his ironic slant on life, for his generosity to the grandest of causes and to the humblest of individuals, for the constant interplay of judgment and sympathy. In Greece he is still revered as no other foreigner, and as very few Greeks are, and like a Homeric hero he is accorded an honorific standard epithet, megalos kai kalos, a great and good man.[88] Post mortem[edit] A Narrative of Lord Byron's Last Journey to Greece by Pietro Gamba (1825) Alfred Tennyson would later recall the shocked reaction in Britain when word was received of Byron's death.[40] The Greeks mourned Lord Byron deeply, and he became a hero.[89][90] The national poet of Greece, Dionysios Solomos, wrote a poem about the unexpected loss, named To the Death of Lord Byron.[91] Βύρων, the Greek form of "Byron", continues in popularity as a masculine name in Greece, and a suburb of Athens is called Vyronas in his honour. Byron's body was embalmed, but the Greeks wanted some part of their hero to stay with them. According to some sources, his heart remained at Missolonghi.[92] His other remains were sent to England (accompanied by his faithful manservant, "Tita") for burial in Westminster Abbey, but the Abbey refused for reason of "questionable morality".[40][93] Huge crowds viewed his coffin as he lay in state for two days in London.[40] He is buried at the Church of St. Mary Magdalene in Hucknall, Nottinghamshire.[94] A marble slab given by the King of Greece is laid directly above Byron's grave. His daughter, Ada Lovelace, was later buried beside him.[95] Byron's friends raised the sum of 1,000 pounds to commission a statue of the writer; Thorvaldsen offered to sculpt it for that amount.[61] However, for ten years after the statue was completed in 1834, most British institutions turned it down, and it remained in storage. The statue was refused by the British Museum, St. Paul's Cathedral, Westminster Abbey and the National Gallery[61] before Trinity College, Cambridge, finally placed the statue of Byron in its library.[61] In 1969, 145 years after Byron's death, a memorial to him was finally placed in Westminster Abbey.[96][97] The memorial had been lobbied for since 1907: The New York Times wrote, "People are beginning to ask whether this ignoring of Byron is not a thing of which England should be ashamed ... a bust or a tablet might be put in the Poets' Corner and England be relieved of ingratitude toward one of her really great sons."[98] Robert Ripley had drawn a picture of Boatswain's grave with the caption "Lord Byron's dog has a magnificent tomb while Lord Byron himself has none". This came as a shock to the English, particularly schoolchildren, who, Ripley said, raised funds of their own accord to provide the poet with a suitable memorial.[99] Close to the centre of Athens, Greece, outside the National Garden, is a statue depicting Greece in the form of a woman crowning Byron. The statue is by the French sculptors Henri-Michel Chapu and Alexandre Falguière. Since 2008, the anniversary of Byron's death, 19 April, has been honoured in Greece as "Byron Day".[100] Upon his death, the barony passed to Byron's cousin George Anson Byron, a career naval officer.[citation needed] Personal life[edit] Relationships and scandals[edit] Lady Caroline Lamb Jane Elizabeth Scott "Lady Oxford" Augusta Leigh Anne Isabella Milbanke in 1812 by Charles Hayter Teresa, Contessa Guiccioli Byron described his first intense feelings at age eight for his distant cousin, Mary Duff: My mother used always to rally me about this childish amour, and at last, many years after, when I was sixteen, she told me one day, 'O Byron, I have had a letter from Edinburgh, and your old sweetheart, Mary Duff, is married to Mr. C***.' And what was my answer? I really cannot explain or account for my feelings at that moment, but they nearly threw me into convulsions... How the deuce did all this occur so early? Where could it originate? I certainly had no sexual ideas for years afterwards; and yet my misery, my love for that girl were so violent, that I sometimes doubt if I have ever been really attached since. Be that as it may, hearing of her marriage several years after was like a thunder-stroke – it nearly choked me – to the horror of my mother and the astonishment and almost incredulity of every body. And it is a phenomenon in my existence (for I was not eight years old) which has puzzled, and will puzzle me to the latest hour of it; and lately, I know not why, the recollection (not the attachment) has recurred as forcibly as ever...But, the more I reflect, the more I am bewildered to assign any cause for this precocity of affection.[101] Byron also became attached to Margaret Parker, another distant cousin.[36] While his recollection of his love for Mary Duff is that he was ignorant of adult sexuality during this time and was bewildered as to the source of the intensity of his feelings, he would later confess that: My passions were developed very early – so early, that few would believe me – if I were to state the period – and the facts which accompanied it. Perhaps this was one of the reasons that caused the anticipated melancholy of my thoughts – having anticipated life.[102] This is the only reference Byron himself makes to the event, and he is ambiguous as to how old he was when it occurred. After his death, his lawyer wrote to a mutual friend telling him a "singular fact" about Byron's life which was "scarcely fit for narration". But he disclosed it nonetheless, thinking it might explain Byron's sexual "propensities": When nine years old at his mother's house a Free Scotch girl [May, sometimes called Mary, Gray, one of his first caretakers] used to come to bed to him and play tricks with his person.[103] Gray later used this knowledge as a means of ensuring his silence if he were to be tempted to disclose the "low company" she kept during drinking binges.[104] She was later dismissed, supposedly for beating Byron when he was 11.[36] A few years later, while he was still a child, Lord Grey De Ruthyn (unrelated to May Gray), a suitor of his mother's, also made sexual advances on him.[105] Byron's personality has been characterised as exceptionally proud and sensitive, especially when it came to his deformity.[16] His extreme reaction to seeing his mother flirting outrageously with Lord Grey De Ruthyn after the incident suggests this: he did not tell her of Grey's conduct toward him; he simply refused to speak to him again and ignored his mother's commands to be reconciled.[105] Leslie A. Marchand, one of Byron's biographers, theorises that Lord Grey De Ruthyn's advances prompted Byron's later sexual liaisons with young men at Harrow and Cambridge.[40][failed verification] Scholars acknowledge a more or less important bisexual component in Byron's very complex sentimental and sexual life. Bernhard Jackson asserts that "Byron's sexual orientation has long been a difficult, not to say contentious, topic, and anyone who seeks to discuss it must to some degree speculate, since the evidence is nebulous, contradictory and scanty... it is not so simple to define Byron as homosexual or heterosexual: he seems rather to have been both, and either."[106][107] Crompton states: "What was not understood in Byron's own century (except by a tiny circle of his associates) was that Byron was bisexual".[108] Another biographer, Fiona MacCarthy, has posited that Byron's true sexual yearnings were for adolescent males.[40] Byron used a code by which he communicated his homosexual Greek adventures to John Hobhouse in England: Bernhard Jackson recalls that "Byron's early code for sex with a boy" was "Plen(um). and optabil(em). -Coit(um)"[106] Bullough summarizes: Byron, was attached to Nicolo Giraud, a young French-Greek lad who had been a model for the painter Lusieri before Byron found him. Byron left him 7,000 pounds in his will. When Byron returned to Italy, he became involved with a number of boys in Venice but eventually settled on Loukas Chalandritsanos, age 15, who was with him when he was killed [sic][109] (Crompton, 1985). — Bullough (1990), p. 72 In 1812, Byron embarked on a well-publicised affair with the married Lady Caroline Lamb that shocked the British public.[110] She had spurned the attention of the poet on their first meeting, subsequently giving Byron what became his lasting epitaph when she famously described him as "mad, bad and dangerous to know".[111] This did not prevent her from pursuing him.[112][113] Byron eventually broke off the relationship and moved swiftly on to others (such as that with Lady Oxford), but Lamb never entirely recovered, pursuing him even after he tired of her. She was emotionally disturbed and lost so much weight that Byron sarcastically commented to her mother-in-law, his friend Lady Melbourne, that he was "haunted by a skeleton".[114] She began to call on him at home, sometimes dressed in disguise as a pageboy,[110] at a time when such an act could ruin both of them socially. Once, during such a visit, she wrote on a book at his desk, "Remember me!" As a retort, Byron wrote a poem entitled Remember Thee! Remember Thee! which concludes with the line "Thou false to him, thou fiend to me". As a child, Byron had seen little of his half-sister Augusta Leigh; in adulthood, he formed a close relationship with her that has been interpreted by some as incestuous,[114] and by others as innocent.[36] Augusta (who was married) gave birth on 15 April 1814 to her third daughter, Elizabeth Medora Leigh, rumoured by some to be Byron's. Eventually Byron began to court Lady Caroline's cousin Anne Isabella Milbanke ("Annabella"), who refused his first proposal of marriage but later accepted him. Milbanke was a highly moral woman, intelligent and mathematically gifted; she was also an heiress. They married at Seaham Hall, County Durham, on 2 January 1815.[114] The marriage proved unhappy. They had a daughter, Augusta Ada. On 16 January 1816, Lady Byron left him, taking Ada with her. That same year (21 April), Byron signed the Deed of Separation. Rumours of marital violence, adultery with actresses, incest with Augusta Leigh, and sodomy were circulated, assisted by a jealous Lady Caroline.[114] In a letter, Augusta quoted him as saying: "Even to have such a thing said is utter destruction and ruin to a man from which he can never recover." That same year Lady Caroline published her popular novel Glenarvon, in which Lord Byron was portrayed as the seedy title character.[115] Children[edit] Elizabeth Medora Leigh (1814–1849) Ada Lovelace (1815–1852) Clara Allegra Byron (1817–1822) Byron wrote a letter to John Hanson from Newstead Abbey, dated 17 January 1809, that includes "You will discharge my Cook, & Laundry Maid, the other two I shall retain to take care of the house, more especially as the youngest is pregnant (I need not tell you by whom) and I cannot have the girl on the parish."[116] His reference to "The youngest" is understood to have been to a maid, Lucy, and the parenthesised remark to indicate himself as siring a son born that year. In 2010 part of a baptismal record was uncovered which apparently said: "September 24 George illegitimate son of Lucy Monk, illegitimate son of Baron Byron, of Newstead, Nottingham, Newstead Abbey."[117] Augusta Leigh's child, Elizabeth Medora Leigh, born 1814, was very likely fathered by Byron, who was Augusta's half-brother. Byron had a child, The Hon. Augusta Ada Byron ("Ada", later Countess of Lovelace), in 1815, by his wife Annabella Byron, Lady Byron (née Anne Isabella Milbanke, or "Annabella"), later Lady Wentworth. Ada Lovelace, notable in her own right, collaborated with Charles Babbage on the analytical engine, a predecessor to modern computers. She is recognised[118] as one of[119] the world's first computer programmers. He also had an extramarital child in 1817, Clara Allegra Byron, with Claire Clairmont, stepsister of Mary Shelley and stepdaughter of William Godwin, writer of Political Justice and Caleb Williams. Allegra is not entitled to the style "The Hon." as is usually given to the daughter of barons, since she was born outside of his marriage. Born in Bath in 1817, Allegra lived with Byron for a few months in Venice; he refused to allow an Englishwoman caring for the girl to adopt her and objected to her being raised in the Shelleys' household.[61] He wished for her to be brought up Catholic and not marry an Englishman,[61] and he made arrangements for her to inherit 5,000 lira upon marriage or when she reached the age of 21, provided she did not marry a native of Britain.[61] However, the girl died aged five of a fever in Bagnacavallo, Italy, while Byron was in Pisa; he was deeply upset by the news.[61] He had Allegra's body sent back to England to be buried at his old school, Harrow, because Protestants could not be buried in consecrated ground in Catholic countries.[61] At one time he himself had wanted to be buried at Harrow. Byron was indifferent towards Allegra's mother, Claire Clairmont.[61] Sea and swimming[edit] Byron enjoyed adventure, especially relating to the sea.[19] The first recorded notable example of open water swimming took place on 3 May 1810 when Lord Byron swam from Europe to Asia across the Hellespont Strait.[120] This is often seen as the birth of the sport and pastime, and to commemorate it, the event is recreated every year as an open water swimming event.[121] Whilst sailing from Genoa to Cephalonia in 1823, every day at noon, Byron and Trelawny, in calm weather, jumped overboard for a swim without fear of sharks, which were not unknown in those waters. Once, according to Trelawny, they let the geese and ducks loose and followed them and the dogs into the water, each with an arm in the ship Captain’s new scarlet waistcoat, to the annoyance of the Captain and the amusement of the crew.[122] Fondness for animals[edit] Byron had a great love of animals, most notably for a Newfoundland dog named Boatswain. When the animal contracted rabies, Byron nursed him, albeit unsuccessfully, without any thought or fear of becoming bitten and infected.[123][124] Although deep in debt at the time, Byron commissioned an impressive marble funerary monument for Boatswain at Newstead Abbey, larger than his own, and the only building work which he ever carried out on his estate. In his 1811 will, Byron requested that he be buried with him.[61] The 26‐line poem "Epitaph to a Dog" has become one of his best-known works, but a draft of an 1830 letter by Hobhouse shows him to be the author, and that Byron decided to use Hobhouse's lengthy epitaph instead of his own, which read: "To mark a friend's remains these stones arise/I never knew but one – and here he lies."[125] Byron also kept a tame bear while he was a student at Trinity, out of resentment for rules forbidding pet dogs like his beloved Boatswain. There being no mention of bears in their statutes, the college authorities had no legal basis for complaining: Byron even suggested that he would apply for a college fellowship for the bear.[126] During his lifetime, in addition to numerous cats, dogs, and horses, Byron kept a fox, monkeys, an eagle, a crow, a falcon, peacocks, guinea hens, an Egyptian crane, a badger, geese, a heron, and a goat.[127] Except for the horses, they all resided indoors at his homes in England, Switzerland, Italy, and Greece.[citation needed] Health and appearance[edit] Byron, 1830 Character and psyche[edit] I am such a strange mélange of good and evil that it would be difficult to describe me.[128] As a boy, Byron's character is described as a "mixture of affectionate sweetness and playfulness, by which it was impossible not to be attached", although he also exhibited "silent rages, moody sullenness and revenge" with a precocious bent for attachment and obsession.[101] Deformed foot[edit] From birth, Byron suffered from a deformity of his right foot. Although it has generally been referred to as a "club foot", some modern medical authors maintain that it was a consequence of infantile paralysis (poliomyelitis), and others that it was a dysplasia, a failure of the bones to form properly.[129] Whatever the cause, he was afflicted with a limp that caused him lifelong psychological and physical misery, aggravated by painful and pointless "medical treatment" in his childhood and the nagging suspicion that with proper care it might have been cured.[130] He was extremely self-conscious about this from a young age, nicknaming himself le diable boîteux[131] (French for "the limping devil", after the nickname given to Asmodeus by Alain-René Lesage in his 1707 novel of the same name). Although he often wore specially-made shoes in an attempt to hide the deformed foot,[40] he refused to wear any type of brace that might improve the limp.[19] Scottish novelist John Galt felt his oversensitivity to the "innocent fault in his foot was unmanly and excessive" because the limp was "not greatly conspicuous". He first met Byron on a voyage to Sardinia and did not realise he had any deficiency for several days, and still could not tell at first if the lameness was a temporary injury or not. At the time Galt met him he was an adult and had worked to develop "a mode of walking across a room by which it was scarcely at all perceptible".[21] The motion of the ship at sea may also have helped to create a favourable first impression and hide any deficiencies in his gait, but Galt's biography is also described as being "rather well-meant than well-written", so Galt may be guilty of minimising a defect that was actually still noticeable.[132] Physical appearance[edit] Lord Byron by Henry Pierce Bone Byron's adult height was 5 feet 8.5 inches (1.74 m), his weight fluctuating between 9.5 stone (133 lb; 60 kg) and 14 stone (200 lb; 89 kg). He was renowned for his personal beauty, which he enhanced by wearing curl-papers in his hair at night.[133] He was athletic, being a competent boxer and horse-rider and an excellent swimmer. He attended pugilistic tuition at the Bond Street rooms of former prizefighting champion ‘Gentleman’ John Jackson, whom Byron called ‘the Emperor of Pugilism’, and recorded these sparring sessions in his letters and journals.[134] Byron and other writers, such as his friend Hobhouse, described his eating habits in detail. At the time he entered Cambridge, he went on a strict diet to control his weight. He also exercised a great deal, and at that time wore a great amount of clothes to cause himself to perspire. For most of his life he was a vegetarian and often lived for days on dry biscuits and white wine. Occasionally he would eat large helpings of meat and desserts, after which he would purge himself. Although he is described by Galt and others as having a predilection for "violent" exercise, Hobhouse suggests that the pain in his deformed foot made physical activity difficult and that his weight problem was the result.[133] Trelawny who observed Byron's eating habits noted that he lived on a diet of biscuits and soda-water for days at a time and then would eat a "horrid mess of cold potatoes, rice, fish, or greens, deluged in vinegar, and gobble it up like a famished dog."[135][136] Political career[edit] Byron first took his seat in the House of Lords 13 March 1809[137] but left London on 11 June 1809 for the Continent.[138] Byron's association with the Holland House Whigs provided him with a discourse of liberty rooted in the Glorious Revolution of 1688.[139] A strong advocate of social reform, he received particular praise as one of the few Parliamentary defenders of the Luddites: specifically, he was against a death penalty for Luddite "frame breakers" in Nottinghamshire, who destroyed textile machines that were putting them out of work. His first speech before the Lords, on 27 February 1812, was loaded with sarcastic references to the "benefits" of automation, which he saw as producing inferior material as well as putting people out of work, and concluded the proposed law was only missing two things to be effective: "Twelve Butchers for a Jury and a Jeffries for a Judge!". Byron's speech was officially recorded and printed in Hansard.[140] He said later that he "spoke very violent sentences with a sort of modest impudence" and thought he came across as "a bit theatrical".[141] The full text of the speech, which he had previously written out, was presented to Dallas in manuscript form and he quotes it in his work.[142] Two months later, in conjunction with the other Whigs, Byron made another impassioned speech before the House of Lords in support of Catholic emancipation.[139][143] Byron expressed opposition to the established religion because it was unfair to people of other faiths.[144] These experiences inspired Byron to write political poems such as Song for the Luddites (1816) and The Landlords' Interest, Canto XIV of The Age of Bronze.[145] Examples of poems in which he attacked his political opponents include Wellington: The Best of the Cut-Throats (1819) and The Intellectual Eunuch Castlereagh (1818).[146] Poetic works[edit] Byron wrote prolifically.[147] In 1832 his publisher, John Murray, released the complete works in 14 duodecimo volumes, including a life[141] by Thomas Moore. Subsequent editions were released in 17 volumes, first published a year later, in 1833. An extensive collection of his works, including early editions and annotated manuscripts, are held within the John Murray Archive at the National Library of Scotland in Edinburgh. Don Juan[edit] Main article: Don Juan (poem) Byron's magnum opus, Don Juan, a poem spanning 17 cantos, ranks as one of the most important long poems published in England since John Milton's Paradise Lost.[148] The poem, often called the epic of its time, has roots deep in literary tradition and, although regarded by early Victorians as somewhat shocking, equally involves itself with its own contemporary world at all levels – social, political, literary and ideological. In addition to its biting satire, the poem (especially in the early cantos) is funny.[149] Byron published the first two cantos anonymously in 1819 after disputes with his regular publisher over the shocking nature of the poetry. By this time, he had been a famous poet for seven years, and when he self-published the beginning cantos, they were well received in some quarters.[41] It was then released volume by volume through his regular publishing house.[41] By 1822, cautious acceptance by the public had turned to outrage, and Byron's publisher refused to continue to publish the works.[41] In Canto III of Don Juan, Byron expresses his detestation for poets such as William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge.[41][150] In letters to Francis Hodgson, Byron referred to Wordsworth as "Turdsworth".[151] Irish Avatar[edit] Main article: Irish Avatar Byron wrote Irish Avatar in connection with the trip of the King of the United Kingdom George IV to Ireland. Byron's official interpretation of this fact is contrasted with the indignation of British tyranny imbued with angry copyright. Byron's satire is directed against both despotism and lackey. In his satire, the poet is indignant at the anguish of those who crawled before George, as before the new "god". The author reminds the Irish that in the person of George IV they should see the British government, which took away all their freedoms. The lyrical hero calls on the Irish to fight against British tyranny and speaks of their love for those Irish who are fighting for the freedom of their country. Parthenon marbles[edit] Main article: Elgin Marbles Byron was a bitter opponent of Lord Elgin's removal of the Parthenon marbles from Greece and "reacted with fury" when Elgin's agent gave him a tour of the Parthenon, during which he saw the spaces left by the missing friezes and metopes. He denounced Elgin's actions in his poem The Curse of Minerva and in Canto II (stanzas XI–XV) of Childe Harold's Pilgrimage.[152] Legacy and influence[edit] Stained glass at Ottawa Public Library features Charles Dickens, Archibald Lampman, Sir Walter Scott, Lord Byron, Alfred, Lord Tennyson, William Shakespeare, Thomas Moore Byron is considered to be the first modern-style celebrity. His image as the personification of the Byronic hero fascinated the public,[40] and his wife Annabella coined the term "Byromania" to refer to the commotion surrounding him.[40] His self-awareness and personal promotion are seen as a beginning to what would become the modern rock star; he would instruct artists painting portraits of him not to paint him with pen or book in hand, but as a "man of action."[40] While Byron first welcomed fame, he later turned from it by going into voluntary exile from Britain.[29] Biographies were distorted by the burning of Byron's memoir in the offices of his publisher, John Murray, a month after his death and the suppression of details of Byron's bisexuality by subsequent heads of the firm (which held the richest Byron archive). As late as the 1950s, scholar Leslie Marchard was expressly forbidden by the Murray company to reveal details of Byron's same-sex passions.[153] The re-founding of the Byron Society in 1971 reflected the fascination that many people had with Byron and his work.[154] This society became very active, publishing an annual journal. Thirty-six Byron Societies function throughout the world, and an International Conference takes place annually. Byron exercised a marked influence on Continental literature and art, and his reputation as a poet is higher in many European countries than in Britain or America, although not as high as in his time, when he was widely thought to be the greatest poet in the world.[29] Byron's writings also inspired many composers. Over forty operas have been based on his works, in addition to three operas about Byron himself (including Virgil Thomson's Lord Byron). His poetry was set to music by many Romantic composers, including Beethoven, Schubert, Rossini, Mendelssohn, Schumann and Carl Loewe. Among his greatest admirers was Hector Berlioz, whose operas and Mémoires reveal Byron's influence.[155] Byronic hero[edit] The figure of the Byronic hero pervades much of his work, and Byron himself is considered to epitomise many of the characteristics of this literary figure.[40] The use of a Byronic hero by many authors and artists of the Romantic movement show Byron's influence during the 19th century and beyond, including the Brontë sisters.[40][156] His philosophy was more durably influential in continental Europe than in England; Friedrich Nietzsche admired him, and the Byronic hero was echoed in Nietzsche's superman.[157] The Byronic hero presents an idealised, but flawed character whose attributes include: great talent; great passion; a distaste for society and social institutions; a lack of respect for rank and privilege (although possessing both); being thwarted in love by social constraint or death; rebellion; exile; an unsavory secret past; arrogance; overconfidence or lack of foresight; and, ultimately, a self-destructive manner. These types of characters have since become ubiquitous in literature and politics. In popular culture[edit] Main article: Lord Byron in popular culture See also: Cultural legacy of Mazeppa Bibliography[edit] The Bride of Abydos or Selim and Zuleika, an 1857 painting by Eugène Delacroix depicting Lord Byron's work See also: Category:Works by Lord Byron. Index of Titles Index of First Lines Major works[edit] Hours of Idleness (1807) Lachin y Gair (1807) English Bards and Scotch Reviewers (1809) Childe Harold's Pilgrimage, Cantos I & II (1812) The Giaour (1813) (text on Wikisource) The Bride of Abydos (1813) The Corsair (1814) (text on Wikisource) Lara, A Tale (1814) (text on Wikisource) Hebrew Melodies (1815) The Siege of Corinth (1816) (text on Wikisource) Parisina (1816) (text on Wikisource) The Prisoner of Chillon (1816) (text on Wikisource) The Dream (1816) (text on Wikisource) Prometheus (1816) (text on Wikisource) Darkness (1816) (text on Wikisource) Manfred (1817) (text on Wikisource) The Lament of Tasso (1817) Beppo (1818) (text on Wikisource) Childe Harold's Pilgrimage (1818) (text on Wikisource) Don Juan (1819–1824; incomplete on Byron's death in 1824) (text on Wikisource) Mazeppa (1819) The Prophecy of Dante (1819) Marino Faliero (1820) Sardanapalus (1821) The Two Foscari (1821) Cain (1821) The Vision of Judgment (1821) Heaven and Earth (1821) Werner (1822) The Age of Bronze (1823) The Island (1823) (text on Wikisource) The Deformed Transformed (1824) Letters and journals, vol. 1 (1830) Letters and journals, vol. 2 (1830) Selected shorter lyric poems[edit] Maid of Athens, ere we part (1810) (text on Wikisource) And thou art dead (1812) (text on Wikisource) She Walks in Beauty (1814) (text on Wikisource) My Soul is Dark (1815) (text on Wikisource) The Destruction of Sennacherib (1815) (text on Wikisource) Monody on the Death of the Right Hon. R. B. Sheridan (1816) (text on Wikisource) Fare Thee Well (1816) (text on Wikisource) So, we'll go no more a roving (1817) (text on Wikisource) When We Two Parted (1817) (text on Wikisource) Ode on Venice (1819) (text on Wikisource) Stanzas (1819) Don Leon (not by Lord Byron, but attributed to him; 1830s) See also[edit] Biography portal Poetry portal Arts portal Early life of Lord Byron Timeline of Lord Byron 19th century in poetry Bridge of Sighs, a Venice landmark Byron denominated Asteroid 3306 Byron References[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Cousin, John William (1910). A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature. London: J. M. Dent & Sons – via Wikisource. Notes[edit] ^ "Lord Byron". The British Library. Retrieved 17 October 2020. ^ Marchand, Leslie A. (15 April 2019). "Lord Byron". Encyclopædia Britannica. London, England: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. ^ "Byron and Scotland", Robert Morrison. ^ Foundation, Poetry (30 December 2018). "Lord Byron (George Gordon)". Poetry Foundation. Retrieved 30 December 2018. ^ "The Nation's Favourite Poet Result – TS Eliot is your winner!". BBC. London, England. Retrieved 25 May 2019. ^ Perrottet, Tony (29 May 2011). "Lake Geneva as Shelley and Byron Knew It". The New York Times. New York City: New York Times Company. ^ "Byron had yet to die to make philhellenism generally acceptable." – Plomer (1970). ^ Fuegi, J; Francis, J (October–December 2003). "Lovelace & Babbage and the creation of the 1843 'notes'". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. Washington DC: IEEE Computer Society. 25 (4): 16–26. doi:10.1109/MAHC.2003.1253887. ^ Phillips, Ana Lena (November–December 2011). "Crowdsourcing Gender Equity: Ada Lovelace Day, and its companion website, aims to raise the profile of women in science and technology". American Scientist. Research Triangle Park, North Carolina: Xi Society. 99 (6): 463. doi:10.1511/2011.93.463. ^ "Ada Lovelace honoured by Google doodle". The Guardian. London, England: Guardian Media Group. 10 December 2012. Retrieved 10 December 2012. ^ Boase & Courtney (1878), p. 792. ^ Brand, Emily (2020). The Fall of the House of Byron. John Murray. p. 183. ^ Brand, Emily (2020). The Fall of the House of Byron. John Murray. p. 181. ^ Brand, Emily (2020). The Fall of the House of Byron. John Murray. pp. 189, 200. ^ Brand, Emily (2020). The Fall of the House of Byron. John Murray. p. 212. ^ a b c Galt (1830), Chapter 1. ^ Brand, Emily (2020). The Fall of the House of Byron. John Murray. p. 221. ^ Brand, Emily (2020). The Fall of the House of Byron. John Murray. p. 236. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "Byron as a Boy; His Mother's Influence – His School Days and Mary Chaworth" (PDF). The New York Times. 26 February 1898. Retrieved 11 July 2008. ^ Brand, Emily (2020). The Fall of the House of Byron. John Murray. p. 254. ^ a b Galt (1830), Chapter 3. ^ a b c McGann (2013). ^ Williamson, Martin (18 June 2005). "The oldest fixture of them all: the annual Eton vs Harrow match". Cricinfo Magazine. London, England: Wisden Group. Retrieved 23 July 2008. ^ MacCarthy (2002), p. 33. ^ MacCarthy (2002), p. 37. ^ MacCarthy (2002), p. 404. ^ MacCarthy (2002), p. 40. ^ "Byron [post Noel], George (Gordon), Baron Byron (BRN805G)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge. ^ a b c Allen (2003). ^ MacCarthy (2002), p. 61. ^ MacCarthy (2002), p. 39. ^ Fone, Byrne (1998). The Columbia Anthology of Gay Literature: Readings from Western Antiquity to the Present Day. New York City: Columbia University Press. p. 219. ISBN 978-0231096706. ^ a b Biography.com Editors (2016). "Lord Byron Biography". A&E Television Networks. ^ Fugitive Pieces. December 1933. ISBN 9780841432437. Retrieved 29 September 2015. ^ Lord Byron. "To Mary". JGHawaii Publishing Co. Retrieved 20 November 2008. ^ a b c d e f Hoeper, Jeffrey D. (17 December 2002). "The Sodomizing Biographer: Leslie Marchand's Portrait of Byron". Arkansas State University. Archived from the original on 10 May 2003. Retrieved 11 July 2008. ^ Dallas (1824), p. 18. ^ Dallas (1824), p. 46. ^ Dallas (1824), p. 55. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Bostridge, Mark (3 November 2002). "On the trail of the real Lord Byron". The Independent on Sunday. London. Retrieved 22 July 2008. ^ a b c d e Stabler (1999). ^ Moore, Thomas (2006). "Letters and Journals of Lord Byron, 1830, volume 1". In Ratcliffe, Susan (ed.). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Quotations. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. ^ Lansdown (2012). ^ Crompton (1985), pp. 123–128. ^ Blackstone (1974). ^ Marchand, p. 45. ^ Byron's correspondence and Journals from the Mediterranean, July 1809 – July 1811 Byron to Catherine Gordon Byron, from Gibraltar, 11 August 1809: "I left Seville and rode on to Cadiz through a beautiful country, at Xeres where the Sherry we drink is made I met a great merchant a Mr Gordon of Scotland, who was extremely polite and favoured me with the Inspection of his vaults & cellars so that I quaffed at the Fountain head. – – Cadiz, sweet Cadiz! is the most delightful town I ever beheld..." ^ Christensen (1993). ^ MacCarthy (2002), p. 135. ^ Tuite (2015), p. 156. ^ http://www.euromanticism.org/the-hellespont/ ^ "Lord Byron, 19th-century bad boy". The British Library. Retrieved 17 October 2020. ^ Alexander Kilgour, Anecdotes of Lord Byron: From Authentic Sources; with Remarks Illustrative of His Connection with the Principal Literary of the Present Day, Knight and Lacey, London (1925) - Google Books pg. 32 ^ John Galt, The Complete Works of Lord Byron, Volume 2, Baudry's European Library (1837) - Google Books cvii ^ Rubin, Merle (10 September 1989). "A Hero to His Physician: Lord Byron's Doctor by Paul West". The Los Angeles Times. ISSN 0458-3035. Retrieved 26 December 2017. ^ Silvia Bordoni (2005). "Lord Byron and Germaine de Staël" (PDF). The University of Nottingham. ^ https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/the-vampyre-by-john-polidori ^ Rigby, Mair. "'Prey to some cureless disquiet': Polidori's Queer Vampyre at the Margins of Romanticism". Paragraph 2. Romanticism on the Net, 36–37, November 2004. ^ "John Polidori & the Vampyre Byron". www.angelfire.com. Retrieved 26 December 2017. ^ "'A Fragment', from Mazeppa by Lord George Byron". The British Library. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Elze (1872). ^ a b c d (in Armenian) Soghomonyan, Soghomon A. "Բայրոն, Ջորջ Նոել Գորդոն" (Byron, George Noel Gordon). Soviet Armenian Encyclopedia. vol. ii. Yerevan, Armenian SSR: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1976, pp. 266–267. ^ Shelley, Percy (1964). Letters: Shelley in Italy. Clarendon Press. p. 330. ^ Moore, Thomas, Letters and Journals of Lord Byron, London, 1830, p. 612 ^ Prell, Donald, A Biography of Captain Daniel Roberts, Palm Springs, CA.: Strand Publishing. 2010, p. 66. ^ Lovell (1954), p. 368. ^ Lovell (1954), p. 369. ^ a b Brewer (2011), p. 197. ^ Brewer (2011), pp. 197, 199. ^ Prell (2009a). ^ Prell (2009b). ^ Brewer (2011), p. 201. ^ Brewer (2011), p. 202. ^ a b Brewer (2011), p. 205. ^ Brewer (2011), pp. 207–208. ^ a b Brewer (2011), p. 212. ^ a b c Brewer (2011), p. 210. ^ Brewer (2011), p. 211. ^ a b c Brewer (2011), p. 213. ^ a b Brewer (2011), p. 215. ^ Brewer (2011), pp. 215–216. ^ Brewer (2011), pp. 216–217. ^ Brewer (2011), p. 216. ^ Brewer (2011), p. 217. ^ a b c Brewer (2011), p. 214. ^ a b Neil Fraistat; Steven E Jones. "The Byron Chronology". Romantic Circles. University of Maryland. Retrieved 15 May 2012. ^ Brewer (2011), p. 219. ^ Brewer (2011), pp. 215–219. ^ Edgcumbe (1972), pp. 185–190. ^ Gamba (1975). ^ Dionysios Solomos. "Εις το Θάνατο του Λόρδου Μπάιρον (Eng., To the Death of Lord Byron)" (in Greek). Retrieved 20 November 2008. ^ "Heart Burial". Time. 31 July 1933. Retrieved 20 November 2008. ^ Mondragon, Brenda C. "Neurotic Poets: Lord Byron". Retrieved 20 November 2008. ^ Wilson, Scott. Resting Places: The Burial Sites of More Than 14,000 Famous Persons, 3d ed.: 2 (Kindle Locations 6724–6725). McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. Kindle Edition. ^ Pevsner (1951), p. 85. ^ "Westminster Abbey Poets' Corner". Dean and Chapter of the Collegiate Church of St. Peter Westminster. Retrieved 31 May 2009. ^ "Westminster Abbey Lord Byron". Dean and Chapter of the Collegiate Church of St. Peter Westminster. Retrieved 27 April 2016. ^ "Byron Monument for the Abbey: Movement to Get Memorial in Poets' Corner Is Begun" (PDF). The New York Times. 12 July 1907. Retrieved 11 July 2008. ^ Ripley's Believe It or Not!, 3rd Series, 1950; p. xvi. ^ Martin Wainwright, The Guardian, "Greeks honour fallen hero Byron with a day of his own". Retrieved 4 May 2017 ^ a b Moore, Thomas, The Works of Lord Byron: With His Letters and Journals, and His Life, John Murray, 1835. ^ Marchand (1982), p. 277. ^ Marchand (1957), p. 139. ^ Marchand (1957), p. 435. ^ a b Marchand (1957), p. 442. ^ a b Emily A. Bernhard Jackson, "Least Like Saints: The Vexed Issue of Byron's Sexuality, The Byron Journal, (2010) 38#1 pp. 29–37. ^ Crompton (1985). ^ Crompton, Louis (8 January 2007). "Byron, George Gordon, Lord". glbtq.com. Archived from the original on 11 April 2014. Retrieved 16 October 2011. ^ Contrary to later misconception, Byron was not killed in battle nor died from battle wounds. See also The Dictionary of Misinformation (1975) by Tom Burname, Futura Publications, 1985, pp. 39–40. ^ a b Wong, Ling-Mei (14 October 2004). "Professor to speak about his book, 'Lady Caroline Lamb'". Spartan Daily. San Jose State University. Archived from the original on 7 December 2008. Retrieved 11 July 2008. ^ Castle, Terry (13 April 1997). "Mad, Bad and Dangerous to Know". The New York Times. Retrieved 19 November 2008. ^ "Ireland: Poetic justice at home of Byron's exiled lover". Sunday Times: Property. Dublin, Ireland: The Times Online. 17 November 2002. Retrieved 21 February 2010. 'Mad, bad and dangerous to know' has become Lord Byron’s lasting epitaph. Lady Caroline Lamb coined the phrase after her first meeting with the poet at a society event in 1812. ^ Castle, Terry; Phyllis Grosskurth (13 April 1997). "Mad, Bad and Dangerous to Know". The New York Times. NYC, USA. Retrieved 21 February 2010. A biography that sees Lord Byron as a victim of circumstances ^ a b c d Marilee Cody (?). "Lord Byron's Lovers: Lady Caroline Lamb". Retrieved 20 November 2008. ^ Barger (2011), p. 15. ^ Marchand, Byron's Letters and Journals, 1982 ^ "Mystery of Byron, an illegitimate child and Linby church", Hucknall Dispatch, 1 June 2010. ^ "Ada Byron, Lady Lovelace". Retrieved 11 July 2010. ^ "Ada Lovelace: Original and Visionary, but No Programmer". Retrieved 3 April 2019. ^ "History.com". History.com. Archived from the original on 6 March 2009. Retrieved 5 March 2012. ^ Barr, Matt (30 September 2007). "The day I swam all the way to Asia". The Observer. London: Guardian.co.uk. Retrieved 5 March 2012. ^ Prell (2009a), p. 13. ^ "Boatswain is dead! He expired in a state of madness on the 10th, after suffering much, yet retaining all the gentleness of his nature to the last, never attempting to do the least injury to anyone near him." Marchand, Leslie A. ed. Byron's Letters and Journals (BLJ), Johns Hopkins 2001, Letter to Francis Hodgson, 18 November 1808 ^ "... the poor animal having been seized with a fit of madness, at the commencement of which so little aware was Lord Byron of the nature of the malady, that more than once, with his bare hand, he wiped away the slaver from the dog's lips during the paroxysm." Moore, Thomas. Letters and Journals of Lord Byron, 1833. ^ Moore, Doris Langley. The Late Lord Byron. Melville House Publishing, 1961, ch. 10. ^ "I have got a new friend, the finest in the world, a tame bear. When I brought him here, they asked me what I meant to do with him, and my reply was, 'he should sit for a fellowship.'" Marchand, Leslie A. (ed.), Byron's Letters and Journals (BLJ), Johns Hopkins 2001, Letter to Elizabeth Pigot, 26 October 1807:(BLJ I 135-6). ^ Cochran (2011), pp. 176–177. ^ Marchand (1957), p. 7. ^ MacCarthy (2002), pp. 3–4. ^ Gilmour, Ian (2003). The Making of the Poets: Byron and Shelley in Their Time. Carroll & Graf Publishers. p. 35. ^ "For Byron, his deformed foot became the crucial catastrophe of his life. He saw it as the mark of satanic connection, referring to himself as le diable boiteux, the lame devil." – Eisler (1999), p. 13. ^ Henley, William Ernest, ed., The works of Lord Byron: Letters, 1804–1813, Volume 1, 1897 ^ a b Baron (1997). ^ David Snowdon, Writing the Prizefight: Pierce Egan's Boxiana World (Bern, 2013). ^ Trelawny, Edward John (2011 edition). Recollections of the Last Days of Shelley and Byron. Cambridge University Press. p. 48. ISBN 978-1-108-03405-0 ^ Coghlan, J. Michelle (2020). The Cambridge Companion to Literature and Food. Cambridge University Press. p. 53. ISBN 978-1108446105 ^ Dallas (1824), p. 33. ^ Dallas (1824), p. 65. ^ a b Bone, Drummond (2004). The Cambridge Companion to Byron. Cambridge University Press. pp. 44–47. ^ Byron's speech of 27 February 1812, in T.C. Hansard (1812) The Parliamentary Debates, vol. 21, pp. 966–972 ^ a b Moore, Thomas (1829) [1851]. John Wilson Croker (ed.). The Life of Lord Byron: With His Letters and Journals. I. John Murray. pp. 154, 676. Retrieved 20 November 2008. ^ Dallas (1824), p. 205. ^ Byron's speech of 21 April 1812, in T.C. Hansard (1812) The Parliamentary Debates, vol. 22, p.642-53 ^ Byron's speech of 21 April 1812, in T. C. Hansard (1812) The Parliamentary Debates, vol. 22, p. 679. ^ Lord Byron (April 1823). "The Age Of Bronze". JGHawaii Publishing Co. Retrieved 20 November 2008. ^ Gordon, George. "Don Juan: Dedication". ^ "List of Byron's works". Archived from the original on 24 June 2019. Retrieved 20 November 2008. ^ Lansdown (2012), p. 129. ^ Hanson, Marilee. "Don Juan Canto". English History. Retrieved 30 July 2016. ^ Lord Byron. Canto III, XCIII-XCIV . ^ Brown, Mark (27 September 2009). "Lord Byron's dig at William 'Turdsworth'". theguardian.com. Retrieved 2 July 2014. ^ Atwood (2006), p. 136. ^ "On the trail of the real Lord Byron". The Independent. 4 November 2002. ^ "The Byron Society". Retrieved 20 November 2008. ^ Warrack, John (2001). "Byron, Lord". In Root, Deane L. (ed.). The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Oxford University Press. ‎ ^ Franklin (2013), pp. 127–128. ^ Russell (2004), pp. 675–680, 688 Bibliography[edit] Allen, Brooke (2003). "Byron: revolutionary, libertine and friend". The Hudson Review. 56 (2): 369–376. doi:10.2307/3853260. JSTOR 3853260. Atwood, Roger (2006). Stealing History: Tomb Raiders, Smugglers, And the Looting of the Ancient World. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-32407-3. Barger, Andrew (2011). BlooDeath: The Best Vampire Short Stories 1800–1849. Collierville, TN: Bottletree Books. ISBN 978-1-933747-35-4. Archived from the original on 15 August 2017. Retrieved 25 May 2013. Baron, J. H. (1997). "Illnesses and creativity: Byron's appetites, James Joyce's gut, and Melba's meals and mésalliances". British Medical Journal. 315 (7123): 1697–1703. doi:10.1136/bmj.315.7123.1697. PMC 2128026. PMID 9448545. Blackstone, Bernard (1974). "Byron and Islam: the triple Eros". Journal of European Studies. 4 (4): 325–363. doi:10.1177/004724417400400401. S2CID 162373838. Boase, George Clement; Courtney, William Prideaux (1878). Bibliotheca Cornubiensis: a Catalogue of the Writings of Cornishmen. II. London: Longmans, Green, Reader and Dyer. Retrieved 19 November 2008. Bone, Drummond (2004). The Cambridge Companion to Byron. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-78676-8. Brewer, David (2011). The Greek War of Independence. London: Overlook Duckworth. ISBN 9781585671724. Bullough, Vern L. (1990). "History in adult human sexual behavior with children and adolescents in Western societies". In Jay R. Felerman (ed.). Pedophilia: Biosocial Dimensions. New York: Springer-Verlag. pp. 69–90. doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-9682-6_3. ISBN 9781461396840. Christensen, Jerome (1993). Lord Byron's Strength: Romantic Writing and Commercial Society. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 9780801843563. Cochran, Peter (2011). Byron and Italy. Newcastle-upon-Tyne: Cambridge Scholars. ISBN 978-1-4438-3602-9. Crompton, Louis (1985). Byron and Greek Love: Homophobia in 19th Century England. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-05172-0. Dallas, Alexander Robert Charles (1824). Recollections of the life of Lord Byron, from the year 1808 to the end of 1814. London: Charles Knight. Edgcumbe, Richard (1972). Byron: the Last Phase. New York: Haskell House. Eisler, Benita (1999). Byron: Child of Passion, Fool of Fame. Chapter one: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-679-41299-9. (online at The New York Times) Elze, Karl Friedrich (1872). Lord Byron, a Biography. London: John Murray. Franklin, Caroline (2013). The Female Romantics: Nineteenth-century Women Novelists and Byronism. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-99541-2. Galt, John (1830). The Life of Lord Byron. London: Henry Colburn and Richard Bentley. Gamba, Pietro (1975). A Narrative of Lord Byron's Last Journey to Greece: Extracted from the journal of Count Peter Gamba, who attended his lordship on that expedition. Folcroft Library Editions. Lansdown, Richard (2012). The Cambridge Introduction to Byron. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-11133-1. Larman, Alexander (2016). Byron's Women. Head of Zeus. ISBN 978-1784082024. Lovell, Ernest J., ed. (1954). His Very Self and Voice, Collected Conversations of Lord Byron. New York: MacMillan. MacCarthy, Fiona (2002). Byron: Life and Legend. John Murray. ISBN 978-0-7195-5621-0. Marchand, Leslie (1957). Byron: A Life. Alfred A. Knopf. Marchand, Leslie A., ed. (1982). Lord Byron: Selected Letters and Journals. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674539150. Mayne, Ethel Colburn (1912). Byron. 1. C. Scribner's sons. McGann, Jerome (2013) [2004]. "Byron, George Gordon Noel (1788–1824)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/4279. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) Pevsner, N. (1951). Nottinghamshire. Pevsner Architectural Guides: Buildings of England. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Plomer, William (1970) [1936]. The Diamond of Jannina. New York: Taplinger Publishing. ISBN 978-0-224-61721-5. Prell, Donald B. (2009a). Sailing with Byron from Genoa to Cephalonia (1823). Palm Springs, CA: Strand Publishing. ISBN 978-0-9741975-5-5. Prell, Donald B. (2009b). Lord Byron: Coincidence or Destiny. Palm Springs, CA: Strand Publishing. ISBN 978-0-9741975-6-2. Russell, Bertrand (2004) [1946]. History of Western Philosophy. Routledge Classics. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0415325059. Stabler, Jane (1999). "George Gordon, Lord Byron, Don Juan". In Duncan Wu (ed.). A Companion to Romanticism. Blackwell. pp. 247–257. ISBN 978-0-631-21877-7. Taborski, Bolesław (1972). James Hogg (ed.). Byron and the Theatre. University of Salzburg, Institut für Englische Sprache und Literatur. Volume 1 of Poetic drama & poetic theory in "Salzburg studies in English literature" Tuite, Clara (2015). Lord Byron and Scandalous Celebrity. Cambridge Studies in Romanticism. 110. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-08259-5. Further reading[edit] Accardo, Peter X. Let Satire Be My Song: Byron’s English Bards and Scotch Reviewers. Web exhibit, Houghton Library, Harvard University, 2011. Brand, Emily, The Fall of the House of Byron: Scandal and Seduction in Georgian England, John Murray, 2020. Drucker, Peter. 'Byron and Ottoman love: Orientalism, Europeanization and same sex sexualities in the early nineteenth-century Levant' (Journal of European Studies vol. 42 no. 2, June 2012, 140–57). Garrett, Martin: George Gordon, Lord Byron. (British Library Writers' Lives). London: British Library, 2000. ISBN 0-7123-4657-0. Garrett, Martin. Palgrave Literary Dictionary of Byron. Palgrave, 2010. ISBN 978-0-230-00897-7. Guiccioli, Teresa, contessa di, Lord Byron's Life in Italy, transl. Michael Rees, ed. Peter Cochran, 2005, ISBN 0-87413-716-0. Grosskurth, Phyllis: Byron: The Flawed Angel. Hodder, 1997. ISBN 0-340-60753-X. Marchand, Leslie A., editor, Byron's Letters and Journals, Harvard University Press: Volume I, 'In my hot youth', 1798–1810, (1973) Volume II, 'Famous in my time', 1810–1812, (1973) Volume III, 'Alas! the love of women', 1813–1814, (1974) Volume IV, 'Wedlock's the devil', 1814–1815, (1975) Volume V, 'So late into the night', 1816–1817, (1976) Volume VI, 'The flesh is frail', 1818–1819, (1976) Volume VII, 'Between two worlds', 1820, (1978) Volume VIII, 'Born for opposition', 1821, (1978) Volume IX, 'In the wind's eye', 1821–1822, (1978) Volume X, 'A heart for every fate', 1822–1823, (1980) Volume XI, 'For freedom's battle', 1823–1824, (1981) Volume XII, 'The trouble of an index', index, (1982) Lord Byron: Selected Letters and Journals, (1982) McGann, Jerome: Byron and Romanticism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-521-00722-4. Oueijan, Naji B. A Compendium of Eastern Elements in Byron's Oriental Tales. New York: Peter Lang Publishing, 1999. Patanè, Vincenzo: L'estate di un ghiro. Il mito di Lord Byron attraverso la vita, i viaggi, gli amori e le opere. Venezia, Cicero, 2013. ISBN 978-88-89632-39-0. Patanè, Vincenzo: I frutti acerbi. Lord Byron, gli amori & il sesso. Venezia, Cicero, 2016. ISBN 978-88-89632-42-0. Patanè, Vincenzo: The Sour Fruit. Lord Byron, Love & Sex. Lanham (MD), Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham (MD), 2019, copublished by John Cabot University Press, Rome, 2019. ISBN 978-1-61149-681-9. Rosen, Fred: Bentham, Byron and Greece. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1992. ISBN 0-19-820078-1. Thiollet, Jean-Pierre: Carré d'Art: Barbey d'Aurevilly, lord Byron, Salvador Dalí, Jean-Edern Hallier, with texts by Anne-Élisabeth Blateau and François Roboth [fr], Anagramme éditions, 2008. ISBN 978-2-35035-189-6. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to George Gordon Byron. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Lord Byron Wikisource has original works written by or about: Lord Byron Lord Byron at the Encyclopædia Britannica Lord Byron | Culture | The Guardian Works by Lord Byron at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Lord Byron at Internet Archive Works by Lord Byron at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Poems by Lord Byron at PoetryFoundation.org Byron's 1816–1824 letters to Murray and Moore about Armenian studies and translations Creative Commons animated adaption of When We Two Parted The Byron Society Guide to the Lord Byron Manuscript Material in the Pforzheimer Collection at The New York Public Library Messolonghi Byron Society The Messolonghi Byron Society The International Byron Society Hucknall Parish Church, Byron's final resting place Statue of Byron at Trinity College, Cambridge The Byron Chronology The Life and Work of Lord Byron Lord George Gordon Byron – Biography & Works Centre for Byron Studies, University of Nottingham Byron page on The Literature Network Byron Collection at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin Byron Collections at Drew University Byron Materials at Arkansas State Pictures of Byron's Walk, Seaham, County Durham Official website of the Byron & Butler family "Greece Honors British Poet As Independence War Hero", Sarasota Herald-Tribune, 21 April 1974 Lord Byron at the British Library Archival material at Leeds University Library Lord Byron, 19th-century bad boy – The British Library Lord Byron at The British Library, London Peerage of England Preceded by William Byron Baron Byron 1798–1824 Succeeded by George Byron v t e Lord Byron Topics Barony of Byron Byronic hero Early life Newstead Abbey Timeline of Lord Byron People Anne Isabella, Lady Byron (wife) Ada Lovelace (daughter) Allegra Byron (daughter) John "Mad Jack" Byron (father) Claire Clairmont Nicolo Giraud Contessa Guiccioli Jane Harley John Cam Hobhouse Douglas Kinnaird Lady Caroline Lamb Augusta Leigh (maternal half-sister) Medora Leigh Thomas Moore Isaac Nathan Walter Scott John William Polidori Percy Bysshe Shelley Mary Shelley Edward John Trelawny Longer poetry Hours of Idleness (1807) English Bards and Scotch Reviewers (1809) Childe Harold's Pilgrimage (1812–1818) The Giaour (1813) The Bride of Abydos (1813) The Corsair (1814) Lara, A Tale (1814) The Siege of Corinth (1816) Parisina (1816) The Prisoner of Chillon (1816) The Dream (1816) Prometheus (1816) "Darkness" (1816) The Lament of Tasso (1817) Beppo (1818) Don Juan (1819–1824; incomplete upon Byron's 1824 death) Mazeppa (1819) The Prophecy of Dante (1819) The Vision of Judgment (1821) The Age of Bronze (1823) The Island (1823) Plays Manfred (1817) Marino Faliero (1820) Sardanapalus (1821) The Two Foscari (1821) Cain (1821) Heaven and Earth (1821) Werner (1822) The Deformed Transformed (1822) Shorter poetry "Lachin y Gair" (1807) "Epitaph to a Dog" (1808) "Maid of Athens, ere we part" (1810) Hebrew Melodies (1815) "She Walks in Beauty" "The Destruction of Sennacherib" "Fare Thee Well" (1816) Irish Avatar (1821) "So, we'll go no more a roving" (1830) Prose Fragment of a Novel (1819) Letters Memoirs Portrayals Byron (1908 play) The Bride of Frankenstein (1935 film) Lord Byron (1972 opera) Lady Caroline Lamb (1972 film) Childe Byron (1977 play) Bloody Poetry (1984 play) Gothic (1986 film) Rowing with the Wind (1988 film) Haunted Summer (1988 film) Mary Shelley (2017 film) "The Haunting of Villa Diodati" (2020 TV episode) Related Villa Diodati Category v t e Romanticism Countries Denmark England (literature) France (literature) Germany Norway Poland Russia (literature) Scotland Spain (literature) Sweden (literature) Movements Bohemianism Coppet group Counter-Enlightenment Dark romanticism Düsseldorf School Gesamtkunstwerk Gothic fiction Gothic Revival (architecture) Hudson River School Indianism Jena Romanticism Lake Poets Nazarene movement Ossian Romantic hero Romanticism and Bacon Romanticism in science Romantic nationalism Romantic poetry Opium and Romanticism Transcendentalism Ultra-Romanticism Wallenrodism Writers Abovian Abreu Alencar Alfieri Alves Andersen A. v. 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BIBSYS: 90349842 BNC: 000071988 BNE: XX1164521 BNF: cb11894686q (data) CANTIC: a10443484 CiNii: DA00326449 GND: 118518208 HDS: 041410 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\000442 ISNI: 0000 0001 2103 1939 LCCN: n81026857 LNB: 000021641 MBA: 63224112-15ae-409d-a072-1528422e6b0a NDL: 00435022 NKC: jn19990001284 NLA: 35024477 NLG: 79847 NLI: 000027060 NLK: KAC199604144 NLP: A11784234 NLR: [1] NSK: 000008162 NTA: 068387717 RERO: 02-A000024636 RSL: 000080852 SELIBR: 176389 SNAC: w6cv4g4z SUDOC: 026760746 Trove: 798327 ULAN: 500254532 VcBA: 495/5181 VIAF: 95230688 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n81026857 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lord_Byron&oldid=996000595" Categories: Lord Byron 1788 births 1824 deaths 18th-century English nobility 19th-century English nobility 19th-century British dramatists and playwrights 19th-century British poets 19th-century English poets 19th-century LGBT people Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge Anglo-Scots British people of Cornish descent Byron family 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en-wikipedia-org-6788	----	Book sources - Wikipedia Book sources Jump to navigation Jump to search This page allows users to search for multiple sources for a book given the 10- or 13-digit ISBN number. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN number do not matter. Search for book sourcesISBN: Search Wikimedia page containing links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources For assistance, see Help:ISBN. This page links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources where you will be able to search for the book by its International Standard Book Number (ISBN). If you arrived at this page by clicking an ISBN link in a Wikipedia page, you will find the full range of relevant search links for that specific book by scrolling to the find links below. To search for a different book, type that book's individual ISBN into this ISBN search box. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. 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Contents 1 Online text 2 Online databases 3 Subscription eBook databases 4 Libraries 4.1 Worldwide 4.2 Africa 4.2.1 Nigeria 4.2.2 South Africa 4.2.3 Zimbabwe 4.3 Central America and the Caribbean 4.3.1 Barbados 4.3.2 Guatemala 4.3.3 Jamaica 4.3.4 Mexico 4.3.5 Trinidad and Tobago 4.4 Canada 4.4.1 Public libraries 4.4.2 Universities and colleges 4.5 United States 4.5.1 Public libraries by state 4.5.2 Universities and colleges 4.6 South America 4.6.1 Argentina 4.6.2 Brazil 4.6.3 Colombia 4.6.4 Ecuador 4.7 Asia 4.7.1 Bangladesh 4.7.2 China, People's Republic 4.7.3 Hong Kong, S.A.R. of China 4.7.4 India 4.7.5 Indonesia 4.7.6 Iran 4.7.7 Israel 4.7.8 Japan 4.7.9 Korea 4.7.10 Malaysia 4.7.11 Philippines 4.7.11.1 Universities and colleges 4.7.11.2 Other libraries 4.7.12 Singapore 4.7.13 Taiwan, Republic of China 4.7.14 Thailand 4.8 Australasia and Oceania 4.8.1 Australia 4.8.1.1 Public libraries 4.8.1.2 Academic libraries 4.8.2 New Zealand 4.8.2.1 Public libraries 4.8.2.2 Academic libraries 4.9 Europe 4.9.1 Austria 4.9.2 Belgium 4.9.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina 4.9.4 Croatia 4.9.5 Czech Republic 4.9.6 Denmark 4.9.7 Estonia 4.9.8 Finland 4.9.9 France 4.9.10 Germany 4.9.11 Greece 4.9.12 Hungary 4.9.13 Iceland 4.9.14 Ireland 4.9.15 Italy 4.9.16 Luxembourg 4.9.17 Montenegro 4.9.18 Netherlands 4.9.19 Norway 4.9.20 Poland 4.9.21 Portugal 4.9.22 Russia 4.9.23 Serbia 4.9.24 Slovenia 4.9.25 Spain 4.9.26 Sweden 4.9.27 Switzerland 4.9.28 Turkey 4.9.29 United Kingdom 4.9.29.1 Public libraries 4.9.29.2 Universities 5 Bookselling and swapping 5.1 Price comparison sites 5.2 Search many booksellers 5.3 Individual booksellers 5.4 Book-swapping websites 6 Non-English book sources 7 Bibliographical information 8 Find other editions 9 Find on Wikipedia 10 See also Online text Find this book on Google Books Find this book at the Open Library Find this book on Amazon.com (or .au, .br, .ca, .cn, .de, .es, .fr, .in, .it, .jp, .mx, .nl, .uk). 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en-wikipedia-org-6761	----	Augustus - Wikipedia Augustus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Octavian) Jump to navigation Jump to search First Roman emperor, from 27 BC to AD 14 This article is about the first Roman emperor. For other uses, see Augustus (title), Augustus (disambiguation), and Octavian (disambiguation). Princeps Civitatis Augustus Princeps Civitatis Augustus of Prima Porta, 1st century Roman emperor Reign 16 January 27 BC – 19 August AD 14 Predecessor Empire Established Successor Tiberius Born Gaius Octavius 23 September 63 BC Rome, Italy, Roman Republic Died 19 August AD 14 (aged 75) Nola, Italy, Roman Empire Burial Mausoleum of Augustus, Rome Spouse Claudia (42–40 BC; divorce) Scribonia (40–38 BC; divorce) Livia (37 BC–AD 14; his death) Issue Julia the Elder Gaius Caesar (adopted) Lucius Caesar (adopted) Agrippa Postumus (adopted) Tiberius (adopted) Regnal name Imperator Caesar divi filius Augustus Dynasty Julio-Claudian Father Gaius Octavius Julius Caesar (adoptive) Mother Atia Balba Caesonia Bust of Augustus wearing the Civic Crown, at Glyptothek, Munich Caesar Augustus (23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14) was the first Roman emperor, reigning from 27 BC until his death in AD 14.[nb 1] His status as the founder of the Roman Principate (the first phase of the Roman Empire) has consolidated an enduring legacy as one of the most effective and controversial leaders in human history.[1][2] The reign of Augustus initiated an era of relative peace known as the Pax Romana. The Roman world was largely free from large-scale conflict for more than two centuries, despite continuous wars of imperial expansion on the Empire's frontiers and the year-long civil war known as the "Year of the Four Emperors" over the imperial succession. Augustus was born Gaius Octavius into an old and wealthy equestrian branch of the plebeian gens Octavia. His maternal great-uncle Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC, and Octavius was named in Caesar's will as his adopted son and heir. Afterwards, Octavius took the name Gaius Julius Caesar and was called Octavianus. He, Mark Antony, and Marcus Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate to defeat the assassins of Caesar. Following their victory at the Battle of Philippi (42 BC), the Triumvirate divided the Roman Republic among themselves and ruled as de facto dictators. The Triumvirate was eventually torn apart by the competing ambitions of its members; Lepidus was exiled in 36 BC, and Antony was defeated by Octavian at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. After the demise of the Second Triumvirate, Augustus restored the outward façade of the free Republic, with governmental power vested in the Roman Senate, the executive magistrates, and the legislative assemblies. In reality, however, he retained his autocratic power—with the Senate granting him lifetime powers of supreme military command, tribune, and censor. Augustus rejected monarchical titles, and instead called himself Princeps Civitatis ("First Citizen"). Augustus dramatically enlarged the Empire, annexing Egypt, Dalmatia, Pannonia, Noricum, and Raetia, expanding possessions in Africa, and completing the conquest of Hispania, but suffered a major setback in Germania. Beyond the frontiers, he secured the Empire with a buffer region of client states and made peace with the Parthian Empire through diplomacy. He reformed the Roman system of taxation, developed networks of roads with an official courier system, established a standing army, established the Praetorian Guard, created official police and fire-fighting services for Rome, and rebuilt much of the city during his reign. Augustus died in AD 14 at the age of 75, probably from natural causes. However, there were unconfirmed rumors that his wife Livia poisoned him. He was succeeded as emperor by his adopted son Tiberius (also stepson and former son-in-law). Contents 1 Name 2 Early life 3 Rise to power 3.1 Heir to Caesar 3.2 Growing tensions 3.3 First conflict with Antony 3.4 Second Triumvirate 3.4.1 Proscriptions 3.4.2 Battle of Philippi and division of territory 3.4.3 Rebellion and marriage alliances 3.4.4 War with Pompeius 3.4.5 War with Antony and Cleopatra 4 Sole ruler of Rome 4.1 First settlement 4.2 Change to Augustus 4.3 Second settlement 4.4 Primary reasons for the Second settlement 4.5 Additional powers 4.6 Conspiracy 4.7 Stability and staying power 5 War and expansion 6 Death and succession 7 Legacy 7.1 Revenue reforms 7.2 Month of August 7.3 Building projects 8 Physical appearance and official images 9 See also 10 References 10.1 Notes 10.2 Citations 10.3 Works cited 11 Further reading 12 External links 12.1 Primary sources 12.2 Secondary source material Name As a consequence of Roman customs, society, and personal preference, Augustus (/ɔːˈɡʌstəs/)(aw-GUST-əs) was known by many names throughout his life: Gaius Octavius (/ɒkˈteɪviəs/ ok-TAY-vee-əs, Latin: [ˈɡaː.jʊs ɔkˈtaː.wi.us]): He received his birth name, after his biological father, in 63 BC. "Gaius" was his praenomen, while "Octavius" was his nomen. He did not yet receive a cognomen at birth since his father appears to have lacked or eschewed one, which would normally be inherited. Gaius Octavius Thurinus: He was given the cognomen "Thurinus" in 60 BC, when he was a few years old.[3][4] Later, after he had taken the name of Caesar, his rival Mark Antony referred to him as "Thurinus" in order to belittle him. In response, he merely said he was surprised that "using his old name was thought to be an insult".[5][6] Gaius Julius Caesar: After he was adopted by Julius Caesar, he adopted Caesar's name in accordance with Roman naming conventions.[7] While he dropped all references to the gens Octavia, people colloquially added the epithet Octavianus (Latin: [ɔktaːwɪˈaːnʊs]) to his legal name, either to differentiate him from his adoptive father or to highlight his more modest origins. Modern English language historians refer to him using the anglicized form "Octavian" (/ɒkˈteɪviən/ ok-TAY-vee-ən) to the period between 44 BC and 27 BC, rather than "Gaius Julius Caesar", as he was officially called, mainly to avoid possible confusion with Julius Caesar.[8] Gaius Julius Caesar divi filius: Two years after his adoption, he founded the Temple of Caesar additionally adding the title divi filius ("son of the divine") to his name in attempt to strengthen his political ties to Caesar's former soldiers, following the deification of Caesar.[9] Imperator Caesar divi filius: From 38 BC, Octavian opted to use Imperator, the title by which troops hailed their leader after military success. His name is roughly translated as "Commander Caesar, Son of the Divine". Imperator Caesar divi filius Augustus (Latin: [ɪmpɛˈraːtɔr ˈkae̯sar ˈdiːwiː ˈfiːlɪ.ʊs au̯ˈɡʊstʊs]): Following his 31 BC defeat of Mark Antony and Cleopatra, partly on his own insistence, on 16 January 27 BC the Roman Senate granted him the additional name "Augustus".[4][11] Historians use this name to refer to him from 27 BC until his death in AD 14.[12] Early life Main article: Early life of Augustus While his paternal family was from the Volscian town of Velletri, approximately 40 kilometres (25 mi) to the south-east of Rome, Augustus was born in the city of Rome on 23 September 63 BC.[13] He was born at Ox Head, a small property on the Palatine Hill, very close to the Roman Forum. He was given the name Gaius Octavius Thurinus, his cognomen possibly commemorating his father's victory at Thurii over a rebellious band of slaves which occurred a few years after his birth.[14][15] Suetonius wrote: "There are many indications that the Octavian family was in days of old a distinguished one at Velitrae; for not only was a street in the most frequented part of town long ago called Octavian, but an altar was shown there besides, consecrated by an Octavius. This man was leader in a war with a neighbouring town ..." [16] Due to the crowded nature of Rome at the time, Octavius was taken to his father's home village at Velletri to be raised. Octavius mentions his father's equestrian family only briefly in his memoirs. His paternal great-grandfather Gaius Octavius was a military tribune in Sicily during the Second Punic War. His grandfather had served in several local political offices. His father, also named Gaius Octavius, had been governor of Macedonia. His mother, Atia, was the niece of Julius Caesar.[17][18] A denarius from 44 BC, showing Julius Caesar on the obverse and the goddess Venus on the reverse of the coin. Caption: CAESAR IMP. M. / L. AEMILIVS BVCA In 59 BC, when he was four years old, his father died.[19] His mother married a former governor of Syria, Lucius Marcius Philippus.[20] Philippus claimed descent from Alexander the Great, and was elected consul in 56 BC. Philippus never had much of an interest in young Octavius. Because of this, Octavius was raised by his grandmother, Julia, the sister of Julius Caesar. Julia died in 52 or 51 BC, and Octavius delivered the funeral oration for his grandmother.[21][22] From this point, his mother and stepfather took a more active role in raising him. He donned the toga virilis four years later,[23] and was elected to the College of Pontiffs in 47 BC.[24][25] The following year he was put in charge of the Greek games that were staged in honor of the Temple of Venus Genetrix, built by Julius Caesar.[25] According to Nicolaus of Damascus, Octavius wished to join Caesar's staff for his campaign in Africa, but gave way when his mother protested.[26] In 46 BC, she consented for him to join Caesar in Hispania, where he planned to fight the forces of Pompey, Caesar's late enemy, but Octavius fell ill and was unable to travel. When he had recovered, he sailed to the front, but was shipwrecked; after coming ashore with a handful of companions, he crossed hostile territory to Caesar's camp, which impressed his great-uncle considerably.[23] Velleius Paterculus reports that after that time, Caesar allowed the young man to share his carriage.[27] When back in Rome, Caesar deposited a new will with the Vestal Virgins, naming Octavius as the prime beneficiary.[28] Rise to power Heir to Caesar The Death of Caesar, by Jean-Léon Gérôme (1867). On 15 March 44 BC, Octavius's adoptive father Julius Caesar was assassinated by a conspiracy led by Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus. Walters Art Museum, Baltimore. Octavius was studying and undergoing military training in Apollonia, Illyria, when Julius Caesar was killed on the Ides of March (15 March) 44 BC. He rejected the advice of some army officers to take refuge with the troops in Macedonia and sailed to Italy to ascertain whether he had any potential political fortunes or security.[29] Caesar had no living legitimate children under Roman law,[nb 2] and so had adopted Octavius, his grand-nephew, making him his primary heir.[30] Mark Antony later charged that Octavian had earned his adoption by Caesar through sexual favours, though Suetonius describes Antony's accusation as political slander.[31] This form of slander was popular during this time in the Roman Republic to demean and discredit political opponents by accusing them of having an inappropriate sexual affair.[32][33] After landing at Lupiae near Brundisium, Octavius learned the contents of Caesar's will, and only then did he decide to become Caesar's political heir as well as heir to two-thirds of his estate.[25][29][34] Upon his adoption, Octavius assumed his great-uncle's name Gaius Julius Caesar. Roman citizens adopted into a new family usually retained their old nomen in cognomen form (e.g., Octavianus for one who had been an Octavius, Aemilianus for one who had been an Aemilius, etc.). However, though some of his contemporaries did,[35] there is no evidence that Octavius ever himself officially used the name Octavianus, as it would have made his modest origins too obvious.[36][37][38] Historians usually refer to the new Caesar as Octavian during the time between his adoption and his assumption of the name Augustus in 27 BC in order to avoid confusing the dead dictator with his heir.[39] Octavian could not rely on his limited funds to make a successful entry into the upper echelons of the Roman political hierarchy.[40] After a warm welcome by Caesar's soldiers at Brundisium,[41] Octavian demanded a portion of the funds that were allotted by Caesar for the intended war against the Parthian Empire in the Middle East.[40] This amounted to 700 million sesterces stored at Brundisium, the staging ground in Italy for military operations in the east.[42] A later senatorial investigation into the disappearance of the public funds took no action against Octavian, since he subsequently used that money to raise troops against the Senate's arch enemy Mark Antony.[41] Octavian made another bold move in 44 BC when, without official permission, he appropriated the annual tribute that had been sent from Rome's Near Eastern province to Italy.[37][43] Octavian began to bolster his personal forces with Caesar's veteran legionaries and with troops designated for the Parthian war, gathering support by emphasizing his status as heir to Caesar.[29][44] On his march to Rome through Italy, Octavian's presence and newly acquired funds attracted many, winning over Caesar's former veterans stationed in Campania.[37] By June, he had gathered an army of 3,000 loyal veterans, paying each a salary of 500 denarii.[45][46][47] Growing tensions A reconstructed statue of Augustus as a younger Octavian, dated ca. 30 BC Arriving in Rome on 6 May 44 BC, Octavian found consul Mark Antony, Caesar's former colleague, in an uneasy truce with the dictator's assassins. They had been granted a general amnesty on 17 March, yet Antony had succeeded in driving most of them out of Rome with an inflammatory eulogy at Caesar's funeral, mounting public opinion against the assassins.[37] Mark Antony was amassing political support, but Octavian still had opportunity to rival him as the leading member of the faction supporting Caesar. Mark Antony had lost the support of many Romans and supporters of Caesar when he initially opposed the motion to elevate Caesar to divine status.[48] Octavian failed to persuade Antony to relinquish Caesar's money to him. During the summer, he managed to win support from Caesarian sympathizers and also made common with the Optimates, the former enemies of Caesar, who saw him as the lesser evil and hoped to manipulate him.[49] In September, the leading Optimate orator Marcus Tullius Cicero began to attack Antony in a series of speeches portraying him as a threat to the Republican order.[50][51] First conflict with Antony Bust of Augustus in Musei Capitolini, Rome With opinion in Rome turning against him and his year of consular power nearing its end, Antony attempted to pass laws that would assign him the province of Cisalpine Gaul.[52][53] Octavian meanwhile built up a private army in Italy by recruiting Caesarian veterans and, on 28 November, he won over two of Antony's legions with the enticing offer of monetary gain.[54][55][56] In the face of Octavian's large and capable force, Antony saw the danger of staying in Rome and, to the relief of the Senate, he left Rome for Cisalpine Gaul, which was to be handed to him on 1 January.[56] However, the province had earlier been assigned to Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus, one of Caesar's assassins, who now refused to yield to Antony. Antony besieged him at Mutina[57] and rejected the resolutions passed by the Senate to stop the fighting. The Senate had no army to enforce their resolutions. This provided an opportunity for Octavian, who already was known to have armed forces.[55] Cicero also defended Octavian against Antony's taunts about Octavian's lack of noble lineage and aping of Julius Caesar's name, stating "we have no more brilliant example of traditional piety among our youth."[58] At the urging of Cicero, the Senate inducted Octavian as senator on 1 January 43 BC, yet he also was given the power to vote alongside the former consuls.[55][56] In addition, Octavian was granted propraetor imperium (commanding power) which legalized his command of troops, sending him to relieve the siege along with Hirtius and Pansa (the consuls for 43 BC).[55][59] In April 43 BC, Antony's forces were defeated at the battles of Forum Gallorum and Mutina, forcing Antony to retreat to Transalpine Gaul. Both consuls were killed, however, leaving Octavian in sole command of their armies.[60][61] The senate heaped many more rewards on Decimus Brutus than on Octavian for defeating Antony, then attempted to give command of the consular legions to Decimus Brutus.[62] In response, Octavian stayed in the Po Valley and refused to aid any further offensive against Antony.[63] In July, an embassy of centurions sent by Octavian entered Rome and demanded the consulship left vacant by Hirtius and Pansa[64] and also that the decree should be rescinded which declared Antony a public enemy.[63] When this was refused, he marched on the city with eight legions.[63] He encountered no military opposition in Rome, and on 19 August 43 BC was elected consul with his relative Quintus Pedius as co-consul.[65][66] Meanwhile, Antony formed an alliance with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, another leading Caesarian.[67] Second Triumvirate Proscriptions Roman aureus bearing the portraits of Mark Antony (left) and Octavian (right), issued in 41 BC to celebrate the establishment of the Second Triumvirate by Octavian, Antony and Marcus Lepidus in 43 BC. Both sides bear the inscription "III VIR R P C", meaning "One of Three Men for the regulation of the Republic". Caption: M. ANT. IMP. AVG. III VIR RPC M. BARBAT. Q. P. / CAESAR IMP. PONT. III VIR PRC. The M. Barbatius Pollio was a moneyer[68] In a meeting near Bologna in October 43 BC, Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate.[69] This explicit arrogation of special powers lasting five years was then legalised by law passed by the plebs, unlike the unofficial First Triumvirate formed by Pompey, Julius Caesar, and Marcus Licinius Crassus.[69][70] The triumvirs then set in motion proscriptions, in which between 130 and 300 senators[nb 3] and 2,000 equites were branded as outlaws and deprived of their property and, for those who failed to escape, their lives.[72] This decree issued by the triumvirate was motivated in part by a need to raise money to pay the salaries of their troops for the upcoming conflict against Caesar's assassins, Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus.[73] Rewards for their arrest gave incentive for Romans to capture those proscribed, while the assets and properties of those arrested were seized by the triumvirs.[72] Contemporary Roman historians provide conflicting reports as to which triumvir was most responsible for the proscriptions and killing. However, the sources agree that enacting the proscriptions was a means by all three factions to eliminate political enemies.[74] Marcus Velleius Paterculus asserted that Octavian tried to avoid proscribing officials whereas Lepidus and Antony were to blame for initiating them. Cassius Dio defended Octavian as trying to spare as many as possible, whereas Antony and Lepidus, being older and involved in politics longer, had many more enemies to deal with.[75] This claim was rejected by Appian, who maintained that Octavian shared an equal interest with Lepidus and Antony in eradicating his enemies.[76] Suetonius said that Octavian was reluctant to proscribe officials, but did pursue his enemies with more vigor than the other triumvirs.[74] Plutarch described the proscriptions as a ruthless and cutthroat swapping of friends and family among Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian. For example, Octavian allowed the proscription of his ally Cicero, Antony the proscription of his maternal uncle Lucius Julius Caesar (the consul of 64 BC), and Lepidus his brother Paullus.[75] A denarius minted c. 18 BC. Obverse: CAESAR AVGVSTVS; reverse: comet of eight rays with tail upward; DIVVS IVLIV[S] (DIVINE JULIUS). Battle of Philippi and division of territory Further information: Liberators' civil war On 1 January 42 BC, the Senate posthumously recognized Julius Caesar as a divinity of the Roman state, Divus Iulius. Octavian was able to further his cause by emphasizing the fact that he was Divi filius, "Son of the Divine".[77] Antony and Octavian then sent 28 legions by sea to face the armies of Brutus and Cassius, who had built their base of power in Greece.[78] After two battles at Philippi in Macedonia in October 42, the Caesarian army was victorious and Brutus and Cassius committed suicide. Mark Antony later used the examples of these battles as a means to belittle Octavian, as both battles were decisively won with the use of Antony's forces. In addition to claiming responsibility for both victories, Antony also branded Octavian as a coward for handing over his direct military control to Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa instead.[79] After Philippi, a new territorial arrangement was made among the members of the Second Triumvirate. Gaul and the province of Hispania were placed in the hands of Octavian. Antony traveled east to Egypt where he allied himself with Queen Cleopatra VII, the former lover of Julius Caesar and mother of Caesar's infant son Caesarion. Lepidus was left with the province of Africa, stymied by Antony, who conceded Hispania to Octavian instead.[80] Octavian was left to decide where in Italy to settle the tens of thousands of veterans of the Macedonian campaign, whom the triumvirs had promised to discharge. The tens of thousands who had fought on the republican side with Brutus and Cassius could easily ally with a political opponent of Octavian if not appeased, and they also required land.[80] There was no more government-controlled land to allot as settlements for their soldiers, so Octavian had to choose one of two options: alienating many Roman citizens by confiscating their land, or alienating many Roman soldiers who could mount a considerable opposition against him in the Roman heartland. Octavian chose the former.[81] There were as many as eighteen Roman towns affected by the new settlements, with entire populations driven out or at least given partial evictions.[82] Rebellion and marriage alliances There was widespread dissatisfaction with Octavian over these settlements of his soldiers, and this encouraged many to rally at the side of Lucius Antonius, who was brother of Mark Antony and supported by a majority in the Senate. Meanwhile, Octavian asked for a divorce from Claudia, the daughter of Fulvia (Mark Antony's wife) and her first husband Publius Clodius Pulcher. He returned Claudia to her mother, claiming that their marriage had never been consummated. Fulvia decided to take action. Together with Lucius Antonius, she raised an army in Italy to fight for Antony's rights against Octavian. Lucius and Fulvia took a political and martial gamble in opposing Octavian, however, since the Roman army still depended on the triumvirs for their salaries. Lucius and his allies ended up in a defensive siege at Perusia (modern Perugia), where Octavian forced them into surrender in early 40 BC.[82] Fresco paintings inside the House of Augustus, his residence during his reign as emperor. Lucius and his army were spared, due to his kinship with Antony, the strongman of the East, while Fulvia was exiled to Sicyon.[83] Octavian showed no mercy, however, for the mass of allies loyal to Lucius; on 15 March, the anniversary of Julius Caesar's assassination, he had 300 Roman senators and equestrians executed for allying with Lucius.[84] Perusia also was pillaged and burned as a warning for others.[83] This bloody event sullied Octavian's reputation and was criticized by many, such as Augustan poet Sextus Propertius.[84] Sextus Pompeius, the son of Pompey and still a renegade general following Julius Caesar's victory over his father, had established himself in Sicily and Sardinia as part of an agreement reached with the Second Triumvirate in 39 BC.[85] Both Antony and Octavian were vying for an alliance with Pompeius. Octavian succeeded in a temporary alliance in 40 BC when he married Scribonia, a sister or daughter of Pompeius's father-in-law Lucius Scribonius Libo. Scribonia gave birth to Octavian's only natural child, Julia, the same day that he divorced her to marry Livia Drusilla, little more than a year after their marriage.[84] While in Egypt, Antony had been engaged in an affair with Cleopatra and had fathered twin children with her.[nb 4] Aware of his deteriorating relationship with Octavian, Antony left Cleopatra; he sailed to Italy in 40 BC with a large force to oppose Octavian, laying siege to Brundisium. This new conflict proved untenable for both Octavian and Antony, however. Their centurions, who had become important figures politically, refused to fight due to their Caesarian cause, while the legions under their command followed suit. Meanwhile, in Sicyon, Antony's wife Fulvia died of a sudden illness while Antony was en route to meet her. Fulvia's death and the mutiny of their centurions allowed the two remaining triumvirs to effect a reconciliation.[86][87] A Roman marble portrait bust of Mark Antony, made during the Flavian dynasty (69–96 AD), Vatican Museums In the autumn of 40, Octavian and Antony approved the Treaty of Brundisium, by which Lepidus would remain in Africa, Antony in the East, Octavian in the West. The Italian Peninsula was left open to all for the recruitment of soldiers, but in reality, this provision was useless for Antony in the East. To further cement relations of alliance with Mark Antony, Octavian gave his sister, Octavia Minor, in marriage to Antony in late 40 BC.[86] War with Pompeius Further information: Sicilian revolt A denarius of Sextus Pompeius, minted for his victory over Octavian's fleet. Obverse: the place where he defeated Octavian, Pharus of Messina decorated with a statue of Neptune; before that galley adorned with aquila, sceptre & trident; MAG. PIVS IMP. ITER. Reverse, the monster Scylla, her torso of dogs and fish tails, wielding a rudder as a club. Caption: PRAEF[ECTUS] CLAS[SIS] ET ORAE MARIT[IMAE] EX S. C. Sextus Pompeius threatened Octavian in Italy by denying shipments of grain through the Mediterranean Sea to the peninsula. Pompeius's own son was put in charge as naval commander in the effort to cause widespread famine in Italy.[87] Pompeius's control over the sea prompted him to take on the name Neptuni filius, "son of Neptune".[88] A temporary peace agreement was reached in 39 BC with the treaty of Misenum; the blockade on Italy was lifted once Octavian granted Pompeius Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily, and the Peloponnese, and ensured him a future position as consul for 35 BC.[87][88] The territorial agreement between the triumvirate and Sextus Pompeius began to crumble once Octavian divorced Scribonia and married Livia on 17 January 38 BC.[89] One of Pompeius's naval commanders betrayed him and handed over Corsica and Sardinia to Octavian. Octavian lacked the resources to confront Pompeius alone, however, so an agreement was reached with the Second Triumvirate's extension for another five-year period beginning in 37 BC.[70][90] In supporting Octavian, Antony expected to gain support for his own campaign against the Parthian Empire, desiring to avenge Rome's defeat at Carrhae in 53 BC.[90] In an agreement reached at Tarentum, Antony provided 120 ships for Octavian to use against Pompeius, while Octavian was to send 20,000 legionaries to Antony for use against Parthia. Octavian sent only a tenth of those promised, however, which Antony viewed as an intentional provocation.[91] Octavian and Lepidus launched a joint operation against Sextus in Sicily in 36 BC.[92] Despite setbacks for Octavian, the naval fleet of Sextus Pompeius was almost entirely destroyed on 3 September by General Agrippa at the naval Battle of Naulochus. Sextus fled to the east with his remaining forces, where he was captured and executed in Miletus by one of Antony's generals the following year. As Lepidus and Octavian accepted the surrender of Pompeius's troops, Lepidus attempted to claim Sicily for himself, ordering Octavian to leave. Lepidus's troops deserted him, however, and defected to Octavian since they were weary of fighting and were enticed by Octavian's promises of money.[93] Lepidus surrendered to Octavian and was permitted to retain the office of Pontifex Maximus (head of the college of priests), but was ejected from the Triumvirate, his public career at an end, and effectively was exiled to a villa at Cape Circei in Italy.[73][93] The Roman dominions were now divided between Octavian in the West and Antony in the East. Octavian ensured Rome's citizens of their rights to property in order to maintain peace and stability in his portion of the Empire. This time, he settled his discharged soldiers outside of Italy, while also returning 30,000 slaves to their former Roman owners—slaves who had fled to join Pompeius's army and navy.[94] Octavian had the Senate grant him, his wife, and his sister tribunal immunity, or sacrosanctitas, in order to ensure his own safety and that of Livia and Octavia once he returned to Rome.[95] War with Antony and Cleopatra Main article: Final War of the Roman Republic Further information: Early life of Cleopatra, Reign of Cleopatra, and Death of Cleopatra Anthony and Cleopatra, by Lawrence Alma-Tadema The Battle of Actium, by Laureys a Castro, painted 1672, National Maritime Museum, London. Meanwhile, Antony's campaign turned disastrous against Parthia, tarnishing his image as a leader, and the mere 2,000 legionaries sent by Octavian to Antony were hardly enough to replenish his forces.[96] On the other hand, Cleopatra could restore his army to full strength; he already was engaged in a romantic affair with her, so he decided to send Octavia back to Rome.[97] Octavian used this to spread propaganda implying that Antony was becoming less than Roman because he rejected a legitimate Roman spouse for an "Oriental paramour".[98] In 36 BC, Octavian used a political ploy to make himself look less autocratic and Antony more the villain by proclaiming that the civil wars were coming to an end, and that he would step down as triumvir—if only Antony would do the same. Antony refused.[99] Roman troops captured the Kingdom of Armenia in 34 BC, and Antony made his son Alexander Helios the ruler of Armenia. He also awarded the title "Queen of Kings" to Cleopatra, acts that Octavian used to convince the Roman Senate that Antony had ambitions to diminish the preeminence of Rome.[98] Octavian became consul once again on 1 January 33 BC, and he opened the following session in the Senate with a vehement attack on Antony's grants of titles and territories to his relatives and to his queen.[100] The breach between Antony and Octavian prompted a large portion of the Senators, as well as both of that year's consuls, to leave Rome and defect to Antony. However, Octavian received two key deserters from Antony in the autumn of 32 BC: Munatius Plancus and Marcus Titius.[101] These defectors gave Octavian the information that he needed to confirm with the Senate all the accusations that he made against Antony.[102] Octavian forcibly entered the temple of the Vestal Virgins and seized Antony's secret will, which he promptly publicized. The will would have given away Roman-conquered territories as kingdoms for his sons to rule, and designated Alexandria as the site for a tomb for him and his queen.[103][104] In late 32 BC, the Senate officially revoked Antony's powers as consul and declared war on Cleopatra's regime in Egypt.[105][106] This mid-1st-century-BC Roman wall painting in Pompeii, Italy, showing Venus holding a cupid is most likely a depiction of Cleopatra VII of Ptolemaic Egypt as Venus Genetrix, with her son Caesarion as the cupid, similar in appearance to the now lost statue of Cleopatra erected by Julius Caesar in the Temple of Venus Genetrix (within the Forum of Caesar). The owner of the House of Marcus Fabius Rufus at Pompeii walled off the room with this painting, most likely in immediate reaction to the execution of Caesarion on orders of Augustus in 30 BC, when artistic depictions of Caesarion would have been considered a sensitive issue for the ruling regime.[107][108] In early 31 BC, Antony and Cleopatra were temporarily stationed in Greece when Octavian gained a preliminary victory: the navy successfully ferried troops across the Adriatic Sea under the command of Agrippa. Agrippa cut off Antony and Cleopatra's main force from their supply routes at sea, while Octavian landed on the mainland opposite the island of Corcyra (modern Corfu) and marched south. Trapped on land and sea, deserters of Antony's army fled to Octavian's side daily while Octavian's forces were comfortable enough to make preparations.[109] Antony's fleet sailed through the bay of Actium on the western coast of Greece in a desperate attempt to break free of the naval blockade. It was there that Antony's fleet faced the much larger fleet of smaller, more maneuverable ships under commanders Agrippa and Gaius Sosius in the Battle of Actium on 2 September 31 BC.[110] Antony and his remaining forces were spared only due to a last-ditch effort by Cleopatra's fleet that had been waiting nearby.[111] Aureus of Octavian, circa 30 BC, British Museum. Octavian pursued them and defeated their forces in Alexandria on 1 August 30 BC—after which Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide. Antony fell on his own sword and was taken by his soldiers back to Alexandria where he died in Cleopatra's arms. Cleopatra died soon after, reputedly by the venomous bite of an asp or by poison.[112] Octavian had exploited his position as Caesar's heir to further his own political career, and he was well aware of the dangers in allowing another person to do the same. He therefore followed the advice of Arius Didymus that "two Caesars are one too many", ordering Caesarion, Julius Caesar's son by Cleopatra, killed, while sparing Cleopatra's children by Antony, with the exception of Antony's older son.[113][114] Octavian had previously shown little mercy to surrendered enemies and acted in ways that had proven unpopular with the Roman people, yet he was given credit for pardoning many of his opponents after the Battle of Actium.[115] Sole ruler of Rome Main article: Constitutional Reforms of Augustus Further information: Elections in the Roman Republic After Actium and the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra, Octavian was in a position to rule the entire Republic under an unofficial principate[116]—but he had to achieve this through incremental power gains. He did so by courting the Senate and the people while upholding the republican traditions of Rome, appearing that he was not aspiring to dictatorship or monarchy.[117][118] Marching into Rome, Octavian and Marcus Agrippa were elected as consuls by the Senate.[119] Years of civil war had left Rome in a state of near lawlessness, but the Republic was not prepared to accept the control of Octavian as a despot. At the same time, Octavian could not simply give up his authority without risking further civil wars among the Roman generals and, even if he desired no position of authority whatsoever, his position demanded that he look to the well-being of the city of Rome and the Roman provinces. Octavian's aims from this point forward were to return Rome to a state of stability, traditional legality, and civility by lifting the overt political pressure imposed on the courts of law and ensuring free elections—in name at least.[120] First settlement Main articles: Constitution of the Roman Empire and History of the Constitution of the Roman Empire In 27 BC, Octavian made a show of returning full power to the Roman Senate and relinquishing his control of the Roman provinces and their armies. Under his consulship, however, the Senate had little power in initiating legislation by introducing bills for senatorial debate. Octavian was no longer in direct control of the provinces and their armies, but he retained the loyalty of active duty soldiers and veterans alike. The careers of many clients and adherents depended on his patronage, as his financial power was unrivaled in the Roman Republic.[119] Historian Werner Eck states: The sum of his power derived first of all from various powers of office delegated to him by the Senate and people, secondly from his immense private fortune, and thirdly from numerous patron-client relationships he established with individuals and groups throughout the Empire. All of them taken together formed the basis of his auctoritas, which he himself emphasized as the foundation of his political actions.[121] To a large extent, the public were aware of the vast financial resources that Octavian commanded. He failed to encourage enough senators to finance the building and maintenance of networks of roads in Italy in 20 BC, but he undertook direct responsibility for them. This was publicized on the Roman currency issued in 16 BC, after he donated vast amounts of money to the aerarium Saturni, the public treasury.[122] Octavian as a magistrate. The statue's marble head was made c. 30–20 BC, the body sculpted in the 2nd century AD (Louvre, Paris). According to H. H. Scullard, however, Octavian's power was based on the exercise of "a predominant military power and ... the ultimate sanction of his authority was force, however much the fact was disguised."[123] The Senate proposed to Octavian, the victor of Rome's civil wars, that he once again assume command of the provinces. The Senate's proposal was a ratification of Octavian's extra-constitutional power. Through the Senate, Octavian was able to continue the appearance of a still-functional constitution. Feigning reluctance, he accepted a ten-year responsibility of overseeing provinces that were considered chaotic.[124][125] The provinces ceded to Augustus for that ten-year period comprised much of the conquered Roman world, including all of Hispania and Gaul, Syria, Cilicia, Cyprus, and Egypt.[124][126] Moreover, command of these provinces provided Octavian with control over the majority of Rome's legions.[126][127] While Octavian acted as consul in Rome, he dispatched senators to the provinces under his command as his representatives to manage provincial affairs and ensure that his orders were carried out. The provinces not under Octavian's control were overseen by governors chosen by the Roman Senate.[127] Octavian became the most powerful political figure in the city of Rome and in most of its provinces, but he did not have a monopoly on political and martial power.[128] The Senate still controlled North Africa, an important regional producer of grain, as well as Illyria and Macedonia, two strategic regions with several legions.[128] However, the Senate had control of only five or six legions distributed among three senatorial proconsuls, compared to the twenty legions under the control of Octavian, and their control of these regions did not amount to any political or military challenge to Octavian.[117][123] The Senate's control over some of the Roman provinces helped maintain a republican façade for the autocratic Principate. Also, Octavian's control of entire provinces followed Republican-era precedents for the objective of securing peace and creating stability, in which such prominent Romans as Pompey had been granted similar military powers in times of crisis and instability.[117] Change to Augustus On 16 January 27 BC the Senate gave Octavian the new titles of Augustus and Princeps.[129] Augustus is from the Latin word Augere (meaning to increase) and can be translated as "the illustrious one". It was a title of religious authority rather than political authority. His new title of Augustus was also more favorable than Romulus, the previous one which he styled for himself in reference to the story of the legendary founder of Rome, which symbolized a second founding of Rome.[115] The title of Romulus was associated too strongly with notions of monarchy and kingship, an image that Octavian tried to avoid.[130] The title princeps senatus originally meant the member of the Senate with the highest precedence,[131] but in the case of Augustus, it became an almost regnal title for a leader who was first in charge.[132] Augustus also styled himself as Imperator Caesar divi filius, "Commander Caesar son of the deified one". With this title, he boasted his familial link to deified Julius Caesar, and the use of Imperator signified a permanent link to the Roman tradition of victory. He transformed Caesar, a cognomen for one branch of the Julian family, into a new family line that began with him.[129] The Arch of Augustus in Rimini (Ariminum), dedicated to Augustus by the Roman Senate in 27 BC, the oldest surviving Roman triumphal arch Augustus was granted the right to hang the corona civica above his door, the "civic crown" made from oak, and to have laurels drape his doorposts.[128] However, he renounced flaunting insignia of power such as holding a scepter, wearing a diadem, or wearing the golden crown and purple toga of his predecessor Julius Caesar.[133] If he refused to symbolize his power by donning and bearing these items on his person, the Senate nonetheless awarded him with a golden shield displayed in the meeting hall of the Curia, bearing the inscription virtus, pietas, clementia, iustitia—"valor, piety, clemency, and justice."[128][134] Second settlement Portraits of Augustus show the emperor with idealized features By 23 BC, some of the un-Republican implications were becoming apparent concerning the settlement of 27 BC. Augustus's retention of an annual consulate drew attention to his de facto dominance over the Roman political system, and cut in half the opportunities for others to achieve what was still nominally the preeminent position in the Roman state.[135] Further, he was causing political problems by desiring to have his nephew Marcus Claudius Marcellus follow in his footsteps and eventually assume the Principate in his turn,[nb 5] alienating his three greatest supporters – Agrippa, Maecenas, and Livia.[136] He appointed noted Republican Calpurnius Piso (who had fought against Julius Caesar and supported Cassius and Brutus[137]) as co-consul in 23 BC, after his choice Aulus Terentius Varro Murena died unexpectedly.[138] In the late spring Augustus suffered a severe illness, and on his supposed deathbed made arrangements that would ensure the continuation of the Principate in some form,[139] while allaying senators' suspicions of his anti-republicanism. Augustus prepared to hand down his signet ring to his favored general Agrippa. However, Augustus handed over to his co-consul Piso all of his official documents, an account of public finances, and authority over listed troops in the provinces while Augustus's supposedly favored nephew Marcellus came away empty-handed.[140][141] This was a surprise to many who believed Augustus would have named an heir to his position as an unofficial emperor.[142] Augustus bestowed only properties and possessions to his designated heirs, as an obvious system of institutionalized imperial inheritance would have provoked resistance and hostility among the republican-minded Romans fearful of monarchy.[118] With regards to the Principate, it was obvious to Augustus that Marcellus was not ready to take on his position;[143] nonetheless, by giving his signet ring to Agrippa, Augustus intended to signal to the legions that Agrippa was to be his successor, and that constitutional procedure notwithstanding, they should continue to obey Agrippa.[144] The Blacas Cameo showing Augustus wearing a gorgoneion on a three layered sardonyx cameo, AD 20–50 Soon after his bout of illness subsided, Augustus gave up his consulship. The only other times Augustus would serve as consul would be in the years 5 and 2 BC,[141][145] both times to introduce his grandsons into public life.[137] This was a clever ploy by Augustus; ceasing to serve as one of two annually elected consuls allowed aspiring senators a better chance to attain the consular position, while allowing Augustus to exercise wider patronage within the senatorial class.[146] Although Augustus had resigned as consul, he desired to retain his consular imperium not just in his provinces but throughout the empire. This desire, as well as the Marcus Primus Affair, led to a second compromise between him and the Senate known as the Second Settlement.[147] Primary reasons for the Second settlement The primary reasons for the Second Settlement were as follows. First, after Augustus relinquished the annual consulship, he was no longer in an official position to rule the state, yet his dominant position remained unchanged over his Roman, 'imperial' provinces where he was still a proconsul.[141][148] When he annually held the office of consul, he had the power to intervene with the affairs of the other provincial proconsuls appointed by the Senate throughout the empire, when he deemed necessary.[149] A second problem later arose showing the need for the Second Settlement in what became known as the "Marcus Primus Affair".[150] In late 24 or early 23 BC, charges were brought against Marcus Primus, the former proconsul (governor) of Macedonia, for waging a war without prior approval of the Senate on the Odrysian kingdom of Thrace, whose king was a Roman ally.[151] He was defended by Lucius Lucinius Varro Murena, who told the trial that his client had received specific instructions from Augustus, ordering him to attack the client state.[152] Later, Primus testified that the orders came from the recently deceased Marcellus.[153] Such orders, had they been given, would have been considered a breach of the Senate's prerogative under the Constitutional settlement of 27 BC and its aftermath—i.e., before Augustus was granted imperium proconsulare maius—as Macedonia was a Senatorial province under the Senate's jurisdiction, not an imperial province under the authority of Augustus. Such an action would have ripped away the veneer of Republican restoration as promoted by Augustus, and exposed his fraud of merely being the first citizen, a first among equals.[152] Even worse, the involvement of Marcellus provided some measure of proof that Augustus's policy was to have the youth take his place as Princeps, instituting a form of monarchy – accusations that had already played out.[143] Augustus as Jove, holding a scepter and orb (first half of 1st century AD) The situation was so serious that Augustus himself appeared at the trial, even though he had not been called as a witness. Under oath, Augustus declared that he gave no such order.[154] Murena disbelieved Augustus's testimony and resented his attempt to subvert the trial by using his auctoritas. He rudely demanded to know why Augustus had turned up to a trial to which he had not been called; Augustus replied that he came in the public interest.[155] Although Primus was found guilty, some jurors voted to acquit, meaning that not everybody believed Augustus's testimony, an insult to the 'August One'.[156] The Second Constitutional Settlement was completed in part to allay confusion and formalize Augustus's legal authority to intervene in Senatorial provinces. The Senate granted Augustus a form of general imperium proconsulare, or proconsular imperium (power) that applied throughout the empire, not solely to his provinces. Moreover, the Senate augmented Augustus's proconsular imperium into imperium proconsulare maius, or proconsular imperium applicable throughout the empire that was more (maius) or greater than that held by the other proconsuls. This in effect gave Augustus constitutional power superior to all other proconsuls in the empire.[147] Augustus stayed in Rome during the renewal process and provided veterans with lavish donations to gain their support, thereby ensuring that his status of proconsular imperium maius was renewed in 13 BC.[145] Additional powers During the second settlement, Augustus was also granted the power of a tribune (tribunicia potestas) for life, though not the official title of tribune.[147] For some years, Augustus had been awarded tribunicia sacrosanctitas, the immunity given to a Tribune of the Plebs. Now he decided to assume the full powers of the magistracy, renewed annually, in perpetuity. Legally, it was closed to patricians, a status that Augustus had acquired some years earlier when adopted by Julius Caesar.[146] This power allowed him to convene the Senate and people at will and lay business before them, to veto the actions of either the Assembly or the Senate, to preside over elections, and to speak first at any meeting.[145][157] Also included in Augustus's tribunician authority were powers usually reserved for the Roman censor; these included the right to supervise public morals and scrutinize laws to ensure that they were in the public interest, as well as the ability to hold a census and determine the membership of the Senate.[158] With the powers of a censor, Augustus appealed to virtues of Roman patriotism by banning all attire but the classic toga while entering the Forum.[159] There was no precedent within the Roman system for combining the powers of the tribune and the censor into a single position, nor was Augustus ever elected to the office of censor.[160] Julius Caesar had been granted similar powers, wherein he was charged with supervising the morals of the state. However, this position did not extend to the censor's ability to hold a census and determine the Senate's roster. The office of the tribunus plebis began to lose its prestige due to Augustus's amassing of tribunal powers, so he revived its importance by making it a mandatory appointment for any plebeian desiring the praetorship.[161] Head of Augustus as Pontifex Maximus, Roman artwork of the late Augustan period, last decade of the 1st century BC Augustus was granted sole imperium within the city of Rome itself, in addition to being granted proconsular imperium maius and tribunician authority for life. Traditionally, proconsuls (Roman province governors) lost their proconsular "imperium" when they crossed the Pomerium – the sacred boundary of Rome – and entered the city. In these situations, Augustus would have power as part of his tribunician authority but his constitutional imperium within the Pomerium would be less than that of a serving consul. That would mean that, when he was in the city, he might not be the constitutional magistrate with the most authority. Thanks to his prestige or auctoritas, his wishes would usually be obeyed, but there might be some difficulty. To fill this power vacuum, the Senate voted that Augustus's imperium proconsulare maius (superior proconsular power) should not lapse when he was inside the city walls. All armed forces in the city had formerly been under the control of the urban praetors and consuls, but this situation now placed them under the sole authority of Augustus.[162] In addition, the credit was given to Augustus for each subsequent Roman military victory after this time, because the majority of Rome's armies were stationed in imperial provinces commanded by Augustus through the legatus who were deputies of the princeps in the provinces. Moreover, if a battle was fought in a Senatorial province, Augustus's proconsular imperium maius allowed him to take command of (or credit for) any major military victory. This meant that Augustus was the only individual able to receive a triumph, a tradition that began with Romulus, Rome's first King and first triumphant general. Lucius Cornelius Balbus was the last man outside Augustus's family to receive this award, in 19 BC.[163] Tiberius, Augustus's eldest stepson by Livia, was the only other general to receive a triumph—for victories in Germania in 7 BC.[164] Conspiracy A colossal statue of Augustus from the Augusteum of Herculaneum, seated and wearing a laurel wreath. Many of the political subtleties of the Second Settlement seem to have evaded the comprehension of the Plebeian class, who were Augustus's greatest supporters and clientele. This caused them to insist upon Augustus's participation in imperial affairs from time to time. Augustus failed to stand for election as consul in 22 BC, and fears arose once again that he was being forced from power by the aristocratic Senate. In 22, 21, and 19 BC, the people rioted in response, and only allowed a single consul to be elected for each of those years, ostensibly to leave the other position open for Augustus.[165] Likewise, there was a food shortage in Rome in 22 BC which sparked panic, while many urban plebs called for Augustus to take on dictatorial powers to personally oversee the crisis. After a theatrical display of refusal before the Senate, Augustus finally accepted authority over Rome's grain supply "by virtue of his proconsular imperium", and ended the crisis almost immediately.[145] It was not until AD 8 that a food crisis of this sort prompted Augustus to establish a praefectus annonae, a permanent prefect who was in charge of procuring food supplies for Rome.[166] There were some who were concerned by the expansion of powers granted to Augustus by the Second Settlement, and this came to a head with the apparent conspiracy of Fannius Caepio.[150] Some time prior to 1 September 22 BC, a certain Castricius provided Augustus with information about a conspiracy led by Fannius Caepio.[167] Murena, the outspoken Consul who defended Primus in the Marcus Primus Affair, was named among the conspirators. The conspirators were tried in absentia with Tiberius acting as prosecutor; the jury found them guilty, but it was not a unanimous verdict.[168] All the accused were sentenced to death for treason and executed as soon as they were captured—without ever giving testimony in their defence.[169] Augustus ensured that the facade of Republican government continued with an effective cover-up of the events.[170] In 19 BC, the Senate granted Augustus a form of 'general consular imperium', which was probably 'imperium consulare maius', like the proconsular powers that he received in 23 BC. Like his tribune authority, the consular powers were another instance of gaining power from offices that he did not actually hold.[171] In addition, Augustus was allowed to wear the consul's insignia in public and before the Senate,[162] as well as to sit in the symbolic chair between the two consuls and hold the fasces, an emblem of consular authority.[171] This seems to have assuaged the populace; regardless of whether or not Augustus was a consul, the importance was that he both appeared as one before the people and could exercise consular power if necessary. On 6 March 12 BC, after the death of Lepidus, he additionally took up the position of pontifex maximus, the high priest of the college of the Pontiffs, the most important position in Roman religion.[172][173] On 5 February 2 BC, Augustus was also given the title pater patriae, or "father of the country".[174][175] Stability and staying power A final reason for the Second Settlement was to give the Principate constitutional stability and staying power in case something happened to Princeps Augustus. His illness of early 23 BC and the Caepio conspiracy showed that the regime's existence hung by the thin thread of the life of one man, Augustus himself, who suffered from several severe and dangerous illnesses throughout his life.[176] If he were to die from natural causes or fall victim to assassination, Rome could be subjected to another round of civil war. The memories of Pharsalus, the Ides of March, the proscriptions, Philippi, and Actium, barely twenty-five years distant, were still vivid in the minds of many citizens. Proconsular imperium was conferred upon Agrippa for five years, similar to Augustus's power, in order to accomplish this constitutional stability. The exact nature of the grant is uncertain but it probably covered Augustus's imperial provinces, east and west, perhaps lacking authority over the provinces of the Senate. That came later, as did the jealously guarded tribunicia potestas.[177] Augustus's accumulation of powers was now complete. In fact, he dated his 'reign' from the completion of the Second Settlement, 1 July 23 BC.[178] War and expansion Main article: Wars of Augustus Further information: Roman–Persian relations The victorious advance of Hermann, depiction of the 9 AD Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, by Peter Janssen, 1873 Augustus chose Imperator ("victorious commander") to be his first name, since he wanted to make an emphatically clear connection between himself and the notion of victory, and consequently became known as Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus. By the year 13, Augustus boasted 21 occasions where his troops proclaimed "imperator" as his title after a successful battle. Almost the entire fourth chapter in his publicly released memoirs of achievements known as the Res Gestae was devoted to his military victories and honors.[179] Augustus also promoted the ideal of a superior Roman civilization with a task of ruling the world (to the extent to which the Romans knew it), a sentiment embodied in words that the contemporary poet Virgil attributes to a legendary ancestor of Augustus: tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento—"Roman, remember by your strength to rule the Earth's peoples!"[159] The impulse for expansionism was apparently prominent among all classes at Rome, and it is accorded divine sanction by Virgil's Jupiter in Book 1 of the Aeneid, where Jupiter promises Rome imperium sine fine, "sovereignty without end".[180] By the end of his reign, the armies of Augustus had conquered northern Hispania (modern Spain and Portugal) and the Alpine regions of Raetia and Noricum (modern Switzerland, Bavaria, Austria, Slovenia), Illyricum and Pannonia (modern Albania, Croatia, Hungary, Serbia, etc.), and had extended the borders of the Africa Province to the east and south. Judea was added to the province of Syria when Augustus deposed Herod Archelaus, successor to client king Herod the Great (73–4 BC). Syria (like Egypt after Antony) was governed by a high prefect of the equestrian class rather than by a proconsul or legate of Augustus.[181] Bust of Tiberius, a successful military commander under Augustus before he was designated as his heir and successor Again, no military effort was needed in 25 BC when Galatia (modern Turkey) was converted to a Roman province shortly after Amyntas of Galatia was killed by an avenging widow of a slain prince from Homonada.[181] The rebellious tribes of Asturias and Cantabria in modern-day Spain were finally quelled in 19 BC, and the territory fell under the provinces of Hispania and Lusitania. This region proved to be a major asset in funding Augustus's future military campaigns, as it was rich in mineral deposits that could be fostered in Roman mining projects, especially the very rich gold deposits at Las Medulas.[182] Muziris in the Chera Kingdom of Southern India, as shown in the Tabula Peutingeriana, with depiction of a "Temple of Augustus" ("Templum Augusti"), an illustration of Indo-Roman relations in the period Conquering the peoples of the Alps in 16 BC was another important victory for Rome, since it provided a large territorial buffer between the Roman citizens of Italy and Rome's enemies in Germania to the north.[183] Horace dedicated an ode to the victory, while the monumental Trophy of Augustus near Monaco was built to honor the occasion.[184] The capture of the Alpine region also served the next offensive in 12 BC, when Tiberius began the offensive against the Pannonian tribes of Illyricum, and his brother Nero Claudius Drusus moved against the Germanic tribes of the eastern Rhineland. Both campaigns were successful, as Drusus's forces reached the Elbe River by 9 BC—though he died shortly after by falling off his horse.[185] It was recorded that the pious Tiberius walked in front of his brother's body all the way back to Rome.[186] A Parthian returning an aquila, relief in the heroic cuirass of the Augustus of Prima Porta statue To protect Rome's eastern territories from the Parthian Empire, Augustus relied on the client states of the east to act as territorial buffers and areas that could raise their own troops for defense. To ensure security of the Empire's eastern flank, Augustus stationed a Roman army in Syria, while his skilled stepson Tiberius negotiated with the Parthians as Rome's diplomat to the East.[187] Tiberius was responsible for restoring Tigranes V to the throne of the Kingdom of Armenia.[186] Yet arguably his greatest diplomatic achievement was negotiating with Phraates IV of Parthia (37–2 BC) in 20 BC for the return of the battle standards lost by Crassus in the Battle of Carrhae, a symbolic victory and great boost of morale for Rome.[186][187][188] Werner Eck claims that this was a great disappointment for Romans seeking to avenge Crassus's defeat by military means.[189] However, Maria Brosius explains that Augustus used the return of the standards as propaganda symbolizing the submission of Parthia to Rome. The event was celebrated in art such as the breastplate design on the statue Augustus of Prima Porta and in monuments such as the Temple of Mars Ultor ('Mars the Avenger') built to house the standards.[190] Parthia had always posed a threat to Rome in the east, but the real battlefront was along the Rhine and Danube rivers.[187] Before the final fight with Antony, Octavian's campaigns against the tribes in Dalmatia were the first step in expanding Roman dominions to the Danube.[191] Victory in battle was not always a permanent success, as newly conquered territories were constantly retaken by Rome's enemies in Germania.[187] A prime example of Roman loss in battle was the Battle of Teutoburg Forest in AD 9, where three entire legions led by Publius Quinctilius Varus were destroyed by Arminius, leader of the Cherusci, an apparent Roman ally.[192] Augustus retaliated by dispatching Tiberius and Drusus to the Rhineland to pacify it, which had some success although the battle of AD 9 brought the end to Roman expansion into Germany.[193] Roman general Germanicus took advantage of a Cherusci civil war between Arminius and Segestes; they defeated Arminius, who fled that Battle of Idistaviso in AD 16 but was killed later in 21 due to treachery.[194] Death and succession Augustus in a late 16th-century copper engraving by Giovanni Battista Cavalieri. From the book Romanorum Imperatorum effigies (1583), preserved in the Municipal Library of Trento (Italy) The illness of Augustus in 23 BC brought the problem of succession to the forefront of political issues and the public. To ensure stability, he needed to designate an heir to his unique position in Roman society and government. This was to be achieved in small, undramatic, and incremental ways that did not stir senatorial fears of monarchy. If someone was to succeed to Augustus's unofficial position of power, he would have to earn it through his own publicly proven merits.[195] Some Augustan historians argue that indications pointed toward his sister's son Marcellus, who had been quickly married to Augustus's daughter Julia the Elder.[196] Other historians dispute this due to Augustus's will being read aloud to the Senate while he was seriously ill in 23 BC,[197] instead indicating a preference for Marcus Agrippa, who was Augustus's second in charge and arguably the only one of his associates who could have controlled the legions and held the Empire together.[198] After the death of Marcellus in 23 BC, Augustus married his daughter to Agrippa. This union produced five children, three sons and two daughters: Gaius Caesar, Lucius Caesar, Vipsania Julia, Agrippina the Elder, and Postumus Agrippa, so named because he was born after Marcus Agrippa died. Shortly after the Second Settlement, Agrippa was granted a five-year term of administering the eastern half of the Empire with the imperium of a proconsul and the same tribunicia potestas granted to Augustus (although not trumping Augustus's authority), his seat of governance stationed at Samos in the eastern Aegean.[198][199] This granting of power showed Augustus's favor for Agrippa, but it was also a measure to please members of his Caesarian party by allowing one of their members to share a considerable amount of power with him.[199] The Mausoleum of Augustus Augustus's intent became apparent to make Gaius and Lucius Caesar his heirs when he adopted them as his own children.[200] He took the consulship in 5 and 2 BC so that he could personally usher them into their political careers,[201] and they were nominated for the consulships of AD 1 and 4.[202] Augustus also showed favor to his stepsons, Livia's children from her first marriage Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus (henceforth referred to as Drusus) and Tiberius Claudius (henceforth Tiberius), granting them military commands and public office, though seeming to favor Drusus. After Agrippa died in 12 BC, Tiberius was ordered to divorce his own wife Vipsania Agrippina and marry Agrippa's widow, Augustus's daughter Julia—as soon as a period of mourning for Agrippa had ended.[203] Drusus's marriage to Augustus's niece Antonia was considered an unbreakable affair, whereas Vipsania was "only" the daughter of the late Agrippa from his first marriage.[203] Tiberius shared in Augustus's tribune powers as of 6 BC, but shortly thereafter went into retirement, reportedly wanting no further role in politics while he exiled himself to Rhodes.[164][204] No specific reason is known for his departure, though it could have been a combination of reasons, including a failing marriage with Julia,[164][204] as well as a sense of envy and exclusion over Augustus's apparent favouring of his young grandchildren-turned-sons Gaius and Lucius. (Gaius and Lucius joined the college of priests at an early age, were presented to spectators in a more favorable light, and were introduced to the army in Gaul.)[205][206] After the early deaths of both Lucius and Gaius in AD 2 and 4 respectively, and the earlier death of his brother Drusus (9 BC), Tiberius was recalled to Rome in June AD 4, where he was adopted by Augustus on the condition that he, in turn, adopt his nephew Germanicus.[207] This continued the tradition of presenting at least two generations of heirs.[203] In that year, Tiberius was also granted the powers of a tribune and proconsul, emissaries from foreign kings had to pay their respects to him, and by AD 13 was awarded with his second triumph and equal level of imperium with that of Augustus.[208] The deified Augustus hovers over Tiberius and other Julio-Claudians in the Great Cameo of France The only other possible claimant as heir was Postumus Agrippa, who had been exiled by Augustus in AD 7, his banishment made permanent by senatorial decree, and Augustus officially disowned him. He certainly fell out of Augustus's favor as an heir; the historian Erich S. Gruen notes various contemporary sources that state Postumus Agrippa was a "vulgar young man, brutal and brutish, and of depraved character".[209] On 19 August AD 14, Augustus died while visiting Nola where his father had died. Both Tacitus and Cassius Dio wrote that Livia was rumored to have brought about Augustus's death by poisoning fresh figs.[210][211] This element features in many modern works of historical fiction pertaining to Augustus's life, but some historians view it as likely to have been a salacious fabrication made by those who had favoured Postumus as heir, or other of Tiberius's political enemies. Livia had long been the target of similar rumors of poisoning on the behalf of her son, most or all of which are unlikely to have been true.[212] Alternatively, it is possible that Livia did supply a poisoned fig (she did cultivate a variety of fig named for her that Augustus is said to have enjoyed), but did so as a means of assisted suicide rather than murder. Augustus's health had been in decline in the months immediately before his death, and he had made significant preparations for a smooth transition in power, having at last reluctantly settled on Tiberius as his choice of heir.[213] It is likely that Augustus was not expected to return alive from Nola, but it seems that his health improved once there; it has therefore been speculated that Augustus and Livia conspired to end his life at the anticipated time, having committed all political process to accepting Tiberius, in order to not endanger that transition.[212] Augustus's famous last words were, "Have I played the part well? Then applaud as I exit" ("Acta est fabula, plaudite")—referring to the play-acting and regal authority that he had put on as emperor. Publicly, though, his last words were, "Behold, I found Rome of clay, and leave her to you of marble" ("Marmoream se relinquere, quam latericiam accepisset"). An enormous funerary procession of mourners traveled with Augustus's body from Nola to Rome, and on the day of his burial all public and private businesses closed for the day.[213] Tiberius and his son Drusus delivered the eulogy while standing atop two rostra. Augustus's body was coffin-bound and cremated on a pyre close to his mausoleum. It was proclaimed that Augustus joined the company of the gods as a member of the Roman pantheon.[214] Historian D. C. A. Shotter states that Augustus's policy of favoring the Julian family line over the Claudian might have afforded Tiberius sufficient cause to show open disdain for Augustus after the latter's death; instead, Tiberius was always quick to rebuke those who criticized Augustus.[215] Shotter suggests that Augustus's deification obliged Tiberius to suppress any open resentment that he might have harbored, coupled with Tiberius's "extremely conservative" attitude towards religion.[216] Also, historian R. Shaw-Smith points to letters of Augustus to Tiberius which display affection towards Tiberius and high regard for his military merits.[217] Shotter states that Tiberius focused his anger and criticism on Gaius Asinius Gallus (for marrying Vipsania after Augustus forced Tiberius to divorce her), as well as toward the two young Caesars, Gaius and Lucius—instead of Augustus, the real architect of his divorce and imperial demotion.[216] Legacy Further information: Cultural depictions of Augustus The Virgin Mary and Child, the prophetess Sibyl Tivoli bottom left and the Emperor Augustus in the bottom right, from the Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry. The likeness of Augustus is that of the Byzantine emperor Manuel II Palaiologos[218] The Augustus cameo at the center of the Medieval Cross of Lothair Augustus's reign laid the foundations of a regime that lasted, in one form or another, for nearly fifteen hundred years through the ultimate decline of the Western Roman Empire and until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453. Both his adoptive surname, Caesar, and his title Augustus became the permanent titles of the rulers of the Roman Empire for fourteen centuries after his death, in use both at Old Rome and at New Rome. In many languages, Caesar became the word for Emperor, as in the German Kaiser and in the Bulgarian and subsequently Russian Tsar (sometimes Csar or Czar). The cult of Divus Augustus continued until the state religion of the Empire was changed to Christianity in 391 by Theodosius I. Consequently, there are many excellent statues and busts of the first emperor. He had composed an account of his achievements, the Res Gestae Divi Augusti, to be inscribed in bronze in front of his mausoleum.[219] Copies of the text were inscribed throughout the Empire upon his death.[220] The inscriptions in Latin featured translations in Greek beside it, and were inscribed on many public edifices, such as the temple in Ankara dubbed the Monumentum Ancyranum, called the "queen of inscriptions" by historian Theodor Mommsen.[221] The Res Gestae is the only work to have survived from antiquity, though Augustus is also known to have composed poems entitled Sicily, Epiphanus, and Ajax, an autobiography of 13 books, a philosophical treatise, and a written rebuttal to Brutus's Eulogy of Cato.[222] Historians are able to analyze excerpts of letters penned by Augustus, preserved in other works, to others for additional facts or clues about his personal life.[217][223] Many consider Augustus to be Rome's greatest emperor; his policies certainly extended the Empire's life span and initiated the celebrated Pax Romana or Pax Augusta. The Roman Senate wished subsequent emperors to "be more fortunate than Augustus and better than Trajan". Augustus was intelligent, decisive, and a shrewd politician, but he was not perhaps as charismatic as Julius Caesar and was influenced on occasion by Livia (sometimes for the worse). Nevertheless, his legacy proved more enduring. The city of Rome was utterly transformed under Augustus, with Rome's first institutionalized police force, fire fighting force, and the establishment of the municipal prefect as a permanent office. The police force was divided into cohorts of 500 men each, while the units of firemen ranged from 500 to 1,000 men each, with 7 units assigned to 14 divided city sectors.[224] A praefectus vigilum, or "Prefect of the Watch" was put in charge of the vigiles, Rome's fire brigade and police.[225] With Rome's civil wars at an end, Augustus was also able to create a standing army for the Roman Empire, fixed at a size of 28 legions of about 170,000 soldiers.[226] This was supported by numerous auxiliary units of 500 non-citizen soldiers each, often recruited from recently conquered areas.[227] With his finances securing the maintenance of roads throughout Italy, Augustus also installed an official courier system of relay stations overseen by a military officer known as the praefectus vehiculorum.[228] Besides the advent of swifter communication among Italian polities, his extensive building of roads throughout Italy also allowed Rome's armies to march swiftly and at an unprecedented pace across the country.[229] In the year 6 Augustus established the aerarium militare, donating 170 million sesterces to the new military treasury that provided for both active and retired soldiers.[230] One of the most enduring institutions of Augustus was the establishment of the Praetorian Guard in 27 BC, originally a personal bodyguard unit on the battlefield that evolved into an imperial guard as well as an important political force in Rome.[231] They had the power to intimidate the Senate, install new emperors, and depose ones they disliked; the last emperor they served was Maxentius, as it was Constantine I who disbanded them in the early 4th century and destroyed their barracks, the Castra Praetoria.[232] Augustus in an Egyptian-style depiction, a stone carving of the Kalabsha Temple in Nubia Although the most powerful individual in the Roman Empire, Augustus wished to embody the spirit of Republican virtue and norms. He also wanted to relate to and connect with the concerns of the plebs and lay people. He achieved this through various means of generosity and a cutting back of lavish excess. In the year 29 BC, Augustus gave 400 sesterces (equal to 1/10 of a Roman pound of gold) each to 250,000 citizens, 1,000 sesterces each to 120,000 veterans in the colonies, and spent 700 million sesterces in purchasing land for his soldiers to settle upon.[233] He also restored 82 different temples to display his care for the Roman pantheon of deities.[233] In 28 BC, he melted down 80 silver statues erected in his likeness and in honor of him, an attempt of his to appear frugal and modest.[233] Coin of Kushan ruler Kujula Kadphises, in the style of Roman emperor Augustus. British Museum. AE dichalkon, Chach, c. first half of 1st. Century, Weight:3.26 gm., Diam:18 mm. Caption: obcerse in Greek KOZOΛA KAΔAΦEΣ XOPANOY ZAOOY; reverse in Kharoshti. The longevity of Augustus's reign and its legacy to the Roman world should not be overlooked as a key factor in its success. As Tacitus wrote, the younger generations alive in AD 14 had never known any form of government other than the Principate.[234] Had Augustus died earlier (in 23 BC, for instance), matters might have turned out differently. The attrition of the civil wars on the old Republican oligarchy and the longevity of Augustus, therefore, must be seen as major contributing factors in the transformation of the Roman state into a de facto monarchy in these years. Augustus's own experience, his patience, his tact, and his political acumen also played their parts. He directed the future of the Empire down many lasting paths, from the existence of a standing professional army stationed at or near the frontiers, to the dynastic principle so often employed in the imperial succession, to the embellishment of the capital at the emperor's expense. Augustus's ultimate legacy was the peace and prosperity the Empire enjoyed for the next two centuries under the system he initiated. His memory was enshrined in the political ethos of the Imperial age as a paradigm of the good emperor. Every Emperor of Rome adopted his name, Caesar Augustus, which gradually lost its character as a name and eventually became a title.[214] The Augustan era poets Virgil and Horace praised Augustus as a defender of Rome, an upholder of moral justice, and an individual who bore the brunt of responsibility in maintaining the empire.[235] However, for his rule of Rome and establishing the principate, Augustus has also been subjected to criticism throughout the ages. The contemporary Roman jurist Marcus Antistius Labeo (d. AD 10/11), fond of the days of pre-Augustan republican liberty in which he had been born, openly criticized the Augustan regime. In the beginning of his Annals, the Roman historian Tacitus (c. 56–c.117) wrote that Augustus had cunningly subverted Republican Rome into a position of slavery. He continued to say that, with Augustus's death and swearing of loyalty to Tiberius, the people of Rome simply traded one slaveholder for another.[236] Tacitus, however, records two contradictory but common views of Augustus: Intelligent people praised or criticized him in varying ways. One opinion was as follows. Filial duty and a national emergency, in which there was no place for law-abiding conduct, had driven him to civil war—and this can neither be initiated nor maintained by decent methods. He had made many concessions to Anthony and to Lepidus for the sake of vengeance on his father's murderers. When Lepidus grew old and lazy, and Anthony's self-indulgence got the better of him, the only possible cure for the distracted country had been government by one man. However, Augustus had put the state in order not by making himself king or dictator, but by creating the Principate. The Empire's frontiers were on the ocean, or distant rivers. Armies, provinces, fleets, the whole system was interrelated. Roman citizens were protected by the law. Provincials were decently treated. Rome itself had been lavishly beautified. Force had been sparingly used—merely to preserve peace for the majority.[237] Fragment of a bronze equestrian statue of Augustus, 1st century AD, National Archaeological Museum of Athens Virgil reading the Aeneid to Augustus and Octavia, by Jean-Joseph Taillasson, 1787 According to the second opposing opinion: filial duty and national crisis had been merely pretexts. In actual fact, the motive of Octavian, the future Augustus, was lust for power ... There had certainly been peace, but it was a blood-stained peace of disasters and assassinations.[238] In a 2006 biography on Augustus, Anthony Everitt asserts that through the centuries, judgments on Augustus's reign have oscillated between these two extremes but stresses that: Opposites do not have to be mutually exclusive, and we are not obliged to choose one or the other. The story of his career shows that Augustus was indeed ruthless, cruel, and ambitious for himself. This was only in part a personal trait, for upper-class Romans were educated to compete with one another and to excel. However, he combined an overriding concern for his personal interests with a deep-seated patriotism, based on a nostalgia of Rome's antique virtues. In his capacity as princeps, selfishness and selflessness coexisted in his mind. While fighting for dominance, he paid little attention to legality or to the normal civilities of political life. He was devious, untrustworthy, and bloodthirsty. But once he had established his authority, he governed efficiently and justly, generally allowed freedom of speech, and promoted the rule of law. He was immensely hardworking and tried as hard as any democratic parliamentarian to treat his senatorial colleagues with respect and sensitivity. He suffered from no delusions of grandeur.[239] Tacitus was of the belief that Nerva (r. 96–98) successfully "mingled two formerly alien ideas, principate and liberty".[240] The 3rd-century historian Cassius Dio acknowledged Augustus as a benign, moderate ruler, yet like most other historians after the death of Augustus, Dio viewed Augustus as an autocrat.[236] The poet Marcus Annaeus Lucanus (AD 39–65) was of the opinion that Caesar's victory over Pompey and the fall of Cato the Younger (95 BC–46 BC) marked the end of traditional liberty in Rome; historian Chester G. Starr, Jr. writes of his avoidance of criticizing Augustus, "perhaps Augustus was too sacred a figure to accuse directly."[240] The Anglo-Irish writer Jonathan Swift (1667–1745), in his Discourse on the Contests and Dissentions in Athens and Rome, criticized Augustus for installing tyranny over Rome, and likened what he believed Great Britain's virtuous constitutional monarchy to Rome's moral Republic of the 2nd century BC. In his criticism of Augustus, the admiral and historian Thomas Gordon (1658–1741) compared Augustus to the puritanical tyrant Oliver Cromwell (1599–1658).[241] Thomas Gordon and the French political philosopher Montesquieu (1689–1755) both remarked that Augustus was a coward in battle.[242] In his Memoirs of the Court of Augustus, the Scottish scholar Thomas Blackwell (1701–1757) deemed Augustus a Machiavellian ruler, "a bloodthirsty vindicative usurper", "wicked and worthless", "a mean spirit", and a "tyrant".[242] Revenue reforms Coin of Augustus found at the Pudukottai hoard, from an ancient Tamil country, Pandyan Kingdom of present-day Tamil Nadu in India, a testimony to Indo-Roman trade. British Museum. Caption: AVGVSTVS DIVI F[ILIVS]. Augustus's public revenue reforms had a great impact on the subsequent success of the Empire. Augustus brought a far greater portion of the Empire's expanded land base under consistent, direct taxation from Rome, instead of exacting varying, intermittent, and somewhat arbitrary tributes from each local province as Augustus's predecessors had done. This reform greatly increased Rome's net revenue from its territorial acquisitions, stabilized its flow, and regularized the financial relationship between Rome and the provinces, rather than provoking fresh resentments with each new arbitrary exaction of tribute.[243] The measures of taxation in the reign of Augustus were determined by population census, with fixed quotas for each province. Citizens of Rome and Italy paid indirect taxes, while direct taxes were exacted from the provinces. Indirect taxes included a 4% tax on the price of slaves, a 1% tax on goods sold at auction, and a 5% tax on the inheritance of estates valued at over 100,000 sesterces by persons other than the next of kin.[244] 1st century coin of the Himyarite Kingdom, southern coast of the Arabian peninsula. This is also an imitation of a coin of Augustus. An equally important reform was the abolition of private tax farming, which was replaced by salaried civil service tax collectors. Private contractors who collected taxes for the State were the norm in the Republican era. Some of them were powerful enough to influence the number of votes for men running for offices in Rome. These tax farmers called publicans were infamous for their depredations, great private wealth, and the right to tax local areas.[243] The use of Egypt's immense land rents to finance the Empire's operations resulted from Augustus's conquest of Egypt and the shift to a Roman form of government.[245] As it was effectively considered Augustus's private property rather than a province of the Empire, it became part of each succeeding emperor's patrimonium.[246] Instead of a legate or proconsul, Augustus installed a prefect from the equestrian class to administer Egypt and maintain its lucrative seaports; this position became the highest political achievement for any equestrian besides becoming Prefect of the Praetorian Guard.[247] The highly productive agricultural land of Egypt yielded enormous revenues that were available to Augustus and his successors to pay for public works and military expeditions.[245] During his reign the circus games resulted in the killing of 3,500 elephants.[248] Month of August The month of August (Latin: Augustus) is named after Augustus; until his time it was called Sextilis (named so because it had been the sixth month of the original Roman calendar and the Latin word for six is sex). Commonly repeated lore has it that August has 31 days because Augustus wanted his month to match the length of Julius Caesar's July, but this is an invention of the 13th century scholar Johannes de Sacrobosco. Sextilis in fact had 31 days before it was renamed, and it was not chosen for its length (see Julian calendar). According to a senatus consultum quoted by Macrobius, Sextilis was renamed to honor Augustus because several of the most significant events in his rise to power, culminating in the fall of Alexandria, fell in that month.[249] Building projects Main page: Category:Augustan building projects Further information: Vitruvius and De architectura Close up on the sculpted detail of the Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace), 13 BC to 9 BC On his deathbed, Augustus boasted "I found a Rome of bricks; I leave to you one of marble." Although there is some truth in the literal meaning of this, Cassius Dio asserts that it was a metaphor for the Empire's strength.[250] Marble could be found in buildings of Rome before Augustus, but it was not extensively used as a building material until the reign of Augustus.[251] Although this did not apply to the Subura slums, which were still as rickety and fire-prone as ever, he did leave a mark on the monumental topography of the centre and of the Campus Martius, with the Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace) and monumental sundial, whose central gnomon was an obelisk taken from Egypt.[252] The relief sculptures decorating the Ara Pacis visually augmented the written record of Augustus's triumphs in the Res Gestae. Its reliefs depicted the imperial pageants of the praetorians, the Vestals, and the citizenry of Rome.[253] He also built the Temple of Caesar, the Baths of Agrippa, and the Forum of Augustus with its Temple of Mars Ultor.[254] Other projects were either encouraged by him, such as the Theatre of Balbus, and Agrippa's construction of the Pantheon, or funded by him in the name of others, often relations (e.g. Portico of Octavia, Theatre of Marcellus). Even his Mausoleum of Augustus was built before his death to house members of his family.[255] To celebrate his victory at the Battle of Actium, the Arch of Augustus was built in 29 BC near the entrance of the Temple of Castor and Pollux, and widened in 19 BC to include a triple-arch design.[251] The Temple of Augustus and Livia in Vienne, late 1st century BC After the death of Agrippa in 12 BC, a solution had to be found in maintaining Rome's water supply system. This came about because it was overseen by Agrippa when he served as aedile, and was even funded by him afterwards when he was a private citizen paying at his own expense. In that year, Augustus arranged a system where the Senate designated three of its members as prime commissioners in charge of the water supply and to ensure that Rome's aqueducts did not fall into disrepair.[224] In the late Augustan era, the commission of five senators called the curatores locorum publicorum iudicandorum (translated as "Supervisors of Public Property") was put in charge of maintaining public buildings and temples of the state cult.[224] Augustus created the senatorial group of the curatores viarum (translated as "Supervisors for Roads") for the upkeep of roads; this senatorial commission worked with local officials and contractors to organize regular repairs.[228] The Corinthian order of architectural style originating from ancient Greece was the dominant architectural style in the age of Augustus and the imperial phase of Rome. Suetonius once commented that Rome was unworthy of its status as an imperial capital, yet Augustus and Agrippa set out to dismantle this sentiment by transforming the appearance of Rome upon the classical Greek model.[251] Physical appearance and official images The Meroë Head of Augustus, bronze Roman portraiture bust from Meroë, Kingdom of Kush (Nubia, modern Sudan), 27–25 BC His biographer Suetonius, writing about a century after Augustus's death, described his appearance as: "... unusually handsome and exceedingly graceful at all periods of his life, though he cared nothing for personal adornment. He was so far from being particular about the dressing of his hair, that he would have several barbers working in a hurry at the same time, and as for his beard he now had it clipped and now shaved, while at the very same time he would either be reading or writing something ... He had clear, bright eyes ... His teeth were wide apart, small, and ill-kept; his hair was slightly curly and inclined to golden; his eyebrows met. His ears were of moderate size, and his nose projected a little at the top and then bent ever so slightly inward. His complexion was between dark and fair. He was short of stature, although Julius Marathus, his freedman and keeper of his records, says that he was five feet and nine inches (just under 5 ft. 7 in., or 1.70 meters, in modern height measurements), but this was concealed by the fine proportion and symmetry of his figure, and was noticeable only by comparison with some taller person standing beside him...",[256] adding that "his shoes [were] somewhat high-soled, to make him look taller than he really was".[257] Scientific analysis of traces of paint found in his official statues show that he most likely had light brown hair and eyes (his hair and eyes were depicted as the same color).[258] His official images were very tightly controlled and idealized, drawing from a tradition of Hellenistic royal portraiture rather than the tradition of realism in Roman portraiture. He first appeared on coins at the age of 19, and from about 29 BC "the explosion in the number of Augustan portraits attests a concerted propaganda campaign aimed at dominating all aspects of civil, religious, economic and military life with Augustus's person."[259] The early images did indeed depict a young man, but although there were gradual changes his images remained youthful until he died in his seventies, by which time they had "a distanced air of ageless majesty".[260] Among the best known of many surviving portraits are the Augustus of Prima Porta, the image on the Ara Pacis, and the Via Labicana Augustus, which shows him as a priest. Several cameo portraits include the Blacas Cameo and Gemma Augustea. See also Augustan literature (ancient Rome) Augustan poetry Bierzo Edict Caesar's Comet Gaius Maecenas Gaius Octavian (Rome character) Indo-Roman trade and relations Julio-Claudian family tree List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources Temple of Augustus References Notes ^ The dates of his rule are contemporary dates; Augustus lived under two calendars, the Roman Republican until 45 BC, and the Julian after 45 BC. Due to departures from Julius Caesar's intentions, Augustus finished restoring the Julian calendar in March AD 4, and the correspondence between the proleptic Julian calendar and the calendar observed in Rome is uncertain before 8 BC. (Blackburn & Holford-Strevens 2003: 670–1) ^ His daughter Julia had died in 54 BC.; his son Caesarion by Cleopatra was not recognized by Roman law and was not mentioned in his will.[28] ^ Appian estimates that 300 senators were proscribed, while his earlier contemporary Livy asserted that only 130 senators had been proscribed.[71] ^ These were Alexander Helios, Cleopatra Selene II, and Ptolemy Philadelphus. ^ He acted on the orders of Marcellus and Augustus – see Southern, p. 108 and Eck (2003), p. 55 Citations ^ "Augustus | Biography, Accomplishments, Full Name, & Facts". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 6 March 2018. ^ "Augustus - Ancient History - HISTORY.com". HISTORY.com. Retrieved 6 March 2018. ^ Luke, Trevor (2015). "Cultivating the memory of Octavius Thurinus". Journal of Ancient History. 3 (2): 242–266. doi:10.1515/jah-2015-0012. S2CID 164329002. ^ a b "Augustus - Ancient History - HISTORY.com". HISTORY.com. Retrieved 28 March 2018. ^ "Suetonius • Life of Augustus". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 4 March 2018. ^ Goldsworthy, Adrian (28 August 2014). Augustus: First Emperor of Rome. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300210071. ^ "Augustus". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 28 March 2018. ^ Jo-Ann Shelton, As the Romans Did (Oxford University Press, 1998), 58. ^ Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historia, 2.93–94 ^ Wells, John C. (1990). Longman pronunciation dictionary. Harlow, England: Longman. ISBN 978-0-582-05383-0. entry "Augustus" ^ The spelling AGVSTVS, which according to Allen (1965), 61, occurs in inscriptions, indicates the pronunciation [aˈɡʊstʊs].[10] ^ "40 maps that explain the Roman Empire". Vox. Retrieved 28 March 2018. ^ Day and month according to the Roman calendar, see Suetonius (2013), §5, footnote a}} ^ Suetonius, Augustus 7 ^ 5–6 on-line text. ^ Suetonius, "The Life of Augustus," 1 (J. C. Rolfe, Translator). ^ Suetonius, Augustus 1–4 ^ Rowell (1962), 14. ^ Chisholm (1981), 23. ^ Suetonius, Augustus 4–8; Nicolaus of Damascus, Augustus 3. Archived 14 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine ^ Suetonius, Augustus 8.1; Quintilian, 12.6.1. ^ Pelham, Henry Francis (1911). "Augustus," in Encyclopaedia Britannica, the University of Chicago online. Accessed 11 January 2019. ^ a b Suetonius, Augustus 8.1 ^ Nicolaus of Damascus, Augustus 4. Archived 14 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine ^ a b c Rowell (1962), 16. ^ Nicolaus of Damascus, Augustus 6. Archived 14 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine ^ Velleius Paterculus 2.59.3. ^ a b Suetonius, Julius 83. ^ a b c Eck (2003), 9. ^ Rowell (1962), 15. ^ Suetonius, Augustus 68, 71. ^ Mihai Andrei (24 August 2018). "In ancient Rome, political discourse was sometimes like an internet fight". ZME Science. Retrieved 7 May 2019. ^ Weisberger, Mindy; September 2, Senior Writer |; ET, 2018 08:11am. "Think Politics Today Is Ugly? Politicians in Ancient Rome Were Insulting, Too". Live Science. Retrieved 7 May 2019. ^ Appian, Civil Wars 3.9–11. ^ E.g., Cicero. Letters to Atticus. Perseus Digital Library. pp. 16:14. Retrieved 8 December 2015. ^ Mackay (2004), 160. ^ a b c d Eck (2003), 10. ^ Southern, Augustus pp. 20–21 ^ Southern, Augustus pp. 21 ^ a b Eck (2003), 9–10. ^ a b Rowell (1962), 19. ^ Rowell (1962), 18. ^ Eder (2005), 18. ^ Appian, Civil Wars 3.11–12. ^ Chisholm (1981), 24. ^ Chisholm (1981), 27. ^ Rowell (1962), 20. ^ Eck (2003), 11. ^ Syme (1939), 114–120. ^ Chisholm (1981), 26. ^ Rowell (1962), 30. ^ Eck (2003), 11–12. ^ Rowell (1962), 21. ^ Syme (1939), 123–126. ^ a b c d Eck (2003), 12. ^ a b c Rowell (1962), 23. ^ Rowell (1962), 24. ^ Chisholm (1981), 29. ^ Syme (1939), 167. ^ Syme (1939), 173–174 ^ Scullard (1982), 157. ^ Rowell (1962), 26–27. ^ a b c Rowell (1962), 27. ^ Chisholm (1981), 32–33. ^ Eck (2003), 14. ^ Rowell (1962), 28. ^ Syme (1939), 176–186. ^ Sear, David R. "Common Legend Abbreviations On Roman Coins". Archived from the original on 30 July 2007. Retrieved 24 August 2007. ^ a b Eck (2003), 15. ^ a b Scullard (1982), 163. ^ Southern (1998), 52–53. ^ a b Eck (2003), 16. ^ a b Scullard (1982), 164. ^ a b Scott (1933), 19–20. ^ a b Scott (1933), 19. ^ Scott (1933), 20. ^ Syme (1939), 202. ^ Eck (2003), 17. ^ Eck (2003), 17–18. ^ a b Eck (2003), 18. ^ Eck (2003), 18–19. ^ a b Eck (2003), 19. ^ a b Rowell (1962), 32. ^ a b c Eck (2003), 20. ^ Scullard (1982), 162 ^ a b Eck (2003) 21. ^ a b c Eder (2005), 19. ^ a b Eck (2003), 22. ^ Eck (2003), 23. ^ a b Eck (2003), 24. ^ Eck (2003), 25. ^ Eck (2003), 25–26. ^ a b Eck (2003), 26. ^ Eck (2003), 26–27. ^ Eck (2003), 27–28. ^ Eck (2003), 29. ^ Eck (2003), 29–30. ^ a b Eck (2003), 30. ^ Eder (2005), 20. ^ Eck (2003), 31. ^ Eck (2003), 32–34. ^ Eck (2003), 34. ^ Eck (2003), 34–35 ^ Eder (2005), 21–22. ^ Eck (2003), 35. ^ Eder (2005), 22. ^ Roller (2010), 175. ^ Walker (2008), 35, 42–44. ^ Eck (2003), 37. ^ Eck (2003), 38. ^ Eck (2003), 38–39. ^ Eck (2003), 39. ^ Green (1990), 697. ^ Scullard (1982), 171. ^ a b Eck (2003), 49. ^ Gruen (2005), 34–35. ^ a b c Eder (2005), 24–25. ^ a b Gruen (2005), 38–39. ^ a b Eck (2003), 45. ^ Eck (2003), 44–45. ^ Eck (2003), 113. ^ Eck (2003), 80. ^ a b Scullard (1982), 211. ^ a b Eck (2003), 46. ^ Scullard (1982), 210. ^ a b Gruen (2005), 34. ^ a b Eck (2003), 47. ^ a b c d Eder (2005), 24. ^ a b Eck (2003), 50. ^ Eck (2003), 149 ^ Roberts, John (2007). "Princeps senatus". Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World. Oxford Reference. p. 858. doi:10.1093/acref/9780192801463.001.0001. ISBN 9780192801463. ^ Eck (2003), 3, 149. ^ Eder (2005), 13. ^ Eck (2003), 3. ^ Wells, p. 51 ^ Holland, p. 294 ^ a b Davies, p. 259 ^ Ando, p. 140; Raaflaub, p. 426; Wells, p. 53 ^ Southern, p. 108; Holland, p. 295 ^ Eder (2005), 25. ^ a b c Eck (2003), 56. ^ Gruen (2005), 38. ^ a b Stern, Gaius, Women, children, and senators on the Ara Pacis Augustae: A study of Augustus's vision of a new world order in 13 BC, p. 23 ^ Holland, pp. 294–95; Southern, p. 108 ^ a b c d Eder (2005), 26. ^ a b Gruen (2005), 36. ^ a b c Eck (2003), 57. ^ Gruen (2005), 37. ^ Eck (2003), 56–57. ^ a b Southern, p. 109; Holland, p. 299 ^ Wells, p. 53 ^ a b Southern, p. 108 ^ Holland, p. 300 ^ Syme, p. 333 ^ Syme, p. 333; Holland, p. 300; Southern, p. 108 ^ Wells, p. 53; Raaflaub, p. 426 ^ Eck (2003), 57–58. ^ Eck (2003), 59. ^ a b Eder (2005), 30. ^ Bunson (1994), 80. ^ Bunson (1994), 427. ^ a b Eck (2003), 60. ^ Eck (2003), 61. ^ a b c Eck (2003), 117. ^ Dio 54.1, 6, 10. ^ Eck (2003), 78. ^ Swan, p. 241; Syme, p. 483 ^ Wells, p. 53; Holland, p. 301 ^ Davies, p. 260; Holland, p. 301 ^ Holland, p. 301 ^ a b Gruen (2005), 43. ^ Bowersock (1990), p. 380. The date is provided by inscribed calendars; see also Augustus, Res Gestae 10.2. Dio 27.2 reports this under 13 BC, probably as the year in which Lepidus died (Bowersock (1990), p. 383). ^ Eder (2005), 28. ^ Mackay (2004), 186. ^ Eck (2003), 129. ^ Suetonius, Augustus 81. ^ Syme (1939), 337–338. ^ Everett (2006), 217. ^ Eck (2003), 93. ^ Eck (2003), 95. ^ a b Eck (2003), 94. ^ Eck (2003), 97. ^ Eck (2003), 98. ^ Eck (2003), 98–99. ^ Eck (2003), 99. ^ a b c Bunson (1994), 416. ^ a b c d Eck (2003), 96. ^ Brosius (2006), 96–97, 136–138. ^ Eck (2003), 95–96. ^ Brosius (2006), 97; see also Bivar (1983), 66–67. ^ Rowell (1962), 13. ^ Eck (2003), 101–102. ^ Bunson (1994), 417. ^ Bunson (1994), 31. ^ Gruen (2005), 50. ^ Eck (2003), 114–115. ^ Eck (2003), 115. ^ a b Gruen (2005), 44. ^ a b Eck (2003), 58. ^ Syme (1939), 416–417. ^ Scullard (1982), 217. ^ Syme (1939), 417. ^ a b c Eck (2003), 116. ^ a b Gruen (2005), 46. ^ Eck (2003), 117–118. ^ Gruen (2005), 46–47. ^ Eck (2003), 119. ^ Eck (2003), 119–120. ^ Gruen (2005), 49. ^ Tacitus Annals 1.5 ^ Cassius Dio 55.22.2; 56.30 ^ a b Everitt, Anthony (2006). Agustus: The Life of rome's First Emperor. New York: Random House. pp. 312–20. ISBN 978-0-8129-7058-6. ^ a b Eck (2003), 123. ^ a b Eck (2003), 124. ^ Shotter (1966), 210–212. ^ a b Shotter (1966), 211. ^ a b Shaw-Smith (1971), 213. ^ Setton, Kenneth M. (1976). The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Volume I: The Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: The American Philosophical Society. p. 375. ISBN 978-0-87169-114-9. ^ Suetonius, Augustus 101.4. ^ Eck (2003), 1–2 ^ Eck (2003), 2. ^ Bunson (1994), 47. ^ Bourne (1918), 53–66. ^ a b c Eck (2003), 79. ^ Bunson (1994), 345. ^ Eck (2003), 85–87. ^ Eck (2003), 86. ^ a b Eck (2003), 81. ^ Chisholm (1981), 122. ^ Bunson (1994), 6. ^ Bunson (1994), 341. ^ Bunson (1994), 341–342. ^ a b c Eder (2005), 23. ^ Tacitus, Annals I.3 ^ Kelsall (1976), 120. ^ a b Starr (1952), 5. ^ Tacitus, The Annals, I 9 ^ Tacitus, The Annals, I 10 ^ Everitt (2006), 324–325. ^ a b Starr (1952), 6. ^ Kelsall (1976), 118. ^ a b Kelsall (1976), 119. ^ a b Eck (2003), 83–84. ^ Bunson (1994), 404. ^ a b Bunson (1994), 144. ^ Bunson (1994), 144–145. ^ Bunson (1994), 145. ^ Greg Woolf (2007). Ancient civilizations: the illustrated guide to belief, mythology, and art. Barnes & Noble. p. 397. ISBN 978-1-4351-0121-0. ^ Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.12.35. ^ Dio 56.30.3 ^ a b c Bunson (1994), 34. ^ Eck (2003), 122. ^ Bunson (1994), 32. ^ "The Deeds of the Divine Augustus". ^ Eck (2003), 118–121 ^ Suetonius, Augustus 79, translated by J. C. Rolfe. ^ Suetonius, Augustus 73 ^ Roberta Pazanelli, Eike Schmidt, Vinzenz Brinkmann, et al. "The Color of Life: Polychromy in Sculpture from Antiquity to the Present." Getty Research Institute; 1st edition. May 2008. Pages 116–117. ^ Walker and Burnett, pp. 1, 18, 25 (quoted) ^ Smith, 186 Works cited Allen, William Sidney (1978) [1965]. Vox Latina – a Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-37936-6. Ando, Clifford, Imperial ideology and provincial loyalty in the Roman Empire, University of California Press, 2000. Bivar, A. D. H. (1983). "The Political History of Iran Under the Arsacids", in The Cambridge History of Iran (Vol 3:1), 21–99. Edited by Ehsan Yarshater. 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Oxford: Oxford University Press, in association with the Open University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-872108-6 Dio, Cassius. (1987) The Roman History: The Reign of Augustus. Translated by Ian Scott-Kilvert. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-044448-3. Davies, Mark (2010). Aspects of Roman History 82BC-AD14. doi:10.4324/9780203856659. ISBN 9780203856659. Eck, Werner; translated by Deborah Lucas Schneider; new material by Sarolta A. Takács. (2003) The Age of Augustus. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing (hardcover, ISBN 978-0-631-22957-5; paperback, ISBN 978-0-631-22958-2). Eder, Walter. (2005). "Augustus and the Power of Tradition", in The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Augustus (Cambridge Companions to the Ancient World), ed. Karl Galinsky, 13–32. Cambridge, MA; New York: Cambridge University Press (hardcover, ISBN 978-0-521-80796-8; paperback, ISBN 978-0-521-00393-3). Everitt, Anthony (2006) Augustus: The Life of Rome's First Emperor. Random House Books. ISBN 1-4000-6128-8. Goldsworthy, Adrian (2014). Augustus: First Emperor of Rome. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-17827-2. Green, Peter (1990). Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age. Hellenistic Culture and Society. Berkeley, CA; Los Angeles; London: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-05611-4. Gruen, Erich S. (2005). "Augustus and the Making of the Principate", in The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Augustus (Cambridge Companions to the Ancient World), ed. Karl Galinsky, 33–51. Cambridge, MA; New York: Cambridge University Press (hardcover, ISBN 978-0-521-80796-8; paperback, ISBN 978-0-521-00393-3). Holland, Richard, Augustus, Godfather of Europe, Sutton Publishing, 2005. Kelsall, Malcolm (1976). "Augustus and Pope". Huntington Library Quarterly. 39 (2): 117–131. doi:10.2307/3816937. JSTOR 3816937. Mackay, Christopher S. (2004). Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-80918-4. Raaflaub, Kurt A.; Toher, Mark, Between republic and empire: interpretations of Augustus and his principate, University of California Press, 1993. Roller, Duane W. (2010). Cleopatra: a biography. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195365535. Rowell, Henry Thompson. (1962). The Centers of Civilization Series: Volume 5; Rome in the Augustan Age. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-0956-5 Scullard, H. H. (1982) [1959]. From the Gracchi to Nero: A History of Rome from 133 B.C. to A.D. 68 (5th ed.). London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-02527-0. Suetonius, Gaius Tranquillus (2013) [1913]. Thayer, Bill (ed.). The Lives of the Twelve Caesars. J. C. Rolfe, trans. University of Chicago. Original publisher Loeb Classical Library. Suetonius, Gaius Tranquillus (1931). Lives of the Twelve Caesars. New York: Modern Library. Scott, Kenneth (1933). "The Political Propaganda of 44-30 B. C". Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome. 11: 7–49. doi:10.2307/4238573. JSTOR 4238573. Shaw-Smith, R. (1971). "A Letter from Augustus to Tiberius". Greece and Rome. 18 (2): 213–214. doi:10.1017/S0017383500018118. Shotter, D. C. A. (1966). "Tiberius and the Spirit of Augustus". Greece and Rome. 13 (2): 207–212. doi:10.1017/S0017383500015539. Starr, Chester G. (1952). "The Perfect Democracy of the Roman Empire". The American Historical Review. 58 (1): 1–16. doi:10.2307/1844784. JSTOR 1844784. Jones, A. H. M. (1951). "The Imperium of Augustus". Journal of Roman Studies. 41 (1–2): 112–119. doi:10.2307/298104. JSTOR 298104. Henry, Lyell D. (1991). Zig-Zag-and-Swirl. doi:10.2307/j.ctt20h6tqz. ISBN 9781587291081. Smith, R. R. R., "The Public Image of Licinius I: Portrait Sculpture and Imperial Ideology in the Early Fourth Century", The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 87, (1997), pp. 170–202, JSTOR Southern, Pat. (1998). Augustus. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-16631-7. Syme, Ronald (1939). The Roman Revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280320-7. Walker, Susan, and Burnett, Andrew, The Image of Augustus, 1981, British Museum Publications, ISBN 0-7141-1270-4 Walker, Susan. "Cleopatra in Pompeii?" in Papers of the British School at Rome, 76 (2008), pp. 35–46 and 345–348. Wells, Colin Michael, The Roman Empire, Harvard University Press, 2004. Further reading Bleicken, Jochen. (1998). Augustus. Eine Biographie. Berlin. Buchan, John (1937). Augustus. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. Everitt, Anthony. The First Emperor: Caesar Augustus and the Triumph of Rome. London: John Murray, 2007. ISBN 978-0-7195-5495-7. Galinsky, Karl. Augustan Culture. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998 (paperback, ISBN 978-0-691-05890-0). Galinsky, Karl (2012). Augustus: Introduction to the Life of an Emperor. Cambridge University Press. p. 300. ISBN 978-0-521-74442-3. Goldsworthy, Adrian (2014) Augustus: First Emperor of Rome. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-3001-7872-7. Grant, Michael (1985). The Roman Emperors: A Biographical Guide to the Rulers of Imperial Rome, 31 BC – AD 476. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. Levick, Barbara. Augustus: Image and Substance. London: Longman, 2010. ISBN 978-0-582-89421-1. Lewis, P. R. and G. D. B. Jones, Roman gold-mining in north-west Spain, Journal of Roman Studies 60 (1970): 169–85 Jones, R. F. J. and Bird, D. G., Roman gold-mining in north-west Spain, II: Workings on the Rio Duerna, Journal of Roman Studies 62 (1972): 59–74. Jones, A. H. M. "The Imperium of Augustus", The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 41, Parts 1 and 2. (1951), pp. 112–19. Jones, A. H. M. Augustus. London: Chatto & Windus, 1970 (paperback, ISBN 978-0-7011-1626-2). Massie, Allan (1984). The Caesars. New York: Franklin Watts. Osgood, Josiah. Caesar's Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire. New York: Cambridge University Press (USA), 2006 (hardback, ISBN 978-0-521-85582-2; paperback, ISBN 978-0-521-67177-4). Raaflaub, Kurt A. and Toher, Mark (eds.). Between Republic and Empire: Interpretations of Augustus and His Principate. Berkeley; Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993 (paperback, ISBN 978-0-520-08447-6). Reinhold, Meyer. The Golden Age of Augustus (Aspects of Antiquity). Toronto, ON: Univ. of Toronto Press, 1978 (hardcover, ISBN 978-0-89522-007-3; paperback, ISBN 978-0-89522-008-0). Roebuck, C. (1966). The World of Ancient Times. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. Shotter, D. C. A. (1991). Augustus Caesar. Lancaster Pamphlets. London: Routledge. Southern, Pat. Augustus (Roman Imperial Biographies). New York: Routledge, 1998 (hardcover, ISBN 978-0-415-16631-7); 2001 (paperback, ISBN 978-0-415-25855-5). Zanker, Paul. The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus (Thomas Spencer Jerome Lectures). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1989 (hardcover, ISBN 978-0-472-10101-6); 1990 (paperback, ISBN 978-0-472-08124-0). External links Augustusat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Primary sources Works by and about Augustus at Perseus Digital Library Cassius Dio's Roman History: Books 45–56, English translation Gallery of the Ancient Art: August Life of Augustus by Nicolaus of Damascus, English translation Suetonius's biography of Augustus, Latin text with English translation The Res Gestae Divi Augusti (The Deeds of Augustus, his own account: complete Latin and Greek texts with facing English translation) The Via Iulia Augusta: road built by the Romans; constructed on the orders of Augustus between the 13–12 B.C. Library resources about Augustus Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Secondary source material Augustan Legionaries – Augustus's legions and legionaries Augustus – short biography at the BBC Brown, F. The Achievements of Augustus Caesar, Clio History Journal, 2009. "Augustus Caesar and the Pax Romana" – essay by Steven Kreis about Augustus's legacy "De Imperatoribus Romanis" – article about Augustus at Garrett G. Fagan's online encyclopedia of Roman Emperors Augustus Why he is important – his place in world history Augustus Julio-Claudian dynasty Born: 23 September 63 BC Died: 19 August AD 14 Roman Emperors New title Roman emperor 27 BC – AD 14 Succeeded by Tiberius Political offices Preceded by C. Vibius Pansa Caetronianus A. Hirtius Consul of Rome 43 BC (suffect) With: Q. Pedius Succeeded by M. Aemilius Lepidus L. Munatius Plancus Preceded by Paullus Aemilius Lepidus M. Herennius Picens Consul of Rome 33 BC With: L. Volcatius Tullus Succeeded by Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus C. Sosius Preceded by Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus C. Sosius Consul of Rome 31–23 BC With: Marc Antony M. Valerius Messalla Corvinus M. Licinius Crassus Sex. Appuleius M. Agrippa T. Statilius Taurus M. Junius Silanus C. Norbanus Flaccus Cn. Calpurnius Piso Succeeded by M. Claudius Marcellus Aeserninus L. Arruntius Preceded by D. Laelius Balbus C. Antistius Vetus Consul of Rome 5 BC With: L. Cornelius Sulla Succeeded by C. Calvisius Sabinus L. Passienus Rufus Preceded by L. Cornelius Lentulus M. Valerius Messalla Messallinus Consul of Rome 2 BC With: M. Plautius Silvanus Succeeded by Cossus Cornelius Lentulus L. Calpurnius Piso Religious titles Preceded by M. Aemilius Lepidus Pontifex Maximus 12 BC – AD 14 Succeeded by Tiberius v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–284 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic Emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius Chlorus Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daia (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo the Thracian Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian the Great Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. v t e Ancient Roman religion and mythology Deities (Dii Consentes) Agenoria Angerona Anna Perenna Apollo Bellona Bona Dea Carmenta Castor and Pollux Ceres Cloacina Cupid Dea Dia Diana Dies Dīs Pater Egeria Fauna Faunus Flora Genius Hercules Janus Juno Jupiter Lares Liber Libertas Mars Mercury Minerva Neptune Orcus Penates Pluto Pomona Priapus Proserpina Quirinus Saturn Silvanus Sol Venus Veritas Vesta Vulcan Abstract deities Abundantia Aequitas Aeternitas Africa Annona Averruncus Concordia Feronia Fides Fortuna Fontus Laverna Pietas Roma Salus Securitas Spes Tranquillitas Victoria Terra Legendary figures Aeneas Rhea Silvia Romulus and Remus Numa Pompilius Tullus Hostilius Servius Tullius Ancus Marcius Lucius Tarquinius Priscus Lucius Tarquinius Superbus Texts Virgil Aeneid Ovid Metamorphoses Fasti Propertius Apuleius The Golden Ass Varro Concepts and practices Religion in ancient Rome Festivals Interpretatio graeca Imperial cult Pomerium Temples Philosophy Cynicism Epicureanism Neoplatonism Peripateticism Pythagoreanism Stoicism See also Glossary Greek mythology Myth and ritual Roman polytheism (List) Classical mythology Conversion to Christianity Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism v t e Ancient Roman wars Wars of the Roman Republic Roman–Etruscan Wars Roman-Aequian wars Roman–Latin wars Roman–Hernician wars Roman-Volscian wars Samnite Wars Pyrrhic War Punic Wars (First, Second, Third) Illyrian Wars (First, Second, Third) Macedonian Wars (First, Second, Third, Fourth) Roman–Seleucid War Aetolian War Galatian War Roman conquest of Hispania (Celtiberian Wars, Lusitanian War, Numantine War, Sertorian War, Cantabrian Wars) Achaean War Jugurthine War Cimbrian War Servile Wars (First, Second, Third) Social War Sulla's civil wars (First, Second) Mithridatic Wars (First, Second, Third) Gallic Wars Invasions of Britain Caesar's Civil War End of the Republic (Post-Caesarian, Liberators', Sicilian, Perusine, Last) Wars of the Roman Empire Germanic wars (Teutoburg, Marcomannic, Alemannic, Gothic, Visigothic) Wars in Britain Boudica's revolt Armenian War Civil War of 69 Jewish–Roman wars Domitian's Dacian War Trajan's Dacian Wars Persian Wars Civil Wars of the Third Century Wars of the Fall of the Western Roman Empire Military history of ancient Rome v t e Pontifices Maximi 715 BC: Numa Marcius 509 BC: C. Papirius 449 BC: Q. Furius 431 BC: A. Cornelius Cossus 420 BC: S. Minucius 390 BC: M. Fabius Ambustus 332 BC: P. Cornelius Calussa 304 BC: P. Cornelius Scipio Barbatus 254 BC: Ti. Coruncanius 243 BC: L. Caecilius Metellus 221 BC: L. Cornelius Lentulus Caudinus 213 BC: M. Cornelius Cethegus 212 BC: P. Licinius Crassus Dives 180 BC: M. Aemilius Lepidus 150 BC: P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica Corculum 141 BC: P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica Serapio 132 BC: P. Licinius Crassus Dives Mucianus 130 BC: P. Mucius Scaevola 114 BC: L. Caecilius Metellus Delmaticus 103 BC: Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus 89 BC: Q. Mucius Scaevola 81 BC: Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius 63 BC: C. Julius Caesar 44 BC: M. Aemilius Lepidus 12 BC: Imp. Caesar Augustus 12 BC - AD 375: Held by the emperors. v t e Ancient Greek and Roman wars Ancient Greece Trojan War First Messenian War Second Messenian War Lelantine War Greek–Punic Wars (Sicilian Wars) Greco-Persian Wars Aeginetan War Wars of the Delian League Samian War Peloponnesian War Corinthian War First / Second / Third Sacred War Social War (357–355 BC) Expansion of Macedonia Wars of Alexander the Great Wars of the Diadochi Lamian War Chremonidean War Cleomenean War Social War (220–217 BC) Cretan War Aetolian War War against Nabis Maccabean Revolt Roman Republic Roman–Latin wars (First Latin War (Battle of Lake Regillus) Second Latin War) Samnite Wars Pyrrhic War Punic Wars (First Second Third) Macedonian Wars (Illyrian First Macedonian Second Macedonian Seleucid Third Macedonian Fourth Macedonian) Jugurthine War Cimbrian War Roman Servile Wars (First Second Third) Social War (91–87 BC) Sulla's civil wars (First Second) Mithridatic Wars (First Second Third) Gallic Wars Julius Caesar's civil war Augustus' rise to power (Battle of Mutina Liberators' civil war Sicilian revolt Perusine War (Fulvia's civil war) Final War of the Roman Republic) Roman Empire Germanic wars (Marcomannic Alemannic Gothic Visigothic) Conquest of Britain Wars of Boudica Armenian War Four Emperors Jewish wars Domitian's Dacian War Trajan's Dacian Wars Parthian Wars Wars against Persia Third-century civil wars Decline and fall of the Western Empire Military history v t e Empires Ancient (Colonies) Akkadian Neo-Sumerian Old Babylonian Egyptian Old Kingdom Middle Kingdom New Kingdom Assyrian Neo-Babylonian Carthaginian Chinese Shang Qin Han Three Kingdoms Jin North and South Hellenistic Macedonian Seleucid Hittite Indian Nanda Maurya Satavahana Shunga Gupta Harsha Iranian Median Achaemenid Parthian Sasanian Kushan Mongol Xianbei Roman Western Eastern Teotihuacan Post-classical Aksum Arab Rashidun Umayyad Abbasid Fatimid Córdoba Aragonese Angevin Aztec Benin Bornu Bruneian Bulgarian First Second Byzantine Nicaea Thessalonica Trebizond Calakmul Castilian Chinese Sui Tang Liao Song Jīn Yuan Uyghur Khaganate Ethiopian Zagwe Solomonic Genoese Georgian Holy-Roman Carolingian Huetar Hunnic Hephthalite Inca Indian Chola Gurjara-Pratihara Pala Eastern Ganga dynasty Delhi Vijayanagara Iranian Samanid Saffarid Kanem Khmer Latin Majapahit Malaccan Mali Mongol Yuan Golden Horde Chagatai Khanate Ilkhanate Moroccan Idrisid Almoravid Almohad Marinid North Sea Oyo Serbian Singhasari Somali Ajuran Ifatite Adalite Mogadishan Songhai Srivijaya Tibetan Tikal Timurid Tiwanku Toltec Turko-Persian Ghaznavid Great Seljuk Khwarezmian Venetian Vietnamese Dai Viet Wagadou Wari Modern Afghan Ashanti Austrian Austro-Hungarian Brazilian Central African Chinese Ming Qing China Manchukuo Ethiopian Haitian First Second French First Second German First/Old Reich Second Reich Third Reich Indian Mughal Mysorean Sikh Maratha British Raj Iranian Safavid Afsharid Qajar Pahlavi Japanese Johor Korean Mexican First Second Moroccan Saadi Alaouite Russian Somali Gobroon Majeerteen Hobyo Swedish Tongan Ottoman Vietnamese Dainam Vietnam Colonial American Belgian British English Scottish Danish Dutch French German Italian Japanese Omani Polish–Lithuanian Couronian Portuguese Sovereign Military Order of Malta Spanish Swedish Lists Empires largest in India Ancient great powers Medieval great powers Modern great powers European colonialism African empires Miscellaneous The empire on which the sun never sets "Empire" as a description of foreign policy American empire Soviet Empire v t e Julius Caesar Major life events Early life and career First Triumvirate Lucca Conference Gallic Wars Caesar's Civil War Crossing the Rubicon Constitutional reforms Dictator perpetuo Assassination Military campaigns Gallic Wars Arar Bibracte Vosges Axona Sabis Atuatuci Octodurus Invasions of Britain Ambiorix's revolt Avaricum Gergovia Alesia Uxellodunum Civil War Corfinium Brundisium Ilerda Dyrrhachium Gomphi Pharsalus Nile Alexandria Zela Ruspina Thapsus Munda Planned invasion of the Parthian Empire Works Laudatio Iuliae amitae Anticato Commentarii de Bello Civili Commentarii de Bello Gallico De analogia Poems by Julius Caesar Portraits Green Caesar Tusculum portrait Arles bust Buildings Forum of Caesar Curia Julia Basilica Julia Temple of Venus Genetrix Caesar's Rhine bridges Quotes Alea iacta est Veni, vidi, vici Ut est rerum omnium magister usus last words Family Wives Cossutia (disputed) Cornelia Pompeia Calpurnia Children Julia Caesarion Augustus (adopted) Other Gaius Julius Caesar (father) Aurelia (mother) Julia Major (sister) Julia Minor (sister) Legacy Cultural depictions of Julius Caesar Temple of Caesar Caesar's Comet Caesarism Julio-Claudian dynasty Related Julia gens Mark Antony Cleopatra Servilia Marcus Junius Brutus Category Authority control BIBSYS: 90747437 BNE: XX1026401 BNF: cb12326866z (data) CANTIC: a10443502 CiNii: DA00507115 GND: 118505122 HDS: 010314 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\021587 ISNI: 0000 0001 2122 7317 LCCN: n79033006 LNB: 000097185 NDL: 00650422 NKC: jn20000700093 NLA: 35010212 NLG: 96552 NLI: 000013167 NLK: KAC201620721 NSK: 000056773 NTA: 069639639 RERO: 02-A012316543 SELIBR: 176310 SNAC: w61n94pq SUDOC: 032190026 Trove: 788755 ULAN: 500058949 VcBA: 495/51125 VIAF: 18013086 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79033006 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Augustus&oldid=995031937" Categories: Augustus 63 BC births 14 deaths 1st-century BC Romans 1st-century BC clergy 1st-century clergy 1st-century BC Roman emperors 1st-century Roman emperors Adoptees adopted by relations Ancient Roman adoptees Ancient Roman military personnel Ancient Roman propraetors Burials at the Mausoleum of Augustus Characters in Book VI of the Aeneid Children of Julius Caesar Deified Roman emperors Founding monarchs Imperial Roman consuls Julii Caesares Julio-Claudian dynasty Octavii Rufi People in the canonical gospels Pontifices Maximi of the Roman 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en-wikipedia-org-6778	----	Samnite Wars - Wikipedia Samnite Wars From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Three wars between the Roman Republic and the Samnites in Central Italy, 343–290 BC Samnite Wars Map showing expansion of Roman sphere of influence from the Latin War (340–338 BC) to the defeat of the Insubres (222 BC) Date 1st: 343–341 BC 2nd: 326–304 BC 3rd: 298–290 BC Location Central Italy and parts of southern Italy Result Roman control over much of central Italy and part of southern Italy (the modern regions of Lazio, Abruzzo, Molise, Campania and Basilicata and Northern Apulia) Belligerents Roman Republic, Latin allies, Campanians Samnites, Aequi, some Hernici, Etruscans, Umbrians, Senone Gauls, some northern Apulian towns v t e Samnite Wars First Samnite War Mons Gaurus Saticula Suessula Second Samnite War Neapolis Imbrinium Caudine Forks Lautulae Lake Vadimo Bovianum Third Samnite War Camerinum Tifernum Sentinum Aquilonia v t e Ancient unification of Italy Roman–Etruscan Wars Roman–Latin wars Roman–Volscian wars Roman conquest of the Hernici Samnite Wars Pyrrhic War Social War The First, Second, and Third Samnite Wars (343–341 BC, 326–304 BC, and 298–290 BC) were fought between the Roman Republic and the Samnites, who lived on a stretch of the Apennine Mountains to the south of Rome and the north of the Lucanians. The first of these wars was the result of Rome's intervention to rescue the Campanian city of Capua from a Samnite attack. The second one was the result of Rome's intervention in the politics of the city of Naples and developed into a contest over the control of much of central and southern Italy. The third war also involved a struggle over the control of this part of Italy. The wars extended over half a century and the peoples to the east, north, and west of Samnium (land of the Samnites) as well as the peoples of central Italy north of Rome (the Etruscans, Umbrians, and Picenti) and the Senone Gauls got involved to various degrees and at various points in time. The Samnites were one of early Rome's most formidable rivals. Contents 1 Background 2 First Samnite War (343 to 341 BC) 2.1 Outbreak 2.1.1 Livy's account 2.1.2 Modern views 2.2 Three Roman victories 2.3 End of the war 2.4 Historicity of the war 3 Second (or Great) Samnite War (326 to 304 BC) 3.1 Outbreak 3.2 From 327 BC to 322 BC 3.3 From the Caudine Forks to 316 BC 3.4 Presumed resumption of hostilities 3.4.1 316–313 BC – Operations at Saticula, Sora, and Bovianum 3.4.2 312–308 BC – The Etruscans intervene 3.4.3 307–304 BC – Final campaigns in Apulia and Samnium 3.5 Aftermath 4 Third Samnite War (298 to 290 BC) 4.1 Outbreak 4.2 The war 4.2.1 298 BC: Conflicting Accounts 4.2.2 297 BC: Rome turns to Samnium 4.2.3 296 BC: Etruscan intervention 4.2.4 295 BC: The Etrurian Campaign and the Battle of Sentinum 4.2.5 294 BC: Samnite Raids 4.2.6 293 BC-290 BC: Defeat of Samnium 4.3 Aftermath 5 Chronology 6 References 7 Bibliography 8 External links Background[edit] By the time of the First Samnite War (343 BC), the southward expansion of Rome's territory had reached the River Liris (see Liri), which was the boundary between Latium (land of the Latins) and Campania. This river is now called Garigliano and it is the boundary between the modern regions of Lazio and Campania. In those days the name Campania referred to the plain between the coast and the Apennine Mountains which stretched from the River Liris down to the bays of Naples and Salerno. The northern part of this area was inhabited by the Sidicini, the Aurunci, and the Ausoni (a subgroup of the Aurunci). The central and southern part was inhabited by the Campanians, who were people who had migrated from Samnium (land of the Samnites) and were closely related to the Samnites, but had developed a distinctive identity. The Samnites were a confederation of four tribes who lived in the mountains to the east of Campania and were the most powerful people in the area. The Samnites, Campanians, and Sidicini spoke Oscan languages. Their languages were part of the Osco-Umbrian linguistic family, which also included Umbrian and the Sabellian languages to the north of Samnium. The Lucanians who lived to the south were also Oscan speakers. Diodorus Siculus and Livy report that in 354 BC Rome and the Samnites concluded a treaty,[1][2] but neither lists the terms agreed upon. Modern historians have proposed that the treaty established the river Liris as the boundary between their spheres of influence, with Rome's lying to its north and the Samnites' to its south. This arrangement broke down when the Romans intervened south of the Liris to rescue the Campanian city of Capua (just north of Naples) from an attack by the Samnites. First Samnite War (343 to 341 BC)[edit] Livy is the only preserved source to give a continuous account of the war which has become known in modern historiography as the First Samnite War. In addition, the Fasti Triumphales records two Roman triumphs dating to this war and some of the events described by Livy are also mentioned by other ancient writers. Outbreak[edit] Livy's account[edit] According to Livy, the First Samnite War started not because of any enmity between Rome and the Samnites, but due to outside events.[3] The spark came when the Samnites without provocation attacked the Sidicini,[4] a tribe living north of Campania with their chief settlement at Teanum Sidicinum.[5] Unable to stand against the Samnites, the Sidicini sought help from the Campanians.[6] However, Livy continues, the Samnites defeated the Campanians in a battle in Sidicine territory and then turned their attention toward Campania. First they seized the Tifata hills overlooking Capua (the main Campanian city) and, having left a strong force to hold them, marched into the plain between the hills and Capua.[7] There they defeated the Campanians in a second battle and drove them within their walls. This compelled the Campanians to ask Rome for help.[8] In Rome, the Campanian ambassadors were admitted to an audience with the Senate. In a speech, they proposed an alliance between Rome and the Campanians, noting how the Campanians with their famous wealth could be of aid to the Romans, and that they could help to subdue the Volsci, who were enemies of Rome. They pointed out that nothing in Rome's treaty with the Samnites prevented them from also making a treaty with the Campanians, and warning that if they did not, the Samnites would conquer Campania and its strength would be added to the Samnites' instead of the Romans'.[9] After discussing this proposal, the Senate concluded that while there was much to be gained from a treaty with the Campanians, and that this fertile area could become Rome's granary, Rome could not ally with them and still be considered loyal to their existing treaty with the Samnites: for this reason they had to refuse the proposal.[10] After being informed of Rome's refusal, the Campanian embassy, in accordance with their instructions, surrendered the people of Campania and the city of Capua unconditionally into the power of Rome.[11] Moved by this surrender, the Senators resolved that Rome's honour now required that the Campanians and Capua, who by their surrender had become the possession of Rome, be protected from Samnite attacks.[12] Envoys were sent to the Samnites with the introductions to request that they, in view of their mutual friendship with Rome, spare territory which had become the possession of Rome and to warn them to keep their hands off the city of Capua and the territory of Campania.[13] The envoys delivered their message as instructed to the Samnites' national assembly. However, they were met with a defiant response, "not only did the Samnites declare their intention of waging war against Capua, but their magistrates left the council chamber, and in tones loud enough for the envoys to hear, ordered [their armies] to march out at once into Campanian territory and ravage it."[14] When this news reached Rome, the fetials were sent to demand redress, and when this was refused Rome declared war against the Samnites.[15] Modern views[edit] The historical accuracy of Livy's account is disputed among modern historians. They are willing to accept that while Livy might have simplified the way in which the Sidicini, Campani and Samnites came to be at war, his narrative here, at least in outline, is historical.[16][17][18][19] The Sidicini's stronghold at Teanum controlled an important regional crossroads, which would have provided the Samnites with a motive for conquest.[20][5][19] The First Samnite War might have started quite by accident, as Livy claimed. The Sidicini were located on the Samnite side of the river Liris, and while the Roman-Samnite treaty might only have dealt with the middle Liris, not the lower, Rome does not appear to have been overly concerned for the fate of the Sidicini. The Samnites could therefore go to war with Sidicini without fear of Roman involvement. It was only the unforeseen involvement of the Campani that brought in the Romans.[16] Many historians have however had difficulty accepting the historicity of the Campanian embassy to Rome, in particular whether Livy was correct in describing the Campani as surrendering themselves unconditionally into Roman possession.[21][17][18] That Capua and Rome were allied in 343 is less controversial, as such a relationship underpins the whole First Samnite War.[22] Historians have noted the similarities between the events leading to the First Samnite War and events, which according to Thucydides, caused the Peloponnesian War,[23] but there are differences as well.[24] It is clear that Livy, or his sources, has consciously modelled the Campanian embassy after the "Corcyrean debate" in Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian War.[18][25] There are many parallels between the speech given by the Campanian ambassador to the Roman senate in Livy and the speech of the Corcyrean ambassador to the Athenian assembly in Thucydides. But while Thucydides' Athenians debate the Corcyreans' proposal in pragmatic terms, Livy's senators decide to reject the Campanian alliance based on moral arguments.[18][25] Livy might have intended his literary educated readers to pick up this contrast.[18] The exaggerated misery of the surrendering Campani contrast with the Campanian arrogance, a stock motif in ancient Roman literature.[26] It is also unlikely that Livy's description of the Samnite national assembly is based on any authentic sources.[27] However, it does not necessarily follow that because the speeches are invented, a standard feature for ancient historians, the Campanian surrender must be invented as well.[22] The chief difficulty lies in how, in 343, rich Capua could have been reduced to such dire straits by the Samnites that the Campani were willing to surrender everything to Rome.[22] During the Second Punic War (218 to 201 BC), Capua famously sided with Carthage, but after a lengthy siege by Rome, she had to surrender unconditionally in 211 BC, after which the Capuans were harshly punished by the Romans. Salmon (1967, p. 197) therefore held that the Campanian surrender in 343 is a retrojection by later Roman historians. This invention would serve the double purpose of exonerating Rome from treaty-breaking in 343 BC and justifying the punishment handed out in 211 BC. What Rome agreed to in 343 was an alliance on terms similar to the treaties she had with the Latins and the Hernici. Cornell (1995, p. 347) accepts the surrender as historical. Studies have shown that voluntary submission was a common feature in the diplomacy of this period. Likewise Oakley (1998, pp. 286–9) does not believe the surrender of 343 BC to be a retrojection, not finding many similarities between the events of 343 and 211. The ancient historians record many later instances, whose historicity are not doubted, where a state appealed to Rome for assistance in war against a stronger enemy. The historical evidence shows the Romans considering such supplicants to have technically the same status as surrendered enemies, but in practice, Rome would not want to abuse would-be allies. Forsythe (2005, p. 287), like Salmon, argues that the surrender in 343 is a retrojection of that of 211, invented to better justify Roman actions and for good measure shift the guilt for the First Samnite War onto the manipulative Campani. Livy portrays the Romans selflessly assuming the burden of defending the Campani, but this is a common theme in Roman republican histories, whose authors wished to show that Rome's wars had been just. Military success was the chief road to prestige and glory among the highly competitive Roman aristocracy. Evidence from later, better documented, time periods shows the Roman Senate quite capable of manipulating diplomatic circumstances so as to provide just causes for an expansionary wars. There is no reason to believe this was not also the case in the second half of the 4th century BC.[28] There are also recorded examples of Rome rejecting appeals for help, implying that the Romans in 343 BC had the choice of rejecting the Campani.[5] Three Roman victories[edit] Samnite soldiers from a tomb frieze in Nola, 4th century BC According to Livy, the two Roman consuls for 343 BC, Marcus Valerius Corvus and Aulus Cornelius Cossus, both marched against the Samnites. Valerius led his army into Campania, while Cornelius, into Samnium where he camped at Saticula.[29] Livy then goes on to narrate how Rome won three different battles against the Samnites. After a day of hard fighting, Valerius won the first battle, fought at Mount Gaurus near Cumae, only after a last desperate charge in fading daylight.[30] The second battle almost ended in disaster for the Romans when the Samnites attempted to trap the other consul, Cornelius Cossus, and his army in a mountain pass. Fortunately for them, one of Cornelius' military tribunes, Publius Decius Mus with a small detachment, seized a hilltop, distracting the Samnites and allowing the Roman army to escape the trap. Decius and his men slipped away to safety during the night; the morning after the unprepared Samnites were attacked and defeated.[31] Still determined to seize victory, the Samnites collected their forces and laid siege to Suessula at the eastern edge of Campania. Leaving his baggage behind, Marcus Valerius took his army on forced marches to Suessula. Low on supplies, and underestimating the size of the Roman force, the Samnites scattered their army to forage for food. This gave Valerius the opportunity to win a third Roman victory when he first captured the Samnites' lightly defended camp and then scattered their foragers.[32] These Roman successes against the Samnites convinced Falerii to convert her forty year's truce with Rome into a permanent peace treaty, and the Latins to abandon their planned war against Rome and instead campaign against the Paeligni. The friendly city-state of Carthage sent a congratulatory embassy to Rome with a twenty-five pound crown for the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus. Both consuls then celebrated triumphs over the Samnites.[33] The Fasti Triumphales records that Valerius and Cornelius celebrated their triumphs over the Samnites on 21 September and 22 September respectively.[34] Modern historians have doubted the historical accuracy of Livy's description of these three battles. Livy's battle-scenes for this time period are mostly free reconstructions by him and his sources, and there are no reasons why these should be different.[35] The number of Samnites killed and the amounts of spoils taken by the Romans have clearly been exaggerated.[36] Historians have noted the many similarities between the story of Publius Decius Mus, and an event said to have taken place in Sicily in 258 when the Romans were fighting the First Punic War against Carthage. According to the ancient sources, a Roman army was in danger of being trapped in a defile when a military tribune led a detachment of 300 men to seize a hilltop in the middle of the enemy. The Roman army escaped, but of the 300 only the tribune survived. It is unlikely that this latter, in ancient times more famous, episode has not influenced the descriptions of the former.[37] Salmon(1967) also found several other similarities between the campaigns of 343 and later events which he considered to be doublets. Both the First and the Second Samnite Wars start with an invasion of Samnium by a Cornelius, the way in which a Roman army was led into a trap resembles the famous disaster at the Caudine Forks in 321 BC, and there are similarities to the campaigns of Publius Cornelius Arvina in 306 BC and Publius Decius Mus (the son of the hero of Saticula) in 297 BC. He also thought Valerius Corvus' two Campanian victories could be doublets of Roman operations against Hannibal in the same area in 215[38] On the other hand, the entries in the Fasti Triumphales supports some measure of Roman success. In Salmon's reconstruction, therefore, there was only one battle in 343 BC, perhaps fought on the outskirts of Capua near the shrine of Juno Gaura, and ending with a narrow Roman victory.[39] Oakley(1998) dismisses these claims of doublets and inclines towards believing there were three battles. The Samnites would have gained significant ground in Campania by the time the Romans arrived and Valerius' two victories could be the outcome of twin Samnite attacks on Capua and Cumae. And while Samnite ambushes are somewhat of a stock motif in Livy's narrative of the Samnite wars, this might simply reflect the mountainous terrain in which these wars were fought.[40] The story of Decius, as preserved, has been patterned after that of the military tribune of 258, but Decius could still have performed some heroic act in 343, the memory of which became the origin of the later embellished tale.[41] Forsythe(2005) considers the episode with Cornelius Cossus and Decius Mus to have been invented, in part to foreshadow Decius' sacrifice in 340 BC. P. Decius might have performed some heroic act which then enabled him to become the first of his family to reach the consulship in 340, but if so, no detail of the historical event survives. Instead, later annalists have combined the disaster at the Caudine Forks with the tale of the military tribune of 258 BC to produce the entirely fictitious story recorded by Livy; the difference being that while in the originals the Romans suffered defeat and death, here none of Decius' men are killed and the Romans win a great victory.[42] End of the war[edit] No fighting is reported for 342. Instead the sources focus on a mutiny by part of the soldiery. According to the most common variant, following the Roman victories of 343 the Campani asked Rome for winter garrisons to protect them against the Samnites. Subverted by the luxurious lifestyle of the Campani, the garrison soldiers started plotting to seize control and set themselves up as masters of Campania. However the conspiracy was discovered by the consuls of 342 before the coup could be carried out. Afraid of being punished, the plotters mutinied, formed a rebel army and marched against Rome. Marcus Valerius Corvus was nominated dictator to deal with the crisis; he managed to convince the mutineers to lay down their arms without bloodshed and a series of economic, military and political reforms were passed to deal with their grievances.[43] The history of this mutiny is however disputed among modern historians and it is possible that the whole narrative has been invented to provide a background for the important reforms passed that year.[44] These reforms included the Leges Genuciae which stated that no one could be reelected to the same office within less than ten years, and it is clear from the list of consuls that, except in years of great crises, this law was enforced. It also became a firm rule that one of the consuls had to be a plebeian.[45] Livy writes that in 341 BC one of the Roman consuls, Lucius Aemilius Mamercus, entered Samnite territory but found no army to oppose him. He was ravaging their territory when Samnite envoys came to ask for peace. When presenting their case to the Roman Senate, the Samnite envoys stressed their former treaty with the Romans, which unlike the Campani, they had formed in times of peace, and that the Samnites now intended to go to war against the Sidicini who were no friends of Rome. The Roman praetor, Ti. Aemilius, delivered the reply of the Senate: Rome was willing to renew her former treaty with the Samnites; moreover, Rome would not involve herself in the Samnites' decision to make war or peace with the Sidicini. Once peace had been concluded the Roman army withdrew from Samnium.[46] The impact of Aemilius' invasion of Samnium may have been exaggerated;[47] it could even have been entirely invented by a later writer to bring the war to an end with Rome in a suitably triumphant fashion.[48] The sparse mentions of praetors in the sources for the 4th century BC are generally thought to be historical; it is possible therefore that as praetor Ti. Aemilius really was involved in the peace negotiations with the Samnites.[49] The First Samnite War ended in a negotiated peace rather than one state dominating the other. The Romans had to accept that the Sidicini belonged to the Samnite sphere, but their alliance with the Campani was a far greater prize. Campania's wealth and manpower were a major addition to Rome's strength.[50] Historicity of the war[edit] The many problems with Livy's account and Diodorus' failure to mention it has even caused some historians to reject the entire war as unhistorical. More recent historians have however accepted the basic historicity of the war.[51][17] No Roman historian would have invented a series of events so unflattering to Rome. Livy was clearly embarrassed at the way Rome had turned from being an ally to an enemy of the Samnites.[51][17] It is also unlikely that the Romans could have established such a dominating position in Campania as they had after 341 without Samnite resistance.[52] Finally Diodorus ignores many other events in early Roman history such as all the early years of the Second Samnite War; his omission of the First Samnite War can therefore not be taken as proof of its unhistoricity.[52] Second (or Great) Samnite War (326 to 304 BC)[edit] Outbreak[edit] The Second Samnite War resulted from tensions which arose from Roman interventions in Campania. The immediate precipitants were the foundation of a Roman colony (settlement) at Fregellae in 328 BC and actions taken by the inhabitants of Paleopolis. Fregellae had been a Volscian town on the eastern branch of the River Liris, at the junction with the River Tresus (today's Sacco) – viz., in Campania and in an area which was to be under Samnite control. It had been taken from the Volsci and destroyed by the Samnites. Paleopolis ("old city") was the older settlement of what is now Naples (which was a Greek city) and was very close to the newer and larger settlement of Neapolis ("new city"). Livy said that it attacked Romans who lived in Campania. Rome asked for redress, but they were rebuffed and she declared war. In 327 BC the two consular armies headed for Campania. The consul Quintus Publilius Philo took on Naples. His colleague Lucius Cornelius Lentulus positioned himself inland to check the movements of the Samnites because of reports that there had been a levy in Samnium that intended to intervene, in anticipation of a rebellion in Campania. Lentulus set up a permanent camp. The nearby Campanian city of Nola sent 2000 troops to Paleopolis/Neapolis and the Samnites sent 4000. In Rome there was also a report that the Samnites were encouraging rebellions in the towns of Privernum Fundi, and Formiae (Volscian towns north of the River Liris). Rome sent envoys to Samnium. The Samnites denied that they were preparing for war, that they had not interfered in Formiae and Fundi, and said that the Samnite men were not sent to Paleopolis by their government. They also complained about the founding of Fregellae, which they thought was as an act of aggression against them, as they had recently overrun that area. They called for war in Campania.[53] There had been tensions prior to these events. In 337 BC a war broke out between the Aurunci and the Sidicini. The Romans decided to help the Aurunci because they had not fought Rome during the First Samnite War. Meanwhile, the ancient city of Aurunca was destroyed, and so they fled to Suessa Aurunca, which they fortified. In 336 BC the Ausoni joined the Sidicini. The Romans defeated the forces of these two peoples in a minor battle. In 335 BC one of the two Roman consuls besieged, seized and garrisoned Cales, the main town of the Ausoni. The army was then sent to march on the Sidicini so that the other consul could share the glory. In 334 BC, 2500 civilians were sent to Cales to set up a Roman colony there. The Romans ravaged the territory of the Sidicini and there were reports that in Samnium there had been calls for war with Rome for two years. Therefore, the Roman troops were kept in Sidicini territory. There were also tensions north of the River Liris, in the Volscian territory. In 330 BC the Volscian towns of Fabrateria and Luca offered Rome overlordship over them in exchange for protection from the Samnites and the senate sent a warning to the Samnites not to attack their territories. The Samnites agreed. According to Livy this was because they were not ready for war. In the same year the Volscian towns of Privernum and Fundi rebelled and ravaged the territories of another Volscian town and two Roman colonies in the area. When the Romans sent an army Fundi quickly pledged its loyalty. In 329 BC, Privernum either fell or surrendered (this is unclear). Its ringleaders were sent to Rome, its walls were pulled down and a garrison was stationed there.[54] In Livy's account there is a sense that the peace with the Samnites had been on a thin edge for years. It has also to be noted that Cales was in an important strategic position not only for the route from Rome to Capua but also for some of the routes which gave access to the mountains of Samnium. Yet the Samnites had not responded militarily to Roman interventions in Campania. One factor might have been the conflict between the Lucanians (the Samnites’ southerly neighbours) and the Greek city of Taras (Tarentum in Latin, modern Taranto) on the Ionian Sea. The Tarentines called for the help of the Greek king Alexander of Epirus, who crossed over to Italy in 334 BC. In 332 BC Alexander landed at Paestum, which was close to Samnium and Campania. The Samnites joined the Lucanians and the two were defeated by Alexander, who then established friendly relations with Rome. However, Alexander was killed in battle in 331 or 330 BC.[55][56] The grievance of the Samnites about Fregellae might have been an addition to aggravations caused by Roman policy in Campania in the previous eight years. From 327 BC to 322 BC[edit] Quintus Publilius Philo positioned his army between Paleopolis and Neapolis to isolate them from each other. Meanwhile, the Romans introduced an institutional novelty: Publilius Philo and Cornelius Lentulus should have gone back to Rome at the end of their term (to make way for the consuls elected for the next year, who would continue the military operations), instead, their military command (but not their authority as civilian heads of the Republic) was extended until the termination of the campaigns with the title of proconsuls. In 326 BC two leading men of Naples, who were dissatisfied with the misbehaviour of the Samnite soldiers in the city, arranged a plot, which enabled the Romans to take the city, and called for renewed friendship with Rome. In Samnium the towns of Allifae, Callifae, and Rufrium were taken by the Romans. The Lucanians and the Apulians (from the toe of Italy) allied with Rome.[57] News of an alliance between the Samnites and the Vestini (Sabellians who lived by the Adriatic coast, to the north-east of Samnium) reached Rome. In 325 BC the consul Decimus Junius Brutus Scaeva ravaged their territory, forced them into a pitched battle and took the towns of Cutina and Cingilia.[58] The dictator Lucius Papirius Cursor, who had taken over the command of the other consul, who had fallen ill, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Samnites in an unspecified location in 324 BC. The Samnites sued for peace and the dictator withdrew from Samnium. However, the Samnites rejected Rome's peace terms and agreed only a one-year truce, which they broke when they heard that Papirius intended to continue the fight. Livy also said that in that year the Apulians became enemies of Rome. Unfortunately, this information is very vague as the region of Apulia was populated by three separate ethnic groups, the Messapii in the south, the Iapyges in the centre and the Dauni in the north. We know that only Daunia (Land of the Dauni) was caught up in this war. However, this was a collection of independent city-states. Therefore, we do not know who in this area became enemies of Rome. The consuls for 323 BC fought on the two fronts, with C. Sulpicius Longus going to Samnium and Quintus Aemilius Cerretanus to Apulia. There were no battles, but areas were laid waste on both fronts.[59] In 322 BC there were rumours that the Samnites had hired mercenaries and Aulus Cornelius Cossus Arvina was appointed as Dictator. The Samnites attacked his camp in Samnium, which he had to leave. A fierce battle followed and eventually the Samnites were routed. The Samnites offered to surrender, but this was rejected by Rome.[60] From the Caudine Forks to 316 BC[edit] In 321 BC the consuls Titus Veturius Calvinus and Spurius Postumius Albinus were encamped in Calatia (a Campanian town 10 km southeast of Capua). Gaius Pontius, the commander of the Samnites, placed his army at the Caudine Forks and sent some soldiers disguised as shepherds grazing their flock towards Calatia. Their mission was to spread the misinformation that the Samnites were about to attack the city of Lucera in Apulia, which was an ally of Rome. The consuls decided to march to the aid of this city and to take the quicker (but less safe) route through the Caudine Forks. These were two narrow and wooded defiles on the Apennine Mountains with a plain between them. The passage from the first to the second defile was a narrow and difficult ravine. The Samnites blocked this with felled trees and boulders. When the Romans passed through, they also barraged the rear entry to the defile. The Romans were stuck and surrounded by the enemy and set up a fortified camp. Gaius Pontius sent a messenger to his father Herennius, a retired statesman, to ask for advice. His council was to free the Romans immediately. Gaius rejected this and Herenius’ second message was to kill them all. With these contradictory responses Gaius thought that his father had gone senile, but summoned him to the Forks. Herennius said that the first option would lead to peace and friendship with Rome and that with the second one, the loss of two armies would neutralise the Romans for a long time. When asked about a middle course of letting them go and imposing terms on Rome, he said that this "neither wins men friends nor rids them of their enemies." Shaming the Romans would lead them to seek revenge. Gaius decided to demand the Romans to surrender, "evacuate the Samnite territory and withdraw their colonies." The consuls had no choice but to surrender. The Roman soldiers came out of their camp unarmed, underwent the humiliation of passing under the yoke and suffered the mockery of the enemy.[61] The yoke was a symbol of subjugation in which the defeated soldiers had to bow and pass under a yoke used for oxen in disgrace. According to Appian, Pontius used spears as a yoke: "Pontius opened a passage from the defile, and having fixed two spears in the ground and laid another across the top, caused the Romans to go under it as they passed out, one by one."[62] Livy and other ancient sources maintain that Rome rejected the truce offered by the Samnites and avenged the humiliation with victories. Livy said that there was a two-year truce following victories in 320–319 BC.[63] However, Salmon thinks that, instead, the truce was the result of the agreement which was made at the Caudine Forks.[64] Whatever the case, there was a truce which ended in 316 BC. For a discussion on this debate, see Frederiksen.[65] This section will continue to follow Livy's account. Livy wrote that regarding the demands of the Samnites (which in Rome they called the Caudine peace), the consuls said that they were in no position to agree a treaty because this had to be authorised by the vote of the people of Rome and ratified by the fetials (priest-ambassadors) following the proper religious rites. Therefore, instead of a treaty there was a guarantee, the guarantors being the consuls, the officers of the two armies and the quaestors. Six hundred equites (equestrians) were handed over as hostages "whose lives were to be forfeit if the Romans should fail to keep the terms." [66] The dejected Roman soldiers left and were too ashamed to enter Capua, whose inhabitants gave them supplies in commiseration. In Rome people went into mourning, shops were closed and all activities at the Forum were suspended. There was anger towards the soldiers and suggestions to bar them. However, when they arrived people took pity on them. They locked themselves in their homes.[67] Spurius Postumius said to the senate that Rome was not bound to the guarantee at the Caudine Forks because it was given without the authorisation of the people, that there was no impediment to resuming the war and all that Rome owed to the Samnites were the persons and the lives of the guarantors. An army, the fetials and the guarantors to be surrendered were sent to Samnium. Once there, Postumius jostled the knee of a fetial and claimed that he was a Samnite who had violated diplomatic rules. Gaius Pontius denounced Roman duplicity and declared that he deemed the Roman guarantors not to be surrendered. The peace he had hoped for did not materialise. Meanwhile, Satricum (a town in Latium) defected to the Samnites and the Samnites took Fregellae.[68] In 320 BC the consul Quintus Publilius Philo and Lucius Papirius Cursor marched to Apulia. This move threw the Samnites off. Publilius headed for Luceria, where the Roman hostages were held. He routed a Samnite contingent. However, the Samnites regrouped and besieged the Romans outside Luceria. The army of Papirius advanced along the coast as far as Arpi. The people of that area were well disposed towards the Romans because they were fed up with years of Samnite raids. They supplied the besieged Romans with corn. This forced the Samnites to engage Papirius. There was an indecisive battle and Papirius besieged the Samnites who then surrendered and passed under the yoke. Luceria was taken and the Roman hostages were freed.[69] In 319 BC the consul Quintus Aemilius Barbula seized Ferentium and Quintus Publilius subdued Satricum, which had rebelled and had hosted a Samnite garrison. In 318 BC envoys from Samnite cities went to Rome to "seek a renewal of the treaty." This was turned down, but a two-year truce was granted. The Apulian cities of Teanum and Canusium submitted to Rome and Apulia was now subdued. In 317 BC Quintus Aemilius Barbula took Nerulum in Lucania.[70] Presumed resumption of hostilities[edit] 316–313 BC – Operations at Saticula, Sora, and Bovianum[edit] In 316 BC the dictator Lucius Aemilius besieged Saticula, a Samnite city near the border with Campania. A large Samnite army encamped near the Romans and the Saticulans made a sortie. Aemilius was in a position which was difficult to attack, drove the Saticulans back into the town and then confronted the Samnites, who fled to their camp and left at night. The Samnites then besieged the nearby Plistica, which was an ally of Rome.[71] In 315 BC the dictator Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus took over the operations at Saticula. The Samnites had raised fresh troops, encamped near the city and were trying to force a battle to divert the Romans from the siege. Quintus Fabius concentrated on the city and the Samnites harassed the Roman rampart. The Roman master of the horse Quintus Aulius Cerretanus attacked the Samnites who were harassing the Roman Camp. He killed the Samnite commander and was killed himself. The Samnites left and went on to seize Plistica. The Romans transferred their troops in Apulia and Samnium to deal with Sora, a Roman colony in Latium near the border with Samnium, which had defected to the Samnites and killed the Roman colonists. The Roman army headed for there, but heard that the Samnites were also moving and that they were getting close. The Romans took a diversion and engaged the Samnites at the battle of Lautulae, where they were defeated and their master of the horse, Quintus Aulius, died. He was replaced by Gaius Fabius, who brought a new army and was told to conceal it. Quintus Fabius ordered battle without telling his troops about the new army and simulated a burning of their camp to strengthen their resolve. The soldiers threw the enemy into disarray and Quintus Aulius joined the attack.[72] In 314 BC the new consuls, Marcus Poetelius and Gaius Sulpicius, took new troops to Sora. The city was in a difficult position to take, but a deserter offered to betray it. He told the Romans to move their camp close to the city and the next night he took ten men on an almost impassable and steep path up to the citadel. He then shouted that the Romans had taken it. The inhabitants panicked and opened the city gates. The conspirators were taken to Rome and executed and a garrison was stationed at Sora. After the Samnite victory at Lautulae three Ausoni cities, Ausona, Minturnae (Ausonia and Minturno) both in Latium, just north of and on the north bank of the river Liris respectively, and Vescia (across the river, in Campania) had sided with the Samnites. Some young nobles from the three cities betrayed them and three Roman detachments were sent. Livy said that "because the leaders were not present when the attack was made, there was no limit to the slaughter, and the Ausonian nation was wiped out." In the same year, Luceria betrayed its Roman garrison to the Samnites. A Roman army which was not far away seized the city. In Rome it was proposed to send 2500 colonists to Luceria. Many voted to destroy the city because of the treachery and, because it was so distant, that many believed that sending colonists there was like sending people into exile, and in hostile territory to boot. However, the colonization proposal was carried. A conspiracy was discovered in Capua and the Samnites decided to try to seize the city. They were confronted by both consuls, Marcus Poetelius Libo and Gaius Sulpicius Longus. The right wing of Poetelius routed its Samnite counterpart. However, Sulpicius, overconfident about a Roman victory, had left his left wing with a contingent to join Poetelius and without him his troops came close to defeat. When he re-joined them, his men prevailed. The Samnites fled to Maleventum, in Samnium.[73] The two consuls went on to besiege Bovianum, the capital of the Pentri, the largest of the four Samnite tribes, and wintered there. In 313 BC they were replaced by the dictator Gaius Poetelius Libo Visolus. The Samnites took Fregellae and Poetelius moved to retake it, but the Samnites had left at night. He placed a garrison and then marched on Nola (near Naples) to retake it. He set fire to the buildings near the city walls and took the city. Colonies were established at the Volscian island of Pontiae, the Volscian town of Interamna Sucasina and at Suessa Aurunca. 312–308 BC – The Etruscans intervene[edit] In 312 BC, while the war in Samnium seemed to be winding down, there were rumours of a mobilisation of the Etruscans, who were more feared than the Samnites. While the consul M. Valerius Maximus Corvus was in Samnium, his colleague Publius Decius Mus, who was sick, appointed Gaius Sulpicius Longus as dictator, who made preparations for war.[74] In 311 BC the consuls Gaius Junius Bubulcus and Quintus Aemilius Barbula divided their command. Junius took on Samnium and Aemilius took on Etruria. The Samnites took the Roman garrison of Cluviae (location unknown) and scourged its prisoners. Junius retook it and then moved on Bovianum and sacked it. The Samnites sought to ambush the Romans. Misinformation that there was a large flock of sheep in an inaccessible mountain meadow was planted. Junius headed for it and was ambushed. While the Romans mounted the slope there was little fighting and when they reached level ground at the top and lined up the Samnites panicked and fled. The woods blocked their escape and most were killed. Meanwhile, the Etruscans besieged Sutrium, an ally which the Romans saw as their key to Etruria. Aemilius came to help and the next day the Etruscans offered battle. It was a long and bloody fight. The Romans were starting to gain the upper hand, but darkness stopped the battle. There was no further fighting that year as the Etruscans had lost their first line and only had their reservists left and the Romans had suffered many casualties.[75] In 310 BC the consul Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus went to Sutrium with reinforcements and was met by a superior force of Etruscans who were lined up for battle. He went up the hills and faced the enemy. The Etruscans charged in haste, throwing away their javelins. The Romans pelted them with javelins and stones. This unsettled the Etruscans and their line wavered. The Romans charged, the Etruscans fled and, as they were cut off by the Roman cavalry, they headed for the mountains instead of their camp. From there they went to the impassable Ciminian Forest, which the Romans were so scared of that none of them had ever crossed it. Marcus Fabius, one of the brothers of the consul, who had been educated by family friends in Caere in Etruria and spoke Etruscan, offered to explore the forest, pretending to be an Etruscan shepherd. He went as far as Camerinum in Umbria, where the locals offered supplies and soldiers to the Romans. Quintus Fabius crossed the forest and ravaged the area around the Cimian Mountains. This enraged the Etruscans, who gathered the largest army they had ever raised and marched on Sutrium. They advanced to the Roman rampart, but the Romans refused to engage, so they waited there. To encourage his outnumbered soldiers Quintus Fabius told them that he had a secret weapon and hinted that the Etruscans were being betrayed. At dawn the Romans exited their camp and attacked the sleeping Etruscans, who were routed. Some fled to their camp, but most made for the hills and the forest. The Etruscan cities of Perusia and Cortona and Arretium sued for peace and obtained a thirty-year truce.[76] Meanwhile, the other consul, Gaius Marcius Rutilus, captured Allifae (in Campania) from the Samnites and destroyed or seized many forts and villages. The Roman fleet was sent to Pompeii in Campania and from there they pillaged the territory of Nuceria. Greedy for booty, the sailors ventured too far inland and on their way back the country folk killed many of them. The Samnites received a report that the Romans had been besieged by the Etruscans and had decided to confront Gaius Marcius. The report also indicated that, if Gaius Marcius avoided battle, the Samnites would march to Etruria via the lands of the Marsi and the Sabines. Gaius Marcius confronted them and a bloody but indecisive battle was fought where the Romans lost several officers and the consul was wounded. The senate appointed Lucius Papirius Cursor as dictator. However, Quintus Fabius had a grudge against Lucius Papirius. A delegation of former consuls was sent to him to persuade him to accept the Senate's decision, and Fabius reluctantly appointed Papirius. Lucius Papirius relieved Gaius Marcius at Longula, a Volscian town near the Samnite border. He marched out to offer battle. The two armies lined up in front of each other until night and there was no fighting. Meanwhile, a fierce battle was fought in Etruria by an unspecified Etruscan army levied (presumably by Etruscans who had not signed the mentioned treaty) by using the lex sacrata (an arrangement with religious connotations whereby the soldiers had to fight to the death). It confronted the Romans at the Battle of Lake Vadimo. The battle was long-drawn-out affair and with many casualties and the reserves were called in. It was finally resolved by the Roman cavalry which dismounted and fought like a fresh line of infantry and managed to break the exhausted ranks of the enemy. Livy said that this battle broke the might of the Etruscans for the first time as the battle cut off their strength.[77] In 309 BC Lucius Papirius Cursor won a massive[clarification needed] battle against the Samnites and celebrated the finest triumph there had been thanks to the spoils. The Etruscan cities broke the truce and Quintus Fabius easily defeated the remnants of their troops near Perusia and would have taken the city had it not surrendered. In 308 BC, Quintus Fabius was elected consul again. His colleague was Publius Decius Mus. Quintus Fabius took on Samnium. He refused peace offers by Nuceria Alfaterna and besieged it into surrender. He also fought an unspecified battle where the Marsi joined the Samnites. The Paeligni, who also sided with the Samnites, were defeated next. In Etruria Decius obtained a forty-year truce and corn supplies from Tarquinii, seized some strongholds of Volsinii and ravaged wide areas. All Etruscans sued for a treaty, but he conceded only a one-year truce and required them to give each Roman soldier one year's pay and two tunics. There was a revolt by Umbrians who, backed by Etruscan men, gathered a large army and said that they would ignore Decius and march on Rome. Decius undertook forced marches, encamped near Pupinia, to the north-east of Rome, and called on Fabius to lead his army to Umbria. Fabius marched to Mevania, near Assisi, where the Umbrian troops were. The Umbrians were surprised as they thought he was in Samnium. Some of them fell back to their cities and some pulled out of the war. Others attacked Fabius while he was entrenching his camp, but they were defeated. The leaders of the revolt surrendered and the rest of Umbria capitulated within days.[78] 307–304 BC – Final campaigns in Apulia and Samnium[edit] In 307 BC the consul Lucius Volumnius Flamma Violens was assigned a campaign against the Salentini of southern Apulia, where he seized several hostile towns. Quintus Fabius was elected as proconsul to conduct the campaign in Samnium. He defeated the Samnites in a pitched battle near Allifae and besieged their camp. The Samnites surrendered, passed under the yoke and their allies were sold into slavery. There were some Hernici among the troops and they were sent to Rome where an inquiry was held to determine whether they were conscripts or volunteers. All of the Hernici, except the peoples of the cities of Aletrium, Ferentium and Verulae, declared war on Rome. Quintus Fabius left Samnium, and the Samnites seized Calatia and Sora with their Roman garrisons. In 306 BC the consul Publius Cornelius Arvina headed for Samnium and his colleague Quintus Marcius Tremulus took on the Hernici. The enemies took all the strategic points between the camps and isolated the two consuls. In Rome two armies were enlisted. However, the Hernici did not engage the Romans, lost three camps, sued for a thirty-year truce and then surrendered unconditionally. Meanwhile, the Samnites were harassing Publius Cornelius and blocking his supply routes. Quintus Marcius came to his aid and was attacked. He advanced through the enemy lines and took their camp, which was empty, and burned it. On seeing the fire Publius Cornelius joined in and blocked the escape of the Samnites, who were slaughtered when the two consuls joined their forces. Some Samnite relief troops also attacked, but they were routed and pursued and begged for peace. In 305 BC the Samnites made forays in Campania.[79] In 305 BC the consuls were sent to Samnium. Lucius Postumius Megellus marched on Tifernum and Titus Minucius Augurinus on Bovianum. There was a battle at Tifernum where some of Livy's sources say that Postumius was defeated, while others say that the battle was even and he withdrew to the mountains at night. The Samnites followed him and encamped near him. Livy said that he seemed to have wanted to gain a position where he could get abundant supplies. Postumius then left a garrison at this camp and marched to his colleague who was also encamped facing the enemy. He instigated Titus Minucius to give battle, which dragged on until the late afternoon. Then Postumius joined in and the Samnites were slaughtered. The next day the consuls begun the siege of Bovianum, which fell quickly. In 304 BC the Samnites sent envoys to Rome to negotiate a peace. The suspicious Romans sent the consul Publius Sempronius Sophus to Samnium with an army to investigate the true intentions of the Samnites. He travelled all over Samnium and everywhere he found peaceable people who gave him supplies. Livy said that the ancient treaty with the Samnites was restored. He did not specify what the terms were.[80] Aftermath[edit] After the defeat of the Hernici in 306 BC, Roman citizenship without the right to vote was imposed on this people, effectively annexing their territory. In 304 BC, after the peace treaty, Rome sent the fetials to ask for reparation from the Aequi of the mountains by Latium, who had repeatedly joined the Hernici in helping the Samnites and after the defeat of the former, they went over to the enemy. The Aequi claimed that Rome was trying to impose Roman citizenship on them. They said to the Roman assemblies that the thrusting of Roman citizenship on them amounted to loss of independence and was a punishment. This led to the Roman people voting for war on the Aequi. Both consuls were entrusted with this war. The Aequi levied a militia, but this did not have a clear commander. There was disagreement over whether to offer battle or defend their camp. Concerns about the destruction of the farms and the poor fortification of the towns led to the decision to disperse to defend the towns. The Romans found the Aequi camp deserted. They then took the Aequi towns by storm and most were burnt. Livy wrote that "the Aequian name was almost blotted out." [81] Still, in 304 BC, the Sabellian peoples of modern northern Abruzzo, the Marsi and Marucini (on the Adriatic coast), as well as the latter's Oscan neighbours, the Paeligni and the Frentani (Oscans who lived in the southern coast of Abruzzo and the coastal part of modern Molise), stipulated treaties with Rome.[82] In 303 BC the Sabine town of Trefula Suffrenas (Ciciliano) and the Volscian town of Arpinium (Arpino) in southern Latium were given citizenship without the right to vote (civitas sine suffragio). Frusino (Frosinone), also a Volscian town in southern Latium, was deprived of two thirds of its land because it had conspired with the Hernici and its ringleaders were executed. Colonies were established at Alba Fucens in the land of the Aequi and Sora, in Volscian territory which had been taken by the Samnites, with 6000 settlers sent to the former and 4000 to the latter. In 302 BC the Aequi attacked Alba Fucens, but were defeated by the colonists. Gaius Junius Bubulcus was appointed as dictator. He reduced them to submission in one battle. In the same year the Vestini (Oscans who lived on Adriatic coast of modern Abruzzo) established an alliance with Rome. In 301 BC the Marsi resisted land being confiscated for the establishment of the colony of Carsoli (or Carseoli, modern Carsoli) with 4000 colonists, even through it was in Aequi territory. Marcus Valerius Corvus Calenus was appointed as dictator. He defeated the Marsi, seized Milionia, Plestina, and Fresilia and renewed the treaty with them. In 300 BC two Roman tribes (administrative districts), the Aniensis and the Terentina were added. In 299 BC the Romans besieged and seized Nequinum in Umbria and established the colony of Narnia.[83] The annexation of Trebula Suffenas provided a degree of control over the Sabines who lived close to Rome. With the annexation of Arpinium and of the most of the land of Frusino and the founding of the colony at Sora the Romans consolidated control over southern Latium and the Volsci. Control over the stretch of the Apennine Mountains next to Latium was consolidated with the annexation of the Hernici, the destruction of the towns of the Aequi, the founding of two colonies in their territory (Alba Fucens and Caseoli) and the creation of the Aniensis Roman tribe on land taken from the Aequi. Control over Campania was consolidated with the renewal of friendship with Naples, with the destruction of the Ausoni, and the creation of the Teretina Roman tribe on land which had been annexed by from the Aurunci in 314 BC.[84] The alliances with the Marsi, Maruccini, Paelingni, Frentani (in 304 BC), and Vestini (in 302 BC), who lived to the north and north-east of Samnium, not only gave Rome control over this substantial area around Samnium, but it also strengthened its military position. The alliances were military and the allies supplied soldiers who supported the Roman legions at their own expense, thus increasing the pool of military manpower available to Rome. In exchange the allies shared the spoils of war (which could be considerable) and were protected by Rome. However, Rome's dominance over central Italy and part of southern Italy was not fully established yet. Etruria and Umbria were not quite pacified. There were two expeditions to Umbria; there were wars with the Etruscans in 301 BC and in 298 BC. The latter was the year the Third Samnite War broke out.[85] The second war accelerated the process of Roman expansion and the third war established Rome's dominance of the areas concerned. Third Samnite War (298 to 290 BC)[edit] A ceremonial Attic helmet typical of many found in Samnite tombs, c. 300 BC Outbreak[edit] In 299 BC, the Etruscans, possibly due to the Roman colony set up at Narnia in next-door Umbria, prepared for war against Rome. However, the Gauls invaded their territory, so, the Etruscans offered them money to form an alliance. The Gauls agreed, but then objected to fighting against Rome, claiming that the agreement was only about them not devastating Etruscan territory. So, instead, the Etruscans paid the Gauls off and dismissed them. This incident led the Romans to ally with the Picentes (who lived on the Adriatic coast, in the south of modern Marche) who were concerned about their neighbours, the Senone Gauls to the north, and the Pretutii to the south. The latter had allied with the Samnites. The Romans sent an army to Etruria led by the consul Titus Manlius Torquatus, who died in a riding accident. The Etruscans saw this as an omen for war. However, the Romans elected Marcus Valerius Corvus Calenus as suffect consul (an office which lasted for the remainder of the term of a deceased or removed consul) and he was sent to Etruria. This led the Etruscans to remain in their fortifications, refusing battle even though the Romans ravaged their land. Meanwhile, the Picentes warned the Romans that the Samnites were preparing for war and that they had asked them for help.[86] Early in 298 BC a Lucanian delegation went to Rome to ask the Romans to take them under their protection as the Samnites, having failed to bring them into an alliance, had invaded their territory. Rome agreed to an alliance. Fetials were sent to Samnium to order the Samnites to leave Lucania. The Samnites threatened their safety and Rome declared war.[87][88] Dionysius of Halicarnassus thought that the cause of the war was not Roman compassion for the wronged, but fear of the strength the Samnites would gain if they subdued the Lucanians.[89] Oakley suggests that Rome might well have deliberately sought a new war with Samnium by allying with her enemies.[90] The war[edit] 298 BC: Conflicting Accounts[edit] According to Livy, the consul Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus was assigned Etruria and his colleague Gnaeus Fulvius Maximus Centumalus was given the Samnites. Barbatus was engaged in a battle near Volterrae (in northern Etruria) which was interrupted by sunset. The Etruscans retreated during the night. Barbatus marched to the Faliscan district and laid Etruscan territory north of the River Tiber to waste. Gnaeus Fulvius won in Samnium and seized Bovianum, and Aufidena. However, an epitaph on the sarcophagus of Cornelius Scipio says that he ‘was consul, censor and aedile ...[and]... He captured Taurasia and Cisauna in Samnium; he subdued all Lucania and brought back hostages.’ Cornell says that the original inscription was erased and replaced by the extant one probably around 200 BC, and notes that this "was the period when the first histories of Rome were being written, which is not a coincidence.".[91] In addition to having Barbatus fighting in Samnium the inscription records him as taking Taurasia (probably in the Tammaro valley in the modern province of Benevento) and Cisauna (unknown location), rather than Bovianum and Aufidena.[92] There is the further complication by the Fasti Triumphales (a record of Roman triumphal celebrations), recording Gnaeus Fulvius’ triumphs against both the Samnites and the Etruscans.[93] Forsythe points out that the consulship is the only public office Barbatus is mentioned as having held which gave him command of a legion.[94] Modern historians have proposed various alternative scenarios wherein one or both of the consuls campaigned against both the Samnites and Etruscans, but without satisfactory conclusions.[95] Cornell says that such an assumption could reconcile the sources, but "if so, neither Livy nor the inscription would emerge with much credit. Once again the evidence seems to show that there was a great deal of confusion in the tradition about the distribution of consular commands in the Samnite Wars, and that many different versions proliferated in the Late Republic." His conclusion is that "no satisfactory resolution to this puzzle is possible" [96] Regarding the submission of Lucania and the bringing back of hostages, Livy said that the Lucanians were willing to give hostages as a pledge of good faith.[97] Cornell remarks that "[t]he intimation of that the Lucanians’ submission was the result of military action is a good example of how events could be improved in the telling." Forsythe points out that Livy noted that in 296 BC the Romans suppressed plebeian disturbances in Lucania on the behest of the Lucanian aristocracy. He argues that this suggests divisions in Lucania over the alliance with Rome and that, if this was also the case in 298 BC, Barbatus might have gone to Lucania to quell any possible local resistance to the alliance as well as to prevent Samnite raids and to collect the agreed hostages. Forsythe also notes that Barbatus’ campaign in Etruria could be explained in three ways: 1) it could be fictive; 2) Barbatus could have campaigned in both Samnium and Etruria; 3) Barbatus participated in the campaigns linked to the front which led to the Battle of Sentinum in 295 BC, and that this may have included operations in Etruria in that year, but it might have been attributed by later historians to his consulship in 298 BC. As for the claim that Barbatus subdued all of Lucania, Forsythe suggests that this is "perhaps part truth and part a Roman aristocratic exaggeration."[98] Oakley also points to two more problems with the sources. In Livy's account, Bovianum, the capital of the Pentri, the largest of the four Samnite tribes, was captured in the first year of the war, which seems unlikely. Frontinus records three stratagems employed by one "Fulvius Nobilior" while fighting against the Samnites in Lucania.[99] The cognomen Nobilior is not otherwise recorded before 255 BC, forty-five years after the end of the Samnite Wars. A plausible explanation is therefore that Nobilior is a mistake and the stratagems should be attributed to the consul of 298 BC.[100] 297 BC: Rome turns to Samnium[edit] The elections of the consuls for 297 BC took place amid rumours that the Etruscans and the Samnites were raising huge armies. The Romans turned to Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus, Rome's most experienced military commander, who was not a candidate for election and refused the proposal. He then relented on condition that Publius Decius Mus, who had been consul with him in 308 BC, would be elected as his colleague.[101] It is impossible to establish whether Livy had any evidence for the existence of these rumours, or if they are just conjecture by him or his sources.[102] Livy is the only source for the events of 297 BC. He wrote that envoys from Sutrium, Nepete (Romans colonies) and Falerii in southern Etruria arrived in Rome with news that the Etruscan city-states were discussing suing for peace. This freed both consuls, who marched on Samnium, Quintus Fabius by way of Sora and Publius Decius through the land of the Sidicini. A Samnite army had prepared to confront them in a valley near Tifernum, but it was defeated by Quintus Fabius. Meanwhile, Publius Decius had camped at Maleventum where an Apulian army would have joined the Samnites in the battle against Quintus Fabius had Publius Decius not defeated it. The two consuls then spent four months ravaging Samnium. Fabius also seized Cimetra (location unknown).[103] There are no major problems with Livy's account, but no parallel sources survive to confirm it either. Fabius' route via Sora to Tifernum is convoluted, but not insurmountable. The appearance of an Apulian army at Maleventum is surprising since nothing is known of Apulian hostility to Rome since the conclusion of peace in 312 BC. However the Apulians might have been divided in their alliance with Rome or have been provoked to war by the campaign of Barbatus the previous year. Publius Decius' campaign fits within the larger pattern of Roman warfare in south-eastern Italy; he might even have wintered in Apulia. No triumphs are recorded in this year for either of the consuls, hence they are unlikely to have had any victories of great significance or made any deep inroads into Samnium.[104] 296 BC: Etruscan intervention[edit] The consuls for 296 BC were Appius Claudius Caecus and Lucius Volumnius Flamma Violens. The previous consuls were given a six-month extension of their command as proconsuls to carry on the war in Samnium. Publius Decius ravaged Samnium until he drove the Samnite army outside its territory. This army went to Etruria to back up previous calls for an alliance, which had been turned down, with intimidation and insisted on the Etruscan council being convened. The Samnites pointed out that they could not defeat Rome by themselves, but an army of all the Etruscans, the richest nation in Italy, backed up by the Samnite army could. Meanwhile, Publius Decius decided to switch from ravaging the countryside to attacking cities as the Samnite army was away. He seized Murgantia, a strong city, and Romulea. After that he marched to Ferentium, which was in southern Etruria. Livy pointed out some discrepancies between his sources, noting that some annalists said that Romulea and Ferentium were taken by Quintus Fabius and that Publius Decius took only Murgantia, while others said that the towns were taken by the consuls of the year, and others still gave all the credit to Lucius Volumnius who, they said, had sole command in Samnium.[105] Meanwhile, in Etruria Gellius Egnatius, a Samnite commander, was organising a campaign against Rome. Almost all the Etruscan city-states voted for war, the nearest Umbrian tribes joined in and there were attempts to hire Gauls as auxiliaries. News of this reached Rome and Appius Claudius set off for Etruria with two legions and 15,000 allied troops. Lucius Volumnius had already left for Samnium with two legions and 12,000 allies.[106] This is the first time Livy gives details about the Roman forces and figures for the allied troops for the Samnite wars. It is also the first time that we hear of the consuls commanding two legions each. Including the forces of the proconsuls, in this year the Romans must have mobilised six legions. Appius Claudius suffered a number of setbacks and lost the confidence of his troops. Lucius Volumnius, who had taken three fortifications in Samnium, sent Quintus Fabius to suppress disturbances by the plebeians in Lucania, left the ravaging of rural Samnium to Publius Decius and went to Etruria. Livy notes that some annalists said that Appius Claudius had written him a letter to summon him from Samnium and that this became a subject of dispute between the two consuls, with the former denying it and the latter insisting that he had been summoned by the former. Livy thought that Appius Claudius did not write the letter, but said that he wanted to send his colleague back to Samnium and felt that he ungratefully denied his need for help. However, the soldiers begged him to stay. A dispute between the two men ensued, but the soldiers insisted that both consuls fight in Etruria. The Etruscans faced Lucius Volumnius and the Samnites advanced on Appius Claudius. Livy said that "the enemy could not withstand a force so much greater than they were accustomed to meet." They were routed; 7,900 were killed and 2,010 were captured.[107] Lucius Volumnius hurried back to Samnium because the proconsulships of Quintus Fabius and Publius Decius were about to expire. Meanwhile, the Samnites raised new troops and raided Roman territories and allies in Campania around Capua and Falernium. Lucius Volumnius headed for Campania and was informed that the Samnites had gone back to Samnium to take their loot. He caught up with their camp and defeated a force which was made unfit to fight by the burden of their loot. The Samnite commander, Staius Minatius, was attacked by the prisoners of the Samnites and delivered to the consul. The senate decided to establish the colonies of Minturnae on the mouth of the River Liris and Sinuessa further inland, in the former territory of the Ausoni.[108] 295 BC: The Etrurian Campaign and the Battle of Sentinum[edit] The Samnite raids in Campania created great alarm in Rome. In addition to this, there was news that, following the withdrawal of Lucius Volumnius' army from Etruria, the Etruscans were arming themselves, had invited Gellius Egnatius' Samnites and the Umbrians to join them in revolt, and had offered large sums of money to the Gauls. Then there were reports of an actual coalition between these four peoples and that there was "a huge army of Gauls." [109] It was the first time that Rome had to confront a coalition of four peoples. There was going to be the biggest war Rome had ever faced and the two best military commanders, Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus and Publius Decius Mus were elected as consuls again (for 295 BC). Lucius Volumnius' command was prolonged for a year. Quintus Fabius went to Etruria with one legion to replace Appius Claudius and left this legion in Clusium, too. He then went to Rome where the war was being debated. It was decided that the two consuls both fight in Etruria. They set off with four legions, a large cavalry and 1,000 Campanian soldiers. The allies fielded an even larger army. Lucius Volumnius went to Samnium with two legions. That he went with such a large force must have been part of a diversionary strategy to force the Samnites to respond to Roman raids in Samnium and limit their troop deployment in Etruria. Two reserve contingents headed by propraetors were stationed in the Faliscan district and near the Vatican Hill respectively to protect Rome.[110] Livy reported two traditions about events in Etruria early in 295 BC. According to one, before the consuls went to Etruria, a large force of Senones went to Clusium to attack the Roman legion stationed there and routed it. There were no survivors to warn the consuls who were unaware of the disaster until they came across Gallic horsemen. According to the other one, Umbrians attacked a Roman foraging party which was relieved by assistance from the Roman camp.[111] The Etruscans, Samnites and Umbrians crossed the Apennine Mountains and advanced near Sentinum (in the Marche region, near modern Sassoferrato). Their plan was for the Samnites and Senones to engage the Romans and for the Etruscans and Umbrians to take the Roman camp during the battle. Deserters from Clusium informed Quintus Fabius about this plan. The consul ordered the legions in Falerii and the Vatican to march to Clusium and ravage its territory for another diversionary strategy. It drew the Etruscans away from Sentinium to defend their land. In the Battle of Sentinum, the Gauls stood on the right wing and the Samnites on the left. Quintus Fabius stood on the right and Publius Decius on the left. Livy said that the two forces were so evenly matched that if the Etruscans and Umbrians had been present it would have been a disaster for the Romans.[112] Quintus Fabius fought defensively to prolong the battle into a test of endurance and wait for the enemy to flag. Publius Decius fought more aggressively and ordered a cavalry attack, which drove back the Senone cavalry twice. The second time they reached the enemy infantry, but suffered a chariot attack and were scattered and overthrown. The line of the Decius’ infantry was broken by the chariots and the Senone foot attacked. Publius Decius decided to devote himself. This term referred to a military commander offering prayers to the gods and launching himself into the enemy lines, effectively sacrificing himself, when his troops were in dire straits. This act galvanised the Roman left which was also joined by two reserve contingents which Quintus Fabius had called in to help. On the right, Quintus Fabius told the cavalry to outflank the Samnite wing and attack it in the flank and ordered his infantry to push forward. He then called in the other reserves. The Samnites fled past the Senone line. The Senones formed a testudo (tortoise) formation – where the men aligned their shields in a compact formation covered with shields at the front and top. Quintus Fabius ordered 500 Campanian lancers to attack them at the rear. This was to be combined with push by the middle line of one of the legions and an attack by the cavalry. Meanwhile, Quintus Fabius took the Samnite camp by storm and cut off the Senones in the rear. The Senone Gauls were defeated. The Romans lost 8,700 men and their enemy 20,000.[113] Livy noted that some writers (whose works are lost) exaggerated the size of the battle, saying that the Umbrians also took part and gave the enemy an infantry of 60,000 a cavalry of 40,000 and 1,000 chariots and claiming that Lucius Volumnius and his two legions also fought in the battle. Livy said that Lucius Volumnius, instead, was holding the front in Samnium and routed a Samnite force near Mount Tifernus. After the battle, 5,000 Samnites made their way back home from Sentinum through the land of the Paeligni. The locals attacked them and killed 1,000 men. In Etruria, the propraetor Gnaeus Fulvius defeated the Etruscans. Perusia and Clusium lost up to 3,000 men. Quintus Fabius left Publius Decius’ army to guard Etruria and went to Rome to celebrate a triumph. In Etruria Perusia continued the war. Appius Claudius was sent to head Publius Decius's army as propraetor and Quintus Fabius confronted and defeated the Perusini. The Samnites attacked the areas around the River Liris (at Formiae and Vescia), and the River Volturnus. They were pursued by Appius Claudius and Lucius Volumnius, who merged their forces and defeated the Samnites in the vicinity of Caiatia, near Capua.[114] 294 BC: Samnite Raids[edit] In 294 BC the Samnites raided three Roman armies (one was meant to return to Etruria, one to defend the border and the third to raid Campania). The consul Marcus Atilius Regulus was sent to the front and met the Samnites in a position where neither force could raid enemy territory. The Samnites attacked the Roman camp under the cover of fog, taking part of the camp and killing many men and several officers. The Romans managed to repel them but did not pursue them because of the fog. The other consul, Lucius Postumius Megellus, who was recovering from illness, assembled an army of allies at Sora, where Roman foragers had been pushed back by the Samnites, and the Samnites retreated. Lucius Postumius went on to take Milionia and Feritrum, two unidentified Samnite towns.[115] Marcus Atilius marched on Luceria (in Apulia), which was being besieged, and was defeated. The next day there was another battle. The Roman infantry began to flee, but was forced back into battle by their cavalry. The Samnites did not press their advantage and were then defeated. On his way back, Marcus Atilius defeated a Samnite force which was trying to seize Interamna, a Roman colony on the River Liris. The other consul, Lucius Postumius, moved from Samnium to Etruria without consulting the senate. He ravaged the territory of Volsinii and defeated the townsfolk who had come out of the city to defend it. Volsinii, Perusia and Arretium sued for peace and obtained a forty-year truce. Livy mentioned that there were sources with different stories. In one, it was Marcus Atilius who went to Etruria and got a triumph. Lucius Postumius, instead, seized some cities in Samnium and then was defeated and wounded in Apulia and took refuge in Luceria. In another, both consuls fought in Samnium and at Luceria, with both sides suffering heavy losses.[116] 293 BC-290 BC: Defeat of Samnium[edit] In 293 BC, fresh troops were levied throughout Samnium. Forty thousand men met in Aquilonia. The consul Spurius Carvilius Maximus took on veteran legions which Marcus Atilius had left at Interamna Lirenas in the middle Liris valley and went on to seize Amiternum in Samnium (not to be confused with Amiternum in Sabina). The other consul, Lucius Papirius Cursor (the son of the Lucius Papirius of the Second Samnite War), levied a new army and took Duronia by storm. The two consuls then went where the main Samnite forces were stationed. Spurius Carvilius went to Cominium and engaged in skirmishes. Lucius Papirius besieged Aquilonia. Both towns were in north-western Samnium. The consuls decided to attack both at the same time. Lucius Papirius was informed by a deserter that twenty contingents of 400 men each of the Samnite elite forces which, in desperation, had been recruited under the lex sacrata (in which soldiers swore not to flee the battle under pain of death) were heading for Cominium. He informed his colleague and then set out to intercept them with part of his forces, defeating them. Meanwhile, the other part of his forces attacked Aquilonia. Lucius Pairius re-joined them and the city was taken. Meanwhile, at Cominium, when Spurius Carvilius heard about the twenty elite Samnite contingents (not knowing about their defeat by his colleague), he sent a legion and some auxiliaries to keep them at bay and went ahead with his planned attack on the city, which eventually surrendered.[117] Forsythe writes that the Battle of Aquilonia "was the last great battle of the war, and it sealed the fate of the Samnites." [118] With the Samnite armies destroyed, the consuls decided to storm towns. Spurius Carvilius took Velia, Palumbinum and Herculaneum (locations unknown). Lucius Papirius took Saepinum (modern Altilia), one of Samnium's main towns. Meanwhile, the Etruscans attacked Roman allies and the Faliscans defected to the Etruscans. With the winter setting in and the snow falling, the Romans withdrew from Samnium. Lucius Papirius went to Rome for his triumph and then went to Vescia (in Campania) to winter and to protect the locals from Samnite raids. Spurius Carvilius went to Etruria. He seized Troilum (location unknown) and took five fortresses by storm. The Faliscans sued for peace and were fined heavily and granted a one-year truce.[119] Livy's narrative of the Third Samnite War ends here, with the end of Book 10. Books 11–20 have been lost. For Book 11 we only have a brief summary which is part of the Periochae, a summary of his 142 books (except for 136 and 137). There is mention of the consul Quintus Fabius Maximus Gurges being defeated in Samnium and being spared a recall from the army and humiliation by the intervention of his father, Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus, who promised to help him as deputy. The two men defeated the Samnites and captured Gaius Pontius, the Samnite commander, who was paraded in the triumph and beheaded. Gurges had moved against the Caudini and according to Eutropius his army was nearly destroyed and lost 3,000 men.[120] Salmon thinks that this setback was probably an exaggeration because the next year Gurges was appointed proconsul and he was consul again in 276 BC, during the Pyrrhic War. He thinks that his subsequent victory was also magnified and is a fictitious anticipation of the father and son partnership between Quintus Fabius Maximus Cunctator and his son during the Second Punic War [121] In 291 BC Quintus Fabius Maximus Gurges, as proconsul, defeated the Pentri, the largest Samnite tribe, and took their stronghold of Cominium Ocritum. The consul Lucius Postimius Megellus operating form Apulia attacked the Hirpini tribe of the Samnites and seized their large town of Venusia. Because its location offered control over Lucania and Apulia as well as Samnium the Romans founded the largest colony they ever established. Dionysius of Halicarnassus gave a figure of 20,000 colonists, which is impossibly high.[122] Details for 290 BC are scant, but the little surviving information suggests that the consuls Manius Curius Dentatus and Publius Cornelius Rufinus campaigned to mop up the last pockets of resistance throughout Samnium and according to Eutropius this involved some large scale fighting.[123][124] Aftermath[edit] When the Samnite War ended, the Romans moved to crush the Sabines who lived on the mountains to the east of Rome. Manius Curius Dentatus pushed deep into the Sabine territory between the rivers Nar (today's Nera, the main tributary of the River Tiber) and Anio (Aniene, another tributary of the Tiber) and the source of the River Avens (Velino). Spurius Carvilius confiscated large tracts of land in the plain around Reate (today's Rieti) and Amiternum (11 km from L’ Aquila), which he distributed to Roman settlers.[125] Florus did not give the reasons for this campaign. Salmon speculates that "it might have been because of the part they had played or failed to play in the events of 296/295 [BC]." [126] They let the Samnites cross their territory to go to Etruria. Forsythe also speculated that it may have been a punishment for this.[127] Livy mentioned that Dentatus subdued the rebellious Sabines.[128] The Sabines were given citizenship without the right to vote (civitas sine suffragio), which meant that their territory was effectively annexed to the Roman Republic. Reate and Amiternum were given full Roman citizenship (civitas optimo iure) in 268 BC. Cornell notes that Rome also conquered the Praetutii.[129] They lived to the east of the Sabines, on the Adriatic coast and were at odds with the Picentes, who were Roman allies. With these two conquests the Roman territory extended into the Apennines area next to her and a strip of it stretched to the Adriatic Sea. This, combined with the mentioned alliances struck after the Second Samnite War with the Marsi, Marrucini, and Paeligni (304 BC) and the Vestini (302 BC), gave Rome control of this part of central Italy. The Samnites were forced to become allies of Rome which must have been on unequal terms. Rome offered a friendship treaty (foedus amicitiae) to those who allied with her voluntarily, but not to those who became allies as a result of defeat. The Romans also established a colony at Venusia, an important strategic point in south-eastern Samnium. The Lucanians retained their alliance with Rome. The result of the Samnite Wars was that Rome became the great power of Italy and controlled a large portion of it. The alliances which developed after the Latin war, after the Second Samnite War, and at the beginning and the end of the third war laid the foundation for Rome to become the great power in the Mediterranean which defeated Pyrrhus and the Carthaginians and expanded into the Eastern Mediterranean. All the alliance treaties provided that the allies had to provide troops for Rome's wars at their expense. The system worked because Rome supported the ruling elites of the allied peoples, who could turn to her in case of local troubles, and Rome shared the spoils of war, which could be considerable, with her allies. The allies also gained security, protection (Rome fought wars to defend their allies) and a share in the profits of conquest. The participation of allied troops had already become important in the Battle of Sentinum of the Second Samnite War. The Romans came to rely on the allies and their troops often greatly outnumbered those of the Romans.[130] Polybius wrote that for the massive battle of Telamon against the Gauls in 225 BC, the Romans deployed about 41,000 Roman troops and 210,000 allied troops. It can also be deduced that the pool of Roman military manpower was about 40% of the total Roman and Italian pool, which Polybius estimated at 700,000.[131] These were massive numbers which could not be matched by anyone else in the Mediterranean. In 283 BC there was further Roman consolidation in Italy. There were clashes with the Gauls and the Etruscans. The sources lack detail and can be confused. According to Polybius in 283 BC unspecified Gauls besieged Arretium and defeated a Roman force which had come to the aid of the city. The praetor Lucius Caecilius Metellus Denter died in the battle and was replaced by Manius Curius Dentatus. Dentatus sent envoys to negotiate the release of Roman prisoners, but they were killed. The Romans marched on Gaul (Polybius used this very vague term and must have meant Cisalpine Gaul) and they were met by the Senones who were defeated in a pitched battle. It can be assumed that this clash occurred in the ager Gallicus (the name the Romans gave to the area which had been conquered by the Senones), on the Adriatic coast (in modern Marche) as Polybius wrote that "the Romans invaded the territory of the Senones, killed most of them and drove the rest out of the country and founded the colony of Sena Gallia (Senigalia). Polybius also wrote that "[h]ereupon the Boii, seeing the Senones expelled from their territory, and fearing a like fate for themselves and their own land, implored the aid of the Etruscans and marched out in full force. The united armies gave battle to the Romans near Lake Vadimon, and in this battle most of the Etruscans were cut to pieces while only quite a few of the Boii escaped." He added that the next year the Boii and the Etruscans engaged the Romans in battle again and "were utterly defeated and it was only now that their courage at length gave way and that they sent an embassy to sue for terms and made a treaty with the Romans." Through these clashes the Romans gained further territory along the Adriatic coast, eliminated danger from the Senones and half a century without major conflicts with the Gauls followed. Polybius thought that Rome gained two advantages from these battles: she got used to defeating the Gauls, whom they had feared since the Gallic sack of Rome of 390 BC, and her troops became battle-hardened just before they had to confront Pyrrhus in the Pyrrhic War of 280–275 BC.[132] In Etruria there were victorious clashes with Vulsci and Volsinii in 280 BC and Caere in 273 BC and the destruction of Volsinii in 264 BC. Chronology[edit] Main article: Timeline of the Samnite Wars First Samnite War (344 to 341 BC) 343 BC – Start of the First Samnite War. 342 BC – Battle of Mount Gaurus. 341 BC – Rome withdraws from the conflict with the Samnites and enters the Latin War on the side of the Samnites. Second (or Great) Samnite War (326 to 304 BC) 327 BC – The Samnites declared war. 327 BC – Start of the Roman siege of Neapolis. 326 BC – Capture of Neapolis (Naples). 325 BC – Land of the Vestini ravaged and two of their towns seized by Romans because they had allied with the Samnites. 324 BC – Samnites defeated and sued for peace, but granted only a one-year truce. 324 BC – First Roman operations in Daunia, northern Apulia. 321 BC – Roman humiliation at the Caudine Forks. 320 BC – Destruction of Fregellae by the Samnites. 320 BC – Romans seized Luceria and freed the Romans hostages. 319 BC – Romans subdued Satricum, which had rebelled and hosted a Samnite garrison. 318 BC – Samnites sought peace. Rome tuned this down. 318 BC – The Apulian the cities of Teanum and Canusium submitted to Rome. 317 BC – Romans seized Nerulum in Lucania. 316 BC – Roman besieged Saticula. 316 BC – Samnites besieged Plistica. 315 BC – Samnites seized Plistica. 315 BC – Battle of Lautulae, Roman defeat 313 BC – Romans seized Nola. 314 BC – Romans destroyed the Ausoni cities of Ausona, Minturnae and Vescia. 314 BC – Romans defeated Samnites near Capua. 314 BC – Romans seized Sora. 313 BC – Romans established colonies at Suessa Aurunca, Interamna Sucasina and the island of Pontiae. 313 BC – Samnites seized Roman garrison at Cluvius, Romans retook it. 313 BC – Romans sacked Bovianum. 311 BC – Romans defeated Samnites at unspecified location in Samnium. 311 BC – Beginning of war in Etruria, Etruscans besieged Sutrium, indecisive battle with Romans. 311 BC – Romans defeated Etruscans near Sutrium. 311 BC – Marcus Fabius' expedition through the Cimian Forest. 310 BC – Romans defeat Etruscans at unspecified location. 310 BC – The Etruscan cities of Perusia and Cortona and Arretium sued for peace and obtained a thirty-year truce. 310 BC – Battle of Lake Vadimo - Roman victory, the battle was said to have broken the might of the Etruscans for the first time. 310 BC – Samnites fought the consul Gaius Marcius at unspecified location, indecisive battle, Romans lost several officers, consul wounded. 309 BC – Etruscans broke the truce, Romans defeated them near Perusia. 309 BC – Rome refused peace offers by Nuceria Alfaterna and seized it. 309 BC – Romans defeated Marsi and Paeligni who had allied with Samnites in separate battles at unspecified locations. 309 BC – Etruscans sued for peace, Rome only granted a one-year truce. 306 BC – Romans fought campaign against Salentini of southern Apulia and seized several towns 306 BC – Samnites defeated near Allifae, some Hernici troops found among the enemy ranks, Rome investigated this, Hernici revolt. 305 BC – Samnites and Hernici isolated one of the Roman consul each, Hernici surrendered, Samnites defeated. 305 BC – Battle at Tifenum in Samnium, according to one source Romans defeated, according to another, they withdrew. 305 BC – Romans defeated Samnites at unspecified location in Samnium. 305 BC – Romans besieged Bovianum. 304 BC – Samnites sued for peace, end of the war. Third Samnite War (298 to 290 BC) 298 BC – Start of the Third Samnite War. 298 BC – Battle of Volterrae. 298 BC – The Romans capture the Samnite cities of Bovianum and Aufidena and/or, according to a dubious inscription, Taurasia and Cisauna. 297 BC – Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus defeats the Samnites near Tifernum. 296 BC – Publius Decius Mus seized Murgantia, Romulea and Ferentium. 295 BC – Battle of Sentinum. 294 BC – The Samintes nearly seized a Roman camp in an unspecified location but are repelled. 294 BC – Lucius Postumius seized Milionia and Feritrum, two unidentified Samnite towns and defeated Volsini in Etruria. 294 BC – Marcus Atilius was defeated at Luceria, but won another battle the next day. He then defeated Samnites who were trying to seize Interamna. 293 BC – Lucius Papirius seized Aquilonia and Saepinum in Samnium. 293 BC – Spurius Carvilius seized Cominium, Velia, Palumbinum and Herculaneum in Samnium. 293 BC – Spurius Carvilius seized Troilum and five fortresses in Etruria. 292 BC – Quintus Fabius Maximus Gurges defeated by Caudine Samnites, then defeated them with the help of his father Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus. 291 BC – Quintus Fabius Maximus Gurges seized Cominium Ocritum, a stronghold of the Pentri Samnites. 291 BC – Lucius Postimius Megellus seized Venusia, the chief town of the Hirpini Samnites. 290 BC – Roman operations to mop up last pockets of Samnite resistance; end of the war. References[edit] ^ Diodorus, xvi.45.7. ^ Livy, vii.19.3–4. ^ Livy, vii.29.3 ^ Livy, vii.29.4 ^ a b c Oakley 1998, p. 289. ^ Livy, vii.29.4 ^ Livy, vii.29.5–6 ^ Livy, vii.29.5–7 ^ Livy, vii.30.1–23 ^ Livy, vii.31.1–2 ^ Livy, vii.31.3–5 ^ Livy, vii.31.6–7 ^ Livy, vii.31.8–10 ^ Livy, vii.31.11–12 ^ Livy, vii.32.1–2 ^ a b Salmon 1967, p. 201. ^ a b c d Cornell 1995, p. 347. ^ a b c d e Oakley 1998, p. 285. ^ a b Forsythe 2005, p. 288. ^ Salmon 1967, p. 195. ^ Salmon 1967, p. 197. ^ a b c Oakley 1998, p. 286. ^ Forsythe 2005, pp. 284–5. ^ Oakley 1998, p. 294. ^ a b Forsythe 2005, p. 285. ^ Oakley 1998, p. 305. ^ Oakley 1998, p. 306. ^ Forsythe 2005, pp. 285–87. ^ Livy, vii.32.2 ^ Livy, vii.32.2-.33.18 ^ Livy, vii.33.1-.37.3; Frontin. strat., i.5.14, iv.5.9; Cic. diu., i.51 ^ Livy, vii.37.4-.18 ^ Livy, vii.38.1–3 ^ "Fasti Triumphales". ^ Oakley(1998), p. 310 ^ Salmon(1967), p. 198; Oakley(1998), p. 358 ^ Salmon(1967) p. 198; Oakley(1998), pp. 332–333; Forsythe(2005), p. 288 ^ Salmon(1967), pp. 199–198 ^ Salmon(1967), p. 201 ^ Oakley(1998), pp. 310–311 ^ Oakley(1998), p. 333 ^ Forsythe(2005), p. 288 ^ Livy, vii.38.4–42.7; D.H. xv.3.2–15; App. Samn. 1–2 ^ Oakley(1998), pp. 363–364; Forsythe(2005), p. 273 ^ Forsythe (2006), pp. 270, 273 ^ Livy, viii.1.7–2.4 ^ Oakley (1998), p. 394 ^ Oakley (1998), p. 311 ^ Oakley (1998), p. 394 ^ Salmon (1967), p. 202; Forsythe (2005), p. 288 ^ a b Salmon 1967, p. 199. ^ a b Salmon 1967, p. 200. ^ Livy, viii, 8.22–23 ^ Livy, viii, 8.19–21 ^ Livy, viii, 8.17, 8.24 ^ Justin: Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus, 12.2 ^ Livy, viii, 8.22–23, 8.25–26 ^ Livy, viii, 8.29 ^ Livy, viii, 8.36–37 ^ Livy, viii, 8.38–39 ^ Livy, viii, 9.2–6 ^ Appian, History of Rome: The Samnite Wars, 1.10 ^ Livy, viii, 9.20 ^ Salmon, viii. p. 226 ^ Frederiksen, JRS 58 (1968) ^ Livy, viii, 9.5 ^ Livy, viii, 9.6–7 ^ Livy, viii, 9.8–12 ^ Livy, viii, 9.12–15 ^ Livy, viii, 9.20 ^ Livy, viii, 9.21 ^ Livy, 9.22–23 ^ Livy, viii, 9.24–27 ^ Livy, viii, 9.29 ^ Livy, viii, 9.31–32 ^ Livy, 9.33–37 ^ Livy, 9.38–39 ^ Livy, viii, 9.40–41 ^ Livy, viii, 9.42–43 ^ Livy, viii, 9.43–44 ^ Livy, viii, 10.1 ^ Livy, viii, 9.45 ^ Livy, viii, 10.1, 3, 9, 10 ^ Cornell, T., J, The Beginnings of Rome, pp. 357–58 ^ Livy, viii, 10.3–5, 10 ^ Livy, X.10 ^ Livy, X.11 ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Excerpts from Books, xvii/xviii.1–2 ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Excerpts from Books xvii/xviii.3 ^ Oakley, 2008, p. 168 ^ Cornell, 1995, p. 360 and 466, note 35 ^ Oakley, 2008, p. 164 ^ Oakley, 2008, p. 171 ^ Forsythe, 2008, p. 328 ^ Oakley, 2008, pp. 173–74 ^ Cornell, 1995, p. 360 ^ Livy, X.11 ^ Forsythe, 2006, pp. 328–29 ^ Frontinus, I.6.1–2 & 11.2 ^ Oakley, 2008, p. 172 ^ Livy, X.13.2–13 ^ Oakley 2008, p. 178. ^ Livy, X.14.1–15.6 ^ Oakley 2008, pp. 182–4. ^ Livy, 10. 16.1–2, 17 ^ Livy, 10.17 ^ Livy, 10.18–19 ^ Livy, 10.20–21 ^ Livy, 10.21.1–2, 12–14 ^ Livy, Livy,10.22.2–5; 22.9; 25.4–12; 26.4,14–15 ^ Livy, 26.5–14 ^ Livy, 10.27 ^ Livy, 10.28–29 ^ Livy, 10.30–31 ^ Livy, 10.33–34 ^ Livy, 10-35-37 ^ Livy, 10.39–44 ^ Forsythe, 2006, p.334 ^ Livy, 10.45–46 ^ Eutropius, Abridgment of Roman History, 2.9.3 ^ Salmon, 1967, pp. 274–75 ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman antiquities, 17/18.4.5 ^ Eutropius, Abridgment of Roman History, 2.9.3 ^ Salmon, 1967, pp. 275–76 ^ Florus, Epitome of Roman history, 1.10 ^ Salmon, Samnium and the Samnites, p. 376 ^ Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome, p. 334 ^ Livy, Periochae, XI ^ Cornell, THe Beginning of Rome, p. 362 ^ Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome, pp.264–68 ^ Polybius, The Histories, 2.24 ^ Polybius, The Histories, 2.19-7-3, 20 Bibliography[edit] Primary sources Dionysus of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, Aeterna Press, 2015, ISBN 978-1785165498 Diodorus Siculus I: The Historical Library in Forty Books: Volume I, Sophron; 1 edition, 2014, ISBN 978-0989783620 Eutropius, Abridgment of Roman History,CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2014, ISBN 978-1499683073 Frontinus, Stratagems and Aqueducts of Rome (Loeb Classical Library), Loeb, 1989, ISBN 978-0674991927 Livy, Rome's Italian Wars: Books 6–10 (Oxford's World's Classics). Oxford University Press, 2013, ISBN 978-0199564859 Secondary sources Cornell, TJ (1995), The Beginnings of Rome — Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000–264 BC), New York: Routledge , 1995, ISBN 978-0-415-01596-7 Ross Cowan, Roman Conquests: Italy, Barnsley, 2009. Forsythe, Gary (2005), A Critical History of Early Rome, Berkeley: University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-24991-7 Lukas Grossmann: Roms Samnitenkriege. Historische und historiographische Untersuchungen zu den Jahren 327 bis 290 v. Chr., Düsseldorf 2009. Oakley, SP (1998), A Commentary on Livy Books VI–X, Volume II: Books VII–VIII, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-815226-2 Oakley, SP (2008), A Commentary on Livy Books VI–X, Volume IV: Book X, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-923785-2 Salmon, ET (1967), Samnium and the Samnites, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-13572-6 External links[edit] Warriors of the Samnite Wars The Samnite Pilum The Battles of Bovianum, 311 BC v t e Ancient Roman wars Wars of the Roman Republic Roman–Etruscan Wars Roman-Aequian wars Roman–Latin wars Roman–Hernician wars Roman-Volscian wars Samnite Wars Pyrrhic War Punic Wars (First, Second, Third) Illyrian Wars (First, Second, Third) Macedonian Wars (First, Second, Third, Fourth) Roman–Seleucid War Aetolian War Galatian War Roman conquest of Hispania (Celtiberian Wars, Lusitanian War, Numantine War, Sertorian War, Cantabrian Wars) Achaean War Jugurthine War Cimbrian War Servile Wars (First, Second, Third) Social War Sulla's civil wars (First, Second) Mithridatic Wars (First, Second, Third) Gallic Wars Invasions of Britain Caesar's Civil War End of the Republic (Post-Caesarian, Liberators', Sicilian, Perusine, Last) Wars of the Roman Empire Germanic wars (Teutoburg, Marcomannic, Alemannic, Gothic, Visigothic) Wars in Britain Boudica's revolt Armenian War Civil War of 69 Jewish–Roman wars Domitian's Dacian War Trajan's Dacian Wars Persian Wars Civil Wars of the Third Century Wars of the Fall of the Western Roman Empire Military history of ancient Rome Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Samnite_Wars&oldid=992342500" Categories: Samnite Wars 4th-century BC conflicts 3rd-century BC conflicts 4th century BC in the Roman Republic 3rd century BC in the Roman Republic Wars involving the Roman Republic Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia articles needing clarification from February 2016 CS1: long volume value Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية تۆرکجه Български Català Čeština Corsu Deutsch Español Euskara Français Frysk Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 December 2020, at 19:37 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6790	----	Decemviri - Wikipedia Decemviri From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search A 10-man commission in the Roman Republic For the Romanian assassins, see Iron Guard death squads. This article's tone or style may not reflect the encyclopedic tone used on Wikipedia. See Wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for suggestions. (April 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e The decemviri or decemvirs (Latin for "ten men") were any of several 10-man commissions established by the Roman Republic. The most important were those of the two Decemvirates, formally the "Decemvirs Writing the Laws with Consular Imperium" (Latin: Decemviri Legibus Scribundis Consulari Imperio) who reformed and codified Roman law during the Conflict of the Orders between ancient Rome's patrician aristocracy and plebeian commoners. Other decemviri include the "Decemviri Adjudging Litigation" (Decemviri Stlitibus Judicandis), the "Decemviri Making Sacrifices" (Decemviri Sacris Faciundis), and the "Decemviri Distributing Public Lands" (Decemviri Agris Dandis Adsignandis). Contents 1 Decemviri Legibus Scribundis Consulari Imperio 1.1 Background 1.2 First decemvirate 1.3 Second decemvirate 1.4 Second plebeian secession 1.5 Valerio-Horatian Laws (Leges Valeriae Horatiae) 1.6 Demise of the decemviri 1.7 The Law of the Twelve Tables 1.8 Views of modern historians 2 Decemviri Stlitibus Judicandis 3 Decemviri Sacris Faciundis 4 Decemviri Agris Dandis Adsignandis 5 See also 6 References 6.1 Citations 6.2 Sources Decemviri Legibus Scribundis Consulari Imperio[edit] Background[edit] The setting up of the Decemviri Legibus Scribundis Consulari Imperio occurred within the context of the two-hundred-year Conflict of the Orders between the patrician order (the aristocracy) and the plebeian order (the commoners). The patricians had developed into the upper class by monopolising the priesthoods, which played an important part in the politics of archaic Rome and, in the Early Republic, the consulship (the office of the two annual elected heads of the Roman Republic and the army), and the seats of the (unelected) senate, the advisory body for the consuls. They were also large landowners. The form of labour exploitation during this archaic period was the nexum, which was what historians call debt bondage, bonded labour, or debt slavery. The debtor pledged his labour services as collateral for debt. Defaulting debtors were liable to have their labour bonded for life.[1] In the early 5th century BC there was an increase in the problem of indebtedness due to the appropriation of public land (ager publicus) by the rich landowners to expand their estates (which restricted the amount of land available to small farmers), Rome's territory being attacked by neighbouring peoples and taxation. This also led to an increase in the problem of the abuse of defaulting debtors. Because of the absence of clearly defined laws and judicial procedures, the creditors could imprison and torture the debtors and, sometimes, sell them as slaves. This led to the First Plebeian Secession (494 BC), which was the start of the Conflict of the Orders. The plebeians demanded that the state protect small farmers from the abuse of defaulting debtors by the creditors, who were the wealthy patrician landowners. When this was not forthcoming, they resorted to boycotting the military levy. At that time the Roman army was a part-time militia of peasant farmers who were drafted each year for the military campaigning season and then went back to their farms. Refusing the call-up gave plebeians significant political leverage. When their demands were not met, on their return from a defensive military campaign the soldiers refused to obey orders and seceded to Mons Sacer, outside Rome. They threatened to stay there until their demands were met. There were negotiations and the secession ended. However, the plebeian demands were not fully met. Rather, they obtained the recognition of the institutions which they had created during the rebellion, the Plebeian Council (an assembly restricted to plebeians where they could debate their issues) [2] and the plebeian tribunes.[3] The latter acted as the defenders of the plebeians from abuse by consuls or officials through the provocatio, the power to veto the actions of the consuls and officials. They used it for actions they judged inequitable or abusive to any plebeian. They also convened and presided over the Plebeian Council and presented bills for its vote. An element of this conflict was about whether the resolutions of this council should be binding on all Roman citizens, including the patricians, or only on the plebeians. The plebeian institutions were parallel and separate from that of the Roman state (the consuls, the senate and the two other popular assemblies). Livy said "[t]wo states had been created out of one; each faction had its own magistrates [officials], its own laws." [4] The main role of the plebeian institutions in the early days of the conflict of the orders was self-defence.[5] The next step in the conflict was the Lex Terentilia proposed by Gaius Terentilius Harsa, a plebeian tribune, in 462 BC. It provided for a five-man commission to set out the norms through which the power of the consuls would be defined. With the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the republic, the powers of the king were transferred to the consuls, who were regarded as the representatives of regal power.[6][7] As such, consular powers were undefined and therefore without limits. Gaius Terentilus wanted to have them defined, and therefore curtailed, as a way of proving further protections for the plebeians. The patricians were opposed to this curtailment and managed to postpone the debate on this law for eight years. In 454 BC the plebeian tribunes dropped the fruitless pursuit of this law. They asked the senate to “consent to the appointment of a body of legislators, chosen in equal numbers from plebeians and patricians to enact what would be useful to both orders and secure equal liberty for each”.[8] The patricians replied that this was worthy of consideration, but said that only patricians could legislate. Although disputed by historians such as Niebuhr, Cornell and Grant, according to Livy and Dionysius, three envoys were sent to Athens to study the Law of Solon and inquire about the laws of other Greek city-states. In 452 BC the envoys “returned with the laws of Athens.” The plebeian tribunes pressed to begin the compilation of the laws. It was agreed to appoint decemviri with consular powers which would not be subject to appeal and to suspend both the consulship and the plebeian tribunate.[9] This made the decemvirate an extraordinary magistracy (a governing body with extraordinary powers) as well as a commission tasked with compiling laws. After a long debate about whether plebeians should sit on the decemvirate, the plebeian tribunes agreed to a patrician-only panel in exchange for a law they had passed not being repealed.[10] First decemvirate[edit] The decemviri took office in 451 BC. Both consuls elect, Appius Claudius Crassinus Inregillensis Sabinus and Titus Genucius Augurinus, resigned. So did the other magistrates and the plebeian tribunes. In compensation for their loss of office, Appius Claudius and Titus Genucius were appointed to the decemviri. So was one of the consuls of the previous year (452 BC), Publius Sestius Capitolinus Vaticanus, because he had put the proposal to the senate despite the opposition of his colleague. The three envoys were also part of the decemviri.[11] The most influential member was Appius Claudius who, according to Livy, "was the guiding hand in the whole magistracy ... thanks to the favour of the plebs."[12] Each day a different decemvir presided over the magistracy and this man had the twelve lictors (the bodyguards of the consuls) with fasces (bound bundles of rods which were the symbol of supreme authority and sometimes had axes). Their rule was fair and their administration of justice was exemplary. Despite not being subject to appeal, they yielded to one another when an appeal was taken. They drafted their laws on ten bronze tables and presented them to the people, asked for feedback and amended them accordingly. They were approved by the higher popular assembly, the Assembly of the Soldiers. There was a general feeling that two more tables were needed to have a corpus of all Roman law. It was decided to elect a new decemvirate.[13] The first decemvirate consisted of: Appius Claudius Crassus, consul Titus Genucius Augurinus, consul Titus Veturius Geminus Cicurinus Gaius Julius Iulus Aulus Manlius Vulso Servius Sulpicius Camerinus Cornutus Publius Sestius Capitolinus Vaticanus Publius Curiatius Fistus Trigeminus Titus Romilius Rocus Vaticanus Spurius Postumius Albus Regillensis Second decemvirate[edit] Many men canvassed for election to the second decemvirate. According to Livy, Appius Claudius rigged the election and announced the election of himself and nine men who were his supporters. This new decemvirate became tyrannical. All the ten men had twelve lictors and their fasces had axes (even though the carrying of weapons within the city walls was forbidden). The sight of these 120 lictors terrified everyone. They conducted trials behind closed doors and issued arbitrary judgements. There were rumours that they wanted to rule perpetually. Everyone hated them. When they issued the two additional tables there was no longer any justification for their rule and people looked forward to elections. However, when the time came, they were not held and the decimviri became violent.[14] A Sabine army attacked Roman territory and encamped there and an Aequi army attacked an ally of Rome. According to Livy, the decemviri summoned the senate, but the senators did not show up. To the plebeians this showed the illegitimacy of the decemviri as their term had expired and were now meant to be just private citizens. They were considering boycotting the military draft. However, it turned out that the senators had left and gone to their farms, supposedly in disgust. The senate was summoned again and this time some senators attended. The plebeians saw this as a betrayal of liberty. However, the senators denounced the decemviri and tried to oppose them, called them private citizens and refused to call a levy. In the end they allowed its proclamation of the levy in silence because they feared a popular uprising would bolster the plebeian tribunes, their political adversaries. The plebeians enlisted because they feared violent reprisal as there was no right to appeal. Some of the decemviri led two armies against the two enemies. As they were not good military men, both armies were routed.[15] According to Livy, Appius Claudius had his eyes on Verginia, the daughter of a plebeian, Lucius Verginius, who was a centurion absent from Rome with the army. Having failed to woo her with money and promises, Appius Claudius decided to seize this opportunity to get one of his men to claim her as her slave. She was dragged off her feet in the forum and the shouts of her nurses attracted a crowd. The claimant said that he was acting lawfully and had summoned her to court. Verginia went to court followed by her friends and acquaintances. The judge was Appius Claudius. The claimant said that the girl was born at his house and then he palmed her off to Verginius as his, but that she still was his slave. Verginia's friends asked for an adjournment until Verginius could attend and to leave Verginia in the custody of the defendants. Appius Claudius agreed to summon Verginius, but put Verginia in the custody of the claimant. Verginia's lover, Icilius, arrived at the forum, but was stopped by a lictor. He pleaded his case loudly and attracted the attention of the crowd. Verginia's supporters sent a relative and Icilius' brother to quickly go to Verginius' military camp. The claimant pressed Icilius to pay surety to be Verginia's guarantor. Many people offered money and Verginia was bailed to her family. Appius Claudius wrote to his colleagues at the camp not to grant Verginius leave and to arrest him. However, the messengers had already arrived and Verginius had already been given leave. At dawn a crowd was waiting to see what would happen. Verginius arrived, leading his daughter and a large mass of supporters. He canvassed people for help to claim his due. The tears of the matrons who accompanied Verginia moved people more than words. Appius Claudius upheld the fabricated case of the claimant and adjudged Verginia to him without even listening to Verginius. The crowd was stunned. When the claimant made his way to take her, Verginius shouted that he had betrothed Verginia to Icilius, not to Appius Claudius, and that he did not bring her up for dishonour. Appius Claudius claimed that he knew that there had been seditious meetings and told Verginius to be quiet and the lictors to seize the slave (Verginia). The crowd did not react. According to Livy, Verginius stabbed his daughter to death saying that that was the only way he could assert her freedom. Appius Claudius ordered his arrest, but the crowd protected him as he made his way to the city gate. As a result, the crowd talked about restoring the plebeian tribunes and the right to appeal. [16] The second decemvirate consisted of: Appius Claudius Crassus Marcus Cornelius Maluginensis Lucius Sergius Esquilinus Lucius Minucius Esquilinus Augurinus Quintus Fabius Vibulanus Quintus Poetelius Libo Visolus Titus Antonius Merenda Kaeso Duillius Longus Spurius Oppius Cornicen Manius Rabuleius Second plebeian secession[edit] According to Livy, Appius Claudius ordered the arrest of Icilius, but the crowd prevented this. Two patricians, Lucius Valerius Potitus and Marcus Horatius Barbatus pushed the lictors back, announcing that “if Appius proceeded legally, they would protect Icilius from the prosecution of a mere citizen; if he sought to make use of violence, there too they would be a match for him." Appius Claudius, Lucius Valerius, and Marcus Horatius made speeches. The crowd booed the former and listened only to the latter two, who ordered the lictors to back off. Appius Claudius fled. Another decemvir, not knowing what to do, ended up summoning the senate. The senators were hostile to the decemviri and there was hope that they would bring them down. However, the senators were concerned that the arrival of Verginius at the military camp would cause unrest and sent messengers to tell the commanders to keep the troops from mutiny. Verginius, who had been followed by nearly four hundred men, caused an even bigger stir with the soldiers than in the city. He told his fellow soldiers to "look out for themselves and for their own children" and they replied that they "would not forget his sufferings nor fail to vindicate their liberty." The civilians who had come with Verginius to the military camp claimed that the decemviri had been overthrown and that Appius Claudius had gone into exile and incited the soldiers to rise up.[17] These soldiers, who were from the army which had been sent against the Aequi, marched to Rome and took possession of the Aventine Hill. They urged the plebeians to regain their freedom and elect the plebeian tribunes. The senate decided to take no harsh action as it had been partly responsible for the mutiny. It sent three envoys to inquire who had seized the Aventine, who their leaders were and what they wanted. The mutineers did not have a leader and no one dared to express enmity. The civilian crowd shouted that they wanted Lucius Valerius and Marcus Horatius to be the envoys. Verginius proposed the election of ten leaders to be given the military title, military tribune. Verginius was elected. At the instigation of Icilius, the soldiers of the Roman armies located in Sabine territories also rebelled. On hearing of the election of military tribunes at the Aventine, Icilius, thinking that these men would then be elected as plebeian tribunes and wanting to become one himself, arranged the election of the same number of "military tribunes" among these soldiers, who headed for Rome, marched through the city and to the Aventine. When they joined the other army, the twenty "military tribunes" appointed two men, Marcus Oppius and Sextus Manilius, to take command.[18] According to Livy, the senators, who were convening daily, spent most of the time squabbling. They decided to send Valerius and Horatius to the Aventine on the condition that the decemviri resign. The latter said that they would do so only after the enactment of the two tables of laws for which they were elected. Given that the senate kept bickering, the soldiers decided to secede to Mons Sacer as they had done in 494 BC to increase pressure on the senators and the decemviri. They now demanded the restoration of tribunician power (i.e. the reinstatement of the plebeian tribunes) and they would stand firm to obtain this. On their way through the city they were joined by civilian plebeians. The senate hesitated because of the enmity between senators and plebeian tribunes. Some senators, including Valerius and Horatius, argued that their restoration was needed in order to both get rid of the decemviri and restore patrician magistrates. The decemviri agreed to step down on the condition that they would get personal protection against any reprisals. [19] Lucius Valerius and Marcus Horatius were sent to negotiate terms with the plebeians at their discretion. The plebeians welcomed and thanked them because of their previous stand at the forum. They demanded the recovery of the protections the plebeians enjoyed through the plebeian tribunes and the right to appeal, immunity for those who incited the rebellion and harsh punishment for the decemviri. The envoys agreed on the first three demands and asked that the issue of punishment be postponed. The plebeians accepted this. The senate decreed the abdication of the decemviri, the election of the plebeian tribunes and the mentioned immunity. The plebeians returned to Rome and elected their tribunes. The plebeian council carried a motion of immunity and passed a bill for the election of consuls subject to appeal.[20] Valerio-Horatian Laws (Leges Valeriae Horatiae)[edit] Lucius Valerius Potitius and Marcus Horatius Barbatus were elected as consuls. They passed the Valerio-Horatian Laws (Leges Valeriae Horatiae). The first law provided that the resolutions of the plebeian council were binding on the people. Then "they not only restored a consular law about the appeal, but they also safeguarded it for the future by the solemn enactment of a new law, that no one should declare the election of any magistrate without appeal, and that he who should so declare might be put to death [by anyone] without offence to law or religion, and that such a homicide should not be held a capital crime." They also reinstated the principle of the sacrosanctity of the plebeian tribunes "by restoring certain long-neglected ceremonies" and by putting what had been just a religious sanction into the statutes with a law which extended it to all plebeian magistrates, including the aediles and the decemviral judges. Additionally, they specified that the heads of those who violated these ceremonies were to be forfeited to Jupiter and their property sold at the temple of Ceres, Liber, and Libera. They also introduced the practice of delivering the decrees of the senate to the aediles at the temple of Ceres, “[u]p to that time they were wont to be suppressed or falsified, at the pleasure of the consuls." In addition, the plebeian council passed a law whereby those who left the plebeians without tribunes or elected a magistrate without appeal were to be scourged and beheaded. Livy noted that all the measures were passed against the will of the patricians, but they did not actively oppose them.[21] Demise of the decemviri[edit] The plebeian tribunes tasked Verginius with prosecuting Appius Claudius. Verginius pardoned him for the crimes he had committed over two years saying "[I shall not] suffer him to add to his other crimes the impudence of defending himself". However, he said that he would arrest Appius Claudius unless he named a referee who could prove that he had not illegally adjudged a free citizen to the custody of one who claimed her as a slave. Appius Claudius asked for a trial to assess whether his new laws had established tyranny or freedom and whether the appeal "had been merely a parade of meaningless forms, or had been really granted." This was refused. He appealed repeatedly, but Verginius kept repeating the challenge of a referee and then adjourned the trial. While in prison, Appius Claudius committed suicide. Another decemvir, Spurius Oppius Cornicen was arrested and afterwards also committed suicide. The property of these two men was confiscated. The other decemviri went into exile.[22] The Law of the Twelve Tables[edit] The two consuls marched with their armies to confront the Sabines and the Aequi who had not withdrawn. "Before they left the City, the consuls had the decemviral laws, which are known as the Twelve Tables, engraved on bronze, and set them up in a public place. Some authors say that the aediles, acting under orders from the tribunes, performed this service." [23] Views of modern historians[edit] The reason why the first decemvirate had a dual role--as a new magistracy which replaced the consuls and took on governance with extraordinary powers, and as a commission for compiling law--is not explained by the sources. Some modern historians have grappled with this as an apparent contradiction. A theory has tried to explain this contradiction by positing that the first decemvirate differed from the second one by being a commission to compile laws, while the latter was a permanent governing body.[24][25] Mommsen criticised this for not having any support from the sources.[26] Cornell notes that if this was the case the consuls and the plebeian tribunes would have been suspended at the start of the second decemvirate instead of the first. Moreover, that the second decemvirate was elected because it was felt that two new tables were needed implies that the decemvirate was meant to be a temporary body for the duration of the drawing up of the laws. So does the second decemvirate's attempt to prolong its office by pretending that they were still working on the final two tables.[27] The decemvirate's role as a new magistracy which replaced the consuls and the plebeian tribunes has been interpreted being intended to reintegrate the plebeians into the Roman state by doing away with the plebeian tribunes. If this was the case, the fact that Livy seemed to suggest that only patricians sat on the first decemvirate would be a contradiction. This and the fact that one of the decemviri was T. Genucius, who had a plebeian name, have led some historians to reject both that this man was a decemvir and the existence of a second decemvirate, which they see as fiction.[28][29] Mommsen argued that the decemvirate must have been open to plebeians from the beginning.[26] Some historians see the sharp contrast between the first, good decemvirate and the second, bad one as a legend to explain the Twelve Tables in general being good while the prohibition of marriage between patricians and plebeians was bad. This bad law was fictively ascribed to a second body of bad decemvirs. However, Cornell argues that this view is problematic. He asks two questions. If this was a fiction to explain this law, why were the last two tables (one of which contained this law) published by the consuls for 449 BC after the deposition of the bad decemvirate? Why was a law banning marriage between patricians and plebeians drawn up by a body composed by both patricians and plebeians (the majority of the members of the second decemvirate being plebeians)? [30] In 2005, historian Gary Forsythe dismissed the second decemvirate as unhistorical. He presents a number of arguments for his view. First, it is an invention modeled on the story of the Thirty Tyrants. Athens was forced to abolish her democracy following her defeat by Sparta and it was replaced by a commission tasked with drafting the laws of a new constitution. They arrested and executed political opponents and seized power. Many Athenians fled or were exiled. They formed a militia and reached Peiraeus (Piraeus, the port of Athens), defeated the forces sent by the Thirty Tyrants, and then forced them to abdicate and restored democracy. Forsythe sees similarities with the story of the decemviri, where the republican offices are suspended and replaced by the decemviri who were also tasked with drafting new laws, who then refused to leave office when their term was up, became tyrannical, were forced to resign by a secession and the republican offices were restored. Second, the story fits with the Greek theory that a good form of government gives way to its corrupt counterpart, which, in turn, leads back to another good one. The first decemvirate represents “ideal aristocratic rule in its ideal form, followed by the corrupt oligarchy of the second one whose misrule leads to rebellion and further political change.” Third, one year and one decemvirate should have been enough to draw up a legislation which was not overly complicated.[31] Forsythe also says that the idea of the decemviri being overthrown “might have been suggested to later Roman historians by the names of the consuls for 449 BC, Lucius Valerius Potitus and Marcus Horatius Barbatus.” They were similar to the names of the consuls for 509 BC, the year of the establishment of the Roman republic (Publius Valerius Publicola and Marcus Horatius Pulvillus). The republic was instituted with the overthrow of the last king of Rome, who was a tyrant, in a rebellion and the decision to do away with the monarchy.[32] Cornell thinks that the story of the second decemvirate attracted much secondary elaboration (later additions), that some of this at times romanticised it and that parts of the story are fictitious, but that it cannot be proved the whole story was fictive and more convincing cases have to be made to support this view. He adds that “identifying the fictitious parts is no easier than deciding which parts might be based on genuine fact.” He also notes that the tradition of two decemvirates and the division of the tables into groups of ten and two were already around in the mid-second century BC. Therefore, although the later historians who have given us the accounts of the decemvirate might have added additional elaborations, there is no evidence that they made up the core story.[33] Doubts have been cast about the story of Appius Claudius and Verginia. Appius Claudius was the victim of a later tradition of hostility towards the Claudii, his family (Mommsen showed traces of this, but did not see it as a reason for rejecting the story); the character of Verginia bears similarities with that of Lucretia, whose rape led to the overthrow of the monarchy (Ogilvie notes that in the original story might not have provided names and that she may have been referred to as ‘a maiden’ and the name Verginia was ascribed to her later, but she did exist); the story was the subject of a traditional ballade. Cornell argues that such objections do not prove that “the story is a later invention.”[34][35][36] The story of the embassy to Athens to study the Law of Solon is unlikely. If it had gone to Athens, by that time the Law of Solon would have been replaced by the radical reforms of Pericles in the first half of the 5th century BC. Cornell notes that the fragments of the Law of the Twelve Tables show many signs of Greek influence and even some Greek loan-words. He thinks that the source was likely to have been the Greek cities of southern Italy and that it is there that efforts to familiarise with Greek written laws would have been directed. He also points out that according to an alternative tradition the decemviri were advised by Hermodorus of Ephesus, a Greek philosopher in exile.[34][37][38][39] Decemviri Stlitibus Judicandis[edit] The decemviri stlitibus judicandis ("the ten men who judge lawsuits") was a civil court of ancient origin (traditionally attributed to King Servius Tullius) mainly concerned with questions bearing on the status of individuals. It originally served as a jury rendering verdicts under the presidency of the praetor, but these decemviri subsequently became annual minor magistrates (magistratus minores) of the Republic, elected by the Comitia Populi Tributa and forming part of the Vigintisexviri ("Twenty-Six Men").[40] Suetonius and Dio Cassius record that during the Principate, Caesar Augustus transferred to the decemviri the presidency in the courts of the Centumviri ("Hundred Men"). Under imperial law, the decemvirate had jurisdiction in capital cases. Decemviri Sacris Faciundis[edit] The decemviri sacris faciundis (also called the decemviri sacrorum) had religious functions and was the outcome of the claim of the plebs to equal share in the administration of the state religion (five decemviri were plebeians, five were patricians). They were first appointed in 367 BC in lieu of the patrician duumviri ("Two Men") who had had responsibility for the care and consultation of the Sibylline books and the celebration of the games of Apollo.[40] Membership in this ecclesiastical college (collegium) was for life, and the college was increased to a quindecimvirate—that is, a college of fifteen members—and renamed accordingly (see quindecimviri sacris faciundis) in the last century of the Republic, possibly by the dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla; the dictator Gaius Julius Caesar added a sixteenth member, but this precedent was not followed. Decemviri Agris Dandis Adsignandis[edit] The decemviri agris dandis adsignandis was appointed from time to time to control the distribution of public lands (ager publicus).[40] See also[edit] Constitution of the Roman Republic – The norms, customs, and written laws, which guided the government of the Roman Republic Triumvirate – Political regime ruled or dominated by three powerful individuals known as triumvirs (the arrangement can be formal or informal) Septemvir Vigintisexviri – College of minor magistrates of the Roman Republic References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Cornell, T.J., The Beginnings of Rome, p. 266 ^ Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome, pp. 260–262 ^ Cornell, T. J., The Beginnings of Rome, pp. 259–260 ^ Livy, The History of Rome, 2.44.9 ^ Raaflaub, (ed.), chapter 7, From Protection and Decense to Offense and Participation: Stages in the Conflict of the Orders ^ Polybius, Histories, 6.11, ^ Cicero, On the Laws, 3.3 ^ Livy, The History of Rome, 3.32 ^ Clay, Agnes (1911). "Decemviri". In Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopædia Britannica 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ^ Livy, The history of Rome, 3.33 ^ Livy, The History of Rome, 3.33.3-5 ^ Livy, The History of Rome, 3.33.7 ^ Livy, The History of Rome, 3.33.7-10, 34 ^ Livy, 3.3.35-38.1-2 ^ Livy, 3.3.38-42 ^ Livy, 3.44-48 ^ Livy, 3.49-50 ^ Livy, 3.50-51 ^ Livy, 3.52 ^ Livy, 3.53-54 ^ Livy, 3.55 ^ Livy, The History of Rome, 3.56., 57.5-6, 58.6-10 ^ Livy, 3.57-10 ^ Niebuhr, History Rome, (1837). II, p. 334 ^ De Martino Storia della costituzione romana, II (1972) p. 308 ^ a b Mommsem, Romische Forschungen, I (1864), p. 296 ^ Cornell, T. J., The Beginnings of Rome, p. 273–274 ^ Beloch, Romische Geschichte bis zum Beginn der punischen Kriege, 1896, p. 326 ^ Drummond A, Cambridge Ancient History2 VII.2 1989, pp. 113–142 ^ Cornell, T.J., The Beginnings of Rome, p. 274 ^ Forsythe, G., A Critical History of Early Rome, pp. 223–324 ^ Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome, p. 223 ^ Cornell, T. J., The Beginnings of Rome, pp. 274–275 ^ a b Cornell, p. 275 ^ Mommsen, Romische Forschungen, I (1864), pp. 285–318 ^ Ogilvie A Commentary on Livy, (1965) p. 67 ^ Pliny the Elder, Natural History, 32.21 ^ Strabo, Geographia, 14.1.25 ^ Pomponius, 1.2.2.4 ^ a b c Clay, Agnes (1911). "Decemviri" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 912. 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en-wikipedia-org-6794	----	William Makepeace Thackeray - Wikipedia William Makepeace Thackeray From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search British novelist "Thackeray" redirects here. For other uses with the name Thackeray, see Thackeray (disambiguation). This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize its key points. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (April 2020) William Makepeace Thackeray 1855 daguerreotype of William Makepeace Thackeray by Jesse Harrison Whitehurst (1819–1875) Born (1811-07-18)18 July 1811 Calcutta, British India Died 24 December 1863(1863-12-24) (aged 52) London, UK Occupation Novelist, poet Nationality English Period 1829–1863 (published posthumously) Genre Historical fiction Notable works Vanity Fair, The Luck of Barry Lyndon Spouse Isabella Gethin Shawe Children 3, including Anne Isabella (1837–1919) Signature William Makepeace Thackeray (/ˈθækəri/; 18 July 1811 – 24 December 1863) was an English novelist, author and illustrator, who was born in India. He is known for his satirical works, particularly his 1848 novel Vanity Fair, a panoramic portrait of British society, and the 1844 novel The Luck of Barry Lyndon, which was adapted for a 1975 film by Stanley Kubrick. Contents 1 Biography 2 Works 3 Family 3.1 Parents 3.2 Descendants 4 Reputation and legacy 5 In popular culture 6 List of works 6.1 Series 6.2 Novels 6.3 Novellas 6.4 Sketches and satires 6.5 Play 6.6 Travel writing 6.7 Other non-fiction 7 See also 8 References 9 Bibliography 10 External links Biography[edit] This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (October 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Thackeray, an only child, was born in Calcutta,[1] British India, where his father, Richmond Thackeray (1 September 1781 – 13 September 1815), was secretary to the Board of Revenue in the East India Company. His mother, Anne Becher (1792–1864), was the second daughter of Harriet Becher and John Harman Becher, who was also a secretary (writer) for the East India Company.[2] His father was a grandson of Thomas Thackeray (1693–1760), headmaster of Harrow School.[3] Richmond died in 1815, which caused Anne to send her son to England that same year, while she remained in India. The ship on which he travelled made a short stopover at Saint Helena, where the imprisoned Napoleon was pointed out to him. Once in England he was educated at schools in Southampton and Chiswick, and then at Charterhouse School, where he became a close friend of John Leech. Thackeray disliked Charterhouse,[4] and parodied it in his fiction as "Slaughterhouse". Nevertheless, Thackeray was honoured in the Charterhouse Chapel with a monument after his death. Illness in his last year there, during which he reportedly grew to his full height of six-foot three, postponed his matriculation at Trinity College, Cambridge, until February 1829.[citation needed] Never too keen on academic studies, Thackeray left Cambridge in 1830, but some of his earliest published writing appeared in two university periodicals, The Snob and The Gownsman.[5] Caricature of Thackeray by Thackeray Thackeray then travelled for some time on the continent, visiting Paris and Weimar, where he met Goethe. He returned to England and began to study law at the Middle Temple, but soon gave that up. On reaching the age of 21 he came into his inheritance from his father, but he squandered much of it on gambling and on funding two unsuccessful newspapers, The National Standard and The Constitutional, for which he had hoped to write. He also lost a good part of his fortune in the collapse of two Indian banks. Forced to consider a profession to support himself, he turned first to art, which he studied in Paris, but did not pursue it, except in later years as the illustrator of some of his own novels and other writings.[citation needed] Thackeray's years of semi-idleness ended after he married, on 20 August 1836, Isabella Gethin Shawe (1816–1894), second daughter of Isabella Creagh Shawe and Matthew Shawe, a colonel who had died after distinguished service, primarily in India. The Thackerays had three children, all girls: Anne Isabella (1837–1919), Jane (who died at eight months old) and Harriet Marian (1840–1875), who married Sir Leslie Stephen, editor, biographer and philosopher. Thackeray now began "writing for his life", as he put it, turning to journalism in an effort to support his young family. He primarily worked for Fraser's Magazine, a sharp-witted and sharp-tongued conservative publication for which he produced art criticism, short fictional sketches, and two longer fictional works, Catherine and The Luck of Barry Lyndon. Between 1837 and 1840 he also reviewed books for The Times.[6] He was also a regular contributor to The Morning Chronicle and The Foreign Quarterly Review. Later, through his connection to the illustrator John Leech, he began writing for the newly created magazine Punch, in which he published The Snob Papers, later collected as The Book of Snobs. This work popularised the modern meaning of the word "snob".[7] Thackeray was a regular contributor to Punch between 1843 and 1854.[8] Thackeray portrayed by Eyre Crowe, 1845 Tragedy struck in Thackeray's personal life as his wife, Isabella, succumbed to depression after the birth of their third child, in 1840. Finding that he could get no work done at home, he spent more and more time away until September 1840, when he realised how grave his wife's condition was. Struck by guilt, he set out with his wife to Ireland. During the crossing she threw herself from a water-closet into the sea, but she was pulled from the waters. They fled back home after a four-week battle with her mother. From November 1840 to February 1842 Isabella was in and out of professional care, as her condition waxed and waned.[3] She eventually deteriorated into a permanent state of detachment from reality. Thackeray desperately sought cures for her, but nothing worked, and she ended up in two different asylums in or near Paris until 1845, after which Thackeray took her back to England, where he installed her with a Mrs Bakewell at Camberwell. Isabella outlived her husband by 30 years, in the end being cared for by a family named Thompson in Leigh-on-Sea at Southend until her death in 1894.[9] After his wife's illness Thackeray became a de facto widower, never establishing another permanent relationship. He did pursue other women, however, in particular Mrs Jane Brookfield and Sally Baxter. In 1851 Mr Brookfield barred Thackeray from further visits to or correspondence with Jane. Baxter, an American twenty years Thackeray's junior whom he met during a lecture tour in New York City in 1852, married another man in 1855.[citation needed] In the early 1840s Thackeray had some success with two travel books, The Paris Sketch Book and The Irish Sketch Book, the latter marked by its hostility towards Irish Catholics. However, as the book appealed to anti-Irish sentiment in Britain at the time, Thackeray was given the job of being Punch's Irish expert, often under the pseudonym Hibernis Hibernior.[8] Thackeray became responsible for creating Punch's notoriously hostile and negative depictions of the Irish during the Great Irish Famine of 1845 to 1851.[8] Thackeray achieved more recognition with his Snob Papers (serialised 1846/7, published in book form in 1848), but the work that really established his fame was the novel Vanity Fair, which first appeared in serialised instalments beginning in January 1847. Even before Vanity Fair completed its serial run Thackeray had become a celebrity, sought after by the very lords and ladies whom he satirised. They hailed him as the equal of Charles Dickens.[10] Portrait of Thackeray in his study, c.1860 He remained "at the top of the tree", as he put it, for the rest of his life, during which he produced several large novels, notably Pendennis, The Newcomes and The History of Henry Esmond, despite various illnesses, including a near-fatal one that struck him in 1849 in the middle of writing Pendennis. He twice visited the United States on lecture tours during this period. Thackeray also gave lectures in London on the English humorists of the eighteenth century, and on the first four Hanoverian monarchs. The latter series was published in book form as The Four Georges.[3] In July 1857 Thackeray stood unsuccessfully as a Liberal for the city of Oxford in Parliament.[3] Although not the most fiery agitator, Thackeray was always a decided liberal in his politics, and he promised to vote for the ballot in extension of the suffrage, and was ready to accept triennial parliaments.[3] He was narrowly beaten by Cardwell, who received 1,070 votes, as against 1,005 for Thackeray.[3] In 1860 Thackeray became editor of the newly established Cornhill Magazine,[11] but he was never comfortable in the role, preferring to contribute to the magazine as the writer of a column called "Roundabout Papers".[citation needed] Thackeray's health worsened during the 1850s and he was plagued by a recurring stricture of the urethra that laid him up for days at a time. He also felt that he had lost much of his creative impetus. He worsened matters by excessive eating and drinking, and avoiding exercise, though he enjoyed riding (he kept a horse). He has been described as "the greatest literary glutton who ever lived". His main activity apart from writing was "gutting and gorging".[12] He could not break his addiction to spicy peppers, further ruining his digestion. Thackeray's grave at Kensal Green Cemetery, London, photographed in 2014 On 23 December 1863, after returning from dining out and before dressing for bed, he suffered a stroke. He was found dead in his bed the following morning. His death at the age of fifty-two was entirely unexpected, and shocked his family, his friends and the reading public. An estimated 7,000 people attended his funeral at Kensington Gardens. He was buried on 29 December at Kensal Green Cemetery, and a memorial bust sculpted by Marochetti can be found in Westminster Abbey.[3] Works[edit] The Yellowplush Papers (1837) Catherine (1839-1840) A Shabby Genteel Story (1840) The Paris Sketchbook (1840) Second Funeral of Napoleon (1841) The Irish Sketchbook (1843) The Luck of Barry Lyndon (1844) Notes of a Journey from Cornhill to Grand Cairo (1846) Mrs. Perkin’s Ball (1846) under the name M.A. Titmarsh Stray Papers: Being Stories, Reviews, Verses, and Sketches (1821-1847) The Book of Snobs (1848) Vanity Fair (1848) Pendennis (1848-1850) Rebecca and Rowena (1850) Men’s Wives (1852) The History of Henry Esmond (1852) The English Humorists of the Eighteenth Century (1853) The Newcomes (1855) The Rose and the Ring (1855) The Virginians (1857-1859) Lovel the Widower (1860) Four Georges (1860-1861) The Adventures of Philip (1862) Roundabout Papers (1863) Denis Duval (1864) Ballads (1869) Burlesques (1869) The Orphan of Pimlico (1876) Thackeray began as a satirist and parodist, writing works that displayed a sneaking fondness for roguish upstarts such as Becky Sharp in Vanity Fair, and the title characters of The Luck of Barry Lyndon and Catherine. In his earliest works, written under such pseudonyms as Charles James Yellowplush, Michael Angelo Titmarsh and George Savage Fitz-Boodle, he tended towards savagery in his attacks on high society, military prowess, the institution of marriage and hypocrisy. One of his earliest works, "Timbuctoo" (1829), contains a burlesque upon the subject set for the Cambridge Chancellor's Medal for English Verse (the contest was won by Tennyson with "Timbuctoo"). Thackeray's writing career really began with a series of satirical sketches now usually known as The Yellowplush Papers, which appeared in Fraser's Magazine beginning in 1837. These were adapted for BBC Radio 4 in 2009, with Adam Buxton playing Charles Yellowplush.[13] Between May 1839 and February 1840 Fraser's published the work sometimes considered Thackeray's first novel, Catherine. Originally intended as a satire of the Newgate school of crime fiction, it ended up being more of a picaresque tale. He also began work, never finished, on the novel later published as A Shabby Genteel Story. Title-page to Vanity Fair, drawn by Thackeray, who furnished the illustrations for many of his own books Thackeray is probably best known now for Vanity Fair. Literary theorist Kornelije Kvas wrote that "the meteoric rise of the heroine of Vanity Fair Rebecca Sharp is a satirical presentation of the striving for profit, power and social recognition of the new middle class. Old and new members of the middle class strive to emulate the lifestyle of the higher class (noblemen and landowners), and thereby to increase their material possessions and to own luxury objects. In Vanity Fair, one can observe a greater degree of violation of moral values among members of the new middle class, for the decline of morality is proportionate to the degree of closeness of the individual to the market and its laws."[14] In contrast, his large novels from the period after Vanity Fair, which were once described by Henry James as examples of "loose baggy monsters", have largely faded from view, perhaps because they reflect a mellowing in Thackeray, who had become so successful with his satires on society that he seemed to lose his zest for attacking it. These later works include Pendennis, a Bildungsroman depicting the coming of age of Arthur Pendennis, an alter ego of Thackeray, who also features as the narrator of two later novels, The Newcomes and The Adventures of Philip. The Newcomes is noteworthy for its critical portrayal of the "marriage market," while Philip is known for its semi-autobiographical depiction of Thackeray's early life, in which he partially regains some of his early satirical power. Also notable among the later novels is The History of Henry Esmond, in which Thackeray tried to write a novel in the style of the eighteenth century, a period that held great appeal for him. About this novel, there have been found evident analogies—in the fundamental structure of the plot; in the psychological outlines of the main characters; in frequent episodes; and in the use of metaphors—to Ippolito Nievo's "Confessions of an Italian". Nievo wrote his novel during his stay in Milan where, in the "Ambrosiana" library, "The History of Henry Esmond" was available, just published.[15] Not only Esmond but also Barry Lyndon and Catherine are set in that period, as is the sequel to Esmond, The Virginians, which is set partially in North America and includes George Washington as a character who nearly kills one of the protagonists in a duel. Family[edit] Parents[edit] Thackeray's father, Richmond Thackeray, was born at South Mimms and went to India in 1798 at age sixteen as a writer (civil servant) with the East India Company. Richmond's father's name was also William Makepeace Thackeray.[16] Richmond fathered a daughter, Sarah Redfield, in 1804 with Charlotte Sophia Rudd, his possibly Eurasian mistress, and both mother and daughter were named in his will. Such liaisons were common among gentlemen of the East India Company, and it formed no bar to his later courting and marrying William's mother.[17] Anne Becher and William Makepeace Thackeray by George Chinnery, c. 1813 Thackeray's mother, Anne Becher (born 1792), was "one of the reigning beauties of the day" and a daughter of John Harmon Becher, Collector of the South 24 Parganas district (d. Calcutta, 1800), of an old Bengal civilian family "noted for the tenderness of its women". Anne Becher, her sister Harriet and their widowed mother, also Harriet, had been sent back to India by her authoritarian guardian grandmother, Ann Becher, in 1809 on the Earl Howe. Anne's grandmother had told her that the man she loved, Henry Carmichael-Smyth, an ensign in the Bengal Engineers whom she met at an Assembly Ball in 1807 in Bath, had died, while he was told that Anne was no longer interested in him. Neither of these assertions was true. Though Carmichael-Smyth was from a distinguished Scottish military family, Anne's grandmother went to extreme lengths to prevent their marriage. Surviving family letters state that she wanted a better match for her granddaughter.[18] Anne Becher and Richmond Thackeray were married in Calcutta on 13 October 1810. Their only child, William, was born on 18 July 1811.[19] There is a fine miniature portrait of Anne Becher Thackeray and William Makepeace Thackeray, aged about two, done in Madras by George Chinnery c. 1813.[20] Anne's family's deception was unexpectedly revealed in 1812, when Richmond Thackeray unwittingly invited the supposedly dead Carmichael-Smyth to dinner. Five years later, after Richmond had died of a fever on 13 September 1815, Anne married Henry Carmichael-Smyth, on 13 March 1817. The couple moved to England in 1820, after having sent William off to school there more than three years earlier. The separation from his mother had a traumatic effect on the young Thackeray, which he discussed in his essay "On Letts's Diary" in The Roundabout Papers. Descendants[edit] Thackeray is an ancestor of the British financier Ryan Williams, and is the great-great-great-grandfather of the British comedian Al Murray[21] and author Joanna Nadin. Reputation and legacy[edit] This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (August 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Etching of Thackeray, ca. 1867 During the Victorian era Thackeray was ranked second only to Charles Dickens, but he is now much less widely read and is known almost exclusively for Vanity Fair, which has become a fixture in university courses, and has been repeatedly adapted for the cinema and television. In Thackeray's own day some commentators, such as Anthony Trollope, ranked his History of Henry Esmond as his greatest work, perhaps because it expressed Victorian values of duty and earnestness, as did some of his other later novels. It is perhaps for this reason that they have not survived as well as Vanity Fair, which satirises those values. Thackeray saw himself as writing in the realistic tradition, and distinguished his work from the exaggerations and sentimentality of Dickens. Some later commentators have accepted this self-evaluation and seen him as a realist, but others note his inclination to use eighteenth-century narrative techniques, such as digressions and direct addresses to the reader, and argue that through them he frequently disrupts the illusion of reality. The school of Henry James, with its emphasis on maintaining that illusion, marked a break with Thackeray's techniques. Charlotte Brontë dedicated the second edition of Jane Eyre to Thackeray.[22] In 1887 the Royal Society of Arts unveiled a blue plaque to commemorate Thackeray at the house at 2 Palace Green, London, that had been built for him in the 1860s.[23] It is now the location of the Israeli Embassy.[24] Thackeray's former home in Tunbridge Wells, Kent, is now a restaurant named after the author.[25] Thackeray was also a member of the Albion Lodge of the Ancient Order of Druids at Oxford.[26] In popular culture[edit] Thackeray is portrayed by Michael Palin in the 2018 ITV television series Vanity Fair. Miles Jupp plays Thackeray in the 2017 film The Man Who Invented Christmas. List of works[edit] Series[edit] Henry Esmond The History of Henry Esmond (1852) – ISBN 0-14-143916-5 The Virginians (1857–1859) – ISBN 1-4142-3952-1 Arthur Pendennis Pendennis (1848–1850) – ISBN 1-4043-8659-9 The Newcomes (1855) – ISBN 0-460-87495-0 A Shabby Genteel Story (Unfinished) (1840) – ISBN 1-4101-0509-1 The Adventures of Philip (1862) – ISBN 1-4101-0510-5 The Christmas Books of Mr M. A. Titmarsh Thackeray wrote and illustrated five Christmas books as "by Mr M. A. Titmarsh". They were collected under the pseudonymous title and his real name no later than 1868 by Smith, Elder & Co.[27] The Rose and the Ring was dated 1855 in its first edition, published for Christmas 1854. Mrs. Perkins's Ball (1846), as by M. A. Titmarsh Our Street Doctor Birch and His Young Friends The Kickleburys on the Rhine (Christmas 1850) – "a new picture book, drawn and written by Mr M. A. Titmarsh"[28] The Rose and the Ring (Christmas 1854) – ISBN 1-4043-2741-X Novels[edit] Catherine (1839–40) – ISBN 1-4065-0055-0 (originally credited to "Ikey Solomons, Esq. Junior"[29]) The Luck of Barry Lyndon (1844), filmed as Barry Lyndon by Stanley Kubrick – ISBN 0-19-283628-5 Vanity Fair (1847–53) – ISBN 0-14-062085-0 Men's Wives (1852) – ISBN 978-1-77545-023-8 Lovel the Widower Denis Duval (unfinished) (1864) – ISBN 1-4191-1561-8 Novellas[edit] Elizabeth Brownbridge Sultan Stork Little Spitz The Yellowplush Papers (1837) – ISBN 0-8095-9676-8 The Professor Miss Löwe The Tremendous Adventures of Major Gahagan The Fatal Boots Cox’s Diary The Bedford-Row Conspiracy The History of Samuel Titmarsh and the Great Hoggarty Diamond The Fitz-Boodle Papers The Diary of C. Jeames de la Pluche, Esq. with his letters A Legend of the Rhine A Little Dinner at Timmins’s Rebecca and Rowena (1850), a parody sequel of Ivanhoe – ISBN 1-84391-018-7 Bluebeard's Ghost Sketches and satires[edit] The Irish Sketchbook (2 Volumes) (1843) – ISBN 0-86299-754-2 The Book of Snobs (1848), which popularised that term- ISBN 0-8095-9672-5 Flore et Zephyr Roundabout Papers Some Roundabout Papers Charles Dickens in France Character Sketches Sketches and Travels in London Mr. Brown's Letters The Proser Miscellanies Play[edit] The Wolves and the Lamb Travel writing[edit] Notes of a Journey from Cornhill to Grand Cairo (1846), under the name Mr M. A. Titmarsh. The Paris Sketchbook (1840), featuring Roger Bontemps The Little Travels and Roadside Sketches (1840) Other non-fiction[edit] The English Humorists of the 18th Century (1853) Four Georges (1860-1861) - ISBN 978-1410203007 Roundabout Papers (1863) The Orphan of Pimlico (1876) Sketches and Travels in London Stray Papers: Being Stories, Reviews, Verses, and Sketches (1821-1847) Literary Essays The English Humorists of the 18th century: a series of lectures (1867) Ballads Miscellanies Stories Burlesques Character Sketches Critical Reviews Second Funeral of Napoleon See also[edit] Barry Lyndon, the 1975 film adaptation by Stanley Kubrick References[edit] ^ Calcutta was the capital of the British Empire in India at the time. Thackeray was born on the grounds of what is now the Armenian College & Philanthropic Academy, on the old Freeschool Street, now called Mirza Ghalib Street. ^ John., Aplin (2010). The inheritance of genius : a Thackeray family biography, 1798-1875. Cambridge, U.K.: Lutterworth Press. ISBN 978-0718842109. OCLC 855607313. ^ a b c d e f g "THACKERAY, WILLIAM MAKEPEACE (1811–1863)" in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography online, (subscription required), accessed 4 May 2019 ^ Dunton, Larkin (1896). The World and Its People. Silver, Burdett. p. 25. ^ "Thackeray, William Makepeace (THKY826WM)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge. ^ Gary Simons, "Thackeray's Contributions to the Times", Victorian Periodicals Review, 40:4 (2007, pp. 332–354 ^ Dabney, Ross H. (March 1980). "Review: The Book of Snob by William Makepeace Thackeray, John Sutherland". Nineteenth-Century Fiction. 34 (4): 456–462, 455. doi:10.2307/2933542. JSTOR 2933542. ^ a b c "Punch and the Great Famine". History Ireland. 23 January 2013. Retrieved 17 July 2019. ^ Ann Monsarrat, An Uneasy Victorian: Thackeray the Man, 1811–1863, London: Cassell, 1980, pp. 121, 128, 134, 161; John Aplin, Memory and Legacy: A Thackeray Family Biography, 1876–1919, Cambridge: Lutterworth, 2011, pp. 5, 136. ^ Brander, Laurence. "Thackeray, William Makepeace". Ebscohost. Britannica Biographies. Retrieved 3 June 2019. ^ Pearson, Richard (1 November 2017). W.M.Thackery and the Mediated Text: Writing for Periodicals in the Mid-Nineteenth Century. Routledge. ISBN 9781351774093. ^ Bee Wilson, "Vanity Fare", New Statesman, 27 November 1998. Retrieved 4 January 2014 ^ "The Yellowplush Papers". British Comedy Guide. Retrieved 9 February 2009. ^ Kvas, Kornelije (2019). The Boundaries of Realism in World Literature. Lanham, Boulder, New York, London: Lexington Books. p. 43. ISBN 978-1-7936-0910-6. ^ "Lea Slerca". leaslerca.retelinux.com. Retrieved 17 July 2019. ^ "William Makepeace Thackeray Traded Elephants in Sylhet". 28 May 2016. ^ Menon, Anil (29 March 2006). "William Makepeace Thackeray: The Indian in the Closet". Round Dice. Archived from the original on 14 June 2010. Retrieved 3 December 2014. ^ Alexander, Eric (2007). "Ancestry of William Thackeray". Henry Cort Father of the Iron Trade. henrycort.net. Archived from the original on 21 February 2013. Retrieved 10 February 2009. ^ Gilder, Jeannette Leonard; Joseph Benson Gilder (15 May 1897). The Critic: An Illustrated Monthly Review of Literature, Art, and Life (Original from Princeton University, Digitized 18 April 2008 ed.). Good Literature Pub. Co. p. 335. ^ "Rabbiting On: Ooty Well Preserved & Flourishing". 8 February 2009. ^ Cavendish, Dominic (3 March 2007). "Prime Time, Gentlemen, Please". The Daily Telegraph. London. ^ "Charlotte Brontë's dress gaffe ruled out 165 years after Thackeray dinner". The Guardian. 15 June 2016. Retrieved 6 May 2020. ^ "Thackeray, William Makepeace (1811-1863)". English Heritage. Retrieved 23 October 2012. ^ "The Crown estate in Kensington Palace Gardens: Individual buildings | British History Online". www.british-history.ac.uk. ^ Thackeray's, 85 London Rd, Tunbridge Wells, TN1 1EA Bookatable. Downloaded 20 February 2016. ^ https://apps2.oxfordshire.gov.uk/srvheritage/recordSearch?offset=0 ^ Library records of the 1868 Smith, Elder edition differ in details. Compare WorldCat records OCLC 4413727 and OCLC 559717915 (retrieved 2020-02-13). Much the same is true of WorldCat records with earlier and later dates in the Publisher field. From one record, select "View all editions and formats" for a point of entry. ^ "Smith, Elder & Co.'s New Publications." (two-line heading), The Examiner #2235, 30 November 1850, p. 778. In that full-column advertisement by the publisher, this book is the first of two listed under the first subheading, "New Christmas Books." The entire listing:   Mr Thackeray's New Christmas Book.   The Kicklebury's on the Rhine.   A new Picture Book, drawn and written by Mr M. A. Titmarsh.   Price 5s. plain; 7s. 6d. coloured.  [flushright] [On the 16th. Thus the book is listed as forthcoming 16 December 1850. This transcript represents all five elements of the listing faithfully except in the use of capital letters. ^ Harden, Edgar (2003). A William Makepeace Thackeray Chronology. Palgrave Macmillan UK. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-230-59857-7. Retrieved 29 June 2016. Bibliography[edit] Aplin, John (ed), The Correspondence and Journals of the Thackeray Family, 5 vols., Pickering & Chatto, 2011. Aplin, John, The Inheritance of Genius – A Thackeray Family Biography, 1798–1875, Lutterworth Press, 2010. Aplin, John, Memory and Legacy – A Thackeray Family Biography, 1876–1919, Lutterworth Press, 2011. Catalan, Zelma. The Politics of Irony in Thackeray’s Mature Fiction: Vanity Fair, Henry Esmond, The Newcomes. Sofia (Bulgaria), 2010, 250 pp. Sheldon Goldfarb Catherine: A Story (The Thackeray Edition). University of Michigan Press, 1999. Ferris, Ina. William Makepeace Thackeray. Boston: Twayne, 1983. Jack, Adolphus Alfred. Thackeray: A Study. London: Macmillan, 1895. Monsarrat, Ann. An Uneasy Victorian: Thackeray the Man, 1811–1863. London: Cassell, 1980. Peters, Catherine. Thackeray’s Universe: Shifting Worlds of Imagination and Reality. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987. Prawer, Siegbert S.: Breeches and Metaphysics: Thackeray's German Discourse. Oxford: Legenda, 1997. Prawer, Siegbert S.: Israel at Vanity Fair: Jews and Judaism in the Writings of W. M. Thackeray. Leiden: Brill, 1992. Prawer, Siegbert S.: W. M. Thackeray's European sketch books: a study of literary and graphic portraiture. P. Lang, 2000. Ray, Gordon N. Thackeray: The Uses of Adversity, 1811–1846. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1955. Ray, Gordon N. Thackeray: The Age of Wisdom, 1847–1863. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1957. Ritchie, H.T. Thackeray and His Daughter. Harper and Brothers, 1924. Rodríguez Espinosa, Marcos (1998) Traducción y recepción como procesos de mediación cultural: 'Vanity Fair' en España. Málaga: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad de Málaga. Shillingsburg, Peter. William Makepeace Thackeray: A Literary Life. Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2001. Bloom, Abigail Burnham; Maynard, John, eds. (1994). Anne Thackeray Ritchie: Journals and letters. Columbus: Ohio State Univ. Press. ISBN 9780814206386. Williams, Ioan M. Thackeray. London: Evans, 1968. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to William Makepeace Thackeray. Wikiquote has quotations related to: William Makepeace Thackeray Wikisource has original works written by or about: William Makepeace Thackeray Library resources about William Makepeace Thackeray Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Works by William Makepeace Thackeray at Project Gutenberg Works by or about William Makepeace Thackeray at Internet Archive Works by William Makepeace Thackeray at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Works by Thackeray at eBooks @ Adelaide Works by William Thackeray at Poeticous PSU's Electronic Classics Series William Makepeace Thackeray site On Charity and Humor, discourse on behalf of a charitable organisation Pegasus in Harness: Victorian Publishing and W. M. Thackeray by Peter L. Shillingsburg "Bluebeard's Ghost" by W. M. 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General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University v t e William Makepeace Thackeray Works Catherine (1839–40) A Shabby Genteel Story (1840) The Luck of Barry Lyndon (1844) Mrs. Perkins's Ball (1846) Vanity Fair (1848) The Book of Snobs (1848) Pendennis (1848–1850) Men's Wives (1852) The History of Henry Esmond (1852) The Newcomes (1855) The Rose and the Ring (1855) The Virginians (1857–1859) The Adventures of Philip (1862) Film and television adapations Vanity Fair (1911) Vanity Fair (1915) Vanity Fair (1922) Vanity Fair (1923) Vanity Fair (1932) Becky Sharp (1935) Vanity Fair (1967) Barry Lyndon (1975) Pierścień i róża (1986) Vanity Fair (1987) Vanity Fair (1998) Don't Leave... (1989) Vanity Fair (2004) Vanity Fair (2018) Related Anne Isabella Thackeray Ritchie (daughter) v t e William Makepeace Thackeray's Vanity Fair Characters Becky Sharp Film Vanity Fair (1911) Vanity Fair (1915) Vanity Fair (1922) Vanity Fair (1923) Vanity Fair (1932) Becky Sharp (1935) Vanity Fair (2004) Television Vanity Fair (1967) Vanity Fair (1987) Vanity Fair (1998) Vanity Fair (2018) v t e 19th-century English photographers William de Wiveleslie Abney William Makepeace Thackeray Sarah Angelina Acland Anna Atkins William Bambridge Alexander Bassano Richard Beard Robert Jefferson Bingham Graystone Bird Samuel Bourne Sarah Anne Bright Samuel Buckle Julia Margaret Cameron Lewis Carroll Philip Henry Delamotte Elliott & Fry William England Roger Fenton Francis Frith Peter Wickens Fry William Hayes Norman Heathcote John Herschel Alfred Horsley Hinton Frederick Hollyer Alice Hughes Richard Keene William Edward Kilburn Martin Laroche Richard Cockle Lucas Farnham Maxwell-Lyte William Eastman Palmer & Sons William Pumphrey James Robertson Henry Peach Robinson Alfred Seaman Alice Seeley Harris Charles Shepherd Jane Martha St. John Francis Meadow Sutcliffe Constance Fox Talbot Henry Fox Talbot Eveleen Myers Henry Van der Weyde Carl Vandyk Authority control BIBSYS: 90082964 BNE: XX920966 BNF: cb119263058 (data) CANTIC: a10410260 CiNii: DA00397356 GND: 118621483 ISNI: 0000 0001 2144 1903 LCCN: n78095677 LNB: 000035936 MBA: fdc6ce57-6a40-4721-8c71-abb9e10f78eb NARA: 10580571 NDL: 00458530 NKC: jn19990008457 NLA: 35544821 NLG: 109859 NLI: 000130807 NLK: KAC199627302 NSK: 000103193 NTA: 227916417 PIC: 23213 RKD: 76959 SELIBR: 96454 SNAC: w6c53p1t SUDOC: 027158632 TePapa: 2226 Trove: 990794 ULAN: 500026742 VcBA: 495/101936 VIAF: 95208604 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n78095677 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Makepeace_Thackeray&oldid=995321132" Categories: 1811 births 1863 deaths 19th-century English novelists Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge Burials at Kensal Green Cemetery English Anglicans People educated at Charterhouse School Writers from Kolkata Victorian novelists Writers from London English male novelists Thackeray family Writers in British India Members of the Athenaeum Club, London Writers who illustrated their own writing Members of the Ancient Order of Druids Hidden categories: Pages containing links to subscription-only content CS1: Julian–Gregorian uncertainty Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use British English from August 2011 Use dmy dates from September 2020 Wikipedia introduction cleanup from April 2020 All pages needing cleanup Articles covered by WikiProject Wikify from April 2020 All articles covered by WikiProject Wikify Articles that may contain original research from October 2015 All articles that may contain original research All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2015 Articles that may contain original 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en-wikipedia-org-6797	----	Epistles (Horace) - Wikipedia Epistles (Horace) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Mosaic of Minerva by Elihu Vedder (Thomas Jefferson Building). Beneath the mosaic is an inscription from Horace's Ars Poetica: "Nil invita Minerva, quae monumentum aere perennius exegit, and translated as, Not unwilling, Minerva raises a monument more lasting than bronze." The Epistles (or Letters) of Horace were published in two books, in 20 BCE and 14 BCE, respectively. Epistularum liber primus (First Book of Letters) is the seventh work by Horace, published in the year 20 BCE. This book consists of 20 Epistles. The phrase sapere aude ("dare to be wise") comes from this collection of poems. Epistularum liber secundus (Second Book of Letters) was published in the year 14 BC. This book consists of 3 Epistles. However, the third epistle – the Ars Poetica – is usually treated as a separate composition. Contents 1 Background 2 Book 1 3 Book 2 4 Editions 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Background[edit] As one commentator has put it: "Horace's Epistles may be said to be a continuation of his Satires in the form of letters... But few of the epistles are [actually] letters except in form..."[1]:159 They do indeed contain an excellent specimen of a letter of introduction (I.9); a piece of playful banter (I.14); pieces of friendly correspondence (I.3, I.4 and I.5); while the last, Epistle I.20, is inscribed 'To His Book," and forms a sort of epilogue to the Epistles he had already written. However, as a rule, the Epistles "are compositions like those which Pope, following the manner of Horace, has made familiar to us as Moral Essays."[1]:159 The Epistles were published about four years after the first three books of Odes, and were introduced by a special address to his patron Maecenas, as his Odes, Epodes and Satires had been.[2]:687–91 The form of composition may have been suggested by some of the satires of Lucilius, which were composed as letters to his personal friends...[2]:690 "From the Epistles... we gather that [Horace] had gradually adopted a more retired and meditative life, and had become fonder of the country and of study, and that while owing allegiance to no school or sect of philosophy, he was framing for himself a scheme of life, was endeavoring to conform to it, and was bent on inculcating it in others."[2]:690 "In both his Satires and Epistles, Horace shows himself a genuine moralist, a subtle observer and true painter of life, and an admirable writer." But in spirit the Epistles are more philosophic, more ethical and meditative. Like the Odes they exhibit the twofold aspects of Horace's philosophy, that of temperate Epicureanism and that of more serious and elevated conviction.[2]:690 Book 1[edit] Book 1 contains 20 Epistles.[1][3] I.1 – On the Importance of Philosophy - (Dedication to Maecenas, Horace's Patron) 1-19 – Horace excuses himself to Maecenas for giving up the composition of lyric poetry, but he is better suited to philosophy as he grows older. However, he is not bound to any particular philosophic school. 20-40 – Wisdom is the true business of life; yet most of us must be content with but a moderate share of it: wisdom too is the only power which can tame our passions. 41-69 – Men will do and suffer anything to avoid poverty, but they will do nothing to gain virtue, which is more precious than gold. A clear conscience makes a man truly a king. 70-93 – He cannot follow the popular ideas, because he sees that they all tend one way - namely, to money-making. Besides, not only do men differ from one another in their pursuits, but no man is ever consistent with himself. 94-108 – External inconsistencies are noticed at once, while those of life and practice are passed over. This epistle ends with a joke on the Stoic doctrine of the perfect man. I.2 – Homer: The Teacher of True Philosophy – (Addressed to Lollius Maximus) 1-31 – Horace begins by demonstrating, in the manner of the Stoic philosophers, the merit of Homer as a teacher of morals. 32-71 – Men will take more trouble for bad deeds than for good, and more for the body than the mind. Yet, without contentment and peace of mind, material acquisitions cannot be enjoyed. Avarice and envy are always beggars, and remorse comes after anger. Youth is the time to learn self-control. He shall always adhere to the philosophy of moderation. I.3 – A Literary Staff – (Addressed to Julius Florus) To Julius Florus, who was serving on the staff of Tiberius Claudius Nero. The letter consists mainly of inquiries and observations as to the literary pursuits of members of the staff; and concludes with a hope that the quarrel between Florus and Munatius has ended in a reconciliation. I.4 – An Exhortation to Contentment – (Addressed to Albius Tibullus, the Elegaic Poet) Horace urges his friend to enjoy each passing hour, and suggests that a visit to his Sabine Farm may divert him. I.5 – An Invitation – (Addressed to Manlius Torquatus, to whom Horace also wrote Ode IV.7) Horace invites his friend to dinner – Tomorrow is a holiday and Torquatus may well forget his occupations for a time. Horace then extols the virtues of wine (see also Ode III.21); and describes the preparations he is making for the banquet. I.6 – On Philosophic Indifference – (Addressed to Numicius) Equanimity is happiness – Fear and desire alike disturb our peace of mind. You will find this maxim true if you seek the chief good in any other pursuit – 1) in riches, 2) in political honors, 3) in sumptuous living, or 4) in love and trifling. I.7 – An Independent Spirit – (Addressed to Maecenas) 1-24 – Horace excuses himself to Maecenas for not keeping his promise to come to Rome, on the ground that it would be dangerous to his health. He feels that this reason will satisfy Maecenas, as being a friend who has always had a sincere regard for his welfare. 25-45 – If Maecenas would want him to always be at Rome, then Horace must have back his health and youth. He must be free, even if freedom costs him the loss of all Maecenas' favors. Horace would give back all, as Telemachus refused the horses which were unsuited to his poor and rocky island. 46-95 – The story of Volteius Mena and his patron L. Marcius Philippus, with an implied allusion to the relationship between Horace and Maecenas. The attainment of our wishes does not always make us happy. I.8 – A Word of Warning – (Addressed to Celsus Albinovanus, who was serving on the staff of Tiberius in the province of Asia) This letter seems to be a reply. Horace speaks of his own fickleness and discontent, and gently recommends moderation to Celsus in prosperity. I.9 – A Letter of Recommendation – (Addressed to Tiberius) This letter is written to the future emperor Tiberius, in behalf of Titius Septimius, to whom Ode II.6 is addressed. I.10 – The Advantages of Country Life – (Addressed to Aristius Fuscus, to whom Ode I.22 is also addressed) This epistle begins with Horace contrasting his own love of the country with his friend's fondness for the town; then follows the praise of Nature; and finally the poet dwells on the superior happiness that moderate means and contentment afford, compared with riches and ambition. I.11 – On Contentment – (Addressed to Bullatius) To Bullatius who is travelling to Ionia – Change of scene does not alter the mind. If the mind is tranquil, the meanest and least interesting of places seem agreeable. I.12 – Consolation – (Addressed to Iccius, to whom Ode I.29 is also addressed) Horace advises Iccius, who is now steward of Agrippa's property in Sicily, to be content, and compliments him on pursuing the study of philosophy. He then encourages him to cultivate the friendship of Pompeius Grosphus, and tells him the news at Rome. I.13 – Instructions to a Messenger – (Addressed to Vinius Asina) Horace sends a copy of his Odes to Augustus by a friend of his court circles – Vinius Asina. The poet writes a playful note of instruction to the messenger, whom he likens (on account of his name "Asina") to a beast of burden. I.14 – Master to Bailiff – Horace writes a letter to his bailiff, who dislikes the country and longs to return to city life; while Horace, detained at Rome, has his heart in the country. I.15 – A Request for Information – (Addressed to Numonius Vala) Horace has decided to spend the winter at the seashore, and now writes to his friend for information about the climate and resources of Velia and Salernum. I.16 – Happiness Depends Upon Virtue – (Addressed to Quinctius Hirpinus, to whom Ode II.11 is also addressed) 1-16 – Horace describes the simple attractions of his Sabine Farm. 17-45 – Advice to his friend not to value too highly the admiration of the masses – their honors can be taken away. 46-62 – Many a man who seems to be good is actuated by fear, not love – his morality is hollow. 63-79 – The miser is a slave to his money. The good man is free and fearless, come what will. I.17 – On True Independence – (Address to Scaeva) Horace shows that one may observe proper deference towards a patron without sacrificing one's self-respect. He gives some humorous directions for gaining the favor of great men. I.18 – On the Proper Demeanor Towards a Patron – (Addressed to Lollius Maximum) As in Epistle I.17, Horace assures a friend that he can show proper deference to a patron, without laying himself open to the charge of obsequiousness. I.19 – The Poet on His Critics – (Addressed to Maecenas) The Odes (Books I–III) had evidently met with unfavorable criticism outside the small circle of the poet's friends. He points out to Maecenas the injustice of the charges which have been made against him, and expresses contempt for his detractors. I.20 – Epilogue – (Addressed to His Book) Horace warns his book of Epistles of the fate that attends publishing. He compares it to a young and beautiful slave, and foretells its destiny – 1) Success until it falls into the hands of the vulgar; 2) Banishment to the provinces; 3) An old age spent in schools. Book 2[edit] Book 2 consists of 3 epistles. However, the third epistle – the Ars Poetica – is usually treated as a separate composition. (For further discussion, see the Wikipedia article on the Ars Poetica). II.1 – On Popular Taste and Judgment – (Dedication to Augustus) Horace dedicates his second collection of Epistles to Augustus, who had apparently urged him to undertake something in the line of dramatic or epic poetry. He complains of the poor taste shown by the general public, especially in regard to the drama, and says that he is unwilling to make an attempt in that line. For epic poetry he has no ability. II.2 – A Renunciation of Lyric Poetry – (Addressed to Julius Florus, to whom Epistle I.3 is also addressed) Horace expresses at greater length the same general sentiments as in Epistle I.1 – He intends to devote himself to philosophy and to write only in the field represented by the Satires and Epistles. II.3 – Ars Poetica – The Art of Poetry – (Addressed to The Pisos) (For further discussion, see the Wikipedia article on the Ars Poetica) The Ars Poetica is dedicated to Horace's friend Lucius Calpurnius Piso (the Roman senator and consul) and his two sons. 1-23 – Unity and simplicity are necessary in a poem. 24-37 – We, who would be poets, must guard against all extremes. 38-44 – We must well consider our powers before we write. 45-72 – We may coin new words when necessary, but this must be done with care: words, like all other things, are subject to change. 73-85 – The various kinds of poetry: epic, elegiac, dramatic, lyric. 86-98 – We must suit our style to the different kinds of poetry. 99-118 – The words also must be suitable to the character in whose mouth the poet puts them. 119-152 – A writer should follow the traditions of the Muse; or, if he strikes out something new, must be consistent. No better guide can we follow than Homer. 153-178 – A writer too should observe the characteristics of each age of man. 179-188 – Some things should be represented on the stage, others related to the spectators. 189-201 – Certain rules not to be transgressed. The role of the Chorus. 202-219 – Of the music of the stage, and how it changes with the fortunes and manners of the people. 220-250 – The Satyric drama, which accompanied the tragedy, is not the same as comedy, and has its rules and wholesome restraints. 251-274 – On the Iambic and Spondee. The Greek taste is to be followed, rather than the license of the Roman poets, in respect to meter. 275-294 – The origin of tragedy & its development. To it succeeded the old comedy – vigorous, but scurrilous. The Latin poets deserve some praise, but their great fault is their careless, slovenly style. 295-308 – Genius cannot afford to dispense with the rules of art. The critic has his place in literature. 309-322 – Knowledge is the foundation of good writing. Poetry without sense is but a harmonious trifling. 323-333 – The Greeks had genius; the Romans are a money-getting race. 334-346 – The object of the poet should be to give instruction and delight. 347-360 – We do not expect perfection in a poem, but we do expect care and pains. 361-365 – A short comparison between poetry and painting. 366-390 – Mediocrity in poetry is insufferable – For this reason, be careful before you publish. 391-407 – The origins and office of poetry in early days. 408-418 – Genius is necessary for a poet – and yet, without art and study, genius will fail. 419-452 – Let poets avoid flatterers. Quinctilius was an honest friend, whose mission it was to tell an author unpleasant truths. 453-476 – A poet goes as mad as Empedocles; let all beware of him and keep out of the way of one who will not be helped. Editions[edit] Ed. Th. K. Arnold, London (1843) See also[edit] Prosody (Latin) References[edit] ^ a b c The Works of Horace Rendered into English Prose by James Lonsdale M.A. and Samuel Lee M.A. London: MacMillan and Co., 1883. Edition is available on Google Books. ^ a b c d Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Horace" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 13 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 687–691. ^ Horace, The Complete Works, ed. by Charles E. Bennett and John Carew Rolfe. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1901. Edition is available on Google Books. External links[edit] Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: Epistles (Horace) (in Latin) Horace's Letters (Epistles). University of Alabama in Huntsville. Retrieved 13 September 2010. Epistles in The Works of Horace translated literally into English Prose by Christopher Smart, 1883. Retrieved 16 February 2014. v t e Works by Horace Poetry Satires Epodes Odes Epistles Carmen Saeculare Ars Poetica Collections Satires 2.5 Quote Ut pictura poesis Related Spring of Bandusium Authority control VIAF: 179441309 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 179441309 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Epistles_(Horace)&oldid=982147647" Categories: Poetry by Horace Glycon cult 1st-century BC Latin books Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Articles with Latin-language sources (la) Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Use dmy dates from April 2017 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Français 한국어 Italiano Latina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 6 October 2020, at 12:40 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6820	----	Constitution of the Roman Empire - Wikipedia Constitution of the Roman Empire From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Unwritten set of guidelines and principles of the Roman Empire Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e The Constitution of the Roman Empire was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles passed down mainly through precedent.[1] After the fall of the Roman Republic, the constitutional balance of power shifted from the Roman Senate to the Roman Emperor. Beginning with the first emperor, Augustus, the emperor and the senate were theoretically two co-equal branches of government. In practice, however, the actual authority of the imperial Senate was negligible, as the emperor held the true power of the state. During the reign of the second emperor, Tiberius, many of the powers that had been held by the Roman assemblies were transferred to the Senate.[2] The powers of an emperor existed by virtue of his legal standing. The two most significant components to an emperor's power were the "tribunician powers" Latin: tribunicia potestas and the proconsular imperium, or the power to command.[3] The tribunician powers gave the emperor authority over Rome itself and the civil government, while the proconsular powers gave him authority over the provinces and the army. While these distinctions were clearly defined during the early empire, eventually they were lost, and the emperor's powers became less constitutional and more monarchical. The traditional magistracies that survived the fall of the republic were the Consulship, Praetorship, Plebeian Tribunate, Aedileship, Quaestorship, and Military Tribunate. Any individual of the senatorial class could run for one of these offices. If an individual was not of the senatorial class, he could run for one of these offices if he was allowed to run by the emperor, or otherwise, he could be appointed to one of these offices by the emperor. Contents 1 Imperial constitutional history 2 Senate 3 Legislative Assemblies 4 Executive Magistrates 5 The end of the Principate 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 8.1 Primary sources Imperial constitutional history[edit] Main articles: History of the Roman Constitution and History of the Constitution of the Roman Empire The general who won the last civil war of the Roman Republic, Gaius Octavian, became the master of the state. In the years after 30 BC, Octavian set out to reform the Roman constitution. The ultimate consequence of these reforms was the abolition of the republic and the founding of the Roman Empire. When Octavian deposed his fellow triumvir, Mark Antony, in 32 BC, he resigned his position as triumvir,[4] but was probably vested with powers similar to those that he had given up. Octavian wanted to solidify his status as master of the state whilst avoiding assassination. On 13 January 27 BC, Octavian gave up his extraordinary powers, including his proconsular imperium, triumvirate authority, and powers granted in the consensus universorum, back to the Senate and people of Rome.[5] However, he kept the Senate's grant of tribunician power in 36 BC and remained consul for 27 BC. He received from the Senate, doubtlessly at his own suggestion, greater proconsular imperium for a period of ten years, giving him supreme authority over the provinces, and therefore, the entire Roman military.[6] These various powers and offices both allowed him to maintain his legal authority over the empire at large and claim that the Republic was restored. The wide-reaching grant of proconsular authority was precedented in lex Gabinia's grant of similar authority to Pompey in 67 BC.[5] Furthermore, the proconsular powers were theoretically outranked by the consular powers held by the sitting consuls, allowing Octavian to claim he did not stand above any other magistrates of the state.[5] To maintain his control in Italy, which was not considered a province, Octavian had the Assemblies elect him to the position of consul.[5] At this point, the Senate also granted Octavian the title "augustus" and the position of princeps senatus, or the first Senator. When Augustus, as Octavian was renamed, gave up the consulship in 23 BC,[5] the Senate granted him an expansion of his proconsular authority, with legal authority at the same level as those of the normal consuls. Furthermore, Augustus expanded the use of the tribunician powers granted in 36 BC, which allowed him to interfere in administration, convoke the people, propose legislation, veto other political bodies, etc.[5] After these final reforms had been instituted, Augustus never again altered his constitution,[7] although he did periodically assume the office of censor to affect changes in the Senatorial rolls (alone in 8 BC, and with Tiberius in AD 14) and hold the consulship (twice after 23 BC).[5] When, in 20 BC, a famine in Rome led to the people offering Augustus the dictatorship, he refused, instead taking on the cura annonae: the administration of the grain supply.[5] And when the ten-year term of his proconsular authority elapsed, he continued the fiction of the temporary nature of his authority, having it renewed in 18 BC, 13 BC, 8 BC, 3 BC, and 8 AD.[5] While there were minor changes in the provinces which he governed by nature of his proconsular authority (Gallia Narbonensis and Cyprus were returned to the Senate's administration in 22 BC),[5] its overriding nature did not change until after his death. Augustus' final goal was to figure out a method to ensure an orderly succession, something necessary in any monarchial constitution and to avoid the resurgence of civil war. Augustus could not transfer his powers to a successor upon his death, as they were given specifically to him for some fixed term or during his life.[8] Thus, any successor would need to have his own authority and influence. In 6 BC Augustus granted tribunician powers to his stepson Tiberius and recognised Tiberius as his heir.[8] In AD 13, a law was passed which made Tiberius' legal powers equivalent to and independent from those of Augustus.[9] On Augustus' death, Tiberius had to take control of the state, since the nominally republican constitution did not allow for the dead emperor to bequeath powers.[10] With the support of the Praetorian Guard and the army, he quickly took control of the state.[10] During his reign, the power to elect magistrates was transferred from the assemblies to the Senate and he ended the practice of proposing laws before them.[11][12] When Tiberius died, Caligula was proclaimed emperor by the Senate. In 41, Caligula was assassinated, and for two days following his assassination, the Senate debated whether to restore the Republic.[13] Due to the demands of the army, however, Claudius was ultimately declared emperor. While Claudius' antiquarian interests resulted in his attempts to revive the old censorship, these powers became increasingly folded into imperial prerogatives.[14] Over time, the consulship was increasingly devalued, as the practice of selecting suffect consuls expanded, with sometimes up to 12 pairs of colleagues being elected every year by the Antonine period.[15] With its duties of state increasingly being folded into the office of emperor, its judicial authority was emphasised in the Senate's new role as a criminal court; and with loss of practically all of the position's political powers, the consuls took over responsibility for organising public games to celebrate holidays and imperial events.[16][12] With the neutering of the political power of many of the Republic's magistracies, many of the former high offices of state effectively became municipal offices with primarily administrative duties only in Rome. The praetors became administrators of the grain dole and games, retaining some judicial authority over civil and criminal cases until the third century.[17][14] The aediles were duties to organise policing of games and public funerals, their judicial authority stripped away in 36 AD, with the office going into abeyance by the middle of the third century.[17][18] The tribunes, who theoretically retained their veto powers, which were irrelevant, as they could be overridden by the emperor,[18] became presidents of various new city regions.[17] Vespasian's reign saw the reorganisation of the Senate from a body of aristocratic Romans to one of the Empire's aristocracy, with its membership and privileges given by the emperor.[19] Domitian's reign marked a significant turning point on the road to monarchy and the end of the constitutional arrangement whereby the Senate and Emperor ruled the Empire together.[20] After making himself consul for ten years, Domitian made himself Censor for life, and unlike his father, he used these powers to further subjugate the Senate by controlling its membership.[20] Throughout his reign, he abrogated the rights of senators, only referred to it the most trivial matters, prevented it from acting on matters of any import, and forced it into compliance through his use of censorial powers.[21] In effect, it became a rubber stamp. While the Senate regained some authority when it elected the emperor Nerva, by this point, the powers that were theoretically held by the last remaining republican institution of any import, were clearly defined only by the will of the emperor.[22] Senate[edit] Main articles: Roman Senate and Senate of the Roman Empire After the fall of the Roman Republic, the constitutional balance of power shifted from the Roman Senate to the Roman Emperor. Beginning with the first emperor, Augustus, the emperor and the senate were technically two co-equal branches of government. In practice, however the actual authority of the imperial senate was negligible, as the emperor held the true power of the state. As such, membership in the senate became sought after by individuals seeking prestige and social standing, rather than actual authority. During the reigns of the first emperors, legislative, judicial, and electoral powers were all transferred from the Roman assemblies to the senate. However, since the control that the emperor held over the senate was absolute, the senate acted as a vehicle through which the emperor exercised his autocratic powers. The Curia Julia in the Roman Forum, the seat of the imperial Senate. The first emperor, Augustus, inherited a senate whose membership had been increased to 900 senators by his predecessor, the Roman Dictator Julius Caesar. Augustus reduced the size of the senate to 600 members, and after this point, the size of the senate was never again drastically altered. One could become a senator by being elected Quaestor (a magistrate with financial duties). However, one could only stand for election to the Quaestorship if one was of senatorial rank, and to be of senatorial rank, one had to be the son of a senator.[23] If an individual was not of senatorial rank, there were two ways for that individual to become a senator. Under the first method, the emperor granted that individual the authority to stand for election to the Quaestorship,[23] while under the second method, the emperor appointed that individual to the senate.[24] The power that the emperor held over the senate was absolute, in part due to the fact that the emperor was also censor, meaning he controlled membership in the body itself.[25] During senate meetings, the emperor sat between the two Consuls,[26] and usually acted as the presiding officer. Higher ranking senators spoke before lower ranking senators, although the emperor could speak at any time.[26] Most of the bills that came before the senate were presented by the emperor,[26] who had usually appointed a committee to draft each bill before presenting it. While the Roman assemblies continued to meet after the founding of the empire, their powers were all transferred to the senate, and so senatorial decrees (senatus consulta) acquired the full force of law.[25] The legislative powers of the imperial senate were principally of a financial and an administrative nature, although the senate did retain a range of powers over the provinces.[25] During the early empire, all judicial powers that had been held by the Roman assemblies were also transferred to the senate. For example, the senate now held jurisdiction over criminal trials. In these cases, a Consul presided, the senators constituted the jury, and the verdict was handed down in the form of a decree (senatus consultum),[27] and, while a verdict could not be appealed, the emperor could pardon a convicted individual through a veto. In theory, the senate elected new emperors, while in conjunction with the popular assemblies, it would then confer upon the new emperor his command powers (imperium).[28] After an emperor had died or abdicated his office, the senate would often deify him, although sometimes it would pass a decree (damnatio memoriae or "damnation from memory") which would attempt to cancel every trace of that emperor from the life of Rome, as if he had never existed.[28] The emperor Tiberius transferred all electoral powers from the assemblies to the senate,[28] and, while theoretically the senate elected new magistrates, the approval of the emperor was always needed before an election could be finalized.[28] Legislative Assemblies[edit] Main articles: Roman assemblies and Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Empire The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Empire were political institutions in the ancient Roman Empire. During the reign of the second Roman Emperor, Tiberius, the powers that had been held by the Roman assemblies (the comitia) were transferred to the Senate. The neutering of the assemblies had become inevitable because the electors were, in general, ignorant as to the merits of the important questions that were laid before them,[29] and often willing to sell their votes to the highest bidder. After the founding of the Roman Empire, the People of Rome continued to organize by Centuries and by Tribes, but by this point, these divisions had lost most of their relevance.[30] Lictor, painted by Cesare Vecellio. While the machinery of the Centuriate Assembly continued to exist well into the life of the empire,[30] the assembly lost all of its practical relevance. Under the empire, all gatherings of the Centuriate Assembly were in the form of an unsorted convention. Legislation was never submitted to the imperial Centuriate Assembly, and the one major legislative power that this assembly had held under the republic, the right to declare war, was now delegated to the emperor through his greater proconsular authority.[30][31] All judicial powers that had been held by the republican Centuriate Assembly were transferred to independent jury courts, and under the emperor Tiberius, all of its former electoral powers were transferred to the senate.[30] After it had lost all of these powers, it had no remaining authority. Its only remaining function was, after the senate had 'elected' the magistrates, to hear the renuntiatio,[30] The renuntiatio had no legal purpose, but instead was a ceremony in which the results of the election were read to the electors. This allowed the emperor to claim that the magistrates had been "elected" by a sovereign people. After the founding of the empire, the tribal divisions of citizens and freedmen continued, but the only political purpose of the tribal divisions was such that they better enabled the senate to maintain a list of citizens.[30] Tribal divisions also simplified the process by which grain was distributed.[30] Eventually, most freedmen belonged to one of the four urban tribes, while most freemen belonged to one of the thirty-one rural tribes.[30] Under the emperor Tiberius, the electoral powers of the Tribal Assembly were transferred to the senate. Each year, after the senate had elected the annual magistrates, the Tribal Assembly also heard the renuntiatio.[30] Any legislation that the emperor submitted to the assemblies for ratification were submitted to the Tribal Assembly.[30] The assembly ratified imperial decrees, starting with the emperor Augustus, and continuing until the emperor Domitian. The ratification of legislation by the assembly, however, had no legal importance as the emperor could make any decree into law, even without the acquiescence of the assemblies. Thus, under the empire, the chief executive again became the chief lawgiver, which was a power he had not held since the days of the early republic.[30] The Plebeian Council also survived the fall of the republic,[30] and it also lost its judicial and electoral powers to the Senate during the reign of Tiberius, even if many of Augustus' reforms were passed as plebiscita in the Council.[32] While it retained its theoretical legislative powers, after the reign of Tiberius, the only known piece of legislation, excepting the grants of tribunician power to the emperor, passed via the Council is an agrarian law under Nerva.[33] By virtue of his tribunician powers, the emperor always had absolute control over the council.[30] Executive Magistrates[edit] Main articles: Roman Magistrates and Executive Magistrates of the Roman Empire The Executive Magistrates were elected individuals of the ancient Roman Empire. The powers of an emperor, (his imperium) existed, in theory at least, by virtue of his legal standing. The two most significant components to an emperor's imperium were the "tribunician powers" (potestas tribunicia) and the "proconsular powers" (imperium proconsulare).[34] In theory at least, the tribunician powers (which were similar to those of the Plebeian Tribunes under the old republic) gave the emperor authority over Rome's civil government, while the proconsular powers (similar to those of military governors, or Proconsuls, under the old republic) gave him authority over the Roman army. While these distinctions were clearly defined during the early empire, eventually they were lost, and the emperor's powers became less constitutional and more monarchical.[35] By virtue of his proconsular powers, the emperor held the same grade of military command authority as did the chief magistrates (the Roman Consuls and Proconsuls) under the republic. However, the emperor was not subject to the constitutional restrictions that the old Consuls and Proconsuls had been subject to.[3] Eventually, he was given powers that, under the republic, had been reserved for the Roman Senate and the Roman assemblies, including the right to declare war, to ratify treaties, and to negotiate with foreign leaders.[36] The emperor's degree of Proconsular power gave him authority over all of Rome's military governors, and thus, over most of the Roman army. The emperor's tribunician powers gave him power over Rome's civil apparatus,[37][38] as well as the power to preside over, and thus to dominate, the assemblies and the senate.[37] When an emperor was vested with the tribunician powers, his office and his person became sacrosanct,[37] and thus it became a capital offense to harm or to obstruct the emperor.[37] The emperor also had the authority to carry out a range of duties that, under the republic, had been performed by the Roman Censors. Such duties included the authority to regulate public morality (censorship) and to conduct a census. As part of the census, the emperor had the power to assign individuals to a new social class, including the senatorial class, which gave the emperor unchallenged control over senate membership.[39] The emperor also had the power to interpret laws and to set precedents.[40] In addition, the emperor controlled the religious institutions, since, as emperor, he was always Pontifex Maximus and a member of each of the four major priesthoods.[36] Under the empire, the citizens were divided into three classes, and for members of each class, a distinct career path was available (known as the cursus honorum).[41] The traditional magistracies were only available to citizens of the senatorial class. The magistracies that survived the fall of the republic were (by their order of rank per the cursus honorum) the Consulship, Praetorship, Plebeian Tribunate, Aedileship, Quaestorship, and Military Tribunate.[41] If an individual was not of the senatorial class, he could run for one of these offices if he was allowed to run by the emperor, or otherwise, he could be appointed to one of these offices by the emperor. During the transition from republic to empire, no office lost more power or prestige than the Consulship, which was due, in part, to the fact that the substantive powers of republican Consuls were all transferred to the emperor. Imperial Consuls could preside over the senate, could act as judges in certain criminal trials, and had control over public games and shows.[16] The Praetors also lost a great deal of power, and ultimately had little authority outside of the city.[14] The chief Praetor in Rome, the Urban Praetor, outranked all other Praetors, and for a brief time, they were given power over the treasury.[14] Under the empire, the Plebeian Tribunes remained sacrosanct,[18] and, in theory at least, retained the power to summon, or to veto, the senate and the assemblies.[18] Augustus divided the college of Quaestors into two divisions, and assigned one division the task of serving in the senatorial provinces, and the other the task of managing civil administration in Rome.[42] Under Augustus, the Aediles lost control over the grain supply to a board of commissioners. It wasn't until after they lost the power to maintain order in the city, however, that they truly became powerless, and the office disappeared entirely during the 3rd century.[18] The end of the Principate[edit] See also: Constitution of the Late Roman Empire and History of the Constitution of the Late Roman Empire During the period that began with the accession of the emperor Nerva and ended with the death of the emperor Commodus, the empire continued to weaken. It was becoming difficult to recruit enough soldiers for the army, inflation was becoming an issue, and on at least one occasion, the empire almost went bankrupt. The most significant constitutional development during this era was the steady drift towards monarchy. It is not known exactly how M. Cocceius Nerva became emperor, although he was probably supported by the conspirators who overthrew Domitian. His reign, while too short for any major constitutional reforms, did reverse some of the abuses that his predecessor was responsible for.[43] When Nerva died in January 98, Trajan succeeded him without opposition. Trajan went further than even Nerva had in restoring the image of a free republic.[43] He refused to preside over capital trials against senators, and was away from Rome for such extended periods that the senate even regained some independent legislative abilities.[43] Hadrian succeeded Trajan as emperor. By far, his most important constitutional alteration was his creation of a bureaucratic apparatus,[44] which included a fixed gradation of clearly defined offices, and a corresponding order of promotion. Many of the functions that had been outsourced in the past were now to be performed by the state, and this system would be revived by the emperor Diocletian when he established the Tetrarchy.[44] Hadrian was succeeded by Antonius Pius, who made no real changes to the constitution.[45] He was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius in 161. The most significant constitutional development that occurred during the reign of Marcus Aurelius was the revival of the republican principle of collegiality,[45] as he made his brother, L. Aelius,[46] his co-emperor. Marcus Aurelius ruled the western half of the empire, while his brother ruled the eastern half of the empire. In 169, Aelius died, and in 176, Marcus Aurelius made his son, L. Aurelius Commodus, his new co-emperor. This arrangement was also revived when the emperor Diocletian established the Tetrarchy. In 180, Marcus Aurelius died, and Commodus became emperor. Commodus' tyranny revived the worst memories of the later Julian emperors,[47] as he was more explicit than any of his predecessors in taking powers that he did not legally have, and in disregarding the constitution. He was killed in 192. No further constitutional reforms were enacted during the Principate. The only development of any significance was the continuing slide towards monarchy, as the constitutional distinctions that had been set up by Augustus lost whatever meaning that they still had. Starting in 235, with the reign of the barbarian emperor Maximinus Thrax, the empire was put through a period of severe military, civil, and economic stress. The crisis arguably reached its height during the reign of Gallienus, from 260 to 268. The crisis ended with the accession of Diocletian in 284, who reformed the imperial military, administrative, and economic system, and in doing so abolished the Principate in favour of a naked autocratic empire. See also[edit] ‹ The template below (Columns) is being considered for deletion. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus. › Roman Kingdom Roman Republic Roman Empire Roman Law Plebeian Council Centuria Curia Roman consul Praetor Roman censor Quaestor Aedile Roman Dictator Master of the Horse Roman Senate Cursus honorum Byzantine Senate Pontifex Maximus Princeps senatus Interrex Promagistrate Acta Senatus Constitution (Roman law) References[edit] ^ Byrd, Robert (1995). The Senate of the Roman Republic. US Government Printing Office Senate Document 103–23. p. 161. ISBN 0-16-058996-7. ^ Abbott, Frank Frost (1963). A History and Descriptions of Roman Political Institutions (3 ed.). New York: Noble Offset Printers Inc. p. 398. ^ a b Abbott 1963, p. 344. ^ Abbott 1962, p. 267. sfn error: no target: CITEREFAbbott1962 (help) ^ a b c d e f g h i j Taylor, Thomas Marris (1899). A Constitutional and Political History of Rome. London: Methuen & Co. pp. 410–417. ^ Abbott 1962, p. 268. sfn error: no target: CITEREFAbbott1962 (help) ^ Abbott 1962, p. 271. sfn error: no target: CITEREFAbbott1962 (help) ^ a b Abbott 1962, p. 272. sfn error: no target: CITEREFAbbott1962 (help) ^ Abbott 1962, p. 273. sfn error: no target: CITEREFAbbott1962 (help) ^ a b Abbott 1963, p. 289. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 291. ^ a b Taylor 1899, pp. 426-429. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 293. ^ a b c d Abbott 1963, p. 377. ^ Talbert, Richard J.A. (1984). The Senate of Imperial Rome. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-05400-2. ^ a b Abbott 1963, p. 376. ^ a b c Taylor 1899, p. 430. ^ a b c d e Abbott 1963, p. 378. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 308. ^ a b Abbott 1963, p. 310. ^ Taylor 1899, p. 489. ^ Taylor 1899, p. 490. ^ a b Abbott 1963, p. 381. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 382. ^ a b c Abbott 1963, p. 385. ^ a b c Abbott 1963, p. 383. ^ Abbott 1963, pp. 385-386. ^ a b c d Abbott 1963, p. 386. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 278. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Abbott 1963, p. 397. ^ Taylor 1899, p. 428. ^ Taylor 1899, p. 426. ^ Taylor 1899, p. 427. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 342. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 341. ^ a b Abbott 1963, p. 345. ^ a b c d Abbott 1963, p. 357. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 356. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 354. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 349. ^ a b Abbott 1963, p. 374. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 379. ^ a b c Abbott 1963, p. 317. ^ a b Abbott 1963, p. 318. ^ a b Abbott 1963, p. 319. ^ Peacock, Phoebe B. Lúcio Vero (161–169 A.D.). Roman Emperos. Library of Congress. Retrieved 2013-07-28. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 320. Further reading[edit] Cicero, Marcus Tullius (1841). The Political Works of Marcus Tullius Cicero: Comprising his Treatise on the Commonwealth; and his Treatise on the Laws. Vol. 1 (Translated from the original, with Dissertations and Notes in Two Volumes By Francis Barham, Esq ed.). London: Edmund Spettigue. Holland, Tom (2005). Rubicon: The Last Years of the Roman Republic. Random House Books. ISBN 1-4000-7897-0. Polybius (1823). The General History of Polybius: Translated from the Greek. Vol. 2 (Fifth ed.). Oxford: Printed by W. Baxter. Taylor, Lily Ross (1966). Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar. The University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08125-X. Taylor, Lily Ross; Scott, Russell T (1969). "Seating Space in the Roman Senate and the Senatores Pedarii". Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association. The Johns Hopkins University Press. 100: 529. doi:10.2307/2935928. JSTOR 2935928. Primary sources[edit] Cicero's De Re Publica, Book Two Rome at the End of the Punic Wars: An Analysis of the Roman Government; by Polybius v t e Roman Constitution Ancient Rome History Constitution Senate Assemblies Curiate Century Tribal Plebeian Magistrates Roman Kingdom History Constitution Senate Assemblies Magistrates Roman Republic History Constitution (reforms of Sulla • reforms of Caesar • reforms of Augustus) Senate Assemblies Magistrates Roman Empire History (post Diocletian) Constitution (post Diocletian) Senate Assemblies Magistrates Miscellaneous Sulla's Constitutional Reforms Caesar's Constitutional Reforms Conflict of the Orders Roman law v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium 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en-wikipedia-org-6834	----	Adoption in ancient Rome - Wikipedia Adoption in ancient Rome From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Possibly the most famous Roman adoptee, Augustus first Emperor of the Roman Empire Adoption in Ancient Rome was practiced and performed by the upper classes; a large number of adoptions were performed by the Senatorial class.[1] Succession and family legacy were very important; therefore Romans needed ways of passing down their fortune and name when unable to produce a male heir. Adoption was one of the few ways to guarantee succession, so it became a norm to adopt young males into the homes of high ranking families. Due to the Roman inheritance laws (Falcidia Lex),[2] women had very little rights or the ability to inherit fortunes. This made them less valuable for adoption. However, women were still adopted and it was more common for them to be wed to an influential family. Contents 1 Causes 2 Practice 3 Adoption of women 4 Imperial succession 4.1 The Julio-Claudian Dynasty 4.2 The Adoptive Emperors 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Causes[edit] One of the benefits of a male heir was the ability to create ties among other high-ranking families through marriage. Senators throughout Rome had the responsibility of producing sons who could inherit their family’s title and estate. Childbirth was very unpredictable during these times and there was no way of knowing gender before birth. This caused many children to be lost in the years directly after and it was hard for the senators to control the situation. With the cost of children being high and average families having very few children, this posed a challenge for the senators. Without a male heir, their title and estate could be forfeited. This was the leading cause for adoption in ancient Rome. It is important to note that adoption in ancient Rome was used for a number of reasons and not exclusively by senators. The use by senators guaranteed them a son; this gave senators the freedom to produce children more freely knowing a male heir could always be adopted if unable to produce one naturally. This also created new benefits for female babies enabling them to be given away for adoption into higher ranked families. With the reduced risk of succession issues this created opportunities for males children to marry into other high-ranking families to create powerful ties among the upper class. In the case of the lower classes, raising a large family was quite challenging. Due to the cost, this allowed them to put their children up for adoption. It would benefit both the families and the child. One famous example of this is when Lucius Aemilius put his own two sons up for adoption.[1] Practice[edit] In Rome, the person in charge of adoption was the male head of the household called the paterfamilias. Adoption would result in an adoption of power for the adopted child as the status of the adopting family was immediately transferred to the child. This was almost always an increase in power due to the high cost of adoption. Publius Clodius Pulcher famously used this loophole for political power in his attempt to gain control over the plebs.[3] During the Roman Republic, the same laws stood in place with only one difference; the requirement of the Senate's approval. The actual adoption was often operated like a business contract between the two families. The adopted child took the family name as his own. Along with this, the child kept his/her original name through the form of cognomen or essentially a nickname. The adopted child also maintained previous family connections and often leveraged this politically. Due to the power disparity that normally existed between the families involved in adoption, a fee was often given to the lower family to help with replacing (in most cases) the first-born son. Another case similar to adoption was the fostering of children; this effectively took place when a paterfamilias transferred his power to another man to be left in their care.[4] Former slaves who were freed by their masters could be allowed to adopt his children to legitimize them.[5] Adoption of women[edit] Throughout Roman history many adoptions took place but very few accounts of female adoption were recorded and preserved throughout history. With men holding the spotlight in history books and articles, it is possible that adoption of girls was more popular. However, because most of the famous adoptions were male children, female adoptions could have been wrongfully accounted. Additionally, because the legal impacts of women in ancient Rome were so minimal, it is possible that adoptions could have been more informal and therefore less accounted for in history. One of the most well known was Livia Augusta who gained this name after her adoption into the Julian family. Known mainly as the wife of Augustus. Livia played a key role during this time in the Roman Empire both as a political symbol and a role model for Roman households. Livia earned herself an honorable place among history as a great mother however some of the rumors related to potential heirs have survived throughout history.[6] Imperial succession[edit] Many of Rome’s famous emperors came to power through adoption, either because their predecessors had no natural sons or simply to ensure a smooth transition for the most capable candidate. The Julio-Claudian Dynasty[edit] Julio Claudian Family Tree The first emperor, Augustus, owed much of his success to having been adopted into the gens Julia in the will of his great uncle, Julius Caesar. However, the office of emperor did not exist at that time; Octavian inherited Caesar's money, name and auctoritas but not the office of dictator. As Augustus's central role in the principate solidified, it became increasingly important for him to designate an heir. He first adopted his daughter Julia's three sons by Marcus Agrippa, renaming them Gaius Caesar, Lucius Caesar and Marcus Julius Caesar Agrippa Postumus. After the former two died young and the latter was exiled, Augustus adopted his stepson Tiberius Claudius Nero on condition that he adopt his own nephew, Germanicus (who was also Augustus's great nephew by blood). Tiberius succeeded Augustus and on Tiberius's death Germanicus's son Caligula became emperor. Claudius adopted his stepson Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, who changed his name to Nero Claudius Caesar and succeeded Claudius as the emperor Nero. The Adoptive Emperors[edit] The Nerva-Antonine dynasty was also united by a series of adoptions. Nerva adopted the popular military leader Trajan. Trajan in turn took Hadrian as his protégé and, although the legitimacy is debatable, Hadrian claimed to have been adopted and took the name Caesar Traianus Hadrianus when he became emperor. Hadrian adopted Lucius Ceionius Commodus, who changed his name to Lucius Aelius Caesar but predeceased Hadrian. He then adopted Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus, on condition that he adopt both the natural son of the late Lucius Aelius and a promising young nephew of his wife. They ruled as Antoninus Pius, Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius respectively. Niccolò Machiavelli described them as The Five Good Emperors and attributed their success to having been chosen for the role: From the study of this history we may also learn how a good government is to be established; for while all the emperors who succeeded to the throne by birth, except Titus, were bad, all were good who succeeded by adoption, as in the case of the five from Nerva to Marcus. But as soon as the empire fell once more to the heirs by birth, its ruin recommenced.[7] This run of adoptive emperors came to an end when Marcus Aurelius named his biological son, Commodus, as his heir. One reason why adoption never became the official method of designating a successor was because hereditary rule was against republican principles and the republic had never been abandoned in law, even though the emperors of the Principate behaved as monarchs. The Dominate of Diocletian effectively replaced adoption with Consortium imperii - designating an heir by appointing him partner in imperium. See also[edit] Roman culture Adrogation References[edit] ^ a b Weigel, Richard D. (January 1978). "A Note on P. Lepidus". Classical Philology. 73 (1): 42–45. doi:10.1086/366392. ISSN 0009-837X. ^ "LacusCurtius • Roman Law — Adoption (Smith's Dictionary, 1875)". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2020-03-10. ^ Connerty, Victor (2000). Tatum, W. J. (ed.). "Publius Clodius Pulcher". The Classical Review. 50 (2): 514–516. doi:10.1093/cr/50.2.514. ISSN 0009-840X. JSTOR 3064795. ^ "Adoption in the Roman Empire". Life in the Roman Empire. Retrieved 2020-03-10. ^ https://books.google.se/books?id=85Gdul_43DEC&pg=PA161&dq=%22claudius%22+%22illegitimate+children%22&hl=sv&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjZ2vHq-vDtAhXD_CoKHUfiC5kQ6AEwB3oECAcQAg#v=onepage&q=%22claudius%22%20%22illegitimate%20children%22&f=false ^ Huntsman, Eric D. (2009). "Livia Before Octavian". Ancient Society. 39: 121–169. doi:10.2143/AS.39.0.2042609. ISSN 0066-1619. JSTOR 44079922. ^ Machiavelli, Discourses on Livy, Book I, Chapter 10. 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disclosure Adoption home study Adoption reunion registry Adoption tax credit Aging out Child abuse Trafficking of children § Adoption Child laundering Political abuse of psychiatry Closed adoption Cultural variations in adoption Disruption Genealogical bewilderment International adoption Interracial adoption Language of adoption LGBT adoption Open adoption Sealed birth records History of children in the military Laws Access to Adoption Records Act (Ontario) Adoption Information Disclosure Act (Ontario) Adoption and Safe Families Act (US) Christian law of adoption (India) Dima Yakovlev Law (Russia) Foster Care Independence Act (US) Hague Adoption Convention Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act (India) Islamic adoptional jurisprudence Putative father registry (US) Uniform Adoption Act (US) History Adoption in ancient Rome Fosterage Controversial violations of rights in adoption or child custody List of international adoption scandals Present-day United States Pre-1978 United States Tennessee Children's Home Society Cambodia Russia Baby Scoop Era Sixties Scoop Home Children Romania Missionaries of Charity, Jharkhand Michael A. Hess Vincent Nichols § Acknowledgement of adoption controversy Forced adoption in Australia Forced adoption in the United Kingdom Operation Condor in Argentina Dirty War era Argentina Devshirme Kidnapping of children by Nazi Germany Tianjin Massacre Mortara case Postremo mense Salzburg Protestants § Defereggen Valley expulsion Historical criticism of orphanages Orphanage § Criticism Duplessis Orphans St. Thomas–St. Vincent Orphanage § Sexual and physical abuse Abuse scandal in the Sisters of Mercy § Other abuse allegations Mount Cashel Orphanage Clontarf Aboriginal College § Allegations of abuse Mary Norris St. John's Orphanage Roman Catholic Diocese of Burlington § History Sisters of Nazareth § Child abuse Daughters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul § Allegations of child abuse in Scotland Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Adoption_in_ancient_Rome&oldid=996774190" Categories: Adoption in ancient Rome Adoption history Family law in ancient Rome Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Deutsch Español Français Italiano Latina Magyar Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 28 December 2020, at 15:15 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6839	----	Roman numerals - Wikipedia Roman numerals From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Numbers in the Roman numeral system For a description of numeric words in Latin, see Latin numerals. This article contains special characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols. Roman numerals on stern of the ship Cutty Sark showing draught in feet. The numbers range from 13 to 22, from bottom to top. Numeral systems Hindu–Arabic numeral system Western Arabic Eastern Arabic Bengali Devanagari Gujarati Gurmukhi Odia Sinhala Tamil Malayalam Telugu Kannada Dzongkha Tibetan Balinese Burmese Javanese Khmer Lao Mongolian Thai East Asian Chinese Suzhou Hokkien Japanese Korean Vietnamese Tangut Counting rods European Roman American Kaktovik (Iñupiaq) Alphabetic Abjad Armenian Āryabhaṭa Cyrillic Ge'ez Georgian Greek Hebrew Former Aegean Attic Babylonian Brahmi Chuvash Cistercian Egyptian Etruscan Glagolitic Kharosthi Mayan Muisca Pentimal Quipu Prehistoric Positional systems by base 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 16 20 60 Non-standard positional numeral systems Bijective numeration (1) Signed-digit representation (Balanced ternary) mixed (factorial) negative Complex-base system (2i) Non-integer representation (φ) Asymmetric numeral systems List of numeral systems v t e Roman numerals are a numeral system that originated in ancient Rome and remained the usual way of writing numbers throughout Europe well into the Late Middle Ages. Numbers in this system are represented by combinations of letters from the Latin alphabet. Modern usage employs seven symbols, each with a fixed integer value:[1] Symbol I V X L C D M Value 1 5 10 50 100 500 1000 The use of Roman numerals continued long after the decline of the Roman Empire. From the 14th century on, Roman numerals began to be replaced by Arabic numerals; however, this process was gradual, and the use of Roman numerals persists in some applications to this day. One place they are often seen is on clock faces. For instance, on the clock of Big Ben (designed in 1852), the hours from 1 to 12 are written as: I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI, XII The notations IV and IX can be read as "one less than five" (4) and "one less than ten" (9), although there is a tradition favouring representation of "4" as "IIII" on Roman numeral clocks.[2] Other common uses include year numbers on monuments and buildings and copyright dates on the title screens of movies and television programs. MCM, signifying "a thousand, and a hundred less than another thousand", means 1900, so 1912 is written MCMXII. For the years of this century, MM indicates 2000. The current year is MMXX (2020). Contents 1 Description 1.1 Standard form 1.2 Variant forms 1.2.1 Use of additive notation 1.2.2 Irregular subtractive notation 1.2.3 Rare variants 1.2.4 Non-numeric combinations 1.3 Zero 1.4 Fractions 1.5 Large numbers 1.5.1 Apostrophus 1.5.2 Vinculum 2 Origin of the system 2.1 Etruscan numerals 2.2 Early Roman numerals 2.3 Classical Roman numerals 3 Use in the Middle Ages and Renaissance 4 Modern use 4.1 Specific disciplines 4.2 Modern use in continental Europe 5 Unicode 6 See also 7 References 7.1 Notes 7.2 Citations 8 Sources 9 Further reading 10 External links Description Roman numerals are essentially a decimal or "base 10" number system, but instead of place value notation (in which 'place-keeping' zeros enable a digit to represent different powers of ten) it uses a set of symbols with fixed values. Tally-like combinations of these fixed symbols correspond to the digits of Arabic numerals. This structure allows for significant flexibility in notation, and many variant forms are attested. In fact, there has never been an officially "binding", or universally accepted standard for Roman numerals. Usage in ancient Rome varied greatly and became thoroughly chaotic in medieval times. Even the post-renaissance restoration of a largely "classical" notation has failed to produce total consistency: variant forms are even defended by some modern writers as offering improved "flexibility".[3] On the other hand, especially where a Roman numeral is considered a legally binding expression of a number, as in U.S. Copyright law (where an "incorrect" or ambiguous numeral may invalidate a copyright claim, or affect the termination date of the copyright period)[4] it is desirable to strictly follow the usual style described below. Standard form The following table displays how Roman Numerals are usually written:[5] Individual decimal places Thousands Hundreds Tens Units 1 M C X I 2 MM CC XX II 3 MMM CCC XXX III 4 CD XL IV 5 D L V 6 DC LX VI 7 DCC LXX VII 8 DCCC LXXX VIII 9 CM XC IX The numerals for 4 (IV) and 9 (IX) are written using "subtractive notation",[6] where the first symbol (I) is subtracted from the larger one (V, or X), thus avoiding the clumsier (IIII, and VIIII).[a] Subtractive notation is also used for 40 (XL) and 90 (XC), as well as 400 (CD) and 900 (CM).[7] These are the only subtractive forms in standard use. A number containing several decimal digits is built by appending the Roman numeral equivalent for each, from highest to lowest, as in the following examples:    39 = XXX + IX = XXXIX.   246 = CC + XL + VI = CCXLVI.   789 = DCC + LXXX + IX = DCCLXXXIX. 2,421 = MM + CD + XX + I = MMCDXXI. Any missing place (represented by a zero in the place-value equivalent) is omitted, as in Latin (and English) speech:   160 = C + LX = CLX   207 = CC + VII = CCVII 1,009 = M + IX = MIX 1,066 = M + LX + VI = MLXVI[8][9] Roman numerals for large numbers are seen in the form of year numbers, as in these examples: 1776 = M + DCC + LXX + VI = MDCCLXXVI (the date written on the book held by the Statue of Liberty). 1918 = M + CM + X + VIII = MCMXVIII (the first year of the "Spanish" flu pandemic) 1954 = M + CM + L + IV = MCMLIV (as in the trailer for the movie The Last Time I Saw Paris)[4] 2014 = MM + X + IV = MMXIV (the year of the games of the XXII (22nd) Olympic Winter Games (in Sochi, Russia)) The largest number that can be represented in this notation is 3,999 (MMMCMXCIX), but since the largest Roman numeral likely to be required today is MMXX (the current year) there is no practical need for larger Roman numerals. Prior to the introduction of Arabic numerals in the West, ancient and medieval users of the system used various means to write larger numbers; see Large numbers below. Variant forms Forms exist that vary in one way or another from the general "standard" described above. Use of additive notation A typical clock face with Roman numerals in Bad Salzdetfurth, Germany While subtractive notation for 4, 40 and 400 (IV, XL and CD) has been the usual form since Roman times, additive notation (IIII, XXXX and CCCC)[10] continued to be used, including in compound numbers like XXIIII,[11] LXXIIII,[12] and CCCCLXXXX.[13] The additive forms for 9, 90, and 900 (VIIII,[10] LXXXX,[14] and DCCCC[15]) have also been used, although less frequently. The two conventions could be mixed in the same document or inscription, even in the same numeral. On the numbered gates to the Colosseum, for instance, IIII is systematically used instead of IV, but subtractive notation is used for other digits; so that gate 44 is labelled XLIIII.[16] Modern clock faces that use Roman numerals still usually employ IIII for four o'clock but IX for nine o'clock, a practice that goes back to very early clocks such as the Wells Cathedral clock of the late 14th century.[17][18][19] However, this is far from universal: for example, the clock on the Palace of Westminster tower, "Big Ben", uses a subtractive IV for 4 o'clock.[18] Isaac Asimov theorises that the use of IV, as the initial letters of IVPITTER (a classical Latin spelling of the name of the Roman god Jupiter), may have been felt to have been impious in this context.[20] Although this, like several other theories, seems to be pure speculation. The year number on Admiralty Arch, London. The year 1910 is rendered as MDCCCCX, rather than the more usual MCMX Several monumental inscriptions created in the early 20th century use variant forms for "1900" (usually written MCM). These vary from MDCCCCX for 1910 as seen on Admiralty Arch, London, to the more unusual, if not unique MDCDIII for 1903, on the north entrance to the Saint Louis Art Museum.[21] Especially on tombstones and other funerary inscriptions 5 and 50 have been occasionally written IIIII and XXXXX instead of V and L, and there are instances such as IIIIII and XXXXXX rather than VI or LX.[22][23] Irregular subtractive notation It is a common belief that any smaller digit placed earlier than a larger digit is subtracted from the total, and that by clever choices a Roman numeral can be "compressed." The best known example of this is the ROMAN() function in Microsoft Excel, which can turn 499 into CDXCIX, LDVLIV, XDIX, VDIV, or ID depending on the "Form" setting.[24] There is no indication this is anything other than an invention by the programmer, and the universal-subtraction belief may be a result of modern users trying to rationalize the syntax of Roman numerals. Epitaph of centurion Marcus Caelius, showing "XIIX" There is however some historic use of subtractive notation other than that described in the "standard": in particular IIIXX for 17,[25] IIXX for 18,[26] IIIC for 97,[27] IIC for 98,[28][29] and IC for 99.[30] A possible explanation is that the word for 18 in Latin is duodeviginti, literally "two from twenty", 98 is duodecentum (two from hundred), and 99 is undecentum (one from hundred).[31] However, the explanation does not seem to apply to IIIXX and IIIC, since the Latin words for 17 and 97 were septendecim (seven ten) and nonaginta septem (ninety seven), respectively. There are multiple examples of IIX being used for 8. There does not seem to be a linguistic explanation for this use, although it is one stroke shorter than VIII. XIIX was used by officers of the XVIII Roman Legion to write their number.[32][33] The notation appears prominently on the cenotaph of their senior centurion Marcus Caelius (c. 45 BC – AD 9). On the publicly displayed official Roman calendars known as Fasti, XIIX is used for the 18 days to the next Kalends, and XXIIX for the 28 days in February. The latter can be seen on the sole extant pre-Julian calendar, the Fasti Antiates Maiores.[34] Rare variants While irregular subtractive and additive notation has been used at least occasionally throughout history, some Roman numerals have been observed in documents and inscriptions that do not fit either system. Some of these variants do not seem to have been used outside specific contexts, and may have been regarded as errors even by contemporaries. Padlock used on the north gate of the Irish town of Athlone. "1613" in the date is rendered XVIXIII, (literally "16, 13") instead of MDCXIII IIXX was how people associated with the XXII Roman Legion used to write their number. The practice may have been due to a common way to say "twenty-second" in Latin, namely duo et vice(n)sima (literally "two and twentieth") rather than the "regular" vice(n)sima secunda (twenty second).[35] Apparently, at least one ancient stonecutter mistakenly thought that the IIXX of "22nd Legion" stood for 18, and "corrected" it to XVIII.[35] Excerpt from Bibliothèque nationale de France.[36] The Roman numeral for 500 is rendered as VC, instead of D There are some examples of year numbers after 1000 written as two Roman numerals 1–99, e.g. 1613 as XVIXIII, corresponding to the common reading "sixteen thirteen" of such year numbers in English, or 1519 as XVCXIX as in French quinze-cent-dix-neuf (fifteen-hundred and nineteen), and similar readings in other languages.[37] In some French texts from the 15th century and later one finds constructions like IIIIXXXIX for 99, reflecting the French reading of that number as quatre-vingt-dix-neuf (four-score and nineteen).[37] Similarly, in some English documents one finds, for example, 77 written as "iiixxxvii" (which could be read "three-score and seventeen").[38] Another medieval accounting text from 1301 renders numbers like 13,573 as "XIII. M. V. C. III. XX. XIII", that is, "13×1000 + 5×100 + 3×20 + 13".[39] Other numerals that do not fit the usual patterns – such as VXL for 45, instead of the usual XLV — may be due to scribal errors, or the writer's lack of familiarity with the system, rather than being genuine variant usage. Non-numeric combinations As Roman numerals are composed of ordinary alphabetic characters, there may sometimes be confusion with other uses of the same letters. For example, "XXX" and "XL" have other connotations in addition to their values as Roman numerals, while "IXL" more often than not is a gramogram of "I excel", and is in any case not an unambiguous Roman numeral. Zero "Place-keeping" zeros are alien to the system of Roman numerals - however the actual number zero (what remains after 1 is subtracted from 1) was also missing from the classical Roman numeral system. The word nulla (the Latin word meaning "none") was used to represent 0, although the earliest attested instances are medieval. For instance Dionysius Exiguus used nulla alongside Roman numerals in a manuscript from A.D.525.[40][41] About 725, Bede or one of his colleagues used the letter N, the initial of nulla or of nihil (the Latin word for "nothing") for 0, in a table of epacts, all written in Roman numerals.[42] The use of N to indicate "none" long survived in the historic apothecaries' system of measurement: used well into the 20th century to designate quantities in pharmaceutical prescriptions.[43] Fractions A triens coin (​1⁄3 or ​4⁄12 of an as). Note the four dots (····) indicating its value. A semis coin (​1⁄2 or ​6⁄12 of an as). Note the S indicating its value. The base "Roman fraction" is S, indicating ​1⁄2. The use of S (as in VIIS to indicate 7​1⁄2) is attested in some ancient inscriptions[44] and also in the now rare apothecaries' system (usually in the form SS):[43] but while Roman numerals for whole numbers are essentially decimal S does not correspond to ​5⁄10, as one might expect, but ​6⁄12. In fact the Romans used a duodecimal rather than a decimal system for fractions, as the divisibility of twelve (12 = 22 × 3) makes it easier to handle the common fractions of ​1⁄3 and ​1⁄4 than does a system based on ten (10 = 2 × 5).. Notation for fractions other than ​1⁄2 is mainly found on surviving Roman coins, many of which had values that were duodecimal fractions of the unit as. Fractions less than ​1⁄2 are indicated by a dot (·) for each uncia "twelfth", the source of the English words inch and ounce; dots are repeated for fractions up to five twelfths. Six twelfths (one half), is S for semis "half". Uncia dots were added to S for fractions from seven to eleven twelfths, just as tallies were added to V for whole numbers from six to nine.[45] The arrangement of the dots was variable and not necessarily linear. Five dots arranged like (⁙) (as on the face of a die) are known as a quincunx, from the name of the Roman fraction/coin. The Latin words sextans and quadrans are the source of the English words sextant and quadrant. Each fraction from ​1⁄12 to ​12⁄12 had a name in Roman times; these corresponded to the names of the related coins: Fraction Roman numeral Name (nominative and genitive) Meaning ​1⁄12 · Uncia, unciae "Ounce" ​2⁄12 = ​1⁄6 ·· or : Sextans, sextantis "Sixth" ​3⁄12 = ​1⁄4 ··· or ∴ Quadrans, quadrantis "Quarter" ​4⁄12 = ​1⁄3 ···· or ∷ Triens, trientis "Third" ​5⁄12 ····· or ⁙ Quincunx, quincuncis "Five-ounce" (quinque unciae → quincunx) ​6⁄12 = ​1⁄2 S Semis, semissis "Half" ​7⁄12 S· Septunx, septuncis "Seven-ounce" (septem unciae → septunx) ​8⁄12 = ​2⁄3 S·· or S: Bes, bessis "Twice" (as in "twice a third") ​9⁄12 = ​3⁄4 S··· or S∴ Dodrans, dodrantis or nonuncium, nonuncii "Less a quarter" (de-quadrans → dodrans) or "ninth ounce" (nona uncia → nonuncium) ​10⁄12 = ​5⁄6 S···· or S∷ Dextans, dextantis or decunx, decuncis "Less a sixth" (de-sextans → dextans) or "ten ounces" (decem unciae → decunx) ​11⁄12 S····· or S⁙ Deunx, deuncis "Less an ounce" (de-uncia → deunx) ​12⁄12 = 1 I As, assis "Unit" Other Roman fractional notations included the following: Fraction Roman numeral Name (nominative and genitive) Meaning ​1⁄1728=12−3 » Siliqua, siliquae ​1⁄288 ℈ Scripulum, scripuli "scruple" ​1⁄144=12−2 Ƨ Dimidia sextula, dimidiae sextulae "half a sextula" ​1⁄72 Ƨ Sextula, sextulae "​1⁄6 of an uncia" ​1⁄48 Ɔ Sicilicus, sicilici ​1⁄36 ƧƧ Binae sextulae, binarum sextularum "two sextulas" (duella, duellae) ​1⁄24 Σ or 𐆒 or Є Semuncia, semunciae "​1⁄2 uncia" (semi- + uncia) ​1⁄8 Σ· or 𐆒· or Є· Sescuncia, sescunciae "​1 1⁄2 uncias" (sesqui- + uncia) Large numbers During the centuries that Roman numerals remained the standard way of writing numbers throughout Europe, there were various extensions to the system designed to indicate larger numbers, none of which were ever standardised. Apostrophus "1630" on the Westerkerk in Amsterdam. "M" and "D" are given archaic "apostrophus" form. One of these was the apostrophus,[46] in which 500 was written as IↃ, while 1,000 was written as CIↃ.[20] This is a system of encasing numbers to denote thousands (imagine the Cs and Ↄs as parentheses), which has its origins in Etruscan numeral usage. The IↃ and CIↃ used to represent 500 and 1,000 most likely preceded, and subsequently influenced, the adoption of "D" and "M" in conventional Roman numerals. In this system, an extra Ↄ denoted 500, and multiple extra Ↄs are used to denote 5,000, 50,000, etc. For example: Base number   CIↃ = 1,000 CCIↃↃ = 10,000 CCCIↃↃↃ = 100,000 1 extra Ↄ IↃ = 500 CIↃↃ = 1,500 CCIↃↃↃ = 10,500 CCCIↃↃↃↃ = 100,500 2 extra Ↄs IↃↃ = 5,000   CCIↃↃↃↃ = 15,000 CCCIↃↃↃↃↃ = 105,000 3 extra Ↄs IↃↃↃ = 50,000     CCCIↃↃↃↃↃↃ = 150,000 Page from a 16th-century manual, showing a mixture of apostrophus and vinculum numbers (see in particular the ways of writing 10,000). Sometimes CIↃ was reduced to ↀ for 1,000. John Wallis is often credited for introducing the symbol for infinity (modern ∞), and one conjecture is that he based it on this usage, since 1,000 was hyperbolically used to represent very large numbers. Similarly, IↃↃ for 5,000 was reduced to ↁ; CCIↃↃ for 10,000 to ↂ; IↃↃↃ for 50,000 to ↇ; and CCCIↃↃↃ for 100,000 to ↈ. [47] Vinculum Another system was the vinculum, in which conventional Roman numerals were multiplied by 1,000 by adding a "bar" or "overline".[47] It was a common alternative to the apostrophic ↀ during the Imperial era: both systems were in simultaneous use around the Roman world (M for '1000' was not in use until the Medieval period).[48] [49] The use of vinculum for multiples of 1,000 can be observed, for example, on the milestones erected by Roman soldiers along the Antonine Wall in the mid-2nd century AD.[50] There is some scope for confusion when an overline is meant to denote multiples of 1,000, and when not. The Greeks and Romans often overlined letters acting as numerals to highlight them from the general body of the text, without any numerical significance. This stylistic convention was, for example, also in use in the inscriptions of the Antonine Wall,[51] and the reader is required to decipher the intended meaning of the overline from the context. The vinculum for marking 1,000s continued in use in the Middle Ages, though it became known more commonly as titulus.[52] Some modern sources describe Vinculum as if it were a part of the current "standard":[53] however this is purely hypothetical - since no common modern usage requires numbers larger than the current year (MMXX). Nonetheless, for reference: here are some examples, to give an idea of how it might be used:: IV = 4,000 IVDCXXVII = 4,627 XXV = 25,000 XXVCDLIX = 25,459 Another inconsistent medieval usage was the addition of vertical lines (or brackets) before and after the numeral to multiply it by 10 (or 100): thus M for 10,000 as an alternative form for X. In combination with the overline the bracketed forms might be used to raise the multiplier to (say) ten (or one hundred) thousand, thus: VIII for 80,000 (or 800,000) XX for 200,000 (or 2,000,000) Use of Roman numeral "I" (with exaggerated serifs) contrasting with the upper case letter "I". This use of lines is distinct from the custom, once very common, of adding both underline and overline (or very large serifs) to a Roman numeral, simply to make it clear that it is a number, e.g. for 1967. Origin of the system The system is closely associated with the ancient city-state of Rome and the Empire that it created. However, due to the scarcity of surviving examples, the origins of the system are obscure and there are several competing theories, all largely conjectural. Etruscan numerals Main article: Etruscan numerals Rome was founded sometime between 850 and 750 BC. At the time, the region was inhabited by diverse populations of which the Etruscans were the most advanced. The ancient Romans themselves admitted that the basis of much of their civilization was Etruscan. Rome itself was located next to the southern edge of the Etruscan domain, which covered a large part of north-central Italy. The Roman numerals, in particular, are directly derived from the Etruscan number symbols: "𐌠", "𐌡", "𐌢", "𐌣", and "𐌟" for 1, 5, 10, 50, and 100 (They had more symbols for larger numbers, but it is unknown which symbol represents which number). As in the basic Roman system, the Etruscans wrote the symbols that added to the desired number, from higher to lower value. Thus the number 87, for example, would be written 50 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 5 + 1 + 1 = 𐌣𐌢𐌢𐌢𐌡𐌠�� (this would appear as 𐌠𐌠𐌡𐌢𐌢𐌢𐌣 since Etruscan was written from right to left.)[54] The symbols "𐌠" and "𐌡" resembled letters of the Etruscan alphabet, but "𐌢", "𐌣", and "𐌟" did not. The Etruscans used the subtractive notation, too, but not like the Romans. They wrote 17, 18, and 19 as "𐌠𐌠𐌠𐌢𐌢", "𐌠𐌠𐌢𐌢", and 𐌠𐌢𐌢, mirroring the way they spoke those numbers ("three from twenty", etc.); and similarly for 27, 28, 29, 37, 38, etc. However they did not write "𐌠𐌡" for 4 (or "𐌢𐌣" for 40), and wrote "𐌡𐌠𐌠", "𐌡𐌠𐌠𐌠" and "𐌡𐌠𐌠𐌠𐌠" for 7, 8, and 9, respectively.[54] Early Roman numerals The early Roman numerals for 1, 10, and 100 were the Etruscan ones: "I", "X", and "Ж". The symbols for 5 and 50 changed from Ʌ and "𐌣" to V and ↆ at some point. The latter had flattened to ⊥ (an inverted T) by the time of Augustus, and soon afterwards became identified with the graphically similar letter L.[55] The symbol for 100 was written variously as >I< or ƆIC, was then abbreviated to Ɔ or C, with C (which matched a Latin letter) finally winning out. It may have helped that C is the initial of centum, Latin for "hundred". The numbers 500 and 1000 were denoted by V or X overlaid with a box or circle. Thus 500 was like a Ɔ superimposed on a Þ. It became D or Ð by the time of Augustus, under the graphic influence of the letter D. It was later identified as the letter D; an alternative symbol for "thousand" was a CIƆ, and half of a thousand or "five hundred" is the right half of the symbol, IƆ, and this may have been converted into D.[20] The notation for 1000 was a circled or boxed X: Ⓧ, ⊗, ⊕, and by Augustinian times was partially identified with the Greek letter Φ phi. Over time, the symbol changed to Ψ and ↀ. The latter symbol further evolved into ∞, then ⋈, and eventually changed to M under the influence of the Latin word mille "thousand".[55] According to Paul Kayser, the basic numerical symbols were I, X, C and Φ (or ⊕) and the intermediate ones were derived by taking half of those (half an X is V, half a C is L and half a Φ/⊕ is D).[56] Entrance to section LII (52) of the Colosseum, with numerals still visible Classical Roman numerals The Colosseum was constructed in Rome in CE 72-80,[57] and while the original perimeter wall has largely disappeared, the numbered entrances from XXIII (23) to LIIII (54) survive,[58] to demonstrate that in Imperial times Roman numerals had already assumed their classical form: as largely standardised in current use. The most obvious anomaly (a common one that persisted for centuries) is the inconsistent use of subtractive notation - while XL is used for 40, IV is avoided in favour of IIII: in fact gate 44 is labelled XLIIII. Use in the Middle Ages and Renaissance Lower case, or minuscule, letters were developed in the Middle Ages, well after the demise of the Western Roman Empire, and since that time lower-case versions of Roman numbers have also been commonly used: i, ii, iii, iv, and so on. 13th century example of iiij. Since the Middle Ages, a "j" has sometimes been substituted for the final "i" of a "lower-case" Roman numeral, such as "iij" for 3 or "vij" for 7. This "j" can be considered a swash variant of "i". Into the early 20th century, the use of a final "j" was still sometimes used in medical prescriptions to prevent tampering with or misinterpretation of a number after it was written.[59] Numerals in documents and inscriptions from the Middle Ages sometimes include additional symbols, which today are called "medieval Roman numerals". Some simply substitute another letter for the standard one (such as "A" for "V", or "Q" for "D"), while others serve as abbreviations for compound numerals ("O" for "XI", or "F" for "XL"). Although they are still listed today in some dictionaries, they are long out of use.[60] Number Medieval abbreviation Notes and etymology 5 A Resembles an upside-down V. Also said to equal 500. 6 ↅ Either from a ligature of VI, or from digamma (ϛ), the Greek numeral 6 (sometimes conflated with the στ ligature).[55] 7 S, Z Presumed abbreviation of septem, Latin for 7. 9.5 X̷ Scribal abbreviation, an x with a slash through it. Likewise, IX̷ represented 8.5 11 O Presumed abbreviation of onze, French for 11. 40 F Presumed abbreviation of English forty. 70 S Also could stand for 7, with the same derivation. 80 R 90 N Presumed abbreviation of nonaginta, Latin for 90. (Ambiguous with N for "nothing" (nihil)). 150 Y Possibly derived from the lowercase y's shape. 151 K Unusual, origin unknown; also said to stand for 250.[61] 160 T Possibly derived from Greek tetra, as 4 × 40 = 160. 200 H Could also stand for 2 (see also 𐆙, the symbol for the dupondius). From a barring of two I's. 250 E 300 B 400 P, G 500 Q Redundant with D; abbreviates quingenti, Latin for 500. Also sometimes used for 500,000.[62] 800 Ω Borrowed from Gothic. 900 ϡ Borrowed from Gothic. 2000 Z Chronograms, messages with dates encoded into them, were popular during the Renaissance era. The chronogram would be a phrase containing the letters I, V, X, L, C, D, and M. By putting these letters together, the reader would obtain a number, usually indicating a particular year. Modern use By the 11th century, Arabic numerals had been introduced into Europe from al-Andalus, by way of Arab traders and arithmetic treatises. Roman numerals, however, proved very persistent, remaining in common use in the West well into the 14th and 15th centuries, even in accounting and other business records (where the actual calculations would have been made using an abacus). Replacement by their more convenient "Arabic" equivalents was quite gradual, and Roman numerals are still used today in certain contexts. A few examples of their current use are: Spanish Real using IIII instead of IV as regnal number of Charles IV of Spain Names of monarchs and popes, e.g. Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom, Pope Benedict XVI. These are referred to as regnal numbers and are usually read as ordinals; e.g. II is pronounced "the second". This tradition began in Europe sporadically in the Middle Ages, gaining widespread use in England during the reign of Henry VIII. Previously, the monarch was not known by numeral but by an epithet such as Edward the Confessor. Some monarchs (e.g. Charles IV of Spain and Louis XIV of France) seem to have preferred the use of IIII instead of IV on their coinage (see illustration). Generational suffixes, particularly in the US, for people sharing the same name across generations, for example William Howard Taft IV. In the French Republican Calendar, initiated during the French Revolution, years were numbered by Roman numerals – from the year I (1792) when this calendar was introduced to the year XIV (1805) when it was abandoned. The year of production of films, television shows and other works of art within the work itself. It has been suggested – by BBC News, perhaps facetiously – that this was originally done "in an attempt to disguise the age of films or television programmes."[63] Outside reference to the work will use regular Arabic numerals. Hour marks on timepieces. In this context, 4 is often written IIII. The year of construction on building faces and cornerstones. Page numbering of prefaces and introductions of books, and sometimes of appendices and annexes, too. Book volume and chapter numbers, as well as the several acts within a play (e.g. Act iii, Scene 2). Sequels to some films, video games, and other works (as in Rocky II). Outlines that use numbers to show hierarchical relationships. Occurrences of a recurring grand event, for instance: The Summer and Winter Olympic Games (e.g. the XXI Olympic Winter Games; the Games of the XXX Olympiad) The Super Bowl, the annual championship game of the National Football League (e.g. Super Bowl XXXVII; Super Bowl 50 was a one-time exception[64]) WrestleMania, the annual professional wrestling event for the WWE (e.g. WrestleMania XXX). This usage has also been inconsistent. Specific disciplines In astronomy, the natural satellites or "moons" of the planets are traditionally designated by capital Roman numerals appended to the planet's name. For example, Titan's designation is Saturn VI. In chemistry, Roman numerals are often used to denote the groups of the periodic table. They are also used in the IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry, for the oxidation number of cations which can take on several different positive charges. They are also used for naming phases of polymorphic crystals, such as ice. In education, school grades (in the sense of year-groups rather than test scores) are sometimes referred to by a Roman numeral; for example, "grade IX" is sometimes seen for "grade 9". In entomology, the broods of the thirteen and seventeen year periodical cicadas are identified by Roman numerals. Stylised "IX" represents "9" in unit emblem of 9th Aero Squadron AEF, 1918 In graphic design stylised Roman numerals may represent numeric values. In advanced mathematics (including trigonometry, statistics, and calculus), when a graph includes negative numbers, its quadrants are named using I, II, III, and IV. These quadrant names signify positive numbers on both axes, negative numbers on the X axis, negative numbers on both axes, and negative numbers on the Y axis, respectively. The use of Roman numerals to designate quadrants avoids confusion, since Arabic numerals are used for the actual data represented in the graph. In military unit designation, Roman numerals are often used to distinguish between units at different levels. This reduces possible confusion, especially when viewing operational or strategic level maps. In particular, army corps are often numbered using Roman numerals (for example the American XVIII Airborne Corps or the WW2-era German III Panzerkorps) with Arabic numerals being used for divisions and armies. In music, Roman numerals are used in several contexts: Movements are often numbered using Roman numerals. In Roman Numeral Analysis, harmonic function is identified using Roman Numerals. Individual strings of stringed instruments, such as the violin, are often denoted by Roman numerals, with higher numbers denoting lower strings. In pharmacy, Roman numerals were used with the now largely obsolete apothecaries' system of measurement: including SS to denote "one half" and N to denote "zero".[43][65] In photography, Roman numerals (with zero) are used to denote varying levels of brightness when using the Zone System. In seismology, Roman numerals are used to designate degrees of the Mercalli intensity scale of earthquakes. In sport the team containing the "top" players and representing a nation or province, a club or a school at the highest level in (say) rugby union is often called the "1st XV", while a lower-ranking cricket or American football team might be the "3rd XI". In tarot, Roman numerals (with zero) are used to denote the cards of the Major Arcana. In theology and biblical scholarship, the Septuagint is often referred to as LXX, as this translation of the Old Testament into Greek is named for the legendary number of its translators (septuaginta being Latin for "seventy"). Modern use in continental Europe Some uses that are rare or never seen in English speaking countries may be relatively common in parts of continental Europe. For instance: Capital or small capital Roman numerals are widely used in Romance languages to denote centuries, e.g. the French xviiie siècle[66] and the Spanish siglo XVIII mean "18th century". Slavic languages in and adjacent to Russia similarly favor Roman numerals ( xviii век). On the other hand, in Slavic languages in Central Europe, like most Germanic languages, one writes "18." (with a period) before the local word for "century". Boris Yeltsin's signature, dated 10 November 1988, rendered as 10.XI.1988. Mixed Roman and Arabic numerals are sometimes used in numeric representations of dates (especially in formal letters and official documents, but also on tombstones). The month is written in Roman numerals, while the day is in Arabic numerals: "4.VI.1789" and "VI.4.1789" both refer unambiguously to 4 June 1789. Business hours table on a shop window in Vilnius, Lithuania Roman numerals are sometimes used to represent the days of the week in hours-of-operation signs displayed in windows or on doors of businesses,[67] and also sometimes in railway and bus timetables. Monday, taken as the first day of the week, is represented by I. Sunday is represented by VII. The hours of operation signs are tables composed of two columns where the left column is the day of the week in Roman numerals and the right column is a range of hours of operation from starting time to closing time. In the example case (left), the business opens from 10 AM to 7 PM on weekdays, 10 AM to 5 PM on Saturdays and is closed on Sundays. Note that the listing uses 24-hour time. Sign at 17.9 km on route SS4 Salaria, north of Rome, Italy Roman numerals may also be used for floor numbering.[68][69] For instance, apartments in central Amsterdam are indicated as 138-III, with both an Arabic numeral (number of the block or house) and a Roman numeral (floor number). The apartment on the ground floor is indicated as 138-huis. In Italy, where roads outside built-up areas have kilometre signs, major roads and motorways also mark 100-metre subdivisionals, using Roman numerals from I to IX for the smaller intervals. The sign IX/17 thus marks 17.9 km. A notable exception to the use of Roman numerals in Europe is in Greece, where Greek numerals (based on the Greek alphabet) are generally used in contexts where Roman numerals would be used elsewhere. Unicode The "Number Forms" block of the Unicode computer character set standard has a number of Roman numeral symbols in the range of code points from U+2160 to U+2188.[70] This range includes both upper- and lowercase numerals, as well as pre-combined characters for numbers up to 12 (Ⅻ or XII). One justification for the existence of pre-combined numbers is to facilitate the setting of multiple-letter numbers (such as VIII) on a single horizontal line in Asian vertical text. The Unicode standard, however, includes special Roman numeral code points for compatibility only, stating that "[f]or most purposes, it is preferable to compose the Roman numerals from sequences of the appropriate Latin letters".[71] The block also includes some apostrophus symbols for large numbers, an old variant of "L" (50) similar to the Etruscan character, the Claudian letter "reversed C", etc. Symbol ↀ ↁ ↂ ↅ ↆ ↇ ↈ Value 1,000 5,000 10,000 6 50 50,000 100,000 See also Egyptian numerals Etruscan numerals Greek numerals Hebrew numerals Kharosthi numerals Maya numerals Roman abacus Proto-writing Roman numerals in Unicode Pentimal system References Notes ^ Without theorising about causation, it may be noted that IV and IX not only have fewer characters than IIII and VIIII, but are less likely to be confused (especially at a quick glance) with III and VIII. Citations ^ Gordon, Arthur E. (1982). Illustrated Introduction to Latin Epigraphy. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-05079-7. Alphabetic symbols for larger numbers, such as Q for 500,000, have also been used to various degrees of standardization. ^ Judkins, Maura (4 November 2011). "Public clocks do a number on Roman numerals". The Washington Post. Retrieved 13 August 2019. Most clocks using Roman numerals traditionally use IIII instead of IV... One of the rare prominent clocks that uses the IV instead of IIII is Big Ben in London. ^ Adams, Cecil (23 February 1990). "What is the proper way to style Roman numerals for the 1990s?". The Straight Dope. ^ a b Hayes, David P. "Guide to Roman Numerals". Copyright Registration and Renewal Information Chart and Web Site. ^ Reddy, Indra K.; Khan, Mansoor A. (2003). "1 (Working with Arabic and Roman numerals)". Essential Math and Calculations for Pharmacy Technicians. CRC Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-203-49534-6. Table 1-1 Roman and Arabic numberals (table very similar to the table here, apart from inclusion of Vinculum notation. ^ Stanislas Dehaene (1997): The Number Sense : How the Mind Creates Mathematics. Oxford University Press; 288 pages. ISBN 9780199723096 ^ Ûrij Vasilʹevič Prokhorov and Michiel Hazewinkel, editors (1990): Encyclopaedia of Mathematics, Volume 10, page 502. Springer; 546 pages. ISBN 9781556080050 ^ Dela Cruz, M. L. P.; Torres, H. D. (2009). Number Smart Quest for Mastery: Teacher's Edition. Rex Bookstore, Inc. ISBN 9789712352164. ^ Martelli, Alex; Ascher, David (2002). Python Cookbook. O'Reilly Media Inc. ISBN 978-0-596-00167-4. ^ a b Julius Caesar (52–49 BC): Commentarii de Bello Gallico. Book II, Section 4: "... XV milia Atrebates, Ambianos X milia, Morinos XXV milia, Menapios VII milia, Caletos X milia, Veliocasses et Viromanduos totidem, Atuatucos XVIIII milia; ..." Section 8: "... ab utroque latere eius collis transversam fossam obduxit circiter passuum CCCC et ad extremas fossas castella constituit..." Book IV, Section 15: "Nostri ad unum omnes incolumes, perpaucis vulneratis, ex tanti belli timore, cum hostium numerus capitum CCCCXXX milium fuisset, se in castra receperunt." Book VII, Section 4: "...in hiberna remissis ipse se recipit die XXXX Bibracte." ^ Angelo Rocca (1612) De campanis commentarius. Published by Guillelmo Faciotti, Rome. Title of a Plate: "Campana a XXIIII hominibus pulsata" ("Bell to be sounded by 24 men") ^ Gerard Ter Borch (1673): Portrait of Cornelis de Graef. Date on painting: "Out. XXIIII Jaer. // M. DC. LXXIIII". ^ Pliny the Elder (77–79 AD): Naturalis Historia, Book III: "Saturni vocatur, Caesaream Mauretaniae urbem CCLXXXXVII p[assum]. traiectus. reliqua in ora flumen Tader ... ortus in Cantabris haut procul oppido Iuliobrica, per CCCCL p. fluens ..." Book IV: "Epiri, Achaiae, Atticae, Thessalia in porrectum longitudo CCCCLXXXX traditur, latitudo CCLXXXXVII." Book VI: "tam vicinum Arsaniae fluere eum in regione Arrhene Claudius Caesar auctor est, ut, cum intumuere, confluant nec tamen misceantur leviorque Arsanias innatet MMMM ferme spatio, mox divisus in Euphraten mergatur." ^ Thomas Bennet (1731): Grammatica Hebræa, cum uberrima praxi in usum tironum ... Editio tertia. Published by T. Astley, copy in the British Library; 149 pages. Page 24: "PRÆFIXA duo sunt viz. He emphaticum vel relativum (de quo Cap VI Reg. LXXXX.) & Shin cum Segal sequente Dagesh, quod denotat pronomen relativum..." ^ Pico Della Mirandola (1486) Conclusiones sive Theses DCCCC ("Conclusions, or 900 Theses"). ^ "360:12 tables, 24 chairs, and plenty of chalk". Roman Numerals...not quite so simple. 2 January 2011. ^ Milham, W.I. (1947). Time & Timekeepers. New York: Macmillan. p. 196. ^ a b Pickover, Clifford A. (2003), Wonders of Numbers: Adventures in Mathematics, Mind, and Meaning, Oxford University Press, p. 282, ISBN 978-0-19-534800-2 . ^ Adams, Cecil; Zotti, Ed (1988). More of the straight dope. Ballantine Books. p. 154. ISBN 978-0-345-35145-6. . ^ a b c Asimov, Isaac (1966). Asimov on Numbers (PDF). Pocket Books, a division of Simon & Schuster, Inc. p. 12. ^ "Gallery: Museum's North Entrance (1910)". Saint Louis Art Museum. Archived from the original on 4 December 2010. Retrieved 10 January 2014. The inscription over the North Entrance to the Museum reads: "Dedicated to Art and Free to All MDCDIII." These roman numerals translate to 1903, indicating that the engraving was part of the original building designed for the 1904 World's Fair. ^ Reynolds, Joyce Maire; Spawforth, Anthony J. S. (1996). "numbers, Roman". In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Anthony (eds.). Oxford Classical Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-866172-X. ^ Kennedy, Benjamin Hall (1923). The Revised Latin Primer. London: Longmans, Green & Co. ^ ROMAN function - Office support ^ Michaele Gasp. Lvndorphio (1621): Acta publica inter invictissimos gloriosissimosque&c. ... et Ferdinandum II. Romanorum Imperatores.... Printed by Ian-Friderici Weissii. Page 123: "Sub Dato Pragæ IIIXX Decemb. A. C. M. DC. IIXX". Page 126, end of the same document: "Dabantur Pragæ 17 Decemb. M. DC. IIXX" ^ Raphael Sulpicius à Munscrod (1621): Vera Ac Germana Detecto Clandestinarvm Deliberationvm. Page 16, line 1: "repertum Originale Subdatum IIIXXX Aug. A. C. MDC.IIXX". Page 41, upper right corner: "Decemb. A. C. MDC.IIXX". Page 42, upper left corner: "Febr. A. C. MDC.XIX". Page 70: "IIXX. die Maij sequentia in consilio noua ex Bohemia allata....". Page 71: "XIX. Maij". ^ Wilhelm Ernst Tentzel (1699): Als Ihre Königl. Majestät in Pohlen und .... Page 39: "... und der Umschrifft: LITHUANIA ASSERTA M. DC. IIIC [1699]." ^ Joh. Caspar Posner (1698): Mvndvs ante mvndvm sive De Chao Orbis Primordio, title page: "Ad diem jvlii A. O. R. M DC IIC". ^ Wilhelm Ernst Tentzel (1700): Saxonia Nvmismatica: Das ist: Die Historie Des Durchlauchtigsten.... Page 26: "Die Revers hat eine feine Inscription: SERENISSIMO DN.DN... SENATUS.QVERNF. A. M DC IIC D. 18 OCT [year 1698 day 18 oct]." ^ Enea Silvio Piccolomini (1698): Opera Geographica et Historica. Helmstadt, J. M. Sustermann. Title page of first edition: "Bibliopolæ ibid. M DC IC" ^ Kennedy, Benjamin H. (1879). Latin grammar. London: Longmans, Green, and Co. p. 150. ISBN 9781177808293. ^ Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy A (2004). Handbook to life in ancient Rome (2 ed.). p. 270. ISBN 0-8160-5026-0. ^ Boyne, William (1968). A manual of Roman coins. p. 13. ^ Degrassi, Atilius, ed. (1963), Inscriptiones Italiae, 13: Fasti et Elogia, Rome: Istituto Poligrafico dello Stato, Fasciculus 2: Fasti anni Numani et Iuliani ^ a b Stephen James Malone, (2005) Legio XX Valeria Victrix.... PhD thesis. On page 396 it discusses many coins with "Leg. IIXX" and notes that it must be Legion 22. The footnote on that page says: "The form IIXX clearly reflecting the Latin duo et vicensima 'twenty-second': cf. X5398, legatus I[eg II] I et vicensim(ae) Pri[mi]g; VI 1551, legatus leg] IIXX Prj; III 14207.7, miles leg IIXX; and III 10471-3, a vexillation drawn from four German legions including 'XVIII PR' – surely here the stonecutter's hypercorrection for IIXX PR. ^ L' Atre périlleux et Yvain, le chevalier au lion . 1301–1350. ^ a b M. Gachard (1862): "II. Analectes historiques, neuvième série (nos CCLXI-CCLXXXIV)". Bulletin de la Commission royale d'Historie, volume 3, pages 345–554. Page 347: Lettre de Philippe le Beau aux échevins..., quote: "Escript en nostre ville de Gand, le XXIIIIme de febvrier, l'an IIIIXXXIX [quatre-vingt-dix-neuf = 99]." Page 356: Lettre de l'achiduchesse Marguerite au conseil de Brabant..., quote: "... Escript à Bruxelles, le dernier jour de juing anno XVcXIX [1519]." Page 374: Letters patentes de la rémission ... de la ville de Bruxelles, quote: "... Op heden, tweentwintich ['twenty-two'] daegen in decembri, anno vyfthien hondert tweendertich ['fifteen hundred thirty-two'] ... Gegeven op ten vyfsten dach in deser jegewoirdige maent van decembri anno XV tweendertich [1532] vorschreven." Page 419: Acte du duc de Parme portant approbation..., quote": "Faiet le XVme de juillet XVc huytante-six [1586]." doi:10.3406/bcrh.1862.3033 ^ Herbert Edward Salter (1923) Registrum Annalium Collegii Mertonensis 1483–1521 Oxford Historical Society, volume 76; 544 pages. Page 184 has the computation in pounds:shillings:pence (li:s:d) x:iii:iiii + xxi:viii:viii + xlv:xiiii:i = iiixxxvii:vi:i, i.e. 10:3:4 + 21:8:8 + 45:14:1 = 77:6:1. ^ Johannis de Sancto Justo (1301): "E Duo Codicibus Ceratis" ("From Two Texts in Wax"). In de Wailly, Delisle (1865): Contenant la deuxieme livraison des monumens des regnes de saint Louis,... Volume 22 of Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France. Page 530: "SUMMA totalis, XIII. M. V. C. III. XX. XIII. l. III s. XI d. [Sum total, 13 thousand 5 hundred 3 score 13 livres, 3 sous, 11 deniers]. ^ Faith Wallis, trans. Bede: The Reckoning of Time (725), Liverpool, Liverpool Univ. Pr., 2004. ISBN 0-85323-693-3. ^ Byrhtferth's Enchiridion (1016). Edited by Peter S. Baker and Michael Lapidge. Early English Text Society 1995. ISBN 978-0-19-722416-8. ^ C. W. Jones, ed., Opera Didascalica, vol. 123C in Corpus Christianorum, Series Latina. ^ a b c Bachenheimer, Bonnie S. (2010). Manual for Pharmacy Technicians. ISBN 978-1-58528-307-1. ^ "RIB 2208. Distance Slab of the Sixth Legion". Roman Inscriptions in Britain. Retrieved 11 November 2020. ^ Maher, David W.; Makowski, John F., "Literary Evidence for Roman Arithmetic with Fractions Archived 27 August 2013 at the Wayback Machine", Classical Philology 96 (2011): 376–399. ^ "Merriam-Webster Unabridged Dictionary". ^ a b Ifrah, Georges (2000). The Universal History of Numbers: From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer. Translated by David Bellos, E. F. Harding, Sophie Wood, Ian Monk. John Wiley & Sons. ^ Chrisomalis, Stephen (2010). Numerical Notation: A Comparative History. Cambridge University Press. pp. 102–109. ISBN 978-0-521-87818-0. ^ Gordon, Arthur E. (1982). Illustrated Introduction to Latin Epigraphy. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 122–123. ISBN 0-520-05079-7. ^ "RIB 2208. Distance Slab of the Twentieth Legion". Roman Inscriptions in Britain. Retrieved 9 November 2020. ^ "RIB 2171. Building Inscription of the Second and Twentieth Legions". Roman Inscriptions in Britain. Retrieved 9 November 2020. ^ Chrisomalis, Stephen (2010). Numerical Notation: A Comparative History. Cambridge University Press. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-521-87818-0. ^ "What is Vinculum Notation?". Numerals Converter. Retrieved 9 November 2020. ^ a b Gilles Van Heems (2009)> "Nombre, chiffre, lettre : Formes et réformes. Des notations chiffrées de l'étrusque" ("Between Numbers and Letters: About Etruscan Notations of Numeral Sequences"). Revue de philologie, de littérature et d'histoire anciennes, volume LXXXIII (83), issue 1, pages 103–130. ISSN 0035-1652 ^ a b c Perry, David J. Proposal to Add Additional Ancient Roman Characters to UCS Archived 22 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Keyser, Paul (1988). "The Origin of the Latin Numerals 1 to 1000". American Journal of Archaeology. 92 (4): 529–546. doi:10.2307/505248. JSTOR 505248. ^ Hopkins, Keith (2005). The Colosseum. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01895-2. ^ Claridge, Amanda (1998). Rome: An Oxford Archaeological Guide (First ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-288003-1. ^ Bastedo, Walter A. Materia Medica: Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Prescription Writing for Students and Practitioners, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders, 1919) p582. Retrieved 15 March 2010. ^ Capelli, A. Dictionary of Latin Abbreviations. 1912. ^ Bang, Jørgen. Fremmedordbog, Berlingske Ordbøger, 1962 (Danish) ^ Gordon, Arthur E. (1983). Illustrated Introduction to Latin Epigraphy. University of California Press. pp. 44. ISBN 9780520038981. Retrieved 3 October 2015. roman numerals. ^ Owen, Rob (13 January 2012). "TV Q&A: ABC News, 'Storage Wars' and 'The Big Bang Theory'". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Retrieved 13 January 2012. ^ NFL won't use Roman numerals for Super Bowl 50 Archived 1 December 2015 at the Wayback Machine, National Football League. Retrieved 5 November 2014 ^ Reddy, Indra K.; Khan, Mansoor A. (2003). Essential Math and Calculations for Pharmacy Technicians. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-203-49534-6. ^ Lexique des règles typographiques en usage à l'imprimerie nationale (in French) (6th ed.). Paris: Imprimerie nationale. March 2011. p. 126. ISBN 978-2-7433-0482-9. On composera en chiffres romains petites capitales les nombres concernant : ↲ 1. Les siècles. ^ Beginners latin Archived 3 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Government of the United Kingdom. Retrieved 1 December 2013 ^ Roman Arithmetic Archived 22 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Southwestern Adventist University. Retrieved 1 December 2013 ^ Roman Numerals History Archived 3 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 1 December 2013 ^ Unicode Number Forms ^ The Unicode Standard, Version 6.0 – Electronic edition (PDF), Unicode, Inc., 2011, p. 486 Sources Menninger, Karl (1992). Number Words and Number Symbols: A Cultural History of Numbers. Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-27096-8. Further reading Aczel, Amir D. 2015. Finding Zero: A Mathematician's Odyssey to Uncover the Origins of Numbers. 1st edition. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Goines, David Lance. A Constructed Roman Alphabet: A Geometric Analysis of the Greek and Roman Capitals and of the Arabic Numerals. Boston: D.R. Godine, 1982. Houston, Stephen D. 2012. The Shape of Script: How and Why Writing Systems Change. Santa Fe, NM: School for Advanced Research Press. Taisbak, Christian M. 1965. "Roman numerals and the abacus." Classica et medievalia 26: 147–60. External links Look up Appendix:Roman numerals in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Roman numerals. Library resources about Roman numerals Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries "Roman Numerals (Totally Epic Guide)". 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Padonkaffsky jargon (Russian) Pseudo-Chinese Translit Volapuk See also English internet slang (at Wiktionary) SMS language Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_numerals&oldid=995988330" Categories: Numerals Numeral systems Roman mathematics Latin alphabet Hidden categories: CS1: long volume value Webarchive template wayback links CS1 French-language sources (fr) Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from October 2019 Articles containing Latin-language text Articles containing French-language text Articles containing Spanish-language text Articles containing Russian-language text Articles containing Dutch-language text Commons category link from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read View source View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Արեւմտահայերէն Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা Bân-lâm-gú Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית ಕನ್ನಡ Қазақша Kiswahili Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Македонски മലയാളം मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Mirandés မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands नेपाली 日本語 Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русский Gagana Samoa Scots Sesotho sa Leboa Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Vèneto Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 23 December 2020, at 23:03 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6854	----	Sabellians - Wikipedia Sabellians From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Sabellus) Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Sabellian (disambiguation). Sabellians is a collective ethnonym for a group of Italic peoples or tribes inhabiting central and southern Italy at the time of the rise of Rome.[1] The name was first applied by Niebuhr[2] and encompassed the Sabines, Marsi, Marrucini and Vestini. Pliny in one passage says the Samnites were also called Sabelli,[3] and this is confirmed by Strabo.[4] The term Sabellus is found also in Livy and other Latin writers, as an adjective form for Samnite, though never for the name of the nation;[5] but it is frequently also used, especially by the poets, simply as an equivalent for the adjective Sabine.[6] In the modern usage it is also a synonym for the whole, or only a part, of the different Osco-Umbrian peoples and it is supposed it had effectively been their ethnic endonym from an Old Italic root *sabh-:[7] Old Italic/Indo-European root *sabh- > Latin sab- (Sabini, Sabelli, Samnites, Samnium) Osco-Umbrian *saf- (Safineis, Safinìm), and consequently: *safno > *safnio > Safinìm > Samnium *safio > Safini > Sabini. For example: Oscan Safineis Latin Samnites.[8] Strabo in his Geography (V, 3, 1) writes: "The Sabini not only are a very ancient race but are also the indigenous inhabitants (and both the Picentini and the Samnitae are colonists from the Sabini, and the Leucani from the Samnitae, and the Brettii from the Leucani)."[9] Notes[edit] ^ Barthold Georg Niebuhr (1831). The History of Rome. J. Smith. pp. 90–. ^ vol. i. p. 91; William Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, "Sabini". ^ Plin. H.N., iii. 12. §. 17 ^ Strabo, volume v. ^ Liv. viii. 1, x. 19 ^ Virg. G. ii. 167, Aen. vii. 665; Hor. Carm. iii. 6. 37; Juv. iii. 169. ^ Giacomo Devoto, Gli Antichi Italici, Firenze, Vallecchi, 1931, p.103 ^ Antonio Manzo, Dall’etnico safīno ai samnītes, in Annuario ASMV 2001, pp. 193-197, 2002. [1] ^ http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/5C*.html References[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1854–1857). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography. London: John Murray. Missing or empty |title= (help) See also[edit] Samnites Sabines Italic peoples Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sabellians&oldid=805916958" Categories: Ancient Italic peoples Hidden categories: Pages with citations lacking titles Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRG with no article parameter Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRG Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Español Latviešu Svenska 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 18 October 2017, at 13:22 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6861	----	Centuriate Assembly - Wikipedia Centuriate Assembly From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e The Centuriate Assembly (Latin: comitia centuriata) of the Roman Republic was one of the three voting assemblies in the Roman constitution. It was named the Centuriate Assembly as it originally divided Roman citizens into groups of one hundred men by classes. The centuries initially reflected military status, but were later based on the wealth of their members. The centuries gathered into the Centuriate Assembly for legislative, electoral, and judicial purposes. The majority of votes in any century decided how that century voted. Each century received one vote, regardless of how many electors each Century held. Once a majority of centuries voted in the same way on a given measure, the voting ended, and the matter was decided.[1] Only the Centuriate Assembly could declare war or elect the highest-ranking Roman magistrates: consuls, praetors and censors.[2] The Centuriate Assembly could also pass a law that granted constitutional command authority, or "Imperium", to Consuls and Praetors (the lex de imperio or "Law on Imperium"), and Censorial powers to Censors (the lex de potestate censoria or "Law on Censorial Powers").[2] In addition, the Centuriate Assembly served as the highest court of appeal in certain judicial cases (in particular, cases involving perduellio), and ratified the results of a Census.[3] Since the Romans used a form of direct democracy, citizens, and not elected representatives, voted before each assembly. As such, the citizen-electors had no power, other than the power to cast a vote. Each assembly was presided over by a single Roman Magistrate, and as such, it was the presiding magistrate who made all decisions on matters of procedure and legality. Ultimately, the presiding magistrate's power over the assembly was nearly absolute.[citation needed] The only check on that power came in the form of vetoes handed down by other magistrates. Any decision made by a presiding magistrate could be vetoed by a tribune of the plebs, or by a higher-ranked magistrate (for example, a consul could veto a praetor). Contents 1 Assembly procedure 2 Presiding magistrate and elections 3 Servian organization (509-241 BC) 4 Reorganization (241 BC- 27 BC) 5 See also 6 References 7 Notes 8 Further reading 8.1 Primary sources 8.2 Secondary source material Assembly procedure[edit] In the Roman system of direct democracy, two primary types of assembly were used to vote on legislative, electoral, and judicial matters. The first was the Committee (comitia, literally "going together" or "meeting place").[4] The Centuriate Assembly was a Committee. Committees were assemblies of all citizens,[5] and were used for official purposes, such as for the enactment of laws. Acts of a Committee applied to all of the members of that Committee. The second type of assembly was the Council (concilium), which was a forum where specific groups of citizens met for official purposes.[5] In contrast, the Convention (conventio, literally "coming together") was an unofficial forum for communication. Conventions were simply forums where Romans met for specific unofficial purposes, such as, for example, to hear a political speech.[4] Private citizens who did not hold political office could only speak before a Convention, and not before a Committee or a Council.[6] Conventions were simply meetings, and no legal or legislative decisions could be made in one. Voters always assembled first into Conventions to hear debates and conduct other business before voting, and then into Committees or Councils to actually vote.[7] A notice always had to be given several days before the assembly was to actually vote. For elections, at least three market-days (often more than seventeen actual days) had to pass between the announcement of the election, and the actual election. During this time period (the trinundinum), the candidates interacted with the electorate, and no legislation could be proposed or voted upon. In 98 BC, a law was passed (the lex Caecilia Didia) which required a similar three market-day interval to pass between the proposal of a law and the vote on that law.[8] During criminal trials, the assembly's presiding magistrate had to give a notice (diem dicere) to the accused person on the first day of the investigation (anquisito). At the end of each day, the magistrate had to give another notice to the accused person (diem prodicere), which informed him of the status of the investigation. After the investigation was complete, a three market-day interval had to elapse before a final vote could be taken with respect to conviction or acquittal.[9] Only one assembly could operate at any given point in time, and any session already underway could be dissolved if a magistrate "called away" (avocare) the electors.[8] In addition to the presiding magistrate, several additional magistrates were often present to act as assistants. They were available to help resolve procedural disputes, and to provide a mechanism through which electors could appeal decisions of the presiding magistrate.[10] There were also religious officials (known as Augurs) either in attendance or on-call, who would be available to help interpret any signs from the Gods (omens), since the Romans believed that their gods let their approval or disapproval with proposed actions be known.[10] In addition, a preliminary search for omens (auspices) was conducted by the presiding magistrate the night before any meeting.[11] On several known occasions, presiding magistrates used the claim of unfavorable omens as an excuse to suspend a session that was not going the way they wanted. In 162, the presiding magistrate, Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, even cancelled the elections of the consuls Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Corculum and Gaius Marcius Figulus because he found he had not conducted the auspices correctly; the consuls were forced to abdicate and new elections were organised.[12][13] On the day of the vote, the electors first assembled into their Conventions for debate and campaigning.[7] In the Conventions, the electors were not sorted into their respective centuries. Speeches from private citizens were only heard if the issue to be voted upon was a legislative or judicial matter, and even then, only if the citizen received permission from the presiding magistrate.[14] If the purpose of the ultimate vote was for an election, no speeches from private citizens were heard, and instead, the candidates for office used the Convention to campaign.[15] During the Convention, the bill to be voted upon was read to the assembly by an officer known as a "Herald". A tribune of the plebs could use his veto against pending legislation up until this point, but not after.[16] The electors were then told to break up the Convention ("depart to your separate groups", or discedite, quirites), and assemble into their formal century. The electors assembled behind a fenced off area[7] and voted by placing a pebble or written ballot into an appropriate jar.[17] The baskets (cistae) that held the votes were watched by specific officers (the custodes), who then counted the ballots, and reported the results to the presiding magistrate. The majority of votes in any century decided how that century voted.[1] If the process was not complete by nightfall, the electors were dismissed without having reached a decision, and the process had to begin again the next day.[18] Chart Showing the Checks and Balances of the Constitution of the Roman Republic Presiding magistrate and elections[edit] The presiding magistrate sat on a special chair (the "curule chair"), wore a purple-bordered toga, and was accompanied by bodyguards called lictors. Each lictor carried the symbol of state power, the fasces, which was a bundle of white birch rods, tied together with a red leather ribbon into a cylinder, and with a blade on the side, projecting from the bundle. While the voters in this assembly wore white undecorated togas and were unarmed, they were still soldiers, and as such they could not meet inside of the physical boundary of the city of Rome (the pomerium). Because of this, as well as the large size of the assembly (as many as 373 centuries), the assembly often met on the Field of Mars (Latin: Campus Martius), which was a large field located right outside of the city wall.[19] The president of the Centuriate Assembly was usually a Consul (although sometimes a Praetor). Only Consuls (the highest-ranking of all Roman Magistrates) could preside over the Centuriate Assembly during elections because the higher-ranking Consuls were always elected together with the lower-ranking Praetors. Consuls and Praetors were usually elected in July, and took office in January. Two Consuls, and at least six Praetors, were elected each year for an annual term that began in January and ended in December. In contrast, two Censors were elected every five years on average. Once every five years, after the new Consuls for the year took office, they presided over the Centuriate Assembly as it elected the two Censors. Servian organization (509-241 BC)[edit] See also: Servian constitution The Centuriate Assembly was supposedly founded by the legendary Roman King Servius Tullius, less than a century before the founding of the Roman Republic in 509 BC. As such, the original design of the Centuriate Assembly was known as the "Servian organization". Under this organization, the assembly was supposedly designed to mirror the Roman army during the time of the Roman Kingdom, with a division such that the citizen-soldiers had the responsibility of electing the consuls and praetors, and therefore, their leaders. The Roman army was based on units called centuries, which were comparable to Companies in a modern army. While Centuries in the Roman army always consisted of about one hundred soldiers, Centuries in the Centuriate Assembly usually did not. This was because the property qualifications for membership in a voting century did not change over time, as property qualifications for membership in a military century did. Soldiers in the Roman army were classified on the basis of the amount of property that they owned, and as such, soldiers with more property outranked soldiers with less property. Since the wealthy soldiers were divided into more centuries in the early Roman army, with a greater military burden, the wealthy soldiers were also divided into more centuries in the Centuriate Assembly. Thus, the wealthy soldiers, who were fewer in number and had more to lose, had a greater overall influence. The 193 centuries in the assembly under the Servian Organization were each divided into one of three different grades: the officer class (the cavalry or equites), the enlisted class (infantry or pedites) and the miscellaneous class (mostly unarmed adjuncts).[19] The officer class was grouped into eighteen centuries, six of which (the sex suffragia) were composed exclusively of Patricians.[19] The enlisted class was grouped into 170 centuries. Most enlisted individuals (those aged seventeen to forty-six) were grouped into eighty-five centuries of "junior soldiers" (iuniores or "young men"). The relatively limited number of enlisted soldiers who were aged forty-six to sixty were grouped into eighty-five centuries of "senior soldiers" (seniores or "old men").[20] The result of this arrangement was that the votes of the older soldiers carried more weight than did the votes of the numerically greater younger soldiers. According to Cicero, the Consul of 63 BC, this design was intentional so that the decisions of the assembly were more in line with the will of the more experienced soldiers who arguably had more to lose. The 170 centuries of enlisted soldiers were divided into five classes, each with a separate property requirement: The first class consisted of soldiers with heavy armor, the lower classes had successively less armor, and the soldiers of the fifth class had nothing more than slings and stones. Each of the five property classes were divided equally between centuries of younger soldiers and centuries of older soldiers. The first class of enlisted soldiers consisted of eighty centuries, classes two through four consisted of twenty centuries each, and class five consisted of thirty centuries.[21] The unarmed soldiers were divided into the final five centuries: four of these centuries were composed of artisans and musicians (such as trumpeters and horn blowers), while the fifth century (the proletarii) consisted of people with little or no property.[22] During a vote, all of the centuries of one class had to vote before the centuries of the next lower class could vote. The seven classes voted by order of seniority: first the officer class, then the first enlisted class, then the second enlisted class, then the third enlisted class, then the fourth enlisted class, then the fifth enlisted class, and then finally the unarmed centuries. When a measure received a majority of the vote, the voting ended, and as such, many lower ranking centuries rarely if ever had a chance to actually vote. Reorganization (241 BC- 27 BC)[edit] Under the Servian Organization, the assembly was so aristocratic that the officer class and the first class of enlisted soldiers controlled enough centuries for an outright majority. In 241 BC, this assembly was reorganized by the Censors Marcus Fabius Buteo and Gaius Aurelius Cotta, in order to give more weight to the lower ranking centuries, and thus make the assembly less aristocratic.[23] Under the old system, there were a total of 193 centuries, while under the new system, there were a total of 373 centuries. Under the new system, the thirty-five Tribes were each divided into ten centuries:[24] five of older soldiers, and five of younger soldiers. Of each of these five centuries, one was assigned to one of the five property classes. Therefore, each Tribe had two centuries (one of older soldiers and one of younger soldiers) allocated to each of the five property classes. In addition, the property requirements for each of the five classes were probably raised. In total, this resulted in 350 centuries of enlisted soldiers. The same eighteen centuries of officers, and the same five centuries of unarmed soldiers, were also included in the redesign.[23] Now, majorities usually could not be reached until the third class of enlisted centuries had begun voting. Sulla, who attempted to change the power of the Assemblies Since the lowest ranking century in the Centuriate Assembly, the fifth unarmed century (the proletarii), was always the last century to vote, it never had any real influence on elections, and as such, it was so poorly regarded that it was all but ignored during the Census. In 107 BC, in response to high unemployment and a severe manpower shortage in the army, the general and Consul Gaius Marius reformed the organization of the army, and allowed individuals with no property to enlist. As a consequence of these reforms, this fifth unarmed century came to encompass almost the entire Roman army.[20] This mass disenfranchisement of most of the soldiers in the army played an important role in the chaos that led to the fall of the Roman Republic in 27 BC. During his dictatorship from 82 BC until 80 BC, Lucius Cornelius Sulla restored the old Servian organization to this assembly. This reform was one in a slate of constitutional reforms enacted by Sulla as a consequence of the recent Civil War between his supporters and those of the former Consul Gaius Marius. His reforms were intended to reassert aristocratic control over the constitution, and thus prevent the emergence of another Marius. Sulla died in 78 BC, and in 70 BC, the Consuls Pompey Magnus and Marcus Licinius Crassus repealed Sulla's constitutional reforms, including his restoration of the Servian organization to this assembly. They restored the less aristocratic organization (from 241 BC by the Censors Marcus Fabius Buteo and Gaius Aurelius Cotta). The organization of the Centuriate Assembly was not changed again until its powers were all transferred to the Roman Senate by the first Roman Emperor, Augustus, after the fall of the Roman Republic in 27 BC. See also[edit] ‹ The template below (Columns) is being considered for deletion. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus. › Roman Kingdom Roman Republic Roman Empire Roman Law Plebeian Council Centuria Curia Roman consul Praetor Roman censor Quaestor Aedile Roman Dictator Master of the Horse Roman Senate Cursus honorum Byzantine Senate Pontifex Maximus Princeps senatus Interrex Promagistrate Acta Senatus References[edit] Abbott, Frank Frost (1901). A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. Elibron Classics (ISBN 0-543-92749-0). Byrd, Robert (1995). The Senate of the Roman Republic. U.S. Government Printing Office, Senate Document 103-23. Cicero, Marcus Tullius (1841). The Political Works of Marcus Tullius Cicero: Comprising his Treatise on the Commonwealth; and his Treatise on the Laws. Translated from the original, with Dissertations and Notes in Two Volumes. By Francis Barham, Esq. London: Edmund Spettigue. Vol. 1. Lintott, Andrew (1999). The Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press ( ISBN 0-19-926108-3). Polybius (1823). The General History of Polybius: Translated from the Greek. By James Hampton. Oxford: Printed by W. Baxter. Fifth Edition, Vol 2. Taylor, Lily Ross (1966). Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar. The University of Michigan Press ( ISBN 0-472-08125-X). Notes[edit] ^ a b Taylor, 40 ^ a b Abbott, 257 ^ Taylor, 3, 4 ^ a b Lintott, 42 ^ a b Abbott, 251 ^ Abbott, 252 ^ a b c Taylor, 2 ^ a b Lintott, 44 ^ Lintott, 44-45 ^ a b Taylor, 63 ^ Taylor, 7 ^ Plutarch, Marcellus, 5. ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 441, 442. ^ Lintott, 45 ^ Taylor, 16 ^ Lintott, 46 ^ Lintott, 46-47 ^ Lintott, 48 ^ a b c Taylor, 85 ^ a b Taylor, 86 ^ Taylor, 87 ^ Abbott, 21 ^ a b Abbott, 75 ^ Abbott, 74 Further reading[edit] Ihne, Wilhelm. Researches Into the History of the Roman Constitution. William Pickering. 1853. Johnston, Harold Whetstone. Orations and Letters of Cicero: With Historical Introduction, An Outline of the Roman Constitution, Notes, Vocabulary and Index. Scott, Foresman and Company. 1891. Mommsen, Theodor. Roman Constitutional Law. 1871-1888 Tighe, Ambrose. The Development of the Roman Constitution. D. Apple & Co. 1886. Von Fritz, Kurt. The Theory of the Mixed Constitution in Antiquity. Columbia University Press, New York. 1975. The Histories by Polybius Cambridge Ancient History, Volumes 9–13. A. Cameron, The Later Roman Empire, (Fontana Press, 1993). M. Crawford, The Roman Republic, (Fontana Press, 1978). E. S. Gruen, "The Last Generation of the Roman Republic" (U California Press, 1974) F. Millar, The Emperor in the Roman World, (Duckworth, 1977, 1992). A. Lintott, "The Constitution of the Roman Republic" (Oxford University Press, 1999) T. Robert S. Broughton, The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, American Philological Association, 1952–1960. Primary sources[edit] Cicero's De Re Publica, Book Two Rome at the End of the Punic Wars: An Analysis of the Roman Government; by Polybius Secondary source material[edit] Considerations on the Causes of the Greatness of the Romans and their Decline, by Montesquieu The Roman Constitution to the Time of Cicero What a Terrorist Incident in Ancient Rome Can Teach Us v t e Roman Constitution Ancient Rome History Constitution Senate Assemblies Curiate Century Tribal Plebeian Magistrates Roman Kingdom History Constitution Senate Assemblies Magistrates Roman Republic History Constitution (reforms of Sulla • reforms of Caesar • reforms of Augustus) Senate Assemblies Magistrates Roman Empire History (post Diocletian) Constitution (post Diocletian) Senate Assemblies Magistrates Miscellaneous Sulla's Constitutional Reforms Caesar's Constitutional Reforms Conflict of the Orders Roman law v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy 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Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus 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en-wikipedia-org-6866	----	Tribuni militum consulari potestate - Wikipedia Tribuni militum consulari potestate From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e The tribuni militum consulari potestate ("military tribunes with consular power"), in English commonly also Consular Tribunes, were tribunes elected with consular power during the so-called "Conflict of the Orders" in the Roman Republic, starting in 444 BC and then continuously from 408 BC to 394 BC and again from 391 BC to 367 BC. Contents 1 Origin and dissolution of the office 2 Consular Tribunes by year 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References Origin and dissolution of the office[edit] According to the histories of Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus,[citation needed] the magistracy of the tribuni militum consulari potestate was created during the Conflict of the Orders, along with the magistracy of the censor, in order to give the Plebeian order access to higher levels of government without having to reform the office of consul; plebeians could be elected to the office of Consular Tribune.[1] The choice whether a collegium of Consular Tribunes or consuls were to be elected for a given year was made by senatus consultum,[2] thereby (according to Livy) accounting for the periods of either office interspersed with the other. The number of Consular Tribunes varied from 2 to 6, and because they were considered colleagues of the two censors, there is sometimes mention of the "eight tribunes".[citation needed] Modern scholars now believe, however, that the creation of the consular tribunes was due to the changing military and administrative requirements of the expanding Roman state.[3] In the beginning during the 440s, the consular tribunes, elected from the three ancient tribes of the Titienses, Ramnenses, and Luceres, were part of an overall redesign of the military structure of the Roman state to maximise military efficiency, which included the creation of the Censorship (responsible for taking the census to identify the numbers of men capable of military duty) and the Quaestorship (responsible for the supply of money and goods for the armies).[3] Originally patrician office holders, they were referred to as "military tribunes", and were responsible for leading the armies into battle. It was only much later that they were given the anachronistic addition of "with consular power", in an attempt to distinguish them from the Military tribunes who were the legionary officers of the middle and late Republic.[4] The tribunes, like their consular predecessors, exercised consular potestas,[5] indicating they must have been elected by the comitia centuriata, and that the current needs of the state could not be served by the previous consular system.[3] From their initial number of three, the consular tribunes were increased to four for the first time in 426 BC in response to the military situation which saw the Roman state capture and annex Fidenae.[3] Then in 405 BC, the number of consular tribunes was increased to six for the first time; and after that, apart from the very occasional year in which eight or ten consular tribunes are recorded, the Roman state was led by six consular tribunes for almost every year down to the dissolution of the office and the reintroduction of the consulship in 366 BC. The increase was due to the need for the consular tribunes to not only handle the military affairs of Rome, but also the administrative needs of the city as well.[6] According to Livy, the practice of electing consular tribunes came to a definitive end in 366 BC, when the Lex Licinia Sextia took effect, allowing the Plebeian order access to the office of consul. Modern understanding of this process interprets the change to one where Rome’s position in Latium had become sufficiently secure to allow the urban duties of the consular tribunes to be discharged by other office holders with different levels of competencies and powers, including imperium in the case of the Praetor.[7] Thus the reorganization of the Roman state in 367/6 BC. saw the replacement of the six consular tribunes with five officials with distinct functions: the head of state became the two consuls, who would wage Rome’s wars and lead the Senate's deliberations. In addition there was one praetor who would oversee lawsuits in the city, while two curule aediles would undertake all other administrative duties within the city, such as the organization and holding of public games and overseeing and controlling the markets in Rome.[7] Consular Tribunes by year[edit] Presented by Varronian chronology. For more information on deciphering early Roman names, see Roman names. Year Tribunes 444 BC A. Sempronius Atratinus T. Atilius Luscus T. Cloelius Siculus 438 BC Mam. Aemilius Mamercinus L. Quinctius Cincinnatus L. Julius Iulus 434 BC Ser. Cornelius Cossus M. Manlius Capitolinus Q. Sulpicius Camerinus Praetextatus 433 BC M. Fabius Vibulanus M. Folius Flaccinator L. Sergius Fidenas 432 BC L. Pinarius Mamercinus L. Furius Medullinus Sp. Postumius Albus Regillensis 426 BC T. Quinctius Poenus Cincinnatus C. Furius Pacilus Fusus M. Postumius Albinus Regillensis A. Cornelius Cossus 425 BC A. Sempronius Atratinus L. Quinctius Cincinnatus L. Furius Medullinus L. Horatius Barbatus 424 BC Ap. Claudius Crassus Sp. Nautius Rutilus L. Sergius Fidenas Sex. Julius Iulus 422 BC L. Manlius Capitolinus Q. Antonius Merenda L. Papirius Mugillanus 420 BC L. Quinctius Cincinnatus L. Furius Medullinus M. Manlius Vulso A. Sempronius Atratinus 419 BC Agrippa Menenius Lanatus P. Lucretius Tricipitinus Sp. Nautius Rutilus C. Servilius Axilla 418 BC L. Sergius Fidenas M. Papirius Mugillanus C. Servilius Axilla 417 BC P. Lucretius Tricipitinus Agrippa Menenius Lanatus C. Servilius Axilla Sp. Rutilius Crassus 416 BC * A. Sempronius Atratinus M. Papirius Mugillanus Q. Fabius Vibulanus Sp. Nautius Rutilus 415 BC P. Cornelius Cossus C. Valerius Potitus Volusus N. Fabius Vibulanus Q. Quinctius Cincinnatus 414 BC Cn. Cornelius Cossus L. Valerius Potitus Q. Fabius Vibulanus P. Postumius Albinus Regillensis 408 BC C. Julius Iulus P. Cornelius Cossus C. Servilius Ahala 407 BC L. Furius Medullinus C. Valerius Potitus Volusus N. Fabius Vibulanus C. Servilius Ahala 406 BC P. Cornelius Rutilus Cossus Cn. Cornelius Cossus N. Fabius Ambustus L. Valerius Potitus 405 BC T. Quinctius Capitolinus Barbatus Q. Quinctius Cincinnatus C. Julius Iulus A. Manlius Vulso Capitolinus L. Furius Medullinus M'. Aemilius Mamercinus 404 BC C. Valerius Potitus Volusus M'. Sergius Fidenas P. Cornelius Maluginensis Cn. Cornelius Cossus K. Fabius Ambustus Sp. Nautius Rutilus 403 BC M'. Aemilius Mamercinus L. Valerius Potitus Ap. Claudius Crassus Inregillensis M. Quinctilius Varus L. Julius Iulus M. Furius Fusus M. Postumius Albinus Regillensis M. Postumius 402 BC C. Servilius Ahala Q. Servilius Fidenas L. Verginius Tricostus Esquilinus Q. Sulpicius Camerinus Cornutus A. Manlius Vulso Capitolinus M'. Sergius Fidenas 401 BC L. Valerius Potitus M. Furius Camillus M'. Aemilius Mamercinus Cn. Cornelius Cossus K. Fabius Ambustus L. Julius Iulus 400 BC P. Licinius Calvus Esquilinus P. Manlius Vulso L. Titinius Pansa Saccus P. Maelius Capitolinus Sp. Furius Medullinus L. Publilius Philo Vulscus 399 BC Cn. Genucius Augurinus L. Atilius Priscus M. Pomponius Rufus C. Duillius Longus M. Veturius Crassus Cicurinus Volero Publilius Philo 398 BC L. Valerius Potitus M. Valerius Lactucinus Maximus M. Furius Camillus L. Furius Medullinus Q. Servilius Fidenas Q. Sulpicius Camerinus Cornutus 397 BC L. Julius Iulus L. Furius Medullinus L. Sergius Fidenas A. Postumius Albinus Regillensis P. Cornelius Maluginensis A. Manlius Vulso Capitolinus 396 BC L. Titinius Pansa Saccus P. Licinius Calvus Esquilinus P. Maelius Capitolinus Q. Manlius Vulso Capitolinus Cn. Genucius Augurinus L. Atilius Priscus 395 BC P. Cornelius Cossus P. Cornelius Scipio K. Fabius Ambustus L. Furius Medullinus Q. Servilius Fidenas M. Valerius Lactucinus Maximus 394 BC M. Furius Camillus L. Furius Medullinus C. Aemilius Mamercinus L. Valerius Publicola Sp. Postumius Albinus Regillensis P. Cornelius 391 BC L. Lucretius Tricipitinus Flavus Ser. Sulpicius Camerinus L. Aemilius Mamercinus L. Furius Medullinus Agrippa Furius Fusus C. Aemilius Mamercinus 390 BC Q. Fabius Ambustus K. Fabius Ambustus N. Fabius Ambustus Q. Sulpicius Longus Q. Servilius Fidenas P. Cornelius Maluginensis 389 BC L. Valerius Publicola L. Verginius Tricostus P. Cornelius A. Manlius Capitolinus L. Aemilius Mamercinus L. Postumius Albinus Regillensis 388 BC T. Quinctius Cincinnatus Capitolinus Q. Servilius Fidenas L. Julius Iulus L. Aquilius Corvus L. Lucretius Flavus Tricipitinus Ser. Sulipicius Rufus 387 BC L. Papirius Cursor Cn. Sergius Fidenas Coxo L. Aemilius Mamercinus Licinus Menentius Lanatus L. Valerius Publicola L. Cornelius 386 BC M. Furius Camillus Ser. Cornelius Maluginensis Q. Servilius Fidenas L. Quinctius Cincinnatus L. Horatius Pulvillus P. Valerius Potitus Publicola 385 BC A. Manlius Capitolinus P. Cornelius T. Quinctius Cincinnatus Capitolinus L. Quinctius Cincinnatus Capitolinus L. Papirius Cursor Cn. Sergius Fidenas Coxo 384 BC Ser. Cornelius Maluginensis P. Valerius Potitus Publicola M. Furius Camillus Ser. Sulpicius Rufus C. Papirius Crassus T. Quinctius Cincinnatus Capitolinus 383 BC L. Valerius Publicola A. Manlius Capitolinus Ser. Sulpicius Rufus L. Lucretius Flavus Tricipitinus L. Aemilius Mamercinus M. Trebonius 382 BC Sp. Papirius Crassus L. Papirius Mugillanus Ser. Cornelius Maluginensis Q. Servilius Fidenas C. Sulpicius Camerinus L. Aemilius Mamercinus 381 BC M. Furius Camillus A. Postumius Albinus Regillensis L. Postumius Albinus Regillensis L. Furius Medullinus L. Lucretius Tricipitinus Flavus M. Fabius Ambustus 380 BC L. Valerius Publicola P. Valerius Potitus Publicola Ser. Cornelius Maluginensis Licinus Menentius Lanatus C. Sulpicius Peticus L. Aemilius Mamercinus Cn. Sergius Fidenas Coxo Ti. Papirius Crassus L. Papirius Mugillanus 379 BC P. Manlius Capitolinus C. Manlius L. Julius Iulus C. Sextilius M. Albinius L. Antistius 378 BC Sp. Furius Q. Servilius Fidenas Licinus Menenius Lanatus P. Cloelius Siculus M. Horatius L. Geganius Macerinus 377 BC L. Aemilius Mamercinus P. Valerius Potitus Publicola C. Veturius Crassus Cicurinus Ser. Sulpicius Rufus L. Quinctius Cincinnatus C. Quinctius Cincinnatus 376 BC L. Papirius Mugillanus Licinus Menenius Lanatus Ser. Cornelius Maluginensis Ser. Sulpicius Praetextatus 370 BC L. Furius Medullinus A. Manlius Capitolinus Ser. Sulpicius Praetextatus Ser. Cornelius Maluginensis P. Valerius Potitus Publicola C. Valerius Potitus 369 BC Q. Servilius Fidenas C. Veturius Crassus Cicurinus A. Cornelius Cossus M. Cornelius Maluginensis Q. Quinctius Cincinnatus M. Fabius Ambustus 368 BC T. Quinctius Cincinnatus Capitolinus Ser. Cornelius Maluginensis Ser. Sulpicius Praetextatus Sp. Servilius Structus L. Papirius Crassus L. Veturius Crassus Cicurinus 367 BC A. Cornelius Cossus M. Cornelius Maluginensis M. Geganius Macerinus P. Manlius Capitolinus L. Veturius Crassus Cicurinus P. Valerius Potitus Publicola See also[edit] Constitution of the Roman Republic Notes[edit] ^ Forsythe, pgs. 234-235 ^ Livy, Ab Urbe condita libri, IV.12.4 ^ a b c d Forsythe, p. 236 ^ Bringmann, Hans; Smyth, W. J. (trans) A History of the Roman Republic (2007), p. 15 ^ T.Corey Brennan, « The Praetorship in the Roman Republic-Vol 1 Origins to 122BC- §2.4 The Consular Tribunate», Oxford University Press, 2001 ^ Forsythe, pp. 236-237 ^ a b Forsythe, pg. 237 References[edit] Forsythe, Gary A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War, University of California Press (2005) Tribunus v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices 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en-wikipedia-org-6932	----	Borders of the Roman Empire - Wikipedia Borders of the Roman Empire From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Borders of the Roman Empire" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (August 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) See also: Roman military frontiers and fortifications The Roman Empire at its greatest extent, in 117 AD (vassals in pink). The borders of the Roman Empire, which fluctuated throughout the empire's history, were realised as a combination of military roads and linked forts, natural frontiers (most notably the Rhine and Danube rivers) and man-made fortifications which separated the lands of the empire from the countries beyond. Contents 1 The limes 2 The northern borders 3 The Pannonian Limes 4 The eastern borders 5 The southern borders 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 Further reading The limes[edit] Main article: Limes (Roman Empire) The word limes is sometimes used by modern scholars to denote the frontier of the Roman Empire but was not used by the Romans as such. After the third century it was an administrative term, indicating a military district, commanded by a dux limitis.[1] The limes that protected the Empire from German raids. The Latin noun limes had a number of different meanings: a path or balk marking off the boundaries of fields; a boundary line or marker; any road or path; any channel, such as a stream channel; or any distinction or difference between two things. In Britannia the Empire built two walls one behind the other; for Mauretania there was a single wall with forts on both sides of it. In other places, such as Syria and Arabia Petraea, there was no continuous wall; instead there was a net of border settlements and forts occupied by the Roman army. In Dacia, the limes between the Black Sea and the Danube were a mix of the latter and the wall defenses: the Limes Moesiae was the conjunction of two, and sometimes three, lines of vallum, with a Great Camp and many minor camps spread through the fortifications.[citation needed] Location of Hadrian's Wall and the Antonine Wall in Scotland and Northern England. The northern borders[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) In continental Europe, the borders were generally well defined, usually following the courses of major rivers such as the Rhine and the Danube. Nevertheless, those were not always the final border lines; the province of Dacia, modern Romania, was completely on the far side of the Danube, and the province of Germania Magna, which must not be confused with Germania Inferior and Germania Superior, was the land between the Rhine, the Danube and the Elbe (Although this province was lost three years after its creation as a result of the Battle of Teutoburg Forest). In Great Britain both Hadrian and Antoninus Pius built defences to protect the province of Britannia from the Caledonians. Hadrian's Wall, constructed in 122 held a garrison of 10,000 soldiers, while the Antonine Wall, constructed between 142 and 144, was abandoned by 164 and briefly reoccupied in 208, under the reign of Septimius Severus. The Pannonian Limes[edit] Main article: Pannonian Limes The eastern borders[edit] Main article: Roman–Persian Wars The eastern borders changed many times, as the Roman Empire was facing two major powers, The Parthian Empire and the Sasanian Empire. The Parthians were a group of Iranian peoples ruling most of Greater Iran that is in modern-day Iran, western Iraq, Armenia and the Caucasus.[2] The Sasanians succeeded the Parthians in 224–226 and were recognised as one of the leading world powers alongside its neighbouring arch-rival the Roman (Byzantine) Empire for a period of more than 400 years. The southern borders[edit] Limes Africanus under Septimius Severus (The frontier of Roman Africa (dark tan) in the late 2nd century AD: Septimius Severus expanded the Limes Tripolitanus dramatically (medium tan), even briefly holding a military presence (light tan) in the Garamantian capital Garama in 203) At the greatest extent of the Empire, the southern border lay along the deserts of Arabia in the Middle East and the Sahara in North Africa, which represented a natural barrier against expansion. The Empire controlled the Mediterranean shores and the mountain ranges further inland. The Romans attempted twice to occupy the Siwa Oasis and finally used Siwa as a place of banishment. However Romans controlled the Nile many kilometres into Africa up to Syena, Berenice, Hyerasykaminos and even Qasr Ibrim, (the southernmost of all), near the modern border between Egypt and Sudan, then Meroe, lying very near the tropic.[citation needed] The period in which each aforementioned town represented the final frontier of Rome is uncertain. In Africa Romans controlled the area north of the Sahara, from the Atlantic Ocean to Egypt, with many sections of limes (Limes Tripolitanus, Limes Numidiae, etc.).[3] In the south of Mauritania Tingitana Romans made a limes in the third century, just north of the area of actual Casablanca near Sala and stretching to Volubilis. Septimius Severus expanded the "Limes Tripolitanus" dramatically, even briefly holding a military presence in the Garamantian capital Garama in 203 AD. Much of the initial campaigning success was achieved by Quintus Anicius Faustus, the legate of Legio III Augusta. Following his African conquests, the Roman Empire may have reached its greatest extent during the reign of Septimius Severus,[4][5] under whom the empire encompassed an area of 5 million square kilometres (2 million square miles).[4] See also[edit] Roman Empire Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Roman military frontiers and fortifications Hannibal References[edit] ^ Benjamin Isaac, "The Meaning of 'Limes' and 'Limitanei' in Ancient Sources", Journal of Roman Studies, 78 (1988), pp. 125–147 ^ Benjamin Isaac, The Limits of Empire: the Roman Army in the East (Oxford University Press, revised ed. 1992) ^ Map of Roman Africa ^ a b David L. Kennedy, Derrick Riley (2012), Rome's Desert Frontiers, page 13, Routledge ^ R.J. van der Spek, Lukas De Blois (2008), An Introduction to the Ancient World, page 272, Routledge Bibliography[edit] De Agostini (2005). Atlante Storico De Agostini. Novara: Istituto Geografico De Agostini. ISBN 88-511-0846-3. Camer, Augusto and Renato Fabietti. Corso di storia antica e medievale 1 (seconda edizione). ISBN 88-08-24230-7. Grant, Michael (1994). Atlas of Classical History (5th edition). New York: Oxford Univ. Press. ISBN 0-19-521074-3. Scarre, Chris (1995). The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Rome. London: Penguin. ISBN 0-14-051329-9. Further reading[edit] Library resources about Borders of the Roman Empire Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Breeze, David J. 2011. The Frontiers of Imperial Rome. Barnsley, UK: Pen & Sword. Cordovana, Orietta Dora. 2012. "Historical Ecosystems. Roman Frontier and Economic Hinterlands in North Africa." Historia 61.4: 458-494. Dyson, Stephen. 1985. The Creation of the Roman Frontier. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press. Gambash, Gil. 2015. Rome and Provincial Resistance. London: Routledge. Heckster, Olivier, and Ted Kaizer, eds. 2011. Frontiers in the Roman World: Proceedings of the Ninth Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. Hingley, Richard. 2012. Hadrian’s Wall: A Life. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Isaac, Benjamin. 2000. The Limits of Empire: The Roman Army in the East. Rev. ed. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Keppie, Lawrence. 2012. The Antiquarian Rediscovery of the Antonine Wall. Edinburgh: Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. Sterk, Andrea. 2010. "Mission from Below: Captive Women and Conversion on the East Roman Frontier." Church History 79.1:1-39. Zietsman, J.C. 2009. "Crossing the Roman frontier: Egypt in Rome (and beyond)." Acta Classica 52: 1-21. v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine 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en-wikipedia-org-6966	----	Roman Kingdom - Wikipedia Roman Kingdom From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Regal period" redirects here. For the regal period in Athenian history, see List of kings of Athens. For the 5th-century "Roman kingdom" in Soissons ruled by Syagrius, see Kingdom of Soissons. period of Roman history when the city and its territory were ruled by kings (c.753–c.509 BC) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Roman Kingdom" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Roman Kingdom Regnum Romanum  (Latin) 753 BC–509 BC Capitoline Wolf The ancient quarters of Rome Capital Rome Common languages Old Latin Religion Roman religion Government Elective monarchy King   • 753–716 BC Romulus • 715–673 BC Numa Pompilius • 673–642 BC Tullus Hostilius • 642–616 BC Ancus Marcius • 616–579 BC L. Tarquinius Priscus • 578–535 BC Servius Tullius • 535–509 BC L. Tarquinius Superbus Legislature Senate Roman Assemblies Historical era Iron Age • Founding of Rome 753 BC • Monarchy overthrown 509 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Alba Longa Etruscan civilization Roman Republic Today part of  Italy   Vatican City Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e The Roman Kingdom, also referred to as the Roman monarchy, or the regal period of ancient Rome, was the earliest period of Roman history, when the city and its territory were ruled by kings. Little is certain about the kingdom's history, as no records and few inscriptions from the time of the kings survive, and the accounts of this period written during the Republic and the Empire are thought to be based on oral tradition. According to these legends, the Roman Kingdom began with the city's founding c. 753 BC, with settlements around the Palatine Hill along the river Tiber in central Italy, and ended with the overthrow of the kings and the establishment of the Republic c. 509 BC. Contents 1 Origin 2 Monarchy 2.1 Chief Executive 2.2 Chief Priest 2.3 Chief Legislator 2.4 Chief Judge 2.5 Election of the kings 2.6 Senate 3 Kings of Rome 3.1 Romulus 3.2 Numa Pompilius 3.3 Tullus Hostilius 3.4 Ancus Marcius 3.5 Lucius Tarquinius Priscus 3.6 Servius Tullius 3.7 Lucius Tarquinius Superbus 4 Public offices after the monarchy 5 Notes and references 6 Sources 7 Further reading 8 External links Origin[edit] Main article: Founding of Rome Shards of terracotta decorative plaques, 6th century BC (Roman Kingdom and Etruscan period), found in the Roman Forum, now in the Diocletian Baths Museum, Rome The site of the founding of the Roman Kingdom (and eventual Republic and Empire) had a ford where one could cross the river Tiber in central Italy. The Palatine Hill and hills surrounding it provided easily defensible positions in the wide fertile plain surrounding them. Each of these features contributed to the success of the city. The traditional version of Roman history, which has come down to us principally through Livy (64 or 59 BC – AD 12 or 17), Plutarch (46–120), and Dionysius of Halicarnassus (c. 60 BC – after 7 BC), recounts that a series of seven kings ruled the settlement in Rome's first centuries. The traditional chronology, as codified by Varro (116 BC – 27 BC) and Fabius Pictor (c. 270 – c. 200 BC), allows 243 years for their combined reigns, an average of almost 35 years. Since the work of Barthold Georg Niebuhr, modern scholarship has generally discounted this schema. The Gauls destroyed many of Rome's historical records when they sacked the city after the Battle of the Allia in 390 BC (according to Varro; according to Polybius, the battle occurred in 387/6), and what remained eventually fell prey to time or to theft. With no contemporary records of the kingdom surviving, all accounts of the Roman kings must be carefully questioned.[1][2] Monarchy[edit] Main articles: Constitution of the Roman Kingdom, Executive Magistrates of the Roman Kingdom, and King of Rome The kings, excluding Romulus, who according to legend held office by virtue of being the city's founder, were all elected by the people of Rome to serve for life, with none of the kings relying on military force to gain or keep the throne. The insignia of the kings of Rome were twelve lictors wielding the fasces bearing axes, the right to sit upon a Curule chair, the purple Toga Picta, red shoes, and a white diadem around the head. Of all these insignia, the most important was the purple toga. Chief Executive[edit] The king was invested with supreme military, executive, and judicial authority through the use of imperium, formally granted to the king by the Comitia Curiata with the passing of the Lex curiata de imperio at the beginning of each king's reign. The imperium of the king was held for life and protected him from ever being brought to trial for his actions. As the king was the sole owner of imperium in Rome at the time, he possessed ultimate executive power and unchecked military authority as the commander-in-chief of all Rome's legions. Also, the laws that kept citizens safe from magistrates' misuse of imperium did not exist during the monarchical period. Another power of the king was the power to either appoint or nominate all officials to offices. The king would appoint a tribunus celerum to serve as both the tribune of the Ramnes tribe in Rome and as the commander of the king's personal bodyguard, the celeres. The king was required to appoint the tribune upon entering office and the tribune left office upon the king's death. The tribune was second in rank to the king and also possessed the power to convene the Curiate Assembly and lay legislation before it. Another officer appointed by the king was the praefectus urbi, who acted as the warden of the city. When the king was absent from the city, the prefect held all of the king's powers and abilities, even to the point of being bestowed with imperium while inside the city. The king even received the right to be the only person to appoint patricians to the Senate. Chief Priest[edit] What is known for certain is that the king alone possessed the right to the auspice on behalf of Rome as its chief augur, and no public business could be performed without the will of the gods made known through auspices. The people knew the king as a mediator between them and the gods (cf. Latin pontifex, "bridge-builder", in this sense, between men and the gods) and thus viewed the king with religious awe. This made the king the head of the national religion and its chief executive. Having the power to control the Roman calendar, he conducted all religious ceremonies and appointed lower religious offices and officers. It is said that Romulus himself instituted the augurs and was believed to have been the best augur of all. Likewise, King Numa Pompilius instituted the pontiffs and through them developed the foundations of the religious dogma of Rome. Chief Legislator[edit] Main article: Leges regiae Under the kings, the Senate and Curiate Assembly had very little power and authority. They were not independent since they lacked the right to meet together and discuss questions of state at their own will. They could be called together only by the king and could discuss only the matters that the king laid before them. While the Curiate Assembly had the power to pass laws that had been submitted by the king, the Senate was effectively an honorary council. It could advise the king on his action but by no means could prevent him from acting. The only thing that the king could not do without the approval of the Senate and the Curiate Assembly was to declare war against a foreign nation. Chief Judge[edit] The king's imperium both granted him military powers and qualified him to pronounce legal judgment in all cases as the chief justice of Rome. Though he could assign pontiffs to act as minor judges in some cases, he had supreme authority in all cases brought before him, both civil and criminal. This made the king supreme in times of both war and peace. While some writers believed there was no appeal from the king's decisions, others believed that a proposal for appeal could be brought before the king by any patrician during a meeting of the Curiate Assembly. To assist the king, a council advised him during all trials, but this council had no power to control his decisions. Also, two criminal detectives (Quaestores Parricidi) were appointed by him as well as a two-man criminal court (Duumviri Perduellionis) which oversaw cases of treason. According to Livy, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the seventh and final king of Rome, judged capital criminal cases without the advice of counsellors, thereby creating fear amongst those who might think to oppose him.[3] Election of the kings[edit] Whenever a king died, Rome entered a period of interregnum. Supreme power of the state would devolve to the Senate, which was responsible for finding a new king. The Senate would assemble and appoint one of its own members—the interrex—to serve for a period of five days with the sole purpose of nominating the next king of Rome. If no king were nominated at the end of five days, with the Senate's consent the interrex would appoint another Senator to succeed him for another five-day term. This process would continue until a new king was elected. Once the interrex found a suitable nominee to the kingship, he would bring the nominee before the Senate and the Senate would review him. If the Senate passed the nominee, the interrex would convene the Curiate Assembly and preside over it during the election of the King. Once proposed to the Curiate Assembly, the people of Rome could either accept or reject him. If accepted, the king-elect did not immediately enter office. Two other acts still had to take place before he was invested with the full regal authority and power. First, it was necessary to obtain the divine will of the gods respecting his appointment by means of the auspices, since the king would serve as high priest of Rome. This ceremony was performed by an augur, who conducted the king-elect to the citadel where he was placed on a stone seat as the people waited below. If found worthy of the kingship, the augur announced that the gods had given favourable tokens, thus confirming the king's priestly character. The second act which had to be performed was the conferral of the imperium upon the king. The Curiate Assembly's previous vote only determined who was to be king, and had not by that act bestowed the necessary power of the king upon him. Accordingly, the king himself proposed to the Curiate Assembly a law granting him imperium, and the Curiate Assembly by voting in favor of the law would grant it. In theory, the people of Rome elected their leader, but the Senate had most of the control over the process. Senate[edit] Main articles: Senate of the Roman Kingdom and Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Kingdom According to legend, Romulus established the Senate after he founded Rome by personally selecting the most noble men (wealthy men with legitimate wives and children) to serve as a council for the city. As such, the Senate was the King's advisory council as the Council of State. The Senate was composed of 300 Senators, with 100 Senators representing each of the three ancient tribes of Rome: the Ramnes (Latins), Tities (Sabines), and Luceres (Etruscans) tribes. Within each tribe, a Senator was selected from each of the tribe's ten curiae. The king had the sole authority to appoint the Senators, but this selection was done in accordance with ancient custom. Under the monarchy, the Senate possessed very little power and authority as the king held most of the political power of the state and could exercise those powers without the Senate's consent. The chief function of the Senate was to serve as the king's council and be his legislative coordinator. Once legislation proposed by the king passed the Comitia Curiata, the Senate could either veto it or accept it as law. The king was, by custom, to seek the advice of the Senate on major issues. However, it was left to him to decide what issues, if any, were brought before them and he was free to accept or reject their advice as he saw fit. Only the king possessed the power to convene the Senate, except during the interregnum, during which the Senate possessed the authority to convene itself. Kings of Rome[edit] Years BC Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details Year King Other notable information 753–717 BC Romulus Myth of Romulus and Remus; founder of Rome; established Roman Senate, army, first religious institutions. 716–673 BC Numa Pompilius Established many of Rome's most important religious and political institutions; introduced twelve-month solar calendar. 673–642 BC Tullus Hostilius Defeated and destroyed Alba Longa; integrated the noble Alban families into the Roman aristocracy. 640–616 BC Ancus Marcius Established port of Ostia; defeated the Sabines. 616–579 BC Tarquinius Priscus Expanded Roman hegemony over Latium; doubled membership in the Senate to 600; drained the Roman Forum, and constructed the Cloaca Maxima and the Circus Maximus. 578–535 BC Servius Tullius Established the Servian Tribes and the centuries; built the Temple of Diana and a new wall around the city; instituted the Compitalia. 535–509 BC Tarquinius Superbus Last King of Rome; overthrew Servius; conquered various Latin cities and established colonies; built the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus; deposed and Roman Republic established. Romulus[edit] A map of Rome in 753 BC. Colours show topography, with green lowlands and brown highlands. The Latin names of hills are included in all caps. Son of the Vestal Virgin Rhea Silvia, ostensibly by the god Mars, the legendary Romulus was Rome's founder and first king. After he and his twin brother Remus had deposed King Amulius of Alba and reinstated the king's brother and their grandfather Numitor to the throne, they decided to build a city in the area where they had been abandoned as infants. After Remus was killed in a dispute, Romulus began building the city on the Palatine Hill. His work began with fortifications. He permitted men of all classes to come to Rome as citizens, including slaves and freemen without distinction.[4] He is credited with establishing the city's religious, legal and political institutions. The kingdom was established by unanimous acclaim with him at the helm when Romulus called the citizenry to a council for the purposes of determining their government.[5][6][7][8] Romulus established the senate as an advisory council with the appointment of 100 of the most noble men in the community. These men he called patres (from pater, father, head), and their descendants became the patricians. To project command, he surrounded himself with attendants, in particular the twelve lictors.[5][9] He created three divisions of horsemen (equites), called centuries: Ramnes (Romans), Tities (after the Sabine king) and Luceres (Etruscans). He also divided the populace into 30 curiae, named after 30 of the Sabine women who had intervened to end the war between Romulus and Tatius. The curiae formed the voting units in the popular assemblies (Comitia Curiata).[10] Growth of the city region during the kingdom Romulus was behind one of the most notorious acts in Roman history, the incident commonly known as the rape of the Sabine women. To provide his citizens with wives, Romulus invited the neighbouring tribes to a festival in Rome where the Romans committed a mass abduction of young women from among the attendees. The account vary from 30 to 683 women taken, a significant number for a population of 3,000 Latins (and presumably for the Sabines a well). War broke out when Romulus refused to return the captives. After the Sabines made three unsuccessful attempts to invade the hill settlements of Rome, the women themselves intervened during the Battle of the Lacus Curtius to end the war. The two peoples were united in a joint kingdom, with Romulus and the Sabine king Titus Tatius sharing the throne.[11][12][13] In addition to the war with the Sabines, Romulus waged war with the Fidenates and Veientes and others.[14] He reigned for thirty-seven[15] or thirty-eight[16] years. According to the legend, Romulus vanished at age fifty-four[16] while reviewing his troops on the Campus Martius. He was reported to have been taken up to Mt. Olympus in a whirlwind and made a god. After initial acceptance by the public, rumours and suspicions of foul play by the patricians began to grow. In particular, some thought that members of the nobility had murdered him, dismembered his body, and buried the pieces on their land.[17] These were set aside after an esteemed nobleman testified that Romulus had come to him in a vision and told him that he was the god Quirinus.[18] He became, not only one of the three major gods of Rome, but the very likeness of the city itself.[19][20] A replica of Romulus' hut was maintained in the centre of Rome until the end of the Roman Empire.[21] Numa Pompilius[edit] After Romulus died, there was an interregnum for one year, during which ten men chosen from the senate governed Rome as successive interreges. Under popular pressure, the Senate finally chose the Sabine Numa Pompilius to succeed Romulus, on account of his reputation for justice and piety. The choice was accepted by the Curiate Assembly.[22][23][24] Numa's reign was marked by peace and religious reform. He constructed a new temple to Janus and, after establishing peace with Rome's neighbours, closed the doors of the temple to indicate a state of peace. They remained closed for the rest of his reign.[25] He established the Vestal Virgins at Rome, as well as the Salii, and the flamines for Jupiter, Mars and Quirinus. He also established the office and duties of Pontifex Maximus. Numa reigned for 43 years.[26][27] He reformed the Roman calendar by adjusting it for the solar and lunar year, as well as by adding the months of January and February to bring the total number of months to twelve.[25] Tullus Hostilius[edit] Tullus Hostilius was as warlike as Romulus had been and completely unlike Numa as he lacked any respect for the gods. Tullus waged war against Alba Longa, Fidenae and Veii and the Sabines. During Tullus's reign, the city of Alba Longa was completely destroyed and Tullus integrated its population into Rome.[28] Tullus is attributed with constructing a new home for the Senate, the Curia Hostilia, which survived for 562 years after his death. According to Livy, Tullus neglected the worship of the gods until, towards the end of his reign, he fell ill and became superstitious. However, when Tullus called upon Jupiter and begged assistance, Jupiter responded with a bolt of lightning that burned the king and his house to ashes.[29][30] His reign lasted for 31 years. Ancus Marcius[edit] Following the mysterious death of Tullus, the Romans elected a peaceful and religious king in his place, Numa's grandson, Ancus Marcius. Much like his grandfather, Ancus did little to expand the borders of Rome and only fought wars to defend the territory. He also built Rome's first prison on the Capitoline Hill.[31] Ancus further fortified the Janiculum Hill on the western bank, and built the first bridge across the Tiber River. He also founded the port of Ostia on the Tyrrhenian Sea and established Rome's first salt works, as well as the city's first aqueduct. Rome grew, as Ancus used diplomacy to peacefully unite smaller surrounding cities into alliance with Rome. Thus, he completed the conquest of the Latins and relocated them to the Aventine Hill, thus forming the plebeian class of Romans.[32] He died a natural death, like his grandfather, after 25 years as king, marking the end of Rome's Latin-Sabine kings. Lucius Tarquinius Priscus[edit] Lucius Tarquinius Priscus was the fifth king of Rome and the first of Etruscan birth. After immigrating to Rome, he gained favor with Ancus, who later adopted him as son. Upon ascending the throne, he waged wars against the Sabines and Etruscans, doubling the size of Rome and bringing great treasures to the city. To accommodate the influx of population, the Aventine and Caelian hills were populated.[33] One of his first reforms was to add 100 new members to the Senate from the conquered Etruscan tribes, bringing the total number of senators to 200. He used the treasures Rome had acquired from the conquests to build great monuments for Rome. Among these were Rome's great sewer systems, the Cloaca Maxima, which he used to drain the swamp-like area between the Seven Hills of Rome. In its place, he began construction on the Roman Forum. He also founded the Roman games. Priscus initiated great building projects, including the city's first bridge, the Pons Sublicius.[34] The most famous is the Circus Maximus, a giant stadium for chariot races. After that, he started the building of the temple-fortress to the god Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill. However, before it was completed, he was killed by a son of Ancus Marcius, after 38 years as king. His reign is best remembered for introducing the Roman symbols of military and civil offices, and the Roman triumph, being the first Roman to celebrate one.[35] Servius Tullius[edit] A map of the City of the Four Regions, roughly corresponding to the city limits during the later kingdom. The division is traditionally, though probably incorrectly, attributed to Servius Tullius. The seven hills of Rome are shown in green, with Latin names. Priscus was succeeded by his son-in-law Servius Tullius, Rome's second king of Etruscan birth, and the son of a slave. Like his father-in-law, Servius fought successful wars against the Etruscans. He used the booty to build the first wall all around the Seven Hills of Rome, the pomerium. He also reorganized the army. Servius Tullius instituted a new constitution, further developing the citizen classes. He instituted Rome's first census which divided the population into five economic classes, and formed the Centuriate Assembly. He used the census to divide the population into four urban tribes based on location, thus establishing the Tribal Assembly. He also oversaw the construction of the temple to Diana on the Aventine Hill. Servius’ reforms made a big change in Roman life: voting rights based on socio-economic status, favouring elites. However, over time, Servius increasingly favoured the poor in order to gain support from plebs, often at the expense of patricians. After a 44-year reign, Servius was killed in a conspiracy by his daughter Tullia and her husband Lucius Tarquinius Superbus.[36] Lucius Tarquinius Superbus[edit] The seventh and final king of Rome was Lucius Tarquinius Superbus. He was the son of Priscus and the son-in-law of Servius whom he and his wife had killed.[37] Tarquinius waged a number of wars against Rome's neighbours, including against the Volsci, Gabii and the Rutuli. He also secured Rome's position as head of the Latin cities. He also engaged in a series of public works, notably the completion of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, and works on the Cloaca Maxima and the Circus Maximus. However, Tarquin's reign is remembered for his use of violence and intimidation to control Rome, and his disrespect of Roman custom and the Roman Senate.[38] Tensions came to a head when the king's son, Sextus Tarquinius, raped Lucretia, wife and daughter to powerful Roman nobles. Lucretia told her relatives about the attack, and committed suicide to avoid the dishonour of the episode. Four men, led by Lucius Junius Brutus, and including Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, Publius Valerius Poplicola, and Spurius Lucretius Tricipitinus incited a revolution that deposed and expelled Tarquinius and his family from Rome in 509 BC.[39] Tarquin was viewed so negatively that the word for king, rex, held a negative connotation in Latin language until the fall of the Roman Empire.[citation needed] Brutus and Collatinus became Rome's first consuls, marking the beginning of the Roman Republic. This new government would survive for the next 500 years until the rise of Julius Caesar and Caesar Augustus, and would cover a period during which Rome's authority and area of control extended to cover great areas of Europe, North Africa, and the West Asia.[40] Public offices after the monarchy[edit] Main article: Roman Republic The Capitoline Brutus, an ancient Roman bust from the Capitoline Museums is traditionally identified as a portrait of Lucius Junius Brutus In order to replace the leadership of the kings, a new office was created with the title of consul. Initially, the consuls possessed all of the king's powers in the form of two men, elected for a one-year term, who could veto each other's actions. Later, the consuls’ powers were broken down further by adding other magistrates that each held a small portion of the king's original powers. First among these was the praetor, which removed the consuls’ judicial authority from them. Next came the censor, which stripped from the consuls the power to conduct the census. The Romans instituted the idea of a dictatorship. A dictator would have complete authority over civil and military matters within the Roman imperium. Since he was not legally responsible for his actions as a dictator, he was unquestionable. However, the power of the dictator was so absolute that Ancient Romans were hesitant in electing one, reserving this decision only to times of severe emergencies. Although this seems similar to the roles of a king, dictators of Rome were limited to serving a maximum six-month term limit. Contrary to the modern notion of a dictator as a usurper, Roman dictators were freely chosen, usually from the ranks of consuls, during turbulent periods when one-man rule proved more efficient. The king's religious powers were given to two new offices: the Rex Sacrorum and the Pontifex Maximus. The Rex Sacrorum was the de jure highest religious official for the Republic. His sole task was to make the annual sacrifice to Jupiter, a privilege that had been previously reserved for the king. The Pontifex Maximus, however, was the de facto highest religious official and held most of the king's religious authority. He had the power to appoint all vestal virgins, flamens, pontiffs, and even the Rex Sacrorum himself. By the beginning of the 1st century BC, the Rex Sacrorum was all but forgotten, and the Pontifex Maximus given almost complete religious authority over the Roman religion. Notes and references[edit] ^ Asimov, Isaac (1991). Asimov's Chronology of the World. New York: HarperCollins. p. 69. ISBN 0-06-270036-7. ^ Matyszak 2003, p. 12. ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1.49 ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:8 ^ a b "Titus Livius (Livy), The History of Rome, Book 1, chapter 8". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2015-12-09. ^ Everitt 2012, p. . ^ Everitt 2012, p. 22-23. ^ Matyszak 2003, p. 17. ^ He may have chosen this number from the number of the birds who foretold his sovereignty ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:8, 13 ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:9–13 ^ Matyszak 2003, p. 19-20. ^ Everitt 2012, p. 21-22. ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:14–15 ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1.21 ^ a b Plutarch Life of Romulus 29.7 ^ Livy Ab Urbe Book I ch.16 ^ Plutarch Life of Romulus Book I ch. 28 ^ Everitt 2012, p. 24-25. ^ Matyszak 2003, p. 20-21. ^ Le Glay, Marcel. (2009). A history of Rome. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-8327-7. OCLC 760889060. ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:17–18 ^ Everitt 2012, p. 25-26. ^ Matyszak 2003, p. 22. ^ a b Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:19 ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:20 ^ Matyszak 2003, p. 25. ^ Matyszak 2003, p. 26-28. ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:31 ^ Matyszak 2003, p.29. ^ Matyszak 2003, p. 30. ^ Matyszak 2003, p. 31. ^ Everitt 2012, p. 30 ^ Everitt 2012, p. 28 ^ Matyszak 2003, p. 36. ^ Matyszak 2003, p. 38-39. ^ Matyszak 2003, p. 40. ^ Matyszak 2003, p. 41. ^ Matyszak 2003, p. 42. ^ Matyszak 2003, p. 43-45. Sources[edit] Livy, Ab Urbe Condita. Everitt, Anthony (2012). The rise of Rome: The making of the world's greatest empire. New York: Random House. ISBN 9780679645160. Matyszak, Philip (2003). Chronicle of the Roman Republic. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 9780500287637. Further reading[edit] Forsythe, Gary. A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005. Livy, Aubrey De Sélincourt, R. M Ogilvie, and S. P Oakley. The Early History of Rome: Books I-V of The History of Rome From Its Foundations. London: Penguin Books, 2002. Miles, Gary B. Livy: Reconstructing Early Rome. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995. Neel, Jaclyn. Early Rome: Myth and Society: A Sourcebook. Hoboken: Wiley Blackwell, 2017. Ogilvie, R. M. Early Rome and the Etruscans. Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1976. External links[edit] Library resources about Roman Kingdom Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Frank, Tenney: An Economic History of Rome. 1920. 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en-wikipedia-org-696	----	National Library of Chile - Wikipedia National Library of Chile From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from BNC (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "National Library of Chile" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) National Library of Chile Front view of the National Library of Chile building Established 1813 Location Santiago Coordinates 33°26′32″S 70°38′45″W / 33.4421°S 70.6457°W / -33.4421; -70.6457Coordinates: 33°26′32″S 70°38′45″W / 33.4421°S 70.6457°W / -33.4421; -70.6457 Branches N/A Collection Size 1,100,000 registries[1] Access and use Population served 66,167,182 members of the public Other information Director Ángel Cabeza Monteira Website [2] Map The National Library of Chile (Spanish: Biblioteca Nacional de Chile) is the national library of Chile. It is located on the Avenida Libertador General Bernardo O'Higgins in Santiago, in a building completed in 1925, though its history reaches to the early nineteenth century before it was relocated to its current home. Contents 1 History 2 Location 3 Collections 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links History[edit] The Aurora de Chile, Chile's first newspaper, is kept at the Biblioteca Nacional. The Biblioteca Nacional is, together with the Instituto Nacional and a small number of institutions, one of the first institutions created by the newly formed Republic of Chile in the Patria Vieja period. In the newspaper El Monitor Araucano, a Proclama de Fundación ("Proclamation of Foundation") of the Biblioteca Nacional was published on August 19, 1813. With this vision, a call was made to all the citizens to submit their books for the formation of one great public library. As with other republican institutions, the library was closed after the Disaster of Rancagua, in which the national troops were defeated by the army of the realistas. With the victorious Battle of Chacabuco, it was reopened and supported by the government, and started to receive important collections. The Supreme Director of Chile, Bernardo O'Higgins, named professor Manuel de Salas as the first director of the Biblioteca Nacional. In 1822 Friar Camilo Henríquez (director of the Aurora de Chile newspaper) was named as the second head librarian. Since its creation, the library had been a dependency of the Universidad de San Felipe and its successor, the Universidad de Chile, until it gained autonomy in 1852. In 1913, upon its 100th anniversary, the Biblioteca Nacional acquired the Monasterio de Santa Clara, located on the Alameda de las Delicias on present-day Cerro Santa Lucía. At the creation in 1929, the library was made into a dependency of the Dirección de Bibliotecas, Archivos y Museos. Location[edit] Chilean Hallroom (Sección Chilena) of the Biblioteca Nacional de Chile Since 1925, Biblioteca Nacional has been situated in the centre of Santiago, Chile. It was formerly located in the square where now stands the Teatro Municipal de Santiago (Municipal Theater of Santiago). Construction of the present building began in 1913. It was commissioned as one of the commemorative public works in honour of the first centenary of the independence of Chile. The building boasts an imposing façade of columns and arches, of very pronounced French neoclassical influence. The library shares its building with the Archivo Nacional de Chile (the National Archive). Adjoining the building is the Santa Lucía metro station, and to the east is Cerro Santa Lucía. The interior, spread out over two main levels and a basement, has been embellished and decorated with carved marble staircases, sculptures and paintings from some of the country's classic artists, such as Alfredo Helsby and Arturo Gordon. Biblioteca Nacional de Chile, Computers hall, details of the doors Collections[edit] The Biblioteca Nacional has an extensive and valuable collection of books and manuscripts. Several of these were acquired from or donated by their owners, making up an important national historical treasure.[2] The most important collections include: Name Year Mariano Egaña 1846 Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna 1861 Andrés Bello 1865 Claude Gay 1873 José Ignacio Eyzaguirre Portales 1878 Diego Portales 1878 Aníbal Pinto 1885 Diego Barros Arana 1920 José Toribio Medina 1925 Enrique Matta Vial 1940 Raúl Silva Castro 1970 Guillermo Feliú Cruz 1974 Antonio Doddis 1974 See also[edit] List of national libraries Chilean National Museum of Fine Arts Asociación de Estados Iberoamericanos para el Desarrollo de las Bibliotecas Nacionales de Iberoamérica References[edit] ^ http://descubre.bibliotecanacional.cl/primo_library/libweb/action/search.do?vid=BNC ^ [1] www.thisischile.cl Friday, November 08, 2013, retrieved November 12, 2013 "La Biblioteca Nacional de Chile" (in Spanish). Official site. Further reading[edit] David H. Stam, ed. (2001). International Dictionary of Library Histories. Fitzroy Dearborn. ISBN 1579582443. 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en-wikipedia-org-6978	----	Appian - Wikipedia Appian From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman-era Greek historian This article is about the historian. For other uses, see Appian (disambiguation). Appian Born Appianus Alexandrinus c. 95 Alexandria, Aegyptus Died c. 165 Rome Occupation Historian Appian of Alexandria (/ˈæpiən/; Greek: Ἀππιανὸς Ἀλεξανδρεύς Appianòs Alexandreús; Latin: Appianus Alexandrinus; c. 95 – c. AD 165) was a Greek historian with Roman citizenship who flourished during the reigns of Emperors of Rome Trajan, Hadrian, and Antoninus Pius. He was born c. 95 in Alexandria. After holding the chief offices in the province of Aegyptus (Egypt), he went to Rome c. 120, where he practised as an advocate, pleading cases before the emperors (probably as advocatus fisci, an important official of the imperial treasury).[1] It was in 147 at the earliest that he was appointed to the office of procurator, probably in Egypt, on the recommendation of his friend Marcus Cornelius Fronto, a well-known litterateur. Because the position of procurator was open only to members of the equestrian order (the "knightly" class), his possession of this office tells us about Appian's family background. His principal surviving work (Ρωμαϊκά Romaiká, known in Latin as Historia Romana and in English as Roman History) was written in Greek in 24 books, before 165. This work more closely resembles a series of monographs than a connected history. It gives an account of various peoples and countries from the earliest times down to their incorporation into the Roman Empire, and survives in complete books and considerable fragments.[1] The work is very valuable, especially for the period of the civil wars.[2] The Civil Wars, books 13–17 of the Roman History, concern mainly the end of the Roman Republic and take a conflict-based view and approach to history. Despite the lack of cited sources for his works, these books of the Roman History are the only extant comprehensive description of these momentous decades of Roman history. The other extant work of Appian is his ”The Foreign Wars”, which includes an ethnographic style history recounting the various military conflicts against a foreign enemy in Roman history, until the time of Appian. Contents 1 Life 2 Works 2.1 Appian's Roman History and The Civil Wars 2.2 The Foreign Wars 2.3 Sources 3 Editions 4 References 4.1 Citations 4.2 Bibliography 5 External links Life[edit] Little is known of the life of Appian of Alexandria. He wrote an autobiography that has been almost completely lost.[3] Information about Appian is distilled from his own writings and a letter[which?] by his friend Cornelius Fronto.[4] However, it is certain that Appian was born around the year AD 95 in Alexandria, the capital of Roman Egypt. Since his parents were Roman citizens capable of paying for their son's education, it can be inferred that Appian belonged to the wealthy upper classes. It is believed that Appian moved to Rome in 120, where he became a barrister. In the introduction to his Roman History, he boasts "that he pleaded cases in Rome before the emperors." The emperors he claims to have addressed must have been either Hadrian or Marcus Aurelius and definitely Antoninus Pius, for Appian remained in Egypt at least until the end of the reign of Trajan (117). In the letter of Cornelius Fronto, it is revealed that a request on behalf of Appian to receive the rank of procurator occurred during the co-regency of Marcus Aurelius and his brother Lucius Verus between 147 and 161. Although Appian won this office, it is unclear whether it was a real job or an honorific title. The only other certain biographical datum is that Appian's Roman History appeared sometime before 162. This is one of the few primary historical sources for the period. Works[edit] Appian: Historia Romana. Printed in Venice 1477 by Erhard Ratdolt Appian's Roman History and The Civil Wars[edit] Appian began writing his history around the middle of the second century AD. Only sections from half of the original 24 books survive today of a much larger history known as The Roman History. The section of this history known as The Civil Wars is composed of books 13–17 of the original 24 of the Roman History. This history narrates the history of the Romans from the time of the Gracchan tribunates. Going on to narrate the civil wars of Marius and Sulla and those of Caesar and Pompey. The history breaks off in the time of the Second Triumvirate. These five books stand out because they are one of the few comprehensive histories available on the transition of the Roman state from Republic to Empire and the ensuing civil and military strife. Besides Appian, this period is also covered by a handful of ancient authors with varying degrees of detail and viewpoints. The commentaries of Julius Caesar record his personal, mainly military, observations of the Gallic Wars and subsequent civil wars. Plutarch's Roman biographies sketch the lives of the major leaders of the late Republican period. These biographies record events Plutarch thought interesting and give only a perfunctory explanation of historic events. The Roman author Velleius' history examines Roman history from the city’s foundation until AD 29. This history becomes more detailed in the late Republic / early Empire period, while earlier history is condensed. The Epitome of Roman History by Florus, also covers Roman history from mythical times until the 5th century AD in an extremely condensed format. The history of Diodorus of Sicily also covers Roman history until the Gallic Wars, but this history becomes fragmentary after around 300 BC. The Foreign Wars[edit] Another work of Appian's history which still survives mostly extant is called The Foreign Wars. This history describes the wars the Romans fought against other cultures throughout their history. The mostly extant work narrates the wars in Spain, the Punic Wars in both Italy and Africa, the wars against the Seleucid Empire, and the Mithridatic Wars. Several small fragments also survive, describing the wars against the Samnites, Illyrians, Macedonians, Numidians, and the Gauls. Especially notable is this work's ethnographic structure. Appian most likely used this structure to facilitate his readers' orientation through the sequence of events, which are united only by their relationship to Rome. For example, the chapter on Spain recounts Roman history in Spain chronologically with the Romans' first intervention in Spain during the War with Hannibal. The book goes on to describe the Roman conquest of several regions of Spain, followed by their wars with Spanish tribes and the Numantine War. The chapter on Spain concludes with the war against Sertorius in roughly 61 BC. Likewise, the chapter on the Hannibalic wars only recounts the battles that took place on the Italian Peninsula during the second Punic war, while the chapters on the Punic War recount all the action that occurred in northern Africa during the first and second Punic war. Sources[edit] One might expect that a historical work covering nine centuries and countless different peoples would involve a multitude of testimonials[clarification needed] from different periods. However, Appian's sources remain uncertain, as he only mentions the source of his information under special circumstances. He may have relied primarily on one author for each book, whom he did not follow uncritically, since Appian also used additional sources for precision and correction.[citation needed] At our present state of knowledge questions regarding Appian's sources cannot be resolved.[citation needed] Editions[edit] Appiani Alexandrini Historia Publio Candido interprete Ac praeterea Anonymi Compendium historiae ab excessu Constantini usque ad Ioannem XXIII (in Latin). World Digital Library. Retrieved 2014-02-28. Editio princeps, 1551 Schweighäuser, 1785 Bekker, 1852 Ludwig Mendelssohn, 1878–1905, Appiani Historia Romana, Bibliotheca Teubneriana Paul Goukowsky, 1997–, Appien. Histoire romaine (Greek text, French translation, notes), Collection Budé. Carsana, Chiara (ed.). Commento storico al libro II delle Guerre Civili di Appiano (parte I). Pisa: Edizioni ETS, 2007. 309 pp. (Pubblicazioni della Facoltà di Lettere e Filosofia dell'Università di Pavia, 116). English translations W. B., 1578 (black letter) – possibly William Barker – used by Shakespeare J. D[avies], 1679 Horace White, 1899 (Bohn's Classical Library); Book I edited by James Leigh Strachan-Davidson, 1902. Books XIII–XVII (Civil Wars), trans. John Carter, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1996 References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ a b White, Horace (1912). "Introduction". Appian's Roman History. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Loeb Classical Library. pp. vii–xii. ISBN 0-674-99002-1. ^  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Appian". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 221–222. ^ Appian Proem. 62 ^ Michael Petrus Josephus Van Den Hout, A Commentary on the Letters of M. Cornelius Fronto, Volume 190 of Mnemosyne (Brill, 1999) Bibliography[edit] William Smith (ed.) (1870), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, Vol. 1, pp. 247–248 External links[edit] Works written by or about Appian at Wikisource Appian's Foreign Wars at Livius.org Appian's Civil Wars at LacusCurtius Works by or about Appian at Internet Archive Review of Paul Goukowsky and Phillippe Torrens, eds., Appien: Histoire romaine. Tome X, livre XV: Guerres civiles, livre III in: Bryn Mawr Classical Review. Authority control BIBSYS: 90395062 BNE: XX919445 BNF: cb120075773 (data) CANTIC: a11829175 CiNii: DA01432000 GND: 118649892 ICCU: IT\ICCU\LO1V\026679 ISNI: 0000 0001 1862 8005 LCCN: n81028285 LNB: 000015047 NKC: jn19981000128 NSK: 000035701 NTA: 069607672 SELIBR: 175986 SNAC: w69w3gst SUDOC: 028190521 Trove: 1264956 VcBA: 495/53035 VIAF: 108993357 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n81028285 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Appian&oldid=993260680" Categories: 95 births 165 deaths 2nd-century historians 1st-century Greek people 2nd-century Greek people 1st-century Romans 2nd-century Romans Roman-era Greek historians 2nd-century people of Roman Egypt Ancient Egyptian writers Roman-era Alexandrians Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles with hCards Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Latin-language text All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from March 2012 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from March 2012 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2012 CS1 Latin-language sources (la) Articles with Internet Archive links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Български Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lingua Franca Nova Magyar മലയാളം مصرى Bahasa Melayu Mirandés Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 9 December 2020, at 17:35 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6992	----	History of Latin - Wikipedia History of Latin From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search History of the Latin language This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "History of Latin" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) One of the seven ceiling fresoes painted by Bartolomeo Altomonte in his 80th year for the library of Admont Abbey. An allegory of the Enlightenment, it shows Aurora, goddess of dawn, with the geniuses of language in her train awakening Morpheus, god of dreaming, a symbol of man. The geniuses are Grammar, Didactic, Greek, Hebrew and Latin. Approximate distribution of languages in Iron Age Italy during the 6th century BC. Latin is confined to Latium, a small region on the coast of west central Italy, hemmed in by other Italic peoples on the east and south and the powerful Etruscan civilization on the north. Latin is a member of the broad family of Italic languages. Its alphabet, the Latin alphabet, emerged from the Old Italic alphabets, which in turn were derived from the Greek and Phoenician scripts. Historical Latin came from the prehistoric language of the Latium region, specifically around the River Tiber, where Roman civilization first developed. How and when Latin came to be spoken by the Romans are questions that have long been debated. Various influences on Latin of Celtic dialects in northern Italy, the non-Indo-European Etruscan language in Central Italy, and the Greek of southern Italy have been detected, but when these influences entered the native Latin is not known for certain. Surviving Latin literature consists almost entirely of Classical Latin in its broadest definition. It includes a polished and sometimes highly stylized literary language sometimes termed Golden Latin, which spans the 1st century BC and the early years of the 1st century AD. However, throughout the history of ancient Rome the spoken language differed in both grammar and vocabulary from that of literature, and is referred to as Vulgar Latin. In addition to Latin, the Greek language was often spoken by the well-educated elite, who studied it in school and acquired Greek tutors from among the influx of enslaved educated Greek prisoners of war, captured during the Roman conquest of Greece. In the eastern half of the Roman Empire, which became the Byzantine Empire, the Greek Koine of Hellenism remained current and was never replaced by Latin. It continued to influence the Vulgar Latin that evolved into the Eastern Romance languages. Contents 1 Origins 2 Old Latin 3 Classical Latin 3.1 Golden Age 3.2 Silver Age 4 Late Latin 5 Vulgar Latin 6 Romance languages 7 Ecclesiastical Latin 8 Medieval Latin 9 Renaissance Latin 10 New Latin 11 Contemporary Latin 12 Phonological changes 12.1 Vowels 12.1.1 Pure vowels 12.1.1.1 Initial syllables 12.1.1.2 Medial syllables 12.1.1.3 Syncope 12.1.1.4 Final syllables 12.1.2 Diphthongs 12.1.2.1 Initial syllables 12.1.2.2 Medial syllables 12.1.2.3 Final syllables 12.1.3 Syllabic resonants and laryngeals 12.2 Consonants 12.2.1 Aspirates 12.2.2 Labiovelars 12.2.3 Other sequences 12.2.4 S-rhotacism 13 See also 14 Notes 15 Sources 16 External links Origins[edit] Main article: Italic languages The Forum inscription (Lapis Niger, "black stone"), one of the oldest known Latin inscriptions, from the 6th century BC; it is written boustrophedon, albeit irregularly; from a rubbing by Domenico Comparetti. The name Latin derives from the Italic tribal group named Latini that settled around the 10th century BC in Latium, and the dialect spoken by these people.[1] The Italic languages form a centum subfamily of the Indo-European language family. These include the Romance, Germanic, Celtic, and Hellenic languages, and a number of extinct ones. Broadly speaking, in initial syllables the Indo-European simple vowels — (*a), *e, *i, *o, *u; short and long — are usually retained in Latin. The schwa indogermanicum (*ə) appears in Latin as a (cf. IE *pəter > L pater). Diphthongs are also preserved in Old Latin, but in Classical Latin some tend to become monophthongs (for example oi > ū or oe, and ei > ē > ī).[2] In non-initial syllables, there was more vowel reduction. The most extreme case occurs with short vowels in medial open syllables (i.e. short vowels followed by at most a single consonant, occurring neither in the first nor last syllable): All are reduced to a single vowel, which appears as i in most cases, but e (sometimes o) before r, and u before an l which is followed by o or u. In final syllables, short e and o are usually raised to i and u, respectively. Consonants are generally more stable. However, the Indo-European voiced aspirates bh, dh, gh, gwh are not maintained, becoming f, f, h, f respectively at the beginning of a word, but usually b, d, g, v elsewhere. Non-initial dh becomes b next to r or u, e.g. *h₁rudh- "red" > rub-, e.g. rubeō "to be red"; *werdh- "word" > verbum. s between vowels becomes r, e.g. flōs "flower", gen. flōris; erō "I will be" vs. root es-; aurōra "dawn" < *ausōsā (cf. Germanic *aust- > English "east", Vedic Sanskrit uṣā́s "dawn"); soror "sister" < *sosor < *swezōr < *swésōr (cf. Old English sweostor "sister"). Of the original eight cases of Proto-Indo-European, Latin inherited six: nominative, vocative, accusative, genitive, dative, and ablative. The Indo-European locative survived in the declensions of some place names and a few common nouns, such as Roma "Rome" (locative Romae) and domus "home" (locative domī "at home"). Vestiges of the instrumental case may remain in adverbial forms ending in -ē.[3] It is believed that the earliest surviving inscription is a seventh-century BC fibula known as the Praenestine fibula, which reads Manios med fhefhaked Numasioi "Manius made me for Numerius".[4] Old Latin[edit] The Duenos inscription, from the 6th century BC, is the second-earliest known Latin text. Main article: Old Latin Old Latin (also called Early Latin or Archaic Latin) refers to the period of Latin texts before the age of Classical Latin, extending from textual fragments that probably originated in the Roman monarchy to the written language of the late Roman republic about 75 BC. Almost all the writing of its earlier phases is inscriptional. Some phonological characteristics of older Latin are the case endings -os and -om (later Latin -us and -um). In many locations, classical Latin turned intervocalic /s/ into /r/. This had implications for declension: early classical Latin, honos, honosis; Classical honor, honoris ("honor"). Some Latin texts preserve /s/ in this position, such as the Carmen Arvale's lases for lares. Classical Latin[edit] Main article: Classical Latin Julius Caesar's Commentarii de Bello Gallico is one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the Golden Age of Latin. The unvarnished, journalistic style of this upper-class general has long been taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially spoken and written in the floruit of the Roman republic. Classical Latin is the form of the Latin language used by the ancient Romans in Classical Latin literature. In the latest and narrowest philological model its use spanned the Golden Age of Latin literature – broadly the 1st century BC and the early 1st century AD – possibly extending to the Silver Age – broadly the 1st and 2nd centuries. It was a polished written literary language based on the refined spoken language of the upper classes. Classical Latin differs from Old Latin: the earliest inscriptional language and the earliest authors, such as Ennius, Plautus and others, in a number of ways; for example, the early -om and -os endings shifted into -um and -us ones, and some lexical differences also developed, such as the broadening of the meaning of words.[5] In the broadest and most ancient sense, the classical period includes the authors of Early Latin, the Golden Age and the Silver Age. Golden Age[edit] The golden age of Latin literature is a period consisting roughly of the time from 75 BC to AD 14, covering the end of the Roman Republic and the reign of Augustus Caesar. In the currently used philological model this period represents the peak of Latin literature. Since the earliest post-classical times the Latin of those authors has been an ideal norm of the best Latin, which other writers should follow. Silver Age[edit] In reference to Roman literature, the Silver age covers the first two centuries AD directly after the Golden age. Literature from the Silver Age is more embellished with mannerisms. Late Latin[edit] Main article: Late Latin Late Latin is the administrative and literary language of Late Antiquity in the late Roman empire and states that succeeded the Western Roman Empire over the same range. By its broadest definition it is dated from about 200 AD to about 900 AD when it was replaced by written Romance languages. Opinion concerning whether it should be considered classical is divided. The authors of the period looked back to a classical period they believed should be imitated and yet their styles were often classical. According to the narrowest definitions, Late Latin did not exist and the authors of the times are to be considered medieval. Vulgar Latin[edit] Main article: Vulgar Latin Vulgar Latin, as in this political graffito at Pompeii, was the language of the ordinary people of the Roman Empire, distinct from the Classical Latin of literature. Vulgar Latin (in Latin, sermo vulgaris) is a blanket term covering vernacular dialects of the Latin language spoken from earliest times in Italy until the latest dialects of the Western Roman Empire, diverging still further, evolved into the early Romance languages – whose writings began to appear about the 9th century. This spoken Latin differed from the literary language of Classical Latin in its grammar and vocabulary. It is likely to have evolved over time, with some features not appearing until the late Empire. Other features are likely to have been in place much earlier. Because there are few phonetic transcriptions of the daily speech of these Latin speakers (to match, for example, the post-classical Appendix Probi) Vulgar Latin must be studied mainly by indirect methods. A replica of the Old Roman Cursive inspired by the Vindolanda tablets Knowledge of Vulgar Latin comes from a variety of sources. First, the comparative method reconstructs items of the mother language from the attested Romance languages. Also, prescriptive grammar texts from the Late Latin period condemn some usages as errors, providing insight into how Latin was actually spoken. The solecisms and non-Classical usages occasionally found in late Latin texts also shed light on the spoken language. A windfall source lies in the chance finds of wax tablets such as those found at Vindolanda on Hadrian's Wall. The Roman cursive script was used on these tablets. Romance languages[edit] Main article: Romance languages The Romance languages, a major branch of the Indo-European language family, comprise all languages that descended from Latin, the language of the Roman Empire. The Romance languages have more than 700 million native speakers worldwide, mainly in the Americas, Europe, and Africa, as well as in many smaller regions scattered through the world. All Romance languages descend from Vulgar Latin, the language of soldiers, settlers, and slaves of the Roman Empire, which was substantially different from that of the Roman literati. Between 200 BC and AD 100, the expansion of the Empire and the administrative and educational policies of Rome made Vulgar Latin the dominant vernacular language over a wide area which stretched from the Iberian Peninsula to the west coast of the Black Sea. During the Empire's decline and after its collapse and fragmentation in the 5th century, Vulgar Latin began to evolve independently within each local area, and eventually diverged into dozens of distinct languages. The overseas empires established by Spain, Portugal and France after the 15th century then spread these languages to other continents – about two thirds of all Romance speakers are now outside Europe. In spite of the multiple influences of pre-Roman languages and later invasions, the phonology, morphology, lexicon, and syntax of all Romance languages are predominantly derived from Vulgar Latin. As a result, the group shares a number of linguistic features that set it apart from other Indo-European branches. Ecclesiastical Latin[edit] Main article: Ecclesiastical Latin Ecclesiastical Latin (sometimes called Church Latin) is a broad and analogous term referring to the Latin language as used in documents of the Roman Catholic Church, its liturgies (mainly in past times) and during some periods the preaching of its ministers. Ecclesiastical Latin is not a single style: the term merely means the language promulgated at any time by the church. In terms of stylistic periods, it belongs to Late Latin in the Late Latin period, Medieval Latin in the Medieval Period, and so on through to the present. One may say that, starting from the church's decision in the early Late Latin period to use a simple and unornamented language that would be comprehensible to ordinary Latin speakers and yet still be elegant and correct, church Latin is usually a discernible substyle within the major style of the period. Its authors in the New Latin period are typically paradigmatic of the best Latin and that is true in contemporary times. The decline in its use within the last 100 years has been a matter of regret to some, who have formed organizations inside and outside the church to support its use and to use it. Medieval Latin[edit] Main article: Medieval Latin Page with medieval Latin text from the Carmina Cantabrigiensia (Cambridge University Library, Gg. 5. 35), 11th century Medieval Latin, the literary and administrative Latin used in the Middle Ages, exhibits much variation between individual authors, mainly due to poor communications in those times between different regions. The individuality is characterised by a different range of solecisms and by the borrowing of different words from Vulgar Latin or from local vernaculars. Some styles show features intermediate between Latin and Romance languages; others are closer to classical Latin. The stylistic variations came to an end with the rise of nation states and new empires in the Renaissance period, and the authority of early universities imposing a new style: Renaissance Latin. Renaissance Latin[edit] Main article: Renaissance Latin Renaissance Latin is a name given to the Latin written during the European Renaissance in the 14th-16th centuries, particularly distinguished by the distinctive Latin style developed by the humanist movement. Ad fontes was the general cry of the humanists, and as such their Latin style sought to purge Latin of the medieval Latin vocabulary and stylistic accretions that it had acquired in the centuries after the fall of the Roman Empire. They looked to Golden Age Latin literature, and especially to Cicero in prose and Virgil in poetry, as the arbiters of Latin style. They abandoned the use of the sequence and other accentual forms of meter, and sought instead to revive the Greek formats that were used in Latin poetry during the Roman period. The humanists condemned the large body of medieval Latin literature as "gothic" – for them, a term of abuse – and believed instead that only ancient Latin from the Roman period was "real Latin". The humanists also sought to purge written Latin of medieval developments in its orthography. They insisted, for example, that ae be written out in full wherever it occurred in classical Latin; medieval scribes often wrote e instead of ae. They were much more zealous than medieval Latin writers in distinguishing t from c: because the effects of palatalization made them homophones, medieval scribes often wrote, for example, eciam for etiam. Their reforms even affected handwriting: humanists usually wrote Latin in a script derived from Carolingian minuscule, the ultimate ancestor of most contemporary lower-case typefaces, avoiding the black-letter scripts used in the Middle Ages. Erasmus even proposed that the then-traditional pronunciations of Latin be abolished in favour of his reconstructed version of classical Latin pronunciation. The humanist plan to remake Latin was largely successful, at least in education. Schools now taught the humanistic spellings, and encouraged the study of the texts selected by the humanists, largely to the exclusion of later Latin literature. On the other hand, while humanist Latin was an elegant literary language, it became much harder to write books about law, medicine, science or contemporary politics in Latin while observing all of the humanists' norms of vocabulary purging and classical usage. Because humanist Latin lacked precise vocabulary to deal with modern issues, their reforms accelerated the transformation of Latin from a working language to an object of antiquarian study. Their attempts at literary work, especially poetry, often have a strong element of pastiche. New Latin[edit] Main article: New Latin After the medieval era, Latin was revived in original, scholarly, and scientific works between c. 1375 and c. 1900. The result language is called New Latin. Modern scholarly and technical nomenclature, such as in zoological and botanical taxonomy and international scientific vocabulary, draws extensively from New Latin vocabulary. In such use, New Latin is subject to new word formation. As a language for full expression in prose or poetry, however, it is often distinguished from its successor, Contemporary Latin. Classicists use the term "Neo-Latin" to describe the use of Latin after the Renaissance as a result of renewed interest in classical civilization in the 14th and 15th centuries.[6] Contemporary Latin[edit] Main article: Contemporary Latin A contemporary Latin inscription at Salamanca University commemorating the visit of the then-Prince "Akihitus" and Princess "Michika" of Japan on 28 February 1985 Contemporary Latin is the form of the Latin language used since the end of the 19th century. Various kinds of contemporary Latin can be distinguished, including the use of single words in taxonomy, and the fuller ecclesiastical use in the Catholic Church . As a relic of the great importance of New Latin as the formerly dominant international lingua franca down to the 19th century in a great number of fields, Latin is still present in words or phrases used in many languages around the world, and some minor communities use Latin in their speech. Phonological changes[edit] Vowels[edit] Proto-Italic inherited all ten of the early post-Proto-Indo-European simple vowels (i.e. at a time when laryngeals had colored and often lengthened adjacent vowels and then disappeared in many circumstances): *a, *e, *i, *o, *u, *ā, *ē, *ī, *ō, *ū. It also inherited all of the post-PIE diphthongs except for *eu, which became *ou. Proto-Italic and Old Latin had a stress accent on the first syllable of a word, and this caused steady reduction and eventual deletion of many short vowels in non-initial syllables while affecting initial syllables much less. Long vowels were largely unaffected in general except in final syllables, where they had a tendency to shorten. Development of Proto-Italic vowels in Latin[7] Initial Medial Final Proto-Italic +r +l pinguis +labial (/p, b, f, m/) +other +one consonant +cluster Absolutely final one consonant cluster s m, n other a a e[a] o > u[b] ʏ (sonus medius)[c] i[d] e[e] i e i e e e e o > u[f] i i i? i[g] o o o > u[h] o[i] u u u u[j] u[k] ā ā a a, ā ē ē e ē? ī ī i ī? ō ō o ō ū ū u ū? ai ae ī au au ū ei ī oi ū, oe ū ī ou ū Notes: ^ Example: imberbis (from in + barba) ^ Example: exsultare (from ex + saltare) ^ Examples: documentum, optimus, lacrima (also spelled docimentum, optumus, lacruma) ^ Examples: inficere (from in + facere), oppidum (from ob + pedum, borrowed from Gr. πέδον) ^ Examples: infectus (from in + factus), ineptus (from in + aptus), exspectare (from ex + spectare) ^ Examples: occultus (from ob + cel(a)tus), multus (from PIE *mel-) ^ Example: invictus (from in + victus) ^ Example: cultus (participle of colō) ^ Example: adoptare (from ad + optare) ^ Example: exculpare (from ex + culpare) ^ Example: eruptus (from e + ruptus) Note: For the following examples, it helps to keep in mind the normal correspondences between PIE and certain other languages: Development of some Proto-Indo-European sounds in other languages (post-)PIE Ancient Greek Old English Gothic Sanskrit Notes *i i i i, aí /ɛ/ i *e e e i, aí /ɛ/ a *a a a a a *o o a a a *u u u, o u, aú /ɔ/ u *ī ī ī ei /ī/ ī *ē ē ā ē ā *ā ē (Attic); ā (Doric, etc.) ō ō ā *ō ō ō ō ā *ū ū ū ū ū *ai ai ā ái ē *au au ēa áu ō *ei ei ī ei /ī/ ē *eu eu ēo iu ō *oi oi ā ái ē *ou ou ēa áu ō *p p f f; b p b in Gothic by Verner's law *t t þ/ð; d þ; d t þ and ð are different graphs for the same sound; d in the Germanic languages by Verner's law *ḱ k h; g h; g ś g in the Germanic languages by Verner's law *k k; c (+ PIE e/i) *kʷ p; t (+ e/i) hw, h; g, w ƕ /hʷ/; g, w, gw g, w, gw in the Germanic languages by Verner's law *b b p p b *d d t t d *ǵ g k k j *g g; j (+ PIE e/i) *gʷ b; d (+ i) q, c q *bʰ ph; p b b bh; b Greek p, Sanskrit b before any aspirated consonant (Grassmann's law) *dʰ th; t d d dh; d Greek t, Sanskrit d before any aspirated consonant *ǵʰ kh; k g g h; j Greek k, Sanskrit j before any aspirated consonant *gʰ gh; g h; j (+ PIE e/i) Greek k, Sanskrit g, j before any aspirated consonant *gʷʰ ph; p th; t (+ e/i) b (word-initially); g, w b (word-initially); g, w, gw Greek p, t, Sanskrit g, j before any aspirated consonant *s h (word-initially); s, - s; r s; z s, ṣ r, z in Germanic by Verner's law; Sanskrit ṣ by Ruki sound law *y h, z (word-initially); - g(e) /j/ j /j/ y *w - w w v Pure vowels[edit] Initial syllables[edit] In initial syllables, Latin generally preserves all of the simple vowels of Proto-Italic (see above): PIE *h₂eǵros "field" > *agros > ager, gen. agrī (Greek agrós, English acre, Sanskrit ájra) PIE *kápros "he-goat" > *kapros > caper "he-goat", gen. caprī (Greek kápros "boar", Old English hæfer "he-goat", Sanskrit kápṛtha "penis") PIE *swéḱs "six", septḿ̥ "seven" > *seks, *septem > sex, septem (Greek heks, heptá, Lithuanian šešì, septynì, Sanskrit ṣáṣ, saptá) PIE *kʷís > *kʷis > quis "who?" (Greek tís,[8] Avestan čiš, Sanskrit kíḥ) PIE *kʷód > *kʷod > quod "what, that" (relative) (Old English hwæt "what", Sanskrit kád) PIE *oḱtṓ "eight" > *oktō > octō (Greek oktṓ, Irish ocht, Sanskrit aṣṭā́) PIE *nókʷts "night" > *noks > nox, gen. noctis (Greek nuks < *nokʷs, Sanskrit nák < *nákts, Lithuanian naktìs) PIE *yugóm "yoke" > *jugom > iugum (Greek zugón, Gothic juk, Sanskrit yugá) PIE *méh₂tēr "mother" > *mātēr > māter (Doric Greek mā́tēr, Old Irish máthir, Sanskrit mā́tṛ) PIE *sweh₂dús "pleasing, tasty" > *swādus > *swādwis (remade into i-stem) > suāvis (Doric Greek hādús, English sweet, Sanskrit svādú) PIE *sēmi- "half" > *sēmi- > sēmi- (Greek hēmi-, Old English sām-, Sanskrit sāmí) PIE *ǵneh₃tós "known" > *gnōtos > nōtus (i-gnōtus "unknown"; Welsh gnawd "customary", Sanskrit jñātá; Greek gnōtós[9]) PIE *múh₂s "mouse" > *mūs > mūs (Old English mūs, Greek mûs, Sanskrit mū́ṣ) PIE *gʷih₃wós "alive" > *gʷīwos > vīvus (Old English cwic, Greek bíos "life", Sanskrit jīvá) Short vowel changes in initial syllables: *swe- > so-: *swezōr > soror, gen. sorōris "sister" *swepnos > *swepnos > somnus "sleep" *we- > wo- before labial consonants or velarized l [ɫ] (l pinguis; i.e. an l not followed by i, ī or l): *welō "I want" > volō (vs. velle "to want" before l exīlis) *wemō "I vomit" > vomō (Greek eméō, Sanskrit vámiti) e > i before [ŋ] (spelled n before a velar, or g before n): PIE *dn̥ǵʰwéh₂s > *denɣwā > Old Latin dingua > lingua "tongue" (l- from lingō "to lick") PIE *deḱnós > *degnos > dignus "worthy" There are numerous examples where PIE *o appears to result in Latin a instead of expected o, mostly next to labial or labializing consonants. A group of cases showing *-ow- > *-aw- > -av- (before stress), *-ōw- > *-āw- > -āv- is known as Thurneysen-Havet's law:[10] examples include PIE *lowh₃ṓ > *lawō > lavō 'I wash'; PIE *oḱtṓwos > *oktāwos > octāvus 'eighth' (but octō 'eight'). Other cases remain more disputed, such as mare 'sea', in contrast to Irish muir, Welsh môr (Proto-Celtic *mori) < PIE *móri; lacus 'lake', in contrast to Irish loch < PIE *lókus. De Vaan (2008: 8) suggests a general shift *o > a in open syllables when preceded by any of *b, *m; *kʷ, *w; *l. Vine (2011)[11] disputes the cases with *moCV, but proposes inversely that *mo- > ma- when followed by r plus a velar (k or g). Medial syllables[edit] In non-initial syllables, there was more vowel reduction of short vowels. The most extreme case occurs with short vowels in medial syllables (i.e. short vowels in a syllable that is neither the first nor the last), where all five vowels usually merge into a single vowel: 1. They merge into e before r (sometimes original o is unaffected) *en-armis > inermis "unarmed" (vs. arma "arms") Latin-Faliscan *pe-par-ai "I gave birth" > peperī (vs. pariō "I give birth") *kom-gesō > congerō "to collect" (vs. gerō "to do, carry out") *kinis-es "ash" (gen.sg.) > cineris (vs. nom.sg. cinis) *Falisiōi > Faleriī "Falerii (major town of the Faliscans)" (vs. Faliscus "Faliscan") Latin-Faliscan Numasiōi (Praeneste fibula) > Numeriō "Numerius" *-foro- "carrying" (cf. Greek -phóros) > -fero-, e.g. furcifer "gallows bird" PIE *swéḱuros "father-in-law" > *swekuros > Old Latin *soceros > socer, gen. socerī 2. They become Old Latin o > u before l pinguis, i.e., an l not followed by i, ī, or l: *en-saltō "to leap upon" > īnsoltō (with lengthening before ns) > īnsultō (vs. saltō "I leap") *ad-alēskō "to grow up" > adolēscō > adulēscō (vs. alō "I nourish") *ob-kelō "to conceal" > occulō (vs. celō "I hide") Greek Sikelós "a Sicilian" > *Sikolos > Siculus (vs. Sicilia "Sicily") te-tol-ai > tetulī "I carried" (formerly l pinguis here because of the original final -ai) kom-solō "deliberate" > cōnsulō PIE *-kl̥d-to- "beaten" > *-kolsso-[12] > perculsus "beaten down" 3. But they remain o before l pinguis when immediately following a vowel: Latin-Faliscan *fili-olos > filiolus "little son" Similarly, alveolus "trough" 4. Before /w/ the result is always u, in which case the /w/ is not written: *eks-lawō "I wash away" > ēluō *mon-i-wai "I warned" > monuī *tris-diw-om "period of three days" > trīduom > trīduum *dē nowōd "anew" > dēnuō 5. They become i before one consonant other than r or l pinguis: *wre-fakjō "to remake" > *refakiō > reficiō (vs. faciō "I do, make") Latin-Faliscan *ke-kad-ai "I fell" > cecidī (vs. cadō "I fall") *ad-tenējō > attineō "to concern" (vs. teneō "I hold") *kom-regō > corrigō "to set right, correct" (vs. regō "I rule; straighten") Greek Sikelía "Sicily" > Sicilia (vs. Siculus "a Sicilian") PIE *me-món-h₂e (perfect) "thought, pondered" > Latin-Faliscan *me-mon-ai > meminī "I remember" *kom-itājō "accompany" > comitō *nowotāts "newness" > novitās *kornu-kan- "trumpeter" > cornicen *kaput-es "head" (gen. sg.) > capitis (vs. nom.sg. caput) 6. But they sometimes become e before one consonant other than r or l pinguis, when immediately following a vowel: *sokiotāts "fellowship" > societās *wariogājesi "to make diverse" > variegāre But: *tībia-kan- "flute-player" > *tībiikan- > tībīcen But: *medio-diēs "midday" > *meriodiēs (dissimilative rhotacism) > *meriidiēs > merīdiēs "noon; south" 7. Variation between i and (often earlier) u is common before a single labial consonant (p, b, f, m), underlyingly the sonus medius vowel: From the root *-kap- "grab, catch": occupō "seize" vs. occipiō "begin" From the related noun *-kaps "catcher": prīnceps "chief" (lit. "seizer of the first (position)"), gen. prīncipis, vs. auceps "bird catcher", gen. aucupis *man-kapiom > mancupium "purchase", later mancipium *sub-rapuit > surrupuit "filches", later surripuit *mag-is-emos > maxumus "biggest", later maximus; similarly proxumus "nearest", optumus "best" vs. later proximus, optimus *pot-s-omos > possumus "we can"; *vel-omos > volumus "we want"; but *leg-omos > legimus "we gather", and all other such verbs (-umus is isolated in sumus, possumus and volumus) Medially before two consonants, when the first is not r or l pinguis, the vowels do not merge to the same degree: 1. Original a, e and u merge into e: Greek tálanton > *talantom > talentum *sub-raptos "filched" > surreptus (vs. raptus "seized") *wre-faktos "remade" > refectus (cf. factus "made") *ad-tentos > attentus "concerned" (cf. tentus "held", attineō "to concern") 2. But original i is unaffected: *wre-likʷtos "left (behind)" > relictus 3. And original o raises to u: *legontor "they gather" > leguntur *ejontes "going" (gen. sg.) > euntis rōbos-to- > rōbustus "oaken" (cf. rōbur "oak" < *rōbos) Syncope[edit] Exon's Law dictates that if there are two light medial syllables in a row (schematically, σσ̆σ̆σ, where σ = syllable and σ̆ = light syllable, where "light" means a short vowel followed by only a single consonant), the first syllable syncopates (i.e. the vowel is deleted): *deksiteros "right (hand)" > dexterus (cf. Greek deksiterós) *wre-peparai > repperī "I found" (cf. peperī "I gave birth" < *peparai) *prīsmo-kapes > prīncipis "prince" gen. sg. (nom. sg. prīnceps < *prīsmo-kaps by analogy) *mag-is-emos > maximus "biggest" (cf. magis "more") Syncopation tends to occur after r and l in all non-initial syllables, sometimes even in initial syllables.[13] *feret "he carries" > fert *agros "field" > *agr̩s > *agers > *agerr > ager *imbris "rainstorm" > *imbers > imber *tris "three times" > *tr̩s > *ters > Old Latin terr > ter *faklitāts > facultās Sometimes early syncope causes apparent violations of Exon's Law: kosolinos "of hazel" > *kozolnos (not **koslinos) > *korolnos > *korulnos (o > u before l pinguis, see above) > colurnus (metathesis) Syncope of -i- also occurred in -ndis, -ntis and -rtis.[13] -nts then became -ns with lengthening of the preceding vowel, while -rts was simplified to -rs without lengthening. *montis "hill" > *monts > mōns *gentis "tribe" > *gents > gēns *frondis "leaf" > *fronts > frōns *partis "part" > *parts > pars Final syllables[edit] In final syllables of polysyllabic words before a final consonant or cluster, short a, e, i merge into either e or i depending on the following consonant, and short o, u merge into u. 1. Short a, e, i merge into i before a single non-nasal consonant: Proto-Italic *wrededas, *wrededat > reddis, reddit "you return, he returns" PIE thematic 2nd/3rd sg. *-esi, *-eti > PI *-es, *-et > -is, -it (e.g. legis, legit "you gather, he gathers") i-stem nom. sg. *-is > -is 2. Short a, e, i merge into e before a cluster or a single nasal consonant: *prīsmo-kaps > prīnceps "first, chief" (cf. capiō "to take") *kornu-kan-(?s) > cornicen "trumpeter" (cf. canō "to sing") *mīlets > mīles "soldier" *in-art-is > iners "unskilled" (cf. ars "skill") *septḿ̥ > septem "seven" i-stem acc. sg. *-im > -em 3. Short o, u merge into u: o-stem nominative *-os > Old Latin -os > -us o-stem accusative *-om > Old Latin -om > -um PIE thematic 3rd pl. *-onti > *-ont > -unt PIE *yekʷr̥ > *jekʷor > iecur "liver" PIE thematic 3rd sg. mediopassive *-etor > -itur *kaput > caput "head" 4. All short vowels apparently merge into -e in absolute final position.[dubious – discuss] PIE *móri > PI *mari > mare "sea" (cf. plural maria) Proto-Italic *kʷenkʷe > quīnque "five" 2nd sg. passive -ezo, -āzo > -ere, -āre PI s-stem verbal nouns in *-zi > infinitives in -re But: u-stem neuter nom./acc. sg. *-u > -ū, apparently by analogy with gen. sg. -ūs, dat./abl. sg. -ū (it is not known if this change occurred already in Proto-Italic) Long vowels in final syllables shorten before most consonants (but not final s), yielding apparent exceptions to the above rules: Proto-Italic *amāt > amat "he/she loves" (cf. passive amātur) Proto-Italic *amānt > amant "they love" a-stem acc. sg. *-ām > -am PIE thematic 1st sg. mediopassive *-ōr > -or *swesōr > soror "sister" (cf. gen. sorōris) Absolutely final long vowels are apparently maintained with the exception of ā, which is shortened in the 1st declension nominative singular and the neuter plural ending (both < PIE *-eh₂) but maintained in the 1st conjugation 2nd sg. imperative (< PIE *-eh₂-yé). Diphthongs[edit] Initial syllables[edit] Proto-Italic maintained all PIE diphthongs except for the change *eu > *ou. The Proto-Italic diphthongs tend to remain into Old Latin but generally reduce to pure long vowels by Classical Latin. 1. PIE *ei > Old Latin ei > ẹ̄, a vowel higher than ē < PIE *ē. This then developed to ī normally, but to ē before v: PIE *deiḱ- "point (out)" > Old Latin deicō > dīcō "to say" PIE *bʰeydʰ- "be persuaded, be confident" > *feiðe- > fīdō "to trust" PIE *deiwós "god, deity" > Very Old Latin deiuos (Duenos inscription) > dẹ̄vos > deus But nominative plural *deivoi > *deivei > *dẹ̄vẹ̄ > dīvī > diī; vocative singular *deive > *dẹ̄ve > dīve 2. PIE *eu, *ou > Proto-Italic *ou > Old Latin ou > ọ̄ (higher than ō < PIE *ō) > ū: PIE *(H)yeug- "join" > *youg-s-mn̥-to- > Old Latin iouxmentom "pack horse" > iūmentum PIE *louk-s-neh₂ > *louksnā > Old Latin losna (i.e. lọ̄sna) > lūna "moon" (cf. Old Prussian lauxnos "stars", Avestan raoχšnā "lantern") PIE *deuk- > *douk-e- > Old Latin doucō > dūcō "lead" 3. PIE (*h₂ei >) *ai > ae: PIE *kh₂ei-ko- > *kaiko- > caecus "blind" (cf. Old Irish cáech /kaiχ/ "blind", Gothic háihs "one-eyed", Sanskrit kekara- "squinting") 4. PIE (*h₂eu >) *au > au: PIE *h₂eug- > *augeje/o > augeō "to increase" (cf. Greek aúksō, Gothic áukan, Lithuanian áugti) 5. PIE *oi > Old Latin oi, oe > ū (occasionally preserved as oe): PIE *h₁oi-nos > Old Latin oinos > oenus > ūnus "one" Greek Phoiniks > Pūnicus "Phoenician" But: PIE *bʰoidʰ- > *foiðo- > foedus "treaty" (cf. fīdō above) Medial syllables[edit] All diphthongs in medial syllables become ī or ū. 1. (Post-)PIE *ei > ī, just as in initial syllables: *en-deik-ō > indīcō "to point out" (cf. dīcō "to say") 2. (Post-)PIE *oi > ū, just as in initial syllables: PIE *n̥-poini "with impunity" > impūne (cf. poena "punishment"). 3. (Post-)PIE *eu, *ou > Proto-Italic *ou > ū, just as in initial syllables: *en-deuk-ō > *indoucō > indūcō "to draw over, cover" (cf. dūcō "to lead") 4. Post-PIE *ai > Old Latin ei > ī: *ke-kaid-ai "I cut", perf. > cecīdī (cf. caedō "I cut", pres.) *en-kaid-ō "cut into" > incīdō (cf. caedō "cut") Early Greek (or from an earlier source) *elaíwā "olive" > olīva 5. Post-PIE *au > ū (rarely oe): *en-klaud-ō "enclose" > inclūdō (cf. claudō "close") *ad-kauss-ō "accuse" > accūsō (cf. causa "cause") *ob-aud-iō "obey" > oboediō (cf. audiō "hear") Final syllables[edit] Mostly like medial syllables: *-ei > ī: PIE *meh₂tr-ei "to mother" > mātrī *-ai > ī in multisyllabic words: Latin-Faliscan peparai "I brought forth" > peperī *-eu/ou- > ū: post-PIE manous "hand", gen. sg. > manūs Different from medial syllables: -oi > Old Latin -ei > ī (not ū): PIE o-stem plural *-oi > -ī (cf. Greek -oi); -oi > ī also in monosyllables: PIE kʷoi "who" > quī -ai > ae in monosyllables: PIE *prh₂ei "before" > prae (cf. Greek paraí) Syllabic resonants and laryngeals[edit] The PIE syllabic resonants *m̥, *n̥, *r̥, *l̥ generally become em, en, or, ol (cf. Greek am/a, an/a, ar/ra, al/la; Germanic um, un, ur, ul; Sanskrit am/a, an/a, r̥, r̥; Lithuanian im̃, iñ, ir̃, il̃): PIE *déḱm̥(t) "ten" > decem (cf. Irish deich, Greek deka, Gothic taíhun /tɛhun/) PIE *(d)ḱm̥tóm "hundred" > centum (cf. Welsh cant, Gothic hund, Lithuanian šim̃tas) PIE *n̥- "not" > OL en- > in- (cf. Greek a-/an-, English un-) PIE *tn̥tós "stretched" > tentus (cf. Greek tatós, Sanskrit tatá-) PIE *ḱr̥d- "heart" > *cord > cor (cf. Greek kēr, English heart, Lithuanian širdìs) PIE *ml̥dús "soft" > *moldus > *moldwis (remade as i-stem) > *molwis > mollis (cf. Irish meldach "pleasing", English mild, Czech mladý) The laryngeals *h₁, *h₂, *h₃ appear in Latin as a when between consonants, as in most languages (but Greek e/a/o respectively, Sanskrit i): PIE *dʰh₁-tós "put" > L factus, with /k/ of disputed etymology (cf. Greek thetós, Sanskrit hitá- < *dhitá-) PIE *ph₂tḗr "father" > L pater (cf. Greek patḗr, Sanskrit pitā́, English father) PIE *dh₃-tós "given" > L datus (cf. Greek dotós, Sanskrit ditá-) A sequence of syllabic resonant + laryngeal, when before a consonant, produced mā, nā, rā, lā (as also in Celtic, cf. Greek nē/nā/nō, rē/rā/rō, etc. depending on the laryngeal; Germanic um, un, ur, ul; Sanskrit ā, ā, īr/ūr, īr/ūr; Lithuanian ím, ín, ír, íl): PIE *ǵr̥h₂-nom "grain" > grānum (cf. Old Irish grán, English corn, Lithuanian žìrnis "pea") PIE *h₂wl̥h₁-neh₂ "wool" > *wlānā > lāna (cf. Welsh gwlân, Gothic wulla, Greek lēnos, Lithuanian vìlna) PIE *ǵn̥h₁-tos "born" > gnātus "son", nātus "born" (participle) (cf. Middle Welsh gnawt "relative", Greek dió-gnētos "Zeus' offspring", English kind) Consonants[edit] Aspirates[edit] The Indo-European voiced aspirates bʰ, dʰ, gʰ, gʷʰ, which were probably breathy voiced stops, first devoiced in initial position (fortition), then fricatized in all positions, producing pairs of voiceless/voiced fricatives in Proto-Italic: f ~ β, θ ~ ð, χ ~ ɣ, χʷ ~ ɣʷ respectively.[14] The fricatives were voiceless in initial position. However, between vowels and other voiced sounds, there are indications — in particular, their evolution in Latin — that the sounds were actually voiced. Likewise, Proto-Italic /s/ apparently had a voiced allophone [z] in the same position. In all Italic languages, the word-initial voiceless fricatives f, θ, and χʷ all merged to f, whereas χ debuccalized to h (except before a liquid where it became g); thus, in Latin, the normal outcome of initial PIE bʰ, dʰ, gʰ, gʷʰ is f, f, h, f, respectively. Examples: PIE *bʰréh₂tēr "brother" > *bʰrā́tēr > frāter (cf. Old Irish bráthair, Sanskrit bhrā́tar-, Greek phrā́tēr "member of a phratry") PIE *bʰére "carry" > ferō (cf. Old Irish beirim "I bear", English bear, Sanskrit bhárati) PIE *dʰwṓr "door" > θwor- > *forā > forēs (pl.) "door(s)" (cf. Welsh dôr, Greek thurā, Sanskrit dhvā́raḥ (pl.)) PIE *dʰeh₁- "put, place" > *dʰh₁-k- > *θaki- > faciō "do, make" (cf. Welsh dodi, English do, Greek títhēmi "I put", Sanskrit dádhāti he puts") PIE *gʰabʰ- "seize, take" > *χaβ-ē- > habeō "have" (cf. Old Irish gaibid "takes", Old English gifan "to give", Polish gabać "to seize") PIE *ǵʰh₂ens "goose" > *χans- > (h)ānser (cf. Old Irish géiss "swan", German Gans, Greek khḗn) PIE *ǵʰaidos "goat" > *χaidos > haedus "kid" (cf. Old English gāt "goat", Polish zając "hare", Sanskrit háyas "horse") PIE *gʷʰerm- "warm" > *χʷormo- > formus (cf. Old Prussian gorme "heat", Greek thermós, Sanskrit gharmáḥ "heat") PIE *gʷʰen-dʰ- "to strike, kill" > *χʷ(e)nð- > fendō (cf. Welsh gwanu "to stab", Old High German gundo "battle", Sanskrit hánti "(he) strikes, kills") Word-internal *-bʰ-, *-dʰ-, *-gʰ-, *-gʷʰ- evolved into Proto-Italic β, ð, ɣ, ɣʷ. In Osco-Umbrian, the same type of merger occurred as that affecting voiceless fricatives, with β, ð, and ɣʷ merging to β. In Latin, this did not happen, and instead the fricatives defricatized, giving b, d ~ b, g ~ h, g ~ v ~ gu. *-bʰ- is the simplest case, consistently becoming b. PIE *bʰébʰrus "beaver" > *feβro > Old Latin feber > fiber *-dʰ- usually becomes d, but becomes b next to r or u, or before l. PIE *bʰeidʰ- "be persuaded" > *feiðe > fīdō "I trust" (cf. Old English bīdan "to wait", Greek peíthō "I trust") PIE *medʰi-o- "middle" > *meðio- > medius (cf. Old Irish mide, Gothic midjis, Sanskrit mádhya-) PIE *h₁rudʰ-ró- "red" > *ruðro- > ruber (cf. Old Russian rodrŭ, Greek eruthrós, Sanskrit rudhirá-) PIE *werh₁-dʰh₁-o- "word" > *werðo- > verbum (cf. English word, Lithuanian var̃das) PIE *krei(H)-dʰrom "sieve, sifter" > *kreiðrom > crībrum "sieve" (cf. Old English hrīder "sieve") PIE *sth̥₂-dʰlom > *staðlom > stabulum "abode" (cf. German Stadel) The development of *-gʰ- is twofold: *-gʰ- becomes h [ɦ] between vowels but g elsewhere: PIE *weǵʰ- "carry" > *weɣ-e/o > vehō (cf. Greek okhéomai "I ride", Old English wegan "to carry", Sanskrit váhati "(he) drives") PIE *dʰi-n-ǵʰ- "shapes, forms" > *θinɣ-e/o > fingō (cf. Old Irish -ding "erects, builds", Gothic digan "to mold, shape") *-gʷʰ- has three outcomes, becoming gu after n, v between vowels, and g next to other consonants. All three variants are visible in the same root *snigʷʰ- "snow" (cf. Irish snigid "snows", Greek nípha): PIE *snigʷʰ-s > *sniɣʷs > *nigs > nom. sg. nix "snow" PIE *snigʷʰ-ós > *sniɣʷos > *niβis > gen. sg. nivis "of snow" PIE *snei-gʷʰ-e/o > *sninɣʷ-e/o (with n-infix) > ninguit "it snows" Other examples: PIE *h₁le(n)gʷʰu- > *h₁legʷʰu- > *leɣʷus > *leβwi- (remade as i-stem) > levis "lightweight" (cf. Welsh llaw "small, low", Greek elakhús "small", Sanskrit laghú-, raghú- "quick, light, small") Labiovelars[edit] *gʷ has results much like non-initial *-gʷʰ, becoming v /w/ in most circumstances, but gu after a nasal and g next to other consonants: PIE *gʷih₃wos > *ɣʷīwos > vīvus "alive" (cf. Old Irish biu, beo, Lithuanian gývas, Sanskrit jīvá- "alive") PIE *gʷm̥i̯e/o- "come" > *ɣʷen-je/o > veniō (cf. English come, Greek baínō "I go", Avestan ǰamaiti "he goes") PIE *gʷr̥h₂us "heavy" > *ɣʷraus > grāvis (cf. Greek barús, Gothic kaúrus, Sanskrit gurú-) PIE *h₃engʷ- > *onɣʷ-en > unguen "salve" (cf. Old Irish imb "butter", Old High German ancho "butter", Sanskrit añjanam "anointing, ointment") PIE *n̥gʷén- "(swollen) gland" > *enɣʷen > inguen "bubo; groin" (cf. Greek adḗn gen. adénos "gland", Old High German ankweiz "pustules") *kʷ remains as qu before a vowel, but reduces to c /k/ before a consonant or next to a u: PIE *kʷetwóres, neut. *kʷetwṓr "four" > quattuor (cf. Old Irish cethair, Lithuanian keturì, Sanskrit catvā́raḥ) PIE *sekʷ- "to follow" > sequor (cf. Old Irish sechem, Greek hépomai, Sanskrit sácate) PIE *leikʷ- (pres. *li-né-kʷ-) "leave behind" > *linkʷ-e/o- : *likʷ-ē- > linquō "leaves" : liceō "is allowed; is for sale" (cf. Greek leípō, limpánō, Sanskrit riṇákti, Gothic leiƕan "to lend") PIE *nokʷts "night" > nox, gen. sg. noctis The sequence *p ... *kʷ assimilates to *kʷ ... *kʷ: PIE *pénkʷe "five" > quīnque (cf. Old Irish cóic, Greek pénte, Sanskrit páñca) PIE *pérkʷus "oak" > quercus (cf. Trentino porca "fir", Punjabi pargāī "holm oak", Gothic faírƕus "world", faírgun- "mountain"[15]) PIE *pekʷō "I cook" > *kʷekʷō > coquō (cf. coquīna, cocīnā "kitchen" vs. popīna "tavern" < Oscan, where *kʷ > p, Polish piekę "I bake") The sequences *ḱw, *ǵw, *ǵʰw develop identically to *kʷ, *gʷ, *gʷʰ: PIE *éḱwos "horse" > *ekʷos > Old Latin equos > ecus > equus (assimilated from other forms, e.g. gen. sg. equī; cf. Sanskrit aśva-, which indicates -ḱw- not -kʷ-) PIE *ǵʰweh₁ro- "wild animal" > *χʷero- > ferus (cf. Greek thḗr, Lesbian phḗr, Lithuanian žvėrìs) PIE *mreǵʰus "short" > *mreɣu- > *mreɣwi- (remade as i-stem) > brevis (cf. Old English myrge "briefly", Greek brakhús, Avestan mǝrǝzu-) PIE *dn̥ǵʰwéh₂[16] "tongue" > *dn̥ɣwā > *denɣʷā > Old Latin dingua > lingua Other sequences[edit] Initial *dw- (attested in Old Latin as du-) becomes b-, thus compensating for the dearth of words beginning with *b in PIE: PIE *dwis "twice" > duis > bis (cf. Greek dís, Sanskrit dvis) PIE *deu-l̥- "injure" > duellom "war" > bellum (a variant duellum survived in poetry as a trisyllabic word, whence English "duel") S-rhotacism[edit] Indo-European s between vowels was first voiced to [z] in late Proto-Italic and became r in Latin and Umbrian, a change known as rhotacism. Early Old Latin documents still have s [z], and Cicero once remarked that a certain Papirius Crassus officially changed his name from Papisius in 339 b. c.,[17] indicating the approximate time of this change. This produces many alternations in Latin declension: flōs "flower", gen. flōris mūs "mouse", pl. mūrēs est "he is", fut. erit "he will be" Other examples: Proto-Italic *ausōs, ausōsem > *auzōs, auzōzem > aurōra "dawn" (change of suffix; cf. English east, Aeolic Greek aúōs, Sanskrit uṣā́s) Proto-Italic *swesōr > *swozōr > soror "sister" (cf. Old English sweostor, Sanskrit svásar) Proto-Italic *a(j)os, a(j)esem > *aes, aezem > aes, aerem "bronze", but PI *a(j)es-inos > *aeznos > aēnus "bronze (adj.)" However, before another r, dissimilation occurred with sr [zr] becoming br (likely via an intermediate *ðr): Proto-Italic *swesr-īnos > *swezrīnos ~ *sweðrīnos > sobrīnus "maternal cousin" Proto-Italic *keras-rom > *kerazrom ~ *keraðrom > cerebrum "skull, brain" (cf. Greek kéras "horn") See also[edit] De vulgari eloquentia Legacy of the Roman Empire Notes[edit] ^ Leonard Robert Palmer - The Latin language - 372 pages University of Oklahoma Press, 1987 Retrieved 2012-02-01 ISBN 0-8061-2136-X ^ Ramat, Anna G.; Paolo Ramat (1998). The Indo-European Languages. Routledge. pp. 272–75. ISBN 0-415-06449-X. ^ Ramat, Anna G.; Paolo Ramat (1998). The Indo-European Languages. Routledge. p. 313. ISBN 0-415-06449-X. ^ Timothy J. Pulju Rice University .edu/~ Retrieved 2012-02-01 ^ Allen, W. Sidney (1989). Vox Latina. Cambridge University Press. pp. 83–84. ISBN 0-521-22049-1. ^ "What is Neo-Latin?". Archived from the original on 2016-10-09. Retrieved 2016-10-09. ^ Sen, Ranjan (December 2012). "Reconstructing phonological change: duration and syllable structure in Latin vowel reduction". Phonology. 29 (3): 465–504. doi:10.1017/S0952675712000231. ISSN 0952-6757. ^ kʷi- > ti- is normal in Attic Greek; Thessalian Greek had kís while Cypro-Arcadian had sís. ^ Greek is ambiguously either < *gneh₃tós or *gn̥h₃tós ^ Collinge, N. E. (1985). The Laws of Indo-European. John Benjamins. pp. 193–195. ISBN 90-272-3530-9. ^ Vine, Brent (2011). "Initial *mo- in Latin and Italic". Münchener Studien zur Sprachwissenschaft (65): 261–286. ^ l̥ > ol is normal in Proto-Italic. ^ a b Sihler, New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin, 1995 ^ James Clackson & Geoffrey Horrocks, The Blackwell History of the Latin Language (Oxford: Blackwell, 2007), 51-2. ^ Both "world" and "mountain" evolve out of the early association of oak trees with strength, cf. Latin robur = "oak" but also "strength" ^ PIE *dn̥ǵhwéh₂; -ǵʰw- not -gʷʰ- indicated by Old Church Slavonic języ-kŭ "tongue" < *n̥ǵhu-H-k- with loss of initial *d-; -gʷh- would yield /g/, not /z/. ^ Fortson, Benjamin W., Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction, p. 283 Sources[edit] Allen, J. H.; James B. Greenough (1931). New Latin Grammar. Boston: Ginn and Company. ISBN 1-58510-027-7. 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en-wikipedia-org-6999	----	Lucretius - Wikipedia Lucretius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman poet and philosopher This article is about the Roman poet and philosopher. For other people named Lucretius, see Lucretia (gens). For the impact crater on the far side of the Moon, see Lucretius (crater). Titus Lucretius Carus Bust of Lucretius Born c. 99 BC Died c. 55 BC (aged around 44) Era Hellenistic philosophy School Epicureanism Atomism Materialism Main interests Ethics, metaphysics, atoms[1] Influences Gaius Memmius, Epicurus, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle Influenced Cicero, Virgil, Ovid, Pierre Gassendi, Baruch Spinoza, Stephen Greenblatt, Karl Marx, Sigmund Freud, Charles Darwin, Arthur Schopenhauer, Friedrich Nietzsche, Gilles Deleuze, Montaigne Titus Lucretius Carus (/ˈtaɪtəs luːˈkriːʃəs/ TY-təs loo-KREE-shəs; Latin: [ˈtɪtʊs lʊˈkreːtɪ.ʊs ˈkaː.rus]; c. 99 – c. 55 BC) was a Roman poet and philosopher. His only known work is the philosophical poem De rerum natura, a didactic work about the tenets and philosophy of Epicureanism, and which usually is translated into English as On the Nature of Things. Lucretius has been credited with originating the concept of the three-age system that was formalised in 1836 by C. J. Thomsen. Very little is known about Lucretius's life; the only certain fact is, that he was either a friend or client of Gaius Memmius, to whom the poem was addressed and dedicated.[2] De rerum natura was a considerable influence on the Augustan poets, particularly Virgil (in his Aeneid and Georgics, and to a lesser extent on the Eclogues) and Horace.[3] The work was almost lost during the Middle Ages, but was rediscovered in 1417 in a monastery in Germany[4] by Poggio Bracciolini and it played an important role both in the development of atomism (Lucretius was an important influence on Pierre Gassendi)[5] and the efforts of various figures of the Enlightenment era to construct a new Christian humanism. Lucretius's scientific poem On the Nature of Things (c. 60 BC) has a remarkable description of Brownian motion of dust particles in verses 113–140 from Book II. He uses this as a proof of the existence of atoms. Contents 1 Life 2 De rerum natura 2.1 Reception 3 Natural philosophy 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 Bibliography 8 External links Life[edit] And now, good Memmius, receptive ears And keen intelligence detached from cares I pray you bring to true philosophy De rerum natura (tr. Melville) 1.50 If I must speak, my noble Memmius, As nature's majesty now known demands De rerum natura (tr. Melville) 5.6 Virtually nothing is known about the life of Lucretius, and there is insufficient basis for a confident assertion of the dates of Lucretius's birth or death in other sources. Another, yet briefer, note is found in the Chronicon of Donatus's pupil, Jerome. Writing four centuries after Lucretius's death, he enters under the 171st Olympiad: "Titus Lucretius the poet is born."[6] If Jerome is accurate about Lucretius's age (43) when Lucretius died (discussed below), then it may be concluded he was born in 99 or 98 BC.[7][8] Less specific estimates place the birth of Lucretius in the 90s BC and his death in the 50s BC,[9][10] in agreement with the poem's many allusions to the tumultuous state of political affairs in Rome and its civil strife. Lucretius probably was a member of the aristocratic gens Lucretia, and his work shows an intimate knowledge of the luxurious lifestyle in Rome.[11] Lucretius's love of the countryside invites speculation that he inhabited family-owned rural estates, as did many wealthy Roman families, and he certainly was expensively educated with a mastery of Latin, Greek, literature, and philosophy.[11] A brief biographical note is found in Aelius Donatus's Life of Virgil, which seems to be derived from an earlier work by Suetonius.[12] The note reads: "The first years of his life Virgil spent in Cremona until the assumption of his toga virilis on his 17th birthday (when the same two men held the consulate as when he was born), and it so happened that on the very same day Lucretius the poet passed away." However, although Lucretius certainly lived and died around the time that Virgil and Cicero flourished, the information in this particular testimony is internally inconsistent: If Virgil was born in 70 BC, his 17th birthday would be in 53. The two consuls of 70 BC, Pompey and Crassus, stood together as consuls again in 55, not 53. Another yet briefer note is found in the Chronicon of Donatus's pupil, Jerome. Writing four centuries after Lucretius's death, Jerome contends in the aforementioned Chronicon that Lucretius "was driven mad by a love potion, and when, during the intervals of his insanity, he had written a number of books, which were later emended by Cicero, he killed himself by his own hand in the 44th year of his life."[6] The claim that he was driven mad by a love potion, although defended by such scholars as Reale and Catan,[13] is often dismissed as the result of historical confusion,[2] or anti-Epicurean bias.[14] In some accounts the administration of the toxic aphrodisiac is attributed to his wife Lucilia. Regardless, Jerome's image of Lucretius as a lovesick, mad poet continued to have significant influence on modern scholarship until quite recently, although it now is accepted that such a report is inaccurate.[15] De rerum natura[edit] Main article: De rerum natura Play media Latin reading of De Rerum Natura by Lucretius A manuscript of De Rerum Natura in the Cambridge University Library collection De rerum natura (1570) His poem, De rerum natura (usually translated as "On the Nature of Things" or "On the Nature of the Universe"), transmits the ideas of Epicureanism, which includes atomism and cosmology. Lucretius was the first writer known to introduce Roman readers to Epicurean philosophy.[16] The poem, written in some 7,400 dactylic hexameters, is divided into six untitled books, and explores Epicurean physics through richly poetic language and metaphors. Lucretius presents the principles of atomism, the nature of the mind and soul, explanations of sensation and thought, the development of the world and its phenomena, and explains a variety of celestial and terrestrial phenomena. The universe described in the poem operates according to these physical principles, guided by fortuna, "chance", and not the divine intervention of the traditional Roman deities [17] and the religious explanations of the natural world. Within this work, Lucretius makes reference to the cultural and technological development of humans in his use of available materials, tools, and weapons through prehistory to Lucretius's own time. He specifies the earliest weapons as hands, nails, and teeth. These were followed by stones, branches, and, once humans could kindle and control it, fire. He then refers to "tough iron" and copper in that order, but goes on to say that copper was the primary means of tilling the soil and the basis of weaponry until, "by slow degrees", the iron sword became predominant (it still was in his day) and "the bronze sickle fell into disrepute" as iron ploughs were introduced.[1] He had earlier envisaged a pre-technological, pre-literary kind of human whose life was lived "in the fashion of wild beasts roaming at large".[18] From this beginning, he theorised, there followed the development in turn of crude huts, use and kindling of fire, clothing, language, family, and city-states. He believed that smelting of metal, and perhaps too, the firing of pottery, was discovered by accident: for example, the result of a forest fire. He does specify, however, that the use of copper followed the use of stones and branches and preceded the use of iron.[18] Lucretius seems to equate copper with bronze, an alloy of copper and tin that has much greater resilience than copper; both copper and bronze were superseded by iron during his millennium (1000 BC to 1 BC). He may have considered bronze to be a stronger variety of copper and not necessarily a wholly individual material. Lucretius is believed to be the first to put forward a theory of the successive uses of first wood and stone, then copper and bronze, and finally iron. Although his theory lay dormant for many centuries, it was revived in the nineteenth century and he has been credited with originating the concept of the three-age system that was formalised from 1834 by C. J. Thomsen.[19] Reception[edit] In a letter by Cicero to his brother Quintus in February 54 BC, Cicero said: "The poems of Lucretius are as you write: they exhibit many flashes of genius, and yet show great mastership."[20] In the work of another author in late Republican Rome, Virgil writes in the second book of his Georgics, apparently referring to Lucretius,[21] "Happy is he who has discovered the causes of things and has cast beneath his feet[a] all fears, unavoidable fate, and the din of the devouring Underworld."[22] Natural philosophy[edit] An early thinker in what grew to become the study of evolution, Lucretius believed nature experiments endlessly across the aeons, and the organisms that adapt best to their environment have the best chance of surviving. Living organisms survived because of their strength, speed, or intellect. In contrast to modern thought on the subject, he did not believe that new species evolved from previously existing ones and denied that modern animals, which dwell on land, derived from marine ancestors. Lucretius challenged the assumption that humans are necessarily superior to animals, noting that mammalian mothers in the wild recognize and nurture their offspring as do human mothers.[citation needed] Despite his advocacy of empiricism and his many correct conjectures about atomism and the nature of the physical world, Lucretius concludes his first book stressing the absurdity of the (by then well-established) spherical Earth theory.[23] While Epicurus left open the possibility for free will by arguing for the uncertainty of the paths of atoms, Lucretius viewed the soul or mind as emerging from arrangements of distinct particles.[24] See also[edit] The Swerve: How the World Became Modern, a modern historiography by Stephen Greenblatt List of English translations of De rerum natura Notes[edit] ^ subiecit pedibus; cf. Lucretius 1.78: religio pedibus subiecta, "religion lies cast beneath our feet" References[edit] ^ a b Lucretius. De rerum natura, Book V, around Line 1200 ff. ^ a b Melville & Fowler (2008), p. xii. ^ Reckford, K. J. Some studies in Horace's odes on love ^ Greenblatt (2009), p. 44. ^ Fisher, Saul (2009). "Pierre Gassendi". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ a b Jerome, Chronicon. ^ Bailey (1947), pp. 1–3. ^ Smith (1992), pp. x–xi. ^ Kenney (1971), p. 6. ^ Costa (1984), p. ix. ^ a b Melville & Fowler (2008), Foreword. ^ Horsfall (2000), p. 3. ^ Reale & Catan (1980), p. 414. ^ Smith (2011), p. vii. ^ Gale (2007), p. 2. ^ Gale (2007), p. 35. ^ In particular, De rerum natura 5.107 (fortuna gubernans, "guiding chance" or "fortune at the helm"): see Monica R. Gale, Myth and Poetry in Lucretius (Cambridge University Press, 1994, 1996 reprint), pp. 213, 223–224 online and Lucretius (Oxford University Press, 2007), p. 238 online. ^ a b Lucretius. De rerum natura, Book V, around line 940 ff. ^ Barnes, pp. 27–28. ^ Cicero, 2.9. ^ Smith (1975), intro. ^ Virgil, 2.490. ^ Hannam, James (29 April 2019). "Atoms and flat-earth ethics". Aeon. Archived from the original on 29 April 2019. Retrieved 8 May 2019. ^ Gillispie, Charles Coulston (1960). The Edge of Objectivity: An Essay in the History of Scientific Ideas. Princeton University Press. p. 98. ISBN 0-691-02350-6. Bibliography[edit] Bailey, C. (1947). "Prolegomena". Lucretius's De rerum natura. Barnes, Harry Elmer (1937). An Intellectual and Cultural History of the Western World, Volume One. Dover Publications. OCLC 390382. Cicero. "Letters to his brother Quintus". Translated by Evelyn Shuckburgh. Retrieved 16 May 2012. Costa, C. D. N. (1984). "Introduction". Lucretius: De Rerum Natura V. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814457-1. Dalzell, A. (1982). "Lucretius". The Cambridge History of Classical Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Gale, M.R. (2007). Oxford Readings in Classical Studies: Lucretius. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926034-8. Greenblatt, Stephen (2009). The Swerve: How the World Became Modern. New York: WW. Norton and Company. Horsfall, N. (2000). A Companion to the Study of Virgil. ISBN 978-90-04-11951-2. Retrieved 16 May 2012. Kenney, E. J. (1971). "Introduction". Lucretius: De rerum natura. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29177-4. Melville, Ronald; Fowler, Don and Peta, eds. (2008) [1999]. Lucretius: On the Nature of the Universe. Oxford World's Classics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-162327-1. Reale, G.; Catan, J. (1980). A History of Ancient Philosophy: The Systems of the Hellenistic Age. SUNY Press. Santayana, George (1910). "Three philosophical poets: Lucretius, Dante, and Goethe". Retrieved 16 May 2012. Smith, M. (1992). "Introduction". De rerum natura. Loeb Classical Library. Smith, M. F. (1975). De rerum natura. Loeb Classical Library. Smith, M. F. (2011) [2001]. Lucretius, On the Nature of Things. Hackett. ISBN 978-0-87220-587-1. Retrieved 16 May 2012. Stearns, J. B. (December 1931). "Lucretius and Memmius". The Classical Weekly. 25 (9): 67–68. doi:10.2307/4389660. JSTOR 4389660. Virgil. "Georgics". Retrieved 16 May 2012. Editions Hutchinson, Lucy (b. 1620 d. 1681) De Rerum Natura. Lucretius. De rerum natura. (3 vols. Latin text Books I-VI. Comprehensive commentary by Cyril Bailey), Oxford University Press 1947. On the Nature of Things, (1951 prose translation by R. E. Latham), introduction and notes by John Godwin, Penguin revised edition 1994, ISBN 0-14-044610-9 T. Lucreti Cari De rerum natura (1963). Edidit Joseph Martin (Bibliotheca scriptorvm Graecorvm et Romanorvm Tevbneriana). Lucretius (1971). De rerum natura Book III. (Latin version of Book III only– 37 pp., with extensive commentary by E. J. Kenney– 171 pp.), Cambridge University Press corrected reprint 1984. ISBN 0-521-29177-1 Lucretius (2008 [1997, 1999]), On the Nature of the Universe (tr. Melville, Ronald) (introduction and notes by Fowler, Don; Fowler, Peta). Oxford University Press [Oxford World Classics], ISBN 978-0-19-955514-7 Munro H. A. J. Lucretius: On the Nature of Things Translated, with an analysis of the six books. 4th Edn, Routledge (1886). Online version at the Internet Archive (2011). Piazzi, Lisa (2006) Lucrezio e i presocratici. Edizioni della Normale. Stallings, A.E. (2007) Lucretius: The Nature of Things. Penguin Classics. Penguin. Englert, W (2003) Lucretius: On the Nature of Things (Focus Publishing). Commentary Beretta, Marco. Francesco Citti (edd), Lucrezio, la natura e la scienza (Firenze: Leo S. Olschki, 2008) (Biblioteca di Nuncius / Istituto e Museo distoria della scienza, Firenze; 66). Campbell, Gordon. Lucretius on Creation and Evolution: A Commentary on De rerum natura Book Five, Lines 772–1104 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003). DeMay, Philip. Lucretius: Poet and Epicurean (Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009) (Series: Greece & Rome: texts and contexts). Deufert, Marcus. Pseudo-Lukrezisches im Lukrez (Berlin-New York, 1996). Erler M. "Lukrez," in H. Flashar (ed.), Die Philosophie der Antike. Bd. 4. Die hellenistische Philosophie (Basel, 1994), 381–490. Esolen, Anthony M. Lucretius On the Nature of Things (Baltimore, 1995). Fowler, Don. Lucretius on Atomic Motion: A Commentary on De rerum natura 2. 1–332 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002). Johnson, W.R. Lucretius and the Modern World (London, Duckworth, 2000). Marković, Daniel. The Rhetoric of Explanation in Lucretius’ De rerum natura (Leiden, Brill, 2008) (Mnemosyne, Supplements, 294). Melville, Ronald. Lucretius: On the Nature of the Universe (Oxford, 1997). Nail, Thomas. Lucretius I: An Ontology of Motion (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2018). Nail, Thomas. Lucretius II: An Ethics of Motion (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2020). Gale Monica R. (ed.), Oxford Readings in Classical Studies: Lucretius (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007). Garani, Myrto. Empedocles Redivivus: poetry and analogy in Lucretius. Studies in classics (London; New York: Routledge, 2007). Godwin, John. Lucretius (London: Bristol Classical Press, 2004) ("Ancient in Action" Series). Rumpf L. Naturerkenntnis und Naturerfahrung. Zur Reflexion epikureischer Theorie bei Lukrez (Munich: C.H. Beck, 2003) (Zetemata, 116). Sedley, David N. Lucretius and the Transformation of Greek Wisdom (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008 [1998]). Strauss, Leo. "Notes on Lucretius," in Liberalism: Ancient and Modern (Chicago, 1968), 76–139. External links[edit] Wikisource has original works written by or about: Titus Lucretius Carus Wikiquote has quotations related to: Lucretius Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lucretius. Library resources about Lucretius Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Lucretius Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries "Lucretius" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 17 (11th ed.). 1911. Works by Lucretius at Project Gutenberg On The Nature Of Things Works by or about Lucretius at Internet Archive Works by Lucretius at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Works by Lucretius at Perseus Project Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry by David Simpson Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry Lucretius's works: text, concordances and frequency list Bibliography De rerum natura Book III Online Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries High-resolution images of works by Lucretius in .jpg and .tiff format. Lucretius: De rerum natura (1475–1494), digitised codex at Somni Titi Lucretii Cari De rerum natura libri sex, published in Paris 1563, later owned and annotated by Montaigne, fully digitised in Cambridge Digital Library Discussion Forum For Lucretius and Epicurean Philosophy Is nature continuous or discrete? 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en-wikipedia-org-7017	----	La Pléiade - Wikipedia La Pléiade From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Pléiade) Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Pleiades (disambiguation). French literature by category French literary history Medieval Renaissance 17th 18th 19th 20th century Contemporary French writers Chronological list Writers by category Essayists Novelists Playwrights Poets Short story writers Children's writers Portals France Literature v t e La Pléiade (French pronunciation: ​[la plejad]) is the name given to a group of 16th-century French Renaissance poets whose principal members were Pierre de Ronsard, Joachim du Bellay and Jean-Antoine de Baïf. The name was a reference to another literary group, the original Alexandrian Pleiad of seven Alexandrian poets and tragedians (3rd century B.C.), corresponding to the seven stars of the Pleiades star cluster. The name "Pléiade" was also adopted in 1323 by a group of fourteen poets (seven men and seven women) in Toulouse. Contents 1 The French Renaissance Pléiade 1.1 Major figures 1.2 Minor figures 1.3 Use of the term 2 The 14th century Toulouse Pléiade 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References The French Renaissance Pléiade[edit] Major figures[edit] Notable members of "La Pléiade" consisted of the following people: Pierre de Ronsard Joachim du Bellay Jean-Antoine de Baïf The core group of the French Renaissance "Pléiade"—Pierre de Ronsard, Joachim du Bellay and Jean-Antoine de Baïf—were young French poets who met at the Collège de Coqueret, where they studied under the famous Hellenist and Latinist scholar Jean Dorat; they were generally called the "Brigade" at the time. Ronsard was regarded as the leader of the "Brigade", and remained the most popular and well-known poet of the group. The Pléiade's "manifesto" was penned by Joachim du premiere Bellay (La Défense et illustration de la langue française 1549). In it, Du Bellay detailed a literary program of renewal and revolution. The group aimed to break with earlier traditions of French poetry (especially Marot and the grands rhétoriqueurs), and, maintaining that French (like the Tuscan of Petrarch and Dante) was a worthy language for literary expression, to attempt to ennoble the French language by imitating the Ancients. To this end du Bellay recommended vernacular innovation of Greek and Roman poetic forms, emulation of specific models, and the creation of neologisms based on Greek and Latin. Among the models favoured by the Pléiade were Pindar, Anacreon, Alcaeus and other poets of the Greek Anthology, as well as Virgil, Horace and Ovid. The ideal was not one of slavish imitation, but of a poet so well-versed in the entire corpus of Ancient literature (du Bellay uses the metaphor of "digestion") that he would be able to convert it into an entirely new and rich poetic language in the vernacular. For some of the members of the Pléiade, the act of the poetry itself was seen as a form of divine inspiration (see Pontus de Tyard for example), a possession by the muses akin to romantic passion, prophetic fervour or alcoholic delirium. The forms that dominate the poetic production of these poets are the Petrarchan sonnet cycle (developed around an amorous encounter or an idealised woman) and the Horatian/Anacreontic ode (of the "wine, women and song" variety, often making use of the Horatian carpe diem topos - life is short, seize the day). Ronsard also tried early on to adapt the Pindaric ode into French and, later, to write a nationalist verse epic modelled on Homer and Virgil (entitled the Franciade), which he never completed. Throughout the period, the use of mythology is frequent, but so too is a depiction of the natural world (woods, rivers). Pierre de Ronsard Joachim Du Bellay Jean-Antoine de Baïf Pontus de Tyard Étienne Jodelle Minor figures[edit] Minor figures also associated with this term include the following: Pontus de Tyard Étienne Jodelle Rémy Belleau Jacques Pelletier du Mans Jean de la Péruse Guillaume des Autels Use of the term[edit] The use of the term "Pléiade" to refer to the group the French poets around Ronsard and Du Bellay is much criticised. In his poems, Ronsard frequently made lists of those he considered the best poets of his generation, but these lists changed several times. These lists always included Ronsard, du Bellay, de Baïf, Pontus de Tyard and Étienne Jodelle; the last two positions were taken by Rémy Belleau, Jacques Pelletier du Mans, Jean de la Péruse, or Guillaume des Autels. In a poem in 1556 Ronsard announced that the "Brigade" had become the "Pléiade", but apparently no one in Ronsard's literary circle used the expression to refer to himself, and use of the term stems principally from Huguenot poets critical of Ronsard's pretensions (Ronsard was a polemicist for the royal Catholic policy). This use was finally consecrated by Ronsard's biographer Claude Binet, shortly after the poet's death. Some modern literary historians reject the use of the term, as it gives precedence to Ronsard's poetic ideas and minimises the diversity of poetic production in the French Renaissance. The 14th century Toulouse Pléiade[edit] Main article: Consistori del Gay Saber Male poets: Bernart de Panassac Guillaume de Lobra Béringuier de Saint-Plancart Pierre de Mejanaserra Guillaume de Gontaut Pierre Camo Bernard Oth Female poets: Catherine Fontaine Bernarde Deupie Claude Ligonne Audiette Peschaira Esclarmonde Spinète Johanne Perle Françoise Marie (later replaced by Paul de Viguier) See also[edit] Poetry portal French poetry Castalian Band Notes[edit] "La Pléiade", or more correctly "La Bibliothèque de la Pléiade", is also the name of a prestigious leather-bound Bible-paper collection of works in French (literature, history, etc.) published by the Éditions Gallimard publishing house. References[edit] Simonin, Michel, ed. Dictionnaire des lettres françaises. Le XVIe siècle. Paris: Fayard, 2001. ISBN 2-253-05663-4. (in French) v t e Schools of poetry Akhmatova's Orphans Angry Penguins Auden Group The Beats Black Arts Movement Black Mountain poets British Poetry Revival Cairo poets Castalian Band Cavalier poets Chhayavaad Churchyard poets Confessionalists Créolité Cyclic Poets Dada Deep image Della Cruscans Dolce Stil Novo Dymock poets Ecopoetry The poets of Elan Flarf Fugitives Garip Gay Saber Generation of '27 Generation of the '30s Generation of '98 Georgian poets Goliard The Group Harlem Renaissance Harvard Aesthetes Hungry generation Imagism Informationist poetry İkinci Yeni Jindyworobaks Lake Poets Language poets Martian poetry Metaphysical poets Misty Poets Modernist poetry The Movement Négritude Neotericism New American Poetry New Apocalyptics New Formalism New York School Objectivists Others Parnassian poets La Pléiade Rhymers' Club San Francisco Renaissance Scottish Renaissance Sicilian School Sons of Ben Southern Agrarians Spasmodic poets Sung poetry Surrealism Symbolism Uranian poetry Zutiste Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=La_Pléiade&oldid=976728236" Categories: French poets French poetry Hidden categories: Articles containing French-language text Articles with French-language sources (fr) Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Български Brezhoneg Català Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 September 2020, at 16:58 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7032	----	Pax Romana - Wikipedia Pax Romana From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roughly 200-year-long period in Roman history For other uses, see Pax Romana (disambiguation). Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e Extent of the Roman Empire under Augustus. Yellow represents the extent of the Republic in 31 BC, while green represents gradually conquered territories under the reign of Augustus, and pink areas represent client states. AR Antoninianus of Gordian III, struck Antioch 243–244 AD with Pax Augusta on the reverse The Pax Romana (Latin for "Roman Peace") is a roughly 200-year-long period in Roman history which is identified with increased and sustained inner hegemonial peace and significant order despite a number of wars, territorial expansion and revolts. It is traditionally dated as commencing from the accession of Caesar Augustus, founder of the Roman principate, in 27 BC and concluding in 180 AD with the death of Marcus Aurelius, the last of the "Five Good Emperors".[1] Since it was inaugurated by Augustus with the end of the Final War of the Roman Republic, it is sometimes called the Pax Augusta. During this period of approximately two centuries,[2] the Roman Empire achieved its greatest territorial extent and its population reached a maximum of up to 70 million people.[3] According to Cassius Dio, the dictatorial reign of Commodus, later followed by the Year of the Five Emperors and the crisis of the third century, marked the descent "from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust".[4] Contents 1 Overview 2 Influence on trade 3 Analogous peaces 3.1 In fiction 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links Overview[edit] Fresco of a relaxed seated woman from Stabiae, 1st century AD The Pax Romana is said to have been a "miracle" because prior to it there had never been peace for so many centuries in a given period of history. However, Walter Goffart wrote: "The volume of the Cambridge Ancient History for the years AD 70–192 is called 'The Imperial Peace', but peace is not what one finds in its pages".[5] Arthur M. Eckstein writes that the period must be seen in contrast to the much more frequent warfare in the Roman Republic in the 4th and 3rd centuries BC. Eckstein also notes that the incipient Pax Romana appeared during the Republic, and that its temporal span varied with geographical region as well: "Although the standard textbook dates for the Pax Romana, the famous “Roman Peace” in the Mediterranean, are 31 BC to AD 250, the fact is that the Roman Peace was emerging in large regions of the Mediterranean at a much earlier date: Sicily after 210 [BC], the Italian Peninsula after 200 [BC]; the Po Valley after 190 [BC]; most of the Iberian Peninsula after 133 [BC]; North Africa after 100 [BC]; and for ever longer stretches of time in the Greek East."[6] The first known record of the term Pax Romana appears in a writing by Seneca the Younger in AD 55.[7] The concept was highly influential, and the subject of theories and attempts to copy it in subsequent ages. Arnaldo Momigliano noted that "Pax Romana is a simple formula for propaganda, but a difficult subject for research."[8] In fact, the "Pax Romana" was broken by the Bellum Batonianum (described by Suetonius as the most serious Roman conflict since the Punic Wars) of 6-9, the First Jewish–Roman War, the Kitos War (also in Judea, 115–117), the Bar Kokhba Revolt (also known as the Third Jewish–Roman War), the Roman–Parthian War of 58–63, Trajan's Roman–Parthian War of 113, the Dacian Wars, various battles with Germanic tribes, including the Teutoburg Forest, and Boudica's war in Britain in AD 60 or 61.[citation needed] The Pax Romana began when Octavian (Augustus) defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in the Battle of Actium on 2 September 31 BC and became Roman emperor.[1][9][3] He became princeps, or first citizen. Lacking a good precedent of successful one-man rule, Augustus created a junta of the greatest military magnates and stood as the front man. By binding together these leading magnates in a coalition, he eliminated the prospect of civil war. The Pax Romana was not immediate, despite the end of the civil wars, because fighting continued in Hispania and in the Alps. Nevertheless, Augustus closed the Gates of Janus (a ceremony indicating that Rome was at peace) three times,[10] first in 29 BC and again in 25 BC. The third closure is undocumented, but Inez Scott Ryberg (1949) and Gaius Stern (2006) have persuasively dated the third closure to 13 BC with the commissioning of the Ara Pacis.[11][12][13] At the time of the Ludi Saeculares in 17 BC the Concept of Peace was publicized, and in 13 BC was proclaimed when Augustus and Agrippa jointly returned from pacifying the provinces. The order to construct the Ara Pacis was no doubt part of this announcement.[citation needed] Augustus faced a problem making peace an acceptable mode of life for the Romans, who had been at war with one power or another continuously for 200 years.[12] Romans regarded peace, not as an absence of war, but the rare situation which existed when all opponents had been beaten down and lost the ability to resist.[8] Augustus' challenge was to persuade Romans that the prosperity they could achieve in the absence of warfare was better for the Empire than the potential wealth and honor acquired when fighting a risky war. Augustus succeeded by means of skillful propaganda. Subsequent emperors followed his lead, sometimes producing lavish ceremonies to close the Gates of Janus, issuing coins with Pax on the reverse, and patronizing literature extolling the benefits of the Pax Romana.[12] After Augustus' death in AD 14, most of his successors as Roman emperors continued his politics. The last five emperors of the Pax Romana were considered the "Five Good Emperors".[3] Influence on trade[edit] Roman trade in the Mediterranean increased during the Pax Romana. Romans sailed East to acquire silks, gems, onyx and spices. Romans benefited from large profits and incomes in the Roman empire were raised due to trade in the Mediterranean.[14][15] As the Pax Romana of the western world by Rome was largely contemporaneous to the Pax Sinica of the eastern world by Han China,[16][17] long-distance travel and trade in Eurasian history was significantly stimulated during these eras.[17] Analogous peaces[edit] See also: List of periods of regional peace The prominence of the concept of the Pax Romana led to historians coining variants of the term to describe other systems of relative peace that have been established, attempted, or argued to have existed. Some variants include:[1] Pax Americana Pax Britannica Pax Europaea Pax Hispanica Pax Mongolica Pax Ottomana Pax Sinica Pax Khazarica Pax Syriana Pax Islamica Pax Sovietica Pax Mafiosa More generically, the concept has been referred to as pax imperia,[18][19] (sometimes spelled as pax imperium[20]) meaning imperial peace,[21][22] or—less literally—hegemonic peace.[22][23] Raymond Aron notes that imperial peace—peace achieved through hegemony—sometimes, but not always—can become civil peace. As an example, the German Empire's imperial peace of 1871 (over its internal components like Saxony) slowly evolved into the later German state. As a counter-example, the imperial peace of Alexander the Great's empire dissolved because the Greek city states maintained their political identity and more importantly, embryos of their own armed forces. Aron notes that during the Pax Romana, the Jewish war was a reminder that the overlapping of the imperial institutions over the local ones did not erase them and the overlap was a source of tension and flare-ups. Aron summarizes that, "In other words, imperial peace becomes civil peace insofar as the memory of the previously independent political units are effaced, insofar as individuals within a pacified zone feel themselves less united to the traditional or local community and more to the conquering state."[21] The concept of Pax Romana was highly influential, and attempts to imitate it occurred in the Byzantine Empire, and in the Christian West, where it morphed into the Peace and Truce of God (pax Dei and treuga Dei).[22] A theoretician of the imperial peace during the Middle Ages was Dante Aligheri. Dante's works on the topic were analyzed at the beginning of the 20th century by William Mitchell Ramsay in the book The Imperial Peace; An Ideal in European History (1913).[24][25] In fiction[edit] Isaac Asimov's fictional Galactic Empire and Foundation series refer to Pax Trantoria and Pax Imperium. Pax Soprana is the sixth episode of the HBO original series The Sopranos. In Magi: The Labyrinth of Magic, Reim's Peace is the Reim Empire's version of Pax Romana, established about 200 years prior to the series by Empress Scheherazade. Reim is a nation based on the Roman Empire. In the Street Fighter movie, antagonist M. Bison's ultimate goal is to unite the world "under the grip of Pax Bisonica". In Fallout: New Vegas Caesar aims to use his Roman-style army to create a new Pax Romana across the wasteland. First episode of season 4 of Gotham is known as "Pax Penguina". See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal Comparative studies of the Roman and Han empires: Pax Sinica Mos maiorum References[edit] ^ a b c "Pax Romana". Britannica Online Encyclopedia. ^ Head, Tom (2017-10-03). World History 101: From Ancient Mesopotamia and the Viking Conquests to NATO and WikiLeaks, an Essential Primer on World History. Simon and Schuster. p. 85. ISBN 978-1-5072-0454-2. ^ a b c "The Pax Romana". www.ushistory.org. Retrieved 2017-02-10. ^ Dio Cassius 72.36.4, Loeb edition translated E. Cary ^ Walter Goffart (1989). Rome's Fall and After. Hambledon Press. p. 111. ISBN 978-1-85285-001-2. ^ Arthur M. Eckstein (2011) [2006]. "Conceptualizing Roman Imperial Expansion under the Republic: An Introduction". In Nathan Rosenstein; Robert Morstein-Marx (eds.). A Companion to the Roman Republic. John Wiley & Sons. p. 574. ISBN 978-1-4443-5720-2. ^ Ali Parchami (2009). Hegemonic Peace and Empire: The Pax Romana, Britannica and Americana. Routledge. p. 25. ISBN 978-1-134-00704-2. ^ a b Momigliano, Arnaldo (1942). "The Peace of the Ara Pacis" (PDF). Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes. 5: 228–231. doi:10.2307/750454. JSTOR 750454. ^ Davis, Paul K. (1999). 100 Decisive Battles from Ancient Times to the Present: The World's Major Battles and How They Shaped History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-1-5760-7075-8. ^ Augustus states in Res Gestae 13 that he closed the Gates three times, a fact documented by many other historians (See Gates of Janus). ^ Scott Ryberg, Inez (1949). "The Procession of the Ara Pacis". Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome. 19: 77, 79–101. doi:10.2307/4238621. JSTOR 4238621. ^ a b c Stern, Gaius (2010) [2006]. Women, children, and senators on the Ara Pacis Augustae: A study of Augustus' vision of a new world order in 13 BCE. ISBN 978-0-549-83411-3. ^ Sir Ronald Syme had suggested a later date (but Rome was then at war). ^ Temin, Peter (2013). The Roman market economy. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 13. ISBN 9780691147680. OCLC 784708336. ^ Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith (2016). Pax Romana : war, peace, and conquest in the Roman world. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 392. ISBN 9780300178821. OCLC 941874968. ^ Plott, John C. (1989). Global History of Philosophy. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 57. ISBN 9788120804562. ^ a b Krech III, Shepard; Merchant, Carolyn; McNeill, John Robert, eds. (2004). Encyclopedia of World Environmental History. 3: O–Z, Index. Routledge. pp. 135–. ISBN 978-0-415-93735-1. ^ Tatah Mentan (2010). The State in Africa: An Analysis of Impacts of Historical Trajectories of Global Capitalist Expansion and Domination in the Continent. African Books Collective. p. 153. ISBN 978-9956-616-12-1. ^ Hyo-Dong Lee (2013). Spirit, Qi, and the Multitude: A Comparative Theology for the Democracy of Creation. Oxford University Press. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-8232-5501-6. ^ Stephen Ross (2004). Conrad and Empire. University of Missouri Press. p. 76. ISBN 978-0-8262-1518-5. ^ a b Raymond Aron (2003). Peace and War: A Theory of International Relations. Transaction Publishers. pp. 151–152. ISBN 978-0-7658-0504-1. ^ a b c David Gress (1985). Peace and Survival: West Germany, The Peace Movement & European Security. Hoover Press. pp. 96–99. ISBN 978-0-8179-8093-1. ^ Ali Parchami (2009). Hegemonic Peace and Empire: The Pax Romana, Britannica and Americana. Routledge. p. 31. ISBN 978-1-134-00704-2. ^ James Brown Scott (2002) [1939]. Law, the State, and the International Community. The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd. pp. 223–224. ISBN 978-1-58477-178-4. ^ The imperial peace; an ideal in European history. Internet Archive. Oxford, The Clarendon Press. 1913. Further reading[edit] Burton, Paul. 2011. "Pax Romana/Pax Americana: Perceptions of Rome in American Political Culture, 2000–2010." International Journal of Classical Tradition 18.1:66–104. Cornwell, Hannah. 2017. Pax and the Politics of Peace: Republic to Principate. Oxford Classical Monographs. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. Galinsky, Karl. 2012. Augustus: Introduction to the Life of an Emperor. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. Goldsworthy, Adrian. 2016. Pax Romana: War, Peace and Conquest in the Roman World. New Haven: Yale University Press. Hardwick, Lorna. 2000. “Concepts of Peace.” In Experiencing Rome: Culture, Identity and Power in the Roman Empire, Edited by Janet Huskinson, 335–368. London: Routledge. Lopez, Gennaro. 2002. “Pax Romana/Pax Augusta.” Invigilata Lucernis 24: 97–110. Stern, Gaius. 2015. “The New Cult of Pax Augusta 13 BC–AD 14.” Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 55.1–4: 1–16. Yannakopulos, Nikos. 2003. “Preserving the Pax Romana: The Peace Functionaries in Roman East.” Mediterraneo Antico 6.2: 825–905. 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Abrams Raymond Abrashkin Abrasive Judah Leon Abravanel Zequinha de Abreu Alexei Abrikosov (physicist) Abscess Absolute liability Absolute pitch Abstract algebra Abstract expressionism Franz Abt Samuel Abt Abu Dhabi Abu District, Yamaguchi Mumia Abu-Jamal Janet Abu-Lughod Abu, Yamaguchi (previous page) (next page) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Wikipedia_articles_with_NDL_identifiers&oldid=935669223" Categories: Pages with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with authority control information Hidden categories: Hidden categories Tracking categories Template Large category TOC via CatAutoTOC on category with over 20,000 pages CatAutoTOC generates Large category TOC Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans Български 한국어 Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Magyar Bahasa Melayu 日本語 ଓଡ଼ିଆ Português Română Scots Slovenščina Suomi Türkçe Vèneto 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 January 2020, at 00:35 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7047	----	View source for Horace - Wikipedia View source for Horace ← Horace Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ===Antiquity=== Horace's influence can be observed in the work of his near contemporaries, [[Ovid]] and [[Propertius]]. Ovid followed his example in creating a completely natural style of expression in hexameter verse, and Propertius cheekily mimicked him in his third book of elegies.<ref group="nb">Propertius published his third book of elegies within a year or two of Horace's Odes 1–3 and mimicked him, for example, in the opening lines, characterizing himself in terms borrowed from Odes 3.1.13 and 3.30.13–14, as a priest of the Muses and as an adaptor of Greek forms of poetry (R. Tarrant, ''Ancient receptions of Horace'', 227)</ref> His ''Epistles'' provided them both with a model for their own verse letters and it also shaped Ovid's exile poetry.<ref group="nb">Ovid for example probably borrowed from Horace's ''Epistle'' 1.20 the image of a poetry book as a slave boy eager to leave home, adapting it to the opening poems of ''Tristia'' 1 and 3 (R. Tarrant, ''Ancient receptions of Horace''), and ''Tristia'' 2 may be understood as a counterpart to Horace's ''Epistles'' 2.1, both being letters addressed to Augustus on literary themes (A. Barchiesi, ''Speaking Volumes'', 79–103)</ref> His influence had a perverse aspect. As mentioned before, the brilliance of his ''Odes'' may have discouraged imitation. Conversely, they may have created a vogue for the lyrics of the archaic Greek poet [[Pindar]], due to the fact that Horace had neglected that style of lyric (see [[Pindar#Influence and legacy|Influence and Legacy of Pindar]]).<ref>R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 280</ref> The iambic genre seems almost to have disappeared after publication of Horace's ''Epodes''. Ovid's ''Ibis'' was a rare attempt at the form but it was inspired mainly by [[Callimachus]], and there are some iambic elements in [[Martial]] but the main influence there was [[Catullus]].<ref>R. Tarrant, ''Ancient receptions of Horace'', 278</ref> A revival of popular interest in the satires of Lucilius may have been inspired by Horace's criticism of his unpolished style. Both Horace and Lucilius were considered good role-models by [[Persius]], who critiqued his own satires as lacking both the acerbity of Lucillius and the gentler touch of Horace.<ref group="nb">The comment is in Persius 1.114–18, yet that same satire has been found to have nearly 80 reminiscences of Horace; see D. Hooley, ''The Knotted Thong'', 29</ref> [[Juvenal]]'s caustic satire was influenced mainly by Lucilius but Horace by then was a school classic and Juvenal could refer to him respectfully and in a round-about way as "''the Venusine lamp''".<ref group="nb">The allusion to ''Venusine'' comes via Horace's ''Sermones'' 2.1.35, while ''lamp'' signifies the lucubrations of a conscientious poet. According to Quintilian (93), however, many people in Flavian Rome preferred Lucilius not only to Horace but to all other Latin poets (R. Tarrant, ''Ancient receptions of Horace'', 279)</ref> [[Statius]] paid homage to Horace by composing one poem in Sapphic and one in Alcaic meter (the verse forms most often associated with ''Odes''), which he included in his collection of occasional poems, ''Silvae''. Ancient scholars wrote commentaries on the lyric meters of the ''Odes'', including the scholarly poet [[Caesius Bassus]]. By a process called ''derivatio'', he varied established meters through the addition or omission of syllables, a technique borrowed by [[Seneca the Younger]] when adapting Horatian meters to the stage.<ref>R. Tarrant, ''Ancient receptions of Horace'', 280–81</ref> Horace's poems continued to be school texts into late antiquity. Works attributed to [[Helenius Acro]] and [[Pomponius Porphyrio]] are the remnants of a much larger body of Horatian scholarship. Porphyrio arranged the poems in non-chronological order, beginning with the ''Odes'', because of their general popularity and their appeal to scholars (the ''Odes'' were to retain this privileged position in the medieval manuscript tradition and thus in modern editions also). Horace was often evoked by poets of the fourth century, such as [[Ausonius]] and [[Claudian]]. [[Prudentius]] presented himself as a Christian Horace, adapting Horatian meters to his own poetry and giving Horatian motifs a Christian tone.<ref group="nb">Prudentius sometimes alludesto the ''Odes'' in a negative context, as expressions of a secular life he is abandoning. Thus for example ''male pertinax'', employed in Prudentius's ''Praefatio'' to describe a willful desire for victory, is lifted from ''Odes'' 1.9.24, where it describes a girl's half-hearted resistance to seduction. Elsewhere he borrows ''dux bone'' from ''Odes'' 4.5.5 and 37, where it refers to Augustus, and applies it to Christ (R. Tarrant, ''Ancient receptions of Horace'', 282</ref> On the other hand, [[St Jerome]], modelled an uncompromising response to the pagan Horace, observing: "''What harmony can there be between Christ and the Devil? What has Horace to do with the Psalter?''"<ref group="nb">St Jerome, ''Epistles'' 22.29, incorporating a quote from ''2 'Corinthians'' 6.14: ''qui consensus Christo et Belial? quid facit cum psalterio Horatius?''(cited by K. Friis-Jensen, ''Horace in the Middle Ages'', 292)</ref> By the early sixth century, Horace and Prudentius were both part of a classical heritage that was struggling to survive the disorder of the times. [[Boethius]], the last major author of classical Latin literature, could still take inspiration from Horace, sometimes mediated by Senecan tragedy.<ref name="Tarrant">R. Tarrant, ''Ancient receptions of Horace'', 283</ref> It can be argued that Horace's influence extended beyond poetry to dignify core themes and values of the early Christian era, such as self-sufficiency, inner contentment and courage.<ref group="nb">''Odes'' 3.3.1–8 was especially influential in promoting the value of heroic calm in the face of danger, describing a man who could bear even the collapse of the world without fear (''si fractus illabatur orbis,/impavidum ferient ruinae''). Echoes are found in Seneca's ''Agamemnon'' 593–603, Prudentius's ''Peristephanon'' 4.5–12 and Boethius's ''Consolatio'' 1 metrum 4.(R. Tarrant, ''Ancient receptions of Horace'', 283–85)</ref> Return to Horace. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7049	----	Praetor - Wikipedia Praetor From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Official of the Roman Republic "Pretor" redirects here. For the village in Macedonia, see Pretor (village). Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e Praetor (/ˈpriːtər/ PREE-tər, Classical Latin: [ˈprae̯tɔr]), also spelled prætor or pretor in English, was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities: the commander of an army (in the field or, less often, before the army had been mustered); and as an elected magistratus (magistrate), assigned various duties (which varied at different periods in Rome's history). The functions of the magistracy, the praetura (praetorship), are described by the adjective:[1] the praetoria potestas (praetorian power), the praetorium imperium (praetorian authority), and the praetorium ius (praetorian law), the legal precedents established by the praetores (praetors). Praetorium, as a substantive, denoted the location from which the praetor exercised his authority, either the headquarters of his castra, the courthouse (tribunal) of his judiciary, or the city hall of his provincial governorship.[2] Contents 1 History of the title 2 Praetura 3 Praetors and their duties 3.1 Republican 3.1.1 Praetor peregrinus 3.1.2 Praetor urbanus 3.1.3 Additional praetors 3.2 Imperial 4 Praetors as judges 4.1 Actions 4.2 Quaestiones perpetuae 5 Outdoor actions 6 Later Roman era 7 Byzantine Empire 8 Modern era 8.1 In popular culture 9 See also 10 References 11 Sources 12 External links History of the title[edit] The Classical-era authors do not describe the events leading to the origin of the title Praetor, but the writings of the late Republican statesman and attorney Cicero explored the philosophy and uses of the term praetor. The prefix prae provides a good indication that the title-holder was prior, in some way, in society. Livy mentions that the Latini were led and governed in warfare by two of them[3] and the Samnites by one.[4] A dictator was called the praetor maximus. The use of the adjectives (praetorius, praetoricius, praetorianus) in a large number of circumstances testify to a general sense. The leadership functions of any corporate body at Rome might be termed[by whom?] praetorial. The praetoria potestas in Republican Rome was at first held by the consuls. These two officials, elected on an annual basis, inherited the power formerly held by the kings of Rome.[5] Very likely, the king himself was the first praetor. The best explanation available is that of Cicero in De legibus, in which he proposes ideal laws based on Roman constitutional theory:[6] Regio imperio duo sunto, iique praeeundo iudicando consulendo praetores iudices consules appellamino. Militiae summum ius habento, ... Let there be two with the authority of the king, and let them be called praetors, judges and consuls from their going before, judging and consulting. Let them have the supreme right of command of the military... This etymology of praetor became and remains the standard.[7][8] Cicero considers the word to contain the same elemental parts as the verb praeire (praeeo: "to go before, to precede, to lead the way"). In exactly what way a praetor goes before did not survive. Livy explains[9] that in the year 366 BC the praetura was set up to relieve the consuls of their judicial duties. The first man to be elected to the new praetura was the patrician Spurius Furius, the son of Marcus Furius Camillus,[10] in exchange for the election of Lucius Sextius, plebeian leader, as one of the consuls for the year. Partisan politics greatly influenced the outcome of elections. The praetor was, in an English sense, the chief justice, and yet more than that. The consuls were his peers; he was elected by the same electorate and sworn in on the same day with the same oath. (The Comitia Centuriata elected consuls and praetors.) Until 337 BC the praetor was chosen only from among the patricians. In that year eligibility for the praetura was opened to the plebeians, and one of them, Quintus Publilius Philo, won the office.[11] From then on, praetors appear frequently in Roman history, first as generals and judges, then as provincial governors. Beginning in the late Republic, a former Praetor could serve as a Propraetor ("in place of the Praetor") and act as the governor of one of Rome's provinces. Praetura[edit] The elected praetor was a magistratus curulis, exercised imperium, and consequently was one of the magistratus majores. He had the right to sit in the sella curulis and wear the toga praetexta.[12] He was attended by six lictors. A praetor was a magistrate with imperium within his own sphere, subject only to the veto of the consuls (who outranked him).[13] The potestas and imperium (power and authority) of the consuls and the praetors under the Republic should not be exaggerated. They did not use independent judgment in resolving matters of state. Unlike today's executive branches, they were assigned high-level tasks directly by senatorial decree under the authority of the SPQR. Livy describes the assignments given to either consuls or praetors in some detail. As magistrates, they had standing duties to perform, especially of a religious nature. However, a consul or praetor could be taken away from his current duties at any time to head a task force, and there were many, especially military. Livy mentions that, among other tasks, these executive officers were told to lead troops against perceived threats (domestic or foreign), investigate possible subversion, raise troops, conduct special sacrifices, distribute windfall money, appoint commissioners and even exterminate locusts. Praetors could delegate at will. The one principle that limited what could be assigned to them was that their duties must not concern them with minima, "little things". They were by definition doers of maxima. This principle of Roman law became a principle of later European law: Non curat minima praetor, that is, the details do not need to be legislated, they can be left up to the courts. Praetors and their duties[edit] Republican[edit] In 246 BC, the Senate created a second Praetura. There were two reasons for this: to relieve the weight of judicial business and to give the Republic a magistrate with imperium who could field an army in an emergency when both consuls were fighting a far-off war. Praetor peregrinus[edit] By the end of the First Punic War, a fourth magistrate entitled to hold imperium appears, the praetor qui inter peregrinos ius dicit ("the praetor who administers justice among foreigners"). Although in the later Empire the office was titled praetor inter cives et peregrinos ("among citizens and foreigners", that is, having jurisdiction in disputes between citizens and noncitizens), by the time of the 3rd century BC, Rome's territorial annexations and foreign populations were unlikely to require a new office dedicated solely to this task. T. Corey Brennan, in his two-volume study of the praetorship, argues that during the military crisis of the 240s the second praetorship was created to make another holder of imperium available for command and provincial administration inter peregrinos. During the Hannibalic War, the praetor peregrinus was frequently absent from Rome on special missions. The urban praetor more often remained in the city to administer the judicial system.[14] Praetor urbanus[edit] The praetor urbanus presided in civil cases between citizens. The Senate required that some senior officer remain in Rome at all times. This duty now fell to the praetor urbanus. In the absence of the consuls, he was the senior magistrate of the city, with the power to summon the Senate and to organize the defense of the city in the event of an attack.[15] He was allowed to leave the city for no more than ten days at a time. He was therefore given appropriate duties in Rome. He superintended the Ludi Apollinares and was also the chief magistrate for the administration of justice and promulgated the Praetor's Edict. These Edicts were statements of praetor's policy as to judicial decisions to be made during his term of office. The praetor had substantial discretion regarding his Edict, but could not legislate. In a sense the continuing Edicts came to form a corpus of precedents. The development and improvement of Roman Law owes much to the wise use of this praetorial discretion.[16] Additional praetors[edit] See also: Prorogatio The expansion of Roman authority over other lands required the addition of praetors. Two were created in 227 BC, for the administration of Sicily and Sardinia, and two more when the two Hispanic provinces were formed in 197 BC. The dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla transferred administration of the provinces to former consuls and praetors, simultaneously increasing the number of praetors elected each year to eight, as part of his constitutional reforms. Julius Caesar raised the number to ten, then fourteen, and finally to sixteen.[17] Imperial[edit] Augustus made changes that were designed to reduce the Praetor to being an imperial administrator rather than a magistrate. The electoral body was changed to the Senate, which was now an instrument of imperial ratification. To take a very simplistic view, the establishment of the principate can be seen as the restoration of monarchy under another name. The Emperor therefore assumed the powers once held by the kings, but he used the apparatus of the republic to exercise them. For example, the emperor presided over the highest courts of appeal. The need for administrators remained just as acute. After several changes, Augustus fixed the number at twelve. Under Tiberius, there were sixteen. As imperial administrators, their duties extended to matters that the republic would have considered minima. Two praetors were appointed by Claudius for matters relating to Fideicommissa (trusts), when the business in that department of the law had become considerable, but Titus reduced the number to one; and Nerva added a Praetor for the decision of matters between the Fiscus (treasury) and individuals. Marcus Aurelius[18] appointed a Praetor for matters relating to tutela (guardianship). Praetors as judges[edit] Roman court cases fell into the two broad categories of civil or criminal trials. The involvement of a Praetor in either was as follows. Actions[edit] In an actio, which was civil, the Praetor could either issue an interdictum (interdict) forbidding some circumstance or appoint a iudex (judge). Proceedings before the praetor were technically said to be in iure. At this stage, the Praetor would establish a formula directing the iudex as to the remedy to be given if he found that certain circumstances were satisfied; for instance, "Let X be iudex. If it appears that the defendant ought to pay 10,000 sesterces to the plaintiff, let the iudex condemn the defendant to pay 10,000 sesterces to the plaintiff. If it does not so appear, let the plaintiff absolve him."[19] After they were handed over to the iudex, they were no longer in iure before the Praetor, but apud iudicem. The iudicium of the iudex was binding. By the time of Diocletian, however, this two-stage process had largely disappeared, and the Praetor would either hear the whole case in person or appoint a delegate (a iudex pedaneus), taking steps for the enforcement of the decision; the formula was replaced by an informal system of pleadings.[20] During the time of the Roman Republic, the Urban Praetor allegedly issued an annual edict, usually on the advice of jurists (since the Praetor himself was not necessarily educated in the law), setting out the circumstances under which he would grant remedies. The legal provisions arising from the Praetor's Edict were known as ius honorarium; in theory the Praetor did not have power to alter the law, but in practice the Edict altered the rights and duties of individuals and was effectively a legislative document. In the reign of Hadrian, however, the terms of the Edict were made permanent and the Praetor's de facto legislative role was abolished.[21] Quaestiones perpetuae[edit] The Praetors also presided at the quaestiones perpetuae (which were criminal proceedings), so-called because they were of certain types, with a Praetor being assigned to one type on a permanent basis. The Praetors appointed judges who acted as jurors in voting for guilt or innocence. The verdict was either acquittal or condemnation. These quaestiones looked into crimina publica, "crimes against the public", such as were worthy of the attention of a Praetor. The penalty on conviction was usually death, but sometimes other severe penalties were used. In the late Republic, the public crimes were: Repetundae[22] Ambitus[23] Majestas[24] Peculatus[25] Falsum[26] De Sicariis et Veneficis[27] De Patricidis[28] The last three were added by the Dictator Sulla in the early 1st century BC. Outdoor actions[edit] When the Praetor administered justice in a tribunal, he sat on a sella curulis, which was that part of the court reserved for the Praetor and his assessors and friends, as opposed to the subsellia, the part occupied by the iudices (judges) and others who were present. In court, the Praetor was referred to as acting e tribunali or ex superiore loco (lit. from a raised platform or from a higher place) but he could also perform ministerial acts out of court, in which case he was said to be acting e plano or ex aequo loco (lit. from the flat ground or from an equal or level place). For instance, he could in certain cases give validity to the act of manumission when he was out-of-doors, such as on his way to the bath or to the theatre. Later Roman era[edit] By 395 AD, the praetors' responsibilities had been reduced to a purely municipal role.[29] Their sole duty was to manage the spending of money on the exhibition of games or on public works. However, with the decline of the other traditional Roman offices such as that of tribune the praetorship remained an important portal through which aristocrats could gain access to either the Western or Eastern Senates. The Praetorship was a costly position to hold as praetors were expected to possess a treasury from which they could draw funds for their municipal duties. Byzantine Empire[edit] Like many other Roman institutions, the praetor (Greek: πραίτωρ, praitōr) survived in the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire. Emperor Justinian I (r. 527–565) undertook a major administrative reform beginning in 535, which involved the reunification of civil and military authority in the hands of the governor in certain provinces, and the abolition of the dioceses. The Diocese of Thrace had already been abolished by the end of the 5th century by Anastasius, and its vicarius became the new praetor Justinianus of Thrace, with authority over all the former Thracian provinces except for Lower Moesia and Scythia Minor, which became part of the quaestura exercitus. Similarly, the governors of Pisidia and Lycaonia, as well as Paphlagonia (enlarged by merging it with Honorias) were upgraded to praetores Justiniani, and received the rank of vir spectabilis.[30][31] In addition, in Constantinople he replaced the praefectus vigilum, who was hitherto responsible for security, by a praetor populi (in Greek πραίτωρ [τῶν] δήμων, praitōr [tōn] dēmōn), with wide-ranging police powers.[30][32] In the early 9th century, the praitōr was a junior administrative official in the themata, subordinate to the governing stratēgos. Gradually however, the civil functionaries assumed greater power, and by the late 10th century, the praitores (or kritai, "judges") were placed at the head of the civil administration of a thema.[33] This division of civil and military duties was often abandoned in the 12th century, when the posts of civil praitōr and military doux were frequently held in tandem. The provincial post fell out of use after the collapse of the Empire in 1204.[33] According to Helene Ahrweiler, Emperor Nikephoros II (r. 963–969) reinstituted a praetor in Constantinople, as a high-ranking judge. He is possibly identical to the Palaiologan-era post of the praitōr tou demōu, whose holders are attested until 1355.[33] According to the Book of Offices of pseudo-Kodinos, compiled around the same time, the praitōr tou demōu occupied the 38th place in the imperial hierarchy, between the megas tzaousios and the logothetēs tōn oikeiakōn,[34] but held no official function.[35] His court uniform consisted of a gold-brocaded hat (skiadion), a plain silk kabbadion tunic, and a plain, smooth wooden staff (dikanikion).[36] Modern era[edit] Classical Latin Praetor became medieval Latin Pretor; Praetura, Pretura, etc. During the interwar period the 71 counties of Romania were divided into a various numbers of plăși (singular: plasă), headed by a Pretor, appointed by the Prefect. The institution headed by the Pretor was called Pretură. Currently, this office has survived only in the Republic of Moldova, where praetors are the heads of Chişinău's five sectors. In Italy, until 1998, Praetor was a magistrate with particular duty (especially in civil branch). The Italian-speaking Swiss canton of Ticino has preturi (singular: preture) which is the chief magistrate (civil branch) of a district, heading a pretura (a court).[37] The preturi are appointed by the canton's parliament.[38] In popular culture[edit] In the “Star Trek” franchise, Praetor is the usual title of the leader of the Romulan Empire. In the New Phyrexia expansion of the Magic: the Gathering collectible card game, the five Phyrexian rulers were labeled as praetors. In the 2016 game “Doom”, the armor worn by the protagonist is called the Praetor suit. In the 2017 game “Xenoblade Chronicles 2”, one of the central antagonists Amalthus holds the title of Praetor in the Praetorium of Indol. In the popular book series by Rick Riordan, “The Heroes of Olympus”, there is a Senate with two Praetors, one male and one female. See also[edit] Praetor's Edict Constitution of the Roman Republic List of topics related to ancient Rome Political institutions of Rome List of Praetors of the Roman Republic Category:Roman praetors References[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1875). "Praetor". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. London: John Murray. pp. 956–957. ^ In the Latin language, the ending of the adjective agrees with the case, gender, and number, of the noun, which is why the ending of praetori- varies in the phrases given. ^ Most moderate-size Latin dictionaries list the praetorial nouns and adjectives, and uses and major sources. ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 8.3 ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 8.26 ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 8.32 ^ Cicero, De legibus 3.8 ^ "praetor". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company. 2000. Archived from the original on March 2, 2009. ^ Harper, Douglas. "praetor". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 2018-01-19. - "Latin praetor 'one who goes before'". ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 6.42, 7.1 ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita 7.1 ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita 8.15. ^ Livy, 7.1 ^ p4, Nicholas, Barry, An Introduction to Roman Law (1975, Oxford University Press) ISBN 0-19-876063-9 ^ T. Corey Brennan, The Praetorship in the Roman Republic (Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 604 (online. ^ McCullough, 1014 ^ Alan Watson, Law making in the later Roman Republic (Oxford University 1974) at 31–62. ^ In the late Republic the census was discovering a population of the city of Rome numbering in the millions. ^ Capitolinus, Vita Marci Antonini Chapter 10. ^ Nicholas, p24 ^ Nicholas, p28 ^ Nicholas, pp 22–26 ^ Approximately "remedy", the seeking of restitution of property taken illegally by a magistrate and conviction of the perpetrator. Example: an illegal confiscation. ^ "Canvassing", an attempt to influence voters illegally. Example: buying votes. ^ Against the "majesty" of the people; that is, treason. Example: plotting the murder of a magistrate. ^ "Embezzlement", the theft of public property. Example: the misappropriation of public money. ^ "False witness"; i.e., against perjurers. ^ "Concerning stabbers and poisoners"; i.e., against professional assassins and their collaborators. ^ "Patricide", extended to the murder of relatives, presumably for property. ^ Bury, J.B. History of the Later Roman Empire, Volume 1, Chapter 1. ^ a b Wesenberg 1954. ^ Bury 1923, pp. 339–341. ^ Bury 1923, p. 338. ^ a b c ODB, "Praetor" (A. Kazhdan), p. 1710. ^ Verpeaux 1966, p. 138. ^ Verpeaux 1966, p. 182. ^ Verpeaux 1966, p. 161. ^ Repubblica e Cantone Ticino (in Italian) ^ Constitution of Ticino Article 36 (in Italian) Sources[edit] Brennan, T. Corey (2001). The Praetorship in the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513867-8 Bury, John Bagnell (1923). History of the Later Roman Empire: From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian. II. London: MacMillan & Co. ISBN 0-486-20399-9. Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. McCullough, Colleen (1990). The First Man in Rome. Avon Books. ISBN 0-380-71081-1. Verpeaux, Jean, ed. (1966). Pseudo-Kodinos, Traité des Offices (in French). Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. Wesenberg, Gerhard (1954). "Praetor". Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft. Band XXII, Halbband 44, Praefectura-Priscianus. cols. 1582–1606. External links[edit] Peck, Harry Thurston, Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (1898), Praetor[permanent dead link] Smith, William, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, Praetor. Livy, Books 1–5, English, University of Virginia searchable etext. Livy, Books 6–10, English, University of Virginia searchable etext. Livy, Books 40–45, English, University of Virginia searchable etext. Cicero, de legibus, Book 3, Latin. The Latin Library site. 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en-wikipedia-org-704	----	Roman tribe - Wikipedia Roman tribe From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search A Roman denarius of 63 BC: a voter casting a ballot A tribus, or tribe, was a division of the Roman people, constituting the voting units of a legislative assembly of the Roman Republic.[1][2] The word is probably derived from tribuere, to divide or distribute; the traditional derivation from tres, three, is doubtful.[2][3][4] According to tradition, the first three tribes were established by Romulus; each was divided into ten curiae, or wards, which were the voting units of the comitia curiata. Although the curiae continued throughout Roman history, the three original tribes that they constituted gradually vanished from history.[i][1][5] Perhaps influenced by the original division of the people into tribes, as well as the number of thirty wards, Servius Tullius established thirty new tribes, which later constituted the comitia tributa. This number was reduced to twenty at the beginning of the Roman Republic; but as the Roman population and its territory grew, fifteen additional tribes were enrolled, the last in 241 BC.[1][2] All Roman citizens were enrolled in one of these tribes, through which they were entitled to vote on the election of certain magistrates, religious officials, judicial decisions in certain suits affecting the plebs, and pass resolutions on various proposals made by the tribunes of the plebs and the higher magistrates. Although the comitia tributa lost most of its legislative functions under the Empire, enrollment in a tribe remained an important part of Roman citizenship until at least the third century AD.[6] Contents 1 The Romulean tribes 1.1 The curiae 1.2 The comitia curiata 2 The Servian tribes 2.1 Later tribes 2.2 The comitia tributa 2.2.1 Powers 2.2.2 Procedures 2.2.3 Decline 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References 6 Bibliography The Romulean tribes[edit] The first three tribes are said to have been established by Romulus, the founder and first King of Rome, shortly after the foundation of the city. Following the Rape of the Sabine Women, the Sabines under Titus Tatius attacked Rome, and successfully entered the city. After fierce fighting, the Sabine women themselves interceded, stepping between their husbands and their fathers to prevent further bloodshed. Peace was concluded, with Romulus and Tatius ruling jointly, and a large Sabine population relocating to Rome; the nascent city was thus evenly divided between Latins and Sabines. At this time (traditionally 750 BC), Romulus divided the people into three tribes, known as the Ramnes or Ramnenses, named after himself; the Tities or Titienses, named after Titus Tatius; and the Luceres or Lucerenses, whose name and origin were obscure even to the ancient historians.[1][7] Known as the three Romulean tribes, these first tribes have often been supposed to represent the major ethnic groups of early Rome: the Ramnes representing Rome's Latin population; the Tities representing the Sabines; and the Luceres probably representing the Etruscans. Rome lay on the Tiber, the traditional boundary of Etruria with Latium, and may have had a substantial Etruscan population from the beginning; but certainly there was a considerable Etruscan element in the Roman population by the sixth century BC; the fifth and seventh kings of Rome were Etruscan, and many of Rome's cultural institutions were of Etruscan origin. It may be to this period, rather than the time of Romulus, that the institution of the Luceres belongs; and indeed the names, if not the ethnic character, of all three of the Romulean tribes appear to be Etruscan.[2][8] Although the theory that the Romulean tribes represented the city's original ethnic components continues to be represented in modern scholarship, it has never been universally accepted, and this view is rejected by many scholars.[9] The curiae[edit] These three tribes were in turn divided into thirty curiae, or wards, the organization of which is unclear; they were said to have been named after thirty of the Sabine Women, but of the nine curiae whose names are known today, several are of geographical origin. The only curiae whose names are now known were: Acculeia,[ii] Calabra, Faucia,[iii] Foriensis,[iv] Rapta,[v] Tifata,[vi] Titia,[vii] Veliensis,[viii] and Velitia.[10][11][12][13][14] In the past, it was widely believed that membership in the curiae was limited to the patricians, and that statements to the contrary, indicating that clientes were admitted meant no more than that they were passive members with no voting rights. However, Mommsen argued convincingly that the plebeians were included in voting, and this view now appears to have prevailed; the plebeians were included either from the beginning, or at least from an early date; certainly from the earliest years of the Republic.[2][13][15] The members of the curiae were known as curiales. Each curia was attended by a priest, or curio, who assisted by another priest, known as the flamen curialis, undertook the religious obligations of the ward. Each had its own place of meeting, also known as a curia.[13] The comitia curiata[edit] When the various curiae were assembled for voting, they formed the comitia curiata, the oldest legislative assembly of the Roman Republic. One of the curiones was appointed or elected curio maximus, and presided over the assembly.[13][16] Under the kings, the comitia curiata was summoned by the king or by an interrex, who would present questions upon which the comitia might vote. These included the election of a new king, as proposed by the interrex; the passing of a law conferring imperium on the king, known as a lex curiata de imperio; whether to declare war; rulings on appeals; matters relating to arrogatio;[ix] and whether to allow foreigners to be received among the patricians. Under Servius Tullius, the rights to declare war and to decide appeals were transferred to the comitia centuriata, another legislative assembly.[6] After the downfall of the Roman monarchy, questions were presented to the comitia curiata by the Roman Senate. However, between 494 and 449 BC, most of its functions were relegated to the comitia tributa and the comitia centuriata. The higher magistrates were elected by the comitia centuriata, which also presided over certain capital trials, and held the power to declare war, and to pass legislation presented by the senate. Lesser magistrates were elected by the comitia tributa, which also elected religious officials, presided over trials affecting the plebeians, and passed resolutions based on legislation proposed by the tribunes of the plebs and various magistrates. The comitia curiata retained the power to confer imperium on magistrates elected by the comitia centuriata, and to confirm alterations in the Roman constitution decided upon by the other two comitia; both of these, however, required the senate to propose them before the comitia could act. The comitia also retained the power to decide whether to admit a non-patrician into that order, and to oversee the process of arrogatio, particularly when a patrician was being adopted into a plebeian family.[6] By the late republic, each curia was represented by only one lictor. The Servian tribes[edit] Inscription (CIL 13.1029) from Gallia Narbonensis, recording the enrollment of Gaius Otacilius in the tribus Voltinia (abbreviated VOL), into which Gallic citizens were frequently placed. The institution of the tribes that made up the comitia tributa, as well as the centuries of the comitia centuriata, occurred under Servius Tullius, the sixth king of Rome, whose reign is traditionally dated from 578 to 534 BC. According to Livy, Servius divided the city into four regions,[17] and the surrounding land into twenty-six, thus dividing the people into thirty tribes, based on geographic location. The names of the four "urban" tribes were based on the four regions of the city that they represented, while those of the "rural" or "rustic" tribes were likely based on the names of families that owned considerable tracts of land in those areas.[1][2][8] Ten of the original rural tribes, whose names are lost to history, were destroyed in the war against Lars Porsena at the commencement of the Republic.[1] Those that remained were the four urban tribes: Collina, Esquilina, Palatina, and Suburana (also called Succusana); together with sixteen rural tribes: Aemilia, Camilia, Cornelia, Fabia, Galeria, Horatia, Lemonia, Menenia, Papiria, Pollia, Popillia, Pupinia, Romilia, Sergia, Veturia, and Voltinia. Later tribes[edit] When the Sabine Appius Claudius removed to Rome together with his clientes, in 504 BC, he was admitted to the patriciate, and assigned lands in the region around the mouth of the Anio. These settlers became the basis of the tribus Claudia, which was admitted in 495 BC, during Claudius' consulship, and subsequently enlarged to become the tribus Crustumina or Clustumina.[1][18] Four more tribes were added in 387 BC: Arniensis, Sabatina, Stellatina, and Tromentina.[1] With the addition of Volscian territory in 358 BC, two more tribes were formed, Pomptina and Publilia (also found as Poblilia). In 332, the censors Quintus Publilius Philo and Spurius Postumius Albinus enrolled two more tribes, Maecia (originally Maicia) and Scaptia. Ufentina (or Oufentina) and Falerina followed in 318, and in 299 Aniensis and Terentina were added. The last two tribes, Quirina and Velina, were established in 241 BC, bringing the number of tribes to thirty-five. Eight tribes were added at the end of the Social War, when the Roman franchise was extended to the socii, but they were later absorbed into the other thirty-five.[1] The thirty-five tribes (with their usual abbreviations) were:[x] The four urban tribes Collina (Col.) Esquilina ( Esq.) Palatina ( Pal.) Suburana ( Sub./Suc.) The rural tribes Aemilia ( Aem.) Aniensis ( Ani.) Arniensis ( Arn.) Camilia ( Cam.) Claudia ( Cla.)[xi] Crustumina ( Clu.) Cornelia ( Cor.) Fabia ( Fab.) Falerina ( Fal.) Galeria ( Gal.) Horatia ( Hor.) Lemonia ( Lem.) Maecia ( Mae./Mai.) Menenia ( Men.) Papiria ( Pap.) Pollia ( Pol.) Pomptina ( Pom.) Publilia ( Pub./Pob.) Pupinia ( Pup.) Quirina ( Qui.) Romilia ( Rom.) Sabatina ( Sab.) Scaptia ( Scap.) Sergia ( Ser.) Stellatina ( Ste.) Terentina ( Ter.) Tromentina ( Tro.) Ufentina ( Ouf.) Velina ( Vel.) Veturia ( Vet.) Voltinia ( Vol.) Although the names of the older rural tribes are those of patrician families, the tribes themselves were probably entirely plebeian until 449 BC, after which both patricians and plebeians were enrolled; before this time, many of the powers and responsibilities later held by the comitia tributa still belonged to the comitia curiata.[1] While we know the origin of their names, the location of the territories which defined these tribes is uncertain. Subsequent tribes were based in territories where Roman settlements had been established, or in which the inhabitants had received the Roman franchise. In later periods, citizens might be enrolled in tribes without reference to geography.[2] The enrollment of new citizens in particular tribes became a significant political issue during the censorship of Appius Claudius Caecus in 312 BC. Those who wished to limit the voting power of the lower social orders, and particularly of freedmen, advocated enrolling them only in the four urban tribes. This effort was largely unsuccessful, except with respect to freedmen, who were nearly always enrolled in one of the urban tribes. A similar attempt to limit the power of newly enfranchised citizens followed the end of the Social War. It was also possible for one of the censors to punish an individual by expelling him from one of the rustic tribes, and assigning him to one of the urban tribes; this was known as tribu movere.[2] The tribes functioned as civil divisions of the populace for purposes of the census, taxation, and military service. Each tribe possessed its own officers, including a curator tribuum, who served as the head of the tribe, and tribuni aerarii, or tribunes of the treasury, whose responsibility was for the tribe's financial obligations; they were responsible for collecting the war tax, and distributed pay to the tribe's soldiers.[2][19] Toward the end of the Republic, the importance of the tribus was such that it became an official part of a Roman's name, usually appearing, in the most formal documents and inscriptions, between a citizen's filiation and any cognomina.[1] In imperial times, the enrollment of citizens in tribes along a geographic basis was resumed; for instance, easterners were typically enrolled in the tribes Collina and Quirina, while in Gallia Narbonensis enrollment in the tribus Voltinia was preferred.[2] The comitia tributa[edit] A view of the Roman Forum from the Palatine Hill. Main article: Tribal Assembly Together, the Servian tribes constituted the concilium plebis, or plebeian council; as time passed and the council's authority to pass legislation developed, it was increasingly known as the comitia plebis tributa, or tribal assembly.[20] A law passed in 449 BC made resolutions of the comitia tributa, known as plebi scita, or plebiscites, binding upon the whole Roman people; this law was not ratified by the senate until 286 BC, but even before this its resolutions were considered binding on the plebs. Because all citizens, whether patrician or plebeian, received the same vote in the comitia tributa, and because the assembly was much simpler to convene than the comitia centuriata, the comitia tributa was Rome's most democratic assembly. By the end of the Republic, the plebs greatly outnumbered the patricians, and it was through this comitia that the collective will of the citizens could be exercised without regard to wealth or status.[6] Powers[edit] The comitia tributa elected all of the lower magistrates, including the tribunes of the plebs, the military tribunes, the plebeian aediles and the curule aediles. A committee of seventeen tribes, chosen by lot, nominated the Pontifex Maximus, and coöpted members of the collegia of the pontifices, augures, and the decemviri sacrorum.[6] The comitia could pass resolutions proposed by the tribunes of the plebs, or by the higher magistrates, on both domestic and foreign matters, such as the making of treaties or concluding of peace. Proposals had to be published before receiving a vote, and were passed or rejected as a whole, without modification. Although the senate might review these resolutions, it could only reject them if they had been passed without the proper formalities.[6] The comitia tributa also decided suits instituted by the plebeian tribunes and aediles, for offenses against the plebs or their representatives. In the later Republic, these suits typically involved charges of maladministration; the tribunes and aediles were entitled to levy substantial fines.[6] Procedures[edit] Beginning with the institution of the tribunes of the plebs in 494 BC, the comitia tributa was normally summoned by the tribunes themselves. Magistrates could also convene the comitia, but only with the consent of the tribunes. The comitia was summoned by the proclamation of a praeco, a crier or herald, at least seventeen days before the meeting. The auspices would be taken, and the meeting could only proceed if they were favourable. The tribes convened at daybreak, and were obliged to adjourn at sunset. If summoned by one of the tribunes, the tribes had to gather within the city, or within a one-mile radius of the city; this was the boundary of a tribune's authority. In the first centuries of the Republic, the comitia usually met on the Capitol, in the Forum, or at the Comitium. If summoned by one of the magistrates, the comitia typically met on the Campus Martius.[6] After a prayer, unaccompanied by sacrifice, proposals would be read, and the citizens arranged by tribe. The first tribe to vote, known as the principium, was chosen by lot, and the result of its vote announced. The other tribes would then vote simultaneously, and the results of their votes announced in an order also determined by lot, before the final result was proclaimed. Laws passed by the comitia took effect as soon as the results were announced.[6] Although the order of voting was determined by lot, there was also an official order of the tribes, known as the ordo tribuum. The first four tribes were the urban tribes, in the order: Suburana, Palatina, Esquilina, Collina; the rural tribes followed, concluding with Aniensis.[xii][1] Decline[edit] In the final years of the Republic, participation in the comitia was quite low, and its acts increasingly the result of corruption. Caesar deprived the comitia tributa of the power to declare war or conclude peace; the early emperors further curtailed its power. Augustus removed the comitia's judicial function, and preserved its power to pass legislation only in form. He filled half of the available magistracies with his own candidates, and Tiberius transferred the comitia's remaining electoral authority to the senate. Although the emperors received many of their powers from the comitia tributa, this was only a formality.[6] Although the comitia tributa continued to exist until the third century AD, its only remaining functions were symbolic; it took auspices and gave prayer; it conferred the emperor's legislative powers and other authority; and it proclaimed the laws presented to it for approval. But by this time voting was done not by ballot, but by acclamatio.[6] See also[edit] List of Roman tribes Notes[edit] ^ There is no evidence that the Romulean tribes were ever formally abolished, although they are seldom mentioned in the time of the Republic. However, Livy implies that they still existed, and that members of the college of augurs were traditionally assigned in threes, so that each tribe would be represented by one or more augurs. ^ According to Varro, the curia Acculeia made a sacrifice to Angerona during the festival of the Angeronalia, on December 21. This may have been a special honour, as Angerona was the tutelary goddess of Rome itself. There was a gens Accoleia, probably derived from the same source, and either the curia was named after the gens, or if this ward was named for one of the Sabine women, perhaps Accoleia was a matronymic surname, based on an ancient praenomen such as Acca. Various traditions relating to an Acca Larentia are associated with Romulus. ^ Livy mentions that the curia Faucia was particularly ill-omened, because it had cast the first vote in 390 BC, the year that Rome was sacked by the Gauls, and again in 321 BC, the year of the disaster at the Caudine Forks; they cast the first vote again in 310, but the ill omen came to naught, as the Romans won an important victory over the Etruscans. According to Licinius Macer, the curia Faucia had also cast the first vote in 477 BC, the year of the destruction of the Fabii at the Cremera. ^ Foriensis probably refers to the area around the Roman Forum. ^ Raptus is an adjective meaning "abducted" or "captured." In its feminine form, it could well be a reference to one of the Sabine women. ^ Festus says that tifata means "full of holm oaks." However, it also referred to various places, including a Curia Tifata at Rome, which in another passage Festus explains was named after a certain Curius who lived there. Thus, while Festus seems to say in one passage that Tifata was one of the thirty curiae, there is some doubt as to whether it was instead a place name; or perhaps it was both. ^ Festus informs us that the curia Titia, like the tribe of the Tities, was named after Titus Tatius; but Poucet disagrees. Titia was also a women's praenomen. ^ Veliensis refers to the Velian Hill, a ridge in central Rome joining the Palatine Hill and the Oppian Hill. The origin of the name is obscure; but Velia is an Etruscan woman's praenomen, and there was a gens Velia. ^ Arrogatio, or arrogation, was a particular type of adoption specific to Roman culture. It was a means of ensuring that a particular family line did not become extinct, merely because a man had no children of his own. In order to qualify, the adoptor had to be both childless and incapable of having children, while the adoptee had to be an adult. This process was of particular interest to the patricians, who formed an increasingly small minority of the Roman populus as time passed; normally, the adoptee would receive the status of his adopted father, and thus a patrician adopted into a plebeian gens would normally lose his patrician status; this principle was used by Publius Clodius Pulcher to pass over to the plebeians, and become eligible to hold office as tribune of the plebs, although in his case the adoption was technically illegal, as his adoptive father was a young man, presumably capable of having children. On the other hand, a plebeian might obtain patrician status by being adopted into a patrician gens, and this would also have been of concern to the patricians. There may have been exceptions to the usual rule; a family of the Junii Silani descended from the patrician Manlia gens seems to have retained their patrician status, although adopted into the plebeian Junii; Gaius Junius Silanus was Flamen Martialis, a priestly office restricted to the patricians. ^ A number of the tribes are known with variations in spelling, both as the result of scribal error, and as the orthography of Latin itself shifted over time; for example, the tribus Maecia must originally have been Maicia, as it is frequently abbreviated Mai. Crustumina and Clustumina are used interchangeably; Poplilia and Poblilia are older forms of Publilia; and a number of internal letters are omitted in some writing; for instance, Falerna in place of Falerina, Sabatia for Sabatina, Teretina for Terentina, and Votinia for Voltinia. ^ The tribus Claudia was subsequently enlarged to become Crustumina. ^ Crawford postulates that the rustic tribes were enumerated along the major roads leading from Rome (the Viae Ostiensis, Appia, Latina, Praenestina, Valeria, Salaria, Flaminia and Clodia), in a counter-clockwise order: Romilia, Voltinia, Voturia, Aemilia, Horatia, Maecia, Scaptia, Pomptina, Falerina, Lemonia, Papiria, Ufentina, Terentina, Pupinia, Menenia, Publilia, Cornelia, Claudia, Camilia, Aniensis, Fabia, Pollia, Sergia, Clustumina, Quirina, Velina, Stellatina, Tromentina, Galeria, Sabatina, Arniensis. This list omits the tribus Popillia, one of the original Servian tribes, and counts Claudia and Clustumina as separate tribes.[21] References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities, "Tribus." ^ a b c d e f g h i j Oxford Classical Dictionary, "Tribus." ^ The Bantam New College Latin & English Dictionary, s. v. tribus. ^ Cassell's Latin & English Dictionary, s. v. tribus. ^ Livy, x. 6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities, Second Edition, Harry Thurston Peck, Editor (1897), "Comitia". ^ Livy, i. 9–13. ^ a b Robert Maxwell Ogilvie, A Commentary on Livy, Books I–V (1965). ^ Cornell, pp. 114, 115. ^ Varro, De Lingua Latina. ^ Livy, ix. 38. ^ Festus. ^ a b c d Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities, "Curia." ^ C. J. Smith, The Roman Clan, p. 204. ^ Mommsen, Römische Forschungen i. 140–150. ^ Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities, "Curio." ^ Livy, i. 43. ^ Livy, ii. 21. ^ Oxford Classical Dictionary, "Tribuni Aerarii." ^ Oxford Classical Dictionary, "Comitia." ^ Crawford. Bibliography[edit] Primary sources Marcus Terentius Varro, De Lingua Latina (On the Latin Language). Titus Livius (Livy), History of Rome. Sextus Pompeius Festus, Epitome de M. Verrio Flacco de Verborum Significatu (Epitome of Marcus Verrius Flaccus: On the Meaning of Words). Secondary sources Timothy Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars, Routledge, London (1995). Michael H. Crawford, "Tribus, Tesserae, et Regions," in Comptes rendus de l'Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, vol. 146, pp. 1125–1135 (2002). Oxford Classical Dictionary, N. G. L. Hammond and H. H. Scullard, eds., Clarendon Press, Oxford (Second Edition, 1970). Christian Matthias Theodor Mommsen, Römische Forschungen (Roman Research), Weidmannsche Buchhandlung, Berlin (1864–1879). Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities, Harry Thurston Peck, ed. (Second Edition, 1897). D.P. Simpson, Cassell's Latin and English Dictionary, Macmillan Publishing Company, New York (1963). C.J. Smith, The Roman Clan: The Gens from Ancient Ideology to Modern Anthropology (2006). John C. Traupman, The New College Latin & English Dictionary, Bantam Books, New York (1995). v t e Roman Constitution Ancient Rome History Constitution Senate Assemblies Curiate Century Tribal Plebeian Magistrates Roman Kingdom History Constitution Senate Assemblies Magistrates Roman Republic History Constitution (reforms of Sulla • reforms of Caesar • reforms of Augustus) Senate Assemblies Magistrates Roman Empire History (post Diocletian) Constitution (post Diocletian) Senate Assemblies Magistrates Miscellaneous Sulla's Constitutional Reforms Caesar's Constitutional Reforms Conflict of the Orders Roman law v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum 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Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_tribe&oldid=996248869" Categories: Ancient Romans Government of the Roman Republic Roman law Historical legislatures Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable 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en-wikipedia-org-7060	----	Gaius Julius Hyginus - Wikipedia Gaius Julius Hyginus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Hyginus" redirects here. For other uses, see Hyginus (disambiguation). Roman freedman and writer during the Age of Augustus Gaius Julius Hyginus (/hɪˈdʒaɪnəs/; c. 64 BC – AD 17) was a Latin author, a pupil of the scholar Alexander Polyhistor, and a freedman of Caesar Augustus. He was elected superintendent of the Palatine library by Augustus according to Suetonius' De Grammaticis, 20.[1] It is not clear whether Hyginus was a native of the Iberian Peninsula or of Alexandria. Suetonius remarks that Hyginus fell into great poverty in his old age and was supported by the historian Clodius Licinus. Hyginus was a voluminous author: his works included topographical and biographical treatises, commentaries on Helvius Cinna and the poems of Virgil, and disquisitions on agriculture and bee-keeping. All these are lost. Under the name of Hyginus there are extant what are probably two sets of school notes abbreviating his treatises on mythology; one is a collection of Fabulae ("stories"), the other a "Poetical Astronomy". Contents 1 Fabulae 2 De Astronomica or Poeticon Astronomicon 3 Legacy 4 Notes 5 References 6 External links Fabulae[edit] Fabulae consists of some three hundred very brief and plainly, even crudely told myths and celestial genealogies,[2] made by an author who was characterized by his modern editor, H. J. Rose, as adulescentem imperitum, semidoctum, stultum—"an ignorant youth, semi-learned, stupid"—but valuable for the use made of works of Greek writers of tragedy that are now lost. Arthur L. Keith, reviewing H. J. Rose's edition (1934) of Hygini Fabulae,[3] wondered "at the caprices of Fortune who has allowed many of the plays of an Aeschylus, the larger portion of Livy's histories, and other priceless treasures to perish, while this school-boy's exercise has survived to become the pabulum of scholarly effort." Hyginus' compilation represents in primitive form what every educated Roman in the age of the Antonines was expected to know of Greek myth, at the simplest level. The Fabulae are a mine of information today, when so many more nuanced versions of the myths have been lost. In fact the text of Fabulae was all but lost: a single surviving manuscript from the abbey of Freising,[4] in a Beneventan script datable c. 900, formed the material for the first printed edition, negligently and uncritically[5] transcribed by Jacob Micyllus, 1535, who may have supplied it with the title we know it by. In the course of printing, following the usual practice, by which the manuscripts printed in the 15th and 16th centuries have rarely survived their treatment at the printshop, the manuscript was pulled apart: only two small fragments of it have turned up, significantly as stiffening in book bindings.[6] Another fragmentary text, dating from the 5th century is in the Vatican Library.[7] Among Hyginus' sources are the scholia on Apollonius of Rhodes' Argonautica, which were dated to about the time of Tiberius by Apollonius' editor R. Merkel, in the preface to his edition of Apollonius (Leipzig, 1854).[8] De Astronomica or Poeticon Astronomicon[edit] Main article: De Astronomica De Astronomica was first published, with accompanying figures, by Erhard Ratdolt in Venice, 1482, under the title Clarissimi uiri Hyginii Poeticon astronomicon opus utilissimum. This "Poetic astronomy by the most renowned Hyginus, a most useful work," chiefly tells us the myths connected with the constellations, in versions that are chiefly based on Catasterismi, a work that was traditionally attributed to Eratosthenes. Like the Fabulae, the Astronomica is a collection of abridgements, and the style and level of Latin competence and the elementary mistakes (especially in the rendering of the Greek originals) were held by the anonymous contributor to the Encyclopædia Britannica (11th edition, 1911), to prove that they cannot have been the work of "so distinguished" a scholar as C. Julius Hyginus. It was further suggested that these treatises are an abridgment made in the latter half of the 2nd century of the Genealogiae of Hyginus by an unknown adapter, who added a complete treatise on mythology.[9] The star lists in the Astronomica are in exactly the same order as in Ptolemy's Almagest, reinforcing the idea of a 2nd-century compilation.[10] Legacy[edit] The lunar crater Hyginus and the minor planet 12155 Hyginus are named after him. The English author Sir Thomas Browne opens his discourse The Garden of Cyrus (1658) with a Creation myth sourced from the Fabulae of Hyginus. Notes[edit] ^ Not everyone is sure that the Hyginus of Fabulae was this freedman of Augustus; for one, Edward Fitch, reviewing Herbert J. Rose, Hygini Fabulae in The American Journal of Philology 56,4 (1935), p. 422. ^ "the Fabulae (more correctly Genealogiae) of Hyginus", according to H. J. Rose, "Second Thoughts on Hyginus" Mnemosyne, Fourth Series, 11.1 (1958:42–48) p. 42; the article is in the way of a set of marginalia to Rose's edition of Fabulae. ^ A.L. Keith, in The Classical Journal 31.1 (October 1935) p. 53. ^ A Codex Freisingensis, noted by Fitch, reviewing Rose, Hygini Fabulae 1934:421. ^ A. H. F. Griffin, "Hyginus, Fabula 89 (Laomedon)" The Classical Quarterly New Series, 36.2 (1986), p. 541 note. ^ One was discovered at Regensburg in 1864, another in Munich, 1942. Both fragments are conserved in Munich. See M.D. Reeve on Hyginus, Fabulae in L.D. Reynolds, ed., Texts and Transmission (Oxford) 1983, pp 189f. ^ Review by Wilfred E. Major of P.K. Marshall, Hyginus: Fabulae. Editio altera. 2002 ^ Noted by Rose 1958:42 note 3. ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Hyginus, Gaius Julius" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ^ "Julius Hyginus Poeticon Astronomicon". Retrieved 2019-01-18. References[edit] Grant, Mary (transl.), The Myths of Hyginus (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1960). Marshall, P.K. (ed.), Hyginus: Fabulae (Munich: Saur, 1993 [corr. ed. 2002]). Rose, Herbert Jennings (ed.), Hygini Fabulae (Leiden: A.W. Sijthoff, 1934 [2nd ed. 1963]). The standard text, in Latin. Smith, R. Scott & Trzaskoma, Stephen M. (transl.), Apollodorus' Library and Hyginus' Fabulae: Two Handbooks of Greek Mythology (Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett Publishing, 2007), ISBN 978-0-87220-821-6. This article incorporates text from Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Hyginus, Gaius Julius" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. External links[edit] Wikisource has original text related to this article: Gaius Julius Hyginus Online Text: Hyginus, Fabulae translated by Mary Grant Online Text: Hyginus, Astronomica translated by Mary Grant Online Text of Hyginus. excerpted (in Latin) Online Digital copy of the first Latin edition by Jacob Micyllus (Basel, 1535) Poeticon Astronomicon, 1482—Full digital facsimile, Linda Hall Library. De Mundi et Sphere, 1512—Full digital facsimile, Linda Hall Library. Online Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries—High resolution images of works by Hermes Trismegistus in JPEG and TIFF formats Grammaticae Romanae Fragmenta, Gino Funaioli (a cura di), Lipsiae, in aedibus B. G. Teubneri, 1907, vol. 1, pagg. 525 sgg. Historicorum Romanorum reliquiae, Hermann Peter (ed.), Lipsiae, in aedibus B. G. Teubneri, vol. 1, 1906, pp. 72–77. Authority control BIBSYS: 95002403 BNE: XX984371 BNF: cb11886589r (data) CiNii: DA04388506 GND: 119437627 ISNI: 0000 0001 2096 7516 LCCN: n84175578 LNB: 000015046 NDL: 00985960 NKC: jo2014810235 NLA: 40227135 NSK: 000385803 NTA: 070224250 SELIBR: 245529 Trove: 445038 VIAF: 100181375 WorldCat Identities: viaf-100181375 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gaius_Julius_Hyginus&oldid=993866750" Categories: 17 deaths 1st-century BC Romans 1st-century BC writers 1st-century Romans 1st-century writers 60s BC births Ancient Roman astronomers Ancient Roman writers Golden Age Latin writers Julii Latin-language writers Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles with Latin-language sources (la) Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikisource Languages Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 12 December 2020, at 22:26 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7071	----	Log in - Wikipedia Log in Jump to navigation Jump to search Username Password  Keep me logged in (for up to 365 days) Log in Help with logging in Don't have an account?Join Wikipedia Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:UserLogin" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Special page Variants Views More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools Upload file Special pages Printable version Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7096	----	Volubilis - Wikipedia Volubilis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search partly excavated Berber city in Morocco For the Alfred Boucher sculptures, see Volubilis (sculptures). Volubilis وليلي  (Arabic) ⵡⵍⵉⵍⵉ  (Berber languages) Volubilis ruins Shown within Morocco Location Meknès Prefecture, Fès-Meknès, Morocco Region Mauretania Coordinates 34°04′16″N 05°33′13″W / 34.07111°N 5.55361°W / 34.07111; -5.55361Coordinates: 34°04′16″N 05°33′13″W / 34.07111°N 5.55361°W / 34.07111; -5.55361 Type Settlement History Founded 3rd century BC Abandoned 11th century AD Cultures Phoenician, Carthaginian, Roman, Idrisids UNESCO World Heritage Site Official name Archaeological Site of Volubilis Type Cultural Criteria ii, iii, iv, vi Designated 1997 (21st session) Reference no. 836 State Party Morocco Region Arab States Volubilis (Latin pronunciation: [woˈlu.bi.lis]; Arabic: وليلي‎, romanized: walīlī; Berber languages: ⵡⵍⵉⵍⵉ, romanized: wlili) is a partly excavated Berber city in Morocco situated near the city of Meknes, and commonly considered as the ancient capital of the kingdom of Mauretania.[1] Built in a fertile agricultural area, it developed from the 3rd century BC onward as a Berber, then proto-Carthaginian, settlement before being the capital of the kingdom of Mauretania. It grew rapidly under Roman rule from the 1st century AD onward and expanded to cover about 42 hectares (100 acres) with a 2.6 km (1.6 mi) circuit of walls. The city gained a number of major public buildings in the 2nd century, including a basilica, temple and triumphal arch. Its prosperity, which was derived principally from olive growing, prompted the construction of many fine town-houses with large mosaic floors. The city fell to local tribes around 285 and was never retaken by Rome because of its remoteness and indefensibility on the south-western border of the Roman Empire. It continued to be inhabited for at least another 700 years, first as a Latinised Christian community, then as an early Islamic settlement. In the late 8th century it became the seat of Idris ibn Abdallah, the founder of the Idrisid dynasty of Morocco. By the 11th century Volubilis had been abandoned after the seat of power was relocated to Fes. Much of the local population was transferred to the new town of Moulay Idriss Zerhoun, about 5 km (3.1 mi) from Volubilis. The ruins remained substantially intact until they were devastated by an earthquake in the mid-18th century and subsequently looted by Moroccan rulers seeking stone for building Meknes. It was not until the latter part of the 19th century that the site was definitively identified as that of the ancient city of Volubilis. During and after the period of French rule over Morocco, about half of the site was excavated, revealing many fine mosaics, and some of the more prominent public buildings and high-status houses were restored or reconstructed. Today it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, listed for being "an exceptionally well preserved example of a large Roman colonial town on the fringes of the Empire". Contents 1 Name 2 Foundation and Roman occupation 3 After the Romans 4 Excavation, restoration and UNESCO listing 5 City layout and infrastructure 5.1 Commerce 6 Notable buildings 6.1 Public buildings 6.2 Triumphal arch 6.3 Houses and palaces 6.4 Headquarters of Idris I 7 Footnotes 8 Bibliography 9 External links Name[edit] The origins of its name are unknown but may be a Latinisation of the Amazigh word Walilt, meaning oleander, which grows along the sides of the valley.[2] The Lewis & Short Latin dictionary gives the Latin meaning of "volubilis" as "that [which] is turned round or (more freq.) that [which] turns itself round, turning, spinning, whirling, circling, rolling, revolving."[3] The word is mentioned in Horace's Epistles (I, 2, 43): labitur, et labetur in omne volubilis aevum ("It flows and will flow, swirling on forever.")[3][4] In Classical Latin, the "v" in "volubilis" was pronounced like a "w," making the pronunciation closer to modern Amazigh and Arabic pronunciations.[5] Charles-Joseph Tissot [fr] (1828–1884) discovered that what some sources in Arabic referred to as "Qasr Fara'on" (قصر فرعون Pharaoh's Palace) corresponded with Volubilis.[6] Foundation and Roman occupation[edit] Built on a shallow slope below the Zerhoun mountain, Volubilis stands on a ridge above the valley of Khoumane (Khuman) where it is met by a small tributary stream called the Fertassa.[7] It overlooks a rolling fertile alluvial plain north of the modern city of Meknes.[7] The area around Volubilis has been inhabited at least since the Late Atlantic Neolithic, some 5,000 years ago; archaeological excavations at the site have found Neolithic pottery of design comparable to pieces found in Iberia.[8] By the third century BC, the Carthaginians had a presence there, as evidenced by the remains of a temple to the Punic god Baal and finds of pottery and stones inscribed in the Phoenician language.[9] The city lay within the kingdom of Mauretania, which became a Roman client state following the fall of Carthage in 146 BC.[9] The Punic influence lasted for a considerable time afterwards, as the city's magistrates retained the Carthaginian title of suffete long after the end of Punic rule.[10] Juba II of Numidia was placed on the Mauretanian throne by Augustus in 25 BC and turned his attention to building a royal capital at Volubilis.[11] Educated in Rome and married to Cleopatra Selene II, the daughter of Mark Antony and Cleopatra, Juba and his son Ptolemy were thoroughly Romanised kings, although of Berber ancestry; their preference for Roman art and architecture was clearly reflected in the city's design.[9] Map of Mauretania Tingitana showing the location of Volubilis After Claudius annexed Mauretania in 44 AD, the city grew substantially due to its wealth and prosperity, derived from the fertile lands of the province which produced valuable export commodities such as grain, olive oil and wild animals for gladiatorial spectacles. At its peak in the late 2nd century, Volubilis had around 20,000 inhabitants – a very substantial population for a Roman provincial town[12] – and the surrounding region was also well inhabited, to judge from over 50 villas discovered in the area.[13] It was mentioned by the 1st century AD geographer Pomponius Mela, who described it in his work De situ orbis libri III as one of "the wealthiest cities, albeit the wealthiest among small ones" in Mauretania.[14] It is also mentioned by Pliny the Elder, and the 2nd century Antonine Itinerary refers to its location and names it as Volubilis Colonia.[15] Its population was dominated by Romanised Berbers.[16] Arch of Caracalla (Triumphal Arch) The city remained loyal to Rome despite a revolt in 40–44 AD led by one of Ptolemy's freedmen, Aedemon, and its inhabitants were rewarded with grants of citizenship and a ten-year exemption from taxes.[13] The city was raised to the status of a municipium and its system of governance was overhauled, with the Punic-style suffetes replaced by annually elected duumvirs, or pairs of magistrates.[16] However, the city's position was always tenuous; it was located on the south-eastern edge of the province, facing hostile and increasingly powerful Berber tribes. A ring of five forts located at the modern hamlets of Aïn Schkor, Bled el Gaada, Sidi Moussa, Sidi Said and Bled Takourart (ancient Tocolosida) were constructed to bolster the city's defence.[13] Sidi Said was the base for the Cohors IV Gallorum equitata, an auxiliary cavalry unit from Gaul, while Aïn Schkor housed Hispanic and Belgic cohorts. Sidi Moussa was the location of a cohort of Parthians, and Gallic and Syrian cavalry were based at Toscolosida.[17] Rising tensions in the region near the end of the 2nd century led the emperor Marcus Aurelius to order the construction of a 2.5 km (1.6 mi) circuit of walls with eight gates and 40 towers.[13] Volubilis was connected by road to Lixus and Tingis (capital city of the Roman province of Mauretania Tingitana, modern Tangier) but had no eastwards connections with the neighbouring province of Mauretania Caesariensis, as the territory of the Berber Baquates tribe lay in between.[13] A Jewish community existed in Volubilis in the third century, as evident from several Hebrew, Greek and Latin funeral inscriptions and Menorah-shaped lamps. It is the most south-western location where ancient Hebrew inscription has been found.[18] Mosaics in Volubilis Rome's control over the city ended following the chaos of the Crisis of the Third Century, when the empire nearly disintegrated as a series of generals seized and lost power through civil wars, palace coups and assassinations. Around 280, Roman rule collapsed in much of Mauretania and was never re-established. In 285, the emperor Diocletian reorganised what was left of the province to retain only the coastal strip between Lixus, Tingis and Septa (modern Ceuta). Although a Roman army was based in Tingis, it was decided that it would simply be too expensive to mount a reconquest of a vulnerable border region.[13] Occupation of the city continued, however, as fine mosaics such as that of a chariot race conducted by animals in the House of Venus can not have been created earlier than the fourth century. The end of the Roman city probably came in the form of an earthquake towards the end of the century, which buried numerous bronze statues in the wreckage of the houses.[19] After the Romans[edit] Volubilis continued to be inhabited for centuries after the end of Roman control. It was certainly reoccupied by the Eastern Roman Empire in the sixth and seventh century, when three Christian inscriptions are dated by the provincial year.[20] By the time the Arabs had arrived in 708,[12] the city's name was changed to Oualila or Walīlī, and it was inhabited by the Awraba, a Berber tribe that originated in Libya. Much of the city centre had been abandoned and was turned into a cemetery, while the centre of habitation had moved to the southwest of the city, where a new wall was built to contain the abridged Roman town. [21] Volubilis remained the capital of the region well into the Islamic period. Islamic coins dating to the 8th century have been found on the site, attesting to the arrival of Islam in this part of Morocco.[16] They are concentrated outside the city walls, which suggests that Arab settlement remained distinct from the Berber settlement inside them. It was here that Moulay Idriss established the Idrisid dynasty of Morocco in 787-8. A direct descendant of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad, he escaped to Morocco from Syria following the Battle of Fakhkh in 787. He was proclaimed "imam" in Volubilis, occupied by the Awraba, under Ishaq ibn Mohammad. He married Kanza, from the Awraba, and fathered a son, Idris II, who was proclaimed imam in Volubilis. He, too, lived outside the walls of the city, along the banks of the Wadi Khoumane, where a complex has recently been excavated that may be identified with his headquarters.[22] Idriss I conquered most of Northern Morocco during the three years of his reign, founding the city of Fes. He was assassinated in Volubilis in 791 on the orders of the caliph of Baghdad, Harun al-Rashid.[23][16] On his majority Idriss II removed to Fes which served as his new capital, depriving Volubilis of its last vestiges of political significance.[23] Panoramic view of Volubilis, looking west. The old Phoenician core of the city is on the left, the Basilica and Capitoline Temple are visible in the centre, while the Arch of Caracalla can be seen on the right behind the Roman extension to the city. A Muslim group known as the Rabedis, who had revolted in Córdoba in Al-Andalus (Andalusia in modern Spain), resettled at Volubilis in 818.[16] Although people continued to live in Volubilis for several more centuries, it was probably almost deserted by the 14th century. Leo Africanus describes its walls and gates, as well as the tomb of Idris, guarded only by two or three castles.[24] His body was subsequently removed to Moulay Idriss Zerhoun, 3 km (1.9 mi), where a great mausoleum was built for it. The name of the city was forgotten and it was termed Ksar Faraoun, or the "Pharaoh's Castle", by the local people, alluding to a legend that the ancient Egyptians had built it.[25] Nonetheless some of its buildings remained standing, albeit ruined, until as late as the 17th century when Moulay Ismail ransacked the site to provide building material for his new imperial capital at Meknes. The 1755 Lisbon earthquake caused further severe destruction. However, English antiquarian John Windus had sketched the site in 1722.[23] In his 1725 book A Journey to Mequinez, Windus described the scene: One building seems to be part of a triumphal arch, there being several broken stones that bear inscriptions, lying in the rubbish underneath, which were fixed higher than any part now standing. It is 56 feet long and 15 thick, both sides exactly alike, built with very hard stones, about a yard in length and half a yard thick. The arch is 20 feet wide and about 26 high. The inscriptions are upon large flat stones, which, when entire, were about five feet long, and three broad, and the letters on them above 6 inches long. A bust lay a little way off, very much defaced, and was the only thing to be found that represented life, except the shape of a foot seen under the lower part of a garment, in the niche on the other side of the arch. About 100 yards from the arch stands a good part of the front of a large square building, which is 140 feet long and about 60 high; part of the four corners are yet standing, but very little remains, except these of the front. Round the hill may be seen the foundation of a wall about two miles in circumference, which inclosed these buildings; on the inside of which lie scattered, all over, a great many stones of the same size the arch is built with, but hardly one stone left upon another. The arch, which stood about half a mile from the other buildings, seemed to have been a gateway, and was just high enough to admit a man to pass through on horseback.[26] Visiting 95 years later in 1820, after the Lisbon earthquake had flattened the few buildings left standing, James Gray Jackson wrote: Half an hour's journey after leaving the sanctuary of Muley Dris Zerone, and at the foot of Atlas, I perceived to the left of the road, magnificent and massive ruins. The country, for miles round, is covered with broken columns of white marble. There were still standing two porticoes about 30 feet high and 12 wide, the top composed of one entire stone. I attempted to take a view of these immense ruins, which have furnished marble for the imperial palaces at Mequinas and Tafilelt; but I was obliged to desist, seeing some persons of the sanctuary following the cavalcade. Pots and kettles of gold and silver coins are continually dug up from these ruins. The country, however, abounds with serpents, and we saw many scorpions under the stones that my conductor turned up. These ruins are said by the Africans to have been built by one of the Pharaohs: they are called Kasser Farawan.[27] Volubilis before its excavation and restoration The ruins of the triumphal arch, photographed in 1887 by Henri Poisson de La Martinière Remnants of the basilica as seen in 1887 before its later restoration Walter Burton Harris, a writer for The Times, visited Volubilis during his travels in Morocco between 1887–89, after the site had been identified by French archaeologists but before any serious excavations or restorations had begun. He wrote: There is not very much remains standing of the ruins; two archways, each of great size, and in moderately good preservation, alone tell of the grandeur of the old city, while acres and acres of land are strewn with monuments and broken sculpture. A few isolated pillars also remain, and an immense drain or aqueduct, not unlike the Cloaca Maxima at Rome, opens on to the little river below.[28] Excavation, restoration and UNESCO listing[edit] Edge of the excavated area at Volubilis. A stretch of Decauville track used to carry spoil away is still visible. Much of Volubilis was excavated by the French during their rule over French Morocco between 1912 and 1955, but the excavations at the site began decades earlier. From 1830, when the French conquest of Algeria began the process of extending French rule over much of northern, western and central Africa, archaeology was closely associated with French colonialism. The French army undertook scientific explorations as early as the 1830s and by the 1850s it was fashionable for French army officers to investigate Roman remains during their leave and spare time. By the late 19th century French archaeologists were undertaking an intensive effort to uncover north-west Africa's pre-Islamic past through excavations and restorations of archaeological sites.[29] The French had a very different conception of historic preservation to that of the Moroccan Muslims. As the historian Gwendolyn Wright puts it, "the Islamic sense of history and architecture found the concept of setting off monuments entirely foreign", which "gave the French proof of the conviction that only they could fully appreciate the Moroccan past and its beauty." Emile Pauty of the Institut des Hautes Études Marocaines criticised the Muslims for taking the view that "the passage of time is nothing" and charged them with "let[ting] their monuments fall into ruin with as much indifference as they once showed ardour in building them."[30] The French programme of excavation at Volubilis and other sites in French-controlled North Africa (in Algeria and Tunisia) had a strong ideological component. Archaeology at Roman sites was used as an instrument of colonialist policy, to make a connection between the ancient Roman past and the new "Latin" societies that the French were building in North Africa. The programme involved clearing modern structures built on ancient sites, excavating Roman towns and villas and reconstructing major civic structures such as triumphal arches. Ruined cities, such as Timgad in Algeria, were excavated and cleared on a massive scale. The remains were intended to serve, as one writer has put it, as "the witness to an impulse towards Romanization".[31] This theme resonated with other visitors to the site. The American writer Edith Wharton visited in 1920 and highlighted what she saw as the contrast between "two dominations look[ing] at each other across the valley", the ruins of Volubilis and "the conical white town of Moulay Idriss, the Sacred City of Morocco". She saw the dead city as representing "a system, an order, a social conception that still runs through all our modern ways." In contrast, she saw the still very much alive town of Moulay Idriss as "more dead and sucked back into an unintelligible past than any broken architrave of Greece or Rome."[32] As Sarah Bird Wright of the University of Richmond puts it, Wharton saw Volubilis as a symbol of civilisation and Moulay Idriss as one of barbarism; the subtext is that "in ransacking the Roman outpost, Islam destroyed its only chance to build a civilised society".[33] Fortunately for Morocco, "the political stability which France is helping them to acquire will at last give their higher qualities time for fruition"[34]—very much the theme that the French colonial authorities wanted to get across.[35] Hilaire Belloc, too, spoke of his impression being "rather one of history and of contrast. Here you see how completely the new religion of Islam flooded and drowned the classical and Christian tradition."[36] The first excavations at Volubilis were carried out by the French archaeologist Henri de la Martinière between 1887 and 1892.[37] In 1915 Hubert Lyautey, the military governor of French Morocco, commissioned the French archaeologists Marcel and Jane Dieulafoy to carry out excavations in Volubilis. Although Jane's ill-health meant that they were unable to carry out the programme of work that they drew up for Lyautey,[38] the work went ahead anyway under Louis Chatelain.[37] The French archaeologists were assisted by thousands of German prisoners of war who had been captured during First World War and loaned to the excavators by Lyautey.[29] The excavations continued on and off until 1941, when the Second World War forced a halt.[37] Following the war, excavations resumed under the French and Moroccan authorities (following Morocco's independence in 1955) and a programme of restoration and reconstruction began. The Arch of Caracalla had already been restored in 1930–34. It was followed by the Capitoline Temple in 1962, the basilica in 1965–67 and the Tingis Gate in 1967. A number of mosaics and houses underwent conservation and restoration in 1952–55. In recent years, one of the olive-oil production workshops in the southern end of the city has been restored and furnished with a replica Roman oil press.[39] These restorations have not been without controversy; a review carried out for UNESCO in 1997 reported that "some of the reconstructions, such as those on the triumphal arch, the capitolium, and the oil-pressing workshop, are radical and at the limit of currently accepted practice."[39] From 2000 excavations carried out by University College London and the Moroccan Institut National des Sciences de l'Archéologie et du Patrimoine under the direction of Elizabeth Fentress, Gaetano Palumbo and Hassan Limane revealed what should probably be interpreted as the headquarters of Idris I just below the walls of the Roman town to the west of the ancient city centre. Excavations within the walls also revealed a section of the early medieval town.[40] Today, many artefacts found at Volubilis can be seen on display in the Rabat Archaeological Museum. UNESCO listed Volubilis as a World Heritage Site in 1997. In the 1980s, the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) organised three conferences to assess possible nominations to the World Heritage List for sites in North Africa. It was unanimously agreed that Volubilis was a good candidate for the list and in 1997 ICOMOS recommended that it be inscribed as "an exceptionally well preserved example of a large Roman colonial town on the fringes of the Empire",[41] which UNESCO accepted. City layout and infrastructure[edit] Prior to the Roman occupation, Volubilis covered an area of about 12 hectares (30 acres), built on a V-shaped ridge between the Fertassa and Khoumane wadis on a roughly north-south axis. It was developed on a fairly regular pattern typical of Phoenician/Carthaginian settlements and was enclosed by a set of walls.[42] Under the Romans, the city was expanded considerably on a northeast-southwest axis, increasing in size to about 42 hectares (100 acres). Most of the city's public buildings were constructed in the older part of the city. The grand houses for which Volubilis is famous are in the newer part, behind the Decumanus Maximus (main street), which bisected the Roman-era part of the city.[37] The decumanus was paved, with footways on either side, and was lined with arcaded porticoes on either sides, behind which were dozens of shops.[43] The Arch of Caracalla marks the point at which the old and new cities merge. After the aqueduct fell into disrepair with the end of the Roman occupation, a new residential area was constructed to the west near the Wadi Khoumane.[42] The city was supplied with water by an aqueduct that ran from a spring in the hills behind the city.[44] The aqueduct may have been constructed around 60–80 AD and was subsequently reconstructed on several occasions.[45] An elaborate network of channels fed houses and the public baths from the municipal supply and a series of drains carried sewage and waste away to the river to be flushed.[44] The aqueduct ran under the Decumanus Secundus, a street that ran parallel with the Decumanus Maximus, and terminated at a large fountain in the city centre near the Arch of Caracalla.[9] Infrastructure in Volubilis The Decumanus Maximus, looking north-east The Tingis Gate, looking back down the Decumanus Maximus Interior of the North Baths, fed by the aqueduct Basilica and Capitoline Temple Most of the original pre-Roman city wall was built over or destroyed, but a 77-metre (250 ft) stretch of the original wall, which was made of mud bricks on a stone foundation, can still be seen near the tumulus.[16][45] The Roman city walls stretch for 2.6 km (1.6 mi) and average 1.6 m (5.2 ft) thick. Built of rubble masonry and ashlar, they are mostly still extant.[37][45] The full circuit of walls had 34 towers, spaced at intervals of about one every 50 metres (160 ft), and six main gates that were flanked by towers.[43] A part of the eastern wall has been reconstructed to a height of 1.5 metres (4.9 ft).[37] The Tingis Gate, also reconstructed, marks the northern-eastern entrance to Volubilis.[42] It was constructed in 168/169 AD – the date is known due to the discovery of a coin of that year that was deliberately embedded in the gate's stonework by its builders.[43] An early medieval wall stands to the west of the Arch of Caracalla; it was built after the end of the Roman occupation, apparently some time in the 5th or 6th centuries, to protect the eastern side of the city's new residential area. It was oriented in a north-south direction and was constructed using stone looted from ruined buildings elsewhere in the abandoned areas of the city.[13][45] Commerce[edit] A reconstructed Roman olive press in Volubilis During Roman times, Volubilis was a major producer of olive oil. The remains of buildings dedicated to olive pressing are still readily visible, as are the remains of the original presses and olive mills. One such building has been reconstructed with a full-size replica of a Roman olive press.[46] Olive oil was central to the life of the city, as it was not just a foodstuff but was also used for lamps, bathing and medicines, while the pressed olives were fed to animals or dried out and used as fuel for the bathhouses. For this reason, even some of the grandest mansions had their own olive presses.[47] Fifty-eight oil-pressing complexes have so far been discovered in Volubilis. They housed a standard set of elements: a mill, used to crush the olives, a decantation basin to catch the oil from pressed olives, and a press that comprised a counterweight, a prelum or cross-bar and the wooden supports within which the prelum was fixed. The olives were first crushed into a paste, then put into woven baskets that were subjected to pressing. The olive oil ran out into the decantation basin, to which water was periodically added to make the lighter oil float to the surface. This was then scooped out of the basin and poured into amphorae.[45] There is also substantial evidence of the city being a lively commercial centre. No fewer than 121 shops have been identified so far, many of them bakeries,[48] and judging from the number of bronzes found at the site it may also have been a centre for the production or distribution of bronze artworks.[49] Notable buildings[edit] Plan of Volubilis, indicating some of the most notable buildings Although only about half of Volubilis has been excavated, a number of prominent public buildings are still visible and some, notably a basilica and a triumphal arch, have been reconstructed. Many private buildings, including the mansions of the city's elite, have also been uncovered. They are especially notable for the fine mosaics that have been discovered in a number of buildings and which are still in situ in the houses where they were laid.[12] The buildings were mostly made from locally quarried grey-blue limestone.[37] Very little remains of the original Punic settlement, as it lies under the later Roman buildings.[16] A large tumulus of uncertain origin and purpose stands approximately in the middle of the excavated area, between the old and new parts of the city. Various theories have been advanced to explain it, such as that it was a burial site, a religious structure of some kind, a funerary monument or a monument to a Roman victory. However, these remain unproven hypotheses.[16] Public buildings[edit] Two major public buildings are readily visible at the centre of the city – the basilica and the Capitoline Temple. The basilica was used for the administration of justice and the governance of the city. Completed during the reign of Macrinus in the early 3rd century, it is one of the finest Roman basilicas in Africa[50] and is probably modelled on the one at Leptis Magna in Libya.[51] The building is 42.2 m (138 ft) long by 22.3 m (73 ft) wide and originally had two storeys.[45] Its interior is dominated by two rows of columns framing the apses at each end of the building where the magistrates sat. The outer wall of the basilica, which is faced with columns, overlooks the forum where markets were held. Small temples and public offices also lined the 1,300 m2 (14,000 sq ft) forum,[50] which would have been full of statues of emperors and local dignitaries, of which only the pedestals now remain.[45] Not much is known about the public buildings which existed in Volubilis prior to the start of the 3rd century, as the buildings currently visible were built on the foundations of earlier structures.[52] The Capitoline Temple stands behind the basilica within what would originally have been an arcaded courtyard. An altar stands in the courtyard in front of 13 steps leading up to the Corinthian-columned temple,[50] which had a single cella.[45] The building was of great importance to civic life as it was dedicated to the three chief divinities of the Roman state, Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. Civic assemblies were held in front of the temple to beseech the aid of the gods or to thank them for successes in major civic undertakings such as fighting wars.[50] The layout of the temple, facing the back wall of the basilica, is somewhat unusual and it has been suggested that it may have been built on top of an existing shrine.[53] An inscription found in 1924 records that it was reconstructed in 218. It was partly restored in 1955 and given a more substantial restoration in 1962, reconstructing 10 of the 13 steps, the walls of the cella and the columns. There were four more small shrines within the temple precinct, one of which was dedicated to Venus.[45] There were five other temples in the city, of which the most notable is the so-called "Temple of Saturn" that stood on the eastern side of Volubilis.[45] It appears to have been built on top of, or converted from, an earlier Punic temple, which may have been dedicated to Baal.[54] It is a sanctuary with a surrounding wall and a three-sided portico. In its interior was a small temple with a cella built on a shallow podium.[45] The temple's traditional identification with Saturn is purely hypothetical and has not generally been accepted.[55] Public buildings in Volubilis Exterior of the Basilica at Volubilis Interior of the Basilica The Capitoline Temple Volubilis also possessed at least three sets of public baths. Some mosaics can still be seen in the Baths of Gallienus, redecorated by that emperor in the 260s to become the city's most lavish baths.[47] The nearby north baths were the largest in the city, covering an area of about 1,500 m2 (16,000 sq ft). They were possibly built in the time of Hadrian.[53] Triumphal arch[edit] The Arch of Caracalla is one of Volubilis' most distinctive sights, situated at the end of the city's main street, the Decumanus Maximus. Although it is not architecturally outstanding,[46] the triumphal arch forms a striking visual contrast with the smaller Tingis Gate at the far end of the decumanus. It was built in 217 by the city's governor, Marcus Aurelius Sebastenus, to honour the emperor Caracalla and his mother Julia Domna. Caracalla was himself a North African and had recently extended Roman citizenship to the inhabitants of Rome's provinces. However, by the time the arch was finished both Caracalla and Julia had been murdered by a usurper.[53] The arch is constructed from local stone and was originally topped by a bronze chariot pulled by six horses. Statues of nymphs poured water into carved marble basins at the foot of the arch. Caracalla and Julia Domna were represented on medallion busts, though these have been defaced. The monument was reconstructed by the French between 1930–34.[53] However, the restoration is incomplete and of disputed accuracy. The inscription on the top of the arch was reconstructed from the fragments noticed by Windus in 1722, which had been scattered on the ground in front of the arch.[45] The Arch of Caracalla at Volubilis North side of the Arch of Caracalla Dedicatory inscription South side of the Arch of Caracalla The inscription reads (after the abbreviations have been expanded): IMPERATORI CAESARI MARCO AVRELLIO ANTONINO PIO FELICI AVGVSTO PARTHICO MAXIMO BRITTANICO MAXIMO GERMANICO MAXIMO PONTIFICI MAXIMO TRIBVNITIA POTESTATE XX IMPERATORI IIII CONSVLI IIII PATRI PATRIAE PROCONSVLI ET IVLIAE AVGVSTAE PIAE FELICI MATRI AVGVSTI ET CASTRORVM ET SENATVS ET PATRIAE RESPVBLICA VOLVBILITANORVM OB SINGVLAREM EIVS ERGA VNIVERSOS ET NOVAM SVPRA OMNES RETRO PRINCIPES INDVLGENTIAM ARCVM CVM SEIVGIBVS ET ORNAMENTIS OMNIBVS INCOHANTE ET DEDICANTE MARCO AVRELLIO SEBASTENO PROCVRATORE AVGVSTI DEVOTISSIMO NVMINI EIVS A SOLO FACIENDVM CVRAVIT or, in translation: For the emperor Caesar, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus [Caracalla], the pious, fortunate Augustus, greatest victor in Parthia, greatest victor in Britain, greatest victor in Germany, Pontifex Maximus, holding tribunician power for the twentieth time, Emperor for the fourth time, Consul for the fourth time, Father of the Country, Proconsul, and for Julia Augusta [Julia Domna], the pious, fortunate mother of the camp and the Senate and the country, because of his exceptional and new kindness towards all, which is greater than that of the principes that came before, the Republic of the Volubilitans took care to have this arch made from the ground up, including a chariot drawn by six horses and all the ornaments, with Marcus Aurelius Sebastenus, procurator, who is most deeply devoted to the divinity of Augustus, initiating and dedicating it. Houses and palaces[edit] The houses found at Volubilis range from richly decorated mansions to simple two-room mud-brick structures used by the city's poorer inhabitants.[52] The city's considerable wealth is attested by the elaborate design of the houses of the wealthy, some of which have large mosaics still in situ. They have been named by archaeologists after their principal mosaics (or other finds): The House of Orpheus in the southern part of the city thus takes its name from the large Orpheus mosaic, showing the god playing his harp to an audience of trees, animals and birds.[47] As Paul MacKendrick puts it, the mosaic is rather artlessly executed, as the animals are all of different sizes and face in different directions with no relationship to Orpheus. It appears that the mosaicist simply copied patterns from a book without attempting to integrate the different elements.[43] The mosaic is situated in the triclinium, the dining room, where the diners would have reclined on couches set against the walls and admired the central mosaic. Other mosaics can be seen in the atrium, which has a depiction of Amphitrite in a chariot pulled by a seahorse and accompanied by other sea creatures, and in the bathing rooms. One room off the main courtyard has a mosaic of a dolphin, considered by the Romans to be a lucky animal.[47] The House of the Athlete or Desultor, located near the forum, contains a humorous mosaic of an athlete or acrobat riding a donkey back to front while holding a cup in his outstretched hand.[53] It may possibly represent Silenus.[56] The most prestigious houses in the city were situated adjoining the Decumanus Maximus, behind rows of shops that lined the street under an arcade. They were entered from side streets between the shops. The House of the Ephebe was named after a bronze statue found there. It has a prominent interior courtyard leading to a number of public rooms decorated with mosaics, including a depiction of Bacchus in a chariot being drawn by leopards. The House of the Knight next door also has a mosaic of Bacchus, this time shown coming across the sleeping Ariadne, who later bore him six children.[53] The house takes its name from a bronze statue of a rider found here in 1918 that is now on display in the archaeological museum in Rabat.[57] It was a large building, with an area of about 1,700 m2 (18,000 sq ft), and incorporated a substantial area dedicated to commercial activities including eight or nine shops opening onto the road and a large olive-pressing complex.[58] Mosaics in Volubilis Mosaic of Bacchus encountering the sleeping Ariadne from the House of the Ephebe Mosaic of the Four Seasons in situ in the House of the Labours of Hercules Archaeological Site of Volubilis, Morocco. Mosaic of Diana and her nymph surprised by Actaeon while bathing, from the House of Venus Volubilis, Morocco Mosaic (detail), Volubilis, Morocco Volubilis, Morocco The bronze bust of Cato the Younger, found in the House of Venus in 1918 The House of the Labours of Hercules is named for the mosaic depicting the twelve tasks that the demigod had to perform as penance for killing his wife and children. It is thought to have been created during the reign of the emperor Commodus, who identified himself with Hercules. Jupiter, his lover Ganymede and the four seasons are depicted in another mosaic in the house.[59] The house was of palatial size, with 41 rooms covering an area of 2,000 m2 (22,000 sq ft). A building dubbed the Gordian Palace is located further up the Decumanus Maximus. It was the largest building in the city and was probably the residence of the governor, rather than the emperor Gordian III; it was rebuilt during Gordian's reign in the mid-3rd century. It combined two separate houses to create a complex of 74 rooms with courtyards and private bathhouses serving both domestic and official functions.[60] It also incorporated a colonnaded front with a dozen shops behind the colonnade, and an oil factory consisting of three oil presses and an oil store in the north-east corner of the complex.[49] The decoration of the Gordian Palace is today quite plain with only a few scanty mosaics remaining.[60] Despite its presumed high status, the floors seem to have been mostly rendered with opus sectile rather than decorated with mosaics.[48] Inscriptions found in the palace testify to the city's decline and eventual fall. They record a series of treaties reached with the local Berber chieftains, increasing in number as the city became more vulnerable and the tribesmen pressed harder. By the time of the final treaty, just a few years before the fall of the city, the chieftains were being treated as virtual equals of Rome – an indication of how much Roman power in the area had declined.[60] The last two inscribed altars, from 277 and 280, refer to a foederata et diuturna pax (a "federated and lasting peace"), though this proved to be a forlorn hope, as Volubilis fell soon afterwards.[17] The House of Venus, towards the eastern side of the city under a prominent cypress tree, was one of the most luxurious residences in the city. It had a set of private baths and a richly decorated interior, with fine mosaics dating from the 2nd century AD showing animal and mythological scenes. There were mosaics in seven corridors and eight rooms.[48] The central courtyard has a fanciful mosaic depicting racing chariots in a hippodrome, drawn by teams of peacocks, geese and ducks. The mosaic of Venus for which the house is named has been removed to Tangier, but in the next-door room is a still-extant mosaic showing Diana and a companion nymph being surprised by Actaeon while bathing. Actaeon is depicted with horns beginning to sprout from his head as he is transformed by the angry goddess into a stag, before being chased down and killed by his own hunting dogs.[61] The house appears to have been destroyed some time after the city's fall around 280; a mosaic depicting Cupids feeding birds with grain has been charred by what appears to have been a fire burning directly on top of it, perhaps resulting from the building being taken over by squatters who used the mosaic as the site of a hearth.[49] The same building was also the site of the discovery in 1918 of a bronze bust of outstanding quality depicting Cato the Younger. One of the most notable artefacts discovered at Volubilis, it is now on display in the Archaeological Museum in Rabat. It was still on its original pedestal when it was found by archaeologists. The bust has been dated to the time of Nero or Vespasian and may be a copy of a bust created in Cato's lifetime or shortly thereafter. Its inscription identifies its subject as the orator.[48] Another outstanding bust, depicting a Hellenistic prince, was discovered in a bakery across the street. It seems to have been made at the same time as the Cato bust and may well have come from the House of Venus, where an empty pedestal in another room suggests that the Cato had a companion piece. The bust, which is also on display in Rabat, is usually identified as Juba II but other possibilities include Hiero II of Syracuse, Cleomenes III of Sparta, Juba I or Hannibal.[62] Headquarters of Idris I[edit] Just outside the walls of the city, on the floodplain of the Oued Khoumane, was found a series of interlocking courtyard buildings, of which the largest contained a hammam, or bath. This is an L-shaped structure, with a cold room paved with flagstones and benches running along the sides. At the end is found a plunge pool with three steps leading into it. From the cold room one moved to a vestibule at the corner of the building, decorated with a relief of a shield taken from the Arch of Caracalla. From there, one moved into the warm room, still covered by a vault, and finally into the hot room. The vault of this has now been restored, but it is possible to see the channels in the floor through which the hot air passed. Beyond this a furnace heated the room, as well as the hot water which would have flowed into basins in the corners. The courtyard of which this hammam formed the western limit was large, and contained numerous large silos for grain storage. To the south of this courtyard was one evidently designed for reception, with long narrow rooms to the east and west, one of which was painted red, with a low bench or divan at one end. Further south a third courtyard, only partially excavated, seems to have been devoted to domestic use. The plan, with its large courtyards and narrow rooms, is very different from the contemporary one or two-roomed structures inside the walls, probably inhabited by the Berbers of the Awraba tribe. It is dated by coins and pottery to the reign of Idris I, and has been identified as his headquarters.[22] Footnotes[edit] ^ https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/836 ^ "Archaeological Site of Volubilis". African World Heritage Fund. Archived from the original on 20 October 2013. Retrieved 21 October 2012. ^ a b "Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, A Latin Dictionary, vŏlūbĭlis". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2020-06-10. ^ Kreeft, Peter; Tacelli, Ronald K. (2009-09-20). Handbook of Christian Apologetics. InterVarsity Press. ISBN 978-0-8308-7544-3. ^ University, The Open (2015-08-07). Getting started on Classical Latin. The Open University. ISBN 978-1-4730-0108-4. ^ "وليلي أو قصر فرعون". زمان (in Arabic). 2014-11-14. Retrieved 2020-06-10. ^ a b Publishers, Nagel (1977). Morocco. Nagel Publishers. ISBN 978-2-8263-0164-6. ^ Carrasco 2000, p. 128. ^ a b c d Rogerson 2010, p. 236. ^ Parker 2010, p. 491. ^ Davies 2009, p. 141. ^ a b c Davies 2009, p. 41. ^ a b c d e f g Rogerson 2010, p. 237. ^ Romer 1998, p. 131. ^ Löhberg 2006, p. 66. ^ a b c d e f g h Volubilis Project – History. ^ a b MacKendrick 2000, p. 312. ^ Andreeva, Fedorchuk & Nosonovsky 2019. ^ Fentress & Limane 2010, p. 107. ^ Conant 2012, p. 294. ^ Akerraz 1985. ^ a b Fentress & Limane 2010, p. 103–122. ^ a b c Rogerson 2010, p. 238. ^ Leo Africanus trad. A. Épaulard, I, p. 245 ^ Windus 1725, p. 86. ^ Windus 1725, p. 86–9. ^ Shabeeny & Jackson 1820, p. 120–1. ^ Harris 1889, p. 69–70. ^ a b Raven 1993, p. xxxi. ^ Wright 1991, p. 117. ^ Dyson 2006, p. 173–4. ^ Wharton 1920, p. 45. ^ Wright 1997, p. 136. ^ Wharton 1920, p. 158. ^ Dean 2002, p. 39. ^ Parker 2010, p. 494. ^ a b c d e f g UNESCO September 1997, p. 73. ^ Gran-Aymerich 2006, p. 60. ^ a b UNESCO September 1997, p. 74. ^ Reports on these excavations, as well as a detailed plan of the site, can be found at http://www.sitedevolubilis.org. ^ UNESCO September 1997, p. 75. ^ a b c UNESCO September 1997, p. 72. ^ a b c d MacKendrick 2000, p. 304. ^ a b Raven 1993, p. 116. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Volubilis Project – Map. ^ a b Davies 2009, p. 42. ^ a b c d Rogerson 2010, p. 239. ^ a b c d MacKendrick 2000, p. 305. ^ a b c MacKendrick 2000, p. 311. ^ a b c d Rogerson 2010, p. 240. ^ Raven 1993, p. xxxiii. ^ a b Grimal 1984, p. 292. ^ a b c d e f Rogerson 2010, p. 241. ^ Rogerson 2010, p. 244. ^ Roller 2003, p. 153 fn. 181. ^ MacKendrick 2000, p. 303. ^ Davies 2009, p. 43. ^ Volubilis Project – House of the Cavalier. ^ Rogerson 2010, p. 242. ^ a b c Rogerson 2010, p. 243. ^ Rogerson 2010, pp. 243–4. ^ MacKendrick 2000, p. 310-11. Bibliography[edit] Akerraz, Aomar, ed. (1985). "Note sur l'enceinte tardive de Volubilis". Bulletin Archéologique du Comité des Travaux Historiques. pp. 429–436. Andreeva, Sofia; Fedorchuk, Artem; Nosonovsky, Michael (2019). "Revisiting Epigraphic Evidence of the Oldest Synagogue in Morocco in Volubilis". Arts. 8. p. 127. Carrasco, J. L. Escacena (2000). "Archaeological relationship between North Africa and Iberia". In Arnaiz-Villena, Antonio; Martínez-Laso, Jorge; Gómez-Casado, Eduardo (eds.). Prehistoric Iberia: Genetics, Anthropology, and Linguistics. New York: Springer. ISBN 0-306-46364-4. Conant, Jonathan (2012). Staying Roman: Conquest and Identity in Africa and the Mediterranean, 439–700. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-19697-0. Davies, Ethel (2009). North Africa: The Roman Coast. Chalfont St Peter, Bucks: Bradt Travel Guides. ISBN 978-1-84162-287-3. Dean, Sharon L. (2002). Constance Fenimore and Edith Wharton: Perspectives On Landscape and Art. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. ISBN 978-1-57233-194-5. Dyson, Stephen L. (2006). In Pursuit of Ancient Pasts. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-11097-5. Gran-Aymerich, Eve (2006). "Jane Dieulafoy". In Cohen, Getzel M.; Joukowsky, Martha Sharp (eds.). Breaking Ground: Pioneering Women Archaeologists. London: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-03174-0. Fentress, Elizabeth; Limane, Hassan (2010). "Excavations in Medieval Settlements in Volubilis 2000-2004". Quadernos de Madinat Zahra (7p). Fentress, Elizabeth; Limane, Hassan (2018). Volubilis après Rome. Fouilles 2000-2004. Brill. Grimal, Pierre (1984) [1954]. Roman Cities [Les villes romaines]. Translated by G. Michael Woloch. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-08934-4. Harris, Walter (1889). The Land of an African Sultan: Travels in Morocco. London: S. Low. OCLC 249376810. Löhberg, Bernd (2006). Das "Itinerarium provinciarum Antonini Augusti": Ein kaiserzeitliches Strassenverzeichnis des Römischen Reiches. Berlin: Frank & Timme GmbH. ISBN 978-3-86596-085-6. MacKendrick, Paul Lachlan (2000). The North African Stones Speak. Chapel Hill, NC: UNC Press Books. ISBN 978-0-8078-4942-2. Parker, Philip (2010). The Empire Stops Here: A Journey along the Frontiers of the Roman World. London: Random House. ISBN 978-0-224-07788-0. Raven, Susan (1993). Rome in Africa. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-08150-4. Rogerson, Barnaby (2010). Marrakesh, Fez and Rabat. London: Cadogan Guides. ISBN 978-1-86011-432-8. Roller, Duane W. (2003). The World of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene. New York: Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30596-9. Romer, Frank E. (1998). Pomponius Mela's Description of the World. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-08452-4. Shabeeny, El Hage abd Salam; Jackson, James Grey (1820). An account of Timbuctoo and Housa. London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme and Brown. OCLC 165576157. "UNESCO Advisory Body Evaluation" (PDF). UNESCO. September 1997. Retrieved 28 October 2012. Windus, John (1725). A journey to Mequinez, the residence of the present emperor of Fez and Morocco. London: Jacob Tonson. OCLC 64409967. Wharton, Edith (1920). In Morocco. New York: C. Scribner's Sons. OCLC 359173. Wright, Gwendolyn (1991). The Politics of Design in French Colonial Urbanism. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-90848-9. Wright, Sarah Bird (1997). Edith Wharton's Travel Writing: The Making of a Connoisseur. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-15842-2. "The History of Volubilis". Volubilis Project. 25 September 2003. Archived from the original on April 24, 2012. Retrieved 29 October 2012. "The House of the Cavalier". Volubilis Project. Archived from the original on November 20, 2008. Retrieved 1 November 2012. "Map of Volubilis". Volubilis Project. Archived from the original on February 21, 2011. Retrieved 29 October 2012. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Volubilis. 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en-wikipedia-org-70	----	Republic - Wikipedia Republic From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on 28 December 2020. Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the form of government. For the political ideology, see Republicanism. For other uses, see Republic (disambiguation). Form of government where the head of state is elected Part of the Politics series Basic forms of government Power source Democracy (rule by many) Demarchy Direct Liberal Representative Social Socialist Others Oligarchy (rule by few) Anocracy Aristocracy Ergatocracy Gerontocracy Kleptocracy Kritarchy Noocracy Particracy Plutocracy Stratocracy Technocracy Autocracy (rule by one) Despotism Dictatorship Military dictatorship Tyranny Anarchism (rule by none) Anarchy Free association Stateless Power ideology Monarchy vs. republic (socio-political ideologies) Absolute Constitutional Confucianist Directorial Legalist Parliamentary Presidential Semi-presidential Socialist Authoritarian vs. libertarian (socio-economic ideologies) Anarchism Colonialism Communism Despotism Distributism Feudalism Socialism Totalitarianism Tribalism Global vs. local (geo-cultural ideologies) Commune City-state Intergovernmental organisation National government World government Nationalism Internationalism Globalism Power structure Unitary Unitary state Empire Principality Client state Associated state Dependent territory Dominion Protectorate Puppet state Puppet monarch Satellite state Self-governing colony Tributary state Vassal state Federalism Confederation Devolution Federation Superstate Supranational union International relations Small power Regional power Middle power Great power Superpower Politics portal v t e Systems of government Republican forms of government:   Presidential republics with an executive presidency separate from the legislature   Semi-presidential system with both an executive presidency and a separate head of government that leads the rest of the executive, who is appointed by the president and accountable to the legislature   Parliamentary republics with a ceremonial and non-executive president, where a separate head of government leads the executive and is dependent on the confidence of the legislature   Republics in which a combined head of state and government is elected by, or nominated by, the legislature and may or may not be subject to parliamentary confidence Monarchical forms of government:   Constitutional monarchies with a ceremonial and non-executive monarch, where a separate head of government leads the executive   Semi-constitutional monarchies with a ceremonial monarch, but where royalty still hold significant executive or legislative power   Absolute monarchies where the monarch leads the executive   One-party states (in principle republics)   Military governments   Countries which do not fit any of the above systems (e.g. transitional government or unclear political situations) A republic (Latin: res publica, meaning "public affair") is a form of government in which the country is considered a "public matter", not the private concern or property of the rulers. The primary positions of power within a republic are attained through democracy or a mix of democracy with oligarchy or autocracy rather than being unalterably occupied by any given family lineage or group. It has become the opposing form of government to a monarchy and therefore has no monarch as head of state.[1][2][3] As of 2017[update], 159 of the world's 206 sovereign states use the word "republic" as part of their official names – not all of these are republics in the sense of having elected governments, nor is the word "republic" used in the names of all nations with elected governments. The word republic comes from the Latin term res publica, which literally means "public thing", "public matter", or "public affair" and was used to refer to the state as a whole. The term developed its modern meaning in reference to the constitution of the ancient Roman Republic, lasting from the overthrow of the kings in 509 BC to the establishment of the Empire in 27 BC. This constitution was characterized by a Senate composed of wealthy aristocrats wielding significant influence; several popular assemblies of all free citizens, possessing the power to elect magistrates and pass laws; and a series of magistracies with varying types of civil and political authority. Most often a republic is a single sovereign state, but there are also sub-sovereign state entities that are referred to as republics, or that have governments that are described as "republican" in nature. For instance, Article IV of the United States Constitution "guarantee[s] to every State in this Union a Republican form of Government".[4] Another example is the Soviet Union which described itself as being a group of "Soviet Socialist Republics", in reference to the 15 individually federal, multinational, top-level subdivisions or republics. Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Classical republics 2.2 Other ancient republics 2.3 Indian subcontinent 2.4 Icelandic Commonwealth 2.5 Mercantile republics 2.5.1 Mercantile republics outside Europe 2.6 Calvinist republics 2.7 Liberal republics 2.8 Decolonization 2.9 Socialist republics 2.10 Islamic republics 3 Head of state 3.1 Structure 3.2 Elections 3.3 Ambiguities 3.4 Sub-national republics 4 Other meanings 4.1 Political philosophy 4.2 United States 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Etymology[edit] See also: Res publica The term originates from the Latin translation of Greek word politeia. Cicero, among other Latin writers, translated politeia as res publica and it was in turn translated by Renaissance scholars as "republic" (or similar terms in various western European languages).[5] The term politeia can be translated as form of government, polity, or regime and is therefore not always a word for a specific type of regime as the modern word republic is. One of Plato's major works on political science was titled Politeia and in English it is thus known as The Republic. However, apart from the title, in modern translations of The Republic, alternative translations of politeia are also used.[6] However, in Book III of his Politics, Aristotle was apparently the first classical writer to state that the term politeia can be used to refer more specifically to one type of politeia: "When the citizens at large govern for the public good, it is called by the name common to all governments (to koinon onoma pasōn tōn politeiōn), government (politeia)". Also amongst classical Latin, the term "republic" can be used in a general way to refer to any regime, or in a specific way to refer to governments which work for the public good.[7] In medieval Northern Italy, a number of city states had commune or signoria based governments. In the late Middle Ages, writers such as Giovanni Villani began writing about the nature of these states and the differences from other types of regime. They used terms such as libertas populi, a free people, to describe the states. The terminology changed in the 15th century as the renewed interest in the writings of Ancient Rome caused writers to prefer using classical terminology. To describe non-monarchical states writers, most importantly Leonardo Bruni, adopted the Latin phrase res publica.[8] While Bruni and Machiavelli used the term to describe the states of Northern Italy, which were not monarchies, the term res publica has a set of interrelated meanings in the original Latin. The term can quite literally be translated as "public matter".[9] It was most often used by Roman writers to refer to the state and government, even during the period of the Roman Empire.[10] In subsequent centuries, the English word "commonwealth" came to be used as a translation of res publica, and its use in English was comparable to how the Romans used the term res publica.[11] Notably, during The Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell the word commonwealth was the most common term to call the new monarchless state, but the word republic was also in common use.[12] Likewise, in Polish the term was translated as rzeczpospolita, although the translation is now only used with respect to Poland. Presently, the term "republic" commonly means a system of government which derives its power from the people rather than from another basis, such as heredity or divine right.[13] History[edit] While the philosophical terminology developed in classical Greece and Rome, as already noted by Aristotle there was already a long history of city states with a wide variety of constitutions, not only in Greece but also in the Middle East. After the classical period, during the Middle Ages, many free cities developed again, such as Venice. Classical republics[edit] Main article: Classical republic A map of the Roman Republic The modern type of "republic" itself is different from any type of state found in the classical world.[14][15] Nevertheless, there are a number of states of the classical era that are today still called republics. This includes ancient Athens and the Roman Republic. While the structure and governance of these states was different from that of any modern republic, there is debate about the extent to which classical, medieval, and modern republics form a historical continuum. J. G. A. Pocock has argued that a distinct republican tradition stretches from the classical world to the present.[9][16] Other scholars disagree.[9] Paul Rahe, for instance, argues that the classical republics had a form of government with few links to those in any modern country.[17] The political philosophy of the classical republics has in any case had an influence on republican thought throughout the subsequent centuries. Philosophers and politicians advocating republics, such as Machiavelli, Montesquieu, Adams, and Madison, relied heavily on classical Greek and Roman sources which described various types of regimes. Aristotle's Politics discusses various forms of government. One form Aristotle named politeia, which consisted of a mixture of the other forms. He argued that this was one of the ideal forms of government. Polybius expanded on many of these ideas, again focusing on the idea of mixed government. The most important Roman work in this tradition is Cicero's De re publica. Over time, the classical republics were either conquered by empires or became ones themselves. Most of the Greek republics were annexed to the Macedonian Empire of Alexander. The Roman Republic expanded dramatically conquering the other states of the Mediterranean that could be considered republics, such as Carthage. The Roman Republic itself then became the Roman Empire. Other ancient republics[edit] The term "republic" is not commonly used to refer to pre-classical city-states, especially if outside Europe and the area which was under Graeco-Roman influence.[9] However some early states outside Europe had governments that are sometimes today considered similar to republics. In the ancient Near East, a number of cities of the Eastern Mediterranean achieved collective rule. Arwad has been cited as one of the earliest known examples of a republic, in which the people, rather than a monarch, are described as sovereign.[18][unreliable source?] The Israelite confederation of the era of the Judges[19] before the United Monarchy has also been considered a type of republic.[9][20][21] In Africa the Axum Empire was organized as a confederation ruled similarly to a royal republic.[22] Similarly the Igbo nation in what is now Nigeria.[23] Indian subcontinent[edit] Main article: Gaṇa sangha Early republican institutions comes from the independent Gaṇa sanghas - gana means "tribe" and sangha means "assembly" - which may have existed as early as the 6th century BC and persisted in some areas until the 4th century in India. The evidence for this is scattered, however, and no pure historical source exists for that period. Diodorus, a Greek historian who wrote two centuries after the time of Alexander the Great's invasion of India (now Pakistan and northwest India) mentions, without offering any detail, that independent and democratic states existed in India.[24] Modern scholars note the word democracy at the time of the 3rd century BC and later suffered from degradation and could mean any autonomous state, no matter how oligarchic in nature.[25][26] The Mahajanapadas were the sixteen most powerful and vast kingdoms and republics of the era, there were also a number of smaller kingdoms stretching the length and breadth of Ancient India. Among the Mahajanapadas and smaller states, the Shakyas, Koliyas, Mallas, and Licchavis followed republican government. Key characteristics of the gana seem to include a monarch, usually known by the name raja, and a deliberative assembly. The assembly met regularly. It discussed all major state decisions. At least in some states, attendance was open to all free men. This body also had full financial, administrative, and judicial authority. Other officers, who rarely receive any mention, obeyed the decisions of the assembly. Elected by the gana, the monarch apparently always belonged to a family of the noble class of Kshatriya Varna. The monarch coordinated his activities with the assembly; in some states, he did so with a council of other nobles.[27] The Licchavis had a primary governing body of 7,077 rajas, the heads of the most important families. On the other hand, the Shakyas, Koliyas, Mallas, and Licchavis, during the period around Gautama Buddha, had the assembly open to all men, rich and poor.[28] Early "republics" or gaṇa sangha,[29] such as Mallas, centered in the city of Kusinagara, and the Vajji (or Vriji) confederation, centered in the city of Vaishali, existed as early as the 6th century BC and persisted in some areas until the 4th century AD.[30] The most famous clan amongst the ruling confederate clans of the Vajji Mahajanapada were the Licchavis.[31] The Magadha kingdom included republican communities such as the community of Rajakumara. Villages had their own assemblies under their local chiefs called Gramakas. Their administrations were divided into executive, judicial, and military functions. Scholars differ over how best to describe these governments, and the vague, sporadic quality of the evidence allows for wide disagreements. Some emphasize the central role of the assemblies and thus tout them as democracies; other scholars focus on the upper-class domination of the leadership and possible control of the assembly and see an oligarchy or an aristocracy.[32][33] Despite the assembly's obvious power, it has not yet been established whether the composition and participation were truly popular. This is reflected in the Arthashastra, an ancient handbook for monarchs on how to rule efficiently. It contains a chapter on how to deal with the sanghas, which includes injunctions on manipulating the noble leaders, yet it does not mention how to influence the mass of the citizens, indicating that the "Gaṇa sanghas" are more of an aristocratic rule, or oligarchic republic, than "democracy".[34] Icelandic Commonwealth[edit] The Icelandic Commonwealth was established in AD 930 by refugees from Norway who had fled the unification of that country under King Harald Fairhair. The Commonwealth consisted of a number of clans run by chieftains, and the Althing was a combination of parliament and supreme court where disputes appealed from lower courts were settled, laws were decided, and decisions of national importance were taken. One such example was the Christianisation of Iceland in 1000, where the Althing decreed, in order to prevent an invasion, that all Icelanders must be baptized, and forbade celebration of pagan rituals. Contrary to most states, the Icelandic Commonwealth had no official leader. In the early 13th century, the Age of the Sturlungs, the Commonwealth began to suffer from long conflicts between warring clans. This, combined with pressure from the Norwegian king Haakon IV for the Icelanders to rejoin the Norwegian "family", led the Icelandic chieftains to accept Haakon IV as king by the signing of the Gamli sáttmáli ("Old Covenant") in 1262. This effectively brought the Commonwealth to an end. The Althing, however, is still Iceland's parliament, almost 800 years later.[35] Mercantile republics[edit] Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, Neptune offers the wealth of the sea to Venice, 1748–1750. This painting is an allegory of the power of the Republic of Venice. In Europe new republics appeared in the late Middle Ages when a number of small states embraced republican systems of government. These were generally small, but wealthy, trading states, like the Italian city-states and the Hanseatic League, in which the merchant class had risen to prominence. Knud Haakonssen has noted that, by the Renaissance, Europe was divided with those states controlled by a landed elite being monarchies and those controlled by a commercial elite being republics.[11] Across Europe a wealthy merchant class developed in the important trading cities. Despite their wealth they had little power in the feudal system dominated by the rural land owners, and across Europe began to advocate for their own privileges and powers. The more centralized states, such as France and England, granted limited city charters. Beginning of the Republic of Metz. Election of the first Head-Alderman in 1289, by Auguste Migette. Metz was then a free imperial city of the Holy Roman Emperor. In the more loosely governed Holy Roman Empire, 51 of the largest towns became free imperial cities. While still under the dominion of the Holy Roman Emperor most power was held locally and many adopted republican forms of government.[36] The same rights to imperial immediacy were secured by the major trading cities of Switzerland. The towns and villages of alpine Switzerland had, courtesy of geography, also been largely excluded from central control. Unlike Italy and Germany, much of the rural area was thus not controlled by feudal barons, but by independent farmers who also used communal forms of government. When the Habsburgs tried to reassert control over the region both rural farmers and town merchants joined the rebellion. The Swiss were victorious, and the Swiss Confederacy was proclaimed, and Switzerland has retained a republican form of government to the present.[21] Italy was the most densely populated area of Europe, and also one with the weakest central government. Many of the towns thus gained considerable independence and adopted commune forms of government. Completely free of feudal control, the Italian city-states expanded, gaining control of the rural hinterland.[36] The two most powerful were the Republic of Venice and its rival the Republic of Genoa. Each were large trading ports, and further expanded by using naval power to control large parts of the Mediterranean. It was in Italy that an ideology advocating for republics first developed. Writers such as Bartholomew of Lucca, Brunetto Latini, Marsilius of Padua, and Leonardo Bruni saw the medieval city-states as heirs to the legacy of Greece and Rome. Two Russian cities with a powerful merchant class—Novgorod and Pskov—also adopted republican forms of government in 12th and 13th centuries, respectively, which ended when the republics were conquered by Muscovy/Russia at the end of 15th – beginning of 16th century.[37] The dominant form of government for these early republics was control by a limited council of elite patricians. In those areas that held elections, property qualifications or guild membership limited both who could vote and who could run. In many states no direct elections were held and council members were hereditary or appointed by the existing council. This left the great majority of the population without political power, and riots and revolts by the lower classes were common. The late Middle Ages saw more than 200 such risings in the towns of the Holy Roman Empire.[38] Similar revolts occurred in Italy, notably the Ciompi Revolt in Florence. Mercantile republics outside Europe[edit] Following the collapse of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum and establishment of the Turkish Anatolian Beyliks, the Ahiler merchant fraternities established a state centered on Ankara that is sometimes compared to the Italian mercantile republics. Calvinist republics[edit] See also: European wars of religion While the classical writers had been the primary ideological source for the republics of Italy, in Northern Europe, the Protestant Reformation would be used as justification for establishing new republics.[39] Most important was Calvinist theology, which developed in the Swiss Confederacy, one of the largest and most powerful of the medieval republics. John Calvin did not call for the abolition of monarchy, but he advanced the doctrine that the faithful had the duty to overthrow irreligious monarchs.[40] Advocacy for republics appeared in the writings of the Huguenots during the French Wars of Religion.[41] Calvinism played an important role in the republican revolts in England and the Netherlands. Like the city-states of Italy and the Hanseatic League, both were important trading centres, with a large merchant class prospering from the trade with the New World. Large parts of the population of both areas also embraced Calvinism. During the Dutch Revolt (beginning in 1566), the Dutch Republic emerged from rejection of Spanish Habsburg rule. However, the country did not adopt the republican form of government immediately: in the formal declaration of independence (Act of Abjuration, 1581), the throne of king Philip was only declared vacant, and the Dutch magistrates asked the Duke of Anjou, queen Elizabeth of England and prince William of Orange, one after another, to replace Philip. It took until 1588 before the Estates (the Staten, the representative assembly at the time) decided to vest the sovereignty of the country in themselves. In 1641 the English Civil War began. Spearheaded by the Puritans and funded by the merchants of London, the revolt was a success, and King Charles I was executed. In England James Harrington, Algernon Sidney, and John Milton became some of the first writers to argue for rejecting monarchy and embracing a republican form of government. The English Commonwealth was short lived, and the monarchy was soon restored. The Dutch Republic continued in name until 1795, but by the mid-18th century the stadtholder had become a de facto monarch. Calvinists were also some of the earliest settlers of the British and Dutch colonies of North America. Liberal republics[edit] Liberal republics in early modern Europe An allegory of the French Republic in Paris Septinsular Republic flag from the early 1800s A revolutionary Republican hand-written bill from the Stockholm riots during the Revolutions of 1848, reading: "Dethrone Oscar he is not fit to be a king: Long live the Republic! The Reform! down with the Royal house, long live Aftonbladet! death to the king / Republic Republic the People. Brunkeberg this evening". The writer's identity is unknown. Along with these initial republican revolts, early modern Europe also saw a great increase in monarchical power. The era of absolute monarchy replaced the limited and decentralized monarchies that had existed in most of the Middle Ages. It also saw a reaction against the total control of the monarch as a series of writers created the ideology known as liberalism. Most of these Enlightenment thinkers were far more interested in ideas of constitutional monarchy than in republics. The Cromwell regime had discredited republicanism, and most thinkers felt that republics ended in either anarchy or tyranny.[42] Thus philosophers like Voltaire opposed absolutism while at the same time being strongly pro-monarchy. Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Montesquieu praised republics, and looked on the city-states of Greece as a model. However, both also felt that a nation-state like France, with 20 million people, would be impossible to govern as a republic. Rousseau admired the republican experiment in Corsica (1755–1769) and described his ideal political structure of small, self-governing communes. Montesquieu felt that a city-state should ideally be a republic, but maintained that a limited monarchy was better suited to a large nation. The American Revolution began as a rejection only of the authority of the British Parliament over the colonies, not of the monarchy. The failure of the British monarch to protect the colonies from what they considered the infringement of their rights to representative government, the monarch's branding of those requesting redress as traitors, and his support for sending combat troops to demonstrate authority resulted in widespread perception of the British monarchy as tyrannical. With the United States Declaration of Independence the leaders of the revolt firmly rejected the monarchy and embraced republicanism. The leaders of the revolution were well versed in the writings of the French liberal thinkers, and also in history of the classical republics. John Adams had notably written a book on republics throughout history. In addition, the widely distributed and popularly read-aloud tract Common Sense, by Thomas Paine, succinctly and eloquently laid out the case for republican ideals and independence to the larger public. The Constitution of the United States, ratified in 1789, created a relatively strong federal republic to replace the relatively weak confederation under the first attempt at a national government with the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union ratified in 1781. The first ten amendments to the Constitution, called the United States Bill of Rights, guaranteed certain natural rights fundamental to republican ideals that justified the Revolution. The French Revolution was also not republican at its outset. Only after the Flight to Varennes removed most of the remaining sympathy for the king was a republic declared and Louis XVI sent to the guillotine. The stunning success of France in the French Revolutionary Wars saw republics spread by force of arms across much of Europe as a series of client republics were set up across the continent. The rise of Napoleon saw the end of the French First Republic and her Sister Republics, each replaced by "popular monarchies". Throughout the Napoleonic period, the victors extinguished many of the oldest republics on the continent, including the Republic of Venice, the Republic of Genoa, and the Dutch Republic. They were eventually transformed into monarchies or absorbed into neighbouring monarchies. Outside Europe another group of republics was created as the Napoleonic Wars allowed the states of Latin America to gain their independence. Liberal ideology had only a limited impact on these new republics. The main impetus was the local European descended Creole population in conflict with the Peninsulares—governors sent from overseas. The majority of the population in most of Latin America was of either African or Amerindian descent, and the Creole elite had little interest in giving these groups power and broad-based popular sovereignty. Simón Bolívar, both the main instigator of the revolts and one of its most important theorists, was sympathetic to liberal ideals but felt that Latin America lacked the social cohesion for such a system to function and advocated autocracy as necessary. In Mexico this autocracy briefly took the form of a monarchy in the First Mexican Empire. Due to the Peninsular War, the Portuguese court was relocated to Brazil in 1808. Brazil gained independence as a monarchy on September 7, 1822, and the Empire of Brazil lasted until 1889. In the other states various forms of autocratic republic existed until most were liberalized at the end of the 20th century.[43] European states in 1815[44]   Monarchies (55)   Republics (9) European states in 1914[45]   Monarchies (22)   Republics (4) European states in 1930[46]   Monarchies (20)   Republics (15) European states in 1950[47]   Monarchies (13)   Republics (21) European states in 2015[48]   Monarchies (12)   Republics (35) The French Second Republic was created in 1848, but abolished by Napoleon III who proclaimed himself Emperor in 1852. The French Third Republic was established in 1870, when a civil revolutionary committee refused to accept Napoleon III's surrender during the Franco-Prussian War. Spain briefly became the First Spanish Republic in 1873–74, but the monarchy was soon restored. By the start of the 20th century France, Switzerland and San Marino remained the only republics in Europe. This changed when, after the 1908 Lisbon Regicide, the 5 October 1910 revolution established the Portuguese Republic. A 1920s poster that commemorates the permanent President of the Republic of China Yuan Shikai and the provisional President of the Republic Sun Yat-sen In East Asia, China had seen considerable anti-Qing sentiment during the 19th century, and a number of protest movements developed calling for constitutional monarchy. The most important leader of these efforts was Sun Yat-sen, whose Three Principles of the People combined American, European, and Chinese ideas. Under his leadership the Republic of China was proclaimed on January 1, 1912. Republicanism expanded significantly in the aftermath of World War I, when several of the largest European empires collapsed: the Russian Empire (1917), German Empire (1918), Austro-Hungarian Empire (1918), and Ottoman Empire (1922) were all replaced by republics. New states gained independence during this turmoil, and many of these, such as Ireland, Poland, Finland and Czechoslovakia, chose republican forms of government. Following Greece's defeat in the Greco-Turkish War (1919–22), the monarchy was briefly replaced by the Second Hellenic Republic (1924–35). In 1931, the proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic (1931–39) resulted in the Spanish Civil War that would be the prelude of World War II. Republican ideas were spreading, especially in Asia. The United States began to have considerable influence in East Asia in the later part of the 19th century, with Protestant missionaries playing a central role. The liberal and republican writers of the west also exerted influence. These combined with native Confucian inspired political philosophy that had long argued that the populace had the right to reject unjust government that had lost the Mandate of Heaven. Two short-lived republics were proclaimed in East Asia, the Republic of Formosa and the First Philippine Republic. Decolonization[edit] A map of the Commonwealth republics In the years following World War II, most of the remaining European colonies gained their independence, and most became republics. The two largest colonial powers were France and the United Kingdom. Republican France encouraged the establishment of republics in its former colonies. The United Kingdom attempted to follow the model it had for its earlier settler colonies of creating independent Commonwealth realms still linked under the same monarchy. While most of the settler colonies and the smaller states of the Caribbean retained this system, it was rejected by the newly independent countries in Africa and Asia, which revised their constitutions and became republics. Britain followed a different model in the Middle East; it installed local monarchies in several colonies and mandates including Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Bahrain, Oman, Yemen and Libya. In subsequent decades revolutions and coups overthrew a number of monarchs and installed republics. Several monarchies remain, and the Middle East is the only part of the world where several large states are ruled by monarchs with almost complete political control.[49] Socialist republics[edit] See also: People's Republic and Socialist state In the wake of the First World War, the Russian monarchy fell during the Russian Revolution. The Russian Provisional Government was established in its place on the lines of a liberal republic, but this was overthrown by the Bolsheviks who went on to establish the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. This was the first republic established under Marxist-Leninist ideology. Communism was wholly opposed to monarchy, and became an important element of many republican movements during the 20th century. The Russian Revolution spread into Mongolia, and overthrew its theocratic monarchy in 1924. In the aftermath of the Second World War the communists gradually gained control of Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Hungary and Albania, ensuring that the states were reestablished as socialist republics rather than monarchies. Communism also intermingled with other ideologies. It was embraced by many national liberation movements during decolonization. In Vietnam, communist republicans pushed aside the Nguyễn Dynasty, and monarchies in neighbouring Laos and Cambodia were overthrown by communist movements in the 1970s. Arab socialism contributed to a series of revolts and coups that saw the monarchies of Egypt, Iraq, Libya, and Yemen ousted. In Africa Marxist-Leninism and African socialism led to the end of monarchy and the proclamation of republics in states such as Burundi and Ethiopia. Islamic republics[edit] Main article: Islamic republic Islamic political philosophy has a long history of opposition to absolute monarchy, notably in the work of Al-Farabi. Sharia law took precedence over the will of the ruler, and electing rulers by means of the Shura was an important doctrine. While the early caliphate maintained the principles of an elected ruler, later states became hereditary or military dictatorships though many maintained some pretense of a consultative shura. None of these states are typically referred to as republics. The current usage of republic in Muslim countries is borrowed from the western meaning, adopted into the language in the late 19th century.[50] The 20th century saw republicanism become an important idea in much of the Middle East, as monarchies were removed in many states of the region. Iraq became a secular state. Some nations, such as Indonesia and Azerbaijan, began as secular. In Iran, the 1979 revolution overthrew the monarchy and created an Islamic republic based on the ideas of Islamic democracy. Head of state[edit] Structure[edit] With no monarch, most modern republics use the title president for the head of state. Originally used to refer to the presiding officer of a committee or governing body in Great Britain the usage was also applied to political leaders, including the leaders of some of the Thirteen Colonies (originally Virginia in 1608); in full, the "President of the Council".[51] The first republic to adopt the title was the United States of America. Keeping its usage as the head of a committee the President of the Continental Congress was the leader of the original congress. When the new constitution was written the title of President of the United States was conferred on the head of the new executive branch. If the head of state of a republic is also the head of government, this is called a presidential system. There are a number of forms of presidential government. A full-presidential system has a president with substantial authority and a central political role. In other states the legislature is dominant and the presidential role is almost purely ceremonial and apolitical, such as in Germany, India, and Trinidad and Tobago. These states are parliamentary republics and operate similarly to constitutional monarchies with parliamentary systems where the power of the monarch is also greatly circumscribed. In parliamentary systems the head of government, most often titled prime minister, exercises the most real political power. Semi-presidential systems have a president as an active head of state with important powers, but they also have a prime minister as a head of government with important powers. The rules for appointing the president and the leader of the government, in some republics permit the appointment of a president and a prime minister who have opposing political convictions: in France, when the members of the ruling cabinet and the president come from opposing political factions, this situation is called cohabitation. In some countries, like Bosnia and Herzegovina, San Marino, and Switzerland, the head of state is not a single person but a committee (council) of several persons holding that office. The Roman Republic had two consuls, elected for a one-year term by the comitia centuriata, consisting of all adult, freeborn males who could prove citizenship. Elections[edit] In liberal democracies, presidents are elected, either directly by the people or indirectly by a parliament or council. Typically in presidential and semi-presidential systems the president is directly elected by the people, or is indirectly elected as done in the United States. In that country the president is officially elected by an electoral college, chosen by the States, all of which do so by direct election of the electors. The indirect election of the president through the electoral college conforms to the concept of republic as one with a system of indirect election. In the opinion of some, direct election confers legitimacy upon the president and gives the office much of its political power.[52] However, this concept of legitimacy differs from that expressed in the United States Constitution which established the legitimacy of the United States president as resulting from the signing of the Constitution by nine states.[53] The idea that direct election is required for legitimacy also contradicts the spirit of the Great Compromise, whose actual result was manifest in the clause[54] that provides voters in smaller states with more representation in presidential selection than those in large states; for example citizens of Wyoming in 2016 had 3.6 times as much electoral vote representation as citizens of California.[55] In states with a parliamentary system the president is usually elected by the parliament. This indirect election subordinates the president to the parliament, and also gives the president limited legitimacy and turns most presidential powers into reserve powers that can only be exercised under rare circumstance. There are exceptions where elected presidents have only ceremonial powers, such as in Ireland. Ambiguities[edit] The distinction between a republic and a monarchy is not always clear. The constitutional monarchies of the former British Empire and Western Europe today have almost all real political power vested in the elected representatives, with the monarchs only holding either theoretical powers, no powers or rarely used reserve powers. Real legitimacy for political decisions comes from the elected representatives and is derived from the will of the people. While hereditary monarchies remain in place, political power is derived from the people as in a republic. These states are thus sometimes referred to as crowned republics.[56] Terms such as "liberal republic" are also used to describe all of the modern liberal democracies.[57] There are also self-proclaimed republics that act similarly to monarchies with absolute power vested in the leader and passed down from father to son. North Korea and Syria are two notable examples where a son has inherited political control. Neither of these states are officially monarchies. There is no constitutional requirement that power be passed down within one family, but it has occurred in practice. There are also elective monarchies where ultimate power is vested in a monarch, but the monarch is chosen by some manner of election. A current example of such a state is Malaysia where the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is elected every five years by the Conference of Rulers composed of the nine hereditary rulers of the Malay states, and the Vatican City-State, where the pope is selected by cardinal-electors, currently all cardinals under a specific age. While rare today, elective monarchs were common in the past. The Holy Roman Empire is an important example, where each new emperor was chosen by a group of electors. Islamic states also rarely employed primogeniture, instead relying on various forms of election to choose a monarch's successor. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had an elective monarchy, with a wide suffrage of some 500,000 nobles. The system, known as the Golden Liberty, had developed as a method for powerful landowners to control the crown. The proponents of this system looked to classical examples, and the writings of the Italian Renaissance, and called their elective monarchy a rzeczpospolita, based on res publica. Sub-national republics[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Flag of the US state of California, a sub-national entity. In general being a republic also implies sovereignty as for the state to be ruled by the people it cannot be controlled by a foreign power. There are important exceptions to this, for example, republics in the Soviet Union were member states which had to meet three criteria to be named republics: be on the periphery of the Soviet Union so as to be able to take advantage of their theoretical right to secede; be economically strong enough to be self-sufficient upon secession; and be named after at least one million people of the ethnic group which should make up the majority population of said republic. It is sometimes argued that the former Soviet Union was also a supra-national republic, based on the claim that the member states were different nations. A map of the Republic of Karelia, one of the automical federal subjects ("Republics of Russia") of the Russian Federation Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was a federal entity composed of six republics (Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Slovenia). Each republic had its parliament, government, institute of citizenship, constitution, etc., but certain functions were delegated to the federation (army, monetary matters). Each republic also had a right of self-determination according to the conclusions of the second session of the AVNOJ and according to the federal constitution. States of the United States are required, like the federal government, to be republican in form, with final authority resting with the people. This was required because the states were intended to create and enforce most domestic laws, with the exception of areas delegated to the federal government and prohibited to the states. The founding fathers of the country intended most domestic laws to be handled by the states. Requiring the states to be a republic in form was seen as protecting the citizens' rights and preventing a state from becoming a dictatorship or monarchy, and reflected unwillingness on the part of the original 13 states (all independent republics) to unite with other states that were not republics. Additionally, this requirement ensured that only other republics could join the union. In the example of the United States, the original 13 British colonies became independent states after the American Revolution, each having a republican form of government. These independent states initially formed a loose confederation called the United States and then later formed the current United States by ratifying the current U.S. Constitution, creating a union that was a republic. Any state joining the union later was also required to be a republic. Other meanings[edit] Political philosophy[edit] Main article: Republicanism The term republic originated from the writers of the Renaissance as a descriptive term for states that were not monarchies. These writers, such as Machiavelli, also wrote important prescriptive works describing how such governments should function. These ideas of how a government and society should be structured is the basis for an ideology known as classical republicanism or civic humanism. This ideology is based on the Roman Republic and the city states of Ancient Greece and focuses on ideals such as civic virtue, rule of law and mixed government.[58] This understanding of a republic as a distinct form of government from a liberal democracy is one of the main theses of the Cambridge School of historical analysis.[59] This grew out of the work of J. G. A. Pocock who in 1975 argued that a series of scholars had expressed a consistent set of republican ideals. These writers included Machiavelli, Milton, Montesquieu and the founders of the United States of America. Pocock argued that this was an ideology with a history and principles distinct from liberalism.[60] These ideas were embraced by a number of different writers, including Quentin Skinner, Philip Pettit[61] and Cass Sunstein. These subsequent writers have further explored the history of the idea, and also outlined how a modern republic should function. United States[edit] Main article: Republicanism in the United States A distinct set of definitions of the term "republic" evolved in the United States, where the term is often equated with "representative democracy." This narrower understanding of the term was originally developed by James Madison[citation needed] and notably employed in Federalist Paper No. 10. This meaning was widely adopted early in the history of the United States, including in Noah Webster's dictionary of 1828.[citation needed] It was a novel meaning to the term; representative democracy was not an idea mentioned by Machiavelli and did not exist in the classical republics.[62] There is also evidence that contemporaries of Madison considered the meaning of "republic" to reflect the broader definition found elsewhere, as is the case with a quotation of Benjamin Franklin taken from the notes of James McHenry where the question is put forth, "a Republic or a Monarchy?".[63] The term republic does not appear in the Declaration of Independence, but it does appear in Article IV of the Constitution, which "guarantee[s] to every State in this Union a Republican form of Government." What exactly the writers of the constitution felt this should mean is uncertain. The Supreme Court, in Luther v. Borden (1849), declared that the definition of republic was a "political question" in which it would not intervene. In two later cases, it did establish a basic definition. In United States v. Cruikshank (1875), the court ruled that the "equal rights of citizens" were inherent to the idea of a republic. However, the term republic is not synonymous with the republican form. The republican form is defined as one in which the powers of sovereignty are vested in the people and are exercised by the people, either directly, or through representatives chosen by the people, to whom those powers are specially delegated.[64][65][better source needed] Beyond these basic definitions, the word republic has a number of other connotations. W. Paul Adams observes that republic is most often used in the United States as a synonym for "state" or "government," but with more positive connotations than either of those terms.[66] Republicanism is often referred to as the founding ideology of the United States.[citation needed] Traditionally scholars believed this American republicanism was a derivation of the classical liberal ideologies of John Locke and others developed in Europe.[citation needed] A political philosophy of republicanism that formed during the Renaissance period and initiated by Machiavelli was thought to have had little impact on the founders of the United States.[citation needed] In the 1960s and 1970s, a revisionist school[citation needed] led by the likes of Bernard Bailyn began to argue that republicanism was just as or even more important than liberalism in the creation of the United States.[67] This issue is still much disputed and scholars like Isaac Kramnick completely reject this view.[68] See also[edit] Commonwealth Democracy Democratic republic Free state List of republics Index: Republics Republicanism Republics of Russia Guarantee Clause of the U.S. Constitution References[edit] ^ Bohn, H. G. (1849). The Standard Library Cyclopedia of Political, Constitutional, Statistical and Forensic Knowledge. p. 640. A republic, according to the modern usage of the word, signifies a political community which is not under monarchical government ... in which one person does not possess the entire sovereign power. ^ "Definition of Republic". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved 2017-02-18. a government having a chief of state who is not a monarch ... a government in which supreme power resides in a body of citizens entitled to vote and is exercised by elected officers and representatives responsible to them and governing according to law ^ "The definition of republic". Dictionary.com. Retrieved 2017-02-18. a state in which the supreme power rests in the body of citizens entitled to vote and is exercised by representatives chosen directly or indirectly by them. ... a state in which the head of government is not a monarch or other hereditary head of state. ^ "Transcript of the Constitution of the United States – Official Text". 2015-10-30. ^ "Republic". Merriam Webster. Merrium-Webster Inc. Retrieved 5 June 2019. ^ Bloom, Allan. The Republic. Basic Books, 1991. pp. 439–40 ^ "Republic | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2018-10-20. ^ Rubinstein, Nicolai. "Machiavelli and Florentine Republican Experience" in Machiavelli and Republicanism Cambridge University Press, 1993. ^ a b c d e "Republic"j, New Dictionary of the History of Ideas. Ed. Maryanne Cline Horowitz. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2005. p. 2099 ^ Lewis, Charlton T.; Charles Short (1879). "res, II.K". A Latin Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Retrieved August 14, 2010. ^ a b Haakonssen, Knud. "Republicanism." A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy. Robert E. Goodin and Philip Pettit. eds. Cambridge: Blackwell, 1995. ^ Everdell (2000) p. xxiii. ^ "Encyclopedia Britannica". ^ Nippel, Wilfried. "Ancient and Modern Republicanism." The Invention of the Modern Republic ed. Biancamaria Fontana. Cambridge University Press, 1994 p. 6 ^ Reno, Jeffrey. "republic." International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences p. 184 ^ Pocock, J.G.A. The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition (1975; new ed. 2003) ^ Paul A. Rahe, Republics, Ancient and Modern, three volumes, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1994. ^ Martin Bernal, Black Athena Writes Back (Durham: Duke University Press, 2001), p. 359. ^ Clarke, Adam (1825). "PREFACE To The BOOK OF JUDGES". The Holy Bible Containing the Old and New Testaments: The Text Printed from the Most Correct Copies of the Present Authorized Translation Including the Marginal Readings and Parallel Texts with a Commentary and Critical Notes Designed as a Help to a Better Understanding of the Sacred Writings. 2. New-York: N. Bangs and J. Emory. p. 3. Retrieved 10 June 2019. The persons called Judges [...] were the heads or chiefs of the Israelites who governed the Hebrew Republic from the days of Moses and Joshua, till the time of Saul. ^ Everdell, William Romeyn (1983). "Samuel and Solon: The Origins of the Republic in Tribalism". The End of Kings: A History of Republics and Republicans (2 ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press (published 2000). p. 18. ISBN 9780226224824. Retrieved 10 June 2019. [...] Samuel [...] has the distinction of being the first self-conscious republican in his society of whom we have nearly contemporary written record and of whose actual existence we can be reasonably sure. ^ a b Everdell (2000) ^ UNESCO World Heritage Centre. "Aksum". ^ "Concepts of Democracy and Democratization in Africa Revisited". Paper presented at the Fourth Annual Kent State University Symposium on Democracy by Apollos O. Nwauwa. ^ Diodorus 2.39 ^ Larsen, 1973, pp. 45–46 ^ de Sainte, 2006, pp. 321–3 ^ Robinson, 1997, p. 22 ^ Robinson, 1997, p. 23 ^ Thapar, Romila (2002). Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300. University of California. pp. 146–150. ISBN 9780520242258. Retrieved 28 October 2013. ^ Raychaudhuri Hemchandra (1972), Political History of Ancient India, Calcutta: University of Calcutta, p.107 ^ Republics in ancient India. Brill Archive. pp. 93–. GGKEY:HYY6LT5CFT0. ^ Bongard-Levin, 1996, pp. 61–106 ^ Sharma 1968, pp. 109–22 ^ Trautmann T. R., Kautilya and the Arthashastra, Leiden 1971 ^ Chu, Henry (April 2, 2011). "Iceland seeks to become sanctuary for free speech". Los Angeles Times. ^ a b Finer, Samuel. The History of Government from the Earliest Times Oxford University Press, 1999. pp. 950–55. ^ Ferdinand Joseph Maria Feldbrugge. Law in Medieval Russia, IDC Publishers, 2009 ^ Finer, pp. 955–956. ^ Finer, Samuel. The History of Government from the Earliest Times. Oxford University Press, 1999. p. 1020. ^ "Republicanism." Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment p. 435 ^ "Introduction." Republicanism: a Shared European Heritage. By Martin van Gelderen and Quentin Skinner. Cambridge University Press, 2002 p. 1 ^ "Republicanism." Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment p. 431 ^ "Latin American Republicanism" New Dictionary of the History of Ideas. Ed. Maryanne Cline Horowitz. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2005. ^ The Ottoman Empire and Russian Empire are counted amongst Europe. Counted as republics are the Swiss Confederation, the Free Cities of Hamburg, Bremen, Lübeck and Frankfurt, the Most Serene Republic of San Marino, the Republic of Cospaia, the Septinsular Republic and the German Confederation; however, member states of the German Confederation are also separately counted (35 monarchies). ^ The Ottoman Empire and Russian Empire are counted amongst Europe. ^ The Republic of Turkey is counted amongst Europe, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics as a single republic, the Irish Free State as an independent monarchy (see also Irish head of state from 1936 to 1949), Vatican City as an elective monarchy, the Kingdom of Hungary as a nominal monarchy. ^ The Republic of Turkey is counted amongst Europe, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics as a single republic, the Free Territory of Trieste as an independent republic, Vatican City as an elective monarchy, the Spanish State as a nominal monarchy. ^ The Republic of Turkey is counted amongst Europe, the Russian Federation as a single republic, the Republic of Kosovo (recognised by most other European states) as an independent republic, Vatican City as an elective monarchy. The Republic of Azerbaijan, Georgia, Armenia and Kazakhstan are not shown on this map and excluded from the count. The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (recognised only by Turkey) and all other unrecognised states are excluded from the count. ^ Anderson, Lisa. "Absolutism and the Resilience of Monarchy in the Middle East." Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 106, No. 1 (Spring, 1991), pp. 1–15 ^ Bernard Lewis. "The Concept of an Islamic Republic" Die Welt des Islams, New Series, Vol. 4, Issue 1 (1955), pp. 1–9 ^ OED, s. v. ^ "Presidential Systems" Governments of the World: A Global Guide to Citizens' Rights and Responsibilities. Ed. C. Neal Tate. Vol. 4. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2006. pp. 7–11. ^ Article VII, Constitution of the United States ^ Article II, Para 2, Constitution of the United States ^ Petrocelli, William (10 November 2016). "Voters In Wyoming Have 3.6 Times The Voting Power That I Have. It's Time To End The Electoral College". huffingtonpost.com. ^ The novelist and essayist H. G. Wells regularly used the term crowned republic to describe the United Kingdom, for instance in his work A Short History of the World. Alfred, Lord Tennyson in his poem Idylls of the King. ^ Dunn, John. "The Identity of the Bourgeois Liberal Republic." The Invention of the Modern Republic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. ^ "Republicanism" Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Jun 19, 2006 ^ McCormick, John P. "Machiavelli against Republicanism: On the Cambridge School's 'Guicciardinian Moments'" Political Theory, Vol. 31, No. 5 (Oct., 2003), pp. 615–43 ^ Pocock, J. G. A The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition Princeton: 1975, 2003 ^ Philip Pettit, Republicanism: A Theory of Freedom and Government, NY: Oxford U.P., 1997, ISBN 0-19-829083-7; Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997. ^ Everdell (2000) p. 6 ^ "1593. Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790). Respectfully Quoted: A Dictionary of Quotations. 1989". ^ In re Duncan, 139 U.S. 449, 11 S.Ct. 573, 35 L.Ed. 219; Minor v. Happersett, 88 U.S. (21 Wall.) 162, 22 L.Ed. 627. ^ GOVERNMENT (Republican Form of Government) – One in which the powers of sovereignty are vested in the people and are exercised by the people ... directly ... Black's Law Dictionary, Sixth Edition, p. 695 ^ W. Paul Adams "Republicanism in Political Rhetoric Before 1776." Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 85, No. 3 (Sep., 1970), pp. 397–421 ^ Bailyn, Bernard. The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1967. ^ Kramnick, Isaac. Republicanism and Bourgeois Radicalism: Political Ideology in Late Eighteenth-Century England and America. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990. Further reading[edit] Speech of U.S. Senator against the Mexican–American War characterizing it as imperialist and presidential. Martin van Gelderen & Quentin Skinner, eds., Republicanism: A Shared European Heritage, v. 1, Republicanism and Constitutionalism in Early Modern Europe, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press., 2002 Martin van Gelderen & Quentin Skinner, eds., Republicanism: A Shared European Heritage, v. 2, The Values of Republicanism in Early Modern Europe, Cambridge: Cambridge U.P., 2002 Willi Paul Adams, "Republicanism in Political Rhetoric before 1776", Political Science Quarterly 85(1970), pp. 397–421. Joyce Appleby, "Republicanism in Old and New Contexts", in William & Mary Quarterly, 3rd series, 43 (January, 1986), pp. 3–34. Joyce Appleby, ed., "Republicanism" issue of American Quarterly 37 (Fall, 1985). Sarah Barber, Regicide and Republicanism: Politics and Ethics in the English Republic, 1646–1649, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1998. Gisela Bock, Quentin Skinner & Maurizio Viroli, eds., Machiavelli and Republicanism, Cambridge: Cambridge U.P., 1990. Everdell, William R. (2000), The End of Kings: A History of Republics and Republicans (2nd ed.), Chicago: University of Chicago Press Eric Gojosso, Le concept de république en France (XVIe – XVIIIe siècle), Aix/Marseille, 1998, pp. 205–45. James Hankins, "Exclusivist Republicanism and the Non-Monarchical Republic", Political Theory 38.4 (August 2010), 452–82. Frédéric Monera, L'idée de République et la jurisprudence du Conseil constitutionnel – Paris: L.G.D.J., 2004 Fnac, LGDJ.fr Philip Pettit, Republicanism: A Theory of Freedom and Government, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997, pp. x and 304. J. G. A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975 J. G. A. Pocock, "Between Gog and Magog: The Republican Thesis and the Ideologia Americana", Journal of the History of Ideas 48 (1987), p. 341 J. G. A. Pocock, "The Machiavellian Moment Revisited: A Study in History and Ideology" Journal of Modern History 53 (1981) Paul A. Rahe, Republics Ancient and Modern: Classical Republicanism and the American Revolution, 3 v., Chapel Hill: U. of North Carolina Press 1992, 1994. Jagdish P. Sharma, Republics in ancient India, c. 1500 B.C.–500 B.C., 1968 David Wootton, ed., Republicanism, Liberty, and Commercial Society, 1649–1776 (The Making of Modern Freedom series), Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1994. • Thomas Corwin, Senate Speech Against the Mexican War-Congressional Globe 1847. External links[edit] William R. Everdell, "From State to Freestate: The Meaning of the Word Republic from Jean Bodin to John Adams" (7th ISECS, Budapest, 7/31/87) in Valley Forge Journal, June, 1991 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Republic. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Republics. Look up republic in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. 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en-wikipedia-org-713	----	Ancient Rome and wine - Wikipedia Ancient Rome and wine From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Expansion of the Roman Empire Ancient Rome played a pivotal role in the history of wine. The earliest influences on the viticulture of the Italian peninsula can be traced to ancient Greeks and the Etruscans. The rise of the Roman Empire saw both technological advances in and burgeoning awareness of winemaking, which spread to all parts of the empire. Rome's influence has had a profound effect on the histories of today's major winemaking regions in France, Germany, Italy, Portugal and Spain. The Roman belief that wine was a daily necessity made the drink "democratic" and ubiquitous; in various forms, it was available to slaves, peasants and aristocrats, men and women alike. To ensure the steady supply of wine to Roman soldiers and colonists, viticulture and wine production spread to every part of the empire. The economic opportunities presented by trading in wine drew merchants to do business with tribes native to Gaul and Germania, bringing Roman influences to these regions even before the arrival of the Roman military.[1] Evidence of this trade and the far-reaching ancient wine economy is most often found through amphorae - ceramic jars used to transport wine.[2] The works of Roman writers—most notably Cato, Columella, Horace, Catullus, Palladius, Pliny, Varro and Virgil—have provided insight into the role played by wine in Roman culture as well as contemporary understanding of winemaking and viticultural practices.[3] Many of the techniques and principles first developed in ancient Roman times can be found in modern winemaking.[4] Ancient Roman statue of Dionysus (also known as Bacchus), god of wine (c. 150 AD, Prado, Madrid). Contents 1 Early history 1.1 Golden age 1.2 Pompeii 2 Expansion of viticulture 2.1 Hispania 2.2 Gaul 2.3 Germania 2.4 Britannia 3 Roman writings on wine 3.1 Marcus Porcius Cato the Elder 3.2 Columella 3.3 Pliny the Elder 3.4 Other writers 4 Roman winemaking 5 Wine styles 5.1 Grape varieties 6 Wine in Roman culture 6.1 Religion and festivals 6.2 Bacchic cult 6.3 Medical uses 7 See also 8 References 9 External links Early history[edit] The ruins of Carthage. When the city was destroyed, one of the few items that the Romans saved was the agricultural works of Mago. Though wild grapevines have grown on the Italian peninsula since prehistory, historians are unable to determine precisely when domestic viticulture and winemaking first occurred. It is possible that the Mycenaean Greeks had some influences through early settlements in southern Italy, but the earliest recorded evidence of Greek influence dates to 800 BC. Viticulture was widely entrenched in Etruscan civilization, which was centered around the modern winemaking region of Tuscany. Because the ancient Greeks saw wine as a staple of domestic life and a viable economic trade commodity, their settlements were encouraged to plant vineyards for local use and trade with the Greek city-states. Southern Italy's abundance of indigenous vines provided an ideal opportunity for wine production, giving rise to the Greek name for the region: Oenotria ("land of vines").[5] The southern Greek colonies probably also brought their own wine pressing methods with them and influenced Italian production methods.[6] As Rome grew from a collection of settlements to a kingdom and then to a republic, the culture of Roman winemaking was increasingly influenced by the viticultural skills and techniques of the regions that were conquered and integrated into the Roman Empire, which once, was almost completely dry[definition needed].[7] The Greek settlements of southern Italy were completely under Roman control by 270 BC. The Etruscans, who had already established trade routes into Gaul, were completely conquered by the 1st century BC. The Punic Wars with Carthage had a particularly marked effect on Roman viticulture. In addition to broadening the cultural horizons of the Roman citizenry, Carthaginians also introduced them to advanced viticultural techniques, in particular the work of Mago. When the libraries of Carthage were ransacked and burned, among the few Carthaginian works to survive were the 26 volumes of Mago's agricultural treatise, which was subsequently translated into Latin and Greek in 146 BC. Although his work did not survive to the modern era, it has been extensively quoted in the influential writings of Romans Pliny, Columella, Varro and Gargilius Martialis.[5] Golden age[edit] For most of Rome's winemaking history, Greek wine was the most highly prized, with domestic Roman wine commanding lower prices. The 2nd century BC saw the dawn of the "golden age" of Roman winemaking and the development of grand cru vineyards (a type of early first growths in Rome). The famous vintage of 121 BC became known as the Opimian vintage, named for consul Lucius Opimius. Remarkable for its abundant harvest and the unusually high quality of wine produced, some of the vintage's best examples were being enjoyed over a century later. Pliny the Elder wrote extensively about the first growths of Rome—most notably Falernian, Alban and Caecuban wines. Other first-growth vineyards included Rhaeticum and Hadrianum from Atri of the Adriatic,[8] along the Po in what are now the modern-day regions of Lombardy and Venice respectively; Praetutium (not related to the modern Italian city of Teramo, historically known as Praetutium) along the Adriatic coast near the border of Emilia-Romagna and Marche; and Lunense in modern-day Tuscany. Around Rome itself were the estates of Alban, Sabinum, Tiburtinum, Setinum and Signinum. Southward to Naples were the estates of Caecuban, Falernian, Caulinum, Trebellicanum, Massicum, Gauranium, and Surrentinum. In Sicily was the first-growth estate of Mamertinum.[5] At this high point in the empire's history of wine, it was estimated that Rome was consuming over 180 million litres (47 million US gallons) of wine annually, about a bottle of wine each day for every citizen.[1] Pompeii[edit] A fresco depicting Mercury (god of commerce) and Bacchus (god of wine) in Pompeii, in a hot-food establishment (thermopolium) that served the city prior to its destruction. One of the most important wine centres of the Roman world was the city of Pompeii, located south of Naples, in Campania. The area was home to a vast expanse of vineyards, serving as an important trading city with Roman provinces abroad and the principal source of wine for the city of Rome. The Pompeians themselves developed a widespread reputation for their wine-drinking capacity. The prevalent worship of Bacchus, the god of wine, left depictions of the god on frescoes and archaeological fragments throughout the region. Amphoras stamped with the emblems of Pompeian merchants have been found across the modern-day remnants of the Roman empire, including Bordeaux, Narbonne, Toulouse and Spain. Evidence in the form of counterfeit stamps on amphoras of non-Pompeian wine suggests that its popularity and notoriety may have given rise to early wine fraud.[9] The 79 AD eruption of Mount Vesuvius had a devastating effect on the Roman wine industry. Vineyards across the region and warehouses storing the recent 78 AD vintage were decimated, resulting in a dramatic shortage of wine. The damage to the trading port hindered the flow of wine from Rome's outlying provinces, aggravating its scarcity. Available wine rose sharply in price, making it unaffordable to all but the most affluent. The wine famine caused panicking Romans to hurriedly plant vineyards in the areas near Rome, to such an extent that grain fields were uprooted in favor of grapevines. The subsequent wine surplus created by successful efforts to relieve the wine shortage caused a depression in price, hurting the commercial entrance of wine producers and traders. The uprooting of grain fields now contributed to a food shortage for the growing Roman population. In 92 AD, Roman Emperor Domitian issued an edict that not only banned new vineyards in Rome but ordered the uprooting of half of the vineyards in Roman provinces. The 'Foro Boario' vineyard at Pompeii, replanted as it was at the time of the eruption, with small wine press in structure at back. Although there is evidence to suggest that this edict was largely ignored in the Roman provinces, wine historians have debated the effect of the edict on the infant wine industries of Spain and Gaul. The intent of the edict was that fewer vineyards would result in only enough wine for domestic consumption, with sparse amount for trade. While vineyards were already established in these growing wine regions, the ignoring of trade considerations may have suppressed the spread of viticulture and winemaking in these areas. Domitian's edict remained in effect for nearly two centuries until Emperor Probus repealed the measure in 280 AD.[9] The destruction, and preservation, of Pompeii has provided unique insights into ancient wine making and viticulture in the Roman world.[10][11] Preserved vine roots reveal planting patterns and whole vineyards have been excavated within the city walls (e.g. at the Foro Boario). This complements evidence of pressing and production technologies that worked in tandem with this cultivation.[12] Some of these vineyards have now been replanted with ancient grape varieties and experimental archaeology used to recreate Roman wine.[13][14] Expansion of viticulture[edit] Among the lasting legacies of the ancient Roman empire were the viticultural foundations laid by the Romans in lands that would become world-renowned wine regions. Through trade, military campaigns and settlements, Romans brought with them a taste for wine and the impetus to plant vines. Trade was the first and farthest-reaching arm of their influence, and Roman wine merchants were eager to trade with enemy and ally alike—from the Carthaginians and peoples of southern Spain to the Celtic tribes in Gaul and Germanic tribes of the Rhine and Danube. During the Gallic Wars, when Julius Caesar brought his troops to Cabyllona in 59 BC, he found two Roman wine merchants already established in business trading with the local tribes. In places like Bordeaux, Mainz, Trier and Colchester where Roman garrisons were established, vineyards were planted to supply local need and limit the cost of long-distance trading. Roman settlements were founded and populated by retired soldiers with knowledge of Roman viticulture from their families and life before the military; vineyards were planted in their new homelands. While it is possible that the Romans imported grapevines from Italy and Greece, there is sufficient evidence to suggest that they cultivated native vines that may be the ancestors of the grapes grown in those provinces today.[15] The Italian peninsula was known for its high-quality wines, outstanding examples of which included those of Pompeii.[16][17] As the republic grew into empire beyond the peninsula, wine's trade and market economy echoed this growth. The wine trade in Italy consisted of Rome's sale of wine abroad to settlements and provinces around the Mediterranean Sea, yet by the end of the 1st century AD, its exports had competition from the provinces, themselves exporters to Rome.[18] The Roman market economy encouraged the provinces’ exports, enhancing supply and demand.[19] An elevated supply of wine meant lower prices for consumers. Because of the supply-and-demand economy, citizens possessed an ample supply of coinage, suggesting the existence of a complex market economy surrounding the wine trade of the Roman Empire. Adequate monetary supply meant that the citizenry put a great deal of thought into the market economy of wine.[20] Hispania[edit] Roman amphorae recovered from Catalonia. Rome's defeat of Carthage in the Punic Wars brought the southern and coastal territories of Spain under its control, but the complete conquest of the Iberian peninsula remained unaccomplished until the reign of Caesar Augustus. Roman colonization led to the development of Tarraconensis in the northern regions of Spain (including what are now the modern winemaking regions of Catalonia, the Rioja, the Ribera del Duero, and Galicia) and Hispania Baetica (which includes modern Andalusia) Montilla-Moriles winemaking region of Cordoba and the sherry winemaking region of Cádiz. While the Carthaginians and Phoenicians were the first to introduce viticulture to Spain, Rome's influential wine technology and the development of road networks brought new economic opportunities to the region, elevating grapes from a private agricultural crop to an important component of a viable commercial enterprise. Spanish wine was in Bordeaux before the region produced its own. French historian Roger Dion has suggested that the balisca vine (common in Spain's northern provinces, particularly Rioja) was brought from Rioja to plant the first Roman vineyards of Bordeaux.[15] Spanish wines were frequently traded in Rome. The poet Martial described a highly regarded wine known as ceretanum from Ceret (modern-day Jerez de la Frontera). Wine historian Hugh Johnson believes this wine was an early ancestor of sherry.[15] Spanish wines penetrated more extensively than Italian wines into the Roman Empire, with amphoras from Spain discovered in Aquitaine, Brittany, the Loire Valley, Normandy, Britain and the German frontier. The historian Strabo noted in his work Geographica that the vineyards of Baetica were famous for their beauty. The Roman agricultural writer Columella was a native of Cádiz and was duly influenced by the region's viticulture.[21] Gaul[edit] There is archaeological evidence to suggest that the Celts first cultivated the grapevine in Gaul. Grape pips have been found throughout France, pre-dating the Greeks and Romans, with some examples found near Lake Geneva dated to 10,000 BC. The extent to which the Celts and Gallic tribes produced wine is not clearly known, but the arrival of the Greeks near Massalia in 600 BC certainly introduced new types and styles of winemaking and viticulture. The limit of Greek viticultural influence was planting in regions with Mediterranean climates where olives and fig trees would also flourish. The Romans looked for hillside terrain in regions near a river and an important town. Their knowledge of the sciences included the tendency for cold air to flow down a hillside and to pool in frost pockets in the valley. As these are poor conditions under which to grow grapes, they were avoided in favor of sunny hillsides that could provide sufficient warmth to ripen grapes, even in northerly areas. When the Romans seized Massalia in 125 BC, they pushed farther inland and westward. They founded the city of Narbonne in 118 BC (in the modern-day Languedoc region) along the Via Domitia, the first Roman road in Gaul. The Romans established lucrative trading relations with local tribes of Gaul, despite their potential to produce wine of their own. The Gallic tribes paid high prices for Roman wine, with a single amphora worth the value of a slave.[15] Roman ruins in Vienne. The first French wine to receive international acclaim was produced in this area near the modern Côte-Rôtie wine region. From the Mediterranean coast, the Romans pushed further up the Rhone Valley, to areas where olives and figs were unable to grow but where oak trees were still found. As a result of their experience in what is now northeastern Italy, the Romans knew that regions where Quercus ilex were found had climates sufficiently warm enough to allow the full ripening of grapes. In the 1st century AD, Pliny notes that the settlement of Vienne (near what is now the Côte-Rôtie AOC) produced a resinated wine that fetched high prices in Rome. Wine historian Hanneke Wilson notes that this Rhone wine was the first truly French wine to receive international acclaim.[22] portion of bearded satyr, emptying a wine-skin, Arretine ware, Roman, Augustan Period 31 B.C.–A.D. 14 The first mention of Roman interest in the Bordeaux region was in Strabo's report to Augustus that there were no vines down the river Tarn towards Garonne into the region known as Burdigala. The wine for this seaport was being supplied by the "high country" region of Gaillac in the Midi-Pyrénées region. The Midi had abundant indigenous vines that the Romans cultivated, many of which are still being used to produce wine today, including—Duras, Fer, Ondenc and Len de l'El. The location of Bordeaux on the Gironde estuary made it an ideal seaport from which to transport wine along the Atlantic Coast and to the British Isles. It wasn't long before Bordeaux became self-sufficient enough with its own vineyards to export its own wine to Roman soldiers stationed in Britain. In the 1st century AD, Pliny the Elder mentions plantings in Bordeaux, including the Balisca grape (previously known in Spain) under the synonym of Biturica after the local Bituriges tribe. Ampelographers note that corruption of the name Biturica is Vidure, a French synonym of Cabernet Sauvignon, perhaps pointing to the ancestry of this vine with the Cabernet family that includes Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, Merlot and Petit Verdot.[15] Further up the Rhone, along the Saône tributary, the Romans encountered the areas that would become the modern-day wine regions of Beaujolais, the Mâconnais, the Côte Chalonnaise and the Côte d'Or. Rome's first allies among the tribes of Gaul were the Aedui, whom they supported by founding the city of Augustodunum in what is now the Burgundy wine region. While it is possible that vineyards were planted in the 1st century AD, shortly after the founding of Augustodunum, the first definitive evidence of wine production comes from an account of the visit by Emperor Constantine to the city in 312 AD. The founding of France's other great wine regions is not as clear. The Romans' propensity for planting on hillsides has left archaeological evidence of Gallo-Roman vineyards in the chalk hillsides of Sancerre. In the 4th century, the Emperor Julian had a vineyard near Paris on the hill of Montmartre, and a 5th-century villa in what is now Épernay shows the Roman influence in the Champagne region.[23] Germania[edit] The Roman bridge of Trier crosses the river Mosel. The Romans found that planting vines on the steep banks along the river provided enough warmth to ripen wine grapes. Although wild V. vinifera vines have existed along the Rhine since prehistory, the earliest evidence of viticulture dates back to the Roman conquest and settlement of the western territories of Germania. Agricultural tools, such as pruning knives, have been found near Roman garrison posts in Trier and Cologne, but the first definitive record of wine production dates to the 370 AD work by Ausonius titled Mosella, wherein he described vibrant vineyards along the Mosel. A native of Bordeaux, Ausonius compared the vineyards favorably to those of his homeland and seems to indicate that viticulture had long been present in this area. The reasons for planting Rhineland were to cater to the growing demand of Roman soldiers along the Limes Germanicus (German frontier) and the high costs associated with importing wine from Rome, Spain or Bordeaux. The Romans briefly considered building a canal that would link the Saône and Mosel rivers in order to facilitate waterway trading. The alternative was to drink what Tacitus described as an inferior beer-like beverage.[23] Beer was apparently enjoyed by some Roman legionaries. For instance, among the Vindolanda tablets (from Vindolanda in Roman Britain, dated c. 97-103 AD), the cavalry decurion Masculus wrote a letter to prefect Flavius Cerialis inquiring about the exact instructions for his men for the following day. This included a polite request for beer to be sent to the garrison (which had entirely consumed its previous stock of beer).[24] The steep hillsides along the rivers Mosel and Rhine provided an opportunity to extend the cultivation of grapes to a northerly location. A south-southwest-facing slope maximizes the amount of sunshine vines receive, with the degree of angle allowing the vines to receive the sun's rays perpendicularly rather than at the low or diffuse angle vineyards on flatter terrain receive. Hillsides offered the added benefit of shielding vines from the cold northern winds, and the rivers' reflection offered additional warmth to aid in ripening the grapes. With the right type of grape (perhaps even an early ancestor of the German wine grape Riesling), the Romans found that wine could be produced in Germania. From the Rhine, German wine would make its way downriver to the North Sea and to merchants in Britain, where it began to develop a good reputation. Despite military hostilities, the neighboring Germanic tribes like the Alamanni and Franks were eager customers for German wine until a 5th-century edict forbade the sale of wine outside of Roman settlements. Wine historian Hugh Johnson believes this might have been an added incentive for the barbarian invasions and sacking of Roman settlements such as Trier—"an invitation to break down the door."[23] Britannia[edit] The silver serving tray depicting Bacchus found in Mildenhall. Rome's influence on Britain with respect to wine is not so much viticultural as it is cultural. Throughout modern history, the British have played a key role in shaping the world of wine and defining global wine markets.[25] Though evidence of V. vinifera vines in the British Isles dates back to the Hoxnian Stage when the climate was much warmer than it is today, British interest in wine production greatly increased following the Roman conquest of Britain in the 1st century AD. Amphoras from Italy indicate that wine was regularly transported to Britain at great expense by sea, around the Iberian Peninsula. The development of wine-producing regions in Bordeaux and Germany made supplying the needs of Roman colonists much easier at less cost. The presence of amphora production houses found in what is now Brockley and Middlesex indicates that the British probably had vineyards of their own as well.[26] There is clear evidence that the Roman cult of Bacchus, the wine god, was practiced in Britain: more than 400 artifacts depicting his likeness have been found throughout Britain. Included in the Mildenhall Treasure collection is a silver dish engraved with Bacchus having a drinking contest with Hercules. In Colchester, excavations have uncovered containers identifying over 60 different types of wines from Italy, Spain, the Rhine and Bordeaux.[23] Roman writings on wine[edit] Works of classical Roman writers—most notably Cato, Columella, Horace, Palladius, Pliny, Varro and Virgil—shed light on the role of wine in Roman culture as well as contemporary winemaking and viticultural practices.[27] Some of these influential techniques can be found in modern winemaking. These include the consideration of climate and landscape in deciding which grape varieties to plant, the benefits of different trellising and vine-training systems, the effects of pruning and harvest yields on the quality of wine, as well as winemaking techniques such as sur lie aging after fermentation and the maintenance of sanitary practices throughout the winemaking process to avoid contamination, impurities and spoilage.[4] Marcus Porcius Cato the Elder[edit] Marcus Porcius Cato was a Roman statesman raised in an agricultural family on a farm in Reate northeast of Rome. He wrote extensively on a variety of subject matters in De Agri Cultura (Concerning the Cultivation of the Land), the oldest surviving work of Latin prose. The author commented in detail on viticulture and winemaking, e.g. the management of a vineyard and calculations concerning the amount of labor a slave could perform before dropping dead.[5] He believed that grapes produce the best wine when they receive the maximum amount of sunshine. To this extent, he recommended that vines be trained in trees as high as possible and then be severely pruned of all leaves once the grapes began to ripen.[1] He also advised winemakers to wait until the grapes are fully ripe before the harvest to ensure high quality in the wine and thus maintain the reputation of the wine estate. Cato was an early advocate for the importance of hygiene in winemaking, recommending, for example, that wine jars be wiped clean twice a day with a new broom every time; thoroughly sealing the jars after fermentation to prevent the wine from spoiling and turning into vinegar; and not filling the amphoras to the top to leave some head space, leading to a small amount of oxidation.[28] Cato's manual was fervently followed, becoming the standard textbook of Roman winemaking for centuries.[5] Columella[edit] Statue of Columella in his native land of Cádiz. Columella was 1st-century AD writer whose 12-volume De Re Rustica is considered one of the most important works on Roman agriculture. Eleven volumes written in prose are augmented by Volume 10, a book on gardens in hexameter verse. Volumes 3 and 4 delve into the technical aspects of Roman viticulture, including advice on which soil types yield the best wine, while Volume 12 concerns various aspects of winemaking.[29] Columella describes the boiling of grape must in a lead vessel to concentrate sugars and at the same time allow the lead to impart sweetness and desirable texture to the wine,[30] a practice that may have contributed to lead poisoning. He presented precise details on how a well-run vineyard should operate, from the optimum breakfast for slaves to the yield of grapes from each jugerum of land and the pruning practices to ensure those yields. Many modern elements of vine training and trellising are evident in Columella's description of best practices. In his ideal vineyard, vines were planted two paces apart and fastened with willow withies to chestnut stakes about the height of a man. He also describes some of the wines of Roman provinces, noting the potential of wines from Spain and the Bordeaux region. Additionally, Columella lauds the quality of wines made from the ancient grape varieties Balisca and Biturica, believed by ampelographers to be ancestral to the Cabernet family.[31] Pliny the Elder[edit] Pliny the Elder. Pliny the Elder was a 1st-century AD naturalist and author of the 37-volume Roman encyclopedia Naturalis Historia (Natural History), dedicated to the Emperor Titus. Published after Pliny's death near Pompeii following the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, the work covers a vast array of topics, including serious discourse on viticulture and wine. Book 14 deals exclusively with the subject of wine itself, including a ranking of the "first growths" of Rome. Book 17 includes a discussion of various viticultural techniques and an early formalization of the concept of terroir, in that unique places produce unique wine. In his rankings of the best Roman wines, Pliny concludes that the vineyard has more influence on the resulting quality of wine than the particular vine. The early sections of Book 23 deal with some of the purported medicinal properties of wine.[32] Pliny was a strong advocate for training vines up trees in a pergola, noting that the finest wines in Campania all derived from this practice. Due to the dangers in working on and pruning vines trained this way, however, he advised not using valuable slaves but rather vineyard workers hired with a stipulation in their contract to cover grave and funeral expenses. He described some contemporary varieties, recommending Aminean and Nomentan as the best. Ampelographers believe that two white wine varieties mentioned, Arcelaca and Argitis, may be early ancestors to the modern grape Riesling.[31] Pliny is also the source for one of the most famous Latin quotations about wine: "In vino veritas," or "There's truth in wine," referring to the often confessional loquacity of the intoxicated.[33] Other writers[edit] Marcus Terentius Varro, whom the rhetorician Quintilian called "the most learned man among the Romans,"[34] wrote extensively on such topics as grammar, geography, religion, law and science, but only his agricultural treatise De re rustica (or Rerum rusticarum libri) has survived in its entirety. While there is evidence that he borrowed some of this material from Cato's work, Varro credits the lost multi-volume work of Mago the Carthaginian, as well as the Greek writers Aristotle, Theophrastus and Xenophon. Varro's treatise is written as a dialogue and divided into three parts, the first of which contains most of the discussion on wine and viticulture. He defines old wine as one removed from its vintage by at least a year; nonetheless, he notes that while some wines are best consumed young, especially fine wines such as Falernian are meant to be consumed much older.[35] Virgil. The poetry of Virgil recalls that of the Greek poet Hesiod in its focus on the morality and virtue of viticulture, particularly the austerity, integrity and hard work of Roman farmers. The second book of the didactic poem Georgics deals with viticultural matters.[36] Virgil advises leaving some grapes on the vine until late November when they become "stiff with frost." This early version of ice wine would have produced sweet wines without the acidity of wine made from grapes harvested earlier.[31] Virgil's contemporary Horace wrote often of wine, though no single work is devoted entirely to the subject. He espoused an Epicurean view of taking life's pleasures, including wine, in moderation. Among the earliest recorded examples of deliberately choosing a wine for a specific occasion, Horace's Odes included serving a wine from the birth-year vintage at a celebration of an honored guest. He writes of serving simple wines for everyday occasions and saving celebrated wines such as Caecuban for special events. Horace answered the question posed by the Alexandrian poet Callimachus as to whether water or wine was the preferred drink of poetic inspiration by enthusiastically siding with Cratinus and the wine drinkers.[37] His affinity for wine was such that while contemplating his death, he expressed more dread at the thought of departing from his beloved wine cellar than his wife.[31] Palladius was the 4th-century writer of the 15-volume agricultural treatise Opus agriculturae or De re rustica, the first volume of which was an introduction to basic farming principles. The 12 volumes following were dedicated to each month of the calendar and the specific agricultural tasks to be performed in that month. While Palladius deals with a variety of agricultural crops, he devotes more discussion to the practices of the vineyard than to any other. The last two volumes treat mostly veterinary medicine for farm animals but also include a detailed account of late-Roman grafting practices. Though borrowing heavily from Cato, Varro, Pliny and Columella, the work of Palladius is one of the few Roman agricultural accounts to still be widely used through the Middle Ages and into the early Renaissance. His writings on viticulture were widely quoted by Vincent of Beauvais, Albertus Magnus and Pietro Crescenzi.[38] Roman winemaking[edit] See also: History of the wine press After fermentation, Roman wine was stored in amphoras to be used for serving or further aging. The process of making wine in ancient Rome began immediately after the harvest with treading the grapes (often by foot), in a manner similar to the French pigeage. The juice thus expressed was the most highly prized and kept separate from what would later come from pressing the grape.[4][39] This free-run juice was also believed to have the most beneficial medicinal properties.[1] Cato described the process of pressing as taking place in a special room that included an elevated concrete platform containing a shallow basin with raised curbs. The basin was shaped with gentle slopes that led to a runoff point. Horizontally across the basin were long, wooden beams whose front parts were attached by rope to a windlass. The crushed grapes were placed between the beams, with pressure applied by winding down the windlass. The pressed juice ran down between the beams and collected in the basin. As the construction and use of a wine press was labor-intensive and expensive, its use was generally restricted to large estates, with smaller wineries relying on treading alone to obtain grape juice.[40] If grape pressing was used, an estate would press the skins one to three times. Since juice from later pressings would be coarser and more tannic, the third pressing normally made wine of low quality called lora. After pressing, the grape must was stored in large earthenware jars known as dolia. With a capacity of up to several thousand liters, these jars were often partially buried into the floors of a barn or warehouse. Fermentation took place in the dolium, lasting from two weeks to a month before the wine was removed and put in amphoras for storage. Small holes drilled into the top allowed the carbon dioxide gas to escape.[1] To enhance flavor, white wine might age on its lees, and chalk or marble dust was sometimes added to reduce acidity.[4] Wines were often exposed to high temperatures and "baked," a process similar to that used to make modern Madeira. To enhance a wine's sweetness, a portion of the wine must was boiled to concentrate the sugars in the process known as defrutum and then added to the rest of the fermenting batch. (Columella's writings suggest that the Romans believed boiling the must acted as a preservative as well.) Lead was also sometimes used as a sweetening agent,[5] but honey could also be added, as much as 3 kilograms (6.6 lb) recommended to sufficiently sweeten 12 litres (3.2 US gal) of wine to Roman tastes. Another technique was to withhold a portion of the sweeter, unfermented must and blend it with the finished wine, a method known today as süssreserve.[31] Wine styles[edit] The grape material from pomace (pictured) was used to make lora, a low-quality wine commonly drunk by Roman slaves. As in much of the ancient world, sweet white wine was the most highly regarded style. Wines were often very alcoholic[verification needed], with Pliny noting that a cup of Falernian would catch fire from a candle flame drawn too close. Wine was often diluted with warm water, occasionally seawater.[5] The ability to age was a desirable trait in Roman wines, with mature examples from older vintages fetching higher prices than that from the current vintage, regardless of its overall quality. Roman law codified the distinction between "old" and "new" as whether wine had aged for at least a year. Falernian was particularly valued for its aging ability, said to need at least 10 years to mature but being at its best between 15 and 20 years. The white wine from Surrentine was said to need at least 25 years. In the manner of Greek wine, Roman wine was often flavored with herbs and spices (similar to modern vermouth and mulled wine) and was sometimes stored in resin-coated containers, giving it a flavor similar to modern retsina.[4] Romans were particularly interested in the aroma of wine and experimented with various methods of enhancing a wine's bouquet. One technique that gained some usage in southern Gaul was planting herbs such as lavender and thyme in the vineyards, believing that their flavors would pass through the ground and into the grapes. Modern-day wines from the Rhone are often characterized by using the aroma descriptors of lavender and thyme, presumably as a reflection of the grape varieties used and the terroir.[1] Another widespread practice was the storage of amphoras in a smoke chamber called a fumarium to add smokiness to a wine's flavor. Passum, or wine made from dried grapes or raisins, was also particularly popular and was produced in the eastern Mediterranean.[41] It was widely used in ritual contexts and also found popularity in the kitchen and medicinal spheres.[42] The term "wine" spanned a broad spectrum of wine-based beverages, the quality of which depended on the amount of pure grape juice used and how diluted the wine was when served. The finest wine was reserved for the upper classes of Rome. Below that was posca, a mixture of water and sour wine that had not yet turned into vinegar. Less acidic than vinegar, it still retained some of the aromas and texture of wine and was the preferred wine for the rations of Roman soldiers due to its low alcohol levels. Posca's use as soldiers' rations was codified in the Corpus Juris Civilis and amounted to around a liter per day. Still lower in quality was lora (modern-day piquette), which was made by soaking in water for a day the pomace of grape skins already pressed twice, and then pressing a third time. Cato and Varro recommended lora for their slaves. Both posca and lora were the most commonly available wine for the general Roman populace and probably would have been for the most part red wines, since white wine grapes would have been reserved for the upper class.[43] Mosaic depicting the vintage (from Cherchell, present-day Algeria, Roman Africa) Grape varieties[edit] The writings of Virgil, Pliny and Columella offer the most detail about the grape varieties used in the production of wine in the Roman empire, many of which have been lost to antiquity. While Virgil's writings often do not distinguish between a wine's name and the grape variety, he made frequent mention of the Aminean grape variety, which Pliny and Columella ranked as the best in the empire. Pliny described five sub-varieties of the grape that produced similar but distinct wines, declaring it to be native to the Italian peninsula. While he claimed that only Democritus knew of every grape variety that existed, he endeavored to speak with authority on the grapes he believed were the only ones worthy of consideration. Pliny described Nomentan as the second-best wine-producing grape, followed by Apian and its two sub-varieties, which were the preferred grape of Etruria. The only other grapes worthy of his consideration were Greek varieties, including the Graecula grape used to make Chian wine. He remarked that the Eugenia had promise, but only if planted in the Colli Albani region. Columella mentioned many of the same grapes but noted that the same grape produced varied wines in different regions and could even be known under different names, making it hard to track. He encouraged vine growers to experiment with different plantings to find the best for their areas.[44] Ampelographers debate these descriptions of grapes and their possible modern counterparts or descendants. The Allobrogica grape that was used to produce the Rhone wine of Vienne may have been an early ancestor of the Pinot family. Alternative theories posit that it was more closely related to Syrah or Mondeuse noire—two grapes that produce vastly different wines. The link between these two is the Mondeuse noire synonym of Grosse Syrah. The Rhaetic grape that Virgil praised is believed to be related to the modern Refosco of northeastern Italy.[23] Wine in Roman culture[edit] Marble table support adorned by Dionysos, Pan and a Satyr; Dionysos holds a rhyton (drinking vessel) in the shape of a panther, 170-180 AD Early Roman culture was sharply influenced by the ancient Greeks. Though early Rome was very "dry" by Greek standards, this view changed over the course of the empire.[45] Wine had religious, medicinal and social roles that set it apart from other Roman cuisine. Wine, like in Greek culture was mixed with water, and both cultures held banquets, where wine was used to show off wealth and prestige.[46] As Rome entered its golden age of winemaking and the era of expansion, a "democratic" approach to wine started to emerge. Wine was increasingly viewed as a necessity of everyday life rather than simply a luxury enjoyed by the elite. Cato believed that even slaves should have a weekly ration of 5 liters (over a gallon), nonetheless citing the dietary health of the slaves and the maintenance of their strength rather than personal enjoyment. Should a slave become sick and unavailable to work, Cato advised halving his rations to conserve wine for the workforce.[1] The widespread planting of grapes ensued from the need to serve all classes of society, but was also given impetus by the changing Roman diet. In the 2nd century BC, Romans began to shift from meals consisting of moist porridge and gruel to those more bread-based; wine aided in eating the drier food.[43] Religion and festivals[edit] Wine played a major role in ancient Roman religion and Roman funerary practices, and was the preferred libation for most deities. The invention of wine was usually credited to Liber and his Greek equivalents, Bacchus (later Romanised) and Dionysus, who promoted the fertility of human and animal semen, and the "soft seed" of the vine. Ordinary, everyday, mixed wines were under the protection of Venus, but were considered profane (vinum spurcum), forbidden for use in official sacrifice to deities of the Roman State. A sample of pure, undilute strong wine from the first pressing was offered to Liber/Bacchus, in gratitude for his assistance in its production. The remainder, known as temetum, was customarily reserved for Roman men and Roman gods, particularly Jupiter, king of the gods. It was, however, also an essential element of the secretive, nocturnal and exclusively female Bona Dea festival, during which it was freely consumed but could only be referred to euphemistically, as "milk" or "honey".[47][48] The major public festivals concerning wine production were the two Vinalia. At the Vinalia prima ("first Vinalia") of 23 April, ordinary men and women sampled the previous year's vintage of ordinary wine in Venus' name, while the Roman elite offered a generous libation of wine to Jupiter, in the hope of good weather for the next year's growth.[49] The Vinalia Rustica of 19 August, originally a rustic Latin harvest festival, celebrated the grape harvest, and the growth and fertility of all garden crops; its patron deity may have been Venus, or Jupiter, or both.[50] Bacchic cult[edit] Main article: Bacchanalia See also: Bacchus, Liber, Dionysia, and Dionysian Mysteries Wine's use in the Christian sacrament of the Eucharist shares similarities with the pagan rites dedicated to Bacchus. The Bacchanalia were private Roman mystery cults of Bacchus, the Greco-Roman god of wine, freedom, intoxication and ecstasy. They were based on the Greek Dionysia and the Dionysian mysteries, and probably arrived in Rome c. 200 BC from Greek colonies in southern Italy, and Etruria, Rome's northern neighbour. They were originally occasional, women-only affairs, but became increasingly popular and frequent, and were opened up to priests and initiates of both genders and all classes; they may have briefly supplanted an existing, public cult to Liber.[51] Cult initiates employed music, dance and copious amounts of wine to achieve ecstatic religious possession. The Roman Senate perceived the cult as a threat to its own authority and Roman morality, and suppressed it with extreme ferocity in 186. Of some seven thousand initiates and their leaders, most were put to death. Thereafter the Bacchanalia continued in much diminished form, under the supervision of Rome's religious authorities, and were probably absorbed into Liber's cult.[52][53] Despite the ban, illicit Bacchanals persisted covertly for many years, particularly in Southern Italy, their likely place of origin.[54] As Rome assimilated more cultures, it encountered peoples from two religions that viewed wine in generally positive terms—Judaism and Christianity. Grapes and wine make frequent literal and allegorical appearances in both the Hebrew and Christian Bibles. In the Torah, grapevines were among the first crops planted after the Great Flood, and in exploring Canaan following the Exodus from Egypt, one of the positive reports about the land was that grapevines were abundant. The Jews under Roman rule accepted wine as part of their daily life, but regarded negatively the excesses that they associated with Roman impurities.[55] Many of the Jewish views on wine were adopted by the new Christian sect that emerged in the 1st century AD. One of the first miracles performed by the sect's founder, Jesus, was to have turned water into wine. In addition, the sacrament of the Eucharist prominently involved wine. The Romans drew some parallels between Bacchus and Christ. Both figures possessed narratives strongly featuring the symbolism of life after death: Bacchus in the yearly harvest and dormancy of the grape; and Christ in the death and resurrection story. Eucharist's act of drinking wine as a stand-in for consuming Christ, either metaphysically or metaphorically, echoes the rites performed in festivals dedicated to Bacchus.[55] The influence and importance of wine in Christianity was undeniable, and soon the Church itself would take the mantle from ancient Rome as the dominant influence in the world of wine for the centuries leading to the Renaissance.[55] Medical uses[edit] See also: Wine and health Romans believed that wine had the power to both heal and harm. Wine was a recommended cure for mental disorders such as depression, memory loss and grief, as well as bodily ailments, from bloating, constipation, diarrhea, gout, and halitosis to snakebites, tapeworms, urinary problems and vertigo. Cato wrote extensively on the medical uses of wine, including a recipe for a laxative: wine made from grapevines treated with a mixture of ashes, manure and hellebore. He recommended that the flowers of certain plants, e.g. juniper and myrtle, be soaked in wine to help with snakebites and gout. He also believed that a mixture of old wine and juniper, boiled in a lead pot, could aid in urinary issues and that mixing wine with very acidic pomegranates could cure tapeworms.[55] The 2nd-century CE Greco-Roman physician Galen provided several details concerning wine's medicinal use in later Roman times. In Pergamon, Galen was responsible for the diet and care of the gladiators, and used wine liberally in his practice, boasting that not a single gladiator died in his care. Wine served as an antiseptic for wounds and an analgesic for surgery. When he became Emperor Marcus Aurelius's physician, he developed pharmaceutical concoctions made from wine known as theriacs. Superstitious beliefs concerning theriacs' "miraculous" ability to protect against poisons and cure everything from the plague to mouth sores lasted until the 18th century. In his work De Antidotis, Galen noted the trend in Romans' tastes from thick, sweet wines to lighter, dry wines that were easier to digest.[31] The Romans were also aware of the negative health effects of drinking wine, particularly the tendency towards "madness" if consumed immoderately. Lucretius warned that wine could provoke a fury in one's soul and lead to quarrels. Seneca the Elder believed that drinking wine magnified the physical and psychological defects of the drinker. Drinking wine in excess was frowned upon and those who imbibed heavily were considered dangerous to society. The Roman politician Cicero frequently labeled his rivals drunkards and a danger to Rome—most notably Mark Antony, who apparently once drank to such excess that he vomited in the Senate.[55] The ambivalent attitude of the Romans is summarized in an epitaph: balnea vina Venus corrumpunt corpora nostra se<d> vitam faciunt balnea vina Venus "Baths, wine, and sex corrupt our bodies, but baths, wine, and sex make life worth living." — epitaph of Tiberius Claudius Secundus, [56] See also[edit] Ancient Roman cuisine Ancient Greece and wine Phoenicians and wine Speyer wine bottle  Italy portal  Wine portal  History portal References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g R. Phillips A Short History of Wine pp. 35–45 Harper Collins 2000 ISBN 0-06-621282-0 ^ Dodd, Emlyn. "From Hispania to the Chalkidiki: A Detailed Study of Transport Amphorae from the Macquarie University Museum of Ancient Cultures". Chronika. ^ DODD, EMLYN K. (2020). ROMAN AND LATE ANTIQUE WINE PRODUCTION IN THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN : a comparative ... archaeological study at antiochia ad cragum. [Place of publication not identified]: ARCHAEOPRESS. ISBN 978-1-78969-403-1. OCLC 1139263254. ^ a b c d e J. Robinson (ed) "The Oxford Companion to Wine" Third Edition pg 589–590 Oxford University Press 2006 ISBN 0-19-860990-6 ^ a b c d e f g H. Johnson Vintage: The Story of Wine pg 59–63 Simon and Schuster 1989 ISBN 0-671-68702-6 ^ Dodd, Emlyn. "Pressing Issues: A New Discovery in the Vineyard of Region I.20, Pompeii". Archeologia Classica. ^ Gatley, Iain (2008). Drink: A Cultural History Of Alcohol. New York: Penguin Group. p. 28. ISBN 978-1-592-40464-3. ^ Sandler, Merton; Pinder, Roger (19 December 2002). Wine: A Scientific Exploration. CRC Press. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-203-36138-2. ^ a b H. Johnson Vintage: The Story of Wine pg 64–67 Simon and Schuster 1989 ISBN 0-671-68702-6 ^ Dodd, Emlyn. "Pressing Issues: A New Discovery in the Vineyard of Region I.20, Pompeii". Archeologia Classica. ^ DODD, EMLYN K. (2020). ROMAN AND LATE ANTIQUE WINE PRODUCTION IN THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN : a comparative ... archaeological study at antiochia ad cragum. [Place of publication not identified]: ARCHAEOPRESS. ISBN 978-1-78969-403-1. OCLC 1139263254. ^ Dodd, Emlyn. "Pressing Issues: A New Discovery in the Vineyard of Region I.20, Pompeii". Archeologia Classica. ^ permission, Baglioni Hotels Copyright ©2020 Italian Talks Do not use or reproduce without (13 February 2014). "Mastroberardino Masters the Ancient Wines of Pompeii". Italian Talks. Retrieved 24 September 2020. ^ Dodd, Emlyn. "Pompeii is famous for its ruins and bodies, but what about its wine?". The Conversation. Retrieved 5 November 2020. ^ a b c d e Johnson, H. (1989). Vintage: The Story of Wine. Simon and Schuster. pp. 82–89. ISBN 0-671-68702-6. ^ Purcell, N. (1985). "Wine and Wealth in Ancient Italy". Journal of Roman Studies. 75: 1–19 [p. 8]. doi:10.2307/300648. JSTOR 300648. ^ Dodd, Emlyn. "Pompeii is famous for its ruins and bodies, but what about its wine?". The Conversation. Retrieved 5 November 2020. ^ Casson, Lionel (1991). The Ancient Mariners. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 200. ^ Temin, Peter (2001). "A Market Economy in the Early Roman Empire" (PDF). Journal of Roman Studies. 91: 169–181 [p. 171]. doi:10.1017/s0075435800015902. hdl:1721.1/63869. JSTOR 3184775. ^ Temin, Peter (2001). "A Market Economy in the Early Roman Empire" (PDF). Journal of Roman Studies. 91: 169–181 [p. 174]. doi:10.1017/s0075435800015902. hdl:1721.1/63869. JSTOR 3184775. ^ J. Robinson (ed) "The Oxford Companion to Wine" Third Edition pg 652 Oxford University Press 2006 ISBN 0-19-860990-6 ^ J. Robinson (ed) "The Oxford Companion to Wine" Third Edition pg 281 Oxford University Press 2006 ISBN 0-19-860990-6 ^ a b c d e H. Johnson Vintage: The Story of Wine pg 90–97 Simon and Schuster 1989 ISBN 0-671-68702-6 ^ Mike Ibeji (16 November 2012). "http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/vindolanda_01.shtml Vindolanda]." BBC.co.uk. Accessed 6 October 2016. ^ J. Robinson (ed) "The Oxford Companion to Wine" Third Edition pg 104 Oxford University Press 2006 ISBN 0-19-860990-6 ^ J. Robinson (ed) "The Oxford Companion to Wine" Third Edition pg 252 Oxford University Press 2006 ISBN 0-19-860990-6 ^ DODD, EMLYN K. (2020). ROMAN AND LATE ANTIQUE WINE PRODUCTION IN THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN : a comparative ... archaeological study at antiochia ad cragum. [Place of publication not identified]: ARCHAEOPRESS. ISBN 978-1-78969-403-1. OCLC 1139263254. ^ J. Robinson (ed) "The Oxford Companion to Wine" Third Edition pg 144 Oxford University Press 2006 ISBN 0-19-860990-6 ^ J. Robinson (ed) "The Oxford Companion to Wine" Third Edition pg 190 Oxford University Press 2006 ISBN 0-19-860990-6 ^ H. Johnson Vintage: The Story of Wine pg 290 Simon and Schuster 1989 ISBN 0-671-68702-6 ^ a b c d e f H. Johnson Vintage: The Story of Wine pg 68–74 Simon and Schuster 1989 ISBN 0-671-68702-6 ^ J. Robinson (ed) "The Oxford Companion to Wine" Third Edition pg 533 Oxford University Press 2006 ISBN 0-19-860990-6 ^ Pliny, Natural History 14.141. ^ Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria 10.1.95. ^ J. Robinson (ed) "The Oxford Companion to Wine" Third Edition pg 728 Oxford University Press 2006 ISBN 0-19-860990-6 ^ J. Robinson (ed) "The Oxford Companion to Wine" Third Edition pg 754 Oxford University Press 2006 ISBN 0-19-860990-6 ^ J. Robinson (ed) "The Oxford Companion to Wine" Third Edition pg 347 Oxford University Press 2006 ISBN 0-19-860990-6 ^ J. Robinson (ed) "The Oxford Companion to Wine" Third Edition pg 505 Oxford University Press 2006 ISBN 0-19-860990-6 ^ DODD, EMLYN K. (2020). ROMAN AND LATE ANTIQUE WINE PRODUCTION IN THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN : a comparative ... archaeological study at antiochia ad cragum. [Place of publication not identified]: ARCHAEOPRESS. ISBN 978-1-78969-403-1. OCLC 1139263254. ^ J. Robinson (ed) "The Oxford Companion to Wine" Third Edition pg 545 Oxford University Press 2006 ISBN 0-19-860990-6 ^ DODD, EMLYN K. (2020). ROMAN AND LATE ANTIQUE WINE PRODUCTION IN THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN : a comparative ... archaeological study at antiochia ad cragum. [Place of publication not identified]: ARCHAEOPRESS. ISBN 978-1-78969-403-1. OCLC 1139263254. ^ DODD, EMLYN K. (2020). ROMAN AND LATE ANTIQUE WINE PRODUCTION IN THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN : a comparative ... archaeological study at antiochia ad cragum. [Place of publication not identified]: ARCHAEOPRESS. ISBN 978-1-78969-403-1. OCLC 1139263254. ^ a b R. Phillips A Short History of Wine pg 46–56 Harper Collins 2000 ISBN 0-06-621282-0 ^ J. Robinson (ed) "The Oxford Companion to Wine" Third Edition pg 23 Oxford University Press 2006 ISBN 0-19-860990-6 ^ Gately, Iain (2009). Drink A Cultural History of Alcohol. New York: Gotham Books. pp. 28–29. ISBN 9781592404643. ^ Gately, Iain (2008). Drink: A Cultural History of Alcohol. New York, New York: Penguin Group. pp. 35, 32. ISBN 978-1-592-40464-3. ^ Versnel, H. S., "The Festival for Bona Dea and the Thesmophoria", Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Classical Association, Greece & Rome, Second Series, Vol. 39, No. 1 (Apr. 1992), pp. 32, 45: "the most surprising aspect is the nature of the drinks: during this secret, exclusively female, nocturnal festival the women were allowed to drink - at the very least to handle - wine" ^ Wildfang, Robin Lorsch, Rome's vestal virgins: a study of Rome's vestal priestesses in the late Republic and early Empire, Routledge/Taylor & Francis, 2007, p. 41 ^ Olivier de Cazanove, "Jupiter, Liber et le vin latin", Revue de l'histoire des religions, 1988, Vol. 205, Issue 205-3, pp. 245–265 persee ^ Lipka, Michael, Roman Gods: A Conceptual Approach, BRILL, 2009, p. 42; citing Varro, Lingua Latina, 6. 16; Varro's explicit denial that the festival belongs to Venus implies his awareness of the opposite opinion. Lipka offers this apparent contradiction as an example of two Roman cults that offer "complementary functional foci" within a single festival. ^ Most Roman sources describe Liber as Rome's equivalent to Dionysus and Bacchus, both of whom were sometimes titled eleutherios (liberator); see Robert Rouselle, Liber-Dionysus in Early Roman Drama, The Classical Journal, 82, 3 (1987), p. 193. ^ Erich S. Gruen, "The Bacchanalia affair", in Studies in Greek Culture and Roman Policy, University of California Press, 1996, p. 34 ff.[1] ^ For Livy's account, see Livy, The History of Rome, Vol 5, Book 39, IX. Modern scholarly sources offer various estimates on the number executed. ^ See Sarolta A. Takács, Politics and Religion in the Bacchanalian Affair of 186 B.C.E., Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, Vol. 100, (2000), op.301. [2] ^ a b c d e R. Phillips A Short History of Wine pg 57–63 Harper Collins 2000 ISBN 0-06-621282-0 ^ Brian K Harvey (2016). Daily Life In Ancient Rome: A Sourcebook. Hackett Publishing Company. p. 256. External links[edit] "Wine and Rome" "Roman Wine: A Window on an Ancient Economy" Emlyn K. Dodd (2020). Roman and Late Antique wine production in the eastern Mediterranean, Archaeopress. 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en-wikipedia-org-7149	----	Category:Iambic poets - Wikipedia Help Category:Iambic poets From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Iambus (genre) (apart from the metrical feet) in ancient Greece was mainly a satirical poem, a lampoon.[1] References[edit] ^ Studies in Greek elegy and iambus By Martin Litchfield West Page 22 ISBN 3110045850 Pages in category "Iambic poets" The following 13 pages are in this category, out of 13 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). A Aeschrion of Samos Archilochus B Babrius C Callimachus Catullus H Hermippus Hipponax Horace N Nicarchus P Pigres of Halicarnassus S Semonides of Amorgos Susarion X Xenophanes Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Iambic_poets&oldid=974156436" Categories: Ancient Greek poets by genre Satire Poets by genre Ancient Greek satirists Hidden categories: CatAutoTOC generates no TOC Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Español Edit links This page was last edited on 21 August 2020, at 11:15 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7167	----	King of Rome - Wikipedia King of Rome From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see King of Rome (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "King of Rome" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) King of Rome Capitoline Wolf Lucius Tarquinius Superbus Details First monarch Romulus Last monarch Lucius Tarquinius Superbus Formation 753 BC Abolition 509 BC Residence Rome Appointer Curiate Assembly Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e The King of Rome (Latin: Rex Romae) was the chief magistrate of the Roman Kingdom.[1] According to legend, the first king of Rome was Romulus, who founded the city in 753 BC upon the Palatine Hill. Seven legendary kings are said to have ruled Rome until 509 BC, when the last king was overthrown. These kings ruled for an average of 35 years. The kings after Romulus were not known to be dynasts and no reference is made to the hereditary principle until after the fifth king Tarquinius Priscus. Consequently, some have assumed that the Tarquins and their attempt to institute a hereditary monarchy over this conjectured earlier elective monarchy resulted in the formation of the republic. Contents 1 Overview 1.1 Chief Executive 1.2 Chief Judge 1.3 Chief Legislator 2 Election 3 Kings of Rome (753–509 BC) 4 During the Republic 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Overview[edit] Early Rome was not self-governing, and was ruled by the king (rex). The king possessed absolute power over the people. The senate was a weak oligarchy, capable of exercising only minor administrative powers, so that Rome was ruled by its king who was in effect an absolute monarch. The senate's main function was to carry out and administer the wishes of the king. After Romulus, Rome's first legendary king, Roman kings were elected by the people of Rome, sitting as a Curiate Assembly, who voted on the candidate that had been nominated by a chosen member of the senate called an interrex. Candidates for the throne could be chosen from any source. For example, one such candidate, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, was originally a citizen and migrant from a neighboring Etruscan city-state. The people of Rome, sitting as the Curiate Assembly, could then either accept or reject the nominated candidate-king. The insignia of the king was twelve lictors wielding the fasces, a throne of a Curule chair, the purple Toga Picta, red shoes, and a white diadem around the head. Only the king could wear a purple toga.[citation needed] The supreme power of the state was vested in the rex, whose position gave the following powers: Chief Executive[edit] Beyond his religious authority, the king was invested with the supreme military, executive, and judicial authority through the use of imperium. The imperium of the king was held for life and protected him from ever being brought to trial for his actions. As the sole holder of imperium in Rome at the time, the king possessed ultimate executive power and unchecked military authority as the commander-in-chief of all Rome's legions. His executive power and his sole imperium allowed him to issue decrees with the force of law. Also, the laws that kept citizens safe from the misuse of magistrates holding imperium did not exist during the time of the kings. The king was also empowered to appoint or nominate all officeholders. The king would appoint a tribunus celerum to serve both as the tribune of Ramnes tribe in Rome and also as the commander of the king's personal bodyguard, the Celeres. The king was required to appoint the tribune upon entering office, and the tribune left office upon the king's death. The tribune was second in rank to the king and also possessed the power to convene the Curiate Assembly and lay legislation before it. Another officer appointed by the king was the praefectus urbi, who acted as the warden of the city. When the king was absent from the city, the prefect held all of the king's powers, even to the point of being bestowed with imperium while inside the city. The king was the sole person empowered to appoint patricians to the Senate. Chief Judge[edit] The king's imperium granted him both military powers as well as qualified him to pronounce legal judgment in all cases as the chief justice of Rome. Although he could assign pontiffs to act as minor judges in some cases, he had supreme authority in all cases brought before him, both civil and criminal. This made the king supreme in times of both war and peace. While some writers believed there was no appeal from the king's decisions, others believed that a proposal for appeal could be brought before the king by any patrician during a meeting of the Curiate Assembly. To assist the king, a council advised the king during all trials, but this council had no power to control the king's decisions. Also, two criminal detectives (Quaestores Parridici) were appointed by him as well as a two-man criminal court (Duumviri Perduellionis) which oversaw for cases of treason. Chief Legislator[edit] Under the kings, the Senate and Curiate Assembly had very little power and authority; they were not independent bodies in that they possessed the right to meet together and discuss questions of state. They could only be called together by the king and could only discuss the matters the king laid before them. While the Curiate Assembly did have the power to pass laws that had been submitted by the king, the Senate was effectively an honorable council. It could advise the king on his action but, by no means, could prevent him from acting. The only thing that the king could not do without the approval of the Senate and Curiate Assembly was to declare war against a foreign nation. These issues effectively allowed the King to more or less rule by decree with the exception of the above-mentioned affairs. Election[edit] Whenever a Roman king died, Rome entered a period of interregnum. Supreme power in the state would be devolved to the Senate, which had the task of finding a new king. The Senate would assemble and appoint one of its own members as the interrex to serve for a period of five days with the sole purpose of nominating the next king of Rome. After the five-day period, the interrex would appoint (with the Senate's consent) another Senator for another five-day term. This process would continue until the election of a new king. Once the interrex found a suitable nominee for the kingship, he would bring the nominee before the Senate and the Senate would examine him.[citation needed] If the Senate confirmed the nomination, the interrex would convene the Curiate Assembly and preside as its chairman during the election of the King. Once a candidate was proposed to the Curiate Assembly, the people of Rome could either accept or reject the King-elect. If accepted, the King-elect did not immediately take office: two additional acts had to take place before he was invested with the full regal authority and power. First, it was necessary to obtain the divine will of the gods respecting his appointment by means of the auspices, since the king would serve as high priest of Rome. An augur performed this ceremony by conducting the King-elect to the citadel where he was placed on a stone seat as the people waited below. If the King-elect was found worthy of the kingship, the augur announced that the gods had given favourable tokens, thus confirming the King-elect’s priestly character. Second the imperium had to be conferred upon the King. The Curiate Assembly's vote only determined who was to be King, but that act did not bestow the powers of the king upon him. Accordingly, the King himself proposed to the Curiate Assembly a bill granting him imperium, and the Curiate Assembly, by voting in favour of the law, would grant it. In theory, the people of Rome elected their leader, but the Senate had most of the control over the process. Kings of Rome (753–509 BC)[edit] Since Rome's records were destroyed in 390 BC when the city was sacked, it is impossible to know for certain how many kings actually ruled the city, or if any of the deeds attributed to the individual kings, by later writers, are accurate.[citation needed] Titus Tatius, King of the Sabines, was also joint king of Rome with Romulus for five years, until his death. However he is not traditionally counted among the seven kings of Rome. Portrait Name Lifespan Reign began Reign ended Succession Romulus ROMVLVS REX c.772 – 716 BC (aged 56) 753 BC 716 BC Proclaimed himself king after murdering his brother, Remus. Numa Pompilius NVMA POMPILIVS REX 753 – 672 BC (aged 80) 715 BC 672 BC Elected king by the Curiate Assembly, after the death of Romulus. Brother in law of Romulus.[2] Tullus Hostilius TVLLVS HOSTILIVS REX ? – 642 BC 672 BC 642 BC Elected king by the Curiate Assembly, after the death of Numa Pompilius. Ancus Marcius ANCVS MARCIVS REX c. 677 – 616 BC 642 BC 616 BC Son in law of Tullus Hostilius,[3] grandson of Numa Pompilius; five years old at the time of his grandfather's death,[4] he was elected king by the Curiate Assembly after the death of Tullus Hostilius. Lucius Tarquinius Priscus LVCIVS TARQVINIVS PRISCVS REX ? – 578 BC 616 BC 579 BC After the death of Ancus Marcius, he became regent due to Marcius' sons being too young, but was soon elected king by the Curiate Assembly. He was the first Etruscan king, and was originally known as Lucumo. Servius Tullius SERVIVS TVLLIVS REX ? – 534 BC 579 BC 534 BC Son in law of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus.[5] He seized the kingship after Ancus' sons had Tarquinius Priscus assassinated under the guise that he was merely filling in while the king was recovering. Lucius Tarquinius Superbus LVCIVS TARQVINIVS SVPERBVS REX ? – 495 BC 534 BC 509 BC Son or grandson of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus; seized the kingship after the assassination of Servius Tullius which he and his wife (daughter of Tullius) helped orchestrate. During the Republic[edit] Family relations Main article: Roman Republic The overthrow of the Roman monarchy of Tarquinius Superbus led to a limited separation of the powers mentioned above. The actual title of king was retained for the rex sacrorum, who formally remained Rome's first priest. He was forbidden any political or military career, except for a seat in the senate. However, the Roman desire to prevent the kingship from becoming important went so far that, even in the area of religion, the king of sacrifices was formally, in all but protocol, subordinated to the first of the pontiffs, the pontifex maximus (whose position in origin, rather than with the name of priest, is better described as "minister of religion"), to the extent that at some point in history, the regia or royal palace at the Forum Romanum, originally inhabited by the king of sacrifices,[6] was ceded to the pontifex maximus.[7] Significantly enough, one of his major public appearances was at the festival of Regifugium, where he impersonated the king being thrown out of the city. Further, the consuls retained religious roles which were considered so important that the office of interrex was retained for the opening prayer of "electional" assemblies in the event that both consuls died in office, and the ritual of driving a nail into the temple of Jupiter sometimes even induced a dictatorship.[clarification needed] The rex sacrorum was not elected publicly, but chosen by the pontifical college. The king of sacrifices retained some religious rites only he could perform, and acted as quasi-flamen to Janus. The position seems to have continued in existence until the official adoption of the Christian religion. To qualify for the office, patrician ancestry was necessary; however it was once performed by a member of a family otherwise known as plebeian, the Marcii, earning for himself and his descendants the cognomen Rex. As has been mentioned, the administrative functions in religion, including at some point the housing in the ancient royal court, were ceded to the supreme pontiff. In the late Republic, the previous role of the king in choosing new senators and dismissing people from the senate was ceded to the censors. However, the role of choosing senators became rather limited as all magistrates down to the rank of quaestor eventually gained admission to the senate after the office's expiration. The modern concept of a head of state, insofar as the republican times excepting the dictatorships are concerned, can hardly be translated to Roman conceptions[clarification needed], but most other powers—the imperium—were ceded to the consuls (the etymology suggests that these were originally the king's chief counsellors) and to the praetors ("leaders")[8] after the creation of that office (about 367, according to Livy); thereby at least roughly separating the judiciary from the executive. According to tradition (which is disputed by historians for the first decades), the consulate was always entrusted to two persons to prevent autocracy. In case of emergencies, the power to appoint a dictator for a six-month term was introduced. Later, proconsuls and propraetors could be given an imperium by appointment of the senate. Whoever used the imperium to victoriously lead an army could acquire the title of imperator, which later became chief title of the emperors, who were formally included in the system as proconsuls over most (and the strategically most important) parts of the empire, chief senators, and popular tribunes without the title. The republican idea that all promagisterial imperium ends upon entering the city was not observed in the emperors' case. At the same time, the legislation was practically passed from the Curiate Assembly to the Centuriate Assembly (and Tribal Assembly), with the exception of the formality, more or less, of a lex curiata de imperio, which ratified the elections of the previous Centuriate Assembly. The consuls did, however, retain the power to rule by ordinance. See also[edit] Roman emperor Pompilia gens Hostilia gens Marcia gens Tullia gens Tarquinia gens References[edit] ^ Outline of Roman History William C. Morey, Ph.D., D.C.L. New York, Cincinnati, Chicago: American Book Company (1901) ^ Romulus had a wife, Hersilia, whose sister, Tatia, married Numa. They were both the daughters of Titus Tatius, King of the Sabines ^ Married his daughter, Hostilia ^ Plutach's Parallel Lives vol. 1 p. 379 ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1.39. ^ Gary Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War (University of California Press, 2005), p. 136 online. ^ It is well known that Caesar inhabited it. ^ Before the formal establishment of the office of praetor below the consulate, this was at least another generic name, and quite possibly another title, of the consuls, cf. the names "praetorium" for the military leader's tent etc. External links[edit] Roman Empire.net: The Kings Historywiz.com: The Etruscan Kings v t e Kings of Rome Romulus (753–717 BC) Numa Pompilius (717–673 BC) Tullus Hostilius (673–642 BC) Ancus Marcius (642–617 BC) Lucius Tarquinius Priscus (616–579 BC) Servius Tullius (578–535 BC) Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (535–510 BC/509 BC) v t e List of historic states of Italy Etruscan civilization Lega dei popoli Etruscan dodecapolis Ancient Rome Roman Kingdom (753 BC–509 BC) Roman Republic (509 BC–27 BC) Italy (4th/3rd century BC–476 AD) Sicilia (241 BC–476 AD) Corsica and Sardinia (238 BC–455 AD) Roman Empire (27 BC–395 AD) Western Roman Empire (285 AD–476 AD) Praetorian prefecture of Italy (337 AD–584 AD) Medieval and Early Modern states Early Italian Kingdom (476–774) Odoacer's rule (476–493) Ostrogothic rule (493–553) Vandal rule (435–534) Lombard rule (568–774) Duchy of Benevento Duchy of Friuli Duchy of Ivrea Duchy of Spoleto Duchy of Tridentum Byzantine Empire (584–751) Exarchate of Ravenna (584–751) Duchy of Rome (533–751) Duchy of Perugia (554–752) Duchy of the Pentapolis (554–752) Exarchate of Africa (585–698) Holy Roman Empire and other independent states Bishopric of Bressanone City of Fiume and its District Commune of Rome County of Gorizia Princely County of Gorizia and Gradisca County of Guastalla Duchy of Guastalla Kingdom of Italy Ancona Ceva Finale March of Friuli Patria del Friuli (Patriarchate of Aquileia) Ivrea Istria Mantua Milan March of Montferrat Duchy of Montferrat Tyrol Trieste Turin Tuscany Verona Duchy of Ivrea Duchy of Mantua Duchy of Massa and Carrara Duchy of Merania Duchy of Mirandola Duchy of Modena and Reggio Principality of Piombino Duchy of Reggio Marquisate of Saluzzo Duchy of Spoleto Bishopric of Tarantasia Bishopric of Trento Grand Duchy of Tuscany Papal States (754–1870) Duchy of Castro Duchy of Ferrara Holy See Duchy of Parma Duchy of Urbino Republics Republic of Cospaia Republic of Ancona Republic of Florence Republic of Genoa Republic of Noli Republic of Lucca Republic of Massa Republic of Pisa Republic of Siena Republic of Venice (697–1797) Dogado Domini di Terraferma Stato da Màr Southern Italy (774–1139) Byzantine Duchy of Amalfi Duchy of Gaeta Catepanate of Italy Longobardia Theme of Lucania Duchy of Naples Theme of Sicily and Byzantine Sicily Duchy of Sorrento Arab Emirate of Bari Emirate of Sicily Lombard Principality of Benevento Principality of Salerno Principality of Capua Norman County of Apulia and Calabria County of Aversa County of Sicily Principality of Taranto Sardinia and Corsica (9th century–1420) Judicates Agugliastra Arborea Cagliari Gallura Logudoro Oristano Republic of Sassari Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica Corsican Republic (1755–1769) Kingdom of Sicily (1130–1816) and Kingdom of Naples (1282–1816) State of the Presidi Duke of San Donato Duchy of Sora Principality of Taranto Terra Sancti Benedicti Neapolitan Republic (1647–1648) Hospitaller Malta Gozo Malta Protectorate Crown Colony of Malta Savoy and the Savoyard state (from the 10th century) Savoy County of Savoy County of Maurienne County of Geneva Duchy of Chablais Barony of Faucigny Piedmont Duchy of Aosta County of Nice County of Tenda Sicily (1713–1720) Sardinia (1720–1861) French Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras (1792–1815) Republics Cisalpinia Cispadania Italy Liguria Lucca Parthenopea Piedmont Rome Subalpinia Transpadania Monarchies Benevento Etruria Guastalla Italy Lucca and Piombino Massa and Carrara Naples Pontecorvo Tuscany Elba Corsica Post-Napoleonic states Duchy of Genoa (1815–1848) Duchy of Lucca (1815–1847) Duchy of Massa and Carrara (1814–1829) Duchy of Modena and Reggio (1814–1859) Duchy of Parma (1814–1859) Grand Duchy of Tuscany (1815–1859) Italian United Provinces (1831) Provisional Government of Milan (1848) Republic of San Marco (1848–1849) Roman Republic (1849) United Provinces of Central Italy (1859–1860) Kingdom of Sardinia (1814–1860) Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (1816–1861) Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia (1815–1866) Papal States (1814–1870) Post-unification Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946) Julian March Italian Empire (1882–1960) Free State of Fiume (1920–1924) Italian Social Republic (1943–1945) Free Territory of Trieste (1947–1954) v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall 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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7177	----	Roman calendar - Wikipedia Roman calendar From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Roman month" redirects here. For the unit of military contribution in the Holy Roman Empire, see Roman Month. For the Catholic liturgical calendar, see General Roman Calendar. Calendar used by the Roman Kingdom and Roman Republic This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Roman calendar" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) A reproduction of the fragmentary Fasti Antiates Maiores (c. 60 BC), with the sixth and seventh months still named Quintilis ("QVI") and Sextilis ("SEX") and an intercalary month ("INTER") in the far righthand column Another reproduction of the Fasti Antiates Maiores The Roman calendar was the calendar used by the Roman kingdom and republic. The term often includes the Julian calendar established by the reforms of the dictator Julius Caesar and emperor Augustus in the late 1st century BC and sometimes includes any system dated by inclusive counting towards months' kalends, nones, and ides in the Roman manner. The term usually excludes the Alexandrian calendar of Roman Egypt, which continued the unique months of that land's former calendar; the Byzantine calendar of the later Roman Empire, which usually dated the Roman months in the simple count of the ancient Greek calendars; and the Gregorian calendar, which refined the Julian system to bring it into still closer alignment with the tropical year. Roman dates were counted inclusively forward to the next of three principal days: the first of the month (the kalends), a day shortly before the middle of the month (the ides), and eight days—nine, counting inclusively—before this (the nones). The original calendar consisted of ten months beginning in spring with March; winter was left as an unassigned span of days. These months ran for 38 nundinal cycles, each forming an eight-day week (nine days counted inclusively, hence the name) ended by religious rituals and a public market. The winter period was later divided into two months, January and February. The legendary early kings Romulus and Numa Pompilius were traditionally credited with establishing this early fixed calendar, which bears traces of its origin as an observational lunar one. In particular, the kalends, nones, and ides seem to have derived from the first sighting of the crescent moon, the first-quarter moon, and the full moon respectively. The system ran well short of the solar year, and it needed constant intercalation to keep religious festivals and other activities in their proper seasons. This is a typical element of lunisolar calendars. For superstitious reasons, such intercalation occurred within the month of February even after it was no longer considered the last month. After the establishment of the Roman Republic, years began to be dated by consulships and control over intercalation was granted to the pontifices, who eventually abused their power by lengthening years controlled by their political allies and shortening the years in their rivals' terms of office.[citation needed] Having won his war with Pompey, Caesar used his position as Rome's chief pontiff to enact a calendar reform in 46 BC, coincidentally making the year of his third consulship last for 446 days. In order to avoid interfering with Rome's religious ceremonies, the reform added all its days towards the ends of months and did not adjust any nones or ides, even in months which came to have 31 days. The Julian calendar was supposed to have a single leap day on 24 February (a doubled VI Kal. Mart. or ante diem bis sextum Kalendas Martias) every fourth year, but following Caesar's assassination the priests figured this using inclusive counting and mistakenly added this bissextile (bis sextum) day every three years. In order to bring the calendar back to its proper place, Augustus was obliged to suspend intercalation for one or two decades. The revised calendar remained slightly longer than the solar year; by the 16th century the date of Easter had shifted so far away from the vernal equinox that Pope Gregory XIII ordered the calendar's adjustment, resulting in the Gregorian calendar. Contents 1 History 1.1 Prehistoric lunar calendar 1.2 Legendary 10 month calendar 1.3 Republican calendar 1.4 Flavian reform 1.5 Julian reform 1.6 Later reforms 2 Days 3 Weeks 4 Months 5 Intercalation 6 Years 7 Conversion to Julian or Gregorian dates 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 10.1 Citations 10.2 Bibliography 11 External links History[edit] The remains of the Fasti Praenestini Prehistoric lunar calendar[edit] The original Roman calendar is believed to have been an observational lunar calendar[1] whose months began from the first signs of a new crescent moon. Because a lunar cycle is about ​29 1⁄2 days long, such months would have varied between 29 and 30 days. Twelve such months would have fallen 10 or 11 days short of the solar year; without adjustment, such a year would have quickly rotated out of alignment with the seasons in the manner of the Islamic calendar. Given the seasonal aspects of the later calendar and its associated religious festivals, this was presumably avoided through some form of intercalation or the suspension of the calendar during winter. Rome's 8-day week, the nundinal cycle, was shared with the Etruscans, who used it as the schedule of royal audiences. It was presumably a part of the early calendar and was credited in Roman legend variously to Romulus and Servius Tullius. Legendary 10 month calendar[edit] The Romans themselves described their first organized year as one with ten fixed months, each of 30 or 31 days.[2][3] Such a decimal division fitted general Roman practice.[4] The four 31 day months were called "full" (pleni) and the others "hollow" (cavi).[5][6] Its 304 days made up exactly 38 nundinal cycles. The system is usually said to have left the remaining 50 odd days of the year as an unorganized "winter", although Licinius Macer's lost history apparently stated the earliest Roman calendar employed intercalation instead[7][8] and Macrobius claims the 10 month calendar was allowed to shift until the summer and winter months were completely misplaced, at which time additional days belonging to no month were simply inserted into the calendar until it seemed things were restored to their proper place.[9][10] Later Roman writers credited this calendar to Romulus,[11][12] their legendary first king and culture hero, although this was common with other practices and traditions whose origin had been lost to them. Some scholars doubt the existence of this calendar at all, as it is only attested in late Republican and Imperial sources and supported only by the misplaced names of the months from September to December.[13] Rüpke also finds the coincidence of the length of the supposed "Romulan" year with the length of the first ten months of the Julian calendar to be suspicious.[clarification needed][13] Calendar of Romulus English Latin Meaning Length in days [2][3] March Mensis Martius Month of Mars 31 April Mensis Aprilis Month of Apru (Aphrodite)[14] 30 0 May Mensis Maius Month of Maia[15] 31 June Mensis Iunius Month of Juno 30 July Mensis Quintilis Mensis Quinctilis[16] Fifth Month 31 August Mensis Sextilis Sixth Month 30 September Mensis September Seventh Month 30 October Mensis October Eighth Month 31 November Mensis November Ninth Month 30 December Mensis December Tenth Month 30 length of the year: 304 Other traditions existed alongside this one, however. Plutarch's Parallel Lives recounts that Romulus's calendar had been solar but adhered to the general principle that the year should last for 360 days. Months were employed secondarily and haphazardly, with some counted as 20 days and others as 35 or more.[17][18] Republican calendar[edit] The attested calendar of the Roman Republic was quite different. It followed Greek calendars in assuming a lunar cycle of ​29  1⁄2 days and a solar year of ​12  1⁄2 synodic months (​368  3⁄4 days), which align every fourth year after the addition of two intercalary months.[6] Two months were added at the end of the year to complete the cycle during winter, January and February, before the intercalary month inserted every two years; the intercalary month was sometimes known as Mercedonius.[6] The Romans did not follow the usual Greek practice in alternating 29- and 30-day months and a 29- or 30-day intercalary month every other year. Instead, their 1st, 3rd, 5th, and 8th months[a] had 31 days each; all the other months had 29 days except February, which had 28  days in common years, for a total of 355 days. The Roman intercalary month always had 27 days, but was placed within the month of February alternating between after the Terminalia on the 23rd (a.d. VII Kal. Mart.), and after the following day on the 24th; the remaining days of February were replaced by the corresponding days of Mercedonius[19] (these last 6 or 7 days of February were actually named and counted inclusively in days before the calends of March and were traditionally part of the celebration for the new year). This seems to have arisen from Roman superstitions concerning the numbering and order of the months.[citation needed] The arrangement of the Roman calendar similarly seems to have arisen from Pythagorean superstitions concerning the luckiness of odd numbers.[20] These Pythagorean-based changes to the Roman calendar were generally credited by the Romans to Numa Pompilius, Romulus's successor and the second of Rome's seven kings,[citation needed] as were the two new months of the calendar.[21][22][b] Most sources thought he had established intercalation with the rest of his calendar.[citation needed] Although Livy's Numa instituted a lunar calendar, the author claimed the king had instituted a 19-year system of intercalation equivalent to the Metonic cycle[23] centuries before its development by Babylonian and Greek astronomers.[c] Plutarch's account claims he ended the former chaos of the calendar by employing 12 months totaling 354 days—the length of the lunar and Greek years—and biennial intercalary months of 22 days.[17][18] According to Livy's Periochae, the beginning of the consular year changed from March to January 1 in 154 BC to respond to a rebellion in Hispania.[25] Plutarch believed Numa was responsible for placing January and February first in the calendar;[17][18] Ovid states January began as the first month and February the last, with its present order owing to the Decemvirs.[26][27] W. Warde Fowler believed the Roman priests continued to treat January and February as the last months of the calendar throughout the Republican period.[28] Roman Republican calendar (c. 700 BC or c. 450 BC – 46 BC) English Latin Meaning Length in days[29][30][17][18] 1st year (cmn.) 2nd year (leap) 3rd year (cmn.) 4th year (leap) 1. January I. Mensis Ianuarius Month of Janus 29 29 29 29 2. February II. Mensis Februarius Month of the Februa 28 22 28 23   Intercalary Month   Intercalaris Mensis (Mercedonius)   Month of Wages   27   27 3. March III. Mensis Martius Month of Mars 31 31 31 31 4. April IV. Mensis Aprilis Month of Aphrodite – from which the Etruscan Apru might have been derived 29 29 29 29 5. May V. Mensis Maius Month of Maia 31 31 31 31 6. June VI. Mensis Iunius Month of Juno 29 29 29 29 7. July VII. Mensis Quintilis Fifth Month (from the earlier calendar starting in March) 31 31 31 31 8. August VIII. Mensis Sextilis Sixth Month 29 29 29 29 9. September IX. Mensis September Seventh Month 29 29 29 29 10. October X. Mensis October Eighth Month 31 31 31 31 11. November XI. Mensis November Ninth Month 29 29 29 29 12. December XII. Mensis December Tenth Month 29 29 29 29 Whole year: 355 382 355 383 The consuls' terms of office were not always a modern calendar year, but ordinary consuls were elected or appointed annually. The traditional list of Roman consuls used by the Romans to date their years began in 509 BC.[31] Flavian reform[edit] Gnaeus Flavius, a secretary (scriba) to censor App. Claudius Caecus introduced a series of reforms in 304 BC.[32] Their exact nature is uncertain, although he is thought to have begun the custom of publishing the calendar in advance of the month, depriving the priests of some of their power but allowing for a more consistent calendar for official business.[33] Julian reform[edit] Main article: Julian calendar Julius Caesar, following his victory in his civil war and in his role as pontifex maximus, ordered a reformation of the calendar in 46 BC. This was undertaken by a group of scholars apparently including the Alexandrian Sosigenes[34] and the Roman M. Flavius.[35][30] Its main lines involved the insertion of ten additional days throughout the calendar and regular intercalation of a single leap day every fourth year to bring the Roman calendar into close agreement with the solar year. The year 46 BC was the last of the old system and included 3 intercalary months, the first inserted in February and two more—Intercalaris Prior and Posterior—before the kalends of December. Later reforms[edit] Main article: Byzantine calendar After Caesar's assassination, Mark Antony had Caesar's birth month Quintilis renamed July (Iulius) in his honor. After Antony's defeat at Actium, Augustus assumed control of Rome and, finding the priests had (owing to their inclusive counting) been intercalating every third year instead of every fourth, suspended the addition of leap days to the calendar for one or two decades until its proper position had been restored. See Julian calendar: Leap year error. In 8 BC, the plebiscite Lex Pacuvia de Mense Augusto renamed Sextilis August (Augustus) in his honor.[36][37][30][d] In large part, this calendar continued unchanged under the Roman Empire. (Egyptians used the related Alexandrian calendar, which Augustus had adapted from their wandering ancient calendar to maintain its alignment with Rome's.) A few emperors altered the names of the months after themselves or their family, but such changes were abandoned by their successors. Diocletian began the 15-year indiction cycles beginning from the AD 297 census;[31] these became the required format for official dating under Justinian. Constantine formally established the 7-day week by making Sunday an official holiday in 321.[citation needed] Consular dating became obsolete following the abandonment of appointing nonimperial consuls in AD 541.[31] The Roman method of numbering the days of the month never became widespread in the Hellenized eastern provinces and was eventually abandoned by the Byzantine Empire in its calendar. Days[edit] Main article: Kalends Roman dates were counted inclusively forward to the next one of three principal days within each month:[38] Kalends (Kalendae or Kal.), the 1st day of each month[38] Nones (Nonae or Non.), the 7th day of full months[39] and 5th day of hollow ones,[38] 8 days—"nine" by Roman reckoning—before the Ides in every month Ides (Idus, variously Eid. or Id.), the 15th day of full months[39] and the 13th day of hollow ones,[38] a day less than the middle of each month These are thought to reflect a prehistoric lunar calendar, with the kalends proclaimed after the sighting of the first sliver of the new crescent moon a day or two after the new moon, the nones occurring on the day of the first-quarter moon, and the ides on the day of the full moon. The kalends of each month were sacred to Juno and the ides to Jupiter.[40][41] The day before each was known as its eve (pridie); the day after each (postridie) was considered particularly unlucky. The days of the month were expressed in early Latin using the ablative of time, denoting points in time, in the contracted form "the 6th December Kalends" (VI Kalendas Decembres).[39] In classical Latin, this use continued for the three principal days of the month[42] but other days were idiomatically expressed in the accusative case, which usually expressed a duration of time, and took the form "6th day before the December Kalends" (ante diem VI Kalendas Decembres). This anomaly may have followed the treatment of days in Greek,[43] reflecting the increasing use of such date phrases as an absolute phrase able to function as the object of another preposition,[39] or simply originated in a mistaken agreement of dies with the preposition ante once it moved to the beginning of the expression.[39] In late Latin, this idiom was sometimes abandoned in favor of again using the ablative of time. The kalends were the day for payment of debts and the account books (kalendaria) kept for them gave English its word calendar. The public Roman calendars were the fasti, which designated the religious and legal character of each month's days. The Romans marked each day of such calendars with the letters:[44] F (fastus, "permissible") on days when it was legal to initiate action in the courts of civil law (dies fasti, "allowed days") C (comitialis) on fasti days during which the Roman people could hold assemblies (dies comitiales) N (nefastus) on days when political and judicial activities were prohibited (dies nefasti) NP (uncertain)[e] on public holidays (feriae) QRCF (uncertain)[f] on days when the "king" (rex sacrorum) could convene an assembly EN (endotercissus, an archaic form of intercissus, "halved") on days when most political and religious activities were prohibited in the morning and evening due to sacrifices being prepared or offered but were acceptable for a period in the middle of the day Each day was also marked by a letter from A to H to indicate its place within the nundinal cycle of market days. Weeks[edit] A fragment of the Fasti Praenestini for the month of April (Aprilis), showing its nundinal letters on the left side Main articles: Nundinae, Planetary hours, and Week The nundinae were the market days which formed a kind of weekend in Rome, Italy, and some other parts of Roman territory. By Roman inclusive counting, they were reckoned as "ninth days" although they actually occurred every eighth day. Because the republican and Julian years were not evenly divisible into eight-day periods, Roman calendars included a column giving every day of the year a nundinal letter from A to H marking its place in the cycle of market days. Each year, the letter used for the markets would shift 2–5 letters along the cycle. As a day when the city swelled with rural plebeians, they were overseen by the aediles and took on an important role in Roman legislation, which was supposed to be announced for three nundinal weeks (between 17 and 24 days) in advance of its coming to a vote. The patricians and their clients sometimes exploited this fact as a kind of filibuster, since the tribunes of the plebs were required to wait another three-week period if their proposals could not receive a vote before dusk on the day they were introduced. Superstitions arose concerning the bad luck that followed a nundinae on the nones of a month or, later, on the first day of January. Intercalation was supposedly used to avoid such coincidences, even after the Julian reform of the calendar. The 7-day week began to be observed in Italy in the early imperial period,[46] as practitioners and converts to eastern religions introduced Hellenistic and Babylonian astrology, the Jewish Saturday sabbath, and the Christian Lord's Day. The system was originally used for private worship and astrology but had replaced the nundinal week by the time Constantine made Sunday (dies Solis) an official day of rest in AD 321. The hebdomadal week was also reckoned as a cycle of letters from A to G; these were adapted for Christian use as the dominical letters. Months[edit] The names of Roman months originally functioned as adjectives (e.g., the January kalends occur in the January month) before being treated as substantive nouns in their own right (e.g., the kalends of January occur in January). Some of their etymologies are well-established: January and March honor the gods Janus[47] and Mars;[48] July and August honor Julius Caesar[49] and his successor, the emperor Augustus;[50] and the months Quintilis,[51] Sextilis,[52] September,[53] October,[54] November,[55] and December[56] are archaic adjectives formed from the ordinal numbers from 5 to 10, their position in the calendar when it began around the spring equinox in March.[53] Others are uncertain. February may derive from the Februa festival or its eponymous februa ("purifications, expiatory offerings"), whose name may be either Sabine or preserve an archaic word for sulphuric.[57] April may relate to the Etruscan goddess Apru or the verb aperire ("to open").[citation needed] May and June may honor Maia[58] and Juno[59] or derive from archaic terms for "senior" and "junior". A few emperors attempted to add themselves to the calendar after Augustus, but without enduring success. In classical Latin, the days of each month were usually reckoned as:[42] Day Original 31-day months Mar, May, Jul, Oct[g] New Julian 31-day months Jan, Aug, Dec[h] New Julian 30-day months Apr, Jun, Sep, Nov[i] Original 29-day months Jan, Apr, Jun, Aug, Sep, Nov, Dec[j] February 1 Kal. On the Kalends Kalendis Kal. Kal. Kal. Feb. 2 a.d. VI Non. The 4th Day before the Nones ante diem quartum Nonas a.d. IV Non. a.d. IV Non. a.d. IV Non. Feb. 3 a.d. V Non. The 3rd Day before the Nones ante diem tertium Nonas a.d. III Non. a.d. III Non. a.d. III Non. Feb. 4 a.d. IV Non. On the Day before the Nones Pridie Nonas Prid. Non. Prid. Non. Prid. Non. Feb. 5 a.d. III Non. On the Nones Nonis Non. Non. Non. Feb. 6 Prid. Non. The 8th Day before the Ides ante diem octavum Idus a.d. VIII Eid. a.d. VIII Eid. a.d. VIII Eid. Feb. 7 Non. The 7th Day before the Ides ante diem septimum Idus a.d. VII Eid. a.d. VII Eid. a.d. VII Eid. Feb. 8 a.d. VIII Eid. The 6th Day before the Ides ante diem sextum Idus a.d. VI Eid. a.d. VI Eid. a.d. VI Eid. Feb. 9 a.d. VII Eid. The 5th Day before the Ides ante diem quintum Idus a.d. V Eid. a.d. V Eid. a.d. V Eid. Feb. 10 a.d. VI Eid. The 4th Day before the Ides ante diem quartum Idus a.d. IV Eid. a.d. IV Eid. a.d. IV Eid. Feb. 11 a.d. V Eid. The 3rd Day before the Ides ante diem tertium Idus a.d. III Eid. a.d. III Eid. a.d. III Eid. Feb. 12 a.d. IV Eid. On the Day before the Ides Pridie Idus Prid. Eid. Prid. Eid. Prid. Eid. Feb. 13 a.d. III Eid. On the Ides Idibus Eid. Eid. Eid. Feb. 14 Prid. Eid. The 19th Day before the Kalends ante diem undevicesimum Kalendas a.d. XVIII Kal. a.d. XVII Kal. a.d. XVI Kal. Mart. 15 Eid. The 18th Day before the Kalends ante diem duodevicesimum Kalendas a.d. XVII Kal. a.d. XVI Kal. a.d. XV Kal. Mart. 16 a.d. XVII Kal. The 17th Day before the Kalends ante diem septimum decimum Kalendas a.d. XVI Kal. a.d. XV Kal. a.d. XIV Kal. Mart. 17 a.d. XVI Kal. The 16th Day before the Kalends ante diem sextum decimum Kalendas a.d. XV Kal. a.d. XIV Kal. a.d. XIII Kal. Mart. 18 a.d. XV Kal. The 15th Day before the Kalends ante diem quintum decimum Kalendas a.d. XIV Kal. a.d. XIII Kal. a.d. XII Kal. Mart. 19 a.d. XIV Kal. The 14th Day before the Kalends ante diem quartum decimum Kalendas a.d. XIII Kal. a.d. XII Kal. a.d. XI Kal. Mart. 20 a.d. XIII Kal. The 13th Day before the Kalends ante diem tertium decimum Kalendas a.d. XII Kal. a.d. XI Kal. a.d. X Kal. Mart. 21 a.d. XII Kal. The 12th Day before the Kalends ante diem duodecimum Kalendas a.d. XI Kal. a.d. X Kal. a.d. IX Kal. Mart. 22 a.d. XI Kal. The 11th Day before the Kalends ante diem undecimum Kalendas a.d. X Kal. a.d. IX Kal. a.d. VIII Kal. Mart. 23 a.d. X Kal. The 10th Day before the Kalends ante diem decimum Kalendas a.d. IX Kal. a.d. VIII Kal. a.d. VII Kal. Mart. 24 a.d. IX Kal. The 9th Day before the Kalends ante diem nonum Kalendas a.d. VIII Kal. a.d. VII Kal. a.d. VI Kal. Mart.[k] 25 a.d. VIII Kal. The 8th Day before the Kalends ante diem octavum Kalendas a.d. VII Kal. a.d. VI Kal. a.d. V Kal. Mart. 26 a.d. VII Kal. The 7th Day before the Kalends ante diem septimum Kalendas a.d. VI Kal. a.d. V Kal. a.d. IV Kal. Mart. 27 a.d. VI Kal. The 6th Day before the Kalends ante diem sextum Kalendas a.d. V Kal. a.d. IV Kal. a.d. III Kal. Mart. 28 a.d. V Kal. The 5th Day before the Kalends ante diem quintum Kalendas a.d. IV Kal. a.d. III Kal. Prid. Kal. Mart. 29 a.d. IV Kal. The 4th Day before the Kalends ante diem quartum Kalendas a.d. III Kal. Prid. Kal. 30 a.d. III Kal. The 3rd Day before the Kalends ante diem tertium Kalendas Prid. Kal. 31 Prid. Kal. On the Day Before the Kalends Pridie Kalendas Dates after the ides count forward to the kalends of the next month and are expressed as such. For example, March 19 was expressed as "the 14th day before the April Kalends" (a.d. XIV Kal. Apr.), without a mention of March itself. The day after a kalends, nones, or ides was also often expressed as the "day after" (postridie) owing to their special status as particularly unlucky "black days". The anomalous status of the new 31-day months under the Julian calendar was an effect of Caesar's desire to avoid affecting the festivals tied to the nones and ides of various months. However, because the dates at the ends of the month all counted forward to the next kalends, they were all shifted by one or two days by the change. This created confusion with regard to certain anniversaries. For instance, Augustus's birthday on the 23rd day of September was a.d. VIII Kal. Oct. in the old calendar but a.d. IX Kal. Oct. under the new system. The ambiguity caused honorary festivals to be held on either or both dates. Intercalation[edit] Main article: Mercedonius The Republican calendar only had 355 days, which meant that it would quickly unsynchronize from the solar year, causing, for example, agricultural festivals to occur out of season. The Roman solution to this problem was to periodically lengthen the calendar by adding extra days within February. February was broken into two parts, each with an odd number of days. The first part ended with the Terminalia on the 23rd (a.d. VII Kal. Mart.), which was considered the end of the religious year; the five remaining days beginning with the Regifugium on the 24th (a.d. VI Kal. Mart.) formed the second part; and the intercalary month Mercedonius was inserted between them. In such years, the days between the ides and the Regifugium were counted down to either the Intercalary Kalends or to the Terminalia. The intercalary month counted down to nones and ides on its 5th and 13th day in the manner of the other short months. The remaining days of the month counted down towards the March Kalends, so that the end of Mercedonius and the second part of February were indistinguishable to the Romans, one ending on a.d. VII Kal. Mart. and the other picking up at a.d. VI Kal. Mart. and bearing the normal festivals of such dates. Apparently because of the confusion of these changes or uncertainty as to whether an intercalary month would be ordered, dates after the February ides are attested as sometimes counting down towards the Quirinalia (Feb. 17), the Feralia (Feb. 21), or Terminalia (Feb. 23)[60] rather than the intercalary or March kalends. The third-century writer Censorinus says: When it was thought necessary to add (every two years) an intercalary month of 22 or 23 days, so that the civil year should correspond to the natural (solar) year, this intercalation was in preference made in February, between Terminalia [23rd] and Regifugium [24th].[61] The fifth-century writer Macrobius says that the Romans intercalated 22 and 23 days in alternate years (Saturnalia, 1.13.12); the intercalation was placed after 23 February and the remaining five days of February followed (Saturnalia, 1.13.15). To avoid the nones falling on a nundine, where necessary an intercalary day was inserted "in the middle of the Terminalia, where they placed the intercalary month".[62] This is historically correct. In 167 BC Intercalaris began on the day after 23 February [63] and in 170 BC it began on the second day after 23 February.[64] Varro, writing in the first century BC, says "the twelfth month was February, and when intercalations take place the five last days of this month are removed."[65] Since all the days after the Ides of Intercalaris were counted down to the beginning of March Intercalaris had either 27 days (making 377 for the year) or 28 (making 378 for the year). There is another theory which says that in intercalary years February had 23 or 24 days and Intercalaris had 27. No date is offered for the Regifugium in 378-day years.[66] Macrobius describes a further refinement whereby, in one 8-year period within a 24-year cycle, there were only three intercalary years, each of 377 days. This refinement brings the calendar back in line with the seasons, and averages the length of the year to 365.25 days over 24 years. The Pontifex Maximus determined when an intercalary month was to be inserted. On average, this happened in alternate years. The system of aligning the year through intercalary months broke down at least twice: the first time was during and after the Second Punic War. It led to the reform of the 191 BC Acilian Law on Intercalation, the details of which are unclear, but it appears to have successfully regulated intercalation for over a century. The second breakdown was in the middle of the first century BC and may have been related to the increasingly chaotic and adversarial nature of Roman politics at the time. The position of Pontifex Maximus was not a full-time job; it was held by a member of the Roman elite, who would almost invariably be involved in the machinations of Roman politics. Because the term of office of elected Roman magistrates was defined in terms of a Roman calendar year, a Pontifex Maximus would have reason to lengthen a year in which he or his allies were in power or shorten a year in which his political opponents held office. Although there are many stories to interpret the intercalation, a period of 22 or 23 days is always ​1⁄4 synodic month short. Obviously, the month beginning shifts forward (from the new moon, to the third quarter, to the full moon, to the first quarter, back the new moon) after intercalation. Years[edit] A fragment of an imperial consular list[67] Main article: list of Roman consuls As mentioned above, Rome's legendary 10-month calendar notionally lasted for 304 days but was usually thought to make up the rest of the solar year during an unorganized winter period. The unattested but almost certain lunar year and the pre-Julian civil year were 354 or 355 days long, with the difference from the solar year more or less corrected by an irregular intercalary month. The Julian year was 365 days long, with a leap day doubled in length every fourth year, almost equivalent to the present Gregorian system. The calendar era before and under the Roman kings is uncertain but dating by regnal years was common in antiquity. Under the Roman Republic, from 509 BC, years were most commonly described in terms of their reigning ordinary consuls.[31] (Temporary and honorary consuls were sometimes elected or appointed but were not used in dating.)[31] Consular lists were displayed on the public calendars. After the institution of the Roman Empire, regnal dates based on the emperors' terms in office became more common. Some historians of the later republic and early imperial eras dated from the legendary founding of the city of Rome (ab urbe condita or AVC).[31] Varro's date for this was 753 BC but other writers used different dates, varying by several decades.[citation needed] Such dating was, however, never widespread. After the consuls waned in importance, most Roman dating was regnal[68] or followed Diocletian's 15-year Indiction tax cycle.[31] These cycles were not distinguished, however, so that "year 2 of the indiction" may refer to any of 298, 313, 328, &c.[31] The Orthodox subjects of the Byzantine Empire used various Christian eras, including those based on Diocletian's persecutions, Christ's incarnation, and the supposed age of the world. The Romans did not have records of their early calendars but, like modern historians, assumed the year originally began in March on the basis of the names of the months following June. The consul M. Fulvius Nobilior (r. 189 BC) wrote a commentary on the calendar at the Temple of Hercules Musarum that claimed January had been named for Janus because the god faced both ways,[69][where?] suggesting it had been instituted as a first month.[citation needed] It was, however, usually said to have been instituted along with February, whose nature and festivals suggest it had originally been considered the last month of the year. The consuls' term of office—and thus the order of the years under the republic—seems to have changed several times. Their inaugurations were finally moved to 1 January (Kal. Ian.) in 153 BC to allow Q. Fulvius Nobilior to attack Segeda in Spain during the Celtiberian Wars, before which they had occurred on 15 March (Eid. Mart.).[70] There is reason to believe the inauguration date had been 1 May during the 3rd century BC until 222 BC[citation needed] and Livy mentions earlier inaugurations on 15 May (Eid. Mai.), 1 July (Kal. Qui.), 1 August (Kal. Sex.), 1 October (Kal. Oct.), and 15 December (Eid. Dec.).[71][where?] Under the Julian calendar, the year began on 1 January but years of the Indiction cycle began on 1 September. In addition to Egypt's separate calendar, some provinces maintained their records using a local era.[31] Africa dated its records sequentially from 39 BC;[68] Spain from AD 38.[citation needed] This dating system continued as the Spanish era used in medieval Spain.[citation needed] Conversion to Julian or Gregorian dates[edit] The continuity of names from the Roman to the Gregorian calendar can lead to the mistaken belief that Roman dates correspond to Julian or Gregorian ones. In fact, the essentially complete list of Roman consuls allows general certainty of years back to the establishment of the republic but the uncertainty as to the end of lunar dating and the irregularity of Roman intercalation means that dates which can be independently verified are invariably weeks to months outside of their "proper" place. Two astronomical events dated by Livy show the calendar 4 months out of alignment with the Julian date in 190 BC and 2 months out of alignment in 168 BC. Thus, "the year of the consulship of Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus and Publius Licinius Crassus" (usually given as "205 BC") actually began on 15 March 205 BC and ended on 14 March 204 BC according to the Roman calendar but may have begun as early as November or December 206 BC owing to its misalignment. Even following the establishment of the Julian calendar, the leap years were not applied correctly by the Roman priests, meaning dates are a few days out of their "proper" place until a few decades into Augustus's reign. Given the paucity of records regarding the state of the calendar and its intercalation, historians have reconstructed the correspondence of Roman dates to their Julian and Gregorian equivalents from disparate sources. There are detailed accounts of the decades leading up to the Julian reform, particularly the speeches and letters of Cicero, which permit an established chronology back to about 58 BC. The nundinal cycle and a few known synchronisms—e.g., a Roman date in terms of the Attic calendar and Olympiad—are used to generate contested chronologies back to the start of the First Punic War in 264 BC. Beyond that, dates are roughly known based on clues such as the dates of harvests and seasonal religious festivals. See also[edit] List of calendars Julian, Alexandrian, Byzantine, & Gregorian calendars List of Roman consuls and ab urbe condita dating General Roman Calendar of the Catholic Church Roman festivals Undecimber Notes[edit] ^ That is, the 3rd, 5th, 7th, and 10th months after the repositioning of January and February. ^ Plutarch reports this tradition while claiming that the months had more probably predated or originated with Romulus.[17][18] ^ This equivalence was first described by Stanyan in his history of ancient Greece.[24] ^ There are some documents which state the month had been renamed as early as 26 or 23 BC, but the date of the Lex Pacuvia is certain. ^ The NP days are sometimes thought to mark days when political and judicial activities were prohibited only until noon, standing for nefastus priore. ^ The QRCF days are sometimes supposed, on the basis of the Fasti Viae Lanza which gives it as Q. Rex C. F., to stand for "Permissible when the King Has Entered the Comitium" (Quando Rex Comitiavit Fas).[45] ^ The original 31-day months of the Roman calendar were March, May, Quintilis or July, and October. ^ The 31-day months established by the Julian reform were January, Sextilis or August, and December. The other 31-day months of the Julian calendar continued to use the old system, with their Nones on the 7th and Ides on the 15th. ^ The 30-day months established by the Julian reform were April, June, September, and November. ^ The 29-day months of the calendar prior to the Julian reform were January, April, June, Sextilis, September, November, and December. After the Julian reform, February could have 29 days during a leap year but it was not reckoned according to this list until late in the imperial period. Instead, the sixth day before the March Kalends was initially treated as lasting for 48 hours. ^ After the Julian reform, this day was reckoned to last 48 hours during a leap year. References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Mommsen & al. (1864), pp. 216. ^ a b Macrobius, Book I, Ch. 12, §3. ^ a b Kaster (2011), p. 137. ^ Mommsen & al. (1864), pp. 217. ^ Censorinus, Macrobius, and Solinus, cited in Key (1875) ^ a b c Mommsen & al. (1864), p. 218. ^ Macrobius, Book I, Ch. 13, §20. ^ Kaster (2011), p. 165. ^ Macrobius, Book I, Ch. 12, §39. ^ Kaster (2011), p. 155. ^ Macrobius, Book I, Ch. 12, §§5 & 38. ^ Kaster (2011), pp. 137 & 155. ^ a b Rüpke (2011), p. 23. ^ "April". Dictionary.com Unabridged. Randomhouse Inc. Retrieved January 9, 2018. ^ "May". Dictionary.com Unabridged. Randomhouse Inc. Retrieved January 9, 2018. ^ Blackburn & al. (1999), p. 669. ^ a b c d e Plutarch, Ch. 18. ^ a b c d e Perrin (1914), pp. 368 ff. ^ Rüpke (2011), p. 40 ^ Cite error: The named reference momma was invoked but never defined (see the help page). ^ Macrobius, Book I, Ch. 12, §34. ^ Kaster (2011), p. 153. ^ Roberts (1905), Book I, Ch. 19, §6. ^ Stanyan (1707), p. 330. ^ 47.13 and 47.14: "[47.13] In the five hundred and ninety-eighth year after the founding of the city, the consuls began to enter upon their office on 1 January. [47.14] The cause of this change in the date of the elections was a rebellion in Hispania." ^ Ovid, Book II. ^ Kline (2004), Book II, Introduction. ^ Fowler (1899), p. 5. ^ Macrobius. ^ a b c Kaster (2011). ^ a b c d e f g h i Mathieson (2003), p. 14. ^ Michels (1949), p. 340. ^ Lanfranchi (2013). ^ Pliny, Book XVIII, Ch. 57. ^ Macrobius, Book I, Ch. 14, §2. ^ Rotondi (1912), p. 441. ^ Macrobius, Book I, Ch. 12. ^ a b c d Beck (1838), p. 175. ^ a b c d e Beck (1838), p. 176. ^ Ovid, Book I, ll. 55–56. ^ Kline (2004), Book I, Introduction. ^ a b Beck (1838), p. 177. ^ Smyth (1920), §§1582–1587. ^ Scullard (1981), pp. 44–45. ^ Rüpke (2011), pp. 26–27. ^ Brind'Amour (1983), pp. 256–275. ^ "January, n.", OED . ^ "March, n.2", OED . ^ "July, n.", OED . ^ "August, n.", OED . ^ "†quintile, n.2", OED . ^ "sextile, adj. and n.", OED . ^ a b "September, n.", OED . ^ "October, n.", OED . ^ "November, n.", OED . ^ "December, n.", OED . ^ "February, n.", OED . ^ "May, n.2", OED . ^ "June, n.", OED . ^ A 94  inscription.[which?] ^ Censorinus, The Natal Day, 20.28, tr. William Maude, New York 1900, available at [1]. ^ Macrobius, Book I, Ch. 13, §16, 19. ^ Livy 45.44.3. ^ Livy 43.11.13. ^ Varro, On the Latin language, 6.13, tr. Roland Kent, London 1938, available at [2]. ^ Michels (1967). ^ Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum I, CIL VI. ^ a b Mathieson (2003), p. 15. ^ Varro. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFVarro (help) ^ Livy, Book XLVII. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFLivy (help) ^ Livy. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFLivy (help) Bibliography[edit] Beck, Charles (1838), "Of the Roman Calendar", Latin Syntax, Chiefly from the German of C.G. Zumpt, Boston: Charles C. Little & James Brown . Blackburn, Bonnie; et al. (1999), The Oxford Companion to the Year, Oxford: Oxford University Press . Brind'Amour, P. (1983), Le Calendrier Romain: Recherches Chronologiques, Ottawa . (in French) Fowler, W. Warde (1899), The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic, New York: Macmillan & Co. Key, Thomas Hewitt (1875), "Calendarium", A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, London: John Murray, pp. 223–233 . Lanfranchi, Thibaud (3 October 2013), "À Propos de la Carrière de Cn. Flavius", Mélanges de l'École Française de Rome: Antiquité, 125, doi:10.4000/mefra.1322 . (in French) Livy (1905), Roberts, Canon; et al. (eds.), The History of Rome, Vol. I, Everyman's Library, London: J.M. Dent & Sons, archived from the original on 2017-04-29, retrieved 2017-03-23 . Macrobius, Saturnalia . (in Latin) Macrobius (2011), Kaster, Robert A. (ed.), Saturnalia, Vol. I, Loeb Classical Library, No. 510, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, ISBN 9780674996496 . (in English) & (in Latin) Mathieson, Ralph W. (2003), People, Personal Expression, and Social Relations in Late Antiquity, Vol. II, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press . Michels, Agnes Kirsopp Lake (1949), "The 'Calendar of Numa' and the Pre-Julian Calendar", Transactions & Proceedings of the APA, Vol. 80, Philadelphia: American Philological Association, pp. 320–346 . Michels, Agnes Kirsopp Lake (1967), The Calendar of the Roman Republic, Princeton, ISBN 9781400849789 . Mommsen, Theodor (1864), Dickson, William Purdie (ed.), The History of Rome, Vol. I: The Period Anterior to the Abolition of the Monarchy, London: Richard Bentley . [ 1 ] Ovid, Fastorum Libri VI . (in Latin) Ovid (2004), Kline, Anthony S. (ed.), On the Roman Calendar, Poetry in Translation . Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford: Oxford University Press . Pliny, Historia Naturalis . (in Latin) Plutarch, Βίοι Παράλληλοι [Bíoi Parállēloi, Parallel Lives] . (in Ancient Greek) Plutarch (1914), "The Life of Numa", in Perrin, Bernadotte (ed.), The Parallel Lives, Vol. I, Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge: Harvard University Press . Rotondi, Giovanni (1912), Leges Publicae Populi Romani, Milan: Società Editrice Libraria . (in Latin) Rüpke, Jörg (2011), Richardson, D.M.B. (ed.), The Roman Calendar from Numa to Constantine: Time, History, and the Fasti, Wiley, ISBN 978-0-470-65508-5 . Scullard, Howard Hayes (1981), Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic, Ithaca: Cornell University Press . Smyth, Herbert Weir (1920), A Greek Grammar for Colleges, New York: American Book Co. . Stanyan, Temple (1707), Grecian History, London: J. & R. Tonson . External links[edit] Chris Bennett's reconstruction of early Roman dates in terms of the Julian calendar Early Roman Calendar – History James Grout: The Roman Calendar, part of the Encyclopædia Romana Roman Date Calculator The North American Institute of Living Latin Studies "Theological commentary on the daily Gospel Reading". 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Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films v t e Chronology Key topics Archaeology Astronomy Geology History Big History Paleontology Time Periods Eras Epochs Calendar eras Human Era Ab urbe condita Anno Domini / Common Era Anno Mundi Bosporan era Byzantine era 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en-wikipedia-org-7182	----	Union List of Artist Names - Wikipedia Union List of Artist Names From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from ULAN (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Sample entry, for Mark Rothko, screen 1 Sample ULAN Record, Mark Rothko continued. The Union List of Artist Names (ULAN) is a free online database of the Getty Research Institute using a controlled vocabulary, which by 2018 contained over 300,000 artists and over 720,000 names for them, as well as other information about artists.[1] Names in ULAN may include given names, pseudonyms, variant spellings, names in multiple languages, and names that have changed over time (e.g., married names). Among these names, one is flagged as the preferred name. Although it is displayed as a list, ULAN is structured as a thesaurus, compliant with ISO and NISO standards for thesaurus construction; it contains hierarchical, equivalence, and associative relationships. The focus of each ULAN record is an artist. In the database, each artist record (also called a subject) is identified by a unique numeric ID. The artist's nationality is given, as are places and dates of birth and death (if known).[2] Linked to each artist record are names, related artists, sources for the data, and notes. The temporal coverage of the ULAN ranges from Antiquity to the present and the scope is global. Artists may be either individuals (persons) or groups of individuals working together (corporate bodies). Artists in the ULAN generally represent creators involved in the conception or production of visual arts and architecture. Some performance artists are included (but typically not actors, dancers, or other performing artists). Repositories and some donors are included as well.[3] Contents 1 History 2 Design 3 See also 4 Footnotes 5 External links History[edit] Development of the ULAN began in 1984 by the J. Paul Getty Trust. The Trust, which already managed the Art and Architecture Thesaurus (AAT), began the project in response to requests from Getty projects for controlled vocabularies of artists' names.[4] The ULAN grows and changes via contributions from the user community and editorial work of the Getty Vocabulary Program.[4] Although originally intended only for use by Getty projects, the broader art information community outside the Getty expressed a need to use ULAN for cataloging and retrieval. The Getty thus distributed ULAN for broader use according to the tenets previously established for the construction and maintenance of the Art and Architecture Thesaurus: Its scope includes names needed to catalog and retrieve information about the visual arts and architecture; it is based on terminology that is current, warranted for use by authoritative literary sources, and validated by use in the scholarly art and architectural history community; and it is compiled and edited in response to the needs of the user community. Originally constructed as a simple alphabetized "union list" of clustered artist names and biographies, in order to make it consistent with the AAT and Getty Thesaurus of Geographic Names, in the late 1990s ULAN was brought into compliance with national and international standards for thesaurus construction. Its scope was broadened to include corporate bodies such as architectural firms and repositories of art, which may have hierarchical levels. The ULAN was founded under the management of Eleanor Fink (head of what was then called the Vocabulary Coordination Group, and later Director of the Art History Information Program, later called the Getty Information Institute).[5] The ULAN has been constructed over the years by numerous members of the user community and an army of dedicated editors, under the supervision of several managers. The ULAN was published in 1994 in hardcopy (Union List of Artist Names. Project manager, James M. Bower; senior editor, Murtha Baca. New York: G.K. Hall, 1994) and machine-readable files.[5] Given the growing size and frequency of changes and additions to the ULAN, by 1997 it had become evident that hard-copy publication was impractical. It is now published in automated formats only, in both a searchable online Web interface and in data files available for licensing. The data for ULAN is compiled and edited in an editorial system that was custom-built by Getty technical staff to meet the unique requirements of compiling data from many contributors, merging, moving, and publishing in various formats. Final editorial control of the ULAN is maintained by the Getty Vocabulary Program, using well-established editorial rules. The current managers of the ULAN are Patricia Harpring, Managing Editor, and Murtha Baca, Head, Vocabulary Program and Digital Resource Management. Design[edit] Even though the structure is relatively flat, the ULAN is constructed as a hierarchical database; its trees branch from a root called Top of the ULAN hierarchies (Subject_ID: 500000001); it currently has two published facets: Person and Corporate Body. Entities in the Person facet typically have no children. Entities in the Corporate Body facet may branch into trees. There may be multiple broader contexts, making the ULAN structure polyhierarchical. In addition to the hierarchical relationships, the ULAN also has equivalent and associative relationships. See also[edit] Benezit Dictionary of Artists the main competitor, now online via Oxford Art Online Art and Architecture Thesaurus (AAT) Categories for the Description of Works of Art (CDWA) Cultural Objects Name Authority (CONA) Getty Thesaurus of Geographic Names (TGN) Getty Vocabulary Program Footnotes[edit] ^ ULAN FAQ ^ Lerner, Heidi G. (2008)."Resources for Jewish Biography and Autobiography on the Internet". Shofar 26(2), 128–142. ^ About ULAN ^ a b Harpring, Patricia (2010). "Development of the Getty Vocabularies: AAT, TGN, ULAN, and CONA". Art Documentation: Journal of the Art Libraries Society of North America 29(1), 67–72. ^ a b Austin, David L. (1995). Art Documentation: Journal of the Art Libraries Society of North America 14(2), 48–49. External links[edit] Wikidata has the property: Union List of Artist Names ID (P245) (see uses) Union List of Artist Names Online About the Getty Vocabularies About ULAN Getty Vocabulary Editorial Guidelines The editorial guidelines for the AAT, ULAN, and TGN contain rules and guidelines intended for use by the editors of the Getty Vocabulary Program using the in-house editorial system, VCS (Vocabulary Coordination System). Contributors to the Getty Vocabularies and implementers of the licensed vocabulary data may consult these guidelines as well. Training materials and presentations created by the Getty Vocabulary Program The documents on this page include presentations and other training materials for the Getty Thesaurus of Geographic Names (TGN), the Union List of Artist Names (ULAN), the Art & Architecture Thesaurus (AAT), Cataloging Cultural Objects (CCO), Categories for the Description of Works of Art (CDWA), and standards in general. v t e Authority control files AAG • ACM DL • ADB • AGSA • autores.uy • AWR • BALaT • BIBSYS • Bildindex • BNC • BNE • BNF • Botanist • BPN • CANTIC • CiNii • CWGC • DAAO • DBLP • DSI • FNZA • GND • HDS • IAAF • ICCU • ICIA • ISNI • Joconde • KulturNav • LCCN • LIR • LNB • Léonore • MBA • MGP • NARA • NBL • NDL • NGV • NKC • NLA • NLG • NLI • NLK • NLP • NLR • NSK • NTA • ORCID • PIC • ResearcherID • RERO • RKD • RKDimages ID • RSL • SELIBR • SIKART • SNAC • SUDOC • S2AuthorId • TA98 • TDVİA • TE • TePapa • TH • TLS • Trove • UKPARL • ULAN • US Congress • VcBA • VIAF • WorldCat Identities Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Union_List_of_Artist_Names&oldid=913353894" Categories: Controlled vocabularies J. Paul Getty Trust Museum books Thesauri Arts databases Online person databases Library cataloging and classification Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Asturianu भोजपुरी Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gàidhlig Galego हिन्दी Ilokano Italiano עברית Magyar مصرى Nederlands Nordfriisk Português Română Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Suomi Svenska Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 31 August 2019, at 15:43 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7204	----	Vatican Library - Wikipedia Vatican Library From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from VcBA (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Vatican Apostolic Library Bibliotheca Apostolica Vaticana Pope Sixtus IV Appoints Bartolomeo Platina Prefect of the Vatican Library, fresco by Melozzo da Forlì, 1477, now in the Vatican Museums Country   Vatican City Type Research library Established 1475 (545 years ago) (1475) Coordinates 41°54′17″N 12°27′16″E / 41.90472°N 12.45444°E / 41.90472; 12.45444Coordinates: 41°54′17″N 12°27′16″E / 41.90472°N 12.45444°E / 41.90472; 12.45444 Collection Size 75,000 codices 1.1 million printed books Other information Director José Tolentino de Mendonça Website www.vaticanlibrary.va Map Location on a map of Vatican City This article is part of a series on Vatican City History Duchy of Rome 533–751 Donation of Pepin 750s Papal States 754–1870 Annates Congregation for Borders Fundamental Statute for the Secular Government of the States of the Church Capture of Rome 1870 "Prisoner in the Vatican" 1870–1929 Roman Question Law of Guarantees Lateran Treaty 1929 Vatican City 1929–present Governor of Vatican City 2010 Vatican sex scandal History of the Catholic Church since 1962 History of the Papacy Roman Historical Institutes Savoyard Era Vatileaks scandal Vatican Historical Museum Vatican City during World War II Law Acta Apostolicae Sedis Fundamental Law of Vatican City State Capital punishment in Vatican City Crime in Vatican City Lateran Treaty Legal status of the Holy See (Alperin v. 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Maria della Pietà in Camposanto dei Teutonici Vatican Advanced Technology Telescope Vatican Observatory Vatican Pharmacy Bibliotheca Palatina Cappella Giulia Cappella Paolina Cardinal Secretary of State Casina Pio IV Circus of Nero Redemptoris Mater Chapel Saints Martin and Sebastian of the Swiss Santo Stefano degli Abissini Santo Stefano degli Ungheresi Teutonic Cemetery Cortile del Belvedere Passetto di Borgo Porta San Pellegrino Vatican Museums Vatican Museums Gallery of Maps Gallery of Sistine Chapel ceiling Collection of Modern Religious Art Raphael Rooms Redemptoris Mater Chapel Restoration of the Sistine Chapel frescoes Sistine Chapel Sistine Chapel ceiling The Last Judgment by Michelangelo Outline Index  Vatican City portal  Catholicism portal v t e The Vatican Apostolic Library (Latin: Bibliotheca Apostolica Vaticana, Italian: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana), more commonly known as the Vatican Library or informally as the Vat,[1] is the library of the Holy See, located in Vatican City. Formally established in 1475, although it is much older—it is one of the oldest libraries in the world and contains one of the most significant collections of historical texts. It has 75,000 codices from throughout history,[2] as well as 1.1 million printed books, which include some 8,500 incunabula. The Vatican Library is a research library for history, law, philosophy, science and theology. The Vatican Library is open to anyone who can document their qualifications and research needs. Photocopies for private study of pages from books published between 1801 and 1990 can be requested in person or by mail. Pope Nicholas V (1447–1455) envisioned a new Rome with extensive public works to lure pilgrims and scholars to the city to begin its transformation. Nicolas wanted to create a "public library" for Rome that was meant to be seen as an institution for humanist scholarship. His death prevented him from carrying out his plan, but his successor Pope Sixtus IV (1471–1484) established what is now known as the Vatican Library. In March 2014, the Vatican Library began an initial four-year project of digitising its collection of manuscripts, to be made available online. The Vatican Apostolic Archive was separated from the library at the beginning of the 17th century; it contains another 150,000 items. Contents 1 Historical periods 1.1 Pre-Lateran 1.2 Lateran 1.3 Avignon 1.4 Pre-Vatican 1.5 Vatican 2 Location and building 2.1 Architecture and art 3 Library organization 3.1 Catalogue 3.2 Reading and lending 4 Collections 4.1 Manuscripts 4.1.1 Manuscripts relating to Christianity 4.1.2 Classic Greek and Latin texts 4.1.3 Alternative 4.2 Digitization projects 4.3 Gallery of holdings 5 Related libraries 5.1 Vatican Secret Archives 5.2 Vatican Film Library 6 Staff 6.1 List of librarians 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 9.1 Works cited 10 Further reading 11 External links Historical periods[edit] Scholars have traditionally divided the history of the library into five periods, Pre-Lateran, Lateran, Avignon, Pre-Vatican and Vatican.[3] Pre-Lateran[edit] The Pre-Lateran period, comprising the initial days of the library, dated from the earliest days of the Church. Only a handful of volumes survive from this period, though some are very significant. Lateran[edit] The Lateran era began when the library moved to the Lateran Palace and lasted until the end of the 13th century and the reign of Pope Boniface VIII, who died in 1303, by which time he possessed one of the most notable collections of illuminated manuscripts in Europe. However, in that year, the Lateran Palace was burnt and the collection plundered by Philip IV of France.[4] Avignon[edit] The Avignon period was during the Avignon Papacy, when seven successive popes resided in Avignon, France. This period saw a great growth in book collection and record keeping by the popes in Avignon, between the death of Boniface and the 1370s when the Papacy returned to Rome. Pre-Vatican[edit] The Pre-Vatican period ranged from about 1370 to 1447. The library was scattered during this time, with parts in Rome, Avignon and elsewhere. Pope Eugenius IV possessed 340 books by the time of his death.[5] Vatican[edit] In 1451, bibliophile Pope Nicholas V sought to establish a public library at the Vatican, in part to re-establish Rome as a destination for scholarship.[6][7] Nicholas combined some 350 Greek, Latin and Hebrew codices inherited from his predecessors with his own collection and extensive acquisitions, among them manuscripts from the imperial Library of Constantinople. Pope Nicholas also expanded his collection by employing Italian and Byzantine scholars to translate the Greek classics into Latin for his library.[7] The knowledgeable Pope already encouraged the inclusion of pagan classics.[1] Nicolas was important in saving many of the Greek works and writings during this time period that he had collected while traveling and acquired from others. In 1455, the collection had grown to 1200 books, of which 400 were in Greek.[8] Nicholas died in 1455. In 1475 his successor Pope Sixtus IV founded the Palatine Library.[7] During his papacy, acquisitions were made in "theology, philosophy and artistic literature".[4] The number of manuscripts is variously counted as 3,500 in 1475[4] or 2,527 in 1481, when librarian Bartolomeo Platina produced a signed listing.[9] At the time it was the largest collection of books in the Western world.[8] Pope Julius II commissioned the expansion of the building.[7] Around 1587, Pope Sixtus V commissioned the architect Domenico Fontana to construct a new building for the library, which is still used today. After this it became known as the Vatican Library.[7] During the Counter-Reformation, access to the library's collections was limited following the introduction of the Index of banned books. Scholars' access to the library was restricted, particularly Protestant scholars. Restrictions were lifted during the course of the 17th century, and Pope Leo XIII formally reopened the library to scholars in 1883.[6][7] In 1756, Abbot Piaggio conserver of ancient manuscripts in the Vatican Library used a machine he also invented,[10] to unroll the first Herculaneum papyri, which took him months.[11] In 1809, Napoleon Bonaparte arrested Pope Pius VII and removed the contents of the library to Paris. The contents were returned in 1817, three years after the defeat of Napoleon.[7] In 1992 the library had almost 2 million catalogued items.[6] In 1995 art history teacher Anthony Melnikas from Ohio State University stole three leaves from a medieval manuscript once owned by Francesco Petrarch.[12][13] One of the stolen leaves contains an exquisite miniature of a farmer threshing grain. A fourth leaf from an unknown source was also discovered in his possession by U.S. Customs agents. Melnikas was trying to sell the pages to an art dealer, who then alerted the librarian director.[13] Location and building[edit] Ancient Roman sculpture, maybe of Saint Hippolytus of Rome, found in 1551 at Via Tiburtina, Rome, and now at the Vatican Library The Library is located inside the Vatican Palace, and the entrance is through the Belvedere Courtyard.[14] When Pope Sixtus V (1585-1590) commissioned the expansion and the new building of the Vatican Library, he had a three-story wing built right across Bramante's Cortile del Belvedere, thus bisecting it and changing Bramante's work significantly.[1] At the bottom of a grand staircase a large statue of Hippolytus decorates the La Galea entrance hall.[15] In the first semi-basement there is a papyrus room and a storage area for manuscripts.[15] The first floor houses the restoration laboratory, and the photographic archives are on the second floor.[15] The Library has 42 kilometres (26 mi) of shelving.[16] The Library closed for renovations on 17 July 2007[17] and reopened 20 September 2010.[18] The three year, 9 million euro renovation involved the complete shut down of the library to install climate controlled rooms.[19] Architecture and art[edit] In the Sala di Consultazione or main reference room of the Vatican Library looms a statue of St Thomas Aquinas (c. 1910), sculpted by Cesare Aureli. A second version of this statue (c. 1930) stands under the entrance portico of the Pontifical University of St Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum.[a][21] The Sistine Hall of the Vatican Library. Golden Rose stored in the Vatican Library. Ceiling fresco of the sistine hall, photograph by Jean-Pol Grandmont Library organization[edit] Catalogue[edit] The collection was originally organized through notebooks used to index the manuscripts. As the collection grew to more than a few thousand, shelf lists were used.[7] The first modern catalogue system was put in place under Father Franz Ehrle between 1927 and 1939, using the Library of Congress card catalogue system. Ehrle also set up the first program to take photographs of important works or rare works.[7] The library catalogue was further updated by Rev. Leonard E. Boyle when it was computerized in the early 1990s.[7] Reading and lending[edit] Bookcase in the Vatican Library Historically, during the Renaissance era, most books were not shelved but stored in wooden benches, which had tables attached to them. Each bench was dedicated to a specific topic. The books were chained to these benches, and if a reader took out a book, the chain remained attached to it. Until the early 17th century, academics were also allowed to borrow books. For important books, the pope himself would issue a reminder slip.[7] Privileges to use the library could be withdrawn for breaking the house rules, for instance by climbing over the tables. Most famously Pico della Mirandola lost the right to use the library when he published a book on theology that the Papal curia did not approve of.[22] In the 1760s, a bill issued by Clement XIII heavily restricted access to the library's holdings.[1] The Vatican Library can be accessed by 200 scholars at a time,[23] and it sees 4,000 to 5,000 scholars a year, mostly academics doing post-graduate research.[19] Collections[edit] A miniature from the Syriac Gospel Lectionary (Vat. Syr. 559), created ca. 1220 near Mosul and exhibiting a strong Islamic influence. While the Vatican Library has always included Bibles, canon law texts and theological works, it specialized in secular books from the beginning. Its collection of Greek and Latin classics was at the center of the revival of classical culture during the Renaissance age.[8] The oldest documents in the library date back to the first century.[16] The library was founded primarily as a manuscript library, a fact reflected in the comparatively high ratio of manuscripts to printed works in its collection. Such printed books as have made their way into the collection are intended solely to facilitate the study of the much larger collection of manuscripts.[24] The collection also includes 330,000 Greek, Roman, and papal coins and medals.[6] Every year about 6,000 new books are acquired.[6] The library was enriched by several bequests and acquisitions over the centuries. In 1623, the hereditary Palatine Library of Heidelberg containing about 3,500 manuscripts was given to the Vatican by Maximilian I, Duke of Bavaria (who had just acquired it as booty in the Thirty Years' War) in thanks for the adroit political maneuvers of Pope Gregory XV that had sustained him in his contests with Protestant candidates for the electoral seat. A token 39 of the Heidelberg manuscripts were sent to Paris in 1797 and were returned to Heidelberg at the Peace of Paris in 1815, and a gift from Pope Pius VII of 852 others was made in 1816 to the University of Heidelberg, including the Codex Manesse. Aside from that, the Palatine Library remains in the Vatican Library to this day. In 1657, the manuscripts of the Dukes of Urbino were acquired. In 1661, the Greek scholar Leo Allatius was made librarian. Queen Christina of Sweden's important library (mostly amassed by her generals as booty from Habsburg Prague and German cities during the Thirty Years War) was bought by Pope Alexander VIII on her death in 1689. It represented, for all practical purposes, the entire royal library of Sweden at the time. If it had remained where it was in Stockholm, it would all have been lost in the destruction of the royal palace by fire in 1697. Among the most famous holdings of the library is the Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209, the oldest known nearly complete manuscript of the Bible. The Secret History of Procopius was discovered in the library and published in 1623. Pope Clement XI sent scholars into the Orient to bring back manuscripts, and is generally accepted as the founder of the Oriental section.[7] A School of library science is associated with the Vatican Library. In 1959, a Film Library was established.[25] This is not to be confused with the Vatican Film Library, which was established in 1953 at Saint Louis University in St. Louis, Missouri. The Library has a large collection of texts related to Hinduism, with the oldest editions dating to 1819.[26] During the library's restoration between 2007 and 2010, all of the 70,000 volumes in the library were tagged with electronic chips to prevent theft.[19] Manuscripts[edit] The Abyss of Hell, coloured drawing on parchment by Sandro Botticelli (1480s) Wandalbert von Prüm, July, Martyrologium (c860) Main page: Category:Manuscripts of the Vatican Library Notable manuscripts in the Library include: Illuminated manuscripts: Manuscripts relating to Christianity[edit] Barberini Gospels Gelasian Sacramentary, one of the oldest books on Christian liturgy Joshua Roll Lorsch Gospels, an illuminated gospel book written and illustrated from 778 to 820, which is spread up between various museums. The carved ivory rear cover and the Gospels of Luke and John are kept in the Vatican Library. Menologion of Basil II[27] Vatican Croatian Prayer Book Vergilius Vaticanus Classic Greek and Latin texts[edit] Vergilius Romanus, Virgil's Aeneid Codex Vaticanus Ottobonianus Latinus 1829, an important 14th-century manuscript of Catullus' poems Codex Vaticanus Latinus 3868, a 9th-century facsimile of Terence's comedies[28] Parts of Euclid's Elements, most notable Book I, Proposition 47, one of the oldest Greek texts on the Pythagorean Theorem[1] Alternative[edit] Codex Borgia, an extensive mesoamerican manuscript that depicts mythology and foundational rituals in the hieroglyphic texts and iconography made of animal skins. Codex Vat. Arabo 368, the sole manuscript of the Hadith Bayad wa Riyad, an Arabic love story[29] Codex Vaticanus 3738, the Codex Ríos,[30] an accordion folded Italian translation of a Spanish colonial-era manuscript, with copies of the Aztec paintings from the original Codex Telleriano-Remensis, believed to be written by the Dominican friar Ríos in 1566. De arte venandi cum avibus, a Latin treatise on falconry in the format of a two-column parchment codex of 111 folios written in the 1240s. Texts: Codex Vaticanus Latinus 3256, four leaves of the Vergilius Augusteus[31] Codex Vaticano Rossi 215, fragments of the Rossi Codex[32] Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209, one of the oldest extant Bibles in Greek language Libri Carolini Vaticanus Graecus 1001, the original manuscript of the Secret History[33] One fragment of Heliand and three fragments of the Old Saxon Genesis comprise the Palatinus Latinus 1447.[34] Digitization projects[edit] In 2012, plans were announced to digitize, in collaboration with the Bodleian Library, a million pages of material from the Vatican Library. On 20 March 2014, the Holy See announced that NTT Data Corporation and the Library concluded an agreement to digitize approximately 3,000 of the Library's manuscripts within four years.[35] NTT is donating the equipment and technicians, estimated to be worth 18 million Euros.[36] It noted that there is the possibility of subsequently digitizing another 79,000 of the Library's holdings. These will be high-definition images available on the Library's Internet site. Storage for the holdings will be on a three petabyte server provided by EMC.[37] It is expected that the initial phase will take 4 years.[38] DigiVatLib is the name of the Vatican Library's digital library service. It provides free access to the Vatican Library's digitized collections of manuscripts and incunabula.[39] The scanning of documents is impacted by the material used to produce the texts. Books using gold and silver in the illuminations require special scanning equipment.[23] Digital copies are being served using the CIFS protocol, from network-attached storage hardware by Dell EMC.[16] Gallery of holdings[edit] Gospel of Matthew in Persian, the first Persian manuscript to enter the Vatican Library Manuscript page with the five-voice "Kyrie" of the Missa Virgo Parens Christi by Jacques Barbireau Mappamondo Borgiano, also known as "Tavola di Velletri", consisting of two copper tablets (1430) Month of May from in the Chronography of 354 by the 4th century kalligrapher Filocalus Anton Raphael Mengs, The Triumph of History over Time (Allegory of the Museum Clementinum), ceiling fresco in the Camera dei Papiri, Vatican Library Illumination from the legend of Sain Emerich of Hungary's, c. 1335 Battle between David and Goliath, Book of Psalms, c. 1059 The ivory panels from the back cover of Codex Aureus of Lorsch Related libraries[edit] Vatican Secret Archives[edit] Main article: Vatican Secret Archives The Vatican Secret Archives, located in Vatican City, is the central archive for all of the acts promulgated by the Holy See, as well as the state papers, correspondence, papal account books,[40] and many other documents which the church has accumulated over the centuries. In the 17th century, under the orders of Pope Paul V, the Secret Archives were separated from the Vatican Library, where scholars had some very limited access to them, and remained absolutely closed to outsiders until 1881, when Pope Leo XIII opened them to researchers, more than a thousand of whom now examine its documents each year.[41] Vatican Film Library[edit] Main article: Vatican Film Library The Vatican Film Library in St. Louis, Missouri is the only collection, outside the Vatican itself, of microfilms of more than 37,000 works from the Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, the Vatican Library in Europe. It is located in the Pius XII Library on the campus of Saint Louis University.[42] The Library was created by Lowrie J. Daly (1914–2000), with funding from the Knights of Columbus.[43] The goal was to make Vatican and other documents more available to researchers in North America.[44] Microfilming of Vatican manuscripts began in 1951, and according to the Library's website, was the largest microfilming project that had been undertaken up to that date.[45] The Library opened in 1953, and moved to the St. Louis University campus, in the Pius XII Memorial Library, in 1959. The first librarian was Charles J. Ermatinger, who served until 2000. As of 2007[update], the Library has microfilmed versions of over 37,000 manuscripts, with material in Greek, Latin, Arabic, Hebrew and Ethiopic, as well as several more common Western European languages. There are reproductions of many works from the Biblioteca Palatina and Biblioteca Cicognara at the Vatican, as well as Papal letter registers from the Archivio Segreto Vaticano (Vatican Secret Archives) from the 9th to 16th centuries, in the series Registra Vaticana and Registra Supplicationium.[2] Staff[edit] The director of the library was made a cardinal and given the title Cardinal Librarian.[7] Individual library staff were called "Custodians".[7] After the reopening of the library in 1883, Pope Leo XIII changed the title to Prefect.[7][46][47] The library currently has 80 staff who work in five departments: manuscripts and archival collections, printed books/drawings, acquisitions/cataloguing, coin collections/museums and restoration/photography.[6] List of librarians[edit] (P) Indicates time spent as Pro-Librarian. This is the role of acting librarian, often a librarian who is not a Cardinal.[48] Name Lifetime Title Duration as Librarian[49][50] Marcello Cervini 1501–1555 Bibliothecarius I 24 May 1550–9 April 1555 Roberto de' Nobili 1541–1559 Bibliothecarius II 1555–18 January 1559 Alfonso Carafa 1540–1565 Bibliothecarius III 1559–29 August 1565 Marcantonio da Mula 1506–1572 Bibliothecarius IV 1565–17 March 1572[51] Guglielmo Sirleto 1514–1585 Bibliothecarius V 18 March 1572–16 October 1585 Antonio Carafa 1538–1591 Bibliothecarius VI 16 October 1585–13 January 1591 Marco Antonio Colonna 1523 ca.–1597 Bibliothecarius VII 1591–13 March 1597 Cesare Baronio 1538–1607 Bibliothecarius VIII May 1597–30 June 1607[52] Ludovico de Torres 1552–1609 Bibliothecarius IX 4 July 1607–8 July 1609 Scipione Borghese Caffarelli 1576–1633 Bibliothecarius X 11 June 1609–17 February 1618[53] Scipione Cobelluzzi 1564–1626 Bibliothecarius XI 17 February 1618–29 June 1626 Francesco Barberini 1597–1679 Bibliothecarius XII 1 July 1626–13 December 1633 Antonio Barberini 1569–1646 Bibliothecarius XIII 13 December 1633–11 September 1646 Orazio Giustiniani 1580–1649 Bibliothecarius XIV 25 September 1646–25 July 1649 Luigi Capponi 1583–1659 Bibliothecarius XV 4 August 1649–6 April 1659 Flavio Chigi 1631–1693 Bibliothecarius XVI 21 June 1659–19 September 1681[54] Lorenzo Brancati 1612–1693 Bibliothecarius XVII 19 September 1681–30 November 1693 Girolamo Casanate 1620–1700 Bibliothecarius XVIII 2 December 1693–3 March 1700 Enrico Noris 1631–1704 Bibliothecarius XIX 26 March 1700–23 February 1704 Benedetto Pamphili 1653–1730 Bibliothecarius XX 26 February 1704–22 March 1730 Angelo Maria Querini 1680–1755 Bibliothecarius XXI 4 September 1730–6 January 1755 Domenico Passionei 1682–1761 Bibliothecarius XXII 10 July 1741–12 January 1755(P) 12 January 1755–5 July 1761 Alessandro Albani 1692–1779 Bibliothecarius XXIII 12 August 1761–11 December 1779 Francesco Saverio de Zelada 1717–1801 Bibliothecarius XXIV 15 December 1779–29 December 1801 Luigi Valenti Gonzaga 1725–1808 Bibliothecarius XXV 12 January 1802–29 December 1808 Giulio Maria della Somaglia 1744–1830 Bibliothecarius XXVI 26 January 1827–2 April 1830 Giuseppe Albani 1750–1834 Bibliothecarius XXVII 23 April 1830–3 December 1834 Luigi Lambruschini 1776–1854 Bibliothecarius XXVIII 11 December 1834–27 June 1853 Angelo Mai 1782–1854 Bibliothecarius XXIX 27 June 1853–9 September 1854 Antonio Tosti 1776–1866 Bibliothecarius XXX 13 January 1860–20 March 1866 Jean Baptiste François Pitra 1812–1889 Bibliothecarius XXXI 19 January 1869–9 February 1889[55] Placido Maria Schiaffino [it] 1829–1889 Bibliothecarius XXXII 20 February 1889–23 September 1889 Alfonso Capecelatro 1824–1912 Bibliothecarius XXXIII 29 August 1890–14 November 1912[56] Mariano Rampolla del Tindaro 1843–1913 Bibliothecarius XXXIV 26 November 1912–16 December 1913 Francesco di Paola Cassetta 1841–1919 Bibliothecarius XXXV 3 January 1914–23 March 1919 Aidan [Francis Neil] Gasquet 1845–1929 Bibliothecarius XXXVI 9 May 1919–5 April 1929 Franz Ehrle 1845–1934 Bibliothecarius XXXVII 17 April 1929–31 March 1934 Giovanni Mercati 1866–1957 Bibliothecarius XXXVIII 18 June 1936–23 August 1957 Eugène Tisserant 1884–1972 Bibliothecarius XXXIX 14 September 1957–27 March 1971 Antonio Samoré 1905–1983 Bibliothecarius XL 25 January 1974–3 February 1983 Alfons Maria Stickler 1910–2007 Bibliothecarius XLI 7 September 1983–27 May 1985(P) 27 May 1985–1 July 1988 Antonio María Javierre Ortas 1921–2007 Bibliothecarius XLII 1 July 1988–24 January 1992 Luigi Poggi 1917-2010[57] Bibliothecarius XLIII 9 April 1992–29 November 1994(P) 29 November 1994–25 November 1997 Jorge María Mejía 1923-2014 Bibliothecarius XLIV 7 March 1998–24 November 2003 Jean-Louis Tauran 1943-2018 Bibliothecarius XLV 24 November 2003–25 June 2007 Raffaele Farina 1933- Bibliothecarius XLVI 25 June 2007–9 June 2012 Jean-Louis Bruguès 1943- Bibliothecarius XLVII 26 June 2012–1 September 2018 José Tolentino Mendonça 1965- Bibliothecarius XLVIII 1 September 2018- See also[edit] Vatican City portal Catholicism portal Archive of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith Index of Vatican City-related articles The Vatican Splendors Notes[edit] ^ This sculpture is described in the following words: "S. Tommaso seduto, nella sinistra tiene il libro della Summa theologica, mentre stende la destra in atto di proteggere la scienza cristiana. Quindi non siede sulla cattedra di dottore, ma sul trono di sovrano protettore; stende il braccio a rassicurare, non a dimostrare. Ha in testa il dottorale berretto, e conservando il suo tipo tradizionale, rivela nel volto e nell'atteggiamento l'uomo profondamente dotto. L'autore non ha avuto da ispirarsi in altr'opera che esistesse sul soggetto, quindi ha dovuto, può dirsi, creare questo tipo, ed è riuscito originale e felice nella sua creazione."[20] References[edit] ^ a b c d e Mendelsohn, Daniel (3 January 2011). "God's Librarians". The New Yorker. 86 (42). p. 24. ISSN 0028-792X. Retrieved 3 August 2014. ^ a b Vatican Film Library informational pamphlet[full citation needed] ^ Strayer, Joseph, ed. (1989). Dictionary of the Middle Ages. Scribner. ISBN 0684190737. ^ a b c Wiegand, Wayne A.; Davis, Donald G., eds. (1994). Encyclopedia of Library History. New York: Garland. p. 653. ISBN 0824057872. ^ Mycue, David (1981). "Founder of the Vatican Library: Nicholas V or Sixtus IV?". The Journal of Library History (1974-1987). University of Texas Press. 16 (1): 121–133. JSTOR 25541179. Retrieved 7 October 2020. ^ a b c d e f Bloom, Ocker. "The Vatican Library and its History". Ibiblio. Retrieved 1 August 2014. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Meert, Deborah. "A History of the Vatican Library". capping.slis.ualberta.ca. University of Alberta. Retrieved 31 July 2014. ^ a b c "The Library of Congress: Rome Reborn: The Vatican Library & Renaissance Culture - The Vatican Library - The City Reborn: How the City Came Back to Life". Retrieved 2 August 2014. ^ Clark, John Willis (1899). On the Vatican Library of Sixtus IV. ^ Giacomo Castrucci (1856). "Tesoro letterario di Ercolano, ossia, La reale officina dei papiri ercolanesi". ^ "Herculaneum Papyri in the National Library in Naples". The Phraser. 2015. ^ HONAN, WILLIAM H. (30 May 1995). "Teacher Tied to Stolen Manuscript Pages Faced Prior Ethics Questions, Colleagues Say". The New York Times. Retrieved 1 August 2014. ^ a b MONTALBANO, WILLIAM D. (25 May 1995). "U.S. Scholar Suspected in Theft of Manuscript Pages". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 1 August 2014. ^ "Vatican Apostolic Library". Vaticanstate.va. Retrieved 28 July 2014. ^ a b c The Pope’s Visit to the Vatican Library 19 December 2010 In: L'Osservatore Romano. Retrieved 2 August 2014 ^ a b c Del Nibletto, Paolo. "The Vatican Library CIO's sacred mission: To digitize everything". itworldcanada.com. IT World Canada. Retrieved 28 July 2014. ^ Willey, David (17 July 2007). "Vatican Library closure irks scholars". BBC News. Retrieved 17 July 2007. ^ "Vatican Library Homepage". Retrieved 13 September 2010. ^ a b c Winfield, Nicole (15 November 2010). "Vatican library reopens after 3-year restoration". NBC News. Retrieved 28 July 2014. ^ Hendrix, John (2003). History and culture in Italy. University Press of America. ISBN 9780761826286. Retrieved 9 September 2012. ^ Vaticana, Biblioteca Apostolica (1893). Nel giubileo episcopale di Leone XIII. omaggio della Biblioteca vaticana XIX febbraio anno MDCCCXCIII. Retrieved 9 September 2012. ^ "The Library of Congress: Rome Reborn: The Vatican Library & Renaissance Culture - The Vatican Library - A Library Takes Shape: Books, Benches, and Borrowers". Retrieved 2 August 2014. ^ a b Taylor, Lesley Ciarula (2 May 2013). "Digitizing history: 82,000-manuscript collection Vatican Library goes online". Toronto Star. Retrieved 28 July 2014. ^ "The Vatican Palace, as a Scientific Institute". Catholic Encyclopedia. New Advent. Retrieved 2 August 2014. ^ "Statute of the Vatican Film Library". vatican.va. Retrieved 28 July 2014. ^ "Vatican Library carries extensive collection of ancient Hindu scriptures". eurasia review. 29 June 2014. Archived from the original on 28 July 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2014. ^ John W. Wohlfarth (1 September 2001). Elysium. AuthorHouse. p. 128. ISBN 978-0-7596-5406-8. ^ C. R. Dodwell (2000). Anglo-Saxon Gestures and the Roman Stage. Cambridge University Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-521-66188-1. ^ D’Ottone, Arianna (2010). "Il manoscritto Vaticano arabo 368: Hadith Bayad wa Riyad. Il codice, il testo, le immagini". Rivista di Storia della Miniatura (in Italian). Centro Di. 14: 55. Retrieved 25 July 2014. ^ "FAMSI - Akademische Druck - u. Verlagsanstalt - Graz - Codex Vaticanus 3738". Akademische Druck - u. Verlagsanstalt - Graz CODICES. FAMSI. Retrieved 29 July 2014. ^ Vergilius Augusteus : vollst. Faks.-Ausg. im Originalformat : Codex Vaticanus Latinus 3256 d. Biblioteca apostolica vaticana u. Codex Latinus fol. 416 d. Staatsbibliothek Preussischer Kulturbesitz. Catalog - UW-Madison Libraries. University of Wisconsin Madison Libraries. 1976. Retrieved 29 July 2014. ^ Christopher Kleinhenz (8 January 2004). Medieval Italy: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 136. ISBN 978-1-135-94880-1. ^ Charney, Noah (16 November 2011). "Vatican Mysteries: What's So Secret about Procopius' "Secret History?"". Blouinartinfo. Louise Blouin Media. Archived from the original on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2014. ^ John M. Jeep (2001). Medieval Germany: An Encyclopedia. Psychology Press. p. 57. ISBN 978-0-8240-7644-3. ^ McKenna, Josephine (20 March 2014). "Vatican library plans to digitise 82,000 of its most valuable manuscripts". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 24 March 2014. Retrieved 23 March 2014. ^ Denti, Antonio (20 March 2014). "Vatican library will digitize its archives and put them online". Reuters. Retrieved 28 July 2014. ^ Greiner, Lynn (23 July 2014). "Storage giant EMC looks to ease concerns about Flash technology". Financial Post.com. Retrieved 28 July 2014. ^ Denti, Antonio (20 March 2014). "Vatican library will digitize its archives and put them online". Reuters. Retrieved 1 August 2014. ^ "DigiVatLib". digi.vatlib.it. Retrieved 17 January 2017. ^ von Pastor, Ludwig Freiherr (1906). The History of the Popes: From the Close of the Middle Ages. Drawn from the Secret Archives of the Vatican and Other Original Sources, Volume 3. Trübner & Company Ltd. p. 31. Retrieved 28 July 2014. papal account books. ^ "Table of Admittances to the Vatican Secret Archives in the Last Years". Archived from the original on 6 May 2011. ^ "Knights of Columbus Vatican Film Library - Home Page". slu.edu. Retrieved 13 November 2007. ^ "LOWRIE J. DALY, S.J., MEMORIAL LECTURE ON MANUSCRIPT STUDIES". Libraries at Saint Louis University. Saint Louis University. Archived from the original on 30 July 2014. Retrieved 29 July 2014. ^ C. Krohn, Ernst (June 1957). "Notes Second Series, Vol. 14, No. 3". Notes. Music Library Association. 14 (3): 317–324. doi:10.2307/891821. JSTOR 891821. ^ "Kentucky New Era - Aug 14, 1954". Kentucky New Era. 14 August 1954. Retrieved 30 July 2014. ^ "Government | Sito ufficiale dell'Archivio Segreto Vaticano – Città del Vaticano". Archiviosegretovaticano.va. Archived from the original on 8 January 2014. Retrieved 7 October 2013. ^ "BAV - Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana". Vaticanlibrary.va. Retrieved 7 October 2013. ^ Guruge, Anura. "Replacement For Cardinal Farina As The Archivist; Cardinal Antonelli's Replacement, Vincenzo Paglia, Immediately A Cardinalabili". Popes and Papacy. Retrieved 2 August 2014. ^ "Vatican Library History". Vaticanlibrary.va. Retrieved 7 October 2013. ^ "Vatican Apostolic Library - Institute Connected with the Holy See". GCatholic.org. Retrieved 7 October 2013. ^ "Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church - Consistory of February 26, 1561 (II)". 5 August 2006. Retrieved 10 July 2013. ^ "Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church - Consistory of September June 5, 1596 (II)". 15 April 2007. Retrieved 7 October 2013. ^ "Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church - Consistory of July 18, 1605 (I)". Archived from the original on 23 May 2017. Retrieved 7 October 2013. ^ "Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church - Consistory of April 9, 1657 (I)". Retrieved 7 October 2013. ^ "Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church - Consistory of March 16, 1863 (XIII)". Retrieved 7 October 2013. ^ "Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church - Consistory of July 27, 1885 (VIII)". Retrieved 7 October 2013. ^ "Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church - Luigi Poggi". Retrieved 7 October 2013. Works cited[edit] Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church - Miranda, Salvador. "The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church". Florida International University Libraries. Further reading[edit] Rome Reborn: The Vatican Library & Renaissance Culture, an online exhibition from the Library of Congress. Vatican to digitize Apostolic Library of 1.6 million volumes for general perusal, PCWorld.com, 29 October 2002. A joint effort between the Vatican and Hewlett-Packard. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana. Official website Vatican Library old home page, with online catalog search History of the Vatican Library, from the Library's site Treasures of the Vatican Library Exposed via The European Library Toward On-line, worldwide access to Vatican Library materials (1996). A collaborative effort (pioneered by Fr. Leonard Boyle OP Prefect of the Vatican Library) between the Vatican Library and IBM, the primary goal of which is to "provide access via the Internet to some of the Library's most valuable manuscripts, printed books, and other sources to a scholarly community around the world." Knights of Columbus Vatican Film Library. Saint Louis University library that focuses on the collection of the Vatican Library. The Secret History of Art by Noah Charney on the Vatican Library and Procopius. An article by art historian Noah Charney about the Vatican Library and its famous manuscript, Historia Arcana by Procopius. 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en-wikipedia-org-7225	----	Apuleius - Wikipedia Apuleius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Latin-language novelist, rhetorician, and Platonist philosopher Not to be confused with Lucius Appuleius Saturninus, a Roman demagogue, or others with the name Apuleius or Appuleius. Apuleius Late antique ceiling painting of Apuleius, c. 330 Born c. 124 AD Madaurus, Numidia Died c. 170 (aged 45–46) AD Occupation Novelist, writer, public speaker Notable works The Golden Ass Apuleius (/ˌæpjʊˈliːəs/; also called Lucius Apuleius Madaurensis; c. 124 – c. 170 AD[1]) was a Latin-language prose writer, Platonist philosopher and rhetorician.[2] He was a Numidian who lived under the Roman Empire[3] and was from Madauros (now M'Daourouch, Algeria). He studied Platonism in Athens, travelled to Italy, Asia Minor, and Egypt, and was an initiate in several cults or mysteries. The most famous incident in his life was when he was accused of using magic to gain the attentions (and fortune) of a wealthy widow. He declaimed and then distributed a witty tour de force in his own defense before the proconsul and a court of magistrates convened in Sabratha, near ancient Tripoli, Libya. This is known as the Apologia. His most famous work is his bawdy picaresque novel, the Metamorphoses, otherwise known as The Golden Ass. It is the only Latin novel that has survived in its entirety. Being an immensely sophisticated narrative that opens up various perspectives onto a rich cultural and social life, Metamorphoses was underappreciated until recent decades.[4] It relates the ludicrous adventures of one Lucius, who experiments with magic and is accidentally turned into a donkey. Lucius goes through various adventures before he is turned back into a human being by the goddess Isis.[4] Contents 1 Life 2 Works 2.1 The Golden Ass 2.2 The Apologia 2.3 Other works 2.4 Spurious works 3 Apuleian Sphere 4 Notes 5 References 6 External links Life[edit] Imagined portrait of Apuleius on a medallion of the 4th century. Apuleii Opera omnia (1621) Apuleius was born in Madauros, a colonia in Numidia on the North African coast bordering Gaetulia, and he described himself as "half-Numidian half-Gaetulian."[5] Madaurus was the same colonia where Augustine of Hippo later received part of his early education, and, though located well away from the Romanized coast, is today the site of some pristine Roman ruins. As to his first name, no praenomen is given in any ancient source;[6] late-medieval manuscripts began the tradition of calling him Lucius from the name of the hero of his novel.[7] Details regarding his life come mostly from his defense speech (Apology) and his work Florida (Apuleius), which consists of snippets taken from some of his best speeches. His father was a provincial magistrate (duumvir)[5] who bequeathed at his death the sum of nearly two million sesterces to his two sons.[8] Apuleius studied with a master at Carthage (where he later settled) and later at Athens, where he studied Platonist philosophy among other subjects. He subsequently went to Rome[9] to study Latin rhetoric and, most likely, to speak in the law courts for a time before returning to his native North Africa. He also travelled extensively in Asia Minor and Egypt, studying philosophy and religion, burning up his inheritance while doing so. Apuleius was an initiate in several Greco-Roman mysteries, including the Dionysian Mysteries.[10] He was a priest of Asclepius[11] and, according to Augustine,[12] sacerdos provinciae Africae (i.e., priest of the province of Carthage). Not long after his return home he set out upon a new journey to Alexandria.[13] On his way there he was taken ill at the town of Oea (modern-day Tripoli) and was hospitably received into the house of Sicinius Pontianus, with whom he had been friends when he had studied in Athens.[13] The mother of Pontianus, Pudentilla, was a very rich widow. With her son's consent – indeed encouragement – Apuleius agreed to marry her.[14] Meanwhile, Pontianus himself married the daughter of one Herennius Rufinus; he, indignant that Pudentilla's wealth should pass out of the family, instigated his son-in-law, together with a younger brother, Sicinius Pudens, a mere boy, and their paternal uncle, Sicinius Aemilianus, to join him in impeaching Apuleius upon the charge that he had gained the affections of Pudentilla by charms and magic spells.[15] The case was heard at Sabratha, near Tripoli, c. 158 AD, before Claudius Maximus, proconsul of Africa.[16] The accusation itself seems to have been ridiculous, and the spirited and triumphant defence spoken by Apuleius is still extant. This is known as the Apologia (A Discourse on Magic).[2] Apuleius accused an extravagant personal enemy of turning his house into a brothel and prostituting his own wife.[17] Of his subsequent career we know little. Judging from the many works of which he was author, he must have devoted himself diligently to literature. He occasionally gave speeches in public to great reception; he had the charge of exhibiting gladiatorial shows and wild beast events in the province, and statues were erected in his honor by the senate of Carthage and of other senates.[18] The date, place and circumstances of Apuleius' death are not known.[19][20] There is no record of his activities after 170, a fact which has led some people to believe that he must have died about then (say in 171), although other scholars feel that he may still have been alive in 180 or even 190.[21] Works[edit] Frontispiece from the Bohn's Classical Library edition of The Works of Apuleius: a portrait of Apuleius flanked by Pamphile changing into an owl and the Golden Ass The Golden Ass[edit] Main article: The Golden Ass The Golden Ass (Asinus Aureus) or Metamorphoses is the only Latin novel that has survived in its entirety. It is an imaginative, irreverent, and amusing work that relates the ludicrous adventures of one Lucius, who introduces himself as related to the famous philosophers Plutarch and Sextus of Chaeronea. Lucius experiments with magic and is accidentally turned into an ass. In this guise he hears and sees many unusual things, until escaping from his predicament in a rather unexpected way. Within this frame story are found many digressions, the longest among them being the well-known tale of Cupid and Psyche. This story is a rare instance of a fairy tale preserved in an ancient literary text.[4] The Metamorphoses ends with the (once again human) hero, Lucius, eager to be initiated into the mystery cult of Isis; he abstains from forbidden foods, bathes, and purifies himself. He is introduced to the Navigium Isidis. Then the secrets of the cult's books are explained to him, and further secrets are revealed before he goes through the process of initiation, which involves a trial by the elements in a journey to the underworld. Lucius is then asked to seek initiation into the cult of Osiris in Rome, and eventually is initiated into the pastophoroi – a group of priests that serves Isis and Osiris.[22] The Apologia[edit] Apologia (Apulei Platonici pro Se de Magia) is the version of the defense presented in Sabratha, in 158–159, before the proconsul Claudius Maximus, by Apuleius accused of the crime of magic. Between the traditional exordium and peroratio, the argumentation is divided into three sections: Refutation of the accusations leveled against his private life. He demonstrates that by marrying Pudentilla he had no interested motive and that he carries it away, intellectually and morally, on his opponents. Attempt to prove that his so-called "magical operations" were in fact indispensable scientific experiments for an imitator of Aristotle and Hippocrates, or the religious acts of a Roman Platonist. A recount of the events that have occurred in Oea since his arrival and pulverize the arguments against him. The main interest of the Apology is historical, as he offers substantial information about its author, magic and life in Africa in the second century.[23] Other works[edit] His other works are: Florida. A compilation of twenty-three extracts from his various speeches and lectures. De Platone et dogmate eius (On Plato and his Doctrine). An outline in two books of Plato's physics and ethics, preceded by a life of Plato De Deo Socratis (On the God of Socrates). A work on the existence and nature of daemons, the intermediaries between gods and humans. This treatise was attacked by Augustine of Hippo. It contains a passage comparing gods and kings which is the first recorded occurrence of the proverb "familiarity breeds contempt":[24]parit enim conversatio contemptum, raritas conciliat admirationem (familiarity breeds contempt, rarity brings admiration) On the Universe. This Latin translation of Pseudo-Aristotle's work De Mundo is probably by Apuleius. Apuleius wrote many other works which have not survived. He wrote works of poetry and fiction, as well as technical treatises on politics, dendrology, agriculture, medicine, natural history, astronomy, music, and arithmetic, and he translated Plato's Phaedo.[25] Spurious works[edit] The extant works wrongly attributed to Apuleius are:[26] Peri Hermeneias (On interpretation). A brief Latin version of a guide to Aristotelian logic. Asclepius. A Latin paraphrase of a lost Greek dialogue (The perfect discourse) featuring Asclepius and Hermes Trismegistus. Apuleian Sphere[edit] The Apuleian Sphere described in Petosiris to Nechepso, also known as "Columcille's Circle" or "Petosiris' Circle",[27] is a magical prognosticating device for predicting the survival of a patient.[28] Notes[edit] ^ "Lucius Apuleius". Encyclopædia Britannica. ^ a b "Apuleius, Apology". George Town University. ^ "Berbers: ... The best known of them were the Roman author Apuleius, the Roman emperor Septimius Severus, and St. Augustine", Encyclopedia Americana, Scholastic Library Publishing, 2005, v. 3, p. 569 ^ a b c Roman, L., & Roman, M. (2010). Encyclopedia of Greek and Roman mythology., p. 78, at Google Books ^ a b Apuleius, Apology, 24 ^ P. G. Walsh, (1999) The Golden Ass, page xi. Oxford University Press. ^ Julia Haig Gaisser, (2008), The fortunes of Apuleius and the Golden Ass: a study in transmission and Reception, page 69. Princeton University Press. ^ Apuleius, Apology, 23 ^ Apuleius, Florida, 17.4 ^ As he proudly claims in his Apologia. (Winter, Thomas Nelson (2006) Apology as Prosecution: The Trial of Apuleius) ^ Apuleius, Florida 16.38 and 18.38 ^ Augustine, Epistle 138.19. ^ a b Apuleius, Apology, 72. ^ Apuleius, Apology, 73 ^ Apuleius, Apology, 53, 66, 70, etc ^ Apuleius, Apology, 1, 59, 65 ^ Apuleius, Apology, 75–76; Rebecca Flemming (1999), "Quae corpore quaestum facit: The Sexual Economy of Female Prostitution in the Roman Empire," Journal of Roman Studies 89, p. 41. ^ Apuleius, Apology, 55, 73; Florida, iii. n. 16; Augustine, Ep. v. ^ Gollnick, James (1999). The Religious Dreamworld of Apuleius' Metamorphoses: Recovering a Forgotten Hermeneutic. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-88920-803-2. ^ Apuleius (2004). The Golden Ass, Or, The Metamorphoses. Barnes & Noble Publishing. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-7607-5598-3. ^ Londey, David George; Johanson, Carmen J. (1987). The Logic of Apuleius: Including a Complete Latin Text and English Translation of the Peri Hermeneias of Apuleius of Madaura. Brill publishers. p. 11. ISBN 90-04-08421-5. ^ Iles Johnson, Sarah, Mysteries, in Ancient Religions pp. 104–5, The Belknap Press of Harvard University (2007), ISBN 978-0-674-02548-6 ^ Cèbe, Jean-Pierre (1989). "Apulée". Encyclopédie berbère. 6 | Antilopes – Arzuges. Aix-en-Provence: Edisud. pp. 820–827. ^ S. J. Harrison (2004), Apuleius, Oxford University Press, p. 149, ISBN 978-0-19-927138-2 ^ P. G. Walsh, (1999) The Golden Ass, pages xiv–xv. Oxford University Press. ^ Mark P. O. Morford, (2002), The Roman philosophers, page 227. Routledge. ^ Kalesmaki, Joel. "Types of Greek Numerology". Archived from the original on 14 May 2009. Retrieved 26 June 2009. ^ Rust, Martha Dana (1999). "Art of Beekeeping Meets the Arts of Grammar: A Gloss of "Columcille's Circle"". Philological Quarterly. 78. References[edit] Luca Graverini, Literature and Identity in the Golden Ass of Apuleius (Columbus: Ohio State University press, 2012; original ed. in Italian, Pisa: Pacini, 2007). ISBN 978-0814292921. Claudio Moreschini, Apuleius and the Metamorphoses of Platonism (Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, 2016) (Nutrix. Studies in Late Antique, Medieval and Renaissance Thought 10), ISBN 978-2-503-55470-9 Carl C. Schlam, The Metamorphoses of Apuleius: On Making an Ass of Oneself (Chapel Hill-London, 1992). Gerald Sandy, The Greek World of Apuleius: Apuleius and the Second Sophistic (Leiden, Brill, 1997). Finkelpearl, Ellen D. Metamorphosis of Language in Apuleius: A Study of Allusion in the Novel (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1998). O. Pecere, A. Stramaglia, Studi apuleiani. Note di aggiornamento di L. Graverini (Cassino: Edizioni dell' Università degli Studi di Cassino, 2003). Lucia Pasetti, Plauto in Apuleio (Bologna: Patron Editore, 2007). Frangoulidis, Stavros. Witches, Isis and narrative: approaches to magic in Apuleius' Metamorphoses (Berlin; New York: Walter de Gruyter, 2008) (Trends in classics – Supplementary volumes, 2). Apuleius : Rhetorical Works. translated and annotated Stephen Harrison, John Hilton, and Vincent Hunink. edited Stephen Harrison. (New York : Oxford University Press, 2001). External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Apuleius Wikimedia Commons has media related to Apuleius. Wikisource has original works written by or about: Apuleius Library resources about Apuleius Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Apuleius Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Works by Apuleius at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Apuleius at Internet Archive Works at Apuleius at Perseus Digital Library Works by Apuleius at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Works by Apuleius at Open Library L. Apuleii Opera Omnia, pars I, Lipsia, sumtibus C. Cnoblochii, 1842 and L. Apuleii Opera Omnia, pars II, Lipsia, sumtibus C. 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en-wikipedia-org-7235	----	Childe Harold's Pilgrimage - Wikipedia Childe Harold's Pilgrimage From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 1812–1818 narrative poem by Lord Byron Childe Harold's Pilgrimage 1st edition title page, published 1812 Author Lord Byron Country United Kingdom Language English Genre Narrative poem, satire Publication date 1812–1818 Pages 555 pages Preceded by Childe Harold's Pilgrimage  Followed by Mazeppa  Childe Harold's Pilgrimage is a long narrative poem in four parts written by Lord Byron. The poem was published between 1812 and 1818. Dedicated to "Ianthe", it describes the travels and reflections of a world-weary young man, who is disillusioned with a life of pleasure and revelry and looks for distraction in foreign lands. In a wider sense, it is an expression of the melancholy and disillusionment felt by a generation weary of the wars of the post-Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras. The title comes from the term childe, a medieval title for a young man who was a candidate for knighthood. The poem was widely imitated and contributed to the cult of the wandering Byronic hero who falls into melancholic reverie as he contemplates scenes of natural beauty. Its autobiographical subjectivity was widely influential, not only in literature but in the arts of music and painting as well, and was a powerful ingredient in European Romanticism. Contents 1 Origins 2 Structure 3 Plot 4 The fictive narrator 5 Imitations 6 Influence 6.1 The Byronic hero 6.2 Music 6.3 Painting 7 See also 8 References 9 External links Origins[edit] Charlotte Harley (1801–1880), to whom Byron dedicated Childe Harold, using the nickname Ianthe The poem contains elements thought to be autobiographical, as Byron generated some of the storyline from experience gained during his travels through Portugal, the Mediterranean and Aegean Sea between 1809 and 1811.[1] The "Ianthe" of the dedication was the term of endearment he used for Lady Charlotte Harley, about 11 years old when Childe Harold was first published. Charlotte Bacon, née Harley, was the second daughter of 5th Earl of Oxford and Lady Oxford, Jane Elizabeth Scott. Throughout the poem, Byron, in character of Childe Harold, regretted his wasted early youth, hence re-evaluating his life choices and re-designing himself through going on the pilgrimage, during which he lamented various historical events including the Iberian Peninsular War among others. Despite Byron's initial hesitation at having the first two cantos of the poem published because he felt it revealed too much of himself,[2] it was published, at the urging of friends, by John Murray in 1812, and brought both the poem and its author to immediate and unexpected public attention. Byron later wrote, "I awoke one morning and found myself famous".[3] The first two cantos in John Murray's edition were illustrated by Richard Westall, well-known painter and illustrator who was then commissioned to paint portraits of Byron. Published on March 3, 1812, the first run of 500 quarto copies sold out in three days. There were ten editions of the work within three years. Byron was deeming the work "my best" in 1817, a year before adding a fourth canto.[4] Byron chose for the epigraph for the 1812 edition title page a passage from Le Cosmopolite, ou, le Citoyen du Monde (1753), by Louis-Charles Fougeret de Monbron [fr], in the original French. Translated into English, the quote emphasizes how the travels have resulted in a greater appreciation of his own country: The universe is a kind of book of which one has read only the first page when one has seen only one's own country. I have leafed through a large enough number, which I have found equally bad. This examination was not at all fruitless for me. I hated my country. All the impertinences of the different peoples among whom I have lived have reconciled me to her. If I had not drawn any other benefit from my travels than that, I would regret neither the expense nor the fatigue.[5] Structure[edit] The poem has four cantos written in Spenserian stanzas, which consist of eight iambic pentameter lines followed by one alexandrine (a twelve syllable iambic line), and has rhyme pattern ABABBCBCC. Frontispiece to a c. 1825 edition of Childe Harold's Pilgrimage    Lo! where the Giant on the mountain stands,    His blood-red tresses deep'ning in the sun,    With death-shot glowing in his fiery hands,    And eye that scorcheth all it glares upon,—    Restless it rolls, now fix'd, and now anon    Flashing afar,—and at his iron feet    Destruction cowers to mark what deeds are done;    For on this morn three potent Nations meet, To shed before his Shrine the blood he deems most sweet.[6] — Canto the First, Stanza XXXIX (lines 423–431) Lyrics in a different form occasionally punctuate these stanzas: the farewell to England following Canto I's stanza 13 and later the address "To Inez" following stanza 84; and in Canto II the war song that follows stanza 72. Then in Canto III there is the greeting from Drachenfels following stanza 55. Plot[edit] The youthful Harold, cloyed with the pleasures of the world and reckless of life, wanders about Europe, making his feelings and ideas the subjects of the poem. In Canto I he is in Spain and Portugal, where he recounts the savagery of their invasion by the French. In Canto II he moves to Greece, uplifted by the beauty of its past in a country now enslaved by the Turks. Canto III finds him on the battlefield of Waterloo, from which he journeys down the Rhine and crosses into Switzerland, enchanted by the beauty of the scenery and its historic associations. In Canto IV Harold starts from Venice on a journey through Italy, lamenting the vanished heroic and artistic past, and the subject status of its various regions. The fictive narrator[edit] For the long poem he was envisaging, Byron chose not only the Spenserian stanza but also the archaising dialect in which The Faerie Queene was written, possibly following the example of Spenser's 18th century imitators.[7] Thus in the Pilgrimage's first three stanzas we find mote (as past tense of the verb 'might'); whilome (once upon a time) and ne (not); hight (named) and losel (good-for-nothing). If such stylistic artificiality was meant to create a distance between hero and author, it failed - protest though Byron might in the preface that his protagonist was purely fictitious. No sooner had Walter Scott read the work than he was commenting in a private letter to Joanna Baillie that "the hero, notwithstanding the affected antiquity of the style in some parts, is a modern man of fashion and fortune, worn out and satiated with the pursuits of dissipation, and although there is a caution against it in the preface, you cannot for your soul avoid concluding that the author, as he gives an account of his own travels, is also doing so in his own character."[8] In the public sphere, the Anti-Jacobin Review came to the similar conclusion that Childe Harold "appears to be nothing but the dull, inanimate, instrument for conveying his poetical creator's sentiments to the public. Lord Byron avows the intent of this hero's introduction to be the 'giving some connection to the piece'; but we cannot, for the life of us, discover how the piece is more connected, by assigning the sentiments which it conveys to a fictitious personage, who takes no part in any of the scenes described, who achieves no deeds, and who, in short, has no one province to perform, than it would have been had Lord Byron spoken in his own person, and been the 'hero of his own tale'.[9] In the face of unanimous scepticism, Byron gave up the pretence and finally admitted in the letter to his fellow-traveller John Hobhouse that prefaced Canto IV: "With regard to the conduct of the last canto, there will be found less of the pilgrim than in any of the preceding, and that little slightly, if at all, separated from the author speaking in his own person. The fact is, that I had become weary of drawing a line which everyone seemed determined not to perceive."[10] Imitations[edit] The first two cantos of Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage had scarcely been published before its world-weary hero was satirised in the popular Rejected Addresses of 1812. Cui Bono? enquires "Lord B". in the Spenserian stanza employed by the original: Sated with home, of wife and children tired, The restless soul is driven abroad to roam; Sated abroad, all seen, yet nought admired; The restless soul is driven to ramble home.[11] Byron was so amused by the book that he wrote to his publisher, "Tell the author I forgive him, were he twenty times our satirist". He was not as forgiving of the next tribute to his work, Modern Greece: A Poem (1817) by Felicia Hemans, which was dependent for its subject on the second canto of the Pilgrimage. At first published anonymously, it was even taken to be by Byron himself in one contemporary review.[12] While it was written in a similar rhetorical style, her poem used a slightly longer 10-line stanza terminating in an alexandrine. This too deplored the land's Turkish enslavement and mourned its decline, although pausing to admire the occasion in the past when "woman mingled with your warrior band" (stanza 50) in resisting invasion. Where the author diverged to take direct issue with Byron was on the controversy over the Elgin Marbles, championing instead their removal to a land that can still cherish their inspiration. To Byron's assertion that Dull is the eye that will not weep to see     Thy walls defaced, thy mouldering shrines removed,     By British hands, which it had best behoved     To guard those relics ne'er to be restored, she had replied And who may grieve that, rescued from their hands, Spoilers of excellence and foes of art, Thy relics, Athens! borne to other lands, Claim homage still to thee from every heart?[13] Over the years, others wrote works dependent on the Pilgrimage to a greater or lesser degree. George Croly celebrated the victory at the Battle of Waterloo with his Paris in 1815: A Poem (London, 1817). It was prefaced by 21 Spenserian stanzas in the Byronic manner, followed by many more sections in couplets.[14] This was followed in 1818 by the anonymous collection Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage to the Dead Sea (and other poems). There the Byronic outcast of the title poem relates a catalogue of sins through thirty pages of irregular couplets, wound up by a call to last minute repentance.[15] By 1820 the habit of imitation had crossed to the US, where five Spenserian stanzas dependent on the Pilgrimage's Canto II were published under the title "Childe Harold in Boetia" in The Galaxy.[16] But the Childe was to be found applying himself to other activities than travel. The 62 pages of Francis Hodgson's Childe Harold's Monitor, or Lines occasioned by the last canto of Childe Harold (London 1818),[17] are given over to literary satire in the manner of Byron's English Bards and Scotch Reviewers. Written in heroic couplets, it champions the style of the Augustan poets against the emergent Romantic style, particularly of the Lake Poets. Childe Harold in the Shades: An Infernal Romaunt (London 1819), displays much the same sentiments.[18] The poem is set in the Classical underworld and its anonymous youthful author has since been identified as Edward Dacres Baynes.[19] Title page of Alphonse de Lamartine's Le dernier chant du pèlerinage d'Harold, 1825 Byron's death in the Greek War of Independence initiated a new round of imitations. William Lisle Bowles responded to his interment with a generous elegy in the six stanzas of "Childe Harold's Last Pilgrimage" (1826). These were written in the same form as Byron's poem and, forgiving the bitter insults that had passed between them in the course of a public controversy, now paid a magnanimous tribute to the manner of his dying.[20] There was also a crop of French imitations on this occasion, of which the foremost was Alphonse de Lamartine's Le Dernier Chant du Pélerinage d’Harold (Paris, 1825). Despite the poet's assertion of the originality of his 'Fifth Canto', a contemporary English review found it often dependent on Byron's works.[21] Its English translation by J. W. Lake, The Last Canto of Childe Harold's Pilgrimage, was published from Paris in 1826. Another in heroic couplets followed from London in 1827.[22] Another French enthusiast, Jules Lefèvre-Deumier, had actually been on the way to join Byron in Greece in 1823 but a shipwreck robbed him of the opportunity to join the cause. He too recorded a pilgrimage from Paris into Switzerland in Les Pélerinages d’un Childe Harold Parisien, published in 1825 under the pseudonym D. J. C. Verfèle.[23] In the following year Aristide Tarry published the pamphlet-length Childe-Harold aux ruines de Rome: imitation du poème de Lord Byron, which was sold in aid of the Greek combatants.[24] A later imitation of Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage lay unacknowledged for more than a century. John Clare had started to compose his own "Child Harold" in 1841, during the years of his madness, sometimes identifying himself as Byron, sometimes as a bigamist Byronic hero. Its intricate narrative stanzas are interspersed with many more lyrics than had been Byron's poem, often on the subject of Clare's youthful love for Mary Joyce. But, though "more sustained in thought than anything else he ever attempted", it was written piecemeal and the fragments were never unified or published until midway through the 20th century.[25] Influence[edit] The Byronic hero[edit] The protagonist of Childe Harold's Pilgrimage embodied the example of the self-exiled Byronic hero.[26] His antinomian character is summed up in Lord Macaulay's essay on Moore’s Life of Lord Byron (Edinburgh Review, 1831). "It is hardly too much to say that Lord Byron could exhibit only one man - a man proud, moody, cynical, with defiance on his brow, and misery in his heart; a scorner of his kind, implacable in revenge, yet capable of deep and strong affection…It is curious to observe the tendency which the dialogue of Lord Byron always has, to lose its character of dialogue and to become soliloquy."[27] The type was caricatured as the melancholy Mr Cypress in Thomas Love Peacock's Nightmare Abbey, published in 1818, following the appearance of the Pilgrimage's Canto IV.[28] The poet's misanthropic and despairing announcement there sums up the 'heroic' point of view: "I have no hope for myself or for others. Our life is a false nature; it is not in the harmony of things; it is an all-blasting upas whose root is earth, and whose leaves are the skies which rain their poison dews upon mankind. We wither from our youth; we gasp with unslaked thirst for unattainable good; lured from the first to the last by phantoms – love, fame, ambition, avarice – all idle, and all ill - one meteor of many names, that vanishes in the smoke of death." Almost every word is transcribed from two of the canto's stanzas, 124 and 126.[29] Eugene Onegin as Byronic hero, Dmitry Kardovsky's 1909 illustration Once Byron's poem had launched the heroic prototype, it went on to be an influence on Alexander Pushkin's Eugene Onegin (1825 – 32), where the poem's protagonist is compared several times to Childe Harold. Onegin shares the hero's melancholy that cannot be pleased (1.38) and his dreaminess (4.44); but perhaps his mixture of behaviours are only so many masks, and in this respect he is likened to Melmoth the Wanderer as well as to Childe Harold (8.8). Tatiana too ponders whether Onegin's guises make him "a Muscovite in Harold's dress, a modish second-hand edition" (7.24).[30] But however much that pose may have been appreciated in the first half of the 19th century, by World War 2 the reaction to the hero's attitudes had veered to scepticism. C. S. Lewis, in The Screwtape Letters (1941), bracketed Childe Harold and Young Werther as Romantic types "submerged in self-pity for imaginary distresses" for whom "five minutes' genuine toothache would reveal [their] romantic sorrows for the nonsense they were".[31] Equally, the bluff hero of C. S. Forester's The Commodore (1945) dismissed Byron's poem as "bombast and fustian" while flipping through its pages for inspiration.[32] Music[edit] The first two cantos of the poem were launched under the title Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage: A Romaunt, and other poems.[33] There were twenty of those "other poems", for the most part arising out of Byron's tour. These supplemented the three lyrics already mentioned that were incorporated into Cantos I and II. Five of the supplementary songs were set by composers, mostly during the course of the 19th century and sometimes in translated versions. "On Parting" (The kiss, dear maid, thy lip has left), for example, was set by Ludwig van Beethoven and some 25 other composers;[34] the song "Maid of Athens, ere we part" had a setting by Charles Gounod as well as others in German and Italian.[35] The song "Adieu! Adieu! my native shore", which appeared in the first canto of the Pilgrimage, was set as early as 1814, but with the wording "My native shore adieu", and was apparently incorporated into the long-established opera The Maid of the Mill.[36] It was also set by some twelve other composers as well as in German and Danish translations.[37] And in addition to the songs, just two Spenserian stanzas from the Pilgrimage's Canto III have had musical settings: stanza 72 by the American composer Larry Austin in 1979 and a German translation of stanza 85 by Robert von Hornstein (1833–1890).[38] There were also two European Romantic composers who referenced Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage in their programmatic works. Hector Berlioz recorded in his memoires that, in composing Harold en Italie (1834), he wished to draw on memories of his wanderings in the Abruzzi, making of the solo for viola at its start "a sort of melancholic reverie in the manner of Byron’s Childe Harold" (une sorte de rêveur mélancolique dans le genre du Child-Harold de Byron).[39] Nevertheless, Donald Tovey has pointed out in his analysis of the work that "there is no trace in Berlioz's music of any of the famous passages of Childe Harold".[40] Several of Franz Liszt's transcriptions of Swiss natural scenery in his Années de pèlerinage (composed during the 1830s) were accompanied by epigraphs from Canto III of Byron's poem, but while the quotations fit the emotional tone of the music, they are sometimes contextually different. Thus Liszt's second piece, Au lac de Wallenstadt (By Lake Wallenstadt), with its evocation of rippling water, is accompanied by Byron's description of the still reflective surface of Lac Leman (stanza 68). Between the next few quotations there is greater congruence, however. Liszt's fifth piece, Orage (Storm), comes with Byron's equating of meteorological and emotional weathers from canto 96. The change of tone in the sixth piece, Vallée d’Obermann, is signalled by the transition of mood at the end of Byron's following stanza 97; and the peaceful beginning of stanza 98 accompanies the succeeding Eglogue (Eclogue). After this sequence drawn from three contiguous stanzas, the final piece, Les cloches de Genève (Geneva bells), returns to the Lac Leman sequence of stanzas in the poem and provides another dissonance. The two lines quoted from stanza 72 fit the serene tone of the music, but only by ignoring the rejection of "human cities" two lines later.[41] In the case of both Berlioz's and Liszt's pieces, their association with Childe’s Harold’s Pilgrimage is an indication of how they are to be interpreted, in that all three works are subjective and autobiographical. The music, however, is independent of the text. Painting[edit] Childe Harold's Pilgrimage by Joseph Mallord William Turner, 1823 J. M. W. Turner was an admirer of Byron's poetry and made scenes from the Pilgrimage the subject of several paintings. In addition he was among those commissioned to provide drawings to be engraved for William Finden's landscape illustrations to Byron (1832), which also included views from the poem.[42] One of Turner's earlier paintings was of the carnage on The Field of Waterloo (1818), which was accompanied by Byron's descriptive lines from Canto III, stanza 28.[43] For this, the poet had visited the battlefield in 1815 and Turner in 1817. Then in 1832 he exhibited a painting referencing Byron's poem in its title, Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage – Italy (1832), accompanied by lines reflecting on the passing of imperial might from Canto IV, stanza 26.[44] Turner's Ehrenbreitstein (1835) was still another landscape carrying an epigraph, this time from the subject's appearance in Canto III, stanzas 61–3. It had captured the painter's imagination on his first visit there in 1817 and he had made studies of the place many times since then. Though the painter might first have been drawn to the spot on account of Byron's poem, what he made of it came from close personal acquaintance over the intervening years.[45] The American Thomas Cole also went to Byron for the subject of one painting, though it was to Manfred in this case and is typically an imaginative reinterpretation.[46] So too was his series of paintings The Course of Empire (1833-6), in reference to which he quoted the lines on the rise of cultures through civilisation to barbarism, from the Pilgrimage's Canto IV, stanza 108.[47] In addition, his The Fountain of Egeria (painted at about the same time and now lost) was accompanied by lines from the same poem.[48] See also[edit] Don Juan (poem) Romantic literature in English References[edit] ^ Heffernan, James AW, Cultivating Picturacy, Baylor UP, p. 163. ^ MacCarthy, Fiona (2002), Byron: Life and Legend, John Murray, p. 139, ISBN 0-7195-5621-X . ^ Spengler-Axiopoulos, Barbara (1 July 2006), Der skeptische Kosmopolit (in German), NZZ, archived from the original on 18 March 2012 . ^ Chalk, Aidan. "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage: a Romaunt and the Influence of Local Attachment", Texas Studies in Literature and Language, Vol. 40.1, Local Habitations (Spring 1998), pp. 48–77. ^ Lord Byron. Selected Poems. London: Penguin Books, 1996. ^ Byron, George Gordon, Lord (1905). The Complete Poetical Works (Cambridge ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. p. 10. ^ Spenserians ^ John Gibson Lockhart, Life of Sir Walter Scott, vol.3, p.11 ^ The Anti-Jacobin Review, Vol. 42 (May – August 1818), p.344 ^ The Works of Lord Byron, vol.2, p.99 ^ James and Horace Smith, Rejected Addresses: Or The New Theatrum Poetarum, pp.16-17 ^ Spenserians ^ Modern Greece, London 1817, p.45, stanza 88 ^ Spenserians ^ London 1818, Google Books, pp. 6-36 ^ William Ellery Leonard, Byron and Byronism in America, Columbia University, 1905, p.31 ^ Google Books ^ The British Critic, Volume 11 (1819), pp.83-87 ^ Ian Macdonald, "A Love of Poetry", Guyana Chronicle, 13 September 2014 ^ Spenserians ^ The Monthly Review or Literary Journal, vol.108, 1825, pp.453-60 ^ Google Books ^ Maria Walecka-Garbalińska, Jules Lefèvre-Deumier (1797–1857) et le mythe romantique du genie, Université d'Uppsala, 1987 ^ Christian A. E. Jensen, L'évolution du romantisme: l'année 1826, Slatkine Reprints, Geneva 1986, p.145 ^ Eric Robinson and Geoffrey Summerfield, introduction to The Later Poems of John Clare, Manchester University Press, 1964, pp.1-8 ^ cf. ¶ 3 in the article on the topic from the Norton Anthology of English Literature ^ Lord Macaulay, Essays, Critical and Miscellaneous, Philadelphia 1846, pp.125, 126 ^ Peter Cochran, The Burning of Byron’s Memoirs: New and Unpublished Essays and Papers, Cambridge Scholars 2015, p.78 ^ Jane Moore, John Strachan: Key Concepts in Romantic Literature, Palgrave Macmillan 2010, p.225, ^ Charles Johnston’s translation ^ C. S. Lewis, The Screwtape Letters (1941), Letter XIII ^ Sue Parrill, Nelson's Navy in Fiction and Film, McFarland, 2009, p.79 ^ Google Books ^ Lieder Net ^ Lieder Net ^ Lieder Net "The opera has no other connection with Byron’s work" according to the catalogue Musical Settings of British Romantic Literature (1982), vol.1, p.490 ^ Lieder Net ^ Lieder Net ^ Mémoires de Hector Berlioz, Paris 1896, p.302 ^ Tovey, Donald (1981). Symphonies and Other Orchestral Works: Selections from Essays in Musical Analysis. London: Oxford University Press. p. 171. ISBN 0486784525. ^ The Liszt Companion, Greenwood Press 2002, pp.77-9 ^ Luke Hermann, J. M. W. Turner, OUP 2007, pp.65-6 ^ Tate Gallery ^ Tate Gallery ^ Peter Aspden, Ehrenbreitstein: A Painting Outside Time, Sotheby’s ^ Yale University Art Gallery ^ Elizabeth Mankin Kornhauser, Tim Barringer, Thomas Cole's Journey: Atlantic Crossings, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2018, p.51 ^ Thomas Cole's Journey (2018), p.158 External links[edit] Media related to Childe Harold's Pilgrimage at Wikimedia Commons Wikisource has original text related to this article: Childe Harold's Pilgrimage Wikiquote has quotations related to: Childe Harold's Pilgrimage Childe Harold's Pilgrimage at Internet Archive (scanned books original editions illustrated) Childe Harold's Pilgrimage at Project Gutenberg Childe Harold's Pilgrimage public domain audiobook at LibriVox v t e Lord Byron Topics Barony of Byron Byronic hero Early life Newstead Abbey Timeline of Lord Byron People Anne Isabella, Lady Byron (wife) Ada Lovelace (daughter) Allegra Byron (daughter) John "Mad Jack" Byron (father) Claire Clairmont Nicolo Giraud Contessa Guiccioli Jane Harley John Cam Hobhouse Douglas Kinnaird Lady Caroline Lamb Augusta Leigh (maternal half-sister) Medora Leigh Thomas Moore Isaac Nathan Walter Scott John William Polidori Percy Bysshe Shelley Mary Shelley Edward John Trelawny Longer poetry Hours of Idleness (1807) English Bards and Scotch Reviewers (1809) Childe Harold's Pilgrimage (1812–1818) The Giaour (1813) The Bride of Abydos (1813) The Corsair (1814) Lara, A Tale (1814) The Siege of Corinth (1816) Parisina (1816) The Prisoner of Chillon (1816) The Dream (1816) Prometheus (1816) "Darkness" (1816) The Lament of Tasso (1817) Beppo (1818) Don Juan (1819–1824; incomplete upon Byron's 1824 death) Mazeppa (1819) The Prophecy of Dante (1819) The Vision of Judgment (1821) The Age of Bronze (1823) The Island (1823) Plays Manfred (1817) Marino Faliero (1820) Sardanapalus (1821) The Two Foscari (1821) Cain (1821) Heaven and Earth (1821) Werner (1822) The Deformed Transformed (1822) Shorter poetry "Lachin y Gair" (1807) "Epitaph to a Dog" (1808) "Maid of Athens, ere we part" (1810) Hebrew Melodies (1815) "She Walks in Beauty" "The Destruction of Sennacherib" "Fare Thee Well" (1816) Irish Avatar (1821) "So, we'll go no more a roving" (1830) Prose Fragment of a Novel (1819) Letters Memoirs Portrayals Byron (1908 play) The Bride of Frankenstein (1935 film) Lord Byron (1972 opera) Lady Caroline Lamb (1972 film) Childe Byron (1977 play) Bloody Poetry (1984 play) Gothic (1986 film) Rowing with the Wind (1988 film) Haunted Summer (1988 film) Mary Shelley (2017 film) "The Haunting of Villa Diodati" (2020 TV episode) Related Villa Diodati Category Authority control GND: 4592266-4 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Childe_Harold%27s_Pilgrimage&oldid=996769384" Categories: 1818 books 1818 poems John Murray (publishing house) books Poetry by Lord Byron Works about travel Pilgrimage in fiction Narrative poems Hidden categories: CS1 German-language sources (de) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata EngvarB from September 2013 Use dmy dates from September 2020 Commons category link is on Wikidata Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages Català Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano Latina Македонски Nederlands Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 28 December 2020, at 14:42 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7245	----	Roman circus - Wikipedia Roman circus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Circus (building)) Jump to navigation Jump to search This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Roman circus" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (June 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The site of the former Circus Maximus in modern-day Rome The Roman circus (from the Latin word that means "circle") was a large open-air venue used for public events in the ancient Roman Empire. The circuses were similar to the ancient Greek hippodromes, although circuses served varying purposes and differed in design and construction. Along with theatres, amphitheatres, and the much similar but smaller stadiums, circuses were one of the main entertainment sites of the time. Circuses were venues for chariot races, horse races, gladiatorial combat, and performances that commemorated important events of the empire were performed there. According to Edward Gibbon, in Chapter XXXI of his work The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, the Roman people, at the start of the 5th century: ...still considered the Circus as their home, their temple, and the seat of the republic.[1][2][3] Contents 1 Architectural design 2 Common characteristics 2.1 Dates 2.2 Dimensions 2.3 Orientation 2.4 Relative location 2.5 Carceres 3 Best preserved 4 List of Roman circuses 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Architectural design[edit] Floorplan of Circus Maximus. This design is typical of Roman circuses. The performance space of the Roman circus was normally, despite its name, an oblong rectangle of two linear sections of race track, separated by a median strip running along the length of about two thirds the track, joined at one end with a semicircular section and at the other end with an undivided section of track closed (in most cases) by a distinctive starting gate known as the carceres, thereby creating a circuit for the races. The Circus Maximus epitomises the design. The median strip was called the spina and usually featured ornate columns, statues and commemorative obelisks. The turning points on either end of the spina were usually marked by conical poles, called the metae (singular: meta).[4] The performance surface of the circus was normally surrounded by ascending seating along the length of both straight sides and around the curved end, though there were sometimes interruptions in the seating to provide access to the circus or the seating, or to provide for special viewing platforms for dignitaries and officials. One circus, that at Antinoöpolis (Egypt), displays a distinct gap of some 50m between the carceres and the start of the ascending seating where there is apparently no structure. This appears to be an exception. The great majority of circuses fit the description above. Those that do not display two different variations: that at Emerita Augusta (Mérida, Spain), where the carceres end is substituted by a slightly curved 'straight' end joined to the straight sides of ascending seating by rounded corners of ascending seating; and a few in which the carceres end is substituted by a second semi-circular end to produce an oval shaped arena. These latter circuses are normally small (Nicopolis (Greece) and Aphrodisias (Turkey)), and should probably be considered stadia. There are similar buildings, called stadia, which were used for Greek style athletics. These buildings were similar in design but typically smaller than circuses; however, the distinction is not always clear. An example of this type is the Stadium of Domitian. Common characteristics[edit] Dates[edit] Differently from other major Roman structures circuses frequently evolved over long periods of time from a simple track in a field, through generations of wooden seating structures (frequently destroyed by fire or rot), before they finally began to be converted to stone. Although circuses such as the Circus Maximus (Italy) may have existed in some form from as early as around 500 BCE, circuses were mainly constructed during the 400 years between 200 BCE and 200 CE.[5] Dimensions[edit] The comparative dimensions of a circus may be measured in two basic ways: by the length of the track, and by the seating capacity. Other dimensions, such as the external dimensions of the structure may vary considerably depending on the location, the site, and on specific architectural characteristics. The simplest comparative measurement of a circus is its track length. This is the most easily measured dimension, as it only requires small excavations at either end of the centreline. It is very probable that this can be done even when the circus is buried under subsequent constructions. Track lengths may vary from the 245 m of the circus at Gerasa (Jordan), to the 621 m of the Circus Maximus (Italy). The alternative comparative dimension is that of seating capacity. This is much more complex to measure as it requires that the dimensions of the original vertical and horizontal extent of the inclined seating be re-established. In many cases the full structure of the inclined seating has been destroyed beyond the point where this can be measured, or at the least would require a great deal more excavation than that required for the measurement of the track length. Seating capacity may vary from around 15,000 people at Gerasa (Jordan), to 150,000 (some estimates put it up to 250,000) at the Circus Maximus (Italy). Orientation[edit] Circuses do not appear to have been constructed with any special compass orientation. Those that are well identified can be found with their round ends oriented around the compass. Examples include: N. Gerasa (Jordan); NE. Antinoöpolis (Egypt); E. Circus of Maxentius (Italy); SE. Circus Maximus (Italy); S. Tyrus (Lebanon); SW. Gortyn (Greece); W. Circus of Nero (Italy). Relative location[edit] Circuses can be found at three distinct locations relative to the towns to which they belong: outside the city walls at anything up to 1.5 km distant, as at: Gerasa (Jordan) (c300m), and Leptis Magna (Libya) (1.5 km). simply within the town walls, as at: Thessalonica (Greece). inside the walls, in the heart of the town, and an integral part of the architectural power structure of the town, as at: Rome, Sirmium (Serbia) and Tarraco (Spain). Carceres[edit] The carceres, or starting gates, had a distinctive, slanted, slightly curved, plan form, designed to compensate for what would otherwise be significant differences in the distances from the individual starting gates to the start of the first section of straight track on the right hand side of the spina (as seen from the carceres). The carceres were designed for the races to be run round the spina in an anticlockwise direction. The form of the carceres appears to have been standardised throughout the Roman world. The similarity in form among the carceres of circuses of many different sizes suggests that carceres were constructed according to a series of proportional mathematical relationships or formulas. It is not clear when the earliest carceres of the standardised form was constructed, nor whether there exists documentary evidence for the existence of such formulas. Some of the best examples of carceres can be found at: Gerasa (Jordan) and the Circus of Maxentius (Italy). Best preserved[edit] The best preserved circuses include: Emerita Augusta (Spain), Caesarea Maritima (coastal) (Israel), Circus of Maxentius (Italy), Gerasa (Jordan), Tyrus (Lebanon), Miróbriga (Portugal), Leptis Magna (Libya). List of Roman circuses[edit] Map this section's coordinates using: OpenStreetMap  Download coordinates as: KML · GPX Unless otherwise indicated the coordinates in the following list are of a point that lies within the space of a circus. For the remaining circuses (those whose detailed location is not known) the point is for a location within the space of the historic nucleus of the associated town, or for a location within the associated archaeological site. These points are probably within 1.5 kilometres of the site of the circus, as a circus was almost always within this distance from its associated town. (ordered initially by country; number of circuses at latest count (2012-04-01): 63) City (Roman name) Link to detailed circus article City (modern name) Country Coordinates Notes References (sorts on length and precision of location) Images Auzia[6] Sour El-Ghozlane (= pre-independence Aumale)[6] Algeria 36°08′53″N 3°41′27″E / 36.14799°N 3.690924°E / 36.14799; 3.690924 (Auzia (Sour El-Ghozlane) (not the circus; historic nucleus of current town)) (not the circus; historic nucleus of current town) cited in Humphrey;[7] no online circus-specific information found. Colonia Claudia Caesarea Cherchell Algeria 36°36′05″N 2°11′05″E / 36.601412°N 2.184702°E / 36.601412; 2.184702 (Colonia Claudia Caesarea (Cherchell) Roman circus) cited in Humphrey;[7] approximate location;[8] neither the form nor any original structure is visible. images (may not be oriented to north)[8] Saldae Béjaïa Algeria 36°45′18″N 5°05′02″E / 36.755068°N 5.083765°E / 36.755068; 5.083765 (Saldae (Béjaïa) (not the circus; historic nucleus of current town)) (not the circus; historic nucleus of current town) cited in Humphrey;[7] no online circus-specific information found. Setifis Sétif Algeria 36°11′50″N 5°24′19″E / 36.197105°N 5.405214°E / 36.197105; 5.405214 (Sitifis Colonia (Sétif) Roman circus) cited in Humphrey;[7] approximate location confirmed by old air photographs (90% of the circus has now been built over);[9] only the southern, curved, end remains visible; U-shaped; approximate (formerly visible) track length: c450m;[9] approximate (formerly visible) track width: c70m.[9] images (may not be oriented to north)[9] Philippopolis (Thrace) Plovdiv Roman Stadium Plovdiv Bulgaria 42°08′51″N 24°44′53″E / 42.147477°N 24.748068°E / 42.147477; 24.748068 (Trimontium (Plovdiv) Roman circus) Only a small well preserved part of the northern end is currently visible; c95% of the structure is buried under the current main street; track length c250m;[10] track width c32m;[10] the small size of the structure suggests that it is, in fact, more correct to consider it a stadium; this is the view taken by the principal site on the structure[11] Alexandria Alexandria Egypt 31°10′57″N 29°53′47″E / 31.182489°N 29.896417°E / 31.182489; 29.896417 (Alexandria Roman town (approximate nucleus of town; centred on Pompey's Pillar)) (not the circus; approximate nucleus of Roman town; centred on Pompey's Pillar) cited in Humphrey;[7] no online circus-specific information found. Antinoöpolis Mallawi (c10km) Egypt 27°48′36″N 30°53′08″E / 27.810092°N 30.885503°E / 27.810092; 30.885503 (Antinopolis Roman circus) cited in Humphrey;[7] visible track length: 300–350 m;[12] visible track width: c45m;[12] U-shaped; the carceres are c50m beyond the ends of the ascending seating at the open south-west end; clearly visible and unobstructed. Oxyrhynchus Beni Mazar (c15km) Egypt 28°32′09″N 30°39′19″E / 28.535969°N 30.655336°E / 28.535969; 30.655336 (Oxyrhynchus (not the circus; archaeological site of Roman town)) (not the circus; archaeological site of Roman town) cited in Humphrey;[7] no online circus-specific information found. Camulodunum Colchester England 51°53′01″N 0°53′53″E / 51.883604°N 0.898175°E / 51.883604; 0.898175 (Camulodunum (Colchester) Roman circus) location information;[13] archaeological information;[14] official archaeological information;[15] length: c450m;[15] width: c75m.[15] Arelate (Colonia Iulia Paterna Arelatensium Sextanorum) Arles France 43°40′24″N 4°37′07″E / 43.6734°N 4.61855°E / 43.6734; 4.61855 (Arelate (Arles) Roman circus) cited in Humphrey;[7] official archaeological information;[16] c40% of curved south-west end is minimally visible; the remaining structure lies to the north-east under a road junction and housing; length: c450m;[17][18] width: c101m;[17][18] visible track width: c80m.[19] further images (may not be oriented to north)[20] Lugdunum Lyon France 45°45′26″N 4°48′55″E / 45.757314°N 4.815188°E / 45.757314; 4.815188 (Lugdunum (Lyon) Roman circus (approximate hypothesised location)) (approximate hypothesised location[21]) cited in Chase;[22] hypothesised location.[21] Mediolanum Santonum Saintes France 45°44′47″N 0°38′00″W / 45.7464°N 0.6333°W / 45.7464; -0.6333 (Mediolanum Santonum (Saintes) Roman town (not the circus; historic nucleus of the town)) (not the circus; historic nucleus of the town) cited in Humphrey;[7] no online circus-specific information found. Vienna Vienne France 45°30′59″N 4°52′06″E / 45.516492°N 4.868196°E / 45.516492; 4.868196 (Vienna (Vienne) Roman circus) (possibly very approximate; the satellite image at this location is extremely distorted) Cited in Humphrey;[7] the only remaining feature is a monumental arched structure topped by a tall, narrow, pyramid; this structure was on the spina. further images (may not be oriented to north)[23] Augusta Treverorum Trier Germany 49°45′04″N 6°38′55″E / 49.751175°N 6.648531°E / 49.751175; 6.648531 (Augusta Treverorum (Trier) Roman circus) Cited in Humphrey;[7] location;[24][25] plan of Roman town[26] showing location of circus; length: c450m.[27] Corinth (Colonia Iulia Flavia Augusta Corinthiensis) Corinth Greece 37°54′35″N 22°52′33″E / 37.909792°N 22.875938°E / 37.909792; 22.875938 (Corinth Roman circus (hypothesised and partially excavated location)) (hypothesised and partially excavated location) discussion about the evidence for a circus;[28] plan showing the hypothesised location of the circus[29] and;[30] hypothesised and partially excavated location.[31] Gortyn, Gortys or Gortyna Agioi Deka (c1.5 km) Greece 35°03′07″N 24°57′04″E / 35.052057°N 24.951119°E / 35.052057; 24.951119 (Gortyn Roman circus) cited in Chase;[22] archaeological city plan;[32] visible track length: c375m;[33] visible track width: c50m;[33] U-shaped plan form clearly visible; space 30% open agricultural land, 70% covered by orchard trees. images (may not be oriented to north)[34] Nicopolis Preveza (c7km) Greece 39°01′25″N 20°44′05″E / 39.023563°N 20.734805°E / 39.023563; 20.734805 (Nikopolis Roman circus) referred to as a stadium;[35] very small for a circus; visible track length: c215m;[35] visible track width: c20m;[35] double-U-shaped plan form with both rounded ends clearly visible; the space is unoccupied by any modern structures. Thessalonica Thessaloniki Greece 40°37′47″N 22°57′03″E / 40.629669°N 22.950890°E / 40.629669; 22.950890 (Thessalonica Roman circus) location[36] (the circus is marked 'Ancient Hippodrome'); archaeological map of historical centre of town,[37] showing location of hippodrome/circus (in Greek; hippodrome = Ιππόδρομος); approximate length inferred from[36] and:[37] c525m. Rhodes Rhodes Greece 36°26′21″N 28°12′43″E / 36.43919°N 28.211909°E / 36.43919; 28.211909 (Rhodes Roman circus) Caesarea Maritima (coastal) Caesarea Israel 32°29′55″N 34°53′26″E / 32.4986°N 34.8906°E / 32.4986; 34.8906 (Caesarea Maritima (Caesarea) coastal Roman circus) cited in Humphrey;[7] referred to as a hippodrome;[38] on the coast; parallel to the coast; visible track length: c290m;[39] visible track width: c45m;[39] U-shaped plan form clearly visible; structure substantially complete; few modern structures constructed within the space. further images (may not be oriented to north)[38] Caesarea Maritima (inland) Caesarea Israel 32°29′55″N 34°53′55″E / 32.4986°N 34.8986°E / 32.4986; 34.8986 (Caesarea Maritima (Caesarea) inland Roman circus) c1km inland from the coast; visible track length: c410m;[40] visible track width: c80m;[40] form substantially visible; apparently U-shaped; the space is unoccupied by any modern structures. images (may not be oriented to north)[38] Aquileia Aquileia Italy 45°46′30″N 13°21′42″E / 45.775007°N 13.361778°E / 45.775007; 13.361778 (Aquileia (Aquileia) Roman circus) cited in Humphrey;[7] location;[41] track length measured from location information: c460m;[41][42] track width measured from location information: c80m.[41][42] images (may not be oriented to north)[41] Bovillae Marino, Lazio Italy 41°45′27″N 12°37′18″E / 41.757499°N 12.621679°E / 41.757499; 12.621679 (Bovillae Roman circus) cited in Humphrey;[7] (in Italian);[43] information and photos in English;[44] (track?) length: 328.50m;[43] (track?) width: 60m;[43] location centred on the only visible remains – three stone arches[45] (part of the carceres). Mediolanum Milan Italy 45°27′48″N 9°10′48″E / 45.463276°N 9.179936°E / 45.463276; 9.179936 (Mediolanum (Milan) Roman circus) Cited in Chase;[22] location;[46][47] track length: 460m;[48] track width: 67/68m;[48] the principal visible remains are a tower at the north western corner of the circus;[49] the main body of the circus lay SSE of this tower. images (may not be oriented to north)[46] Roma Circus Flaminius Rome Italy 41°53′34″N 12°28′39″E / 41.892758°N 12.477422°E / 41.892758; 12.477422 (Circus Flaminius, Rome) Cited in Humphrey;[7] it is not entirely clear whether this 'structure' was, in fact, a circus or stadium of the form of the others in this list; Wikimapia location;[50] estimates of size are: length 260–500 m,[51][52] width 100m.[52] Roma Circus of Maxentius, a.k.a. Circus of Caracalla Rome Italy 41°51′17″N 12°31′21″E / 41.854645°N 12.522411°E / 41.854645; 12.522411 (Circus of Maxentius, Rome) Visible track length: c490m;[53] visible track width: c80m;[53] form clearly visible; U-shaped; the space is unoccupied by any modern structures; many parts of the structure are visible. further images (may not be oriented to north)[54] Roma Circus Maximus Rome Italy 41°53′10″N 12°29′07″E / 41.886016°N 12.485404°E / 41.886016; 12.485404 (Circus_Maximus, Rome) Track length: c621m;[55] track width: c150m;[55] form substantially visible; U-shaped; the space is practically unoccupied by any modern structures; only a few parts of the structure are visible or remain. Roma Circus of Nero, a.k.a. Circus of Caligula, or Vatican Circus Rome Italy 41°54′06″N 12°27′19″E / 41.901638°N 12.455256°E / 41.901638; 12.455256 (Circus of Nero, Rome) Cited in Humphrey;[7] location just to the south of St. Peter's Basilica well established, though exact position and orientation unknown; the only surviving remains are the obelisk which was brought from Egypt to adorn the spina in 37 AD;[56] the obelisk was moved to its current location in Saint Peter's Square in 1586.[57] images (may not be oriented to north)[58] Roma Circus Varianus; it:Circo Variano (in Italian) Rome Italy 41°53′14″N 12°31′14″E / 41.887353°N 12.520474°E / 41.887353; 12.520474 (Circus Varianus, Rome) Cited in Humphrey;[7] Wikimapia location;[59] length: 565m;[60] width: 125m.[60] images (may not be oriented to north)[61] Gadara Umm Qais Jordan 32°39′25″N 35°40′01″E / 32.656914°N 35.666857°E / 32.656914; 35.666857 (Gadara Roman hippodrome) Cited in Humphrey;[7] a German language archaeological site map of Gadara[62] indicates a location for what is described as a hippodrome.[63] Gerasa Jerash Jordan 32°16′25″N 35°53′27″E / 32.273655°N 35.890730°E / 32.273655; 35.890730 (Gerasa Roman circus) cited in Humphrey;[7] visible track length: c245m;[64] visible track width: c50m;[64] form clearly visible; U-shaped; the space is unoccupied by any modern structures; a great deal of the structure still stands. further images (may not be oriented to north)[65] Colonia Iulia Augusta Felix Berytus Beirut Hippodrome Beirut Lebanon 33°53′52″N 35°29′59″E / 33.897911°N 35.499584°E / 33.897911; 35.499584 (Colonia Iulia Augusta Felix Berytus (Beirut) Roman hippodrome) cited in Humphrey;[7] the location is of the archaeological site of the Beirut Hippodrome as given on Wikimapia;[66] this may, or may not, be the same structure as the circus. Tyre Hippodrome Tyre Lebanon 33°16′06″N 35°12′35″E / 33.268313°N 35.209776°E / 33.268313; 35.209776 (Tyre Roman circus) cited in Humphrey;[7] visible track length: c435m;[67] visible track width: c80m;[67] form clearly visible; U-shaped; the space is unoccupied by any modern structures; a great deal of the structure is still visible. further images (may not be oriented to north)[68] Cyrene Shahhat Libya 32°49′20″N 21°51′51″E / 32.822221°N 21.864104°E / 32.822221; 21.864104 (Cyrene Roman circus) cited in Humphrey;[7] visible track length: c300m?;[69][70] visible track width: c45m;[69][70] form reasonably visible; U-shaped; the space is unoccupied by any modern structures; little of the structure is still visible; sometimes referred to as a hippodrome. images (may not be oriented to north)[70] Leptis Magna Khoms OR Al Khums (c3km) Libya 32°37′59″N 14°18′38″E / 32.633056°N 14.310547°E / 32.633056; 14.310547 (Leptis Magna Roman circus) cited in Humphrey;[7] located both on and parallel to the sea shore; visible track length: c445m;[71] visible track width: c75m;[71] form clearly visible; U-shaped; the space is unoccupied by any modern structures; some of the structure is still visible. images (may not be oriented to north)[72] Aeminium Coimbra Portugal 40°12′32″N 8°25′31″W / 40.209016°N 8.425387°W / 40.209016; -8.425387 (Aeminium (Coimbra) Roman town (not the circus; nucleus of the Roman town)) (not the circus; nucleus of the Roman town) believed to have existed, but unconfirmed; archaeological information about the Roman town;[73][74] reference to a suggested location for the circus (Praça do Comércio); suggested location.[75] Balsa Tavira Portugal 37°05′26″N 7°41′07″W / 37.090488°N 7.685301°W / 37.090488; -7.685301 (Balsa (Tavira) Roman circus) cited in Humphrey;[7] the location is approximately that indicated conjecturally, though with considerable certainty, at;[76] that site states "the topographic marks of [the circus] permit a reasonably rigorous survey"; length: c375m;[76] width: c80m.[76] Miróbriga Santiago do Cacém (c2km) Portugal 38°00′08″N 8°41′02″W / 38.002318°N 8.683770°W / 38.002318; -8.683770 (Mirobriga Roman circus) cited in Chase;[22] visible track length: c330m;[77] visible track width: c70m;[77] form clearly visible; U-shaped; the space is unoccupied by any modern structures; little of the structure is still visible. images (may not be oriented to north)[78] Olissipona Lisbon Portugal 38°42′50″N 9°08′21″W / 38.713788°N 9.139192°W / 38.713788; -9.139192 (Olissipona (Lisbon) Roman circus) in what is today the 'Rossio'; an account (in Portuguese) of excavations which uncovered a section of the spina of the circus can be found at.[79] Sirmium Sremska Mitrovica Serbia 44°58′03″N 19°36′44″E / 44.967364°N 19.612151°E / 44.967364; 19.612151 (Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica) Roman circus (approx)) cited in Humphrey;[7] the location is a close approximation based on information at;[80] length: c450m;[81] width: c150m;[81] the structure lies buried some 2–4 m under the current town centre, just to the north of the partially excavated palace; only very small sections have been excavated.[80] Calagurris Calahorra Spain 42°18′17″N 1°57′47″W / 42.304811°N 1.963025°W / 42.304811; -1.963025 (Calagurris (Calahorra) Roman circus) cited in Humphrey;[7] the circus lies under the pedestrian thoroughfare 'Paseo Del Mercadal';[82] length c300-350m.[83] Cáparra Capera Spain 40°10′01″N 6°06′04″W / 40.166847°N 6.101135°W / 40.166847; -6.101135 (Cáparra (Capera) Roman town (not the circus; nucleus of the Roman town)) (not the circus; nucleus of the Roman town) cited in Humphrey;[7] the location, from Wikimapia[84] and Spanish Wikipedia[85] is of the ruins of the Roman city only; there is no indication of the location of the circus. Corduba Córdoba Spain 37°53′06″N 4°46′22″W / 37.885079°N 4.772803°W / 37.885079; -4.772803 (Corduba (Córdoba) Roman circus) location from Wikimapia and others;[86][87] length: c370m;[86][87] entirely buried under the existing city centre; virtually no remains visible. Emerita Augusta Circus Maximus (Mérida) Mérida Spain 38°55′12″N 6°19′56″W / 38.920037°N 6.332116°W / 38.920037; -6.332116 (Emerita Augusta (Mérida) Roman circus) Cited in Humphrey;[7] visible track length: c400m;[88] visible track width: c85m;[88] form clearly visible; U-shaped but without the distinctive slanted 'flat' carceres end seen in many other circuses; instead the 'flat' end is slightly rounded; the space is unoccupied by any modern structures; much of the structure is still visible. further images (may not be oriented to north)[89] Italica Santiponce Spain 37°26′19″N 6°02′22″W / 37.43856°N 6.039444°W / 37.43856; -6.039444 (Italica (Santiponce) Roman town (not the circus; nucleus of the Roman town)) (not the circus; nucleus of the Roman town) cited in Humphrey;[7] very approximate location;[90] the circus lies under the centre of the existing old town of Santiponce; nothing is visible; note that the very large amphitheatre at Italica is sometimes referred to as a circus. Saguntum Sagunto Spain 39°40′54″N 0°16′36″W / 39.681644°N 0.276675°W / 39.681644; -0.276675 (Saguntum (Sagunto) Roman circus) cited in Humphrey;[7] the location of the circus has been confirmed by the excavation, and preservation, of a gate to the circus;[91][92] the circus lies buried under the existing town; only the gate is visible;[93] length: c350m;[94] width: c73m.[94] images (may not be oriented to north)[95] Tarraco Tarragona Spain 41°07′01″N 1°15′21″E / 41.116963°N 1.255832°E / 41.116963; 1.255832 (Tarraco (Tarragona) Roman circus) cited in Humphrey;[7] most of the circus lies buried under the existing town; a substantial part of the curved eastern end, and part of the south-western side, are visible; track length: c290m;[96] track width: c75m.[96] images (may not be oriented to north)[97] Toletum Toledo Spain 39°51′49″N 4°01′48″W / 39.863689°N 4.029978°W / 39.863689; -4.029978 (Toletum (Toledo) Roman circus) Cited in Humphrey;[7] between a third and a half of the circus, including the round end, is partially visible; the remainder of the circus, has either been obliterated, or lies under modern constructions; suggested length: c430m;[98][99] visible width: c75m.[100] images (may not be oriented to north)[98] Zafra Spain 38°25′25″N 6°24′58″W / 38.423701°N 6.416107°W / 38.423701; -6.416107 (Zafra town (not the circus; historic nucleus of town)) (not the circus; historic nucleus of town) cited in Humphrey;[7] there appears to be significant uncertainty about the status, and even name, of Zafra in the Roman era;[101] the town appears to have no significant Roman remains other than those of some 20 Roman villas in the surrounding area;[101] no online circus-specific information found. Nova Trajana Bostra Bosra Eski Sham OR Busra Eski Şam OR Busra ash-Sham Syria 32°30′54″N 36°28′48″E / 32.5149°N 36.4799°E / 32.5149; 36.4799 (Nova Trajana Bostra (Bosra Eski Sham or Busra Eski Şam or Busra ash-Sham) Roman circus) cited in Humphrey;[7] French maps of Roman Bosra showing the location of the circus (or hippodrome);[102][103] visible track length: c430m;[104] visible track width: c110m;[104] form clearly visible; U-shaped; the space is virtually unoccupied by any modern structures; much of the structure still stands. images (may not be oriented to north)[105] Laodicea ad Mare Latakia Syria 35°31′11″N 35°46′30″E / 35.519688°N 35.775046°E / 35.519688; 35.775046 (Laodicea ad Mare (Latakia) Roman town (not the circus; historic nucleus of the town)) (not the circus; historic nucleus of the town) cited in Humphrey;[7] no online circus-specific information found. Abthugni[106][107] Henchir Souar OR Henchir Esch Schorr OR Henchir es Souar Tunisia 36°11′52″N 10°00′32″E / 36.197695°N 10.008889°E / 36.197695; 10.008889 (Abthugni (Henchir Souar) Roman town (not the circus; nucleus of the Roman town))[108] (not the circus; nucleus of the Roman town). cited in Humphrey;[7] coordinates of place;[108] location of place on topographic map[109] (ref: NJ 32-15/510322); references to Henchir Souar;[110][111] aerial photograph of place[112] confirms coordinates reference; topographic features on aerial photograph match with;[113] no online circus-specific information found. Carthago Circus of Carthage Carthage Tunisia 36°51′01″N 10°18′55″E / 36.850222°N 10.315239°E / 36.850222; 10.315239 (Carthago (Carthage) Roman circus) Cited in Humphrey;[7] location;[114] length: c500m;[114][115] width: c90m;[114][115] U-shaped; very little remains visible; partly occupied by modern constructions. images (may not be oriented to north)[114] Commodum OR Municipium Aurelium Commodum[106][116] Henchir Bou Cha or Henchir Fraxine Tunisia 36°31′56″N 9°53′04″E / 36.532221°N 9.884513°E / 36.532221; 9.884513 (Municipium Aurelium Commodum (Henchir Bou Cha) Roman town (not the circus; nucleus of the Roman town)) (not the circus; nucleus of the Roman town) cited in Humphrey;[7] archaeological document of Tunisian government[116] (in French); location of place on topographic map[109] (ref: NJ 32-15/498358); no online circus-specific information found. Hadrumetum OR Colonia Concordia Ulpia Trajana Augusta Frugifera Hadrumetina Sousse Tunisia 35°49′47″N 10°37′28″E / 35.829783°N 10.624434°E / 35.829783; 10.624434 (Hadrumentum (Sousse) Roman circus (probable location)) (probable location) cited in Humphrey;[7] probable location[117] based on information in 1903 documents[118] (in French), reinforced by an undated aerial photograph;[119] visible length (as measured on Wikimapia based on cross-reference with aerial photograph): c350m or greater. Thugga OR Municipium Septimium Aurelium Liberum Thugga[120] Dougga Tunisia 36°25′35″N 9°12′58″E / 36.4265°N 9.2161°E / 36.4265; 9.2161 (Municipium Septimium Aurelium Liberum Thugga (Dougga) Roman circus (approximate location)) (approximate location) cited in Chase;[22] approximate location,[121] on the north western edge of town, suggested (though not explicitly identified) on plan,[122] and plan;[123] various lengths are referenced: c175m,[124] 393m;[125] the site is open agricultural land with no subsequent occupation. images (may not be oriented to north)[126] Thysdrus El Djem Tunisia 35°18′07″N 10°41′37″E / 35.301944°N 10.693480°E / 35.301944; 10.693480 (Thysdrus (El Djem) Roman circus) cited in Humphrey;[7] visible track length: c500m;[127] visible track width: c70m;[127] form lightly visible; U-shaped; the space is unoccupied by any modern structures; little of the structure is still visible. images (may not be oriented to north)[128] Utica near Zana Tunisia 37°03′04″N 10°03′47″E / 37.051230°N 10.063141°E / 37.051230; 10.063141 (Utica Roman circus (probable location)) (probable location) cited in Humphrey;[7] Tunisian archaeological site number: 007.157 (Utique ; Henchir Bechateur ; UTIKA);[129] reference to circus;[130] uncorroborated location;[131] more probable location[132] as indicated by the maps in[133] confirms the given location; approximate length measured from the maps in:[133] 280-300m. Antioch Circus of Antioch Antakya Turkey 36°13′33″N 36°10′19″E / 36.225754°N 36.171885°E / 36.225754; 36.171885 (Antioch (Antakya) Roman circus) cited in Humphrey;[7] location (from 1930s aerial photograph);[134] map[135] of ancient Antioch[136] showing the circus as a hippodrome; length: c490m;[134][137] width: c90m;[134][137] very little visible today; is more visible in a 1930s aerial photograph;[134] lightly over-built by modern structures and occupations. images (may not be oriented to north)[134] Aphrodisias Aphrodisias Turkey 37°42′45″N 28°43′19″E / 37.712543°N 28.721985°E / 37.712543; 28.721985 (Aphrodisias Roman stadium or hippodrome) Double-U-shaped; very substantially preserved; significantly smaller than other circuses; may be considered a stadium or hippodrome rather than a circus; visible track length: c220m;[138] visible track width: 35m.[138] images (may not be oriented to north)[139] Byzantium Hippodrome of Constantinople Istanbul Turkey 41°00′24″N 28°58′33″E / 41.006548°N 28.975961°E / 41.006548; 28.975961 (Byzantium) Built under Septimius Severus; estimated length: c450m;[140] estimated width: c130m;[140] other than some monuments from the spina, virtually none of the structure is visible today; it is believed much of the structure may lie buried some 2m below the current surface.[141] images (may not be oriented to north)[142] Laodicea on the Lycus Denizli (c6km) Turkey 37°49′52″N 29°06′16″E / 37.831074°N 29.104478°E / 37.831074; 29.104478 (Laodicea Roman stadium) referred to as a stadium; double U-shaped and small; visible track length: c250m;[143] visible track width: c40m;[143] form clearly visible; no visible spina; unoccupied by any subsequent construction. Nicomedia İzmit Turkey 40°46′00″N 29°55′15″E / 40.766754°N 29.920744°E / 40.766754; 29.920744 (Nicomedia (İzmit) Roman town (not the circus; historic nucleus of İzmit)) (not the circus; historic nucleus of İzmit) cited in Humphrey;[7] general information on the archaeological remains of Nicomedia;[144][145] Kocaeli municipal history,[146] including a 19th-century map showing the location of the historic nucleus of the city (through history Kocaeli has been named successively: Olbia, Astakos, Nicomedia, Iznikmid, and Izmid or Izmit); no online circus-specific information found. See also[edit] Hippodrome – a Greek arena also used for chariot racing References[edit] ^ Gibbon, Edward (1776). "Chapter 31 - Games and spectacles". The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Christian Classics Ethereal library; Edward Gibbon, English historian of the Roman Empire. Retrieved 2013-11-11. - second sentence of the following paragraph ^ Gibbon, Edward (1776). "Chapter XXXI: Invasion Of Italy, Occupation Of Territories By Barbarians.—Part III". The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. ( Project Gutenberg; Gibbon, Edward, 1737-1794). Archived from the original on 2008-09-21. Retrieved 2013-11-11. - second sentence of the 4th paragraph ^ Gibbon, Edward (1776). "Chapter XXXI: Invasion Of Italy, Occupation Of Territories By Barbarians.—Part II". The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. ( Project Gutenberg; Gibbon, Edward, 1737-1794). Archived from the original on 2008-09-04. Retrieved 2013-11-11. - second sentence of the 4th paragraph ^ Michael Gagarin; Elaine Fantham, eds. (2009). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome, Volume 1. Oxford University Press. p. 146. ISBN 978-0-19-517072-6. ^ Circus Maximus#History of Construction. ^ a b [Auzia] Names of cities in Algerie in (A.D. 138) Roman times and names now from E-DZ Community | Education & Learning | Algerian History, Culture, Art, Law, Politics (order by start date; start date: 21 Dec 2008). ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar John H. Humphrey: Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles 1986, ISBN 0-520-04921-7. ^ a b [Cherchell] The Circus | Cherchel at circusmaximus.us. ^ a b c d [Setif] The Circus | Circus at Setif at circusmaximus.us. ^ a b [Trimontium] The ancient stadium of Philippopolis Track. ^ [Trimontium] The ancient stadium of Philippopolis. ^ a b [Antinopolis] Wikimapia location: Antinopolis. ^ [Camulodunum] THE ROMAN CIRCUS VICTRICENSIS IN COLCHESTER Archived 2013-02-07 at the Wayback Machine. ^ [Camulodunum] Colchester Archaeological Trust. ^ a b c [Camulodunum] Roman Circus 200 m south of Abbey House, EHER/SMR Number 46327 at Unlocking Essex's Past website from Heritage Conservation at Essex County Council. ^ [Arelate] Cirque romain Archived 2008-11-26 at the Wayback Machine (in French), at Patrimoine de la Ville d'Arles Archived 2012-02-07 at the Wayback Machine | Ville d'Arles Archived 2012-02-04 at the Wayback Machine | Barriol / Plan-du-Bourg Archived 2012-02-29 at the Wayback Machine. ^ a b [Arelate] Cirque romain d'Arles Archived 2012-05-02 at the Wayback Machine at Arles Office de Tourisme | Visit | Places to visit Archived 2012-03-12 at the Wayback Machine. ^ a b [Arelate] Cirque romain | Description Archived 2012-02-29 at the Wayback Machine (in French), at Patrimoine de la Ville d'Arles Archived 2012-02-07 at the Wayback Machine | Ville d'Arles Archived 2012-02-04 at the Wayback Machine | Barriol / Plan-du-Bourg Archived 2012-02-29 at the Wayback Machine. ^ [Arelate] Wikimapia location: Arelate. ^ [Arelate] The Circus | Arles at circusmaximus.us. ^ a b [Lugdunum] Cirque antique de Lyon and Cirque antique de Lyon#Hypothèses de localisation (in French). ^ a b c d e Raymond G. Chase: Ancient Hellenistic and Roman amphitheatres, stadiums, and theatres: the way they look now. P. E. Randall, Portsmouth 2002, ISBN 1-931807-08-6 ^ [Vienna] The Circus | Vienne at circusmaximus.us. ^ [Augusta Treverorum] satellite photo from LIVIUS Articles on Ancient History | Germania Inferior | Topography | Augusta Treverorum (Trier) | Trier: Circus. ^ [Augusta Treverorum] Wikimapia location: Augusta Treverorum Roman circus. ^ [Augusta Treverorum] Archäologie in Trier (in German) from Universität Trier | Organisation | Fachbereiche und Fächer | Fachbereich III Archived 2012-03-02 at the Wayback Machine | Klassische Archäologie | Was | Archäologie in Trier. ^ [Augusta Treverorum] Trier: Circus at LIVIUS Articles on Ancient History | Germania Inferior | Topography | Augusta Treverorum (Trier). ^ [Corinth] A Roman Circus in Corinth at HighBeam Research – Publications – Academic journals – History journals – Hesperia, paper reference: David Gilman Romano, "A Roman Circus in Corinth," in Hesperia 74, 2005, pp. 585–611. ^ [Corinth] Figure 11. Roman Corinth, ca. A.D. 50, and a portion of the land divided between the long walls illustrating the north–south roadways. from Corinth Computer Project | Greek and Roman Corinth | 44 BC – Colonia Laus Iulia Corinthiensis (Figure 11). ^ [Corinth] Figure 11. Roman Corinth, ca. A.D. 50, and a portion of the land divided between the long walls illustrating the north–south roadways from Corinth Computer Project | Greek and Roman Corinth | Colonia Laus Iulia Corinthiensis, 44 BC (Figure 11). ^ [Corinth] Wikimapia location: Corinth Roman circus (hypothesised and partially excavated location). ^ [Gortyn] Map of Gortyn (Gortina – Planta Archaeologica Dela Citta) at romanaqueducts.info | Roman Aqueducts Archived 2012-06-16 at the Wayback Machine | AQUASITE: Information on 50 selected Roman aqueducts | Gortyn(a) (Greece / Crete). ^ a b [Gortyn] Wikimapia location: Gortyn Roman circus. ^ [Gortyn] The Circus | Circus of Gortyn at circusmaximus.us. ^ a b c [Nicopolis] Wikimapia location: Nicopolis Roman circus. ^ a b [Thessalonica] Wikimapia location: Thessalonica Roman circus. ^ a b [Thessalonica] archaeological map of walled historical centre of Thessalonica. ^ a b c [Caesarea Maritima] The Circus | Caesarea at circusmaximus.us. ^ a b [Caesarea Maritima (coastal)] Wikimapia location: Caesarea Maritima Roman circus (coastal). ^ a b [Caesarea Maritima (inland)] Wikimapia location: Caesarea Maritima Roman circus (inland). ^ a b c d [Aquileia] The Circus | Aquileia at circusmaximus.us. ^ a b [Aquileia] Wikimapia location: Aquileia Roman circus. ^ a b c [Bovillae] L'antica Bovillae | Il Circo di Bovillae (in Italian) at parcodibovillae.org | PROTEZIONE DELL'AREA DELL'ANTICA BOVILLAE (in Italian). ^ [Bovillae] English page | The Roman stadium of Boville at parcodibovillae.org | PROTEZIONE DELL'AREA DELL'ANTICA BOVILLAE (in Italian). ^ [Bovillae] Wikimapia location: Bovillae Roman circus. ^ a b [Mediolanum] The Circus | Milan at circusmaximus.us. ^ [Mediolanum] Wikimapia location: Mediolanum Roman circus. ^ a b [Mediolanum] J.H.Humphrey, Roman Circuses, Londra 1986, p.614. ^ [Mediolanum] Wikimapia location: Milan Roman circus (tower at the north western corner). ^ [Circus Flaminius] Wikimapia location: Circus Flaminius, Rome. ^ [Circus Flaminius] Circus Flaminius. ^ a b [Circus Flaminius] Circus Flaminius – Samuel Ball Platner, 1929, via http://penelope.uchicago.edu/ at the University of Chicago. ^ a b [Circus of Maxentius] Wikimapia location: Circus of Maxentius, Rome. ^ [Circus of Maxentius] The Circus | Maxentius at circusmaximus.us. ^ a b [Circus Maximus] Circus Maximus#Republican era. ^ [Circus of Nero] Wikimapia location: Circus of Nero (location of the spina obelisk until 1586). ^ [Circus of Nero] Wikimapia location: Circus of Nero (location of the obelisk since 1586). ^ [Circus of Nero] The Circus | Vatican Circus at circusmaximus.us. ^ [Circus Varianus] Wikimapia location: Circus Varianus, Rome. ^ a b [Circus Varianus] Circo Variano at Italian Wikipedia. ^ [Circus Varianus] The Circus | Varianus at circusmaximus.us. ^ [Gadara] Gadara (Umm Quais) Topographische Bestandkarte 2007 (archaeological site map) Archived 2013-05-22 at the Wayback Machine from Research projects | geographical order | Gadara/Umm Qais (Jordanien) Archived 2012-04-12 at the Wayback Machine at Deutsches Archäologisches Institut (DAI) Archived 2012-02-10 at the Wayback Machine. ^ [Gadara] Wikimapia location: Gadara hippodrome. ^ a b [Gerasa] Wikimapia location: Gerasa Roman circus. ^ [Gerasa] The Circus | Gerasa at circusmaximus.us. ^ [Berytus] Wikimapia location: Colonia Iulia Augusta Felix Berytus Roman hippodrome. ^ a b [Tyrus] Wikimapia location: Tyrus Roman circus. ^ [Tyrus] The Circus | Tyre at circusmaximus.us. ^ a b [Cyrene] Wikimapia location: Cyrene Roman circus. ^ a b c [Cyrene] The Circus | Circus at Cyrene at circusmaximus.us. ^ a b [Leptis Magna] Wikimapia location: Leptis Magna Roman circus. ^ [Leptis Magna] The Circus | Leptis Magna at circusmaximus.us. ^ [Aeminium] Aeminium at Museu Nacional de Machado de Castro Archived 2011-09-03 at the Wayback Machine | English Version. ^ [Aeminium] Aeminium Archived January 21, 2012, at the Wayback Machine (in Portuguese), at Museu Nacional de Machado de Castro | Mini-Sítios. ^ [Aeminium] Wikimapia location: suggested location for Aeminium Roman circus. ^ a b c [Balsa] O Urbanismo de Balsa Romana (from 8:50; dimensions given at 9:11) at Campo Arqueológico de Tavira. ^ a b [Miróbriga] Wikimapia location: Miróbriga Roman circus. ^ [Miróbriga] The Circus | Circus of Mirobriga at circusmaximus.us. ^ [Olissipona] A Cronologia do Circo de Olisipo by IPPAR (now IGESPAR); published as: Revista Portuguesa de Arqueologia. volume 5. número 2. 2002, pp 245–275, "A Cronologia do Circo de Olisipo: a Terra Sigillata", Eurico Sepúlveda and others. ^ a b [Sirmium] archaeological plan of Roman Sirmium from Sirmium Palatium Imperiale at Carska Palata Sirmium. ^ a b [Sirmium] Sirmium#Archeological findings. ^ [Calagurris] Cidade | Turismo | Monumentos | Arqueología Romana at Ayuntamiento de Calahorra Archived 2003-05-31 at the Wayback Machine. ^ [Calagurris] Wikimapia location: Calagurris Roman circus. ^ [Cáparra] Wikimapia location: Cáparra Roman circus. ^ [Cáparra] Cáparra at Spanish Wikipedia. ^ a b [Corduba] Wikimapia location: Corduba Roman circus. ^ a b [Corduba] Cordoba Roman circus Archived 2012-08-30 at the Wayback Machine at Artencordoba.com | Roman Córdoba Archived 2012-01-28 at the Wayback Machine (see also: plan of Roman Cordoba Archived 2012-08-26 at the Wayback Machine; and: detailed location map of the circus[dead link]). ^ a b [Emerita Augusta] Wikimapia location: Emerita Augusta Roman circus. ^ [Emerita Augusta] The Circus | Emerita Augusta at circusmaximus.us. ^ [Italica] Roman sites by list | Spain | Italica at Imperium Roman sites. ^ [Saguntum] Wikimapia location: Saguntum Roman circus. ^ [Saguntum] Roman sites by list | Spain | Sagunto at Imperium Roman sites. ^ [Saguntum] Wikimapia location: Saguntum Roman circus (excavated gate). ^ a b [Saguntum] Wikimapia location: Saguntum Roman circus (information, including dimensions, in Spanish). ^ [Saguntum] The Circus | Segunto at circusmaximus.us. ^ a b [Tarraco] Roman Art | Public Spectacles architecture | Circus of Tarraco in Tarragona | Roman Circus of Tarraco, at Tarragona at SpanishArts.com. ^ [Tarraco] The Circus | Tarragona at circusmaximus.us. ^ a b [Toletum] The Circus | Toledo at circusmaximus.us. ^ [Toletum] Wikimapia location: Toletum Roman circus. ^ [Toletum] Wikimapia location: Toletum Roman circus (curved end). ^ a b [Zafra] Zafra#Roman era (article accessed: 2012-03-01). ^ [Bostra] Plan de l'Ancienne Ville de Bosra montrant l'emplacement de tous les monuments connus. B&W, 37 x 25 cm, scale by approximation ~ 1:6,100. Shows in red the boundaries of the site at UNESCO | Ancient City of Bosra. ^ [Bostra] Plan de Bosra (circus identified as a hippodrome) from In-Depth History | Plan of the City | Plan of the City at Bosracity.com | English. ^ a b [Bostra] Wikimapia location: Nova Trajana Bostra Roman circus. ^ [Bostra] The Circus | Bostra at circusmaximus.us. ^ a b [Abthugni]+[Commodum (as: Mun. Aur. Comm.)] map from DocArtis | Progetti | TUNISIA: Projet de gestion du patrimoine culturel | Bibliografie | B0000018 | Pflaum H. G., Romanisation de l'ancien territoire de la Carthage punique; The full article and map can be found from: Pflaum H. G., "Romanisation de l'ancien territoire de la Carthage punique" - in Antiquités africaines, 4, 1970. pp. 75-118. (the full map is on the last page; a high resolution version of the complete map may be obtained by using the scaling facilities of the site to enlarge the map, and then saving the resulting image). ^ [Abthugni] Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World, Edited by Richard J. A. Talbert, Map 32 Carthago; textual directory to map available from: http://press.princeton.edu/B_ATLAS.ZIP | BATL032_.PDF Archived 2013-05-07 at the Wayback Machine (reference to Abthugni and Henchir-es-Souar on directory page 494 (PDF page 2)). ^ a b [Abthugni] Hennchir Kasbat es Souar: Tunisia, SOURCE: National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, Bethesda, MD, USA. ^ a b [Abthugni (as: 'Ruins' at ref: NJ 32-15/510322)]+[Commodum (as: 'Henchir Boucha (ruins)' at ref: NJ 32-15/498358)] on map: NJ 32-15 Tunis, Tunisia from Perry–Castañeda Library Map Collection | Tunisia Maps | Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia, Joint Operations Graphic 1:250,000. ^ [Abthugni] ZAGHOUAN (search for 'A00030'), from Docartis | Tunisia | Patrimonio archeologico e storico | Siti complessi e monumenti | Gestion du patrimoine culturel de la Tunisie - Liste des monuments et décrets par gouvernorat (search for 'Zaghouan'). ^ [Abthugni] Décret du 13 mars 1912 (24 rabia-el-aoual 1330), page 2 (search for 'Henchir Souar'), from Docartis | Tunisia | Patrimonio archeologico e storico | Decreti di protezione | Liste Decrets (search for '14, Décret du 13 mars 1912 (24 rabia-el-aoual 1330)') | Décret du 13 mars 1912 (24 rabia-el-aoual 1330). ^ [Abthugni] aerial photograph from Docartis | Tunisia | Fonti documentarie | Foto aeree | PHOTOS AERIENNES (search for 'Henchir Souar, A00030'). ^ [Abthugni] Wikimapia location: Henchir Souar. ^ a b c d [Carthago] The Circus | Carthage Circus at circusmaximus.us. ^ a b [Carthago] Wikimapia location: Carthago Roman circus. ^ a b [Commodum] site no. 028.113, Henchir Fraxine/Henchir Bou Cha (anc. Municipium Aurelium Commodum) (doc page: 98; PDF page: 99)(gives UTM coordinates: 358,900N; 498,350E = approx: 36 deg 32' N, 9 deg 53' E) from Institut National du Patrimoine Tunisie | Archaeological Map | Carte National des Sites Arqueologiques e des Monuments Historiques | Bir Mcherga 028 | Cahier BIR MCHERGA 028. (in French) ^ [Hadrumetum] Wikimapia location: Sousse Roman circus (probable location). ^ [Hadrumetum] Sousse Archaeological Bulletin (especially PDF pages: 16, 17, 19, 204, 239, 410) "SOCIÉTÉ ARCHÉOLOGIQUE DE SOUSSE, Assemblée générale du 29 Février 1903, Extraits des procès-verbaux des réunions." etc., from Institut National du Patrimoine Tunisie / National Heritage Institute (INP) | Digital Library | Sousse Archaeological Bulletin (near bottom of page). (in French) ^ [Hadrumetum] aerial photograph of Sousse from DocArtis | Progetti | TUNISIA: Projet de gestion du patrimoine culturel | Fonti documentarie | Foto aeree | PHOTOS AERIENNES | Sousse ville. | A00219. ^ [Thugga] Dougga#Dougga's "liberty". ^ [Thugga] Wikimapia location: Thugga Roman circus (approximate location). ^ [Thugga] Délimitation du site culturel de Dougga. A3. Scale by calculation ~ 1: 6,250. Shows boundaries and buffer zone of the World Heritage property from UNESCO – Culture – World Heritage Centre – The List – World Heritage List – Dougga / Thugga – Maps. ^ [Thugga] THE GERMAN-TUNISIAN PROJECT AT DOUGGA FIRST RESULTS OF THE EXCAVATIONS SOUTH OF THE MAISON DU TRIFOLIUM (page 47). ^ [Thugga] PlanetWare.com > Africa and the Middle East > Tunisia > Tunisia Tourist Attractions > Dougga Tourist Attractions | Circus. ^ [Thugga] Dougga#Circus. ^ [Thugga] The Circus | Dougga at circusmaximus.us. ^ a b [Thysdrus] Wikimapia location: Thysdrus Roman circus. ^ [Thysdrus] The Circus | El Djem at circusmaximus.us. ^ [Utica] Cahier Ghar el Melh (NO-SO) from Institut National du Patrimoine Tunisie | Archaeological Map | Carte National des Sites Arqueologiques e des Monuments Historiques | 007 Ghar el Melh. ^ [Utica] Utica, Tunisia at British School at Rome – Accademia Britannica di Archeologia, Storia e Belle Arti – Research – Archaeology – Geophysics – Geophysics Projects (search for 'Utica, Tunisia'). ^ [Utica] Wikimapia location: Utica Roman circus (uncorroborated). ^ [Utica] Wikimapia location: Utica Roman circus (probable). ^ a b [Utica] 'Survey and Excavation at Utica 2010' by Nabil Kallala, Elizabeth Fentress, Josephine Quinn, Andrew Wilson (maps on pages 11 and 12). ^ a b c d e [Antioch] The Circus | Antioch at circusmaximus.us. ^ [Antioch] map Ancient City of Antioch Archived December 30, 2005, at the Wayback Machine from a past exhibition at the Cleveland Museum of Art. ^ [Antioch] Wikimapia location: ancient city of Antioch. ^ a b [Antioch] Wikimapia location: Antioch Roman hippodrome. ^ a b [Aphrodisias] Wikimapia location: Aphrodisias Roman circus/hippodrome/stadium. ^ [Aphrodisias] The Circus | Aphrodisia at circusmaximus.us. ^ a b [Byzantium] Hippodrome of Constantinople#History and use. ^ [Byzantium] Hippodrome of Constantinople#The Hippodrome today. ^ [Byzantium] The Circus | Constantinople at circusmaximus.us. ^ a b [Laodicea on the Lycus] Wikimapia location: Laodicea on the Lycus Roman stadium or circus. ^ [Nicomedia] The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites | NICOMEDIA NW Turkey at Perseus Digital Library | Collections/Texts | Perseus Collection | Greek and Roman Materials (search for 'The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites'). ^ [Nicomedia] KocaeLi - information on historical remains at Izmit (ancient Nicomedia). ^ [Nicomedia] Kocaeli Metropolitan Municipality | History of Kocaeli. 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en-wikipedia-org-7250	----	Thomas Creech - Wikipedia Thomas Creech From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Thomas Creech Thomas Creech (1659 – found dead 19 July 1700) was an English translator of classical works, and headmaster of Sherborne School. Creech translated Lucretius into verse in 1682, for which he received a Fellowship at Oxford. He also produced English versions of Manilius, Horace, Theocritus, and other classics.[1] Contents 1 Life 2 Works 3 Notes 4 External links Life[edit] He was born at Blandford Forum, Dorset. His father, also called Thomas Creech, died in 1720, and his mother, Jane Creech, died in 1693; they had two children, Thomas the translator and one daughter Bridget, who married Thomas Bastard, an architect of Blandford, and had issue six sons and four daughters. Creech's parents were not rich. His classical training was due to Thomas Curgenven, rector of Folke in Dorset, but best known as master of Sherborne school, to whom Creech afterwards dedicated his translation of the seventh idyll of Theocritus, and to whom he acknowledged his debt in the preface to his translation of Horace. His education was supported from Colonel Strangways, a member of a well-known county family.[2] In Lent term 1675 Creech was admitted as a commoner at Wadham College, Oxford, and placed under the tuition of Robert Pitt. Creech's translation of one of the idylls of Theocritus is inscribed to his "chum Mr. Hody of Wadham College", and another is dedicated to Robert Balch, who at a later date was his "friend and tutor". Two of his letters are printed in Evelyn's Diary. He was elected a scholar of his college 28 September 1676, and took degrees: B.A. 27 October 1680, M.A. 13 June 1683, and B.D. 18 March 1696. He was a reputed scholar, and one of the first to benefit by William Sancroft's reforms in the elections for fellowships at All Souls' College, where he was elected a fellow in 1683.[2] For two years (1694–6) he was the headmaster of Sherborne School, but he then returned to Oxford, where a strangeness of manner was noticed in 1698. He accepted the college living of Welwyn, to which he was instituted 25 April 1699, but never entered into residence. After he had been missing for five days he was discovered (in July 1700) to have committed suicide in a garret in the house of Mr. Ives, an apothecary, with whom he lodged. He had wished to marry Miss Philadelphia Playdell of St. Giles, Oxford, but her friends would not consent to the marriage. In his will, dated 18 January 1699, and proved 28 June 1700, he divided his means into two parts, one of which he left to his sister Bridget Bastard for the use of his father during his lifetime and afterwards for herself, while he left the other moiety to Miss Playdell and appointed her sole executrix. She later married Ralph Hobson, butler of Christ Church, Oxford, and died in 1706, aged 34. He was also short of money.[2] There were printed after his death two tracts: A Step to Oxford, or a Mad Essay on the Reverend Mr. Tho. Creech's hanging himself (as 'tis said) for love. With the Character of his Mistress, 1700. Daphnis, or a Pastoral Elegy upon the unfortunate and much-lamented death of Mr. Thomas Creech, 1700; second edition (corrected) 1701, and it is also found in ‘A Collection of the best English Poetry,’ vol. i. 1717.[2] His portrait, three-quarters oval in a clerical habit, was given by Humphrey Bartholomew to the picture gallery at Oxford. It was engraved by R. White and also by Van der Gucht.[2] Works[edit] Creech's 1682 translation of Lucretius vied in popularity with John Dryden's Virgil and Alexander Pope's Homer. A second edition appeared in the following year with extra commendatory verses in Latin and English, some of which bore the names of Nahum Tate, Thomas Otway, Aphra Behn, Richard Duke, and Edmund Waller; and when Dryden published his translations from Theocritus, Lucretius, and Horace, he made flattering comments on Creech's work in the preface. Creech's Lucretius was often reprinted, and was included in the edition of the British poets which was issued by Robert Anderson. An edition appeared in 1714 containing translations of verses previously omitted and numerous notes from another hand designed to set forth a complete system of Epicurean philosophy.[2] The success of his translation of Lucretius induced Creech to undertake an edition of the original work. It appeared in 1695 with the title 'Titi Lucretii Cari de rerum natura libri sex, quibus interpretationem et notas addidit Thomas Creech,' and was dedicated to his friend Christopher Codrington. This edition was also often republished, in particular at Glasgow in 1753. Creech's agreement with Abel Swalle for the preparation of this volume is among the Ballard MSS. at the Bodleian Library. H. A. J. Munro in his edition of Lucretius[3] wrote of Creech as borrowing annotations mainly from Lambinus, attributing the popularity of the work to their clarity and brevity.[2] In 1684 Creech published 'The Odes, Satyrs, and Epistles of Horace. Done into English;' it was reprinted in the same year, and again in 1688, 1715, 1720, and 1737. Other translations by Creech consisted of: Several elegies from Ovid with the second and third eclogues of Virgil in a collection of 'Miscellany Poems,' 1684. Laconick Apothegms, or remarkable sayings of the Spartans in 'Plutarch's Morals,' 1684, vol. i. pt. iii. 135–204; a Discourse concerning Socrates his Demon, ib. ii. pt. vi. 1–59; the first two books of the Symposiacks, ib. ii. pt. vi. 61–144, iii. pt. viii. 139–418. Lives of Solon, Pelopidas, and Cleomenes in Plutarch's Lives, 1683–6, 5 vols., an edition often reprinted in the first half of the eighteenth century. Idylliums of Theocritus, with Rapin's discourse of Pastorals, done into English, 1684, and reprinted in 1721, which was dedicated to Arthur Charlett. The thirteenth Satire of Juvenal, with notes, in the translation 'by Mr. Dryden and other eminent hands,' 1693. Verses of Santolius Victorinus, prefixed to 'The compleat Gard'ner of de la Quintinye, made English by John Evelyn,' 1693. The five books of M. Manilius containing a system of the ancient astronomy and astrology, done into English verse, with notes, 1697. Life of Pelopidas in the 'Lives of Illustrious Men' by Cornelius Nepos, translated by the Hon. Mr. Finch, Mr. Creech, and others, 1713.[2] Creech was engaged at the time of his death on an edition of Justin Martyr.[2] Notes[edit] ^ Real, Hermann J. (2004). "Creech, Thomas (1659–1700)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/6661. Retrieved 23 July 2008. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) ^ a b c d e f g h i Courtney 1888. ^ Vol. i. 1886 ed. p. 17 of introduction. Attribution  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Courtney, William Prideaux (1888). "Creech, Thomas". In Stephen, Leslie (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. 13. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 64–67.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Cousin, John William (1910). A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature. London: J. M. Dent & Sons – via Wikisource. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Thomas Creech Works by Thomas Creech at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Thomas Creech at Internet Archive Authority control BNE: XX4786737 GND: 124246206 ISNI: 0000 0001 2130 0799 LCCN: n82054702 NKC: mzk2009511087 NLA: 35676064 NLI: 000444022 NTA: 070439893 SELIBR: 282819 SNAC: w6tq8zzp SUDOC: 129703796 Trove: 1037695 VcBA: 495/201603 VIAF: 42766081 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n82054702 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Creech&oldid=991508262" Categories: 1659 births 1700 deaths English translators 17th-century English Anglican priests Fellows of All Souls College, Oxford English male writers who committed suicide Suicides by hanging in England People from Blandford Forum Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the ODNB EngvarB from July 2017 Use dmy dates from July 2017 Articles incorporating Cite DNB template Articles incorporating DNB text with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikiquote Wikisource Languages Español Français مصرى Edit links This page was last edited on 30 November 2020, at 12:52 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7281	----	WorldCat - Wikipedia WorldCat From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from WorldCat Identities (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search International union library catalog For information on using WorldCat links in Wikipedia articles, see Template:OCLC. WorldCat Screenshot WorldCat homepage as of June 2019 Type of site Network of library content and services Available in 13 languages[1] List of languages Chinese (Simplified) Chinese (Traditional) Czech Dutch English French German Italian Korean Japanese Portuguese Spanish Thai Urdu Owner OCLC URL www.worldcat.org Commercial No Registration Optional, but some features require registration (such as writing reviews and making lists or bibliographies) Launched January 21, 1998; 22 years ago (1998-01-21)[2] Current status Online Content license Copyright policy OCLC number 756372754 WorldCat is a union catalog that itemizes the collections of 17,900 libraries in 123 countries and territories[4] that participate in the OCLC global cooperative. It is operated by OCLC, Inc.[5] The subscribing member libraries collectively maintain WorldCat's database, the world's largest bibliographic database.[6] The database includes other information sources in addition to member library collections.[7] OCLC makes WorldCat itself available free to libraries, but the catalog is the foundation for other subscription OCLC services (such as resource sharing and collection management). WorldCat is used by the general public and by librarians for cataloging and research. Contents 1 History 2 Model 3 See also 4 References 5 Further reading 6 External links History[edit] OCLC was founded in 1967 under the leadership of Fred Kilgour.[8] That same year, OCLC began to develop the union catalog technology that would later evolve into WorldCat; the first catalog records were added in 1971.[8][9] In 2003, OCLC began the "Open WorldCat" pilot program, making abbreviated records from a subset of WorldCat available to partner web sites and booksellers, to increase the accessibility of its subscribing member libraries' collections.[10][11] In October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record.[12] WikiD was later phased out, although WorldCat later incorporated user-generated content in other ways.[13][14] In 2006, it became possible for anyone to search WorldCat directly at its open website,[15] not only through the subscription FirstSearch interface where it had been available on the web to subscribing libraries for more than a decade before.[16] Options for more sophisticated searches of WorldCat have remained available through the FirstSearch interface.[15] In 2007, WorldCat Identities began providing pages for 20 million "identities", which are metadata about names—predominantly authors and persons who are the subjects of published titles.[17] In 2017, OCLC's WorldCat Search API was integrated into the cite tool of Wikipedia's VisualEditor, allowing Wikipedia editors to cite sources from WorldCat easily.[18][19] Beginning in 2017, OCLC and the Internet Archive have collaborated to make the Internet Archive's records of digitized books available in WorldCat.[20] As of July 2020, WorldCat contained almost 500 million bibliographic records in 483 languages, representing over 3 billion physical and digital library assets,[5] and the WorldCat persons dataset (mined from WorldCat) included over 100 million people.[21] Model[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) WorldCat contains records in MAchine Readable Cataloging (MARC) format contributed by library catalogers worldwide who use OCLC as a cataloging tool, and these MARC format records can also be downloaded into other libraries' local catalog systems. This allows libraries to find and download records for materials they are adding to their local catalog, without having to undergo the lengthy process of creating a new catalog entry from scratch for each new item. WorldCat operates on a batch processing model rather than a real-time model. That is, WorldCat records are synchronized at intermittent intervals with the underlying library catalogs instead of real-time or every day. Consequently: WorldCat shows that a particular item is owned by a particular library but does not provide that library's call number. WorldCat does not indicate whether an item is currently borrowed, lost, undergoing restoration or repair, or moved to storage not directly accessible to patrons (thereby forcing interested patrons to submit a retrieval request and wait). Furthermore, WorldCat does not show whether a library owns multiple copies of a particular title. As an alternative, WorldCat allows participating institutions to add direct links from WorldCat to their own catalog entries for a particular item, which enables the user to determine its real-time status.[22] However, this still requires users to open multiple Web pages, each pointing to a different online public access catalog with its own distinctive user interface design (which places item status in a different portion of the Web browser display), until they can locate a catalog entry that shows the item is currently available at a particular library. Library contributions to WorldCat are made via the Connexion computer program, which was introduced in 2001; its predecessor, OCLC Passport, was phased out in May 2005.[23] See also[edit] Copac Faceted Application of Subject Terminology (FAST) List of academic databases and search engines Open Library References[edit] ^ "Search for library items". WorldCat. OCLC. Retrieved March 29, 2017. ^ 1998 is the date of registry of the WorldCat.org domain; see: "WorldCat.org WHOIS, DNS, & Domain Info – DomainTools". WHOIS. Retrieved January 21, 2017. However, the union catalog that became WorldCat was started three decades earlier, and it was already available on the web to subscriber libraries at OCLC.org several years before WorldCat.org was a registered domain name; see: "OCLC.org WHOIS, DNS, & Domain Info – DomainTools". WHOIS. Retrieved June 26, 2019. ^ "Worldcat.org Traffic, Demographics and Competitors – Alexa". www.alexa.com. Retrieved February 4, 2019. ^ "About OCLC". OCLC. Retrieved August 18, 2019. ^ a b "Inside WorldCat". www.oclc.org. OCLC. Retrieved August 19, 2019. ^ Oswald, Godfrey (2017). "Largest unified international library catalog". Library world records (3rd ed.). Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company. p. 291. ISBN 9781476667775. OCLC 959650095. ^ "Content available through WorldCat Discovery" (XLS). www.oclc.org. OCLC. Retrieved September 22, 2020. ^ a b Margalit Fox (August 2, 2006). "Frederick G. Kilgour, Innovative Librarian, Dies at 92". The New York Times. Retrieved December 22, 2009. Frederick G. Kilgour, a distinguished librarian who nearly 40 years ago transformed a consortium of Ohio libraries into what is now the largest library cooperative in the world, making the catalogs of thousands of libraries around the globe instantly accessible to far-flung patrons, died on Monday in Chapel Hill, N.C. He was 92. ^ "A brief history of WorldCat". oclc.org. February 10, 2015. Retrieved February 13, 2014. ^ O'Neill, Nancy (November–December 2004). "Open WorldCat Pilot: A User's Perspective". Searcher. 12 (10): 54–60. ISSN 1070-4795. OCLC 201889986. ^ Quint, Barbara (October 27, 2003). "OCLC project opens WorldCat records to Google". infotoday.com. Information Today. Retrieved June 26, 2019. ^ "WikiD". OCLC. Retrieved March 5, 2015. ^ Storey, Tom (September 2007). "A WorldCat community: using WorldCat.org to build a social network of the world's library users" (PDF). NextSpace. OCLC (7): 16–17. ISSN 1559-0011. Retrieved June 26, 2019. Online ratings, tags, reviews, recommendations, lists, rankings, personal profiles—the social media revolution is here. It seems the world has exploded with Web 2.0, social networking tools and sites. ^ Bertot, John Carlo; Berube, Katy; Devereaux, Peter; Dhakal, Kerry; Powers, Stephen; Ray, Jennie (April 2012). "Assessing the usability of WorldCat Local: findings and considerations". The Library Quarterly. 82 (2): 207–221. doi:10.1086/664588. JSTOR 10.1086/664588. Breeding [2] also makes the following observations about the benefits of the search system: the presence of a more visually appealing interface; the grouping of related material; faceted navigation; and the capability for user-generated content (e.g., reviews). Eden [3] also refers to the advantages of user-generated content possible in WCL... ^ a b Hane, Paula J. (July 17, 2006). "OCLC to open WorldCat searching to the world". infotoday.com. Information Today. Retrieved June 26, 2019. ^ Prucha, Francis Paul (1994). "National online library catalogs". Handbook for research in American history: a guide to bibliographies and other reference works (2nd ed.). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. pp. 25–27. ISBN 0803237014. OCLC 28018047. Online Computer Library Center has developed two new programs. One is called EPIC, a new command-driven full online service with sophisticated searching features, including subject searches, intended for librarians and other experienced users. The other, designed for end-users, is FirstSearch, which contains the database materials found in EPIC or subsets of them but has a menu interface that nonspecialists find easy to use. Both EPIC and FirstSearch make available the full OCLC Online Union Catalog (called WorldCat in FirstSearch), but they also function as online database services, offering their users a wide array of other databases. ^ Hickey, Thomas B. (April 15, 2007). "WorldCat Identities: Another View of the Catalog" (PDF). NextSpace. OCLC (6): 18–19. ISSN 1559-0011. Retrieved January 18, 2016. ^ "OCLC and Wikipedia Library link citations to millions of library materials, expanding access to quality sources". oclc.org. OCLC. May 11, 2017. Retrieved April 25, 2020. ^ Orlowitz, Jake (May 11, 2017). "You can now add automatically generated citations to millions of books on Wikipedia". blog.wikimedia.org. Wikimedia Foundation. Retrieved April 25, 2020. ^ Michalko, Jim (October 12, 2017). "Syncing Catalogs with thousands of Libraries in 120 Countries through OCLC". blog.archive.org. Internet Archive. Retrieved July 18, 2020. ^ "Data strategy [WorldCat]". oclc.org. Archived from the original on February 12, 2018. Retrieved February 11, 2018. ^ "What is WorldCat?". worldcat.org. Retrieved February 13, 2015. ^ Dean, Becky (March 3, 2005). "OCLC Authorities migration timeline". bibco@listserv.loc.gov (Mailing list). Retrieved June 26, 2019. Further reading[edit] Blackman, Cathy; Moore, Erica Rae; Seikel, Michele; Smith, Mandi (July 2014). "WorldCat and SkyRiver: a comparison of record quantity and fullness". Library Resources & Technical Services. 58 (3): 178–186. doi:10.5860/lrts.58n3.178. Breeding, Marshall (May 2015). "Library services platforms: a maturing genre of products". Library Technology Reports. 51 (4): 1–38. doi:10.5860/ltr.51n4. Matthews, Joseph R. (July 2016). "An environmental scan of OCLC alternatives: a management perspective". Public Library Quarterly. 35 (3): 175–187. doi:10.1080/01616846.2016.1210440. McKenzie, Elizabeth (January 2012). OCLC changes its rules for use of records in WorldCat: library community pushback through blogs and cultures of resistance (Technical report). Boston: Suffolk University Law School. Research paper 12-06. What the OCLC online union catalog means to me: a collection of essays. Dublin, Ohio: OCLC. 1997. ISBN 1556532237. OCLC 37492023. Wilson, Kristen (August 2016). "The knowledge base at the center of the universe". Library Technology Reports. 52 (6): 1–35. doi:10.5860/ltr.52n6. "WorldCat data licensing" (PDF). oclc.org. Retrieved December 31, 2018. See also: "Data licenses & attribution". oclc.org. January 14, 2017. Retrieved December 31, 2018. Information about licensing of WorldCat records and some other OCLC data. External links[edit] Official website "WorldCat". oclc.org. Retrieved December 31, 2018. Information on the OCLC website about WorldCat. What is WorldCat?—A shorter explanation at WorldCat "Bibliographic Formats and Standards". oclc.org. Retrieved December 31, 2018. "WorldCat Identities". worldcat.org. Retrieved December 31, 2018. Authority control LCCN: no2006000525 VIAF: 176058852 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 176058852 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WorldCat&oldid=995004624#Identifier" Categories: Bibliographic databases and indexes Cooperatives Library catalogues OCLC Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use American English from March 2017 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Use mdy dates from March 2017 Pages using infobox website with unknown parameters Articles needing additional references from December 2018 All articles needing additional references Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Asturianu বাংলা Башҡортса Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Boarisch Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Kapampangan ქართული Kiswahili Latina Lietuvių Македонски മലയാളം مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 18 December 2020, at 18:03 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7288	----	James Douglas (physician) - Wikipedia James Douglas (physician) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search James Douglas FRS (21 March 1675 – 2 April 1742) was a Scottish physician and anatomist, and Physician Extraordinary to Queen Caroline. Contents 1 Life and works 1.1 Terminology 2 Footnotes 3 External links Life and works[edit] One of the seven sons of William Douglas (died 1705) and his wife, Joan, daughter of James Mason of Park, Blantyre, he was born in West Calder, West Lothian, in 1675. His brother was the well-known lithotomist John Douglas (died 1759). In 1694 he graduated MA from the University of Edinburgh and then took his medical doctorate at Reims before going to London in 1700. He worked as an obstetrician, and gaining a great reputation as a physician, was elected Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1706, FCP in 1721. One of the most respected anatomists in the country, Douglas was also a well-known man-midwife. He was asked to investigate the case of Mary Toft, an English woman from Godalming, Surrey, who in 1726 became the subject of considerable controversy when she tricked doctors into believing that she had given birth to rabbits. Despite his early scepticism (Douglas thought that a woman giving birth to rabbits was as likely as a rabbit giving birth to a human child), Douglas went to see Toft, and subsequently exposed her as a fraud. Douglas practiced midwifery and performed public dissections at home. Douglas mentored and befriended anatomist and surgeon William Hunter (1718–1783), whom he met in 1740 when Hunter came to London. Hunter would live in the Douglas household and remained there after Douglas died in London on 2 April 1742, leaving a widow and two children. Douglas produced a series of manuscript English, French, Latin and Greek grammars, and an ample index to the works of Horace. A Treatise on English Pronunciation by James Douglas (1914) was edited by Anna Paues. Another edition was due to Börje Holmberg (Lund, 1956).[1] He undertook botanical studies, notably his monograph on the Guernsey Lily. Terminology[edit] As a result of Douglas's investigations of female pelvic anatomy, several anatomical terms bear his name: Douglas pouch Peritoneal space formed by deflection of the peritoneum. Douglasitis Inflammation of Douglas pouch. Douglas abscess Suppuration in Douglas pouch, most often seen in appendicitis or adnexitis. Douglas fold A fold of peritoneum forming the lateral boundary of Douglas' pouch. Douglas line The arcuate line of the sheath of the rectus abdominis muscle. Douglas septum The septum formed by the union of Rathke's folds, forming the rectum of the fetus. Footnotes[edit] ^ James Douglas on English Pronunciation, c. 1740; [an edition of the Hunterian Museum manuscript no. 586 edited, with an introduction and commentary, by Börje Holmberg; a thesis.] Lund: Gleerup, 1956 External links[edit] Who Named It? (James Douglas) Papers and Drawings of James Douglas, Glasgow University Library archives Douglas papers v t e Premier Grand Lodge of England Active 1717–1813, united with the Antient Grand Lodge of England (1751–1813) to create the United Grand Lodge of England (1813–present) Grand Masters Anthony Sayer (1717–1718) George Payne (1718–1719) John Theophilus Desaguliers (1719–1720) George Payne (1720–1721) Duke of Montagu (1721–1723) Duke of Wharton (1723) Earl of Dalkeith (1723–1724) Duke of Richmond (1724) Lord Paisley (1724–1725) Earl of Inchiquin (1726–1727) Baron Colerane (1727–1728) Baron Kingston (1728–1730) Duke of Norfolk (1730–1731) Baron Lovell (1731–1732) Viscount Montagu (1732–1733) Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne (1733–1734) Earl of Crawford (1734–1735) Lord Weymouth (1735–1736) Earl of Loudoun (1736–1737) Earl of Darnley (1737–1738) Marquis of Carnarvon (1738–1739) Baron Raymond (1739–1740) Earl of Kintore (1740–1741) Earl of Morton (1741–1742) Baron Ward (1742–1744) Lord Cranstoun (1744–1747) Baron Byron (1747–1752) Baron Carysfort (1752–1753) Marquis of Carnarvon (1754–1757) Lord Aberdour (1757–1762) Earl Ferrers (1762–1764) Baron Blayney (1764–1767) Duke of Beaufort (1767–1772) Baron Petre (1772–1777) Duke of Manchester (1777–1782) Duke of Cumberland (1782–1790) George, Prince of Wales (1792–1813) Duke of Sussex (1813) Related articles History of Freemasonry Antient Grand Lodge of England United Grand Lodge of England James Anderson's The Constitutions of the Free-Masons (1723) Freemasons' Tavern Freemasons' Hall, London Royal Society Society of Antiquaries of London Royal College of Physicians Worshipful Society of Apothecaries Spalding Gentlemen's Society Newtonianism English Enlightenment Order of the Bath Walpole ministries Whiggism (Kit-Cat Club) Gormogons Hellfire Club Foundling Hospital Unlawful Societies Act Members James Anderson John Byrom William Stukeley William Jones William Cowper Charles Delafaye Baron Carpenter William Billers Sir 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Scottish anatomists Reims University (1548–1793) alumni Fellows of the Royal Society 18th-century Scottish medical doctors Scottish obstetricians Alumni of the University of Edinburgh Scottish midwives Freemasons of the Premier Grand Lodge of England Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from October 2017 Use British English from October 2017 Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account 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en-wikipedia-org-731	----	Trove - Wikipedia Trove From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Trove (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the Australian online service. For other uses of the word "trove", see Trove (disambiguation). Australian online library database aggregator Trove Logo (prior to August 2020) Homepage (December 2014) Type of site Australian library database aggregator Available in English Owner National Library of Australia URL www.trove.nla.gov.au Commercial no Registration Optional Launched 2009; 11 years ago (2009) Current status Online Trove is an Australian online library database aggregator and service which includes full text documents, digital images, bibliographic and holdings data of items which are not available digitally, and a free faceted-search engine as a discovery tool. The database includes archives, images, newspapers, official documents, archived websites, manuscripts and other types of data. Hosted by the National Library of Australia in partnership with content providers, including members of the National and State Libraries Australia, it is one of the most well-respected and accessed GLAM services in Australia, with over 70,000 daily users. Based on antecedents dating back to 1996, the first version of Trove was released for public use in late 2009. It includes content from libraries, museums, archives, repositories and other organisations with a focus on Australia. It allows searching of catalogue entries of books in Australian libraries (some fully available online), academic and other journals, full-text searching of digitised archived newspapers, government gazettes and archived websites. It provides access to digitised images, maps, aggregated information about people and organisations, archived diaries and letters, and all born-digital content which has been deposited via National edeposit (NED). Searchable content also includes music, sound and videos, and transcripts of radio programs. With the exception of the digitised newspapers, none of the contents is hosted by Trove itself, which indexes the content of its partners' collection metadata, formats and manages it, and displays the aggregated information in a relevance-ranked search result. In the wake of government funding cuts since 2015, the National Library and other organisations have been struggling to keep up with ensuring that content on Trove is kept flowing through and up to date. Contents 1 History 1.1 Implementation 1.2 2010s 2 Content and services 2.1 Description 2.2 Content and delivery 2.2.1 Books 2.2.2 Newspapers 2.2.3 Websites 2.2.4 Other zones 3 Reception and usage 3.1 Awards 4 Budget cuts 5 Continuing development 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links History[edit] Trove's origins can be seen in the development of earlier services such as the Australian Bibliographic Network (ABN),[1] a shared cataloguing service launched in 1981. The "Single Business Discovery Project" was launched in August 2008.[2] The intention was to create a single point of entry for the public to the various online discovery services developed by the library between 1997 and 2008, including:[2][3][4] PANDORA archive (1996); the Register of Australian Archives and Manuscripts (RAAM, launched 1997); PictureAustralia (2000);[5][6] Libraries Australia (the service that developed out of the ABN in 2006); Australia Dancing, a joint venture with Ausdance (2003); Music Australia (2005); ARROW Discovery Service (first Australian Research Repositories Online, then Australian Research Online, launched 2005); People Australia (late 2006); and Australian Newspapers Beta service (July 2008). The service developed by the project was called Single Business Discovery Service, and also briefly known by the staff as Girt. The name Trove was suggested by a staff member, with the associations of a treasure trove and the French verb trouver (to find or discover).[4] The key features of the service were designed to create a faceted search system specifically for Australian content. Tight integration with the provider databases has allowed "Find and Get" functions (e.g. viewing digitally, borrowing, buying, copying). Important extra features include the provision of a "check copyright" tool and persistent identifiers (which enables stable URLs).[7] The first version of Trove was released to the public in late 2009.[7] Implementation[edit] The National Library of Australia combined eight different online discovery tools that had been developed over a period of twelve years into a new single discovery interface that was released as a prototype in May 2009 for public comment before launching in November 2009 as Trove.[8] It is continually updated to expand its reach.[9][10] With the notable exception of the newspaper "zone", none of the material that appears in Trove search results is hosted by Trove itself. Instead, it indexes the content of its content partners' collection metadata and displays the aggregated information in a relevance-ranked search result.[11] The service is built using a variety of open source software.[12][13] Trove provides a free, public Application Programming Interface (API).[14] This allows developers to search across the records for books, images, maps, video, archives, music, sound, journal articles, newspaper articles and lists and to retrieve the associated metadata using XML and JSON encoding.[15][16] The full text of digitised newspaper articles is also available.[17] Several citation styles are automatically produced by the software, giving a stable URL to the edition, page or article-level for any newspaper. Wikipedia was closely integrated from the beginning of the project, making Trove the first GLAM website in the world to integrate the Wikipedia API into its product.[18] 2010s[edit] Trove has continued to evolve and take on new services and collections. In 2016, in collaboration with the State Library of New South Wales, Trove launched the Government Gazettes zone, and continues to collect the official gazettes of all level of government (Commonwealth and State and Territory) where possible.[19] In March 2019 PANDORA became part of larger the Australian Web Archive, which comprises the PANDORA archive, the Australian Government Web Archive (AGWA) and the National Library's ".au" domain collections, using a single interface in Trove which is publicly available.[20][21][22][23] Content and services[edit] Description[edit] Trove has grown beyond its original aims, and has become "a community, a set of services, an aggregation of metadata, and a growing repository of full text digital resources" and "a platform on which new knowledge is being built". It is now a collaboration between the National Library, Australia's State and Territory libraries and hundreds of other cultural and research institutions around Australia.[24] It is an Australian online library database aggregator; a free faceted-search engine hosted by the National Library of Australia,[25] in partnership with content providers, including members of the National and State Libraries Australia (NSLA).[7] Content and delivery[edit] Trove "brings together content from libraries, museums, archives, repositories and other research and collecting organisations big and small" in order to help users find and use resources relating to Australia and therefore the content is Australian-focused.[24] Much of the material may be difficult to retrieve with other search tools, for example in cases where it is part of the deep web, including records held in collection databases,[7] or in projects such as the PANDORA web archive, Australian Research Online, Australian National Bibliographic Database and others mentioned above.[3] Since 2019, Trove has included access to all electronic documents deposited by Australian publishers under the legal deposit provisions of the Copyright Act 1968, as amended in 2017 to included such publications.[26] These resources are identifiable by a display in the top right-hand corner in both the ebook and pdf viewers, saying "National edeposit collection". Many of these are readable and some are downloadable, depending on the access conditions.[27] The site's content is split into "zones" designating different forms of content which can be searched all together, or separately.[28] Books[edit] The book zone allows searching of the collective catalogues of institutions findable in Libraries Australia using the Australian National Bibliographic Database (ANBD). It provides access to books, audio books, e-books, theses, conference proceedings and pamphlets listed in ANBD, which is a union catalogue of items held in Australian libraries and a national bibliographic database of resources including Australian online publications.[29] Bibliographic records from the ANBD are also uploaded into the WorldCat global union catalogue.[30] The results can be filtered by format if searching for braille, audio books, theses or conference proceedings and also by decade and language of publication.[31] A filter for Australian content is also provided.[8][32] Newspapers[edit] Front page of The Leader (Orange, New South Wales) 31 July 1915, the 10 millionth newspaper page to be made available through Trove.[33] Front cover of The Dawn Issue 1, 15 May 1888. The first feminist magazine in Australia. Trove allows text-searching of digitised historic newspapers, with the Newspapers zone replacing the previous "Australian Newspapers" website.[citation needed] It provides text-searchable access to over 700 historic Australian newspapers from each State and Territory.[34] By 2014, over 13.5 million digitised newspaper pages had been made available through Trove as part of the Australian Newspaper Plan (ANPlan),[35] a "collaborative program to collect and preserve every newspaper published in Australia, guaranteeing public access" to these important historical records.[36] The extent of digitised newspaper archives is wide reaching and includes now defunct publications, such as the Australian Home Companion and Band of Hope Journal and The Barrier Miner in New South Wales and The Argus in Victoria.[note 1][37] It includes the earliest published Australian newspaper, the Sydney Gazette (which dates to 1803), and some community language newspapers.[35] Also included is The Australian Women's Weekly.[38][note 2] The Canberra Times is the only major newspaper available beyond 1957. It allowed publication of its in-copyright archive up to 1995 as part of the "centenary of Canberra" in 2013,[40] and the digitisation costs were raised with a crowdfunding campaign.[41] Also crowdfunded, the Australian feminist magazine The Dawn was included on International Women's Day 2012.[42][43] As of 10 May 2020[update], 23,498,368 newspaper pages and 2,026,782 government gazette pages were available to view. Australian Newspapers Digitisation Project On 25 July 2008 the "Australian Newspapers Beta" service was released to the public as a standalone website and a year later became a fully integrated part of the newly launched Trove. The service contains millions of articles from 1803 onwards, with more content being added regularly.[44] The website was the public face of the Australian Newspapers Digitisation Project, a coordination of major libraries in Australia to convert historic newspapers to text-searchable digital files. The Australian Newspapers website allowed users to search the database of digitised newspapers from 1803 to 1954 which are now in the public domain. The newspapers (frequently microfiche or other photographic facsimiles) were scanned and the text from the articles has been captured by optical character recognition (OCR) to facilitate easy searching, but it contains many OCR errors, often due to poor quality facsimiles.[45][46] Public text correctors Since August 2008 the system has incorporated crowdsourced text-correction as a major feature, allowing the public to change the searchable text. Many users have contributed tens of thousands of corrected lines, and some have contributed millions.[47] This collaborative participation allows users to give back to the service and over time improves the database's searchability.[48][49] The text-correcting community and other Trove users have been referred to as "Trovites".[50] Websites[edit] The Australian Web Archive, created in March 2019,[51] includes websites archived from 1996 until the present. This is the primary search portal of the PANDORA web-archiving service, and also includes the Australian Government Web Archive (AGWA) as well as websites from the ".au" domain, which are collected annually through large crawl harvests.[52] Other zones[edit] (In order of presentation along the top tab.) Pictures, photos, objects: Including digitised photographs, drawings, posters, postcards etc. Considerable numbers of images on Flickr with the appropriate licensing are donated as well.[53] Replacing the previous "Pictures Australia" website. Journals, articles and datasets searching of academic and other periodicals, and various datasets. Government Gazettes: allows searching of official publications written for the purpose of notifying the public of government business. Music, sound and videos: allows searching of digitised historic sheet music and audio recordings. Replacing the previous "Music Australia" website. Also includes searchable transcripts from many Radio National programs.[54] Maps Diaries, letters, archives People and organisations: allows searching of biographical information and other resources about associated people and organisations, from resources including the Australian Dictionary of Biography. Lists Users are able to create an account and log in to Trove. Once this is done, a type of "zone" called Lists allows logged-in users to make their own public compilations of items found in Trove searches. There is also a facility to join the Trove community and make contributions to the resources such as tags, comments and corrections. Reception and usage[edit] In a keynote address to the 14th National Australian Library and Information Association (ALIA) Conference in Melbourne in 2014, Roly Keating, Chief Executive of the British Library described Trove as "exemplary" – a "both-end choice" of deep rich interconnected archive.[55] Digital humanities researcher and Trove manager Tim Sherratt noted that in relation to the Trove API "delivery of cultural heritage resources in a machine-readable form, whether through a custom API or as Linked Open Data, provides more than just improved access or possibilities for aggregation. It opens those resources to transformation. It empowers us to move beyond ‘discovery’ as a mode of interaction to analyse, extract, visualise and play".[56] The site has been described as "a model for collaborative digitization projects and serves to inform cultural heritage institutions building both large and small digital collections".[57] The reach of the newspaper archives makes the service attractive to genealogists[58][59][60] and knitters.[9] It is one of the most well-respected[61] and accessed GLAM (galleries, archives, archives and museums) services in Australia, with over 70,000 daily users.[62][9] Dr Liz Stainforth of the University of Leeds calls it "that rare beast: a digital heritage platform with popular appeal"; "of the most successful of its kind among aggregators such as Europeana, the Digital Public Library of America and...DigitalNZ". What distinguishes it from the other three is that it also delivers content, and engages with the general public, which has created a form of virtual community amongst its text correctors. Users can log in and thus create their own lists, and also correct the text of newspapers scanned using Optical character recognition (OCR), with an honour board for the top correctors. International researchers also use Trove: a 2018 showed the site among the top 15 for external citations in the English-language version of Wikipedia. The width and breadth of its audience adds to its uniqueness.[63] Awards[edit] Trove received the 2011 Excellence in eGovernment Award and the 2011 Service Delivery Category Award.[64][65] Budget cuts[edit] In the wake of the Australian Government's 2015 Mid-Year Economic and Fiscal Outlook Statement, Trove funding was cut with the result that the National Library of Australia would cease "aggregating content in Trove from museums and universities unless ... fully funded to do so".[66] In addition, it was argued that the cuts would further "result in many smaller institutions across Australia being unable to afford to add their digital collections to this national knowledge infrastructure".[67] Those smaller institutions would include local historical societies, clubs, schools, and commercial and public organisations, as well as private collections. In March 2016 ten major Australian galleries, libraries, archives and museums (commonly referred to as the GLAM sector) signed a statement of support for Trove, in which they warned that the budgetary cuts would "hamper the development of our world leading portal and will be a major obstacle to exposing the collections of smaller and regional institutions" and that "without additional funding, Trove will not fulfil its promise as the discovery site for all Australian cultural content".[68] Similar statements were issued by the Australian Academy of the Humanities[69] and the National Trust (NSW).[70] Tim Sherratt, a former manager of Trove, warned in early 2016 that fewer collections would be added and that less digitised content would be available – "not quite a content freeze, but certainly a slowdown".[71] Following extensive campaigning, including a public campaign on Twitter, Trove received a commitment of A$16.4 million in December 2016, spread over four years.[63][72] By early 2020, with the surge in demand for all types of digital services, the National Library was having to cope with increasingly dwindling staff resources to develop services on Trove and National edeposit, and undertook a restructure of its staffing and operations.[73] Continuing development[edit] In July–August 2020 a redesigned user interface was unrolled, with a more open display of search results and a new logo reminiscent of a rifle sight. See also[edit] Australia portal Journalism portal Internet portal Digital Public Library of America Europeana List of newspapers in Australia List of newspapers in New South Wales National Digital Library Program (NDLP), US digital library created by scanning the resources of the Library of Congress National Digital Information Infrastructure and Preservation Program (NDIIPP) - US digitisation project Warwick Cathro Notes[edit] ^ Published in Melbourne between 1846 and 1947 ^ Digitised between 1933 and 1982 – where the National Library acknowledges the use of newspapers and microfilm owned by the State Library of New South Wales and Australian Consolidated Press for the digitisation of the title.[39] References[edit] ^ National Library of Australia; Australian Bibliographic Network (1981), Draft proposal for the development of an Australian Bibliographic Network, National Library of Australia, ISBN 978-0-642-99217-8 ^ a b Cathro, Warwick. "Single Business Discovery Project". National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 9 December 2014. Retrieved 5 December 2014. ^ a b Ayres, Marie-Louise (2013). "Singing for their supper: Trove, Australian newspapers, and the crowd" (PDF). IFLA World Library and Information Congress. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 November 2015. Retrieved 3 December 2014. ^ a b Bryce, Catriona (5 November 2014). "Trove - A Brief History: Trove is now 5 years old. Here's how we came to be". National Library of Australia. Retrieved 10 May 2020. ^ Goldrick, Chrissie (1 October 2006), "PictureAustralia.", Australian Geographic, Athena Information Solutions Pvt. Ltd (84): 19, ISSN 0816-1658, retrieved 10 May 2020 ^ "Asia and the Commons: NLA PictureAustralia Click & Flick" (PDF). Retrieved 10 May 2020. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ a b c d Holley, Rose (29 July 2010). "Trove: Innovation in Access to Information in Australia". Ariadne. Archived from the original on 13 November 2014. Retrieved 3 December 2014. ^ a b Weight, Mary-Louise (2010). "Trove – One Search, a Wealth of Information". Incite. 31 (1/2): 10–11. ^ a b c Thorpe, Clarissa (8 November 2014). "National Library of Australia's Trove website celebrates five years of uncovering the past". ABC News. Archived from the original on 23 November 2015. Retrieved 5 September 2015. ^ Ayres, Marie-Louise (4 September 2012). "Digging deep in Trove: Success, challenge and uncertainty". National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 5 December 2014. Retrieved 3 December 2014. ^ Warwick Cathro; Susan Collier (8 June 2010), Developing Trove: the policy and technical challenges, National Library of Australia, retrieved 17 December 2014 ^ Clarke, Trevor (28 April 2010). "Australian National Library uses open source for treasure Trove". ComputerWorld. Archived from the original on 9 December 2014. Retrieved 7 December 2014. ^ "Trove: mapping Australia's culture where Google fears to tread". APC. 29 April 2010. Archived from the original on 9 December 2014. Retrieved 7 December 2014. ^ "Trove API lets developers delve deeper". National State Libraries Australasia. 19 April 2012. Archived from the original on 17 December 2014. Retrieved 16 December 2014. ^ perkinsy (11 March 2014). "An Introduction to the Trove API". Archived from the original on 8 December 2014. Retrieved 16 December 2014. ^ "Building with Trove". Trove Help. National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 17 December 2014. Retrieved 16 December 2014. ^ "Building with Trove". National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 17 December 2014. Retrieved 3 December 2014. ^ Holley, Rose (6 August 2009). "Perspectives on National Library of Australia Developments Part 1 Rose Holley – Presentation slides from GLAM-Wiki conference, Canberra". Slideshare. Archived from the original on 19 December 2014. Retrieved 2 December 2014. ^ "About digitised newspapers and gazettes". Trove help centre. Retrieved 10 May 2020. ^ "Preserving and Accessing Networked DOcumentary Resources of Australia". Pandora Archive. May 1999. Retrieved 30 April 2020. ^ "Australian web archive". Trove. Retrieved 30 April 2020. ^ "Archived websites". National Library of Australia. 23 March 2020. Retrieved 30 April 2020. ^ Koerbin, Paul (11 February 2015). "The Australian Government Web Archive". National Library of Australia. Retrieved 30 April 2020. ^ a b "About Trove". Trove. National Library of Australia. Retrieved 8 May 2020. ^ Baich, Tina (May 2013). "The global research landscape: resources for locating international publications". College & Research Libraries News. 74 (5): 243–248. doi:10.5860/crln.74.5.8945. Archived from the original on 24 June 2014. Retrieved 16 December 2014. ^ "What is legal deposit?". National Library of Australia. 17 February 2016. Retrieved 6 May 2020. ^ "Legal Deposit and Trove". Trove: Help centre. Retrieved 6 May 2020. ^ "Using Trove – Finding things". Trove. National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 24 December 2014. Retrieved 16 December 2014. ^ Rajapatirana, Bemal; Missingham, Roxanne (February 2005). "The Australian National Bibliographic Database and the Functional Requirements for the Bibliographic Database (FRBR)". The Australian Library Journal. 54 (1): 31–42. doi:10.1080/00049670.2005.10721711. S2CID 61124103. ^ "OCLC Agreement". Libraries Australia. National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 10 December 2014. Retrieved 6 December 2014. ^ Rathi, Dinesh; Shiri, Ali; Lucky, Shannon (2013). "Evolving and Emerging Trends in Digital Libraries User Interfaces". In Proceedings of the Annual Conference of CAIS/Actes du Congrès Annuel de l'ACSI. doi:10.29173/cais660. Archived from the original on 17 December 2014. Retrieved 16 December 2014. ^ "Refining your results". Trove help. National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 17 December 2014. Retrieved 16 December 2014. ^ Wyatt, Liam (21 June 2013). "10 Million newspaper pages in Trove". Trove Blog. National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 9 December 2014. Retrieved 5 December 2014. ^ "About Digitised Newspapers and more". Trove. National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 29 February 2016. Retrieved 22 May 2017. ^ a b "Australian Newspaper Digitisation Program". National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 2 July 2015. Retrieved 3 December 2014. ^ Australian Newspaper Plan Archived 7 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine. ^ "Newspaper Titles". Trove. National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 29 February 2016. Retrieved 3 December 2014. ^ Rohan, Pearce (22 November 2010). "National Library puts iconic Aussie magazine on Web". PCWorld. Archived from the original on 9 December 2014. Retrieved 7 December 2014. ^ Acknowledgements – Trove: The Australian Women's Weekly (1933–1982) Archived 25 November 2014 at the Wayback Machine ^ Boland-Rudder, Hamish (26 December 2013). "Yesterday's Canberra news gets an update for digital age at National Library". The Canberra Times. Archived from the original on 20 February 2014. Retrieved 5 December 2014. ^ Warden, Ian (18 June 2013). "Four more decades of print now in digital". The Canberra Times. Archived from the original on 12 January 2015. Retrieved 7 December 2014. ^ "The Dawn rises again". National Library of Australia. 8 March 2012. Archived from the original on 19 May 2014. Retrieved 19 May 2014. ^ Ross, Monique (8 March 2012). "New dawn for historic suffragette journal". ABC News. Archived from the original on 5 January 2015. Retrieved 7 December 2014. ^ "NLA.gov.au". NLA.gov.au. 17 February 2012. Archived from the original on 25 August 2012. Retrieved 30 May 2012. ^ Foreshew, Jennifer (20 September 2011). "Devil in the detail for landmark National Library of Australia project". The Australian. Retrieved 16 December 2014. ^ Riley, Carole (6 August 2008). "Australian Newspapers Digitisation Project". Heritage Genealogy. Archived from the original on 17 December 2014. Retrieved 16 December 2014. ^ Drake, Jess (15 May 2014). "Trove's Volunteers". Trove Blog. National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 10 December 2014. Retrieved 7 December 2014. ^ Walters, Conrad (7 February 2011). "Volunteers with an eagle-eye on the news". Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 25 September 2015. Retrieved 7 December 2014. ^ Ridge, Mia (2014). Crowdsourcing our cultural heritage. Farnham, Surrey, England: Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4724-1022-1. ^ Tester, Alona. "Trove Celebrates with TROVEmber". Genealogy and History News. Archived from the original on 10 December 2014. Retrieved 5 December 2014. ^ Bruns, Axel (14 March 2019). "The Australian Web Archive is a momentous achievement – but things will get harder from here". The Conversation. Retrieved 6 May 2020. ^ "Archived websites (1996 – now)". Trove. Retrieved 6 May 2020. ^ "Picture query page". Archived from the original on 3 December 2014. Retrieved 6 December 2014. ^ Sherratt, Tim (17 April 2014). "Harvesting Radio National". Trove Blog. National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 10 December 2014. Retrieved 6 December 2014. ^ "Keynote speakers at 2014 National ALIA conference". Archived from the original on 27 February 2015. Retrieved 2 December 2014. ^ Sherratt, Tim. "'A map and some pins': open data and unlimited horizons". Invisible Australians: living under the White Australia Policy. Archived from the original on 23 February 2014. Retrieved 3 December 2014. ^ Thiel, SG; Roberts, JR; Drost, CA. (June 2013). "Trove". College & Research Libraries News. 74 (6): 323–324. ISSN 0099-0086.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Kidman, Angus (5 July 2010). "Trove Lets You Locate Books In Any Australian Library". Archived from the original on 5 December 2014. Retrieved 3 December 2014. ^ "Trove: Discover Genealogy Treasure in the National Library of Australia". Gould Genealogy and History. Archived from the original on 5 December 2014. Retrieved 3 December 2014. ^ Hicks, Shauna; Unlock the Past (Project) (2012), Trove: discover genealogy treasure in the National Library of Australia, Unlock the Past, ISBN 978-0-9808746-0-0 ^ "An Innovation Study: Challenges and Opportunities for Australia's Galleries, Libraries, Archives and Museums". Australian museums must innovate or risk becoming 'digital dinosaurs'. CSIRO. 16 September 2014. Archived from the original on 24 October 2014. Retrieved 18 December 2014. ^ Sweeney, Shahida (26 September 2014). "National Library of Australia invests in digital future". CIO Magazine. Archived from the original on 11 December 2014. Retrieved 3 December 2014. ^ a b Stainforth, Liz (26 October 2018). "Treasuring Trove: Why Australia's digital heritage platform is so special". Pursuit. University of Melbourne. Retrieved 10 May 2020. ^ Gedda, Rodney (2 June 2011). "CeBIT 2011: Trove search engine wins eGovernment award: Content from more than 1000 libraries". TechWorld. Archived from the original on 4 December 2017. Retrieved 5 December 2017. ^ "Trove takes top honours in Government awards". National Library of Australia. 6 June 2011. Retrieved 10 May 2020. ^ Henry Belot, "Budget cuts will have a 'grave impact' on the National Library, staff told", The Sydney Morning Herald, 22 February 2016. Retrieved 12 April 2020. ^ "Peak bodies advocate for Trove". Australian Library and Information Association. 7 March 2016. Retrieved 10 May 2020. ^ GLAM PEAK BODIES STATEMENT OF SUPPORT FOR TROVE, Australian Library and Information Association, alia.org.au. Retrieved 12 April 2020. ^ Critical research infrastructure at risk, Australian Academy of the Humanities, humanities.org.au. Retrieved 12 April 2020. ^ De-funding of Trove, nationaltrust.org.au. Retrieved 12 April 2020. ^ Sherratt, Tim (24 February 2016). "#FundTrove". Discontents. Retrieved 9 May 2020. ^ Villiers, Annelie de (23 February 2016). "#FundTROVE". Identity & Archives. Retrieved 10 May 2020. ^ Rollins, Adrian (28 February 2020). "Job cuts a 'live possibility' in National Library of Australia restructure". The Canberra Times. Retrieved 9 May 2020. Further reading[edit] Boston, Tony. "Exposing the deep web to increase access to library collections". National Library of Australia. Retrieved 16 December 2014. In Treloar, Andrew; Ellis, Allan; Southern Cross University (2005). AusWeb05 : the eleventh Australasian World Wide Web Conference : AusWeb05 : making a difference with the web : proceedings of AusWeb05. Southern Cross University. ISBN 978-0-9751644-3-3. Archived from the original on 15 February 2017. External links[edit] Official website v t e Authority control files AAG • ACM DL • ADB • AGSA • autores.uy • AWR • BALaT • BIBSYS • Bildindex • BNC • BNE • BNF • Botanist • BPN • CANTIC • CiNii • CWGC • DAAO • DBLP • DSI • FNZA • GND • HDS • IAAF • ICCU • ICIA • ISNI • Joconde • KulturNav • LCCN • LIR • LNB • Léonore • MBA • MGP • NARA • NBL • NDL • NGV • NKC • NLA • NLG • NLI • NLK • NLP • NLR • NSK • NTA • ORCID • PIC • ResearcherID • RERO • RKD • RKDimages ID • RSL • SELIBR • SIKART • SNAC • SUDOC • S2AuthorId • TA98 • TDVİA • TE • TePapa • TH • TLS • Trove • UKPARL • ULAN • US Congress • VcBA • VIAF • WorldCat Identities Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Trove&oldid=995083936" Categories: 2009 establishments in Australia Aggregation-based digital libraries Australian digital libraries Bibliographic databases and indexes National Library of Australia Online databases Online archives of Australia Internet properties established in 2009 Hidden categories: CS1 errors: missing periodical Webarchive template wayback links CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use Australian English from December 2014 All Wikipedia articles written in Australian English Use dmy dates from December 2014 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2020 Articles containing potentially dated statements from May 2020 All articles containing potentially dated statements AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans Ilokano مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 19 December 2020, at 03:35 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-732	----	Albert, Prince Consort - Wikipedia Albert, Prince Consort From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Husband of Queen Victoria (1819-1861) Prince Consort Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Prince Consort Photograph by J. J. E. Mayall, 1860 Consort of the British monarch Tenure 10 February 1840 – 14 December 1861 Born (1819-08-26)26 August 1819 Schloss Rosenau, Coburg, German Confederation Died 14 December 1861(1861-12-14) (aged 42) Windsor Castle, England, United Kingdom Burial 23 December 1861 St George's Chapel; 18 December 1862 Frogmore Mausoleum Spouse Victoria, Queen of the United Kingdom ​ ​ (m. 1840)​ Issue Victoria, German Empress Edward VII Alice, Grand Duchess of Hesse and by Rhine Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Helena, Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany Beatrice, Princess Henry of Battenberg Full name English: Francis Albert Augustus Charles Emmanuel German: Franz Albert August Karl Emanuel House Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (until 1826) Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (from 1826) Father Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Mother Princess Louise of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (Francis Albert Augustus Charles Emmanuel;[1] 26 August 1819 – 14 December 1861) was the husband of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Albert was born in the Saxon duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld to a family connected to many of Europe's ruling monarchs. At the age of twenty, he married his cousin, Victoria; they had nine children. Initially he felt constrained by his role of prince consort, which did not afford him power or responsibilities. He gradually developed a reputation for supporting public causes, such as educational reform and the abolition of slavery worldwide, and was entrusted with running the Queen's household, office and estates. He was heavily involved with the organisation of the Great Exhibition of 1851, which was a resounding success. Victoria came to depend more and more on Albert's support and guidance. He aided the development of Britain's constitutional monarchy by persuading his wife to be less partisan in her dealings with Parliament—although he actively disagreed with the interventionist foreign policy pursued during Lord Palmerston's tenure as Foreign Secretary. Albert died at the relatively young age of 42. Victoria was so devastated at the loss of her husband that she entered into a deep state of mourning and wore black for the rest of her life. On her death in 1901, their eldest son succeeded as Edward VII, the first British monarch of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, named after the ducal house to which Albert belonged. Contents 1 Early life 2 Marriage 3 Consort of the Queen 4 Reformer and innovator 5 Family and public life (1852–1859) 6 Illness and death 7 Legacy 8 Titles, styles, honours and arms 8.1 Titles and styles 8.2 British honours 8.2.1 Military appointments 8.3 Foreign honours 8.4 Arms 9 Issue 10 Ancestry 11 See also 12 References 13 Sources 14 Further reading 15 External links Early life[edit] Albert (left) with his elder brother Ernest and mother Louise, shortly before her exile from court Albert was born at Schloss Rosenau, near Coburg, Germany, the second son of Ernest III, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, and his first wife, Louise of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg.[2] Albert's future wife, Victoria, was born earlier in the same year with the assistance of the same midwife, Charlotte von Siebold.[3] Albert was baptised into the Lutheran Evangelical Church on 19 September 1819 in the Marble Hall at Schloss Rosenau with water taken from the local river, the Itz.[4] His godparents were his paternal grandmother, the Dowager Duchess of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld; his maternal grandfather, the Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg; the Emperor of Austria; the Duke of Teschen; and Emanuel, Count of Mensdorff-Pouilly.[5] In 1825, Albert's great-uncle, Frederick IV, Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg, died. His death led to a realignment of the Saxon duchies the following year and Albert's father became the first reigning duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.[6] Albert and his elder brother, Ernest, spent their youth in a close companionship marred by their parents' turbulent marriage and eventual separation and divorce.[7] After their mother was exiled from court in 1824, she married her lover, Alexander von Hanstein, Count of Pölzig and Beiersdorf. She presumably never saw her children again, and died of cancer at the age of 30 in 1831.[8] The following year, their father married his niece, his sons' cousin Princess Marie of Württemberg; their marriage was not close, however, and Marie had little—if any—impact on her stepchildren's lives.[9] The brothers were educated privately at home by Christoph Florschütz and later studied in Brussels, where Adolphe Quetelet was one of their tutors.[10] Like many other German princes, Albert attended the University of Bonn, where he studied law, political economy, philosophy and the history of art. He played music and excelled at sport, especially fencing and riding.[11] His tutors at Bonn included the philosopher Fichte and the poet Schlegel.[12] Marriage[edit] Main article: Wedding of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Portrait by John Partridge, 1840 The idea of marriage between Albert and his cousin, Victoria, was first documented in an 1821 letter from his paternal grandmother, the Dowager Duchess of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, who said that he was "the pendant to the pretty cousin".[13] By 1836, this idea had also arisen in the mind of their ambitious uncle Leopold, who had been King of the Belgians since 1831.[14] At this time, Victoria was the heir presumptive to the British throne. Her father, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, the fourth son of King George III, had died when she was a baby, and her elderly uncle, King William IV, had no legitimate children. Her mother, the Duchess of Kent, was the sister of both Albert's father—the Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha—and King Leopold. Leopold arranged for his sister, Victoria's mother, to invite the Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and his two sons to visit her in May 1836, with the purpose of meeting Victoria. William IV, however, disapproved of any match with the Coburgs, and instead favoured the suit of Prince Alexander, second son of the Prince of Orange. Victoria was well aware of the various matrimonial plans and critically appraised a parade of eligible princes.[15] She wrote, "[Albert] is extremely handsome; his hair is about the same colour as mine; his eyes are large and blue, and he has a beautiful nose and a very sweet mouth with fine teeth; but the charm of his countenance is his expression, which is most delightful."[16] Alexander, on the other hand, she described as "very plain".[16] Victoria wrote to her uncle Leopold to thank him "for the prospect of great happiness you have contributed to give me, in the person of dear Albert ... He possesses every quality that could be desired to render me perfectly happy."[17] Although the parties did not undertake a formal engagement, both the family and their retainers widely assumed that the match would take place.[18] Victoria came to the throne aged eighteen on 20 June 1837. Her letters of the time show interest in Albert's education for the role he would have to play, although she resisted attempts to rush her into marriage.[19] In the winter of 1838–39, the prince visited Italy, accompanied by the Coburg family's confidential adviser, Baron Stockmar.[20] Armorial bookplate of Prince Albert Albert returned to the United Kingdom with Ernest in October 1839 to visit the Queen, with the objective of settling the marriage.[21] Albert and Victoria felt mutual affection and the Queen proposed to him on 15 October 1839.[22] Victoria's intention to marry was declared formally to the Privy Council on 23 November,[23] and the couple married on 10 February 1840 at the Chapel Royal, St James's Palace.[24] Just before the marriage, Albert was naturalised by Act of Parliament,[25] and granted the style of Royal Highness by an Order in Council.[1] Initially Albert was not popular with the British public; he was perceived to be from an impoverished and undistinguished minor state, barely larger than a small English county.[26] The British Prime Minister, Lord Melbourne, advised the Queen against granting her husband the title of "King Consort"; Parliament also objected to Albert being created a peer—partly because of anti-German sentiment and a desire to exclude Albert from any political role.[27] Albert's religious views provided a small amount of controversy when the marriage was debated in Parliament: although as a member of the Lutheran Evangelical Church Albert was a Protestant, the non-Episcopal nature of his church was considered worrisome.[28] Of greater concern, however, was that some of Albert's family were Roman Catholic.[29] Melbourne led a minority government and the opposition took advantage of the marriage to weaken his position further. They opposed the ennoblement of Albert and granted him a smaller annuity than previous consorts,[30] £30,000 instead of the usual £50,000.[31] Albert claimed that he had no need of a British peerage, writing: "It would almost be a step downwards, for as a Duke of Saxony, I feel myself much higher than a Duke of York or Kent."[32] For the next seventeen years, Albert was formally titled "HRH Prince Albert" until, on 25 June 1857, Victoria formally granted him the title Prince Consort.[33] Consort of the Queen[edit] Portrait by Winterhalter, 1842 The position in which the prince was placed by his marriage, while one of distinction, also offered considerable difficulties; in Albert's own words, "I am very happy and contented; but the difficulty in filling my place with the proper dignity is that I am only the husband, not the master in the house."[34] The Queen's household was run by her former governess,[35] Baroness Lehzen. Albert referred to her as the "House Dragon", and manoeuvred to dislodge the Baroness from her position.[36] Within two months of the marriage, Victoria was pregnant. Albert started to take on public roles; he became President of the Society for the Extinction of Slavery (which was still legal in many parts of the world beyond the British Empire); and helped Victoria privately with her government paperwork.[37] In June 1840, while on a public carriage ride, Albert and the pregnant Victoria were shot at by Edward Oxford, who was later judged insane. Neither Albert nor Victoria was hurt and Albert was praised in the newspapers for his courage and coolness during the attack.[38] Albert was gaining public support as well as political influence, which showed itself practically when, in August, Parliament passed the Regency Act 1840 to designate him regent in the event of Victoria's death before their child reached the age of majority.[39] Their first child, Victoria, named after her mother, was born in November. Eight other children would follow over the next seventeen years. All nine children survived to adulthood, which was remarkable for the era and which biographer Hermione Hobhouse credited to Albert's "enlightened influence" on the healthy running of the nursery.[40] In early 1841, he successfully removed the nursery from Lehzen's pervasive control, and in September 1842, Lehzen left Britain permanently—much to Albert's relief.[41] After the 1841 general election, Melbourne was replaced as Prime Minister by Sir Robert Peel, who appointed Albert as chairman of the Royal Commission in charge of redecorating the new Palace of Westminster. The Palace had burned down seven years before, and was being rebuilt. As a patron and purchaser of pictures and sculpture, the commission was set up to promote the fine arts in Britain. The commission's work was slow, and the architect, Charles Barry, took many decisions out of the commissioners' hands by decorating rooms with ornate furnishings that were treated as part of the architecture.[42] Albert was more successful as a private patron and collector. Among his notable purchases were early German and Italian paintings—such as Lucas Cranach the Elder's Apollo and Diana and Fra Angelico's St Peter Martyr—and contemporary pieces from Franz Xaver Winterhalter and Edwin Landseer.[43] Ludwig Gruner, of Dresden, assisted Albert in buying pictures of the highest quality.[44] Albert and Victoria were shot at again on both 29 and 30 May 1842, but were unhurt. The culprit, John Francis, was detained and condemned to death,[45] although he was later reprieved.[46] Some of their early unpopularity came about because of their stiffness and adherence to protocol in public, though in private the couple were more easy-going.[47] In early 1844, Victoria and Albert were apart for the first time since their marriage when he returned to Coburg on the death of his father.[48] Osborne House, Isle of Wight, UK By 1844, Albert had managed to modernise the royal finances and, through various economies, had sufficient capital to purchase Osborne House on the Isle of Wight as a private residence for their growing family.[49] Over the next few years a house modelled in the style of an Italianate villa was built to the designs of Albert and Thomas Cubitt.[50] Albert laid out the grounds, and improved the estate and farm.[51] Albert managed and improved the other royal estates; his model farm at Windsor was admired by his biographers,[52] and under his stewardship the revenues of the Duchy of Cornwall—the hereditary property of the Prince of Wales—steadily increased.[53] Unlike many landowners who approved of child labour and opposed Peel's repeal of the Corn Laws, Albert supported moves to raise working ages and free up trade.[54] In 1846, Albert was rebuked by Lord George Bentinck when he attended the debate on the Corn Laws in the House of Commons to give tacit support to Peel.[55] During Peel's premiership, Albert's authority behind, or beside, the throne became more apparent. He had access to all the Queen's papers, was drafting her correspondence[56] and was present when she met her ministers, or even saw them alone in her absence.[57] The clerk of the Privy Council, Charles Greville, wrote of him: "He is King to all intents and purposes."[58] Reformer and innovator[edit] Early daguerreotype with hand-colouring, 1848 In 1847, Albert was elected Chancellor of the University of Cambridge after a close contest with the Earl of Powis.[59] Albert used his position as Chancellor to campaign successfully for reformed and more modern university curricula, expanding the subjects taught beyond the traditional mathematics and classics to include modern history and the natural sciences.[60] That summer, Victoria and Albert spent a rainy holiday in the west of Scotland at Loch Laggan, but heard from their doctor, Sir James Clark, that Clark's son had enjoyed dry, sunny days farther east at Balmoral Castle. The tenant of Balmoral, Sir Robert Gordon, died suddenly in early October, and Albert began negotiations to take over the lease from the owner, the Earl Fife.[61] In May the following year, Albert leased Balmoral, which he had never visited, and in September 1848 he, his wife and the older children went there for the first time.[62] They came to relish the privacy it afforded.[63] Revolutions spread throughout Europe in 1848 as the result of a widespread economic crisis. Throughout the year, Victoria and Albert complained about Foreign Secretary Palmerston's independent foreign policy, which they believed destabilised foreign European powers further.[64] Albert was concerned for many of his royal relatives, a number of whom were deposed. He and Victoria, who gave birth to their daughter Louise during that year, spent some time away from London in the relative safety of Osborne. Although there were sporadic demonstrations in England, no effective revolutionary action took place, and Albert even gained public acclaim when he expressed paternalistic, yet well-meaning and philanthropic, views.[65] In a speech to the Society for the Improvement of the Condition of the Labouring Classes, of which he was President, he expressed his "sympathy and interest for that class of our community who have most of the toil and fewest of the enjoyments of this world".[66] It was the "duty of those who, under the blessings of Divine Providence, enjoy station, wealth, and education" to assist those less fortunate than themselves.[66] The Great Exhibition of 1851 was housed in the Crystal Palace in Hyde Park, London. A man of progressive and relatively liberal ideas, Albert not only led reforms in university education, welfare, the royal finances and slavery, he had a special interest in applying science and art to the manufacturing industry.[67] The Great Exhibition of 1851 arose from the annual exhibitions of the Society of Arts, of which Albert was President from 1843, and owed most of its success to his efforts to promote it.[53][68] Albert served as president of the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851, and had to fight for every stage of the project.[69] In the House of Lords, Lord Brougham fulminated against the proposal to hold the exhibition in Hyde Park.[70] Opponents of the exhibition prophesied that foreign rogues and revolutionists would overrun England, subvert the morals of the people, and destroy their faith.[71] Albert thought such talk absurd and quietly persevered, trusting always that British manufacturing would benefit from exposure to the best products of foreign countries.[53] The Queen opened the exhibition in a specially designed and built glass building known as the Crystal Palace on 1 May 1851. It proved a colossal success.[72] A surplus of £180,000 was used to purchase land in South Kensington on which to establish educational and cultural institutions—including the Natural History Museum, Science Museum, Imperial College London and what would later be named the Royal Albert Hall and the Victoria and Albert Museum.[73] The area was referred to as "Albertopolis" by sceptics.[74] Family and public life (1852–1859)[edit] Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, 1854 In 1852, John Camden Neild, an eccentric miser, left Victoria an unexpected legacy, which Albert used to obtain the freehold of Balmoral. As usual, he embarked on an extensive programme of improvements.[75] The same year, he was appointed to several of the offices left vacant by the death of the Duke of Wellington, including the mastership of Trinity House and the colonelcy of the Grenadier Guards.[76] With Wellington's passing, Albert was able to propose and campaign for modernisation of the army, which was long overdue.[77] Thinking that the military was unready for war, and that Christian rule was preferable to Islamic rule, Albert counselled a diplomatic solution to conflict between the Russian and Ottoman empires. Palmerston was more bellicose, and favoured a policy that would prevent further Russian expansion.[78] Palmerston was manoeuvred out of the cabinet in December 1853, but at about the same time a Russian fleet attacked the Ottoman fleet at anchor at Sinop. The London press depicted the attack as a criminal massacre, and Palmerston's popularity surged as Albert's fell.[79] Within two weeks, Palmerston was re-appointed as a minister. As public outrage at the Russian action continued, false rumours circulated that Albert had been arrested for treason and was being held prisoner in the Tower of London.[80] By March 1854, Britain and Russia were embroiled in the Crimean War. Albert devised a master-plan for winning the war by laying siege to Sevastopol while starving Russia economically, which became the Allied strategy after the Tsar decided to fight a purely defensive war.[81] Early British optimism soon faded as the press reported that British troops were ill-equipped and mismanaged by aged generals using out-of-date tactics and strategy. The conflict dragged on as the Russians were as poorly prepared as their opponents. The Prime Minister, Lord Aberdeen, resigned and Palmerston succeeded him.[82] A negotiated settlement eventually put an end to the war with the Treaty of Paris. During the war, Albert arranged the marriage of his fourteen-year-old daughter, Victoria, to Prince Frederick William of Prussia, though Albert delayed the marriage until Victoria was seventeen. Albert hoped that his daughter and son-in-law would be a liberalising influence in the enlarging but very conservative Prussian state.[83] Prince Albert, Queen Victoria and their nine children, 1857. Left to right: Alice, Arthur, Albert (Prince Consort), Albert Edward (Prince of Wales), Leopold, Louise, Queen Victoria with Beatrice, Alfred, Victoria and Helena[84] Albert promoted many public educational institutions. Chiefly at meetings in connection with these he spoke of the need for better schooling.[85] A collection of his speeches was published in 1857. Recognised as a supporter of education and technological progress, he was invited to speak at scientific meetings, such as the memorable address he delivered as president of the British Association for the Advancement of Science when it met at Aberdeen in 1859.[86] His espousal of science met with clerical opposition; he and Palmerston unsuccessfully recommended a knighthood for Charles Darwin, after the publication of On the Origin of Species, which was opposed by the Bishop of Oxford.[87] Albert continued to devote himself to the education of his family and the management of the royal household.[88] His children's governess, Lady Lyttelton, thought him unusually kind and patient, and described him joining in family games with enthusiasm.[89] He felt keenly the departure of his eldest daughter for Prussia when she married her fiancé at the beginning of 1858,[90] and was disappointed that his eldest son, the Prince of Wales, did not respond well to the intense educational programme that Albert had designed for him.[91] At the age of seven, the Prince of Wales was expected to take six hours of instruction, including an hour of German and an hour of French every day.[92] When the Prince of Wales failed at his lessons, Albert caned him.[93] Corporal punishment was common at the time, and was not thought unduly harsh.[94] Albert's biographer Roger Fulford wrote that the relationships between the family members were "friendly, affectionate and normal ... there is no evidence either in the Royal Archives or in the printed authorities to justify the belief that the relations between the Prince and his eldest son were other than deeply affectionate."[95] Philip Magnus wrote in his biography of Albert's eldest son that Albert "tried to treat his children as equals; and they were able to penetrate his stiffness and reserve because they realised instinctively not only that he loved them but that he enjoyed and needed their company."[96] Illness and death[edit] Portrait by Winterhalter, 1859 In August 1859, Albert fell seriously ill with stomach cramps.[97] His steadily worsening medical condition led to a sense of despair. He lost the will to live, says biographer Robert Rhodes James.[98] He had an accidental brush with death during a trip to Coburg in October 1860, when he was driving alone in a carriage drawn by four horses that suddenly bolted. As the horses continued to gallop toward a wagon waiting at a railway crossing, Albert jumped for his life from the carriage. One of the horses was killed in the collision, and Albert was badly shaken, though his only physical injuries were cuts and bruises. He confided in his brother and eldest daughter that he had sensed his time had come.[99] Victoria's mother and Albert's aunt, the Duchess of Kent, died in March 1861, and Victoria was grief-stricken. Albert took on most of the Queen's duties despite continuing to suffer with chronic stomach trouble.[100] The last public event he presided over was the opening of the Royal Horticultural Gardens on 5 June 1861.[101] In August, Victoria and Albert visited the Curragh Camp, Ireland, where the Prince of Wales was attending army manoeuvres. At the Curragh, the Prince of Wales was introduced, by his fellow officers, to Nellie Clifden, an Irish actress.[102] By November, Victoria and Albert had returned to Windsor, and the Prince of Wales had returned to Cambridge, where he was a student. Two of Albert's young cousins, brothers King Pedro V of Portugal and Prince Ferdinand, died of typhoid fever within five days of each other in early November.[103] On top of this news, Albert was informed that gossip was spreading in gentlemen's clubs and the foreign press that the Prince of Wales was still involved with Nellie Clifden.[104] Albert and Victoria were horrified by their son's indiscretion, and feared blackmail, scandal or pregnancy.[105] Although Albert was ill and at a low ebb, he travelled to Cambridge to see the Prince of Wales on 25 November[106] to discuss his son's indiscreet affair.[53] In his final weeks Albert suffered from pains in his back and legs.[107] Also in November 1861, the Trent affair—the forcible removal of Confederate envoys from a British ship by Union forces during the American Civil War—threatened war between the United States and Britain. The British government prepared an ultimatum and readied a military response. Albert was gravely ill but intervened to defuse the crisis.[108] In a few hours, he revised the British demands in a manner that allowed the Lincoln administration to surrender the Confederate commissioners who had been seized from the Trent and to issue a public apology to London without losing face. The key idea, based on a suggestion from The Times, was to give Washington the opportunity to deny it had officially authorised the seizure and thereby apologise for the captain's mistake.[109] On 9 December, one of Albert's doctors, William Jenner, diagnosed him with typhoid fever. Albert died at 10:50 p.m. on 14 December 1861 in the Blue Room at Windsor Castle, in the presence of the Queen and five of their nine children.[110] The contemporary diagnosis was typhoid fever, but modern writers have pointed out that Albert's ongoing stomach pain, leaving him ill for at least two years before his death, may indicate that a chronic disease, such as Crohn's disease,[111] kidney failure, or abdominal cancer, was the cause of death.[112] Legacy[edit] Further information: Royal eponyms in Canada The Albert Memorial in Hyde Park, London Royal Albert Hall, London The Queen's grief was overwhelming, and the tepid feelings the public had felt previously for Albert were replaced by sympathy.[113] The widowed Victoria never recovered from Albert's death; she entered into a deep state of mourning and wore black for the rest of her life. Albert's rooms in all his houses were kept as they had been, even with hot water brought in the morning and linen and towels changed daily.[114] Such practices were not uncommon in the houses of the very rich.[115] Victoria withdrew from public life and her seclusion eroded some of Albert's work in attempting to re-model the monarchy as a national institution setting a moral, if not political, example.[116] Albert is credited with introducing the principle that the British royal family should remain above politics.[117] Before his marriage to Victoria, she supported the Whigs; for example, early in her reign Victoria managed to thwart the formation of a Tory government by Sir Robert Peel by refusing to accept substitutions which Peel wanted to make among her ladies-in-waiting.[118] Albert's body was temporarily entombed in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle.[119] A year after his death his remains were deposited at Frogmore Mausoleum, which remained incomplete until 1871.[120] The sarcophagus, in which both he and the Queen were eventually laid, was carved from the largest block of granite that had ever been quarried in Britain.[121] Despite Albert's request that no effigies of him should be raised, many public monuments were erected all over the country and across the British Empire.[122] The most notable are the Royal Albert Hall and the Albert Memorial in London. The plethora of memorials erected to Albert became so great that Charles Dickens told a friend that he sought an "inaccessible cave" to escape from them.[123] Places and objects named after Albert range from Lake Albert in Africa to the city of Prince Albert, Saskatchewan, to the Albert Medal presented by the Royal Society of Arts. Four regiments of the British Army were named after him: 11th (Prince Albert's Own) Hussars; Prince Albert's Light Infantry; Prince Albert's Own Leicestershire Regiment of Yeomanry Cavalry; and The Prince Consort's Own Rifle Brigade. He and Queen Victoria showed a keen interest in the establishment and development of Aldershot in Hampshire as a garrison town in the 1850s. They had a wooden Royal Pavilion built there in which they would often stay when attending military reviews.[124] Albert established and endowed the Prince Consort's Library at Aldershot, which still exists today.[125] Biographies published after his death were typically heavy on eulogy. Theodore Martin's five-volume magnum opus was authorised and supervised by Queen Victoria, and her influence shows in its pages. Nevertheless, it is an accurate and exhaustive account.[126] Lytton Strachey's Queen Victoria (1921) was more critical, but it was discredited in part by mid-twentieth-century biographers such as Hector Bolitho and Roger Fulford, who (unlike Strachey) had access to Victoria's journal and letters.[127] Popular myths about Prince Albert—such as the claim that he introduced Christmas trees to Britain—are dismissed by scholars.[128] Recent biographers such as Stanley Weintraub portray Albert as a figure in a tragic romance who died too soon and was mourned by his lover for a lifetime.[53] In the 2009 movie The Young Victoria, Albert, played by Rupert Friend, is made into an heroic character; in the fictionalised depiction of the 1840 shooting, he is struck by a bullet—something that did not happen in real life.[129][130] Titles, styles, honours and arms[edit] Titles and styles[edit] Albert robed as a Knight Grand Cross of the Bath, 1842 In the United Kingdom, Albert was styled "His Serene Highness Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha" in the months before his marriage.[25] He was granted the style of Royal Highness on 6 February 1840,[1] and given the title of Prince Consort on 25 June 1857.[33] British honours[edit] KG: Royal Knight of the Garter, 16 December 1839[131] GCB: Knight Grand Cross of the Bath (military), 6 March 1840;[132] Great Master, 25 May 1847[133] GCMG: Knight Grand Cross of St Michael and St George, 15 January 1842[134] KT: Knight of the Thistle, 17 January 1842[135] KP: Extra and Principal Knight of St. Patrick, 20 January 1842[136] KSI: Extra Knight of the Star of India, 25 June 1861[137] Military appointments[edit] Field Marshal of the British Army, 8 February 1840[138] Colonel-in-chief of the 11th (Prince Albert's Own) Hussars, 30 April 1840 – 1842[138] Colonel of the Scots Fusilier Guards, 25 April 1842 – 1852[138] Captain-general and Colonel of the Honourable Artillery Company, 1843[138] Constable and Governor of Windsor Castle, 1843[139] Colonel-in-chief of the 60th (The King's Royal Rifle Corps) Regiment of Foot, 15 August 1850 – 1852[138] Colonel of the 1st Grenadier Guards, 23 August 1852[138] Colonel-in-chief of the Rifle Brigade, 23 September 1852[138] Foreign honours[edit] Ernestine duchies: Grand Cross of the Saxe-Ernestine House Order, February 1836[140]  Portugal:[141] Grand Cross of the Military Order of Christ, 23 April 1836 Grand Cross of the Sash of the Two Orders (Aviz and St. James), 30 September 1857 Grand Cross of the Tower and Sword, 25 November 1858  Belgium: Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold, 18 November 1839 – wedding gift[142]  Saxony: Knight of the Rue Crown, 1839[143]  Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach: Grand Cross of the White Falcon, 13 January 1840[144] Spain: Knight of the Golden Fleece, 27 April 1841[145] Prussia:[146] Knight of the Black Eagle, 30 January 1842 Grand Cross of the Red Eagle, 30 January 1842  Sardinia: Knight of the Annunciation, 13 December 1842[147]  Netherlands: Grand Cross of the Netherlands Lion, 1842[148]  Denmark: Knight of the Elephant, 10 January 1843[149]  Russia:[150] Knight of St. Andrew, 1 July 1843 Knight of St. Alexander Nevsky, 1 July 1843 Knight of the White Eagle, 1 July 1843 Knight of St. Anna, 1st Class, 1 July 1843 France: Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour, 5 September 1843[151]  Austria: Grand Cross of St. Stephen, 1843[152]  Württemberg: Grand Cross of the Württemberg Crown, 1843[153]  Baden:[154] Knight of the House Order of Fidelity, 1845 Grand Cross of the Zähringer Lion, 1845  Bavaria: Knight of St. Hubert, 1845[155]  Two Sicilies: Grand Cross of St. Ferdinand and Merit, 1846[148]  Hanover:[156] Knight of St. George, 1853 Grand Cross of the Royal Guelphic Order, 1853  Sovereign Military Order of Malta: Bailiff Grand Cross of Honour and Devotion[139] Sweden-Norway: Knight of the Seraphim, 12 February 1856[157]  Ottoman Empire: Order of the Medjidie, 1st Class in Diamonds, 1856[148] Arms[edit] Coat of arms of Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha as granted in 1840 Upon his marriage to Queen Victoria in 1840, Prince Albert received a personal grant of arms, being the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom differenced by a white three-point label with a red cross in the centre, quartered with his ancestral arms of Saxony.[1][158] They are blazoned: "Quarterly, 1st and 4th, the Royal Arms, with overall a label of three points Argent charged on the centre with cross Gules; 2nd and 3rd, Barry of ten Or and Sable, a crown of rue in bend Vert".[159] The arms are unusual, being described by S. T. Aveling as a "singular example of quartering differenced arms, [which] is not in accordance with the rules of Heraldry, and is in itself an heraldic contradiction."[160] Prior to his marriage Albert used the arms of his father undifferenced, in accordance with German custom. Albert's Garter stall plate displays his arms surmounted by a royal crown with six crests for the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha; these are from left to right: 1. "A bull's head caboshed Gules armed and ringed Argent, crowned Or, the rim chequy Gules and Argent" for Mark. 2. "Out of a coronet Or, two buffalo horns Argent, attached to the outer edge of five branches fesswise each with three linden leaves Vert" for Thuringia. 3. "Out of a coronet Or, a pyramidal chapeau charged with the arms of Saxony ensigned by a plume of peacock feathers Proper out of a coronet also Or" for Saxony. 4. "A bearded man in profile couped below the shoulders clothed paly Argent and Gules, the pointed coronet similarly paly terminating in a plume of three peacock feathers" for Meissen. 5. "A demi griffin displayed Or, winged Sable, collared and langued Gules" for Jülich. 6. "Out of a coronet Or, a panache of peacock feathers Proper" for Berg.[159] The supporters were the crowned lion of England and the unicorn of Scotland (as in the Royal Arms) charged on the shoulder with a label as in the arms. Albert's personal motto is the German Treu und Fest (Loyal and Sure).[159] This motto was also used by Prince Albert's Own or the 11th Hussars. Issue[edit] See also: Grandchildren of Victoria and Albert Name Birth Death Notes[161] Victoria, Princess Royal 21 November 1840 5 August 1901 married 1858, Crown Prince Frederick, later Frederick III, German Emperor; had issue Edward VII of the United Kingdom 9 November 1841 6 May 1910 married 1863, Princess Alexandra of Denmark; had issue Princess Alice 25 April 1843 14 December 1878 married 1862, Prince Louis, later Ludwig IV, Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine; had issue Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha 6 August 1844 30 July 1900 married 1874, Grand Duchess Marie Alexandrovna of Russia; had issue Princess Helena 25 May 1846 9 June 1923 married 1866, Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein; had issue Princess Louise 18 March 1848 3 December 1939 married 1871, John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne, later 9th Duke of Argyll; no issue Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn 1 May 1850 16 January 1942 married 1879, Princess Louise Margaret of Prussia; had issue Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany 7 April 1853 28 March 1884 married 1882, Princess Helena of Waldeck and Pyrmont; had issue Princess Beatrice 14 April 1857 26 October 1944 married 1885, Prince Henry of Battenberg; had issue Prince Albert's 42 grandchildren included four reigning monarchs: King George V of the United Kingdom; Wilhelm II, German Emperor; Ernest Louis, Grand Duke of Hesse; and Charles Edward, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, and five consorts of monarchs: Queens Maud of Norway, Sophia of Greece, Victoria Eugenie of Spain, Marie of Romania, and Empress Alexandra of Russia. Albert's many descendants include royalty and nobility throughout Europe. Victoria and Albert's family in 1846 by Franz Xaver Winterhalter left to right: Prince Alfred (unbreeched at two years); the Prince of Wales; the Queen; Prince Albert; and Princesses Alice, Helena and Victoria Ancestry[edit] Ancestors of Albert, Prince Consort 8. Ernest Frederick, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld[163] 4. Francis, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld[162] 9. Sophia Antonia of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel[163] 2. Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha[162] 10. Henry XXIV, Count Reuss of Ebersdorf[163] 5. Countess Augusta Caroline Reuss of Ebersdorf[162] 11. Countess Karoline Ernestine of Erbach-Schönberg[163] 1. Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha 12. Ernest II, Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg[163] 6. Augustus, Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg[162] 13. Princess Charlotte of Saxe-Meiningen[163] 3. Princess Louise of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg[162] 14. Frederick Francis I, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin[163] 7. Duchess Louise Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Schwerin[162] 15. Princess Louise of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg[163] See also[edit] John Brown List of coupled cousins Royal Albert Memorial Museum References[edit] ^ a b c d "No. 19821". The London Gazette. 7 February 1840. p. 241. ^ Hobhouse 1983, p. 2; Weintraub 1997, p. 20; Weir 1996, p. 305. ^ Weintraub 1997, p. 20. ^ Weintraub 1997, p. 21. ^ Ames 1968, p. 1; Hobhouse 1983, p. 2. ^ e.g. Montgomery-Massingberd 1977, pp. 259–273. ^ Weintraub 1997, pp. 25–28. ^ Hobhouse 1983, p. 4; Weintraub 1997, pp. 25–28. ^ Weintraub 1997, pp. 40–41. ^ Hobhouse 1983, p. 16. ^ Weintraub 1997, pp. 60–62. ^ Ames 1968, p. 15; Weintraub 1997, pp. 56–60. ^ Hobhouse 1983, pp. 15. ^ Hobhouse 1983, pp. 15–16; Weintraub 1997, pp. 43–49. ^ Weintraub 1997, pp. 43–49. ^ a b Victoria quoted in Weintraub 1997, p. 49. ^ Weintraub 1997, p. 51. ^ Weintraub 1997, pp. 53, 58, 64, 65. ^ Weintraub 1997, p. 62. ^ Hobhouse 1983, pp. 17–18; Weintraub 1997, p. 67. ^ Fulford 1949, p. 42; Weintraub 1997, pp. 77–81. ^ Fulford 1949, pp. 42–43; Hobhouse 1983, p. 20; Weintraub 1997, pp. 77–81. ^ Fulford 1949, p. 45; Hobhouse 1983, p. 21; Weintraub 1997, p. 86. ^ Fulford 1949, p. 52; Hobhouse 1983, p. 24. ^ a b "No. 19826". The London Gazette. 14 February 1840. p. 302. ^ Fulford 1949, p. 45. ^ Weintraub 1997, p. 88. ^ Abecasis-Phillips 2004. ^ Murphy 2001, pp. 28–31. ^ Weintraub 1997, pp. 8–9, 89. ^ Fulford 1949, p. 47; Hobhouse 1983, pp. 23–24. ^ Quoted in Jagow 1938, p. 37. ^ a b "No. 22015". The London Gazette. 26 June 1857. p. 2195. ^ Albert to William von Lowenstein, May 1840, quoted in Hobhouse 1983, p. 26. ^ Or more properly "Lady Attendant". ^ Fulford 1949, pp. 59–74. ^ Weintraub 1997, pp. 102–105. ^ Weintraub 1997, pp. 106–107. ^ Weintraub 1997, p. 107. ^ Hobhouse 1983, p. 28. ^ Fulford 1949, pp. 73–74. ^ Ames 1968, pp. 48–55; Fulford 1949, pp. 212–213; Hobhouse 1983, pp. 82–88. ^ Ames 1968, pp. 132–146, 200–222; Hobhouse 1983, pp. 70–78. The National Gallery, London, received 25 paintings in 1863 presented by Queen Victoria at the Prince Consort's wish. See external links for works in the Royal Collection. ^ Cust 1907, pp. 162–170. ^ Old Bailey Proceedings Online, Trial of John Francis. (t18420613-1758, 13 June 1842). ^ Weintraub 1997, pp. 134–135. ^ Ames 1968, p. 172; Fulford 1949, pp. 95–104; Weintraub 1997, p. 141. ^ Ames 1968, p. 60; Weintraub 1997, p. 154. ^ Fulford 1949, p. 79; Hobhouse 1983, p. 131; Weintraub 1997, p. 158. ^ Ames 1968, pp. 61–71; Fulford 1949, p. 79; Hobhouse 1983, p. 121; Weintraub 1997, p. 181. ^ Hobhouse 1983, pp. 127, 131. ^ Fulford 1949, pp. 88–89; Hobhouse 1983, pp. 121–127. ^ a b c d e Weintraub 2004. ^ Fulford 1949, p. 116. ^ Fulford 1949, p. 116; Hobhouse 1983, pp. 39–40. ^ Hobhouse 1983, pp. 36–37. ^ Fulford 1949, p. 118. ^ Greville's diary volume V, p. 257 quoted in Fulford 1949, p. 117. ^ Fulford 1949, pp. 195–196; Hobhouse 1983, p. 65; Weintraub 1997, pp. 182–184. ^ Fulford 1949, pp. 198–199; Hobhouse 1983, p. 65; Weintraub 1997, pp. 187, 207. ^ Weintraub 1997, pp. 189–191. ^ Weintraub 1997, pp. 193, 212, 214, 203, 206. ^ Extracts from the Queen's journal of the holidays were published in 1868 as Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands. ^ Fulford 1949, pp. 119–128; Weintraub 1997, pp. 193, 212, 214 and 264–265. ^ Weintraub 1997, pp. 192–201. ^ a b The text of the speech was widely reproduced, e.g. "The Condition of the Labouring Classes". The Times, 19 May 1848, p. 6. ^ Fulford 1949, pp. 216–217; Hobhouse 1983, pp. 89–108. ^ Fulford 1949, pp. 219–220. ^ e.g. Fulford 1949, p. 221. ^ Fulford 1949, p. 220. ^ Fulford 1949, pp. 217–222. ^ Fulford 1949, p. 222; Hobhouse 1983, p. 110. ^ Hobhouse 1983, p. 110. ^ Ames 1968, p. 120; Hobhouse 1983, p. x; Weintraub 1997, p. 263. ^ Hobhouse 1983, p. 145. ^ Weintraub 1997, pp. 270–274, 281–282. ^ Hobhouse 1983, pp. 42–43, 47–50; Weintraub 1997, pp. 274–276. ^ e.g. Fulford 1949, pp. 128, 153–157. ^ Weintraub 1997, pp. 288–293. ^ Fulford 1949, pp. 156–157; Weintraub 1997, pp. 294–302. ^ Stewart 2012, pp. 153–154. ^ Weintraub 1997, pp. 303–322, 328. ^ Weintraub 1997, pp. 326, 330. ^ Finestone 1981, p. 36. ^ Hobhouse 1983, p. 63. ^ Darby & Smith 1983, p. 84; Hobhouse 1983, pp. 61–62; Weintraub 1997, p. 232. ^ Weintraub 1997, p. 232. ^ Fulford 1949, pp. 71–105; Hobhouse 1983, pp. 26–43. ^ Lady Lyttelton's journal quoted in Fulford 1949, p. 95 and her correspondence quoted in Hobhouse 1983, p. 29. ^ Fulford 1949, p. 252; Weintraub 1997, p. 355. ^ Fulford 1949, pp. 253–257; Weintraub 1997, p. 367. ^ Fulford 1949, p. 255. ^ Diary of Sir James Clark quoted in Fulford 1949, p. 256. ^ Fulford 1949, p. 260. ^ Fulford 1949, pp. 261–262. ^ Magnus, Philip (1964) King Edward VII, pp. 19–20, quoted in Hobhouse 1983, pp. 28–29. ^ Stewart 2012, p. 182. ^ Rhodes James 1983, p. 269. ^ Weintraub 1997, pp. 392–393. ^ Hobhouse 1983, pp. 150–151; Weintraub 1997, p. 401. ^ Stewart 2012, p. 198. ^ Weintraub 1997, p. 404. ^ Weintraub 1997, p. 405. ^ Hobhouse 1983, p. 152; Weintraub 1997, p. 406. ^ Weintraub 1997, p. 406. ^ Hobhouse 1983, p. 154; Fulford 1949, p. 266. ^ Stewart 2012, p. 203. ^ Hobhouse 1983, pp. 154–155; Martin 1874–80, pp. 418–426, vol. V; Weintraub 1997, pp. 408–424. ^ Ferris, Norman B. (1960). "The Prince Consort, The Times, and the Trent Affair". Civil War History. 6 (2): 152–156. doi:10.1353/cwh.1960.0014. ^ Darby & Smith 1983, p. 3; Hobhouse 1983, p. 156 and Weintraub 1997, pp. 425–431. ^ Paulley, J.W. (1993). "The death of Albert Prince Consort: the case against typhoid fever". QJM. 86 (12): 837–841. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.qjmed.a068768. PMID 8108541. ^ e.g. Hobhouse 1983, pp. 150–151. ^ Darby & Smith 1983, p. 1; Hobhouse 1983, p. 158; Weintraub 1997, p. 436. ^ Darby & Smith 1983, pp. 1–4; Weintraub 1997, p. 436. ^ Weintraub 1997, p. 438. ^ Weintraub 1997, pp. 441–443. ^ Fulford 1949, pp. 57–58, 276; Hobhouse 1983, pp. viii, 39. ^ Fulford 1949, p. 67; Hobhouse 1983, p. 34. ^ Darby & Smith 1983, p. 21; Hobhouse 1983, p. 158 ^ Darby & Smith 1983, p. 28; Hobhouse 1983, p. 162. ^ Darby & Smith 1983, p. 25. ^ Darby & Smith 1983, pp. 2, 6, 58–84. ^ Charles Dickens to John Leech, quoted in Darby & Smith 1983, p. 102 and Hobhouse 1983, p. 169. ^ Hobhouse 1983, pp. 48–49. ^ Hobhouse 1983, p. 53. ^ Fulford 1949, pp. ix–x. ^ e.g. Fulford 1949, pp. 22–23, 44, 104, 167, 209, 240. ^ Armstrong 2008. ^ Jurgensen 2009. ^ Knight 2009. ^ Shaw, Wm. A. (1906) The Knights of England, I, London, p. 56 ^ Nicolas, Sir Nicholas Harris (1842). History of the Orders of Knighthood of the British Empire; of the Order of the Guelphs and of the Medals, Clasps, and Crosses Conferred for the Naval and Military Services. 3. London: John Hunter. p. 190. Retrieved 26 February 2017. ^ "No. 20737". The London Gazette. 25 May 1847. p. 1950. ^ Shaw, p. 334 ^ Shaw, p. 83 ^ Shaw, p. 101 ^ "No. 22523". The London Gazette. 25 June 1861. p. 2622. ^ a b c d e f g "H.R.H. Prince Albert, The Prince Consort (1819-1861)". Regiments.org. Archived from the original on 3 January 2007. Retrieved 30 November 2019. ^ a b Adreß-Handbuch des Herzogthums Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha (1854). "Genealogie des Herzogliche Hauses", pp. 9-10 ^ Staatshandbücher für das Herzogtum Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha (1837), "Herzogliche Sachsen-Ernestinischer Hausorden" p. 11 ^ Bragança, Jose Vicente de (2014). "Agraciamentos Portugueses Aos Príncipes da Casa Saxe-Coburgo-Gota" [Portuguese Honours awarded to Princes of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]. Pro Phalaris (in Portuguese). 9–10: 7, 12. Retrieved 28 November 2019. ^ H. Tarlier (1854). Almanach royal officiel, publié, exécution d'un arrête du roi (in French). 1. p. 37. ^ Staatshandbuch für den Freistaat Sachsen: 1860. Heinrich. 1860. p. 4. ^ Staatshandbuch für das Großherzogtum Sachsen / Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach (1859), "Großherzogliche Hausorden" p. 10 ^ "Badge of the Order of the Golden Fleece". Royal Collection. Retrieved 13 February 2016. ^ Liste der Ritter des Königlich Preußischen Hohen Ordens vom Schwarzen Adler (1851), "Von Seiner Majestät dem Könige Friedrich Wilhelm IV. ernannte Ritter" p. 22 ^ Cibrario, Luigi (1869). Notizia storica del nobilissimo ordine supremo della santissima Annunziata. Sunto degli statuti, catalogo dei cavalieri (in Italian). Eredi Botta. p. 110. Retrieved 4 March 2019. ^ a b c Kimizuka, Naotaka (2004). 女王陛下のブルーリボン: ガーター勲章とイギリス外交 [Her Majesty The Queen's Blue Ribbon: The Order of the Garter and British Diplomacy] (in Japanese). Tokyo: NTT Publishing. ISBN 978-4757140738. ^ Jørgen Pedersen (2009). Riddere af Elefantordenen, 1559–2009 (in Danish). Syddansk Universitetsforlag. p. 470. ISBN 978-87-7674-434-2. ^ Sergey Semenovich Levin (2003). "Lists of Knights and Ladies". Order of the Holy Apostle Andrew the First-called (1699-1917). Order of the Holy Great Martyr Catherine (1714-1917). Moscow. p. 25. ^ M. & B. Wattel (2009). Les Grand'Croix de la Légion d'honneur de 1805 à nos jours. Titulaires français et étrangers. Paris: Archives & Culture. p. 523. ISBN 978-2-35077-135-9. ^ "A Szent István Rend tagjai" Archived 22 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine ^ Württemberg (1858). Königlich-Württembergisches Hof- und Staats-Handbuch: 1858. Guttenberg. p. 31. ^ Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Großherzogtum Baden (1858), "Großherzogliche Orden" pp. 33, 47 ^ Hof- und Staatshandbuch des Königreichs Bayern: 1846. Landesamt. 1846. p. 9. ^ Staat Hannover (1859). Hof- und Staatshandbuch für das Königreich Hannover: 1859. Berenberg. pp. 37, 73. ^ "No. 21851". The London Gazette. 19 February 1856. p. 624. ^ Louda & Maclagan 1999, pp. 30, 32. ^ a b c Pinches & Pinches 1974, pp. 329, 241, 309–310. ^ Aveling & Boutell 1890, p. 285. ^ Weir 1996, pp. 306–321. ^ a b c d e f Montgomery-Massingberd, Hugh (ed.) (1977). Burke's Royal Families of the World, 1st edition. London: Burke's Peerage ^ a b c d e f g h Huberty, M., Giraud, A., Magdelaine, F. & B. (1976–1994). L'Allemagne Dynastique, Vols I-VII. Le Perreux, France: Alain Giraud Sources[edit] Abecasis-Phillips, John (2004). "Prince Albert and the Church – Royal versus Papal Supremacy in the Hampden Controversy". In Davis, John (ed.). Prinz Albert – Ein Wettiner in Großbritannien / Prince Albert – A Wettin in Great Britain. Munich: de Gruyter. pp. 95–110. ISBN 978-3-598-21422-6. Ames, Winslow (1968). Prince Albert and Victorian Taste. London: Chapman and Hall. Armstrong, Neil (2008). "England and German Christmas Festlichkeit, c. 1800–1914". German History. 26 (4): 486–503. doi:10.1093/gerhis/ghn047. Aveling, S. T.; Boutell, Charles (1890). Heraldry, Ancient and Modern: Including Boutell's Heraldry (2nd ed.). London and New York: Frederick Warne & Co. Cust, Lionel (1907). "The Royal Collection of Pictures". The Cornhill Magazine, New Series. XXII: 162–170. Darby, Elizabeth; Smith, Nicola (1983). The Cult of the Prince Consort. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-03015-0. Finestone, Jeffrey (1981). The Last Courts of Europe. London: The Vendome Press. ISBN 978-0-86565-015-2. Fulford, Roger (1949). The Prince Consort. London: Macmillan Publishers. Hobhouse, Hermione (1983). Prince Albert: His Life and Work. London: Hamish Hamilton. ISBN 978-0-241-11142-0. Jagow, Kurt, ed. (1938). The Letters of the Prince Consort, 1831–61. London: John Murray. Jurgensen, John (4 December 2009). "Victorian Romance: When the dour queen was young and in love". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 20 August 2011. Knight, Chris (17 December 2009). "A Duchess, a reader and a man named Alistair". National Post. Retrieved 20 August 2011. Louda, Jiří; Maclagan, Michael (1999) [1981]. Lines of Succession: Heraldry of the Royal Families of Europe (2nd ed.). London: Little, Brown. ISBN 978-0-316-84820-6. Martin, Theodore (1874–80). The Life of H. R. H. the Prince Consort. 5 volumes, authorised by Queen Victoria. Montgomery-Massingberd, Hugh, ed. (1977). Burke's Royal Families of the World (1st ed.). London: Burke's Peerage. ISBN 978-0-85011-023-4. Murphy, James (2001). Abject Loyalty: Nationalism and Monarchy in Ireland During the Reign of Queen Victoria. Washington DC: Catholic University of America Press. ISBN 978-0-8132-1076-6. Pinches, John Harvey; Pinches, Rosemary (1974). Heraldry Today: The Royal Heraldry of England. Slough, Buckinghamshire: Hollen Street Press. ISBN 978-0-900455-25-4. Rhodes James, Robert (1983). Albert, Prince Consort: A Biography. New York: Knopf. ISBN 0-394-40763-6. Stewart, Jules (2012). Albert: A Life. London; New York: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84885-977-7. OCLC 760284773. Weintraub, Stanley (1997). Albert: Uncrowned King. London: John Murray. ISBN 978-0-7195-5756-9. Weintraub, Stanley (September 2004). "Albert [Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha] (1819–1861)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online, January 2008 ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/274. Retrieved 4 August 2009. (subscription required) Weir, Alison (1996). Britain's Royal Families: The Complete Genealogy (Revised ed.). London: Random House. ISBN 978-0-7126-7448-5. Further reading[edit] Eyck, Frank. The Prince Consort: a political biography (Chatto, 1959), a scholarly study online. Haspel, Paul. "England's Unsung Hero of the American Civil War." North & South: The Official Magazine of the Civil War Society (July 2007) ,`0#2 pp 48-52; how Prince Albert aided the peaceful resolution of the 'Trent' affair in 1861. Hough, Richard. Victoria & Albert: Their Love & Their Tragedies (1996) 240pp Lalumia, Christine. "Scrooge and Albert" History Today (2001) 51#12 pp. 23–29. LeMay, G. H. L. "Prince Albert and the British Constitution" History Today (1953) 3#6 pp. 411–416. Rappaport, Helen. Magnificent obsession: Victoria, Albert and the death that changed the monarchy (Random House, 2011). Walton, Oliver. "Distant patron: Prince Albert and the Development of the Coburg-Gotha Economy." Acta Oeconomica Pragensia 2008.1 (2008): 117-130. online External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Albert, Prince Consort. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Albert, Prince Consort Albert, Prince Consort at the Encyclopædia Britannica Portraits of Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha at the National Portrait Gallery, London Works by Albert, Prince Consort at Project Gutenberg Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha at the Royal Collection Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Albert (Francis Charles Augustus Albert Emmanuel)" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 495–496. Prince Consort Albert, England and Europe, Virtual exhibition of bavarikon Prince Albert (1819–1861), BBC History UK Parliamentary Archives, Oaths of Prince Albert, Duke of Saxe, Prince of Saxe Coburg and Gotha Albert, Prince Consort House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Cadet branch of the House of Wettin Born: 26 August 1819 Died: 14 December 1861 British royalty VacantTitle last held by Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen as queen consort Consort of the British monarch (created "Prince Consort" 1857) 1840–1861 VacantTitle next held by Alexandra of Denmark as queen consort Military offices Preceded by Philip Philpot Colonel of the 11th (Prince Albert's Own) Hussars 1840–1842 Succeeded by Sir Arthur Benjamin Clifton Preceded by The Earl Ludlow Colonel of the Scots Fusilier Guards 1842–1852 Succeeded by The Duke of Cambridge Preceded by The Duke of Wellington Colonel of the Grenadier Guards 1852–1861 Colonel-in-Chief of the Rifle Brigade 1852–1861 Succeeded by The Lord Seaton Court offices Preceded by The Marquess of Hertford Lord Warden of the Stannaries 1842–1861 Succeeded by The Duke of Newcastle Academic offices Preceded by The Duke of Northumberland Chancellor of the University of Cambridge 1847–1861 Succeeded by The Duke of Devonshire Honorary titles Preceded by The Duke of Sussex Great Master of the Order of the Bath 1847–1861 Acting 1843–1847 VacantTitle next held by The Prince of Wales v t e Chancellors of the University of Cambridge Richard of Wetheringsett Hugh de Hotton Reginald Gerninghall Stephen Hepworth William de Ludham Richard de Gedney Richard Dryfield John de Asgarby John Hooke Roger de Fulbourn Andrew de Gisleham Thomas Sheringham Stephen Hepworth Ralph de Leicester Henry de Boyton John de Bradenham Thomas de Sheringham Stephen Hepworth Stephen Haslingfield Stephen de Segrace Stephen Haslingfield Richard de Ashton Roger Northburgh Richard de Badew Thomas de Foxton Robert de Winwick Robert de Winwick John de Langley Robert de Mildenhall Henry de Herwarden Richard Harling Robert de Claydon Thomas de Northwood Thomas de Northwood John de Crakhall Thomas de Grantchester William de Lymbergh Richard Harling Anthony of Grantchester William Tynkell Thomas Sutton Richard de Wetherset Michael de Haynton Michael de Causton William de Gotham Thomas de Stewkley John de Donwich Adam de Lakenheath John de Donwich William de Gotham Richard Scrope Eudo Zouche John Cavendish Guy Zouche John de Bromyard John of Neketon John de Burgh Thomas Hetherset John de Burgh William Colvile Richard Dereham William Colvile John de Neketon William Colvile Guy Zouche Richard Billingford Richard Dereham Richard Billingford Stephen le Scrope John de Rickingale Thomas of Cobham Robert Fitzhugh William Wymbell Marmaduke Lumley John Holeroke William Lascells Richard Billingford Richard Cawdray John Langton Nicholas Kenton John Langton Robert Ascogh Nicholas Close William Percy Lawrence Booth William Wilflete Robert Woodlark Richard Scroope Robert Woodlark John Booth William Wilflete John Harrison William Wilflete Edward Story Thomas Rotherham (or Scot) Edward Story Thomas Rotherham John Boynton Thomas Rotherham Thomas Cosyn John Blythe George Fitzhugh Thomas Rotherham Richard Fox George Fitzhugh Thomas Ruthall (or Rowthall) John Fisher Thomas Cromwell Stephen Gardiner Edward Seymour The Duke of Northumberland Stephen Gardiner Reginald Pole The Lord Burghley The Earl of Essex The Earl of Salisbury The Earl of Northampton The Earl of Suffolk The Duke of Buckingham The Earl of Holland The Earl of Manchester Oliver St John The Duke of Manchester The Duke of Buckingham The Duke of Monmouth The Duke of Albemarle The Duke of Somerset Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle The Duke of Grafton HRH The Duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh The Marquess Camden The Duke of Northumberland HRH The Prince Consort The Duke of Devonshire The Duke of Devonshire The Lord Rayleigh The Earl of Balfour The Earl Baldwin of Bewdley Jan Smuts The Lord Tedder The Lord Adrian HRH The Duke of Edinburgh David Sainsbury v t e British consorts George of Denmark (1707–1708) Caroline of Ansbach (1727–1737) Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (1761–1818) Caroline of Brunswick (1820–1821) Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen (1830–1837) Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (1840–1861) Alexandra of Denmark (1901–1910) Mary of Teck (1910–1936) Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon (1936–1952) Philip Mountbatten (1952–present) v t e Princes of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld The generations are numbered from the union of Saxe-Coburg and Saxe-Saalfeld in 1699 1st generation Christian Ernst II* Francis Josias* 2nd generation Ernest Frederick Prince Josias 3rd generation Francis 4th generation Ernest III Prince Ferdinand** Leopold I of Belgium** 5th generation Ernest II, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha** Albert, Prince Consort of the United Kingdom** Ferdinand II of Portugal** Prince August** Prince Leopold** * prince of Saxe-Saalfeld until 1699 ** became prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in 1826 v t e Princes of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Forefather Duke Francis I* 1st generation Duke Ernest I* Prince Ferdinand* King Leopold I of the Belgians* 2nd generation Ducal Duke Ernest II* Albert, Prince Consort of the United Kingdom* Koháry King Ferdinand II of Portugal and the Algarves* Prince August* Prince Leopold* Belgium Crown Prince Louis Philippe King Leopold II Prince Philippe 3rd generation United Kingdom King Edward VII Duke Alfred I Prince Arthur Prince Leopold Portugal King Pedro V King Luís I Infante João Infante Fernando Infante Augusto Koháry Prince Philipp Prince Ludwig August Tsar Ferdinand I of the Bulgarians Belgium Prince Leopold Prince Baudouin King Albert I 4th generation United Kingdom Prince Albert Victor King George V Hereditary Prince Alfred Prince Arthur Duke Charles Edward I Portugal King Carlos I Infante Afonso Koháry Prince Leopold Clement Prince Pedro Augusto Prince August Leopold Prince Joseph Ferdinand Prince Ludwig Gaston Bulgaria Tsar Boris III Prince Kiril Belgium King Leopold III Prince Charles 5th generation United Kingdom King Edward VIII King George VI Prince Henry Prince George Prince John Prince Alastair Ducal Hereditary Prince Johann Leopold Prince Hubertus Prince Friedrich Josias Portugal Prince Luís Filipe King Manuel II Koháry Prince Rainer Prince Philipp Bulgaria Tsar Simeon II Belgium King Baudouin I King Albert II Prince Alexandre 6th generation Ducal Prince Andreas Koháry Prince Johannes Heinrich Bulgaria Prince Kardam Prince Kyril Belgium King Philippe I Prince Laurent 7th generation Bulgaria Prince Boris Belgium Prince Gabriel Prince Emmanuel *Titled as Princes of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld before 11 February 1826 v t e British princes The generations indicate descent from George I, who formalised the use of the titles prince and princess for members of the British royal family. 1st generation King George II 2nd generation Frederick, Prince of Wales Prince George William Prince William, Duke of Cumberland 3rd generation King George III 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en-wikipedia-org-7335	----	Roman military frontiers and fortifications - Wikipedia Roman military frontiers and fortifications From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Roman military frontiers and fortifications" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) See also: Borders of the Roman Empire Map of all the territories once occupied by the Roman Empire, along with locations of limes Part of a series on the Military of ancient Rome 753 BC – AD 476 Structural history Army Unit types and ranks Decorations and punishments Legions Auxilia Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Campaign history Wars and battles Technological history Military engineering Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Political history   Strategy and tactics Infantry tactics Frontiers and fortifications Limes Limes Britannicus Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Limes Germanicus Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes Norican Limes Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannonian Limes Limes Alutanus Limes Moesiae Trajan's Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmatiae Limes Arabicus Limes Tripolitanus Limes Mauretaniae  Ancient Rome portal •  War portal v t e Roman military borders and fortifications were part of a grand strategy of territorial defense in the Roman Empire, although this is a matter of debate. By the early 2nd century, the Roman Empire had reached the peak of its territorial expansion and rather than constantly expanding their borders as earlier in the Empire and Republic, the Romans solidified their position by fortifying their strategic position with a series of fortifications and established lines of defense. Historian Adrian Goldsworthy argues that the Romans had reached the natural limits which their military traditions afforded them conquest over and that beyond the borders of the early-to-mid Empire lay peoples whose military traditions made them militarily unconquerable, despite many Roman battle victories. In particular, Goldsworthy argues that the cavalry-based warfare of the Parthians, Sarmatians and Persians presented a major challenge to the expansion of Rome's infantry-based armies. Contents 1 Nature of the fortifications 2 Northern borders 2.1 Britannia 2.2 Continental Europe 3 Eastern borders 4 Southern borders 5 Western borders 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Nature of the fortifications[edit] The borders of the Roman Empire, which fluctuated throughout the empire's history, were a combination of natural frontiers (the Rhine and Danube rivers to the north and east, the Atlantic to the west, and deserts to the south) and man-made fortifications which separated the lands of the empire from the "barbarian" lands beyond. Individual fortifications had been constructed by the Roman military from as early as the building of Rome's first city walls in the 6th or 7th century BC. However, systematic construction of fortifications around the periphery of the empire on a strategic scale began around 40 AD under Emperor Caligula.[citation needed] However, it was under Hadrian's rule, which began in 117, that the Roman frontier was systematically fortified. He spent half of his 21-year reign touring the empire and advocating for the construction of forts, towers, and walls all across the edges of the empire.[1] The coherent construction of these fortifications on a strategic scale (i.e. to protect the empire as a whole rather than fortifying individual settlements) are known as the limes, and continued until around 270. The limes consisted of fortresses for legions or vexillations (e.g. Segedunum) as well as a system of roads for the rapid transit of troops and, in some places, extensive walls. Perhaps the most famous example of these is Hadrian's Wall in Great Britain, which was built across the entire width of the island to protect from attack from tribes located in modern-day Scotland. The so-called Limes Britannicus is perhaps the best example of the ultimate limes - like the Great Wall of China, it was an attempt to construct a continuous man-made fortification along the length of an entire border, a massive undertaking. However, it is not correct to interpret other limes in the same way or to view the limes as an impenetrable barrier. Other limes would not have had a continuous man-made fortification for the entirety of their length. In places, a river, desert or natural outcropping of rock could provide the same effect for zero outlay. Also, fortifications as impressive as Hadrian's Wall were not unbreachable: with milecastles some distance apart and patrols infrequent, small enemy forces would have been able to penetrate the defenses easily for small-scale raiding. However, a raiding party would be forced to fight its way through one of the well-defended gates, abandon its loot, such as cattle, thus negating the whole purpose of the raid or be trapped against the wall by the responding legions. Additionally, a large army would have been able to force a crossing of the limes using siege equipment. The value of the limes lay not in its absolute impenetrability but, as S. Thomas Parker argues, in its hindrance to the enemy: granting a delay or warning that could be used to summon concentrated Roman forces to the site. The limes are therefore perhaps better seen as an instrument allowing a greater economy of force in defense of a border than otherwise would be necessary to provide the same level of defense. After 270, the maintenance of an impenetrable solid frontier was abandoned by Constantine I in favor of a policy, whether deliberate or forced by circumstance, of "defense in depth". This called for the maintenance of a softer, deeper perimeter area of defense, with concentrated hard points throughout its depth. The idea was that any invading force of a sufficient size could penetrate the initial perimeter but in doing so with any element of surprise or rapid movement would be forced to leave several defended hard points (fortresses) to its rear, hampering its lines of supply and communications, and threatening surrounding of the force. In the very late Empire the frontiers became even more elastic, with little effort expended in maintaining frontier defense. Instead, armies were concentrated near the heart of the empire, and enemies allowed to penetrate in cases as far inwards as the Italian peninsula before being met in battle. Northern borders[edit] Britannia[edit] After conquering much of the modern landmass of Great Britain, the Romans halted their northern expansion at the southern fringe of Caledonia, what is now central Scotland. This left them with a border shared with a people who made repeated raids and insurrections against them. Unlike other borders throughout the empire, there was no natural border to fall back on such as desert or wide river that crossed the whole peninsula, so instead a series of defenses were built in southern to mid-Scotland in order to protect the province of Britannia from the Caledonians and later the Picts. Hadrian's Wall viewed from Vercovicium Although the border was not a continuous wall, a series of fortifications known as Gask Ridge in mid-Scotland may well be Rome's earliest fortified land frontier. Constructed in the 70CE or 80CE, it was superseded by the later Hadrian's Wall forty years later and then the final Antonine Wall twenty years after that. Rather than representing a series of consecutive advancements, the border should be seen as fluctuating - the Antonine Wall for example was built between 142 and 144, abandoned by 164 and briefly re-occupied in 208. Although records are scarce, there are indications that the border fluctuated between the various fortifications depending on the local strength of the military. There is archaeological evidence for widespread burning of fortifications, but it is disputed whether this represents fortifications falling to attack or part of the normal process of the Roman military to destroy their own fortified camps on abandonment so as not to furnish the enemy with a fortified base at their expense. These northern fortifications are sometimes styled the Limes Britannicus. The average garrison of the wall fortifications is thought to have been around 10,000 men. Along with a continuous wall (except in the case of Gask Ridge), there existed a metaled road immediately behind the wall for transport of troops. Along the wall there existed a few large forts for legions or vexillations, as well as a series of milecastles - effectively watchtowers that were unable to defend a stretch of wall against anything but low-scale raiding but were able to signal attack to legionary forts by means of fire signals atop the towers. In the later Empire, Roman Britannia found itself increasingly vulnerable to external aggression, in parallel to attacks felt across the length of the Empire's borders. However, since Britannia shared no land bridge with continental Europe, the method of attack and thus methods of defense varied from the imperial standard. A series of naval forts was built along the south east coast, initially to combat piracy but later to protect from raiding and the threat of invasion from Saxons that eventually led to the Saxon occupation of Lowland Britain by 600 and is reflected in the name of the fortification system: the Saxon Shore, which extended to the northern coasts of France. Each shore fort both protected against direct attack and also sheltered a small naval sub-fleet of vessels that could patrol the coast against pirates and raiders. Continental Europe[edit] Roman watchtower and beacon on the lower Danube frontier In continental Europe, the borders were generally well defined, usually following the courses of major rivers such as the Rhine and the Danube. Nevertheless, those were not always the final border lines: the original province of Dacia, in modern Romania, was completely north of the Danube, and the province of Germania Magna,[citation needed] which should not be confused with Germania Inferior and Germania Superior, was the land between the Rhine, the Danube and the Elbe (Although this province was lost three years after its creation as a result of the Battle of Teutoburg Forest). The limes that ran across the line of the Rhine-Danube was known as the Limes Germanicus. It consisted of: The Lower (Northern) Germanic Limes, which extended from the North Sea at Katwijk in the Netherlands along the Rhine; The Upper Germanic Limes (just to be confusing, also called the Rhaetian Limes or simply "the Limes") started from the Rhine at Rheinbrohl (Neuwied (district)) across the Taunus mountains to the river Main (East of Hanau), then along the Main to Miltenberg, and from Osterburken (Neckar-Odenwald-Kreis) south to Lorch (Ostalbkreis) in a nearly perfect straight line of more than 70 km; The proper Rhaetian Limes extended east from Lorch to Eining (close to Kelheim) on the Danube. The total length was 568 km (353 mi). It included at least 60 castles and 900 watchtowers. In Dacia, the limes between the Black Sea and the Danube were a mix of the camps and the wall defenses: the Limes Moesiae was the conjunction of two, and sometimes three, lines of vallum, with a Great Camp and many minor camps spread through the fortifications. Eastern borders[edit] The eastern borders changed many times, of which the most enduring was the Euphrates river, bordering the Parthian Empire in modern Iran and western Iraq. Rome advanced beyond the Euphrates for a time upon defeating their rivals, the Parthians in 116 AD, when Trajan captured Ctesiphon, and established new provinces in Assyria and Babylonia. Later that year he took the Parthian capital, Susa, and deposed the Parthian King Osroes I. However, the Romans did not Romanize the entire Parthian Empire, leaving Parthamaspates as a puppet king on the throne to rule over former Parthian lands with the exclusion of modern Iraq, which became Assyria and Mesopotamia. Southern borders[edit] At its greatest extent, the southern borders were the deserts of Arabia and the Sahara, that represented a natural barrier to prevent expansion. The Empire controlled the Mediterranean shores and the mountains opposite. However the Romans attempted twice to occupy effectively the Siwa Oasis (and failed) and controlled the Nile many miles into Africa until the 1st Cataract near the modern border between Egypt and Sudan. For Mauretania there was a single wall with forts on both sides of it, the Limes Mauretaniae. In other places, such as Syria and Arabia Petraea, there was instead a network of border settlements and forts occupied by the Roman army. Limes Arabicus, (called the Limes Uranus) was the frontier of the Roman province of Arabia Petraea facing the desert. Limes Tripolitanus was the frontier in modern Libya facing the Sahara. Western borders[edit] The western borders were mainly protected by the Atlantic coast and unfortified. See also[edit] Limitanei, troops along the borders in the late Roman and early Byzantine periods. Sassanian defense lines References[edit] Nuovo Atlante Storico De Agostini, by "Instituto Geografico De Agostini", ISBN 88-415-4230-6 Novara 1995. Corso di storia antica e medievale 1 (seconda edizione) by Augusto Camer and Renato Fabietti ISBN 88-08-24230-7 ^ Curry, Andrew. "Roman Frontiers." National Geographic Sept 2012: 106-127. 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Contents 1 Online text 2 Online databases 3 Subscription eBook databases 4 Libraries 4.1 Worldwide 4.2 Africa 4.2.1 Nigeria 4.2.2 South Africa 4.2.3 Zimbabwe 4.3 Central America and the Caribbean 4.3.1 Barbados 4.3.2 Guatemala 4.3.3 Jamaica 4.3.4 Mexico 4.3.5 Trinidad and Tobago 4.4 Canada 4.4.1 Public libraries 4.4.2 Universities and colleges 4.5 United States 4.5.1 Public libraries by state 4.5.2 Universities and colleges 4.6 South America 4.6.1 Argentina 4.6.2 Brazil 4.6.3 Colombia 4.6.4 Ecuador 4.7 Asia 4.7.1 Bangladesh 4.7.2 China, People's Republic 4.7.3 Hong Kong, S.A.R. of China 4.7.4 India 4.7.5 Indonesia 4.7.6 Iran 4.7.7 Israel 4.7.8 Japan 4.7.9 Korea 4.7.10 Malaysia 4.7.11 Philippines 4.7.11.1 Universities and colleges 4.7.11.2 Other libraries 4.7.12 Singapore 4.7.13 Taiwan, Republic of China 4.7.14 Thailand 4.8 Australasia and Oceania 4.8.1 Australia 4.8.1.1 Public libraries 4.8.1.2 Academic libraries 4.8.2 New Zealand 4.8.2.1 Public libraries 4.8.2.2 Academic libraries 4.9 Europe 4.9.1 Austria 4.9.2 Belgium 4.9.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina 4.9.4 Croatia 4.9.5 Czech Republic 4.9.6 Denmark 4.9.7 Estonia 4.9.8 Finland 4.9.9 France 4.9.10 Germany 4.9.11 Greece 4.9.12 Hungary 4.9.13 Iceland 4.9.14 Ireland 4.9.15 Italy 4.9.16 Luxembourg 4.9.17 Montenegro 4.9.18 Netherlands 4.9.19 Norway 4.9.20 Poland 4.9.21 Portugal 4.9.22 Russia 4.9.23 Serbia 4.9.24 Slovenia 4.9.25 Spain 4.9.26 Sweden 4.9.27 Switzerland 4.9.28 Turkey 4.9.29 United Kingdom 4.9.29.1 Public libraries 4.9.29.2 Universities 5 Bookselling and swapping 5.1 Price comparison sites 5.2 Search many booksellers 5.3 Individual booksellers 5.4 Book-swapping websites 6 Non-English book sources 7 Bibliographical information 8 Find other editions 9 Find on Wikipedia 10 See also Online text Find this book on Google Books Find this book at the Open Library Find this book on Amazon.com (or .au, .br, .ca, .cn, .de, .es, .fr, .in, .it, .jp, .mx, .nl, .uk). Google Books and Amazon.com may be particularly helpful if you want to verify citations in Wikipedia articles, because they often enable you to search an online version of the book for specific words or phrases, or you can browse through the book (although for copyright reasons the entire book is usually not available). Online databases Find this book at Karlsruhe Virtual Catalog, a metasearch engine addressing many of the databases linked here and also some major commercial booksellers. Find this book at WorldCat free online catalog of the world's libraries Find this book at OttoBib.com citation metasearch Find this book at Copyright Clearance Center online rights database Find this book at Goodreads personal library catalog Find this book at LibraryThing personal library catalog Find this book at aNobii personal library catalog Find this book at iDreamBooks book review aggregator Find this book at the Grand Comics Database Find this book at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database Subscription eBook databases Find this book at Alexander Street Press by ProQuest Find this book at eBookCentral by ProQuest Find this book at EBSCO Industries eBooks Find this book at Gale by Cengage Find this book at HathiTrust Find this book at Overdrive by Rakuten Find this book at Project MUSE Find this book at ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Open Find this book at Safari Books Online by O'Reilly Media Find this book at ScienceDirect Libraries Select your region from the map above Worldwide Find this book at your local library through WorldCat Africa Nigeria Find this book on the Ahmadu Bello University Library catalogue Find this book on the University of Ilorin Library catalogue South Africa Find this book on the National Library of South Africa catalogue Find this book on the SEALS Consortium catalogue Find this book on the University of South Africa catalogue Find this book on the University of the Witwatersrand Library catalogue Zimbabwe Find this book on the University of Zimbabwe Library catalogue Central America and the Caribbean Barbados Find this book in the University of the West Indies (Cave Hill campus) Library catalogue Guatemala Find this book in the University of San Carlos of Guatemala Central Library catalogue Jamaica Find this book in the University of the West Indies (Mona campus) Library catalogue Mexico Find this book in the National Autonomous University of Mexico Library System Trinidad and Tobago Find this book in the University of 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en-wikipedia-org-7349	----	Jacobitism - Wikipedia Jacobitism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Political ideology supporting the restoration of the House of Stuart For other uses, see Jacobite (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Jacobinism. Jacobitism Irish: Seacaibíteachas, Na Séamusaigh Scottish Gaelic: Na Seumasaich James Francis Edward Stuart, Jacobite claimant between 1701 and 1766 Leaders James II and VII (1688–1701) James Francis Edward Stuart ("Old Pretender") (1701–1766) Charles Edward Stuart ("Young Pretender") (1720–1788) Henry Benedict Stuart ("Cardinal Duke of York") (1725–1807) Military leaders Earl of Tyrconnell John Graham of Claverhouse Marquis de St Ruth Patrick Sarsfield Earl of Mar Thomas Forster Marquess of Tullibardine Lord George Murray Dates of operation 1688–1780s Active regions Kingdom of Great Britain and Kingdom of Ireland Ideology Legitimist support for the senior line of the Stuarts Indefeasible dynastic right Divine right of kings Anti-Unionism (after 1707)[citation needed] Allies Bourbon Spain (1718–1719)  Kingdom of France (1688–1748) Opponents  England (1688–1707)  Scotland (1688–1707)  Great Britain (from 1707) Kingdom of Ireland Battles and wars Williamite War in Ireland (1688–1691) Jacobite rising of (1715–1716) Jacobite rising of 1719 Jacobite rising of (1745–1746) Jacobitism (/ˈdʒækəbaɪˌtɪzəm/ JAK-ə-bye-tiz-əm; Scottish Gaelic: Seumasachas, [ˈʃeːməs̪əxəs̪]; Irish: Seacaibíteachas, Séamusachas) was a largely 17th- and 18th-century movement that supported the restoration of the House of Stuart to the British throne. The name is derived from Jacobus, the Latin version of James. When James II and VII went into exile after the 1688 Glorious Revolution, the Parliament of England argued he abandoned the English throne and offered it to his Protestant daughter Mary II and her husband William III.[1] In April, the Scottish Convention held he "forfeited" the throne of Scotland by his actions, listed in the Articles of Grievances.[2] The Revolution created the principle of a contract between monarch and people; if that was violated, he or she could be removed. Jacobites argued monarchs were appointed by God, or divine right, and could not be removed, making the post-1688 regime illegitimate. While this was the most consistent difference, Jacobitism was a complex mix of ideas, many opposed by the Stuarts themselves; in Ireland, it meant tolerance for Catholicism, which James supported, but also Irish autonomy and reversing the 17th-century land settlements, which he opposed. In 1745, the opposition of Scots Jacobites to the 1707 Union and divine right was central to the internal conflicts that ended it as a viable movement. Outside Ireland, Jacobitism was strongest in the western Scottish Highlands, Perthshire and Aberdeenshire, and areas of Northern England with a high proportion of Catholics such as western Lancashire, Northumberland and County Durham.[3] Sympathisers were also found in parts of Wales, and in the West Midlands and South West England, to some degree overlapping with the Royalist strongholds of the Civil War era. The movement had an international dimension; several European powers sponsored the Jacobites as an extension of larger conflicts, while many Jacobite exiles served in foreign armies. In addition to the 1689–1691 Williamite War in Ireland and the simultaneous conflict in Scotland, there were open Jacobite revolts in Scotland and England in 1715, 1719 and 1745; abortive French-backed invasion attempts in 1708 and 1744; and several unsuccessful plots. While the 1745 rising was briefly a serious crisis for the British state, leading to the recall of British troops from Continental Europe, its collapse and the 1748 withdrawal of French support ended Jacobitism as a serious political movement. Contents 1 Political background 2 Jacobite supporters in the three kingdoms 2.1 Ireland 2.2 England and Wales 2.3 Scotland 3 Ideology 4 Community 5 Decline 5.1 Elibank plot 5.2 Loss of French support 5.3 Henry IX 6 Analysis 6.1 Romantic revival 6.2 Neo-Jacobite revival 7 In literature and popular culture 8 Claimants to the thrones of England, Scotland, Ireland and France 9 Footnotes 10 References 11 Sources 12 External links Political background[edit] 'The True Law of Free Monarchies;' James VI and I's political tract formed the basis of Stuart ideology Jacobite ideology originated with James VI and I, first monarch of England, Scotland and Ireland in 1603. Its basis was divine right, which claimed his position and authority came from God, and the duty of subjects was to obey. Personal rule by the monarch eliminated the need for Parliaments, and required political and religious union, concepts widely unpopular in all three kingdoms.[4] "Divine right" also clashed with Catholic allegiance to the Pope and Protestant nonconformists, since both argued there was an authority above the king.[5] The 17th century belief 'true religion' and 'good government' were one and the same meant disputes in one area fed into the other; Millenarianism and belief in the imminence of the Second Coming meant many Protestants viewed such issues as urgent and real.[6] As the first step towards union, James began creating standard practices between the churches of England, Scotland and Ireland. This continued after 1625 under Charles I, but enforcing Laudian practices on the Church of England, and ruling without Parliament led to a political crisis.[7] Similar measures in Scotland caused the 1639–1640 Bishops' Wars, and installation of a Covenanter government.[8] Organised by a small group of Catholic nobility, the October 1641 Irish Rebellion was the cumulative effect of land confiscation, loss of political control, anti-Catholic measures and economic decline. Intended as a bloodless coup, its leaders quickly lost control, leading to atrocities on both sides.[9] In May, a Covenanter army landed in Ulster to support Scots settlers; the English Parliament refused to fund an army, fearing Charles would use it against them, and the First English Civil War began in August.[10] Charles I, whose policies caused instability throughout his three kingdoms In 1642, the Catholic Confederacy representing the Irish insurgents proclaimed allegiance to Charles, but the Stuarts were an unreliable ally, since concessions in Ireland cost them Protestant support in all three kingdoms. In addition, the Adventurers' Act, approved by Charles in March 1642, funded suppression of the revolt by confiscating land from Irish Catholics, much of it owned by members of the Confederacy.[11] The result was a three-way contest between the Confederacy, Royalist forces under the Protestant Duke of Ormond, and a Covenanter-led army in Ulster. The latter were increasingly at odds with the English government; after Charles' execution in January 1649, Ormond combined these factions to resist the 1649 to 1652 Cromwellian conquest of Ireland.[12] Charles II repudiated his alliance with the Confederacy, in return for Scottish support in the Third English Civil War, and Ormond went into exile in 1650. Defeat in 1652 led to the mass confiscation of Catholic and Royalist land, and its re-distribution among English Parliamentary soldiers and Protestant settlers.[13] The three kingdoms were combined into the Commonwealth of England, regaining their separate status when the monarchy was restored in 1660.[14] Charles's reign was dominated by the expansionist policies of Louis XIV of France, seen as a threat to Protestant Europe. When his brother and heir James announced his conversion to Catholicism in 1677, an attempt was made to bar him from the English throne.[15] Nevertheless, he became king in February 1685 with widespread support in England and Scotland; a Catholic monarch was preferable to excluding the 'natural heir', and rebellions by Protestant dissidents quickly suppressed. It was also viewed as temporary; James was 52, his second marriage was childless after 11 years, and his Protestant daughter Mary was heir.[16] His religion made James popular among Irish Catholics, whose position had not improved under his brother. By 1685, Catholic land ownership had fallen to 22%, versus 90% in 1600, and after 1673, a series of proclamations deprived them of the right to bear arms or hold public office.[17] The Catholic Richard Talbot, 1st Earl of Tyrconnell was appointed Lord Deputy of Ireland in 1687, and began building a Catholic establishment that could survive James. Fearing a short reign, Tyrconnell moved at a speed that destabilised all three kingdoms.[18] The last Stuart monarch, Anne ca 1702; she viewed the creation of Great Britain as the culmination of the work begun by James I in 1603 James dismissed the English and Scottish Parliaments when they refused to approve his measures of religious tolerance, which he enforced using the Royal Prerogative. Doing so threatened to re-open disputes over religion, reward those who rebelled in 1685 and undermine his own supporters. It also ignored the impact of the 1685 Edict of Fontainebleau, which revoked tolerance for French Protestants and created an estimated 400,000 refugees, 40,000 of whom settled in London.[19] Two events in June 1688 turned discontent into rebellion; first, the birth of James's son, creating the prospect of a Catholic dynasty. Second, prosecution of the Seven Bishops, which seemed to signal an assault on the established churches; their acquittal caused widespread rejoicing throughout England and Scotland, and destroyed James's political authority.[20] In 1685, many feared civil war if James were bypassed; by 1688, even the Earl of Sunderland, his chief minister, felt only his removal could prevent it. Sunderland secretly co-ordinated an Invitation to William, assuring Mary and her husband William of Orange of English support for armed intervention. William landed in Brixham on 5 November with 14,000 men; as he advanced, James's army deserted and he went into exile on 23 December.[21] In February 1689, William and Mary were appointed joint monarchs of England, followed by Scotland in March.[22] Most of Ireland was still controlled by Tyrconnell, where James landed on 12 March 1689 with 6,000 French troops. The 1689 to 1691 War in Ireland highlighted two recurring trends; James and his successors viewed Ireland and Scotland as secondary to the main prize of England, while French backing was intended to support the wider Nine Years' War, not necessarily to restore the Stuarts.[23] Elections in May 1689 produced the first Irish Parliament with a Catholic majority since 1613. It repealed the Cromwellian land seizures, confiscated land from Williamites, and proclaimed Ireland a 'distinct kingdom from England', measures annulled after defeat in 1691.[24] A minor Jacobite rising in Scotland was suppressed. Several days after the Irish Jacobites were defeated at Boyne in July 1690, victory at Beachy Head gave the French temporary control of the English Channel. James returned to France to urge an immediate invasion of England, but the Anglo-Dutch fleet soon regained maritime supremacy, and the opportunity was lost.[25] The 1691 Treaty of Limerick ended the war in Ireland; future risings on behalf of the exiled Stuarts were confined to England and Scotland. The 1701 Act of Settlement barred Catholics from the English throne, and when Anne became the last Stuart monarch in 1702, her heir was her Protestant cousin Sophia of Hanover, not her Catholic half-brother James. Ireland retained a separate Parliament until 1800, but the 1707 Union combined England and Scotland into the Kingdom of Great Britain. Anne viewed this as the unified Protestant kingdom which her predecessors had failed to achieve.[26] The exiled Stuarts continued to agitate for a return to power, based on the support they retained within the three kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland.[27] [28] [29] Doing so required external help, most consistently supplied by France, while Spain backed the 1719 Rising. While talks were also held at different times with Sweden, Prussia, and Russia, these never produced concrete results; while the Stuarts were useful as a lever, their foreign backers had little interest in their restoration.[30] Jacobite supporters in the three kingdoms[edit] Jacobite support in the three kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland was rooted partly in specific religious communities and among those whose political beliefs encompassed the core Stuart doctrines of divine right, sacred kingship and indefeasible hereditary right. However, the motivation of individual Jacobites varied widely across the Stuarts' former realms: establishing motivation is complicated by the fact that "by and large, those who wrote most did not act, and those who acted wrote little, if anything".[31] Historians have characterised the movement in a variety of ways, including as a revolutionary extension of anti-Court, 'Country' ideology; an aristocratic reaction against a growth in executive power; a simple conflict between feudalism and capitalism; or as a product of nationalist feeling in Scotland and Ireland.[32] Ireland[edit] Tyrconnell, Deputy Governor of Ireland; his appointment of Catholics to military and political positions built widespread support for the Jacobite regime The role of Jacobitism in Irish political history is debated; some argue it was a broad based popular movement, and the main driver of Irish Catholic nationalism between 1688 and 1795.[33] Others see it as part of "a pan-British movement, rooted in confessional and dynastic loyalties", very different from 19th century Irish nationalism.[34] Historian Vincent Morely describes Irish Jacobitism as a distinctive ideology within the broader movement, that "emphasised the Milesian ancestry of the Stuarts, their loyalty to Catholicism, and Ireland's status as a kingdom with a Crown of its own.'[35] In the first half of the 18th century, Jacobitism was "the primary allegiance of politically conscious Catholics".[36] Irish Catholic support for James was based primarily on his religion and willingness to deliver their demands. In 1685, Gaelic poet Dáibhí Ó Bruadair celebrated his accession as ensuring the supremacy of Catholicism and the Irish language. Tyrconnell's expansion of the army by the creation of Catholic regiments was welcomed by Diarmuid Mac Carthaigh, as enabling the native Irish 'Tadhg' to be armed and to assert their dominance over 'John' the English Protestant.[37] Conversely, most Irish Protestants viewed his policies as designed to "utterly ruin the Protestant interest and the English interest in Ireland".[38] This restricted Protestant Jacobitism to "doctrinaire clergymen, disgruntled Tory landowners and Catholic converts", who opposed Catholicism but still viewed James' removal as unlawful.[39] A few Church of Ireland ministers refused to swear allegiance to the new regime and became Non-Jurors, the most famous being propagandist Charles Leslie.[40] After James was exiled, Ireland seemed the best place to begin the attempt to regain his kingdoms, since the administration was controlled by Tyrconnell. In May 1689, James called the first Parliament of Ireland since 1666, primarily seeking taxes to fund the war effort. Tyrconnell ensured a predominantly Catholic electorate and candidates by issuing new borough charters, admitting Catholics into city corporations, and removing "disloyal members".[41] Since elections were not held in many northern areas, the Commons was 70 members short, and 224 out of 230 MPs were Catholic.[42] Later known as the 'Patriot Parliament, it opened by proclaiming James the rightful king and condemning his "treasonous subjects" who had ousted him. However, it was divided on the issue of returning Catholic lands confiscated following the Cromwellian conquest. Only a small minority of the Catholic elite benefited from the 1662 Act of Settlement which sought to mitigate the confiscations enacted in 1652; major beneficiaries included James himself, along with Tyrconnell and members of the Lords. The majority of the Commons wanted the 1652 Act repealed in its entirety, with ownership returned to that prevailing in 1641, and refused Tyrconnell's initial offer to return half their estates, with compensation for the remainder.[43] With the Commons overwhelmingly in favour of complete restoration of Catholic owned lands, Tyrconnell persuaded the Lords to approve the bill. However, these divisions resurfaced later in the war in the contest between Jacobite 'Peace' and 'War' factions.[44] More serious were the differences between the Irish parliament and James; his priority was the throne of England, while a French diplomat observed he had 'a heart too English to do anything that might vex the English.'[45] He therefore resisted measures that might "dissatisfy his Protestant subjects" in England and Scotland, complaining "he was fallen into the hands of a people who would ram many hard things down his throat".[44] When Parliament made it clear it would only vote through taxes to pay for war if he complied with their minimum demands, he reluctantly approved the restoration of pre-1650s Catholic landowners to their estates and passed an Act of Attainder, confiscating estates from 2,000 mostly Protestant "rebels". [46] He also assented to the assertion Ireland was a "distinct kingdom", and laws passed in England did not apply there, but refused to abolish Poynings' Law, which required Irish legislation to be approved by the English Parliament.[47] Despite his own Catholicism, James viewed the Protestant Church of Ireland as an important part of his support base; he insisted retained its legal pre-eminence, although it was agreed that landowners would only have to pay tithes to clergy of their own religion.[46] The Spanish Regiment of Hibernia, ca 1740; foreign military service remained common for Irish Catholics until banned after 1745 James left Ireland after defeat at the Boyne in 1690, telling his supporters to "shift for themselves". [48] This led some to depict him as "Seamus an chaca", or "James the shit", who had deserted his loyal followers.[49] However, Gaelic scholar Breandán Ó Buachalla claims his reputation subsequently recovered as "the rightful king...destined to return' and upper-class Irish Jacobite writers like Charles O'Kelly and Nicholas Plunkett blamed "corrupt English and Scottish advisors" for his apparent desertion.[50] After 1691, measures passed by the 1689 Parliament were annulled, penal laws barred Catholics from public life, while the Act of Attainder was used to justify further land confiscations. 12,000 Jacobite soldiers went into exile in the diaspora known as the Flight of the Wild Geese, the majority of whom were later absorbed into the French Irish Brigade. About 1,000 men were recruited for the French and Spanish armies annually, many with a "tangible commitment to the Stuart cause".[51] Elements of the French Irish Brigade participated in the Scottish Jacobite rising of 1745. Irish language poets, especially in Munster, continued to champion the cause after James' death; in 1715, Eoin O Callanain described his son James Francis Edward Stuart as "taoiseach na nGaoidheal" or "chieftain of the Gaels".[52] As in England, throughout the 1720s, James' birthday on 10 June was marked by celebrations in Dublin, and towns like Kilkenny and Galway. These were often accompanied by rioting, suggested as proof of popular pro-Jacobite sympathies.[53] Others argue riots were common in 18th century urban areas and see them as a "series of ritualised clashes".[54] Combined with Jacobite rhetoric and symbolism among rapparees or bandits, some historians claim this provides evidence of continuing popular support for a Stuart restoration.[55] Other however argue that it is hard to descern "how far rhetorical Jacobitism reflected support for the Stuarts, as opposed to discontent with the status quo".[56] Nevertheless, fears of resurgent Catholic Jacobitism among the ruling Protestant minority meant anti-Catholic Penal Laws remained in place for most of the eighteenth century.[57] There was no Irish rising in either 1715 or 1745 to accompany those in England and Scotland; one suggestion is after 1691, for various reasons Irish Jacobites looked to European allies, rather than relying on a domestic revolt.[49] From the 1720s on, many Catholics were willing to swear loyalty to the Hanoverian regime, but not the Oath of Abjuration, which required renouncing the authority of the Pope, as well as the Stuarts.[58] After the effective demise of the Jacobite cause in the 1750s, many Catholic gentry withdrew support from the Stuarts. Instead, they created organisations like the Catholic Convention, which worked within the existing state for redress of Catholic grievances.[59] When Charles died in 1788, Irish nationalists looked for alternative liberators, among them the French First Republic, Napoleon Bonaparte and Daniel O'Connell.[60] England and Wales[edit] Tory minister and Jacobite Lord Bolingbroke; driven into exile in 1715 and pardoned in 1720 In England and Wales, Jacobitism was often associated with the Tories, many of whom supported James's right to the throne during the Exclusion Crisis. Tory ideology implied that neither "time nor statute law [...] could ameliorate the sin of usurpation",[61] while shared Tory and Jacobite themes of divine right and sacred kingship may have provided an alternative to Whig concepts of "liberty and property".[62] A minority of academics, including Eveline Cruickshanks, have argued that until the late 1750s, the Tories were a crypto-Jacobite party, others that Jacobitism was a "limb of Toryism".[63] However, the supremacy of the Church of England was also central to Tory ideology: when this had seemed threatened by James's policies, they became closely involved in his removal. The 1701 Act of Settlement excluding Catholics from the English throne was passed by a Tory administration; for the vast majority, Stuart Catholicism was an insuperable barrier to active support, while the Tory doctrine of non-resistance also discouraged them from supporting the exiles against a reigning monarch.[64] For most of the period from 1690 to 1714, Parliament was either controlled by the Tories, or evenly split with the Whigs; when George I succeeded Anne, most hoped to reconcile with the new regime. The Earl of Mar, who led the 1715 rising, observed "Jacobitisme, which they used to brand the Tories with, is now I presum out of doors".[65] However, George blamed the 1710 to 1714 Tory government for the Peace of Utrecht, which he viewed as damaging to Hanover. His isolation of former Tory ministers like Lord Bolingbroke and the Earl of Mar drove them first into opposition, then exile. Exclusion from power between 1714 and 1742 meant many Tories sought opportunities to change the existing government, including contact with the Jacobite court.[66] In 1715, there were co-ordinated celebrations on 29 May, Restoration Day, and 10 June, James Stuart's birthday, especially in Tory-dominated towns like Bristol, Oxford, Manchester and Norwich, although they remained quiet in the 1715 Rising. In the 1730s, many 'Jacobite' demonstrations in Wales and elsewhere were driven by local tensions, especially hostility to Methodism, and featured attacks on Nonconformist chapels.[67] The Earl of Mar, leader of the 1715 Rising Most English participants in 1715 came from traditionally Catholic areas in the Northwest, like Lancashire.[68] By 1720, they numbered under 115,000 in England and Wales, and most remained loyal in 1745, including the Duke of Norfolk, head of the English Catholic community, sentenced to death for his role in 1715 but pardoned.[69] Even so, sympathies were complex; Norfolk's agent Andrew Blood joined the Manchester Regiment, and he later employed another ex-officer, John Sanderson, as his master of horse.[70] English Catholics provided the exiles with financial support into the 1770s.[71] In 1689, around 2% of clergy in the Church of England refused to take the oath of allegiance to William and Mary; one list identifies a total of 584 clergy, schoolmasters and university dons as Non Jurors. [72] This almost certainly understates their numbers, since many sympathisers remained within the Church of England, but Non Jurors were disproportionately represented in Jacobite risings and riots, and provided many "martyrs". By the late 1720s, arguments over doctrine and the death of its originators reduced the church to a handful, but several of those executed in 1745 came from Manchester, the last significant congregation in England.[73] The Quaker leader, William Penn was a prominent non-conformist supporter of James, although this was based on their personal relationship and did not survive his deposition. Another element in English Jacobitism was a handful of disaffected radicals, for whom the exiled Stuarts provided a potential alternative to the Whig establishment. An example was John Matthews, a Jacobite printer executed in 1719; his pamphlet Vox Populi vox Dei emphasised the Lockean theory of the social contract, a doctrine very few Tories of the period would have supported.[74] Scotland[edit] Highland Jacobite, ca 1745 Scottish Jacobitism had wider and more extensive roots than in England. 20,000 Scots fought for the Jacobites in 1715, compared to 11,000 who joined the government army, and were the majority of the 9,000 to 14,000 who served in 1745.[75] One reason was the persistence of feudalism in parts of rural Scotland, where tenants could be compelled to provide their landlords with military service. Many of the Highland clansmen who were a feature of Jacobite armies were raised this way: in all three major risings, the bulk of the rank and file were supplied by a small number of north-western clans whose leaders joined the rebellion.[76] Despite this, many Jacobites were Protestant Lowlanders, rather than the Catholic, Gaelic-speaking Highlanders of legend.[77] By 1745, fewer than 1% of Scots were Catholic, restricted to the far north-west and a few noble families.[78] The majority of the rank and file, as well as many Jacobite leaders, belonged to Protestant Episcopalian congregations.[79] Throughout the 17th century, the close connection between Scottish politics and religion meant changes of regime were accompanied by the losers being expelled from the kirk. In 1690, over 200 clergy lost their positions, mostly in Aberdeenshire and Banffshire, a strongly Episcopalian area since the 1620s. In 1745, around 25% of Jacobite recruits came from this part of the country.[80] Jacobite commander George Murray; a pro-Union, anti-Hanoverian Scot who fought in the 1715, 1719 and 1745 Risings but loathed Prince Charles, he encapsulated the many contradictions of Jacobite support Episcopalianism was popular among social conservatives, as it emphasised indefeasible hereditary right, absolute obedience, and implied deposition of the senior Stuart line was a breach of natural order.[81] The church continued to offer prayers for the Stuarts until 1788, while many refused to swear allegiance to the Hanoverians in 1714.[82] However, even in 1690, a substantial minority accommodated to the new regime, a number that increased significantly after the establishment of the Scottish Episcopal Church in 1712.[83] Episcopalian ministers, such as Professor James Garden of Aberdeen, presented the 1707 Union as one in a series of disasters to befall Scotland, provoked by "the sins [...] of rebellion, injustice, oppression, schism and perjury".[84] Opposition was boosted by measures imposed by the post-1707 Parliament of Great Britain, including the Treason Act 1708, the 1711 ruling that barred Scots peers from the House of Lords, and tax increases.[85] Despite their own preferences, the Stuarts tried to appeal to this group; in 1745, Charles issued declarations dissolving the "pretended Union", despite concerns this would alienate his English supporters.[86] However, opposition to post-Union legislation was not restricted to Jacobites. Many Presbyterians opposed the establishment of the Episcopal Church in 1712 and other measures of indulgence, while the worst tax riots took place in Glasgow, a town noted for its antipathy to the Stuarts.[87] As in England, some objected less to the Union than the Hanoverian connection; Lord George Murray, a senior Jacobite commander in 1745, was a Unionist who repeatedly disagreed with Charles, but opposed "wars [...] on account of the Electors of Hanover".[88] Ideology[edit] Historian Frank McLynn identifies seven primary drivers in Jacobitism, noting that while the movement contained "sincere men [..] who aimed solely to restore the Stuarts", it was "rarely [...] a positive doctrine" and "provided a source of legitimacy for political dissent of all kinds".[89] Alexander Forbes, 4th Lord Forbes of Pitsligo; his support of the doctrine of indefeasible hereditary right placed him in a minority of Jacobites by 1745 Its four main ideological tenets drew on a theology shared by Nonjurors, High Church Anglicans and Scots Episcopalians.[90] They were, firstly, the divine right of kings, their accountability to God, not man or Parliament; secondly that monarchy was a divine institution; thirdly, the crown's descent by indefeasible hereditary right, which could not be overturned or annulled; and lastly the scriptural injunction of passive obedience and non-resistance, even towards monarchs of which the subject might disapprove.[91][92] Jacobites attempted, however, to draw a distinction between 'absolute' and 'arbitrary' power.[93] The exact interpretation of the monarch and subject's rights and duties varied between different writers, with Nonjuror Charles Leslie being perhaps the most extreme divine right theorist, although even he argued the monarch was bound by "his oath to God, as well as his promise to his people" and "the laws of justice and honour".[93] Jacobite political discourse argued that divinely sanctioned authority was the main moral safeguard of society, while its absence led to party strife.[94] It claimed the 1688 Revolution had allowed self-interested minorities, such as Whigs, religious dissenters, and foreigners, to take control of the state and oppress the weak.[95] However, such sentiments were not always consistently held within the Jacobite community, or restricted to Jacobites alone:[96] many Whigs, and Church of England clergy, also argued that the post 1688 succession was "divinely ordained".[97][92] As time progressed, Jacobite discourse grew closer to mainstream Toryism; post 1710 pamphleteers began to blame the exile of the Stuarts on a "malevolent" Whig faction, rather than the nation collectively.[98] After the Act of Settlement, Jacobite propagandists deemphasised the purely legitimist elements in their writing and by 1745, active promotion of hereditary and indefeasible right was restricted largely to a few Scots Jacobites, notably the Episcopalian Lords Pitsligo and Balmerino.[99] They instead began to focus on populist themes such as opposition to a standing army, electoral corruption and social injustice.[74] By the 1750s Charles himself promised triannual parliaments, disbanding the army and legal guarantees on press freedom.[100] Such tactics broadened their appeal but also carried risks, since they could always be undercut by a government prepared to offer similar concessions.[101] Tensions between doctrinaire Jacobites and their broader-based supporters surfaced in the 1745 rebellion, when many of the Scots had a primary goal of dissolving the 1707 Union: after Prestonpans, they preferred to negotiate rather than invade England as Charles wanted.[102] More generally, Jacobite theorists reflected broader currents in Enlightenment thought, appealing to those attracted to a monarchist solution to perceived modern decadence.[103] Populist songs and tracts presented the Stuart monarch as a king capable of putting right a wide range of ills and restoring social harmony; a man who continued to eat English beef and consume English beer in exile.[104] While particularly calculated to appeal to Tories, the wide range of themes adopted by Jacobite pamphleteers and agents periodically drew in disaffected Whigs and former radicals: such "Whig-Jacobites" were highly valued by James II's exiled court, but seem to have mainly viewed him a potentially weak king from whom it would be easy to extract concessions in the event of a restoration.[105] Community[edit] Flora MacDonald by Allan Ramsay c. 1749–1750; note white roses, a Jacobite symbol While Jacobite agents continued in their attempts to recruit the disaffected, the most committed Jacobites were often linked by relatively small family networks, particularly in Scotland; Jacobite activities in areas like Perthshire and Aberdeenshire centred on a limited number of influential families heavily involved in 1715 and 1745.[106] Some of the most powerful landowning families preserved their establishment loyalties, but maintained traditions of Stuart allegiance by 'permitting' younger sons to become involved in active Jacobitism; in 1745, Lewis Gordon was widely believed to be a proxy for his brother, the Duke of Gordon.[107] Many Jacobite leaders were closely linked to each other and the exile community by marriage or blood. This has led some historians, notably Bruce Lenman, to characterise the Jacobite risings as French-backed coup attempts by a small network drawn from the elite, though this view is not universally accepted.[108] Family traditions of Jacobite sympathy were reinforced through objects such as inscribed glassware or rings with hidden symbols, although many of those that survive are in fact 19th century neo-Jacobite creations. Other family heirlooms contained reference to executed Jacobite "martyrs", for which the movement preserved an unusual level of veneration.[109] Tartan cloth, widely adopted by the Jacobite army in 1745, was used in portraiture as a symbol of Stuart sympathies, even before the Rising. Outside elite social circles, the Jacobite community circulated propaganda and symbolic objects through a network of clubs, print-sellers and pedlars, aimed at the provincial gentry and "middling sort".[110] In 1745, Prince Charles ordered commemorative medals and miniature pictures for clandestine distribution.[110] Welsh Tory Sir Watkin Williams-Wynn; his blue coat was often worn by Jacobite sympathisers Among the more visible elements of the Jacobite community were drinking clubs established in the early 18th century, such as the Scottish Bucks Club or the "Cycle of the White Rose", led by Welsh Tory Sir Watkin Williams-Wynn.[111] Others included the "Sea Serjeants", largely composed of South Wales gentry or the "Independent Electors of Westminster" led by the Glamorganshire lawyer David Morgan, executed for his role in 1745.[112] Other than Morgan, the vast majority of their members took no part in the 1745 Rising; Charles later suggested he "will do for the Welsh Jacobites what they did for me. I will drink their health".[113] Jacobites relied heavily on symbols, which were impossible to prosecute, the most common being the White rose of York, adopted after 1688 for reasons now unclear. Various origins have been suggested, including its use as an ancient Scottish royal device, its association with James II as Duke of York, or Charles I being styled as the "White King".[114] Jacobite military units often used plain white standards and white cockades: green ribbons were another recognised Stuart symbol despite also having Whig associations.[115] Many of these symbols were also employed by Tories to provoke government supporters, such as the oak boughs or oak leaf associated with Charles II.[116] Restoration Day, on May 29, was an occasion for displays of Stuart sympathy, as was James Stuart's birthday on 10 June, or "White Rose Day".[117] Decline[edit] Charles Edward Stuart as an old man Despite being greeted as a hero on his return to Paris, Charles' reception behind the scenes was more muted. D’Éguilles, unofficial French envoy to the Jacobites, had a low opinion of him and other senior Jacobites, describing Lochgarry as "a bandit", and suggesting George Murray was a British spy. For their part, the Scots were disillusioned by lack of meaningful English or French support, despite constant assurances of both.[118] As early as 1745, the French were struggling with the costs of the War of the Austrian Succession, and in June 1746, they began peace negotiations with Britain at Breda. Victories in Flanders in 1747 and 1748 actually worsened their position by drawing in the previously neutral Dutch Republic, whose shipping they relied on to avoid the British naval blockade.[119] By 1748, food shortages among the French population meant ending the war was a matter of urgency, but the British refused to sign the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle while Charles remained in France. After he ignored requests to leave, the French lost patience; in December 1748, he was seized on his way to the Opéra and briefly jailed before being expelled. The rising also highlighted the reality that a low level, ongoing insurgency was far more cost-effective for the French than a restoration.[a] As the Stuarts themselves recognised, this form of warfare was devastating for the local populace; it took fifty years for the area around Drogheda to recover from the destruction inflicted by Jacobite troops prior to withdrawal in 1690.[120] By exposing these divisions, the 1745 Rising largely ended Jacobitism as a viable political alternative.[121] The British authorities enacted a series of measures designed to prevent the Scottish Highlands being used for another rising. New forts were built, the military road network finally completed and William Roy made the first comprehensive survey of the Highlands.[122] Even before 1745, the clan system had been under severe stress due to changing economic conditions; the Heritable Jurisdictions Act removed feudal controls by Highland chiefs, while the Act of Proscription outlawed Highland dress unless worn in military service.[123] Elibank plot[edit] Archibald Cameron being taken to his execution, 1753; he was allegedly betrayed for his role in pressing recruits in 1745 From 1749 to 1751 Charles began exploring a further rising in England; he considered converting to Anglicanism, a proposal that had outraged his father James when previously suggested.[124] In 1750 he secretly visited London: the English Jacobites were clear that they would do nothing without foreign backing, which despite Charles's overtures to Frederick II of Prussia seemed unlikely. A plot to capture or assassinate George II, headed by Alexander Murray of Elibank, eventually stalled but not before Charles had sent two exiled Scots as agents. One was Archibald Cameron, responsible for recruiting the Cameron regiment in 1745: he was allegedly betrayed by his own clansmen on returning to Scotland and executed on 7 June 1753.[125] In a 1754 dispute with the English conspirators, a drunken and increasingly desperate Charles threatened to publish their names for having "betrayed" him; most remaining English sympathisers now left the cause.[126] Loss of French support[edit] In 1759 French naval defeats at Lagos and Quiberon Bay forced them to abandon a planned invasion of Britain, which would have placed Charles on the throne. It is often considered the last realistic chance for the Jacobites. With its passing, Charles lapsed further into alcoholism and was soon entirely abandoned by the French government, who saw little further use for him. The English Jacobites stopped sending funds, and by 1760 Charles, who had returned to Catholicism, was relying on the Papacy to support his lifestyle in Rome. When James Edward Stuart died in 1766, the Holy See refused to recognise Charles as the lawful sovereign of Great Britain. In 1788, Scottish Catholics swore allegiance to the House of Hanover, and resolved two years later to pray for King George by name. Henry IX[edit] Detail of the monument in the Vatican When Charles died in 1788 the Stuart claim to the throne passed to his younger brother Henry, who had become a Cardinal, and who now styled himself King Henry IX of England. After falling into financial difficulty during the French Revolution, he was granted a stipend by George III. However, he never actually surrendered his claims to the throne, though all former supporters of Jacobitism had stopped funding. Following the death of Henry in 1807, the Jacobite claims passed to those excluded by the Act of Settlement: initially to the House of Savoy (1807–1840), then to the Modenese branch of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine (1840–1919), and finally to the House of Wittelsbach (1919–present). Franz, Duke of Bavaria is the current Jacobite heir. Neither he nor any of his predecessors since 1807 have pursued their claim. Henry, Charles and James are memorialised in the Monument to the Royal Stuarts in the Vatican. Analysis[edit] Traditional Whig historiography viewed Jacobitism as marginal to the progression towards present-day Parliamentary democracy, taking the view that as it was defeated, it could never have won.[127] Representing "pre-industrial paternalism" and "mystical loyalism" against forward-thinking individualism, this conception of Jacobitism was reinforced by Macaulay's stereotype of the typical "Tory-Jacobite squire" as a "bigoted, ignorant, drunken philistine".[127] More recent analyses, such as that of J. C. D. Clark, suggest that Jacobitism can instead be regarded as part of a "deep vein of social and political conservatism running throughout British history", arguing that the Whig settlement was not as stable as has been depicted.[128] Further interest in Jacobite studies has been prompted by a reassessment of the nationalist aspirations of Scots Jacobites in particular, emphasising its place as part of an ongoing political idea. Romantic revival[edit] "Jacobites" by John Pettie: romantic view of Jacobitism As the political danger represented by Jacobitism receded, a nostalgic and sentimental view of the movement appeared, particularly with respect to the final 1745 rebellion. Relics and mementoes of 1745 were preserved and Charles himself became celebrated in "increasingly emotional and sentimental language".[129] The publication in the 1830s of parts of The Lyon in Mourning by Episcopalian bishop Robert Forbes (1708–1775), a collection of source material and interviews with Jacobite participants in the 1745 rising, reinforced this memorialising tendency.[129] 19th century historiography often presented the Scots Jacobites as driven by a romantic attachment to the House of Stuart, rather than as having a wide range of individual motivations. This suited a Victorian depiction of Highlanders as a "martial race", distinguished by a tradition of a "misplaced loyalism" since transferred to the British crown.[130] The participation of Lowland and north-eastern gentry in the movement was less emphasised, while the Irish Jacobites were presented as a largely negative influence on Charles in 1745. Walter Scott, author of Waverley, a story of the 1745 rebellion, combined romantic, nostalgic Jacobitism with an appreciation of the practical benefits of Union. In 1822 he arranged a pageantry of reinvented Scottish traditions for the visit of King George IV to Scotland when George IV visited Edinburgh as a successor to his distant relative Charles Stuart. The tartan pageantry was immensely popular, and Highland clothing, previously associated with rebellion and disorder became Scotland's National Dress. 1824 saw the restoration of some Jacobite titles and 1829 Catholic emancipation; with political Jacobitism now safely confined to an "earlier era", the hitherto largely ignored site of the final Jacobite defeat at Culloden began to be celebrated.[131] Many Jacobite folk songs emerged in Scotland in this period; a number of examples were collected by Scott's colleague James Hogg in his Jacobite Reliques, including several he likely composed himself. Nineteenth century Scots poets such as Alicia Spottiswoode and Carolina Nairne, Lady Nairne (whose "Bonnie Charlie" remains popular) added further examples. Relatively few of the surviving songs, however, actually date from the time of the risings; one of the best known is the Irish song Mo Ghile Mear, which although a more recent composition is based on the contemporary lyric Buan ar Buairt Gach Ló by Seán Clárach Mac Domhnaill. Neo-Jacobite revival[edit] Main article: Neo-Jacobite Revival There was a brief revival of political Jacobitism in the late 1880s and into the 1890s.[132] A number of Jacobite clubs and societies were formed, starting with the Order of the White Rose founded by Bertram Ashburnham in 1886.[citation needed] In 1890, Herbert Vivian and Ruaraidh Erskine co-founded a weekly newspaper, The Whirlwind, that espoused a Jacobite political view.[133] Vivian, Erskine and Melville Henry Massue formed the Legitimist Jacobite League of Great Britain and Ireland in 1891, which lasted for several years. Vivian went on to stand for Parliament four times on a Jacobite platform – though he failed to be elected each time.[134] The revival largely came to an end with the First World War and the various societies of the time are now represented by the Royal Stuart Society. In literature and popular culture[edit] Jacobitism has been a popular subject for historical novels, and for speculative and humorous fiction. The historical novels Waverley (1814) and Rob Roy (1817) by Sir Walter Scott focus on the first and second Jacobite rebellions. Kidnapped (1886) is a historical fiction adventure novel by the Scottish author Robert Louis Stevenson that features the intrigues of Jacobite troubles in Scotland. In the 1920s, D. K. Broster wrote the Jacobite Trilogy of novels featuring the dashing hero Ewen Cameron. Joan Aiken's Wolves Chronicles have as background an alternative history of England, in which King James III, a Stuart, is on the throne, and the Hanoverians plot to overthrow him. A fictional account is given of the Jacobite/Hanoverian conflict in The Long Shadow, The Chevalier and The Maiden, Volumes 6–8 of The Morland Dynasty, a series of historical novels by author Cynthia Harrod-Eagles. Insight is given through the eyes of the Morland family into the religious, political and emotional issues at the heart of the struggle. Corrag (also known as Witch Light) (2009) by Susan Fletcher centres on the Massacre of Glencoe. It offers the eyewitness account of Corrag, a reputed witch. The historical book series Outlander and its television adaptation. Claimants to the thrones of England, Scotland, Ireland and France[edit] Main article: Jacobite succession James II and VII (6 February 1685 – 16 September 1701). James III and VIII (16 September 1701 – 1 January 1766), James Francis Edward Stuart, also known as the Chevalier de St. George, the King over the Water, or the Old Pretender. (Son of James II) Charles III (31 December 1720 – 31 January 1788), Charles Edward Stuart, also known as Bonnie Prince Charlie, the Young Chevalier, or the Young Pretender. (Son of James III) Henry IX and I (6 March 1725 – 13 July 1807), Henry Benedict Stuart, also known as the Cardinal King. (Son of James III) Since Henry's death, none of the Jacobite heirs have claimed the English or Scottish thrones. Franz, Duke of Bavaria (born 1933), a direct descendant of Charles I, is the current legitimate heir of the house of Stuart. It has been suggested that a repeal of the Act of Settlement 1701 could allow him to claim the throne, although he has expressed no interest in doing so.[135] Footnotes[edit] ^ Summarised in a British intelligence report of 1755; "...'tis not in the interest of France the House of Stuart shoud ever be restored, as it would only unite the three Kingdoms against Them; England would have no exterior [threat] to mind, and [...] prevent any of its Descendants (the Stuarts) attempting anything against the Libertys or Religion of the People. 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Spectrum of Decadence: The Literature of the 1890s. Routledge. ^ "The Whirlwind". New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ^ "Stirling Burghs Vacancy". Dundee Evening Telegraph. 29 April 1908. ^ Richard Alleyne and Harry de Quetteville (7 April 2008). "Act repeal could make Franz Herzog von Bayern new King of England and Scotland". Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 19 May 2011. Sources[edit] Barnes, Robert P (1973). "James VII's Forfeiture of the Scottish Throne". Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies. 5 (4). doi:10.2307/4048254. JSTOR 4048254. Black, Jeremy (1999). From Louis XIV to Napoleon: The Fate of a Great Power. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-857-28934-3. Brown, Richard (2002). Church and State in Modern Britain 1700-1850. Routledge. Chambers, Liam (author), Binasco, Matteo (ed) (2018). Rome and The Irish Mission at home in Irish Catholicism in the Atlantic World, 1622–1908. Palgrave Press. ISBN 978-3319959740.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) Charteris, Evan (1907). A Short Account of the Affairs of Scotland. David Douglas, Edinburgh. Colley, Linda (1985). In Defiance of Oligarchy: The Tory Party 1714–60. Cambridge UP. Connolly, Sean (1992). Religion, Law and Power: Making of Protestant Ireland, 1660–1760. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0198201182. Connolly, Sean (2014). Patriotism and Nationalism in The Oxford Handbook of Modern Irish History. OUP. ISBN 978-0199549344. Connolly, Sean (2003). "Jacobites, Whiteboys and Republicans: Varieties of Disaffection in Eighteenth-Century Ireland". Eighteenth-Century Ireland / Iris an Dá Chultúr. 18. JSTOR 30070994. Corp, Edward (2011). The Stuarts in Italy, 1719–1766. Cambridge UP. Coward, Barry (1980). The Stuart Age 1603–1714. Longman. ISBN 978-0582488335. Cruikshanks, Lauchlin Alexander (2008). The Act of Union: Death or Reprieve for the Highlands?. Wesleyan University. OCLC 705142720. Doyle, Thomas (1997). "Jacobitism, Catholicism and the Irish Protestant Elite, 1700–1710". Eighteenth-Century Ireland / Iris an Dá Chultúr. 12: 28–59. JSTOR 30071383. Garnham, Neal (author), Clark, Peter (ed) (2002). Police & Public Order in 18th Century Dublin in Two Capitals: London and Dublin, 1500–1840. British Academy. ISBN 978-0197262474.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) Gibson, William (2012). The Church of England 1688-1832: Unity and Accord. Routledge. Gillen, Ultan (2016). Ascendency Ireland, 1660-1800 in Princeton History of Modern Ireland. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691154060. Graham, Brian (ed.) (2002). In Search of Ireland: A Cultural Geography. Taylor and Francis. ISBN 9781134749188.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) Hamilton, Henry (1963). An economic history of Scotland in the Eighteenth century. Clarendon Press. Harris, Tim (1993). Politics under the Later Stuarts: Party Conflict in a Divided Society, 1660–1715. Longman. ISBN 978-0582040823. Harris, Tim (2007). Revolution; the Great Crisis of the British Monarchy 1685–1720. Penguin. ISBN 978-0141016528. Harris, Tim (1993). "Party Turns? Or, Whigs and Tories Get Off Scott Free". Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies. 25 (4). JSTOR 4051311. Hayes, Richard (1949). "Ireland and Jacobitism". Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review. 38 (149). Jacob, Margaret C (1976). "Millenarianism and Science in the Late Seventeenth Century". Journal of the History of Ideas. 7 (32). JSTOR 2708829. James, Francis Godwin (1979). "The Church of Ireland in the Early 18th Century". Historical Magazine of the Protestant Episcopal Church. 48 (4). JSTOR 42973720. Kenyon, John (ed), Ohlmeyer, Jane (1998). The Civil Wars: A Military History of England, Scotland and Ireland, 1638–60. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198662228.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) Lenihan, Padraig (2008). Consolidating Conquest: Ireland 1603-1727 (2016 ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1138140639. Lenihan, Padraig (2001). Confederate Catholics at War 1641-1649. Cork University Press. ISBN 978-1859182444. Lenihan, Padraig (2001). Introduction; Conquest and Resistance: War in Seventeenth-Century Ireland. Brill. ISBN 978-9004117433. Lenihan, Padraig (2014). The Last Cavalier: Richard Talbot (1631-91). University College Dublin Press. ISBN 978-1906359836. Lenman, Bruce (1980). The Jacobite Risings in Britain 1689–1746. Methuen Publishing. ISBN 978-0413396501. Lord, Evelyn (2004). The Stuart Secret Army: The Hidden History of the English Jacobites. Pearson. ISBN 978-0582772564. Macinnes, Allan (2007). "Jacobitism in Scotland: Episodic Cause or National Movement?". Scottish Historical Review. 86 (222). Manganiello, Stephen (2004). The Concise Encyclopedia of the Revolutions and Wars of England, Scotland, and Ireland, 1639–1660. Scarecrow Press. McCann, Jean E (1963). The Organisation of the Jacobite Army. PHD thesis Edinburgh University. hdl:1842/9381. OCLC 646764870. McCormick, Ted (2014). Restoration Ireland, 1660–1688; in The Oxford Handbook of Modern Irish History. OUP. ISBN 978-0198768210. McGrath, Charles Ivar (1996). "Securing the Protestant Interest: The Origins and Purpose of the Penal Laws of 1695". Irish Historical Studies. 30 (117): 25–46. doi:10.1017/S0021121400012566. hdl:10197/9696. JSTOR 30008727. McKay, Derek (1983). The Rise of the Great Powers 1648–1815. Routledge. ISBN 978-0582485549. McLynn, Frank (1982). "Issues and Motives in the Jacobite Rising of 1745". The Eighteenth Century. 23 (2): 97–133. JSTOR 41467263. McLynn, Frank (1985). The Jacobites. Routledge. Miller, John (1978). James II; A study in kingship. Menthuen. ISBN 978-0413652904. Mitchell, Albert (1937). "The Non-Jurors; 1688-1805". The Churchman. 51 (2). Monod, Paul (1993). Jacobitism and the English People, 1688-1788. Cambridge UP. ISBN 9780521447935. Moody; Martin; Byrne (eds.) (2009). A New History of Ireland: Volume III: Early Modern Ireland 1534-1691. OUP. ISBN 9780198202424.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) Morley, Vincent (2007). "The Continuity of Disaffection in Eighteenth-Century Ireland". Eighteenth-Century Ireland / Iris an Dá Chultúr. 22. Morely, Vincent (2016). The Irish Language in Princeton History of Modern Ireland. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691154060. Ó Ciardha, Eamonn (2000). Ireland and the Jacobite Cause, 1685-1766: A Fatal Attachment. Four Courts Press. ISBN 978-1851825349. Oates, Jonathan (2016). The Last Battle on English Soil, Preston 1715. Routledge. Overton, JH (2018). The Nonjurors: Their Lives, Principles, and Writings (2018 ed.). Wentworth Press. ISBN 978-0530237336. Parrish, David (2017). Jacobitism and Anti-Jacobitism in the British Atlantic World, 1688–1727. Royal Historical Society. ISBN 978-0861933419. Parker, Geoffrey (2002). Empire, War and Faith in Early Modern Europe (2003 ed.). Penguin. ISBN 978-0140297898. Pittock, Murray (1998). Jacobitism. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0333667989. Pittock, Murray (1997). Inventing and Resisting Britain. Palgrave Macmillan. Pittock, Murray (1995). The Myths of the Jacobite Clans. Edinburgh University Press. Plank, Geoffrey (2005). Rebellion and Savagery: The Jacobite Rising of 1745 and the British Empire. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0812238983. Riding, Jacqueline (2016). Jacobites: A New History of the 45 Rebellion. Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1408819128. Rogers, Nicholas (1998). Crowds, Culture, and Politics in Georgian Britain. Oxford UP. Rogers, Nicholas (1982). Riot and Popular Jacobitism in Early Hanoverian England, in Ideology and conspiracy: aspects of Jacobitism, 1689–1759. John Donald Publishers Ltd. ISBN 978-0859760843. Ryan, Conor (1975). "Religion and State in Seventeenth-Century Ireland". Archivium Hibernicum. 33. doi:10.2307/25487416. Shaw, John S. (1999). The Political History of Eighteenth-Century Scotland. Macmillan. Smith, Hannah (2013). Georgian Monarchy: Politics and Culture, 1714–60. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521828765. Somerset, Anne (2012). Queen Anne; the Politics of Passion. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0007203765. Spielvogel, Jackson J (1980). Western Civilization. Wadsworth Publishing. ISBN 1285436407. Stephen, Jeffrey (January 2010). "Scottish Nationalism and Stuart Unionism". Journal of British Studies. 49 (1, Scottish Special). Szechi, Daniel (1994). The Jacobites: Britain and Europe, 1688–1788 (First ed.). Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0719037740. Szechi, Daniel; Sankey, Margaret (November 2001). "Elite Culture and the Decline of Scottish Jacobitism 1716–1745". Past & Present. 173 (173). doi:10.1093/past/173.1.90. JSTOR 3600841. Wills, Rebecca (2001). The Jacobites and Russia, 1715-1750. Tuckwell Press Ltd. ISBN 978-1862321427. Worden, Blair (2010). "Oliver Cromwell and the Protectorate". Transactions of the Royal Historical Society. 20 (6). JSTOR 41432386. Yates, Nigel (2014). Eighteenth Century Britain: Religion and Politics 1714–1815. Routledge. External links[edit] BBC-Interactive Timeline of British History General History of the Highlands The University of Guelph Library, Archival and Special Collections, has more than 500 Jacobite pamphlets, histories, and literature in its rare books section introduced at https://web.archive.org/web/20100106050248/http://www.lib.uoguelph.ca/resources/archival_%26_special_collections/the_collections/digital_collections/scottish/Jacobite_site_0.htm Ascanius; or, the Young Adventurer v t e Jacobitism Scottish clans Clan chief Independent Highland Companies The Highlands Union of the Crowns Wars of the Three Kingdoms Restoration Covenanters The Killing Time James II & VII Glorious Revolution William III & II and Mary II Jacobite succession "James III & VIII", The Old Pretender "Charles III", The Young Pretender Queen Anne Act of Settlement 1701 Sophie, Electress of Hanover George I George II Toryism Neo-Jacobite Revival (Royal Stuart Society) Jacobite risings First rising (1689) Williamite War in Ireland Nine Years' War King William's War Viscount Dundee Patrick Sarsfield General Hugh Mackay Battle of Killiecrankie Battle of Dunkeld Massacre of Glencoe Battle of the Boyne Declaration of Finglas Battle of Aughrim Siege of Limerick Treaty of Limerick The Fifteen (1715) …in Cornwall …in England 1715 general election Earl of Mar Rob Roy Lord Lovat Baronet Munro Battle of Preston Siege of Inverness Battle of Sheriffmuir The Nineteen (1719) War of the Quadruple Alliance Earl Marischal Marquess of Tullibardine General Joseph Wightman Anglo-French Alliance Capture of Eilean Donan Castle Battle of Glen Shiel Battle of Coille Bhan The Forty-Five (1745) War of the Austrian Succession Lord George Murray Duke of Cumberland Battle of Prestonpans Siege of Carlisle Battle of Falkirk Muir Siege of Inverness Battle of Culloden Raids on Lochaber and Shiramore Abortive 1708 1744 1759 Personal standard of Charles Edward Stuart. 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en-wikipedia-org-7356	----	Military tribune - Wikipedia Military tribune From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Part of a series on the Military of ancient Rome 753 BC – AD 476 Structural history Army Unit types and ranks Decorations and punishments Legions Auxilia Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Campaign history Wars and battles Technological history Military engineering Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Political history   Strategy and tactics Infantry tactics Frontiers and fortifications Limes Limes Britannicus Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Limes Germanicus Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes Norican Limes Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannonian Limes Limes Alutanus Limes Moesiae Trajan's Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmatiae Limes Arabicus Limes Tripolitanus Limes Mauretaniae  Ancient Rome portal •  War portal v t e A military tribune (Latin tribunus militum, "tribune of the soldiers", Greek chiliarchos, χιλίαρχος) was an officer of the Roman army who ranked below the legate and above the centurion. Young men of Equestrian rank often served as military tribune as a stepping stone to the Senate.[1] The tribunus militum should not be confused with the elected political office of tribune of the people (tribunus plebis) nor with that of tribunus militum consulari potestate. Contents 1 Early Rome 2 Republican period 3 After the Marian reforms 4 Principate 5 See also 6 References Early Rome[edit] The word tribunus derives from tribus, "tribe".[2] In Rome's earliest history, each of the three tribes (Ramnes, Luceres, and Tities) sent one commander when an army was mustered,[3] since there was no standing army. The tribunes were commanders of the original legion of 3,000. By the time of the Greek historian Polybius (d. 118 BC), the tribunes numbered six, and they were appointed by the consuls.[4] However, the process by which tribunes were chosen and assigned is complex and varies at different times. Republican period[edit] In the Republican period, there were six appointed to each legion. Authority was given to two at a time, and command rotated among the six. Tribunes were men of Senatorial status appointed by the Senate. To attain the position of tribune, one only needed to be a member of the ruling class. By 311 BC the people acquired the right to elect sixteen tribunes of the soldiers, that is, four out of the six tribunes assigned to each of the four legions that formed the Roman Army. Previously these places had been for the most part in the gift of consuls or dictators.[5] Additionally, in the early Republic, another type of military tribune was sometimes chosen in place of the annually elected consuls to be the heads of the Roman State. These are known in Latin as tribuni militum consulari potestate, "Military Tribunes with Consular Authority". At the time only Patricians could be chosen as Consuls, but both Patricians and Plebeians could be elected as tribunes with consular authority. Instead of the usual two consuls, between four and six military tribunes were elected for the year. The reasons for this choice are obscure, though Livy often cast the decision according to the class struggles he saw as endemic during this period, with patricians generally favoring consuls and plebs the military tribunes. The office of "consular tribune" eventually fell out of use after 366 BC. After the Marian reforms[edit] After the Marian reforms of 107 BC (subsequently further formalised by the emperor Claudius) created a professionalized military system, legions were commanded by a legionary legate (legatus). Six tribunes were still posted to a legion, but their duties and responsibilities had changed, becoming more a political position than a military rank. The second-in-command to the legate was the tribunus laticlavius or 'broad-stripe' tribune (named after the width of the stripe used to demarcate him on his tunic and toga),[6] usually a young man of Senatorial rank. He was given this position to learn and watch the actions of the legate. They often found themselves leading their unit in the absence of a legate, and some legions were permanently commanded by a broad-stripe tribune, such as those stationed in Egypt, as an Augustan law required that no member of the Senatorial Order ever enter Egypt.[7] In contrast to the broad-stripe tribune, the other five 'thin stripe' tribunes were lower in rank, and were called the tribuni angusticlavii. These 'officer cadets'[6] were men of equestrian rank who had military experience, and yet had no authority: they were allowed to sit on a court martial but they held no power in battle. Most thin-stripe tribunes served the legionary legate, yet a lucky few (such as Agricola) were selected to serve on the staff of the provincial governor.[8] According to Tacitus, they did not always take their appointment as seriously as they might, contrasting Agricola's tribuneship to his peers by saying "[Agricola did not], like many young men who convert military service into wanton pastime, avail himself licentiously or slothfully of his tribunitial title, or use his inexperience to spend his time in pleasures and absences from duty".[8] Principate[edit] Further information: Tres militiae Under Augustus, the five equestrian tribunes were sometimes promoted from the rank of centurion, and might advance to a command in the auxiliary cavalry or Praetorian Guard. See also[edit] Tribune List of Roman tribunes Tribunus militum consulari potestate Subrius Flavus References[edit] ^ Dio, LXVII, 2. ^ Entry on tribunus, Oxford Latin Dictionary (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982, 1985 reprinting), p. 1972. ^ Varro, De lingua latina 5.80. ^ Polybius, 6.12.6. ^ Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita Libri IX, 29, with translation and notes by B. O. Foster, Loeb Classical Library, ISBN 0-674-99210-5 ^ a b Dando-Collins 2010, p. 42. sfn error: no target: CITEREFDando-Collins2010 (help) ^ Dando-Collins 2010, p. 40. sfn error: no target: CITEREFDando-Collins2010 (help) ^ a b Agricola, Tacitus, 5 v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs 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4169973-7 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Military_tribune&oldid=975210455" Categories: Military ranks of ancient Rome Ancient Roman titles Cursus honorum Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Беларуская Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Lietuvių Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 27 August 2020, at 11:17 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7358	----	Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire - Wikipedia Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the historiography of the decline of the Roman Empire. For a description of events, see fall of the Western Roman Empire. For the historical era in general, see Late antiquity. For the book by Edward Gibbon, see The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. The Western and Eastern Roman Empires by 476 CE The causes and mechanisms of the fall of the Western Roman Empire are a historical theme that was introduced by historian Edward Gibbon in his 1776 book The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. He started an ongoing historiographical discussion about what caused the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, and the reduced power of the remaining Eastern Empire, in the 4th–5th centuries. Gibbon was not the first to speculate on why the Empire collapsed, but he was the first to give a well-researched and well-referenced account. Many theories of causality have been explored. In 1984, Alexander Demandt enumerated 210 different theories on why Rome fell, and new theories emerged thereafter.[1][2] Gibbon himself explored ideas of internal decline (the disintegration of political, economic, military, and other social institutions, civil wars) and of attacks from outside the Empire. "From the eighteenth century onward," historian Glen Bowersock wrote, "we have been obsessed with the fall: it has been valued as an archetype for every perceived decline, and, hence, as a symbol for our own fears."[3] Contents 1 Overview of historiography 2 Overview of events 2.1 Highlights 3 Theories and explanations of a fall 3.1 Decay owing to general malaise 3.1.1 Edward Gibbon 3.1.2 Vegetius on military decline 3.1.3 Arnold J. Toynbee and James Burke 3.1.4 Michael Rostovtzeff, Ludwig von Mises, and Bruce Bartlett 3.1.5 Joseph Tainter 3.1.6 Adrian Goldsworthy 3.2 Monocausal decay 3.2.1 Disease 3.2.2 Environmental degradation 3.2.3 Lead poisoning 3.2.3.1 Criticism of lead poisoning theory 3.3 Catastrophic collapse 3.3.1 J. B. Bury 3.3.2 Peter Heather 3.3.3 Bryan Ward-Perkins 3.4 Transformation 3.4.1 Henri Pirenne 3.4.2 Lucien Musset and the clash of civilizations 3.4.3 Late Antiquity 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 Further reading 7.1 Foreign language 8 External links Overview of historiography Historiographically, the primary issue historians have looked at when analyzing any theory is the continued existence of the Eastern Empire or Byzantine Empire, which lasted almost a thousand years after the fall of the West. For example, Gibbon implicates Christianity in the fall of the Western Empire, yet the eastern half of the Empire, which was even more Christian than the west in geographic extent, fervor, penetration and vast numbers continued on for a thousand years afterwards (although Gibbon did not consider the Eastern Empire to be much of a success). As another example, environmental or weather changes affected the east as much as the west, yet the east did not "fall." Theories will sometimes reflect the particular concerns that historians might have on cultural, political, or economic trends in their own times. Gibbon's criticism of Christianity reflects the values of the Enlightenment; his ideas on the decline in martial vigor could have been interpreted by some as a warning to the growing British Empire. In the 19th century socialist and anti-socialist theorists tended to blame decadence and other political problems. More recently, environmental concerns have become popular, with deforestation and soil erosion proposed as major factors, and destabilizing population decreases due to epidemics such as early cases of bubonic plague and malaria also cited. Global climate changes of 535–536, perhaps caused by the possible eruption of Krakatoa in 535, as mentioned by David Keys and others,[4] is another example. Ideas about transformation with no distinct fall mirror the rise of the postmodern tradition, which rejects periodization concepts (see metanarrative). What is not new are attempts to diagnose Rome's particular problems, with Satire X, written by Juvenal in the early 2nd century at the height of Roman power, criticizing the peoples' obsession with "bread and circuses" and rulers seeking only to gratify these obsessions. One of the primary reasons for the vast number of theories is the notable lack of surviving evidence from the 4th and 5th centuries. For example, there are so few records of an economic nature it is difficult to arrive at even a generalization of the economic conditions. Thus, historians must quickly depart from available evidence and comment based on how things ought to have worked, or based on evidence from previous and later periods, on inductive reasoning. As in any field where available evidence is sparse, the historian's ability to imagine the 4th and 5th centuries will play as important a part in shaping our understanding as the available evidence, and thus be open for endless interpretation. The end of the Western Roman Empire traditionally has been seen by historians to mark the end of the Ancient Era and beginning of the Middle Ages. More recent schools of history, such as Late Antiquity, offer a more nuanced view from the traditional historical narrative. There is no consensus on a date for the start of the Decline. Gibbon started his account in 98.[citation needed] The year 376 is taken as pivotal by many modern historians.[citation needed] In that year there was an unmanageable influx of Goths and other Barbarians into the Balkan provinces, and the situation of the Western Empire generally worsened thereafter, with recoveries being incomplete and temporary. Significant events include the Battle of Adrianople in 378, the death of Theodosius I in 395 (the last time the Roman Empire was politically unified), the crossing of the Rhine in 406 by Germanic tribes, the execution of Stilicho in 408, the sack of Rome in 410, the death of Constantius III in 421, the death of Aetius in 454, and the second sack of Rome in 455, with the death of Majorian in 461 marking the end of the last opportunity for recovery. Gibbon took September 4, 476 as a convenient marker for the final dissolution of the Western Roman Empire, when Romulus Augustus, the last Emperor of the Western Roman Empire, was deposed by Odoacer, a Germanic chieftain. Some modern historians question the significance of the year 476 for its end.[5] Julius Nepos, the Western emperor recognized by the Eastern Roman Empire, continued to rule in Dalmatia, until he was assassinated in 480. The Ostrogothic rulers of Italia considered themselves upholders of the direct line of Roman tradition, and the Eastern emperors considered themselves the sole rightful Roman rulers of a united empire.[citation needed] Roman cultural traditions continued throughout the territory of the Western Empire, and a recent school of interpretation argues that the great political changes can more accurately be described as a complex cultural transformation, rather than a fall.[6] Overview of events See also: Late Antiquity, Migration Period, and Fall of the Western Roman Empire Romulus Augustus was deposed as Western Roman Emperor in 476 while still young. However, Julius Nepos continued to claim the title of Western Emperor after his deposition. The decline of the Roman Empire is one of the traditional markers of the end of Classical Antiquity and the beginning of the European Middle Ages. Throughout the 5th century, the Empire's territories in western Europe and northwestern Africa, including Italy, fell to various invading or indigenous peoples in what is sometimes called the Migration period. Although the eastern half still survived with borders essentially intact for several centuries (until the Muslim conquests), the Empire as a whole had initiated major cultural and political transformations since the Crisis of the Third Century, with the shift towards a more openly autocratic and ritualized form of government, the adoption of Christianity as the state religion, and a general rejection of the traditions and values of Classical Antiquity. While traditional historiography emphasized this break with Antiquity by using the term "Byzantine Empire" instead of Roman Empire, recent schools of history offer a more nuanced view, seeing mostly continuity rather than a sharp break. The Empire of Late Antiquity already looked very different from classical Rome. The Roman Empire emerged from the Roman Republic when Julius Caesar and Augustus Caesar transformed it from a republic into a monarchy. Rome reached its zenith in the 2nd century, then fortunes slowly declined (with many revivals and restorations along the way). The reasons for the decline of the Empire are still debated today, and are likely multiple. Historians infer that the population appears to have diminished in many provinces—especially western Europe—from the diminishing size of fortifications built to protect the cities from barbarian incursions from the 3rd century on. Some historians even have suggested that parts of the periphery were no longer inhabited because these fortifications were restricted to the center of the city only. Tree rings suggest "distinct drying" beginning in 250.[7] By the late 3rd century, the city of Rome no longer served as an effective capital for the Emperor and various cities were used as new administrative capitals. Successive emperors, starting with Constantine, privileged the eastern city of Byzantium, which he had entirely rebuilt after a siege. Later renamed Constantinople, and protected by formidable walls in the late 4th and early 5th centuries, it was to become the largest and most powerful city of Christian Europe in the Early Middle Ages. Since the Crisis of the Third Century, the Empire was intermittently ruled by more than one emperor at once (usually two), presiding over different regions. At first a haphazard form of power sharing, this eventually settled on an east–west administrative division between the Western Roman Empire (centered on Rome, but now usually presided from other seats of power such as Trier, Milan, and especially Ravenna), and the Eastern Roman Empire (with its capital initially in Nicomedia, and later Constantinople). The Latin-speaking west, under dreadful demographic crisis, and the wealthier[citation needed] Greek-speaking east, also began to diverge politically and culturally. Although this was a gradual process, still incomplete when Italy came under the rule of barbarian chieftains in the last quarter of the 5th century, it deepened further afterward, and had lasting consequences for the medieval history of Europe. Throughout the 5th century, Western emperors were usually figureheads, while the Eastern emperors maintained more independence. For most of the time, the actual rulers in the West were military strongmen who took the titles of magister militum, patrician, or both, such as Stilicho, Aetius, and Ricimer. Although Rome was no longer the capital in the West, it remained the West's largest city and its economic center. But the city was sacked by rebellious Visigoths in 410 and by the Vandals in 455, events that shocked contemporaries and signaled the disintegration of Roman authority. Saint Augustine wrote The City of God partly as an answer to critics who blamed the sack of Rome by the Visigoths on the abandonment of the traditional pagan religions. In June 474, Julius Nepos became Western Emperor but in the next year the magister militum Orestes revolted and made his son Romulus Augustus emperor. Romulus, however, was not recognized by the Eastern Emperor Zeno and so was technically an usurper, Nepos still being the legal Western Emperor. Nevertheless, Romulus Augustus is often known as the last Western Roman Emperor. In 476, after being refused lands in Italy, Orestes' Germanic mercenaries under the leadership of the chieftain Odoacer captured and executed Orestes and took Ravenna, the Western Roman capital at the time, deposing Romulus Augustus. The whole of Italy was quickly conquered, and Odoacer was granted the title of patrician by Zeno, effectively recognizing his rule in the name of the Eastern Empire. Odoacer returned the Imperial insignia to Constantinople and ruled as King in Italy. Following Nepos' death Theodoric the Great, King of the Ostrogoths, conquered Italy with Zeno's approval. Meanwhile, much of the rest of the Western provinces were conquered by waves of Germanic invasions, most of them being disconnected politically from the East altogether and continuing a slow decline. Although Roman political authority in the West was lost, Roman culture would last in most parts of the former Western provinces into the 6th century and beyond. The first invasions disrupted the West to some degree, but it was the Gothic War launched by the Eastern Emperor Justinian in the 6th century, and meant to reunite the Empire, that eventually caused the most damage to Italy, as well as straining the Eastern Empire militarily. Following these wars, Rome and other Italian cities would fall into severe decline (Rome itself was almost completely abandoned). Another blow came with the Persian invasion of the East in the 7th century, immediately followed by the Muslim conquests, especially of Egypt, which curtailed much of the key trade in the Mediterranean on which Europe depended. The Empire was to live on in the East for many centuries, and enjoy periods of recovery and cultural brilliance, but its size would remain a fraction of what it had been in classical times. It became an essentially regional power, centered on Greece and Anatolia. Modern historians tend to prefer the term Byzantine Empire for the eastern, medieval stage of the Roman Empire. Highlights See also: Fall of the Western Roman Empire The decline of the Western Roman Empire was a process spanning many centuries; there is no consensus when it might have begun but many dates and time lines have been proposed by historians. 3rd century The Crisis of the Third Century (234–284), a period of political instability. The reign of Emperor Diocletian (284–305), who attempted substantial political and economic reforms, many of which would remain in force in the following centuries. 4th century The reign of Constantine I (306–337), who built the new eastern capital of Constantinople and converted to Christianity, legalizing and even favoring to some extent this religion. All Roman emperors after Constantine, except for Julian, would be Christians. The first war with the Visigoths (376–382), culminating in the Battle of Adrianople (August 9, 378), in which a large Roman army was defeated by the Visigoths, and Emperor Valens was killed. The Visigoths, fleeing a migration of the Huns, had been allowed to settle within the borders of the Empire by Valens, but were mistreated by the local Roman administrators, and rebelled. The reign of Theodosius I (379–395), last emperor to reunite under his authority the western and eastern halves of the Empire. Theodosius continued and intensified the policies against paganism of his predecessors, eventually outlawing it, and making Nicaean Christianity the state religion. 5th century The Crossing of the Rhine: on December 31, 406 (or 405, according to some historians), a mixed band of Vandals, Suebi and Alans crossed the frozen river Rhine at Moguntiacum (modern Mainz), and began to ravage Gaul. Some moved on to the regions of Hispania and Africa. The Empire would never regain control over most of these lands. The second war with the Visigoths, led by king Alaric, in which they raided Greece, and then invaded Italy, culminating in the sack of Rome (410). The Visigoths eventually left Italy and founded the Visigothic Kingdom in southern Gaul and Hispania. The rise of the Hunnic Empire under Attila and Bleda (434–453), who raided the Balkans, Gaul, and Italy, threatening both Constantinople and Rome. The second sack of Rome, this time by the Vandals (455). Failed counterstrikes against the Vandals (461–468). The Western Emperor Majorian planned a naval campaign against the Vandals to reconquer northern Africa in 461, but word of the preparations got out to the Vandals, who took the Roman fleet by surprise and destroyed it. A second naval expedition against the Vandals, sent by Emperors Leo I and Anthemius, was defeated at Cape Bon in 468. Europe in 476, from Muir's Historical Atlas (1911) Deposition of the last Western Emperors, Julius Nepos and Romulus Augustus (475–480). Julius Nepos, who had been nominated by the Eastern Emperor Zeno, was deposed by the rebelled magister militum Orestes, who installed his own son Romulus in the imperial throne. Both Zeno and his rival Basiliscus, in the East, continued to regard Julius Nepos, who fled to Dalmatia, as the legitimate Western Emperor, and Romulus as an usurper. Shortly after, Odoacer, magister militum appointed by Julius, invaded Italy, defeated Orestes, and deposed Romulus Augustus on September 4, 476. Odoacer then proclaimed himself ruler of Italy and asked the Eastern Emperor Zeno to become formal Emperor of both empires, and in so doing legalize Odoacer's own position as Imperial viceroy of Italy. Zeno did so, setting aside the claims of Nepos, who was murdered by his own soldiers in 480. Foundation of the Ostrogothic Kingdom in Italy (493). Concerned with the success and popularity of Odoacer, Zeno started a campaign against him, at first with words, then by inciting the Ostrogoths to take back Italy from him. They did as much, but then founded an independent kingdom of their own, under the rule of king Theodoric. Italy and the entire West were lost to the Empire. Theories and explanations of a fall The various theories and explanations for the fall of the Roman Empire in the West may be very broadly classified into four schools of thought, although the classification is not without overlap: Decay owing to general malaise Monocausal decay Catastrophic collapse Transformation The tradition positing general malaise goes back to Edward Gibbon who argued that the edifice of the Roman Empire had been built on unsound foundations to begin with. According to Gibbon, the fall was - in the final analysis - inevitable. On the other hand, Gibbon had assigned a major portion of the responsibility for the decay to the influence of Christianity, and is often, though perhaps unjustly, seen as the founding father of the school of monocausal explanation. On the other hand, the school of catastrophic collapse holds that the fall of the Empire had not been a pre-determined event and need not be taken for granted. Rather, it was due to the combined effect of a number of adverse processes, many of them set in motion by the Migration of the Peoples, that together applied too much stress to the Empire's basically sound structure. Finally, the transformation school challenges the whole notion of the 'fall' of the Empire, asking to distinguish between the fall into disuse of a particular political dispensation, anyway unworkable towards its end, and the fate of the Roman civilisation which under-girded the Empire. According to this school, drawing its basic premise from the Pirenne thesis, the Roman world underwent a gradual (though often violent) series of transformations, morphing into the medieval world. The historians belonging to this school often prefer to speak of Late Antiquity instead of the Fall of the Roman Empire. Decay owing to general malaise Edward Gibbon In The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776–88), Edward Gibbon famously placed the blame on a loss of civic virtue among the Roman citizens. They gradually entrusted the role of defending the Empire to barbarian mercenaries who eventually turned on them. Gibbon held that Christianity contributed to this shift by making the populace less interested in the worldly here-and-now because it was willing to wait for the rewards of heaven. The decline of Rome was the natural and inevitable effect of immoderate greatness. Prosperity ripened the principle of decay; the causes of destruction multiplied with the extent of conquest; and as soon as time or accident had removed the artificial supports, the stupendous fabric yielded to the pressure of its own weight. In discussing Barbarism and Christianity I have actually been discussing the Fall of Rome. Vegetius on military decline Writing in the 5th century, the Roman historian Vegetius pleaded for reform of what must have been a greatly weakened army. The historian Arther Ferrill has suggested that the Roman Empire – particularly the military – declined largely as a result of an influx of Germanic mercenaries into the ranks of the legions. This "Germanization" and the resultant cultural dilution or "barbarization" led not only to a decline in the standard of drill and overall military preparedness within the Empire, but also to a decline of loyalty to the Roman government in favor of loyalty to commanders. Ferrill agrees with other Roman historians such as A.H.M. Jones: ...the decay of trade and industry was not a cause of Rome’s fall. There was a decline in agriculture and land was withdrawn from cultivation, in some cases on a very large scale, sometimes as a direct result of barbarian invasions. However, the chief cause of the agricultural decline was high taxation on the marginal land, driving it out of cultivation. Jones is surely right in saying that taxation was spurred by the huge military budget and was thus ‘indirectly’ the result of the barbarian invasion.[8] Arnold J. Toynbee and James Burke In contrast with the declining empire theories, historians such as Arnold J. Toynbee and James Burke argue that the Roman Empire itself was a rotten system from its inception, and that the entire Imperial era was one of steady decay of institutions founded in Republican times. In their view, the Empire could never have lasted longer than it did without radical reforms that no Emperor could implement. The Romans had no budgetary system and thus wasted whatever resources they had available. The economy of the Empire was a Raubwirtschaft or plunder economy based on looting existing resources rather than producing anything new. The Empire relied on riches from conquered territories (this source of revenue ending, of course, with the end of Roman territorial expansion) or on a pattern of tax collection that drove small-scale farmers into destitution (and onto a dole that required even more exactions upon those who could not escape taxation), or into dependency upon a landed élite exempt from taxation. With the cessation of tribute from conquered territories, the full cost of their military machine had to be borne by the citizenry. An economy based upon slave labor precluded a middle class with buying power. The Roman Empire produced few exportable goods. Material innovation, whether through entrepreneurialism or technological advancement, all but ended long before the final dissolution of the Empire. Meanwhile, the costs of military defense and the pomp of Emperors continued. Financial needs continued to increase, but the means of meeting them steadily eroded. In the end, due to economic failure, even the armor and weaponry of soldiers became so obsolete that the enemies of the Empire had better armor and weapons as well as larger forces. The decrepit social order offered so little to its subjects that many saw the barbarian invasion as liberation from onerous obligations to the ruling class. By the late 5th century the barbarian conqueror Odoacer had no use for the formality of an Empire upon deposing Romulus Augustus and chose neither to assume the title of Emperor himself nor to select a puppet, although legally he kept the lands as a commander of the Eastern Empire and maintained the Roman institutions such as the consulship. The formal end of the Roman Empire on the West in AD 476 thus corresponds with the time in which the Empire and the title Emperor no longer had value. Michael Rostovtzeff, Ludwig von Mises, and Bruce Bartlett Historian Michael Rostovtzeff and economist Ludwig von Mises both argued that unsound economic policies played a key role in the impoverishment and decay of the Roman Empire. According to them, by the 2nd century AD, the Roman Empire had developed a complex market economy in which trade was relatively free. Tariffs were low and laws controlling the prices of foodstuffs and other commodities had little impact because they did not fix the prices significantly below their market levels. After the 3rd century, however, debasement of the currency (i.e., the minting of coins with diminishing content of gold, silver, and bronze) led to inflation. The price control laws then resulted in prices that were significantly below their free-market equilibrium levels. It should, however, be noted that Constantine initiated a successful reform of the currency which was completed before the barbarian invasions of the 4th century, and that thereafter the currency remained sound everywhere that remained within the empire until at least the 11th century - at any rate for gold coins. According to Rostovtzeff and Mises, artificially low prices led to the scarcity of foodstuffs, particularly in cities, whose inhabitants depended on trade to obtain them. Despite laws passed to prevent migration from the cities to the countryside, urban areas gradually became depopulated and many Roman citizens abandoned their specialized trades to practice subsistence agriculture. This, coupled with increasingly oppressive and arbitrary taxation, led to a severe net decrease in trade, technical innovation, and the overall wealth of the Empire.[9] Bruce Bartlett traces the beginning of debasement to the reign of Nero. He claims that the emperors increasingly relied on the army as the sole source of their power, and therefore their economic policy was driven more and more by a desire to increase military funding in order to buy the army's loyalty. By the 3rd century, according to Bartlett, the monetary economy had collapsed. But the imperial government was now in a position where it had to satisfy the demands of the army at all costs. Failure to do so would result in the army forcibly deposing the emperor and installing a new one. Therefore, being unable to increase monetary taxes, the Roman Empire had to resort to direct requisitioning of physical goods anywhere it could find them - for example taking food and cattle from farmers. The result, in Bartlett's view, was social chaos, and this led to different responses from the authorities and from the common people. The authorities tried to restore order by requiring free people (i.e. non-slaves) to remain in the same occupation or even at the same place of employment. Eventually, this practice was extended to force children to follow the same occupation as their parents. So, for instance, farmers were tied to the land, and the sons of soldiers had to become soldiers themselves. Many common people reacted by moving to the countryside, sometimes joining the estates of the wealthy, and in general trying to be self-sufficient and interact as little as possible with the imperial authorities. Thus, according to Bartlett, Roman society began to dissolve into a number of separate estates that operated as closed systems, provided for all their own needs and did not engage in trade at all. These were the beginnings of feudalism.[10] Joseph Tainter In his 1988 book The Collapse of Complex Societies, American anthropologist Tainter presents the view that for given technological levels there are implicit declining returns to complexity, in which systems deplete their resource base beyond levels that are ultimately sustainable. Tainter argues that societies become more complex as they try to solve problems. Social complexity can include differentiated social and economic roles, reliance on symbolic and abstract communication, and the existence of a class of information producers and analysts who are not involved in primary resource production. Such complexity requires a substantial "energy" subsidy (meaning resources, or other forms of wealth). When a society confronts a "problem", such as a shortage of or difficulty in gaining access to energy, it tends to create new layers of bureaucracy, infrastructure, or social class to address the challenge. For example, as Roman agricultural output slowly declined and population increased, per-capita energy availability dropped. The Romans solved this problem in the short term by conquering their neighbours to appropriate their energy surpluses (metals, grain, slaves, etc.). However, this solution merely exacerbated the issue over the long term; as the Empire grew, the cost of maintaining communications, garrisons, civil government, etc., increased. Eventually, this cost grew so great that any new challenges such as invasions and crop failures could not be solved by the acquisition of more territory. At that point, the Empire fragmented into smaller units. We often assume that the collapse of the Roman Empire was a catastrophe for everyone involved. Tainter points out that it can be seen as a very rational preference of individuals at the time, many of whom were better off (all but the elite, presumably.) Archeological evidence from human bones indicates that average nutrition improved after the collapse in many parts of the former Roman Empire. Average individuals may have benefited because they no longer had to invest in the burdensome complexity of empire. In Tainter's view, while invasions, crop failures, disease or environmental degradation may be the apparent causes of societal collapse, the ultimate cause is diminishing returns on investments in social complexity.[11] Adrian Goldsworthy In The Complete Roman Army (2003) Adrian Goldsworthy, a British military historian, sees the causes of the collapse of the Roman Empire not in any 'decadence' in the make-up of the Roman legions, but in a combination of endless civil wars between factions of the Roman Army fighting for control of the Empire. This inevitably weakened the army and the society upon which it depended, making it less able to defend itself against the growing numbers of Rome's enemies. The army still remained a superior fighting instrument to its opponents, both civilized and barbarian; this is shown in the victories over Germanic tribes at the Battle of Strasbourg (357) and in its ability to hold the line against the Sassanid Persians throughout the 4th century. But, says Goldsworthy, "Weakening central authority, social and economic problems and, most of all, the continuing grind of civil wars eroded the political capacity to maintain the army at this level."[12] Goldsworthy set out in greater detail his theory that recurring civil wars during the late fourth and early fifth centuries contributed to the fall of the West Roman Empire (395-476), in his book The Fall of the West: The Slow Death of the Roman Superpower (2009). Monocausal decay Disease William H. McNeill, a world historian, noted in chapter three of his book Plagues and Peoples (1976) that the Roman Empire suffered the severe and protracted Antonine Plague starting around 165 AD. For about twenty years, waves of one or more diseases, possibly the first epidemics of smallpox and measles, swept through the Empire, ultimately killing about half the population. Similar epidemics, such as the Plague of Cyprian, also occurred in the 3rd century. McNeill argues that the severe fall in population left the state apparatus and army too large for the population to support, leading to further economic and social decline that eventually killed the Western Empire. The Eastern half survived due to its larger population, which even after the plagues was sufficient for an effective state apparatus. Archaeology has revealed that from the 2nd century onward, the inhabited area in most Roman towns and cities grew smaller and smaller. Imperial laws concerning "agri deserti", or deserted lands, became increasingly common and desperate. The economic collapse of the 3rd century may also be evidence of a shrinking population as Rome's tax base was also shrinking and could no longer support the Roman Army and other Roman institutions. Rome's success had led to increased contact with Asia though trade, especially in a sea route through the Red Sea that Rome cleared of pirates shortly after conquering Egypt. Wars also increased contact with Asia, particularly wars with the Persian Empire. With increased contact with Asia came increased transmission of disease into the Mediterranean from Asia. Romans used public fountains, public latrines, public baths, and supported many brothels all of which were conducive to the spread of pathogens. Romans crowded into walled cities and the poor and the slaves lived in very close quarters with each other. Epidemics began sweeping though the Empire. The culture of the German barbarians living just across the Rhine and Danube rivers was not so conducive to the spread of pathogens. Germans lived in small scattered villages that did not support the same level of trade as did Roman settlements. Germans lived in single-family detached houses. Germans did not have public baths nor as many brothels and drank ale made with boiled water. The barbarian population seemed to be on the rise. The demographics of Europe were changing. Economically, depopulation led to the impoverishment of East and West as economic ties among different parts of the empire weakened. Increasing raids by barbarians further strained the economy and further reduced the population, mostly in the West. In areas near the Rhine and Danube frontiers, raids by barbarians killed Romans and disrupted commerce. Raids also forced Romans into walled towns and cities furthering the spread of pathogens and increasing the rate of depopulation in the West. A low population and weak economy forced Rome to use barbarians in the Roman Army to defend against other barbarians. Environmental degradation Further information: Deforestation during the Roman period Another theory is that gradual environmental degradation caused population and economic decline. Deforestation and excessive grazing led to erosion of meadows and cropland. Increased irrigation without suitable drainage caused salinization, especially in North Africa. These human activities resulted in fertile land becoming nonproductive and eventually increased desertification in some regions. Many animal species became extinct.[13] The recent research of Tainter stated that "deforestation did not cause the Roman collapse",[14] although it could be a minor contributing factor. Also, high taxes and heavy slavery are another reason for decline, as they forced small farmers out of business and into the cities, which became overpopulated. Roman cities were only designed to hold a certain number of people, and once they passed that, disease, water shortage and food shortage became common.[citation needed] Lead poisoning See also: Lead poisoning Publishing several articles in the 1960s, the sociologist Seabury Colum Gilfillan advanced the argument that lead poisoning was a significant factor in the decline of the Roman Empire.[15][16] Later, a posthumously published book elaborated on Gilfillan's work on this topic.[17] Jerome Nriagu, a geochemist, argued in a 1983 book that "lead poisoning contributed to the decline of the Roman empire." His work centred on the level to which the ancient Romans, who had few sweeteners besides honey, would boil must in lead pots to produce a reduced sugar syrup called defrutum, concentrated again into sapa. This syrup was used to some degree to sweeten wine and food.[18] If acidic must is boiled within lead vessels the sweet syrup it yields will contain a quantity of Pb(C2H3O2)2 or lead(II) acetate.[18] Lead was also leached from the glazes on amphorae and other pottery, from pewter drinking vessels and cookware, and from lead piping used for municipal water supplies and baths.[19] The main culinary use of defrutum was to sweeten wine, but it was also added to fruit and meat dishes as a sweetening and souring agent and even given to food animals such as suckling pig and duck to improve the taste of their flesh. Defrutum was mixed with garum to make the popular condiment oenogarum, and as such was one of Rome's most popular condiments. Quince and melon were preserved in defrutum and honey through the winter, and some Roman women used defrutum or sapa as a cosmetic. Defrutum was often used as a food preservative in provisions for Roman troops.[20] Nriagu produced a table showing his estimated consumption of lead by various classes within the Roman Empire. However, to produce the table Nriagu assumes all of the defrutum/sapa consumed to have been made in lead vessels:[19][21] Population Source Lead level in source Daily intake Absorption factor Lead absorbed Aristocrats Air 0.05 µg/m3 20 m3 0.4 0.4 µg/day Water 50 (50–200) µg/l 1.0 liter 0.1 5 (5–20) µg/day Wines 300 (200–1500) 2.0 liters 0.3 180 (120–900) µg/day Foods 0.2 (0.1–2.0) µg/g 3 kg (7 lb) 0.1 60 (30–600) µg/day Other/Misc. 5.0 µg/day Total 250 (160-1250) µg/day Plebeians Less food, same wine consumption. 35 (35-320) µg/day Slaves Still less food, more water, 0.75 liters wine 15 (15-77) µg/day Lead is not removed quickly from the body. It tends to form lead phosphate complexes within bone.[22] This is detectable in preserved bone.[23] Chemical analysis of preserved skeletons found in Herculaneum by Dr. Sara C. Bisel from the University of Minnesota indicated they contained lead in concentrations of 84 parts per million (ppm),[23] whereas skeletons found in a Greek cave had lead concentrations of just 3ppm. However, the lead content revealed in many other ancient Roman remains have been shown to have been less than half those of modern Europeans,[24] which have concentrations between 20-50ppm.[23] Criticism of lead poisoning theory The role and importance of lead poisoning in contributing to the fall of the Roman Empire is the subject of controversy, and its importance and validity is discounted by many historians.[18] John Scarborough, a pharmacologist and classicist, criticized Nriagu's book as "so full of false evidence, miscitations, typographical errors, and a blatant flippancy regarding primary sources that the reader cannot trust the basic arguments."[25] He concluded that ancient authorities were well aware of lead poisoning and that it was not endemic in the Roman empire nor did it cause its fall. Although defrutum and sapa prepared in leaden containers would indubitably have contained toxic levels of lead, the use of leaden containers, though popular, was not the standard, and copper was used far more generally. The exact amount of sapa added to wine was also not standardised, and there is no indication of how often sapa was added or in what quantity. Additionally, Roman authors such as Pliny the Elder[26] and Vitruvius recognised the toxicity of lead. Vitruvius, who flourished during Augustus' time, writes that the Romans knew very well of the dangers. Water conducted through earthen pipes is more wholesome than that through lead; indeed that conveyed in lead must be injurious, because from it white lead [cerussa, lead carbonate, PbCO3] is obtained, and this is said to be injurious to the human system. This may be verified by observing the workers in lead, who are of a pallid colour; water should therefore on no account be conducted in leaden pipes if we are desirous that it should be wholesome. — VIII.6.10–11 Nevertheless, recent research supports the idea that the lead found in the water came from the supply pipes, rather than another source of contamination. It was not unknown for locals to punch holes in the pipes to draw water off, increasing the number of people exposed to the lead. Thirty years ago, Jerome Nriagu argued in a milestone paper that Roman civilization collapsed as a result of lead poisoning. Clair Patterson, the scientist who convinced governments to ban lead from gasoline, enthusiastically endorsed this idea, which nevertheless triggered a volley of publications aimed at refuting it. Although today lead is no longer seen as the prime culprit of Rome's demise, its status in the system of water distribution by lead pipes (fistulæ) still stands as a major public health issue. By measuring Pb isotope compositions of sediments from the Tiber River and the Trajanic Harbor, the present work shows that "tap water" from ancient Rome had 100 times more lead than local spring waters.[27][28][29] Catastrophic collapse J. B. Bury J. B. Bury's History of the Later Roman Empire (1889/1923) challenged the prevailing "theory of moral decay" established by Gibbon as well as the classic "clash of Christianity vs. paganism" theory, citing the relative success of the Eastern Empire, which was resolutely Christian. He held that Gibbon's grand history, though epoch-making in its research and detail, was too monocausal. His main difference from Gibbon lay in his interpretation of facts, rather than disputing any facts. He made it clear that he felt that Gibbon's thesis concerning "moral decay" was viable—but incomplete. Bury's judgment was that:[30] The gradual collapse of the Roman power ... was the consequence of a series of contingent events. No general causes can be assigned that made it inevitable. Bury held that a number of crises arose simultaneously: economic decline, Germanic expansion, depopulation of Italy, dependency on Germanic foederati for the military, the disastrous (though Bury believed unknowing) treason of Stilicho, loss of martial vigor, Aetius' murder, the lack of any leader to replace Aetius—a series of misfortunes which, in combination, proved catastrophic: The Empire had come to depend on the enrollment of barbarians, in large numbers, in the army, and ... it was necessary to render the service attractive to them by the prospect of power and wealth. This was, of course, a consequence of the decline in military spirit, and of depopulation, in the old civilised Mediterranean countries. The Germans in high command had been useful, but the dangers involved in the policy had been shown in the cases of Merobaudes and Arbogastes. Yet this policy need not have led to the dismemberment of the Empire, and but for that series of chances its western provinces would not have been converted, as and when they were, into German kingdoms. It may be said that a German penetration of western Europe must ultimately have come about. But even if that were certain, it might have happened in another way, at a later time, more gradually, and with less violence. The point of the present contention is that Rome's loss of her provinces in the fifth century was not an "inevitable effect of any of those features which have been rightly or wrongly described as causes or consequences of her general 'decline'". The central fact that Rome could not dispense with the help of barbarians for her wars (gentium barbararum auxilio indigemus) may be held to be the cause of her calamities, but it was a weakness which might have continued to be far short of fatal but for the sequence of contingencies pointed out above.[30] Peter Heather Peter Heather, in his The Fall of the Roman Empire (2005), maintains the Roman imperial system with its sometimes violent imperial transitions and problematic communications notwithstanding, was in fairly good shape during the first, second, and part of the 3rd centuries AD. According to Heather, the first real indication of trouble was the emergence in Iran of the Sassanid Persian empire (226–651). As reviewed by one writer on Heather's writing, The Sassanids were sufficiently powerful and internally cohesive to push back Roman legions from the Euphrates and from much of Armenia and southeast Turkey. Much as modern readers tend to think of the "Huns" as the nemesis of the Roman Empire, for the entire period under discussion it was the Persians who held the attention and concern of Rome and Constantinople. Indeed, 20–25% of the military might of the Roman Army was addressing the Persian threat from the late third century onward ... and upwards of 40% of the troops under the Eastern Emperors.[31] Heather goes on to state—in the tradition of Gibbon and Bury—that it took the Roman Empire about half a century to cope with the Sassanid threat, which it did by stripping the western provincial towns and cities of their regional taxation income. The resulting expansion of military forces in the Middle East was finally successful in stabilizing the frontiers with the Sassanids, but the reduction of real income in the provinces of the Empire led to two trends which, Heather says, had a negative long-term impact. First, the incentive for local officials to spend their time and money in the development of local infrastructure disappeared. Public buildings from the 4th century onward tended to be much more modest and funded from central budgets, as the regional taxes had dried up. Second, Heather says "the landowning provincial literati now shifted their attention to where the money was ... away from provincial and local politics to the imperial bureaucracies." Having set the scene of an Empire stretched militarily by the Sassanid threat, Heather then suggests, using archaeological evidence, that the Germanic tribes on the Empire's northern border had altered in nature since the 1st century. Contact with the Empire had increased their material wealth, and that in turn had led to disparities of wealth sufficient to create a ruling class capable of maintaining control over far larger groupings than had previously been possible. Essentially they had become significantly more formidable foes. Heather then posits what amounts to a domino theory—namely that pressure on peoples very far away from the Empire could result in sufficient pressure on peoples on the Empire's borders to make them contemplate the risk of full scale immigration to the empire. Thus he links the Gothic invasion of 376 directly to Hunnic movements around the Black Sea in the decade before. In the same way he sees the invasions across the Rhine in 406 as a direct consequence of further Hunnic incursions in Germania; as such he sees the Huns as deeply significant in the fall of the Western Empire long before they themselves became a military threat to the Empire. He postulates that the Hunnic expansion caused unprecedented immigration in 376 and 406 by barbarian groupings who had become significantly more politically and militarily capable than in previous eras. This impacted an empire already at maximum stretch due to the Sassanid pressure. Essentially he argues that the external pressures of 376–470 could have brought the Western Empire down at any point in its history. He disputes Gibbon's contention that Christianity and moral decay led to the decline. He also rejects the political infighting of the Empire as a reason, considering it was a systemic recurring factor throughout the Empire's history which, while it might have contributed to an inability to respond to the circumstances of the 5th century, it consequently cannot be blamed for them. Instead he places its origin squarely on outside military factors, starting with the Sassanids. Like Bury, he does not believe the fall was inevitable, but rather a series of events which came together to shatter the Empire. He differs from Bury, however, in placing the onset of those events far earlier in the Empire's timeline, with the Sassanid rise. Bryan Ward-Perkins Bryan Ward-Perkins's The Fall of Rome and the End of Civilization (2005) takes a traditional view tempered by modern discoveries, arguing that the empire's demise was caused by a vicious circle of political instability, foreign invasion, and reduced tax revenue. Essentially, invasions caused long-term damage to the provincial tax base, which lessened the Empire's medium- to long-term ability to pay and equip the legions, with predictable results. Likewise, constant invasions encouraged provincial rebellion as self-help, further depleting Imperial resources. Contrary to the trend among some historians of the "there was no fall" school, who view the fall of Rome as not necessarily a "bad thing" for the people involved, Ward-Perkins argues that in many parts of the former Empire the archaeological record indicates that the collapse was truly a disaster. Ward-Perkins' theory, much like Bury's, and Heather's, identifies a series of cyclic events that came together to cause a definite decline and fall. Transformation Henri Pirenne In the second half of the 19th century, some historians focused on the continuities between the Roman Empire and the post-Roman Germanic kingdoms rather than the rupture. In Histoire des institutions politiques de l'ancienne France (1875–89), Fustel de Coulanges argued that the barbarians simply contributed to an ongoing process of transforming Roman institutions. Henri Pirenne continued this idea with the "Pirenne Thesis", published in the 1920s, which remains influential to this day. It holds that even after the barbarian invasions, the Roman way of doing things did not immediately change; barbarians came to Rome not to destroy it, but to take part in its benefits, and thus they tried to preserve the Roman way of life. The Pirenne Thesis regards the rise of the Frankish realm in Europe as a continuation of the Roman Empire, and thus validates the crowning of Charlemagne as the first Holy Roman Emperor as a successor of the Roman Emperors. According to Pirenne, the real break in Roman history occurred in the 7th and 8th centuries as a result of Arab expansion. Islamic conquest of the area of today's south-eastern Turkey, Syria, Palestine, North Africa, Spain and Portugal ruptured economic ties to western Europe, cutting the region off from trade and turning it into a stagnant backwater, with wealth flowing out in the form of raw resources and nothing coming back. This began a steady decline and impoverishment so that by the time of Charlemagne western Europe had become almost entirely agrarian at a subsistence level, with no long-distance trade. Pirenne's view on the continuity of the Roman Empire before and after the Germanic invasion has been supported by recent historians such as François Masai, Karl Ferdinand Werner, and Peter Brown. Some modern critics have argued that the "Pirenne Thesis" erred on two counts: by treating the Carolingian realm as a Roman state and by overemphasizing the effect of the Islamic conquests on the Byzantine or Eastern Roman Empire. Other critics have argued that while Pirenne was correct in arguing for the continuity of the Empire beyond the sack of Rome, the Arab conquests in the 7th century may not have disrupted Mediterranean trade routes to the degree that Pirenne argued. Michael McCormick in particular has argued that some recently unearthed sources, such as collective biographies, describe new trade routes. Moreover, other records and coins document the movement of Islamic currency into the Carolingian Empire. McCormick has concluded that if money was coming in, some type of goods must have been going out – including slaves, timber, weapons, honey, amber, and furs. Lucien Musset and the clash of civilizations In the spirit of "Pirenne thesis", a school of thought pictured a clash of civilizations between the Roman and the Germanic world, a process taking place roughly between 3rd and 8th century. The French historian Lucien Musset, studying the Barbarian invasions, argues the civilization of Medieval Europe emerged from a synthesis between the Graeco-Roman world and the Germanic civilizations penetrating the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire did not fall, did not decline, it just transformed but so did the Germanic populations which invaded it. To support this conclusion, beside the narrative of the events, he offers linguistic surveys of toponymy and anthroponymy, analyzes archaeological records, studies the urban and rural society, the institutions, the religion, the art, the technology. Late Antiquity Historians of Late Antiquity, a field pioneered by Peter Brown, have turned away from the idea that the Roman Empire fell at all – refocusing instead on Pirenne's thesis. They see a transformation occurring over centuries, with the roots of Medieval culture contained in Roman culture and focus on the continuities between the classical and Medieval worlds. Thus, it was a gradual process with no clear break. Brown argues in his book that: Factors we would regard as natural in a 'crisis'—malaise caused by urbanization, public disasters, the intrusion of alien religious ideas, and a consequent heightening of religious hopes and fears—may not have bulked as large in the minds of the men of the late second and third centuries as we suppose... The towns of the Mediterranean were small towns. For all their isolation from the way of life of the villagers, they were fragile excrescences in a spreading countryside."[32] See also Fall of the Western Roman Empire The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Last of the Romans Late Roman army Legacy of the Roman Empire Roman historiography Rise of Christianity during the Fall of Rome Roman-Persian Wars Notes ^ Demandt, Alexander (August 25, 2003). "210 Theories". Crooked Timber weblog entry. Retrieved June 2005. Check date values in: |access-date= (help) ^ Alexander Demandt: 210 Theories Archived 2015-03-16 at the Wayback Machine, Source: A. Demandt, Der Fall Roms (1984) 695. See also: Karl Galinsky in Classical and Modern Interactions (1992) 53-73. ^ Bowersock, "The Vanishing Paradigm of the Fall of Rome" Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1996) 49#8 pp 29-43 at p. 31. ^ Winchester, Simon (2003). Krakatoa: The Day the World Exploded, August 27, 1883. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-621285-5. ^ Arnaldo Momigliano, echoing the trope of the sound a tree falling in the forest, titled an article in 1973, "La caduta senza rumore di un impero nel 476 d.C." ("The noiseless fall of an empire in 476 AD"). ^ Hunt, Lynn; Thomas R. Martin; Barbara H. Rosenwein; R. Po-chia Hsia; Bonnie G. Smith (2001). The Making of the West, Peoples and Cultures, Volume A: To 1500. Bedford / St. Martins. p. 256. ISBN 0-312-18365-8. ^ Kinver, Mark (14 January 2011). "Roman rise and fall 'recorded in trees'". BBC. Retrieved 24 March 2011. ^ Arther Ferrill, The Fall of the Roman Empire: The Military Explanation (New York: Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1986), ^ See, for instance, "How Excessive Government Killed Ancient Rome", by Bruce Bartlett, and "The Rise and Decline of Civilization", by Ludwig von Mises ^ "How Excessive Government Killed Ancient Rome", by Bruce Bartlett ^ Tainter, Joseph (1988) "The Collapse of Complex Societies" (Princeton Uni Press) ^ The Complete Roman Army (2003) p. 214 Adrian Goldsworthy ^ Lunds universitet Archived 2007-07-01 at the Wayback Machine ^ Tainter, Joseph (2006). "Archeology of Overshoot and Collapse". Annual Review of Anthropology. 35: 59–74. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.35.081705.123136. ^ Gilfillan, S. Colum (Winter 1962). "The Inventive Lag in Classical Mediterranean Society". Technology and Culture. 3 (1): 85–87. doi:10.2307/3100802. JSTOR 3100802. ^ Gilfillan, S.C. (1965). "Lead Poisoning and the Fall of Rome". Journal of Occupational Medicine. 7 (2): 53–60. PMID 14261844. ^ Gilfillan, S.C. (1990). Rome's Ruin by Lead Poison. Wenzel Press. ^ a b c Milton A. Lessler. "Lead and Lead Poisoning from Antiquity to Modern Times" (PDF). Retrieved 11 Jan 2009. ^ a b Nriagu JO (March 1983). "Saturnine gout among Roman aristocrats. Did lead poisoning contribute to the fall of the Empire?". N. Engl. J. Med. 308 (11): 660–3. doi:10.1056/NEJM198303173081123. PMID 6338384. ^ Director: Chris Warren (2004). Tales of the Living Dead: Poisoned Roman Babies (television). Brighton TV for National Geographic. ^ Mark E. Anderson MD FAAP (22 Aug 2007). "Children's Environmental Health: Tribal Nations CEH Summit" (PDF). Retrieved 11 Jan 2009. [permanent dead link] ^ "Metabolism of Lead". Archived from the original on 2009-01-06. Retrieved 11 Jan 2009. ^ a b c "A Clue to the Decline of Rome". The New York Times. 31 May 1983. Retrieved 11 Jan 2009. ^ Drasch 1982:199–231 ^ Scarborough, John (1984). The Myth of Lead Poisoning Among the Romans: An Essay Review ^ Historia Naturalis1 xxxiv.50.167 ^ Hugo Delile – Lead in ancient Rome's city waters ^ Ancient Rome's tap water heavily contaminated with lead, researchers say – The Guardian ^ Lead in Ancient Rome’s Water Was 100 Times Natural Levels – Discover ^ a b Bury, J.B. History of the Later Roman Empire • Vol. I Chap. IX ^ Albion's Seedlings: Heather - The Fall of the Roman Empire ^ Peter Brown, The Making of Late Antiquity (Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1978), pp. 2–3 References Alexander Demandt (1984). Der Fall Roms: Die Auflösung des römischen Reiches im Urteil der Nachwelt. ISBN 3-406-09598-4 Edward Gibbon. General Observations on the Fall of the Roman Empire in the West, from the Internet Medieval Sourcebook. Brief excerpts of Gibbon's theories (online). William Carroll Bark (1958). Origins of the Medieval World. ISBN 0-8047-0514-3 Drasch, G A (1982). Lead burden in prehistorical, historical and modern human bodies. The Science of the Total Environment Scarborough, John (1984). The Myth of Lead Poisoning Among the Romans: An Essay Review Further reading Robert J. Antonio. "The Contradiction of Domination and Production in Bureaucracy: The Contribution of Organizational Efficiency to the Decline of the Roman Empire," American Sociological Review Vol. 44, No. 6 (Dec., 1979), pp. 895–912 in JSTOR Arther Ferrill The Fall of the Roman Empire: The Military Explanation 0500274959 (1998). Adrian Goldsworthy. How Rome Fell: Death of a Superpower(2009); published in Britain as The Fall of the West: The Death of the Roman Superpower (2010) Guy Halsall. Barbarian Migrations and the Roman West (Cambridge U.P., 2007) excerpt and text search Peter Heather. "The Huns and the End of the Roman Empire in Western Europe," '"English Historical Review Vol. 110, No. 435 (Feb., 1995), pp. 4-41 in JSTOR Peter Heather. Empires and Barbarians: The Fall of Rome and the Birth of Europe (Oxford University Press; 2010); 734 pages; Examines the migrations, trade, and other phenomena that shaped a recognizable entity of Europe in the first millennium. excerpt and text search Heather, Peter, The Fall of the Roman Empire, 2005, ISBN 0-19-515954-3, offers a narrative of the final years, in the tradition of Gibson or Bury, plus incorporates latest archaeological evidence and other recent findings. Jones, A. H. M. The Later Roman Empire, 284-602: A Social, Economic, and Administrative Survey (2 Vol. 1964) excerpt and text search Kagan, Donald, ed. The End of the Roman Empire: Decline or Transformation?, ISBN 0-669-21520-1 (3rd edition 1992) – excerpts from historians Mitchell, Stephen, A History of the Later Roman Empire, AD 284-641: The Transformation of the Ancient World (2006) "The Fall of Rome – an author dialogue" Part I and Part 2: Oxford professors Bryan Ward-Perkins and Peter Heather discuss The Fall of Rome: And the End of Civilization and The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians. Monigliano, Arnoldo. "Gibbon's Contribution to Historical Method," Studies in Historiography (New York: Harper and Row, 1966). Jeanne Rutenburg and Arthur M. Eckstein, "The Return of the Fall of Rome," International History Review 29 (2007): 109-122, historiography Foreign language Lucien Musset, Les Invasions : Les vagues germaniques, Presses Universitaires de France, Paris, 1965 (3rd ed. 1994, ISBN 2-13-046715-6) External links Library resources about Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Fall of Rome – Decline of the Roman Empire – Lists many possible causes with references v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum 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en-wikipedia-org-7379	----	Syntax - Wikipedia Syntax From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Set of rules and principles that govern sentence structure For other uses, see Syntax (disambiguation). "Sentence structure" redirects here. For sentence types in traditional grammar, see Sentence clause structure. Part of a series on Linguistics Outline History Index Subfields Acquisition Anthropological Applied Computational Discourse analysis Forensic Historical Lexicography Morphology Morphophonology Neurolinguistics Philosophy of language Phonetics Phonology Pragmatics Psycholinguistics Semantics Sociolinguistics Syntax Grammatical theories Cognitive Model-theoretic Constituency Dependency Functional Generative Stochastic Topics Conservative / innovative forms Descriptivism Etymology Internet linguistics LGBT linguistics Linguistic anthropology Linguistic philosophy Origin of language Origin of speech Orthography Prescriptivism Second-language acquisition Structuralism Portal v t e In linguistics, syntax (/ˈsɪntæks/)[1][2] is the set of rules, principles, and processes that govern the structure of sentences (sentence structure) in a given language, usually including word order. The term syntax is also used to refer to the study of such principles and processes.[3] The goal of many syntacticians is to discover the syntactic rules common to all languages. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Sequencing of subject, verb, and object 3 Early history 4 Theories 4.1 Dependency grammar 4.2 Categorial grammar 4.3 Stochastic/probabilistic grammars/network theories 4.4 Functional grammars 4.5 Generative grammar 4.6 Cognitive and usage-based grammars 5 See also 5.1 Syntactic terms 6 References 6.1 Citations 6.2 Sources 7 Further reading 8 External links Etymology[edit] The word syntax comes from Ancient Greek: σύνταξις "coordination", which consists of σύν syn, "together", and τάξις táxis, "an ordering". Sequencing of subject, verb, and object[edit] One basic description of a language's syntax is the sequence in which the subject (S), verb (V), and object (O) usually appear in sentences. Over 85% of languages usually place the subject first, either in the sequence SVO or the sequence SOV. The other possible sequences are VSO, VOS, OVS, and OSV, the last three of which are rare. In most generative theories of syntax, these surface differences arise from a more complex clausal phrase structure, and each order may be compatible with multiple derivations. Early history[edit] The Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini (c. 4th century BC in Ancient India), is often cited as an example of a premodern work that approaches the sophistication of a modern syntactic theory (as works on grammar were written long before modern syntax came about).[4] In the West, the school of thought that came to be known as "traditional grammar" began with the work of Dionysius Thrax. For centuries, a framework known as grammaire générale (first expounded in 1660 by Antoine Arnauld in a book of the same title) dominated work in syntax: as its basic premise the assumption that language is a direct reflection of thought processes and therefore there is a single, most natural way to express a thought.[citation needed] However, in the 19th century, with the development of historical-comparative linguistics, linguists began to realize the sheer diversity of human language and to question fundamental assumptions about the relationship between language and logic. It became apparent that there was no such thing as the most natural way to express a thought, and therefore logic could no longer be relied upon as a basis for studying the structure of language.[citation needed] The Port-Royal grammar modeled the study of syntax upon that of logic. (Indeed, large parts of the Port-Royal Logic were copied or adapted from the Grammaire générale.[5]) Syntactic categories were identified with logical ones, and all sentences were analyzed in terms of "subject – copula – predicate". Initially, this view was adopted even by the early comparative linguists such as Franz Bopp. The central role of syntax within theoretical linguistics became clear only in the 20th century, which could reasonably be called the "century of syntactic theory" as far as linguistics is concerned. (For a detailed and critical survey of the history of syntax in the last two centuries, see the monumental work by Giorgio Graffi (2001).[6]) Theories[edit] There are a number of theoretical approaches to the discipline of syntax. One school of thought, founded in the works of Derek Bickerton,[7] sees syntax as a branch of biology, since it conceives of syntax as the study of linguistic knowledge as embodied in the human mind. Other linguists (e.g., Gerald Gazdar) take a more Platonistic view, since they regard syntax to be the study of an abstract formal system.[8] Yet others (e.g., Joseph Greenberg) consider syntax a taxonomical device to reach broad generalizations across languages. Dependency grammar[edit] Main article: Dependency grammar Dependency grammar is an approach to sentence structure where syntactic units are arranged according to the dependency relation, as opposed to the constituency relation of phrase structure grammars. Dependencies are directed links between words. The (finite) verb is seen as the root of all clause structure and all the other words in the clause are either directly or indirectly dependent on this root. Some prominent dependency-based theories of syntax are: Recursive categorical syntax, or Algebraic syntax Functional generative description Meaning–text theory Operator grammar Word grammar Lucien Tesnière (1893–1954) is widely seen as the father of modern dependency-based theories of syntax and grammar. He argued vehemently against the binary division of the clause into subject and predicate that is associated with the grammars of his day (S → NP VP) and which remains at the core of most phrase structure grammars. In the place of this division, he positioned the verb as the root of all clause structure.[9] Categorial grammar[edit] Main article: Categorial grammar Categorial grammar is an approach that attributes the syntactic structure not to rules of grammar, but to the properties of the syntactic categories themselves. For example, rather than asserting that sentences are constructed by a rule that combines a noun phrase (NP) and a verb phrase (VP) (e.g., the phrase structure rule S → NP VP), in categorial grammar, such principles are embedded in the category of the head word itself. So the syntactic category for an intransitive verb is a complex formula representing the fact that the verb acts as a function word requiring an NP as an input and produces a sentence level structure as an output. This complex category is notated as (NP\S) instead of V. NP\S is read as "a category that searches to the left (indicated by \) for an NP (the element on the left) and outputs a sentence (the element on the right)." The category of transitive verb is defined as an element that requires two NPs (its subject and its direct object) to form a sentence. This is notated as (NP/(NP\S)) which means "a category that searches to the right (indicated by /) for an NP (the object), and generates a function (equivalent to the VP) which is (NP\S), which in turn represents a function that searches to the left for an NP and produces a sentence." Tree-adjoining grammar is a categorial grammar that adds in partial tree structures to the categories. Stochastic/probabilistic grammars/network theories[edit] Theoretical approaches to syntax that are based upon probability theory are known as stochastic grammars. One common implementation of such an approach makes use of a neural network or connectionism. Functional grammars[edit] Main article: Functional theories of grammar Functionalist models of grammar study the form–function interaction by performing a structural and a functional analysis. Functional discourse grammar (Dik) Prague linguistic circle Role and reference grammar (RRG) Systemic functional grammar Generative grammar[edit] Main article: Generative grammar The hypothesis of generative grammar is that language is a biological structure. The difference between structural–functional and generative models is that, in generative grammar, the object is placed into the verb phrase. Generative grammar is meant to be used to describe all human language and to predict whether any given utterance in a hypothetical language would sound correct to a speaker of that language (versus constructions which no human language would use). This approach to language was pioneered by Noam Chomsky. Most generative theories (although not all of them) assume that syntax is based upon the constituent structure of sentences. Generative grammars are among the theories that focus primarily on the form of a sentence, rather than its communicative function. Among the many generative theories of linguistics, the Chomskyan theories are: Transformational grammar (TG) (Original theory of generative syntax laid out by Chomsky in Syntactic Structures in 1957)[10] Government and binding theory (GB) (revised theory in the tradition of TG developed mainly by Chomsky in the 1970s and 1980s)[11] Minimalist program (MP) (a reworking of the theory out of the GB framework published by Chomsky in 1995)[12] Other theories that find their origin in the generative paradigm are: Arc pair grammar Generalized phrase structure grammar (GPSG; now largely out of date) Generative semantics (superseded by semantic syntax)[13] Head-driven phrase structure grammar (HPSG) Lexical functional grammar (LFG) Nanosyntax Relational grammar (RG) (now largely out of date) Harmonic grammar (HG) (similar to the optimality theory of syntax) Cognitive and usage-based grammars[edit] Main article: Cognitive Linguistics The Cognitive Linguistics framework stems from generative grammar, but adheres to evolutionary rather than Chomskyan linguistics. Cognitive models often recognise the generative assumption that the object belongs to the verb phrase. Cognitive frameworks include: Cognitive grammar Construction grammar (CxG) Emergent grammar See also[edit] List of language disorders List of syntactic phenomena Metasyntax Musical syntax Semiotics Syntactic category Syntax (academic journal) Syntax (programming languages) Usage Syntactic terms[edit] Adjective Adjective phrase Adjunct Adpositional phrase Adverb Anaphora Answer ellipsis Antecedent Antecedent-contained deletion Appositive Argument Article Aspect Attributive adjective and predicative adjective Auxiliary verb Binding Branching c-command Case Category Catena Clause Closed class word Comparative Complement Compound noun and adjective Conjugation Conjunction Constituent Coordination Coreference Crossover Dangling modifier Declension Dependency grammar Dependent marking Determiner Discontinuity Do-support Dual (form for two) Ellipsis Endocentric Exceptional case-marking Expletive Extraposition Finite verb Function word Gapping Gender Gerund Government Head Head marking Infinitive Inverse copular construction Inversion Lexical item m-command Measure word (classifier) Merge Modal particle Modal verb Modifier Mood Movement Movement paradox Nanosyntax Negative inversion Non-configurational language Non-finite verb Noun Noun ellipsis Noun phrase Number Object Open class word Parasitic gap Part of speech Particle Periphrasis Person Personal pronoun Pied-piping Phrasal verb Phrase Phrase structure grammar Plural Predicate Predicative expression Preposition and postposition Pronoun Pseudogapping Raising Relation (Grammatical relation) Restrictiveness Right node raising Sandhi Scrambling Selection Sentence Separable verb Shifting Singular Sluicing Small clause Stripping Subcategorization Subject Subject-auxiliary inversion Subject-verb inversion Subordination Superlative Tense Topicalization Tough movement Uninflected word V2 word order Valency Verb Verb phrase Verb phrase ellipsis Voice Wh-movement Word order X-bar theory References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ "syntax". Oxford Dictionaries UK Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 2016-01-22. ^ "syntax". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. ^ Chomsky, Noam (2002) [1957]. Syntactic Structures. p. 11. ^ Fortson IV, Benjamin W. (2004). Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction. Blackwell. p. 186. ISBN 978-1405188968. [The Aṣṭādhyāyī] is a highly precise and thorough description of the structure of Sanskrit somewhat resembling modern generative grammar...[it] remained the most advanced linguistic analysis of any kind until the twentieth century. ^ Arnauld, Antoine (1683). La logique (5th ed.). Paris: G. Desprez. p. 137. Nous avons emprunté...ce que nous avons dit...d'un petit Livre...sous le titre de Grammaire générale. ^ Giorgio, Graffi (2001). 200 Years of Syntax: A Critical Survey (googlebook preview). John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN 9789027284570. ^ See Bickerton, Derek (1990). Language and Species. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-04610-9. and, for more recent advances, Derek Bickerton; Eörs Szathmáry, eds. (2009). Biological foundations and origin of syntax. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-01356-7. ^ Ted Briscoe, 2 May 2001, Interview with Gerald Gazdar Archived 2005-11-22 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2008-06-04. ^ Concerning Tesnière's rejection of the binary division of the clause into subject and predicate and in favor of the verb as the root of all structure, see Tesnière (1969:103–105). ^ Chomsky, Noam. 1957. Syntactic Structures. The Hague/Paris: Mouton, p. 15. ^ Chomsky, Noam (1981/1993). Lectures on Government and Binding: The Pisa Lectures. Mouton de Gruyter. ^ Chomsky, Noam (1995). The Minimalist Program. MIT Press. ^ Seuren, P. A. M. 2018. Semantic Syntax. Revised edition. Leiden: Brill Sources[edit] Brown, Keith; Miller, Jim, eds. (1996). Concise Encyclopedia of Syntactic Theories. New York: Elsevier Science. ISBN 0-08-042711-1. Carnie, Andrew (2006). Syntax: A Generative Introduction (2nd ed.). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 1-4051-3384-8. Freidin, Robert; Lasnik, Howard, eds. (2006). Syntax. Critical Concepts in Linguistics. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-24672-5. Graffi, Giorgio (2001). 200 Years of Syntax. A Critical Survey. Studies in the History of the Language Sciences 98. Amsterdam: Benjamins. ISBN 90-272-4587-8. Talasiewicz, Mieszko (2009). Philosophy of Syntax – Foundational Topics. Springer. ISBN 978-90-481-3287-4. An interdisciplinary essay on the interplay between logic and linguistics on syntactic theories. Tesnière, Lucien (1969). Éleménts de syntaxe structurale. 2nd edition. Paris: Klincksieck.[ISBN missing] Further reading[edit] Martin Everaert; Henk Van Riemsdijk; Rob Goedemans; Bart Hollebrandse, eds. (2006). The Blackwell companion to syntax. Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-1485-1. 5 Volumes; 77 case studies of syntactic phenomena. Isac, Daniela; Charles Reiss (2013). I-language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science, 2nd edition. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199660179. Moravcsik, Edith A. (2006). An introduction to syntax: fundamentals of syntactic analysis. Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8264-8945-6. Attempts to be a theory-neutral introduction. The companion Edith A. Moravcsik (2006). An introduction to syntactic theory. Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8264-8943-2. surveys the major theories. Jointly reviewed in The Canadian Journal of Linguistics 54(1), March 2009, pp. 172–175 Müller, Stefan (2016). Grammatical theory: From transformational grammar to constraint-based approaches. Berlin: Language Science Press. ISBN 978-3-944675-21-3. Brian Roark; Richard William Sproat (2007). Computational approaches to morphology and syntax. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-927477-2. part II: Computational approaches to syntax. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Syntax. 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en-wikipedia-org-7389	----	Bagaudae - Wikipedia Bagaudae From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Bagaudae (also spelled bacaudae) were groups of peasant insurgents in the later Roman Empire who arose during the Crisis of the Third Century, and persisted until the very end of the western Empire, particularly in the less-Romanised areas of Gallia and Hispania, where they were "exposed to the depredations of the late Roman state, and the great landowners and clerics who were its servants".[1] The invasions, military anarchy, and disorders of the third century provided a chaotic and ongoing degradation of the regional power structure within a declining Empire into which the bagaudae achieved some temporary and scattered successes, under the leadership of members of the underclass as well as former members of local ruling elites. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Suppression 3 Recurrences 4 Reputation 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Further reading Etymology[edit] The name probably means "fighters" in Gaulish.[2] C.E.V. Nixon[3] assesses the bagaudae, from the official Imperial viewpoint, as "bands of brigands who roamed the countryside looting and pillaging". J.C.S. Léon interprets the most completely assembled documentation and identifies the bagaudae as impoverished local free peasants, reinforced by brigands, runaway slaves and deserters from the legions, who were trying to resist the ruthless labor exploitation of the late Roman proto-feudal colonus manorial and military systems, and all manner of punitive laws and levies in the marginal areas of the Empire.[4] Suppression[edit] After the bagaudae came to the full attention of the central authorities about AD 284, the re-establishment of the settled social order was swift and severe: the peasant insurgents were crushed in AD 286 by the Caesar Maximian and his subordinate Carausius under the aegis of the Augustus Diocletian. Their leaders are mentioned as Amandus and Aelianus,l although E.M. Wightman, in her Gallia Belgica[5] proposes that the two belonged to the local Gallo-Roman landowning class who then became "tyrants"[6] and most likely rebelled against the grinding taxation and garnishing of their lands, harvests and manpower by the predatory agents of the late Roman state (see frumentarii, publicani). The Panegyric of Maximian, dating to AD 289 and attributed to Claudius Mamertinus, relates that during the bagaudae uprisings of AD 284–285 in the districts around Lugdunum (Lyon), "simple farmers sought military garb; the plowman imitated the infantryman, the shepherd the cavalryman, the rustic harvester of his own crops the barbarian enemy". In fact they shared several similar characteristics with the Germanic Heruli people. Mamertinus also called them "two-shaped monsters" (monstrorum biformium), emphasising that while they were technically Imperial farmers and citizens, they were also marauding rogues who had become foes to the Empire. Recurrences[edit] The phenomenon recurred in the mid-fourth century in the reign of Constantius, in conjunction with an invasion of the Alemanni. Although Imperial control was re-established by the Frankish general Silvanus, his subsequent betrayal by court rivals forced him into rebellion and his work was undone. In around AD 360 the historian Aurelius Victor[7] is the sole writer to note the attacks of bagaudae in the peripheries of the larger towns and walled cities. In the fifth century Bagaudae are noted initially in the Loire valley and Brittany, circa AD 409-17,[8] fighting various armies sent against them by the last seriously effective Western Roman general, Flavius Aëtius. Aetius used federates such as the Alans under their king Goar to try and suppress a Bacaudic revolt in Armorica. St Germanus got mercy for the Bagaudae but they later revolted again under a leader called Tibatto. They are also mentioned around the same time in the province of Macedonia, the only time they emerge in the Eastern Empire, which may be connected with economic hardships under Arcadius. By the middle of the fifth century they are mentioned in control of parts of central Gaul and the Ebro valley. In Hispania, the king of the Suevi, Rechiar (died AD 456), took up as allies the local bagaudae in ravaging the remaining Roman municipia, a unique alliance between Germanic ruler and rebel peasant.[9] That the depredations of the ruling classes were mostly responsible for the uprising of the bagaudae was not lost on the fifth-century writer of historicised polemic Salvian; setting himself in the treatise De gubernatione Dei the task of proving God's constant guidance, he declares in book iii that the misery of the Roman world is all due to the neglect of God's commandments and the terrible sins of every class of society. It is not merely that slaves and servants are thieves and runaways, wine-bibbers and gluttons – the rich are much worse (iv. 3); it is their harshness and greed that drive the poor to join the bagaudae and flee for shelter to the barbarian invaders (v. 5 and 6). Reputation[edit] The reputation of the bagaudae has varied with the uses made of them in historicised narratives of the Late Roman Empire and the Middle Ages. There has been some speculation that theirs was a Christian revolt, but the sparsity of information in the texts gives that little substance although there may well have been many Christians among them. In general, they seem to have been equal parts of brigands and insurgents. In the second half of the 19th century, interest in the bagaudae revived, resonating with contemporary social unrest. The French historian Jean Trithemié was famous for a nationalist view of the "Bagaudae" by arguing that they were an expression of national identity among the Gallic peasants, who sought to overthrow oppressive Roman rule and realize the eternal "French" values of liberty, equality and brotherhood.[10] E. A. Thompson's assessment in Past and Present (1952) approached the phenomenon of these rural malcontents in terms of Marxist class warfare. See also[edit] Popular revolt in late medieval Europe Jacquerie List of peasant revolts Notes[edit] ^ J. F. Drinkwater, reviewing Léon, Los bagaudas, in The Classical Review, 1999:287. ^ Delamarre, Xaviee, Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise, 2nd ed., Editions Errance, 2003, pp. 63-64. ^ Nixon,In Praise of Later Roman Emperors: The Panegyrici Latini (1994) ^ M.-Cl. L'Huillier, "Notes sur la disparition des sanctuaires païens" in Marguerite Garrido-Hory, Antonio Gonzalèz, Histoire, espaces et marges de l'antiquité: hommages à Monique Clavel-Lévêque, (series Histoire et Politique 4) 2005:290. ^ E.M. Wightman, Gallia Belgica (London: Batsford) 1985. ^ Tyrant in the Greek and Latin sense simply means a wielder of unauthorised power, without the connotations that it has since accrued. ^ Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus 3.16, noted by L'Huillier 2005:290. ^ L'Huillier 2005:290. ^ Thompson, Romans and Barbarians, 184f. Isidore of Seville, writing of Rechiar, believed that it was not bagaudae with whom Rechiar allied, but rather the Visigoths. Theodore Mommsen follows him, but there is no reason to accept Isidore over Hydatius and every reason not to, when considering that Isidore neglects to mention the Bagaudae at all in his Historia. ^ Jean Trithemié, Les Bagaudes et les origines de la nation française (Paris), 1873. References[edit] Thompson, E. A. Romans and Barbarians: The Decline of the Western Empire. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press) 1982. Trithemié, Jean. Les Bagaudes et les origines de la nation française. 2 vols. (Paris: Les séries historiques, Ecole anormale supérieure), 1873. Further reading[edit] Léon, J.C.S. Les sources de l'histoire des Bagaudes (Paris) 1996. Léon, J.C.S., Los bagaudas: rebeldes, demonios, mártires. Revueltas campesinas en Galia e Hispania durante el Bajo Imperio (University of Jaén) 1996. v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History 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Uprising Jacquerie Ciompi Revolt Peasants' Revolt in England Harelle Cabochien Revolt Transylvanian peasant revolt Funen and Jutland Peasant rebellions Jack Cade's rebellion John and William Merfold's uprising Carinthian Peasant Revolt Friulian Revolt of 1511 Poor Conrad Dózsa rebellion Slovene Peasant Revolt Arumer Zwarte Hoop German Peasants' War Dalecarlian Rebellions Palatine Peasants' War Skipper Clement's Rebellion Opryshky Peasant's Rebellion in Telemark Dacke War Kett's Rebellion Cudgel War Croatian–Slovene Peasant Revolt Ivan Bolotnikov's Rebellion Peasants' War in Upper Austria Kostka-Napierski Uprising Morning Star Rebellion Swiss peasant war of 1653 Stenka Razin Uprising Bulavin Rebellion Dalecarlian Rebellion (1743) Pugachev's Rebellion Revolt of Horea, Cloșca and Crișan Great Fear Saxon Peasants' Revolt Peasants' War (1798) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bagaudae&oldid=982975334" Categories: 3rd-century conflicts 280s establishments in the 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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7396	----	Stoicism - Wikipedia Stoicism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search School of Hellenistic Greek philosophy Zeno of Citium, the founder of Stoicism, in the Farnese collection, Naples – Photo by Paolo Monti, 1969. Part of a series on Stoicism Epictetus, Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius Background Socrates Plato Aristotle Crates of Thebes Philosophy Apatheia Ekpyrosis Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Stoic logic Stoic categories Stoic passions Stoic physics Virtue ethics Stoics Zeno of Citium Cleanthes Chrysippus Panaetius Posidonius Seneca the Younger Publius Clodius Thrasea Paetus Epictetus Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Stoic works Discourses of Epictetus Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium The Meditations Similar positions Cynicism Aristotelianism Middle Platonism Contrary positions Pyrrhonism Academic Skepticism Epicureanism  Philosophy portal v t e Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy founded by Zeno of Citium in Athens in the early 3rd century BC. It is a philosophy of personal ethics informed by its system of logic and its views on the natural world. According to its teachings, as social beings, the path to eudaimonia (happiness, or blessedness) is found in accepting the moment as it presents itself, by not allowing oneself to be controlled by the desire for pleasure or by the fear of pain, by using one's mind to understand the world and to do one's part in nature's plan, and by working together and treating others fairly and justly. The Stoics are especially known for teaching that "virtue is the only good" for human beings, and those external things—such as health, wealth, and pleasure—are not good or bad in themselves (adiaphora), but have value as "material for virtue to act upon." Alongside Aristotelian ethics, the Stoic tradition forms one of the major founding approaches to virtue ethics.[1] The Stoics also held that certain destructive emotions resulted from errors of judgment, and they believed people should aim to maintain a will (called prohairesis) that is "in accordance with nature." Because of this, the Stoics thought the best indication of an individual's philosophy was not what a person said but how a person behaved.[2] To live a good life, one had to understand the rules of the natural order since they thought everything was rooted in nature. Many Stoics—such as Seneca and Epictetus—emphasized that because "virtue is sufficient for happiness," a sage would be emotionally resilient to misfortune. This belief is similar to the meaning of the phrase "stoic calm," though the phrase does not include the "radical ethical" Stoic views that only a sage can be considered truly free and that all moral corruptions are equally vicious.[3] Stoicism flourished throughout the Roman and Greek world until the 3rd century AD, and among its adherents was Emperor Marcus Aurelius. It experienced a decline after Christianity became the state religion in the 4th century AD. Since then it has seen revivals, notably in the Renaissance (Neostoicism) and in the contemporary era (modern Stoicism).[4] Contents 1 Name 1.1 Origins 1.2 Modern usage 2 Basic tenets 3 History 4 Logic 4.1 Propositional logic 4.2 Categories 4.3 Epistemology 5 Physics 6 Ethics 6.1 The doctrine of "things indifferent" 6.2 Spiritual exercise 7 Social philosophy 8 Influence on Christianity 9 Stoic philosophers 10 See also 11 References 12 Further reading 12.1 Primary sources 12.2 Studies 13 External links Name[edit] Origins[edit] Stoicism was originally known as "Zenonism", after the founder Zeno of Citium. However, this name was soon dropped, likely because the Stoics did not consider their founders to be perfectly wise, and to avoid the risk of the philosophy becoming a cult of personality.[5] The name "Stoicism" derives from the Stoa Poikile (Ancient Greek: ἡ ποικίλη στοά), or "painted porch", a colonnade decorated with mythic and historical battle scenes, on the north side of the Agora in Athens, where Zeno and his followers gathered to discuss their ideas.[6][7] Sometimes Stoicism is therefore referred to as "The Stoa", or the philosophy of "The Porch".[5] Modern usage[edit] The word "stoic" commonly refers to someone who is indifferent to pain, pleasure, grief, or joy.[8] The modern usage as a "person who represses feelings or endures patiently" was first cited in 1579 as a noun and in 1596 as an adjective.[9] In contrast to the term "Epicurean", the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy's entry on Stoicism notes, "the sense of the English adjective 'stoical' is not utterly misleading with regard to its philosophical origins."[10] Basic tenets[edit] Philosophy does not promise to secure anything external for man, otherwise it would be admitting something that lies beyond its proper subject-matter. For as the material of the carpenter is wood, and that of statuary bronze, so the subject-matter of the art of living is each person's own life. — Epictetus, Discourses 1.15.2, Robin Hard revised translation The Stoics provided a unified account of the world, constructed from ideals of logic, monistic physics and naturalistic ethics. Of these, they emphasized ethics as the main focus of human knowledge, though their logical theories were of more interest for later philosophers. Stoicism teaches the development of self-control and fortitude as a means of overcoming destructive emotions; the philosophy holds that becoming a clear and unbiased thinker allows one to understand the universal reason (logos). Stoicism's primary aspect involves improving the individual's ethical and moral well-being: "Virtue consists in a will that is in agreement with Nature."[11] This principle also applies to the realm of interpersonal relationships; "to be free from anger, envy, and jealousy,"[12] and to accept even slaves as "equals of other men, because all men alike are products of nature".[13] The Stoic ethic espouses a deterministic perspective; in regard to those who lack Stoic virtue, Cleanthes once opined that the wicked man is "like a dog tied to a cart, and compelled to go wherever it goes".[11] A Stoic of virtue, by contrast, would amend his will to suit the world and remain, in the words of Epictetus, "sick and yet happy, in peril and yet happy, dying and yet happy, in exile and happy, in disgrace and happy,"[12] thus positing a "completely autonomous" individual will, and at the same time a universe that is "a rigidly deterministic single whole". This viewpoint was later described as "Classical Pantheism" (and was adopted by Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza).[14] History[edit] Antisthenes, founder of the Cynic school of philosophy Beginning around 301 BC, Zeno taught philosophy at the Stoa Poikile ("Painted Porch"), from which his philosophy got its name.[15] Unlike the other schools of philosophy, such as the Epicureans, Zeno chose to teach his philosophy in a public space, which was a colonnade overlooking the central gathering place of Athens, the Agora. Zeno's ideas developed from those of the Cynics, whose founding father, Antisthenes, had been a disciple of Socrates. Zeno's most influential follower was Chrysippus, who was responsible for molding what is now called Stoicism. Later Roman Stoics focused on promoting a life in harmony within the universe, over which one has no direct control. Bust of Seneca Scholars usually divide the history of Stoicism into three phases: Early Stoa, from Zeno's founding to Antipater. Middle Stoa, including Panaetius and Posidonius. Late Stoa, including Musonius Rufus, Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius. No complete works survive from the first two phases of Stoicism. Only Roman texts from the Late Stoa survive.[16] Stoicism became the foremost popular philosophy among the educated elite in the Hellenistic world and the Roman Empire,[17] to the point where, in the words of Gilbert Murray "nearly all the successors of Alexander [...] professed themselves Stoics."[18] Logic[edit] Main article: Stoic logic Propositional logic[edit] Diodorus Cronus, who was one of Zeno's teachers, is considered the philosopher who first introduced and developed an approach to logic now known as propositional logic, which is based on statements or propositions, rather than terms, making it very different from Aristotle's term logic. Later, Chrysippus developed a system that became known as Stoic logic and included a deductive system, Stoic Syllogistic, which was considered a rival to Aristotle's Syllogistic (see Syllogism). New interest in Stoic logic came in the 20th century, when important developments in logic were based on propositional logic. Susanne Bobzien wrote, "The many close similarities between Chrysippus's philosophical logic and that of Gottlob Frege are especially striking."[19] Bobzien also notes that "Chrysippus wrote over 300 books on logic, on virtually any topic logic today concerns itself with, including speech act theory, sentence analysis, singular and plural expressions, types of predicates, indexicals, existential propositions, sentential connectives, negations, disjunctions, conditionals, logical consequence, valid argument forms, theory of deduction, propositional logic, modal logic, tense logic, epistemic logic, logic of suppositions, logic of imperatives, ambiguity and logical paradoxes."[19] Categories[edit] Main article: Stoic categories The Stoics held that all beings (ὄντα)—though not all things (τινά)—are material.[20] Besides the existing beings they admitted four incorporeals (asomata): time, place, void, and sayable.[21] They were held to be just 'subsisting' while such a status was denied to universals.[22] Thus, they accepted Anaxagoras's idea (as did Aristotle) that if an object is hot, it is because some part of a universal heat body had entered the object. But, unlike Aristotle, they extended the idea to cover all accidents. Thus if an object is red, it would be because some part of a universal red body had entered the object. They held that there were four categories. substance (ὑποκείμενον) The primary matter, formless substance, (ousia) that things are made of quality (ποιόν) The way matter is organized to form an individual object; in Stoic physics, a physical ingredient (pneuma: air or breath), which informs the matter somehow disposed (πως ἔχον) Particular characteristics, not present within the object, such as size, shape, action, and posture Make for yourself a definition or description of the thing which is presented to you, so as to see distinctly what kind of a thing it is in its substance, in its nudity, in its complete entirety, and tell yourself its proper name, and the names of the things of which it has been compounded, and into which it will be resolved. For nothing is so productive of elevation of mind as to be able to examine methodically and truly every object that is presented to you in life, and always to look at things so as to see at the same time what kind of universe this is, and what kind of use everything performs in it, and what value everything has with reference to the whole. — Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, iii. 11 Somehow disposed in relation to something (πρός τί πως ἔχον) Characteristics related to other phenomena, such as the position of an object within time and space relative to other objects Stoics outlined what we have control over categories of our own action, thoughts and reaction. The opening paragraph of The Enchiridion states the categories as: "Things in our control are opinion, pursuit, desire, aversion, and, in a word, whatever are our own actions. Things not in our control are body, property, reputation, command, and, in a word, whatever are not our own actions." These suggest a space that is within our own control. Epistemology[edit] The Stoics propounded that knowledge can be attained through the use of reason. Truth can be distinguished from fallacy—even if, in practice, only an approximation can be made. According to the Stoics, the senses constantly receive sensations: pulsations that pass from objects through the senses to the mind, where they leave an impression in the imagination (phantasiai) (an impression arising from the mind was called a phantasma).[23] The mind has the ability to judge (συγκατάθεσις, synkatathesis)—approve or reject—an impression, enabling it to distinguish a true representation of reality from one that is false. Some impressions can be assented to immediately, but others can achieve only varying degrees of hesitant approval, which can be labeled belief or opinion (doxa). It is only through reason that we gain clear comprehension and conviction (katalepsis). Certain and true knowledge (episteme), achievable by the Stoic sage, can be attained only by verifying the conviction with the expertise of one's peers and the collective judgment of humankind. Physics[edit] Main article: Stoic physics See also: De Mundo According to the Stoics, the Universe is a material reasoning substance (logos),[24] known as God or Nature, which was divided into two classes: the active and the passive. The passive substance is matter, which "lies sluggish, a substance ready for any use, but sure to remain unemployed if no one sets it in motion".[25] The active substance, which can be called Fate or Universal Reason (logos),[24] is an intelligent aether or primordial fire, which acts on the passive matter: The universe itself is God and the universal outpouring of its soul; it is this same world's guiding principle, operating in mind and reason, together with the common nature of things and the totality that embraces all existence; then the foreordained might and necessity of the future; then fire and the principle of aether; then those elements whose natural state is one of flux and transition, such as water, earth, and air; then the sun, the moon, the stars; and the universal existence in which all things are contained. — Chrysippus, in Cicero, De Natura Deorum, i. 39 Everything is subject to the laws of Fate, for the Universe acts according to its own nature, and the nature of the passive matter it governs. The souls of humans and animals are emanations from this primordial Fire, and are, likewise, subject to Fate: Constantly regard the universe as one living being, having one substance and one soul; and observe how all things have reference to one perception, the perception of this one living being; and how all things act with one movement; and how all things are the cooperating causes of all things that exist; observe too the continuous spinning of the thread and the structure of the web. — Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, iv. 40 Individual souls are perishable by nature, and can be "transmuted and diffused, assuming a fiery nature by being received into the seminal reason ("logos spermatikos") of the Universe".[26] Since right Reason is the foundation of both humanity and the universe, it follows that the goal of life is to live according to Reason, that is, to live a life according to Nature. Stoic theology is a fatalistic and naturalistic pantheism: God is never fully transcendent but always immanent, and identified with Nature. Abrahamic religions personalize God as a world-creating entity, but Stoicism equates God with the totality of the universe; according to Stoic cosmology, which is very similar to the Hindu conception of existence, there is no absolute start to time, as it is considered infinite and cyclic. Similarly, the space and Universe have neither start nor end, rather they are cyclical. The current Universe is a phase in the present cycle, preceded by an infinite number of Universes, doomed to be destroyed ("ekpyrōsis", conflagration) and re-created again,[27] and to be followed by another infinite number of Universes. Stoicism considers all existence as cyclical, the cosmos as eternally self-creating and self-destroying (see also Eternal return). Stoicism, just like Indian religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, does not posit a beginning or end to the Universe.[28] According to the Stoics, the logos was the active reason[24] or anima mundi pervading and animating the entire Universe. It was conceived as material and is usually identified with God or Nature. The Stoics also referred to the seminal reason ("logos spermatikos"), or the law of generation in the Universe, which was the principle of the active reason working in inanimate matter. Humans, too, each possess a portion of the divine logos, which is the primordial Fire and reason that controls and sustains the Universe.[29] The first philosophers to explicitly describe nominalist arguments were the Stoics, especially Chrysippus.[30][31] Ethics[edit] Ancient stoics are often misunderstood because the terms they used pertained to different concepts than today. The word "stoic" has since come to mean "unemotional" or indifferent to pain because Stoic ethics taught freedom from "passion" by following "reason." The Stoics did not seek to extinguish emotions; rather, they sought to transform them by a resolute "askēsis", that enables a person to develop clear judgment and inner calm.[32] Logic, reflection, and focus were the methods of such self-discipline, temperance is split into self-control, discipline, and modesty. Borrowing from the Cynics, the foundation of Stoic ethics is that good lies in the state of the soul itself; in wisdom and self-control. Stoic ethics stressed the rule: "Follow where reason leads."[citation needed] One must therefore strive to be free of the passions, bearing in mind that the ancient meaning of "passion" was "anguish" or "suffering",[33] that is, "passively" reacting to external events, which is somewhat different from the modern use of the word. A distinction was made between pathos (plural pathe) which is normally translated as passion, propathos or instinctive reaction (e.g., turning pale and trembling when confronted by physical danger) and eupathos, which is the mark of the Stoic sage (sophos). The eupatheia are feelings that result from the correct judgment in the same way that passions result from incorrect judgment. The idea was to be free of suffering through apatheia (Greek: ἀπάθεια; literally, "without passion") or peace of mind,[34] where peace of mind was understood in the ancient sense—being objective or having "clear judgment" and the maintenance of equanimity in the face of life's highs and lows. For the Stoics, reason meant using logic and understanding the processes of nature—the logos or universal reason, inherent in all things. According to reason and virtue, living according to reason and virtue is to live in harmony with the divine order of the universe, in recognition of the common reason and essential value of all people. The four cardinal virtues (aretai) of Stoic philosophy is a classification derived from the teachings of Plato (Republic IV. 426–435): Wisdom (Greek: φρόνησις "phronesis" or σοφία "sophia", Latin: prudentia or sapientia) Courage (Greek: ανδρεία "andreia", Latin: fortitudo) Justice (Greek: δικαιοσύνη "dikaiosyne", Latin: iustitia) Temperance (Greek: σωφροσύνη "sophrosyne", Latin: temperantia) Following Socrates, the Stoics held that unhappiness and evil are the results of human ignorance of the reason in nature. If someone is unkind, it is because they are unaware of their own universal reason, which leads to the conclusion of unkindness. The solution to evil and unhappiness then is the practice of Stoic philosophy: to examine one's own judgments and behavior and determine where they diverge from the universal reason of nature. The Stoics accepted that suicide was permissible for the wise person in circumstances that might prevent them from living a virtuous life.[35] Plutarch held that accepting life under tyranny would have compromised Cato's self-consistency (constantia) as a Stoic and impaired his freedom to make the honorable moral choices.[36] Suicide could be justified if one fell victim to severe pain or disease,[35] but otherwise suicide would usually be seen as a rejection of one's social duty.[37] In an article for ABC News, Mick Mulroy the former Deputy Secretary of Defense for the Middle East under Secretary Jim Mattis and also a retired U.S. Marine, advocated for using stoicism as the philosophy for the U.S. Military due to its views on controlling anger and fear as well as the stoic concept of universal brotherhood. [38] The doctrine of "things indifferent"[edit] Main article: Adiaphora See also: Eudaimonia In philosophical terms, things that are indifferent are outside the application of moral law—that is without tendency to either promote or obstruct moral ends. Actions neither required nor forbidden by the moral law, or that do not affect morality, are called morally indifferent. The doctrine of things indifferent (ἀδιάφορα, adiaphora) arose in the Stoic school as a corollary of its diametric opposition of virtue and vice (καθήκοντα kathekonta, "convenient actions", or actions in accordance with nature; and ἁμαρτήματα hamartemata, mistakes). As a result of this dichotomy, a large class of objects were left unassigned and thus regarded as indifferent. Eventually three sub-classes of "things indifferent" developed: things to prefer because they assist life according to nature; things to avoid because they hinder it; and things indifferent in the narrower sense. The principle of adiaphora was also common to the Cynics. Philipp Melanchthon revived the doctrine of things indifferent during the Renaissance. Spiritual exercise[edit] Marcus Aurelius, the Stoic Roman emperor Philosophy for a Stoic is not just a set of beliefs or ethical claims; it is a way of life involving constant practice and training (or "askēsis"). Stoic philosophical and spiritual practices included logic, Socratic dialogue and self-dialogue, contemplation of death, mortality salience, training attention to remain in the present moment (similar to mindfulness and some forms of Buddhist meditation), and daily reflection on everyday problems and possible solutions e.g. with journaling. Philosophy for a Stoic is an active process of constant practice and self-reminder. In his Meditations, Marcus Aurelius defines several such practices. For example, in Book II.I: Say to yourself in the early morning: I shall meet today ungrateful, violent, treacherous, envious, uncharitable men. All of the ignorance of real good and ill...I can neither be harmed by any of them, for no man will involve me in wrong, nor can I be angry with my kinsman or hate him; for we have come into the world to work together... Prior to Aurelius, Epictetus in his Discourses, distinguished between three types of act: judgment, desire, and inclination.[39] According to French philosopher Pierre Hadot, Epictetus identifies these three acts with logic, physics and ethics respectively.[40] Hadot writes that in the Meditations, "Each maxim develops either one of these very characteristic topoi [i.e., acts], or two of them or three of them."[41] Seamus Mac Suibhne has described the practices of spiritual exercises as influencing those of reflective practice.[42] Many parallels between Stoic spiritual exercises and modern cognitive behavioral therapy have been identified.[43] Stoics were also known for consolatory orations, which were part of the consolatio literary tradition. Three such consolations by Seneca have survived. Stoics commonly employ ‘The View from Above’, reflecting on society and otherness in guided visualization, aiming to gain a "bigger picture", to see ourselves in context relevant to others, to see others in the context of the world, to see ourselves in the context of the world to help determine our role and the importance of happenings. Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, in Book 7.48 it is stated; A fine reflection from Plato. One who would converse about human beings should look on all things earthly as though from some point far above, upon herds, armies, and agriculture, marriages and divorces, births and deaths, the clamour of law courts, deserted wastes, alien peoples of every kind, festivals, lamentations, and markets, this intermixture of everything and ordered combination of opposites. Social philosophy[edit] A distinctive feature of Stoicism is its cosmopolitanism; according to the Stoics, all people are manifestations of the one universal spirit and should live in brotherly love and readily help one another. In the Discourses, Epictetus comments on man's relationship with the world: "Each human being is primarily a citizen of his own commonwealth; but he is also a member of the great city of gods and men, whereof the city political is only a copy."[44] This sentiment echoes that of Diogenes of Sinope, who said, "I am not an Athenian or a Corinthian, but a citizen of the world."[45] They held that external differences, such as rank and wealth, are of no importance in social relationships. Instead, they advocated the brotherhood of humanity and the natural equality of all human beings. Stoicism became the most influential school of the Greco-Roman world, and produced a number of remarkable writers and personalities, such as Cato the Younger and Epictetus. In particular, they were noted for their urging of clemency toward slaves. Seneca exhorted, "Kindly remember that he whom you call your slave sprang from the same stock, is smiled upon by the same skies, and on equal terms with yourself breathes, lives, and dies."[46] Influence on Christianity[edit] See also: Neostoicism Justus Lipsius, founder of Neostoicism In St. Ambrose of Milan's Duties, "The voice is the voice of a Christian bishop, but the precepts are those of Zeno."[47][48] Regarding what he called "the Divine Spirit", Stanisforth wrote: Cleanthes, wishing to give more explicit meaning to Zeno's 'creative fire', had been the first to hit upon the term pneuma, or 'spirit', to describe it. Like fire, this intelligent 'spirit' was imagined as a tenuous substance akin to a current of air or breath, but essentially possessing the quality of warmth; it was immanent in the universe as God, and in man as the soul and life-giving principle. Clearly, it is not a long step from this to the 'Holy Spirit' of Christian theology, the 'Lord and Giver of life', visibly manifested as tongues of fire at Pentecost and ever since associated—in the Christian as in the Stoic mind—with the ideas of vital fire and beneficient warmth.[49] Regarding the Trinity, Staniforth wrote: Again in the doctrine of the Trinity, the ecclesiastical conception of Father, Word, and Spirit finds its germ in the different Stoic names of the Divine Unity. Thus Seneca, writing of the supreme Power which shapes the universe, states, 'This Power we sometimes call the All-ruling God, sometimes the incorporeal Wisdom, sometimes the Holy Spirit, sometimes Destiny.' The Church had only to reject the last of these terms to arrive at its own acceptable definition of the Divine Nature; while the further assertion 'these three are One', which the modern mind finds paradoxical, was no more than commonplace to those familiar with Stoic notions.[49] The apostle Paul met with Stoics during his stay in Athens, reported in Acts 17:16–18. In his letters, Paul reflected heavily from his knowledge of Stoic philosophy, using Stoic terms and metaphors to assist his new Gentile converts in their understanding of Christianity.[50] Stoic influence can also be seen in the works of St. Ambrose, Marcus Minucius Felix, and Tertullian.[51] The Fathers of the Church regarded Stoicism as a "pagan philosophy";[52][53] nonetheless, early Christian writers employed some of the central philosophical concepts of Stoicism. Examples include the terms "logos", "virtue", "Spirit", and "conscience".[28] But the parallels go well beyond the sharing and borrowing of terminology. Both Stoicism and Christianity assert an inner freedom in the face of the external world, a belief in human kinship with Nature or God, a sense of the innate depravity—or "persistent evil"—of humankind,[28] and the futility and temporary nature of worldly possessions and attachments. Both encourage Ascesis with respect to the passions and inferior emotions, such as lust, and envy, so that the higher possibilities of one's humanity can be awakened and developed. Stoic writings such as Meditations by Marcus Aurelius have been highly regarded by many Christians throughout the centuries. The Eastern Orthodox Church and Oriental Orthodox Church accept the Stoic ideal of dispassion to this day. Middle and Roman Stoics taught that sex is just within marriage, for unitive and procreative purposes only.[54][55] This teaching is accepted by the Catholic Church to this day.[56] Saint Ambrose of Milan was known for applying Stoic philosophy to his theology. Stoic philosophers[edit] Main article: List of Stoic philosophers Zeno of Citium (332–262 BC), founder of Stoicism and the Stoic Academy (Stoa) in Athens Aristo of Chios (fl. 260 BC), pupil of Zeno; Herillus of Carthage (fl. 3rd century BC) Cleanthes (of Assos) (330–232 BC), second head of Stoic Academy Chrysippus (280–204 BC), third head of the academy Diogenes of Babylon (230–150 BC) Antipater of Tarsus (210–129 BC) Panaetius of Rhodes (185–109 BC) Posidonius of Apameia (c. 135 BC – 51 BC) Diodotus (c. 120 BC – 59 BC), teacher of Cicero Cato the Younger (94–46 BC) Seneca (4 BC – AD 65) Gaius Musonius Rufus (1st century AD) Rubellius Plautus (AD 33–62) Publius Clodius Thrasea Paetus (1st century AD) Lucius Annaeus Cornutus (1st century AD) Epictetus (AD 55–135) Hierocles (2nd century AD) Marcus Aurelius (AD 121–180) See also[edit] 4 Maccabees Ecclesiastes Dehellenization Deixis Glossary of Stoic terms Ekpyrosis, palingenesis, apocatastasis Ekpyrotic universe (cosmological theory) List of Stoic philosophers Megarian school Oikeiôsis Paradoxa Stoicorum Plank of Carneades Pneuma Sage (philosophy) Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta "Stoic Opposition" References[edit] ^ Sharpe, Matthew. "Stoic Virtue Ethics." Handbook of Virtue Ethics, 2013, 28–41. ^ John Sellars. Stoicism, 2006, p. 32. ^ Stoicism, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ Becker, Lawrence C. (2001). A New Stoicism. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 9781400822447. ^ a b Robertson, Donald (2018). Stoicism and the Art of Happiness. Great Britain: John Murray. ^ "Definition of STOIC". ^ Williamson, D. (1 April 2015). Kant's Theory of Emotion: Emotional Universalism. Palgrave Macmillan US. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-137-49810-6. ^ "Modern Stoicism | Build The Fire". Build The Fire. 9 February 2016. Retrieved 22 June 2016. ^ Harper, Douglas (November 2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary – Stoic". Retrieved 2 September 2006. ^ Baltzly, Dirk (13 December 2004). "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy – Stoicism". Retrieved 2 September 2006. ^ a b Russell, Bertrand. A History of Western Philosophy, p. 254 ^ a b Russell, Bertrand. A History of Western Philosophy, p. 264 ^ Russell, Bertrand. A History of Western Philosophy, p. 253. ^ Charles Hartshorne and William Reese, "Philosophers Speak of God," Humanity Books, 1953 ch 4 ^ Becker, Lawrence (2003). A History of Western Ethics. New York: Routledge. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-415-96825-6. ^ A.A.Long, Hellenistic Philosophy, p. 115. ^ Amos, H. (1982). These Were the Greeks. Chester Springs: Dufour Editions. ISBN 978-0-8023-1275-4. OCLC 9048254. ^ Gilbert Murray, The Stoic Philosophy (1915), p. 25. In Bertrand Russell, A History of Western Philosophy (1946). ^ a b Ancient Logic by Susanne Bobzien. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ Jacques Brunschwig, Stoic Metaphysics in The Cambridge Companion to Stoics, ed. B. Inwood, Cambridge, 2006, p.206-32 ^ Sextus Empiricus, Adversus Mathematicos 10.218. (chronos, topos, kenon, lekton) ^ Marcelo D. Boeri, The Stoics on Bodies and Incorporeals, The Review of Metaphysics, Vol. 54, No. 4 (Jun., 2001), pp. 723-752 ^ Diogenes Laërtius (2000). Lives of eminent philosophers. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. VII.49 ^ a b c Brenk, Frederick (January 2016). "Pagan Monotheism and Pagan Cult". “Theism” and Related Categories in the Study of Ancient Religions. SCS/AIA Annual Meeting. 75.4. Philadelphia: Society for Classical Studies (University of Pennsylvania). Archived from the original on 6 May 2017. Retrieved 14 October 2020. Historical authors generally refer to “the divine” (to theion) or “the supernatural” (to daimonion) rather than simply “God.” [...] The Stoics, believed in a God identifiable with the logos or hegemonikon (reason or leading principle) of the universe and downgraded the traditional gods, who even disappear during the conflagration (ekpyrosis). Yet, the Stoics apparently did not practice a cult to this God. Middle and Later Platonists, who spoke of a supreme God, in philosophical discourse, generally speak of this God, not the gods, as responsible for the creation and providence of the universe. They, too, however, do not seem to have directly practiced a religious cult to their God. ^ Seneca, Epistles, lxv. 2. ^ Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, iv. 21. ^ Michael Lapidge, Stoic Cosmology, in: John M. Rist, The Stoics, Cambridge University Press, 1978, pp. 182–183. ^ a b c Ferguson, Everett. Backgrounds of Early Christianity. 2003, p. 368. ^ Tripolitis, A., Religions of the Hellenistic-Roman Age, pp. 37–38. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ^ John Sellars, Stoicism, Routledge, 2014, pp. 84–85: "[Stoics] have often been presented as the first nominalists, rejecting the existence of universal concepts altogether. ... For Chrysippus there are no universal entities, whether they be conceived as substantial Platonic Forms or in some other manner.". ^ Chrysippus – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy ^ Graver, Margaret (2009). Stoicism and Emotion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-30558-5. OCLC 430497127. ^ "Passion". Merriam-Webster. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 29 January 2011. ^ Seddon, Keith (2005). Epictetus' Handbook and the Tablet of Cebes. New York: Routledge. p. 217. ISBN 978-0-415-32451-9. OCLC 469313282. ^ a b Don E. Marietta, (1998), Introduction to ancient philosophy, pp. 153–54. Sharpe ^ Zadorojnyi, Alexei V. (2007). "Cato's suicide in Plutarch AV Zadorojnyi". The Classical Quarterly. 57 (1): 216–230. doi:10.1017/S0009838807000195. ^ William Braxton Irvine, (2009), A guide to the good life: the ancient art of Stoic joy, p. 200. Oxford University Press ^ http://abcnewsradioonline.com/world-news/where-philosophy-intersects-with-war-training-stoic-soldiers.html ^ Davidson, A.I. (1995) Pierre Hadot and the Spiritual Phenomenon of Ancient Philosophy, in Philosophy as a Way of Life, Hadot, P. Oxford Blackwells, pp. 9–10 ^ Hadot, P. (1992) La Citadelle intérieure. Introduction aux Pensées de Marc Aurèle. Paris, Fayard, pp. 106–15 ^ Hadot, P. (1987) Exercices spirituels et philosophie antique. Paris, 2nd ed., p. 135. ^ Mac Suibhne, S. (2009). "'Wrestle to be the man philosophy wished to make you': Marcus Aurelius, reflective practitioner". Reflective Practice. 10 (4): 429–36. doi:10.1080/14623940903138266. S2CID 219711815. ^ Robertson, D (2010). The Philosophy of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy: Stoicism as Rational and Cognitive Psychotherapy. London: Karnac. ISBN 978-1-85575-756-1. ^ Epictetus, Discourses, ii. 5. 26 ^ Epictetus, Discourses, i. 9. 1 ^ Seneca, Moral letters to Lucilius, Letter 47: On master and slave, 10, circa AD 65. ^ "On the Duties of the Clergy". www.newadvent.org. Retrieved 1 March 2017. ^ Aurelius, Marcus (1964). Meditations. London: Penguin Books. p. 26. ISBN 978-0-140-44140-6. ^ a b Marcus Aurelius (1964). Meditations. London: Penguin Books. p. 25. ISBN 978-0-140-44140-6. ^ Kee, Howard and Franklin W. Young, Understanding The New Testament, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice Hall, Inc. 1958, p. 208. ISBN 978-0139365911 ^ Encyclopædia Britannica. Stoicism. §Stoic elements in Pauline and patristic thought ^ Agathias. Histories, 2.31. ^ David, Sedley. "Ancient philosophy". In E. Craig (ed.). Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 18 October 2008. ^ Musonius Rufus. "Lecture XII "On Sexual Indulgence"." Musonius Rufus: The Roman Socrates (Lectures and Fragments), Introduction and Translation by Cora E. Lutz, From Volume X of the Yale Classical Studies, Yale University Press, 1947 ^ The Making of Fornication: Eros, Ethics, and Political Reform in Greek Philosophy and Early Christianity. From University of California Press, 2003 ^ "CCC, 2366". Vatican.va. Further reading[edit] Primary sources[edit] A. A. Long and D. N. Sedley, The Hellenistic Philosophers Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. Inwood, Brad & Gerson Lloyd P. (eds.) The Stoics Reader: Selected Writings and Testimonia Indianapolis: Hackett 2008. Long, George Enchiridion by Epictetus, Prometheus Books, Reprint Edition, January 1955. Gill C. Epictetus, The Discourses, Everyman 1995. Irvine, William, A Guide to the Good Life: The Ancient Art of Stoic Joy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008) ISBN 978-0-19-537461-2 Hadas, Moses (ed.), Essential Works of Stoicism, Bantam Books 1961. Harvard University Press Epictetus Discourses Books 1 and 2, Loeb Classical Library Nr. 131, June 1925. Harvard University Press Epictetus Discourses Books 3 and 4, Loeb Classical Library Nr. 218, June 1928. Long, George, Discourses of Epictetus, Kessinger Publishing, January 2004. Lucius Annaeus Seneca the Younger (transl. Robin Campbell), Letters from a Stoic: Epistulae Morales Ad Lucilium (1969, reprint 2004) ISBN 0-14-044210-3 Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, translated by Maxwell Staniforth; ISBN 0-14-044140-9, or translated by Gregory Hays; ISBN 0-679-64260-9. Oates, Whitney Jennings, The Stoic and Epicurean Philosophers, The Complete Extant Writings of Epicurus, Epictetus, Lucretius and Marcus Aurelius, Random House, 9th printing 1940. Studies[edit] Bakalis, Nikolaos, Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics. Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing, May 2005, ISBN 1-4120-4843-5 Becker, Lawrence C., A New Stoicism (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1998) ISBN 0-691-01660-7 Brennan, Tad, The Stoic Life (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005; paperback 2006) Brooke, Christopher. Philosophic Pride: Stoicism and Political Thought from Lipsius to Rousseau (Princeton UP, 2012) excerpts Inwood, Brad (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to The Stoics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003) Lachs, John, Stoic Pragmatism (Indiana University Press, 2012) ISBN 0-253-22376-8 Long, A. A., Stoic Studies (Cambridge University Press, 1996; repr. University of California Press, 2001) ISBN 0-520-22974-6 Robertson, Donald, The Philosophy of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy: Stoicism as Rational and Cognitive Psychotherapy (London: Karnac, 2010) ISBN 978-1-85575-756-1 Robertson, Donald, How to Think Like a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius. 'New York: St. Martin's Press, 2019. Sellars, John, Stoicism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006) ISBN 1-84465-053-7 Stephens, William O., Stoic Ethics: Epictetus and Happiness as Freedom (London: Continuum, 2007) ISBN 0-8264-9608-3 Strange, Steven (ed.), Stoicism: Traditions and Transformations (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2004) ISBN 0-521-82709-4 Zeller, Eduard; Reichel, Oswald J., The Stoics, Epicureans and Sceptics, Longmans, Green, and Co., 1892 External links[edit] Library resources about Stoicism Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Wikiquote has quotations related to: Stoicism Listen to this article (19.9 megabytes) This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 30 September 2019 (2019-09-30), and does not reflect subsequent edits. (Audio help · More spoken articles) Baltzly, Dirk. "Stoicism". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. "Stoicism". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. "Stoic Ethics". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. "Stoic Philosophy of Mind". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Hicks, Robert Drew (1911). "Stoics" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). The Stoic Library The Stoic Library Stoic Logic: The Dialectic from Zeno to Chrysippus Annotated Bibliography on Ancient Stoic Dialectic "A bibliography on Stoicism by the Stoic Foundation". Archived from the original on 23 September 2012. Retrieved 14 September 2012. 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en-wikipedia-org-7431	----	Portal:Ancient Rome - Wikipedia Portal:Ancient Rome From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikimedia portal Portal maintenance status: (February 2020) This portal's subpages have been checked by an editor, and are needed. Please take care when editing, especially if using automated editing software. Learn how to update the maintenance information here. Portal topics Activities Culture Geography Health History Mathematics Nature People Philosophy Religion Society Technology Random portal edit  The Ancient Rome portal The Colosseum A bust of Gaius Julius Caesar In historiography, ancient Rome is Roman civilization from the founding of the Italian city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD, encompassing the Roman Kingdom (753 BC–509 BC), Roman Republic (509 BC–27 BC) and Roman Empire (27 BC–476 AD) until the fall of the western empire. The civilisation began as an Italic settlement in the Italian Peninsula, traditionally dated to 753 BC, that grew into the city of Rome and which subsequently gave its name to the empire over which it ruled and to the widespread civilisation the empire developed. The civilization was led and ruled by the Romans, alternately considered an ethnic group or a nationality. The Roman Empire expanded to become one of the largest empires in the ancient world, still ruled from the city, with an estimated 50 to 90 million inhabitants (roughly 20% of the world's population at the time) and covering 5 million square kilometres (1.9 million square miles) at its height in AD 117. In its many centuries of existence, the Roman state evolved from an elective monarchy to a democratic classical republic and then to an increasingly autocratic semi-elective military dictatorship during the Empire. Through conquest, cultural, and linguistic assimilation, at its height it controlled the North African coast, Egypt, Southern Europe, and most of Western Europe, the Balkans, Crimea and much of the Middle East, including Anatolia, Levant and parts of Mesopotamia and Arabia. It is often grouped into classical antiquity together with ancient Greece, and their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco-Roman world. Ancient Roman civilisation has contributed to modern language, religion, society, technology, law, politics, government, warfare, art, literature, architecture and engineering. Rome professionalised and expanded its military and created a system of government called res publica, the inspiration for modern republics such as the United States and France. It achieved impressive technological and architectural feats, such as the construction of an extensive system of aqueducts and roads, as well as the construction of large monuments, palaces, and public facilities. The Punic Wars with Carthage were decisive in establishing Rome as a world power. In this series of wars, Rome gained control of the strategic islands of Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily; took Hispania (modern Spain and Portugal); and destroyed the city of Carthage in 146 BC, giving Rome supremacy in the Mediterranean. By the end of the Republic (27 BC), Rome had conquered the lands around the Mediterranean and beyond: its domain extended from the Atlantic to Arabia and from the mouth of the Rhine to North Africa. The Roman Empire emerged with the end of the Republic and the dictatorship of Augustus. Seven-hundred and twenty-one years of Roman–Persian Wars started in 92 BC with the first struggle against Parthia. It would become the longest conflict in human history, and have major lasting effects and consequences for both empires. Under Trajan, the Empire reached its territorial peak. It stretched from the entire Mediterranean Basin to the beaches of the North Sea in the north, to the shores of the Red and Caspian Seas in the East. Republican mores and traditions started to decline during the imperial period, with civil wars becoming a prelude common to the rise of a new emperor. Splinter states, such as the Palmyrene Empire, would temporarily divide the Empire during the crisis of the 3rd century before some stability was restored in the Tetrarchy phase of imperial rule. Plagued by internal instability and attacked by various migrating peoples, the western part of the empire broke up into independent barbarian kingdoms in the 5th century. The eastern part of the empire remained a power through the Middle Ages until its fall in 1453 AD. (Full article...) View new selections below (purge) edit  Selected article - show another The Roman Empire (Latin: Imperium Romanum [ɪmˈpɛri.ũː roːˈmaːnũː]; Koinē Greek: Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, romanized: Basileía tōn Rhōmaíōn) was the post-Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity it included large territorial holdings around the Mediterranean Sea in Europe, Northern Africa, and Western Asia ruled by emperors. From the accession of Caesar Augustus to the military anarchy of the 3rd century, it was a principate with Italy as metropole of the provinces and the city of Rome as sole capital (27 BC – 286 AD). After the military crisis, the empire was ruled by multiple emperors who shared rule over the Western Roman Empire and over the Eastern Roman Empire (also known as the Byzantine Empire). Rome remained the nominal capital of both parts until 476 AD, when the imperial insignia were sent to Constantinople, following the capture of Ravenna by the barbarians of Odoacer and the subsequent deposition of Romulus Augustulus. The fall of the Western Roman Empire to Germanic kings, along with the hellenization of the Eastern Roman Empire into the Byzantine Empire, conventionally marks the end of Ancient Rome and the beginning of the Middle Ages. The predecessor state of the Roman Empire, the Roman Republic (which had replaced Rome's monarchy in the 6th century BC) became severely destabilized in a series of civil wars and political conflicts. In the mid-1st century BC, Julius Caesar was appointed as perpetual dictator and then assassinated in 44 BC. Civil wars and proscriptions continued, culminating in the victory of Octavian, Caesar's adopted son, over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. The following year Octavian conquered Ptolemaic Egypt, ending the Hellenistic period that had begun with the conquests of Alexander the Great of Macedon in the 4th century BC. Octavian's power then became unassailable, and in 27 BC the Roman Senate formally granted him overarching power and the new title Augustus, effectively making him the first Roman emperor. (Full article...) List of selected articles Roman art Romulus and Remus Roman currency Roman emperor Roman legion Marian reforms Toga King of Rome Praetor Roman censor Tribune Roman dictator Roman people Roman Republic Punic Wars Roman law Roman technology Culture of ancient Rome Patrician (ancient Rome) Conflict of the Orders Roman economy Military of ancient Rome Roman aqueduct Legacy of the Roman Empire Pax Romana Fall of the Western Roman Empire Western Roman Empire Latium Roman Kingdom History of the Roman Empire Latin Women in ancient Rome Tabula Peutingeriana Languages of the Roman Empire Slavery in ancient Rome Colosseum Karamagara Bridge Roman Forum Ancient Roman architecture Food and dining in the Roman Empire Ancient Rome and wine Gladiator Clothing in ancient Rome Roman amphitheatre Ancient Roman sarcophagi Roman sculpture Roman glass Ancient Roman pottery Religion in ancient Rome Ab Urbe Condita Libri First Punic War Roman temple of Bziza Chariot racing Emesa helmet Inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre Roman–Persian Wars Late Roman army Roman–Parthian War of 58–63 History of the Constitution of the Roman Republic History of the Roman Constitution Third Punic War Constitution of the Roman Republic Galatian War Gothic War (535–554) Crisis of the Roman Republic List of Roman emperors Roman Britain Hoxne Hoard Structural history of the Roman military Astronomica (Manilius) Cento Vergilianus de laudibus Christi Annales (Ennius) Ave Imperator, morituri te salutant Historia Augusta Roman Dacia Senate of the Roman Republic Legislative assemblies of the Roman Republic edit  General images The following are images from various ancient Rome-related articles on Wikipedia. The Roman empire under Hadrian (ruled 117–138) showing the location of the Roman legions deployed in 125 AD A map of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a Greco-Roman Periplus Brescia Casket, an ivory box with Biblical imagery (late 4th century) Fragment of a sarcophagus depicting Gordian III and senators (3rd century) The Pompeii Lakshmi, an ivory statuette from the Indian subcontinent found in the ruins of Pompeii Reconstruction of a writing tablet: the stylus was used to inscribe letters into the wax surface for drafts, casual letterwriting, and schoolwork, while texts meant to be permanent were copied onto papyrus. Finely decorated Gallo-Roman terra sigillata bowl Workers at a cloth-processing shop, in a painting from the fullonica of Veranius Hypsaeus in Pompeii Women from the wall painting at the Villa of the Mysteries, Pompeii Pride in literacy was displayed in portraiture through emblems of reading and writing, as in this example of a couple from Pompeii (Portrait of Paquius Proculo). The Roman Empire by 476 The Zliten mosaic, from a dining room in present-day Libya, depicts a series of arena scenes: from top, musicians playing a Roman tuba, a water pipe organ and two horns; six pairs of gladiators with two referees; four beast fighters; and three convicts condemned to the beasts Roman hunters during the preparations, set-up of traps, and in-action hunting near Tarraco Circus Maximus, a mass entertainment venue located in Rome The Roman Empire in 117 AD at its greatest extent, at the time of Trajan's death (with its vassals in pink) Forum of Gerasa (Jerash in present-day Jordan), with columns marking a covered walkway (stoa) for vendor stalls, and a semicircular space for public speaking Statuettes representing Roman and Gallic deities, for personal devotion at private shrines Head of Constantine the Great, part of a colossal statue. Bronze, 4th century, Musei Capitolini, Rome. Mosaic from Pompeii depicting the Academy of Plato Fresco of a seated woman from Stabiae, 1st century AD Birds and fountain within a garden setting, with oscilla (hanging masks) above, in a painting from Pompeii The Primavera of Stabiae, perhaps the goddess Flora So-called "bikini girls" mosaic from the Villa del Casale, Roman Sicily, 4th century On the Ludovisi sarcophagus, an example of the battle scenes favoured during the Crisis of the Third Century, the "writhing and highly emotive" Romans and Goths fill the surface in a packed, anti-classical composition Cityscape from the Villa Boscoreale (60s AD) Reconstructed peristyle garden based on the House of the Vettii A teacher with two students, as a third arrives with his loculus, a writing case that would contain pens, ink pot, and a sponge to correct errors A fresco from Herculaneum depicting Heracles and Achelous from Greco-Roman mythology, 1st century CE Relief panel from Trajan's Column showing the building of a fort and the reception of a Dacian embassy Relief from the Arch of Titus in Rome depicting a menorah and other spoils from the Temple of Jerusalem carried in Roman triumph. Statue in Constanța, Romania (the ancient colony Tomis), commemorating Ovid's exile The Colosseum in Rome A victor in his four-horse chariot Aeneas flees burning Troy, Federico Barocci, 1598. Galleria Borghese, Rome. Bilingual Latin-Punic inscription at the theatre in Leptis Magna, Roman Africa (present-day Libya) Bread stall, from a Pompeiian wall painting Eggs, thrushes, napkin, and vessels (wall painting from the House of Julia Felix, Pompeii) A Roman priest, his head ritually covered with a fold of his toga, extends a patera in a gesture of libation (2nd–3rd century) Solidus issued under Constantine II, and on the reverse Victoria, one of the last deities to appear on Roman coins, gradually transforming into an angel under Christian rule This funerary stele from the 3rd century is among the earliest Christian inscriptions, written in both Greek and Latin: the abbreviation D.M. at the top refers to the Di Manes, the traditional Roman spirits of the dead, but accompanies Christian fish symbolism. Wall painting depicting a sports riot at the amphitheatre of Pompeii, which led to the banning of gladiator combat in the town A multigenerational banquet depicted on a wall painting from Pompeii (1st century AD) A green Roman glass cup unearthed from an Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220 AD) tomb in Guangxi, southern China; the earliest Roman glassware found in China was discovered in a Western Han tomb in Guangzhou, dated to the early 1st century BC, and ostensibly came via the maritime route through the South China Sea The Barbarian Invasions consisted of the movement of (mainly) ancient Germanic peoples into Roman territory. Even though northern invasions took place throughout the life of the Empire, this period officially began in the 4th century and lasted for many centuries, during which the western territory was under the dominion of foreign northern rulers, a notable one being Charlemagne. Historically, this event marked the transition between classical antiquity and the Middle Ages. The Augustus of Prima Porta (early 1st century AD) Aquae Sulis in Bath, England: architectural features above the level of the pillar bases are a later reconstruction. Glass cage cup from the Rhineland, 4th century An Ostian taberna for eating and drinking; the faded painting over the counter pictured eggs, olives, fruit and radishes. Capitoline Wolf, sculpture of the she-wolf feeding the twins Romulus and Remus, the most famous image associated with the founding of Rome The Pula Arena in Croatia is one of the largest and most intact of the remaining Roman amphitheatres. Musicians playing a Roman tuba, a water organ (hydraulis), and a pair of cornua, detail from the Zliten mosaic, 2nd century AD Cinerary urn for the freedman Tiberius Claudius Chryseros and two women, probably his wife and daughter Mosaic depicting a theatrical troupe preparing for a performance A fresco portrait of a man holding a papyrus roll, Pompeii, Italy, 1st century AD Still life on a 2nd-century Roman mosaic Antoninus Pius (reigned 138–161), wearing a toga (Hermitage Museum) Personification of the River Nile and his children, from the Temple of Serapis and Isis in Rome (1st century AD) A late Republican banquet scene in a fresco from Herculaneum, Italy, c. 50 BC; the woman wears a transparent silk gown while the man to the left raises a rhyton drinking vessel All-male theatrical troupe preparing for a masked performance, on a mosaic from the House of the Tragic Poet The so-called Primavera of Stabiae, perhaps the goddess Flora Boys and girls playing ball games (2nd century relief from the Louvre) Stone game board from Aphrodisias: boards could also be made of wood, with deluxe versions in costly materials such as ivory; game pieces or counters were bone, glass, or polished stone, and might be coloured or have markings or images The Pont du Gard aqueduct, which crosses the Gardon River in southern France, is on UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Condemned man attacked by a leopard in the arena (3rd-century mosaic from Tunisia) Gold earrings with gemstones, 3rd century The Roman siege and destruction of Jerusalem, from a Western religious manuscript, c.1504 Landscape resulting from the ruina montium mining technique at Las Médulas, Spain, one of the most important gold mines in the Roman Empire Plato's Academy mosaic from Pompeii The Triumph of Neptune floor mosaic from Africa Proconsularis (present-day Tunisia), celebrating agricultural success with allegories of the Seasons, vegetation, workers and animals viewable from multiple perspectives in the room (latter 2nd century) Wall painting (1st century AD) from Pompeii depicting a multigenerational banquet Citizen of Roman Egypt (Fayum mummy portrait) Romulus and Remus on the House of the She-wolf at the Grand Place of Brussels. A bust of Cicero, Capitoline Museums, Rome Reconstructed statue of Augustus as Jove, holding scepter and orb (first half of 1st century AD). The Imperial cult of ancient Rome identified emperors and some members of their families with the divinely sanctioned authority (auctoritas) of the Roman State. The rite of apotheosis (also called consecratio) signified the deceased emperor's deification and acknowledged his role as father of the people similar to the concept of a pater familias' soul or manes being honoured by his sons. Construction on the Flavian Amphitheatre, more commonly known as the Colosseum (Italy), began during the reign of Vespasian. Roman portraiture fresco of a young man with a papyrus scroll, from Herculaneum, 1st century AD Silver cup, from the Boscoreale Treasure (early 1st century AD) Slave holding writing tablets for his master (relief from a 4th-century sarcophagus) Toga-clad statue, restored with the head of the emperor Nerva Marble relief of Mithras slaying the bull (2nd century, Louvre-Lens); Mithraism was among the most widespread mystery religions of the Roman Empire. Spread of Seuso at Lacus Pelso (Lake Balaton) Fragmentary military diploma from Carnuntum; Latin was the language of the military throughout the Empire The Wedding of Zephyrus and Chloris (54–68 AD, Pompeian Fourth Style) within painted architectural panels from the Casa del Naviglio Portrait of a literary woman from Pompeii (ca. 50 AD) Public toilets (latrinae) from Ostia Antica A segment of the ruins of Hadrian's Wall in northern England Amphitheatres of the Roman Empire The bronze Drunken Satyr, excavated at Herculaneum and exhibited in the 18th century, inspired an interest among later sculptors in similar "carefree" subjects. The cities of the Roman world in the Imperial Period. Data source: Hanson, J. W. (2016), Cities database, (OXREP databases). Version 1.0. (link). edit  Selected biography - show another Modern statue representing Tacitus outside the Austrian Parliament Building Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (/ˈtæsɪtəs/ TASS-it-əs, Latin: [ˈtakɪtʊs]; c. AD 56 – c. 120) was a Roman historian and politician. Tacitus is considered by modern scholars to be one of the greatest Roman historians. He lived in what has been called the Silver Age of Latin literature, and has a reputation for the brevity and compactness of his Latin prose, as well as for his penetrating insights into the psychology of power politics. The surviving portions of his two major works—the Annals and the Histories—examine the reigns of the emperors Tiberius, Claudius, Nero, and those who reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors (69 AD). These two works span the history of the Roman Empire from the death of Augustus, in 14 AD, to 70 AD in the First Jewish–Roman War of 66–73. There are substantial lacunae in the surviving texts, including a gap in the Annals that is four books long. (Full article...) List of selected biographies Nero Tiberius Sejanus Marcus Aurelius Faustina the Younger Julius Caesar Antoninus Pius Augustus Diocletian Domitian Elagabalus Basiliscus Marcian Maximian Retiarius Caligula Hadrian Romulus Augustulus Avidius Cassius Caracalla Britannicus Constantius III Constantine III (Western Roman Emperor) Drusus Caesar Drusus Julius Caesar Early life of Marcus Aurelius Florianus Gaius Caesar Germanicus Glycerius Halotus Claudius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Justinian I Lucius Caesar Tiberius Julius Alexander Tiberius Gemellus Gaius Antonius Hybrida Reign of Marcus Aurelius Cicero edit  Did you know? ...That according to Suetonius, Caligula "often sent for men whom he had secretly killed, as though they were still alive, and remarked offhandedly a few days later that they must have committed suicide"? ...That Mark Antony, who avenged Julius Caesar, was killed by Julius Caesar's grand nephew (Octavian) Augustus Caesar? ...That Sulla's grave read No friend ever surpassed him in kindness, and no enemy in ill-doing? 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en-wikipedia-org-7435	----	Gerard Manley Hopkins - Wikipedia Gerard Manley Hopkins From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search English poet (1844–1889) The Reverend Gerard Manley Hopkins SJ Church Latin Church Orders Ordination September 1877 Personal details Born (1844-07-28)28 July 1844 Stratford, Essex, England Died 8 June 1889(1889-06-08) (aged 44) Dublin, Ireland Buried Glasnevin Cemetery, Dublin, Ireland Nationality British Denomination Roman Catholic Occupation Poet Jesuit priest academic Education Highgate School Alma mater Heythrop College, London Balliol College, Oxford Gerard Manley Hopkins SJ (28 July 1844 – 8 June 1889) was an English poet and Jesuit priest, whose posthumous fame established him among the leading Victorian poets. His manipulation of prosody – particularly his concept of sprung rhythm – established him as an innovative writer of verse, as did his technique of praising God through vivid use of imagery and nature. Only after his death did Robert Bridges begin to publish a few of Hopkins's mature poems in anthologies, hoping to prepare the way for wider acceptance of his style. By 1930 his work was recognised as one of the most original literary accomplishments of his century. It had a marked influence on such leading 20th-century poets as T. S. Eliot, Dylan Thomas, W. H. Auden, Stephen Spender and Cecil Day-Lewis. Contents 1 Early life and family 2 Oxford and priesthood 3 Final years 4 Poetry 4.1 "The sonnets of desolation" 4.2 Sprung rhythm 4.3 Use of language 4.4 Influences 4.4.1 Erotic 4.4.2 Isolation 5 Influence on others 6 Selected poems 6.1 Recordings 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Early life and family[edit] Gerard Manley Hopkins was born in Stratford, Essex[1] (now in Greater London), as the eldest of probably nine children to Manley and Catherine Hopkins, née Smith.[2] He was christened at the Anglican church of St John's, Stratford. His father founded a marine insurance firm and at one time served as Hawaiian consul-general in London. He was also for a time churchwarden at St John-at-Hampstead. His grandfather was the physician John Simm Smith, a university colleague of John Keats, and close friend of the eccentric philanthropist Ann Thwaytes. As a poet, Hopkins's father published works including A Philosopher's Stone and Other Poems (1843), Pietas Metrica (1849), and Spicelegium Poeticum, A Gathering of Verses by Manley Hopkins (1892). He reviewed poetry for The Times and wrote one novel. Catherine (Smith) Hopkins was the daughter of a London physician, particularly fond of music and of reading, especially German philosophy, literature and the novels of Dickens. Both parents were deeply religious high-church Anglicans. Catherine's sister, Maria Smith Giberne, taught her nephew Gerard to sketch. The interest was supported by his uncle, Edward Smith, his great-uncle Richard James Lane, a professional artist, and other family members.[1] Hopkins's initial ambition was to be a painter – he would continue to sketch throughout his life and was inspired as an adult by the work of John Ruskin and the Pre-Raphaelites.[1][3] Hopkins became a skilled draughtsman. He found his early training in visual art supported his later work as a poet.[1] His siblings were much inspired by language, religion and the creative arts. Milicent (1849–1946) joined an Anglican sisterhood in 1878. Kate (1856–1933) would help Hopkins publish the first edition of his poetry. Hopkins's youngest sister Grace (1857–1945) set many of his poems to music. Lionel (1854–1952) became a world-famous expert on archaic and colloquial Chinese. Arthur (1848–1930) and Everard (1860–1928) were highly successful artists. Cyril (1846–1932) would join his father's insurance firm.[3] Hopkins, painted 24 July 1866 Manley Hopkins moved his family to Hampstead in 1852, near where John Keats had lived 30 years before and close to the green spaces of Hampstead Heath. When he was ten years old, Gerard was sent to board at Highgate School (1854–1863).[1] While studying Keats's poetry, he wrote "The Escorial" (1860), his earliest extant poem. Here he practised early attempts at asceticism. He once argued that most people drank more liquids than they really needed and bet that he could go without drinking for a week. He persisted until his tongue was black and he collapsed at drill. On another occasion he abstained from salt for a week.[3][4] Among his teachers at Highgate was Richard Watson Dixon, who became an enduring friend and correspondent. Of the older pupils Hopkins recalls in his boarding house, the poet Philip Stanhope Worsley won the Newdigate Prize.[5] Oxford and priesthood[edit] Hopkins studied classics at Balliol College, Oxford (1863–1867).[6] He began his time in Oxford as a keen socialite and prolific poet, but seems to have alarmed himself with resulting changes in his behaviour. There he forged a lifelong friendship with Robert Bridges (later Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom), which would be important to his development as a poet and in establishing his posthumous acclaim.[6] Hopkins was deeply impressed with the work of Christina Rossetti, who became one of his great contemporary influences and met him in 1864.[7] During this time he studied with the writer and critic Walter Pater, who tutored him in 1866 and remained a friend until Hopkins left Oxford in September 1879.[3][8] Alfred William Garrett, William Alexander Comyn Macfarlane and Gerard Manley Hopkins (left to right) by Thomas C. Bayfield, 1866 In a journal entry of 6 November 1865, Hopkins declared an ascetic intention for his life and work: "On this day by God's grace I resolved to give up all beauty until I had His leave for it."[9] On 18 January 1866, Hopkins composed his most ascetic poem, The Habit of Perfection. On 23 January, he included poetry in a list of things to be given up for Lent. In July, he decided to become a Roman Catholic and travelled to Birmingham in September to consult the leader of the Oxford converts, John Henry Newman.[7] Newman received him into the Roman Catholic Church on 21 October 1866. The decision to convert estranged Hopkins from his family and from a number of acquaintances. After graduating in 1867, he was provided by Newman with a teaching post at the Oratory in Birmingham. While there he began to study the violin. On 5 May 1868 Hopkins firmly "resolved to be a religious." Less than a week later, he made a bonfire of his poetry and gave it up almost entirely for seven years. He also felt a call to enter the ministry and decided to become a Jesuit. He paused first to visit Switzerland, which officially forbade Jesuits to enter.[3][10] In September 1868 Hopkins began his Jesuit novitiate at Manresa House, Roehampton, under the guidance of Alfred Weld. Two years later he moved to St Mary's Hall, Stonyhurst, for philosophical studies, taking vows of poverty, chastity and obedience on 8 September 1870.[11] He felt that his interest in poetry had stopped him devoting himself wholly to religion. However, on reading Duns Scotus in 1872, he saw how the two need not conflict.[12] He continued to write a detailed prose journal in 1868–1875. Unable to suppress a desire to describe the natural world, he also wrote music, sketched, and for church occasions, wrote "verses", as he called them. He later wrote sermons and other religious pieces. In 1874 Hopkins returned to Manresa House to teach classics. While studying in the Jesuit house of theological studies, St Beuno's College, near St Asaph in North Wales, he was asked by his religious superior to write a poem to commemorate the foundering of a German ship in a storm. So in 1875 he took up poetry once more to write a lengthy piece, "The Wreck of the Deutschland", inspired by the Deutschland incident, a maritime disaster in which 157 people died, including five Franciscan nuns who had been leaving Germany due to harsh anti-Catholic laws (see Kulturkampf). The work displays both the religious concerns and some of the unusual metre and rhythms of his subsequent poetry not present in his few remaining early works. It not only depicts the dramatic events and heroic deeds, but tells of him reconciling the terrible events with God's higher purpose. The poem was accepted but not printed by a Jesuit publication. This rejection fed his ambivalence about his poetry, most of which remained unpublished until after his death. Blue plaque commemorating Hopkins in Roehampton, London Hopkins chose the austere and restrictive life of a Jesuit and was gloomy at times. His biographer Robert Bernard Martin notes that "the life expectancy of a man becoming a novice at twenty-one was twenty-three more years rather than the forty years of males of the same age in the general population."[13] The brilliant student who had left Oxford with first-class honours failed his final theology exam. This almost certainly meant that despite his ordination in 1877, Hopkins would not progress in the order. In 1877 he wrote God's Grandeur, an array of sonnets that included "The Starlight Night". He finished "The Windhover" only a few months before his ordination. His life as a Jesuit trainee, though rigorous, isolated and sometimes unpleasant, at least had some stability; the uncertain and varied work after ordination was even harder on his sensibilities. In October 1877, not long after completing "The Sea and the Skylark" and only a month after his ordination, Hopkins took up duties as sub-minister and teacher at Mount St Mary's College near Sheffield. In July 1878 he became curate at the Jesuit church in Mount Street, London, and in December that of St Aloysius's Church, Oxford, then moving to Manchester, Liverpool and Glasgow.[3] While ministering in Oxford, he became a founding member of The Newman Society, established in 1878 for Catholic members of the University of Oxford. He taught Greek and Latin at Mount St Mary's College, Sheffield, and Stonyhurst College, Lancashire. In the late 1880s Hopkins met Father Matthew Russell, the Jesuit founder and editor of the Irish Monthly magazine, who presented him to Katharine Tynan and W. B. Yeats.[14] In 1884 he became a professor of Greek and Latin at University College Dublin.[15] His English roots and disagreement with the Irish politics of the time, along with his small stature (5 ft 2 in or 1.57 m), unprepossessing nature and personal oddities, reduced his effectiveness as a teacher. This and his isolation in Ireland deepened a gloom that was reflected in his poems of the time, such as "I Wake and Feel the Fell of Dark, not Day". They came to be known as the "terrible sonnets", not for their quality but according to Hopkins's friend Canon Richard Watson Dixon, because they reached the "terrible crystal", meaning they crystallised the melancholic dejection that plagued the later part of Hopkins's life. Final years[edit] Several issues led to a melancholic state and restricted his poetic inspiration in his last five years.[16] His workload was heavy. He disliked living in Dublin, away from England and friends. He was disappointed at how far the city had fallen from its Georgian elegance of the previous century.[17] His general health suffered and his eyesight began to fail. He felt confined and dejected. As a devout Jesuit, he found himself in an artistic dilemma. To subdue an egotism that he felt would violate the humility required by his religious position, he decided never to publish his poems. But Hopkins realised that any true poet requires an audience for criticism and encouragement. This conflict between his religious obligations and his poetic talent made him feel he had failed at both. After several years' ill health and bouts of diarrhoea, Hopkins died of typhoid fever in 1889 and was buried in Glasnevin Cemetery,[18] after a funeral in St Francis Xavier Church in Gardiner Street, located in Georgian Dublin. He is thought to have suffered throughout his life from what today might be labelled bipolar disorder or chronic unipolar depression,[19] and battled a deep sense of melancholic anguish. However, his last words on his death bed were, "I am so happy, I am so happy. I loved my life."[4] He was 44 years of age. Poetry[edit] "The sonnets of desolation"[edit] According to John Bayley, "All his life Hopkins was haunted by the sense of personal bankruptcy and impotence, the straining of 'time's eunuch' with no more to 'spend'... " a sense of inadequacy, graphically expressed in his last sonnets.[20] Toward the end of his life, Hopkins suffered several long bouts of depression. His "terrible sonnets" struggle with problems of religious doubt. He described them to Bridges as "[t]he thin gleanings of a long weary while."[21] "Thou Art Indeed Just, Lord" (1889) echoes Jeremiah 12:1 in asking why the wicked prosper. It reflects the exasperation of a faithful servant who feels he has been neglected, and is addressed to a divine person ("Sir") capable of hearing the complaint, but seemingly unwilling to listen.[22] Hopkins uses parched roots as a metaphor for despair. The image of the poet's estrangement from God figures in "I wake and feel the fell of dark, not day", in which he describes lying awake before dawn, likening his prayers to "dead letters sent To dearest him that lives alas! away." The opening line recalls Lamentations 3:2: "He hath led me, and brought me into darkness, but not into light." "No Worst, There is None" and "Carrion Comfort" are also counted among the "terrible sonnets". Sprung rhythm[edit] "Pied Beauty" Glory be to God for dappled things—  For skies of couple-colour as a brinded cow;  For rose-moles all in stipple upon trout that swim; Fresh-firecoal chestnut-falls; finches' wings;  Landscape plotted and pieced—fold, fallow, and plough;  And áll trádes, their gear and tackle and trim. All things counter, original, spare, strange;  Whatever is fickle, freckled (who knows how?)  With swift, slow; sweet, sour; adazzle, dim; He fathers-forth whose beauty is past change:  Praise him. "Pied Beauty" written 1877.[23] Much of Hopkins's historical importance has to do with the changes he brought to the form of poetry, which ran contrary to conventional ideas of metre. Prior to Hopkins, most Middle English and Modern English poetry was based on a rhythmic structure inherited from the Norman side of English literary heritage. This structure is based on repeating "feet" of two or three syllables, with the stressed syllable falling in the same place on each repetition. Hopkins called this structure "running rhythm", and although he wrote some of his early verse in running rhythm, he became fascinated with the older rhythmic structure of the Anglo-Saxon tradition, of which Beowulf is the most famous example. Hopkins called his own rhythmic structure sprung rhythm. Sprung rhythm is structured around feet with a variable number of syllables, generally between one and four syllables per foot, with the stress always falling on the first syllable in a foot. It is similar to the "rolling stresses" of Robinson Jeffers, another poet who rejected conventional metre. Hopkins saw sprung rhythm as a way to escape the constraints of running rhythm, which he said inevitably pushed poetry written in it to become "same and tame". In this way, Hopkins sprung rhythm can be seen as anticipating much of free verse. His work has no great affinity with either of the contemporary Pre-Raphaelite and neo-romanticism schools, although he does share their descriptive love of nature and he is often seen as a precursor to modernist poetry, or as a bridge between the two poetic eras. Use of language[edit] The language of Hopkins's poems is often striking. His imagery can be simple, as in Heaven-Haven, where the comparison is between a nun entering a convent and a ship entering a harbour out of a storm. It can be splendidly metaphysical and intricate, as it is in As Kingfishers Catch Fire, where he leaps from one image to another to show how each thing expresses its own uniqueness, and how divinity reflects itself through all of them. Hopkins was a supporter of linguistic purism in English. In an 1882 letter to Robert Bridges, Hopkins writes: "It makes one weep to think what English might have been; for in spite of all that Shakespeare and Milton have done... no beauty in a language can make up for want of purity."[24] He took time to learn Old English, which became a major influence on his writing. In the same letter to Bridges he calls Old English "a vastly superior thing to what we have now."[25] He uses many archaic and dialect words but also coins new words. One example of this is twindles, which seems from its context in Inversnaid to mean a combination of twines and dwindles. He often creates compound adjectives, sometimes with a hyphen (such as dapple-dawn-drawn falcon) but often without, as in rolling level underneath him steady air. This use of compound adjectives, similar to the Old English use of compounds nouns, concentrates his images, communicating to his readers the instress of the poet's perceptions of an inscape. Added richness comes from Hopkins's extensive use of alliteration, assonance, onomatopoeia and rhyme, both at the end of lines and internally as in: As kingfishers catch fire, dragonflies draw flame; As tumbled over rim in roundy wells Stones ring; like each tucked string tells, each hung bell's Bow swung finds tongue to fling out broad its name; Hopkins was influenced by the Welsh language, which he had acquired while studying theology at St Beuno's near St Asaph. The poetic forms of Welsh literature and particularly cynghanedd, with its emphasis on repeating sounds, accorded with his own style and became a prominent feature of his work. This reliance on similar-sounding words with close or differing senses means that his poems are best understood if read aloud. An important element in his work is Hopkins's own concept of inscape, which was derived in part from the medieval theologian Duns Scotus. Anthony Domestico explains, Inscape, for Hopkins, is the charged essence, the absolute singularity that gives each created thing its being; instress is both the energy that holds the inscape together and the process by which this inscape is perceived by an observer. We instress the inscape of a tulip, Hopkins would say, when we appreciate the particular delicacy of its petals, when we are enraptured by its specific, inimitable shade of pink."[26] The Windhover aims to depict not the bird in general, but instead one instance and its relation to the breeze. This is just one interpretation of Hopkins's most famous poem, one which he felt was his best.[4] I caught this morning morning's minion, king-  dom of daylight's dauphin, dapple-dawn-drawn Falcon, in his riding  Of the rolling level underneath him steady air, and striding High there, how he rung upon the rein of a wimpling wing In his ecstasy! then off, off forth on swing,  As a skate's heel sweeps smooth on a bow-bend: the hurl and gliding  Rebuffed the big wind. My heart in hiding Stirred for a bird, — the achieve of, the mastery of the thing! The first stanza of "The Windhover" written 30 May 1877, published 1918.[27] During his lifetime, Hopkins published few poems. It was only through the efforts of Robert Bridges that his works were seen. Despite Hopkins burning all his poems on entering the Jesuit novitiate, he had already sent some to Bridges, who with some other friends, was one of the few people to see many of them for some years. After Hopkins's death they were distributed to a wider audience, mostly fellow poets, and in 1918 Bridges, by then poet laureate, published a collected edition; an expanded edition, prepared by Charles Williams, appeared in 1930, and a greatly expanded edition by William Henry Gardner appeared in 1948 (eventually reaching a fourth edition, 1967, with N. H. Mackenzie). Notable collections of Hopkins's manuscripts and publications are in Campion Hall, Oxford; the Bodleian Library, Oxford; and the Foley Library at Gonzaga University in Spokane, Washington.[28] Influences[edit] Erotic[edit] Timothy d'Arch Smith, antiquarian bookseller, ascribes to Hopkins suppressed erotic impulses which he views as taking on a degree of specificity after Hopkins met Robert Bridges's distant cousin, friend, and fellow Etonian Digby Mackworth Dolben, "a Christian Uranian".[29] Robert Martin asserts that when Hopkins first met Dolben, on Dolben's 17th birthday in Oxford in February 1865, it "was, quite simply, the most momentous emotional event of [his] undergraduate years, probably of his entire life."[30] According to Robert Martin, "Hopkins was completely taken with Dolben, who was nearly four years his junior, and his private journal for confessions the following year proves how absorbed he was in imperfectly suppressed erotic thoughts of him."[31] Martin also considers it "probable that [Hopkins] would have been deeply shocked at the reality of sexual intimacy with another person."[32] Gerard Manley Hopkins Hopkins composed two poems about Dolben, "Where art thou friend" and "The Beginning of the End". Robert Bridges, who edited the first edition of Dolben's poems as well as Hopkins's, cautioned that the second poem "must never be printed," though Bridges himself included it in the first edition (1918).[33] Another indication of the nature of his feelings for Dolben is that Hopkins's high Anglican confessor seems to have forbidden him to have any contact with Dolben except by letter. Hopkins never saw Dolben again after the latter's short visit to Oxford during which they met, and any continuation of their relationship was abruptly ended by Dolben's drowning two years later in June 1867. Hopkins's feeling for Dolben seems to have cooled by that time, but he was nonetheless greatly affected by his death. "Ironically, fate may have bestowed more through Dolben's death than it could ever have bestowed through longer life ... [for] many of Hopkins's best poems – impregnated with an elegiac longing for Dolben, his lost beloved and his muse – were the result."[34] Hopkins's relationship with Dolben is explored in the novel The Hopkins Conundrum.[35] Some of Hopkins's poems, such as The Bugler's First Communion and Epithalamion, arguably embody homoerotic themes, although the second poem was arranged by Robert Bridges from extant fragments.[36] One contemporary critic, M. M. Kaylor, argued for Hopkins's inclusion with the Uranian poets, a group whose writings derived, in many ways, from prose works of Walter Pater, Hopkins's academic coach for his Greats exams and later a lifelong friend.[37][38][39] Some critics have argued that homoerotic readings are either highly tendentious, or that they can be classified under the broader category of "homosociality", over the gender, sexual-specific "homosexual" term. Hopkins's journal writings, they argue, offer a clear admiration for feminised beauty. In his book Hopkins Reconstructed (2000), Justus George Lawler criticises Robert Martin's controversial biography Gerard Manley Hopkins: A Very Private Life (1991) by suggesting that Martin "cannot see the heterosexual beam... for the homosexual biographical mote in his own eye... it amounts to a slanted eisegesis". The poems that elicit homoerotic readings can be read not merely as exercises in sublimation but as powerful renditions of religious conviction, a conviction that caused strain in his family and even led him to burn some poems that he felt were unnecessarily self-centred. Julia Saville's book A Queer Chivalry views the religious imagery in the poems as Hopkins's way of expressing the tension with homosexual identity and desire. Christopher Ricks notes that Hopkins engaged in a number of penitential practices, "but all of these self-inflictions were not self-inflictions to him, and they are his business – or are his understanding of what it was for him to be about his Father's business."[13] Ricks takes issue with Martin's apparent lack of appreciation of the importance of the role of Hopkins's religious commitment to his writing, and cautions against assigning a priority of influence to any sexual instincts over other factors such as Hopkins's estrangement from his family.[13] Biographer Paul Mariani finds in Hopkins poems "an irreconcilable tension – on the one hand, the selflessness demanded by Jesuit discipline; on the other, the seeming self-indulgence of poetic creation."[26] Isolation[edit] Hopkins spent the last five years of his life as a classics professor at University College Dublin. Hopkins's isolation in 1885 was multiple: a Jesuit distanced from his Anglican family and his homeland, an Englishman teaching in Dublin during a time of political strife, an unpublished poet striving to reconcile his artistic and religious callings.[21] The poem "To seem the stranger" was written in Ireland between 1885 and 1886 and is a poem of isolation and loneliness.[40] Influence on others[edit] Ricks called Hopkins "the most original poet of the Victorian age."[13] Hopkins is considered as influential as T. S. Eliot in initiating the modern movement in poetry.[41] His experiments with elliptical phrasing and double meanings and quirky conversational rhythms turned out to be liberating to poets such as W. H. Auden and Dylan Thomas.[42] The Gerard Manley Hopkins Building in University College Dublin is named after him. Selected poems[edit] Well-known works by Hopkins include: "Binsey Poplars" "Pied Beauty" "The Windhover: To Christ our Lord" The Wreck of the Deutschland Recordings[edit] See also: § External links Richard Austin reads Hopkins's poetry in Back to Beauty's Giver.[43] Jeremy Northam reads Hopkins's poetry in The Great Poets.[44] American singer/songwriter Natalie Merchant set Hopkins's poem Spring and Fall: To a Young Child to music on her 2010 album Leave Your Sleep. Author Simon Edge reads The Wreck of The Deutschland in a recording to accompany his novel The Hopkins Conundrum.[45] Paul Kelly (Australian musician) sings God's Grandeur on his 2018 album Nature. Lance Pierson has made two recordings of Hopkins poems which are now available as a podcast See also[edit] Biography portal Poetry portal United Kingdom portal Adoro te devote (translated by G. M. Hopkins) Caudate sonnet Curtal sonnet (invented by G. M. Hopkins) Sprung rhythm Inscape and instress Inscape (visual art) References[edit] ^ a b c d e W. H. Gardner (1963), Gerard Manley Hopkins: Poems and Prose Penguin p. xvi. ^ Norman White, "Hopkins, Gerard Manley (1844–1889)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press. ^ a b c d e f Poetry Foundation Biography Poetry Foundation. Accessed 18 March 2010. ^ a b c Eleanor Ruggles (1944) Gerard Manley Hopkins: A Life. Norton. ^ Abbott, Claude Colleer (1955). The Correspondence of Gerard Manley Hopkins and Richard Watson Dixon (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 1, 6. ^ a b W. H. Gardner (1963), Gerard Manley Hopkins: Poems and Prose Penguin p. xvii. ^ a b Gardner, W. H. (1963) Gerard Manley Hopkins: Poems and Prose Penguin p. xviii. ^ Gerald Monsman, "Pater, Hopkins and the Self", Victorian Notes, 1974. ^ Journal entry (6 November 1865), as reported in Extremity: A Study of Gerard Manley Hopkins (1978) by John Robinson, p. 1. ^ P. Kitchen, Gerard Manley Hopkins, London, 1978. ^ O'Leary, Sean (July 2006). "Gerard Manley Hopkins, Poet Priest Artist Writer Musician". Gerard Manley Hopkins' poems to music. Retrieved 15 May 2017. ^ Gerard Manley Hopkins: A Brief Biography Glenn Everett, PhD. ^ a b c d Ricks, Christopher. "The art and faith of Gerard Manley Hopkins", The New Criterion, September 1991 ^ White, Norman (September 1985). A Newly Discovered Version of a Verse Translation by Gerard Manley Hopkins. Notes and Queries. 32. Oxford University Press. pp. 363–364. doi:10.1093/notesj/32.3.363. ISSN 0029-3970. OCLC 6941186639. Retrieved 17 June 2020 – via archive.is. ^ New English key notes 2013, Mentor Books, Dublin. ^ W. H. Gardner, (1963) Gerard Manley Hopkins: Poems and Prose Penguin, p. xxvii. ^ Irish Times. ^ Scott Wilson, Resting Places: The Burial Sites of More Than 14,000 Famous Persons, 3rd ed.: 2 (Kindle Location 22019). McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. Kindle Edition. ^ FDA Consumer. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. February 1988. p. 8. ^ Bayley, John. "Review: Gerard Manley Hopkins: A Very Private Life by Robert Bernard Martin", London Review of Books, Vol. 13 No. 8, 25 April 1991 ^ a b Allbery, Debra. "To seem the stranger lies my lot, my life", Poetry Daily, April 24, 2012 ^ Boudway, Matthew. "Hopkins Agonistes", Commonweal, April 25, 2011 ^ "Pied Beauty" at the Poetry Foundation ^ Nils Langer, Winifred V. Davies. Linguistic purism in the Germanic languages. Walter de Gruyter, 2005. p. 328. ^ Brook, George Leslie (1955). An Introduction to Old English, Manchester University Press, p. 1. ^ a b Domestico, Anthony. "Inscape, Instress & Distress", Commonweal, March 9, 2009 ^ – The Windhover ^ Plowman, Stephanie. "LibGuides: Manuscript Collections: Hopkins". researchguides.gonzaga.edu. Retrieved 4 December 2018. ^ Timothy d'Arch Smith. Love in Earnest, p. 188. ^ Gerard Manley Hopkins: A Very Private Life, p. 80; see also Norman White, Hopkins: A Literary Biography, p. 110. ^ Robert Bernard Martin, "Digby Augustus Stewart Dolben," DNB) ^ Martin, Robert Bernard. Gerard Manley Hopkins: A Very Private Life, Chapter III, Faber and Faber ^ "Joseph Cady English Literature: Nineteenth Century". Archived from the original on 1 March 2007. Retrieved 1 March 2007. ^ Michael M. Kaylor, Secreted Desires: The Major Uranians: Hopkins, Pater and Wilde. Brno, CZ: Masaryk University Press, 2006. p. 401. ^ Edge, Simon (18 May 2017). The Hopkins Conundrum. Lightning Books. ISBN 978-1785630330. ^ Notes No. 72. Poems of Gerard Manley Hopkins; now first published, edited with notes by Robert Bridges. London: Humphrey Milford, 1918. ^ The Bugler's First Communion, Kaylor, Secreted Desires. pp 182–93 ^ Epithalamion in Kaylor Secreted Desires, pp 161–205 ^ Victorian Poetry 40.2 (2002), pp. 157–187. ^ Hopkins, Gerard M. "To seem the stranger lies my lot, my life", Poemhunter.com ^ "Review: Martin, 'A Very Private Life'", Kirkus Reviews. ^ Casey, Constance. "Book Review : A Very Private Life of a Victorian Poet : Gerard Manley Hopkins: A Very Private Life by Robert Bernard Martin", The Los Angeles Times, June 18, 1991. ^ Audio book, CD, ISBN 0-9548188-0-6, 2003. 27 poems, including The Wreck of the Deutschland, God's Grandeur, The Windhover, Pied Beauty and Binsley Poplars, and the "Terrible Sonnets". ^ THE GREAT POETS: G.M HOPKINS (JEREMY NORTHAM) (NAXOS AUDIO BOOKS: NA190012) ^ Retrieved 26 July 2018. Further reading[edit] Abbott, Claude Colleer (Ed.), 1955. The Correspondence of Gerard Manley Hopkins and Richard Watson Dixon (London: Oxford University Press.) Abbott, Claude Colleer (Ed.), 1955. The Letters of Gerard Manley Hopkins to Robert Bridges (London: Oxford University Press.) Fiddes, Paul S., 2009. 'G.M. Hopkins', in Rebecca Lemon, Emma Mason, Jonathan Roberts, and Christopher Rowland, eds, The Blackwell companion to the Bible in English literature (Blackwell companions to religion, Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell), pp. 563–76 MacKenzie, Norman H. (Ed.), 1989. The Early Poetic Manuscripts and Note-books of Gerard Manley Hopkins in Facsimile. (New York and London: Garland Publishing.) MacKenzie, Norman H. (Ed.), 1991. The Later Poetic Manuscripts of Gerard Manley Hopkins in Facsimile (New York: Garland Publishing.) Martin, Robert Bernard, 1992. Gerard Manley Hopkins – A Very Private Life (London: Flamingo/HarperCollins Publishers) Pomplun, Trent, "The Theology of Gerard Manley Hopkins: From John Duns Scotus to the Baroque," Journal of Religion (January 2015) 95#1 pp: 1–34. DOI: 10.1086/678532 Sagar, Keith, 2005. "Hopkins and the Religion of the Diamond Body", in Literature and the Crime Against Nature, (London: Chaucer Press.) Stiles, Cheryl, 2010. "Hopkins-Stricken: Gerard Manley Hopkins, a Selective Bibliography." (Berkeley Electronic Press). White, Norman, 1992. Hopkins – A literary Biography (Oxford: Oxford University Press) Chakrabarti, Tapan Kumar, Gerard Manley Hopkins: His Experiments in Poetic Diction (Ph.D. dissertation, approved by the University of Calcutta [unpublished]) External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gerard Manley Hopkins. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Gerard Manley Hopkins Gerard Manley Hopkins, S.J. Conference, Regis University Profile and poems at the Poetry Foundation. Retrieved 2010-03-18 Profile and poems at Poets.org Gerard Manley Hopkins at St Beuno's retreat. Retrieved 2010-03-18 Annual Literary Festival – Monasterevin Hopkins Society, Ireland. Retrieved 2015-05-12 The Hopkins Society United Kingdom UCD Letters, including 43 letters and postcards written to Alexander William Mowbray, between 1863 and 1888. A UCD Digital Library Collection. Works by Gerard Manley Hopkins at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Gerard Manley Hopkins at Internet Archive Poems of Gerard Manley Hopkins public domain audiobook at LibriVox: solo recordings of his collected poems Works by Gerard Manley Hopkins at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) : recordings of individual short poems Authority control BNE: XX864698 BNF: cb119077176 (data) GND: 118553526 ISNI: 0000 0001 2276 2477 LCCN: n80032727 MBA: 3c73665a-88b5-423e-baf4-cba19a04c223 NDL: 00443733 NKC: jn19990003652 NLA: 36583449 NLI: 001848891 NLK: KAC201505333 NTA: 06838873X RKD: 291291 SELIBR: 208831 SNAC: w6hd7vd0 SUDOC: 026924307 Trove: 1181154 ULAN: 500189929 VcBA: 495/84606 VIAF: 9847864 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n80032727 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gerard_Manley_Hopkins&oldid=995250752" Categories: 1844 births 1889 deaths People from Stratford, London People educated at Highgate School Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford People associated with University College Dublin Anglo-Welsh poets Converts to Roman Catholicism from Anglicanism 19th-century English Jesuits 19th-century English poets Catholic poets Sonneteers Victorian poets Infectious disease deaths in Ireland Deaths from typhoid fever Burials at Glasnevin Cemetery English male poets Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from January 2020 Use British English from January 2020 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Commons category link from Wikidata Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RKDartists identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés Asturianu Български Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara Français Gaeilge 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Svenska 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 20 December 2020, at 00:46 (UTC). 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Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: {{short description|Roman lyric poet}} {{about|the Roman poet|the Egyptian god|Horus|other uses|Horace (disambiguation)}} {{Infobox writer <!-- For more information see [[:Template:Infobox Writer/doc]]. --> | name =Horace | image = Quintus Horatius Flaccus.jpg | image_size = 200px | alt = | caption = Horace, as imagined by [[Anton von Werner]] | pseudonym = | birth_name = Quintus Horatius Flaccus | birth_date = 8 December 65 BC | birth_place = [[Venosa|Venusia]], [[Italy (Roman Empire)|Italy]], [[Roman Republic]] | death_date = 27 November 8 BC (age 56) | death_place = [[Rome]] | resting_place = Rome | occupation = [[Soldier]], [[scriba (ancient Rome)|scriba quaestorius]], [[poet]], [[senator]] | language = [[Latin]] | nationality = [[Roman Republic|Roman]] | citizenship = | education = | alma_mater = | period = | genre = [[Lyric poetry]] | subject = | movement = | notableworks = ''[[Odes (Horace)|Odes]]''<br>"[[Ars Poetica (Horace)|The Art of Poetry]]" | spouse = | partner = | children = | relatives = | awards = | signature = | signature_alt = | website = | portaldisp = }} '''Quintus Horatius Flaccus''' (8 December 65 – 27 November 8 BC), known in the English-speaking world as '''Horace''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ɒr|ɪ|s}}), was the leading [[Roman Empire|Roman]] [[Lyric poetry|lyric poet]] during the time of [[Augustus]] (also known as Octavian). The rhetorician [[Quintilian]] regarded his ''[[Odes (Horace)|Odes]]'' as just about the only Latin lyrics worth reading: "He can be lofty sometimes, yet he is also full of charm and grace, versatile in his figures, and felicitously daring in his choice of words."<ref group="nb">Quintilian 10.1.96. The only other lyrical poet Quintilian thought comparable with Horace was the now obscure poet/metrical theorist, [[Caesius Bassus]] (R. Tarrant, ''Ancient Receptions of Horace'', 280)</ref> Horace also crafted elegant [[Prosody (Latin)|hexameter verses]] (''[[Satires (Horace)|Satires]]'' and ''[[Epistles (Horace)|Epistles]]'') and caustic [[Iambus (genre)|iambic poetry]] (''[[Epodes (Horace)|Epodes]]''). The hexameters are amusing yet serious works, friendly in tone, leading the ancient satirist [[Persius]] to comment: "as his friend laughs, Horace slyly puts his finger on his every fault; once let in, he plays about the heartstrings".<ref group="nb">Translated from Persius' own 'Satires' 1.116–17: "omne vafer vitium ridenti Flaccus amico / tangit et admissus circum praecordia ludit."</ref> His career coincided with Rome's momentous change from a [[republic]] to an [[empire]]. An officer in the republican army defeated at the [[Battle of Philippi]] in 42 BC, he was befriended by Octavian's right-hand man in civil affairs, [[Maecenas]], and became a spokesman for the new regime. For some commentators, his association with the regime was a delicate balance in which he maintained a strong measure of independence (he was "a master of the graceful sidestep")<ref name="ReferenceA">J. Michie, ''The Odes of Horace'', 14</ref> but for others he was, in [[John Dryden]]'s phrase, "a well-mannered court slave".<ref>N. Rudd, ''The Satires of Horace and Persius'', 10</ref><ref group="nb">Quoted by [[Niall Rudd|N. Rudd]] from John Dryden's ''Discourse Concerning the Original and Progress of Satire'', excerpted from W.P.Ker's edition of Dryden's essays, Oxford 1926, vol. 2, pp. 86–87</ref> ==Life== [[File:Horatii Flacci Sermonum.tif|thumb|''[[Horatii Flacci Sermonum]]'' (1577)]] Horace can be regarded as the world's first autobiographer.<ref>R. Barrow R., ''The Romans'' Pelican Books, 119</ref> In his writings, he tells us far more about himself, his character, his development, and his way of life, than any other great poet of antiquity. Some of the biographical material contained in his work can be supplemented from the short but valuable "Life of Horace" by [[Suetonius]] (in his ''Lives of the Poets'').<ref>Fraenkel, Eduard. ''Horace.'' Oxford: 1957, p. 1.<br /> For the Life of Horace by Suetonius, see: ([http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/6399/pg6399.html ''Vita Horati''])</ref> ===Childhood=== He was born on 8 December 65 BC<ref group="nb">The year is given in ''Odes'' 3.21.1 ([[Lucius Manlius Torquatus|"Consule Manlio"]]), the month in ''Epistles'' 1.20.27, the day in Suetonius' biography ''Vita'' (R. Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 7)</ref> in the [[Samnites|Samnite]] south of [[Italy (Roman Empire)|Italy]].<ref>''Brill's Companion to Horace'', edited by Hans-Christian Günther, Brill, 2012, p. 7, [https://books.google.com/books?id=N2b0YUwXfM8C&pg=PA7 Google Book]</ref> His home town, [[Venosa|Venusia]], lay on a trade route in the border region between [[Apulia]] and [[Lucania]] ([[Basilicata]]). Various Italic dialects were spoken in the area and this perhaps enriched his feeling for language. He could have been familiar with Greek words even as a young boy and later he poked fun at the jargon of mixed Greek and Oscan spoken in neighbouring [[Canusium]].<ref>''Satires'' 1.10.30</ref> One of the works he probably studied in school was the ''Odyssia'' of [[Livius Andronicus]], taught by teachers like the '[[Orbilius]]' mentioned in one of his poems.<ref>''Epistles'' 2.1.69 ff.</ref> Army veterans could have been settled there at the expense of local families uprooted by Rome as punishment for their part in the [[Social War (91–88 BC)]].<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 2–3</ref> Such state-sponsored migration must have added still more linguistic variety to the area. According to a local tradition reported by Horace,<ref>''Satires'' 2.1.34</ref> a colony of Romans or Latins had been installed in Venusia after the [[Samnites]] had been driven out early in the third century. In that case, young Horace could have felt himself to be a Roman<ref>T. Frank, ''Catullus and Horace'', 133–34</ref><ref>A. Campbell, ''Horace: A New Interpretation'', 84</ref> though there are also indications that he regarded himself as a Samnite or [[Sabellus]] by birth.<ref>''Epistles'' 1.16.49</ref><ref>R. Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 7</ref> Italians in modern and ancient times have always been devoted to their home towns, even after success in the wider world, and Horace was no different. Images of his childhood setting and references to it are found throughout his poems.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 3–4</ref> Horace's father was probably a Venutian taken captive by Romans in the Social War, or possibly he was descended from a [[Sabine]] captured in the [[Samnite Wars]]. Either way, he was a slave for at least part of his life. He was evidently a man of strong abilities however and managed to gain his freedom and improve his social position. Thus Horace claimed to be the free-born son of a prosperous 'coactor'.<ref name="Kiernan">V. Kiernan, ''Horace: Poetics and Politics'', 24</ref> The term 'coactor' could denote various roles, such as tax collector, but its use by Horace<ref>''Satires'' 1.6.86</ref> was explained by [[scholia]] as a reference to 'coactor argentareus' i.e. an auctioneer with some of the functions of a banker, paying the seller out of his own funds and later recovering the sum with interest from the buyer.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 4–5</ref> The father spent a small fortune on his son's education, eventually accompanying him to [[Rome]] to oversee his schooling and moral development. The poet later paid tribute to him in a poem<ref name="Satires 1.6">''Satires'' 1.6</ref> that one modern scholar considers the best memorial by any son to his father.<ref group="nb">"No son ever set a finer monument to his father than Horace did in the sixth satire of Book I...Horace's description of his father is warm-hearted but free from sentimentality or exaggeration. We see before us one of the common people, a hard-working, open-minded, and thoroughly honest man of simple habits and strict convictions, representing some of the best qualities that at the end of the Republic could still be found in the unsophisticated society of the Italian ''municipia''"&nbsp;{{emdash}}&nbsp;E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 5–6</ref> The poem includes this passage: <blockquote> If my character is flawed by a few minor faults, but is otherwise decent and moral, if you can point out only a few scattered blemishes on an otherwise immaculate surface, if no one can accuse me of greed, or of prurience, or of profligacy, if I live a virtuous life, free of defilement (pardon, for a moment, my self-praise), and if I am to my friends a good friend, my father deserves all the credit... As it is now, he deserves from me unstinting gratitude and praise. I could never be ashamed of such a father, nor do I feel any need, as many people do, to apologize for being a freedman's son. ''[[Satire]]s 1.6.65–92'' </blockquote> He never mentioned his mother in his verses and he might not have known much about her. Perhaps she also had been a slave.<ref name="Kiernan"/> ===Adulthood=== Horace left Rome, possibly after his father's death, and continued his formal education in Athens, a great centre of learning in the ancient world, where he arrived at nineteen years of age, enrolling in [[Platonic Academy|The Academy]]. Founded by [[Plato]], The Academy was now dominated by [[Epicureans]] and [[Stoics]], whose theories and practises made a deep impression on the young man from Venusia.<ref>V. Kiernan, ''Horace: Poetics and Politics'', 25</ref> Meanwhile, he mixed and lounged about with the elite of Roman youth, such as Marcus, the idle son of [[Cicero]], and the Pompeius to whom he later addressed a poem.<ref>''Odes'' 2.7</ref> It was in Athens too that he probably acquired deep familiarity with the ancient tradition of Greek lyric poetry, at that time largely the preserve of grammarians and academic specialists (access to such material was easier in Athens than in Rome, where the public libraries had yet to be built by [[Asinius Pollio]] and Augustus).<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 8–9</ref> Rome's troubles following the assassination of [[Julius Caesar]] were soon to catch up with him. [[Marcus Junius Brutus]] came to Athens seeking support for the republican cause. Brutus was fêted around town in grand receptions and he made a point of attending academic lectures, all the while recruiting supporters among the young men studying there, including Horace.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 9–10</ref> An educated young Roman could begin military service high in the ranks and Horace was made [[tribunus militum]] (one of six senior officers of a typical legion), a post usually reserved for men of senatorial or equestrian rank and which seems to have inspired jealousy among his well-born confederates.<ref>''Satires'' 1.6.48</ref><ref name="Nisbet">R. Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 8</ref> He learned the basics of military life while on the march, particularly in the wilds of northern Greece, whose rugged scenery became a backdrop to some of his later poems.<ref>V. Kiernan, ''Horace'', 25</ref> It was there in 42 BC that [[Octavian]] (later [[Augustus]]) and his associate [[Mark Antony]] crushed the republican forces at the [[Battle of Philippi]]. Horace later recorded it as a day of embarrassment for himself, when he fled without his shield,<ref>''Odes'' 2.7.10</ref> but allowance should be made for his self-deprecating humour. Moreover, the incident allowed him to identify himself with some famous poets who had long ago abandoned their shields in battle, notably his heroes [[Alcaeus of Mytilene|Alcaeus]] and [[Archilochus]]. The comparison with the latter poet is uncanny: Archilochus lost his shield in a part of Thrace near Philippi, and he was deeply involved in the Greek colonization of [[Thasos]], where Horace's die-hard comrades finally surrendered.<ref name="Nisbet"/> Octavian offered an early amnesty to his opponents and Horace quickly accepted it. On returning to Italy, he was confronted with yet another loss: his father's estate in Venusia was one of many throughout Italy to be confiscated for the settlement of veterans ([[Virgil]] lost his estate in the north about the same time). Horace later claimed that he was reduced to poverty and this led him to try his hand at poetry.<ref>''Epistles'' 2.2.51–52</ref> In reality, there was no money to be had from versifying. At best, it offered future prospects through contacts with other poets and their patrons among the rich.<ref>V. Kiernan, ''Horace: Poetics and politics''</ref> Meanwhile, he obtained the sinecure of ''scriba quaestorius'', a civil service position at the ''aerarium'' or Treasury, profitable enough to be purchased even by members of the ''ordo equester'' and not very demanding in its work-load, since tasks could be delegated to ''scribae'' or permanent clerks.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 14–15</ref> It was about this time that he began writing his ''Satires'' and ''Epodes''. ====Poet==== [[File:Fedor Bronnikov 014.jpg|thumb|Horace reads before Maecenas, by [[Fyodor Bronnikov]]]] The ''Epodes'' belong to [[iambic poetry]]. Iambic poetry features insulting and obscene language;<ref>Christopher Brown, in ''A Companion to the Greek Lyric Poets'', D.E. Gerber (ed), Leiden 1997, pages 13–88</ref><ref>Douglas E. Gerber, ''Greek Iambic Poetry'', Loeb Classical Library (1999), Introduction pages i–iv</ref> sometimes, it is referred to as ''blame poetry''.<ref>D. Mankin, ''Horace: Epodes'', C.U.P., 8</ref> ''Blame poetry'', or ''shame poetry'', is poetry written to blame and shame fellow citizens into a sense of their social obligations. Horace modelled these poems on the poetry of [[Archilochus]]. Social bonds in Rome had been decaying since the destruction of [[Carthage]] a little more than a hundred years earlier, due to the vast wealth that could be gained by plunder and corruption.<ref>D. Mankin, ''Horace: Epodes'', 6</ref> These social ills were magnified by rivalry between Julius Caesar, Mark Antony and confederates like [[Sextus Pompey]], all jockeying for a bigger share of the spoils. One modern scholar has counted a dozen civil wars in the hundred years leading up to 31 BC, including the [[Spartacus]] rebellion, eight years before Horace's birth.<ref>R. Conway, ''New Studies of a Great Inheritance'', 49–50</ref> As the heirs to Hellenistic culture, Horace and his fellow Romans were not well prepared to deal with these problems: {{Quotation|At bottom, all the problems that the times were stirring up were of a social nature, which the Hellenistic thinkers were ill qualified to grapple with. Some of them censured oppression of the poor by the rich, but they gave no practical lead, though they may have hoped to see well-meaning rulers doing so. Philosophy was drifting into absorption in self, a quest for private contentedness, to be achieved by self-control and restraint, without much regard for the fate of a disintegrating community.|[[V. G. Kiernan]]<ref>V. Kiernan, ''Horace: Poetics and Politics'', 18–19</ref>}} Horace's Hellenistic background is clear in his Satires, even though the genre was unique to Latin literature. He brought to it a style and outlook suited to the social and ethical issues confronting Rome but he changed its role from public, social engagement to private meditation.<ref>F. Muecke, ''The Satires'', 109–10</ref> Meanwhile, he was beginning to interest Octavian's supporters, a gradual process described by him in one of his satires.<ref name="Satires 1.6"/> The way was opened for him by his friend, the poet Virgil, who had gained admission into the privileged circle around Maecenas, Octavian's lieutenant, following the success of his ''[[Eclogues]]''. An introduction soon followed and, after a discreet interval, Horace too was accepted. He depicted the process as an honourable one, based on merit and mutual respect, eventually leading to true friendship, and there is reason to believe that his relationship was genuinely friendly, not just with Maecenas but afterwards with Augustus as well.<ref>R. Lyne, ''Augustan Poetry and Society'', 599</ref> On the other hand, the poet has been unsympathetically described by one scholar as "a sharp and rising young man, with an eye to the main chance."<ref>J. Griffin, ''Horace in the Thirties'', 6</ref> There were advantages on both sides: Horace gained encouragement and material support, the politicians gained a hold on a potential dissident.<ref name="ReferenceB">R. Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 10</ref> His republican sympathies, and his role at Philippi, may have caused him some pangs of remorse over his new status. However most Romans considered the civil wars to be the result of ''contentio dignitatis'', or rivalry between the foremost families of the city, and he too seems to have accepted the principate as Rome's last hope for much needed peace.<ref>D. Mankin, ''Horace: Epodes'', 5</ref> In 37 BC, Horace accompanied Maecenas on a journey to [[Brundisium]], described in one of his poems<ref>''Satires'' 1.5</ref> as a series of amusing incidents and charming encounters with other friends along the way, such as Virgil. In fact the journey was political in its motivation, with Maecenas en route to negotiatie the [[Treaty of Tarentum]] with Antony, a fact Horace artfully keeps from the reader (political issues are largely avoided in the first book of satires).<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Horace was probably also with Maecenas on one of Octavian's naval expeditions against the piratical Sextus Pompeius, which ended in a disastrous storm off [[Palinurus]] in 36 BC, briefly alluded to by Horace in terms of near-drowning.<ref>''Odes'' 3.4.28</ref><ref group="nb">''Odes'' 3.4.28: "nec (me extinxit) Sicula Palinurus unda"; "nor did Palinurus extinguish me with Sicilian waters". Maecenas' involvement is recorded by [[Appian]] ''Bell. Civ.'' 5.99 but Horace's ode is the only historical reference to his own presence there, depending however on interpretation. (R. Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 10)</ref> There are also some indications in his verses that he was with Maecenas at the [[Battle of Actium]] in 31 BC, where Octavian defeated his great rival, Antony.<ref>''Epodes'' 1 and 9</ref><ref group="nb">The point is much disputed among scholars and hinges on how the text is interpreted. ''Epodes'' 9 for example may offer proof of Horace's presence if 'ad hunc frementis' ('gnashing at this' man i.e. the traitrous Roman ) is a misreading of 'at huc...verterent' (but hither...they fled) in lines describing the defection of the Galatian cavalry, "ad hunc frementis verterunt bis mille equos / Galli canentes Caesarem" (R. Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 12).</ref> By then Horace had already received from Maecenas the famous gift of his [[Horace's villa|Sabine farm]], probably not long after the publication of the first book of ''Satires''. The gift, which included income from five tenants, may have ended his career at the Treasury, or at least allowed him to give it less time and energy.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 15</ref> It signalled his identification with the Octavian regime yet, in the second book of ''Satires'' that soon followed, he continued the apolitical stance of the first book. By this time, he had attained the status of ''eques Romanus'',<ref>''Satires'' 2.7.53</ref> perhaps as a result of his work at the Treasury.<ref>R. Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 11</ref> ====Knight==== ''Odes'' 1–3 were the next focus for his artistic creativity. He adapted their forms and themes from Greek lyric poetry of the seventh and sixth centuries BC. The fragmented nature of the [[Greek world]] had enabled his literary heroes to express themselves freely and his semi-retirement from the Treasury in Rome to [[Horace's Villa|his own estate]] in the Sabine hills perhaps empowered him to some extent also<ref>V. Kiernan, ''Horace: Poetics and Politics'', 61–62</ref> yet even when his lyrics touched on public affairs they reinforced the importance of private life.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Nevertheless, his work in the period 30–27 BC began to show his closeness to the regime and his sensitivity to its developing ideology. In ''Odes'' 1.2, for example, he eulogized Octavian in hyperboles that echo Hellenistic court poetry. The name ''Augustus'', which Octavian assumed in January 27 BC, is first attested in ''Odes'' 3.3 and 3.5. In the period 27–24 BC, political allusions in the ''Odes'' concentrated on foreign wars in Britain (1.35), Arabia (1.29) Spain (3.8) and Parthia (2.2). He greeted Augustus on his return to Rome in 24 BC as a beloved ruler upon whose good health he depended for his own happiness (3.14).<ref>R. Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 13</ref> The public reception of ''Odes'' 1–3 disappointed him, however. He attributed the lack of success to jealousy among imperial courtiers and to his isolation from literary cliques.<ref>''Epistles'' 1.19.35–44</ref> Perhaps it was disappointment that led him to put aside the genre in favour of verse letters. He addressed his first book of ''Epistles'' to a variety of friends and acquaintances in an urbane style reflecting his new social status as a knight. In the opening poem, he professed a deeper interest in moral philosophy than poetry<ref>''Epistles'' 1.1.10</ref> but, though the collection demonstrates a leaning towards stoic theory, it reveals no sustained thinking about ethics.<ref>V. Kiernan, ''Horace: Poetics and Politics'', 149, 153</ref> Maecenas was still the dominant confidante but Horace had now begun to assert his own independence, suavely declining constant invitations to attend his patron.<ref>''Epistles'' 1.7</ref> In the final poem of the first book of ''Epistles'', he revealed himself to be forty-four years old in the consulship of Lollius and Lepidus i.e. 21 BC, and "of small stature, fond of the sun, prematurely grey, quick-tempered but easily placated".<ref>''Epistles'' 1.20.24–25</ref><ref>R. Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 14–15</ref> According to Suetonius, the second book of ''Epistles'' was prompted by Augustus, who desired a verse epistle to be addressed to himself. Augustus was in fact a prolific letter-writer and he once asked Horace to be his personal secretary. Horace refused the secretarial role but complied with the emperor's request for a verse letter.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 17–18</ref> The letter to Augustus may have been slow in coming, being published possibly as late as 11 BC. It celebrated, among other things, the 15 BC military victories of his stepsons, Drusus and Tiberius, yet it and the following letter<ref>''Epistles'' 2.2</ref> were largely devoted to literary theory and criticism. The literary theme was explored still further in ''Ars Poetica'', published separately but written in the form of an epistle and sometimes referred to as ''Epistles'' 2.3 (possibly the last poem he ever wrote).<ref>R. Ferri, ''The Epistles'', 121</ref> He was also commissioned to write odes commemorating the victories of Drusus and Tiberius<ref>''Odes'' 4.4 and 4.14</ref> and one to be sung in a temple of Apollo for the [[Secular Games]], a long-abandoned festival that Augustus revived in accordance with his policy of recreating ancient customs (''Carmen Saeculare''). Suetonius recorded some gossip about Horace's sexual activities late in life, claiming that the walls of his bedchamber were covered with obscene pictures and mirrors, so that he saw erotica wherever he looked.<ref group="nb">Suetonius signals that the report is based on rumours by employing the terms "traditur...dicitur" / "it is reported...it is said" (E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 21)</ref> The poet died at 56 years of age, not long after his friend Maecenas, near whose tomb he was laid to rest. Both men bequeathed their property to Augustus, an honour that the emperor expected of his friends.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 23</ref> ==Works== [[Image:Horatius - Boek I Ode XIV - Cleveringaplaats 1, Leiden.JPG|thumb|''Odes'' 1.14 – [[Wall poems in Leiden|Wall poem in Leiden]] ]] The dating of Horace's works isn't known precisely and scholars often debate the exact order in which they were first 'published'. There are persuasive arguments for the following chronology:<ref>R Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 17–21</ref> * ''[[Satires (Horace)|Satires 1]]'' (c. 35–34 BC) * ''[[Satires (Horace)|Satires 2]]'' (c. 30 BC) * ''[[Epodes (Horace)|Epodes]]'' (30 BC) * ''[[Odes (Horace)|Odes 1–3]]'' (c. 23 BC)<ref group="nb">According to a recent theory, the three books of ''Odes'' were issued separately, possibly in 26, 24 and 23 BC (see G. Hutchinson (2002), ''Classical Quarterly'' 52: 517–37)</ref> * ''[[Epistles (Horace)|Epistles 1]]'' (c. 21 BC) * ''[[Carmen Saeculare]]'' (17 BC) * ''[[Epistles (Horace)|Epistles 2]]'' (c. 11 BC)<ref group="nb">19 BC is the usual estimate but c. 11 BC has good support too (see R. Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 18–20</ref> * ''[[Odes (Horace)|Odes 4]]'' (c. 11 BC) * ''[[Ars Poetica (Horace)|Ars Poetica]]'' (c. 10–8 BC)<ref group="nb">The date however is subject to much controversy with 22–18 BC another option (see for example R. Syme, ''The Augustan Aristocracy'', 379–81</ref> ===Historical context=== Horace composed in traditional [[Meter (poetry)|metres]] borrowed from [[Archaic Greece]], employing [[hexameter]]s in his ''Satires'' and ''Epistles'', and [[iamb (poetry)|iambs]] in his ''Epodes'', all of which were relatively easy to adapt into [[Prosody (Latin)|Latin forms]]. His ''Odes'' featured more complex measures, including [[Alcaic verse|alcaics]] and [[Sapphic stanza|sapphics]], which were sometimes a difficult fit for Latin structure and [[syntax]]. Despite these traditional metres, he presented himself as a partisan in the development of a new and sophisticated style. He was influenced in particular by [[Hellenistic poetry|Hellenistic]] aesthetics of brevity, elegance and polish, as modelled in the work of [[Callimachus]].<ref>S. Harrison, ''Style and poetic texture'', 262</ref> {{Quotation|As soon as Horace, stirred by his own genius and encouraged by the example of Virgil, Varius, and perhaps some other poets of the same generation, had determined to make his fame as a poet, being by temperament a fighter, he wanted to fight against all kinds of prejudice, amateurish slovenliness, philistinism, reactionary tendencies, in short to fight for the new and noble type of poetry which he and his friends were endeavouring to bring about.|[[Eduard Fraenkel]]<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 124–25</ref>}} In modern literary theory, a distinction is often made between immediate personal experience (''Urerlebnis'') and experience mediated by cultural vectors such as literature, philosophy and the visual arts (''Bildungserlebnis'').<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gundolf|first1=Friedrich|title=Goethe|date=1916|publisher=Bondi|location=Berlin, Germany}}</ref> The distinction has little relevance for Horace{{citation needed|date=August 2014}} however since his personal and literary experiences are implicated in each other. ''Satires'' 1.5, for example, recounts in detail a real trip Horace made with Virgil and some of his other literary friends, and which parallels a Satire by [[Gaius Lucilius|Lucilius]], his predecessor.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 106–07</ref> Unlike much Hellenistic-inspired literature, however, his poetry was not composed for a small coterie of admirers and fellow poets, nor does it rely on abstruse allusions for many of its effects. Though elitist in its literary standards, it was written for a wide audience, as a public form of art.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 74</ref> Ambivalence also characterizes his literary persona, since his presentation of himself as part of a small community of philosophically aware people, seeking true peace of mind while shunning vices like greed, was well adapted to Augustus's plans to reform public morality, corrupted by greed—his personal plea for moderation was part of the emperor's grand message to the nation.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 95–96</ref> Horace generally followed the examples of poets established as classics in different genres, such as [[Archilochus]] in the ''Epodes'', Lucilius in the ''Satires'' and [[Alcaeus of Mytilene|Alcaeus]] in the ''Odes'', later broadening his scope for the sake of variation and because his models weren't actually suited to the realities confronting him. Archilochus and Alcaeus were aristocratic Greeks whose poetry had a social and religious function that was immediately intelligible to their audiences but which became a mere artifice or literary motif when transposed to Rome. However, the artifice of the ''Odes'' is also integral to their success, since they could now accommodate a wide range of emotional effects, and the blend of Greek and Roman elements adds a sense of detachment and universality.<ref>J. Griffin, ''Gods and Religion'', 182</ref> Horace proudly claimed to introduce into Latin the spirit and iambic poetry of Archilochus but (unlike Archilochus) without persecuting anyone (''Epistles'' 1.19.23–25). It was no idle boast. His ''Epodes'' were modelled on the verses of the Greek poet, as 'blame poetry', yet he avoided targeting real [[scapegoat]]s. Whereas Archilochus presented himself as a serious and vigorous opponent of wrong-doers, Horace aimed for comic effects and adopted the persona of a weak and ineffectual critic of his times (as symbolized for example in his surrender to the witch Canidia in the final epode).<ref>S. Harrison, ''Lyric and Iambic'', 192</ref> He also claimed to be the first to introduce into Latin the lyrical methods of Alcaeus (''Epistles'' 1.19.32–33) and he actually was the first Latin poet to make consistent use of Alcaic meters and themes: love, politics and the [[symposium]]. He imitated other Greek lyric poets as well, employing a 'motto' technique, beginning each ode with some reference to a Greek original and then diverging from it.<ref>S. Harrison, ''Lyric and Iambic'', 194–96</ref> The satirical poet Lucilius was a senator's son who could castigate his peers with impunity. Horace was a mere freedman's son who had to tread carefully.<ref name="E. Fraenkel, Horace, 32, 80">E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 32, 80</ref> Lucilius was a rugged patriot and a significant voice in Roman self-awareness, endearing himself to his countrymen by his blunt frankness and explicit politics. His work expressed genuine freedom or [[libertas]]. His style included 'metrical vandalism' and looseness of structure. Horace instead adopted an oblique and ironic style of satire, ridiculing stock characters and anonymous targets. His libertas was the private freedom of a philosophical outlook, not a political or social privilege.<ref>L. Morgan, ''Satire'', 177–78</ref> His ''Satires'' are relatively easy-going in their use of meter (relative to the tight lyric meters of the ''Odes'')<ref>S. Harrison, ''Style and poetic texture'', 271</ref> but formal and highly controlled relative to the poems of Lucilius, whom Horace mocked for his sloppy standards (''Satires'' 1.10.56–61)<ref group="nb">"[Lucilius]...resembles a man whose only concern is to force / something into the framework of six feet, and who gaily produces / two hundred lines before dinner and another two hundred after."{{spaced ndash}}''Satire'' 1.10.59–61 (translated by [[Niall Rudd]], ''The Satires of Horace and Persius'', Penguin Classics 1973, p. 69)</ref> The ''Epistles'' may be considered among Horace's most innovative works. There was nothing like it in Greek or Roman literature. Occasionally poems had had some resemblance to letters, including an elegiac poem from [[Solon]] to [[Mimnermus]] and some lyrical poems from [[Pindar]] to [[Hieron of Syracuse]]. Lucilius had composed a satire in the form of a letter, and some epistolary poems were composed by [[Catullus]] and [[Propertius]]. But nobody before Horace had ever composed an entire collection of verse letters,<ref>R. Ferri, ''The Epistles'', pp. 121–22</ref> let alone letters with a focus on philosophical problems. The sophisticated and flexible style that he had developed in his ''Satires'' was adapted to the more serious needs of this new genre.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', p. 309</ref> Such refinement of style was not unusual for Horace. His craftsmanship as a wordsmith is apparent even in his earliest attempts at this or that kind of poetry, but his handling of each genre tended to improve over time as he adapted it to his own needs.<ref name="E. Fraenkel, Horace, 32, 80"/> Thus for example it is generally agreed that his second book of ''Satires'', where human folly is revealed through dialogue between characters, is superior to the first, where he propounds his ethics in monologues. Nevertheless, the first book includes some of his most popular poems.<ref>V. Kiernan, ''Horace: Poetics and Politics'', 28</ref> ===Themes=== Horace developed a number of inter-related themes throughout his poetic career, including politics, love, philosophy and ethics, his own social role, as well as poetry itself. His ''Epodes'' and ''Satires'' are forms of 'blame poetry' and both have a natural affinity with the moralising and diatribes of [[Cynicism (philosophy)|Cynicism]]. This often takes the form of allusions to the work and philosophy of [[Bion of Borysthenes]] <ref group="nb">There is one reference to Bion by name in ''Epistles'' 2.2.60, and the clearest allusion to him is in ''Satire'' 1.6, which parallels Bion fragments 1, 2, 16 ''Kindstrand''</ref> but it is as much a literary game as a philosophical alignment. By the time he composed his ''Epistles'', he was a critic of [[Cynicism (philosophy)|Cynicism]] along with all impractical and "high-falutin" philosophy in general.<ref group="nb">''Epistles'' 1.17 and 1.18.6–8 are critical of the extreme views of [[Diogenes]] and also of social adaptations of Cynic precepts, and yet ''Epistle'' 1.2 could be either Cynic or Stoic in its orientation (J. Moles, ''Philosophy and ethics'', p. 177</ref><ref>J. Moles, ''Philosophy and ethics'', pp. 165–69, 177</ref> The ''Satires'' also include a strong element of [[Epicureanism]], with frequent allusions to the Epicurean poet [[Lucretius]].<ref group="nb">''Satires'' 1.1.25–26, 74–75, 1.2.111–12, 1.3.76–77, 97–114, 1.5.44, 101–03, 1.6.128–31, 2.2.14–20, 25, 2.6.93–97</ref> So for example the Epicurean sentiment ''[[carpe diem]]'' is the inspiration behind Horace's repeated punning on his own name (''Horatius ~ hora'') in ''Satires'' 2.6.<ref>K. J. Reckford, ''Some studies in Horace's odes on love''</ref> The ''Satires'' also feature some [[Stoicism|Stoic]], [[Peripatetic school|Peripatetic]] and [[Platonic Dialogues|Platonic]] (''Dialogues'') elements. In short, the ''Satires'' present a medley of philosophical programs, dished up in no particular order—a style of argument typical of the [[Satires (Horace)|genre]].<ref>J. Moles, ''Philosophy and ethics'', p. 168</ref> The ''Odes'' display a wide range of topics. Over time, he becomes more confident about his political voice.<ref>Santirocco "Unity and Design", Lowrie "Horace's Narrative Odes"</ref> Although he is often thought of as an overly intellectual lover, he is ingenious in representing passion.<ref>Ancona, "Time and the Erotic"</ref> The "Odes" weave various philosophical strands together, with allusions and statements of doctrine present in about a third of the ''Odes'' Books 1–3, ranging from the flippant (1.22, 3.28) to the solemn (2.10, 3.2, 3.3). [[Epicureanism]] is the dominant influence, characterizing about twice as many of these odes as Stoicism. A group of odes combines these two influences in tense relationships, such as ''Odes'' 1.7, praising Stoic virility and devotion to public duty while also advocating private pleasures among friends. While generally favouring the Epicurean lifestyle, the lyric poet is as eclectic as the satiric poet, and in ''Odes'' 2.10 even proposes Aristotle's [[golden mean (philosophy)|golden mean]] as a remedy for Rome's political troubles.<ref>J. Moles, ''Philosophy and ethics'', pp. 171–73</ref> Many of Horace's poems also contain much reflection on genre, the lyric tradition, and the function of poetry.<ref>Davis "Polyhymnia" and Lowrie "Horace's Narrative Odes"</ref> ''Odes'' 4, thought to be composed at the emperor's request, takes the themes of the first three books of "Odes" to a new level. This book shows greater poetic confidence after the public performance of his "Carmen saeculare" or "Century hymn" at a public festival orchestrated by Augustus. In it, Horace addresses the emperor Augustus directly with more confidence and proclaims his power to grant poetic immortality to those he praises. It is the least philosophical collection of his verses, excepting the twelfth ode, addressed to the dead Virgil as if he were living. In that ode, the epic poet and the lyric poet are aligned with [[Stoicism]] and [[Epicureanism]] respectively, in a mood of bitter-sweet pathos.<ref>J. Moles, ''Philosophy and ethics'', p. 179</ref> The first poem of the ''Epistles'' sets the philosophical tone for the rest of the collection: "So now I put aside both verses and all those other games: What is true and what befits is my care, this my question, this my whole concern." His poetic renunciation of poetry in favour of philosophy is intended to be ambiguous. Ambiguity is the hallmark of the ''Epistles''. It is uncertain if those being addressed by the self-mocking poet-philosopher are being honoured or criticized. Though he emerges as an [[Epicureanism|Epicurean]], it is on the understanding that philosophical preferences, like political and social choices, are a matter of personal taste. Thus he depicts the ups and downs of the philosophical life more realistically than do most philosophers.<ref>J. Moles, ''Philosophy and ethics'', pp. 174–80</ref> ==Reception== [[File:Quinto Orazio Flacco.jpg|thumb|Horace, portrayed by [[Giacomo Di Chirico]]]] The reception of Horace's work has varied from one epoch to another and varied markedly even in his own lifetime. ''Odes'' 1–3 were not well received when first 'published' in Rome, yet Augustus later commissioned a ceremonial ode for the Centennial Games in 17 BC and also encouraged the publication of ''Odes'' 4, after which Horace's reputation as Rome's premier lyricist was assured. His Odes were to become the best received of all his poems in ancient times, acquiring a classic status that discouraged imitation: no other poet produced a comparable body of lyrics in the four centuries that followed<ref>R. Tarrant, ''Ancient receptions of Horace'', 279</ref> (though that might also be attributed to social causes, particularly the parasitism that Italy was sinking into).<ref>V. Kiernan, ''Horace: Poetics and Politics'', 176</ref> In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, ode-writing became highly fashionable in England and a large number of aspiring poets imitated Horace both in English and in Latin.<ref>D. Money, ''The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries'', 326, 332</ref> In a verse epistle to Augustus (Epistle 2.1), in 12 BC, Horace argued for classic status to be awarded to contemporary poets, including Virgil and apparently himself.<ref>R. Lyme, ''Augustan Poetry and Society'', 603</ref> In the final poem of his third book of Odes he claimed to have created for himself a monument more durable than bronze ("Exegi monumentum aere perennius", ''[[Carmina]]'' 3.30.1). For one modern scholar, however, Horace's personal qualities are more notable than the monumental quality of his achievement: {{quote|... when we hear his name we don't really think of a monument. We think rather of a voice which varies in tone and resonance but is always recognizable, and which by its unsentimental humanity evokes a very special blend of liking and respect.|[[Niall Rudd]]<ref>[[Niall Rudd]], ''The Satires of Horace and Persius'', 14</ref>}} Yet for men like [[Wilfred Owen]], scarred by experiences of World War I, his poetry stood for discredited values: {{poemquote| My friend, you would not tell with such high zest To children ardent for some desperate glory, The Old Lie: Dulce et decorum est Pro patria mori.<ref group="nb">Wilfred Owen, ''[[Dulce et decorum est]]'' (1917), echoes a line from ''Carmina'' 3.2.13, "it is sweet and honourable to die for one's country", cited by Stephen Harrison, ''The nineteenth and twentieth centuries'', 340.</ref> }} The same motto, ''[[Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori]]'', had been adapted to the ethos of martyrdom in the lyrics of early Christian poets like [[Prudentius]].<ref>R. Tarrant, ''Ancient receptions of Horace'', 282–83</ref> These preliminary comments touch on a small sample of developments in the reception of Horace's work. More developments are covered epoch by epoch in the following sections. ===Antiquity=== Horace's influence can be observed in the work of his near contemporaries, [[Ovid]] and [[Propertius]]. Ovid followed his example in creating a completely natural style of expression in hexameter verse, and Propertius cheekily mimicked him in his third book of elegies.<ref group="nb">Propertius published his third book of elegies within a year or two of Horace's Odes 1–3 and mimicked him, for example, in the opening lines, characterizing himself in terms borrowed from Odes 3.1.13 and 3.30.13–14, as a priest of the Muses and as an adaptor of Greek forms of poetry (R. Tarrant, ''Ancient receptions of Horace'', 227)</ref> His ''Epistles'' provided them both with a model for their own verse letters and it also shaped Ovid's exile poetry.<ref group="nb">Ovid for example probably borrowed from Horace's ''Epistle'' 1.20 the image of a poetry book as a slave boy eager to leave home, adapting it to the opening poems of ''Tristia'' 1 and 3 (R. Tarrant, ''Ancient receptions of Horace''), and ''Tristia'' 2 may be understood as a counterpart to Horace's ''Epistles'' 2.1, both being letters addressed to Augustus on literary themes (A. Barchiesi, ''Speaking Volumes'', 79–103)</ref> His influence had a perverse aspect. As mentioned before, the brilliance of his ''Odes'' may have discouraged imitation. Conversely, they may have created a vogue for the lyrics of the archaic Greek poet [[Pindar]], due to the fact that Horace had neglected that style of lyric (see [[Pindar#Influence and legacy|Influence and Legacy of Pindar]]).<ref>R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 280</ref> The iambic genre seems almost to have disappeared after publication of Horace's ''Epodes''. Ovid's ''Ibis'' was a rare attempt at the form but it was inspired mainly by [[Callimachus]], and there are some iambic elements in [[Martial]] but the main influence there was [[Catullus]].<ref>R. Tarrant, ''Ancient receptions of Horace'', 278</ref> A revival of popular interest in the satires of Lucilius may have been inspired by Horace's criticism of his unpolished style. Both Horace and Lucilius were considered good role-models by [[Persius]], who critiqued his own satires as lacking both the acerbity of Lucillius and the gentler touch of Horace.<ref group="nb">The comment is in Persius 1.114–18, yet that same satire has been found to have nearly 80 reminiscences of Horace; see D. Hooley, ''The Knotted Thong'', 29</ref> [[Juvenal]]'s caustic satire was influenced mainly by Lucilius but Horace by then was a school classic and Juvenal could refer to him respectfully and in a round-about way as "''the Venusine lamp''".<ref group="nb">The allusion to ''Venusine'' comes via Horace's ''Sermones'' 2.1.35, while ''lamp'' signifies the lucubrations of a conscientious poet. According to Quintilian (93), however, many people in Flavian Rome preferred Lucilius not only to Horace but to all other Latin poets (R. Tarrant, ''Ancient receptions of Horace'', 279)</ref> [[Statius]] paid homage to Horace by composing one poem in Sapphic and one in Alcaic meter (the verse forms most often associated with ''Odes''), which he included in his collection of occasional poems, ''Silvae''. Ancient scholars wrote commentaries on the lyric meters of the ''Odes'', including the scholarly poet [[Caesius Bassus]]. By a process called ''derivatio'', he varied established meters through the addition or omission of syllables, a technique borrowed by [[Seneca the Younger]] when adapting Horatian meters to the stage.<ref>R. Tarrant, ''Ancient receptions of Horace'', 280–81</ref> Horace's poems continued to be school texts into late antiquity. Works attributed to [[Helenius Acro]] and [[Pomponius Porphyrio]] are the remnants of a much larger body of Horatian scholarship. Porphyrio arranged the poems in non-chronological order, beginning with the ''Odes'', because of their general popularity and their appeal to scholars (the ''Odes'' were to retain this privileged position in the medieval manuscript tradition and thus in modern editions also). Horace was often evoked by poets of the fourth century, such as [[Ausonius]] and [[Claudian]]. [[Prudentius]] presented himself as a Christian Horace, adapting Horatian meters to his own poetry and giving Horatian motifs a Christian tone.<ref group="nb">Prudentius sometimes alludesto the ''Odes'' in a negative context, as expressions of a secular life he is abandoning. Thus for example ''male pertinax'', employed in Prudentius's ''Praefatio'' to describe a willful desire for victory, is lifted from ''Odes'' 1.9.24, where it describes a girl's half-hearted resistance to seduction. Elsewhere he borrows ''dux bone'' from ''Odes'' 4.5.5 and 37, where it refers to Augustus, and applies it to Christ (R. Tarrant, ''Ancient receptions of Horace'', 282</ref> On the other hand, [[St Jerome]], modelled an uncompromising response to the pagan Horace, observing: "''What harmony can there be between Christ and the Devil? What has Horace to do with the Psalter?''"<ref group="nb">St Jerome, ''Epistles'' 22.29, incorporating a quote from ''2 'Corinthians'' 6.14: ''qui consensus Christo et Belial? quid facit cum psalterio Horatius?''(cited by K. Friis-Jensen, ''Horace in the Middle Ages'', 292)</ref> By the early sixth century, Horace and Prudentius were both part of a classical heritage that was struggling to survive the disorder of the times. [[Boethius]], the last major author of classical Latin literature, could still take inspiration from Horace, sometimes mediated by Senecan tragedy.<ref name="Tarrant">R. Tarrant, ''Ancient receptions of Horace'', 283</ref> It can be argued that Horace's influence extended beyond poetry to dignify core themes and values of the early Christian era, such as self-sufficiency, inner contentment and courage.<ref group="nb">''Odes'' 3.3.1–8 was especially influential in promoting the value of heroic calm in the face of danger, describing a man who could bear even the collapse of the world without fear (''si fractus illabatur orbis,/impavidum ferient ruinae''). Echoes are found in Seneca's ''Agamemnon'' 593–603, Prudentius's ''Peristephanon'' 4.5–12 and Boethius's ''Consolatio'' 1 metrum 4.(R. Tarrant, ''Ancient receptions of Horace'', 283–85)</ref> ===Middle Ages and Renaissance=== [[File:Horaz beim Studium.jpg|thumb|Horace in his Studium: German print of the fifteenth century, summarizing the final [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber IV/Carmen XV|ode 4.15]] (in praise of Augustus).]] Classical texts almost ceased being copied in the period between the mid sixth century and the [[Carolingian Renaissance|Carolingian revival]]. Horace's work probably survived in just two or three books imported into northern Europe from Italy. These became the ancestors of six extant manuscripts dated to the ninth century. Two of those six manuscripts are French in origin, one was produced in [[Alsace]], and the other three show Irish influence but were probably written in continental monasteries ([[Lombardy]] for example).<ref>R. Tarrant, ''Ancient receptions of Horace'', 285–87</ref> By the last half of the ninth century, it was not uncommon for literate people to have direct experience of Horace's poetry. His influence on the [[Carolingian Renaissance]] can be found in the poems of [[Heiric of Auxerre]]<ref group="nb">Heiric, like Prudentius, gave Horatian motifs a Christian context. Thus the character Lydia in ''Odes'' 3.19.15, who would willingly die for her lover twice, becomes in Heiric's ''Life'' of St Germaine of Auxerre a saint ready to die twice for the Lord's commandments (R. Tarrant, ''Ancient receptions of Horace'', 287–88)</ref> and in some manuscripts marked with [[neumes]], mysterious notations that may have been an aid to the memorization and discussion of his lyric meters. ''Ode'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber IV/Carmen XI|4.11]] is neumed with the melody of a hymn to John the Baptist, ''[[Ut queant laxis]]'', composed in [[Sapphic stanza]]s. This hymn later became the basis of the [[solfege]] system (''Do, re, mi...''){{emdash}}an association with western music quite appropriate for a lyric poet like Horace, though the language of the hymn is mainly Prudentian.<ref>R. Tarrant, ''Ancient receptions of Horace'', 288–89</ref> Lyons<ref>Stuart Lyons, Horace's Odes and the Mystery of Do-Re-Mi</ref> argues that the melody in question was linked with Horace's Ode well before Guido d'Arezzo fitted [[Ut queant laxis]] to it. However, the melody is unlikely to be a survivor from classical times, although Ovid<ref>Tristia, 4.10.49–50</ref> testifies to Horace's use of the lyre while performing his Odes. The German scholar, [[Ludwig Traube (palaeographer)|Ludwig Traube]], once dubbed the tenth and eleventh centuries ''The age of Horace'' (''aetas Horatiana''), and placed it between the ''aetas Vergiliana'' of the eighth and ninth centuries, and the ''aetas Ovidiana'' of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, a distinction supposed to reflect the dominant classical Latin influences of those times. Such a distinction is over-schematized since Horace was a substantial influence in the ninth century as well. Traube had focused too much on Horace's ''Satires''.<ref>B. Bischoff, ''Living with the satirists'', 83–95</ref> Almost all of Horace's work found favour in the Medieval period. In fact medieval scholars were also guilty of over-schematism, associating Horace's different genres with the different ages of man. A twelfth-century scholar encapsulated the theory: "...Horace wrote four different kinds of poems on account of the four ages, the ''Odes'' for boys, the ''Ars Poetica'' for young men, the ''Satires'' for mature men, the ''Epistles'' for old and complete men."<ref>K. Friis-Jensen,''Horace in the Middle Ages'', 291</ref> It was even thought that Horace had composed his works in the order in which they had been placed by ancient scholars.<ref group="nb">According to a medieval French commentary on the ''Satires'': "...first he composed his lyrics, and in them, speaking to the young, as it were, he took as subject-matter love affairs and quarrels, banquets and drinking parties. Next he wrote his ''Epodes'', and in them composed invectives against men of a more advanced and more dishonourable age...He next wrote his book about the ''Ars Poetica'', and in that instructed men of his own profession to write well...Later he added his book of ''Satires'', in which he reproved those who had fallen a prey to various kinds of vices. Finally, he finished his oeuvre with the ''Epistles'', and in them, following the method of a good farmer, he sowed the virtues where he had rooted out the vices." (cited by K. Friis-Jensen, ''Horace in the Middle Ages'', 294–302)</ref> Despite its naivety, the schematism involved an appreciation of Horace's works as a collection, the ''Ars Poetica'', ''Satires'' and ''Epistles'' appearing to find favour as well as the ''Odes''. The later Middle Ages however gave special significance to ''Satires'' and ''Epistles'', being considered Horace's mature works. [[Dante]] referred to Horace as ''Orazio satiro'', and he awarded him a privileged position in the first circle of Hell, with [[Homer]], Ovid and [[Lucan]].<ref>K. Friis-Jensen, ''Horace in the Middle Ages'', 293, 304</ref> Horace's popularity is revealed in the large number of quotes from all his works found in almost every genre of medieval literature, and also in the number of poets imitating him in [[Prosody (Latin)#Two rhythms|quantitative Latin meter]]. The most prolific imitator of his ''Odes'' was the Bavarian monk, [[Metellus of Tegernsee]], who dedicated his work to the patron saint of [[Tegernsee Abbey]], [[Quirinus of Tegernsee|St Quirinus]], around the year 1170. He imitated all Horace's lyrical meters then followed these up with imitations of other meters used by Prudentius and Boethius, indicating that variety, as first modelled by Horace, was considered a fundamental aspect of the lyric genre. The content of his poems however was restricted to simple piety.<ref>K. Friis-Jensen, ''Horace in the Middle Ages'', 296–98</ref> Among the most successful imitators of ''Satires'' and ''Epistles'' was another Germanic author, calling himself [[Sextus Amarcius]], around 1100, who composed four books, the first two exemplifying vices, the second pair mainly virtues.<ref>K. Friis-Jensen, ''Horace in the Middle Ages'', 302</ref> [[Petrarch]] is a key figure in the imitation of Horace in accentual meters. His verse letters in Latin were modelled on the ''Epistles'' and he wrote a letter to Horace in the form of an ode. However he also borrowed from Horace when composing his Italian sonnets. One modern scholar has speculated that authors who imitated Horace in accentual rhythms (including stressed Latin and vernacular languages) may have considered their work a natural sequel to Horace's metrical variety.<ref>K. Friis-Jensen, ''Horace in the Middle Ages'', 299</ref> In France, Horace and [[Pindar]] were the poetic models for a group of vernacular authors called the [[Pléiade]], including for example [[Pierre de Ronsard]] and [[Joachim du Bellay]]. [[Montaigne]] made constant and inventive use of Horatian quotes.<ref>Michael McGann, ''Horace in the Renaissance'', 306</ref> The vernacular languages were dominant in Spain and Portugal in the sixteenth century, where Horace's influence is notable in the works of such authors as [[Garcilaso de la Vega (poet)|Garcilaso de la Vega]], [[Juan Boscán]], [[Sá de Miranda]], [[Antonio Ferreira]] and [[Fray Luis de León]], the last writing odes on the Horatian theme ''beatus ille'' (''happy the man'').<ref>E. Rivers, ''Fray Luis de León: The Original Poems''</ref> The sixteenth century in western Europe was also an age of translations (except in Germany, where Horace wasn't translated into the vernacular until well into the seventeenth century). The first English translator was [[Thomas Drant]], who placed translations of [[Jeremiah]] and Horace side by side in ''Medicinable Morall'', 1566. That was also the year that the Scot [[George Buchanan]] paraphrased the [[Psalms]] in a Horatian setting. [[Ben Jonson]] put Horace on the stage in 1601 in ''[[Poetaster (play)|Poetaster]]'', along with other classical Latin authors, giving them all their own verses to speak in translation. Horace's part evinces the independent spirit, moral earnestness and critical insight that many readers look for in his poems.<ref>M. McGann, ''Horace in the Renaissance'', 306–07, 313–16</ref> ===Age of Enlightenment=== During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, or the [[Age of Enlightenment]], neoclassical culture was pervasive. English literature in the middle of that period has been dubbed [[Augustan literature|Augustan]]. It is not always easy to distinguish Horace's influence during those centuries (the mixing of influences is shown for example in one poet's pseudonym, ''Horace Juvenal'').<ref group="nb">'Horace Juvenal' was author of ''Modern manners: a poem'', 1793</ref> However a measure of his influence can be found in the diversity of the people interested in his works, both among readers and authors.<ref>D. Money, ''The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries'', 318, 331, 332</ref> New editions of his works were published almost yearly. There were three new editions in 1612 (two in [[Leiden]], one in [[Frankfurt]]) and again in 1699 ([[Utrecht]], [[Barcelona]], [[Cambridge]]). Cheap editions were plentiful and fine editions were also produced, including one whose entire text was engraved by [[John Pine]] in [[copperplate engraving|copperplate]]. The poet [[James Thomson (poet)|James Thomson]] owned five editions of Horace's work and the physician [[James Douglas (physician)|James Douglas]] had five hundred books with Horace-related titles. Horace was often commended in periodicals such as [[The Spectator (1711)|The Spectator]], as a hallmark of good judgement, moderation and manliness, a focus for moralising.<ref group="nb">see for example ''Spectator'' '''312''', 27 Feb. 1712; '''548''', 28 Nov. 1712; '''618''', 10 Nov. 1714</ref> His verses offered a fund of mottoes, such as ''[[simplex munditiis]]'' (elegance in simplicity), ''[[splendide mendax]]'' (nobly untruthful), ''[[sapere aude]]'' (dare to know), ''[[nunc est bibendum]]'' (now is the time to drink), ''[[carpe diem]]'' (seize the day, perhaps the only one still in common use today).<ref name="Tarrant"/> These were quoted even in works as prosaic as [[Edmund Quincy (1703-1788)|Edmund Quincy]]'s ''A treatise of hemp-husbandry'' (1765). The fictional hero [[The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling|Tom Jones]] recited his verses with feeling.<ref>D. Money, ''The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries'', 322</ref> His works were also used to justify commonplace themes, such as patriotic obedience, as in James Parry's English lines from an Oxford University collection in 1736:<ref>D. Money, ''The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries'', 326–27</ref> {{poemquote| What friendly [[Muse]] will teach my Lays To emulate the Roman fire? Justly to sound a Caeser's praise Demands a bold Horatian lyre. }} Horatian-style lyrics were increasingly typical of Oxford and Cambridge verse collections for this period, most of them in Latin but some like the previous ode in English. [[John Milton]]'s [[Lycidas]] first appeared in such a collection. It has few Horatian echoes<ref group="nb">One echo of Horace may be found in line 69: "''Were it not better done as others use,/ To sport with Amaryllis in the shade/Or with the tangles of Neaera's hair?''", which points to the Neara in ''Odes'' 3.14.21 (Douglas Bush, ''Milton: Poetical Works'', 144, note 69)</ref> yet Milton's associations with Horace were lifelong. He composed a controversial version of ''Odes'' 1.5, and [[Paradise Lost]] includes references to Horace's 'Roman' ''Odes'' 3.1–6 (Book 7 for example begins with echoes of ''Odes'' 3.4).<ref>J. Talbot, ''A Horatian Pun in Paradise Lost'', 21–3</ref> Yet Horace's lyrics could offer inspiration to libertines as well as moralists, and neo-Latin sometimes served as a kind of discrete veil for the risqué. Thus for example [[Benjamin Loveling]] authored a catalogue of Drury Lane and Covent Garden prostitutes, in Sapphic stanzas, and an encomium for a dying lady "of salacious memory".<ref>B. Loveling, ''Latin and English Poems'', 49–52, 79–83</ref> Some Latin imitations of Horace were politically subversive, such as a marriage ode by [[Anthony Alsop]] that included a rallying cry for the [[Jacobitism|Jacobite]] cause. On the other hand, [[Andrew Marvell]] took inspiration from Horace's ''Odes'' 1.37 to compose his English masterpiece [[Horatian Ode upon Cromwell's Return from Ireland]], in which subtly nuanced reflections on the execution of [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] echo Horace's ambiguous response to the death of [[Cleopatra]] (Marvell's ode was suppressed in spite of its subtlety and only began to be widely published in 1776). [[Samuel Johnson]] took particular pleasure in reading ''The Odes''.<ref group="nb">Cfr. [[James Boswell]], "The Life of [[Samuel Johnson]]" ''Aetat.'' 20, 1729 where Boswell remarked of Johnson that Horace's ''Odes'' "were the compositions in which he took most delight."</ref> [[Alexander Pope]] wrote direct ''Imitations'' of Horace (published with the original Latin alongside) and also echoed him in ''Essays'' and [[The Rape of the Lock]]. He even emerged as "a quite Horatian Homer" in his translation of the ''[[Iliad]]''.<ref>D. Money, ''The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries'', 329–31</ref> Horace appealed also to female poets, such as [[Anna Seward]] (''Original sonnets on various subjects, and odes paraphrased from Horace'', 1799) and [[Elizabeth Tollet]], who composed a Latin ode in Sapphic meter to celebrate her brother's return from overseas, with tea and coffee substituted for the wine of Horace's [[symposium|sympotic]] settings: {{verse translation|lang=la | Quos procax nobis numeros, jocosque Musa dictaret? mihi dum tibique Temperent baccis Arabes, vel herbis Pocula Seres<ref>E. Tollet, ''Poems on Several Occasions'', 84</ref> | What verses and jokes might the bold Muse dictate? while for you and me Arabs flavour our cups with beans Or Chinese with leaves.<ref>Translation adapted from D. Money, ''The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries'', 329</ref> }} Horace's ''Ars Poetica'' is second only to Aristotle's ''Poetics'' in its influence on literary theory and criticism. Milton recommended both works in his treatise ''of Education''.<ref>A. Gilbert, ''Literary Criticism: Plato to Dryden'', 124, 669</ref> Horace's ''Satires'' and ''Epistles'' however also had a huge impact, influencing theorists and critics such as [[John Dryden]].<ref>W. Kupersmith, ''Roman Satirists in Seventeenth Century England'', 97–101</ref> There was considerable debate over the value of different lyrical forms for contemporary poets, as represented on one hand by the kind of four-line stanzas made familiar by Horace's Sapphic and Alcaic ''Odes'' and, on the other, the loosely structured [[Pindarics]] associated with the odes of [[Pindar]]. Translations occasionally involved scholars in the dilemmas of censorship. Thus [[Christopher Smart]] entirely omitted ''Odes'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber IV/Carmen X|4.10]] and re-numbered the remaining odes. He also removed the ending of ''Odes'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber IV/Carmen I|4.1]]. [[Thomas Creech]] printed ''Epodes'' [[:wikisource:la:Epodi#VIII|8]] and [[:wikisource:la:Epodi#XII|12]] in the original Latin but left out their English translations. [[Philip Francis (translator)|Philip Francis]] left out both the English and Latin for those same two epodes, a gap in the numbering the only indication that something was amiss. French editions of Horace were influential in England and these too were regularly [[bowdlerize]]d. Most European nations had their own 'Horaces': thus for example [[Friedrich von Hagedorn]] was called ''The German Horace'' and [[Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski]] ''The Polish Horace'' (the latter was much imitated by English poets such as [[Henry Vaughan]] and [[Abraham Cowley]]). Pope [[Urban VIII]] wrote voluminously in Horatian meters, including an ode on gout.<ref>D. Money, ''The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries'', 319–25</ref> ===19th century on=== Horace maintained a central role in the education of English-speaking elites right up until the 1960s.<ref>S. Harrison, ''The nineteenth and twentieth centuries'', 340</ref> A pedantic emphasis on the formal aspects of language-learning at the expense of literary appreciation may have made him unpopular in some quarters<ref>V. Kiernan, ''Horace: Poetics and Politics'', x</ref> yet it also confirmed his influence{{emdash}}a tension in his reception that underlies [[Lord Byron|Byron]]'s famous lines from ''[[Childe Harold's Pilgrimage|Childe Harold]]'' (Canto iv, 77):<ref>S. Harrison, ''The nineteenth and twentieth centuries'', 334</ref> {{poemquote| Then farewell, Horace, whom I hated so Not for thy faults, but mine; it is a curse To understand, not feel thy lyric flow, To comprehend, but never love thy verse. }} [[William Wordsworth]]'s mature poetry, including the [[Preface to the Lyrical Ballads|preface]] to ''[[Lyrical Ballads]]'', reveals Horace's influence in its rejection of false ornament<ref>D. Money, ''The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries'', 323</ref> and he once expressed "a wish / to meet the shade of Horace...".<ref group="nb">The quote, from ''Memorials of a Tour of Italy'' (1837), contains allusions to ''Odes'' 3.4 and 3.13 (S. Harrison, ''The nineteenth and twentieth centuries'', 334–35)</ref> [[John Keats]] echoed the opening of Horace's ''Epodes'' 14 in the opening lines of ''[[Ode to a Nightingale]]''.<ref group="nb">"''My heart aches, and a drowsy numbness pains / my sense...''" echoes Epodes [[:wikisource:la:Epodi#XIV|14.1–4]] (S. Harrison, ''The nineteenth and twentieth centuries'', 335)</ref> The Roman poet was presented in the nineteenth century as an honorary English gentleman. [[William Makepeace Thackeray|William Thackeray]] produced a version of ''Odes'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber I/Carmen XXXVIII|1.38]] in which Horace's 'boy' became 'Lucy', and [[Gerard Manley Hopkins]] translated the boy innocently as 'child'. Horace was translated by [[Sir Theodore Martin]] (biographer of [[Albert, Prince Consort|Prince Albert]]) but minus some ungentlemanly verses, such as the erotic ''Odes'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber I/Carmen XXV|1.25]] and ''Epodes'' 8 and 12. [[Edward Bulwer-Lytton]] produced a popular translation and [[William Gladstone]] also wrote translations during his last days as Prime Minister.<ref>S. Harrison, ''The nineteenth and twentieth centuries'', 335–37</ref> [[Edward FitzGerald (poet)|Edward FitzGerald]]'s ''[[Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam]]'', though formally derived from the Persian ''[[ruba'i]]'', nevertheless shows a strong Horatian influence, since, as one modern scholar has observed, "''...the quatrains inevitably recall the stanzas of the 'Odes', as does the narrating first person of the world-weary, ageing [[Epicurus|Epicurean]] Omar himself, mixing [[Symposium|sympotic]] exhortation and 'carpe diem' with splendid moralising and 'memento mori' [[nihilism]].''"<ref group="nb">Comment by S. Harrison, editor and contributor to ''The Cambridge Companion to Horace'' (S. Harrison, ''The nineteenth and twentieth centuries'', 337</ref> [[Matthew Arnold]] advised a friend in verse not to worry about politics, an echo of ''Odes'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber II/Carmen XI|2.11]], yet later became a critic of Horace's inadequacies relative to Greek poets, as role models of [[Victorian Age|Victorian]] virtues, observing: "''If human life were complete without faith, without enthusiasm, without energy, Horace...would be the perfect interpreter of human life.''"<ref>M. Arnold, ''Selected Prose'', 74</ref> [[Christina Rossetti]] composed a sonnet depicting a woman willing her own death steadily, drawing on Horace's depiction of 'Glycera' in ''Odes'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber I/Carmen XIX|1.19.5–6]] and Cleopatra in ''Odes'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber I/Carmen XXXVII|1.37]].<ref group="nb">Rossetti's sonnet, ''A Study (a soul)'', dated 1854, was not published in her own lifetime. Some lines: ''She stands as pale as Parian marble stands / Like Cleopatra when she turns at bay...'' (C. Rossetti, ''Complete Poems'', 758</ref> [[A. E. Housman]] considered ''Odes'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber IV/Carmen VII|4.7]], in [[Prosody (Latin)#First Archilochian|Archilochian]] couplets, the most beautiful poem of antiquity<ref>W. Flesch, ''Companion to British Poetry, 19th Century'', 98</ref> and yet he generally shared Horace's penchant for quatrains, being readily adapted to his own elegiac and melancholy strain.<ref>S. Harrison, ''The nineteenth and twentieth centuries'', 339</ref> The most famous poem of [[Ernest Dowson]] took its title and its heroine's name from a line of ''Odes'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber IV/Carmen I|4.1]], ''Non sum qualis eram bonae sub regno Cynarae'', as well as its motif of nostalgia for a former flame. [[Kipling]] wrote a famous [[parody]] of the ''Odes'', satirising their stylistic idiosyncrasies and especially the extraordinary syntax, but he also used Horace's Roman patriotism as a focus for British imperialism, as in the story ''Regulus'' in the school collection ''[[Stalky & Co.]]'', which he based on ''Odes'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber III/Carmen V|3.5]].<ref>S. Medcalfe, ''Kipling's Horace'', 217–39</ref> Wilfred Owen's famous poem, quoted above, incorporated Horatian text to question patriotism while ignoring the rules of Latin scansion. However, there were few other echoes of Horace in the war period, possibly because war is not actually a major theme of Horace's work.<ref>S. Harrison, ''the nineteenth and twentieth centuries'', 340</ref> [[File:Michelin Poster 1898.jpg|thumb|[[Bibendum]] (the symbol of the [[Michelin]] tyre company) takes his name from the opening line of [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber I/Carmen XXXVII|Ode 1.37]], ''[[Nunc est bibendum]]''.]] Both [[W.H.Auden]] and [[Louis MacNeice]] began their careers as teachers of classics and both responded as poets to Horace's influence. Auden for example evoked the fragile world of the 1930s in terms echoing ''Odes'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber II/Carmen XI|2.11.1–4]], where Horace advises a friend not to let worries about frontier wars interfere with current pleasures. {{poemquote| And, gentle, do not care to know Where Poland draws her Eastern bow, What violence is done; Nor ask what doubtful act allows Our freedom in this English house, Our picnics in the sun.<ref group="nb">Quoted from Auden's poem ''Out on the lawn I lie in bed'', 1933, and cited by S. Harrison, ''The nineteenth and twentieth centuries'', 340</ref> }} The American poet, [[Robert Frost]], echoed Horace's ''Satires'' in the conversational and sententious idiom of some of his longer poems, such as ''The Lesson for Today'' (1941), and also in his gentle advocacy of life on the farm, as in ''Hyla Brook'' (1916), evoking Horace's ''fons Bandusiae'' in ''Ode'' [[:wikisource:la:Carmina (Horatius)/Liber III/Carmen XIII|3.13]]. Now at the start of the third millennium, poets are still absorbing and re-configuring the Horatian influence, sometimes in translation (such as a 2002 English/American edition of the ''Odes'' by thirty-six poets)<ref group="nb">Edited by McClatchy, reviewed by S. Harrison, ''Bryn Mawr Classical Review'' 2003.03.05</ref> and sometimes as inspiration for their own work (such as a 2003 collection of odes by a New Zealand poet).<ref group="nb">I. Wedde, ''The Commonplace Odes'', Auckland 2003, (cited by S. Harrison, ''The nineteenth and twentieth centuries'', 345)</ref> Horace's ''Epodes'' have largely been ignored in the modern era, excepting those with political associations of historical significance. The obscene qualities of some of the poems have repulsed even scholars<ref group="nb">'Political' Epodes are 1, 7, 9, 16; notably obscene Epodes are 8 and 12. E. Fraenkel is among the admirers repulsed by these two poems, for another view of which see for example Dee Lesser Clayman, 'Horace's Epodes VIII and XII: More than Clever Obscenity?', ''The Classical World'' Vol. 6, No. 1 (September 1975), pp 55–61 {{JSTOR|4348329}}</ref> yet more recently a better understanding of the nature of [[Iambus (genre)|Iambic poetry]] has led to a re-evaluation of the ''whole'' collection.<ref>D. Mankin, ''Horace: Epodes'', 6–9</ref><ref>R. McNeill, ''Horace'', 12</ref> A re-appraisal of the ''Epodes'' also appears in creative adaptations by recent poets (such as a 2004 collection of poems that relocates the ancient context to a 1950s industrial town).<ref group="nb">M. Almond, ''The Works'' 2004, Washington, cited by S. Harrison, ''The nineteenth and twentieth centuries'', 346</ref> ==Translations== * [[John Dryden]] successfully adapted three of the ''Odes'' (and one Epode) into verse for readers of his own age. [[Samuel Johnson]] favored the versions of [[Philip Francis (translator)|Philip Francis]]. Others favor unrhymed translations. * In 1964 James Michie published a translation of the ''Odes''—many of them fully rhymed—including a dozen of the poems in the original [[Sapphic stanza|Sapphic]] and [[Alcaic]] metres. * More recent verse translations of the Odes include those by David West (free verse), and Colin Sydenham (rhymed). * ''[[Ars Poetica (Horace)|Ars Poetica]]'' was first translated into English by [[Ben Jonson]] and later by Lord Byron. * ''Horace's Odes and the Mystery of Do-Re-Mi'' Stuart Lyons (rhymed) Aris & Phillips {{ISBN|978-0-85668-790-7}} == In popular culture == The Oxford Latin Course textbooks use the life of Horace to illustrate an average Roman's life in the [[Roman Republic|late Republic]] to [[Roman Empire|Early Empire]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Oxford Latin Course Part one.|last=Balme, Maurice|first=Moorwood, James|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1996|isbn=978-0195212037}}</ref> ==See also== {{Portal|Literature|Ancient Rome|Biography}} * [[Carpe diem]] * [[Horatia (gens)]] * [[List of ancient Romans]] * [[Otium]] * [[Prosody (Latin)]] * [[Translation#Western theory|Translation]] ==Notes== <references group="nb" /> ==Citations== {{reflist|25em}} ==References== * {{cite book | last=Arnold | first=Matthew | title=Selected Prose | publisher=Penguin Books | year=1970 | isbn=978-0-14-043058-5 | url=https://archive.org/details/selectedprose00arno }} * {{cite book | last=Barrow |first=R | title=The Romans | publisher=Penguin/Pelican Books | year=1949 }} * {{cite book | last=Barchiesi |first=A | title=Speaking Volumes: Narrative and Intertext in Ovid and Other Latin Poets | publisher=Duckworth| year=2001 }} * {{cite book | last=Bischoff |first=B | title=Classical Influences on European Culture AD 500–1500 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=1971 | chapter=Living with the satirists}} * {{cite book | last=Bush |first=Douglas | title=Milton: Poetical Works | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1966 }} * {{cite book | last=Campbell |first=A | title=Horace: A New Interpretation | publisher=London | year=1924 }} * {{cite book | last=Conway |first=R | title=New Studies of a Great Inheritance | publisher=London | year=1921 }} * {{cite book | last=Davis |first=Gregson | title =Polyhymnia. The Rhetoric to Horatian Lyric Discourse | publisher=University of California | year=1991}} * {{cite book | last=Ferri |first=Rolando | title=The Cambridge Companion to Horace | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2007 | chapter=The Epistles|isbn=978-0-521-53684-4 }} * {{cite book | last=Flesch |first=William | title=The Facts on File Companion to British Poetry, 19th Century | publisher=Infobase Publishing | year=2009 |isbn= 978-0-8160-5896-9}} * {{cite book | last=Frank |first=Tenney | title=Catullus and Horace | publisher=New York | year=1928 }} * {{cite book | last=Fraenkel |first=Eduard | title=Horace | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1957 }} * {{cite book | last=Friis-Jensen |first=Karsten | title=The Cambridge Companion to Horace | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2007 | chapter=Horace in the Middle Ages}} * {{cite book | last=Griffin |first=Jasper | title=Horace 2000 | publisher=Ann Arbor | year=1993 | chapter=Horace in the Thirties}} * {{cite book | last=Griffin |first=Jasper | title=The Cambridge Companion to Horace | publisher=Cambridge university Press | year=2007 | chapter=Gods and religion}} * {{cite book | last=Harrison |first=Stephen | title=A Companion to Latin Literature | publisher=Blackwell Publishing | year=2005 | chapter=Lyric and Iambic}} * {{cite book | last=Harrison |first=Stephen | title=The Cambridge Companion to Horace | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2007 | chapter=Introduction}} * {{cite book | last=Harrison |first=Stephen | title=The Cambridge Companion to Horace | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2007 | chapter=Style and poetic texture}} * {{cite book | last=Harrison |first=Stephen | title=The Cambridge Companion to Horace | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2007 | chapter=The nineteenth and twentieth centuries}} * {{cite book | last=Hooley |first=D | title=The Knotted Thong: Structures of Mimesis in Persius | publisher=Ann Arbor | year=1997 }} * {{cite book | last=Hutchinson |first=G | title=Classical Quarterly 52 | year=2002| chapter=The publication and individuality of Horace's Odes 1–3}} * {{cite book | last=Kiernan |first=Victor | title=Horace: Poetics and Politics| publisher=St Martin's Press | year=1999 }} * {{cite book | last=Kupersmith |first=W | title=Roman Satirists in Seventeenth Century England | publisher=Lincoln, Nebraska and London | year=1985 }} * {{cite book | last=Loveling |first=Benjamin | title=Latin and English Poems, by a Gentleman of Trinity College, Oxford | publisher=London | year=1741 }} * {{cite book | last=Lowrie |first=Michèle | title =Horace's Narrative Odes | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1997}} * {{cite book | last=Lyne |first=R | title=The Oxford History of the Classical World | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1986 | chapter=Augustan Poetry and Society}} * {{cite book | last=Mankin |first=David | title=Horace: Epodes| publisher=Cambridge university Press| year=1995 }} * {{cite book | last=McNeill |first=Randall | title=Horace | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2010 |isbn= 978-0-19-980511-2 }} * {{cite book | last=Michie |first=James | title=The Odes of Horace | publisher=Penguin Classics | year=1967 | chapter=Horace the Man}} * {{cite book|last=Moles|first=John|title=The Cambridge Companion to Horace | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2007 | chapter=Philosophy and ethics}} * {{cite book | last=Money |first=David | title=The Cambridge Companion to Horace | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2007 | chapter=The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries}} * {{cite book | last=Morgan |first=Llewelyn | title=A Companion to Latin Literature | publisher=Blackwell Publishing | year=2005 | chapter=Satire}} * {{cite book | last=Muecke |first=Frances | title=The Cambridge Companion to Horace | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2007 | chapter=the Satires}} * {{cite book | last=Nisbet |first=Robin | title=The Cambridge Companion to Horace | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2007 | chapter=Horace: life and chronology}} * {{cite book|last=Reckford|first=K. J.|title=Horatius: the man and the hour|publisher=American Journal of Philology|volume=118|pages=538–612|year=1997}} * {{cite book | last=Rivers |first=Elias | title=Fray Luis de León: The Original Poems| publisher=Grant and Cutler| year=1983 }} * {{cite book | last=Rossetti |first=Christina | title=The Complete Poems | publisher=Penguin Books | year=2001 }} * {{cite book | last=Rudd |first=Niall | title=The Satires of Horace and Persius| publisher=Penguin Classics | year=1973 }} * {{cite book | last=Santirocco |first=Matthew | title =Unity and Design in Horace's Odes | url=https://archive.org/details/unitydesigninhor00sant | url-access=registration | publisher=University of North Carolina | year=1986}} * {{cite book | last=Syme |first=R | title=The Augustan Aristocracy | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1986 }} * {{cite book | last=Talbot |first=J | title=Notes and Queries 48 (1) | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2001 | chapter=A Horatian Pun in Paradise Lost}} * {{cite book | last=Tarrant |first=Richard | title=The Cambridge Companion to Horace | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2007 | chapter=Ancient receptions of Horace}} * {{cite book | last=Tollet |first=Elizabeth | title=Poems on Several Occasions | publisher=London | year=1755 }} ==Further reading== * {{cite book|last=Davis|first=Gregson|title=Polyhymnia the Rhetoric of Horatian Lyric Discourse|year=1991|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=0-520-91030-3}} * {{cite book|last=Fraenkel|first=Eduard|title=Horace|year=1957|publisher=Clarendon Press|location=Oxford}} * {{cite book|last=Horace|title=The Complete Works of Horace|year=1983|publisher=Ungar|location=New York|isbn=0-8044-2404-7|others=Charles E. Passage, trans}} * {{cite book|last=Johnson|first=W. R.|title=Horace and the Dialectic of Freedom: Readings in Epistles 1|url=https://archive.org/details/horacedialectico00john|url-access=registration|year=1993|publisher=Cornell University Press|location=Ithaca|isbn=0-8014-2868-8}} * {{cite book|last=Lyne|first=R.O.A.M.|title=Horace: Behind the Public Poetry|year=1995|publisher=Yale Univ. Press|location=New Haven|isbn=0-300-06322-9}} * {{cite book | last = Lyons | first = Stuart | title = Horace's Odes and the Mystery of Do-Re-Mi | publisher = Aris & Phillips | year = 1997 }} * {{cite book | last = Lyons | first = Stuart | title = Music in the Odes of Horace | publisher = Aris & Phillips | year = 2010 }} * {{cite book | last = Michie | first = James | title = The Odes of Horace | publisher = Rupert Hart-Davis | year = 1964 }} * {{cite book|last=Newman|first=J.K.|title=Augustus and the New Poetry|year=1967|publisher=Latomus, revue d’études latines|location=Brussels}} * {{cite book|last=Noyes|first=Alfred|title=Horace: A Portrait|url=https://archive.org/details/horaceportrait0000noye|url-access=registration|year=1947|publisher=Sheed and Ward|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=Perret|first=Jacques|title=Horace|year=1964|publisher=New York University Press|location=New York|others=Bertha Humez, trans}} * {{cite book|last=Putnam|first=Michael C.J.|title=Artifices of Eternity: Horace's Fourth Book of Odes|year=1986|publisher=Cornell University Press|location=Ithaca, NY|isbn=0-8014-1852-6|url=https://archive.org/details/artificesofetern00putn}} * {{cite book|last=Reckford|first=Kenneth J.|title=Horace|year=1969|publisher=Twayne|location=New York}} * {{cite book|editor-last=Rudd|editor-first=Niall|title=Horace 2000: A Celebration&nbsp;– Essays for the Bimillennium|year=1993|publisher=Univ. of Michigan Press|location=Ann Arbor|isbn=0-472-10490-X}} * {{cite book | last = Sydenham | first = Colin | title = Horace: The Odes | publisher = Duckworth | year = 2005 }} *{{cite book | last = West | first = David | title = Horace The Complete Odes and Epodes | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1997 }} * {{cite book|last=Wilkinson|first=L.P.|title=Horace and His Lyric Poetry|year=1951|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge}} ==External links== {{sisterlinks|d=Q6197|s=Author:Horace|c=Category:Quintus Horatius Flaccus|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|species=no|b=no|n=no}} {{Library resources box |by=yes |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Horace |viaf= |lccn= |lcheading= |wikititle= }} * {{Gutenberg author |id=1790 | name=Horace}} * {{Internet Archive author}} * {{Librivox author |id=3050}} * Q. Horati Flacci ''[https://archive.org/details/qhoratiflacciop00flacgoog opera]'', recensuerunt O. Keller et A. Holder, 2 voll., Lipsiae in aedibus B. G. Teubneri, 1864–9. * [http://latin.topword.net/?Horace Common sayings from Horace] * [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/hor.html The works of Horace] at [[The Latin Library]] * [http://www.stilus.nl/horatius/index-latine.htm Carmina Horatiana] All ''Carmina'' of Horace in Latin recited by Thomas Bervoets. * [http://www.poetseers.org/the_great_poets/the_classics/horace/ Selected Poems of Horace] * [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/searchresults?q=Horatius&redirect=true Works by Horace at Perseus Digital Library] * [http://www.stoa.org/diotima/anthology/horawillbio.shtml Biography and chronology] * [http://www.intratext.com/Catalogo/Autori/Aut186.HTM Horace's works]: text, concordances and frequency list * [http://www.rhapsodes.fll.vt.edu/horace_ode_1.htm SORGLL: Horace, ''Odes'' I.22, read by Robert Sonkowsky] * [http://toutcoule.blogspot.com/search/label/horace Translations of several odes in the original meters (with accompaniment).] * [http://www.thethepoetry.com/2011/02/some-notes-on-translations-of-horace/ A discussion and comparison of three different contemporary translations of Horace's ''Odes''] * [http://www.virgilmurder.org/images/pdf/arsengl.pdf Some spurious lines in the ''Ars Poetica''?] * [http://www.horatius.net Horati opera, Acronis et Porphyrionis commentarii, varia lectio etc. (latine)] * [http://openn.library.upenn.edu/Data/0023/html/horace_ms_1a.html Horace MS 1a Ars Poetica and Epistulae at OPenn] {{Horace|state=expanded}} {{Ancient Rome topics|state=collapsed}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Horace| ]] [[Category:65 BC births]] [[Category:8 BC deaths]] [[Category:1st-century BC Romans]] [[Category:1st-century BC writers]] [[Category:Ancient Roman soldiers]] [[Category:Golden Age Latin writers]] [[Category:Latin-language writers]] [[Category:People from Venosa]] [[Category:Roman-era poets]] [[Category:Roman-era satirists]] [[Category:Iambic poets]] [[Category:Ancient literary critics]] 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en-wikipedia-org-7472	----	Iambus (genre) - Wikipedia Iambus (genre) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Iambic poetry) Jump to navigation Jump to search Engraving from Quinti Horatii Flacci Emblemata, Antwerp 1607, showing Socrates receiving the contents of a chamberpot, and a young man bullying his elders in a boat in the background. Iambus depicted the ugly and unheroic side of humanity. Iambus or iambic poetry was a genre of ancient Greek poetry that included but was not restricted to the iambic meter and whose origins modern scholars have traced to the cults of Demeter and Dionysus. The genre featured insulting and obscene language[1][2] and sometimes it is referred to as "blame poetry".[3] For Alexandrian editors, however, iambus signified any poetry of an informal kind that was intended to entertain, and it seems to have been performed on similar occasions as elegy even though lacking elegy's decorum.[4] The Archaic Greek poets Archilochus, Semonides and Hipponax were among the most famous of its early exponents. The Alexandrian poet Callimachus composed "iambic" poems against contemporary scholars, which were collected in an edition of about a thousand lines, of which fragments of thirteen poems survive.[5] He in turn influenced Roman poets such as Catullus, who composed satirical epigrams that popularized Hipponax's choliamb.[6] Horace's Epodes on the other hand were mainly imitations of Archilochus[7] and, as with the Greek poet, his invectives took the forms both of private revenge and denunciation of social offenders.[8][9] Contents 1 Historical background 2 A tale of two ditties 2.1 Epode 10 2.2 Strasbourg papyrus 3 Extras 4 See also 5 Notes 6 Citations 7 References Historical background[edit] Originally "iambos" (ἴαμβος) denoted a type of poetry, specifically its content, and only secondarily did it have any significance as a metrical term. This emerges for example from the fact that Archilochus, a famous iambic poet, was once criticized for being "too iambic"[nb 1] The genre appears to have originated in the cult of Demeter, whose festivals commonly featured insulting and abusive language (αἰσχρολογία, aischrologia). A figure called "Iambe" is even mentioned in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, employing language so abusive that the goddess forgets her sorrows and laughs instead. The abuse of a divinity however is quite common in other cults too, as an ironic means of affirming piety: "Normality is reinforced by experiencing its opposite".[10] The common element in all iambus is blame, drawing attention to dangerous or unsuitable behaviours. It is addressed to an audience with shared values and customs, which are represented as under threat, as for example a body of citizens or companions. Whatever its real composition, the audience is cast in the role of mutual friends and their friendship (φιλότης, philotēs or Latin amicitia) is asserted in various ways: the poet, speaking in his own person, might criticize someone directly, whether a group member or an outsider; the poet might act out the role of someone guilty of misconduct, condemning "himself" in his own words; the poet might tell a story, combining 'self-indictments' with a narrative account of misconduct. Blame ranges from humorous ribbing of friends to merciless attacks on outsiders.[11] Among ancient literary theorists, iambic verse came to be regarded as lower than lyric poetry, partly because iambic meter was thought to be the simplest of verse forms, and the nearest to common speech, but also because of its undignified content.[12] It isn't clear what role Archilochus played in the development of the literary genre at the beginning of the seventh century. Demeter was a significant deity in his home island, Paros, but she isn't prominent in his surviving poetry. Possibly he became involved in iambus via the cult of Dionysus. This cult's association with iambus seems to be indicated etymologically by the poetic form associated with Dionysus, the dithyramb, a term which appears to include the same root as "iambus". Early dithyrambs were a "riotous affair"[13] and Archilochus was prominent in the controversial development of Dionyssian worship on Paros[14] (possibly in relation to phallic rites).[15] There is no sure evidence about the original venue for iambic poetry but the drinking party (or symposium) and the cult festival were probably the main occasions.[16] Nor do we know clearly what role iambic poetry played in ancient society. It was certainly complex. It seems to have found voice during times of social change and political dissent, when the poet felt entitled or empowered to preach and condemn.[17] Semonides, probably about the middle of the seventh century, composed iambic verse on a misogynist theme, but without the invective and obscenity of Archilochus.[18] A hundred years after Archilochus, Hipponax was composing choliambs, a deliberately awkward version of the iambic trimeter symbolizing mankind's imperfections and vices,[19] yet by then iambus seems to have been performed mainly for entertainment (our understanding of his work however might change significantly when and as more fragments are unearthed).[20] The genre's religious and moral value was evidently not appreciated by the fifth century lyric poet Pindar, who condemned Archilochus for being "sharp-tongued" and "grown fat on the harsh words of hate",[21] yet Archilochus's brand of iambus could still find sympathetic audiences even in the first century AD, when the philosopher, Dio Chrysostom, compared him with Homer in these terms: For of the two poets who for all time deserve to be compared with no other, namely Homer and Archilochus, Homer praised nearly everything ... But Archilochus went to the opposite extreme, to censure, seeing, I suppose, that men are in greater need of this, and first of all he censures himself ... [thus winning for himself, in Dio's opinion] ... the highest commendation from heaven.[22] The spread of literacy impacted on all ancient poetry, iambus included. Its influence was already becoming evident in Athens by the fifth century BC, gradually changing the nature of poetry from a performance before a local group to a literary artifact with an international reach.[23] By the Hellenistic period, the librarian/scholar Callimachus claimed to be following the example of Hipponax yet introduced a wider range of content and a more literary and intellectual focus. He also aligned iambus more closely with other genres[24] such as curse poetry (Ἀραί) and farewell poetry (propemptika, προπέμπτικα).[25] Iambus was taken up as a political weapon by some public figures in Rome, such as Cato The Elder, who, in an account by Plutarch: ... betook himself to iambic verse, and heaped much scornful abuse upon Scipio, adopting the bitter tone of Archilochus, but avoiding his license and puerility.[26] Neoteric poets such as Catullus combined a native tradition of satirical epigram with Hipponax's pungent invective to form neatly crafted, personal attacks. Hipponactean choliambs were among Catullus's most often used meters[27] but the spirit of iambus seems to have infused much of his non-iambic verse as well.[28] Horace nominally modelled his Epodes on the work of Archilochus but he mainly followed the example of Callimachus, relying on painstaking craftsmanship rather than instinctive vitriol[29] and broadening the range of the genre. Thus for example he introduced a panagyric element in support of Augustus (Epodes 1 and 9), a lyrical element (Epode 13), and a suggestion of love poetry (Epodes 11 and 14). Moreover, his iambic persona is deliberately presented as powerless, in contrast to the swaggering persona of Archilochus.[30] Horace's weak iambic persona is not inconsistent with the genre. Traditionally the iambic poet, though he bullies others, is a victim too. Thus Archilochus was said to have driven his would-be in-laws to suicide by his invectives after they had cheated him out of a promised marriage, and Hipponax was said to have driven Bupalus to suicide after being caricatured by him in a sculpture. Similarly the author of the Strasbourg fragment below is motivated by revenge. Moreover, Horace's thematic variety is not without parallel among archaic poets such as Archilochus and Hipponax: the mood of the genre is meant to appear spontaneous and that inevitably led to some "hodepodge" contexts.[31] Whatever his unique contribution may have been, Horace still managed to recreate something of the ancient spirit of the genre, alerting his companions to threats facing them as a group, in this case as Roman citizens of a doomed republic: In the midst of a crisis which could be seen as a result of the decline and failure of traditional Roman amicitia, Horace turned to a type of poetry whose function had been the affirmation of "friendship" in its community. It is doubtful whether he believed that his or anyone else's poetry could avert disaster. But he may have hoped that his iambi would somehow 'blame' his friends and fellow citizens into at least asking themselves quo ruitis [i.e. where are you careering to]? — D. Mankin[32][nb 2] A tale of two ditties[edit] The nature of iambus changed from one epoch to another, as becomes obvious if we compare two poems that are otherwise very similar – Horace's Epode 10 (around 30 BC) and the "Strasbourg" papyrus, a fragment attributed either to Archilochus or Hipponax (seventh and sixth century respectively). The modern world became aware of the Greek poem only in 1899, when it was discovered by R. Reitzenstein among other papyri at the University Library of Strasbourg. He published it straight away, recognizing its significance and its resemblance to Horace's poem. This study however begins with Horace and it is based on comments by Eduard Fraenkel.[33] Epode 10[edit] Horace's poem is in couplets, where a line of iambic trimeter (six iambic feet) is followed by a line of iambic dimeter (four iambic feet). Here it is broken into four-line stanzas to bring out the intrinsic structure of the poem. The English translation has the same metrical couplets but the rhythm is accentual (the norm for English verse) rather than quantitative (the norm for classical Latin and Greek verse). Mala soluta navis exit alite    ferens olentem Mevium. ut horridis utrumque verberes latus,    Auster, memento fluctibus; niger rudentis Eurus inverso mari    fractosque remos differat; insurgat Aquilo, quantus altis montibus    frangit trementis ilices; nec sidus atra nocte amicum appareat,    qua tristis Orion cadit; quietiore nec feratur aequore    quam Graia victorum manus, cum Pallas usto vertit iram ab Ilio    in inpiam Aiacis ratem. o quantus instat navitis sudor tuis    tibique pallor luteus et illa non virilis eiulatio    preces et aversum ad Iovem, Ionius udo cum remugiens sinus    Noto carinam ruperit! opima quodsi praeda curvo litore    porrecta mergos iuverit, libidinosus immolabitur caper    et agna Tempestatibus. [34] The ship casts off from shore in an ill-omened hour,    Carrying the stinking Mevius. God of the southern wind – take care to pulverize    Both its sides with horrendous waves! Let the black eastern wind turn the sea upside-down,    Some oars here, some rigging there, And may the north wind loom as large as when it rends    Oaks trembling on the mountain tops, And not one friendly star appear through the dark night    As Orion sinks in the west! May the sea carrying him be no more gentle than    The waves the winning Greeks sailed on That time Athena turned her rage from smouldering Troy    Onto Ajax and his damned ship! Oh what a cold damp sweating will beset your crew    While you change hue to a pale green, And oh how woman-like will all that wailing be    And all those prayers ignored by Jove, When the Ionian sea, resounding with the wet    Southern wind, breaks apart your ship! If then the rich spoil, scattered round the curving shore,    Lies at the pleasure of the gulls, There will be sacrifices of a lusty goat    And lamb in honour of the Winds. It is not known who Mevius is nor what he is supposed to have done wrong. The name could be of a real person but it could also function like "John Doe" and thus it might be a stock figure with some special significance for the original audience. Some scholars identify him with the Maevius rubbished as a contemptible poet by Virgil in Eclogues 3.90 but there is no proof for such an identification. He could represent an imaginary scapegoat intended to avert the gods' anger from the poet's circle of 'friends', a device common in the archaic iambus of Hipponax and Archilochus: in this case, the "friends" may be understood to be Roman citizens at a time of social and political decay.[35] A fictional Mevius would also be consistent with iambus as a mere literary topic, where Horace makes up for the lack of any real context by adding artistic values, in the Hellenistic manner.[36] The poem is skilfully structured. There is an introduction briefly outlining the situation (lines 1–2), a large midsection made up of curses (lines 3–14) and predictions (15–20), and finally an epilogue (21–24). Three winds (Auster, Eurus, Aquilo) are the chief figures in the main body of the poem and also at the very end (Tempestates). Each wind is assigned its own couplet (lines 3–8), but only the south wind is addressed. The south wind gets another mention, though by a different name, 'Notus' (line 20), so that these two mentions provide the poem with the kind of symmetry found in Ring composition. By the latter part of the poem, however, the south wind is no longer being addressed, a change that happens when Mevius is addressed instead (lines 15–20). This change in addressee is preceded by a mythological episode taken from the heroic Ajax legend, occurring exactly in the middle of the poem (lines 11–14), where it functions as a sort of piano nobile, with curses before and predictions afterwards. In some versions of the poem, Mevius continues to be addressed right to the very end, i.e. iuverit has been taken to be iuveris instead (line 22). Some scholars prefer iuveris since it implies that only Mevius ends up as rich spoil for the gulls, but other scholars argue that it is quite consistent with iambus for the whole crew to be punished on account of one offender, a result implied by the impersonal ending iuverit in the version here. Moreover, the impersonal ending marks a clear break between the epilogue and the main body of the poem.[37] The intricate structure of the poem reveals Hellenistic influence. A poet of the archaic period, such as Archilochus or Hipponax, might have mentioned this or that wind but not arranged them as neatly as here, assigning each its own couplet. Moreover, the epode bears resemblance to curse poems or Ἀραί, fashionable in the Hellenistic period. On the other hand, Horace leaves out the heavy-handed pedantry of a craftsman like Callimachus. The epode also resembles a "farewell" poem or προπεμπτικόν but with an ironic inversion: in a Hellenistic "farewell" poem, it was conventional to wish upon the traveller a safe voyage and favourable winds, pledging sacrifices if the ship arrived at port. Nevertheless, the ironic genre-bending quality of epode 10 (and some others in the collection) was fairly typical of Hellenistic poetry generally. To sum up. Horace did not attempt to reproduce the true nature of the old Greek iambus which had partly suggested to him the theme of his epode. His borrowing was confined to the most general outlines of the subject. As if to make up for the resulting loss, he embroidered his own poem with many elaborate devices, most of them derived from Hellenistic poetry. Consequently what had been a weapon in a serious struggle became in his hands a dexterous display of literary patterns. — Eduard Fraenkel[38] The "serious struggle" is found in the Strasbourg fragment. Strasbourg papyrus[edit] Reitzenstein, the first editor of the fragment, attributed it to Archilochus but, in the following year (1900) Friedrich Blass assigned it to Hipponax. The papyrus includes, among its tattered portions, an incomplete name (Ἱππωνά.., Hippona..), which seems to support Blass's identification since Hipponax often mentions himself by name in his extant work. However the brilliance of the poem's invective suggests it is the work of a more significant poet i.e. Archilochus.[39] Some scholars conclude that the fragment is not a single poem, assigning part to Archilochus and the rest to Hipponax.[40] Like Horace's epode above, the verse below is made of couplets, but the meter is a bit different. An initial line of iambic trimeter in this case is followed by a hemiepes (two dactyls then an emphatic final syllable). The English translation follows it closely but in accentual rhythm. The opening lines are lost and the square brackets indicate another lost portion. The square brackets are not in the English version, replaced by an "educated guess" suggested by Eduard Fraenkel. A few more letters were lost in the original but scholars are in general agreement about their identity and those gaps are not shown here. The comments are also largely based on Fraenkel's work.[41] Despite all the gaps in the original, the fragment supplies a key meaning absent from Horace's epode – a motive for hate. .....    κύματι πλαζόμενος· κἀν Σαλμυδησσῶι γυμνὸν εὐφρονέστατα    Θρήϊκες ἀκρόκομοι λάβοιεν - ἔνθα πόλλ᾽ ἀναπλήσει κακὰ    δούλιον ἄρτον ἔδων - ῥίγει πεπηγότ᾽ αὐτόν· ἐκ δὲ τοῦ χνόου    φυκία πόλλ᾽ ἐπέχοι, κροτέοι δ᾽ ὀδόντας, ὡς κύων ἐπὶ στόμα    κείμενος ἀκρασίηι ἄκρον παρὰ ῥηγμῖνα κυμα[...]    ταῦτ᾽ ἐθέλοιμ᾽ ἂν ἰδεῖν, ὅς μ᾽ ἠδίκησε, λὰξ δ᾽ ἐφ᾽ ὁρκίοισ᾽ ἔβη,    τὸ πρὶν ἑταῖρος ἐών.[42] ....    Drifting about in the swell; When he comes nude to Salmydessus, may the kind    Thracians, their hair in a bun, Take him in hand – there he shall have his fill of woe,    Slavishly eating his bread – Stiff with the freezing cold; emerging from the froth,    Clung to by piles of seaweed, May he lie like a dog face-down on chattering teeth,    Laid low by his feebleness, Sprawled at the breakers' edge, still licked at by the surf!    These are the things I must see, Because he wronged me, trampling all over our oaths,    Once a companion of mine! The language is vigorous and direct, appropriate to the mood of the piece. Some of the diction is borrowed from the older work of Homer but it adds dignity and pathos without any artificiality. Meanings flow clearly and naturally with the simple meter, except in one place, marked with a "parenthesis" or endash, where emotions get ahead of the poet's control as he anticipates years of suffering for his former friend. Images seem to tumble from his excited mind but nothing is superfluous and his control of the material is shown for example in his use of irony when referring to the great kindness of the savage Thracians, their hair neatly dressed, in contrast to his nude friend.[43] His skill as a wordsmith can be seen in the way he loads the beginnings of lines with key words, a trend he overturns in the final couplet, with a caesura, marked by a comma, between key words justifying his hatred, μ᾽ ἠδίκησε, λὰξ ("wronged me, trampling").[44] One of the uncertainties in the text comes in the word ἐπέχοι, which indicates that the seaweed has a hold on the castaway. Some scholars prefer to read ἐπιχέοι, indicating that he spews out seaweed.[nb 3] Scholars often contrast the poem's realism with the artificiality of Horace's Epode 10, but not all scholars are willing to go along with this view, citing the Homeric diction as a literary device and the absence of proof that the oath-breaker was ever a real man rather than just a scapegoat or imaginary exemplar.[45] Yet the poet has made the context seem real. In this poem fierce hatred mingled with contempt finds a powerful voice, and yet, with so much passion, every phrase and every sentence is kept strictly under the control of a masterly mind. The impact on the ear, on the eye, and on the sense of smell is strong throughout. Every detail, the surf, the seaweed, the dog, the wretched man's frozen body, is there, life-like, or rather in even sharper outlines than they would appear to us in actual life. — E. Fraenkel.[46] Extras[edit] In his famous speech On the Crown, the great Athenian rhetor, Demosthenes, denounced his rival Aeschines with the neologism ἰαμβειοφάγος, signifying an iambus devourer or devourer of insults.[47] See also[edit] Library resources about Iambus Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Prosody (Latin) Epodes (Horace) Epode Category:Iambic poets Notes[edit] ^ The phrase "too iambic" appears in a fragmentary inscription dated to the third century BC, originally part of a commemorative shrine to Archilochus, "The Archilocheion". The inscription was a part of a record of his life and reception on Paros, where his poetry was deemed offensive by the population until Dionyssus opened their eyes to their own folly by punishing them with some kind of affliction, possibly impotence (the fragment is very patchy at that point). A Pythian oracle then advised them to honour Archilochus and thus a shrine was established to him. (see Archilochus fr. 3 and commentary, D.E. Gerber, Greek Iambic Poetry, 16–25 ^ Mankin's latin here refers to the opening to Epode 7, "Quo quo scelesti ruitis? ^ The variant reading is cited for instance by D. Gerber, Greek Iambic Poetry, 438 Citations[edit] ^ Christopher Brown, in A Companion to the Greek Lyric Poets, D.E.Gerber (ed), Leiden 1997, pages 13–88 ^ Douglas E. Gerber, Greek Iambic Poetry, Loeb Classical Library (1999), Introduction pages i–iv ^ D. Mankin, Horace: Epodes,C.U.P., 8 ^ J.P. Barron and P.E. Easterling, "Elegy and Iambus" in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Greek Literature, P.Easterling and B.Knox (eds), Cambridge University Press (1985), page 120 ^ A.W. Bulloch, "Hellenistic Poetry", in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Greek Literature, P.Easterling and B.Knox (eds), Cambridge University Press (1985), pages 556–57, 569 ^ Peter Green, The Poems of Catullus, University of California Press (2005), pages 10, 33 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, Sandpiper Books Ltd, 32 ^ J.P. Clancy, The Odes and Epodes of Horace, Chicago (1960), page 196 ^ V.G. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and Politics, New York (1999), page 52 ^ C. Brown in A Companion to the Greek Lyric Poets, 41 ^ D. Mankin, Horace: Epodes, 8–9 ^ S. Harrison, Lyric and Iambic, 190 ^ D. Gerber, Greek Iambic Poetry, 2–3 ^ D. Campbell, Greek Lyric Poetry, 138 ^ D. Gerber, Greek Iambic Poetry, 3 ^ D. Gerber, Greek Iambic Poetry, 4 ^ L. O'Higgins, Women and Humour in Classical Greece, 63 ^ D. Gerber, Greek Iambic Poetry, 7–8 ^ P. Green, The Poems of Catullus, 10, 33 ^ D. Gerber, Greek Iambic Poetry, 2 ^ Pindar, Pythian II, translated by Geoffrey Conway, The Odes of Pindar, 93 ^ Dio Chrysostom 33.11–12, cited and translated by Douglas E. Gerber, Greek Iambic Poetry, 43 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 41 ^ S. Harrison, Lyric and Iambic, 190 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 35 ^ Plutarch, Life of Cato, quoted by D. Gerber, Greek Iambic Poetry, 1 ^ P. Green, The Poems of Catullus, 10, 33 ^ S. Harrison, Lyric and Iambic, 192 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 32 ^ S. Harrison, Lyric and Iambic, 192–94 ^ L. Watson, The Epodes: Horace's Archilochus?, 99 ^ D. Mankin, Horace: Epodes, 9 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 25–35 ^ Epode 10 from D. Mankin, Horace: Epodes, 38-9 ^ D. Mankin, Horace: Epodes, 183–4 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 42 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 32–3 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 35-6 ^ D. Campbell, Greek Lyric Poetry, 157 ^ D. Gerber, Greek Iambic Poetry, 437 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 28–9 ^ Strasburg papyrus, D. Gerber, Greek Iambic Poetry, 436-438 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 28–9 ^ D. Campbell, Greek Lyric Poetry, 157 ^ D. Mankin, Horace: Epodes, 182 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 28–29 ^ Harvey Yunis, Demosthenes: On the Crown, Cambridge University Press (2001), page 192, note 139 References[edit] Barron, J.P. and Easterling, P.E. (1985), "Elegy and Iambus", in P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.), The Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Greek Literature, Cambridge University PressCS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link) Bartol, Krystyna. (1993). Greek Elegy and Iambus: Studies in Ancient Literary Sources. Poznań: Adam Mickiewicz Univ. Press. Brown, Christopher (1997), D.E. Gerber (ed.), A Companion to the Greek Lyric Poets, Leiden, pp. 13–88 Bulloch, A.W. (1985), "Hellenistic Poetry", in P.Easterlin and B.Knox (ed.), The Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Greek Literature, Cambridge University Press Cambell, David (1982), Greek Lyric Poetry, Bristol Classical Press Clancy, J.P. (1960), The Odes and Epodes of Horace, Chicago Conway, Geoffrey (1972), The Odes of Pindar, Everyman's University Library Fraenkel, Eduard (1997), Horace, Sandpiper Books Ltd Gerber, Douglas (1999), Greek Iambic Poetry, Loeb Classical Library Gentili, Bruno. 1988. Poetry and its Public in Ancient Greece. Translated by A. T. Cole. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press. Green, Peter (2005), The Poems of Catullus, University of California Press Harrison, Stephen (2005), "Lyric and Iambic", in Stephen Harrison (ed.), A Companion to Latin Literature, Blackwell Publishing Kerkhecker, Arnd. (1999). Callimachus’ Book of Iambi. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press. Kantzios, Ippokratis. 2005. The Trajectory of Archaic Greek Trimeters. Mnemosyne Supplement 265. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill. Kiernon, V.G. (1999), Horace: Poetics and Politics, New York: St Martins Press Mankin, David (1995), Horace: Epodes, Cambridge University Press O'Higgins, L. (2003), Women and Humour in Classical Greece, Cambridge University Press Rosen, Ralph M. (1988). Old Comedy and the Iambographic Tradition. American Classical Studies 19. Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press. Rotstein, Andrea (2009), The Idea of Iambos, Oxford University Press Steinrück, Martin. (2008). The Suitors in the Odyssey: The Clash between Homer and Archilochus. Hermeneutic Commentaries 2. New York: Peter Lang. Watson, Lindsay (2007), "The Epodes: Horace's Archilochus?", in Stephen Harrison (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Horace, Cambridge University Press West, Martin. (1974). Studies in Greek Elegy and Iambus. Berlin: de Gruyter. Yunis, Harvey (2001), Demosthenes: On the Crown, Cambridge University Press Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Iambus_(genre)&oldid=990971984" Categories: Ancient Greek poetry Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text CS1 maint: uses authors parameter Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Eesti Español Galego Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 27 November 2020, at 15:53 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7526	----	Quintus Fabius Pictor - Wikipedia Quintus Fabius Pictor From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Fabius Pictor) Jump to navigation Jump to search Quintus Fabius Pictor (born c. 270 BC, fl. about 200 BC)[1] was the earliest Roman historiographer and is considered the first of the annalists. He was a member of the Senate, and a member of the gens Fabia. Contents 1 Life 2 Work 3 Legacy 4 References 5 Further reading 6 External links Life[edit] Fabius was the son of Gaius Fabius Pictor, consul in 269 BC. His cognomen Pictor (Latin for "painter") had been acquired by his grandfather, Gaius Fabius Pictor, who is the earliest Roman painter known to us. Quintus Fabius Pictor led Roman forces against the Gauls in 225 BC. In 216 BC, during the Second Punic War, he was appointed to travel to the oracle at Delphi in Greece to seek guidance after the disastrous Roman defeat to Hannibal at Cannae. Work[edit] Fabius wrote a history of Rome in Greek; it has not survived but is partially known through quotations and allusions in later authors. It is not certain whether the work was annalistic, recounting events year by year, although citation of his work by other historians implies that it was.[2] He used the records of his own and other important Roman families as sources and drew on the writings of the Greek historians Diocles of Peparethus, who allegedly wrote an early history of Rome, and Timaeus, who had written about Rome in his history of the Western Greeks. His history began with the arrival of the legendary Trojan refugee Aeneas in Latium. He dated the founding of Rome to be in the "first year of the eighth Olympiad" or 747 BC.[3] His work ended with his own recollections of the Second Punic War, although it is unclear whether he survived long enough to record it entirely. His account was highly partisan towards Rome, blaming the war on Carthage and particularly on the Barca family of Hamilcar and Hannibal. Legacy[edit] Fabius was used as a source by Gellius and Quadrigarius,[2] Plutarch,[4] Polybius, Livy, and Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Despite his use of Fabius's history, Polybius complained about the quality of his work, saying that Fabius had been biased towards the Romans and inconsistent.[5] Cicero references a Latin translation of Fabius's work. An anonymous Account of the Roman History of Fabius Pictor was published in 1749,[6] claiming that a manuscript in the "Carthaginian language" had been discovered in the ruins of Herculaneum near Pompeii. In fact, it was a political satire on English religion and politics at the time.[7] References[edit] ^ Frier, Bruce W., Libri Annales Pontificum Maximorum University of Michigan Press, 2nd edition 1999, p. 231 ^ a b Frier, Bruce W. (1979), Libri Annales Pontificum Maximorum: The Origins of the Annalistic Tradition, Papers & Monographs of the American Academy in Rome, No. XXVII, Rome: American Academy, p. 260. ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, I.74. ^ Plut., Parallel Lives: The Life of Romulus. ^ Polybius, 1.14–15 ^ Some Account of the Roman History of Fabius Pictor from a Manuscript Lately Discover'd in Herculaneum, the Underground City near Naples, in a Letter from an English Gentleman Residing at Naples to His Friend at London, London: M. Cooper, 1749 . ^ Moormann, Eric M. (2015), Pompeii's Ashes: The Reception of the Cities Buried by Vesuvius in Literature, Music, and Drama, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, pp. 335-336 . Further reading[edit] Du Rieu, Willem Nikolaas. Disputatio de Gente Fabia; Accedunt Fabiorum Pictorum et Serviliani Fragmenta. Lugduni Batavorum: Van der Hoek, 1856. Cornell, T. J. (ed.) The Fragments of the Roman Historians, 3 volumes. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013. External links[edit] Encyclopædia Britannica, Quintus Fabius Pictor Authority control GND: 119269554 ISNI: 0000 0000 1068 6633 NTA: 313881189 SUDOC: 150636342 VIAF: 77121944 WorldCat Identities: viaf-6150323637409970282 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quintus_Fabius_Pictor&oldid=973257410" Categories: 270s BC births 2nd-century BC deaths Latin historians 3rd-century BC Romans 3rd-century BC historians Ancient Roman soldiers Fabii Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Español فارسی Français Furlan 한국어 Íslenska Italiano עברית Latina Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 16 August 2020, at 06:43 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7534	----	Category:1st-century BC writers - Wikipedia Help Category:1st-century BC writers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 6th BC 5th BC 4th BC 3rd BC 2nd BC 1st BC 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Subcategories This category has the following 14 subcategories, out of 14 total. + ► 1st-century BC women writers‎ (6 P) C ► Julius Caesar‎ (10 C, 35 P) ► Catullus‎ (1 C, 3 P) ► 1st-century BC Chinese writers‎ (2 C) ► Cicero‎ (4 C, 12 P) H ► 1st-century BC historians‎ (2 C, 24 P) ► Horace‎ (1 C, 18 P) I ► 1st-century BC Indian writers‎ (1 P) L ► Golden Age Latin writers‎ (50 P) O ► Ovid‎ (3 C, 8 P) P ► 1st-century BC philosophers‎ (43 P) ► 1st-century BC poets‎ (2 C, 14 P) S ► 1st-century BC scholars‎ (1 C) V ► Virgil‎ (4 C, 28 P) Pages in category "1st-century BC writers" The following 51 pages are in this category, out of 51 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). A Lucius Accius Aelius Promotus Lucius Aelius Stilo Praeconinus Aenesidemus Alexander Philalethes Alexander Polyhistor Alphius Avitus Antipater (1st-century BC physician) Marcus Antonius Gnipho Archelaus of Cappadocia Aristoxenus (physician) B Consort Ban C Caecilius of Calacte Aulus Caecina Severus (writer) Gaius Cassius Parmensis Ch'in Chia Cicero Quintus Tullius Cicero Lucius Cornelius Balbus (quaestor 43 BC) Cornelius Severus Cornificia D Demetrius of Magnesia Dionysius of Halicarnassus Diophanes of Nicaea Dorsennus E Elephantis Cornelius Epicadus G Geminus H Heraclides of Erythrae Aulus Hirtius Horace J Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Hyginus L Publius Lollius Maximus M Licinius Macer Meges of Sidon N Cornelius Nepos Quintus Novius O Aulus Ofilius Ovid P Parthenius of Nicaea Lucius Pomponius Posidonius Q Quintus Cornificius S Sanchuniathon Sulpicia Publilius Syrus V Marcus Terentius Varro Virgil Publius Volumnius Z Zhuo Wenjun Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:1st-century_BC_writers&oldid=950677870" Categories: 1st-century BC people by occupation Writers by century Ancient writers 1st-century BC literature Hidden categories: CatAutoTOC generates no TOC Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Беларуская Cymraeg Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Nederlands 日本語 Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Scots Türkçe Українська اردو Edit links This page was last edited on 13 April 2020, at 09:03 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7536	----	Category:Wikipedia articles with NLK identifiers - Wikipedia Help Category:Wikipedia articles with NLK identifiers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This category is for articles with NLK identifiers. Please do not add subcategories. For more information, see Wikipedia:Authority control. Administrators: Please do not delete this category even if it is empty! This category may be empty occasionally or even most of the time. This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a tracking category. It builds and maintains a list of pages primarily for the sake of the list itself. They are not part of the encyclopedia's categorization scheme. 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en-wikipedia-org-7546	----	Solfège - Wikipedia Solfège From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Solfege) Jump to navigation Jump to search Music teaching method For similar terms, see Solfeggietto and Solfege (manga). In music, solfège (UK: /ˈsɒlfɛdʒ/,[1] US: /sɒlˈfɛʒ/; French: [sɔlfɛʒ]) or solfeggio (/sɒlˈfɛdʒioʊ/; Italian: [solˈfeddʒo]), also called sol-fa, solfa, solfeo, among many names, is a music education method used to teach aural skills, pitch and sight-reading of Western music. Solfège is a form of solmization and, though the two terms are sometimes used interchangeably, this system originated from other "Eastern" music cultures such as swara, durar mufaṣṣalāt and Jianpu. Syllables are assigned to the notes of the scale and enable the musician to audiate, or mentally hear, the pitches of a piece of music being seen for the first time and then to sing them aloud. Through the Renaissance (and much later in some shapenote publications) various interlocking 4, 5 and 6-note systems were employed to cover the octave. The tonic sol-fa method popularized the seven syllables commonly used in English-speaking countries: do (or doh in tonic sol-fa),[2] re, mi, fa, so(l), la, and si (or ti), see below. There are two current ways of applying solfège: 1) fixed do, where the syllables are always tied to specific pitches (e.g. "do" is always "C-natural") and 2) movable do, where the syllables are assigned to scale degrees ("do" is always the first degree of the major scale). Contents 1 Etymology 2 Origin 3 In Elizabethan England 4 Modern use 4.1 Movable do solfège 4.1.1 Major 4.1.2 Minor 4.2 Fixed do solfège 4.2.1 Chromatic variants 4.3 Comparison of the two systems 5 Note names 6 Other possibilities to denote solfège 6.1 Rainbow colors assigned by Isaac Newton 7 Cultural references 8 See also 9 References 10 External links Etymology[edit] Italian "solfeggio" and English/French "solfège" derive from the names of two of the syllables used: sol and fa.[3][4] The generic term "solmization", referring to any system of denoting pitches of a musical scale by syllables, including those used in India and Japan as well as solfège, comes from French solmisation, from the Latin solfège syllables sol and mi.[5] The verb "to sol-fa" means to sing a passage in solfège.[6] Origin[edit] In eleventh-century Italy, the music theorist Guido of Arezzo invented a notational system that named the six notes of the hexachord after the first syllable of each line of the Latin hymn Ut queant laxis, the "Hymn to St. John the Baptist", yielding ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la.[7][8] Each successive line of this hymn begins on the next scale degree, so each note's name was the syllable sung at that pitch in this hymn. Sheet music for Ut queant laxis Ut queant laxīs    resonāre fībrīs Mīra gestōrum    famulī tuōrum, Solve pollūtī    labiī reātum, Sancte Iōhannēs. The words were written by Paulus Diaconus in the 8th century. They translate as: So that your servants may,    with loosened voices, Resound the wonders    of your deeds, Clean the guilt    from our stained lips, O St. John. "Ut" was changed in the 1600s in Italy to the open syllable Do,[8] at the suggestion of the musicologist Giovanni Battista Doni (based on the first syllable of his surname), and Si (from the initials for "Sancte Iohannes") was added to complete the diatonic scale. In Anglophone countries, "si" was changed to "ti" by Sarah Glover in the nineteenth century so that every syllable might begin with a different letter.[9] "Ti" is used in tonic sol-fa (and in the famed American show tune "Do-Re-Mi"). An alternative theory argues that the solfège syllables (do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, ti) derive from the syllables of an Arabic solmization system درر مفصّلات Durar Mufaṣṣalāt ("Detailed Pearls") (dāl, rā', mīm, fā', ṣād, lām, tā'), mentioned in the works of Francisci a Mesgnien Meninski in 1680 and later discussed by Jean-Benjamin de La Borde in 1780.[10][11][12][13] However, there is no documentary evidence for this theory.[14] In Elizabethan England[edit] In the Elizabethan era, England and its related territories used only four of the syllables: mi, fa, sol, and la. "Mi" stood for modern si, "fa" for modern do or ut, "sol" for modern re, and "la" for modern mi. Then, fa, sol and la would be repeated to also stand for their modern counterparts, resulting in the scale being "fa, sol, la, fa, sol, la, mi, fa". The use of "fa", "sol" and "la" for two positions in the scale is a leftover from the Guidonian system of so-called "mutations" (i.e. changes of hexachord on a note, see Guidonian hand). This system was largely eliminated by the 19th century, but is still used in some shape note systems, which give each of the four syllables "fa", "sol", "la", and "mi" a different shape. An example of this type of solmization occurs in Shakespeare's King Lear, I, 2 (see § Cultural references). Modern use[edit] Solfège is still used for sight reading training. In the U.S., traditional American country music was first recorded in the 1920s by solfège-trained singers, often too poor to afford a piano, who used sight reading as a way of making printed music into entertainment. Flanders Bays and "Singing Bob" Leonard were traveling music teachers who trained hundreds of students, among them The Carter Family, who recorded the first nationally distributed recordings of regional "country" music. There are two main types of solfège: Movable do and Fixed do. Movable do solfège[edit] In Movable do[15] or tonic sol-fa, each syllable corresponds to a scale degree. This is analogous to the Guidonian practice of giving each degree of the hexachord a solfège name, and is mostly used in Germanic countries, Commonwealth Countries, and the United States. One particularly important variant of movable do, but differing in some respects from the system described below, was invented in the nineteenth century by Sarah Ann Glover, and is known as tonic sol-fa. In Italy, in 1972, Roberto Goitre wrote the famous method "Cantar leggendo", which has come to be used for choruses and for music for young children. The pedagogical advantage of the movable-Do system is its ability to assist in the theoretical understanding of music; because a tonic is established and then sung in comparison to, the student infers melodic and chordal implications through his or her singing. Thus, while fixed-do is more applicable to instrumentalists, movable-do is more applicable to theorists and, arguably, composers. Major[edit] Movable do is frequently employed in Australia, China, Japan (with 5th being so, and 7th being si), Ireland, the United Kingdom, the United States, Hong Kong, and English-speaking Canada. The movable do system is a fundamental element of the Kodály method used primarily in Hungary, but with a dedicated following worldwide. In the movable do system, each solfège syllable corresponds not to a pitch, but to a scale degree: The first degree of a major scale is always sung as "do", the second as "re", etc. (For minor keys, see below.) In movable do, a given tune is therefore always sol-faed on the same syllables, no matter what key it is in. The solfège syllables used for movable do differ slightly from those used for fixed do, because the English variant of the basic syllables ("ti" instead of "si") is usually used, and chromatically altered syllables are usually included as well. Major scale degree Mova. do solfège syllable # of half steps from Do Trad. pron. 1 Do 0 /doʊ/ Raised 1 Di 1 /diː/ Lowered 2 Ra 1 /ɹɑː/ 2 Re 2 /ɹeɪ/ Raised 2 Ri 3 /ɹiː/ Lowered 3 Me (or Ma) 3 /meɪ/ (/mɑː/) 3 Mi 4 /miː/ 4 Fa 5 /fɑː/ Raised 4 Fi 6 /fiː/ Lowered 5 Se 6 /seɪ/ 5 Sol 7 /soʊ/ Raised 5 Si 8 /siː/ Lowered 6 Le (or Lo) 8 /leɪ/ (/loʊ/) 6 La 9 /lɑː/ Raised 6 Li 10 /liː/ Lowered 7 Te (or Ta) 10 /teɪ/ (/tɑː/) 7 Ti 11 /tiː/ If, at a certain point, the key of a piece modulates, then it is necessary to change the solfège syllables at that point. For example, if a piece begins in C major, then C is initially sung on "do", D on "re", etc. If, however, the piece then modulates to G major, then G is sung on "do", A on "re", etc., and C is then sung on "fa". Minor[edit] Passages in a minor key may be sol-faed in one of two ways in movable do: either starting on do (using "me", "le", and "te" for the lowered third, sixth, and seventh degrees, and "la" and "ti" for the raised sixth and seventh degrees), which is referred to as "do-based minor", or starting on la (using "fi" and "si" for the raised sixth and seventh degrees). The latter (referred to as "la-based minor") is sometimes preferred in choral singing, especially with children. The choice of which system is used for minor makes a difference as to how you handle modulations. In the first case ("do-based minor"), when the key moves for example from C major to C minor the syllable do keeps pointing to the same note, namely C, (there's no "mutation" of do's note), but when the key shifts from C major to A minor (or A major), the scale is transposed from do = C to do = A. In the second case ("la-based minor"), when the key moves from C major to A minor the syllable do continues to point to the same note, again C, but when the key moves from C major to C minor the scale is transposed from do = C to do = E-flat. Natural minor scale degree Movable do solfège syllable (La-based minor) Movable do solfège syllable (Do-based minor) Lowered 1 Le (or Lo) ( Ti ) 1 La Do Raised 1 Li Di Lowered 2 Te (or Ta) Ra 2 Ti Re 3 Do Me (or Ma) Raised 3 Di Mi Lowered 4 Ra ( Mi ) 4 Re Fa Raised 4 Ri Fi Lowered 5 Me (or Ma) Se 5 Mi Sol 6 Fa Le (or Lo) Raised 6 Fi La Lowered 7 Se ( La ) 7 Sol Te (or Ta) Raised 7 Si Ti Fixed do solfège[edit] The names of the notes in Romance languages. In Fixed do, each syllable corresponds to the name of a note. This is analogous to the Romance system naming pitches after the solfège syllables, and is used in Romance and Slavic countries, among others, including Spanish-speaking countries. In the major Romance and Slavic languages, the syllables Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, and Si are used to name notes the same way that the letters C, D, E, F, G, A, and B are used to name notes in English. For native speakers of these languages, solfège is simply singing the names of the notes, omitting any modifiers such as "sharp" or "flat" in order to preserve the rhythm. This system is called fixed do and is used in Spain, Portugal, France, Italy, Belgium, Romania, Latin American countries and in French-speaking Canada as well as countries such as Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Russia, Serbia, Poland, Ukraine, Georgia, Bulgaria, Greece, Armenia, Albania, North Macedonia, Mongolia, Iran, Israel, the Arab world, Turkey, and Taiwan where non-Romance languages are spoken. In the United States, the fixed-do system is principally taught at The Juilliard School in New York City, the Curtis Institute of Music in Philadelphia, and the Cleveland Institute of Music in Cleveland, Ohio. Traditional fixed do[16] Note name Syllable Pronunciation Pitch class English Romance Anglicized Italian C♭ Do♭ do /doʊ/ /dɔ/ 11 C Do 0 C♯ Do♯ 1 D♭ Re♭ re /ɹeɪ/ /rɛ/ 1 D Re 2 D♯ Re♯ 3 E♭ Mi♭ mi /miː/ /mi/ 3 E Mi 4 E♯ Mi♯ 5 F♭ Fa♭ fa /fɑː/ /fa/ 4 F Fa 5 F♯ Fa♯ 6 G♭ Sol♭ sol /soʊl/ /sɔl/ 6 G Sol 7 G♯ Sol♯ 8 A♭ La♭ la /lɑː/ /la/ 8 A La 9 A♯ La♯ 10 B♭ Si♭ si /siː/ /si/ 10 B Si 11 B♯ Si♯ 0 In the fixed do system, shown above, accidentals do not affect the syllables used. For example, C, C♯, and C♭ (as well as C and C, not shown above) are all sung with the syllable "do". Chromatic variants[edit] Several chromatic fixed-do Systems that have also been devised to account for chromatic notes (and even for double-sharp and double-flat variants) are as follows: Chromatic variants of fixed do Note name Syllable Pitch class English Romance Traditional [16] 5 sharps, 5 flats [16][17][18] Hullah [19] Shearer [20] Siler [21] Sotorrio [22] C Do do – duf daw du (Pe) 10 C♭ Do♭ – du de do (Tsi) 11 C Do do do do da Do 0 C♯ Do♯ di da di de Ga 1 C Do – das dai di (Ray) 2 D Re re – raf raw ru (Do) 0 D♭ Re♭ ra ra ra ro Ga 1 D Re re re re ra Ray 2 D♯ Re♯ ri ri ri re Nu 3 D Re – ris rai ri (Mi) 4 E Mi mi – mef maw mu (Ray) 2 E♭ Mi♭ me me me mo Nu 3 E Mi mi mi mi ma Mi 4 E♯ Mi♯ – mis mai me (Fa) 5 E Mi – mish – mi (Jur) 6 F Fa fa – fof faw fu (Nu) 3 F♭ Fa♭ – fo fe fo (Mi) 4 F Fa fa fa fa fa Fa 5 F♯ Fa♯ fi fe fi fe Jur 6 F Fa – fes fai fi (Sol) 7 G Sol sol – sulf saw su (Fa) 5 G♭ Sol♭ se sul se so Jur 6 G Sol sol sol so sa Sol 7 G♯ Sol♯ si sal si se Ki 8 G Sol – sals sai si (La) 9 A La la – lof law lu (Sol) 7 A♭ La♭ le lo le lo Ki 8 A La la la la la La 9 A♯ La♯ li le li le Pe 10 A La – les lai li (Tsi) 11 B Si si – sef taw tu (La) 9 B♭ Si♭ te se te to Pe 10 B Si ti si ti ta Tsi 11 B♯ Si♯ – sis tai te (Do) 0 B Si – sish – ti (Ga) 1 A dash ("–") means that the source(s) did not specify a syllable. Comparison of the two systems[edit] Movable Do corresponds to our psychological experience of normal tunes. If the song is sung a tone higher it is still perceived to be the same song, and the notes have the same relationship to each other, but in a fixed Do all the note names would be different. A movable Do emphasizes the musicality of the tune as the psychological perception of the notes is always relative to a key for the vast majority of people that do not have absolute pitch. Sotorrio[23] argues that fixed-do is preferable for serious musicians, as music involving complex modulations and vague tonality is often too ambiguous with regard to key for any movable system. That is, without a prior analysis of the music, any movable-do system would inevitably need to be used like a fixed-do system anyway, thus causing confusion. With fixed-do, the musician learns to regard any syllable as the tonic, which does not force them to make an analysis as to which note is the tonic when ambiguity occurs. Instead, with fixed-do the musician will already be practiced in thinking in multiple/undetermined tonalities using the corresponding syllables. In comparison to the movable do system, which draws on short-term relative pitch skills involving comparison to a pitch identified as the tonic of the particular piece being performed, fixed do develops long-term relative pitch skills involving comparison to a pitch defined independently of its role in the piece, a practice closer to the definition of each note in absolute terms as found in absolute pitch. The question of which system to use is a controversial subject among music educators in schools in the United States. While movable do is easier to teach and learn, some feel that fixed do leads to stronger sight-reading and better ear training because students learn the relationships between specific pitches as defined independently, rather than only the function of intervals within melodic lines, chords, and chord progressions.[24] If a performer has been trained using fixed do, particularly in those rare cases in which the performer has absolute pitch or well-developed long-term relative pitch, the performer may have difficulty playing music scored for transposing instruments: Because the "concert pitch" note to be performed differs from the note written in the sheet music, the performer may experience cognitive dissonance when having to read one note and play another. Especially in the early stages of learning a piece, when the performer has yet to gain familiarity with the melodic line of the piece as expressed in relative terms, it may be necessary to mentally re-transpose the sheet music in order to restore the notes to concert pitch. However, because fixed do pedagogical system often include instruction on reading all seven clefs, musicians reading transposing instruments are used to mentally substituting a clef. For example, when reading clarinets in B-flat written in treble clef, those trained in fixed do mentally substitute tenor clef. In comparison, those trained in moveable do may experience confusion in reading transposing instruments in context in a score, as it is necessary to ascertain the absolute sounding pitch coming out of the instrument in order to know the function of the pitch in the key that the ensemble is playing in. This is especially true for French horn parts, which are traditionally written without a key signature, and instead have all accidentals notated. A musician fluent in fixed do reading the parts in mezzo-soprano clef can ascertain the absolute pitches and use those to extrapolate function. Those trained in fixed-do will argue that their act is the analogue of reading aloud in a language. Just as one reads this very sentence without parsing it grammatically, so too fixed-do is the direct sounding of the music. Where the movable-do system requires constant real-time analysis of the tonality and modulations in the score, in fixed-do the musician uses knowledge of the changing tonality to understand for example that the pitch class c-natural is the supertonic in B-Flat major or minor, and the dominant when the music modulates to F-major, but the c-note remains the same pitch. Instrumentalists who begin sight-singing for the first time in college as music majors find movable do to be the system more consistent with the way they learned to read music. For choirs, sight-singing fixed do using chromatic movable do syllables (see below) is more suitable than sight-singing movable do for reading atonal music, polytonal music, pandiatonic music, music that modulates or changes key often, or music in which the composer simply did not bother to write a key signature. It is not uncommon for this to be the case in modern or contemporary choral works. Note names[edit] In the countries with fixed-do, these seven syllables (with Si replacing Ti) – rather than the letters C, D, E, F, G, A, and B – are used to name the notes of the C-Major scale. Here it would be said, for example, that Beethoven's Ninth Symphony (in D minor) is in "Re minor", and that its third movement (in B-flat major) is in "Si-bemol major". In Germanic countries, on the other hand, it is the letters that are used for this purpose (so that Beethoven's Ninth Symphony is said to be in "d-Moll") and the solfège syllables are encountered only in their use in sight-singing and ear training. Other possibilities to denote solfège[edit] Depiction of John Curwen's Solfege hand signs used in Tonic sol-fa. This version includes the tonal tendencies and interesting titles for each tone. Rainbow colors assigned by Isaac Newton[edit] Isaac Newton[25] had associated the seven solfège syllables with the seven colors of the rainbow and surmised that each color vibrated accordingly (a concept possibly related to the modern view of chromesthesia). Thus, red has the least amount of vibration while violet vibrates the most. Pitch Solfège Color C do (or doh in tonic sol-fa) Red D re Orange E mi Yellow F fa Green G sol (or so in tonic sol-fa) Blue A la Indigo Blue violet B ti/si Purple Red violet Cultural references[edit] The various possibilities to distinguish the notes acoustically, optically and by ways of speech and signs, made the solfège a possible syllabary for an International Auxiliary Language (IAL/LAI). This was, in the latter half of the 19th century, realised in the musical language Solresol. In Shakespeare's play King Lear (Act 1, Scene 2), Edmund exclaims to himself right after Edgar's entrance so that Edgar can hear him: "O, these eclipses do portend these divisions". Then, in the 1623 First Folio (but not in the 1608 Quarto), he adds "Fa, so, la, mi". This Edmund probably sang (see § In Elizabethan England) to the tune of Fa, So, La, Ti (e.g. F, G, A, B in C major), i.e. an ascending sequence of three whole tones with an ominous feel to it: see tritone (historical uses). In The Sound of Music, the song "Do-Re-Mi" is built around solfège. Maria sings it with the von Trapp children to teach them to sing the major scale. Ernie Kovacs' television show had a popular recurring sketch that became known as "The Nairobi Trio". The three characters wore long overcoats, bowler hats, and gorilla masks, and were performed by Ernie and two other rotating persons including uncredited stars such as Frank Sinatra and Jack Lemmon, as well as Kovacs' wife, singer Edie Adams. There was no dialog, the three pantomimed to the song Solfeggio by Robert Maxwell and the lyrics of the song were made up solely of the solfeggio syllables themselves. The sketch was so popular, that the song was re-released as "Song of the Nairobi Trio". See also[edit] Key signature names and translations Numbered musical notation Vocable References[edit] ^ "Solfège". Lexico UK Dictionary. Oxford University Press. ^ Oxford English Dictionary 2nd Ed. (1998)[page needed] ^ "Solfeggio". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Merriam-Webster Online. Retrieved 2010-02-27. ^ "Solfège". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Merriam-Webster Online. Retrieved 2010-02-27. ^ "Solmization". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Merriam-Webster Online. Retrieved 2010-02-27. ^ "Sol-fa". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Merriam-Webster Online. Retrieved 2010-02-27. ^ Davies, Norman (1997), Europe, pp. 271–272 ^ a b McNaught, W. G. (1893). "The History and Uses of the Sol-fa Syllables". Proceedings of the Musical Association. London: Novello, Ewer and Co. 19: 35–51. ISSN 0958-8442. ^ This also freed up Si for later use as Sol-sharp ^ Thesaurus Linguarum Orientalum (1680) OCLC 61900507 ^ Essai sur la Musique Ancienne et Moderne (1780) OCLC 61970141 ^ Farmer, Henry George (1988). Historical facts for the Arabian Musical Influence. Ayer Publishing. pp. 72–82. ISBN 0-405-08496-X. OCLC 220811631. ^ Miller, Samuel D. (Autumn 1973). "Guido d'Arezzo: Medieval Musician and Educator". Journal of Research in Music Education. MENC_ The National Association for Music Education. 21 (3): 239–245. doi:10.2307/3345093. JSTOR 3345093. ^ Miller 1973, p. 244. ^ "Movable "Do" vs Fixed "Do"". Teaching Children Music. 2012-10-02. Retrieved 2020-09-18. ^ a b c Demorest, Steven M. (2001). Building Choral Excellence: Teaching Sight-Singing in the Choral Rehearsal. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-19-512462-0. ^ Benjamin, Thomas; Horvit, Michael; Nelson, Robert (2005). Music for Sight Singing (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thompson Schirmer. pp. x–xi. ISBN 978-0-534-62802-4. ^ White, John D. (2002). Guidelines for College Teaching of Music Theory (2nd ed.). Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-8108-4129-1. ^ Hullah, John (1880). Hullah's Method of Teaching Singing (2nd ed.). London: Longmans, Green and Co. pp. xi–xv. ISBN 0-86314-042-4. ^ Shearer, Aaron (1990). Learning the Classical Guitar, Part 2: Reading and Memorizing Music. Pacific, MO: Mel Bay. p. 209. ISBN 978-0-87166-855-4. ^ Siler, H. (1956). "Toward an International Solfeggio". Journal of Research in Music Education. 4 (1): 40–43. doi:10.2307/3343838. JSTOR 3343838. ^ Sotorrio, José A (2002). Tone Spectra – and the Natural Elements of Music. (1st Ed) Spectral Music, 2002. (Presents a simple 12-tone Solfège: Do (Ga) Re (Nu) Mi Fa (Jer) Sol (Ki) La (Pe) and Tsi, a written compromise between "Ti" and "si".] ^ Sotorrio, José A (2002). Tone Spectra – and the Natural Elements of Music. (1st Ed) Spectral Music, 2002. ^ Humphries, Lee. Learning to Sight-Sing: The Mental Mechanics of Aural Imagery. Minneapolis: Thinking Applied, 2008, No. 1. ^ Ashley P. Taylor (March 1, 2017). "Newton's Color Theory, ca. 1665". The Scientist. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Solfege. Look up solfège in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. History of Notation by Neil V. Hawes Various scales with their solfège names and associated hand signs A search engine for melodies that uses solfège An online music notation editor for Sargam (the Indian Solfège), ABC, and numbered notation, the Indian solfège Music theory online: key signatures and accidentals Music theory online : staffs, clefs & pitch notation GNU Solfège, a free software program to study solfeggio Eyes and Ears, an anthology of melodies for practicing sight-singing, available under a Creative Commons license The advantages of movable do over fixed do theSightReadingProject: an interactive database of sight-reading materials (utilizes movable do, la minor) Origin of Do Re Mi singing system 900 AD "Colours are sounds: How to See the Music", Creativelab. The method for transformation of music into an image. What Is Solfège Singing? Good, Craig (July 7, 2017). "Skeptoid #474: Solfeggio Frequencies". Skeptoid. v t e Ear training & Sight-reading Counting Learning music by ear Music psychology Relative pitch Solmization Solfège Tempo Tonal memory Authority control NDL: 01108897 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solfège&oldid=995656622" Categories: Musical notation Constructed languages Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from March 2011 Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Ido Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Қазақша മലയാളം Nederlands नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Олык марий Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 December 2020, at 05:05 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7549	----	List of ancient Romans - Wikipedia List of ancient Romans From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikimedia list article This list is incomplete; you can help by adding missing items with reliable sources. This an alphabetical List of ancient Romans. These include citizens of ancient Rome remembered in history. Note that some persons may be listed multiple times, once for each part of the name. See also: List of Roman emperors – Consuls and other magistrates of Rome – List of famous generals – Roman emperors - List of distinguished Roman women – List of ancient European doctors Contents:  Top 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A[edit] Titus Accius - Gaius Acilius - Claudia Acte - Claudius Aelianus (Aelian) - Sextus Aelius Paetus Catus - jurist Lucius Aelius - would-be successor to Hadrian Aemilia Scaura - wife of Pompey Marcus Aemilius Aemilianus - emperor for three months Flavius Aetius - general Gnaeus Domitius Afer - orator Lucius Afranius - two; poet and consul Julius Africanus - two; orator, Christian philosopher Sextus Caecilius Africanus - jurist Claudius Agathinus - physician Gnaeus Julius Agricola - general in Britain Sextus Calpurnius Agricola - governor in Britain Marcus Julius Agrippa (Agrippa I) - a king in Judea, romanized Marcus Julius Agrippa (Agrippa II) - a king in Judea, romanized Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa - general and geographer Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa Postumus - son of Agrippa Vipsania Agrippina - daughter of Agrippa Agrippina Major - mother of Caligula Agrippina Minor - mother of Nero Gaius Servilius Ahala - legendary hero Ahenobarbus, Gaius Domitius - politician Aius Locutius - divine Albinovanus Pedo - poet Titus Albucius - orator Gaius Albucius Silus - orator and teacher of rhetoric Alfenus Varus - jurist Alfius Avitus - poet Allectus - assassin of Carausius Gaius Amafinius - philosopher Lucius Ambivius Turpio - actor and director Amelius Gentilianus - philosopher Ammianus Marcellinus - writer Lucius Ampelius - writer Lucius Annius Vinicianus - plotter Lucius Annius Vinicianus - rebel Gaius Antistius Vetus - consul 30 BC Gaius Antistius Vetus - Caesar Augustus' quaestor Gaius Antistius Vetus - consul in 23 Gaius Antistius Vetus - Consul in 110 Gaius Antistius Vetus - consul in 178 Lucius Antistius Vetus - consul Antonia - several Antoninus Pius - emperor Arrius Antoninus - father of the emperor Antoninus Liberalis - mythographer Gaius Antonius - two Iullus Antonius - poet and consul, married Claudia Marcella Major Lucius Antonius - consul Marcus Antonius Marcus Antonius Orator - consul 99 BC Marcus Antonius Creticus - son of the Orator and father of Mark Antony Mark Antony - triumvir Marcus Antonius Antyllus - son of Mark Antony Antonius Castor - freedman Antonius Musa - physician Antonius Diogenes - writer Marcus Aper - advocate Aelius Festus Aphthonius - grammarian Apicius - several gourmets Lucius Apronius - suffect consul Pontius Aquila - tribune Romanus Aquila - rhetor Manius Aquillius - two consuls Gaius Aquillius Gallus - jurist Flavius Arcadius - emperor Aulus Licinius Archias - poet Arellius Fuscus - rhetor Arria Major - wife of Caecina Paetus Arria Minor - daughter of Arria Major Flavius Arrianus (Arrian) - historian Lucius Arruntius the Elder - consul Lucius Arruntius the Younger - his son, also a consul Lucius Arruntius Stella - poet Arruntius Celsus - miscellanist Lucius Artorius Castus - general in Britain, possible basis for King Arthur Quintus Junius Arulenus Rusticus - Stoic Arusianus Messius - grammarian Quintus Asconius Pedianus - writer Sempronius Asellio - historian Aemilius Asper - commentator Nonius Asprenas - two rhetors Lucius Ateius Praetextatus Philologus - scholar Atia - three Augustan women Aulus Atilius Caiatinus - consul Aulus Atilius Serranus - consul Marcus Atilius - dramatist Atilius Fortunatianus - metrician Titus Quinctius Atta - poet Publius Acilius Attianus - adviser to Hadrian Caecilia Attica - wife of Agrippa Titus Pomponius Atticus - businessman and writer Julius Atticus - writer on vines Aufidius Bassus - historian Gnaeus Aufidius - praetor and historian Sentius Augurinus - friend of Pliny the Younger Augustus - emperor Aurelia - mother of Julius Caesar Lucius Domitius Aurelianus - emperor Marcus Aurelius - emperor Lucius Aurelius Marcianus - soldier Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (Caracalla) - emperor Sextus Aurelius Victor - historian Aureolus - soldier Decimus Magnus Ausonius - poet Publius Autronius Paetus - consul Titus Avidius Quietus - suffect consul Gaius Avidius Nigrinus - possible Hadrian successor Gaius Avidius Cassius - general Avienus - writer B[edit] Gnaeus Baebius Tamphilus - consul Marcus Baebius Tamphilus - consul Quintus Baebius Tamphilus - praetor Tiberius Claudius Balbilus - astrologer Decius Caelius Calvinus Balbinus - senator/emperor Marcus Atius Balbus - praetor, married Julia Minor Titus Ampius Balbus - tribune and proconsul Lucius Cornelius Balbus (major) - consul Lucius Cornelius Balbus (minor) - consul's nephew Balbus - surveyor Balista - praetorian prefect of Valerian Quintus Marcius Barea Soranus - suffect consul Quintus Caecilius Bassus - officer Caesius Bassus - poet Saleius Bassus - epic writer Bavius - bad poet mentioned by Virgil Belisarius - general Lucius Calpurnius Bestia - consul Marcus Furius Bibaculus - poet Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus - consul Quintus Junius Blaesus - suffect consul Gaius Blossius - philosophy student Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (Boethius) - consul, writer Vettius Bolanus - suffect consul Bonifacius - 4th-century governor of North Africa Bonosus - revolted against Probus Tiberius Claudius Caesar Britannicus (Britannicus) - son of Claudius Bruttidius Niger - aedile Lucius Junius Brutus - traditional founder of republic Decimus Junius Brutus - commander Decimus Junius Brutus Callaicus - consul Lucius Junius Brutus Damasippus - praetor Brutus, Marcus Junius - two, tribune and tyrannicide Sextus Afranius Burrus - procurator C[edit] Caecilius of Novum Comum - poet Gaius Caecilius Classicus - Governor of Baetica Caecilus Statius - Gallic poet Quintus Caecilius Epirota - man of letters Lucius Caecilius Jucundus - banker in Pompeii Aulus Caecina Severus - friend of Cicero Aulus Caecina Severus - legate Aulus Caecina Alienus - suffect consul Marcus Caelius Rufus - aedile Quintus Servilius Caepio - several Fannius Caepio - conspirator Gaius Julius Caesar Strabo - orator Gaius Julius Caesar - dictator, historian, general, writer Lucius Julius Caesar - several related Sextus Julius Caesar- several related Gaius Caesar - consul Lucius Caesar - second son of Agrippa Marcus Calidius - praetor Gaius Julius Callistus - freedman Calpurnia - two; daughter of Piso, 3rd wife of Pliny Titus Calpurnius Siculus - writer Calpurnius Flaccus - writer Gaius Sextius Calvinus - consul Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus - consul Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo - general, 1st century Gaius Calvisius Sabinus - consul in 39 BC Gaius Calvisius Sabinus - consul in 4 BC Gaius Calvisius Sabinus - consul in 26 AD Gaius Licinius Calvus - orator and poet Marcus Furius Camillus - heroic consul Lucius Furius Camillus - two; consul and son Publius Canidius Crassus - general Gaius Caninius Rebilus - briefly suffect consul Caninius Rufus - neighbor of Pliny Canius Rufus - poet Gaius Canuleius - plebeian tribune Flavius Caper - grammarian Gaius Ateius Capito - two; tribune, jurist Marcus Aurelius Maus Carausius - emperor Gaius Papirius Carbo - consul Gnaeus Papirius Carbo - consul Gaius Papirius Carbo Arvina - tribune Marcus Aurelius Carinus - emperor Gaius Carrinus - commander Marcus Aurelius Carus - emperor Spurius Carvilius Maximus - consul Spurius Carvilius Ruga - freedman and teacher Servilius Casca - two conspirators Cassiodorus - politician and writer Spurius Cassius Viscellinus - early consul Lucius Cassius Hemina - annalist Lucius Cassius Longinus Ravilla - consul Quintus Cassius Longinus - quaestor Gaius Cassius Longinus - tyrannicide Lucius Cassius Longinus - three; two consuls, one proconsul Cassius Parmensis - two; jurist and tyrannicide Cassius Severus - orator Cassius Chaerea - centurion Lucius Artorius Castus - general in Britain, possible basis for King Arthur Lucius Sergius Catilina (Catiline) - conspirator Titus Catius - writer Cato, Marcus Porcius - the Elder, censor Cato, Marcus Porcius - the Younger, politician, leader of the conservative faction Gaius Porcius Cato - two; consul, tribune Lucius Porcius Cato - consul Catullus - writer and poet Gaius Lutatius Catulus - consul Quintus Lutatius Catulus - two; consul and son Celsus Albinovanus - friend of Horace Aulus Cornelius Celsus - encyclopedist Publius Juventius Celsus - consul Censorinus - grammarian Quintus Petillius Cerialis - consul Gaius Cestius Epulo - praetor Gaius Cestius Gallus - consul Lucius Cestius Pius - rhetor Publius Cornelius Cethegus, politician and consul Publius Cornelius Cethegus, politician and senator Flavius Sosipater Charisius - grammarian Lucius Cornelius Chrysogonus - freedman Marcus Tullius Cicero - two; politician/writer and son Quintus Tullius Cicero - two; younger brother of Cicero and son Lucius Fabius Cilo - governor Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus - early hero Lucius Cincius Alimentus - senator and historian Lucius Cornelius Cinna - two; politician and son Gaius Helvius Cinna - poet Gnaeus Cornelius Cinna Magnus - consul Gaius Julius Civilis - noble Batavian Gaius Julius Alpinus Classicianus - procurator Julius Classicus - rebel Treveri Claudius Claudianus (Claudian) - poet Claudius - emperor Claudia Procula - wife of Pontius Pilate Claudius II Gothicus - emperor Appius Claudius - decemvir Appius Claudius Caecus - consul Appius Claudius Caudex - consul Publius Claudius Pulcher - consul Quintus Claudius - plebeian tribune Gaius Claudius Pulcher - consul Appius Claudius Pulcher - three consuls Marcus Claudius Marcellus Aeserninus - orator and consul Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius - annalist Tiberius Claudius - procurator Claudius Etruscus - son of above Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus - consul Claudius Mamertinus - orator Titus Flavius Clemens (consul) - consul Clodia - sister of Publius Clodius Pulcher Clodius Aesopus - tragic actor Publius Clodius Pulcher - politician Lucius Clodius Macer - legate Publius Clodius Quirinalis - rhetor Decimus Clodius Albinus - would-be emperor Cloelia - legendary hostage Aulus Cluentius Habitus - litigant Lucius Coelius Antipater - jurist, rhetorician, and historian Gaius Coelius Caldus - consul Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella = farmer Cominianus - grammarian Commodianus - Christian Latin poet Lucius Aelius Aurelius Commodus - emperor Constans - emperor Flavius Valerius Constantinus (Constantine) - emperor Constantine II - emperor Flavius Claudius Constantinus - emperor Flavius Valerius Constantius (Chlorus) - emperor Constantius II - emperor Constantius III - emperor Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo - consul Gnaeus Marcius Coriolanus - early hero Cornelia Africana - mother of Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus Cornelia - Caesar's first wife Cornelia Metella - wife of Pompey Gaius Cornelius - tribune Cornelius Severus - poet Lucius Cornificius - consul Quintus Cornificius - orator and poet Lucius Annaeus Cornutus - freedman teacher Gaius Julius Cornutus Tertullus - proconsul Gaius Coruncanius - ambassador Lucius Coruncanius - ambassador Tiberius Coruncanius - consul Titus Statilius Taurus Corvinus - consul Quintus Conconius - scholar Aulus Cornelius Cossus - consul Gaius Aurelius Cotta - consul Lucius Aurelius Cotta - five different Marcus Aurelius Cotta - consul Marcus Julius Cottius - son of a native king Gaius Calpurnius Crassus Frugi Licinianus - suffect consul Publius Licinius Crassus Dives Mucianus - consul Lucius Licinius Crassus - consul Marcus Licinius Crassus - two; politician and grandson Publius Licinius Crassus - two; consul and commander Aulus Cremutius Cordus - historian Quintus Terentius Culleo - praetor Curiatius Maternus - senator and poet Marcus Curtius - legendary hero Curtius Montanus - poet Thascius Caecilius Cyprianus (Cyprian) - bishop D[edit] Damophilus - sculptor Lucius Decidius Saxa - tribune Gaius Messius Quintus Decius - emperor Publius Decius Mus - three consuls Publius Decius Subulo - praetor Quintus Dellius - soldier, writer Sempronius Densus - soldier Lucius Siccius Dentatus - early hero Manius Curius Dentatus - consul Publius Herennius Dexippus - sophist Lucius Pollentius Dexter - soldier (Legio I Adiutrix, Centuria Allii Marini) Titus Didius - consul Marcus Didius Julianus - short-lived emperor Dio Cassius - official and historian Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus (Diocletian) - emperor Dioscorides Pedanius - physician Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella - two; consul and proconsul Publius Cornelius Dolabella - two consuls Titus Flavius Domitianus (Domitian) - two; emperor and adopted son Flavia Domitilla - mother / sister / niece of Domitian Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus - four different Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus - two Domitius Marsus - poet Aelius Donatus - grammarian Tiberius Claudius Donatus - commentator Dorotheus - framed Justinian Code Blossius Aemilius Dracontius - poet and rhetor Julia Drusilla - daughter of Caligula Drusus Julius Caesar - two; son of Tiberius and son of Germanicus Nero Claudius Drusus - general Marcus Livius Drusus - two; consul and son Marcus Livius Drusus Claudianus - a praetor Gaius Duilius - consul E[edit] Marcus Egnatius Rufus - praetor Elagabalus - emperor Emporius - rhetorician Empylus - rhetorician Sextilius Ena - poet Severus Sanctus Endelechius - professor Quintus Ennius - writer Magnus Felix Ennodius - bishop, writer Epagathus - politician Titus Clodius Eprius Marcellus - consul Erotian - grammarian, doctor Sextus Erucius Clarus - official and friend of Pliny Flavius Eugenius - usurper Eumenius - teacher of rhetoric Eusebius of Caesarea - theologian Eutropius - historian Iulius Exsuperantius - historian F[edit] Faberius - secretary to Julius Caesar Fabianus Papirius - philosopher Marcus Fabius Ambustus - consul Quintus Fabius Ambustus - official Marcus Fabius Buteo - consul Lucius Fabius Justus - consul Paullus Fabius Maximus - consul Quintus Fabius Maximus Allobrogicus - praetor Quintus Fabius Maximus Aemilianus - consul Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus - consul Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, Cunctator - consul Quintus Fabius Pictor - senator, historian Fabius Rusticus - historian Gaius Fabricius Luscinus - consul Marcus Fadius Gallus - friend of Cicero Gaius Fannius - consul Annia Galeria Faustina - two; wife and daughter of Antoninus Pius Marcus Cetius Faventinus - scholar Eulogius Favonius - rhetor Marcus Favonius - politician Favorinus - rhetor Marcus Antonius Felix - freedman procurator Fenestella - annalist Porcius Festus - procurator Rufius Festus - writer Sextus Pompeius Festus - scholar Gaius Flavius Fimbria - consul Julius Firmicus Maternus - astrologer Aulus Avilius Flaccus - official Quintus Fulvius Flaccus two; consul and son Lucius Valerius Flaccus four Marcus Fulvius Flaccus - consul Verrius Flaccus - freedman scholar Lucius Quinctius Flamininus - consul Titus Quinctius Flamininus - consul Gaius Flaminius - consul Gnaeus Flavius - writer Flavius Felix - poet Titus Flavius Petro - grandfather of Vespasian Marcus Annius Florianus - short-lived emperor Florus - poet Marcus Fonteius - official Sextus Julius Frontinus - writer Marcus Cornelius Fronto - orator Quintus Fufius Calenus - consul Fabius Planciades Fulgentius - writer Fulvia - wife of Mark Antony Gaius Fundanius - comedian Minicius Fundanus - proconsul Aulus Furius Antias - poet Lucius Furius Philus - consul Cornelius Fuscus - official and general G[edit] Aulus Gabinius - two; tribune and consul Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus (Caligula) - emperor Gaius - jurist Gaius Sulpicius Galba - two; official, grandfather of emperor Servius Sulpicius Galba - three; consul, praetor, emperor Publius Sulpicius Galba Maximus - consul Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximinianus (Galerius) - emperor Galerius Trachalus - orator Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus (Gallienus) - emperor Lucius Iunius Gallio Annaeanus - consul Aelius Gallus - official Appius Annius Trebonius Gallus - consul of 108 Appius Annius Trebonius Gallus - consul of 139 Gaius Asinius Gallus - consul Gaius Cornelius Gallus - poet and general Aulus Didius Gallus - consul Gaius Lucretius Gallus - praetor Gaius Sulpicius Gallus - astronomer and consul Gallus Caesar - ruled in Antioch Quintus Gargilius Martialis - writer Gavius Bassus - writer Gavius Silo - orator Aulus Gellius - writer Gnaeus Gellius - annalist Lucius Gellius Poplicola - consul Geminus - writer Lucius Genucius - tribune Germanicus - general, father of Caligula Gessius Florus - procurator in Judea Hosidius Geta - writer Gnaeus Hosidius Geta - suffect consul Publius Septimius Geta (Geta) - emperor Manius Acilius Glabrio - four Gaius Servilius Glaucia - praetor Glitius Atilius Agricola - general of Trajan Marcus Antonius Gnipho - scholar Marcus Antonius Gordianus - three emperors Gaius Sempronius Gracchus - 2nd-century BC politician Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus - three politicians Julius Graecinus - praetor Granius Licinianus - writer Flavius Gratian - emperor Grattius - poet Grillius - grammarian H[edit] Publius Aelius Hadrianus (Hadrian) - emperor Quintus Haterius - orator Helvidius Priscus - praetor Herennius Etruscus - short-lived emperor Herennius Modestinus - jurist Herennius Senecio - governor Herodes Atticus - consul and writer Aulus Hirtius - consul Honorius (emperor) - emperor Horatius Cocles - early hero Quintus Horatius Flaccus (Horace) - writer Quintus Hortensius - consul Hostilian - short-lived emperor Hostius - poet Hyginus - three writers Gaius Julius Hyginus - writer I[edit] Lucius Icilius - early hero Irenaeus - theologian Isidorus Hispalensis - bishop and scholar Isigonus - writer J[edit] Januarius Nepotianus - writer Javolenus Priscus - jurist Jordanes - historian Flavius Jovian - emperor Juba I of Numidia Juba II of Numidia Juba of Mauretania Jugurtha - Numidian king Julia (aunt of Caesar and wife of Marius) Julia (daughter of Julius Caesar) Julia - several women of the Julii Caesares Juliae Caesares (sisters of Julius Caesar) Julia Flavia - daughter of Titus Vipsania Julia - granddaughter of Augustus Julia (mother of Mark Antony) Julia the Elder, daughter of Augustus Julia Domna - wife of Septimius Severus Julia Maesa - sister of Julia Domna Julia Soaemias Bassiana - daughter of Julia Maesa Julia Avita Mamaea - younger daughter of Julia Maesa Flavius Claudius Julianus (Julian) - emperor Julianus Salvius - jurist Gaius Julius Bassus - Governor of Bithynia-Pontus Julius Caesar - general and dictator Lucius Julius Libo - consul and ancestor to Julius Caesar Julius Canus - philosopher Julius Cerealis - poet Sextus Julius Gabinianus - rhetor Julius Modestus - freedman of Hyginus Julius Romanus - grammarian Julius Tiro - rhetor Julius Valerius Alexander Polemius - writer Gaius Julius Victor - writer Junius Congus - writer Marcus Junius Nipsus - grammarian Junius Otho - praetor Justin Martyr - writer and martyr Justinian I - emperor Marcus Justinianus Justinus (Justin) - writer Decimus Iunius Iuvenalis (Juvenal) - poet Gaius Vettius Aquilinus Juvencus - Christian poet Marcus Juventius Laterensis - praetor L[edit] Attius Labeo - translator Cornelius Antistius Labeo - historian Marcus Antistius Labeo - jurist Quintus Labienus - general Titus Labienus - two; legate for Caesar, orator Lactantius - writer Lucius Furius - tribune Gaius Laelius - consul Gaius Laelius Major - consul Laelius Archelaus - friend of Lucilius Marcus Valerius Laevinus - consul Laevius - writer Gaius Octavius Lampadio [la] - scholar Larcius Licinus - writer Latinus - early hero Marcus Tullius Laurea - freedman of Cicero Pompeius Lenaeus - freedman teacher Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus - two consuls Lucius Cornelius Lentulus - consul Lucius Cornelius Lentulus Crus - consul Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Gaetulicus - two consuls Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Marcellinus - consul Publius Cornelius Lentulus Spinther - consul Publius Cornelius Lentulus Sura - consul Manius Aemilius Lepidus - two consuls Marcus Aemilius Lepidus - five Libanius - historian Licentius - friend of Augustine Valerius Licinianus Licinius - emperor Licinius Imbrex - poet Quintus Ligarius - general Livia Drusilla - wife of Augustus Caesar Livilla - daughter of Drusus Marcus Livius Drusus - reformer Lucius Livius Andronicus - dramatist Titus Livius (Livy) - writer Lollia Paulina - wife of Caligula Marcus Lollius - rich legate Lollius Bassus - epigrammatist Marcus Lollius Palicanus - praetor Quintus Lollius Urbicus - governor Marcus Annaeus Lucanus (Lucan) - writer Lucius Lucceius - praetor Gaius Lucilius - writer Gaius Lucilius Iunior - writer Lucilla - daughter of Marcus Aurelius Lucretia - early heroine Lucretius - philosopher Spurius Lucretius Tricipitinus - early hero Lucius Licinius Lucullus - six; one aedile, two consuls, two praetors, and son of the conqueror-consul Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus - consul Luscius Lanuvinus - poet Marcus Lurius - admiral Quintus Lusius Quietus - suffect consul Luxorius - writer and poet Lygdamus - poet M[edit] Gaius Licinius Macer - annalist and praetor Gaius Licinius Macer Calvus - orator and poet Aemilius Macer - poet Titus Fulvius Junius Macrianus - emperor Marcus Opellius Macrinus - emperor Quintus Naevius Cordus Sutorius Macro - praetorian prefect Macrobius Ambrosius Theodosius - writer Gaius Maecenas - friend of Augustus Lucius Volusius Maecianus - jurist Spurius Maelius - early hero Gaius Maenius - consul Maevius - poet Flavius Magnus Magnentius - emperor Magnus Maximus - emperor Julius Majorian - emperor Mallius Theodorus - writer Octavius Mamilius Tusculanus - early hero Lucius Mamilius - dictator in Tusculum, aided Romans Gaius Mamilius Limetanus - tribune Mamurra - associate of Caesar Gaius Hostilius Mancinus - consul Gaius Manilius - tribune Manius Manilius - consul, jurist Marcus Manilius - writer Marcus Manlius Capitolinus - saved the Capitol from the Gauls in 390 BC Gaius Claudius Marcellus Maior, consul in 49 BC Gaius Claudius Marcellus Minor, consul in 50 BC Marcus Claudius Marcellus - five Marcus Pomponius Marcellus - grammarian Ulpius Marcellus - jurist Marcia - freedwoman Ulpia Marciana - sister of Trajan Aelius Marcianus - jurist Marcius - writer Ancus Marcius - early king Gaius Marcius Rutilus - consul Marcus Aemilius Scaurus - princeps senatus, leader of the conservative faction Gaius Marius - general, consul seven times Marcus Marius Gratidianus - praetor Sextus Marius - mine owner Marius Priscus - Governor of the province of Africa Marius Maximus - writer Julius Firmicus Maternus - astrologer Marcus Valerius Martialis (Martial) - writer Marullus - rhetor Salonina Matidia - niece of Trajan Gaius Matius - friend of Cicero Gnaeus Matius - writer Mavortius - writer Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius - emperor Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus (Maximian) - emperor Gaius Julius Verus Maximinus - emperor Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus - emperor Sextus Quinctilius Valerius Maximus - friend of Pliny Pomponius Mela - geographer Lucius Annaeus Mela - son of Seneca Aelius Melissus - writer Gaius Melissus - freedman of Maecenas Gaius Memmius - two praetors Agrippa Menenius Lanatus - early consul Flavius Merobaudes - soldier, poet Lucius Cornelius Merula - two consuls Manius Valerius Maximus Corvinus Messalla - consul Marcus Valerius Messalla two cousins, one a consul Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus - consul Marcus Valerius Messalla Messallinus - consul Vipstanus Messala - tribune Statilia Messalina - third wife of Nero Valeria Messalina - Claudius' wife Caecilia Metella Dalmatica married Marcus Aemilius Scaurus and Sulla Caecilia Metella - six Lucius Caecilius Metellus - consul Quintus Caecilius Metellus - consul Quintus Caecilius Metellus Balearicus - consul Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer - consul Quintus Caecilius Metellus Creticus - consul Quintus Caecilius Metellus Delmaticus - consul Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus - consul Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus - consul Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius - two consuls Mettius Pomposianus - consul Titus Annius Milo - praetor Lucius Minucius Esquilinus Augurinus - early consul Marcus Minucius Felix - writer Marcus Minucius Rufus - two consuls Gaius Minucius Augurinus - tribune Mucia Tertia - wife of Pompey and Gaius Marius the younger Gaius Licinius Mucianus - consul Lucius Mummius Achaicus - consul Lucius Statius Murcus - proconsul Lucius Licinius Murena - consul Musaeus Grammaticus - poet Gaius Musonius Rufus - philosopher N[edit] Narses General Gnaeus Naevius - poet Rutilius Claudius Namatianus - poet Narcissus - freedman of Claudius Marcus Aurelius Olympius Nemesianus - poet Cornelius Nepos - writer Lucius Neratius Priscus - jurist Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (Nero) - emperor Gaius Claudius Nero - consul Tiberius Claudius Nero - praetor Nero Julius Caesar - son of Germanicus Lucius Cocceius Nerva - diplomat Marcus Cocceius Nerva - three; emperor and two consuls Attus Navius - famous augur during the reign of Tarquinius Priscus Lucius Septimius Nestor - writer Virius Nicomachus Flavianus - late politician Publius Nigidius Figulus - praetor, scholar Ninnius Crassus - translator Marcus Fulvius Nobilior - consul Nonius Marcellus - lexicographer, grammarian Gaius Norbanus - consul Aulus Lappius Maximus Norbanus - suffect consul Quintus Novius - dramatist Numa Pompilius - king Marcus Aurelius Numerianus - emperor Gaius Nymphidius Sabinus - son of a freedwoman, military commander O[edit] Iulius Obsequens - writer Octavia - Major and Minor, two sisters of Augustus Claudia Octavia - daughter of Claudius Gaius Octavius - praetor, father of Augustus Gnaeus Octavius - two consuls Marcus Octavius - tribune Septimius Odenathus - king in east Quintus Lucretius Ofella (Afella) - commander Quintus Ogulnius Gallus - tribune Olympiodorus of Thebes - writer, emissary Olympiodorus the Younger - philosopher, astrologer Aurelius Opilius - freedman writer Lucius Opimius - consul Gaius Oppius - two Publilius Optatianus Porfyrius - poet Lucius Orbilius Pupillus - teacher, grammarian Paulus Orosius - late writer Publius Ostorius Scapula - Governor of Britain Titus Otacilius Crassus - praetor Marcus Salvius Otho - emperor Publius Ovidius Naso (Ovid) - poet Ovinius - tribune P[edit] Marcus Pacuvius - dramatist Lucius Caesennius Paetus - consul Quintus Remmius Palaemon - ex-slave writer Palfurius Sura - orator Rutilius Taurus Aemilianus Palladius - farmer Aulus Cornelius Palma Frontonianus - consul Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus - consul Aemilius Papinianus (Papinian) - jurist Papirianus - grammarian Lucius Papirius Cursor - two; heroic consul and son Gaius Papius Mutilus - Samnite leader Passienus - orator Aemilius Lepidus Paullus - consul Lucius Aemilius Paullus (disambiguation) - several men, including three consuls Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus - consul Julius Paulus - jurist Paulus Alexandrinus - astrologer Quintus Pedius - consul Sextus Pedius - jurist Marcus Perperna - two consuls Marcus Perperna Veiento - praetor Aulus Persius Flaccus - satirist Publius Helvetius Pertinax - emperor Gaius Pescennius Niger Justus - emperor Quintus Petillius - two cousins Marcus Petreius - governor Petronius - courtier of Nero Publius Petronius - suffect consul Petronius Arbiter - writer Lucius Petronius Taurus Volusianus praetorian prefect, consul, city prefect Publius Petronius Turpilianus - consul Julius Verus Philippus (Philip the Arab) - emperor Lucius Marcius Philippus - three consuls Quintus Marcius Philippus - consul Calpurnius Piso - writer Gaius Calpurnius Piso - two consuls Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso - three; two consuls and a governor Lucius Calpurnius Piso - three consuls Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus - consul Lucius Calpurnius Piso Licinianus - briefly emperor Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi - consul Marcus Pupius Piso Frugi - consul Galla Placidia - daughter of Theodosius I Placidus - grammarian Lactantius Placidus - different grammarian Munatia Plancina - friend of Livia Gnaeus Plancius - aedile Lucius Munatius Plancus - consul Titus Munatius Plancus Bursa - tribune Pompeius Planta - prefect Aulus Platorius Nepos - consul Plautia Urgulanilla - Claudius' first wife Gaius Fulvius Plautianus - consul Plautius - jurist Aulus Plautius - consul Publius Plautius Hypsaeus - praetor, quaestor, and aedile Plautius Lateranus - senator Marcus Plautius Silvanus - two; tribune and consul Tiberius Plautius Silvanus Aelianus - consul Titus Maccius Plautus - dramatist Quintus Pleminius - legate Gaius Plinius Secundus (Pliny the Elder) - scholar Gaius Plinius Caecilus Secundus (Pliny the Younger) - scholar Pompeia Plotina - wife of Trajan Plotinus - philosopher Plotius Tucca - friend of Virgil Mestrius Plutarchus (Plutarch) - philosopher, biographer Gaius Poetelius Libo Visolus - consul Gaius Asinius Pollio - consul, scholar Julius Pollux - scholar Polybius - two; historian and freedman Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus - consul of Marcus Aurelius Pompeius Grammaticus - grammarian Cealia Pompeius Pulchellus, clergy member in the Temple of Venus Gnaeus Pompeius - son of Pompey Quintus Pompeius - consul Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey) - triumvir Sextus Pompeius Magnus Pius - son of Pompey Quintus Pompeius Rufus - consul Pompeius Saturninus - orator, historian, poet Pompeius Silo - rhetor Pompeius Strabo - consul Pompilius - second king Lucius Pomponius - poet Sextus Pomponius - jurist Marcus Pomponius Bassulus - writer Titus Pomponius Proculus Vitrasius Pollio - consul Pomponius Rufus - writer Pomponius Secundus - consul Gavius Pontius - Samnite general Pontius Telesinus - praetor Pontius Pilatus - prefect of Judaea Gaius Popillius Laenas - consul Publius Popillius Laenas - consul Poppaea Sabina - wife of Nero Quintus Poppaedius Silo - friend of Drusus Porcia - daughter of Cato Porcius Licinus - writer Marcus Porcius Latro - rhetor Pomponius Porphyrion - scholar Porsenna - semi-legendary king Aulus Postumius Albinus - consul, historian Spurius Postumius Albinus - consul Lucius Postumius Megellus - consul Aulus Postumius Tubertus - dictator Marcus Cassianus Postumus - emperor Marcus Antonius Primus - general Priscianus - grammarian Priscus - politician, historian Marcus Aurelius Probus - emperor Valerius Probus - scholar Saint Procula - wife of Pontius Pilate Proculus - usurper Proculus (jurist) - jurist Sextus Propertius - writer Aurelius Clemens Prudentius - Christian poet Quintus Publilius Philo - consul Publilius Syrus - writer Volero Publilius - early tribune Publius Pupius - tragedian Q[edit] Gaius Iulius Quadratus Bassus - consul Asinius Quadratus - senator Titus Quinctius Capitolinus Barbatus - early consul Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (Quintilian) - rhetor Quintus - physician Quintus Smyrnaeus - poet Publius Sulpicius Quirinius - consul Quintus Marcius Rufus - commander of Marcus Crassus R[edit] Gaius Rabirius - two; senator and poet Gaius Rabirius Postumus - senator Lucius Aemilius Regillus - praetor Marcus Aqilius Regulus - informer Marcus Atilius Regulus - consul Publius Memmius Regulus - consul Remus - mythical founder Reposianus - poet Quintus Marcius Rex - two; praetor and consul Flavius Ricimer - late patrician Romulus - mythical founder Romulus Augustulus - last western emperor Sextus Roscius - client of Cicero Lucius Roscius Otho - tribune Quintus Roscius Gallus - actor Rubellius Blandus - rhetor Gaius Rubellius Blandus - consul Gaius Rubellius Plautus - relative of Nero Rubellia Bussa - sister to above, a relative to Nero Rufinus - Christian writer and grammarian Flavius Rufinus - adviser to Arcadius Curtius Rufus - proconsul Quintus Curtius Rufus - rhetor, historian Cluvius Rufus - historian Publius Servilius Rullus - tribune Publius Rupilius - consul Gaius Rutilius Gallicus - consul Publius Rutilius Lupus - grammarian Publius Rutilius Rufus - consul S[edit] Vibia Sabina - wife of Hadrian Sabinus - friend of Ovid Titus Flavius Sabinus II - elder brother of Vespasian Titus Flavius Sabinus III and IV - consuls Masurius Sabinus - jurist Marius Plotius Sacerdos - grammarian Julius Sacrovir - Aedui noble Saevius Nicanor - grammarian Marcus Livius Salinator - consul & founder of Forlì Sallustius - writer Gaius Sallustius Crispus - two; historian (Sallust) and his adopted son Gaius Sallustius Passienus Crispus - consul, grandson of Sallust Salvianus - writer Quintus Salvidienus Rufus - general of Octavian Lucius Antonius Saturninus - usurper Lucius Appuleius Saturninus - tribune Gaius Sentius Saturninus - consul Gaius Mucius Scaevola - legendary hero Publius Mucius Scaevola - two consuls Quintus Mucius Scaevola - two consuls Cassius Scaevus-Centurion of Julius Caesar's 8th legion. Marcus Aemilius Scaurus - three; two consuls and a praetor Lucius Cornelius Scipio - two; consul and son of Scipio Africanus Major Publius Cornelius Scipio - two; son of Scipio Africanus Major and father of Scipio Africanus Minor Scipio Africanus - general, victor at the Second Punic War Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus Africanus Minor - general, victor at the Third Punic War Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus - consul Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus - consul Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus - consul Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica - consul Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Corculum - consul Publius Cornelius Scipio Salvito - consul Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Serapio - consul Scribonia - wife of Octavian Lucius Arruntius Scribonianus - two; consul and son Lucius Scribonius Libo - consul Marcus Scribonius Libo Drusus - great-grandson of Pompey Scribonius Largus - physician Gnaeus Tremellius Scrofa - writer Julius Secundus - orator Sedulius - Christian Latin poet Sejanus, Aelius - prefect of the Praetorian Guard Lucius Seius Strabo - A prefect, father of Sejanus Lucius Annaeus Seneca - two writers, Seneca the Elder and Seneca the Younger Publius Septimius - writer Septimius Serenus - poet Serenus Sammonicus - writer Quintus Serenus - medical writer Sergius - multiple people Marcus Sergius - tribune with iron hand Serranus - poet Quintus Sertorius - praetor Sulpicius Lupercus Servasius - writer Lucius Julius Servianus - consul Servilia - mother of Marcus Junius Brutus Publius Servilius Vatia - consul Publius Servilius Isauricus - consul Marcus Servilius Nonianus - consul Servius - grammarian, commentator Servius Tullius - early king Publius Sestius - praetor Lucius Septimius Severus - emperor Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander - emperor Sextus Julius Severus - consul Flavius Valerius Severus - emperor Sulpicius Severus - historian Quintus Sextius - philosopher Titus Sextius - governor Sextus - two; teacher and writer Sextus Empiricus - doctor and philosopher Gnaeus Sicinius - tribune Siculus Flaccus - grammarian Gaius Sollius Apollinaris Sidonius - official, writer Decimus Junius Silanus - two; consul and adulterer Gaius Junius Silanus - consul Gaius Appius Junius Silanus - consul Marcus Junius Silanus - three consuls Decimus Junius Silanus Torquatus - consul Lucius Junius Silanus Torquatus - two; consul and victim Marcus Junius Silanus Torquatus - consul Gaius Silius - lover of Messalina Publius Silius Nerva - consul Silius Italicus - consul, poet Lucius Cornelius Sisenna - praetor, historian Publius Sittius - wealthy businessman Gaius Iulius Solinus - geographer Gaius Sosius - consul Quintus Sosius Senecio - consul Titus Vestricius Spurinna - consul Staberius Eros - ex-slave scholar Titus Statilius Taurus - consul Publius Papinius Statius - poet Stertinius - writer Flavius Stilicho - general Lucius Aelius Stilo Praeconinus - scholar Gaius Licinius Stolo - early tribune Sueis - writer Gaius Suetonius Paulinus - consul Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus - writer Publius Suillius Rufus - consul Lucius Cornelius Sulla (Sulla) - dictator Publius Cornelius Sulla - consul Faustus Cornelius Sulla - son of Sulla Sulpicia - two writers Servius Sulpicius - poet Sulpicius Apollinaris - scholar Sulpicius Blitho - historian Quintus Sulpicius Camerinus - poet Publius Sulpicius Rufus - praetor Servius Sulpicius Rufus - consul Lucius Licinius Sura - consul Quintus Aurelius Symmachus - consul T[edit] Cornelius Tacitus - historian Marcus Claudius Tacitus - emperor Tanaquil - semi-legendary woman Tanusius Geminus - historian Lucius Tarius Rufus - consul Tarpeia - semi-legendary woman Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus - semi-legendary founder Tarquinius Priscus - king Tarquinius Superbus - last king of Rome Tarquitius Priscus - writer Titus Tatius - king Publius Terentius Afer (Terence) - dramatist Terentia - first wife of Cicero Terentianus Maurus - grammarian Quintus Terentius Scaurus - grammarian Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus (Tertullian) - Christian writer Gaius Pius Esuvius Tetricus - emperor Theodosius I - emperor Theodosius II - emperor Publius Clodius Thrasea Paetus - consul Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (Tiberius) - emperor Tiberius Julius Caesar Gemellus - victim Tiberius Julius Alexander - Jewish official Albius Tibullus - poet Gaius Oponius Tigellinus - official Gaius Furius Sabinus Aquila Timesitheus - praetorian prefect Marcus Tullius Tiro - freedman of Cicero Julius Titianus - writer Titinius - poet Gnaeus Octavius Titinius Capito - general Gaius Titius - orator Marcus Titius - consul Titius Aristo - jurist Titus Flavius Vespasianus (Titus) - emperor Titus Larcius - early dictator Titus Manlius Torquatus - two; hero and consul Quintus Trabea - writer Marcus Ulpius Traianus (Trajan) - emperor Gaius Trebatius Testa - jurist Trebius Niger - writer Gaius Vibius Trebonianus Gallus - emperor Gaius Trebonius - proconsul Gaius Valerius Triarius - general Tribonianus - jurist collaborator with Justinian I Pompeius Trogus - historian Lucius Aelius Tubero - friend of Cicero Quintus Aelius Tubero - jurist, annalist Gaius Sempronius Tuditanus - consul Publius Sempronius Tuditanus - consul Tullia, villainous daughter of Servius Tullius, the sixth Roman king Tullia - daughter of Cicero Tullus Hostilius - king Quintus Marcius Turbo - official Turia - wife of Quintus Lucretius Vespillo, consul Turnus - two; legendary hero and satirist Sextus Turpilius - writer Turrianus Gracilis - writer Clodius Turrinus - two rhetoricians Tuticanus - friend of Ovid U[edit] Ulpianus of Ascalon - rhetor Domitius Ulpianus - jurist Marcus Ulpius Traianus - consul, father of Trajan Urbanus - scholar V[edit] Septimius Vaballathus - king under Aurelian Vagellius - poet Valens - emperor Fabius Valens - consul Vettius Valens - astrologer Valentinian I - emperor Valentinian II - emperor Valentinian III - emperor Publius Licinius Valerianus (Valerian) - emperor Valerius Aedituus - epigrammatist Valerius Antias - annalist Decimus Valerius Asiaticus - consul Publius Valerius Cato - scholar, poet Marcus Valerius Corvus - hero Gaius Calpetanus Valerius Festus - consul Gaius Valerius Flaccus - poet Lucius Valerius Licinianus - orator Valerius Maximus - historian Publius Valerius Poplicola - early consul Lucius Valerius Potitus - early consul Quintus Valerius Soranus - scholar Quintus Valerius Orca - praetor Valgius Rufus - consul Vallius Syriacus - rhetor Varenus Rufus - Governor of Bithynia-Pontus Quintus Vargunteius - lecturer Quintus Varius - tribune Varius Rufus - poet Gaius Terentius Varro - consul Marcus Terentius Varro - encyclopedist Publius Terentius Varro Atacinus - writer Aulus Terentius Varro Murena - writer Publius Attius Varus - governor Publius Quinctilius Varus - general Quinctilius Varus - son of general Arrius Varus - praetorian prefect Julianus Vatinius - general Publius Vatinius - consul Publius Vedius Pollio - freedman's son Flavius Vegetius Renatus - writer Aulus Didius Gallus Fabricius Veiento - consul Velius Longus - scholar Velleius Paterculus - historian Venantius Honorius Clementianus Fortunatus - poet Vennonius - historian Publius Ventidius - consul Ventidius Cumanus - procurator of Judea Verginia - legendary victim Verginius Flavus - teacher Lucius Verginius Rufus - consul and leader of rebellion against Nero Gaius Verres - proconsul Lucius Verus - emperor Titus Flavius Vespasianus (Vespasian) - emperor Lucius Vettius - accuser Vettius Philocomus - friend of Lucilius Lucius Vettius Scato - praetor Vettius Valens - astronomer/astrologer Caelius Vibenna - semi-legendary figure who gave his name to the Caelian hill, but real Etruscan from Vulci, Caile Vipinas Quintus Vibius Crispus - consul Gaius Vibius Marsus - consul Gaius Vibius Maximus - consul Gaius Vibius Rufus - consul Gaius Marius Victorinus - writer Maximus Victorinus - grammarian Lucius Villius Annalis - tribune Gaius Julius Vindex - rebel Lucius Vinicius - two; father and son, both consuls Marcus Vinicius - consul Publius Vinicius - consul Titus Vinius - consul Vipsania Julia - granddaughter of Augustus Publius Vergilius Maro (Virgil) - writer Viriathus - semi-legendary writer Aulus Vitellius - emperor Lucius Vitellius - consul Vitruvius - architect Gaius Dillius Vocula - legate Volcatius Sedigitus - writer Volcacius Moschus - writer Lucius Voltacilius Pitholaus Publius Volumnius - philosopher, companion of Brutus Gnaeus Manlius Vulso Lucius Manlius Vulso Longus W[edit] X[edit] Y[edit] Z[edit] Zenobia- Ancient Roman leader Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_ancient_Romans&oldid=995691476" Categories: Lists of Roman people Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Incomplete lists from September 2017 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikidata Languages Hrvatski Latina Nederlands 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 December 2020, at 10:48 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7552	----	Expurgation - Wikipedia Expurgation From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Bowdlerize) Jump to navigation Jump to search A form of censorship of artistic or other media works The Family Shakespeare, Thomas Bowdler's famous reworked edition of William Shakespeare's plays. 1818 Expurgation, also known as bowdlerization, is a form of censorship which involves purging anything deemed noxious or offensive from an artistic work, or other type of writing of media. The term bowdlerization is a pejorative term for the practice, particularly the expurgation of lewd material from books. The term derives from Thomas Bowdler's 1818 edition of William Shakespeare's plays, which he reworked in order to make them more suitable for women and children.[1] He similarly edited Edward Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. A fig-leaf edition is such a bowdlerized text, deriving from the practice of covering the genitals of nudes in classical and Renaissance statues and paintings with fig leaves. Contents 1 Examples 1.1 Fahrenheit 451 1.2 Religious 1.3 Sexual 1.4 Racial 1.5 Cursing 1.6 Political 1.7 Other 2 See also 3 References Examples[edit] Fahrenheit 451[edit] Main article: Fahrenheit 451 § Expurgation A student edition of the novel Fahrenheit 451 was expurgated to remove a variety of content. This was ironic given the subject matter of the novel involves burning books. This continued for a dozen years before it was brought to author Ray Bradbury's attention and he convinced the publisher to reinstate the material. Religious[edit] In 1264, Pope Clement IV ordered the Jews of Aragon to submit their books to Dominican censors for expurgation.[2] Sexual[edit] "The Crabfish" (known also as "The Sea Crabb"), an English folk song dating back to the mid-1800s about a man who places a crab into a chamber pot, unbeknownst to his wife, who later uses the pot without looking, and is attacked by the crab.[3] Over the years, sanitized versions of the song were released in which a lobster or crab grabs the wife by the nose[4] instead of by the genitals[3] or that imply the location of the wounds by censoring the rhyming word in the second couplet. For instance, "Children, children, bring the looking glass / Come and see the crayfish that bit your mother's a-face" (arse).[5] The 1925 Harvard Press edition of Montaigne's essays (translated by George B. Ives) was published without the essays pertaining to sex.[6] A Boston-area ban on Upton Sinclair's novel Oil! – owing to a short motel sex scene – prompted the author to assemble a 150-copy fig-leaf edition with the nine offending pages blacked out as a publicity stunt.[7][8] In 1938 a jazz song "Flat Foot Floogie (with a Floy Floy)" peaked at number two on US charts. The original lyrics were sung with the word "floozie", meaning a sexually promiscuous woman, or a prostitute, but record company Vocalion objected. Hence the word was substituted with the almost similar sounding title word "floogie" in the second recording. The "floy floy" in the title was a slang term for a venereal disease, but that was not widely known at the time. In the lyrics it is sung repeatedly "floy-doy", which was widely thought as a nonsense refrain. Since the lyrics were regarded as nonsense the song failed to catch the attention of censors. In 1920, an American publisher bowdlerized the George Ergerton translation of Knut Hamsun's Hunger. Racial[edit] Recent editions of many works—including Mark Twain's Huckleberry Finn[9] and Joseph Conrad's Nigger of the Narcissus—have found various replacements ("slave", "Indian", "soldier boy", "N-word", "children") for the word nigger. An example of Bowdlerization can be plainly seen in Huck Finn, in which Twain used racial slurs in natural speech to highlight what he saw as racism and prejudice endemic to the Antebellum South. Agatha Christie’s Ten Little Niggers was dramatised by the BBC under the name And Then There Were None. It was subsequently re-released under this title in the United States, and the short poem which is intrinsic to the plot was changed from Ten Little Niggers to Ten Little Indians. The American version of the counting rhyme "Eeny, meeny, miny, moe", which originally contained the word "nigger",[10] is now taught with a replacement word, such as "tiger". Cursing[edit] Many Internet message boards and forums use automatic wordfiltering to block offensive words and phrases from being published or automatically amend them to more innocuous substitutes such as asterisks or nonsense. This often catches innocent words also: see Scunthorpe problem. Users frequently self-bowdlerize their own writing by using slight misspellings or variants, such as 'fcuk' or 'pron'. The 2010 song "Fuck You" by Cee Lo Green, which made the top-10 in thirteen countries, was also broadcast as "Forget You", with a matching music video, where the changed lyrics cannot be lip-read, as insisted by the record company.[11] Political[edit] Chinese internet filters—the Great Firewall—also work to block politically-sensitive terms and characters from being published on most public sites or loaded by domestic ISPs. Other[edit] The video game South Park: The Fractured But Whole was originally going to have the name The Butthole of Time. However, marketers would not promote anything with a vulgarity in its title, so "butthole" was replaced with the homophone "but whole". See also[edit] Ad usum Delphini Comstockery, after Anthony Comstock Censorship Minced oath Tobacco bowdlerization References[edit] ^ "Censorship" (PDF). ^ Popper, William (1889). The Censorship of Hebrew Books. Knickerbocker Press. pp. 13–14. ^ a b Frederick J. Furnivall, ed. (1867). Bishop Percy's Folio Manuscript: loose and humorous songs. London. p. 100. ^ "The Crabfish". ^ "Crayfish". ^ Bussacco, Michael C. (2009). Heritage Press Sandglass Companion Book: 1960–1983. Tribute Books (Archibald, Penn.). p. 252. ISBN 9780982256510. Retrieved September 23, 2010. ^ Curtis, Jack (February 17, 2008). "Blood from Oil". Boston Globe. Retrieved September 23, 2010. ^ Sinclair, Mary Craig (1957). Southern Belle. New York: Crown Publishers. p. 309. ISBN 9781578061525. Retrieved September 23, 2010. ^ Tomasky, Michael (January 7, 2011). "The New Huck Finn". The Guardian. Retrieved September 6, 2013. ^ I. Opie and P. Opie, The Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1951, 2nd edn., 1997), pp. 156-8. ^ Smith, Caspar Llewellyn (2010-11-14). "Cee Lo Green: 'I've been such an oddball my whole life' | Q&A". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2020-10-10. v t e Censorship Media regulation Books books banned Films banned films Internet circumvention Music Postal Press Radio Speech and expression Thought Video games banned video games Methods Bleeping Book burning Broadcast delay Burying of scholars Censor bars Chilling effect Concision Conspiracy of silence Content-control software Damnatio memoriae Euphemism Minced oath Expurgation Fogging Gag order Heckling Heckler's veto Internet police Memory hole National intranet Newspaper theft Pixelization Prior restraint Propaganda Purge Revisionism Sanitization Self-censorship Speech code Strategic lawsuit Surveillance computer and network mass Whitewashing Word filtering Contexts Criminal Corporate Hate speech Online Ideological LGBT issues Media bias Moralistic fallacy Naturalistic fallacy Politics Propaganda model Religious Suppression of dissent Systemic bias By country Censorship Chinese issues overseas Freedom of speech Internet censorship Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Expurgation&oldid=994956678" Categories: Censorship Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 18 December 2020, at 12:24 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7561	----	Claudius Aelianus - Wikipedia Claudius Aelianus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Not to be confused with Aelianus Tacticus. Claudius Aelianus (Ancient Greek: Κλαύδιος Αἰλιανός, modern Greek transliteration Klávdios Elianós;[1] c. 175 – c. 235 AD), commonly Aelian (/ˈiːliən/), born at Praeneste, was a Roman author and teacher of rhetoric who flourished under Septimius Severus and probably outlived Elagabalus, who died in 222. He spoke Greek so fluently that he was called "honey-tongued" (μελίγλωσσος meliglossos); Roman-born, he preferred Greek authors, and wrote in a slightly archaizing Greek himself.[2] His two chief works are valuable for the numerous quotations from the works of earlier authors, which are otherwise lost, and for the surprising lore, which offers unexpected glimpses into the Greco-Roman world-view. It is also the only Greco-Roman work to mention Gilgamesh. Contents 1 De Natura Animalium 2 Varia Historia 3 Other works 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links 7.1 Aelian's Characteristics of Animals 7.1.1 Greek with English translation 7.1.2 Latin translation 7.1.3 Greek De Natura Animalium[edit] On the Nature of Animals ("On the Characteristics of Animals" is an alternative title; Ancient Greek: Περὶ ζῴων ἰδιότητος, Perì zṓōn idiótētos; usually cited, though, by its Latin title: De Natura Animalium) is a curious collection,[2] in seventeen books, of brief stories of natural history, sometimes selected with an eye to conveying allegorical moral lessons, sometimes because they are just so astonishing: "The Beaver is an amphibious creature: by day it lives hidden in rivers, but at night it roams the land, feeding itself with anything that it can find. Now it understands the reason why hunters come after it with such eagerness and impetuosity, and it puts down its head and with its teeth cuts off its testicles and throws them in their path, as a prudent man who, falling into the hands of robbers, sacrifices all that he is carrying, to save his life, and forfeits his possessions by way of ransom. If however it has already saved its life by self-castration and is again pursued, then it stands up and reveals that it offers no ground for their eager pursuit, and releases the hunters from all further exertions, for they esteem its flesh less. Often however Beavers with testicles intact, after escaping as far away as possible, have drawn in the coveted part, and with great skill and ingenuity tricked their pursuers, pretending that they no longer possessed what they were keeping in concealment." The Loeb Classical Library introduction characterizes the book as "an appealing collection of facts and fables about the animal kingdom that invites the reader to ponder contrasts between human and animal behavior." Aelian's anecdotes on animals rarely depend on direct observation: they are almost entirely taken from written sources, often Pliny the Elder, but also other authors and works now lost, to whom he is thus a valuable witness.[3] He is more attentive to marine life than might be expected,[according to whom?] though, and this seems to reflect first-hand personal interest; he often quotes "fishermen". At times he strikes the modern reader as thoroughly credulous, but at others he specifically states that he is merely reporting what is told by others, and even that he does not believe them. Aelian's work is one of the sources of medieval natural history and of the bestiaries of the Middle Ages.[4] The portions of the text that are still extant are badly mangled and garbled and replete with later interpolations.[5] Conrad Gessner (or Gesner), the Swiss scientist and natural historian of the Renaissance, made a Latin translation of Aelian's work, to give it a wider European audience. An English translation by A. F. Scholfield has been published in the Loeb Classical Library, 3 vols. (1958-59). Varia Historia[edit] Title page of Varia Historia, from the 1668 edition by Tanaquil Faber Various History (Ποικίλη ἱστορία, Poikílē historía)—for the most part preserved only in an abridged form[2]—is Aelian's other well-known work, a miscellany of anecdotes and biographical sketches, lists, pithy maxims, and descriptions of natural wonders and strange local customs, in 14 books, with many surprises for the cultural historian and the mythographer, anecdotes about the famous Greek philosophers, poets, historians, and playwrights and myths instructively retold. The emphasis is on various moralizing tales about heroes and rulers, athletes and wise men; reports about food and drink, different styles in dress or lovers, local habits in giving gifts or entertainments, or in religious beliefs and death customs; and comments on Greek painting. Aelian gives an account of fly fishing, using lures of red wool and feathers, of lacquerwork, serpent worship — Essentially the Various History is a Classical "magazine" in the original senses of that word. He is not perfectly trustworthy in details, and his agenda was heavily influenced by Stoic opinions,[6] perhaps so that his readers will not feel guilty, but Jane Ellen Harrison found survivals of archaic rites mentioned by Aelian very illuminating in her Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion (1903, 1922). The first printing was in 1545. The standard modern text is Mervin R. Dilts's, of 1974. Two English translations of the Various History, by Fleming (1576) and Stanley (1665) made Aelian's miscellany available to English readers, but after 1665 no English translation appeared, until three English translations appeared almost simultaneously: James G. DeVoto, Claudius Aelianus: Ποικίλης Ἱστορίας (Varia Historia) Chicago, 1995; Diane Ostrom Johnson, An English Translation of Claudius Aelianus' "Varia Historia", 1997; and N. G. Wilson, Aelian: Historical Miscellany in the Loeb Classical Library. Other works[edit] Considerable fragments of two other works, On Providence and Divine Manifestations, are preserved in the early medieval encyclopedia, the Suda. Twenty "letters from a farmer" after the manner of Alciphron are also attributed to him.[2] The letters are invented compositions to a fictitious correspondent, which are a device for vignettes of agricultural and rural life, set in Attica, though mellifluous Aelian once boasted that he had never been outside Italy, never been aboard a ship (which is at variance, though, with his own statement, de Natura Animalium XI.40, that he had seen the bull Serapis with his own eyes). Thus conclusions about actual agriculture in the Letters are as likely to evoke Latium as Attica. The fragments have been edited in 1998 by D. Domingo-Foraste, but are not available in English. The Letters are available in the Loeb Classical Library, translated by Allen Rogers Benner and Francis H. Fobes (1949). See also[edit] Historiae animalium by Gessner References[edit] ^ Η φυσιογνωμία ενός λαού θεμελιών. Μύθοι για την Ελιά. Retrieved June 5, 2011, from http://www.etwinning.gr/projects/elia/muthoi.htm ^ a b c d  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Aelian". Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 256. This cites: Editio princeps of complete works by Gesner, 1556; Hercher, 1864-1866. English translation of the Various History only by Fleming, 1576, and Stanley, 1665 Translation of the Letters by Quillard (French), 1895 ^ The third volume of the Loeb Classical Library translation gives a gazetteer of authors cited by Aelian. ^ Cohen, Simona (2008). Animals as Disguised Symbols in Renaissance Art. Brill. pp. 38–39. ISBN 978-90-04-17101-5. ^ "Aelian's text, riddled as it is with corrupt passages and packed with interpretations,provides ample scope for reckless emendation", D. E. Eichholz observed, reviewing Sholfield's Loeb Library translation in The Classical Review 1960:219, and praising the translator for restraint in this direction. ^ Zeyl, Donald (2013). Encyclopedia of Classical Philosophy. Routledge. ISBN 9781134270781. Retrieved 30 November 2013. Further reading[edit] Aelian, On Animals. 3 volumes. Translated by A. F. Scholfield. 1958-9. Loeb Classical Library. ISBN 978-0-674-99491-1, ISBN 978-0-674-99493-5, and ISBN 978-0-674-99494-2 Aelian, Historical Miscellany. Translated by Nigel G. Wilson. 1997. Loeb Classical Library. ISBN 978-0-674-99535-2 Alciphron, Aelian, and Philostratus, The Letters. Translated by A. R. Benner, F. H. Fobes. 1949. Loeb Classical Library. ISBN 978-0-674-99421-8 Aelian, On the Nature of Animals. Translated by Gregory McNamee. 2011. Trinity University Press. ISBN 978-1-59534-075-7 Ailianos, Vermischte Forschung. Greek and German by Kai Brodersen. 2018. Sammlung Tusculum. De Gruyter Berlin & Boston ISBN 978-3-11-057638-2 Ailianos, Tierleben. Greek and German by Kai Brodersen. 2018. Sammlung Tusculum. De Gruyter Berlin & Boston 2018, ISBN ISBN 978-3-11-060932-5 Claudius Aelianus, Vom Wesen der Tiere - De natura animalium. German and Commentary by Paul-Gerhard Veh, Philipp Stahlhut. 2020. Bibliothek der Griechischen Literaur. Anton Hiersemann Verlag Stuttgart 2020, ISBN ISBN 978-3-7772-1904-2 External links[edit] Wikisource has original works written by or about: Claudius Aelianus Works by or about Claudius Aelianus at Internet Archive Works by Claudius Aelianus at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Ποικίλη ἱστορία – bibliotheca Augustana Raw Greek OCR of Hercher's 1864 Teubner edition of Aelian's works at the Lace repository of Mount Allison University: vol. I, vol. 2 Various History at James Eason's site (excerpts in English translation) English translation of Aelian's fragments at attalus.org Some quotes from Aelian's natural history (English) Aelian from the fly-fisherman's point-of-view The Evidence for Aelian's Katêgoria tou gunnidos regarding Aelian's presumed invective against Elagabalus Aelian's Characteristics of Animals[edit] Greek with English translation[edit] Aelian on the Characteristics of Animals, Books I-V (Greek with English translation by A.F. Scholfield, 1950) Aelian on the Characteristics of Animals, Books VI-XI (Greek with English translation by A.F. Scholfield, 1950) Aelian on the Characteristics of Animals, Books XII-XVII (Greek with English translation by A.F. Scholfield, 1950) HTML version of Scholfield's English translation at attalus.org Latin translation[edit] De natura animalium at LacusCurtius (complete Latin translation) Greek[edit] De natura animalium libri XVII, Varia historia, Epistolae fragmenta, ex recognitione Rudolphi Hercheri, Lipsiae, in aedibus B. G. Teubneri, 1864: vol. 1, vol. 2. v t e Natural history Pioneering naturalists Classical antiquity Aristotle (History of Animals) Theophrastus (Historia Plantarum) Aelian (De Natura Animalium) Pliny the Elder (Natural History) Dioscorides (De Materia Medica) Renaissance Gaspard Bauhin (Pinax theatri botanici) Otto Brunfels Hieronymus Bock Andrea Cesalpino Valerius Cordus Leonhart Fuchs Conrad Gessner (Historia animalium) Frederik Ruysch William Turner (Avium Praecipuarum, New Herball) John Gerard (Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes) Enlightenment Robert Hooke (Micrographia) Marcello Malpighi Antonie van Leeuwenhoek William Derham Hans Sloane Jan Swammerdam Carl Linnaeus (Systema Naturae) Georg Steller Joseph Banks Johan Christian Fabricius James Hutton John Ray (Historia Plantarum) Comte de Buffon (Histoire Naturelle) Bernard Germain de Lacépède Gilbert White (The Natural History of Selborne) Thomas Bewick (A History of British Birds) Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (Philosophie zoologique) 19th century George Montagu (Ornithological Dictionary) Georges Cuvier (Le Règne Animal) William Smith Charles Darwin (On the Origin of Species) Alfred Russel Wallace (The Malay Archipelago) Henry Walter Bates (The Naturalist on the River Amazons) Alexander von Humboldt John James Audubon (The Birds of America) William Buckland Charles Lyell Mary Anning Jean-Henri Fabre Louis Agassiz Philip Henry Gosse Asa Gray William Jackson Hooker Joseph Dalton Hooker William Jardine (The Naturalist's Library) Ernst Haeckel (Kunstformen der Natur) Richard Lydekker (The Royal Natural History) 20th century Abbott Thayer (Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom) Hugh B. Cott (Adaptive Coloration in Animals) Niko Tinbergen (The Study of Instinct) Konrad Lorenz (On Aggression) Karl von Frisch (The Dancing Bees) Ronald Lockley (Shearwaters) Topics Natural history museums (List) Parson-naturalists (List) Natural History Societies List of natural history dealers Authority control BIBSYS: 90607007 BNE: XX963905 BNF: cb13092007b (data) CANTIC: a11084984 CiNii: DA01428499 GND: 119160285 ISNI: 0000 0000 7980 209X LCCN: n82032651 NDL: 00462084 NLA: 35816447 NLG: 113320 NLI: 004088438 NLP: A18570094 NSK: 000329740 NTA: 069365504 RERO: 02-A000003928 SELIBR: 175772 SUDOC: 030060087 Trove: 288029 VcBA: 495/44540 VIAF: 100219416 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n82032651 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Claudius_Aelianus&oldid=996213532" Categories: 175 births 235 deaths People from Palestrina Claudii Ancient Roman rhetoricians Ancient Greek writers 2nd-century Romans 3rd-century Romans 3rd-century writers 2nd-century Greek people 3rd-century Greek people Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from February 2016 Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLP identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikisource Languages বাংলা Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Simple English Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 25 December 2020, at 05:22 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7562	----	Istituto Centrale per il Catalogo Unico - Wikipedia Istituto Centrale per il Catalogo Unico From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from ICCU (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search For the unrelated Standard Book Number identifiers, see SBN. The Central Institute for the Union Catalogue of Italian Libraries and for Bibliographic Information (in Italian: Istituto centrale per il catalogo unico delle biblioteche italiane e per le informazioni bibliografiche) is an Italian government agency that was created in 1975 to supersede the Centro nazionale per il catalogo unico (National Union Catalog Center), that had in turn been created in 1951 to build a single catalog of all the libraries in the nation. The Institute today manages an ICT network called National Library Service of Italy (Servizio bibliotecario nazionale, or SBN); it is answerable to, and technical-scientific advisor for, the Direzione Generale per i Beni librari, gli Istituti culturali ed il Diritto d'autore (Department of books, cultural institutions and copyright) within the Ministry of Cultural Heritage and Activities. External links[edit] Official website v t e Authority control files AAG • ACM DL • ADB • AGSA • autores.uy • AWR • BALaT • BIBSYS • Bildindex • BNC • BNE • BNF • Botanist • BPN • CANTIC • CiNii • CWGC • DAAO • DBLP • DSI • FNZA • GND • HDS • IAAF • ICCU • ICIA • ISNI • Joconde • KulturNav • LCCN • LIR • LNB • Léonore • MBA • MGP • NARA • NBL • NDL • NGV • NKC • NLA • NLG • NLI • NLK • NLP • NLR • NSK • NTA • ORCID • PIC • ResearcherID • RERO • RKD • RKDimages ID • RSL • SELIBR • SIKART • SNAC • SUDOC • S2AuthorId • TA98 • TDVİA • TE • TePapa • TH • TLS • Trove • UKPARL • ULAN • US Congress • VcBA • VIAF • WorldCat Identities Authority control BIBSYS: 90702032 BNC: 000283998 BNE: XX84804 BNF: cb118808894 (data) CANTIC: a12510865 CiNii: DA00409069 GND: 1035341-0 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\013875 ISNI: 0000 0001 1945 1475 LCCN: n78028856 NKC: kn20020321557 NLA: 35867489 NLG: 307679 NLI: 000069492 NLR: [1] NSK: 000577635 RERO: 02-A000091860 SUDOC: 026590549 Trove: 1123024 VcBA: 494/6431 VIAF: 321149066383165600941 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n78028856 Coordinates: 41°54′22″N 12°30′20″E / 41.9062°N 12.5056°E / 41.9062; 12.5056 This article about government in Italy is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Istituto_Centrale_per_il_Catalogo_Unico&oldid=991469547#SBN" Categories: Education in Italy Government of Italy Libraries in Italy European government stubs Italy politics stubs Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNC identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLR identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Coordinates not on Wikidata All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Asturianu भोजपुरी Català Cymraeg Dansk Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gàidhlig Galego Ilokano Italiano עברית Magyar مصرى Português Scots Simple English Slovenščina Svenska Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 30 November 2020, at 06:09 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7563	----	Catullus - Wikipedia Catullus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the asteroid, see 11965 Catullus. Not to be confused with Romans named "Catulus", see Catulus. Latin poet of the late Roman Republic (c84–c54 BCE) Modern bust of Catullus on the Piazza Carducci in Sirmione.[1] Gaius Valerius Catullus (/kəˈtʌləs/ kə-TUL-əs; Latin: [kaˈtʊllʊs]; c. 84 – c. 54 BC) was a Latin poet of the late Roman Republic who wrote chiefly in the neoteric style of poetry, which is about personal life rather than classical heroes. His surviving works are still read widely and continue to influence poetry and other forms of art. Catullus's poems were widely appreciated by contemporary poets, significantly influencing Ovid and Virgil, among others. After his rediscovery in the Late Middle Ages, Catullus again found admirers such as Petrarca. The explicit sexual imagery which he uses in some of his poems has shocked many readers. Yet, at many instruction levels, Catullus is considered a resource for teachers of Latin.[2] His profane body of work is still frequently read from secondary school to higher education programs across the world, with his 64th poem often considered his greatest. Contents 1 Life 2 Poetry 2.1 Sources and organization 2.2 Intellectual influences 2.3 Style 2.4 Musical settings 3 Cultural depictions 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links Life[edit] Gāius Valerius Catullus (Classical Latin: [ˈɡaː.i.us waˈlɛrɪʊs kaˈtʊllʊs]) was born to a leading equestrian family of Verona, in Cisalpine Gaul. The social prominence of the Catullus family allowed the father of Gaius Valerius to entertain Julius Caesar when he was the Promagistrate (proconsul) of both Gallic provinces.[3] In a poem, Catullus describes his happy homecoming to the family villa at Sirmio, on Lake Garda, near Verona; he also owned a villa near the resort of Tibur (Tivoli).[3] Catullus appears to have spent most of his young adult years in Rome. His friends there included the poets Licinius Calvus, and Helvius Cinna, Quintus Hortensius (son of the orator and rival of Cicero) and the biographer Cornelius Nepos, to whom Catullus dedicated a libellus of poems,[3] the relation of which to the extant collection remains a matter of debate.[4] He appears to have been acquainted with the poet Marcus Furius Bibaculus. A number of prominent contemporaries appear in his poetry, including Cicero, Caesar and Pompey. According to an anecdote preserved by Suetonius, Caesar did not deny that Catullus's lampoons left an indelible stain on his reputation, but when Catullus apologized, he invited the poet for dinner the very same day.[5] Catullus at Lesbia's by Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema It was probably in Rome that Catullus fell deeply in love with the "Lesbia" of his poems, who is usually identified with Clodia Metelli, a sophisticated woman from the aristocratic house of patrician family Claudii Pulchri, sister of the infamous Publius Clodius Pulcher, and wife to proconsul Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer. In his poems Catullus describes several stages of their relationship: initial euphoria, doubts, separation, and his wrenching feelings of loss. Clodia had several other partners; "From the poems one can adduce no fewer than five lovers in addition to Catullus: Egnatius (poem 37), Gellius (poem 91), Quintius (poem 82), Rufus (poem 77), and Lesbius (poem 79)." There is also some question surrounding her husband's mysterious death in 59 B.C., some critics believing he was domestically poisoned. Yet, a sensitive and passionate Catullus could not relinquish his flame for Clodia, regardless of her obvious indifference to his desire for a deep and permanent relationship. In his poems, Catullus wavers between devout, sweltering love and bitter, scornful insults that he directs at her blatant infidelity (as demonstrated in poems 11 and 58). His passion for her is unrelenting—yet it is unclear when exactly the couple split up for good. Catullus's poems about the relationship display striking depth and psychological insight.[6] He spent the provincial command year summer 57 to summer 56 BC in Bithynia on the staff of the commander Gaius Memmius. While in the East, he traveled to the Troad to perform rites at his brother's tomb, an event recorded in a moving poem.[3] Bithynia within the Roman Empire There survives no ancient biography of Catullus: his life has to be pieced together from scattered references to him in other ancient authors and from his poems. Thus it is uncertain when he was born and when he died. St. Jerome says that he died in his 30th year, and was born in 87 BC. But the poems include references to events of 55 and 54 BC. Since the Roman consular fasti make it somewhat easy to confuse 87–57 BC with 84–54 BC, many scholars accept the dates 84 BC–54 BC,[3] supposing that his latest poems and the publication of his libellus coincided with the year of his death. Other authors suggest 52 or 51 BC as the year of the poet's death.[7] Though upon his elder brother's death Catullus lamented that their "whole house was buried along" with the deceased, the existence (and prominence) of Valerii Catulli is attested in the following centuries. T.P. Wiseman argues that after the brother's death Catullus could have married, and that, in this case, the later Valerii Catulli may have been his descendants.[8] Poetry[edit] Main article: Poetry of Catullus See also: List of poems by Catullus Catullus et in eum commentarius (1554) Sources and organization[edit] Catullus's poems have been preserved in an anthology of 116 carmina (the actual number of poems may slightly vary in various editions), which can be divided into three parts according to their form: sixty short poems in varying meters, called polymetra, eight longer poems, and forty-eight epigrams. There is no scholarly consensus on whether Catullus himself arranged the order of the poems. The longer poems differ from the polymetra and the epigrams not only in length but also in their subjects: There are seven hymns and one mini-epic, or epyllion, the most highly prized form for the "new poets". The polymetra and the epigrams can be divided into four major thematic groups (ignoring a rather large number of poems that elude such categorization): poems to and about his friends (e.g., an invitation like poem 13). erotic poems: some of them (50 and 99) are about his homosexual desires and acts, but most are about women, especially about one he calls "Lesbia" (which served as a false name for his married girlfriend, Clodia, source and inspiration of many of his poems). invectives: often rude and sometimes downright obscene poems targeted at friends-turned-traitors (e.g., poem 16), other lovers of Lesbia, well-known poets, politicians (e.g., Julius Caesar) and rhetors, including Cicero. condolences: some poems of Catullus are solemn in nature. 96 comforts a friend in the death of a loved one; several others, most famously 101, lament the death of his brother. All these poems describe the lifestyle of Catullus and his friends, who, despite Catullus's temporary political post in Bithynia, lived their lives withdrawn from politics. They were interested mainly in poetry and love. Above all other qualities, Catullus seems to have valued venustas, or charm, in his acquaintances, a theme which he explores in a number of his poems. The ancient Roman concept of virtus (i.e. of virtue that had to be proved by a political or military career), which Cicero suggested as the solution to the societal problems of the late Republic, meant little to them. However Catullus does not reject traditional notions, but rather their particular application to the vita activa of politics and war. Indeed, he tries to reinvent these notions from a personal point of view and to introduce them into human relationships. For example, he applies the word fides, which traditionally meant faithfulness towards one's political allies, to his relationship with Lesbia and reinterprets it as unconditional faithfulness in love. So, despite the seeming frivolity of his lifestyle, Catullus measured himself and his friends by quite ambitious standards. Intellectual influences[edit] Lesbia, 1878 painting by John Reinhard Weguelin inspired by the poems of Catullus Catullus's poetry was influenced by the innovative poetry of the Hellenistic Age, and especially by Callimachus and the Alexandrian school, which had propagated a new style of poetry that deliberately turned away from the classical epic poetry in the tradition of Homer. Cicero called these local innovators neoteroi (νεώτεροι) or 'moderns' (in Latin poetae novi or 'new poets'), in that they cast off the heroic model handed down from Ennius in order to strike new ground and ring a contemporary note. Catullus and Callimachus did not describe the feats of ancient heroes and gods (except perhaps in re-evaluating and predominantly artistic circumstances, e.g. poems 63 and 64), focusing instead on small-scale personal themes. Although these poems sometimes seem quite superficial and their subjects often are mere everyday concerns, they are accomplished works of art. Catullus described his work as expolitum, or polished, to show that the language he used was very carefully and artistically composed. Catullus was also an admirer of Sappho, a female poet of the seventh century BC. Catullus 51 partly translates, partly imitates and transforms Sappho 31. Some hypothesize that 61 and 62 were perhaps inspired by lost works of Sappho but this is purely speculative. Both of the latter are epithalamia, a form of laudatory or erotic wedding-poetry that Sappho was famous for. Catullus twice used a meter that Sappho developed, called the Sapphic strophe, in poems 11 and 51, perhaps prompting his successor Horace's interest in the form. Catullus, as was common to his era, was greatly influenced by stories from Greek and Roman myth. His longer poems—such as 63, 64, 65, 66, and 68—allude to mythology in various ways. Some stories he refers to are the wedding of Peleus and Thetis, the departure of the Argonauts, Theseus and the Minotaur, Ariadne's abandonment, Tereus and Procne, as well as Protesilaus and Laodamia. Style[edit] Catullus wrote in many different meters including hendecasyllabic verse and elegiac couplets (common in love poetry). A great part of his poetry shows strong and occasionally wild emotions, especially in regard to Lesbia. His love poems are very emotional and ardent, and we can relate to them even today. Catullus describes his Lesbia as having multiple suitors and often showing little affection towards him. He also demonstrates a great sense of humour such as in Catullus 13. Musical settings[edit] Catullus Dreams (2011) is a song cycle by David Glaser set to texts of Catullus. The cycle is scored for soprano and seven instruments. It was premiered at Symphony Space in New York by soprano Linda Larson and Sequitur Ensemble. Catulli Carmina is a cantata by Carl Orff to the texts of Catullus. "Carmina Catulli" is a song cycle arranged from 17 of Catullus' poems by American composer Michael Linton. The cycle was recorded in December 2013 and premiered at Carnegie Hall's Weill Recital Hall in March 2014 by French baritone Edwin Crossley-Mercer and pianist Jason Paul Peterson.[9][10][11] Catullus 5, the love poem "Vivamus mea Lesbia atque amemus", in the translation by Ben Jonson, was set to music[12] (lute accompanied song) by Alfonso Ferrabosco the younger. Thomas Campion also wrote a lute-song using his own translation of the first six lines of Catullus 5 followed by two verses of his own. The translation by Richard Crashaw was set to music[13] in a four-part glee by Samuel Webbe Jr. It was also set to music[14] in a three-part glee by John Stafford Smith. The Hungarian born British composer Matyas Seiber set poem 31 for unaccompanied mixed chorus Sirmio in 1957. Finnish jazz singer Reine Rimón has recorded poems of Catullus set to standard jazz tunes. The American composer Ned Rorem set Catullus 101 to music for voice and piano. The song, "Catallus: on the Burial of His Brother", was originally published in 1969. The Icelandic composer Jóhann Jóhannsson set Catullus 85 to music. The poem is sung through a vocoder. The music is played by a string quartet and piano. Titled "Odi Et Amo", the song is found on Jóhannsson's album Englabörn. Cultural depictions[edit] The 1888 play Lesbia by Richard Davey depicts the relationship between Catullus and Lesbia, based on incidents from his poems.[15][16] Catullus was the main protagonist of the historical novel Farewell, Catullus (1953) by Pierson Dixon. The novel shows the corruption of Roman society.[17][18] W. G. Hardy's novel The City of Libertines (1957) tells the fictionalized story of Catullus and a love affair during the time of Julius Caesar. The Financial Post described the book as "an authentic story of an absorbing era".[19] A poem by Catullus is being recited to Cleopatra in the eponymous 1963 film when Julius Caesar comes to visit her; they talk about him (Cleopatra: 'Catullus doesn't approve of you. Why haven't you had him killed?' Caesar: 'Because I approve of him.') and Caesar then recites other poems by him. The American poet Louis Zokofsky in 1969 wrote an extraordinary set of homophonic translations of Catullus that attempted in English to replicate the sound as primary emphasis, rather than the more common emphasis on sense of the originals (although the relationship between sound and sense there is often misrepresented and has been clarified by careful study); his Catullus versions have had extensive influence on contemporary innovative poetry and homophonic translation, including the work of poets Robert Duncan, Robert Kelly, and Charles Bernstein. Catullus is the protagonist of Tom Holland's 1995 novel Attis. See also[edit] Codex Vaticanus Ottobonianus Latinus 1829 Poetry of Catullus Prosody (Latin) References[edit] ^ The bust was commissioned in 1935 by Sirmione's mayor, Luigi Trojani, and produced by the Milanese foundry Clodoveo Barzaghi with the assistance of the sculptor Villarubbia Norri (N. Criniti & M. Arduino (eds.), Catullo e Sirmione. Società e cultura della Cisalpina alle soglie dell'impero (Brescia: Grafo, 1994), p. 4). ^ Skinner, Marilyn B. (2010). A Companion to Catullus. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 481. ISBN 9781444339253. Retrieved July 13, 2019. ^ a b c d e "Gaius Valerius Catullus". www.BookRags.com. Retrieved September 13, 2014. ^ M. Skinner, "Authorial Arrangement of the Collection", pp. 46–48, in: A Companion to Catullus, Wiley-Blackwell, 2007. ^ Suetonius Divus Iulius 73". ^ Howe, Jr., Quincy (1970). Introduction to Catullus, The Complete Poems for American Readers. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc. pp. vii to xvii. ^ M. Skinner, "Introduction", p.3, in: A Companion to Catullus, Wiley-Blackwell, 2010. ^ T.P. Wiseman, "The Valerii Catulli of Verona", in: M. Skinner, ed., A Companion to Catullus, Wiley-Blackwell, 2010. ^ McMurtry, Chris (August 19, 2014). "New Release: Linton: Carmina Catulli". RefinersFire. Archived from the original on October 8, 2014. Retrieved October 8, 2014. ^ "LINTON: Carmina Catulli". www.operanews.com. ^ "Priape, Lesbie, Diane et caetera - Forum Opéra". www.forumopera.com. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on October 5, 2011. Retrieved August 20, 2011.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ "Come and let us live : Samuel Webbe Jr. (c. 1770–1843) : Music score" (PDF). Cpdl.org. Retrieved March 16, 2019. ^ "Let us, my Lesbia, live and love : John Stafford Smith (1750-1836) : Music score" (PDF). Cpdl.org. Retrieved March 16, 2019. ^ "Our Play-Box: Lesbia". The Theatre. November 1, 1888. pp. 256–257. ^ "Amusements: Lesbia". The New York Times. October 9, 1890. p. 4 – via Newspapers.com. ^ Dixon, Pierson. "Farewell, Catullus" – via Biblio.com. ^ Reine Rimón and her Hot Papas jazz band; Gregg Stafford; Tuomo Pekkanen; Gaius Valerius Catullus, Variationes iazzicae Catullianae (in Latin), retrieved October 7, 2013 ^ "The City of Libertines by W. G. Hardy". Winnipeg Free Press. Winnipeg, Manitoba. December 7, 1957. p. 38. Further reading[edit] Balme, M.; Morwood, J (1997). Oxford Latin Reader. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Balmer, J. (2004). Catullus: Poems of Love and Hate. Hexham: Bloodaxe. Barrett, A. A. (1972). "Catullus 52 and the Consulship of Vatinius". Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association. 103: 23–38. doi:10.2307/2935964. JSTOR 2935964. Barwick, K. (1958). "Zyklen bei Martial und in den kleinen Gedichten des Catull". Philologus. 102 (1–2): 284–318. doi:10.1524/phil.1958.102.12.284. S2CID 164713202. Claes, P. (2002). Concatenatio Catulliana, A New Reading of the Carmina. Amsterdam: J.C. Gieben Clarke, Jacqueline (2006). "Bridal Songs: Catullan Epithalamia and Prudentius Peristephanon 3". Antichthon. 40: 89–103. doi:10.1017/S0066477400001672. Coleman, K.M. (1981). "The persona of Catullus' Phaselus". Greece & Rome. N.S. 28: 68–72. doi:10.1017/s0017383500033507. Dettmer, Helena (1997). Love by the Numbers: Form and the Meaning in the poetry of Catullus. Peter Lang Publishing. Deuling, Judy (2006). "Catullus 17 and 67, and the Catullan Construct". Antichthon. 40: 1–9. doi:10.1017/S0066477400001611. Dorey, T.A. (1959). "The Aurelii and the Furii". Proceedings of the African Classical Associations. 2: 9–10. Duhigg, J (1971). "The Elegiac Metre of Catullus". Antichthon. 5: 57–67. doi:10.1017/S0066477400004111. Ellis, R. (1889). A Commentary on Catullus. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Ferguson, J. (1963). "Catullus and Martial". Proceedings of the African Classical Associations. 6: 3–15. Ferguson, J. (1988). Catullus. Greece & Rome:New Surveys in the Classics. 20. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Ferrero, L. (1955). Interpretazione di Catullo (in Italian). Torino: Torino, Rosenberg & Sellier. Fitzgerald, W. (1995). Catullan Provocations; Lyric Poetry and the Drama of Position. Berkeley: University of California Press. Fletcher, G.B.A. (1967). "Catulliana". Latomus. 26: 104–106. Fletcher, G.B.A. (1991). "Further Catulliana". Latomus. 50: 92–93. Fordyce, C.J. (1961). Catullus, A Commentary. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Gaisser, Julia Haig (1993). Catullus And His Renaissance Readers. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Greene, Ellen (2006). "Catullus, Caesar and the Roman Masculine Identity". Antichthon. 40: 49–64. doi:10.1017/S0066477400001659. Hallett, Judith (2006). "Catullus and Horace on Roman Women Poets". Antichthon. 40: 65–88. doi:10.1017/S0066477400001660. Harrington, Karl Pomeroy (1963). Catullus and His Influence. New York: Cooper Square Publishers. Havelock, E.A. (1939). The Lyric Genius of Catullus. Oxford: B. Blackwell. Hild, Christian (2013). Liebesgedichte als Wagnis. Emotionen und generationelle Prozesse in Catulls Lesbiagedichten. St.Ingbert: Röhrig. ISBN 978-3-86110-517-6. Jackson, Anna (2006). "Catullus in the Playground". Antichthon. 40: 104–116. doi:10.1017/S0066477400001684. Kaggelaris, N. (2015), "Wedding Cry: Sappho (Fr. 109 LP, Fr. 104(a) LP)- Catullus (c. 62. 20-5)- modern greek folk songs" [in Greek] in Avdikos, E.- Koziou-Kolofotia, B. (ed.) Modern Greek folk songs and history, Karditsa, pp. 260–70 [1] Kidd, D.A. (1970). "Some Problems in Catullus lxvi". Antichthon. 4: 38–49. doi:10.1017/S0066477400004007. Kokoszkiewicz, Konrad W. (2004). "Et futura panda sive de Catulli carmine sexto corrigendo". Hermes. 32: 125–128. Kroll, Wilhelm (1929). C. Valerius Catullus (in German). Leipzig: B.G. Teubner. Maas, Paul (1942). "The Chronology of the Poems of Catullus". Classical Quarterly. 36 (1–2): 79–82. doi:10.1017/s0009838800024605. Martin, Charles (1992). Catullus. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press. ISBN 0-300-05199-9. Munro, H.A.J. (1878). Criticisms and Elucidations of Catullus. Cambridge: Deighton, Bell and co. Newman, John Kevin (1990). Roman Catullus and the Modification of the Alexandrian Sensibility. Hildesheim: Weidmann. Quinn, Kenneth (1959). The Catullan Revolution. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press. Quinn, Kenneth (1973). Catullus: The Poems (2nd ed.). London: Macmillan. Rothstein, Max (1923). "Catull und Lesbia". Philologus. 78 (1–2): 1–34. doi:10.1515/phil-1922-1-203. S2CID 164356664. Small, Stuart G.P. (1983). Catullus. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America. ISBN 0-8191-2905-4. Swann, Bruce W. (1994). Martial's Catullus. The Reception of an Epigrammatic Rival. Hildesheim: Georg Olms. Thomson, Douglas Ferguson Scott (1997). Catullus: Edited with a Textual and Interpretative Commentary. Phoenix. 34: suppl. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-0676-0. Townend, G.B. (1980). "A Further Point in Catullus' attack on Volusius". Greece & Rome. n.s. 27 (2): 134–136. doi:10.1017/s0017383500025791. Townend, G.B. (1983). "The Unstated Climax of Catullus 64". Greece & Rome. n.s. 30: 21–30. doi:10.1017/s0017383500026437. Tesoriero, Charles (2006). "Hidden Kisses in Catullus: Poems 5, 6, 7 and 8". Antichthon. 40: 10–18. doi:10.1017/S0066477400001623. Tuplin, C.J. (1981). "Catullus 68". Classical Quarterly. n.s. 31: 113–139. doi:10.1017/s000983880002111x. Uden, James (2006). "Embracing the Young Man in Love: Catullus 75 and the Comic Adulescens". Antichthon. 40: 19–34. doi:10.1017/S0066477400001635. Watson, Lindsay C. (2003). "Bassa's Borborysms: on Martial and Catullus". Antichthon. 37: 1–12. doi:10.1017/S0066477400001386. Watson, Lindsay C. (2006). "Catullus and the Poetics of Incest". Antichthon. 40: 35–48. doi:10.1017/S0066477400001647. Wheeler, A. L. (1934). Catullus and the Traditions of Ancient Poetry. Sather Classical Lectures. 9. Berkeley: University of California Press. Wilamowitz-Möllendorf, Ulrich von (1913). Sappho und Simonides (in German). Berlin: Weidmann. Wiseman, T. P. (1969). Catullan Questions. Leicester: Leicester University Press. Wiseman, T. P. (2002). Catullus and His World: A Reappraisal (1st pbk. ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-31968-4. Wiseman, T. P. (1974). Cinna the poet and other Roman essays. Leicester: Leicester University Press. ISBN 0-7185-1120-4. External links[edit] Wikisource has original works written by or about: Catullus Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: The Poetry of Gaius Valerius Catullus Wikiquote has quotations related to: Catullus Wikimedia Commons has media related to Catullus. Library resources about Catullus Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Catullus Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Works by Catullus at Perseus Digital Library Works by Catullus at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Catullus at Internet Archive Works by Catullus at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Catullus translations: Catullus's work in Latin and multiple (ten or more) modern languages, including scanned versions of every poem Catullus in Latin and English Catullus translated exclusively in English Translated by A. S. Kline Catullus Online: searchable Latin text, repertory of conjectures, and images of the most important manuscripts Catullus: Latin text, concordances and frequency list Catullus purified: a brief history of Carmen 16 by Thomas Nelson Winter SORGLL: Catullus 5, read by Robert Sonkowsky v t e The poems (Carmina) of Catullus Lesbia poems 2 2b 3 5 7 8 11 36 37 51 58 68 70 72 75 76 79 83 85 86 87 91 92 104 107 109 Invective poems 10 12 14 15 16 17 21 22 23 24 25 28 29 30 33 39 40 41 42 43 44 47 49 52 53 54 57 59 60 69 71 73 74 77 78 80 84 88 89 90 93 95 97 98 103 108 110 111 112 113 116 Unusual poetic meters 4 8 11 17 22 25 29 30 31 34 37 39 44 51 52 59 60 61 62 63 64 Hendecasyllabic verse 1 2 2b 3 5 6 7 9 10 12 13 14 14b 15 16 21 23 24 26 27 28 32 33 35 36 38 40 41 42 43 45 46 47 48 49 50 53 54 55 56 57 58 58b Elegiac couplets 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 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en-wikipedia-org-7568	----	Vindobona - Wikipedia Vindobona From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the ancient Celtic settlement. For the asteroid, see 231 Vindobona. For the train, see Vindobona (train). For the modern city, see Vienna. Map of Vindobona around 250 A.D. Vindobona (from Gaulish windo- "white" and bona "base/bottom") was a Roman military camp on the site of the modern city of Vienna in Austria. The settlement area took on a new name in the 13th century, being changed to Berghof, or now simply known as Alter Berghof (the Old Berghof).[1] Around 15 BC, the kingdom of Noricum was included in the Roman Empire. Henceforth, the Danube marked the border of the empire, and the Romans built fortifications and settlements on the banks of the Danube, including Vindobona with an estimated population of 15,000 to 20,000.[2][3] Contents 1 History 2 Evidence for the Roman presence in Vindobona 2.1 Archaeological remains 2.2 Evidence for the Roman military presence 2.3 Roman canals 2.4 Legacies in today's streets 3 Popular culture 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links History[edit] Head of a genius found during excavations of Vindobona Silver plate, part of a larger find found around Kärntner Straße in 1945 Early references to Vindobona are made by the geographer Ptolemy in his Geographica and the historian Aurelius Victor, who recounts that emperor Marcus Aurelius died in Vindobona on 17 March 180 from an unknown illness while on a military campaign against invading Germanic tribes. Today, there is a Marc-Aurelstraße (English: Marcus Aurelius street) near the Hoher Markt in Vienna. It is possible that Vindobona as a legionary fortress was built around the year of 100, because from the archeological records there are no building inscriptions dating earlier than the year of 103.[4] Vindobona was part of the Roman province Pannonia, of which the regional administrative centre was Carnuntum. Vindobona was a military camp with an attached civilian city (Canabae). The military complex covered an area of some 20 hectares, housing about 6000 men where Vienna’s first district now stands. The Danube marked the border of the Roman Empire, and Vindobona was part of a defensive network including the camps of Carnuntum, Brigetio and Aquincum. By the time of Emperor Commodus, four legions (X Gemina, XIV Gemina Martia Victrix, I Adiutrix and II Adiutrix) were stationed in Pannonia.[5] Vindobona was provisioned by the surrounding Roman country estates (Villae rusticae). A centre of trade with a developed infrastructure as well as agriculture and forestry developed around Vindobona. Civic communities developed outside the fortifications (canabae legionis), as well another community that was independent of the military authorities in today's third district.[citation needed] It has also been proven that a Germanic settlement with a large marketplace existed on the far side of the Danube from the second century onwards.[citation needed] The asymmetrical layout of the military camp, which was unusual for the otherwise standardised Roman encampments, is still recognisable in Vienna’s street plan: Graben, Naglergasse, Tiefer Graben, Salzgries, Rabensteig, Rotenturmstraße. The oblique camp border along today's street Salzgries was probably caused by a tremendous flood of the River Danube that occurred during the 3rd century and eroded a considerable part of the camp.[6] The name “Graben” (English: ditch) is believed to hark back to the defensive ditches of the military camp. It is thought that at least parts of the walls still stood in the Middle Ages, when these streets were laid out, and thus determined their routes. The Berghof was later erected in one corner of the camp. Rebuilt after Germanic invasions in the second century, the town remained a seat of Roman government through the third and fourth centuries.[7][8] The population fled after the Huns invaded Pannonia in the 430s and the settlement was abandoned for several centuries.[9][10] Evidence for the Roman presence in Vindobona[edit] Archaeological remains[edit] Remains of the Roman outpost at Michaelerplatz Roman stones from the thermae, at Sterngasse Remains of a hypocaust, found below Hoher Markt Remains of the Roman military camp have been found at many sites in the centre of Vienna. The centre of the Michaelerplatz has been widely investigated by archaeologists. Here, traces of a Roman legionary outpost (canabae legionis) and of a crossroad have been found.[11] The centrepiece of the current design of the square is a rectangular opening that evokes the archaeological excavations at the site and shows wall remains that have been preserved from different epochs. Part of a Roman canal system is underneath the fire station am Hof.[12] Directly under the Hoher Markt are the remains of two buildings unearthed during the canalisation works of 1948/49 and made accessible to the public. After further excavation, a showroom was opened in 1961. For this purpose some of the original walls had to be removed; white marks on the floor show the spots where.[citation needed] The buildings, which are separated from one another by a road, housed an officer and his family.[citation needed] In 2008 this Roman ruins exhibit was expanded into the Museum of the Romans.[13] Only a small portion can today be seen, for the majority of the remains are still located underneath the square and south of it. The remains of the walls date from different phases from the 1st to the 5th century AD. The houses were typical Roman villas, with living quarters and space for working set around a middle courtyard with columned halls.[14] Evidence for the Roman military presence[edit] Dedication stone with inscriptions mentioning the Legio XIII Gemina Over 3,000 stamped bricks, several stone monuments and written sources prove that several legions, cavalry units and marines were stationed in Vindobona. Around 97 AD, Legio XIII Gemina was responsible for construction of the legionary camps. Because of the wars in Dacia, they were pulled out and redeployed in 101 AD. A decade later, Legio XIIII Gemina Martia Victrix followed. Legio X Gemina from Aquincum arrived in 114 AD and remained in Vindobona until the 5th century.[citation needed] About 6,000 soldiers were stationed in the Roman camp.[citation needed] Many of them were free from active duty during peaceful times and had other jobs.[citation needed] These so-called immunes were needed for the supply of goods and for the production and maintenance of weapons and commodities. They also extracted stone from quarries and wood from forests, produced bricks, and maintained the streets, bridges and the water system. Administrating the camp and ensuring its security required additional manpower. Roman canals[edit] Manhole cover. Proper water supply and sanitation was vital for the functioning of the city The Romans provided their cities, including Vindobona, with clean potable water through an elaborate systems of Roman aqueducts, canals, and large subterranean pipes. Excavations have revealed that Vindobona received its supply through a 17 km long water pipeline.[citation needed] The source is in the Vienna Woods around today's Kalksburg. Wells, latrines and the thermae were supplied with water. Central buildings such as the commander's office and the hospital had their own supplies, as did the settlement outside the camp, where households had their own groundwater wells.[citation needed] Archaeological excavations done over the last 100 years have discovered the following Roman water supply fragment locations: In the Zemlinskygasse: at numbers 2-4 - (23rd district, found in 1924) In the Breitenfurter Straße: at number 422 - (23rd district, in 1959) In the Rudolf Zeller-Gasse/Anton-Krieger-Gasse - (23rd district, 1992) In Atzgersdorf - (23rd district, 1902–1907) In the Tullnertalgasse: at number 76 - (23rd district, 1973) In the Lainergasse: at number 1 - (23rd district, 1958) In the Wundtgasse - (12th district, 1951) In the Rosenhügelstraße: at number 88 - (12th district, 1926) In the Fasangartenstraße: at number 49 - (12th district, 1916) In the Pacassistraße - (13th district, 1928) In the Sechshauserstraße: at number 7 - (15th district, 1879 - leading towards the first district) Waste from the Roman camp was transported through an elaborate subterranean sewerage system that was planned from the beginning. The sewers were lined with brick walls and plates and ran beneath the main roads. Gradients were used in such a way that the waste water descended through the canals into the River Danube. Since the canals were up to two meters deep, they could be cleaned out regularly. Large waste was probably deposed at the slope of the river. In the civilian settlement, waste was deposed in former water wells and dumps.[citation needed] Legacies in today's streets[edit] The Cygnus-Relief was probably part of a larger public building Small bronze statuettes of gods The layout of a Roman camp (castra) was normally standardised. This has helped archaeologists to reconstruct what the camp must have looked like, despite the heavy rebuilding that has taken place in Vienna throughout the centuries. The basic contours of the camp, which was surrounded by a mighty wall with towers and three moats (today the Tiefer Graben, Naglergasse, Graben, and Rotenturmstraße) are identifiable. Along these axes, main roads connected the gates with one other. The main buildings were the commander's headquarters, the Palace of the Legate, the houses of the staff officers, and the thermae. At right angles to these, the soldiers' accommodation, a hospital, workshops, and mews (stables) were constructed.[citation needed] Popular culture[edit] In the American film Gladiator (2000), Maximus (Russell Crowe) fights in the battle of Vindobona under the order of Marcus Aurelius (Richard Harris).[15][16] There are also two lines that make reference to Vindobona. In one, the lead character's servant, Cicero, trying to get the attention of Lucilla, states, "I served your father at Vindobona!"[17] In the other, the lead character asks if anyone in his group of gladiators has served in the army, to which an anonymous fighter responds, "I served with you at Vindobona." The historical novel Votan by Welsh writer John James begins in "Vindabonum" and imagines 2nd century C.E. life there. See also[edit] List of aqueducts in the Roman Empire References[edit] ^ The Older Berghof in Vienna (German). Today, the site is more commonly associated with Hoher Markt and Wiener Neustädter Hof, a building in today's Sterngasse 3. Berghof was the name of the mansion, which had evolved from the initial settlement with the walls of the Roman baths. It was originally the only building in Vienna to be built by a certain pagan, presumably an Avaricum dignitary, eventually becoming a fortified town. The place is mentioned in Jans Enikel's "Fürstenbuch" (around 1270) (vide: Jeff Bernhard / Dieter Bietak: The Wiener Neustädter Hof alias Berghof - a probe into the Year Zero, Frankfurt am Main/Berlin/Bern 1997, p. 247). ^ Bowman, Alan; Wilson, Andrew (2011-12-22). Settlement, Urbanization, and Population. ISBN 9780199602353. ^ Ziak, Karl (1964). "Unvergängliches Wien: Ein Gang durch die Geschichte von der Urzeit bis zur Gegenwart". ^ Móscy, András (1974). Pannonia and Upper Moesia: A History of the Middle Danube Provinces of the Roman Empire. London; Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul. p. 88. ISBN 978-1-315-79767-0. ^ Stephen Dando-Collins (2012). Legions of Rome: The definitive history of every Roman legion. Quercus Publishing. ISBN 9781849167918. Archived from the original on 2 October 2019. Retrieved 2 October 2019. '...at the start of AD 193...On 13 April, the legions of Pannonia - the 10th Gemina and 14th Gemina Martia Victrix in his own province, and the 1st and 2nd Adiutrix legions from neighbouring Lower Pannonia...' ^ Reconstruction of the ancient relief of downtown Vienna (in German) ^ Southern Germany and Austria, Including the Eastern Alps: Handbook for Travellers. Karl Baedeker. 1873. p. 177. Retrieved 2 October 2019. 'By the end of the third century Vindobona had become a municipal town, and being the seat of the Roman civil and military government, continued to flourish until the invasion of the Huns in the 5th century.' ^ J. Sydney Jones (2014). Viennawalks: Four Intimate Walking Tours of Vienna's Most Historic and Enchanting Neighborhoods. Henry Holt and Company. ISBN 9781466865907. Archived from the original on 2 October 2019. Retrieved 2 October 2019. 'Vindobona was destroyed suring the Germanic invasions of the latter part of the second century and was rebuilt after those invasions were finally repelled, but the Roman era had had its peak....by 180...Roman order was restored to Pannonia. But it was a tenuous order, holding doggedly on for another two centuries until the final withdrawal of the Roman troops and destruction of Vindobona in the early fifth century.' ^ Southern Germany and Austria, Including the Eastern Alps: Handbook for Travellers. Karl Baedeker. 1873. p. 177. Retrieved 2 October 2019. 'Vindobona ... continued to flourish until the invasion of the Huns in the 5th century. From that date the Roman Vindobona disappears from the history until the year 791.' ^ Rob Collins, Matt Symonds, Meike Weber (2015). Roman Military Architecture on the Frontiers: Armies and Their Architecture in Late Antiquity. Oxbow Books. ISBN 9781782979913. Archived from the original on 2 October 2019. Retrieved 2 October 2019. '...Consequently, Vindobona became increasingly depopulated over the course of the first half of the 5th century. The present state of research indicated that the definite end of the settlement within the old fortress occurred during the 430s AD, when the Huns finally seized control of the province of Pannonia...The intramural area of Vindobona has provided no evidence of settlement activity from the mid 5th century through until at least the 9th century.'CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Wien Museum | Archäologisches Grabungsfeld Michaelerplatz(in German) ^ Wien Museum | Römische Baureste Am Hof, Vienna Museum (in German) ^ "Die Römer kommen nach Wien", ORF 10 May 2008 (in German) ^ Wien Museum | Römische Ruinen Hoher Markt(in German) ^ Villapalos Salas, Gustavo; San Miguel Pérez, Enrique (September 1, 2014). Lecciones de Historia del Derecho Español. Editorial Universitaria Ramon Areces. p. 38. ISBN 9788499611785. ^ Gilliland, Charles (November 14, 2016). The Gospel of Matthew Through the Eyes of a Cop: A Devotional for Law Enforcement Officers. WestBow Press. p. 162. ISBN 9781490898377. ^ Cyrino, Monica Silveira (February 9, 2009). Big Screen Rome. John Wiley & Sons. p. 209. ISBN 9781405150323. Further reading[edit] Michaela Kronberger: Siedlungschronologische Forschungen zu den canabae legionis von Vindobona. Die Gräberfelder (Monographien der Stadtarchäologie Wien Band 1). Phoibos Verlag, Wien 2005. (in German) Christine Ranseder e.a., Michaelerplatz. Die archäologischen Ausgrabungen. Wien Archäologisch 1, Wien 2006. ISBN 3-901232-72-9. (in German) Vindobona. Die Reise in das antike Wien. DVD-Rom, 2004. (in German) Vindobona II. Wassertechnik des antiken Wiens. DVD-Rom, 2005. (in German) External links[edit] Media related to Vindobona at Wikimedia Commons Wien Museum | Ausgrabungsstätten (in German) Forschungsgesellschaft Wiener Stadtarchäologie | Legionslager Vindobona (in German) Animationsfilme zu vindobona (in German) Seite mit sehenswerter Rekonstruktion des Lagertores (in German) Livius.org: Vindobona (Vienna) Austrian Mint Coin Features Vindobona Bursche, A., L. Pitts, P. Kaczanowski, E. Krekovič, R. Madyda‑Legutko, R. Talbert, T. Elliott, S. Gillies. "Places: 128537 (Vindobona)". Pleiades. Retrieved March 8, 2012.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Coordinates: 48°12′39″N 16°22′13″E / 48.21083°N 16.37028°E / 48.21083; 16.37028 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vindobona&oldid=992278623" Categories: History of Vienna Roman towns and cities in Austria Roman aqueducts outside Rome Innere Stadt Celtic towns Celtic toponyms Pannonia Roman fortified camps in Austria Roman fortifications in Pannonia Superior Hidden categories: Articles with German-language sources (de) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2009 Commons category link from Wikidata Coordinates on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Aragonés Български Català Dansk Deutsch Español Euskara Français Galego Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 4 December 2020, at 13:05 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7573	----	Utrecht - Wikipedia Utrecht From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search City and municipality in the province of Utrecht, Netherlands This article is about the Dutch city and municipality. For the province, see Utrecht (province). For other uses, see Utrecht (disambiguation). City and municipality in Netherlands Utrecht City and municipality Photographs of the city, with the Dom Tower of St. Martin's Cathedral in the centre Flag Coat of arms Location of Utrecht in the Netherlands Coordinates: 52°5′N 5°7′E / 52.083°N 5.117°E / 52.083; 5.117Coordinates: 52°5′N 5°7′E / 52.083°N 5.117°E / 52.083; 5.117 Country Netherlands Province Utrecht Government[1]  • Body Municipal council  • Mayor Sharon Dijksma (PvdA) Area[2]  • Municipality 99.21 km2 (38.31 sq mi)  • Land 93.83 km2 (36.23 sq mi)  • Water 5.38 km2 (2.08 sq mi)  • Randstad 3,043 km2 (1,175 sq mi) Elevation[3] 5 m (16 ft) Population (29 February 2020)[2][4][5]  • Municipality 358,454  • Density 3,807/km2 (9,860/sq mi)  • Urban 489,734  • Metro 656,342  • Randstad 6,979,500 Demonym(s) Utrechter(s) [nb 1] Time zone UTC+1 (CET)  • Summer (DST) UTC+2 (CEST) Postcode 3450–3455, 3500–3585 Area code 030 Website www.utrecht.nl Utrecht (/ˈjuːtrɛkt/ YOO-trekt, also UK: /juːˈtrɛxt/ yoo-TREKHT,[6][7] Dutch: [ˈytrɛxt] (listen)) is the fourth-largest city and a municipality of the Netherlands, capital and most populous city of the province of Utrecht. It is located in the eastern corner of the Randstad conurbation, in the very centre of mainland Netherlands; it had a population of 357,179 as of 2019.[8] Utrecht's ancient city centre features many buildings and structures, several dating as far back as the High Middle Ages. It has been the religious centre of the Netherlands since the 8th century. It lost the status of prince-bishopric but remains the main religious centre in the country. Utrecht was the most important city in the Netherlands until the Dutch Golden Age, when it was surpassed by Amsterdam as the country's cultural centre and most populous city. Utrecht is host to Utrecht University, the largest university in the Netherlands, as well as several other institutions of higher education. Due to its central position within the country, it is an important transport hub for both rail and road transport; the busiest train station in the Netherlands, Utrecht Centraal, is in the city of Utrecht. It has the second highest number of cultural events in the Netherlands, after Amsterdam.[9] In 2012, Lonely Planet included Utrecht in the top 10 of the world's unsung places.[10] Contents 1 History 1.1 Origins (before 650 AD) 1.2 Centre of Christianity in the Netherlands (650–1579) 1.2.1 Prince-bishops 1.2.2 Religious buildings 1.2.3 City of Utrecht 1.2.4 The end of independence 1.3 Republic of the Netherlands (1579–1806) 1.4 Modern history (1815–present) 2 Geography 2.1 Climate 3 Population 3.1 Demographics 3.2 Religion 3.3 Population centres and agglomeration 4 Cityscape 5 Transport 5.1 Public transport 5.1.1 Heavy and light rail 5.1.2 Bus transport 5.2 Cycling 5.3 Road transport 5.4 Shipping 6 Economy 7 Education 8 Culture 8.1 Sports 8.2 Museums 8.3 Music and events 8.4 Theatre 9 Notable people from Utrecht 10 International relations 10.1 Twin towns 10.2 Other relations 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 13.1 Bibliography 14 External links History[edit] See also: Timeline of Utrecht Origins (before 650 AD)[edit] Willem Blaeu's 1652 map of Utrecht Although there is some evidence of earlier inhabitation in the region of Utrecht, dating back to the Stone Age (app. 2200 BCE) and settling in the Bronze Age (app. 1800–800 BCE),[11] the founding date of the city is usually related to the construction of a Roman fortification (castellum), probably built in around 50 CE. A series of such fortresses was built after the Roman emperor Claudius decided the empire should not expand further north. To consolidate the border, the Limes Germanicus defense line was constructed[12] along the main branch of the river Rhine, which at that time flowed through a more northern bed compared to today (what is now the Kromme Rijn). These fortresses were designed to house a cohort of about 500 Roman soldiers. Near the fort, settlements would grow housing artisans, traders and soldiers' wives and children. In Roman times, the name of the Utrecht fortress was simply Traiectum, denoting its location at a possible Rhine crossing. Traiectum became Dutch Trecht; with the U from Old Dutch "uut" (downriver) added to distinguish U-trecht from Maas-tricht.[13][14] In 11th-century official documents, it was Latinized as Ultra Traiectum. Around the year 200, the wooden walls of the fortification were replaced by sturdier tuff stone walls,[15] remnants of which are still to be found below the buildings around Dom Square. From the middle of the 3rd century, Germanic tribes regularly invaded the Roman territories. Around 275 the Romans could no longer maintain the northern border and Utrecht was abandoned.[12] Little is known about the next period 270–650. Utrecht is first spoken of again several centuries after the Romans left. Under the influence of the growing realms of the Franks, during Dagobert I's reign in the 7th century, a church was built within the walls of the Roman fortress.[12] In ongoing border conflicts with the Frisians, this first church was destroyed. Centre of Christianity in the Netherlands (650–1579)[edit] The Dom Tower seen from Downtown Utrecht. The remaining section of the Cathedral of Saint Martin is not connected to the tower since the collapse of the nave in 1674 due to a storm. By the mid-7th century, English and Irish missionaries set out to convert the Frisians. Pope Sergius I appointed their leader, Saint Willibrordus, as bishop of the Frisians. The tenure of Willibrordus is generally considered to be the beginning of the Bishopric of Utrecht.[12] In 723, the Frankish leader Charles Martel bestowed the fortress in Utrecht and the surrounding lands as the base of the bishops. From then on Utrecht became one of the most influential seats of power for the Roman Catholic Church in the Netherlands. The archbishops of Utrecht were based at the uneasy northern border of the Carolingian Empire. In addition, the city of Utrecht had competition from the nearby trading centre Dorestad.[12] After the fall of Dorestad around 850, Utrecht became one of the most important cities in the Netherlands.[16] The importance of Utrecht as a centre of Christianity is illustrated by the election of the Utrecht-born Adriaan Florenszoon Boeyens as pope in 1522 (the last non-Italian pope before John Paul II). Prince-bishops[edit] Main article: Bishopric of Utrecht When the Frankish rulers established the system of feudalism, the Bishops of Utrecht came to exercise worldly power as prince-bishops.[12] The territory of the bishopric not only included the modern province of Utrecht (Nedersticht, 'lower Sticht'), but also extended to the northeast. The feudal conflict of the Middle Ages heavily affected Utrecht. The prince-bishopric was involved in almost continuous conflicts with the Counts of Holland and the Dukes of Guelders.[17] The Veluwe region was seized by Guelders, but large areas in the modern province of Overijssel remained as the Oversticht. Religious buildings[edit] Several churches and monasteries were built inside, or close to, the city of Utrecht. The most dominant of these was the Cathedral of Saint Martin, inside the old Roman fortress. The construction of the present Gothic building was begun in 1254 after an earlier romanesque construction had been badly damaged by fire. The choir and transept were finished from 1320 and were followed then by the ambitious Dom tower.[12] The last part to be constructed was the central nave, from 1420. By that time, however, the age of the great cathedrals had come to an end and declining finances prevented the ambitious project from being finished, the construction of the central nave being suspended before the planned flying buttresses could be finished.[12] Besides the cathedral there were four collegiate churches in Utrecht: St. Salvator's Church (demolished in the 16th century), on the Dom square, dating back to the early 8th century.[18] Saint John (Janskerk), originating in 1040;[19] Saint Peter, building started in 1039[20] and Saint Mary's church building started around 1090 (demolished in the early 19th century, cloister survives).[21] Besides these churches, the city housed St. Paul's Abbey,[22] the 15th-century beguinage of St. Nicholas, and a 14th-century chapter house of the Teutonic Knights.[23] Besides these buildings which belonged to the bishopric, an additional four parish churches were constructed in the city: the Jacobikerk (dedicated to Saint James), founded in the 11th century, with the current Gothic church dating back to the 14th century;[24] the Buurkerk (Neighbourhood-church) of the 11th-century parish in the centre of the city; Nicolaichurch (dedicated to Saint Nicholas), from the 12th century[25] and the 13th-century Geertekerk (dedicated to Saint Gertrude of Nivelles).[26] City of Utrecht[edit] Its location on the banks of the river Rhine allowed Utrecht to become an important trade centre in the Northern Netherlands. The growing town was granted city rights by Henry V in 1122. When the main flow of the Rhine moved south, the old bed which still flowed through the heart of the town became ever more canalized; and the wharf system was built as an inner city harbour system.[27] On the wharfs, storage facilities (werfkelders) were built, on top of which the main street, including houses, was constructed. The wharfs and the cellars are accessible from a platform at water level with stairs descending from the street level to form a unique structure.[nb 2][28] The relations between the bishop, who controlled many lands outside of the city, and the citizens of Utrecht was not always easy.[12] The bishop, for example dammed the Kromme Rijn at Wijk bij Duurstede to protect his estates from flooding. This threatened shipping for the city and led the city of Utrecht to commission a canal to ensure access to the town for shipping trade: the Vaartse Rijn, connecting Utrecht to the Hollandse IJssel at IJsselstein. The end of independence[edit] In 1528 the bishop lost secular power over both Neder- and Oversticht – which included the city of Utrecht – to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. Charles V combined the Seventeen Provinces (the current Benelux and the northern parts of France) as a personal union. This ended the prince-bishopric of Utrecht, as the secular rule was now the lordship of Utrecht, with the religious power remaining with the bishop, although Charles V had gained the right to appoint new bishops. In 1559 the bishopric of Utrecht was raised to archbishopric to make it the religious centre of the Northern ecclesiastical province in the Seventeen Provinces. The transition from independence to a relatively minor part of a larger union was not easily accepted. To quell uprisings, Charles V struggled to exert his power over the city's citizens who had struggled to gain a certain level of independence from the bishops and were not willing to cede this to their new lord. The heavily fortified castle Vredenburg was built to house a large garrison whose main task was to maintain control over the city. The castle would last less than 50 years before it was demolished in an uprising in the early stages of the Dutch Revolt. Republic of the Netherlands (1579–1806)[edit] Lambert de Hondt (II): The Surrender of Utrecht on 30 June 1672 to the French king Louis XIV, 1672, Centraal Museum Utrecht Prince Maurits in Utrecht, 31 July 1618 In 1579 the northern seven provinces signed the Union of Utrecht, in which they decided to join forces against Spanish rule. The Union of Utrecht is seen as the beginning of the Dutch Republic. In 1580, the new and predominantly Protestant state abolished the bishoprics, including the archbishopric of Utrecht. The stadtholders disapproved of the independent course of the Utrecht bourgeoisie and brought the city under much more direct control of the republic, shifting the power towards its dominant province Holland. This was the start of a long period of stagnation of trade and development in Utrecht. Utrecht remained an atypical city in the new republic being about 40% Catholic in the mid-17th-century, and even more so among the elite groups, who included many rural nobility and gentry with town houses there.[29] The fortified city temporarily fell to the French invasion in 1672 (the Disaster Year); where the French invasion was stopped just west of Utrecht at the Old Hollandic Waterline. In 1674, only two years after the French left, the centre of Utrecht was struck by a tornado. The halt to building before construction of flying buttresses in the 15th century now proved to be the undoing of the cathedral of St Martin church's central section which collapsed, creating the current Dom square between the tower and choir. In 1713, Utrecht hosted one of the first international peace negotiations when the Treaty of Utrecht settled the War of the Spanish Succession. Beginning in 1723, Utrecht became the centre of the non-Roman Old Catholic Churches in the world. Modern history (1815–present)[edit] People celebrating the liberation of Utrecht at the end of World War II on 7 May 1945 Zadelstraat Contemporary map of Utrecht In the early 19th century, the role of Utrecht as a fortified town had become obsolete. The fortifications of the Nieuwe Hollandse Waterlinie were moved east of Utrecht. The town walls could now be demolished to allow for expansion. The moats remained intact and formed an important feature of the Zocher plantsoen, an English style landscape park that remains largely intact today. Growth of the city increased when, in 1843, a railway connecting Utrecht to Amsterdam was opened. After that, Utrecht gradually became the main hub of the Dutch railway network. With the industrial revolution finally gathering speed in the Netherlands and the ramparts taken down, Utrecht began to grow far beyond its medieval centre. When the Dutch government allowed the bishopric of Utrecht to be reinstated by Rome in 1853, Utrecht became the centre of Dutch Catholicism once more. From the 1880s onward, neighbourhoods such as Oudwijk, Wittevrouwen, Vogelenbuurt to the East, and Lombok to the West were developed. New middle-class residential areas, such as Tuindorp and Oog in Al, were built in the 1920s and 1930s. During this period, several Jugendstil houses and office buildings were built, followed by Rietveld who built the Rietveld Schröder House (1924), and Dudok's construction of the city theater (1941). During World War II, Utrecht was held by the Germans until the general German surrender of the Netherlands on 5 May 1945. British and Canadian troops that had surrounded the city entered it after that surrender, on 7 May 1945. Following the end of World War II, the city grew considerably when new neighbourhoods such as Overvecht, Kanaleneiland, Hoograven [nl] and Lunetten were built. Around 2000, the Leidsche Rijn housing area was developed as an extension of the city to the west. The area surrounding Utrecht Centraal railway station and the station itself were developed following modernist ideas of the 1960s, in a brutalist style. This development led to the construction of the shopping mall Hoog Catharijne [nl], the music centre Vredenburg (Hertzberger, 1979), and conversion of part of the ancient canal structure into a highway (Catherijnebaan). Protest against further modernisation of the city centre followed even before the last buildings were finalised. In the early 21st century, the whole area is undergoing change again. The redeveloped music centre TivoliVredenburg opened in 2014 with the original Vredenburg and Tivoli concert and rock and jazz halls brought together in a single building. Geography[edit] Climate[edit] Utrecht experiences a temperate oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfb) similar to all of the Netherlands. Climate data for De Bilt Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 15.1 (59.2) 18.9 (66.0) 23.9 (75.0) 28.9 (84.0) 33.6 (92.5) 36.8 (98.2) 37.5 (99.5) 35.3 (95.5) 34.2 (93.6) 26.7 (80.1) 18.7 (65.7) 15.3 (59.5) 37.5 (99.5) Average high °C (°F) 5.6 (42.1) 6.4 (43.5) 10.0 (50.0) 14.0 (57.2) 18.0 (64.4) 20.4 (68.7) 22.8 (73.0) 22.6 (72.7) 19.1 (66.4) 14.6 (58.3) 9.6 (49.3) 6.1 (43.0) 14.1 (57.4) Daily mean °C (°F) 3.1 (37.6) 3.3 (37.9) 6.2 (43.2) 9.2 (48.6) 13.1 (55.6) 15.6 (60.1) 17.9 (64.2) 17.5 (63.5) 14.5 (58.1) 10.7 (51.3) 6.7 (44.1) 3.7 (38.7) 10.1 (50.2) Average low °C (°F) 0.3 (32.5) 0.2 (32.4) 2.3 (36.1) 4.1 (39.4) 7.8 (46.0) 10.5 (50.9) 12.8 (55.0) 12.3 (54.1) 9.9 (49.8) 6.9 (44.4) 3.6 (38.5) 1.0 (33.8) 6.0 (42.8) Record low °C (°F) −24.8 (−12.6) −21.6 (−6.9) −14.4 (6.1) −6.6 (20.1) −3.7 (25.3) 0.2 (32.4) 3.2 (37.8) 3.8 (38.8) −0.7 (30.7) −7.8 (18.0) −14.4 (6.1) −16.6 (2.1) −24.8 (−12.6) Average precipitation mm (inches) 69.6 (2.74) 55.8 (2.20) 66.8 (2.63) 42.3 (1.67) 61.9 (2.44) 65.6 (2.58) 81.1 (3.19) 72.9 (2.87) 78.1 (3.07) 82.8 (3.26) 79.8 (3.14) 75.8 (2.98) 832.5 (32.78) Average precipitation days (≥ 1 mm) 12 10 11 9 10 10 10 10 11 12 13 12 131 Average snowy days 6 6 4 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 5 25 Average relative humidity (%) 87 84 81 75 75 76 77 79 84 86 89 89 82 Mean monthly sunshine hours 62.3 85.7 121.6 173.6 207.2 193.9 206.0 187.7 138.3 112.9 63.0 49.3 1,601.6 Source 1: Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (1981–2010 normals, snowy days normals for 1971–2000)[30] Source 2: Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (1901–present extremes)[31] Population[edit] Demographics[edit] Historical population Year Pop. ±% p.a. 1400 13,000 —     1481 17,250 +0.35% 1577 27,500 +0.49% 1623 30,000 +0.19% 1670 30,000 +0.00% 1748 25,244 −0.22% 1795 32,294 +0.53% Year Pop. ±% p.a. 1900 102,086 +1.10% 1910 119,006 +1.55% 1920 138,334 +1.52% 1930 153,208 +1.03% 1940 165,029 +0.75% 1950 193,190 +1.59% 1960 254,186 +2.78% Year Pop. ±% p.a. 1970 279,000 +0.94% 1980 236,208 −1.65% 1990 230,676 −0.24% 2000 233,667 +0.13% 2010 307,081 +2.77% 2011 312,634 +1.81% 2019 357,179 +1.68% Source: Lourens & Lucassen 1997, pp. 87–88 (1400–1795) Utrecht city had a population of 296,305 in 2007. It is a growing municipality and projections are that the population will surpass 392,000 by 2025.[32] As of November 2019, the city of Utrecht has a population of 357,179.[8] Utrecht has a young population, with many inhabitants in the age category from 20 and 30 years, due to the presence of a large university. About 52% of the population is female, 48% is male. The majority of households (52.5%) in Utrecht are single-person households. About 29% of people living in Utrecht are either married, or have another legal partnership. About 3% of the population of Utrecht is divorced.[32] For 69% of the population of Utrecht both parents were born in the Netherlands. Approximately 10% of the population consists of people with a recent migration background from Western countries, while 21% of the population has at least one parent who is of 'non-Western origin' (9% from Morocco, 5% Turkey, 3% Surinam and Dutch Caribbean and 5% of other countries).[32] Some of the city's boroughs have a relatively high percentage of originally people with a migration background – i.e. Kanaleneiland (83%) and Overvecht (57%). Like Rotterdam, Amsterdam, The Hague and other large Dutch cities, Utrecht faces some socio-economic problems. About 38% percent of its population either earns a minimum income or is dependent on social welfare (17% of all households). Boroughs such as Kanaleneiland, Overvecht and Hoograven consist primarily of high-rise housing developments, and are known for relatively high poverty and crime rate.[citation needed] Population of the city of Utrecht by country of birth of the parents of citizens (2018)[33] Country/Territory Population Netherlands 227,343 (65.426%) Morocco 30,656 (8.822%) Turkey 13,988 (4.026%) Indonesia 8,014 (2.306%) Suriname 7,827 (2.252%) Other 59,655 (17.168%) Religion[edit] Utrecht has been the religious centre of the Netherlands since the 8th century. Currently it is the see of the Metropolitan Archbishop of Utrecht, the most senior Dutch Roman Catholic leader.[34][35] His ecclesiastical province covers the whole kingdom. Utrecht is also the see of the archbishop of the Old Catholic church, titular head of the Union of Utrecht, and the location of the offices of the Protestant Church in the Netherlands, the main Dutch Protestant church. As of 2013, the largest religion is Christianity with 28% of the population being Christian, followed by Islam with 9.5% and Hinduism with 0.8%. Religions in Utrecht (2013)[36]   Irreligion (61.0%)   Roman Catholic (13.4%)   Protestant Church in the Netherlands (10.2%)   Other Christian denominations (4.4%)   Islam (9.5%)   Hinduism (0.8%)   Buddhism (0.6%)   Judaism (0.1%) Population centres and agglomeration[edit] The city of Utrecht is subdivided into 10 city quarters, all of which have their own neighbourhood council and service centre for civil affairs. Binnenstad Oost Leidsche Rijn West Overvecht Zuid Noordoost Zuidwest Noordwest Vleuten-De Meern Utrecht is the centre of a densely populated area, a fact which makes concise definitions of its agglomeration difficult, and somewhat arbitrary. The smaller Utrecht agglomeration of continuously built-up areas counts some 420,000 inhabitants and includes Nieuwegein, IJsselstein and Maarssen. It is sometimes argued that the close by municipalities De Bilt, Zeist, Houten, Vianen, Driebergen-Rijsenburg (Utrechtse Heuvelrug), and Bunnik should also be counted towards the Utrecht agglomeration, bringing the total to 640,000 inhabitants. The larger region, including slightly more remote towns such as Woerden and Amersfoort, counts up to 820,000 inhabitants.[37] Cityscape[edit] Panorama Oudegracht (the 'old canal') in central Utrecht The Oudegracht in the 1890s View of the Oudegracht from the Dom Tower Aerial view of Utrecht from the Dom Tower Utrecht's cityscape is dominated by the Dom Tower, the tallest belfry in the Netherlands and originally part of the Cathedral of Saint Martin.[38] An ongoing debate is over whether any building in or near the centre of town should surpass the Dom Tower in height (112 m (367 ft)). Nevertheless, some tall buildings are now being constructed that will become part of the skyline of Utrecht. The second tallest building of the city, the Rabobank-tower, was completed in 2010 and stands 105 metres (344 feet) tall.[39] Two antennas will increase that height to 120 metres (394 feet). Two other buildings were constructed around the Nieuw Galgenwaard stadium (2007). These buildings, the 'Kantoortoren Galghenwert' and 'Apollo Residence', stand 85.5 metres (280.5 feet) and 64.5 metres (211.6 feet) high respectively. Another landmark is the old centre and the canal structure in the inner city. The Oudegracht is a curved canal, partly following the ancient main branch of the Rhine. It is lined with the unique wharf-basement structures that create a two-level street along the canals.[40] The inner city has largely retained its medieval structure,[41] and the moat ringing the old town is largely intact.[42] In the 1970s part of the moat was converted into a motorway. It was then converted back into a waterway, the work being finished in 2020.[43][44] Because of the role of Utrecht as a fortified city, construction outside the medieval centre and its city walls was restricted until the 19th century. Surrounding the medieval core there is a ring of late 19th- and early 20th-century neighbourhoods, with newer neighbourhoods positioned farther out.[45] The eastern part of Utrecht remains fairly open. The Dutch Water Line, moved east of the city in the early 19th century, required open lines of fire, thus prohibiting all permanent constructions until the middle of the 20th century on the east side of the city.[46] Due to the past importance of Utrecht as a religious centre, several monumental churches were erected, many of which have survived.[47] Most prominent is the Dom Church. Other notable churches include the romanesque St Peter's and St John's churches; the gothic churches of St James and St Nicholas; and the Buurkerk, now converted into a museum for automatically playing musical instruments. Transport[edit] Public transport[edit] Because of its central location, Utrecht is well connected to the rest of the Netherlands and has a well-developed public transport network. Heavy and light rail[edit] Utrecht Centraal railway station Utrecht Centraal is the main railway station of Utrecht and is the largest in the country. There are regular intercity services to all major Dutch cities; direct services to Schiphol Airport. Utrecht Centraal is a station on the night service, providing 7 days a week an all-night service to (among others) Schiphol Airport, Amsterdam and Rotterdam. International InterCityExpress (ICE) services to Germany (and further) through Arnhem call at Utrecht Centraal. Regular local trains to all areas surrounding Utrecht also depart from Utrecht Centraal; and service several smaller stations: Utrecht Lunetten; Utrecht Vaartsche Rijn; Utrecht Overvecht; Utrecht Leidsche Rijn; Utrecht Terwijde; Utrecht Zuilen and Vleuten. A former station Utrecht Maliebaan closed in 1939 and has since been converted into the Dutch Railway Museum. The Utrecht sneltram is a light rail scheme running southwards from Utrecht Centraal to the suburbs of IJsselstein, Kanaleneiland, Lombok and Nieuwegein. The sneltram began operations in 1983 and is currently operated by the private transport company Qbuzz. On 16 December 2019 the new tram line to the Uithof started operating, creating a direct mass transit connection from the central station to the main Utrecht university campus.[48] Utrecht is the location of the headquarters of Nederlandse Spoorwegen (English: Dutch Railways) – the largest rail operator in the Netherlands – and ProRail – the state-owned company responsible for the construction and maintenance of the country's rail infrastructure. Bus transport[edit] The main local and regional bus station of Utrecht is located adjacent to Utrecht Centraal railway station, at the East and West entrances. Due to large-scale renovation and construction works at the railway station, the station's bus stops are changing frequently. As a general rule, westbound buses depart from the bus station on the west entrance, other buses from the east side station. Local buses in Utrecht are operated by Qbuzz – its services include a high-frequency service to the Uithof university district. The local bus fleet is one of Europe's cleanest, using only buses compliant with the Euro-VI standard as well as electric buses for inner city transport. Regional buses from the city are operated by Arriva and Connexxion. The Utrecht Centraal railway station is also served by the pan-European services of Eurolines. Furthermore, it acts as departure and arrival place of many coach companies serving holiday resorts in Spain and France – and during winter in Austria and Switzerland. Cycling[edit] Like most Dutch cities, Utrecht has an extensive network of cycle paths, making cycling safe and popular. 33% of journeys within the city are by bicycle, more than any other mode of transport.[49] (Cars, for example, account for 30% of trips). Bicycles are used by young and old people, and by individuals and families. They are mostly traditional, upright, steel-framed bicycles, with few gears. There are also barrow bikes, for carrying shopping or small children. In 2014, the City Council decided to build the world's largest bicycle parking station, near the Central Railway Station. This 3-floor construction will cost an estimated 48 million Euro and will hold 12,500 bicycles. The bicycle parking station was finally opened on 19 August 2019.[50] Road transport[edit] Utrecht is well-connected to the Dutch road network. Two of the most important major roads serve the city of Utrecht: the A12 and A2 motorways connect Amsterdam, Arnhem, The Hague and Maastricht, as well as Belgium and Germany. Other major motorways in the area are the Almere–Breda A27 and the Utrecht–Groningen A28.[51] Due to the increasing traffic and the ancient city plan, traffic congestion is a common phenomenon in and around Utrecht, causing elevated levels of air pollutants. This has led to a passionate debate in the city about the best way to improve the city's air quality. Shipping[edit] Utrecht has an industrial port located on the Amsterdam-Rijnkanaal.[52] The container terminal has a capacity of 80,000 containers a year. In 2003, the port facilitated the transport of four million tons of cargo; mostly sand, gravel, fertiliser and fodder.[53] Additionally, some tourist boat trips are organised from various places on the Oudegracht; and the city is connected to touristic shipping routes through sluices.[54][55][56] Economy[edit] 'De Inktpot [nl]' (The Inkpot) with fake UFO Production industry constitutes a small part of the economy of Utrecht. The economy of Utrecht depends for a large part on the several large institutions located in the city. It is the centre of the Dutch railroad network and the location of the head office of Nederlandse Spoorwegen. ProRail is headquartered in De Inktpot [nl] (The Inkwell) – the largest brick building in the Netherlands[57] (the "UFO" featured on its façade stems from an art program in 2000). Rabobank, a large bank, has its headquarters in Utrecht.[58] Education[edit] View on the Science Park campus of Utrecht University. The building in the centre is the library. Utrecht hosts several large institutions of higher education. The most prominent of these is Utrecht University (est. 1636), the largest university of the Netherlands with 30,449 students (as of 2012[update]). The university is partially based in the inner city as well as in the Uithof campus area, to the east of the city. According to Shanghai Jiaotong University's university ranking in 2014, it is the 57th best university in the world.[59] Utrecht also houses the much smaller University of Humanistic Studies, which houses about 400 students.[60] Utrecht is home of one of the locations of TIAS School for Business and Society, focused on post-experience management education and the largest management school of its kind in the Netherlands. In 2008, its executive MBA program was rated the 24th best program in the world by the Financial Times.[61] Utrecht is also home to two other large institutions of higher education: the vocational university Hogeschool Utrecht (37,000 students),[62] with locations in the city and the Uithof campus; and the HKU Utrecht School of the Arts (3,000 students). There are many schools for primary and secondary education, allowing parents to select from different philosophies and religions in the school as is inherent in the Dutch school system. Culture[edit] Miffy statue at the Nijntjepleintje in Utrecht The Rietveld Schröder House from 1924 Caryatids at the Winkel van Sinkel Utrecht city has an active cultural life, and in the Netherlands is second only to Amsterdam.[9] There are several theatres and theatre companies. The 1941 main city theatre was built by Dudok. In addition to theatres, there is a large number of cinemas including three arthouse cinemas. Utrecht is host to the international Early Music Festival (Festival Oude Muziek, for music before 1800) and the Netherlands Film Festival. The city has an important classical music hall Vredenburg (1979 by Herman Hertzberger). Its acoustics are considered among the best of the 20th-century original music halls.[citation needed] The original Vredenburg music hall has been redeveloped as part of the larger station area redevelopment plan and in 2014 gained additional halls that allowed its merger with the rock club Tivoli and the SJU jazzpodium. There are several other venues for music throughout the city. Young musicians are educated in the conservatory, a department of the Utrecht School of the Arts. There is a specialised museum of automatically playing musical instruments. Prins Clausbrug across the Amsterdam-Rhine Canal There are many art galleries in Utrecht. There are also several foundations to support art and artists. Training of artists is done at the Utrecht School of the Arts. The Centraal Museum has many exhibitions on the arts, including a permanent exhibition on the works of Utrecht resident illustrator Dick Bruna, who is best known for creating Miffy ("Nijntje", in Dutch). BAK, basis voor actuele kunst offers contemporary art exhibitions and public events, as well as a Fellowship program for practitioners involved in contemporary arts, theory and activisms. Although street art is illegal in Utrecht, the Utrechtse Kabouter, a picture of a gnome with a red hat, became a common sight in 2004.[63] Utrecht also houses one of the landmarks of modern architecture, the 1924 Rietveld Schröder House, which is listed on UNESCO's world heritage sites. Every Saturday, a paviour adds another letter to The Letters of Utrecht, an endless poem in the cobblestones of the Oude Gracht in Utrecht. With the Letters, Utrecht has a social sculpture as a growing monument created for the benefit of future people. To promote culture, Utrecht city organizes cultural Sundays. During a thematic Sunday, several organisations create a program which is open to everyone without, or with a very much reduced, admission fee. There are also initiatives for amateur artists. The city subsidises an organisation for amateur education in arts aimed at all inhabitants (Utrechts Centrum voor de Kunsten), as does the university for its staff and students. Additionally there are also several private initiatives. The city council provides coupons for discounts to inhabitants who receive welfare to be used with many of the initiatives. In 2017 Utrecht was named as a UNESCO City of Literature. Sports[edit] Triton rowing club [nl] team pauses with their coach by the Muntbrug, a rotating bridge built in 1887. Utrecht is home to the premier league (professional) football club FC Utrecht, which plays in Stadium Nieuw Galgenwaard. It is also the home of Kampong, the largest (amateur) sportsclub in the Netherlands (4,500 members), SV Kampong.[64] Kampong features field hockey, association football, cricket, tennis, squash and boules. Kampong's men and women top hockey squads play in the highest Dutch hockey league, the Rabohoofdklasse. Utrecht is also home to baseball and softball club UVV, which plays in the highest Dutch baseball league: de Hoofdklasse. Utrecht's waterways are used by several rowing clubs. Viking is a large club open to the general public, and the student clubs Orca and Triton compete in the Varsity each year. In July 2013, Utrecht hosted the European Youth Olympic Festival, in which more than 2,000 young athletes competed in nine different olympic sports. In July 2015, Utrecht hosted the Grand Départ and first stage of the Tour de France.[65] Museums[edit] Duitse Huis in April 1982 Utrecht has several smaller and larger museums. Many of those are located in the southern part of the old town, the Museumkwartier. Aboriginal Art Museum [nl],[66] located at the Oudegracht and closed since 15 June 2017, this museum had a small exhibit of Australian Aboriginal Art BAK, basis voor actuele kunst, an international platform for theoretically-informed, politically driven art and experimental research Centraal Museum, located in the MuseumQuarter, this municipal museum has a large collection of art, design, and historical artifacts; Dick Bruna huis [nl],[67] art of Centraal Museum on this separate location is dedicated to Miffy creator Dick Bruna. Duitse Huis has a collection of historical items including many charters with seals dating from as far back as the early 13th century and a collection of medieval coins.[68] Museum Catharijneconvent, Museum of the Catholic Church shows the history of Christian culture and arts in the Netherlands; Museum Speelklok National Museum in the centre of the city, displays several centuries of mechanical musical instruments; Railway Museum (Nederlands Spoorwegmuseum) Railway sponsored museum on the history of the Dutch railways; Utrecht Archives,[69] are located at Hamburgerstraat 28 in Utrecht; Utrecht university museum [nl][70] Utrecht University museum includes the ancient botanical garden; Volksbuurtmuseum Wijk C [nl][71] Sonnenborgh Observatory[72] observatory and museum that regularly hosts lectures on astronomy, located at Zonnenburg 2 in Utrecht; Betje Boerhave Museum [nl][73] museum for the grocer's shop where you can still buy old-fashioned food and non-food items, located at Hoogt 6 in Utrecht. Music and events[edit] The city has several music venues such as TivoliVredenburg, Tivoli De Helling, ACU, Moira, EKKO, DB's and RASA. Utrecht hosts the yearly Utrecht Early Music Festival (Festival Oude Muziek).[74] In Jaarbeurs it hosts Trance Energy. Every summer there used to be the Summer Darkness festival, which celebrated goth culture and music.[75] In November the Le Guess Who? festival, focused on indie rock, art rock and experimental rock, takes place in many of the city's venues. Theatre[edit] There are two main theaters in the city, the Theater Kikker [nl][76] and the Stadsschouwburg Utrecht [nl][77] De parade, a travelling theatre festival, performs in Utrecht in summer. The city also hosts the yearly Festival a/d Werf which offers a selection of contemporary international theatre, together with visual arts, public art and music. Notable people from Utrecht[edit] Birthplace of Pope Adrian VI Main article: List of people from Utrecht See also the category People from Utrecht Over the ages famous people have been born and/or raised in Utrecht. Among the most famous Utrechters are: Pope Adrian VI (1459–1523) – head of the Catholic Church Louis Andriessen (1939) – composer Marco van Basten (1964) – football player Dick Bruna (1927–2017) – writer, illustrator (Miffy) C.H.D. Buys Ballot (1817–1890) – meteorologist (Buys-Ballot's law) Theo van Doesburg (1883–1931) – painter, artist (De Stijl movement) Karel Doorman (1889–1942) – Rear Admiral (Battle of the Java Sea) Paul Fentener van Vlissingen (1941–2006) – businessman and philanthropist Anton Geesink (1934–2010) – judoka, first non-Japanese worldchampion Judo Rijk de Gooyer (1925–2011) – actor, writer, comedian and singer Sylvia Kristel (1952–2012) – actress Emmanuelle Gerrit Rietveld (1888–1964) – designer, architect (De Stijl movement) Dafne Schippers (1992) – sprinter/heptathlon Olympian Herman van Veen (1945) – actor, musician, singer-songwriter and author Alfred J. Kwak Wil Velders-Vlasblom (1930–2019), first woman alderman in Utrecht International relations[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in the Netherlands Twin towns[edit] Utrecht is twinned with: León, Nicaragua Brno, Czech Republic[78][79] Pekanbaru, Indonesia previously Hannover, Germany, between 1970 and 1976 Other relations[edit] Portland, Oregon, United States as a friendship city[80] See also[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Utrecht (city). Catharijne Lauwerecht List of mayors of Utrecht Utrecht (agglomeration) Notes[edit] ^ See Utrecht sodomy trials § Legacy for the history of these demonyms. ^ Almost all other canal cities in The Netherlands (such as Amsterdam and Delft) have the water in canals bordering directly to the road surface References[edit] ^ "Burgemeester" [Mayor] (in Dutch). Gemeente Utrecht. Archived from the original on 7 April 2014. Retrieved 3 April 2014. ^ a b Anita Bouman–Eijs; Thijmen van Bree; Wouter Jonkhoff; Olaf Koops; Walter Manshanden; Elmer Rietveld (17 December 2012). De Top 20 van Europese grootstedelijke regio's 1995–2011; Randstad Holland in internationaal perspectief [Top 20 of European metropolitan regions 1995–2011; Randstad Holland compared internationally] (PDF) (Technical report) (in Dutch). Delft: TNO. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2014. Retrieved 25 July 2013. ^ "Postcodetool for 3512GG". Actueel Hoogtebestand Nederland (in Dutch). Het Waterschapshuis. Retrieved 3 April 2014. ^ "Bevolkingsontwikkeling; regio per maand" [Population growth; regions per month]. CBS Statline (in Dutch). CBS. 1 January 2019. Retrieved 1 January 2019. ^ "Bevolkingsontwikkeling; regio per maand" [Population growth; regions per month]. CBS Statline (in Dutch). CBS. 26 June 2014. Retrieved 24 July 2014. ^ "Utrecht". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Retrieved 15 April 2019. ^ "Utrecht" (US) and "Utrecht". Oxford Dictionaries UK Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 15 April 2019. ^ a b https://opendata.cbs.nl/statline/#/CBS/nl/dataset/37230ned/table?ts=1578685738191 ^ a b Gemeente Utrecht. "Utrecht Monitor 2007" (PDF) (in Dutch). Retrieved 6 January 2008. ^ Planet, Lonely (14 May 2012). "10 of the world's unsung places". Lonely Planet. Retrieved 6 August 2017. ^ "Gemeente Utrecht, Geschiedenis Utrecht voor 1528". ^ a b c d e f g h i de Bruin, R.E.; Hoekstra, T.J.; Pietersma, A. (1999). Twintig eeuwen Utrecht, korte geschiedenis van de stad (in Dutch). Utrecht: SPOU & Het Utrechts Archief. ISBN 90-5479-040-7. ^ Het Utrechts Archief. "Het ontstaan van de stad Utrecht (tot 100)" (in Dutch). ^ Nicoline van der Sijs (2001). Chronologisch woordenboek. De ouderdom en herkomst van onze woorden en betekenissen (in Dutch). Amsterdam/Antwerpen. p. 100. ISBN 90-204-2045-3. ^ R.P.J. Kloosterman (2010). Lichte Gaard 9. Archeologisch onderzoek naar het castellum en het bisschoppelijk paleis. Basisrapportage archeologie 41 (PDF). StadsOntwikkeling gemeente Utrecht. ISBN 978-90-73448-39-1. ^ van der Tuuk, Luit (2005). "Denen in Dorestad". In Ria van der Eerden; et al. (eds.). Jaarboek Oud Utrecht 2005. Jaarboek Oud Utrecht (in Dutch). Utrecht: SPOU. pp. 5–40. ISBN 90-71108-24-4. ^ Janssen, H.P.H. (2002). Geschiedenis van de Middeleeuwen (in Dutch) (12th ed.). Utrecht: Aula. pp. 289–296. ISBN 90-274-5377-2. ^ Stöver, R.J. (1997). De Salvator- of Oudmunsterkerk te Utrecht, Stichtingsmonument van het bisdom Utrecht (in Dutch). Utrecht. ^ "Janskerk Informatie". Retrieved 6 January 2008. ^ "Sint Pieterskerk Utrecht". Retrieved 5 January 2008. ^ Haverkate, H.M. (1985). Een kerk van papier. De geschiedenis van de voormalige Mariakerk te Utrecht (in Dutch). Zutphen, the Netherlands. ^ Broer, C.J.C. (2000). Uniek in de stad. De oudste geschiedenis van de kloostergemeenschap op de Hohorst sinds 1050 de Sint-Paulusabdij te Utrecht (in Dutch). Utrecht. ^ "Karel V" (in Dutch). Retrieved 6 January 2008. ^ "Jacobikerk". Retrieved 6 January 2008. ^ "Nicolaikerk". Retrieved 6 January 2008. ^ "Geertekerk – Remonstrantse Gemeente Utrecht". Retrieved 6 January 2008. ^ "De Utrechtse (Werven" (in Dutch). Gemeente Utrecht. Archived from the original on 16 October 2008. Retrieved 27 January 2008. ^ "Historic wharf photos from the Utrecht City Archive". Utrecht City Archive. Retrieved 27 January 2008. [permanent dead link] ^ Wayne Franits (2004). Dutch Seventeenth-Century Genre Painting. Yale University Press. p. 65. ISBN 0-300-10237-2. ^ "Klimaattabel De Bilt, langjarige gemiddelden, tijdvak 1981–2010" (PDF) (in Dutch). Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute. Retrieved 9 September 2013. ^ "Maandrecords De Bilt" (in Dutch). Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute. Retrieved 9 May 2016. ^ a b c Gemeente Utrecht. "Utrechts onderzoek en cijfers". Archived from the original on 15 October 2009. Retrieved 15 October 2010. ^ "CBS StatLine – Bevolking; leeftijd, herkomstgroepering, geslacht en regio, 1 januari". ^ "Aartsbisdom Utrecht" (in Dutch). Retrieved 10 December 2007. ^ "Katholiek Nederland" (in Dutch). Retrieved 10 December 2007. ^ "Kerkelijkheid en kerkbezoek, 2010/2013". Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek. ^ CBS Statline (2007). "Gemiddelde bevolking per regio naar leeftijd en geslacht / Gebieden in Nederland 2007". Retrieved 5 January 2008. [permanent dead link] ^ "RonDom". Domtoren.nl. Retrieved 13 April 2011. ^ "Rabobank Groep". Rabobankgroep.nl. Archived from the original on 24 July 2011. Retrieved 13 April 2011. ^ "Cultuurhistorie en Monumenten". Utrecht.nl. 4 December 1993. Archived from the original on 8 June 2011. Retrieved 13 April 2011. ^ "Wijksite Binnenstad". Utrecht.nl. 30 March 2011. Archived from the original on 8 June 2011. Retrieved 13 April 2011. ^ "Utrecht". Map21ltd.com. Archived from the original on 7 August 2003. Retrieved 13 April 2011. ^ "Joining the circle: Utrecht removes road to be ringed by water once more". DutchNews.nl. Retrieved 23 September 2020. ^ "Utrecht restores historic canal made into motorway in 1970s". The Guardian. Retrieved 23 September 2020. ^ Historische Atlas van de stad Utrecht. ISBN 90-8506-189-X ^ Waterliniepad (in Dutch) (1st ed.). Wandelplatform-LAW. 2004. ISBN 90-71068-61-7. ^ "Kerken Kijken Utrecht | Home". Kerkenkijken.nl. Retrieved 13 April 2011. ^ "Railway Gazette: Qbuzz wins Utrecht sneltram concession". Retrieved 31 October 2010. ^ "Microsoft Word - Utrecht city document.doc" (PDF). Retrieved 23 June 2014. ^ "Utrecht to build world's biggest bike park – for 12,500 bikes – DutchNews.nl". DutchNews.nl. Retrieved 29 March 2015. ^ "Autosnelwegen.nl". Autosnelwegen.nl. Retrieved 13 April 2011. ^ Clarke, Michael. "Amsterdam-Rhine Canal (canal, the Netherlands) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica.com. Retrieved 13 April 2011. ^ "Container Terminal Utrecht". Ctu.net. Retrieved 13 April 2011. ^ Martijn Elsinghorst. "Rondvaart Utrecht". Vareninutrecht.nl. Retrieved 13 April 2011. ^ "50 JAAR REDERIJ". Schuttevaer. Retrieved 13 April 2011. ^ "Lovers Rondvaart – In Utrecht uit – de uitagenda over uitgaan restaurants in Utrecht". Inutrechtuit.nl. Archived from the original on 24 June 2011. Retrieved 13 April 2011. ^ "De administratiegebouwen van de spoorwegen te Utrecht" (in Dutch). 15 February 2016. Retrieved 10 April 2020. ^ "Toezicht - Rabobank". rabobank.nl (in Dutch). Retrieved 10 April 2020. ^ "World-University-Rankings". www.shanghairanking.com. Retrieved 30 March 2015. ^ "About the University of Humanistic Studies (Dutch)". Archived from the original on 16 January 2013. Retrieved 25 December 2012. ^ Financial Times. "FT.com". Retrieved 6 January 2008. ^ Hogeschool Utrecht. "Kengetallen HU Jaarverslag". Archived from the original on 18 July 2012. Retrieved 7 August 2012. ^ "Home". weebly.com. Retrieved 29 March 2015. ^ "kampong.nl". kampong.nl. Archived from the original on 18 February 2005. Retrieved 23 June 2014. ^ "Utrecht 2015: the colour of cycling – News pre-race – Tour de France 2014". Letour.fr. 28 November 2013. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 23 June 2014. ^ "aamu.nl". aamu.nl. 6 June 2014. Archived from the original on 3 July 2014. Retrieved 23 June 2014. ^ "Centraal Museum Utrecht" (in Dutch). dick bruna huis. Archived from the original on 17 February 2006. Retrieved 23 June 2014. ^ "Over RDO". Ridderlijke Duitsche Orde. Archived from the original on 25 February 2014. Retrieved 21 June 2014. ^ "hetutrechtsarchief.nl". hetutrechtsarchief.nl. Retrieved 13 July 2014. ^ "web.archive.org – www.museum.uu.nl". uu.nl. Archived from the original on 12 February 2008. ^ Etlon (30 September 2007). "Volksbuurtmuseum wijk C". Archived from the original on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 23 June 2014. ^ "English - Sonnenborch". Retrieved 24 July 2018. ^ "Museum voor het kruideniersbedrijf - Kruideniersmuseum". www.kruideniersmuseum.nl. Retrieved 24 July 2018. ^ "OudeMuziek :: Home". Oudemuziek.nl. Retrieved 23 June 2014. ^ Hartley, Brandon. "When the Goths Have Their Picnic". Another World Blog. Retrieved 10 October 2011. ^ "theaterkikker.nl". theaterkikker.nl. Retrieved 23 June 2014. ^ "stadsschouwburg-utrecht.nl". stadsschouwburg-utrecht.nl. Retrieved 23 June 2014. ^ "City of Brno Foreign Relations – Statutory city of Brno" (in Czech). 2003 City of Brno. Archived from the original on 15 January 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2011. External link in |publisher= (help) ^ "Brno – Partnerská města" (in Czech). City of Brno. Retrieved 17 July 2009. ^ "Portland, Oregon". Washington, DC, USA: Sister Cities International. Archived from the original on 27 May 2015. Retrieved 4 July 2015. Bibliography[edit] See also: Bibliography of the history of Utrecht Lourens, Piet; Lucassen, Jan (1997). Inwonertallen van Nederlandse steden ca. 1300–1800. Amsterdam: NEHA. ISBN 9057420082. External links[edit] Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Utrecht. Official website CU 2030, redevelopment of the Utrecht Central railroad station area (in Dutch) v t e Populated places in the municipality of Utrecht Towns Utrecht consists of 10 city parts Binnenstad Oost Leidsche Rijn West Overvecht Zuid Noordoost Zuidwest Noordwest Vleuten-De Meern Hamlets Alendorp Lage Haar Ockhuizen Oudenrijn Stadsdam Strijkviertel Themaat Het Zand Veldhuizen List of cities, towns and villages in Utrecht (province) v t e Municipalities of Utrecht Amersfoort Baarn Bunnik Bunschoten De Bilt De Ronde Venen Eemnes Houten IJsselstein Leusden Lopik Montfoort Nieuwegein Oudewater Renswoude Rhenen Soest Stichtse Vecht Utrecht Utrechtse Heuvelrug Veenendaal Vijfheerenlanden Wijk bij Duurstede Woerden Woudenberg Zeist See also Netherlands Provinces Municipalities v t e Capital cities of the Kingdom of the Netherlands National capital: Amsterdam Seat of government: The Hague Constituent countries Provinces Public bodies Oranjestad, Aruba Willemstad, Curaçao Amsterdam, Netherlands Philipsburg, Sint Maarten Assen, Drenthe Lelystad, Flevoland Leeuwarden, Friesland Arnhem, Gelderland Groningen, Groningen Maastricht, Limburg 's-Hertogenbosch, North Brabant Haarlem, North Holland Zwolle, Overijssel The Hague, South Holland Utrecht, Utrecht Middelburg, Zeeland Kralendijk, Bonaire The Bottom, Saba Oranjestad, Sint Eustatius See also: List of cities in the Netherlands by province Authority control GND: 4062222-8 ISNI: 0000 0004 1794 7612 LCCN: n79022996 MBAREA: a727c39a-8d76-4a1a-9033-696ada9bedda NKC: ge149784 NLI: 000136387 VIAF: 124196221 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79022996 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Utrecht&oldid=991317564" Categories: Utrecht (city) 40s establishments in the Roman Empire Cities in the Netherlands Municipalities of Utrecht (province) Populated places in Utrecht (province) Populated places on the Rhine Provincial capitals of the Netherlands Populated places established in the 1st century Hidden categories: CS1 Dutch-language sources (nl) All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from April 2018 Articles with permanently dead external links Articles with dead external links from August 2019 CS1 errors: external links CS1 Czech-language sources (cs) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from October 2020 Coordinates on Wikidata Articles with hAudio microformats All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2016 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2012 All articles containing potentially dated statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2015 Articles needing additional references from July 2015 All articles needing additional references Commons category link is on Wikidata Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia Articles with Dutch-language sources (nl) Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz area identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikivoyage Languages Afrikaans አማርኛ Ænglisc العربية Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ Arpetan Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Català Cebuano Čeština Chavacano de Zamboanga Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gaelg Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Limburgs Magyar Македонски मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nāhuatl Nederlands Nedersaksies 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча پنجابی Papiamentu پښتو Picard Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русский Scots Seeltersk Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Ślůnski Soomaaliga Sranantongo Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Татарча/tatarça ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Volapük West-Vlams Winaray 吴语 粵語 Zeêuws 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 29 November 2020, at 12:37 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7585	----	Constitution of the Roman Republic - Wikipedia Constitution of the Roman Republic From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The norms, customs, and written laws, which guided the government of the Roman Republic Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e The constitution of the Roman Republic was a set of uncodified norms and customs which,[1] together with various written laws,[2] guided the procedural governance of the Roman Republic. The constitution emerged from that of the Roman kingdom, evolved substantively and significantly—almost to the point of unrecognisability[3]—over the almost five hundred years of the republic. The collapse of republican government and norms from 133 BC would lead to the rise of Augustus and his principate.[4] The republican constitution can be divided into three main branches:[5] the Assemblies, composed of the people, which served as the supreme repository of political power and had the authority to elect magistrates, accept or reject laws, administer justice, and declare war or peace;[6] the Senate, which advised the magistrates,[7] acting primarily not on legal authority per se, but rather with its influence, and the magistrates, elected by the people to govern the Republic in their name, exercising religious, military, and judicial powers, along with the right to preside over and call upon the assemblies.[8] A complex set of checks and balances developed between these three branches. For example, the assemblies theoretically held all power, but were called and governed by the magistrates, who, controlling discussion, exercised dominating influence over them.[9] Other magistrates could also veto proceedings before the assemblies, though until the late republic, this was rare.[10] Similarly, to check the power of the magistrates, each magistrate could veto one of their colleagues and the plebeians elected tribunes who could intercede and veto the actions of a magistrate.[11] The republic's constitution, while malleable and evolving, still had substantive norms that entrenched certain portions of it. The senate, consuls, etc were at various times reformed substantially, but existed continuously through the whole republican period.[12] And the rule that what the legislature (here the assemblies) created was binding law continued, with exception of the dictatorships, through the whole of the republican period.[12] Starting from a period of patrician domination, the Conflict of the Orders eventually granted plebeian citizens equal political rights, while also creating the tribunate to check patrician power and empowering the plebeian assembly, an assembly composed of the plebeians of Rome, with full legislative authority.[13] The late republic saw an increase in the centralisation of power into the hands of provincial governors,[14] the use of military power to enforce political changes (e.g. the Sullan dictatorship),[15] and the use of violence, combined with exploitation of the suitably bribed or intimidated "sovereign" assemblies, to grant supreme authority to victorious commanders.[16] The increasing legitimisation of violence and centralisation of authority into fewer and fewer men would, with the collapse of trust in the Republic's institutions,[16] put it on a path to civil war and its transformation by Augustus into an autocratic regime cloaked with republican imagery and legitimacy.[17][18] Contents 1 Development of the constitution 2 Assemblies 2.1 Procedure 2.2 Assembly types 3 Senate 4 Executive magistrates 4.1 Ordinary magistrates 4.2 Extraordinary magistrates 5 Constitutional instability 5.1 Political violence 5.2 Sulla's civil war 5.3 Collapse of the Republic 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 Further reading 9.1 Secondary sources 9.2 Primary sources Development of the constitution[edit] Main articles: History of the Roman Constitution and History of the Constitution of the Roman Republic The "Capitoline Brutus", traditionally identified as a bust of Lucius Junius Brutus (d. 509 BC), who himself was identified traditionally as the founder of the republic. The early republican constitution was dominated by the patricians, who monopolised all control of the magistracies, the Senate, and the voting blocs of the assemblies. Generally, it slowly developed with a tendency towards greater popular representation at the expense of the patrician class.[19] The main historical sources for the origins of the Roman political system, Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, relied heavily on the Roman annalists, who supplemented what little written history existed with oral history. This lack of evidence poses problems for the reliability of the traditional account of the republic's origins.[20] According to this traditional account, Rome had been ruled by a succession of kings. The Romans believed that this era, that of the Roman kingdom, began in 753 BC and ended in 510 BC. After the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the Republic, the people of Rome began electing two consuls each year.[21] According to the consular fasti, a list of the consuls going back to the foundation of the Republic, the first consuls were chosen in 509 BC.[22] Some scholars doubt this traditional account, arguing instead that the monarchy evolved into a government led by elected magistrates.[23] Remnants of the monarchy, however, were reflected in republican institutions, such as the religious office of rex sacrorum ("king of the sacred") and the interregnum (a period of time presided over by an interrex when the offices of consul, praetor, and dictator were all vacant).[24] There is, however, evidence that the early Republic was a time of violent change, with the word rex carrying the same connotations as tyrant and laws which declared forfeit the life and property of any man who plotted to install himself as a king or tyrant.[23] The first assemblies of the Republic emerged during the Kingdom, with their use to ratify regal elections and the repurposing of the comitia centuriata to elect the first consuls.[23] This regime was dominated by the patricians, and the sources on the early Republic overwhelmingly focus on the conflicts between the patricians and the plebs, in what is known as the Conflict of the Orders.[25] The early years of the Republic were a time of external strife and periodic popular unrest. In 494 BC, under harsh measures from patrician creditors, during a military campaign, the plebeians under arms seceded to the Mons Sacer outside the city and refused to fight in the campaign without political concessions. With the pressure of an external threat, the patricians were forced to recognise the office of Plebeian tribune (Latin: tribuni plebis) who were declared sacrosanct,[25] i.e. that they were declared inviolable and that anyone could be summarily executed for violation of the sanctity of his person.[26] This was the basis of the tribune's ability to veto (literally translated as "I forbid") any political act or to protect any individual from an injustice committed by a magistrate, known as intercessio and auxilium, respectively.[27] The people gave the tribunes, whose number is unclear,[25] two assistants known as plebeian aediles.[28] Later, again under pressure from the plebs, a political compromise was reached in which the consuls and tribunes would give place to a commission of ten men, the decemviri, who would be empowered to publish a code of laws for all Rome, the Twelve Tables.[29] According to Livy, it codified all public and private law, but its promulgation did not grant further political rights to the plebs, as it enshrined into the tables a law banning intermarriage between plebeians and patricians.[30] With a short attempt to establish a tyranny by the decemviri, they were overthrown by the second secession of the army, restoring the old republic and preventing the creation of a new constitution based on the ten-man commission.[31] In 446 BC, quaestors, administrators with wide terms of reference, were first elected; and the office of censor was created to administer the census in 443 BC.[31][32] However, the creation of the censors also was concurrent with the practice of electing military tribunes with consular authority, which, while open to the plebs, stalled efforts to reform the consulate itself.[33] In 367 BC, plebeians were allowed to stand for the consulship, and this implicitly opened both the censorship as well as the dictatorship to plebeians.[34] Around this time, the practice of electing military tribunes with consular authority was dropped. In 366 BC, in an effort by the patricians to reassert their influence over the magisterial offices, two new offices were created. These two offices, the praetorship and the curule aedileship (so-called because its holder, like consuls and praetors, had the right to sit in a curule seat),[35] were at first open only to patricians, but within a generation they were open to plebeians as well.[28] Beginning around the year 350 BC, the senators and the plebeian tribunes began to grow closer.[14] The Senate began giving tribunes more power, and the tribunes began to feel indebted to the Senate.[14] As the tribunes and the senators grew closer, plebeian senators began to routinely secure the office of tribune for members of their own families.[36] Also, this period saw the enacting of the plebiscitum Ovinium, which transferred the power to appoint new senators from the consuls to the censors. This law also required the censors to appoint any newly elected magistrate to the Senate,[37] which probably resulted in a significant increase in the number of plebeian senators.[38] As the privileged status of the old patrician elite eroded over time, a plebeian aristocracy developed whose status was theoretically based on merit and popular election rather than birth.[38][39] Because patricians were ineligible to run for plebeian offices, the new plebeian aristocracy actually had more opportunities for advancement than their patrician counterparts.[40] Over time distinctions between patricians and plebeian aristocrats became less important, giving rise to a new "patricio-plebeian aristocracy" termed the nobilitas.[38] In 287 BC, the plebeians again seceded. To end the secession, the lex Hortensia was passed, which required that plebiscites, laws passed by the Plebeian Council, be binding on the whole Roman people.[19] The Hortensian law resolved the last great political question of the earlier era; the electoral and legislative sovereignty of the assemblies was confirmed and would remain part of the constitution until the demise of the Republic.[19] As a whole, the outcome of the political struggles of the early republic was to eliminate the privileged status of patricians in the constitution and grant the plebs recognition of their own officers.[39] The institution of the Senate was also now arguably stronger, as it became a repository of former magistrates rather than a body of hereditary nobles.[39] Assemblies[edit] Main article: Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic Further information: Roman assemblies Chart showing the checks and balances of the Constitution of the Roman Republic In Roman constitutional law, the assemblies were a sovereign authority, with the power to enact or reject any law, confer any magistracies, and make any decision.[6] In fact, with a single law, they held the authority to override the norms and precedents of the Republic as well as ancient laws long unchanged.[41] There were two necessary components to any assembly: (1) the convening magistrate and (2) the citizens in the assembly itself. Assemblies did not participate or discuss matters laid before them, they heard the speakers put forth by the presiding officer. And after such discussion, the presiding officer could call for a direct up or down vote.[42] Without a magistrate, there would be nobody to legally call upon the assembly; and without the citizens, there is naught but a magistrate. Assemblies did not consist of the whole Roman people (Latin: populus Romanus) as only adult male citizens were permitted to participate. Until the Social War around 90 BC, Italian non-Romans were prohibited from voting as well.[43] That civil war, between Rome and her Italian allies, led to various laws granting citizenship and voting rights to their Italian allies. Procedure[edit] There were three types of gatherings, the comitia, the concilium, and the contio or conventio. The first two were formal gatherings where legal decisions were made. The first, the comitia (or comitiatus), was an assembly of all Roman citizens convened to take a legal action, such as enacting laws, electing magistrates, and trying judicial cases.[44][45] The second type of legislative meeting was the council (Latin: concilium), which was a gathering of a specific group of citizens. For example, the concilium Plebis, or Plebeian council, was for meetings of plebeians only.[46] The third type of gathering, the convention (Latin: contio or conventio), was an unofficial forum for communication where citizens gathered to hear public announcements and arguments debated in speeches as well to witness the examination or execution of criminals. In contrast to the formal assembly or council, no legal decisions were made by the convention.[46] Voters met in conventions to deliberate prior to meeting in assemblies or councils to vote.[47] Assemblies and councils operated according to established procedures overseen by the augurs. They could only be convened by magistrates, and citizens only voted on matters proposed by the presiding magistrate.[6][46] Over the years, laws were passed which mandated a written ballot, attempted to reduce voter intimidation, and established procedures to watch over voting and prevent voter fraud.[48] For elections, it was not a matter of who received the most votes, but rather who could first be approved by a majority of the voting blocs.[49] All votes had to be completed within a single day and had to be done again if interrupted or abandoned.[50] Assembly types[edit] Roman citizens were organized into three types of voting units: curiae, centuria, and tribus or tribes. These corresponded to three different kinds of assemblies: the Curiate Assembly, the Centuriate Assembly, and the Tribal Assembly. Each unit (curia, century or tribe) cast one vote before their assembly.[49] The majority of individual votes in any century, tribe, or curia decided how that unit voted.[49] The Curiate assembly (Latin: comitia curiata) traditionally dates to the early monarchy, from 30 divisions of the city made by Romulus.[50] By the middle Republic, it served only a symbolic purpose. At some point, the 30 curiae ceased to actually meet and were instead represented by 30 lictors. This assembly had authority over some elements of family law and ratified the imperium of elected magistrates and promagistrates through a lex curiata de imperio.[50] In the realm of family law, it was presided over by the pontifex maximus.[51] However, there was considerable debate in the late Republic on whether or not a magistrate's election actually required ratification by the curiae,[52] and by 212 BC, the Senate refrained from enforcing this quirk of precedent.[53] The Centuriate assembly (Latin: comitia centuriata) was formed under the monarchy, and widely seen by the ancients as a means of allotting voting privileges in proportion to military duties demanded of the citizenry,[54] disproportionately granting voting power to the richest in society, as at the time of its formation, the wealthiest were also expected to contribute the most to the military.[54] By the middle Republic, the connection between voting power and military service had long ceased, turning into a system to suppress the voting power of the poor.[55] Because of its military roots, it could only be called into session by a magistrate holding imperium.[51] Originally divided into 193 voting blocs, these blocs were further subdivided into five classes and a class of equites by wealth, each further subdivided by age into a junior and senior bloc. The first class and the equites held 98 of the 193 voting blocs, an absolute majority.[56] This was later reformed around 241 BC, into an assembly of 373 voting blocs with each class having the same number of votes, though the wealth requirements necessarily meant that the wealthier classes were composed of fewer people.[57] The body was primarily called for the election of consuls, praetors, and censors;[58] while it could hear legislation, trials, and only it could declare an offensive war,[59] these were increasingly rare by the second century BC.[58] The Tribal assembly (Latin: comitia tributa) dates from time immemorial, as no ancient historian mentions its establishment.[60] In the early Republic, there were four urban tribes and 17 rural tribes.[58] In 241 BC, fourteen rural tribes were added, bringing the total to thirty-five.[58] The "tribes" were not ethnic or kinship groups, but rather a district to which people were assigned.[61] A citizen's tribe was inherited from his father, and only changed upon adoption or reallocation in the census;[62] over time, this meant that tribal affiliation had little relationship to a citizen's home or even place of birth.[63] The vast majority of legislation was enacted in the comitia tributa,[54] which also elected quaestors, curule aediles, and military tribunes.[64][65] The Plebeian council (Latin: concilium plebis) was identical to the Tribal assembly with one key exception: only plebeians had the power to vote in it.[66] It elected the plebeian tribunes and aediles, and later, various other minor posts.[67] It also had the ability to enact laws called plebiscites, which in the early Republic, only applied to plebs, but after the passage of lex Hortensia, applied to all Romans.[19] In the early Republic, the council also had some judicial functions, but by the middle Republic, much of these functions were transferred to permanent courts.[68] Senate[edit] Main article: Senate of the Roman Republic Further information: Roman Senate Artist's impression of the Senate in session, Cicero delivering his oration Catiline, from a 19th-century fresco. The Senate was the predominant political institution in the Roman Republic. The Senate's authority derived primarily from custom and tradition.[7] It was also one of the few places in which free political discussion could take place.[69] The Senate's principal role was as an advisory council to the consuls on matters of foreign and military policy, and it exercised a great deal of influence over consular decision-making.[70] The Senate resolved disputes between magistrates and oversaw the allocation of public resources to magistrates. It also assigned magistrates to provinces.[69] Some of its responsibilities were enshrined in specific legislation, such as the lex Caecilia Didia which gave the Senate power to declare a law invalid.[71] During the Kingdom, the Senate consisted of persons selected to the position by the King, a power which the consuls inherited after the end of the monarchy.[72] In the very early Republic, senators were primarily chosen due to their birth,[73] but by the late Republic, and especially after Sulla, membership in the Senate became predicated on having previously held a magistracy.[74] In the late 4th century BC, the consul's power to control Senate membership was transferred to the censor,[72] exercised with considerable discretion, until laws passed in the late Republic formalised some kind of hearing before censorial decisions.[75] In line with the censor's duty to protect morals, senators were required to be of good character, not have been found guilty of a criminal offence, and not be a person tainted with ignominy (e.g. bankrupts, former gladiators, prostitutes, or deserters).[76] Before the time of Augustus, there is no evidence of any kind of property qualification.[77] The Senate consisted of around 300 prior to the dictatorship of Sulla, but after his dictatorship, it consisted of somewhere over 500 men.[73] A decree from the Senate was called senatus consultum (plural senatus consulta). While this was formally "advice" from the Senate to a magistrate stating the Senate's position on some topic, the senatus consulta were usually obeyed by the magistrates.[78] If a senatus consultum conflicted with a law that was passed by a popular assembly, the law overrode the senatus consultum.[79] Meetings could take place either inside or outside of the formal boundary of the city (the pomerium), though the official meeting place, or curia was at the centre of the Roman forum. The president of the Senate was normally one of the consuls, but it could be called to meet by any of the praetors or tribunes, both of whom had the authority to call the Senate, though praetors rarely did so unless the consuls were away and the tribunes almost never did so.[80] Meetings were suffused in religious ritual. Temples were a preferred meeting site and auspices would be taken before the meeting could commence.[75] The presiding consul began each meeting with a speech on an issue,[81] and then referred the issue to the senators, who discussed the matter by order of seniority.[81] Unimportant matters could be voted on by a voice vote or by a show of hands, while important votes resulted in a physical division of the house,[82] with senators voting by taking a place on either side of the chamber. Any vote was always between a proposal and its negative.[83] Since all meetings had to end by nightfall, a senator could talk a proposal to death (a filibuster) if he could keep the debate going until nightfall.[81] Any proposed motion could be vetoed by a tribune,[40] and if it was not vetoed, it was then turned into a final senatus consultum. Each senatus consultum was transcribed into a document by the presiding magistrate, and then deposited into the aerarium (the public treasury).[84] Executive magistrates[edit] Main articles: Roman Magistrates and Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic The toga praetexta, the dress of magistrates from the aedile to the consul.[85] Magistrates were elected officials, serving as representatives of the people for the conduct of public business.[86] There were two broad categories of magistrates, the ordinary magistrates such as the consuls, products of the republican constitution, and the extraordinary magistrates such as the dictators, remnants of the monarchial constitution and reserved primarily for emergencies.[86] Each magistrate held potestas, the authority to exercise the office's powers conferred by custom or statute.[87] The most powerful magistrates, such as the extraordinary magistrates, consuls, and praetors, held a kind of authority known as imperium, the authority to command in a military or judicial sense.[88] Ordinary magistrates[edit] Of the ordinary magistrates, there were two further divisions: the higher magistrates, composed of consuls, praetors, their prorogued equivalents and the censors; and the lower magistrates, composed of the tribunes, aediles, quaestors and other minor positions.[5] All higher magistrates were elected by the Centuriate Assembly. The most powerful ordinary magistrate was the consul, of whom there were two,[a] who served for the period of one year.[90] These consuls had the authority to call assemblies of the people.[91] In the early Republic, they held judicial duties until these responsibilities were moved to the praetors and later to permanent courts; similarly, they held financial responsibilities until these duties were transferred to the quaestors.[92] The consuls also held vague religious duties inherited from the kings,[93] along with their more important military functions, serving as the commander-in-chief of Rome's armies. The next magistrate was the praetor, who increased in number over the course of the Republic[b] and were primarily judges.[95] In the later Republic, praetors were increasingly sent out to the provinces to serve as provincial governors, especially as prorogued magistrates.[95] In Rome, there were primarily two kinds of praetor, the praetor urbanus and the praetor peregrinus, in charge of suits involving citizens and foreigners, respectively.[96] They were also assigned, in the late Republic, to various permanent courts with specific criminal jurisdiction.[c][97] When the consuls were away, the praetors were empowered to command armies and serve in the place of the consuls, and thus also held authority to call assemblies and introduce legislation[98] Over time, as Rome's empire grew, the two annual consuls ceased to be enough to command its many armies in the field or administer its many provinces. To solve this problem, it became normal to prorogue the authority of current consuls and praetors beyond their normal terms so they could continue to command in the field.[99] Over time, however, with increasing need for competent generals and administrators, prorogation of magistrates became the norm;[100] and the device was used, increasingly by the assemblies, to grant imperium to popular politicians.[100] The censor was appointed specifically to conduct the census. This involved counting the Roman people, assessing their property, and assigning them to their appropriate centuria and tribus.[100] They were elected around every four or five years.[101] After the passage of lex Ovinia, the censors were also transferred the power from the consuls to control membership in the Senate.[73] Along with the main responsibility of dealing with the census, the censors also dealt with property disputes, public contracts, and the management of public lands.[102] Gaius Gracchus, tribune of the people, presiding over the Plebeian Council, in an artist's impression from 1799. The lower magistrates included the tribune of the plebs, who was elected by the Plebeian Council, and the aediles and quaestors, elected by the Tribal Assembly. The tribune was sacrosanct, i.e. declared inviolable, with summary execution for violators of his sanctity.[26] It was on this basis that the tribune could veto any political act or to protect any individual from an injustice committed by a magistrate, known as intercessio and auxilium, respectively.[27] This power was used increasingly to block public business in the later republic, and was only limited in that a tribune could not oppose the will of the people as a whole.[d][104] The aediles were in charge of various municipal tasks, e.g. the upkeep of temples, streets, and the water-supply.[105] They were also responsible for public games,[105] and some aspects of police work in the city.[106] The quaestors were elected administrators, which could be put in charge of the treasury, the granaries, or various administrative postings in Italy, with the consuls, or in the provinces.[107] In the late Republic, election to the quaestorship became the basis for a life appointment to the Senate.[108] Extraordinary magistrates[edit] There were two extraordinary magistrates: the dictator and the magister equitum (literally: master of horse).[109] Dictators were selected by the consuls[110] to resolve some crisis threatening the Republic and served for a term of around six months before they were expected to resign and return their powers to the ordinary magistrates.[111] The magister equitum was then appointed by the dictator as his lieutenant.[e][112] The dictatorship was only used in the early and middle Republic, before falling out of fashion after the end of the Second Punic War only to be revived during the time of Sulla as an extraconstitutional measure, not to defeat some foe or quell unrest, but rather, to bring stability to the political order.[f][111][99] The dictator had maius imperium and total authority to command the state;[110] however, since the dictator generally tried to maintain order, this did not conflict with the responsibilities of the other magistrates, who continued to function during a dictatorship.[110][114] The magister equitum had similar plenary authority, with parallel and somewhat subordinate authority to the dictator.[112] In the middle and later Republic, with the office of dictator falling out of fashion, the need for dictatorial authority was not granted to some extraordinary magistrate, but rather, to the consuls, through a senatus consultum ultimum, or final decree.[99] This decree took the form of a recommendation from the Senate to the consuls to take whatever actions were necessary to defend the Republic.[g][116][115] Due to its general vagueness, however, its use was hotly contested in the late Republic and is still debated among scholars today, as in a strict legal sense, the final decree did not grant legal authority to the consuls, but rather, served as an urging from the Senate to ignore the laws to protect the state.[117] Constitutional instability[edit] See also: Crisis of the Roman Republic A bust of Sulla, the first dictator and general to march on Rome of the late Republic,[118] who marched on Rome with his troops in 88 and 82 BC.[119] After the Second Punic War, there was a great increase in income inequality. While the landed peasantry[120] was drafted to serve in increasingly long campaigns, their farms and homesteads fell into bankruptcy.[121] With Rome's great military victories, vast numbers of slaves were imported into Italy.[121] Significant mineral wealth was distributed unevenly to the population; the city of Rome itself expanded considerably in opulence and size; the freeing of slaves brought to Italy by conquest too would massively expand the number of urban and rural poor.[122] The republic, for reasons unclear to modern historians, in 177 BC also stopped regularly establishing Roman colonies in Italy; one of the major functions of these colonies was to land the urban and rural poor, increasing the draft pool of landed farmers as well as providing economic opportunities to the lower classes.[123] Political violence[edit] The tribunate of Tiberius Gracchus in 133 BC led to a breakup of the long-standing norms of the republican constitution.[124] Gracchus was successful in passing legislation to pursue land reform,[125] but only over a norms-breaking attempt by Marcus Octavius—a tribune in the same year as Gracchus—to veto proceedings overwhelmingly supported by the people.[10] Gracchus' legislation would challenge the socio-political power of the old aristocracy,[124] along with eroding their economic interests.[h] The initial extra-constitutional actions by Octavius caused Gracchus to take similarly novel norms-breaking actions, that would lead even greater breakdowns in republican norms.[126] The backlash against Tiberius Gracchus' attempt to secure for himself a second term as tribune of the plebs would lead to his assassination by the then-pontifex maximus Scipio Nasica, acting in his role as a private citizen and against the advice of the consul and jurist Publius Mucius Scaevola.[127] The Senate's violent reaction also served to legitimise the use of violence for political ends.[128] Political violence showed fundamentally that the traditional republican norms that had produced the stability of the middle republic were incapable of resolving conflicts between political actors. As well as inciting revenge killing for previous killings,[i] the repeated episodes also showed the inability of the existing political system to solve pressing matters of the day.[127] The political violence also further divided citizens with different political views and set a precedent that senators—even those without lawful executive authority—could use force to silence citizens merely for holding certain political beliefs.[129] Tiberius Gracchus' younger brother Gaius Gracchus, who later was to win repeated office to the tribunate so to pass similarly expansive reforms, would be killed by similar violence. Consul Lucius Opimius was empowered by the senate to use military force (including a number of foreign mercenaries from Crete) in a state of emergency declared so to kill Gaius Gracchus, Marcus Fulvius Flaccus and followers. While the citizens killed in the political violence were not declared enemies, it showed clearly that the aristocracy believed violence was a "logical and more effective alternative to political engagement, negotiation, and compromise within the parameters set by existing norms".[130] Further political violence emerged in the sixth consulship of Gaius Marius, a famous general, known to us as 100 BC. Marius had been consul consecutively for some years by this point, owing to the immediacy of the Cimbrian War.[131] These consecutive consulships violated Roman law, which mandated a decade between consulships, further weakening the primarily norms-based constitution. Returning to 100 BC, large numbers of armed gangs—perhaps better described as militias—engaged in street violence.[132] A candidate for high office, Gaius Memmius, was also assassinated.[132] Marius was called upon as consul to suppress the violence, which he did, with significant effort and military force.[j] His landless legionaries also affected voting directly, as while they could not vote themselves for failing to meet property qualifications, they could intimidate those who could.[132] Sulla's civil war[edit] See also: Social War (91–88 BC), Sulla's civil wars, and Constitutional reforms of Sulla Following the Social War—which had the character of a civil war between Rome's Italian allies and loyalists—which was only resolved by Rome granting citizenship to almost all Italian communities, the main question looming before the state was how the Italians could be integrated into the Roman political system.[134] Tribune Publius Sulpicius Rufus in 88 BC attempted to pass legislation granting greater political rights to the Italians; one of the additions to this legislative programme included a transfer of command of the coming First Mithridatic War from Sulla to Gaius Marius, who had re-entered politics. Flower writes, "by agreeing to promote the career of Marius, Sulpicius ... decided to throw republican norms aside in his bid to control the political scene in Rome and get his reforms" passed.[134] The attempts to recall Sulla led to his then-unprecedented and utterly unanticipated[135] marching on Rome with his army encamped at Nola (near Naples). This choice collapsed any republican norms about the use of force.[136] In this first (he would invade again) march on Rome, he declared a number of his political opponents enemies of the state and ordered their murder.[136] Marius would escape to his friendly legionary colonies in Africa. Sulpicius was killed.[136] He also installed two new consuls and forced major reforms of the constitution at sword-point,[131] before leaving on campaign against Mithridates.[137] While Sulla was fighting Mithridates, Lucius Cornelius Cinna dominated domestic Roman politics, controlling elections and other parts of civil life. Cinna and his partisans were no friends of Sulla: they razed Sulla's house in Rome, revoked his command in name, and forced his family to flee the city.[138] Cinna himself would win election to the consulship three times consecutively; he also conducted a purge of his political opponents, displaying their heads on the rostra in the forum.[139] During the war, Rome fielded two armies against Mithridates: one under Sulla and another, fighting both Sulla and Mithridates.[138] Sulla returned in 82 BC at the head of his army, after concluding a generous peace with Mithridates, to retake the city from the domination of the Cinnan faction.[138] After winning a second civil war and purging the Republic of thousands of political opponents and "enemies" (many of whom were targeted for their wealth), he forced the Assemblies to make him dictator for the settling of the constitution,[140][99] with an indefinite term. Sulla also created legal barriers, which would only be lifted during the dictatorship of Julius Caesar some forty years later, against political participation by the relatives of those whom he ordered murdered.[135] And with this use of unprecedented violence at a new level, Sulla was able not only to take control of the state, but also retain control of it, unlike Scipio Nasica or Gaius Marius, both of whom had lost control of the city after deploying force.[141] The middle republic's consensus-based senate-led culture of decision-making was killed by Sulla's dictatorship:[141] both the people endowed with that culture had been purged and the very rationale for that culture as well. At a broad level, Sulla's dictatorial reforms attempted to concentrate political power into the Senate and the aristocratic assemblies, whilst trying to reduce the obstructive and legislative powers of the tribune and Plebeian council.[142] To this end, he required that all bills presented to the Assemblies first be approved by the Senate, restricted the tribunician veto to only matters of individual requests for clemency, and required that men elected tribune would be barred from all other magistracies.[140][143] Beyond stripping the tribunate of its powers, the last provision was intended to prevent ambitious youth from seeking the office by making it a dead end.[140] Sulla also permanently enlarged the senate by promoting a large number of equestrians from the Italian countryside as well as automatically inducting the now-20 quaestors elected each year into the senate.[144] The senatorial class was so enlarged to staff newly-created permanent courts.[144][k] The purpose of these reforms was in an attempt to formalise and strengthen the legal system so prevent political players from emerging with too much power as well as make them accountable to the enlarged senatorial class.[145] He also rigidly formalised the cursus honorum by clearly stating the progression of office and associated age requirements.[140] Next, to aid administration, he doubled the number of quaestors to 20 and added two more praetors; the greater number of magistrates also meant he could shorten the length of provincial assignments (and lessen the chances of building provincial power bases) by increasing the rate of turnover.[140] Moreover, magistrates were barred from seeking reelection to any post for ten years and barred for two years from holding any other post after their term ended.[140] After securing election as consul in 80 BC, Sulla resigned the dictatorship and attempted to solidify his republican constitutional reforms.[140] Sulla's reforms proved unworkable.[146] The first years of Sulla's new republic were faced not only the continuation of the civil war against Quintus Sertorius in Spain, but also a revolt in 78 BC by the then-consul Marcus Aemilius Lepidus.[147] With significant popular unrest, the tribunate's powers were quickly restored by 70 BC by Sulla's own lieutenants': Pompey and Crassus.[15] Sulla passed legislation to make it illegal to march on Rome as he had,[148] but having just shown that doing so would bring no personal harm so long as one was victorious, this obviously had little effect.[15] Sulla's actions and civil war fundamentally weakened the authority of the constitution and created a clear precedent that an ambitious general could make an end-run around the entire republican constitution simply by force of arms.[140] The stronger law courts created by Sulla, along with reforms to provincial administration that forced consuls to stay in the city for the duration of their terms (rather than running to their provincial commands upon election), also weakened the republic:[149] the stringent punishments of the courts helped to destabilise,[150] as commanders would rather start civil wars than subject themselves to them, and the presence of both consuls in the city increased chances of deadlock.[151] Many Romans also followed Sulla's example and turned down provincial commands, concentrating military experience and glory into an even smaller circle of leading generals.[149] Collapse of the Republic[edit] A depiction of the death of Caesar, from The Death of Caesar, Jean-Léon Gérôme, painted in 1867. Over the course of the late Republic, formerly authoritative institutions lost their credibility and authority.[16] For example, the Sullan reforms to the Senate strongly split the aristocratic class between those who stayed in the city and those who rose to high office abroad, further increasing class divides between Romans, even at the highest levels.[152][149] Furthermore, the dominance of the military in the late Republic, along with stronger ties between a general and his troops, caused by their longer terms of service together and the troops' reliance on that general to provide for their retirements,[128] along with an obstructionist central government,[151] made a huge number of malcontent soldiers willing to take up arms against the state. Adding in the institutionalisation of violence as a means to obstruct or force political change (eg the deaths of the Gracchi and Sulla's dictatorship, respectively),[128] the Republic was caught in an ever more violent and anarchic struggle between the Senate, assemblies at Rome, and the promagistrates. Even by the early-60s BC, political violence began to reassert itself, with unrest at the consular elections noted at every year between 66 and 63.[150] The revolt of Catiline—which we hear much about from the consul for that year, Cicero—was put down by violating the due process rights of citizens and introducing the death penalty to the Roman government's relationship with its citizens.[153] The anarchy of republican politics since the Sullan reforms had done nothing to address agrarian reform, the civic disabilities of proscribed families, or intense factionalism between Marian and Sullan supporters.[153] Through this whole period, Pompey's extraordinary multi-year commands in the east made him wealthy and powerful; his return in 62 BC could not be handled within the context of a republican system: his achievements were not recognised but nor could he be dispatched away from the city to win more victories.[154] His extraordinary position created a "volatile situation that the senate and the magistrates at home could not control".[154] Both Cicero's actions during his consulship and Pompey's great military successes challenged the republic's legal codes that were meant to restrain ambition and defer punishments to the courts.[153] The domination of the state by the three-man group of the First Triumvirate—Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey—from 59 BC did little to restore order or peace in Rome.[155] The first "triumvirate" dominated republican politics by controlling elections, continually holding office, and violating the law through their long periods of ex officio political immunity.[156] This political authority so dominated other magistrates that they were unwilling to oppose their policies or voice opposition.[157] Political violence both became more acute and chaotic: the total anarchy that emerged in the mid-50s by duelling street gangs under the control of Publius Clodius Pulcher and Titus Annius Milo prevented orderly consular elections repeatedly in the 50s.[158] The destruction of the senate house and escalation of violence continued[159] until Pompey was simply appointed by the senate, without consultation of the assemblies, as sole consul in 52 BC.[158][160] The domination of the city by Pompey[161] and repeated political irregularities[162] led to Caesar being unwilling to subject himself to what he considered to be biased courts and unfairly administered laws,[163] starting Caesar's civil war. Whether the period starting with Caesar's civil war should really be called a portion of the republic is a matter of scholarly debate.[164] After Caesar's victory, he ruled a dictatorial regime until his assassination in 44 BC at the hands of the Liberatores.[165] The Caesarian faction quickly gained control of the state,[165] inaugurated the second triumvirate, purged their political enemies, and successfully defeated the assassins in the Liberators' civil war at the Battle of Philippi. The second triumvirate failed to reach any mutually agreeable resolution; leading to the final civil war of the republic,[16] a war which the promagistrate governors and their troops would win, and in doing so, permanently collapse the republic. See also[edit] Byzantine Senate Princeps senatus Acta Senatus Notes[edit] ^ This stayed the case until the late Republic, a time when the constitution was increasingly ignored, when Pompey was appointed by the Senate as sole consul for 52 BC to quell riots in Rome.[89] ^ In the middle Republic, there were one or two. By the late Republic, during the dictatorship of Caesar, this had ballooned to 18.[94] ^ One court, specifically mentioned by Lintott, is the quaestio perpetua de repetundis, set up by lex Calpurnia to investigate extortion by Roman magistrates.[97] ^ An example of this is Tiberius Gracchus' securing of the removal of Marcus Octavius for opposition to his land reform policies, by vote of the people.[103] ^ Lintott writes, 'Once chosen, he could not be deposed, but his office ceased with that of his superior. In many respects he might function in parallel to the dictator, like a second consul, rather than as a direct subordinate. However, more spectacular stories about the office show that his subordination was a major issue'.[112] ^ The differences between the early dictatorships and the later dictatorships is quite clear. The lex Valeria of 82 BC created Sulla dictator for the revision of the constitution, with practically unlimited powers.[113] Caesar took a similar dictatorship in the early 40s BC as well. These were fundamentally political posts, with the right to name magistrates, change the membership of the Senate, exercise plenary judicial authority, and control public lands.[113] ^ For clarification, Lintott explains that, 'It was not clear, for example, whether it was simple recommending a limited use of force to restore the rule of law or the extermination of those who are thought to have disturbed the peace'.[115] ^ Nb that Gracchus was in fact successful in passing his land reform bill. He was not, however, successful in being returned for a consecutive term as tribune. ^ Eg Lucius Sergius Catalina killing those who had killed his own family during the Sullan proscriptions. ^ Flower notes that ironically, while Marius was able to defeat immense armies of Germanic invaders and was hailed with transgiving, triumphs, and other honours, he would retire (shortly) from politics in the 90s BC as a failure for his inability to handle the increasingly violence and anarchic politics of the republic.[133] ^ Permanent courts, such as the extortion court established by the lex Calpurnia, had been established in the middle Republic primarily to try crimes against the state and extortion of the populace. Over time, the jury pool of these courts was enlarged to include equestrians, before shutting out Senators entirely. One of the Sullan reforms was to restrict the pool of these courts back to the Senatorial class.[140] References[edit] ^ Straumann, Benjamin (2011). "Constitutional thought in the late Roman republic". History of Political Thought. 32 (2): 281. ISSN 0143-781X. JSTOR 26225713.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) ^ Lintott, Andrew (2003). The Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 2. ISBN 0-19-926108-3.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) ^ Flower, Harriet I. (2010). Roman Republics. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 9. doi:10.1515/9781400831166. ISBN 978-1-4008-3116-6.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) CS1 maint: date and year (link) ^ Flower 2010, p. 81. ^ a b Lintott 2003, p. vii. ^ a b c Lintott 2003, p. 40. ^ a b Lintott 2003, p. 66. ^ Abbott, Frank Frost (1963). A History and Descriptions of Roman Political Institutions (3 ed.). New York: Noble Offset Printers Inc. p. 157–165.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) ^ Lintott 2003, p. 202. ^ a b Flower 2010, p. 83. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 155. ^ a b Straumann 2011, p. 284. ^ Lintott 2003, pp. 121-122. ^ a b c Abbott 1963, p. 44. ^ a b c Lintott 2003, p. 212. ^ a b c d Lintott 2003, p. 213. ^ Flower 2010, p. 14. ^ Beard, Mary (2015). SPQR : a history of ancient Rome (First ed.). New York: Liveright Publishing. pp. 353–355. ISBN 978-0-87140-423-7. OCLC 902661394. ^ a b c d Lintott 2003, p. 38. ^ Lintott 2003, p. 27-28. ^ Holland, Tom (2005). Rubicon: The Last Years of the Roman Republic. Random House Books. p. 2. ISBN 1-4000-7897-0.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) ^ Lintott 2003, p. 27. ^ a b c Lintott 2003, p. 31. ^ Lintott 2003, p. 28. ^ a b c Lintott 2003, p. 32. ^ a b Abbott 1963, pp. 196-197. ^ a b Lintott 2003, p. 33. ^ a b Holland 2005, p. 5. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 30. ^ Lintott 2003, p. 34. ^ a b Lintott 2003, p. 35. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 37. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 34. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 42. ^ Lintott 2003, p. 36. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 45. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 46. ^ a b c Abbott 1963, p. 47. ^ a b c Lintott 2003, p. 39. ^ a b Holland 2005, p. 26. ^ Lintott 2003, p. 63. ^ Lintott 2003, p. 46. ^ Lintott 2003, p. 41. ^ Lintott 2003, p. 42. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 251. ^ a b c Lintott 2003, p. 43. ^ Taylor, Lily Ross (1966). Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar. The University of Michigan Press. p. 2. ISBN 0-472-08125-X.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) ^ Lintott 2003, pp. 47-48. ^ a b c Lintott 2003, p. 48. ^ a b c Lintott 2003, p. 49. ^ a b Abbott 1963, p. 253. ^ Botsworth, George Willis (1909). The Roman Assemblies. New York: Cooper Square Publishers, Inc. p. 190.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) ^ Botsworth 1909, p. 192. ^ a b c Lintott 2003, p. 55. ^ Lintott 2003, p. 56. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 21. ^ Abbott 1963, pp. 74-76. ^ a b c d Lintott 2003, p. 61. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 257. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 259. ^ Lintott 2003, p. 50. ^ Abbott 1963, pp. 250-251. ^ Lintott 2003, p. 51. ^ Abbott 1963, pp. 260-261. ^ Taylor 1966, p. 7. ^ Abbott 1963, pp. 262. ^ Abbott 1963, pp. 263. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 74. ^ a b Lintott 2003, p. 86. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 235. ^ Lintott 2003, p. 87. ^ a b Abbott 1963, p. 220. ^ a b c Lintott 2003, p. 68. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 222. ^ a b Lintott 2003, p. 72. ^ Lintott 2003, p. 71-72. ^ Lintott 2003, p. 71. ^ Lintott 2003, p. 3. ^ Lintott 2003, p. 4. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 226. ^ a b c Lintott 2003, p. 78. ^ Lintott 2003, pp. 82-83. ^ Lintott 2003, p. 83. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 230. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 165. ^ a b Abbott 1963, p. 151. ^ Lintott 2003, p. 95. ^ Lintott 2003, p. 96. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 114. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 156. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 176. ^ Abbott 1963, pp. 177,187. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 177. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 188. ^ a b Abbott 1963, p. 187. ^ Lintott 2003, p. 107. ^ a b Lintott 2003, p. 108. ^ Lintott 2003, p. 109. ^ a b c d Lintott 2003, p. 113. ^ a b c Lintott 2003, p. 115. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 191. ^ Lintott 2003, pp. 119-120. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 95. ^ Lintott 2003, p. 128. ^ a b Lintott 2003, p. 131. ^ Lintott 2003, p. 132. ^ Lintott 2003, p. 133. ^ Lintott 2003, p. 136. ^ Lintott 2003, p. 110. ^ a b c Abbott 1963, p. 182. ^ a b Abbott 1963, p. 183. ^ a b c Lintott 2003, p. 112. ^ a b Abbott 1963, p. 218. ^ Lintott 2003, p. 111. ^ a b Lintott 2003, p. 90. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 242. ^ Lintott 2003, p. 92. ^ Ridley, R. T. (2016). "The Fall of the Roman Republic". Agora. 51 (1): 66.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) ^ Abbott 1963, pp. 103-104. ^ Flower 2010, p. 76. ^ a b Abbott 1963, p. 77. ^ Flower 2010, p. 64. ^ Flower 2010, p. 67. ^ a b Lintott 2003, p. 209. ^ Flower 2010, p. 72. ^ Flower 2010, p. 84. ^ a b Flower 2010, p. 83–85. ^ a b c Ridley 2016, p. 66. ^ Flower 2010, p. 85. ^ Flower 2010, p. 87. ^ a b Lintott 2003, p. 210. ^ a b c Flower 2010, p. 89. ^ Flower 2010, p. 90. ^ a b Flower 2010, p. 91. ^ a b Flower 2010, p. 94. ^ a b c Flower 2010, p. 92. ^ Abbott 1963, p. 103. ^ a b c Flower 2010, p. 93. ^ Flower 2010, p. 92–93. ^ a b c d e f g h i Duncan, Mike (24 October 2017). The Storm Before the Storm: The Beginning of the End of the Roman Republic (1st ed.). New York: Hachette Book Group. pp. 252–257. ISBN 978-1610397216. ^ a b Flower 2010, p. 96. ^ Lintott 2003, pp. 210-211. ^ Flower 2010, p. 124. ^ a b Flower 2010, p. 121. ^ Flower 2010, p. 129. ^ Flower 2010, p. 130. ^ Flower 2010, pp. 139-140. ^ Lintott 2003, p. 211. ^ a b c Flower 2010, pp. 130-131. ^ a b Flower 2010, p. 142. ^ a b Flower 2010, p. 122. ^ Steel, Catherine (2014). "The Roman Senate and the post-Sullan res publica". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 63 (3): 328. ^ a b c Flower 2010, p. 147. ^ a b Flower 2010, p. 144. ^ Flower 2010, p. 149. ^ Flower 2010, p. 148. ^ Wiedemann, Thomas E. J. (1994). Cicero and the end of the Roman Republic. London: Bristol Classical Press. p. 53. ISBN 1-85399-193-7. OCLC 31494651.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) ^ a b Flower 2010, p. 151. ^ Wiedemann 1994, p. 57. ^ Flower 2010, p. 164. ^ Wiedemann 1994, pp. 57–58. ^ Flower 2010, p. 163. ^ Flower 2010, p. 152. ^ Flower 2010, p. 16. ^ a b Flower 2010, p. 33. Further reading[edit] Secondary sources[edit] Goldsworthy, Adrian (2010). In the Name of Rome: The Men Who Won the Roman Empire. Orion Books, Ltd. ISBN 978-0-297-86401-1. Gowing, Alain M (2005). Empire and Memory: The Representation of the Roman Republic in Imperial Culture. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-54480-1. Mommsen, Theodor (1888). Roman Constitutional Law. Von Fritz, Kurt (1975). The Theory of the Mixed Constitution in Antiquity. Columbia University Press, New York. Primary sources[edit] Cicero, Marcus Tullius (1841). The Political Works of Marcus Tullius Cicero: Comprising his Treatise on the Commonwealth; and his Treatise on the Laws. vol. 1 (Translated from the original, with Dissertations and Notes in Two Volumes By Francis Barham, Esq ed.). London: Edmund Spettigue. Polybius. The Histories; Volumes 9–13. 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en-wikipedia-org-759	----	George Buchanan - Wikipedia George Buchanan From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see George Buchanan (disambiguation). George Buchanan George Buchanan by A Bronckorst, 1581 (National Gallery of Scotland). Born February 1506 Killearn, Stirlingshire, Scotland Died 28 September 1582 (aged 76) Edinburgh, Scotland Nationality Scottish Alma mater University of St Andrews (B.A.) University of Paris (M.A.) Occupation historian, scholar Statue of George Buchanan, Scottish National Portrait Gallery George Buchanan (Scottish Gaelic: Seòras Bochanan; February 1506 – 28 September 1582) was a Scottish historian and humanist scholar. According to historian Keith Brown, Buchanan was "the most profound intellectual sixteenth century Scotland produced." His ideology of resistance to royal usurpation gained widespread acceptance during the Scottish Reformation. Brown says the ease with which King James VII was deposed in 1689 shows the power of Buchananite ideas.[1] The 31-metre-high (101 ft 8 in) Buchanan Monument in Killearn commemorates his nearby birthplace. Contents 1 Early life 1.1 Early upbringing and education in Paris 1.2 Return to Scotland 1.3 Professor and Procurator 1.4 Theological stance 2 Humanist in exile 2.1 Arrest, escape and relocation 2.2 Return to Paris 2.3 Coimbra 2.4 Trial and imprisonment 2.5 Release 3 Return to Scotland 3.1 Espousal of Protestantism 3.2 Tutor and other offices 3.3 Final years 4 Works 4.1 Latin scholar 4.2 Prose works 4.3 Late works 4.4 Lasting legacy 5 Modern publications and influence 6 Memorials 7 See also 8 References 8.1 Citations 8.2 Bibliography 9 External links Early life[edit] Early upbringing and education in Paris[edit] His father, a Highlander[2] and a younger son of an old family, owned the farm of Moss, in the parish of Killearn, Stirlingshire, but he died young, leaving his widow, five sons, and three daughters in poverty.[3] George's mother, Agnes Heriot, was of the family of the Heriots of Trabroun, East Lothian, of which George Heriot, founder of Heriot's Hospital, was also a member. Buchanan, a native speaker of Scottish Gaelic, is said to have attended Killearn school, but not much is known of his early education. His brother, Patrick Buchanan, was also a scholar.[4] In 1520 he was sent by his uncle, James Heriot, to the University of Paris, where he first came in contact with the two great influences of the age, the Renaissance and the Reformation. There, according to him, he devoted himself to the writing of verses "partly by liking, partly by compulsion (that being then the one task prescribed to youth)". Return to Scotland[edit] In 1522 his uncle died, and George Buchanan, who was at that time severely ill,[5] was unable to stay in Paris and returned to Scotland. After recovering from his illness, he joined the French auxiliaries who had been brought over to Scotland by John Stewart, Duke of Albany, and took part in an unsuccessful siege of Wark Castle on the border with England in late 1523.[6] In the following year he entered the University of St Andrews, where he graduated B.A. in 1525. He had gone there mainly to attend the lectures of John Mair on logic; and when Mair moved to Paris, Buchanan followed him in 1526. Professor and Procurator[edit] In 1528 Buchanan graduated M.A. at Scots College, University of Paris. The next year he was appointed regent, or professor, in the College of Sainte-Barbe, and taught there for over three years. Sainte-Barbe was one of the most prestigious and advanced colleges at that time.[7] George added to that prestige by creating new reforms in teaching Latin.[8] In 1529 he was elected "Procurator of the German Nation" in the University of Paris, and was re-elected four times in four successive months. He resigned his regentship in 1531, and in 1532 became tutor to Gilbert Kennedy, 3rd Earl of Cassilis, with whom he returned to Scotland early in 1537 having acquired a great reputation for learning. Theological stance[edit] At this period Buchanan assumed the same attitude toward the Roman Catholic Church as Erasmus: he did not repudiate its doctrines, but considered himself free to criticise its practice. Though he listened to the arguments of the Protestant Reformers, he did not join their ranks until 1553. His first literary production in Scotland, when he was in Lord Cassilis's household in the west country, was the poem Somnium, a satirical attack on the Franciscan friars and the monastic life generally. This assault on the monks was not displeasing to James V, who engaged Buchanan as tutor to one of his natural sons, Lord James Stewart (not the son who was afterwards regent), and encouraged him in a more daring effort. The poems Palinodia and Franciscanus et Fratres remained unpublished for many years, but made the author hated by the Franciscan order. Humanist in exile[edit] Arrest, escape and relocation[edit] In 1539 there was persecution in Scotland of the Lutherans, and Buchanan among others was arrested. Although the King had withheld his protection, Buchanan managed to escape and made his way to London, and then Paris. In Paris, however, he found himself in danger when his main enemy, Cardinal David Beaton, arrived there as ambassador, and on the invitation of André de Gouveia, he moved to Bordeaux. Gouveia was then principal of the newly founded College of Guienne, and by his influence Buchanan was appointed professor of Latin. During his time there several of his major works, the translations of Medea and Alcestis, and the two dramas, Jephthes (sive Votum) and Baptistes (sive Calumnia), were completed. Buchanan, original engraving by Jacobus Houbraken Michel de Montaigne was Buchanan's pupil at Bordeaux[9] and acted in his tragedies. In the essay Of Presumption he classes Buchanan with Jean d'Aurat, Theodore Beza, Michel de l'Hôpital, Pierre de Montdoré and Adrianus Turnebus, as one of the foremost Latin poets of his time.[10] Here also Buchanan formed a lasting friendship with Julius Caesar Scaliger; in later life he won the admiration of Joseph Scaliger, who wrote an epigram on Buchanan which contains the couplet, famous in its day: "Imperii fuerat Romani Scotia limes; Romani eloquii Scotia limes erit?" Austin Seal and Steve Philp translate this as: 'Just as Scotland was at the apex of the Roman Empire, so Scotland shall be at the apex of Roman eloquence'. (Not only is Buchanan's Latin scholarship extolled, a congratulatory reference to Scotland retaining Scottish law – quintessentially an improved version of Roman law – as the foundation of its legal system is also implied.) Return to Paris[edit] In 1542 or 1543 he returned to Paris, and in 1544 he was appointed regent in the Collège du cardinal Lemoine. Among his colleagues were Muretus and Turnebus. Although little is known about George during this time, we can gather that he probably once again fell ill according to an elegy[11] he wrote to his comrades Tastaeus and Tevius.[12] Coimbra[edit] In 1547 Buchanan joined the band of French and Portuguese humanists who had been invited by Gouveia to lecture in the Portuguese University of Coimbra. The French mathematician Elie Vinet, and the Portuguese historian, Jerónimo Osório, were among his colleagues; Gouveia, called by Montaigne le plus grand principal de France, was rector of the university, which had reached the summit of its prosperity under the patronage of King John III. But the rectorship had been coveted by Diogo de Gouveia, uncle of André and formerly head of Sainte-Barbe. It is probable that before André's death at the end of 1547 Diogo had urged the Inquisition to investigate him and his staff; up to 1906, when the records of the trial were first published in full, Buchanan's biographers generally attributed the attack to the influence of Cardinal Beaton, the Franciscans, or the Jesuits, and the whole history of Buchanan's residence in Portugal was extremely obscure. Trial and imprisonment[edit] George Buchanan, painter unknown[13] A commission of inquiry was appointed in October 1549 and reported in June 1550. Buchanan and two Portuguese, Diogo de Teive and João da Costa (who had succeeded to the rectorship), were committed for trial. Teive and Costa were found guilty of various offences against public order, and the evidence shows that there was ample reason for a judicial inquiry. Buchanan was accused of Lutheran and Judaistic practices. He defended himself, admitting that some of the charges were true. About June 1551 he was sentenced to abjure his errors, and to be imprisoned in the monastery of São Bento in Lisbon. Here he listened to edifying discourses from the monks, whom he found "not unkind but ignorant". In his leisure he began to translate the Psalms into Latin verse, completing the greater part of the work. Release[edit] After seven months, Buchanan was released on condition that he remain in Lisbon; and on 28 February 1552 this restriction was lifted. Buchanan then sailed for England, but soon made his way to Paris, where in 1553 he was appointed regent in the College of Boncourt. He remained in that post for two years, and then accepted the office of tutor to the son of the Maréchal de Brissac. It was almost certainly during this last stay in France, where Protestantism was being repressed under King Henry II and his son Francis II, that Buchanan took the side of Calvinism. Return to Scotland[edit] Detail on the Buchanan memorial in Greyfriars Kirkyard, Edinburgh Espousal of Protestantism[edit] In 1560 or 1561 Buchanan returned to Scotland, and by April 1562 was installed as tutor to the young Mary, Queen of Scots, who read Livy with him daily. Although he had remained Catholic throughout his support of the new learning and his strident criticism of the vices of the clergy, he now openly joined the Protestants Reformed Church and in 1566 was appointed principal of St Leonard's College, St Andrews, by the Earl of Moray. Two years before, he had received from the queen the gift of the revenues of Crossraguel Abbey. Though a layman, he was made Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland in 1567. He had sat in the assemblies from 1563. He was the last lay person to be elected Moderator until Alison Elliot in 2004, the first female Moderator. Tutor and other offices[edit] Buchanan accompanied the Regent Moray to England, and his famous Detectio Mariæ Reginæ—a scathing exposure of the Queen's relations to Darnley and the circumstances leading up to his death, published London: John Day, [1571]—was produced to the commissioners at Westminster. In 1570, after the assassination of Moray, he was appointed one of the preceptors of the young king, and it was through his strict tuition that James VI acquired his scholarship. As the young king's senior tutor, Buchanan subjected James to regular beatings but also instilled in him a lifelong passion for literature and learning.[14] Buchanan sought to turn James into a God-fearing, Protestant king who accepted the limitations of monarchy, as outlined in his treatise De Jure Regni apud Scotos.[15] While royal tutor he also held other offices: he was for a short time director of chancery, and then became Keeper of the Privy Seal of Scotland, a post which entitled him to a seat in the parliament. He appears to have continued in this office for some years, at least till 1579. John Geddie was his clerk and servant in this role, and copied some of Buchanan's manuscripts.[16] Final years[edit] His last years were occupied with completion and publication of two of his major works, De Jure Regni apud Scotos (1579) and Rerum Scoticarum Historia (1582). He died in his first floor flat on Kennedy's Close (near the modern Hunter Square) in Edinburgh on Friday 28 September 1582 and was buried in Greyfriars Kirkyard on the following day. The grave was originally marked by a through-stone but this had sunk into the ground by 1701.[17] Currently, two memorials in Greyfriars each claim to mark his burial: one just north-west of the church and a second, more modest memorial near the eastmost path. The smaller (later) one is correct.[citation needed] Works[edit] Latin scholar[edit] For mastery of the Latin language, Buchanan has seldom been surpassed by any modern writer. His style is not rigidly modelled on that of any classical author, but has a freshness and elasticity of its own. Hugh Trevor-Roper called him "by universal consent, the greatest Latin writer, whether in prose or in verse, in sixteenth century Europe". He wrote Latin as if it were his mother tongue. Buchanan also had a rich vein of poetical feeling, and much originality of thought. His translations of the Psalms and of the Greek plays are more than mere versions; his two tragedies, Baptistes and Jephthes, enjoyed a European reputation for academic excellence. His Pompae verses were written for performance at the court entertainments of Mary, including the Offering of the Rustic Gods sung during a masque devised by Bastian Pagez for the baptism of King James.[18] Prose works[edit] In addition to these works, Buchanan wrote in prose Chamaeleon, a satire in Scots against Maitland of Lethington, first printed in 1711; a Latin translation of Linacre's Grammar (Paris, 1533); Libellus de Prosodia (Edinburgh, 1640); and Vita ab ipso scripta biennio ante mortem (1608), edited by R. Sibbald (1702). His other poems are Fratres Fraterrimi, Elegiae, Silvae, two sets of verses entitled Hendecasyllabon Liber and Iambon Liber; three books of Epigrammata; a book of miscellaneous verse; De Sphaera (in five books), suggested by the poem De sphaera mundi of Joannes de Sacrobosco, and intended as a defence of the Ptolemaic theory against the new Copernican view. There are two early editions of Buchanan's works: Thomas Ruddiman's[19] and Pieter Burman's.[20] Late works[edit] The first of his important late works was the treatise De Jure Regni apud Scotos, published in 1579. In this famous work, composed in the form of a dialogue, and evidently intended to instil sound political principles into the mind of his pupil, Buchanan lays down the doctrine that the source of all political power is the people, that the king is bound by those conditions under which the supreme power was first committed to his hands, and that it is lawful to resist, even to punish, tyrants. The importance of the work is proved by the persistent efforts of the legislature to suppress it during the century following its publication. It was condemned by act of parliament in 1584, and again in 1664; and in 1683 it was burned by the University of Oxford. The second of his larger works is the History of Scotland, Rerum Scoticarum Historia, completed shortly before his death, and published in 1582. It is remarkable for the power and richness of its style, and of great value for the period personally known to the author, which occupies the greater portion of the book. The earlier part is based, to a considerable extent, on the legendary history of Boece. Buchanan's purpose was to "purge" the national history "of sum Inglis lyis and Scottis vanite" (Letter to Randolph). He said that it would "content few and displease many"; in fact, its matter gave so much offence that a proclamation was issued calling in all copies of it, as well as of the De Jure Regni, that they might be purged of the "offensive and extraordinary matters" which they contained. Lasting legacy[edit] Buchanan holds his great and unique place in literature not so much for his own writings as for his strong and lasting influence on subsequent writers. His influence was notable by 1726 when Andrew Millar, a prominent 18th-century bookseller, took over James McEuen's bookshop in London at the sign of 'Buchanan's Head, Temple Bar'. The sign for the shop depicted the face of George Buchanan, a testament to Buchanan's early place and reputation in Scottish letters.[21] Modern publications and influence[edit] Polygon Books have published the poet Robert Crawford's selection of Buchanan's verse in Apollos of the North: Selected Poems of George Buchanan and Arthur Johnston (ISBN 1-904598-81-1) in 2006, the 500th anniversary of Buchanan's birth. In the lead-up to the anniversary Professor Roger Mason of the University of St Andrews has published A Dialogue on the Law of Kingship among the Scots, a critical edition and translation of George Buchanan's 'De Iure Regni apud Scotos Dialogus ( ISBN 1-85928-408-6). George Buchanan's statue on the Scott Monument Memorials[edit] A statue of Buchanan stands on the west-facing side of the Scott Monument on Princes Street, Edinburgh. It was sculpted by John Rhind.[22] A memorial stained glass window stands in the south wall of Greyfriars Kirk. A bust of Buchanan is in the Hall of Heroes of the National Wallace Monument in Stirling. A monument was erected by public subscription in 1789 in the place of his birth, Killearn, Stirlingshire. See also[edit] Poetry portal Scottish literature British Latin Literature References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Keith M Brown, "Reformation to Union, 1560–1707," in R.A. Houston and W. W. J. Knox, eds., The New Penguin History of Scotland (2001) pp 182–275, quote at p 185 ^ Macmillan, D. (1906). George Buchanan, A Biography. London: Simpkin, Marshall, & Co. Ltd. p. 4. ^ Macmillan, D. (1906). George Buchanan, A Biography. London: Simpkin, Marshall, & Co. Ltd. p. 5. ^ Macmillan, D. (1906). George Buchanan, A Biography. London: Simpkin, Marshall, & Co. Ltd. p. 6. ^ Macmillan, D. (1906). George Buchanan, A Biography. London: Simpkin, Marshall, & Co. Ltd. p. 24. ^ "Buchanan, George (1506–1582)" . Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885–1900. ^ Macmillan, D. (1906). George Buchanan, A Biography. London: Simpkin, Marshall, & Co. Ltd. p. 41. ^ Macmillan, D. (1906). George Buchanan, A Biography. London: Simpkin, Marshall, & Co. Ltd. p. 47. ^ Montaigne, Michel (2009). Emmanuel Naya (ed.). Essais I. Delphine Reguig-Naya, Alexandre Tarrête (Folio ed.). Gallimard. p. 642. ISBN 978-2-07-042381-1. ^ Montaigne, Michel. Emmanuel Naya (ed.). Essais II. Delphine Reguig-Naya, Alexandre Tarrête (Folio ed.). Gallimard. p. 480. ISBN 978-2-07-042382-8. ^ Macmillan, D. (1906). George Buchanan, A Biography. London: Simpkin, Marshall, & Co. Ltd. p. 89. ^ Irving, David (1807). Memoirs of the Life and Writings of George Buchanan. London: Bell and Bradfute and A. Lawrie, and Longman, Hurst, and Rees, and Orme. p. 61. ^ Annan, Thomas (1868). Illustrated catalogue of the exhibition of portraits on loan in the new galleries of art, Corporation buildings, Sauchiehall Street. Glasgow: Glasgow Art Gallery and Museum. p. 105. Retrieved 4 December 2017. ^ Croft, Pauline (2003). King James. Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, p. 12–13. ^ Croft, Pauline (2003). King James. Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 13, 18. ^ Sebastiaan Verweij, The Literary Culture of Early Modern Scotland (Oxford, 2017), p. 95. ^ Monuments and monumental inscriptions in Scotland: The Grampian Society, 1871 ^ Shire, Helena Mennie, Song Dance and Poetry at the Court of James VI, CUP (1969), 56: Buchanan, George, Omnia Opera, vol. 2 (1725), pp. 399–405 ^ Ruddiman, Thomas (1715), Georgii Buchanani Scoti, Poetarum sui seculi facile principis, Opera Omnia, Edinburgh: Freebairn . (in Latin) ^ Ruddiman (1725). ^ "The manuscripts, Letter from Andrew Millar to Robert Woodrow, July 15, 1725. See footnote no. 1". millar-project.ed.ac.uk. Retrieved 1 June 2016. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 10 July 2014. Retrieved 17 January 2015.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) Bibliography[edit] Baptistes sive Calumnia (written before 1544, not published until 1577) Jephthes sive Votum, tragoedia, 1544 Ruddiman, Thomas [Thoma Ruddimannus] (1725), Burman, Pieter [Petrus Burmannus] (ed.), Georgii Buchanani, Scoti, Poëtarum sui seculi facile Principis, Praeceptoris Jacobi VI Scotorum, & Primi Angl. Reg. Opera Omnia, Historica, Chronologica, Juridica, Politica, Satyrica & Poetica, J. Arnold Langerak . (in Latin) The Sphera of George Buchanan, by James Naiden, 1951. The Art and Science of Government Among the Scots, being George Buchanan's De Jure Regni apud Scotos, 1964. English translation and commentary by Duncan H. MacNeill. George Buchanan by Robert Wallace,(completed by J. Campbell Smith). Edinburgh: Oliphant, Anderson and Ferrier, 1900, ("Famous Scots Series") Aitken, James M. (1939). The Trial of George Buchanan Before the Lisbon Inquisition. Edinburgh, London: Oliver and Boyd. Macmillan, D. (1906). George Buchanan A Biography. London: Simpkin, Marshall, & Co. Ltd. External links[edit] Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Buchanan, George. De Jure Regni Apud Scotos, online text De Jure Regni Apud Scotos, The Rights of the Crown in Scotland, translated from Latin to English by Robert MacFarlan, in its entirety (free PDF download) Rerum Scoticarum Historia (Latin and English) Psalmorum Davidis Paraphrasis Poetica (Latin and English) Media related to George Buchanan (scholar) at Wikimedia Commons Attribution  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Buchanan, George". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 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Related articles Jurisprudence Philosophy and economics Philosophy of education Philosophy of history Philosophy of love Philosophy of sex Philosophy of social science Political ethics Social epistemology Category Authority control BIBSYS: 5075446 BNE: XX1498007 BNF: cb11983633v (data) CANTIC: a11352991 GND: 117638498 ISNI: 0000 0001 2146 3184 LCCN: n50041144 NKC: ola2009531374 NLI: 001788363 NTA: 068387172 SELIBR: 179586 SNAC: w65x2744 SUDOC: 027891917 Trove: 797271 VcBA: 495/93504 VIAF: 105874857 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n50041144 v t e Scots Worthies Robert Baillie John Balfour Hugh Binning David Black John Blackadder Robert Boyd John Brown Robert Bruce George Buchanan David Calderwood Richard Cameron Archibald Campbell John Campbell Donald Cargill John Craig Robert Cunningham John Davidson David Dickson John Dickson Andrew Duncan James Durham Robert Fleming Robert Garnock George Gillespie John Gordon William Gordon Andrew Gray James Guthrie William Guthrie David Hackston Henry Hall Patrick Hamilton Robert Hamilton Alexander Henderson Thomas Hog Archibald Johnston Robert Ker John Kid John King John Knox John Livingston Angus MacBean Hugh Mackail John M'Clellan Andrew Melville Walter Mill James Mitchell Alexander Moncrieff Robert M'Ward John Nevay John Nisbet John Paton Alexander Peden James Renwick Robert Rollock William Row Samuel Rutherford John Scrimgeour John Semple Alexander Shields Patrick Simpson James Stuart Robert Traill(f) Robert Traill(s) William Veitch John Welch Josias Welch George Wishart James Wood Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_Buchanan&oldid=995511741" Categories: 1506 births 1582 deaths 16th-century Latin-language writers 16th-century Scottish writers 16th-century male writers 16th-century Scottish historians Academics of the University of St Andrews Alumni of the University of St Andrews Burials at Greyfriars Kirkyard Celtic studies scholars Members of the pre-1707 Parliament of Scotland Moderators of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland Monarchomachs People from Stirling (council area) New Latin-language poets Scottish dramatists and playwrights Scottish essayists Scottish historians Scottish poets Scottish Presbyterians Scottish Renaissance humanists Scottish scholars and academics Scottish soldiers Scottish Christian theologians Scottish translators University of Paris alumni University of Paris faculty Historians of Scotland Hidden categories: Articles incorporating Cite DNB template Articles with Latin-language sources (la) CS1 maint: archived copy as title Use dmy dates from November 2018 EngvarB from November 2018 Articles with hCards Articles containing Scottish Gaelic-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2019 Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages العربية Asturianu Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Gàidhlig 한국어 हिन्दी Italiano Latina مصرى Nederlands Norsk bokmål Polski Русский Scots Svenska 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 21 December 2020, at 13:00 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7627	----	Scapegoat - Wikipedia Scapegoat From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about "scapegoat" in its religious and ritualistic sense. For the social-psychological sense of a person or group singled out for blame, see Scapegoating. For other uses, see Scapegoat (disambiguation). The Scapegoat, by William Holman Hunt, 1854 In the Bible, a scapegoat is one of two kid goats. As a pair, one goat was sacrificed (not a scapegoat) and the living “scapegoat” was released into the wilderness, taking with it all sins and impurities. The concept first appears in Leviticus, in which a goat is designated to be cast into the desert to carry away the sins of the community. Then Aaron shall lay both his hands on the head of the live goat, and confess over it all the iniquities of the people of Israel, and all their transgressions, all their sins, putting them on the head of the goat, and sending it away into the wilderness by means of someone designated for the task. The goat shall bear on itself all their iniquities to a barren region; and the goat shall be set free in the wilderness. — Leviticus 16:21–22, New Revised Standard Version Practices with some similarities to the scapegoat ritual also appear in Ancient Greece and Ebla. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Ancient Judaism 3 Christian perspectives 4 Similar practices 4.1 Ancient Syria 4.2 Ancient Greece 5 In Literature 6 References 7 External links Etymology[edit] Main article: Azazel The word "scapegoat" is an English translation of the Hebrew ‘ăzāzêl (Hebrew: עזאזל‎), which occurs in Leviticus 16:8: ונתן אהרן על שני השעירם גרלות גורל אחד ליהוה וגורל אחד לעזאזל And Aaron shall cast lots upon the two goats: one lot for the Lord, and the other lot for Azazel. (JPS) The Brown–Driver–Briggs Hebrew Lexicon[1] gives la-azazel (Hebrew: לעזאזל‎) as a reduplicative intensive of the stem ‘-Z-L "remove", hence la-‘ăzāzêl, "for entire removal". This reading is supported by the Greek Old Testament translation as "the sender away (of sins)". The lexicographer Gesenius takes azazel to mean "averter", which he theorized was the name of a deity, to be appeased with the sacrifice of the goat.[2] Alternatively, broadly contemporary with the Septuagint, the pseudepigraphical Book of Enoch may preserve Azazel as the name of a fallen angel.[3][4][5] And Azazel taught men to make swords, and knives, and shields, and breastplates, and made known to them the metals of the earth and the art of working them, and bracelets, and ornaments, and the use of antimony, and the beautifying of the eyelids, and all kinds of costly stones, and all colouring tinctures. — Enoch 8:1[6] Early English Christian Bible versions follow the translation of the Septuagint and Latin Vulgate, which interpret azazel as "the goat that departs" (Greek tragos apopompaios, "goat sent out", Latin caper emissarius, "emissary goat"). William Tyndale rendered the Latin as "(e)scape goat" in his 1530 Bible. This translation was followed by subsequent versions up through the King James Version of the Bible in 1611: "And Aaron shall cast lots upon the two goats; one lot for the Lord, and the other lot for the scapegoat."[7] Several modern versions however either leave it as the proper noun Azazel, or footnote "for Azazel" as an alternative reading. Jewish sources in the Talmud (Yoma 6:4,67b) give the etymology of azazel as a compound of az, strong or rough, and el, mighty, that the goat was sent from the most rugged or strongest of mountains.[8] From the Targums onwards the term azazel was also seen by some rabbinical commentators as the name of a Hebrew demon, angelic force, or pagan deity.[9] The two readings are still disputed today.[10] Ancient Judaism[edit] Main article: Azazel The scapegoat was a goat that was designated (Hebrew: לַעֲזָאזֵֽל‎) la-'aza'zeyl; "for absolute removal" (for symbolic removal of the people's sins with the literal removal of the goat), and outcast in the desert as part of the ceremonies of the Day of Atonement, that began during the Exodus with the original Tabernacle and continued through the times of the temples in Jerusalem. Once a year, on Yom Kippur, the Cohen Gadol sacrificed a bull as a sin offering to atone for sins he may have committed unintentionally throughout the year. Subsequently he took two goats and presented them at the door of the tabernacle. Two goats were chosen by lot: one to be "for YHWH", which was offered as a blood sacrifice, and the other to be the scapegoat to be sent away into the wilderness. The blood of the slain goat was taken into the Holy of Holies behind the sacred veil and sprinkled on the mercy seat, the lid of the ark of the covenant. Later in the ceremonies of the day, the High Priest confessed the intentional sins of the Israelites to God placing them figuratively on the head of the other goat, the Azazel scapegoat, who would symbolically "take them away". Christian perspectives[edit] See also: Victim soul and Lamb of God Agnus-Dei: The Scapegoat (Agnus-Dei. Le bouc émissaire), by James Tissot In Christianity, this process prefigures the sacrifice of Christ on the cross through which God has been propitiated and sins can be expiated. Jesus Christ is seen to have fulfilled all of the biblical "types"—the High Priest who officiates at the ceremony, the Lord's goat that deals with the pollution of sin and the scapegoat that removes the "burden of sin". Christians believe that sinners who own their guilt and confess their sins, exercising faith and trust in the person and sacrifice of Jesus, are forgiven of their sins. Since the second goat was sent away to perish,[11] the word "scapegoat" has developed to indicate a person who is blamed and punished for the sins of others. Similar practices[edit] Ancient Syria[edit] A concept superficially similar to the biblical scapegoat is attested in two ritual texts in archives at Ebla of the 24th century BC.[12] They were connected with ritual purification on the occasion of the king's wedding. In them, a she-goat with a silver bracelet hung from her neck was driven forth into the wasteland of "Alini"; "we" in the report of the ritual involves the whole community. Such "elimination rites", in which an animal, without confession of sins, is the vehicle of evils (not sins) that are chased from the community are widely attested in the Ancient Near East.[13] Ancient Greece[edit] Ancient Greeks practiced scapegoating rituals in exceptional times based on the belief that the repudiation of one or two individuals would save the whole community.[14][15] Scapegoating was practiced with different rituals across ancient Greece for different reasons but was mainly used during extraordinary circumstances such as famine, drought, or plague.[14][15] The scapegoat would usually be an individual of lower society such as a criminal, slave, or poor person and was referred to as the pharmakos, katharma or peripsima.[14][15] There is a dichotomy, however, in the individuals used as scapegoats in mythical tales and the ones used in the actual rituals. In mythical tales, it was stressed that someone of high importance had to be sacrificed if the whole society were to benefit from the aversion of catastrophe (usually a king or the king's children).[14][15] However, since no king or person of importance would be willing to sacrifice himself or his children, the scapegoat in actual rituals would be someone of lower society who would be given value through special treatment such as fine clothes and dining before the sacrificial ceremony.[14] Sacrificial ceremonies varied across Greece depending on the festival and type of catastrophe. In Abdera, for example, a poor man was feasted and led around the walls of the city once before being chased out with stones.[14] In Massilia, a poor man was feasted for a year and then cast out of the city in order to stop a plague.[14] The scholia refer to the pharmakos being killed, but many scholars reject this and argue that the earliest evidence (the fragments of the iambic satirist Hipponax) show the pharmakos being only stoned, beaten, and driven from the community. In Literature[edit] J. M. Coetzee's work is permeated by the scapegoat problematic as well as the scapegoating practice in the social and psychological sense. Animals are connected to phenomena of scapegoating.[16] The scapegoat, as a religious and ritualistic practice and a metaphor for social exclusion, is one of the major preoccupations in Dimitris Lyacos's Poena Damni trilogy.[17][18] In the first book, Z213: Exit, the narrator sets out on a voyage in the midst of a dystopian landscape that is reminiscent of the desert mentioned in Leviticus (16, 22). The text also contains references to the ancient Greek pharmakos.[19][20] In the second book, With the People from the Bridge, the male and female characters are treated apotropaically as vampires and are cast out from both the world of the living and that of the dead.[21] In the third book, The First Death, the main character appears irrevocably marooned on a desert island as a personification of miasma expelled to a geographical point of no return.[22][23] References[edit] ^ p. 736. ^ Gesenius. "I have no doubt that it should be rendered 'averter'". ^ Archie T. Wright The Origin of Evil Spirits: The Reception of Genesis 6.1–4 Page 111. 2005. "However, the corresponding Aramaic fragment of / Enoch 10.4 does not use the name Azazel; instead, the name has been reconstructed by Milik to read Asa'el. Stuckenbruck suggests the presence of the biblical form Azazel in the Ethiopic. ^ Wright, David P. "Azazel". Pages 1:536–537 in Anchor Bible Dictionary. Edited by David Noel Freedman et al. New York: Doubleday, 1992. ^ The Symbolism of the Azazel Goat. Ralph D. Levy. 1998. "This is still fairly straightforward, and is translated by the majority of the versions as "for Azazel" (Targums Onkelos and Pseudo-Jonathan follow this understanding, as do the RSV, NRSV, REB, and Tanakh). KJV and NKJV have "to be the scapegoat". ^ Enoch 8:1, translation by R. H. Charles. Online. ^ The Merriam-Webster New Book of Word Histories. Merriam-Webster. 1991. pp. 411–412. ISBN 978-0-87779-603-9. ^ "AZAZEL". JewishEncyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2013-07-04. ^ The JPS guide to Jewish traditions. Page 224. Ronald L. Eisenberg, Jewish Publication Society – 2004. "(Leviticus 16:8–10). In talmudic times, a popular rabbinic interpretation was that Azazel referred to the place to which the goat was sent, the eretz g'zera (inaccessible region) of Leviticus (16:22). Later, Azazel became associated with another..." ^ The JPS Torah Commentary: Leviticus Nahum M. Sarna, Chaim Potok, Jewish Publication Society – 1989. "According to the first, Azazel is the name of the place in the wilderness to which the scapegoat was dispatched; ... According to the second line of interpretation, Azazel describes the goat. The word 'aza'zel is a contraction. ^ The Golden Bough, p. 569. Sir James Frazer, Worsworth Reference. ISBN 1-85326-310-9. ^ Zatelli, Ida (April 1998). "The Origin of the Biblical Scapegoat Ritual: The Evidence of Two Eblaite Text". Vetus Testamentum. 48 (2): 254–263. doi:10.1163/1568533982721604. ^ David P. Wright, The Disposal of the Impurity: Elimination Rites in the Bible and in Hittite and Mesopotamian Literature (Atlanta: Scholars Press) 1987:15-74. ^ a b c d e f g Bremmer, Jan (1983). "Scapegoat Rituals in Ancient Greece" (PDF). Harvard Studies in Classical Philology. 87: 299–320. doi:10.2307/311262. JSTOR 311262. ^ a b c d Westbrook, Raymond. "Who Led the Scapegoat in Leviticus 16:21?". Journal of Biblical Literature. ^ https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1715344 ^ The Precarious Destitute: A Possible Commentary on the Lives of Unwanted Immigrants by Michael O'Sullivan. Cha Magazine, Reviews / June 2015 (Issue 28).https://www.asiancha.com/content/view/2105/505/ ^ https://www.berfrois.com/2018/11/berfrois-interviews-dimitris-lyacos/ ^ Dimitris Lyacos, Z213: Exit, Shoestring Press 2016 ^ https://www.pangyrus.com/review/dimitris-lyacos-poena-damni-i-z213-exit-ii-with-the-people-from-the-bridge-iii-the-first-death/ ^ Dimitris Lyacos, With the People from the Bridge, Shoestring Press 2018 ^ Dimitris Lyacos, The First Death, Shoestring Press 2017 ^ http://poeticsresearch.com/article/a-column-of-cloud-and-a-column-of-fire-dimitris-lyacos-poena-damni-by-robert-zaller/ External links[edit] The dictionary definition of scapegoat at Wiktionary Wikimedia Commons has media related to Scapegoats. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Scapegoat eScapegoat: Virtual scapegoat website for Yom Kippur Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scapegoat&oldid=995139254" Categories: Persecution Jewish animal sacrifice Hebrew Bible words and phrases Yom Kippur Book of Leviticus Metaphors referring to animals Goats Hidden categories: Articles containing Hebrew-language text Articles containing Latin-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages العربية Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Limburgs Magyar Nederlands Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Português Română Русский Slovenščina Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 19 December 2020, at 12:58 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7637	----	Ravenna - Wikipedia Ravenna From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the city in Italy. For other uses, see Ravenna (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Ravenna" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) city in northern Italy Comune in Emilia-Romagna, Italy Ravenna Ravèna  (Romagnol) Comune Collage of Ravenna Flag Coat of arms Location of Ravenna Ravenna Location of Ravenna in Emilia-Romagna Show map of Italy Ravenna Ravenna (Emilia-Romagna) Show map of Emilia-Romagna Coordinates: 44°25′N 12°12′E / 44.417°N 12.200°E / 44.417; 12.200Coordinates: 44°25′N 12°12′E / 44.417°N 12.200°E / 44.417; 12.200 Country Italy Region Emilia-Romagna Province Ravenna (RA) Frazioni (subdivisions) Casalborsetti, Lido di Savio, Lido di Classe, Lido di Dante, Lido Adriano, Marina di Ravenna, Punta Marina Terme, Porto Corsini, Porto Fuori, Marina Romea, Ammonite, Camerlona, Mandriole, Savarna, Grattacoppa, Conventello, Torri, Mezzano, Sant'Antonio, San Romualdo, Sant'Alberto, Borgo Montone, Fornace Zarattini, Piangipane, San Marco, San Michele, Santerno, Villanova di Ravenna, Borgo Sisa, Bastia, Borgo Faina, Carraie, Campiano, Casemurate, Caserma, Castiglione di Ravenna, Classe, Coccolia, Ducenta, Durazzano, Filetto, Fosso Ghiaia, Gambellara, Ghibullo, Longana, Madonna dell'Albero, Massa Castello, Mensa Matellica, Osteria, Pilastro, Roncalceci, Ragone, Santo Stefano, San Bartolo, San Zaccaria, Savio, S. Pietro in Trento, San Pietro in Vincoli, San Pietro in Campiano Government  • Mayor Michele De Pascale (PD) Area[1]  • Total 652.89 km2 (252.08 sq mi) Elevation 4 m (13 ft) Population (1 January 2014)[3]  • Total 158,784  • Density 240/km2 (630/sq mi) Demonym(s) Ravennate, Ravennese[4] Time zone UTC+1 (CET)  • Summer (DST) UTC+2 (CEST) Postal code 48100 Dialing code 0544 Patron saint Saint Apollinaris Saint day July 23 Website Official website Early Christian Monuments of Ravenna UNESCO World Heritage Site Mosaic of the Emperor Justinian from the Basilica of San Vitale. Criteria Cultural: i, ii, iii, iv Reference 788 Inscription 1996 (20th session) Area 1.32 ha Ravenna (/rəˈvɛnə/ rə-VEN-ə, Italian: [raˈvenna], also locally [raˈvɛnna] (listen); Romagnol: Ravèna) is the capital city of the Province of Ravenna, in the Emilia-Romagna region of Northern Italy. It was the capital city of the Western Roman Empire from 402 until that empire collapsed in 476. It then served as the capital of the Ostrogothic Kingdom until it was re-conquered in 540 by the Byzantine Empire. Afterwards, the city formed the centre of the Byzantine Exarchate of Ravenna until the invasion of the Lombards in 751. Although it is an inland city, Ravenna is connected to the Adriatic Sea by the Candiano Canal. It is known for its well-preserved late Roman and Byzantine architecture, with eight buildings comprising the UNESCO World Heritage Site "Early Christian Monuments of Ravenna".[5] Contents 1 History 1.1 Ancient era 1.2 Ostrogothic Kingdom 1.3 Exarchate of Ravenna 1.4 Middle Ages and Renaissance 1.5 Modern age 2 Government 3 Architecture 4 Music 5 Ravenna in literature 6 Ravenna in film 7 Transport 8 Amusement parks 9 Twin towns - sister cities 10 Sports 11 Notable people 12 References 13 Sources and further reading 14 External links History[edit] See also: Timeline of Ravenna The origin of the name Ravenna is unclear. Some have speculated that "Ravenna" is related to "Rasenna" (or "Rasna"), the term that the Etruscans used for themselves, but there is no agreement on this point.[citation needed][6] Ancient era[edit] The origins of Ravenna are uncertain.[7] The first settlement is variously attributed to (and then has seen the copresence of) the Thessalians, the Etruscans and the Umbrians. Afterwards its territory was settled also by the Senones, especially the southern countryside of the city (that wasn't part of the lagoon), the Ager Decimanus. Ravenna consisted of houses built on piles on a series of small islands in a marshy lagoon – a situation similar to Venice several centuries later. The Romans ignored it during their conquest of the Po River Delta, but later accepted it into the Roman Republic as a federated town in 89 BC. In 49 BC, it was where Julius Caesar gathered his forces before crossing the Rubicon. Later Octavian, after his battle against Mark Antony in 31 BC, founded the military harbor of Classis.[8] This harbor, protected at first by its own walls, was an important station of the Roman Imperial Fleet. Nowadays the city is landlocked, but Ravenna remained an important seaport on the Adriatic until the early Middle Ages. During the Germanic campaigns, Thusnelda, widow of Arminius, and Marbod, King of the Marcomanni, were confined at Ravenna. The city of Ravenna in the 4th century as shown on the Peutinger Map Ravenna greatly prospered under Roman rule. Emperor Trajan built a 70 km (43.50 mi) long aqueduct at the beginning of the 2nd century. During the Marcomannic Wars, Germanic settlers in Ravenna revolted and managed to seize possession of the city. For this reason, Marcus Aurelius decided not only against bringing more barbarians into Italy, but even banished those who had previously been brought there.[9] In AD 402, Emperor Honorius transferred the capital of the Western Roman Empire from Milan to Ravenna. At that time it was home to 50,000 people.[10] The transfer was made partly for defensive purposes: Ravenna was surrounded by swamps and marshes, and was perceived to be easily defensible (although in fact the city fell to opposing forces numerous times in its history); it is also likely that the move to Ravenna was due to the city's port and good sea-borne connections to the Eastern Roman Empire. However, in 409, King Alaric I of the Visigoths simply bypassed Ravenna, and went on to sack Rome in 410 and to take Galla Placidia, daughter of Emperor Theodosius I, hostage. After many vicissitudes, Galla Placidia returned to Ravenna with her son, Emperor Valentinian III, due to the support of her nephew Theodosius II. Ravenna enjoyed a period of peace, during which time the Christian religion was favoured by the imperial court, and the city gained some of its most famous monuments, including the Orthodox Baptistery, the misnamed Mausoleum of Galla Placidia (she was not actually buried there), and San Giovanni Evangelista. Ostrogothic Kingdom[edit] See also: Ostrogothic Ravenna The late 5th century saw the dissolution of Roman authority in the west, and the last person to hold the title of emperor in the West was deposed in 476 by the general Odoacer. Odoacer ruled as King of Italy for 13 years, but in 489 the Eastern Emperor Zeno sent the Ostrogoth King Theodoric the Great to re-take the Italian peninsula. After losing the Battle of Verona, Odoacer retreated to Ravenna, where he withstood a siege of three years by Theodoric, until the taking of Rimini deprived Ravenna of supplies. Theodoric took Ravenna in 493, supposedly slew Odoacer with his own hands, and Ravenna became the capital of the Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy. Theodoric, following his imperial predecessors, also built many splendid buildings in and around Ravenna, including his palace church Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, an Arian cathedral (now Santo Spirito) and Baptistery, and his own Mausoleum just outside the walls. The Mausoleum of Theodoric Both Odoacer and Theodoric and their followers were Arian Christians, but co-existed peacefully with the Latins, who were largely Catholic Orthodox. Ravenna's Orthodox bishops carried out notable building projects, of which the sole surviving one is the Capella Arcivescovile. Theodoric allowed Roman citizens within his kingdom to be subject to Roman law and the Roman judicial system. The Goths, meanwhile, lived under their own laws and customs. In 519, when a mob had burned down the synagogues of Ravenna, Theodoric ordered the town to rebuild them at its own expense. Theodoric died in 526 and was succeeded by his young grandson Athalaric under the authority of his daughter Amalasunta, but by 535 both were dead and Theodoric's line was represented only by Amalasuntha's daughter Matasuntha. Various Ostrogothic military leaders took the Kingdom of Italy, but none were as successful as Theodoric had been. Meanwhile, the orthodox Christian Byzantine Emperor Justinian I opposed both Ostrogoth rule and the Arian variety of Christianity. In 535 his general Belisarius invaded Italy and in 540 conquered Ravenna. After the conquest of Italy was completed in 554, Ravenna became the seat of Byzantine government in Italy. From 540 to 600, Ravenna's bishops embarked upon a notable building program of churches in Ravenna and in and around the port city of Classe. Surviving monuments include the Basilica of San Vitale and the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe, as well as the partially surviving San Michele in Africisco. Exarchate of Ravenna[edit] Transfiguration of Jesus. Allegorical image with Crux gemmata and lambs represent apostles, 533–549, apse of Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe Main article: Exarchate of Ravenna Following the conquests of Belisarius for Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I in the 6th century, Ravenna became the seat of the Byzantine governor of Italy, the Exarch, and was known as the Exarchate of Ravenna. It was at this time that the Ravenna Cosmography was written. Under Byzantine rule, the archbishop of the Archdiocese of Ravenna was temporarily granted autocephaly from the Roman Church by the emperor, in 666, but this was soon revoked. Nevertheless, the archbishop of Ravenna held the second place in Italy after the pope, and played an important role in many theological controversies during this period. Middle Ages and Renaissance[edit] The Lombards, under King Liutprand, occupied Ravenna in 712, but were forced to return it to the Byzantines.[11] However, in 751 the Lombard king, Aistulf, succeeded in conquering Ravenna, thus ending Byzantine rule in northern Italy. King Pepin of the Franks attacked the Lombards under orders of Pope Stephen II. Ravenna then gradually came under the direct authority of the Popes, although this was contested by the archbishops at various times. Pope Adrian I authorized Charlemagne to take away anything from Ravenna that he liked, and an unknown quantity of Roman columns, mosaics, statues, and other portable items were taken north to enrich his capital of Aachen. In 1198 Ravenna led a league of Romagna cities against the Emperor, and the Pope was able to subdue it. After the war of 1218 the Traversari family was able to impose its rule in the city, which lasted until 1240. After a short period under an Imperial vicar, Ravenna was returned to the Papal States in 1248 and again to the Traversari until, in 1275, the Da Polenta established their long-lasting seigniory. One of the most illustrious residents of Ravenna at this time was the exiled poet Dante. The last of the Da Polenta, Ostasio III, was ousted by the Republic of Venice in February 1441, and the city was annexed to the Venetian territories in the Treaty of Cremona. Ravenna was ruled by Venice until 1509, when the area was invaded in the course of the Italian Wars. In 1512, during the Holy League wars, Ravenna was sacked by the French following the Battle of Ravenna. Ravenna was also known during the Renaissance as the birthplace of the Monster of Ravenna. After the Venetian withdrawal, Ravenna was again ruled by legates of the Pope as part of the Papal States. The city was damaged in a tremendous flood in May 1636. Over the next 300 years, a network of canals diverted nearby rivers and drained nearby swamps, thus reducing the possibility of flooding and creating a large belt of agricultural land around the city. Modern age[edit] Apart from another short occupation by Venice (1527–1529), Ravenna was part of the Papal States until 1796, when it was annexed to the French puppet state of the Cisalpine Republic, (Italian Republic from 1802, and Kingdom of Italy from 1805). It was returned to the Papal States in 1814. Occupied by Piedmontese troops in 1859, Ravenna and the surrounding Romagna area became part of the new unified Kingdom of Italy in 1861. During World War II, troops of 4th Princess Louise Dragoon Guards - 5th Canadian Armoured Division and the British 27th Lancers entered and occupied Ravenna on 5 December 1944. A total of 937 Commonwealth soldiers who died in the winter of 1944-45 are buried in Ravenna War Cemetery, including 438 Canadians.[12] The town suffered very little damage. Government[edit] See also: List of mayors of Ravenna Architecture[edit] Basilica of San Vitale - triumphal arch mosaics. Garden of Eden mosaic in mausoleum of Galla Placidia. 5th century CE. Arian Baptistry ceiling mosaic. 6th-century mosaic in Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna portrays Jesus long-haired and bearded, dressed in Byzantinian style. The Arian Baptistry. Dante's tomb exterior and interior, built in 1780 The so-called "Mausoleum of Galla Placidia" in Ravenna. Mosaic of the Palace of Theodoric in Sant'Apollinare Nuovo. Eight early Christian monuments of Ravenna are inscribed on the World Heritage List. These are Orthodox Baptistry also called Baptistry of Neon (c. 430) Mausoleum of Galla Placidia (c. 430) Arian Baptistry (c. 500) Archiepiscopal Chapel (c. 500) Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo (c. 500) Mausoleum of Theodoric (520) Basilica of San Vitale (548) Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe (549) Other attractions include: The church of San Giovanni Evangelista is from the 5th century, erected by Galla Placidia after she survived a storm at sea. It was restored after the World War II bombings. The belltower contains four bells, the two majors dating back to 1208. The 6th-century church of the Spirito Santo, which has been quite drastically altered since the 6th century. It was originally the Arian cathedral. The façade has a 16th-century portico with five arcades. The Basilica of San Francesco, rebuilt in the 10th–11th centuries over a precedent edifice dedicated to the Apostles and later to St. Peter. Behind the humble brick façade, it has a nave and two aisles. Fragments of mosaics from the first church are visible on the floor, which is usually covered by water after heavy rains (together with the crypt). Here the funeral ceremony of Dante Alighieri was held in 1321. The poet is buried in a tomb annexed to the church, the local authorities having resisted for centuries all demands by Florence for return of the remains of its most famous exile. The Baroque church of Santa Maria Maggiore (525–532, rebuilt in 1671). It houses a picture by Luca Longhi. The church of San Giovanni Battista (1683), also in Baroque style, with a Middle Ages campanile. The basilica of Santa Maria in Porto (16th century), with a rich façade from the 18th century. It has a nave and two aisles, with a high cupola. It houses the image of famous Greek Madonna, which was allegedly brought to Ravenna from Constantinople. The nearby Communal Gallery has various works from Romagnoli painters. The Rocca Brancaleone ("Brancaleone Castle"), built by the Venetians in 1457. Once part of the city walls, it is now a public park. It is divided into two parts: the true Castle and the Citadel, the latter having an extent of 14,000 m2 (150,694.75 sq ft). The "so-called Palace of Theodoric", in fact the entrance to the former church of San Salvatore. It includes mosaics from the true palace of the Ostrogoth king. The church of Sant'Eufemia (18th century), gives access to the so-called Stone Carpets Domus (6th–7th century): this houses splendid mosaics from a Byzantine palace. The National Museum. The Archiepiscopal Museum Music[edit] The city annually hosts the Ravenna Festival, one of Italy's prominent classical music gatherings. Opera performances are held at the Teatro Alighieri while concerts take place at the Palazzo Mauro de André as well as in the ancient Basilica of San Vitale and Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe. Chicago Symphony Orchestra music director Riccardo Muti, a longtime resident of the city, regularly participates in the festival, which invites orchestras and other performers from around the world. Ravenna in literature[edit] Pre-1800 The city is mentioned in Canto V in Dante's Inferno. Also in the 16th century, Nostradamus provides four prophecies: "The Magnavacca (canal) at Ravenna in great trouble, Canals by fifteen shut up at Fornase", in reference to fifteen French saboteurs.[13] As the place of a battle extending to Perugia and a sacred escape in its aftermath, leaving rotting horses left to eat In relation to the snatching of a lady "near Ravenna" and then the legate of Lisbon seizing 70 souls at sea Ravenna is one of three-similarly named contenders for the birth of the third and final Antichrist who enslaves Slovenia (see Ravne na Koroškem)[14] Ravenna is the setting for The Witch, a play by Thomas Middleton (1580–1627) Post-1800 Lord Byron lived in Ravenna between 1819 and 1821, led by the love for a local aristocratic and married young woman, Teresa Guiccioli. Here he continued Don Juan and wrote: Ravenna Diary, My Dictionary and Recollections.[15] Ravenna is the location where Lionel, the protagonist of Mary Shelley's post-apocalyptic novel The Last Man, comes ashore after losing his companions to a howling storm in the Aegean Sea. Oscar Wilde (1854–1900) wrote a poem Ravenna in 1878.[16] Symbolist, lyrical poet Alexander Blok (1880–1921) wrote a poem entitled Ravenna (May–June 1909) inspired by his Italian journey (spring 1909). During his travels, German poet and philosopher Hermann Hesse (1877–1962) came across Ravenna and was inspired to write two poems of the city. They are entitled Ravenna (1) and Ravenna (2). T. S. Eliot's (1888–1965) poem "Lune de Miel" (written in French) describes a honeymooning couple from Indiana sleeping not far from the ancient Basilica of Sant' Apollinare in Classe (just outside Ravenna), famous for the carved capitals of its columns, which depict acanthus leaves buffeted by the wind, unlike the leaves in repose on similar columns elsewhere. J.R.R. Tolkien (1892-1973) may have based his city of Minas Tirith at least in part on Ravenna.[17] Ravenna in film[edit] Michelangelo Antonioni filmed his 1964 movie Red Desert (Deserto Rosso) within the industrialised areas of the Pialassa valley within the city limits. Transport[edit] Ravenna has an important commercial and tourist port. Ravenna railway station has direct Trenitalia service to Bologna, Ferrara, Lecce, Milan, Parma, Rimini, and Verona. Ravenna Airport is located in Ravenna. The nearest commercial airports are those of Forlì, Rimini and Bologna. Freeways crossing Ravenna include: A14-bis from the hub of Bologna; on the north–south axis of EU routes E45 (from Rome) and E55 (SS-309 "Romea" from Venice); and on the regional Ferrara-Rimini axis of SS-16 (partially called "Adriatica"). Amusement parks[edit] Mirabilandia Safari Ravenna Twin towns - sister cities[edit] See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Italy Ravenna is twinned with:[18] Chichester, United Kingdom Speyer, Germany, since 1989 Chartres, France, since 1957 Sports[edit] The historical Italian football of the city is Ravenna F.C. Currently it plays in the third league of Italian football, commonly known as "Serie C". A.P.D. Ribelle 1927 is the Italian football of Castiglione di Ravenna, a fraction of Ravenna and was founded in 1927. Currently it plays in Italy's Serie D after promotion from Eccellenza Emilia-Romagna Girone B in the 2013–14 season. The president is Marcello Missiroli and the manager is Enrico Zaccaroni. Its home ground is Stadio Massimo Sbrighi of the fraction with 1,000 seats. The team's colors are white and blue. The beaches of Ravenna hosted the 2011 FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup, in September 2011. Notable people[edit] Valentinian III, Roman Emperor Matteo Plazzi, Italian sailor Laura Pausini, Italian pop singer-songwriter, record producer and television personality Raul Gardini, Italian businessman Franco Manzecchi, Jazz drummer Andrea Montanari, Italian sprinter Arcangelo Corelli, Baroque violinist and composer Luigi Legnani, guitarist and luthier Tullio Bassi, Italian violin maker Peter Damian, Catholic Saint and Cardinal Francesco Ingoli, Theatine scientist, lawyer, and disputer of Galileo Francesca da Rimini, historical person Guido I da Polenta, lord of Ravenna Francesco Baracca, Italy's top fighter ace of World War I Federico Caricasulo, Motorcycle road racer Marco Melandri, Motorcycle road racer Davide Tardozzi, Superbike racer and Team Manager Ivano Marescotti, actor Amadeus (presenter), presenter Romolo Gessi, explorer Romuald, abbot Marco Dente, engraver Paolo Roversi, fashion photographer Angelo Mariani (conductor), conductor Giuseppe Vitali, Mathematician Evangelista Torricelli, physicist and mathematician Federico Marchetti (businessman), founder of YOOX References[edit] Notes ^ "Superficie di Comuni Province e Regioni italiane al 9 ottobre 2011". Istat. Retrieved 16 March 2019. ^ "Popolazione Residente al 1° Gennaio 2018". Istat. Retrieved 16 March 2019. ^ GeoDemo - Istat.it ^ Generally speaking, adjectival "Ravenna" and "Ravennate" are more common for most adjectival uses—the Ravenna Cosmography, Ravenna grass, the Ravennate fleet—while "Ravennese" is more common in reference to people. The neologism "Ravennan" is also encountered. The Italian form is ravennate; in Latin, Ravennatus, Ravennatis, and Ravennatensis are all encountered. ^ https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/788 ^ Tourism in Ravenna – Official site – History. Turismo.ravenna.it (2010-06-20). Retrieved on 2011-06-20. ^ Deborah M. Deliyannis, Ravenna in Late Antiquity (Cambridge University Press, 2010), for this and much of the information that follows ^ From the Latin for "fleet". ^ Dio 72.11.4-5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius ^ https://www.academia.edu/1166147/_The_Fall_and_Decline_of_the_Roman_Urban_Mind_ ^ Noble, Thomas F. X. (1984). The Republic of St. Peter: The Birth of the Papal State, 680–825. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-1239-8. ^ https://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/remembrance/history/second-world-war/canada-Italy-1943-to-1945 ^ Jones, Tom (2012). Nostradamus. Pittsburgh, PA: Dorrance Publishing. ISBN 9781434918239. ^ Reading, Mario (2009). The Complete Prophesies of Nostradamus. London: Watkins Publishing. ISBN 9781906787394. ^ "Sito Ufficiale – Ufficio Turismo del Comune di Ravenna – I grandi scrittori". Turismo.ra.it. Retrieved 2009-05-06. ^ Ravenna ^ https://www.theguardian.com/books/2015/oct/23/jrr-tolkien-middle-earth-annotated-map-blackwells-lord-of-the-rings?CMP=fb_gu ^ "Città gemellate". comune.ra.it (in Italian). Ravenna. Retrieved 2019-12-16. Sources and further reading[edit] See also: Bibliography of the history of Ravenna Cameron, Averil. "Ravenna: Capital of Empire, Crucible of Europe." History Today (Sept 2020( 70#9 pp 94–97. covers 301 to 900. Online. Janet Nelson, Judith Herrin, Ravenna: its role in earlier medieval change and exchange, London, Institute of Historical Research, 2016, ISBN 9781909646148 External links[edit] Ravenna - Catholic encyclopedia Tourism and culture Official website (in Italian and English) Ravenna, A Study (1913) by Edward Hutton, from Project Gutenberg Ravenna's early history and its monuments - Catholic Encyclopedia Deborah M. 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en-wikipedia-org-7649	----	Roman technology - Wikipedia Roman technology From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman technology is the collection of techniques, skills, methods, processes, and engineering practices utilized and developed by the civilization of ancient Rome (753 BC – 476 AD).The Roman Empire was a technologically advanced civilization of antiquity. The Romans incorporated technologies from the Greeks, Etruscans, and Celts. The technology developed by a civilization is limited by the available sources of energy, and the Romans were no different in this sense. Accessible sources of energy determine the ways in which power is generated. The main types of power accessed by the ancient Romans were human, animal, and water. Artistic rendition of the Pantheon With these limited sources of power, the Romans managed to build impressive structures, some of which survive to this day. The durability of Roman structures, such as roads, dams, and buildings, is accounted for the building techniques and practices they utilized in their construction projects. Rome and her surrounding area contained various types of volcanic materials, which Romans experimented with the creation of building materials, particularly cements and mortars. [1] Along with concrete, the Romans used stone, wood, and marble as building materials. They used these materials to construct civil engineering projects for their cities and transportation devices for land and sea travel. The Romans also contributed to the development of technologies of the battlefield. Warfare was an essential aspect of Roman society and culture. The military was not only used for territorial acquisition and defense, but also as a tool for civilian administrators to use to help staff provincial governments and assist in construction projects.[2] The Romans adopted, improved, and developed military technologies for foot soldiers, cavalry, and siege weapons for land and sea environments. Having familiar relations with warfare, the Romans became accustomed to physical injuries. To combat physical injuries sustained in civilian and military spheres, the Romans innovated medical technologies, particularly surgical practices and techniques.  Contents 1 Types of power 1.1 Human power 1.2 Animal power 1.3 Water power 1.4 Wind power 1.5 Solar power 1.6 Theoretical types of power 1.6.1 Steam power 2 Technology as a craft 3 Engineering and construction 3.1 Building materials and instruments 3.1.1 Wood 3.1.2 Stone 3.1.3 Cements 3.1.4 Cranes 3.2 Buildings 3.2.1 The Pantheon 3.2.2 Hagia Sophia 3.3 Waterworks 3.3.1 Aqueducts 3.3.2 Dams 3.3.3 Sanitation 3.3.4 Roman baths 3.4 Transportation 3.4.1 Roads 3.4.2 Bridges 3.4.3 Carts 3.5 Industrial 3.5.1 Mining 4 Military technology 4.1 Foot Soldier 4.1.1 Weaponry 4.1.2 Armour 4.1.3 Tactics 4.2 Cavalry 4.3 Siege warfare 4.3.1 Ballistas and onagers 4.3.2 The Helepolis 4.3.3 Greek fire 4.4 Transportation 4.4.1 Pontoon bridge 5 Medical technology 5.1 Surgery 6 Technologies developed or invented by the Romans 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Types of power[edit] Human power[edit] The most readily available sources of power to the ancients were human power and animal power. An obvious utilization of human power is the movement of objects. For objects ranging from 20 to 80 pounds a single person can generally suffice. For objects of greater weight, more than one person may be required to move the object. A limiting factor in using multiple people to move objects is the available amount of grip space. To overcome this limiting factor, mechanical devices were developed to assist in the manipulation of objects. One device being the windlass which used ropes and pulleys to manipulate objects. The device was powered by multiple people pushing or pulling on handspikes attached to a cylinder. Human power was also a factor in the movement of ships, in particularly warships. Though wind-powered sails were the dominate form of power in water transportation, rowing was often used by military craft during battle engagements.[3] Animal power[edit] The primary usage of animal power was for transportation. Several species of animals were used for differing tasks. Oxen are strong creatures that do not require the finest pasture. Being strong and cheap to maintain, oxen were used to farm and transport large masses of goods. A disadvantage to using oxen is that they are slow. If speed was desired, horses were called upon. The main environment which called for speed was the battlefield, with horses being used in the cavalry and scouting parties. For carriages carrying passengers or light materials donkeys or mules were generally used, as they were faster than oxen and cheaper on fodder than horses. Other than being used as a means of transportation, animals were also employed in the operation of rotary mills. Schematic of an Overshot water wheel Beyond the confines of the land, a schematic for a ship propelled by animals has been discovered. The work known as Anonymus De Rebus Bellicus describes a ship powered by oxen. Wherein oxen are attached to a rotary, moving in a circle on a deck floor, spinning two paddle wheels, one on either side of the ship. The likelihood that such a ship was ever built is low, due to the impracticality of controlling animals on a watercraft.[3] Water power[edit] Power from water was generated through the use of a water wheel. A water wheel had two general designs: the undershot and the overshot. The undershot water wheel generated power from the natural flow of a running water source pushing upon the wheel’s submerged paddles. The overshot water wheel generated power by having water flow over its buckets from above. This was usually achieved by building an aqueduct above the wheel. Although it is possible to make the overshot water wheel 70 percent more efficient than the undershot, the undershot was generally the preferred water wheel. The reason being, the economic cost to building an aqueduct was too high for the mild benefit of having the water wheel turn faster. The primary purpose of water wheels were to generate power for milling operations and to raise water above a system’s natural height. Evidence also exists that water wheels were used to power the operation of saws, though only scant descriptions of such devices remain.[3] Reconstruction of Hero of Alexandria's steam machine the Aeolipile, 1st century CE Wind power[edit] Wind power was used in the operation of watercraft, through the use of sails. Windmills do not appear to have been created in Ancient times.[3] Solar power[edit] The Romans used the Sun as a passive solar heat source for buildings, such as bath houses. Thermae were built with large windows facing southwest, the location of the Sun at the hottest time of day.[4] Theoretical types of power[edit] Steam power[edit] The generation of power through steam remained theoretical in the Roman world. Hero of Alexandria published schematics of a steam device that rotated a ball on a pivot. The device used heat from a cauldron to push steam through a system of tubes towards the ball. The device produced roughly 1500 rpm but would never be practical on an industrial scale as the labour requirements to operate, fuel and maintain the heat of the device would have been too great of a cost.[3]  Technology as a craft[edit] Roman technology was largely based on a system of crafts. Technical skills and knowledge were contained within the particular trade, such as stonemasons. In this sense, knowledge was generally passed down from a tradesman master to a tradesman apprentice. Since there are only a few sources from which to draw upon for technical information, it is theorized that tradesmen kept their knowledge a secret. Vitruvius, Pliny the Elder and Frontinus are among the few writers who have published technical information about Roman technology.[4] There was a corpus of manuals on basic mathematics and science such as the many books by Archimedes, Ctesibius, Heron (a.k.a. Hero of Alexandria), Euclid and so on. Not all of the manuals which were available to the Romans have survived, as lost works illustrate. Engineering and construction[edit] Further information: Roman architecture and Roman engineering Building materials and instruments[edit] Reconstruction of a 10.4-metre-high Roman construction crane at Bonn, Germany Wood[edit] The Romans created fireproof wood by coating the wood with alum.[5] Stone[edit] It was ideal to mine stones from quarries that were situated as close to the site of construction as possible, to reduce the cost of transportation. Stone blocks were formed in quarries by punching holes in lines at the desired lengths and widths. Then, wooden wedges were hammered into the holes. The holes were then filled with water so that the wedges would swell with enough force to cut the stone block out of the Earth. Blocks with the dimensions of 23yds by 14ft by 15ft have been found, with weights of about 1000 tons. There is evidence that saws were developed to cut stone in the Imperial age. Initially, Romans used saws powered by hand to cut stone, but later went on to develop stone cutting saws powered by water.[5] Cements[edit] The ratio of the mixture of Roman lime mortars depended upon where the sand for the mixture was acquired. For sand gathered at a river or sea, the mixture ratio was two parts sand, one part lime, and one part powdered shells. For sand gathered further inland, the mixture was three parts sand and one part lime. The lime for mortars was prepared in limekilns, which were underground pits designed to block out the wind.[5] Another type of Roman mortar is known as pozzolana mortar. Pozzolana is a volcanic clay substance located in and around Naples. The mixture ratio for the cement was two parts pozzolana and one part lime mortar. Due to its composition, pozzolana cement was able to form in water and has been found to be as hard as natural forming rock.[5] Cranes[edit] Cranes were used for construction work and possibly to load and unload ships at their ports, although for the latter use there is according to the "present state of knowledge" still no evidence.[6] Most cranes were capable of lifting about 6–7 tons of cargo, and according to a relief shown on Trajan's column were worked by treadwheel. Buildings[edit] The Pantheon constructed 113 - 125 CE The Pantheon[edit] Further information: The Pantheon The Romans designed the Pantheon thinking about the concepts of beauty, symmetry, and perfection. The Romans incorporated these mathematical concepts into their public works projects. For instance, the concept of perfect numbers were used in the design of the Pantheon by embedding 28 coffers into the dome. A perfect number is a number where its factors add up to itself. So, the number 28 is considered to be a perfect number, because its factors of 1, 2, 4, 7, and 14 add together to equal 28. Perfect numbers are extremely rare, with there being only one number for each quantity of digits (one for single digits, double digits, triple digits, quadruple digits, etc.). Embodying mathematical concepts of beauty, symmetry, and perfection, into the structure conveys the technical sophistication of Roman engineers. [7] Cements were essential to the design of the Pantheon. The mortar used in the construction of the dome is made up of a mixture of lime and the volcanic powder known as, pozzolana. The concrete is suited for the use in constructing thick walls as it does not require to be completely dry in order to cure.[8] The construction of the Pantheon was a massive undertaking, requiring large quantities of resources and man-hours. Delaine estimates the amount of total manpower needed in the construction the Pantheon to be about 400 000 man-days.[9]   Hagia Sophia constructed 537 CE Hagia Sophia[edit] Further information: Hagia Sophia Although the Hagia Sophia was constructed after the fall of the Western empire, its construction incorporated the building materials and techniques signature to ancient Rome. The building was constructed using pozzolana mortar. Evidence for the use of the substance comes from the sagging of the structures arches during construction, as a distinguishing feature of pozzalana mortar is the large amount of time it needs to cure. The engineers had to remove decorative walls in order to let the mortar cure.[10] The pozzalana mortar used in the construction of the Hagia Sophia does not contain volcanic ash but instead crushed brick dust. The composition of the materials used in pozzalana mortar leads to an increased tensile strength. A mortar composed of mostly lime has a tensile strength of roughly 30 psi whereas pozzalana mortar using crushed brick dust has a tensile strength of 500 psi. The advantage of using pozzalana mortar in the construction of the Hagia Sophia is the increase in strength of the joints. The mortar joints used in the structure are wider than one would expect in a typical brick and mortar structure. The fact of the wide mortar joints suggests the designers of the Hagia Sophia knew about the high tensile strength of the mortar and incorporated it accordingly.[10] Waterworks[edit] Aqueducts[edit] Further information: Roman aqueduct and Aqueduct (bridge) The Romans constructed numerous aqueducts to supply water. The city of Rome itself was supplied by eleven aqueducts made of limestone that provided the city with over 1 million cubic metres of water each day, sufficient for 3.5 million people even in modern-day times,[11] and with a combined length of 350 kilometres (220 mi).[12] Roman Segovia Aqueduct in modern-day Spain, constructed 1st century CE Water inside the aqueducts depended entirely on gravity. The raised stone channels in which the water traveled were slightly slanted. The water was carried directly from mountain springs. After it had gone through the aqueduct, the water was collected in tanks and fed through pipes to fountains, toilets, etc.[13] The main aqueducts in Ancient Rome were the Aqua Claudia and the Aqua Marcia.[14] Most aqueducts were constructed below the surface with only small portions above ground supported by arches.[15] The longest Roman aqueduct, 178 kilometres (111 mi) in length, was traditionally assumed to be that which supplied the city of Carthage. The complex system built to supply Constantinople had its most distant supply drawn from over 120 km away along a sinuous route of more than 336 km.[16] Roman aqueducts were built to remarkably fine tolerances, and to a technological standard that was not to be equaled until modern times. Powered entirely by gravity, they transported very large amounts of water very efficiently. Sometimes, where depressions deeper than 50 metres had to be crossed, inverted siphons were used to force water uphill.[15] An aqueduct also supplied water for the overshot wheels at Barbegal in Roman Gaul, a complex of water mills hailed as "the greatest known concentration of mechanical power in the ancient world".[17] Roman aqueducts conjure images of water travelling long distances across arched bridges, however; only 5 percent of the water being transported along the aqueduct systems traveled by way of bridges. Roman engineers worked to make the routes of aqueducts as practical as possible. In practice, this meant designing aqueducts that flowed ground level or below surface level, as these were more cost effective than building bridges considering the cost of construction and maintenance for bridges was higher than that of surface and sub-surface elevations. Aqueduct bridges were often in need of repairs and spent years at a time in disuse. Water theft from the aqueducts was a frequent problem which led to difficulties in estimating the amount of water flowing through the channels.[18] To prevent the channels of the aqueducts from eroding, a plaster known as opus signinum was used.[19] The plaster incorporated crushed terracotta in the typical Roman mortar mixture of pozzolana rock and lime.[20] Proserpina Dam was constructed during the first to second century CE and is still in use today. Dams[edit] Main article: List of Roman dams and reservoirs The Romans built dams for water collection, such as the Subiaco Dams, two of which fed Anio Novus, one of the largest aqueducts of Rome. They built 72 dams in just one country, Spain and many more are known across the Empire, some of which are still in use. At one site, Montefurado in Galicia, they appear to have built a dam across the river Sil to expose alluvial gold deposits in the bed of the river. The site is near the spectacular Roman gold mine of Las Medulas. Several earthen dams are known from Britain, including a well-preserved example from Roman Lanchester, Longovicium, where it may have been used in industrial-scale smithing or smelting, judging by the piles of slag found at this site in northern England. Tanks for holding water are also common along aqueduct systems, and numerous examples are known from just one site, the gold mines at Dolaucothi in west Wales. Masonry dams were common in North Africa for providing a reliable water supply from the wadis behind many settlements. The Romans built dams to store water for irrigation. They understood that spillways were necessary to prevent the erosion of earth-packed banks. In Egypt, the Romans adopted the water technology known as wadi irrigation from the Nabataeans. Wadis were a technique developed to capture large amounts of water produced during the seasonal floods and store it for the growing season. The Romans successfully developed the technique further for a larger scale.[18] Sanitation[edit] Roman baths in the English city of Bath. A temple was initially constructed on the site in 60 CE with the bathing complex being built up over time. The Romans did not invent plumbing or toilets, but instead borrowed their waste disposal system from their neighbors, particularly the Minoans.[21] A waste disposal system was not a new invention, but rather had been around since 3100 BCE, when one was created in the Indus River Valley [22] The Roman public baths, or thermae served hygienic, social and cultural functions. The baths contained three main facilities for bathing. After undressing in the apodyterium or changing room, Romans would proceed to the tepidarium or warm room. In the moderate dry heat of the tepidarium, some performed warm-up exercises and stretched while others oiled themselves or had slaves oil them. The tepidarium’s main purpose was to promote sweating to prepare for the next room, the caldarium or hot room. The caldarium, unlike the tepidarium, was extremely humid and hot. Temperatures in the caldarium could reach 40 degrees Celsius (104 degrees Fahrenheit). Many contained steam baths and a cold-water fountain known as the labrum. The last room was the frigidarium or cold room, which offered a cold bath for cooling off after the caldarium. The Romans also had flush toilets. Roman baths[edit] Further information: Thermae The containment of heat in the rooms was important in the operation of the baths, as to avoid patrons from catching colds. To prevent doors from being left open, the door posts were installed at an inclined angle so that the doors would automatically swing shut. Another technique of heat efficiency was the use of wooden benches over stone, as wood conducts away less heat.[23] Transportation[edit] The Via Appia constructed 312–264 BCE Roads[edit] Main article: Roman road The Romans primarily built roads for their military. Their economic importance was probably also significant, although wagon traffic was often banned from the roads to preserve their military value. In total, more than 400,000 kilometres (250,000 mi) of roads were constructed, 80,500 kilometres (50,000 mi) of which were stone-paved.[24] Way stations providing refreshments were maintained by the government at regular intervals along the roads. A separate system of changing stations for official and private couriers was also maintained. This allowed a dispatch to travel a maximum of 800 kilometres (500 mi) in 24 hours by using a relay of horses. The roads were constructed by digging a pit along the length of the intended course, often to bedrock. The pit was first filled with rocks, gravel or sand and then a layer of concrete. Finally, they were paved with polygonal rock slabs. Roman roads are considered the most advanced roads built until the early 19th century. Bridges were constructed over waterways. The roads were resistant to floods and other environmental hazards. After the fall of the Roman Empire the roads were still usable and used for more than 1000 years. Most Roman cities were shaped like a square. There were 4 main roads leading to the center of the city, or forum. They formed a cross shape, and each point on the edge of the cross was a gateway into the city. Connecting to these main roads were smaller roads, the streets where people lived. Bridges[edit] Further information: Roman bridge and List of Roman bridges Roman bridges were built with stone and/or concrete and utilized the arch. Built in 142 BC, the Pons Aemilius, later named Ponte Rotto (broken bridge) is the oldest Roman stone bridge in Rome, Italy. The biggest Roman bridge was Trajan's bridge over the lower Danube, constructed by Apollodorus of Damascus, which remained for over a millennium the longest bridge to have been built both in terms of overall and span length. They were most of the time at least 60 feet (18 m) above the body of water. Carts[edit] Alcantara Bridge constructed in 104 to 106 CE, was built in a similar in style to Trajan's Bridge. Roman carts had many purposes and came in a variety of forms. Freight carts were used to transport goods. Barrel carts were used to transport liquids. The carts had large cylindrical barrels laid horizontally with their tops facing forward. For transporting building materials, such as sand or soil, the Romans used carts with high walls. Public transportation carts were also in use with some designed with sleeping accommodations for up to six people.[25] The Romans developed a railed cargo system for transporting heavy loads. The rails consisted of grooves embedded into existing stone roadways. The carts used in such a system had large block axles and wooden wheels with metal casings.[25] Carts also contained brakes, elastic suspensions and bearings. The elastic suspension systems used leather belts attached bronze supports to suspend the carriage above the axles. The system helped to create a smoother ride by reducing the vibration. The Romans adopted bearings developed by the Celts. The bearings decreased rotational friction by using mud to lubricate stone rings.[25] Industrial[edit] Rosia Montana Roman Gold Mine Mining[edit] Further information: Roman metallurgy and Roman mining The Romans also made great use of aqueducts in their extensive mining operations across the empire, some sites such as Las Medulas in north-west Spain having at least 7 major channels entering the minehead. Other sites such as Dolaucothi in south Wales was fed by at least 5 leats, all leading to reservoirs and tanks or cisterns high above the present opencast. The water was used for hydraulic mining, where streams or waves of water are released onto the hillside, first to reveal any gold-bearing ore, and then to work the ore itself. Rock debris could be sluiced away by hushing, and the water also used to douse fires created to break down the hard rock and veins, a method known as fire-setting. Alluvial gold deposits could be worked and the gold extracted without needing to crush the ore. Washing tables were fitted below the tanks to collect the gold-dust and any nuggets present. Vein gold needed crushing, and they probably used crushing or stamp mills worked by water-wheels to comminute the hard ore before washing. Large quantities of water were also needed in deep mining to remove waste debris and power primitive machines, as well as for washing the crushed ore. Pliny the Elder provides a detailed description of gold mining in book xxxiii of his Naturalis Historia, most of which has been confirmed by archaeology. That they used water mills on a large scale elsewhere is attested by the flour mills at Barbegal in southern France, and on the Janiculum in Rome. Military technology[edit] Further information: Technological history of the Roman military and Roman military engineering The Roman military technology ranged from personal equipment and armament to deadly siege engines. Foot Soldier[edit] Weaponry[edit] Pilum (spear): The Roman heavy spear was a weapon favored by legionaries and weighed approximately five pounds.[26] The innovated javelin was designed to be used only once and was destroyed upon initial use. This ability prevented the enemy from reusing spears. All soldiers carried two versions of this weapon: a primary spear and a backup. A solid block of wood in the middle of the weapon provided legionaries protection for their hands while carrying the device. According to Polybius, historians have records of "how the Romans threw their spears and then charged with swords".[27] This tactic seemed to be common practice among Roman infantry. Armour[edit] Roman Scale Armour While heavy, intricate armour was not uncommon (cataphracts), the Romans perfected a relatively light, full torso armour made of segmented plates (lorica segmentata). This segmented armour provided good protection for vital areas, but did not cover as much of the body as lorica hamata or chainmail. The lorica segmentata provided better protection, but the plate bands were expensive and difficult to produce and difficult to repair in the field. Generally, chainmail was cheaper, easier to produce, and simpler to maintain, was one-size-fits-all, and was more comfortable to wear – thus, it remained the primary form of armour even when lorica segmentata was in use. Tactics[edit] Testudo is a tactical military maneuver original to Rome. The tactic was implemented by having units raise their shields in order to protect themselves from enemy projectiles raining down on them. The strategy only worked if each member of the testudo protected his comrade. Commonly used during siege battles, the "sheer discipline and synchronization required to form a Testudo" was a testament to the abilities of legionnaires.[28] Testudo, meaning tortoise in Latin, "was not the norm, but rather adopted in specific situations to deal with particular threats on the battlefield".[28] The Greek phalanx and other Roman formations were a source of inspiration for this maneouver. Cavalry[edit] The Roman cavalry saddle had four horns [1] and is believed to have been copied from Celtic peoples. Siege warfare[edit] Roman siege engines such as ballistas, scorpions and onagers were not unique. But the Romans were probably the first people to put ballistas on carts for better mobility on campaigns. On the battlefield, it is thought that they were used to pick off enemy leaders. There is one account of the use of artillery in battle from Tacitus, Histories III,23: On engaging they drove back the enemy, only to be driven back themselves, for the Vitellians had concentrated their artillery on the raised road that they might have free and open ground from which to fire; their earlier shots had been scattered and had struck the trees without injuring the enemy. A ballista of enormous size belonging to the Fifteenth legion began to do great harm to the Flavians' line with the huge stones that it hurled; and it would have caused wide destruction if it had not been for the splendid bravery of two soldiers, who, taking some shields from the dead and so disguising themselves, cut the ropes and springs of the machine.[29] In addition to innovations in land warfare, the Romans also developed the Corvus (boarding device) a movable bridge that could attach itself to an enemy ship and allow the Romans to board the enemy vessel. Developed during the First Punic War it allowed them to apply their experience in land warfare on the seas.[29] Ballistas and onagers[edit] Further information: Ballista While core artillery inventions were notably founded by the Greeks, Rome saw opportunity in the ability to enhance this long range artillery. Large artillery pieces such as Carroballista and Onagers bombarded enemy lines, before full ground assault by infantry. The manuballista would "often be described as the most advanced two-armed torsion engine used by the Roman Army”.[30] The weapon often looks like a mounted crossbow capable of shooting projectiles. Similarly, the onager "named after the wild ass because of its ‘kick’," was a larger weapon that was capable of hurling large projectiles at walls or forts.[30] Both were very capable machines of war and were put to use by the Roman military. Computer model of a helepolis The Helepolis[edit] Further information: helepolis The helepolis was a transportation vehicle used to besiege cities. The vehicle had wooden walls to shield soldiers as they were transported toward the enemy’s walls. Upon reaching the walls, the soldiers would disembark at the top of the 15m tall structure and drop on to the enemy’s ramparts. To be effective in combat, the helepolis was designed to be self-propelled. The self-propelled vehicles were operated using two types of motors: an internal motor powered by humans, or a counterweight motor powered by gravity. The human-powered motor used a system of ropes that connected the axles to a capstan. It has been calculated that at least 30 men would be required to turn the capstan in order to exceed the force required to move the vehicle. Two capstans may have been used instead of just the one, reducing the amount of men needed per capstan to 16, for a total of 32 to power the helepolis. The gravity-powered counterweight motor used a system of ropes and pulleys to propel the vehicle. Ropes were wrapped around the axles, strung through a pulley system that connected them to a counterweight hanging at the top of the vehicle. The counterweights would have been made of lead or a bucket filled with water. The lead counterweight was encapsulated in a pipe filled with seeds to control its fall. The water bucket counterweight was emptied when it reached the bottom of the vehicle, raised back to the top, and filled with water using a reciprocating water pump, so that motion could again be achieved. It has been calculated that to move a helepolis with a mass of 40000kg, a counterweight with a mass of 1000kg was needed.[31] Greek fire[edit] Further information: Greek fire Originally an incendiary weapon adopted from the Greeks in 7th century AD, the Greek fire "is one of the very few contrivances whose gruesome effectiveness was noted by"[32] many sources. Roman innovators made this already lethal weapon even more deadly. Its nature is often described as a "precursor to napalm".[32] Military strategists often put the weapon to good use during naval battles, and the ingredients to its construction "remained a closely guarded military secret".[32] Despite this, the devastation caused by Greek fire in combat is indisputable. Depiction of a Roman Pontoon Bridge on the Column of Marcus Aurelius, constructed 193 CE Transportation[edit] Pontoon bridge[edit] Further information: Pontoon bridge Mobility, for a military force, was an essential key to success. Although this was not a Roman invention, as there were instances of "ancient Chinese and Persians making use of the floating mechanism”,[33] Roman generals used the innovation to great effect in campaigns. Furthermore, engineers perfected the speed at which these bridges were constructed. Leaders surprised enemy units to great effect by speedily crossing otherwise treacherous bodies of water. Lightweight crafts were "organized and tied together with the aid of planks, nails and cables".[33] Rafts were more commonly used instead of building new makeshift bridges, enabling quick construction and deconstruction.[34] The expedient and valuable innovation of the pontoon bridge also accredited its success to the excellent abilities of Roman Engineers. Medical technology[edit] Surgical instruments used by ancient Romans Further information: Military medicine Surgery[edit] Although various levels of medicine were practiced in the ancient world,[35] the Romans created or pioneered many innovative surgeries and tools that are still in use today such as hemostatic tourniquets and arterial surgical clamps.[36] Rome was also responsible for producing the first battlefield surgery unit, a move that paired with their contributions to medicine made the Roman army a force to be reckoned with.[36] They also used a rudimentary version of antiseptic surgery years before its use became popular in the 19th century and possessed very capable doctors.[36] Technologies developed or invented by the Romans[edit] Technology Comment Abacus, Roman Portable. Alum The production of alum (KAl(SO4)2.12H2O) from alunite (KAl3(SO4)2.(OH)6) is archaeologically attested on the island Lesbos.[37] This site was abandoned in the 7th century but dates back at least to the 2nd century AD. Amphitheatre See e.g. Colosseum. Aqueduct, true arch Pont du Gard, Segovia etc. Arch, monumental Bath, monumental public (Thermae) See e.g. Baths of Diocletian Book (Codex) First mentioned by Martial in the 1st century AD. Held many advantages over the scroll. Brass The Romans had enough understanding of zinc to produce a brass denomination coinage; see sestertius. Bridge, true arch See e.g. Roman bridge in Chaves or the Severan Bridge. Bridge, segmental arch More than a dozen Roman bridges are known to feature segmental (=flat) arches. A prominent example was Trajan's bridge over the Danube, a lesser known the extant Limyra Bridge in Lycia Bridge, pointed arch Constructed in the early Byzantine era, the earliest known bridge featuring a pointed arch is the 5th or 6th century AD Karamagara Bridge[38] Camel harness The harnessing of camels to ploughs is attested in North Africa by the 3rd century AD[39] Cameos Probably a Hellenistic innovation e.g. Cup of the Ptolemies but taken up by the Emperors e.g. Gemma Augustea, Gemma Claudia etc. Cast Iron Recently archaeologically detected in the Val Gabbia in northern Lombardy from the 5th and 6th centuries AD.[40] This technically interesting innovation appears to have had little economic impact. But archaeologists may have failed to recognize the distinctive slag, so the date and location of this innovation may be revised. Cement Concrete Pozzolana variety Crank handle A Roman iron crank handle was excavated in Augusta Raurica, Switzerland. The 82.5 cm long piece with a 15 cm long handle is of yet unknown purpose and dates to no later than c. 250 AD.[41] Crank and connecting rod Found in several water-powered saw mills dating from the late 3rd (Hierapolis sawmill) to 6th century AD (at Ephesus respectively Gerasa).[42] Crane, treadwheel Dam, Arch[43] Currently best attested for the dam at Glanum, France dated c. 20 BC.[44] The structure has entirely disappeared. Its existence attested from the cuts into the rock on either side to key in the dam wall, which was 14.7 metres high, 3.9m thick at base narrowing to 2.96m at the top. Earliest description of arch action in such types of dam by Procopius around 560 AD, the Dara Dam[45] Dam, Arch-gravity Examples include curved dams at Orükaya,[46] Çavdarhisar, both Turkey (and 2nd century)[46]Kasserine Dam in Tunisia,[47] and Puy Foradado Dam in Spain (2nd–3rd century)[48] Dam, Bridge The Band-i-Kaisar, constructed by Roman prisoners of war in Shustar, Persia, in the 3rd century AD,[49] featured a weir combined with an arch bridge, a multifunctional hydraulic structure which subsequently spread throughout Iran.[50] Dam, Buttress Attested in a number of Roman dams in Spain,[48] like the 600 m long Consuegra Dam Dam, Multiple Arch Buttress Esparragalejo Dam, Spain (1st century AD) earliest known[51] Dome, monumental See e.g. Pantheon. Flos Salis A product of salt evaporation ponds Dunaliella salina[52] used in the perfume industry (Pliny Nat. Hist. 31,90) Force pump used in fire engine See image of pointable nozzle Glass blowing This led to a number of innovations in the use of glass. Window glass is attested at Pompeii in AD 79. In the 2nd century AD[53] hanging glass oil lamps were introduced. These used floating wicks and by reducing self-shading gave more lumens in a downwards direction. Cage cups (see photograph) are hypothesised as oil lamps. Dichroic glass as in the Lycurgus Cup. [2] Note, this material attests otherwise unknown chemistry (or other way?) to generate nano-scale gold-silver particles. Glass mirrors (Pliny the Elder Naturalis Historia 33,130) Greenhouse cold frames (Pliny the Elder Naturalis Historia 19.64; Columella on Ag. 11.3.52) Hydraulis A water organ. Later also the pneumatic organ. Hushing Described by Pliny the Elder and confirmed at Dolaucothi and Las Médulas Hydraulic mining Described by Pliny the Elder and confirmed at Dolaucothi and Las Médulas Hydrometer Mentioned in a letter of Synesius Hypocaust A floor and also wall heating system. Described by Vitruvius Knife, multifunctional [3] Lighthouses The best surviving examples are those at Dover castle and the Tower of Hercules at A Coruña Leather, Tanned The preservation of skins with vegetable tannins was a pre-Roman invention but not of the antiquity once supposed. (Tawing was far more ancient.) The Romans were responsible for spreading this technology into areas where it was previously unknown such as Britain and Qasr Ibrim on the Nile. In both places this technology was lost when the Romans withdrew.[54] Mills M.J.T.Lewis presents good evidence that water powered vertical pounding machines came in by the middle of the 1st century AD for fulling, grain hulling (Pliny Nat. Hist. 18,97) and ore crushing (archaeological evidence at Dolaucothi Gold Mines and Spain). Grainmill, rotary. According to Moritz (p57) rotary grainmills were not known to the ancient Greeks but date from before 160 BC. Unlike reciprocating mills, rotary mills could be easily adapted to animal or water power. Lewis (1997) argues that the rotary grainmill dates to the 5th century BC in the western Mediterranean. Animal and water powered rotary mills came in the 3rd century BC. Sawmill, water powered. Recorded by 370 AD. Attested in Ausonius's poem Mosella. Translated [4]"the Ruwer sends mill-stones swiftly round to grind the corn, And drives shrill saw-blades through smooth marble blocks". Recent archaeological evidence from Phrygia, Anatolia, now pushes back the date to the 3rd century AD and confirms the use of a crank in the sawmill.[55] Shipmill, (though small, the conventional term is "shipmill" not boat mill, probably because there was always a deck, and usually an enclosed superstructure, to keep the flour away from the damp) where water wheels were attached to boats, was first recorded at Rome in 547 AD in Procopius of Caesarea's Gothic Wars (1.19.8–29) when Belisaurius was besieged there. Essentials of the Steam engine By the late 3rd century AD, all essential elements for constructing a steam engine were known by Roman engineers: steam power (in Hero's aeolipile), the crank and connecting rod mechanism (in the Hierapolis sawmill), the cylinder and piston (in metal force pumps), non-return valves (in water pumps) and gearing (in water mills and clocks)[56] Watermill. Improvements upon earlier models. For the largest mill complex known see Barbegal Mercury Gilding as in the Horses of San Marco Newspaper, rudimentary See Acta Diurna. Odometer Paddle wheel boats In de Rebus Bellicis (possibly only a paper invention). Pewter Mentioned by Pliny the Elder (Naturalis Historia 34, 160–1). Surviving examples are mainly Romano-British of the 3rd and 4th centuries e.g.[5] and [6]. Roman pewter had a wide range of proportions of tin but proportions of 50%, 75% and 95% predominate (Beagrie 1989). Pleasure lake An artificial reservoir, highly unusual in that it was meant for recreational rather than utilitarian purposes was created at Subiaco, Italy, for emperor Nero (54–68 AD). The dam remained the highest in the Roman Empire (50 m),[57] and in the world until its destruction in 1305.[58] Plough iron-bladed (A much older innovation (e.g. Bible; I Samuel 13, 20–1) that became much more common in the Roman period) wheeled (Pliny the Elder Naturalis Historia 18. 171–3) (More important for the Middle Ages, than this era.) Pottery, glossed i.e. Samian ware Reaper An early harvesting machine: vallus (Pliny the Elder Naturalis Historia 18,296, Palladius 7.2.2–4 [7]) Sails, fore-and-aft rig Introduction of fore-and-aft rigs 1) the Lateen sail 2) the Spritsail, this last already attested in 2nd century BC in the northern Aegean Sea[59] Note: there is no evidence of any combination of fore-and-aft rigs with square sails on the same Roman ship. Sails, Lateen Representations show lateen sails in the Mediterranean as early as the 2nd century AD. Both the quadrilateral and the triangular type were employed.[60][61][62][63][64][65][66][67][68][69] Roller bearings Archaeologically attested in the Lake Nemi ships[70] Rudder, stern-mounted See image for something very close to being a sternpost rudder Sausage, fermented dry (probably) See salami. Screw press An innovation of about the mid-1st century AD[71] Sewers See for example Cloaca Maxima Soap, hard (sodium) First mentioned by Galen (earlier, potassium, soap being Celtic). Spiral staircase Though first attested as early as the 5th century BC in Greek Selinunte, spiral staircases only become more widespread after their adoption in Trajan's column and the Column of Marcus Aurelius. Stenography, a system of See Tironian notes. Street map, early See Forma Urbis Romae (Severan Marble Plan), a carved marble ground plan of every architectural feature in ancient Rome.[72] Sundial, portable See Theodosius of Bithynia Surgical instruments, various Tooth implants, iron From archaeological evidence in Gaul[73] Towpath e.g. beside the Danube, see the "road" in Trajan's bridge Tunnels Excavated from both ends simultaneously. The longest known is the 5.6-kilometre (3.5 mi) drain of the Fucine lake Vehicles, one wheeled Solely attested by a Latin word in 4th century AD Scriptores Historiae Augustae Heliogabalus 29. As this is fiction, the evidence dates to its time of writing. Wood veneer Pliny Nat. Hist. 16. 231–2 See also[edit] Maritime hydraulics in antiquity De architectura Ancient Greek technology History of science in classical antiquity List of Byzantine inventions References[edit] ^ Lancaster, Lynn (2008). Engineering and Technology in the Classical World. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 260–266. 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Roma : La Libreria dello stato ^ H Schneider Technology in The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World 2007; p157 CUP ^ Stanford University: Forma Urbis Romae ^ BBC: Tooth and nail dentures Further reading[edit] Wilson, Andrew (2002), "Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy", The Journal of Roman Studies, Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies, Cambridge University Press, 92, pp. 1–32, doi:10.2307/3184857, JSTOR 3184857 Greene, Kevin (2000), "Technological Innovation and Economic Progress in the Ancient World: M.I. Finley Re-Considered", The Economic History Review, 53 (1), pp. 29–59, doi:10.1111/1468-0289.00151 Derry, Thomas Kingston and Trevor I. Williams. A Short History of Technology: From the Earliest Times to A.D. 1900. New York : Dover Publications, 1993 Williams, Trevor I. A History of Invention From Stone Axes to Silicon Chips. New York, New York, Facts on File, 2000 Lewis, M. J. T. (2001), "Railways in the Greek and Roman world", in Guy, A.; Rees, J. (eds.), Early Railways. A Selection of Papers from the First International Early Railways Conference (PDF), pp. 8–19 (10–15), archived from the original (PDF) on 12 March 2010 Galliazzo, Vittorio (1995), I ponti romani, Vol. 1, Treviso: Edizioni Canova, pp. 92, 93 (fig. 39), ISBN 88-85066-66-6 Werner, Walter (1997), "The largest ship trackway in ancient times: the Diolkos of the Isthmus of Corinth, Greece, and early attempts to build a canal", The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 26 (2): 98–119, doi:10.1111/j.1095-9270.1997.tb01322.x Neil Beagrie, "The Romano-British Pewter Industry", Britannia, Vol. 20 (1989), pp. 169–91 Grewe, Klaus (2009), "Die Reliefdarstellung einer antiken Steinsägemaschine aus Hierapolis in Phrygien und ihre Bedeutung für die Technikgeschichte. Internationale Konferenz 13.−16. Juni 2007 in Istanbul", in Bachmann, Martin (ed.), Bautechnik im antiken und vorantiken Kleinasien (PDF), Byzas, 9, Istanbul: Ege Yayınları/Zero Prod. Ltd., pp. 429–454, ISBN 978-975-8072-23-1, archived from the original (PDF) on 11 May 2011 Lewis, M.J.T., 1997, Millstone and Hammer, University of Hull Press Moritz, L.A., 1958, Grainmills and Flour in Classical Antiquity, Oxford Ritti, Tullia; Grewe, Klaus; Kessener, Paul (2007), "A Relief of a Water-powered Stone Saw Mill on a Sarcophagus at Hierapolis and its Implications", Journal of Roman Archaeology, 20: 138–163, doi:10.1017/S1047759400005341 Oliver Davies, "Roman Mines in Europe", Clarendon Press (Oxford), 1935. Jones G. D. B., I. J. Blakey, and E. C. F. MacPherson, "Dolaucothi: the Roman aqueduct," Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies 19 (1960): 71–84 and plates III-V. Lewis, P. R. and G. D. B. Jones, "The Dolaucothi gold mines, I: the surface evidence," The Antiquaries Journal, 49, no. 2 (1969): 244–72. Lewis, P. R. and G. D. B. Jones, "Roman gold-mining in north-west Spain," Journal of Roman Studies 60 (1970): 169–85. Lewis, P. R., "The Ogofau Roman gold mines at Dolaucothi," The National Trust Year Book 1976–77 (1977). Barry C. Burnham, "Roman Mining at Dolaucothi: the Implications of the 1991–3 Excavations near the Carreg Pumsaint", Britannia 28 (1997), 325–336 A.H.V. Smith, "Provenance of Coals from Roman Sites in England and Wales", Britannia, Vol. 28 (1997), pp. 297–324 Basch, Lucien (2001), "La voile latine, son origine, son évolution et ses parentés arabes", in Tzalas, H. (ed.), Tropis VI, 6th International Symposium on Ship Construction in Antiquity, Lamia 1996 proceedings, Athens: Hellenic Institute for the Preservation of Nautical Tradition, pp. 55–85 Campbell, I.C. (1995), "The Lateen Sail in World History" (PDF), Journal of World History, 6 (1), pp. 1–23 Casson, Lionel (1954), "The Sails of the Ancient Mariner", Archaeology, 7 (4), pp. 214–219 Casson, Lionel (1995), Ships and Seamanship in the Ancient World, Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 0-8018-5130-0 Castro, F.; Fonseca, N.; Vacas, T.; Ciciliot, F. (2008), "A Quantitative Look at Mediterranean Lateen- and Square-Rigged Ships (Part 1)", The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 37 (2), pp. 347–359, doi:10.1111/j.1095-9270.2008.00183.x Friedman, Zaraza; Zoroglu, Levent (2006), "Kelenderis Ship. Square or Lateen Sail?", The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 35 (1), pp. 108–116, doi:10.1111/j.1095-9270.2006.00091.x Makris, George (2002), "Ships", in Laiou, Angeliki E (ed.), The Economic History of Byzantium. From the Seventh through the Fifteenth Century, 2, Dumbarton Oaks, pp. 89–99, ISBN 0-88402-288-9 Pomey, Patrice (2006), "The Kelenderis Ship: A Lateen Sail", The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 35 (2), pp. 326–335, doi:10.1111/j.1095-9270.2006.00111.x Pryor, John H.; Jeffreys, Elizabeth M. (2006), The Age of the ΔΡΟΜΩΝ: The Byzantine Navy ca. 500–1204, Brill Academic Publishers, ISBN 978-90-04-15197-0 Toby, A.Steven "Another look at the Copenhagen Sarcophagus", International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 1974 vol.3.2: 205–211 White, Lynn (1978), "The Diffusion of the Lateen Sail", Medieval Religion and Technology. Collected Essays, University of California Press, pp. 255–260, ISBN 0-520-03566-6 Whitewright, Julian (2009), "The Mediterranean Lateen Sail in Late Antiquity", The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 38 (1), pp. 97–104, doi:10.1111/j.1095-9270.2008.00213.x Drachmann, A. G., Mechanical Technology of Greek and Roman Antiquity, Lubrecht & Cramer Ltd, 1963 ISBN 0-934454-61-2 Hodges, Henry., Technology in the Ancient World, London: The Penguin Press, 1970 Landels, J.G., Engineering in the Ancient World, University of California Press, 1978 White, K.D., Greek and Roman Technology, Cornell University Press, 1984 Sextus Julius Frontinus; R. H. Rodgers (translator) (2003), De Aquaeductu Urbis Romae [On the water management of the city of Rome], University of Vermont, retrieved 16 August 2012 Roger D. Hansen, "International Water History Association", Water and Wastewater Systems in Imperial Rome, retrieved 22 November 2005 Rihll, T.E. (11 April 2007), Greek and Roman Science and Technology: Engineering, Swansea University, retrieved 13 April 2008 Arenillas, Miguel; Castillo, Juan C. (2003), "Dams from the Roman Era in Spain. Analysis of Design Forms (with Appendix)", 1st International Congress on Construction History [20th–24th January], Madrid Hodge, A. Trevor (1992), Roman Aqueducts & Water Supply, London: Duckworth, ISBN 0-7156-2194-7 Hodge, A. Trevor (2000), "Reservoirs and Dams", in Wikander, Örjan (ed.), Handbook of Ancient Water Technology, Technology and Change in History, 2, Leiden: Brill, pp. 331–339, ISBN 90-04-11123-9 James, Patrick; Chanson, Hubert (2002), "Historical Development of Arch Dams. From Roman Arch Dams to Modern Concrete Designs", Australian Civil Engineering Transactions, CE43: 39–56 Laur-Belart, Rudolf (1988), Führer durch Augusta Raurica (5th ed.), Augst Schnitter, Niklaus (1978), "Römische Talsperren", Antike Welt, 8 (2): 25–32 Schnitter, Niklaus (1987a), "Verzeichnis geschichtlicher Talsperren bis Ende des 17. Jahrhunderts", in Garbrecht, Günther (ed.), Historische Talsperren, Stuttgart: Verlag Konrad Wittwer, pp. 9–20, ISBN 3-87919-145-X Schnitter, Niklaus (1987b), "Die Entwicklungsgeschichte der Pfeilerstaumauer", in Garbrecht, Günther (ed.), Historische Talsperren, Stuttgart: Verlag Konrad Wittwer, pp. 57–74, ISBN 3-87919-145-X Schnitter, Niklaus (1987c), "Die Entwicklungsgeschichte der Bogenstaumauer", in Garbrecht, Günther (ed.), Historische Talsperren, Stuttgart: Verlag Konrad Wittwer, pp. 75–96, ISBN 3-87919-145-X Smith, Norman (1970), "The Roman Dams of Subiaco", Technology and Culture, 11 (1): 58–68, doi:10.2307/3102810, JSTOR 3102810 Smith, Norman (1971), A History of Dams, London: Peter Davies, pp. 25–49, ISBN 0-432-15090-0 Vogel, Alexius (1987), "Die historische Entwicklung der Gewichtsmauer", in Garbrecht, Günther (ed.), Historische Talsperren, Stuttgart: Verlag Konrad Wittwer, pp. 47–56, ISBN 3-87919-145-X External links[edit] Library resources about Roman technology Online 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en-wikipedia-org-7657	----	Sidonius Apollinaris - Wikipedia Sidonius Apollinaris From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Gallic poet, diplomat, and bishop Saint Sidonius Apollinaris Born c. 430 Lugdunum, Gaul, Western Roman Empire Died c. 485 Kingdom of the Burgundians Venerated in Eastern Orthodox Church Roman Catholic Church Feast 21 August Gaius Sollius Modestus Apollinaris Sidonius, better known as Sidonius Apollinaris (5 November[1] of an unknown year, c. 430 – 481/490 AD), was a poet, diplomat, and bishop. Sidonius is "the single most important surviving author from fifth-century Gaul" according to Eric Goldberg.[2] He was one of four Gallo-Roman aristocrats of the fifth- to sixth-century whose letters survive in quantity; the others are Ruricius, bishop of Limoges (died 507), Alcimus Ecdicius Avitus, bishop of Vienne (died 518) and Magnus Felix Ennodius of Arles, bishop of Ticinum (died 534). All of them were linked in the tightly bound aristocratic Gallo-Roman network that provided the bishops of Catholic Gaul.[3] His feast day is 21 August. Contents 1 Life 2 Works 3 Notes 4 Sources and further reading 5 External links Life[edit] Sidonius was born in Lugdunum (Lyon). His father (anonymous) was Prefect of Gaul under Valentinian III; he recalls with pride being present with his father at the installation of Astyrius as consul for the year 449.[4] Sidonius' grandfather was Praetorian Prefect of Gaul sometime prior to 409 and a friend of his successor Decimus Rusticus. Sidonius may be a descendant of another Apollinaris who was Prefect of Gaul under Constantine II between 337 and 340. Sidonius married Papianilla, the daughter of Emperor Avitus, around 452.[5] This union produced one son, Apollinaris, and at least two daughters: Sidonius mentions in his letters Severina and Roscia, but a third, Alcima, is only mentioned much later by Gregory of Tours, and Theodor Mommsen has speculated that Alcima may be another name for one of his other daughters.[6] His known acquaintances include bishop Faustus of Riez and his theological adversary Claudianus Mamertus; his life and friendships put him in the center of 5th-century Roman affairs. In 457 Majorian deprived Avitus of the empire and seized the city of Lyons; Sidonius fell into his hands. However, the reputation of Sidonius's learning led Majorian to treat him with the greatest respect. In return Sidonius composed a panegyric in his honour (as he had previously done for Avitus), which won for him a statue at Rome and the title of comes. In 467 or 468 the emperor Anthemius rewarded him for the panegyric which he had written in honour of him by raising him to the post of Urban Prefect of Rome, which he held until 469, and afterwards to the dignity of Patrician and Senator. In 470 or 472, he was elected to succeed Eparchius in the bishopric of Averna (Clermont). When the Goths captured Clermont in 474 he was imprisoned, as he had taken an active part in its defense; but he was afterwards released from captivity by Euric, king of the Goths, and continued to shepherd his flock as he had done before; he did so until his death. Sidonius's relations have been traced over several generations as a narrative of a family's fortunes, from the prominence of his paternal grandfather's time into later decline in the 6th century under the Franks. Sidonius's son Apollinaris, who was a correspondent of Ruricius of Limoges, commanded a unit raised in Auvergne on the losing side of the decisive Battle of Vouille, and also was bishop of Clermont for four months until he died.[7] Sidonius's grandson Arcadius, on hearing a rumor that the Frankish king Theuderic I had died, betrayed Clermont to Childebert I, only to abandon his wife and mother when Theuderic appeared; his other appearance in the history of Gregory of Tours is as a servant of king Childebert.[8] Sidonius was still living in 481.[9] He was dead before 490, when his successor as bishop, Aprunculus, died. His date of death was 21 or 23 August.[10] Works[edit] Opera (1598) His extant works are his Panegyrics on different emperors (in which he draws largely upon Statius, Ausonius and Claudian), which document several important political events. Carmen 7 is a panegyric to his father-in-law Avitus on his inauguration as emperor. Carmen 5 is a panegyric to Majorian, which offers evidence that Sidonius was able to overcome the natural suspicion and hostility towards the man who was responsible for the death of his father-in-law. Carmen 2 is a panegyric to the emperor Anthemius, part of Sidonius' efforts to be appointed Urban Prefect of Rome; several samples of occasional verse; and nine books of Letters, about which W.B. Anderson notes, "Whatever one may think about their style and diction, the letters of Sidonius are an invaluable source of information on many aspects of the life of his time."[11] While very stilted in diction, these Letters reveal Sidonius as a man of genial temper, fond of good living and of pleasure. A letter of Sidonius's addressed to Riothamus, "King of the Brittones" (c. 470) is of particular interest, since it provides evidence that a king or military leader with ties to Britain lived around the time frame of King Arthur. The best edition is that in the Monumenta Germaniae Historica (Berlin, 1887), which gives a survey of the manuscripts. An English translation of his poetry and letters by W.B. Anderson, with accompanying Latin text, have been published by the Loeb Classical Library (volume 1, containing his poems and books 1-2 of his letters, 1939 [12]; remainder of letters, 1965). Among his lost works, is the one on Apollonius of Tyana.[13] Gregory of Tours speaks of Sidonius as a man who could celebrate Mass from memory (without a sacramentary) and give unprepared speeches without any hesitation.[14] Notes[edit] ^ Apollinaris alludes to the date of his birthday in a short poem addressed to his brother-in-law Ecdicius, Carmen 20. ^ The Fall of the Roman Empire Revisited: Sidonius Apollinaris and His Crisis of Identity Archived September 2, 2009, at the Wayback Machine ^ Ralph W. Mathisen, "Epistolography, Literary Circles and Family Ties in Late Roman Gaul" Transactions of the American Philological Association 111 (1981), pp. 95-109. ^ Epistulae, VIII.6.5; translated by W.B. Anderson, Sidonius: Poems and Letters (Harvard: Loeb Classical Library, 1965), vol. 2 p. 423 ^ Gregory of Tours, History of the Franks, 2.21. This is confirmed by the otherwise oblique allusion in Sidonius' own Epistuale 2.2.3. ^ Severina, Epistulae II.12.2; Roscia, Epistulae V.16.5; Alcima, Gregory of Tours Decem Libri Historiarum, III.2 ^ Gregory of Tours, 2.37, 3.2 ^ Gregory of Tours, 3.9, 11 ^ Harries 2018. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHarries2018 (help) ^ Martindale 1980, p. 118. ^ In his introduction to Sidonius: Poems and Letters (Cambridge: Loeb, 1939), vol. 1, p. lxiv. ^ https://archive.org/details/L296SidoniusI12PoemsLetters ^ http://www.gnosis.org/library/grs-mead/apollonius/apollonius_mead_04.htm ^ Gregory of Tours, 2.22 Sources and further reading[edit] C.E. Stevens, Sidonius Apollinaris and his Age. Oxford: University Press, 1933. K.F. Stroheker. Der senatorische Adel im spätantiken Gallien. Tübingen, 1948. Nora Chadwick, Poetry and Letters in Early Christian Gaul London: Bowes and Bowes, 1955. Harries, Jill (1994). Sidonius Apollinaris and the Fall of Rome, AD 407-485. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814472-4. Harries, Jill (2018). "Sidonius Apollinaris". In Nicholson, Oliver (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity, Volume 2: J–Z. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 1379–1380. ISBN 978-0-19-881625-6. Martindale, John R., ed. (1980). The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire: Volume II, AD 395–527. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-20159-4. Sigrid Mratschek, "Identitätsstiftung aus der Vergangenheit: Zum Diskurs über die trajanische Bildungskultur im Kreis des Sidonius Apollinaris", in Therese Fuhrer (hg), Die christlich-philosophischen Diskurse der Spätantike: Texte, Personen, Institutionen: Akten der Tagung vom 22.-25. Februar 2006 am Zentrum für Antike und Moderne der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg (Stuttgart, Franz Steiner Verlag, 2008) (Philosophie der Antike, 28), Johannes A. van Waarden and Gavin Kelly (eds), New Approaches to Sidonius Apollinaris, with Indices on Helga Köhler, C. Sollius Apollinaris Sidonius: Briefe Buch I. Leuven: Peeters, 2013. M. P. Hanaghan, Reading Sidonius' Epistles, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019. Gavin Kelly and Joop van Waarden (eds), The Edinburgh Companion to Sidonius Apollinaris, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2020. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Sidonius Apollinaris Apollinaris Sidonius (5 November c.430 - 21 August c.483) – Medieval Lectures. Lynn Harry Nelson. Biographical introduction to the Letters, O. M. Dalton (1915) Complete English translation of the Letters of Sidonius Apollinaris, O. M. Dalton (1915) Sidonius Apollinaris, dedicated site, with bibliography and complete Latin text of the correspondence and the poetry, maintained by Joop van Waarden since 2003, frequently updated Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Latina with analytical indexes  Wace, Henry; Piercy, William C., eds. (1911). "Sidonius Apollinaris, St" . Dictionary of Christian Biography and Literature to the End of the Sixth Century (3rd ed.). London: John Murray. Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Sidonius Apollinaris" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Apollinaris Sidonius, Caius Sollius". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Portals Access related topics Saints portal Biography portal Christianity portal Europe portal Authority control BIBSYS: 93003614 BNE: XX917728 BNF: cb12159352w (data) CANTIC: a10485429 GND: 118797069 HDS: 010311 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\114218 ISNI: 0000 0001 2142 9795 LCCN: n85175817 NKC: jn19981002133 NLA: 35264490 NLG: 222505 NLI: 000122395 NLP: A11869264 NSK: 000135422 NTA: 069289654 RERO: 02-A000149761 SELIBR: 198123 SNAC: w6gv018s SUDOC: 027471381 Trove: 888483 VcBA: 495/56321 VIAF: 89203537 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n85175817 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sidonius_Apollinaris&oldid=992374927" Categories: Bishops in Gaul Bishops of Clermont Latin letter writers 5th-century Roman poets People from Lugdunum Urban prefects of Rome 5th-century Latin writers 5th-century bishops 5th-century Christian saints 430 births 480s deaths 5th-century Gallo-Roman people Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DCBL with Wikisource reference Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with HDS identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLP identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Français Frysk Galego Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 December 2020, at 22:55 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7677	----	Roman art - Wikipedia Roman art From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Fresco from the Villa of the Mysteries. Pompeii, 80 BC Iphigenia in Aulis Wall painting from north wall of the House of the Tragic Poet, Pompeii The art of Ancient Rome, its Republic and later Empire includes architecture, painting, sculpture and mosaic work. Luxury objects in metal-work, gem engraving, ivory carvings, and glass are sometimes considered to be minor forms of Roman art,[1] although they were not considered as such at the time. Sculpture was perhaps considered as the highest form of art by Romans, but figure painting was also highly regarded. A very large body of sculpture has survived from about the 1st century BC onward, though very little from before, but very little painting remains, and probably nothing that a contemporary would have considered to be of the highest quality. Ancient Roman pottery was not a luxury product, but a vast production of "fine wares" in terra sigillata were decorated with reliefs that reflected the latest taste, and provided a large group in society with stylish objects at what was evidently an affordable price. Roman coins were an important means of propaganda, and have survived in enormous numbers. Contents 1 Introduction 2 Painting 2.1 Variety of subjects 2.2 Landscape and vistas 2.3 Still life 2.4 Portraits 2.5 Gold glass 2.6 Genre scenes 2.7 Triumphal paintings 3 Sculpture 3.1 Narrative reliefs 4 Minor arts 4.1 Pottery and terracottas 4.2 Glass 4.3 Mosaic 4.4 Metalwork 4.5 Coins and medals 5 Architecture 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Introduction[edit] Left image: A Roman fresco from Pompeii showing a Maenad in silk dress, 1st century AD Right image: A fresco of a young man from the Villa di Arianna, Stabiae, 1st century AD. Further information: Roman Republican art While the traditional view of the ancient Roman artists is that they often borrowed from, and copied Greek precedents (much of the Greek sculptures known today are in the form of Roman marble copies), more of recent analysis has indicated that Roman art is a highly creative pastiche relying heavily on Greek models but also encompassing Etruscan, native Italic, and even Egyptian visual culture. Stylistic eclecticism and practical application are the hallmarks of much Roman art. Pliny, Ancient Rome's most important historian concerning the arts, recorded that nearly all the forms of art – sculpture, landscape, portrait painting, even genre painting – were advanced in Greek times, and in some cases, more advanced than in Rome. Though very little remains of Greek wall art and portraiture, certainly Greek sculpture and vase painting bears this out. These forms were not likely surpassed by Roman artists in fineness of design or execution. As another example of the lost "Golden Age", he singled out Peiraikos, "whose artistry is surpassed by only a very few ... He painted barbershops and shoemakers’ stalls, donkeys, vegetables, and such, and for that reason came to be called the 'painter of vulgar subjects'; yet these works are altogether delightful, and they were sold at higher prices than the greatest paintings of many other artists.”[2] The adjective "vulgar" is used here in its original definition, which means "common". The Greek antecedents of Roman art were legendary. In the mid-5th century BC, the most famous Greek artists were Polygnotos, noted for his wall murals, and Apollodoros, the originator of chiaroscuro. The development of realistic technique is credited to Zeuxis and Parrhasius, who according to ancient Greek legend, are said to have once competed in a bravura display of their talents, history's earliest descriptions of trompe-l'œil painting.[3] In sculpture, Skopas, Praxiteles, Phidias, and Lysippos were the foremost sculptors. It appears that Roman artists had much Ancient Greek art to copy from, as trade in art was brisk throughout the empire, and much of the Greek artistic heritage found its way into Roman art through books and teaching. Ancient Greek treatises on the arts are known to have existed in Roman times, though are now lost.[4] Many Roman artists came from Greek colonies and provinces.[5] Preparation of an animal sacrifice; marble, fragment of an architectural relief, first quarter of the 2nd century CE; from Rome, Italy The high number of Roman copies of Greek art also speaks of the esteem Roman artists had for Greek art, and perhaps of its rarer and higher quality.[5] Many of the art forms and methods used by the Romans – such as high and low relief, free-standing sculpture, bronze casting, vase art, mosaic, cameo, coin art, fine jewelry and metalwork, funerary sculpture, perspective drawing, caricature, genre and portrait painting, landscape painting, architectural sculpture, and trompe-l'œil painting – all were developed or refined by Ancient Greek artists.[6] One exception is the Roman bust, which did not include the shoulders. The traditional head-and-shoulders bust may have been an Etruscan or early Roman form.[7] Virtually every artistic technique and method used by Renaissance artists 1,900 years later, had been demonstrated by Ancient Greek artists, with the notable exceptions of oil colors and mathematically accurate perspective.[8] Where Greek artists were highly revered in their society, most Roman artists were anonymous and considered tradesmen. There is no recording, as in Ancient Greece, of the great masters of Roman art, and practically no signed works. Where Greeks worshipped the aesthetic qualities of great art, and wrote extensively on artistic theory, Roman art was more decorative and indicative of status and wealth, and apparently not the subject of scholars or philosophers.[9] Owing in part to the fact that the Roman cities were far larger than the Greek city-states in power and population, and generally less provincial, art in Ancient Rome took on a wider, and sometimes more utilitarian, purpose. Roman culture assimilated many cultures and was for the most part tolerant of the ways of conquered peoples.[5] Roman art was commissioned, displayed, and owned in far greater quantities, and adapted to more uses than in Greek times. Wealthy Romans were more materialistic; they decorated their walls with art, their home with decorative objects, and themselves with fine jewelry. In the Christian era of the late Empire, from 350 to 500 CE, wall painting, mosaic ceiling and floor work, and funerary sculpture thrived, while full-sized sculpture in the round and panel painting died out, most likely for religious reasons.[10] When Constantine moved the capital of the empire to Byzantium (renamed Constantinople), Roman art incorporated Eastern influences to produce the Byzantine style of the late empire. When Rome was sacked in the 5th century, artisans moved to and found work in the Eastern capital. The Church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople employed nearly 10,000 workmen and artisans, in a final burst of Roman art under Emperor Justinian (527–565 CE), who also ordered the creation of the famous mosaics of Basilica of San Vitale in the city of Ravenna.[11] Painting[edit] Main article: Pompeian Styles Further information: Encaustic painting Painter with painted statue and framed painting, Pompeii Of the vast body of Roman painting we now have only a very few pockets of survivals, with many documented types not surviving at all, or doing so only from the very end of the period. The best known and most important pocket is the wall paintings from Pompeii, Herculaneum and other sites nearby, which show how residents of a wealthy seaside resort decorated their walls in the century or so before the fatal eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD. A succession of dated styles have been defined and analysed by modern art historians beginning with August Mau, showing increasing elaboration and sophistication. Heracles and Omphale, Roman fresco Pompeian Fourth Style (45-79 AD), Naples National Archaeological Museum, Italy Starting in the 3rd century AD and finishing by about 400 we have a large body of paintings from the Catacombs of Rome, by no means all Christian, showing the later continuation of the domestic decorative tradition in a version adapted - probably not greatly adapted - for use in burial chambers, in what was probably a rather humbler social milieu than the largest houses in Pompeii. Much of Nero's palace in Rome, the Domus Aurea, survived as grottos and gives us examples which we can be sure represent the very finest quality of wall-painting in its style, and which may well have represented significant innovation in style. There are a number of other parts of painted rooms surviving from Rome and elsewhere, which somewhat help to fill in the gaps of our knowledge of wall-painting. From Roman Egypt there are a large number of what are known as Fayum mummy portraits, bust portraits on wood added to the outside of mummies by a Romanized middle class; despite their very distinct local character they are probably broadly representative of Roman style in painted portraits, which are otherwise entirely lost. Nothing remains of the Greek paintings imported to Rome during the 4th and 5th centuries, or of the painting on wood done in Italy during that period.[4] In sum, the range of samples is confined to only about 200 years out of the about 900 years of Roman history,[12] and of provincial and decorative painting. Most of this wall painting was done using the a secco (dry) method, but some fresco paintings also existed in Roman times. There is evidence from mosaics and a few inscriptions that some Roman paintings were adaptations or copies of earlier Greek works.[12] However, adding to the confusion is the fact that inscriptions may be recording the names of immigrant Greek artists from Roman times, not from Ancient Greek originals that were copied.[8] The Romans entirely lacked a tradition of figurative vase-painting comparable to that of the Ancient Greeks, which the Etruscans had emulated. Variety of subjects[edit] The Wedding of Zephyrus and Chloris (54–68 AD, Pompeian Fourth Style) within painted architectural panels from the Casa del Naviglio Roman painting provides a wide variety of themes: animals, still life, scenes from everyday life, portraits, and some mythological subjects. During the Hellenistic period, it evoked the pleasures of the countryside and represented scenes of shepherds, herds, rustic temples, rural mountainous landscapes and country houses.[8] Erotic scenes are also relatively common. In the late empire, after 200AD, early Christian themes mixed with pagan imagery survive on catacomb walls.[13] Landscape and vistas[edit] Boscotrecase, Pompeii. Third style The main innovation of Roman painting compared to Greek art was the development of landscapes, in particular incorporating techniques of perspective, though true mathematical perspective developed 1,500 years later. Surface textures, shading, and coloration are well applied but scale and spatial depth was still not rendered accurately. Some landscapes were pure scenes of nature, particularly gardens with flowers and trees, while others were architectural vistas depicting urban buildings. Other landscapes show episodes from mythology, the most famous demonstrating scenes from the Odyssey.[14] In the cultural point of view, the art of the ancient East would have known landscape painting only as the backdrop to civil or military narrative scenes.[15] This theory is defended by Franz Wickhoff, is debatable. It is possible to see evidence of Greek knowledge of landscape portrayal in Plato's Critias (107b–108b): ... and if we look at the portraiture of divine and of human bodies as executed by painters, in respect of the ease or difficulty with which they succeed in imitating their subjects in the opinion of onlookers, we shall notice in the first place that as regards the earth and mountains and rivers and woods and the whole of heaven, with the things that exist and move therein, we are content if a man is able to represent them with even a small degree of likeness ...[16] Still life[edit] Roman still life subjects are often placed in illusionist niches or shelves and depict a variety of everyday objects including fruit, live and dead animals, seafood, and shells. Examples of the theme of the glass jar filled with water were skillfully painted and later served as models for the same subject often painted during the Renaissance and Baroque periods.[17] Portraits[edit] Further information: Roman portraiture The Severan Tondo, a panel painting of the imperial family, c. 200 AD; Antikensammlung, Berlin Fayum mummy portrait of a woman from Roman Egypt with a ringlet hairstyle. Royal Museum of Scotland. Pliny complained of the declining state of Roman portrait art, "The painting of portraits which used to transmit through the ages the accurate likenesses of people, has entirely gone out ... Indolence has destroyed the arts."[18][19] In Greece and Rome, wall painting was not considered as high art. The most prestigious form of art besides sculpture was panel painting, i.e. tempera or encaustic painting on wooden panels. Unfortunately, since wood is a perishable material, only a very few examples of such paintings have survived, namely the Severan Tondo from c. 200 AD, a very routine official portrait from some provincial government office, and the well-known Fayum mummy portraits, all from Roman Egypt, and almost certainly not of the highest contemporary quality. The portraits were attached to burial mummies at the face, from which almost all have now been detached. They usually depict a single person, showing the head, or head and upper chest, viewed frontally. The background is always monochrome, sometimes with decorative elements.[20] In terms of artistic tradition, the images clearly derive more from Greco-Roman traditions than Egyptian ones. They are remarkably realistic, though variable in artistic quality, and may indicate that similar art which was widespread elsewhere but did not survive. A few portraits painted on glass and medals from the later empire have survived, as have coin portraits, some of which are considered very realistic as well.[21] Gold glass[edit] Main article: Gold glass Further information: List of gold-glass portraits Detail of the gold glass medallion in Brescia (Museo di Santa Giulia), most likely Alexandrian, 3rd century AD[22] Gold glass, or gold sandwich glass, was a technique for fixing a layer of gold leaf with a design between two fused layers of glass, developed in Hellenistic glass and revived in the 3rd century AD. There are a very few large designs, including a very fine group of portraits from the 3rd century with added paint, but the great majority of the around 500 survivals are roundels that are the cut-off bottoms of wine cups or glasses used to mark and decorate graves in the Catacombs of Rome by pressing them into the mortar. They predominantly date from the 4th and 5th centuries. Most are Christian, though there are many pagan and a few Jewish examples. It is likely that they were originally given as gifts on marriage, or festive occasions such as New Year. Their iconography has been much studied, although artistically they are relatively unsophisticated.[23] Their subjects are similar to the catacomb paintings, but with a difference balance including more portraiture. As time went on there was an increase in the depiction of saints.[24] The same technique began to be used for gold tesserae for mosaics in the mid-1st century in Rome, and by the 5th century these had become the standard background for religious mosaics. The earlier group are "among the most vivid portraits to survive from Early Christian times. They stare out at us with an extraordinary stern and melancholy intensity",[25] and represent the best surviving indications of what high quality Roman portraiture could achieve in paint. The Gennadios medallion in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, is a fine example of an Alexandrian portrait on blue glass, using a rather more complex technique and naturalistic style than most Late Roman examples, including painting onto the gold to create shading, and with the Greek inscription showing local dialect features. He had perhaps been given or commissioned the piece to celebrate victory in a musical competition.[26] One of the most famous Alexandrian-style portrait medallions, with an inscription in Egyptian Greek, was later mounted in an Early Medieval crux gemmata in Brescia, in the mistaken belief that it showed the pious empress and Gothic queen Galla Placida and her children;[27] in fact the knot in the central figure's dress may mark a devotee of Isis.[28] This is one of a group of 14 pieces dating to the 3rd century AD, all individualized secular portraits of high quality.[29] The inscription on the medallion is written in the Alexandrian dialect of Greek and hence most likely depicts a family from Roman Egypt.[30] The medallion has also been compared to other works of contemporaneous Roman-Egyptian artwork, such as the Fayum mummy portraits.[22] It is thought that the tiny detail of pieces such as these can only have been achieved using lenses.[31] The later glasses from the catacombs have a level of portraiture that is rudimentary, with features, hairstyles and clothes all following stereotypical styles.[32] Genre scenes[edit] Roman genre scenes generally depict Romans at leisure and include gambling, music and sexual encounters.[citation needed] Some scenes depict gods and goddesses at leisure.[8][12] Triumphal paintings[edit] Roman fresco from the Villa Boscoreale, 43–30 BC, Metropolitan Museum of Art Roman fresco with a banquet scene from the Casa dei Casti Amanti, Pompeii From the 3rd century BC, a specific genre known as Triumphal Paintings appeared, as indicated by Pliny (XXXV, 22).[33] These were paintings which showed triumphal entries after military victories, represented episodes from the war, and conquered regions and cities. Summary maps were drawn to highlight key points of the campaign. Josephus describes the painting executed on the occasion of Vespasian and Titus's sack of Jerusalem: There was also wrought gold and ivory fastened about them all; and many resemblances of the war, and those in several ways, and variety of contrivances, affording a most lively portraiture of itself. For there was to be seen a happy country laid waste, and entire squadrons of enemies slain; while some of them ran away, and some were carried into captivity; with walls of great altitude and magnitude overthrown and ruined by machines; with the strongest fortifications taken, and the walls of most populous cities upon the tops of hills seized on, and an army pouring itself within the walls; as also every place full of slaughter, and supplications of the enemies, when they were no longer able to lift up their hands in way of opposition. Fire also sent upon temples was here represented, and houses overthrown, and falling upon their owners: rivers also, after they came out of a large and melancholy desert, ran down, not into a land cultivated, nor as drink for men, or for cattle, but through a land still on fire upon every side; for the Jews related that such a thing they had undergone during this war. Now the workmanship of these representations was so magnificent and lively in the construction of the things, that it exhibited what had been done to such as did not see it, as if they had been there really present. On the top of every one of these pageants was placed the commander of the city that was taken, and the manner wherein he was taken.[34] These paintings have disappeared, but they likely influenced the composition of the historical reliefs carved on military sarcophagi, the Arch of Titus, and Trajan's Column. This evidence underscores the significance of landscape painting, which sometimes tended towards being perspective plans. Ranuccio also describes the oldest painting to be found in Rome, in a tomb on the Esquiline Hill: It describes a historical scene, on a clear background, painted in four superimposed sections. Several people are identified, such Marcus Fannius and Marcus Fabius. These are larger than the other figures ... In the second zone, to the left, is a city encircled with crenellated walls, in front of which is a large warrior equipped with an oval buckler and a feathered helmet; near him is a man in a short tunic, armed with a spear...Around these two are smaller soldiers in short tunics, armed with spears...In the lower zone a battle is taking place, where a warrior with oval buckler and a feathered helmet is shown larger than the others, whose weapons allow to assume that these are probably Samnites. This episode is difficult to pinpoint. One of Ranuccio's hypotheses is that it refers to a victory of the consul Fabius Maximus Rullianus during the second war against Samnites in 326 BC. The presentation of the figures with sizes proportional to their importance is typically Roman, and finds itself in plebeian reliefs. This painting is in the infancy of triumphal painting, and would have been accomplished by the beginning of the 3rd century BC to decorate the tomb. Sculpture[edit] Main articles: Roman sculpture and Roman portraiture Detail from the Ahenobarbus relief showing two Roman soldiers, c. 122 BC Section of Trajan's Column, 113 AD, with scenes from the Dacian Wars Early Roman art was influenced by the art of Greece and that of the neighbouring Etruscans, themselves greatly influenced by their Greek trading partners. An Etruscan speciality was near life size tomb effigies in terracotta, usually lying on top of a sarcophagus lid propped up on one elbow in the pose of a diner in that period. As the expanding Roman Republic began to conquer Greek territory, at first in Southern Italy and then the entire Hellenistic world except for the Parthian far east, official and patrician sculpture became largely an extension of the Hellenistic style, from which specifically Roman elements are hard to disentangle, especially as so much Greek sculpture survives only in copies of the Roman period.[35] By the 2nd century BC, "most of the sculptors working in Rome" were Greek,[36] often enslaved in conquests such as that of Corinth (146 BC), and sculptors continued to be mostly Greeks, often slaves, whose names are very rarely recorded. Vast numbers of Greek statues were imported to Rome, whether as booty or the result of extortion or commerce, and temples were often decorated with re-used Greek works.[37] A native Italian style can be seen in the tomb monuments of prosperous middle-class Romans, which very often featured portrait busts, and portraiture is arguably the main strength of Roman sculpture. There are no survivals from the tradition of masks of ancestors that were worn in processions at the funerals of the great families and otherwise displayed in the home, but many of the busts that survive must represent ancestral figures, perhaps from the large family tombs like the Tomb of the Scipios or the later mausolea outside the city. The famous bronze head supposedly of Lucius Junius Brutus is very variously dated, but taken as a very rare survival of Italic style under the Republic, in the preferred medium of bronze.[38] Similarly stern and forceful heads are seen in the coins of the consuls, and in the Imperial period coins as well as busts sent around the Empire to be placed in the basilicas of provincial cities were the main visual form of imperial propaganda; even Londinium had a near-colossal statue of Nero, though far smaller than the 30-metre-high Colossus of Nero in Rome, now lost.[39] The Tomb of Eurysaces the Baker, a successful freedman (c. 50-20 BC) has a frieze that is an unusually large example of the "plebeian" style.[40] Imperial portraiture was initially Hellenized and highly idealized, as in the Blacas Cameo and other portraits of Augustus. Arch of Constantine, 315: Hadrian lion-hunting (left) and sacrificing (right), above a section of the Constantinian frieze, showing the contrast of styles. The Romans did not generally attempt to compete with free-standing Greek works of heroic exploits from history or mythology, but from early on produced historical works in relief, culminating in the great Roman triumphal columns with continuous narrative reliefs winding around them, of which those commemorating Trajan (113 AD) and Marcus Aurelius (by 193) survive in Rome, where the Ara Pacis ("Altar of Peace", 13 BC) represents the official Greco-Roman style at its most classical and refined, and the Sperlonga sculptures it at its most baroque. Some late Roman public sculptures developed a massive, simplified style that sometimes anticipates Soviet socialist realism. Among other major examples are the earlier re-used reliefs on the Arch of Constantine and the base of the Column of Antoninus Pius (161),[41] Campana reliefs were cheaper pottery versions of marble reliefs and the taste for relief was from the imperial period expanded to the sarcophagus. All forms of luxury small sculpture continued to be patronized, and quality could be extremely high, as in the silver Warren Cup, glass Lycurgus Cup, and large cameos like the Gemma Augustea, Gonzaga Cameo and the "Great Cameo of France".[42] For a much wider section of the population, moulded relief decoration of pottery vessels and small figurines were produced in great quantity and often considerable quality.[43] After moving through a late 2nd century "baroque" phase,[44] in the 3rd century, Roman art largely abandoned, or simply became unable to produce, sculpture in the classical tradition, a change whose causes remain much discussed. Even the most important imperial monuments now showed stumpy, large-eyed figures in a harsh frontal style, in simple compositions emphasizing power at the expense of grace. The contrast is famously illustrated in the Arch of Constantine of 315 in Rome, which combines sections in the new style with roundels in the earlier full Greco-Roman style taken from elsewhere, and the Four Tetrarchs (c. 305) from the new capital of Constantinople, now in Venice. Ernst Kitzinger found in both monuments the same "stubby proportions, angular movements, an ordering of parts through symmetry and repetition and a rendering of features and drapery folds through incisions rather than modelling... The hallmark of the style wherever it appears consists of an emphatic hardness, heaviness and angularity – in short, an almost complete rejection of the classical tradition".[45] This revolution in style shortly preceded the period in which Christianity was adopted by the Roman state and the great majority of the people, leading to the end of large religious sculpture, with large statues now only used for emperors, as in the famous fragments of a colossal acrolithic statue of Constantine, and the 4th or 5th century Colossus of Barletta. However rich Christians continued to commission reliefs for sarcophagi, as in the Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus, and very small sculpture, especially in ivory, was continued by Christians, building on the style of the consular diptych.[46] Etruscan sarcophagus, 3rd century BC The "Capitoline Brutus", dated to the 4th to 3rd centuries BC A Roman naval bireme depicted in a relief from the Temple of Fortuna Primigenia in Praeneste (Palastrina),[47] which was built c. 120 BC;[48] exhibited in the Pius-Clementine Museum (Museo Pio-Clementino) in the Vatican Museums. The Orator, c. 100 BC, an Etrusco-Roman bronze statue depicting Aule Metele (Latin: Aulus Metellus), an Etruscan man wearing a Roman toga while engaged in rhetoric; the statue features an inscription in the Etruscan alphabet The Grave relief of Publius Aiedius and Aiedia, 30 BC, Pergamon Museum (Berlin) Augustus of Prima Porta, statue of the emperor Augustus, 1st century AD, Vatican Museums Tomb relief of the Decii, 98–117 AD Bust of Emperor Claudius, c. 50 CE, (reworked from a bust of emperor Caligula), Vatican Museums Commodus dressed as Hercules, c. 191 CE, in the late imperial "baroque" style; Capitoline Museum, Rome. The Four Tetrarchs, c. 305, showing the new anti-classical style, in porphyry, now San Marco, Venice The cameo gem known as the "Great Cameo of France", c. 23 AD, with an allegory of Augustus and his family Portrait Bust of a Man, Ancient Rome, 60 BC Roman portraiture is characterized by its "warts and all" realism. Veristic portrait bust of an old man, head covered (capite velato), either a priest or paterfamilias (marble, mid-1st century BC) Bust of Antinous, c. 130 AD Traditional Roman sculpture is divided into five categories: portraiture, historical relief, funerary reliefs, sarcophagi, and copies of ancient Greek works.[49] Contrary to the belief of early archaeologists, many of these sculptures were large polychrome terra-cotta images, such as the Apollo of Veii (Villa Givlia, Rome), but the painted surface of many of them has worn away with time. Narrative reliefs[edit] While Greek sculptors traditionally illustrated military exploits through the use of mythological allegory, the Romans used a more documentary style. Roman reliefs of battle scenes, like those on the Column of Trajan, were created for the glorification of Roman might, but also provide first-hand representation of military costumes and military equipment. Trajan's column records the various Dacian wars conducted by Trajan in what is modern day Romania. It is the foremost example of Roman historical relief and one of the great artistic treasures of the ancient world. This unprecedented achievement, over 650 foot of spiraling length, presents not just realistically rendered individuals (over 2,500 of them), but landscapes, animals, ships, and other elements in a continuous visual history – in effect an ancient precursor of a documentary movie. It survived destruction when it was adapted as a base for Christian sculpture.[50] During the Christian era after 300 AD, the decoration of door panels and sarcophagi continued but full-sized sculpture died out and did not appear to be an important element in early churches.[10] Minor arts[edit] The Blacas Cameo of Augustus, from his last years or soon after Pottery and terracottas[edit] Main articles: Ancient Roman pottery and Campana relief The Romans inherited a tradition of art in a wide range of the so-called "minor arts" or decorative art. Most of these flourished most impressively at the luxury level, but large numbers of terracotta figurines, both religious and secular, continued to be produced cheaply, as well as some larger Campana reliefs in terracotta.[51] Roman art did not use vase-painting in the way of the ancient Greeks, but vessels in Ancient Roman pottery were often stylishly decorated in moulded relief.[52] Producers of the millions of small oil lamps sold seem to have relied on attractive decoration to beat competitors and every subject of Roman art except landscape and portraiture is found on them in miniature.[53] Glass[edit] Main article: Roman glass Various Roman glasswares on display at the Metropolitan Museum of Art Luxury arts included fancy Roman glass in a great range of techniques, many smaller types of which were probably affordable to a good proportion of the Roman public. This was certainly not the case for the most extravagant types of glass, such as the cage cups or diatreta, of which the Lycurgus Cup in the British Museum is a near-unique figurative example in glass that changes colour when seen with light passing through it. The Augustan Portland Vase is the masterpiece of Roman cameo glass,[54] and imitated the style of the large engraved gems (Blacas Cameo, Gemma Augustea, Great Cameo of France) and other hardstone carvings that were also most popular around this time.[55] Mosaic[edit] Main article: Roman mosaic Roman mosaic of female athletes playing ball at the Villa Romana del Casale of Piazza Armerina, Roman Sicily, 4th century AD Roman mosaic was a minor art, though often on a very large scale, until the very end of the period, when late-4th-century Christians began to use it for large religious images on walls in their new large churches; in earlier Roman art mosaic was mainly used for floors, curved ceilings, and inside and outside walls that were going to get wet. The famous copy of a Hellenistic painting in the Alexander Mosaic in Naples was originally placed in a floor in Pompeii; this is much higher quality work than most Roman mosaic, though very fine panels, often of still life subjects in small or micromosaic tesserae have also survived. The Romans distinguished between normal opus tessellatum with tesserae mostly over 4 mm across, which was laid down on site, and finer opus vermiculatum for small panels, which is thought to have been produced offsite in a workshop, and brought to the site as a finished panel. The latter was a Hellenistic genre which is found in Italy between about 100 BC and 100 AD. Most signed mosaics have Greek names, suggesting the artists remained mostly Greek, though probably often slaves trained up in workshops. The late 2nd century BC Nile mosaic of Palestrina is a very large example of the popular genre of Nilotic landscape, while the 4th century Gladiator Mosaic in Rome shows several large figures in combat.[56] Orpheus mosaics, often very large, were another favourite subject for villas, with several ferocious animals tamed by Orpheus's playing music. In the transition to Byzantine art, hunting scenes tended to take over large animal scenes. Metalwork[edit] Metalwork was highly developed, and clearly an essential part of the homes of the rich, who dined off silver, while often drinking from glass, and had elaborate cast fittings on their furniture, jewellery, and small figurines. A number of important hoards found in the last 200 years, mostly from the more violent edges of the late empire, have given us a much clearer idea of Roman silver plate. The Mildenhall Treasure and Hoxne Hoard are both from East Anglia in England.[57] There are few survivals of upmarket ancient Roman furniture, but these show refined and elegant design and execution. Coins and medals[edit] Hadrian, with "RESTITVTORI ACHAIAE" on the reverse, celebrating his spending in Achaia (Greece), and showing the quality of ordinary bronze coins that were used by the mass population, hence the wear on higher areas. Few Roman coins reach the artistic peaks of the best Greek coins, but they survive in vast numbers and their iconography and inscriptions form a crucial source for the study of Roman history, and the development of imperial iconography, as well as containing many fine examples of portraiture. They penetrated to the rural population of the whole Empire and beyond, with barbarians on the fringes of the Empire making their own copies. In the Empire medallions in precious metals began to be produced in small editions as imperial gifts, which are similar to coins, though larger and usually finer in execution. Images in coins initially followed Greek styles, with gods and symbols, but in the death throes of the Republic first Pompey and then Julius Caesar appeared on coins, and portraits of the emperor or members of his family became standard on imperial coinage. The inscriptions were used for propaganda, and in the later Empire the army joined the emperor as the beneficiary. Architecture[edit] Main article: Roman architecture Aqueduct of Segovia. It was in the area of architecture that Roman art produced its greatest innovations. Because the Roman Empire extended over so great of an area and included so many urbanized areas, Roman engineers developed methods for citybuilding on a grand scale, including the use of concrete. Massive buildings like the Pantheon and the Colosseum could never have been constructed with previous materials and methods. Though concrete had been invented a thousand years earlier in the Near East, the Romans extended its use from fortifications to their most impressive buildings and monuments, capitalizing on the material's strength and low cost.[58] The concrete core was covered with a plaster, brick, stone, or marble veneer, and decorative polychrome and gold-gilded sculpture was often added to produce a dazzling effect of power and wealth.[58] Because of these methods, Roman architecture is legendary for the durability of its construction; with many buildings still standing, and some still in use, mostly buildings converted to churches during the Christian era. Many ruins, however, have been stripped of their marble veneer and are left with their concrete core exposed, thus appearing somewhat reduced in size and grandeur from their original appearance, such as with the Basilica of Constantine.[59] During the Republican era, Roman architecture combined Greek and Etruscan elements, and produced innovations such as the round temple and the curved arch.[60] As Roman power grew in the early empire, the first emperors inaugurated wholesale leveling of slums to build grand palaces on the Palatine Hill and nearby areas, which required advances in engineering methods and large scale design. Roman buildings were then built in the commercial, political, and social grouping known as a forum, that of Julius Caesar being the first and several added later, with the Forum Romanum being the most famous. The greatest arena in the Roman world, the Colosseum, was completed around 80 AD at the far end of that forum. It held over 50,000 spectators, had retractable fabric coverings for shade, and could stage massive spectacles including huge gladiatorial contests and mock naval battles. This masterpiece of Roman architecture epitomizes Roman engineering efficiency and incorporates all three architectural orders – Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian.[61] Less celebrated but just as important if not more so for most Roman citizens, was the five-story insula or city block, the Roman equivalent of an apartment building, which housed tens of thousands of Romans.[62] Roman theatre in Mérida It was during the reign of Trajan (98–117 AD) and Hadrian (117–138 AD) that the Roman Empire reached its greatest extent and that Rome itself was at the peak of its artistic glory – achieved through massive building programs of monuments, meeting houses, gardens, aqueducts, baths, palaces, pavilions, sarcophagi, and temples.[50] The Roman use of the arch, the use of concrete building methods, the use of the dome all permitted construction of vaulted ceilings and enabled the building of these public spaces and complexes, including the palaces, public baths and basilicas of the "Golden Age" of the empire. Outstanding examples of dome construction include the Pantheon, the Baths of Diocletian, and the Baths of Caracalla. The Pantheon (dedicated to all the planetary gods) is the best preserved temple of ancient times with an intact ceiling featuring an open "eye" in the center. The height of the ceiling exactly equals the interior diameter of the building, creating an enclosure that could contain a giant sphere.[59] These grand buildings later served as inspirational models for architects of the Italian Renaissance, such as Brunelleschi. By the age of Constantine (306-337 AD), the last great building programs in Rome took place, including the erection of the Arch of Constantine built near the Colosseum, which recycled some stone work from the forum nearby, to produce an eclectic mix of styles.[13] Roman aqueducts, also based on the arch, were commonplace in the empire and essential transporters of water to large urban areas. Their standing masonry remains are especially impressive, such as the Pont du Gard (featuring three tiers of arches) and the aqueduct of Segovia, serving as mute testimony to their quality of their design and construction.[61] See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal Bacchic art Byzantine art Erotic art in Pompeii and Herculaneum Latin literature Music of ancient Rome Neoclassicism Pompeian Styles Roman graffiti Notes[edit] ^ Toynbee, J. M. C. (1971). "Roman Art". The Classical Review. 21 (3): 439–442. doi:10.1017/S0009840X00221331. JSTOR 708631. ^ Sybille Ebert-Schifferer, Still Life: A History, Harry N. Abrams, New York, 1998, p. 15, ISBN 0-8109-4190-2 ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p. 16 ^ a b Piper, p. 252 ^ a b c Janson, p. 158 ^ Piper, p. 248–253 ^ Piper, p. 255 ^ a b c d Piper, p. 253 ^ Piper, p. 254 ^ a b Piper, p. 261 ^ Piper, p. 266 ^ a b c Janson, p. 190 ^ a b Piper, p. 260 ^ Janson, p. 191 ^ according to Ernst Gombrich. ^ Plato. Critias (107b–108b), trans W.R.M. Lamb 1925. at the Perseus Project accessed 27 June 2006 ^ Janson, p. 192 ^ John Hope-Hennessy, The Portrait in the Renaissance, Bollingen Foundation, New York, 1966, pp. 71–72 ^ Pliny the Elder, Natural History XXXV:2 trans H. Rackham 1952. Loeb Classical Library ^ Janson, p. 194 ^ Janson, p. 195 ^ a b Daniel Thomas Howells (2015). "A Catalogue of the Late Antique Gold Glass in the British Museum (PDF)." London: the British Museum (Arts and Humanities Research Council). Accessed 2 October 2016, p. 7: "Other important contributions to scholarship included the publication of an extensive summary of gold glass scholarship under the entry ‘Fonds de coupes’ in Fernand Cabrol and Henri Leclercq’s comprehensive Dictionnaire d’archéologie chrétienne et de liturgie in 1923. Leclercq updated Vopel’s catalogue, recording 512 gold glasses considered to be genuine, and developed a typological series consisting of eleven iconographic subjects: biblical subjects; Christ and the saints; various legends; inscriptions; pagan deities; secular subjects; male portraits; female portraits; portraits of couples and families; animals; and Jewish symbols. In a 1926 article devoted to the brushed technique gold glass known as the Brescia medallion (Pl. 1), Fernand de Mély challenged the deeply ingrained opinion of Garrucci and Vopel that all examples of brushed technique gold glass were in fact forgeries. The following year, de Mély’s hypothesis was supported and further elaborated upon in two articles by different scholars. A case for the Brescia medallion’s authenticity was argued for, not on the basis of its iconographic and orthographic similarity with pieces from Rome (a key reason for Garrucci's dismissal), but instead for its close similarity to the Fayoum mummy portraits from Egypt. Indeed, this comparison was given further credence by Walter Crum’s assertion that the Greek inscription on the medallion was written in the Alexandrian dialect of Egypt. De Mély noted that the medallion and its inscription had been reported as early as 1725, far too early for the idiosyncrasies of Graeco-Egyptian word endings to have been understood by forgers." "Comparing the iconography of the Brescia medallion with other more closely dated objects from Egypt, Hayford Peirce then proposed that brushed technique medallions were produced in the early 3rd century, whilst de Mély himself advocated a more general 3rd-century date. With the authenticity of the medallion more firmly established, Joseph Breck was prepared to propose a late 3rd to early 4th century date for all of the brushed technique cobalt blue-backed portrait medallions, some of which also had Greek inscriptions in the Alexandrian dialect. Although considered genuine by the majority of scholars by this point, the unequivocal authenticity of these glasses was not fully established until 1941 when Gerhart Ladner discovered and published a photograph of one such medallion still in situ, where it remains to this day, impressed into the plaster sealing in an individual loculus in the Catacomb of Panfilo in Rome (Pl. 2). Shortly after in 1942, Morey used the phrase ‘brushed technique’ to categorize this gold glass type, the iconography being produced through a series of small incisions undertaken with a gem cutter’s precision and lending themselves to a chiaroscuro-like effect similar to that of a fine steel engraving simulating brush strokes." ^ Beckwith, 25-26, ^ Grig, throughout ^ Honour and Fleming, Pt 2, "The Catacombs" at illustration 7.7 ^ Weitzmann, no. 264, entry by J.D.B.; see also no. 265; Medallion with a Portrait of Gennadios, Metropolitan Museum of Art, with better image. ^ Boardman, 338-340; Beckwith, 25 ^ Vickers, 611 ^ Grig, 207 ^ Jás Elsner (2007). "The Changing Nature of Roman Art and the Art Historical Problem of Style," in Eva R. Hoffman (ed), Late Antique and Medieval Art of the Medieval World, 11-18. Oxford, Malden & Carlton: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4051-2071-5, p. 17, Figure 1.3 on p. 18. ^ Sines and Sakellarakis, 194-195 ^ Grig, 207; Lutraan, 29-45 goes into considerable detail ^ Natural History (Pliny) online at the Perseus Project ^ Josephus, The Jewish Wars VII, 143-152 (Ch 6 Para 5). Trans. William Whiston Online accessed 27 June 2006 ^ Strong, 58–63; Henig, 66-69 ^ Henig, 24 ^ Henig, 66–69; Strong, 36–39, 48; At the trial of Verres, former governor of Sicily, Cicero's prosecution details his depredations of art collections at great length. ^ Henig, 23–24 ^ Henig, 66–71 ^ Henig, 66; Strong, 125 ^ Henig, 73–82;Strong, 48–52, 80–83, 108–117, 128–132, 141–159, 177–182, 197–211 ^ Henig, Chapter 6; Strong, 303–315 ^ Henig, Chapter 8 ^ Strong, 171–176, 211–214 ^ Kitzinger, 9 (both quotes), more generally his Ch 1; Strong, 250–257, 264–266, 272–280 ^ Strong, 287–291, 305–308, 315–318; Henig, 234–240 ^ D.B. Saddington (2011) [2007]. "the Evolution of the Roman Imperial Fleets," in Paul Erdkamp (ed), A Companion to the Roman Army, 201-217. Malden, Oxford, Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-2153-8. Plate 12.2 on p. 204. ^ Coarelli, Filippo (1987), I Santuari del Lazio in età repubblicana. NIS, Rome, pp 35-84. ^ Gazda, Elaine K. (1995). "Roman Sculpture and the Ethos of Emulation: Reconsidering Repetition". Harvard Studies in Classical Philology. Department of the Classics, Harvard University. 97 (Greece in Rome: Influence, Integration, Resistance): 121–156. doi:10.2307/311303. JSTOR 311303. According to traditional art-historical taxonomy, Roman sculpture is divided into a number of distinct categories--portraiture, historical relief, funerary reliefs, sarcophagi, and copies. ^ a b Piper, p. 256 ^ Henig, 191-199 ^ Henig, 179-187 ^ Henig, 200-204 ^ Henig, 215-218 ^ Henig, 152-158 ^ Henig, 116-138 ^ Henig, 140-150; jewellery, 158-160 ^ a b Janson, p. 160 ^ a b Janson, p. 165 ^ Janson, p. 159 ^ a b Janson, p. 162 ^ Janson, p. 167 References[edit] Beckwith, John. Early Christian and Byzantine Art. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970. Boardman, John, The Oxford History of Classical Art. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993. Grig, Lucy. “Portraits, pontiffs and the Christianization of fourth-century Rome.” Papers of the British School at Rome 72 (2004): 203-379. --. Roman Art, Religion and Society: New Studies From the Roman Art Seminar, Oxford 2005. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2006. Janson, H. W., and Anthony F Janson. History of Art. 6th ed. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2001. Kitzinger, Ernst. Byzantine Art In the Making: Main Lines of Stylistic Development In Mediterranean Art, 3rd-7th Century. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995. Henig, Martin. A Handbook of Roman Art: A Comprehensive Survey of All the Arts of the Roman World. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983. Piper, David. The Illustrated Library of Art, Portland House, New York, 1986, ISBN 0-517-62336-6 Strong, Donald Emrys, J. M. C Toynbee, and Roger Ling. Roman Art. 2nd ed. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin, 1988. Further reading[edit] Andreae, Bernard. The Art of Rome. New York: H. N. Abrams, 1977. Beard, Mary, and John Henderson. Classical Art: From Greece to Rome. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001. Bianchi Bandinelli, Ranuccio. Rome, the Center of Power: 500 B.C. to A.D. 200. New York: G. Braziller, 1970. Borg, Barbara. A Companion to Roman Art. Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons, 2015. Brilliant, Richard. Roman Art From the Republic to Constantine. Newton Abbot, Devon: Phaidon Press, 1974. D’Ambra, Eve. Art and Identity in the Roman World. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1998. --. Roman Art. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998. Kleiner, Fred S. A History of Roman Art. Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth, 2007. Ramage, Nancy H. Roman Art: Romulus to Constantine. 6th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ : Pearson, 2015. Stewart, Peter. Roman Art. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004. Syndicus, Eduard. Early Christian Art. 1st ed. New York: Hawthorn Books, 1962. Tuck, Steven L. A History of Roman Art. Malden: Wiley Blackwell, 2015. Zanker, Paul. Roman Art. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2010. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ancient Roman art. 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en-wikipedia-org-7678	----	View source for Horace - Wikipedia View source for Horace ← Horace Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. You are currently unable to edit Wikipedia due to a block affecting your IP address. This does not affect your ability to read Wikipedia pages. Most people who see this message have done nothing wrong. Some kinds of blocks restrict editing from specific service providers or telecom companies in response to recent abuse or vandalism, and affect other users who are unrelated to that abuse. See below if you do not believe you have done anything wrong. Editing from 40.76.0.0/16 has been blocked (disabled) by ‪SQL‬ for the following reason(s): The IP address that you are currently using has been blocked because it is believed to be a web host provider or colocation provider. To prevent abuse, web hosts and colocation providers may be blocked from editing Wikipedia. You will not be able to edit Wikipedia using a web host or colocation provider because it hides your IP address, much like a proxy or VPN. We recommend that you attempt to use another connection to edit. For example, if you use a proxy or VPN to connect to the internet, turn it off when editing Wikipedia. If you edit using a mobile connection, try using a Wi-Fi connection, and vice versa. If you have a Wikipedia account, please log in. If you do not have any other way to edit Wikipedia, you will need to request an IP block exemption. If you are confident that you are not using a web host, you may appeal this block by adding the following text on your talk page: {{unblock|reason=Caught by a colocation web host block but this host or IP is not a web host. My IP address is _______. Place any further information here. ~~~~}}. You must fill in the blank with your IP address for this block to be investigated. Your IP address can be determined here. Alternatively, if you wish to keep your IP address private you can use the unblock ticket request system. There are several reasons you might be editing using the IP address of a web host or colocation provider (such as if you are using VPN software or a business network); please use this method of appeal only if you think your IP address is in fact not a web host or colocation provider. Administrators: The IP block exemption user right should only be applied to allow users to edit using web host in exceptional circumstances, and requests should usually be directed to the functionaries team via email. If you intend to give the IPBE user right, a CheckUser needs to take a look at the account. This can be requested most easily at SPI Quick Checkuser Requests. Unblocking an IP or IP range with this template is highly discouraged without at least contacting the blocking administrator. This block has been set to expire: 16:25, 2 June 2023. Even when blocked, you will usually still be able to edit your user talk page and email other editors and administrators. For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ==See also== {{Portal|Literature|Ancient Rome|Biography}} * [[Carpe diem]] * [[Horatia (gens)]] * [[List of ancient Romans]] * [[Otium]] * [[Prosody (Latin)]] * [[Translation#Western theory|Translation]] Return to Horace. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-767	----	Hydatius - Wikipedia Hydatius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 5th-century bishop and historian Hydatius, also spelled Idacius (c. 400 – c. 469), bishop of Aquae Flaviae in the Roman province of Gallaecia (almost certainly the modern Chaves, Portugal, in the modern district of Vila Real) was the author of a chronicle of his own times that provides us with our best evidence for the history of Hispania (that is, the Iberian Peninsula in Roman times) in the 5th century. Contents 1 Life 2 Chronicle 3 References 4 Sources 4.1 Edition 4.2 Secondary sources 5 External links Life[edit] Hydatius was born around the year 400 in the environs of Civitas Lemica, a Roman town near modern Xinzo de Limia in the Spanish Galician province of Ourense. As a young boy, he travelled as a pilgrim to the Holy Land with his mother, where he met Jerome in his hermitage at Bethlehem.[1] About the year 417 he joined the clergy, and in 427 was consecrated bishop probably of Chaves (the Roman Aquae Flaviae) in Gallaecia. As bishop he had to come to terms with the presence of non-Roman powers, especially a succession of kings of the Suevi, in a province where imperial control became increasingly nominal during the course of his lifetime. The Suevi had settled in Gallaecia in 411, and there was constant friction between them and the local Hispano-Roman provincials. In this context, Hydatius took part in a deputation of the year 431 requesting assistance in dealing with the Suevi from the general Flavius Aëtius, the most important representative of the imperial government in the West. Along with this concern, Hydatius devoted himself to rooting out heresy, not just in his own episcopal diocese, but in the rest of Hispania as well. He was in frequent contact with some important bishops of the day, including Thoribius of Astorga and Antoninus of Mérida. Together with Thoribius, he petitioned Pope Leo I for assistance and advice in dealing with heresy. Though Hydatius consistently characterizes Hispanian heretics as Manichees, it is generally believed that he meant Priscillianists, followers of the ascetic bishop Priscillian, who had been condemned as a heretic by several church councils and executed as a magician by the emperor Magnus Maximus around 385. We know very little else about Hydatius's life, though we know he was kidnapped and imprisoned for a time in 460 by local enemies, which suggests he played an important role in the internal politics of Roman Gallaecia. Hydatius probably died in 468 or shortly after, since at that point his chronicle breaks off abruptly. Chronicle[edit] Hydatius's main claim to historical importance is the chronicle he wrote towards the end of his life. The chronicle was a very popular historical genre in Late Antiquity, though with precedents in older chronographic genres like the Fasti consulares. A consciously Christian genre, the main goal of the chronicle was to place human history in the context of a linear progression from creation according Genesis to the Second Coming of Christ. Under the entry for each year one or several events were listed, usually with great brevity. The greatest exponent of the form had been the fourth-century bishop Eusebius of Caesarea. Jerome brought the Greek chronicle of Eusebius of Caesarea up to date as far as the year 378, after translating it into Latin. Jerome's translation and continuation proved very popular, and others decided to continue Jerome in the same way. Hydatius was one such continuator. His continuation begins with a preface explaining his debt to Jerome, and then picks up in the year 379. Hydatius had access to a number of chronographic and historical sources and used four parallel chronological systems. Because of this, and particularly towards the end of the chronicle, it can be difficult to translate his chronology into any modern calendar. At the beginning, Hydatius's continuation offers relatively little information for each year. He narrates the events from 427 onward as a contemporary witness and the text becomes increasingly full as the years progress until it resembles an organic literary work more than a typical chronicle. Hydatius's main concern throughout is to show the dissolution of civil society in the western Roman empire and in Hispania in particular, and he paints a very dark picture of fifth-century life. His deep pessimism may stem from a belief in the imminent end of the world, since he had read the apocryphal letter of Christ to Thomas, which was interpreted to show that the world would end in May 482. Hydatius may thus have believed that he was chronicling the world's last days, and on occasion he deliberately distorted his account to show events in a gloomier light. This is especially true of the narrative climax of his account, the sack in 456 of the Suevi capital at Braga by the Visigothic king Theodoric II, acting in the service of the Roman emperor Avitus. Regardless of his sometimes very sophisticated literary devices, Hydatius's chronicle is an essential source of information for reconstructing the course of fifth-century events. Moreover, it is our only source for the history of Hispania in the period up to 468, at which point the narrative breaks off. It is doubtful whether Hydatius is also the author of the Fasti consulares for the years 245–468, appended to the Chronicle in the only almost complete manuscript in our possession. The Chronicle is printed in Migne, P.L. vol. 51, 873–890, and vol. 74, 701–750; the Fasti Consulares are found in P.L., vol. 51, 891–914. References[edit] ^ Brown, Peter. The Rise of Western Christendom. (Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing, 2003) p. 99 Sources[edit] Edition[edit] Burgess, R.W., ed. and trans. The Chronicle of Hydatius and the Consularia Constantinopolitana. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993. (This is now the standard reference work, with Latin and English translation on facing pages. The chapter numbering differs from Mommsen's.). Mommsen, Theodor, ed. Chronica minora saec. IV.V.VI.VII., volumen II. (Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Auctores Antiquissimi, vol. 11.) Berlin: Weidmann, 1894. (This was until recently the standard edition, and its chapter numbering is still frequently cited.) Secondary sources[edit] Arce, Javier. "El catastrofismo de Hydacio y los camellos de la Gallaecia." In: Los últimos romanos en Lusitania. (Cuaderno Emeritenses 10.) Edited by A. Velázquez, E. Cerrillo and P. Mateos. Mérida: Museo Nacional de Arte Romano, 1995, pp. 219–229. (An example of Hydatius's literary sophistication.) Börm, Henning. "Hydatius von Aquae Flaviae und die Einheit des Römischen Reiches im fünften Jahrhundert." In: Griechische Profanhistoriker des fünften nachchristlichen Jahrhunderts. Edited by B. Bleckmann and T. Stickler. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2014, pp. 195–214. (Börm argues that Hydatius saw the Roman Empire as an undivided whole even after 395.) Gillett, Andrew. Envoys and Political Communication in the Late Antique West, 411-533. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003 (esp. ch. 2). Kulikowski, Michael. Late Roman Spain and Its Cities. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004. Muhlberger, Steven. The Fifth-Century Chroniclers: Prosper, Hydatius, and the Gallic Chronicler of 452. Leeds: Francis Cairns, 1990.  Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Hydatius of Lemica". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. External links[edit] Chronicon and Fasti of Hydatius Authority control BIBSYS: 95009505 BNE: XX1147711 BNF: cb119081649 (data) CANTIC: a19870619 CiNii: DA07835484 GND: 118939793 ISNI: 0000 0003 8298 1852 LCCN: n91062100 NKC: ola2004199594 NLA: 51933971 NLG: 92947 NTA: 070224951 RERO: 02-A000082449 SELIBR: 191214 SUDOC: 026929864 Trove: 1510293 VcBA: 495/19974 VIAF: 267516275 WorldCat Identities: viaf-267516275 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydatius&oldid=985214619" Categories: 400 births 469 deaths 5th-century bishops 5th-century historians 5th-century Latin writers Chroniclers Latin historians Romans from Hispania Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia without Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara Français Frysk Galego Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Magyar Nederlands Polski Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 24 October 2020, at 17:09 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7685	----	Smyrna - Wikipedia Smyrna From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient city This article is about the ancient city. For the modern city, see İzmir. For other uses, see Smyrna (disambiguation). Smyrna Σμύρνη/Σμύρνα  (Ancient Greek) The Agora of Smyrna (columns of the western stoa) Shown within Turkey Show map of Turkey Smyrna (Europe) Show map of Europe Location İzmir, İzmir Province, Turkey Region Ionia Coordinates 38°25′7″N 27°8′21″E / 38.41861°N 27.13917°E / 38.41861; 27.13917Coordinates: 38°25′7″N 27°8′21″E / 38.41861°N 27.13917°E / 38.41861; 27.13917 Type Settlement Smyrna among the cities of Ionia and Lydia (ca. 50 AD) Smyrna (/ˈsmɜːrnə/ SMUR-nə; Ancient Greek: Σμύρνη, romanized: Smýrnē, or Ancient Greek: Σμύρνα, romanized: Smýrna) was a Greek city located at a strategic point on the Aegean coast of Anatolia. Due to its advantageous port conditions, its ease of defense and its good inland connections, Smyrna rose to prominence. The modern name of the city is Izmir.[1] Two sites of the ancient city are today within Izmir's boundaries. The first site, probably founded by indigenous peoples, rose to prominence during the Archaic Period as one of the principal ancient Greek settlements in western Anatolia. The second, whose foundation is associated with Alexander the Great,[citation needed] reached metropolitan proportions during the period of the Roman Empire. Most of the present-day remains of the ancient city date from the Roman era, the majority from after a 2nd-century AD earthquake. In practical terms, a distinction is often made between these. Old Smyrna was the initial settlement founded around the 11th century BC, first as an Aeolian settlement, and later taken over and developed during the Archaic Period by the Ionians. Smyrna proper was the new city which residents moved to as of the 4th century BC and whose foundation was inspired by[citation needed] Alexander the Great. Old Smyrna was located on a small peninsula connected to the mainland by a narrow isthmus at the northeastern corner of the inner Gulf of İzmir, at the edge of a fertile plain and at the foot of Mount Yamanlar. This Anatolian settlement commanded the gulf. Today, the archeological site, named Bayraklı Höyüğü, is approximately 700 metres (770 yd) inland, in the Tepekule neighbourhood of Bayraklı. New Smyrna developed simultaneously on the slopes of the Mount Pagos (Kadifekale today) and alongside the coastal strait, immediately below where a small bay existed until the 18th century. The core of the late Hellenistic and early Roman Smyrna is preserved in the large area of İzmir Agora Open Air Museum at this site. Research is being pursued at the sites of both the old and the new cities. This has been conducted since 1997 for Old Smyrna and since 2002 for the Classical Period city, in collaboration between the İzmir Archaeology Museum and the Metropolitan Municipality of İzmir.[2] Contents 1 History 1.1 Etymology 1.2 Third millennium to 687 BC 1.3 Lydian period 1.4 Hellenistic period 1.5 Roman and Byzantine period 1.6 Ottoman period 1.7 Post World War I 2 Agora 3 Excavations 4 Economy 5 Toponyms 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links History[edit] The agora of the ancient city of Smyrna, now called Izmir. Etymology[edit] For further information on etymology of the city's name, see İzmir § Names and etymology. Several explanations have been offered for its name. A Greek myth derived the name from an eponymous Amazon named Σμύρνα (Smyrna), which was also the name of a quarter of Ephesus. This is the basis of Myrina, a city of Aeolis. In inscriptions and coins, the name often was written as Ζμύρνα (Zmýrna), Ζμυρναῖος (Zmyrnaîos, "of Smyrna").[3] Arches of the ancient city of Smyrna, modern day Izmir. The name Smyrna may also have been taken from the ancient Greek word for myrrh, smýrna,[4][5][6] which was the chief export of the city in ancient times.[7] Third millennium to 687 BC[edit] Further information: Fortifications of ancient Smyrna The region was settled at least as of the beginning of the third millennium BC, or perhaps earlier, as suggested by finds made in Yeşilova Höyük in excavations since 2005. It could have been a city of the autochthonous Leleges before the Greek colonists started to settle along the coast of Asia Minor at the turn of the second to first millennium BC. Throughout classical antiquity, Smyrna was a leading city-state of Ionia, with influence over the Aegean shores and islands. Smyrna was also among the cities that claimed Homer as a resident.[8] The early Aeolian Greek settlers of Lesbos and Cyme, expanding eastwards, occupied the valley of Smyrna. It was one of the confederacy of Aeolian city-states, marking the Aeolian frontier with the Ionian colonies. Strangers or refugees from the Ionian city of Colophon settled in the city. During an uprising in 688 BC, they took control of the city, making it the thirteenth of the Ionian city-states. Revised mythologies said it was a colony of Ephesus.[9] In 688 BC, the Ionian boxer Onomastus of Smyrna won the prize at Olympia, but the coup was probably then a recent event. The Colophonian conquest is mentioned by Mimnermus (before 600 BC), who counts himself equally of Colophon and of Smyrna. The Aeolic form of the name was retained even in the Attic dialect, and the epithet "Aeolian Smyrna" remained current long after the conquest. Agora of Smyrna, built during the Hellenistic era at the base of Pagos Hill and totally rebuilt under Marcus Aurelius after the destructive 178 AD earthquake, Izmir, Turkey Smyrna was located at the mouth of the small river Hermus and at the head of a deep arm of the sea (Smyrnaeus Sinus) that reached far inland. This enabled Greek trading ships to sail into the heart of Lydia, making the city part of an essential trade route between Anatolia and the Aegean. During the 7th century BC, Smyrna rose to power and splendor. One of the great trade routes which cross Anatolia descends the Hermus valley past Sardis, and then, diverging from the valley, passes south of Mount Sipylus and crosses a low pass into the little valley where Smyrna lies between the mountains and the sea. Miletus and later Ephesus were situated at the sea end of the other great trade route across Anatolia; they competed for a time successfully with Smyrna; but after both cities' harbors silted up, Smyrna was without a rival. The Meles River, which flowed by Smyrna, is famous in literature and was worshiped in the valley. A common and consistent tradition connects Homer with the valley of Smyrna and the banks of the Meles; his figure was one of the stock types on coins of Smyrna, one class of which numismatists call "Homerian." The epithet Melesigenes was applied to him; the cave where he was wont to compose his poems was shown near the source of the river; his temple, the Homereum, stood on its banks. The steady equable flow of the Meles, alike in summer and winter, and its short course, beginning and ending near the city, are celebrated by Aristides and Himerius. The stream rises from abundant springs east of the city and flows into the southeast extremity of the gulf. The archaic city ("Old Smyrna") contained a temple of Athena from the 7th century BC. Lydian period[edit] Head of the poetess Sappho, Smyrna, Marble copy of a prototype belonging to the Hellenistic Period, in Istanbul Archaeology Museums Map of Smyrna and other cities within the Lydian Empire. When the Mermnad kings raised the Lydian power and aggressiveness, Smyrna was one of the first points of attack. Gyges (ca. 687–652 BC) was, however, defeated on the banks of the Hermus, the situation of the battlefield showing that the power of Smyrna extended far to the east. A strong fortress was built probably by the Smyrnaean Ionians to command the valley of Nymphi, the ruins of which are still imposing, on a hill in the pass between Smyrna and Nymphi. According to Theognis (c. 500 BC), it was pride that destroyed Smyrna. Mimnermus laments the degeneracy of the citizens of his day, who could no longer stem the Lydian advance. Finally, Alyattes (609–560 BC) conquered the city and sacked it, and though Smyrna did not cease to exist, the Greek life and political unity were destroyed, and the polis was reorganized on the village system. Smyrna is mentioned in a fragment of Pindar and in an inscription of 388 BC, but its greatness was past. Hellenistic period[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Alexander the Great conceived the idea of restoring the Greek city in a scheme that was, according to Strabo, actually carried out under Antigonus (316–301 BC) and Lysimachus (301 BC—281 BC), who enlarged and fortified the city. The ruined acropolis of the ancient city, the "crown of Smyrna", had been on a steep peak about 380 metres (1,250 ft) high, which overhangs the northeast extremity of the gulf. Modern İzmir was constructed atop the later Hellenistic city, partly on the slopes of a rounded hill the Greeks called Pagos[10] near the southeast end of the gulf, and partly on the low ground between the hill and the sea. The beauty of the Hellenistic city, clustering on the low ground and rising tier over tier on the hillside, was frequently praised by the ancients and is celebrated on its coins. The statue of the river god Kaystros with a cornucopia in Izmir Museum of History and Art at Kültürpark Smyrna is shut in on the west by a hill now called Deirmen Tepe, with the ruins of a temple on the summit. The walls of Lysimachus crossed the summit of this hill, and the acropolis occupied the top of Pagus. Between the two the road from Ephesus entered the city by the Ephesian gate, near which was a gymnasium. Closer to the acropolis the outline of the stadium is still visible, and the theatre was situated on the north slopes of Pagus. Smyrna possessed two harbours. The outer harbour was simply the open roadstead of the gulf, and the inner was a small basin with a narrow entrance partially filled up by Tamerlane in 1402 AD. The streets were broad, well paved and laid out at right angles; many were named after temples: the main street, called the Golden, ran across the city from west to east, beginning probably from the temple of Zeus Akraios on the west slope of Pagus, and running round the lower slopes of Pagus (like a necklace on the statue, to use the favorite terms of Aristides the orator) towards Tepecik outside the city on the east, where probably stood the temple of Cybele, worshipped under the name of Meter Sipylene, the patroness of the city. The name is from the nearby Mount Sipylus, which bounds the valley of the city's backlands. The plain towards the sea was too low to be properly drained, and in rainy weather, the streets of the lower town were deep with mud and water. At the end of the Hellenistic period, in 197 BC, the city suddenly cut its ties with King Eumenes of Pergamum and instead appealed to Rome for help. Because Rome and Smyrna had no ties until then, Smyrna created a cult of Rome to establish a bond, and the cult eventually became widespread through the whole Roman Empire. As of 195 BC, the city of Rome started to be deified, in the cult to the goddess Roma. In this sense, the Smyrneans can be considered as the creators of the goddess Roma. In 133 BC, when the last Attalid king Attalus III died without an heir, his will conferred his entire kingdom, including Smyrna, to the Romans. They organized it into the Roman province of Asia, making Pergamum the capital. Smyrna, however, as a major seaport, became a leading city in the newly constituted province. Roman and Byzantine period[edit] Further information: Samos (theme), Byzantine Empire, and History of Anatolia Map of Western Anatolia showing the "Seven Churches of Asia" and the Greek island of Patmos. As one of the principal cities of Roman Asia,[11] Smyrna vied with Ephesus and Pergamum for the title "First City of Asia." A Christian church and a bishopric existed here from a very early time, probably originating in the considerable Jewish colony. It was one of the seven churches addressed in the Book of Revelation.[12] Saint Ignatius of Antioch visited Smyrna and later wrote letters to its bishop, Polycarp. A mob of Jews and pagans abetted the martyrdom of Polycarp in AD 153.[11] Saint Irenaeus, who heard Polycarp as a boy, was probably a native of Smyrna.[11] Another famous resident of the same period was Aelius Aristides.[13] After a destructive earthquake in 178 AD, Smyrna was rebuilt in the Roman period (2nd century AD) under the emperor Marcus Aurelius. Aelius Aristides wrote a letter to Marcus Aurelius and his son Commodus, inviting them to become the new founders of the city.[14] The bust of the emperor's wife Faustina on the second arch of the western stoa confirms this fact.[citation needed] Polycrates reports a succession of bishops including Polycarp of Smyrna, as well as others in nearby cities such as Melito of Sardis. Related to that time the German historian W. Bauer wrote: Asian Jewish Christianity received in turn the knowledge that henceforth the "church" would be open without hesitation to the Jewish influence mediated by Christians, coming not only from the apocalyptic traditions, but also from the synagogue with its practices concerning worship, which led to the appropriation of the Jewish passover observance. Even the observance of the sabbath by Christians appears to have found some favor in Asia...we find that in post-apostolic times, in the period of the formation of ecclesiastical structure, the Jewish Christians in these regions come into prominence.[15] In the late 2nd century, Irenaeus also noted: Polycarp also was not only instructed by apostles, and conversed with many who had seen Christ, but was also, by apostles in Asia, appointed bishop of the Church in Smyrna…always taught the things which he had learned from the apostles, and which the Church has handed down, and which alone are true. To these things all the Asiatic Churches testify, as do also those men who have succeeded Polycarp.[16] Tertullian wrote c. 208 AD: Anyhow the heresies are at best novelties, and have no continuity with the teaching of Christ. Perhaps some heretics may claim Apostolic antiquity: we reply: Let them publish the origins of their churches and unroll the catalogue of their bishops till now from the Apostles or from some bishop appointed by the Apostles, as the Smyrnaeans count from Polycarp and John, and the Romans from Clement and Peter; let heretics invent something to match this.[17] Hence, apparently the church in Smyrna was one of the churches that Tertullian felt had real apostolic succession. During the mid-3rd century, most became affiliated with the Greco-Roman churches. When Constantinople became the seat of government, the trade between Anatolia and the West diminished in importance, and Smyrna declined. The Seljuk commander Tzachas seized Smyrna in 1084 and used it as a base for naval raids, but the city was recovered by the general John Doukas. The city was several times ravaged by the Turks, and had become quite ruinous when the Nicaean emperor John III Doukas Vatatzes rebuilt it about 1222. Ottoman period[edit] Main article: İzmir In the year 1403, Timur had decisively defeated the Knights Hospitaller at Smyrna, and therefore referred to himself as a Ghazi. The Great Fire of Smyrna as seen from an Italian ship, 14 September 1922 Ibn Batuta found it still in great part a ruin when the homonymous chieftain of the Beylik of Aydın had conquered it about 1330 and made his son, Umur, governor. It became the port of the emirate. During the Smyrniote Crusade in 1344, on October 28, the combined forces of the Knights Hospitaliers of Rhodes, the Republic of Venice, the Papal States and the Kingdom of Cyprus, captured both the harbor and city from the Turks, which they held for nearly 60 years; the citadel fell in 1348, with the death of the governor Umur Baha ad-Din Ghazi.[18] In 1402, Tamerlane stormed the town and massacred almost all the inhabitants. The Mongol conquest was only temporary, but Smyrna was recovered by the Turks under the Aydın dynasty after which it became Ottoman, when the Ottomans took over the lands of Aydın after 1425.[19] Greek influence was so strong in the area that the Turks called it "Smyrna of the infidels" (Gavur İzmir).[20] While Turkish sources track the emergence of the term to the 14th century when two separate parts of the city were controlled by two different powers, the upper İzmir being Muslim and the lower part of the city Christian.[citation needed][clarification needed] During the late 19th and early 20th century, the city was an important financial and cultural center of the Greek world.[citation needed] Out of the 391 factories 322 belonged to local Greeks, while 3 out of the 9 banks were backed by Greek capital. Education was also dominated by the local Greek communities with 67 male and 4 female schools in total. The Ottomans continued to control the area, with the exception of the 1919–1922 period, when the city was assigned to Greece by the Treaty of Sèvres. The most important Greek educational institution of the region was the Evangelical School that operated from 1733 to 1922.[21] Post World War I[edit] Main articles: Occupation of Smyrna and Great Fire of Smyrna Greek troops marching on İzmir's coastal street, May 1919. After the end of the First World War Greece occupied Smyrna from 15 May 1919 and put in place a military administration. The Greek premier Venizelos had plans to annex Smyrna and he seemed to be realizing his objective in the Treaty of Sèvres, signed 10 August 1920.[22] (However, this treaty was not ratified by the parties; the Treaty of Peace of Lausanne replaced it.) The occupation of Smyrna came to an end when the Turkish army of Kemal Atatürk entered the city on September 9, 1922, at the end of the Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922). In the immediate aftermath, a fire broke out in the Greek and Armenian quarters of the city on September 13, 1922, known as the Great Fire of Smyrna. The death toll is estimated to range from 10,000[23][24] to 100,000.[25][26] Agora[edit] Main article: Agora of Smyrna The remains of the ancient agora of Smyrna constitute today the space of İzmir Agora Museum in İzmir's Namazgah quarter, although its area is commonly referred to as "Agora" by the city's inhabitants. Situated on the northern slopes of the Pagos hills, it was the commercial, judicial and political nucleus of the ancient city, its center for artistic activities and for teaching. İzmir Agora Open Air Museum consists of five parts, including the agora area, the base of the northern basilica gate, the stoa and the ancient shopping centre. The agora of Smyrna was built during the Hellenistic era. Excavations[edit] Engraving with a view of the site of Smyrna Agora a few years after the first explorations (1843). Although Smyrna was explored by Charles Texier in the 19th century and the German consul in İzmir had purchased the land around the ancient theater in 1917 to start excavations, the first scientific digs can be said to have started in 1927. Most of the discoveries were made by archaeological exploration carried as an extension during the period between 1931 and 1942 by the German archaeologist Rudolf Naumann and Selâhattin Kantar, the director of İzmir and Ephesus museums. They uncovered a three-floor, rectangular compound with stairs in the front, built on columns and arches around a large courtyard in the middle of the building.[citation needed] New excavations in the agora began in 1996. They have continued since 2002 under the sponsorship of the Metropolitan Municipality of İzmir. A primary school adjacent to the agora that had burned in 1980 was not reconstructed. Instead, its space was incorporated into the historical site. The area of the agora was increased to 16,590 square metres (178,600 sq ft). This permitted the evacuation of a previously unexplored zone. The archaeologists and the local authorities, means permitting, are also keenly eyeing a neighbouring multi-storey car park, which is known to cover an important part of the ancient settlement.[citation needed] During the present renovations the old restorations in concrete are gradually being replaced by marble. The new excavation has uncovered the agora's northern gate. It has been concluded that embossed figures of the goddess Hestia found in these digs were a continuation of the Zeus altar uncovered during the first digs. Statues of the gods Hermes, Dionysos, Eros and Heracles have also been found, as well as many statues, heads, embossments, figurines and monuments of people and animals, made of marble, stone, bone, glass, metal and terracotta. Inscriptions found here list the people who provided aid to Smyrna after the earthquake of 178 AD.[citation needed] Economy[edit] In the early 20th-century, there were mills spinning thread. As of 1920, there were two factories in Smyrna dyeing yarn, which were owned by British companies. These companies employed over 60,000 people. During this time, there was also a French owned cotton spinning mill.[27] The city also produced soap made of refuse olive oil. An ironworks, also owned by the British, produced tools and equipment. Those tools were used to extract tannin from valonia oak. As of 1920, the ironwork was exporting 5,000 tons of product a year. The city also produced wooden boxes, which were used for fig and raisin storage. The wood for the boxes was imported from Austria and Romania.[28] Toponyms[edit] Several American cities have been named after Smyrna, including Smyrna, Georgia; Smyrna, Tennessee; Smyrna, North Carolina; Smyrna, Delaware; Smyrna, Michigan; Smyrna, Maine[29] and New Smyrna Beach, Florida. See also[edit] List of ancient Greek cities Ionia Nea Smyrni New Smyrna Beach, Florida On the Quai at Smyrna (Hemingway story) Yeşilova Höyük References[edit] ^ Fant, Clyde E. (2003). A Guide to Biblical Sites in Greece and Turkey. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 5 February 2020. ^ Eti Akyüz Levi, Dokuz Eylül University (2003). "The Agora of İzmir and Cultural Tourism" (PDF). The International Committee for Documentation of Cultural Heritage (CIPA), 2003 Antalya Symposium. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 5, 2009. External link in |publisher= (help) ^ Σμύρνα, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheke, iii.14.4 (Adonis), as quoted in Geoffrey Miles, Classical mythology in English literature: a critical anthology 1999:215. ^ σμύρνα, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus ^ List of ancient Greek words starting with σμύρν-, on Perseus ^ Weston, J. (2007). Patmos Speaks Today. Scripture Truth Publications. p. 27. ISBN 9780901860668. Retrieved October 10, 2014. ^ Gates, Charles. Ancient Cities: The Archaeology of Urban Life in the Ancient Near East and Egypt, Greece, and Rome. ^ Strabo xiv. (633 BC); Stephanus Byzantinicus; Pliny, Natural History v.31. ^ Simply "the hill". ^ a b c Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article Smyrna ^ Revelation 1:11 and 2:8–11 ^ Saavedra Monroy, Mauricio (2015). The Church of Smyrna: History and Theology of a Primitive Christian Community. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang Edition. p. 41. ISBN 9783631662359. ^ Saavedra Monroy, Mauricio (2015). The Church of Smyrna: History and Theology of a Primitive Christian Community. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang Edition. p. 42. ISBN 9783631662359. ^ Bauer W. Kraft RA, Krodel G, editors. Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest Christianity, 2nd edition. Sigler Press, Mifflintown (PA), 1996, pp.87–89 ^ Irenaeus. Adversus Haeres. Book III, Chapter 4, Verse 3 and Chapter 3, Verse 4 ^ Tertullian. Liber de praescriptione haereticorum, circa 208 A.D. ^ Stetton, The Papacy and the Levant, vol. 1, 1976. ^ Encyclopedia Britannica, "Aydin Dynasty": https://www.britannica.com/topic/Aydin-dynasty ^ A Modern Crusade in the Turkish Empire. Retrieved June 10, 2008. ^ Geōrgiadou, Maria (2004). Constantin Carathéodory: mathematics and politics in turbulent times. Springer. p. 145. ISBN 978-3-540-20352-0. ^ Andrew Mango, Atatürk, p. 217. ^ Biondich, Mark. The Balkans: Revolution, War, and Political Violence Since 1878. Oxford University Press, 2011. p. 92 [1] ^ Naimark, Norman M. Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe. Cambridge: MA: Harvard University Press, 2002, p. 52. ^ Rudolph J. Rummel, Irving Louis Horowitz (1994). "Turkey's Genocidal Purges". Death by Government. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-1-56000-927-6. , p. 233. ^ Naimark. Fires of Hatred, pp. 47–52. ^ Prothero, G.W. (1920). Anatolia. London: H.M. Stationery Office. p. 111. ^ Prothero, G.W. (1920). Anatolia. London: H.M. Stationery Office. p. 112. ^ "Google maps". Retrieved August 16, 2015. Further reading[edit] Ekrem Akurgal (2002). Ancient Civilisations and Ruins of Turkey. Kegan Paul. ISBN 978-0-7103-0776-7. George E. Bean (1967). Aegean Turkey: An archaeological guide. Ernest Benn, London. ISBN 978-0-510-03200-5. Philip Mansel, Levant: Splendour and Catastrophe on the Mediterranean, London, John Murray, 11 November 2010, hardback, 480 pages, ISBN 978-0-7195-6707-0, New Haven, Yale University Press, 24 May 2011, hardback, 470 pages, ISBN 978-0-300-17264-5 Stillman, ed. The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, 1976. Turner, J. Grove Dictionary of Art. Oxford University Press, USA; New Ed edition (January 2, 1996); ISBN 978-0-19-517068-9. Milton, Giles (2009). Paradise Lost. Sceptre. ISBN 978-0-340-83787-0. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Smyrna. Foss, C., S. Mitchell, G. Reger, R. Talbert, T. Elliott, S. Gillies. "Places: 550893 (Smyrna/Eurydikeia)". Pleiades. Retrieved March 8, 2012.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Remembering Smyrna/Izmir: Shared History, Shared Trauma Association of Smyrneans Video footage of Smyrna before and after the Fire v t e Seven churches of Asia Ephesus Smyrna Pergamon Thyatira Sardis Philadelphia (modern Alaşehir) Laodicea v t e Ancient settlements in Turkey Aegean Achaion Limen Acharaca Acmonia Adramyttium Agatheira Aegae Airai Aizanoi Alabanda Alinda Allianoi Almura Amnista Amorium Amos Amynanda Amyzon Anaua Anineta Annaea Antandrus Antioch on the Maeander Apamea in Phrygia Aphrodisias Apollonia in Mysia Apollonia Salbaces Apollonis Apollonos Hieron Appia Appolena Aragokome Araukome Arilla Aroma Aspaneus Astragon Astyra near Adramyttium Astyra near Pergamon Astyria Atarneus Atarneus sub Pitanem Attea Attuda Aulae Aurelia Neapolis Aureliopolis in Lydia Aurokra Bageis Bargasa Bargasa in northern Caria Bargylia Beudos Beycesultan Birgena Blaundus Bonitai Boukolion Boutheia Briula Bruzus Bybassus Cadi Callipolis Caloe Canae Carene Carmylessus Carura Caryanda Castabus Casystes Cedreae Celaenae Ceramus Chalcetor Choria Chrysaoris Chytrium Cidramus Cindye Cisthene Clannuda Claros Colophon Colossae Conium Coryphas Cybeleia Cyllandus Cyme Daldis Dareioukome Dideiphyta Didyma Digda Dioclea Dionysiopolis Dios Hieron in Ionia Dios Hieron in Lydia Dioskome Docimium Doroukome Eibos Eiokome Elaea Embatum Emoddi Ephesus Erines Erythrae Erythras Etsyena Eukarpia Euhippe Eumeneia Euromus Euthenae Euxine Gambrium Gerga Gergitha Gerriadai Glauke Gryneium Halicarnassus Halisarna Harpasa Helos Heraclea at Latmus Heraclea in Aeolis Heraclea in Lydia Heraclea Salbace Hermocapelia Hierapolis Hierapolis of the Phyrgian Pentapolis Hierocaesarea Homadena Hydai Hydas Hydissus Hygassos Hyllarima Hypaepa Hypokremnos Hyrcanis Iasos Iaza Idyma Ioniapolis Ioudda Ipsus Isinda in Ionia Iskome Kadyie Kaira Kalabantia Kasara Kasossos Kaualena Kaunos Kilaraza Kildara Klazomenai Kleimaka Kleros Politike Knidos Koddinou Petra Koraia Korakoe Koresa Kouara Kyllene Kymnissa Kys Labraunda Lagina Lalandos Lamyana Lankena Laodicea on the Lycus Larisa in Caria Larisa in Ionia Larisa in Lydia Larissa Phrikonis Larymna Lasnedda Latmus Lebedus Leimon Leucae Leucophrys Limantepe Lobolda Lunda Lydae Lyrna Lysimachia Madnasa Maeandropolis Magnesia ad Sipylum Magnesia on the Maeander Maiboza Maionia in Lydia Malene Marathesium Mastaura Meiros Meiros Megale Melampagos Meloukome Metropolis in Lydia Metropolis in southern Phrygia Miletus Mylasa Mobolla Mokolda Mossyna Mostene Motella Myloukome Myndus Myrina Myus Nais Nasos Naulochon Naulochus Naxia Neapolis Neonteichos Nisyra Notion Nymphaeum Nysa on the Maeander Odon Oenoanda Olaeis Olymos Oroanna Orthoisa Ortygia Otrus Palaemyndus Panasion Panormus near Miletus Panormus near Halicarnassus Parsada Parthenium Passala Passanda Pedasa Pepuza Pergamon Perperene Philadelphia in Lydia Phocaea Phoenix in Caria Physcus Phyteia Pidasa Pinara Pisilis Pisye Pitane Pladasa Plarasa Polichna in Ionia Polichne in Ionia Polybotus Pordoselene Priene Prymnessus Pteleum Pydnae Pygela Pyrnus Pyrrha Saouenda Sardis Satala in Lydia Sebaste in Phrygia Sebastopolis in Caria Setae Side in Caria Sidussa Silandus Sillyos Skolopoeis Smyrna Soa Spore Stadia Stectorium Stratonicea in Lydia Stratonicea in Caria Strobilos Syangela Symbra Synaus Syneta Synnada Syrna Tabae Tabala Tateikome Taza Teichiussa Telandrus Temenothyra Temnos Tempsis Tendeba Teos Termera Teuthrania Thasthara Theangela Thebe Hypoplakia Thebes Thera Thyaira Thyatira Thymbrara Thyssanus Tisna Tlos in Caria Tomara Traianopolis Trapezopolis Trarium Triopium Tripolis on the Meander Troketta Tyanollos Tymion Tymnos Ula Uranium Zemmeana Zingotos Kome Black Sea Abonoteichos Aegialus Aiginetes Alaca Höyük Amasia Amastris Ancon Anticinolis Argyria Armene Bonita Boon Cabira Cales Callistratia Carambis Carissa Carussa Cerasus Chadisia Cinolis Cizari Colonia in Armenia Colussa Comana in the Pontus Coralla Cordyle Cratia Crenides Cromen Cromna Cyptasia Cytorus Dia Diacopa Elaeus Endeira Erythini Euchaita Eusene Gadilon Garius Garzoubanthon Gaziura Gozalena Hadrianopolis in Paphlagonia Hattusa Heraclea Pontica Heracleium Hermonassa Hieron Oros Hüseyindede Tepe Hyssus Ibora Ischopolis Karza Kelesa Kimista Laodicea Pontica Libiopolis Lillium Metroon Mokata Naustathmus Nerik Nicopolis Ophis Oxinas Patara Pharnacia Phazemon Philocaleia Pida Pimolisa Polemonium Pompeiopolis Potami Prusias ad Hypium Pteria in Paphlagonia Salatiwara Samuha Sandaraca Sapinuwa Satala Saurania Sebastopolis in Pontus Stephane Syderos Themiscyra Thymena Timolaeum Tium Tripolis Virasia Yazılıkaya Zagorus Zaliche Zephyrium in Paphlagonia Ziporea Central Anatolia Abouadeineita Alişar Hüyük Amblada Anadynata Andabalis Anisa Anniaca Ano Kotradis Antoniopolis Anzoulada Aquae Saravenae Aralla Arasaxa Archalla Ardistama Ariaramneia Ariarathia Armaxa Artiknos Aspenzinsos Astra Atenia Balbissa Balgatia Barate Bathys Rhyax Binbirkilise Blucium Borissos Campae Camuliana Candara Carus Vicus Çatalhöyük Cimiata Ciscissus Cinna Claneus Comitanassus Congustus Corna Corniaspa Coropassus Cotenna Cybistra Cyzistra Dadastana Dasmenda Derbe Diocaesarea Doara Dometiopolis Dorylaeum Ecdaumava Ecobriga Ergobrotis Euaissa Eudocia (Cappadocia) Eudocia (Phrygia) Eulepa Faustinopolis Germa Gorbeus Gordium Hadrianopolis in Phrygia Heraclea Cybistra Herpha Hieropotamon Homana Hyde Ilistra Irenopolis Juliopolis Kaman-Kalehöyük Kanotala Karbala Keissia Kerkenes Kilistra Kindyria Kobara Kodylessos Korama Koron Kültepe (Kanesh) Lageina Lamatorma Laodicea Combusta Laroumada Lauzadus Limnae Lystra Malandasa Malus in Galatia Malus in Phrygia Meloë Metropolis in northern Phrygia Midaeium Mistea Mnizus Mokissos Mourisa Moutalaske Musbanda Myrika Nakoleia Nazianzus Nitazi Nora Nyssa Ochras Olosada Orcistus Papirion Parnassus Pedachtoë Pedaia Peium Perta Pessinus Pharax Phlara Pillitokome Pissia Pithoi Pontanena Posala Pteria 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en-wikipedia-org-7699	----	Seneca the Younger - Wikipedia Seneca the Younger From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman Stoic philosopher, statesman and dramatist (c.4 BC-AD 65) Lucius Annaeus Seneca Ancient bust of Seneca, part of the Double Herm of Socrates and Seneca Born c. 4 BC Corduba, Hispania Baetica Died AD 65 (aged 68–69) Rome Nationality Roman Other names Seneca the Younger, Seneca Notable work Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium Era Hellenistic philosophy Region Western philosophy School Stoicism Main interests Ethics Influences Plato, Epicurus, Zeno of Citium, Cleanthes, Chrysippus, Publilius Syrus, Attalus, Sotion Influenced Marcus Aurelius, Michel de Montaigne, Dante Alighieri, Augustine of Hippo, Albertino Mussato, Cardinal Giovanni Colonna, Tertullian, Martin of Braga, Medieval philosophy Lucius Annaeus Seneca the Younger (/ˈsɛnɪkə/; c. 4 BC – AD 65),[1] usually known as Seneca, was a Roman Stoic philosopher, statesman, dramatist, and—in one work—satirist from the Silver Age of Latin literature. Seneca was born in Cordoba in Hispania, and raised in Rome, where he was trained in rhetoric and philosophy. His father was Seneca the Elder, his elder brother was Lucius Junius Gallio Annaeanus, and his nephew was the poet Lucan. In AD 41, Seneca was exiled to the island of Corsica under emperor Claudius,[2] but was allowed to return in 49 to become a tutor to Nero. When Nero became emperor in 54, Seneca became his advisor and, together with the praetorian prefect Sextus Afranius Burrus, provided competent government for the first five years of Nero's reign. Seneca's influence over Nero declined with time, and in 65 Seneca was forced to take his own life for alleged complicity in the Pisonian conspiracy to assassinate Nero, in which he was likely to have been innocent.[3] His stoic and calm suicide has become the subject of numerous paintings. As a writer Seneca is known for his philosophical works, and for his plays, which are all tragedies. His prose works include a dozen essays and one hundred twenty-four letters dealing with moral issues. These writings constitute one of the most important bodies of primary material for ancient Stoicism. As a tragedian, he is best known for plays such as his Medea, Thyestes, and Phaedra. Seneca's influence on later generations is immense—during the Renaissance he was "a sage admired and venerated as an oracle of moral, even of Christian edification; a master of literary style and a model [for] dramatic art."[4] Part of a series on Stoicism Epictetus, Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius Background Socrates Plato Aristotle Crates of Thebes Philosophy Apatheia Ekpyrosis Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Stoic logic Stoic categories Stoic passions Stoic physics Virtue ethics Stoics Zeno of Citium Cleanthes Chrysippus Panaetius Posidonius Seneca the Younger Publius Clodius Thrasea Paetus Epictetus Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Stoic works Discourses of Epictetus Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium The Meditations Similar positions Cynicism Aristotelianism Middle Platonism Contrary positions Pyrrhonism Academic Skepticism Epicureanism  Philosophy portal v t e Contents 1 Life 1.1 Early life, family and adulthood 1.2 Politics and exile 1.3 Imperial advisor 1.4 Retirement 1.5 Death 2 Philosophy 3 Drama 4 Works 4.1 Seneca's tragedies 4.2 Essays and letters 4.2.1 Essays 4.2.2 Other essays 4.2.3 Letters 4.2.4 Other 4.2.5 Spurious 4.3 "Pseudo-Seneca" 5 Legacy 5.1 As a proto-Christian saint 5.2 An improving reputation 5.3 Notable fictional portrayals 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Life[edit] Early life, family and adulthood[edit] Seneca was born in Corduba in the Roman province of Baetica in Hispania.[5] His father was Lucius Annaeus Seneca the elder, a Spanish-born Roman knight who had gained fame as a writer and teacher of rhetoric in Rome.[6] Seneca's mother, Helvia, was from a prominent Baetician family.[7] Seneca was the second of three brothers; the others were Lucius Annaeus Novatus (later known as Junius Gallio), and Annaeus Mela, the father of the poet Lucan.[8] Miriam Griffin says in her biography of Seneca that "the evidence for Seneca's life before his exile in 41 is so slight, and the potential interest of these years, for social history as well as for biography, is so great that few writers on Seneca have resisted the temptation to eke out knowledge with imagination."[9] Griffin also infers from the ancient sources that Seneca was born in either 8, 4, or 1 BC. She thinks he was born between 4 and 1 BC and was resident in Rome by AD 5.[9] Modern statue of Seneca in Córdoba Seneca tells us that he was taken to Rome in the "arms" of his aunt (his mother's stepsister) at a young age, probably when he was about five years old.[10] His father resided for much of his life in the city.[11] Seneca was taught the usual subjects of literature, grammar, and rhetoric, as part of the standard education of high-born Romans.[12] While still young he received philosophical training from Attalus the Stoic, and from Sotion and Papirius Fabianus, both of whom belonged to the short-lived School of the Sextii, which combined Stoicism with Pythagoreanism.[8] Sotion persuaded Seneca when he was a young man (in his early twenties) to become a vegetarian, which he practised for around a year before his father urged him to desist because the practice was associated with "some foreign rites".[13] Seneca often had breathing difficulties throughout his life, probably asthma,[14] and at some point in his mid-twenties (c. 20 AD) he appears to have been struck down with tuberculosis.[15] He was sent to Egypt to live with his aunt (the same aunt who had brought him to Rome), whose husband Gaius Galerius had become Prefect of Egypt.[7] She nursed him through a period of ill-health that lasted up to ten years.[16] In 31 AD he returned to Rome with his aunt, his uncle dying en route in a shipwreck.[16] His aunt's influence helped Seneca be elected quaestor (probably after 37 AD[12]), which also earned him the right to sit in the Roman Senate.[16] Politics and exile[edit] Seneca's early career as a senator seems to have been successful and he was praised for his oratory.[17] Cassius Dio relates a story that Caligula was so offended by Seneca's oratorical success in the Senate that he ordered him to commit suicide.[17] Seneca only survived because he was seriously ill and Caligula was told that he would soon die anyway.[17] In his writings Seneca has nothing good to say about Caligula and frequently depicts him as a monster.[18] Seneca explains his own survival as down to his patience and his devotion to his friends: "I wanted to avoid the impression that all I could do for loyalty was die."[19] In 41 AD, Claudius became emperor, and Seneca was accused by the new empress Messalina of adultery with Julia Livilla, sister to Caligula and Agrippina.[20] The affair has been doubted by some historians, since Messalina had clear political motives for getting rid of Julia Livilla and her supporters.[11][21] The Senate pronounced a death sentence on Seneca, which Claudius commuted to exile, and Seneca spent the next eight years on the island of Corsica.[22] Two of Seneca's earliest surviving works date from the period of his exile—both consolations.[20] In his Consolation to Helvia, his mother, Seneca comforts her as a bereaved mother for losing her son to exile.[22] Seneca incidentally mentions the death of his only son, a few weeks before his exile.[22] Later in life Seneca was married to a woman younger than himself, Pompeia Paulina.[8] It has been thought that the infant son may have been from an earlier marriage,[22] but the evidence is "tenuous".[8] Seneca's other work of this period, his Consolation to Polybius, one of Claudius' freedmen, focused on consoling Polybius on the death of his brother. It is noted for its flattery of Claudius, and Seneca expresses his hope that the emperor will recall him from exile.[22] In 49 AD Agrippina married her uncle Claudius, and through her influence Seneca was recalled to Rome.[20] Agrippina gained the praetorship for Seneca and appointed him tutor to her son, the future emperor Nero.[23] Imperial advisor[edit] Nero and Seneca, by Eduardo Barrón (1904). Museo del Prado From AD 54 to 62, Seneca acted as Nero's advisor, together with the praetorian prefect Sextus Afranius Burrus. One by-product of his new position was that Seneca was appointed suffect consul in 56.[24] Seneca's influence was said to have been especially strong in the first year.[25] Seneca composed Nero's accession speeches in which he promised to restore proper legal procedure and authority to the Senate.[23] He also composed the eulogy for Claudius that Nero delivered at the funeral.[23] Seneca's satirical skit Apocolocyntosis, which lampoons the deification of Claudius and praises Nero dates from the earliest period of Nero's reign.[23] In 55 AD, Seneca wrote On Clemency following Nero's murder of Britannicus, perhaps to assure the citizenry that the murder was the end, not the beginning of bloodshed.[26] On Clemency is a work which, although it flatters Nero, was intended to show the correct (Stoic) path of virtue for a ruler.[23] Tacitus and Dio suggest that Nero's early rule, during which he listened to Seneca and Burrus, was quite competent. However, the ancient sources suggest that, over time, Seneca and Burrus lost their influence over the emperor. In 59 they had reluctantly agreed to Agrippina's murder, and afterward Tacitus reports that Seneca had to write a letter justifying the murder to the Senate.[26] In 58 AD the senator Publius Suillius Rufus made a series of public attacks on Seneca.[27] These attacks, reported by Tacitus and Cassius Dio,[28] included charges that, in a mere four years of service to Nero, Seneca had acquired a vast personal fortune of three hundred million sestertii by charging high interest on loans throughout Italy and the provinces.[29] Suillius' attacks included claims of sexual corruption, with a suggestion that Seneca had slept with Agrippina.[30] Tacitus, though, reports that Suillius was highly prejudiced: he had been a favourite of Claudius,[27] and had been an embezzler and informant.[29] In response, Seneca brought a series of prosecutions for corruption against Suillius: half of his estate was confiscated and he was sent into exile.[31] However, the attacks reflect a criticism of Seneca that was made at the time and continued through later ages.[27] Seneca was undoubtedly extremely rich: he had properties at Baiae and Nomentum, an Alban villa, and Egyptian estates.[27] Cassius Dio even reports that the Boudica uprising in Britannia was caused by Seneca forcing large loans on the indigenous British aristocracy in the aftermath of Claudius's conquest of Britain, and then calling them in suddenly and aggressively.[27] Seneca was sensitive to such accusations: his De Vita Beata ("On the Happy Life") dates from around this time and includes a defence of wealth along Stoic lines, arguing that properly gaining and spending wealth is appropriate behaviour for a philosopher.[29] Retirement[edit] After Burrus' death in 62, Seneca's influence declined rapidly; as Tacitus puts it (Ann. 14.52.1), mors Burri infregit Senecae potentiam ("the death of Burrus broke Seneca's power").[32] Tacitus reports that Seneca tried to retire twice, in 62 and 64 AD, but Nero refused him on both occasions.[29] Nevertheless, Seneca was increasingly absent from the court.[29] He adopted a quiet lifestyle on his country estates, concentrating on his studies and seldom visiting Rome. It was during these final few years that he composed two of his greatest works: Naturales quaestiones—an encyclopedia of the natural world; and his Letters to Lucilius—which document his philosophical thoughts.[33] Death[edit] Manuel Domínguez Sánchez, The suicide of Seneca (1871), Museo del Prado Lodovico Lana, Death of Seneca, National Gallery of Art In AD 65, Seneca was caught up in the aftermath of the Pisonian conspiracy, a plot to kill Nero. Although it is unlikely that Seneca was part of the conspiracy, Nero ordered him to kill himself.[29] Seneca followed tradition by severing several veins in order to bleed to death, and his wife Pompeia Paulina attempted to share his fate. Cassius Dio, who wished to emphasize the relentlessness of Nero, focused on how Seneca had attended to his last-minute letters, and how his death was hastened by soldiers.[34] A generation after the Julio-Claudian emperors, Tacitus wrote an account of the suicide, which, in view of his Republican sympathies, is perhaps somewhat romanticized.[35] According to this account, Nero ordered Seneca's wife saved. Her wounds were bound up and she made no further attempt to kill herself. As for Seneca himself, his age and diet were blamed for slow loss of blood and extended pain rather than a quick death. He also took poison, which was however not fatal. After dictating his last words to a scribe, and with a circle of friends attending him in his home, he immersed himself in a warm bath, which he expected would speed blood flow and ease his pain. Tacitus wrote, "He was then carried into a bath, with the steam of which he was suffocated, and he was burnt without any of the usual funeral rites. So he had directed in a codicil of his will, even when in the height of his wealth and power he was thinking of life's close."[35] This may give the impression of a favourable portrait of Seneca, but Tacitus' treatment of him is at best ambivalent. Alongside Seneca's apparent fortitude in the face of death, for example, one can also view his actions as rather histrionic and performative; and when Tacitus tells us that he left his family an imago suae vitae (Annales 15.62), "an image of his life", he is possibly being ambiguous: in Roman culture, the imago was a kind of mask that commemorated the great ancestors of noble families, but at the same time, it may also suggest duplicity, superficiality, and pretence.[36] Philosophy[edit] First page of the Naturales Quaestiones, made for the Catalan-Aragonese court As "a major philosophical figure of the Roman Imperial Period",[37] Seneca’s lasting contribution to philosophy has been to the school of Stoicism.  His writing is highly accessible[38][39] and was the subject of attention from the Renaissance onwards by writers such as Michel de Montaigne.[40] He has been described as “a towering and controversial figure of antiquity”[41] and “the world’s most interesting Stoic”.[42] Seneca wrote a number of books on Stoicism, mostly on ethics, with one work (Naturales Quaestiones) on the physical world.[43] Seneca built on the writings of many of the earlier Stoics: he often mentions Zeno, Cleanthes, and Chrysippus;[44] and frequently cites Posidonius, with whom Seneca shared an interest in natural phenomena.[45] He frequently quotes Epicurus, especially in his Letters.[46] His interest in Epicurus is mainly limited to using him as a source of ethical maxims.[47] Likewise Seneca shows some interest in Platonist metaphysics, but never with any clear commitment.[48] His moral essays are based on Stoic doctrines.[39] Stoicism was a popular philosophy in this period, and many upper-class Romans found in it a guiding ethical framework for political involvement.[43] It was once popular to regard Seneca as being very eclectic in his Stoicism,[49] but modern scholarship views him as a fairly orthodox Stoic, albeit a free-minded one.[50] His works discuss both ethical theory and practical advice, and Seneca stresses that both parts are distinct but interdependent.[51] His Letters to Lucilius showcase Seneca's search for ethical perfection[51] and “represent a sort of philosophical testament for posterity”.[41] Seneca regards philosophy as a balm for the wounds of life.[52] The destructive passions, especially anger and grief, must be uprooted,[53] or moderated according to reason.[54] He discusses the relative merits of the contemplative life and the active life,[52] and he considers it important to confront one's own mortality and be able to face death.[53][54] One must be willing to practice poverty and use wealth properly,[55] and he writes about favours, clemency, the importance of friendship, and the need to benefit others.[55][52][56] The universe is governed for the best by a rational providence,[55] and this must be reconciled with acceptance of adversity.[53] Drama[edit] See also: Senecan tragedy and Theatre of ancient Rome Woodcut illustration of the suicide of Seneca and the attempted suicide of his wife Pompeia Paulina Ten plays are attributed to Seneca, of which most likely eight were written by him.[57] The plays stand in stark contrast to his philosophical works. With their intense emotions, and grim overall tone, the plays seem to represent the antithesis of Seneca's Stoic beliefs.[58] Up to the 16th century it was normal to distinguish between Seneca the moral philosopher and Seneca the dramatist as two separate people.[59] Scholars have tried to spot certain Stoic themes: it is the uncontrolled passions that generate madness, ruination, and self-destruction.[60] This has a cosmic as well as an ethical aspect, and fate is a powerful, albeit rather oppressive, force.[60] Many scholars have thought, following the ideas of the 19th-century German scholar Friedrich Leo, that Seneca's tragedies were written for recitation only.[57] Other scholars think that they were written for performance and that it is possible that actual performance had taken place in Seneca's lifetime.[61] Ultimately, this issue cannot be resolved on the basis of our existing knowledge.[57] The tragedies of Seneca have been successfully staged in modern times. The dating of the tragedies is highly problematic in the absence of any ancient references.[62] A parody of a lament from Hercules Furens appears in the Apocolocyntosis, which implies a date before 54 AD for that play.[62] A relative chronology has been suggested on metrical grounds but scholars remain divided. The plays are not all based on the Greek pattern; they have a five-act form and differ in many respects from extant Attic drama, and while the influence of Euripides on some of these works is considerable, so is the influence of Virgil and Ovid.[62] Seneca's plays were widely read in medieval and Renaissance European universities and strongly influenced tragic drama in that time, such as Elizabethan England (William Shakespeare and other playwrights), France (Corneille and Racine), and the Netherlands (Joost van den Vondel). English translations of Seneca's tragedies appeared in print in the mid-16th century, with all ten published collectively in 1581.[63] He is regarded as the source and inspiration for what is known as "Revenge Tragedy", starting with Thomas Kyd's The Spanish Tragedy and continuing well into the Jacobean era. Thyestes is considered Seneca's masterpiece,[64][65] and has been described by scholar Dana Gioia as "one of the most influential plays ever written".[66] Medea is also highly regarded,[67][68] and was praised along with Phaedra by T. S. Eliot.[66] Works[edit] Works attributed to Seneca include a dozen philosophical essays, one hundred and twenty-four letters dealing with moral issues, nine tragedies, and a satire, the attribution of which is disputed.[69] His authorship of Hercules on Oeta has also been questioned. Seneca's tragedies[edit] Fabulae crepidatae (tragedies with Greek subjects): Hercules or Hercules furens (The Madness of Hercules) Troades (The Trojan Women) Phoenissae (The Phoenician Women) Medea Phaedra Oedipus Agamemnon Thyestes Hercules Oetaeus (Hercules on Oeta): generally considered not written by Seneca. First rejected by Heinsius. Fabula praetexta (tragedy in Roman setting): Octavia: almost certainly not written by Seneca (at least in its final form) since it contains accurate prophecies of both his and Nero’s deaths.[70] This play closely resembles Seneca's plays in style, but was probably written some time after Seneca's death (perhaps under Vespasian) by someone influenced by Seneca and aware of the events of his lifetime.[71] Though attributed textually to Seneca, the attribution was early questioned by Petrarch,[72] and rejected by Lipsius. Essays and letters[edit] Essays[edit] Traditionally given in the following order: (64) De Providentia (On providence) - addressed to Lucilius (55) De Constantia Sapientis (On the Firmness of the Wise Person) - addressed to Serenus (41) De Ira (On anger) – A study on the consequences and the control of anger - addressed to his brother Novatus (book 2 of the De Ira) (book 3 of the De Ira) (40) Ad Marciam, De consolatione (To Marcia, On Consolation) – Consoles her on the death of her son (58) De Vita Beata (On the Happy Life) - addressed to Gallio (62) De Otio (On Leisure) - addressed to Serenus (63) De Tranquillitate Animi (On the tranquillity of mind) - addressed to Serenus (49) De Brevitate Vitæ (On the shortness of life) – Essay expounding that any length of life is sufficient if lived wisely - addressed to Paulinus (44) De Consolatione ad Polybium (To Polybius, On consolation) – Consoling him on the death of his brother. (42) Ad Helviam matrem, De consolatione (To mother Helvia, On consolation) – Letter to his mother consoling her on his absence during exile. Other essays[edit] (56) De Clementia (On Clemency) – written to Nero on the need for clemency as a virtue in an emperor.[73] (63) De Beneficiis (On Benefits) [seven books] (–) De Superstitione (On Superstition) -- lost, but quoted from in Saint Augustine's City of God 6.10-6.11. Letters[edit] (64) Epistulae morales ad Lucilium – collection of 124 letters dealing with moral issues written to Lucilius Junior. Other[edit] (54) Apocolocyntosis divi Claudii (The Gourdification of the Divine Claudius), a satirical work. (63) Naturales quaestiones [seven books] an insight into ancient theories of cosmology, meteorology, and similar subjects. Spurious[edit] (58–62/370?) Cujus etiam ad Paulum apostolum leguntur epistolae: These letters, allegedly between Seneca and St Paul, were revered by early authorities, but modern scholarship rejects their authenticity.[74][75] "Pseudo-Seneca"[edit] Various antique and medieval texts purport to be by Seneca, e.g., De remediis fortuitorum. Their unknown authors are collectively called Pseudo-Seneca.[76] At least some of these seem to preserve and adapt genuine Senecan content, for example, Saint Martin of Braga's (d. c. 580) Formula vitae honestae, or De differentiis quatuor virtutumvitae honestae ("Rules for an Honest Life", or "On the Four Cardinal Virtues"). Early manuscripts preserve Martin's preface, where he makes it clear that this was his adaptation, but in later copies this was omitted, and the work was later thought fully Seneca's work.[77] Legacy[edit] As a proto-Christian saint[edit] Plato, Seneca, and Aristotle in a medieval manuscript illustration (c. 1325–35) Seneca's writings were well known in the later Roman period, and Quintilian, writing thirty years after Seneca's death, remarked on the popularity of his works amongst the youth.[78] While he found much to admire, Quintillian criticised Seneca for what he regarded as a degenerate literary style—a criticism echoed by Aulus Gellius in the middle of the 2nd century.[78] The early Christian Church was very favourably disposed towards Seneca and his writings, and the church leader Tertullian possessively referred to him as "our Seneca".[79] By the 4th century an apocryphal correspondence with Paul the Apostle had been created linking Seneca into the Christian tradition.[80] The letters are mentioned by Jerome who also included Seneca among a list of Christian writers, and Seneca is similarly mentioned by Augustine.[80] In the 6th century Martin of Braga synthesised Seneca's thought into a couple of treatises that became popular in their own right.[81] Otherwise, Seneca was mainly known through a large number of quotes and extracts in the florilegia, which were popular throughout the medieval period.[81] When his writings were read in the later Middle Ages, it was mostly his Letters to Lucilius—the longer essays and plays being relatively unknown.[82] Medieval writers and works continued to link him to Christianity because of his alleged association with Paul.[83] The Golden Legend, a 13th-century hagiographical account of famous saints that was widely read, included an account of Seneca's death scene, and erroneously presented Nero as a witness to Seneca's suicide.[83] Dante placed Seneca (alongside Cicero) among the "great spirits" in the First Circle of Hell, or Limbo.[84] Boccaccio, who in 1370 came across the works of Tacitus whilst browsing the library at Montecassino, wrote an account of Seneca's suicide hinting that it was a kind of disguised baptism, or a de facto baptism in spirit.[85] Some, such as Albertino Mussato and Giovanni Colonna, went even further and concluded that Seneca must have been a Christian convert.[86] An improving reputation[edit] The "Pseudo-Seneca", a Roman bust found at Herculaneum, one of a series of similar sculptures known since the Renaissance, once identified as Seneca. Now commonly identified as Hesiod Seneca remains one of the few popular Roman philosophers from the period. He appears not only in Dante, but also in Chaucer and to a large degree in Petrarch, who adopted his style in his own essays and who quotes him more than any other authority except Virgil. In the Renaissance, printed editions and translations of his works became common, including an edition by Erasmus and a commentary by John Calvin.[87] John of Salisbury, Erasmus and others celebrated his works. French essayist Montaigne, who gave a spirited defense of Seneca and Plutarch in his Essays, was himself considered by Pasquier a "French Seneca".[88] Similarly, Thomas Fuller praised Joseph Hall as "our English Seneca". Many who considered his ideas not particularly original, still argued that he was important in making the Greek philosophers presentable and intelligible.[89] His suicide has also been a popular subject in art, from Jacques-Louis David's 1773 painting The Death of Seneca to the 1951 film Quo Vadis. Even with the admiration of an earlier group of intellectual stalwarts, Seneca has never been without his detractors. In his own time, he was accused of hypocrisy or, at least, a less than "Stoic" lifestyle. While banished to Corsica, he wrote a plea for restoration rather incompatible with his advocacy of a simple life and the acceptance of fate. In his Apocolocyntosis he ridiculed the behaviours and policies of Claudius, and flattered Nero—such as proclaiming that Nero would live longer and be wiser than the legendary Nestor. The claims of Publius Suillius Rufus that Seneca acquired some "three hundred million sesterces" through Nero's favour, are highly partisan, but they reflect the reality that Seneca was both powerful and wealthy.[90] Robin Campbell, a translator of Seneca's letters, writes that the "stock criticism of Seneca right down the centuries [has been]...the apparent contrast between his philosophical teachings and his practice."[90] In 1562 Gerolamo Cardano wrote an apology praising Nero in his Encomium Neronis, printed in Basel.[91] This was likely intended as a mock encomium, inverting the portrayal of Nero and Seneca that appears in Tacitus.[92] In this work Cardano portrayed Seneca as a crook of the worst kind, an empty rhetorician who was only thinking to grab money and power, after having poisoned the mind of the young emperor. Cardano stated that Seneca well deserved death. "Seneca", ancient hero of the modern Córdoba; this architectural roundel in Seville is based on the "Pseudo-Seneca" (illustration above) Among the historians who have sought to reappraise Seneca is the scholar Anna Lydia Motto who in 1966 argued that the negative image has been based almost entirely on Suillius' account, while many others who might have lauded him have been lost.[93] "We are therefore left with no contemporary record of Seneca's life, save for the desperate opinion of Publius Suillius. Think of the barren image we should have of Socrates, had the works of Plato and Xenophon not come down to us and were we wholly dependent upon Aristophanes' description of this Athenian philosopher. To be sure, we should have a highly distorted, misconstrued view. Such is the view left to us of Seneca, if we were to rely upon Suillius alone."[94] More recent work is changing the dominant perception of Seneca as a mere conduit for pre-existing ideas showing originality in Seneca's contribution to the history of ideas. Examination of Seneca's life and thought in relation to contemporary education and to the psychology of emotions is revealing the relevance of his thought. For example, Martha Nussbaum in her discussion of desire and emotion includes Seneca among the Stoics who offered important insights and perspectives on emotions and their role in our lives.[95] Specifically devoting a chapter to his treatment of anger and its management, she shows Seneca's appreciation of the damaging role of uncontrolled anger, and its pathological connections. Nussbaum later extended her examination to Seneca's contribution to political philosophy[96] showing considerable subtlety and richness in his thoughts about politics, education, and notions of global citizenship—and finding a basis for reform-minded education in Seneca's ideas she used to propose a mode of modern education that avoids both narrow traditionalism and total rejection of tradition. Elsewhere Seneca has been noted as the first great Western thinker on the complex nature and role of gratitude in human relationships.[97] Notable fictional portrayals[edit] Baroque marble imaginary portrait bust of Seneca, by an anonymous sculptor of the 17th century. Museo del Prado Seneca is a character in Monteverdi's 1642 opera L'incoronazione di Poppea (The Coronation of Poppea), which is based on the pseudo-Senecan play, Octavia.[98] In Nathaniel Lee's 1675 play Nero, Emperor of Rome, Seneca attempts to dissuade Nero from his egomaniacal plans, but is dragged off to prison, dying off-stage.[99] He appears in Robert Bridges' verse drama Nero, the second part of which (published 1894) culminates in Seneca's death.[100] Seneca appears in a fairly minor role in Henryk Sienkiewicz's 1896 novel Quo Vadis and was played by Nicholas Hannen in the 1951 film.[101] In Robert Graves' 1934 book Claudius the God, the sequel novel to I, Claudius, Seneca is portrayed as an unbearable sycophant.[102] He is shown as a flatterer who converts to Stoicism solely to appease Claudius' own ideology. The "Pumpkinification" (Apocolocyntosis) to Graves thus becomes an unbearable work of flattery to the loathsome Nero mocking a man that Seneca grovelled to for years. The historical novel Chariot of the Soul by Linda Proud features Seneca as tutor of the young Togidubnus, son of King Verica of the Atrebates, during his ten-year stay in Rome.[103] See also[edit] Audio theater Otium Seneca (crater) 2608 Seneca Notes[edit] ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, s.v. Seneca. ^ Fitch, John (2008). Seneca. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-19-928208-1. ^ Bunson, Matthew (1991). A Dictionary of the Roman Empire. Oxford University Press. p. 382. ^ Watling, E. F. (1966). "Introduction". Four Tragedies and Octavia. Penguin Books. p. 9. ^ Habinek 2013, p. 6 ^ Dando-Collins, Stephen (2008). Blood of the Caesars: How the Murder of Germanicus Led to the Fall of Rome. John Wiley & Sons. p. 47. ISBN 978-0470137413. ^ a b Habinek 2013, p. 7 ^ a b c d Reynolds, Griffin & Fantham 2012, p. 92 ^ a b Miriam T. Griffin. Seneca: A Philosopher in Politics, Oxford 1976. 34. ^ Wilson 2014, p. 48 citing De Consolatione ad Helviam Matrem 19.2 ^ a b Asmis, Bartsch & Nussbaum 2012, p. vii ^ a b Habinek 2013, p. 8 ^ Wilson 2014, p. 56 ^ Wilson 2014, p. 32 ^ Wilson 2014, p. 57 ^ a b c Wilson 2014, p. 62 ^ a b c Braund 2015, p. 24 ^ Wilson 2014, p. 67 ^ Wilson 2014, p. 67 citing Naturales Quaestiones, 4.17 ^ a b c Habinek 2013, p. 9 ^ Wilson 2014, p. 79 ^ a b c d e Braund 2015, p. 23 ^ a b c d e Braund 2015, p. 22 ^ The Senatus Consultum Trebellianum was dated to 25 August in his consulate, which he shared with Trebellius Maximus. Digest 36.1.1 ^ Cassius Dio claims Seneca and Burrus "took the rule entirely into their own hands," but "after the death of Britannicus, Seneca and Burrus no longer gave any careful attention to the public business" in 55 (Cassius Dio, Roman History, LXI.3–7) ^ a b Habinek 2013, p. 10 ^ a b c d e Braund 2015, p. 21 ^ Tacitus, Annuals xiii.42; Cassius Dio, Roman History lxi.33.9. ^ a b c d e f Asmis, Bartsch & Nussbaum 2012, p. ix ^ Wilson 2014, p. 130 ^ Wilson 2014, p. 131 ^ Braund 2015, p. viii ^ Habinek 2013, p. 14 ^ Habinek 2013, p. 16 citing Cassius Dio ii.25 ^ a b Church, Alfred John; Brodribb, William Jackson (2007). "xv". Tacitus: The Annals of Imperial Rome. New York: Barnes & Noble. p. 341. citing Tacitus Annals, xv. 60–64 ^ Cf. especially Beard, M., "How Stoical was Seneca?", in the New York Review of Books, Oct. 9th, 2014. ^ Vogt, Katja (2016), "Seneca", in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2016 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, retrieved 2019-08-19 ^ Gill 1999, pp. 49–50 ^ a b Gill 1999, p. 37 ^ Seneca, Lucius Annaeus (1968). Stoic Philosophy of Seneca. ISBN 0393004597. ^ a b "Massimo Pigliucci on Seneca's Stoic philosophy of happiness – Massimo Pigliucci | Aeon Classics". Aeon. Retrieved 2019-08-19. ^ "Who Is Seneca? Inside The Mind of The World's Most Interesting Stoic". Daily Stoic. 2016-07-10. Retrieved 2019-08-19. ^ a b Gill 1999, p. 34 ^ Sellars 2013, p. 103 ^ Sellars 2013, p. 105 ^ Sellars 2013, p. 106 ^ Sellars 2013, p. 107 ^ Sellars 2013, p. 108 ^ "His philosophy, so far as he adopted a system, was the stoical, but it was rather an eclecticism of stoicism than pure stoicism"  Long, George (1870). "Seneca, L. Annaeus". In Smith, William (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 3. p. 782. ^ Sellars 2013, p. 109 ^ a b Gill 1999, p. 43 ^ a b c Colish 1985, p. 14 ^ a b c Asmis, Bartsch & Nussbaum 2012, p. xv ^ a b Colish 1985, p. 49 ^ a b c Asmis, Bartsch & Nussbaum 2012, p. xvi ^ Colish 1985, p. 41 ^ a b c Asmis, Bartsch & Nussbaum 2012, p. xxiii ^ Asmis, Bartsch & Nussbaum 2012, p. xx ^ Laarmann 2013, p. 53 ^ a b Gill 1999, p. 58 ^ George W.M. Harrison (ed.), Seneca in performance, London: Duckworth, 2000. ^ a b c Reynolds, Griffin & Fantham 2012, p. 94 ^ Seneca, Lucius Annaeus. His Tenne Tragedies. Thomas Newton, ed. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1966, p. xlv. ASIN B000N3NP6K ^ Francis, Jane E.; Kouremenos, Anna (2016). Roman Crete: New Perspectives. Oxbow Books. p. 192. ISBN 978-1785700989. ^ Magill, Frank Northen (1989). Masterpieces of World Literature. Harper & Row Limited. p. vii. ISBN 0060161442. ^ a b Seneca: The Tragedies. JHU Press. 1994. p. xli. ISBN 0801849322. ^ Heil, Andreas; Damschen, Gregor (2013). Brill's Companion to Seneca: Philosopher and Dramatist. Brill. p. 594. ISBN 978-9004217089. "Medea is often considered the masterpiece of Seneca's earlier plays, [...]" ^ Sluiter, Ineke; Rosen, Ralph M. (2012). Aesthetic Value in Classical Antiquity. Brill. p. 399. ISBN 978-9004231672. ^ Brockett, O. (2003), History of the Theatre: Ninth Ed. Allyn and Bacon. p. 50 ^ R Ferri ed., Octavia (2003) p. 5-9 ^ H J Rose, A Handbook of Latin Literature (London 1967) p. 375 ^ R Ferri ed., Octavia (2003) p. 6 ^ "Seneca: On Clemency". Thelatinlibrary.com. Retrieved 2011-07-26. ^ "Apocryphal epistles". Earlychristianwritings.com. 2006-02-02. Retrieved 2011-07-26. ^ Joseph Barber Lightfoot (1892) St Paul and Seneca Dissertations on the Apostolic Age ^ "PSEUDO-SENECA". www.bml.firenze.sbn.it. ^ István Pieter Bejczy, The Cardinal Virtues in the Middle Ages: A Study in Moral Thought from the Fourth to the Fourteenth Century, BRILL, 2011, pp. 55-5 7. ^ a b Laarmann 2013, p. 54 citing Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria, x.1.126f; Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae, xii. 2. ^ Moses Hadas. The Stoic Philosophy of Seneca, 1958. 1. ^ a b Laarmann 2013, p. 54 ^ a b Laarmann 2013, p. 55 ^ Wilson 2014, p. 218 ^ a b Wilson 2014, p. 219 ^ Ker 2009, p. 197 citing Dante, Inf., 4.141 ^ Ker 2009, pp. 221–22 ^ Laarmann 2013, p. 59 ^ Richard Mott Gummere, Seneca the philosopher, and his modern message, p. 97. ^ Gummere, Seneca the philosopher, and his modern message, p. 106. ^ Moses Hadas. The Stoic Philosophy of Seneca, 1958. 3. ^ a b Campbell 1969, p. 11 ^ Available in English as Girolamo Cardano, Nero: an Exemplary Life Inkstone, 2012 ^ Siraisi, Nancy G. (2007). History, Medicine, and the Traditions of Renaissance Learning. University of Michigan Press. pp. 157–58. ^ Lydia Motto, Anna Seneca on Trial: The Case of the Opulent Stoic The Classic Journal, Vol. 61, No. 6 (1966) pp. 254–58 ^ Lydia Motto, Anna Seneca on Trial: The Case of the Opulent Stoic The Classic Journal, Vol. 61, No. 6 (1966) p. 257 ^ Nussbaum, M. (1996). The Therapy of Desire. Princeton University Press ^ Nussbaum, M. (1999). Cultivating Humanity: A Classical Defense of Reform in Liberal Education. Harvard University Press ^ Harpham, E. (2004). Gratitude in the History of Ideas, 19–37 in M. A. Emmons and M. E. McCulloch, editors, The Psychology of Gratitude, Oxford University Press. ^ Gioia, Dana (1992). "Introduction". In Slavitt, David R. (ed.). Seneca: The Tragedies. JHU Press. p. xviii. ^ Ker 2009, p. 220 ^ Bridges, Robert (1894). Nero, Part II. From the death of Burrus to the death of Seneca, comprising the conspiracy of Piso. George Bell and Sons. ^ Cyrino, Monica Silveira (2008). Rome, season one: History makes television. Blackwell. p. 195. ^ Citti 2015, p. 316 ^ Proud, Linda (2018). Chariot of the Soul. Oxford: Godstow Press. ISBN 978-1907651137. OCLC 1054834598. References[edit] Asmis, Elizabeth; Bartsch, Shadi; Nussbaum, Martha C. (2012), "Seneca and his World", in Kaster, Robert A.; Nussbaum, Martha C. (eds.), Seneca: Anger, Mercy, Revenge, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0226748429 Braund, Susanna (2015), "Seneca Multiplex", in Bartsch, Shadi; Schiesaro, Alessandro (eds.), The Cambridge Companion to Seneca, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1107035058 Campbell, Robin (1969), "Introduction", Letters from a Stoic, Penguin, ISBN 0140442103 Citti, Francesco (2015), "Seneca and the Moderns", in Bartsch, Shadi; Schiesaro, Alessandro (eds.), The Cambridge Companion to Seneca, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1107035058 Colish, Marcia L. (1985), The Stoic Tradition from Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages, 1, Brill, ISBN 9004072675 Gill, Christopher (1999), "The School in the Roman Imperial Period", in Inwood, Brad (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Stoics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521779855 Habinek, Thomas (2013), "Imago Suae Vitae: Seneca's Life and Career", in Heil, Andreas; Damschen, Gregor (eds.), Brill's Companion to Seneca: Philosopher and Dramatist, Brill, ISBN 978-9004154612 Ker, James (2009), The Deaths of Seneca, Oxford University Press Laarmann, Mathias (2013), "Seneca the Philosopher", in Heil, Andreas; Damschen, Gregor (eds.), Brill's Companion to Seneca: Philosopher and Dramatist, Brill, ISBN 978-9004154612 Reynolds, L. D.; Griffin, M. T.; Fantham, E. (2012), "Annaeus Seneca (2), Lucius", in Hornblower, S.; Spawforth, A.; Eidinow, E. (eds.), The Oxford Classical Dictionary, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199545568 Sellars, John (2013), "Context: Seneca's Philosophical Predecessors and Contemporaries", in Heil, Andreas; Damschen, Gregor (eds.), Brill's Companion to Seneca: Philosopher and Dramatist, Brill, ISBN 978-9004154612 Wilson, Emily R. (2014), The Greatest Empire: A Life of Seneca, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199926640 Further reading[edit] Seneca, Lucius Annaeus. Anger, Mercy, Revenge. trans. Robert A. Kast and Martha C. Nussbaum. Chicago, IL. University of Chicago Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0-226-74841-2 Seneca, Lucius Annaeus. Hardship and Happiness. trans. Elaine Fantham, Harry M. Hine, James Ker, and Gareth D. Williams. Chicago, IL. University of Chicago Press, 2014. ISBN 978-0-226-74832-0 Seneca, Lucius Annaeus. Natural Questions. trans. Harry M. Hine. Chicago, IL. University of Chicago Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0-226-74838-2 Seneca, Lucius Annaeus. On Benefits. trans. Miriam Griffin and Brad Inwood. Chicago, IL. University of Chicago Press, 2011. ISBN 978-0-226-74840-5 Cunnally, John, “Nero, Seneca, and the Medallist of the Roman Emperors”, Art Bulletin, Vol. 68, No. 2 (June 1986), pp. 314–317 Di Paola, O. (2015), "Connections between Seneca and Platonism in Epistulae ad Lucilium 58", Athens: ATINER'S Conference Paper Series, No: PHI2015-1445. Inwood, Brad, Reading Seneca. Stoic Philosophy at Rome, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. Degand, Martin, Sénèque au risque du don. Une éthique oblative à la croisée des disciplines, Turnhout: Brepols, 2015. Gloyn, Liz (31 October 2019). Tracking classical monsters in popular culture. London, UK. ISBN 978-1-78453-934-4. OCLC 1081388471. Lucas, F. L., Seneca and Elizabethan Tragedy (Cambridge University Press, 1922; paperback 2009, ISBN 978-1-108-00358-2); on Seneca the man, his plays, and the influence of his tragedies on later drama. Motto, Anna Lydia, ”Seneca on Death and Immortality“, The Classical Journal, Vol. 50, No. 4 (Jan., 1955), pp. 187–189 Motto, Anna Lydia, "Seneca on Trial: The Case of the Opulent Stoic", The Classical Journal, Vol. 61, No. 6 (March 1966), pp. 254–258 Mitchell, David. Legacy: The Apocryphal Correspondence between Seneca and Paul Xlibris Corporation 2010[self-published source] Sevenster, J.N., Paul and Seneca, Novum Testamentum, Supplements, Vol. 4, Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1961; a comparison of Seneca and the apostle Paul, who were contemporaries. Shelton, Jo-Ann, Seneca's Hercules Furens: Theme, Structure and Style, Göttingen : Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1978. ISBN 3-525-25145-9. A revision of the author's doctoral thesis at the University of California, Berkeley, 1974. Wilson, Emily, Seneca: Six Tragedies. Oxford World’s Classics. Oxford University Press, 2010. External links[edit] Wikisource has original works written by or about: Seneca Wikiquote has quotations related to: Seneca the Younger Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lucius Annaeus Seneca. Library resources about Seneca the Younger Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Seneca the Younger Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Works by Seneca the Younger at Perseus Digital Library Vogt, Katja. "Seneca". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Wagoner, Robert. "Seneca". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Original texts of Seneca's works at 'The Latin Library' Works by Seneca the Younger at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Seneca the Younger at Internet Archive Works by Seneca the Younger at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Collection of works of Seneca the Younger at Wikisource Seneca's essays and letters in English (at Stoics.com) List of commentaries of Seneca's Letters Incunabula (1478) of Seneca's works in the McCune Collection Seneca's Tragedies and the Elizabethan Drama SORGLL: Seneca, Thyestes 766–804, read by Katharina Volk, Columbia University. Society for the Oral reading of Greek and Latin Literature (SORGLL) Digitized works by Lucius Annaeus Seneca at Biblioteca Digital Hispánica, Biblioteca Nacional de España Guide to Seneca, Lucius Annaeus, Spurious works. Manuscript, ca. 1450 at the University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center Digitized Edition of Seneca's Opera Omnia from 1503 (Venice) at E-rara.ch ABC News: Where philosophy intersects with war training: stoic soldiers Political offices Preceded by Numerius Cestius, and Lucius Antistius Vetus as Suffect consuls Consul of the Roman Empire 55 with Publius Cornelius Dolabella Marcus Trebellius Maximus Publius Palfurius Succeeded by Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Gaetulicus, and Titus Curtilius Mancia as Suffect consuls v t e Seneca the Younger Philosophy Dialogues De Beneficiis De Brevitate Vitae De Clementia De Constantia Sapientis De Ira De Otio De Providentia De Tranquillitate Animi De Vita Beata Letters Letters to Lucilius Consolations Seneca's Consolations (ad Helviam Matrem, ad Marciam, ad Polybium) Natural philosophy Naturales quaestiones Literature Extant plays Agamemnon Hercules Furens Medea Oedipus Phaedra Phoenissae Thyestes Troades Plays of questionable authorship 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en-wikipedia-org-76	----	Music of ancient Rome - Wikipedia Music of ancient Rome From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Roman music" redirects here. For music associated with the modern city of Rome, see Music of Rome. Trio of musicians playing an aulos, cymbala, and tympanum (mosaic from Pompeii) The music of ancient Rome was a part of Roman culture from the earliest of times. Songs (carmen) were an integral part of almost every social occasion.[1] The Secular Ode of Horace, for instance, was commissioned by Augustus and performed by a mixed children's choir at the Secular Games in 17 BC.[2] Music was customary at funerals, and the tibia (Greek aulos), a woodwind instrument, was played at sacrifices to ward off ill influences.[3] Under the influence of ancient Greek theory, music was thought to reflect the orderliness of the cosmos, and was associated particularly with mathematics and knowledge.[4] Etruscan music had an early influence on that of the Romans. During the Imperial period, Romans carried their music to the provinces, while traditions of Asia Minor, North Africa and Gaul became a part of Roman culture.[5] Music accompanied spectacles and events in the arena, and was part of the performing arts form called pantomimus, an early form of story ballet that combined expressive dancing, instrumental music and a sung libretto.[6] Contents 1 Musical notation 2 Instruments 2.1 Wind instruments 2.2 String instruments 2.3 Organs 2.4 Percussion 3 Music in society 4 Discography 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links Musical notation[edit] Musicians in a detail from the Zliten mosaic (2nd century AD), originally shown as accompanying gladiator combat and wild-animal events in the arena: from left, the tuba, hydraulis (water pipe organ), and two cornua The Romans may have borrowed the Greek method[7][page needed] of "enchiriadic notation" to record their music, if they used any notation at all. Four letters (in English notation 'A', 'G', 'F' and 'C') indicated a series of four successive tones. Rhythm signs, written above the letters, indicated the duration of each note. The Romans may have tuned their instruments to Greek modes.[8] Instruments[edit] Roman art depicts various woodwinds, "brass", percussion and stringed instruments.[9] Roman-style instruments are found in parts of the Empire where they did not originate, and indicate that music was among the aspects of Roman culture that spread throughout the provinces. Tuba player (upper right) in a relief in Rome's Palazzo dei Conservatori depicting Marcus Aurelius in triumph Wind instruments[edit] The Roman tuba was a long, straight bronze trumpet with a detachable, conical mouthpiece like that of the modern French horn. Extant examples are about 1.3 metres long, and have a cylindrical bore from the mouthpiece to the point where the bell flares abruptly,[10] similar to the modern straight trumpet seen in presentations of 'period music'. Since there were no valves, the tuba was capable only of a single overtone series that would probably sound familiar to the modern ear, given the limitations of musical acoustics for instruments of this construction.[11] In the military, it was used for "bugle calls". The tuba is also depicted in art such as mosaics accompanying games (ludi) and spectacle events. The cornu (Latin "horn") was a long tubular metal wind instrument that curved around the musician's body, shaped rather like an uppercase G. It had a conical bore (again like a French horn) and a conical mouthpiece. It may be hard to distinguish from the buccina. The cornu was used for military signals and on parade.[12] The cornicen was a military signal officer who translated orders into calls. Like the tuba, the cornu also appears as accompaniment for public events and spectacle entertainments. The tibia (Greek aulos - αὐλός), usually double, had two double-reed (as in a modern oboe) pipes, not joined but generally played with a mouth-band capistrum (Greek phorbeiá - φορβεία) to hold both pipes steadily between the player's lips.[13] Modern changes indicate that they produced a low, clarinet-like sound. There is some confusion about the exact nature of the instrument; alternate descriptions indicate each pipe having a single reed (like a modern clarinet) instead of a double reed. The askaules — a bagpipe. Versions of the modern flute and panpipes. Cornu at the Limesmuseum in Aalen, Germany Cornicines on Trajan's Column (2nd century) Horn player on the Ludovisi sarcophagus (3rd century) Tibia player accompanying a sacrifice led by Marcus Aurelius (Rome's Palazzo dei Conservatori) Panpipes played by Pan and aulos by a maenad (Mildenhall Treasure, 4th century) String instruments[edit] Left image:: Silenus holding a lyre, detail of a fresco from the Villa of the Mysteries, Pompeii, Italy, c. 50 BC Right image: wall fresco of a seated woman with a kithara, 40-30 BC, from the Villa Boscoreale of P. Fannius Synistor; late Roman Republic; it most likely represents Berenice II of Ptolemaic Egypt wearing a stephane (i.e. royal diadem) on her head.[14] The lyre, borrowed from the Greeks, was not a harp, but instead had a sounding body of wood or a tortoise shell covered with skin, and arms of animal horn or wood, with strings stretched from a cross bar to the sounding body.[15] The lyre was held or cradled in one arm and hand and plucked with the other hand.[citation needed] The Romans gradually abandoned this instrument in favour of the more sophisticated cithara,[citation needed] a larger instrument with a box-type frame with strings stretched from the cross-bar at the top to the sounding box at the bottom; it was held upright and played with a plectrum.[citation needed] The strings were tuned "by adjusting sticks seen in the engraving."[16] The cithara was the premier musical instrument of ancient Rome and was played both in popular and elevated forms of music. Larger and heavier than a lyre, the cithara was a loud, sweet and piercing instrument with precision tuning ability. It was said some players could make it cry. From cithara comes the word guitar. Though the guitar more directly evolved from the lute, the same mystique surrounds the guitar idols of today as it did for the virtuoso cithara players, the citharista, and popular singers of ancient Rome.[citation needed] Like many other instruments, it came originally from Greece, and Greek images portray the most elaborately constructed citharas. The lute (pandura or monochord) was known by several names among the Greeks and Romans. In construction, the lute differs from the lyre in having fewer strings stretched over a solid neck or fret-board, on which the strings can be stopped to produce graduated notes. Each lute string is thereby capable of producing a greater range of notes than a lyre string.[17] Although long-necked lutes are depicted in art from Mesopotamia as early as 2340–2198 BC, and also occur in Egyptian iconography, the lute in the Greco-Roman world was far less common than the lyre and cithara. The lute of the medieval West is thought to owe more to the Arab oud, from which its name derives (al ʿūd).[18] Organs[edit] Hydraulis and cornu on a mosaic from Nennig, Germany Mosaics depict instruments that look like a cross between the bagpipe and the organ. The pipes were sized so as to produce many of the modes (scales) known from the Greeks. It is unclear whether they were blown by the lungs or by some mechanical bellows. The hydraulic pipe organ (hydraulis), which worked by water pressure, was "one of the most significant technical and musical achievements of antiquity".[19] Essentially, the air to the pipes that produce the sound comes from a mechanism of a wind-chest connected by a pipe to a dome submerged in a tank of water. Air is pumped into the top of the dome, compressing the air and forcing water out the bottom; the displace water rises in the tank. This increased hydraulic head and the compression of the air in the dome provides a steady supply of air to the pipes[20][page needed] (also see Pipe organ#History). The instrument goes back to the ancient Greeks and a well-preserved model in pottery was found at Carthage in 1885.[21][failed verification] The hydraulis accompanied gladiator contests and events in the arena, as well as stage performances. It might also be found in homes, and was among the instruments that the emperor Nero played.[22] Percussion[edit] Reconstruction of a scabellum Variations of a hinged wooden or metal device called a scabellum—a "clapper"—used to beat time. Also, there were various rattles, bells and tambourines. Drum and percussion instruments like timpani and castanets, the Egyptian sistrum, and brazen pans, served various musical and other purposes in ancient Rome, including backgrounds for rhythmic dance, celebratory rites like those of the Bacchantes, military uses, hunting (to drive out prey) and even for the control of bees in apiaries.[citation needed] Some Roman music was distinguished for its having a steady beat, no doubt through the use of drums and the percussive effects of clapping and stamping.[citation needed] Egyptian musicians often kept time by snapping the fingers. The sistrum was a rattle consisting of rings strung across the cross-bars of a metal frame, which was often used for ritual purposes. Cymbala (Lat. plural of cymbalum, from the Greek kymbalon) were small cymbals: metal discs with concave centres and turned rims, used in pairs which were clashed together.[23] Masked theatrical troupe around an aulos player (mosaic from the House of the Tragic Poet, Pompeii) Music in society[edit] In spite of the purported lack of musical originality on the part of the Romans, they did enjoy music greatly and used it for many activities. Music was also used in religious ceremonies. The Romans cultivated music as a sign of education.[24] Music contests were quite common and attracted a wide range of competition, including Nero himself, who performed widely as an amateur and once traveled to Greece to compete.[25] Discography[edit] Synaulia, Music of Ancient Rome, Vol. I – Wind Instruments - Amiata Records ARNR 1396, Florence, 1996. Synaulia, Music of Ancient Rome, Vol. II – String Instruments - Amiata Records, ARNR 0302, Rome, 2002. Thaleia, Carmina Canere Music of Ancient Rome, Vol. I –Tarragona - Spain 2012. Ludi Scaenici, E Tempore Emergo - Rome, Italy - 2001 Ludi Scaenici, Festina Lente - Rome, Italy - 2011 Ensemble Kérylos, dir. Annie Bélis, De la pierre au son : musique de l'antiquité, K617, 1996. Ensemble Kérylos, dir. Annie Bélis, D'Euripide aux premiers chrétiens : musique de l'antiquité, 2016. See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal Fibula (penile), a device used by Roman singers in the belief that it would help preserve their voice Notes[edit] 1st-century Roman wall painting of a harpist ^ Naerebout, p. 146. ^ Ginsberg-Klar, pp. 313, 316. ^ Habinek, passim. ^ Habinek, pp. 90ff.[page needed] ^ Scott, p. 404. ^ Frankin, p. 95; Starks, pp. 14ff.[page needed] ^ Ulrich and Pisk,[page needed]. ^ Pierce, p. 45. ^ Ginsberg-Klar, p. 313. ^ Ulrich and Pisk, p. 25. ^ Bonanni, plate 2. ^ Ginsberg-Klar, p. 314. ^ Pfrommer and Towne-Markus, 22–23. ^ Bonanni, plate 3. ^ Bonanni, unnumbered plate between plates 48 and 49, with commentary on the facing verso page. ^ Ginsberg-Klar, p. 316. ^ Williams,[page needed]. ^ Cook. ^ Scott, p. 413. ^ Walter, p. 23. ^ Suetonius, cited in Scott, p. 418. ^ Marcuse, pp. 137, 304. ^ Scott,[page needed]. ^ Spring, p. 1. ^ Higgins and Winnington-Ingram, pp. 62–71. References[edit] Bonanni, Filippo. 1964. Antique Musical Instruments and their Players: 152 Plates from Bonanni's 18th-Century "Gabinetto armonico" , with a new introduction and captions by Frank Ll. Harrison and Joan Rimmer. New York: Dover Publications. Reprint of the 1723 work, Gabinetto armonico, with supplementary explanatory material. Boethius, Anicius Manlius Severinus. De institutione musica. (English edition as Fundamentals of Music, translated, with introduction and notes by Calvin M. Bower; edited by Claude V. Palisca. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989.) Cook, James H. 1999. "Organ History: Origin and Development through 800 AD". James H. Cook's Faculty Personal Website, at Birmingham-Southern College (Accessed 19 December 2012). Franklin, James L., Jr. 1987. "Pantomimists at Pompeii: Actius Anicetus and His Troupe". American Journal of Philology 108, no. 1:95-107 Ginsberg-Klar, Maria E. 1981. "The Archaeology of Musical Instruments in Germany during the Roman Period". World Archaeology 12, no. 3:313-320 Habinek, Thomas. 2005. The World of Roman Song. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Higgins, R. A., and Reginald P. Winnington-Ingram. 1965. "Lute-Players in Greek Art." Journal of Hellenic Studies 85:62–71. Marcuse, Sibyl. 1975. Musical Instruments: A Comprehensive Dictionary, corrected edition. The Norton Library. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. ISBN 0-393-00758-8. Naerebout, Frederick G. 2009. "Dance in the Roman Empire and Its Discontents". In Ritual Dynamics and Religious Change in the Roman Empire. Proceedings of the Eighth Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire (Heidelberg, July 5–7, 2007)[full citation needed]: Brill. Pfrommer, Michael, and Elana Towne-Markus. 2001. Greek Gold from Hellenistic Egypt. Los Angeles: Getty Publications (J. Paul Getty Trust). ISBN 0-89236-633-8. Pierce, John R. 1983. The Science of Musical Sound, New York: Scientific American Books. Scott, J. E. 1957. 'Roman Music' in The New Oxford History of Music, vol.1: 'Ancient and Oriental Music,' Oxford: Oxford University Press. Smith, William. 1874. A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. New York: Harper. Spring, Matthew. 2001. The Lute in Britain: A History of the Instrument and Its Music. Oxford University Press, 2001. Starks, John H., Jr., 2008. "Pantomime Actresses in Latin Inscriptions". In New Directions in Ancient Pantomime[full citation needed] Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Suetonius. Nero, xli, liv. Ulrich, Homer, and Paul Pisk. 1963. A History of Music and Musical Style. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanoich. Walter, Don C. 1969. Men and Music in Western Culture. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. ISBN 0-390-91600-5. Williams, C. F. Abdy. 1903. The Story of the Organ. London: Walter Scott Publishing Co.; New York: Charles Scribner & Sons. Further reading[edit] Benzing, G. M. 2009. "'Se vuoi far soldi, studia la cetra': musica e luxus nell’antica Roma". In Luxus: Il piacere della vita nella Roma imperiale: [Torino, Museo di antichita, 26 settembre 2009 – 31 gennaio 2010], edited by Elena Fontanella,[page needed] Rome: Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato. ISBN 9788824011631. Comotti, Giovanni. 1989. Music in Greek and Roman Culture, translated by Rosaria V. Munson. Ancient Society and History. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0801833647 (cloth); ISBN 080184231X (pbk). Hagel, Stefan, and Christine Harrauer (eds.) (2005). Ancient Greek Music in Performance: Symposion Wien 29. Sept.–1. Okt. 2003. Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. ISBN 3-7001-3475-4. Landels, J. G. 1999. Music in Ancient Greece & Rome. London and New York: Routledge. Maas, Martha. 2001. "Kithara". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers. West, M[artin] L[itchfield]. 1992. Ancient Greek Music. Oxford: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814897-6 (cloth) ISBN 0-19-814975-1 (pbk). Wille, Günther. 1967. Musica Romana: Die Bedeutung der Musik im Leben der Römer. Amsterdam: P. Schippers. External links[edit] Ensemble Kérylos, a music group led by scholar Annie Bélis and dedicated to the recreation of ancient Greek and Roman music. Musica Romana, musicarchaeology, scientific review of ancient Roman music as well as performances, bibliography and descriptions for instruments and notations online (English and German). The Thesaurus Musicarum Latinarum (TML), an evolving database of the entire corpus of Latin music theory written during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Synaulia, dedicated to the reconstruction of historical musical instruments, sound theatre, dance on the basis of ethnology. 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en-wikipedia-org-7743	----	List of Roman civil wars and revolts - Wikipedia List of Roman civil wars and revolts From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Civil conflicts within ancient Rome This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (November 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) See also: List of Roman wars and battles This is a list of civil wars and organized civil disorder in ancient Rome (753 BC – AD 476). Contents 1 3rd century BC 2 2nd century BC 3 1st century BC 4 1st century 5 2nd century 6 3rd century 7 4th century 8 5th century 9 References 10 See also 3rd century BC[edit] 241 BC: Falisci revolt – revolt suppressed[1] 2nd century BC[edit] 135–132 BC: First Servile War in Sicily - revolt suppressed[2][3] 125 BC: Fregellae revolt - revolt suppressed[4] 104–100 BC: Second Servile War in Sicily - revolt suppressed[5] 1st century BC[edit] 91–88 BC: Social War, between Rome and many of its fellow Italian allies - Roman victory. 88–87 BC: Sulla's first civil war (88–87 BC), between Lucius Cornelius Sulla's supporters and Gaius Marius' forces – Sullan victory. 82–81 BC: Sulla's second civil war between Sulla and Marius' supporters – Sullan victory. 80–72 BC: Sertorian War between Rome and the Provinces of Hispania under the leadership of Quintus Sertorius, a supporter of Gaius Marius – Sullan victory. 77 BC: Lepidus' rebellion against the Sullan regime – Sullan victory. 73–71 BC: Third Servile War in Italy – revolt suppressed. 63–62 BC: Catiline Conspiracy between the Senate and the dissatisfied followers of Catiline – Senatorial victory. 49–45 BC: Caesar's Civil War between Julius Caesar and the Optimates initially led by Pompey the Great (Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus) – Caesarian victory. 46 BC: Revolt of the Bellovaci in North-Eastern Gaul – revolt suppressed 44 BC: Revolt of the Allobroges in Gaul – revolt suppressed 44–43 BC: Post-Caesarian Civil War between the Senate's army (led first by Cicero and then by Octavian) and the army of Antony, Lepidus, and their colleagues – Truce results in union of forces. 44–42 BC: Liberators' civil war between the Second Triumvirate and the Liberators (Brutus and Cassius, Caesar's assassins) – Triumvirate victory. 44–36 BC: Sicilian revolt between the Second Triumvirate (particularly Octavian and Agrippa) and Sextus Pompey, the son of Pompey – Triumvirate victory. 41–40 BC: Perusine War between the forces of Octavian against Lucius Antonius and Fulvia (the younger brother and wife of Mark Antony) – Octavian victory. 38 BC: Revolt of Aquitanian tribes – revolt suppressed by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa 32–30 BC: Final War of the Roman Republic between Octavian and his friend and general Agrippa against Antony and Cleopatra – Octavian victory. 30–29 BC: Revolt of the Morini and Treveri in Northern Gaul with Germanic support – revolt suppressed 30 BC: Revolt in the Nile delta and the Thebaid – revolt suppressed by Gaius Cornelius Gallus 28–27 BC: Revolt in Gallia Aquitania – revolt suppressed by Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus 13 BC: Revolt of Vologases, priest of Dionysus, in Thrace – revolt suppressed 11–9 BC: Revolt of southern mountain tribes in Thrace – revolt suppressed by Calpurnius Piso 4 BC: Revolt of Jews in Judea – revolt suppressed by Publius Quinctilius Varus 1st century[edit] 3–6: Revolt of the Gaetuli in Mauretania – revolt suppressed by Cossus Cornelius Lentulus Gaetulicus 6: Revolt of Judas of Galilee against Roman taxation – revolt suppressed 6–9: Bellum Batonianum, a great rebellion in Illyricum against Rome – revolt suppressed by Tiberius 9: Revolt by German leader Arminius destroys three Roman legions in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, permanently ending Roman efforts to conquer Germanic territories east of the Rhine. 14: Mutiny of the legions in Germania and Illyricum suppressed by Germanicus and Drusus Julius Caesar 17–24: Tacfarinas' revolt in north Africa – revolt suppressed by Publius Cornelius Dolabella 21: Revolt of the Treveri, Aedui, Andes (Andecavi) and Turoni under Julius Florus and Julius Sacrovir in Gaul – revolt suppressed by Gaius Silius and Gaius Calpurnius Aviola 21: Revolt of the Coelaletae, Odrysae and Dii in Thrace – revolt suppressed by P. Vellaeus 26: Revolt in Thrace – revolt suppressed by Gaius Poppaeus Sabinus 28: Revolt of the Frisii in the Battle of Baduhenna Wood – rebel victory 36: Revolt of the Cietae in Cappadocia – revolt suppressed by Marcus Trebellius 38: Alexandrian riots 40: Alexandrian riots 40–44: Revolt of Aedemon and Sabalus in Mauretania – revolt suppressed by Gaius Suetonius Paulinus and Gnaeus Hosidius Geta 42: Failed usurpation of Lucius Arruntius Camillus Scribonianus in Dalmatia 46: The Kingdom of Thrace riots against the Romans after the death of King Rhoemetalces III – revolt suppressed 46–48: Jacob and Simon uprising in the Galilee – revolt suppressed 60–61: Boudica's uprising in Britain – revolt suppressed by Gaius Suetonius Paulinus 66–73: First Jewish–Roman War – revolt suppressed 68: Revolt in Gallia Lugdunensis under Gaius Julius Vindex – revolt suppressed by Lucius Verginius Rufus' army 68–69: The Year of the Four Emperors between various Romans following the death of Nero (AD 68). After Nero's suicide, the generals Galba, Otho, and Vitellius take the throne within months of each other. General Vespasian, who until that point was fighting the revolt in Judaea, is victorious. He founds the Flavian dynasty. 69: Revolt of Anicetus in Colchis – revolt suppressed by Virdius Geminus 69–70: Revolt of the Batavi, Treveri and Lingones in Gaul – revolt suppressed 79–80: Failed usurpation of Terentius Maximus, a Pseudo-Nero, in Asia 89: Revolt of Lucius Antonius Saturninus with two legions in Germania Superior – revolt suppressed 2nd century[edit] 115–117: Kitos War in Egypt, Cyrenaica and Cyprus – revolt suppressed 117: Revolt in Mauretania – revolt suppressed by Marcius Turbo 122: Apis riots in Alexandria 132–136: Bar Kokhba revolt in Judea – revolt suppressed 152: Revolt in Mauretania – revolt suppressed 153: Alexandrian riots 172: Revolt of the Boukoloi in Egypt – revolt suppressed by Avidius Cassius 175: Failed usurpation of Avidius Cassius in the eastern parts of the Roman Empire 185: Army mutiny in Britain suppressed by Pertinax 190: Two revolts in Africa suppressed by Pertinax 193–197: Year of the Five Emperors and subsequent civil war between the generals Septimius Severus, Pescennius Niger and Clodius Albinus following the assassination of Commodus (AD 192) and the subsequent murders of Pertinax and Didius Julianus (AD 193). Severus is victorious and founds the Severan dynasty. 3rd century[edit] 218: Battle of Antioch, fought between the Emperor Macrinus and his rival Elagabalus and resulting in Macrinus' downfall and his replacement by Elagabalus. 219: Failed usurpations of Verus and Gellius Maximus in Syria. 221: Failed usurpation of Seleucus, possibly in Moesia 227: Failed usurpation of Seius Sallustius in Rome 232: Failed usurpation of Taurinius in Syria. 235–284: Crisis of the Third Century – at least 26 claimants fought with each other to become emperor and emperors fought against usurpers, resulting in frequent civil war and breakaway Gallic Roman (260–274) and Palmyrene Empires (270–273). 238: Year of the Six Emperors between various generals against Maximinus Thrax and after his murder. After Gordian I and Gordian II are defeated by a pro-Maximinus Army following an attempt to overthrow the emperor, Maximinus is assassinated. Pupienus, Balbinus, and Gordian III replace him, but the former two are assassinated within months and only Gordian III survives. 240: Failed usurpation of Sabinianus in Mauretania 248–249: Failed usurpations of Jotapianus in Syria and Pacatianus in Moesia. 249: Emperor Philip the Arab killed and overthrown by rebels at the Battle of Verona and replaced by Decius. 250: Failed usurpation of Licinianus in Rome. 251: Failed usurpation of Titus Julius Priscus in Thrace. 252: Failed usurpation of Cyriades in Syria. 253: Usurpations of Aemilianus and Valerian: Emperors Trebonianus Gallus and Volusianus murdered by their soldiers and replaced by Aemilianus. Valerian raises the Rhine legions in revolt, while Aemilianus is killed by his own soldiers. 254: Failed usurpation of Uranius in Syria. 260: Failed usurpations of Ingenuus and Regalianus in Pannonia. 260–261: Failed usurpation of Macrianus Major, Macrianus Minor, Quietus and Balista in the East 260–274: The breakaway Gallic Roman Empire 261: Failed usurpations of Lucius Piso and Valens Thessalonicus in Achaea. 261–262: Failed usurpation of Mussius Aemilianus and Memor in Egypt. 268: Failed usurpation of Aureolus in the West. Emperor Gallienus murdered by his soldiers and Claudius Gothicus proclaimed Emperor. 270: Usurpation of Aurelian against Quintillus. 270–273: The breakaway Palmyrene Empire. 271: Failed usurpations of Felicissimus in Rome and Septimius in Dalmatia. 275: Aurelian murdered by the Praetorian Guard and replaced by Marcus Claudius Tacitus 276: Usurpation of Probus against Florianus. 280: Failed usurpation of Julius Saturninus in the East. 280–281: Failed usurpation of Proculus and Bonosus in the West. 283–285: Failed usurpation of Sabinus Julianus. 284–285: Usurpation of Diocletian against Carinus 284–286: Bagaudae uprising in Gaul under Aelianus and Amandus – revolt suppressed 286–296: Carausian Revolt under Carausius and Allectus in Britain and northern Gaul – revolt suppressed 293: Revolt of the towns of Busiris and Coptos in the Egyptian Thebaid – revolt suppressed by Galerius 297–298: Failed usurpation of Domitius Domitianus and Achilleus in Egypt 4th century[edit] 303: Failed usurpation of Eugenius in Roman Syria 306–324: Civil wars of the Tetrarchy, beginning with the usurpation of Maxentius and the defeat of Flavius Valerius Severus, and ending with the defeat of Licinius at the hands of Constantine I in 324 AD. The Tetrarchy established by Diocletian would break up because of these wars. 334: Failed usurpation of Calocaerus in Cyprus 337: Caesars Dalmatius and Hannibalianus killed by soldiers in a purge orchestrated by Constantius II. 340: Civil war, when Constans defeated Constantine II near Aquileia. 350–353: Roman civil war of 350–353, when Constantius II defeated the usurper Magnentius who had assassinated Constans. 351–352: Jewish revolt against Constantius Gallus in Syria Palaestina – revolt suppressed 355: Failed usurpation of Claudius Silvanus in Gaul 361: Usurpation of Julian the Apostate 365–366: Revolt of Procopius, when the Emperor Valens defeated the usurpers Procopius and Marcellus. 372: Failed usurpation of Theodorus in Antioch 372–375: Revolt of Firmus in Africa – revolt suppressed by Count Theodosius 383–384: Usurpation of Magnus Maximus in the west and the killing of Gratian by the general Andragathius 387: Tax riots against Emperor Theodosius I in Antioch. 387–388: Civil War of 387–388, when the Eastern Emperor Theodosius I defeated the Western Emperor Magnus Maximus. 390: Revolt in Thessalonica culminating in the Massacre of Thessalonica. 392–394: Civil War of 392–394, when the Eastern Emperor Theodosius I defeated the usurper Eugenius. 398: Gildonic revolt, when the Comes Gildo rebelled against the Western Emperor Honorius. The revolt was subdued by Flavius Stilicho, the magister militum of the Western Roman empire. 399–400: Revolt of Tribigild and Gainas in the Eastern Empire – revolt suppressed 5th century[edit] 406–413: Civil war as the usurpers Marcus, Gratian, Constantine III, Constans II (son of Constantine III), Maximus of Hispania, Priscus Attalus, Jovinus, Sebastianus and Heraclianus tried to usurp the throne of Emperor Honorius. All were defeated. 409–417: Bagaudae uprising in the Loire valley and Brittany 419–421: Revolt of Maximus in Hispania – revolt suppressed 423–425: Civil war, when the usurper Joannes was defeated by the army of Emperor Valentinian III. 427–429: Civil war, when the Comes Africae Bonifacius fought inconclusively against the Magister militum Felix. The civil war was terminated by negotiations brokered by Galla Placidia. 432: Civil war, when the Magister militum Flavius Aetius was defeated by the rival Magister militum Bonifacius, who died of wounds sustained in battle soon afterwards, giving Aetius full control over the Western Empire. 435–437: Bagaudae uprising under Tibatto in Gaul suppressed by Flavius Aetius. 455: Valentinian III assassinated and overthrown by Petronius Maximus. 455: Petronius Maximus stoned to death by mob and replaced by Avitus. 461: Majorian assassinated and overthrown by Ricimer. 468: Failed usurpation by Arvandus. 470: Failed usurpation by Romanus. 472: Anthemius overthrown by Ricimer. 474: Glycerius overthrown by Julius Nepos. 475: Julius Nepos overthrown by Orestes. 476: Orestes overthrown by Odoacer. Romulus Augustulus deposed, ending the Western Roman Empire. References[edit] Footnotes ^ Potter, David (2019-06-03). The Origin of Empire: Rome from the Republic to Hadrian. Harvard University Press. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-674-65967-4. ^ Boldt, Andreas (2017-03-16). Historical Mechanisms: An Experimental Approach to Applying Scientific Theories to the Study of History. Taylor & Francis. p. 180. ISBN 978-1-351-81648-9. ^ Chrystal, Paul (2015-11-30). Roman Military Disasters: Dark Days & Lost Legions. Pen and Sword. ISBN 978-1-4738-7395-7. ^ Conole, P. (1981). "Allied Disaffection and the Revolt of Fregellae1". Antichthon. 15: 129–140. doi:10.1017/S0066477400004615. ISSN 0066-4774. ^ Flower, Harriet I. (2014-06-23). The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press. p. 200. ISBN 978-1-107-03224-8. General Kohn, George Childs, 'Dictionary of Wars, Revised Edition' (Checkmark Books, New York, 1999) See also[edit] List of Roman wars and battles v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister 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en-wikipedia-org-7765	----	Lombardy - Wikipedia Lombardy From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Region of Italy For the village in Ontario, Canada, see Lombardy, Ontario. For the wine region, see Lombardy (wine). For the infantry division, see 57th Infantry Division Lombardia. Region of Italy Lombardy Lombardia  (Italian) Lombardia Region of Italy Flag Coat of arms Anthem: Lombardia, Lombardia[1] Coordinates: 45°35′08″N 9°55′49″E / 45.58556°N 9.93028°E / 45.58556; 9.93028Coordinates: 45°35′08″N 9°55′49″E / 45.58556°N 9.93028°E / 45.58556; 9.93028 Country Italy Capital Milan Government  • Type President–council government  • Body Regional Cabinet  • President Attilio Fontana  • Legislature Regional Council Area  • Total 23,844 km2 (9,206 sq mi) Population (31 December 2019)[2]  • Total 10,103,969  • Density 420/km2 (1,100/sq mi) Demonym(s) Lombard Italian: Lombardo (man) Italian: Lombarda (woman) Lombard: Lombard (man) Lombard: Lombarda (woman) Time zone UTC+1 (CET)  • Summer (DST) UTC+2 (CEST) ISO 3166 code IT-25 GDP (nominal) €388 billion (2018)[3] GDP per capita €38,600 (2018)[3] $51,666 (2016) (PPP)[4] HDI (2018) 0.902[5] very high · 4th of 21 NUTS Region ITC Website www.regione.lombardia.it Lombardy (/ˈlɒmbərdi, ˈlʌm-/ LOM-bər-dee, LUM-;[6][7] Italian: Lombardia [lombarˈdiːa]; Lombard: Lombardia, Western Lombard: [lũbɐ̞rˈdiːɑ], Eastern Lombard: [lombɐ̞rˈdiːɑ, -ˈdeːɑ]) is one of the twenty administrative regions of Italy, in the northwest of the country, with an area of 23,844 square kilometres (9,206 sq mi). About 10 million people live in Lombardy, forming more than one-sixth of Italy's population, and more than a fifth of Italy's GDP is produced in the region, making it the most populous, richest and most productive region in the country. It is also one of the top regions in Europe for the same criteria.[8][9] Milan's metropolitan area is the largest in Italy and the third most populated functional urban area in the EU.[10] Lombardy is also the Italian region with most UNESCO World Heritage Sites—Italy (tied with China) having the highest number of World Heritage Sites in the world.[11] The region is also famous for its historical figures such as Virgil, Pliny the Elder, Ambrose, Caravaggio, Claudio Monteverdi, Antonio Stradivari, Cesare Beccaria, Alessandro Volta, Alessandro Manzoni, and popes John XXIII and Paul VI. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Geography 2.1 Soils 2.2 Hydrography 2.3 Flora and fauna 2.4 Climate 3 History 3.1 Prehistory and antiquity 3.2 Kingdom of the Lombards 3.3 Communes and the Empire 3.4 Renaissance duchies of Milan and Mantua 3.5 Late-Middle Ages, Renaissance and Enlightenment 3.6 Modern era 3.7 COVID-19 pandemic 4 Demographics 5 Economy 6 Government and politics 6.1 Administrative divisions 7 Culture 7.1 UNESCO World Heritage Sites 7.2 Museums 7.3 Other sights 7.4 Cuisine 7.4.1 Typical dishes and products 7.4.2 Wines 7.5 Music 7.6 Language 7.7 Fashion 8 Sports 9 Twinning and covenants 10 See also 11 References 12 Further reading 12.1 Guide books 13 External links Etymology[edit] The word Lombardy comes from Lombard, which in turn is derived from Late Latin Longobardus, Langobardus ("a Lombard"), derived from the Proto-Germanic elements *langaz + *bardaz; equivalent to long beard. Some scholars suggest the second element instead derives from Proto-Germanic *bardǭ, *barduz ("axe"), related to German Barte ("axe") or that the whole word comes from the Proto-Albanian *Lum bardhi "white river" (Compare modern Albanian lum i bardhë).[12] During the early Middle Ages, "Lombardy" referred to the Kingdom of the Lombards (Latin: Regnum Langobardorum), a kingdom ruled by the Germanic Lombards who had controlled most of Italy since their invasion of Byzantine Italy in 568. As such "Lombardy" and "Italy" were almost interchangeable; by the mid-8th century the Lombards ruled everywhere except the Papal possessions around Rome (roughly modern Lazio and northern Umbria), Venice and some Byzantine possessions in the south (southern Apulia and Calabria; some coastal settlements including Amalfi, Gaeta, Naples and Sorrento; Sicily and Sardinia). The Kingdom was divided between Longobardia Major in the north and Langobardia Minor in the south by the Byzantine Exarchate of Ravenna (roughly Romagna and northern Marche, and initially also Emilia and Liguria) until the 8th century and later the Papacy (which was initially part of the Exarchate). During the late Middle Ages, after the fall of the northern part of the Kingdom to Charlemagne, the term shifted to mean Northern Italy. (See: Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)). The term was also used until around 965 in the form Λογγοβαρδία (Longobardia) as the name for the territory roughly covering modern Apulia which the Byzantines had recovered from the Lombard rump Duchy of Benevento. Geography[edit] Main article: Geography of Lombardy With a surface of 23,861 km2 (9,213 sq mi), Lombardy is the fourth-largest region of Italy. It is bordered by Switzerland (north: Canton Ticino and Canton Graubünden) and by the Italian regions of Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol and Veneto (east), Emilia-Romagna (south), and Piedmont (west). Three distinct natural zones can be easily distinguished in Lombardy: mountains, hills, and plains—the last being divided into Alta (high plains) and Bassa (low plains). Soils[edit] Pizzo Coca is the highest peak in the Bergamasque Alps (3,050 m) The orography of Lombardy is characterised by the presence of three distinct belts: a northern mountainous belt constituted by the Alpine relief, a central piedmont area of mostly pebbly soils of alluvial origin, and the Lombard section of the Padan Plain in the southernmost part of the region. The most important mountainous area is the Alpine zone including the Lepontine and Rhaetian Alps (Piz Bernina, 4,020 m), the Bergamo Alps, the Ortler Alps and the Adamello massif. It is followed by the Alpine foothills zone Prealpi, the main peaks of which are the Grigna Group (2,410 m), Resegone (1,875 m), and Presolana (2,521 m). The plains of Lombardy, formed by alluvial deposits, can be divided into the Alta—an upper, permeable ground zone in the north—and the Bassa—a lower zone dotted by the so-called line of fontanili, spring waters rising from impermeable ground. Inconsistent with the three distinctions above is the small subregion of Oltrepò Pavese, formed by the Apennine foothills beyond the Po River. Hydrography[edit] Po river, Italy's longest, limits the southern border of the region The mighty Po river marks the southern border of the region for a length of about 210 km (130 mi). In its progress, it receives the waters of the Ticino River, which rises in the Bedretto valley (Switzerland) and joins the Po near Pavia. The other streams which contribute to the great river are the Olona, the Lambro, the Adda, the Oglio and the Mincio. The numerous lakes of Lombardy, all of glacial origin, lie in the northern highlands. From west to east these are Lake Maggiore, Lake Lugano (both shared with Switzerland), Lake Como, Lake Iseo, Lake Idro, and Lake Garda (the largest lake in Italy). South of the Alps lie the hills characterised by a succession of low heights of morainic origin formed during the last Ice Age and small barely fertile plateaux with typical heaths and conifer woods. A minor mountainous area, the Oltrepò Pavese, lies south of the Po, in the Apennines range. Flora and fauna[edit] The Alpine ibex (Capra ibex) In the plains, intensively cultivated for centuries, little of the original environment remains. The most common trees are elm, alder, sycamore, poplar, willow and hornbeam. In the area of the foothills lakes, however, grow olive trees, cypresses and larches, as well as varieties of subtropical flora such as magnolias, azaleas, acacias. Numerous species of endemic flora in the Prealpine area include some kinds of saxifrage, the Lombard garlic, groundsels bellflowers and the cottony bellflowers. The highlands are characterised by the typical vegetation of the whole range of the Italian Alps. At lower levels (up to approximately 1,100 m), oak woods or broadleafed trees grow; on the mountain slopes (up to 2,000–2,200 m), beech trees grow at the lowest limits, with conifer woods higher up. Shrubs such as rhododendron, dwarf pine and juniper are native to the summital zone (beyond 2,200 m). Lombardy counts many protected areas: the most important are the Stelvio National Park (the largest Italian natural park), with typically alpine wildlife: red deer, roe deer, ibex, chamois, foxes, ermine and also golden eagles; and the Ticino Valley Natural Park, instituted in 1974 on the Lombard side of the Ticino River to protect and conserve one of the last major examples of fluvial forest in northern Italy. Other Parks situated in the region are the Campo dei Fiori and the Cinque Vette Park, both of them are located in the Province of Varese. Climate[edit] Lombardy has a wide array of climates, due to local variances in elevation, proximity to inland water basins, and large metropolitan areas. Olive trees on the Lake Garda The climate of the region is mainly humid subtropical (Köppen Cfa) especially in the plains, though with significant variations to the Köppen model especially regarding the winter season, which in Lombardy is normally long, damp, and rather cold. In addition, there is a high seasonal temperature variation (in Milan, the average temperature is 2.5 °C (36.5 °F) in January and 24 °C (75 °F) in July). The plains are often subject to the presence of fog during the coldest months. In the Alpine foothills, characterised by an oceanic climate (Köppen Cfb), numerous lakes exercise a mitigating influence, allowing the cultivation of typically Mediterranean crops (olives, citrus fruit). In the hills and mountains, the climate is humid continental (Köppen Dfb). In the valleys it is relatively mild, while it can be severely cold above 1,500 m, with copious snowfalls. Precipitation is more intense in the Prealpine zone, up to 1,500 to 2,000 mm (59.1 to 78.7 in) annually, but is abundant also in the plains and alpine zones, with an average of 600 to 850 mm (23.6 to 33.5 in) annually. The total annual rainfall is on average 827 mm.[13] History[edit] Prehistory and antiquity[edit] Further information: Cisalpine Gaul The Rock Drawings in Valcamonica are among the largest collections of prehistoric petroglyphs in the world.[14] It is thought from the archaeological findings of ceramics, arrows, axes, and carved stones that the area of current Lombardy has been settled at least since the 2nd millennium BC. Well-preserved rock drawings left by ancient Camuni in the Valcamonica depicting animals, people, and symbols were made over a time period of eight thousand years preceding the Iron Age,[15] based on about 300,000 records.[16] The many artifacts (pottery, personal items and weapons) found in necropolis near the Lake Maggiore, and Lake Ticino demonstrate the presence of the Golasecca Bronze Age culture that prospered in Western Lombardy between the 9th and the 4th century BC. In the following centuries it was inhabited by different peoples, among whom were the Etruscans, who founded the city of Mantua and spread the use of writing. It was seat of the Celtic Canegrate culture (starting from the 13th Century BC) and later of the Celto-Ligurian Golasecca culture. Later, starting from the 5th century BC, the area was invaded by more Celtic Gallic tribes coming from north of the Alps.. These people settled in several cities including Milan, and extended their rule to the Adriatic Sea. Their development was halted by the Roman expansion in the Po Valley from the 3rd century BC onwards. After centuries of struggle, in 194 BC the entire area of what is now Lombardy became a Roman province with the name of Gallia Cisalpina ("Gaul on the inner side (with respect to Rome) of the Alps"). The Roman culture and language overwhelmed the former civilisation in the following years, and Lombardy became one of the most developed and richest areas of Italy with the construction of a wide array of roads and the development of agriculture and trade. Important figures were born here, like Pliny the Elder (in Como) and Virgil (in Mantua). In late antiquity the strategic role of Lombardy was emphasised by the temporary moving of the capital of the Western Empire to Mediolanum (Milan). Here, in 313 AD, Roman Emperor Constantine issued the famous Edict of Milan that gave freedom of confession to all religions within the Roman Empire. Kingdom of the Lombards[edit] Further information: Lombards and Kingdom of the Lombards For centuries, the Iron Crown of Lombardy was used in the Coronation of the King of Italy. During and after the fall of the Western Empire, Lombardy suffered heavily from destruction brought about by a series of invasions by tribal peoples. The last and most effective was that of the Germanic Lombards, or Longobardi, whose whole nation migrated here from the Carpathian basin in fear of the conquering Pannonian Avars in 568 and whose long-lasting reign (with its capital in Pavia) gave the current name to the region. There was a close relationship between the Frankish, Bavarian and Lombard nobility for many centuries. After the initial struggles, relationships between the Lombard people and the Latin-speaking people improved. In the end, the Lombard language and culture assimilated with the Latin culture, leaving evidence in many names, the legal code and laws, and other things. The genes of the Lombards became quickly diluted into the Italian population owing to their relatively small number and their geographic dispersal to rule and administer their kingdom.[17] The end of Lombard rule came in 774, when the Frankish king Charlemagne conquered Pavia, deposed Desiderius, the last Lombard king, and annexed the Kingdom of Italy (mostly northern and central present-day Italy) to his newly established Holy Roman Empire. The former Lombard dukes and nobles were replaced by other German vassals, prince-bishops or marquises. Communes and the Empire[edit] Battle of Cortenuova, 1237. In the 10th century, Lombardy, although formally under the rule of the Holy Roman Empire like much of central and northern Italy, was in fact divided in a multiplicity of small, autonomous city-states, the medieval communes. The 11th century marked a significant boom in the region's economy, due to improved trading and, most importantly, agricultural conditions, with arms manufacture a significant factor. In a similar way to other areas of Italy, this led to a growing self-acknowledgement of the cities, whose increasing richness made them able to defy the traditional feudal supreme power, represented by the German emperors and their local legates. This process reached its apex in the 12th and 13th centuries, when different Lombard Leagues formed by allied cities of Lombardy, usually led by Milan, managed to defeat the Hohenstaufen Emperor Frederick I, at Legnano, and his grandson Frederick II, at Parma. Subsequently, among the various local city-states, a process of consolidation took place, and by the end of the 14th century, two signorias emerged as rival hegemons in Lombardy: Milan and Mantua. Renaissance duchies of Milan and Mantua[edit] Further information: Duchy of Milan and Duchy of Mantua Mantua as it appeared in 1575. In the 15th century, the Duchy of Milan was a major political, economical and military force at the European level. Milan and Mantua became two centres of the Renaissance whose culture, with men such as Leonardo da Vinci and Mantegna, and works of art (e.g. Leonardo da Vinci's The Last Supper) were highly regarded. The enterprising class of the communes extended its trade and banking activities well into northern Europe: "Lombard" designated the merchant or banker coming from northern Italy (e.g. Lombard Street in London). The name "Lombardy" came to designate the whole of Northern Italy until the 15th century and sometimes later. From the 14th century onwards, the instability created by the unceasing internal and external struggles ended in the creation of noble seigniories, the most significant of which were those of the Viscontis (later Sforzas) in Milan and of the Gonzagas in Mantua. This richness, however, attracted the now more organised armies of national powers such as France and Austria, which waged a lengthy battle for Lombardy in the late 15th to early 16th centuries. Late-Middle Ages, Renaissance and Enlightenment[edit] The Consulta of the République cisalpine receives the First Consul on 26 January 1802 After the decisive Battle of Pavia, the Duchy of Milan became a possession of the Habsburgs of Spain: the new rulers did little to improve the economy of Lombardy, instead imposing a growing series of taxes needed to support their unending series of European wars. The eastern part of modern Lombardy, with cities like Bergamo and Brescia, was under the Republic of Venice, which had begun to extend its influence in the area from the 14th century onwards (see also Italian Wars). Between the middle of the 15th century and the battle of Marignano in 1515, the northern part of east Lombardy from Airolo to Chiasso (modern Ticino), and the Valtellina valley came under possession of the old Swiss Confederacy. Pestilences (like that of 1628/1630[18] described by Alessandro Manzoni in his I Promessi Sposi) and the generally declining conditions of Italy's economy in the 17th and 18th centuries halted the further development of Lombardy. In 1706 the Austrians came to power and introduced some economic and social measures which granted a certain recovery. Austrian rule was interrupted in the late 18th century by the French armies; under Napoleon, Lombardy became the centre of the Cisalpine Republic and of the Kingdom of Italy, both being puppet states of France's First Empire, having Milan as capital and Napoleon as head of state. During this period Lombardy took back Valtellina from Switzerland. Modern era[edit] Further information: Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia The Five Days of Milan, 1848. The restoration of Austrian rule in 1815, as the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, was characterised by the struggle with the new ideals introduced by the Napoleonic era. The popular republic established by the 1848 revolution was short-lived, its suppression leading to renewed Austrian rule. This came to a decisive end when Lombardy was annexed to the Kingdom of Italy 1859 as a result of the Second Italian War of Independence from the Austrian Empire. When annexed to the Kingdom of Italy in 1859 Lombardy achieved its present-day territorial shape by adding the Oltrepò Pavese (formerly the southern part of Novara's Province) to the province of Pavia. COVID-19 pandemic[edit] Further information: COVID-19 pandemic in Italy The Lombardy region was severely affected by the COVID-19 pandemic in early 2020, in which Italy was one of the worst affected countries in Europe. Several towns were quarantined from 22 February after community transmission was documented in Lombardy and Veneto the previous day. The entire Lombardy region was placed on lockdown on 8 March,[19] followed by all of Italy the following day,[20] making Italy the first country to implement a nationwide lockdown in response to the epidemic, which was declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization on 11 March. The lockdown was ultimately extended twice, and the Lombardy region toughened restrictions on 22 March, banning outdoor exercise and the use of vending machines,[21] but from the beginning of May, following a decrease in the number of active cases, restrictions gradually began to be relaxed.[22] Demographics[edit] Historical population Year Pop. ±% 1861 3,160,000 —     1871 3,529,000 +11.7% 1881 3,730,000 +5.7% 1901 4,314,000 +15.7% 1911 4,889,000 +13.3% 1921 5,186,000 +6.1% 1931 5,596,000 +7.9% 1936 5,836,000 +4.3% 1951 6,566,000 +12.5% 1961 7,406,000 +12.8% 1971 8,543,000 +15.4% 1981 8,892,000 +4.1% 1991 8,856,000 −0.4% 2001 9,033,000 +2.0% 2011 9,704,151 +7.4% 2019 (est.) 10,067,500 +3.7% Source: ISTAT 2017 The largest resident foreign-born groups on 31 December 2017[23] Nationality Population  Romania 172,045  Morocco 93,763  Albania 92,565  Egypt 80,939 China 66,618  Philippines 58,412  Ukraine 53,360  India 46,274  Peru 42,992  Pakistan 37,970  Ecuador 37,290  Senegal 33,510  Sri Lanka 32,245  Moldova 21,615  Bangladesh 20,661  Tunisia 16,907  Nigeria 14,147  Brazil 13,641  El Salvador 11,747  Ghana 10,876  Algeria 10,645  Bolivia 10,366  Bulgaria 9,993  Ivory Coast 9,030 One-sixth of the Italian population or about 10 million people live in Lombardy (16.2% of the national population; 2% of the European Union population), making it the second most densely populated region in Italy after Campania. The population is highly concentrated in the Milan metropolitan area (2,000 inh./km2) and the Alpine foothills that compose the southern section of the provinces of Varese, Como, Lecco, Monza and Brianza and Bergamo, (1,200 inh./km2). A lower average population density (250 inh./km2) is found in the Po valley and the lower Brescia valleys; much lower densities (less than 60 inh./km2) characterise the northern mountain areas and the southern Oltrepò Pavese subregion.[24] The growth of the regional population was particularly sustained during the 1950s–60s, thanks to a prolonged economic boom, high birth rates, and strong migration inflows (especially from Southern Italy). Since the 1980s, Lombardy has become the destination of a large number of international migrants, insomuch that today, more than a quarter of all foreign-born residents in Italy live in this region. As of 2016[update], the Italian national institute of statistics (ISTAT) estimated that 1,139,430 foreign-born immigrants live in Lombardy, equal to 11.4% of the total population. The primary religion is Catholicism; significant religious minorities include Christian Waldenses, Protestants and Orthodox, as well as Jews, Sikh and Muslims. Economy[edit] As of 2013[update], the gross domestic product (GDP) of Lombardy, equal to over €350 billion, accounts for about 21% of the total GDP of Italy. By inhabitant, this figure results in a value of €33,066, which is more than 25% higher than the national average of €25,729.[24] GDP and GDP per capita in Lombardy (2000–2018) 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 GDP[25] (Euro) 247.051,8 259.431 270.653,3 279.450,4 289.471,2 297.600,4 307.717,7 320.843,8 323.973,3 310.952 346.797 354.342 348.665 349.008 350.025 357.200 375.270 385.133 390.461 GDP per capita[25] (Euro) 27.488,1 28.765,6 29.836,9 30.448,8 31.059,5 31.545,2 32.356,3 33.442,5 33.424,8 31.743,1 35.712,55 36.220,23 35.367,31 35.126,67 35.044,17 35.700,0 37.474,09 38.406,9 38.857,6 Lombardy's development has been marked by the growth of the services sector since the 1980s, and in particular by the growth of innovative activities in the sector of services to enterprises and in credit and financial services. At the same time, the strong industrial vocation of the region has not suffered. Lombardy remains, in fact, the main industrial area of the country. The presence, and development, of a very high number of enterprises belonging to the services sector represents a favourable situation for the improvement of the efficiency of the productive process, as well as for the growth of the regional economy. A view over the business district of Milan: with a metropolitan area of 7.4m people,[26] it is Italy's most important industrial, commercial and financial center. Lombardy has cultural and economical relationships with many foreign countries including Azerbaijan,[27] Austria,[28][29][30] France,[31] Hungary,[32][33][34][35][36] Switzerland (especially the cantons of Ticino and Graubünden),[37][38][39][40][41] Canada (the Province of Quebec),[42] Germany (the States of Bavaria, Saxony, and Saxony-Anhalt),[43][44][45] Kuwait,[46] the Netherlands (Province of Zuid-Holland),[47] and Russia.[48] Lombardy is a member of the Four Motors of Europe, an intereuropean economical organization which includes Baden-Wurtenberg in Germany, Catalonia in Spain, and Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes in France.[49] The Lombardy region is also part of the EUSALP, which promotes innovation, green sustainability, and economy in the Alpine regions of Austria, France, Liechtenstein, Northern Italy, Southern Germany, Switzerland, and Slovenia,[50][51][52] and ARGE ALP, which gathers states located in the alpine regions of Austria, Northern Italy, Southern Germany, and Switzerland to discuss similar themes as in EUSALP.[53] Economical and cultural relationship are also strong with neighboring Italian regions Friuli-Venezia Giulia, South Tyrol, Trentino, and Veneto.[54][55][56][57][58][59][60][61][62][63][64] The European Union has developed the CENTRAL EUROPE program 2014–2020 to foster cooperation in several areas between the Lombardy Region along with other Northern Italian Regions and several states of Central Europe.[65][66] The region can broadly be divided into three areas in regards to productive activity: Milan, where the services sector makes up for 65.3% of the employment; the provinces of Varese, Como, Lecco, Monza and Brianza, Bergamo and Brescia, where it is highly industrialised, although in the two latter provinces, there is also a rich agricultural sector in the plains; the provinces of Sondrio, Pavia, Cremona, Mantova and Lodi, where there is a consistent agricultural activity, and at the same time an above average development of the services sector. The productivity of agriculture is enhanced by a well-developed use of fertilisers and the traditional abundance of water, boosted since the Middle Ages by the construction (partly designed by Leonardo da Vinci) of a wide net of irrigation systems. Lower plains are characterised by fodder crops, which are mowed up to eight times a year, cereals (rice, wheat and maize) and sugar beet. Productions of the higher plains include cereals, vegetables, fruit trees and mulberries. The higher areas, up to the Prealps and Alps sectors of the north, produce fruit and wine. Cattle (with the highest density in Italy), pigs, and sheep are also raised. The unemployment rate stood at 5.6% in 2019. Regional unemployment was one of the lowest in Italy.[67] Year 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 unemployment rate (in %) 3.7% 3.4% 3.7% 5.3% 5.5% 5.7% 7.4% 8.0% 8.2% 7.9% 7.4% 6.4% 6.0% 5.6% Government and politics[edit] Main article: Politics of Lombardy Palazzo Lombardia, the main seat of the government of Lombardy. Politics in Lombardy is framed within a system of representative democracy, where the President of the Region (Presidente della Regione) is the head of government, and of a pluriform multi-party system. Executive power is vested in the Regional Government (Giunta Regionale) and legislative power is vested in the Regional Council (Consiglio Regionale). Historically, the moderate Christian Democrats maintained a large majority of the popular support and the control of the most important cities and provinces from the end of the Second World War to the early 1990s. The opposition Italian Communist Party was a considerable presence only in southern Lombardy and in the working class districts of Milan; their base, however, was increasingly eroded by the rival centrist Italian Socialist Party, until eventually the Mani Pulite corruption scandal (which spread from Milan to the whole of Italy) wiped away the old political class and parties almost entirely. This, together with the general disaffection towards the central government (considered as wasting resources to balance the budgets of the chronically underdeveloped regions of Southern Italy), led to the sudden growth of the secessionist Northern League, particularly strong in the mountain and rural areas. In the last twenty years, Lombardy stayed as a conservative stronghold, overwhelmingly voting for Silvio Berlusconi in all the six last general elections. Notwithstanding, the capital city of Milan elected progressive Giuliano Pisapia at the 2011 municipal elections and the 2013 regional elections saw a narrow victory for the center-right coalition. On 22 October 2017 a non-binding autonomy referendum took place in Lombardy. The turnout was a low 38.3%, of which 95.3% voted in favor. The regional government of Lombardy is still under negotiation with Rome for the devolution of certain competencies.[68][69] Administrative divisions[edit] The region of Lombardy is divided in 11 administrative provinces, 1 metropolitan city and 1,530 communes. The provinces/metropolitan cities of Lombardy Province/Metropolitan city Area (km2) Population Density (inh./km2) Province of Bergamo 2,723 1,108,853 407.2 Province of Brescia 4,784 1,265,077 264.4 Province of Como 1,288 599,905 465.7 Province of Cremona 1,772 361,610 204.4 Province of Lecco 816 340,251 416.9 Province of Lodi 782 229,576 293.5 Province of Mantua 2,339 414,919 177.3 Metropolitan City of Milan 1,575 3,259,835 2,029.7 Province of Monza and Brianza 405 864,557 2,134.7 Province of Pavia 2,965 548,722 185.1 Province of Sondrio 3,212 182,086 56.6 Province of Varese 1,211 890,234 735.1   v t e Largest cities or towns in Lombardy Source: ISTAT;[70] estimates for 31 December 2019 Rank Province Pop. Rank Province Pop. Milan Brescia 1 Milan Milan 1,396,059 11 Cremona Cremona 72,672 Monza Bergamo 2 Brescia Brescia 199,597 12 Vigevano Pavia 63,623 3 Monza Monza 124,051 13 Legnano Milan 60,336 4 Bergamo Bergamo 121,178 14 Gallarate Varese 53,934 5 Como Como 85,915 15 Rho Milan 51,323 6 Busto Arsizio Varese 83,909 16 Mantua Mantua 49,440 7 Sesto San Giovanni Milan 81,841 17 Lecco Lecco 48,173 8 Varese Varese 80,645 18 Cologno Monzese Milan 48,030 9 Cinisello Balsamo Milan 76,264 19 Paderno Dugnano Milan 47,467 10 Pavia Pavia 73,334 20 Lissone Monza 46,445 Culture[edit] Beside being an economic and industrial powerhouse, Lombardy has a rich and diverse cultural heritage. The many examples range from prehistory to the present day, through the Roman period and the Renaissance and can be found both in museums and churches that enrich cities and towns around the region. Major tourist destinations in the region include (in order of arrivals as of 2013[update])[71] the historic, cultural and artistic cities of Milan (4,527,889 arrivals), Bergamo (242,942), Brescia (229,710), Como (215,320), Varese (107,442), Mantua (88,902), Monza (75,839) and the lakes of Garda (429,376), Como (322,585), Iseo (123,337) and Maggiore (71,055). UNESCO World Heritage Sites[edit] The Rock Drawings in Valcamonica The Last Supper, Convent of Sta. Maria delle Grazie, Milan, Italy (1499), by Leonardo da Vinci The Fortified City of Bergamo Remains of Roman forum in Brescia There are nine UNESCO World Heritage sites wholly or partially located in Lombardy.[72] Some of these comprise several individual objects in different locations. One of the entries has been listed as natural heritage and the others are cultural heritage sites. At Monte San Giorgio, on the border with Swiss canton Ticino just south of Lake Lugano, a wide range of marine Triassic fossils have been found. During the Triassic period, some 240 million years ago, the area was a shallow tropical lagoon. Fossils include reptiles, fish and crustaceans and also some insects. Two sites are of pre-historic origin. The Rock Drawings in Valcamonica date back to a period between 8000 BC and 1000 BC, covering prehistoric periods from the Epipaleolithic/Mesolithic to the Iron Age. The engravings show depictions of a wide range of topics including agricultural and war scenes alongside more abstract symbols. The multi-centred heritage site Prehistoric pile dwellings around the Alps includes 111 individual objects in France, Switzerland, Italy, Germany, Austria and Slovenia, of which ten are located in Lombardy. Each of these objects consists of remnants of buildings erected on wooden piles in sub-alpine rivers, lakes and wetlands, built between 5000 BC and 500 BC. In general, only the submerged wooden parts have been preserved in the alluvial sediment, although in some places pile buildings have been reconstructed. Another multi-centred site, Longobards in Italy, Places of Power (568–774 A.D.), comprises seven locations across mainland Italy which illustrate the history of the Lombard period which has given the region its name. Two of the individual sites are in the modern region of Lombardy: the fortifications (the castrum and the Torba Tower) and the church of Santa Maria foris portas ("outside the gates") with its Byzantinesque frescoes at Castelseprio, and the monastic complex of San Salvatore-Santa Giulia at Brescia. The UNESCO site of Brescia also includes the remains of its Roman forum, the best-preserved in Northern Italy.[73][74] The Church and Dominican Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan with "The Last Supper" by Leonardo da Vinci represent architectural and painting styles of the Renaissance period of the 15th century. The towns of Mantua and Sabbioneta are also listed as a combined World Heritage site relating to this period, here focussing more on town planning aspects of the time than on architectural detail. While Mantua was rebuilt in the 15th and 16th centuries according to Renaissance principles, Sabbioneta was planned as a new town in the 16th century. The Sacri Monti of Piedmont and Lombardy are a group of nine sites in northwest Italy, of which two are in Lombardy. The concept of holy mountains can also be found elsewhere in Europe. These sites were created as centres of pilgrimage by placing chapels in the natural landscape and were loosely modelled on the topography of Jerusalem. In Lombardy, Sacro Monte del Rosario di Varese and Sacro Monte della Beata Vergine del Soccorso, built in the early to mid-17th century, mark the architectural transition from the late Renaissance to the Baroque style. Crespi d'Adda is a company town founded in 1878 to accommodate workers of a local textile mill. At its height, the town was home to 3,200 employees and their families. Parco Naturalistico-Archeologico della Rocca di Manerba del Garda, a fortress of Manerba del Garda. The Rhaetian Railway in the Albula/Bernina Landscapes is mostly located in the Swiss canton Graubünden, but also extends over the border into Tirano. The site is listed because of the complex railway engineering (tunnels, viaducts and avalanche galleries) necessary to take the narrow-gauge railway across the main chain of the Alps. The two railway lines were opened in several stages between the years of 1904 and 1910. The Venetian Works of Defence between the 16th and 17th centuries: Stato da Terra – western Stato da Mar is a transnational system of fortifications built by the Republic of Venice on its mainland domains (Stato da Terra) and its territories stretching along the Adriatic coast (Stato da Mar). This site includes the Fortified City of Bergamo. Museums[edit] Lombardy contains numerous museums (over 330) of different types (e.g. ethnographic, historical, technical-scientific, artistic and naturalistic) which testify to the historical-cultural and artistic development of the region. Among the most famous ones are the National Museum of Science and Technology "Leonardo da Vinci" (Milan), the Accademia Carrara (Bergamo), the Mille Miglia, the Santa Giulia Museum (both in Brescia), the Volta Temple, the Villa Olmo (both in Como), the Stradivari Museum (Cremona), the Palazzo Te (Mantua), the Museum Sacred Art of the Nativity, the Basilica of Santa Maria Assunta (both in Gandino), and the Royal Villa of Monza (Monza). Other sights[edit] Lake Garda Lake Como The Floating Piers by Christo and Jeanne-Claude on Lake Iseo (2016) Cathedral of Milan Castello Sforzesco, Milan Basilica di Sant'Ambrogio, Milan Teatro alla Scala, Milan Basilica of San Lorenzo, Milan Basilica of Sant'Eustorgio, Milan Brera Gallery, Milan Bellagio Accademia Carrara, Bergamo Santa Maria Maggiore and Cappella Colleoni, Bergamo The fortified Venetian walls, Bergamo Roman and Longobard monuments in Brescia Duomo Nuovo, Brescia Castelseprio archaeological site Certosa di Pavia Como Cathedral and Basilica of Sant'Abbondio, Como Duomo and Torrazzo, Cremona Lake Como Lake Garda Lake Iseo Tempio Civico della Beata Vergine Incoronata, Lodi Royal Villa of Monza San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro and San Michele Maggiore, Pavia Villa Toeplitz, Varese Cuisine[edit] Main article: Lombard cuisine Rice is popular in the region, often found in soups as well as risotti, such as "risotto alla milanese", with saffron. In the city of Monza, a popular recipe also adds pieces of sausages to the risotto. Polenta is also common throughout the region. Regional cheeses include Robiola, Crescenza, Taleggio, Gorgonzola and Grana Padano (the plains of central and southern Lombardy allow intensive cattle-raising). Butter and cream are used. Single pot dishes, which take less work to prepare, are popular. Common types of pasta include Casoncelli in Brescia and Bergamo and Pizzoccheri in Valtellina. In Mantua, festivals feature tortelli di zucca (ravioli with pumpkin filling) accompanied by melted butter and followed by turkey stuffed with chicken or other stewed meats.[75] Among typical regional desserts is Nocciolini di Canzo—dry biscuits. Typical dishes and products[edit] Grana Padano DPO Gorgonzola cheese takes its name from the homonymous city near Milan Risotto alla milanese with ossobuco Tortelli di zucca with butter and sage Casoncelli Carpaccio di Bresaola Pizzoccheri (tagliatelle of buckwheat and wheat, laced with butter, green vegetables, potatoes, sage and garlic, topped with Casera cheese) Risotto alla milanese Tortelli di zucca (pumpkin-filled pasta) Polenta (eaten also in its taragna variant in the Northern part of the region) Ossobuco Cotoletta (cutlet) alla milanese Cassoeula Lo Spiedo Bresciano – spit roast of different cuts of meat with butter and sage Salamella (Italian Sausage without fennel or anise, always served grilled) Salame d'oca di Mortara (goose salami) Gorgonzola cheese Taleggio cheese Stracchino cheese Bitto cheese Rosa Camuna cheese Grana Padano cheese Mascarpone Panettone Sbrisolona cake Amaretti di Saronno Torrone Mostarda Wines[edit] Main article: Lombard wine Franciacorta Nebbiolo red Bellavista Santi Nino Negri Bonarda Lombardy Inferno (Valtellina) Grumello (Valtellina) Sassella (Valtellina) Music[edit] Main articles: Music of Lombardy and Music of Milan The auditorium of the Teatro alla Scala in Milan. Besides Milan, the region of Lombardy has 11 other provinces, most of them with equally great musical traditions. Bergamo is famous for being the birthplace of Gaetano Donizetti and home of the Teatro Donizetti; Brescia hosts the impressive 1709 Teatro Grande; Cremona is regarded as the birthplace of the commonly used violin and is home to several of the most prestigious luthiers in the world; and Mantua was one of the founding and most important cities in 16th- and 17th-century opera and classical music. Other cities such as Lecco, Lodi, Varese and Pavia also have rich musical traditions, but Milan is the hub and centre of the Lombard musical scene. It was the workplace of Giuseppe Verdi, one of the most famous and influential opera composers of the 19th century, and boasts a variety of acclaimed theatres, such as the Piccolo Teatro and the Teatro Arcimboldi; however, the most famous is the 1778 Teatro alla Scala, one of the most important and prestigious operahouses in the world. Language[edit] Main article: Lombard language Lombard is widely used in Lombardy, in diglossia with Italian. Lombard is a language[76] belonging to the Gallo-Italic group, within the Romance languages.[77] It is a cluster of homogeneous varieties used by at least 3,500,000 native speakers in Lombardy and some areas of neighbouring regions, notably the eastern side of Piedmont and Southern Switzerland (cantons of Ticino and Graubünden).[77] The Lombard language should not be confused with that of the Lombards – Lombardic language, a Germanic language extinct since the Middle Ages. Fashion[edit] Main article: Fashion in Milan Dolce & Gabbana is headquartered in Milan. Lombardy has always been an important centre for silk and textile production, notably the cities of Pavia, Vigevano and Cremona, but Milan is the region's most important centre for clothing and high fashion. In 2009, Milan was regarded as the world fashion capital, even surpassing New York, Paris and London.[78] Most of the major Italian fashion brands, such as Valentino, Versace, Prada, Armani and Dolce & Gabbana, are currently headquartered in the city. Sports[edit] The most famous sport in Lombardy, as in all Italy, is football. In fact, Lombardy is home to some of the most important football teams in the country. Considering the 2020-21 Serie A season, Lombardy hosts 3 out of 20 teams: A.C. Milan and Inter Milan (both based in Milan) and Atalanta B.C. (based in Bergamo). Other big teams of the region are Brescia Calcio, A.C. Monza and U.S. Cremonese (playing in the 2020-21 Serie B) and Calcio Lecco 1912, U.C. AlbinoLeffe, Como 1907, Aurora Pro Patria 1919, A.C. Renate, A.S. Giana Erminio, S.S.D. Pro Sesto and U.S. Pergolettese 1932 (playing in the 2020-21 Serie C). The region's city Milan will host the 2026 Winter Olympics alongside Cortina d'Ampezzo. The Autodromo Nazionale di Monza, located outside of Milan, hosts the Formula One Italian Grand Prix. Twinning and covenants[edit] Nuevo León See also[edit] Italy portal 2017 Lombard autonomy referendum COVID-19 pandemic in Italy List of European regions by GDP References[edit] ^ "Lombardia, Lombardia, presentato l'inno della Regione". Corriere della Sera (in Italian). 22 December 2014. ^ "Monthly demographic balance, January–June 2013". Demo.istat.it. Retrieved 30 November 2013. ^ a b "Regional GDP per capita ranged from 30% to 263% of the EU average in 2018" (Press release). ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 1 September 2020. ^ "OECD Statistics". stats.oecd.org. Retrieved 2 September 2019. ^ "Sub-national HDI – Area Database – Global Data Lab". hdi.globaldatalab.org. Retrieved 13 September 2018. ^ "Lombardy". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (5th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Retrieved 7 July 2019. ^ "Lombardy". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Retrieved 7 July 2019. ^ "EUROPA Press Releases – Regional GDP per inhabitant in the EU27, GDP per inhabitant in 2006 ranged from 25% of the EU27 average in Nord-Est in Romania to 336% in Inner London". Europa (web portal). 19 February 2009. Retrieved 10 May 2010. ^ OECD Data Synthesis. ^ Eurostat – Functional urban areas Archived 16 April 2010 at the Wayback Machine. ^ List of World Heritage Sites by country. ^ Partridge, Eric (2009). Origins: an etymological dictionary of modern English ([Paperback ed.] ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0415474337. ^ "Regional Statistical Yearbook: average rainfall, yearly and ten-year average, Lombardy and its provinces". Regione Lombardia. Archived from the original on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 21 July 2015. ^ "Rock Drawings in Valcamonica – UNESCO World Heritage Centre". UNESCO. Retrieved 29 June 2010. ^ Piero Adorno, Mesolitico e Neolitico, p. 16. ^ "Introduzione all'arte rupestre della Valcamonica". Archeocamuni.it (in Italian). Retrieved 11 May 2009. ^ Maciamo Hay (July 2013). "Genetic History of the Italians". Eupedia. Retrieved 22 January 2019. ^ "Storia di Milano ::: Gian Giacomo Mora". Storiadimilano.it. ^ "Italy announces quarantine affecting quarter of population". CNBC. 8 March 2020. ^ Business, Hanna Ziady, CNN. "Italy just locked down the world's 8th biggest economy. A deep recession looms". CNN. ^ "Italy's worst-hit region introduces stricter measures". 22 March 2020 – via www.bbc.co.uk. ^ "Anger as Italy slowly emerges from long Covid-19 lockdown | Italy | The Guardian". amp.theguardian.com. ^ "Foreign Citizens. Resident Population by sex and citizenship on 31st December 2017". National Institute of Statistics. Retrieved 19 June 2018. ^ a b "Regional Statistical Yearbook 2014" (PDF). Regione Lombardia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 21 July 2015. ^ a b Dati Istat consultati il 15 giugno 2016. Nota: per visualizzare i dati occorre selezionare nella colonna a destra la voce Conti nazionali, Conti e aggregati economici territoriali, Valori procapite (euro) e in tabella selezionare la voce prodotto interno lordo ai prezzi di mercato per abitante (edizione novembre 2015) valutazione a prezzi correnti. ^ OECD. "Competitive Cities in the Global Economy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 October 2008. Retrieved 30 April 2009. ^ "Italian official: Azerbaijan has obtained impressive achievements [PHOTO]". AzerNews.az. 6 December 2018. ^ "Design, in Lombardia crescono gli scambi con l'Austria". Giornalemetropolitano.it. Retrieved 27 October 2018. ^ "Accordo IED-Camera Commercio Austriaca, vice presidente Regione: nuova opportunità di sviluppo". ^ "Expo Milano – Regione Lombardia". Ambvienna.esteri.it. Retrieved 27 October 2018. ^ "Milano, Attilio Fontana incontra l'ambasciatore francese: "Distendere gli animi tra Italia e Francia"". Corriere della Sera. 14 June 2018. Retrieved 27 October 2018. ^ "Regione Lombardia, il presidente Fontana riceve il ministro degli affari esteri ungherese". BresciaToday. ^ "Ungheria, Fontana riceve ministro Esteri a Palazzo Lombardia". 5 December 2018. ^ "Il Console Generale è stato accolto dal Presidente della Regione di Lombardia – Consolato Generale di Ungheria Milano". Milano.mfa.gov.hu. Retrieved 27 October 2018. ^ "Lecco: cresce l'export sul mercato ungherese – Tecnologie del Filo". Tecnologiedelfilo.it. Archived from the original on 9 September 2018. Retrieved 27 October 2018. ^ "Delegazione Ungherese in visita di studio in Italia – :. ERSAF – Ente Regionale per i Servizi all' Agricoltura e alle Foreste:Regione Lombardia ". Ersaf.lombardia.it. Archived from the original on 9 September 2018. Retrieved 27 October 2018. ^ "[Comunicato stampa Giunta regionale Lombardia] CANTON TICINO, FONTANA E ASSESSORI INCONTRANO DELEGAZIONE SVIZZERA:SUL TAVOLO INFRASTRUTTURE, TRASPORTI E AMBIENTE". Regioni.it. 31 July 2018. Retrieved 27 October 2018. ^ "Rivedere l'accordo fiscale". Prealpina.it. 31 July 2018. Retrieved 27 October 2018. ^ "Fontana: "I rapporti con la Svizzera vanno intensificati"". Varesenews.it. 16 April 2018. Retrieved 27 October 2018. ^ swissinfo.ch, S. W. I.; Corporation, a branch of the Swiss Broadcasting. "GR: Milano, trasporto transfrontaliero, incontro Grigioni-Lombardia". TVSvizzera. ^ "Tra Lombardia e Grigioni massima collaborazione, anche per le Olimpiadi". VareseNews. 24 September 2019. ^ "Political and institutional relations". MRIF – Ministère des Relations internationales et de la Francophonie. Retrieved 27 October 2018. ^ "Baviera partner ship Lombardia". Newsfood.com. Retrieved 27 October 2018. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 26 August 2018. Retrieved 25 August 2018.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ "Incontro del Consiglio regionale lombardo con delegazione parlamentare della Bassa Sassonia". Giornalemetropolitano.it. Retrieved 27 October 2018. ^ "KUNA : Kuwait works to boost cooperation with Italy's northern provinces, Lombardy - Politics - 13/07/2018". 15 July 2018. Archived from the original on 15 July 2018. ^ "Province of Zuid-Holland intensifies water cooperation with Lombardy, Italy | Dutch Water Sector". www.dutchwatersector.com. ^ "Tavola rotonda Lombardia-Russia, Fontana: "Collaborazione importante per il nostro territorio"". BresciaToday. ^ Casqueiro, Javier (4 July 2018). "Borrell ordena a todas las embajadas responder a las "lindezas" independentistas contra España". El País. Retrieved 27 October 2018. ^ "Action Group 1". EUSALP. 17 November 2016. ^ "Presidenza Italiana EUSALP 2019". ^ "Il timone di Eusalp passa dal Tirolo alla Lombardia". 22 November 2018. ^ "Chi siamo – Arge Alp". it.argealp.org. ^ "Olimpiadi 2026 e Fondi di confine, si rafforza la collaborazione fra Trentino e Lombardia". 2 May 2019. ^ Trento, Redazione (4 May 2019). "Trentino e Lombardia: si rafforza la sinergia per le Olimpiadi 2026". ^ "www.ladigetto.it – Trentino e Lombardia: si rafforza la collaborazione". ladigetto.it. ^ "PAT * Trentino e Lombardia: "Incontro a Milano tra i presidenti Fugatti e Fontana, si rafforza la collaborazione"". 2 May 2019. ^ https://www.askanews.it/cronaca/2019/05/02/fontana-incontra-fugatti-collaborazione-tra-lombardia-e-trentino-pn_20190502_00154/> ^ "Regione del Veneto". Regione del Veneto. ^ "Lombardia Quotidiano". Lombardia Quotidiano. 19 October 2018. ^ "Lombardia e Friuli Venezia Giulia due regioni a confronto". valtellinanews.it. ^ "Parco dello Stelvio, intesa Trentino, Alto Adige e Lombardia sulla biodiversità – Cronaca". Trentino. ^ SPA, Südtiroler Informatik AG | Informatica Alto Adige. "News & Media | Provincia autonoma di Bolzano – Alto Adige". Amministrazione provinciale. ^ "Lombardia, Veneto e Trentino: "Regole comuni per la pesca su tutto il lago di Garda"". l'Adige.it. 4 April 2019. ^ "Il Programma Central Europe 2014-2020". ^ "Discover Interreg CENTRAL EUROPE". Interreg CENTRAL EUROPE. ^ "Regional Unemployment by NUTS2 Region". Eurostat. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 3 August 2018. Retrieved 2 August 2018.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ Giorno, Il. "Autonomia Lombardia, Fontana: consegnato al ministro dossier con le prime 15 materie – Il Giorno". Il Giorno. Italy. Retrieved 27 October 2018. ^ "Lomabrdy (Italy). Resident population on 31 December 2019 by territory". tuttitalia.it. Istat. Retrieved 25 September 2020. ^ "RSY Lombardia-Arrivals and nights spent by guests in accommodation establishments, by type of resort and by type of establishment. Total accommodation establishments. Part III Tourist resort. Year 2013". Asr-lombardia.it. Archived from the original on 3 May 2015. Retrieved 31 May 2015. ^ "World Heritage List". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. UNESCO. Retrieved 16 May 2015. ^ "Italia langobardorum, la rete dei siti Longobardi italiani iscritta nella Lista del Patrimonio Mondiale dell'UNESCO" [Italia langobardorum, the network of the Italian Longobards sites inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List]. Beniculturali.it (in Italian). Retrieved 27 October 2015. ^ "THE LONGOBARDS IN ITALY. PLACES OF THE POWER (568–774 A.D.). NOMINATION FOR INSCRIPTION ON THE WORLD HERITAGE LIST" (PDF). UNESCO. Retrieved 27 October 2015. ^ Piras, 87. ^ "Documentation for ISO 639 identifier: LMO". Identifier: LMO / Name: Lombard / Status: Active / Code set: 639-3 / Scope: Individual / Type: Living ^ a b Jones, Mary C.; Soria, Claudia (2015). "Assessing the effect of official recognition on the vitality of endangered languages: a case of study from Italy". Policy and Planning for Endangered Languages. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 130. ISBN 9781316352410. Lombard (Lumbard, ISO 639-9 lmo) is a cluster of essentially homogeneous varieties (Tamburelli 2014: 9) belonging to the Gallo-Italic group. It is spoken in the Italian region of Lombardy, in the Novara province of Piedmont, and in Switzerland. Mutual intelligibility between speakers of Lombard and monolingual Italian speakers has been reported as very low (Tamburelli 2014). Although some Lombard varieties, Milanese in particular, enjoy a rather long and prestigious literary tradition, Lombard is now mostly used in informal domains. According to Ethnologue, Piedmontese and Lombard are spoken by between 1,600,000 and 2,000,000 speakers and around 3,500,000 speakers, respectively. These are very high figures for languages that have never been recognised officially nor systematically taught in school ^ "The Global Language Monitor " Fashion". Languagemonitor.com. 20 July 2009. Archived from the original on 1 November 2009. Retrieved 3 January 2010. Further reading[edit] Cochrane, Eric. Historians and historiography in the Italian Renaissance (U of Chicago Press, 1981). Conca Messina, Silvia A., and Catia Brilli. "Agriculture and nobility in Lombardy. Land, management and innovation (1815-1861)." Business History (2019): 1-25. de Klerck, Bram. The Brothers Campi: Images and Devotion. Religious Painting in Sixteenth-Century Lombardy (Amsterdam UP. 1999). Di Tullio, Matteo. "Cooperating in time of crisis: war, commons, and inequality in Renaissance Lombardy." Economic History Review 71.1 (2018): 82-105. Di Tullio, Matteo. The wealth of communities: war, resources and cooperation in Renaissance Lombardy (Ashgate, 2014). Gamberini, Andrea. The Clash of Legitimacies: The State-Building Process in Late Medieval Lombardy (2018) online Greenfield, Kent Roberts. Economics and liberalism in the Risorgimento: a study of nationalism in Lombardy, 1814-1848 (1934). Klang, Daniel M. "Cesare Beccaria and the clash between jurisprudence and political economy in eighteenth-century Lombardy." Canadian journal of history 23.3 (1988): 305-336. Klang, Daniel M. "The problem of lease farming in eighteenth-century Piedmont and Lombardy." Agricultural history 76.3 (2002): 578-603 online. Klang, Daniel M. Tax reform in eighteenth century Lombardy (1977) online Messina, Silvia A. Conca. Cotton Enterprises: Networks and Strategies: Lombardy in the Industrial Revolution, 1815-1860 (2018) excerpt Pyle, Cynthia Munro. Milan and Lombardy in the Renaissance: Essays in cultural history (1997). Sella, Domenico. Crisis and continuity : the economy of Spanish Lombardy in the seventeenth century (1979) online Soresina, Marco. "Images of Lombardy in historiography." Modern Italy 16.1 (2011): 67-85. Storrs, Christopher. "The Army of Lombardy and the Resilience of Spanish Power in Italy in the Reign of Carlos II (1665-1700) (Part I)." War in History 4.4 (1997): 371-397. Guide books[edit] Daverio, Philippe. Lombardy: 127 Destinations For Discovering Art, History, and Beauty (2016) guide book. excerpt Macadam, Alta, and Annabel Barber. Blue Guide Lombardy, Milan & the Italian Lakes (2020) excerpt Williams Jr., Egerton R. Lombard Towns in Italy; Or, The Cities of Ancient Lombardy (1914) online External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lombardy. Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Lombardy. Official tourism website of Lombardy v t e  Lombardy Provinces and places Bergamo Brescia Como Cremona Lecco Lodi Mantua Milan Monza and Brianza Pavia Sondrio Varese List of communes History Insubria Insubres Lombards Kingdom of the Lombards Duchy of Milan Monarchs of Milan Governors of Milan Golden Ambrosian Republic Margravate of Mantua Duchy of Mantua Monarchs of Mantua Transpadane Republic Cisalpine Republic Italian Republic Kingdom of Italy Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia Provisional Government of Milan Politics and government Elections in Lombardy List of Presidents of Lombardy Education and culture Cuisine Wine Fashion in Milan Music of Lombardy Music of Milan Flag Categories v t e Regions of Italy Central  Lazio  Marche  Tuscany  Umbria Northeast  Emilia-Romagna  Friuli-Venezia Giulia1  Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol1  Veneto Northwest  Aosta Valley1  Liguria  Lombardy  Piedmont South  Abruzzo  Apulia  Basilicata  Calabria  Campania  Molise Insular  Sardinia1  Sicily1 1 Special 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en-wikipedia-org-778	----	SNAC - Wikipedia SNAC From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from SNAC-ID (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Online resource that helps users discover biographical and historical information about people, families, and organizations that created or are documented in historical resources (primary source documents) and their connections to one another For the form of wrist osteoarthritis, see Scaphoid Non-union Advanced Collapse. For the Somali institution, see Somali National Academy of Culture. Social Networks and Archival Context Producer Social Networks and Archival Context (United States) History 2010 to present Access Cost Free Coverage Disciplines History Format coverage Finding aids Links Website http://snaccooperative.org/ Social Networks and Archival Context (SNAC) is an online project for discovering, locating, and using distributed historical records in regard to individual people, families, and organizations.[1] Contents 1 History 2 Data gathering 3 See also 4 References 5 External links History[edit] SNAC was established in 2010, with funding from the National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) by the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA),[2] California Digital Library (CDL), Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities (IATH) at the University of Virginia and the University of California, Berkeley School of Information.[3][4][5] The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation funded the second phase of the project from 2012 to 2014.[5] One of the project's tools is a radial-graph feature which helps identify a social network of a subject's connections to related historical individuals.[6] SNAC is used alongside other digital archives to connect related historical records.[7] SNAC is a digital research project that focuses on obtaining records data from various archives, libraries, and museums, so the biographical history of individuals, ancestry, or institutions are incorporated into a single file as opposed to the data being spread throughout different associations, thereby lessen the task of searching various memory organizations to locate the knowledge one seeks.[8] The Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities (IATH), University of Virginia; the School of Information, University of California, Berkeley (SI/UCB), and the California Digital Library (CDL), University of California are the three primary organizations responsible for processing the different elements of the project.[8] IATH conducts the project and also collect sourcing data from participating institutions, compile record descriptions from MARC catalogs and EAD finding aids, and turned them into EAC-CPF files. SI/UCB manages the process of identifying and pairing similar EAC-CPF records to create a unifying file that searchable. CDL utilizes the Extensible Text Framework (XTF) which connects the different sources that make up a single EAC-CPF file back to its primary resources.[8] With a variety of organizations such as the Library of Congress, Smithsonian Institution, and British Library contributing data to the project, it allows the SNAC team to collect a substantial amount of information available on a subject.[8] With the U.S. National Endowment for Humanities supplying financing, the first half of the project began, enabling the developers of SNAC to explore data extraction from the file creator and develop a model of the record description system. By gathering the contents found within the record creator, it helps to broaden the knowledge available on the entity biographical history.[9][10][11] With the tremendous progress made in the initial stage, planning for the second half of the project centered on adding more contributors to continue to build a dissimilar of information. To help the SNAC team with the second portion of the project, funding was received the U.S Institution for Museum and Library Services while global initiatives was managed by U.S. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA).[9][11] Data gathering[edit] In 2010 the Encoded Archival Context-Corporate Bodies, Persons, and Families (EAC-CPF) was introduced. The new schema allowed each description to live independently from the record creator it was associated with. With the launch of EAC-CPF, the archival field had a universal standard allowing them to use archival authority records differently.[8] By using a few archival practices, the descriptions of the creator are isolated from the file itself. Permitting the gathering of information and building connections between varies entities. Helping to increase access to additional knowledge. Below are the integrated rational elements used to create relationships. Authority Control - Allows you to locate information related to a subject with multiple or alternate spelling associated with its name through various applications. Biographical/Historical Resources – Details all events, dates, and places associated with the file creator. Cooperative Authority Control - Permits libraries to preserve, share, and distribute authority information with other libraries. Flexible Descriptions – Incorporates a list of multiple institutions associated with a collection connecting the record creator to it. Integrated Access to Cultural Heritage - Through authority records they act as a unifying folder for all of the descriptions tied to the subject. The authority records help lessen the issue of trying to retain and connect each institution description standard to a family, association, or individual. Social/Historical Context - Professional and social knowledge linked to the subject help connect to other people, families, and institutions creating an integrated summary of them.[8][12] Within a record creator are EAC-CPF files to locate and retrieve them, the SNAC team uses Encoded Archival Description (EAD) finding aids and Machine Readable Catalog (MARC) bibliographic catalogs to gather biographical/historical data. After the information is placed an archival authority record featuring the EAC-CPF knowledge is created.[10][12] Once the EAC-CPF record is extracted, the data is compared to other similar files and paired together. To ensure the information is compactible, the SNAC team use Virtual International Authority File (VIAF), Union List of Artist Names (ULAN), and Library of Congress Name Authority File (LCNAF) to establish matches between authority records.[8][12] To link the knowledge found in one file to a similar one, names, dates, and other identifying aspects are used to draw a comparison to other related records. Links to where the data originated from is also included in the entity file. By both national and international institutions providing source data, it increases the amount of information tied to one entity while linking it to other relevant subjects. With contributions from various organizations, it helps researchers, librarians, archivists, scholars, and none scholars locate an array of data available on associations, individuals, and families reducing the amount of time spent searching through an assortment of resources. See also[edit] Archival Resource Key (ARK) References[edit] ^ Bromley, Anne (November 8, 2017). "Digital Social Network Linking the Living and the Dead Expands". UVA Today. Retrieved 10 January 2019. ^ Ferriero, David (August 18, 2015). "Introducing SNAC". National Archives - AOTUS blog. Retrieved May 8, 2017. ^ "SNAC: Social Networks and Archival Context". socialarchive.iath.virginia.edu. Archived from the original on 2016-06-19. Retrieved 2017-05-08. ^ Larson, Ray R.; Pitti, Daniel; Turner, Adrian (2014). "SNAC: The Social Networks and Archival Context project - Towards an archival authority cooperative". IEEE/ACM Joint Conference on Digital Libraries. JCDL 2014. pp. 427–428. doi:10.1109/JCDL.2014.6970208. ^ a b Pitti, Daniel, Social Networks and Archival Context Project (PDF), University of Virginia, p. 1, retrieved 10 January 2019 . ^ Howard, Jennifer (May 13, 2012). "Projects Aims to Build Online Hub for Archival Materials". The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved 10 January 2018. ^ Bromley, Anne (October 2, 2018). "UVA Library to Enhance National Digital Archive of African-American Leaders". UVA Today. Retrieved 10 January 2018. ^ a b c d e f g Pitti, Daniel. "Social Networks and Archival Context Project (Archival Authority Control)" (PDF). Retrieved 21 April 2019. ^ a b Pitti, Daniel; Hu, Rachael; Larson, Ray; Tingle, Brian; Turner, Adrian (2015-04-03). "Social Networks and Archival Context: From Project to Cooperative Archival Program". Journal of Archival Organization. 12 (1–2): 77–97. doi:10.1080/15332748.2015.999544. ISSN 1533-2748. ^ a b Crowe, Katherine; Clair, Kevin (2015-10-02). "Developing a Tool for Publishing Linked Local Authority Data". Journal of Library Metadata. 15 (3–4): 227–240. doi:10.1080/19386389.2015.1099993. ISSN 1938-6389. ^ a b "About SNAC | SNAC Cooperative". portal.snaccooperative.org. Retrieved 2019-04-23. ^ a b c Pitti, Daniel; Larson, Ray; Janakiraman, Krishna; Tingle, Brian (2011-06-19). "The Social Networks and Archival Context Project". Digital Humanities 2011: June 19-22. Retrieved 2019-04-21. External links[edit] Wikidata has the property: SNAC Ark ID (P3430) (see uses) Official website v t e Authority control files AAG • ACM DL • ADB • AGSA • autores.uy • AWR • BALaT • BIBSYS • Bildindex • BNC • BNE • BNF • Botanist • BPN • CANTIC • CiNii • CWGC • DAAO • DBLP • DSI • FNZA • GND • HDS • IAAF • ICCU • ICIA • ISNI • Joconde • KulturNav • LCCN • LIR • LNB • Léonore • MBA • MGP • NARA • NBL • NDL • NGV • NKC • NLA • NLG • NLI • NLK • NLP • NLR • NSK • NTA • ORCID • PIC • ResearcherID • RERO • RKD • RKDimages ID • RSL • SELIBR • SIKART • SNAC • SUDOC • S2AuthorId • TA98 • TDVİA • TE • TePapa • TH • TLS • Trove • UKPARL • ULAN • US Congress • VcBA • VIAF • WorldCat Identities Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SNAC&oldid=990784952" Categories: Online person databases Internet properties established in 2010 Digital library projects History websites of the United States Hidden categories: Articles with short description Articles with long short description Short description is different from Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans العربية فارسی Gàidhlig 한국어 Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia עברית مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Nordfriisk Română Suomi Türkçe Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 26 November 2020, at 14:12 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7791	----	Joannes Zonaras - Wikipedia Joannes Zonaras From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Zonaras) Jump to navigation Jump to search Joannes or John Zonaras (Greek: Ἰωάννης Ζωναρᾶς, Iōánnēs Zōnarâs; fl. 12th century) was a Byzantine chronicler and theologian who lived in Constantinople. Under Emperor Alexios I Komnenos he held the offices of head justice and private secretary (protasēkrētis) to the emperor, but after Alexios' death, he retired to the monastery on the Island of Hagia Glykeria,[1] (Incir Ada, in the Aegean Sea), where he spent the rest of his life writing books. Contents 1 Written works 2 Notes 3 References 4 External links Written works[edit] His most important work, Extracts of History (Greek: Ἐπιτομὴ Ἱστοριῶν, Latin: Epitome Historiarum), in eighteen books, extends from the creation of the world to the death of Alexius (1118). The earlier part is largely drawn from Josephus; for Roman history he chiefly followed Cassius Dio up to the early third century. Contemporary scholars are particularly interested in his account of the third and fourth centuries, which depend upon sources, now lost, whose nature is fiercely debated. Central to this debate is the work of Bruno Bleckmann, whose arguments tend to be supported by continental scholars but rejected in part by English-speaking scholars.[2] An English translation of these important sections has recently been published.[3] The chief original part of Zonaras' history is the section on the reign of Alexios I Komnenos, whom he criticizes for the favour shown to members of his family, to whom Alexios entrusted vast estates and significant state offices. His history was continued by Nicetas Acominatus. Various ecclesiastical works have been attributed to Zonaras — commentaries on the Church Fathers and the poems of Gregory of Nazianzus; lives of Saints; and a treatise on the Apostolic Canons — and there is no reason to doubt their genuineness. The lexicon, however, which has been handed down under his name (ed. J. A. H. Tittmann 1808) is probably the work of a certain Antonius Monachus (Stein's Herodotus, ii.479 f). The first ecclesiastical denunciation of the game of chess on the part of the Eastern Orthodox Church was voiced by Zonaras. It was during his retirement as a monk to the monastery of Mount Athos that he wrote his commentary on the canons of the Eastern Church. The Quinisext Council required both clergy and laity to give up the use of dice (Canon 50). Zonaras wanted chess to also be included for clergy and laity to give up. Zonaras, commenting on Canon 50, wrote, "Because there are some of the Bishops and clergy who depart from virtue and play chess (zatikron) or dice or drink to excess, the Rule commands that such shall cease to do so or be excluded; and if a Bishop or elder or deacon or subdeacon or reader or singer do not cease so to do, he shall be cast out: and if laymen be given to chess-playing and drunkenness, they shall be excluded." Notes[edit] ^ Fresco, Karen L.; Wright, Charles D. (ed.) (2012). Translating the Middle Ages. Oxford, New York: Routledge. p. 150. ISBN 9781315549965. Retrieved Sep 3, 2017.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) ^ Bleckmann, Die Reichskrise des III. Jahrhunderts in der spätantiken und byzantinischen Geschichtsschreibung : Untersuchungen zu den nachdionischen Quellen der Chronik des Johannes Zonaras. Munich, 1992. ^ Banchich and Lane, Zonaras, 2009. References[edit] Wikisource has the text of the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia article John Zonaras. Kazhdan, Alexander (Ed.) (1991). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford University Press. p. 2229. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Zonaras, Joannes". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, William Smith, ed., Little, Brown and Company, Boston (1849), vol. III, p. 1331 ("Joannes Zonaras"). Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities, Harry Thurston Peck, ed. (Second Edition, 1897), p. 1684 ("Ioannes Zonaras"). Oxford Classical Dictionary, N. G. L. Hammond and H. H. Scullard, eds., Clarendon Press, Oxford (Second Edition, 1970), p. 1147 ("Johannes Zonaras"). Thomas Banchich and Eugene Lane, The History of Zonaras from Alexander Severus to the Death of Theodosius the Great, Routledge, 2009. External links[edit] Editio princeps: Ioannis Zonarae Monachi, qui olim Byzantii Magnus Drungarius excubiaru[m] seu Biglae, & protosecretarius fuit, compendium Historiarum : in tres Tomos distinctum. 3 vols., Greek text with Latin translation. Oporinus, Basel 1557. vol.1 vol. 2 vol.3 (Bavarian State Library) Raw Greek OCR of Dindorf's Teubner edition of Zonaras' Epitome Historion at the Lace project of Mount Allison University: vol. 1, vol. 2, vol. 3, vol. 4, vol. 5, vol. 6 Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Graeca with analytical indexes Epitome Historion in Greek at the Open Library 2 Zonaras, Lexicon in greek at OPenn v t e Byzantine historians 5th century Annianus of Alexandria Eunapius John Rufus Malchus Olympiodorus of Thebes Panodorus of Alexandria Philostorgius Priscus Sabinus of Heraclea Socrates of Constantinople Sozomen Theodoret 6th century Agathias Cyril of Scythopolis Eustathius of Epiphania Evagrius Scholasticus Hesychius of Miletus John Diakrinomenos John of Ephesus John of Epiphania Pseudo-Joshua the Stylite Jordanes John Malalas Liberatus of Carthage Marcellinus Comes Menander Protector Nonnosus Peter the Patrician Procopius Theodorus Lector Theophanes of Byzantium Zacharias Rhetor Zosimus 7th century Chronicon Paschale John of Antioch Trajan the Patrician Theophylact Simocatta 8th century Hippolytus of Thebes 9th century Theophanes the Confessor George Syncellus Nikephoros I of Constantinople George Hamartolos Scriptor Incertus 10th century Chronicle of Monemvasia Constantine VII Joseph Genesius John Kaminiates Leo the Deacon Pseudo-Simeon Symeon the Metaphrast Theophanes Continuatus 11th century Michael Attaleiates George Kedrenos Michael Psellos John Skylitzes John Xiphilinus Yahya of Antioch 12th century Nikephoros Bryennios the Younger Niketas Choniates Eustathius of Thessalonica Michael Glykas Anna Komnene John Kinnamos Constantine Manasses Joannes Zonaras 13th century George Akropolites Theodore Skoutariotes 14th century Nicephorus Gregoras Nikephoros Kallistos Xanthopoulos John VI Kantakouzenos George Kodinos George Pachymeres Michael Panaretos 15th century John Anagnostes John Cananus Laonikos Chalkokondyles Michael Critobulus Doukas George Sphrantzes Authority control BIBSYS: 90545662 BNE: XX1490067 BNF: cb132072067 (data) CANTIC: a11606514 GND: 118773151 ICCU: IT\ICCU\SBLV\285211 ISNI: 0000 0004 5612 4491 LCCN: n86017321 NKC: mzk2009510045 NLA: 35857924 NLI: 004389959 NSK: 000134740 NTA: 071954589 RERO: 02-A000182533 SELIBR: 268933 SNAC: w6v14gr3 SUDOC: 035501170 Trove: 1118774 VcBA: 495/1774 VIAF: 18151776766218010762 WorldCat Identities: viaf-206934892 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joannes_Zonaras&oldid=996098545" Categories: Byzantine historians Byzantine theologians 12th-century Byzantine writers 12th-century historians 12th-century Byzantine people Officials of Alexios I Komnenos Byzantine chronicles 12th-century Eastern Orthodox theologians Hidden categories: CS1 maint: extra text: authors list Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Greek-language text Articles containing Latin-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Aragonés Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar مصرى Nederlands Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 24 December 2020, at 14:44 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7799	----	None 
en-wikipedia-org-7878	----	Auxilia - Wikipedia Auxilia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Non-citizen troops in the Imperial Roman army Roman auxiliary infantry crossing a river, probably the Danube, on a pontoon bridge during the emperor Trajan's Dacian Wars (AD 101–106). They can be distinguished by the oval shield (clipeus) they were equipped with, in contrast to the rectangular scutum carried by legionaries. Panel from Trajan's Column, Rome Part of a series on the Military of ancient Rome 753 BC – AD 476 Structural history Army Unit types and ranks Decorations and punishments Legions Auxilia Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Campaign history Wars and battles Technological history Military engineering Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Political history   Strategy and tactics Infantry tactics Frontiers and fortifications Limes Limes Britannicus Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Limes Germanicus Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes Norican Limes Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannonian Limes Limes Alutanus Limes Moesiae Trajan's Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmatiae Limes Arabicus Limes Tripolitanus Limes Mauretaniae  Ancient Rome portal •  War portal v t e The Auxilia (Latin: [au̯kˈsɪlia], lit. "auxiliaries") were introduced as non-citizen troops attached to the citizen legions by Augustus after his reorganisation of the Imperial Roman army from 30 BC.[1] By the 2nd century, the Auxilia contained the same number of infantry as the legions and, in addition, provided almost all of the Roman army's cavalry (especially light cavalry and archers) and more specialised troops. The auxilia thus represented three-fifths of Rome's regular land forces at that time. Like their legionary counterparts, auxiliary recruits were mostly volunteers, not conscripts. The Auxilia were mainly recruited from the peregrini, free provincial subjects who did not hold Roman citizenship and constituted the vast majority of the population in the 1st and 2nd centuries (c. 90% in the early 1st century). In contrast to the legions, which only admitted Roman citizens, members of the Auxilia could be recruited from territories outside of Roman control. Reliance on the various contingents of non-Italic troops, especially cavalry, increased when the Roman Republic employed them in increasing numbers to support its legions after 200 BC. The Julio-Claudian period (30 BC–68 AD) saw the transformation of the Auxilia from motley levies to a standing corps with standardised structure, equipment and conditions of service. By the end of the period, there were no significant differences between legionaries and auxiliaries in terms of training, and thus, combat capability. Auxiliary regiments were often stationed in provinces other than that in which they were originally raised, for reasons of security and to foster the process of Romanisation in the provinces. The regimental names of many auxiliary units persisted into the 4th century, but by then the units in question were different in size, structure, and quality from their predecessors. Contents 1 Historical development 1.1 Background: Roman Republic (to 30 BC) 1.2 Foundation of the auxilia under Augustus (30 BC–14 AD) 1.3 Illyrian revolt (6–9 AD) 1.4 Later Julio-Claudians (14–68 AD) 1.5 Revolt of the Batavi (69–70 AD) 1.6 Flavian era (69–96 AD) 1.7 Later Principate (97–284) 1.8 4th century 2 Unit types and structure 2.1 Regular unit types 2.1.1 Cohortes 2.1.2 Alae 2.1.3 Cohortes equitatae 2.1.4 Auxiliary specialised units 2.1.4.1 Heavily-armoured lancers 2.1.4.2 Light cavalry 2.1.4.3 Camel troops 2.1.4.4 Archers 2.1.4.5 Slingers 2.1.4.6 Scouts/numeri 3 Irregular allied forces 4 Recruitment, ranks and pay 4.1 Rankers (caligati) 4.2 Junior officers (principales) 4.3 Senior officers 4.4 Commanders 5 Names, titles and decorations 5.1 Regimental names 5.2 Titles 5.3 Decorations 6 Deployment in the 2nd century 7 See also 8 Citations 9 References 9.1 Ancient 9.2 Modern 10 External links Historical development[edit] Background: Roman Republic (to 30 BC)[edit] Etruscan funerary urn crowned with the sculpture of a woman and a front-panel relief showing two warriors fighting, polychrome terracotta, c. 150 BC The mainstay of the Roman republic's war machine was the manipular legion, a heavy infantry unit suitable for close-quarter engagements on more or less any terrain, which was probably adopted sometime during the Samnite Wars (343–290 BC).[2] Despite its formidable strength, the legion had a number of deficiencies, especially a lack of cavalry. Around 200 BC, a legion of 4,200 infantry had a cavalry arm of only 300 horse (just 7% of the total force).[3] This was because the class of citizens who could afford to pay for their own horse and equipment – the equestrian order, the second rank in Roman society, after the senatorial order – was relatively small. In addition, the legion lacked missile forces such as slingers and archers.[4] Until 200 BC, the bulk of a Roman army's cavalry was provided by Rome's regular Italian allies (socii), commonly known as the "Latin" allies, which made up the Roman military confederation. This was Rome's defence system until the Social War of 91–88 BC. The Italian forces were organised into alae (literally: "wings", because they were generally posted on the flanks of the Roman line of battle). An allied ala, commanded by 3 Roman praefecti sociorum, was similar or slightly larger in infantry size (4–5,000 men) to a legion, but contained a more substantial cavalry contingent: 900 horse, three times the legionary contingent. Since a pre-Social War consular army always contained an equal number of legions and alae, 75% of its cavalry was provided by the Latin allies. The overall cavalry element, c. 12% of the total force (2,400 out of a normal consular army of approximately 20,000 total effectives), was greater than in most peninsular Italian forces, but well below the overall 21% cavalry component that was typical of the Principate army (80,000 cavalry out of 380,000 total effectives in the early 2nd century).[5][6] The Roman/Latin cavalry was sufficient while Rome was in conflict with other states in the mountainous Italian peninsula, which also disposed of limited cavalry resources. But, as Rome was confronted by external enemies that deployed far more powerful cavalry elements, such as the Gauls and the Carthaginians, the Roman deficiency in cavalry numbers could be a serious liability, which in the Second Punic War (218–202 BC) resulted in crushing defeats. Hannibal's major victories at the Trebia and at Cannae, were owed to his Spanish and Gallic heavy cavalry, which far outnumbered the Roman and Latin levies, and to his Numidians, light, fast cavalry which the Romans wholly lacked.[7] The decisive Roman victory at Zama in 202 BC, which ended the war, owed much to the Numidian cavalry provided by king Massinissa, which outnumbered the Roman/Latin cavalry fielded by 2 to 1.[8] From then, Roman armies were always accompanied by large numbers of non-Italian cavalry: Numidian light cavalry and, later, Gallic heavy cavalry. For example, Caesar relied heavily on Gallic and German cavalry for his Conquest of Gaul (58–51 BC).[9] As the role of native cavalry grew, that of Roman/Latin cavalry diminished. In the early 1st century BC, Roman cavalry was phased out altogether. After the Social War, the socii were all granted Roman citizenship, the Latin alae abolished, and the socii recruited into the legions.[10] Furthermore, Roman equestrians were no longer required to perform cavalry service after this time.[11] The late Republican legion was thus probably bereft of cavalry (a tiny cavalry force of 120 men was probably added back to the legion under Augustus).[12] Slingers from the cast of Trajan's Column in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, 2nd century AD By the outbreak of the Second Punic War, the Romans were remedying the legions' other deficiencies by using non-Italian specialised troops. Livy reports Hiero of Syracuse offering to supply Rome with archers and slingers in 217 BC.[13] From 200 BC onwards, specialist troops were hired as mercenaries on a regular basis: sagittarii (archers) from Crete, and funditores (slingers) from the Balearic Isles almost always accompanied Roman legions in campaigns all over the Mediterranean.[14] The other main sources of non-Italian troops in the late Republic were subject provincials, allied cities and Rome's amici (satellite kings). During the late Republic, non-Italian units were led by their own native chiefs, and their internal organisation was left to their own commanders. The units varied widely in dress, equipment, and weapons. They were normally raised for specific campaigns and often disbanded soon afterwards, in a similar manner to the earlier socii militia legions.[15] Foundation of the auxilia under Augustus (30 BC–14 AD)[edit] It appears that not all indigenous units were disbanded at the end of the civil war period (31 BC). Some of the more experienced units were kept in existence to complement the legions, and became the core of the standing auxiliary forces that developed in the Julio-Claudian period.[16] During the early part of Augustus' rule (27 BC onwards), the corps of regular Auxilia was created. It was clearly inspired by the Latin forces of the pre-Social War Republic, as a corps of non-citizen troops parallel to the legions. But there were fundamental differences, the same as between Republican and Augustan legions. The Latin forces of the Republic were made up of part-time conscripts in units that would be raised and disbanded for and after particular campaigns. The Augustan Auxilia were mainly volunteer professionals serving in permanent units.[9] The unit structure of the Auxilia also differed from the Latin alae, which were like legions with a larger cavalry arm. However, Augustus organised the Auxilia into regiments the size of cohorts (a tenth the size of legions), due to the much greater flexibility of the smaller unit size. Further, the regiments were of three types: ala (cavalry), cohors (peditata) (infantry) and cohors equitata (mixed cavalry/infantry).[17] The evidence for the size of the Augustus' new units is not clearcut, with our most precise evidence dating to the 2nd century, by which time the unit strengths may have changed. Cohortes were likely modelled on legionary cohorts i.e. six centuriae of about 80 men each (total about 480 men).[18] Alae were divided into turmae (squadrons) of 30 (or 32) men, each under a decurio (literally: "leader of ten").[19] This title derives from the old Roman cavalry of the pre-Social War republic, in which each turma was under the command of three decuriones.[20] Cohortes equitatae were infantry cohortes with a cavalry contingent of four turmae attached.[21] Auxiliary regiments were now led by a praefectus (prefect), who could be either a native nobleman, who would probably be granted Roman citizenship for the purpose (e.g. the famous German war leader Arminius gained Roman citizenship probably by serving as an auxiliary prefect before turning against Rome); or a Roman, either of knightly rank, or a senior centurion.[22] At the start of Augustus' sole rule (30 BC), the original core auxiliary units in the West were composed of warlike tribesmen from the Gallic provinces (especially Gallia Belgica, which then included the regions later separated to form the provinces Germania Inferior and Germania Superior), and from the Balkan provinces (Dalmatia and Illyricum). By 19 BC, the Cantabrian and Asturian Wars were concluded, leading to the annexation of northern Hispania and Lusitania. Judging by the names of attested auxiliary regiments, these parts of the Iberian peninsula soon became a major source of recruits. Then the Danubian regions were annexed: Raetia (annexed 15 BC), Noricum (16 BC), Pannonia (9 BC) and Moesia (6 AD), becoming, with Illyricum, the Principate's most important source of auxiliary recruits for its entire duration. In the East, where the Syrians already provided the bulk of the Roman army's archers, Augustus annexed Galatia (25 BC) and Judaea: the former, a region in central Anatolia with a Celtic-speaking people, became an important source of recruits. In N. Africa, Egypt, Cyrene, and Numidia (25 BC) were added to the empire. Numidia (modern day Eastern Algeria) was home to the Numidians/Moors, the ancestors of today's Berber people. Their light cavalry (equites Maurorum) was highly prized and had alternately fought and assisted the Romans for well over two centuries: they now started to be recruited into the regular Auxilia. Even more Mauri units were formed after the annexation of Mauretania (NW Algeria, Morocco), the rest of the Berber homeland, in 44 AD by emperor Claudius (ruled 41–54).[23] Recruitment was thus heavy throughout the Augustan period, with a steady increase in the number of units formed. By AD 23, the Roman historian Tacitus records that there were roughly the same numbers of auxiliaries in service as there were legionaries.[24] Since at this time there were 25 legions of c. 5,000 men each, the Auxilia thus amounted to c. 125,000 men, implying c. 250 auxiliary regiments.[25] Illyrian revolt (6–9 AD)[edit] Main article: Great Illyrian Revolt During the early Julio-Claudian period, many auxiliary regiments raised in frontier provinces were stationed in or near their home provinces, except during periods of major crises such as the Cantabrian Wars, when they were deployed temporarily in theatre. This carried the obvious risk if their own tribe or ethnic group rebelled against Rome (or attacked the Roman frontier from outside the Empire), auxiliary troops could be tempted to make common cause with them. The Romans would then be faced by an enemy that included units fully equipped and trained by themselves, thus losing their usual tactical advantages over tribal foes.[26] The German leader Arminius is the classic example at an individual level: after several years of serving in Rome's forces as prefect of an auxiliary unit, he used the military training and experience he had gained to lead a confederacy of German tribes against Rome, culminating in the destruction of three Roman legions in the Teutoberg Forest in 9 AD, and the abandonment of Augustus' strategy of annexing Germany as far as the Elbe river. (This strategy was never revived by later emperors).[27] At a collective level, the risk was even greater, as the hugely dangerous Illyrian revolt proved. The central Illyrian tribes were tough and spartan shepherds of the Bosnian mountains and excellent soldier-material. Their territory formed part of the strategic province of Illyricum, recently expanded to include the territory of the Pannonii, Celticised Illyrian tribes based on the west bank of the Danube who were subjugated by Rome in 12–9 BC (the Bellum Pannonicum). By the start of the Common Era, they were an important recruitment base for the auxilia.[28] But discontent was festering among the Illyrian tribes, largely due to what they saw as the rapacity of Roman tax officials.[29] In AD 6, several regiments of Dalmatae, a warlike Illyrian tribe, were ordered to report to a designated location to prepare to join Augustus' stepson and senior military commander Tiberius in a war against the Germans. Instead, they mutinied at the assembly point, and defeated a Roman force sent against them.[30] The Dalmatae were soon joined by the Breuci, another Illyrian tribe that supplied several auxiliary regiments. They gave battle to a second Roman force from Moesia. They lost, but inflicted heavy casualties.[31] The rebels were now joined by a large number of other Illyrian tribes. The Dalmatae attacked the port of Salona and overran the Adriatic coast, defeating a Roman force and exposing the Roman heartland of Italy to the fear of a rebel invasion.[32] Augustus ordered Tiberius to break off operations in Germany and move his main army to Illyricum.[33] When it became clear that even Tiberius' forces were insufficient, Augustus was obliged to raise a second task force under Tiberius' nephew Germanicus, resorting to the compulsory purchase and emancipation of thousands of slaves to find enough troops, for the first time since the aftermath of the Battle of Cannae over two centuries earlier.[34] The Romans had now deployed no less than 15 legions and an equivalent number of auxilia.[35] This amounts to a total of c. 150,000 men, including at least 50 auxiliary cohorts composed, exceptionally, of Roman citizens. These were men whose status or background was regarded by Augustus as unsuitable for recruitment into the legions: either natural-born citizens of the lowest category, including vagrants and convicted criminals, or the freed slaves (Roman law accorded citizenship to the freed slaves of Roman citizens). These special units were accorded the title civium Romanorum ("of Roman citizens"), or c.R. for short. After the Illyrian revolt, these cohorts remained in being and recruited non-citizens like other auxiliary units, but retained their prestigious c.R. title.[17][36] In addition, the regular forces were assisted by a large number of allied troops from neighbouring Thrace deployed by their king Rhoemetalces I, a Roman amicus (puppet king).[37] The Romans faced further reverses on the battlefield and a savage guerrilla war in the Bosnian mountains.[38] It took them three years of hard fighting to quell the revolt, which was described by the Roman historian Suetonius, writing in c. AD 100, as the most difficult conflict faced by Rome since the Punic Wars over two centuries earlier.[35] Tiberius finally succeeded in quelling the revolt in 9 AD. This was apparently lucky timing for the Romans: that same year Arminius destroyed Varus' three legions in Germany. The Roman high command had no doubt that Arminius would have formed a grand alliance with the Illyrians.[39] Despite the gravity of this rebellion, the Illyrians went on, alongside their neighbours the Thracians, to become the backbone of the Roman army. By the 2nd century, with roughly half the Roman army deployed on the Danube frontier, the auxilia and legions alike were dominated by Illyrian recruits. In the 3rd century, Illyrians largely replaced Italians in the senior officer echelons of praefecti of auxiliary regiments and tribuni militum of legions. Finally, from AD 268 to 379, virtually all emperors, including Diocletian and Constantine the Great were Romanised Illyrians from the provinces of Dalmatia, Moesia Superior and Pannonia. These were members of a military aristocracy, outstanding soldiers who saved the empire from collapse in the turbulent late 3rd century.[40] Later Julio-Claudians (14–68 AD)[edit] The cavalry Witcham Gravel helmet from Cambridgeshire (England), 1st century AD Significant development of the Auxilia appears to have taken place during the rule of the emperor Claudius (41–54 AD). A minimum term of service of 25 years was established, at the end of which the retiring auxiliary soldier, and all his children, were awarded Roman citizenship.[41] This is deduced from the fact that the first known Roman military diplomas date from the time of Claudius. This was a folding bronze tablet engraved with the details of the soldier's service record, which he could use to prove his citizenship.[42] Claudius also decreed that prefects of auxiliary regiments must all be of equestrian rank, thus excluding centurions from such commands.[41] The fact that auxiliary commanders were now all of the same social rank as most tribuni militum, (military tribunes, a legion's senior staff officers, all of whom only one, the tribunus laticlavius, was of the higher senatorial rank), probably indicates that auxilia now enjoyed greater prestige. Indigenous chiefs continued to command some auxiliary regiments, and were probably granted equestrian rank for the purpose. It is also likely that auxiliary pay was standardised at this time, but we only have estimates for the Julio-Claudian period.[41] Auxiliary uniform, armour, weapons and equipment were probably standardised by the end of the Julio-Claudian period. Auxiliary equipment was broadly similar to that of the legions (see Section 2.1 below for possible differences in armour). By 68 AD, there was little difference between most auxiliary infantry and their legionary counterparts in equipment, training and fighting capability. The main difference was that auxilia contained combat cavalry, both heavy and light, and other specialized units that legions lacked.[43] Claudius annexed to the empire three regions that became important sources of auxiliary recruits: Britannia (43 AD), and the former client kingdoms of Mauretania (44) and Thracia (46). The latter became as important as Illyria as a source of auxiliary recruits, especially cavalry and archers. Britain in mid-2nd century contained the largest number of auxiliary regiments in any single province: about 60 out of about 400 (15%).[5] By the rule of Nero (54–68), auxiliary numbers may have reached, by one estimate, about 200,000 men, implying about 400 regiments.[41] Revolt of the Batavi (69–70 AD)[edit] Main article: Revolt of the Batavi Rhine frontier of the Roman empire, 70 AD, showing the location of the Batavi in the Rhine delta region. Roman territory is shaded dark. Their homeland was called the Insula Batavorum by the Romans and corresponded roughly with modern Gelderland province, Neth. Their chief town was Noviomagus (Nijmegen, Neth.), a strategic prominence in an otherwise flat and waterlogged land that became the site of a Roman legionary fortress (housing the legion X Gemina) after the Batavi revolt ended in 70 AD. The name is of Celtic origin, meaning "new market", suggesting that the Germanic Batavi either displaced or subjugated an indigenous Gallic tribe The Batavi, a Germanic tribe, inhabited the region today known as Gelderland (Netherlands), in the Rhine river delta, then known as the Insula Batavorum ("Island of the Batavi", because surrounded by branches of the Rhine), part of the Roman province of Germania Inferior.[44] They were a warlike people, skilled horsemen, boatmen and swimmers. In return for the unusual privilege of exemption from tributum (direct taxes on land and heads normally exacted from peregrini), they supplied a disproportionate number of recruits to the Julio-Claudian auxilia: one ala and eight cohortes.[45] They also provided most of Augustus' elite personal bodyguard unit (the Germani corpore custodes), which continued in service until 68 AD. The Batavi auxilia amounted to about 5,000 men, implying that during the entire Julio-Claudian period, over 50% of all Batavi males reaching military age (16 years) may have enlisted in the auxilia.[46] Thus the Batavi, although just 0.05% of the total population of the empire of c. 70 million in 23 AD,[47] supplied about 4% of the total auxilia i.e. 80 times their proportionate share. They were regarded by the Romans as the very best (fortissimi, validissimi) of their auxiliary, and indeed all, their forces.[48] In Roman service, both their cavalry and infantry had perfected a technique for swimming across rivers wearing full armour and weapons.[49][50] Julius Civilis (literally: "Julius the Citizen", clearly a Latin name adopted on gaining Roman citizenship, not his native one) was a hereditary prince of the Batavi and the prefect of a Batavi cohort. A veteran of 25 years' service, he had distinguished himself by service in Britain, where he and the eight Batavi cohorts had played a crucial role in both the Roman invasion in 43 AD and the subsequent subjugation of southern Britain.[51] By 69, however, Civilis, the Batavi regiments and the Batavi people had become utterly disaffected with Rome. After the Batavi regiments were withdrawn from Britain to Italy in 66, Civilis and his brother (also a prefect) were arrested by the governor of Germania Inferior on a fabricated accusation of sedition. The governor ordered his brother's execution, while Civilis, who as a Roman citizen had the right to appeal to the emperor, was sent to Rome in chains for judgement by Nero.[52] He was released by Nero's overthrower and successor, Galba, but the latter also disbanded the imperial bodyguard unit for their loyalty to Nero. This alienated several hundred crack Batavi troops, and indeed the whole Batavi nation who regarded it as a grave insult.[53] At the same time, relations collapsed between the Batavi cohorts and the legion to which they had been attached since the invasion of Britain 25 years earlier (XIV Gemina). Their mutual hatred erupted in open fighting on at least two occasions.[54] At this juncture, the Roman empire was convulsed by its first major civil war since the Battle of Actium exactly a century earlier: the Year of the Four Emperors (69–70 AD). The governor of Germania Inferior, ordered to raise more troops, outraged the Batavi by attempting to conscript more Batavi than the maximum stipulated in their treaty. The brutality and corruption of the Roman recruiting-centurions (including incidents of sexual assault on Batavi young men) brought already deep discontent in the Batavi homeland to the boil.[55] Civilis now led his people in open revolt. Initially, he claimed he was supporting the bid for power of Vespasian, the general in command of the legions in Syria, whom Civilis had probably befriended when both were involved in the Roman invasion of Britain 25 years earlier (Vespasian was then commander of the legion II Augusta).[56] But the uprising soon became a bid for independence.[57] Civilis exploited the fact that some legions were absent from the Rhine area due to the civil war, and the rest under-strength. In addition, the Roman commanders and their rank-and-file soldiers were divided by loyalty to rival emperors.[58] Civilis quickly won the support of the Batavi's neighbours and kinsmen, the Cananefates, who in turn won over the Frisii. First the rebel allies captured two Roman forts in their territory, and a cohort of Tungri defected to Civilis.[59] Then two legions sent against Civilis were defeated when their companion Batavi ala defected to his side.[44] The Classis Germanica (Rhine flotilla), largely manned by Batavi, was seized by Civilis.[60] Most importantly, the 8 Batavi cohorts stationed at Mainz with XIV Gemina mutinied and joined him, defeating at Bonn a Roman force that attempted to block their return to their homeland.[61] By now, Civilis commanded at least 12 regiments (6,000 men) of Roman-trained and equipped auxiliary troops, as well as a much larger number of tribal levies. A number of German tribes from beyond the Rhine joined his cause.[62] Several other German and Gallic units sent against him deserted, as the revolt spread to the rest of Gallia Belgica, including the Tungri, Lingones and Treviri tribes.[63] He was able to destroy the two remaining legions in Germania Inferior, (V Alaudae and XV Primigenia).[64] By this stage, Rome's entire position on the Rhine and even in Gaul was imperiled. Their civil war over, the Romans mustered a huge task force of eight legions (five dispatched from Italy, two from Spain and one from Britain) to deal with Civilis.[65] Its commander Petillius Cerialis had to fight two difficult battles, at Trier and Xanten, before he could overrun the Batavi's homeland.[66] Tacitus' surviving narrative breaks off as he describes a meeting on an island in the Rhine delta between Civilis and Cerialis to discuss peace terms.[67] We do not know the outcome of this meeting or Civilis' ultimate fate. But, in view of his former friendship with Vespasian, who had already offered him a pardon, and the fact that the Romans still needed the Batavi levies, it is likely that the terms were lenient by Roman standards.[68] Petilius Cerialis took a number of reconstituted Batavi units with him to Britain, and the Batavi regiments continued to serve with special distinction in Britain and elsewhere for the rest of the 1st century and beyond.[69] Even as late as 395, units with the Batavi name, although long since composed of recruits from all over the empire, were still classified as elite palatini, e.g. the equites Batavi seniores (cavalry) and auxilium Batavi seniores (infantry).[70] Flavian era (69–96 AD)[edit] Tombstone of the Flavian-era eques alaris (ala cavalryman) Titus Flavius Bassus, son of Mucala. A Dansala, (i.e. member of the Thracian Dentheletae tribe), he belonged to the Ala Noricorum (originally raised from the Taurisci tribe of Noricum). He died at age 46 after 26 years' service, not having advanced beyond the lowest rank. Bassus' adopted Roman names, Titus Flavius, indicate that he had gained Roman citizenship, doubtless by serving the required 25 years in the auxilia. The names adopted would normally be those of the emperor ruling at the time of the citizenship award. In this case, they could refer to any of the 3 emperors of the Flavian dynasty (ruled 69–96), Vespasian and his two sons, Titus and Domitian, all of whom carried the same names. The arrangement of the scene, a rider spearing a man (the motif of the Thracian Hero), indicates that Bassus was a Thracian, as does his father's name. Date: late 1st century. Römisch-Germanisches Museum, Cologne, Germany The revolt of the Batavi appears to have led to a significant change in the Roman government's policy on deployment of Auxilia. The revolt proved that in times of civil strife, when legions were far from their bases campaigning for rival claimants to the imperial throne, it was dangerous to leave provinces exclusively in the hands of auxiliary regiments recruited from the indigenous nation. During the Julio-Claudian period, auxiliary regiments had often been deployed away from their original home province.[9] But in the Flavian period (69–96), this appears to have become standard policy.[26] Thus in AD 70, five reconstituted Batavi regiments (one ala and four cohortes) were transferred to Britain under Petillius Cerialis, who had suppressed the Civilis revolt and then embarked on the governorship of the island.[71] The great majority of regiments probably founded in the 1st century were stationed away from their province of origin in the second e.g. of 13 British regiments recorded in the mid-2nd century, none were stationed in Britain.[72] Furthermore, it appears that in the Flavian era native noblemen were no longer permitted to command auxiliary units from their own tribe.[73] After a prolonged period in a foreign province a regiment would become assimilated, since the majority of its new recruits would be drawn from the province in which it was stationed, or neighbouring provinces.[26] Those same "British" units, mostly based on the Danube frontier, would by c. 150, after almost a century away from their home island, be largely composed of Illyrian, Thracian and Dacian recruits. However, there is evidence that a few regiments at least continued to draw some recruits from their original home provinces in the 2nd century e.g. Batavi units stationed in Britain.[74] The Flavian period also saw the first formation of large, double-size units, both infantry and cavalry, of a nominal strength of 1,000 men (cohors/ala milliaria), though they were actually mostly smaller (720 for an ala milliaria and 800 for a cohors milliaria).[41] These were the mirror image of the double-strength first cohorts of legions also introduced at this time. Such units remained a minority of the Auxilia: in the mid-2nd century, they constituted 13% of units, containing 20% of total manpower.[75] Later Principate (97–284)[edit] Roman cavalry spatha, a longer sword (median blade length: 780 mm [30.7 in]), designed to give the rider a longer reach than the gladius[76] In 106 AD, emperor Trajan finally defeated the Dacian kingdom of Decebalus and annexed it as the Roman province of Dacia Traiana. By the mid-2nd century, there were 44 auxiliary regiments stationed there, about 10% of the total auxilia. In Britain, there were 60. Together, these two provinces contained about a quarter of the total auxiliary regiments.[5] There is considerable scholarly dispute about the precise size of the auxilia during the imperial era, even during the corp's best-documented period, the rule of Trajan's successor, Hadrian (117–138). This is evident if one compares calculations by Spaul (2000) and Holder (2003): Estimates of Roman auxilia numbers (units attested in the mid-2nd century) Author No. Alae No. Cohortes Total no. units Total cavalry Total infantry Total effectives J. Spaul (2000)[77] 80 247 327 56,160 124,640 180,800 P. A. Holder (2003)[5] 88 279 367 74,624 143,200 217,624 NOTE: Manpower figures exclude officers (centurions and decurions), which would have numbered about 3,500 men overall. In addition, Holder believes that a further 14 cohortes, which are attested under Trajan, immediately before Hadrian's rule, but not during or after it, probably continued in existence, giving a total of 381 units and 225,000 effectives. The discrepancy between the two scholars is due to: (i) Interpretation of units with the same name and number, but attested in different provinces in the same period. Spaul tends to take a more cautious approach and to assume such are the same unit moving base frequently, while Holder tends to regard them as separate units which acquired the same number due to duplicated (or even triplicated) seriation. (ii) Assumptions about how many cohortes were equitatae. Spaul accepts only those cohortes specifically attested as equitatae i.e., about 40% of recorded units. Holder estimates that at least 70% of cohortes contained cavalry contingents by the early 2nd century[78] Even according to the more conservative estimate, the auxilia were by this time significantly larger than the legions, which contained c. 155,000 effectives (28 legions of 5,500 men each) at this time, of which just 3,360 were cavalry. (For a detailed breakdown, see section 4: Auxilia deployment in the 2nd century, below). During the second half of the 2nd century, the Roman army underwent considerable further expansion, with the addition of five new legions (27,500 men) to a Principate peak of 33.[79] A matching number of auxilia (i.e. c. 50 regiments, although only the names of around 25–30 have survived in the epigraphic record) were probably added, possibly reaching a peak of c. 440 regiments and around 250,000 effectives by the end of Septimius Severus's rule (211 AD).[6] The likely growth of the Roman auxilia may be summarised as follows: Estimated size of Roman army 24–305 AD Army corps Tiberius 24 AD Hadrian c. 130 AD S. Severus 211 AD 3rd-century crisis c. 270 AD Diocletian 284–305 LEGIONS 125,000[80] 155,000[81] 182,000[82] AUXILIA 125,000[83][failed verification] 218,000[84] 250,000[85] Praetorian Guard ~~5,000[86] ~~8,000[87] ~15,000[87] Total Roman Army 255,000[88] 381,000[89] 447,000[90] 290,000?[91] 390,000[92] NOTE: Regular land forces only. Excludes citizen-militias, barbarian foederati, and Roman navy effectives During the 2nd century, some units with the new names numerus ("group") and vexillatio ("detachment") appear in the diploma record.[93] Their size is uncertain, but was likely smaller than the regular alae and cohortes, as originally they were probably detachments from the latter, acquiring independent status after long-term separation. As these units are mentioned in diplomas, they were presumably part of the regular auxiliary organisation.[94] But numeri was also a generic term used for barbarian units outside the regular auxilia. (see section 2.4 Irregular units, below). In 212, the constitutio Antoniniana (Antonine decree) of emperor Caracalla granted Roman citizenship to all the free inhabitants of the Empire – the peregrini – thus abolishing their second-class status.[95] But there is no evidence that the citizens-only rule for legions was also abolished at this time. The legions simply gained a much wider recruitment base, as they were now able to recruit any male free resident of the empire. Auxiliary units were now recruited mainly from Roman citizens, but probably continued to recruit non-citizen barbari from outside the Empire's borders.[96] However, the citizens-only rule for legions appears to have been dropped some time during the 3rd century, as by the 4th-century Romans and barbarians are found serving together in all units.[97] In the mid to late 3rd century, the army was afflicted by a combination of military disasters and of pestilence, the so-called Crisis of the Third Century. In 251–271, Gaul, the Alpine regions and Italy, the Balkans and the East were simultaneously overrun by Alamanni, Sarmatians, Goths and Persians respectively.[98] At the same time, the Roman army was struggling with the effects of a devastating pandemic, probably of smallpox: the Plague of Cyprian, which began in 251 and was still raging in 270, when it claimed the life of emperor Claudius II Gothicus. The evidence for an earlier pandemic, the Antonine Plague (also smallpox) indicates a mortality of 15–30% in the empire as a whole.[99] The armies would likely have suffered deaths at the top end of the range, due to their close concentration of individuals and frequent movements across the empire.[100] This probably led to a steep decline in military numbers, which only recovered at the end of the century under Diocletian (r. 284–305).[101] The recruitment shortfall caused by the crisis seems to have led to recruitment of barbarians to the auxilia on a much greater scale than previously. By the 4th century, it has been estimated that some 25% of regular army recruits were barbarian-born. In the elite palatini regiments, anywhere between a third and a half of recruits may have been barbarian.[97] This is likely a much greater proportion of foreigners than joined the auxilia in the 1st and 2nd centuries.[102] In the 3rd century, a small number of regular auxiliary units appear in the record that, for the first time, bear the names of barbarian tribes from outside the empire e.g. the ala I Sarmatarum attested in 3rd-century Britain.[103] This was probably an offshoot of the 5,500 surrendered Sarmatian horsemen posted on Hadrian's Wall by emperor Marcus Aurelius in c. 175.[104] This unit may be an early example of a novel process whereby irregular units of barbari (foederati) were transformed into regular auxilia. This process intensified in the 4th century: the Notitia Dignitatum, a key document on the late Roman army, lists a large number of regular units with barbarian names.[105] 4th century[edit] Roman cavalry from a mosaic of the Villa Romana del Casale, Sicily, 4th century AD In the 4th century, the Roman army underwent a radical restructuring. In the rule of Diocletian (284–305), the traditional Principate formations of legiones, alae and cohortes appear to have been broken up into smaller units, many of which bore a variety of new names.[106] Under Constantine I (r. 312–337) it appears that military units were classified into three grades based on strategic role and to some extent quality: palatini, elite units normally part of the exercitus praesentales (imperial escort armies); comitatenses, higher-grade interception forces based in frontier provinces; and limitanei, lower-grade border troops.[107] (See Late Roman army). The old Principate auxilia regiments provided the basis for units at all three grades. The Notitia Dignitatum lists about 70 alae and cohortes that retained their 2nd-century names, mostly limitanei.[108] But traces of other auxilia regiments can be found in the praesentales and comitatenses armies. For example, many of the new-style auxilia palatina infantry regiments, considered among the best units in the army, were probably formed from old-style auxiliary cohortes, which they appear to closely resemble.[109] The late 4th-century writer on military affairs Vegetius complains of contemporary young men joining the "auxilia" in preference to the "legions" to avoid the latter's tougher training and duties.[110] But it is unclear what types of units he was referring to. It is possible that those older terms were still popularly used (misleadingly) to mean limitanei and comitatenses respectively. In any event, his quote in no way describes accurately the Principate auxilia, many of which were of very high quality.[17] Unit types and structure[edit] Regular unit types[edit] The following table sets out the official, or establishment, strength of auxiliary units in the 2nd century. The real strength of a unit would fluctuate continually, but would likely have been somewhat less than the establishment most of the time. Roman auxiliary regiments: Type, structure and strength[75] Unit type Service Unit commander Sub-unit commander No of sub-units Sub-unit strength Unit strength Ala quingenaria cavalry praefectus decurio 16 turmae 30 (32) 480 (512) Ala milliaria cavalry praefectus decurio 24 turmae 30 (32) 720 (768) Cohors quingenaria infantry praefectus* centurio 6 centuriae 80 480 Cohors milliaria infantry tribunus militum** centurio 10 centuriae 80 800 Cohors equitata quingenaria infantry plus cavalry contingent praefectus centurio (inf) decurio (cav) 6 centuriae 4 turmae 80 30. 600 (480 inf/120 cav) Cohors equitata milliaria infantry plus cavalry contingent tribunus militum** centurio (inf) decurio (cav) 10 centuriae 8 turmae 80 30 1,040 (800 inf/240 cav) * tribunus militum in original c.R. cohortes[111] ** praefectus in Batavi and Tungri cohortes milliariae[111] NOTE: Opinion is divided about the size of an ala turma, between 30 and 32 men. 30 was the size of a turma in the Republican cavalry and in the cohors equitata of the Principate auxilia. Against this is a statement by Arrian that an ala was 512 strong.[112] This would make an ala turma 32 men strong. Cohortes[edit] These all-infantry units were modelled on the cohorts of the legions, with the same officers and sub-units. They were typically considered to be more of a light infantry than proper legionaries. Some auxiliaries may however have been equipped with the lorica segmentata, the most sophisticated legionary body-armour, although scholars dispute this.[113][114] There is no evidence that auxiliary infantry fought in a looser order than legionaries.[17] It appears that in a set-piece battle-line, auxiliary infantry would normally be stationed on the flanks, with legionary infantry holding the centre e.g. as in the Battle of Watling Street (AD 60), the final defeat of the rebel Britons under queen Boudicca.[115] This was a tradition inherited from the Republic, when the precursors of auxiliary cohortes, the Latin alae, occupied the same position in the line.[116] The flanks of the line required equal, if not greater, skill to hold as the centre. Alae[edit] During the Principate period of the Roman Empire (30 BC – AD 284), the all-mounted alae ("wings") contained the elite cavalry of the army.[17] They were specially trained in elaborate manoeuvres, such as those displayed to the emperor Hadrian during a documented inspection in Numidia. They were best-suited for large-scale operations and battle, during which they acted as the primary cavalry escort for the legions, which had almost no cavalry of their own. Roman alares were normally armoured, with mail or scale body armour, a cavalry version of the infantry helmet (with more protective features, such as completely covered ears) and oval shield or hexagonal. Their weapons could be a lance, javelins, or bow and arrow but all Roman horseman had a sword called a (spatha) and the ubiquitous pugio. The elite status of an alaris is shown by the fact that he received 20% more pay than his counterpart in an auxiliary cohort or a legionary infantryman. The favored sources of recruitment for the cavalry of the auxilia were Gauls, Germans, Iberians and Thracians. All of these peoples had long-established skills and experience of fighting from horseback – in contrast to the Romans themselves. The alae were better paid and mounted than the more numerous horsemen of the cohortes equitatae[117] (see below). Cohortes equitatae[edit] These were cohortes with a cavalry contingent attached. There is evidence that their numbers expanded with the passage of time. Only about 40% of attested cohortes are specifically attested as equitatae in inscriptions, which is probably the original Augustan proportion. A study of units stationed in Syria in the mid-2nd century found that many units that did not carry the equitata title did in fact contain cavalrymen e.g. by discovery of a tombstone of a cavalryman attached to the cohort. This implies that by that time, at least 70% of cohortes were probably equitatae.[78] The addition of cavalry to a cohort obviously enabled it to carry out a wider range of independent operations. A cohors equitata was in effect a self-contained mini-army.[118] The traditional view of equites cohortales (the cavalry arm of cohortes equitatae), as expounded by G.L. Cheesman, was that they were just a mounted infantry with poor-quality horses. They would use their mounts simply to reach the battlefield and then would dismount to fight.[119] This view is today discredited. Although it is clear that equites cohortales did not match equites alares (ala cavalrymen) in quality (hence their lower pay), the evidence is that they fought as cavalry in the same way as the alares and often alongside them. Their armour and weapons were the same as for the alares.[120] Nevertheless, non-combat roles of the equites cohortales differed significantly from the alares. Non-combat roles such as despatch-riders (dispositi) were generally filled by cohort cavalry. Auxiliary specialised units[edit] Routed Sarmatian cataphracts (right) flee for their lives from Roman alares (auxiliary cavalrymen), during the Dacian Wars (AD 101–106). Note full-body scalar armour, also armoured caparison for horses (including eye-guards). The Sarmatians' lances (as well as the Romans') have disappeared due to stone erosion, but a sword is still visible, as is a bow carried by one man. It was apparently in the period following this conflict (perhaps as a result of the lessons learnt from it) that the Romans first established their own regular units of cataphracts, and deployed them in the Danubian region. They were most likely equipped as the Sarmatians. Panel from Trajan's Column, Rome Roman archers (top left) in action. Note conical helmets, indicating Syrian unit, and recurved bows. Trajan's Column, Rome Roman slingers (funditores) in action in the Dacian Wars. Detail from Trajan's Column, Rome In the Republican period, the standard trio of specialised auxilia were Balearic slingers, Cretan archers and Numidian light cavalry. These functions, plus some new ones, continued in the 2nd-century auxilia. Heavily-armoured lancers[edit] Equites cataphractarii, or simply cataphractarii for short, were the heavily armoured cavalry of the Roman army. Based on Sarmatian and Parthian models, they were also known as contarii and clibanarii, although it is unclear whether these terms were interchangeable or whether they denoted variations in equipment or role. Together with new units of light mounted archers, the cataphractarii were designed to counter Parthian (and, in Pannonia, Sarmatian) battle tactics. Parthian armies consisted largely of cavalry. Their standard tactic was to use light mounted archers to weaken and break up the Roman infantry line, and then to rout it with a charge by the cataphractarii concentrated on the weakest point.[121] The only special heavy cavalry units to appear in the 2nd-century record are: ala I Ulpia contariorum and ala I Gallorum et Pannoniorum cataphractaria stationed in Pannonia and Moesia Inferior respectively in the 2nd century.[122] Light cavalry[edit] From the Second Punic War until the 3rd century AD, the bulk of Rome's light cavalry (apart from mounted archers from Syria) was provided by the inhabitants of the Maghrebi provinces of Africa and Mauretania Caesariensis, the Numidae or Mauri (from whom derives the English term "Moors"), who were the ancestors of the Berber people of modern Algeria and Morocco. They were known as the equites Maurorum or Numidarum ("Moorish or Numidian cavalry"). On Trajan's Column, Mauri horsemen, depicted with long hair in dreadlocks, are shown riding their small but resilient horses bare-back and unbridled, with a simple braided rope round their mount's neck for control. They wear no body or head armour, carrying only a small, round leather shield. Their weaponry cannot be discerned due to stone erosion, but is known from Livy to have consisted of several short javelins.[123][124] Exceptionally fast and maneuverable, Numidian cavalry would harass the enemy by hit-and-run attacks, riding up and loosing volleys of javelins, then scattering faster than any opposing cavalry could pursue. They were superbly suited to scouting, harassment, ambush and pursuit.[125] It is unclear what proportion of the Numidian cavalry were regular auxilia units as opposed to irregular foederati units.[126] In the 3rd century, new formations of light cavalry appear, apparently recruited from the Danubian provinces: the equites Dalmatae ("Dalmatian cavalry"). Little is known about these, but they were prominent in the 4th century, with several units listed in the Notitia Dignitatum. Camel troops[edit] A unit of dromedarii ("camel-mounted troops") is attested from the 2nd century, the ala I Ulpia dromedariorum milliaria in Syria.[127] Archers[edit] A substantial number of auxiliary regiments (32, or about 1 in 12 in the 2nd century) were denoted sagittariorum, or archer-units (from sagittarii lit. "arrow-men", from sagitta = "arrow"). These 32 units (of which 4 were double-strength) had a total official strength of 17,600 men. All three types of auxiliary regiment (ala, cohors and cohors equitata) could be denoted sagittariorum. Although these units evidently specialised in archery, it is uncertain from the available evidence whether all sagittariorum personnel were archers, or simply a higher proportion than in ordinary units. At the same time, ordinary regiments probably also possessed some archers, otherwise their capacity for independent operations would have been unduly constrained. Bas-reliefs appear to show personnel in ordinary units employing bows.[128] From about 218 BC onwards, the archers of the Roman army of the mid-Republic were virtually all mercenaries from the island of Crete, which boasted a long specialist tradition. During the late Republic (88–30 BC) and the Augustan period, Crete was gradually eclipsed by men from other, much more populous, regions subjugated by the Romans with strong archery traditions. These included Thrace, Anatolia and, above all, Syria. Of the 32 sagittarii units attested in the mid-2nd century, 13 have Syrian names, 7 Thracian, 5 from Anatolia, 1 from Crete and the remaining 6 of other or uncertain origin.[129] Three distinct types of archers are shown on Trajan's Column: (a) with scalar cuirass, conical steel helmet and cloak; (b) without armour, with cloth conical cap and long tunic; or (c) equipped in the same way as general auxiliary foot-soldiers (apart from carrying bows instead of javelins). The first type were probably Syrian or Anatolian units; the third type probably Thracian.[130] The standard bow used by Roman auxilia was the recurved composite bow, a sophisticated, compact and powerful weapon.[128] Slingers[edit] Balearic slinger From about 218 BC onwards, the Republican army's slingers were exclusively mercenaries from the Balearic Islands, which had nurtured a strong indigenous tradition of slinging from prehistoric times. As a result, in classical Latin, Baleares (literally "inhabitants of the Balearic Islands") became an alternative word for "slingers" (funditores, from funda = "sling"). Because of this, it is uncertain whether the most of the imperial army's slingers continued to be drawn from the Balearics themselves, or, like archers, derived mainly from other regions. Independent slinger units are not attested in the epigraphic record of the Principate.[128] However, slingers are portrayed on Trajan's Column. They are shown unarmoured, wearing a short tunic. They carry a cloth bag, slung in front, to hold their shot (glandes).[130] Scouts/numeri[edit] Exploratores ('reconnaissance troops', from explorare = "to scout"). Two examples include numeri exploratorum attested to in the 3rd century in Britain: Habitanco and Bremenio (both names of forts).[131] It is possible, however, that more than 20 such units served in Britain.[132] The literal translation of numeri is 'numbers' and it was often used in the context of a generic title for any unit that was not of a standard size or structure. From the 2nd century onward they served as frontier guards, often supplied by the Sarmatians and the Germans.[133] Little else is known about such units. Irregular allied forces[edit] Throughout the Principate period, there is evidence of ethnic units of barbari outside the normal auxilia organisation fighting alongside Roman troops. To an extent, these units were simply a continuation of the old client-king levies of the late Republic: ad hoc bodies of troops supplied by Rome's puppet petty-kings on the imperial borders for particular campaigns. Some clearly remained in Roman service beyond the campaigns, keeping their own native leadership, attire and equipment and structure. These units were known to the Romans as socii ("allies"), symmachiarii (from symmachoi, Greek for "allies") or foederati ("treaty troops" from foedus, "treaty"). One estimate puts the number of foederati in the time of Trajan at about 11,000, divided into about 40 numeri (units) of about 300 men each. The purpose of employing foederati units was to use their specialist fighting skills.[134] Many of these would have been troops of Numidian cavalry (see light cavalry above). The foederati make their first official appearance on Trajan's Column, where they are portrayed in a standardised manner, with long hair and beards, barefoot, stripped to the waist, wearing long trousers held up by wide belts and wielding clubs. In reality, several different tribes supported the Romans in the Dacian wars. Their attire and weapons would have varied widely. The Column stereotypes them with the appearance of a single tribe, probably the most outlandish-looking, to differentiate them clearly from the regular auxilia.[135] Judging by the frequency of their appearance in the Column's battle scenes, the foederati were important contributors to the Roman operations in Dacia. Another example of foederati are the 5,500 captured Sarmatian cavalrymen sent by Emperor Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180) to garrison a fort on Hadrian's Wall after their defeat in the Marcomannic Wars.[136] Recruitment, ranks and pay[edit] The evidence for auxiliary ranks and pay is scant: even less exists than the patchy evidence for their legionary counterparts. There seems to be some consensus, however, that the auxiliary was paid one third of what a legionary received: 300 sesterces a year (400 after the reign of the emperor Commodus). Both auxiliaries and seamen received the viaticum of 300 sesterces, although the various sources differ as to whether auxiliaries and sailors received the retirement bonus[137] known as the honesta missio, or honorable discharge.[138][139] The available data may be broken down and summarised as follows: Auxilia ranks and pay (mid-1st century)[140] Pay scale (as multiple of basic) Cohors infantry rank (in ascending order) Amount (denarii) XXX Ala rank (in ascending order) Amount (denarii) 1 (caligati = "rankers") pedes (infantryman) 188 gregalis (ala cavalryman) 263 1.5 (sesquiplicarii = "one-and-half-pay men") tesserarius (corporal) 282 sesquiplicarius (corporal) 395 2 (duplicarii = "double-pay men") signifer (centuria standard-bearer) optio (centurion's deputy) vexillarius (cohort standard-bearer) 376 signifer (turma standard-bearer) curator? (decurion's deputy) vexillarius (ala standard-bearer) 526 Over 5 centurio (centurion = centuria commander) centurio princeps (chief centurion) beneficiarius? (deputy cohort commander) 940 + decurio (decurion = turma commander) decurio princeps (chief decurion) beneficiarius? (deputy ala commander) 1,315 + 50 praefectus or tribunus (cohort commander) 9,400 praefectus or tribunus (ala commander) 13,150 Rankers (caligati)[edit] Tombstone of Marius son of Ructicnus. The inscription states that he was a miles (ranker) of the Alpine infantry regiment Cohors I Montanorum, who died in his 25th year of service (i.e. in the final year of the minimum term for an auxiliary and just before qualifying for Roman citizenship). His heir, who erected the stone, is named Montanus, the same ethnic name as the regiment's, meaning a native of the eastern Alps, most likely the origin of the deceased. Note (top corners) the Alpine edelweiss flowers, called stella Alpina ("Alpine star") in Latin. These were either a regimental symbol, or a national symbol of the Montani. The crescent moon-and-star motif between the flowers may be either a regimental emblem or a religious symbol. Date: 1st century, probably ante 68. From Carinthia, Austria At the bottom end of the rank pyramid, rankers were known as caligati (lit: "sandal men" from the caligae or hob-nailed sandals worn by soldiers). Depending on the type of regiment they belonged to, they held the official ranks of pedes (foot soldier in a cohors), eques (cavalryman in a cohors equitata) and gregalis (ala cavalryman).[141] During the Principate, recruitment into the legions was restricted to Roman citizens only. This rule, which derived from the pre-Social War Republican army, was strictly enforced. The few exceptions recorded, such as during emergencies and for the illegitimate sons of legionaries, do not warrant the suggestion that the rule was routinely ignored.[142] In the 1st century, the vast majority of auxiliary common soldiers were recruited from the Roman peregrine (second-class citizens). In the Julio-Claudian era, conscription of peregrini seems to have been practiced alongside voluntary recruitment, probably in the form of a fixed proportion of men reaching military age in each tribe being drafted.[143] From the Flavian era onwards, the auxilia were an all-volunteer force.[144] Although recruits as young as 14 are recorded, the majority of recruits (66%) were from the 18–23 age group.[145] When it was first raised, an auxiliary regiment would have been recruited from the native tribe or people whose name it bore. In the early Julio-Claudian period, it seems that efforts were made to preserve the ethnic integrity of units, even when the regiment was posted in a faraway province. But in the later part of the period, recruitment in the region where the regiment was posted increased and became predominant from the Flavian era onwards.[143] The regiment would thus lose its original ethnic identity.[26] The unit's name would thus become a mere curiosity devoid of meaning, although some of its members might inherit foreign names from their veteran ancestors. This view has to be qualified, however, as evidence from military diplomas and other inscriptions shows that some units continued to recruit in their original home areas e.g. Batavi units stationed in Britain, where some units had an international membership.[74] It also appears that the Danubian provinces (Raetia, Pannonia, Moesia, Dacia) remained key recruiting grounds for units stationed all over the empire.[146][147] It appears that Roman citizens were also regularly recruited to the auxilia. Most likely, the majority of citizen recruits to auxiliary regiments were the sons of auxiliary veterans who were enfranchised on their fathers' discharge.[148] Many such may have preferred to join their fathers' old regiments, which were a kind of extended family to them, rather than join a much larger, unfamiliar legion. There are also instances of legionaries transferring to the auxilia (to a higher rank).[149] The incidence of citizens in the auxilia would thus have grown steadily over time until, after the grant of citizenship to all peregrini in 212, auxiliary regiments became predominantly, if not exclusively, citizen units. Less clearcut is the question of whether the regular auxilia recruited barbari (barbarians, as the Romans called people living outside the empire's borders). Although there is little evidence of it before the 3rd century, the consensus is that auxilia recruited barbarians throughout their history.[96][150] In the 3rd century, a few auxilia units of clearly barbarian origin start to appear in the record e.g. Ala I Sarmatarum, cuneus Frisiorum and numerus Hnaufridi in Britain.[151][152] There existed a hierarchy of pay between types of auxiliary, with cavalry higher paid than infantry. One recent estimate is that in the time of Augustus, the annual pay structure was: eques alaris (gregalis) 263 denarii, eques cohortalis 225, and cohors infantryman 188.[153] The same differentials (of about 20% between grades) seem to have existed at the time of Domitian (r. 81–96).[154] However, Goldsworthy points out that the common assumption that rates of pay were universal across provinces and units is unproven. Pay may have varied according to the origin of the unit.[155] The remuneration of an auxiliary pedes cohortalis may be compared to a legionary's as follows: Remuneration of Roman common foot soldiers (about AD 70)[156] Remuneration item legionary pedes: amount (denarii) (annualised) XXX auxiliary pedes amount (denarii) (annualised) Stipendium (gross salary) 225 188 Less: Food deduction 60 60 Less: Equipment etc. deductions 50 50 Net disposable pay 115 78 Plus: Donativa (bonuses) (average: 75 denarii every 3 years) 25 none proven Total disposable income 140 78 Praemia (discharge bonus: 3,000 denarii) 120 none proven Gross salary was subject to deductions for food, clothing, boots and hay (probably for the company mules). It is unclear whether the cost of armour and weapons was also deducted, or borne by the army. Deductions left the soldier with a net salary of 78 denarii. This sum was sufficient, on the basis of the food deduction, to amply feed an adult for a year. In 84 AD Domitian increased basic legionary pay by 33% (from 225 to 300 denarii): a similar increase was presumably accorded to auxiliaries, boosting their net income to 140 denarii, i.e. more than two food allowances.[157] It was entirely disposable, as the soldier was exempt from the poll tax (capitatio), did not pay rent (he was housed in fort barracks) and his food, clothing and equipment were already deducted. It should be borne in mind that most recruits came from peasant families living at subsistence level. To such persons, any disposable income would appear attractive.[158] It could be spent on leisure activities, sent to relatives or simply saved for retirement. There is no evidence that auxiliaries received the substantial cash bonuses (donativum) handed to legionaries on the accession of a new emperor and other occasions.[159] Although irregular, these payments (each worth 75 denarii to a common legionary) averaged once every 7.5 years in the early 1st century and every three years later. Duncan-Jones has suggested that donativa may have been paid to auxiliaries also from the time of Hadrian onwards, on the grounds that the total amount of donative to the military increased sharply at that time.[160] A very valuable benefit paid to legionaries was the discharge bonus (praemia) paid on completion of the full 25 years' service. At 3,000 denarii, this was equivalent to ten years' gross salary for a common legionary after the pay increase of 84 AD. It would enable him to purchase a substantial plot of land. Again, there is no indication that auxiliaries were paid a discharge bonus. For auxiliaries, the discharge bonus was the grant of Roman citizenship, which carried important tax exemptions. However, Duncan-Jones argues that the fact that service in the auxilia was competitive with the legions (deduced from the many Roman citizens that joined the auxilia) that a discharge bonus may have been paid.[161] Junior officers (principales)[edit] Below centurion/decurion rank, junior officers in the Roman army were known as principales. An auxiliary cohort's ranks appear the same as in a legionary centuria. These were, in ascending order: tesserarius ("officer of the watch"), signifer (standard-bearer for the centuria), optio (centurion's deputy) and vexillarius (standard-bearer for the whole regiment, from vexillum). In the turmae of cohortes equitatae (and of alae?), the decurion's second-in-command was probably known as a curator, responsible for horses and caparison.[162] As in the legions, the principales, together with some regimental specialists, were classified in two pay-scales: sesquiplicarii ("one-and-a-half-pay men") and duplicarii ("double-pay men").[153] These ranks are probably most closely resembled by the modern ranks of corporal and sergeant respectively. Besides combat effectives, regiments also contained specialists, the most senior of whom were sesquiplicarii or duplicarii, the rest common soldiers with the status of milities immunes ("exempt soldiers" i.e. exempt from normal duties). Ranking specialists included the medicus (regimental doctor), veterinarius (veterinary doctor, in charge of the care of horses, pack animals and livestock), custos armorum (keeper of the armoury), and the cornicularius (clerk in charge of all the regiment's records and paperwork).[163] Senior officers[edit] Tombstone of Titus Calidius Severus, a Roman cavalryman. The career summary in the inscription shows that Severus joined the auxiliary regiment cohors I Alpinorum, rising from eques (common cavalryman) through optio to decurion. He then switched to a legion (presumably after gaining Roman citizenship after 25 of his 34 years of service) and became a centurion in Legio XV Apollinaris (it appears that legion cavalrymen used infantry ranks). He died at age 58, probably a few years after his discharge. Note the portrayal of his chain-mail armour, centurion's transverse-crested helmet and his horse, led by his equerry, probably a slave. This soldier's long career shows that many auxiliaries served longer than the minimum 25 years, and sometimes joined legions. Erected by his brother, Quintus. Dates from ante 117, when XV Apollinaris was transferred from Carnuntum (Austria) to the East The limited evidence on auxiliary centuriones and decuriones is that such officers could be directly commissioned as well as promoted from the ranks. Many appear to have come from provincial aristocracies.[164] Those rising from the ranks could be promotions from the legions as well as from the regiment's own ranks. In the Julio-Claudian period auxiliary centuriones and decuriones were a roughly equal split between citizens and peregrini, though later citizens became predominant due to the spread of citizenship among military families.[149] Because centuriones and decuriones often rose from the ranks, they have often been compared to warrant officers such as sergeants-major in modern armies. However, centurions' social role was much wider than a modern warrant-officer. In addition to their military duties, centurions performed a wide range of administrative tasks, which was necessary in the absence of an adequate bureaucracy to support provincial governors. They were also relatively wealthy, due to their high salaries (see table above).[165] However, most of the surviving evidence concerns legionary centurions and it is uncertain whether their auxiliary counterparts shared their high status and non-military role.[164] There is little evidence about the pay-scales of auxiliary centuriones and decuriones, but these are also believed to have amounted to several times that of a miles.[165] Unlike a legatus legionis (who had an officer staff of 6 tribuni militum and one praefectus castrorum), an auxiliary praefectus does not appear to have enjoyed the support of purely staff officers. The possible exception is an attested beneficiarius ("deputy"), who may have been the praefectus' second-in-command, if this title was a regular rank and not simply an ad hoc appointment for a specific task. Also attached to the praefectus were the regiment's vexillarius (standard-bearer for the whole unit) and cornucen (horn-blower).[162] Commanders[edit] From a survey by Devijver of persons whose origin can be determined, it appears that during the 1st century, the large majority (65%) of auxiliary prefects were of Italian origin. The Italian proportion dropped steadily, to 38% in the 2nd century, and 21% in the 3rd century.[166] From the time of emperor Claudius (r. 41–54) only Roman knights were eligible to hold command of an auxiliary regiment. This status could be obtained either by birth (i.e. if the person was the son of a hereditary Roman knight; or by attaining the property qualification (100,000 denarii, the equivalent of 400 years' gross salary for an auxiliary alaris); or by military promotion: the latter were the chief centurions of legions (centurio primus pilus) who would normally be elevated to equestrian rank by the emperor after completing their single-year term as primuspilus.[167] Equestrians by birth would normally begin their military careers at c. 30 years of age. An axillary had to do 25 years of service before joining the army. Commands were held in a set sequence, each held for 3–4 years: prefect of an auxiliary cohors, tribunus militum in a legion and finally prefect of an auxiliary ala. In Hadrian's time, a fourth command was added, for exceptionally able officers, of prefect of an ala milliaria. Like officers senatorial rank, hereditary equestrians held civilian posts before and after their decade of military service, whereas non-hereditary officers tended to remain in the army, commanding various units in various provinces. By the 3rd century, most auxiliary prefects had exclusively military careers.[167][168] The pay of a praefectus of an auxiliary regiment in the early 2nd century has been estimated at over 50 times that of a miles (common soldier).[111] (This compares to a full colonel in the British Army, who is currently paid about five times a private's salary).[169] The reason for the huge gap between the top and the bottom of the pyramid is that Roman society was far more hierarchical than a modern one. A praefectus was not just a senior officer. He was also a Roman citizen (which most of his men were not) and, as a member of the equestrian order, an aristocrat. The social gulf between the praefectus and a peregrinus soldier was thus immense, and the pay differential reflected that fact. Names, titles and decorations[edit] Regimental names[edit] The nomenclature of the great majority of regiments followed a standard configuration: unit type, followed by serial number, followed by name of the peregrini tribe (or nation) from whom the regiment was originally raised, in the genitive plural case e.g. cohors III Batavorum ("3rd Cohort of Batavi"); cohors I Brittonum ("1st Cohort of Britons"). Some regiments combine the names of two peregrini tribes, most likely after the merger of two previously separate regiments e.g. ala I Pannoniorum et Gallorum ("1st Wing of Pannonii and Gauls"). A minority of regiments are named after an individual, mostly after the first prefect of the regiment, e.g. ala Sulpicia (presumably named after a prefect whose middle (gens) name was Sulpicius). The latter is also an example of a regiment that did not have a serial number.[170] Titles[edit] Regiments were often rewarded for meritorious service by the grant of an honorific title. The most sought-after was the prestigious c.R. (civium Romanorum = "of Roman citizens") title. In the latter case, all the regiment's members at the time, but not their successors, would be granted Roman citizenship. But the regiment would retain the c.R. title in perpetuity. Another common title was the gens name of the emperor making the award (or founding the regiment) e.g. Ulpia: the gens name of Trajan (Marcus Ulpius Traianus r.98–117). Other titles were similar to those given to the legions e.g. pia fidelis (p.f. = "dutiful and loyal").[171] Decorations[edit] The Roman army awarded a variety of individual decorations (dona) for valour to its legionaries. Hasta pura was a miniature spear; phalerae were large medal-like bronze or silver discs worn on the cuirass; armillae were bracelets worn on the wrist; and torques were worn round the neck, or on the cuirass. The highest awards were the coronae ("crowns"), of which the most prestigious was the corona civica, a crown made of oak-leaves awarded for saving the life of a Roman citizen in battle. The most valuable award was the corona muralis, a crown made of gold awarded to the first man to scale an enemy rampart. This was awarded rarely, as such a man hardly ever survived.[159] There is no evidence that auxiliary common soldiers received individual decorations, although auxiliary officers did. Instead, the whole regiment was honoured by a title reflecting the type of award e.g. torquata (awarded a torque) or armillata (awarded bracelets). Some regiments would, in the course of time, accumulate a long list of titles and decorations e.g. cohors I Brittonum Ulpia torquata pia fidelis c.R..[171] Deployment in the 2nd century[edit] Imperial auxilia: Summary of known deployments c. 130 AD[172] Province Approx. modern equivalent Alae (no. mill.) Cohortes (no. mill.) Total aux. units Auxiliary infantry Auxiliary cavalry* Total auxilia Britannia England/Wales 11 (1) 45 (6) 56 25,520 10,688 36,208 Rhine Frontier Germania Inferior S Neth/NW Rhineland 6 17 23 8,160 4,512 12,672 Germania Superior Pfalz/Alsace 3 22 (1) 25 10,880 3,336 14,216 Danube Frontier Raetia/Noricum S Ger/Switz/Austria 7 (1) 20 (5) 27 11,220 5,280 16,500 Pannonia (Inf + Sup) W Hungary/Slovenia/Croatia 11 (2) 21 (4) 32 11,360 8,304 19,664 Moesia Superior Serbia 2 10 12 4,800 1,864 6,664 Moesia Inferior N Bulgaria/coastal Rom 5 12 17 5,760 3,520 9,280 Dacia (Inf/Sup/Poroliss) Romania 11 (1) 32 (8) 43 17,920 7,328 25,248 Eastern Frontier Cappadocia Central/East Turkey 4 15 (2) 19 7,840 3,368 11,208 Syria (inc Judaea/Arabia) Syria/Leb/Palest/Jordan/Israel 12 (1) 43 (3) 55 21,600 10,240 31,840 North Africa Aegyptus Egypt 4 11 15 5,280 3,008 8,288 Mauretania (inc Africa) Tunisia/Algeria/Morocco 10 (1) 30 (1) 40 14,720 7,796 22,516 Internal provinces 2 15 17 7,200 2,224 9,424 Total Empire 88 (7) 293 (30) 381 152,260 71,468 223,728 Roman Empire during Hadrian's reign (AD 125) Notes: (1) Table excludes about 2,000 officers (centurions and above). (2) Auxiliary cavalry nos. assumes 70% of cohortes were equitatae Analysis The table shows the importance of auxiliary troops in the 2nd century, when they outnumbered legionaries by 1.5 to 1. The table shows that legions did not have a standard complement of auxiliary regiments[173] and that there was no fixed ratio of auxiliary regiments to legions in each province. The ratio varied from six regiments per legion in Cappadocia to 40 per legion in Mauretania. Overall, cavalry represented about 20% (including the small contingents of legionary cavalry) of the total army effectives. But there were variations: in Mauretania the cavalry proportion was 28%. The figures show the massive deployments in Britannia and Dacia. Together, these two provinces account for 27% of the total auxilia corps. See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal War portal Imperial Roman army List of Roman auxiliary regiments Roman auxiliaries in Britain Structural history of the Roman military Citations[edit] ^ Campbell, Duncan B. (2009). Roman Auxiliary Forts 27 BC-AD 378. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84603-380-3 ^ Goldsworthy (2000) 44 ^ Goldsworthy (2000) 51 ^ Goldsworthy (2000) 49 ^ a b c d Holder (2003) 145 ^ a b Hassall (2000) 320 ^ Goldsworthy (2000) 74–5 ^ Goldsworthy (2000) 78–9 ^ a b c Goldsworthy (2000) 126 ^ Goldsworthy (2000) 107 ^ Keppie (1996) 372 ^ Keppie (196) 375 ^ Livy Ab Urbe Condita XXII.37 ^ G.L. Cheesman, The Auxilia of the Roman Imperial Army (Oxford, 1914), 8–9. ^ Keppie (1996) 373 ^ Keppie (1996) 379 ^ a b c d e Goldsworthy (2000) 127 ^ Holder (1980) 7 ^ Goldsworthy (2000) 214 ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 27 ^ Holder (1980) 9 ^ Keppie (1996) 382 ^ Holder (1982) 110–3 ^ Tacitus Annales IV.5 ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 51 ^ a b c d Keppie (1996) 396 ^ Goldsworthy (2000) 119 ^ Holder (1982) 145 ^ Dio LV.29.1 ^ Dio LV.29.2 ^ Dio LV.29.3 ^ Dio LV.29.4 ^ Dio LV.30.1 ^ Dio LV.31.1 ^ a b Suetonius III.16 ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 64 ^ Dio LV.30.6 ^ Dio LV.30.5 ^ Suetonius III.17 ^ Goldsworthy (2000) 165–6 ^ a b c d e Keppie (1996) 391 ^ http://www.romanlegions.info Archived 2014-01-05 at the Wayback Machine Military Diplomas Online Introduction ^ Keppie (1996) 390 ^ a b Tacitus Historiae IV.18 ^ Tacitus Historiae IV.12 ^ Birley (2002) 43 ^ Scheidel (2006) 9 ^ Tacitus Germania 29.1 and Historiae II.28 ^ Dio Cassius LXIX.9.6 ^ Tacitus Historiae IV.12 ^ Tacitus Annales IV.12 ^ Tacitus Historiae IV.13 ^ Tacitus Historiae II.5 ^ Tacitus Historiae I.64, II.66 ^ Tacitus Historiae IV.14 ^ Tacitus Historiae IV.13 ^ Tacitus Historiae IV.54 ^ Tacitus Historiae IV.24, 27 ^ Tacitus Historiae IV.15–6 ^ Tacitus Historiae IV.16 ^ Tacitus Historiae IV.20 ^ Tacitus Historiae IV.21, 28 ^ Tacitus Historiae IV.33, 66, 67 ^ Tacitus Historiae ^ Tacitus Historiae IV.68 ^ Tacitus Historiae V ^ Tacitus Historiae V.26 ^ Birley (2002) 44 ^ Tacitus Agricola 35–8 ^ Notitia Dignitatum Titles IV and V ^ Mattingly (2006) 132 ^ Roxan (2003); Holder (2006) ^ Keppie (1996) 394 ^ a b Mattingly (2006) 168–9 ^ a b Hassall (2000) 332–4 ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 138 ^ Spaul (2000) 526 ^ a b Holder (2003), p. 119 ^ Goldsworthy (2000) 152 (map): Legiones II and III Italica under Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–80) and I, II and III Parthica under Septimius Severus (r. 197–211) ^ 25 legions of 5,000 men each ^ 28 legions of 5,500 each (double-strength 1st cohorts introduced under Domitian (r. 81–96) ^ Goldsworthy (2000) 152 (map): 33 legions of 5,500 each ^ Tacitus Annales IV.5 ^ Holder (2003) 120 ^ J. C. Spaul ALA (1996) 257–60 and COHORS 2 (2000) 523–7 identify 4 alae and 20–30 cohortes raised in the late 2nd/early 3rd centuries ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 58: 9 cohorts of 480 men each plus German bodyguards ^ a b Rankov (1994) 8 ^ Implied by Tacitus Annales ^ Hassall (2000) 320 estimates 380,000 ^ MacMullen How Big was the Roman Army? in KLIO (1979) 454 estimates 438,000 ^ Assuming 33% drop in nos. due to war/disease ^ John Lydus De Mensibus I.47 ^ Holder (2006) 985; Roxan (2003) 672 ^ Campbell (2005) 212 ^ The Roman Law Library Constitutio Antoniniana de Civitate ^ a b Goldsworthy (2003) 74 ^ a b Elton (1996) 148–52 ^ Goldsworthy (2000) 162 ^ D. Ch. Stathakopoulos Famine and Pestilence in the late Roman and early Byzantine Empire (2007) 95 ^ Zosimus New History 26, 37, 46 ^ MacMullen (1979) 455 ^ Lee (1997) 223 ^ http://www.roman-britain.org Archived 2003-12-17 at the Wayback Machine list of alae ^ Dio LXXI ^ Jones (1964) 620 ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 206 ^ Jones (1964) 610 ^ Notitia Dignitatum passim ^ Goldsworthy (2000) 174 ^ Vegetius III.3 ^ a b c Birley (2002) 46 ^ Arrian Ars Tactica 17.3 ^ Hassall (2000) 339 ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 136 ^ Goldsworthy (2003), pp. 52–53 ^ Goldsworthy (2000), p. 52 ^ Fields, Nic (2011-04-19). Boudicca's Rebellion AD 60–61. p. 38. ISBN 978-1-84908-313-3. ^ Goldsworthy (2003), p. 168 ^ Cheesman (1914) ^ Davies (1988), pp. 141–143 ^ Goldsworthy (2000), p. 140 ^ Holder (2003), pp. 135, 133 ^ Livy XXXV.12 ^ Rossi (1971), p. 104 ^ Sidnell (2006), p. 172 ^ CAH XII 212 ^ Holder (2003), p. 140 ^ a b c Goldsworthy (2003), p. 137 ^ Holder (2003) ^ a b Rossi (1971), p. 102 ^ Mattingly, 2006, 223 ^ Holder, The Roman Army in Britain Batsford, 1982. ^ Dando-Collins, The Legions of Rome, pp40, Quercus (2010). ^ Grant (1985), p. 72 ^ Rossi (1971), p. 104. ^ Dio Cassius LXXI.16 ^ Starr, Imperial Roman Navy, 31BC-AD324 Westport, 1975. ^ Gardiner 2000, p. 80 ^ Morris, Londinium, pp44, Book Club Associates, 1982 ^ Based on data in Goldsworthy (2003) 95–5; Holder (1980) 86–96; Elton (1996) 123 ^ Davies (1988) 148 ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 78, 80 ^ a b Holder (1980) 123 ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 76 ^ Holder (1980) 138 ^ Military Diplomas Online Introduction ^ RMD Vol V Appendix 4 e.g. RMD 127, 128 ^ Mattingly (2006) 190 ^ a b Holder (1980) 86–8 ^ Heather (2005) 119 ^ Mattingly (2006) 223 ^ http://www.roman-britain.org Archived 2003-12-17 at the Wayback Machine List of auxiliary units in Britain ^ a b Goldsworthy (2003) 94 ^ Hassall (2000) 336 ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 95 ^ Based on figs in Goldsworthy (2003) 94; Duncan-Jones (1994) 33–41 ^ Duncan-Jones (1994) 34 ^ Jones (1964) 647 ^ a b Goldsworthy (2003) 96 ^ Duncan-Jones (1994) 40 ^ Duncan-Jones (1994) 36 ^ a b Birley (2002) 47 ^ Birley (2002) 47–8; Vindolanda Tablets Online Introduction: Personnel ^ a b Goldsworthy (2003) 73 ^ a b Goldsworthy (2003) 72 ^ Dewijver (1992) 120 ^ a b Goldsworthy (2003) 65–6 ^ Goldsworthy (2000) 165 ^ "Armed Forces - Defence Suppliers Directory - Defence And Security Consultancy - Military Books - Armed Forces of Europe - Royal Navy - British Army - Royal Air Force - RAF - Defence News - Defence Projects". www.armedforces.co.uk. Archived from the original on 19 April 2018. Retrieved 9 May 2018. ^ Holder (1980) Chapter 2 ^ a b Goldsworthy (2003) 97 ^ Auxiliary unit figures from Holder (2003) 145 ^ Goldsworthy (2000) References[edit] Ancient[edit] Arrian Acies contra Alanos (early 2nd century) Dio Cassius Roman History (mid-3rd century) Suetonius De vita Caesarum (early 2nd century) Tacitus Agricola (end of 1st century) Tacitus Annales (end of 1st century) Tacitus Historiae (end of 1st century) Vegetius De re militari (late 4th century) Modern[edit] Birley, Anthony (2002). Band of Brothers: Garrison Life at Vindolanda. Burton, G. (1988). The Roman World (J. Wacher ed.). Campbell, Brian (2005). "The Army" in Cambridge Ancient History 2nd Ed Vol XII (The Crisis of Empire 193–337). Davies, R.W. (1988). Service in the Roman Army. Devijver, Hubert (1992). The Equestrian Officers of the Roman Imperial Army. Duncan-Jones, Richard (1990). Structure and Scale in the Roman Economy. Duncan-Jones, Richard (1994). Money and Government in the Roman Empire. Elton, Hugh (1996). Frontiers of the Roman empire. Goldsworthy, Adrian (2000). Roman Warfare. Goldsworthy, Adrian (2003). Complete Roman Army. Grant, Michael (1985). The Roman Emperors. Hassall, Mark (2000). "The Army" in Cambridge Ancient History 2nd Ed Vol XI (The High Empire 70–192). Holder, Paul (1980). Studies in the Auxilia of the Roman Army. Holder, Paul (1982). The Roman Army in Britain. Holder, Paul (2003). Auxiliary Deployment in the Reign of Hadrian. Holder, Paul (2006). Roman Military Diplomas V. Keppie, Lawrence (1996). "The Army and the Navy" in Cambridge Ancient History 2nd Ed Vol X (The Augustan Empire 30BC – 69 AD). Luttwak, Edward (1976). Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire. Mattingly, David (2006). An Imperial Possession: Britain in the Roman Empire. Jones, A.H.M. (1964). The Later Roman Empire. Rossi, L. (1971). Trajan's Column and the Dacian Wars. Ithaca, N.Y., Cornell University Press. Roxan, Margaret (2003). Roman Military Diplomas IV. Spaul, John (2000). COHORS2. 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en-wikipedia-org-7897	----	Fall of the Western Roman Empire - Wikipedia Fall of the Western Roman Empire From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Fall of Rome" redirects here. For other uses, see Fall of Rome (disambiguation). "The Fall of the Roman Empire" redirects here. For the film, see The Fall of the Roman Empire (film). Political change in late antiquity that came with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire   Republic   Empire   Eastern Roman/Byzantine Empire   Western Empire v t e Fall of the Western Roman Empire Gothic War (376–382) Gothic War (401-403) Florence Faesulae Crossing of the Rhine Ostia Rome (410) Massilia Nervasos Mountains Tarraco Arles (425) Mérida Hippo Regius Rimini Arles (435) Narbonne Carthage Toulouse (439) Vicus Helena Utus Catalaunian Plains (Chalons) Aquileia Rome (455) Agrigentum Corsica Garigliano Camp Cannini Toulouse (458) Arelate Cartagena Orleans Cape Bon Déols Arles (471) Rome (472) Ravenna (475) Pavia Ravenna (476) The fall of the Western Roman Empire (also called the fall of the Roman Empire or the fall of Rome) was the process of decline in the Western Roman Empire in which the Empire failed to enforce its rule, and its vast territory was divided into several successor polities. The Roman Empire lost the strengths that had allowed it to exercise effective control over its Western provinces; modern historians posit factors including the effectiveness and numbers of the army, the health and numbers of the Roman population, the strength of the economy, the competence of the Emperors, the internal struggles for power, the religious changes of the period, and the efficiency of the civil administration. Increasing pressure from invading barbarians outside Roman culture also contributed greatly to the collapse. Climate change has been suggested as a driver of the changes in some of these factors.[1] The reasons for the collapse are major subjects of the historiography of the ancient world and they inform much modern discourse on state failure.[2][3][4] In 376, unmanageable numbers of Goths and other non-Roman people, fleeing from the Huns, entered the Empire. In 395, after winning two destructive civil wars, Theodosius I died, leaving a collapsing field army and the Empire, still plagued by Goths, divided between the warring ministers of his two incapable sons. Further barbarian groups crossed the Rhine and other frontiers and, like the Goths, were not exterminated, expelled or subjugated. The armed forces of the Western Empire became few and ineffective, and despite brief recoveries under able leaders, central rule was never effectively consolidated. By 476, the position of Western Roman Emperor wielded negligible military, political, or financial power, and had no effective control over the scattered Western domains that could still be described as Roman. Barbarian kingdoms had established their own power in much of the area of the Western Empire. In 476, Odoacer deposed the last emperor in Italy, and the Western Senate sent the imperial insignia to the Eastern Emperor. While its legitimacy lasted for centuries longer and its cultural influence remains today, the Western Empire never had the strength to rise again. It never again controlled any portion of Western Europe to the North of the Alps. The Eastern Roman, or Byzantine Empire survived, and though lessened in strength remained for centuries an effective power of the Eastern Mediterranean. While the loss of political unity and military control is universally acknowledged, the Fall is not the only unifying concept for these events; the period described as Late Antiquity emphasizes the cultural continuities throughout and beyond the political collapse. Contents 1 Historical approaches 1.1 Timespan 1.2 Reasons 1.3 Alternative descriptions and labels 2 Height of power, crises, and recoveries 2.1 Height of power, systematic weaknesses 2.2 Climatic worsening and plague 2.3 Crisis of the Third Century 2.4 Reunification and political division 2.5 Growing social divisions 3 313–376: Abuse of power, frontier warfare, and rise of Christianity 4 376–395; invasions, civil wars, and religious discord 4.1 Battle of Adrianople 4.2 Partial recovery in the Balkans, internal corruption and financial desperation 4.3 Civil wars 5 Military, financial, and political ineffectiveness: the process of failure 6 395–406; Stilicho 6.1 Stilicho's attempts to unify the Empire, revolts, and invasions 7 408–410; the end of effective regular field armies (410-455), starvation in Italy, sack of Rome 7.1 Stilicho's fall and Alaric's reaction 7.2 Alaric besieges Rome 7.3 The Goths move out of Italy 8 405–418 in the Gallic provinces; barbarians and usurpers, loss of Britannia, partial loss of Hispania and Gaul 8.1 Settlement of 418; barbarians within the empire 9 421–433; renewed dissension after the death of Constantius, partial loss of the Diocese of Africa 10 433–454; ascendancy of Aetius, loss of Carthage 10.1 444–453; attacks by the empire of Attila the Hun 11 455–456; failure of Avitus, further losses in Gaul, rise of Ricimer 12 457–467; resurgence under Majorian, attempt to recover Africa, control by Ricimer 13 467–472, Anthemius; an Emperor and an army from the East 14 472–476; the final emperors, puppets of the warlords 15 From 476; last Emperor, rump states 16 Legacy 17 See also 18 Notes 19 References 20 Bibliography 21 External links Historical approaches Main article: Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire Since 1776, when Edward Gibbon published the first volume of his The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Decline and Fall has been the theme around which much of the history of the Roman Empire has been structured. "From the eighteenth century onward," historian Glen Bowersock wrote, "we have been obsessed with the fall: it has been valued as an archetype for every perceived decline, and, hence, as a symbol for our own fears."[5] The Fall is not the only unifying concept for these events; the period described as Late Antiquity emphasizes the cultural continuities throughout and beyond the political collapse. Timespan The Fall of the Western Roman Empire was the process in which it failed to enforce its rule. The loss of centralized political control over the West, and the lessened power of the East, are universally agreed, but the theme of decline has been taken to cover a much wider time span than the hundred years from 376. For Cassius Dio, the accession of the emperor Commodus in 180 CE marked the descent "from a kingdom of gold to one of rust and iron",[6] while Gibbon also began his narrative of decline from the reign of Commodus, after a number of introductory chapters. Arnold J. Toynbee and James Burke argue that the entire Imperial era was one of steady decay of institutions founded in republican times, while Theodor Mommsen excluded the imperial period from his Nobel Prize-winning History of Rome (1854–56). As one convenient marker for the end, 476 has been used since Gibbon, but other key dates for the fall of the Roman Empire in the West include the Crisis of the Third Century, the Crossing of the Rhine in 406 (or 405), the sack of Rome in 410, and the death of Julius Nepos in 480.[7][page needed] Routes taken by barbarian invaders of the Roman Empire during the Migration Period Reasons Gibbon gave a classic formulation of reasons why the Fall happened. He gave great weight to internal decline as well as to attacks from outside the Empire. The story of its ruin is simple and obvious; and, instead of inquiring why the Roman empire was destroyed, we should rather be surprised that it had subsisted so long. The victorious legions, who, in distant wars, acquired the vices of strangers and mercenaries, first oppressed the freedom of the republic, and afterwards violated the majesty of the purple. The emperors, anxious for their personal safety and the public peace, were reduced to the base expedient of corrupting the discipline which rendered them alike formidable to their sovereign and to the enemy; the vigour of the military government was relaxed, and finally dissolved, by the partial institutions of Constantine; and the Roman world was overwhelmed by a deluge of Barbarians. — Edward Gibbon. The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, "General Observations on the Fall of the Roman Empire in the West", Chapter 38 Gibbon felt that Christianity had hastened the Fall, but also ameliorated the results: As the happiness of a future life is the great object of religion, we may hear without surprise or scandal that the introduction, or at least the abuse of Christianity, had some influence on the decline and fall of the Roman empire... the soldiers' pay was lavished on the useless multitudes of both sexes who could only plead the merits of abstinence and chastity... If the decline of the Roman empire was hastened by the conversion of Constantine, his victorious religion broke the violence of the fall, and mollified the ferocious temper of the conquerors (chapter 38).[8] Some modern Roman historians do not believe that Christianity per se had a significant role in the Empire's fall, in part because of the Eastern (and thoroughly Christian) empire’s continuation for almost a thousand years longer.[9] Alexander Demandt enumerated 210 different theories on why Rome fell, and new ideas have emerged since.[10][11] Historians still try to analyze the reasons for loss of political control over a vast territory (and, as a subsidiary theme, the reasons for the survival of the Eastern Roman Empire). Comparison has also been made with China after the end of the Han dynasty, which re-established unity under the Sui dynasty while the Mediterranean world remained politically disunited. Harper identifies a Roman climatic optimum from about 200 BCE to 150 CE, when lands around the Mediterranean were generally warm and well-watered. From 150 to 450, the climate entered a transitional period, in which taxes were less easy to collect and bore more heavily on the working population. After about 450, the climate worsened further in the Late Antique Little Ice Age.[12][page needed] Climate change has also been suggested as a driver of changes in populations outside the Empire, in particular on the Eurasian steppe.[13] Alternative descriptions and labels Main article: Late Antiquity From at least the time of Henri Pirenne scholars have described a continuity of Roman culture and political legitimacy long after 476.[citation needed] Pirenne postponed the demise of classical civilization to the 8th century. He challenged the notion that Germanic barbarians had caused the Western Roman Empire to end, and he refused to equate the end of the Western Roman Empire with the end of the office of emperor in Italy. He pointed out the essential continuity of the economy of the Roman Mediterranean even after the barbarian invasions, and suggested that only the Muslim conquests represented a decisive break with antiquity. The more recent formulation of a historical period characterized as "Late Antiquity" emphasizes the transformations of ancient to medieval worlds within a cultural continuity.[14] In recent decades archaeologically-based argument even extends the continuity in material culture and in patterns of settlement as late as the eleventh century.[15][16][page needed][17][page needed] Observing the political reality of lost control (and the attendant fragmentation of commerce, culture, and language), but also the cultural and archaeological continuities, the process has been described as a complex cultural transformation, rather than a fall.[18][page needed] Height of power, crises, and recoveries Height of power, systematic weaknesses The Roman Empire reached its greatest geographical extent under Trajan (r. 98–117), who ruled a prosperous state that stretched from Armenia to the Atlantic. The Empire had large numbers of trained, supplied, and disciplined soldiers, drawn from a growing population. It had a comprehensive civil administration based in thriving cities with effective control over public finances. Among its literate elite it had ideological legitimacy as the only worthwhile form of civilization and a cultural unity based on comprehensive familiarity with Greek and Roman literature and rhetoric. The Empire's power allowed it to maintain extreme differences of wealth and status (including slavery on a large scale),[19][page needed] and its wide-ranging trade networks permitted even modest households to use goods made by professionals far away.[20] The empire had both strength and resilience. Its financial system allowed it to raise significant taxes which, despite endemic corruption, supported a large regular army with logistics and training. The cursus honorum, a standardized series of military and civil posts organised for ambitious aristocratic men, ensured that powerful noblemen became familiar with military and civil command and administration. At a lower level within the army, connecting the aristocrats at the top with the private soldiers, a large number of centurions were well-rewarded, literate, and responsible for training, discipline, administration, and leadership in battle.[21] City governments with their own properties and revenues functioned effectively at a local level; membership of city councils involved lucrative opportunities for independent decision-making, and, despite its obligations, became seen as a privilege. Under a series of emperors who each adopted a mature and capable successor, the Empire did not require civil wars to regulate the imperial succession. Requests could be submitted directly to the better emperors, and the answers had the force of law, putting the imperial power directly in touch with even humble subjects.[22] The cults of polytheist religion were hugely varied, but none claimed that theirs was the only truth, and their followers displayed mutual tolerance, producing a polyphonous religious harmony.[23] Religious strife was rare after the suppression of the Bar Kokhba revolt in 136 (after which the devastated Judaea ceased to be a major centre for Jewish unrest). Nevertheless, it remained a culture based on an early subsistence economy, with no germ theory of disease. Despite its aqueducts, the water supply did not allow good hygiene, and sewage was disposed of on the streets, in open drains, or by scavenging animals. Even in the Roman Climatic Optimum, local harvest failures causing famines were always a possibility.[24][page needed] And even in good times, Roman women needed to have, on average, six children each in order to maintain the population.[24][page needed] Good nourishment and bodily cleanliness were privileges of the rich, advertised by their firm tread, healthy skin color, and lack of the "dull smell of the underbathed".[25] Infant mortality was very high, diarrhoeal diseases were a major cause of death, and malaria was endemic in many areas, notably in the city of Rome itself, possibly encouraged by the enthusiasm of rich Romans for water features in their gardens.[24][page needed] Climatic worsening and plague From about 150, the climate became on average somewhat worse for most of the inhabited lands around the Mediterranean.[26][27] Heavy mortality in 165–180 from the Antonine Plague seriously impaired attempts to repel Germanic invaders, but the legions generally held or at least speedily re-instated the borders of the Empire.[28] Roman Empire in the early second century Crisis of the Third Century Main article: Crisis of the Third Century The Empire suffered multiple serious crises during the third century. The rising Sassanid Empire inflicted three crushing defeats on Roman field armies and remained a potent threat for centuries.[29] Other disasters included repeated civil wars, barbarian invasions, and more mass-mortality in the Plague of Cyprian (from 250 onwards). Rome abandoned the province of Dacia on the north of the Danube (271), and for a short period the Empire split into a Gallic Empire in the West (260–274), a Palmyrene Empire in the East (260–273), and a central Roman rump state. The Rhine/Danube frontier also came under more effective threats from larger barbarian groupings, which had developed improved agriculture and increased their populations.[30][31] The average nutritional state of the population in the West suffered a serious decline in the late second century; the population of North-Western Europe did not recover, though the Mediterranean regions did.[32] The Empire survived the "Crisis of the Third Century", directing its economy successfully towards defense, but survival came at the price of a more centralized and bureaucratic state. Under Gallienus (Emperor from 253 to 268) the senatorial aristocracy ceased joining the ranks of the senior military commanders, its typical members lacking interest in military service and showing incompetence at command.[33][34] The divided Empire in 271 CE Reunification and political division Aurelian reunited the empire in 274, and from 284 Diocletian and his successors reorganized it with more emphasis on the military. John the Lydian, writing over two centuries later, reported that Diocletian's army at one point totaled 389,704 men, plus 45,562 in the fleets, and numbers may have increased later.[35] With the limited communications of the time, both the European and the Eastern frontiers needed the attention of their own supreme commanders. Diocletian tried to solve this problem by re-establishing an adoptive succession with a senior (Augustus) and junior (Caesar) emperor in each half of the Empire, but this system of tetrarchy broke down within one generation; the hereditary principle re-established itself with generally unfortunate results, and thereafter civil war became again the main method of establishing new imperial regimes. Although Constantine the Great (in office 306 to 337) again re-united the Empire, towards the end of the fourth century the need for division was generally accepted. From then on, the Empire existed in constant tension between the need for two emperors and their mutual mistrust.[29] Until late in the fourth century the united Empire retained sufficient power to launch attacks against its enemies in Germania and in the Sassanid Empire. Receptio of barbarians became widely practised: imperial authorities admitted potentially hostile groups into the Empire, split them up, and allotted to them lands, status, and duties within the imperial system.[36] In this way many groups provided unfree workers (coloni) for Roman landowners, and recruits (laeti) for the Roman army. Sometimes their leaders became officers. Normally the Romans managed the process carefully, with sufficient military force on hand to ensure compliance, and cultural assimilation followed over the next generation or two. The Roman Empire under the Tetrarchy, showing the dioceses and the four Tetrarchs' zones of responsibility Growing social divisions The new supreme rulers disposed of the legal fiction of the early Empire (seeing the emperor as but the first among equals); emperors from Aurelian (reigned 270–275) onwards openly styled themselves as dominus et deus, "lord and god", titles appropriate for a master-slave relationship.[37] An elaborate court ceremonial developed, and obsequious flattery became the order of the day. Under Diocletian, the flow of direct requests to the emperor rapidly reduced and soon ceased altogether. No other form of direct access replaced them, and the emperor received only information filtered through his courtiers.[38] Official cruelty, supporting extortion and corruption, may also have become more commonplace.[39] While the scale, complexity, and violence of government were unmatched,[40] the emperors lost control over their whole realm insofar as that control came increasingly to be wielded by anyone who paid for it.[41] Meanwhile, the richest senatorial families, immune from most taxation, engrossed more and more of the available wealth and income,[42][43] while also becoming divorced from any tradition of military excellence. One scholar identifies a great increase in the purchasing power of gold, two and a half fold from 274 to the later fourth century, which may be an index of growing economic inequality between a gold-rich elite and a cash-poor peasantry.[44] Within the late Roman military, many recruits and even officers had barbarian origins, and soldiers are recorded as using possibly-barbarian rituals such as elevating a claimant on shields.[45] Some scholars have seen this as an indication of weakness; others disagree, seeing neither barbarian recruits nor new rituals as causing any problem with the effectiveness or loyalty of the army.[46] 313–376: Abuse of power, frontier warfare, and rise of Christianity Further information: History of late ancient Christianity In 313 Constantine I declared official toleration of Christianity, followed over the ensuing decades by establishment of Christian orthodoxy and by official and private action against pagans and non-orthodox Christians. His successors generally continued this process, and Christianity became the religion of any ambitious civil official. Under Constantine the cities lost their revenue from local taxes, and under Constantius II (r. 337–361) their endowments of property.[47] This worsened the existing difficulty in keeping the city councils up to strength, and the services provided by the cities were scamped or abandoned.[47] Public building projects became fewer, more often repairs than new construction, and now provided at state expense rather than by local grandees wishing to consolidate long-term local influence.[48] A further financial abuse was Constantius's increased habit of granting to his immediate entourage the estates of persons condemned of treason and other capital charges; this reduced future though not immediate income, and those close to the emperor gained a strong incentive to stimulate his suspicion of plots.[47] Constantine settled Franks on the lower left bank of the Rhine; their settlements required a line of fortifications to keep them in check, indicating that Rome had lost almost all local control.[39] Under Constantius, bandits came to dominate areas such as Isauria well within the empire.[49] The tribes of Germany also became more populous and more threatening.[30] In Gaul, which did not really recover from the invasions of the third century, there was widespread insecurity and economic decline in the 300s,[30] perhaps worst in Armorica. By 350, after decades of pirate attacks, virtually all villas in Armorica were deserted, and local use of money ceased about 360.[50] Repeated attempts to economize on military expenditure included billeting troops in cities, where they could less easily be kept under military discipline and could more easily extort from civilians.[51] Except in the rare case of a determined and incorruptible general, these troops proved ineffective in action and dangerous to civilians.[52] Frontier troops were often given land rather than pay; as they farmed for themselves, their direct costs diminished, but so did their effectiveness, and there was much less economic stimulus to the frontier economy.[53] However, except for the provinces along the lower Rhine, the agricultural economy was generally doing well.[54] The numbers and effectiveness of the regular soldiers may have declined during the fourth century: payrolls were inflated so that pay could be diverted and exemptions from duty sold, their opportunities for personal extortion were multiplied by residence in cities, and their effectiveness was reduced by concentration on extortion instead of drill.[55] However, extortion, gross corruption, and occasional ineffectiveness[56] were not new to the Roman army; there is no consensus whether its effectiveness significantly declined before 376.[57] Ammianus Marcellinus, himself a professional soldier, repeats longstanding observations about the superiority of contemporary Roman armies being due to training and discipline, not to physical size or strength.[58] Despite a possible decrease in its ability to assemble and supply large armies,[59] Rome maintained an aggressive and potent stance against perceived threats almost to the end of the fourth century.[60] Solidus of Julian, c. 361. Obverse: Julian with the beard appropriate to a Neoplatonic philosopher. Inscription: FL(AVIVS) CL(AVDIVS) IVLIANVS PP(=Pater Patriae, "father of the nation") AVG(=Augustus). Reverse: an armed Roman, military standard in one hand, a captive in the other. Inscription: VIRTVS EXERCITVS ROMANORVM, "the bravery/virtue of the Roman army"; the mint mark is SIRM, Sirmium Julian (r. 360–363) launched a drive against official corruption which allowed the tax demands in Gaul to be reduced to one-third of their previous amount, while all government requirements were still met.[61] In civil legislation Julian was notable for his pro-pagan policies. All Christian sects were officially tolerated by Julian, persecution of heretics was forbidden, and non-Christian religions were encouraged. Some Christians continued to destroy temples, disrupt rituals, and break sacred images, seeking martyrdom and at times achieving it at the hands of non-Christian mobs or secular authorities; some pagans attacked the Christians who had previously been involved with the destruction of temples.[62] Julian won victories against Germans who had invaded Gaul. He launched an expensive campaign against the Persians,[47] which ended in defeat and his own death. He succeeded in marching to the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon, but lacked adequate supplies for an assault. He burned his boats and supplies to show resolve in continuing operations, but the Sassanids began a war of attrition by burning crops. Finding himself cut off in enemy territory, he began a land retreat during which he was mortally wounded. His successor Jovian, acclaimed by a demoralized army, began his brief reign (363–364) trapped in Mesopotamia without supplies. To purchase safe passage home, he had to concede areas of northern Mesopotamia and Kurdistan, including the strategically important fortress of Nisibis, which had been Roman since before the Peace of Nisibis in 299. The brothers Valens (r. 364–378) and Valentinian I (r. 364–375) energetically tackled the threats of barbarian attacks on all the Western frontiers[63] and tried to alleviate the burdens of taxation, which had risen continuously over the previous forty years; Valens in the East reduced the tax demand by half in his fourth year.[64] Both were Christians and confiscated the temple lands that Julian had restored, but were generally tolerant of other beliefs. Valentinian in the West refused to intervene in religious controversy; in the East, Valens had to deal with Christians who did not conform to his ideas of orthodoxy, and persecution formed part of his response.[65] The wealth of the church increased dramatically, immense resources both public and private being used for ecclesiastical construction and support of the religious life.[66] Bishops in wealthy cities were thus able to offer vast patronage; Ammianus described some as "enriched from the offerings of matrons, ride seated in carriages, wearing clothing chosen with care, and serve banquets so lavish that their entertainments outdo the tables of kings". Edward Gibbon remarked that "the soldiers' pay was lavished on the useless multitudes of both sexes who could only plead the merits of abstinence and chastity", though there are no figures for the monks and nuns nor for their maintenance costs. Pagan rituals and buildings had not been cheap either; the move to Christianity may not have had significant effects on the public finances.[30] Some public disorder also followed competition for prestigious posts; Pope Damasus I was installed in 366 after an election whose casualties included a hundred and thirty-seven corpses in the basilica of Sicininus.[67] Valentinian died of an apoplexy while shouting at envoys of Germanic leaders. His successors in the West were children, his sons Gratian (r. 375–383) and Valentinian II (r. 375–392). Gratian, "alien from the art of government both by temperament and by training" removed the Altar of Victory from the Senate House, and he rejected the pagan title of Pontifex Maximus.[68] 376–395; invasions, civil wars, and religious discord Battle of Adrianople In 376 the East faced an enormous barbarian influx across the Danube, mostly Goths who were refugees from the Huns. They were exploited by corrupt officials rather than effectively resettled, and they took up arms, joined by more Goths and by some Alans and Huns. Valens was in Asia with his main field army, preparing for an assault on the Persians, and redirecting the army and its logistic support would have required time. Gratian's armies were distracted by Germanic invasions across the Rhine. In 378 Valens attacked the invaders with the Eastern field army, perhaps some 20,000 men – possibly only 10% of the soldiers nominally available in the Danube provinces[69] – and in the Battle of Adrianople, 9 August 378, he lost much of that army and his own life. All of the Balkan provinces were thus exposed to raiding, without effective response from the remaining garrisons who were "more easily slaughtered than sheep".[69] Cities were able to hold their own walls against barbarians who had no siege equipment, and they generally remained intact although the countryside suffered.[70] Partial recovery in the Balkans, internal corruption and financial desperation Gratian appointed a new Augustus, a proven general from Hispania called Theodosius. During the next four years, he partially re-established the Roman position in the East.[71][72] These campaigns depended on effective imperial coordination and mutual trust – between 379 and 380 Theodosius controlled not only the Eastern empire, but also, by agreement, the diocese of Illyricum.[73] Theodosius was unable to recruit enough Roman troops, relying on barbarian warbands without Roman military discipline or loyalty. In contrast, during the Cimbrian War, the Roman Republic, controlling a smaller area than the western Empire, had been able to reconstitute large regular armies of citizens after greater defeats than Adrianople, and it ended that war with the near-extermination of the invading barbarian supergroups, each recorded as having more than 100,000 warriors (with allowances for the usual exaggeration of numbers by ancient authors).[74] The final Gothic settlement was acclaimed with relief,[72] even the official panegyrist admitting that these Goths could not be expelled or exterminated, nor reduced to unfree status.[75] Instead they were either recruited into the imperial forces, or settled in the devastated provinces along the south bank of the Danube, where the regular garrisons were never fully re-established.[76] In some later accounts, and widely in recent work, this is regarded as a treaty settlement, the first time that barbarians were given a home within the Empire in which they retained their political and military cohesion.[77] No formal treaty is recorded, nor details of whatever agreement was actually made; when the Goths are next mentioned in Roman records, they have different leaders and are soldiers of a sort.[78] In 391 Alaric, a Gothic leader, rebelled against Roman control. Goths attacked the emperor himself, but within a year Alaric was accepted as a leader of Theodosius's Gothic troops and this rebellion was over.[79] Theodosius's financial position must have been difficult, since he had to pay for expensive campaigning from a reduced tax base. The business of subduing barbarian warbands also demanded substantial gifts of precious metal.[80] Nevertheless, he is represented as financially lavish, though personally frugal when on campaign.[81] At least one extra levy provoked desperation and rioting in which the emperor's statues were destroyed.[82] A contemporary reports that at his court "everything was for sale", with corruption rampant.[83] He was pious, a Nicene Christian heavily influenced by Ambrose, and implacable against heretics. In 392 he forbade even private honor to the gods, and pagan rituals such as the Olympic Games. He either ordered or connived at the widespread destruction of sacred buildings.[84] Civil wars Theodosius had to face a powerful usurper in the West; Magnus Maximus declared himself Emperor in 383, stripped troops from the outlying regions of Britannia (probably replacing some with federate chieftains and their war-bands) and invaded Gaul. His troops killed Gratian and he was accepted as Augustus in the Gallic provinces, where he was responsible for the first official executions of Christian heretics.[85] To compensate the Western court for the loss of Gaul, Hispania, and Britannia, Theodosius ceded the diocese of Dacia and the diocese of Macedonia to their control. In 387 Maximus invaded Italy, forcing Valentinian II to flee to the East, where he accepted Nicene Christianity. Maximus boasted to Ambrose of the numbers of barbarians in his forces, and hordes of Goths, Huns, and Alans followed Theodosius.[86] Maximus negotiated with Theodosius for acceptance as Augustus of the West, but Theodosius refused, gathered his armies, and counterattacked, winning the civil war in 388. There were heavy troop losses on both sides of the conflict. Later Welsh legend has Maximus's defeated troops resettled in Armorica, instead of returning to Britannia, and by 400, Armorica was controlled by Bagaudae rather than by imperial authority.[87] Theodosius restored Valentinian II, still a very young man, as Augustus in the West. He also appointed Arbogast, a pagan general of Frankish origin, as Valentinian's commander-in-chief and guardian. Valentinian quarreled in public with Arbogast, failed to assert any authority, and died, either by suicide or by murder, at the age of 21. Arbogast and Theodosius failed to come to terms and Arbogast nominated an imperial official, Eugenius (r. 392–394), as emperor in the West. Eugenius made some modest attempts to win pagan support,[82] and with Arbogast led a large army to fight another destructive civil war. They were defeated and killed at the Battle of the Frigidus, which was attended by further heavy losses especially among the Gothic federates of Theodosius. The north-eastern approaches to Italy were never effectively garrisoned again.[88] The Eastern and Western Roman Empire at the death of Theodosius I in 395 Theodosius died a few months later in early 395, leaving his young sons Honorius (r. 395–423) and Arcadius (r. 395–408) as emperors. In the immediate aftermath of Theodosius's death, the magister militum Stilicho, married to Theodosius's niece, asserted himself in the West as the guardian of Honorius and commander of the remains of the defeated Western army. He also claimed control over Arcadius in Constantinople, but Rufinus, magister officiorum on the spot, had already established his own power there. Henceforward the Empire was not under the control of one man, until much of the West had been permanently lost.[89] Neither Honorius nor Arcadius ever displayed any ability either as rulers or as generals, and both lived as the puppets of their courts.[90] Stilicho tried to reunite the Eastern and Western courts under his personal control, but in doing so achieved only the continued hostility of all of Arcadius's successive supreme ministers. Military, financial, and political ineffectiveness: the process of failure The ineffectiveness of Roman military responses from Stilicho onwards has been described as "shocking",[91] with little evidence of indigenous field forces or of adequate training, discipline, pay, or supply for the barbarians who formed most of the available troops. Local defence was occasionally effective, but was often associated with withdrawal from central control and taxes; in many areas, barbarians under Roman authority attacked culturally-Roman "Bagaudae".[92][93][94] Corruption, in this context the diversion of public finance from the needs of the army, may have contributed greatly to the Fall. The rich senatorial aristocrats in Rome itself became increasingly influential during the fifth century; they supported armed strength in theory, but did not wish to pay for it or to offer their own workers as army recruits.[95][96] They did, however, pass large amounts of money to the Christian Church.[97] At a local level, from the early fourth century, the town councils lost their property and their power, which often became concentrated in the hands of a few local despots beyond the reach of the law.[98] The fifth-century Western emperors, with brief exceptions, were individuals incapable of ruling effectively or even of controlling their own courts.[90] Those exceptions were responsible for brief, but remarkable resurgences of Roman power. 395–406; Stilicho The emperor Honorius, a contemporary depiction on a consular diptych issued by Anicius Petronius Probus to celebrate Probus's consulship in 406, now in the Aosta museum Without an authoritative ruler, the Balkan provinces fell rapidly into disorder. Alaric was disappointed in his hopes for promotion to magister militum after the battle of the Frigidus. He again led Gothic tribesmen in arms and established himself as an independent power, burning the countryside as far as the walls of Constantinople.[99] Alaric's ambitions for long-term Roman office were never quite acceptable to the Roman imperial courts, and his men could never settle long enough to farm in any one area. They showed no inclination to leave the Empire and face the Huns from whom they had fled in 376; indeed the Huns were still stirring up further migrations which often ended by attacking Rome in turn. Alaric's group was never destroyed nor expelled from the Empire, nor acculturated under effective Roman domination.[92][93][98] Stilicho's attempts to unify the Empire, revolts, and invasions Alaric took his Gothic army on what Stilicho's propagandist Claudian described as a "pillaging campaign" that began first in the East.[100] Alaric's forces made their way along the coast to Athens, where he sought to force a new peace upon the Romans.[100] His march in 396 passed through Thermopylae. Stilicho sailed from Italy to Greece with his remaining mobile forces, a clear threat to Rufinus' control of the Eastern empire. (The bulk of Rufinus' forces were occupied with Hunnic incursions in Asia Minor and Syria, leaving Thrace undefended.) Stilicho's propagandist Claudian reports that only Stilicho's attack stemmed the plundering as he pushed Alaric's forces north into Epirus.[101] Burns' interpretation is that Alaric and his men had been recruited by Rufinus's Eastern regime, and sent to Thessaly to stave off Stilicho's threat.[88] No battle took place. Zosimus adds that Stilicho's troops destroyed and pillaged too, and let Alaric's men escape with their plunder.[a] Stilicho was forced to send some of his Eastern forces home.[102] They went to Constantinople under the command of one Gainas, a Goth with a large Gothic following. On arrival, Gainas murdered Rufinus, and was appointed magister militum for Thrace by Eutropius, the new supreme minister and the only eunuch consul of Rome, who controlled Arcadius "as if he were a sheep".[103] Stilicho obtained a few more troops from the German frontier and continued to campaign ineffectively against the Eastern empire; again he was successfully opposed by Alaric and his men. During the next year, 397, Eutropius personally led his troops to victory over some Huns who were marauding in Asia Minor. With his position thus strengthened he declared Stilicho a public enemy, and he established Alaric as magister militum per Illyricum. A poem by Synesius advises the emperor to display manliness and remove a "skin-clad savage" (probably Alaric) from the councils of power and his barbarians from the Roman army. We do not know if Arcadius ever became aware of the existence of this advice, but it had no recorded effect.[104] Synesius, from a province suffering the widespread ravages of a few poor but greedy barbarians, also complained of "the peacetime war, one almost worse than the barbarian war and arising from military indiscipline and the officer's greed."[105] The Favorites of the Emperor Honorius, by John William Waterhouse, 1883 The magister militum in the Diocese of Africa declared for the East and stopped the supply of grain to Rome.[88] Italy had not fed itself for centuries and could not do so now. In 398, Stilicho sent his last reserves, a few thousand men, to re-take the Diocese of Africa, and he strengthened his position further when he married his daughter Maria to Honorius. Throughout this period Stilicho, and all other generals, were desperately short of recruits and supplies for them.[106] In 400, Stilicho was charged to press into service any "laetus, Alamannus, Sarmatian, vagrant, son of a veteran" or any other person liable to serve.[107] He had reached the bottom of his recruitment pool.[108] Though personally not corrupt, he was very active in confiscating assets;[103] the financial and administrative machine was not producing enough support for the army. An ivory diptych, thought to depict Stilicho (right) with his wife Serena and son Eucherius, ca. 395 (Monza Cathedral) In 399, Tribigild's rebellion in Asia Minor allowed Gainas to accumulate a significant army (mostly Goths), become supreme in the Eastern court, and execute Eutropius.[109] He now felt that he could dispense with Alaric's services and he nominally transferred Alaric's province to the West. This administrative change removed Alaric's Roman rank and his entitlement to legal provisioning for his men, leaving his army – the only significant force in the ravaged Balkans – as a problem for Stilicho.[110] In 400, the citizens of Constantinople revolted against Gainas and massacred as many of his people, soldiers and their families, as they could catch. Some Goths at least built rafts and tried to cross the strip of sea that separates Asia from Europe; the Roman navy slaughtered them.[111] By the beginning of 401, Gainas' head rode a pike through Constantinople while another Gothic general became consul.[112] Meanwhile, groups of Huns started a series of attacks across the Danube, and the Isaurians marauded far and wide in Anatolia.[113] In 401 Stilicho travelled over the Alps to Raetia, to scrape up further troops.[114] He left the Rhine defended only by the "dread" of Roman retaliation, rather than by adequate forces able to take the field.[114] Early in spring, Alaric, probably desperate,[115] invaded Italy, and he drove Honorius westward from Mediolanum, besieging him in Hasta Pompeia in Liguria. Stilicho returned as soon as the passes had cleared, meeting Alaric in two battles (near Pollentia and Verona) without decisive results. The Goths, weakened, were allowed to retreat back to Illyricum where the Western court again gave Alaric office, though only as comes and only over Dalmatia and Pannonia Secunda rather than the whole of Illyricum.[116] Stilicho probably supposed that this pact would allow him to put Italian government into order and recruit fresh troops.[106] He may also have planned with Alaric's help to relaunch his attempts to gain control over the Eastern court.[117] Chi-rho pendant of Empress Maria, daughter of Stilicho, and wife of Honorius, now in the Musée du Louvre. The pendant reads, around a central cross (clockwise): HONORI MARIA SERHNA VIVATIS STELICHO. The letters form a Christogram However, in 405, Stilicho was distracted by a fresh invasion of Northern Italy. Another group of Goths fleeing the Huns, led by one Radagaisus, devastated the north of Italy for six months before Stilicho could muster enough forces to take the field against them. Stilicho recalled troops from Britannia and the depth of the crisis was shown when he urged all Roman soldiers to allow their personal slaves to fight beside them.[117] His forces, including Hun and Alan auxiliaries, may in the end have totalled rather less than 15,000 men.[118] Radagaisus was defeated and executed. 12,000 prisoners from the defeated horde were drafted into Stilicho's service.[118] Stilicho continued negotiations with Alaric; Flavius Aetius, son of one of Stilicho's major supporters, was sent as a hostage to Alaric in 405. In 406 Stilicho, hearing of new invaders and rebels who had appeared in the northern provinces, insisted on making peace with Alaric, probably on the basis that Alaric would prepare to move either against the Eastern court or against the rebels in Gaul. The Senate deeply resented peace with Alaric; in 407, when Alaric marched into Noricum and demanded a large payment for his expensive efforts in Stilicho's interests, the senate, "inspired by the courage, rather than the wisdom, of their predecessors,"[119] preferred war. One senator famously declaimed Non est ista pax, sed pactio servitutis ("This is not peace, but a pact of servitude").[120] Stilicho paid Alaric four thousand pounds of gold nevertheless.[121] Stilicho sent Sarus, a Gothic general, over the Alps to face the usurper Constantine III, but he lost and barely escaped, having to leave his baggage to the bandits who now infested the Alpine passes.[121] The empress Maria, daughter of Stilicho, died in 407 or early 408 and her sister Aemilia Materna Thermantia married Honorius. In the East, Arcadius died on 1 May 408 and was replaced by his son Theodosius II; Stilicho seems to have planned to march to Constantinople, and to install there a regime loyal to himself.[122] He may also have intended to give Alaric a senior official position and send him against the rebels in Gaul. Before he could do so, while he was away at Ticinum at the head of a small detachment, a bloody coup against his supporters took place at Honorius's court. It was led by Stilicho's own creature, one Olympius.[123] 408–410; the end of effective regular field armies (410-455), starvation in Italy, sack of Rome Stilicho's fall and Alaric's reaction Stilicho had news of the coup at Bononia (where he was probably waiting for Alaric).[124] His army of barbarian troops, including a guard of Huns and many Goths, discussed attacking the forces of the coup, but Stilicho prevented them when he heard that the Emperor had not been harmed. Sarus's Gothic troops then massacred the Hun contingent in their sleep, and Stilicho withdrew from the quarreling remains of his army to Ravenna. He ordered that his former soldiers should not be admitted into the cities in which their families were billeted. Stilicho was forced to flee to a church for sanctuary, promised his life, and killed.[125] Alaric was again declared an enemy of the Emperor. The conspiracy then massacred the families of the federate troops (as presumed supporters of Stilicho, although they had probably rebelled against him), and the troops defected en masse to Alaric.[126] The conspirators seem to have let their main army disintegrate,[127] and had no policy except hunting down supporters of Stilicho.[128] Italy was left without effective indigenous defence forces thereafter.[91] Heraclianus, a co-conspirator of Olympius, became governor of the Diocese of Africa, where he controlled the source of most of Italy's grain, and he supplied food only in the interests of Honorius's regime.[129] As a declared 'enemy of the Emperor', Alaric was denied the legitimacy that he needed to collect taxes and hold cities without large garrisons, which he could not afford to detach. He again offered to move his men, this time to Pannonia, in exchange for a modest sum of money and the modest title of Comes, but he was refused as a supporter of Stilicho.[130] He moved into Italy, probably using the route and supplies arranged for him by Stilicho,[124] bypassing the imperial court in Ravenna which was protected by widespread marshland and had a port, and he menaced the city of Rome itself. In 407, there was no equivalent of the determined response to the catastrophic Battle of Cannae in 216 BCE, when the entire Roman population, even slaves, had been mobilized to resist the enemy.[131] Alaric's military operations centred on the port of Rome, through which Rome's grain supply had to pass. Alaric's first siege of Rome in 408 caused dreadful famine within the walls. It was ended by a payment that, though large, was less than one of the richest senators could have produced.[132] The super-rich aristocrats made little contribution; pagan temples were stripped of ornaments to make up the total. With promises of freedom, Alaric also recruited many of the slaves in Rome.[133] Alaric withdrew to Tuscany and recruited more slaves.[133] Ataulf, a Goth nominally in Roman service and brother-in-law to Alaric, marched through Italy to join Alaric despite taking casualties from a small force of Hunnic mercenaries led by Olympius. Sarus was an enemy of Ataulf, and on Ataulf's arrival went back into imperial service.[134] Alaric besieges Rome In 409 Olympius fell to further intrigue, having his ears cut off before he was beaten to death. Alaric tried again to negotiate with Honorius, but his demands (now even more moderate, only frontier land and food[135]) were inflated by the messenger and Honorius responded with insults, which were reported verbatim to Alaric.[136] He broke off negotiations and the standoff continued. Honorius's court made overtures to the usurper Constantine III in Gaul and arranged to bring Hunnic forces into Italy, Alaric ravaged Italy outside the fortified cities (which he could not garrison), and the Romans refused open battle (for which they had inadequate forces).[137] Late in the year Alaric sent bishops to express his readiness to leave Italy if Honorius would only grant his people a supply of grain. Honorius, sensing weakness, flatly refused.[138] Alaric moved to Rome and captured Galla Placidia, sister of Honorius. The Senate in Rome, despite its loathing for Alaric, was now desperate enough to give him almost anything he wanted. They had no food to offer, but they tried to give him imperial legitimacy; with the Senate's acquiescence, he elevated Priscus Attalus as his puppet emperor, and he marched on Ravenna. Honorius was planning to flee to Constantinople when a reinforcing army of 4,000 soldiers from the East disembarked in Ravenna.[139] These garrisoned the walls and Honorius held on. He had Constantine's principal court supporter executed and Constantine abandoned plans to march to Honorius's defence.[140] Attalus failed to establish his control over the Diocese of Africa, and no grain arrived in Rome where the famine became even more frightful.[141] Jerome reports cannibalism within the walls.[142] Attalus brought Alaric no real advantage, failing also to come to any useful agreement with Honorius (who was offered mutilation, humiliation, and exile). Indeed, Attalus's claim was a marker of threat to Honorius, and Alaric dethroned him after a few months.[143] In 410 Alaric took Rome by starvation, sacked it for three days (there was relatively little destruction, and in some Christian holy places Alaric's men even refrained from wanton wrecking and rape), and invited its remaining barbarian slaves to join him, which many did. The city of Rome was the seat of the richest senatorial noble families and the centre of their cultural patronage; to pagans it was the sacred origin of the empire, and to Christians the seat of the heir of Saint Peter, Pope Innocent I, the most authoritative bishop of the West. Rome had not fallen to an enemy since the Battle of the Allia over eight centuries before. Refugees spread the news and their stories throughout the Empire, and the meaning of the fall was debated with religious fervour. Both Christians and pagans wrote embittered tracts, blaming paganism or Christianity respectively for the loss of Rome's supernatural protection, and blaming Stilicho's earthly failures in either case.[144][103] Some Christian responses anticipated the imminence of Judgement Day. Augustine in his book "City of God" ultimately rejected the pagan and Christian idea that religion should have worldly benefits; he developed the doctrine that the City of God in heaven, undamaged by mundane disasters, was the true objective of Christians.[145] More practically, Honorius was briefly persuaded to set aside the laws forbidding pagans to be military officers, so that one Generidus could re-establish Roman control in Dalmatia. Generidus did this with unusual effectiveness; his techniques were remarkable for this period, in that they included training his troops, disciplining them, and giving them appropriate supplies even if he had to use his own money.[146] The penal laws were reinstated no later than 25 August 410 and the overall trend of repression of paganism continued.[147] Inscription honouring Honorius, as florentissimo invictissimoque, the most excellent and invincible, 417–418, Forum Romanum Procopius mentions a story in which Honorius, on hearing the news that Rome had "perished", was shocked, thinking the news was in reference to his favorite chicken he had named "Roma". On hearing that Rome itself had fallen he breathed a sigh of relief: At that time they say that the Emperor Honorius in Ravenna received the message from one of the eunuchs, evidently a keeper of the poultry, that Roma had perished. And he cried out and said, "And yet it has just eaten from my hands!" For he had a very large cockerel, Roma by name; and the eunuch comprehending his words said that it was the city of Roma which had perished at the hands of Alaric, and the emperor with a sigh of relief answered quickly: "But I thought that my fowl Roma had perished." So great, they say, was the folly with which this emperor was possessed. — Procopius, The Vandalic War (De Bellis III.2.25–26) The Goths move out of Italy Alaric then moved south, intending to sail to Africa, but his ships were wrecked in a storm and he shortly died of fever. His successor Ataulf, still regarded as an usurper and given only occasional and short-term grants of supplies, moved north into the turmoil of Gaul, where there was some prospect of food. His supergroup of barbarians are called the Visigoths in modern works: they may now have been developing their own sense of identity.[148] 405–418 in the Gallic provinces; barbarians and usurpers, loss of Britannia, partial loss of Hispania and Gaul The Crossing of the Rhine in 405/6 brought unmanageable numbers of Germanic and Alan barbarians (perhaps some 30,000 warriors, 100,000 people[149]) into Gaul. They may have been trying to get away from the Huns, who about this time advanced to occupy the Great Hungarian Plain.[150] For the next few years these barbarian tribes wandered in search of food and employment, while Roman forces fought each other in the name of Honorius and a number of competing claimants to the imperial throne.[151] The remaining troops in Britannia elevated a succession of imperial usurpers. The last, Constantine III, raised an army from the remaining troops in Britannia, invaded Gaul and defeated forces loyal to Honorius led by Sarus. Constantine's power reached its peak in 409 when he controlled Gaul and beyond, he was joint consul with Honorius[152] and his magister militum Gerontius defeated the last Roman force to try to hold the borders of Hispania. It was led by relatives of Honorius; Constantine executed them. Gerontius went to Hispania where he may have settled the Sueves and the Asding Vandals. Gerontius then fell out with his master and elevated one Maximus as his own puppet emperor. He defeated Constantine and was besieging him in Arelate when Honorius's general Constantius arrived from Italy with an army (possibly, mainly of Hun mercenaries).[153] Gerontius's troops deserted him and he committed suicide. Constantius continued the siege, defeating a relieving army. Constantine surrendered in 411 with a promise that his life would be spared, and was executed.[154] In 410, the Roman civitates of Britannia rebelled against Constantine and evicted his officials. They asked for help from Honorius, who replied that they should look to their own defence. While the British may have regarded themselves as Roman for several generations, and British armies may at times have fought in Gaul, no central Roman government is known to have appointed officials in Britannia thereafter.[155] The supply of coinage to the Diocese of Britannia ceases with Honorius.[156] In 411, Jovinus rebelled and took over Constantine's remaining troops on the Rhine. He relied on the support of Burgundians and Alans to whom he offered supplies and land. In 413 Jovinus also recruited Sarus; Ataulf destroyed their regime in the name of Honorius and both Jovinus and Sarus were executed. The Burgundians were settled on the left bank of the Rhine. Ataulf then operated in the south of Gaul, sometimes with short-term supplies from the Romans.[157] All usurpers had been defeated, but large barbarian groups remained un-subdued in both Gaul and Hispania.[155] The imperial government was quick to restore the Rhine frontier. The invading tribes of 407 moved into Spain at the end of 409; the Visigoths left Italy at the beginning of 412 and settled themselves around Narbo. Heraclianus was still in command in the diocese of Africa; of the clique that overthrew Stilicho, he was the last to retain power. In 413 he led an invasion of Italy, lost to a subordinate of Constantius, and fled back to Africa where he was murdered by Constantius's agents.[157] In January 414 Roman naval forces blockaded Ataulf in Narbo, where he married Galla Placidia. The choir at the wedding included Attalus, a puppet emperor without revenues or soldiers.[158] Ataulf famously declared that he had abandoned his intention to set up a Gothic empire because of the irredeemable barbarity of his followers, and instead he sought to restore the Roman Empire.[159][143] He handed Attalus over to Honorius's regime for mutilation, humiliation, and exile, and abandoned Attalus's supporters.[160] (One of them, Paulinus Pellaeus, recorded that the Goths considered themselves merciful for allowing him and his household to leave destitute, but alive, without being raped.)[158] Ataulf moved out of Gaul, to Barcelona. There his infant son by Galla Placidia was buried, and there Ataulf was assassinated by one of his household retainers, possibly a former follower of Sarus.[161][162] His ultimate successor Wallia had no agreement with the Romans; his people had to plunder in Hispania for food.[163] Settlement of 418; barbarians within the empire Areas allotted to or claimed by barbarian groups in 416–418 In 416 Wallia reached agreement with Constantius; he sent Galla Placidia back to Honorius and received provisions, six hundred thousand modii of wheat.[164] From 416 to 418, Wallia's Goths campaigned in Hispania on Constantius's behalf, exterminating the Siling Vandals in Baetica and reducing the Alans to the point where the survivors sought the protection of the king of the Asding Vandals. (After retrenchment they formed another barbarian supergroup, but for the moment they were reduced in numbers and effectively cowed.) In 418, by agreement with Constantius, Wallia's Goths accepted land to farm in Aquitania.[165] Constantius also reinstituted an annual council of the southern Gallic provinces, to meet at Arelate. Although Constantius rebuilt the western field army to some extent, he did so only by replacing half of its units (vanished in the wars since 395) by re-graded barbarians, and by garrison troops removed from the frontier.[166] The Notitia Dignitatum gives a list of the units of the western field army circa 425. It does not give strengths for these units, but A. H. M. Jones used the Notitia to estimate the total strength of the field armies in the West at 113,000 : Gaul, “about” 35,000; Italy, “nearly” 30,000; Britain 3,000; in Spain, 10–11,000, in the diocese of Illyricum 13–14,000, and in the diocese of Africa 23,000.[167] Constantius had married the princess Galla Placidia (despite her protests) in 417. The couple soon had two children, Honoria and Valentinian III, and Constantius was elevated to the position of Augustus in 420. This earned him the hostility of the Eastern court, which had not agreed to his elevation.[168] Nevertheless, Constantius had achieved an unassailable position at the Western court, in the imperial family, and as the able commander-in-chief of a partially restored army.[169][170] This settlement represented a real success for the Empire—a poem by Rutilius Namatianus celebrates his voyage back to Gaul in 417 and his confidence in a restoration of prosperity. But it marked huge losses of territory and of revenue; Rutilius travelled by ship past the ruined bridges and countryside of Tuscany, and in the west the River Loire had become the effective northern boundary of Roman Gaul.[171] In the east of Gaul the Franks controlled large areas; the effective line of Roman control until 455 ran from north of Cologne (lost to the Ripuarian Franks in 459) to Boulogne. The Italian areas which had been compelled to support the Goths had most of their taxes remitted for several years.[172][173] Even in southern Gaul and Hispania large barbarian groups remained, with thousands of warriors, in their own non-Roman military and social systems. Some occasionally acknowledged a degree of Roman political control, but without the local application of Roman leadership and military power they and their individual subgroups pursued their own interests.[174] 421–433; renewed dissension after the death of Constantius, partial loss of the Diocese of Africa Constantius died in 421, after only seven months as Augustus. He had been careful to make sure that there was no successor in waiting, and his own children were far too young to take his place.[169] Honorius was unable to control his own court, and the death of Constantius initiated more than ten years of instability. Initially Galla Placidia sought Honorius's favour in the hope that her son might ultimately inherit. Other court interests managed to defeat her, and she fled with her children to the Eastern court in 422. Honorius himself died, shortly before his thirty-ninth birthday, in 423. After some months of intrigue, the patrician Castinus installed Joannes as Western Emperor, but the Eastern Roman government proclaimed the child Valentinian III instead, his mother Galla Placidia acting as regent during his minority. Joannes had few troops of his own. He sent Aetius to raise help from the Huns. An Eastern army landed in Italy, captured Joannes, cut his hand off, abused him in public, and killed him with most of his senior officials. Aetius returned, three days after Joannes' death, at the head of a substantial Hunnic army which made him the most powerful general in Italy. After some fighting, Placidia and Aetius came to an agreement; the Huns were paid off and sent home, while Aetius received the position of magister militum.[175] Galla Placidia, as Augusta, mother of the Emperor, and his guardian until 437, could maintain a dominant position in court, but women in Ancient Rome did not exercise military power, and she could not herself become a general. She tried for some years to avoid reliance on a single dominant military figure, maintaining a balance of power between her three senior officers, Aetius (magister militum in Gaul), Count Boniface governor in the Diocese of Africa, and Flavius Felix magister militum praesentalis in Italy.[176] Meanwhile, the Empire deteriorated seriously. Apart from the losses in the Diocese of Africa, Hispania was slipping out of central control and into the hands of local rulers and Suevic bandits. In Gaul the Rhine frontier had collapsed, the Visigoths in Aquitaine may have launched further attacks on Narbo and Arelate, and the Franks, increasingly powerful although disunited, were the major power in the north-east. Aremorica was controlled by Bagaudae, local leaders not under the authority of the Empire.[177] Aetius at least campaigned vigorously and mostly victoriously, defeating aggressive Visigoths, Franks, fresh Germanic invaders, Bagaudae in Aremorica, and a rebellion in Noricum.[178] Not for the first time in Rome's history, a triumvirate of mutually distrustful rulers proved unstable. In 427 Felix tried to recall Boniface from Africa; he refused, and overcame Felix's invading force. Boniface probably recruited some Vandal troops among others.[179] In 428 the Vandals and Alans were united under the able, ferocious, and long-lived king Genseric; he moved his entire people to Tarifa near Gibraltar, divided them into 80 groups nominally of 1,000 people (perhaps 20,000 warriors in total),[149] and crossed from Hispania to Mauretania without opposition. (The Straits of Gibraltar were not an important thoroughfare at the time, and there were no significant fortifications nor military presence at this end of the Mediterranean.) They spent a year moving slowly to Numidia, defeating Boniface. He returned to Italy where Aetius had recently had Felix executed. Boniface was promoted to magister militum and earned the enmity of Aetius, who may have been absent in Gaul at the time. In 432 the two met at the Battle of Ravenna, which left Aetius's forces defeated and Boniface mortally wounded. Aetius temporarily retired to his estates, but after an attempt to murder him he raised another Hunnic army (probably by conceding parts of Pannonia to them) and in 433 he returned to Italy, overcoming all rivals. He never threatened to become an Augustus himself and thus maintained the support of the Eastern court, where Valentinian's cousin Theodosius II reigned until 450.[180] 433–454; ascendancy of Aetius, loss of Carthage Aetius campaigned vigorously, somewhat stabilizing the situation in Gaul and in Hispania. He relied heavily on his forces of Huns. With a ferocity celebrated centuries later in the Nibelungenlied, the Huns slaughtered many Burgundians on the middle Rhine, re-establishing the survivors as Roman allies, the first Kingdom of the Burgundians. This may have returned some sort of Roman authority to Trier.[181] Eastern troops reinforced Carthage, temporarily halting the Vandals, who in 435 agreed to limit themselves to Numidia and leave the most fertile parts of North Africa in peace. Aetius concentrated his limited military resources to defeat the Visigoths again, and his diplomacy restored a degree of order to Hispania.[182] However, his general Litorius was badly defeated by the Visigoths at Toulouse, and a new Suevic king, Rechiar, began vigorous assaults on what remained of Roman Hispania. At one point Rechiar even allied with Bagaudae. These were Romans not under imperial control; some of their reasons for rebellion may be indicated by the remarks of a Roman captive under Attila who was happy in his lot, giving a lively account of "the vices of a declining empire, of which he had so long been the victim; the cruel absurdity of the Roman princes, unable to protect their subjects against the public enemy, unwilling to trust them with arms for their own defence; the intolerable weight of taxes, rendered still more oppressive by the intricate or arbitrary modes of collection; the obscurity of numerous and contradictory laws; the tedious and expensive forms of judicial proceedings; the partial administration of justice; and the universal corruption, which increased the influence of the rich, and aggravated the misfortunes of the poor.[183]" Vegetius's advice on re-forming an effective army may be dated to the early 430s,[184][185][186] (though a date in the 390s has also been suggested).[187] He identified many deficiencies in the military, especially mentioning that the soldiers were no longer properly equipped: From the foundation of the city till the reign of the Emperor Gratian, the foot wore cuirasses and helmets. But negligence and sloth having by degrees introduced a total relaxation of discipline, the soldiers began to think their armor too heavy, as they seldom put it on. They first requested leave from the Emperor to lay aside the cuirass and afterwards the helmet. In consequence of this, our troops in their engagements with the Goths were often overwhelmed with their showers of arrows. Nor was the necessity of obliging the infantry to resume their cuirasses and helmets discovered, notwithstanding such repeated defeats, which brought on the destruction of so many great cities. Troops, defenseless and exposed to all the weapons of the enemy, are more disposed to fly than fight. What can be expected from a foot-archer without cuirass or helmet, who cannot hold at once his bow and shield; or from the ensigns whose bodies are naked, and who cannot at the same time carry a shield and the colors? The foot soldier finds the weight of a cuirass and even of a helmet intolerable. This is because he is so seldom exercised and rarely puts them on.[188] A religious polemic of about this time complains bitterly of the oppression and extortion[90] suffered by all but the richest Romans. Many wished to flee to the Bagaudae or even to foul-smelling barbarians. "Although these men differ in customs and language from those with whom they have taken refuge, and are unaccustomed too, if I may say so, to the nauseous odor of the bodies and clothing of the barbarians, yet they prefer the strange life they find there to the injustice rife among the Romans. So you find men passing over everywhere, now to the Goths, now to the Bagaudae, or whatever other barbarians have established their power anywhere ... We call those men rebels and utterly abandoned, whom we ourselves have forced into crime. For by what other causes were they made Bagaudae save by our unjust acts, the wicked decisions of the magistrates, the proscription and extortion of those who have turned the public exactions to the increase of their private fortunes and made the tax indictions their opportunity for plunder?"[189] Gildas, a 6th-century monk and author of De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae, wrote that "No sooner were the ravages of the enemy checked, than the island [Britain] was deluged with a most extraordinary plenty of all things, greater than was before known, and with it grew up every kind of luxury and licentiousness."[190] Nevertheless, effective imperial protection from barbarian ravages was eagerly sought. About this time authorities in Britannia asked Aetius for help: "To Aetius, now consul for the third time: the groans of the Britons." And again a little further, thus: – "The barbarians drive us to the sea; the sea throws us back on the barbarians: thus two modes of death await us, we are either slain or drowned." The Romans, however, could not assist them ...[190] The Visigoths passed another waymark on their journey to full independence; they made their own foreign policy, sending princesses to make (rather unsuccessful) marriage alliances with Rechiar of the Sueves and with Huneric, son of the Vandal king Genseric.[191] In 439 the Vandals moved eastward (temporarily abandoning Numidia) and captured Carthage, where they established an independent state with a powerful navy. This brought immediate financial crisis to the Western Empire; the diocese of Africa was prosperous, normally required few troops to keep it secure, contributed large tax revenues, and exported wheat to feed Rome and many other areas.[192] Roman troops assembled in Sicily, but the planned counter-attack never happened. Huns attacked the Eastern empire,[193] and "the troops, which had been sent against Genseric, were hastily recalled from Sicily; the garrisons, on the side of Persia, were exhausted; and a military force was collected in Europe, formidable by their arms and numbers, if the generals had understood the science of command, and the soldiers the duty of obedience. The armies of the Eastern empire were vanquished in three successive engagements ... From the Hellespont to Thermopylae, and the suburbs of Constantinople, [Attila] ravaged, without resistance, and without mercy, the provinces of Thrace and Macedonia"[194] Attila's invasions of the East were stopped by the Theodosian Walls, and at this heavily fortified Eastern end of the Mediterranean there were no significant barbarian invasions across the sea into the rich southerly areas of Anatolia, the Levant, and Egypt.[195] Despite internal and external threats, and more religious discord than the West, these provinces remained prosperous contributors to tax revenue; despite the ravages of Attila's armies and the extortions of his peace treaties, tax revenue generally continued to be adequate for the essential state functions of the Eastern empire.[196][197] Genseric settled his Vandals as landowners[198] and in 442 was able to negotiate very favourable peace terms with the Western court. He kept his latest gains and his eldest son Huneric was honoured by betrothal to Valentinian III's daughter Eudocia, who carried the legitimacy of the conjoined Valentinianic and Theodosian dynasties. Huneric's Gothic wife was suspected of trying to poison her father-in-law Genseric; he sent her home without her nose or ears, and his Gothic alliance came to an early end.[199] The Romans regained Numidia, and Rome again received a grain supply from Africa. The losses of income from the Diocese of Africa were equivalent to the costs of nearly 40,000 infantry or over 20,000 cavalry.[200] The imperial regime had to increase taxes. Despite admitting that the peasantry could pay no more, and that a sufficient army could not be raised, the imperial regime protected the interests of landowners displaced from Africa and allowed wealthy individuals to avoid taxes.[201][202] 444–453; attacks by the empire of Attila the Hun In 444, the Huns were united under Attila. His subjects included Huns, outnumbered several times over by other groups, predominantly Germanic.[203] His power rested partly on his continued ability to reward his favoured followers with precious metals,[204] and he continued to attack the Eastern Empire until 450, by when he had extracted vast sums of money and many other concessions.[205] Attila may not have needed any excuse to turn West, but he received one in the form of a plea for help from Honoria, the Emperor's sister, who was being forced into a marriage which she resented. Attila claimed Honoria as his wife and half of the Western Empire's territory as his dowry. Faced with refusal, he invaded Gaul in 451 with a huge army. In the bloody battle of the Catalaunian Plains the invasion was stopped by the combined forces of the barbarians within the Western empire, coordinated by Aetius and supported by what troops he could muster. The next year, Attila invaded Italy and proceeded to march upon Rome, but an outbreak of disease in his army, lack of supplies, reports that Eastern Roman troops were attacking his noncombatant population in Pannonia, and, possibly, Pope Leo's plea for peace induced him to halt this campaign. Attila unexpectedly died a year later (453) and his empire crumbled as his followers fought for power. The life of Severinus of Noricum gives glimpses of the general insecurity, and ultimate retreat of the Romans on the Upper Danube, in the aftermath of Attila's death. The Romans were without adequate forces; the barbarians inflicted haphazard extortion, murder, kidnap, and plunder on the Romans and on each other. "So long as the Roman dominion lasted, soldiers were maintained in many towns at the public expense to guard the boundary wall. When this custom ceased, the squadrons of soldiers and the boundary wall were blotted out together. The troop at Batavis, however, held out. Some soldiers of this troop had gone to Italy to fetch the final pay to their comrades, and no one knew that the barbarians had slain them on the way."[206] In 454 Aetius was personally stabbed to death by Valentinian, who was himself murdered by the dead general's supporters a year later.[207] "[Valentinian] thought he had slain his master; he found that he had slain his protector: and he fell a helpless victim to the first conspiracy which was hatched against his throne."[208] A rich senatorial aristocrat, Petronius Maximus, who had encouraged both murders, then seized the throne. He broke the engagement between Eudocia and Huneric, prince of the Vandals, and had time to send Avitus to ask for the help of the Visigoths in Gaul[209] before a Vandal fleet arrived in Italy. Petronius was unable to muster any effective defence and was killed by a mob as he tried to flee the city. The Vandals entered Rome, and plundered it for two weeks. Despite the shortage of money for the defence of the state, considerable private wealth had accumulated since the previous sack in 410. The Vandals sailed away with large amounts of treasure and also with the princess Eudocia, who became the wife of one Vandal king and the mother of another.[210] The Vandals conquered Sicily, and their fleet became a constant danger to Roman sea trade and to the coasts and islands of the western Mediterranean.[211] 455–456; failure of Avitus, further losses in Gaul, rise of Ricimer Avitus, at the Visigothic court in Burdigala, declared himself Emperor. He moved on Rome with Visigothic support which gained his acceptance by Majorian and Ricimer, commanders of the remaining army of Italy. This was the first time that a barbarian kingdom had played a key role in the imperial succession.[212] Avitus's son-in-law Sidonius Apollinaris wrote propaganda to present the Visigothic king Theoderic II as a reasonable man with whom a Roman regime could do business.[213] Theoderic's payoff included precious metal from stripping the remaining public ornaments of Italy,[214] and an unsupervised campaign in Hispania. There he not only defeated the Sueves, executing his brother-in-law Rechiar, but he also plundered Roman cities.[213] The Burgundians expanded their kingdom in the Rhone valley and the Vandals took the remains of the Diocese of Africa.[215] In 456 the Visigothic army was too heavily engaged in Hispania to be an effective threat to Italy, and Ricimer had just destroyed a pirate fleet of sixty Vandal ships; Majorian and Ricimer marched against Avitus and defeated him near Placentia. He was forced to become Bishop of Placentia, and died (possibly murdered) a few weeks later.[216] 457–467; resurgence under Majorian, attempt to recover Africa, control by Ricimer During his four-year reign Majorian reconquered most of Hispania and southern Gaul, meanwhile reducing the Visigoths, Burgundians and Suevi to federate status. Majorian and Ricimer were now in control of Italy. Ricimer was the son of a Suevic king, and his mother was the daughter of a Gothic one, so he could not aspire to an imperial throne. After some months, allowing for negotiation with the new emperor of Constantinople and the defeat of 900 Alamannic invaders of Italy by one of his subordinates, Majorian was acclaimed as Augustus. Majorian is described by Gibbon as "a great and heroic character".[217] He rebuilt the army and navy of Italy with vigour and set about recovering the remaining Gallic provinces, which had not recognized his elevation. He defeated the Visigoths at the Battle of Arelate, reducing them to federate status and obliging them to give up their claims in Hispania; he moved on to subdue the Burgundians, the Gallo-Romans around Lugdunum (who were granted tax concessions and whose senior officials were appointed from their own ranks) and the Suevi and Bagaudae in Hispania. Marcellinus, magister militum in Dalmatia and the pagan general of a well-equipped army, acknowledged him as emperor and recovered Sicily from the Vandals.[218] Aegidius also acknowledged Majorian and took effective charge of northern Gaul. (Aegidius may also have used the title "King of the Franks".[219]) Abuses in tax collection were reformed and the city councils were strengthened, both actions necessary to rebuild the strength of the Empire but disadvantageous to the richest aristocrats.[220] Majorian prepared a fleet at Carthago Nova for the essential reconquest of the Diocese of Africa. The fleet was burned by traitors, and Majorian made peace with the Vandals and returned to Italy. Here Ricimer met him, arrested him, and executed him five days later. Marcellinus in Dalmatia and Aegidius around Soissons in northern Gaul rejected both Ricimer and his puppets and maintained some version of Roman rule in their areas.[221] Ricimer later ceded Narbo and its hinterland to the Visigoths for their help against Aegidius; this made it impossible for Roman armies to march from Italy to Hispania. Ricimer was then the effective ruler of Italy (but little else) for several years. From 461 to 465 the pious Italian aristocrat Libius Severus reigned. There is no record of anything significant that he even tried to achieve, he was never acknowledged by the East whose help Ricimer needed, and he died conveniently in 465. 467–472, Anthemius; an Emperor and an army from the East Tremissis of Anthemius After two years without a Western Emperor, the Eastern court nominated Anthemius, a successful general who had a strong claim on the Eastern throne. He arrived in Italy with an army, supported by Marcellinus and his fleet; he married his daughter to Ricimer, and he was proclaimed Augustus in 467. In 468, at vast expense, the Eastern empire assembled an enormous force to help the West retake the Diocese of Africa. Marcellinus rapidly drove the Vandals from Sardinia and Sicily, and a land invasion evicted them from Tripolitania. The commander in chief with the main force defeated a Vandal fleet near Sicily and landed at Cape Bon. Here Genseric offered to surrender, if he could have a five-day truce to prepare the process. He used the respite to prepare a full-scale attack preceded by fireships, which destroyed most of the Roman fleet and killed many of its soldiers. The Vandals were confirmed in their possession of the Diocese of Africa and they retook Sardinia and Sicily. Marcellinus was murdered, possibly on orders from Ricimer.[222] The Praetorian prefect of Gaul, Arvandus, tried to persuade the new king of the Visigoths to rebel, on the grounds that Roman power in Gaul was finished anyway, but he refused. Anthemius was still in command of an army in Italy. Additionally, in northern Gaul, a British army led by one Riothamus, operated in imperial interests.[223] Anthemius sent his son over the Alps, with an army, to request that the Visigoths return southern Gaul to Roman control. This would have allowed the Empire land access to Hispania again. The Visigoths refused, defeated the forces of both Riothamus and Anthemius, and with the Burgundians took over almost all of the remaining imperial territory in southern Gaul. Ricimer then quarreled with Anthemius, and besieged him in Rome, which surrendered in July 472 after more months of starvation.[224] Anthemius was captured and executed (on Ricimer's orders) by the Burgundian prince Gundobad. In August Ricimer died of a pulmonary haemorrhage. Olybrius, his new emperor, named Gundobad as his patrician, then died himself shortly thereafter.[225] 472–476; the final emperors, puppets of the warlords After the death of Olybrius there was a further interregnum until March 473, when Gundobad proclaimed Glycerius emperor. He may have made some attempt to intervene in Gaul; if so, it was unsuccessful.[226] Tremissis of Julius Nepos In 474 Julius Nepos, nephew and successor of the general Marcellinus, arrived in Rome with soldiers and authority from the eastern emperor Leo I. Gundobad had already left to contest the Burgundian throne in Gaul[226] and Glycerius gave up without a fight, retiring to become bishop of Salona in Dalmatia.[226] In 475, Orestes, a former secretary of Attila, drove Julius Nepos out of Ravenna and proclaimed his own son Flavius Momyllus Romulus Augustus (Romulus Augustulus) to be Emperor, on October 31. His surname 'Augustus' was given the diminutive form 'Augustulus' by rivals because he was still a minor, and he was never recognized outside of Italy as a legitimate ruler.[227] In 476, Orestes refused to grant Odoacer and the Heruli federated status, prompting an invasion. Orestes fled to the city of Pavia on August 23, 476, where the city's bishop gave him sanctuary. Orestes was soon forced to flee Pavia when Odoacer's army broke through the city walls and ravaged the city. Odoacer's army chased Orestes to Piacenza, where they captured and executed him on August 28, 476. On September 4, 476, Odoacer forced then 16-year-old Romulus Augustulus, whom his father Orestes had proclaimed to be Rome's Emperor, to abdicate. After deposing Romulus, Odoacer did not execute him. The Anonymus Valesianus wrote that Odoacer, "taking pity on his youth", spared Romulus' life and granted him an annual pension of 6,000 solidi before sending him to live with relatives in Campania.[228][229] Odoacer then installed himself as ruler over Italy, and sent the Imperial insignia to Constantinople.[230] From 476; last Emperor, rump states Europe and the Mediterranean in 476 AD By convention, the Western Roman Empire is deemed to have ended on 4 September 476, when Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustulus and proclaimed himself ruler of Italy, but this convention is subject to many qualifications. In Roman constitutional theory, the Empire was still simply united under one emperor, implying no abandonment of territorial claims. In areas where the convulsions of the dying Empire had made organized self-defence legitimate, rump states continued under some form of Roman rule after 476. Julius Nepos still claimed to be Emperor of the West and controlled Dalmatia until his murder in 480. Syagrius son of Aegidius ruled the Domain of Soissons until his murder in 487.[231] The indigenous inhabitants of Mauretania developed kingdoms of their own, independent of the Vandals, with strong Roman traits. They again sought Imperial recognition with the reconquests of Justinian I, and they put up effective resistance to the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb.[232] While the civitates of Britannia sank into a level of material development inferior even to their pre-Roman Iron Age ancestors,[233] they maintained identifiably Roman traits for some time, and they continued to look to their own defence as Honorius had authorized.[234][235] The Ostrogothic Kingdom, which rose from the ruins of the Western Roman Empire Odoacer began to negotiate with the East Roman (Byzantine) Emperor Zeno, who was busy dealing with unrest in the East. Zeno eventually granted Odoacer the status of patrician and accepted him as his own viceroy of Italy. Zeno, however, insisted that Odoacer had to pay homage to Julius Nepos as the Emperor of the Western Empire. Odoacer never returned any territory or real power, but he did issue coins in the name of Julius Nepos throughout Italy. The murder of Julius Nepos in 480 (Glycerius may have been among the conspirators) prompted Odoacer to invade Dalmatia, annexing it to his Kingdom of Italy. In 488 the Eastern emperor authorized a troublesome Goth, Theoderic (later known as "the Great") to take Italy. After several indecisive campaigns, in 493 Theoderic and Odoacer agreed to rule jointly. They celebrated their agreement with a banquet of reconciliation, at which Theoderic's men murdered Odoacer's, and Theoderic personally cut Odoacer in half.[236] The mostly powerless, but still influential Western Roman Senate continued to exist in the city of Rome under the rule of the Ostrogothic kingdom and, later, the Byzantine Empire for at least another century, before disappearing at an unknown date in the early 7th century.[237] Legacy Main article: Legacy of the Roman Empire The Roman Empire was not only a political unity enforced by the use of military power. It was also the combined and elaborated civilization of the Mediterranean basin and beyond. It included manufacture, trade, and architecture, widespread secular literacy, written law, and an international language of science and literature.[236] The Western barbarians lost much of these higher cultural practices, but their redevelopment in the Middle Ages by polities aware of the Roman achievement formed the basis for the later development of Europe.[238] Observing the cultural and archaeological continuities through and beyond the period of lost political control, the process has been described as a complex cultural transformation, rather than a fall.[239] See also Succession of the Roman Empire Comparative studies of the Roman and Han empires Decline of the Byzantine Empire (Fall of the Eastern Roman Empire) Historiography of the fall of the Roman Empire Last of the Romans Late Roman army Notes ^ See: Zosimus, book 5 http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/New_History/Book_the_Fifth References ^ McMichael, Anthony (6 February 2017). Climate Change and the Health of Nations. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 141-159. ISBN 9780190262952. ^ Ward-Perkins 2007, p. 1. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWard-Perkins2007 (help) ^ e.g. Why Nations Fail. Acemoglu D and Robinson JA. Profile Books (Random House Inc.) 2012. ISBN 978-1-84668-429-6. pp. 166–175 ^ Diamond, Jared (January 2011). Collapse. Penguin Books. pp. 13–14. ISBN 9780143117001. ^ Glen Bowersock, "The Vanishing Paradigm of the Fall of Rome" Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 1996. vol. 49 no. 8 pp 29–43. ^ Dio Cassius 72.36.4, Loeb edition translated E. Cary ^ Momigliano 1973. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMomigliano1973 (help) ^ General Observations On The Fall Of The Roman Empire In The West. Fall In The West – The Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire by Edward Gibbon. http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717 ^ Heather, Peter (2005). The Fall of the Roman Empire: a New History. Pan Books. pp. 14–15, 123. ISBN 978-0-330-52983-9. OCLC 969667413. WITH THE EMPEROR Constantine’s conversion to Christianity in 312, the old ideological structures of the Roman world also began to be dismantled, and for Edward Gibbon this was a key moment in the story of Roman collapse [...] Others have not been so strident. But the notion that Christianity broke up ideological unity and hindered the ability of the state effectively to win support has since been shared by others ^ Alexander Demandt: 210 Theories, quoting A. Demandt, Der Fall Roms (1984) 695. ^ Galinsky 1992, pp. 53–73. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGalinsky1992 (help) ^ Harper 2017. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHarper_2017 (help) ^ McMichael, Anthony (6 February 2017). Climate Change and the Health of Nations. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 141–159. 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The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire http://www.ccel.org/ccel/gibbon/decline/files/volume1/chap2.htm ^ a b c Harper & 2017 p. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHarper2017_p (help) ^ Through the Eye of a Needle: wealth, the Fall of Rome, and the making of Christianity in the West, 350-550 AD. pp 220-221. Princeton University Press 2012. ISBN 978-0-691-16177-8. ^ Harper & 2017 chapter 4 "The Old Age of the World. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHarper2017_chapter_4_"The_Old_Age_of_the_World (help) ^ McCormick, Michael, Ulf Büntgen, Mark A. Cane, Edward R. Cook, Kyle Harper, Peter John Huybers, Thomas Litt, et al. 2012. “Climate Change during and after the Roman Empire: Reconstructing the Past from Scientific and Historical Evidence.” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 43 (2) (August): 169-220. doi:10.1162/JINH_a_00379. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/JINH_a_00379. https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/11642550 accessed 2 Nov 2019 ^ Gibbon, 1782 & Chapter I: The Extent Of The Empire In The Age Of The Antonines. Chapter II: The Internal Prosperity In The Age Of The Antonines. Chapter III: The Constitution In The Age Of The Antonines. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGibbon1782Chapter_I:_The_Extent_Of_The_Empire_In_The_Age_Of_The_Antonines._Chapter_II:_The_Internal_Prosperity_In_The_Age_Of_The_Antonines._Chapter_III:_The_Constitution_In_The_Age_Of_The_Antonines. (help) ^ a b Heather 2005, p. 67. ^ a b c d Heather 2005, p. 123. ^ Heather, Peter (2007). The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians. Historia (E-libro). Oxford University Press. p. 87. ISBN 9780199978618. Retrieved 2018-06-28. ^ G. M. Klein Goldewijk and W. M. Jongman. They never had it so good. Roman stature and the biological standard of living. As quoted in: Willem Jongman. Gibbon was right: The decline and fall of the Roman economy. In: Crises and the Roman Empire, pp 183–200. Editors O. Hekster; G. Kleijn; Daniëlle Slootjes. Brill: 2007. Chapter DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004160507.i-448.38 E- ISBN 978-90-474-2090-3 pages 194–195. https://books.google.com/books?id=nG-S-X_uI6EC&pg=PA183&lpg=PA18#v=onepage&q&f=false ^ Letki 2012, pp. 52–53. sfn error: no target: CITEREFLetki2012 (help) ^ Aurelius Victor De Caesaribus. chapter XXXIII verse 34. "Et patres quidem praeter commune Romani malum orbis stimulabat proprii ordinis contumelia, 34 quia primus ipse metu socordiae suae, ne imperium ad optimos nobilium transferretur, senatum militia vetuit et adire exercitum. Huic novem annorum potentia fuit." http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/victor.caes.html (in Latin) ^ Heather 2005, pp. 63–64. ^ Reynolds, Julian (2011). Defending Rome: The Masters of the Soldiers. p. 206. ISBN 9781477164600. Retrieved 6 October 2019. [...] the traditional Roman policy of receptio or recruiting barbarians as needed [...] ^ Macarius Magnes, Apocriticus IV: 23: "Therefore you make a great mistake in thinking that God is angry if any other is called a god, and obtains the same title as Himself. For even rulers do not object to the title from their subjects, nor masters from slaves." ^ MacMullen 1988, pp. 110, 147. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMacMullen1988 (help) ^ a b MacMullen 1988, pp. 137–142. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMacMullen1988 (help) ^ Matthews 2007, p. 253. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMatthews2007 (help) ^ MacMullen 1988, p. 170. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMacMullen1988 (help) ^ Cameron 2012, p. 97. sfn error: no target: CITEREFCameron2012 (help) ^ Matthews 2007, p. 278. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMatthews2007 (help) ^ Rathbone 2009, p. 324. sfn error: no target: CITEREFRathbone2009 (help) ^ Matthews 2007, p. 284. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMatthews2007 (help) ^ Heather 2005, p. 119. ^ a b c d Jones 1964, p. 131. sfn error: no target: CITEREFJones1964 (help) ^ Heather 2005, pp. 115–116. ^ MacMullen 1988, pp. 181–183. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMacMullen1988 (help) ^ MacMullen 1988, pp. 23, 178, 186. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMacMullen1988 (help) ^ MacMullen 1988, p. 161. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMacMullen1988 (help) ^ MacMullen 1988, pp. 190–193. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMacMullen1988 (help) ^ MacMullen 1988, p. 176. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMacMullen1988 (help) ^ Heather 2005, pp. 112–115. ^ MacMullen 1988, p. 175. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMacMullen1988 (help) ^ Tacitus, Annals, book 11, chapter 18. http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Tacitus/Annals/11B*.html Corbulo ... recalled the legions, as lethargic in their toils and duties as they were ardent in pillage, to the old code with its prohibitions against falling out on march or beginning an action without orders. ^ Nicasie 1998, p. 187. sfn error: no target: CITEREFNicasie1998 (help) ^ Ward-Perkins 2005, p. 37. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWard-Perkins2005 (help) ^ MacMullen 1988, pp. 173–175, 181. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMacMullen1988 (help) ^ Nicasie 1998, p. 261. sfn error: no target: CITEREFNicasie1998 (help) ^ Ammianus 1935, book XVI, chapter V: "what good he did to Gaul, labouring as it was in utmost destitution, appears most clearly from this fact: when he first entered those parts, he found that twenty-five pieces of gold were demanded by way of tribute from every one as a poll and land tax; but when he left, seven only for full satisfaction of all duties. And on account of this (as if clear sunshine had beamed upon them after ugly darkness), they expressed their joy in gaiety and dances." sfn error: no target: CITEREFAmmianus1935 (help) ^ Gaddis 2005, pp. 94-95. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGaddis2005 (help) ^ Burns 1990, p. 283. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1990 (help) ^ Jones 1964, p. 147. sfn error: no target: CITEREFJones1964 (help) ^ Jones 1964, p. 152. sfn error: no target: CITEREFJones1964 (help) ^ MacMullen 1988, p. 51. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMacMullen1988 (help) ^ Gibbon & vol.2, p. 513. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGibbonvol.2 (help) ^ Gibbon, 1782 & Chapter XXVII: Civil Wars, Reign Of Theodosius.—Part I. Death Of Gratian. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGibbon1782Chapter_XXVII:_Civil_Wars,_Reign_Of_Theodosius.—Part_I._Death_Of_Gratian. (help) ^ a b MacMullen 1988, p. 185. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMacMullen1988 (help) ^ Nicasie 1998, p. 263ff. sfn error: no target: CITEREFNicasie1998 (help) ^ Nicasie 1998, p. 256. sfn error: no target: CITEREFNicasie1998 (help) ^ a b Halsall 2007, p. 183. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHalsall2007 (help) ^ Burns 1994, p. 48. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ Livy (Titus Livius) (2013-11-30). The History of Rome. Translated by McDevitte, W. A. (William Alexander). ^ Heather 2005, p. 188. ^ Burns 1994, p. 54. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ Jones 1964, p. 157. sfn error: no target: CITEREFJones1964 (help) ^ Halsall 2007, p. 185. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHalsall2007 (help) ^ Burns 1994, pp. 102, 152. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ Burns 1994, p. 65. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ Jones 1964, pp. 162, 169. sfn error: no target: CITEREFJones1964 (help) ^ a b Jones 1964, p. 162. sfn error: no target: CITEREFJones1964 (help) ^ Brown, Peter (2012). Through the Eye of a Needle. Princeton University Press. pp. 145–146. ISBN 978-0-691-16177-8. Quoting Paulinus of Milan's Life of Ambrose. ^ Jones 1964, pp. 166–167. sfn error: no target: CITEREFJones1964 (help) ^ Jones 1964, p. 164. sfn error: no target: CITEREFJones1964 (help) ^ Jones 1964, p. 159. sfn error: no target: CITEREFJones1964 (help) ^ MacMullen 1988, p. 178. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMacMullen1988 (help) ^ a b c Burns 1994, p. 159. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ Jones 1964, pp. 157–158, 169. sfn error: no target: CITEREFJones1964 (help) ^ a b c Jones 1964, p. 173. sfn error: no target: CITEREFJones1964 (help) ^ a b Macgeorge 2002, p. 171. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMacgeorge2002 (help) ^ a b Heather 2005, pp. 213–214, 217–218, 242, 255. ^ a b Jones 1964, p. 187. sfn error: no target: CITEREFJones1964 (help) ^ MacMullen 1988, chapter 2: Power Effective pp=58–121. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMacMullen1988 (help) ^ Alföldy 2001, p. 17. sfn error: no target: CITEREFAlföldy2001 (help) ^ Macgeorge 2002, p. 171-172. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMacgeorge2002 (help) ^ Macgeorge 2002, p. 172. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMacgeorge2002 (help) ^ a b MacMullen 1988. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMacMullen1988 (help) ^ Burns 1994, p. 153. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ a b James 2014, p. 54. sfn error: no target: CITEREFJames2014 (help) ^ Kulikowski 2019, p. 126. sfn error: no target: CITEREFKulikowski2019 (help) ^ Burns 1994, p. 154. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ a b c Zosimus, book 5 http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/New_History/Book_the_Fifth ^ Burns 1994, pp. 162–163. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ MacMullen 1988, p. 189. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMacMullen1988 (help) ^ a b Burns 1994, p. 183. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ Burns 1994, p. 186. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ Burns 1994, p. 187. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ Burns 1994, p. 169. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ Burns 1994, p. 175. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ Ward-Perkins 2005, p. 60. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWard-Perkins2005 (help) ^ Burns 1994, p. 173. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ Jones 1964, p. 192. sfn error: no target: CITEREFJones1964 (help) ^ a b Burns 1994, p. 191. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ Burns 1994, p. 190. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ Burns 1994, p. 193. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ a b Burns 1994, p. 195. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ a b Burns 1994, p. 198. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ Gibbon, 277 ^ Zosimus, Nova Historia, book 5. http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/zosimus05_book5.htm ^ a b Burns 1994, p. 215. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ Burns 1994, p. 216. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ Burns 1994, p. 218. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ a b Burns 1994, p. 227. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ Burns 1994, p. 219. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ Burns 1994, pp. 224–225. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ Burns 1994, p. 228. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ Burns 1994, p. 236. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ Halsall 2007, p. 216. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHalsall2007 (help) ^ Burns 1994, pp. 226–227. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ Connolly 1998, p. 189. sfn error: no target: CITEREFConnolly1998 (help) ^ Burns 1994, pp. 233–234. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ a b Burns 1994, p. 234. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ Heather 2005, p. 227. ^ Heather 2005, p. 226. ^ Burns 1994, p. 239. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ Burns 1994, pp. 238–239. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ Burns 1994, p. 240. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ Burns 1994, p. 242. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ Burns 1994, p. 243. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ Burns 1994, pp. 243–244. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series II/Volume VI/The Letters of St. Jerome/Letter 127 Philip Schaff et al. http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Nicene_and_Post-Nicene_Fathers:_Series_II/Volume_VI/The_Letters_of_St._Jerome/Letter_127 ^ a b Heather 2005, p. 239. ^ Burns 1994, pp. 228–231. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ Heather 2005, pp. 229–232. ^ Burns 1994, pp. 196, 237, 238. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ Burns 1994, p. 238. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ Burns 1994, p. 245. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ a b Heather 2005, p. 198. ^ Heather 2005, pp. 202–205. ^ Jones 1964, pp. 185–189. sfn error: no target: CITEREFJones1964 (help) ^ Burns 1994, p. 128. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBurns1994 (help) ^ Heather 2005, p. 244. ^ Heather 2005, pp. 205–212. ^ a b Heather 2005, p. 251. ^ Dorchester Town House Coins. 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(help) ^ Martindale 1980, pp. 708–710, Chapter Marcellinus 6. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMartindale1980 (help) ^ Halsall 2007, p. 266–267. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHalsall2007 (help) ^ Jones 1964, p. 241. sfn error: no target: CITEREFJones1964 (help) ^ Halsall 2007, p. 391. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHalsall2007 (help) ^ Halsall 2007, p. 273. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHalsall2007 (help) ^ Halsall 2007, pp. 276–277. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHalsall2007 (help) ^ Halsall 2007, p. 277. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHalsall2007 (help) ^ Halsall 2007, p. 278. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHalsall2007 (help) ^ a b c Halsall 2007, p. 279. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHalsall2007 (help) ^ "Romulus Augustulus - Roman emperor". ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA. ^ De Imperatoribus Romanis ^ Gibbon, p. 406 ^ Halsall 2007, pp. 280–281. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHalsall2007 (help) ^ Jones 1964, p. 246. sfn error: no target: CITEREFJones1964 (help) ^ Halsall 2007, pp. 405–411. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHalsall2007 (help) ^ Ward-Perkins 2005, p. 118. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWard-Perkins2005 (help) ^ The Britons: from Romans to barbarians. Alex Woolf. pp 345–380 in Regna and Gentes. The relationship between Late Antique and Early Mediaeval Peoples and Kingdoms in the Transformation of the Roman World. Edited by Hans-Werner Goetz, Jörg Janut, and Walter Pohl with the collaboration of Sören Kaschke. Brill, Leiden, 2003. ISBN 90-04-12524-8 ^ Halsall 2007, pp. 284–319. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHalsall2007 (help) ^ a b Halsall 2007, p. 287. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHalsall2007 (help) ^ The papacy : an encyclopedia. Levillain, Philippe, 1940-. New York: Routledge. 2002. ISBN 0415922283. OCLC 47237751.CS1 maint: others (link) ^ Ward-Perkins 2005, pp. 87–122. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWard-Perkins2005 (help) ^ Bowersock 2001, pp. 87–122. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBowersock2001 (help) Bibliography Alföldy, Géza. Urban life, inscriptions, and mentality in late antique Rome. In Urban Centers and Rural Contexts in Late Antiquity, Thomas S. Burns and John W. Eadie (eds.). Michigan State University Press 2001. ISBN 0-87013-585-6. Ammianus. The History. Trans. J. C. Rolfe. Loeb Classical Library, Vol. I, 1935. Bowersock, Glen, Peter Brown, Oleg Grabar. Interpreting Late Antiquity: essays on the postclassical world. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-674-00598-8. Brown, Peter. The Making of Late Antiquity, Harvard University Press, 1978. Burns, Thomas S. Barbarians Within the Gates of Rome : A Study of Roman Military Policy and the Barbarians, ca. 375–425 A. D. Indiana University Press 1995. ISBN 978-0-253-31288-4. Börm, Henning. Westrom. Von Honorius bis Justinian. Kohlhammer Verlag 2013. ISBN 978-3-17-023276-1 (Review in English). Cameron, Averil. The Mediterranean World in Late Antiquity. AD 395–700. Routledge 2011, ISBN 978-0415579612. Connolly, Peter. Greece and Rome at War. Revised edition, Greenhill Books, 1998. ISBN 978-1-85367-303-0. Gaddis, Michael. There Is No Crime for Those Who Have Christ. Religious violence in the Christian Roman Empire. University of California Press, 2005. ISBN 978-0-520-24104-6. Galinsky, Karl. Classical and Modern Interactions (1992) 53–73. Gibbon, Edward. History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. With notes by the Rev. H. H. Milman. 1782 (Written), 1845 (Revised) Goldsworthy, Adrian. The complete Roman Army. ISBN 978-0-500-05124-5. Thames & Hudson, 2003. Goldsworthy, Adrian. The Fall of the West: The Slow Death of the Roman Superpower. ISBN 978-0-7538-2692-8. Phoenix, an imprint of Orion Books Ltd, 2010. Heather, Peter. The fall of the Roman Empire. A new history. Pan Books, 2006. ISBN 978-0-330-49136-5. Halsall, Guy. Barbarian Migrations and the Roman West, 376–568 (Cambridge Medieval Textbooks) Harper, Kyle. The fate of Rome. Climate, disease, and the end of an empire. ISBN (paperback) 978-0-691-19206-2. Princeton University Press 2017. Harper, Kyle. Slavery in the late Roman world AD 275–425. ISBN (hardback) 978-0-521-19861-5. Cambridge University Press 2011. Hunt, Lynn, Thomas R. Martin, Barbara H. Rosenwein, R. Po-chia Hsia, Bonnie G. Smith. The Making of the West, Peoples and Cultures, Volume A: To 1500. Bedford / St. Martins 2001. ISBN 0-312-18365-8. Hodges, Richard, Whitehouse, David. Mohammed, Charlemagne and the Origins of Europe: archaeology and the Pirenne thesis. Cornell University Press, 1983. Jones, A. H. M. The Later Roman Empire, 284–602: A Social, Economic, and Administrative Survey [Paperback, vol. 1] ISBN 0-8018-3353-1 Basil Blackwell Ltd. 1964. Letki Piotr. The cavalry of Diocletian. Origin, organization, tactics, and weapons. Translated by Pawel Grysztar and Trystan Skupniewicz. Wydawnictwo NapoleonV ISBN 978-83-61324-93-5. Oświęcim 2012. Macgeorge, Penny. Late Roman Warlords. Oxford University Press 2002. MacMullen, Ramsay. Corruption and the decline of Rome. Yale University Press, 1988. ISBN 0-300-04799-1. Martindale, J.R. The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire volume II, A.D. 395–527. Cambridge University Press 1980. Matthews, John. The Roman empire of Ammianus. Michigan Classical Press, 2007. ISBN 978-0-9799713-2-7. Matthews, John. Western aristocracies and Imperial court AD 364–425. Oxford University Press 1975. ISBN 0-19-814817-8. Momigliano, Arnaldo. 1973. "La caduta senza rumore di un impero nel 476 d.C." ("The noiseless fall of an empire in 476 AD"). Rivista storica italiana, 85 (1973), 5–21. Nicasie, M. J. Twilight of Empire. The Roman Army from the reign of Diocletian to the Battle of Adrianople. J. C. Gieben, 1998. ISBN 90-5063-448-6. Randsborg, Klavs. The First Millennium AD in Europe and the Mediterranean: an archaeological essay. Cambridge University Press 1991. ISBN 0 521 38401 X. Rathbone, Dominic. "Earnings and Costs. Part IV, chapter 15", pages 299–326. In: Quantifying the Roman Economy. Methods and Problems. Alan Bowman and Andrew Wilson eds. Oxford University Press 2009, paperback edition 2013, ISBN 978-0-19-967929-4. Ward-Perkins Bryan. The fall of Rome and the end of civilization. Oxford University Press 2005 (hardback edition). 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en-wikipedia-org-7928	----	Vulgar Latin - Wikipedia Vulgar Latin From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Non-standard Latin variety spoken by the people of Ancient Rome Not to be confused with Latin obscenity or the Vulgate, the Latin translation of the Bible used by the Catholic Church. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Vulgar Latin" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Vulgar Latin sermō vulgāris Native to Roman Empire Western Roman Empire Byzantine Empire (until the Heraclian dynasty) Ostrogothic Kingdom Visigothic Kingdom Francia Era Antiquity; developed into Romance languages 6th to 9th centuries Language family Indo-European Italic Latino-Faliscan Latin Vulgar Latin Early form Old Latin Writing system Latin Language codes ISO 639-3 – Linguist List lat-vul Glottolog vulg1234 The Roman Empire in 117 AD This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. Vulgar Latin or Sermo Vulgaris ("common speech"), also Colloquial Latin,[1] or Common Romance (particularly in the late stage), was a range of non-standard sociolects of Latin spoken in the Mediterranean region during and after the classical period of the Roman Empire. It is distinct from Classical Latin, the standard and literary version of the language. Compared to Classical Latin, written documentation of Vulgar Latin appears less standardized. Works written in Latin during classical times and the earlier Middle Ages used prescribed Classical Latin rather than Vulgar Latin, with very few exceptions (most notably sections of Gaius Petronius' Satyricon), thus Vulgar Latin had no official orthography of its own. By its nature, Vulgar Latin varied greatly by region and by time period, though several major divisions can be seen. Vulgar Latin dialects began to significantly diverge from Classical Latin by the third century during the classical period of the Roman Empire. Nevertheless, throughout the sixth century, the most widely spoken dialects were still similar to and mostly mutually intelligible with Classical Latin. In terms of regional differences for the whole Latin period, "we can only glimpse a tiny amount of divergence with the actual written data. In texts of all kinds, literary, technical, and all others, the written Latin of the first five or six centuries A.D. looks as if it were territorially homogeneous, even in its 'vulgar' register. It is only in the later texts, of the seventh and eighth centuries, that we are able to see in the texts geographical differences that seem to be the precursors of similar differences in the subsequent Romance languages."[2] In the Eastern Roman Empire, Latin gradually faded as the Court language over the course of the 6th century (official Latin lost its predominance in official communications from the mid-5th, although all communications at the imperial level of administration in Greek had to be accompanied by a Latin text); it was used in Justinian's (whose native language was Latin), but during the reign of Heraclius in the early 7th century, Greek (which was already widely spoken in the eastern portions of the Roman Empire from its inception) was made the official language. The Vulgar Latin spoken in the Balkans north of Greece became heavily influenced by Greek and Slavic (Vulgar Latin already had Greek loanwords before the Roman Empire) and also became radically different from Classical Latin and from the proto-Romance of Western Europe.[3][4] Thus the Latin of classical antiquity changed from being a "living natural mother tongue" to being a language foreign to all, which could not be used or understood even by Romance-speakers except as a result of deliberate and systematic study.[5] If a date is wanted "we could say Latin 'died' in the first part of the eighth century",[6] and after a long period 650–800 A.D. of rapidly accelerating changes.[7] Even after the end of Classical Latin, people had no other names for the languages they spoke than Latin, lingua romana, or lingua romana rustica (to distinguish it from formal Latin) for 200–300 years. The Romance languages, such as Catalan, French, Italian, Occitan, Portuguese, Romanian, and Spanish all evolved from Vulgar Latin and not from Classical Latin, but linguists prefer to distinguish the attested Vulgar Latin from the reconstructed model of Proto-Romance. Contents 1 Origin of the term 2 Sources 3 History 4 Vocabulary 4.1 Shifting usage of words 5 Phonology 5.1 Evidence of changes 5.2 Consonant development 5.2.1 Loss of final consonants 5.2.2 Lenition of stops 5.2.3 Simplification of geminates 5.2.4 Loss of word-final m 5.2.5 Neutralization of /b/ and /w/ 5.2.6 Consonant cluster simplification 5.3 Vowel development 5.3.1 System in Classical Latin 5.3.2 Monophthongization 5.3.3 Loss of distinctive length and near-close mergers 5.3.4 Phonologization of stress 5.3.5 Lengthening of stressed open syllables 6 Grammar 6.1 Romance articles 6.2 Loss of neuter gender 6.3 Loss of oblique cases 6.4 Wider use of prepositions 6.5 Pronouns 6.6 Adverbs 6.7 Verbs 6.7.1 Copula 6.8 Word order typology 7 See also 7.1 History of specific Romance languages 8 References 8.1 Citations 8.2 Works consulted 8.2.1 Transitions to Romance languages 9 Further reading 10 External links Origin of the term[edit] The term "common speech" (sermo vulgaris), which later became "Vulgar Latin", was used by inhabitants of the Roman Empire. Subsequently, it became a technical term from Latin and Romance-language philology referring to the unwritten varieties of a Latinised language spoken mainly by Italo-Celtic populations governed by the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire. Traces of their language appear in some inscriptions, such as graffiti or advertisements. The educated population mainly responsible for Classical Latin may also have spoken Vulgar Latin in certain contexts depending on their socioeconomic background. The term was first used improperly in that sense by the pioneers of Romance-language philology: François Juste Marie Raynouard (1761–1836) and Friedrich Christian Diez (1794–1876). In the course of his studies on the lyrics of songs written by the troubadours of Provence, which had already been studied by Dante Alighieri and published in De vulgari eloquentia, Raynouard noticed that the Romance languages derived in part from lexical, morphological, and syntactic features that were Latin, but were not preferred in Classical Latin. He hypothesized an intermediate phase and identified it with the Romana lingua, a term that in countries speaking Romance languages meant "nothing more or less than the vulgar speech as opposed to literary or grammatical Latin".[8] Diez, the principal founder of Romance-language philology, impressed by the comparative methods of Jakob Grimm in Deutsche Grammatik, which came out in 1819 and was the first to use such methods in philology, decided to apply them to the Romance languages and discovered Raynouard's work, Grammaire comparée des langues de l'Europe latine dans leurs rapports avec la langue des troubadours, published in 1821. Describing himself as a pupil of Raynouard, he went on to expand the concept to all Romance languages, not just the speech of the troubadours, on a systematic basis, thereby becoming the originator of a new field of scholarly inquiry.[9] Diez, in his signal work on the topic, "Grammar of the Romance Languages,"[10] after enumerating six Romance languages that he compared: Italian and Wallachian (i.e., Romanian) (east); Spanish and Portuguese (southwest); and Provençal and French (northwest), asserts that they had their origin in Latin – but "not from classical Latin," rather "from the Roman popular language or popular dialect".[11] These terms, as he points out later in the work, are a translation into German of Dante's vulgare latinum and Latinum vulgare, and the Italian of Boccaccio, latino volgare.[12] These names in turn are at the end of a tradition extending to the Roman Republic. The concepts and vocabulary from which vulgare latinum descend were known in the classical period and are to be found amply represented in the unabridged Latin dictionary, starting in the late Roman republic. Marcus Tullius Cicero was a prolific writer. His works have survived in large quantity, and serve as a standard of Latin. He and his contemporaries recognized the lingua Latina; but they also knew varieties of "speech" under the name sermo. Latin could be sermo Latinus, but there was also a variety known as sermo vulgaris, sermo vulgi, sermo plebeius and sermo quotidianus. These modifiers inform post-classical readers that a conversational Latin existed, which was used by the masses (vulgus) in daily speaking (quotidianus) and was perceived as lower-class (plebeius). These vocabulary items manifest no opposition to the written language. There was an opposition to higher-class, or family Latin (good family) in sermo familiaris and very rarely literature might be termed sermo nobilis. The supposed "sermo classicus" is a scholarly fiction unattested in the dictionary. All kinds of sermo were spoken only, not written. If one wanted to refer to what in post-classical times was called classical Latin one resorted to the concept of latinitas ("latinity") or latine (adverb). If one spoke in the lingua or sermo Latinus one merely spoke Latin, but if one spoke latine or latinius ("more Latinish") one spoke good Latin, and formal Latin had latinitas, the quality of good Latin, about it. After the fall of the empire and the transformation of spoken Latin into the early Romance languages, the only representative of the Latin language was written Latin, which became known as classicus, "classical" Latin. The original opposition was between formal or implied good Latin and informal or Vulgar Latin. The spoken/written dichotomy is entirely philological. Sources[edit] Vulgar Latin is a blanket term covering the popular dialects and sociolects of the Latin language throughout its range, from the hypothetical prisca latinitas of unknown or poorly remembered times in early Latium, to the language spoken around the fall of the empire. Although making it clear that sermo vulgaris existed, ancient writers said very little about it. Because it was not transcribed, it can only be studied indirectly. Knowledge comes from these chief sources:[13] Solecisms, especially in Late Latin texts. Mention of it by ancient grammarians, including prescriptive grammar texts from the Late Latin period condemning linguistic "errors" that represent spoken Latin. The comparative method, which reconstructs Proto-Romance, a hypothetical vernacular proto-language from which the Romance languages descended. Some literary works written in a lower register of Latin provide a glimpse into the world of Vulgar Latin in the classical period: the dialogues of the plays of Plautus and Terence, being comedies with many characters who were slaves, and the speech of freedmen in the Cena Trimalchionis by Petronius Arbiter. History[edit] An extract of the Oaths of Strasbourg, the earliest known Gallo-Romance text. The original written Latin language (what is today referred to as Classical Latin) was adapted from the actual spoken language of the Latins, with some minor modifications, long before the rise of the Roman Empire. As with many languages, over time the spoken vulgar language diverged from the written language, with the written language remaining somewhat static. During the classical period spoken (Vulgar) Latin still remained largely common across the Empire, some minor dialectal differences notwithstanding. The collapse of the Western Roman Empire caused rapid changes. The former western provinces became increasingly isolated from the Eastern Roman Empire, leading to a rapid divergence between the Latin spoken on either side of the Adriatic north of a line that ran from northern Albania mid-way through Bulgaria but stopped short of the Black Sea coast which was Greek-speaking. In the West an even more complex transformation was occurring. A blending of cultures was occurring between the former Roman citizens who were fluent in the "proper" Latin speech (which was already substantially different from Classical Latin), and many of the Gothic rulers who, though largely Latinised, tended to speak Latin poorly, speaking what could be considered a pidgin of Latin and their Germanic mother tongue, though this changed over time. Notable among those who spoke Latin well is Theodoric the Great, imperial regent of Italy (493–526) who is reputed to have been illiterate based on his use of a stamp to sign documents. Since he lived as a hostage of Emperor Leo I at the Great Palace of Constantinople from 461 to 471 (from age 7 to 17) and was well-educated by Constantinople's best teachers,[14] it is difficult to believe he did not know Greek and Latin. The 'vulgar' or conversational Latin language that continued to evolve after the establishment of the successor kingdoms of the Roman State incorporated Germanic vocabulary, but with minimal influences from Germanic grammar (Germanic languages did not displace Latin except in northern Belgium, England, the Rhineland Moselle region and north of the Alps). For a few centuries this language remained relatively common across most of Western Europe (as a result, Italian, Spanish, French, etc. are far more similar to each other than to Classical Latin), though regional dialects were already developing. As early as 722, in a face to face meeting between Pope Gregory II, born and raised in Rome, and Saint Boniface, an Anglo-Saxon, Boniface complained that he found Pope Gregory's Latin speech difficult to understand, a clear sign of the transformation of Vulgar Latin in two regions of western Europe.[15] Although they had become more dissimilar over time, Classical Latin and Vulgar Latin were still viewed as the same language. The verb system [...] seems to have remained virtually intact throughout the fifth century [...] the transformation of the language, from structures we call Latin into structures we call Romance, lasted from the third or fourth century until the eighth, "So its history came to an end – or to put it another way, the language becomes a 'dead' language – when it stops functioning in this way and is no longer anybody's natural mother tongue," In Gaul from the mid-eighth century many people were not able to understand even the most straightforward religious texts read to them in Latin. In Italy the first signs that people were aware of the difference between the everyday language they spoke and the written form is in the mid-tenth century. The period of most rapid change occurred from the second half of the seventh century. Until then the spoken and written form (though with many vulgar features) were regarded as one language.[16] Similarly, while increasingly divergent, Latin and the Romance Languages in the Early Middle Ages were seen as the same tongue.[17] At the Third Council of Tours in 813, priests were ordered to preach in the vernacular language – either in the rustica lingua romanica (Vulgar Latin), or in the Germanic vernaculars – since the common people could no longer understand formal Latin. Within a generation, the Oaths of Strasbourg (842), a treaty between Charlemagne's grandsons Charles the Bald and Louis the German, was proffered and recorded in a language that was already distinct from Latin. József Herman states: It seems certain that in the sixth century, and quite likely into the early parts of the seventh century, people in the main Romanized areas could still largely understand the biblical and liturgical texts and the commentaries (of greater or lesser simplicity) that formed part of the rites and of religious practice, and that even later, throughout the seventh century, saints' lives written in Latin could be read aloud to the congregations with an expectation that they would be understood. We can also deduce however, that in Gaul, from the central part of the eighth century onward, many people, including several of the clerics, were not able to understand even the most straightforward religious texts.[18] By the end of the first millennium, local speech had diverged to the point that distinct languages are recognizable; names were emerging for these; and some of the more geographically distant ones may have become mutually unintelligible. With the evolved Latin vernaculars viewed as different languages with local norms, specific orthographies were duly developed for some. Since all modern Romance varieties are continuations of this evolution, Vulgar Latin is not extinct but survives in variously evolved forms as today's Romance languages and dialects. In Romance-speaking Europe, recognition of the common origin of Romance varieties was replaced by labels recognizing and implicitly accentuating local differences in linguistic features. Some Romance languages evolved more than others. In terms of phonological structures, for example, a clear hierarchy from conservative to innovative is found in a comparison of modern Italian, Spanish and French (e.g. Latin amica > Italian amica, Spanish amiga, French amie; Latin caput > Italian capo, Spanish cabo, French chef). The Oaths of Strasbourg offer indications of the state of Gallo-Romance toward the middle of the 9th century. While the language cannot be said with any degree of certainty to be Old French in the sense of the linear precursor to today's standard French, the abundance of Gallo-Romance features provides a glimpse of some particulars of Vulgar Latin's evolution on French soil. Extract of the Romance part of the Oaths of Strasbourg (842) Gallo-Romance, AD 842[19] Hypothetical Vulgar Latin of Paris, circa 7th c. AD, for comparison[better source needed][further explanation needed][20] English Translation "Pro Deo amur et pro christian poblo et nostro commun salvament, d'ist di in avant, in quant Deus savir et podir me dunat, si salvarai eo cist meon fradre Karlo, et in ayudha et in cadhuna cosa si cum om per dreit son fradra salvar dift, in o quid il mi altresi fazet. Et ab Ludher nul plaid nunquam prindrai qui meon vol cist meon fradre Karlo in damno sit." "Por Deo amore et por chrestyano pob(o)lo et nostro comune salvamento de esto die en avante en quanto Deos sabere et podere me donat, sic salvarayo eo eccesto meon fradre Karlo, et en ayuda et en caduna causa, sic quomo omo per drecto son fradre salvare devet, en o qued illi me altrosic fatsyat, et ab Ludero nullo plag(i)do nonqua prendrayo, qui meon volo eccesto meon fradre Karlo en damno seat." "For the love of God and for Christendom and our common salvation, from this day onwards, as God will give me the wisdom and power, I shall protect this brother of mine Charles, with aid or anything else, as one ought to protect one's brother, so that he may do the same for me, and I shall never knowingly make any covenant with Lothair that would harm this brother of mine Charles." Vocabulary[edit] This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2015) Main article: Vulgar Latin vocabulary Further information: Reichenau Glosses Vulgar Latin largely kept much of its classical vocabulary, albeit with some changes in spelling and case usage. Shifting usage of words[edit] In many dialects of Vulgar Latin, new words were either created or gained greater popularity as the language developed. For example, equus ("horse") (Classical Latin), was replaced by caballu.[21] Many words started to change or broaden their meaning. The Classical Latin word fabulare ("to make stories") became a broad term for "to speak" in Vulgar Latin, encompassing narrare, loqui and other similar verbs (all roughly translating to "to tell, to speak" in Classical Latin). As Vulgar Latin lost its cases, the new caseless words often took their accusative forms after shifting spelling and pronunciation. Phonology[edit] See also: Latin spelling and pronunciation and Latin regional pronunciation Main article: Romance languages There was no single pronunciation of Vulgar Latin, and the pronunciation of Vulgar Latin in the various Latin-speaking areas is indistinguishable from the earlier history of the phonology of the Romance languages. See the article on Romance languages for more information. Evidence of changes[edit] Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: Appendix Probi Evidence of phonological changes can be seen in the late 3rd-century Appendix Probi, a collection of glosses prescribing correct classical Latin forms for certain vulgar forms. These glosses describe: a process of syncope, the loss of unstressed vowels in medial syllables ("calida non calda"); the merger of unstressed pre-vocalic /e/ and short /i/, probably as yod /j/ ("vinea non vinia"); the levelling of the distinction between /o/ and /u/ ("coluber non colober") and /e/ and /i/ ("dimidius non demedius"); regularization of irregular forms ("glis non glirus"); regularization and emphasis of gendered forms ("pauper mulier non paupera mulier"); levelling of the distinction between /b/ and /w/ between vowels ("bravium non brabium"); assimilation of plosive consonant clusters ("amycdala non amiddula"); the substitution of diminutives for unmarked words ("auris non oricla, neptis non nepticla"); the loss of syllable-final nasals before /s/ ("mensa non mesa") or their inappropriate insertion as a form of hypercorrection ("formosus non formunsus"); the loss of /h/, both initially ("hostiae non ostiae") and within the word ("adhuc non aduc"); simplification of /kʷ/ ("coqui non coci"). Many of the forms castigated in the Appendix Probi proved to be the forms accepted in Romance; e.g., oricla (evolved from the Classical Latin marked diminutive auricula) is the source of French oreille, Catalan orella, Spanish oreja, Italian orecchia, Romanian ureche, Portuguese orelha, Sardinian origra 'ear', not the prescribed auris. Development of yod from the post-nasal unstressed /e/ of vinea enabled the palatalization of /n/ that would produce French vigne, Italian vigna, Spanish viña, Portuguese vinha, Catalan vinya, Occitan vinha, Friulan vigne, etc., 'vineyard'. Consonant development[edit] See also: Romance languages § Consonants The most significant consonant changes affecting Vulgar Latin were palatalization (except in Sardinia); lenition, including simplification of geminate consonants (in areas north and west of the La Spezia–Rimini Line, e.g. Spanish digo vs. Italian dico 'I say', Spanish boca vs. Italian bocca 'mouth'); and loss of final consonants. Loss of final consonants[edit] The loss of final consonants was underway by the 1st century AD in some areas. A graffiti at Pompeii reads quisque ama valia, which in Classical Latin would read quisquis amat valeat ("may whoever loves be strong/do well").[22] (The change from valeat to valia is also an early indicator of the development of /j/ (yod), which played such an important part in the development of palatalization.) On the other hand, this loss of final /t/ was not general. Old Spanish and Old French preserved a reflex of final /t/ up through 1100 AD or so, and modern French still maintains final /t/ in some liaison environments, and Sardinian retains final /t/ in almost all circumstances. Lenition of stops[edit] Areas north and west of the La Spezia–Rimini Line lenited intervocalic /p, t, k/ to /b, d, ɡ/. This phenomenon is occasionally attested during the imperial period, but it became frequent by the 7th century. For example, in Merovingian documents, rotatico > rodatico ("wheel tax").[23] Simplification of geminates[edit] Reduction of bisyllabic clusters of identical consonants to a single syllable-initial consonant also typifies Romance north and west of La Spezia-Rimini. The results in Italian and Spanish provide clear illustrations: siccus > Italian secco, Spanish seco; cippus > Italian ceppo, Spanish cepo; mittere > Italian mettere, Spanish meter. Loss of word-final m[edit] The loss of the final m was a process which seems to have begun by the time of the earliest monuments of the Latin language. The epitaph of Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus, who died around 150 BC, reads taurasia cisauna samnio cepit, which in Classical Latin would be taurāsiam, cisaunam, samnium cēpit ("He captured Taurasia, Cisauna, and Samnium"). This however can be explained in a different way, that the inscription simply fails to note the nasality of the final vowels (just as consul was customarily abbreviated as cos.) Neutralization of /b/ and /w/[edit] Confusions between b and v show that the Classical semivowel /w/, and intervocalic /b/ partially merged to become a bilabial fricative /β/ (Classical semivowel /w/ became /β/ in Vulgar Latin, while [β] became an allophone of /b/ in intervocalic position). Already by the 1st century AD, a document by one Eunus writes iobe for iovem and dibi for divi.[24] In most of the Romance varieties, this sound would further develop into /v/, with the notable exception of the betacist varieties of Hispano-Romance and some Sardinian lects: b and v represent the same phoneme /b/ (with allophone [β]) in Modern Spanish, as well as in Galician, northern Portuguese, several varieties of Occitan and the northern dialects of Catalan. Consonant cluster simplification[edit] In general, many clusters were simplified in Vulgar Latin. For example, /ns/ reduced to /s/, reflecting the fact that syllable-final /n/ was no longer phonetically consonantal. In some inscriptions, mensis > mesis ("month"), or consul > cosul ("consul").[23] Descendants of mensis include Portuguese mês, Spanish and Catalan mes, Old French meis (Modern French mois), Italian mese.[23] In some areas (including much of Italy), the clusters [mn], [kt] ⟨ct⟩, [ks] ⟨x⟩ were assimilated to the second element: [nn], [tt], [ss].[23] Thus, some inscriptions have omnibus > onibus ("all [dative plural]"), indictione > inditione ("indiction"), vixit > bissit ("lived").[23] Also, three-consonant clusters usually lost the middle element. For example: emptores > imtores ("buyers").[23] Not all areas show the same development of these clusters, however. In the East, Italian has [kt] > [tt], as in octo > otto ("eight") or nocte > notte ("night"); while Romanian has [kt] > [pt] (opt, noapte).[23] By contrast, in the West, the [k] weakened to [j]. In French and Portuguese, this came to form a diphthong with the previous vowel (huit, oito; nuit, noite), while in Spanish, the [i] brought about palatalization of [t], which produced [tʃ] (*oito > ocho, *noite > noche).[25] Also, many clusters including [j] were simplified. Several of these groups seem to have never been fully stable[clarification needed] (e.g. facunt for faciunt). This dropping has resulted in the word parietem ("wall") developing as Italian parete, Romanian părete>perete, Portuguese parede, Spanish pared, or French paroi (Old French pareid).[25] The cluster [kw] ⟨qu⟩ was simplified to [k] in most instances before /i/ and /e/. In 435, one can find the hypercorrective spelling quisquentis for quiescentis ("of the person who rests here"). Modern languages have followed this trend, for example Latin qui ("who") has become Italian chi and French qui (both /ki/); while quem ("whom") became quien (/kjen/) in Spanish and quem (/kẽj/) in Portuguese.[25] However, [kw] has survived in front of [a] in most areas, although not in French; hence Latin quattuor yields Spanish cuatro (/kwatro/), Portuguese quatro (/kwatru/), and Italian quattro (/kwattro/), but French quatre (/katʀ/), where the qu- spelling is purely etymological.[25] In Spanish, most words with consonant clusters in syllable-final position are loanwords from Classical Latin, examples are: transporte [tɾansˈpor.te], transmitir [tɾanz.miˈtir], instalar [ins.taˈlar], constante [konsˈtante], obstante [oβsˈtante], obstruir [oβsˈtɾwir], perspectiva [pers.pekˈti.βa], istmo [ˈist.mo]. A syllable-final position cannot be more than one consonant (one of n, r, l, s or z) in most (or all) dialects in colloquial speech, reflecting Vulgar Latin background. Realizations like [trasˈpor.te], [tɾaz.miˈtir], [is.taˈlar], [kosˈtante], [osˈtante], [osˈtɾwir], and [ˈiz.mo] are very common, and in many cases, they are considered acceptable even in formal speech. Vowel development[edit] See also: Romance languages § Vowels In general, the ten-vowel system of Classical Latin, which relied on phonemic vowel length, was newly modelled into one in which vowel length distinctions lost phonemic importance, and qualitative distinctions of height became more prominent. System in Classical Latin[edit] Classical Latin had 10 different vowel phonemes, grouped into five pairs of short-long, ⟨ ă – ā, ĕ – ē, ĭ – ī, ŏ – ō, ŭ – ū⟩. It also had four diphthongs, ⟨ ae, oe, au, eu⟩, and the rare diphthongs ⟨ ui, ei⟩. Finally, there were also long and short ⟨ y⟩, representing /y/, /yː/ in Greek borrowings, which, however, probably came to be pronounced /i/, /iː/ even before Romance vowel changes started. At least since the 1st century AD, short vowels (except a) differed by quality as well as by length from their long counterparts, the short vowels being lower.[26][27] Thus the vowel inventory is usually reconstructed as /a – aː/, /ɛ – eː/, /ɪ – iː/, /ɔ – oː/, /ʊ – uː/. General vowel changes in most Vulgar Latin Spelling 1st cent. 2nd cent. 3rd cent. 4th cent. ă /a/ /a/ ā /aː/ ĕ /ɛ/ ē /eː/ /e/ /e/ ĭ /ɪ/ ī /iː/ /i/ ŏ /ɔ/ ō /oː/ /o/ /o/ ŭ /ʊ/ ū /uː/ /u/ Monophthongization[edit] Many diphthongs had begun their monophthongization very early. It is presumed that by Republican times, ae had become /ɛː/ in unstressed syllables, a phenomenon that would spread to stressed positions around the 1st century AD.[28] From the 2nd century AD, there are instances of spellings with ⟨ ĕ⟩ instead of ⟨ ae⟩.[29] ⟨oe⟩ was always a rare diphthong in Classical Latin (in Old Latin, oinos regularly became unus ("one")) and became /eː/ during early Imperial times. Thus, one can find penam for poenam.[28] However, ⟨ au⟩ lasted much longer. While it was monophthongized to /o/ in areas of north and central Italy (including Rome), it was retained in most Vulgar Latin, and it survives in modern Romanian (for example, aur < aurum). There is evidence in French and Spanish that the monophthongization of au occurred independently in those languages.[28] Loss of distinctive length and near-close mergers[edit] Length confusions seem to have begun in unstressed vowels, but they were soon generalized.[30] In the 3rd century AD, Sacerdos mentions people's tendency to shorten vowels at the end of a word, while some poets (like Commodian) show inconsistencies between long and short vowels in versification.[30] However, the loss of contrastive length caused only the merger of ă and ā while the rest of pairs remained distinct in quality: /a/, /ɛ – e/, /ɪ – i/, /ɔ – o/, /ʊ – u/.[31] Also, the near-close vowels /ɪ/ and /ʊ/ became more open in most varieties and merged with /e/ and /o/ respectively.[31] As a result, the reflexes of Latin pira "pear" and vēra "true" rhyme in most Romance languages: Italian and Spanish pera, vera.[clarification needed][citation needed] Similarly, Latin nucem "walnut" and vōcem "voice" become Italian noce, voce, Portuguese noz, voz.[citation needed] There was likely some regional variation in pronunciation, as the Romanian languages and Sardinian evolved differently.[32] In Sardinian, all corresponding short and long vowels simply merged with each other, creating a 5-vowel system: /a, e, i, o, u/. In Romanian, the front vowels ĕ, ĭ, ē, ī evolved like the Western languages, but the back vowels ŏ, ŭ, ō, ū evolved as in Sardinian. A few Southern Italian languages, such as southern Corsican, northernmost Calabrian and southern Lucanian, behave like Sardinian with its penta-vowel system or, in case of Vegliote (even if only partially) and western Lucanian,[33] like Romanian. Phonologization of stress[edit] The placement of stress generally did not change from Classical to Vulgar Latin, and except for reassignment of stress on some verb morphology (e.g. Italian cantavamo 'we were singing', but stress retracted one syllable in Spanish cantábamos) most words continued to be stressed on the same syllable they were before. However, the loss of distinctive length disrupted the correlation between syllable weight and stress placement that existed in Classical Latin. Whereas in Classical Latin the place of the accent was predictable from the structure of the word, it was no longer so in Vulgar Latin. Stress had become a phonological property and could serve to distinguish forms that were otherwise homophones of identical phonological structure, as in Spanish canto 'I sing' vs. cantó 's/he sang'. Lengthening of stressed open syllables[edit] After the Classical Latin vowel length distinctions were lost in favor of vowel quality, a new system of allophonic vowel quantity appeared sometime between the 4th and 5th centuries. Around then, stressed vowels in open syllables came to be pronounced long (but still keeping height contrasts), and all the rest became short. For example, long venis /*ˈvɛː.nis/, fori /*fɔː.ri/, cathedra /*ˈkaː.te.dra/; but short vendo /*ˈven.do/, formas /*ˈfor.mas/.[34] (This allophonic length distinction persists to this day in Italian.) However, in some regions of Iberia and Gaul, all stressed vowels came to be pronounced long: for example, porta /*ˈpɔːr.ta/, tempus /*ˈtɛːm.pus/.[34] In many descendants, several of the long vowels underwent some form of diphthongization, most extensively in Old French where five of the seven long vowels were affected by breaking. Grammar[edit] Romance articles[edit] It is difficult to place the point in which the definite article, absent in Latin but present in all Romance languages, arose, largely because the highly colloquial speech in which it arose was seldom written down until the daughter languages had strongly diverged; most surviving texts in early Romance show the articles fully developed. Definite articles evolved from demonstrative pronouns or adjectives (an analogous development is found in many Indo-European languages, including Greek, Celtic and Germanic); compare the fate of the Latin demonstrative adjective ille, illa, illud "that", in the Romance languages, becoming French le and la (Old French li, lo, la), Catalan and Spanish el, la and lo, Occitan lo and la, Portuguese o and a (elision of -l- is a common feature of Portuguese), and Italian il, lo and la. Sardinian went its own way here also, forming its article from ipse, ipsa "this" (su, sa); some Catalan and Occitan dialects have articles from the same source. While most of the Romance languages put the article before the noun, Romanian has its own way, by putting the article after the noun, e.g. lupul ("the wolf" – from *lupum illum) and omul ("the man" – *homo illum),[32] possibly a result of being within the Balkan sprachbund. This demonstrative is used in a number of contexts in some early texts in ways that suggest that the Latin demonstrative was losing its force. The Vetus Latina Bible contains a passage Est tamen ille daemon sodalis peccati ("The devil is a companion of sin"), in a context that suggests that the word meant little more than an article. The need to translate sacred texts that were originally in Koine Greek, which had a definite article, may have given Christian Latin an incentive to choose a substitute. Aetheria uses ipse similarly: per mediam vallem ipsam ("through the middle of the valley"), suggesting that it too was weakening in force.[22] Another indication of the weakening of the demonstratives can be inferred from the fact that at this time, legal and similar texts begin to swarm with praedictus, supradictus, and so forth (all meaning, essentially, "aforesaid"), which seem to mean little more than "this" or "that". Gregory of Tours writes, Erat autem... beatissimus Anianus in supradicta civitate episcopus ("Blessed Anianus was bishop in that city.") The original Latin demonstrative adjectives were no longer felt to be strong or specific enough.[22] In less formal speech, reconstructed forms suggest that the inherited Latin demonstratives were made more forceful by being compounded with ecce (originally an interjection: "behold!"), which also spawned Italian ecco through eccum, a contracted form of ecce eum. This is the origin of Old French cil (*ecce ille), cist (*ecce iste) and ici (*ecce hic); Italian questo (*eccum istum), quello (*eccum illum) and (now mainly Tuscan) codesto (*eccum tibi istum), as well as qui (*eccu hic), qua (*eccum hac); Spanish and Occitan aquel and Portuguese aquele (*eccum ille); Spanish acá and Portuguese cá (*eccum hac); Spanish aquí and Portuguese aqui (*eccum hic); Portuguese acolá (*eccum illac) and aquém (*eccum inde); Romanian acest (*ecce iste) and acela (*ecce ille), and many other forms. On the other hand, even in the Oaths of Strasbourg, no demonstrative appears even in places where one would clearly be called for in all the later languages (pro christian poblo – "for the Christian people"). Using the demonstratives as articles may have still been considered overly informal for a royal oath in the 9th century. Considerable variation exists in all of the Romance vernaculars as to their actual use: in Romanian, the articles are suffixed to the noun (or an adjective preceding it), as in other languages of the Balkan sprachbund and the North Germanic languages. The numeral unus, una (one) supplies the indefinite article in all cases (again, this is a common semantic development across Europe). This is anticipated in Classical Latin; Cicero writes cum uno gladiatore nequissimo ("with a most immoral gladiator"). This suggests that unus was beginning to supplant quidam in the meaning of "a certain" or "some" by the 1st century BC.[dubious – discuss] Loss of neuter gender[edit] 1st and 2nd adjectival declension paradigm in Classical Latin: e.g. altus ("tall") Excludes vocative. singular plural masculine neuter feminine masculine neuter feminine nominative altus altum alta altī alta altae accusative altum altam altōs alta altās dative altō altae altīs ablative altō altā altīs genitive altī altae altōrum altārum The genders The three grammatical genders of Classical Latin were replaced by a two-gender system in most Romance languages. The neuter gender of classical Latin was in most cases identical with the masculine both syntactically and morphologically. The confusion had already started in Pompeian graffiti, e.g. cadaver mortuus for cadaver mortuum ("dead body"), and hoc locum for hunc locum ("this place"). The morphological confusion shows primarily in the adoption of the nominative ending -us (-Ø after -r) in the o-declension. In Petronius's work, one can find balneus for balneum ("bath"), fatus for fatum ("fate"), caelus for caelum ("heaven"), amphitheater for amphitheatrum ("amphitheatre"), vinus for vinum ("wine"), and conversely, thesaurum for thesaurus ("treasure"). Most of these forms occur in the speech of one man: Trimalchion, an uneducated Greek (i.e. foreign) freedman. In modern Romance languages, the nominative s-ending has been largely abandoned, and all substantives of the o-declension have an ending derived from -um: -u, -o, or -Ø. E.g., masculine murum ("wall"), and neuter caelum ("sky") have evolved to: Italian muro, cielo; Portuguese muro, céu; Spanish muro, cielo, Catalan mur, cel; Romanian mur, cieru>cer; French mur, ciel. However, Old French still had -s in the nominative and -Ø in the accusative in both words: murs, ciels [nominative] – mur, ciel [oblique]. [a] For some neuter nouns of the third declension, the oblique stem was productive; for others, the nominative/accusative form, (the two were identical in Classical Latin). Evidence suggests that the neuter gender was under pressure well back into the imperial period. French (le) lait, Catalan (la) llet, Occitan (lo) lach, Spanish (la) leche, Portuguese (o) leite, Italian language (il) latte, Leonese (el) lleche and Romanian lapte(le) ("milk"), all derive from the non-standard but attested Latin nominative/accusative neuter lacte or accusative masculine lactem. In Spanish the word became feminine, while in French, Portuguese and Italian it became masculine (in Romanian it remained neuter, lapte/lăpturi). Other neuter forms, however, were preserved in Romance; Catalan and French nom, Leonese, Portuguese and Italian nome, Romanian nume ("name") all preserve the Latin nominative/accusative nomen, rather than the oblique stem form *nominem (which nevertheless produced Spanish nombre).[32] Typical Italian endings Nouns Adjectives and determiners singular plural singular plural masculine giardino giardini buono buoni feminine donna donne buona buone neuter uovo uova buono buone Most neuter nouns had plural forms ending in -A or -IA; some of these were reanalysed as feminine singulars, such as gaudium ("joy"), plural gaudia; the plural form lies at the root of the French feminine singular (la) joie, as well as of Catalan and Occitan (la) joia (Italian la gioia is a borrowing from French); the same for lignum ("wood stick"), plural ligna, that originated the Catalan feminine singular noun (la) llenya, and Spanish (la) leña. Some Romance languages still have a special form derived from the ancient neuter plural which is treated grammatically as feminine: e.g., BRACCHIUM : BRACCHIA "arm(s)" → Italian (il) braccio : (le) braccia, Romanian braț(ul) : brațe(le). Cf. also Merovingian Latin ipsa animalia aliquas mortas fuerant. Alternations in Italian heteroclitic nouns such as l'uovo fresco ("the fresh egg") / le uova fresche ("the fresh eggs") are usually analysed as masculine in the singular and feminine in the plural, with an irregular plural in -a. However, it is also consistent with their historical development to say that uovo is simply a regular neuter noun (ovum, plural ova) and that the characteristic ending for words agreeing with these nouns is -o in the singular and -e in the plural. The same alternation in gender exists in certain Romanian nouns, but is considered regular as it is more common than in Italian. Thus, a relict neuter gender can arguably be said to persist in Italian and Romanian. In Portuguese, traces of the neuter plural can be found in collective formations and words meant to inform a bigger size or sturdiness. Thus, one can use ovo/ovos ("egg/eggs") and ova/ovas ("roe", "a collection of eggs"), bordo/bordos ("section(s) of an edge") and borda/bordas ("edge/edges"), saco/sacos ("bag/bags") and saca/sacas ("sack/sacks"), manto/mantos ("cloak/cloaks") and manta/mantas ("blanket/blankets"). Other times, it resulted in words whose gender may be changed more or less arbitrarily, like fruto/fruta ("fruit"), caldo/calda (broth"), etc. These formations were especially common when they could be used to avoid irregular forms. In Latin, the names of trees were usually feminine, but many were declined in the second declension paradigm, which was dominated by masculine or neuter nouns. Latin pirus ("pear tree"), a feminine noun with a masculine-looking ending, became masculine in Italian (il) pero and Romanian păr(ul); in French and Spanish it was replaced by the masculine derivations (le) poirier, (el) peral; and in Portuguese and Catalan by the feminine derivations (a) pereira, (la) perera. As usual, irregularities persisted longest in frequently used forms. From the fourth declension noun manus ("hand"), another feminine noun with the ending -us, Italian and Spanish derived (la) mano, Romanian mânu>mâna pl (reg.)mâini/mâini, Catalan (la) mà, and Portuguese (a) mão, which preserve the feminine gender along with the masculine appearance. Except for the Italian and Romanian heteroclitic nouns, other major Romance languages have no trace of neuter nouns, but still have neuter pronouns. French celui-ci / celle-ci / ceci ("this"), Spanish éste / ésta / esto ("this"), Italian: gli / le / ci ("to him" /"to her" / "to it"), Catalan: ho, açò, això, allò ("it" / this / this-that / that over there); Portuguese: todo / toda / tudo ("all of him" / "all of her" / "all of it"). In Spanish, a three-way contrast is also made with the definite articles el, la, and lo. The last is used with nouns denoting abstract categories: lo bueno, literally "that which is good", from bueno: good. ^ In a few isolated masculine nouns, the s has been either preserved or reinstated in the modern languages, for example FILIUS ("son") > French fils, DEUS ("god") > Spanish dios and Portuguese deus, and particularly in proper names: Spanish Carlos, Marcos, in the conservative orthography of French Jacques, Charles, Jules, etc.[35] Loss of oblique cases[edit] The Vulgar Latin vowel shifts caused the merger of several case endings in the nominal and adjectival declensions.[36] Some of the causes include: the loss of final m, the merger of ă with ā, and the merger of ŭ with ō (see tables).[36] Thus, by the 5th century, the number of case contrasts had been drastically reduced.[36] Evolution of a 1st declension noun: caepa/cēpa ("onion") (feminine singular) Classical (c. 1st century) Vulgar[36] (c. 5th cent.) Modern Romanian nominative caepa, cēpa *cépa ceapă accusative caepam, cēpam ablative caepā, cēpā dative caepae, cēpae *cépe cepe genitive Evolution of a 2nd declension noun: mūrus ("wall") (masculine singular) Classical (c. 1st cent.) Vulgar[36] (c. 5th cent.) Old French (c. 11th cent.) nominative mūrus *múros murs accusative mūrum *múru mur ablative mūrō *múro dative genitive mūrī *múri There also seems to be a marked tendency to confuse different forms even when they had not become homophonous (like the generally more distinct plurals), which indicates that nominal declension was shaped not only by phonetic mergers, but also by structural factors.[36] As a result of the untenability of the noun case system after these phonetic changes, Vulgar Latin shifted from a markedly synthetic language to a more analytic one. The genitive case died out around the 3rd century AD, according to Meyer-Lübke, and began to be replaced by de + noun (which originally meant "about/concerning", weakened to "of") as early as the 2nd century BC.[citation needed] Exceptions of remaining genitive forms are some pronouns, many fossilized combinations like sayings, some proper names, and certain terms related to the church. For example, French jeudi ("Thursday") < Old French juesdi < Vulgar Latin jovis diēs; Spanish es menester ("it is necessary") < est ministeri; terms like angelorum, paganorum; and Italian terremoto ("earthquake") < terrae motu as well as names like Paoli, Pieri.[37] The dative case lasted longer than the genitive, even though Plautus, in the 2nd century BC, already shows some instances of substitution by the construction ad + accusative. For example, ad carnuficem dabo.[37][38] The accusative case developed as a prepositional case, displacing many instances of the ablative.[37] Towards the end of the imperial period, the accusative came to be used more and more as a general oblique case.[39] Despite increasing case mergers, nominative and accusative forms seem to have remained distinct for much longer, since they are rarely confused in inscriptions.[39] Even though Gaulish texts from the 7th century rarely confuse both forms, it is believed that both cases began to merge in Africa by the end of the empire, and a bit later in parts of Italy and Iberia.[39] Nowadays, Romanian maintains a two-case system, while Old French and Old Occitan had a two-case subject-oblique system. This Old French system was based largely on whether or not the Latin case ending contained an "s" or not, with the "s" being retained but all vowels in the ending being lost (as with veisin below). But since this meant that it was easy to confuse the singular nominative with the plural oblique, and the plural nominative with the singular oblique, along with the final "s" becoming silent, this case system ultimately collapsed as well, and French adopted one case (usually the oblique) for all purposes, leaving the Romanian the only one to survive to the present day. Evolution of a masculine noun in Old French: veisin ("neighbor"). (definite article in parentheses). Classical Latin (1st cent.) Old French (11th cent.) singular nominative vīcīnus (li) veisins accusative vīcīnum (le) veisin genitive vīcīnī dative vīcīnō ablative plural nominative vīcīnī (li) veisin accusative vīcīnōs (les) veisins genitive vīcīnōrum dative vīcīnīs ablative Wider use of prepositions[edit] Loss of a productive noun case system meant that the syntactic purposes it formerly served now had to be performed by prepositions and other paraphrases. These particles increased in number, and many new ones were formed by compounding old ones. The descendant Romance languages are full of grammatical particles such as Spanish donde, "where", from Latin de + unde, or French dès, "since", from de + ex, while the equivalent Spanish and Portuguese desde is de + ex + de. Spanish después and Portuguese depois, "after", represent de + ex + post. Some of these new compounds appear in literary texts during the late empire; French dehors, Spanish de fuera and Portuguese de fora ("outside") all represent de + foris (Romanian afară – ad + foris), and we find Jerome writing stulti, nonne qui fecit, quod de foris est, etiam id, quod de intus est fecit? (Luke 11.40: "ye fools, did not he, that made which is without, make that which is within also?"). In some cases, compounds were created by combining a large number of particles, such as the Romanian adineauri ("just recently") from ad + de + in + illa + hora.[40] Classical Latin: Marcus patrī librum dat. "Marcus is giving [his] father [a/the] book." Vulgar Latin: *Marcos da libru a patre. "Marcus is giving [a/the] book to [his] father." Just as in the disappearing dative case, colloquial Latin sometimes replaced the disappearing genitive case with the preposition de followed by the ablative, then eventually the accusative (oblique). Classical Latin: Marcus mihi librum patris dat. "Marcus is giving me [his] father's book. Vulgar Latin: *Marcos mi da libru de patre. "Marcus is giving me [the] book of [his] father." Pronouns[edit] Unlike in the nominal and adjectival inflections, pronouns kept great part of the case distinctions. However, many changes happened. For example, the /ɡ/ of ego was lost by the end of the empire, and eo appears in manuscripts from the 6th century.[which?][41] Reconstructed pronominal system of Vulgar Latin[41] 1st person 2nd person 3rd person singular plural singular plural Nominative *éo *nọs *tu *vọs Dative *mi *nọ́be(s) *ti, *tẹ́be *vọ́be(s) *si, *sẹ́be Accusative *mẹ *nọs *tẹ *vọs *sẹ Adverbs[edit] Classical Latin had a number of different suffixes that made adverbs from adjectives: cārus, "dear", formed cārē, "dearly"; ācriter, "fiercely", from ācer; crēbrō, "often", from crēber. All of these derivational suffixes were lost in Vulgar Latin, where adverbs were invariably formed by a feminine ablative form modifying mente, which was originally the ablative of mēns, and so meant "with a ... mind". So vēlōx ("quick") instead of vēlōciter ("quickly") gave veloci mente (originally "with a quick mind", "quick-mindedly") This explains the widespread rule for forming adverbs in many Romance languages: add the suffix -ment(e) to the feminine form of the adjective. The development illustrates a textbook case of grammaticalization in which an autonomous form, the noun meaning 'mind', while still in free lexical use in e.g. Italian venire in mente 'come to mind', becomes a productive suffix for forming adverbs in Romance such as Italian chiaramente, Spanish claramente 'clearly', with both its source and its meaning opaque in that usage other than as adverb formant. Verbs[edit] The Cantar de Mio Cid (Song of my Cid) is the earliest Spanish text Main article: Romance verbs See also: Romance languages § Verbal morphology In general, the verbal system in the Romance languages changed less from Classical Latin than did the nominal system. The four conjugational classes generally survived. The second and third conjugations already had identical imperfect tense forms in Latin, and also shared a common present participle. Because of the merging of short i with long ē in most of Vulgar Latin, these two conjugations grew even closer together. Several of the most frequently-used forms became indistinguishable, while others became distinguished only by stress placement: Infinitive 1st 2nd 3rd 1st 2nd 3rd Imperative singular singular plural Second conjugation (Classical) -ēre -eō -ēs -et -ēmus -ētis -ent -ē Second conjugation (Vulgar) *-ẹ́re *-(j)o *-es *-e(t) *-ẹ́mos *-ẹ́tes *-en(t) *-e Third conjugation (Vulgar) *-ere *-o *-emos *-etes *-on(t) Third conjugation (Classical) -ere -ō -is -it -imus -itis -unt -e These two conjugations came to be conflated in many of the Romance languages, often by merging them into a single class while taking endings from each of the original two conjugations. Which endings survived was different for each language, although most tended to favour second conjugation endings over the third conjugation. Spanish, for example, mostly eliminated the third conjugation forms in favour of second conjugation forms. French and Catalan did the same, but tended to generalise the third conjugation infinitive instead. Catalan in particular almost completely eliminated the second conjugation ending over time, reducing it to a small relic class. In Italian, the two infinitive endings remained separate (but spelled identically), while the conjugations merged in most other respects much as in the other languages. However, the third-conjugation third-person plural present ending survived in favour of the second conjugation version, and was even extended to the fourth conjugation. Romanian also maintained the distinction between the second and third conjugation endings. In the perfect, many languages generalized the -aui ending most frequently found in the first conjugation. This led to an unusual development; phonetically, the ending was treated as the diphthong /au/ rather than containing a semivowel /awi/, and in other cases the /w/ sound was simply dropped. We know this because it did not participate in the sound shift from /w/ to /β̞/. Thus Latin amaui, amauit ("I loved; he/she loved") in many areas became proto-Romance *amai and *amaut, yielding for example Portuguese amei, amou. This suggests that in the spoken language, these changes in conjugation preceded the loss of /w/.[32] Another major systemic change was to the future tense, remodelled in Vulgar Latin with auxiliary verbs. A new future was originally formed with the auxiliary verb habere, *amare habeo, literally "to love I have" (cf. English "I have to love", which has shades of a future meaning). This was contracted into a new future suffix in Western Romance forms, which can be seen in the following modern examples of "I will love": French: j'aimerai (je + aimer + ai) ← aimer ["to love"] + ai ["I have"]. Portuguese and Galician: amarei (amar + [h]ei) ← amar ["to love"] + hei ["I have"] Spanish and Catalan: amaré (amar + [h]e) ← amar ["to love"] + he ["I have"]. Italian: amerò (amar + [h]o) ← amare ["to love"] + ho ["I have"]. A periphrastic construction of the form 'to have to' (late Latin habere ad) used as future is characteristic of Sardinian: Ap'a istàre < apo a istàre 'I will stay' Ap'a nàrrere < apo a nàrrer 'I will say' An innovative conditional (distinct from the subjunctive) also developed in the same way (infinitive + conjugated form of habere). The fact that the future and conditional endings were originally independent words is still evident in literary Portuguese, which in these tenses allows clitic object pronouns to be incorporated between the root of the verb and its ending: "I will love" (eu) amarei, but "I will love you" amar-te-ei, from amar + te ["you"] + (eu) hei = amar + te + [h]ei = amar-te-ei. In Spanish, Italian and Portuguese, personal pronouns can still be omitted from verb phrases as in Latin, as the endings are still distinct enough to convey that information: venio > Sp vengo ("I come"). In French, however, all the endings are typically homophonous except the first and second person (and occasionally also third person) plural, so the pronouns are always used (je viens) except in the imperative. Contrary to the millennia-long continuity of much of the active verb system, which has now survived 6000 years of known evolution, the synthetic passive voice was utterly lost in Romance, being replaced with periphrastic verb forms—composed of the verb "to be" plus a passive participle—or impersonal reflexive forms—composed of a verb and a passivizing pronoun. Apart from the grammatical and phonetic developments there were many cases of verbs merging as complex subtleties in Latin were reduced to simplified verbs in Romance. A classic example of this are the verbs expressing the concept "to go". Consider three particular verbs in Classical Latin expressing concepts of "going": ire, vadere, and *ambitare. In Spanish and Portuguese ire and vadere merged into the verb ir, which derives some conjugated forms from ire and some from vadere. andar was maintained as a separate verb derived from ambitare. Italian instead merged vadere and ambitare into the verb andare. At the extreme French merged three Latin verbs with, for example, the present tense deriving from vadere and another verb ambulare (or something like it) and the future tense deriving from ire. Similarly the Romance distinction between the Romance verbs for "to be", essere and stare, was lost in French as these merged into the verb être. In Italian, the verb essere inherited both Romance meanings of "being essentially" and "being temporarily of the quality of", while stare specialized into a verb denoting location or dwelling, or state of health. Copula[edit] Main article: Romance copula The copula (that is, the verb signifying "to be") of Classical Latin was esse. This evolved to *essere in Vulgar Latin by attaching the common infinitive suffix -re to the classical infinitive; this produced Italian essere and French être through Proto-Gallo-Romance *essre and Old French estre as well as Spanish and Portuguese ser (Romanian a fi derives from fieri, which means "to become"). In Vulgar Latin a second copula developed utilizing the verb stare, which originally meant (and is cognate with) "to stand", to denote a more temporary meaning. That is, *essere signified the essence, while stare signified the state. Stare evolved to Spanish and Portuguese estar and Old French ester (both through *estare), while Italian and Romanian retained the original form. The semantic shift that underlies this evolution is more or less as follows: A speaker of Classical Latin might have said: vir est in foro, meaning "the man is in/at the marketplace". The same sentence in Vulgar Latin could have been *(h)omo stat in foro, "the man stands in/at the marketplace", replacing the est (from esse) with stat (from stare), because "standing" was what was perceived as what the man was actually doing. The use of stare in this case was still semantically transparent assuming that it meant "to stand", but soon the shift from esse to stare became more widespread. In the Iberian peninsula esse ended up only denoting natural qualities that would not change, while stare was applied to transient qualities and location. In Italian, stare is used mainly for location, transitory state of health (sta male 's/he is ill' but è gracile 's/he is puny') and, as in Spanish, for the eminently transient quality implied in a verb's progressive form, such as sto scrivendo to express 'I am writing'. The historical development of the stare + gerund progressive in those Romance languages that have it seems to have been a passage from a usage such as sto pensando 'I stand/stay (here) thinking', in which the stare form carries the full semantic load of 'stand, stay' to grammaticalization of the construction as expression of progressive aspect (Similar in concept to the English verbal construction of "I am still thinking"). The process of reanalysis that took place over time bleached the semantics of stare so that when used in combination with the gerund the form became solely a grammatical marker of subject and tense (e.g. sto = subject first person singular, present; stavo = subject first person singular, past), no longer a lexical verb with the semantics of 'stand' (not unlike the auxiliary in compound tenses that once meant 'have, possess', but is now semantically empty: j'ai écrit, ho scritto, he escrito, etc.). Whereas sto scappando would once have been semantically strange at best (?'I stay escaping'), once grammaticalization was achieved, collocation with a verb of inherent mobility was no longer contradictory, and sto scappando could and did become the normal way to express 'I am escaping'. (Although it might be objected that in sentences like Spanish la catedral está en la ciudad, "the cathedral is in the city" this is also unlikely to change, but all locations are expressed through estar in Spanish, as this usage originally conveyed the sense of "the cathedral stands in the city"). Word order typology[edit] Classical Latin in most cases adopted an SOV word order in ordinary prose, although other word orders were allowed, such as in poetry, due to its inflectional nature. However, word order in the modern Romance languages generally adopted a standard SVO word order. Fragments of SOV word order still survive in the placement of clitic object pronouns (e.g. Spanish yo te amo "I love you"). See also[edit] Romance copula Romance languages Reichenau Glosses Oaths of Strasbourg Veronese Riddle Glosas Emilianenses Gallo-Romance Gallo-Italic Ibero-Roman Common Romanian Daco-Roman Thraco-Roman History of specific Romance languages[edit] Sicilian Catalan phonology History of French History of Italian History of Portuguese History of the Spanish language Latin to Romanian sound changes Old French References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Posner, Rebecca (1996). The Romance Languages. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 98. ^ Herman 2000, p. 117. ^ Posner, Rebecca; Sala, Marius. "Vulgar Latin". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 20 Jun 2017. ^ Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association. American Philological Association. 1870. pp. 8–9. ^ Herman 2000, p. 110. ^ Herman 2000, p. 115. ^ Herman 2000, p. 119. ^ Meyer 1906, p. 239. ^ Meyer 1906, pp. 244–5. ^ Grammatik der romanischen Sprachen, first published in 1836–1843 and multiple times thereafter ^ nicht aus dem classischen Latein, rather aus der römischen Volkssprache oder Volksmundart. Diez (1882), p. 1. ^ Diez (1882), p. 63. ^ Grandgent 1907, p. 5. ^ Johnson 1988, p. 73. ^ Mann, Horace, The Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages, Vol. I: The Popes Under the Lombard Rule, Part 2, 657–795 (1903), pg. 158 ^ Herman 2000, pp. 96–115. ^ Ed. Roger Wright, 1991, p. 22, "...it is well known that there is absolutely no evidence for any name other than Latin in the Romance area before the ninth century"..."It means that the process of establishing new language names does not belong to Carolingian times, but to the long period of expansion that followed after the disastrous tenth century," Tore Janson, ISBN 0-271-01569-1 ^ Herman 2000, p. 114. ^ Rickard, Peter (April 27, 1989). A History of the French language. London: Routledge. pp. 21–22. ISBN 041510887X. ^ "Les Serments de Strasbourg". Retrieved February 20, 2016. ^ ianjamesparsley (2017-01-20). "How to learn languages – Vulgar Latin". Ian James Parsley. Retrieved 2019-01-29. ^ a b c Harrington et al. (1997). ^ a b c d e f g Herman 2000, p. 47. ^ Horrocks, Geoffrey and James Clackson (2007). The Blackwell History of the Latin Language. Malden: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4051-6209-8. ^ a b c d Herman 2000, p. 48. ^ Allen (2003) states: "There appears to have been no great difference in quality between long and short a, but in the case of the close and mid vowels (i and u, e and o) the long appear to have been appreciably closer than the short." He then goes on to the historical development, quotations from various authors (from around the 2nd century AD), and evidence from older inscriptions in which "e" stands for normally short i, "i" for long e, etc. ^ Grandgent 1991, p. 11. ^ a b c Palmer 1988, p. 157. ^ Grandgent 1991, p. 118. ^ a b Herman 2000, pp. 28–29. ^ a b Palmer 1988, p. 156. ^ a b c d Vincent (1990). ^ Michele Loporcaro, "Phonological Processes", The Cambridge History of the Romance Languages: Structures, vol. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2011), 112–4. ^ a b Grandgent 1991, p. 125. ^ Menéndez Pidal 1968, p. 208; Survivances du cas sujet. ^ a b c d e f Herman 2000, p. 52. ^ a b c Grandgent 1991, p. 82. ^ Captivi, 1019. ^ a b c Herman 2000, p. 53. ^ Romanian Explanatory Dictionary (DEXOnline.ro) ^ a b Grandgent 1991, p. 238. Works consulted[edit] General Allen, W. Sidney (2003). Vox Latina – a Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin (2nd ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-37936-9. Boyd-Bowman, Peter (1980). From Latin to Romance in Sound Charts. Washington DC: Georgetown University Press. Diez, Friedrich (1882). Grammatik der romanischen Sprachen (in German) (5th ed.). Bonn: E. Weber. Grandgent, C. H. (1907). An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. Boston: D.C. Heath. Grandgent, Charles Hall (1991). Introducción al latín vulgar (in Spanish). Translated by Moll, Francisco de B. Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas. Hall, Robert A., Jr. (1950). "The Reconstruction of Proto-Romance". Language. 26 (1): 6–27. doi:10.2307/410406. JSTOR 410406. Harrington, K. P.; Pucci, J.; Elliott, A. G. (1997). Medieval Latin (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-31712-9. Herman, József (2000). Vulgar Latin. Translated by Wright, Roger. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 0-271-02001-6. Johnson, Mark J. (1988). "Toward a History of Theoderic's Building Program". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 42: 73–96. doi:10.2307/1291590. JSTOR 1291590. Lloyd, Paul M. (1979). "On the Definition of 'Vulgar Latin': The Eternal Return". Neuphilologische Mitteilungen. 80 (2): 110–122. JSTOR 43343254. Meyer, Paul (1906). "Beginnings and Progress of Romance Philology". In Rogers, Howard J. (ed.). Congress of Arts and Sciences: Universal Exposition, St. Louis, 1904. Volume III. Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin and Company. pp. 237–255. Palmer, L. R. (1988) [1954]. The Latin Language. University of Oklahoma. ISBN 0-8061-2136-X. Pulgram, Ernst (1950). "Spoken and Written Latin". Language. 26 (4): 458–466. doi:10.2307/410397. JSTOR 410397. Sihler, A. L. (1995). New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-508345-8. Tucker, T. G. (1985) [1931]. Etymological Dictionary of Latin. Ares Publishers. ISBN 0-89005-172-0. Väänänen, Veikko (1981). Introduction au latin vulgaire (3rd ed.). Paris: Klincksieck. ISBN 2-252-02360-0. Vincent, Nigel (1990). "Latin". In Harris, M.; Vincent, N. (eds.). The Romance Languages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-520829-3. von Wartburg, Walther; Chambon, Jean-Pierre (1922–1967). Französisches etymologisches Wörterbuch: eine Darstellung des galloromanischen Sprachschatzes (in German and French). Bonn: F. Klopp. Wright, Roger (1982). Late Latin and Early Romance in Spain and Carolingian France. Liverpool: Francis Cairns. Transitions to Romance languages[edit] To Romance in general Banniard, Michel (1997). Du latin aux langues romanes. Paris: Nathan. Bonfante, Giuliano (1999). The origin of the Romance languages: Stages in the development of Latin. Heidelberg: Carl Winter. Ledgeway, Adam (2012). From Latin to Romance: Morphosyntactic Typology and Change. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ledgeway, Adam; Maiden, Martin, eds. (2016). The Oxford Guide to the Romance Languages. Part 1: The Making of the Romance Languages. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Maiden, Martin; Smith, John Charles; Ledgeway, Adam, eds. (2013). The Cambridge History of the Romance Languages. Volume II: Contexts. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. (esp. parts 1 & 2, Latin and the Making of the Romance Languages; The Transition from Latin to the Romance Languages) Wright, Roger (1982). Late Latin and Early Romance in Spain and Carolingian France. Liverpool: Francis Cairns. Wright, Roger, ed. (1991). Latin and the Romance Languages in the Early Middle ages. London/New York: Routledge. To French Ayres-Bennett, Wendy (1995). A History of the French Language through Texts. London/New York: Routledge. Kibler, William W. (1984). An Introduction to Old French. New York: Modern Language Association of America. Lodge, R. Anthony (1993). French: From Dialect to Standard. London/New York: Routledge. Pope, Mildred K. (1934). From Latin to Modern French with Especial Consideration of Anglo-Norman Phonology and Morphology. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Price, Glanville (1998). The French language: present and past (Revised ed.). London, England: Grant and Cutler. To Italian Maiden, Martin (1996). A Linguistic History of Italian. New York: Longman. Vincent, Nigel (2006). "Languages in contact in Medieval Italy". In Lepschy, Anna Laura (ed.). Rethinking Languages in Contact: The Case of Italian. Oxford and New York: LEGENDA (Routledge). pp. 12–27. To Spanish Lloyd, Paul M. (1987). From Latin to Spanish. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society. Penny, Ralph (2002). A History of the Spanish Language. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Pharies, David A. (2007). A Brief History of the Spanish Language. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Pountain, Christopher J. (2000). A History of the Spanish Language Through Texts. London, England: Routledge. To Portuguese Castro, Ivo (2004). Introdução à História do Português. Lisbon: Edições Colibri. Emiliano, António (2003). Latim e Romance na segunda metade do século XI. Lisbon: Fundação Gulbenkian. Williams, Edwin B. (1968). From Latin to Portuguese: Historical Phonology and Morphology of the Portuguese Language. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. To Occitan Paden, William D. (1998). An Introduction to Old Occitan. New York: Modern Language Association of America. To Sardinian Blasco Ferrer, Eduardo (1984). Storia linguistica della Sardegna. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag. Further reading[edit] Adams, James Noel. 1976. The Text and Language of a Vulgar Latin Chronicle (Anonymus Valesianus II). London: University of London, Institute of Classical Studies. --. 1977. The Vulgar Latin of the letters of Claudius Terentianus. Manchester, UK: Manchester Univ. Press. --. 2013. Social Variation and the Latin Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Burghini, Julia, and Javier Uría. 2015. "Some neglected evidence on Vulgar Latin 'glide suppression': Consentius, 27.17.20 N." Glotta; Zeitschrift Für Griechische Und Lateinische Sprache 91: 15–26. JSTOR 24368205. Herman, József, and Roger Wright. 2000. Vulgar Latin. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. Jensen, Frede. 1972. From Vulgar Latin to Old Provençal. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. Lakoff, Robin Tolmach. 2006. "Vulgar Latin: Comparative Castration (and Comparative Theories of Syntax). Style 40, nos. 1–2: 56–61. JSTOR 10.5325/style.40.1-2.56. Rohlfs, Gerhard. 1970. From Vulgar Latin to Old French: An Introduction to the Study of the Old French Language. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. Weiss, Michael. 2009. Outline of the historical and comparative grammar of Latin. Ann Arbor, MI: Beechstave. Zovic, V (2015). "Vulgar Latin in Inscriptions from the Roman Province of Dalmatia". Vjesnik Za Arheologiju I Povijest Dalmatinsku. 108: 157–222. External links[edit] Library resources about Vulgar Latin Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Batzarov, Zdravko (2000). "Orbis Latinus". Retrieved 19 September 2009. Norberg, Dag; Johnson, R.H. (Translator) (2009) [1980]. "Latin at the End of the Imperial Age". Manuel pratique de latin médiéval. New York: Columbia University Press, Orbis Latinus. "Corpus Grammaticorum Latinorum". Paris: Laboratoire d'Histoire des théories linguistiques. 2008. Archived from the original on 7 January 2013. 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en-wikipedia-org-7969	----	Dulce et Decorum est - Wikipedia Dulce et Decorum est From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Dulce et decorum est) Jump to navigation Jump to search 1920 poem by Wilfred Owen This article is about the World War I poem. For the Latin lines by Horace, see Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori. Dulce et Decorum est Bent double, like old beggars under sacks, Knock-kneed, coughing like hags, we cursed through sludge, Till on the haunting flares we turned our backs, And towards our distant rest began to trudge. Men marched asleep. Many had lost their boots, But limped on, blood-shod. All went lame, all blind; Drunk with fatigue; deaf even to the hoots Of gas-shells dropping softly behind. Gas! GAS! Quick, boys!—An ecstasy of fumbling Fitting the clumsy helmets just in time, But someone still was yelling out and stumbling And flound'ring like a man in fire or lime.— Dim through the misty panes and thick green light, As under a green sea, I saw him drowning. In all my dreams before my helpless sight He plunges at me, guttering, choking, drowning. If in some smothering dreams, you too could pace Behind the wagon that we flung him in, And watch the white eyes writhing in his face, His hanging face, like a devil's sick of sin, If you could hear, at every jolt, the blood Come gargling from the froth-corrupted lungs, Obscene as cancer, Bitter[1] as the cud Of vile, incurable sores on innocent tongues,– My friend, you would not tell with such high zest To children ardent for some desperate glory, The old Lie: Dulce et decorum est Pro patria mori.[2] "Dulce et Decorum est" is a poem written by Wilfred Owen during World War I, and published posthumously in 1920. The Latin title is taken from Ode 3.2 (Valor) of the Roman poet Horace and means "it is sweet and fitting".[3] It is followed by pro patria mori, which means "to die for one's country". One of Owen's most renowned works, the poem is known for its horrific imagery and condemnation of war. It was drafted at Craiglockhart in the first half of October 1917 and later revised, probably at Scarborough but possibly Ripon, between January and March 1918. The earliest surviving manuscript is dated 8 October 1917 and addressed to his mother, Susan Owen, with the message: "Here is a gas poem done yesterday (which is not private, but not final)." Contents 1 Summary 2 Dedication 3 Title 4 Structure 5 Composition 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links Summary[edit] The text presents a vignette from the front lines of World War I; specifically, of British soldiers attacked with chlorine gas. In the rush when the shells with poison gas explode, one soldier is unable to get his mask on in time. The speaker of the poem describes the gruesome effects of the gas on the man and concludes that, if one were to see first-hand the reality of war, one might not repeat mendacious platitudes like dulce et decorum est pro patria mori: "How sweet and honourable it is to die for one's country". These horrors are what inspired Owen to write the poem, and because he did, he was able to voice his own opinion on the atrocities of war, and what it was like to be in those very situations.[4] Dedication[edit] Throughout the poem, and particularly strong in the last stanza, there is a running commentary, a letter to Jessie Pope, a civilian propagandist of World War I, who encouraged—"with such high zest"—young men to join the battle, through her poetry, e.g. "Who's for the game?" The first draft of the poem, indeed, was dedicated to Pope.[5] A later revision amended this to "a certain Poetess",[5] though this did not make it into the final publication, either, as Owen apparently decided to address his poem to the larger audience of war supporters in general such as the women who handed out white feathers during the conflict to men whom they regarded as cowards for not being at the front. In the last stanza, however, the original intention can still be seen in Owen's address. Title[edit] The title of this poem means 'It is sweet and fitting'. The title and the Latin exhortation of the final two lines are drawn from the phrase "Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori" written by the Roman poet Horace (Quintus Horatius Flaccus): Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori: mors et fugacem persequitur virum nec parcit inbellis iuventae poplitibus timidoque tergo. How sweet and fitting it is to die for one's country: Death pursues the man who flees, spares not the hamstrings or cowardly backs Of battle-shy youths. —Ode III.2.13[6] These words were well known and often quoted by supporters of the war near its inception and were, therefore, of particular relevance to soldiers of the era. In 1913, the line Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori was inscribed on the wall of the chapel of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst.[7] In the final stanza of his poem, Owen refers to this as "The old Lie".[8] Some uncertainty arises around how to pronounce the Latin phrase when the poem is read aloud. There are essentially three choices: 1. The Traditional English pronunciation of Latin, current until the early twentieth century (“dull-see et decorum est, pro pay-tria mor-eye”). 2. The Italianate or Ecclesiastical Latin pronunciation, used in Owen’s day in both the Roman Catholic and Anglican churches, and in continued use today in the Catholic Church (“dool-chay et decorum est, pro patria mor-ee”). 3. The Classical Latin pronunciation reconstructed by scholars in the nineteenth century and generally taught in schools since the early 1900s (“dool-kay et decorum est, pro patria mor-ee”). Owen’s own schooling took place at a time when the teaching of Latin pronunciation was in transition and therefore – without knowing how he himself would have pronounced the phrase – any of the three versions can be considered acceptable. Structure[edit] Detail of the inscription over the rear entrance to the Arlington Memorial Amphitheater. The inscription reads: "Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori", written by the Roman poet Horace. The style of "Dulce et Decorum est" is similar to the French ballade poetic form.[9] By referencing this formal poetic form and then breaking the conventions of pattern and rhyming, Owen accentuates the disruptive and chaotic events being told. Each of the stanzas has a traditional rhyming scheme, using two quatrains of rhymed iambic pentameter with several spondaic substitutions. These make the poem's reading experience seem close to a casual talking speed and clarity. The poem is in two parts, each of 14 lines. The first part of the poem (the first 8 line and the second 6 line stanzas) is written in the present as the action happens and everyone is reacting to the events around them. In the second part (the third 2 line and the last 12 line stanzas), the narrator writes as though at a distance from the horror: he refers to what is happening twice as if in a "dream", as though standing back watching the events or even recalling them. Another interpretation is to read the lines literally. "In all my dreams" may mean this sufferer of shell shock is haunted by a friend drowning in his own blood, and cannot sleep without revisiting the horror nightly. The second part looks back to draw a lesson from what happened at the start. The two 14 line parts of the poem echo a formal poetic style, the sonnet, but a broken and unsettling version of this form.[9] This poem is considered by many as one of the best war poems ever written.[citation needed] Studying the two parts of the poem reveals a change in the use of language from visual impressions outside the body, to sounds produced by the body – or a movement from the visual to the visceral.[10] In the opening lines, the scene is set with visual phrases such as "haunting flares", but after the gas attack the poem has sounds produced by the victim – "guttering", "choking", "gargling". In this way, Owen evokes the terrible effects of chlorine gas corroding the body from inside.[10] Composition[edit] In May 1917 Owen was diagnosed with neurasthenia (shell-shock) and sent to Craiglockhart hospital near Edinburgh to recover. Whilst receiving treatment at the hospital, Owen became the editor of the hospital magazine, The Hydra, and met the poet Siegfried Sassoon, who was to have a major impact upon his life and work and to play a crucial role in the dissemination of Owen’s poetry following his untimely death in 1918, aged 25. Owen wrote a number of his most famous poems at Craiglockhart, including several drafts of "Dulce et Decorum est", "Soldier's Dream", and "Anthem for Doomed Youth". Sassoon advised and encouraged Owen, and this is evident in a number of drafts which include Sassoon’s annotations.[11] Only five of Owen's poems were published in his lifetime. However, after his death his heavily worked manuscript drafts were brought together and published in two different editions by Siegfried Sassoon with the assistance of Edith Sitwell (in 1920) and Edmund Blunden (in 1931).[11] Notes[edit] ^ Poems (1920) has "Bitten": plausible, as the topic is "cud". However, the original manuscript is transcribed as "bitter" in: Owen, Wilfred (1983). Stallworthy, Jon (ed.). The Complete Poems and Fragments. Volume II: The manuscripts of the poems and the fragments. London: Chatto & Windus. p. 293. ISBN 0701127171. ^ Owen, Wilfred (1920). Poems. London: Chatto & Windus. p. 15. OCLC 562356585. ^ "'Dulce et Decorum est' & intertextuality in Wilfred Owen" (PDF). Poetryclass Fresh ideas for learning from The Poetry Society. poetrysociety.org.uk. ^ "A Short Analysis of Wilfred Owen's 'Dulce et Decorum Est'". Interesting Literature. 2018-03-04. Retrieved 2020-03-02. ^ a b "Dulce and Decorum Est". The First World War Poetry Digital Archive. Retrieved 2009-09-16. ^ "Q. Horati Flaccvs". The Latin Library. Retrieved 2008-06-27. ^ Francis Law, A man at arms: memoirs of two world wars (1983) Page 44 ^ "the poem". Oucs.ox.ac.uk. Retrieved 2013-12-12. ^ a b Teachout, Mika. "Dulce Et Decorum Est – A Literary Writer's Point of View". Writers Write: the internet writing journal. Retrieved 27 February 2013. ^ a b Das, Santanu. "Wilfred Owen, 'Dulce et Decorum Est'". World War One. British Library. Retrieved 26 August 2014. ^ a b "The Poetry Manuscripts of Wilfred Owen". British Library. Retrieved 26 August 2014. References[edit] "Q. Horati Flaccvs". The Latin Library. Retrieved 2008-06-27. External links[edit] Wikisource has original text related to this article: Dulce et Decorum est Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori. "Dulce et Decorum Est" at the British Library's Discovering Literature: 20th Century Dr Santanu Das explores the manuscript for Wilfred Owen's "Dulce et Decorum est" Video on the British Library's World War I website Ian McMillan asks if "Dulce et Decorum est" has distorted our view of WWI Video on the BBC's iWonder website Manuscript version of 'Dulce et Decorum Est' The Poetry Manuscripts of Wilfred Owen on the British Library's website v t e Poems by Wilfred Owen Poems (1920) "A Terre" "Anthem for Doomed Youth" "Apologia Pro Poemate Meo" "Arms and the Boy" "The Dead-Beat" "Disabled" "Dulce et Decorum est" "Futility" "Insensibility" "Mental Cases" "The Parable of the Old Man and the Young" "Spring Offensive" "Strange Meeting" "Wild with All Regrets" Other poems "1914" "Asleep" "At a Calvary near the Ancre" "Cramped in that Funnelled Hole" "Elegy in April and September" "The End" "Has Your Soul Sipped?" "I Saw His Round Mouth's Crimson" "The Last Laugh" "The Letter" "Miners" "A New Heaven" "The Next War" "Soldier's Dream" "Sonnet On Seeing a Piece of our Heavy Artillery Brought into Action" "To Eros" "Training" "With an Identity Disc" Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dulce_et_Decorum_est&oldid=993699641" Categories: World War I poems 1917 poems Poetry by Wilfred Owen Poems published posthumously Hidden categories: CS1: long volume value Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2020 Commons link is locally defined Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikisource Languages Brezhoneg Deutsch Français Italiano עברית Nederlands Русский Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 12 December 2020, at 00:49 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7990	----	Officium (ancient Rome) - Wikipedia Officium (ancient Rome) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Officium. Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e Officium (plural officia) is a Latin word with various meanings in ancient Rome, including "service", "(sense of) duty", "courtesy", "ceremony" and the like. It also translates the Greek kathekon and was used in later Latin to render more modern offices. However, this article is mainly concerned with the meaning of "an office" (the modern word office derives from it) or "bureau" in the sense of a dignitary's staff of administrative and other collaborators, each of whom was called an officialis (hence the modern official). The Notitia Dignitatum gives us uniquely detailed information, stemming from the very imperial chanceries, on the composition of the officia of many of the leading court, provincial, military and certain other officials of the two Roman empires c. AD 400. While the details vary somewhat according to rank, from West (Rome) to East (Byzantium) and/or in particular cases, in general the leading staff would be about as follows (the English descriptions and other modern "equivalents" are approximate): Princeps officii was the chief of staff, permanent secretary or chef de cabinet Cornicularius was a military title, for an administrative deputy of various generals etc. Adiutor (literally "helper") seems to have been the chief (general) assistant, or adjutant Commentariensis was the keeper of "commentaries", an official diary Ab actis was the keeper of records, the archivist Numerarius ("accountant") seems to have been the receiver of taxes Subadiuva ("under-helper") seems to have been a general assistant Cura epistolarum was the curator of correspondence Regerendarius may have been a registrar Exceptor seem to have been a secretary Singularius has been called a notary, but the word can also refer to a bodyguard Below those "dignities", there were often a few hundred minor officials, often slaves or freedmen, doing the clerical drudgery, not deemed worthy of any more detailed mention. They are only referred to collectively, by various terms in the plural, such as cohortalini (apparently the diminutive of cohortalis, the very term suggesting significant number; see cohors amicorum). See also[edit] Magister officiorum Sources and references[edit] Pauly-Wissowa (German-language encyclopedia on anything relating to Classical Antiquity) Notitia dignitatum v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Officium_(ancient_Rome)&oldid=872478348" Categories: Ancient Roman government Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Español Português Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 7 December 2018, at 10:37 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-799	----	Category:1st-century BC Romans - Wikipedia Help Category:1st-century BC Romans From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 6th BC 5th BC 4th BC 3rd BC 2nd BC 1st BC 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Contents Top 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Subcategories This category has the following 25 subcategories, out of 25 total.   ► 1st-century BC Roman emperors‎ (1 P) * ► 1st-century BC Roman women‎ (3 C, 101 P) A ► Ancient Romans involved in Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain‎ (5 P) ► Assassins of Julius Caesar‎ (1 C, 12 P) C ► Julius Caesar‎ (10 C, 35 P) ► Catiline‎ (1 C, 8 P) ► Cato the Younger‎ (1 C, 8 P) ► Catullus‎ (1 C, 3 P) ► Children of Augustus‎ (2 C, 5 P) ► Children of Julius Caesar‎ (2 C, 3 P) ► Children of Pompey‎ (4 P) ► Children of Servilia (mother of Brutus)‎ (1 C, 5 P) ► Cicero‎ (4 C, 12 P) E ► 1st-century BC Roman governors of Egypt‎ (4 P) G ► Roman people of the Gallic Wars‎ (17 P) ► 1st-century BC Gallo-Roman people‎ (6 P) ► Generals of Augustus‎ (4 P) H ► Horace‎ (1 C, 18 P) M ► Marcus Junius Brutus‎ (2 C, 5 P) O ► Ovid‎ (3 C, 8 P) P ► 1st-century BC Roman poets‎ (4 C, 26 P) ► Pompey‎ (3 C, 8 P) S ► Spartacus‎ (1 C, 7 P) ► 1st-century BC Roman governors of Syria‎ (23 P) V ► Virgil‎ (4 C, 28 P) Pages in category "1st-century BC Romans" The following 200 pages are in this category, out of approximately 585 total. 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en-wikipedia-org-8001	----	List of films set in ancient Rome - Wikipedia List of films set in ancient Rome From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikipedia list article This page lists films set in the city of Rome during the Roman Kingdom, the Roman Republic, or the Roman Empire. The films only partly set in Rome are so noted. Contents 1 The founding of Rome 2 The Roman Kingdom 2.1 Reign of Romulus 2.2 Reign of Tullus Hostilius 3 The Roman Republic 3.1 Early Roman Republic 3.2 Second Punic War 3.3 Third Punic War 3.4 2nd century BC 3.5 Third Servile War 3.6 Julius Caesar 3.7 Cleopatra 4 The Roman Empire 4.1 1st century BC 4.2 The Life of Jesus 4.3 Reigns of Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula and Claudius 4.4 Reign of Nero 4.5 Boudica's Revolt 4.6 Eruption of Mount Vesuvius 4.7 Flavian Dynasty 4.8 85-110 AD 4.9 Reign of Hadrian 4.10 Reign of Antoninus Pius 4.11 Reign of Commodus 4.12 250-272 AD 4.13 Reign of Diocletian 4.14 310-315 AD (Age of Constantine) 4.15 Attila the Hun 4.16 Late Empire 5 Undated 6 See also The founding of Rome[edit] Films set during the founding of Rome include: Duel of the Titans (1961) – based on the legend of Romulus and Remus with Steve Reeves as Romulus and Gordon Scott as Remus The Avenger (1962) – based on Virgil's Aeneid with Steve Reeves as Aeneas: a story of the hero leading escaped survivors of the Trojan War to new land in Italy. The First King (2019) - in archaic Latin; directed by Matteo Rovere The Roman Kingdom[edit] Reign of Romulus[edit] Romulus and the Sabines (1961) The Rape of the Sabine Women (1962) – about the Rape of the Sabine Women (dir. by Richard Pottier) Reign of Tullus Hostilius[edit] Duel of Champions (1961) – with Alan Ladd as Horatius and Robert Keith as Tullus Hostilius The Roman Republic[edit] Early Roman Republic[edit] Le vergini di Roma (1961) – French-Italian film (directed by Carlo Luigi Bragaglia and Vittorio Cottafavi), including characters of Etruscan king Porsenna and Mucius Scaevola Hero of Rome (1964) – with Gordon Scott as Gaius Mucius Scaevola (directed by Giorgio Ferroni) Coriolanus: Hero without a Country (1964) – with Gordon Scott as Gaius Marcius Coriolanus (dir. by Giorgio Ferroni) Brennus, Enemy of Rome (1963) – about the Battle of the Allia and sack of Rome in 387 BC, with Gordon Scott as Brennus Coriolanus (2011) – adaptation of Shakespeare's play, dir. by Ralph Fiennes (also starring) Second Punic War[edit] Cabiria (1914) – a monumental Italian production (dir. by Giovanni Pastrone, after the screenplay by Gabriele d'Annunzio), touching on Hannibal's campaign in Italy, the siege of Syracuse and Battle of Zama, featuring such characters as Masinissa; also the first Maciste film Scipio Africanus: The Defeat of Hannibal (1937) – about the career of Scipio Africanus up to his defeat of Hannibal at the Battle of Zama Jupiter's Darling (1955) – with Howard Keel as Hannibal and George Sanders as Fabius Maximus Hannibal (1959) – Italian post-war production about Hannibal's campaign in Italy including the Battle of Cannae. Stars Victor Mature. L'Assedio di Siracusa (1960) – on the siege of Syracuse, with Rossano Brazzi as Archimides Scipio the African (1971) - about the later life of Scipio; directed by Luigi Magni, with Marcello Mastroianni as Scipio the African, Silvana Mangano as Aemilia Tertia and Vittorio Gassman as Cato the Elder Hannibal (2006) – TV docudrama directed by Edward Bazalgette, with Alexander Siddig as Hannibal Third Punic War[edit] Cartagine in fiamme (1960) – after the novel by Emilio Salgari, dir. by Carmine Gallone 2nd century BC[edit] The Centurion (1961) – about the Battle of Corinth (146 BC), with John Drew Barrymore as Diaeus Revolution (Ancient Rome: The Rise and Fall of an Empire – Episode Four) (2006) – docudrama about of the reforms of Tiberius Gracchus Third Servile War[edit] Spartak (1926) – an early Soviet production (dir. by Ertugrul Muhsin-Bey), based on the novel by Raffaello Giovagnoli [now lost] Sins of Rome (1953) – dir. by Riccardo Freda Spartacus (1960) – with Kirk Douglas as Spartacus and Laurence Olivier as Marcus Licinius Crassus (dir. by Stanley Kubrick) Il figlio di Spartacus (1962) – unofficial Italian sequel to Spartacus directed by Sergio Corbucci Spartacus (2004) – with Goran Visnjic as Spartacus (dir. by Robert Dornheim) Spartacus: Blood and Sand (2010) – with Andy Whitfield as Spartacus, Manu Bennett as Crixus, Peter Mensah as Oenomaus, John Hannah as Lentulus Batiatus, and Craig Parker as Gaius Claudius Glaber Spartacus: Gods of the Arena (2011) – prequel to Spartacus: Blood and Sand. The plot of Gods of the Arena follows Lentulus Batiatus's (John Hannah) life as a lanista, and Gannicus's (Dustin Clare) time as a gladiator Spartacus: Vengeance (2012) – sequel to Spartacus: Blood and Sand, with Liam McIntyre replacing Andy Whitfield as Spartacus, after Whitfield's unexpected death in 2011 Spartacus: War of the Damned (2013) – the third (final) season of the series Julius Caesar[edit] Gaius Julius Caesar (1914) – a silent film, directed by Enrico Guazzoni Caesar Against the Pirates (1962) – a tale of Caesar being caught by pirates and asking for help to get back to Rome Caesar the Conqueror (1962) – an Italian film about the career of Julius Caesar and his Gallic Wars (directed by Tanio Boccia) The Giants of Rome (1964) – Italian-French adventure film set in the Roman warfare against Vercingetorix (directed by Antonio Margheriti), with Richard Harrison as Claudius Marcellus Julius Caesar (1950)(directed by David Bradley). This is a film adaptation of Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar (1953) – deals with the assassination of Julius Caesar and the Liberators' civil war, with Marlon Brando as Mark Antony and John Gielgud as Gaius Cassius Longinus (directed by Joseph L. Mankiewicz). This is a film adaptation of Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar (1970) – deals with the assassination of Julius Caesar and the Liberators' civil war Druids (2001) – the life and career of Vercingetorix (starring Christopher Lambert), a Gallic adversary of Rome in the film of Jacques Dorfmann Julius Caesar (2002) Empire (2005) Rome (2005) – deals with the assassination of Julius Caesar and the Liberators' civil war Caesar (Ancient Rome: The Rise and Fall of an Empire – Episode One) (2006) – docudrama about the Gallic Wars and Caesar's Civil War Roman Empire: Reign of Blood (2018) – five episode Documentary/drama series produced by Netflix about the life and reign of Julius Caesar Cleopatra[edit] Cléopâtre (1899) – French film made by Georges Méliès, the earliest known version considered to be lost, retrieved 2005 Antony and Cleopatra (1908) – a film starring Maurice Costello and Florence Lawrence Cléopâtre (1910) – French film by Henri Andréani and Ferdinand Zecca Cléopâtre (1912) – new silent version after the play of Victorien Sardou (dir. by Charles L. Gaskill) Marcantonio e Cleopatra (1913) – Italian production from the era of the silent film, directed by Enrico Guazzoni Cleopatra (1917) – American film with Theda Bara as Cleopatra (dir. by J. Gordon Edwards) Cleopatra (1928) – the second American version (dir. by Roy William Neill) Cleopatra (1934) – with Claudette Colbert as Cleopatra (dir. by Cecil B. DeMille) Caesar and Cleopatra (1945) – with Vivien Leigh as Cleopatra and Claude Rains as Julius Caesar (dir. by Gabriel Pascal), after the play by G. B. Shaw Le legioni di Cleopatra (1959)[1] – Italian film directed by Vittorio Cottafavi Serpent of the Nile (1953) – directed by William Castle with Rhonda Fleming as Cleopatra A Queen for Caesar (1962) – Italian film, starring Pascale Petit (dir. by Piero Pierotti and Victor Tourjansky) Cleopatra (1963) – including the Battle of Actium and the Final War of the Roman Republic, with Elizabeth Taylor as Cleopatra, Richard Burton as Mark Antony and Rex Harrison as Julius Caesar (dir. by Joseph L. Mankiewicz) Carry On Cleo (1964) – a parody of J. Mankiewicz's Cleopatra with Sid James as Mark Antony (dir. by Gerald Thomas), set in the reign of Julius Caesar Antony and Cleopatra (1972) – a film starring Charlton Heston and Hildegarde Neil Antony and Cleopatra (1974) – a television version of a Royal Shakespeare Company production starring Richard Johnson and Janet Suzman Antony and Cleopatra (1981) – a television version produced as part of the BBC Television Shakespeare starring Colin Blakely and Jane Lapotaire Cleopatra (1999) – with Leonor Varela as Cleopatra and Timothy Dalton as Julius Caesar (dir. by Franc Roddam), based on the book by Margaret George Asterix and Cleopatra (1968) – Belgian-French animated film (dir. by René Goscinny and Albert Uderzo), as well as Asterix & Obelix: Mission Cleopatra (2002) a French/Italian film based on the same source, Goscinny and Uderzo's 1963 comic-book Asterix and Cleopatra. The Cleopatras (1983) – BBC TV 8-episode series on the latter part of the reign of the Ptolemaic dynasty (dir. by John Frankau) Cleopatra (2007) – Brazilian film with Alessandra Negrini as Cleopatra and Miguel Falabella as Julius Caesar (directed by Júlio Bressane) The Roman Empire[edit] 1st century BC[edit] Imperium: Augustus (2003) Empire (TV series) (2005) Rome (2005–2007) – 22-episode TV series, a joint British-American-Italian production on Rome's transition from Republic to Empire (dir. by Michael Apted) The Life of Jesus[edit] Main article: List of actors who have played Jesus La vie et la passion de Jésus-Christ (1903) – the French Pathé-production (dir. by Ferdinand Zecca) [second version (1907) as Vie et passion de notre seigneur Jésus-Christ] Ben-Hur (1907) – the first known version (15-minute long) adapted from the famous Lew Wallace's novel, dir. by Sidney Olcott Intolerance (1916) – silent film told in several time-periods with a segment set in 27 AD leading to the Crucifixion Three Ages (1923) – a parody of Intolerance also with its own Roman section Ben-Hur (1925) – silent film dir. by Fred Niblo, starring Ramon Novarro (the picture noteworthy for its color segments and for the female nudity in the parade sequence) King of Kings (1927) Golgotha (1935) Ben-Hur (1959) – a monumental Hollywood production directed by William Wyler, starring Charlton Heston; partly set in Rome King of Kings (1961) Pontius Pilate (1962) – with Jean Marais as Pontius Pilate The Life of Brian (1979) – dir. by Terry Jones The Last Temptation of Christ (1988) – dir. by Martin Scorsese, with Willem Dafoe as Jesus Christ The Gospel of John (2003) Ben-Hur (2003) – animated version (the fourth in all) of the novel by Lew Wallace The Passion of the Christ (2004) – dir. by Mel Gibson, with Jim Caviezel as Jesus Christ ; recorded in original languages (Aramaic, Hebrew, Latin) Ben Hur (2010) – miniseries by Steve Shill Ben-Hur (2016) – new American version directed by Timur Bekmambetov with Jack Huston as Ben-Hur Risen (2016) – a biblical drama dir. by Kevin Reynolds with Cliff Curtis featuring Yeshua (Jesus Christ) Reigns of Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula and Claudius[edit] Agrippina (1910) – directed by Enrico Guazzoni Messalina (1924) – directed by Enrico Guazzoni I, Claudius (1937, never completed) – with Charles Laughton as Claudius. This is an adaptation of Robert Graves's novels "I, Claudius" and "Claudius the God". The Affairs of Messalina (1951) – with María Félix as Messalina Barabbas (1953) – Swedish version (dir. by Alf Sjöberg), the first based on the novel by Pär Lagerkvist The Robe (1953) – based on the novel by Lloyd C. Douglas, with Richard Burton as Marcellus and Jean Simmons as Diana (dir. by Henry Koster) Demetrius and the Gladiators (1954) – sequel to The Robe (dir. Delmer Daves) Messalina, venere imperatrice (1960) – dir. by Vittorio Cottafavi, with Belinda Lee as Messalina Barabbas (1961) – American version, dir. by Richard Fleischer, starring Anthony Quinn Massacre in the Black Forest (1967) – about the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest (dir. by Ferdinando Baldi) The Caesars (TV series) (1968) – 6 episodes: Augustus; Germanicus; Tiberius; Sejanus; Caligula; Claudius I, Claudius (BBC TV series) (1976) – with Derek Jacobi as Claudius (an adaptation of Robert Graves's novels "I, Claudius" and "Claudius the God"). Caligula (1979) – with Malcolm McDowell as Caligula (dir. by Tinto Brass) Los cántabros (1980) – about the Cantabrian wars with Paul Naschy (also director) as Marcus Agrippa The Inquiry (2006) – with Max von Sydow as Tiberius Barabbas (2012) – the latest version based on the Lagerkvist's book, dir. by Roger Young, starring Billy Zane Britannia (2018) – British TV series of a fictional account of the Roman conquest of Britain. Horrible Histories: The Movie - Rotten Romans (2019) - Satiric Children's Film based on the Boudica Revolt Reign of Nero[edit] Quo Vadis (1901) – the earliest adaptation made by Lucien Nonguet and Ferdinand Zecca Quo Vadis (1913) – the second silent version directed by Enrico Guazzoni Quo Vadis (1924) – Italian production directed by Georg Jacoby and Gabriellino D'Annunzio, with Emil Jannings as Nero The Sign of the Cross (1932) – with Charles Laughton as Nero Fiddlers Three (1944) – British production, starring Tommy Trinder, Sonnie Hale and Francis L. Sullivan as the Emperor Nero. Quo Vadis (1951) – American production with Peter Ustinov as Nero (dir. by Mervyn LeRoy) The Silver Chalice (1954) – starring Paul Newman (dir. by Victor Saville) The Romans (1965) – classic Doctor Who season 2 ep. 4 Fellini Satyricon (1969) – fantasy drama loosely based on Petronius's work (dir. by Federico Fellini) Satyricon – fantasy drama based on Petronius's work (dir. by Gian Luigi Polidoro) Quo Vadis (1985) – TV miniseries directed by Franco Rossi Quo Vadis (2001) – Polish superproduction directed by Jerzy Kawalerowicz Quo Vadis (2002) – TV six-part series following the main Polish production Nero (2004) – AKA "Imperium: Nero", part of the Imperium series. Directed by Paul Marcus Nero (Ancient Rome: The Rise and Fall of an Empire – Episode Two) (2006) – docudrama about reign of Nero Horrible Histories: The Movie - Rotten Romans (2019) - Satiric Children's Film based on the Boudica Revolt Boudica's Revolt[edit] The Viking Queen (1967) – film loosely based on the revolt of Boudica Warrior Queen (1978) – TV series about the revolt of Boudica Boudica (2003) – film about the revolt of Boudica Horrible Histories: The Movie - Rotten Romans (2019) - Satiric Children's Film based on the Boudica Revolt Eruption of Mount Vesuvius[edit] The Last Days of Pompeii (1913) – a silent film directed by Mario Caserini and Elioterio Rudolfi The Last Days of Pompeii (1935) The Last Days of Pompeii (1950) – French film (dir. by Paolo Moffa) The Last Days of Pompeii (1959) – dir. by Mario Bonnard & Sergio Leone Up Pompeii! (BBC TV Series) (1969–1970) Up Pompeii (1971) – set in 79 AD, yet anachronistically shows Nero still reigning 10 years after his death (1971) The Last Days of Pompeii (TV miniseries) (1984) – ABC-TV miniseries Pompeii: The Last Day (2003) Imperium: Pompeii (2007), part of the Imperium series. The Fires of Pompeii (2008) – new Doctor Who series 4 ep. 2 Pompeii (2014) – a romantic disaster film directed by Paul W. S. Anderson Flavian Dynasty[edit] Masada (1981) – TV miniseries about the siege of Masada in the First Jewish-Roman War, dir. by Boris Sagal The Apocalypse (2000) – telefilm about Jesus Christ's last surviving disciple and his writings and visions (dir. by Raffaele Mertes), starring Richard Harris as St John of Patras and Bruce Payne as Domitian Colosseum: Rome's Arena of Death (2003) – BBC Television docudrama which tells the true story of Verus, a gladiator fighting at the Colosseum of Rome, during the reign of Titus Rebellion (Ancient Rome: The Rise and Fall of an Empire – Episode Three) (2006) – docudrama about First Jewish–Roman War Roman Mysteries (2007–2008) – ten-part TV series for youngsters, directed by Paul Marcus 85-110 AD[edit] The Dacians (1967) – Romanian film about Domitian's Dacian War, with Pierre Brice as Septimius Severus (dir. by Sergiu Nicolaescu) The Column (1968) – Romanian film about Trajan's Dacian Wars (dir. by Mircea Dragan) Reign of Hadrian[edit] The Eagle of the Ninth (1977) – a six-part BBC mini-series, based on the novel by Rosemary Sutcliff, starring Anthony Higgins Centurion (2010) – an action film based on the massacre of the Ninth Legion, directed by Neil Marshall The Eagle (2011) – adaption of the novel The Eagle of the Ninth by Rosemary Sutcliff, directed by Kevin Macdonald Reign of Antoninus Pius[edit] Androcles and the Lion (1952) – set in 161 AD, after the play by George Bernard Shaw Reign of Commodus[edit] The Fall of the Roman Empire (1964) – latter half set in Rome, with Christopher Plummer as Commodus (dir. by Anthony Mann) The Two Gladiators (1964) – Italian prequel of the next one, dir. by Mario Caiano Gladiator (2000) – latter half set in Rome, partly a remake of The Fall of the Roman Empire (dir. by Ridley Scott) Roman Empire: Reign of Blood (2016) – six episode Documentary/drama series produced by Netflix about the life and reign of Emperor Commodus. 250-272 AD[edit] Sign of the Gladiator (1959) [known also as Sheba and the Gladiator] – about the Palmyrene Empire of queen Zenobia (starring Anita Ekberg) and its re-annexation back to Rome (dir. by Guido Brignone and Michelangelo Antonioni) The Magnificent Gladiator (1964) – Italian film being a tale of a gladiator from the times of emperor Gallienus (dir. by Alfonso Brescia) Reign of Diocletian[edit] Sebastiane (1976) – homoerotical version of the legend of St Sebastian ; remarkable also as the first film entirely recorded in Latin 310-315 AD (Age of Constantine)[edit] The Fighting Gladiators, or Fabiola (1949) – Italian film with Michèle Morgan Constantine and the Cross (1962) – up to the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in AD 312, with Cornel Wilde as Constantine the Great The Fall of Rome (1963) – an Italian peplum-film, the story based on persecution of Christians after the death of Emperor Constantine (dir. by Antonio Margheriti) Constantine (Ancient Rome: The Rise and Fall of an Empire – Episode Five) (2006) – docudrama about the rise of Constantine Attila the Hun[edit] Attila (1954) – with Anthony Quinn as Attila the Hun and Sophia Loren as Justa Grata Honoria Sign of the Pagan (1954) – with Jack Palance as Attila the Hun Attila (2001) – a joint American-Lithuanian production with Gerard Butler as Attila the Hun (dir. by Dick Lowry) Late Empire[edit] Revenge of the Barbarians (1960) – about the sack of Rome by the Visigoths in 410 AD (dir. by Giuseppe Vari) Kampf um Rom I (1968) – on the struggle in Italy ruled by the Ostrogoths, after the novel by Felix Dahn (dir. by Robert Siodmak) Kampf um Rom II : Der Verrat (1969) – continuation of the (above listed) German production Thais (1984) – Polish film (dir. by Ryszard Ber), after a story by Anatole France on an episode from the life of the 4th-century Alexandria Titus Andronicus (1985) – fictional story of a general in the Roman army, based on the tragedy by William Shakespeare; BBC TV version dir. by Jane Howell Titus (1999) – adaptation by Julie Taymor with Anthony Hopkins as Titus Andronicus King Arthur (2004) The Voyage Home (2004) – based on the poem De reditu suo by Rutilius Claudius Namatianus The Fall of Rome (Ancient Rome: The Rise and Fall of an Empire – Episode Six) (2006) – docudrama about the sack of Rome by Alaric's Visigoths The Last Legion (2007) – loosely inspired by the 5th-century collapse of the Western Roman Empire and the legendary-fantastic elements from the history of Britain (dir. by Doug Lefler), with Colin Firth and Ben Kingsley Agora (2009) – Spanish film (dir. by Alejandro Amenábar) with Rachel Weisz starring as Hypatia, a female philosopher and savant from Alexandria Restless Heart: The Confessions of Saint Augustine (2010) – a biographical film about Augustine of Hippo, dir. by Christian Duguay Decline of an Empire (2014) – about "the Christian saint who defied the Empire" (dir. by Michael Redwood), with Peter O'Toole as Cornelius Gallus (his last film role) Undated[edit] Roman Scandals (1933) – Eddie Cantor's dream sequence. A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum (1966) Film version of the Musical Play – inspired by the farces of the ancient Roman playwright Plautus (251-183 B.C.), specifically Pseudolus, Miles Gloriosus and Mostellaria The Arena (1974) [also known as Naked Warriors] – a story of two female gladiators from the arena of Brundisium, dir. by Steve Carver History of the World, Part I (1981) – the section "The Roman Empire" of this broad satire is set in Rome Amazons and Gladiators (2001) – Australian action/adventure film of Roman times (dir. by Zachary Weintraub) See also[edit] Fiction set in ancient Rome for a comprehensive list of all works of fiction (including films set in ancient Rome) List of historical drama films List of films set in ancient Egypt List of films set in ancient Greece List of Asterix films This film, television or video-related list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it with reliably sourced additions. 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en-wikipedia-org-801	----	Cassiodorus - Wikipedia Cassiodorus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Consul of the Roman Empire Flavius Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus (Gesta Theodorici: Leiden, University Library, Ms. vul. 46, fol. 2r), dated 1177 Flavius Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus Senator (c. 485 – c. 585),[1] commonly known as Cassiodorus (/ˌkæsioʊˈdɔːrəs/), was a Roman statesman, renowned scholar of antiquity, and writer serving in the administration of Theodoric the Great, king of the Ostrogoths. Senator was part of his surname, not his rank. He also founded a monastery, Vivarium, where he spent the last years of his life. Contents 1 Biography 2 Monastery at Vivarium 3 Educational philosophy 4 Classical connections 5 Lasting impact 6 Criticism 7 Works 8 References 9 Sources 10 External links Biography[edit] Cassiodorus was born at Scylletium, near Catanzaro in Calabria, Italy. His ancestry included some of the most prominent ministers of the state extending back several generations.[2] His great-grandfather held a command in the defense of the coasts of southern Italy from Vandal sea-raiders in the middle of the fifth century; his grandfather appears in a Roman embassy to Attila the Hun, and his father served as Count of the sacred largesses and count of the private estates to Odovacer[2] before transferring his allegiance to Theoderic. Under the latter, Cassiodorus' father (who bore the same name), rose to an even higher position, achieving the office of Praetorian Prefect, which held, under the Gothic kings, the same influence that it had previously in the court of Rome. Cassiodorus began his career under the auspices of his father, about in his twentieth year, when the latter made him his consiliarius upon his own appointment to the Praetorian Prefecture. In the judicial capacity of the prefect, he held absolute right of appeal over any magistrate in the empire (or Gothic kingdom, later) and the consiliarius served as a sort of legal advisor in cases of greater complexity. Evidently, therefore, Cassiodorus had received some education in the law.[3] During his working life he worked as quaestor sacri palatii c. 507–511, as a consul in 514, then as magister officiorum under Theoderic, and later under the regency for Theoderic's young successor, Athalaric. Cassiodorus kept copious records and letterbooks concerning public affairs. At the Gothic court his literary skill, which seems mannered and rhetorical to modern readers, was so esteemed that when in Ravenna he was often entrusted with drafting significant public documents. His culminating appointment was as praetorian prefect for Italy, effectively the prime ministership of the Ostrogothic civil government[4] and a high honor to finish any career. Cassiodorus also collaborated with Pope Agapetus I in establishing a library of Greek and Latin texts which were intended to support a Christian school in Rome. James O'Donnell notes: [I]t is almost indisputable that he accepted advancement in 523 as the immediate successor of Boethius, who was then falling from grace after less than a year as magister officiorum, and who was sent to prison and later executed. In addition, Boethius' father-in-law (and step-father) Symmachus, by this time a distinguished elder statesman, followed Boethius to the block within a year. All this was a result of the worsening split between the ancient senatorial aristocracy centered in Rome and the adherents of Gothic rule at Ravenna. But to read Cassiodorus' Variae one would never suspect such goings-on.[5] There is no mention in Cassiodorus' selection of official correspondence of the death of Boethius. Athalaric died in early 534, and the remainder of Cassiodorus' public career was dominated by the Byzantine reconquest and dynastic intrigue among the Ostrogoths. His last letters were drafted in the name of Vitiges. Around 537–38, he left Italy for Constantinople, from where his successor was appointed, where he remained for almost two decades, concentrating on religious questions. He notably met Junillus, the quaestor of Justinian I there. His Constantinopolitan journey contributed to the improvement of his religious knowledge. Cassiodorus spent his career trying to bridge the 6th-century cultural divides: between East and West, Greek culture and Latin, Roman and Goth, and between an Orthodox people and their Arian rulers. He speaks fondly in his Institutiones of Dionysius Exiguus, the calculator of the Anno Domini era. In his retirement, he founded the monastery of Vivarium[2] on his family estates on the shores of the Ionian Sea, and his writings turned to religion. Monastery at Vivarium[edit] Vivarium from the Bamberg manuscript of the Institutiones Patr. 61, fol. 29v Cassiodorus' Vivarium "monastery school"[6] was composed of two main buildings: a coenobitic monastery and a retreat, for those who desired a more solitary life. Both were located on the site of the modern Santa Maria de Vetere near Squillace. The twin structure of Vivarium was to permit coenobitic monks and hermits to coexist. The Vivarium appears not to have been governed by a strict monastic rule, such as that of the Benedictine Order. Rather Cassiodorus' work Institutiones was written to guide the monks' studies. To this end, the Institutiones focus largely on texts assumed to have been available in Vivarium's library. The Institutiones seem to have been composed over a lengthy period of time, from the 530s into the 550s, with redactions up to the time of Cassiodorus' death. Cassiodorus composed the Institutiones as a guide for introductory learning of both "divine" and "secular" writings, in place of his formerly planned Christian school in Rome: I was moved by divine love to devise for you, with God's help, these introductory books to take the place of a teacher. Through them I believe that both the textual sequence of Holy Scripture and also a compact account of secular letters may, with God's grace, be revealed.[7] The first section of the Institutiones deals with Christian texts, and was intended to be used in combination with the Expositio Psalmorum. The order of subjects in the second book of the Institutiones reflected what would become the Trivium and Quadrivium of medieval liberal arts: grammar, rhetoric, dialectic, arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy. While he encouraged study of secular subjects, Cassiodorus clearly considered them useful primarily as aids to the study of divinity, much in the same manner as St. Augustine. Cassiodorus' Institutiones thus attempted to provide what Cassiodorus saw as a well-rounded education necessary for a learned Christian, all in uno corpore, as Cassiodorus put it.[8] The library at Vivarium was still active c. 630, when the monks brought the relics of Saint Agathius from Constantinople, dedicating to him a spring-fed fountain shrine that still exists.[9] However, its books were later dispersed, the Codex Grandior of the Bible being purchased by the Anglo-Saxon Ceolfrith when he was in Italy in 679–80, and taken by him to Wearmouth Jarrow, where it served as the source for the copying of the Codex Amiatinus, which was then brought back to Italy by the now aged Ceolfrith.[10] Despite the demise of the Vivarium, Cassiodorus' work in compiling classical sources and presenting a sort of bibliography of resources would prove extremely influential in Late Antique Western Europe.[11] Educational philosophy[edit] Cassiodorus devoted much of his life to supporting education within the Christian community at large. When his proposed theological university in Rome was denied, he was forced to re-examine his entire approach to how material was learned and interpreted.[12] His Variae show that, like Augustine of Hippo, Cassiodorus viewed reading as a transformative act for the reader. It is with this in mind that he designed and mandated the course of studies at the Vivarium, which demanded an intense regimen of reading and meditation. By assigning a specific order of texts to be read, Cassiodorus hoped to create the discipline necessary within the reader to become a successful monk. The first work in this succession of texts would be the Psalms, with which the untrained reader would need to begin because of its appeal to emotion and temporal goods.[13] By examining the rate at which copies of his Psalmic commentaries were issued, it is fair to assess that, as the first work in his series, Cassiodorus's educational agenda had been implemented to some degree of success.[13] Beyond demanding the pursuit of discipline among his students, Cassiodorus encouraged the study of the liberal arts. He believed these arts were part of the content of the Bible, and some mastery of them—especially grammar and rhetoric—necessary for a complete understanding of it.[13] These arts were divided into trivium (which included rhetoric, idioms, vocabulary and etymology) and quadrivium: arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. Classical connections[edit] Cassiodorus is rivalled only by Boethius in his drive to preserve and explore classical literature during the 6th century AD.[14][15] He found the writings of the Greeks and Romans valuable for their expression of higher truths where other arts failed.[13] Though he saw these texts as vastly inferior to the perfect word of Scripture, the truths presented in them played to Cassiodorus' educational principles. Thus he is unafraid to cite Cicero alongside sacred text, and acknowledge the classical ideal of good being part of the practice of rhetoric.[13] His love for classical thought also influenced his administration of Vivarium. Cassiodorus connected deeply with Christian neoplatonism, which saw beauty as concomitant with the Good. This inspired him to adjust his educational program to support the aesthetic enhancement of manuscripts within the monastery, something which had been practiced before, but not in the universality that he suggests.[16] Classical learning would by no means replace the role of Scripture within the monastery; it was intended to augment the education already under way. It is also worth noting that all Greek and Roman works were heavily screened to ensure only proper exposure to text, fitting with the rest of the structured learning.[17] Lasting impact[edit] Cassiodorus' legacy is quietly profound. Before the founding of Vivarium, the copying of manuscripts had been a task reserved for either inexperienced or physically infirm devotees, and was performed at the whim of literate monks. Through the influence of Cassiodorus, the monastic system adopted a more vigorous, widespread, and regular approach to reproducing documents within the monastery.[18] This approach to the development of the monastic lifestyle was perpetuated especially through German religious institutions.[18] This change in daily life also became associated with a higher purpose: the process was not merely associated with disciplinary habit, but also with the preservation of history.[19] During Cassiodorus' lifetime, theological study was on the decline and classical writings were disappearing. Even as the victorious Ostrogoth armies remained in the countryside, they continued to pillage and destroy Christian relics in Italy.[14] Cassiodorus' programme helped ensure that both classical and Christian literature were preserved through the Middle Ages. Despite his contributions to monastic order, literature, and education, Cassiodorus' labors were not well acknowledged. After his death he was only partially recognized by historians of the age, including Bede, as an obscure supporter of the Church. In their descriptions of Cassiodorus, medieval scholars have been documented to change his name, profession, place of residence, and even his religion.[14] Some chapters from his works have been copied into other texts, suggesting that he may have been read, but not generally known.[17] Criticism[edit] The works not assigned as a part of Cassiodorus' educational program must be examined critically. Because he had been working under the newly dominant power of the Ostrogoths, the writer demonstrably alters the narrative of history for the sake of protecting himself. The same could easily be said about his ideas, which were presented as non-threatening in their approach to peaceful meditation and its institutional isolationism.[20] Works[edit] Laudes (very fragmentary published panegyrics on public occasions) Chronica (ending at 519), uniting all world history in one sequence of rulers, a union of Goth and Roman antecedents, flattering Goth sensibilities as the sequence neared the date of composition Gothic History (526–533), a lengthy and multi-volume work, survives only in Jordanes' abridgment Getica, which must be considered a separate work and is the only surviving ancient work about the Goths' early history Variae epistolae (537), Theoderic's state papers. Editio princeps by M. Accurius (1533). English translations by Thomas Hodgkin The Letters of Cassiodorus (1886); S.J.B. Barnish Cassiodorus: Variae (Liverpool: University Press, 1992) ISBN 0-85323-436-1 Expositio psalmorum (Exposition of the Psalms) De anima ("On the Soul") (540) Institutiones divinarum et saecularium litterarum (543–555) De artibus ac disciplinis liberalium litterarum ("On the Liberal Arts") Codex Grandior (a version of the Bible) De orthographia (c. 580), a compilation of the works of eight grammarians to act as a guide to proper spelling. It is the last known work by Cassiodorus, completed when he was 93 years old.[21][22] References[edit] ^ O'Donnell, James J. (1995). "Chronology". Cassiodorus. ^ a b c Frassetto 2003, p. 103. ^ Thomas Hodgkin, Letters Of Cassiodorus, (Oxford, 1886), introduction ^ Cf., e.g., F. Denis de Sainte-Marthe: La vie de Cassiodore, chancelier et premier ministre de Theoderic le Grand. Paris 1694 (online, in French) ^ "Cassiodorus: Chapter 1, Backgrounds and Some Dates". faculty.georgetown.edu. Retrieved 2017-02-28. ^ Jean Leclerq, The Love of Learning and the Desire for God, 2nd revised edition (New York: Fordham, Fordham University Press, 1977) 25. ^ Institutions, trans. James W. Halporn and Mark Vessey, Cassiodorus: Institutions of Divine and Secular Learning and On the Soul, TTH 42 (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2004)I.1, 105. ^ Halporn and Vessey, Cassiodorus: Institutions, 68. ^ Select Abstracts ^ Maria Makepeace, http://www.florin.ms/pandect.html ^ Halporn and Vessey, Cassiodorus: Institutions, 66. ^ Wand, JWC. A History of the Early Church. Methuen & Co. Ltd. (Norwich: 1937) ^ a b c d e Astell, Ann W. (1999). "Cassiodorus's "Commentary on the Psalms" as an "Ars Rhetorica"". Rhetorica. XVII (Winter, 1999): 37–73. doi:10.1525/rh.1999.17.1.37. ^ a b c Jones, Leslie W. (1945). "The Influence of Cassiodorus on Medieval Culture". Speculum. XX (October, 1945): 433–442. doi:10.2307/2856740. JSTOR 2856740. ^ General Audience of Pope Benedict XVI, Boethius and Cassiodorus. Internet. Available from "General Audience of Pope Benedict XVI, 12 March 2008". Archived from the original on 2008-12-28. Retrieved 2008-04-30. ; accessed June 21, 2011. ^ "Cassiodorus' Institutes and Christian Book Selection". The Journal of Library History. I (April, 1966): 89–100. ^ a b "The Value and Influence of Cassiodorus's Ecclesiastical History". The Harvard Theological Review. XLI (January, 1948): 51–67. ^ a b Rand, E. K. (1938). "The New Cassiodorus by EK Rand". Speculum. XIII (October, 1938): 433–447. doi:10.2307/2849664. JSTOR 2849664. ^ Pergoli Campanelli, Alessandro (2013). Cassiodoro alle origini dell'idea di restauro. Milano: Jaca Book. p. 140. ISBN 978-88-16-41207-1. ^ "Cassiodorus as Patricius and ex Patricio". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. XLI (1990): 499–503. ^ O'Donnell, James J. (1995). "Cassiodorus – Chapter 7: Old Age and Afterlives". Retrieved 2019-07-10. ^ "Cassiodorus | Historian, Statesman, and Monk". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2019-07-10. Sources[edit] Barnish, S.J. Roman Responses to an Unstable World: Cassiodorus' Variae in Context in: Vivarium in Context 7–22 (Centre Leonard Boyle: Vicenza 2008). ISBN 978-88-902035-2-7 Cassiodorus, Flavius Magnus Aurelius (780). "Institutiones divinarum et saecularium litterarum". Bamberg, Staatsbibliothek, Msc.Patr. 61, fol. 1v–67v. Southern Italy. Retrieved 17 September 2019. Cassiodorus, Flavius Magnus Aurelius (1167). "Gesta Theodorici". Leiden, Universiteitsbibliotheek, Ms. vul. 46. Fulda. Archived from the original on 4 October 2018. Retrieved 24 September 2013. Frassetto, Michael (2003). Encyclopedia of Barbarian Europe: Society in Transformation. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-263-9. Gračanin, Hrvoje (2015). "Late Antique Dalmatia and Pannonia in Cassiodorus' Variae". Povijesni Prilozi. 49: 9–80. Gračanin, Hrvoje (2016). "Late Antique Dalmatia and Pannonia in Cassiodorus' Variae (Addenda)". Povijesni Prilozi. 50: 191–198. O'Donnell, James J. (1969). Cassiodorus University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. O'Donnell, James J. (1979 and 1995). Cassiodorus (Berkeley: University of California Press). Online e-text, 1995 Post-Print. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Cassiodorus Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Cassiodorus. James J. O'Donnell's Cassiodorus webpage: an assessment of Cassiodorus' cultural predicament Works by Cassiodorus at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Cassiodorus at Internet Archive Opera omnia vol. 1, Joannes Garetius, ed., Rouen, 1679. (Google Books) Opera omnia vol. 2, Joannes Garetius, ed., Rouen, 1679. (Google Books) History of the Christian Church/A.D. 590–1073 by Philip Schaff at 'ccel.org' History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire — Volume 4 by Gibbon at Project Gutenberg. Cassiodorus – Catholic Encyclopedia article Site of the Vivarium of Cassiodorus – An account of survey and recognition at the proposed archaeological site of Vivarium (Coscia di Staletti', Catanzaro, Calabria). Societas internationalis pro Vivario for the study of Cassiodorus and his times The fountain of Cassiodorus A spring situated at the Coscia di Staletti on the grounds of the monastery of Cassiodorus, with a grotto, formerly a site of pagan worship and eventually Christianized by the addition of two large crosses. Vivarium in Context. Book description and reviews of the essays by Sam J. Barnish and Lellia Cracco Ruggini. Political offices Preceded by Flavius Probus, Flavius Taurus Clementinus Armonius Clementinus Consul of the Roman Empire 514 Succeeded by Flavius Florentius, Procopius Anthemius Authority control BIBSYS: 90314565 BNE: XX878991 BNF: cb121582004 (data) CANTIC: a10323028 GND: 118519514 ICCU: IT\ICCU\RAVV\009093 ISNI: 0000 0001 1323 199X LCCN: n79082349 LNB: 000071560 NKC: ola2002153980 NLA: 36545498 NLI: 000029099 NSK: 000382535 NTA: 070138427 RERO: 02-A012318400 SELIBR: 180539 SUDOC: 030097703 Trove: 1284154 VcBA: 495/44274 VIAF: 95230707 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79082349 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cassiodorus&oldid=987788809" Categories: 480s births 580s deaths 5th-century Italo-Roman people 6th-century Italo-Roman people 6th-century Byzantine people 6th-century Christians 6th-century Latin writers 6th-century Byzantine writers Church Fathers Imperial Roman consuls Latin letter writers Praetorian prefects of Italy Magistri officiorum Christian writers Italian music theorists People of the Ostrogothic Kingdom People from Squillace Latin historians Last of the Romans School founders Founders of Christian monasteries Italian educators 6th-century Christian monks 6th-century Byzantine monks Italian Christian monks 6th-century Italian writers 6th-century historians 6th-century mathematicians 6th-century Byzantine scientists Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Қазақша Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Sardu Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 9 November 2020, at 07:12 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8026	----	International Standard Book Number - Wikipedia International Standard Book Number From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from ISBN (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Not to be confused with ICCU SBN. Unique numeric book identifier International Standard Book Number A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code Acronym ISBN Organisation International ISBN Agency Introduced 1970; 50 years ago (1970) No. of digits 13 (formerly 10) Check digit Weighted sum Example 978-3-16-148410-0 Website isbn-international.org The International Standard Book Number (ISBN) is a numeric commercial book identifier which is intended to be unique.[a][b] Publishers purchase ISBNs from an affiliate of the International ISBN Agency.[1] An ISBN is assigned to each separate edition and variation (except reprintings) of a publication. For example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book will each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is ten digits long if assigned before 2007, and thirteen digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007.[c] The method of assigning an ISBN is nation-specific and varies between countries, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN identification format was devised in 1967, based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering (SBN) created in 1966. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO 2108 (the 9-digit SBN code can be converted to a 10-digit ISBN by prefixing it with a zero digit '0'). Privately published books sometimes appear without an ISBN. The International ISBN Agency sometimes assigns such books ISBNs on its own initiative.[3] Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number (ISSN), identifies periodical publications such as magazines and newspapers. The International Standard Music Number (ISMN) covers musical scores. Contents 1 History 2 Overview 2.1 How ISBNs are issued 2.2 Registration group identifier 2.3 Registrant element 2.3.1 Pattern for English language ISBNs 3 Check digits 3.1 ISBN-10 check digits 3.2 ISBN-10 check digit calculation 3.3 ISBN-13 check digit calculation 3.4 ISBN-10 to ISBN-13 conversion 3.5 Errors in usage 3.6 eISBN 4 EAN format used in barcodes, and upgrading 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links History The Standard Book Number (SBN) is a commercial system using nine-digit code numbers to identify books. It was created by Gordon Foster, Emeritus Professor of Statistics at Trinity College, Dublin,[4] for the booksellers and stationers WHSmith and others in 1965.[5] The ISBN identification format was conceived in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker[6][7] (regarded as the "Father of the ISBN")[8] and in 1968 in the United States by Emery Koltay[6] (who later became director of the U.S. ISBN agency R. R. Bowker).[8][9][10] The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO 2108.[5][6] The United Kingdom continued to use the nine-digit SBN code until 1974. ISO has appointed the International ISBN Agency as the registration authority for ISBN worldwide and the ISBN Standard is developed under the control of ISO Technical Committee 46/Subcommittee 9 TC 46/SC 9. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978.[11] An SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit "0". For example, the second edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has "SBN 340 01381 8", where "340" indicates the publisher, "01381" is the serial number assigned by the publisher, and "8" is the check digit. By prefixing a zero, this can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8; the check digit does not need to be re-calculated. Some publishers, such as Ballantine Books, would sometimes use 12-digit SBNs where the last three digits indicated the price of the book;[12] for example, Woodstock Handmade Houses had a 12-digit Standard Book Number of 345-24223-8-595 (valid SBN: 345-24223-8, ISBN: 0-345-24223-8),[13] and it cost US$5.95.[14] Since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained thirteen digits, a format that is compatible with "Bookland" European Article Numbers, which have 13 digits.[2] Overview A separate ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation (except reprintings) of a publication. For example, an ebook, audiobook, paperback, and hardcover edition of the same book will each have a different ISBN assigned to it.[15]:12 The ISBN is thirteen digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, and ten digits long if assigned before 2007.[c][2] An International Standard Book Number consists of four parts (if it is a 10-digit ISBN) or five parts (for a 13-digit ISBN). Section 5 of the International ISBN Agency's official user manual[15]:11 describes the structure of the 13-digit ISBN, as follows: The parts of a 10-digit ISBN and the corresponding EAN‑13 and barcode. Note the different check digits in each. The part of the EAN‑13 labeled "EAN" is the Bookland country code. for a 13-digit ISBN, a prefix element – a GS1 prefix: so far 978 or 979 have been made available by GS1, the registration group element (language-sharing country group, individual country or territory),[d] the registrant element, the publication element, and a checksum character or check digit. A 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts (prefix element, registration group, registrant, publication and check digit), and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts (registration group, registrant, publication and check digit) of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces. Figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits.[e] How ISBNs are issued ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for that country or territory regardless of the publication language. The ranges of ISBNs assigned to any particular country are based on the publishing profile of the country concerned, and so the ranges will vary depending on the number of books and the number, type, and size of publishers that are active. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture and thus may receive direct funding from government to support their services. In other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded.[17] A full directory of ISBN agencies is available on the International ISBN Agency website.[18] List for a few countries is given below: Australia – Thorpe-Bowker[19][20] Brazil – The National Library of Brazil;[21] (Up to 28 February 2020)[22] Brazil – Câmara Brasileira do Livro[23] (From 1 March 2020)[22] Canada – English Library and Archives Canada, a government agency; French Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec; Colombia – Cámara Colombiana del Libro, an NGO Hong Kong – Books Registration Office (BRO), under the Hong Kong Public Libraries[24] India – The Raja Rammohun Roy National Agency for ISBN (Book Promotion and Copyright Division), under Department of Higher Education, a constituent of the Ministry of Human Resource Development[25] Iceland – Landsbókasafn (National and University Library of Iceland) Israel – The Israel Center for Libraries[26] Italy – EDISER srl, owned by Associazione Italiana Editori (Italian Publishers Association)[27][28] Maldives – The National Bureau of Classification (NBC) Malta – The National Book Council (Maltese: Il-Kunsill Nazzjonali tal-Ktieb)[29][30][31] Morocco – The National Library of Morocco New Zealand – The National Library of New Zealand[32] Pakistan – National Library of Pakistan Philippines – National Library of the Philippines[33] South Africa – National Library of South Africa Spain – Spanish ISBN Agency – Agencia del ISBN Turkey – General Directorate of Libraries and Publications, a branch of the Ministry of Culture[34] United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland – Nielsen Book Services Ltd, part of Nielsen Holdings N.V.[35] United States – R. R. Bowker[6][36] Registration group identifier The ISBN registration group identifier is a 1- to 5-digit number that is valid within a single prefix element (i.e. one of 978 or 979),[15]:11 and can be separated between hyphens, such as "978-1-...". Registration group identifiers have primarily been allocated within the 978 prefix element.[37] The single-digit group identifiers within the 978-prefix element are: 0 or 1 for English-speaking countries; 2 for French-speaking countries; 3 for German-speaking countries; 4 for Japan; 5 for Russian-speaking countries; and 7 for People's Republic of China. An example 5-digit group identifier is 99936, for Bhutan. The allocated group IDs are: 0–5, 600–625, 65, 7, 80–94, 950–989, 9917–9989, and 99901–99983.[38] Books published in rare languages typically have longer group identifiers.[39] Within the 979 prefix element, the registration group identifier 0 is reserved for compatibility with International Standard Music Numbers (ISMNs), but such material is not actually assigned an ISBN.[40] The registration group identifiers within prefix element 979 that have been assigned are 8 for the United States of America, 10 for France, 11 for the Republic of Korea, and 12 for Italy.[41] The original 9-digit standard book number (SBN) had no registration group identifier, but prefixing a zero (0) to a 9-digit SBN creates a valid 10-digit ISBN. Registrant element The national ISBN agency assigns the registrant element (cf. Category:ISBN agencies) and an accompanying series of ISBNs within that registrant element to the publisher; the publisher then allocates one of the ISBNs to each of its books. In most countries, a book publisher is not legally required to assign an ISBN, although most large bookstores only handle publications that have ISBNs assigned to them.[42][43][44] A listing of more than 900,000 assigned publisher codes is published, and can be ordered in book form. The web site of the ISBN agency does not offer any free method of looking up publisher codes.[45] Partial lists have been compiled (from library catalogs) for the English-language groups: identifier 0 and identifier 1. Publishers receive blocks of ISBNs, with larger blocks allotted to publishers expecting to need them; a small publisher may receive ISBNs of one or more digits for the registration group identifier, several digits for the registrant, and a single digit for the publication element. Once that block of ISBNs is used, the publisher may receive another block of ISBNs, with a different registrant element. Consequently, a publisher may have different allotted registrant elements. There also may be more than one registration group identifier used in a country. This might occur once all the registrant elements from a particular registration group have been allocated to publishers. By using variable block lengths, registration agencies are able to customise the allocations of ISBNs that they make to publishers. For example, a large publisher may be given a block of ISBNs where fewer digits are allocated for the registrant element and many digits are allocated for the publication element; likewise, countries publishing many titles have few allocated digits for the registration group identifier and many for the registrant and publication elements.[46] Here are some sample ISBN-10 codes, illustrating block length variations. ISBN Country or area Publisher 99921-58-10-7 Qatar NCCAH, Doha 9971-5-0210-0 Singapore World Scientific 960-425-059-0 Greece Sigma Publications 80-902734-1-6 Czech Republic; Slovakia Taita Publishers 85-359-0277-5 Brazil Companhia das Letras 1-84356-028-3 English-speaking area Simon Wallenberg Press 0-684-84328-5 English-speaking area Scribner 0-8044-2957-X English-speaking area Frederick Ungar 0-85131-041-9 English-speaking area J. A. Allen & Co. 93-86954-21-4 English-speaking area Edupedia Publications Pvt Ltd. 0-943396-04-2 English-speaking area Willmann–Bell 0-9752298-0-X English-speaking area KT Publishing Pattern for English language ISBNs English-language registration group elements are 0 and 1 (2 of more than 220 registration group elements). These two registration group elements are divided into registrant elements in a systematic pattern, which allows their length to be determined, as follows:[47] Publication element length 0 – Registration group element 1 – Registration group element Total Registrants From To Registrants From To Registrants 6 digits 0-00-xxxxxx-x 0-19-xxxxxx-x 20 1-01-xxxxxx-x 1-04-xxxxxx-x 1-02-xxxxxx-x 1-06-xxxxxx-x 5 25 5 digits 0-200-xxxxx-x 0-229-xxxxx-x 0-370-xxxxx-x 0-640-xxxxx-x 0-646-xxxxx-x 0-649-xxxxx-x 0-656-xxxxx-x 0-227-xxxxx-x 0-368-xxxxx-x 0-638-xxxxx-x 0-644-xxxxx-x 0-647-xxxxx-x 0-654-xxxxx-x 0-699-xxxxx-x 494 1-000-xxxxx-x 1-030-xxxxx-x 1-100-xxxxx-x 1-714-xxxxx-x 1-009-xxxxx-x 1-034-xxxxx-x 1-397-xxxxx-x 1-716-xxxxx-x 316 810 4 digits 0-2280-xxxx-x 0-3690-xxxx-x 0-6390-xxxx-x 0-6550-xxxx-x 0-7000-xxxx-x 0-2289-xxxx-x 0-3699-xxxx-x 0-6397-xxxx-x 0-6559-xxxx-x 0-8499-xxxx-x 1,538 1-0350-xxxx-x 1-0700-xxxx-x 1-3980-xxxx-x 1-6500-xxxx-x 1-6860-xxxx-x 1-7170-xxxx-x 1-7900-xxxx-x 1-8672-xxxx-x 1-9730-xxxx-x 1-0399-xxxx-x 1-0999-xxxx-x 1-5499-xxxx-x 1-6799-xxxx-x 1-7139-xxxx-x 1-7319-xxxx-x 1-7999-xxxx-x 1-8675-xxxx-x 1-9877-xxxx-x 2,852 4,390 3 digits 0-85000-xxx-x 0-89999-xxx-x 5,000 1-55000-xxx-x 1-68000-xxx-x 1-74000-xxx-x 1-77540-xxx-x 1-77650-xxx-x 1-77770-xxx-x 1-80000-xxx-x 1-83850-xxx-x 1-86760-xxx-x 1-64999-xxx-x 1-68599-xxx-x 1-77499-xxx-x 1-77639-xxx-x 1-77699-xxx-x 1-78999-xxx-x 1-83799-xxx-x 1-86719-xxx-x 1-86979-xxx-x 22,370 27,370 2 digits 0-900000-xx-x 0-949999-xx-x 50,000 1-869800-xx-x 1-916506-xx-x 1-987800-xx-x 1-991200-xx-x 1-915999-xx-x 1-972999-xx-x 1-991149-xx-x 1-998989-xx-x 113,834 163,834 1 digit 0-6398000-x-x 0-6450000-x-x 0-6480000-x-x 0-9500000-x-x 0-6399999-x-x 0-6459999-x-x 0-6489999-x-x 0-9999999-x-x 522,000 1-7320000-x-x 1-7750000-x-x 1-7764000-x-x 1-7770000-x-x 1-8380000-x-x 1-9160000-x-x 1-9911500-x-x 1-9989900-x-x 1-7399999-x-x 1-7753999-x-x 1-7764999-x-x 1-7776999-x-x 1-8384999-x-x 1-9165059-x-x 1-9911999-x-x 1-9999999-x-x 112,660 634,660 Total 579,052 Total 252,037 831,089 Check digits A check digit is a form of redundancy check used for error detection, the decimal equivalent of a binary check bit. It consists of a single digit computed from the other digits in the number. The method for the 10-digit ISBN is an extension of that for SBNs, so the two systems are compatible; an SBN prefixed with a zero (the 10-digit ISBN) will give the same check digit as the SBN without the zero. The check digit is base eleven, and can be an integer between 0 and 9, or an 'X'. The system for 13-digit ISBNs is not compatible with SBNs and will, in general, give a different check digit from the corresponding 10-digit ISBN, so does not provide the same protection against transposition. This is because the 13-digit code was required to be compatible with the EAN format, and hence could not contain an 'X'. ISBN-10 check digits According to the 2001 edition of the International ISBN Agency's official user manual,[48] the ISBN-10 check digit (which is the last digit of the 10-digit ISBN) must range from 0 to 10 (the symbol 'X' is used for 10), and must be such that the sum of the ten digits, each multiplied by its (integer) weight, descending from 10 to 1, is a multiple of 11. That is, if xi is the ith digit, then x10 must be chosen such that: ∑ i = 1 10 ( 11 − i ) x i ≡ 0 ( mod 11 ) {\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^{10}(11-i)x_{i}\equiv 0{\pmod {11}}} For example, for an ISBN-10 of 0-306-40615-2: s = ( 0 × 10 ) + ( 3 × 9 ) + ( 0 × 8 ) + ( 6 × 7 ) + ( 4 × 6 ) + ( 0 × 5 ) + ( 6 × 4 ) + ( 1 × 3 ) + ( 5 × 2 ) + ( 2 × 1 ) = 0 + 27 + 0 + 42 + 24 + 0 + 24 + 3 + 10 + 2 = 132 = 12 × 11 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}s&=(0\times 10)+(3\times 9)+(0\times 8)+(6\times 7)+(4\times 6)+(0\times 5)+(6\times 4)+(1\times 3)+(5\times 2)+(2\times 1)\\&=0+27+0+42+24+0+24+3+10+2\\&=132=12\times 11\end{aligned}}} Formally, using modular arithmetic, this is rendered: ( 10 x 1 + 9 x 2 + 8 x 3 + 7 x 4 + 6 x 5 + 5 x 6 + 4 x 7 + 3 x 8 + 2 x 9 + x 10 ) ≡ 0 ( mod 11 ) . {\displaystyle (10x_{1}+9x_{2}+8x_{3}+7x_{4}+6x_{5}+5x_{6}+4x_{7}+3x_{8}+2x_{9}+x_{10})\equiv 0{\pmod {11}}.} It is also true for ISBN-10s that the sum of all ten digits, each multiplied by its weight in ascending order from 1 to 10, is a multiple of 11. For this example: s = ( 0 × 1 ) + ( 3 × 2 ) + ( 0 × 3 ) + ( 6 × 4 ) + ( 4 × 5 ) + ( 0 × 6 ) + ( 6 × 7 ) + ( 1 × 8 ) + ( 5 × 9 ) + ( 2 × 10 ) = 0 + 6 + 0 + 24 + 20 + 0 + 42 + 8 + 45 + 20 = 165 = 15 × 11 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}s&=(0\times 1)+(3\times 2)+(0\times 3)+(6\times 4)+(4\times 5)+(0\times 6)+(6\times 7)+(1\times 8)+(5\times 9)+(2\times 10)\\&=0+6+0+24+20+0+42+8+45+20\\&=165=15\times 11\end{aligned}}} Formally, this is rendered: ( x 1 + 2 x 2 + 3 x 3 + 4 x 4 + 5 x 5 + 6 x 6 + 7 x 7 + 8 x 8 + 9 x 9 + 10 x 10 ) ≡ 0 ( mod 11 ) . {\displaystyle (x_{1}+2x_{2}+3x_{3}+4x_{4}+5x_{5}+6x_{6}+7x_{7}+8x_{8}+9x_{9}+10x_{10})\equiv 0{\pmod {11}}.} The two most common errors in handling an ISBN (e.g. when typing it or writing it down) are a single altered digit or the transposition of adjacent digits. It can be proven mathematically that all pairs of valid ISBN-10s differ in at least two digits. It can also be proven that there are no pairs of valid ISBN-10s with eight identical digits and two transposed digits. (These proofs are true because the ISBN is less than eleven digits long and because 11 is a prime number.) The ISBN check digit method therefore ensures that it will always be possible to detect these two most common types of error, i.e., if either of these types of error has occurred, the result will never be a valid ISBN – the sum of the digits multiplied by their weights will never be a multiple of 11. However, if the error were to occur in the publishing house and remain undetected, the book would be issued with an invalid ISBN.[49] In contrast, it is possible for other types of error, such as two altered non-transposed digits, or three altered digits, to result in a valid ISBN (although it is still unlikely). ISBN-10 check digit calculation Each of the first nine digits of the 10-digit ISBN—excluding the check digit itself—is multiplied by its (integer) weight, descending from 10 to 2, and the sum of these nine products found. The value of the check digit is simply the one number between 0 and 10 which, when added to this sum, means the total is a multiple of 11. For example, the check digit for an ISBN-10 of 0-306-40615-? is calculated as follows: s = ( 0 × 10 ) + ( 3 × 9 ) + ( 0 × 8 ) + ( 6 × 7 ) + ( 4 × 6 ) + ( 0 × 5 ) + ( 6 × 4 ) + ( 1 × 3 ) + ( 5 × 2 ) = 130 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}s&=(0\times 10)+(3\times 9)+(0\times 8)+(6\times 7)+(4\times 6)+(0\times 5)+(6\times 4)+(1\times 3)+(5\times 2)\\&=130\end{aligned}}} Adding 2 to 130 gives a multiple of 11 (because 132 = 12×11) – this is the only number between 0 and 10 which does so. Therefore, the check digit has to be 2, and the complete sequence is ISBN 0-306-40615-2. If the value of x 10 {\displaystyle x_{10}} required to satisfy this condition is 10, then an 'X' should be used. Alternatively, modular arithmetic is convenient for calculating the check digit using modulus 11. The remainder of this sum when it is divided by 11 (i.e. its value modulo 11), is computed. This remainder plus the check digit must equal either 0 or 11. Therefore, the check digit is (11 minus the remainder of the sum of the products modulo 11) modulo 11. Taking the remainder modulo 11 a second time accounts for the possibility that the first remainder is 0. Without the second modulo operation, the calculation could result in a check digit value of 11−0 = 11, which is invalid. (Strictly speaking, the first "modulo 11" is not needed, but it may be considered to simplify the calculation.) For example, the check digit for the ISBN-10 of 0-306-40615-? is calculated as follows: s = ( 11 − ( ( ( 0 × 10 ) + ( 3 × 9 ) + ( 0 × 8 ) + ( 6 × 7 ) + ( 4 × 6 ) + ( 0 × 5 ) + ( 6 × 4 ) + ( 1 × 3 ) + ( 5 × 2 ) ) mod 11 ) ) mod 11 = ( 11 − ( ( 0 + 27 + 0 + 42 + 24 + 0 + 24 + 3 + 10 ) mod 11 ) ) mod 11 = ( 11 − ( ( 130 ) mod 11 ) ) mod 11 = ( 11 − ( 9 ) ) mod 11 = ( 2 ) mod 11 = 2 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}s&=(11-(((0\times 10)+(3\times 9)+(0\times 8)+(6\times 7)+(4\times 6)+(0\times 5)+(6\times 4)+(1\times 3)+(5\times 2))\,{\bmod {\,}}11))\,{\bmod {\,}}11\\&=(11-((0+27+0+42+24+0+24+3+10)\,{\bmod {\,}}11))\,{\bmod {\,}}11\\&=(11-((130)\,{\bmod {\,}}11))\,{\bmod {\,}}11\\&=(11-(9))\,{\bmod {\,}}11\\&=(2)\,{\bmod {\,}}11\\&=2\end{aligned}}} Thus the check digit is 2. It is possible to avoid the multiplications in a software implementation by using two accumulators. Repeatedly adding t into s computes the necessary multiples: // Returns ISBN error syndrome, zero for a valid ISBN, non-zero for an invalid one. // digits[i] must be between 0 and 10. int CheckISBN(int const digits[10]) { int i, s = 0, t = 0; for (i = 0; i < 10; i++) { t += digits[i]; s += t; } return s % 11; } The modular reduction can be done once at the end, as shown above (in which case s could hold a value as large as 496, for the invalid ISBN 99999-999-9-X), or s and t could be reduced by a conditional subtract after each addition. ISBN-13 check digit calculation Appendix 1 of the International ISBN Agency's official user manual[15]:33 describes how the 13-digit ISBN check digit is calculated. The ISBN-13 check digit, which is the last digit of the ISBN, must range from 0 to 9 and must be such that the sum of all the thirteen digits, each multiplied by its (integer) weight, alternating between 1 and 3, is a multiple of 10. As ISBN-13 is a subset of EAN-13, the algorithm for calculating the check digit is exactly the same for both. Formally, using modular arithmetic, this is rendered: ( x 1 + 3 x 2 + x 3 + 3 x 4 + x 5 + 3 x 6 + x 7 + 3 x 8 + x 9 + 3 x 10 + x 11 + 3 x 12 + x 13 ) ≡ 0 ( mod 10 ) . {\displaystyle (x_{1}+3x_{2}+x_{3}+3x_{4}+x_{5}+3x_{6}+x_{7}+3x_{8}+x_{9}+3x_{10}+x_{11}+3x_{12}+x_{13})\equiv 0{\pmod {10}}.} The calculation of an ISBN-13 check digit begins with the first twelve digits of the 13-digit ISBN (thus excluding the check digit itself). Each digit, from left to right, is alternately multiplied by 1 or 3, then those products are summed modulo 10 to give a value ranging from 0 to 9. Subtracted from 10, that leaves a result from 1 to 10. A zero (0) replaces a ten (10), so, in all cases, a single check digit results. For example, the ISBN-13 check digit of 978-0-306-40615-? is calculated as follows: s = 9×1 + 7×3 + 8×1 + 0×3 + 3×1 + 0×3 + 6×1 + 4×3 + 0×1 + 6×3 + 1×1 + 5×3 = 9 + 21 + 8 + 0 + 3 + 0 + 6 + 12 + 0 + 18 + 1 + 15 = 93 93 / 10 = 9 remainder 3 10 – 3 = 7 Thus, the check digit is 7, and the complete sequence is ISBN 978-0-306-40615-7. In general, the ISBN-13 check digit is calculated as follows. Let r = ( 10 − ( x 1 + 3 x 2 + x 3 + 3 x 4 + ⋯ + x 11 + 3 x 12 ) mod 10 ) . {\displaystyle r={\big (}10-{\big (}x_{1}+3x_{2}+x_{3}+3x_{4}+\cdots +x_{11}+3x_{12}{\big )}\,{\bmod {\,}}10{\big )}.} Then x 13 = { r  ;  r < 10 0  ;  r = 10. {\displaystyle x_{13}={\begin{cases}r&{\text{ ; }}r<10\\0&{\text{ ; }}r=10.\end{cases}}} This check system – similar to the UPC check digit formula – does not catch all errors of adjacent digit transposition. Specifically, if the difference between two adjacent digits is 5, the check digit will not catch their transposition. For instance, the above example allows this situation with the 6 followed by a 1. The correct order contributes 3×6+1×1 = 19 to the sum; while, if the digits are transposed (1 followed by a 6), the contribution of those two digits will be 3×1+1×6 = 9. However, 19 and 9 are congruent modulo 10, and so produce the same, final result: both ISBNs will have a check digit of 7. The ISBN-10 formula uses the prime modulus 11 which avoids this blind spot, but requires more than the digits 0–9 to express the check digit. Additionally, if the sum of the 2nd, 4th, 6th, 8th, 10th, and 12th digits is tripled then added to the remaining digits (1st, 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th, 11th, and 13th), the total will always be divisible by 10 (i.e., end in 0). ISBN-10 to ISBN-13 conversion An ISBN-10 is converted to ISBN-13 by prepending "978" to the ISBN-10 and recalculating the final checksum digit using the ISBN-13 algorithm. The reverse process can also be performed, but not for numbers commencing with a prefix other than 978, which have no 10-digit equivalent. Errors in usage Publishers and libraries have varied policies about the use of the ISBN check digit. Publishers sometimes fail to check the correspondence of a book title and its ISBN before publishing it; that failure causes book identification problems for libraries, booksellers, and readers.[50] For example, ISBN 0-590-76484-5 is shared by two books – Ninja gaiden®: a novel based on the best-selling game by Tecmo (1990) and Wacky laws (1997), both published by Scholastic. Most libraries and booksellers display the book record for an invalid ISBN issued by the publisher. The Library of Congress catalogue contains books published with invalid ISBNs, which it usually tags with the phrase "Cancelled ISBN".[51] However, book-ordering systems such as Amazon.com will not search for a book if an invalid ISBN is entered to its search engine.[citation needed] OCLC often indexes by invalid ISBNs, if the book is indexed in that way by a member library. eISBN Only the term "ISBN" should be used; the terms "eISBN" and "e-ISBN" have historically been sources of confusion and should be avoided. If a book exists in one or more digital (e-book) formats, each of those formats must have its own ISBN. In other words, each of the three separate EPUB, Amazon Kindle, and PDF formats of a particular book will have its own specific ISBN. They should not share the ISBN of the paper version, and there is no generic "eISBN" which encompasses all the e-book formats for a title.[52] EAN format used in barcodes, and upgrading Currently the barcodes on a book's back cover (or inside a mass-market paperback book's front cover) are EAN-13; they may have a separate barcode encoding five digits called an EAN-5 for the currency and the recommended retail price.[53] For 10-digit ISBNs, the number "978", the Bookland "country code", is prefixed to the ISBN in the barcode data, and the check digit is recalculated according to the EAN-13 formula (modulo 10, 1x and 3x weighting on alternating digits). Partly because of an expected shortage in certain ISBN categories, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) decided to migrate to a 13-digit ISBN (ISBN-13). The process began on 1 January 2005 and was planned to conclude on 1 January 2007.[54] As of 2011[update], all the 13-digit ISBNs began with 978. As the 978 ISBN supply is exhausted, the 979 prefix was introduced. Part of the 979 prefix is reserved for use with the Musicland code for musical scores with an ISMN. The 10-digit ISMN codes differed visually as they began with an "M" letter; the bar code represents the "M" as a zero (0), and for checksum purposes it counted as a 3. All ISMNs are now thirteen digits commencing 979-0; 979-1 to 979-9 will be used by ISBN. Publisher identification code numbers are unlikely to be the same in the 978 and 979 ISBNs, likewise, there is no guarantee that language area code numbers will be the same. Moreover, the 10-digit ISBN check digit generally is not the same as the 13-digit ISBN check digit. Because the GTIN-13 is part of the Global Trade Item Number (GTIN) system (that includes the GTIN-14, the GTIN-12, and the GTIN-8), the 13-digit ISBN falls within the 14-digit data field range.[55] Barcode format compatibility is maintained, because (aside from the group breaks) the ISBN-13 barcode format is identical to the EAN barcode format of existing 10-digit ISBNs. So, migration to an EAN-based system allows booksellers the use of a single numbering system for both books and non-book products that is compatible with existing ISBN based data, with only minimal changes to information technology systems. Hence, many booksellers (e.g., Barnes & Noble) migrated to EAN barcodes as early as March 2005. Although many American and Canadian booksellers were able to read EAN-13 barcodes before 2005, most general retailers could not read them. The upgrading of the UPC barcode system to full EAN-13, in 2005, eased migration to the ISBN-13 in North America. See also ASIN (Amazon Standard Identification Number) BICI (Book Item and Component Identifier) CODEN (serial publication identifier currently used by libraries; replaced by the ISSN for new works) CSBN (Chinese Standard Book Number, 10 digits from 1987 to 2007, 13 digits since 2008, includes the LSBN, by the China ISBN Centre)[56][57] DOI (Digital Object Identifier) ESTC (English Short Title Catalogue) ETTN (Electronic Textbook Track Number) ISAN (International Standard Audiovisual Number) ISMN (International Standard Music Number) ISRC (International Standard Recording Code) ISSN (International Standard Serial Number) ISTC (International Standard Text Code) ISWC (International Standard Musical Work Code) ISWN (International Standard Wine Number) LCCN (Library of Congress Control Number) License number (East German books) [de] (Book identification system used between 1951 and 1990 in the former GDR) List of group-0 ISBN publisher codes List of group-1 ISBN publisher codes List of ISBN identifier groups LSBN (Chinese book identification system since 1982, main part of CSBN)[56][57] OCLC number (Online Computer Library Center number)[58] Registration authority SICI (Serial Item and Contribution Identifier) VD 16 (Verzeichnis der im deutschen Sprachbereich erschienenen Drucke des 16. Jahrhunderts, "Bibliography of Books Printed in the German Speaking Countries of the Sixteenth Century") VD 17 (Verzeichnis der im deutschen Sprachraum erschienenen Drucke des 17. Jahrhunderts, "Bibliography of Books Printed in the German Speaking Countries of the Seventeenth Century") Notes ^ Occasionally, publishers erroneously assign an ISBN to more than one title—the first edition of The Ultimate Alphabet and The Ultimate Alphabet Workbook have the same ISBN, 0-8050-0076-3. Conversely, books are published with several ISBNs: A German second-language edition of Emil und die Detektive has the ISBNs 87-23-90157-8 (Denmark), 0-8219-1069-8 (United States), 91-21-15628-X (Sweden), 0-85048-548-7 (United Kingdom) and 3-12-675495-3 (Germany). ^ In some cases, books sold only as sets share ISBNs. For example, the Vance Integral Edition used only two ISBNs for 44 books. ^ a b Publishers were required to convert existing ISBNs from the 10-digit format to the 13-digit format (in their publication records) by 1 January 2007. For existing publications, the new 13-digit ISBN would only need to be added if (and when) a publication was reprinted. During the transition period, publishers were recommended to print both the 10-digit and 13-digit ISBNs on the verso of a publication's title page, but they were required to print only the 13-digit ISBN after 1 January 2007.[2] ^ Some books have several codes in the first block: e.g. A. M. Yaglom's Correlation Theory..., published by Springer Verlag, has two ISBNs, 0-387-96331-6 and 3-540-96331-6. Though Springer's 387 and 540 codes are different for English (0) and German (3); the same item number 96331 produces the same check digit for both (6). Springer uses 431 as the publisher code for Japanese (4), and 4-431-96331-? also has a check digit of 6. Other Springer books in English have publisher code 817, and 0-817-96331-? would also have a check digit of 6. This suggests that special considerations were made for assigning Springer's publisher codes, as random assignments of different publisher codes would not be expected to lead by coincidence to the same check digit every time for the same item number. Finding publisher codes for English and German, say, with this effect would amount to solving a linear equation in modular arithmetic.[original research?] ^ The International ISBN Agency's ISBN User's Manual says: "The ten-digit number is divided into four parts of variable length, which must be separated clearly, by hyphens or spaces", although omission of separators is permitted for internal data processing. If present, hyphens must be correctly placed.[16] The actual definition for hyphenation contains more than 220 different registration group elements with each one broken down into a few to several ranges for the length of the registrant element (more than 1,000 total). The document defining the ranges, listed by agency, is 29 pages. References ^ "The International ISBN Agency". Retrieved 20 February 2018. ^ a b c TC 46/SC 9. "Frequently Asked Questions about the new ISBN standard from ISO". lac-bac.gc.ca. Library and Archives Canada. Archived from the original on 10 June 2007. ^ Bradley, Philip (1992). "Book numbering: The importance of the ISBN" (PDF [245KB]). The Indexer. 18 (1): 25–26. ^ Foster, Gordon (1966). "International Standard Book Numbering (ISBN) System original 1966 report". informaticsdevelopmentinstitute.net. Archived from the original on 30 April 2011. Retrieved 20 April 2014. ^ a b "ISBN History". isbn.org. 20 April 2014. Archived from the original on 20 April 2014. Retrieved 20 April 2014. ^ a b c d Manwal ghall-Utenti tal-ISBN (PDF) (in Maltese) (6th ed.). Malta: Kunsill Nazzjonali tal-Ktieb. 2016. p. 5. ISBN 978-99957-889-4-0. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 August 2016. ^ "International Publishers Association—'It was an idea whose time had come.' David Whitaker on the birth of ISBN". International Publishers Association. Retrieved 6 August 2019. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ a b "Emery Koltay, David Whitaker Named NISO Fellows" (PDF), Information Standards Quarterly, National Information Standards Organization, 8 (3): 12–13, July 1996, archived from the original (PDF) on 4 August 2014 ^ US ISBN Agency. "Bowker.com – Products". Commerce.bowker.com. Retrieved 11 June 2015. ^ Gregory, Daniel. "ISBN". PrintRS. Archived from the original on 16 May 2016. Retrieved 11 June 2015. ^ ISO 2108:1978 (PDF), ISO ^ https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22SBN%20345%22&sin=TXT ^ https://archive.org/details/woodstockhandmad00robe/page/n3/mode/2up?q=SBN+345-24223-8-595 - by Ballantine Books, ISBN 0-345-24223-8 links to http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/2057258 ^ https://archive.org/details/woodstockhandmad00robe - "Ballantine/Craft [...] 5.95" ^ a b c d ISBN Users' Manual, International Edition (PDF) (7th ed.). London: International ISBN Agency. 2017. ISBN 978-92-95055-12-4. ^ "ISBN Ranges". International ISBN Agency. 2014. ^ "ISBN Canada". www.bac-lac.gc.ca. LAC. Retrieved 19 January 2016. ^ "Find an agency – International ISBN Agency". isbn-international.org. ^ "About the Australian ISBN Agency". THORPE-Bowker. ^ "Bowker – ISBN". Thorpe-Bowker. 5 January 2009. Retrieved 29 March 2012. ^ "Tabela de preços dos serviços" [Table of service prices] (in Portuguese). Biblioteca Nacional do Brasil. Retrieved 8 September 2015. ^ a b "Changes in arrangements for ISBN in Brazil". Retrieved 20 January 2020. ^ "ISBN Brasil" (in Portuguese). Retrieved 20 January 2020. ^ "Introduction to Books Registration". HKPL. Retrieved 12 January 2017. ^ "Union HRD Minister Smt. Smriti Zubin Irani Launches ISBN Portal". MHRD. 7 April 2016. ^ "What is an ISBN ?". ICL – מרכז הספר והספריות. 7 April 2015. ^ "ISBN – Chi siamo e contatti" [ISBN – Who we are and contacts] (in Italian). EDISER srl. Retrieved 3 January 2015. ^ "ISBN – Tariffe Servizi ISBN" [ISBN Service Tariffs] (in Italian). EDISER srl. Retrieved 3 January 2015. ^ "ISBN". Kunsill Nazzjonali tal-Ktieb. 2016. Archived from the original on 23 October 2016. ^ Manwal ghall-Utenti tal-ISBN (PDF) (in Maltese) (6th ed.). Malta: Kunsill Nazzjonali tal-Ktieb. 2016. pp. 1–40. ISBN 978-99957-889-4-0. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 August 2016. ^ "Gazzetta tal-Gvern ta' Malta" (PDF). Government Gazette. 23 January 2015. p. 582. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 November 2016. ^ "ISBNs, ISSNs, and ISMNs". National Library of New Zealand. Retrieved 19 January 2016. ^ "International Standard Book Number". NLP. Retrieved 25 December 2017. ^ "ISBN – Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı Kütüphaneler ve Yayımlar Genel Müdürlüğü OS". ekygm.gov.tr. ^ "Nielsen UK ISBN Agency". Nielsen UK ISBN Agency. Retrieved 2 January 2015. ^ "Bowker – ISBN". R. R. Bowker. 8 March 2013. Retrieved 8 March 2013. ^ "ISBN Ranges". isbn-international.org. 29 April 2014. Select the format you desire and click on the Generate button. Archived from the original on 29 April 2014. Retrieved 29 April 2014. ^ See a complete list of group identifiers. ISBN.org sometimes calls them group numbers. Their table of identifiers now refers to ISBN prefix ranges, which must be assumed to be group identifier ranges. ^ Hailman, Jack Parker (2008). Coding and redundancy: man-made and animal-evolved signals. Harvard University Press. p. 209. ISBN 978-0-674-02795-4. ^ ISBN Users' Manual, International Edition (PDF) (6th ed.). London: International ISBN Agency. 2012. p. 23. ISBN 978-92-95055-02-5. ^ International ISBN Agency (5 December 2014). "International ISBN Agency – Range Message (pdf sorted by prefix)" (PDF). isbn-international.org. p. 29. Retrieved 15 December 2014. ^ "Independent Publishers". Waterstones. Retrieved 2 February 2020. Before submitting any titles to our central buying team for consideration, your book must have the following: An ISBN... ^ "How to obtain an ISBN". Barnes & Noble. Retrieved 2 February 2020. We use ISBNs to track inventory and sales information. All books Barnes & Noble transacts on must have an ISBN. ^ "Product ID (GTIN) requirements for Books". Amazon.com. Retrieved 2 February 2020. Effective June 1, 2017, you must provide an ISBN, EAN, or JAN to list a book in the Amazon catalog, regardless of the book's publication date. ^ See Publisher's International ISBN Directory Archived 21 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine ^ Splane, Lily (2002). The Book Book: A Complete Guide to Creating a Book on Your Computer. Anaphase II Publishing. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-945962-14-4. ^ "ISBN Ranges". isbn-international.org. International ISBN Agency. 15 September 2014. Retrieved 15 September 2014. ^ "ISBN Users' Manual (2001 edition) – 4. Structure of ISBN". International ISBN Agency. Archived from the original on 22 May 2013. ^ For example, I'saka: a sketch grammar of a language of north-central New Guinea. Pacific Linguistics. ISBN "0-85883-554-4". ^ Lorimer, Rowland; Shoichet, Jillian; Maxwell, John W. (2005). Book Publishing I. CCSP Press. p. 299. ISBN 978-0-9738727-0-5. ^ "020 – International Standard Book Number (R) – MARC 21 Bibliographic – Full". Library of Congress. September 2013. ^ "The Myth of the eISBN Why Every eBook Edition Needs a Unique Number – Publishing services for self publishing authors and businesses". Publishing services for self publishing authors and businesses. 28 June 2013. Retrieved 16 January 2017. ^ Frequently asked questions, US: ISBN, 12 March 2014, archived from the original on 16 April 2014 — including a detailed description of the EAN-13 format. ^ "ISBN", ISO TC49SC9 (FAQ), CA: Collections ^ "Are You Ready for ISBN-13?", Standards, ISBN ^ a b https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/5187/a84a083ca7deb1408e4e7e06635bab7a0027.pdf ^ a b https://www.hicom-asia.com/how-to-register-isbn-in-china/ ^ "xISBN (Web service)". Xisbn.worldcat.org. Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 27 May 2013. External links Wikidata has the properties: ISBN-10 (P957) (see uses) ISBN-13 (P212) (see uses) International Standard Book Numberat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons Data from Wikidata Documentation from MediaWiki ISO 2108:2017 – International Standard Book Number (ISBN) International ISBN Agency—coordinates and supervises the worldwide use of the ISBN system Numerical List of Group Identifiers—List of language/region prefixes Free conversion tool: ISBN-10 to ISBN-13 & ISBN-13 to ISBN-10 from the ISBN agency. Also shows correct hyphenation & verifies if ISBNs are valid or not. "Guidelines for the Implementation of 13-Digit ISBNs" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 September 2004 "Are You Ready for ISBN-13?". R. R. Bowker LLC. RFC 3187—Using International Standard Book Numbers as Uniform Resource Names (URN) v t e International numbering standards Standards ISO 2108: International Standard Book Number (ISBN) ISO 3297: International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) ISO 3901: International Standard Recording Code (ISRC) ISO 6166: International Securities Identification Number (ISIN) ISO/IEC 7812: Issuer Identification Number (IIN) ISO 9362: Business Entity Identifier (BIC) ISO 10957: International Standard Music Number (ISMN) ISO 13616: International Bank Account Number (IBAN) ISO 15511: International Standard Identifier for Libraries... (ISIL) ISO 15706: International Standard Audiovisual Number (ISAN) ISO 15707: International Standard Musical Work Code (ISWC) ISO 17316: International Standard Link Identifier (ISLI) ISO 17442: Legal Entity Identifier (LEI) ISO 21047: International Standard Text Code (ISTC) ISO 26324: Digital Object Identifier System (DOI) ISO 27729: International Standard Name Identifier (ISNI) ISO 27730: International Standard Collection Identifier (ISCI) CAE/IPI Virtual International Authority File (VIAF) v t e ISO standards by standard number List of ISO standards / ISO romanizations / IEC standards 1–9999 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 16 17 31 -0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 -10 -11 -12 -13 68-1 128 216 217 226 228 233 259 261 262 269 302 306 361 428 500 518 519 639 -1 -2 -3 -5 -6 646 657 668 690 704 732 764 838 843 860 898 965 999 1000 1004 1007 1073-1 1073-2 1155 1413 1538 1629 1745 1989 2014 2015 2022 2033 2047 2108 2145 2146 2240 2281 2533 2709 2711 2720 2788 2848 2852 3029 3103 3166 -1 -2 -3 3297 3307 3601 3602 3864 3901 3950 3977 4031 4157 4165 4217 4909 5218 5426 5427 5428 5725 5775 5776 5800 5807 5964 6166 6344 6346 6385 6425 6429 6438 6523 6709 6943 7001 7002 7010 7027 7064 7098 7185 7200 7498 -1 7637 7736 7810 7811 7812 7813 7816 7942 8000 8093 8178 8217 8373 8501-1 8571 8583 8601 8613 8632 8651 8652 8691 8805/8806 8807 8820-5 8859 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -8-I -9 -10 -11 -12 -13 -14 -15 -16 8879 9000/9001 9036 9075 9126 9141 9227 9241 9293 9314 9362 9407 9496 9506 9529 9564 9592/9593 9594 9660 9797-1 9897 9899 9945 9984 9985 9995 10000–19999 10005 10006 10007 10116 10118-3 10160 10161 10165 10179 10206 10218 10303 -11 -21 -22 -28 -238 10383 10487 10585 10589 10646 10664 10746 10861 10957 10962 10967 11073 11170 11179 11404 11544 11783 11784 11785 11801 11889 11898 11940 (-2) 11941 11941 (TR) 11992 12006 12182 12207 12234-2 12620 13211 -1 -2 13216 13250 13399 13406-2 13450 13485 13490 13567 13568 13584 13616 13816 14000 14031 14224 14289 14396 14443 14496 -2 -3 -6 -10 -11 -12 -14 -17 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en-wikipedia-org-8029	----	Matthew Arnold - Wikipedia Matthew Arnold From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search English poet and cultural critic This article is about the poet. For other uses, see Matthew Arnold (disambiguation). Matthew Arnold Matthew Arnold, by Elliott & Fry, circa 1883. Born 24 December 1822 (1822-12-24) Laleham, Middlesex, England Died 15 April 1888 (1888-04-16) (aged 65) Liverpool, England Occupation Her Majesty's Inspector of Schools Nationality British Period Victorian Genre Poetry; literary, social and religious criticism Notable works "Dover Beach", "The Scholar-Gipsy", "Thyrsis", Culture and Anarchy, Literature and Dogma Spouse Frances Lucy Children 6 Part of a series on Liberalism History Age of Enlightenment List of liberal theorists (contributions to liberal theory) Ideas Civil and political rights Cultural liberalism Democracy Democratic capitalism Economic freedom Economic liberalism Egalitarianism Free market Free trade Freedom of the press Freedom of religion Freedom of speech Gender equality Harm principle Internationalism Laissez-faire Liberty Market economy Natural and legal rights Negative/positive liberty Non-aggression Principle Open society Permissive society Private property Rule of law Secularism Separation of church and state Social contract Welfare state Schools of thought Anarcho-capitalism Classical liberalism Radical liberalism Left-libertarianism Geolibertarianism Right-libertarianism Conservative liberalism Democratic liberalism Green liberalism Liberal autocracy Liberal Catholicism Liberal conservatism Liberal feminism Equity feminism Liberal internationalism Liberal nationalism Liberal socialism Social democracy Muscular liberalism Neoliberalism National liberalism Ordoliberalism Radical centrism Religious liberalism Christian Islamic Jewish Secular liberalism Social liberalism Technoliberalism Third Way Whiggism People Acton Alain Alberdi Alembert Arnold Aron Badawi Barante Bastiat Bentham Berlin Beveridge Bobbio Brentano Bright Broglie Burke Čapek Cassirer Chicherin Chu Chydenius Clinton Cobden Collingdood Condorcet Constant Croce Cuoco Dahrendorf Decy Dewey Dickens Diderot Dongsun Dunoyer Dworkin Einaudi Emerson Eötvös Flach Friedman Galbraith Garrison George Gladstone Gobetti Gomes Gray Green Gu Guizot Hayek Herbert Hobbes Hobhouse Hobson Holbach Hu Humboldt Jefferson Jubani Kant Kelsen Kemal Keynes Korais Korwin-Mikke Kymlicka Lamartine Larra Lecky Li Lincoln Locke Lufti Macaulay Madariaga Madison Martineau Masani Michelet Mill (father) Mill (son) Milton Mises Molteno Mommsen Money Montalembert Montesquieu Mora Mouffe Naoroji Naumann Nozick Nussbaum Obama Ohlin Ortega Paine Paton Popper Price Priestley Prieto Quesnay Qin Ramírez Rathenau Rawls Raz Renan Renouvier Renzi Ricardo Röpke Rorthy Rosmini Rosselli Rousseau Ruggiero Sarmiento Say Sen Earl of Shaftesbury Shklar Sidney Sieyès Şinasi Sismondi Smith Soto Polar Spencer Spinoza Staël Sumner Tahtawi Tao Thierry Thorbecke Thoreau Tocqueville Tracy Troeltsch Turgot Villemain Voltaire Ward Weber Wollstonecraft Zambrano Organizations Africa Liberal Network Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party Arab Liberal Federation Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats European Democratic Party European Liberal Youth European Party for Individual Liberty International Alliance of Libertarian Parties International Federation of Liberal Youth Liberal International Liberal Network for Latin America Liberal parties Liberal South East European Network Regional variants Europe Latin America Albania Armenia Australia Austria Belgium Bolivia Brazil Bulgaria Canada China Chile Colombia Croatia Cuba Cyprus Czech lands Denmark Ecuador Egypt Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Honduras Hong Kong Hungary Iceland India Iran Israel Italy Japan Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Macedonia Mexico Moldova Montenegro Netherlands New Zealand Nicaragua Nigeria Norway Panama Paraguay Peru Philippines Poland Portugal Romania Russia Senegal Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain South Africa South Korea Sweden Switzerland Thailand Tunisia Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom United States Arizona School Classical Modern Uruguay Venezuela Zimbabwe Related topics Bias in academia Bias in the media  Liberalism portal  Politics portal v t e Matthew Arnold (24 December 1822 – 15 April 1888) was an English poet and cultural critic who worked as an inspector of schools. He was the son of Thomas Arnold, the celebrated headmaster of Rugby School, and brother to both Tom Arnold, literary professor, and William Delafield Arnold, novelist and colonial administrator. Matthew Arnold has been characterised as a sage writer, a type of writer who chastises and instructs the reader on contemporary social issues.[1] He was also an inspector of schools for thirty-five years, and supported the concept of state-regulated secondary education.[2] Contents 1 Early years 2 Marriage and career 3 Literary career 4 Death 5 Character 6 Poetry 7 Prose 7.1 Literary criticism 7.2 Social criticism 7.3 Journalistic criticism 7.4 Religious criticism 8 Reputation 9 Family 10 Selected bibliography 10.1 Poetry 10.2 Prose 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 13.1 Citations 13.2 Sources 14 External links Early years[edit] He was the eldest son of Thomas Arnold and his wife Mary Penrose Arnold (1791–1873), born on 24 December 1822 at Laleham-on-Thames, Middlesex.[3] John Keble stood as godfather to Matthew. In 1828, Thomas Arnold was appointed Headmaster of Rugby School, where the family took up residence, that year. From 1831, Arnold was tutored by his clerical uncle, John Buckland, in Laleham. In 1834, the Arnolds occupied a holiday home, Fox How, in the Lake District. There William Wordsworth was a neighbour and close friend. In 1836, Arnold was sent to Winchester College, but in 1837 he returned to Rugby School. He moved to the sixth form in 1838 and so came under the direct tutelage of his father. He wrote verse for a family magazine, and won school prizes, His prize poem, "Alaric at Rome", was printed at Rugby. In November 1840, aged 17, Arnold matriculated at Balliol College, Oxford, where in 1841 he won an open scholarship, graduating B.A. in 1844.[3][4] During his student years at Oxford, his friendship became stronger with Arthur Hugh Clough, a Rugby pupil who had been one of his father's favourites. He attended John Henry Newman's sermons at the University Church of St Mary the Virgin but did not join the Oxford Movement. His father died suddenly of heart disease in 1842, and Fox How became the family's permanent residence. His poem Cromwell won the 1843 Newdigate prize.[5] He graduated in the following year with second class honours in Literae Humaniores. In 1845, after a short interlude of teaching at Rugby, Arnold was elected Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford. In 1847, he became Private Secretary to Lord Lansdowne, Lord President of the Council. In 1849, he published his first book of poetry, The Strayed Reveller. In 1850 Wordsworth died; Arnold published his "Memorial Verses" on the older poet in Fraser's Magazine. Marriage and career[edit] Wishing to marry but unable to support a family on the wages of a private secretary, Arnold sought the position of and was appointed in April 1851 one of Her Majesty's Inspectors of Schools. Two months later, he married Frances Lucy, daughter of Sir William Wightman, Justice of the Queen's Bench. Arnold often described his duties as a school inspector as "drudgery" although "at other times he acknowledged the benefit of regular work."[6] The inspectorship required him, at least at first, to travel constantly and across much of England. "Initially, Arnold was responsible for inspecting Nonconformist schools across a broad swath of central England. He spent many dreary hours during the 1850s in railway waiting-rooms and small-town hotels, and longer hours still in listening to children reciting their lessons and parents reciting their grievances. But that also meant that he, among the first generation of the railway age, travelled across more of England than any man of letters had ever done. Although his duties were later confined to a smaller area, Arnold knew the society of provincial England better than most of the metropolitan authors and politicians of the day."[7] Literary career[edit] Caricature by James Tissot published in Vanity Fair in 1871 In 1852, Arnold published his second volume of poems, Empedocles on Etna, and Other Poems. In 1853, he published Poems: A New Edition, a selection from the two earlier volumes famously excluding Empedocles on Etna, but adding new poems, Sohrab and Rustum and The Scholar Gipsy. In 1854, Poems: Second Series appeared; also a selection, it included the new poem, Balder Dead. Arnold was elected Professor of Poetry at Oxford in 1857, and he was the first in this position to deliver his lectures in English rather than in Latin.[8] He was re-elected in 1862. On Translating Homer (1861) and the initial thoughts that Arnold would transform into Culture and Anarchy were among the fruits of the Oxford lectures. In 1859, he conducted the first of three trips to the continent at the behest of parliament to study European educational practices. He self-published The Popular Education of France (1861), the introduction to which was later published under the title Democracy (1879).[9] Matthew Arnold's grave at All Saints' Church, Laleham, Surrey. In 1865, Arnold published Essays in Criticism: First Series. Essays in Criticism: Second Series would not appear until November 1888, shortly after his untimely death. In 1866, he published Thyrsis, his elegy to Clough who had died in 1861. Culture and Anarchy, Arnold's major work in social criticism (and one of the few pieces of his prose work currently in print) was published in 1869. Literature and Dogma, Arnold's major work in religious criticism appeared in 1873. In 1883 and 1884, Arnold toured the United States and Canada[10] delivering lectures on education, democracy and Ralph Waldo Emerson. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1883.[11] In 1886, he retired from school inspection and made another trip to America. An edition of Poems by Matthew Arnold, with an introduction by A. C. Benson and illustrations by Henry Ospovat, was published in 1900 by John Lane.[12] Death[edit] Arnold died suddenly in 1888 of heart failure whilst running to meet a train that would have taken him to the Liverpool Landing Stage to see his daughter, who was visiting from the United States where she had moved after marrying an American. He was survived by his wife, who died in June 1901.[13] Character[edit] Caricature from Punch, 1881: "Admit that Homer sometimes nods, That poets do write trash, Our Bard has written "Balder Dead," And also Balder-dash" "Matthew Arnold," wrote G. W. E. Russell in Portraits of the Seventies, is "a man of the world entirely free from worldliness and a man of letters without the faintest trace of pedantry".[14] Arnold was a familiar figure at the Athenaeum Club, a frequent diner-out and guest at great country houses, charming, fond of fishing (but not of shooting),[15] and a lively conversationalist, with a self-consciously cultivated air combining foppishness and Olympian grandeur. He read constantly, widely, and deeply, and in the intervals of supporting himself and his family by the quiet drudgery of school inspecting, filled notebook after notebook with meditations of an almost monastic tone. In his writings, he often baffled and sometimes annoyed his contemporaries by the apparent contradiction between his urbane, even frivolous manner in controversy, and the "high seriousness" of his critical views and the melancholy, almost plaintive note of much of his poetry. "A voice poking fun in the wilderness" was T. H. Warren's description of him. Poetry[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Matthew Arnold" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Arnold is sometimes called the third great Victorian poet, along with Alfred, Lord Tennyson and Robert Browning.[16] Arnold was keenly aware of his place in poetry. In an 1869 letter to his mother, he wrote: My poems represent, on the whole, the main movement of mind of the last quarter of a century, and thus they will probably have their day as people become conscious to themselves of what that movement of mind is, and interested in the literary productions which reflect it. It might be fairly urged that I have less poetical sentiment than Tennyson and less intellectual vigour and abundance than Browning; yet because I have perhaps more of a fusion of the two than either of them, and have more regularly applied that fusion to the main line of modern development, I am likely enough to have my turn as they have had theirs.[17] Stefan Collini regards this as "an exceptionally frank, but not unjust, self-assessment. ... Arnold's poetry continues to have scholarly attention lavished upon it, in part because it seems to furnish such striking evidence for several central aspects of the intellectual history of the nineteenth century, especially the corrosion of 'Faith' by 'Doubt'. No poet, presumably, would wish to be summoned by later ages merely as an historical witness, but the sheer intellectual grasp of Arnold's verse renders it peculiarly liable to this treatment."[18] Harold Bloom echoes Arnold's self-characterization in his introduction (as series editor) to the Modern Critical Views volume on Arnold: "Arnold got into his poetry what Tennyson and Browning scarcely needed (but absorbed anyway), the main march of mind of his time." Of his poetry, Bloom says, Whatever his achievement as a critic of literature, society, or religion, his work as a poet may not merit the reputation it has continued to hold in the twentieth century. Arnold is, at his best, a very good but highly derivative poet. ... As with Tennyson, Hopkins, and Rossetti, Arnold's dominant precursor was Keats, but this is an unhappy puzzle, since Arnold (unlike the others) professed not to admire Keats greatly, while writing his own elegiac poems in a diction, meter, imagistic procedure, that are embarrassingly close to Keats.[19] Sir Edmund Chambers noted that "in a comparison between the best works of Matthew Arnold and that of his six greatest contemporaries ... the proportion of work which endures is greater in the case of Matthew Arnold than in any one of them."[20] Chambers judged Arnold's poetic vision by its simplicity, lucidity, and straightforwardness; its literalness ... ; the sparing use of aureate words, or of far-fetched words, which are all the more effective when they come; the avoidance of inversions, and the general directness of syntax, which gives full value to the delicacies of a varied rhythm, and makes it, of all verse that I know, the easiest to read aloud.[21] His literary career — leaving out the two prize poems — had begun in 1849 with the publication of The Strayed Reveller and Other Poems by A., which attracted little notice and was soon withdrawn. It contained what is perhaps Arnold's most purely poetical poem, "The Forsaken Merman." Empedocles on Etna and Other Poems (among them "Tristram and Iseult"), published in 1852, had a similar fate. In 1858 he published his tragedy of Merope, calculated, he wrote to a friend, "rather to inaugurate my Professorship with dignity than to move deeply the present race of humans," and chiefly remarkable for some experiments in unusual – and unsuccessful – metres. His 1867 poem, "Dover Beach," depicted a nightmarish world from which the old religious verities have receded. It is sometimes held up as an early, if not the first, example of the modern sensibility. In a famous preface to a selection of the poems of William Wordsworth, Arnold identified, a little ironically, as a "Wordsworthian." The influence of Wordsworth, both in ideas and in diction, is unmistakable in Arnold's best poetry. Arnold's poem, "Dover Beach" was included in Ray Bradbury's novel, Fahrenheit 451, and is also featured prominently in the novel Saturday by Ian McEwan. It has also been quoted or alluded to in a variety of other contexts (see Dover Beach). Henry James wrote that Matthew Arnold's poetry will appeal to those who "like their pleasures rare" and who like to hear the poet "taking breath." In his poetry he derived not only the subject matter of his narrative poems from traditional or literary sources, and much of the romantic melancholy of his earlier poems from Senancour's "Obermann". Prose[edit] Assessing the importance of Arnold's prose work in 1988, Stefan Collini stated, "for reasons to do with our own cultural preoccupations as much as with the merits of his writing, the best of his prose has a claim on us today that cannot be matched by his poetry."[22] "Certainly there may still be some readers who, vaguely recalling 'Dover Beach' or 'The Scholar Gipsy' from school anthologies, are surprised to find he 'also' wrote prose."[23] George Watson follows George Saintsbury in dividing Arnold's career as a prose writer into three phases: 1) early literary criticism that begins with his preface to the 1853 edition of his poems and ends with the first series of Essays in Criticism (1865); 2) a prolonged middle period (overlapping the first and third phases) characterised by social, political and religious writing (roughly 1860–1875); 3) a return to literary criticism with the selecting and editing of collections of Wordsworth's and Byron's poetry and the second series of Essays in Criticism.[24] Both Watson and Saintsbury declare their preference for Arnold's literary criticism over his social or religious criticism. More recent writers, such as Collini, have shown a greater interest in his social writing,[25] while over the years a significant second tier of criticism has focused on Arnold's religious writing.[26] His writing on education has not drawn a significant critical endeavour separable from the criticism of his social writings.[27] Selections from the Prose Work of Matthew Arnold[28] Literary criticism[edit] Arnold's work as a literary critic began with the 1853 "Preface to the Poems". In it, he attempted to explain his extreme act of self-censorship in excluding the dramatic poem "Empedocles on Etna". With its emphasis on the importance of subject in poetry, on "clearness of arrangement, rigor of development, simplicity of style" learned from the Greeks, and in the strong imprint of Goethe and Wordsworth, may be observed nearly all the essential elements in his critical theory. George Watson described the preface, written by the thirty-one-year-old Arnold, as "oddly stiff and graceless when we think of the elegance of his later prose."[29] Criticism began to take first place in Arnold's writing with his appointment in 1857 to the professorship of poetry at Oxford, which he held for two successive terms of five years. In 1861 his lectures On Translating Homer were published, to be followed in 1862 by Last Words on Translating Homer, both volumes admirable in style and full of striking judgments and suggestive remarks, but built on rather arbitrary assumptions and reaching no well-established conclusions.[citation needed] Especially characteristic, both of his defects and his qualities, are on the one hand, Arnold's unconvincing advocacy of English hexameters and his creation of a kind of literary absolute in the "grand style," and, on the other, his keen feeling of the need for a disinterested and intelligent criticism in England. Although Arnold's poetry received only mixed reviews and attention during his lifetime, his forays into literary criticism were more successful. Arnold is famous for introducing a methodology of literary criticism somewhere between the historicist approach common to many critics at the time and the personal essay; he often moved quickly and easily from literary subjects to political and social issues. His Essays in Criticism (1865, 1888), remains a significant influence on critics to this day, and his prefatory essay to that collection, "The Function of Criticism at the Present Time", is one of the most influential essays written on the role of the critic in identifying and elevating literature — even while admitting, "The critical power is of lower rank than the creative." Comparing himself to the French liberal essayist Ernest Renan, who sought to inculcate morality in France, Arnold saw his role as inculcating intelligence in England.[30] In one of his most famous essays on the topic, "The Study of Poetry", Arnold wrote that, "Without poetry, our science will appear incomplete; and most of what now passes with us for religion and philosophy will be replaced by poetry". He considered the most important criteria used to judge the value of a poem were "high truth" and "high seriousness". By this standard, Chaucer's Canterbury Tales did not merit Arnold's approval. Further, Arnold thought the works that had been proven to possess both "high truth" and "high seriousness", such as those of Shakespeare and Milton, could be used as a basis of comparison to determine the merit of other works of poetry. He also sought for literary criticism to remain disinterested, and said that the appreciation should be of "the object as in itself it really is." Social criticism[edit] He was led on from literary criticism to a more general critique of the spirit of his age. Between 1867 and 1869 he wrote Culture and Anarchy, famous for the term he popularised for the middle class of the English Victorian era population: "Philistines", a word which derives its modern cultural meaning (in English – the German-language usage was well established) from him. Culture and Anarchy is also famous for its popularisation of the phrase "sweetness and light," first coined by Jonathan Swift.[31] In Culture and Anarchy, Arnold identifies himself as a Liberal and "a believer in culture" and takes up what historian Richard Bellamy calls the "broadly Gladstonian effort to transform the Liberal Party into a vehicle of political moralism."[32][33] Arnold viewed with skepticism the plutocratic grasping in socioeconomic affairs, and engaged the questions which vexed many Victorian liberals on the nature of power and the state's role in moral guidance.[34] Arnold vigorously attacked the Nonconformists and the arrogance of "the great Philistine middle-class, the master force in our politics."[35] The Philistines were "humdrum people, slaves to routine, enemies to light" who believed that England's greatness was due to her material wealth alone and took little interest in culture.[35] Liberal education was essential, and by that Arnold meant a close reading and attachment to the cultural classics, coupled with critical reflection.[36] Arnold saw the "experience" and "reflection" of Liberalism as naturally leading to the ethical end of "renouncement," as evoking the "best self" to suppress one's "ordinary self."[33] Despite his quarrels with the Nonconformists, Arnold remained a loyal Liberal throughout his life, and in 1883, William Gladstone awarded him an annual pension of 250 pounds "as a public recognition of service to the poetry and literature of England."[37][38][39] Many subsequent critics such as Edward Alexander, Lionel Trilling, George Scialabba, and Russell Jacoby have emphasized the liberal character of Arnold's thought.[40][41][42] Hugh Stuart Jones describes Arnold's work as a "liberal critique of Victorian liberalism" while Alan S. Kahan places Arnold's critique of middle-class philistinism, materialism, and mediocrity within the tradition of 'aristocratic liberalism' as exemplified by liberal thinkers such as John Stuart Mill and Alexis de Tocqueville.[43][44] Arnold's "want of logic and thoroughness of thought" as noted by John M. Robertson in Modern Humanists was an aspect of the inconsistency of which Arnold was accused.[45] Few of his ideas were his own, and he failed to reconcile the conflicting influences which moved him so strongly. "There are four people, in especial," he once wrote to Cardinal Newman, "from whom I am conscious of having learnt – a very different thing from merely receiving a strong impression – learnt habits, methods, ruling ideas, which are constantly with me; and the four are – Goethe, Wordsworth, Sainte-Beuve, and yourself." Dr. Arnold must be added; the son's fundamental likeness to the father was early pointed out by Swinburne, and was later attested by Matthew Arnold's grandson, Mr. Arnold Whitridge. Others such as Stefan Collini suggest that much of the criticism aimed at Arnold is based on "a convenient parody of what he is supposed to have stood for" rather than the genuine article.[33] Journalistic criticism[edit] In 1887, Arnold was credited with coining the phrase "New Journalism", a term that went on to define an entire genre of newspaper history, particularly Lord Northcliffe's turn-of-the-century press empire. However, at the time, the target of Arnold's irritation was not Northcliffe, but the sensational journalism of Pall Mall Gazette editor, W.T. Stead.[46] Arnold had enjoyed a long and mutually beneficial association with the Pall Mall Gazette since its inception in 1865. As an occasional contributor, he had formed a particular friendship with its first editor, Frederick Greenwood and a close acquaintance with its second, John Morley. But he strongly disapproved of the muck-raking Stead, and declared that, under Stead, "the P.M.G., whatever may be its merits, is fast ceasing to be literature."[47] He was appalled at the shamelessness of the sensationalistic new journalism of the sort he witnessed on his tour the United States in 1886. In his account of that tour, "Civilization in the United States", he observed, "if one were searching for the best means to efface and kill in a whole nation the discipline of self-respect, the feeling for what is elevated, he could do no better than take the American newspapers."[48] Religious criticism[edit] His religious views were unusual for his time and caused sorrow to some of his best friends.[49] Scholars of Arnold's works disagree on the nature of Arnold's personal religious beliefs. Under the influence of Baruch Spinoza and his father, Dr. Thomas Arnold, he rejected the supernatural elements in religion,[50] even while retaining a fascination for church rituals. In the preface to God and the Bible, written in 1875, Arnold recounts a powerful sermon he attended discussing the "salvation by Jesus Christ", he writes: "Never let us deny to this story power and pathos, or treat with hostility ideas which have entered so deep into the life of Christendom. But the story is not true; it never really happened".[51] He continues to express his concern with Biblical truth explaining that "The personages of the Christian heaven and their conversations are no more matter of fact than the personages of the Greek Olympus and their conversations."[51] He also wrote in Literature and Dogma: "The word 'God' is used in most cases as by no means a term of science or exact knowledge, but a term of poetry and eloquence, a term thrown out, so to speak, as a not fully grasped object of the speaker's consciousness – a literary term, in short; and mankind mean different things by it as their consciousness differs."[52] He defined religion as "morality touched with emotion".[53] However, he also wrote in the same book, "to pass from a Christianity relying on its miracles to a Christianity relying on its natural truth is a great change. It can only be brought about by those whose attachment to Christianity is such, that they cannot part with it, and yet cannot but deal with it sincerely."[54] A London County Council blue plaque for Arnold at 2 Chester Square, Belgravia Reputation[edit] Harold Bloom writes that "Whatever his achievement as a critic of literature, society or religion, his work as a poet may not merit the reputation it has continued to hold in the twentieth century. Arnold is, at his best, a very good, but highly derivative poet, unlike Tennyson, Browning, Hopkins, Swinburne and Rossetti, all of whom individualized their voices." [55] The writer John Cowper Powys, an admirer, wrote that, "with the possible exception of Merope, Matthew Arnold's poetry is arresting from cover to cover – [he] is the great amateur of English poetry [he] always has the air of an ironic and urbane scholar chatting freely, perhaps a little indiscreetly, with his not very respectful pupils."[56] Family[edit] Frances Lucy Arnold—"Flu" to Matthew—1883 photograph The Arnolds had six children: Thomas (1852–1868); Trevenen William (1853–1872); Richard Penrose (1855–1908), an inspector of factories;[note 1] Lucy Charlotte (1858–1934) who married Frederick W. Whitridge of New York, whom she had met during Arnold's American lecture tour; Eleanore Mary Caroline (1861–1936) married (1) Hon. Armine Wodehouse (MP) in 1889, (2) William Mansfield, 1st Viscount Sandhurst, in 1909; Basil Francis (1866–1868). Selected bibliography[edit] Poetry[edit] Stanzas in Memory of the Author of "Obermann" (1849) The Strayed Reveller, and Other Poems (1849) Empedocles on Etna, and Other Poems (1852) Sohrab and Rustum (1853) The Scholar-Gipsy (1853) Stanzas from the Grande Chartreuse (1855) Memorial Verses to Wordsworth Rugby Chapel (1867) Thyrsis (1865) Prose[edit] Essays in Criticism (1865, 1888) Culture and Anarchy (1869) Friendship's Garland (1871) Literature and Dogma (1873) God and the Bible (1875) See also[edit] English translations of Homer: Matthew Arnold Notes[edit] ^ Composer Edward Elgar dedicated one of the Enigma Variations to Richard. References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Landow, George. Elegant Jeremiahs: The Sage from Carlyle to Mailer. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1986. ^ Oxford illustrated encyclopedia. Judge, Harry George., Toyne, Anthony. Oxford [England]: Oxford University Press. 1985–1993. p. 22. ISBN 0-19-869129-7. OCLC 11814265.CS1 maint: others (link) ^ a b Collini, Stefan. "Arnold, Matthew". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/679. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) ^ Foster, Joseph (1888–1892). "Arnold, Matthew (2)" . Alumni Oxonienses: the Members of the University of Oxford, 1715–1886. Oxford: Parker and Co – via Wikisource. ^ Cromwell: A Prize Poem, Recited in the Theatre, Oxford; June 28, 1843 at Google Books ^ Collini, 1988, p. 21. ^ Collini, 1988, p. 21 ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 23 July 2014. Retrieved 16 July 2014.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ Super, CPW, II, p. 330. ^ "Literary Gossip". The Week : A Canadian Journal of Politics, Literature, Science and Arts. 1. 1: 13. 6 December 1883. ^ "Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter A" (PDF). American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved 25 April 2011. ^ Poems by Matthew Arnold. London: John Lane. 1900. pp. xxxiv+375; with an introduction by A. C. Benson; illustrated by Henry Ospovat ^ "Obituary – Mrs. Matthew Arnold". The Times (36495). London. 1 July 1901. p. 11. ^ Russell, 1916[page needed] ^ Andrew Carnegie described him as the most charming man that he ever knew (Autobiography, p 298) and said, "Arnold visited us in Scotland in 1887, and talking one day of sport he said he did not shoot, he could not kill anything that had wings and could soar in the clear blue sky; but, he added, he could not give up fishing — 'the accessories are so delightful.'" Autobiography of Andrew Carnegie, The Riverside Press Cambridge (1920), p 301; https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/17976 ^ Collini, 1988, p. 2. ^ Lang, Volume 3, p. 347. ^ Collini, 1988, p. 26. ^ Bloom, 1987, pp. 1–2. ^ Chambers, 1933, p. 159. ^ Chambers, 1933, p. 165. ^ Collini, 1988, p. vii. ^ Collini, 1988, p. 25. ^ Watson, 1962, pp. 150–160. Saintsbury, 1899, p. 78 passim. ^ Collini, 1988. Also see the introduction to Culture and Anarchy and other writings, Collini, 1993. ^ See "The Critical Reception of Arnold's Religious Writings" in Mazzeno, 1999. ^ Mazzeno, 1999. ^ Arnold, Matthew (1913). William S. Johnson (ed.). Selections from the Prose Work of Matthew Arnold. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 9781414233802. ^ Watson, 1962, p. 147. ^ Machann, C (1998). Matthew Arnold: A Literary Life. Springer. pp. 45–61. ^ The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third Edition. Sweetness and light. Houghton Mifflin Company. ^ Born, Daniel (1995). The Birth of Liberal Guilt in the English Novel: Charles Dickens to H.G. Wells. UNC Press Books. p. 165. ^ a b c Caufield, James Walter (2016). Overcoming Matthew Arnold: Ethics in Culture and Criticism. Routledge. pp. 3–7. ^ Malachuk, D. (2005). Perfection, the State, and Victorian Liberalism. Springer. pp. 87–88. ^ a b Brendan A. Rapple (2017). Matthew Arnold and English Education: The Poet's Pioneering Advocacy in Middle Class Instruction. McFarland. pp. 98–99. ^ Brendan A. Rapple (2017). Matthew Arnold and English Education: The Poet's Pioneering Advocacy in Middle Class Instruction. McFarland. p. 116. ISBN 9781476663593. ^ Machann, C (1998). Matthew Arnold: A Literary Life. Springer. p. 19. ^ Bush, Douglas (1971). Matthew Arnold: A Survey of His Poetry and Prose. Springer. p. 15. ^ Jones, Richard (2002). "Arnold "at Full Stretch"". Virginia Quarterly Review. 78 (2). ^ Jacoby, Russell (2005). Picture Imperfect: Utopian Thought for an Anti-Utopian Age. Columbia University Press. p. 67. ^ Alexander, Edward (2014). Matthew Arnold and John Stuart Mill. Routledge. I have tried to show to what a considerable extent each shared the convictions of the other; how much of a liberal Arnold was and how much of a humanist Mill was. ^ Rodden, John (1999). Lionel Trilling and the Critics. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 215–222. ^ Campbell, Kate (2018). Matthew Arnold. Oxford University Press. p. 93. ^ Kahan, Alan S. (2012). "Arnold, Nietzsche and the Aristocratic Vision". History of Political Thought. 33 (1): 125–143. ^ Robertson, John M. (1901). Modern Humanists. S. Sonnenschein. p. 145. If, then, a man come to the criticism of life as Arnold did, with neither a faculty nor a training for logic ... it is impossible that he should escape frequent error or inconsistency ... ^ We have had opportunities of observing a new journalism which a clever and energetic man has lately invented. It has much to recommend it; it is full of ability, novelty, variety, sensation, sympathy, generous instincts; its one great fault is that it is feather-brained." Mathew Arnold, The Nineteenth century No. CXXIII. (May 1887) pp. 629–643. Available online at attackingthedevil.co.uk ^ Quoted in Harold Begbie, The Life of General William Booth Archived 14 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine, (2 vols., New York, 1920). Available [online] ^ Gurstein, Rochelle (2016). The Repeal of Reticence: America's Cultural and Legal Struggles Over Free Speech, Obscenity, Sexual Liberation, and Modern Art. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. pp. 57–58. ^ When visiting the grave of his godfather, Bishop Keble, in about 1880 with Andrew Carnegie, he said 'Ah, dear, dear Keble! I caused him much sorrow by my views upon theological subjects, which caused me sorrow also, but notwithstanding he was deeply grieved, dear friend as he was, he travelled to Oxford and voted for me for Professor of English Poetry.' "Later the subject of his theological views was referred to. He said they had caused sorrow to his best friends."Mr. Gladstone once gave expression to his deep disappointment, or to something like displeasure, saying I ought to have been a bishop. No doubt my writings prevented my promotion, as well as grieved my friends, but I could not help it. I had to express my views." Autobiography of Andrew Carnegie, The Riverside Press Cambridge (1920), p 298; https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/17976 ^ Andrew Carnegie, who knew and admired him, said Arnold was a "seriously religious man ... No irreverent word ever escaped his lips ... and yet he had in one short sentence slain the supernatural. 'The case against miracles is closed. They do not happen.'". Autobiography of Andrew Carnegie, The Riverside Press Cambridge (1920), p 299; https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/17976 ^ a b Super, CPW, VII, p. 384. ^ Super, CPW, VI, p. 171. ^ Super, CPW, VI, p. 176. ^ Super, CPW, VI, p. 143. ^ Poets and Poems, Harold Bloom, p. 203. ^ The Pleasures of Literature, John Cowper Powys, pp. 397–398. Abbreviation: CPW stands for Robert H. Super (editor), The Complete Prose Works of Matthew Arnold, see Bibliography. Sources[edit] Primary sources George W. E. Russell (editor), Letters of Matthew Arnold, 1849–88, 2 vols. (London and New York: Macmillan, 1895) Published seven years after their author's death these letters were heavily edited by Arnold's family. Howard F. Lowry (editor), The Letters of Matthew Arnold to Arthur Hugh Clough (New York: Oxford University Press, 1932) C. B. Tinker and H. F. Lowry (editors), The Poetical Works of Matthew Arnold, Oxford University Press, 1950 standard edition, OCLC 556893161 Kenneth Allott (editor), The Poems of Matthew Arnold (London and New York: Longman Norton, 1965) ISBN 0-393-04377-0 Part of the "Annotated English Poets Series," Allott includes 145 poems (with fragments and juvenilia) all fully annotated. Robert H. Super (editor), The Complete Prose Works of Matthew Arnold in eleven volumes (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1960–1977) Miriam Allott and Robert H. Super (editors), The Oxford Authors: Matthew Arnold (Oxford: Oxford university Press, 1986) A strong selection from Miriam Allot, who had (silently) assisted her husband in editing the Longman Norton annotated edition of Arnold's poems, and Robert H. Super, editor of the eleven volume complete prose. Stefan Collini (editor), Culture and Anarchy and other writings (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993) part of the Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought series. Collini's introduction to this edition attempts to show that "Culture and Anarchy, first published in 1869, has left a lasting impress upon subsequent debate about the relation between politics and culture" —Introduction, p. ix. Cecil Y. Lang (editor), The Letters of Matthew Arnold in six volumes (Charlottesville and London: The University Press of Virginia, 1996–2001) Biographies (by publication date) George Saintsbury, Matthew Arnold (New York: Dodd, Mead and Company, 1899) Saintsbury combines biography with critical appraisal. In his view, "Arnold's greatness lies in 'his general literary position' (p. 227). Neither the greatest poet nor the greatest critic, Arnold was able to achieve distinction in both areas, making his contributions to literature greater than those of virtually any other writer before him." Mazzeno, 1999, p. 8. Herbert W. Paul, Mathew Arnold (London: Macmillan, 1902) G. W. E. Russell, Matthew Arnold (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1904) Lionel Trilling, Matthew Arnold (New York: Norton, 1939) Trilling called his study a "biography of a mind." Park Honan, Matthew Arnold, a life (New York, McGraw–Hill, 1981) ISBN 0-07-029697-9 "Trilling's book challenged and delighted me but failed to take me close to Matthew Arnold's life. ... I decided in 1970 to write a definitive biography ... Three-quarters of the biographical data in this book, I may say, has not appeared in a previous study of Arnold." —Preface, pp. viii–ix. Stefan Collini, Arnold (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988) A good starting point for those new to Arnold's prose. "Like many late century scholars, Collini believes Arnold's chief contribution to English literature is as a critic. ... Collini insists Arnold remains a force in literary criticism because 'he characterizes in unforgettable ways' the role that literary and cultural criticism 'can and must play in modern societies'" (p. 67). Mazzeno, 1999, pp. 103–104. Nicholas Murray, A Life of Matthew Arnold (New York: St. Martin's, 1996) "...focuses on the conflicts between Arnold's public and private lives. A poet himself, Murray believes Arnold was a superb poet who turned to criticism when he realised his gift for verse was fading." Mazzeno, 1999, p. 118. Ian Hamilton, A Gift Imprisoned: A Poetic Life of Matthew Arnold (London: Bloomsbury, 1998) "Choosing to concentrate on the development of Arnold's talents as a poet, Hamilton takes great pains to explore the biographical and literary sources of Arnold's verse." Mazzeno, 1999, p. 118. Bibliography Thomas Burnett Smart, The Bibliography of Matthew Arnold 1892, (reprinted New York: Burt Franklin, 1968, Burt Franklin Bibliography and Reference Series #159) Laurence W. Mazzeno, Matthew Arnold: The Critical Legacy (Woodbridge: Camden House, 1999) Not a true bibliography, nonetheless, it provides thorough coverage and intelligent commentary for the critical writings on Arnold. Writings on Matthew Arnold or containing significant discussion of Arnold (by publication date) Stephen, Leslie (1898). "Matthew Arnold". Studies of a Biographer. 2. London: Duckworth and Co. pp. 76–122. G. W. E. Russell, Portraits of the Seventies (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1916) Sir Edmund Chambers, "Matthew Arnold," Watson Lecture on English Poetry, 1932, in English Critical Essays: Twentieth century, Phyllis M. Jones (editor) (London: Oxford University Press, 1933) T. S. Eliot, "Matthew Arnold" in The Use of Poetry and the Use of Criticism (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1933) This is Eliot's second essay on Matthew Arnold. The title of the series consciously echoes Arnold's essay, "The Function of Criticism at the Present Time" (1864). Professors Chauncey Brewster Tinker and Howard Foster Lowry, The Poetry of Matthew Arnold: A Commentary (New York: Oxford University Press, 1940) Alibris ID 8235403151 W. F. Connell, The Educational Thought and Influence of Matthew Arnold (London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, Ltd, 1950) Mazzeno describes this as the "definitive word" on Arnold's educational thought. Mazzeno, 1999, p. 42. George Watson, "Matthew Arnold" in The Literary Critics: A Study of English Descriptive Criticism (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1962) A. Dwight Culler, "Imaginative Reason: The Poetry of Matthew Arnold" (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1966). Described by Stefan Collini as "the most comprehensive discussion" of the poetry in his "Arnold" Past Masters, p. 121. David J. DeLaura, "Hebrew and Hellene in Victorian England: Newman, Arnold, and Pater" (Austin: University of Texas Pr, 1969). This celebrated study brilliantly situates Arnold in the intellectual history of his time. Northrop Frye, The Critical Path: An Essay on the Social Context of Literary Criticism (in "Daedalus", 99, 2, pp. 268–342, Spring 1970; then New York: Prentice Hall/Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1983) ISBN 0-7108-0641-8 Joseph Carroll, The Cultural Theory of Matthew Arnold. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981) Ruth apRoberts, Arnold and God (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983) Harold Bloom (editor), W. H. Auden, J. Hillis Miller, Geoffrey Tillotson, G. Wilson Knight, William Robbins, William E. Buckler, Ruth apRoberts, A. Dwight Culler, and Sara Suleri, Modern Critical Views: Matthew Arnold (New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1987) David G. Riede, Matthew Arnold and the Betrayal of Language (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1988) "...explores Arnold's attempts to find an authoratative language, and argues that his occasional claims for such language reveal more uneasiness than confidence in the value of 'letters.' ... Riede argues that Arnold's determined efforts to write with authority, combined with his deep-seated suspicion of his medium, result in an exciting if often agonised tension in his poetic language." –from the book flap. Donald Stone, Communications with the Future: Matthew Arnold in Dialogue (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1997) Linda Ray Pratt, Matthew Arnold Revisited, (New York: Twayne Publishers, 2000) ISBN 0-8057-1698-X Francesco Marroni, Miti e mondi vittoriani (Rome: Carocci, 2004) Renzo D'Agnillo, The Poetry of Matthew Arnold (Rome: Aracne, 2005) External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Matthew Arnold. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Matthew Arnold Wikisource has original works written by or about: Matthew Arnold Portraits of Matthew Arnold at the National Portrait Gallery, London "MATTHEW ARNOLD (Obituary Notice, Tuesday, April 17, 1888)". Eminent Persons: Biographies reprinted from The Times. IV (1887-1890). London: Macmillan and Co., Limited. 1893. pp. 87-96. Retrieved 12 March 2019 – via Internet Archive. Works by Matthew Arnold at Project Gutenberg Works by Matthew Arnold at Faded Page (Canada) Works by or about Matthew Arnold at Internet Archive Works by Matthew Arnold at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Full text of 'The Function of Criticism at the Present Time' at The Fortnightly Review. Poetry of Matthew Arnold at Poetseers Matthew Arnold, by G. W. E. Russell, at Project Gutenberg The Letters of Matthew Arnold Digital Edition, at the University of Virginia Press "Archival material relating to Matthew Arnold". UK National Archives.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Cousin, John William (1910). A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature. London: J. M. Dent & Sons – via Wikisource. A Bibliography of the Works of Matthew Arnold by Tod E. Jones Plaque #38 on Open Plaques Anonymous (1873). Cartoon portraits and biographical sketches of men of the day. Illustrated by Frederick Waddy. London: Tinsley Brothers. pp. 136–37. Retrieved 13 March 2011. Matthew Arnold at University of Toronto Libraries Literature and Science (1882) Mathew Arnold Letters and Works at Texas Tech University Libraries Matthew Arnold Collection. General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University. v t e Matthew Arnold Prose On Translating Homer (1861) Culture and Anarchy (1869) Poetry Tristram and Iseult (1852) "To Marguerite: Continued" (1852) "The Scholar Gipsy" (1853) Sohrab and Rustum (1853) Balder Dead (1855) "Thyrsis" (1865) "Dover Beach" (1867) Family Tom Arnold (brother) Thomas Arnold (father) William Delafield Arnold (brother) Authority control BNE: XX1041177 BNF: cb12031515q (data) GND: 118504282 ISNI: 0000 0001 2139 385X LCCN: n79045174 MBA: 453c9b0c-b08a-4d51-b2fb-1f98b3b5603c NDL: 00431742 NKC: jn20000600424 NLA: 35008435 NLG: 145315 NLI: 000011786 NLK: KAC199600987 NTA: 068959664 SELIBR: 207078 SNAC: w6vx0hgc SUDOC: 028489438 Trove: 787993 VcBA: 495/82653 VIAF: 73868557 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79045174 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Matthew_Arnold&oldid=995363264" Categories: 1822 births 1888 deaths Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford English Anglicans Members of The Club 19th-century English poets English essayists English literary critics 19th-century English educators Huxley family Literary critics of English People educated at Rugby School Fellows of Oriel College, Oxford People from Laleham English people of Cornish descent Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Victorian poets 19th-century English writers Burials in Surrey Oxford Professors of Poetry 19th-century British journalists English male journalists Male essayists English male poets Members of the Athenaeum Club, London People educated at Winchester College Hidden categories: CS1 maint: others Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the ODNB CS1 maint: archived copy as title CS1: Julian–Gregorian uncertainty Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from April 2017 Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata EngvarB from August 2014 Use dmy dates from July 2020 Articles needing additional references from April 2017 All articles needing additional references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2014 Commons category link is on Wikidata CS1: long volume value Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles incorporating text from A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages العربية अवधी تۆرکجه भोजपुरी Български Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Español فارسی Français Frysk Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ಕನ್ನಡ Latina Latviešu Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands नेपाली 日本語 Norsk bokmål ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Polski Português Română Русский Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Türkçe Українська اردو 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 20 December 2020, at 17:09 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8048	----	File:Horaz beim Studium.jpg - Wikipedia File:Horaz beim Studium.jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 557 pixels. Other resolutions: 320 × 223 pixels | 640 × 446 pixels | 1,024 × 713 pixels | 1,280 × 891 pixels | 2,707 × 1,885 pixels. Original file ‎(2,707 × 1,885 pixels, file size: 3.36 MB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. DescriptionHoraz beim Studium.jpg Horaz beim Studium. Holzschnitte, aus: Quintus Horatius Flaccus, Opera, Straßburg: Johann Grüninger, 1498. Gutenberg-Museum Mainz, Stb Ink 888 Date 1498 Source http://www.uni-mainz.de/presse/25888.php Author Quintus Horatius Flaccus This is a faithful photographic reproduction of a two-dimensional, public domain work of art. The work of art itself is in the public domain for the following reason: Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse This work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 100 years or fewer. You must also include a United States public domain tag to indicate why this work is in the public domain in the United States. This file has been identified as being free of known restrictions under copyright law, including all related and neighboring rights. https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/PDMCreative Commons Public Domain Mark 1.0falsefalse The official position taken by the Wikimedia Foundation is that "faithful reproductions of two-dimensional public domain works of art are public domain". This photographic reproduction is therefore also considered to be in the public domain in the United States. In other jurisdictions, re-use of this content may be restricted; see Reuse of PD-Art photographs for details. Captions EnglishAdd a one-line explanation of what this file represents Items portrayed in this file depicts inception 1498 image captured with Nikon D70s File history Click on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensions User Comment current 19:05, 4 November 2011 2,707 × 1,885 (3.36 MB) Paulis {{Information |Description=Horaz beim Studium. Holzschnitte, aus: Quintus Horatius Flaccus, Opera, Straßburg: Johann Grüninger, 1498. Gutenberg-Museum Mainz, Stb Ink 888 |Source=http://www.uni-mainz.de/presse/25888.php |Date=1498 |Author=Quintus Horatiu File usage The following pages on the English Wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Horace Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. If the file has been modified from its original state, some details may not fully reflect the modified file. Camera manufacturer NIKON CORPORATION Camera model NIKON D70s Exposure time 1/5 sec (0.2) F-number f/18 Date and time of data generation 12:40, 28 June 2007 Lens focal length 70 mm Orientation Normal Horizontal resolution 300 dpi Vertical resolution 300 dpi Software used Adobe Photoshop CS3 Windows File change date and time 21:32, 28 October 2008 Y and C positioning Co-sited Exposure Program Aperture priority Exif version 2.21 Date and time of digitizing 12:40, 28 June 2007 Meaning of each component Y Cb Cr does not exist Image compression mode 2 Exposure bias 1 Maximum land aperture 4.3 APEX (f/4.44) Metering mode Pattern Light source Unknown Flash Flash did not fire DateTime subseconds 00 DateTimeOriginal subseconds 00 DateTimeDigitized subseconds 00 Supported Flashpix version 1 Color space sRGB Sensing method One-chip color area sensor File source Digital still camera Scene type A directly photographed image Custom image processing Normal process Exposure mode Auto exposure White balance Manual white balance Digital zoom ratio 1 Focal length in 35 mm film 105 mm Scene capture type Standard Scene control None Contrast Normal Saturation Normal Sharpness Normal Subject distance range Unknown Supported Flashpix version 1 Image width 3,008 px Image height 2,000 px Date metadata was last modified 22:32, 28 October 2008 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horaz_beim_Studium.jpg" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces File Talk Variants Views Read View on Commons More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Upload file Special pages Printable version Page information Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8134	----	Book sources - Wikipedia Book sources Jump to navigation Jump to search This page allows users to search for multiple sources for a book given the 10- or 13-digit ISBN number. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN number do not matter. Search for book sourcesISBN: Search Wikimedia page containing links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources For assistance, see Help:ISBN. This page links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources where you will be able to search for the book by its International Standard Book Number (ISBN). If you arrived at this page by clicking an ISBN link in a Wikipedia page, you will find the full range of relevant search links for that specific book by scrolling to the find links below. To search for a different book, type that book's individual ISBN into this ISBN search box. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. Also, the number starts after the colon for "ISBN-10:" and "ISBN-13:" numbers.  An ISBN identifies a specific edition of a book. Any given title may therefore have a number of different ISBNs. See xISBN below for finding other editions. An ISBN registration, even one corresponding to a book page on a major book distributor database, is not definite proof that such a book actually exists. A title may have been cancelled or postponed after the ISBN was assigned. Check to see if the book exists or not. The master copy of this page is located at Wikipedia:Book sources. Contents 1 Online text 2 Online databases 3 Subscription eBook databases 4 Libraries 4.1 Worldwide 4.2 Africa 4.2.1 Nigeria 4.2.2 South Africa 4.2.3 Zimbabwe 4.3 Central America and the Caribbean 4.3.1 Barbados 4.3.2 Guatemala 4.3.3 Jamaica 4.3.4 Mexico 4.3.5 Trinidad and Tobago 4.4 Canada 4.4.1 Public libraries 4.4.2 Universities and colleges 4.5 United States 4.5.1 Public libraries by state 4.5.2 Universities and colleges 4.6 South America 4.6.1 Argentina 4.6.2 Brazil 4.6.3 Colombia 4.6.4 Ecuador 4.7 Asia 4.7.1 Bangladesh 4.7.2 China, People's Republic 4.7.3 Hong Kong, S.A.R. of China 4.7.4 India 4.7.5 Indonesia 4.7.6 Iran 4.7.7 Israel 4.7.8 Japan 4.7.9 Korea 4.7.10 Malaysia 4.7.11 Philippines 4.7.11.1 Universities and colleges 4.7.11.2 Other libraries 4.7.12 Singapore 4.7.13 Taiwan, Republic of China 4.7.14 Thailand 4.8 Australasia and Oceania 4.8.1 Australia 4.8.1.1 Public libraries 4.8.1.2 Academic libraries 4.8.2 New Zealand 4.8.2.1 Public libraries 4.8.2.2 Academic libraries 4.9 Europe 4.9.1 Austria 4.9.2 Belgium 4.9.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina 4.9.4 Croatia 4.9.5 Czech Republic 4.9.6 Denmark 4.9.7 Estonia 4.9.8 Finland 4.9.9 France 4.9.10 Germany 4.9.11 Greece 4.9.12 Hungary 4.9.13 Iceland 4.9.14 Ireland 4.9.15 Italy 4.9.16 Luxembourg 4.9.17 Montenegro 4.9.18 Netherlands 4.9.19 Norway 4.9.20 Poland 4.9.21 Portugal 4.9.22 Russia 4.9.23 Serbia 4.9.24 Slovenia 4.9.25 Spain 4.9.26 Sweden 4.9.27 Switzerland 4.9.28 Turkey 4.9.29 United Kingdom 4.9.29.1 Public libraries 4.9.29.2 Universities 5 Bookselling and swapping 5.1 Price comparison sites 5.2 Search many booksellers 5.3 Individual booksellers 5.4 Book-swapping websites 6 Non-English book sources 7 Bibliographical information 8 Find other editions 9 Find on Wikipedia 10 See also Online text Find this book on Google Books Find this book at the Open Library Find this book on Amazon.com (or .au, .br, .ca, .cn, .de, .es, .fr, .in, .it, .jp, .mx, .nl, .uk). 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en-wikipedia-org-8164	----	View source for Horace - Wikipedia View source for Horace ← Horace Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ===Themes=== Horace developed a number of inter-related themes throughout his poetic career, including politics, love, philosophy and ethics, his own social role, as well as poetry itself. His ''Epodes'' and ''Satires'' are forms of 'blame poetry' and both have a natural affinity with the moralising and diatribes of [[Cynicism (philosophy)|Cynicism]]. This often takes the form of allusions to the work and philosophy of [[Bion of Borysthenes]] <ref group="nb">There is one reference to Bion by name in ''Epistles'' 2.2.60, and the clearest allusion to him is in ''Satire'' 1.6, which parallels Bion fragments 1, 2, 16 ''Kindstrand''</ref> but it is as much a literary game as a philosophical alignment. By the time he composed his ''Epistles'', he was a critic of [[Cynicism (philosophy)|Cynicism]] along with all impractical and "high-falutin" philosophy in general.<ref group="nb">''Epistles'' 1.17 and 1.18.6–8 are critical of the extreme views of [[Diogenes]] and also of social adaptations of Cynic precepts, and yet ''Epistle'' 1.2 could be either Cynic or Stoic in its orientation (J. Moles, ''Philosophy and ethics'', p. 177</ref><ref>J. Moles, ''Philosophy and ethics'', pp. 165–69, 177</ref> The ''Satires'' also include a strong element of [[Epicureanism]], with frequent allusions to the Epicurean poet [[Lucretius]].<ref group="nb">''Satires'' 1.1.25–26, 74–75, 1.2.111–12, 1.3.76–77, 97–114, 1.5.44, 101–03, 1.6.128–31, 2.2.14–20, 25, 2.6.93–97</ref> So for example the Epicurean sentiment ''[[carpe diem]]'' is the inspiration behind Horace's repeated punning on his own name (''Horatius ~ hora'') in ''Satires'' 2.6.<ref>K. J. Reckford, ''Some studies in Horace's odes on love''</ref> The ''Satires'' also feature some [[Stoicism|Stoic]], [[Peripatetic school|Peripatetic]] and [[Platonic Dialogues|Platonic]] (''Dialogues'') elements. In short, the ''Satires'' present a medley of philosophical programs, dished up in no particular order—a style of argument typical of the [[Satires (Horace)|genre]].<ref>J. Moles, ''Philosophy and ethics'', p. 168</ref> The ''Odes'' display a wide range of topics. Over time, he becomes more confident about his political voice.<ref>Santirocco "Unity and Design", Lowrie "Horace's Narrative Odes"</ref> Although he is often thought of as an overly intellectual lover, he is ingenious in representing passion.<ref>Ancona, "Time and the Erotic"</ref> The "Odes" weave various philosophical strands together, with allusions and statements of doctrine present in about a third of the ''Odes'' Books 1–3, ranging from the flippant (1.22, 3.28) to the solemn (2.10, 3.2, 3.3). [[Epicureanism]] is the dominant influence, characterizing about twice as many of these odes as Stoicism. A group of odes combines these two influences in tense relationships, such as ''Odes'' 1.7, praising Stoic virility and devotion to public duty while also advocating private pleasures among friends. While generally favouring the Epicurean lifestyle, the lyric poet is as eclectic as the satiric poet, and in ''Odes'' 2.10 even proposes Aristotle's [[golden mean (philosophy)|golden mean]] as a remedy for Rome's political troubles.<ref>J. Moles, ''Philosophy and ethics'', pp. 171–73</ref> Many of Horace's poems also contain much reflection on genre, the lyric tradition, and the function of poetry.<ref>Davis "Polyhymnia" and Lowrie "Horace's Narrative Odes"</ref> ''Odes'' 4, thought to be composed at the emperor's request, takes the themes of the first three books of "Odes" to a new level. This book shows greater poetic confidence after the public performance of his "Carmen saeculare" or "Century hymn" at a public festival orchestrated by Augustus. In it, Horace addresses the emperor Augustus directly with more confidence and proclaims his power to grant poetic immortality to those he praises. It is the least philosophical collection of his verses, excepting the twelfth ode, addressed to the dead Virgil as if he were living. In that ode, the epic poet and the lyric poet are aligned with [[Stoicism]] and [[Epicureanism]] respectively, in a mood of bitter-sweet pathos.<ref>J. Moles, ''Philosophy and ethics'', p. 179</ref> The first poem of the ''Epistles'' sets the philosophical tone for the rest of the collection: "So now I put aside both verses and all those other games: What is true and what befits is my care, this my question, this my whole concern." His poetic renunciation of poetry in favour of philosophy is intended to be ambiguous. Ambiguity is the hallmark of the ''Epistles''. It is uncertain if those being addressed by the self-mocking poet-philosopher are being honoured or criticized. Though he emerges as an [[Epicureanism|Epicurean]], it is on the understanding that philosophical preferences, like political and social choices, are a matter of personal taste. Thus he depicts the ups and downs of the philosophical life more realistically than do most philosophers.<ref>J. Moles, ''Philosophy and ethics'', pp. 174–80</ref> Return to Horace. 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en-wikipedia-org-8169	----	National Diet Library - Wikipedia National Diet Library From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from NDL (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search National library in Japan National Diet Library (NDL) 国立国会図書館 (Kokuritsu Kokkai Toshokan) Tokyo Main Library of the National Diet Library Country Japan Type National Library, Parliamentary Library Established 1948 (72 years ago) (1948) Architect Maekawa Associates, Architects & Engineers  Reference to legal mandate National Diet Library Law Location Tokyo, Kyoto Coordinates 35°40′42″N 139°44′39″E / 35.67833°N 139.74417°E / 35.67833; 139.74417Coordinates: 35°40′42″N 139°44′39″E / 35.67833°N 139.74417°E / 35.67833; 139.74417 Branches 27 Collection Items collected books, journals, newspapers, electronic archives, manuscripts, official publications, doctoral dissertations, maps, sheet music Size 41,881,649 items (March 2016)[1] Criteria for collection Publications issued in Japan, statutes and parliamentary documents, publications on Japan, reference material, material on science and technology, publications of international organizations and foreign governments, children's literature and related material, Asian works Legal deposit legal deposit Access and use Access requirements eighteen years of age or older for the Tokyo Main Library and the Kansai-kan Population served members of the Diet (722: fixed number as of Feb. 2009) and the general public Other information Budget JP¥20,163M (FY2008) (US$221M) Director Sawako Hanyu (2016)[2] Staff 908 Website www.ndl.go.jp Map Kansai-kan of the National Diet Library The National Diet Library (NDL) (国立国会図書館, Kokuritsu Kokkai Toshokan) is the national library of Japan and among the largest libraries in the world. It was established in 1948 for the purpose of assisting members of the National Diet of Japan (国会, Kokkai) in researching matters of public policy. The library is similar in purpose and scope to the United States Library of Congress. The National Diet Library (NDL) consists of two main facilities in Tokyo and Kyoto, and several other branch libraries throughout Japan. Contents 1 History 2 Main collection 3 Important special collections 3.1 Modern political and constitutional history 3.2 Materials concerning the postwar occupation of Japan 3.3 Laws and preliminary records 3.4 Science and technology 3.5 Maps 3.6 Music 3.7 Foreign books about Japan 3.8 Rare books and old materials 4 The Kansai-Kan 5 National Diet Library online resources 5.1 National Diet Library Online Public Access Catalog (NDL-OPAC) 5.2 National Diet Library Digital Collections 5.3 Digital Library from the Meiji Era 5.4 Rare Books Image Database 5.5 Minutes of the Imperial Diet and National Diet 6 See also 7 References 8 Sources 9 External links History[edit] The National Diet Library is the successor of three separate libraries: the library of the House of Peers, the library of the House of Representatives, both of which were established at the creation of Japan's Imperial Diet in 1890; and the Imperial Library, which had been established in 1872 under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education. The Diet's power in prewar Japan was limited, and its need for information was "correspondingly small". The original Diet libraries "never developed either the collections or the services which might have made them vital adjuncts of genuinely responsible legislative activity". Until Japan's defeat, moreover, the executive had controlled all political documents, depriving the people and the Diet of access to vital information. The U.S. occupation forces under General Douglas MacArthur deemed reform of the Diet library system to be an important part of the democratization of Japan after its defeat in World War II. In 1946, each house of the Diet formed its own National Diet Library Standing Committee. Hani Gorō, a Marxist historian who had been imprisoned during the war for thought crimes and had been elected to the House of Councillors (the successor to the abolished House of Peers) after the war, spearheaded the reform efforts. Hani envisioned the new body as "both a 'citadel of popular sovereignty'", and the means of realizing a "peaceful revolution". The Occupation officers responsible for overseeing library reforms reported that, although the Occupation was a catalyst for change, local initiative pre-existed the Occupation, and the successful reforms were due to dedicated Japanese like Hani. The National Diet Library opened in June 1948 in the present-day State Guest-House (former Akasaka Detached Palace) with an initial collection of 100,000 volumes. The first Librarian of the Diet Library was the politician Tokujirō Kanamori.[3] The philosopher Masakazu Nakai served as the first Vice Librarian.[3] In 1949, the NDL merged with the National Library (previously called the Imperial Library) and became the only national library in Japan. At this time the collection gained an additional million volumes previously housed in the former National Library in Ueno. In 1961, the NDL opened at its present location[4] in Nagatachō, adjacent to the National Diet. In 1986, the NDL's Annex was completed to accommodate a combined total of 12 million books and periodicals. The Kansai-kan (the Kansai Library), which opened in October 2002 in the Kansai Science City (Seika Town, Sōraku County, Kyoto Prefecture), has a collection of 6 million items. In May 2002, the NDL opened a new branch, the International Library of Children's Literature, in the former building of the Imperial Library in Ueno. This branch contains some 400,000 items of children's literature from around the world. Though the NDL's original mandate was to be a research library for the National Diet, the general public is the largest consumer of the library's services. In the fiscal year ending March 2004, for example, the library reported more than 250,000 reference inquiries; in contrast, it recorded only 32,000 requests for research from the National Diet. Main collection[edit] The National Diet Library Main building in Tokyo As Japan's national library, the NDL collects copies of all publications published in Japan. Moreover, because the NDL serves as a research library for Diet members, their staffs, and the general public, it maintains an extensive collection of materials published in foreign languages on a wide range of topics. Important special collections[edit] The NDL also has eight major specialized collections: Modern Political and Constitutional History; Materials Concerning the Postwar Occupation of Japan; Laws and Preliminary Records; Science and Technology; Maps; Music; Foreign Books About Japan; and Rare Books. Modern political and constitutional history[edit] The Modern Political and Constitutional History Collection comprises some 300,000 items related to Japan's political and legal modernization in the 19th century, including the original document archives of important Japanese statesmen from the latter half of the 19th century and the early 20th century like Itō Hirobumi, Iwakura Tomomi, Sanjō Sanetomi, Mutsu Munemitsu, Terauchi Masatake, and other influential figures from the Meiji (1868–1912) and Taishō (1912–1926) periods. Materials concerning the postwar occupation of Japan[edit] The NDL has an extensive microform collection of some 30 million pages of documents relating to the Occupation of Japan after World War II. This collection include the documents prepared by General Headquarters (GHQ) and the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers (SCAP), the Far Eastern Commission (FEC), and the United States Strategic Bombing Survey Team. (The originals of these documents are in the possession of the United States National Archives.) Laws and preliminary records[edit] The Laws and Preliminary Records Collection consists of some 170,000 Japanese and 200,000 foreign-language documents concerning proceedings of the National Diet and the legislatures of some 70 foreign countries, and the official gazettes, statutes, judicial opinions, and international treaties pertaining to some 150 foreign countries. Science and technology[edit] The NDL maintains a collection of some 530,000 books and booklets and 2 million microform titles relating to the sciences. These materials include, among other things, foreign doctoral dissertations in the sciences, the proceedings and reports of academic societies, catalogues of technical standards, etc. Maps[edit] The NDL has a collection of approximately 440,000 maps of Japan and other countries, including the topographical, geological, and hydrological maps and charts dating back to the early Meiji period (1868–1912) and topographical maps of foreign countries. Music[edit] The NDL collects all phonographic recordings made in Japan, and presently holds a collection comprising 300,000 vinyl records and 200,000 compact disks. Foreign books about Japan[edit] Following the tradition established by the Imperial Library, the NDL collects foreign-language materials about Japan, including rare and ancient documents, such as reports of European missionaries visiting Japan in the 16th century. Rare books and old materials[edit] The Analects of Confucius in the collection of the National Diet Library has a back flyleaf with Nobukata's autograph provenance notes dated November of the 16th year of the Tenmon era (1547) and is clearly printed; therefore this seems to be a rare first edition. A sumptuous cover made of Nishijin brocade was put on the book in the Edo period. The NDL houses the former Imperial Library's collection of Japanese language materials from the Edo period (1603–1867) and earlier periods. The major catalogues in this collection include: (1) some 6,000 documents relating to the Tokugawa shogunate (1603–1867), such as records of town magistrates, the shogunal Supreme Court, and the Jisha-bugyō (Commissioners of Shrines and Temples), as well as documents concerning the succession of shōguns; (2) the Itō Bunko and Shirai Bunko, consisting of 8,000 handwritten and woodblock printed books dating from the Edo and Meiji periods and concerning Japanese medicine; and (3) the Shinjo Bunko, consisting of 11,000 examples of pre-modern writings on astronomy and calendars, in addition to ancient Chinese works on the Qing dynasty, genealogy, and local history. The Kansai-Kan[edit] Main article: Kansai-kan of the National Diet Library Kansai-kan (Kansai Library), which opened in Kyoto Prefecture in 2002, is the second facility of the NDL. The NDL has transferred the following collections to the Kansai-kan: most western periodicals; books and other materials in non-Japanese Asian languages; certain scientific and technological materials (technical reports, papers of foreign academic societies, catalogs of Japanese and foreign technical standards, foreign doctoral dissertations, and conference proceedings in Western languages); scientific research reports compiled under grants from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology; Japanese doctoral dissertations; and books on tape.[5] National Diet Library online resources[edit] The National Diet Library has in recent years compiled a detailed website in both Japanese [6] and English.[7] Its online databases consist of the National Diet Library Online Public Access Catalog (NDL-OPAC), National Diet Library Digital Collections and the Minutes of the Imperial Diet and National Diet. National Diet Library Online Public Access Catalog (NDL-OPAC)[edit] The NDL provides an Online Public Access Catalog (OPAC), by which users can search the NDL's entire collection from anywhere in the world in either English[8] or Japanese.[9] Using OPAC to identify sources and catalog numbers, overseas users may obtain certain materials from the NDL through interlibrary loan.[10] In addition, the NDL provides a fee-based reproduction service for scholars residing overseas.[11] As of June 2017 NDL-OPAC is planned to end at the end of December 2017 and new online services will be launched.[12] National Diet Library Digital Collections[edit] NDL Digital Collections provinces various online materials such as rare books, audio-visual materials and the materials whose copyrights has expired. The contents consisting of Digital Library from the Meiji Era and Rare Books Image Database (to be mentioned later) are now availablable on NDL Digital Collections. NDL Digitalized Contents was renamed to be NDL Digital Collections in 2014.[13][14] Digital Library from the Meiji Era[edit] Main article: ja:近代デジタルライブラリー One of the most important features of the NDL's website is the Digital Library of the Meiji Era (近代デジタルライブラリー, Kindai dejitaru raiburarii, lit. Recent Age Digital Library).[15] The Digital Library is the digital descendant of the Maruzen Meiji Microfilm, the product of an ambitious project to microfilm the NDL's entire collection of Meiji era books, a collection of some 60,000 volumes. The digital library contains actual images of these works, which are divided into ten main categories based on Nippon Decimal Classification (NDC) : (0) general (総記, sōki); (1) philosophy (哲学, tetsugaku); (2) history (歴史, rekishi); (3) social sciences (社会科学, shakai kagaku); (4) natural sciences (自然科学, shizen kagaku); (5) engineering and manufacturing (工学・工業, kōgaku/kōgyō); (6) industry (産業, sangyō); (7) arts and athletics (芸術・体育, geijutsu/taiiku); (8) language (語学, gogaku); and (9) literature (文学, bungaku). The images are not coded, so text searches are not possible; however, Japanese-language searches for the title, author, publisher, subject, and table of contents of the works in the database are possible. Meiji period periodicals are not included in this collection. Digital Library from the Meiji Era was merged into NDL Digital Collections in 2015.[14] Rare Books Image Database[edit] The NDL's website also contains the Rare Books Image Database (貴重書画像データベース, kichōsho gazō dētabēsu) a collection of digital images from 37,000 illustrated books published before the Edo Period. Japanese-language searches by title, author, and call-number are possible in this database.[16] Rare Books Image Database was integrated into NDL Digitalized Contents (now NDL Digital Collections) in 2012.[14] Minutes of the Imperial Diet and National Diet[edit] The NDL provides a database of the minutes of both the Imperial Diet and the National Diet, the only one of the NDL's online database that is full-text searchable. All minutes from the National Diet's inception in May 1947 through the present are searchable online.[17] At present, only minutes from the last two (91st and 92nd) sessions of the Imperial Diet (November 1946 through May 1947) are available.[18] See also[edit] Authority control List of academic databases and search engines References[edit] ^ "National Diet Library Statistics". 2017. Retrieved 9 September 2017. ^ "Sawako Hanyu appointed new Librarian of the National Diet Library". National Diet Library. Retrieved 2016-12-12. ^ a b "Kokuritsu Kokkai Toshokan shōshi" (in Japanese). Kokuritsu Kokkai Toshokan. Archived from the original on 16 January 2011. Retrieved 13 January 2011. ^ This was the ground of the German Embassy since the Meiji period. It was confiscated in 1945 and not given back. ^ "Kansai-kan of the National Diet Library｜National Diet Library". ^ "国立国会図書館―National Diet Library". ^ "National Diet Library". ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2009-12-11. Retrieved 2009-12-11.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2002-10-02. Retrieved 2002-10-02.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2005-11-19. Retrieved 2005-09-27.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2005-11-14. Retrieved 2005-09-27.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ "NDL to Implement a New Search System in January 2018". National Diet Library. Archived from the original on 2017-12-13. Retrieved 2017-12-13. ^ "About the National Diet Library Digital Collections". National Diet Library. Retrieved 2017-12-13. ^ a b c "国立国会図書館デジタルコレクションの歩み" (in Japanese). National Diet Library. Retrieved 2017-12-13. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2005-10-13. Retrieved 2005-10-13.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2005-08-31. Retrieved 2005-09-27.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ "国会会議録検索システム". ^ "帝国議会会議録検索システム". Sources[edit] This article is based on information obtained from the National Diet Library website. The section on the formation of the NDL under the U.S. Occupation forces relies heavily on Leslie Pincus, "Revolution in the Archives of Memory: The Founding of the National Diet Library in Occupied Japan" in Francis X. Blouin and William G. Rosenberg, eds., Archives, Documentation, and Institutions of Social Memory: Essays from the Sawyer Seminar (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2006). External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to National Diet Library. Wikidata has the properties: National Diet Library ID (P349) (see uses) NDL bib ID (P1054) (see uses) NDL JPNO (P2687) (see uses) Official website NDL English website NDL Digital Archive Portal (English) Kansai-kan of the NDL (English) Digital Library from the Meiji Era (English summary only) NDL Digital Collections v t e National libraries of Asia Sovereign states Afghanistan Armenia Azerbaijan Bahrain Bangladesh Bhutan Brunei Cambodia China Cyprus East Timor (Timor-Leste) Egypt Georgia India Indonesia Iran Iraq Israel Japan Jordan Kazakhstan North Korea South Korea Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Laos Lebanon Malaysia Maldives Mongolia Myanmar Nepal Oman Pakistan Philippines Qatar Russia Saudi Arabia Singapore Sri Lanka Syria Tajikistan Thailand Turkey Turkmenistan United Arab Emirates Uzbekistan Vietnam Yemen States with limited recognition Abkhazia Artsakh Northern Cyprus Palestine South Ossetia Taiwan Dependencies and other territories British Indian Ocean Territory Christmas Island Cocos (Keeling) Islands Hong Kong Macau Book Category Asia portal v t e Legislative libraries Asia Japan Pakistan South Korea Europe Estonia Georgia Portugal Ukraine United Kingdom (Lower House · Upper House) North America Canada Mexico United States (Lower House · Upper House) Oceania Australia New Zealand Palau South America Chile v t e Authority control files AAG • ACM DL • ADB • AGSA • autores.uy • AWR • BALaT • BIBSYS • Bildindex • BNC • BNE • BNF • Botanist • BPN • CANTIC • CiNii • CWGC • DAAO • DBLP • DSI • FNZA • GND • HDS • IAAF • ICCU • ICIA • ISNI • Joconde • KulturNav • LCCN • LIR • LNB • Léonore • MBA • MGP • NARA • NBL • NDL • NGV • NKC • NLA • NLG • NLI • NLK • NLP • NLR • NSK • NTA • ORCID • PIC • ResearcherID • RERO • RKD • RKDimages ID • RSL • SELIBR • SIKART • SNAC • SUDOC • S2AuthorId • TA98 • TDVİA • TE • TePapa • TH • TLS • Trove • UKPARL • ULAN • US Congress • VcBA • VIAF • WorldCat Identities Authority control BNE: XX90878 BNF: cb12060848w (data) CiNii: DA00069834 GND: 2015822-1 ISNI: 0000 0001 2184 6214 LCCN: n80004161 NDL: 00288347 NKC: kn20010710556 NLA: 36529317 NLG: 211171 SUDOC: 027540316 ULAN: 500309711 VcBA: 494/58649 VIAF: 313010548 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n80004161 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=National_Diet_Library&oldid=996271101" Categories: 1948 establishments in Japan Deposit libraries Education in Kyoto Government agencies established in 1948 Government of Japan Legislative libraries Libraries established in 1948 Libraries in Tokyo National libraries World Digital Library partners Hidden categories: CS1 Japanese-language sources (ja) CS1 maint: archived copy as title Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Japanese-language text Coordinates on Wikidata Infobox mapframe without OSM relation ID on Wikidata Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Pages using the Kartographer extension Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Bân-lâm-gú Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ भोजपुरी Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Nordfriisk Polski Português Română Русский Scots Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English Slovenščina Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Татарча/tatarça Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 文言 Winaray 吴语 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 25 December 2020, at 15:22 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8195	----	Aedile - Wikipedia Aedile From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Office of the Roman Republic Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e Aedile (/ˈiːdaɪl/ EE-dyle; Latin: aedīlis [ae̯ˈdiːlɪs], from aedes, "temple edifice") was an elected office of the Roman Republic. Based in Rome, the aediles were responsible for maintenance of public buildings (aedēs) and regulation of public festivals. They also had powers to enforce public order and duties to ensure the city of Rome was well supplied and its civil infrastructure well maintained, akin to modern local government. There were two pairs of aediles: the first were the "plebeian aediles" (Latin aediles plebis) and possession of this office was limited to plebeians; the other two were "curule aediles" (Latin aediles curules), open to both plebeians and patricians, in alternating years. An aedilis curulis was classified as a magister curulis. The office of the aedilis was generally held by young men intending to follow the cursus honorum to high political office, traditionally after their quaestorship but before their praetorship. It was not a compulsory part of the cursus, and hence a former quaestor could be elected to the praetorship without having held the position of aedile. However, it was an advantageous position to hold because it demonstrated the aspiring politician's commitment to public service, as well as giving him the opportunity to hold public festivals and games, an excellent way to increase his name recognition and popularity. Contents 1 History of the office 1.1 Plebeian aediles 1.2 Curule aediles 1.3 Differences between the two 2 Election to the office 3 Powers of the office 4 Under the Empire 5 Shakespeare 6 See also 7 References 8 Books History of the office[edit] Plebeian aediles[edit] The plebeian aediles were created in the same year as the Tribunes of the People (494 BC). Originally intended as assistants to the tribunes, they guarded the rights of the plebs with respect to their headquarters, the Temple of Ceres. Subsequently, they assumed responsibility for maintenance of the city's buildings as a whole.[1] Their duties at first were simply ministerial. They were the assistants to the tribunes in whatever matters that the tribunes might entrust to them, although most matters with which they were entrusted were of minimal importance. Around 446 BC, they were given the authority to care for the decrees of the senate (Latin: senatus consulta). When a senatus consultum was passed, it would be transcribed into a document, and deposited in the public treasury, the Aerarium. They were given this power because the consuls, who had held this power before, arbitrarily suppressed and altered the documents.[2] They also maintained the acts of the Plebeian Council (popular assembly), the "plebiscites". Plebiscites, once passed, were also transcribed into a physical document for storage. While their powers grew over time, it is not always easy to distinguish the difference between their powers, and those of the censors. Occasionally, if a Censor was unable to carry out one of his tasks, an Aedile would perform the task instead. Curule aediles[edit] According to Livy (vi. 42), after the passing of the Licinian rogations in 367 BC, an extra day was added to the Roman games; the plebeian aediles refused to bear the additional expense, whereupon the patricians offered to undertake it, on condition that they were admitted to the aedileship. The plebeians accepted the offer, and accordingly two curule aediles were appointed—at first from the patricians alone, then from patricians and plebeians in turn, lastly, from either—at the Tribal Assembly under the presidency of the consul.[3] Curule Aediles, as formal magistrates, held certain honors that Plebeian Aediles (who were not technically magistrates), did not hold. Besides having the right to sit on a Curule Chair (sella curulis) and to wear a toga praetexta, the Curule Aediles also held the power to issue edicts (jus edicendi). These edicts often pertained to matters such as the regulation of the public markets, or what we might call "economic regulation".[4] Livy suggests, perhaps incorrectly, that both Curule as well as Plebeian Aediles were sacrosanct.[2] Although the curule aediles always ranked higher than the plebeian, their functions gradually approximated and became practically identical.[3] Within five days after the beginning of their terms, the four Aediles (two Plebeian, two Curule) were required to determine, by lot or by agreement among themselves, what parts of the city each should hold jurisdiction over.[5] Differences between the two[edit] There was a distinction between the two sets of Aediles when it came to public festivals. Some festivals were Plebeian in nature, and thus were under the superintendence of Plebeian Aediles.[6] Other festivals were supervised exclusively by the Curule Aediles,[7] and it was often with these festivals that the Aediles would spend lavishly. This was often done so as to secure the support of voters in future elections. Because Aediles were not reimbursed for any of their public expenditures, most individuals who sought the office were independently wealthy. Since this office was a stepping stone to higher office and the Senate, it helped to ensure that only wealthy individuals (mostly landowners) would win election to high office. These extravagant expenditures began shortly after the end of Second Punic War, and increased as the spoils returned from Rome's new eastern conquests. Even the decadence of the emperors rarely surpassed that of the Aediles under the Republic, as could have been seen during Julius Caesar's Aedileship.[8] Election to the office[edit] Plebeian aediles were elected by the Plebeian Council, usually while under the presidency of a Plebeian Tribune. Curule aediles were elected by the Tribal Assembly, usually while under the presidency of a consul. Since the plebeian aediles were elected by the plebeians, rather than by all of the People of Rome (plebeians as well as members of the Patrician aristocracy), they were not technically magistrates. Before the passage of the lex annalis, individuals could run for the aedileship by the time they turned twenty-seven. After the passage of this law in 180 BC, a higher age was set, probably thirty-five.[9] By the 1st century BC, aediles were elected in July, and took office on the first day in January. Powers of the office[edit] Cicero (Legg. iii. 3, 7) divides these functions under three heads: (1) Care of the city: the repair and preservation of temples, sewers and aqueducts; street cleansing and paving; regulations regarding traffic, dangerous animals and dilapidated buildings; precautions against fire; superintendence of baths and taverns; enforcement of sumptuary laws; punishment of gamblers and usurers; the care of public morals generally, including the prevention of foreign superstitions and the registration of meretrices. They also punished those who had too large a share of the ager publicus, or kept too many cattle on the state pastures. (2) Care of provisions: investigation of the quality of the articles supplied and the correctness of weights and measures; the purchase of grain for disposal at a low price in case of necessity. (3) Care of the games: superintendence and organization of the public games, as well as of those given by themselves and private individuals (e.g. at funerals) at their own expense. Ambitious persons often spent enormous sums in this manner to win the popular favor with a view to official advancement.[3] Under the Empire[edit] In 44 BC Julius Caesar added two plebeian aediles, called Cereales, whose special duty was the care of the cereal (grain) supply. Under Augustus the office lost much of its importance, its judicial functions and the care of the games being transferred to the praetor, while its city responsibilities were limited by the appointment of a praefectus urbi.[3] Augustus took for himself its powers over various religious duties. By stripping it of its powers over temples, Augustus effectively destroyed the office, by taking from it its original function. After this point, few people were willing to hold such a powerless office, and Augustus was even known to compel individuals into holding the office. Augustus accomplished this by randomly selecting former tribunes and quaestors for the office.[10] Future emperors would continue to dilute the power of the office by transferring its powers to newly created offices. However, the office did retain some powers over licentiousness and disorder, in particular over the baths and brothels, as well as the registration of prostitutes.[11] In the 3rd century, it disappeared altogether.[3] Under the Empire, Roman colonies and cities often had officials with powers similar to those of the republican aediles, although their powers widely varied. It seems as though they were usually chosen annually.[12] Today in Portugal the county mayor can still be referred to as edil (e.g. 'O edil de Coimbra', meaning 'the mayor of Coimbra'), a way of reference used also in Romania for any mayors (ex. 'Edil al Bucureștiului', meaning 'mayor of Bucharest'). In Spain (and Latin America) the members of municipal councils are called concejales or ediles. Shakespeare[edit] In his play Coriolanus, Shakespeare references the aediles. However, they are minor characters, and their chief role is to serve as policemen.[13] See also[edit] Aetheling Agoranomi Constitution of the Roman Republic Ethel References[edit] ^ McCullough, 938 ^ a b Liv. III.55 ^ a b c d e  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Aedile". Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 244. This cites: Schubert, De Romanorum Aedilibus (1828) Hoffmann, De Aedilibus Romanis (1842) Göll, De Aedilibus sub Caesarum Imperio (1860) Labatut, Les Édiles et les moeurs (1868) Marquardt-Mommsen, Handbuch der römischen Altertümer, ii. (1888) Soltau, Die ursprüngliche Bedeutung und Competenz der Aediles Plebis (Bonn, 1882). ^ Cic. Verr. V.14 ^ Tabula Heracleensis, ed. Alessio Simmacho Mazzocchi ^ Liv. XXXI.56 ^ Liv. XXXI.50 ^ Plut. Caesar, 5 ^ Livy, XL.44 ^ Dio Cassius LV.24 ^ Tacitus Annales, II.85 ^ De Aedil. Col, &c. Otto. Lips. 1732 ^ Shakespeare, William. The Tragedies of William Shakespeare. Random House, Inc. pp. 1266. ISBN 0-679-60129-5. Books[edit] Berry, Joanne (2007). The Complete Pompeii. Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-05150-4. Boatwright, Mary T., Daniel J. Gargola, Richard J.A. Talbert (2006). A Brief History of the Romans. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518714-4.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Brennan, Brain (2012). Herculaneum: A Sourcebook. Ancient History Seminars. ISBN 978-0-9756963-3-0. v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control 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Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aedile&oldid=995437178" Categories: Cursus honorum Ancient Roman occupations Ancient Roman titles Roman aediles Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano עברית ქართული Kurdî Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski 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en-wikipedia-org-8232	----	Ode to a Nightingale - Wikipedia Ode to a Nightingale From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Poem by John Keats Ode to a Nightingale W. J. Neatby's 1899 illustration for Ode to a Nightingale Author John Keats Country England Language English Text Ode to a Nightingale at Wikisource "Ode to a Nightingale" is a poem by John Keats written either in the garden of the Spaniards Inn, Hampstead, London or, according to Keats' friend Charles Armitage Brown, under a plum tree in the garden of Keats' house at Wentworth Place, also in Hampstead. According to Brown, a nightingale had built its nest near the house that he shared with Keats in the spring of 1819. Inspired by the bird's song, Keats composed the poem in one day. It soon became one of his 1819 odes and was first published in Annals of the Fine Arts the following July. The poem is one of the most frequently anthologized in the English language.[1] "Ode to a Nightingale" is a personal poem which describes Keats's journey into the state of negative capability. The tone of the poem rejects the optimistic pursuit of pleasure found within Keats's earlier poems and, instead, explores the themes of nature, transience and mortality, the latter being particularly relevant to Keats. The nightingale described experiences a type of death but does not actually die. Instead, the songbird is capable of living through its song, which is a fate that humans cannot expect. The poem ends with an acceptance that pleasure cannot last and that death is an inevitable part of life. In the poem, Keats imagines the loss of the physical world and sees himself dead—as a "sod" over which the nightingale sings. The contrast between the immortal nightingale and mortal man sitting in his garden, is made all the more acute by an effort of the imagination. The presence of weather is noticeable in the poem, as spring came early in 1819, bringing nightingales all over the heath.[citation needed] Contents 1 Background 2 Structure 3 Poem 4 Themes 5 Reception 5.1 20th-century criticism 5.2 Later critical responses 6 In fiction 7 In music 8 Notes 9 References 10 External links Background[edit] Joseph Severn's depiction of Keats listening to the nightingale (c. 1845) Of Keats's six major odes of 1819, "Ode to Psyche", was probably written first and "To Autumn" written last. Sometime between these two, he wrote "Ode to a Nightingale".[2] It is possible that "Ode to a Nightingale" was written between 26 April and 18 May 1819, based on weather conditions and similarities between images in the poem and those in a letter sent to Fanny Brawne on May Day. The poem was composed at the Hampstead house Keats shared with Brown, possibly while sitting beneath a plum tree in the garden.[3] According to Keats' friend Brown, Keats finished the ode in just one morning: "In the spring of 1819 a nightingale had built her nest near my house. Keats felt a tranquil and continual joy in her song; and one morning he took his chair from the breakfast-table to the grass-plot under a plum-tree, where he sat for two or three hours. When he came into the house, I perceived he had some scraps of paper in his hand, and these he was quietly thrusting behind the books. On inquiry, I found those scraps, four or five in number, contained his poetic feelings on the song of the nightingale."[4] Brown's account is personal, as he claimed the poem was directly influenced by his house and preserved by his own doing. However, Keats relied on both his own imagination and other literature as sources for his depiction of the nightingale.[5] The exact date of "Ode to a Nightingale", as well as those of "Ode on Indolence", "Ode on Melancholy", and "Ode on a Grecian Urn", is unknown, as Keats dated all as 'May 1819'. However, he worked on the four poems together, and there is a unity in both their stanza forms and their themes. The exact order the poems in which the poems were written is also unknown, but they form a sequence within their structures. While Keats was writing "Ode on a Grecian Urn" and the other poems, Brown transcribed copies of the poems and submitted them to Richard Woodhouse.[6] During this time, Benjamin Haydon, Keats' friend, was given a copy of "Ode to a Nightingale", and he shared the poem with the editor of the Annals of the Fine Arts, James Elmes. Elmes paid Keats a small sum of money, and the poem was published in the July issue.[7] The poem was later included in Keats' 1820 collection of poems, Lamia, Isabella, The Eve of St Agnes, and Other Poems.[8] Structure[edit] "Ode to a Nightingale" was probably the first of the middle set of four odes that Keats wrote following "Ode to Psyche", according to Brown. This is further evidenced by the poems' structures. Keats experimentally combines two different types of lyrical poetry: the odal hymn and the lyric of questioning voice that responds to the odal hymn. This combination of structures is similar to that in "Ode on a Grecian Urn". In both poems, the dual form creates a dramatic element within the text. The stanza form of the poem is a combination of elements from Petrarchan sonnets and Shakespearean sonnets.[9] Keats incorporates a pattern of alternating historically "short" and "long" vowel sounds in his ode. In particular, line 18 ("And purple-stained mouth") has the historical pattern of "short" followed by "long" followed by "short" and followed by "long". This alternation is continued in longer lines, including line 31 ("Away! away! for I will fly to thee") which contains five pairs of alternations. However, other lines, such as line 3 ("Or emptied some dull opiate to the drains") rely on a pattern of five "short" vowels followed by "long" and "short" vowel pairings until they end with a "long" vowel. These are not the only combination patterns present, and there are patterns of two "short" vowels followed by a "long" vowel in other lines, including 12, 22, and 59, which are repeated twice and then followed up with two sets of "short" and then "long" vowel pairs. This reliance on vowel sounds is not unique to this ode, but is common to Keats's other 1819 odes and his Eve of St. Agnes.[10] The poem incorporates a complex reliance on assonance—the repetition of vowel sounds—in a conscious pattern, as found in many of his poems. Such a reliance on assonance is found in very few English poems. Within "Ode to a Nightingale", an example of this pattern can be found in line 35 ("Already with thee! tender is the night"), where the "ea" of "Already" connects with the "e" of "tender" and the "i" of "with" connects with the "i" of "is". This same pattern is found again in line 41 ("I cannot see what flowers are at my feet") with the "a" of "cannot" linking with the "a" of "at" and the "ee" of "see" linking with the "ee" of "feet". This system of assonance can be found in approximately a tenth of the lines of Keats's later poetry.[11] When it comes to other sound patterns, Keats relies on double or triple caesuras in approximately 6% of lines throughout the 1819 odes. An example from "Ode to a Nightingale" can be found within line 45 ("The grass, the thicket, and the fruit-tree wild") as the pauses after the commas are a "masculine" pause. Furthermore, Keats began to reduce the amount of Latin-based words and syntax that he relied on in his poetry, which in turn shortened the length of the words that dominate the poem. There is also an emphasis on words beginning with consonants, especially those that begin with "b", "p" or "v". The first stanza relies heavily on these three consonants, and they are used as a syzygy to add a musical tone within the poem.[12] Compared to his earlier verse, spondees are relatively abundant in his 1819 odes and other late poems. In "Ode to a Nightingale" they are used in just over 8% of his lines (compared to a mere 2.6% in Endymion). Examples include:[13] / × / / × × / / × / Cool'd a long age in the deep-delvèd earth (line 12) × / × / × / / / / / Where palsy shakes a few, sad, last, grey hairs (line 25) To Walter Jackson Bate, the use of spondees in lines 31–34 creates a feeling of slow flight, and "in the final stanza . . . the distinctive use of scattered spondees, together with initial inversion, lend[s] an approximate phonetic suggestion of the peculiar spring and bounce of the bird in its flight."[14] Poem[edit] Holograph of Keats's Ode to a Nightingale written in May 1819 The first and sixth stanzas exemplify the juxtaposition of rapture and morbidity in the poem: My heart aches, and a drowsy numbness pains     My sense, as though of hemlock I had drunk, Or emptied some dull opiate to the drains     One minute past, and Lethe-wards had sunk: 'Tis not through envy of thy happy lot,     But being too happy in thine happiness,—         That thou, light-winged Dryad of the trees,                 In some melodious plot     Of beechen green, and shadows numberless,         Singest of summer in full-throated ease. ... Darkling I listen; and, for many a time     I have been half in love with easeful Death, Call'd him soft names in many a mused rhyme,     To take into the air my quiet breath;         Now more than ever seems it rich to die,     To cease upon the midnight with no pain,         While thou art pouring forth thy soul abroad                 In such an ecstasy!     Still wouldst thou sing, and I have ears in vain—     To thy high requiem become a sod.[15] — Stanzas 1 and 6 (lines 1-10, 51-60) Themes[edit] "Ode to a Nightingale" describes a series of conflicts between reality and the Romantic ideal of uniting with nature. In the words of Richard Fogle, "The principal stress of the poem is a struggle between ideal and actual: inclusive terms which, however, contain more particular antitheses of pleasure and pain, of imagination and common sense reason, of fullness and privation, of permanence and change, of nature and the human, of art and life, freedom and bondage, waking and dream."[16] Of course, the nightingale's song is the dominant image and dominant "voice" within the ode. The nightingale is also the object of empathy and praise within the poem. However, the nightingale and the discussion of the nightingale is not simply about the bird or the song, but about human experience in general. This is not to say that the song is a simple metaphor, but it is a complex image that is formed through the interaction of the conflicting voices of praise and questioning.[17] On this theme, David Perkins summarizes the way "Ode to a Nightingale" and "Ode on a Grecian Urn" perform this when he says, "we are dealing with a talent, indeed an entire approach to poetry, in which symbol, however necessary, may possibly not satisfy as the principal concern of poetry, any more than it could with Shakespeare, but is rather an element in the poetry and drama of human reactions".[18] However, there is a difference between an urn and a nightingale in that the nightingale is not an eternal entity. Furthermore, in creating any aspect of the nightingale immortal during the poem the narrator separates any union that he can have with the nightingale.[19] The nightingale's song within the poem is connected to the art of music in a way that the urn in "Ode on a Grecian Urn" is connected to the art of sculpture. As such, the nightingale would represent an enchanting presence and, unlike the urn, is directly connected to nature. As natural music, the song is for beauty and lacks a message of truth. Keats follows Coleridge's belief, as found in "The Nightingale", in separating from the world by losing himself in the bird's song. Although Keats favours a female nightingale over Coleridge's masculine bird, both reject the traditional depiction of the nightingale as related to the tragedy of Philomela.[20] Their songbird is a happy nightingale that lacks the melancholic feel of previous poetic depictions.[21] The bird is only a voice within the poem, but it is a voice that compels the narrator to join with in and forget the sorrows of the world. However, there is tension in that the narrator holds Keats's guilt regarding the death of Tom Keats, his brother. The song's conclusion represents the result of trying to escape into the realm of fancy.[22] Like Percy Bysshe Shelley's "To a Skylark", Keats's narrator listens to a bird song, but listening to the song within "Ode to a Nightingale" is almost painful and similar to death. The narrator seeks to be with the nightingale and abandons his sense of vision in order to embrace the sound in an attempt to share in the darkness with the bird. As the poem ends, the trance caused by the nightingale is broken and the narrator is left wondering if it was a real vision or just a dream.[23] The poem's reliance on the process of sleeping is common to Keats's poems, and "Ode to a Nightingale" shares many of the same themes as Keats' Sleep and Poetry and Eve of St. Agnes. This further separates the image of the nightingale's song from its closest comparative image, the urn as represented in "Ode on a Grecian Urn". The nightingale is distant and mysterious, and even disappears at the end of the poem. The dream image emphasizes the shadowiness and elusiveness of the poem. These elements make it impossible for there to be a complete self-identification with the nightingale, but it also allows for self-awareness to permeate throughout the poem, albeit in an altered state.[24] Midway through the poem, there is a split between the two actions of the poem: the first attempts to identify with the nightingale and its song, and the second discusses the convergence of the past with the future while experiencing the present. This second theme is reminiscent of Keats's view of human progression through the Mansion of Many Apartments and how man develops from experiencing and wanting only pleasure to understanding truth as a mixture of both pleasure and pain. The Elysian fields and the nightingale's song in the first half of the poem represent the pleasurable moments that overwhelm the individual like a drug. However, the experience does not last forever, and the body is left desiring it until the narrator feels helpless without the pleasure. Instead of embracing the coming truth, the narrator clings to poetry to hide from the loss of pleasure. Poetry does not bring about the pleasure that the narrator original asks for, but it does liberate him from his desire for only pleasure.[25] Responding to this emphasis on pleasure, Albert Guerard, Jr. argues that the poem contains a "longing not for art but a free reverie of any kind. The form of the poem is that of progression by association, so that the movement of feeling is at the mercy of words evoked by chance, such words as fade and forlorn, the very words that, like a bell, toll the dreamer back to his sole self."[26] However, Fogle points out that the terms Guerard emphasizes are "associational translations" and that Guerard misunderstands Keats's aesthetic.[27] After all, the acceptance of the loss of pleasure by the end of the poem is an acceptance of life and, in turn, of death. Death was a constant theme that permeated aspects of Keats poetry because he was exposed to death of his family members throughout his life.[28] Within the poem, there are many images of death. The nightingale experiences a sort of death and even the god Apollo experiences death, but his death reveals his own divine state. As Perkins explains, "But, of course, the nightingale is not thought to be literally dying. The point is that the deity or the nightingale can sing without dying. But, as the ode makes clear, man cannot—or at least not in a visionary way."[29] With this theme of a loss of pleasure and inevitable death, the poem, according to Claude Finney, describes "the inadequacy of the romantic escape from the world of reality to the world of ideal beauty".[30] Earl Wasserman essentially agrees with Finney, but he extended his summation of the poem to incorporate the themes of Keats's Mansion of Many Apartments when he says, "the core of the poem is the search for the mystery, the unsuccessful quest for light within its darkness" and this "leads only to an increasing darkness, or a growing recognition of how impenetrable the mystery is to mortals."[31] With these views in mind, the poem recalls Keats's earlier view of pleasure and an optimistic view of poetry found within his earlier poems, especially Sleep and Poetry, and rejects them.[32] This loss of pleasure and incorporation of death imagery lends the poem a dark air, which connects "Ode to a Nightingale" with Keats' other poems that discuss the demonic nature of poetic imagination, including Lamia.[33] In the poem, Keats imagines the loss of the physical world and sees himself dead—he uses an abrupt, almost brutal word for it—as a "sod" over which the nightingale sings. The contrast between the immortal nightingale and mortal man, sitting in his garden, is made all the more acute by an effort of the imagination.[34] Reception[edit] Contemporary critics of Keats enjoyed the poem, and it was heavily quoted in their reviews.[35] An anonymous review of Keats's poetry that ran in the August and October 1820 Scots Magazine stated: "Amongst the minor poems we prefer the 'Ode to the Nightingale'. Indeed, we are inclined to prefer it beyond every other poem in the book; but let the reader judge. The third and seventh stanzas have a charm for us which we should find it difficult to explain. We have read this ode over and over again, and every time with increased delight."[36] At the same time, Leigh Hunt wrote a review of Keats's poem for the 2 August and 9 August 1820 The Indicator: "As a specimen of the Poems, which are all lyrical, we must indulge ourselves in quoting entire the 'Ode to a Nightingale'. There is that mixture in it of real melancholy and imaginative relief, which poetry alone presents us in her 'charmed cup,' and which some over-rational critics have undertaken to find wrong because it is not true. It does not follow that what is not true to them, is not true to others. If the relief is real, the mixture is good and sufficing."[37] John Scott, in an anonymous review for the September 1820 edition of The London Magazine, argued for the greatness of Keats's poetry as exemplified by poems including "Ode to a Nightingale": The injustice which has been done to our author's works, in estimating their poetical merit, rendered us doubly anxious, on opening his last volume, to find it likely to seize fast hold of general sympathy, and thus turn an overwhelming power against the paltry traducers of talent, more eminently promising in many respects, than any the present age has been called upon to encourage. We have not found it to be quite all that we wished in this respect—and it would have been very extraordinary if we had, for our wishes went far beyond reasonable expectations. But we have found it of a nature to present to common understandings the poetical power with which the author's mind is gifted, in a more tangible and intelligible shape than that in which it has appeared in any of his former compositions. It is, therefore, calculated to throw shame on the lying, vulgar spirit, in which this young worshipper in the temple of the Muses has been cried-down; whatever questions may still leave to be settled as to the kind and degree of his poetical merits. Take for instance, as proof of the justice of our praise, the following passage from an Ode to the Nightingale:--it is distinct, noble, pathetic, and true: the thoughts have all chords of direct communication with naturally-constituted hearts: the echoes of the strain linger bout the depths of human bosoms.[38] In a review for the 21 January 1835 London Journal, Hunt claimed that while Keats wrote the poem, "The poet had then his mortal illness upon him, and knew it. Never was the voice of death sweeter."[39] David Moir, in 1851, used The Eve of St Agnes to claim, "We have here a specimen of descriptive power luxuriously rich and original; but the following lines, from the 'Ode to a Nightingale,' flow from a far more profound fountain of inspiration."[40] At the end of the 19th century, Robert Bridges's analysis of the poem became a dominant view and would influence later interpretations of the poem. Bridges, in 1895, declared that the poem was the best of Keats's odes but he thought that the poem contained too much artificial language. In particular, he emphasised the use of the word "forlorn" and the last stanza as being examples of Keats's artificial language.[41] In "Two odes of Keats's" (1897), William C Wilkinson suggested that "Ode to a Nightingale" is deeply flawed because it contains too many "incoherent musings" that failed to supply a standard of logic that would allow the reader to understand the relationship between the poet and the bird.[42] However, Herbert Grierson, arguing in 1928, believed Nightingale to be superior to "Ode on a Grecian Urn", "Ode on Melancholy", and "Ode to Psyche", arguing the exact opposite of Wilkinson as he stated that "Nightingale", along with "To Autumn", showed a greater amount of logical thought and more aptly presented the cases they were intended to make.[43] 20th-century criticism[edit] At the beginning of the 20th century, Rudyard Kipling referred to lines 69 and 70, alongside three lines from Samuel Taylor Coleridge's Kubla Khan, when he claimed of poetry: "In all the millions permitted there are no more than five—five little lines—of which one can say, 'These are the magic. These are the vision. The rest is only Poetry.'"[44] In 1906, Alexander Mackie argued: "The nightingale and the lark for long monopolised poetic idolatry—a privilege they enjoyed solely on account of their pre-eminence as song birds. Keats's Ode to a Nightingale and Shelley's Ode to a Skylark are two of the glories of English literature; but both were written by men who had no claim to special or exact knowledge of ornithology as such."[45] Sidney Colvin, in 1920, argued, "Throughout this ode Keats's genius is at its height. Imagination cannot be more rich and satisfying, felicity of phrase and cadence cannot be more absolute, than in the several contrasted stanzas calling for the draft of southern vintage […] To praise the art of a passage like that in the fourth stanza […] to praise or comment on a stroke of art like this is to throw doubt on the reader's power to perceive it for himself."[46] Bridges' view of "Ode to a Nightingale" was taken up by H. W. Garrod in his 1926 analysis of Keats's poems. As Albert Gerard would argue later in 1944, Garrod believed that the problem within Keats's poem was his emphasis on the rhythm and the language instead of the main ideas of the poem.[35] When describing the fourth stanza of the poem, Maurice Ridley, in 1933, claimed, "And so comes the stanza, with that remarkable piece of imagination at the end which feels the light as blown by the breezes, one of those characteristic sudden flashes with which Keats fires the most ordinary material."[47] He later declared of the seventh stanza: "And now for the great stanza in which the imagination is fanned to yet whiter heat, the stanza that would, I suppose, by common consent be taken, along with Kubla Khan, as offering us the distilled sorceries of 'Romanticism'".[48] He concluded on the stanza that "I do not believe that any reader who has watched Keats at work on the more exquisitely finished of the stanzas in The Eve of St. Agnes, and seen this craftsman slowly elaborating and refining, will ever believe that this perfect stanza was achieved with the easy fluency with which, in the draft we have, it was obviously written down."[49] In 1936, F. R. Leavis wrote, "One remembers the poem both as recording, and as being for the reader, an indulgence."[50] Following Leavis, Cleanth Brooks and Robert Penn Warren, in a 1938 essay, saw the poem as "a very rich poem. It contains some complications which we must not gloss over if we are to appreciate the depth and significance of the issues engaged."[51] Brooks would later argue in The Well-Wrought Urn (1947) that the poem was thematically unified while contradicting many of the negative criticisms lodged against the poem.[52] Richard Fogle responded to the critical attack on Keats's emphasis on rhyme and language put forth by Garrod, Gerard, and others in 1953. His argument was similar to Brooks: that the poem was thematically coherent and that there is a poet within the poem that is different from Keats the writer of the poem. As such, Keats consciously chose the shift in the themes of the poem and the contrasts within the poem represent the pain felt when comparing the real world to an ideal world found within the imagination.[52] Fogle also responded directly to the claims made by Leavis: "I find Mr. Leavis too austere, but he points out a quality which Keats plainly sought for. His profusion and prodigality is, however, modified by a principle of sobriety."[53] It is possible that Fogle's statements were a defense of Romanticism as a group that was both respectable in terms of thought and poetic ability.[54] Wasserman, following in 1953, claimed that "Of all Keats' poems, it is probably the 'Ode to a Nightingale' that has most tormented the critic [...] in any reading of the 'Ode to a Nightingale' the turmoil will not down. Forces contend wildly within the poem, not only without resolution, but without possibility of resolution; and the reader comes away from his experience with the sense that he has been in 'a wild Abyss'".[55] He then explained, "It is this turbulence, I suspect, that has led Allen Tate to believe the ode 'at least tries to say everything that poetry can say.' But I propose it is the 'Ode on a Grecian Urn' that succeeds in saying what poetry can say, and that the other ode attempts to say all that the poet can."[55] Later critical responses[edit] Although the poem was defended by a few critics, E. C. Pettet returned to the argument that the poem lacked a structure and emphasized the word "forlorn" as evidence of his view.[56] In his 1957 work, Pettet did praise the poem as he declared, "The Ode to a Nightingale has a special interest in that most of us would probably regard it as the most richly representative of all Keats's poems. Two reasons for this quality are immediately apparent: there is its matchless evocation of that late spring and early summer season […] and there is its exceptional degree of 'distillation', of concentrated recollection".[57] David Perkins felt the need to defend the use of the word "forlorn" and claimed that it described the feeling from the impossibility of not being able to live in the world of the imagination.[56] When praising the poem in 1959, Perkins claimed, "Although the "Ode to a Nightingale" ranges more widely than the "Ode on a Grecian Urn," the poem can also be regarded as the exploration or testing out of a symbol, and, compared with the urn as a symbol, the nightingale would seem to have both limitations and advantages."[58] Walter Jackson Bate also made a similar defense of the word "forlorn" by claiming that the world described by describing the impossibility of reaching that land.[56] When describing the poem compared to the rest of English poetry, Bate argued in 1963, "Ode to a Nightingale" is among "the greatest lyrics in English" and the only one written with such speed: "We are free to doubt whether any poem in English of comparable length and quality has been composed so quickly."[59] In 1968, Robert Gittins stated, "It may not be wrong to regard [Ode on Indolence and Ode on Melancholy] as Keats's earlier essays in this [ode] form, and the great Nightingale and Grecian Urn as his more finished and later works."[60] From the late 1960s onward, many of the Yale School of critics describe the poem as a reworking of John Milton's poetic diction, but, they argued, that poem revealed that Keats lacked the ability of Milton as a poet. The critics, Harold Bloom (1965), Leslie Brisman (1973), Paul Fry (1980), John Hollander (1981) and Cynthia Chase (1985), all focused on the poem with Milton as a progenitor to "Ode to a Nightingale" while ignoring other possibilities, including Shakespeare who was emphasised as being the source of many of Keats's phrases. Responding to the claims about Milton and Keats's shortcomings, critics like R. S. White (1981) and Willard Spiegelman (1983) used the Shakespearean echoes to argue for a multiplicity of sources for the poem to claim that Keats was not trying to respond just to Milton or escape from his shadow. Instead, "Ode to a Nightingale" was an original poem,[61] as White claimed, "The poem is richly saturated in Shakespeare, yet the assimilations are so profound that the Ode is finally original, and wholly Keatsian".[62] Similarly, Spiegelman claimed that Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream had "flavored and ripened the later poem".[63] This was followed in 1986 by Jonathan Bate claiming that Keats was "left enriched by the voice of Shakespeare, the 'immortal bird'".[64] Focusing on the quality of the poem, Stuart Sperry, argued in 1973, "'Ode to a Nightingale' is the supreme expression in all Keats's poetry of the impulse to imaginative escape that flies in the face of the knowledge of human limitation, the impulse fully expressed in 'Away! away! for I will fly to thee.'"[65] Wolf Hirst, in 1981, described the poem as "justly celebrated" and claimed that "Since this movement into an eternal realm of song is one of the most magnificent in literature, the poet's return to actuality is all the more shattering."[66] Helen Vendler continued the earlier view that the poem was artificial but added that the poem was an attempt to be aesthetic and spontaneous that was later dropped.[67] In 1983, she argued, "In its absence of conclusiveness and its abandonment to reverie, the poem appeals to readers who prize it as the most personal, the most apparently spontaneous, the most immediately beautiful, and the most confessional of Keats's odes. I believe that the 'events' of the ode, as it unfolds in time, have more logic, however, than is usually granted them, and that they are best seen in relation to Keats's pursuit of the idea of music as a nonrepresentational art."[68] In a review of contemporary criticism of "Ode to a Nightingale" in 1998, James O'Rouke claimed that "To judge from the volume, the variety, and the polemical force of the modern critical responses engendered, there have been few moments in English poetic history as baffling as Keats's repetition of the word 'forlorn'".[41] When referring to the reliance of the ideas of John Dryden and William Hazlitt within the poem, Poet Laureate Andrew Motion, in 1999, argued "whose notion of poetry as a 'movement' from personal consciousness to an awareness of suffering humanity it perfectly illustrates."[5] In fiction[edit] F. Scott Fitzgerald took the title of his novel Tender is the Night from the 35th line of the ode.[69] According to Ildikó de Papp Carrington, Keats' wording, "when, sick for home, / She stood in tears amid the alien corn", seems to be echoed in by Alice Munro's Save the Reaper (1998),[70] the end of which reads: "Eve would lie down [...] with nothing in her head but the rustle of the deep tall corn which might have stopped growing now but still made its live noise after dark" (book version). The Dutch folk band The Black Atlantic took the name of their 2012 EP "Darkling I listen" from the start line 51.[71] The poem is quoted in Chapter 1 of P. G. Wodehouse's novel Full Moon (1947): "'Coming here? Freddie?'.A numbness seemed to be paining his sense, as though of hemlock he had drunk."[72] Part of the poem is quoted in an episode of Penny Dreadful, when Lucifer appears to Vanessa Ives to tempt her, and quotes the poem in his conversation. The poem inspired Tennessee Williams to name his first play Not About Nightingales. In music[edit] "Ode to a Nightingale" is the subject matter for Ben Moore's piece, "Darkling, I listen," a song-cycle written for baritone in 2010, commissioned by Bruce and Suzie Kovner. This song-cycle uses the entirety of the work with the cycles' eight songs based on the eight stanzas of the poem. Nearly all the songs in the cycle have preludes, interludes and postludes, possibly hinting at a Schumann-like effect, where the piano is the main voice and the sung part merely adds decoration.[73] There is also a very fine setting by Hamilton Harty, set for soprano and orchestra. It was first performed at the Cardiff Festival in 1907, and later magnificently recorded by Heather Harper. Notes[edit] ^ "Hit Singles by Joshua Weiner". Poetry Foundation. 11 April 2018. Retrieved 11 April 2018. ^ Bate 1963 p. 498 ^ Gittings 1968 pp. 316–318 ^ Bate 1963 qtd p. 501 ^ a b Motion 1999 p. 395 ^ Gittings 1968 311 ^ Bate 1963 p.533 ^ Stillinger 1998 p. 15 ^ Bate 1963, pp. 499–502. ^ Bate 1962, pp. 52–54. ^ Bate 1962, pp. 58–60. ^ Bate 1962, pp. 133–135. ^ Bate 1962, p. 137. ^ Bate 1962, p. 139. ^ Keats 1905 pp. 191-193 ^ Fogle 1968 p. 32 ^ Bate 1963 p. 500 ^ John Keats 1979 p. 500 ^ Perkins 1964 p. 103 ^ Vendler pp. 77–81 ^ Gittings 1968 p. 317 ^ Vendler pp. 81–83 ^ Bloom 1993 pp. 407–411 ^ Bate 1963 pp. 502–503 ^ Bate 1963 pp. 503–506 ^ Guerard 1944 p. 495 ^ Fogle 1968 p. 43 ^ Bate 1963 p. 507 ^ Perkins 1964 p. 104 ^ Finney 1936 p. 632 ^ Wasserman 1953 p. 222 ^ Evert 1965|pp=256–269 ^ Evert 1965|pp=vii, 269 ^ Hilton 1971 p. 102 ^ a b O'Rourke 1998 p. 4 ^ Matthews 1971 qtd pp. 214–215 ^ Matthews 1971 qtd p. 173 ^ Matthews 1971 qtd. 224 ^ Matthews 1971 qtd p. 283 ^ Matthews 1971 qtd p. 352 ^ a b O'Rourke 1998 p. 2 ^ Wilkinson 1897 pp. 217–219 ^ Grierson 1928 p. 56 ^ Woods 1916 qtd. p. 1291 ^ MacKie 1906 p. 29 ^ Colvin 1920 pp. 419–420 ^ Ridley 1933 p. 222 ^ Ridley 1933 pp. 226–227 ^ Ridley 1933 p. 229 ^ Leavis 1936 p. 144 ^ Brooks and Warren 1968 p. 45 ^ a b O'Rourke 1998 pp. 4–5 ^ Fogle 1968 p. 41 ^ O'Rourke 1998 pp. 5–6 ^ a b Wasserman p. 178 ^ a b c O'Rourke 1998 p. 6 ^ Pettet 1957 p. 251 ^ Perkins 1959 p. 103 ^ Bate 1963 p. 501 ^ Gittings 1968 p. 312 ^ O'Rourke 1998 pp. 7–9 ^ White 1981 pp. 217–218 ^ Spiegelman 1983 p. 360 ^ Bate 1986 p. 197 ^ Sperry 1994 pp. 263–264 ^ Hirst p. 123 ^ O'Rourke 1998 p. 3 ^ Vendler 1983 p. 83 ^ Grube, J. (1965). "Tender is the night: Keats & Scott Fitzgerald." The Dalhousie Review, 44(4), pp. 433–441. ^ Ildikó de Papp Carrington, Where are you, mother? Alice Munro's Save the Reaper[permanent dead link] (pdf), in: Canadian Literature / Littérature canadienne (173) 2002, 34–51. ^ Benjamin Köhler (24 February 2012), "The Black Atlantic – Interview", eclat-mag.de (in German), retrieved 12 August 2019 ^ Woodhouse, P. G. (2008). Full Moon. Arrow Books. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-0995-138-58. ^ Steven Jude Tietjen (29 July 2014), "Opera News Praises Ben Moore's "Dear Theo" Song Cycles", Opera News, Delos, retrieved 12 August 2019 References[edit] Bate, Jonathan (1986), Shakespeare and the English Romantic Imagination, Oxford: Clarendon, ISBN 0-19-812848-7 . Bate, Walter Jackson (1962), The Stylistic Development of Keats, New York: Humanities Press . Bate, Walter Jackson (1963), John Keats, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-8262-0713-8 . Bloom, Harold (1993), The Visionary Company (Rev. and enl. ed.), Ithaca: Cornell University Press, ISBN 0-8014-9117-7 . Brooks, Cleanth & Warren, Robert Penn (1968), "The Ode to a Nightingale", in Stillinger, Jack (ed.), Keats's Odes, Englewood, NJ: Prentice-Hall, pp. 44–47 . Colvin, Sidney (1920), John Keats, London: Macmillan, ISBN 1-4021-4791-0, OCLC 257603790 . Evert, Walter (1965), Aesthetics and Myth in the Poetry of Keats, Princeton: Princeton University Press . Finney, Claude (1936), The Evolution of Keats's Poetry, II, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press . Fogle, Richard (1968), "Keats's Ode to a Nightingale", in Stillinger, Jack (ed.), Keats's Odes, Englewood, NJ: Prentice-Hall, pp. 33–43 . Gittings, Robert (1968), John Keats, London: Heinemann, ISBN 0-14-005114-7 . Grierson, H. J. C. (1928), Lyrical Poetry from Blake to Hardy, London: L. & Virginia Woolf . Guerard, Albert, Jr. (1944), "Prometheus and the Aeolian Lyre", Yale Review, XXXIII . Hilton, Timothy (1971), Keats and His World, New York: Viking Press, ISBN 0-670-41196-5 . Hirst, Wolf (1981), John Keats, Boston: Twayne, ISBN 0-8057-6821-1 . Keats, John (1905). Sélincourt, Ernest De (ed.). The Poems of John Keats. New York: Dodd, Mead & Company. OCLC 11128824. Leavis, F. R. (1936), Revaluation, London: Chatto and Windus, ISBN 0-8371-8297-2 . Mackie, Alexander (1906), "Nature Knowledge in Modern Poetry", Nature, New York: Longmans-Green & Company, 75 (1951): 485, Bibcode:1907Natur..75Q.485., doi:10.1038/075485a0, OCLC 494286564, S2CID 9504911 . Matthews, G.M. (1971), Keats: The Critical Heritage, New York: Barnes & Noble, ISBN 0-415-13447-1 . Motion, Andrew (1999), Keats, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, ISBN 1-84391-077-2 O'Rourke, James. (1998), Keats's Odes, Gainesville: University of Florida Press, ISBN 0-8130-1590-1 . Perkins, David (1959), The Quest for Permanence: The Symbolism of Wordsworth, Shelley, and Keats, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press . Pettit, E. C. (1957), On the Poetry of Keats, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . Perkins, David (1964), "The Ode on a Nightingale", in Bate, Walter Jackson (ed.), Keats: A Collection of Critical Essays, Englewood, NJ: Prentice-Hall, pp. 103–112 . Ridley, Maurice (1933), Keats' Craftsmanship, Oxford: Clarendon, OCLC 1842818 . Sperry, Stuart (1994), Keats the Poet, Princeton: Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-00089-1 . Spiegelman, Willard (1983), "Keats's 'Coming Muskrose' and Shakespeare's 'Profound Verdure'", ELH, Johns Hopkins University Press, 50 (2), pp. 347–362, doi:10.2307/2872820, JSTOR 2872820 Stillinger, Jack (1998), "Multiple Readers, Multiple Texts, Multiple Keats", in Ryan, Robert; Sharp, Ronald (eds.), The Persistence of Poetry, Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press Wasserman, Earl (1953), The Finer Tone, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 0-8018-0657-7 . White, R. S. (1981), "Shakespearean Music in Keats's 'Ode to a Nightingale'", English, 30, pp. 217–229 Wilkinson, William C (1897), Two Odes of Keats's, Bookman . Woods, George (1916), English Poetry and Prose of the Romantic Movement, Chicago: Scott, Foresman . Vendler, Helen (1983), The Odes of John Keats, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-63075-0 . External links[edit] Wikisource has original text related to this article: Ode to a Nightingale Audio: Robert Pinsky reads "Ode to a Nightingale" by John Keats John Keats' Ode to a Nightingale at the British Library v t e John Keats Bibliography John Keats bibliography List of poems by John Keats Poetry collections 1819 odes (1819) Short poems "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer" (1816) "Sleep and Poetry" (1817) "Ode to a Nightingale" (1819) "La Belle Dame sans Merci" (1820) "Ode on a Grecian Urn" (1820) "Ode on Melancholy" (1820) "Ode to Psyche" (1820) "To Autumn" (1820) "Bright star, would I were stedfast as thou art" (1838) "Ode on Indolence" (1848) "When I have Fears that I may Cease to Be" (1848) "You say you love; but with a voice" (1914) Long poems Endymion (1818) Isabella, or the Pot of Basil (1820) Hyperion (1820) Lamia (1820) The Eve of St. Agnes (1820) The Fall of Hyperion: A Dream (1856–57) People Fanny Brawne Charles Armitage Brown Charles Cowden Clarke Charles Wentworth Dilke Benjamin Haydon Leigh Hunt George Keats John Hamilton Reynolds Joseph Severn Percy Bysshe Shelley (Adonais) John Taylor Related Keats House Keats–Shelley Memorial House "negative capability" Keats and His Nightingale: A Blind Date Bright Star Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ode_to_a_Nightingale&oldid=983665935" Categories: 1819 poems Poems about nightingales Poetry by John Keats Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from March 2018 Articles with permanently dead external links CS1 German-language sources (de) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles that link to Wikisource All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2019 Good articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Ænglisc العربية Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ فارسی Français ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Polski Српски / srpski 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 15 October 2020, at 14:59 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8259	----	Education in ancient Rome - Wikipedia Education in ancient Rome From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Roman school" redirects here. For the 16th to 17th century music composers, see Roman School. For 20th century art movement, see Scuola Romana. Bronze statuette of a girl reading (1st century) Education in ancient Rome progressed from an informal, familial system of education in the early Republic to a tuition-based system during the late Republic and the Empire. The Roman education system was based on the Greek system – and many of the private tutors in the Roman system were Greek slaves or freedmen. The educational methodology and curriculum used in Rome was copied in its provinces, and provided a basis for education systems throughout later Western civilization. Organised education remained relatively rare, and there are few primary sources or accounts of the Roman educational process until the 2nd century AD. Due to the extensive power wielded by the paterfamilias over Roman families, the level and quality of education provided to Roman children varied drastically from family to family; nevertheless, Roman popular morality came eventually to expect fathers to have their children educated to some extent, and a complete advanced education was expected of any Roman who wished to enter politics.[1] Contents 1 Education during the Empire 2 Influences 3 Tiers of schooling 3.1 Moral education 3.2 Ludus 3.3 Grammaticus 3.4 Rhetor 3.5 Philosophy 4 References 5 Further reading Education during the Empire[edit] Relief found in Neumagen near Trier, a teacher with three discipuli (180-185 AD) At the height of the Roman Republic and later the Roman Empire, the Roman system of education gradually found its final form. Formal schools were established, which served paying students; very little that could be described as free public education existed.[2] Both boys and girls were educated, though not necessarily together.[2] In a system much like the one that predominates in the modern world, the Roman education system that developed arranged schools in tiers. The educator Quintilian recognized the importance of starting education as early as possible, noting that "memory ... not only exists even in small children, but is specially retentive at that age".[3] A Roman student would progress through schools just as a student today might go from primary school to secondary school and then to college. They were generally exempted from studies during the market days which formed a kind of weekend on every eighth day of the year.[4] Progression depended more on ability than age[2] with great emphasis being placed upon a student's ingenium or inborn "gift" for learning,[5] and a more tacit emphasis on a student's ability to afford high-level education. Influences[edit] Roman fresco of a blond maiden reading a text, Pompeian Fourth Style (60-79 AD), Pompeii, Italy Prior to the 3rd century BC. the Roman system of education was closely bound to the Roman social institution of patria potestas, in which the father acted as head of the household (paterfamilias), and had, according to law, absolute right of control over his children. It was the father's duty to educate his children and should he be unable to fulfill this duty, the task was assumed by other family members.[6] It was not until 272 BC with the capture of Tarentum, the annexation of Sicily in 241 BC, and the period following the First Punic War that Romans were exposed to a strong influence of Greek thought and lifestyle and found leisure to study the arts. In the 3rd century B.C., a Greek captive from Tarentum named Livius Andronicus was sold as a slave and employed as a tutor for his master's children.[7] After obtaining his freedom, he continued to live in Rome and became the first schoolmaster (private tutor) to follow Greek methods of education and would translate Homer's Odyssey into Latin verse in Saturnian meter. As Rome grew in size and in power, following the Punic Wars, the importance of the family as the central unit within Roman society began to deteriorate,[8] and with this decline, the old Roman system of education carried out by the paterfamilias deteriorated as well. The new educational system began to center more on the one encountered by the Romans with the prominent Greek and Hellenistic centers of learning such as Alexandria later on. It was becoming a literary educational system. The situation of the Greeks was ideal for the foundation of literary education as they were the possessors of the great works of Homer, Hesiod and the Lyric poets of Archaic Greece. The absence of a literary method of education from Roman life was due to the fact that Rome was bereft of any national literature. The military arts were all that Rome could afford to spend time studying. When not waging war, the Romans devoted what time remained to agriculture. The concern of Rome was that of survival, whether through defense or dominion. It was not until the appearance of Ennius (239–169 BC), the father of Roman poetry, that any sort of national literature surfaced. While the Romans adopted many aspects of Greek education, two areas in particular were viewed as trifle: music and athletics. Music to the Greeks was fundamental to their educational system and tied directly to the Greek paideia. Mousike encompassed all those areas supervised by the Muses, comparable to today's liberal arts. The area that many Romans considered unimportant equates to our modern definition of music. To the Greeks, the ability to play an instrument was the mark of a civilized, educated man, and through an education in all areas of mousike it was thought that the soul could become more moderate and cultivated. The Romans did not share this view and considered the study of music as a path to moral corruption.[9] However, they did adopt one area of mousike: Greek literature. Athletics, to the Greeks, was the means to obtaining a healthy and beautiful body, which was an end in and of itself and further promoted their love of competition. The Romans, though, did not share this stance either, believing that athletics was only the means to maintaining good soldiers. This illustrates one of the central differences between the two cultures and their view on education: that to the Greeks beauty or an activity could be an end in itself, and the practice of that activity was beneficial accordingly. The Romans, on the other hand, tended to be more practically minded when it came to what they taught their children. To them, it would appear, an area of study was good only as far as it served a better purpose or end determined outside of itself. Also, prior to the war, they had focused more on government and politics rather than army and military.[2] Tiers of schooling[edit] Moral education[edit] Roman portraiture frescos from Pompeii, 1st century AD, depicting two different men wearing laurel wreaths, one holding the rotulus (blondish figure, left), the other a volumen (brunet figure, right), both made of papyrus Roman portraiture fresco of a young man with a papyrus scroll, from Herculaneum, 1st century AD At the foundation of ancient Greek education was an effective system of formal education, but in contrast, the Romans lacked such a system until the 3rd century BC.[10] Instead, at the foundation of ancient Roman education was, above all else, the home and family, from which children derived their so-called "moral education". Whereas Greek boys primarily received their education from the community, a Roman child's first and most important educators were almost always his or her parents. Parents taught their children the skills necessary for living in the early republic, which included agricultural, domestic and military skills as well as the moral and civil responsibilities that would be expected from them as citizens. Roman education was carried on almost exclusively in the household under the direction of the paterfamilias.[11] From the paterfamilias, or highest ranking male of the family, one usually learned "just enough reading, writing, and Arithmetic to enable them to understand simple business transactions and to count, weigh, and measure.[12] Men like Cato the Elder adhered to this Roman tradition and took their roles as teachers very seriously. Cato the Elder not only made his children hardworking, good citizens and responsible Romans, but "he was his (son's) reading teacher, his law professor, his athletic coach. He taught his son not only to hurl a javelin, to fight in armor, and to ride a horse, but also to box, to endure both heat and cold, and to swim well".[13] Job training was also emphasized, and boys gained valuable experience through apprenticeships. Mothers, though, cannot be overlooked for their roles as moral educators and character builders of their children. Cornelia Africana, the mother of the Gracchi, is even credited as a major cause of her sons' renowned eloquence.[12] Perhaps the most important role of the parents in their children's education was to instill in them a respect for tradition and a firm comprehension of pietas, or devotion to duty. For a boy, this meant devotion to the state, and for a girl, devotion to her husband and family. As the Roman Republic transitioned into a more formal education beyond the 3 R's, parents began to hire teachers for this level of advanced academic training. For this, "the Romans began to bring Greek slaves to Rome" to further enrich their children's knowledge and potential; yet, Romans still always cherished the tradition of pietas and the ideal of the father as his child's teacher.[10] Ludus[edit] Rome as a republic or an empire never formally instituted a state-sponsored form of elementary education.[14] In no stage of its history did Rome ever legally require its people to be educated on any level.[15] It was typical for Roman children of wealthy families to receive their early education from private tutors. However, it was common for children of more humble means to be instructed in a primary school, traditionally known as a ludus litterarius.[14]:47 An instructor in such a school was often known as a litterator or litteratus, which was seen as a more respectable title.[14] There was nothing stopping a litterator from setting up his own school, aside from his meager wages.[14] There were never any established locations for a ludus litterarius. They could be found in a variety of places, anywhere from a private residence to a gymnasium, or even in the street.[15] Typically, elementary education in the Roman world focused on the requirements of everyday life, reading, and writing. The students would progress up from reading and writing letters, to syllables, to word lists, eventually memorizing and dictating texts.[15] The majority of the texts used in early Roman education were literature, predominantly poetry.[14] Greek poets, such as Homer and Hesiod, were frequently used as classroom examples due to the lack of Roman literature.[9] Roman students were expected to work on their own. There was little sense of a class as a cohesive unit, exemplified by students coming and going at different times throughout the day.[15] Young Roman students faced no formal examinations or tests. Their performance was measured through exercises that were either corrected or applauded based on performance. This created an unavoidable sense of competition amongst students.[15] Using a competitive educational system, Romans developed a form of social control that allowed elites to maintain class stability.[15] This, along with the obvious monetary expenses, prevented the majority of Roman students from advancing to higher levels of education. Grammaticus[edit] Main article: Grammarian (Greco-Roman world) At between nine and twelve years of age, boys from affluent families would leave their 'litterator' behind and take up study with a grammaticus, who honed his students' writing and speaking skills, versed them in the art of poetic analysis and taught them Greek if they did not yet know it.[12] Poetry analysis continued to use the same poems and poets the students were exposed to in Ludus, such as Phoenissae by Euripides.[9] By this point, lower-class boys would already be working as apprentices, and girls—rich or poor—would be focused on making themselves attractive brides and, subsequently, capable mothers.[12] Daily activities included lectures by the grammaticus (enarratio), expressive reading of poetry (lectio) and the analysis of poetry (partitio).[2] The curriculum was thoroughly bilingual, as students were expected to both read and speak in Greek as well as in Latin.[16] Assessment of a student's performance was done on-the-spot and on-the-fly according to standards set by his particular grammaticus, as no source on Roman education ever mentions work taken away to be graded.[15] Instead, pupils would complete an exercise, display their results and be corrected or congratulated as needed by the grammaticus, who revelled in his self-perception as a "guardian of language".[17] Famous grammatici include Lucius Orbilius Pupillus, who still serves as the quintessential pedagogue that isn't afraid to flog or whip his students to drive a point home,[12] and the freedman Marcus Verrius Flaccus, who gained imperial patronage and a widespread tutelage due to his novel practice of pitting students of similar age and ability against each other and rewarding the winner with a prize, usually an old book of some rarity.[15] Even at the height of his career, Verrius Flaccus, whose prestige allowed him to charge enormous fees and be hired by Augustus to teach his grandsons, never had his own schoolroom.[15] Instead, he, like many of his fellow teachers, shared space at privately financed schools, which were dependent on (usually very low) tuition fees, and rented out classroom space wherever they could find it.[12] Other teachers sidestepped rent and lighting costs by convening their classes on pavements, colonnades or in other public spaces, where traffic noise, street crowds and bad weather were sure to pose problems.[12] Though both literary and documentary sources interchange the various titles for a teacher and often use the most general of terms as a catch-all, a price edict issued by Diocletian in AD 301 proves that such distinctions did in fact exist and that a litterator, grammaticus or rhetor, at least in theory, had to define himself as such.[15] This Edict on Maximum Prices fixed the salary of a grammaticus at 200 denarii per pupil per month, though the edict was unenforceable, ignored and eventually repealed. Children continued their studies with the grammaticus until the age of fourteen or fifteen, at which point only the wealthiest and most promising students matriculated with a rhetor.[12] Rhetor[edit] The Orator, c. 100 BC, an Etrusco-Roman bronze statue depicting Aule Metele (Latin: Aulus Metellus), an Etruscan man wearing a Roman toga while engaged in rhetoric; the statue features an inscription in the Etruscan alphabet The rhetor was the final stage in Roman education. Very few boys went on to study rhetoric. Early on in Roman history, it may have been the only way to train as a lawyer or politician.[18] In early Roman times, rhetoric studies were not taught exclusively through a teacher, but were learned through a student's careful observation of his elders.[12] The practice of rhetoric was created by the Greeks before it became an institution in Roman society, and it took a long time for it to gain acceptance in Rome.[14] The orator, or student of rhetoric, was important in Roman society because of the constant political strife that occurred throughout Roman history.[14] Young men who studied under a rhetor would not only focus on public speaking. These students also learned other subjects such as geography, music, philosophy, literature, mythology and geometry.[12] These well-rounded studies gave Roman orators a more diverse education and helped prepare them for future debates. Unlike other forms of Roman education, there is not much evidence to show that the rhetor level was available to be pursued in organized school. Because of this lack of evidence, it is assumed that the education was done through the previously mentioned private tutors.[14] These tutors had enormous impact on the opinions and actions of their students. In fact, their influence was so great that the Roman government expelled many rhetoricians and philosophers in 161 BC. There were two fields of oratory study that were available for young men. The first of these fields was the deliberative branch of study. This field was for the training of young men who would later need to urge the "advisability or inadvisability" of measures affecting the Roman Senate.[14] The second field of study was much more lucrative and was known as judicial oratory. These orators would later enter into fields such as criminal law, which was important in gaining a public following. The support of the public was necessary for a successful political career in Rome.[14] Later in Roman history, the practice of declamation became focused more on the art of delivery as opposed to training to speak on important issues in the courts. Tacitus pointed out that during his day (the second half of the 1st century AD), students had begun to lose sight of legal disputes and had started to focus more of their training on the art of storytelling.[12] Philosophy[edit] A final level of education was philosophical study. The study of philosophy is distinctly Greek, but was undertaken by many Roman students. To study philosophy, a student would have to go to a center of philosophy where philosophers taught, usually abroad in Greece. An understanding of a philosophical school of thought could have done much to add to Cicero's vaunted knowledge of 'that which is great', but could be pursued by the very wealthiest of Rome's elite. Romans regarded philosophical education as distinctly Greek, and instead focused their efforts on building schools of law and rhetoric.[2] References[edit] ^ Michael Chiappetta, "Historiography and Roman Education," History of Education Journal 4, no. 4 (1953): 149-156. ^ a b c d e f Oxford Classical Dictionary, Edited by Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth, Third Edition. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 1996 ^ Quintilian, Quintilian on Education, translated by William M. Smail (New York: Teachers College Press, 1966). ^ Struck (2009), "Nundinae" harvp error: no target: CITEREFStruck2009 (help). ^ Yun Lee Too, Education in Greek and Roman antiquity (Boston: Brill, 2001). ^ Bonner, Stanley (2012). Education in Ancient Rome: From the Elder Cato to the Younger Pliny, Volume 5. 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. pp. 14, 15. ISBN 978-0415689793.CS1 maint: location (link) ^ J.F. Dobson, Ancient Education and Its Meaning to Us (Cooper Square: New York, 1963). ^ Robin Barrow, Greek and Roman Education (Macmillan Education: London, 1976). ^ a b c Lee Too, Y; Faroqhi, S.N (2001). Education in Greek and Roman Antiquity. Brill. p. 241. ISBN 9789004107816. ^ a b William A. Smith, Ancient Education (New York: Philosophical Library, 1955). ^ William A. Smith, Ancient Education (New York: Philosophical Library, 1955), p.184. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Jo-Ann Shelton, As the Romans Did: A Source book in Roman Social History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998). ^ Plutarch, The Lives of Aristeides and Cato, translated by David Sansone (Warminster: Aris & Phillips, 1989). ^ a b c d e f g h i j Bonner, Stanley F., Education in Ancient Rome (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977). ^ a b c d e f g h i j Morgan, Teresa, "Assessment in Roman Education," Assessment in Education, Vol. 8, No.1, (Mar, 2001): 15, HYPERLINK "http://web.ebscohost.com/" http://web.ebscohost.com (accessed November 23, 2007) ^ The Legacy of Roman Education (in the Forum), Nanette R. Pacal, The Classical Journal, Vol. 79, No. 4. (Apr. – May, 1984) ^ Robert A. Kaster, Guardians of language: the grammarian and society in late antiquity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997). ^ Jo-Ann Shelton. As the Romans Did: A Sourcebook in Roman Social History. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), p.100. Further reading[edit] Library resources about Education in ancient Rome Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Bloomer, W. Martin. 2011. The School of Rome: Latin Studies and the Origins of Liberal Education. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press. Bonner, Stanley F. 1977. Education in Ancient Rome: From the Elder Cato to the Younger Pliny. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press. Booth, Alan D. 1979. "The Schooling of Slaves in First-Century Rome." Transactions of the American Philological Association 109:11–19. Bowman, Alan K., and Greg Woolf, eds. 1994. Literacy and Power in the Ancient World. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Dickey, Eleanor. 2010. "The Creation of Latin Teaching Materials in Antiquity: A Re-Interpretation of P. Sorb. inv. 2069." Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik. 175:188–208. Gwynn, Aubrey. 1926. Roman Education from Cicero to Quintilian. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Richlin, Amy. 2011. "Old Boys: Teacher-Student Bonding in Roman Oratory [Section = Ancient Education]." Classical World 105.1: 91-107 Starr, Raymond J. 1987. "The Circulation of Literary Texts in the Roman World." Classical Quarterly 37:213–223. Turner, J. Hilton. 1951. "Roman Elementary Mathematics: The Operations." Classical Journal 47:63–74, 106–108. Van den Bergh, Rena. 200. "The Role of Education in the Social and Legal Position of Women in Roman Society." Revue internationale des droits de l'antiquit 47: 351-364 v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Education_in_ancient_Rome&oldid=994421605" Categories: Ancient Roman society Education in classical antiquity Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors CS1 maint: location Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Български Català Dansk Deutsch Español 한국어 Ido Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina Lietuvių Magyar Nederlands Português Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 15 December 2020, at 17:10 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8263	----	Sextus Pompey - Wikipedia Sextus Pompey From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman politician and general "Sextus Pompeius" redirects here. For other uses, see Sextus Pompeius (disambiguation). Sextus Pompey Sextus Pompey in an aureus dated from later in life Native name Sextus Pompeius Magnus Pius Born c. 67 BC[1] Died 35 BC (aged c. 32) Miletus, Asia, Roman Republic Branch Roman army and navy Commands held Prefect of the fleet and the coast Governor of Sicily and Sardinia Battles/wars Caesar's civil war Sicilian revolt Children Pompeia Relations Pompey (father) Mucia Tertia (mother) Gnaeus Pompeius (brother) Sextus Pompeius Magnus Pius (c. 67 – 35 BC), also known in English as Sextus Pompey, was a Roman military leader and politician who throughout his life upheld the cause of his father, Pompey the Great, against the dictator Julius Caesar and his supporters, during the last civil wars of the Roman Republic. He formed the last organized opposition to the Second Triumvirate, in defiance of which he succeeded in establishing an independent state in Sicily for several years. Contents 1 Biography 2 Family connections 3 Chronology 4 Historiographical readings 5 Dramatic representations 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Biography[edit] Denarius by Sextus Pompeius. 44–43 BC. AR Denarius (3.85 g, 3h). Massilia (Gaul) mint. Q. Nasidius, moneyer. Bare head of Pompey the Great right; trident before, dolphin below / Ship sailing right; star above. Sextus Pompeius was the younger son of Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey the Great)[1] by his third wife, Mucia Tertia. His elder brother was Gnaeus Pompeius. Both boys grew up in the shadow of their father, one of Rome's greatest generals and an originally non-conservative politician who drifted to the more traditional faction when Julius Caesar became a threat. When Caesar crossed the Rubicon in 49 BC, thus starting a civil war, Sextus' older brother Gnaeus followed their father in his escape to the East, as did most of the conservative senators. Sextus stayed in Rome in the care of his stepmother, Cornelia Metella. Pompey's army lost the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC and Pompey himself had to run for his life. Cornelia and Sextus met him in the island of Lesbos and together they fled to Egypt.[2] On the arrival, Sextus watched his father being killed by treachery on September 29 of the same year. After the murder, Cornelia returned to Rome; in the following years, Sextus joined the resistance against Caesar in the African provinces. Together with Metellus Scipio, Cato the Younger, his brother Gnaeus and other senators, they prepared to oppose Caesar and his army to the end. A Sextus Pompeius denarius, minted for his victory over Octavian's fleet. On the obverse is the Pharos of Messina, on the reverse the monster Scylla. Caesar won the first battle at Thapsus in 46 BC against Metellus Scipio and Cato, who committed suicide.[3] In 45 BC, Caesar managed to defeat the Pompeius brothers in the Battle of Munda, in Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula, comprising modern Spain and Portugal), after what he himself described as his hardest fought victory ever.[4] Gnaeus Pompeius was executed, but young Sextus escaped once more, this time to Sicily, and thereafter raised another dissident army in Spain.[5] Back in Rome, Julius Caesar was killed on the Ides of March (March 15) 44 BC by a group of senators led by Cassius and Brutus. This incident did not lead to a return to normality, but provoked yet another civil war between Caesar's political heirs and his killers: one of the latter, Decimus Brutus, wrote to M. Brutus and to Cassius that March that “we have nowhere to base ourselves, except for Sex. Pompeius”.[6] Early in 43, the Senate commended Marcus Aemelius Lepidus for forging an alliance with Sextus against the Caesarians;[7] but thereafter Lepidus joined the Second Triumvirate formed by Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus and Marcus Antonius, with the intention of avenging Caesar and subduing all other parties. Sextus Pompeius in the Western Mediterranean certainly remained a focus of opposition, but the faction of Cassius and Brutus was the second triumvirate's first priority. Thus Sextus had the time and resources to develop an army, with the whole island of Sicily as his base, and (even more importantly) to establish a strong navy operated by Sicilian marines. Brutus and Cassius lost the twin battles of Philippi and committed suicide in 42 BC. After this, the triumvirs turned their attentions to Sicily and Sextus. Sicilian revolt, campaign of 38/37 BC.  Sextus Pompeius' possessions (territories that went over to Octavianus before the war with Menodorus are painted in pink and beige) ↗ — actions of Octavianus and his admirals; ↗ — actions of Sextus' admirals. However, Sextus was by now prepared for strong resistance. In the following years, military confrontations failed to return a conclusive victory for either side, although in 40 BC Sextus' admiral, the freedman Menas, seized Sardinia from Octavian's governor Marcus Lurius.[1] In 39 BC, Sextus and the triumvirs signed for peace in the Pact of Misenum.[8] The reason for the peace treaty was to secure the West before the anticipated campaign against the Parthian Empire: Tacitus reports the view that "he [Octavian] had cheated Sextus Pompeius by a spurious peace treaty"[9] Antony, the leader of Rome's eastern provinces, needed a large number of legions for the coming campaign, which would take his army (ostensibly) through Mesopotamia, Armenia and Parthia. Thus, an armistice with Sextus' large forces on Sicily proved useful. Sicilian revolt, campaign of 36 BC. ↗ — actions of Octavianus and his commanders; ↗ — actions of Sextus Pompeius and his commanders. The peace did not last for long. In Antony's absence, Octavian renewed the conflict against Sextus. Sextus and Octavian accused each other of violating the terms of the Pact of Misenum, but the final straw was the betrayal of Sardinia to Octavian by Menas. Octavian was defeated in the naval battle of Messina (37 BC), so he now turned to his friends Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Titus Statilius Taurus, both very talented generals. In addition, the third triumvir, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, raised 14 legions in his African provinces to help defeat Pompey. Agrippa spent the winter training a navy on land and building a fleet near Lake Avernus, from scratch.[10] Agrippa fought Sextus at Mylae in August 36 BC, and again a month later, while Lepidus and Statilius Taurus invaded Sicily. In the Battle of Naulochus,[1] Agrippa destroyed the remainder of Sextus' fleet. Sextus escaped to Asia Minor[1] and, by abandoning Sicily, lost his only base of support. Sextus Pompeius was finally captured in 35 BC, and executed without trial in Miletus by Marcus Titius, whom Sextus had once spared; either by his own initiative or possibly on the orders of Antony or Plancus[11] [12]. Although Octavian later pretended that the execution without a trial of Sextus was illegal because Sextus was a Roman citizen, Octavian himself had declared Sextus an outlaw without citizen rights. Family connections[edit] Sextus Pompey in an aureus dated 42–40 BC. The reverse reads praefectus classis. Sextus had married Scribonia, a distant relative. She was the daughter of Lucius Scribonius Libo, consul of 34 BC and the niece of another Scribonia, the second wife of Octavian. Sextus and Scribonia had a daughter, their only child, called Pompeia Magna. As an affine to both Sextus and Octavian, Scribonius Libo had played a role in brokering peace between Sextus and the Triumviri, and had very reluctantly abandoned Sextus in 36/35, in return for which he had received the consulship. Chronology[edit] 48 BC – in Egypt with his father, who is assassinated 47/45 BC – resistance in Africa 45 BC – defeated in Munda 42 BC – controls Sicily with a powerful navy 39 BC – pact of Misenum with Octavianus and Antony 37 BC – defeats Octavian off Messina 36 BC August, defeats Octavian September, defeated by Agrippa off Naulochus (Sicily) 35 BC – captured and executed in Asia Minor (Miletus) Historiographical readings[edit] Where Plutarch gives Sextus only a minor role in the confused events surrounding the fall of the Roman Republic, Appian sees him as a more central figure, who might even have emerged as the final victor, so as to establish a dynasty of Pompeys, not Caesars.[13] Dramatic representations[edit] Shakespeare had Sextus Pompey as a major character in his play Antony and Cleopatra (1606–07). Sesto (Italian for Sextus) appears as main character in 1682. opera titled Pompeo by Italian baroque composer Alessandro Scarlatti. Sextus ("Sesto" in Italian) appears in George Frideric Handel's 1724 opera Giulio Cesare in Egitto ("Julius Caesar in Egypt"). The opera attributes to Sextus the killing of the Egyptian King Ptolemy XIII, who had killed his father Pompey. This is not historically attested. British actor Donald Sumpter portrayed Sextus Pompey in the BBC Shakespeare television production of Antony and Cleopatra (1981). American actor Walter Koenig portrayed Sextus Pompey in the Bard Productions television production of Antony and Cleopatra (1983). References[edit] ^ a b c d e Jones, Tom B (1976). "Pompeius Magnus, Sextus". In William D. Halsey (ed.). Collier's Encyclopedia. 19. Macmillan Educational Corporation. p. 234. ^ Sextus Pompeius ^ Sextus Pompeius ^ R Warner transl., Plutarch: Fall of the Roman Republic (Penguin 1958) p. 263 ^ Sextus Pompeius ^ D R Shakleton Bailey trans., Cicero’s Letters to his Friends (Atlanta 1988) p. 489 ^ D R Shakleton Bailey trans., Cicero’s Letters to his Friends (Atlanta 1988) p. 550 ^ Sextus Pompeius ^ Tacitus, The Annals of Imperial Rome (Pengun 1966) p. 36 ^ J Griffin ed., The Oxford History of the Classical World (Oxford 1986) p. 533 ^ Appian, Bellum Civile, 5.14.144 ^ Ronald Syme, The Roman Revolution, pg. 232. Oxford University Press, 2002 reprint ^ B Breed, Citizens of Discord (2010) p. 279-80 Further reading[edit] M Hadas, Sextus Pompeius (New York 1930) External links[edit] Media related to Sextus Pompeius at Wikimedia Commons Sextus Pompey - biography at unrv.com Coins of Sextus Pompeius Authority control BIBSYS: 13028852 BNE: XX1575202 GND: 118595652 ISNI: 0000 0003 5773 9896 LCCN: nr94014650 NTA: 073668508 SUDOC: 081537778 VIAF: 199933907 WorldCat Identities: lccn-nr94014650 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sextus_Pompey&oldid=993696829" Categories: 60s BC births 35 BC deaths 1st-century BC Romans Ancient Roman generals Children of Pompey Executed ancient Roman people Pompeii (gens) Roman consuls designate Roman governors of Hispania Roman governors of Sardinia Roman governors of Sicily Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Commons link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth uncertain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara Français 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Italiano עברית Latina Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 12 December 2020, at 00:31 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8267	----	Lictor - Wikipedia Lictor From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Gold coin from Dacia, minted by Coson, depicting a consul and two lictors A lictor (possibly from Latin: ligare, "to bind") was a Roman civil servant who was an attendant and bodyguard to a magistrate who held imperium. Lictors are documented since the Roman Kingdom, and may have originated with the Etruscans.[1] Contents 1 Origin 2 Eligibility 3 Tasks 4 Lictor curiatus 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Origin[edit] A fasces was the symbol of a Lictor The Lictors were instituted by Rome's first king, Romulus, who appointed 12 lictors to attend him. Livy refers to two competing traditions for the reason that Romulus chose that number of lictors. The first version is that 12 was the number of birds that appeared in the augury, which had portended the kingdom to Romulus. The second version, favoured by Livy, is that the number of lictors was borrowed from the Etruscan kings, who had one lictor appointed from each of their 12 states.[2] Eligibility[edit] Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e Originally, lictors were chosen from the plebs, but through most of Roman history, they seemed to have been freedmen. Centurions from the legions were also automatically eligible to become lictors on retirement from the army.[3] They were, however, definitely Roman citizens, since they wore togas inside Rome. A lictor had to be a strongly built man, capable of physical work. Lictors were exempted from military service, received a fixed salary (of 600 sesterces, in the beginning of the Empire), and were organized in a corporation. Usually, they were personally chosen by the magistrate they were supposed to serve, but it is also possible that they were drawn by lots. Lictors were associated with Comitia Curiata and, probably, one was originally selected from each curia, since there were originally 30 curiae and 30 lictors (24 for the two consuls and six for the sole praetor). Tasks[edit] The lictor's main task was to attend as bodyguards to magistrates who held imperium. They carried rods decorated with fasces and, outside the pomerium, with axes that symbolized the power to carry out capital punishment. Dictatorial lictors had axes even within the pomerium. They followed the magistrate wherever he went, including the Forum, his house, temples, and the baths. Lictors were organized in an ordered line before him, with the primus lictor (the principal lictor) directly in front of him, waiting for orders. If there was a crowd, the lictors opened the way and kept their master safe, pushing all aside except for Roman matrons, who were accorded special honor. They also had to stand beside the magistrate whenever he addressed the crowd. Magistrates could only dispense with their lictors if they were visiting a free city or addressing a higher status magistrate. Lictors also had legal and penal duties; they could, at their master's command, arrest Roman citizens and punish them. A Vestal Virgin was accorded a lictor when her presence was required at a public ceremony. The degree of magistrate's imperium was symbolised by the number of lictors escorting him: Dictator: 24 lictors outside the pomerium, 12 inside. The latter rule was ignored beginning with the dictatorship of Sulla Emperor: originally 12 lictors, after Domitian 24 lictors Rex and Consul: 12 lictors Proconsul: 11 lictors Magister equitum: 6 lictors Praetor: 6 lictors, 2 within the pomerium Propraetor and Legatus: 5 lictors Curule aediles: 2 lictors Quaestor: 0 lictors in the city of Rome, but quaestors were permitted to have fasces in the provinces.[4] Judge: 1 lictor Sometimes, lictors were ascribed to private citizens on special occasions, such as funerals or political reunions, as a show of respect by the city. Lictor curiatus[edit] The lictor curiatus (plural lictores curiati) was a special kind of lictor who did not carry rods or fasces and whose main tasks were religious. There were approximately 30 of them, serving at the command of the Pontifex Maximus, the high priest of Rome. They were present at sacrifices where they carried or guided sacrificial animals to the altars. Vestal Virgins, flamines (priests), and other high-ranking priests were entitled to be escorted and protected by lictores curiati. In the Empire, women of the royal family were usually followed by two of this kind of lictor. The lictores curiati were also responsible to summon the Comitia Curiata (the Public Assembly) and to maintain order during its procedures. Head of Libertas, and on the reverse a consul flanked by two lictors on a denarius A Lictor is sent to arrest Publilius Volero (The Comic History of Rome by Gilbert Abbott à Beckett.) See also[edit] Cursus honorum Praetorian Guard References[edit] ^ Eastland Stuart Staveley, Andrew Lintott, Oxford Classical Dictionary, March 2016, doi: 10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.3709, s.v. ^ Livy. The History of Rome by Titus Livius: Books Nine to Twenty-Six, trans. D. Spillan and Cyrus Edmonds. York Street, Covent Garden, London: Henry G. Bohn, 1868. 1.8 ^ The Legions of Rome, Stephen Dando-Collins, pp41, Quercus (December 2010) ^ William, Smith (1875). "LacusCurtius • Fasces (Smith's Dictionary, 1875)". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2018-12-28. External links[edit] Livius.org: Lictor v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lictor&oldid=950973211" Categories: Ancient Roman titles Hidden categories: Articles containing Latin-language text Articles needing expert attention from March 2012 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Ido Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Tagalog Татарча/tatarça Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 April 2020, at 20:42 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8310	----	Category:Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers - Wikipedia Help Category:Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Pages in category "Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers" The following 200 pages are in this category, out of approximately 641,199 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). (previous page) (next page), Ishida Hakyō Kawabata Bōsha Kawahigashi Hekigotō Saitō Sanki Yamaguchi Seishi Yusaku Kamekura ! !!! 0–9 I Corps (United States) 1 Decembrie 1918 University, Alba Iulia 1 Giant Leap 1 of the Girls (group) One Times Square 1.6 Band 1.8.7 1GN 1LIVE 1Malaysia Development Berhad 1st Cavalry Division (United States) 1st Czechoslovak Armoured Brigade 1st Florida Cavalry Regiment (Union) 1st German Antique Police Car Museum 1st New Jersey Regiment 1st SS Panzer Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler 1st United States Congress 1st Virginia Regiment 2 Bad Mice 2 Brothers on the 4th Floor 2 Chainz II D Extreme 2 Fabiola The 2i's Coffee Bar 2 in a Room 2 June Movement 2 Live Crew 2 Live Jews 2 Minutos 2 Pistols 2 Plus 1 2 Tone Records 2 Unlimited 2-4 Family 2Cellos 2Cents 2nd Arkansas Mounted Rifles 2nd Chapter of Acts 2nd Guards Uhlans 2nd High School in Wrocław 2nd II None 2nd Infantry Division (United States) 2nd Parachute Division (Germany) 2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich 2nd United States Congress 2NE1 2NU 2raumwohnung 2wo Third3 III Corps (United States) 3 (American band) 3rd Arkansas Infantry Regiment (Confederate States) 3 Arts Entertainment 3 Colours Red 3 Doors Down 3 Feet Smaller 3 Hürel 3 Inches of Blood 3 Lb. Thrill 3 Melancholy Gypsys 3 Mustaphas 3 3 of a Kind (group) 3 Steps Ahead 3 Years Hollow 3-2 3-11 Porter 3's a Crowd (band) 3B Lab 3D Realms 3Deep 3LW 3M 3MA (music group) 3OH!3 3rd Alley The Third and the Mortal 3rd Army (Wehrmacht) 3rd arrondissement of Paris 3rd Avenue (band) 3rd Bass 3rd Battalion, 3rd Marines 3rd Force 3rd Party 3rd SS Panzer Division Totenkopf 3rd Storee 3rd Strike (band) 3rd Virginia Regiment 3rd Wish 3rdeyegirl 3Steps 3T 3X Krazy 4 Clubbers 4 Corners (group) 4 Non Blondes The 4 of Us 4 Out of 5 Doctors 4 P.M. (group) 4 Strings 4 the Cause 4-4-1 4-H The 4-Skins 4ft Fingers 4hero 4Lyn 4th arrondissement of Paris 4th Fighter Group 5 Astraea The 5 Browns The "5" Royales 5 Seconds of Summer 5.10 La 5ª Estación 5ive (American band) 5'nizza The 5th Dimension 5th Panzer Division (Wehrmacht) 5th SS Panzer Division Wiking 5th Ward Boyz 5uu's 6 Hebe 6ix9ine 6th Arkansas Infantry Regiment 6th arrondissement of Paris 6th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht) 6th Marine Division (United States) 6th SS Mountain Division Nord Seventh United States Army 7 Mile (group) 7 Seconds (band) 7 Sons of Soul 7 Walkers 7 World Trade Center 7 Worlds Collide 7 Year Bitch 7-Eleven 7eventh Time Down 7th arrondissement of Paris 7th Heaven (band) 7th Sky Entertainment 7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen 8 Bold Souls 8 Eyed Spy 8 Nëntori Publishing House 8½ Souvenirs 8Ball & MJG 8stops7 8th arrondissement of Paris 8th Day (Jewish band) 8th SS Cavalry Division Florian Geyer 9/11 Commission 9 Lazy 9 9 Story Media Group 9Bach 9mm Parabellum Bullet 9th arrondissement of Paris 9th Panzer Division (Wehrmacht) 9th Prince 9th SS Panzer Division Hohenstaufen 9th Wonder 10 Foot Ganja Plant 10 Minute Warning 10 Years (band) 10cc 10th arrondissement of Paris 10th SS Panzer Division Frundsberg 11/5 11:30 11th arrondissement of Paris The 12 Cellists of the Berlin Philharmonic 12 Rods 12 Stones 12th arrondissement of Paris 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend 13 & God 13 Engines 13 JG 52 13th arrondissement of Paris The 13th Floor Elevators 13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Handschar (1st Croatian) 14 Bis (band) 14th arrondissement of Paris 14th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (1st Galician) 15th arrondissement of Paris 16 (band) 16 Horsepower 16th arrondissement of Paris 16volt 17th Airborne Division (United States) 17 Hippies 17th arrondissement of Paris 18F (previous page) (next page) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Wikipedia_articles_with_WORLDCATID_identifiers&oldid=992919501" Categories: Pages with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with authority control information Hidden categories: Hidden categories Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Ilokano עברית Suomi Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 7 December 2020, at 20:26 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8321	----	Category:Ancient Roman soldiers - Wikipedia Help Category:Ancient Roman soldiers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search History portal Subcategories This category has the following 2 subcategories, out of 2 total. E ► Equestrian commanders of vexillationes‎ (12 P) P ► Members and leaders of the Praetorian Guard‎ (1 C, 8 P) Pages in category "Ancient Roman soldiers" The following 63 pages are in this category, out of 63 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). A Publius Aelius Martialis Alexander of Bergamo Arminius Lucius Artorius Castus Herius Asinius C Caius Largennius Cassius Scaevus Cassius Chaerea Claudius Tiberianus Horatius Cocles Cornelius the Centurion D Dasius of Durostorum Dulcitius E Evocatus F Tonantius Ferreolus (senator) Fidelis of Como Titus Flavius Petro Flavus (son of Segimerus) G Aulus Gabinius Sisenna Gaius Crastinus H Horace I Iulius Placidus J Tiberius Julius Abdes Pantera Julius Agrippa Julius the Veteran L Titus Labienus Spurius Ligustinus Publius Lollius Maximus M Mamurra Ammianus Marcellinus Gaius Marcius Censorinus (died 82 BC) Marcus Caelius Maternus (rebel) Tiberius Claudius Maximus Alpinius Montanus Gaius Mucius Scaevola O Obsidius P Panthera (Jesus's father) Quintus Petilius Secundus Petronius (centurion) Quintus Fabius Pictor Pliny the Elder Marcus Porcius Cato Licinianus Publius Sittius Aulus Pudens R Roman military tombstones Lucius Roscius Fabatus S Sallust Sargis the General Lucius Seius Strabo Sempronius Asellio Lucius Septimius T Claudius Terentianus Terrasidius Theodora and Didymus Titinius Titus Flavius Rufus V Marcus Terentius Varro Velleius Paterculus Vincent of Lérins Vitruvius Gaius Volusenus Vorenus and Pullo Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Ancient_Roman_soldiers&oldid=921057839" Categories: Soldiers by nationality Ancient Roman military personnel Military history of ancient Rome Ancient soldiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية فارسی 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 13 October 2019, at 15:55 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8392	----	Odes (Horace) - Wikipedia Odes (Horace) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Carmina" redirects here. For other uses, see Carmina (disambiguation). The Odes (Latin: Carmina) are a collection in four books of Latin lyric poems by Horace. The Horatian ode format and style has been emulated since by other poets. Books 1 to 3 were published in 23 BC. A fourth book, consisting of 15 poems, was published in 13 BC. The Odes were developed as a conscious imitation of the short lyric poetry of Greek originals – Pindar, Sappho and Alcaeus are some of Horace's models. His genius lay in applying these older forms to the social life of Rome in the age of Augustus. The Odes cover a range of subjects – Love, Friendship, Wine, Religion, Morality, Patriotism; poems of eulogy addressed to Augustus and his relations; and verses written on a miscellany of subjects and incidents, including the uncertainty of life, the cultivation of tranquility and contentment, and the observance of moderation or the "golden mean."[1] The Odes have been considered traditionally by English-speaking scholars as purely literary works. Recent evidence by a Horatian scholar suggests they may have been intended as performance art, a Latin re-interpretation of Greek lyric song.[2] The Roman writer Petronius, writing less than a century after Horace's death, remarked on the curiosa felicitas (studied spontaneity) of the Odes (Satyricon 118). The English poet Alfred Lord Tennyson declared that the Odes provided "jewels five-words long, that on the stretched forefinger of all Time / Sparkle for ever" (The Princess, part II, l.355). Contents 1 Book 1 2 Book 2 3 Book 3 4 Book 4 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Book 1[edit] Book 1 consists of 38 poems.[3][4] The phrase Nunc est bibendum, "Now is the time to drink!", is the opening of I.37. I.1, Maecenas atavis edite regibus... – Dedication of the First Three Books of the Odes to Maecenas (Horace's Patron) – Every man is governed by his ruling passion: the Olympian charioteer, the politician, the trader, the husbandman, the merchant, the man of pleasure, the soldier, and the hunter. To win the title of a lyric poet is all that Horace desires. I.2, Iam satis terris nivis atque dirae... – To Augustus, The Deliverer and Hope of the State – The subject of this ode is the overflowing of the Tiber, which recalls to the poet the flood of Deucalion. He imagines that the disaster is caused by the wrath of Ilia (the wife of Tiber), the civil wars, and the assassination of Julius Caesar. Augustus, as Mercury in human shape, is invoked to save the empire. I.3, Sic te diva potens Cypri.. – To Virgil, Setting Out for Greece – The ode begins with a prayer for the safe voyage of Virgil to Athens, which suggests the daring of the earliest mariners and the boldness of men in overcoming difficulties set by Nature. I.4, Solvitur acris hiems... – A Hymn to Springtime – The changing season warns us of the shortness of life. Horace urges his friend Sestius – vitae summa brevis spem nos vetat incohare longam (The brief sum of life forbids us cling to far-off hope). I.5, Quis multa gracilis te puer in rosa... – To the Flirt Pyrrha, who is as faithless as the winds or seas, and whose fancy no lover can hold onto. I.6, Scriberis Vario fortis et hostium victor... – Horace pleads his inability to worthily sing the praises of M. Vipsanius Agrippa, the distinguished Roman Commander. I.7, Laudabunt alii claram Rhodon aut Mytilenen... – Fairest of Spots, O Plancus, is Tibur – There, or wherever you may be, drown your cares in wine. I.8, Lydia, dic, per omnis te deos oro... – To Lydia, who has transformed Sybaris from a hardy athlete into a doting lover. I.9, Vides ut alta stet nive candidum... – Winter Without Bids Us Make Merry Within – (with borrowing from an original by Alcaeus) – To Thaliarchus. The snow is deep and the frost is keen – Pile high the hearth and bring out old wine – Leave all else to the gods. I.10, Mercuri, facunde nepos Atlantis... – Hymn to Mercury – Mercury is addressed as the god of eloquence and the promoter of the civilization of man; as the messenger of the gods and the inventor of the lyre; skilled in craft and cunning; and the conductor of souls to the Underworld. I.11, Tu ne quaesieris... – Carpe Diem! – The poet seeks to dissuade Leuconoe from giving heed to the false arts of astrologers and diviners. It is vain to inquire into the future – Let us enjoy the present, for this is all we can command. It closes with the famous line: carpe diem, quam minimum credula postero (Seize the day, trusting tomorrow as little as possible). I.12, Quem virum aut heroa lyra... – The Praises of Augustus – The poet praises Augustus by associating him with gods and heroes, and distinguished Romans of earlier days. I.13, Cum tu, Lydia... – Jealousy – Addressed to Lydia – The poet contrasts the misery of jealousy with the happiness secured by constancy in love. I.14, O navis, referent in mare te novi fluctus... – The Ship of State – Horace refers to a period during which the Roman state was tossed and nearly wrecked by perpetual storms. He exhorts it to beware of fresh perils and keep safely in harbor. I.15, Pastor cum traheret... – The Prophecy of Nereus – As Paris hurries from Sparta to Troy with Helen, Nereus stills the winds and prophesies – Ilium's doom is inevitable. I.16, O matre pulchra filia pulchrior... – An Apology – The poet has offended some lady by the intemperate utterances of his verse; he now seeks forgiveness for the fault. He describes the sad effects of unbridled anger, and urges her to restrain hers. I.17, Velox amoenum saepe Lucretilem... – An Invitation to Tyndaris to Enjoy the Delights of the Country – Horace invites Tyndaris to his Sabine farm, and describes the air of tranquility and security there, blessed as it is with favoring protection of Faunus and the rural deities. I.18, Nullam, Vare, sacra vite prius seueris arborem... – The Praise of Wine, and the ill effects of intemperance. I.19, Mater saeua Cupidinum... – The Poet's Love for Glycera I.20, Vile potabis modicis Sabinum cantharis... – An Invitation to Maecenas – You will drink poor Sabine wine in modest bowls when you visit the poet. I.21, Dianam tenerae dicite virgines... – Hymn in Praise of Latona and Her Children, Diana and Apollo I.22, Integer vitae scelerisque purus... – Upright of Life and Free from Wickedness – Addressed to Aristius Fuscus – Begins as a solemn praise of honest living and ends in a mock-heroic song of love for sweetly laughing "Lalage" (cf. II.5.16, Propertius IV.7.45). I.23, Vitas hinnuleo me similis, Chloë... – Fear Me Not, Chloe, and do not shun me. I.24, Quis desiderio sit pudor aut modus... – To Virgil – A Lament for the Death of Quinctilius I.25, Parcius iunctas quatiunt fenestras... – Lydia, Thy Charms Are Past – Horace taunts Lydia with her approaching old age and her lack of admirers. I.26, Musis amicus tristitiam et metus tradam... – In Praise of Aelius Lamia – The poet bids the Muses to inspire him to sing the praises of Aelius Lamia, a man distinguished for his exploits in war. I.27, Natis in usum laetitiae scyphis... – Let Moderation Reign – At a wine party, Horace endeavors to restrain his quarrelsome companions – He asks the brother of Megilla of Opus to confide the object of his affections. I.28, Te maris et terrae numeroque... – Death, The Doom of All – Dialogue, between a sailor and the spirit of the philosopher Archytas, on Death, the universal fate, and the duty of giving to the dead the rites of burial. I.29, Icci, beatis nunc Arabum invides... – The Scholar Turned Adventurer – A remonstrance addressed to Iccius on his intention of giving up philosophy and of joining the expedition to Arabia Felix. I.30, O Venus regina Cnidi Paphique... – A Prayer to Venus – Venus is invoked to abandon for a while her beloved Cyprus, and to honor with her presence the temple prepared for her at the home of Glycera. I.31, Quid dedicatum poscit Apollinem vates?... – Prayer to Apollo on the consecration of his temple. I.32, Poscimur. Si quid vacui sub umbra... – Invocation to the Lyre – The poet addresses his lyre, and blends with the address the praises of the Greek poet Alcaeus. I.33, Albi, ne doleas plus nimio memor... – The Faithless Glycera – A consolation to the contemporary poet Tibullus over a lost love. I.34, Parcus deorum cultor et infrequens... – The Poet's Conversion from Error – After hearing thunder in a cloudless sky, Horace renounces his former error and declares his belief in Jupiter, Fortuna, and the superintending providence of the gods. I.35, O diva, gratum quae regis Antium... – Hymn to Fortuna – The poet invokes Fortune as an all-powerful goddess. He implores her to preserve Augustus in his distant expeditions, and to save the state from ruinous civil wars. I.36, Et ture et fidibus iuvat – An Ode of Congratulation to Plotius Numida, on his safe return from Spain, where he had been serving under Augustus in a war against the Cantabrians. I.37, Nunc est bibendum... – Now Is the Time to Drink! – An ode of joy for Augustus's victory at Actium, the capture of Alexandria, and the death of Cleopatra. The tone of triumph over the fallen queen is tempered by a tribute of admiration to her lofty pride and resolute courage. I.38, Persicos odi, puer, apparatus... – Away With Oriental Luxury! – Horace directs his attendant to make the simplest preparations for his entertainment. Book 2[edit] Book 2 consists of 20 poems. II.1, Motum ex Metello consule civicum... – To Asinius Pollio, the writer of tragedy, who is now composing a history of the civil wars. A lament for the carnage caused by the conflicts of the Romans with their fellow-citizens. II.2, Nullus argento color est avaris... – The Wise Use of Money – To Sallustius Crispus (nephew of the historian Sallust). The love of gain grows by self-indulgence. The moderate man is the genuine king. II.3, Aequam memento rebus in arduis... – The Wisdom of Moderation, The Certainty of Death – To Quintus Dellius. Let us enjoy our life while we may, for death will soon strip us all alike of our possessions. II.4, Ne sit ancillae tibi amor pudori... – To Xanthias Phoceus – Horace encourages his friend on his love for Phyllis, his slave. II.5, Nondum subacta ferre iugum valet... – Not Yet! – To a Friend on His Love for Lalage – The maid his friend loves is not yet marriageable and still too young to return his passion – Soon it will be otherwise. II.6, Septimi, Gadis aditure mecum et... – Fairest of All is Tibur – Yet Tarentum, Too, Is Fair – To Horace's friend, the Roman knight Septimius, who would go with him to the ends of the earth. The poet prays that Tibur may be the resting-place of his old age; or, if that may not be, he will choose the country which lies around Tarentum. II.7, O saepe mecum tempus in ultimum... – A Joyful Return – An ode of congratulation to Pompeius Varus, once the poet's comrade in the army of Brutus, on his restoration to civil rights. II.8, Ulla si iuris tibi peierati... – The Baleful Charms of Barine – On Barine's utter faithlessness, which Heaven will not punish – Indeed, her beauty and fascination are ever-increasing. II.9, Non semper imbres nubibus hispidos... – A Truce to Sorrow, Valgius! – To C. Valgius Rufus on the death of his son Mystes. Since all troubles have their natural end, do not mourn overmuch. Rather let us celebrate the latest victories of Augustus. II.10, Rectius vives, Licini, neque altum... – The Golden Mean – To L. Licinius Murena. The moderate life is the perfect life. II.11, Quid bellicosus Cantaber et Scythes... – Enjoy Life Wisely! – Horace in a half-playful tone advises his friend Quinctius Hirpinus to enjoy life wisely, and not to fret. II.12, Nolis longa ferae bella Numantiae... – The Charms of Licymnia – Horace pleads the unfitness of his lyric poetry to record the wars of the Romans or the battles of mythology. He advises Maecenas to write in prose the history of Caesar's campaigns, while he himself will sing the praises of Licymnia (some commentators say that Licymnia was another name for Terentia, the wife of Maecenas). II.13, Ille et nefasto te posuit die... – A Narrow Escape – This ode owes its origin to Horace's narrow escape from sudden death by the falling of a tree on his Sabine estate. (This same event is also alluded to in Odes, II.17 line 28 and III.4 line 27.) After expressing his indignation against the person who planted the tree, he passes to a general reflection on the uncertainty of life and the realms of dark Proserpine. II.14, Eheu fugaces, Postume... – Death Inevitable – Addressed to Postumus, a rich but avaricious friend. Nothing can stay the advance of decay and death, the common doom of all on earth. Men pile up wealth, only for another to waste it. II.15, Iam pauca aratro iugera regiae... – Against Luxury – Horace describes the extravagant luxury prevalent among the rich, and praises the simplicity and frugality of the old Romans. II.16, Otium divos rogat in patenti... – Contentment With Our Lot the Only True Happiness – All men long for repose, which riches cannot buy. Contentment, not wealth, makes genuine happiness. II.17, Cur me querellis exanimas tuis?... – To Maecenas on His Recovery from Illness – Horace says that the same day must of necessity bring death to them both – Their horoscopes are wonderfully alike and they have both been saved from extreme peril. II.18, Non ebur neque aureum... – The Vanity of Riches – The poet, content with his own moderate fortune, inveighs against the blindness of avarice – for the same end awaits all men. II.19, Bacchum in remotis carmina rupibus... – Hymn to Bacchus – The poet celebrates Bacchus as all-powerful, all-conquering, and lord of creation; whom the earth, the sea and all nature obey; to whom men are subject, and the giants and the monsters of Orcus are all brought low. II.20, Non usitata nec tenui ferar... – The Poet Prophesies His Own Immortality – Transformed into a swan, the poet will soar away from the abodes of men, nor will he need the empty honors of a tomb. Book 3[edit] "Justum et tenacem propositi virum" – "a man just and steadfast in purpose", from Horace's Odes, III.3, on the gravestone of Elliot Charles Bovill, Chief Justice of the Straits Settlements, in Fort Canning Green, Singapore The ancient editor Porphyrion read the first six odes of this book as a single sequence, one unified by a common moral purpose and addressed to all patriotic citizens of Rome. These six "Roman odes", as they have since been called (by HT Plüss in 1882), share a common meter and take as a common theme the glorification of Roman virtues and the attendant glory of Rome under Augustus. Ode III.2 contains the famous line "Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori," (It is sweet and honorable to die for one's country). Ode III.5 Caelo tonantem credidimus Jovem makes explicit identification of Augustus as a new Jove destined to restore in modern Rome the valor of past Roman heroes like Marcus Atilius Regulus, whose story occupies the second half of the poem. Book 3 consists of 30 poems. III.1, Odi profanum vulgus et arceo... – On Happiness – Philosophy is a mystery which the uninitiated crowd cannot understand. The worthlessness of riches and rank. The praise of contentment. Care cannot be banished by change of scene. III.2, Angustam amice pauperiem pati... – On Virtue – Horace extols the virtue of endurance and valor in fighting for one's country, of integrity in politics, and of religious honor. III.3, Iustum et tenacem propositi virum... – On Integrity and Perseverance – The merit of integrity and resolution: the examples of Pollux, Hercules and Romulus. Juno's speech to the gods on the destiny of Rome. III.4, Descende caelo et dic age tibia... – On Wise Counsel and Clemency – The Muses have guarded and given counsel to Horace since his youth. They also do so to Augustus, and prompt him to clemency and kindness. The evils of violence and arrogance, on the other hand, are exemplified by the Titans and Giants, and others. III.5, Caelo tonantem credidimus Iovem... – To Augustus – On Virtue and Fortitude – Augustus will be recognized as a god on earth for his subjugation of the Britons and Parthians. The disgraceful actions of the troops of Crassus (who married Parthians after being taken prisoner) are contrasted by the noble example of Regulus (who was released from Carthage to negotiate a peace, but dissuaded the Senate, and then returned to Carthage to be tortured to death). III.6, Delicta maiorum inmeritus lues... – Piety & Chastity – Return to the Old Morals! – Horace condemns the prevailing domestic immorality and contempt of the institutions of religion, and earnestly urges a speedy return to the simpler and purer manners of ancient times. III.7, Quid fles, Asterie, quem tibi candidi... – Constancy, Asterie! – Horace consoles Asterie on the absence of her lover Gyges, and warns her not to be unfaithful to her own vows. III.8, Martis caelebs quid agam Kalendis... – A Happy Anniversary – Horace invites Maecenas to celebrate with him the festival of the Calends of March (the Feast of the Matrons), which was also the anniversary of his narrow escape from sudden death by a falling tree. III.9, Donec gratus eram tibi... – The Reconciliation of Two Lovers – Often referred to as an "Amoebaean" ode (from the Greek αμείβω – to exchange), it describes, in graceful dialogue, a quarrel between two lovers and their reconciliation. III.10, Extremum Tanain si biberes, Lyce... – A Lover's Complaint – Horace warns Lyce that he cannot put up with her unkindness forever. III.11, Mercuri, – nam te docilis magistro... – Take Warning, Lyde, from the Danaids! – To Mercury – Horace begs the god to teach him such melody as will overcome the unkindness of Lyde. The ode concludes with the tale of the daughters of Danaus, and their doom in the underworld. III.12, Miserarum est neque amori dare ludum... – Unhappy Neobule – Joyless is the life of Neobule, ever under the watchful eye of a strict guardian. Only thoughts of handsome Hebrus take her mind off her troubles. III.13, O fons Bandusiae splendidior vitro... – O, Fountain of Bandusia! – Tomorrow a sacrifice will be offered to the fountain of Bandusia, whose refreshing coolness is offered to the flocks and herds, and which is now immortalized in verse. III.14, Herculis ritu modo dictus, o plebs... – The Return of Augustus – Horace proclaims a festal day on the return of Augustus from Spain (c. 24 BC), where he had reduced to subjection the fierce Cantabri. III.15, Uxor pauperis Ibyci... – Chloris, Act Your Age! – Horace taunts Chloris with her attempts to appear young, and with her frivolous life, while she is really an old woman. III.16, Inclusam Danaen turris aenea... – Contentment is Genuine Wealth – Gold is all-powerful, but its possession brings care and restlessness. True contentment is to be satisfied with little, as Horace is with his Sabine farm. III.17, Aeli vetusto nobilis ab Lamo... – Prepare for Storms Tomorrow – To Aelius Lamia – The crow foretells a stormy day tomorrow – Gather some firewood while you may, and spend the day in festivity. III.18, Faune, Nympharum fugientum amator... – Hymn to Faunus – Horace asks Faunus to bless his flocks and fields, for when Faunus is near, the whole countryside is glad. III.19, Quantum distet ab Inacho... – Invitation to a Banquet – Horace invites Telephus to give up for a time his historical researches, and join him at a banquet in honor of Murena. III.20, Non vides quanto moveas periclo... – The Rivals – Horace humorously describes a contest between Pyrrhus and some maiden for the exclusive regards of Nearchus. III.21, O nata mecum consule Manlio... – To a Wine-Jar – Horace, preparing to entertain his friend the orator M. Valerius Messala Corvinus, sings of the manifold virtues of wine. III.22, Montium custos nemorumque virgo – To Diana – Horace dedicates a pine tree to Diana, and vows to the goddess a yearly sacrifice. III.23, Caelo supinas si tuleris manus – Humble Sacrifices Devoutly Offered – Horace assures the rustic Phidyle that the favor of the gods is gained not by costly offerings, but simple sacrifices such as salted meal offered with true feeling. III.24, Intactis opulentior... – The Curse of Mammon – Boundless riches cannot banish fear or avert death. A simple life like that of the Scythians is the healthiest and best. Stringent laws are needed to curb the present luxury and licentiousness. III.25, Quo me, Bacche, rapis tui... – To Bacchus in Honor of Augustus – Horace fancies himself carried along by Bacchus amid woods and wilds to celebrate, in some distant cave, the praises of Augustus. III.26, Vixi puellis nuper idoneus... – Love's Triumphs Are Ended – Scorned by the haughty Chloe, the poet, like a discharged soldier, abandons the arms of love. But he begs of Venus, as a last request, that his slighted love may not go unavenged. III.27, Impios parrae recinentis omen... – Galatea, Beware! – Addressed to Galatea, whom the poet seeks to dissuade from the voyage she intended to make during the stormy season of the year. He bids her to beware, lest the mild aspect of the deceitful skies lead her astray – for it was through lack of caution that Europa was carried away across the sea. III.28, Festo quid potius die... – In Neptune's Honor – An invitation to Lyde to visit the poet on the festival of Neptune, and join him in wine and song. III.29, Tyrrhena regum progenies, tibi... – Invitation to Maecenas – Horace invites Maecenas to leave the smoke and wealth and bustle of Rome, and come to visit him on his Sabine farm. He bids him to remember that we must live wisely and well in the present, as the future is uncertain. III.30, Exegi monumentum aere perennius... – The Poet's Immortal Fame – In this closing poem, Horace confidently predicts his enduring fame as the first and greatest of the lyric poets of Rome. He asserts: Exegi monumentum aere perennius (I have raised a monument more permanent than bronze). Book 4[edit] Horace published a fourth book of Odes in 13 BC consisting of 15 poems. Horace acknowledged the gap in time with the first words of the opening poem of the collection: Intermissa, Venus, diu / rursus bella moves (Venus, you return to battles long interrupted). IV.1, Intermissa, Venus, diu... – Venus, Forbear! – Horace complains that in advancing age he is vexed with new desires by the cruel goddess of love: he pines for Ligurinus. He bids her to turn to a more youthful and worthy subject, his friend Paulus Maximus. IV.2, Pindarum quisquis studet aemulari... – Not for Me to Sing of Augustus! – Horace was asked by Iulus Antonius (the son of Marc Antony and stepson of Augustus' sister Octavia) to sing of Augustus' victories in a Pindaric ode. Horace declines, alleging lack of talent, and requests Iulus to compose the poem himself. IV.3, Quem tu, Melpomene, semel... – To Melpomene, Muse of Lyric Poetry – To the Muse Melpomene Horace ascribes his poetic inspiration and the honors which he enjoys as the lyric poet of Rome. IV.4, Qualem ministrum fulminis alitem... – In Praise of Drusus, the Younger Stepson of Augustus – (A companion to Ode IV.14, which praises Tiberius). This ode praises Drusus, the younger son of the Empress Livia, on his victory over the Raeti and Vindelici. Drusus is compared to a young eagle and lion. His stepfather Augustus is also praised as having trained him to greatness. IV.5, Divis orte bonis, optume Romulae... – Augustus, Return! – Horace begs Augustus to return to Rome, and describes the peace and good order of the principate under his reign. IV.6, Dive, quem proles Niobea magnae... – Invocation to Apollo – In the year 17 BC, Augustus commissioned Horace to write the Carmen Saeculare, a hymn to be sung at the Saecular festival. This ode is an invocation to Apollo, begging help and inspiration for this important task. IV.7, Diffugere nives, redeunt iam... – The Lesson of Spring's Return – An ode on the same springtime theme as I.4 – Addressed to his friend Torquatus. Though the earth renews itself, and the waning moon waxes afresh, yet death is the ending of human life. Let us then make the best of our days while they last. IV.8, Donarem pateras grataque commodus... – In Praise of Poetry – This ode was written to C. Marcius Censorinus and probably sent as a Saturnalian gift. Horace would give bronze vases, or tripods, or gems of Grecian art, but he does not have these. What he has to give instead is the immortality of a poem. IV.9, Ne forte credas interitura quae... – In Praise of Lollius – As in IV.8, Horace promises immortality through his verses, this time to Lollius, a man of wisdom and integrity. IV.10, O crudelis adhuc et Veneris... – Beauty Is Fleeting – An ode to a beautiful boy, Ligurinus, and the inevitability of old age. IV.11, Est mihi nonum superantis annum... – A Joyous Birthday – An invitation to Phyllis to celebrate the birthday of Maecenas at Horace's Sabine farm. IV.12, Iam veris comites... – The Delights of Spring – Addressed to Virgil (although not necessarily the poet). The breezes and birds have returned – An invitation to a feast of Spring – The poet agrees to supply the wine, if Virgil will bring a box of perfumes. IV.13, Audivere, Lyce, di mea vota... – Retribution – Horace taunts Lyce, now growing old, on her desperate attempts to seem young and fascinating. IV.14, Quae cura patrum quaeve Quiritium... – In Praise of Tiberius, the Elder Stepson of Augustus – (A companion to Ode IV.4, which praises Drusus.) Horace honors the courage and exploits of Tiberius, the elder son of the empress Livia, on his victories over the tribes of the Raetian Alps. He then praises Augustus, whom he extols as the glory of the war, the defense of Roman and Italy, and as the undisputed ruler of the world. IV.15, Phoebus volentem proelia me loqui... – The Praises of Augustus – Horace records in song the victories of Augustus – Peace, good order, the establishment of public morals, the extended glory of the Roman name abroad, and security and happiness at home. See also[edit] Prosody (Latin) References[edit] ^ For a discussion of the classification of Horace's Odes, see The Works of Horace Rendered into English Prose by James Lonsdale, M.A. and Samuel Lee, M.A. London: Macmillan and Co., 1883, p. 22 and Horace: The Complete Works by Charles E. Bennett and John Carew Rolfe. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1901, pp. xvii-xxii. ^ Lyons, Stuart (2010). Music in the Odes of Horace. Aris & Phillips. ISBN 978-0-85668-844-7. ^ All Latin text courtesy of thelatinlibrary.com ^ Summaries are taken from: The Works of Horace Rendered into English Prose by James Lonsdale, M.A. and Samuel Lee, M.A. London: Macmillan and Co., 1883; Horace: The Complete Works by Charles E. Bennett and John Carew Rolfe. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1901; The Works of Horace, with Explanatory Notes by Charles Anthon, LL.D. London: Tegg & Son, 1835; The Works of Horace with English Notes by J.L. Lincoln. New York: D. Appleton & Co, 1851. External links[edit] Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: Odes (Horace) Odes in English at the Perseus Project Works of Horace in Latin at The Latin Library Odes public domain audiobook at LibriVox Carmina Horatiana All Carmina of Horace recited in Latin by Thomas Bervoets (mp3). v t e Works by Horace Poetry Satires Epodes Odes Epistles Carmen Saeculare Ars Poetica Collections Satires 2.5 Quote Ut pictura poesis Related Spring of Bandusium Authority control VIAF: 176605032 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 176605032 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Odes_(Horace)&oldid=950433389" Categories: 1st-century BC Latin books Poetry by Horace Hidden categories: Articles containing Latin-language text Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Català Español Français Italiano עברית Latina Nederlands Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 12 April 2020, at 02:14 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8403	----	Tertullian - Wikipedia Tertullian From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Christian theologian Tertullian Born Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus 155 AD Carthage, Roman Empire Died 240 AD Carthage, Roman Empire Notable work Apologeticus Theological work Era Patristic age Tradition or movement Trinitarianism Main interests Soteriology, traducianism Notable ideas Hypostasis, ousia, sacrament, consubstantiality, persona Part of a series on Catholic philosophy   Aquinas, Scotus, and Ockham Ethics Cardinal virtues Just price Just war Probabilism Natural law Personalism Social teaching Virtue ethics Schools Augustinianism Cartesianism Molinism Occamism Salamanca Scholasticism Neo-scholasticism Scotism Thomism Philosophers Ancient Ambrose Athanasius the Great Augustine of Hippo Clement of Alexandria Cyprian of Carthage Cyril of Alexandria Gregory of Nyssa Irenaeus of Lyons Jerome John Chrysostom John of Damascus Justin Martyr Origen Paul the Apostle Tertullian Postclassical Pseudo-Dionysius Boethius Isidore of Seville Scotus Eriugena Bede Anselm of Canterbury Hildegard of Bingen Peter Abelard Symeon the New Theologian Bernard of Clairvaux Hugh of Saint Victor Thomas Aquinas Benedict of Nursia Pope Gregory I Peter Lombard Bonaventure Albertus Magnus Duns Scotus Roger Bacon Giles of Rome James of Viterbo Giambattista Vico Gregory of Rimini William of Ockham Catherine of Siena Paul of Venice Modern Baltasar Gracián Erasmus of Rotterdam Thomas Cajetan Nicholas of Cusa Luis de Molina Teresa of Ávila Thomas More Francis de Sales Francisco de Vitoria Domingo de Soto Martín de Azpilcueta Tomás de Mercado Antoine Arnauld René Descartes Robert Bellarmine Ignacy Krasicki Hugo Kołłątaj François Fénelon Alphonsus Liguori Nicolas Malebranche Blaise Pascal Francisco Suárez Giovanni Botero Felicité de Lamennais Antonio Rosmini John Henry Newman Contemporary Pope Benedict XVI Pope John Paul II G. E. M. Anscombe Hans Urs von Balthasar Maurice Blondel G. K. Chesterton Yves Congar Henri de Lubac John Finnis Reginald Garrigou-Lagrange Étienne Gilson René Girard Nicolás Gómez Dávila Romano Guardini John Haldane Dietrich von Hildebrand Bernard Lonergan Marshall McLuhan Alasdair MacIntyre Gabriel Marcel Jean-Luc Marion Jacques Maritain Emmanuel Mounier Josef Pieper Karl Rahner Edith Stein Charles Taylor  Catholicism portal  Philosophy portal v t e Tertullian (/tərˈtʌliən/; Latin: Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus; c. 155 – c. 240? AD)[1] was a prolific early Christian author from Carthage in the Roman province of Africa.[2] Of Berber and Phoenician origin,[3][4][5][6][7] he was the first Christian author to produce an extensive corpus of Latin Christian literature. He was an early Christian apologist and a polemicist against heresy, including contemporary Christian Gnosticism.[8] Tertullian has been called "the father of Latin Christianity"[9][10] and "the founder of Western theology."[11] Though conservative in his worldview, Tertullian originated new theological concepts and advanced the development of early Church doctrine. He is perhaps most famous for being the first writer in Latin known to use the term trinity (Latin: trinitas). Tertullian was never recognized as a saint by the Eastern or Western catholic churches. Several of his teachings on issues such as the clear subordination of the Son and Spirit to the Father,[12][13] as well as his condemnation of remarriage for widows and of fleeing from persecution, contradict the doctrines of these traditions, and his later rejection of orthodoxy for Montanism has led these communions to refrain from considering him a Church father, important ecclesiastical writer though he was. Contents 1 Life 2 Writings 2.1 General character 2.2 Chronology and contents 3 Theology 3.1 General character 3.2 Specific teachings 3.3 Eschatology 4 Moral principles 5 Works 5.1 Possible chronology 5.2 Spurious works 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 Bibliography 10 Further reading 11 External links Life[edit] Scant reliable evidence exists regarding Tertullian's life; most history about him comes from passing references in his own writings. Roman Africa was famous as the home of orators, and this influence can be seen in his writing style with its archaisms or provincialisms, its glowing imagery and its passionate temper. He was a scholar with an excellent education. He wrote at least three books in Greek. In them he refers to himself, but none of these is extant. According to church tradition, Tertullian was raised in Carthage[14] and was thought to be the son of a Roman centurion; Tertullian has been claimed to have been a trained lawyer and an ordained priest. These assertions rely on the accounts of Eusebius of Caesarea, Church History, II, ii. 4, and Jerome's De viris illustribus (On famous men) chapter 53.[a] Jerome claimed that Tertullian's father held the position of centurio proconsularis ("aide-de-camp") in the Roman army in Africa.[15] Further, Tertullian has been thought to be a lawyer based on his use of legal analogies and an identification of him with the jurist Tertullianus, who is quoted in the Pandects. Although Tertullian used a knowledge of Roman law in his writings, his legal knowledge does not demonstrably exceed that of what could be expected from a sufficient Roman education.[16] The writings of Tertullianus, a lawyer of the same cognomen, exist only in fragments and do not explicitly denote a Christian authorship. Finally, any notion of Tertullian being a priest is also questionable. In his extant writings, he never describes himself as ordained in the church[17] and seems to place himself among the laity.[18] His conversion to Christianity perhaps took place about 197–198 (cf. Adolf Harnack, Bonwetsch, and others), but its immediate antecedents are unknown except as they are conjectured from his writings. The event must have been sudden and decisive, transforming at once his own personality. He writes that he could not imagine a truly Christian life without such a conscious breach, a radical act of conversion: "Christians are made, not born" (Apol., xviii). Two books addressed to his wife confirm that he was married to a Christian wife.[19] In middle life (about 207), he was attracted to the "New Prophecy" of Montanism, though today most scholars reject the assertion that Tertullian left the mainstream Church or was excommunicated.[20] "[W]e are left to ask whether [Saint] Cyprian could have regarded Tertullian as his master if Tertullian had been a notorious schismatic. Since no ancient writer was more definite (if not indeed fanatical) on this subject of schism than Cyprian, the question must surely be answered in the negative."[21] In the time of Augustine, a group of "Tertullianists" still had a basilica in Carthage which, within that same period, passed to the orthodox church. It is unclear whether the name was merely another for the Montanists[b] or that this means Tertullian later split with the Montanists and founded his own group. Jerome[22] says that Tertullian lived to old age. By the doctrinal works he published, Tertullian became the teacher of Cyprian and the predecessor of Augustine, who, in turn, became the chief founder of Latin theology. Writings[edit] General character[edit] Thirty-one works are extant, together with fragments of more. Some fifteen works in Latin or Greek are lost, some as recently as the 9th century (De Paradiso, De superstitione saeculi, De carne et anima were all extant in the now damaged Codex Agobardinus in 814 AD). Tertullian's writings cover the whole theological field of the time—apologetics against paganism and Judaism, polemics, polity, discipline, and morals, or the whole reorganization of human life on a Christian basis; they gave a picture of the religious life and thought of the time which is of great interest to the church historian. Like other early Christian writers Tertullian used the term paganus to mean "civilian" as a contrast to the "soldiers of Christ".[23] The motif of Miles Christi did not assume the literal meaning of participation in war until Church doctrines justifying Christian participation in battle were developed around the 5th century.[24] In the 2nd century writings of Tertullian paganus meant a "civilian" who was lacking self-discipline. In De Corona Militis XI.V he writes:[25] Apud hunc [Christum] tam miles est paganus fidelis quam paganus est miles fidelis.[26] With Him [Christ] the faithful citizen is a soldier, just as the faithful soldier is a citizen.[27] Chronology and contents[edit] The chronology of his writings is difficult to fix with certainty. It is in part determined by the Montanistic views that are set forth in some of them, by the author's own allusions to this writing, or that, as antedating others (cf. Harnack, Litteratur ii.260–262), and by definite historic data (e.g., the reference to the death of Septimius Severus, Ad Scapulam, iv). In his work against Marcion, which he calls his third composition on the Marcionite heresy, he gives its date as the fifteenth year of the reign of Severus (Adv. Marcionem, i.1, 15) – which would be approximately 208. The writings may be divided with reference to the two periods of Tertullian's Christian activity, the mainstream and the Montanist (cf. Harnack, ii.262 sqq.), or according to their subject matter. The object of the former mode of division is to show, if possible, the change of views Tertullian's mind underwent. Following the latter mode, which is of a more practical interest, the writings fall into two groups. Apologetic and polemic writings, like Apologeticus, De testimonio animae, the anti-Jewish De Adversus Iudaeos, Adv. Marcionem, Adv. Praxeam, Adv. Hermogenem, De praescriptione hereticorum, and Scorpiace were written to counteract Gnosticism and other religious or philosophical doctrines. The other group consists of practical and disciplinary writings, e.g., De monogamia, Ad uxorem, De virginibus velandis, De cultu feminarum, De patientia, De pudicitia, De oratione, and Ad martyras. Among his apologetic writings, the Apologeticus, addressed to the Roman magistrates, is a most pungent defense of Christianity and the Christians against the reproaches of the pagans, and an important legacy of the ancient Church, proclaiming the principle of freedom of religion as an inalienable human right and demanding a fair trial for Christians before they are condemned to death. Tertullian was the first to disprove charges that Christians sacrificed infants at the celebration of the Lord's Supper and committed incest. He pointed to the commission of such crimes in the pagan world and then proved by the testimony of Pliny the Younger that Christians pledged themselves not to commit murder, adultery, or other crimes. He adduced the inhumanity of pagan customs such as feeding the flesh of gladiators to beasts. He argued that the gods have no existence and thus there is no pagan religion against which Christians may offend. Christians do not engage in the foolish worship of the emperors, that they do better: they pray for them, and that Christians can afford to be put to torture and to death, and the more they are cast down the more they grow; "the blood of the martyrs is seed" (Apologeticum, 50). In the De Praescriptione he develops as its fundamental idea that, in a dispute between the Church and a separating party, the whole burden of proof lies with the latter, as the Church, in possession of the unbroken tradition, is by its very existence a guarantee of its truth. The five books against Marcion, written in 207 or 208, are the most comprehensive and elaborate of his polemical works, invaluable for gauging the early Christian view of Gnosticism. Tertullian has been identified by Jo Ann McNamara as the person who originally invested the consecrated virgin as the “bride of Christ”, which helped to bring the independent virgin under patriarchal rule.[28] Theology[edit] General character[edit] This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (August 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Though thoroughly conversant with the Greek theology, Tertullian remained independent of its metaphysical speculations. He had learned from the Greek apologies, and offered a direct contrast to Origen of Alexandria who drew many of his theories regarding creation from Middle Platonism. Tertullian carried his realism to the verge of materialism. This is evident from his ascription to God of corporeality and his acceptance of the traducian theory of the origin of the human spirit. He despised Greek philosophy, and, far from looking at Plato, Aristotle, and other Greek thinkers whom he quotes as forerunners of Christ and the Gospel, he pronounces them the patriarchal forefathers of the heretics (De anima, iii.). He held up to scorn their inconsistency when he referred to the fact that Socrates in dying ordered a cock to be sacrificed to Aesculapius (De anima, i). Tertullian always wrote under stress of a felt necessity. He was never so happy as when he had opponents like Marcion and Praxeas, and, however abstract the ideas may be which he treated, he was always moved by practical considerations to make his case clear and irresistible. It was partly this element which gave to his writings a formative influence upon the theology of the post-Nicene period in the West and has rendered them fresh reading to this day. Although he was by nature a polemicist, no mention is made of his name by other authors during the 3rd century. Lactantius at the opening of the 4th century is the first to do so. Augustine, however, treats him with respect. Cyprian, Tertullian's North African compatriot, though nowhere mentioning his name, was well read in his writings, according to Cyprian's secretary in a letter to Jerome. Specific teachings[edit] Tertullian's main doctrinal teachings are as follows: The soul, or human spirit, was not preexistent, as Plato affirmed, nor subject to metempsychosis or reincarnation, as the Pythagoreans held. In each individual it is a new product, proceeding equally with the body from the parents, and not created later and associated with the body (De anima, xxvii). This position is called traducianism in opposition to 'creationism', or the idea that each immortal spirit is a fresh creation of God. The soul's sinfulness is easily explained by its traducian origin (De anima, xxxix). It is in bondage to Satan (whose works it renounces in baptism), but has seeds of good (De anima, xli), and when awakened, it passes to health and at once calls upon God (Apol., xvii.) and is naturally Christian. It exists in all men alike; it is a culprit and yet an unconscious witness – by its impulse to worship, its fear of demons, and its musings on death – to the power, benignity, and judgment of God as revealed in the Christian's Scriptures (De testimonio, v-vi). Tertullian reserves the appellation God, in the sense of the ultimate originator of all things, to the Father,[12] who made the world out of nothing through his Son, the Word, has corporeity though he is a spirit (De praescriptione, vii.; Adv. Praxeam, vii.). However Tertullian used 'corporeal' only in the Stoic sense, to mean something with actual material existence, rather than the later idea of flesh. Tertullian is often considered an early proponent of the Nicene doctrine, approaching the subject from the standpoint of the Logos doctrine, though he did not state the later doctrine of the immanent Trinity. In his treatise against Praxeas, who taught patripassianism in Rome, he used the words "trinity", "economy" (used in reference to the three persons), "persons", and "substance," maintaining the distinction of the Son from the Father as the unoriginate God, and the Spirit from both the Father and the Son (Adv. Praxeam, xxv). "These three are one substance, not one person; and it is said, 'I and my Father are one' in respect not of the singularity of number but the unity of the substance." The very names "Father" and "Son" indicate the distinction of personality. The Father is one, the Son is another, and the Spirit is another ("dico alium esse patrem et alium filium et alium spiritum" Adv. Praxeam, ix), and yet in defending the unity of God, he says the Son is not other ("alius a patre filius non est", Adv. Prax. 18) as a result of receiving a portion of the Father's substance.[12] At times, speaking of the Father and the Son, Tertullian refers to "two gods".[12][c] He says that all things of the Father belong also to the Son, including his names, such as Almighty God, Most High, Lord of Hosts, or King of Israel.[29] Though Tertullian considered the Father to be God (Yahweh), he responded to criticism of the Modalist Praxeas that this meant that Tertullian's Christianity was not monotheistic by noting that even though there was one God (Yahweh, who became the Father when the Son became his agent of creation), the Son could also be referred to as God, when referred to apart from the Father, because the Son, though subordinate to God, is entitled to be called God "from the unity of the Father" in regards to being formed from a portion of His substance.[12][d] The Catholic Encyclopedia comments that for Tertullian, "There was a time when there was no Son and no sin, when God was neither Father nor Judge."[30][31] Similarly J.N.D. Kelly has stated: "Tertullian followed the Apologists in dating His 'perfect generation' from His extrapolation for the work of creation; prior to that moment God could not strictly be said to have had a Son, while after it the term 'Father', which for earlier theologians generally connoted God as author of reality, began to acquire the specialized meaning of Father and Son."[32][verify illogical quote] As regards the subjects of subordination of the Son to the Father, the New Catholic Encyclopedia has commented: "In not a few areas of theology, Tertullian’s views are, of course, completely unacceptable. Thus, for example, his teaching on the Trinity reveals a subordination of Son to Father that in the later crass form of Arianism the Church rejected as heretical."[13] Though he did not fully state the doctrine of the immanence of the Trinity, according to B. B. Warfield, he went a long distance in the way of approach to it.[31] In soteriology, Tertullian does not dogmatize; he prefers to keep silence at the mystery of the cross (De Patientia, iii). The sufferings of Christ's life as well as of the crucifixion are efficacious to redemption. In the water of baptism, which (upon a partial quotation of John 3:5) is made necessary (De baptismo, vi.), humans are born again; the baptized does not receive the Holy Spirit in the water, but is prepared for the Holy Spirit. Humans are little fishes – after the example of the ichthys, fish, Jesus Christ – born in water (De baptismo, i). In discussing whether sins committed subsequent to baptism may be forgiven, Tertullian calls baptism and penance "two planks" on which the sinner may be saved from shipwreck – language which he gave to the Church (De penitentia, xii). With reference to the 'rule of faith', it may be said that Tertullian is constantly using this expression, and by it means now the authoritative tradition handed down in the Church, now the Scriptures themselves, and, perhaps, a definite doctrinal formula. While he nowhere gives a list of the books of Scripture, he divides them into two parts and calls them the instrumentum and testamentum (Adv. Marcionem, iv.1). He distinguishes between the four Gospels and insists upon their apostolic origin as accrediting their authority (De praescriptione, xxxvi; Adv. Marcionem, iv.1–5); in trying to account for Marcion's treatment of the Lucan Gospel and the Pauline writings he sarcastically queries whether the "shipmaster from Pontus" (Marcion) had ever been guilty of taking on contraband goods or tampering with them after they were aboard (Adv. Marcionem, v.1). The Scripture, the rule of faith, is for him fixed and authoritative (De corona, iii-iv). As opposed to the pagan writings they are divine (De testimonio animae, vi). They contain all truth (De praescriptione, vii, xiv) and from them the Church drinks (potat) her faith (Adv. Praxeam, xiii). The prophets were older than the Greek philosophers and their authority is accredited by the fulfilment of their predictions (Apol., xix-xx). The Scriptures and the teachings of philosophy are incompatible, insofar as the latter are the origins of sub-Christian heresies. "What has Athens to do with Jerusalem?" he exclaims, "or the Academy with the Church?" (De praescriptione, vii). Philosophy as pop-paganism is a work of demons (De anima, i); the Scriptures contain the wisdom of heaven. However, Tertullian was not averse to using the technical methods of Stoicism to discuss a problem (De anima). The rule of faith, however, seems to be also applied by Tertullian to some distinct formula of doctrine, and he gives a succinct statement of the Christian faith under this term (De praescriptione, xiii). Tertullian was a defender of the necessity of apostolicity. In his Prescription Against Heretics, he explicitly challenges heretics to produce evidence of the apostolic succession of their communities.[33] "Let them produce the original records of their churches; let them unfold the roll of their bishops, running down in due succession from the beginning in such a manner that [that first bishop of theirs] bishop shall be able to show for his ordainer and predecessor some one of the apostles or of apostolic men – a man, moreover, who continued steadfast with the apostles. For this is the manner in which the apostolic churches transmit their registers: as the church of Smyrna, which records that Polycarp was placed therein by John; as also the church of Rome, which makes Clement to have been ordained in like manner by Peter. In exactly the same way the other churches likewise exhibit (their several worthies), whom, as having been appointed to their episcopal places by apostles, they regard as transmitters of the apostolic seed." Fornicators and murderers should never be readmitted into the church under any circumstances. In De pudicitia, Tertullian condemns Pope Callixtus I for allowing such people to be readmitted if they show repentance. Eschatology[edit] Resurrection at the Second Coming Tertullian was a premillennialist, affirming a literal resurrection at the second advent of Jesus at the end of the world, not at death.[34] Jesus, the stone that strikes and destroys the image Concerning the image prophecy of Daniel 2, Tertullian identified Jesus, at his second advent, as the stone cut out of a mountain that strikes and destroys the image of "secular kingdoms". He compares this with Daniel 7, "Behold, one like the Son of man came with the clouds of heaven, and came to the Ancient of days; and they brought Him before Him, and there was given Him dominion and glory, and a kingdom, that all people, nations, and languages should serve Him. His dominion is an everlasting dominion, which shall not pass away; and His kingdom that which shall not be destroyed."[35][36] Antichrist is the Beast Like Irenaeus, Tertullian equated the Antichrist with the '"Man of Sin" and the "Beast". He expected a specific Antichrist to appear as a persecutor of the church just before the resurrection, under whom a second company of martyrs will be slain. Unlike Irenaeus, however, Tertullian does not consider the Antichrist to be a Jew sitting in a Jewish temple at Jerusalem. Rather, the Antichrist comes out of the church.[37] Rome symbolized as Babylon Tertullian applied the biblical figure of Babylon to the city of Rome and her domination. He portrayed Rome as drunk with the blood of martyred saints.[38] Order of Last Days events The order of Last Days events, according to Tertullian, are the plagues, Babylon's doom, Antichrist's warfare on the saints, the devil cast into the bottomless pit, the Advent, the resurrection of the saints, the Judgment, and the Second Resurrection, with the harvest at the end of the World; and the sixth seal extending to the final dissolution of the earth and sky, including the stars.[39] Millennium follows resurrection of the righteous dead Tertullian maintained that the thousand years of Revelation will follow the resurrection of the righteous dead on the earth with the New Jerusalem, preceding the eternity of heaven. The earth is destroyed after the one thousand years and the saints moved to the kingdom of heaven.[40] Seventy weeks fulfilled by First Advent Tertullian contended that Daniel's seventy weeks foretold the time of Christ's incarnation and death. He started the seventy weeks from the first year of Darius, and continued to Jerusalem's destruction by the Romans under the command of Titus, fully completing the vision and prophecy. It is sealed by the advent of Christ, which he places at the end of the sixty-two and one-half weeks.[41] Moral principles[edit] This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (July 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Tertullian was a determined advocate of strict discipline and an austere code of practise, and like many of the African fathers, one of the leading representatives of the rigorist element in the early Church. These views may have led him to adopt Montanism with its ascetic rigor and its belief in chiliasm and the continuance of the prophetic gifts. In his writings on public amusements, the veiling of virgins, the conduct of women, and the like, he gives expression to these views. On the principle that we should not look at or listen to what we have no right to practise, and that polluted things, seen and touched, pollute (De spectaculis, viii, xvii), he declared a Christian should abstain from the theater and the amphitheater. There pagan religious rites were applied and the names of pagan divinities invoked; there the precepts of modesty, purity, and humanity were ignored or set aside, and there no place was offered to the onlookers for the cultivation of the Christian graces. Women should put aside their gold and precious stones as ornaments,[42] and virgins should conform to the law of St. Paul for women and keep themselves strictly veiled (De virginibus velandis). He praised the unmarried state as the highest (De monogamia, xvii; Ad uxorem, i.3) and called upon Christians not to allow themselves to be excelled in the virtue of celibacy by Vestal Virgins and Egyptian priests. He even labeled second marriage a species of adultery (De exhortationis castitatis, ix), but this directly contradicted the Epistles of the Apostle Paul. Tertullian's resolve to never marry again and that no one else should remarry eventually led to his break with Rome because the orthodox church refused to follow him in this resolve. He, instead, favored the Montanist sect where they also condemned second marriage.[43] One reason for Tertullian's disdain for marriage was his belief about the transformation that awaited a married couple. He believed that marital relations coarsened the body and spirit and would dull their spiritual senses and avert the Holy Spirit since husband and wife became one flesh once married.[28] Tertullian is sometimes criticized for being misogynistic, on the basis of the contents of his De Cultu Feminarum, section I.I, part 2 (trans. C.W. Marx):[citation needed] "Do you not know that you are Eve? The judgment of God upon this sex lives on in this age; therefore, necessarily the guilt should live on also. You are the gateway of the devil; you are the one who unseals the curse of that tree, and you are the first one to turn your back on the divine law; you are the one who persuaded him whom the devil was not capable of corrupting; you easily destroyed the image of God, Adam. Because of what you deserve, that is, death, even the Son of God had to die." Tertullian had a radical view on the cosmos. He believed that heaven and earth intersected at many points and that it was possible that sexual relations with supernatural beings can occur.[44] Works[edit] Septimi Florensis Tertulliani Opera (1598) Wikisource has original works written by or about: Tertullian Tertullian's writings are edited in volumes 1–2 of the Patrologia Latina, and modern texts exist in the Corpus Christianorum Latinorum. English translations by Sidney Thelwall and Philip Holmes can be found in volumes III and IV of the Ante-Nicene Fathers which are freely available online; more modern translations of some of the works have been made. Apologetic Apologeticus pro Christianis. Libri duo ad Nationes. De Testimonio animae. Ad Martyres. De Spectaculis. De Idololatria. Accedit ad Scapulam liber. Dogmatic De Oratione. De Baptismo. De Poenitentia. De Patientia. Ad Uxorem libri duo. De Cultu Feminarum lib. II. Polemical De Praescriptionibus adversus Haereticos. De Corona Militis. De Fuga in Persecutione. Adversus Gnosticos Scorpiace. Adversus Praxeam. Adversus Hermogenem. Adversus Marcionem libri V. Adversus Valentinianos. Adversus Judaeos. De Anima. De Carne Christi. De Resurrectione Carnis. On morality De velandis Virginibus. De Exhortatione Castitatis. De Monogamia. De Jejuniis. De Pudicitia. De Pallio. Possible chronology[edit] The following chronological ordering was proposed by John Kaye, Bishop of Lincoln in the 19th century:[45] Probably mainstream (Pre-Montanist): 1. De Poenitentia (On Repentance) 2. De Oratione (On Prayer) 3. De Baptismo (On Baptism) 4.,5. Ad Uxorem, lib. I & II, (To His Wife) 6. Ad Martyras (To the Martyrs) 7. De Patientia (On Patience) 8. Adversus Judaeos (Against the Jews) 9. De Praescriptione Haereticorum (On the Prescription of Heretics) Indeterminate: 10. Apologeticus pro Christianis (Apology for the Christians) 11.,12. ad Nationes, lib. I & II (To the Nations) 13. De Testimonio animae (On the Witness of the Soul) 14. De Pallio (On the Ascetic Mantle) 15. Adversus Hermogenem (Against Hermogenes) Probably Post-Montanist: 16. Adversus Valentinianus (Against the Valentinians) 17. ad Scapulam (To Scapula, Proconsul of Africa) 18. De Spectaculis (On the Games) 19. De Idololatria (On Idolatry) 20., 21. De cultu Feminarum, lib. I & II (On Women's Dress) Definitely Post-Montanist: 22. Adversus Marcionem, lib I (Against Marcion, Bk. I) 23. Adversus Marcionem, lib II 24. De Anima (On the Soul), 25. Adversus Marcionem, lib III 26. Adversus Marcionem, lib IV 27. De Carne Christi (On the Flesh of Christ) 28. De Resurrectione Carnis (On the Resurrection of Flesh) 29. Adversus Marcionem, lib V 30. Adversus Praxean (Against Praxeas) 31. Scorpiace (Antidote to Scorpion's Bite) 32. De Corona Militis (On the Soldier's Garland) 33. De velandis Virginibus (On Veiling Virgins) 34. De Exhortatione Castitatis (On Exhortation to Chastity) 35. De Fuga in Persecutione (On Flight in Persecution) 36. De Monogamia (On Monogamy) 37. De Jejuniis, adversus psychicos (On Fasting, against the materialists) 38. De Puditicia (On Modesty) Spurious works[edit] There have been many works attributed to Tertullian in the past which have since been determined to be almost definitely written by others. Nonetheless, since their actual authors remain uncertain, they continue to be published together in collections of Tertullian's works. 1 Adversus Omnes Haereses (Against all Heresies) – poss. Victorinus of Pettau 2 De execrandis gentium diis (On the Execrable Gods of the Heathens) 3 Carmen adversus Marcionem (Poem against Marcion) 4 Carmen de Iona Propheta (Poem about the Prophet Jonas) – poss. Cyprianus Gallus 5 Carmen de Sodoma (Poem about Sodom) – poss. Cyprianus Gallus 6 Carmen de Genesi (Poem about Genesis) 7 Carmen de Judicio Domini (Poem about the Judgment of the Lord) The popular Passio SS. Perpetuae et Felicitatis (Martyrdom of SS. Perpetua and Felicitas), much of it the personal diary of St. Perpetua, was once assumed to have been edited by Tertullian. That view is no longer held, and it is usually published separately from Tertullian's works. See also[edit] Christian pacifism Septimia gens Pseudo-Tertullian Tertulia Descriptions in antiquity of the execution cross List of Christian women of the patristic age Notes[edit] ^ See introduction to (Barnes 1971); however Barnes retracted some of his positions in the 1985 revised edition. ^ The passage in Praedestinatus describing the Tertullianists suggests that this might have been the case, as the Tertullianist minister obtains the use of a church in Rome on the grounds that the martyrs to whom it was dedicated were Montanists. But the passage is very condensed and ambiguous. ^ "Ergo, inquis, si deus dixit et deus fecit, si alius deus dixit et alius fecit, duo dii praedicantur. Si tam durus es, puta interim. Et ut adhuc amplius hoc putes, accipe et in psalmo duos deos dictos: Thronus tuus, deus, in aevum, <virga directionis> virga regni tui; dilexisti iustitiam et odisti iniquitatem, propterea unxit te deus, deus tuus." ("Therefore", thou sayest, "if a god said and a god made, if one god said and another made, two gods are being preached." If thou art so hard, think a little! And that thou mayest think more fully, accept that in the Psalm two gods are spoken of: "Thy throne, God, is for ever, a sceptre of right direction is thy sceptre; thou hast loved justice and hast hated iniquity, therefore God, thy God, hath anointed thee." Adv. Prax. 13) ^ "Si filium nolunt secundum a patre reputari ne secundus duos faciat deos dici, ostendimus etiam duos deos in scriptura relatos et duos dominos: et tamen ne de isto scandalizentur, rationem reddimus qua dei non duo dicantur nec domini sed qua pater et filius duo, et hoc non ex separatione substantiae sed ex dispositione, cum individuum et inseparatum filium a patre pronuntiamus, nec statu sed gradu alium, qui etsi deus dicatur quando nominatur singularis, non ideo duos deos faciat sed unum, hoc ipso quod et deus ex unitate patris vocari habeat." (If they do not wish that the Son be considered second to the Father, lest being second he cause it to be said that there are two gods, we have also showed that two gods are related in Scripture, and two lords. And yet, let them not be scandalized by this – we give a reason why there are not said to be two gods nor lords but rather two as a Father and a Son. And this not from separation of substance but from disposition, since we pronounce the Son undivided and unseparated from the Father, other not in status but in grade, who although he is said to be God when mentioned by himself, does not therefore make two gods but one, by the fact that he is also entitled to be called God from the unity of the Father. Adv. Prax. 19) References[edit] ^ Audi, Robert (1999). The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. p. 908. ^ Barnes 1971, p. 58. ^ Serralda, Vincent; Huard, André (1984). Le Berbère-- lumière de l'Occident (in French). Nouvelles Editions Latines. p. 52. ISBN 9782723302395. ^ Brouksy, Lahcen (2006). Les Berbères face à leur destin (in French). Bouregreg. p. 150. ISBN 9789954470121. ^ Berthier, André (1951-01-01). L'Algérie et son passé: ouvrage illustré de 82 gravures en phototypie (in French). Picard. p. 25. ^ Zemmouri, Mohammed-Saâd; Wazzānī, Muḥammad al-Yamlāḥī (2000). Présence berbère et nostalgie païenne: dans la littérature maghrébine de langue française (in French). Le Club du Livre. p. 19. ISBN 9789981610095. ^ Hilliard, Constance B. (1998). Intellectual Traditions of Pre-colonial Africa. McGraw-Hill. p. 150. ISBN 9780070288980. ^ Versluis, Arthur (2007). Magic and Mysticism. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 23. ^ Benham, William (1887). The Dictionary of Religion. Cassell. pp. 1013. ^ Ekonomou 2007, p. 22. ^ Gonzáles, Justo L. (2010). "The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation". The Story of Christianity. 1. New York: HarperCollins Publishers. pp. 91–93. ^ a b c d e Tuggy, Dale & Zalta, Edward N. (ed.) (2016). "History of Trinitarian Doctrines". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University. Retrieved 24 September 2016.CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link) ^ a b Le Saint, W. (2003). "Tertullian". The New Catholic Encyclopedia. 13: 837. ^ Cross, F. L., ed. (2005). The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. ^ Jerome, 'Chronicon' 16.23-4 ^ Barnes 1971, p. 24, 27. ^ Barnes 1971, p. 11. ^ Tertullian, De Exhortatione Castitatis 7.3 and De Monogamia 12.2 ^ "Book Written to His Wife". newadvent.org. Archived from the original on 2014-03-04. ^ Still, Todd D; Wilhite, David E (2012-12-20). Tertullian and Paul. ISBN 9780567554116. ^ http://www.tertullian.org/articles/powell_tertullianists.htm ^ Jerome. De viris illustribus. p. 53. ^ Ernest Weekley, Etymological Dictionary of English, s.v. "pagan". ^ Iwanczak, Wojciech (2012). "Miles Christi: the medieval ideal of knighthood". Journal of the Australian Early Medieval Association. 8 (Journal Article): 77–. ISSN 1449-9320. ^ Cameron, Alan G. (2011). The Last Pagans of Rome. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199780914. OCLC 553365192. ^ De Corona Militis XI.V ^ Ante-Nicene Fathers III, De Corona XI ^ a b Bitel 2008, p. 17. ^ Adv. Prax. 17. ^ ""Tertullian," The Catholic Encyclopedia". ^ a b B. B. Warfield in Princeton Theological Review, 1906, pp. 56, 159. ^ J.N.D. Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines, Continual International Publishing Book, c1960, 2000, p. 112 ^ "The Prescription against Heretics: Chapter 32". ^ Froom 1950, pp. 255–256. ^ Tertulian, Against Marcion, chap. 7, in ANF, Vol. 3, p. 326 ^ Froom 1950, p. 256. ^ Froom 1950, p. 257. ^ Froom 1950, p. 258. ^ Froom 1950, pp. 258–259. ^ Froom 1950, pp. 259–260. ^ Froom 1950, pp. 260–261. ^ De cultu, v-vi ^ Bitel 2008, p. 21. ^ "Scholar Discusses the 'Bride of Christ' in the Early Church". Fordham.edu. Archived from the original on November 18, 2018. ^ cf. J.Kaye, 1845, The Ecclesiastical History of the Second and Third Centuries. List here as reproduced in Rev. Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson, editors, 1867–1872, Ante-Nicene Christian Library: Translation of the Writings of the Fathers, Down to AD 325, Vol. 18, p. xii-xiii Bibliography[edit] Barnes, Timothy (1971). Tertullian: A literary and historical study (Reprinted with appendix of revisions 1985 ed.). Oxford. ISBN 978-0198143628. Bitel, Lisa M. Bitel & Lifshitz, Felice (2008). Gender and Christianity in medieval Europe: new perspectives. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 9780812240696.CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link) Daniel, Robin (2010). This Holy Seed: Faith, Hope and Love in the Early Churches of North Africa. Chester: Tamarisk Publications. ISBN 978-0-9538565-3-4. Ekonomou, Andrew J. (2007). Byzantine Rome and the Greek Popes: Eastern influences on Rome and the papacy from Gregory the Great to Zacharias, A.D. 590–752. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0739133866. Froom, LeRoy (1950). The Prophetic Faith of our Fathers (DjVu and PDF). 1. Review and Herald Publishing Association. Schaff, Philip. The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge. Further reading[edit] Ames, Cecilia. 2007. "Roman Religion in the Vision of Tertullian." In A Companion to Roman Religion. Edited by Jörg Rüpke, 457–471. Oxford: Blackwell. Dunn, Geoffrey D. 2004. Tertullian. New York: Routledge. Gero, Stephen. 1970. "Miles gloriosus: The Christians and Military Service according to Tertullian." Church History 39:285–298. Hillar, Marian. 2012. From Logos to Trinity. The Evolution of Religious Beliefs from Pythagoras to Tertullian. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Lane, Anthony N. S. 2002. "Tertullianus Totus Noster? Calvin’s use of Tertullian." Reformation and Renaissance Review 4:9–34. O’Malley, Thomas P. 1967. Tertullian and the Bible. Language, Imagery, Exegesis. Latinitas christianorum primaeva 21. Nijmegen, The Netherlands: Dekker & Van de Vegt. Otten, Willemien. 2009. "Views on Women in Early Christianity: Incarnational Hermeneutics in Tertullian and Augustine." In Hermeneutics, Scriptural Politics, and Human Rights. Between text and context. Edited by Bas de Gaay Fortman, Kurt Martens, and M. A. Mohamed Salih, 219–235. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. Osborn, Eric F. (2003). Tertullian, First Theologian of the West. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Rankin, David. 1995. Tertullian and the Church. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Wilhite, David E. 2007. Tertullian the African. An Anthropological Reading of Tertullian’s Context and Identities. Millennium Studien 14. Berlin and New York: De Gruyter. External links[edit] Library resources about Tertullian Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Tertullian Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Wikimedia Commons has media related to Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus. Wikisource has original works written by or about: Tertullian Wikiquote has quotations related to: Tertullian Primary sources: Tertullian's works in many languages, including Latin, and English, website intratext.com. English translations of all Tertullian's works can be found in Rev. Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson, editors, 1867–1872, Ante-Nicene Christian Library: Translation of the Writings of the Fathers, Down to AD 325, Edinburgh: T&T Clark: Vol. 7 (Tertullian's Against Marcion), Vol. 11(Tertullian's Treatises, Pt. 1), Vol. 15 (Tertullian's Treatises, Pt.2), Vol. 18 (Tertullian's Treatises, Pt. 3) Works by Tertullian at Perseus Digital Library Works by Tertullian at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Secondary sources: EarlyChurch.org.uk Detailed bibliography and on-line articles. Jerome's On Famous Men Chapter 53 is devoted to Tertullian. Chapman, Henry Palmer (1913). "Tertullian" . Catholic Encyclopedia. 44. Harnack, Adolf (1911). "Tertullian" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 26 (11th ed.). pp. 661–663. The Tertullian Project, a site which provides all of the works of this Father of Church in Latin, translations in many languages, manuscripts etc. J. Kaye, Bishop of Lincoln (1845, third edition) The Ecclesiastical History of the Second and Third Centuries, illustrated from the writings of Tertullian. London: Rivington. 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en-wikipedia-org-8408	----	Horace - Wikipedia Horace From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This is the current revision of this page, as edited by Monkbot (talk | contribs) at 13:30, 4 December 2020 (Task 18 (cosmetic): eval 62 templates: del empty params (97×);). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this version. Revision as of 13:30, 4 December 2020 by Monkbot (talk | contribs) (Task 18 (cosmetic): eval 62 templates: del empty params (97×);) (diff) ← Previous revision | Latest revision (diff) | Newer revision → (diff) Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman lyric poet This article is about the Roman poet. For the Egyptian god, see Horus. For other uses, see Horace (disambiguation). Horace Horace, as imagined by Anton von Werner Born Quintus Horatius Flaccus 8 December 65 BC Venusia, Italy, Roman Republic Died 27 November 8 BC (age 56) Rome Resting place Rome Occupation Soldier, scriba quaestorius, poet, senator Language Latin Nationality Roman Genre Lyric poetry Notable works Odes "The Art of Poetry" Quintus Horatius Flaccus (8 December 65 – 27 November 8 BC), known in the English-speaking world as Horace (/ˈhɒrɪs/), was the leading Roman lyric poet during the time of Augustus (also known as Octavian). The rhetorician Quintilian regarded his Odes as just about the only Latin lyrics worth reading: "He can be lofty sometimes, yet he is also full of charm and grace, versatile in his figures, and felicitously daring in his choice of words."[nb 1] Horace also crafted elegant hexameter verses (Satires and Epistles) and caustic iambic poetry (Epodes). The hexameters are amusing yet serious works, friendly in tone, leading the ancient satirist Persius to comment: "as his friend laughs, Horace slyly puts his finger on his every fault; once let in, he plays about the heartstrings".[nb 2] His career coincided with Rome's momentous change from a republic to an empire. An officer in the republican army defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC, he was befriended by Octavian's right-hand man in civil affairs, Maecenas, and became a spokesman for the new regime. For some commentators, his association with the regime was a delicate balance in which he maintained a strong measure of independence (he was "a master of the graceful sidestep")[1] but for others he was, in John Dryden's phrase, "a well-mannered court slave".[2][nb 3] Contents 1 Life 1.1 Childhood 1.2 Adulthood 1.2.1 Poet 1.2.2 Knight 2 Works 2.1 Historical context 2.2 Themes 3 Reception 3.1 Antiquity 3.2 Middle Ages and Renaissance 3.3 Age of Enlightenment 3.4 19th century on 4 Translations 5 In popular culture 6 See also 7 Notes 8 Citations 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links Life[edit] Horatii Flacci Sermonum (1577) Horace can be regarded as the world's first autobiographer.[3] In his writings, he tells us far more about himself, his character, his development, and his way of life, than any other great poet of antiquity. Some of the biographical material contained in his work can be supplemented from the short but valuable "Life of Horace" by Suetonius (in his Lives of the Poets).[4] Childhood[edit] He was born on 8 December 65 BC[nb 4] in the Samnite south of Italy.[5] His home town, Venusia, lay on a trade route in the border region between Apulia and Lucania (Basilicata). Various Italic dialects were spoken in the area and this perhaps enriched his feeling for language. He could have been familiar with Greek words even as a young boy and later he poked fun at the jargon of mixed Greek and Oscan spoken in neighbouring Canusium.[6] One of the works he probably studied in school was the Odyssia of Livius Andronicus, taught by teachers like the 'Orbilius' mentioned in one of his poems.[7] Army veterans could have been settled there at the expense of local families uprooted by Rome as punishment for their part in the Social War (91–88 BC).[8] Such state-sponsored migration must have added still more linguistic variety to the area. According to a local tradition reported by Horace,[9] a colony of Romans or Latins had been installed in Venusia after the Samnites had been driven out early in the third century. In that case, young Horace could have felt himself to be a Roman[10][11] though there are also indications that he regarded himself as a Samnite or Sabellus by birth.[12][13] Italians in modern and ancient times have always been devoted to their home towns, even after success in the wider world, and Horace was no different. Images of his childhood setting and references to it are found throughout his poems.[14] Horace's father was probably a Venutian taken captive by Romans in the Social War, or possibly he was descended from a Sabine captured in the Samnite Wars. Either way, he was a slave for at least part of his life. He was evidently a man of strong abilities however and managed to gain his freedom and improve his social position. Thus Horace claimed to be the free-born son of a prosperous 'coactor'.[15] The term 'coactor' could denote various roles, such as tax collector, but its use by Horace[16] was explained by scholia as a reference to 'coactor argentareus' i.e. an auctioneer with some of the functions of a banker, paying the seller out of his own funds and later recovering the sum with interest from the buyer.[17] The father spent a small fortune on his son's education, eventually accompanying him to Rome to oversee his schooling and moral development. The poet later paid tribute to him in a poem[18] that one modern scholar considers the best memorial by any son to his father.[nb 5] The poem includes this passage: If my character is flawed by a few minor faults, but is otherwise decent and moral, if you can point out only a few scattered blemishes on an otherwise immaculate surface, if no one can accuse me of greed, or of prurience, or of profligacy, if I live a virtuous life, free of defilement (pardon, for a moment, my self-praise), and if I am to my friends a good friend, my father deserves all the credit... As it is now, he deserves from me unstinting gratitude and praise. I could never be ashamed of such a father, nor do I feel any need, as many people do, to apologize for being a freedman's son. Satires 1.6.65–92 He never mentioned his mother in his verses and he might not have known much about her. Perhaps she also had been a slave.[15] Adulthood[edit] Horace left Rome, possibly after his father's death, and continued his formal education in Athens, a great centre of learning in the ancient world, where he arrived at nineteen years of age, enrolling in The Academy. Founded by Plato, The Academy was now dominated by Epicureans and Stoics, whose theories and practises made a deep impression on the young man from Venusia.[19] Meanwhile, he mixed and lounged about with the elite of Roman youth, such as Marcus, the idle son of Cicero, and the Pompeius to whom he later addressed a poem.[20] It was in Athens too that he probably acquired deep familiarity with the ancient tradition of Greek lyric poetry, at that time largely the preserve of grammarians and academic specialists (access to such material was easier in Athens than in Rome, where the public libraries had yet to be built by Asinius Pollio and Augustus).[21] Rome's troubles following the assassination of Julius Caesar were soon to catch up with him. Marcus Junius Brutus came to Athens seeking support for the republican cause. Brutus was fêted around town in grand receptions and he made a point of attending academic lectures, all the while recruiting supporters among the young men studying there, including Horace.[22] An educated young Roman could begin military service high in the ranks and Horace was made tribunus militum (one of six senior officers of a typical legion), a post usually reserved for men of senatorial or equestrian rank and which seems to have inspired jealousy among his well-born confederates.[23][24] He learned the basics of military life while on the march, particularly in the wilds of northern Greece, whose rugged scenery became a backdrop to some of his later poems.[25] It was there in 42 BC that Octavian (later Augustus) and his associate Mark Antony crushed the republican forces at the Battle of Philippi. Horace later recorded it as a day of embarrassment for himself, when he fled without his shield,[26] but allowance should be made for his self-deprecating humour. Moreover, the incident allowed him to identify himself with some famous poets who had long ago abandoned their shields in battle, notably his heroes Alcaeus and Archilochus. The comparison with the latter poet is uncanny: Archilochus lost his shield in a part of Thrace near Philippi, and he was deeply involved in the Greek colonization of Thasos, where Horace's die-hard comrades finally surrendered.[24] Octavian offered an early amnesty to his opponents and Horace quickly accepted it. On returning to Italy, he was confronted with yet another loss: his father's estate in Venusia was one of many throughout Italy to be confiscated for the settlement of veterans (Virgil lost his estate in the north about the same time). Horace later claimed that he was reduced to poverty and this led him to try his hand at poetry.[27] In reality, there was no money to be had from versifying. At best, it offered future prospects through contacts with other poets and their patrons among the rich.[28] Meanwhile, he obtained the sinecure of scriba quaestorius, a civil service position at the aerarium or Treasury, profitable enough to be purchased even by members of the ordo equester and not very demanding in its work-load, since tasks could be delegated to scribae or permanent clerks.[29] It was about this time that he began writing his Satires and Epodes. Poet[edit] Horace reads before Maecenas, by Fyodor Bronnikov The Epodes belong to iambic poetry. Iambic poetry features insulting and obscene language;[30][31] sometimes, it is referred to as blame poetry.[32] Blame poetry, or shame poetry, is poetry written to blame and shame fellow citizens into a sense of their social obligations. Horace modelled these poems on the poetry of Archilochus. Social bonds in Rome had been decaying since the destruction of Carthage a little more than a hundred years earlier, due to the vast wealth that could be gained by plunder and corruption.[33] These social ills were magnified by rivalry between Julius Caesar, Mark Antony and confederates like Sextus Pompey, all jockeying for a bigger share of the spoils. One modern scholar has counted a dozen civil wars in the hundred years leading up to 31 BC, including the Spartacus rebellion, eight years before Horace's birth.[34] As the heirs to Hellenistic culture, Horace and his fellow Romans were not well prepared to deal with these problems: At bottom, all the problems that the times were stirring up were of a social nature, which the Hellenistic thinkers were ill qualified to grapple with. Some of them censured oppression of the poor by the rich, but they gave no practical lead, though they may have hoped to see well-meaning rulers doing so. Philosophy was drifting into absorption in self, a quest for private contentedness, to be achieved by self-control and restraint, without much regard for the fate of a disintegrating community. — V. G. Kiernan[35] Horace's Hellenistic background is clear in his Satires, even though the genre was unique to Latin literature. He brought to it a style and outlook suited to the social and ethical issues confronting Rome but he changed its role from public, social engagement to private meditation.[36] Meanwhile, he was beginning to interest Octavian's supporters, a gradual process described by him in one of his satires.[18] The way was opened for him by his friend, the poet Virgil, who had gained admission into the privileged circle around Maecenas, Octavian's lieutenant, following the success of his Eclogues. An introduction soon followed and, after a discreet interval, Horace too was accepted. He depicted the process as an honourable one, based on merit and mutual respect, eventually leading to true friendship, and there is reason to believe that his relationship was genuinely friendly, not just with Maecenas but afterwards with Augustus as well.[37] On the other hand, the poet has been unsympathetically described by one scholar as "a sharp and rising young man, with an eye to the main chance."[38] There were advantages on both sides: Horace gained encouragement and material support, the politicians gained a hold on a potential dissident.[39] His republican sympathies, and his role at Philippi, may have caused him some pangs of remorse over his new status. However most Romans considered the civil wars to be the result of contentio dignitatis, or rivalry between the foremost families of the city, and he too seems to have accepted the principate as Rome's last hope for much needed peace.[40] In 37 BC, Horace accompanied Maecenas on a journey to Brundisium, described in one of his poems[41] as a series of amusing incidents and charming encounters with other friends along the way, such as Virgil. In fact the journey was political in its motivation, with Maecenas en route to negotiatie the Treaty of Tarentum with Antony, a fact Horace artfully keeps from the reader (political issues are largely avoided in the first book of satires).[39] Horace was probably also with Maecenas on one of Octavian's naval expeditions against the piratical Sextus Pompeius, which ended in a disastrous storm off Palinurus in 36 BC, briefly alluded to by Horace in terms of near-drowning.[42][nb 6] There are also some indications in his verses that he was with Maecenas at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, where Octavian defeated his great rival, Antony.[43][nb 7] By then Horace had already received from Maecenas the famous gift of his Sabine farm, probably not long after the publication of the first book of Satires. The gift, which included income from five tenants, may have ended his career at the Treasury, or at least allowed him to give it less time and energy.[44] It signalled his identification with the Octavian regime yet, in the second book of Satires that soon followed, he continued the apolitical stance of the first book. By this time, he had attained the status of eques Romanus,[45] perhaps as a result of his work at the Treasury.[46] Knight[edit] Odes 1–3 were the next focus for his artistic creativity. He adapted their forms and themes from Greek lyric poetry of the seventh and sixth centuries BC. The fragmented nature of the Greek world had enabled his literary heroes to express themselves freely and his semi-retirement from the Treasury in Rome to his own estate in the Sabine hills perhaps empowered him to some extent also[47] yet even when his lyrics touched on public affairs they reinforced the importance of private life.[1] Nevertheless, his work in the period 30–27 BC began to show his closeness to the regime and his sensitivity to its developing ideology. In Odes 1.2, for example, he eulogized Octavian in hyperboles that echo Hellenistic court poetry. The name Augustus, which Octavian assumed in January 27 BC, is first attested in Odes 3.3 and 3.5. In the period 27–24 BC, political allusions in the Odes concentrated on foreign wars in Britain (1.35), Arabia (1.29) Spain (3.8) and Parthia (2.2). He greeted Augustus on his return to Rome in 24 BC as a beloved ruler upon whose good health he depended for his own happiness (3.14).[48] The public reception of Odes 1–3 disappointed him, however. He attributed the lack of success to jealousy among imperial courtiers and to his isolation from literary cliques.[49] Perhaps it was disappointment that led him to put aside the genre in favour of verse letters. He addressed his first book of Epistles to a variety of friends and acquaintances in an urbane style reflecting his new social status as a knight. In the opening poem, he professed a deeper interest in moral philosophy than poetry[50] but, though the collection demonstrates a leaning towards stoic theory, it reveals no sustained thinking about ethics.[51] Maecenas was still the dominant confidante but Horace had now begun to assert his own independence, suavely declining constant invitations to attend his patron.[52] In the final poem of the first book of Epistles, he revealed himself to be forty-four years old in the consulship of Lollius and Lepidus i.e. 21 BC, and "of small stature, fond of the sun, prematurely grey, quick-tempered but easily placated".[53][54] According to Suetonius, the second book of Epistles was prompted by Augustus, who desired a verse epistle to be addressed to himself. Augustus was in fact a prolific letter-writer and he once asked Horace to be his personal secretary. Horace refused the secretarial role but complied with the emperor's request for a verse letter.[55] The letter to Augustus may have been slow in coming, being published possibly as late as 11 BC. It celebrated, among other things, the 15 BC military victories of his stepsons, Drusus and Tiberius, yet it and the following letter[56] were largely devoted to literary theory and criticism. The literary theme was explored still further in Ars Poetica, published separately but written in the form of an epistle and sometimes referred to as Epistles 2.3 (possibly the last poem he ever wrote).[57] He was also commissioned to write odes commemorating the victories of Drusus and Tiberius[58] and one to be sung in a temple of Apollo for the Secular Games, a long-abandoned festival that Augustus revived in accordance with his policy of recreating ancient customs (Carmen Saeculare). Suetonius recorded some gossip about Horace's sexual activities late in life, claiming that the walls of his bedchamber were covered with obscene pictures and mirrors, so that he saw erotica wherever he looked.[nb 8] The poet died at 56 years of age, not long after his friend Maecenas, near whose tomb he was laid to rest. Both men bequeathed their property to Augustus, an honour that the emperor expected of his friends.[59] Works[edit] Odes 1.14 – Wall poem in Leiden The dating of Horace's works isn't known precisely and scholars often debate the exact order in which they were first 'published'. There are persuasive arguments for the following chronology:[60] Satires 1 (c. 35–34 BC) Satires 2 (c. 30 BC) Epodes (30 BC) Odes 1–3 (c. 23 BC)[nb 9] Epistles 1 (c. 21 BC) Carmen Saeculare (17 BC) Epistles 2 (c. 11 BC)[nb 10] Odes 4 (c. 11 BC) Ars Poetica (c. 10–8 BC)[nb 11] Historical context[edit] Horace composed in traditional metres borrowed from Archaic Greece, employing hexameters in his Satires and Epistles, and iambs in his Epodes, all of which were relatively easy to adapt into Latin forms. His Odes featured more complex measures, including alcaics and sapphics, which were sometimes a difficult fit for Latin structure and syntax. Despite these traditional metres, he presented himself as a partisan in the development of a new and sophisticated style. He was influenced in particular by Hellenistic aesthetics of brevity, elegance and polish, as modelled in the work of Callimachus.[61] As soon as Horace, stirred by his own genius and encouraged by the example of Virgil, Varius, and perhaps some other poets of the same generation, had determined to make his fame as a poet, being by temperament a fighter, he wanted to fight against all kinds of prejudice, amateurish slovenliness, philistinism, reactionary tendencies, in short to fight for the new and noble type of poetry which he and his friends were endeavouring to bring about. — Eduard Fraenkel[62] In modern literary theory, a distinction is often made between immediate personal experience (Urerlebnis) and experience mediated by cultural vectors such as literature, philosophy and the visual arts (Bildungserlebnis).[63] The distinction has little relevance for Horace[citation needed] however since his personal and literary experiences are implicated in each other. Satires 1.5, for example, recounts in detail a real trip Horace made with Virgil and some of his other literary friends, and which parallels a Satire by Lucilius, his predecessor.[64] Unlike much Hellenistic-inspired literature, however, his poetry was not composed for a small coterie of admirers and fellow poets, nor does it rely on abstruse allusions for many of its effects. Though elitist in its literary standards, it was written for a wide audience, as a public form of art.[65] Ambivalence also characterizes his literary persona, since his presentation of himself as part of a small community of philosophically aware people, seeking true peace of mind while shunning vices like greed, was well adapted to Augustus's plans to reform public morality, corrupted by greed—his personal plea for moderation was part of the emperor's grand message to the nation.[66] Horace generally followed the examples of poets established as classics in different genres, such as Archilochus in the Epodes, Lucilius in the Satires and Alcaeus in the Odes, later broadening his scope for the sake of variation and because his models weren't actually suited to the realities confronting him. Archilochus and Alcaeus were aristocratic Greeks whose poetry had a social and religious function that was immediately intelligible to their audiences but which became a mere artifice or literary motif when transposed to Rome. However, the artifice of the Odes is also integral to their success, since they could now accommodate a wide range of emotional effects, and the blend of Greek and Roman elements adds a sense of detachment and universality.[67] Horace proudly claimed to introduce into Latin the spirit and iambic poetry of Archilochus but (unlike Archilochus) without persecuting anyone (Epistles 1.19.23–25). It was no idle boast. His Epodes were modelled on the verses of the Greek poet, as 'blame poetry', yet he avoided targeting real scapegoats. Whereas Archilochus presented himself as a serious and vigorous opponent of wrong-doers, Horace aimed for comic effects and adopted the persona of a weak and ineffectual critic of his times (as symbolized for example in his surrender to the witch Canidia in the final epode).[68] He also claimed to be the first to introduce into Latin the lyrical methods of Alcaeus (Epistles 1.19.32–33) and he actually was the first Latin poet to make consistent use of Alcaic meters and themes: love, politics and the symposium. He imitated other Greek lyric poets as well, employing a 'motto' technique, beginning each ode with some reference to a Greek original and then diverging from it.[69] The satirical poet Lucilius was a senator's son who could castigate his peers with impunity. Horace was a mere freedman's son who had to tread carefully.[70] Lucilius was a rugged patriot and a significant voice in Roman self-awareness, endearing himself to his countrymen by his blunt frankness and explicit politics. His work expressed genuine freedom or libertas. His style included 'metrical vandalism' and looseness of structure. Horace instead adopted an oblique and ironic style of satire, ridiculing stock characters and anonymous targets. His libertas was the private freedom of a philosophical outlook, not a political or social privilege.[71] His Satires are relatively easy-going in their use of meter (relative to the tight lyric meters of the Odes)[72] but formal and highly controlled relative to the poems of Lucilius, whom Horace mocked for his sloppy standards (Satires 1.10.56–61)[nb 12] The Epistles may be considered among Horace's most innovative works. There was nothing like it in Greek or Roman literature. Occasionally poems had had some resemblance to letters, including an elegiac poem from Solon to Mimnermus and some lyrical poems from Pindar to Hieron of Syracuse. Lucilius had composed a satire in the form of a letter, and some epistolary poems were composed by Catullus and Propertius. But nobody before Horace had ever composed an entire collection of verse letters,[73] let alone letters with a focus on philosophical problems. The sophisticated and flexible style that he had developed in his Satires was adapted to the more serious needs of this new genre.[74] Such refinement of style was not unusual for Horace. His craftsmanship as a wordsmith is apparent even in his earliest attempts at this or that kind of poetry, but his handling of each genre tended to improve over time as he adapted it to his own needs.[70] Thus for example it is generally agreed that his second book of Satires, where human folly is revealed through dialogue between characters, is superior to the first, where he propounds his ethics in monologues. Nevertheless, the first book includes some of his most popular poems.[75] Themes[edit] Horace developed a number of inter-related themes throughout his poetic career, including politics, love, philosophy and ethics, his own social role, as well as poetry itself. His Epodes and Satires are forms of 'blame poetry' and both have a natural affinity with the moralising and diatribes of Cynicism. This often takes the form of allusions to the work and philosophy of Bion of Borysthenes [nb 13] but it is as much a literary game as a philosophical alignment. By the time he composed his Epistles, he was a critic of Cynicism along with all impractical and "high-falutin" philosophy in general.[nb 14][76] The Satires also include a strong element of Epicureanism, with frequent allusions to the Epicurean poet Lucretius.[nb 15] So for example the Epicurean sentiment carpe diem is the inspiration behind Horace's repeated punning on his own name (Horatius ~ hora) in Satires 2.6.[77] The Satires also feature some Stoic, Peripatetic and Platonic (Dialogues) elements. In short, the Satires present a medley of philosophical programs, dished up in no particular order—a style of argument typical of the genre.[78] The Odes display a wide range of topics. Over time, he becomes more confident about his political voice.[79] Although he is often thought of as an overly intellectual lover, he is ingenious in representing passion.[80] The "Odes" weave various philosophical strands together, with allusions and statements of doctrine present in about a third of the Odes Books 1–3, ranging from the flippant (1.22, 3.28) to the solemn (2.10, 3.2, 3.3). Epicureanism is the dominant influence, characterizing about twice as many of these odes as Stoicism. A group of odes combines these two influences in tense relationships, such as Odes 1.7, praising Stoic virility and devotion to public duty while also advocating private pleasures among friends. While generally favouring the Epicurean lifestyle, the lyric poet is as eclectic as the satiric poet, and in Odes 2.10 even proposes Aristotle's golden mean as a remedy for Rome's political troubles.[81] Many of Horace's poems also contain much reflection on genre, the lyric tradition, and the function of poetry.[82] Odes 4, thought to be composed at the emperor's request, takes the themes of the first three books of "Odes" to a new level. This book shows greater poetic confidence after the public performance of his "Carmen saeculare" or "Century hymn" at a public festival orchestrated by Augustus. In it, Horace addresses the emperor Augustus directly with more confidence and proclaims his power to grant poetic immortality to those he praises. It is the least philosophical collection of his verses, excepting the twelfth ode, addressed to the dead Virgil as if he were living. In that ode, the epic poet and the lyric poet are aligned with Stoicism and Epicureanism respectively, in a mood of bitter-sweet pathos.[83] The first poem of the Epistles sets the philosophical tone for the rest of the collection: "So now I put aside both verses and all those other games: What is true and what befits is my care, this my question, this my whole concern." His poetic renunciation of poetry in favour of philosophy is intended to be ambiguous. Ambiguity is the hallmark of the Epistles. It is uncertain if those being addressed by the self-mocking poet-philosopher are being honoured or criticized. Though he emerges as an Epicurean, it is on the understanding that philosophical preferences, like political and social choices, are a matter of personal taste. Thus he depicts the ups and downs of the philosophical life more realistically than do most philosophers.[84] Reception[edit] Horace, portrayed by Giacomo Di Chirico The reception of Horace's work has varied from one epoch to another and varied markedly even in his own lifetime. Odes 1–3 were not well received when first 'published' in Rome, yet Augustus later commissioned a ceremonial ode for the Centennial Games in 17 BC and also encouraged the publication of Odes 4, after which Horace's reputation as Rome's premier lyricist was assured. His Odes were to become the best received of all his poems in ancient times, acquiring a classic status that discouraged imitation: no other poet produced a comparable body of lyrics in the four centuries that followed[85] (though that might also be attributed to social causes, particularly the parasitism that Italy was sinking into).[86] In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, ode-writing became highly fashionable in England and a large number of aspiring poets imitated Horace both in English and in Latin.[87] In a verse epistle to Augustus (Epistle 2.1), in 12 BC, Horace argued for classic status to be awarded to contemporary poets, including Virgil and apparently himself.[88] In the final poem of his third book of Odes he claimed to have created for himself a monument more durable than bronze ("Exegi monumentum aere perennius", Carmina 3.30.1). For one modern scholar, however, Horace's personal qualities are more notable than the monumental quality of his achievement: ... when we hear his name we don't really think of a monument. We think rather of a voice which varies in tone and resonance but is always recognizable, and which by its unsentimental humanity evokes a very special blend of liking and respect. — Niall Rudd[89] Yet for men like Wilfred Owen, scarred by experiences of World War I, his poetry stood for discredited values: My friend, you would not tell with such high zest To children ardent for some desperate glory, The Old Lie: Dulce et decorum est Pro patria mori.[nb 16] The same motto, Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori, had been adapted to the ethos of martyrdom in the lyrics of early Christian poets like Prudentius.[90] These preliminary comments touch on a small sample of developments in the reception of Horace's work. More developments are covered epoch by epoch in the following sections. Antiquity[edit] Horace's influence can be observed in the work of his near contemporaries, Ovid and Propertius. Ovid followed his example in creating a completely natural style of expression in hexameter verse, and Propertius cheekily mimicked him in his third book of elegies.[nb 17] His Epistles provided them both with a model for their own verse letters and it also shaped Ovid's exile poetry.[nb 18] His influence had a perverse aspect. As mentioned before, the brilliance of his Odes may have discouraged imitation. Conversely, they may have created a vogue for the lyrics of the archaic Greek poet Pindar, due to the fact that Horace had neglected that style of lyric (see Influence and Legacy of Pindar).[91] The iambic genre seems almost to have disappeared after publication of Horace's Epodes. Ovid's Ibis was a rare attempt at the form but it was inspired mainly by Callimachus, and there are some iambic elements in Martial but the main influence there was Catullus.[92] A revival of popular interest in the satires of Lucilius may have been inspired by Horace's criticism of his unpolished style. Both Horace and Lucilius were considered good role-models by Persius, who critiqued his own satires as lacking both the acerbity of Lucillius and the gentler touch of Horace.[nb 19] Juvenal's caustic satire was influenced mainly by Lucilius but Horace by then was a school classic and Juvenal could refer to him respectfully and in a round-about way as "the Venusine lamp".[nb 20] Statius paid homage to Horace by composing one poem in Sapphic and one in Alcaic meter (the verse forms most often associated with Odes), which he included in his collection of occasional poems, Silvae. Ancient scholars wrote commentaries on the lyric meters of the Odes, including the scholarly poet Caesius Bassus. By a process called derivatio, he varied established meters through the addition or omission of syllables, a technique borrowed by Seneca the Younger when adapting Horatian meters to the stage.[93] Horace's poems continued to be school texts into late antiquity. Works attributed to Helenius Acro and Pomponius Porphyrio are the remnants of a much larger body of Horatian scholarship. Porphyrio arranged the poems in non-chronological order, beginning with the Odes, because of their general popularity and their appeal to scholars (the Odes were to retain this privileged position in the medieval manuscript tradition and thus in modern editions also). Horace was often evoked by poets of the fourth century, such as Ausonius and Claudian. Prudentius presented himself as a Christian Horace, adapting Horatian meters to his own poetry and giving Horatian motifs a Christian tone.[nb 21] On the other hand, St Jerome, modelled an uncompromising response to the pagan Horace, observing: "What harmony can there be between Christ and the Devil? What has Horace to do with the Psalter?"[nb 22] By the early sixth century, Horace and Prudentius were both part of a classical heritage that was struggling to survive the disorder of the times. Boethius, the last major author of classical Latin literature, could still take inspiration from Horace, sometimes mediated by Senecan tragedy.[94] It can be argued that Horace's influence extended beyond poetry to dignify core themes and values of the early Christian era, such as self-sufficiency, inner contentment and courage.[nb 23] Middle Ages and Renaissance[edit] Horace in his Studium: German print of the fifteenth century, summarizing the final ode 4.15 (in praise of Augustus). Classical texts almost ceased being copied in the period between the mid sixth century and the Carolingian revival. Horace's work probably survived in just two or three books imported into northern Europe from Italy. These became the ancestors of six extant manuscripts dated to the ninth century. Two of those six manuscripts are French in origin, one was produced in Alsace, and the other three show Irish influence but were probably written in continental monasteries (Lombardy for example).[95] By the last half of the ninth century, it was not uncommon for literate people to have direct experience of Horace's poetry. His influence on the Carolingian Renaissance can be found in the poems of Heiric of Auxerre[nb 24] and in some manuscripts marked with neumes, mysterious notations that may have been an aid to the memorization and discussion of his lyric meters. Ode 4.11 is neumed with the melody of a hymn to John the Baptist, Ut queant laxis, composed in Sapphic stanzas. This hymn later became the basis of the solfege system (Do, re, mi...)—an association with western music quite appropriate for a lyric poet like Horace, though the language of the hymn is mainly Prudentian.[96] Lyons[97] argues that the melody in question was linked with Horace's Ode well before Guido d'Arezzo fitted Ut queant laxis to it. However, the melody is unlikely to be a survivor from classical times, although Ovid[98] testifies to Horace's use of the lyre while performing his Odes. The German scholar, Ludwig Traube, once dubbed the tenth and eleventh centuries The age of Horace (aetas Horatiana), and placed it between the aetas Vergiliana of the eighth and ninth centuries, and the aetas Ovidiana of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, a distinction supposed to reflect the dominant classical Latin influences of those times. Such a distinction is over-schematized since Horace was a substantial influence in the ninth century as well. Traube had focused too much on Horace's Satires.[99] Almost all of Horace's work found favour in the Medieval period. In fact medieval scholars were also guilty of over-schematism, associating Horace's different genres with the different ages of man. A twelfth-century scholar encapsulated the theory: "...Horace wrote four different kinds of poems on account of the four ages, the Odes for boys, the Ars Poetica for young men, the Satires for mature men, the Epistles for old and complete men."[100] It was even thought that Horace had composed his works in the order in which they had been placed by ancient scholars.[nb 25] Despite its naivety, the schematism involved an appreciation of Horace's works as a collection, the Ars Poetica, Satires and Epistles appearing to find favour as well as the Odes. The later Middle Ages however gave special significance to Satires and Epistles, being considered Horace's mature works. Dante referred to Horace as Orazio satiro, and he awarded him a privileged position in the first circle of Hell, with Homer, Ovid and Lucan.[101] Horace's popularity is revealed in the large number of quotes from all his works found in almost every genre of medieval literature, and also in the number of poets imitating him in quantitative Latin meter. The most prolific imitator of his Odes was the Bavarian monk, Metellus of Tegernsee, who dedicated his work to the patron saint of Tegernsee Abbey, St Quirinus, around the year 1170. He imitated all Horace's lyrical meters then followed these up with imitations of other meters used by Prudentius and Boethius, indicating that variety, as first modelled by Horace, was considered a fundamental aspect of the lyric genre. The content of his poems however was restricted to simple piety.[102] Among the most successful imitators of Satires and Epistles was another Germanic author, calling himself Sextus Amarcius, around 1100, who composed four books, the first two exemplifying vices, the second pair mainly virtues.[103] Petrarch is a key figure in the imitation of Horace in accentual meters. His verse letters in Latin were modelled on the Epistles and he wrote a letter to Horace in the form of an ode. However he also borrowed from Horace when composing his Italian sonnets. One modern scholar has speculated that authors who imitated Horace in accentual rhythms (including stressed Latin and vernacular languages) may have considered their work a natural sequel to Horace's metrical variety.[104] In France, Horace and Pindar were the poetic models for a group of vernacular authors called the Pléiade, including for example Pierre de Ronsard and Joachim du Bellay. Montaigne made constant and inventive use of Horatian quotes.[105] The vernacular languages were dominant in Spain and Portugal in the sixteenth century, where Horace's influence is notable in the works of such authors as Garcilaso de la Vega, Juan Boscán, Sá de Miranda, Antonio Ferreira and Fray Luis de León, the last writing odes on the Horatian theme beatus ille (happy the man).[106] The sixteenth century in western Europe was also an age of translations (except in Germany, where Horace wasn't translated into the vernacular until well into the seventeenth century). The first English translator was Thomas Drant, who placed translations of Jeremiah and Horace side by side in Medicinable Morall, 1566. That was also the year that the Scot George Buchanan paraphrased the Psalms in a Horatian setting. Ben Jonson put Horace on the stage in 1601 in Poetaster, along with other classical Latin authors, giving them all their own verses to speak in translation. Horace's part evinces the independent spirit, moral earnestness and critical insight that many readers look for in his poems.[107] Age of Enlightenment[edit] During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, or the Age of Enlightenment, neoclassical culture was pervasive. English literature in the middle of that period has been dubbed Augustan. It is not always easy to distinguish Horace's influence during those centuries (the mixing of influences is shown for example in one poet's pseudonym, Horace Juvenal).[nb 26] However a measure of his influence can be found in the diversity of the people interested in his works, both among readers and authors.[108] New editions of his works were published almost yearly. There were three new editions in 1612 (two in Leiden, one in Frankfurt) and again in 1699 (Utrecht, Barcelona, Cambridge). Cheap editions were plentiful and fine editions were also produced, including one whose entire text was engraved by John Pine in copperplate. The poet James Thomson owned five editions of Horace's work and the physician James Douglas had five hundred books with Horace-related titles. Horace was often commended in periodicals such as The Spectator, as a hallmark of good judgement, moderation and manliness, a focus for moralising.[nb 27] His verses offered a fund of mottoes, such as simplex munditiis (elegance in simplicity), splendide mendax (nobly untruthful), sapere aude (dare to know), nunc est bibendum (now is the time to drink), carpe diem (seize the day, perhaps the only one still in common use today).[94] These were quoted even in works as prosaic as Edmund Quincy's A treatise of hemp-husbandry (1765). The fictional hero Tom Jones recited his verses with feeling.[109] His works were also used to justify commonplace themes, such as patriotic obedience, as in James Parry's English lines from an Oxford University collection in 1736:[110] What friendly Muse will teach my Lays To emulate the Roman fire? Justly to sound a Caeser's praise Demands a bold Horatian lyre. Horatian-style lyrics were increasingly typical of Oxford and Cambridge verse collections for this period, most of them in Latin but some like the previous ode in English. John Milton's Lycidas first appeared in such a collection. It has few Horatian echoes[nb 28] yet Milton's associations with Horace were lifelong. He composed a controversial version of Odes 1.5, and Paradise Lost includes references to Horace's 'Roman' Odes 3.1–6 (Book 7 for example begins with echoes of Odes 3.4).[111] Yet Horace's lyrics could offer inspiration to libertines as well as moralists, and neo-Latin sometimes served as a kind of discrete veil for the risqué. Thus for example Benjamin Loveling authored a catalogue of Drury Lane and Covent Garden prostitutes, in Sapphic stanzas, and an encomium for a dying lady "of salacious memory".[112] Some Latin imitations of Horace were politically subversive, such as a marriage ode by Anthony Alsop that included a rallying cry for the Jacobite cause. On the other hand, Andrew Marvell took inspiration from Horace's Odes 1.37 to compose his English masterpiece Horatian Ode upon Cromwell's Return from Ireland, in which subtly nuanced reflections on the execution of Charles I echo Horace's ambiguous response to the death of Cleopatra (Marvell's ode was suppressed in spite of its subtlety and only began to be widely published in 1776). Samuel Johnson took particular pleasure in reading The Odes.[nb 29] Alexander Pope wrote direct Imitations of Horace (published with the original Latin alongside) and also echoed him in Essays and The Rape of the Lock. He even emerged as "a quite Horatian Homer" in his translation of the Iliad.[113] Horace appealed also to female poets, such as Anna Seward (Original sonnets on various subjects, and odes paraphrased from Horace, 1799) and Elizabeth Tollet, who composed a Latin ode in Sapphic meter to celebrate her brother's return from overseas, with tea and coffee substituted for the wine of Horace's sympotic settings: Quos procax nobis numeros, jocosque Musa dictaret? mihi dum tibique Temperent baccis Arabes, vel herbis Pocula Seres[114] What verses and jokes might the bold Muse dictate? while for you and me Arabs flavour our cups with beans Or Chinese with leaves.[115] Horace's Ars Poetica is second only to Aristotle's Poetics in its influence on literary theory and criticism. Milton recommended both works in his treatise of Education.[116] Horace's Satires and Epistles however also had a huge impact, influencing theorists and critics such as John Dryden.[117] There was considerable debate over the value of different lyrical forms for contemporary poets, as represented on one hand by the kind of four-line stanzas made familiar by Horace's Sapphic and Alcaic Odes and, on the other, the loosely structured Pindarics associated with the odes of Pindar. Translations occasionally involved scholars in the dilemmas of censorship. Thus Christopher Smart entirely omitted Odes 4.10 and re-numbered the remaining odes. He also removed the ending of Odes 4.1. Thomas Creech printed Epodes 8 and 12 in the original Latin but left out their English translations. Philip Francis left out both the English and Latin for those same two epodes, a gap in the numbering the only indication that something was amiss. French editions of Horace were influential in England and these too were regularly bowdlerized. Most European nations had their own 'Horaces': thus for example Friedrich von Hagedorn was called The German Horace and Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski The Polish Horace (the latter was much imitated by English poets such as Henry Vaughan and Abraham Cowley). Pope Urban VIII wrote voluminously in Horatian meters, including an ode on gout.[118] 19th century on[edit] Horace maintained a central role in the education of English-speaking elites right up until the 1960s.[119] A pedantic emphasis on the formal aspects of language-learning at the expense of literary appreciation may have made him unpopular in some quarters[120] yet it also confirmed his influence—a tension in his reception that underlies Byron's famous lines from Childe Harold (Canto iv, 77):[121] Then farewell, Horace, whom I hated so Not for thy faults, but mine; it is a curse To understand, not feel thy lyric flow, To comprehend, but never love thy verse. William Wordsworth's mature poetry, including the preface to Lyrical Ballads, reveals Horace's influence in its rejection of false ornament[122] and he once expressed "a wish / to meet the shade of Horace...".[nb 30] John Keats echoed the opening of Horace's Epodes 14 in the opening lines of Ode to a Nightingale.[nb 31] The Roman poet was presented in the nineteenth century as an honorary English gentleman. William Thackeray produced a version of Odes 1.38 in which Horace's 'boy' became 'Lucy', and Gerard Manley Hopkins translated the boy innocently as 'child'. Horace was translated by Sir Theodore Martin (biographer of Prince Albert) but minus some ungentlemanly verses, such as the erotic Odes 1.25 and Epodes 8 and 12. Edward Bulwer-Lytton produced a popular translation and William Gladstone also wrote translations during his last days as Prime Minister.[123] Edward FitzGerald's Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, though formally derived from the Persian ruba'i, nevertheless shows a strong Horatian influence, since, as one modern scholar has observed, "...the quatrains inevitably recall the stanzas of the 'Odes', as does the narrating first person of the world-weary, ageing Epicurean Omar himself, mixing sympotic exhortation and 'carpe diem' with splendid moralising and 'memento mori' nihilism."[nb 32] Matthew Arnold advised a friend in verse not to worry about politics, an echo of Odes 2.11, yet later became a critic of Horace's inadequacies relative to Greek poets, as role models of Victorian virtues, observing: "If human life were complete without faith, without enthusiasm, without energy, Horace...would be the perfect interpreter of human life."[124] Christina Rossetti composed a sonnet depicting a woman willing her own death steadily, drawing on Horace's depiction of 'Glycera' in Odes 1.19.5–6 and Cleopatra in Odes 1.37.[nb 33] A. E. Housman considered Odes 4.7, in Archilochian couplets, the most beautiful poem of antiquity[125] and yet he generally shared Horace's penchant for quatrains, being readily adapted to his own elegiac and melancholy strain.[126] The most famous poem of Ernest Dowson took its title and its heroine's name from a line of Odes 4.1, Non sum qualis eram bonae sub regno Cynarae, as well as its motif of nostalgia for a former flame. Kipling wrote a famous parody of the Odes, satirising their stylistic idiosyncrasies and especially the extraordinary syntax, but he also used Horace's Roman patriotism as a focus for British imperialism, as in the story Regulus in the school collection Stalky & Co., which he based on Odes 3.5.[127] Wilfred Owen's famous poem, quoted above, incorporated Horatian text to question patriotism while ignoring the rules of Latin scansion. However, there were few other echoes of Horace in the war period, possibly because war is not actually a major theme of Horace's work.[128] Bibendum (the symbol of the Michelin tyre company) takes his name from the opening line of Ode 1.37, Nunc est bibendum. Both W.H.Auden and Louis MacNeice began their careers as teachers of classics and both responded as poets to Horace's influence. Auden for example evoked the fragile world of the 1930s in terms echoing Odes 2.11.1–4, where Horace advises a friend not to let worries about frontier wars interfere with current pleasures. And, gentle, do not care to know Where Poland draws her Eastern bow,      What violence is done; Nor ask what doubtful act allows Our freedom in this English house,      Our picnics in the sun.[nb 34] The American poet, Robert Frost, echoed Horace's Satires in the conversational and sententious idiom of some of his longer poems, such as The Lesson for Today (1941), and also in his gentle advocacy of life on the farm, as in Hyla Brook (1916), evoking Horace's fons Bandusiae in Ode 3.13. Now at the start of the third millennium, poets are still absorbing and re-configuring the Horatian influence, sometimes in translation (such as a 2002 English/American edition of the Odes by thirty-six poets)[nb 35] and sometimes as inspiration for their own work (such as a 2003 collection of odes by a New Zealand poet).[nb 36] Horace's Epodes have largely been ignored in the modern era, excepting those with political associations of historical significance. The obscene qualities of some of the poems have repulsed even scholars[nb 37] yet more recently a better understanding of the nature of Iambic poetry has led to a re-evaluation of the whole collection.[129][130] A re-appraisal of the Epodes also appears in creative adaptations by recent poets (such as a 2004 collection of poems that relocates the ancient context to a 1950s industrial town).[nb 38] Translations[edit] John Dryden successfully adapted three of the Odes (and one Epode) into verse for readers of his own age. Samuel Johnson favored the versions of Philip Francis. Others favor unrhymed translations. In 1964 James Michie published a translation of the Odes—many of them fully rhymed—including a dozen of the poems in the original Sapphic and Alcaic metres. More recent verse translations of the Odes include those by David West (free verse), and Colin Sydenham (rhymed). Ars Poetica was first translated into English by Ben Jonson and later by Lord Byron. Horace's Odes and the Mystery of Do-Re-Mi Stuart Lyons (rhymed) Aris & Phillips ISBN 978-0-85668-790-7 In popular culture[edit] The Oxford Latin Course textbooks use the life of Horace to illustrate an average Roman's life in the late Republic to Early Empire.[131] See also[edit] Literature portal Ancient Rome portal Biography portal Carpe diem Horatia (gens) List of ancient Romans Otium Prosody (Latin) Translation Notes[edit] ^ Quintilian 10.1.96. The only other lyrical poet Quintilian thought comparable with Horace was the now obscure poet/metrical theorist, Caesius Bassus (R. Tarrant, Ancient Receptions of Horace, 280) ^ Translated from Persius' own 'Satires' 1.116–17: "omne vafer vitium ridenti Flaccus amico / tangit et admissus circum praecordia ludit." ^ Quoted by N. Rudd from John Dryden's Discourse Concerning the Original and Progress of Satire, excerpted from W.P.Ker's edition of Dryden's essays, Oxford 1926, vol. 2, pp. 86–87 ^ The year is given in Odes 3.21.1 ("Consule Manlio"), the month in Epistles 1.20.27, the day in Suetonius' biography Vita (R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 7) ^ "No son ever set a finer monument to his father than Horace did in the sixth satire of Book I...Horace's description of his father is warm-hearted but free from sentimentality or exaggeration. We see before us one of the common people, a hard-working, open-minded, and thoroughly honest man of simple habits and strict convictions, representing some of the best qualities that at the end of the Republic could still be found in the unsophisticated society of the Italian municipia" — E. Fraenkel, Horace, 5–6 ^ Odes 3.4.28: "nec (me extinxit) Sicula Palinurus unda"; "nor did Palinurus extinguish me with Sicilian waters". Maecenas' involvement is recorded by Appian Bell. Civ. 5.99 but Horace's ode is the only historical reference to his own presence there, depending however on interpretation. (R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 10) ^ The point is much disputed among scholars and hinges on how the text is interpreted. Epodes 9 for example may offer proof of Horace's presence if 'ad hunc frementis' ('gnashing at this' man i.e. the traitrous Roman ) is a misreading of 'at huc...verterent' (but hither...they fled) in lines describing the defection of the Galatian cavalry, "ad hunc frementis verterunt bis mille equos / Galli canentes Caesarem" (R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 12). ^ Suetonius signals that the report is based on rumours by employing the terms "traditur...dicitur" / "it is reported...it is said" (E. Fraenkel, Horace, 21) ^ According to a recent theory, the three books of Odes were issued separately, possibly in 26, 24 and 23 BC (see G. Hutchinson (2002), Classical Quarterly 52: 517–37) ^ 19 BC is the usual estimate but c. 11 BC has good support too (see R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 18–20 ^ The date however is subject to much controversy with 22–18 BC another option (see for example R. Syme, The Augustan Aristocracy, 379–81 ^ "[Lucilius]...resembles a man whose only concern is to force / something into the framework of six feet, and who gaily produces / two hundred lines before dinner and another two hundred after." – Satire 1.10.59–61 (translated by Niall Rudd, The Satires of Horace and Persius, Penguin Classics 1973, p. 69) ^ There is one reference to Bion by name in Epistles 2.2.60, and the clearest allusion to him is in Satire 1.6, which parallels Bion fragments 1, 2, 16 Kindstrand ^ Epistles 1.17 and 1.18.6–8 are critical of the extreme views of Diogenes and also of social adaptations of Cynic precepts, and yet Epistle 1.2 could be either Cynic or Stoic in its orientation (J. Moles, Philosophy and ethics, p. 177 ^ Satires 1.1.25–26, 74–75, 1.2.111–12, 1.3.76–77, 97–114, 1.5.44, 101–03, 1.6.128–31, 2.2.14–20, 25, 2.6.93–97 ^ Wilfred Owen, Dulce et decorum est (1917), echoes a line from Carmina 3.2.13, "it is sweet and honourable to die for one's country", cited by Stephen Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 340. ^ Propertius published his third book of elegies within a year or two of Horace's Odes 1–3 and mimicked him, for example, in the opening lines, characterizing himself in terms borrowed from Odes 3.1.13 and 3.30.13–14, as a priest of the Muses and as an adaptor of Greek forms of poetry (R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 227) ^ Ovid for example probably borrowed from Horace's Epistle 1.20 the image of a poetry book as a slave boy eager to leave home, adapting it to the opening poems of Tristia 1 and 3 (R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace), and Tristia 2 may be understood as a counterpart to Horace's Epistles 2.1, both being letters addressed to Augustus on literary themes (A. Barchiesi, Speaking Volumes, 79–103) ^ The comment is in Persius 1.114–18, yet that same satire has been found to have nearly 80 reminiscences of Horace; see D. Hooley, The Knotted Thong, 29 ^ The allusion to Venusine comes via Horace's Sermones 2.1.35, while lamp signifies the lucubrations of a conscientious poet. According to Quintilian (93), however, many people in Flavian Rome preferred Lucilius not only to Horace but to all other Latin poets (R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 279) ^ Prudentius sometimes alludesto the Odes in a negative context, as expressions of a secular life he is abandoning. Thus for example male pertinax, employed in Prudentius's Praefatio to describe a willful desire for victory, is lifted from Odes 1.9.24, where it describes a girl's half-hearted resistance to seduction. Elsewhere he borrows dux bone from Odes 4.5.5 and 37, where it refers to Augustus, and applies it to Christ (R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 282 ^ St Jerome, Epistles 22.29, incorporating a quote from 2 'Corinthians 6.14: qui consensus Christo et Belial? quid facit cum psalterio Horatius?(cited by K. Friis-Jensen, Horace in the Middle Ages, 292) ^ Odes 3.3.1–8 was especially influential in promoting the value of heroic calm in the face of danger, describing a man who could bear even the collapse of the world without fear (si fractus illabatur orbis,/impavidum ferient ruinae). Echoes are found in Seneca's Agamemnon 593–603, Prudentius's Peristephanon 4.5–12 and Boethius's Consolatio 1 metrum 4.(R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 283–85) ^ Heiric, like Prudentius, gave Horatian motifs a Christian context. Thus the character Lydia in Odes 3.19.15, who would willingly die for her lover twice, becomes in Heiric's Life of St Germaine of Auxerre a saint ready to die twice for the Lord's commandments (R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 287–88) ^ According to a medieval French commentary on the Satires: "...first he composed his lyrics, and in them, speaking to the young, as it were, he took as subject-matter love affairs and quarrels, banquets and drinking parties. Next he wrote his Epodes, and in them composed invectives against men of a more advanced and more dishonourable age...He next wrote his book about the Ars Poetica, and in that instructed men of his own profession to write well...Later he added his book of Satires, in which he reproved those who had fallen a prey to various kinds of vices. Finally, he finished his oeuvre with the Epistles, and in them, following the method of a good farmer, he sowed the virtues where he had rooted out the vices." (cited by K. Friis-Jensen, Horace in the Middle Ages, 294–302) ^ 'Horace Juvenal' was author of Modern manners: a poem, 1793 ^ see for example Spectator 312, 27 Feb. 1712; 548, 28 Nov. 1712; 618, 10 Nov. 1714 ^ One echo of Horace may be found in line 69: "Were it not better done as others use,/ To sport with Amaryllis in the shade/Or with the tangles of Neaera's hair?", which points to the Neara in Odes 3.14.21 (Douglas Bush, Milton: Poetical Works, 144, note 69) ^ Cfr. James Boswell, "The Life of Samuel Johnson" Aetat. 20, 1729 where Boswell remarked of Johnson that Horace's Odes "were the compositions in which he took most delight." ^ The quote, from Memorials of a Tour of Italy (1837), contains allusions to Odes 3.4 and 3.13 (S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 334–35) ^ "My heart aches, and a drowsy numbness pains / my sense..." echoes Epodes 14.1–4 (S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 335) ^ Comment by S. Harrison, editor and contributor to The Cambridge Companion to Horace (S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 337 ^ Rossetti's sonnet, A Study (a soul), dated 1854, was not published in her own lifetime. Some lines: She stands as pale as Parian marble stands / Like Cleopatra when she turns at bay... (C. Rossetti, Complete Poems, 758 ^ Quoted from Auden's poem Out on the lawn I lie in bed, 1933, and cited by S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 340 ^ Edited by McClatchy, reviewed by S. Harrison, Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2003.03.05 ^ I. Wedde, The Commonplace Odes, Auckland 2003, (cited by S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 345) ^ 'Political' Epodes are 1, 7, 9, 16; notably obscene Epodes are 8 and 12. E. Fraenkel is among the admirers repulsed by these two poems, for another view of which see for example Dee Lesser Clayman, 'Horace's Epodes VIII and XII: More than Clever Obscenity?', The Classical World Vol. 6, No. 1 (September 1975), pp 55–61 JSTOR 4348329 ^ M. Almond, The Works 2004, Washington, cited by S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 346 Citations[edit] ^ a b J. Michie, The Odes of Horace, 14 ^ N. Rudd, The Satires of Horace and Persius, 10 ^ R. Barrow R., The Romans Pelican Books, 119 ^ Fraenkel, Eduard. Horace. Oxford: 1957, p. 1. For the Life of Horace by Suetonius, see: (Vita Horati) ^ Brill's Companion to Horace, edited by Hans-Christian Günther, Brill, 2012, p. 7, Google Book ^ Satires 1.10.30 ^ Epistles 2.1.69 ff. ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 2–3 ^ Satires 2.1.34 ^ T. Frank, Catullus and Horace, 133–34 ^ A. Campbell, Horace: A New Interpretation, 84 ^ Epistles 1.16.49 ^ R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 7 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 3–4 ^ a b V. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and Politics, 24 ^ Satires 1.6.86 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 4–5 ^ a b Satires 1.6 ^ V. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and Politics, 25 ^ Odes 2.7 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 8–9 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 9–10 ^ Satires 1.6.48 ^ a b R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 8 ^ V. Kiernan, Horace, 25 ^ Odes 2.7.10 ^ Epistles 2.2.51–52 ^ V. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and politics ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 14–15 ^ Christopher Brown, in A Companion to the Greek Lyric Poets, D.E. Gerber (ed), Leiden 1997, pages 13–88 ^ Douglas E. Gerber, Greek Iambic Poetry, Loeb Classical Library (1999), Introduction pages i–iv ^ D. Mankin, Horace: Epodes, C.U.P., 8 ^ D. Mankin, Horace: Epodes, 6 ^ R. Conway, New Studies of a Great Inheritance, 49–50 ^ V. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and Politics, 18–19 ^ F. Muecke, The Satires, 109–10 ^ R. Lyne, Augustan Poetry and Society, 599 ^ J. Griffin, Horace in the Thirties, 6 ^ a b R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 10 ^ D. Mankin, Horace: Epodes, 5 ^ Satires 1.5 ^ Odes 3.4.28 ^ Epodes 1 and 9 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 15 ^ Satires 2.7.53 ^ R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 11 ^ V. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and Politics, 61–62 ^ R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 13 ^ Epistles 1.19.35–44 ^ Epistles 1.1.10 ^ V. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and Politics, 149, 153 ^ Epistles 1.7 ^ Epistles 1.20.24–25 ^ R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 14–15 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 17–18 ^ Epistles 2.2 ^ R. Ferri, The Epistles, 121 ^ Odes 4.4 and 4.14 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 23 ^ R Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 17–21 ^ S. Harrison, Style and poetic texture, 262 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 124–25 ^ Gundolf, Friedrich (1916). Goethe. Berlin, Germany: Bondi. ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 106–07 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 74 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 95–96 ^ J. Griffin, Gods and Religion, 182 ^ S. Harrison, Lyric and Iambic, 192 ^ S. Harrison, Lyric and Iambic, 194–96 ^ a b E. Fraenkel, Horace, 32, 80 ^ L. Morgan, Satire, 177–78 ^ S. Harrison, Style and poetic texture, 271 ^ R. Ferri, The Epistles, pp. 121–22 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, p. 309 ^ V. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and Politics, 28 ^ J. Moles, Philosophy and ethics, pp. 165–69, 177 ^ K. J. Reckford, Some studies in Horace's odes on love ^ J. Moles, Philosophy and ethics, p. 168 ^ Santirocco "Unity and Design", Lowrie "Horace's Narrative Odes" ^ Ancona, "Time and the Erotic" ^ J. Moles, Philosophy and ethics, pp. 171–73 ^ Davis "Polyhymnia" and Lowrie "Horace's Narrative Odes" ^ J. Moles, Philosophy and ethics, p. 179 ^ J. Moles, Philosophy and ethics, pp. 174–80 ^ R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 279 ^ V. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and Politics, 176 ^ D. Money, The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 326, 332 ^ R. Lyme, Augustan Poetry and Society, 603 ^ Niall Rudd, The Satires of Horace and Persius, 14 ^ R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 282–83 ^ R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 280 ^ R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 278 ^ R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 280–81 ^ a b R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 283 ^ R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 285–87 ^ R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 288–89 ^ Stuart Lyons, Horace's Odes and the Mystery of Do-Re-Mi ^ Tristia, 4.10.49–50 ^ B. Bischoff, Living with the satirists, 83–95 ^ K. Friis-Jensen,Horace in the Middle Ages, 291 ^ K. Friis-Jensen, Horace in the Middle Ages, 293, 304 ^ K. Friis-Jensen, Horace in the Middle Ages, 296–98 ^ K. Friis-Jensen, Horace in the Middle Ages, 302 ^ K. Friis-Jensen, Horace in the Middle Ages, 299 ^ Michael McGann, Horace in the Renaissance, 306 ^ E. Rivers, Fray Luis de León: The Original Poems ^ M. McGann, Horace in the Renaissance, 306–07, 313–16 ^ D. Money, The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 318, 331, 332 ^ D. Money, The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 322 ^ D. Money, The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 326–27 ^ J. Talbot, A Horatian Pun in Paradise Lost, 21–3 ^ B. Loveling, Latin and English Poems, 49–52, 79–83 ^ D. Money, The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 329–31 ^ E. Tollet, Poems on Several Occasions, 84 ^ Translation adapted from D. Money, The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 329 ^ A. Gilbert, Literary Criticism: Plato to Dryden, 124, 669 ^ W. Kupersmith, Roman Satirists in Seventeenth Century England, 97–101 ^ D. Money, The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 319–25 ^ S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 340 ^ V. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and Politics, x ^ S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 334 ^ D. Money, The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 323 ^ S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 335–37 ^ M. Arnold, Selected Prose, 74 ^ W. Flesch, Companion to British Poetry, 19th Century, 98 ^ S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 339 ^ S. Medcalfe, Kipling's Horace, 217–39 ^ S. Harrison, the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 340 ^ D. Mankin, Horace: Epodes, 6–9 ^ R. McNeill, Horace, 12 ^ Balme, Maurice, Moorwood, James (1996). Oxford Latin Course Part one. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195212037. References[edit] Arnold, Matthew (1970). Selected Prose. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-043058-5. Barrow, R (1949). The Romans. Penguin/Pelican Books. Barchiesi, A (2001). Speaking Volumes: Narrative and Intertext in Ovid and Other Latin Poets. Duckworth. Bischoff, B (1971). "Living with the satirists". Classical Influences on European Culture AD 500–1500. Cambridge University Press. Bush, Douglas (1966). Milton: Poetical Works. Oxford University Press. Campbell, A (1924). Horace: A New Interpretation. London. Conway, R (1921). New Studies of a Great Inheritance. London. Davis, Gregson (1991). Polyhymnia. The Rhetoric to Horatian Lyric Discourse. University of California. Ferri, Rolando (2007). "The Epistles". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-53684-4. Flesch, William (2009). The Facts on File Companion to British Poetry, 19th Century. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-5896-9. Frank, Tenney (1928). Catullus and Horace. New York. Fraenkel, Eduard (1957). Horace. Oxford University Press. Friis-Jensen, Karsten (2007). "Horace in the Middle Ages". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Griffin, Jasper (1993). "Horace in the Thirties". Horace 2000. Ann Arbor. Griffin, Jasper (2007). "Gods and religion". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge university Press. Harrison, Stephen (2005). "Lyric and Iambic". A Companion to Latin Literature. Blackwell Publishing. Harrison, Stephen (2007). "Introduction". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Harrison, Stephen (2007). "Style and poetic texture". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Harrison, Stephen (2007). "The nineteenth and twentieth centuries". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Hooley, D (1997). The Knotted Thong: Structures of Mimesis in Persius. Ann Arbor. Hutchinson, G (2002). "The publication and individuality of Horace's Odes 1–3". Classical Quarterly 52. Kiernan, Victor (1999). Horace: Poetics and Politics. St Martin's Press. Kupersmith, W (1985). Roman Satirists in Seventeenth Century England. Lincoln, Nebraska and London. Loveling, Benjamin (1741). Latin and English Poems, by a Gentleman of Trinity College, Oxford. London. Lowrie, Michèle (1997). Horace's Narrative Odes. Oxford University Press. Lyne, R (1986). "Augustan Poetry and Society". The Oxford History of the Classical World. Oxford University Press. Mankin, David (1995). Horace: Epodes. Cambridge university Press. McNeill, Randall (2010). Horace. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-980511-2. Michie, James (1967). "Horace the Man". The Odes of Horace. Penguin Classics. Moles, John (2007). "Philosophy and ethics". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Money, David (2007). "The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Morgan, Llewelyn (2005). "Satire". A Companion to Latin Literature. Blackwell Publishing. Muecke, Frances (2007). "the Satires". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Nisbet, Robin (2007). "Horace: life and chronology". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Reckford, K. J. (1997). Horatius: the man and the hour. 118. American Journal of Philology. pp. 538–612. Rivers, Elias (1983). Fray Luis de León: The Original Poems. Grant and Cutler. Rossetti, Christina (2001). The Complete Poems. Penguin Books. Rudd, Niall (1973). The Satires of Horace and Persius. Penguin Classics. Santirocco, Matthew (1986). Unity and Design in Horace's Odes. University of North Carolina. Syme, R (1986). The Augustan Aristocracy. Oxford University Press. Talbot, J (2001). "A Horatian Pun in Paradise Lost". Notes and Queries 48 (1). Oxford University Press. Tarrant, Richard (2007). "Ancient receptions of Horace". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Tollet, Elizabeth (1755). Poems on Several Occasions. London. Further reading[edit] Davis, Gregson (1991). Polyhymnia the Rhetoric of Horatian Lyric Discourse. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-91030-3. Fraenkel, Eduard (1957). Horace. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Horace (1983). The Complete Works of Horace. Charles E. Passage, trans. New York: Ungar. ISBN 0-8044-2404-7. Johnson, W. R. (1993). Horace and the Dialectic of Freedom: Readings in Epistles 1. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-2868-8. Lyne, R.O.A.M. (1995). Horace: Behind the Public Poetry. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press. ISBN 0-300-06322-9. Lyons, Stuart (1997). Horace's Odes and the Mystery of Do-Re-Mi. Aris & Phillips. Lyons, Stuart (2010). Music in the Odes of Horace. Aris & Phillips. Michie, James (1964). The Odes of Horace. Rupert Hart-Davis. Newman, J.K. (1967). Augustus and the New Poetry. Brussels: Latomus, revue d’études latines. Noyes, Alfred (1947). Horace: A Portrait. New York: Sheed and Ward. Perret, Jacques (1964). Horace. Bertha Humez, trans. New York: New York University Press. Putnam, Michael C.J. (1986). Artifices of Eternity: Horace's Fourth Book of Odes. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-1852-6. Reckford, Kenneth J. (1969). Horace. New York: Twayne. Rudd, Niall, ed. (1993). Horace 2000: A Celebration – Essays for the Bimillennium. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-10490-X. Sydenham, Colin (2005). Horace: The Odes. Duckworth. West, David (1997). Horace The Complete Odes and Epodes. Oxford University Press. Wilkinson, L.P. (1951). Horace and His Lyric Poetry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. External links[edit] Horaceat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Data from Wikidata Library resources about Horace Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Horace Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Works by Horace at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Horace at Internet Archive Works by Horace at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Q. Horati Flacci opera, recensuerunt O. Keller et A. Holder, 2 voll., Lipsiae in aedibus B. G. Teubneri, 1864–9. Common sayings from Horace The works of Horace at The Latin Library Carmina Horatiana All Carmina of Horace in Latin recited by Thomas Bervoets. 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Special:BookSources in other language Wikipedias ISBN Prefix Ranges Wikipedia 0 1 English (this page) 2 979-10 French 3 German 4 (Japan) Japanese 5 (Russia, former USSR) Russian 7 (China, PR) 957/986 (Taiwan, ROC) 962/988 (Hong Kong, SAR) 981 (Singapore) 99937 (Macau, SAR) Chinese 80 (Czech Republic) Czech 83 (Poland) Polish 84 (Spain) 950 (Argentina) 956 (Chile) 958 (Colombia) 959 (Cuba) 968/970 (Mexico) 980 (Venezuela) 9942/9978 (Ecuador) Spanish 85 (Brasil) 972 (Portugal) Portuguese 86 (Serbia, Montenegro) Serbian 86 (former Yugoslavia) 953 (Croatia) Croatian 86 (former Yugoslavia) 961 (Slovenia) Slovenian 87 Danish 88 Italian 89 Korean 90 Dutch 91 Swedish 92 International organizations (multilingual) 93 (India) Hindi 93 (India) 955 (Sri Lanka) Tamil 951/952 (Finland) Finnish 953 Bulgarian 955 (Sri Lanka) Sinhalese 960 Greek 963 Hungarian 964/600 (Iran) Persian 965 (Israel) Hebrew 966 (Ukraine) Ukrainian 967 (Malaysia) Malay 969 (Pakistan) Pashto 971 (Philippines) Tagalog 973 (Romania) Romanian 974 (Thailand) Thai 975/9944/605 (Turkey) Turkish 976 (Caribbean Community) See English, Spanish... 977 (Egypt) 978 (Nigeria) 9960/603 (Saudi Arabia) 9931/9947/9961(Algeria) Arabic 979 (Indonesia) Indonesian 982 (South Pacific) See English, French, ... 984 (Bangladesh) Bangla Welsh Bibliographical information These links produce citations in various referencing styles. Bibliographical Information on OttoBib (MLA) Bibliographical Information on OttoBib (APA) Bibliographical Information on OttoBib (Chicago) Bibliographical Information on OttoBib (Wikipedia) Bibliographical Information on OttoBib (BibTeX) Find other editions You can look up ISBNs for different editions of the same book, hardback or paperback, first print or a reprint, even re-editions where the title has changed using xISBN. xISBN's linkages are determined algorithmically, based on the concepts of the Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records. Results in XML Results in HTML You can also convert between 10 and 13 digit ISBN numbers with these tools: ISBN converter at ISBN.org ISBN converter (with optional hyphenation after conversion) at the Library of Congress Find on Wikipedia Find articles on Wikipedia which cite this ISBN. See also Wikipedia:Book sources – "Wikipedia:Book sources" will be clickable in the non-editable version of this page, and will take one to the editable version of this page. Wikipedia talk:Book sources – For questions and discussion about this page. Wikipedia:ISBN – Explanation of MediaWiki software treatment of ISBN numbers. List of academic databases and search engines List of digital library projects List of online encyclopedias List of online databases Wikipedia:List of bibliographies The Wikipedia Library (talk | e) Apply for free access to research! 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en-wikipedia-org-8423	----	RERO (Library Network of Western Switzerland) - Wikipedia RERO (Library Network of Western Switzerland) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from RERO (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search For the philosophical concept, see release early, release often. Library Network of Western Switzerland Identifier RERO Country Switzerland (Romandy) Type Union catalog Established 1985; 35 years ago (1985) Location Martigny, Valais Website rero.ch (in French) The Library Network of Western Switzerland (French: Réseau des bibliothèques de Suisse occidentale; RERO) was founded by several major libraries in 1985, in the French-speaking region of Romandy in western Switzerland. RERO is a syllabic abbreviation of "Réseau Romand" ("Romand Network"). RERO includes most of the cantonal, academic, public, and specialized libraries in Switzerland. It manages a union catalog of 180 libraries serving 50,000 students from three academic universities; Geneva, Fribourg, and Neuchâtel; the University of Applied Sciences and Arts; and the Universities of Teacher Education. As of 2019[update], the RERO catalog provides access to some 6.8 million bibliographic descriptions for more than 10 million documents. The catalog also describes 222,400 periodicals, including 3,169 electronic journals. In addition to its catalog, RERO supports an interlibrary loan system, its own indexing system, a digital library based on the principle of free access, and a federated search system. External links[edit] Official website (in French) v t e Authority control files AAG • ACM DL • ADB • AGSA • autores.uy • AWR • BALaT • BIBSYS • Bildindex • BNC • BNE • BNF • Botanist • BPN • CANTIC • CiNii • CWGC • DAAO • DBLP • DSI • FNZA • GND • HDS • IAAF • ICCU • ICIA • ISNI • Joconde • KulturNav • LCCN • LIR • LNB • Léonore • MBA • MGP • NARA • NBL • NDL • NGV • NKC • NLA • NLG • NLI • NLK • NLP • NLR • NSK • NTA • ORCID • PIC • ResearcherID • RERO • RKD • RKDimages ID • RSL • SELIBR • SIKART • SNAC • SUDOC • S2AuthorId • TA98 • TDVİA • TE • TePapa • TH • TLS • Trove • UKPARL • ULAN • US Congress • VcBA • VIAF • WorldCat Identities Authority control GND: 109060582X ISNI: 0000 0001 0326 7390 RERO: 02-A005399379 VIAF: 154184654 WorldCat Identities: viaf-154184654 Coordinates: 46°06′29″N 07°04′44″E / 46.10806°N 7.07889°E / 46.10806; 7.07889 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=RERO_(Library_Network_of_Western_Switzerland)&oldid=996621654" Categories: 1985 establishments in Switzerland Buildings and structures in Valais English-language websites French-language websites German-language websites Libraries established in 1985 Libraries in Switzerland Library cataloging and classification Universities of Applied Sciences in Switzerland University of Fribourg University of Geneva University of Neuchâtel Hidden categories: Articles with French-language sources (fr) Articles containing French-language text Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2019 All articles containing potentially dated statements Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Coordinates not on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans Français עברית مصرى Polski 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 27 December 2020, at 18:35 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8446	----	Sapere aude - Wikipedia Sapere aude From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sapere aude is the Latin phrase meaning "Dare to know"; and also is loosely translated as "Dare to know things", or even more loosely as "Dare to think for yourself!" Originally used in the First Book of Letters (20 BC), by the Roman poet Horace, the phrase Sapere aude became associated with the Age of Enlightenment, during the 17th and 18th centuries, after Immanuel Kant used it in the essay, "Answering the Question: What Is Enlightenment?" (1784). As a philosopher, Kant claimed the phrase Sapere aude as the motto for the entire period of the Enlightenment, and used it to develop his theories of the application of reason in the public sphere of human affairs. In the 20th century, in the essay "What is Enlightenment?" (1984) Michel Foucault took up Kant's formulation of "dare to know" in an attempt to find a place for the individual man and woman in post-structuralist philosophy, and so come to terms with the problematic legacy of the Enlightenment. Moreover, in the essay The Baroque Episteme: the Word and the Thing (2013) Jean-Claude Vuillemin proposed that the Latin phrase Sapere aude be the motto of the Baroque episteme.[1] The phrase is widely used as a motto, especially by educational institutions. Contents 1 Usages 1.1 1st century 1.2 16th century 1.3 18th century 1.4 19th century 1.5 20th century 2 See also 3 References 4 External links Usages[edit] 1st century[edit] Horace The original use of the phrase Sapere aude appears in the First Book of Letters (20 BC), by the Roman poet Horace; in the second letter, addressed to Lolius, in line 40, the passage is: Dimidium facti, qui coepit, habet; sapere aude, incipe. ("He who has begun is half done; dare to know; begin!") The phrase is the moral to a story in which a fool waits for a stream to cease flowing, before attempting to cross it. In saying, "He who begins is half done. Dare to know, begin!", Horace suggests the value of human endeavour, of persistence in reaching a goal, of the need for effort to overcome obstacles. Moreover, the laconic Latin of Sapere aude also can be loosely translated as the English phrase "Dare to be wise". 16th century[edit] Philip Melanchthon In his inaugural address as Professor of Greek in Wittenberg on August 29, 1518, Philip Melanchthon quoted Horace's letter.[citation needed] 18th century[edit] Immanuel Kant Answering the Question: What is Enlightenment?, by Immanuel Kant. In the essay, "Answering the Question: What Is Enlightenment?" (1784), Immanuel Kant describes the Age of Enlightenment as "Man's release from his self-incurred immaturity"; and, with the phrase Sapere aude, the philosopher charges the reader to follow such a program of intellectual self-liberation, by means of Reason. The essay is Kant's shrewd, political challenge to men and women, suggesting that the mass of "domestic cattle" have been bred, by unfaithful stewards, to not question what they have been told about the world and its ways. Kant classifies the uses of reason as public and private. The public use of reason is discourse in the public sphere, such as political discourse (argument and analysis); the private use of reason is rational argument, such as that used by a person entrusted with a duty, either official or organizational. Skillfully praising King Frederick II of Prussia (r. 1740–86) for his intellectual receptiveness to the political, social, and cultural ideas of the Enlightenment, the philosopher Kant proposes that an enlightened prince is one who instructs his subjects to: "Argue as much as you will, and about what you will, only obey!" It is the courage of the individual man to abide the advice Sapere aude that will break the shackles of despotism, and reveal, through public discourse, for the benefit of the mass population and of the State, better methods of governance, and of legitimate complaint.[2] 19th century[edit] The founder of Homoeopathy, Dr Christian Frederich Samuel Hahnemann used the phrase on the cover of his Organon of Medicine (1810,1819,1824,1829,1833,1922). 20th century[edit] Michel Foucault In response to Immanuel Kant's Age of Enlightenment propositions for intellectual courage, in the essay "What is Enlightenment?" (1984), Michel Foucault rejected much of the hopeful politics proposed by Kant: a people ruled by just rulers; ethical leaders inspired by the existential dare advised in the phrase Sapere aude. Instead, Foucault applied ontology to examine the innate resources for critical thinking of a person's faculty of Reason. With the analytical value of Sapere aude reinforced by the concept of "Faithful betrayal" to impracticable beliefs, Foucault disputed the Enlightenment-era arguments that Kant presents in the essay "Answering the Question: What is Enlightenment?" (1784). Like his 18th-century predecessor, Foucault also based his philosophic interpretation of Sapere aude upon a definite practice of critical thinking that is an "attitude, an ethos, a philosophical life in which [is found] the critique of what we are". Such an enlightened, intellectual attitude applies reason to experience, and so effects an historical criticism of "the limits that are imposed on us". The criticism is "an experiment with the possibility of going beyond" imposed limits, in order to reach the limit-experience, which simultaneously is an individual, personal act, and an act that breaks the concept of the individual person.[3] See also[edit] Durham Johnston Comprehensive School, founded in 1901, has Sapere Aude as its motto. Epistularum liber primus, Horace's work containing the original phrase. Lutterworth College, founded in 1880 (as Lutterworth Grammar School), has Sapere Aude as its motto. Manchester Grammar School, founded in 1515, has Sapere Aude as its motto. Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, has the motto highlight the school's tradition in groundbreaking fundamental research. Staffordshire University, adopted Sapere Aude as its motto in 2019. University of Otago, New Zealand: the phrase serves as its motto; the students' association replies in kind with its motto "Audeamus" (let us dare) Richmond Hill High School, Ontario, Canada, has this as its motto. West London Free School, London, UK, has this as its motto. References[edit] ^ Jean-Claude Vuillemin, Epistémè baroque: le mot et la chose, Paris, Hermann, coll. "Savoir Lettres," 2013. ^ "ereau.de steht zum Verkauf". sap.ereau.de. ^ "Foucault's Essay, What is Enlightenment?". Foucault.info. Retrieved 2012-03-08. External links[edit] The dictionary definition of sapere aude at Wiktionary v t e Age of Enlightenment Topics Atheism Capitalism Civil liberties Counter-Enlightenment Critical thinking Deism Democracy Empiricism Encyclopédistes Enlightened absolutism Free markets Haskalah Humanism Human rights Liberalism Liberté, égalité, fraternité Methodological skepticism Nationalism Natural philosophy Objectivity Rationality Rationalism Reason Reductionism Sapere aude Science Scientific method Socialism Universality Weimar Classicism Thinkers France Jean le Rond d'Alembert René Louis d'Argenson Pierre Bayle Pierre Beaumarchais Nicolas Chamfort Émilie du Châtelet Étienne Bonnot de Condillac Marquis de Condorcet René Descartes Denis Diderot Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle Claude Adrien Helvétius Baron d'Holbach Louis de Jaucourt Julien Offray de La Mettrie Georges-Louis Leclerc Gabriel Bonnot de Mably Sylvain Maréchal Jean Meslier Montesquieu Étienne-Gabriel Morelly Blaise Pascal François Quesnay Guillaume Thomas François Raynal Marquis de Sade Anne Robert Jacques Turgot Voltaire Geneva Firmin Abauzit Charles Bonnet Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui Jean-Louis de Lolme Pierre Prévost Jean-Jacques Rousseau Antoine-Jacques Roustan Horace Bénédict de Saussure Jacob Vernes Jacob Vernet Germany Justus Henning Böhmer Carl Friedrich Gauss Johann Wolfgang von Goethe Johann Gottfried von Herder Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel Wilhelm von Humboldt Immanuel Kant Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Gotthold Ephraim Lessing Georg Christoph Lichtenberg Moses Mendelssohn Samuel von Pufendorf Friedrich Schiller Christian Thomasius Gabriel Wagner Christian Felix Weiße Christoph Martin Wieland Thomas Wizenmann Christian Wolff Greece Neophytos Doukas Theoklitos Farmakidis Rigas Feraios Theophilos Kairis Adamantios Korais Ireland George Berkeley Robert Boyle Edmund Burke John Toland Italy Cesare Beccaria Gaetano Filangieri Ferdinando Galiani Luigi Galvani Antonio Genovesi Francesco Mario Pagano Giovanni Salvemini Pietro Verri Giambattista Vico Netherlands Balthasar Bekker Pieter de la Court Petrus Cunaeus Hugo Grotius François Hemsterhuis Christiaan Huygens Adriaan Koerbagh Frederik van Leenhof Antonie van Leeuwenhoek Bernard Nieuwentyt Baruch Spinoza Jan Swammerdam Hendrik Wyermars Poland Tadeusz Czacki Hugo Kołłątaj Stanisław Konarski Ignacy Krasicki Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz Stanisław August Poniatowski Jędrzej Śniadecki Stanisław Staszic Józef Wybicki Andrzej Stanisław Załuski Józef Andrzej Załuski Portugal Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo Romania Ion Budai-Deleanu Dinicu Golescu Petru Maior Samuil Micu-Klein Gheorghe Șincai Russia Catherine II Denis Fonvizin Mikhail Kheraskov Mikhail Lomonosov Nikolay Novikov Alexander Radishchev Yekaterina Vorontsova-Dashkova Serbia Dositej Obradović Avram Mrazović Spain José Cadalso Charles III Benito Jerónimo Feijóo y Montenegro Leandro Fernández de Moratín Valentin de Foronda Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos Martín Sarmiento Diego de Torres Villarroel United Kingdom (Scotland) Joseph Addison Francis Bacon James Beattie Jeremy Bentham Joseph Black Hugh Blair James Boswell James Burnett, Lord Monboddo Anthony Collins Adam Ferguson Edward Gibbon Robert Hooke David Hume Francis Hutcheson Samuel Johnson John Locke John Millar Isaac Newton William Ogilvie Richard Price Joseph Priestley Thomas Reid Shaftesbury Adam Smith Dugald Stewart Mary Wollstonecraft United States Benjamin Franklin Thomas Jefferson James Madison George Mason Thomas Paine Category v t e Michel Foucault Books Mental Illness and Psychology (1954) Madness and Civilization (1961) The Birth of the Clinic (1963) Death and the Labyrinth (1963) The Order of Things (1966) This is Not a Pipe (1968) The Archaeology of Knowledge (1969) Discipline and Punish (1975) The History of Sexuality (1976–2018) Essays, lectures, dialogues and anthologies Introduction to Kant's Anthropology (1964) "What Is an Author?" (1969) Foucault's lectures at the Collège de France I, Pierre Riviere, Having Slaughtered my Mother, my Sister and my Brother (1973) Language, Counter-Memory, Practice (1977) Sexual Morality and the Law (1978) Herculine Barbin (1978) Power/Knowledge (1980) Remarks on Marx (1980) Le Désordre des familles (1982) The Foucault Reader (1984) Politics, Philosophy, Culture (1988) Foucault Live (1996) The Politics of Truth (1997) Society Must Be Defended (1997) Ethics: Subjectivity and Truth (Essential Works Volume 1) (1997) Aesthetics, Method, Epistemology (Essential Works Volume 2) (1998) Abnormal (1999) Power (Essential Works Volume 3) (2000) Fearless Speech (2001) The Hermeneutics of the Subject (2001) The Essential Foucault (2003) Psychiatric Power (2003) Security, Territory, Population (2004) The Birth of Biopolitics (2004) The Government of Self and Others (2008) The Courage of Truth (2009) Lectures on the Will to Know (2011) On the Government of the Living (2012) Subjectivity and Truth (2012) Wrong-Doing, Truth-Telling (2013) On the Punitive Society (2015) Concepts Anti-psychiatry Author function Biopolitics Biopower Carceral archipelago Cultural imperialism Disciplinary institution Discontinuity Discourse analysis Dispositif Ecogovernmentality Episteme Genealogy Governmentality Heterotopia Interdiscourse Limit-experience Parrhesia Power (social and political) Postsexualism Sapere aude Influence Cogito and the History of Madness (Derrida) Foucauldian discourse analysis Foucault (Deleuze) The Passion of Michel Foucault (Miller) Giorgio Agamben Gary Gutting Thomas Lemke James Miller Paul Rabinow Claude Raffestin Nikolas Rose Related articles Bibliography Foucault–Habermas debate Chomsky–Foucault debate Daniel Defert François Ewald Alan Sheridan Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sapere_aude&oldid=995424253" Categories: Latin words and phrases Latin mottos Enlightened absolutism Horace Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from November 2017 Articles containing French-language text Articles containing Hebrew-language text Articles containing Latin-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Emiliàn e rumagnòl Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Nederlands Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Sardu Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 20 December 2020, at 23:38 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8457	----	Dionysius of Halicarnassus - Wikipedia Dionysius of Halicarnassus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dionysius of Halicarnassus (Greek: Διονύσιος Ἀλεξάνδρου Ἁλικαρνασσεύς, Dionúsios Alexándrou Halikarnasseús, ''Dionysios son of Alexandros of Halikarnassos''; c. 60 BC – after 7 BC) was a Greek historian and teacher of rhetoric, who flourished during the reign of Augustus Caesar. His literary style was Atticistic—imitating Classical Attic Greek in its prime. Dionysius' opinion of the necessity of a promotion of paideia within education, from true knowledge of classical sources, endured for centuries in a form integral to the identity of the Greek elite.[1] Dionysius should be distinguished from the Greek god Dionysus. Contents 1 Life 2 Works 2.1 Dionysian imitatio 3 History in the Roman Antiquities, and the Foundation Myth 3.1 Romulus and Remus 3.1.1 Origins and survival in the wild 3.1.2 Education, and Foundation of Rome 3.1.3 Institutions 3.1.4 Sabine women, and death of Romulus 4 See also 5 Editions 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Life[edit] He was a Halicarnassian.[1] At some time he moved to Rome after the termination of the civil wars, and spent twenty-two years studying Latin and literature and preparing materials for his history.[2] During this period, he gave lessons in rhetoric, and enjoyed the society of many distinguished men. The date of his death is unknown.[3] In the 19th century, it was commonly supposed that he was the ancestor of Aelius Dionysius of Halicarnassus.[4] Works[edit] His major work, entitled Rhōmaïkḕ Arkhaiología (Ῥωμαϊκὴ Ἀρχαιολογία, ''Roman Antiquities''), embraced the history of Rome from the mythical period to the beginning of the First Punic War. It was divided into twenty books, of which the first nine remain entire, the tenth and eleventh are nearly complete, and the remaining books exist in fragments,[5] in the excerpts of the Roman emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus and an epitome discovered by Angelo Mai in a Milan manuscript. The first three books of Appian, Plutarch's Life of Camillus and Life of Coriolanus also embody much of Dionysius.[citation needed] His chief object was to reconcile the Greeks to the rule of Rome, by dilating upon the good qualities of their conquerors and also by arguing, using more ancient sources, that the Romans were genuine descendants of the older Greeks.[6][7] According to him, history is philosophy teaching by examples, and this idea he has carried out from the point of view of a Greek rhetorician. But he carefully consulted the best authorities, and his work and that of Livy are the only connected and detailed extant accounts of early Roman history.[8] Dionysius was also the author of several rhetorical treatises, in which he shows that he has thoroughly studied the best Attic models: The Art of Rhetoric (Τέχνη ῥητορική, Tékhnē rhētorikḗ), which is rather a collection of essays on the theory of rhetoric, incomplete, and certainly not all his work; The Arrangement of Words (Περὶ συνθέσεως ὀνομάτων, Perì sunthéseōs onomátōn, Latin: De compositione verborum), treating of the combination of words according to the different styles of oratory; On Imitation (Περὶ μιμήσεως, Perì mimḗseōs), on the best models in the different kinds of literature and the way in which they are to be imitated—a fragmentary work; Commentaries on the Attic Orators (Περὶ τῶν Ἀττικῶν ῥητόρων, Perì tôn Attikôn rhētórōn), which, however, only deal with Lysias, Isaeus, Isocrates and (by way of supplement) Dinarchus; On the Admirable Style of Demosthenes (Περὶ λεκτικῆς Δημοσθένους δεινότητος, Perì lektikês Dēmosthénous deinótētos); and On the Character of Thucydides (Περὶ Θουκιδίδου χαρακτῆρος, Perì Thoukidídou kharaktêros). The last two treatises are supplemented by letters to Gn. Pompeius and Ammaeus (two, one of which is about Thucydides).[3] Dionysian imitatio[edit] Main article: Dionysian imitatio Dionysian imitatio is the literary method of imitation as formulated by Dionysius, who conceived it as the rhetorical practice of emulating, adapting, reworking, and enriching a source text by an earlier author.[9][10] It shows marked similarities with Quintilian’s view of imitation, and both may derive from a common source.[11] Dionysius' concept marked a significant departure from the concept of mimesis formulated by Aristotle in the 4th century BC, which was only concerned with "imitation of nature" and not "imitation of other authors."[9] Latin orators and rhetoricians adopted Dionysius' method of imitatio and discarded Aristotle's mimesis.[9] History in the Roman Antiquities, and the Foundation Myth[edit] Dionysius carried out extensive research for his Roman history, selecting among authorities, and preserving (for example) details of the Servian Census.[12] His first two books present a unified account of the supposed Greek origin for Rome, merging a variety of sources into a firm narrative: his success, however, was at the expense of concealing the primitive Roman actuality (as revealed by archaeology).[13] Along with Livy,[14] Dionysius is thus one of the primary sources for the accounts of the Roman foundation myth, and that of Romulus and Remus, and was relied on in the later publications of Plutarch, for example. He writes extensively on the myth, sometimes attributing direct quotations to its figures. The myth spans the first 2 volumes of his Roman Antiquities, beginning with Book I chapter 73 and concluding in Book II chapter 56.[citation needed] Romulus and Remus[edit] Origins and survival in the wild[edit] Dionysius claims that the twins, Romulus and Remus, were born to a vestal named Ilia Silvia (sometimes called Rea), descended from Aeneas of Troy and the daughter of King Latinus of the Original Latin tribes, thus linking Rome to Trojans and Latins both. Dionysius lays out the different accounts of her pregnancy and the twins' conception, but declines to choose one over the others. Citing Fabius, Cincius, Porcius Cato, and Piso, Dionysius recounts the most common tale, whereby the twins are to be tossed into the Tiber; are left at the site of the ficus Ruminalis; and rescued by a she-wolf who nurses them in front of her lair (the Lupercal). Dionysius relates an alternate, "non-fantastical" version of Romulus and Remus' birth, survival and youth. In this version, Numitor managed to switch the twins at birth with two other infants. The twins were delivered by their grandfather to Faustulus to be fostered by him and his wife, Laurentia, a former prostitute. According to Plutarch, lupa(Latin for "wolf") was a common term for members of her profession and this gave rise to the she-wolf legend. Education, and Foundation of Rome[edit] The twins receive a proper education in the city of Gabii, before eventually winning control of the area around where Rome would be founded. Dispute over the particular hill upon which Rome should be built, the Palatine Hill or the Aventine Hill for its strategic advantages saw the brothers fall out and Remus killed. Before construction on the city began Romulus made sacrifices and received good omens, and he then ordered the populace to ritually atone for their guilt. The city's fortifications were first and then housing for the populace. He assembled the people and gave them the choice as to what type of government they wanted - monarchy, democracy, or oligarchy - for its constitution.[15] After his address, which extolled bravery in war abroad and moderation at home, and in which Romulus denied any need to remain in power, the people decided to remain a kingdom and asked him to remain its king. Before accepting he looked for a sign of the approval of the gods. He prayed and witnessed an auspicious lightning bolt, after which he declared that no king shall take the throne without receiving approval from the gods. Institutions[edit] Dionysus then provided a detailed account of the ‘Romulus’ constitution, most probably based on the work of Terentius Varro.[16] Romulus supposedly divides Rome into 3 tribes, each with a Tribune in charge. Each tribe was divided into 10 Curia, and each of those into smaller units. He divided the kingdoms land holdings between them, and Dionysus alone among our authorities insists that this was done in equal lots.[17] The Patrician class was separated from the Plebeian class; while each curiae was responsible for providing soldiers in the event of war. Bernard van Orley - Romulus Gives Laws to the Roman People – WGA16696 A system of patronage (clientela), a senate (attributed by Dionysius to Greek influence) and a personal bodyguard of 300 of the strongest and fittest among the nobles were also established: the latter, the celeres, were so-named either for their quickness, or, according to Valerius Antias, for their commander.[18] A Separation of power,[14.1-3] and measures to increase manpower,[15-17] were also instituted, as were Rome's religious customs and practices[18-23], and a variety of legal measures praised by Dionysus. Again, Dionysius thoroughly describes the laws of other nations before contrasting the approach of Romulus and lauding his work. The Roman law governing marriage is, according to his Antiquities, an elegant yet simple improvement over that of other nations, most of which he harshly derides. By declaring that wives would share equally in the possessions and conduct of their husband, Romulus promoted virtue in the former and deterred mistreatment by the latter. Wives could inherit upon their husband's death. A wife's adultery was a serious crime, however, drunkenness could be a mitigating factor in determining the appropriate punishment. Because of his laws, Dionysius claims that not a single Roman couple divorced over the following five centuries. Romulus' laws governing parental rights, in particular, those that allow fathers to maintain power over their adult children were also considered an improvement over those of others; while Dionysius further approved of how, under the laws of Romulus, native-born free Roman's were limited to two forms of employment: farming and the army. All other occupations were filled by slaves or non-Roman labor. Romulus used the trappings of his office to encourage compliance with the law. His court was imposing and filled with loyal soldiers and he was always accompanied by the 12 lictors appointed to be his attendants. Sabine women, and death of Romulus[edit] The Intervention of the Sabine Women, by Jacques-Louis David, 1799 Following his institutional account, Dionysus described the famous abducting of the Sabine women, stressing particularly how they were to be married according to their own Sabine customs,[19] and suggesting thereby that the abduction was a pretext for alliance with the Sabines.[20] In his narrative, however, the cities of Caecina, Crustumerium, and Antemnae petition for Tatius, king of the Sabines to lead them to war; and it is only after the famous intervention of the Sabine women that the nations agreed to become a single kingdom under the joint rule of Romulus and Tatius, both declared Quirites. After the death of Tatius, however, Romulus became more dictatorial, until he met his end, either through actions divine or earthly. See also[edit] Battle of the Lacus Curtius Diodorus Siculus Hellanicus of Lesbos Editions[edit] Collected Works edited by Friedrich Sylburg (1536–1596) (parallel Greek and Latin) (Frankfurt 1586) (available at Google Books) Complete edition by Johann Jakob Reiske (1774–1777)[21] Archaeologia by A. Kiessling (1860-1870) (vol. 1, vol. 2, vol. 3, vol. 4) and V. Prou (1886) and C. Jacoby (1885–1925) (vol. 1, vol. 2, vol. 3, vol. 4, supplementum) [21] Opuscula by Hermann Usener and Ludwig Radermacher (1899-1929)[21] in the Teubner series (vol. 1 contains Commentaries on the Attic Orators, Letter to Ammaeus, On the Admirable Style of Demosthenes, On the Character of Thucydides, Letter to Ammaeus about Thucydides, vol. 2 contains The Arrangement of Words, On Imitation, Letter to Gn. Pompeius, The Art of Rhetoric, Fragments) Roman Antiquities by V. Fromentin and J. H. Sautel (1998–), and Opuscula rhetorica by Aujac (1978–), in the Collection Budé English translation by Edward Spelman (1758) (available at Google Books) Trans. Earnest Cary, Harvard University Press, Loeb Classical Library: Roman Antiquities, I, 1937. Roman Antiquities, II, 1939. Roman Antiquities, III, 1940. Roman Antiquities, IV, 1943. Roman Antiquities, V, 1945. Roman Antiquities, VI, 1947. Roman Antiquities, VII, 1950. Trans. Stephen Usher, Critical Essays, I, Harvard University Press, 1974, ISBN 978-0-674-99512-3 Trans. Stephen Usher, Critical Essays, II, Harvard University Press, 1985, ISBN 978-0-674-99513-0 References[edit] ^ a b Hidber, T. (31 Oct 2013). Wilson, N. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece(p.229). Routledge. p. 229. ISBN 978-1136787997. Retrieved 2015-09-07. ^ J E Sandys, A Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (London 1894 p. 190 ^ a b  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Dionysius Halicarnassensis". Encyclopædia Britannica. 8 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 285–286. ^ Schmitz, Leonhard (1867), "Dionysius, Aelius", in Smith, William (ed.), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, 1, Boston, p. 1037 ^ J E Sandys, A Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (London 1894 p. 190 ^ The Roman Antiquities of Dionysius of Halicarnassus. I (Loeb Classical Library ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago. March 29, 2018 [1937]. ^ Gabba, E. (1991), Dionysius and the History of Archaic Rome. Berkeley. ^ S Usher, The Historians of Greece and Rome (London 1969) p. 240-1 ^ a b c Ruthven (1979) pp. 103–4 ^ Jansen (2008) ^ S F Bonner, The Literary Treatises of Dionysius of Halicarnassus (2013) p. 39 ^ S Usher, The Historians of Greece and Rome (London 1969) p. 239 ^ S Usher, The Historians of Greece and Rome (London 1969) p. 241 ^ J Burrow, A History of Histories (Penguin 2009) p. 101 and 116 ^ T P Wiseman, Remembering the Roman Republic (2011) p. xviii-ix ^ T P Wiseman, Remembering the Roman Republic (2011) p. xviii ^ T P Wiseman, Remembering the Roman Republic (2011) p. xviii ^ T P Wiseman, Remembering the Roman Republic (2011) p. ii ^ G Miles, Livy (2018) p. 197 ^ R Hexter ed., Innovations of Antiquity (2013) p. 164 ^ a b c Chisholm 1911. Further reading[edit] Bonner, S. F. 1939. The literary treatises of Dionysius of Halicarnassus: A study in the development of critical method. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Damon, C. 1991. Aesthetic response and technical analysis in the rhetorical writings of Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Museum Helveticum 48: 33–58. Dionysius of Halicarnassus. 1975. On Thucydides. Translated, with commentary, by W. Kendrick Pritchett. Berkeley and London: Univ. of California Press. Gabba, Emilio. 1991. Dionysius and the history of archaic Rome. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press. Gallia, Andrew B. 2007. Reassessing the 'Cumaean Chronicle': Greek chronology and Roman history in Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Journal of Roman Studies 97: 50–67. Jonge, Casper Constantijn de. 2008. Between Grammar and Rhetoric: Dionysius of Halicarnassus On Language, Linguistics and Literature. Leiden: Brill. Jonge, Casper C. de, and Richard L. Hunter (ed.). 2018. Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Augustan Rome. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sacks, Kenneth. 1986. Rhetoric and speeches in Hellenistic historiography. Athenaeum 74: 383–95. Usher, S. 1974–1985. Dionysius of Halicarnassus: The critical essays. 2 vols. Cambridge, MA, and London: Harvard Univ. Press. Wiater, N. 2011. The ideology of classicism: Language, history and identity in Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Berlin and New York: De Gruyter. Wooten, C. W. 1994. The Peripatetic tradition in the literary essays of Dionysius of Halicarnassus. In: Peripatetic rhetoric after Aristotle. Edited by W. W. Fortenbaugh and D. C. Mirhady, 121–30. Rutgers University Studies in Classical Humanities 6. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction. External links[edit] Library resources about Dionysius of Halicarnassus Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Dionysius of Halicarnassus Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries English translation of the Antiquities (at LacusCurtius) 1586 Edition with the original Greek from the Internet Archive Greek text and French translation Authority control BIBSYS: 90054828 BNE: XX880306 BNF: cb13091418v (data) CANTIC: a11027617 CiNii: DA01467195 GND: 118672037 ISNI: 0000 0001 2283 4434 LCCN: n50082922 LNB: 000022631 NDL: 00967431 NKC: jn19981000660 NLA: 35037247 NLI: 000039718 NLP: A11858448 NSK: 000086729 NTA: 068585497 RERO: 02-A000051743 SELIBR: 183856 SUDOC: 02683281X Trove: 808336 VcBA: 495/26000 VIAF: 100218889 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n50082922 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus&oldid=992285329" Categories: Ancient Greek educators Roman-era Greek historians Ancient Greeks in Rome Ancient Halicarnassians 1st-century BC Romans 1st-century BC Greek people 1st-century BC historians 1st-century BC writers Ancient Roman antiquarians Atticists (rhetoricians) Historians from Roman Anatolia 60s BC births 10s deaths Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2017 Articles containing Latin-language text Articles with unsourced statements from December 2016 Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLP identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of death unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Corsu Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar മലയാളം Mirandés Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Sicilianu Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 December 2020, at 14:03 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8466	----	Roman amphitheatre - Wikipedia Roman amphitheatre From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Roman open-air venues The Colosseum, the largest amphitheatre ever built, and a most popular tourist attraction Roman amphitheatres are Roman theatres – large, circular or oval open-air venues with raised seating – built by the ancient Romans. They were used for events such as gladiator combats, venationes (animal slayings) and executions. About 230 Roman amphitheatres have been found across the area of the Roman Empire. Early amphitheatres date from the Republican period,[1] though they became more monumental during the Imperial era.[2] Amphitheatres are distinguished from circuses and hippodromes, which were usually rectangular and built mainly for racing events, and stadia, built for athletics, but several of these terms have at times been used for one and the same venue. The word amphitheatrum means "theatre all around". Thus, an amphitheatre is distinguished from the traditional semicircular Roman theatres by being circular or oval in shape.[3] Contents 1 Components 2 History 2.1 Early amphitheatres 2.2 Imperial era 2.3 The late Empire and the decline of the amphitheatre tradition 3 Important Roman amphitheatres 3.1 The Colosseum 3.2 Amphitheatre of Pompeii 3.3 Faleria 3.4 Capua 3.5 Julia Caesarea 3.6 Italica 4 See also 5 References 6 Footnotes 7 External links Components[edit] Vomitorium of the Amphitheatre of El Jem, Tunisia The Roman amphitheatre consists of three main parts: the cavea, the arena, and the vomitorium. The seating area is called the cavea (Latin for "enclosure"). The cavea is formed of concentric rows of stands which are either supported by arches built into the framework of the building, or simply dug out of the hillside or built up using excavated material extracted during the excavation of the fighting area (the arena). The cavea is traditionally organised in three horizontal sections, corresponding to the social class of the spectators:[4] The ima cavea is the lowest part of the cavea and the one directly surrounding the arena. It was usually reserved for the upper echelons of society. The media cavea directly follows the ima cavea and was open to the general public, though mostly reserved for men. The summa cavea is the highest section and was usually open to women and children. Similarly, the front row was called the prima cavea and the last row was called the cavea ultima. The cavea was further divided vertically into cunei. A cuneus (Latin for "wedge"; plural, cunei) was a wedge-shaped division separated by the scalae or stairways. The arched entrances both at the arena level and within the cavea are called the vomitoria (Latin "to spew forth"; singular, vomitorium) and were designed to allow rapid dispersal of large crowds. History[edit] Early amphitheatres[edit] The Amphitheatre of Pompeii in the 1800s, one of the earliest known Roman amphitheatres It is uncertain when and where the first amphitheatres were built. There are records attesting to temporary wooden amphitheatres built in the Forum Romanum for gladiatorial games from the second century BC onwards, and these may be the origin of the architectural form later expressed in stone.[5] In his Historia Naturalis, Pliny the Elder claims that the amphitheatre was invented during the spectacles of Gaius Scribonius Curio in 53 BC, where two wooden semicircular theatres were rotated towards each other to form one circular amphitheatre, while spectators were still seated in the two halves.[3] But while this may be the origin of the architectural term amphitheatrum, it cannot be the origin of the architectural concept, since earlier stone amphitheatres, known as spectacula or amphitheatera, have been found.[3] According to Jean-Claude Golvin, the earliest known stone amphitheatres are found in Campania, at Capua, Cumae and Liternum, where such venues were built towards the end of the second century BC.[5] The next-oldest amphitheatre known, as well as one of the best-researched, is the amphitheatre of Pompeii, securely dated to be built shortly after 70 BC.[6] There are relatively few other known early amphitheatres: those at Abella, Teanum and Cales date to the Sullan era (until 78 BC), those at Puteoli and Telesia from the Augustan (27 BC–14 AD). The amphitheatres at Sutrium, Carmo and Ucubi were built around 40–30 BC, those at Antioch and Phaestum (Phase I) in the mid-first century BC.[5] Imperial era[edit] In the Imperial era, amphitheatres became an integral part of the Roman urban landscape. As cities vied with each other for preeminence in civic buildings, amphitheatres became ever more monumental in scale and ornamentation.[2] Imperial amphitheatres comfortably accommodated 40,000–60,000 spectators, or up to 100,000 in the largest venues, and were only outdone by the hippodromes in seating capacity. They featured multi-storeyed, arcaded façades and were elaborately decorated with marble and stucco cladding, statues and reliefs, or even partially made of marble.[7] As the Empire grew, most of its amphitheatres remained concentrated in the Latin-speaking Western half, while in the East spectacles were mostly staged in other venues such as theatres or stadia.[8] In the West, amphitheatres were built as part of Romanization efforts by providing a focus for the Imperial cult, by private benefactors, or by the local government of colonies or provincial capitals as an attribute of Roman municipal status. A large number of modest arenas were built in Roman North Africa,[8] where most of the architectural expertise was provided by the Roman military.[9] The late Empire and the decline of the amphitheatre tradition[edit] The Arles Amphitheatre as a fortified settlement, 18th-century engraving Several factors caused the eventual extinction of the tradition of amphitheatre construction. Gladiatorial munera began to disappear from public life during the 3rd century, due to economic pressure, philosophical disapproval and opposition by the increasingly predominant new religion of Christianity, whose adherents considered such games an abomination and a waste of money.[10] Spectacles involving animals, venationes, survived until the sixth century, but became costlier and rarer. The spread of Christianity also changed the patterns of public beneficence: where a pagan Roman would often have seen himself as a homo civicus, who gave benefits to the public in exchange for status and honor, a Christian would more often be a new type of citizen, a homo interior, who sought to attain a divine reward in heaven and directed his beneficence to alms and charity rather than public works and games.[11] These changes meant that there were ever fewer uses for amphitheatres, and ever fewer funds to build and maintain them. The last construction of an amphitheatre is recorded in 523 in Pavia under Theoderic.[12] After the end of venationes, the only remaining purpose of amphitheatres was to be the place of public executions and punishments. After even this purpose dwindled away, many amphitheatres fell into disrepair and were gradually dismantled for building material, razed to make way for newer buildings, or vandalized.[13] Others were transformed into fortifications or fortified settlements, such as at Leptis Magna, Sabratha, Arles and Pola, and in the 12th century the Frangipani fortified even the Colosseum to help them in Roman power struggles.[14] Yet others were repurposed as Christian churches, including the arenas at Arles, Nîmes, Tarragona and Salona; the Colosseum became a Christian shrine in the 18th century.[14] Of the surviving amphitheatres, many are now protected as historic monuments; several are tourist attractions. Important Roman amphitheatres[edit] Main article: List of Roman amphitheatres This list is incomplete; you can help by adding missing items with reliable sources. The Colosseum[edit] The Flavian Amphitheatre in Rome, more generally known as the Colosseum, is the archetypal and the largest amphitheatre. Built from 72 to 80 AD, it remains as an icon of ancient Rome. Its building and arena dimensions are 188 × 156 and 86 × 54 meters respectively. It was commissioned by the Emperor Vespasian for the capital city of the ancient Roman Empire from 70–80 AD but was not completed and opened until 80 AD by his son Titus, as a gift for the people of Rome.[15] Amphitheatre of Pompeii[edit] Cavea of the Amphitheatre of Pompeii The Amphitheatre of Pompeii is the oldest surviving Roman amphitheatre. It is located in the Roman city of Pompeii, and was buried by the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD, that also buried Pompeii itself and the neighboring town of Herculaneum. It is also the oldest surviving Roman amphitheatre built with stone. Faleria[edit] The second-largest Roman amphitheatre was the Faleria, built 43 A.D.[16] It was located in Picenum (now Falerone), Italy. Its building dimensions were 178.8 × 106.2 meters, and it had an arena shaped like an ellipse.[17] It had twelve entrances, four of which led to the arena and had eight rows of seats divided into three sections.[18] Only the outside wall of the amphitheatre remains and the arena is covered in grass all the way to the podium.[18] Capua[edit] The third-largest Roman amphitheatre was the Amphitheatre of Capua, with building dimensions of 169.9 × 139.6 meters. It was located in the city of Capua (modern Santa Maria Capua Vetere), Italy. It was erected by Augustus in the first century B.C. and could hold up to 60,000 spectators.[19] It is known as the arena that Spartacus fought in in 73 B.C.[19] The theatre was eventually destroyed by the Vandals in their invasion of Rome in 456 AD.[19] Julia Caesarea[edit] The fourth-largest Roman amphitheatre, the Julia Caesarea, was erected after the time of Julius Caesar. It was built in Mauretania between the times of 25 BC and 23 AD by the Roman-appointed ruler Juba II and his son Ptolemy,[20] which is now considered to be modern day Cherchell, Algeria. Although it has not endured, its building dimensions are known to have been 168 × 88 meters with an arena dimension of 72.1 × 45.8 meters.[17] The Roman amphitheatre of Italica Italica[edit] The fifth-largest Roman amphitheatre is found in the province of Sevilla, Spain. Its building dimensions are 156.5 × 134 meters and its arena dimensions are 71. 2 × 46.2 meters.[17] Built in the reign of emperor Hadrian, 117–138 AD, the Italica amphitheatre could hold up to 25,000 people and still stands today.[21] See also[edit] List of Roman amphitheatres Roman architectural revolution Theatre of ancient Rome References[edit] Bomgardner, David Lee (October 2000). The Story of the Roman Amphitheatre. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-16593-8. Footnotes[edit] ^ Welch, Katherine E. (2007). The Roman amphitheatre: from its origins to the Colosseum. Cambridge University Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-521-80944-3. ^ a b Bomgardner, 61. ^ a b c Bomgardner, 37. ^ Roman Architecture ^ a b c Bomgardner, 59. ^ Bomgardner, 39. ^ Bomgardner, 62. ^ a b Bomgardner, 192. ^ Bomgardner, 195. ^ Bomgardner, 201–202. ^ Bomgardner, 207. ^ Bomgardner, 221. ^ Bomgardner, 223. ^ a b Bomgardner, 222. ^ "Deconstructing History: Colosseum". HISTORY.com. Retrieved 2017-05-08. ^ "The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, FALERIO Marche, Italy". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2017-05-08. ^ a b c Benario, Herbert W. (February–March 1981). "Amphitheatres of the Roman World". The Classical Journal. 76 (3): 255–258. JSTOR 3297328. ^ a b Friedlaender, Ludwig; Gough, Alfred Bradly (1913-01-01). Roman Life and Manners Under the Early Empire. G. Routledge. ^ a b c "Amphitheater of Capua - Ancient Capua". Ancient Capua. Retrieved 2017-05-07. ^ Leveau, Philippe (October 26, 2012). "Caesarea (Cherchel)". The Encyclopedia of Ancient History. doi:10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah16033. ISBN 9781444338386. Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ "Amphitheater of Italica". www.spanisharts.com. Retrieved 2017-05-08. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ancient Roman amphitheatres. Marin Buovac: On the inscriptions of Roman amphitheatres in the Eastern Adriatic seaboard, VAPD 105, 2012., 83-95. v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_amphitheatre&oldid=992385104" Categories: Roman amphitheatres Hidden categories: CS1: Julian–Gregorian uncertainty Pages with citations lacking titles Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Incomplete lists from July 2011 Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Español فارسی Français 한국어 Slovenščina Edit links This page was last edited on 5 December 2020, at 00:14 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8479	----	Terence - Wikipedia Terence From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman comic playwright This article is about the Roman playwright. For other persons named Terence, see Terence (given name). For other members of the Roman gens, see Terentia gens. Terence Born Publius Terentius Afer c. 195/185 BC Died c. 159? BC Occupation Playwright Nationality Roman African Period Roman Republic Publius Terentius Afer (/təˈrɛnʃiəs, -ʃəs/; c. 195/185 – c. 159? BC), better known in English as Terence (/ˈtɛrəns/), was a Roman African playwright during the Roman Republic. His comedies were performed for the first time around 170–160 BC. Terentius Lucanus, a Roman senator, brought Terence to Rome as a slave, educated him and later on, impressed by his abilities, freed him. Terence abruptly died, around the age of 25, likely in Greece or on his way back to Rome, due to shipwreck or disease.[1] He was supposedly on his way to explore and find more plots to base his comedies on. Terence's legacy is one that includes his plays being heavily used to learn to speak and write in Latin during the Middle Ages and Renaissance Period, as well as to be imitated by Shakespeare in some of his plays. One famous quotation by Terence reads: "Homo sum, humani nihil a me alienum puto", or "I am human, and I think nothing human is alien to me."[2] This appeared in his play Heauton Timorumenos.[3] Contents 1 Biography 2 Plays 3 Cultural legacy 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links Biography[edit] Terence's date of birth is disputed; Aelius Donatus, in his incomplete Commentum Terenti, considers the year 185 BC to be the year Terentius was born;[4] Fenestella, on the other hand, states that he was born ten years earlier, in 195 BC.[5] Other scholars have also stated his birth to be in the year 190 BCE.[6] While no one knows for certainty, it is likely to say that that it occurred somewhere between the years of 195 BCE and 185 BCE. Terence may have been born in or near Carthage or in Greek Italy to a woman taken to Carthage as a slave. Terence's cognomen Afer suggests he lived in the territory of the Libyan tribe called by the Romans Afri near Carthage prior to being brought to Rome as a slave.[7] 1726 Portrait of Terence, created by Dutch artist Pieter van Cuyck However, it is possible that ancient biographers' reports that Terence was born in Africa are an inference from his name and not independent biographical information.[8][9] This inference is based on the fact that the term was used in two different ways during the republican era. During Terence's lifetime, it was used to refer to non-Carthaginian Berbers, with the term Punicus reserved for the Carthaginians.[10] Subsequently, after the destruction of Carthage in 146 BC, it was used to refer to anyone from the land of the Afri (that is, the ancient Roman province of Africa, mostly corresponding to today's Tunisia and its surroundings). The cognomen Afer "[North] African" may indicate that Terence hailed from ancient Libya,[11] and was therefore of Berber descent.[12] However, such names did not necessarily denote origin, and there were Romans who had this cognomen who were not Africans, such as Domitius Afer. Consequently, it is not known with certainty whether Terence was given the cognomen Afer as denoting his origin, or if it was solely based on later bibliographers' reports based on the terminology of their day. According to his traditional biography, he was sold to P. Terentius Lucanus,[13] a Roman senator, who educated him and later on, impressed by Terence's abilities, freed him. Terence then took the nomen "Terentius," which is the origin of the present form. Based on the writings of the Roman historian Suetonius, Terence was described to be of "moderate height, slender, and of dark complexion," additionally leaving a daughter who subsequently went on to marry a Roman knight.[14] Additionally, Terence was a member of the so-called Scipionic Circle. When he was about the age of 25, Terence travelled to Greece to gather materials for his plays and never returned. It is mostly believed that Terence died during the journey, but this cannot be confirmed. Before his disappearance, he exhibited six comedies which are still in existence. According to some ancient writers, he died at sea due to shipwreck or disease. It is possible, however, that the fateful voyage to Greece was a speculative explanation of why he wrote so few plays inferred from Terence's complaint in Eunuchus 41–3 about the limited materials at his disposal.[9] Plays[edit] 1496 edition of Terence's Works Like Plautus, Terence adapted Greek plays from the late phases of Attic comedy. Unlike Plautus though, Terence's way of writing his comedies was more in a simple conversational Latin, pleasant and direct, while less visually humorous to watch.[15] It has also been said that Terence made better utilization of his plots than Plautus, and his purer language and characterizations in his comedies can be attributed to the lack of popularity during his day.[16] Aelius Donatus, Jerome's teacher, is the earliest surviving commentator on Terence's work. Terence's popularity throughout the Middle Ages and the Renaissance is attested to by the numerous manuscripts containing part or all of his plays; the scholar Claudia Villa has estimated that 650 manuscripts containing Terence's work date from after AD 800. The mediaeval playwright Hroswitha of Gandersheim claims to have written her plays so that learned men had a Christian alternative to reading the pagan plays of Terence, while the reformer Martin Luther not only quoted Terence frequently to tap into his insights into all things human but also recommended his comedies for the instruction of children in school.[17] Terence's six plays are: Andria (The Girl from Andros) (166 BC) Hecyra (The Mother-in-Law) (165 BC) Heauton Timorumenos (The Self-Tormentor) (163 BC) Phormio (161 BC) Eunuchus (161 BC) Adelphoe (The Brothers) (160 BC) The first printed edition of Terence appeared in Strasbourg in 1470, while the first certain post-antique performance of one of Terence's plays, Andria, took place in Florence in 1476. There is evidence, however, that Terence was performed much earlier. The short dialogue Terentius et delusor was probably written to be performed as an introduction to a Terentian performance in the 9th century (possibly earlier). Cultural legacy[edit] Mid-12th century illustrated Latin manuscript of Terence's Comedies from St Albans Abbey, now held at the Bodleian Library Due to his clear and entertaining language, Terence's works were heavily used by monasteries and convents during the Middle Ages and The Renaissance. Scribes often learned Latin through the meticulous copying of Terence's texts. Priests and nuns often learned to speak Latin through reenactment of Terence's plays, thereby learning both Latin and Gregorian chants. Although Terence's plays often dealt with pagan material, the quality of his language promoted the copying and preserving of his text by the church. The preservation of Terence through the church enabled his work to influence much of later Western drama.[18] Pietro Alighieri's Commentary to the Commedia states that his father took the title from Terence's plays and Giovanni Boccaccio copied out in his own hand all of Terence's Comedies and Apuleius' writings in manuscripts that are now in the Laurentian Library. Two of the earliest English comedies, Ralph Roister Doister and Gammer Gurton's Needle, are thought to parody Terence's plays. Montaigne, Shakespeare and Molière cite and imitate him. Terence's plays were a standard part of the Latin curriculum of the neoclassical period. President of the United States John Adams once wrote to his son, "Terence is remarkable, for good morals, good taste, and good Latin...His language has simplicity and an elegance that make him proper to be accurately studied as a model."[19] American playwright Thornton Wilder based his novel The Woman of Andros on Terence's Andria. The works of Terence had often been read not only in Roman schools years after his death, but also in schools around Europe for centuries after due to the proficient and skillful use of language that were in his plays. Terence's works, along with Plautus', were so well appreciated and revered, that even Shakespeare centuries later studied their works in his schooling and certainly knew them through and throughout.[20] Due to his cognomen Afer, Terence has long been identified with Africa and heralded as the first poet of the African diaspora by generations of writers, including Juan Latino, Phyllis Wheatley, Alexandre Dumas, Langston Hughes and Maya Angelou. Two of his plays were produced in Denver with Black actors. Questions as to whether Terence received assistance in writing or was not the actual author have been debated over the ages, as described in the 1911 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica: [In a prologue to one of his plays, Terence] meets the charge of receiving assistance in the composition of his plays by claiming as a great honour the favour which he enjoyed with those who were the favorites of the Roman people. But the gossip, not discouraged by Terence, lived and throve; it crops up in Cicero and Quintilian, and the ascription of the plays to Scipio had the honour to be accepted by Montaigne and rejected by Diderot.[21] See also[edit] Translation Metres of Roman comedy Codex Vaticanus 3868 List of slaves Roman Africans Quod licet Iovi, non licet bovi References[edit] ^ Kamm, Antony; Graham, Abigail (2014). "THE ROMANS". routledgetextbooks.com. Retrieved 2020-11-10. ^ More literally, "I am a human being; of that which is human, I think nothing estranged from me." ^ Ricord, Frederick W. (1885). The Self-Tormentor (Heautontimorumenos) from the Latin of Publius Terentius Afer with More English Songs from Foreign Tongues. New York: Charles Scribner's. p. 25. Retrieved 22 January 2018 – via Internet Archive. . The quote appears in Act I, Scene 1, line 25, or at line 77 if the entire play is numbered continuously. ^ Aeli Donati Commentum Terenti, accedunt Eugraphi Commentum et Scholia Bembina, ed. Paul Wessner, 3 Volumes, Leipzig, 1902, 1905, 1908. ^ G. D' Anna, Sulla vita suetoniana di Terenzio, RIL, 1956, pp. 31-46, 89-90. ^ Martin, T.R. (2012). Ancient Rome: From Romulus to Justinian. New Haven: Yale University Press. ^ Tenney Frank, "On Suetonius' Life of Terence." The American Journal of Philology, Vol. 54, No. 3 (1933), pp. 269-273. ^ Brown, Peter G. M. (2012). "Terence". Oxford Classical Dictionary (4 ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 1440–1. ^ a b Terence (2013). Goldberg, Sander M. (ed.). Hecyra. Cambridge University Press. pp. 10–11. ^ H. J. Rose, A Handbook of Latin Literature, 1954. ^ Michael von Albrecht, Geschichte der römischen Literatur, Volume 1, Bern, 1992. ^ "...the playwright Terence, who reached Rome as the slave of a senator in the second century BC, was a Berber", Suzan Raven, Rome in Africa, Routledge, 1993, p.122; ISBN 0-415-08150-5. ^ Smith, William (editor); Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, "Lucanus, Terentius" Archived 2011-04-20 at the Wayback Machine, Boston, 1870. ^ "Suetonius • Life of Terence". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2020-11-10. ^ Knox, P.E., and J.C. McKeown (2013). The Oxford Anthology of Roman Literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ^ Kamm, Antony; Graham, Abigail (2014). "THE ROMANS". routledgetextbooks.com. Retrieved 2020-11-10. ^ See, e.g., in Luther's Works: American Edition, vol. 40:317; 47:228. ^ Holloway, Julia Bolton (1993). Sweet New Style: Brunetto Latino, Dante Alighieri, Geoffrey Chaucer, Essays, 1981-2005. Retrieved 22 October 2014. ^ John Adams by David McCullough, Simon and Schuster Paperbacks, New York, 2001. Pg 259. ISBN 978-0-684-81363-9 ^ Knox, P.E., and J.C. McKeown. 2013. The Oxford Anthology of Roman Literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ^  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Sellar, William Young; Harrison, Ernest (1911). "Terence". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 640. Further reading[edit] Augoustakis, A. and Ariana Traill eds. (2013). A Companion to Terence. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. Malden/Oxford/Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Boyle, A. J., ed. (2004). Special Issue: Rethinking Terence. Ramus 33:1–2. Büchner, K. (1974). Das Theater des Terenz. Heidelberg: C. Winter. Davis, J. E. (2014). Terence Interrupted: Literary Biography and the Reception of the Terentian Canon. American Journal of Philology 135(3), 387–409. Forehand, W. E. (1985). Terence. Boston: Twayne. Goldberg, S. M. (1986). Understanding Terence. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Karakasis, E. (2005). Terence and the Language of Roman Comedy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Papaioannou, S., ed. (2014). Terence and Interpretation. Pierides, 4. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Pezzini, G. (2015). Terence and the Verb ‘To Be’ in Latin. Oxford Classical Monographs. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press. Sharrock, A. (2009). Reading Roman Comedy: Poetics and Playfulness in Plautus and Terence. W.B. Stanford Memorial Lectures. Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press. External links[edit] Library resources about Terence Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Terence Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries The six plays of Terence at The Latin Library (in Latin). Works by Terence at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Terence at Internet Archive At Perseus Digital Library: Andria. Hecyra. Heautontimorumenos. The Eunuch. Phormio. The Brothers. 15th-century scripts from Hecyra and Eunuchus, Center for Digital Initiatives, University of Vermont Libraries. Lewis E 196 Comediae at OPenn Terence's works: text, concordances and frequency list (in Latin). The Life of Terence, part of Suetonius's De Viris Illustribus, translated by John C. Rolfe. P. Terenti comoediae cum scholi Aeli Donati et Eugraphi commentariis, Reinhold Klotz (ed.), Lipsiae, sumptum fecitE. B. Schwickert, 1838, vol. 1, vol. 2. SORGLL: Terence, Eunuch 232-264, read in Latin by Matthew Dillon. Latin with Laughter: Terence through Time. v t e Terence's plays The Girl from Andros (166 BC) The Mother-in-Law (165 BC) The Self-Tormentor (163 BC) Phormio (161 BC) The Eunuch (161 BC) The Brothers (160 BC) v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile 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en-wikipedia-org-8489	----	Cassius Dio - Wikipedia Cassius Dio From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman consul and historian Lucius Cassius Dio Native name Δίων Κάσσιος Born c. 155 AD Nicaea, Bithynia Died c. 235 AD (aged approx. 80) Bithynia Occupation Historian, senator, proconsul, consul Nationality Roman Subject History Notable works History of Rome Relatives Cassius Apronianus (father), Cassius Dio (grandchild or great-grandchild) Lucius Cassius Dio (/ˈkæʃəs ˈdaɪoʊ/; c. 155 – c. 235 AD)[note 1] or Dio Cassius (Ancient Greek: Δίων Κάσσιος)[note 3] was a Roman statesman and historian of Greek and Roman origin. He published 80 volumes of the history on ancient Rome, beginning with the arrival of Aeneas in Italy. The volumes documented the subsequent founding of Rome (753 BC), the formation of the Republic (509 BC), and the creation of the Empire (27 BC), up until 229 AD. Written in Ancient Greek over 22 years, Dio's work covers approximately 1,000 years of history. Many of his 80 books have survived intact, or as fragments, providing modern scholars with a detailed perspective on Roman history. Contents 1 Biography 2 Roman History 3 Literary style 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Biography[edit] Lucius Cassius Dio was the son of Cassius Apronianus, a Roman senator and member of the gens Cassia, who was born and raised at Nicaea in Bithynia. Byzantine tradition maintains that Dio's mother was the daughter or sister of the Greek orator and philosopher, Dio Chrysostom; however, this relationship has been disputed. Lucius is often identified as Dio's praenomen, but a Macedonian inscription, published in 1970, reveals the abbreviation, "Cl.", presumably Claudius.[note 4] Although Dio was a Roman citizen, he wrote in Greek. Dio always maintained a love for his hometown of Nicaea, calling it "his home", as opposed to his description of his villa in Italy ("my residence in Italy").[citation needed] For the greater part of his life, Dio was a member of the public service. He was a senator[5] under Commodus and governor of Smyrna following the death of Septimius Severus; he became a suffect consul in approximately the year 205. Dio was also proconsul in Africa and Pannonia. Severus Alexander held Dio in the highest esteem and reappointed him to the position of consul, even though his caustic nature irritated the Praetorian Guards, who demanded his life. Following his second consulship, while in his later years, Dio returned to his native country, where he eventually died. Dio was either the grandfather or great-grandfather of Cassius Dio, consul in 291.[6] Roman History[edit] Dio published a Roman History (Ῥωμαϊκὴ Ἱστορία, Historia Romana), in 80 books, after twenty-two years of research and labour. The books cover a period of approximately 1,400 years, beginning with the tales from Roman mythology of the arrival of the legendary Aeneas in Italy (c. 1200 BC) and the founding of Rome by his descendant Romulus (753 BC); as well as the historic events of the republican and imperial eras through 229 AD. The work is one of only three written Roman sources that document the British revolt of AD 60–61 led by Boudica and the subsequent defeat of Boudica. Until the first century BC, Dio provides only a summary of events; after that period, his accounts become more detailed. From the time of Commodus (ruled AD 180–192), Dio is very circumspect in his conveyance of the events that he witnessed. The version of Dio's work that survives today is quite composite since his history does not survive in its entirety: The first 21 books have been partially reconstructed based on fragments from other works as well as the epitome of Zonaras who used Dio's Roman History as a main source. Scholarship on this part of Dio's work is scarce but the importance of the Early Republic and Regal period to Dio's overall work has recently been underlined.[7] Books 22 through 35 are sparsely covered by fragments. The books that follow, Books 36 through 54, are nearly all complete; they cover the period from 65 BC to 12 BC, or from the eastern campaign of Pompey and the death of Mithridates to the death of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. Book 55 contains a considerable gap, while Books 56 through 60 (which cover the period from AD 9 through 54) are complete and contain events from the defeat of Varus in Germany to the death of Claudius. Of the 20 subsequent books in the series, there remain only fragments and the meager abridgement of John Xiphilinus, a monk from the 11th century. The abridgment of Xiphilinus, as now extant, commences with Book 35 and continues to the end of Book 80: it is a very indifferent performance[citation needed] and was made by order of the emperor Michael VII Doukas. The last book covers the period from 222 to 229 (the first half of the reign of Alexander Severus). Dio's work has often been deprecated as unreliable and lacking any overall political aim.[8][9] Recently, however, this Roman historian has received a thorough reevaluation and his complexity and sophisticated political and historical interpretations have been highlighted.[10][11][7] The fragments of the first 36 books, as they have been collected, consist of four kinds: Fragmenta Valesiana: fragments that were dispersed throughout various writers, scholiasts, grammarians, and lexicographers, and were collected by Henri Valois. Fragmenta Peiresciana: large extracts, found in the section entitled "Of Virtues and Vices", contained in the collection, or portative library, compiled by order of Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus. The manuscript of this belonged to Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc. The fragments of the first 34 books, preserved in the second section of the same work by Constantine, entitled “Of Embassies.” These are known under the name of Fragmenta Ursiniana, as the manuscript in which they are contained was found in Sicily by Fulvio Orsini. Excerpta Vaticana by Angelo Mai: Contains fragments of books 1 to 35 and 61 to 80. Additionally, fragments of an unknown continuator of Dio (Anonymus post Dionem), generally identified with the 6th-century historian Peter the Patrician, are included; these date from the time of Constantine. Other fragments from Dio that are primarily associated with the first 34 books were found by Mai in two Vatican MSS.; these contain a collection that was compiled by Maximus Planudes. The annals of Joannes Zonaras also contain numerous extracts from Dio. Literary style[edit] Dio attempted to emulate Thucydides in his writing style. Dio's style, where there appears to be no corruption of the text, is generally clear though full of Latinisms. Dio's writing was underpinned by a set of personal circumstances whereby he was able to observe significant events of the Empire in the first person, or had direct contact with the key figures who were involved. See also[edit] Tacitus Severan dynasty Herodian Roman historiography Notes[edit] ^ According to some scholars, such as Millar (Millar, F., A study of Cassius Dio, Oxford 1966, p. 13), he was born later, in 163/164 AD[1] ^ Alain Gowing, who has edited Cassius Dio, argues that the evidence for Cocceianus is insufficient, and the ascription is a Byzantine confusion with Dio Chrysostom, whom Pliny shows to be named Cocceianus; he provides the previously unattested praenomen of Claudius. ^ Also known as Dion Kassios Kokkeianos (Ancient Greek: Δίων Κάσσιος Κοκκηϊανός),[2] Cassius Lucius Dio or Cassius Claudius Dio;[3] alleged to have the cognomen (nickname) Cocceianus[4][note 2] ^ Gowing, who adopts it; Claudius, however, is usually a nomen. References[edit] ^ Millar, Fergus (1964). Study of Cassius Dio. Oxford University Press. p. 250. ISBN 0-19-814336-2. ^ Prof. Cary's Introduction at LacusCurtius ^ Gowing, Alain (January 1990), "Dio's Name", Classical Philology, 85 (1): 49–54, doi:10.1086/367176, JSTOR 269480 ^ Dio's name: L'Année épigraphique 1971, 430 = Κλ΄ Κάσσιος Δίων. Roman Military Diplomas, Roxan, 133 = L. Cassius Dio. ^ Carter, John (1987). The Reign of Augustus. London: Penguin Books. pp. 1. ISBN 9780140444483. ^ Martindale, J. R.; Jones, A. H. M, The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Vol. I AD 260-395, Cambridge University Press (1971), pg. 253 ^ a b Burden-Strevens, C. and Lindholmer, M. O. (2018). Cassius Dio's Forgotten History of Early Rome. Brill. doi:10.1163/9789004384552. ISBN 9789004384552.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Millar, Fergus (1964). A Study of Cassius Dio. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ^ Lintott, A. (1997). "Cassius Dio and the History of the Late Roman Republic". Aufstieg und Niedergang der Römischen Welt. 34 (3): 2497–2523. ^ Lange, Carsten Hjort Herausgeber Madsen, Jesper Majbom Herausgeber (2016). Cassius Dio Greek intellectual and Roman politician. Brill. ISBN 9789004335318. OCLC 964448138.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Valérie Fromentin, Estelle Bertrand, Michèle Coltelloni-Trannoy, Michel Molin, Gianpaolo Urso (eds.) (2016). Cassius Dion: nouvelles lectures. Bordeaux: Ausonius.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) Further reading[edit] Aalders, G. J. D. 1986. "Cassius Dio and the Greek World." Mnemosyne 39: 282–304. Baltussen, Han. 2002. "Matricide Revisited: Dramatic and Rhetorical Allusion in Tacitus, Suetonius and Cassius Dio." Antichthon 36: 30–40. Burden-Strevens, C. and Lindholmer, M. O. 2018 (eds.). Cassius Dio's Forgotten History of Early Rome: The Roman History. Leiden: Brill. Eisman, M. M. 1977. "Dio and Josephus: Parallel Analyses." Latomus 36: 657–673. Fromentin, V., Bertrand, E. Coltelloni-Trannoy, M., Molin, M and Urso, G. (eds.) 2016. Cassius Dion: nouvelles lectures. Bordeaux: Ausonius. Gleason, Maud. 2011. "Identity Theft: Doubles and Masquerades in Cassius Dio's Contemporary History." Classical Antiquity 30.1: 33–86. Gowing, Alain M. 1990. "Dio’s Name." Classical Philology 85: 49–54. Kordos, Jozef. 2010. "Thucydidean Elements in Cassius Dio." Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 50.2-3:249-256. Lange, C. H. and Madsen, J. M. 2016 (eds.). Cassius Dio: Greek Intellectual and Roman Politician. Leiden: Brill. Mallan, C. T. 2013. "Cassius Dio on Julia Domna: A Study of the Political and Ethical Functions of Biographical Representation in Dio's Roman History." Mnemosyne 66.4-5: 734–760. McDougall, Iain. 1991. "Dio and His Sources for Caesar’s Campaigns in Gaul." Latomus 50: 616–638. Millar, F. G. B. 1964. A Study of Cassius Dio. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Murison, C. L. 1999. Rebellion and Reconstruction: Galba to Domitian: An Historical Commentary on Cassius Dio’s Roman History. Books 64–67 (A.D. 68–96). Atlanta: Scholars Press. Reinhold, Meyer. 1988. From Republic to Principate. An Historical Commentary on Cassius Dio's Roman History Books 49-52 (36-29 B.C.). Atlanta: Scholars Press. Swan, P.M. 2004. The Augustan Succession. An Historical Commentary on Cassius Dio's Roman History Books 55-56 (9 B.C.-A.D.14). Oxford: Oxford University Press. External links[edit] Library resources about Cassius Dio Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Cassius Dio Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Media related to Cassius Dio at Wikimedia Commons "Cassius Dio" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 8 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 278–279. Works written by or about Cassius Dio at Wikisource Works by Cassius Dio at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Cassius Dio at Internet Archive Cassius Dio, Roman History (English translation on LacusCurtius) Works by Cassius Dio at Perseus Digital Library Greek text and French Translation Dio Cassius: the Manuscripts of "The Roman History" Editio princeps: Dionis Romanarum historiarum libri XXIII, à XXXVI ad LVIII vsque (The Roman History), Greek text edited by Robert Estienne, Paris, 1548. Held by the Corning Museum of Glass. Editio princeps of Xiphilinus's Epitome (Robert Estienne, Paris, 1551) at Google Books Political offices Preceded by Uncertain Consul suffectus of the Roman Empire around 205 with uncertain Succeeded by Uncertain Preceded by Quintus Aiacius Modestus Crescentianus, Marcus Pomponius Maecius Probus Consul of the Roman Empire 229 with Alexander Severus Succeeded by Lucius Virius Agricola, Sextus Catius Clementinus Priscillianus Authority control BIBSYS: 90055780 BNE: XX1251722 BNF: cb122023034 (data) CANTIC: a11114411 CiNii: DA02099596 GND: 118525824 ISNI: 0000 0001 2144 1495 LCCN: n79084710 NKC: jn19981000657 NLA: 35723341 NLG: 17975 NSK: 000362910 NTA: 069534306 RERO: 02-A000029524 SELIBR: 183846 SNAC: w6c56ngc SUDOC: 03064870X Trove: 1058806 VcBA: 495/14280 VIAF: 95167625 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79084710 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cassius_Dio&oldid=993434048" Categories: Imperial Roman consuls Roman-era Greek historians Historians from Roman Anatolia 150s births 230s deaths 3rd-century historians 2nd-century Greek people 3rd-century Greek people 2nd-century Romans 3rd-century Romans Cassii People from Nicaea Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Latin-language text CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list CS1 maint: extra text: authors list Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2012 Articles with unsourced statements from February 2017 Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth uncertain Year of death uncertain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Latviešu Magyar മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 December 2020, at 16:18 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-849	----	Horace - Wikipedia Horace From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The printable version is no longer supported and may have rendering errors. Please update your browser bookmarks and please use the default browser print function instead. Roman lyric poet This article is about the Roman poet. For the Egyptian god, see Horus. For other uses, see Horace (disambiguation). Horace Horace, as imagined by Anton von Werner Born Quintus Horatius Flaccus 8 December 65 BC Venusia, Italy, Roman Republic Died 27 November 8 BC (age 56) Rome Resting place Rome Occupation Soldier, scriba quaestorius, poet, senator Language Latin Nationality Roman Genre Lyric poetry Notable works Odes "The Art of Poetry" Quintus Horatius Flaccus (8 December 65 – 27 November 8 BC), known in the English-speaking world as Horace (/ˈhɒrɪs/), was the leading Roman lyric poet during the time of Augustus (also known as Octavian). The rhetorician Quintilian regarded his Odes as just about the only Latin lyrics worth reading: "He can be lofty sometimes, yet he is also full of charm and grace, versatile in his figures, and felicitously daring in his choice of words."[nb 1] Horace also crafted elegant hexameter verses (Satires and Epistles) and caustic iambic poetry (Epodes). The hexameters are amusing yet serious works, friendly in tone, leading the ancient satirist Persius to comment: "as his friend laughs, Horace slyly puts his finger on his every fault; once let in, he plays about the heartstrings".[nb 2] His career coincided with Rome's momentous change from a republic to an empire. An officer in the republican army defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC, he was befriended by Octavian's right-hand man in civil affairs, Maecenas, and became a spokesman for the new regime. For some commentators, his association with the regime was a delicate balance in which he maintained a strong measure of independence (he was "a master of the graceful sidestep")[1] but for others he was, in John Dryden's phrase, "a well-mannered court slave".[2][nb 3] Contents 1 Life 1.1 Childhood 1.2 Adulthood 1.2.1 Poet 1.2.2 Knight 2 Works 2.1 Historical context 2.2 Themes 3 Reception 3.1 Antiquity 3.2 Middle Ages and Renaissance 3.3 Age of Enlightenment 3.4 19th century on 4 Translations 5 In popular culture 6 See also 7 Notes 8 Citations 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links Life Horatii Flacci Sermonum (1577) Horace can be regarded as the world's first autobiographer.[3] In his writings, he tells us far more about himself, his character, his development, and his way of life, than any other great poet of antiquity. Some of the biographical material contained in his work can be supplemented from the short but valuable "Life of Horace" by Suetonius (in his Lives of the Poets).[4] Childhood He was born on 8 December 65 BC[nb 4] in the Samnite south of Italy.[5] His home town, Venusia, lay on a trade route in the border region between Apulia and Lucania (Basilicata). Various Italic dialects were spoken in the area and this perhaps enriched his feeling for language. He could have been familiar with Greek words even as a young boy and later he poked fun at the jargon of mixed Greek and Oscan spoken in neighbouring Canusium.[6] One of the works he probably studied in school was the Odyssia of Livius Andronicus, taught by teachers like the 'Orbilius' mentioned in one of his poems.[7] Army veterans could have been settled there at the expense of local families uprooted by Rome as punishment for their part in the Social War (91–88 BC).[8] Such state-sponsored migration must have added still more linguistic variety to the area. According to a local tradition reported by Horace,[9] a colony of Romans or Latins had been installed in Venusia after the Samnites had been driven out early in the third century. In that case, young Horace could have felt himself to be a Roman[10][11] though there are also indications that he regarded himself as a Samnite or Sabellus by birth.[12][13] Italians in modern and ancient times have always been devoted to their home towns, even after success in the wider world, and Horace was no different. Images of his childhood setting and references to it are found throughout his poems.[14] Horace's father was probably a Venutian taken captive by Romans in the Social War, or possibly he was descended from a Sabine captured in the Samnite Wars. Either way, he was a slave for at least part of his life. He was evidently a man of strong abilities however and managed to gain his freedom and improve his social position. Thus Horace claimed to be the free-born son of a prosperous 'coactor'.[15] The term 'coactor' could denote various roles, such as tax collector, but its use by Horace[16] was explained by scholia as a reference to 'coactor argentareus' i.e. an auctioneer with some of the functions of a banker, paying the seller out of his own funds and later recovering the sum with interest from the buyer.[17] The father spent a small fortune on his son's education, eventually accompanying him to Rome to oversee his schooling and moral development. The poet later paid tribute to him in a poem[18] that one modern scholar considers the best memorial by any son to his father.[nb 5] The poem includes this passage: If my character is flawed by a few minor faults, but is otherwise decent and moral, if you can point out only a few scattered blemishes on an otherwise immaculate surface, if no one can accuse me of greed, or of prurience, or of profligacy, if I live a virtuous life, free of defilement (pardon, for a moment, my self-praise), and if I am to my friends a good friend, my father deserves all the credit... As it is now, he deserves from me unstinting gratitude and praise. I could never be ashamed of such a father, nor do I feel any need, as many people do, to apologize for being a freedman's son. Satires 1.6.65–92 He never mentioned his mother in his verses and he might not have known much about her. Perhaps she also had been a slave.[15] Adulthood Horace left Rome, possibly after his father's death, and continued his formal education in Athens, a great centre of learning in the ancient world, where he arrived at nineteen years of age, enrolling in The Academy. Founded by Plato, The Academy was now dominated by Epicureans and Stoics, whose theories and practises made a deep impression on the young man from Venusia.[19] Meanwhile, he mixed and lounged about with the elite of Roman youth, such as Marcus, the idle son of Cicero, and the Pompeius to whom he later addressed a poem.[20] It was in Athens too that he probably acquired deep familiarity with the ancient tradition of Greek lyric poetry, at that time largely the preserve of grammarians and academic specialists (access to such material was easier in Athens than in Rome, where the public libraries had yet to be built by Asinius Pollio and Augustus).[21] Rome's troubles following the assassination of Julius Caesar were soon to catch up with him. Marcus Junius Brutus came to Athens seeking support for the republican cause. Brutus was fêted around town in grand receptions and he made a point of attending academic lectures, all the while recruiting supporters among the young men studying there, including Horace.[22] An educated young Roman could begin military service high in the ranks and Horace was made tribunus militum (one of six senior officers of a typical legion), a post usually reserved for men of senatorial or equestrian rank and which seems to have inspired jealousy among his well-born confederates.[23][24] He learned the basics of military life while on the march, particularly in the wilds of northern Greece, whose rugged scenery became a backdrop to some of his later poems.[25] It was there in 42 BC that Octavian (later Augustus) and his associate Mark Antony crushed the republican forces at the Battle of Philippi. Horace later recorded it as a day of embarrassment for himself, when he fled without his shield,[26] but allowance should be made for his self-deprecating humour. Moreover, the incident allowed him to identify himself with some famous poets who had long ago abandoned their shields in battle, notably his heroes Alcaeus and Archilochus. The comparison with the latter poet is uncanny: Archilochus lost his shield in a part of Thrace near Philippi, and he was deeply involved in the Greek colonization of Thasos, where Horace's die-hard comrades finally surrendered.[24] Octavian offered an early amnesty to his opponents and Horace quickly accepted it. On returning to Italy, he was confronted with yet another loss: his father's estate in Venusia was one of many throughout Italy to be confiscated for the settlement of veterans (Virgil lost his estate in the north about the same time). Horace later claimed that he was reduced to poverty and this led him to try his hand at poetry.[27] In reality, there was no money to be had from versifying. At best, it offered future prospects through contacts with other poets and their patrons among the rich.[28] Meanwhile, he obtained the sinecure of scriba quaestorius, a civil service position at the aerarium or Treasury, profitable enough to be purchased even by members of the ordo equester and not very demanding in its work-load, since tasks could be delegated to scribae or permanent clerks.[29] It was about this time that he began writing his Satires and Epodes. Poet Horace reads before Maecenas, by Fyodor Bronnikov The Epodes belong to iambic poetry. Iambic poetry features insulting and obscene language;[30][31] sometimes, it is referred to as blame poetry.[32] Blame poetry, or shame poetry, is poetry written to blame and shame fellow citizens into a sense of their social obligations. Horace modelled these poems on the poetry of Archilochus. Social bonds in Rome had been decaying since the destruction of Carthage a little more than a hundred years earlier, due to the vast wealth that could be gained by plunder and corruption.[33] These social ills were magnified by rivalry between Julius Caesar, Mark Antony and confederates like Sextus Pompey, all jockeying for a bigger share of the spoils. One modern scholar has counted a dozen civil wars in the hundred years leading up to 31 BC, including the Spartacus rebellion, eight years before Horace's birth.[34] As the heirs to Hellenistic culture, Horace and his fellow Romans were not well prepared to deal with these problems: At bottom, all the problems that the times were stirring up were of a social nature, which the Hellenistic thinkers were ill qualified to grapple with. Some of them censured oppression of the poor by the rich, but they gave no practical lead, though they may have hoped to see well-meaning rulers doing so. Philosophy was drifting into absorption in self, a quest for private contentedness, to be achieved by self-control and restraint, without much regard for the fate of a disintegrating community. — V. G. Kiernan[35] Horace's Hellenistic background is clear in his Satires, even though the genre was unique to Latin literature. He brought to it a style and outlook suited to the social and ethical issues confronting Rome but he changed its role from public, social engagement to private meditation.[36] Meanwhile, he was beginning to interest Octavian's supporters, a gradual process described by him in one of his satires.[18] The way was opened for him by his friend, the poet Virgil, who had gained admission into the privileged circle around Maecenas, Octavian's lieutenant, following the success of his Eclogues. An introduction soon followed and, after a discreet interval, Horace too was accepted. He depicted the process as an honourable one, based on merit and mutual respect, eventually leading to true friendship, and there is reason to believe that his relationship was genuinely friendly, not just with Maecenas but afterwards with Augustus as well.[37] On the other hand, the poet has been unsympathetically described by one scholar as "a sharp and rising young man, with an eye to the main chance."[38] There were advantages on both sides: Horace gained encouragement and material support, the politicians gained a hold on a potential dissident.[39] His republican sympathies, and his role at Philippi, may have caused him some pangs of remorse over his new status. However most Romans considered the civil wars to be the result of contentio dignitatis, or rivalry between the foremost families of the city, and he too seems to have accepted the principate as Rome's last hope for much needed peace.[40] In 37 BC, Horace accompanied Maecenas on a journey to Brundisium, described in one of his poems[41] as a series of amusing incidents and charming encounters with other friends along the way, such as Virgil. In fact the journey was political in its motivation, with Maecenas en route to negotiatie the Treaty of Tarentum with Antony, a fact Horace artfully keeps from the reader (political issues are largely avoided in the first book of satires).[39] Horace was probably also with Maecenas on one of Octavian's naval expeditions against the piratical Sextus Pompeius, which ended in a disastrous storm off Palinurus in 36 BC, briefly alluded to by Horace in terms of near-drowning.[42][nb 6] There are also some indications in his verses that he was with Maecenas at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, where Octavian defeated his great rival, Antony.[43][nb 7] By then Horace had already received from Maecenas the famous gift of his Sabine farm, probably not long after the publication of the first book of Satires. The gift, which included income from five tenants, may have ended his career at the Treasury, or at least allowed him to give it less time and energy.[44] It signalled his identification with the Octavian regime yet, in the second book of Satires that soon followed, he continued the apolitical stance of the first book. By this time, he had attained the status of eques Romanus,[45] perhaps as a result of his work at the Treasury.[46] Knight Odes 1–3 were the next focus for his artistic creativity. He adapted their forms and themes from Greek lyric poetry of the seventh and sixth centuries BC. The fragmented nature of the Greek world had enabled his literary heroes to express themselves freely and his semi-retirement from the Treasury in Rome to his own estate in the Sabine hills perhaps empowered him to some extent also[47] yet even when his lyrics touched on public affairs they reinforced the importance of private life.[1] Nevertheless, his work in the period 30–27 BC began to show his closeness to the regime and his sensitivity to its developing ideology. In Odes 1.2, for example, he eulogized Octavian in hyperboles that echo Hellenistic court poetry. The name Augustus, which Octavian assumed in January 27 BC, is first attested in Odes 3.3 and 3.5. In the period 27–24 BC, political allusions in the Odes concentrated on foreign wars in Britain (1.35), Arabia (1.29) Spain (3.8) and Parthia (2.2). He greeted Augustus on his return to Rome in 24 BC as a beloved ruler upon whose good health he depended for his own happiness (3.14).[48] The public reception of Odes 1–3 disappointed him, however. He attributed the lack of success to jealousy among imperial courtiers and to his isolation from literary cliques.[49] Perhaps it was disappointment that led him to put aside the genre in favour of verse letters. He addressed his first book of Epistles to a variety of friends and acquaintances in an urbane style reflecting his new social status as a knight. In the opening poem, he professed a deeper interest in moral philosophy than poetry[50] but, though the collection demonstrates a leaning towards stoic theory, it reveals no sustained thinking about ethics.[51] Maecenas was still the dominant confidante but Horace had now begun to assert his own independence, suavely declining constant invitations to attend his patron.[52] In the final poem of the first book of Epistles, he revealed himself to be forty-four years old in the consulship of Lollius and Lepidus i.e. 21 BC, and "of small stature, fond of the sun, prematurely grey, quick-tempered but easily placated".[53][54] According to Suetonius, the second book of Epistles was prompted by Augustus, who desired a verse epistle to be addressed to himself. Augustus was in fact a prolific letter-writer and he once asked Horace to be his personal secretary. Horace refused the secretarial role but complied with the emperor's request for a verse letter.[55] The letter to Augustus may have been slow in coming, being published possibly as late as 11 BC. It celebrated, among other things, the 15 BC military victories of his stepsons, Drusus and Tiberius, yet it and the following letter[56] were largely devoted to literary theory and criticism. The literary theme was explored still further in Ars Poetica, published separately but written in the form of an epistle and sometimes referred to as Epistles 2.3 (possibly the last poem he ever wrote).[57] He was also commissioned to write odes commemorating the victories of Drusus and Tiberius[58] and one to be sung in a temple of Apollo for the Secular Games, a long-abandoned festival that Augustus revived in accordance with his policy of recreating ancient customs (Carmen Saeculare). Suetonius recorded some gossip about Horace's sexual activities late in life, claiming that the walls of his bedchamber were covered with obscene pictures and mirrors, so that he saw erotica wherever he looked.[nb 8] The poet died at 56 years of age, not long after his friend Maecenas, near whose tomb he was laid to rest. Both men bequeathed their property to Augustus, an honour that the emperor expected of his friends.[59] Works Odes 1.14 – Wall poem in Leiden The dating of Horace's works isn't known precisely and scholars often debate the exact order in which they were first 'published'. There are persuasive arguments for the following chronology:[60] Satires 1 (c. 35–34 BC) Satires 2 (c. 30 BC) Epodes (30 BC) Odes 1–3 (c. 23 BC)[nb 9] Epistles 1 (c. 21 BC) Carmen Saeculare (17 BC) Epistles 2 (c. 11 BC)[nb 10] Odes 4 (c. 11 BC) Ars Poetica (c. 10–8 BC)[nb 11] Historical context Horace composed in traditional metres borrowed from Archaic Greece, employing hexameters in his Satires and Epistles, and iambs in his Epodes, all of which were relatively easy to adapt into Latin forms. His Odes featured more complex measures, including alcaics and sapphics, which were sometimes a difficult fit for Latin structure and syntax. Despite these traditional metres, he presented himself as a partisan in the development of a new and sophisticated style. He was influenced in particular by Hellenistic aesthetics of brevity, elegance and polish, as modelled in the work of Callimachus.[61] As soon as Horace, stirred by his own genius and encouraged by the example of Virgil, Varius, and perhaps some other poets of the same generation, had determined to make his fame as a poet, being by temperament a fighter, he wanted to fight against all kinds of prejudice, amateurish slovenliness, philistinism, reactionary tendencies, in short to fight for the new and noble type of poetry which he and his friends were endeavouring to bring about. — Eduard Fraenkel[62] In modern literary theory, a distinction is often made between immediate personal experience (Urerlebnis) and experience mediated by cultural vectors such as literature, philosophy and the visual arts (Bildungserlebnis).[63] The distinction has little relevance for Horace[citation needed] however since his personal and literary experiences are implicated in each other. Satires 1.5, for example, recounts in detail a real trip Horace made with Virgil and some of his other literary friends, and which parallels a Satire by Lucilius, his predecessor.[64] Unlike much Hellenistic-inspired literature, however, his poetry was not composed for a small coterie of admirers and fellow poets, nor does it rely on abstruse allusions for many of its effects. Though elitist in its literary standards, it was written for a wide audience, as a public form of art.[65] Ambivalence also characterizes his literary persona, since his presentation of himself as part of a small community of philosophically aware people, seeking true peace of mind while shunning vices like greed, was well adapted to Augustus's plans to reform public morality, corrupted by greed—his personal plea for moderation was part of the emperor's grand message to the nation.[66] Horace generally followed the examples of poets established as classics in different genres, such as Archilochus in the Epodes, Lucilius in the Satires and Alcaeus in the Odes, later broadening his scope for the sake of variation and because his models weren't actually suited to the realities confronting him. Archilochus and Alcaeus were aristocratic Greeks whose poetry had a social and religious function that was immediately intelligible to their audiences but which became a mere artifice or literary motif when transposed to Rome. However, the artifice of the Odes is also integral to their success, since they could now accommodate a wide range of emotional effects, and the blend of Greek and Roman elements adds a sense of detachment and universality.[67] Horace proudly claimed to introduce into Latin the spirit and iambic poetry of Archilochus but (unlike Archilochus) without persecuting anyone (Epistles 1.19.23–25). It was no idle boast. His Epodes were modelled on the verses of the Greek poet, as 'blame poetry', yet he avoided targeting real scapegoats. Whereas Archilochus presented himself as a serious and vigorous opponent of wrong-doers, Horace aimed for comic effects and adopted the persona of a weak and ineffectual critic of his times (as symbolized for example in his surrender to the witch Canidia in the final epode).[68] He also claimed to be the first to introduce into Latin the lyrical methods of Alcaeus (Epistles 1.19.32–33) and he actually was the first Latin poet to make consistent use of Alcaic meters and themes: love, politics and the symposium. He imitated other Greek lyric poets as well, employing a 'motto' technique, beginning each ode with some reference to a Greek original and then diverging from it.[69] The satirical poet Lucilius was a senator's son who could castigate his peers with impunity. Horace was a mere freedman's son who had to tread carefully.[70] Lucilius was a rugged patriot and a significant voice in Roman self-awareness, endearing himself to his countrymen by his blunt frankness and explicit politics. His work expressed genuine freedom or libertas. His style included 'metrical vandalism' and looseness of structure. Horace instead adopted an oblique and ironic style of satire, ridiculing stock characters and anonymous targets. His libertas was the private freedom of a philosophical outlook, not a political or social privilege.[71] His Satires are relatively easy-going in their use of meter (relative to the tight lyric meters of the Odes)[72] but formal and highly controlled relative to the poems of Lucilius, whom Horace mocked for his sloppy standards (Satires 1.10.56–61)[nb 12] The Epistles may be considered among Horace's most innovative works. There was nothing like it in Greek or Roman literature. Occasionally poems had had some resemblance to letters, including an elegiac poem from Solon to Mimnermus and some lyrical poems from Pindar to Hieron of Syracuse. Lucilius had composed a satire in the form of a letter, and some epistolary poems were composed by Catullus and Propertius. But nobody before Horace had ever composed an entire collection of verse letters,[73] let alone letters with a focus on philosophical problems. The sophisticated and flexible style that he had developed in his Satires was adapted to the more serious needs of this new genre.[74] Such refinement of style was not unusual for Horace. His craftsmanship as a wordsmith is apparent even in his earliest attempts at this or that kind of poetry, but his handling of each genre tended to improve over time as he adapted it to his own needs.[70] Thus for example it is generally agreed that his second book of Satires, where human folly is revealed through dialogue between characters, is superior to the first, where he propounds his ethics in monologues. Nevertheless, the first book includes some of his most popular poems.[75] Themes Horace developed a number of inter-related themes throughout his poetic career, including politics, love, philosophy and ethics, his own social role, as well as poetry itself. His Epodes and Satires are forms of 'blame poetry' and both have a natural affinity with the moralising and diatribes of Cynicism. This often takes the form of allusions to the work and philosophy of Bion of Borysthenes [nb 13] but it is as much a literary game as a philosophical alignment. By the time he composed his Epistles, he was a critic of Cynicism along with all impractical and "high-falutin" philosophy in general.[nb 14][76] The Satires also include a strong element of Epicureanism, with frequent allusions to the Epicurean poet Lucretius.[nb 15] So for example the Epicurean sentiment carpe diem is the inspiration behind Horace's repeated punning on his own name (Horatius ~ hora) in Satires 2.6.[77] The Satires also feature some Stoic, Peripatetic and Platonic (Dialogues) elements. In short, the Satires present a medley of philosophical programs, dished up in no particular order—a style of argument typical of the genre.[78] The Odes display a wide range of topics. Over time, he becomes more confident about his political voice.[79] Although he is often thought of as an overly intellectual lover, he is ingenious in representing passion.[80] The "Odes" weave various philosophical strands together, with allusions and statements of doctrine present in about a third of the Odes Books 1–3, ranging from the flippant (1.22, 3.28) to the solemn (2.10, 3.2, 3.3). Epicureanism is the dominant influence, characterizing about twice as many of these odes as Stoicism. A group of odes combines these two influences in tense relationships, such as Odes 1.7, praising Stoic virility and devotion to public duty while also advocating private pleasures among friends. While generally favouring the Epicurean lifestyle, the lyric poet is as eclectic as the satiric poet, and in Odes 2.10 even proposes Aristotle's golden mean as a remedy for Rome's political troubles.[81] Many of Horace's poems also contain much reflection on genre, the lyric tradition, and the function of poetry.[82] Odes 4, thought to be composed at the emperor's request, takes the themes of the first three books of "Odes" to a new level. This book shows greater poetic confidence after the public performance of his "Carmen saeculare" or "Century hymn" at a public festival orchestrated by Augustus. In it, Horace addresses the emperor Augustus directly with more confidence and proclaims his power to grant poetic immortality to those he praises. It is the least philosophical collection of his verses, excepting the twelfth ode, addressed to the dead Virgil as if he were living. In that ode, the epic poet and the lyric poet are aligned with Stoicism and Epicureanism respectively, in a mood of bitter-sweet pathos.[83] The first poem of the Epistles sets the philosophical tone for the rest of the collection: "So now I put aside both verses and all those other games: What is true and what befits is my care, this my question, this my whole concern." His poetic renunciation of poetry in favour of philosophy is intended to be ambiguous. Ambiguity is the hallmark of the Epistles. It is uncertain if those being addressed by the self-mocking poet-philosopher are being honoured or criticized. Though he emerges as an Epicurean, it is on the understanding that philosophical preferences, like political and social choices, are a matter of personal taste. Thus he depicts the ups and downs of the philosophical life more realistically than do most philosophers.[84] Reception Horace, portrayed by Giacomo Di Chirico The reception of Horace's work has varied from one epoch to another and varied markedly even in his own lifetime. Odes 1–3 were not well received when first 'published' in Rome, yet Augustus later commissioned a ceremonial ode for the Centennial Games in 17 BC and also encouraged the publication of Odes 4, after which Horace's reputation as Rome's premier lyricist was assured. His Odes were to become the best received of all his poems in ancient times, acquiring a classic status that discouraged imitation: no other poet produced a comparable body of lyrics in the four centuries that followed[85] (though that might also be attributed to social causes, particularly the parasitism that Italy was sinking into).[86] In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, ode-writing became highly fashionable in England and a large number of aspiring poets imitated Horace both in English and in Latin.[87] In a verse epistle to Augustus (Epistle 2.1), in 12 BC, Horace argued for classic status to be awarded to contemporary poets, including Virgil and apparently himself.[88] In the final poem of his third book of Odes he claimed to have created for himself a monument more durable than bronze ("Exegi monumentum aere perennius", Carmina 3.30.1). For one modern scholar, however, Horace's personal qualities are more notable than the monumental quality of his achievement: ... when we hear his name we don't really think of a monument. We think rather of a voice which varies in tone and resonance but is always recognizable, and which by its unsentimental humanity evokes a very special blend of liking and respect. — Niall Rudd[89] Yet for men like Wilfred Owen, scarred by experiences of World War I, his poetry stood for discredited values: My friend, you would not tell with such high zest To children ardent for some desperate glory, The Old Lie: Dulce et decorum est Pro patria mori.[nb 16] The same motto, Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori, had been adapted to the ethos of martyrdom in the lyrics of early Christian poets like Prudentius.[90] These preliminary comments touch on a small sample of developments in the reception of Horace's work. More developments are covered epoch by epoch in the following sections. Antiquity Horace's influence can be observed in the work of his near contemporaries, Ovid and Propertius. Ovid followed his example in creating a completely natural style of expression in hexameter verse, and Propertius cheekily mimicked him in his third book of elegies.[nb 17] His Epistles provided them both with a model for their own verse letters and it also shaped Ovid's exile poetry.[nb 18] His influence had a perverse aspect. As mentioned before, the brilliance of his Odes may have discouraged imitation. Conversely, they may have created a vogue for the lyrics of the archaic Greek poet Pindar, due to the fact that Horace had neglected that style of lyric (see Influence and Legacy of Pindar).[91] The iambic genre seems almost to have disappeared after publication of Horace's Epodes. Ovid's Ibis was a rare attempt at the form but it was inspired mainly by Callimachus, and there are some iambic elements in Martial but the main influence there was Catullus.[92] A revival of popular interest in the satires of Lucilius may have been inspired by Horace's criticism of his unpolished style. Both Horace and Lucilius were considered good role-models by Persius, who critiqued his own satires as lacking both the acerbity of Lucillius and the gentler touch of Horace.[nb 19] Juvenal's caustic satire was influenced mainly by Lucilius but Horace by then was a school classic and Juvenal could refer to him respectfully and in a round-about way as "the Venusine lamp".[nb 20] Statius paid homage to Horace by composing one poem in Sapphic and one in Alcaic meter (the verse forms most often associated with Odes), which he included in his collection of occasional poems, Silvae. Ancient scholars wrote commentaries on the lyric meters of the Odes, including the scholarly poet Caesius Bassus. By a process called derivatio, he varied established meters through the addition or omission of syllables, a technique borrowed by Seneca the Younger when adapting Horatian meters to the stage.[93] Horace's poems continued to be school texts into late antiquity. Works attributed to Helenius Acro and Pomponius Porphyrio are the remnants of a much larger body of Horatian scholarship. Porphyrio arranged the poems in non-chronological order, beginning with the Odes, because of their general popularity and their appeal to scholars (the Odes were to retain this privileged position in the medieval manuscript tradition and thus in modern editions also). Horace was often evoked by poets of the fourth century, such as Ausonius and Claudian. Prudentius presented himself as a Christian Horace, adapting Horatian meters to his own poetry and giving Horatian motifs a Christian tone.[nb 21] On the other hand, St Jerome, modelled an uncompromising response to the pagan Horace, observing: "What harmony can there be between Christ and the Devil? What has Horace to do with the Psalter?"[nb 22] By the early sixth century, Horace and Prudentius were both part of a classical heritage that was struggling to survive the disorder of the times. Boethius, the last major author of classical Latin literature, could still take inspiration from Horace, sometimes mediated by Senecan tragedy.[94] It can be argued that Horace's influence extended beyond poetry to dignify core themes and values of the early Christian era, such as self-sufficiency, inner contentment and courage.[nb 23] Middle Ages and Renaissance Horace in his Studium: German print of the fifteenth century, summarizing the final ode 4.15 (in praise of Augustus). Classical texts almost ceased being copied in the period between the mid sixth century and the Carolingian revival. Horace's work probably survived in just two or three books imported into northern Europe from Italy. These became the ancestors of six extant manuscripts dated to the ninth century. Two of those six manuscripts are French in origin, one was produced in Alsace, and the other three show Irish influence but were probably written in continental monasteries (Lombardy for example).[95] By the last half of the ninth century, it was not uncommon for literate people to have direct experience of Horace's poetry. His influence on the Carolingian Renaissance can be found in the poems of Heiric of Auxerre[nb 24] and in some manuscripts marked with neumes, mysterious notations that may have been an aid to the memorization and discussion of his lyric meters. Ode 4.11 is neumed with the melody of a hymn to John the Baptist, Ut queant laxis, composed in Sapphic stanzas. This hymn later became the basis of the solfege system (Do, re, mi...)—an association with western music quite appropriate for a lyric poet like Horace, though the language of the hymn is mainly Prudentian.[96] Lyons[97] argues that the melody in question was linked with Horace's Ode well before Guido d'Arezzo fitted Ut queant laxis to it. However, the melody is unlikely to be a survivor from classical times, although Ovid[98] testifies to Horace's use of the lyre while performing his Odes. The German scholar, Ludwig Traube, once dubbed the tenth and eleventh centuries The age of Horace (aetas Horatiana), and placed it between the aetas Vergiliana of the eighth and ninth centuries, and the aetas Ovidiana of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, a distinction supposed to reflect the dominant classical Latin influences of those times. Such a distinction is over-schematized since Horace was a substantial influence in the ninth century as well. Traube had focused too much on Horace's Satires.[99] Almost all of Horace's work found favour in the Medieval period. In fact medieval scholars were also guilty of over-schematism, associating Horace's different genres with the different ages of man. A twelfth-century scholar encapsulated the theory: "...Horace wrote four different kinds of poems on account of the four ages, the Odes for boys, the Ars Poetica for young men, the Satires for mature men, the Epistles for old and complete men."[100] It was even thought that Horace had composed his works in the order in which they had been placed by ancient scholars.[nb 25] Despite its naivety, the schematism involved an appreciation of Horace's works as a collection, the Ars Poetica, Satires and Epistles appearing to find favour as well as the Odes. The later Middle Ages however gave special significance to Satires and Epistles, being considered Horace's mature works. Dante referred to Horace as Orazio satiro, and he awarded him a privileged position in the first circle of Hell, with Homer, Ovid and Lucan.[101] Horace's popularity is revealed in the large number of quotes from all his works found in almost every genre of medieval literature, and also in the number of poets imitating him in quantitative Latin meter. The most prolific imitator of his Odes was the Bavarian monk, Metellus of Tegernsee, who dedicated his work to the patron saint of Tegernsee Abbey, St Quirinus, around the year 1170. He imitated all Horace's lyrical meters then followed these up with imitations of other meters used by Prudentius and Boethius, indicating that variety, as first modelled by Horace, was considered a fundamental aspect of the lyric genre. The content of his poems however was restricted to simple piety.[102] Among the most successful imitators of Satires and Epistles was another Germanic author, calling himself Sextus Amarcius, around 1100, who composed four books, the first two exemplifying vices, the second pair mainly virtues.[103] Petrarch is a key figure in the imitation of Horace in accentual meters. His verse letters in Latin were modelled on the Epistles and he wrote a letter to Horace in the form of an ode. However he also borrowed from Horace when composing his Italian sonnets. One modern scholar has speculated that authors who imitated Horace in accentual rhythms (including stressed Latin and vernacular languages) may have considered their work a natural sequel to Horace's metrical variety.[104] In France, Horace and Pindar were the poetic models for a group of vernacular authors called the Pléiade, including for example Pierre de Ronsard and Joachim du Bellay. Montaigne made constant and inventive use of Horatian quotes.[105] The vernacular languages were dominant in Spain and Portugal in the sixteenth century, where Horace's influence is notable in the works of such authors as Garcilaso de la Vega, Juan Boscán, Sá de Miranda, Antonio Ferreira and Fray Luis de León, the last writing odes on the Horatian theme beatus ille (happy the man).[106] The sixteenth century in western Europe was also an age of translations (except in Germany, where Horace wasn't translated into the vernacular until well into the seventeenth century). The first English translator was Thomas Drant, who placed translations of Jeremiah and Horace side by side in Medicinable Morall, 1566. That was also the year that the Scot George Buchanan paraphrased the Psalms in a Horatian setting. Ben Jonson put Horace on the stage in 1601 in Poetaster, along with other classical Latin authors, giving them all their own verses to speak in translation. Horace's part evinces the independent spirit, moral earnestness and critical insight that many readers look for in his poems.[107] Age of Enlightenment During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, or the Age of Enlightenment, neoclassical culture was pervasive. English literature in the middle of that period has been dubbed Augustan. It is not always easy to distinguish Horace's influence during those centuries (the mixing of influences is shown for example in one poet's pseudonym, Horace Juvenal).[nb 26] However a measure of his influence can be found in the diversity of the people interested in his works, both among readers and authors.[108] New editions of his works were published almost yearly. There were three new editions in 1612 (two in Leiden, one in Frankfurt) and again in 1699 (Utrecht, Barcelona, Cambridge). Cheap editions were plentiful and fine editions were also produced, including one whose entire text was engraved by John Pine in copperplate. The poet James Thomson owned five editions of Horace's work and the physician James Douglas had five hundred books with Horace-related titles. Horace was often commended in periodicals such as The Spectator, as a hallmark of good judgement, moderation and manliness, a focus for moralising.[nb 27] His verses offered a fund of mottoes, such as simplex munditiis (elegance in simplicity), splendide mendax (nobly untruthful), sapere aude (dare to know), nunc est bibendum (now is the time to drink), carpe diem (seize the day, perhaps the only one still in common use today).[94] These were quoted even in works as prosaic as Edmund Quincy's A treatise of hemp-husbandry (1765). The fictional hero Tom Jones recited his verses with feeling.[109] His works were also used to justify commonplace themes, such as patriotic obedience, as in James Parry's English lines from an Oxford University collection in 1736:[110] What friendly Muse will teach my Lays To emulate the Roman fire? Justly to sound a Caeser's praise Demands a bold Horatian lyre. Horatian-style lyrics were increasingly typical of Oxford and Cambridge verse collections for this period, most of them in Latin but some like the previous ode in English. John Milton's Lycidas first appeared in such a collection. It has few Horatian echoes[nb 28] yet Milton's associations with Horace were lifelong. He composed a controversial version of Odes 1.5, and Paradise Lost includes references to Horace's 'Roman' Odes 3.1–6 (Book 7 for example begins with echoes of Odes 3.4).[111] Yet Horace's lyrics could offer inspiration to libertines as well as moralists, and neo-Latin sometimes served as a kind of discrete veil for the risqué. Thus for example Benjamin Loveling authored a catalogue of Drury Lane and Covent Garden prostitutes, in Sapphic stanzas, and an encomium for a dying lady "of salacious memory".[112] Some Latin imitations of Horace were politically subversive, such as a marriage ode by Anthony Alsop that included a rallying cry for the Jacobite cause. On the other hand, Andrew Marvell took inspiration from Horace's Odes 1.37 to compose his English masterpiece Horatian Ode upon Cromwell's Return from Ireland, in which subtly nuanced reflections on the execution of Charles I echo Horace's ambiguous response to the death of Cleopatra (Marvell's ode was suppressed in spite of its subtlety and only began to be widely published in 1776). Samuel Johnson took particular pleasure in reading The Odes.[nb 29] Alexander Pope wrote direct Imitations of Horace (published with the original Latin alongside) and also echoed him in Essays and The Rape of the Lock. He even emerged as "a quite Horatian Homer" in his translation of the Iliad.[113] Horace appealed also to female poets, such as Anna Seward (Original sonnets on various subjects, and odes paraphrased from Horace, 1799) and Elizabeth Tollet, who composed a Latin ode in Sapphic meter to celebrate her brother's return from overseas, with tea and coffee substituted for the wine of Horace's sympotic settings: Quos procax nobis numeros, jocosque Musa dictaret? mihi dum tibique Temperent baccis Arabes, vel herbis Pocula Seres[114] What verses and jokes might the bold Muse dictate? while for you and me Arabs flavour our cups with beans Or Chinese with leaves.[115] Horace's Ars Poetica is second only to Aristotle's Poetics in its influence on literary theory and criticism. Milton recommended both works in his treatise of Education.[116] Horace's Satires and Epistles however also had a huge impact, influencing theorists and critics such as John Dryden.[117] There was considerable debate over the value of different lyrical forms for contemporary poets, as represented on one hand by the kind of four-line stanzas made familiar by Horace's Sapphic and Alcaic Odes and, on the other, the loosely structured Pindarics associated with the odes of Pindar. Translations occasionally involved scholars in the dilemmas of censorship. Thus Christopher Smart entirely omitted Odes 4.10 and re-numbered the remaining odes. He also removed the ending of Odes 4.1. Thomas Creech printed Epodes 8 and 12 in the original Latin but left out their English translations. Philip Francis left out both the English and Latin for those same two epodes, a gap in the numbering the only indication that something was amiss. French editions of Horace were influential in England and these too were regularly bowdlerized. Most European nations had their own 'Horaces': thus for example Friedrich von Hagedorn was called The German Horace and Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski The Polish Horace (the latter was much imitated by English poets such as Henry Vaughan and Abraham Cowley). Pope Urban VIII wrote voluminously in Horatian meters, including an ode on gout.[118] 19th century on Horace maintained a central role in the education of English-speaking elites right up until the 1960s.[119] A pedantic emphasis on the formal aspects of language-learning at the expense of literary appreciation may have made him unpopular in some quarters[120] yet it also confirmed his influence—a tension in his reception that underlies Byron's famous lines from Childe Harold (Canto iv, 77):[121] Then farewell, Horace, whom I hated so Not for thy faults, but mine; it is a curse To understand, not feel thy lyric flow, To comprehend, but never love thy verse. William Wordsworth's mature poetry, including the preface to Lyrical Ballads, reveals Horace's influence in its rejection of false ornament[122] and he once expressed "a wish / to meet the shade of Horace...".[nb 30] John Keats echoed the opening of Horace's Epodes 14 in the opening lines of Ode to a Nightingale.[nb 31] The Roman poet was presented in the nineteenth century as an honorary English gentleman. William Thackeray produced a version of Odes 1.38 in which Horace's 'boy' became 'Lucy', and Gerard Manley Hopkins translated the boy innocently as 'child'. Horace was translated by Sir Theodore Martin (biographer of Prince Albert) but minus some ungentlemanly verses, such as the erotic Odes 1.25 and Epodes 8 and 12. Edward Bulwer-Lytton produced a popular translation and William Gladstone also wrote translations during his last days as Prime Minister.[123] Edward FitzGerald's Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, though formally derived from the Persian ruba'i, nevertheless shows a strong Horatian influence, since, as one modern scholar has observed, "...the quatrains inevitably recall the stanzas of the 'Odes', as does the narrating first person of the world-weary, ageing Epicurean Omar himself, mixing sympotic exhortation and 'carpe diem' with splendid moralising and 'memento mori' nihilism."[nb 32] Matthew Arnold advised a friend in verse not to worry about politics, an echo of Odes 2.11, yet later became a critic of Horace's inadequacies relative to Greek poets, as role models of Victorian virtues, observing: "If human life were complete without faith, without enthusiasm, without energy, Horace...would be the perfect interpreter of human life."[124] Christina Rossetti composed a sonnet depicting a woman willing her own death steadily, drawing on Horace's depiction of 'Glycera' in Odes 1.19.5–6 and Cleopatra in Odes 1.37.[nb 33] A. E. Housman considered Odes 4.7, in Archilochian couplets, the most beautiful poem of antiquity[125] and yet he generally shared Horace's penchant for quatrains, being readily adapted to his own elegiac and melancholy strain.[126] The most famous poem of Ernest Dowson took its title and its heroine's name from a line of Odes 4.1, Non sum qualis eram bonae sub regno Cynarae, as well as its motif of nostalgia for a former flame. Kipling wrote a famous parody of the Odes, satirising their stylistic idiosyncrasies and especially the extraordinary syntax, but he also used Horace's Roman patriotism as a focus for British imperialism, as in the story Regulus in the school collection Stalky & Co., which he based on Odes 3.5.[127] Wilfred Owen's famous poem, quoted above, incorporated Horatian text to question patriotism while ignoring the rules of Latin scansion. However, there were few other echoes of Horace in the war period, possibly because war is not actually a major theme of Horace's work.[128] Bibendum (the symbol of the Michelin tyre company) takes his name from the opening line of Ode 1.37, Nunc est bibendum. Both W.H.Auden and Louis MacNeice began their careers as teachers of classics and both responded as poets to Horace's influence. Auden for example evoked the fragile world of the 1930s in terms echoing Odes 2.11.1–4, where Horace advises a friend not to let worries about frontier wars interfere with current pleasures. And, gentle, do not care to know Where Poland draws her Eastern bow,      What violence is done; Nor ask what doubtful act allows Our freedom in this English house,      Our picnics in the sun.[nb 34] The American poet, Robert Frost, echoed Horace's Satires in the conversational and sententious idiom of some of his longer poems, such as The Lesson for Today (1941), and also in his gentle advocacy of life on the farm, as in Hyla Brook (1916), evoking Horace's fons Bandusiae in Ode 3.13. Now at the start of the third millennium, poets are still absorbing and re-configuring the Horatian influence, sometimes in translation (such as a 2002 English/American edition of the Odes by thirty-six poets)[nb 35] and sometimes as inspiration for their own work (such as a 2003 collection of odes by a New Zealand poet).[nb 36] Horace's Epodes have largely been ignored in the modern era, excepting those with political associations of historical significance. The obscene qualities of some of the poems have repulsed even scholars[nb 37] yet more recently a better understanding of the nature of Iambic poetry has led to a re-evaluation of the whole collection.[129][130] A re-appraisal of the Epodes also appears in creative adaptations by recent poets (such as a 2004 collection of poems that relocates the ancient context to a 1950s industrial town).[nb 38] Translations John Dryden successfully adapted three of the Odes (and one Epode) into verse for readers of his own age. Samuel Johnson favored the versions of Philip Francis. Others favor unrhymed translations. In 1964 James Michie published a translation of the Odes—many of them fully rhymed—including a dozen of the poems in the original Sapphic and Alcaic metres. More recent verse translations of the Odes include those by David West (free verse), and Colin Sydenham (rhymed). Ars Poetica was first translated into English by Ben Jonson and later by Lord Byron. Horace's Odes and the Mystery of Do-Re-Mi Stuart Lyons (rhymed) Aris & Phillips ISBN 978-0-85668-790-7 In popular culture The Oxford Latin Course textbooks use the life of Horace to illustrate an average Roman's life in the late Republic to Early Empire.[131] See also Literature portal Ancient Rome portal Biography portal Carpe diem Horatia (gens) List of ancient Romans Otium Prosody (Latin) Translation Notes ^ Quintilian 10.1.96. The only other lyrical poet Quintilian thought comparable with Horace was the now obscure poet/metrical theorist, Caesius Bassus (R. Tarrant, Ancient Receptions of Horace, 280) ^ Translated from Persius' own 'Satires' 1.116–17: "omne vafer vitium ridenti Flaccus amico / tangit et admissus circum praecordia ludit." ^ Quoted by N. Rudd from John Dryden's Discourse Concerning the Original and Progress of Satire, excerpted from W.P.Ker's edition of Dryden's essays, Oxford 1926, vol. 2, pp. 86–87 ^ The year is given in Odes 3.21.1 ("Consule Manlio"), the month in Epistles 1.20.27, the day in Suetonius' biography Vita (R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 7) ^ "No son ever set a finer monument to his father than Horace did in the sixth satire of Book I...Horace's description of his father is warm-hearted but free from sentimentality or exaggeration. We see before us one of the common people, a hard-working, open-minded, and thoroughly honest man of simple habits and strict convictions, representing some of the best qualities that at the end of the Republic could still be found in the unsophisticated society of the Italian municipia" — E. Fraenkel, Horace, 5–6 ^ Odes 3.4.28: "nec (me extinxit) Sicula Palinurus unda"; "nor did Palinurus extinguish me with Sicilian waters". Maecenas' involvement is recorded by Appian Bell. Civ. 5.99 but Horace's ode is the only historical reference to his own presence there, depending however on interpretation. (R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 10) ^ The point is much disputed among scholars and hinges on how the text is interpreted. Epodes 9 for example may offer proof of Horace's presence if 'ad hunc frementis' ('gnashing at this' man i.e. the traitrous Roman ) is a misreading of 'at huc...verterent' (but hither...they fled) in lines describing the defection of the Galatian cavalry, "ad hunc frementis verterunt bis mille equos / Galli canentes Caesarem" (R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 12). ^ Suetonius signals that the report is based on rumours by employing the terms "traditur...dicitur" / "it is reported...it is said" (E. Fraenkel, Horace, 21) ^ According to a recent theory, the three books of Odes were issued separately, possibly in 26, 24 and 23 BC (see G. Hutchinson (2002), Classical Quarterly 52: 517–37) ^ 19 BC is the usual estimate but c. 11 BC has good support too (see R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 18–20 ^ The date however is subject to much controversy with 22–18 BC another option (see for example R. Syme, The Augustan Aristocracy, 379–81 ^ "[Lucilius]...resembles a man whose only concern is to force / something into the framework of six feet, and who gaily produces / two hundred lines before dinner and another two hundred after." – Satire 1.10.59–61 (translated by Niall Rudd, The Satires of Horace and Persius, Penguin Classics 1973, p. 69) ^ There is one reference to Bion by name in Epistles 2.2.60, and the clearest allusion to him is in Satire 1.6, which parallels Bion fragments 1, 2, 16 Kindstrand ^ Epistles 1.17 and 1.18.6–8 are critical of the extreme views of Diogenes and also of social adaptations of Cynic precepts, and yet Epistle 1.2 could be either Cynic or Stoic in its orientation (J. Moles, Philosophy and ethics, p. 177 ^ Satires 1.1.25–26, 74–75, 1.2.111–12, 1.3.76–77, 97–114, 1.5.44, 101–03, 1.6.128–31, 2.2.14–20, 25, 2.6.93–97 ^ Wilfred Owen, Dulce et decorum est (1917), echoes a line from Carmina 3.2.13, "it is sweet and honourable to die for one's country", cited by Stephen Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 340. ^ Propertius published his third book of elegies within a year or two of Horace's Odes 1–3 and mimicked him, for example, in the opening lines, characterizing himself in terms borrowed from Odes 3.1.13 and 3.30.13–14, as a priest of the Muses and as an adaptor of Greek forms of poetry (R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 227) ^ Ovid for example probably borrowed from Horace's Epistle 1.20 the image of a poetry book as a slave boy eager to leave home, adapting it to the opening poems of Tristia 1 and 3 (R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace), and Tristia 2 may be understood as a counterpart to Horace's Epistles 2.1, both being letters addressed to Augustus on literary themes (A. Barchiesi, Speaking Volumes, 79–103) ^ The comment is in Persius 1.114–18, yet that same satire has been found to have nearly 80 reminiscences of Horace; see D. Hooley, The Knotted Thong, 29 ^ The allusion to Venusine comes via Horace's Sermones 2.1.35, while lamp signifies the lucubrations of a conscientious poet. According to Quintilian (93), however, many people in Flavian Rome preferred Lucilius not only to Horace but to all other Latin poets (R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 279) ^ Prudentius sometimes alludesto the Odes in a negative context, as expressions of a secular life he is abandoning. Thus for example male pertinax, employed in Prudentius's Praefatio to describe a willful desire for victory, is lifted from Odes 1.9.24, where it describes a girl's half-hearted resistance to seduction. Elsewhere he borrows dux bone from Odes 4.5.5 and 37, where it refers to Augustus, and applies it to Christ (R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 282 ^ St Jerome, Epistles 22.29, incorporating a quote from 2 'Corinthians 6.14: qui consensus Christo et Belial? quid facit cum psalterio Horatius?(cited by K. Friis-Jensen, Horace in the Middle Ages, 292) ^ Odes 3.3.1–8 was especially influential in promoting the value of heroic calm in the face of danger, describing a man who could bear even the collapse of the world without fear (si fractus illabatur orbis,/impavidum ferient ruinae). Echoes are found in Seneca's Agamemnon 593–603, Prudentius's Peristephanon 4.5–12 and Boethius's Consolatio 1 metrum 4.(R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 283–85) ^ Heiric, like Prudentius, gave Horatian motifs a Christian context. Thus the character Lydia in Odes 3.19.15, who would willingly die for her lover twice, becomes in Heiric's Life of St Germaine of Auxerre a saint ready to die twice for the Lord's commandments (R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 287–88) ^ According to a medieval French commentary on the Satires: "...first he composed his lyrics, and in them, speaking to the young, as it were, he took as subject-matter love affairs and quarrels, banquets and drinking parties. Next he wrote his Epodes, and in them composed invectives against men of a more advanced and more dishonourable age...He next wrote his book about the Ars Poetica, and in that instructed men of his own profession to write well...Later he added his book of Satires, in which he reproved those who had fallen a prey to various kinds of vices. Finally, he finished his oeuvre with the Epistles, and in them, following the method of a good farmer, he sowed the virtues where he had rooted out the vices." (cited by K. Friis-Jensen, Horace in the Middle Ages, 294–302) ^ 'Horace Juvenal' was author of Modern manners: a poem, 1793 ^ see for example Spectator 312, 27 Feb. 1712; 548, 28 Nov. 1712; 618, 10 Nov. 1714 ^ One echo of Horace may be found in line 69: "Were it not better done as others use,/ To sport with Amaryllis in the shade/Or with the tangles of Neaera's hair?", which points to the Neara in Odes 3.14.21 (Douglas Bush, Milton: Poetical Works, 144, note 69) ^ Cfr. James Boswell, "The Life of Samuel Johnson" Aetat. 20, 1729 where Boswell remarked of Johnson that Horace's Odes "were the compositions in which he took most delight." ^ The quote, from Memorials of a Tour of Italy (1837), contains allusions to Odes 3.4 and 3.13 (S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 334–35) ^ "My heart aches, and a drowsy numbness pains / my sense..." echoes Epodes 14.1–4 (S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 335) ^ Comment by S. Harrison, editor and contributor to The Cambridge Companion to Horace (S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 337 ^ Rossetti's sonnet, A Study (a soul), dated 1854, was not published in her own lifetime. Some lines: She stands as pale as Parian marble stands / Like Cleopatra when she turns at bay... (C. Rossetti, Complete Poems, 758 ^ Quoted from Auden's poem Out on the lawn I lie in bed, 1933, and cited by S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 340 ^ Edited by McClatchy, reviewed by S. Harrison, Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2003.03.05 ^ I. Wedde, The Commonplace Odes, Auckland 2003, (cited by S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 345) ^ 'Political' Epodes are 1, 7, 9, 16; notably obscene Epodes are 8 and 12. E. Fraenkel is among the admirers repulsed by these two poems, for another view of which see for example Dee Lesser Clayman, 'Horace's Epodes VIII and XII: More than Clever Obscenity?', The Classical World Vol. 6, No. 1 (September 1975), pp 55–61 JSTOR 4348329 ^ M. Almond, The Works 2004, Washington, cited by S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 346 Citations ^ a b J. Michie, The Odes of Horace, 14 ^ N. Rudd, The Satires of Horace and Persius, 10 ^ R. Barrow R., The Romans Pelican Books, 119 ^ Fraenkel, Eduard. Horace. Oxford: 1957, p. 1. For the Life of Horace by Suetonius, see: (Vita Horati) ^ Brill's Companion to Horace, edited by Hans-Christian Günther, Brill, 2012, p. 7, Google Book ^ Satires 1.10.30 ^ Epistles 2.1.69 ff. ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 2–3 ^ Satires 2.1.34 ^ T. Frank, Catullus and Horace, 133–34 ^ A. Campbell, Horace: A New Interpretation, 84 ^ Epistles 1.16.49 ^ R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 7 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 3–4 ^ a b V. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and Politics, 24 ^ Satires 1.6.86 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 4–5 ^ a b Satires 1.6 ^ V. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and Politics, 25 ^ Odes 2.7 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 8–9 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 9–10 ^ Satires 1.6.48 ^ a b R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 8 ^ V. Kiernan, Horace, 25 ^ Odes 2.7.10 ^ Epistles 2.2.51–52 ^ V. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and politics ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 14–15 ^ Christopher Brown, in A Companion to the Greek Lyric Poets, D.E. Gerber (ed), Leiden 1997, pages 13–88 ^ Douglas E. Gerber, Greek Iambic Poetry, Loeb Classical Library (1999), Introduction pages i–iv ^ D. Mankin, Horace: Epodes, C.U.P., 8 ^ D. Mankin, Horace: Epodes, 6 ^ R. Conway, New Studies of a Great Inheritance, 49–50 ^ V. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and Politics, 18–19 ^ F. Muecke, The Satires, 109–10 ^ R. Lyne, Augustan Poetry and Society, 599 ^ J. Griffin, Horace in the Thirties, 6 ^ a b R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 10 ^ D. Mankin, Horace: Epodes, 5 ^ Satires 1.5 ^ Odes 3.4.28 ^ Epodes 1 and 9 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 15 ^ Satires 2.7.53 ^ R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 11 ^ V. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and Politics, 61–62 ^ R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 13 ^ Epistles 1.19.35–44 ^ Epistles 1.1.10 ^ V. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and Politics, 149, 153 ^ Epistles 1.7 ^ Epistles 1.20.24–25 ^ R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 14–15 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 17–18 ^ Epistles 2.2 ^ R. Ferri, The Epistles, 121 ^ Odes 4.4 and 4.14 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 23 ^ R Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 17–21 ^ S. Harrison, Style and poetic texture, 262 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 124–25 ^ Gundolf, Friedrich (1916). Goethe. Berlin, Germany: Bondi. ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 106–07 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 74 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 95–96 ^ J. Griffin, Gods and Religion, 182 ^ S. Harrison, Lyric and Iambic, 192 ^ S. Harrison, Lyric and Iambic, 194–96 ^ a b E. Fraenkel, Horace, 32, 80 ^ L. Morgan, Satire, 177–78 ^ S. Harrison, Style and poetic texture, 271 ^ R. Ferri, The Epistles, pp. 121–22 ^ E. Fraenkel, Horace, p. 309 ^ V. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and Politics, 28 ^ J. Moles, Philosophy and ethics, pp. 165–69, 177 ^ K. J. Reckford, Some studies in Horace's odes on love ^ J. Moles, Philosophy and ethics, p. 168 ^ Santirocco "Unity and Design", Lowrie "Horace's Narrative Odes" ^ Ancona, "Time and the Erotic" ^ J. Moles, Philosophy and ethics, pp. 171–73 ^ Davis "Polyhymnia" and Lowrie "Horace's Narrative Odes" ^ J. Moles, Philosophy and ethics, p. 179 ^ J. Moles, Philosophy and ethics, pp. 174–80 ^ R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 279 ^ V. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and Politics, 176 ^ D. Money, The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 326, 332 ^ R. Lyme, Augustan Poetry and Society, 603 ^ Niall Rudd, The Satires of Horace and Persius, 14 ^ R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 282–83 ^ R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 280 ^ R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 278 ^ R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 280–81 ^ a b R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 283 ^ R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 285–87 ^ R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 288–89 ^ Stuart Lyons, Horace's Odes and the Mystery of Do-Re-Mi ^ Tristia, 4.10.49–50 ^ B. Bischoff, Living with the satirists, 83–95 ^ K. Friis-Jensen,Horace in the Middle Ages, 291 ^ K. Friis-Jensen, Horace in the Middle Ages, 293, 304 ^ K. Friis-Jensen, Horace in the Middle Ages, 296–98 ^ K. Friis-Jensen, Horace in the Middle Ages, 302 ^ K. Friis-Jensen, Horace in the Middle Ages, 299 ^ Michael McGann, Horace in the Renaissance, 306 ^ E. Rivers, Fray Luis de León: The Original Poems ^ M. McGann, Horace in the Renaissance, 306–07, 313–16 ^ D. Money, The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 318, 331, 332 ^ D. Money, The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 322 ^ D. Money, The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 326–27 ^ J. Talbot, A Horatian Pun in Paradise Lost, 21–3 ^ B. Loveling, Latin and English Poems, 49–52, 79–83 ^ D. Money, The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 329–31 ^ E. Tollet, Poems on Several Occasions, 84 ^ Translation adapted from D. Money, The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 329 ^ A. Gilbert, Literary Criticism: Plato to Dryden, 124, 669 ^ W. Kupersmith, Roman Satirists in Seventeenth Century England, 97–101 ^ D. Money, The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 319–25 ^ S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 340 ^ V. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and Politics, x ^ S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 334 ^ D. Money, The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 323 ^ S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 335–37 ^ M. Arnold, Selected Prose, 74 ^ W. Flesch, Companion to British Poetry, 19th Century, 98 ^ S. Harrison, The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 339 ^ S. Medcalfe, Kipling's Horace, 217–39 ^ S. Harrison, the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 340 ^ D. Mankin, Horace: Epodes, 6–9 ^ R. McNeill, Horace, 12 ^ Balme, Maurice, Moorwood, James (1996). Oxford Latin Course Part one. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195212037. References Arnold, Matthew (1970). Selected Prose. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-043058-5. Barrow, R (1949). The Romans. Penguin/Pelican Books. Barchiesi, A (2001). Speaking Volumes: Narrative and Intertext in Ovid and Other Latin Poets. Duckworth. Bischoff, B (1971). "Living with the satirists". Classical Influences on European Culture AD 500–1500. Cambridge University Press. Bush, Douglas (1966). Milton: Poetical Works. Oxford University Press. Campbell, A (1924). Horace: A New Interpretation. London. Conway, R (1921). New Studies of a Great Inheritance. London. Davis, Gregson (1991). Polyhymnia. The Rhetoric to Horatian Lyric Discourse. University of California. Ferri, Rolando (2007). "The Epistles". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-53684-4. Flesch, William (2009). The Facts on File Companion to British Poetry, 19th Century. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-5896-9. Frank, Tenney (1928). Catullus and Horace. New York. Fraenkel, Eduard (1957). Horace. Oxford University Press. Friis-Jensen, Karsten (2007). "Horace in the Middle Ages". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Griffin, Jasper (1993). "Horace in the Thirties". Horace 2000. Ann Arbor. Griffin, Jasper (2007). "Gods and religion". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge university Press. Harrison, Stephen (2005). "Lyric and Iambic". A Companion to Latin Literature. Blackwell Publishing. Harrison, Stephen (2007). "Introduction". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Harrison, Stephen (2007). "Style and poetic texture". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Harrison, Stephen (2007). "The nineteenth and twentieth centuries". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Hooley, D (1997). The Knotted Thong: Structures of Mimesis in Persius. Ann Arbor. Hutchinson, G (2002). "The publication and individuality of Horace's Odes 1–3". Classical Quarterly 52. Kiernan, Victor (1999). Horace: Poetics and Politics. St Martin's Press. Kupersmith, W (1985). Roman Satirists in Seventeenth Century England. Lincoln, Nebraska and London. Loveling, Benjamin (1741). Latin and English Poems, by a Gentleman of Trinity College, Oxford. London. Lowrie, Michèle (1997). Horace's Narrative Odes. Oxford University Press. Lyne, R (1986). "Augustan Poetry and Society". The Oxford History of the Classical World. Oxford University Press. Mankin, David (1995). Horace: Epodes. Cambridge university Press. McNeill, Randall (2010). Horace. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-980511-2. Michie, James (1967). "Horace the Man". The Odes of Horace. Penguin Classics. Moles, John (2007). "Philosophy and ethics". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Money, David (2007). "The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Morgan, Llewelyn (2005). "Satire". A Companion to Latin Literature. Blackwell Publishing. Muecke, Frances (2007). "the Satires". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Nisbet, Robin (2007). "Horace: life and chronology". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Reckford, K. J. (1997). Horatius: the man and the hour. 118. American Journal of Philology. pp. 538–612. Rivers, Elias (1983). Fray Luis de León: The Original Poems. Grant and Cutler. Rossetti, Christina (2001). The Complete Poems. Penguin Books. Rudd, Niall (1973). The Satires of Horace and Persius. Penguin Classics. Santirocco, Matthew (1986). Unity and Design in Horace's Odes. University of North Carolina. Syme, R (1986). The Augustan Aristocracy. Oxford University Press. Talbot, J (2001). "A Horatian Pun in Paradise Lost". Notes and Queries 48 (1). Oxford University Press. Tarrant, Richard (2007). "Ancient receptions of Horace". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Tollet, Elizabeth (1755). Poems on Several Occasions. London. Further reading Davis, Gregson (1991). Polyhymnia the Rhetoric of Horatian Lyric Discourse. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-91030-3. Fraenkel, Eduard (1957). Horace. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Horace (1983). The Complete Works of Horace. Charles E. Passage, trans. New York: Ungar. ISBN 0-8044-2404-7. Johnson, W. R. (1993). Horace and the Dialectic of Freedom: Readings in Epistles 1. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-2868-8. Lyne, R.O.A.M. (1995). Horace: Behind the Public Poetry. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press. ISBN 0-300-06322-9. Lyons, Stuart (1997). Horace's Odes and the Mystery of Do-Re-Mi. Aris & Phillips. Lyons, Stuart (2010). Music in the Odes of Horace. Aris & Phillips. Michie, James (1964). The Odes of Horace. Rupert Hart-Davis. Newman, J.K. (1967). Augustus and the New Poetry. Brussels: Latomus, revue d’études latines. Noyes, Alfred (1947). Horace: A Portrait. New York: Sheed and Ward. Perret, Jacques (1964). Horace. Bertha Humez, trans. New York: New York University Press. Putnam, Michael C.J. (1986). Artifices of Eternity: Horace's Fourth Book of Odes. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-1852-6. Reckford, Kenneth J. (1969). Horace. New York: Twayne. Rudd, Niall, ed. (1993). Horace 2000: A Celebration – Essays for the Bimillennium. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-10490-X. Sydenham, Colin (2005). Horace: The Odes. Duckworth. West, David (1997). Horace The Complete Odes and Epodes. Oxford University Press. Wilkinson, L.P. (1951). Horace and His Lyric Poetry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. External links Horaceat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Data from Wikidata Library resources about Horace Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Horace Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Works by Horace at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Horace at Internet Archive Works by Horace at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Q. Horati Flacci opera, recensuerunt O. Keller et A. Holder, 2 voll., Lipsiae in aedibus B. G. Teubneri, 1864–9. Common sayings from Horace The works of Horace at The Latin Library Carmina Horatiana All Carmina of Horace in Latin recited by Thomas Bervoets. Selected Poems of Horace Works by Horace at Perseus Digital Library Biography and chronology Horace's works: text, concordances and frequency list SORGLL: Horace, Odes I.22, read by Robert Sonkowsky Translations of several odes in the original meters (with accompaniment). A discussion and comparison of three different contemporary translations of Horace's Odes Some spurious lines in the Ars Poetica? 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en-wikipedia-org-8506	----	Roman hairstyles - Wikipedia Roman hairstyles From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Marble bust 'Matidia 1' c.119 AD Roman statue of a woman with elaborate hairstyle (Aphrodisias, 2nd century AD) Hairstyle fashion in Rome was ever changing, and particularly in the Roman Imperial Period there were a number of different ways to style hair. As with clothes, there were several hairstyles that were limited to certain people in ancient society. Styles are so distinctive they allow scholars today to create a chronology of Roman portraiture and art; we are able to date pictures of the empresses on coins, or identify busts depending on their hairstyles. Contents 1 Significance 2 Headgear 2.1 Veils 2.2 Wigs 2.3 Detachable marble wigs 3 Tools of the trade 3.1 Dyes 3.2 Curling irons, pins and hairnets 4 Styles over time 4.1 Tutulus 4.2 Republican period and Augustan era styles 4.3 Flavian and Antonine hairstyles 4.4 Severan dynasty 5 Men's hairstyles 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Significance[edit] A young woman sits while a servant fixes her hair with the help of a cupid, who holds up a mirror to offer a reflection, detail of a fresco from the Villa of the Mysteries, Pompeii, c. 50 BC Much like today, hair for the Romans was as much an expression of personal identity as clothes. Hairstyles were determined by a number of factors, namely gender, age, social status, wealth and profession. A woman's hairstyle expressed her individuality in the ancient Roman World. How one dressed one's hair was an indication of a person's status and role in society. Hair was a very erotic area of the female body for the Romans, and attractiveness of a woman was tied to the presentation of her hair. As a result, it was seen as appropriate for a woman to spend time on her hair in order to create a flattering appearance. Hairdressing and its necessary accompaniment, mirror gazing, were seen as distinctly feminine activities. Lengthy grooming sessions for women were tolerated, despite writers such as Tertullian and Pliny commenting on their abhorrence for time and energy women dedicate to their hair.[1] However, the numerous depictions of women hairdressing and mirror-gazing in tomb reliefs and portraiture is a testament to how much hairdressing was seen as part of the female domain.[2] For more than just attractiveness, hairstyling was the leisure pursuit of the cultured, elegant female. Hair was seen as much as an indication of wealth and social status as it was of taste and fashion. But unlike modern-day hairstyles, comfort and naturalism for the Romans took a back-seat to hairstyles that displayed the wearer's wealth to a maximum. In other words, having a complex and unnatural hairstyle would be preferred to a simple one, because it would illustrate the wealth of the wearer in being able to afford to take the time to style their hair.[3] For women to have a fashionable hairstyle showed they were part of the elegant Roman culture. A 'natural' style was associated with barbarians, who the Romans believed had neither the money nor the culture to create these styles. "Natural" showed a lack of culture, and grooming of the hair went hand-in-hand with being part of a sophisticated civilization. The association with barbarians was why Roman men kept their hair cut short.[3] It was the job of slave hairdressers, called Ornatrices, to create their master's hairstyle new each day, as well as pulling out any grey hairs.[4] Apart from society, hair was used symbolically to mark rites of passage; for instance, loosened hair was common at a funeral, and the seni crines was the hairstyle worn by brides and Vestal Virgins; divided and plaited into six braids, and in the case of the bride, it was parted with a spear.[5] A bride's hair was parted with a hasta recurva or hasta caelibaris, a bent iron spearhead and crowned with flowers. In addition to ceremonies hairstyle defined the age of a woman.[6] There was a marked difference in hair acceptable for preadolescent girls and sexually mature women. Preadolescent girls would often have long hair cascading down the back where as women would have equally long hair but it would be controlled through wrapping and braiding. Headgear[edit] Statue showing Palla drawn over head. This hairstyle is that of the Antonine Period. Veils[edit] Perhaps due to its erotic association, hair was often linked with Roman ideas of female modesty and honour. We know that veils were important in this case, as they protected against (or encouraged, according to Seneca the Elder) solicitations by men.[7] The palla was the mark of a married, respectable woman. It was a piece of cloth wrapped around the body with one end over the shoulder. There is significant evidence for the palla being draped over the back of the head as a veil.[8] The palla supposedly signified the dignity and sexual modesty of a married woman, but due to its encumbering nature as a veil, there has been much debate whether it was only worn in public by the aristocracy, or if at all by working women of lower classes.[9] Vittae were woollen fillets that bound a married woman's hair. They were another indication of a wife's modesty and purity and were seen as part of the clothing and presentation of a matron.[10] Vittae could be inset with precious stones, or in the case of the Flaminicae, they would be purple in colour. Wigs[edit] Fresco showing a woman looking in a mirror as she dresses (or undresses) her hair, from the Villa of Arianna at Stabiae (Castellammare di Stabia), 1st century AD Due to the nature of hair and the relatively wet climate in the upper reaches of the Roman Empire, there are very few examples of wigs that survive to this day. Women wore wigs whether they were bald or not. So too did men; Emperor Otho wore a wig, as did Domitian.[11] Wigs allowed women to better achieve the kind of 'tall' styles that particularly punctuated the Flavian and Trajanic eras (e.g. the periods of 69–96 and 98–117 AD). So tall were these hairstyles, that ancient writer Juvenal likens them to multi-storey buildings. So important is the business of beautification; so numerous are the tiers and storeys piled one upon another on her head! — Juvenal, Satires[12] Wigs were made from human hair; blonde hair from Germany and black from India were particularly prized, especially if the hair came from the head of a person from a conquered civilisation.[13] The blond hair of various Germanic peoples symbolized the spoils of war. In cases where wigs were used to hide baldness, a natural look was preferred, therefore a wig with a hair colour similar to the wearer's original was worn. But in instances where a wig was worn for the purpose of showing off, naturalism did not play much of a part. Obviously fake wigs were preferred, sometimes intertwined with two contrasting hair colours with blonde hair from Germany and black from India.[14] Gold dust also gave the appearance of blond hair and enhanced already blond hair. Emperor Lucius Verus (r. 161 – 169 AD), who had natural blond hair, was said to sprinkle gold dust on his head to make himself even blonder.[15] A convenience of wigs used by Romans is that they could be directly pinned onto the head of the wearer, meaning a style could be achieved much faster than if it had been done with the wearer's own hair. Further, it would lessen the inconvenience of having to grow one's own hair too long. It has been suggested that the necessary length to be able to create these hairstyles daily would be well below the shoulder, perhaps to the waist.[16] There were two types of wig in Roman times: the full wig, called the capillamentum, and the half wig, called the galerus.[17] The galerus could be in the form of a fillet of woolen hair used as padding to build an elaborate style, or as a toupee on the back or front of the head. Toupees were attached by pins, or by sewing the it onto a piece of leather and attaching it as a wig. Further, glue could be used to affix it to the scalp or alternatively, as a bust from the British Museum illustrates, the toupee could be braided into the existing hair.[18] Janet Stephens is an amateur archaeologist and hairdresser who has reconstructed some of the hairstyles of ancient Rome, attempting to prove that they were not done with wigs, as commonly believed, but with the person's own hair.[19] Detachable marble wigs[edit] Busts themselves could have detachable wigs. There have been many suggestions as to why some busts have been created with detachable wigs and some without. Perhaps the main reason was to keep the bust looking up-to-date. It would have been too expensive to commission a new bust every time hair fashion changed, so a mix-and-match bust would have been preferable for women with less money.[20] Perhaps another reason was to accommodate the Syrian ritual of anointing the skull of the bust with oil.[20] Or further, in cases where the bust was a funerary commission, it can be safely assumed that the subject of the bust would not have had an opportunity to sit for another portrait after their death.[21] Although exactly how these marble wigs were attached is unknown, the likely difficulty of changing the 'wigs' effectively would have probably put many women off choosing a detachable and reattachable bust in the first place.[22] Tools of the trade[edit] Dyes[edit] Dyeing hair was popular among women, although frequent dyeing often made it weaker. Tertullian discusses a hair dye that burnt the scalp and was harmful for the head.[23] Artificial colours were applied as powders and gels. Henna or animal fat could be applied to make the hair more manageable.[24] To prevent graying, some Romans wore a paste at night made from herbs and earthworms; in addition, pigeon dung was used to lighten hair. In order to dye hair black, Pliny the Elder suggests applying leeches that have rotted in red wine for 40 days.[25] Dyeing hair red involved a mixture of animal fat and beechwood ashes[26] whilst saffron was used for golden tones.[27] Ovid mentions several vegetable dyes.[28] To cure diseases such as hair loss, Pliny suggests the application of a sow's gall bladder, mixed with bull's urine, or the ashes of an ass's genitals, or other mixtures such as the ashes of a deer's antlers mixed with wine. Further, goat's milk or goat's dung is said to cure head lice.[29] Gold Hairnet, Imperial period, Pompeii Curling irons, pins and hairnets[edit] The calamistrum was the name for the Roman curling iron. It consisted of a hollow metal outer cylinder and a smaller solid cylinder inside it. The hair would be wrapped around the solid cylinder and inserted into the metal outer. The metal outer would be heated in a fire, making the hair curly. It has been reported that because of the frequency and temperature that hair was curled at, thinning and damaged hair was common amongst women.[30] While gel and henna, as mentioned above, were used to manage hair, hairnets and pins were in common usage too. Poorer women would have used wooden pins, while the aristocracy used gold, ivory, crystal, silver or painted bone. The pins were decorated with carvings of the gods, or beads and pendants.[31] Styles over time[edit] Roman hairstyles changed, but there were several constant hairstyles that were used continuously, such as the tutulus, or the bun. The beehive, helmet, hairbouquet or pillbox are modern day names given to Roman hairstyles. Tutulus[edit] The tutulus was originally an Etruscan style worn commonly in the late 6th and early 5th century BC[32] was a hairstyle worn primarily by the materfamilias, the mother of the family.[33] It remained in constant use even when fashion changed. To achieve it, the hair was divided and piled high and shaped into a bun, after which it was tied with purple fillets of wool. By the end, the hair would be conical in shape. It was also the hairstyle worn by the flaminicae.[33] Portrait of a woman of the Flavian period, marble // Portrait bust of a young woman (Julia, daughter of Titus?). Marble. 80s—90s CE. Shows the extremely elaborate hair styles worn by upper-class Roman women of the time. Rome, Capitoline Museums, Palazzo Nuovo, Hall of the Emperors. Republican period and Augustan era styles[edit] The Republican period and the nodus style was particularly common. In Imperial iconography the nodus coiffure was associated predominately with the women of Augustus' household. The nodus style saw the hair parted in three, with the hair from the sides of the head tied in a bun at the back while the middle section is looped back on itself, creating an effect not unlike the (comparably modern) Pompadour style.[34] Livia, wife of Augustus, and Octavia, sister of Augustus, particularly favoured the nodus style, both continuing to use it well into the Imperial Period.[35] Other styles in the Julio-Claudian era were designed to be simple, with hair parted in two and tied in a bun at the back. This was perhaps done in order to juxtapose Roman modesty against Cleopatra and her flamboyance.[36] Flavian and Antonine hairstyles[edit] Portrait of a Roman woman, Flavian period Rome, Musei Capitolini Flavian and Antonine hairstyles differed greatly between men and women in real life and in the physical appearance of hair for male and female sculptures. In ancient Rome hair was a major determinant of a woman's physical attractiveness, women preferred to be presented as young, and beautiful. Therefore, female sculptures were known to have dramatic curls carved with strong chiaroscuro effects. On the other hand, most men in the Flavian period of late first century AD have their hair trimmed short on the crown like the portrait of Domitian for example (pictured) that implied an active role in society, while a woman's connoted passivity. Flavian and Antonine hairstyles are perhaps the most famous, and extravagant, of Imperial Rome's styles. During this time the aristocratic women's style became the most flamboyant (cypriote curls). The styles were lofty, with masses of shaped curls and braids. The high arching crowns on the front were made using fillets of wool and toupees, and could be attached to the back of the head as well as the front. Typically, as in the case of the famous Fonseca Bust (pictured), this particular hairstyle appears to have been popular during the Flavian period. The hair was combed into two parts; the front section was combed forwards and built with curls, while the back was plaited and coiled into an elaborate bun (Orbis Comarum).[37] This fashion was described by the writer Juvenal as the hairstyles that made women appear tall from the front but quite the opposite from the back. The later Antonine Period saw curls at the front of the head brought to a lower level than the Flavian Period. The braids coiled at the back of the head were brought further forward, instead often resting on the top of the head. Another style of the Antonine period saw the hair separated into rivets and tied at the back[38] Furthermore, whether Roman portraits faithfully translate the actual hairstyles worn by the sitters is problematic because of the scarcity of surviving hair which leaves little basis of comparison. The second problem is the physical accuracy of the Roman portraits itself. However, as a result of the many sculptures that have some reference to hair, ethnographers and anthropologists have recognized hair to play a key role in identifying gender and determining societies in which individuals belonged.[38] Severan dynasty[edit] Julia Domna, wife of Septimius Severus, had a particularly notable hairstyle. Julia Domna was the wig's most influential patron. She wore a heavy, globular wig with simple finger-sized waves with a simple center parting. Julia Domna was the daughter of a high-ranking priest from Syria, and it has been suggested that her style was indicative of her foreign origins.[39] Despite being from the East, she adopted a wig to project a familiar Roman guise and particularly in order to imitate her predecessor, Faustina the Younger.[40] In 2012 Janet Stephens's video Julia Domna: Forensic Hairdressing, a recreation of a later hairstyle of the Roman empress, was presented at the Archaeological Institute of America’s annual meeting in Philadelphia. Bust of Domitian Foreign women often wore their hair differently from Roman women, and women from Palmyra typically wore their hair waved in a simple center-parting, accompanied by diadems and turbans according to local customs. Women from the East were not known to commonly wear wigs, preferring to create elaborate hairstyles from their own hair instead.[40] As time progressed, Severan hairstyles switched from the finger-waved center parting style, to one with more curls and ringlets at the front and back of the head, often accompanied by a wig.[41] Men's hairstyles[edit] Boys with short-cropped fair hair hunting rabbit in a mosaic from the Villa Romana del Casale, Roman Sicily, 4th century AD Roman hairstyles for men would change throughout ancient times. While men's hair may have required no less daily attention than women's, the styling as well as the social response it engendered were radically different. Lengthy grooming sessions for men would be looked at as taboo. Throughout the period as well, women's hair was carved according to different techniques based on the sex. For example, one of the primary features that is seen in many women but never in men is long hair divided by a center part. It is apparent men never wore this, since there is no biological difference in hair between sexes this is a practice determined solely by culture. Eyebrows of both sexes were tended to be treated in the same manner.[42] In early times, it is most likely Roman men wore their hair long. With the introduction of barbers called tonsors in about 300 BC it became customary to wear hair short. In Ancient Rome, household slaves would perform hairdressing functions for wealthy men. However, men who lacked access to private hairdressing and shaving services or those who preferred a more social atmosphere went to a barbershop (tonstrina). Barbershops were places of social gatherings and a young man's first shave was often even celebrated as a passage to manhood in the community. The barbers usually shaved the customers faces with iron razors and applied an aftershave with ointments that may have contained spider webs. Trimming a head of hair and shaving would be the rule in Rome in the second century BC. Roman men who wore beards would not be admitted into the senate unless they shaved.[43] In Ancient Rome it was desirable for men to have a full head of hair. This was a problem for Julius Caesar. Being bald was considered a deformity at the time, so Caesar went to great pains to hiding his thinning hair. And because of it he used to comb his thin locks forward over the crown of his head. Suetonius wrote: "His baldness was something that greatly bothered him." Caesar was allowed by the Senate to wear a laurel crown with which he was able to mask his receding hairline. During the Roman times it is easy to know how the emperors wore their hair. For example, one constant feature of Augustus's portraits is his hairstyle, with its distinctive forked locks of hair on his forehead.[44] The emperor was most often looked at as the trendsetter during these times. This is shown by the emperor Nero (54–68 AD) who adopted elaborate hairstyles with curls and even had sideburns. Men began to curl their hair more and Nero started the trend. Following in the Flavian period most men have hair trimmed short on the crown and lacking strong plasticity.[42] During the next few decades a straight hair cut with forehead bangs was popular with Trajanic men. Another trend that was started by Emperor Hadrian (117–138 AD). He was the first emperor to wear a beard, and after him many of the emperors continued the trend.[45] This has usually been seen as a mark of his devotion to Greece and Greek culture. One literary source, the Historia Augusta, claims that Hadrian wore a beard to hide blemishes on his face.[46] See also[edit] Greco-Roman hairstyle Clothing in ancient Greece Clothing in ancient Rome Women in Ancient Rome Stola Janet Stephens References[edit] ^ Tertullian., De Culti Feminarum,2:7 ^ Kampman (1981), 149–52 ^ a b Bartman (2001), 6 ^ Carcopino (1973), 167 ^ Bartman (2001), 4 ^ "Roman Wedding Clothing". www.tribunesandtriumphs.org. Retrieved 2015-11-22. ^ Seneca the Elder., Controversiae 2.7.6 ^ Olson (2008), 33 ^ Fantham (2008), 166-7; Olsen (2008), 33-6 both offer discussion on this ^ Olson (2008), 36 ^ Suetonius., Life of Otho, 12 [1]; Morgan (1997), 214 ^ Juvenal., Satire Book 6, 58-9 ^ Ovid, Amores, 1:14:45-6 [2]; Bartman (2001), 14 [3] ^ Bartman (2001), 14 ^ Michael Grant (1994). The Antonines: The Roman Empire in Transition. London & New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10754-7, pp 27-28. ^ Olson (2008), 71; Bartman (2001), 10 ^ Olson (2008), 74 ^ Bust of Matidia, London, The British Museum 1805.7-3.96; Bartman (2001), 10 ^ Pesta, Abigail (2013-02-06). "On Pins and Needles: Stylist Turns Ancient Hairdo Debate on Its Head". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2014-01-22. ^ a b Kleiner and Matheson (1996), 174 ^ Fittschen and Zanker (1983), 105 ^ Bartman (2001), 19 ^ Tertullian, De Culti Feminarum, 2:6 ^ Bartman (2001), 12 Hair and the Artifice of Roman Female Adornmentdoi:10.2307/507324; Allason-Jones (1989), 133-7 ^ Pliny the Elder., Natural History, 32:23 ^ Pliny the Elder., Natural History, 28:51 ^ Tertullian, De Culti Feminarum, 2:6:1 ^ Ovid., Ars Amatoria, 3:158-64 ^ Pliny the Elder., Natural History, 28:46 ^ Olson (2008), 73 ^ Kleiner and Matheson (1996), 162; Olson (2008), 75-6 ^ Sebesta, Judith Lynn (2001). World of Roman Costume. Madison: University of Wisconsin. ^ a b Olson (2008), 39 ^ [4]Examples of the Nodus style ^ Further examples of the Nodus [5] and [6] ^ Kleiner and Matheson (1996), 37 ^ Bartman (2001), 18 ^ a b Examples of the Antonine styles [7] and riveted [8] ^ Bartman (2001), 17 ^ a b Bartman (2001), 17-8 ^ Example of Severan style, finger waves underneath Palla ^ a b Bartman, Elizabeth. "Artifice of Roman Female Adornment". American Journal of Archaeology. ^ Sherrow, Victoria (2006). Encyclopedia of Hair: A Cultural History. Westport, CT: Greenwood. p. 162. ^ "Portrait Head of Augustus". Getty Museum. Retrieved 22 August 2017. ^ Alchin, Linda. "Roman Hairstyles". Tribunes and Triumphs. Retrieved 22 August 2017. ^ "British Museum - Hadrian – the image of a ruler". www.britishmuseum.org. Retrieved 2015-11-22. 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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8510	----	Lucius Manlius Torquatus (consul 65 BC) - Wikipedia Lucius Manlius Torquatus (consul 65 BC) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Lucius Manlius Torquatus) Jump to navigation Jump to search Lucius Manlius Torquatus was a Consul of the Roman Republic in 65 BC, elected after the condemnation of Publius Cornelius Sulla and Publius Autronius Paetus. Biography[edit] Torquatus belonged to the patrician Manlii, one of the oldest Roman houses. He was proquaestor in Asia under Lucius Cornelius Sulla in 84 BC, for whom he issued gold and silver coinage.[1] He returned to Rome with Sulla in 82 BC where he fought at the Battle of the Colline Gate.[2] He was elected Praetor by 68 BC, and was possibly a legate under Pompey before taking up his new post of propraetor of the Roman province of Asia in 67 BC.[3] In 66 BC, Torquatus stood for election as Roman consul, but was defeated by Publius Cornelius Sulla and Publius Autronius Paetus. However, Torquatus and Lucius Aurelius Cotta accused the consul designates for the following year of bribery in connection with the elections; they were condemned under the Lex Acilia Calpurnia, and Cotta and Torquatus elected in their places.[4] This led to the so-called First Catilinian Conspiracy where, allegedly, Catiline together with Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso, Autronius, and perhaps also Sulla, conspired to murder the new consuls on 1 January 65 BC, when they were due to enter office. Autronius and Sulla were to install themselves as consuls, while Piso was to take possession of the provinces of Hispania.[5] The plot failed when the Senate became suspicious and issued bodyguards to the incoming consuls.[6] However, during Catiline’s trial for corruption when he was governor of Africa in 65 BC, he was supported by Torquatus, and an investigation undertaken by the consul into the circumstances of the aborted plot was inconclusive.[7] In 64 BC, Torquatus obtained Macedonia as his allotted proconsular province[8] and while there was awarded the title of Imperator by the Senate on the recommendation of Cicero when Cicero reported Torquatus's achievements to the Senate.[9] By the autumn of 63 BC he was back in Rome. He took an active part in suppressing the Second Catilinarian conspiracy late that year, and he also supported Cicero when Cicero was banished in 58 BC.[10] Torquatus was married to a woman from Asculum.[11] He had at least one son, Lucius Manlius Torquatus who died during Caesar's Civil War. Sources[edit] T. Robert S. Broughton, The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, Vol II (1952). Holmes, T. Rice, The Roman Republic and the Founder of the Empire, Vol. I (1923) Syme, Ronald, The Roman Revolution, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1939. Anthon, Charles & Smith, William, A New Classical Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography, Mythology and Geography (1860). Notes[edit] ^ Broughton, pg. 60 ^ Broughton, pg. 69 ^ Broughton, pgs. 145 & 148 ^ Holmes, pg. 234; Anthon & Smith, pg. 903; Broughton, pg. 156 ^ Broughton, pg. 156; Holmes, pg. 234 ^ Holmes, pg. 234 ^ Holmes, pg. 236; Patrick McGushin, Bellum Catilinae: a commentary, Volumes 45-47, 1977, pg. 129 ^ Broughton, pg. 163; Anthon & Smith, pg. 903 ^ Broughton, pg. 168 ^ Anthon & Smith, pg. 903 ^ Syme, pg. 357 Political offices Preceded by Manius Aemilius Lepidus and Lucius Volcatius Tullus Consul of the Roman Republic with Lucius Aurelius Cotta 65 BC Succeeded by Lucius Julius Caesar and Gaius Marcius Figulus Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lucius_Manlius_Torquatus_(consul_65_BC)&oldid=956467943" Categories: 1st-century BC Romans Manlii Roman Republican consuls Roman governors of Macedonia Roman patricians Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Deutsch Español Français Italiano Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 13 May 2020, at 14:35 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8519	----	Library of Congress Control Number - Wikipedia Library of Congress Control Number From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from LCCN (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search For information on using this system on Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Authority control § LCCN. Numbering system for catalog records at the Library of Congress The Library of Congress Control Number (LCCN) is a serially based system of numbering cataloging records in the Library of Congress in the United States. It has nothing to do with the contents of any book, and should not be confused with Library of Congress Classification. Contents 1 History 2 Format 3 See also 4 References 5 External links History[edit] The LCCN numbering system has been in use since 1898, at which time the acronym LCCN originally stood for Library of Congress Card Number.[1] It has also been called the Library of Congress Catalog Card Number, among other names. The Library of Congress prepared cards of bibliographic information for their library catalog and would sell duplicate sets of the cards to other libraries for use in their catalogs. This is known as centralized cataloging. Each set of cards was given a serial number to help identify it. Although most of the bibliographic information is now electronically created, stored, and shared with other libraries, there is still a need to identify each unique record, and the LCCN continues to perform that function. Librarians all over the world use this unique identifier in the process of cataloging most books which have been published in the United States. It helps them reach the correct cataloging data (known as a cataloging record), which the Library of Congress and third parties make available on the Web and through other media. In February 2008, the Library of Congress created the LCCN Permalink service, providing a stable URL for all Library of Congress Control Numbers.[2] Format[edit] In its most elementary form, the number includes a year and a serial number. The year has two digits for 1898 to 2000, and four digits beginning in 2001. The three ambiguous years (1898, 1899, and 1900) are distinguished by the size of the serial number. There are also some peculiarities in numbers beginning with a "7" because of an experiment applied between 1969 and 1972 which added a check digit.[3] Serial numbers are six digits long and should include leading zeros. The leading zeros padding the number are a more recent addition to the format, so many older works will show less-full codes. The hyphen that is often seen separating the year and serial number is optional. More recently, the Library of Congress has instructed publishers not to include a hyphen. See also[edit] Accession number (library science) Library of Congress Subject Headings (LCSH) Authority control Virtual International Authority File (VIAF) CODEN Integrated Authority File (GND; Gemeinsame Normdatei) International Standard Book Number (ISBN) Books in the United States References[edit] ^ "Search/Browse Help - Number Searches: LC Catalog (Library of Congress)". catalog.loc.gov. Retrieved 2020-07-23. ^ "Library of Congress Update for 2008 ALA Annual Conference: January-May, 2008". Archived from the original on 2017-08-28. ^ "Structure of the LC Control Number". External links[edit] Wikidata has the properties: Library of Congress Control Number (LCCN) (bibliographic) (P1144) (see uses) Library of Congress authority ID (P244) (see uses) Library of Congress Name Authority File (NAF) Traditional and normalized forms of the LCCN LCCN Permalink Frequently Asked Questions Bibliographic Processing Cataloging Rules: Library of Congress Control Number (LCCN) at the Wayback Machine (archived 2016-05-13) v t e Authority control files AAG • ACM DL • ADB • AGSA • autores.uy • AWR • BALaT • BIBSYS • Bildindex • BNC • BNE • BNF • Botanist • BPN • CANTIC • CiNii • CWGC • DAAO • DBLP • DSI • FNZA • GND • HDS • IAAF • ICCU • ICIA • ISNI • Joconde • KulturNav • LCCN • LIR • LNB • Léonore • MBA • MGP • NARA • NBL • NDL • NGV • NKC • NLA • NLG • NLI • NLK • NLP • NLR • NSK • NTA • ORCID • PIC • ResearcherID • RERO • RKD • RKDimages ID • RSL • SELIBR • SIKART • SNAC • SUDOC • S2AuthorId • TA98 • TDVİA • TE • TePapa • TH • TLS • Trove • UKPARL • ULAN • US Congress • VcBA • VIAF • WorldCat Identities Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Library_of_Congress_Control_Number&oldid=991611512" Categories: Library cataloging and classification Library of Congress Identifiers Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Webarchive template wayback links AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ भोजपुरी Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Jawa Македонски മലയാളം مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Scots සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 30 November 2020, at 23:29 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8569	----	Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius - Wikipedia Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius was a Roman historian. Little is known of Q. Claudius Quadrigarius's life, but he probably lived in the 1st century BC. Contents 1 Work 2 Legacy 3 See also 4 References 4.1 Citations 4.2 Bibliography Work[edit] Quadrigarius's annals spanned at least 23 books. They began with the conquest of Rome by the Gauls (c. 390 BC), reached Cannae by Book 5,[1] and ended with the age of Sulla, c. 84 or 82 BC. The surviving fragments of his work were collected by Hermann Peter.[2] The largest fragment is preserved in Aulus Gellius,[3] and concerns a single combat between T. Manlius Torquatus and a Gaul.[4] Legacy[edit] Quadrigarius's work was considered very important, especially for the contemporary history he narrates. From its sixth book onward, Livy's History of Rome used Quadrigarius and Valerius Antias as major sources, (if not uncritically).[5] He is cited by Aulus Gellius, and he was probably the "Clodius" mentioned in Plutarch's Life of Numa.[6] The judgment of his prose has varied. Some considered that it was his lively style which ensured his survival in various extracts;[7] but more perhaps would agree with Fronto that his language was pure and colloquial (“puri ac prope cotidiani sermonis”),[8] and that it benefited from its straightforwardness, and absence of archaisms.[9] See also[edit] Lucius Coelius Antipater References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ J C Yardley, Livy: Hannibal’s War (OUP 2006) p. xxxi ^ H. Peter, Historicorum Romanorum Reliquiae, I, 205-237. ^ Aulus Gellius, IX, 13. ^ H J Rose, A Handbook of Latin Literature (London 1967) p. 202 ^ J C Yardley, Livy: Hannibal’s War (OUP 2006) p. xxxi ^ Plutarch, Parallel Lives: Life of Numa, I, 2. ^ S Usher, The Historians of Greece and Rome (London 1969) p. 136 ^ H J Rose, A Handbook of Latin Literature (London 1967) p. 202 ^ M von Albrecht, A History of Roman Literature (1997) p. 385 Bibliography[edit] W. Kierdorf in Brill's New Pauly s.v. Claudius [I 30] A. Klotz, "Der Annalist Q. Claudius Quadrigarius." Rheinische Museum 91 (1942) 268–285. E. Badian, "The Early Historians" in T. Dorey (ed.) Latin Historians (1966) 1-38.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Annalists". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 60. Authority control BNE: XX1434939 BNF: cb16775026j (data) CiNii: DA02233156 GND: 102404925 ICCU: IT\ICCU\RMLV\034684 ISNI: 0000 0001 1647 1446 LCCN: n84111927 NLG: 227167 NTA: 069811008 SUDOC: 153471131 VcBA: 495/18988 VIAF: 55551647 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n84111927 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quintus_Claudius_Quadrigarius&oldid=972109703" Categories: Latin historians Claudii Old Latin-language writers 1st-century BC Romans 1st-century BC historians Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Asturianu Български Català Čeština Deutsch Español Français Íslenska Italiano Magyar Nederlands Português Русский Slovenčina Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 10 August 2020, at 06:18 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-856	----	Roman citizenship - Wikipedia Roman citizenship From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Citizenship in ancient Rome This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Roman citizenship" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e Citizenship in ancient Rome (Latin: civitas) was a privileged political and legal status afforded to free individuals with respect to laws, property, and governance. Roman women had a limited form of citizenship. They were not allowed to vote or stand for civil or public office. The rich might participate in public life by funding building projects or sponsoring religious ceremonies and other events. Women had the right to own property, to engage in business, and to obtain a divorce, but their legal rights varied over time. Marriages were an important form of political alliance during the Republic. Client state citizens and allies (socii) of Rome could receive a limited form of Roman citizenship such as the Latin Right. Such citizens could not vote or be elected in Roman elections.[1] Freedmen were former slaves who had gained their freedom. They were not automatically given citizenship and lacked some privileges such as running for executive magistracies. The children of freedmen and women were born as free citizens; for example, the father of the poet Horace was a freedman. Slaves were considered property and lacked legal personhood. Over time, they acquired a few protections under Roman law. Some slaves were freed by manumission for services rendered, or through a testamentary provision when their master died. Once free, they faced few barriers, beyond normal social stigma, to participating in Roman society. The principle that a person could become a citizen by law rather than birth was enshrined in Roman mythology; when Romulus defeated the Sabines in battle, he promised the war captives that were in Rome they could become citizens.[2] Contents 1 Possible rights 2 Classes of citizenship 2.1 Cives Romani 2.2 Latini 2.3 Socii 2.4 Provinciales 2.5 Peregrini 3 Citizenship as a tool of Romanization 4 The Edict of Caracalla 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Possible rights[edit] Ius suffragii: The right to vote in the Roman assemblies. Ius honorum: The right to stand for civil or public office. Ius commercii: The right to make legal contracts and to hold property as a Roman citizen. Ius gentium: The legal recognition, developed in the 3rd century BC, of the growing international scope of Roman affairs, and the need for Roman law to deal with situations between Roman citizens and foreign persons. The ius gentium was therefore a Roman legal codification of the widely accepted international law of the time, and was based on the highly developed commercial law of the Greek city-states and of other maritime powers.[3] The rights afforded by the ius gentium were considered to be held by all persons; it is thus a concept of human rights rather than rights attached to citizenship. Ius conubii: The right to have a lawful marriage with a Roman citizen according to Roman principles,[4] to have the legal rights of the paterfamilias over the family, and for the children of any such marriage to be counted as Roman citizens. Ius migrationis: The right to preserve one's level of citizenship upon relocation to a polis of comparable status. For example, members of the cives Romani (see below) maintained their full civitas when they migrated to a Roman colony with full rights under the law: a colonia civium Romanorum. Latins also had this right, and maintained their ius Latii if they relocated to a different Latin state or Latin colony (Latina colonia). This right did not preserve one's level of citizenship should one relocate to a colony of lesser legal status; full Roman citizens relocating to a Latina colonia were reduced to the level of the ius Latii, and such a migration and reduction in status had to be a voluntary act. The right of immunity from some taxes and other legal obligations, especially local rules and regulations.[5] The right to sue in the courts and the right to be sued. The right to have a legal trial (to appear before a proper court and to defend oneself). The right to appeal from the decisions of magistrates and to appeal the lower court decisions. Following the early 2nd-century BC Porcian Laws, a Roman citizen could not be tortured or whipped and could commute sentences of death to voluntary exile, unless he was found guilty of treason. If accused of treason, a Roman citizen had the right to be tried in Rome, and even if sentenced to death, no Roman citizen could be sentenced to die on the cross. Roman citizenship was required in order to enlist in the Roman legions, but this was sometimes ignored. Citizen soldiers could be beaten by the centurions and senior officers for reasons related to discipline. Non-citizens joined the Auxilia and gained citizenship through service. Classes of citizenship[edit] The legal classes varied over time, however the following classes of legal status existed at various times within the Roman state: The Orator, c. 100 BC, an Etrusco-Roman bronze sculpture depicting Aule Metele (Latin: Aulus Metellus), an Etruscan man wearing a Roman toga while engaged in rhetoric; the statue features an inscription in the Etruscan alphabet Cives Romani[edit] The cives Romani were full Roman citizens, who enjoyed full legal protection under Roman law. Cives Romani were sub-divided into two classes: The non optimo iure who held the ius commercii and ius conubii (rights of property and marriage) The optimo iure, who held these rights as well as the ius suffragii and ius honorum (the additional rights to vote and to hold office). Latini[edit] Further information: Latin League and Latin Right The Latini were a class of citizens who held the Latin Right (ius Latii), or the rights of ius commercii and ius migrationis, but not the ius conubii. The term Latini originally referred to the Latins, citizens of the Latin League who came under Roman control at the close of the Latin War, but eventually became a legal description rather than a national or ethnic one. Freedmen slaves, those of the cives Romani convicted of crimes, or citizens settling Latin colonies could be given this status under the law. Socii[edit] Further information: Socii, Foederati, Social War (91–88 BC), and Lex Julia Socii or foederati were citizens of states which had treaty obligations with Rome, under which typically certain legal rights of the state's citizens under Roman law were exchanged for agreed levels of military service, i.e. the Roman magistrates had the right to levy soldiers for the Roman legions from those states. However, foederati states that had at one time been conquered by Rome were exempt from payment of tribute to Rome due to their treaty status. Growing dissatisfaction with the rights afforded to the socii, and with the growing manpower demands of the legions (due to the protracted Jugurthine War and the Cimbrian War) led eventually to the Social War of 91–87 BC in which the Italian allies revolted against Rome. The Lex Julia (in full the Lex Iulia de Civitate Latinis Danda), passed in 90 BC, granted the rights of the cives Romani to all Latini and socii states that had not participated in the Social War, or who were willing to cease hostilities immediately. This was extended to all the Italian socii states when the war ended (except for Gallia Cisalpina), effectively eliminating socii and Latini as legal and citizenship definitions. Provinciales[edit] Provinciales were those people who fell under Roman influence, or control, but who lacked even the rights of the Foederati, essentially having only the rights of the ius gentium. Peregrini[edit] A peregrinus (plural peregrini) was originally any person who was not a full Roman citizen, that is someone who was not a member of the cives Romani. With the expansion of Roman law to include more gradations of legal status, this term became less used, but the term peregrini included those of the Latini, socii, and provinciales, as well as those subjects of foreign states. Citizenship as a tool of Romanization[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Mausoleum of the Julii, located across the Via Domitia, to the north of, and just outside the city entrance, dates to about 40 BC, and is one of the best preserved mausoleums of the Roman era. A dedication is carved on the architrave of the building facing the old Roman road, which reads: SEX · M · L · IVLIEI · C · F · PARENTIBVS · SVEIS Sextius, Marcus and Lucius Julius, sons of Gaius, to their forebears It is believed that the mausoleum was the tomb of the mother and father of the three Julii brothers, and that the father, for military or civil service, received Roman citizenship and the privilege of bearing the name of the Julii Roman citizenship was also used as a tool of foreign policy and control. Colonies and political allies would be granted a "minor" form of Roman citizenship, there being several graduated levels of citizenship and legal rights (the Latin Right was one of them). The promise of improved status within the Roman "sphere of influence", and the rivalry with one's neighbours for status, kept the focus of many of Rome's neighbours and allies centered on the status quo of Roman culture, rather than trying to subvert or overthrow Rome's influence. The granting of citizenship to allies and the conquered was a vital step in the process of Romanization. This step was one of the most effective political tools and (at that point in history) original political ideas (perhaps one of the most important reasons for the success of Rome). Previously Alexander the Great had tried to "mingle" his Greeks with the Persians, Egyptians, Syrians, etc. in order to assimilate the people of the conquered Persian Empire, but after his death this policy was largely ignored by his successors. The idea was not to assimilate, but to turn a defeated and potentially rebellious enemy (or their sons) into Roman citizens. Instead of having to wait for the unavoidable revolt of a conquered people (a tribe or a city-state) like Sparta and the conquered Helots, Rome tried to make those under its rule feel that they had a stake in the system. The Edict of Caracalla[edit] The Edict of Caracalla (officially the Constitutio Antoniniana in Latin: "Constitution [or Edict] of Antoninus") was an edict issued in AD 212 by the Roman Emperor Caracalla, which declared that all free men in the Roman Empire were to be given full Roman citizenship and all free women in the Empire were given the same rights as Roman women, with the exception of the dediticii, people who had become subject to Rome through surrender in war, and freed slaves.[6] Before 212, for the most part only inhabitants of Italia held full Roman citizenship. Colonies of Romans established in other provinces, Romans (or their descendants) living in provinces, the inhabitants of various cities throughout the Empire, and a few local nobles (such as kings of client countries) also held full citizenship. Provincials, on the other hand, were usually non-citizens, although some held the Latin Right. The Book of Acts indicates that Paul the Apostle was a Roman citizen by birth - though not clearly specifying which class of citizenship - a fact which had considerable bearing on Paul's career and on the way he shaped the new religion of Christianity. However, by the century previous to Caracalla, Roman citizenship had already lost much of its exclusiveness and become more available.[7] See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal Civis romanus sum Constitution of the Roman Republic Rights of Englishmen References[edit] ^ Hans Volkmann: Municipium. In: Der Kleine Pauly. vol. 3, Stuttgart 1969, col. 1464–1469. ^ Plutarch, Life of Romulus 16.4. ^ "Roman Law". The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. New York: Columbia University Press. Archived from the original on 2007-06-22. Retrieved 2007-07-28. ^ conubium. Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short. A Latin Dictionary on Perseus Project. ^ Catholic Resources ^ Giessen Papyrus, 40,7-9 "I grant to all the inhabitants of the Empire the Roman citizenship and no one remains outside a civitas, with the exception of the dediticii" ^ Geoffrey W. Bromiley (1979). The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 965–. ISBN 978-0-8028-3781-3. Further reading[edit] Atkins, Jed W. 2018. Roman Political Thought. Key Themes in Ancient History. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2018. Cecchet, Lucia and Anna Busetto, eds. 2017. Citizens in the Graeco-Roman World: Aspects of Citizenship from the Archaic Period to AD 212. Mnemosyne Supplements, 407. Leiden; Boston: Brill. Gardner, Jane. 1993. Being a Roman Citizen. London: Routledge. Howarth, Randal S. 2006. The Origins of Roman Citizenship. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press. Nicolet, Claude. 1980. The World of the Citizen In Republican Rome. Berkeley: University of California Press. External links[edit] Library resources about Roman citizenship Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Just, Felix. "Social Aspects of Pauline World". Catholic Resources for Bible, Liturgy, Art, and Theology. 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additional references from March 2014 All articles needing additional references Articles containing Latin-language text Articles needing additional references from April 2018 Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 20 December 2020, at 19:48 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8579	----	Julius Paulus Prudentissimus - Wikipedia Julius Paulus Prudentissimus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman jurist Julius Paulus Prudentissimus (Greek: Ἰούλιος Παῦλος; fl. 2nd century and 3rd century AD), often simply referred to as Paul in English, was one of the most influential and distinguished Roman jurists. He was also a praetorian prefect under the Roman Emperor Alexander Severus. Contents 1 Life 2 Paulus's legal works 3 Pseudo-Pauline works 4 Economics 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links Life[edit] Little is known of the life and family of Paulus; he was a man of Greek descent[citation needed], who originated from an unknown Phoenician town or from Patavium (modern Padua Italy). The possibility that Paulus could come from Patavium is based on a statue with an inscription found in Patavium dedicated to a Paulus.[citation needed] During the reign of emperors Septimius Severus and Caracalla, Paulus served as a jurist. He was exiled by the emperor Elagabalus and recalled from exile by his successor, emperor Alexander Severus. Severus and his mother Julia Avita Mamaea in 222, appointed him among the emperor’s chief advisers and between 228 and 235, he was the Praetorian prefect of the Praetorian Guard. Paulus was a contemporary of the jurist Ulpian. He partly followed the career path of former Praetorian prefect Aemilius Papinianus. Due to his cautious politic nature and opinion, the emperor Gordian III, awarded him the honorific title of Prudentissimus. Paulus's legal works[edit] Codex Theodosianus, 1566 edition The Roman jurist Herennius Modestinus describes Paulus, along with Ulpian and Quintus Cervidius Scaevola, as among "the last of the great jurists". Paulus’ work was held in high respect. He had written 319 various legal publications. His surviving works are extremely prolific, displaying a keen analysis of other opinions of jurists and Paulus expressed his legal views. He appears to have written on a great variety on legal subjects and had a thorough knowledge of legal subjects and law. Paulus comments on the jurists Javolenus Priscus, Quintus Cervidius Scaevola, Marcus Antistius Labeo, Salvius Julianus and Aemilius Papinianus. He is cited by the jurists Macer[citation needed] and Herennius Modestinus. His writing style is condensed and sometimes obscure; however, his work is just as good as the other Roman jurists. Paulus’ work has survived from excerpts, although his work needs to be carefully read to be understood. Paulus was one of the five jurists whose opinions were made constitutionally authoritative in 426 by Roman Emperors Theodosius II and Valentinian III. Another legacy from Paulus is the inclusion of his writings in the Digest which was written and put together by Byzantine Emperor Justinian I. One sixth of the Corpus Juris Civilis in the Digest consists of Paulus’ work. He is the most excerpted Roman jurist in the Digest, ahead of Ulpian. The Digest attributes to Paulus the first articulation of the presumption of innocence in Roman law: Ei incumbit probatio qui dicit, non qui negat[1]—"Proof lies on him who asserts, not on him who denies".[2] Paulus in the Digest is also referred in two passages, which he gave a contrary opinion to Alexander Severus, but Severus chose Papinianus‘ opinion. Pseudo-Pauline works[edit] Due to his fame several other works have been attributed to him, in particular the 3rd century compilation Pauli sententiae ("Paul's Views" or "Sentences").[3] From Paulus’ surviving works and works attributed to him, the Sententiae ad Filium have the longest fragments.[4] Economics[edit] In the Digest, Paulus wrote a passage on money. Much as Aristotle did, Paulus described the nature of money, including how it arises from the inconvenience of barter.[5] See also[edit] Law of Citations Notes[edit] ^ "Digesta seu Pandectae 22.3.2". Grenoble: Université Pierre-Mendés-France. Retrieved 2010-10-13. ^ Watson, Alan, ed. (1998) [1985]. "22.3.2". The Digest of Justinian. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-1636-9. ^ Honoré, Tony (2003), "Iulius Paulus", in Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Anthony (eds.), The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3rd ed.), Oxford: OxfordUP, pp. 785–6, ISBN 978-0-19-860641-3 ^ A list of various legal publications from Paulus, see ‘Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology’ Archived 2008-04-16 at the Wayback Machine ^ Schumpeter, Joseph A. (1954). History of Economic Analysis. Oxford University Press. — Part II (From the Beginnings to The First Classical Situation (to About 1790)), chapter 1 (Graeco-Roman Economics), section 7 (The Contribution of the Romans), page 70, footnote 6. References[edit] The Ancient Library The Roman Law Library by Yves Lassard and Alexandr Koptev. Google book : Latin Literature A History, Gian Biagio Conte External links[edit] Book I, The Opinions of Julius Paulus, Addressed to His Son Book II, The Opinions of Julius Paulus, Addressed to His Son Book III, The Opinions of Julius Paulus, Addressed to His Son Julius Paulus, in ‘Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology’, ancientlibrary.com Authority control BNE: XX1186376 BNF: cb12068940b (data) CiNii: DA01210406 GND: 118789988 ISNI: 0000 0001 1646 3876 LCCN: n50052119 LNB: 000125059 NKC: xx0142431 NTA: 068638965 RERO: 02-A003676114 SUDOC: 028962443 VcBA: 495/88856 VIAF: 264714449 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n50052119 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Julius_Paulus_Prudentissimus&oldid=994788149" Categories: 2nd-century Romans 3rd-century Romans 3rd-century writers Ancient Roman jurists Praetorian prefects Julii Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2018 Articles with unsourced statements from March 2014 Articles with unsourced statements from February 2019 Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano Latina Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Polski Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 17 December 2020, at 15:08 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8586	----	Leiden - Wikipedia Leiden From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search City and municipality in South Holland, Netherlands "Leyden" redirects here. For other uses, see Leyden (disambiguation). City and municipality in South Holland, Netherlands Leiden City and municipality Flag Coat of arms Location in South Holland Coordinates: 52°10′N 4°29′E / 52.167°N 4.483°E / 52.167; 4.483Coordinates: 52°10′N 4°29′E / 52.167°N 4.483°E / 52.167; 4.483 Country Netherlands Province South Holland Government[1]  • Body Municipal council  • Mayor Henri Lenferink (PvdA) Area[2]  • Municipality 23.27 km2 (8.98 sq mi)  • Land 21.91 km2 (8.46 sq mi)  • Water 1.36 km2 (0.53 sq mi) Elevation[3] 0 m (0 ft) Population (Municipality, January 2019; Urban and Metro, May 2014)[4][5]  • Municipality 124,899  • Density 5,701/km2 (14,770/sq mi)  • Urban 258,923  • Metro 344,299 Demonym(s) Leidenaar Time zone UTC+1 (CET)  • Summer (DST) UTC+2 (CEST) Postcode 2300–2334 Area code 071 Website Official website Topographic map of Leiden. Leiden (/ˈlaɪdən/, Dutch: [ˈlɛi̯də(n)] (listen); in English and archaic Dutch also Leyden) is a city and municipality in the province of South Holland, Netherlands. The municipality of Leiden had a population of 123,856 in August 2017, but the city forms one densely connected agglomeration with its suburbs Oegstgeest, Leiderdorp, Voorschoten and Zoeterwoude with 206,647 inhabitants. The Netherlands Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) further includes Katwijk in the agglomeration which makes the total population of the Leiden urban agglomeration 270,879, and in the larger Leiden urban area also Teylingen, Noordwijk, and Noordwijkerhout are included with in total 348,868 inhabitants. Leiden is located on the Oude Rijn, at a distance of some 20 kilometres (12 miles) from The Hague to its south and some 40 km (25 mi) from Amsterdam to its north. The recreational area of the Kaag Lakes (Kagerplassen) lies just to the northeast of Leiden. A university city since 1575, Leiden has been one of Europe's most prominent scientific centres for more than four centuries. Leiden is a typical university city, university buildings are scattered throughout the city and the many students from all over the world give the city a bustling, vivid and international atmosphere. Many important scientific discoveries have been made here, giving rise to Leiden's motto: ‘City of Discoveries’. The city houses Leiden University, the oldest university of the Netherlands, and Leiden University Medical Center. Leiden University is one of Europe's top universities, with thirteen Nobel Prize winners. It is a member of the League of European Research Universities and positioned highly in all international academic rankings. It is twinned with Oxford, the location of the United Kingdom's oldest university. Leiden University and Leiden University of Applied Sciences (Leidse Hogeschool) together have around 35,000 students. Modern scientific medical research and teaching started in the early 18th century in Leiden with Boerhaave. Leiden is a city with a rich cultural heritage, not only in science, but also in the arts. One of the world's most famous painters, Rembrandt, was born and educated in Leiden. Other famous Leiden painters include Lucas van Leyden, Jan van Goyen and Jan Steen. Contents 1 History 1.1 Siege of 1420 1.2 16th to 18th centuries 1.3 19th and 20th centuries 1.4 Leiden today 2 Rivers, canals and parks 3 Buildings of interest 3.1 Fortifications 3.2 Churches 3.3 University buildings 3.4 Other buildings 4 Public transport 5 Notable inhabitants 5.1 Public thinking & Public Service 5.2 The Arts 5.3 Science 5.4 Sport 5.5 Others 6 International relations 6.1 Twin cities – sister cities 7 Miscellaneous 8 Sports 9 See also 10 References 10.1 Citations 10.2 Sources 11 Further reading 12 External links History[edit] See also: Timeline of Leiden Historical population Year Pop. ±% p.a. 1398 5,000 —     1497 11,000 +0.80% 1514 14,250 +1.53% 1574 12,456 −0.22% 1581 12,144 −0.36% 1622 44,745 +3.23% 1632 44,000 −0.17% 1665 67,000 +1.28% 1732 70,000 +0.07% 1750 38,105 −3.32% 1795 30,955 −0.46% Source: Lourens & Lucassen 1997, pp. 112–114 Leiden was formed on an artificial hill (today called the Burcht van Leiden) at the confluence of the rivers Oude and Nieuwe Rijn (Old and New Rhine). In the oldest reference to this, from circa 860, the settlement was called Leithon. The name is said to be from Germanic *leitha- "canal" [6] in dative pluralis, thus meaning "at the canals". "Canal" is actually not the completely proper word. A leitha (later "lede") was a human-modified natural river, partly natural, partly artificial. Leiden has in the past erroneously been associated with the Roman outpost Lugdunum Batavorum. This particular castellum was thought to be located at the Burcht of Leiden, and the city's name was thought to be derived from the Latin name Lugdunum. However the castellum was in fact closer to the town of Katwijk, whereas the Roman settlement near modern-day Leiden was called Matilo.[7] Windmill museum De Valk The landlord of Leiden, situated in a stronghold on the hill (motte), was initially subject to the Bishop of Utrecht but around 1100 the burgraves became subject to the county of Holland. This county got its name in 1101 from a domain near the stronghold: Holtland or Holland. Leiden was sacked in 1047 by Emperor Henry III. Early 13th century, Ada, Countess of Holland took refuge here when she was fighting in a civil war against her uncle, William I, Count of Holland. He besieged the stronghold and captured Ada. Leiden received city rights in 1266. In 1389, its population had grown to about 4,000 persons. Siege of 1420[edit] In 1420, during the Hook and Cod wars, Duke John III of Bavaria along with his army marched from Gouda in the direction of Leiden in order to conquer the city since Leiden did not pay the new Count of Holland Jacqueline, Countess of Hainaut, his niece and only daughter of Count William VI of Holland. Burgrave Filips of Wassenaar and the other local noblemen of the Hook faction assumed that the duke would besiege Leiden first and send small units out to conquer the surrounding citadels. But John of Bavaria chose to attack the citadels first. He rolled the cannons along with his army but one which was too heavy went by ship. By firing at the walls and gates with iron balls the citadels fell one by one. Within a week John of Bavaria conquered the castles of Poelgeest, Ter Does, Hoichmade, de Zijl, ter Waerd, Warmond and de Paddenpoel. On 24 June the army appeared before the walls of Leiden. On 17 August 1420, after a two-month siege the city surrendered to John of Bavaria. The burgrave Filips of Wassenaar was stripped of his offices and rights and lived out his last years in captivity. 16th to 18th centuries[edit] Relief of Leiden (1574), painting by Otto van Veen. Inundated meadows allow the Dutch fleet access to the Spanish infantry positions. 17th-century houses along the Herengracht Townhall and bridge (de Koornbrug) The 1852 Sijthoff printing office, Leiden Leiden's west gate, the Morspoort Leiden's east gate, the Zijlpoort The Singel at night, showing the chimney of the Light Factory Leiden flourished in the 16th and 17th century. At the close of the 15th century the weaving establishments (mainly broadcloth) of Leiden were very important. After the expulsion of the Spaniards, Leiden cloth, Leiden baize and Leiden camlet were familiar terms.[citation needed] In the same period, Leiden developed an important printing and publishing industry. The influential printer Christoffel Plantijn lived there at one time. One of his pupils was Lodewijk Elzevir (1547–1617), who established the largest bookshop and printing works in Leiden, a business continued by his descendants through 1712 and the name subsequently adopted (in a variant spelling) by contemporary publisher Elsevier.[citation needed] In 1572, the city sided with the Dutch revolt against Spanish rule and played an important role in the Eighty Years' War. Besieged from May until October 1574 by the Spanish, Leiden was relieved by the cutting of the dikes, thus enabling ships to carry provisions to the inhabitants of the flooded town. As a reward for the heroic defence of the previous year, the University of Leiden was founded by William I of Orange in 1575. Yearly on 3 October, the end of the siege is still celebrated in Leiden. Tradition tells that the citizens were offered the choice between a university and a certain exemption from taxes and chose the university. The siege is notable also for being the first instance in Europe of the issuance of paper money, with paper taken from prayer books being stamped using coin dies when silver ran out.[8] Leiden is also known as the place where the Pilgrims (as well as some of the first settlers of New Amsterdam)[9][10] lived (and operated a printing press)[11] for a time in the early 17th century before their departure to Massachusetts and New Amsterdam in the New World.[12] In the 17th century, Leiden prospered, in part because of the impetus to the textile industry by refugees from Flanders. While the city had lost about a third of its 15,000 citizens during the siege of 1574, it quickly recovered to 45,000 inhabitants in 1622, and may have come near to 70,000 circa 1670. During the Dutch Golden Era, Leiden was the second largest city of Holland, after Amsterdam.[citation needed] Particularly due to the work by Herman Boerhaave (1668–1738), it played a crucial role in the establishment of modern chemistry and medicine. From the late 17th century onwards Leiden slumped, mainly due to the decline of the cloth industries. In the beginning of the 19th century the baize manufacture was altogether given up, although industry remained central to Leiden economy. This decline is painted vividly by the fall in population. The population of Leiden had sunk to 30,000 between 1796 and 1811, and in 1904 was 56,044. [13] From the 17th to the early 19th century, Leiden was the publishing place of one of the most important contemporary journals, Nouvelles Extraordinaires de Divers Endroits, known also as Gazette de Leyde.[14] 19th and 20th centuries[edit] On 12 January 1807, a catastrophe struck the city when a boat loaded with 17,400 kilograms (38,360 pounds) of gunpowder blew up in the middle of Leiden. 151 people were killed, over 2,000 were injured and some 220 homes were destroyed. King Louis Bonaparte personally visited the city to provide assistance to the victims. Although located in the centre of the city, the area destroyed remained empty for many years. In 1886 the space was turned into a public park, the Van der Werff park.[15] In 1842, the railroad from Leiden to Haarlem was inaugurated and one year later the railway to Den Haag was completed, resulting in some social and economic improvement. Perhaps the most important piece of Dutch history contributed by Leiden was the Constitution of the Netherlands. Johan Rudolf Thorbecke (1798–1872) wrote the Dutch Constitution in April 1848 in his house at Garenmarkt 9 in Leiden. Leiden's reputation as the "city of books" continued through the 19th century with the establishment of publishing dynasties by Evert Jan Brill and Albertus Willem Sijthoff.[16] Sijthoff, who rose to prominence in the trade of translated books, wrote a letter in 1899 to Queen Wilhelmina regarding his opposition to becoming a signatory to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works. He felt that international copyright restrictions would stifle the Dutch publishing industry.[17] Leiden grew 12-fold in size between 1896 and 1981, annexing land from neighboring municipalities Leiden began to expand beyond its 17th-century moats around 1896 and the number of citizens surpassed 50,000 in 1900. After 1920, new industries were established in the city, such as the canning and metal industries. During World War II, Leiden was hit hard by Allied bombardments. The areas surrounding the railway station and Marewijk were almost completely destroyed. Leiden today[edit] The city's biggest and most popular annual festival is celebrated at 3 October and is called simply 3 Oktober. The people of Leiden celebrate the end of the Spanish siege of 1574.[18] It typically takes place over the course of two to three days (usually two but three if there's a Sunday involved) and includes parades, a hutspot feast, historical reenactments, a funfair and other events. The city has recently started to host the Leiden International Film Festival, the fastest growing festival of its type in the Netherlands.[19] Leiden has important functions as a shopping and trade centre for communities around the city. The University of Leiden is famous for its many discoveries including Snells law (by Willebrord Snellius), the famous Leyden jar, a capacitor made from a glass jar, invented in Leiden by Pieter van Musschenbroek in 1746. Another development was in cryogenics: Heike Kamerlingh Onnes (1913 Nobel prize winner in physics) liquefied helium for the first time (1908) and later managed to reach a temperature of less than one degree above the absolute minimum. Albert Einstein also spent some time at Leiden University during his early to middle career. The city also houses the Eurotransplant, the international organization responsible for the mediation and allocation of organ donation procedures in Austria, Belgium, Croatia, Germany, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Slovenia. Leiden also houses the headquarters of Airbus, a global pan-European aerospace and defence corporation and a leading defence and military contractor worldwide. The group includes Airbus, the leading manufacturer of commercial aircraft worldwide. Rivers, canals and parks[edit] Canal near Leiden - May 1978 The two branches of the Oude Rijn, which enter Leiden on the east, unite in the centre of the city. The city is further intersected by numerous small canals with tree-bordered quays. On the west side of the city, the Hortus Botanicus and other gardens extend along the old Singel, or outer canal. The Leidse Hout park, which contains a small deer park, lies on the northwest border with Oegstgeest. The Van der Werf Park is named after the mayor Pieter Adriaansz. van der Werff [nl], who defended the city against the Spaniards in 1574. The city was beleaguered for months and many died from famine. The open space for the park was formed by the accidental explosion of a ship loaded with gunpowder in 1807, which destroyed hundreds of houses, including that of the Elsevier family of printers. Buildings of interest[edit] Because of the economic decline from the end of the 17th until the middle of the 19th century, much of the 16th- and 17th-century city centre is still intact. It is the second largest 17th-century town centre in the Netherlands, the largest being Amsterdam's city centre. A hundred buildings in the centre are decorated with large murals of poetry, part of a wall poem project active from 1992, and still ongoing.[20][21] Shakespeare on a Leiden wall Langston Hughes on a Leiden wall e.e. cummings Waring Cuney Fortifications[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) At the strategically important junction of the two arms of the Oude Rijn stands the old castle de Burcht, a circular tower built on an earthen mound. The mound probably was a refuge against high water before a small wooden fortress was built on top of it in the 11th century. The citadel is a so-called motte-and-bailey castle.[22] Of Leiden's old city gates only two are left, the Zijlpoort and the Morspoort,[23] both dating from the end of the 17th century. Apart from one small watch tower on the Singel nothing is left of the town's city walls. Another former fortification is the Gravensteen. Built as a fortress in the 13th century it has since served as house, library and prison.[24] Presently it is one of the University's buildings. Churches[edit] Hooglandse Kerk, Leiden Church (de Sint Lodewijkskerk) The chief of Leiden's numerous churches are the Hooglandse Kerk (or the church of St Pancras, built in the 15th century and containing a monument to Pieter Adriaansz. van der Werff) and the Pieterskerk (church of St Peter (1315)) with monuments to Scaliger, Boerhaave and other famous scholars. From a historical perspective the Marekerk is interesting too. Arent van 's Gravesande designed that church in 1639. Other fine examples of his work in Leiden are in the Stedelijk Museum De Lakenhal (the municipal museum of fine arts), and the Bibliotheca Thysiana. The growing city needed another church and the Marekerk was the first Protestant church to be built in Leiden (and in Holland) after the Reformation. It is an example of Dutch Classicism. In the drawings by Van 's Gravesande the pulpit is the centrepiece of the church. The pulpit is modelled after the one in the Nieuwe Kerk at Haarlem (designed by Jacob van Campen). The building was first used in 1650, and is still in use. The Heilige Lodewijkkerk is first catholic church in Leiden that was built after the Reformation. This church was given to the Catholics after the gunpowder explosion in 1807, which killed 150 inhabitants and destroyed a large part of the city centre.[25][26] The 'Waalse Kerk' (Breestraat 63) was originally part of the Katharina Hospital. In 1584 it became the church of Protestant refugees from the Southern Netherlands (Brugge) and France. Later churches in the centre include the St. Joseph in expressionistic style. University buildings[edit] The 1860 Leiden Observatory, after restoration (2013) The city centre contains many buildings that are in use by the University of Leiden. The Academy Building is housed in a former 16th-century convent. Among the institutions connected with the university are the national institution for East Indian languages, ethnology and geography; the botanical gardens, founded in 1587; the observatory (1860); the museum of antiquities (Rijksmuseum van Oudheden); and the ethnographical museum, of which P. F. von Siebold's Japanese collection was the nucleus (Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde). This collection is now housed in a separate museum called the SieboldHuis. The Bibliotheca Thysiana occupies an old Renaissance building of the year 1655. It is especially rich in legal works and vernacular chronicles. Noteworthy are also the many special collections at Leiden University Library among which those of the Society of Dutch Literature (1766) and the collection of casts and engravings. In recent years the university has built the Leiden Bio Science Park at the city's outskirts to accommodate the Science departments.[citation needed] De Waag (1900) Other buildings[edit] Stadhuis (City Hall), a 16th-century building that was badly damaged by a fire in 1929 but has its Renaissance façade designed by Lieven de Key still standing Gemeenlandshuis van Rijnland (1596, restored in 1878) De Waag (weigh house in Dutch), built by Pieter Post Gravensteen – a former 15th century jail at the Gerecht square (former court-house) Stedelijk Gymnasium (aka Latijnse School) – the old gymnasium (1599) Stadstimmerwerf – the city carpenter's yard and wharf (1612), both built by Lieven de Key (c. 1560–1627) Heilige Geest Weeshuis (a former Holy Spirit Orphanage) – a complex of 16th century buildings. Molen de Valk – a corn-grinding windmill, now home to a museum (1743) Pesthuis, which was built during 1657–1661 at that time just outside the city for curing patients suffering the bubonic plague. However, after it was built the feared disease did not occur in the Netherlands anymore so it was never used for its original purpose. The building has been used as a military hospital, prison, national asylum and army museum. It now serves as the entrance of Naturalis, one of the largest natural history museums in the world.[27] Public transport[edit] Leiden, central railway station Bus transport in Leiden is provided by Arriva.[28] Railway stations within the municipality of Leiden are: Leiden Centraal Leiden Lammenschans De Vink Notable inhabitants[edit] See also: Category:People from Leiden The following is a selection of important Leidenaren throughout history: William II, Count of Holland in the Lakenhal Public thinking & Public Service[edit] William II, Count of Holland (1228–1256) Count of Holland 1234-1256 Floris V, Count of Holland (1254–1296) Count of Holland and Zeeland 1256–1296. John of Leiden (1509–1536) leader of the Anabaptist Münster Rebellion [29] William Brewster (1568–1644) pilgrim, Mayflower passenger in 1620[30] Daniel Heinsius (1580–1655) a famous scholar of the Dutch Renaissance[31] William Bradford (1590–1657) pilgrim, leader of the American Plymouth Colony in Massachusetts [32] Franciscus Junius (1591–1677) a pioneer of Germanic philology [33] Isaac Elzevir (1596–1651) a Dutch publisher and printer, co-founder of House of Elzevir[34] Love Brewster (1611–1650/1) pilgrim and founder of Bridgewater, Massachusetts Isaac Vossius (1618–1689) a scholar, manuscript collector and Canon at Windsor Castle [35] Nicolaas Heinsius the Elder (1620–1681) a Dutch classical scholar and poet [36] Johann Bachstrom (1688–1742) writer, scientist and Lutheran theologian Gottfried, Freiherr van Swieten (1733-1803) diplomat, friend and patron of several great composers Jan Bake (1787–1864) a Dutch philologist and critic [37] Reinhart Dozy (1820–1883) a Dutch scholar of Arabic of Huguenot origin [38] Cornelis Tiele (1830–1902) a Dutch theologian and scholar [39] J. P. B. de Josselin de Jong (1886–1964) a museum curator, founding father of modern Dutch anthropology and structural anthropology and an academic Hans de Koster (1914–1992) a Dutch politician, diplomat and businessman twins Alfred Kossmann (1922–1998) a poet and prose writer & Ernst Kossmann (1922–2003) an historian. Leendert Ginjaar (1928–2003) a Dutch politician and chemist Laurens Jan Brinkhorst (born 1937) a retired Dutch politician and diplomat Ankie Broekers-Knol (born 1946) a Dutch politician, jurist and Minister Carel Stolker (born 1954) is rector magnificus and president of Leiden University since 2013 Princess Laurentien of the Netherlands (born 1966) the wife of Prince Constantijn Kajsa Ollongren (born 1967) a Dutch-Swedish politician, Deputy Prime Minister of the Netherlands Julius Terpstra (born 1989) a Dutch politician The Arts[edit] Rembrandt van Rijn, ca.1655 Willem van de Velde II, ca.1660) Leoni Jansen, 2013 Cornelis Engebrechtsz. (ca.1462–1527) an early Dutch painter [40] Lucas van Leyden (1494–1533) a Dutch painter and printmaker in engraving and woodcut Jan van Goyen (1596–1656) a Dutch landscape painter [41] Justus van Egmont (1601–1674) a painter and tapestry designer Rembrandt van Rijn (1606– 1669) a Dutch draughtsman, painter and printmaker[42] Willem van de Velde the Elder (1610/11–1693) a Dutch Golden Age seascape painter [43] Frans Post (1612–1680) a Dutch Golden Age painter Gerard Dou (1613–1675) a Dutch Golden Age painter [44] Jan Steen (ca.1626–1679) a Dutch Golden Age genre painter [45] Gabriel Metsu (1629–1667) painter of history paintings, still life, portraits and genre works [46] Willem van de Velde the Younger (1633-1707) a Dutch marine painter[47] Frans van Mieris the Elder (1635–1681) a Dutch Golden Age genre and portrait painter [48] Jan Gaykema Jacobsz. (1798–1875) a Dutch painter, draughtsman and botanical illustrator Jan Elias Kikkert (1843–1925) a Dutch lithographer and watercolorist of street scenes of Leiden Coenraad V. Bos (1875–1955) a Dutch pianist, an accompanist to singers of lieder Theo van Doesburg (1883–1931) a Dutch artist, founder and leader of De Stijl Ernst Winar (1894–1978) a Dutch actor and film director [49] Nina Foch (1924–2008) a Dutch American actress and drama teacher [50] Michel Waisvisz (1949–2008) a Dutch composer, performer, inventor of experimental electronic musical instruments and artistic director of STEIM 1981-2008 Leoni Jansen (born 1955) a TV personality and anchor-woman, singer and stage-director [51] Daniel Reuss (born 1961) a Dutch conductor, primarily a choral conductor Isa Hoes (born 1967) a Dutch actress and voice actress [52] Eva Dorrepaal (born 1970) a Dutch actress [53] Armin van Buuren (born 1976) a Dutch DJ, record producer and remixer [54] Carice van Houten (born 1976) a Dutch actress and singer [55] Dyro (born 1992) a Dutch DJ and Electronic dance music producer Science[edit] Herman Boerhaave Johannes Diderik van der Waals Charles de L'Écluse (1526–1609) botanist, horticulturist and director of Hortus Botanicus Leiden Ludolph van Ceulen (1540–1610) mathematician, computed the number π, Pi Willebrord Snellius (1580–1626) a Dutch astronomer and mathematician [56]> Herman Boerhaave (1668–1738) a botanist, chemist, Christian humanist and physician [57] Bernhard Siegfried Albinus (1697–1770) a German-born Dutch anatomist [58] Gerard van Swieten (1700–1772) a Dutch physician, personal physician of Maria Theresa Petrus Camper FRS (1722–1789) a Dutch physician, anatomist, physiologist, midwife, zoologist, anthropologist, palaeontologist and a naturalist [59] Philipp Franz von Siebold (1796–1866) a German physician and botanist, studied Japanese flora and fauna[60] Johannes Diderik van der Waals (1837–1923) a Dutch theoretical physicist, winner of the 1910 Nobel prize in Physics Hendrik Lorentz (1853–1928) a Dutch physicist, joint winner of the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physics Heike Kamerlingh Onnes (1853–1926) a Dutch physicist and winner of the 1913 Nobel prize in Physics Willem Einthoven (1860–1927) a Dutch physician and physiologist Pieter Zeeman (1865–1943) a Dutch physicist, joint winner of the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physics Willem de Sitter (1872–1934) a Dutch mathematician, physicist and astronomer Albert Einstein (1879–1955) lecturer/researcher at Leiden University, variously between 1916 and 1930 Paul Ehrenfest (1880–1933) an Austrian/Dutch theoretical physicist, contributed to statistical mechanics Geertruida de Haas-Lorentz (1885–1973) a female Dutch physicist, worked on Brownian motion and electrical noise theory Jan Oort (1900–1992) a Dutch astronomer, pioneer in radio astronomy Hendrik Casimir (1909–2000) a Dutch physicist Ewine van Dishoeck (born 1955) a Dutch astronomer, chemist, molecular astrophysicist and academic Sport[edit] Alfons Groenendijk, 2017 Kjeld Nuis, 2018 Willem Slijkhuis (1923–2003) a Dutch middle distance runner, won two bronze medals in the 1948 Summer Olympics Sandra Le Poole (born 1959) a retired field hockey player, team gold medallist at the 1984 Summer Olympics Ronald Florijn (born 1961) a former rower, twice team gold medallist, at the 1988 and 1996 Summer Olympics Carina Benninga (born 1962) & Taco van den Honert (born 1966) former Dutch field hockey players, team gold medallist at the 1984 Summer Olympics and team bronze medallist at the 1988 Summer Olympics Alfons Groenendijk (born 1964) a former footballer with 413 club caps and current manager Gerritjan Eggenkamp (born 1975) a Dutch rower, team silver medallist at the 2004 Summer Olympics Rodney Glunder (born 1975) a retired kickboxer, mixed martial artist, professional wrestler and boxer Tim de Cler (born 1978) a Dutch former footballer with 361 club caps Erik van den Doel (born 1979) a Dutch chess Grandmaster Merel Witteveen (born 1985) a sailor, team silver medallist at the 2008 Summer Olympics Biurakn Hakhverdian (born 1985) & Iefke van Belkum (born 1986) Dutch water polo players, team gold medallist at the 2008 Summer Olympics Gegard Mousasi (born 1985) a Dutch mixed martial artist and former kickboxer Laurine van Riessen (born 1987) a long track speed skater and track cyclist, bronze medallist at the 2010 Winter Olympics Kjeld Nuis (born 1989) a Dutch speed skater, world record holder and gold medallist at the 2018 Winter Olympics over 1000 metre and 1500 metre Buurtpoes Bledder Chantal de Ridder (born 1989) a Dutch football striker, 46 caps with the Netherlands women's national football team Esmee Visser (born 1996) a long distance speed skater, gold medallist in the 2018 Winter Olympics in the women's 5000 metres Others[edit] Maria Swanenburg (1839–1915) a Dutch serial killer, murdered at least 27 people and suspected of killing more than 90 Marinus van der Lubbe (1909–1934) executed for the Reichstag fire in Berlin in 1933 Buurtpoes Bledder (2011–2013) a male domestic cat, media star for his exploits in the city [61] International relations[edit] Twin cities – sister cities[edit] Leiden is twinned with: Buffalo City, Eastern Cape, South Africa Juigalpa, Chontales, Nicaragua Krefeld, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany Nagasaki, Japan Oxford, United Kingdom [62] Toruń, Poland [63] Miscellaneous[edit] Eastern gate 'Zijlpoort' at the Singel The coat of arms of Leiden is two red keys, crossed in an X-shape on a white background. These keys are the Keys of Heaven held by St. Peter, for whom a large church in the city centre is named. Because of this coat of arms, Leiden is referred to as the "Sleutelstad" ("the key city").[64] For a time Leiden held the title "The Coldest Place on Earth" because of the developments in cryogenics in a laboratory there. Heike Kamerlingh Onnes (1913 Nobel prize winner in physics) liquefied helium for the first time (1908), and later managed to reach a temperature of less than one degree above Absolute zero. The Norwegian cheese "nøkkelost" ("key cheese") is named after the keys in coat of arms of Leyden, as it is a variation of Leyden cheese. The following places and things are named after this city: Leyden, New York, USA Leyden, Massachusetts, USA[65] Leyden High School District 212 in Franklin Park, Illinois, USA. Leiden scale, for measuring extreme low temperatures. Factor V Leiden is named after the city of Leiden where it was discovered in 1994. The Leyden jar, a capacitor made from a glass jar, was invented here by Pieter van Musschenbroek in 1746. It was actually first invented by Ewald Georg von Kleist the year before, but the name "Leyden jar" stuck. Leiden's Stadhuis (Town Hall) has a poem in the form of a cryptogram on its façade that records the date 1574 in Roman numerals, the year of the "Black Famine" or Spanish siege (W equals two Vs): The poem on Leiden's Stadhuis Nae zWarte HVnger-noot GebraCht had tot de doot bInaest zes-dVIzent MensChen; aLst god den heer Verdroot gaf hI Vns Weder broot zo VeeL WI CVnsten WensChen. (Dutch: "When the Black Famine had brought to the death nearly six thousand persons, then God the Lord repented, and gave bread again as much as we could wish".)[66] Sports[edit] Zorg en Zekerheid Leiden is the basketball club of Leiden. In 2011 and 2013 they won the National Title, in 2010 and 2012 the National Cup and in 2011 and 2012 the National Super Cup. The club also played in the FIBA EuroChallenge and reached the Second Round (Best 16) in 2011/2012. See also[edit] Geography portal Netherlands portal Leiden Classical A distributed computing project Oudt Leyden, former Michelin starred restaurant Wireless Leiden References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ "College van burgemeester en wethouders" [Board of mayor and aldermen] (in Dutch). Gemeente Leiden. Archived from the original on 8 July 2013. Retrieved 8 August 2013. ^ "Kerncijfers wijken en buurten 2020" [Key figures for neighbourhoods 2020]. StatLine (in Dutch). CBS. 24 July 2020. Retrieved 19 September 2020. ^ "Postcodetool for 2312AT". Actueel Hoogtebestand Nederland (in Dutch). Het Waterschapshuis. Archived from the original on 21 September 2013. Retrieved 8 August 2013. ^ "Bevolkingsontwikkeling; regio per maand" [Population growth; regions per month]. CBS Statline (in Dutch). CBS. 1 January 2019. Retrieved 1 January 2019. ^ "Bevolkingsontwikkeling; regio per maand" [Population growth; regions per month]. CBS Statline (in Dutch). CBS. 26 June 2014. Retrieved 24 July 2014. ^ "Online Etymology Dictionary". ^ Jona Lendering. "Towns in Germania Inferior: Lugdunum (Brittenburg)". Livius.org. Retrieved 11 June 2010. ^ John E. Sandrock. "Siege Notes - Windows To The Past" (PDF). thecurrencycollector.com. Retrieved 9 June 2016. ^ "The New York Genealogical and Biographical Society – Access Denied". Newyorkfamilyhistory.org. Retrieved 11 June 2010. ^ [1] Archived 2 November 2007 at the Wayback Machine ^ "The Pilgrim Press". Pilgrimhall.org. 18 May 2005. Archived from the original on 3 May 1999. Retrieved 11 June 2010. ^ "The Dutch Door to America". Americanheritage.com. April 1999. Retrieved 28 November 2011. ^ http://vanosnabrugge.org/leiden.htm ^ Popkin, Jeremy D. (1 October 1989). News and Politics in the Age of Revolution: Jean Luzac's "Gazette de Leyde". Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 9781501700712. ^ "Leiden" (PDF). Amazing Holland. Retrieved 31 December 2018. ^ "History: Leiden, city of books". Burgersdijk & Niermans. Archived from the original on 17 October 2010. Retrieved 29 August 2010. ^ "The Netherlands and the Berne Convention". The Publishers' circular and booksellers' record of British and foreign literature, Vol. 71. Sampson Low, Marston & Co. 1899. p. 597. Retrieved 29 August 2010. ^ Film & Television Coll Europe. Routledge. 2012. p. 315. ISBN 978-1-135-10295-1. ^ Dawson, Nick (28 September 2013). "Leiden International Film Festival Announces New US Indie Competition". Filmmaker Magazine. Retrieved 8 October 2013. ^ Fihn, Stephan (2005), "Poetry on the Wall", in Garg, Anu (ed.), Another Word A Day: An All-new Romp Through Some Of The Most Unusual And Intriguing Words In English, John Wiley & Sons, p. 59, ISBN 978-0-471-71845-1 ^ Khouw, Ida Indawati (15 July 2001), "Leiden, the Dutch city of poems", Jakarta Post, archived from the original on 25 April 2013 ^ "10 Best Spots in Leiden". visitleiden.nl. 18 March 2016. ^ https://www.holland.com/global/tourism/destinations/more-destinations/leiden/morspoort-city-gate.htm ^ https://www.visitleiden.nl/en/see-do/experience/walking-and-cycling/walking/the-leiden-loop/13-gravensteen ^ "404". lodewijkparochie.nl. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 9 June 2016. ^ Hein van Woerden (eindred.): Lodewijk in Leiden. Geschiedenis van kerk en orgel. Leiden, Parochie van de Heilige Lodewijk, 2005. ^ Gallery, Saatchi. "Naturalis – National Museum of Natural History :: The Saatchi Gallery". www.saatchigallery.com. Retrieved 22 March 2016. ^ Busways (5 July 2013). "English – Arriva". Archived from the original on 5 December 2012. ^ "Buckholdt,Johann" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 04 (11th ed.). 1911. ^ "Brewster,William" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 04 (11th ed.). 1911. ^ "HeinsiusDaniel" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 13 (11th ed.). 1911. ^ "Bradford,William(governor)" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 04 (11th ed.). 1911. ^ "Junius,Franz" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 15 (11th ed.). 1911. ^ "Elzevir" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 09 (11th ed.). 1911. ^ "Vossius,Isaac" . Dictionary of National Biography. 58. 1899. ^ "Heinsius,Nikolaes" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 13 (11th ed.). 1911. ^ "Bake,Jan" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 03 (11th ed.). 1911. ^ "Dozy,ReinhartPieterAnne" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 08 (11th ed.). 1911. ^ "Tiele,CornelisPetrus" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 26 (11th ed.). 1911. ^ "Engelbrechtzen,Cornelis" . Encyclopedia Americana. 1920. ^ "Goyen,JanJosephszoonvan" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 12 (11th ed.). 1911. ^ "Rembrandt" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 23 (11th ed.). 1911. ^ "VandeVelde,Willem(1610-1693)" . Dictionary of National Biography. 58. 1899. ^ "Douw,Gerhard" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 08 (11th ed.). 1911. ^ "Steen,JanHavicksz" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 25 (11th ed.). 1911. ^ "Metsu,Gabriel" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 18 (11th ed.). 1911. ^ "Vandevelde,William" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 27 (11th ed.). 1911. ^ "Mieris" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 18 (11th ed.). 1911. ^ IMDb Database retrieved 15 January 2020 ^ IMDb Database retrieved 12 January 2020 ^ IMDb Database retrieved 15 January 2020 ^ IMDb Database retrieved 15 January 2020 ^ IMDb Database retrieved 15 January 2020 ^ IMDb Database retrieved 15 January 2020 ^ IMDb Database retrieved 12 January 2020 ^ "Snell,Willebrord" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 25 (11th ed.). 1911. ^ "Boerhaave,Hermann" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 04 (11th ed.). 1911. ^ "Albinus,BernhardSiegfried" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 01 (11th ed.). 1911. ^ "Camper,Peter" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 05 (11th ed.). 1911. ^ "Siebold,PhilippFranzvon" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 25 (11th ed.). 1911. ^ An Obituary For an Extraordinary Cat; August 8, 2013 retrieved 16 January 2020 ^ "Oxford's International Twin Towns". Oxford City Council. Archived from the original on 17 August 2013. Retrieved 3 September 2013. ^ "Miasta bliźniacze Torunia" [Toruń's twin towns]. Urząd Miasta Torunia [City of Toruń Council] (in Polish). Retrieved 22 August 2013. ^ "Leiden Information". Orientation Week. Retrieved 5 February 2015. ^ Gannett, Henry (1905). The Origin of Certain Place Names in the United States. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 186. ^ Handbook to Holland (7th ed.). Ward Lock. 1925. p. 92. Sources[edit] Lourens, Piet; Lucassen, Jan (1997). Inwonertallen van Nederlandse steden ca. 1300–1800. Amsterdam: NEHA. ISBN 9057420082. Further reading[edit] Further information: Bibliography of the history of Leiden External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Leiden. Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Leiden. Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Leiden" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 16 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Official website Scenic video 'Leiden Sleutelstad' ('Leiden, city of keys') (time lapse) Places adjacent to Leiden Katwijk Oegstgeest, Teylingen Wassenaar Leiden Zijl, Oude Rijn / Leiderdorp Voorschoten Leidschendam-Voorburg Zoeterwoude v t e Municipalities of South Holland Alblasserdam Albrandswaard Alphen aan den Rijn Barendrecht Bodegraven-Reeuwijk Brielle Capelle aan den IJssel Delft Dordrecht Goeree-Overflakkee Gorinchem Gouda Hardinxveld-Giessendam Hellevoetsluis Hendrik-Ido-Ambacht Hillegom Hoeksche Waard Kaag en Braassem Katwijk Krimpen aan den IJssel Krimpenerwaard Lansingerland Leiden Leiderdorp Leidschendam-Voorburg Lisse Maassluis Midden-Delfland Molenlanden Nieuwkoop Nissewaard Noordwijk Oegstgeest Papendrecht Pijnacker-Nootdorp Ridderkerk Rijswijk Rotterdam Schiedam Sliedrecht Teylingen The Hague Vlaardingen Voorschoten Waddinxveen Wassenaar Westland Westvoorne Zoetermeer Zoeterwoude Zuidplas Zwijndrecht See also Netherlands Provinces Municipalities Authority control BNF: cb11945024w (data) GND: 4074118-7 HDS: 006615 ISNI: 0000 0004 0405 3310 MBAREA: 3556da0f-38ad-4f6c-b5dc-7aa99a168203 VIAF: 143615766 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79041670 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leiden&oldid=996150924" Categories: Leiden Cities in the Netherlands Municipalities of South Holland Populated places in South Holland University towns in the Netherlands Hidden categories: CS1 Dutch-language sources (nl) Webarchive template wayback links Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Articles incorporating Cite DNB template Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the Encyclopedia Americana with a Wikisource reference CS1 Polish-language sources (pl) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from June 2016 Use British English from June 2016 Coordinates on Wikidata Articles with hAudio microformats All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2011 Articles needing additional references from May 2011 All articles needing additional references Articles with unsourced statements from September 2011 Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with HDS identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz area identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikivoyage Languages Afrikaans አማርኛ Ænglisc العربية Arpetan Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Català Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Kernowek Kiswahili Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Limburgs Magyar Македонски مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Nedersaksies 日本語 Нохчийн Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча پنجابی Papiamentu Polski Português Română Русиньскый Русский Scots Seeltersk Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Ślůnski Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Татарча/tatarça ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Volapük Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 December 2020, at 20:53 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8590	----	Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Main Page From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Welcome to Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia that anyone can edit. 6,217,068 articles in English The arts Biography Geography History Mathematics Science Society Technology All portals From today's featured article Louie Nunn (1924–2004) was the 52nd governor of Kentucky (1967–1971), the only Republican elected to that office between 1947 and 2003. The first Republican county judge in the history of Barren County, Kentucky, he ran for governor in 1963, but lost a close race to his Democratic opponent Ned Breathitt. In 1967, Nunn again ran for governor. After defeating Marlow Cook in the Republican gubernatorial primary, he eked out a victory over Democrat Henry Ward. 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en-wikipedia-org-8594	----	List of Pontifices Maximi - Wikipedia List of Pontifices Maximi From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Priesthoods of ancient Rome Flamen (250–260 CE) Major colleges Pontifices · Augures · Septemviri epulonum Quindecimviri sacris faciundis Other colleges or sodalities Fetiales · Fratres Arvales · Salii Titii · Luperci · Sodales Augustales Priests Pontifex Maximus · Rex Sacrorum Flamen Dialis · Flamen Martialis Flamen Quirinalis · Rex Nemorensis Curio maximus Priestesses Virgo Vestalis Maxima Flaminica Dialis · Regina sacrorum Related topics Religion in ancient Rome · Imperial cult Glossary of ancient Roman religion Gallo-Roman religion v t e The Pontifex Maximus was chief priest of the Collegium Pontificum ("College of Pontiffs") in ancient Roman religion. The names of Pontifices Maximi for the Roman Republic are listed below as known. The last Pontifex Maximus of the Republican era was Lepidus, the triumvir. Upon his death, Augustus acquired the office, consolidating an additional source of power and authority for the princeps. In the Imperial era, it was customary for the emperor to serve as Pontifex Maximus. Contents 1 Pontifices maximi of the Roman Kingdom 2 Pontifices maximi of the Roman Republic 3 Pontifices Maximi of the Roman Empire 4 Notes 5 Further reading 6 External links Pontifices maximi of the Roman Kingdom[edit] Numa Marcius. The first Pontifex Maximus, according to Livy. Pontifices maximi of the Roman Republic[edit] The Pontifex Maximus held his office for life, but the date of death is not known for every man who held the office, and the name of the Pontifex is not recorded for every period. Unless otherwise noted, dates and citations of primary sources are from T.R.S. Broughton's three-volume The Magistrates of the Roman Republic (American Philological Association, 1951, 1986). 509 BC: Gaius Papirius[1] or Marcus Horatius Pulvillus[2] 449: either Quintus Furius[3] or Marcus Papirius[4] 431: Aulus Cornelius Cossus, usually identified with the famous general of this era who was consul in 428[5] 420: Spurius Minucius[6] 390: Marcus Foslius, possibly the M. Foslius Flaccinator who was consular tribune in 433[7] 332: Publius Cornelius Calussa[8] 304: Cornelius (Scipio) Barbatus, possibly the Publius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus who was consul in 328, or if his praenomen was Gnaeus, the father of the consul of 298[9] ca. 254–243: Tiberius Coruncanius, first plebeian to become Pontifex Maximus, and first Roman jurist and professor of law; consul in 280 BC[10] ca. 243–221: Lucius Caecilius Metellus (d. 221), credited with saving the Palladium when the Temple of Vesta was on fire; removed from office or resigned around 237[11] 221–213: Lucius Cornelius Lentulus Caudinus (d. 213)[12] 212–183: Publius Licinius Crassus Dives (d. 183)[13] 183–180: Gaius Servilius Geminus (d. 180)[14] 180–152: Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (d. 152)[15] 152–150: vacant 150–141: Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Corculum (d. 141)[16] 141–132: Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Serapio (d. 132), probably succeeded his father and elected in absentia;[17] first Pontifex to leave Italy (as compelled by the senate to escape a plot against his life), and the first to die outside Italy[citation needed] 132–130: Publius Licinius Crassus Dives Mucianus[18] (killed in battle 131 BC, Asia Minor), first Pontifex to leave Italy by choice, and the first to die in battle[citation needed] 130–late 114: Publius Mucius Scaevola[19] succeeding his brother, and last Pontifex Maximus to publish the Annales Maximi[citation needed] by December 114–103: Lucius Caecilius Metellus Dalmaticus, with start date determined by his presiding as Pontifex Maximus over a Vestal trial[20] 103–ca. 89: Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (d. 88)[21] ca. 89–82: Quintus Mucius Scaevola (d. 82),[22] first Pontifex to be openly murdered (in the Temple of Vesta, with his body thrown into the Tiber)[citation needed] 82–63: Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius (d. ca 63 BC)[23] 63–44: Julius Caesar,[24] elected over two higher-ranking candidates for the office, Quintus Lutatius Catulus and Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus[25] 44–13: Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (died 13 BC)[26] Pontifices Maximi of the Roman Empire[edit] On 6 March 12 BC, Augustus became Pontifex Maximus, following the death of Lepidus. Thereafter, it became customary for the emperor to hold the post. Constantine (reigned 306–337) is known as the first emperor to convert to Christianity, but Gratian (375–383) is recorded as the first emperor to decline the office of Pontifex Maximus of the traditional state religion.[27] Notes[edit] ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus 3.36.4; T.R.S. Broughton, The Magistrates of the Roman Republic (American Philological Association, 1951, 1986), vol. 1, p. 4. ^ Broughton, vol i, pp. 3-6, note 3, pp.4, Cicero, Dom. 139, fr. 15 Consol. Valerius Maximus 5.10.1, Seneca Cons. ad. Marc. 13.1, places him in 508 BC ^ Livy 3.54.5. ^ Asconius 77C; Broughton, MRR1, p. 49. ^ Livy 4.27.1; Broughton, MRR1, p. 64. ^ Plutarch, "On Putting One's Enemies to Use 6 (see also Livy 4.44.11–12); Broughton, MRR1, p. 71 ^ Livy 5.41.3; Plutarch, Camillus 21.3 (as Fabius); Broughton, MRR1, p. 96; Jörg Rüpke, Fasti sacerdotum (Franz Steiner, 2005), p. 1000. ^ Livy 25.5.4; Broughton, MRR1, p. 142. ^ Livy 9.46.6; Broughton, MRR1, p. 168. ^ Broughton, MRR1, pp. 210 and 218, attested widely in works by Cicero and other sources. ^ Livy, Periochae 19; Valerius Maximus 8.13.2; Broughton, MRR1, pp. 218 and 234. ^ Livy 22.10.1; Broughton, MRR1, p. 234. ^ Livy 25.5.2–4 and 39.46.1; Broughton, MRR1, pp. 271, 381. ^ Livy 39.46.1 and 40.42.6 and 11–12; Broughton, MRR1, pp. 381, 390. ^ Livy 40.42.6 and 11–12, Periochae 48; Broughton, MRR1, p. 390. ^ Cicero, De senectute 50, De natura deorum 3.5, De oratore 3.134; Broughton, MRR1, pp. 390, 457. ^ Broughton, MRR1, pp. 478–479, 499, citing multiple testimonia. ^ Broughton, MRR1, pp. 499, 503. ^ Broughton, MRR1, pp. 503, 532. ^ Asconius 45–46C; Broughton, MRR1, pp. 532, 534. ^ Broughton, MRR1, pp. 564–564; MRR2 (1952), p. 37. ^ Broughton, MRR2, pp. 37, 73. ^ Broughton, MRR2, pp. 73, 171, 172 (note 3). ^ Broughton, MRR2, pp. 171, 172 (note 3), 333. ^ Velleius Paterculus, 2.43; Plutarch, Caesar 7; Suetonius, Divus Julius 13. ^ Broughton, MRR2, p. 333. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia: Gratian Further reading[edit] Bowersock, G. W. (1990). "The Pontificate of Augustus", in Kurt A. Raaflaub and Mark Toher (eds.): Between Republic and Empire: Interpretations of Augustus and his Principate. Berkeley: University of California Press, 380–394. ISBN 0-520-08447-0. External links[edit] article Pontifex in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Pontifices_Maximi&oldid=964573156" Categories: Pontifices Maximi of the Roman Republic Ancient Roman prosopographical lists Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2013 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Nederlands Edit links This page was last edited on 26 June 2020, at 09:25 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8595	----	Portal:Biography - Wikipedia Portal:Biography From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Portal maintenance status: (June 2018) This portal's subpages have been checked by an editor, and are needed. Please take care when editing, especially if using automated editing software. Learn how to update the maintenance information here. Wikipedia's portal for exploring content related to Biography Portal topics Activities Culture Geography Health History Mathematics Nature People Philosophy Religion Society Technology Random portal The Biography Portal Cultural icon A biography, or simply bio, is a detailed description of a person's life. It involves more than just the basic facts like education, work, relationships, and death; it portrays a person's experience of these life events. Unlike a profile or curriculum vitae (résumé), a biography presents a subject's life story, highlighting various aspects of his or her life, including intimate details of experience, and may include an analysis of the subject's personality. Biographical works are usually non-fiction, but fiction can also be used to portray a person's life. One in-depth form of biographical coverage is called legacy writing. Works in diverse media, from literature to film, form the genre known as biography. An authorized biography is written with the permission, cooperation, and at times, participation of a subject or a subject's heirs. An autobiography is written by the person himself or herself, sometimes with the assistance of a collaborator or ghostwriter. (Full article...) Refresh with new selections below (purge) Selected biographies – show different entries Atticus Ross (left) and Trent Reznor (right) performing in October 2018 Nine Inch Nails, commonly abbreviated as NIN and stylized as NIИ, is an American industrial rock band formed in 1988 in Cleveland, Ohio. Singer, songwriter, multi-instrumentalist, and producer Trent Reznor was the only permanent member of the band until the official addition of English musician Atticus Ross in 2016. The band's debut album, Pretty Hate Machine (1989), was released via TVT Records. After feuding with TVT about how to promote the album, Reznor signed with Interscope Records and released the EP Broken (1992). The following Nine Inch Nails albums, The Downward Spiral (1994) and The Fragile (1999), were released to critical acclaim and commercial success. Following a hiatus, Nine Inch Nails resumed touring in 2005 and released their fourth album, With Teeth (2005). Following the release of Year Zero (2007), Reznor left Interscope after a feud. Nine Inch Nails continued touring and independently released Ghosts I–IV (2008) and The Slip (2008) before a second hiatus. Their eighth album, Hesitation Marks (2013), was followed by a trilogy consisting of the EPs Not the Actual Events (2016) and Add Violence (2017) and their ninth album Bad Witch (2018). In 2020, Nine Inch Nails released two further installments in the Ghosts series, Ghosts V: Together and Ghosts VI: Locusts. (Full article...) Lewis (first name unknown; fl. 1890) was a professional baseball player who played in one career game with the Buffalo Bisons of the Players' League (PL) on July 12, 1890. After asking the Bisons manager for a tryout and pitching three innings, his earned run average (ERA) of 60.00 and walks plus hits per inning pitched (WHIP) rate of 6.667 became the highest in the history of the PL. As of August 2020[update], Lewis's first name, date of birth, and batting and pitching stances are unknown. The PL was formed by the Brotherhood of Professional Base Ball Players in November 1889, after a dispute over pay with the National League (NL) and American Association (AA).  The NL had implemented a reserve clause in 1879, which limited the ability of players to negotiate across teams for their salaries, and both the AA and NL had passed a salary cap of US$2,000 per player in 1885, equivalent to $50,156 in 2019; the owners of the NL had agreed to remove the salary cap in 1887 but failed to do so. Major League Baseball (MLB) considers the PL a "major" league for official statistical purposes. (Full article...) Sir Thomas Playford GCMG (5 July 1896 – 16 June 1981) was an Australian politician from the state of South Australia. He served continuously as Premier of South Australia and leader of the Liberal and Country League from 5 November 1938 to 10 March 1965. Though controversial, it was the longest term of any elected government leader in Australian history. His tenure as premier was marked by a period of population and economic growth unmatched by any other Australian state. He was known for his parochial style in pushing South Australia's interests, and was known for his ability to secure a disproportionate share of federal funding for the state as well as his shameless haranguing of federal leaders. His string of election wins was enabled by a system of a malapportionment gerrymander that bore his name, the 'Playmander' − which saw the Labor Party win clear majorities of the statewide two-party vote whilst failing to form government in 1944, 1953, 1962 and 1968. Born into an old political family, Playford was the fifth Thomas Playford and the fourth to have lived in South Australia; his grandfather Thomas Playford II had served as premier in the 19th century. He grew up on the family farm in Norton Summit before enlisting in the Australian Imperial Force in World War I, fighting in Gallipoli and Western Europe. After serving, he continued farming until his election as a Liberal and Country League (LCL) representative for Murray at the 1933 state election. In his early years in politics, Playford was an outspoken backbencher who often lambasted LCL colleagues and ministers and their policies, and had a maverick strategy, often defying party norms and advocating unadulterated laissez faire economics and opposing protectionism and government investment, in stark contrast to his later actions as premier. With the resignation of the LCL's leader, Richard Layton Butler, Playford ascended to the premiership in 1938, having been made a minister just months earlier in an attempt to dampen his insubordination. Playford inherited a minority government and many independents to deal with, and instability was expected; Playford was seen as a transitional leader. However, Playford dealt with the independents adroitly and went on to secure a one-seat majority at the next election. (Full article...) Tyrone Anthony Wheatley Sr. (born January 19, 1972) is an American football coach and former player who is the head coach at Morgan State University. He played professionally as a running back for 10 seasons in the National Football League (NFL) and was one of the most successful high school and collegiate athletes in Metropolitan Detroit history. In high school, he was a member of state-champion teams in both track and field and football, and he was named Michigan's track and field athlete of the year and football athlete of the year in the same academic year. He earned All-America track honors in both high school and college. Following his graduation as one of Michigan's best high school athletes, he attended the University of Michigan on an athletic scholarship and earned first-team All-Big Ten Conference honors on Big Ten Champion football and track teams. He ranks among the Wolverines' all-time rushing leaders in numerous categories, and his name appears in several places in the Big Ten football record book. He was named to All-Big Ten teams in football and track and field a total of four times, and he earned portions of seven Big Ten championships (two team awards for football, one team award for indoor track, one award for 110 meter hurdles, and three awards for individual football statistical performances). Following his graduation from the University of Michigan, Wheatley was selected by the New York Giants of the NFL in the first round of the 1995 NFL Draft. As a running back for the Giants, he was the team's all-purpose yards leader in 1996 and their leading ballcarrier in 1997. Despite his success on the field, he developed a reputation for indolence. He was traded to the Miami Dolphins, but cut before the 1999 season began. He signed with the Oakland Raiders and flourished, leading the team in rushing three times and twice finishing among the NFL's top ten players in rushing touchdowns. During his NFL career (1995–2004), he totaled over 6,500 all-purpose yards as a running back and kickoff returner. (Full article...) Drawing of Spitzeder from the 1873 book Die Gartenlaube, based on a photograph Adelheid Luise "Adele" Spitzeder ([ˈaːdl̩haɪt ʔaˈdeːlə ˈʃpɪtˌtseːdɐ]; 9 February 1832 – 27 or 28 October 1895), also known by her stage name Adele Vio, was a German actress, folk singer, and con artist. Initially a promising young actress, Spitzeder became a well-known private banker in 19th-century Munich when her theatrical success dwindled. Running what was possibly the first recorded Ponzi scheme, she offered large returns on investments by continually using the money of new investors to pay back the previous ones. At the height of her success, contemporary sources considered her the wealthiest woman in Bavaria. Opening her bank in 1869, Spitzeder managed to fend off attempts to discredit her for a few years before authorities were able to bring her to trial in 1872. Because Ponzi schemes were not yet illegal, she was convicted instead of bad accounting and mishandling customers' money and sentenced to three years in prison. Her bank was closed and 32,000 people lost 38 million gulden, the equivalent of almost 400 million euros in 2017 money, causing a wave of suicides. Her personal fortune in art and cash was stripped from her. (Full article...) Lorde performing in June 2017 Ella Marija Lani Yelich-O'Connor (born 7 November 1996), known professionally as Lorde (pronounced "lord"), is a New Zealand singer and songwriter. Taking inspiration from aristocracy for her stage name, she is known for employing unconventional musical styles and introspective songwriting. Lorde's music is primarily electropop and contains elements of subgenres such as dream pop and indie-electro. Born in the Auckland suburb of Takapuna and raised in neighbouring Devonport, Lorde expressed interest in performing at local venues in her early teens. She signed with Universal Music Group (UMG) in 2009 and collaborated with producer Joel Little in 2011 to start recording material. Initially self-released in 2012 for free download on SoundCloud, UMG commercially released the pair's first collaborative effort, an extended play (EP) titled The Love Club, in 2013. The EP's international chart-topping single "Royals" helped Lorde rise to prominence. (Full article...) William Henry Bury (25 May 1859 – 24 April 1889) was suspected of being the notorious serial killer "Jack the Ripper". He was hanged for the murder of his wife Ellen in 1889, and was the last person executed in Dundee, Scotland. Bury was orphaned at an early age and was educated at a charitable school in the English Midlands. After a few years in regular employment, he fell into financial difficulty, was dismissed for theft, and became a street peddler. In 1887 he moved to London, where he married Ellen Elliot, who was probably a prostitute. During their stormy marriage, which lasted just over a year, they faced increasing financial hardship. In January 1889, they moved to Dundee. The following month, Bury strangled his wife with a rope, stabbed her dead body with a penknife, and hid the corpse in a box in their room. A few days later, he presented himself to the local police and was arrested for her murder. Tried and convicted, he was sentenced to death by hanging. Shortly before his execution, he confessed to the crime. Although Bury's guilt was not in doubt, Dundee had a history of opposition to the death penalty and The Dundee Courier printed an editorial the day after his execution decrying the "judicial butcheries" of capital punishment. (Full article...) E. W. Hornung Ernest William Hornung (7 June 1866 – 22 March 1921) was an English author and poet known for writing the A. J. Raffles series of stories about a gentleman thief in late 19th-century London. Hornung was educated at Uppingham School; as a result of poor health he left the school in December 1883 to travel to Sydney, where he stayed for two years. He drew on his Australian experiences as a background when he began writing, initially short stories and later novels. In 1898 he wrote "In the Chains of Crime", which introduced Raffles and his sidekick, Bunny Manders; the characters were based partly on his friends Oscar Wilde and his lover, Lord Alfred Douglas, and also on the characters of Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson, created by his brother-in-law, Arthur Conan Doyle. The series of Raffles short stories were collected for sale in book form in 1899, and two further books of Raffles short stories followed, as well as a poorly received novel. Aside from his Raffles stories, Hornung was a prodigious writer of fiction, publishing numerous books from 1890, with A Bride from the Bush to his 1914 novel The Crime Doctor. (Full article...) Khalid Muhammad Abdallah al-Mihdhar (Arabic: خالد المحضار‎, Khālid al-Miḥḍār; also transliterated as Almihdhar) (May 16, 1975 – September 11, 2001) was a Saudi Arabian hijacker. He was one of the five hijackers of American Airlines Flight 77, which was flown into the Pentagon as part of the September 11 attacks. Mihdhar was born in Saudi Arabia and fought with the Bosnian mujahideen during the Bosnian War of the 1990s. In early 1999, he traveled to Afghanistan where, as an experienced and respected jihadist, he was selected by Osama bin Laden to participate in the attacks. Mihdhar arrived in California with fellow hijacker Nawaf al-Hazmi in January 2000, after traveling to Malaysia for the Kuala Lumpur al-Qaeda Summit. At this point, the CIA was aware of Mihdhar, and he was photographed in Malaysia with another al-Qaeda member who was involved in the USS Cole bombing. The CIA did not inform the FBI when it learned that Mihdhar and Hazmi had entered the United States, and Mihdhar was not placed on any watchlists until late August 2001. (Full article...) Enid Mary Blyton (11 August 1897 – 28 November 1968) was an English children's writer whose books have been among the world's best-sellers since the 1930s, selling more than 600 million copies. Blyton's books are still enormously popular, and have been translated into 90 languages. As of June 2018, Blyton is in the 4th place for the most translated author. She wrote on a wide range of topics including education, natural history, fantasy, mystery, and biblical narratives and is best remembered today for her Noddy, Famous Five, Secret Seven, and Malory Towers. Her first book, Child Whispers, a 24-page collection of poems, was published in 1922. Following the commercial success of her early novels such as Adventures of the Wishing-Chair (1937) and The Enchanted Wood (1939), Blyton went on to build a literary empire, sometimes producing fifty books a year in addition to her prolific magazine and newspaper contributions. Her writing was unplanned and sprang largely from her unconscious mind: she typed her stories as events unfolded before her. The sheer volume of her work and the speed with which it was produced led to rumours that Blyton employed an army of ghost writers, a charge she vigorously denied. (Full article...) The FitzWalter coat of arms: d'or ung fece entre deux cheverons de goules ('Or, a fess gules between two chevrons of the last'). The arms are a differenced version of those of de Clare, the senior branch of the family. John FitzWalter, 2nd Baron FitzWalter (Fitzwalter or Fitz Wauter; c. 1315 – 18 October 1361) was a prominent Essex landowner best known for his criminal activities, particularly around Colchester. His family was of a noble and ancient lineage, with connections to the powerful de Clare family, who had arrived in England at the time of the Norman conquest of England. The FitzWalters held estates across Essex, as well as properties in London and Norfolk. John FitzWalter played a prominent role during the early years of King Edward III's wars in France, and at some point FitzWalter was married to Eleanor Percy, the daughter of Henry, Lord Percy. FitzWalter built a strong affinity around him, mainly from among leading members of the county's gentry, but also including men from elsewhere, such as a Norfolk parson. At their head, FitzWalter waged an armed campaign against the neighbouring town of Colchester, almost from the moment he reached adulthood. The townsmen seem to have exacerbated the dispute by illegally entering FitzWalter's park in Lexden; in return, FitzWalter banned them from one of their own watermills and then, in 1342, he besieged the town, preventing anyone entering or leaving for some weeks, as well as ransacking much property and destroying the market. One historian has described him, in his activities, as the medieval equivalent of a 20th-century American racketeer. Other victims of his Essex gang were local jurors, royal officials, a man forced to abjure the realm, and the prior of Little Dunmow Abbey. (Full article...) Shepseskare or Shepseskara (Egyptian for "Noble is the Soul of Ra") was an Ancient Egyptian pharaoh, the fourth or fifth ruler of the Fifth Dynasty (2494–2345 BC) during the Old Kingdom period. Shepseskare lived in the mid-25th century BC and was probably the owner of an unfinished pyramid in Abusir, which was abandoned after a few weeks of work in the earliest stages of its construction. Following historical sources, Shepseskare was traditionally believed to have reigned for seven years, succeeding Neferirkare Kakai and preceding Neferefre on the throne, making him the fourth ruler of the dynasty. He is the most obscure ruler of this dynasty and the Egyptologist Miroslav Verner has strongly argued that Shepseskare's reign lasted only a few months at the most, after that of Neferefre. This conclusion is based upon the state and location of Shepseskare's unfinished pyramid in Abusir as well as the very small number of artefacts attributable to this king. Verner's arguments have now convinced several Egyptologists such as Darrell Baker and Erik Hornung. (Full article...) Neferefre Isi (fl. 25th century BC; also known as Raneferef, Ranefer and in Greek as Χέρης, Cherês) was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the Fifth Dynasty during the Old Kingdom period. He was most likely the eldest son of pharaoh Neferirkare Kakai and queen Khentkaus II. He was known as prince Ranefer before he ascended to the throne. Neferefre started a pyramid for himself in the royal necropolis of Abusir called Netjeribau Raneferef, which means "The bas of Neferefre are divine". The pyramid was never finished, with a mason's inscription showing that works on the stone structure were abandoned during or shortly after the king's second year of reign. Together with the sparsity of attestations contemporaneous with his reign, this is taken by Egyptologists as evidence that Neferefre died unexpectedly after two to three years on the throne. Neferefre was nonetheless buried in his pyramid, hastily completed in the form of a mastaba by his second successor and presumably younger brother, pharaoh Nyuserre Ini. Fragments of his mummy were uncovered there, showing that he died in his early twenties. (Full article...) Pixies in 2009. Left to right: Joey Santiago, Black Francis, David Lovering, and Kim Deal The Pixies are an American alternative rock band formed in 1986 in Boston, Massachusetts. The original lineup comprised Black Francis (vocals, rhythm guitar), Joey Santiago (lead guitar), Kim Deal (bass, backing vocals) and David Lovering (drums). The band disbanded acrimoniously in 1993, but reunited in 2004. After Deal left in 2013, the Pixies hired Kim Shattuck as a touring bassist; she was replaced the same year by Paz Lenchantin, who became a permanent member in 2016. The Pixies are associated with the 1990s alternative rock boom, and draw on elements including punk rock and surf rock. Their music is known for its dynamic "loud-quiet" shifts and song structures. Francis is the Pixies' primary songwriter; his often surreal lyrics cover offbeat subjects such as extraterrestrials, incest, and biblical violence. They achieved modest popularity in the US, but were more successful in Europe. Their jarring pop sound influenced acts such as Nirvana, Radiohead, the Smashing Pumpkins and Weezer. Their popularity grew in the years after their break-up, leading to sold-out world tours following their reunion in 2004. (Full article...) A statue of Phan Đình Phùng located in center of the traffic circle facing the Cho Lon General Post Office, District 5, Ho Chi Minh City. Phan Đình Phùng (Vietnamese: [faːn ɗîŋ̟ fûŋm]; 1847 – January 21, 1896) was a Vietnamese revolutionary who led rebel armies against French colonial forces in Vietnam. He was the most prominent of the Confucian court scholars involved in anti-French military campaigns in the 19th century and was cited after his death by 20th-century nationalists as a national hero. He was renowned for his uncompromising will and principles—on one occasion, he refused to surrender even after the French had desecrated his ancestral tombs and had arrested and threatened to kill his family. Born into a family of mandarins from Hà Tĩnh Province, Phan continued his ancestors' traditions by placing first in the metropolitan imperial examinations in 1877. Phan quickly rose through the ranks under Emperor Tự Đức of the Nguyễn Dynasty, gaining a reputation for his integrity and uncompromising stance against corruption. Phan was appointed as the Imperial Censor, a position that allowed him to criticise his fellow mandarins and even the emperor. As the head of the censorate, Phan's investigations led to the removal of many incompetent or corrupt mandarins. (Full article...) Did you know... - show different entries ... that Laguna Pueblo educator Susie Rayos Marmon was the inspiration for a character in her grandniece Leslie Marmon Silko's book Storyteller? ... that Julia Azari has shown that U.S. presidents increasingly defend their legitimacy by claiming to have a political mandate? ... that the Isma'ili leader Ibn Hawshab had to surrender his son as hostage to a rival, who returned him after a year with a golden necklace as a gift? ... that two-spirit artist Storme Webber has used various media to retell her family's experience at The Casino, one of the oldest gay bars on the West Coast? ... that after Ruth Darrow's son died from hemolytic disease of the newborn, she was inspired to study the disease, and became the first person to identify its cause? ... that Edris Allan, the first telephone operator for the Jamaica All Island Telephone Service, married Sir Harold Allan, the first Afro-Jamaican to be knighted? ... that actor Erik Knudsen worked with Kevin Drew from Broken Social Scene, his favorite band, in a fictional band based on them for the soundtrack of Scott Pilgrim vs. the World? ... that English scientist Nicola Curtin donated to charity the £865,000 she received for helping develop the cancer drug Rubraca? ... that Licett Morillo closing Prada's fashion show was compared to an actor winning an Oscar? ... that musician Finneas made a cameo appearance as an Uber driver in the music video for Tove Lo's song "Bikini Porn"? ... that My Lonesome Cowboy, a sculpture created by artist Takashi Murakami as a companion to his earlier Hiropon, sold at auction for US$15.1 million – nearly four times the amount at which it had been valued? ... that a business-firm party is a political party created and run by one person to further their own interests? General images The following are images from various biography-related articles on Wikipedia. Eminent Victorians set the standard for 20th century biographical writing, when it was published in 1918. John Foxe's The Book of Martyrs, was one of the earliest English-language biographies. Einhard as scribe Saint Augustine of Hippo wrote Confessions, the first Western autobiography ever written, around 400. Portrait by Philippe de Champaigne, 17th century. James Boswell wrote what many consider to be the first modern biography, The Life of Samuel Johnson, in 1791. A scene from the Baburnama Cover of the first English edition of Benjamin Franklin's autobiography, 1793 Third Volume of a 1727 edition of Plutarch's Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans printed by Jacob Tonson Need help? Do you have a question about Wikipedia biographical content that you can't find the answer to? Consider asking it at the Wikipedia reference desk. Get involved For editor resources and to collaborate with other editors on improving Wikipedia's Biography-related articles, see WikiProject Biography. Selected portrait Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson Painting: Lemuel Francis Abbott Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson, (1758–1805) was a British flag officer who served in the Royal Navy, particularly during the Napoleonic Wars. Born in Norfolk, Nelson entered the navy at age 13, and in 1778 he obtained his own command. During his career he suffered from seasickness, and by the time of the Trafalgar Campaign he had already lost his right arm and sight in an eye in battles in Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Corsica, respectively. In 1805 he took over the Cádiz blockade, and on 21 October of that year Nelson's fleet engaged the Franco-Spanish one at the Battle of Trafalgar. The battle was a British victory, but during the action Nelson was fatally wounded by a French sharpshooter. Numerous monuments, such as Nelson's Column, have been created in his memory, and his signal "England expects that every man will do his duty" has been widely quoted, paraphrased and referenced. More selected portraits Jeff Dunham Photograph: Richard Mclaren American ventriloquist and stand-up comedian Jeff Dunham with his puppet "Achmed the Dead Terrorist". Dunham, whose puppets Time magazine has described as "politically incorrect, gratuitously insulting and ill tempered", uses Achmed to satirize terrorists. More selected portraits Ada Lovelace Painting: Alfred Edward Chalon Ada Lovelace (1815–1852) was an English mathematician and writer, chiefly known for her work on using Charles Babbage's planned mechanical general-purpose computer, the Analytical Engine. Her notes include what is recognised as the first algorithm intended to be carried out by a machine, and as such she is often regarded as the first computer programmer. More selected portraits Peter Oliver (painter) Portrait: Peter Oliver An 8.8-centimetre (3.5 in) tall self-portrait of the English miniaturist Peter Oliver (1594–1648). He often worked with watercolours. More selected portraits Lies Noor Photograph credit: Djakartawood Studio; restored by Chris Woodrich Lies Noor (c. 1938 – 1961) was an Indonesian actress. She first appeared on film in Pulang (Homecoming) in 1952, while she was still at school. She rose in popularity with a string of successful films, and was able to command high fees for her roles. In the mid-1950s, having married and had a child, she took a break from her career to care full-time for her son. After returning to acting in 1960, however, she developed encephalitis the next year and died in hospital two days later. This photograph of Noor was taken around 1956. More selected portraits John Henry Newman Painting: John Everett Millais John Henry Newman (1801–90) was a British cleric and leader in the Oxford Movement, a group of Anglicans who wished to return the Church of England to many Catholic beliefs and forms of worship traditional in the medieval times. In 1845 Newman converted to Catholicism, eventually rising to cardinal. More selected portraits Malcolm X Photo credit: Ed Ford, New York World-Telegram and Sun Malcolm X was an American Black Muslim minister and a spokesman for the Nation of Islam. Born Malcolm Little, he changed his surname to "X" as a rejection of his "slave name". Tensions between him and the Nation of Islam caused him to break from the group in 1964. He claimed to have received daily death threats and his house was burned to the ground in February 1965. One week later, Malcolm X was assassinated, having been shot in the chest by a sawed-off shotgun and 16 times with handguns. Three members of the Nation of Islam were convicted. More selected portraits Moshe Ya'alon Photograph: Reuven Kapuscinski Moshe Ya'alon (b. 1950) is an Israeli politician and current Defense Minister. Ya'alon was called up as a reserve during the Yom Kippur War in 1973. After the war, he rejoined the army as an officer and rose through the ranks, leading the Sayeret Matkal commando unit, the Paratroopers Brigade, and Military Intelligence. In 2002 he was appointed Chief of Staff of the Israel Defense Forces, resigning in 2005. Since 2013 he has served as the country's Defense Minister. More selected portraits Dilma Rousseff Photo: Agência Brasil Dilma Rousseff is the 36th and current President of Brazil, in office since 1 January 2011. She is the first woman to hold the office. Previously she was Chief of Staff to the President of Brazil, serving under President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, from 2005 to 2010. The daughter of a Bulgarian entrepreneur, she is an economist by training and co-founder of the Democratic Labour Party. She served as Da Silva's Minister of Energy and became Chief of Staff after José Dirceu's resignation amidst scandal. She was elected the presidency in a run-off election on 31 October 2010. More selected portraits Peter Levy Photo credit: John Byford Peter Levy (b. 1955) is a British television and radio presenter, currently host of the BBC regional news programme Look North, broadcast from Hull to East Yorkshire and Lincolnshire. He also hosts The Peter Levy Show on BBC Radio Humberside. Born in South West England, Levy moved to Yorkshire in his teens. After a stint in London as an actor, during which time he appeared on Man About the House, he returned to Yorkshire in 1975 to become a disc jockey before joining Look North in 1987. More selected portraits Rory Kennedy Photograph credit: Lyndie Benson Rory Kennedy (born December 12, 1968) is an American documentary filmmaker and the youngest child of U.S. senator Robert Kennedy and Ethel Skakel. Born six months after the assassination of her father, her life has seen many tragedies. As a director and producer, she has made documentary films that center on social issues such as addiction, nuclear radiation, the treatment of prisoners of war, and the politics of the Mexican border fence. Her films have been featured on many TV networks, and her 2014 documentary Last Days in Vietnam was nominated for an Academy Award. More selected portraits Fyodor Dostoevsky Painting: Vasily Perov Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821–81; depicted in 1872) was a Russian novelist, short story writer, essayist and philosopher. After publishing his first novel, Poor Folk, at age 25, Dostoyevsky wrote (among others) eleven novels, three novellas, and seventeen short novels, including Crime and Punishment (1866), The Idiot (1869), and The Brothers Karamazov (1880). More selected portraits Theodore Roosevelt and John Muir Photo credit: Underwood and Underwood U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt (left) and nature preservationist John Muir, founder of the Sierra Club, stand together on Glacier Point in Yosemite National Park. In the background can be seen Upper and Lower Yosemite Falls. During this trip in 1903, Muir convinced Roosevelt to add Yosemite Valley and Mariposa Grove to the park, which had been established in 1890. More selected portraits George IV Artist: Sir Thomas Lawrence An oil on canvas portrait of George IV of the United Kingdom as the Prince Regent, by Sir Thomas Lawrence. In 1814, Lord Stewart, who had been appointed ambassador in Vienna and was a previous client of Thomas Lawrence, wanted to commission a portrait by him of the Prince Regent. He arranged that Lawrence should be presented to the Prince Regent at a levée. Soon after, the Prince visited Lawrence at his studio in Russell Square. Lawrence wrote to his brother that: To crown this honour, [he] engag'd to sit to me at one today and after a successful sitting of two hours, has just left me and comes again tomorrow and the next day. More selected portraits Brian Nankervis Photo: John O'Neill; edit: JJ Harrison Brian Nankervis (b. 1956), an Australian comedian and writer, shown here during a live performance. Nankervis rose to popularity while playing Raymond J. Bartholomeuz on Hey Hey It's Saturday; since 2005 he has been a host of the gameshow RocKwiz. More selected portraits edit  On this day – December 28 Births 1856 - Woodrow Wilson, 28th President of the United States, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1924) (pictured) 1922 - Stan Lee, American comic book writer 1954 - Denzel Washington, American actor 1978 - John Legend, American singer, songwriter, and pianist 1981 - Sienna Miller, British actress Deaths 1694 - Queen Mary II of England (b. 1662) 1734 - Robert Roy MacGregor, Scottish folk hero (b. 1671) 1945 - Theodore Dreiser, American author (b. 1871) 2004 - Jerry Orbach, American actor (b. 1935) 2016 - Debbie Reynolds, American actress (b. 1932) More of today's anniversaries... In the news 25 December 2020 – COVID-19 pandemic Malian opposition leader Soumaila Cissé dies from COVID-19 in France two months after he was released by jihadist militants in a prisoner swap. (France 24) 24 December 2020 – COVID-19 pandemic Serbia officially begins its vaccination programme against COVID-19, with Prime Minister Ana Brnabić becoming the first person to receive the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine. (Anadolu Agency) 21 December 2020 – Poisoning of Alexei Navalny A report surfaces that a Federal Security Service agent allegedly involved in the plot to poison the Russian opposition leader was "duped" by Navalny into admitting that the poison was planted in Navalny's underpants. (CNN) 18 December 2020 – Tigray conflict Ethiopia offers a reward of 10 million birr (about US$250,000) for information leading to the capture of Tigray People's Liberation Front officials, including leader Debretsion Gebremichael, who are currently in hiding following the fall of Mekelle. (France 24) 16 December 2020 – Belarus–European Union relations Belarusian opposition leader Sviatlana Tsikhanouskaya calls for the European Union to support protesters in her country as she is awarded the Sakharov Prize. (ABC News) 10 December 2020 – COVID-19 pandemic Argentine President Alberto Fernández announces the purchase of 10 million doses of the Russian Sputnik V vaccine, and says that he will be the first person to receive the vaccine in order to prove that it is safe. An initial shipment of 600,000 doses will be received before the end of the year. (France 24) Updated: 11:33, 28 December 2020 edit  Quote of the week "I will live in the Past, the Present, and the Future. The Spirits of all Three shall strive within me. I will not shut out the lessons that they teach." — Charles Dickens In A Christmas Carol, 1843 Archive – More from Wikiquote edit  Related portals Law Politics Literature Music Science Sports Military Religion Islam Christianity LGBT Hinduism Judaism Human sexuality Categories Select [►] to view subcategories ▼ Biography (genre) ► Biography awards ► Biographers ► Biography journals ► Biographical museums ► Oral history ► Person databases ► Sports biographies ► The Biography Channel shows ► Biographical works ▼ People ► People by association ► People by behavior ► People by event ► People by gender ► People by language ► People by medical or psychological condition ► People by nationality ► People by occupation ► People by organization ► People by location ► People by political orientation ► People by religion ► People by role ► People by sexuality ► People by status ► People by time ► Categories by individual ► People categories by type ► Lists of people ► Outlines of people ► Award winners ► Bibliographies of people ► Biography (genre) ► Classification of people ► Personal coats of arms ► Depictions of people ► Fictional characters ► Freemen by location ► Legendary people ► Articles about multiple people ► Oldest people ► Twin people ► Wikipedia books on people ► Works about individual people ► People stubs ► Wikipedia categories named after people edit  Recognized content Featured articles DJ AM Aaliyah Lazarus Aaronson Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan Abu Nidal Chinua Achebe Eliza Acton John Adair Amy Adams Doc Adams John Adams Samuel Adams Nick Adenhart Áedán mac Gabráin Ælfheah of Canterbury Ælle of Sussex Æthelbald of Mercia Æthelbald, King of Wessex Æthelberht of Kent Æthelberht, King of Wessex Æthelflæd Æthelred, Lord of the Mercians Æthelred of Mercia Æthelred I, King of Wessex Æthelstan A Æthelstan Æthelwold ætheling Æthelwulf, King of Wessex Ben Affleck Afonso, Prince Imperial of Brazil Sadruddin Aga Khan Jonathan Agnew Spiro Agnew Ahmose I Mukhtar al-Thaqafi Albert, Prince Consort Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence and Avondale Alboin Alcibiades Suicide of Leelah Alcorn Aldfrith of Northumbria Buzz Aldrin Alexander II Zabinas Alexander of Greece Alexander of Lincoln Raymond Pace Alexander Alexandra of Denmark Hadji Ali Princess Alice of Battenberg Alice in Chains Charles-Valentin Alkan Gubby Allen Ike Altgens Luís Alves de Lima e Silva, Duke of Caxias Tommy Amaker Herman Vandenburg Ames Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna of Russia Anna Anderson William T. 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en-wikipedia-org-8607	----	Category:Horatii - Wikipedia Help Category:Horatii From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gens Horatia. This page contains a list of individuals in the Roman gens Horatia. Subcategories This category has only the following subcategory. H ► Horace‎ (1 C, 18 P) Pages in category "Horatii" The following 7 pages are in this category, out of 7 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more).   Horatia gens B Marcus Horatius Barbatus (consul 449) C Horatius Cocles F Horace H Horatii and Curiatii P Gaius Horatius Pulvillus Marcus Horatius Pulvillus Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Horatii&oldid=833702858" Categories: Roman gentes Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Català Español Italiano ქართული Latina Nederlands 日本語 Português Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 2 April 2018, at 00:56 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8613	----	Plebeian Council - Wikipedia Plebeian Council From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The principal assembly of the ancient Roman Republic Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e The Concilium Plebis (English: Plebeian Council, Plebeian Assembly, People's Assembly or Council of the Plebs) was the principal assembly of the common people of the ancient Roman Republic. It functioned as a legislative/judicial assembly,[1] through which the plebeians (commoners) could pass legislation (called plebiscites), elect plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles, and try judicial cases. The Plebeian Council was originally organized on the basis of the Curia but in 471 BC adopted an organizational system based on residential districts or tribes.[2] The Plebeian Council usually met in the well of the Comitium and could only be convoked by the Tribune of the Plebs. The patricians were excluded from the Council. Contents 1 History 1.1 From 509 to 471 BC 1.2 From 471 to 27 BC 1.3 After 27 BC 2 The Plebeian Council and the Conflict of the Orders 3 Function 3.1 Organization of the Plebeian Council 3.1.1 Tribune of the Plebs 3.1.2 Comitia Tributa Populi 3.2 Legislation & Legislative Actions 3.2.1 Rogationes 3.2.2 Plebiscitas 3.2.3 Leges 3.2.3.1 Legislative Actions 4 See also 5 References 6 Notes 7 Further reading 7.1 Primary sources 7.2 Secondary source material 8 External links History[edit] From 509 to 471 BC[edit] When the Roman Republic was founded in 509 BC, the Roman people were divided into a total of thirty curiae. Plutarch and Dionysus of Helicarnassus believed that these curiae were subdivisions of the three Romulean Tribes.[3] The curiae were organized on the basis of the family, and thus the ethnic structure of early Rome. Each curia even had its own festivals, gods, and religious rites. The thirty curiae gathered into a legislative assembly known as the Comitia Curiata or Curiate Assembly. This assembly was created shortly after the legendary founding of the city in 753 BC, and it formally elected new Roman kings. During this time, plebeians had no political rights and were unable to influence Roman Law. Each plebeian family was dependent on a particular patrician family. Accordingly, each plebeian family belonged to the same curia as did its patrician patron. While the plebeians each belonged to a particular curia, only patricians could actually vote in the Curiate Assembly. The Plebeian Council was originally organized around the office of the Tribunes of the Plebs in 494 BC. Plebeians probably met in their own assembly prior to the establishment of the office of the Tribune of the Plebs, but this assembly would have had no political role. The Offices of the plebeian tribune and plebeian aedile were created in 494 BC following the first plebeian secession. In 494 BC, the plebeians held nightly meetings in some districts, with their earliest attempts at organization focusing on matters relating to their class.[4] Some of these issues included debt, civil and land rights, and military service.[5] Tribunes of the Plebs were also charged with protecting the plebeian interests against the patrician oligarchy.[6] In 492 BC, the office of Tribune was acknowledged by the patricians, thereby creating a legitimate assembly of plebeians (Concilium Plebis).[5] After 494 BC, a plebeian tribune always presided over the Plebeian Curiate Assembly. This "Plebeian Curiate Assembly" was the original Plebeian Council,[4] which elected the plebeian Tribunes and Aediles,[7] and passed legislation (plebiscita) that applied only to the plebeians. From 471 to 27 BC[edit] During the later years of the Roman Kingdom, King Servius Tullius enacted a series of constitutional reforms. One of these reforms resulted in the creation of a new organizational unit, the tribe, to assist in the reorganization of the army.[8] Its divisions were not ethnic (as the divisions of the Curia were), but rather geographical. Tullius divided the city into four geographical districts, each encompassing a single tribe. Between the reign of Tullius and the late 3rd century BC, the number of tribes expanded from 4 to 35. By 471 BC, the plebeians decided that organization by tribe granted them a level of political independence from their patrician patrons[9] that the curiae did not. Therefore, around 471 BC,[10] a law was passed to allow the plebeians to begin organizing by tribe. Thus, the "Plebeian Curiate Assembly" began to use tribes, rather than curiae, as its basis for organization. As such, the Plebeian Council changed from a "Plebeian Curiate Assembly" to a "Plebeian Tribal Assembly".[11] The only difference between the Plebeian Council after 471 BC and the ordinary Tribal Assembly (which also organized on the basis of the tribes) was that the tribes of the Plebeian Council included only plebeians, whereas the tribes of the Tribal Assembly included both plebeians and patricians. However, most Romans were plebeians. Therefore, the principal differences between the Plebeian Council and the Tribal Assembly were mostly legal rather than demographic. These legal differences derived from the fact that Roman law did not recognize an assembly consisting only of one group of people (plebeians in this case) from an assembly consisting of all of the People of Rome. Over time, however, these legal differences were mitigated with legislation.The Plebeian Council elected two plebeian officers, the tribunes and the aediles, and thus Roman law classified these two officers as the elected representatives of the plebeians.[10] As such, they acted as the presiding officers of this assembly. The plebeians, through the Plebeian Council, began to gain power during this time. Two secessions in 449 BC and 287 BC brought about increased authority for the plebeian assembly and its leaders, and it was greatly due to concessions made by dictators and consuls that the now mobilized and angry plebeian population began to develop power.[12] In 339 BC, the Lex Publilia made plebiscites (plebeian legislation) law,[13] however this was not widely accepted by patricians until the 287 BC Lex Hortensia, which definitively gave the council the power to create laws to which both plebeians and patricians would be subject.[14] Additionally, between 291 and 219 BC, the Lex Maenia required the senate to approve any bill put forward by the Plebeian Council.[14] In 88 BC, Sulla introduced measures which transferred all voting power to the Comitia Centuriata from tribal assemblies, therefore rendering the Council of the Plebs virtually powerless.[15] After 27 BC[edit] Although the Plebeian Council survived the fall of the Roman Republic,[16] it quickly lost its legislative, judicial and electoral powers to the senate. By virtue of their status as perpetual tribunes, both Julius Caesar and the Emperor Augustus always had absolute control over the Plebeian Council.[16] The Plebeian Council disappeared shortly after the reign of Tiberius. The Plebeian Council and the Conflict of the Orders[edit] Chart showing the checks and balances of the Constitution of the Roman Republic. The creation of the office of plebeian tribune and plebeian aedile marked the end of the first phase of the struggle between the plebeians and the patricians (the Conflict of the Orders). The next major development in this conflict occurred through the Plebeian Council. During a modification of the original Valerian law in 449 BC, plebiscites acquired the full force of law, and thus applied to all Romans. Before this time, plebiscites had applied only to plebeians. By the early 4th century BC, the plebeians, who still lacked any real political power,[17] had become exhausted and bitter. In 339 BC they facilitated the passage of a law (the lex Publilia), which brought the Conflict of the Orders closer to a conclusion. Before this time, a bill passed by any assembly could become law only after the patrician senators gave their approval, which came in the form of a decree called the auctoritas patrum ("authority of the fathers" or "authority of the patrician senators"). The lex Publilia required the auctoritas patrum to be passed before a law could be voted on by one of the assemblies, rather than afterward.[18] This modification seems to have made the auctoritas patrum irrelevant.[19] Thus, the Plebeian Council became independent of the patrician aristocracy in everything but name. By 287 BC, the economic condition of the average plebeian had deteriorated further. The problem appears to have centered on widespread indebtedness.[20] The plebeians demanded relief, but the senators, most of whom belonged to the creditor class, refused to abide by the plebeians' demands. The plebeians withdrew en masse to the Janiculum hill, resulting in the final plebeian secession. To end this movement, a plebeian dictator (Quintus Hortensius) was appointed, who ultimately passed a law called the "Hortensian Law" (lex Hortensia). The most significant component of this law was its termination of the requirement that auctoritas patrum be obtained before any bill could be considered by the Plebeian Council.[20] In this way the law removed from the patrician senators their final check over the Plebeian Council.[21] The lex Hortensia, however, should not be viewed as the final triumph of democracy over aristocracy.[21] Close relations between the plebeian tribunes and the senate meant that the senate could still exercise a great degree of control over the Plebeian Council. Thus, the ultimate significance of this law was that it robbed the patricians of their final weapon over the plebeians.[21] This ended the Conflict of the Orders, and brought the plebeians to a level of full political equality with the patricians. Function[edit] Organization of the Plebeian Council[edit] At its formation, the Plebeian Council was organized by Curiae and served as an electoral council wherein plebeian citizens could vote to pass laws. The Plebeian Council would elect Tribunes of the Plebs to preside over their meetings.[22] It is unlikely, however, that the council had any constitutional recognition before the creation of the Twelve Tables between 451 and 450 BC.[23] At the meetings of the Plebeian Council, they would pass resolutions, conduct trials, and discuss matters pertaining to the condition of the plebeians. Their ability to perform political prosecutions was later restricted by the Twelve Tables.[23] The tribal unit organizational system was adopted by the council in 471 BC, although the exact relationship between the Tribunes and tribes is unclear, as the number of Tribunes was not equal to the number of tribes. Additionally, most tribes were located outside of the city, whereas the plebeian Tribunes were exclusive to the city.[22] Image depicting the engraving of the Twelve Tables In the Tribal system, the Council of the Plebeians elected Tribunes of the Plebs, who acted as spokespeople for the plebeian citizens. The Tribunes were revered, and plebeians swore an oath to take vengeance on anyone who would bring them harm.[23] Over time, the Concilium Plebis became the most effective medium of legislation in the Republic, until the introduction of Sulla’s measures in 88 BC.[23] Tribune of the Plebs[edit] The Tribunes of the Plebs were elected by the Plebeian Council. At first, only 2 to 5 Tribunes were elected until the College of 10 was introduced in 457 BC.[24] They served as spokespeople for the plebeians of Rome, with a purpose of protecting the interests of the plebeians against patrician supremacy.[25] The Tribunes could call meetings of the council over which they presided.[26] Since plebeians were not able to take political actions themselves, the Tribunes had the opportunity to make lasting impacts through their political office.[24] Tribunes were responsible for organizing support for legislation, organizing contiones, a form of discourse or assembly, as well as prosecute criminals before the council.[26] Their position as leaders of the Plebeian Council gave the Tribunes great control over the city in their ability to organize the plebeians into a political weapon.[26] Comitia Tributa Populi[edit] The Comitia Tributa was a tribal assembly which organized citizens by place of residence.[27] There is confusion concerning the difference between The Plebeian Council and the Comitia Tributa. Some scholars have found reason in believing that the Concilium Plebis became the Comitia Tributa in 339 or 287 BC.[28] De Martino and Von Fritz believe that after the Lex Hortensia of 287 BC, patricians must not have been excluded from the Plebeian Council, as the laws created by the council were now applicable to the patricians.[28] However, others believe that they were separate assemblies. Stavely introduced the possibility that Livy may not have recorded the emergence of the Comitia Tributa due to a lack of importance in terminological differences. Stavely therefore has proposed that the Comitia Tributa were established in 449 BC.[28] Laelius Felix and G.W. Botsford have proposed theories attempting to distinguish the terms concilium and comitia.[29] Felix’s theory, although widely followed, is also heavily contested. His theory supposes that a concilium denotes an exclusive assembly which included only a part of the universus populus, whereas a comitia designates a meeting of a whole universus populus.[29] The principal arguments against his theory are (1) his definition depends on a distinction between assemblies of the populus and of the plebeians, despite the routine denial of the existence of an assembly consisting solely of plebeians after 287 BC; and (2) there are passages from Roman authors which refer to plebeian assemblies as comitia, as opposed to Concilium Plebis.[29] This then weakens Felix’s proposal that a comitia designates an assembly of the universus populus. G. W. Botsford distinguishes these two types of assemblies in terms of their function. In his theory, a comitia refers to an electoral assembly, and a concilium would then be a legislative or judicial assembly.[29] Although the theories put forth by Botsford and Felix are different, passages from Cicero and Livy can be found to support both.[29] A comitia appears to designate organized voting assemblies, and a concilium often indicates a meeting of a certain group which is exclusive in some sense. The Concilium Plebis is definitively a political assembly.[29] Legislation & Legislative Actions[edit] Three distinct forms of legislative actions undertaken by the Roman Republic exist. These are: Rogationes, Plebescitas and Leges. It is important to distinguish between these forms of legislation as it creates a deeper understanding of Roman political structure, and the role of the Plebeian Council. Rogationes[edit] Rogationes (sing. Rogatio) are proposals for legislation that are created by the Tribunes of the Plebs. Rogationes are incomplete legislation that are not applicable by law, as they are legislation that has been subject to tribunician veto or rejected by the senate. It is unclear whether Rogationes were presented in a formal meeting or not, however they are valuable because they demonstrate the matters which were of importance to the Tribunes.[30] Plebiscitas[edit] Plebiscita (sing. Plebiscitum) were proposals brought forward by the Tribunes of the Plebs that were approved by majority vote of the tribes of the Concilium Plebis. After the Lex Hortensia was introduced in 287 BC, Plebiscitas became law for the entire Roman population, including patricians. Plebiscitas no longer required senatorial or magisterial approval, and were demonstrative of the will of the plebeian class.[30] Leges[edit] Leges (sing. Lex) were legislation brought forth by a magistrate and presented to the Roman population in either the Comitia Tributa or Comitia Centuriata. A Plebiscitum could become a Lex if it was adopted by a magistrate and approved by a majority of tribes or centuries.[30] Some examples of leges introduced which pertained to the Plebeian Council include: Lex Genucia (342 BC), which required that one annual consulship be given to a plebeian.[31] Lex Ogulnia (300 BC), which entitled plebeian citizens to one half of the priesthoods in the pontifices and augures colleges.[31] Lex Hortensia (287 BC), which made all Roman citizens subject to the laws created by the Plebeian Council.[31] Lex Maenia (between 291 and 219 BC), which required the senate to approve all bills approved by the Plebeian Council.[31] Legislative Actions[edit] Legislative Actions by the Concilium Plebis can be categorized into four principal categories based on their purpose. These categories are: (1) Equality, (2) Broadening of Participation, (3) Protection and (4) Mutually Binding Consultation. Specifically, legislative Actions that fall under the 'Equality' category are actions which move to create equality between different groups of people. 'Broadening of Participation' is indicative of actions which aim to increase the political participation of groups which had previously been denied. The category of 'Protection' includes legislative actions seeking to place limits on arbitrary action of the state, as well as seeking rights (personal rights, rights to property). Finally, legislative actions under the category of 'Mutually Binding Consultation' are those which aim to solidify and increase the power and authority of the Council of the Plebs.[30] These categories are based on Tilly's Dimensions of Democratization. See also[edit] Roman Kingdom – period of Roman history when the city and its territory were ruled by kings (c.753–c.509 BC) Roman Republic – Period of ancient Roman civilization (509–27 BC) Roman Empire – Period of Imperial Rome following the Roman Republic (27 BC–476 AD) Roman law – Legal system of Ancient Rome (c. 449 BC – AD 529) Centuria Curia Roman consul – Political office in ancient Rome Praetor – Official of the Roman Republic Roman censor – Roman magistrate responsible for the census and monitoring public morality Quaestor Aedile – Office of the Roman Republic Roman dictator – Extraordinary magistrate of the Roman Republic Master of the Horse Roman Senate – Political institution in ancient Rome Cursus honorum – The sequential order of public offices held by politicians in Ancient Rome Byzantine Senate Pontifex maximus – Chief high priest in ancient Rome Princeps senatus Interrex Procurator Acta Senatus References[edit] Abbott, Frank Frost (1901). A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. Elibron Classics (ISBN 0-543-92749-0). Byrd, Robert (1995). The Senate of the Roman Republic. U.S. Government Printing Office, Senate Document 103-23. Cicero, Marcus Tullius (1841). The Political Works of Marcus Tullius Cicero: Comprising his Treatise on the Commonwealth; and his Treatise on the Laws. Translated from the original, with Dissertations and Notes in Two Volumes. By Francis Barham, Esq. London: Edmund Spettigue. Vol. 1. Develin, R (1975). "Comitia tributa plebis". Athenaeum; Pavia. 53: 302-338 - via Proquest. Drogula, Fred K (2017). "Plebeian Tribunes and the Government of Early Rome". Antichthon. 51: 110. Farrell, Joseph (1986-01-01). "The Distinction Between Comitia and Concilium". Athenaeum: 407-438. Lintott, Andrew (1999). The Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press ( ISBN 0-19-926108-3). Polybius (1823). The General History of Polybius: Translated from the Greek. By James Hampton. Oxford: Printed by W. Baxter. Fifth Edition, Vol. 2. Taylor, Lily Ross (1966). Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar. The University of Michigan Press ( ISBN 0-472-08125-X). Wolters, Eric (2014-05-01). "Leges, Plebescitas, et Rogationes: Democratization and Legislative Action, 494 - 88 BC". Graduate Theses and Dissertations. Notes[edit] ^ Farrell, Joseph (1986-01-01). "The Distinction Between Comitia and Concilium". Athenaeum: 407–438. ^ Drogula, Fred K (2017). "Plebeian Tribunes and the Government of Early Rome". Antichthon. 51: 110. doi:10.1017/ann.2017.8. ^ Drogula, Fred K (2017). "Plebeian Tribunes and the Government of Early Rome". Antichthon. 51: 110. doi:10.1017/ann.2017.8. ^ a b Wolters, Eric (2014-05-01). "Leges, Plebiscita, et Rogationes: Democratization and Legislative Action, 494 - 88 BC". Graduate Theses and Dissertations. ^ a b Farrell, Joseph (1986-01-01). "The Distinction Between Comitia and Concilium". Athenaeum: 407–438. ^ Drogula, Fred K (2017). "Plebeian Tribunes and the Government of Early Rome". Antichthon. 51: 110. doi:10.1017/ann.2017.8. ^ Abbott, 21 ^ Abbott, 21 ^ Abbott, 260 ^ a b Abbott, 196 ^ Abbott, 261 ^ Wolters, Eric (2014-05-01). "Leges, Plebiscita, et Rogationes: Democratization and Legislative Action, 494 - 88 BC". Graduate Theses and Dissertations. ^ Develin, R (1975). "Comitia tributa plebis". Athenaeum; Pavia. 53: 302–338 – via Proquest. ^ a b Drogula, Fred K (2017). "Plebeian Tribunes and the Government of Early Rome". Antichthon. 51: 110. doi:10.1017/ann.2017.8. ^ The Constitution of the Roman Republic. Lintott, Andrew. Oxford University Press. 1999. ISBN 1-280-76406-6. OCLC 814476467.CS1 maint: others (link) ^ a b Abbott, 397 ^ Abbott, 35 ^ Abbott, 50 ^ Abbott, 51 ^ a b Abbott, 52 ^ a b c Abbott, 53 ^ a b Drogula, Fred K (2017). "Plebeian Tribunes and the Government of Early Rome". Antichthon. 51: 110. doi:10.1017/ann.2017.8. ^ a b c d The Constitution of the Roman Republic. Lintott, Andrew. Oxford University Press. 1999. ISBN 1-280-76406-6. OCLC 814476467.CS1 maint: others (link) ^ a b The Constitution of the Roman Republic. Lintott, Andrew. Oxford University Press. 1999. ISBN 1-280-76406-6. OCLC 814476467.CS1 maint: others (link) ^ Farrell, Joseph (1986-01-01). "The Distinction Between Comitia and Concilium". Athenaeum: 407–438. ^ a b c Drogula, Fred K (2017). "Plebeian Tribunes and the Government of Early Rome". Antichthon. 51: 110. doi:10.1017/ann.2017.8. ^ Wolters, Eric (2014-05-01). "Leges, Plebiscita, et Rogationes: Democratization and Legislative Action, 494 - 88 BC". Graduate Theses and Dissertations. ^ a b c Develin, R (1975). "Comitia tributa plebis". Athenaeum; Pavia. 53: 302–338 – via Proquest. ^ a b c d e f Farrell, Joseph (1986-01-01). "The Distinction Between Comitia and Concilium". Athenaeum: 407–438. ^ a b c d Wolters, Eric (2014-05-01). "Leges, Plebiscita, et Rogationes: Democratization and Legislative Action, 494 - 88 BC". Graduate Theses and Dissertations. ^ a b c d Drogula, Fred K (2017). "Plebeian Tribunes and the Government of Early Rome". Antichthon. 51: 110. doi:10.1017/ann.2017.8. Further reading[edit] Ihne, Wilhelm. Researches Into the History of the Roman Constitution. William Pickering. 1853. Johnston, Harold Whetstone. Orations and Letters of Cicero: With Historical Introduction, An Outline of the Roman Constitution, Notes, Vocabulary and Index. Scott, Foresman and Company. 1891. Mommsen, Theodor. Roman Constitutional Law. 1871-1888 Tighe, Ambrose. The Development of the Roman Constitution. D. Apple & Co. 1886. Von Fritz, Kurt. The Theory of the Mixed Constitution in Antiquity. Columbia University Press, New York. 1975. The Histories by Polybius Cambridge Ancient History, Volumes 9–13. A. Cameron, The Later Roman Empire, (Fontana Press, 1993). M. Crawford, The Roman Republic, (Fontana Press, 1978). E. S. Gruen, "The Last Generation of the Roman Republic" (U California Press, 1974) F. Millar, The Emperor in the Roman World, (Duckworth, 1977, 1992). A. Lintott, "The Constitution of the Roman Republic" (Oxford University Press, 1999) Primary sources[edit] Cicero's De Re Publica, Book Two Rome at the End of the Punic Wars: An Analysis of the Roman Government; by Polybius Secondary source material[edit] Considerations on the Causes of the Greatness of the Romans and their Decline, by Montesquieu The Roman Constitution to the Time of Cicero What a Terrorist Incident in Ancient Rome Can Teach Us Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, article Concilium External links[edit] Library resources about Plebeian Council Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries v t e Roman Constitution Ancient Rome History Constitution Senate Assemblies Curiate Century Tribal Plebeian Magistrates Roman Kingdom History Constitution Senate Assemblies Magistrates Roman Republic History Constitution (reforms of Sulla • reforms of Caesar • reforms of Augustus) Senate Assemblies Magistrates Roman Empire History (post Diocletian) Constitution (post Diocletian) Senate Assemblies Magistrates Miscellaneous Sulla's Constitutional Reforms Caesar's Constitutional Reforms Conflict of the Orders Roman law v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plebeian_Council&oldid=994800295" Categories: Roman Kingdom Popular assemblies Hidden categories: CS1 maint: others Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Español Esperanto Français 한국어 Italiano Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Slovenčina 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 17 December 2020, at 16:28 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8624	----	Military history of ancient Rome - Wikipedia Military history of ancient Rome From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Part of a series on the Military of ancient Rome 753 BC – AD 476 Structural history Army Unit types and ranks Decorations and punishments Legions Auxilia Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Campaign history Wars and battles Technological history Military engineering Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Political history   Strategy and tactics Infantry tactics Frontiers and fortifications Limes Limes Britannicus Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Limes Germanicus Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes Norican Limes Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannonian Limes Limes Alutanus Limes Moesiae Trajan's Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmatiae Limes Arabicus Limes Tripolitanus Limes Mauretaniae  Ancient Rome portal •  War portal v t e The military history of ancient Rome is inseparable from its political system, based from an early date upon competition within the ruling elite. Two consuls were elected each year to head the government of the state, and in the early to mid-Republic were assigned a consular army and an area in which to campaign. History[edit] From Gaius Marius and Sulla onwards, control of the army began to be tied into the political ambitions of individuals, leading to the political triumvirate of the late 1st century BC and its resolution in a civil war that led to the Republic's collapse. The Empire was increasingly plagued by usurpations led or supported by military conspiracies, leading to the Crisis of the Third Century (A.D. 235–284) in the late empire and eventual final decline. Following is a list of topics on the military history of ancient Rome. Structural history of the Roman military The branches of the Roman military at the highest level were the Roman army and the Roman navy. Within these branches the actual structure was subject to substantial change throughout its history. Campaign history of the Roman military The history of Rome is inseparable from its military history over the roughly thirteen centuries that the Roman state existed. The core of the military campaigns of ancient Rome is the account of the Roman military's land battles, from the conquest of Italy to its fights against the Huns and invading Germanic peoples. Naval battles were largely less important, although there are notable exceptions during, for instance, the First Punic War and others. The Roman army battled first against its tribal neighbors and Etruscan towns within Italy, and later came to dominate much of the land surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, including the provinces of Britannia and Asia Minor at the Empire's height.[1] Technological history of the Roman military From sticks and stones to ballistae and quinqueremes. Political history of the Roman military From subjects of the state to subjects of the general. References[edit] ^ "Roman Military". Retrieved 18 October 2014. v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films This article on military history is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_ancient_Rome&oldid=995741170" Categories: Military history stubs Military history of ancient Rome Hidden categories: All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Français Italiano 日本語 Português Suomi 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 December 2020, at 17:17 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8635	----	Apulia - Wikipedia Apulia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Region of Italy For other uses, see Apulia (disambiguation) and Puglia (disambiguation). This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in Italian. (January 2020) Click [show] for important translation instructions. View a machine-translated version of the Italian article. Machine translation like DeepL or Google Translate is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Wikipedia. Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article. You must provide copyright attribution in the edit summary accompanying your translation by providing an interlanguage link to the source of your translation. A model attribution edit summary Content in this edit is translated from the existing Italian Wikipedia article at [[:it:Puglia]]; see its history for attribution. You should also add the template {{Translated|it|Puglia}} to the talk page. For more guidance, see Wikipedia:Translation. Region of Italy Apulia Puglia  (Italian) Púgghie / Puie / Puje  (Neapolitan) Puia  (Sicilian) Ἀπουλία  (Greek) Poulye  (Arpitan) Region of Italy Flag Coat of arms Coordinates: 41°0′31″N 16°30′46″E / 41.00861°N 16.51278°E / 41.00861; 16.51278Coordinates: 41°0′31″N 16°30′46″E / 41.00861°N 16.51278°E / 41.00861; 16.51278 Country Italy Capital Bari Government  • President Michele Emiliano (PD) Area  • Total 19,358 km2 (7,474 sq mi) Population (31 December 2016)  • Total 4,063,888  • Density 210/km2 (540/sq mi) Demonym(s) English: Apulian Italian: Pugliese Time zone UTC+1 (CET)  • Summer (DST) UTC+2 (CEST) ISO 3166 code IT-75 GDP (nominal) €76.6 billion (2018)[1] GDP per capita €19,000 (2018)[2] HDI (2018) 0.845[3] very high · 18th of 21 NUTS Region ITF Website www.regione.puglia.it Apulia (/əˈpuːliə/ ə-POO-lee-ə; Italian: Puglia [ˈpuʎʎa]; Neapolitan: Pùglia [ˈpuʝːə];[a] Albanian: Pulia; Ancient Greek: Ἀπουλία, romanized: Apoulía) is a region of Italy, located in the southern peninsular section of the country, bordering the Adriatic Sea to the east, the Ionian Sea to the southeast, and the Strait of Otranto and Gulf of Taranto to the south. The region comprises 19,345 square kilometers (7,469 sq mi), and its population is about four million. It is bordered by the other Italian regions of Molise to the north, Campania to the west, and Basilicata to the southwest. Its capital city is Bari. Contents 1 Geography 2 History 3 Economy 3.1 Unemployment 3.2 Olive cultivars 3.2.1 Xylella fastidiosa disease 4 Transport 5 Demographics 6 Government and politics 7 Culture 7.1 Cuisine 7.1.1 Sagre food festivals 7.2 Language 7.3 LGBT culture 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Geography[edit] Torre Sant'Andrea, Salento Apulia's coastline is longer than that of any other mainland Italian region. In the north, the Gargano promontory extends out into the Adriatic like a 'sperone' ("spur"), while in the south, the Salento peninsula forms the 'tacco' ("heel") of Italy's boot.[4] The highest peak in the region is Mount Cornacchia [it] (1,152 meters above sea level) within the Daunian Mountains, in the north along the Apennines. It is home to two national parks, the Alta Murgia National Park and Gargano National Park.[5] Outside national parks in the North and West, most of Apulia and particularly Salento is geographically flat with only moderate hills. The climate is typically Mediterranean with hot, dry and sunny summers and mild, rainy winters. Snowfall, especially on the coast is rare but has occurred as recently as January 2019 (following on from snow in March 2018 and January 2017). Apulia is among the hottest and driest regions of Italy in summer with temperatures sometimes reaching up to and above 40 °C in Lecce and Foggia. The coastal areas, particularly on the Adriatic and in the southern Salento region are frequently exposed to winds of varying strengths and directions, strongly affecting local temperatures and conditions, sometimes within the same day. The Northerly Bora wind from the Adriatic can lower temperatures, humidity and moderate summer heat while the Southerly Sirocco wind from North Africa can raise temperatures, humidity and occasionally drop red dust from the Sahara. On some days in spring and autumn, it can be warm enough to swim in Gallipoli and Porto Cesareo on the Ionian coast while at the same time, cool winds warrant jackets and sweaters in Monopoli and Otranto on the Adriatic coast. Landscape of the Murge plateau History[edit] Castel del Monte, built by the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II between 1240 and 1250 in Andria The medieval town of Ostuni Apulia is one of the richest archaeological regions in Italy. It was first colonized by Mycenaean Greeks.[6] There were three main Iapygian tribes that inhabited Apulia during the first millennium BC – the Daunians in the North, the Peucetians in the Centre, as well as the Messapians in the South.[7][8] Some parts of the regions were conquered by the Muslim Saracens, and the Emirate of Bari was established for a brief period of time by Muhammad Abul Abbas of Sicily. A number of castles were built in the area by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, including Castel del Monte,[9] sometimes called the "Crown of Apulia".[10] Apulia was an autonomous duchy until 1130 when its duke became king of Sicily. After 1282, when the kingdom lost the island of Sicily itself, Apulia remained part of the remnant Kingdom of Naples (confusingly known also as the Kingdom of Sicily), and remained so until the unification of Italy in 1861. This kingdom was independent under the House of Anjou from 1282 to 1442, then was part of Aragon until 1458, after which it was again independent under a cadet branch of the House of Trastámara until 1501. As a result of the French–Spanish war of 1501–1504, Naples again came under the rule of Aragon and the Spanish Empire from 1504 to 1714. When Barbary pirates of North Africa sacked Vieste in 1554, they took an estimated 7,000 slaves.[11] The coast of Apulia was occupied at times by the Turks and at other times by the Venetians.[12] In 1861 the region became part of the Kingdom of Italy.[13] Economy[edit] The region's contribution to Italy's gross value added was around 4.6% in 2000, while its population was 7% of the total. The per capita GDP is low compared to the national average and represents about 68.1% of the EU average.[14] The share of gross value added by the agricultural and services sectors was above the national average in 2000. The region has industries specialising in particular areas, including food processing and vehicles in Foggia; footwear and textiles in the Barletta area, and wood and furniture in the Murge area to the west.[15] Between 2007 and 2013 the economy of Apulia expanded more than that of the rest of southern Italy.[16] Such growth, over several decades, is a severe challenge to the hydrogeological system.[17] Apulia's thriving economy is articulated into numerous sectors boasting several leading companies: Aerospace (Sitael, Blackshape, Leonardo S.p.A.); Agriculture (Casillo Group, G.C. Partecipazioni), Automotive (Getrag, a subsidiary of Magna International); Food and Beverage (De Carlo, Divella, Quarta Caffé); Furniture (Natuzzi); ICT (Exprivia); Mechanics (Isotta Fraschini Motori, MERMEC); Publishing (Laterza, Edizioni Dedalo), Tourism (Nicolaus tour), Logistics (GTS Rail). Unemployment[edit] The unemployment rate stood at 18.8% in 2017 and was higher than the national average.[18] Year 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 unemployment rate (in %) 12.6% 11.1% 11.6% 12.6% 13.5% 13.2% 15.7% 19.7% 21.5% 19.7% 19.4% 18.8% 16% Olive cultivars[edit] There are an estimated 50 to 60 million olive trees in Apulia, and the region accounts for 40% of Italy's olive oil production. There are four specific Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) covering the whole region.[19] Olive varieties include: Baresane, Biancolilla, Brandofino (Castiglione), Buscionetto (Biancolilla), Carolea, Cellina di Nardò, Cerasuola (Ogliara), Cerignola (Bella di Cerignola), Cima di Bitonto, Cima di Mola, Coratina,[20] also grown in Corning, CA., a 2018 Gold Medal New York International Olive Oil Competition (NYIOOC) winner,[21] Frantoio, Garganica, La Minuta, Leccino, Moresca, Nocellara Etnea, Nocellara Messinese, Ogliarola, Ogliarola Barese, Ogliara Messinese, Ottobratica, Peranzana that is produced as "Certified Ultra-Premium Extra Virgin Olive Oil",[22] Rotondella, Santagatese, Saracena, Tonda Iblea, and Verdello (subspecies of San Benedetto).[23][24] Xylella fastidiosa disease[edit] Since the years 2008-2010, the olive oil industry in Apulia is under threat from the pathogen Xylella fastidiosa, a disease which inhibits the uptake of water and nutrients by the trees. The epicenter of the epidemic in the region is its south-eastern part. Transport[edit] The region has a good network of roads, but the railway network is less comprehensive, particularly in the south.[15] The region is crossed northwest to southeast by the A14 highway (Bologna–Taranto), which connects the region capital, Bari, to Taranto, the second most populous city in the region. The A14 also connects Foggia and points further north along the Adriatic coast to Pescara, Ancona, Rimini and eventually, Bologna. The only other highway in the region is the A16 (Napoli–Canosa), which crosses the Italian peninsula east–west and links the region with Napoli. There are two international airports, Karol Wojtyla Airport in Bari (IATA: BRI) and Brindisi Airport (IATA: BDS), which serves as the principal logistical hub for the United Nations Global Service Center headquartered in Brindisi. With the approval of a redevelopment project in 2018, the Grottaglie Airfield (IATA: TAR) will host a spaceport for the Italian Space Agency and Virgin Galactic. Demographics[edit] Historical population Year Pop. ±% 1861 1,335,000 —     1871 1,440,000 +7.9% 1881 1,609,000 +11.7% 1901 1,987,000 +23.5% 1911 2,195,000 +10.5% 1921 2,365,000 +7.7% 1931 2,508,000 +6.0% 1936 2,642,000 +5.3% 1951 3,220,000 +21.9% 1961 3,421,000 +6.2% 1971 3,583,000 +4.7% 1981 3,872,000 +8.1% 1991 4,032,000 +4.1% 2001 4,021,000 −0.3% 2011 4,091,000 +1.7% 2017 4,063,888 −0.7% Source: ISTAT 2001 Emigration from the region's depressed areas to northern Italy and the rest of Europe was very intense in the years between 1956 and 1971. Subsequently, the trend declined, as economic conditions improved, to the point where there was net immigration in the years between 1982 and 1985. Since 1986 the stagnation in employment has led to a new inversion of the trend, caused by a decrease in immigration.[25] Government and politics[edit] Main article: Politics of Apulia Since 1 June 2015, former judge and mayor of Bari, Michele Emiliano of the Democratic Party has served as President of the Apulian region.[26][27] Culture[edit] Cuisine[edit] Main article: Apulian cuisine Cuisine plays an important role throughout Apulia. The key locally produced ingredients used there include olive oil, artichokes, tomatoes, aubergine, asparagus, and mushrooms.[28] In summer it is very common to use also the carosello, a variety of muskmelon which is often consumed in an immature state. Several PDO and PGI products are made in Apulia; among can be found some types of cheese like the Canestrato Pugliese PDO and Burrata di Andria PGI, of olive oil like the Collina di Brindisi PDO, Dauno PDO, Terra d'Otranto PDO, Terre Tarentine PDO and Terra di Bari PDO, some fruits and vegetables like the Arancia del Gargano PGI, Carciofo Brindisino PGI, Cipolla bianca di Margherita PGI, Clementine del Golfo di Taranto PGI, La Bella della Daunia PDO, Limone femminello del Gargano PGI, Patata novella di Galatina PGI and Uva di Puglia PGI. Moreover, also a type of bread, Pane di Altamura PDO and a legume called Lenticchia di Altamura PGI are present in the list. Sagre food festivals[edit] Apulia’s sagre festivals show off regional specialities and local culture. While not unique to Apulia - sagre food festivals are one of Italy’s best kept food secrets[29] - food is an integral part of the region’s identity and these are intensely social occasions where you can feast side by side with locals.[30] Language[edit] As with the other regions of Italy, the national language (since 1861) is Italian. However, because of its long and varied history, other historical languages have been used in this region for centuries. In isolated pockets of the southern part of Salento, a dialect of Greek called Griko is still spoken by a few thousand people.[31] In addition, rare dialects of the Franco-Provençal language called Faetar and the closely related Cellese are spoken by a dwindling number of individuals in the mountain villages of Faeto and Celle di San Vito, in the Province of Foggia.[32] The Arbëreshë dialect of the Albanian language has been spoken by a small community since refugees settled there in the 15th century.[33] LGBT culture[edit] Apulia is known for its tolerance and openness. For many years it has been a major holiday destination for the Italian gay population.[34] Long, hot summers, a diverse coastline of sandy beaches punctuated with rocky shelves and coves, surrounded by warm, azure seas and a vibrant nightlife means Apulia now draws an international gay crowd over the summer months.[35] A gay scene has developed around the southern Salento town of Gallipoli and the nearby lidos at Baia Verde, with visitors also being drawn by the secluded naturist beaches around the region, most famously at Torre Guaceto and at D’Ayala beach Campomarino. Both have dedicated gay sections. The region has three annual Pride parades, including Salento Pride. See also[edit] Daunian Mountains Gargano Iapygians Messapians Sacra Corona Unita Salento Tavoliere delle Puglie Terra d'Otranto Trullo Notes[edit] ^ Also: Neapolitan: Barese: Púgghie [ˈpuɟːə] Foggiano: Puie Tarantino: Puje [ˈpuːjə] Sicilian: Salentino: Puia [ˈpuːja] Francoprovençal: Poulye [ˈpujə, ˈpuʎə]. References[edit] ^ "Regional gross domestic product by NUTS 2 regions - million". Eurostat. Archived from the original on 4 November 2013. Retrieved 8 September 2013. ^ "Regional GDP per capita ranged from 30% to 263% of the EU average in 2018" (Press release). ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 1 September 2020. ^ "Sub-national HDI - Area Database - Global Data Lab". hdi.globaldatalab.org. Archived from the original on 23 September 2018. Retrieved 13 September 2018. ^ "Introducing Puglia". Lonely Planet. Archived from the original on 1 July 2017. Retrieved 8 July 2017. ^ "Holiday guide to Puglia, southern Italy: the best towns, restaurants and hotels". The Guardian. Guardian Media Group. 4 July 2015. Archived from the original on 16 November 2016. Retrieved 15 November 2016. ^ Elizabeth A. Fisher, The Mycenaeans and Apulia. An Examination of Aegean Bronze Age Contacts with Apulia in Eastern Magna Grecia, Astrom, 1998 ^ Lombardo, M. (2014). Iapygians: The Indigenous Populations of Ancient Apulia in the Fifth and Fourth Centuries B.C.E. In T. Carpenter, K. Lynch, & E. Robinson (Eds.), The Italic People of Ancient Apulia: New Evidence from Pottery for Workshops, Markets, and Customs (pp. 36-68). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781107323513.005 ^ Carpenter, T., Lynch, K., & Robinson, E. (Eds.). (2014). The Italic People of Ancient Apulia: New Evidence from Pottery for Workshops, Markets, and Customs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781107323513 ^ "Italy: Puglia". Rough Guides. Archived from the original on 12 December 2013. Retrieved 8 December 2013. ^ Heinz Götze, Castel Del Monte: Geometric Marvel of the Middle Ages (1998), p. 89 ^ Asaolu, Richard Oluseyi (n.d.). Slavery:Abolition. Mainz: Pedia. p. 50. Retrieved 3 June 2017. ^ Dursteler, Eric R., ed. (2013). A Companion to Venetian History, 1400-1797. Leiden: Koninklejke. pp. 142–43. ISBN 978-9004252516. Retrieved 3 June 2017.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) ^ David Gilmour, The Pursuit of Italy: A History of a Land, Its Regions and their Peoples (2012), p. 24 ^ "Eurostat". Greenreport. Archived from the original on 24 April 2014. Retrieved 2 August 2010. ^ a b "Puglia - Economy". Portrait of the Regions. Eurostat. March 2004. Archived from the original on 21 August 2009. Retrieved 8 July 2017. ^ Massimo Monteduro, Pierangelo Buongiorno, Saverio Di Benedetto, Law and Agroecology: A Transdisciplinary Dialogue (2015), p. 176 ^ Amílcar Soares, Maria João Pereira, Roussos Dimitrakopoulos! geoENV VI – Geostatistics for Environmental Application (2008), p. 191: "The approach highlighted the widespread degradation of water resources in the Apulian groundwater. ... Above all the rapid socio-economic growth over the last decades has caused severe stress to the Apulian hydrogeological system." ^ "Regional Unemployment by NUTS2 Region". Eurostat. Archived from the original on 5 November 2018. ^ PDO status Archived 6 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine- Retrieved 6 July 2018 ^ Coratina olive Archived 6 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine- Retrieved 5 July 2019 ^ Coratina olives in Ca. Archived 6 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine- Retrieved 5 July 2018 ^ Peranzana olive oil[permanent dead link]- Retrieved 5 July 2018 ^ Apulia region cultivars Archived 6 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine- Retrieved 20180-7-05 ^ Puglia olive cultivars Archived 6 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine- Retrieved 5 July 2018 ^ "Eurostat". c.europa.eu. Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 22 April 2010. ^ "Scheda Personale". Sito web Istituzionale della Regione Puglia (in Italian). Archived from the original on 5 September 2015. Retrieved 17 October 2015. ^ "BIOGRAFIA" (PDF). CompletaMente.org (in Italian). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 5 September 2015. ^ Around Italy: A look at Apulia the cuisine Archived 1 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine at sacla.se, accessed 22 July 2016 ^ "Italy's best-kept food secret: the sagra festival". The Guardian. Retrieved 1 November 2020. ^ "Puglia's sagre food festivals". THe Big Gay Podcast from Puglia. Retrieved 1 November 2020. ^ "Ethnologue report for language code:ell". Ethnologue.com. Archived from the original on 28 May 2010. Retrieved 22 April 2010. ^ Nagy, Naomi (2011). "A Multilingual Corpus to Explore Variation in Language Contact Situations" (PDF). Rassegna Italiana di Linguistica Applicata. 43 (1–2): 3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 February 2017. Retrieved 3 February 2017. ^ "Ethnologue report for language code:aae". Ethnologue.com. Archived from the original on 2 October 2012. Retrieved 13 July 2016. ^ "Off the gaydar". The Guardian. 20 June 2009. Retrieved 21 September 2020. ^ "The Big Gay Podcast from Puglia - Gay Puglia Guide". The Big Gay Podcast from Puglia. Retrieved 21 September 2020. Further reading[edit] See also: Bibliography of the history of Apulia (in Italian) Desmond Seward, An Armchair Traveller's History of Apulia (Haus Publishing, 2013) Stefania Mola, Apulia: the Cathedrals (Adda, 2008) Francesco Carofiglio, Apulia, a Tourist's Guide to the Culture of Apulia (1988) Susanna Gelmetti, Italian Country Cooking: Recipes from Umbria & Apulia (1996), ISBN 1872803229 Apulia: A Film Tourism Guide (Laterza, 2009, 246 pp) Tessa Garton, Early Romanesque Sculpture in Apulia (Courtauld Institute, 1984) Chisholm, Hugh (1910), "Apulia", Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.), New York, OCLC 14782424 Roy Domenico (2002). "Apulia". Regions of Italy: a Reference Guide to History and Culture. Greenwood. ISBN 0313307334. External links[edit] Media related to Apulia at Wikimedia Commons Apulia travel guide from Wikivoyage Official website (in Italian) Accademia Apulia (in Italian) Environmental League Puglia (in Italian) All About Puglia (in Italian) The Big Gay Podcast from Puglia (in English) v t e Apulia Provinces and places Bari Barletta-Andria-Trani Brindisi Foggia Lecce Taranto List of communes History Laterza culture Magna Graecia County of Apulia and Calabria Duchy of Benevento Principality of Salerno Kingdom of Naples Kingdom of the Two Sicilies Politics and government Elections in Apulia List of Presidents of Apulia Education and culture Flag Categories v t e Regions of Italy Central  Lazio  Marche  Tuscany  Umbria Northeast  Emilia-Romagna  Friuli-Venezia Giulia1  Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol1  Veneto Northwest  Aosta Valley1  Liguria  Lombardy  Piedmont South  Abruzzo  Apulia  Basilicata  Calabria  Campania  Molise Insular  Sardinia1  Sicily1 1 Special statutes v t e Italy articles History 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en-wikipedia-org-8637	----	Tibullus - Wikipedia Tibullus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman poet and writer of elegies (55 BC - 19 BC) This article relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources. Find sources: "Tibullus" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2012) Lawrence Alma-Tadema, Tibullus at Delia's Albius Tibullus (c. 55 BC – 19 BC) was a Latin poet and writer of elegies. His first and second books of poetry are extant; many other texts attributed to him are of questionable origins. Little is known about the life of Tibullus. There are only a few references to him by later writers and a short Life of doubtful authority. Neither his praenomen nor his birthplace is known, and his gentile name has been questioned. His status was probably that of a Roman eques (so the Life affirms), and he had inherited a considerable estate. Like Virgil, Horace and Propertius, he seems to have lost most of it in 41 BC in the confiscations of Mark Antony and Octavian.[1] Contents 1 Life 2 Extant works 2.1 First book of poetry 2.1.1 The Marathus cycle 2.2 Second book of poetry 3 Style of writing 4 Questionable attributions 4.1 Third book of poetry 4.2 Fourth book of poetry 5 The Vita Tibulli 6 Manuscripts 7 Editions 8 Critiques 9 References 9.1 Citations 9.2 Bibliography 10 Further reading 11 External links Life[edit] Tibullus's chief friend and patron was Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus, himself an orator and poet as well as a statesman and a commander. Messalla, like Gaius Maecenas, was at the centre of a literary circle in Rome. This circle had no relationship with the court, and the name of Augustus is found nowhere in the writings of Tibullus. About 30 BC Messalla was dispatched by Augustus to Gaul to quell a rising in Aquitania and restore order in the country, and Tibullus may have been in his retinue. On a later occasion, probably in 28, he would have accompanied his friend who had been sent on a mission to the East, but he fell sick and had to stay behind in Corcyra. Tibullus had no liking for war, and though his life seems to have been divided between Rome and his country estate, his own preferences were wholly for the country life.[1] The loss of Tibullus's landed property is attested by himself (i.1, 19), as a farmer "felicis quondam, nunc pauperis agri" ("of a once fruitful, now impoverished field"; cf. 41, 42). Its cause is only an inference, though a very probable one. That he was allowed to retain a portion of his estate with the family mansion is clear from ii.4, 53. Tibullus may have been Messalla's contubernalis in the Aquitanian War (Vita Tib. and Tib. i.7, 9 seq., a poem composed for Messalla's triumph), and may have received dona militaria (Vita Tib.).[1] Tibullus died prematurely, probably in 19,[2] and almost immediately after Virgil. His death made a deep impression in Rome, as is clear from his contemporary, Domitius Marsus, and from the elegy in which Ovid[3] enshrined the memory of his predecessor.[1] Extant works[edit] First book of poetry[edit] Tibullus's first book consists of poems written at various times between 30 and 26. His first love, the subject of book i., is called Delia in the poems, but Apuleius[4] reveals that her real name was Plania. As regards her station, it should be noticed that she was not entitled to wear the stola, the dress of Roman matrons (i. 6, 68). Her husband is mentioned as absent (i. 2, 67 seq.). She eludes the custodes placed over her (i. 2, 15 and 6, 7). Tibullus's suit was favoured by Delia's mother, of whom he speaks in very affectionate terms (i. 6, 57 seq.). For Tibullus's illness at Corcyra, see i. 3, I seq., 55 seq. The fifth elegy was written during estrangement (discidium), and the sixth after the return of the husband and during Delia's double infidelity. It is impossible to give an exact account of the intimacy. The poems which refer to her are arranged in no chronological order. Sometimes she appears as single, sometimes as married; but we hear nothing either of her marriage or of her husband's death. Yet it is clear that it was the absence of her husband on military service in Cilicia which gave Tibullus the opportunity to see her, and he continued to do so when the husband returned. Delia was clever in deception—too clever, as Tibullus saw when he found that he was not the only lover. His entreaties and appeals were of no avail; and after the first book no more is heard of Delia.[1] In addition, several elegies in Book I concern themselves with Tibullus's love for a boy, who is named Marathus.[5] The Marathus cycle[edit] The three poems centered on Marathus constitute the longest poetic project in Roman literature having homosexual love as theme.[6] The first of these poems, 1.4, begins with an imprecation of the poet to the god Priapus, asking for advice on how to win over beautiful boys. The god advises patience and that the man in love yield to the beloved boy's every whim and perform a series of services if the boy demands it (1.4.15–53). At first the narrator of the poem presents himself as someone who is simply asking for advice from the god on behalf of a friend who fell in love with a boy but whose wife forbids such affairs (1.4.73). He later portrays himself as a teacher in the affairs of love, declaring that the doors of his house are open for other men in love with boys to ask his advice (1.4.78). In the end lines, however, he confesses to loving a boy named Marathus, who tortures him with "love's delay" (1.4.81) and whom the narrator can not conquer with his arts, causing other men to laugh at his lessons (1.4.83). The cycle is resumed in poem 1.8, in which the narrator learns that Marathus is in love with a girl. The narrator advises the girl to treat Marathus with more leniency than Marathus treated the narrator himself (1.8.49). The narrator accompanies Marathus to the girl's house, carrying a torch to light the path at night, bribes her so that she meets Marathus, and talks the boy up to the girl (this is described in more detail the next poem, 1.9, lines 41–44). This poem can be seen as part of the narrator's efforts to win Marathus' goodwill by performing a series of humiliating tasks for him, exceeding the god's counsel to perform hard physical labors for the lad, by also helping him carry on an affairs with someone else.[7] In the poem that ends the cycle, 1.9, the narrator discovers that Marathus is in a relationship with a much older married man who buys the young man's affections through expensive gifts. Initially, the narrator asks the gods for compassion towards Marathus (1.9.5–6), who betrayed a promise he had made to the narrator, but soon love yields to bitterness, and he begins to express the desire that the gifts of the rival lover turn to ashes (1.9.11–12) and that the same happen to the poems that the narrator wrote to Marathus to win him over (1.9.48–49), of which he is now ashamed. He turns to the rival, taking revenge on him for having stolen her boyfriend by describing in detail the affair that the rival's wife is herself having with another boy (1.9.54–58 and 65–74). Finally, the poet addresses Marathus, telling him that he will cry when he sees the poet fall in love with another capricious lad (1.9.79–80), but declaring himself, for the moment being, finally released from unfaithful love. Second book of poetry[edit] About the second book, scholars can only say that in all likelihood it was published before the poet's death in 19 BC. It is very short, containing only 428 verses, and apparently incomplete. In the second book the place of Delia is taken by "Nemesis", which is also a fictitious name. Nemesis (like the Cynthia of Propertius) was probably a courtesan of the higher class; and she had other admirers besides Tibullus. He complains bitterly of his bondage, and of her rapacity and hard-heartedness. In spite of all, however, she seems to have retained her hold on him until his death.[1] Ovid, writing at the time of Tibullus's death, says:[8] "Sic Nemesis longum, sic Delia nomen habebunt, / altera cura recens, altera primus amor." ("Thus Nemesis and Delia will be long remembered: one Tibullus' recent love, the other his first."). Nemesis is the subject of book ii.3, 4, 6. The mention of a Una (ii.6) settles her position. The connection had lasted a year when ii.5 was written (see ver. 109). It is worth noticing that Martial selects Nemesis as the source of Tibullus's reputation.[9][10] Style of writing[edit] Though the character of Tibullus the historical man is unclear, the character of his poetic persona is reflected in his works. He was an amiable man of generous impulses and unselfish disposition, loyal to his friends to the verge of self-sacrifice (as is shown by his leaving Delia to accompany Messalla to Asia), and apparently constant to his mistresses. His tenderness towards them is enhanced by a refinement and delicacy which are rare among the ancients. When treated cruelly by his love, he does not invoke curses upon her head. Instead he goes to her little sister's grave, hung so often with his garlands and wet with his tears, to bemoan his fate. His ideal is a quiet retirement in the country with the loved one at his side. He has no ambition and not even a poet's yearning for immortality. In an age of crude materialism and gross superstition, he was religious in the old Roman way. His clear, finished and yet unaffected style made him a great favourite and placed him, in the judgment of Quintilian, ahead of other elegiac writers. For natural grace and tenderness, for exquisiteness of feeling and expression, he stands alone. He rarely overloads his lines with Alexandrian learning. However, his range is limited. Tibullus is smoother and more musical, but liable to become monotonous; Propertius, with occasional harshnesses, is more vigorous and varied. In many of Tibullus's poems a symmetrical composition can be traced.[1] Specimens of Tibullus at his best may be found in i. I, 3, 89-94; 5, 19-36; 9, 45-68; ii. 6. Quintilian says,[11] "Elegia quoque Graecos provocamus, cuius mihi tersus atque elegans maxime videtur auctor Tibullus; sunt qui Propertium malint; Ovidius utroque lascivior, sicut durior Gallus." ("In Elegy as well we rival the Greeks; of whom for me the author Tibullus seems the most polished and elegant; there are those who prefer Propertius; Ovid is more wanton than either, just as Gallus is more stern.")[10] Questionable attributions[edit] Some of the genuine poems of Tibullus have been lost. On the other hand, much of the work attributed to him is that of others. Only the first and second books can uncontroversially claim his authorship. In both books occur poems which give evidence of internal disorder; but scholars cannot agree upon the remedies to be applied.[1] Third book of poetry[edit] The third book, which contains 290 verses, is by a much inferior hand.[POV? – discuss] The writer calls himself Lygdamus and the love that he sings of Neaera. He has little poetical power, and his style is meagre and jejune. He has a good many reminiscences and imitations of Tibullus, Propertius[12] and Ovid,[13] and they are not always happy. It is unknown when his poems were added to the genuine poems of Tibullus.[1] Fourth book of poetry[edit] The separation of the fourth book from the third has no ancient authority. It dates from the revival of letters, and is due to the Italian scholars of the 15th century. The fourth book consists of poems of very different quality. The first is a composition in 211 hexameters on the achievements of Messalla, and is very poor. The author is unknown; but he was certainly not Tibullus. The poem itself was written in 31, the year of Messalla's consulship.[1] The next eleven poems relate to the loves of Sulpicia and Cerinthus. Sulpicia was a Roman lady of high station and, according to Moritz Haupt's conjecture, the daughter of Valeria, Messalla's sister. The Sulpicia elegies divide into two groups. The first comprises iv. 2-6, containing ninety-four lines, in which the theme of the attachment is worked up into five graceful poems. The second, iv. 8-12, consists of Sulpicia's own letters. They are very short, only forty lines in all; but they have a unique interest as being the only love poems by a Roman woman that have survived. Their frank and passionate outpourings remind us of Catullus. The style and metrical handling was originally understood to be that of a novice, or a male poet appropriating female form. Later analysis has concluded that Sulpicia is an adept poet with a very high level of skill, playing upon gender norms in the celebration of her erotic relationship and play upon her "fama" as a poet and a woman of high status.[14] The thirteenth poem (twenty-four lines) claims to be by Tibullus; but it is hardly more than a cento from Tibullus and Propertius. The fourteenth is a little epigram of four lines with nothing to determine its authorship. Last of all comes the epigram or fragment of Domitius Marsus already referred to.[1] Some scholars attribute iii. 8-12 - iv. 2-6 to Tibullus himself; but the style is different, and it is best to answer the question, as Biihrens does, with a non liquet. The direct ascription of iii. 19 - iv. 13 (verse 13, "nunc licet e caelo mittatur amica Tibullo" - "Now grant that a lover be sent from heaven to Tibullus") to Tibullus probably led to its inclusion in the collection and later on to the addition of the third book to the two genuine ones. For the evidence against the ascription, see Postgate.[15][10] To sum up: the third and fourth books appear in the oldest tradition as a single book, and they comprise pieces by different authors in different styles, none of which can be assigned to Tibullus with any certainty. The natural conclusion is that a collection of scattered compositions, relating to Messalla and the members of his circle, was added as an appendix to the genuine relics of Tibullus. When this "Messalla collection" was made cannot be exactly determined; but it was definitely not till after the death of Tibullus, 19 BC, and perhaps as late as the late 1st century AD. Besides the foregoing, two pieces in the collection called Priapea (one an epigram and the other a longer piece in iambics) have been attributed to Tibullus; but there is little external and no internal evidence of his authorship.[16][1] Charisius[17] quotes part of a hexameter which is not found in the extant poems of Tibullus.[10] The Vita Tibulli[edit] The value of the short Vita Tibulli, found at the end of the Ambrosian, Vatican and inferior manuscripts, has been much discussed. There is little in it that we could not infer from Tibullus himself and from what Horace says about Albius, though it is possible that its compiler may have taken some of his statements from Suetonius's book De Poetis. It is another moot question of some importance whether our poet should be identified with the Albius of Horace,[18] as is done by the Horatian commentator Pomponius Porphyrion (AD 200-250) in his Scholia. Porphyrio's view was examined by Postgate.[19][20] Manuscripts[edit] The best manuscript of Tibullus is the Ambrosianus (A), which has been dated c. 1375, whose earliest known owner was the humanist Coluccio Salutati. Two early 15th-century manuscripts are Paris lat. 7989 (written in Florence in 1423) and the Vatican MS. Ottob. lat. 1202 (also written in Florence, 1426). These form only a small share of the over 100 Renaissance manuscripts. There are also a number of extracts from Tibullus in Florilegium Gallicum, an anthology from various Latin writers collected in the mid-twelfth century, and a few extracts in the Excerpta frisingensia, preserved in a manuscript now at Munich. Also excerpts from the lost Fragmentum cuiacianum, made by Scaliger, and now in the library at Leiden are of importance for their independence of A. It contained the part from 3.4.65 to the end, useful as fragments go as the other manuscripts lack 3.4.65. The Codex cuiacianus, a late manuscript containing Catullus, Tibullus and Propertius, is still extant.[10] Editions[edit] Tibullus was first printed with Catullus, Propertius, and the Silvae of Statius by Vindelinus de Spira (Venice, 1472), and separately by Florentius de Argentina, probably in the same year. Amongst other editions are those by Scaliger (with Catullus and Propertius, 1577, etc.), Broukhusius (1708), Vulpius (1749), Heyne (1817, 4th ed. by Wunderlich, with supplement by Dissen, 1819), Huschke (1819), Lachmann (1829), Dissen (1835). Among more modern editions Emil Baehrens (1878, the first of the modern critical editions) has outlived[citation needed] his contemporaries Lucian Müller (1870), Heinrich Dittrich (1881),[21] Edward Hiller (1885) and John Percival Postgate (1905). Guy Lee's edition and translation of books 1-2 (Cambridge, 1975) is based on a fresh collation of A. Of the commentaries Heyne's and Huschke's are still of value. The greater part of the poems are included in Postgate's Selections (with English notes, 1903). A history of later contributions is given in Augustin Cartault's A propos du corpus Tibullianum (1906; not quite complete); see also his Tibulle et les auteurs du Corpus Tibullianum (Paris, 1909).[10] For further information see the accounts in Teuffel's History of Roman Literature (translated by Warr), Martin Schanz's Geschichte der romischen Litteratur, and F. Marx's article s.v. "Albius", in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopädie.[10] Critiques[edit] Scholar Francis Cairns regards Tibullus as "a good poet but not a great one";[22] Dorothea Wender similarly calls him a minor poet but argues there is "grace and polish and symmetry" to his work.[23] References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Postgate (1911), p. 930. ^ McGann, M. J. (1970). "The Date of Tibullus' Death". Latomus. 29 (3): 774–780. JSTOR 41527744. ^ Ovid, Amores, iii.9. ^ Apuleius, Apol. 10. ^ https://camws.org/meeting/2005/abstracts2005/drinkwater.html ^ Konstantinos P. Nikoloutsos (2007). "Beyond Sex: The Poetics and Politics of Pederasty in Tibullus 1.4". Classical Association of Canada. 61 (1/2): 55-82. ^ MEGAN O. DRINKWATER (2013). ""His Turn to Cry:" Tibullus' Marathus Cycle (1.4, 1.8 and 1.9) and Roman Elegy". The Classical Journal. 107 (4): 423-450. ^ Ovid, Amores, iii.9, 31-32. ^ Martial, viii.73, 7; cf. xiv.193. ^ a b c d e f g Postgate (1911), p. 931. ^ Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria x. I, 93. ^ Propertius, iii. 5, 15–20. ^ Ovid, Ars. Am. ii. 669 seq.; Tr. iv. 10, 6; and Am. xi. 14, 23 seq. ^ https://www.jstor.org/stable/3296856?seq=1 ^ Postgate, Selections, app. C. ^ Cf. Hiller in Hermes, xviii. 343–349. ^ Charisius, pp. 66 and 105.[which?] ^ Horace, Od. i. 33 and Epist. i. 4. ^ Postgate, Selections from Tibullus, appendix A. ^ Postgate (1911), pp. 930-931. ^ Dittrich (1881). ^ Cairns, F. (1979). Tibullus: A Hellenistic Poet at Rome. Cambridge University Press. p. 3. ISBN 0521296838. ^ Wender, Dorothea (1991). Roman Poetry: From the Republic to the Silver Age. Southern Illinois University Press. p. 95. ISBN 0809316943. Bibliography[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Postgate, John Percival (1911). "Tibullus, Albius". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 930–931. Dittrich, Heinrich Theodor, under the pseudonym B. Fabricius, ed. (1881), Die Elegien des Albius Tibullus und einiger Zeitgenossen, Berlin: Nicolaische Verlags-Buchhandlung R. Stricker . (in Latin) & (in German) Further reading[edit] Bowditch, P. L. "Tibullus and Egypt: A Postcolonial Reading of Elegy 1.7." Arethusa, 44 (2011), pp. 89–122. Bright, D. F. Haec mihi Fingebam: Tibullus and his World. Leiden: Brill, 1978. Cairns, Francis. Tibullus: A Hellenistic Poet at Rome. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979. Damer, E. Z. "Gender Reversals and Intertextuality in Tibullus", Classical World 107 (2014), pp. 493–514. Gaisser, J. H. 'Amor, rura and militia in Three Elegies of Tibullus: 1.1, 1.5, 1.10", Latomus 42 (1983), pp. 58–72. Houghton, L. B. T. "Tibullus' Elegiac Underworld", Classical Quarterly, 57 (2007), pp. 153–165. James, S. Learned Girls and Male Persuasion: Gender and Reading in Roman Love Elegy. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003. Miller, P. A. Subjecting Verses: Latin Love Elegy and the Emergence of the Real. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004. Nikoloutsos, K. "From Tomb to Womb: Tibullus 1.1 and the Discourse of Masculinity in Post-Civil war Rome", Scholia: Natal Studies in Classical Antiquity, 20 (2011), pp. 52–71. Wray, David. "What Poets Do: Tibullus on ‘Easy’ Hands", Classical Philology, 98 (2003), pp. 217–250. 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en-wikipedia-org-8643	----	Agriculture in ancient Rome - Wikipedia Agriculture in ancient Rome From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Roman agriculture) Jump to navigation Jump to search Relief depicting a Gallo-Roman harvester Roman Agriculture describes the farming practices of ancient Rome, during a period of over 1000 years. From humble beginnings, the Roman Republic (509 BCE to 27 BCE) and empire (27 BCE to 476 CE) expanded to rule much of Europe, northern Africa, and the Middle East and thus comprised many agricultural environments of which the Mediterranean climate of dry, hot summers and cool, rainy winters was the most common. Within the Mediterranean area, a triad of crops were most important: grains, olives, and grapes. The great majority of the people ruled by Rome were engaged in agriculture. From a beginning of small, largely self-sufficient landowners, rural society became dominated by latifundium, large estates owned by the wealthy and utilizing mostly slave labor. The growth in the urban population, especially of the city of Rome, required the development of commercial markets and long-distance trade in agricultural products, especially grain, to supply the people in the cities with food. Contents 1 Background 2 The "delightful" life 3 Crops 3.1 Grains 3.2 Legumes 3.3 Olives 3.4 Grapes 3.5 Fodder 3.6 Other crops 4 Storage 5 Land 6 Farming practices 7 Trade 8 Economics 9 Mechanization 10 Acquiring a farm 11 Aristocracy and the land 12 Running a farm in Rome 13 Problems for farmers 14 See also 15 References 16 Further reading 16.1 Modern sources 16.2 Primary sources 17 External links Background[edit] The main texts of the Greco-Roman agricultural tradition are mostly from the Roman agronomists: Cato the Elder's De Agri Cultura, Columella's De re Rustica, Marcus Terentius Varro and Palladius. Attributed to Mago the Carthaginian, the agricultural treatise Rusticatio, originally written in Punic and later translated into Greek and Latin, is now lost. Scholars speculate whether this text may have been an early source for agricultural traditions in the Near East and Classical world. [1] The "delightful" life[edit] Agriculture in ancient Rome was not only a necessity, but was idealized among the social elite as a way of life. Cicero considered farming the best of all Roman occupations. In his treatise On Duties, he declared that "of all the occupations by which gain is secured, none is better than agriculture, none more profitable, none more delightful, none more becoming to a free man." When one of his clients was derided in court for preferring a rural lifestyle, Cicero defended country life as "the teacher of economy, of industry, and of justice" (parsimonia, diligentia, iustitia).[2] Cato, Columella, Varro and Palladius wrote handbooks on farming practice. In his treatise De agricultura ("On Farming", 2nd century BC), Cato wrote that the best farms contained a vineyard, followed by an irrigated garden, willow plantation, olive orchard, meadow, grain land, forest trees, vineyard trained on trees, and lastly acorn woodlands.[3] Though Rome relied on resources from its many provinces acquired through conquest and warfare, wealthy Romans developed the land in Italy to produce a variety of crops. "The people living in the city of Rome constituted a huge market for the purchase of food produced on Italian farms."[4] Land ownership was a dominant factor in distinguishing the aristocracy from the common person, and the more land a Roman owned, the more important he would be in the city. Soldiers were often rewarded with land from the commander they served. Though farms depended on slave labor, free men and citizens were hired at farms to oversee the slaves and ensure that the farms ran smoothly.[4] Crops[edit] Grains[edit] Staple crops in early Rome were millet, and emmer and spelt which are species of wheat. According to the Roman scholar Varro, common wheat and durum wheat were introduced to Italy as crops about 450 BCE.[5][6] Durum (hard) wheat became the preferred grain of urban Romans, because it could be baked into leavened bread and was easier to grow in the Mediterranean region than common (soft) wheat.[7][8] Grains, especially baked into bread, were the staple of the Roman diet, providing 70 to 80 percent of the calories in an average diet.[9] Barley was also grown extensively, dominating grain production in Greece and on poorer soils where it was more productive than wheat. Wheat was the preferred grain, but barley was widely eaten and also important as animal feed.[10] In De re Rustica Columella wrote that emmer was more resistant to moisture than wheat. According to Columella four types of emmer were cultivated, including one variety that he calls Clusian (named for the town Clusium).[11] Cato wrote that if sowing grain in humid or dewy soils was unavoidable, they should be sown alongside turnips, panic grass, millet and rape.[12] Despite listing panicum and millet among the legumes Columella says they should be considered grain crops "for in many countries the peasants subsist on food made from them".[13] Legumes[edit] Of legumes, Columella lists some that are preferred for cultivation: lentils, peas, lupinus, beans, cowpeas, and chickpeas (also listing sesame, panicum, cannabis, barley, and millet as legumes).[14] He writes the following about lupinus:[15] "...it requires the least labour, costs least, and of all crops that are sown is most beneficial to the land. For it affords an excellent fertilizer for worn out vineyards and ploughlands; it flourishes even in exhausted soil; and it endures age when laid away in the granary. When softened by boiling it is good fodder for cattle during the winter; in the case of humans, too, it serves to warn off famine if years of crop failures come upon them." Olives[edit] The Romans grew olive trees in poor, rocky soils, and often in areas with sparse precipitation. The tree is sensitive to freezing temperatures and intolerant of the colder weather of northern Europe and high, cooler elevations. The olive was grown mostly near the Mediterranean Sea. The consumption of olive oil provided about 12 percent of the calories and about 80 percent of necessary fats in the diet of the average Roman.[16] Grapes[edit] Viticulture was probably brought to southern Italy and Sicily by Greek colonists, but the Phoenicians of Carthage in northern Africa gave the Romans much of their knowledge of growing grapes and making wine. By 160 BCE, the cultivation of grapes on large estates using slave labor was common in Italy and wine was becoming a universal drink in the Roman empire. To protect their wine industry, the Romans attempted to prohibit the cultivation of grapes outside Italy,[17] but by the 1st century CE, provinces such as Spain and Gaul (modern-day France) were exporting wine to Italy.[18] Fodder[edit] Columella mentions turnips as important, high-yielding food crop, especially in Gaul where they were used as winter fodder for cattle.[19] As other "fodder crops" he lists Medic clover, vetch, barley, cytisus, oats, chickpea and fenugreek.[20] Of Medic clover, he says it improves the soil, fattens lean cattle and is a high-yielding fodder crop.[21] Cato the Elder wrote that leaves from poplar, elm and oak leaves should be gathered in the Fall before they have dried completely and stored for use as fodder. Turnips, lupines and forage crops were to be sown after the rainy season.[22] Other crops[edit] The Romans also grew artichoke, mustard, coriander, rocket, chives, leeks, celery, basil, parsnip, mint, rue, thyme 'from overseas', beets, poppy, dill, asparagus, radish, cucumber, gourd, fennel, capers, onions, saffron, parsley, marjoram, cabbage, lettuce, cumin, garlic, figs, 'Armenian' apricots, plums, mulberries, and peaches.[23] Storage[edit] Columella describes how produce is stored and gives advice to prevent spoilage. Liquids produced for market like oil and wine were stored on the ground floor and grain was stored in lofts with hay and other fodder. He instructs that granaries be well venilated, cool, with minimal humidity, to prolong freshness. He describes certain methods of construction to avoid buildings developing cracks that would give animals and weevils access to the grains.[24] Press rooms, he advised, should be warm receiving light from the south to prevent the oil from freezing, which makes oil spoil faster. [25] Land[edit] Columella describes land as being classified into three types of terrain which he calls champaign (sloping plains), hills with a gradual but gentle rise, and wooded, verdant mountain highlands. Of soil, he says there are six qualities: fat or lean, loose or compact, moist or dry. The permutations of these qualities producing many varieties of soils.[26] Columella quotes Vergil's comment that loose soil is "what we rival when we plough". Of the most preferred types of soil he says the best is fat and loose soil that is the least costly and most productive, then fat and dense which is productive though requiring more effort, and after these are the moist soils.[27] Farming practices[edit] Roman hoe blade, from the Field Museum in Chicago In the 5th century BC, farms in Rome were small and family-owned. The Greeks of this period, however, had started using crop rotation and had large estates. Rome's contact with Carthage, Greece, and the Hellenistic East in the 3rd and 2nd centuries improved Rome's agricultural methods. Roman agriculture reached its height in productivity and efficiency during the late Republic and early Empire.[28] Farm sizes in Rome can be divided into three categories. Small farms were from 18–108 iugera. (One iugerum was equal to about 0.65 acres or a quarter of a hectare). Medium-sized farms were from 80–500 iugera. Large estates (called latifundia) were over 500 iugera.[29] In the late Republican era, the number of latifundia increased. Wealthy Romans bought land from peasant farmers who could no longer make a living. Starting in 200 BC, the Punic Wars called peasant farmers away to fight for longer periods of time.[30] This is now disputed; some scholars now believe that large-scale agriculture did not dominate Italian agriculture until the 1st century BC.[31][32] Cows provided milk while oxen and mules did the heavy work on the farm. Sheep and goats were cheese producers and were prized for their hides. Horses were not widely used in farming, but were raised by the rich for racing or war. Sugar production centered on beekeeping, and some Romans raised snails as luxury food.[29] The Romans had four systems of farm management: direct work by owner and his family; tenant farming or sharecropping in which the owner and a tenant divide up a farm's produce; forced labour by slaves owned by aristocrats and supervised by slave managers; and other arrangements in which a farm was leased to a tenant.[29] Cato the Elder (also known as "Cato the Censor") was a politician and statesman in the mid- to late Roman Republic and described his view of a farm of 100 iugera in the de agricultura. He claimed such a farm should have "a foreman, a foreman's wife, ten laborers, one ox driver, one donkey driver, one man in charge of the willow grove, one swineherd, in all sixteen persons; two oxen, two donkeys for wagon work, one donkey for the mill work." He also said that such a farm should have "three presses fully equipped, storage jars in which five vintages amounting to eight hundred cullei can be stored, twenty storage jars for wine-press refuse, twenty for grain, separate coverings for the jars, six fiber-covered half amphorae, four fiber-covered amphorae, two funnels, three basketwork strainers, [and] three strainers to dip up the flower, ten jars for [handling] the wine juice..."[3] It is important to note that Cato's description is not indicative of the majority of farms in the early 2nd century BC. The de agricultura is a political document designed to show off Cato's character as much as it is a practical guide.[33] Trade[edit] There was much commerce between the provinces of the empire, and all regions of the empire were largely economically interdependent. Some provinces specialized in the production of grains including wheat, emmer, spelt, barley, and millet; others in wine and others in olive oil, depending on the soil type. Columella writes in his Res Rustica, "Soil that is heavy, chalky, and wet is not unsuited to the growing for winter wheat and spelt. Barley tolerates no place except one that is loose and dry."[34] Pliny the Elder wrote extensively about agriculture in his Naturalis Historia from books XII to XIX, including chapter XVIII, The Natural History of Grain.[35] Greek geographer Strabo considered the Po Valley (northern Italy) to be the most important economically because "all cereals do well, but the yield from millet is exceptional, because the soil is so well watered." The province of Etruria had heavy soil good for wheat. Volcanic soil in Campania made it well-suited for wine production. In addition to knowledge of different soil categories, the Romans also took interest in what type of manure was best for the soil. The best was poultry manure, and cow manure one of the worst. Sheep and goat manure were also good. Donkey manure was best for immediate use, while horse manure wasn't good for grain crops, but according to Marcus Terentius Varro, it was very good for meadows because "it promotes a heavy growth of grass plants like grass."[29] Economics[edit] In the grain-growing area of north Africa, centered on the ancient city of Carthage, a family of six people needed to cultivate 12 iugera/ 3 hectares of land to meet minimum food requirements (without animals).[36] If a family owned animals to help cultivate land, then 20 iugera was needed. More land would be required to meet subsistence levels if the family farmed as sharecroppers. In Africa Proconsularis in the 2nd century AD, one-third of the total crop went to the landowner as rent[36] (See Lex Manciana). Such figures detail only the subsistence level. It is clear that large scale surplus production was undertaken in some provinces, such as to supply the cities, especially Rome, with grain, a process known as the Cura Annonae. Egypt, northern Africa, and Sicily were the principal sources of grain to feed the population of Rome, estimated at one million people at its peak.[37] For yields of wheat, the number varies depending on the ancient source. Varro mentions 10:1 seed-yield ratio for wheat as normal for wealthy landowners.[38] In some areas of Etruria, yield may have been as high as 15:1. Cicero indicates In Verrem a yield of 8:1 as normal, and 10:1 in exceptionally good harvest. Paul Erdkamp mentions in his book The Grain Market in the Roman Empire, that Columella was probably biased when he mentions a much lower yield of 4:1. According to Erdkamp, Columella wanted to make the point that "grain offers little profit compared to wine. His argument induces him to exaggerate the profitability of vineyards and at the same time to diminish the yields that were obtained in grain cultivation. At best Columella provides a trustworthy figure for poor soils; at worst, his estimate is not reliable at all."[page needed] Average wheat yields per year in the 3rd decade of the century, sowing 135 kg/ha of seed, were around 1,200 kg/ha in Italy and Sicily, 1,710 kg/ha in Egypt, 269 kg/ha in Cyrenaica, Tunisia at 400 kg/ha, and Algeria at 540 kg/ha, Greece at 620 kg/ha.[39] This makes the Mediterranean very difficult to average over all. An agricultural unit was known as a latus fundus mentioned by Varro as a great estate.[40] Which can be interpreted as a Latifundia or at 500 iugera or around 125 hectares because this is the land limit imposed by Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus as tribune in 133 BCE.[41] With the incorporation of Egypt into the Roman empire and the rule of the emperor Augustus (27 BCE-14 CE), Egypt became the main source of supply of grain for Rome.[42] By the 70s CE, the historian Josephus was claiming that Africa fed Rome for eight months of the year and Egypt only four. Although that statement may ignore grain from Sicily, and overestimate the importance of Africa, there is little doubt among historians that Africa and Egypt were the most important sources of grain for Rome.[43] To help assure that the grain supply would be adequate for Rome, in the second century BCE, Gracchus settled 6,000 colonists near Carthage, giving them about 25 hectares (62 acres) each to grow grain.[44] Grain made into bread was, by far, the most important element in the Roman diet. Several scholars have attempted to compute the total amount of grain needed to supply the city of Rome. Rickman estimated that Rome needed 40 million modii (200,000 tonnes) of grain per year to feed its population.[45] Erdkamp estimated that the amount needed would be at least 150,000 tonnes, calculating that each resident of the city consumed 200 kilograms (440 lb) of grain per year.[46] The total population of Rome assumed in calculating these estimates was between 750,000 and one million people. David Mattingly and Gregory Aldrete [47] estimated the amount of imported grain at 237,000 tonnes for 1 million inhabitants;[48] This amount of grain would provide 2,326 calories daily per person not including other foods such as meats, seafood, fruit, legumes, vegetable and dairy. In the Historia Augusta, it is stated Severus left 27 million modii in storage - considered to be a figure for the canon at the end of the 4th century and enough for 800,000 inhabitants at 500 lbs of bread per person per annum[49] Pliny the Younger painted a picture that Rome was able to survive without Egyptian wheat in his speech the Panegyricus in 100 AD.[citation needed] In 99 there was an Egyptian crisis due to inadequate flooding.[50] Pliny the Younger stated that for "long it was generally believed that Rome could only be fed and maintained with Egyptian aid". However, he argued that "Now [that] we have returned the Nile its riches... her business is not to allow us food but to pay a proper tribute.[50] Mechanization[edit] Arles Aqueduct Mills below rock-cut channel The Romans improved crop growing by irrigating plants using aqueducts to transport water. Mechanical devices aided agriculture and the production of food. For example, extensive sets of mills existed in Gaul and Rome at an early date to grind wheat into flour. The most impressive extant remains occur at Barbegal in southern France, near Arles. Sixteen overshot water wheels arranged in two columns were fed by the main aqueduct to Arles, the outflow from one being the supply to the next one down in the series. The mills apparently operated from the end of the 1st century AD until about the end of the 3rd century.[51] The capacity of the mills has been estimated at 4.5 tons of flour per day, sufficient to supply enough bread for the 12,500 inhabitants occupying the town of Arelate at that time.[52] Vertical water wheels were well known to the Romans, described by Vitruvius in his De Architectura of 25 BC, and mentioned by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia of AD 77. There are also later references to floating water mills from Byzantium and to sawmills on the river Moselle by the poet Ausonius. The use of multiple stacked sequences of reverse overshot water-wheels was widespread in Roman mines. There is evidence from bas-reliefs that farmers in northern Gaul (present day France) used a kind of automatic harvester or reaper when collecting ripe grain crops. The machine, called the "vallus" or "gallic vallus", was apparently invented and used by the Treveri[53] people. It cut the ears of grain without the straw and was pushed by oxen or horses. Pliny the Elder mentions the device in the Naturalis Historia XVIII, 296. Possibly because the vallus was cumbersome and expensive, its adoption never became widespread and it fell into disuse after the 4th century CE.[54] Scythes and sickles were the usual tools for harvesting crops. Acquiring a farm[edit] Gallo-Roman harvesting machine Aristocrats and common people could acquire land for a farm in one of three ways. The most common way to gain land was to purchase the land. Though some lower-class citizens did own small pieces of land, they often found it too difficult and expensive to maintain. Because of the many difficulties of owning land, they would sell it to someone in the aristocracy who had the financial backing to support a farm. Though there were some public lands available to the common person for use, aristocrats also tended to purchase those pieces of land, which caused a great deal of tension between the two classes. “Mass eviction of the poor by the rich underlay the political tensions and civil wars of the last century of the Roman Republic.”[4] Another way to acquire land was as a reward for going to war. High-ranking soldiers returning from war would often be given small pieces of public land or land in provinces as a way of paying them for their services. The last way to obtain land was through inheritance. A father could leave his land to his family, usually to his son, in the event of his death. Wills were drawn out that specified who would receive the land as a way of ensuring that other citizens did not try to take the land from the family of the deceased. Aristocracy and the land[edit] Cato the Elder, author of a book on Roman agriculture Though some small farms were owned by lower-class citizens and soldiers, much of the land was controlled by the noble class of Rome. Land ownership was just one of many distinctions that set the aristocracy apart from the lower classes. Aristocracy would "reorganize small holdings into larger more profitable farms in order to compete with other nobles."[4] It was considered a point of pride to own not just the largest piece of land, but also to have land that grew high quality produce. As Marcus Cato wrote "when they would praise a worthy man their praise took this form: 'Good husband good farmer'; it is from the farming class that the bravest men and the sturdiest soldiers come."[55] The farms would produce a variety of crops depending on the season, and focused on trying to acquire the best possible farm under the best possible conditions. Cato discusses many of the primary focuses of the farmer and how to distinguish a great piece of land. He notes that a good farmer must take precious time to examine the land, looking over every detail. Not only did the land need to be perfect for purchase, but the neighbors must maintain their farms as well because "if the district was good, they should be well kept." Individuals looking to buy a piece of land had to also take into consideration the weather of the area, the condition of the soil, and how close the farm would be to a town or port. Careful planning went into every detail of owning and maintaining a farm in Roman culture.[55] Running a farm in Rome[edit] While the aristocracy owned most of the land in Rome, they often were not present at the farms. With obligations as senators, generals, and soldiers at war, many of the actual landowners spent very little time working on their farms. The farms instead were maintained by slaves and freedmen paid to oversee those slaves.[55] The overseer of the farm had many responsibilities that coincided with maintaining the land. He was responsible for ensuring that the slaves were kept busy and for resolving conflicts between them. An overseer had to be dependable and trustworthy in that the land owner had to know that the person he hired to run the farm was not going to try to steal any of the produce from the farm. Overseers were also responsible for ensuring that both servants and slaves were properly fed and housed, and that they were assigned work fairly and efficiently. They had to ensure that any orders given by the owner of the land were followed diligently and that everyone on the farm honored the gods completely and respectfully, which Romans believed was necessary to ensure a bountiful harvest. Good inscription evidence of how the system was organized is visible in the Lex Manciana. The majority of the work was done by servants and slaves. Slaves were the main source of labor. In Roman society, there were three main ways to obtain a slave. The first and possibly most common way to gain a slave was to buy one on the market. Slaves were purchased at auctions and slaves markets from dealers or were traded between individual slave owners. Another way slaves were acquired was through conquest in warfare. As Keith Hopkins explains in his writings, many landowners would go to war and bring back captives. These captives were then taken back to Roman territory and either sold to another citizen or made to work on the capturer's farm. The final way a slave could be obtained was through birth: if a female slave gave birth to a child, that child became property of the slave's owner. Extramarital relations with women who were not citizens was not considered to be adultery under Roman law (and Roman wives were expected to tolerate such behavior), so there was no legal or moral impediment to having children being fathered by a slave's owner or overseer. Slaves were relatively cheap to use because they were property;[56] their treatment depended on the humanity of their owners, who met the needs of their slaves on what they cared to spend, not what they had to. Overseers motivated slaves by imposing punishments and by giving rewards. "If the overseer sets his face against wrongdoing, they will not do it; if he allows it, the master must not let him go unpunished."[55] Although outright cruelty to slaves was considered a mark of bad character in Roman culture, there were few limits on the punishments an overseer or slave-owner could inflict.[citation needed] Problems for farmers[edit] Roman farmers faced many of the problems which have historically affected farmers, including the unpredictability of weather, rainfall, and pests. Farmers also had to be wary of purchasing land too far away from a city or port because of war and land conflicts. As Rome was a vast empire that conquered many lands, it created enemies with individuals whose land had been taken. They would often lose their farms to the invaders who would take over and try to run the farms themselves.[4] Though Roman soldiers would often come to the aid of the farmers and try to regain the land, these fights often resulted in damaged or destroyed property. Land owners also faced problems with slave rebellions at times. "In addition to invasions by Carthaginians and Celtic tribes, slaves rebellions and civil wars which were repeatedly fought on Italian soil all contributed to the destruction of traditional agricultural holdings.[4] (pg. 4) See also[edit] Ancient Egyptian agriculture Agriculture in ancient Greece Byzantine agriculture History of agriculture Deforestation during the Roman period Grain supply to the city of Rome References[edit] ^ Zadoks, Jan C. Crop Protection in Medieval Agriculture: Studies in Pre-modern Organic Agriculture. ^ Pro Roscio Amerino 75. ^ a b Cato the Censor, Columbia University Records of Civilization: On Farming, translated by Ernest Brehaut (Columbia University Press) ^ a b c d e f Hopkins (1978). Conquerors and Slaves. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–9. ISBN 978-0521219457. ^ Fussell, G. E. (January 1967), "Farming Systems of the Classical Era," Technology and Culture, Vol. 8, No. l, p 22 ^ James, Bruce R., Diazzi, Carmelo, and Blum, Winfried E. H. (2014), "Bread and Soil in Ancient Rome: A Vision of Abundance and an Ideal of Order Based on Wheat, Grapes, and Olives," [1]. Accessed 10 Nov 2018 ^ Erdkamp, Paul, "The Food Supply of the Capital," in The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Rome, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 262-263 ^ James et al, p. 165 ^ Rosenstein, Nathan (2013), "Agriculture, Roman Republic," Encyclopedia of Ancient History, https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah20007, Accessed 9 Nov 2018. ^ Jasy, Naum (1950), "The daily bread of the Ancient Greeks and Romans," Ostria,, Vol. 9, pp. 231-233. Downloaded from JSTOR. ^ Columella, De re Rustica, 2.6.3-4 ^ Cato, De Agricultura, 6.1 ^ Columella, De re Rustica, 2.9.17 ^ Columella, De re Rustica, 2.7.1 ^ Columella, De re Rustica, 2.10.1 ^ James et al, p. 169 ^ "Wine and Rome", [2], accessed 15 Nov 2018 ^ Casson, Lionel (1991), The Ancient Mariners, Princeton: Princeton University Press, pl 200. ^ Columella, De re Rustica, 2.10.22 ^ Columella, De re Rustica, 2.7.2 ^ Columella, De re Rustica, 2.10.25 ^ Cato, De Agricultura, 5.8 ^ Henderson, John (2004). Roman Book of Gardening. London: Routledge. pp. 40–65. ISBN 978-0415324496. ^ Columella, De re Rustica, 1.6.9-1.6.17 ^ Columella, De re Rustica, 1.6.18 ^ Columella, De re Rustica, 2.2.1-3 ^ Columella, De re Rustica, 2.2.4-7 ^ Howatson, M. C. (1989). The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature. Oxford University Press. pp. 17–19. ISBN 978-0198661214. ^ a b c d White, K. D. (1970). Roman Farming. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0801405754. ^ Cornell, Tim (1982). Atlas of the Roman World. Facts on File. p. 55. ^ Rosenstein, Nathan (2013). Rome at War. ^ Terranato, Nicola (2012). Republican Villas in the Suburbium of Rome in Roman Republican Villas. University of Michigan Press. pp. 69–93. ^ Read, Brendon (2012). Cato's de agricultura and the Spectacle of Expertise in Roman Republican Villas. University of Michigan Press. pp. 61–68. ^ Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella, On Agriculture (Res Rustica), (Loeb Classical Library), Book II, p. 145 ^ "Pliny the Elder, the Natural History, BOOK I". ^ a b Kehoe, D. (1988). Economics of Agriculture on Roman Imperial Estates in North Africa. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. ISBN 978-3525251881. ^ Rickman, G.E. (1980). "The Grain Trade Under the Roman Empire". Memoirs from the American Academy in Rome. 36: 263, 264. . Downloaded from JSTOR. ^ Green, C. M. C. (1997). "Free as a Bird: Varro de re Rustica 3". American Journal of Philology. 118 (3): 427–448. doi:10.1353/ajp.1997.0040. S2CID 161349038. ^ Hopkins , K. ( 1983 b) ‘ Models, ships and staples ’, in Garnsey , Whittaker ( 1983 ), 84 – 109 ^ Erdkamp, P. (2005). The Grain Market In The Roman Empire: A Social, Political And Economic Study. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521838788. ^ Ligt, Luuk de; Northwood, S. J. (2008-01-01). People, Land, and Politics: Demographic Developments and the Transformation of Roman Italy 300 BC-AD 14. BRILL. ISBN 978-9004171183. ^ Erdkamp, p. 270 ^ Rickman (1980), pp 263-264 ^ Cristofori, p. 143. ^ Rickman (1980), p. 264. A modii of grain weighs six to seven kilograms. ^ Rickman (1980), p. 263 ^ Ancient Rome, The Archaeology of the Ancient City, The Feeding of Imperial Rome, Editors John Coulston and Hazel Dodge, 2000, reprinted 2011, pp. 142-165, ISBN 978-0-947816-55-1 ^ p. 154 (they also estimated the amount of wine and oil; and the number of shiploads, an average of 250 tonnes of products per ship, to carry at 1,692 and the number of ships arriving daily at 17 per day from April to September, 4 months, 100 days (sic!) not 120) ^ Jones A.H.M. Later Roman Empire Vol. I pp. 698, 1287 ^ a b Erdkamp, Paul (2005). The Grain Market in the Roman Empire. Cambridge University Press. pp. 42–44, 49, 243, quote on page 228. ISBN 978-0521838788. ^ Ville d'Histoire et de Patrimoine Archived 2013-12-06 at the Wayback Machine ^ "La meunerie de Barbegal". Archived from the original on 2007-01-17. Retrieved 2010-06-29. ^ King, Anthony (1990), Roman Gaul and Germany. Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 1001-101 ^ White, K.D. (2010), Agricultural Implements of the Roman World Reissue Edition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 160-171 ^ a b c d Marcus Cato, On Agriculture, 1-2,5 ^ Finley, M. I. (1973). The Ancient Economy. Berkeley: University of California. p. 62. ISBN 978-0520024366. a slave is property, subject to the rules and procedures of property, with respect to sale, lease, theft, natural increase and so on. Further reading[edit] Modern sources[edit] Buck, Robert J. Agriculture and Agricultural Practice In Roman Law. Wiesbaden: F. Steiner, 1983. Erdkamp, Paul. The Grain Market In the Roman Empire: A Social, Political and Economic Study. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Hollander, D. B., "Farmers and Agriculture in the Roman Economy", Routledge, 2019, Horden, P., and N. Purcell. The corrupting sea: A study of Mediterranean history. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000. Kehoe, D. P. Investment, profit, and tenancy: The jurists and the Roman agrarian economy. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press, 1997. Reynolds, P. Hispania and the Roman Mediterranean AD 100–700: Ceramics and trade. London: Duckworth, 2010. Spurr, M. S. "Arable cultivation in Roman Italy: c. 200 B.C.–c. A.D. 100." Journal of Roman Studies Monographs 3. London: Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies, 1986. White, K. D. Roman Farming. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1970. --. Farm Equipment of the Roman World. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1975. Primary sources[edit] Cato, Marcus Porcius. Cato, the Censor, On Farming. Translated by Ernest Brehaut. New York: Columbia University Press, 1933. Columella, Lucius Junius Moderatus. On Agriculture. Translated by Harrison Boyd Ash. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1941. External links[edit] Library resources about Roman agriculture Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Cato the Elder's De Agri Cultura (on Agriculture) in Latin and English Columella's Res Rustica in Latin Complete text in Latin at The Latin Library Columella's Res Rustica in English Books I‑IV in English translation at LacusCurtius Latin text of Varro Rerum Rusticarum de Agri Cultura Pliny the Elder's Natural History v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius 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en-wikipedia-org-8682	----	Otium - Wikipedia Otium From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Leisure time in which a person can enjoy eating, playing, resting, contemplation and academic endeavors Getty Villa representing life at otium (leisure) of an ancient Roman villa Otium, a Latin abstract term, has a variety of meanings, including leisure time in which a person can enjoy eating, playing, resting, contemplation and academic endeavors. It sometimes, but not always, relates to a time in a person's retirement after previous service to the public or private sector, opposing "active public life". Otium can be a temporary time of leisure, that is sporadic. It can have intellectual, virtuous or immoral implications. It originally had the idea of withdrawing from one's daily business (negotium = neg-otium) or affairs to engage in activities that were considered to be artistically valuable or enlightening (i.e. speaking, writing, philosophy). It had particular meaning to businessmen, diplomats, philosophers and poets.[1][2] Contents 1 Etymology and origin 2 Greek philosophers 3 Roman Republic 3.1 Imperial Rome 3.2 Later writers 4 Private life and public life meanings 5 Other uses 6 Synonyms 6.1 Positive sense 6.2 Negative sense 7 Modern scholars 8 See also 9 References 9.1 Footnotes 9.2 Citations 9.3 Bibliography 10 Further reading 11 External links Etymology and origin[edit] Representation of ancient Roman soldiers at rest In ancient Roman culture otium was a military concept as its first Latin usage. This was in Ennius' Iphigenia.[3] Otio qui nescit uti plus negotii habet quam cum est negotium in negotio; nam cui quod agat institutum est non ullo negotio id agit, id studet, ibi mentem atque animum delectat suum: otioso in otio animus nescit quid velit Hoc idem est ; em neque domi nunc nos nec militiae sumus; imus huc, hinc illuc; cum illuc ventum est, ire illinc lubet. Incerte errat animus, praeterpropter vitam vivitur.[4] He who does not know how to use leisure has more of work than when there is work in work. For to whom a task has been set, he does the work, desires it, and delights his own mind and intellect: in leisure, a mind does not know what it wants. The same is true (of us); we are neither at home nor in the battlefield; we go here and there, and wherever there is a movement, we are there too. The mind wanders unsure, except in that life is lived.[5] — Iphigenia, 241–248 According to historian Carl Deroux in his work Studies in Latin literature and Roman history, the word otium appears for the first time in a chorus of Ennius' Iphigenia.[6] Ennius' first use of the term otium around 190 BC showed the restlessness and boredom during a reprieve from war and was termed otium negotiosum (free time to do what one wanted) and otium otiosum (idle wasteless free time).[7] Aulus Gellius, while discussing the word praeterpropter ("more or less") quotes a fragment of Ennius's Iphigenia, which contrasts otium with negotium repeatedly.[A] Ennius imagined the emotions of Agamemnon's soldiers at Aulus, that while in the field and not at war and not allowed to go home, as "more or less" living.[8] The earliest extant appearance of the word in Latin literature occurs in a fragment from the soldiers' chorus in the Iphigenia of Ennius, where it is contrasted to negotium.[B] Researches have determined the etymological and semantic use of otium was never a direct translation of the Greek word "schole", but derived from specifically Roman contexts. Otium is an example of the usage of the term "praeterpropter", meaning more or less of leisure. It was first used in military terms related to inactivity during war.[9] In ancient Roman times soldiers were many times unoccupied, resting and bored to death when not at war (i.e., winter months, weather not permitting war).[9] This was associated with otium otiosum (unoccupied and pointless leisure – idle leisure). The opposite of this was otium negotiosum (busy leisure) – leisure with a satisfying hobby or being able to take care of one's personal affairs or one's own estate. This was otium privatum (private leisure), equal to negotium (a type of business).[C] The oldest citation for otium is this chorus of soldiers, singing about idleness on campaign, in an otherwise lost Latin tragedy by Ennius.[10] Andre shows in these lines that Ennius is showing the soldiers in the field would rather go home tending to their own affairs (otium) than to be idle doing nothing.[11] Its military origin meant to stop fighting in battle and laying down of the weapons[12] – a time for peace.[13] Even though originally otium was a military concept in early Roman culture of laying down one's weapons,[14] it later became an elite prestigious time for caring for oneself.[15] The ancient Romans had a sense of obligatory work ethics in their culture and considered the idle-leisure definition of otium as a waste of time.[16] Historians of ancient Roman considered otium a time of laborious leisure of much personal duties instead of public duties.[17][18] Author Almasi shows that historians Jean-Marie Andre and Brian Vickers point out the only legitimate form of otium was transpired with intellectual activity.[19] Otium was thought of by the wise elite as being free from work and other obligations (negotium) and leisure time spent on productive activities, however a time that should not be wasted as was thought the non-elite did with their leisure time.[20] Greek philosophers[edit] Epicurus The favorable sense of otium in Ciceronian Latin reflects the Greek term σχολή (skholē, "leisure", a meaning retained in Modern Greek as σχόλη, schólē); "leisure" having a complex history in Greek philosophy before being used in Latin (through Latin the word became the root of many education-related English terms, such as school, scholar and scholastic). In Athens, leisure was one of the marks of the Athenian gentleman: the time to do things right, unhurried time, time to discuss in. From there it became "discussion", and from there, philosophical and educational schools, which were both conducted by discussion. Four major Greek philosophical schools influenced the Roman gentlemen of Cicero's time. Plato (and his contemporaries, if the Greater Hippias be not authentic) brought schole into philosophy; as often, Plato can be quoted on both sides of the question whether leisure is better than the business of a citizen. In the Greater Hippias, it is one weakness of the title character that, although he has the education and manners of a gentleman, he has no leisure; but Socrates, in the Apology, has no leisure either; he is too busy as a gad-fly, keeping his fellow Athenians awake to virtue.[21] However, by the time the Romans encountered Plato's school, the Academy, they had largely ceased to discuss anything so practical as the good life; the New Academy of Carneades practiced verbal agility and boundless skepticism.[22] Theophrastus and Dicaearchus, students of Aristotle, debated much on the contemplative life and the active life.[23] Roman Epicureans used otium for the quiet bliss promised by Epicurus.[24] An Epicurean proverb It is better to lie on the naked ground and be at ease, than to have a golden coach and a rich table and be worried.[25] The phrase "to be at ease" can have the meaning "to be of good cheer" or "to be without fear" – these being interdependent. The Epicurean idea of otium favors contemplation,[26] compassion, gratitude and friendship. The Epicurean view is that wisdom has as much to contribute to the benefit of the public as does that of contributions of politicians and laborers (i.e. sailors). The rustic otium concept incorporates country living into Epicureanism. The active city public life of negotium and an otium of reserved country life of reflection have been much written about by Cicero and Seneca the Younger. Epicurus's philosophy was contrary to Hellenistic Stoicism. Epicurus promised enjoyment in retirement as a concept of otium.[24] The concept of the Epicurean otium (private world of leisure) and the contemplative life were represented in Epicurus' school of philosophy and his garden. The portraits of the Garden of Epicurus near Athens represented political and cultural heroes of the time. Twenty-first–century historians Gregory Warden and David Romano have argued that the layout of the sculptures in "The Garden" were designed to give the viewer contrasting viewpoints of the Epicurean otium and the Hellenistic Stoic viewpoint of otium (i.e. private or public; contemplation or "employment"; otium or negotium).[27] Roman Republic[edit] In early and colloquial Latin, despite the etymological contrast, otium is often used pejoratively, in contrast rather to officium, "office, duty" than to negotium ('business"). There was a difference established in ancient Roman times (second century BCE and forward) developing the idea elite social status was when one fulfilled one's duties in business and then otium meant "leisure" while negotium meant "non-leisure" (work duties still needed to be done). This new time of otium was filled by Greek scholarly pursuits and Greek pleasures. The time environment within which a person existed had sides to it that were filled with Greek customs such as pastimes, hobbies, interchanges of thoughts and ideas, and private bathing. Otium and negotium was then a new social concept which has perpetuated to our own time.[28] Historian J.M. Andre concludes that the original sense of otium was related to military service and the idleness that happened in the winter,[29] as opposed to the business (negotium) of the rest of the year. The most ancient Roman calendar divided the year into ten months devoted to war and farming, leaving the winter months of January and February vacant for individual otium.[30] Andre shows that the beauty of the individual otium poses rest.[31] Titus Maccius Plautus in his play Mercator says that while you are young is the time to save up for your retirement otium so you can enjoy it later, in his claim tum in otium te conloces, dum potes, ames (then you may set yourself at your ease, drink and be amorous).[32] Cicero busy at work Cicero speaks of himself, with the expression otium cum dignitate, that time spent in activities one prefers is suitable for a Roman citizen who has retired from public life.[23][33] When he was ousted from each office, this forced an inactive period, which he used for "worthy leisure". During this time he composed Tusculanae Disputationes, a series of books on Stoic philosophy.[1] Cicero saw free time as a time to devote to writing.[34] Cicero defines otium as leisure, avoiding active participation in politics. He further defines it as a state of security and peace (pax) – a type of "public health".[34] It is often associated with tranquility. Cicero advises in his third book On Duties that when the city life becomes too much, one should retreat to the country for leisure.[35] The term otium cum dignitate in Cicero's Pro Sestio was to mean peace (pax) for all and distinction for some.[36] Cicero says in Pro Sestio, XLV., 98 Id quod est praestantissimum, maximeque optabile omnibus sanis et bonis et beatis, cum dignitate otium. That which stands first, and is most to be desired by all happy, honest and healthy-minded men, is ease with dignity.[37] Cicero explains that, while not necessarily his cup of tea, he recognized many different ways to spend leisure time and otium. In one passage of De Oratore he explains that Philistus spent his retirement writing history as his otium.[38] He goes on to say in De Oratore Book iii that other men passed their otium of leisure due to bad weather that prevented them from doing their daily chores to playing ball, knucklebones, dice games or just games they made up. Others that were "retired" from public life for whatever reason devoted their otium cum seritio (leisure with service) to poetry, mathematics, music and teaching children.[39] German historian Klaus Bringmann shows in Cicero's works that one can not characterize him as a hypocrite while in otium because of his sense of duty to serve the state.[40] Cicero's concept of otium does not mean selfish pursuit of pleasure. It means the well-earned leisure which is a culmination of a long career of action and achievement. It's a reward. Idleness (desidia) had derogatory implications and unqualified otium was a problem for Cicero's elite group of followers. Its break away from civic affairs contrasted with negotia publica, participation in civic affairs of the republican aristocracy.[41] To distinguish between plain "idleness" and aristocratic otium homestum, otium liberale or otium cum dignitate, writers of the day said that literary and philosophical pursuits were worthwhile activities and that they had benefit to res publica (the general public). These pursuits were a type of 'employment' and therefore not mere laziness.[42][43] Cicero praises Cato the Elder for his respectful use of otium in his expression non-minus otii quam negotii ("no less for doing nothing than business").[44] Cicero was associating otium with writing and thinking when he admires Cato for pointing out that Scipio Africanus claimed he was "never less idle than when he was at leisure, and never less lonely than when he was alone."[45] Cicero in his De Officiis (book III, 1–4) further says of Scipio Africanus "Leisure and solitude, which serve to make others idle, in Scipio's case acted as a goad." Cicero's idea of otium cum dignitate ("leisure with dignity") is considerably different from today's version of the concept. In his time, this kind of "free time" was only for the few privileged elite and was mostly made possible by the toil of slaves. It was associated with an egotistic and arrogant lifestyle, compared to those who had to earn their own living with no slaves. Today technology and educational systems enter into the equation on making leisure time (otium) available to almost everyone, not just the privileged elite, which enables the pursuit of hobbies.[46] Cicero has a number of different concept versions for otium. In one concept he feels that a lifetime of loyalty attending one's duty (maximos labores) should be rewarded with some form of retirement. This then promotes great sacrifices which promotes civic peace with honor within the state. He points out that the tranquillity one enjoys is due to the efforts of the majority. This concept of retirement through a lifetime of work was enjoyed only by the ruling class and the elite. The common people could only hope to enjoy a leisurely retirement with dignity as an inheritance.[47] Catullus, a late Roman Republic poet, in his poems shows that the significance of otium of the middle Republican time of autonomy into the concept of how, why, and when a member of the patronal class might exchange political activity for literary leisure. He tended to mark otium with erotic influence.[34] otium, Catulle, tibi molestum est; otio exsultas nimiumque gestis; otium et reges prius et beatas perdidit urbes. Leisure, Catullus, is mischievous to you: You revel in and desire leisure too much: Leisure has previously destroyed kings and bountiful cities. — 51.13–16[48] Imperial Rome[edit] A modern reconstruction of a Roman villa The imperial dictatorship by Augustus during the fall of the Roman Republic put the Roman ruling classes into a state of change as their traditional role as always being in town was no longer needed. They were given much leisure time (otium) because of their wealth. The wives of wealthy men were known to write poetry in special rooms devoted to education of the entire family (except the master of the house as it would have been below his dignity).[49] The home of choice (domus) then became the countryside villa as the rise of the Roman Empire made them even wealthier. They could afford almost anything they could dream up in the way of a residence, especially among the large and middle class Roman landowners.[50] Greek-style architecture became their new villa otium outside of town.[51] In ancient Roman times the "otium villa " was a Dionysian idealistic rural home setting that evoked peace, leisure, simplicity and serenity. Often in ancient writings is found the mention of restorative powers due its natural setting (otium) in the rural country home, contrasted to the busy city life with all the businesses (negotium).[52] The "villa with a garden" and "villa by the sea" was associated with otium.[53] The life at the Roman villa was associated with Greek culture in rooms which had Greek themes indicating a "superior world" of living.[54] The Imperial Roman poet Statius writes of a "otium villa" that he planned to retire to in Naples in his work Silvae: It has secure peace, an idle life of leisure, non-troubled rest and sleep. There is no madness in the market-place, no strict laws in dispute...[55] Pliny the Younger exemplified the philosophy of the Roman elite in otium of the time by the life he lived from his "otium villas". He would dictate letters to his secretary, read Greek and Latin speeches, go on walks on the villa's grounds, dine and socialize with friends, meditate, exercise, bathe, take naps and occasionally hunt.[56] Tibullus was an Augustan elegiac poet who offered an alternative lifestyle to the Roman ideal of the military man or the man of action. He preferred the country lifestyle. In his existing first two books of poetry he compares the lifestyle of his chief friend and patron Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus as a commander and soldier to that of a farmer.[57] Tibullus in his poem 1.3 rejects the work style of the rich man, adsiduus labor, and military service (militia). He shows in his poetry that originally otium was a military concept, the disuse of one's weapons.[14] Tibullus prefers the rustic agricultural landscape and a simple life. He indicates that while he would do agricultural work, he would only be interested in doing it sometimes (interdum) and therefore inserts otium (peace and leisure time) into agricultural life.[58] He expresses in his attitude of his poetry that the qualities of the Epicurean resolve to quietism (occultism – religious mysticism) and pacifism (abstention from violence) as the pursuits of ignobile otium (mean leisure) – peace of mind (peace with one's self) and detachment from worldly ambitions.[59] Seneca compares the difference in the Epicurean and Stoic choice of otium. He confesses that classic Stoicism urges active public life while Epicurus has a tendency not to advance public life unless forced to. Seneca views Stoicism and Epicureanism as legitimate to inaction in the proper situations. He defends the Stoic philosophy as leaning toward otium. The main responsibility for the Stoic is to benefit the public in some manner. This could be done by the cultivation of virtue or the research of nature in retirement. This would mean a life of meditation and contemplation rather than an active political life. Seneca shows that otium is not really "free time", but a study of other matters (i.e., reading, writing) other than political and career gains.[60][61] The increase of retirees retreating to rural villas became more attractive as writers of the day wrote that Stoic ways included pursuits of reading, writing and philosophy. This meant that the work of public duties was replaced by otium liberale (liberal leisure) and was sanctified if the retiree did pursuits of reading, writing and philosophy.[62][63] The benefits of the simplicity of rustic country life was reinforced in the intellectual legitimacy of otium ruris (rural leisure) because it drew out the spiritual implications of Horatian and Vergilian images of this type of life.[64][65][66] Seneca's doctrine of De Otio describes retirement from public life.[67] The contemplative life that Seneca revised was a Roman debate on otium (a productive peaceful time) and at some point in the evolution of the term was later contrasted to negotium.[12] These are some of the elements in Seneca's doctrine of De Otio: virtue, freedom and happiness by reasoning. the military metaphor. that the virtuous person chooses statio, a specific place for doing one's 'employment'. otium (leisure) is still negotium (business) even if withdrawal from public activity. that the virtuous person's otium, as a citizen of the universe, is the field for the performance of his duty.[68] Later writers[edit] Augustine studying While Seneca's doctrine appears to be close to the doctrine of Athenodorus's De Tranquillitate it is basically different. In De Otio 3.5 Seneca points out the benefits towards man in general, while in De Tranquillitate the theme is peace of mind.[69] Saint Augustine of Hippo reminded Romans of otium philosophandi, a positive element, that life was happiest when one had time to philosophize. Augustine points out that otium was the prerequisite for contemplation.[70] It was because of otium that Alypius of Thagaste steered Augustine away from marriage. He said that they could not live a life together in the love of wisdom if he married. Augustine described Christianae vita otium as the Christian life of leisure.[71] Many Christian writers of the time interpreted the Roman idea of otium as the deadly sin of acedia (sloth). Some Christian writers formulated otium as meaning to serve God through deep thought.[1] Christian writers encouraged biblical studies to justify otium.[72] These same Christian writers also showed otium ruris (secluded rural leisure) as a needed step to monastic propositum.[73] Augustine describes the monastic life as otium sanctum (sanctified leisure or approved leisure).[74] In Augustine's time the idea of philosophy had two poles of ambitions – one to be a worthy Christian (vacation – negotium) and the other to be a worthy friend of God (devotion – otium).[75] Petrarca Petrarch, 14th-century poet and Renaissance humanist, discusses otium in his De vita solitaria as it relates to a human life of simple habits and self-restraint. Like his favorite Roman authors Cicero, Horace, Seneca, Ovid and Livy, he sees otium not as leisure time devoted to idleness, passion, entertainment or mischievous wrongdoing; but time ideally spent on nature appreciation, serious research, meditation, contemplation, writing and friendship.[1] Petrarch considered solitude (i.e., rural setting, "villa otium", his Vaucluse home) and its relationship to otium as a great possession for a chance at intellectual activity, the same philosophy as Cicero and Seneca.[76] He would share such a precious commodity with his best friends in the spirit of Seneca when he said "no good thing is pleasant to possess without friends to share it."[77] Historian Julia Bondanella translates Petrarch's Latin words of his own personal definition of otium: ... ought it not to be my first aim to have my leisure as remote from idleness as my life is from active affairs?[1] Petrarch stressed the idea of an active mind even in otium (leisure). He refers back to Augustine's Vetus Itala in De otio religioso where in Christianity it was associated with contemplation and vacatio (vacate – be still). He points out that this is associated with videre (to see), which in Christianity is physical and mental activity aimed at moral perfection. He relates this concept of otium as vacate et videte (be still and see – a form of meditation, contemplation). Petrarch points out that one should not take leisure as so relaxed as to weaken the mind, but to be active in leisure to build up strength in the view of a unique character and religion.[78] Andrew Marvell's seventeenth-century poem The Garden is a lyric of nine stanzas in which he rejects all forms of activity in the world in favor of solitude of the retiree in a garden. It is a type of retirement poem expressing the love of retirement – an ancient Roman concept related to otium. The poem shows the high degree of pleasure of rural retirement. Some critics see that he shows otium to mean peace, quiet and leisure – a goal for retirement from politics and business. Others see a Christianized otium with Marvell showing a representation of the progress of a soul from the pursuit for the pagan promised land of the peaceful countryside and contemplation to the search for the lost heaven on earth.[79] Part of Marvell's poem "The Garden" below: What wondrous life is this I lead! Ripe apples drop about my head; The luscious clusters of the vine Upon my mouth do crush their wine; The nectarine and curious peach Into my hands themselves do reach; Stumbling on melons as I pass, Insnared with flowers, I fall on grass. Meanwhile, mind, from pleasure less, Withdraws into its happiness: The mind, that ocean where each kind Does straight its own resemblance find; Yet it creates, transcending these, Far other worlds, and other seas; Annihilating all that's made To a green thought in a green shade. Here at the fountain's sliding foot, Or at some fruit-tree's mossy root, Casting the body's vest aside, My soul into the boughs does glide: There like a bird it sits and sings, Then whets and combs its silver wings; And, till prepared for longer flight, Waves in its plumes the various light. Such was that happy garden-state, While man there walked without a mate: After a place so pure and sweet, What other help could yet be meet! But 'twas beyond a mortal's share To wander solitary there: Two paradises 'twere in one To live in Paradise alone.[80] Brian Vickers, a 20th-century British literary scholar, points out an expression made by Friedrich Nietzsche, a 19th-century German philosopher, on scholars' opinion of otium in his 1878 publication Menschliches, Allzumenschliches: Scholars are ashamed of otium. But there is something noble about leisure and idleness.—If idleness really is the beginning of all vice, then it is at any rate in the closest proximity to all virtue; the idle man is always a better man than the active.—But when I speak of leisure and idleness, you do not think I am alluding to you, do you, you sluggards?[81][D][E] Private life and public life meanings[edit] Private life meaning of otium meant personal retirement – the opposite of business. It meant leisure only for one's own pleasure with no benefit to the state or public. Examples here is where one attends only his own farm or estate. Another is hunting. It was the opposite of "active public life". One would not be a historian in this case.[82] In public life otium meant public peace and relief after war.[82] It meant freedom from the enemy with no hostilities. It was not only freedom from external assault (the enemy), it was also freedom from internal disorder (civil war).[82] This then had the meaning of leisure, peace and safety at the homeland. This eventually became the status quo: acceptance of existing political and social conditions of the local laws, the custom of the ancestors, the powers of magistrates, authority of the senate, religions, the military, the treasury, and the praise of the empire.[83] Other uses[edit] Villa Otium Norway US embassy residence The term cum dignitate otium ("leisure with dignity")[84] is found in Cicero's writings and refers to an aim and purpose of the Optimates.[85] "Leisure without literature is death and burial for a living man." – a quote from Seneca the Younger.[86] "Leisure is a system of symbols which acts to establish a feeling of freedom and pleasure by formulating a sense of choice and desire."[87] "Mr. Morgan was enjoying his otium in a dignified manner, surveying the evening fog, and smoking a cigar ..."[88] The Art nouveau or Jugendstyle residence of the United States Ambassador to Norway is called the Villa Otium.[89][F] Otium is the name of several USCG documented yachts.[90] Synonyms[edit] Otium carried with it many different meanings (including but not limited to time, chance, opportunity), depending on the time period or the philosophers involved in determining the concept.[9] Positive sense[edit] Synonyms of positive connotations are: quies: rest, repose, relief from toil.[9] requies: rest, repose, rest from labor, a hobby.[9] tranquilitas: tranquility, calm, quiet.[9] peace: as a state or condition of freedom from external enemies.[91] pax: to pacify or appease, as the outcome of diplomatic conference and agreement with an enemy.[91] Negative sense[edit] Synonyms of negative connotations are: inhonestum otium: dishonorable leisure, idle self-indulgence leisure.[82] desidia: slackness, idleness.[9] inertia: sloth, idleness, indolence.[9] ignavia: sloth, idleness, faint-heartedness.[9] desidiosissimum otium: a sluggard's free time, he that fears labor; a man careless to attend to his duty first.[92] Modern scholars[edit] For a comparatively recent and exhaustive authoritative study on "otium" in the history of Roman culture see André, Jean-Marie (1966). "L'otium dans la vie morale et intellectuelle romaine des origines à l'époque augustéenne". Paris: Presses universitaires de France. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)[9][93][94] Gregory M. Sadlek gives even a more recent and exhaustive study on "otium" in his 2004 book Idleness Working: The Discourse of Love's Labor from Ovid Through Chaucer and Gower, ISBN 0-8132-1373-8.[9] See also[edit] Italian Renaissance garden Sabbatical References[edit] Footnotes[edit] ^ Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae, 19, 10. For this fragment as the first instance of otium in the extant literature, see Eleanor Winsor Leach, "Otium as Luxuria: Economy of Status in the Younger Pliny's Letters," Arethusa 36 (2003), p. 148. ^ Ennius, frg. XCIX in the edition of Jocelyn, otio qui nescit uti | plus negoti habet quam cum est negotium in negotio, rendered by Jocelyn: "the man who has no job to do and does not know how to employ the resulting leisure has more difficulty than when there is difficulty in a job on hand". For this fragment as the first instance of otium in the extant literature, see Eleanor Winsor Leach, "Otium as Luxuria: Economy of Status in the Younger Pliny's Letters," Arethusa 36 (2003), p. 148. ^ "Leisure and idleness in the Renaissance: the ambivalence of otium" by Brian Vickers, p. 6 The first recorded use of the term is in a fragment from a soldiers' chorus in Ennius' Iphigenia (c. 190 BC), whose preservation we owe to that philologian's ragbag, the Attic Nights of Aulus Gellius (c. 150 AD) – he cites it as an example of the usage of the word praeterpropter (19.10.12). The soldiers are unoccupied, resting and bored, wanting to return home. They distinguish between otium negotiosum, leisure with a satisfying occupation, which takes place in the city, around the hearth, and otium otiosum, unoccupied and pointless leisure, such as their prolonged stay in the countryside, which they find disorientating. Andre argues that otium originally had military, not pastoral associations, referring to the enforced inactivity that coincided each year with the dead months of winter (especially January and February), unsuitable for war, farming or fishing. ^ Nietzsche, Menschliches, Allzumenschliches. 1.284, "Zu Gunsten der Müssigen/[[-"}}, in Friedrich Nietzsche, Sämtliche Werke, ed. G. Colli and M. Montinari (15 vols., Berlin, 1967) ) II (1967). 132. ^ HUMAN, ALL TOO HUMAN, 'A Book For Free Spirits' Part I (1914), by Friedrich Nietzsche, translated by Helen Zimmern, FIFTH DIVISION: The Signs of Higher and Lower Culture, IN FAVOUR OF THE IDLE: As a sign that the value of a contemplative life has decreased, scholars now vie with active people in a sort of hurried enjoyment, so that they appear to value this mode of enjoying more than that which really pertains to them, and which, as a matter of fact, is a far greater enjoyment. Scholars are ashamed of otium. But there is one noble thing about idleness and idlers. If idleness is really the beginning of all vice, it finds itself, therefore, at least in near neighbourhood of all the virtues; the idle man is still a better man than the active. You do not suppose that in speaking of idleness and idlers I am alluding to you, you sluggards? ^ By Norwegian architect Henrik Bull. The building was inspired by Russian architecture, and was built for Hans Andreas Olsen, who had encountered it when he was the Consul General for Norway at St. Petersburg, Russia with his wife Ester, the niece of Alfred Nobel. "Ambassador's Residence in Oslo; 'Villa Otium'". U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 15 October 2011. Retrieved 9 November 2011. Citations[edit] ^ a b c d e Bondanella, Julia Conaway (2008). "Petrarch's Rereading of Otium in De vita solitaria". Comparative Literature. 60 (1): 14–28. doi:10.1215/-60-1-14. Retrieved 9 November 2011. [dead link] ^ Garrison, p. 282 ^ Andre, pp. 17–24 ^ "Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights" by John C. Rolfe ^ Erasmo, p. 20 ^ Deroux, p. 13 ^ Leisure, Idleness and Virtuous Activity in Shakespearean Drama Archived 14 May 2014 at the Wayback Machine by Unhae Langis, p. 2 ^ Barton, p. 97 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Sadlek, p. 33 ^ Andre, pp. 17–24, The tragedy is Ennius's Iphigenia, apud Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae, 19, 10 (a discussion of a different word in the same fragment). ^ Andre, p. 17 ^ a b Bernard, p. 16 ^ Bright, p. 217 ^ a b Bright, p. 217 ^ Stiegler, pp. 53–54 ^ Andre, pp. 27–30 ^ Toner, p. 147 ^ Paoli, p. 183 ^ Almasi, p. 115 ^ Taplin, p. 493 ^ Brian Henry Smith, The new nobility: A prolegomenon to Plato's "Greater Hippias" 2007; pp. 45–46. ^ The Academy lasted nearly a thousand years; different authors divide its history differently. For the text, see, inter permulta alia, R.J. Hankinson, The Skeptics, pp. 86–87. ^ a b Wirszubski, Chaim (1954). "Cicero's CVM Dignitate Otivm: A Reconsideration". The Journal of Roman Studies. 44 (1): 1–13. doi:10.2307/297549. JSTOR 637589. ^ a b Haase, p. 2265 ^ Rosenmeyer, p. 65 ^ Dillion, p. 48 ^ Dillon, p. 48 ^ Zanker, p. 11 ^ Andre, pp. 20–22, 35–36, 79–81, 421, 434–37 ^ Andre, p. 21 ^ Andre, p. 514 beaute de l'otium individuel poesie du repos. ^ T. Maccius Plautus, Mercator (3.2) ^ Auctoritas, Dignitas, Otium ^ a b c Stroup, p. 61 ^ Prosperetti, p. 47 ^ Wirszubski, pp. 93–94 ^ Harbottle, p. 36 ^ Cicero, De Oratore, Book ii. 13.57 ^ Cicero, De Oratore, Book iii.15.57 ^ Colish, pp. 77–78 Cicero on "otium"... Bringmann presents a view of Cicero in which his unwavering sense of duty ... can all be accommodated without the need to depict him as a mediocrity, a hypocrite or a schizophrenic. (Klaus Bringmann – Untersuchungen zum spaten Cicero (pp. 229–32) – Göttingen 1971) ^ Cicero, off. 3.1; Brut. 7–9 ^ Cicero, Tusc. 1.5; 5.105; fam 1.9.21 ^ Sallust, Cat. 3–4 ^ Vickers, Brian (1990). "Leisure and idleness in the Renaissance: the ambivalence of otium". Renaissance Studies. 4: 1–37 [7]. doi:10.1111/j.1477-4658.1990.tb00408.x. ^ Beck, p. 42 ^ Bereday, pp. 60 & 156 ^ Vasaly, p. 235 ^ Stroup, p. 55 ^ Zanker, pp. 123, 125 ^ Webster, p. 19 ^ Morris, Roderick Conway (11 September 2008). "The pursuit of leisure and the rise of the Roman villa". The New York Times. Retrieved 13 November 2011. ^ Frazer, p. 86 ^ Zanker, p. 12 ^ Zanker, p. 33 ^ Statius, Silvae 3.5.85–87 ^ "The Roman Villa". Archived from the original on 20 June 2012. Retrieved 18 November 2011. ^ Cairns, p. 146 ^ Myers, p. 73 ^ Lee-Stecum, p. 265 ^ Trapp, pp. 220–21 ^ Cancik, p. 69 ^ Seneca, De otio, De brevitate vitae, De tranquillitate animi, ep. 82.3 ^ Pliny, epp. 1.22; 9.3 ^ Horace, epod. 2 ^ Vergil, g. 2.475–540 ^ Tacitus, dial. 13 ^ Erskine, p. 68 ^ Motto, pp. 160–61 ^ Motto, p. 161 ^ Cavadini, p. 618 ^ Ferguson, p. 208 ^ Hilary, Trin. 1.1–2 ^ Paulinus of Nola, ep. 5.4; carm. 10.166 ^ Augustine. Enarrations on the Psalms. p. 220.3. Retrieved 9 November 2011. ^ Prosperetti, p. 48 ^ Beck, pp. 43–44 ^ Kleist, p. 136 ^ Maggi, p. 202 ^ Vickers, Brian (29 August 2008) [March 1990]. "Leisure and Idleness in the Renaissance: the ambivalence of otium". Renaissance Studies. 4 (1): 1–37. doi:10.1111/j.1477-4658.1990.tb00408.x. ; page 5 ^ The Garden by Andrew Marvell ^ Vickers, Brian (29 August 2008) [March 1990]. "Leisure and Idleness in the Renaissance: the ambivalence of otium". Renaissance Studies. 4 (1): 1–37. doi:10.1111/j.1477-4658.1990.tb00408.x. ; p. 1 ^ a b c d Balsdon, J.P.V.D. (May 1960). "Auctoritas, Dignitas, Otium". The Classical Quarterly. 10 (1): 43–50 [47]. doi:10.1017/S0009838800024381. JSTOR 637589. ^ Cicero Pro Sestio 98; cf. 137 ^ "M. Tullius Cicero, De Oratore, LIBER PRIMVS, section 1". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 25 February 2020. ^ Nietzsche, p. 46 ^ "Otium sine litteris mors est et hominis vivi sepultur – Bestiaria Latina: Audio Latin Proverbs". University of Oklahoma. 2 July 2007. Retrieved 9 November 2011. ^ Toner, p. 17 ^ Thackeray, p. 349 ^ "Ambassador's Residence in Oslo; 'Villa Otium'". U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 15 October 2011. Retrieved 9 November 2011. ^ "Vessel Documentation Search By Name". ^ a b Maclardy, p. 195 ^ Dumesnil, p. 224 ^ de Angeli, Edna S. (October 1968). "Reviewed work(s): L'otium dans la vie morale et intellectuelle romaine des origines a l'epoque Augusteenne by Jean-Marie Andre". The American Journal of Philology. 89 (4): 500–503. doi:10.2307/292840. JSTOR 292840. ^ Drexler, Hans (November 1967). "Reviewed work(s): L'Otium dans la vie morale et intellectuelle romaine des origines à l'époque augustéenne by Jean-Marie André". Gnomon. München. 39 Bd., H. (7): 694–698. ISSN 0017-1417. JSTOR 27684288. Bibliography[edit] Almasi, Gabor (2009). The uses of humanism: Johannes Sambucus (1531–1584), Andreas Dudith (1533–1589), and the republic of letters in East Central Europe. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-18185-4. André, Jean-Marie (1966). "L'otium dans la vie morale et intellectuelle romaine des origines à l'époque augustéenne" (in French). Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. Widely cited, a standard reference. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Armstrong, David (2004). Vergil, Philodemus, and the Augustans. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-70181-6. Barton, Carlin A. (2001). Roman honor: the fire in the bones. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-22525-1. Beck, Thomas E. (2011). La Villa By Bartolomeo Taegio. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-4317-8. Bereday, George Z.F. (2006). World Yearbook of Education 1965: The Education Explosion. Ann Arbor, MI: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-39286-0. Bernard, John D. (2010). Ceremonies of Innocence: Pastoralism in the Poetry of Edmund Spenser. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-12923-7. Bondanella, Julia Conaway (2008). "Petrarch's Rereading of Otium in De vita solitaria". Comparative Literature. 60 (1): 14–28. doi:10.1215/-60-1-14. Retrieved 9 November 2011. Bright, David F. (1978). Haec mihi fingebam: Tibullus in his world. Leiden New York: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-05658-9. Cairns, Francis (1979). Tibullus, a Hellenistic poet at Rome. Cambridge Eng.; New York: CUP Archive. ISBN 978-0-521-29683-0. Cancik, Hubert (2008). Brill's New Pauly: encyclopaedia of the ancient world. 13. Leiden, NY: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-12259-8. Cavadini, John C. (1999). Augustine through the ages: an encyclopedia. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-3843-8. Colish, Marcia L. (1985). The Stoic tradition from antiquity to the early middle ages: Stoicism in classical Latin literature. Leiden New York: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-09330-0. de Angeli, Edna S. (October 1968). "Reviewed work(s): L'otium dans la vie morale et intellectuelle romaine des origines a l'epoque Augusteenne by Jean-Marie Andre". The American Journal of Philology. 89 (4): 500–503. doi:10.2307/292840. JSTOR 292840. Deroux, Carl (1994). Studies in Latin literature and Roman history. Latomus. ISBN 978-2-87031-167-7. Dillon, Sheila (2006). Ancient Greek portrait sculpture: contexts, subjects, and styles. Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85498-6. Drexler, Hans (November 1967). "Reviewed work(s): L'Otium dans la vie morale et intellectuelle romaine des origines à l'époque augustéenne by Jean-Marie André". Gnomon. München. 39 Bd., H. (7): 694–698. ISSN 0017-1417. JSTOR 27684288. Dumesnil, Jean B. G. (1809). Latin synonyms, with their different significations: and examples taken from the best Latin authors. Cambridge, UK; New York: G.B. Whittaker. Ehrlich, Eugene H. (1995). Veni vidi vici: conquer your enemies, impress your friends with everyday Latin. Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-06-273365-8. Erasmo, Mario (2004). Roman tragedy: theatre to theatricality. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-70242-4. Erskine, Andrew (1990). The Hellenistic Stoa: political thought and action. London: Duckworth. ISBN 978-0-7156-2326-8. Ferguson, Everett (1999). Christianity in relation to Jews, Greeks, and Romans. New York: Taylor & Francis; Garland. ISBN 978-0-8153-3069-1. Frazer, Alfred (1998). The Roman villa: villa urbana. Philadelphia: UPenn Museum of Archaeology. ISBN 978-0-924171-59-8. Garrison, Daniel H. (1998). Horace: Epodes and Odes. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-3057-6. Grijp, Paul van der (2009). Passion and profit: towards an anthropology of collecting. University of California. ISBN 978-3-8258-9258-6. Haase, Wolfgang (1990). Philosophie (Epikureismus, Skeptizismus, Kynismus, Orphica, Doxographica), Volume 2; Volume 34; Volume 36. London: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-012441-5. Harbottle, Thomas Benfield (1906). Dictionary of quotations (classical). S. Sonnenschein & Co., Limited. Kronenberg, Leah (2009). Allegories of farming from Greece and Rome: philosophical satire in Xenophon, Varro and Virgil. Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-51726-3. Kleist, Edward Eugene (2001). Judging Appearances. New York: Springer. ISBN 978-1-4020-0258-8. Lassaigne, Jacques (1955). The fifteenth century: from Van Eyck to Botticelli. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan / Skira. Lee-Stecum, Parshia (1998). Powerplay in Tibullus: reading Elegies book one. Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-63083-2. Maclardy, Archibald A.; Cicero, Marcus Tullius (1902). The first oration of Cicero against Catiline: being the Latin text ... Hinds & Noble. Maggi, Armando (2009). Petrarch: a critical guide to the complete works. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-43741-5. Merton, Thomas (1960). Spiritual direction and meditation. Collegeville, Minn: Liturgical Press. ISBN 978-0-8146-0412-0. Moore, Hugh (1831). A dictionary of quotations from various authors in ancient and modern languages, with English translations. Whittaker, Treacher, & Co. Motto, Anna Lydia; Clark, John R.; Byrne, Shannon N. (1999). Veritatis amicitiaeque causa. 5. Wauconda, Ill: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers. ISBN 978-0-86516-454-3. Myers, Micah Young (2008). The frontiers of the empire and the edges of the world in the Augustan poetic imaginary. ISBN 978-0-549-84687-1. Nietzsche, Friedrich (1990). Unmodern observations. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-04311-2. Archived from the original on 25 April 2012. Paoli, Ugo Enrico (1963). Rome: its people, life and customs. Longmans. Jan Brueghel the Elder (2009). Landscape and Philosophy in the Art of Jan Brueghel the Elder (1568–1625). Farnham, England; Burlington, Vermont: Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-6090-3. Rosenmeyer, Thomas G. (1973). The green cabinet: Theocritus and the European pastoral lyric. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-02362-8. Sadlek, Georgy M. (2004). Idleness working: the discourse of love's labor from Ovid through Chaucer and Gower. New York: CUA Press. ISBN 978-0-8132-1373-6. Stiegler, Bernard (2010). For a New Critique of Political Economy. New York: Polity. ISBN 978-0-7456-4804-0. Stone, Jon R. (2005). The Routledge dictionary of Latin quotations: the illiterati's guide to Latin maxims, mottoes, proverbs and sayings. New York: Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-96909-3. Stroup, Sarah Culpepper (2010). Catullus, Cicero, and a society of patrons: the generation of the text. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-51390-6. Thackeray, William Makepeace (1858). The history of Pendennis: his fortunes and misfortunes, his friends and his greatest enemy. 2. Smith, Elder & Co. Taplin, Oliver (2000). Literature in the Greek and Roman worlds: a new perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-210020-7. Toner, J.P. (1995). Leisure and ancient Rome. Cambridge England; Cambridge, MA: Polity Press; Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-7456-1432-8. Trapp, Michael B. (2007). Philosophy in the Roman Empire: ethics, politics and society. Hampshire, England; Burlington, Vermont: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.; Aldershot. ISBN 978-0-7546-1618-4. Veblen, Thorstein (2007). The Theory of the Leisure Class. Cosimo, Inc. ISBN 978-1-60206-180-4. Online at the Internet Archive. Vasaly, Ann (1996). Representations: Images of the World in Ciceronian Oratory. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-20178-1. Webster, Leslie (1997). Transformation of the Roman World AD 400–900. Berkeley; Los Angeles: California University Press. ISBN 978-0-520-21060-8. Vickers, Brian (29 August 2008) [March 1990]. "Leisure and Idleness in the Renaissance: The Ambivalence of Otium". Renaissance Studies. 4 (1): 1–37. doi:10.1111/j.1477-4658.1990.tb00408.x. Wirszubski, Chaim (1950). Libertas as a Political Idea at Rome During the Late Republic and Early Principate. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-06848-2. The World Book Dictionary. Volume 1. Chicago: World Book. 2003. ISBN 978-0-7166-0299-6. Zanker, Paul (2010). Roman Art. Los Angeles, CA: Getty Publications. ISBN 978-1606060308. Further reading[edit] Carr, Arthur (1896). General Epistle of St. James. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kusch, Martin (2000). The Sociology of Philosophical Knowledge. Dordrecht; Boston: Springer; Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7923-6150-3. External links[edit] Look up otium in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Otium. Hellenistic Philosophy "Ode II–XVI 'Otium'" – Horace Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Otium&oldid=991125247" Categories: Ancient Roman virtues Epicureanism Latin legal terminology Latin words and phrases Leisure Philosophy of law Political philosophy Roman law Roman-era philosophy Stoicism Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from May 2017 Webarchive template wayback links CS1: long volume value Articles with short description Articles with long short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from July 2020 Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text CS1 errors: missing periodical CS1 French-language sources (fr) Commons category link from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Deutsch Español Français Nederlands Norsk bokmål Русский Suomi Svenska Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 28 November 2020, at 11:33 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8694	----	Principate - Wikipedia Principate From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Not to be confused with Principality. First period of the Roman Empire Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e The Principate is the name sometimes given to the first period of the Roman Empire from the beginning of the reign of Augustus in 27 BC to the end of the Crisis of the Third Century in 284 AD, after which it evolved into the so-called Dominate.[1] The Principate is characterised by the reign of a single emperor (princeps) and an effort on the part of the early emperors, at least, to preserve the illusion of the formal continuance, in some aspects, of the Roman Republic.[2][3][4] Contents 1 Etymology and anticipations 2 Duration 3 History 3.1 Redefinition under Vespasian 3.2 Dominate 4 See also 5 References 6 Sources 7 External links Etymology and anticipations[edit] 'Principate' is etymologically derived from the Latin word princeps, meaning chief or first, and therefore represents the political regime dominated by such a political leader, whether or not he is formally head of state and/or head of government. This reflects the principate emperors' assertion that they were merely "first among equals" among the citizens of Rome. Under the Republic, the princeps senatus, traditionally the oldest or most honoured member of the Senate, had the right to be heard first on any debate.[5] Scipio Aemilianus and his circle had fostered the (quasi-Platonic) idea that authority should be invested in the worthiest citizen (princeps), who would beneficently guide his compeers, an ideal of the patriot statesman later taken up by Cicero.[6] Duration[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) In a more limited and precise chronological sense, the term Principate is applied either to the entire Empire (in the sense of the post-Republican Roman state), or specifically to the earlier of the two phases of "Imperial" government in the ancient Roman Empire before Rome's military collapse in the West (fall of Rome) in 476 left the Byzantine Empire as sole heir. This early, 'Principate' phase began when Augustus claimed auctoritas for himself as princeps; and continued (depending on the source) up to the rule of Commodus, of Maximinus Thrax or of Diocletian. Afterwards, Imperial rule in the Empire is designated as the dominate, which is subjectively more like an (absolute) monarchy while the earlier Principate is still more 'Republican'. History[edit] The title, in full, of princeps senatus / princeps civitatis ("first amongst the senators" / "first amongst the citizens") was first adopted by Octavian Caesar Augustus (27 BC–AD 14), the first Roman "emperor" who chose, like the assassinated Julius Caesar, not to reintroduce a legal monarchy. Augustus's purpose was probably to establish the political stability desperately needed after the exhausting civil wars by a de facto dictatorial regime within the constitutional framework of the Roman Republic - what Gibbon called "an absolute monarchy disguised by the forms of a commonwealth"[7] - as a more acceptable alternative to, for example, the early Roman Kingdom. Although dynastic pretences crept in from the start, formalizing this in a monarchic style remained politically perilous;[8] and Octavian was undoubtedly correct to work through established Republican forms to consolidate his power.[9] He began with the powers of a Roman consul, combined with those of a Tribune of the plebs; later added the role of the censor; and finally became Pontifex Maximus as well.[10] Tiberius too acquired his powers piecemeal, and was proud to emphasise his place as first citizen: "a good and healthful princeps, whom you have invested with such great discretionary power, ought to be the servant of the Senate, and often of the whole citizen body".[11] Thereafter however the role of princeps became more institutionalised: as Dio Cassius put it, Caligula was "voted in a single day all the prerogatives which Augustus over so long a span of time had been voted gradually and piecemeal".[12] Nevertheless, under this "Principate stricto sensu", the political reality of autocratic rule by the Emperor was still scrupulously masked by forms and conventions of oligarchic self-rule inherited from the political period of the 'uncrowned' Roman Republic (509 BC–27 BC) under the motto Senatus Populusque Romanus ("The Senate and people of Rome") or SPQR. Initially, the theory implied the 'first citizen' had to earn his extraordinary position (de facto evolving to nearly absolute monarchy) by merit in the style that Augustus himself had gained the position of auctoritas. Imperial propaganda developed a paternalistic ideology, presenting the princeps as the very incarnation of all virtues attributed to the ideal ruler (much like a Greek tyrannos earlier), such as clemency and justice, and military leadership,[13] in turn placing the onus on the princeps to play this designated role within Roman society, as his political insurance as well as a moral duty. What specifically was expected of the princeps seems to have varied according to the times, and the observers:[14] Tiberius, who amassed a huge surplus for the city of Rome, was criticized as a miser, but Caligula was criticized for his lavish spending on games and spectacles. Generally speaking, it was expected of the Emperor to be generous but not frivolous, not just as a good ruler but also with his personal fortune (as in the proverbial "bread and circuses" – panem et circenses) providing occasional public games, gladiators, horse races and artistic shows. Large distributions of food for the public and charitable institutions were also means that served as popularity boosters while the construction of public works provided paid employment for the poor. Principate under Augustus[15] Redefinition under Vespasian[edit] With the fall of the Julio-Claudian dynasty in AD 68, the principate became more formalised under the Emperor Vespasian from AD 69 onwards.[16] The position of princeps became a distinct entity within the broader – formally still republican – Roman constitution. While many of the same cultural and political expectations remained, the civilian aspect of the Augustan ideal of the princeps gradually gave way to the military role of the imperator.[17] Rule was no longer a position (even notionally) extended on the basis of merit, or auctoritas, but on a firmer basis, allowing Vespasian and future emperors to designate their own heir without those heirs having to earn the position through years of success and public favor. Under the Antonine dynasty, it was the norm for the Emperor to appoint a successful and politically promising individual as his successor. In modern historical analysis, this is treated by many authors as an "ideal" situation: the individual who was most capable was promoted to the position of princeps. Of the Antonine dynasty, Edward Gibbon famously wrote that this was the happiest and most productive period in human history, and credited the system of succession as the key factor. Dominate[edit] The autocratic elements in the Principate tended to increase over time, with the style of dominus ("Lord", "Master", suggesting the citizens became servi, servants or slaves) gradually becoming current for the emperor.[18] There was however no clear constitutional turning point, with Septimius Severus and the Severan dynasty beginning to use the terminology of the Dominate in reference to the emperor, and the various emperors and their usurpers throughout the 3rd century appealing to the people as both military dominus and political princeps. It was after the Crisis of the Third Century almost resulted in the Roman Empire's political collapse that Diocletian firmly consolidated the trend to autocracy.[19] He replaced the one-headed principate with the tetrarchy (c. AD 300, two Augusti ranking above two Caesares),[20] in which the vestigial pretence of the old Republican forms was largely abandoned. The title of princeps disappeared – like the territorial unity of the Empire – in favor of dominus; and new forms of pomp and awe, along the lines of an oriental absolute monarchy, were deliberately used in an attempt to insulate the emperor and the civil authority from the unbridled and mutinous soldiery of the mid-century.[21] The political role of the Senate went into final eclipse,[22] no more being heard of the division by the Augustan Principate of the provinces between imperial (militarised) provinces and senatorial provinces.[23] Lawyers developed a theory of the total delegation of authority into the hands of the emperor;[24] and the dominate developed more and more, especially in the Eastern Roman Empire, where the subjects, and even diplomatic allies, could be termed servus or the corresponding Greek term doulos, ("servant/slave") so as to express the exalted position of the Emperor as second only to God, and on earth to none.[citation needed] See also[edit] Constitution of the Late Roman Empire References[edit] ^ K Lowenstein, The Governance of Rome (1973) p. 370 ^ "Principate - government". britannica.com. Archived from the original on 2016-10-11. ^ A history of Rome, M. Cary & H.H. Scullard, ISBN 0333278305 ^ SPQR; Mary Beard, ISBN 9781846683800 ^ O Seyffeert, A Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (London 1891) p. 516 ^ H J Rose, A Handbook of Latin Literature (Methuen 1967) p. 99 and p. 235 ^ D Wormersley ed, Abridged Decline and Fall (Penguin 2005) p. 73 ^ J Burrow, A History of Histories (Penguin 2007) p. 124-5 ^ J Boardman ed. The Oxford History of the Classical World (1991) p. 538 ^ D Wormersley ed, Abridged Decline and Fall (Penguin 2005) p. 70-1 ^ Quoted in J Boardman ed. The Oxford History of the Classical World (1991) p. 540 ^ J Boardman ed. The Oxford History of the Classical World (1991) p. 549 ^ C Edwards Intro, Lives of the Caesars (OUP 2000) p. xxi ^ C Edwards Intro, Lives of the Caesars (OUP 2000) p. xxiii-v ^ Digital Reproduction of diagram found in The Anchor Atlas of World History, Vol. 1 (From the Stone Age to the Eve of the French Revolution) Paperback – December 17, 1974 by Werner Hilgemann, Hermann Kinder, Ernest A. Menze (Translator), Harald Bukor (Cartographer), Ruth Bukor (Cartographer) ^ J Boardman ed, The Oxford History of the Classical World (1991) p. 561 ^ J Boardman ed, The Oxford History of the Classical World (1991) p. 561 and p. 573 ^ H M Gwatkin ed., The Cambridge Medieval History Vol I (1924) p. 25 ^ H M Gwatkin ed., The Cambridge Medieval History Vol I (1924) p. 25 ^ H M Gwatkin ed., The Cambridge Medieval History Vol I (1924) p. 27 ^ H M Gwatkin ed., The Cambridge Medieval History Vol I (1924) p. 25 ^ J Boardman ed. The Oxford History of the Classical World (1991) p. 808 ^ H M Gwatkin ed., The Cambridge Medieval History Vol I (1924) p. 29 ^ H M Gwatkin ed., The Cambridge Medieval History Vol I (1924) p. 28 Sources[edit] Alston, Richard. 1998. Aspects of Roman History. AD 14–117. London: Routledge. Aparicio Pérez, Antonio. 2009. “Taxation in Times of the Principate.” Gerión 27:1: 207-217. Bleicken, Jochen. 1978. Prinzipat und Dominat. Gedanken zur Periodisierung der römischen Kaiserzeit. Wiesbaden: Fr. Stein. Flaig, Egon. 2011. “The Transition from Republic to Principate: Loss of Legitimacy, Revolution, and Acceptance.” In The Roman Empire in Context: Historical and Comparative Perspectives, Edited by Jóhann Páll Arnason and Kurt A. Raaflaub. Ancient World, 67-84. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Gallia, Andrew B. 2012. Remembering the Roman Republic: Culture, Politics and History under the Principate. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. Gibson, A. G. G., ed. 2013. The Julio-Claudian Succession: Reality and Perception of the Augustan model. Mnemosyne. Supplements; 349. Leiden: Brill. Harlow, Mary and Laurence, Ray. 2017. “Augustus Senex: Old Age and the Remaking of the Principate.” Greece and Rome 64.2: 115-131. Kousser, Rachel Meredith. 2005. “From Conquest to Civilization: The Rhetoric of Imperialism in the Early Principate.” In A Tall Order: Writing the Social History of the Ancient World: Essays in Honor of William V. Harris, Edited by Jean-Jacques Aubert and Zsuzsanna Várhelyi. Beiträge zur Altertumskunde; 216, 185-202. München: Saur. Melounová, Markéta. 2012. “Trials with Religious and Political Charges from the Principate to the Dominate.” Series archaeologica et classica 17.2: 117-130. Raaflaub, Kurt A, Mark Toher, and G. W Bowersock. 1990. Between Republic and Empire: Interpretations of Augustus and His Principate. Berkeley: University of California Press. Williams, Kathryn Frances. 2009. “Tacitus' Germanicus and the Principate.” Latomus 68.1: 117-130. External links[edit] Library resources about Principate Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular 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en-wikipedia-org-8726	----	Roman Constitution - Wikipedia Roman Constitution From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Not to be confused with Constitution (Roman law). Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e The Roman Constitution was an uncodified set of guidelines and principles passed down mainly through precedent.[1] The Roman constitution was not formal or even official, largely unwritten and constantly evolving. Having those characteristics, it was therefore more like the British and United States common law system than a sovereign law system like the English Constitutions of Clarendon and Great Charter or the United States Constitution, even though the constitution's evolution through the years was often directed by passage of new laws and repeal of older ones. Concepts that originated in the Roman constitution live on in both forms of government to this day. Examples include checks and balances, the separation of powers, vetoes, filibusters, quorum requirements, term limits, impeachments, the powers of the purse, and regularly scheduled elections. Even some lesser used modern constitutional concepts, such as the bloc voting found in the electoral college of the United States, originate from ideas found in the Roman constitution. Over the years, the Roman constitution continuously evolved. By the late 5th century BC, the Constitution of the Roman Kingdom had given way to the Constitution of the Roman Republic. By 27 BC, the Constitution of the Roman Republic had transformed into the Constitution of the Roman Empire. By 300 AD, the Constitution of the Roman Empire had been reformed into the Constitution of the Late Roman Empire. The actual changes, however, were quite gradual. Together, these four constitutions formed four epochs in the continuous evolution of one master constitution. Contents 1 Legislative assemblies 2 Senate 3 Executive magistrates 4 Legacy 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Further reading 8.1 Primary sources 8.2 Secondary source material Legislative assemblies[edit] See also: Roman assemblies, Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Kingdom, Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic, and Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Empire The first Roman assembly, the 'comitia curiata', was founded during the early kingdom.[2] Its only political role was to elect new kings. Sometimes, the king would submit his decrees to it for ratification. In the early years of the Republic, the comitia curiata was the only legislative assembly with any power. Shortly after the founding of the republic, however, the comitia centuriata and the comitia tributa became the predominant elective and legislative assemblies. Most modern legislative assemblies are bodies consisting of elected representatives. Their members typically propose and debate bills. These modern assemblies use a form of representative democracy. In contrast, the assemblies of the Roman Republic used a form of direct democracy. The Roman assemblies were bodies of ordinary citizens, rather than elected representatives. In this regard, bills voted on (called plebiscites) were similar to modern popular referenda. Unlike many modern assemblies, Roman assemblies were not bicameral. That is to say that bills did not have to pass both major assemblies in order to be enacted into law. In addition, no other branch had to ratify a bill (rogatio) in order for it to become law (lex). Members also had no authority to introduce bills for consideration; only executive magistrates could introduce new bills. This arrangement is also similar to what is found in many modern countries. Usually, ordinary citizens cannot propose new laws for their enactment by a popular election. Unlike many modern assemblies, in the early Republic, the Roman assemblies also had judicial functions. After the founding of the empire, the vast majority of the powers of the assemblies were transferred to the Senate. When the Senate elected magistrates, the results of those elections would be read to the assemblies. Occasionally, the emperor would submit laws to the comitia tributa for ratification. The assemblies ratified laws up until the reign of the emperor Domitian. After this point, the assemblies simply served as vehicles through which citizens would organize. Senate[edit] See also: Roman senate, Senate of the Roman Kingdom, Senate of the Roman Republic, and Senate of the Roman Empire The Roman senate was the most permanent of all of Rome's political institutions. It was probably founded before the first king of Rome ascended the throne. It survived the fall of the Roman Kingdom in the late 5th century BC, the fall of the Roman Republic in 27 BC, and the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 AD. It was, in contrast to many modern institutions named 'Senate', not a legislative body, but rather, an advisory one. The power of the Senate waxed and waned throughout its history. During the days of the kingdom, it was little more than an advisory council to the king, though in the interregnum between monarchs, it elected the next king.[3] The last king of Rome, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, was overthrown following a coup d'état that was planned in the Senate. During the early republic, the Senate was politically weak. During these early years, the executive magistrates were quite powerful. The transition from monarchy to constitutional rule was probably more gradual than the legends suggest. Thus, it took a prolonged weakening of these executive magistrates before the Senate was able to assert its authority over those magistrates. By the middle republic, the Senate reached the apex of its republican power. This occurred because of the convergence of two factors. The plebeians had recently achieved full political enfranchisement. Therefore, they were not as aggressive as they had been during the early republic in pushing for radical reforms. In addition, the period was marked by prolonged warfare against foreign enemies. The result was that both the popular assemblies and the executive magistrates deferred to the collective wisdom of the Senate. The late republic saw a decline in the Senate's power. This decline began following the reforms of the radical tribunes Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus. The declining influence of the Senate during this era, in large part, was caused by the class struggles that had dominated the early republic.[dubious – discuss] The end result was the overthrow of the republic, and the creation of the Roman Empire. The Senate of the very early Roman Empire was as weak as it had been during the late republic. However, after the transition from republic to empire was complete, the Senate arguably held more power than it had held at any previous point. All constitutional powers (legislative, executive and judicial) had been transferred to the Senate. However, unlike the Senate of the republic, the Senate of the empire was dominated by the emperor. It was through the Senate that the emperor exercised his autocratic powers, and by the late principate, the Senate's power had declined into near-irrelevance. It never again regained the power that it had held in the middle republic. Much of the surviving literature from the imperial period was written by senators. To a large degree, this demonstrates the strong cultural influence of the Senate, even during the late empire. The institution survived the fall of the Empire in the West, and even enjoyed a modest revival as imperial power was reduced to a government of Italy only. The senatorial class was severely affected by the Gothic wars. Executive magistrates[edit] See also: Roman Magistrates, Executive Magistrates of the Roman Kingdom, Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic, and Executive Magistrates of the Roman Empire During the years of the Roman Kingdom, the king (rex) was the only executive magistrate with any power. He was assisted by two quaestors, whom he appointed. He would often appoint other assistants for other tasks. When he died, an interrex would preside over the Senate and assemblies until a new king was elected. Under the Constitution of the Roman Republic, the "executive branch" was composed of both ordinary as well as extraordinary magistrates. Each ordinary magistrate would be elected by one of the two major Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic. The principal extraordinary magistrate, the dictator, would be appointed upon authorization by the Senate of the Roman Republic. Most magistrates were elected annually for a term of one year. The terms for all annual offices would begin on New Year's Day, and end on the last day of December. The two highest ranking ordinary magistrates, the consuls and praetors, held a type of authority called imperium (Latin for "command"). Imperium allowed a magistrate to command a military force. Consuls held a higher grade of imperium than praetors. Consuls and praetors, as well as censors and curule aediles, were regarded as "curule magistrates". They would sit on a curule chair, which was a symbol of state power. Consuls and praetors where attended by bodyguards called lictors. The lictors would carry fasces. The fasces, which consisted of a rod with an embedded axe, were symbols of the coercive power of the state. Quaestors were not curule magistrates, but rather, administrators and had little real power. Plebeian tribunes were not officially "magistrates", since they were elected only by the plebeians. Since they were considered to be the embodiment of the People of Rome, their office and their person were considered sacrosanct. It was considered to be a capital offense to harm a tribune, to attempt to harm a tribune, or to attempt to obstruct a tribune in any way. All other powers of the tribunate derived from this sacrosanctity, with two rights: intercession between magistrates and advocacy for the people. The tribunes were assisted by plebeian aediles. In an emergency, a dictator would be selected by the Senate. A newly appointed dictator would usually select a deputy, known as the "Magister Equitum" ("Master of the Horse"). Both the dictator and his master of the horse were extraordinary magistrates, and they both held imperium. In practice, the dictator functioned as a consul without any constitutional checks on his power. After 202 BC, the dictatorship fell into disuse, and during emergencies, the Senate would pass the senatus consultum ultimum ("ultimate decree of the Senate") which suspended civil government, and declared (something analogous to) martial law. It would declare "videant consules ne res publica detrimenti capiat" ("let the consuls see to it that the state suffer no harm"). In effect, the consuls would be vested with dictatorial powers. After the establishment of the Principate, the old magistracies (consuls, praetors, censors, aediles, quaestors and tribunes) lost the majority of their actual powers, effectively being reduced to municipal officers in charge of various games and holidays. The vast majority of actual political and administrative work was transferred into the emperor. The founding of the empire was tantamount to a restoration of the old monarchy. The chief executive became the unchallenged power in the state, with overwhelming dominance of the Senate, which, while it as a body gained practically all authorities formerly held by the Assemblies, also became nothing more than a rubber stamp for the Emperor. Legacy[edit] The Roman constitution was one of the few constitutions to exist before the 18th century. Although the constitutions of Sparta and Carthage were drafted and utilised either on paper or by nature much of their existence is only known through secondary sources, and such constitutions are questioned in the book II of Aristotle's "The politics." None of the others are as well known to us today, and none of the others governed such a vast empire for so long. Therefore, the Roman constitution was used as a template, often the only one, when the first constitutions of the modern era were being drafted. Because of this, many modern constitutions have superstrictures which are similar, or even identical (such as a separation of powers and checks and balances) to the Roman constitution. See also[edit] ‹ The template below (Columns) is being considered for deletion. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus. › Roman Kingdom American Constitution Roman Republic Roman Empire Roman Law Plebeian Council Centuria Curia Roman consul Praetor Roman censor Quaestor Aedile Roman Dictator Master of the Horse Roman Senate Cursus honorum Byzantine Senate Pontifex Maximus Princeps senatus Interrex Procurator (Roman) Acta Senatus Notes[edit] ^ Byrd, 161 ^ Abbott, Frank Frost (1963). A History and Descriptions of Roman Political Institutions (3 ed.). New York: Noble Offset Printers Inc. p. 18.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) ^ Abbott 1963, p. 14. References[edit] Abbott, Frank Frost (1901). A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. Elibron Classics ( ISBN 0-543-92749-0). Byrd, Robert (1995). The Senate of the Roman Republic. U.S. Government Printing Office, Senate Document 103-23. Cicero, Marcus Tullius (1841). The Political Works of Marcus Tullius Cicero: Comprising his Treatise on the Commonwealth; and his Treatise on the Laws. Translated from the original, with Dissertations and Notes in Two Volumes. By Francis Barham, Esq. London: Edmund Spettigue. Vol. 1. Lintott, Andrew (1999). The Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press ( ISBN 0-19-926108-3). Polybius (1823). The General History of Polybius: Translated from the Greek. By James Hampton. Oxford: Printed by W. Baxter. Fifth Edition, Vol 2. Taylor, Lily Ross (1966). Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar. The University of Michigan Press ( ISBN 0-472-08125-X). Further reading[edit] Ihne, Wilhelm. Researches Into the History of the Roman Constitution. William Pickering. 1853. Johnston, Harold Whetstone. Orations and Letters of Cicero: With Historical Introduction, An Outline of the Roman Constitution, Notes, Vocabulary and Index. Scott, Foresman and Company. 1891. Mommsen, Theodor. Roman Constitutional Law. 1871-1888 Tighe, Ambrose. The Development of the Roman Constitution. D. Apple & Co. 1886. Von Fritz, Kurt. The Theory of the Mixed Constitution in Antiquity. Columbia University Press, New York. 1975. The Histories by Polybius Cambridge Ancient History, Volumes 9–13. A. Cameron, The Later Roman Empire, (Fontana Press, 1993). M. Crawford, The Roman Republic, (Fontana Press, 1978). E. S. Gruen, "The Last Generation of the Roman Republic" (U California Press, 1974) F. Millar, The Emperor in the Roman World, (Duckworth, 1977, 1992). A. Lintott, "The Constitution of the Roman Republic" (Oxford University Press, 1999) Primary sources[edit] Cicero's De Re Publica, Book Two Rome at the End of the Punic Wars: An Analysis of the Roman Government; by Polybius Secondary source material[edit] Considerations on the Causes of the Greatness of the Romans and their Decline, by Montesquieu The Roman Constitution to the Time of Cicero What a Terrorist Incident in Ancient Rome Can Teach Us v t e Roman Constitution Ancient Rome History Constitution Senate Assemblies Curiate Century Tribal Plebeian Magistrates Roman Kingdom History Constitution Senate Assemblies Magistrates Roman Republic History Constitution (reforms of Sulla • reforms of Caesar • reforms of Augustus) Senate Assemblies Magistrates Roman Empire History (post Diocletian) Constitution (post Diocletian) Senate Assemblies Magistrates Miscellaneous Sulla's Constitutional Reforms Caesar's Constitutional Reforms Conflict of the Orders Roman law v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_Constitution&oldid=983528075" Categories: Constitutions of ancient Rome Hidden categories: CS1 maint: ref=harv All accuracy disputes Articles with disputed statements from April 2017 Pages using columns with the default column width Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Български Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 October 2020, at 19:02 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8736	----	Epodes (Horace) - Wikipedia Epodes (Horace) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Collection of poems by Horace Epodes  by Horace A 1901 edition of the Epodes by C. L. Smith Original title Epodi Epodon liber Iambi Written c. 42–30 BC Language Latin Genre(s) iambus, invective Publication date 30 BC (30 BC) Metre various iambic metres The Epodes (Latin: Epodi or Epodon liber; also called Iambi) are a collection of iambic poems written by the Roman poet Horace. They were published in 30 BC and form part of his early work alongside the Satires. Following the model of the Greek poets Archilochus and Hipponax, the Epodes largely fall into the genre of blame poetry, which seeks to discredit and humiliate its targets. The 17 poems of the Epodes cover a variety of topics, including politics, magic, eroticism and food. A product of the turbulent final years of the Roman Republic, the collection is known for its striking depiction of Rome's socio-political ills in a time of great upheaval. Due to their recurring coarseness and explicit treatment of sexuality, the Epodes have traditionally been Horace's least regarded work. However, the last quarter of the 20th century saw a resurgence in scholarly interest in the collection. Contents 1 Names 2 Date 3 The iambic genre 4 Metre 5 Contents 6 Themes 7 Reception 8 Selected editions 9 References 10 Works cited 11 External links Names[edit] The modern standard name for the collection is Epodes. Deriving from the Greek epodos stichos ('verse in reply'), the term refers to a poetic verse following on from a slightly longer one.[1] Since all poems except Epode 17 are composed in such an epodic form, the term is used with some justification. This naming convention, however, is not attested before the commentary of Pomponius Porphyrion in the second century AD.[2] Horace himself referred to his poems as iambi on several occasions,[3] but it is uncertain if this was intended as a title or only as a generic descriptor, referring to the dominant metre used in the collection: the iamb. In the ancient tradition of associating metrical form with content, the term had by Horace's time become a metonym for the genre of blame poetry which was habitually written in iambic metre. Both terms, Epodes and Iambi, have become common names for the collection.[1] Date[edit] The dramatic date of the Epodes is around the Battle of Actium, here imagined by Justus van Egmont. Horace began writing his Epodes after the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC. He had fought as a military tribune in the losing army of Caesar's assassins and his fatherly estate was confiscated in the aftermath of the battle. Having been pardoned by Octavian, Horace began to write poetry in this period.[4] His budding relationship with the wealthy Gaius Maecenas features in several poems, which locates most of the work on the Epodes in the 30s BC.[5] The finished collection was published in 30 BC.[6] The dramatic date of the collection is less certain. Two poems (Epodes 1 and 9) are explicitly and respectively set before and after the Battle of Actium (31 BC). The remaining poems cannot be placed with any certainty. However, it emerges that they are all set in the tumultuous decade between the death of Caesar and Octavian's final victory. As such, the Epodes are considered a crucial witness to Rome's violent transition from a republic to an autocratic monarchy.[7] The iambic genre[edit] Main article: Iambus (genre) The archaic poet Hipponax was a major influence on Horace's Epodes. The image shows him as imagined by the 16th-century humanist Guillaume Rouillé. The Epodes situate themselves in the tradition of iambic poetry going back to the lyric poets of archaic Greece. In the following quotation from his Epistles, Horace identifies the poet Archilochus of Paros as his most important influence: I was the first to show to Latium the iambics of Paros, following the rhythms and spirit of Archilochus not the themes or the words that hounded Lycambes. — Epistles 1.19.23–5[8] Dating to the seventh century BC, the poems of Archilochus contain attacks, often highly sexualised and scatological, on flawed members of society. Two groups in particular are targets of his abuse: personal enemies and promiscuous women. The above-mentioned Lycambes features in many of Archilochus' poems[9] and was thought to have committed suicide after being viciously slandered by the poet.[10] Horace, as is indicated in the above passage, largely followed the model of Archilochus with regards to metre and spirit, but, on the whole, the Epodes are much more restrained in their verbal violence. While Horace does not borrow extensively from him, Archilochian influence can be felt in some of his themes (e.g. Epod. 8 and 12 as a variation on the Cologne Epodes) and poetic stances (e.g. addressing fellow citizens or hated enemies).[11] Another significant iambic predecessor of Horace was Hipponax, a lyric poet who flourished during the sixth century BC in Ephesus, Asia Minor. Writing in the same vein as Archilochus, his poems depict the vulgar aspects of contemporary society. In contrast to the previous iambic tradition, he has been described as striking a discernibly satirical pose: through the use of eccentric and foreign language, many of his poems come across as humorous takes on low-brow activities.[12] His influence is acknowledged in Epode 6.11–4. The Hellenistic scholar and poet Callimachus (third century BC) also wrote a collection of iambi, which are thought to have left a mark on Horace's poems. In these poems, Callimachus presented a toned-down version of the archaic iambus. Horace avoids direct allusions to Callimachus, a fact which has sometimes been seen as a strategy in favour of the style of Archilochus and Hipponax.[13] Metre[edit] See also: Prosody (Latin) The metrical pattern of Epodes 1–10 consists of an iambic trimeter (three sets of two iambs) followed by an iambic dimeter (two sets of two iambs). Possible caesurae are indicated by a vertical line. In the trimeter, all longs (—) before the caesura may be replaced by two shorts (∪ ∪). In the dimeter, only the first long may be so replaced.[14] x — ∪ — x | — ∪ | — x — ∪ — x — ∪ — x — ∪ — Poems 11–17 deviate from this pattern and, with the exception of 14 and 15, each exhibit a different metre. Most of thees metres combine iambic elements with dactylic ones and include: the second and third Archilochian, the Alcmanic strophe, and the first and second Pythiambic.[15] Epode 17 presents an anomaly: it is the only poem in the collection with a stichic metre. The term 'stichic' denotes a succession of identical verses. In this case, the poem consists of eighty-one identical iambic trimeters. Therefore, 17 is the only Epode that may not technically be described as an epode.[16] Contents[edit] Epode 1 is dedicated to Horace's patron, Maecenas, who is about to join Octavian on the Actium campaign.[17] The poet announces that he is willing to share the dangers of his influential friend, even though he is unwarlike himself.[18] This loyalty, the poem claims, is not motivated by greed but rather by genuine friendship for Maecenas.[19] Epode 2 is a poem of exceptional length (70 verses) and popularity among readers of Horace.[20] It envisions the tranquil life of a farmer as a desirable contrast to the hectic life of Rome's urban elite. Each season holds its own pleasures and life is dictated by the agricultural calendar.[21] At the end of the poem, a money-lender named Alfius is revealed as the speaker of the epode, leaving the reader to ponder its sincerity.[22] Epode 3 comments on the health effects of garlic. Epode 3 in a twelfth-century French manuscript of Horace's complete works in the British Library; allium or garlic is the penultimate word of the second line, written with a scribal abbreviation; the names Canidia and Medea may be read near the small hole, which must predate the use of this leaf, since the text itself is not lacunose; the folio beneath is visible through the gap (Harley MS 3534 f.39v)[23] In Epode 3, Horace reacts to an excessive amount of garlic he has consumed at one of Maecenas' dinner parties: its strong taste has set his stomach on fire. Comparing the ingredient to the poison used by witches such as Medea, he playfully wishes that his host be stricken by the same condition.[24] Epode 4 criticises the pretentious behaviour of a social climber. The main charge levelled at the man is that he used to be a slave and has now risen to be a military tribune, thereby offending those who traditionally occupied such positions. The poem also imagines the heckling of passers-by on the Via Sacra.[25] Critics have stated that the target of the epode resembles Horace's own biography.[26] Epode 5 details the encounter of a young boy with the witch (venefica) Canidia. Together with a group of fellow witches, she plans to use his bone marrow and liver to concoct a love potion.[27] Unable to escape from his entrapment, the boy utters a vow to haunt the witches in his afterlife. The poem is the longest in the collection and is particularly notable for its portrayal of witchcraft.[28] In Epode 6, Horace envisions himself as the successor of the Greek iambographers Archilochus and Hipponax. Should someone be brave enough to provoke him, he will bite back with the fervour of his Greek models.[29] Epode 7 is addressed to the citizens of Rome. Set in the context of Octavian's civil war, the poet scolds his fellow citizens for rushing to shed their own blood instead of fighting foreign enemies.[30] The poem and its opening line (Quo, quo scelesti ruitis? "Where, where are you rushing in your wickedness?") are famous for their desperate attempt to prevent renewed civil warfare.[31] Epode 8 is the first of two 'sexual epodes'. In it, Horace lambasts a repulsive old woman for expecting sexual favours from him. Although she is wealthy and has a collection of sophisticated books, the poet rejects her ageing body.[32] Epode 9 extends an invitation to Maecenas to celebrate Octavian's victory in the Battle of Actium. Octavian is praised for having defeated Mark Antony, who is portrayed as an unmanly leader because of his alliance with Cleopatra.[33] Epode 10 strikes a more traditionally iambic note. In the style of Hipponax' Strasbourg Epode, the poet curses his enemy Mevius. Horace wishes that the ship carrying Mevius will suffer shipwreck and that his enemy's corpse will be devoured by gulls.[34] In Epode 11, the poet complains to his friend Pettius that he is mad with love for a boy named Lyciscus. The poem is a variation on the idea that love may make the lover's life unbearable. It thus has much in common with Roman love elegy.[35] Epode 12 is the second of two 'sexual epodes'. Like in poem 8, the poet finds himself in bed with an ageing woman. This time, Horace is criticised for his impotence — which he blames on the woman's repulsive body. The poem is known for its obscene sexual vocabulary.[36] Epode 13 is set at a symposium, an all-male drinking party. Drinking with one's friends is presented as an antidote to both bad weather and worries. The second half of the poem tells how the centaur Chiron gave the same piece of advice to his pupil Achilles.[37] Epode 14 returns to the theme of poem 11: the inhibiting effects of love. Horace apologises to Maecenas for not having completed as promised a set of iambics. The reason for this failure, he adds, is the powerful grip of love.[38] Epode 15 continues the motif of love by commenting on the infidelity of one Neaera. Having sworn an oath of loyalty to the poet, she has now run off to another man. The poem contains a well-known pun on Horace's cognomen Flaccus (nam si quid in Flacco viri est "... if there is anything manly in a man called floppy").[39] Epode 16 weaves together strands from Epodes 2 and 7. After lamenting the devastating effects of civil warfare on Rome and its citizens, Horace exhorts his countrymen to emigrate to a faraway place. This vision of a rural lifestyle as an alternative to a depressed state of affairs shows characteristics of escapism.[40] The final Epode (17) takes the shape of a palinode, a type of poem which serves to retract a previously stated sentiment. Here, the poet takes back his defamations of Canidia in poem 5. Still occupying the position of the captive boy, he begs the witch for mercy. His request is shrugged off by Canidia who thus has the last word of the collection.[41] Themes[edit] Victimhood is an import theme within the collection. Although Horace assumes the strident persona of the iambic poet for most of the Epodes, critics have described that the roles of aggressor and victim are regularly reversed. In the two erotic poems (8 and 12), for example, the poet is forced to retaliate viciously because his sexual potency has been called into question.[42] Similarly, his toothless tirade against the use of garlic comes after the poet has been poisoned by the same ingredient.[43] Central to discussions of victimhood in the Epodes is Horace's fascination with the witch Canidia and her coven. She features prominently in two poems (5 and 17) which together make up nearly a third of the collection.[44] The Latinist Ellen Oliensis describes her as a "kind of anti-Muse":[45] Horace finds himself forced to write poems in order to assuage her anger.[46] In keeping with the overall depiction of women in the collection,[47] the witch is reduced to her repulsive sexuality which the poet is nevertheless unable to resist.[48] This weakness in the face of Canidia is illustrated by the fact that she speaks the last word of the Epodes.[44] Features such as these have made the Epodes a popular case study for the exploration of poetic impotence.[49] Horace's friendship with the wealthy Maecenas is a recurring theme of the Epodes. This bust of Maecenas located in Coole Park, County Galway is possibly from the 17th or 18th century.[50] The dramatic situation of the Epodes is set against the backdrop of Octavian's civil war against Mark Antony. Anxiety about the outcome of the conflict manifests itself in several poems: while Epodes 1 and 9 express support for the Octavian cause, 9 displays a frustration about the precarious political situation more generally. The wish to escape to a simpler, less hostile environment comes to the fore in two lengthy poems (2 and 16) and strikes a tone much like that of Virgil's early work, the Eclogues and Georgics. One result of decades of civil war is the increasing confusion of friend and foe, which can be seen in Horace's attacks on Maecenas (3) and the upstart military tribune (4).[51] Palpable throughout much of the Epodes is a concern for the poet's standing in society already familiar to readers of the Satires. In this regard, Horace's friendship with the wealthy Maecenas is of particular interest. Horace, the son of an ex-slave, seems to have felt some uncertainty about their cross-class relationship. A good example of this is Epode 3: in response to an overly garlicky dinner, Horace hopes that Maecenas will suffer from a similar garlic overdose. The humorous curse against his social superior has been interpreted as the poet standing his ground in a socially acceptable way.[52] The opposite dynamic can be observed in Epode 4. Here, the poet, apparently oblivious of his low social status, joins a mob of citizens in ridiculing a former slave who has risen to become a Roman knight.[53] Reception[edit] The Epodes have traditionally been Horace's least regarded work, due, in part, to the collection's recurring coarseness and its open treatment of sexuality. This has caused critics to strongly favour the political poems (1, 7, 9, and 16), while the remaining ones became marginalised.[54] Leaving few traces in later ancient texts, the Epodes were often treated as a lesser appendix to the famous Odes in the early modern period. Only the second Epode, an idyllic vision of rural life, received regular attention by publishers and translators. Nevertheless, during the Victorian era, a number of leading English boarding schools prescribed parts of the collection as set texts for their students.[55] The last quarter of the 20th century saw a resurgence of critical interest in the Epodes, bringing with it the publication of several commentaries and scholarly articles.[7] In the wake of this resurgence, the collection has become known for what the classicist Stephen Harrison describes as "hard-hitting analyses" of the socio-political issues of late-Republican Rome.[56] One feature that has proved of enduring interest is the collection's eccentric portrayal of witchcraft. Examples of this include a hostile review of Uncle Tom's Cabin published in the Southern Literary Messenger in 1852. The anonymous reviewer criticised the book's educational message, describing it as "the song of Canidia."[57] Selected editions[edit] Mankin, David (1995). Horace: Epodes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521397742. Latin text with a commentary and introduction. Rudd, Niall (2004). Odes and Epodes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674996090. Latin text with a facing English prose translation. Shackleton Bailey, D. R. (2001). Horatius, Opera (in Latin). Berlin and New York: De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-020292-2. Critical edition of Horace's collected works, in Latin with a critical apparatus. Shepherd, W. G. (1983). The Complete Odes and Epodes. London: Penguin Classics. ISBN 978-0-14-044422-3. English verse translation. Watson, Lindsay (2003). A Commentary on Horace's Epodes. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199253241. Latin text with a commentary and introduction. West, Martin (2008). Horace: The Complete Odes and Epodes. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780192839428. English prose translation. References[edit] ^ a b Watson 2007, p. 94. ^ Mankin 1995, p. 12. ^ E.g. Epod. 14.7 and Carm. 1.16.24. ^ Bather & Stocks 2016, p. 2. ^ Albrecht 1994, p. 565. ^ Rudd 2004, p. 9. ^ a b Watson 2007, p. 93. ^ Trans. Fairclough (1926). ^ E.g. fr. 172–81 W. ^ West 1993, p. x. ^ Mankin 2010, p. 97. ^ West 1993, p. xvii–xviii. ^ Barchiesi 2001, p. 18–9. ^ Watson 2003, p. 45–6. ^ Rudd 2004, p. 14–6. ^ Watson 2003, p. 46. ^ Epod. 1.1–4. ^ Epod. 1.11–16. ^ Epod. 1.25–34. ^ Mankin 1995, p. 64. ^ Epod. 2.25–37. ^ Epod. 2.67–70. ^ "Harley MS 3534". British Library. Retrieved 12 August 2020. ^ Epod. 3.1–12. ^ Epod. 4.7. ^ Watson 2003, p. 150–1. ^ Epod. 5.35–7. ^ Oliensis 1991, p. 109. ^ Epod. 6.15–6. ^ Epod. 7.3–10. ^ Fitzgerald 1988, p. 1985–6. ^ Epod. 8.15–20. ^ Epod. 9.11–16. ^ Epod. 10.21–24. ^ Luck 1976, p. 122–3. ^ Henderson 1999, p. 6–7. ^ Epod. 13.11–18. ^ Epod. 14.6–8. ^ Watson 2003, p. 472. ^ Watson 2003, p. 20. ^ Epod. 17.53–81. ^ Fitzgerald 1988, p. 187–8. ^ Watson 2003, p. 129. ^ a b Watson 2007, p. 101. ^ Oliensis 1991, p. 119. ^ Oliensis 1991, p. 119-20. ^ Watson 2007, p. 98. ^ Oliensis 1991. ^ Bather & Stocks 2016, p. 11–12. ^ Mountford 2019, p. 5. ^ Bather & Stocks 2016, p. 27. ^ Watson 2003, p. 129–30. ^ Schmitzer 1994, p. 36. ^ Watson 2007, p. 93–4. ^ Oliensis 2016, p. 224–6. ^ Harrison 2019. ^ Oliensis 2016, p. 229–30. Works cited[edit] Albrecht, Michael von (1994). Geschichte der römischen Literatur. Teil 1 (in German). Boston and Berlin. doi:10.1515/9783111563794. (subscription required) Bather, Philippa; Stocks, Clare (2016). "Horace's Epodes". In Bather, Philippa; Stocks, Clare (eds.). Horace's Epodes: Contexts, Intertexts, and Reception. Oxford. pp. 2–29. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198746058.001.0001. (subscription required) Barchiesi, Alessandro (2001). "Horace and Iambos: The Poet as Literary Historian". In Cavarzere, Alberto; Aloni, Antonio; Barchiesi, Alessandro (eds.). Iambic Ideas: Essays on a Poetic Tradition from Archaic Greece to the Late Roman Empire. Lanham, MD. pp. 141–64. ISBN 9780742508170. Fairclough, H. R. (1926). Horace. Satires, Epistles, Art of Poetry. Cambridge, MA. (subscription required) Fitzgerald, William (1988). "Power and Impotence in Horace's Epodes". Ramus. 17 (2): 176–91. doi:10.1017/S0048671X00003143. (subscription required) Harrison, Stephen J. (2019). "Horace (Horatius Flaccus, Quintus), Roman poet, 65–8 BCE". In Whitmarsh, Timothy G. (ed.). Oxford Classical Dictionary Online. Oxford. (subscription required) Henderson, John (1999). "Horace talks rough and dirty: no comment (Epodes 8 & 12)". Scholia. 8 (1): 3–16. (subscription required) Luck, Georg (1976). "An Interpretation of Horace's Eleventh Epode". Illinois Classical Studies. 1: 122–6. JSTOR 23061872. (registration required) Mankin, David (1995). Horace. Epodes. Cambridge. Mankin, David (2010). "The Epodes: Genre, Themes, and Arrangement". In Davis, Gregson (ed.). A Companion to Horace. Chichester. pp. 91–104. Mountford, Peter (2019). Maecenas. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-367-13747-2. Oliensis, Ellen (1991). "Canidia, Canicula, and the Decorum of Horace's Epodes". Arethusa. 24 (1): 107–38. JSTOR 26309415. (registration required) Oliensis, Ellen (2016). "Scenes from the Afterlife of Horace's Epodes (c.1600–1900)". In Bather, Philippa; Stocks, Clare (eds.). Horace's Epodes: Contexts, Intertexts and Reception. Oxford. pp. 220–41. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198746058.003.0010. (subscription required) Schmitzer, Ulrich (1994). "Von Wölfen und Lämmern (Hor. Epod. 4)". In Koster, Severin (ed.). Horaz-Studien (in German). Erlangen. pp. 31–50. Rudd, Niall (2004). Horace. Odes and Epodes. Cambridge, MA. doi:10.4159/DLCL.horace-epodes.2004. (subscription required) Watson, Lindsay (2003). A Commentary on Horace's Epodes. Oxford. doi:10.1093/actrade/9780199253241.book.1. (subscription required) Watson, Lindsay (2007). "The Epodes: Horace's Archilochus?". In Harrison, Stephen J. (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge. pp. 93–104. doi:10.1017/CCOL0521830028.008. (subscription required) West, Martin L. (1993). Greek Lyric Poetry. Oxford. External links[edit]  Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: Epodi Harley MS 3534 (British Library) (in Latin) – C12 manuscript of Horace's complete works; the Epodes begin at f.38r v t e Works by Horace Poetry Satires Epodes Odes Epistles Carmen Saeculare Ars Poetica Collections Satires 2.5 Quote Ut pictura poesis Related Spring of Bandusium Authority control VIAF: 3188152139982411100007 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 3188152139982411100007 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Epodes_(Horace)&oldid=996044994" Categories: Latin poems Poems about sexuality 1st-century BC Latin books Poetry by Horace Roman Republican civil wars Satirical poems 30s BC 40s BC Anti-war books Fiction about witchcraft Utopian fiction Hidden categories: Good articles Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text CS1 Latin-language sources (la) CS1 German-language sources (de) Pages containing links to subscription-only content Pages with login required references or sources Articles with Latin-language sources (la) Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Français Italiano Latina Nederlands Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 24 December 2020, at 06:17 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8755	----	Andrew Marvell - Wikipedia Andrew Marvell From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search English Metaphysical poet, satirist and politician Andrew Marvell Andrew Marvell (between c. 1655 and c. 1660) Born (1621-03-31)31 March 1621 Winestead, England Died 16 August 1678(1678-08-16) (aged 57) London, England Occupation Poet Alma mater Trinity College, Cambridge Notable works "To His Coy Mistress", "The Garden", "An Horatian Ode" Andrew Marvell (/ˈmɑːrvəl, mɑːrˈvɛl/; 31 March 1621 – 16 August 1678) was an English Metaphysical poet, satirist and politician who sat in the House of Commons at various times between 1659 and 1678. During the Commonwealth period he was a colleague and friend of John Milton. His poems range from the love-song "To His Coy Mistress", to evocations of an aristocratic country house and garden in "Upon Appleton House" and "The Garden", the political address "An Horatian Ode upon Cromwell's Return from Ireland", and the later personal and political satires "Flecknoe" and "The Character of Holland". Contents 1 Early life 2 First poems and Marvell's time at Nun Appleton 3 Anglo-Dutch War and employment as Latin secretary 4 After the Restoration 5 Prose works 6 Views 7 Marvell's poetic style 8 In popular culture 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Early life[edit] Attributed to Sir Godfrey Kneller (who arrived in England in 1676), Trinity College, Cambridge Andrew Marvell Marvell was born in Winestead-in-Holderness, East Riding of Yorkshire, near the city of Kingston upon Hull, the son of a Church of England clergyman also named Andrew Marvell. The family moved to Hull when his father was appointed Lecturer at Holy Trinity Church there, and Marvell was educated at Hull Grammar School. A secondary school in the city, the Andrew Marvell Business and Enterprise College, is named after him.[1] At the age of 13, Marvell attended Trinity College, Cambridge and eventually received a BA degree.[2] A portrait of Marvell attributed to Godfrey Kneller hangs in Trinity College's collection.[3] Afterwards, from the middle of 1642 onwards, Marvell probably travelled in continental Europe. He may well have served as a tutor for an aristocrat on the Grand Tour, but the facts are not clear on this point. While England was embroiled in the civil war, Marvell seems to have remained on the continent until 1647. In Rome in 1645 he probably met the Villiers brothers, Lord Francis and the 2nd Duke of Buckingham, as well as Richard Flecknoe, about whom he would later on write a satirical poem.[4] It is not known exactly where his travels took him except that Milton later reported that Marvell had mastered four languages, including French, Italian and Spanish.[5] First poems and Marvell's time at Nun Appleton[edit] Marvell's first poems, which were written in Latin and Greek and published when he was still at Cambridge, lamented a visitation of the plague and celebrated the birth of a child to King Charles I and Queen Henrietta Maria. He only belatedly became sympathetic to the successive regimes during the Interregnum after Charles I's execution on 30 January 1649. His "Horatian Ode", a political poem dated to early 1650, responds with lament to the regicide even as it praises Oliver Cromwell's return from Ireland.[6][7][8] Circa 1650–52, Marvell served as tutor to the daughter of the Lord General Thomas Fairfax, who had recently relinquished command of the Parliamentary army to Cromwell. He lived during that time at Nun Appleton Hall, near York, where he continued to write poetry. One poem, "Upon Appleton House, To My Lord Fairfax", uses a description of the estate as a way of exploring Fairfax's and Marvell's own situation in a time of war and political change.[9] Probably the best-known poem he wrote at this time is "To His Coy Mistress". Anglo-Dutch War and employment as Latin secretary[edit] During the period of increasing tensions leading up to the First Anglo-Dutch War of 1652, Marvell wrote the satirical "Character of Holland," repeating the then-current stereotype of the Dutch as "drunken and profane": "This indigested vomit of the Sea,/ Fell to the Dutch by Just Propriety." He became a tutor to Cromwell's ward, William Dutton, in 1653, and moved to live with his pupil at the house of John Oxenbridge in Eton. Oxenbridge had made two trips to Bermuda, and it is thought that this inspired Marvell to write his poem Bermudas. He also wrote several poems in praise of Cromwell, who was by this time Lord Protector of England. In 1656 Marvell and Dutton travelled to France, to visit the Protestant Academy of Saumur.[10][11] In 1657, Marvell joined Milton, who by that time had lost his sight, in service as Latin secretary to Cromwell's Council of State at a salary of £200 a year, which represented financial security at that time. Oliver Cromwell died in 1658. He was succeeded as Lord Protector by his son Richard. In 1659 Marvell was elected Member of Parliament for Kingston upon Hull in the Third Protectorate Parliament.[12] He was paid a rate of 6 shillings, 8 pence per day during sittings of parliament, a financial support derived from the contributions of his constituency.[13] He was re-elected MP for Hull in 1660 for the Convention Parliament. After the Restoration[edit] A statue of Andrew Marvell, located in the Marketplace, Kingston upon Hull, UK The monarchy was restored to Charles II in 1660. Marvell avoided punishment for his own co-operation with republicanism, and he helped convince the government of Charles II not to execute John Milton for his antimonarchical writings and revolutionary activities.[14] The closeness of the relationship between the two former colleagues is indicated by the fact that Marvell contributed an eloquent prefatory poem, entitled "On Mr. Milton's Paradise Lost", to the second edition of Milton's epic Paradise Lost. According to a biographer: "Skilled in the arts of self-preservation, he was not a toady."[15] In 1661 Marvell was re-elected MP for Hull in the Cavalier Parliament.[12] He eventually came to write several long and bitterly satirical verses against the corruption of the court. Although circulated in manuscript form, some finding anonymous publication in print, they were too politically sensitive and thus dangerous to be published under his name until well after his death. Marvell took up opposition to the 'court party', and satirised them anonymously. In his longest verse satire, Last Instructions to a Painter, written in 1667, Marvell responded to the political corruption that had contributed to English failures during the Second Anglo-Dutch War. The poem did not find print publication until after the Revolution of 1688–9. The poem instructs an imaginary painter how to picture the state without a proper navy to defend them, led by men without intelligence or courage, a corrupt and dissolute court, and dishonest officials. Of another such satire, Samuel Pepys, himself a government official, commented in his diary, "Here I met with a fourth Advice to a Painter upon the coming in of the Dutch and the End of the War, that made my heart ake to read, it being too sharp and so true."[16] From 1659 until his death in 1678, Marvell was serving as London agent for the Hull Trinity House, a shipmasters' guild.[citation needed] He went on two missions to the continent, one to the Dutch Republic and the other encompassing Russia, Sweden, and Denmark.[citation needed] He spent some time living in a cottage on Highgate Hill in north London, where his time in the area is recorded by a bronze plaque that bears the following inscription: Four feet below this spot is the stone step, formerly the entrance to the cottage in which lived Andrew Marvell, poet, wit, and satirist; colleague with John Milton in the foreign or Latin secretaryship during the Commonwealth; and for about twenty years M.P. for Hull. Born at Winestead, Yorkshire, 31st March, 1621, died in London, 18th August, 1678, and buried in the church of St. Giles-in-the-Fields. This memorial is placed here by the London County Council, December, 1898.[17] A floral sundial in the nearby Lauderdale House bears an inscription quoting lines from his poem "The Garden".[18] He died suddenly in 1678, while in attendance at a popular meeting of his old constituents at Hull. His health had previously been remarkably good; and it was supposed by many that he was poisoned by some of his political or clerical enemies. Marvell was buried in the church of St Giles in the Fields in central London. His monument, erected by his grateful constituency, bears the following inscription: Near this place lyeth the body of Andrew Marvell, Esq., a man so endowed by Nature, so improved by Education, Study, and Travel, so consummated by Experience, that, joining the peculiar graces of Wit and Learning, with a singular penetration and strength of judgment; and exercising all these in the whole course of his life, with an unutterable steadiness in the ways of Virtue, he became the ornament and example of his age, beloved by good men, feared by bad, admired by all, though imitated by few; and scarce paralleled by any. But a Tombstone can neither contain his character, nor is Marble necessary to transmit it to posterity; it is engraved in the minds of this generation, and will be always legible in his inimitable writings, nevertheless. He having served twenty years successfully in Parliament, and that with such Wisdom, Dexterity, and Courage, as becomes a true Patriot, the town of Kingston-upon-Hull, from whence he was deputed to that Assembly, lamenting in his death the public loss, have erected this Monument of their Grief and their Gratitude, 1688. Prose works[edit] Marvell also wrote anonymous prose satires criticizing the monarchy and Roman Catholicism, defending Puritan dissenters, and denouncing censorship. The Rehearsal Transpros'd, an attack on Samuel Parker, was published in two parts in 1672 and 1673. In 1676, Mr. Smirke; or The Divine in Mode, a work critical of intolerance within the Church of England, was published together with a "Short Historical Essay, concerning General Councils, Creeds, and Impositions, in matters of Religion." Marvell's pamphlet An Account of the Growth of Popery and Arbitrary Government in England, published in late 1677, alleged that: "There has now for diverse Years, a design been carried on, to change the Lawfull Government of England into an Absolute Tyranny, and to convert the established Protestant Religion into down-right Popery".[19] John Kenyon described it as "one of the most influential pamphlets of the decade"[20] and G. M. Trevelyan called it: "A fine pamphlet, which throws light on causes provocative of the formation of the Whig party".[21] A 1678 work published anonymously ("by a Protestant") in defense of John Howe against the attack of his fellow-dissenter, the severe Calvinist Thomas Danson, is also probably by Marvell. Its full title is Remarks upon a late disingenuous discourse, writ by one T.D. under the pretence de causa Dei, and of answering Mr. John Howe's letter and postscript of God's prescience, &c., affirming, as the Protestant doctrine, that God doth by efficacious influence universally move and determine men to all their actions, even to those that are most wicked. Views[edit] Although Marvell became a Parliamentarian and was opposed to episcopacy, he was not a Puritan. Later in life especially, he seems to have been a conforming Anglican.[22] Marvell positively identifies himself as "a Protestant" in pamphlets.[23] He had flirted briefly with Catholicism as a youth,[24] and was described in his thirties (on the Saumur visit) as "a notable English Italo-Machiavellian".[25][26] His strong Biblical influence is clear in poems such as "The Garden", the "Coronet" and "The Bermudas".[27] Vincent Palmieri noted that Marvell is sometimes known as the "British Aristides" for his incorruptible integrity in life and poverty at death. Many of his poems were not published until 1681, three years after his death, from a collection owned by Mary Palmer, his housekeeper. After Marvell's death she laid dubious claim to having been his wife, from the time of a secret marriage in 1667.[28] Marvell's poetic style[edit] Marvell is said to have adhered to the established stylized forms of his contemporary neoclassical tradition. These include the carpe diem lyric tradition which also forms the basis of his famous lyric "To His Coy Mistress". He adopted familiar forms and infused them with his unique conceits, analogies, reflections and preoccupations with larger questions about life and death[29] T.S. Eliot wrote of Marvell's style that "It is more than a technical accomplishment, or the vocabulary and syntax of an epoch; it is, what we have designated tentatively as wit, a tough reasonableness beneath the slight lyric grace". He also identified Marvell and the Metaphysical school with the "dissociation of sensibility" that occurred in 17th-century English literature; Eliot described this trend as "something which...happened to the mind of England...it is the difference between the intellectual poet and the reflective poet".[30] Poets increasingly developed a self-conscious relationship to tradition, which took the form of a new emphasis on craftsmanship of expression and an idiosyncratic freedom in allusions to Classical and Biblical sources. "To His Coy Mistress", Marvell's most celebrated poem, combines an old poetic conceit (the persuasion of the speaker's lover by means of a carpe diem philosophy) with Marvell's typically vibrant imagery and easy command of rhyming couplets. Other works incorporate topical satire and religious themes. In popular culture[edit] His work is referenced in the 1997 British film The Serpent's Kiss and quoted in the 1946 British film A Matter of Life and Death. It is also referenced in Audrey Niffenegger's The Time Traveler's Wife and Emily Colin's The Memory Thief. Several works of science fiction, fantasy, and mystery allude to "To His Coy Mistress". In 2003, Christopher Peachment published "The Green and the Gold", a first-person fictional narrative following Marvell's life. See also[edit] List of works by Andrew Marvell The Marvell College Andrew Marvel (1812 ship) - ship built at Kingston upon Hull that made some 24 voyages as a Greenland whaler References[edit] ^ "Andrew Marvell College". ^ "Marvell, Andrew (MRVL633A)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge. ^ "Trinity College, University of Cambridge". BBC Your Paintings. Archived from the original on 11 May 2014. Retrieved 12 February 2018. ^ Edward Chaney, The Grand Tour and the Great Rebellion (Geneva, 1985), pp. 347-50. ^ Nicholas Murray, Andrew Marvell (1999), pp. 24–35. ^ Full title "An Horatian Ode upon Cromwell's Return from Ireland". ^ "Online text". Archived from the original on 25 October 2009. ^ Understanding Poetry (Brooks/Penn Warren): Marvell's Horatian Ode ^ Marvell, Andrew. "Upon Appleton House, to my Lord Fairfax". Luminarium. Retrieved 6 August 2017. ^ Andrew Marvell: Chronology of Important Dates ^ Nicholas Murray, Andrew Marvell (1999), pp. 92–3. ^ a b History of Parliament Online – Marvell, Andrew ^ John Stuart Mill, Considerations on Representative Government, Chapter X, last paragraph p.369 Oxford World's Classic edition, On Liberty And Other Essays, 1991, reed. 1998 ^ Andrew Crozier's introduction to The Works of Andrew Marvell, Ware 1995, p.vi ^ Nicholas Murray, Andrew Marvell (1999), p. 117. ^ 16 September 1667, The Diary of Samuel Pepys, Volume 2, p.657 ^ Andrew Marvell's cottage : London Remembers, Aiming to capture all memorials in London ^ Poetry Landmarks - Individual Landmark ^ Andrew Marvell, An Account of the Growth of Popery and Arbitrary Government in England (Gregg International Publishers Limited, 1971), p. 3. ^ John Kenyon, The Popish Plot (Phoenix, 2000), p. 24. ^ G. M. Trevelyan, England under the Stuarts (Routledge, 2002), p. 513. ^ http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-18242 ^ http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-1824 ^ John Dixon Hunt Andrew Marvell: his life and writings (Paul Elek, 1978) pp. 24–25 ^ http://www.english.ox.ac.uk/Old%20Site/lists/MarvellDates.htm Archived 13 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine ^ Robert R. Hay, An Andrew Marvell Companion (Routledge, 1998), p. 101. ^ http://www.gradesaver.com/andrew-marvell-poems/study-guide/summary-bermudas ^ Nicholas Murray, Andrew Marvell (1999), pp. 296–9. ^ Moldenhauer, Josheph J. (1968). "The Voices of Seduction in "To His Coy Mistress": A Rhetorical Analysis". Texas Studies in Literature and Language. 10: 189–206 – via JSTOR. ^ T S. Eliot."The Metaphysical Poets" and "Andrew Marvell". Selected Prose of T.S. Eliot. ed. Frank Kermode. Harcourt, 1975. Further reading[edit] A. B. Chambers (1991). Andrew Marvell and Edmund Waller: Seventeenth-Century Praise and Restoration Satire. University Park, PA. Warren L. Chernaik (1983). The poet's time: politics and religion in the work of Andrew Marvell. Cambridge University Press. Will Davenport. The Painter. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-00-651460-X. This novel about Rembrandt features Andrew Marvell as a character. Kenneth R. Friedenreich (ed.) (1978). Tercentenary Essays in Honor of Andrew Marvell. Hamden, CT. Nicholas McDowell (2008). Poetry and Allegiance in the English Civil Wars: Marvell and the Cause of Wit. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Nigel Smith (2010). Andrew Marvell: The Chameleon. New Haven, CT. ISBN 978-0-300-11221-4. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Andrew Marvell Wikisource has original works written by or about: Andrew Marvell Works by Marvell: Works by Andrew Marvell at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Andrew Marvell at Internet Archive Works by Andrew Marvell at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Poems: Luminarium Correspondence and prose works: in Grosart's edition (via Google Books) Biography: Poetry Foundation; Andrew Marvell at Project Gutenberg by Augustine Birrell Andrew Marvell's Grave Portraits of Andrew Marvell at the National Portrait Gallery, London "Archival material relating to Andrew Marvell". UK National Archives. Andrew Marvell, Sir Thomas Widdrington and Appleton House (Notes and Queries 1996); www.phoenixlodger.co.uk Andrew Marvell at Nun Appleton (TLS 1994); www.phoenixlodger.co.uk v t e Poetry by Andrew Marvell List List of works by Andrew Marvell Poems "The Garden" "The Mower's Song" "To His Coy Mistress" "Upon Appleton House" "On Mr. Milton's Paradise Lost" v t e Metaphysical poetry Major poets John Donne (1572–1631) George Herbert (1593–1633) Andrew Marvell (1621–1678) Abraham Cowley (1618–1667) Robert Southwell (c. 1561–1595) Richard Crashaw (c. 1613–1649) Thomas Traherne (1636/1637–1674) Henry Vaughan (1622–1695) Minor poets Anne Bradstreet (c. 1612–1672) Thomas Carew (1595–1640) George Chapman (c. 1559–1634) John Hall (c. 1627–1656) Edward Herbert (1583–1648) Richard Leigh (1649-1728) Katherine Philips (1632–1664) Sir John Suckling (1609–1642) Edward Taylor (c. 1642–1729) Critics Samuel Johnson T. S. Eliot Authority control BIBSYS: 90116297 BNE: XX1023536 BNF: cb11914924h (data) CANTIC: a10120798 CiNii: DA01564624 GND: 118578448 ISNI: 0000 0001 0889 3577 LCCN: n80010195 LNB: 000021863 MBA: 94062291-2cbb-4284-b539-3a7183029b28 NDL: 00471163 NKC: jn19990005453 NLA: 35331879 NLI: 000606429 NLK: KAC201829386 NTA: 068354215 SELIBR: 205428 SNAC: w61z4975 SUDOC: 027014460 Trove: 914638 VIAF: 39381003 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n80010195 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Andrew_Marvell&oldid=996209864" Categories: 1621 births 1678 deaths 17th-century English poets 17th-century male writers Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge English male poets English MPs 1659 English MPs 1660 English MPs 1661–1679 People educated at Hull Grammar School Politicians from Kingston upon Hull Writers from Kingston upon Hull Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from December 2013 Use British English from December 2013 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2012 Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages العربية تۆرکجه Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano ಕನ್ನಡ Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Suomi Svenska Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 25 December 2020, at 04:39 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8764	----	Plutarch - Wikipedia Plutarch From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Plutarch (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Plutarchy. Hellenistic Greek biographer, philosopher, & essayist Plutarch Modern portrait at Chaeronea, based on a bust from Delphi tentatively identified as Plutarch. Born c. AD 46 Chaeronea, Boeotia Died after AD 119 (aged 73–74) Delphi, Phocis Occupation Biographer, essayist, philosopher, priest, ambassador, magistrate Subject Biography, various Literary movement Middle Platonism, Hellenistic literature Plutarch (/ˈpluːtɑːrk/; Greek: Πλούταρχος, Ploútarchos; Koine Greek: [ˈplutarkʰos]; AD 46–after 119)[1] was a Greek Middle Platonist philosopher,[2] biographer, essayist, and priest at the Temple of Apollo. He is known primarily for his Parallel Lives, a series of biographies of illustrious Greeks and Romans, and Moralia, a collection of essays and speeches.[3] Upon becoming a Roman citizen, he was named Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus (Λούκιος Μέστριος Πλούταρχος).[a] Contents 1 Life 1.1 Early life 1.2 Work as magistrate and ambassador 1.3 Late period: Priest at Delphi 2 Works 2.1 Lives of the Roman emperors 2.2 Parallel Lives 2.2.1 Life of Alexander 2.2.2 Life of Caesar 2.2.3 Life of Pyrrhus 2.3 Moralia 2.3.1 Spartan lives and sayings 2.3.2 Questions 2.3.3 On the Malice of Herodotus 2.4 Other works 2.5 Lost works 3 Philosophy 4 Influence 5 Translations of Lives and Moralia 5.1 French translations 5.2 English translations 5.3 Italian translations 5.4 Latin translations 5.5 German translations 5.5.1 Hieronymus Emser 5.5.2 Gottlob Benedict von Schirach 5.5.3 Johann Friedrich Salomon Kaltwasser 5.5.4 Subsequent German translations 5.6 Hebrew translations 6 Pseudo-Plutarch 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 Sources 11 Further reading 12 External links Life[edit] Early life[edit] Ruins of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi, where Plutarch served as one of the priests responsible for interpreting the predictions of the Pythia Plutarch was born to a prominent family in the small town of Chaeronea, about 80 kilometres (50 mi) east of Delphi, in the Greek region of Boeotia. His family was wealthy. The name of Plutarch's father has not been preserved, but based on the common Greek custom of repeating a name in alternate generations, it was probably Nikarchus (Nίκαρχoς). The name of Plutarch's grandfather was Lamprias, as he attested in Moralia[4] and in his Life of Antony. His brothers, Timon and Lamprias, are frequently mentioned in his essays and dialogues, which speak of Timon in particular in the most affectionate terms. Rualdus, in his 1624 work Life of Plutarchus, recovered the name of Plutarch's wife, Timoxena, from internal evidence afforded by his writings. A letter is still extant, addressed by Plutarch to his wife, bidding her not to grieve too much at the death of their two-year-old daughter, who was named Timoxena after her mother. He hinted at a belief in reincarnation in that letter of consolation.[5] The exact number of his sons is not certain, although two of them, Autobulus and the second Plutarch, are often mentioned. Plutarch's treatise De animae procreatione in Timaeo is dedicated to them, and the marriage of his son Autobulus is the occasion of one of the dinner parties recorded in the "Table Talk". Another person, Soklarus, is spoken of in terms which seem to imply that he was Plutarch's son, but this is nowhere definitely stated. His treatise on marriage questions, addressed to Eurydice and Pollianus, seems to speak of the latter as having been recently an inmate of his house, but without any clear evidence on whether she was his daughter or not.[6] Plutarch was the uncle of Sextus of Chaeronea, who was one of the teachers of Marcus Aurelius, and who may have been the same person as the philosopher Sextus Empiricus. Plutarch studied mathematics and philosophy in Athens under Ammonius from 66 to 67.[7] Plutarch was a vegetarian, though how long and how strictly he adhered to this diet is unclear.[8][9] He wrote about the ethics of meat-eating in two discourses in Moralia.[10] At some point, Plutarch received Roman citizenship. As evidenced by his new name, Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus, his sponsor for citizenship was Lucius Mestrius Florus, a Roman of consular status whom Plutarch also used as a historical source for his Life of Otho.[11] He lived most of his life at Chaeronea, and was initiated into the mysteries of the Greek god Apollo. For many years Plutarch served as one of the two priests at the temple of Apollo at Delphi, the site of the famous Delphic Oracle, twenty miles from his home. He probably took part in the Eleusinian Mysteries.[12] By his writings and lectures Plutarch became a celebrity in the Roman Empire, yet he continued to reside where he was born, and actively participated in local affairs, even serving as mayor. At his country estate, guests from all over the empire congregated for serious conversation, presided over by Plutarch in his marble chair. Many of these dialogues were recorded and published, and the 78 essays and other works which have survived are now known collectively as the Moralia.[13] Work as magistrate and ambassador[edit] In addition to his duties as a priest of the Delphic temple, Plutarch was also a magistrate at Chaeronea and he represented his home town on various missions to foreign countries during his early adult years. Plutarch held the office of archon in his native municipality, probably only an annual one which he likely served more than once. He busied himself with all the little matters of the town and undertook the humblest of duties.[14] The Suda, a medieval Greek encyclopedia, states that Emperor Trajan made Plutarch procurator of Illyria. However, most historians consider this unlikely, since Illyria was not a procuratorial province, and Plutarch probably did not speak Illyrian.[15] According to the 8th/9th-century historian George Syncellus, late in Plutarch's life, Emperor Hadrian appointed him nominal procurator of Achaea – which entitled him to wear the vestments and ornaments of a consul.[16] Late period: Priest at Delphi[edit] Portrait of a philosopher and Hermaic stele at Delphi Museum Plutarch spent the last thirty years of his life serving as a priest in Delphi. He thus connected part of his literary work with the sanctuary of Apollo, the processes of oracle-giving and the personalities who lived or traveled there. One of his most important works is the "Why Pythia does not give oracles in verse" (Moralia 11) ( "Περὶ τοῦ μὴ χρᾶν ἔμμετρα νῦν τὴν Πυθίαν").[17] Even more important is the dialogue "On the E in Delphi" ("Περὶ τοῦ Εἶ τοῦ ἐν Δελφοῖς"),[18] which features Ammonius, a Platonic philosopher and teacher of Plutarch, and Lambrias, Plutarch's brother. According to Ammonius, the letter E written on the temple of Apollo in Delphi originated from the following fact: the wise men of antiquity, whose maxims were also written on the walls of the vestibule of the temple, were not seven but actually five: Chilon, Solon, Thales, Bias and Pittakos. However, the tyrants Cleobulos and Periandros used their political power in order to be incorporated in the list. Thus, the E, which corresponds to number 5, constituted an acknowledgment that the Delphic maxims actually originated from the five real wise men. The portrait of a philosopher exhibited at the exit of the Archaeological Museum of Delphi, dating to the 2nd century AD, had been in the past identified with Plutarch. The man, although bearded, is depicted at a relatively young age. His hair and beard are rendered in coarse volumes and thin incisions. The gaze is deep, due to the heavy eyelids and the incised pupils. The portrait is no longer thought to represent Plutarch. But a fragmentary hermaic stele next to the portrait probably did once bear a portrait of Plutarch, since it is inscribed, "The Delphians along with the Chaeroneans dedicated this (image of) Plutarch, following the precepts of the Amphictyony" ("Δελφοὶ Χαιρωνεῦσιν ὁμοῦ Πλούταρχον ἔθηκαν | τοῖς Ἀμφικτυόνων δόγμασι πειθόμενοι" Syll.3 843=CID 4, no. 151). Works[edit] Plutarch's surviving works were intended for Greek speakers throughout the Roman Empire, not just Greeks.[19] Lives of the Roman emperors[edit] Plutarch in the Nuremberg Chronicle Plutarch's first biographical works were the Lives of the Roman Emperors from Augustus to Vitellius. Of these, only the Lives of Galba and Otho survive. The Lives of Tiberius and Nero are extant only as fragments, provided by Damascius (Life of Tiberius, cf. his Life of Isidore)[20] and Plutarch himself (Life of Nero, cf. Galba 2.1), respectively. These early emperors’ biographies were probably published under the Flavian dynasty or during the reign of Nerva (AD 96–98). There is reason to believe that the two Lives still extant, those of Galba and Otho, "ought to be considered as a single work."[21] Therefore, they do not form a part of the Plutarchian canon of single biographies – as represented by the Life of Aratus of Sicyon and the Life of Artaxerxes II (the biographies of Hesiod, Pindar, Crates and Daiphantus were lost). Unlike in these biographies, in Galba-Otho the individual characters of the persons portrayed are not depicted for their own sake but instead serve as an illustration of an abstract principle; namely the adherence or non-adherence to Plutarch's morally founded ideal of governing as a Princeps (cf. Galba 1.3; Moralia 328D–E).[22] Arguing from the perspective of Platonic political philosophy (cf. Republic 375E, 410D-E, 411E-412A, 442B-C), in Galba-Otho Plutarch reveals the constitutional principles of the Principate in the time of the civil war after Nero's death. While morally questioning the behavior of the autocrats, he also gives an impression of their tragic destinies, ruthlessly competing for the throne and finally destroying each other.[22] "The Caesars' house in Rome, the Palatium, received in a shorter space of time no less than four Emperors", Plutarch writes, "passing, as it were, across the stage, and one making room for another to enter" (Galba 1).[23] Galba-Otho was handed down through different channels. It can be found in the appendix to Plutarch's Parallel Lives as well as in various Moralia manuscripts, most prominently in Maximus Planudes' edition where Galba and Otho appear as Opera XXV and XXVI. Thus it seems reasonable to maintain that Galba-Otho was from early on considered as an illustration of a moral-ethical approach, possibly even by Plutarch himself.[24] Parallel Lives[edit] A page from the 1470 Ulrich Han printing of Plutarch's Parallel Lives Main article: Parallel Lives Plutarch's best-known work is the Parallel Lives, a series of biographies of illustrious Greeks and Romans, arranged in pairs to illuminate their common moral virtues and vices, thus it being more of an insight into human nature than a historical account.[25] The surviving Lives contain 23 pairs, each with one Greek Life and one Roman Life, as well as four unpaired single Lives. As is explained in the opening paragraph of his Life of Alexander, Plutarch was not concerned with history so much as the influence of character, good or bad, on the lives and destinies of men. Whereas sometimes he barely touched on epoch-making events, he devoted much space to charming anecdote and incidental triviality, reasoning that this often said far more for his subjects than even their most famous accomplishments. He sought to provide rounded portraits, likening his craft to that of a painter; indeed, he went to tremendous lengths (often leading to tenuous comparisons) to draw parallels between physical appearance and moral character. In many ways, he must be counted amongst the earliest moral philosophers. Some of the Lives, such as those of Heracles, Philip II of Macedon, Epaminondas, Scipio Africanus, Scipio Aemilianus and possibly Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus no longer exist; many of the remaining Lives are truncated, contain obvious lacunae or have been tampered with by later writers. Extant Lives include those on Solon, Themistocles, Aristides, Agesilaus II, Pericles, Alcibiades, Nicias, Demosthenes, Pelopidas, Philopoemen, Timoleon, Dion of Syracuse, Eumenes, Alexander the Great, Pyrrhus of Epirus, Romulus, Numa Pompilius, Coriolanus, Theseus, Aemilius Paullus, Tiberius Gracchus, Gaius Gracchus, Gaius Marius, Sulla, Sertorius, Lucullus, Pompey, Julius Caesar, Cicero, Cato the Elder, Mark Antony, and Marcus Junius Brutus. Life of Alexander[edit] Plutarch's Life of Alexander, written as a parallel to that of Julius Caesar, is one of only five extant tertiary sources on the Macedonian conqueror Alexander the Great. It includes anecdotes and descriptions of events that appear in no other source, just as Plutarch's portrait of Numa Pompilius, the putative second king of Rome, holds much that is unique on the early Roman calendar. Plutarch devotes a great deal of space to Alexander's drive and desire, and strives to determine how much of it was presaged in his youth. He also draws extensively on the work of Lysippus, Alexander's favourite sculptor, to provide what is probably the fullest and most accurate description of the conqueror's physical appearance. When it comes to his character, Plutarch emphasizes his unusual degree of self-control and scorn for luxury: "He desired not pleasure or wealth, but only excellence and glory." As the narrative progresses, however, the subject incurs less admiration from his biographer and the deeds that it recounts become less savoury. The murder of Cleitus the Black, which Alexander instantly and deeply regretted, is commonly cited to this end. Life of Caesar[edit] Together with Suetonius's The Twelve Caesars, and Caesar's own works de Bello Gallico and de Bello Civili, this Life is the main account of Julius Caesar's feats by ancient historians. Plutarch starts by telling of the audacity of Caesar and his refusal to dismiss Cinna's daughter, Cornelia. Other important parts are those containing his military deeds, accounts of battles and Caesar's capacity of inspiring the soldiers. His soldiers showed such good will and zeal in his service that those who in their previous campaigns had been in no way superior to others were invincible and irresistible in confronting every danger to enhance Caesar's fame. Such a man, for instance, was Acilius, who, in the sea-fight at Massalia, boarded a hostile ship and had his right hand cut off with a sword, but clung with the other hand to his shield, and dashing it into the faces of his foes, routed them all and got possession of the vessel. Such a man, again, was Cassius Scaeva, who, in the battle at Dyrrhachium, had his eye struck out with an arrow, his shoulder transfixed with one javelin and his thigh with another, and received on his shield the blows of one hundred and thirty missiles. In this plight, he called the enemy to him as though he would surrender. Two of them, accordingly, coming up, he lopped off the shoulder of one with his sword, smote the other in the face and put him to flight, and came off safely himself with the aid of his comrades. Again, in Britain, when the enemy had fallen upon the foremost centurions, who had plunged into a watery marsh, a soldier, while Caesar in person was watching the battle, dashed into the midst of the fight, displayed many conspicuous deeds of daring, and rescued the centurions, after the Barbarians had been routed. Then he himself, making his way with difficulty after all the rest, plunged into the muddy current, and at last, without his shield, partly swimming and partly wading, got across. Caesar and his company were amazed and came to meet the soldier with cries of joy; but he, in great dejection, and with a burst of tears, cast himself at Caesar's feet, begging pardon for the loss of his shield. Again, in Africa, Scipio captured a ship of Caesar's in which Granius Petro, who had been appointed quaestor, was sailing. Of the rest of the passengers Scipio made booty, but told the quaestor that he offered him his life. Granius, however, remarking that it was the custom with Caesar's soldiers not to receive but to offer mercy, killed himself with a blow of his sword. — Life of Caesar, XVI However, this Life shows few differences between Suetonius' work and Caesar's own works (see De Bello Gallico and De Bello Civili). Sometimes, Plutarch quotes directly from the De Bello Gallico and even tells us of the moments when Caesar was dictating his works. In the final part of this Life, Plutarch recounts details of Caesar's assassination. The book ends by telling the destiny of his murderers, just after his detailed account of the scene when a phantom appeared to Brutus at night.[26] Life of Pyrrhus[edit] Plutarch's Life of Pyrrhus is a key text because it is the main historical account on Roman history for the period from 293 to 264 BC, for which neither Dionysius nor Livy have surviving texts.[27] "It is not histories I am writing, but lives; and in the most glorious deeds there is not always an indication of virtue or vice, indeed a small thing like a phrase or a jest often makes a greater revelation of a character than battles where thousands die." Moralia[edit] Moralia, 1531 Main article: Moralia The remainder of Plutarch's surviving work is collected under the title of the Moralia (loosely translated as Customs and Mores). It is an eclectic collection of seventy-eight essays and transcribed speeches, including On Fraternal Affection—a discourse on honour and affection of siblings toward each other, On the Fortune or the Virtue of Alexander the Great—an important adjunct to his Life of the great king, On the Worship of Isis and Osiris (a crucial source of information on Egyptian religious rites),[28] along with more philosophical treatises, such as On the Decline of the Oracles, On the Delays of the Divine Vengeance, On Peace of Mind and lighter fare, such as Odysseus and Gryllus, a humorous dialogue between Homer's Odysseus and one of Circe's enchanted pigs. The Moralia was composed first, while writing the Lives occupied much of the last two decades of Plutarch's own life. Spartan lives and sayings[edit] Since Spartans wrote no history prior to the Hellenistic period — their only extant literature is fragments of 7th-century lyrics — Plutarch's five Spartan lives and Sayings of Spartans and Sayings of Spartan Women, rooted in sources that have since disappeared, are some of the richest sources for historians of Lacedaemonia.[29] But while they are important, they are also controversial. Plutarch lived centuries after the Sparta he writes about (and a full millennium separates him from the earliest events he records) and even though he visited Sparta, many of the ancient customs he reports had been long abandoned, so he never actually saw of what he wrote.[29] Plutarch's sources themselves can be problematic. As the historians Sarah Pomeroy, Stanley Burstein, Walter Donlan, and Jennifer Tolbert Roberts have written, "Plutarch was influenced by histories written after the decline of Sparta and marked by nostalgia for a happier past, real or imagined."[29] Turning to Plutarch himself, they write, "the admiration writers like Plutarch and Xenophon felt for Spartan society led them to exaggerate its monolithic nature, minimizing departures from ideals of equality and obscuring patterns of historical change."[29] Thus the Spartan egalitarianism and superhuman immunity to pain that have seized the popular imagination are likely myths, and their main architect is Plutarch. While flawed, Plutarch is nonetheless indispensable as one of the only ancient sources of information on Spartan life. Pomeroy et al. conclude that Plutarch's works on Sparta, while they must be treated with skepticism, remain valuable for their "large quantities of information" and these historians concede that "Plutarch's writings on Sparta, more than those of any other ancient author, have shaped later views of Sparta", despite their potential to misinform. He was also referenced in saying unto Sparta, “The beast will feed again.”[29] Questions[edit] Book IV of the Moralia contains the Roman and Greek Questions (Αἰτίαι Ῥωμαϊκαί and Αἰτίαι Ἑλλήνων). The customs of Romans and Greeks are illuminated in little essays that pose questions such as 'Why were patricians not permitted to live on the Capitoline?' (no. 91)[30] and then suggests answers to them. On the Malice of Herodotus[edit] A bust of the early Greek historian Herodotus, whom Plutarch criticized in On the Malice of Herodotus In On the Malice of Herodotus Plutarch criticizes the historian Herodotus for all manner of prejudice and misrepresentation. It has been called the "first instance in literature of the slashing review."[31] The 19th-century English historian George Grote considered this essay a serious attack upon the works of Herodotus, and speaks of the "honourable frankness which Plutarch calls his malignity."[32] Plutarch makes some palpable hits, catching Herodotus out in various errors, but it is also probable that it was merely a rhetorical exercise, in which Plutarch plays devil's advocate to see what could be said against so favourite and well-known a writer.[6] According to Plutarch scholar R. H. Barrow, Herodotus’ real failing in Plutarch's eyes was to advance any criticism at all of those states that saved Greece from Persia. “Plutarch”, he concluded, “is fanatically biased in favor of the Greek cities; they can do no wrong.”[33] Other works[edit] Symposiacs[34] (Συμποσιακά); Convivium Septem Sapientium. Dialogue on Love (Ερωτικος); Latin name = Amatorius. Lost works[edit] The lost works of Plutarch are determined by references in his own texts to them and from other authors' references over time. Parts of the Lives and what would be considered parts of the Moralia have been lost. The 'Catalogue of Lamprias', an ancient list of works attributed to Plutarch, lists 227 works, of which 78 have come down to us.[35] The Romans loved the Lives. Enough copies were written out over the centuries so that a copy of most of the lives has survived to the present day, but there are traces of twelve more Lives that are now lost.[36] Plutarch's general procedure for the Lives was to write the life of a prominent Greek, then cast about for a suitable Roman parallel, and end with a brief comparison of the Greek and Roman lives. Currently, only 19 of the parallel lives end with a comparison, while possibly they all did at one time. Also missing are many of his Lives which appear in a list of his writings: those of Hercules, the first pair of Parallel Lives, Scipio Africanus and Epaminondas, and the companions to the four solo biographies. Even the lives of such important figures as Augustus, Claudius and Nero have not been found and may be lost forever.[31][37] Lost works that would have been part of the Moralia include "Whether One Who Suspends Judgment on Everything Is Condemned to Inaction", "On Pyrrho’s Ten Modes", and "On the Difference between the Pyrrhonians and the Academics".[38] Philosophy[edit] "The soul, being eternal, after death is like a caged bird that has been released. If it has been a long time in the body, and has become tame by many affairs and long habit, the soul will immediately take another body and once again become involved in the troubles of the world. The worst thing about old age is that the soul's memory of the other world grows dim, while at the same time its attachment to things of this world becomes so strong that the soul tends to retain the form that it had in the body. But that soul which remains only a short time within a body, until liberated by the higher powers, quickly recovers its fire and goes on to higher things." Plutarch (The Consolation, Moralia) Plutarch was a Platonist, but was open to the influence of the Peripatetics, and in some details even to Stoicism despite his criticism of their principles.[39] He rejected only Epicureanism absolutely.[39] He attached little importance to theoretical questions and doubted the possibility of ever solving them.[40] He was more interested in moral and religious questions.[40] In opposition to Stoic materialism and Epicurean atheism he cherished a pure idea of God that was more in accordance with Plato.[40] He adopted a second principle (Dyad) in order to explain the phenomenal world.[40] This principle he sought, however, not in any indeterminate matter but in the evil world-soul which has from the beginning been bound up with matter, but in the creation was filled with reason and arranged by it.[40] Thus it was transformed into the divine soul of the world, but continued to operate as the source of all evil.[40] He elevated God above the finite world, and thus daemons became for him agents of God's influence on the world. He strongly defends freedom of the will, and the immortality of the soul.[40] Platonic-Peripatetic ethics were upheld by Plutarch against the opposing theories of the Stoics and Epicureans.[40] The most characteristic feature of Plutarch's ethics is, however, its close connection with religion.[41] However pure Plutarch's idea of God is, and however vivid his description of the vice and corruption which superstition causes, his warm religious feelings and his distrust of human powers of knowledge led him to believe that God comes to our aid by direct revelations, which we perceive the more clearly the more completely that we refrain in "enthusiasm" from all action; this made it possible for him to justify popular belief in divination in the way which had long been usual among the Stoics.[41] His attitude to popular religion was similar. The gods of different peoples are merely different names for one and the same divine Being and the powers that serve it.[41] The myths contain philosophical truths which can be interpreted allegorically.[41] Thus Plutarch sought to combine the philosophical and religious conception of things and to remain as close as possible to tradition.[41] Plutarch was the teacher of Favorinus. Influence[edit] External video Shakespeare: Metamorphosis – Plutarch’s “Lives” (1579), Senate House Library[42] Plutarch's writings had an enormous influence on English and French literature. Shakespeare paraphrased parts of Thomas North's translation of selected Lives in his plays, and occasionally quoted from them verbatim.[43] Jean-Jacques Rousseau quotes from Plutarch in the 1762 Emile, or On Education, a treatise on the education of the whole person for citizenship. Rousseau introduces a passage from Plutarch in support of his position against eating meat: "'You ask me,' said Plutarch, 'why Pythagoras abstained from eating the flesh of beasts...'"[44] Ralph Waldo Emerson and the Transcendentalists were greatly influenced by the Moralia and in his glowing introduction to the five-volume, 19th-century edition, he called the Lives "a bible for heroes".[45] He also opined that it was impossible to "read Plutarch without a tingling of the blood; and I accept the saying of the Chinese Mencius: 'A sage is the instructor of a hundred ages. When the manners of Loo are heard of, the stupid become intelligent, and the wavering, determined.'"[46] Montaigne's Essays draw extensively on Plutarch's Moralia and are consciously modelled on the Greek's easygoing and discursive inquiries into science, manners, customs and beliefs. Essays contains more than 400 references to Plutarch and his works.[31] James Boswell quoted Plutarch on writing lives, rather than biographies, in the introduction to his own Life of Samuel Johnson. Other admirers included Ben Jonson, John Dryden, Alexander Hamilton, John Milton, Louis L'amour, and Francis Bacon, as well as such disparate figures as Cotton Mather and Robert Browning. Plutarch's influence declined in the 19th and 20th centuries, but it remains embedded in the popular ideas of Greek and Roman history. One of his most famous quotes was one that he included in one of his earliest works. "The world of man is best captured through the lives of the men who created history." Translations of Lives and Moralia[edit] There are translations, from the original Greek, in Latin, English, French, German, Italian, Polish and Hebrew. British classical scholar H. J. Rose writes “One advantage to a modern reader who is not well acquainted with Greek is, that being but a moderate stylist, Plutarch is almost as good in a translation as in the original.”[47] French translations[edit] Jacques Amyot's translations brought Plutarch's works to Western Europe. He went to Italy and studied the Vatican text of Plutarch, from which he published a French translation of the Lives in 1559 and Moralia in 1572, which were widely read by educated Europe.[48] Amyot's translations had as deep an impression in England as France, because Thomas North later published his English translation of the Lives in 1579 based on Amyot's French translation instead of the original Greek. English translations[edit] Plutarch's Lives were translated into English, from Amyot's version, by Sir Thomas North in 1579. The complete Moralia was first translated into English from the original Greek by Philemon Holland in 1603. In 1683, John Dryden began a life of Plutarch and oversaw a translation of the Lives by several hands and based on the original Greek. This translation has been reworked and revised several times, most recently in the 19th century by the English poet and classicist Arthur Hugh Clough (first published in 1859). One contemporary publisher of this version is Modern Library. Another is Encyclopædia Britannica in association with the University of Chicago, ISBN 0-85229-163-9, 1952, LCCN 55-10323. In 1770, English brothers John and William Langhorne published "Plutarch's Lives from the original Greek, with notes critical and historical, and a new life of Plutarch" in 6 volumes and dedicated to Lord Folkestone. Their translation was re-edited by Archdeacon Wrangham in the year 1819. From 1901 to 1912, an American classicist, Bernadotte Perrin,[49] produced a new translation of the Lives for the Loeb Classical Library. The Moralia is also included in the Loeb series, translated by various authors. Penguin Classics began a series of translations by various scholars in 1958 with The Fall of the Roman Republic, which contained six Lives and was translated by Rex Warner.[50] Penguin continues to revise the volumes. Italian translations[edit] Note: just main translations from the second half of 15th century.[51] Battista Alessandro Iaconelli, Vite di Plutarcho traducte de Latino in vulgare in Aquila, L’Aquila, 1482. Dario Tiberti, Le Vite di Plutarco ridotte in compendio, per M. Dario Tiberto da Cesena, e tradotte alla commune utilità di ciascuno per L. Fauno, in buona lingua volgare, Venice, 1543. Lodovico Domenichi, Vite di Plutarco. Tradotte da m. Lodouico Domenichi, con gli suoi sommarii posti dinanzi a ciascuna vita..., Venice, 1560. Francesco Sansovino, Le vite de gli huomini illustri greci e romani, di Plutarco Cheroneo sommo filosofo et historico, tradotte nuovamente da M. Francesco Sansovino..., Venice, 1564. Marcello Adriani il Giovane, Opuscoli morali di Plutarco volgarizzati da Marcello Adriani il giovane, Florence, 1819–1820. Girolamo Pompei, Le Vite Di Plutarco, Verona, 1772–1773. Latin translations[edit] There are multiple translations of Parallel Lives into Latin, most notably the one titled "Pour le Dauphin" (French for "for the Prince") written by a scribe in the court of Louis XV of France and a 1470 Ulrich Han translation. German translations[edit] Hieronymus Emser[edit] In 1519, Hieronymus Emser translated De capienda ex inimicis utilitate (wie ym eyner seinen veyndt nutz machen kan, Leipzig). Gottlob Benedict von Schirach[edit] The biographies were translated by Gottlob Benedict von Schirach (1743–1804) and printed in Vienna by Franz Haas, 1776–80. Johann Friedrich Salomon Kaltwasser[edit] Plutarch's Lives and Moralia were translated into German by Johann Friedrich Salomon Kaltwasser: Vitae parallelae. Vergleichende Lebensbeschreibungen. 10 Bände. Magdeburg 1799–1806. Moralia. Moralische Abhandlungen. 9 Bde. Frankfurt a.M. 1783–1800. Subsequent German translations[edit] Biographies Konrat Ziegler [de] (Hrsg.): Große Griechen und Römer. 6 Bde. Zürich 1954–1965. (Bibliothek der alten Welt). Moralia Konrat Ziegler (Hrsg.):Plutarch. Über Gott und Vorsehung, Dämonen und Weissagung, Zürich 1952. (Bibliothek der alten Welt) Bruno Snell (Hrsg.):Plutarch. Von der Ruhe des Gemüts – und andere Schriften, Zürich 1948. (Bibliothek der alten Welt) Hans-Josef Klauck (Hrsg.): Plutarch. Moralphilosophische Schriften, Stuttgart 1997. (Reclams Universal-Bibliothek) Herwig Görgemanns (Hrsg.):Plutarch. Drei Religionsphilosophische Schriften, Düsseldorf 2003. (Tusculum) Hebrew translations[edit] Following some Hebrew translations of selections from Plutarch's Parallel Lives published in the 1920s and the 1940s, a complete translation was published in three volumes by the Bialik Institute in 1954, 1971 and 1973. The first volume, Roman Lives, first published in 1954, presents the translations of Joseph G. Liebes to the biographies of Coriolanus, Fabius Maximus, Tiberius Gracchus and Gaius Gracchus, Cato the Elder and Cato the Younger, Gaius Marius, Sulla, Sertorius, Lucullus, Pompey, Crassus, Cicero, Julius Caesar, Brutus and Mark Anthony. The second volume, Greek Lives, first published in 1971 presents A. A. Halevy's translations of the biographies of Lycurgus, Aristides, Cimon, Pericles, Nicias, Lysander, Agesilaus, Pelopidas, Dion, Timoleon, Demosthenes, Alexander the Great, Eumenes and Phocion. Three more biographies presented in this volume, those of Solon, Themistocles and Alcibiades were translated by M. H. Ben-Shamai. The third volume, Greek and Roman Lives, published in 1973, presented the remaining biographies and parallels as translated by Halevy. Included are the biographies of Demetrius, Pyrrhus, Agis and Cleomenes, Aratus and Artaxerxes, Philopoemen, Camillus, Marcellus, Flamininus, Aemilius Paulus, Galba and Otho, Theseus, Romulus, Numa Pompilius and Poplicola. It completes the translation of the known remaining biographies. In the introduction to the third volume Halevy explains that originally the Bialik Institute intended to publish only a selection of biographies, leaving out mythological figures and biographies that had no parallels. Thus, to match the first volume in scope the second volume followed the same path and the third volume was required.[citation needed] Pseudo-Plutarch[edit] Main article: Pseudo-Plutarch Some editions of the Moralia include several works now known to have been falsely attributed to Plutarch. Among these are the Lives of the Ten Orators, a series of biographies of the Attic orators based on Caecilius of Calacte; On the Opinions of the Philosophers, On Fate, and On Music.[52] These works are all attributed to a single, unknown author, referred to as "Pseudo-Plutarch".[52] Pseudo-Plutarch lived sometime between the third and fourth centuries AD. Despite being falsely attributed, the works are still considered to possess historical value.[53] See also[edit] Middle Platonism Numenius of Apamea 6615 Plutarchos Notes[edit] ^ The name Mestrius or Lucius Mestrius was taken by Plutarch, as was common Roman practice, from his patron for citizenship in the empire; in this case Lucius Mestrius Florus, a Roman consul. References[edit] ^ "Plutarch", Encyclopædia Britannica, retrieved 27 March 2020 ^ Dillon, John M. Middle Platonists: 80 BC to AD 220. Cornell University Press, 1996. pp. 184 ff. ^ "Plutarch". Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. ^ Symposiacs, Book IX, questions II & III ^ "Plutarch • Consolatio ad Uxorem". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 17 March 2018. ^ a b Aubrey Stewart, George Long. "Life of Plutarch". Plutarch's Lives, Volume I (of 4). The Gutenberg Project. Retrieved 2007-01-03. ^ Britannica ^ Chrysopoulos, Philip. "Ancient Greek Historian Plutarch Might Have Been the First Vegetarian". Greek Reporter. Retrieved 2020-09-05. ^ Newmyer, Stephen (1992). "Plutarch on Justice Toward Animals: Ancient Insights on a Modern Debate". Scholia: Studies in Classical Antiquity. 1 (1): 38–54. Retrieved 2020-09-05. ^ Plutarch. "On the Eating of Flesh". Moralia. ^ Plutarch, Otho 14.1 ^ "The Eleusinian Mysteries: The Rites of Demeter". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2019-04-27. ^ Bronchud, Miguel H. (2007). The Secret Castle: The Key to Good and Evil. DigitalPulp Publishing.com. ISBN 978-0976308393. ^ Clough, Arthur Hugh (1864). "Introduction". Plutarch's Lives. Liberty Library of Constitutional Classics. ^ Gianakaris, C. J. Plutarch. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1970. ^ Russell, D. A. Plutarch. New York: Scribner, 1973. ^ "Περί του μη χραν έμμετρα νυν την Πυθίαν (Πλούταρχος) - Βικιθήκη". el.wikisource.org. Retrieved 17 March 2018. ^ Plutarch, Moralia, On the E at Delphi (in ancient Greek) https://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%97%CE%B8%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AC/%CE%A0%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AF_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%95%CE%B9_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%B5%CE%BD_%CE%94%CE%B5%CE%BB%CF%86%CE%BF%CE%AF%CF%82 ^ Stadter, Philip A. (2015). Plutarch and His Roman Readers. Oxford University Press. p. 69. ISBN 978-0198718338. Retrieved 2015-02-04. Although Plutarch wrote in Greek and with a Greek point of view, [...] he was thinking of a Roman as well as a Greek audience. ^ Ziegler, Konrad, Plutarchos von Chaironeia (Stuttgart 1964), 258. Citation translated by the author. ^ Cf. among others, Holzbach, M.-C.(2006). Plutarch: Galba-Otho und die Apostelgeschichte : ein Gattungsvergleich. Religion and Biography, 14 (ed. by Detlev Dormeyer et al.). Berlin London: LIT, p. 13 ^ a b Cf. Holzbach, op. cit., 24, 67–83 ^ The citation from Galba was extracted from the Dryden translation as given at the MIT Internet Classics Archive ^ Cf. Holzbach, op. cit., 24 ^ Plutarch. The life of Alexander. p. 1. ^ Plutarch. The life of Caesar. ^ Cornell, T.J. (1995). "Introduction". The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000–264 BC). Routledge. p. 3. ^ (but which according to Erasmus referred to the Thessalonians)Plutarch. "Isis and Osiris". Frank Cole Babbitt (trans.). Retrieved 2006-12-10. ^ a b c d e Pomeroy, Sarah B, Stanley M. Burstein, Walter Donlan, and Tolbert Roberts Jennifer (1999). Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cultural History. New York: Oxford University Press[ISBN missing][page needed] ^ "Plutarch • Roman Questions, 90‑113". uchicago.edu. ^ a b c Kimball, Roger. "Plutarch & the issue of character". The New Criterion Online. Archived from the original on 2006-11-16. Retrieved 2006-12-11. ^ Grote, George (2000-10-19) [1830]. A History of Greece: From the Time of Solon to 403 B.C. Routledge. p. 203. ^ Barrow, R.H. (1979) [1967]. Plutarch and His Times. ^ "Plutarch: Symposiacs, in The complete works of Plutarch: essays and miscellanies, New York: Crowell, 1909. Vol. III". Archived from the original on 2017-04-19. Retrieved 2014-10-06. ^ Russell, D.A.F.M. (1970) The Oxford Classical Dictionary, Clarendon Press, Oxford, p. 849 ^ "Translator's Introduction". The Parallel Lives (Vol. I ed.). Loeb Classical Library Edition. 1914. ^ McCutchen, Wilmot H. "Plutarch - His Life and Legacy". Archived from the original on 2006-12-05. Retrieved 2006-12-10. ^ Mauro Bonazzi, "Plutarch on the Differences Between the Pyrrhonists and Academics", Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy, 2012 https://www.academia.edu/2362682/Plutarch_on_the_Difference_between_Academics_and_Pyrrhonists_in_Oxford_Studies_in_Ancient_Philosophy_43_2012_pp._271-298 ^ a b Eduard Zeller, Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy, 13th edition, p. 306 ^ a b c d e f g h Eduard Zeller, Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy, 13th edition, p. 307 ^ a b c d e Eduard Zeller, Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy, 13th edition, p. 308 ^ "Shakespeare: Metamorphosis – Plutarch's "Lives" (1579)". Senate House Library at Vimeo. 2016-03-31. Retrieved 9 May 2016. ^ Honigmann 1959. ^ Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (1911). Emile, or On Education. Translated by Foxley, Barbara. http://lf-oll.s3.amazonaws.com/titles/2256/Rousseau_1499_Bk.pdf: JM Dent & Sons / EP Dutton & Co. p. 118.CS1 maint: location (link) ^ Emerson, Ralph Waldo (1870). "Introduction". In William W. Goodwin (ed.). Plutarch's Morals. London: Sampson, Low. p. xxi. ^ Emerson, Ralph Waldo (1850). "Uses of Great Men". Representative Men. ^ H. J. Rose. A Handbook of Greek Literature: From Homer to the Age of Lucian.. New York: Dutton, 1960. p. 409 (a Dutton paperback). ^ "Amyot, Jacques (1513–1593)". Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910–1911). ^ "Bernadotte Perrin Papers (MS 1018). Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library". hdl:10079/fa/mssa.ms.1018. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ The Age of Alexander, rev. ed. (Penguin, 2012), "Penguin Plutarch". ^ Virgilio Costa, Sulle prime traduzioni italiane a stampa delle opere di Plutarco (secc. XV–XVI) ^ a b Blank, D. (2011). Martínez, J. (ed.). 'Plutarch' and the Sophistry of 'Noble Lineage'. Fakes and Forgers of Classical Literature. Madrid: Ediciones Clásicas. pp. 33–60. ^ Marietta, Don E. (1998). Introduction to Ancient Philosophy. M.E. Sharpe. p. 190. ISBN 978-0765602169. Sources[edit] Blackburn, Simon (1994). Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Russell, D.A. (2001) [1972]. Plutarch. Duckworth Publishing. ISBN 978-1-85399-620-7. Duff, Timothy (2002) [1999]. Plutarch's Lives: Exploring Virtue and Vice. UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-925274-9. Hamilton, Edith (1957). The Echo of Greece. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 194. ISBN 0-393-00231-4. Honigmann, E.A.J. "Shakespeare's Plutarch." Shakespeare Quarterly, 1959: 25–33. Pelling, Christopher (2002). Plutarch and History. Eighteen Studies, London[ISBN missing] Wardman, Alan (1974). Plutarch's "Lives". Elek. p. 274. ISBN 0-236-17622-6. John M. Dillon ( 1996).The Middle Platonists: 80 B.C. to A.D. 220, Cornell University Press, ISBN 978-0801483165 Further reading[edit] Beck, Mark. 2000. "Anecdote and the representation of Plutarch’s ethos." In Rhetorical theory and praxis in Plutarch: Acta of the IVth international congress of the International Plutarch Society, Leuven, July 3–6, 1996. Edited by Luc van der Stockt, 15–32. Collection d’Études Classiques 11. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters. --, ed. 2014. A companion to Plutarch. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. Malden, MA, and Oxford: Blackwell. Beneker, Jeffrey. 2012. The passionate statesman: Eros and politics in Plutarch’s Lives. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Duff, Timothy E. 1999. Plutarch’s Lives: Exploring virtues and vice. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Georgiadou, Aristoula. 1992. "Idealistic and realistic portraiture in the Lives of Plutarch." In Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt: Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung. Vol. 2.33.6, Sprache und Literatur: Allgemeines zur Literatur des 2. Jahrhunderts und einzelne Autoren der trajanischen und frühhadrianischen Zeit. Edited by Wolfgang Haase, 4616–23. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter. Gill, Christopher. 1983. "The question of character-development: Plutarch and Tacitus." Classical Quarterly 33. no. 2: 469–87. Humble, Noreen, ed. 2010. Plutarch’s Lives: Parallelism and purpose. Swansea: Classical Press of Wales. McInerney, Jeremy. 2003. "Plutarch’s manly women." In Andreia: Studies in manliness and courage in classical Athens. Edited by Ralph M. Rosen and Ineke Sluiter, 319–44. Mnemosyne, Bibliotheca Classica Batava, Supplementum 238. Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Brill. Mossman, Judith. 2015. "Dressed for success? Clothing in Plutarch’s Demetrius." In Fame and infamy: Essays for Christopher Pelling on characterization and Roman biography and historiography. Edited by Rhiannon Ash, Judith Mossman, and Frances B. Titchener, 149–60. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Nikolaidis, Anastasios G., ed. 2008. The unity of Plutarch’s work: Moralia themes in the Lives, features of the Lives in the Moralia. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter. Pelling, Christopher. 2002. Plutarch and history: Eighteen studies. Swansea: Classical Press of Wales. Scardigli, Barbara, ed. 1995. Essays on Plutarch’s Lives. Oxford: Clarendon. Stadter, Philip. 1996. "Anecdotes and the thematic structure of Plutarchean biography." In Estudios sobre Plutarco: Aspectos formales; Actas del IV Simposio español sobre Plutarco, Salamanca, 26 a 28 de mayo de 1994. Edited by José Antonio Fernández Delgado and Francisca Pordomingo Pardo, 291–303. Madrid: Ediciones Clásicas. --. 2015. "The rhetoric of virtue in Plutarch’s Lives." In Plutarch and his Roman readers. By Philip A. Stadter, 231–45. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Van Hoof, Lieve. 2010. Plutarch's practical ethics: the social dynamics of philosophy Oxford: Oxford University Press. Wardman, Alan E. 1967. "Description of personal appearance in Plutarch and Suetonius: The use of statues as evidence." Classical Quarterly 17, no. 2: 414–20. Zadorojnyi, Alexei V. 2012. "Mimesis and the (plu)past in Plutarch’s Lives." In Time and narrative in ancient historiography: The “plupast” from Herodotus to Appian. Edited by Jonas Grethlein and Christopher B. Krebs, 175–98. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Plutarch Wikisource has original works written by or about: Plutarch Wikimedia Commons has media related to Plutarch. Library resources about Plutarch Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Plutarch Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Plutarch's works Works by Plutarch at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Plutarch at Internet Archive Works by Plutarch at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Perseus Project: many texts of Plutarch and Pseudo-Plutarch in Greek and English Didot edition of Plutarch's works in Greek, with Latin translation (1857–1876): vol. 1 (Lives, pt. 1), vol. 2 (Lives, pt. 2), vol. 3 (Moralia, pt. 1), vol. 4 (Moralia, pt. 2), vol. 5 (fragmenta et spuria) (also via BNF) Collections of works in English translation: at University of Adelaide, at LacusCurtius, Project Gutenberg, Lives, trans. North (PDF) Also in English translation (by John Dryden, 1631–1700): Plutarch, Parallel Lives, Solon Free Audiobooks by Plutarch from Librivox Secondary material Karamanolis, George. "Plutarch". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Plutarch of Chaeronea by Jona Lendering at Livius.Org The International Plutarch Society The relevance of Plutarch's book De Defectu Oraculorum for Christian Theology (Ploutarchos, Journal of the International Plutarch Society) v t e The works of Plutarch Works Parallel Lives Moralia "De genio Socratis" "On the Malice of Herodotus" Pseudo-Plutarch Lives Alcibiades and Coriolanus1 Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar Aratus of Sicyon / Artaxerxes and Galba / Otho2 Aristides and Cato the Elder1 Crassus and Nicias1 Demetrius and Antony1 Demosthenes and Cicero1 Dion and Brutus1 Fabius and Pericles1 Lucullus and Cimon1 Lysander and Sulla1 Numa and Lycurgus1 Pelopidas and Marcellus1 Philopoemen and Flamininus1 Phocion and Cato the Younger Pompey and Agesilaus1 Poplicola and Solon1 Pyrrhus and Gaius Marius Romulus and Theseus1 Sertorius and Eumenes1 Agis / Cleomenes1 and Tiberius Gracchus / Gaius Gracchus Timoleon and Aemilius Paulus1 Themistocles and Camillus Translators and editors Jacques Amyot Arthur Hugh Clough John Dryden Philemon Holland Thomas North 1 Comparison extant 2 Four unpaired Lives v t e Platonists Academic Old Plato Aristotle Eudoxus Philip of Opus Aristonymus Coriscus and Erastus of Scepsis Demetrius of Amphipolis Euaeon of Lampsacus Heraclides and Python of Aenus Hestiaeus of Perinthus Lastheneia of Mantinea Timolaus of Cyzicus Speusippus Axiothea of Phlius Heraclides Ponticus Menedemus of Pyrrha Xenocrates Crantor Polemon Crates of Athens Skeptic Middle Arcesilaus Diocles of Cnidus Lacydes Telecles and Evander Hegesinus New Carneades Hagnon of Tarsus Metrodorus of Stratonicea Clitomachus Charmadas Aeschines of Neapolis Philo of Larissa Cicero Dio of Alexandria Middle Platonist Antiochus Philo of Alexandria Plutarch Justin Martyr Gaius Albinus Alcinous Apuleius Atticus Maximus of Tyre Numenius of Apamea Longinus Clement of Alexandria Origen the Pagan Calcidius Neoplatonist Ancient Ammonius Saccas Plotinus Disciples Origen Amelius Porphyry Iamblichus Sopater Eustathius of Cappadocia Sosipatra Aedesius Dexippus Chrysanthius Theodorus of Asine Julian Sallustius Maximus of Ephesus Eusebius of Myndus Priscus of Epirus Antoninus Gregory of Nyssa Hypatia Augustine Macrobius Academy Plutarch of Athens Asclepigenia Hierocles Syrianus Hermias Aedesia Proclus Ammonius Hermiae Asclepiodotus Hegias Zenodotus Marinus Agapius Isidore Damascius Simplicius Priscian Medieval Boethius John Philoponus Olympiodorus Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite John Scotus Eriugena Islamic Golden Age Al-Farabi Anselm Peter Abelard Chartres Bernard Gilbert Thierry Henry of Ghent Bonaventure Theodoric of Freiberg Meister Eckhart Berthold of Moosburg Paul of Venice Modern Renaissance Florentine Academy Plethon Marsilio Ficino Cristoforo Landino Giovanni Pico della Mirandola Cambridge Ralph Cudworth Henry More Anne Conway Petrus Ramus Giordano Bruno Blaise Pascal Emanuel Swedenborg German idealist Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Christian Wolff Moses Mendelssohn Immanuel Kant Johann Gottlieb Fichte Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling Arthur Schopenhauer G. 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en-wikipedia-org-8766	----	Callimachus - Wikipedia Callimachus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient poet and librarian For other people named Callimachus, see Callimachus (disambiguation). Callimachus Καλλίμαχος Born c. 310/305 BC Cyrene, Ancient Libya Died c. 240 BC Alexandria Occupation poet, critic and scholar Callimachus (/kæˈlɪməkəs/; Greek: Καλλίμαχος, Kallimakhos; c. 310/305–c. 240 BC[1]) was a native of the Greek colony of Cyrene, Libya.[2] He was a poet, critic and scholar at the Library of Alexandria and enjoyed the patronage of the Egyptian–Greek Pharaohs Ptolemy II Philadelphus[3] and Ptolemy III Euergetes. Although he was never made chief librarian, he was responsible for producing a bibliographic survey based upon the contents of the Library. This, his Pinakes, 120 volumes long,[4] provided the foundation for later work on the history of ancient Greek literature. He is among the most productive and influential scholar-poets of the Hellenistic age. Contents 1 Family and early life 2 Works 3 Critical editions (Ancient Greek texts) 4 Commentaries 5 Translations 6 Criticism and history 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 External links Family and early life[edit] Callimachus was of Libyan Greek origin. He was born c. 310/305 BC and raised in Cyrene, as member of a distinguished family, his parents being Mesatme (or Mesatma) and Battus, supposed descendant of the first Greek king of Cyrene, Battus I, through whom Callimachus claimed to be a descendant of the Battiad dynasty, the Libyan Greek monarchs that ruled Cyrenaica for eight generations and the first Greek Royal family to have reigned in Africa. He was named after his grandfather, an "elder" Callimachus, who was highly regarded by the Cyrenaean citizens and had served as a general. Callimachus married the daughter of a Greek man called Euphrates who came from Syracuse. However, it is unknown if they had children. He also had a sister called Megatime but very little is known about her: she married a Cyrenaean man called Stasenorus or Stasenor to whom she bore a son, Callimachus (so called "the Younger" as to distinguish him from his maternal uncle), who also became a poet, author of "The Island". In later years, he was educated in Athens. When he returned to North Africa, he moved to Alexandria. Works[edit] A papyrus of Callimachus' Aetia (Pfeiffer fr. 178 = P.Oxy. XI 1362 fr. 1 col. i, 1st century AD) Elitist and erudite, claiming to "abhor all common things,"[5] Callimachus is best known for his short poems and epigrams. During the Hellenistic period, a major trend in Greek-language poetry was to reject epics modelled after Homer. Instead, Callimachus urged poets to "drive their wagons on untrodden fields," rather than following in the well worn tracks of Homer, idealizing a form of poetry that was brief, yet carefully formed and worded, a style at which he excelled. "Big book, big evil" (μέγα βιβλίον μέγα κακόν, mega biblion, mega kakon) is another saying attributed to him,[6] often thought to be attacking long, old-fashioned poetry. Callimachus also wrote poems in praise of his royal patrons (such as Ptolemy II Philadelphus),[7] and a wide variety of other poetic styles, as well as prose and criticism. Due to Callimachus' strong stance against the epic, he and his younger student Apollonius of Rhodes, who favored epic and wrote the Argonautica, had a long and bitter feud, trading barbed comments, insults, and personal attacks for over thirty years. It is now known, through a papyrus fragment from Oxyrhynchus listing the earliest chief librarians of the Library of Alexandria [8] that Ptolemy II never offered the post to Callimachus, but passed him over for Apollonius. Some classicists, including Peter Green, speculate that this contributed to the poets' long feud. According to the current scholarly consensus, however, the evidence for this putative feud is lacking, and it is likely to be specious; according to Alan Cameron, "there is no genuinely ancient evidence at all."[9] Moreover, without knowing the precise nature of the role, it is impossible to conclude what should be inferred from Callimachus' failure to become chief librarian. Though Callimachus was an opponent of "big books", the Suda puts his number of works at (a possibly exaggerated) 800, suggesting that he found large quantities of small works more acceptable. Of these, only six hymns, sixty-four epigrams, and some fragments are extant; a considerable fragment of the Hecale, one of Callimachus' few longer poems treating epic material, has also been discovered in the Rainer papyri. His Aetia (Αἴτια, "Causes"),[10] another rare longer work surviving only in tattered papyrus fragments and quotations in later authors, was a collection of elegiac poems in four books, dealing with the foundation of cities, obscure religious ceremonies, unique local traditions apparently chosen for their oddity,[11] and other customs, throughout the Hellenic world.[12] In the first three books at least, the formula appears to ask a question of the Muse, of the form, "Why, on Paros, do worshippers of the Charites use neither flutes nor crowns?"[13] "Why, at Argos is a month named for 'lambs'?"[14] "Why, at Leucas, does the image of Artemis have a mortar on its head?"[15] A series of questions can be reconstituted from the fragments.[16] One passage of the Aetia, the so-called Coma Berenices, has been reconstructed from papyrus remains and the celebrated Latin adaptation of Catullus (Catullus 66). The extant hymns are extremely learned, and written in a style that some have criticised as labored and artificial. The Fourth Hymn appears to have been heavily influenced by Pyrrhonist philosophy.[17]The epigrams are more widely respected, and several have been incorporated into the Greek Anthology.[12] According to Quintilian (10.1.58) he was the chief of the elegiac poets; his elegies were highly esteemed by the Romans (see Neoterics), and imitated by Ovid, Catullus, and especially Sextus Propertius.[12] Many modern classicists hold Callimachus in high regard for his major influence on Latin poetry. Archaeological remains attest to this thematic and stylistic interaction as well. An erotic epigram attributed to Callimachus was found painted onto the interior wall of the Auditorium of Maecenas, a triclinium preserved on the Esquiline Hill in Rome.[18] Gaius Maecenas was a prominent patron of the arts who funded and entertained the most prominent elegiac writers of his time; it follows naturally than much activity intrinsic to Latin poetry took place in this Callimachus-inscribed room. This epigram's subject matter, an apology to a male lover for misbehavior caused by wine and lust, reinforces the tradition-breaking emotional individualism and witty experimentation valued by Latin elegiacs.[19] Callimachus' most famous prose work is the Pinakes (Lists), a bibliographical survey of authors of the works held in the Library of Alexandria. The Pinakes was one of the first known documents that lists, identifies, and categorizes a library's holdings. By consulting the Pinakes, a library patron could find out if the library contained a work by a particular author, how it was categorized, and where it might be found. It is important to note that Callimachus did not seem to have any models for his pinakes, and invented this system on his own.[20] Critical editions (Ancient Greek texts)[edit] Pfeiffer, R. Callimachus, vol. i: Fragmenta (Oxford, 1949). ISBN 978-0-19-814115-0. Pfeiffer, R. Callimachus, vol. ii: Hymni et epigrammata (Oxford, 1953). ISBN 978-0-19-814116-7. Lloyd-Jones, H. et al. Supplementum Hellenisticum, (Berlin, 1983). ISBN 978-3-11-008171-8. Commentaries[edit] Bing, Peter. Callimachus’ Hymn to Delos 1–99: Introduction and Commentary (Dissertation, U. Michigan, 1981). Bulloch, A. W. Callimachus: The Fifth Hymn (CUP, 1985). ISBN 978-0-521-11999-3. Harder, M.A. Callimachus: Aetia (OUP, 2012). ISBN 978-0-19-958101-6. Hollis, A.S. Callimachus: Hecale (OUP, 1990); 2nd ed. 2009. ISBN 978-0-19-956246-6. Hopkinson, Neil. Callimachus: Hymn to Demeter (CUP, 1984). ISBN 978-0-521-60436-9. Hopkinson, Neil. A Hellenistic Anthology (CUP, 1988). ISBN 978-0-521-31425-1. Kerkhecker, Arnd. Callimachus' Book of Iambi (OUP, 1999). ISBN 978-0-19-924006-7. Massimilla, G. Aitia. libri primo e secondo (Pisa: Giardini editori, 1996). ISBN 978-88-427-0013-5. Massimilla, G. Aitia. libro terzo e quarto (Pisa: F. Serra, 2010). ISBN 978-88-6227-282-7. McKay, K. J. Erysichthon: A Callimachean Comedy (Brill, 1962). ISBN 978-90-04-01470-1. McKay, K. J. The Poet at Play: Kallimachus, The Bath of Pallas (Brill, 1962). McLennan, G. R. Callimachus: Hymn to Zeus (Edizioni dell'Ateneo & Bizzarri, 1977). Stephens, Susan A. Callimachus: The Hymns. Edited with Introduction, Translation and Commentary Oxford: Oxford University Press (2015). ISBN 0199783047 Williams, Frederick. Callimachus: Hymn to Apollo (OUP, 1978). ISBN 978-0-19-814007-8. Translations[edit] Lombardo, S. & Rayor, D.J. Callimachus: Hymns, Epigrams, Select Fragments (Johns Hopkins 1988). ISBN 978-0-8018-3281-9 Mair, A.W. & Mair, G.R. Callimachus: Hymns and Epigrams. Lycophron and Aratus, Loeb Classical Library No. 129, 2nd rev. ed. (Cambridge, MA: 1955) ISBN 978-0-674-99143-9. Nisetich, Frank. The Poems of Callimachus (Oxford 2001). ISBN 978-0-19-815224-8 Stephens, Susan A. Callimachus: The Hymns. Edited with Introduction, Translation and Commentary Oxford: Oxford University Press (2015). ISBN 0199783047 Trypanis, C.A. et al. Callimachus: Aetia, Iambi, Hecale and Other Fragments. Musaeus: Hero and Leander, Loeb Classical Library No. 421 (Cambridge, MA: 1958) ISBN 978-0-674-99463-8. William Johnson Cory 's well-known "Heraclitus" is a poetic translation of Callimachus's elegy for his friend Heraclitus of Halicarnassus (not the pre-Socratic philosopher.) Criticism and history[edit] Acosta-Hughes, B. Polyeideia: The Iambi of Callimachus and the Archaic Iambic Tradition (U. California, 2002). ISBN 978-0-520-22060-7. Bing, P. The Well-Read Muse: Present and Past in Callimachus and the Hellenistic Poets, 2nd ed. (University of Michigan Press, 2008). ISBN 978-0-9799713-0-3. Blum, R. Kallimachos. The Alexandrian Library and the Origins of Bibliography, trans. H.H. Wellisch (U. Wisconsin, 1991). ISBN 978-0-299-13170-8. Cameron, A. Callimachus and his Critics (Princeton, 1995). ISBN 978-0-691-04367-8. de Romilly, J. A Short History of Greek Literature, trans. L. Doherty. (University of Chicago Press, 1985). ISBN 978-0-226-14312-5. Fantuzzi, M. & Hunter, R. Tradition and Innovation in Hellenistic Poetry (CUP, 2004). ISBN 978-0-521-83511-4. Ferguson, John (1980). Callimachus. Boston: Twayne Publishers. Green, Peter. Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age (U. California, 1990) ISBN 978-0-520-08349-3, chapters 11 ('The Critic as Poet: Callimachus, Aratus of Soli, Lycophron') and 13 ('Armchair Epic: Apollonius Rhodius and the Voyage of Argo'). Harder, M. A.; Regtuit, R. F.; Wakker, G. C., eds. (1993). Hellenistica Groningana. Vol. 1: Callimachus. Groningen: Egbert Forsten. Hunter, R. The Shadow of Callimachus (CUP, 2006). ISBN 978-0-521-69179-6. Hutchinson, G. O. (1988). Hellenistic Poetry. New York: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814748-0. Selden, D. "Alibis," Classical Antiquity 17 (1998), 289–411. Smith, William (1844). "Callimachus". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 3. Taylor and Walton. See also[edit] The Neoterics, or the New Poets Notes[edit] ^ Hopkinson 1988: 83 gives the birth year as "c. 305"; Mair 1955: 2 offers: "The most probable date on the whole for the birth of Callimachus is circ. 310 b.c. We learn from Vit. Arat. i. that Callimachus, both in his epigrams and also ἐν τοῖς πρὸς Πραξιφάνην, referred to Aratus as older than himself. But as they were fellow-students at Athens the difference of age is not likely to have been considerable: we may put the birth of Aratus in 315, that of Callimachus in 310." ^ Hopkinson 1988: 83 ^ Hutchinson 1988: 38. ^ Hopkinson 1988: 83. ^ Epigram 2 Gow-Page. ^ See fr. 465 Pfeiffer. ^ See, e.g., Hymn to Zeus vv. 85-90, Hymn to Delos vv. 165ff. ^ P.Oxy. 1241. ^ Cameron (1995), p.227 ^ The Greek word αἴτιον, aition means "cause" and here refers to a story type popular in Greek myth and history. The founding myth is a common example of an aition. The plural of αἴτιον, αἴτια (aitia), is most often rendered via the Latinized transliteration Aetia when referring to this poem. ^ Noel Robertson, "Callimachus' Tale of Sicyon ('SH' 238)" Phoenix 53.1/2 (Spring 1999:57–79), p. 58 ^ a b c  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Callimachus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 5 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 57. ^ Aetia 1, frag. 3. ^ Aetia 1, frags. 26–31a. ^ Aetia 1, frags. 31b–e. ^ Robertson 1999:58f, note 5. ^ Dee Clayman, Timon of Phlius 2009 ISBN 3110220806 pp 174-176 ^ Acosta-Hughes, Benjamin (2019). Henriksen, Christer (ed.). A Companion to Ancient Epigram. John Wiley & Sons. p. 329. ^ Wyler, Stéphanie (2013). "An Augustan Trend towards Dionysos: Around the 'Auditorium of Maecenas'". In Bernabe, Alberto; Herrero deJáuregui, Miguel; San Cristóbal, Ana; Martín Hernández, Raquel (eds.). Redefining Dionysos. ^ Blum 1991, p. 236, cited in Phillips, Heather A. (August 2010). "The Great Library of Alexandria?". Library Philosophy and Practice. ISSN 1522-0222. Archived from the original on 2012-04-18. Retrieved 2011-01-03. References[edit] A history of the literature of ancient Greece, Vol. 1, J. W. Parker and son, 1858, p. 269f. Callimachus at Livius.org Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia - 2002 External links[edit] Library resources about Callimachus Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Callimachus Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Quotations related to Callimachus at Wikiquote  Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Καλλίμαχος Works written by or about Callimachus at Wikisource Dickinson College Commentaries: Aetia Works by or about Callimachus at Internet Archive Works by Callimachus at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Selected Poems by Callimachus English translations A. W. Mair's 1921 Loeb (Greek/English): Google Books, archive.org, English translation of Hymns (HTML), English translation of Epigrams (HTML) Callimachus at the Perseus Project: Mair 1921 and Wilamowitz 1897 Authority control BIBSYS: 90172245 BNE: XX1720177 BNF: cb119298506 (data) CANTIC: a10948041 CiNii: DA01745312 GND: 118518488 ISNI: 0000 0001 1691 4817 LCCN: n80040584 LNB: 000133548 MBA: 51d26e58-b4ba-4d84-a800-6ea0fdde88d4 NKC: js20020115046 NTA: 069648034 SELIBR: 180286 SNAC: w61c24f5 SUDOC: 027409546 Trove: 798732 VcBA: 495/12706 VIAF: 99454635 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n80040584 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Callimachus&oldid=996739319" Categories: Ancient Greek poets Ancient Greek elegiac poets Ancient Greek educators Ancient LGBT people Cyrenean Greeks Bibliographers 300s BC births 240 BC deaths Epigrammatists of the Greek Anthology Librarians of Alexandria Iambic poets 3rd-century BC poets Hellenistic poets Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles with hCards No local image but image on Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text CS1: long volume value Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages العربية Asturianu Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Corsu Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Magyar مصرى Mirandés Монгол Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 28 December 2020, at 10:27 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8773	----	Photios I of Constantinople - Wikipedia Photios I of Constantinople From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople "Photios" redirects here. For other people with the name, see Photios (name). Saint Photios the Great Photios baptising the Bulgarians The Great, Confessor of the Faith, Equal to the Apostles, Pillar of Orthodoxy[1] Born c. 810 Constantinople Died c. 893 Bordi, Armenia Venerated in Eastern Orthodox Church Canonized 1847, Constantinople by Anthimus VI of Constantinople Feast February 6 Photios I (Greek: Φώτιος, Phōtios; c. 810/820 – 6 February 893), [a] also spelled Photius[2] (/ˈfoʊʃəs/) or Fotios, was the ecumenical patriarch of Constantinople from 858 to 867 and from 877 to 886.[3] He is recognized in the Eastern Orthodox Church as Saint Photios the Great. Photios is widely regarded as the most powerful and influential church leader of Constantinople subsequent to John Chrysostom's archbishopric around the turn of the fifth century. He is also viewed as the most important intellectual of his time – "the leading light of the ninth-century renaissance".[4] He was a central figure in both the conversion of the Slavs to Christianity and the Photian schism,[5] and is considered "[t]he great systematic compiler of the Eastern Church, who occupies a similar position to that of Gratian in the West," and whose "collection in two parts...formed and still forms the classic source of ancient Church Law for the Greek Church."[2] Photios was a well-educated man from a noble Constantinopolitan family. Photius's great uncle was a previous patriarch of Constantinople, Saint Tarasius.[6] He intended to be a monk, but chose to be a scholar and statesman instead. In 858, Emperor Michael III (r. 842–867) decided to confine Patriarch Ignatius in order to force him into resignation, and Photios, still a layman, was appointed to replace him.[7] Amid power struggles between the pope and the Byzantine emperor, Ignatius was reinstated. Photios resumed the position when Ignatius died (877), by order of the Byzantine emperor.[7] The new pope, John VIII, approved Photios's reinstatement.[8] Catholics regard as legitimate a Fourth Council of Constantinople (Roman Catholic) anathematizing Photios,[7] while Eastern Orthodox regard as legitimate a subsequent Fourth Council of Constantinople (Eastern Orthodox), reversing the former.[7] The contested councils mark the end of unity represented by the first seven Ecumenical Councils. Studies show that Photios was venerated as a saint as early as the 9th century, and by the Roman Church as late as the 12th century.[9] Nonetheless, Photios was formally canonized by the Orthodox Church in 1847. Contents 1 Secular life 2 Patriarch of Constantinople 3 Assessments 4 Writings 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 7.1 Citations 7.2 Sources 8 External links Secular life[edit] Most of the primary sources treating Photios's life are written by persons hostile to him. Modern scholars are thus cautious when assessing the accuracy of the information these sources provide.[b] Little is known of Photios's origin and early years. It is known that he was born into a notable family and that his uncle Saint Tarasius had been the patriarch of Constantinople from 784–806 under both Empress Irene (r. 797–802) and Emperor Nikephoros I (r. 802–811).[10] During the second Iconoclasm, which began in 814, his family suffered persecution since his father, Sergios, was a prominent iconophile. Sergios's family returned to favor only after the restoration of the icons in 842.[11] Certain scholars assert that Photios was, at least in part, of Armenian descent[c] while other scholars merely refer to him as a "Greek Byzantine".[12] Byzantine writers also report that Emperor Michael III (r. 842–867) once angrily called Photios "Khazar-faced", but whether this was a generic insult or a reference to his ethnicity is unclear.[13] Although Photios had an excellent education, we have no information about how he received this education. The famous library he possessed attests to his enormous erudition (theology, history, grammar, philosophy, law, the natural sciences, and medicine).[14] Most scholars believe that he never taught at Magnaura or at any other university;[15] Vasileios N. Tatakes asserts that, even while he was patriarch, Photios taught "young students passionately eager for knowledge" at his home, which "was a center of learning".[14] He was a friend of the renowned Byzantine scholar and teacher Leo the Mathematician.[16] Photios says that, when he was young, he had an inclination for the monastic life, but instead he started a secular career. The way to public life was probably opened for him by (according to one account) the marriage of his brother Sergios to Irene, a sister of Empress Theodora, who upon the death of her husband Emperor Theophilos (r. 829–842) in 842, had assumed the regency of the Byzantine Empire.[17] Photios became a captain of the guard (prōtospatharios) and subsequently chief imperial secretary (protasēkrētis). At an uncertain date, Photios participated in an embassy to the Abbasids of Baghdad.[18] Patriarch of Constantinople[edit] Photios's ecclesiastical career took off spectacularly after Caesar Bardas and his nephew, the youthful Emperor Michael, put an end to the administration of the regent Theodora and the logothete of the drome Theoktistos in 856. In 858, Bardas found himself opposed by the then Patriarch Ignatios, who refused to admit him into Hagia Sophia, since it was believed that he was having an affair with his widowed daughter-in-law. In response, Bardas and Michael engineered Ignatios's confinement and removal on the charge of treason, thus leaving the patriarchal throne empty. The throne was soon filled with a kinsman of Bardas, Photios himself, who was tonsured a monk on December 20, 858, and on the four following days was successively ordained lector, sub-deacon, deacon and priest, and then on Christmas Day, the patronal feast[19] of Constantinople's cathedral, Hagia Sophia, Photius was consecrated a bishop and installed as patriarch.[20] The confinement and removal of Ignatios and the speedy promotion of Photios at first caused only internal controversy within the Church of Constantinople, and in 859 a local council was held, examining the issue and confirming the removal of Ignatios and election of Photios.[21] In the same time, partisans of Ignatios decided to appeal to the Church of Rome, thus initiating ecclesiastical controversy on an ecumenical scale as the Pope and the rest of the western bishops took up the cause of Ignatios. The latter's confinement and removal without a formal ecclesiastical trial meant that Photios's election was uncanonical, and eventually Pope Nicholas I sought to involve himself in determining the legitimacy of the succession. His legates were dispatched to Constantinople with instructions to investigate, but finding Photios well ensconced, they acquiesced in the confirmation of his election at a synod in 861.[22] On their return to Rome, they discovered that this was not at all what Nicholas had intended, and in 863 at a synod in Rome the pope deposed Photios, and reappointed Ignatius as the rightful patriarch, triggering a schism. Four years later, Photios was to respond on his own part by calling a Council and excommunicating the pope on grounds of heresy – over the question of the double procession of the Holy Spirit.[23] The situation was additionally complicated by the question of papal authority over the entire Church and by disputed jurisdiction over newly converted Bulgaria.[24] This state of affairs changed with the murder of Photios's patron Bardas in 866 and of Emperor Michael III in 867, by his colleague Basil the Macedonian, who now usurped the throne. Photios was deposed as patriarch, not so much because he was a protégé of Bardas and Michael, but because Basil I was seeking an alliance with the Pope and the western emperor. Photios was removed from his office and banished about the end of September 867,[17] and Ignatios was reinstated on November 23. Photios was condemned by the Council of 869–870, thus putting an end to the schism. During his second patriarchate, however, Ignatios followed a policy not very different from that of Photios. Not long after his condemnation, Photios had reingratiated himself with Basil, and became tutor to the Byzantine emperor's children. From surviving letters of Photios written during his exile at the Skepi monastery, it appears that the ex-patriarch brought pressure to bear on the Byzantine emperor to restore him. Ignatios's biographer argues that Photios forged a document relating to the genealogy and rule of Basil's family, and had it placed in the imperial library where a friend of his was a librarian. According to this document, the Byzantine emperor's ancestors were not mere peasants as everyone believed but descendants of the Arsacid Dynasty of Armenia.[25] True or not, this story does reveal Basil's dependence on Photios for literary and ideological matters. Following Photios's recall, Ignatios and the ex-patriarch met, and publicly expressed their reconciliation. When Ignatios died on October 23, 877, it was a matter of course that his old opponent replaced him on the patriarchal throne three days later. Shaun Tougher asserts that from this point on Basil no longer simply depended on Photios, but in fact he was dominated by him.[26] A fresco of St. Photius as Patriarch of Constantinople Photios now obtained the formal recognition of the Christian world in a council convened at Constantinople in November 879. The legates of Pope John VIII attended, prepared to acknowledge Photios as legitimate patriarch, a concession for which the pope was much censured by Latin opinion. The patriarch stood firm on the main points contested between the Eastern and Western Churches: the demand of an apology to the Pope, the ecclesiastical jurisdiction over Bulgaria, and the addition of the filioque to the Nicene creed by the Western church.[17] Eventually, Photios refused to apologize or accept the filioque, and the papal legates made do with his return of Bulgaria to Rome. This concession, however, was purely nominal, as Bulgaria's return to the Byzantine rite in 870 had already secured for it an autocephalous church. Without the consent of Boris I of Bulgaria (r. 852–889), the papacy was unable to enforce its claims. During the altercations between Emperor Basil I and his heir Leo VI, Photios took the side of the Byzantine emperor. In 883, Basil accused Leo of conspiracy and confined the prince to the palace; he would have even have Leo blinded had he not been dissuaded by Photios and Stylianos Zaoutzes, the father of Zoe Zaoutzaina, Leo's mistress.[27] In 886, Basil discovered and punished a conspiracy by the domestic of the Hikanatoi John Kourkouas the Elder and many other officials. In this conspiracy, Leo was not implicated, but Photios was possibly one of the conspirators against Basil's authority.[28] Basil died in 886 injured while hunting, according to the official story. Warren T. Treadgold believes that this time the evidence points to a plot on behalf of Leo VI, who became emperor, and deposed Photios, although the latter had been his tutor.[29] Photios was replaced by the Byzantine emperor's brother Stephen, and sent into exile to the monastery of Bordi in Armenia. It is confirmed from letters to and from Pope Stephen that Leo extracted a resignation from Photios. In 887, Photios and his protégé, Theodore Santabarenos, were put on trial for treason before a tribunal headed by senior officials, headed by Andrew the Scythian. Although the sources sympathetic to Photios give the impression that the trial ended without a conviction, the chronicle of Pseudo-Symeon clearly states that Photios was banished to the monastery of Gordon, where he later died. Latin sources confirm that he died in a state of complete excommunication by Pope John VIII. [30] Yet it appears that he did not remain reviled for the remainder of his life.[31] Photios continued his career as a writer throughout his exile, and Leo probably rehabilitated his reputation within the next few years; in his Epitaphios on his brothers, a text probably written in 888, the Emperor presents Photios favorably, portraying him as the legitimate archbishop, and the instrument of ultimate unity, an image that jars with his attitude to the patriarch in the previous year.[32] Confirmation that Photios was rehabilitated comes upon his death: according to some chronicles, his body was permitted to be buried in Constantinople. In addition, according to the anti-Photian biographer of Ignatius, partisans of the ex-patriarch after his death endeavored to claim for him the "honor of sainthood". Furthermore, a leading member of Leo's court, Leo Choirosphaktes, wrote poems commemorating the memory of several prominent contemporary figures, such as Leo the Mathematician and the Patriarch Stephen, and he also wrote one on Photios.[33] Shaun Tougher notes, however, that "yet Photios's passing does seem rather muted for a great figure of Byzantine history [...] Leo [...] certainly did not allow him back into the sphere of politics, and it is surely his absence from this arena that accounts for his quiet passing."[34] The Eastern Orthodox Church venerates Photios as a saint, his feast day being February 6; Ignatius is also venerated as a saint both in Eastern Orthodox Church, his feast day being October 23, and in the Roman Catholic Church. Assessments[edit] Photios is one of the most famous figures not only of 9th-century Byzantium but of the entire history of the Byzantine Empire. One of the most learned men of his age, and revered – even by some of his opponents and detractors – as the most prolific theologian of his time, he has earned his fame due to his part in ecclesiastical conflicts, and also for his intellect and literary works.[35][36] Analyzing his intellectual work, Tatakes regards Photios as "mind turned more to practice than to theory". He believes that, thanks to Photios, humanism was added to Orthodoxy as a basic element of the national consciousness of the medieval Byzantines, returning it to the place it had had in the late Roman (early Byzantine) period. Tatakes also argues that, having understood this national consciousness, Photios emerged as a defender of the Greek nation and its spiritual independence in his debates with the Western Church.[37] Adrian Fortescue regards him as "one of the most wonderful men of all the middle ages", and stresses that "had [he] not given his name to the great schism, he would always be remembered as the greatest scholar of his time".[38] Yet, Fortescue is equally adamant of his condemnation of Photios' involvement in the Schism: "And yet the other side of his character is no less evident. His insatiable ambition, his determination to obtain and keep the patriarchal see, led him to the extreme of dishonesty. His claim was worthless. That Ignatius was the rightful patriarch as long as he lived, and Photius an intruder, cannot be denied by any one who does not conceive the Church as merely the slave of a civil government. And to keep this place Photius descended to the lowest depth of deceit."[39] Writings[edit] The most important of the works of Photios is his renowned Bibliotheca or Myriobiblon, a collection of extracts and abridgements of 280 volumes of classical authors (usually cited as Codices), the originals of which are now to a great extent lost. The work is especially rich in extracts from historical writers.[17] Some older scholarship speculated that the Bibliotheca was in fact compiled in Baghdad at the time of Photius's embassy to the Abbasid court, since many of the mentioned works were rarely cited during the so-called Byzantine Dark Ages c. 630 – c. 800, and it was known that the Abbasids were interested in works of Greek science and philosophy.[40] However, specialists of this period of Byzantine history, such as Paul Lemerle, have shown that Photios could not have compiled his Bibliotheca in Baghdad because he clearly states in both his introduction and his postscript that when he learned of his appointment to the embassy, he sent his brother a summary of books that he read previously, "since the time I learned how to understand and evaluate literature" i.e. since his youth.[41] Moreover, the Abbasids were interested only in Greek science, philosophy and medicine; they did not have Greek history, rhetoric, or other literary works translated; nor did they have Christian patristic writers translated.[42] Yet the majority of works in Bibliotheca are by Christian patristic authors, and most of the secular texts in Bibliotheca are histories, grammars or literary works, usually rhetoric, rather than science, medicine or philosophy. This further indicates that the majority of the works cannot have been read while Photios was in the Abbasid empire. To Photios, we are indebted for almost all we possess of Ctesias, Memnon of Heraclea, Conon, the lost books of Diodorus Siculus, and the lost writings of Arrian. Theology and ecclesiastical history are also very fully represented, but poetry and ancient philosophy are almost entirely ignored. It seems that he did not think it necessary to deal with those authors with whom every well-educated man would naturally be familiar. The literary criticisms, generally distinguished by keen and independent judgment, and the excerpts vary considerably in length. The numerous biographical notes are probably taken from the work of Hesychius of Miletus.[17] The Lexicon (Λέξεων Συναγωγή), published later than the Bibliotheca, was probably in the main the work of some of his pupils. It was intended as a book of reference to facilitate the reading of old classical and sacred authors, whose language and vocabulary were out of date. For a long time, the only manuscripts of the Lexicon were the Codex Galeanus, which passed into the library of Trinity College, Cambridge[17] and Berolinensis graec. oct. 22, both of which were incomplete. But in 1959, Linos Politis of the University of Thessaloniki discovered a complete manuscript, codex Zavordensis 95, in the Zavorda Monastery (Greek: Ζάβορδα) in Grevena, Greece, where it still resides.[43] His most important theological work is the Amphilochia, a collection of some 300 questions and answers on difficult points in Scripture, addressed to Amphilochius, archbishop of Cyzicus. Other similar works are his treatise in four books against the Manichaeans and Paulicians, and his controversy with the Latins on the Procession of the Holy Spirit.[44] Photios also addressed a long letter of theological advice to the newly converted Boris I of Bulgaria. Numerous other Epistles also survive. Photios is also the writer of two "mirrors of princes", addressed to Boris-Michael of Bulgaria (Epistula 1, ed. Terzaghi) and to Leo VI the Wise (Admonitory Chapters of Basil I).[45] The chief contemporary authority for the life of Photios is his bitter enemy, Nicetas the Paphlagonian, the biographer of his rival Ignatios.[46] The first English translation, by Holy Transfiguration Monastery, of the "Mystagogy of the Holy Spirit" by Photios was published in 1983.[47] Another translation was published in 1987 with a preface by Archimandrite (now Archbishop) Chrysostomos of Etna.[48] See also[edit] Byzantine philosophy Filioque clause University of Magnaura Bibliotheca (Photius) Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus) Notes[edit] ^ a: The exact dates of Photios's birth and death are not known. Most sources list circa 810 and others circa 820 as his year of birth. He died some time between 890 and 895 (probably 891 or 893).[49] ^ b: The case of pseudo-Simeon's Chronicle is characteristic: the author argues that Photios was educated after an agreement he concluded with a Jewish magician who offered him knowledge and secular recognition, in case he renounced his faith.[50] ^ c: David Marshall Lang argues that "Photius [...] was only one of many Byzantine scholars of Armenian descent".[51] Peter Charanis notes that "John the Grammarian, Photius, Caesar Bardas and Leo the Philosopher seem to have been the prime movers. All four were, at least in part, of Armenian descent [...] as for Photius, the fact is that his mother Irene, was the sister of Arshavir, the Arshavir who had married Calomaria the sister of Bardas and the empress Theodora."[52] Nicholas Adontz stresses that "Arshavir, Photius' uncle, must not be confused with Arshavir, the brother of John the Grammarian".[53] ^ d: G. N. Wilson regards Leo the Mathematician as Photios's teacher, but Paul Lemerle notes that Leo was not one of the persons with whom Photios had a correspondence.[54] References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ "Photius the Great, Patriarch of Constantinople". Online Chapel. The Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America. Retrieved 10 June 2016. ^ a b Fr. Justin Taylor, essay "Canon Law in the Age of the Fathers" (published in Jordan Hite, T.O.R., & Daniel J. Ward, O.S.B., "Readings, Cases, Materials in Canon Law: A Textbook for Ministerial Students, Revised Edition" [Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press, 1990]), p. 61 ^ White, Despina Stratoudaki (1981). The Life of Patriarch Photios. Patriarch Photios of Constantinople, His Life, Scholarly Contributions, and Correspondence, Together with a Translation of Fifty-two of His Letters. ISBN 978-0-91658626-3. Retrieved 2014-01-03. ^ Louth 2007, Chapter Seven: "Renaissance of Learning: East and West", p. 159; Mango 1980, p. 168. ^ Treadgold 1983, p. 1100 ^ Jenkins 1987, Chapter Thirteen: "Ignatius, Photius, and Pope Nicholas I", p. 168. ^ a b c d Cross & Livingstone 2005, "Photius". ^ Durant 1972, p. 529. ^ И. Византийский. Святѣйшій Фотій, патріархъ Константинопольскій (The Most Holy Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople) // «Церковныя Вѣдомости, издаваемыя при Святѣйшемъ Правительствующемъ Сѵнодѣ» («Ecclesiastical leaflets of the Most Holy Governing Synod»). 29 January 1900, № 5, pages 193—201. ^ Photios. Epistola II, CII, 609; Tougher 1997, p. 68. ^ Tougher 1997, p. 68. ^ Gren 2002, p. 110: "Something of it, though, has been saved for posterity in the extracts made later by the Greek Byzantine patriarch Photios..." ^ Dunlop 1954, p. 194; Fortescue 2001, Chapter IV: "The Schism of Photius", pp. 146–147. ^ a b Tatakes & Moutafakis 2003, p. 102. ^ Mango 1980, pp. 168–169; Treadgold 1983, p. 1100. ^ Vlasto, A. P. (1970). The Entry of the Slavs into Christendom: An Introduction to the Medieval History of the Slavs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 33. ^ a b c d e f Chisholm 1911, p. 483. ^ Plexidas 2007, "Introduction", p. 17; Shepard 2002, p. 235. ^ Janin, Raymond (1953). La Géographie Ecclésiastique de l'Empire Byzantin. 1. Part: Le Siège de Constantinople et le Patriarcat Oecuménique. 3rd Vol. : Les Églises et les Monastères. Paris: Institut Français d'Etudes Byzantines. ^ Tougher 1997, p. 69 ^ Dvornik 1948, pp. 39-69. ^ Dvornik 1948, pp. 70-90. ^ Fortescue 2001, pp. 147–148; Louth 2007, p. 171; Tougher 1997, p. 69. ^ Chadwick 2003, Chapter 3: "Early Christian Diversity: The Quest for Coherence", p. 146. ^ Treadgold 1997, Chapter Fourteen: "External Gains, 842–912", p. 457. ^ Tougher 1997, pp. 70–71. ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 460. ^ Vlyssidou 1997, p. 33. ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 461. ^ https://sensusfidelium.us/apologetics/history-of-heresies-their-refutation-st-alphonsus/the-errors-of-the-greeks-condemned-in-three-general-councils/ ^ Tougher 1997, pp. 73–76, 84. ^ Tougher 1997, pp. 85–86. ^ Tougher 1997, pp. 87–88. ^ Tougher 1997, p. 88. ^ Louth 2007, Chapter Seven: "Renaissance of Learning: East and West", p. 171. ^ Tougher 1997, p. 68. ^ Tatakes & Moutafakis 2003, p. 103. ^ Fortescue 2001, p. 138. ^ http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12043b.htm ^ Jokisch 2007, pp. 365–386. ^ Jokisch 2007, pp. 365–386; Lemerle 1986, p. 40. ^ Lemerle 1986, pp. 26–27. ^ "The Lexicon of Photius" by Roger Pearse, January 15, 2011. ^ Chisholm 1911, pp. 483–484. ^ Paidas 2005, passim. ^ Chisholm 1911, p. 484. ^ Photius (1983). On the Mystagogy of the Holy Spirit. Studion Publishers. ISBN 0-943670-00-4. ^ Photius; Joseph P. Farrell (1987). The Mystagogy of the Holy Spirit. Holy Cross Orthodox Press. ISBN 0-916586-88-X. ^ Mango 1980, p. 169; Plexidas 2007, "Introduction", p. 15. ^ Symeon Metaphrastes (?). Chronicle, PG 109, 732 BC; Plexidas 2007, "Introduction", p. 15. ^ Lang 1988, p. 54. ^ Charanis 1963, pp. 27–28. ^ Adontz 1950, p. 66. ^ Lemerle 1971, p. 159 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLemerle1971 (help); Plexidas 2007, "Introduction", p. 16. Sources[edit] Adontz, Nicholas (1950). "Role of the Armenians in Byzantine Science". Armenian Review. 3 (3): 55–73. Chadwick, Henry (2003). East and West: The Making of a Rift in the Church: From Apostolic Times until the Council of Florence. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926457-5. Charanis, Peter (1963). The Armenians in the Byzantine Empire. Lisbon, Portugal: Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian. Cross, Frank Leslie; Livingstone, Elizabeth A. (2005). The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280290-9. Dorfmann-Lazarev, Igor (2004). Arméniens et Byzantins à l'Époque de Photius: Deux Débats Théologiques Après le Triomphe de l'Orthodoxie. 609 (Subsidia Tomus 117). Louvain, Belgium: Éditions Peeters (Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium). ISBN 90-429-1412-2. Dunlop, Douglas Morton (1954). The History of the Jewish Khazars. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. Durant, Will (1972). The Age of Faith. New York, New York: Simon and Schuster. Dvornik, Francis (1948). The Photian Schism: History and Legend. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Fortescue, Adrian (2001). The Orthodox Eastern Church. Piscataway, New Jersey: Gorgias Press LLC. ISBN 0-9715986-1-4. Gren, Erik (2002). Orientalia Suecana, Volumes 51–52. Stockholm, Sweden: Almquist & Wiksell Periodical Company. Jenkins, Romilly James Heald (1987). Byzantium: The Imperial Centuries, AD 610–1071. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Medieval Academy of America (University of Toronto Press). ISBN 0-8020-6667-4. Jokisch, Benjamin (2007). Islamic Imperial Law: Harun-al-Rashid's Codification Project. Berlin, Germany: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-019048-9. Lang, David Marshall (1988). The Armenians: A People in Exile. London, United Kingdom: Unwin Paperbacks. Lemerle, Paul (1986). Byzantine Humanism. Canberra: Australian Association for Byzantine Studies. Louth, Andrew (2007). Greek East and Latin West: The Church, AD 681–1071. Crestwood, NY: St Vladimir’s Seminary Press. ISBN 978-0-88141-320-5. Mango, Cyril A. (1980). Byzantium: The Empire of New Rome. New York, NY: Charles Scribner's Sons. ISBN 0-684-16768-9. Paidas, Konstantinos D. S. (2005). He Thematike ton Byzantinon "Katoptron Hegemonos" tes Proimes kai Meses Byzantines Periodo (398–1085). Symbole sten Politike Theoria ton Byzantinon (in Greek). Athens, Greece. Plexidas, Ioannis (2007). The Prince of Photios (in Greek). Athens, Greece: Armos. ISBN 978-960-527-396-5. Shepard, Jonathan (2002). "Spreading the Word: Byzantine Missions". In Cyril A. Mango (ed.). The Oxford History of Byzantium. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814098-3. Tatakes, Vasileios N.; Moutafakis, Nicholas J. (2003). Byzantine Philosophy. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, Incorporated. ISBN 0-87220-563-0. Taylor, Fr. Justin (1990), essay "Canon Law in the Age of the Fathers" (published in "Readings, Cases, Materials in Canon Law: A Textbook for Ministerial Students, Revised Edition" [Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press] by Jordan Hite, T.O.R., & Daniel J. Ward, O.S.B.) Tougher, Shaun (1997). The Reign of Leo VI (886–912): Politics and People. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-10811-0. Treadgold, Warren T. (October 1983). "Review: Patriarch Photios of Constantinople: His Life, Scholarly Contributions, and Correspondence together with a Translation of Fifty-Two of His Letters by Despina Stratoudaki White; The Patriarch and the Prince: The Letter of Patriarch Photios of Constantinople to Khan Boris of Bulgaria by Despina Stratoudaki White; Joseph R. Berrigan, Jr". Speculum. Medieval Academy of America. 58 (4): 1100–1102. doi:10.2307/2853829. JSTOR 2853829. Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2. Vlyssidou, Vassiliki N. (1997). "About the Deposition of Patriarch Nicholas Mystikos (907)". Byzantine Symmeikta (in Greek). 11: 23–36. Archived from the original on 2016-03-03. Retrieved 2008-07-23.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Photius". Encyclopædia Britannica. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 483–484. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Photios I of Constantinople. Saint Photius the Great Orthodox Icon and Synaxarion (February 6) Patriarch Photios of Constantinople Life and translations of his works The Excerpta of Photius Photius's summary of Books 9–16 of Memnon of Heraclea's history of Heraclea Pontica The Myrobiblion at Tertullian.Org Catholic Encyclopedia – Photius Greek Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Graeca with analytical indexes Saint Photius the Great, Mystagogy of the Holy Spirit (English translation) Ongoing English Translation of the Lexicon Photii biblioteca ex recensione Immanuelis Bekkeri, Berolini typis et impensis Ge. Reimeri, 1824–25, vol. 1, vol. 2. 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en-wikipedia-org-8777	----	Michelin Man - Wikipedia Michelin Man From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Bibendum) Jump to navigation Jump to search Mascot of Michelin tyre company The Michelin Tyre Man Bibendum in Taipei, 2008 Bibendum (French pronunciation: ​[bibɛ̃dɔm]), commonly referred to in English as the Michelin Man or Michelin Tyre Man, is the official mascot of the Michelin tyre company. A humanoid figure consisting of stacked white tyres, the mascot was introduced at the Lyon Exhibition of 1894 where the Michelin brothers had a stand,[1] and is one of the world's oldest trademarks. The slogan Nunc est bibendum (Now is the time to drink) is taken from Horace's Odes (book I, ode xxxvii, line 1). He is also referred to as Bib or Bibelobis.[2] Michelin dominated the French tyre industry for decades and remains a leading player in the market. It was one of the leading advertisers; to this day its famous guidebooks are widely used by travellers. Bibendum was depicted visually as a lord of industry, a master of all he surveyed, and a patriotic exponent of the French spirit. In the 1920s, Bibendum urged Frenchmen to adopt America's superior factory system, but to patriotically avoid using the "inferior" products of those factories. As automobiles became available to the middle classes, Michelin advertising likewise shifted downscale, and its restaurant and hotel guides likewise covered a broader range of price categories.[3] Contents 1 Development 2 In popular culture 3 References 4 External links Development[edit] A poster by "O'Galop" of Bibendum, the Michelin Man, produced in 1898. While attending the Universal and Colonial Exposition in Lyon in 1894, Édouard and André Michelin noticed a stack of tyres that suggested to Édouard the figure of a man without arms. Four years later, André met French cartoonist Marius Rossillon, popularly known as O'Galop, who showed him a rejected image he had created for a Munich brewery[citation needed] — a large, regal figure holding a huge glass of beer and quoting Horace's phrase Nunc est bibendum ("Now is the time for drinking").[4]. André immediately suggested replacing the man with a figure made from tyres. Thus O'Galop transformed the earlier image into Michelin's symbol. Today, Bibendum is one of the world's most recognised trademarks, representing Michelin in over 150 countries.[citation needed] The 1898 poster showed him offering the toast Nunc est bibendum to his scrawny competitors with a glass full of road hazards, with the title and the tag C'est à dire : À votre santé. Le pneu Michelin boit l'obstacle ("That is to say: Here's to your health. The Michelin tyre drinks up obstacles").[5] The character's glass is filled with nails and broken glass.[6] The implication is that Michelin tyres will easily take on road hazards. The company used this basic poster format for fifteen years, adding its latest products to the table in front of the figure. It is unclear when the word "Bibendum" came to be the name of the character himself. At the latest, it was in 1908, when Michelin commissioned Curnonsky to write a newspaper column signed "Bibendum". In 1922, Michelin ran a contest for "naming the Michelin Tire Man" in the United States.[7] From 1912 onwards, tyres became black in colour because carbon was added as a preservative and a strengthener to the basic rubber material. Before then, they were a gray-white or light and translucent-beige colour. Bibendum's appearance also changed, becoming black[citation needed]. Though Michelin briefly featured him that way in several print ads, it quickly changed back his appearance, citing printing and aesthetic issues for the change, and not racial concerns as commonly believed.[8] The name of the plump tyre-man has entered the language to describe someone obese or wearing comically bulky clothing (e.g. "How can I wrap up warmly without looking like the Michelin Man?").[9] Bibendum's shape has changed over the years. O'Galop's logo was based on bicycle tyres, wore pince-nez glasses with lanyard, and smoked a cigar. By the 1980s, Bibendum was being shown running, and in 1998, his 100th anniversary, a slimmed-down version became the company's new logo. He had long since given up the cigar and pince-nez. The slimming of the logo reflected lower-profile, smaller tyres of modern cars. Bib even had a similar-looking puppy as a companion when the duo were CGI animated for recent American television advertisements. A history of the emblem was written by Olivier Darmon and published in 1997: Le Grand Siècle de Bibendum; Paris: Hoëbeke.[10] In popular culture[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Bibendum is one of several advertising characters featured in this advertisement from 1920 The "Bibendum chair" was designed by Eileen Gray in 1925. Cayce Pollard, the main character of William Gibson's novel Pattern Recognition, has a strong aversion to corporate brands and logos. The sight of Bibendum in particular gives her panic attacks. Bibendum made a brief guest appearance in the Asterix series, as the chariot-wheel dealer in certain translations, including the English one, of Asterix in Switzerland. (The original French version used the Gaulish warrior mascot of French service-station company Antar.) Michelin sued the performance artist Momus for releasing a song about the trademarked Michelin Man. French reggae band Tryo sang about Bibendum on their album Grain de Sable. 'Monsieur Bibendum, il est vraiment énorme / Monsieur Bibendum, le bonheur en personne' ('Mr Bibendum, he is truly enormous, Mr Bibendum; happiness personified'). In the 2009 animated, Academy Award-winning satire Logorama, a series of Bibendums play police detectives, a sheriff, and a squad of SWAT personnel who all work together to try to bring down a psychotic, ultraviolent criminal played by Ronald McDonald. In Season 17 Episode 6 of Family Guy, "Stand by Meg", the Michelin Man was "murdered" by Chris Griffin on behalf of "Mr. Firestone". He later shows up at the Griffin house with the police, pointing to Chris as "the one who popped me". In the French dubbed version of Ghostbusters the giant Stay Puft Marshmallow Man is named "Bibendum Chamallow" ("chamallow" was originally a confectionery marketed in France under this name, which vaguely resembles the American marshmallow). LEGO released the Stay Puft Bibendum Chamallow minifigure in its 2015 edition of the fun pack set. References[edit] ^ "L'Aimable Mons. Bibendum or Quelques Precisions sur le Guide Michelin". The Motor. nbr 3503: Page 41. 9 August 1969. ^ "Michelin Corporate - Bibendum, the Michelin man, the living tyre". Archived from the original on 2010-06-18. Retrieved 2010-05-28. ^ Stephen L. Harp, Marketing Michelin. Advertising and Cultural Identity in Twentieth-Century France (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001) ^ Horace, Odes, Book 1, Poem 37. ^ Cross, Mary (2002). A Century of American Icons: 100 Products and Slogans from the 20th-Century Consumer Culture. Greenwood Press. pp. 31–34. ISBN 978-0313314810. Retrieved 4 September 2020. ^ Dotz, Warren; Morton, Jim (1996). What a Character! 20th Century American Advertising Icons. Chronicle Books. p. 25. ISBN 0-8118-0936-6. ^ advertisement, Saturday Evening Post 194:56 (March 4, 1922), p. 53 ^ "Michelin Man: The Inside Story - September 19, 2005". ^ Brodkin, Jon (2006-10-06). "Kenny has a big pair of gloves to fill on Ireland's twin mission". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 2010-05-12. ^ Also in English and German: One Hundred Years of Michelin Man; translated from the French by Bernard Besserglik; Paris: Hoëbeke, 1997; Michelin Man: 100 years of Bibendum; London: Conran Octopus, 1998.--Bibendum: ein Jahrhundert Geschichte; aus dem Französischen von Herta Luise Ott. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bibendum. Bibimage.com, Unofficial site dedicated to Bibendum. (in French) Authority control BNF: cb131785386 (data) GND: 4134742-0 LCCN: sh96003219 SUDOC: 15502289X VIAF: 220426578 WorldCat Identities: viaf-220426578 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Michelin_Man&oldid=990523338" Categories: Automobile advertising characters Cartoon mascots Corporate mascots Mascots introduced in 1894 Michelin Hidden categories: CS1: long volume value Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2020 Articles containing Latin-language text Articles containing French-language text Articles with unsourced statements from September 2018 Articles needing additional references from February 2017 All articles needing additional references Commons category link is on Wikidata Articles with French-language sources (fr) Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Bân-lâm-gú Català Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara Français Italiano Lëtzebuergesch Nederlands Polski Português Svenska Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 November 2020, at 23:38 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8779	----	Silius Italicus - Wikipedia Silius Italicus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Silius Italicus Silius Italicus, in full Tiberius Catius Asconius Silius Italicus[1] (Latin: [ˈsiːlijʊs ɪˈt̪alɪkʊs], c. 28 – c. 103 AD), was a Roman consul, orator, and Latin epic poet of the 1st century AD (Silver Age of Latin literature). His only surviving work is the 17-book Punica, an epic poem about the Second Punic War and the longest surviving poem in Latin at over 12,000 lines. A painting by Joseph Wright of Derby depicting Silius Italicus at the tomb of Virgil. Contents 1 Life 1.1 Sources and birthplace 1.2 Political career 1.3 Campanian retirement and suicide 2 Works 2.1 The Punica 3 Influence 4 References 5 Further reading 6 External links Life[edit] Sources and birthplace[edit] The sources for the life of Silius Italicus are primarily Letter 3.7 of Pliny the Younger, which is a description of the poet's life written on the occasion of his suicide, some inscriptions,[2] and several epigrams by the poet Martial. Silius is believed to have been born between AD 23 and 35,[3] but his birthplace has not been securely identified. Italica, in the Roman province of Hispania, (modern Spain), was once considered the prime candidate, based on his cognomen Italicus, but, if that were the case, Latin usage would have demanded the form Italicensis, and it is highly improbable that Martial would have failed to name him among the literary celebrities of Spain in the latter half of the 1st century. The city of Patavium, Padua in northern Italy, has been suggested by J. D. Campbell based on a seeming bias in favor of the region in the Punica and the prevalence of the name Asconius in inscriptions from the region.[4] Political career[edit] In early life Silius was a renowned forensic orator, later a safe and cautious politician. Silius was generally believed to have voluntarily and enthusiastically become an informer under Nero, prosecuting in court persons whom the emperor wished condemned.[5] He was consul in the year of Nero's death (AD 68), and afterward became a close friend and ally of the emperor Vitellius, whom he served, according to Pliny sapienter et comiter, wisely and amicably.[5] He is mentioned by Tacitus as having been one of two witnesses who were present at the conferences between Vitellius and Flavius Sabinus, the elder brother of Vespasian, when the legions from the East were marching rapidly on the capital.[6] Silius became proconsul of Asia AD 77-78 as attested in an inscription from Aphrodisias which describes his activities in maintaining the institutions of the city.[7] According to Pliny (Ep. 3.7), he performed his duties well and earned himself a place of importance in the empire. Campanian retirement and suicide[edit] After his proconsulship in Asia, Silius seems to have left politics in favor of a leisurely life; despite his wealth and importance in the state, he seems to have exercised little power and avoided offense.[8] Thus, he outlived the Flavian dynasty without incident. Pliny depicts him spending time in learned conversation at his villas, writing, passionately collecting books and sculpture,[9] and giving recitations of his works. Silius was evidently writing poems as early as AD 88.[10] It is firmly believed that the Punica was written during this retirement period of Silius' life.[11] Martial 7.63 indicates that some of the Punica had been published by AD 92 and that Silius was no longer making speeches in court. Book 14 has been dated tentatively to after AD 96 based on the poet's treatment of Domitian.[12] His poem contains several passages relating to the Flavians, and Domitian is eulogized as a warrior and as a singer whose lyre is sweeter than that of Orpheus himself.[13] The poem mentions primarily Domitian but later seems to discuss the emperor Nerva, although Domitian may be meant by the latter reference.[14] The poet's attitude to Domitian tends to be laudatory and friendly, employing the full spectrum of Virgilian panegyrical language and imagery.[15] Silius was considered highly educated by contemporaries. The philosopher Epictetus judged him to be the most philosophic spirit among the Romans of his time,[16] and Cornutus, the Stoic, rhetorician and grammarian, dedicated to Silius a commentary upon Virgil.[17] He had two sons, one of whom, Severus, died young. The other, Decianus, went on to become consul.[18] As he aged, he moved permanently to his villas in Campania, not even leaving to attend the accession ceremony of Trajan.[19] Silius idealized and almost worshipped two great Romans of the past, Cicero and Virgil. He purchased Cicero's estate at Tusculum[20] and the tomb of Virgil in Naples, which he restored.[21] Pliny records that Silius especially revered Virgil, celebrating Virgil's birthday more lavishly than his own and treating the poet's tomb as a shrine.[22] His dual interests in composing epic poetry and discussing philosophical questions have been compared to the intellectual efforts of his heroes, Virgil and Cicero, respectively.[20] Silius was one of the numerous Romans of the early empire who had the courage of their opinions, and carried into perfect practice the theory of suicide developed in Stoicism; Punica 11.186-88 contains a praise of suicide. Stricken by an incurable tumour after the age of 75, he starved himself to death around 103 AD, keeping a cheerful countenance to the end. Pliny remarks that Silius was the last person to die who was consul under Nero.[23] Works[edit] Whether Silius committed his philosophic dialogues and speeches to writing or not, we cannot say. His only preserved work is his epic poem entitled Punica, about the Second Punic War (218–201 BC) in seventeen books, comprising some twelve thousand lines, making it the longest preserved poem in Latin literature.[24] The Punica[edit] The Vision of a Knight by Raphael is based on an episode in Book 15 of the Punica, the choice of Scipio. Main article: Punica (poem) The dating of the Punica has been a difficult issue for classical scholars, but two passages, 3.594 and 14.680ff., along with several poems of Martial cited above, indicate that it was composed sometime between 83 and 103, with Book 3 being dated to AD 84 and Book 14 around AD 96.[25] Other books cannot be dated with any precision. The poem is divided into 17 books and is composed in dactylic hexameter. It has been thought that the poem was initially planned in hexads and that the original intent was to round off the composition in 18 books.[26] The poem takes Virgil as its primary stylistic and dramatic inspiration throughout; from its opening, the Punica is configured as the continuation of Juno's grudge against Rome developed in the Aeneid.[27] Livy and Ennius[28] are important sources for historical and poetic information, and Homer specifically is declared an important model by Silius who remarks of him at 12.788-9, "his [Homer's] poetry embraced the earth, sea, stars, and shades and he rivaled the Muses in song and Phoebus in glory."[29] Lucan is also an important model for the writing of historical epic, geographical excursus, and Stoic tone, although Silius' approach toward the gods in much more traditional.[30] The poem opens with a discussion of Juno's wrath against Rome on account of Aeneas' treatment of Dido and of Hannibal's character and upbringing. Hannibal attacks Saguntum and receives a Roman embassy. In Book 2, the Roman legation is heard at Carthage, but Hannibal takes the city after the defenders heroically commit suicide. The Carthaginians are catalogued, Hannibal crosses the Alps, and Jupiter reveals that the Punic War is a test of Roman manliness in Book 3. In 4 and 5 the Romans suffer defeat at Ticinus, Trebia, and Lake Trasimene. Book 6 looks back to the exploits of Marcus Atilius Regulus in the First Punic War, while Book 7 describes Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus' delaying strategy. Books 8-10 describe in vivid detail the battle of Cannae; Juno prevents Hannibal from marching on Rome. In Book 11, Hannibal's army winters in Capua, where Venus enfeebles them with luxury. Hannibal is defeated at Nola in 12, emboldening the Romans. He makes an attempt on the city, but Juno stops him, revealing that the gods are against him. Book 13 reports the Romans' invasion of Capua and the death of two Scipios, which leads to Scipio Africanus' journey to the underworld (nekyia), his meeting with famous dead heroes, and a prophecy by the Sibyl of Hannibal's defeat. In 14 the Marcellus' successful Sicilian campaign and the siegecraft of Archimedes are described. In 15, Scipio, choosing Virtue over Vice, has a successful campaign in Spain, while at the Battle of the Metaurus, Hannibal's brother is killed. 16 describes the alliance between Rome and Masinissa and Scipio's crossing into Africa, while 17 describes the bringing of the statue of Cybele to Rome, Hannibal's stormy crossing into Africa, Juno's appeal to Jupiter for the life of Hannibal, and the Battle of Zama. The poem ends with Scipio's triumphal return to Rome. Silius' style is unlike Virgil in that he does not focus on a few central characters but divides his action up between many significant heroes.[31] This encourages him to present important events from the Roman past as a reflection on the characters and their actions in the poem's present, echoing the Roman tradition of using exempla. While many important set pieces of epic are included, such as elaborated similes, ekphrases of objects, such as Hannibal's shield in 2.391-456, a nekyia, and divine participation in and prophecy of events, there are also important elements of historiography such as paired contrasting speeches and detailed geographical description. Allegory is particularly important in Silius, and he includes such figures as Fides, faith, in Book 2, Italia in 15, and Virtus and Voluptas also in Book 15, continuing a trend towards allegory which was significant in Statius, Silius' contemporary.[32] Silius' metrics and language can be closely compared to Virgilian usage, especially his use of spondees.[33] Stoicism and stoic ethical thought are significant themes in the Punica. The war is configured as a trial of Roman virtus which must be overcome with hard work, akin to the Stoic ideal of overcoming adversity with inner courage and trial.[34] The "choice of Hercules", a favorite Stoic parable, is given to Scipio in Book 15, and everywhere the war brings out moral lessons and discussions of Stoic concepts like emotion, reason, and destiny. Influence[edit] The only ancient authors to refer to Silius are Martial, Pliny, and Sidonius Apollinaris. Pliny's judgment that Silius wrote poetry maiore cura quam ingenio (with more eagerness than genius) has encouraged the view that Silius is a talented but mediocre and uninspired poet. The poem seems to have been mostly unknown in the Middle Ages. Petrarch's Africa was composed independently of the Punica, as the manuscript was discovered by Poggio Bracciolini in 1417 at the Abbey of Saint Gall during the Council of Constance.[35] Julius Caesar Scaliger's harsh opinion of Silius damaged his reputation.[36] Many authors were familiar with Silius' work, such as Montaigne, Milton, Dryden (who considered him better than Lucan), Gibbon, and Alexander Pope.[37] Joseph Addison particularly includes many quotations of Silius in his Dialogue on Medals as does Thomas Macaulay in his works.[38] Interest in Silius mostly vanished in the 19th century.[39] As for visual arts, Raphael's Vision of the Knight is a treatment of Silius' choice of Scipio.[36] Despite Silius' poor reputation, classical scholars with their renewed interest in later Imperial epic seem to be finally turning their attentions to Silius' poetry.[citation needed] References[edit] ^ "Silius Italicus". Encyclopædia Britannica. ^ von Albrecht, p. 960 n.1 ^ M. von Albrecht, A History of Latin Literature, vol. 2 p. 959. ^ D. J. Campbell, "The Birthplace of Silius Italicus", The Classical Review (1936), pp. 55-58. ^ a b Pliny 3.7.3 ^ Tacitus Histories 3.65 ^ W. Calder, "Silius Italicus in Asia", Classical Review, (1935), pp. 216-217. ^ Pliny Ep. 3.7.4 ^ Martial remarks in 6.64 that Silius read his epigrams. ^ Martial 4.14. ^ von Albrecht p. 960 n.4 ^ W. MacDermott and A. Orentzel, "Silius and Domitian", American Journal of Philology, (1977) pp. 24-34 ^ Punica 3.607-29 and 14.686-88. ^ W. MacDermott and A. Orentzel pp. 30-31. ^ W. MacDermott and A. Orentzel, pp. 29-34 ^ Epict. Diss. 3.8.7 ^ Char. Gramm. 1.125.16-18. ^ Martial 8.66 ^ Pliny, Ep. 3.7.5 ^ a b Martial 11.48. ^ Martial 11.49. ^ Pliny, Ep. 3.7.8-9. ^ Pliny, Ep. 3.7.10. ^ "Punica". Encyclopædia Britannica. ^ E. Wistrand, Die Chronologie der Punica des Silius Italicus Goeteborg, 1956. ^ von Albrecht, p. 964 ^ von Albrecht, pp. 962ff. for a discussion of sources. ^ Pun. 12.342-419 is a passage in praise of Ennius. ^ von Albrecht, p. 962 for a list of Homeric episodes in Silius which are not found in Virgil. ^ von Albrecht, p. 984. ^ von Albrecht, p. 965. ^ Feeney, D. The Gods in Epic (Oxford, 1991) ^ von Albrecht, p. 967. ^ von Albrecht, pp. 967ff. for a discussion of Silius' stoicism with references. ^ G. B. Conte A History of Latin Literature (Baltimore, 1994) p. 495. ^ a b von Albrecht, p. 969. ^ E. Bassett "Silius Italicus in England" in Classical Philology 1953, pp. 155-168. ^ E. Bassett pp. 166-168. ^ E. Bassett, p. 168 Further reading[edit] Augoustakis, Antony. 2010. Motherhood and the Other: Fashioning Female Power in Flavian Epic. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Augoustakis, Antony. 2008. "The Other as Same: Non-Roman Mothers in Silius Italicus' Punica," Classical Philology 103.1:55–76. Dominik, William J. 2010. The Reception of Silius Italicus in Modern Scholarship. In Brill’s Companion to Silius Italicus. Edited by Antony Augoustakis, 425–447. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. Keith, Alison M. 2010. "Engendering Orientalism in Silius’ Punica." In Brill’s Companion to Silius Italicus. Edited by Antony Augoustakis, 355–373. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. Marks, Raymond. 2005. From Republic to Empire. Scipio Africanus in the Punica of Silius Italicus. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. Marks, Raymond. 2010. "The Song and the Sword: Silius’ Punica and the Crisis of Early Imperial Epic." In Epic and History. Edited by David Kostan and Kurt Raaflaub, 185–211. Malden, MA: Wiley. Santini, Carlo. 1991. Silius Italicus and his View of the Past. Amsterdam: J. C. Gieben. Stocks, Claire. 2014. The Roman Hannibal: Remembering the Enemy in Silius Italicus’ 'Punica'. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. Tipping, Benjamin. 2010. Exemplary Epic: Silius Italicus’ Punica. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. External links[edit] Library resources about Silius Italicus Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Silius Italicus Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Reid, James Smith (1911). "Silius Italicus" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 95–96. Works by Silius Italicus at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Silius Italicus at Internet Archive Works by Silius Italicus at Perseus Digital Library Punicorum Libri Septemdecim (in Latin) Entry by von Albrecht on Silius Italicus Links to translation of Silius Italicus by J.D.Duff Duff's English translation of Punica as clean html with tagged, geolocated place names, in ToposText Political offices Preceded by Appius Annius Gallus, and Lucius Verulanus Severus as Suffect consuls Consul of the Roman Empire with Publius Galerius Trachalus 68 Succeeded by Nero V, and ignotus as Suffect consuls Authority control BIBSYS: 90152539 BNE: XX1122047 BNF: cb11924756s (data) CANTIC: a11825534 CiNii: DA01388598 GND: 118614347 ISNI: 0000 0001 0881 4517 LCCN: n79120267 NKC: jn19990007957 NLA: 35167623 NLG: 99045 NLI: 000122649 NSK: 000098384 NTA: 068951647 RERO: 02-A000149913 SELIBR: 248939 SUDOC: 027138143 Trove: 849387 VcBA: 495/44504 VIAF: 27071645 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79120267 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Silius_Italicus&oldid=991466148" Categories: Latin historians Roman-era poets Silver Age Latin writers Imperial Roman consuls Roman governors of Asia 20s births 100s deaths 1st-century Roman poets 1st-century Romans Catii Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2015 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with Latin-language sources (la) Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth uncertain Year of death uncertain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Español Estremeñu Euskara Français Furlan Galego Հայերեն Íslenska Italiano עברית Latina Magyar مصرى Mirandés Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Português Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 30 November 2020, at 05:29 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8804	----	Roman Senate - Wikipedia Roman Senate From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Political institution in ancient Rome Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e The Roman Senate (Latin: Senātus Rōmānus) was a governing and advisory assembly in ancient Rome. It was one of the most enduring institutions in Roman history, being established in the first days of the city of Rome (traditionally founded in 753 BC). It survived the overthrow of the Roman monarchy in 509 BC; the fall of the Roman Republic in the 1st century BC; the division of the Roman Empire in AD 395; and the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476; Justinian's attempted reconquest of the west in the 6th century, and lasted well into the Eastern Roman Empire's history. During the days of the Roman Kingdom, most of the time the Senate was little more than an advisory council to the king, but it also elected new Roman kings. The last king of Rome, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, was overthrown following a coup d'état led by Lucius Junius Brutus, who founded the Roman Republic. During the early Republic, the Senate was politically weak, while the various executive magistrates were quite powerful. Since the transition from monarchy to constitutional rule was most likely gradual, it took several generations before the Senate was able to assert itself over the executive magistrates. By the middle Republic, the Senate had reached the apex of its republican power. The late Republic saw a decline in the Senate's power, which began following the reforms of the tribunes Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus. After the transition of the Republic into the Principate, the Senate lost much of its political power as well as its prestige. Following the constitutional reforms of Emperor Diocletian, the Senate became politically irrelevant. When the seat of government was transferred out of Rome, the Senate was reduced to a purely-municipal body. That decline in status was reinforced when the emperor Constantine the Great created an additional senate in Constantinople. After Romulus Augustulus was deposed in 476, the Senate in the West Empire functioned under the rule of Odoacer (476–489) and during Ostrogothic rule (489–535). It was restored to its official status after the reconquest of Italy by Justinian I but ultimately disappeared after 603, the date of its last recorded public act. The title "senator" continued into the Middle Ages as a largely-meaningless honorific. The Eastern Senate survived in Constantinople through the 14th century. Contents 1 History 1.1 Senate of the Roman Kingdom 1.2 Senate of the Roman Republic 1.3 Senate of the Roman Empire 1.4 Post-Imperial Senate in Rome 1.4.1 Senate in the West 1.4.2 Senate in the East 2 See also 3 References 4 Bibliography 4.1 Primary sources 4.2 Secondary sources 5 Further reading History[edit] Senate of the Roman Kingdom[edit] Main articles: Senate of the Roman Kingdom and Constitution of the Roman Kingdom The senate was a political institution in the ancient Roman Kingdom. The word senate derives from the Latin word senex, which means "old man"; the word thus means "assembly of elders". The prehistoric Indo-Europeans who settled Italy in the centuries before the legendary founding of Rome in 753 BC[1] were structured into tribal communities,[2] and these communities often included an aristocratic board of tribal elders.[3] The early Roman family was called a gens or "clan",[2] and each clan was an aggregation of families under a common living male patriarch, called a pater (the Latin word for "father").[4] When the early Roman gentes were aggregating to form a common community, the patres from the leading clans were selected[5] for the confederated board of elders that would become the Roman senate.[4] Over time, the patres came to recognize the need for a single leader, and so they elected a king (rex),[4] and vested in him their sovereign power.[6] When the king died, that sovereign power naturally reverted to the patres.[4] The senate is said to have been created by Rome's first king, Romulus, initially consisting of 100 men. The descendants of those 100 men subsequently became the patrician class.[7] Rome's fifth king, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, chose a further 100 senators. They were chosen from the minor leading families, and were accordingly called the patres minorum gentium.[8] Rome's seventh and final king, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, executed many of the leading men in the senate, and did not replace them, thereby diminishing their number. However, in 509 BC Rome's first and third consuls, Lucius Junius Brutus and Publius Valerius Publicola chose from amongst the leading equites new men for the senate, these being called conscripti, and thus increased the size of the senate to 300.[9] The senate of the Roman Kingdom held three principal responsibilities: It functioned as the ultimate repository for the executive power,[10] it served as the king's council, and it functioned as a legislative body in concert with the people of Rome.[11] During the years of the monarchy, the senate's most important function was to elect new kings. While the king was nominally elected by the people, it was actually the senate who chose each new king.[10] The period between the death of one king and the election of a new king was called the interregnum,[10] during which time the Interrex nominated a candidate to replace the king.[12] After the senate gave its initial approval to the nominee, he was then formally elected by the people,[13] and then received the senate's final approval.[12] At least one king, Servius Tullius, was elected by the senate alone, and not by the people.[14] The senate's most significant task, outside regal elections, was to function as the king's council, and while the king could ignore any advice it offered, its growing prestige helped make the advice that it offered increasingly difficult to ignore. Only the king could make new laws, although he often involved both the senate and the curiate assembly (the popular assembly) in the process.[11] Senate of the Roman Republic[edit] Main articles: Constitution of the Roman Republic and Senate of the Roman Republic Representation of a sitting of the Roman senate: Cicero attacks Catiline, from a 19th-century fresco in Palazzo Madama, Rome, house of the Italian Senate. It is worth noting that idealistic medieval and subsequent artistic depictions of the Senate in session are almost uniformly inaccurate. Illustrations commonly show the senators arranged in a semicircle around an open space where orators were deemed to stand; in reality the structure of the existing Curia Julia building, which dates in its current form from the Emperor Diocletian, shows that the senators sat in straight and parallel lines on either side of the interior of the building. In current media depictions in film this is shown correctly in The Fall of the Roman Empire, and incorrectly in, for example, Spartacus. The so-called "Togatus Barberini", a statue depicting a Roman senator holding the imagines (effigies) of deceased ancestors in his hands; marble, late 1st century BC; head (not belonging): mid-1st century BC. When the Republic began, the Senate functioned as an advisory council. It consisted of 300–500 senators who served for life. Only patricians were members in the early period, but plebeians were also admitted before long, although they were denied the senior magistracies for a longer period. Senators were entitled to wear a toga with a broad purple stripe, maroon shoes, and an iron (later gold) ring. The Senate of the Roman Republic passed decrees called senatus consulta, which in form constituted "advice" from the senate to a magistrate. While these decrees did not hold legal force, they usually were obeyed in practice.[15] If a senatus consultum conflicted with a law (lex) that was passed by an assembly, the law overrode the senatus consultum because the senatus consultum had its authority based in precedent and not in law. A senatus consultum, however, could serve to interpret a law.[16] Through these decrees, the senate directed the magistrates, especially the Roman Consuls (the chief magistrates) in their prosecution of military conflicts. The senate also had an enormous degree of power over the civil government in Rome. This was especially the case with regard to its management of state finances, as only it could authorize the disbursal of public funds from the treasury. As the Roman Republic grew, the senate also supervised the administration of the provinces, which were governed by former consuls and praetors, in that it decided which magistrate should govern which province. Since the 3rd century BC the senate also played a pivotal role in cases of emergency. It could call for the appointment of a dictator (a right resting with each consul with or without the senate's involvement). However, after 202 BC, the office of dictator fell out of use (and was revived only two more times) and was replaced with the senatus consultum ultimum ("ultimate decree of the senate"), a senatorial decree which authorised the consuls to employ any means necessary to solve the crisis.[17] While senate meetings could take place either inside or outside the formal boundary of the city (the pomerium), no meeting could take place more than a mile (1 km) outside it.[18] The senate operated while under various religious restrictions. For example, before any meeting could begin, a sacrifice to the gods was made, and a search for divine omens (the auspices) was taken.[19] The senate was only allowed to assemble in places dedicated to the gods. Meetings usually began at dawn, and a magistrate who wished to summon the senate had to issue a compulsory order.[20] The senate meetings were public[18] and directed by a presiding magistrate (usually a consul).[6] While in session, the senate had the power to act on its own, and even against the will of the presiding magistrate if it wished. The presiding magistrate began each meeting with a speech,[21] then referred an issue to the senators, who would discuss it in order of seniority.[18] Senators had several other ways in which they could influence (or frustrate) a presiding magistrate. For example, every senator was permitted to speak before a vote could be held, and since all meetings had to end by nightfall,[15] a dedicated group or even a single senator could talk a proposal to death (a filibuster or diem consumere).[21] When it was time to call a vote, the presiding magistrate could bring up whatever proposals he wished, and every vote was between a proposal and its negative.[22] With a dictator as well as a senate, the senate could veto any of the dictator's decisions. At any point before a motion passed, the proposed motion could be vetoed, usually by a tribune. If there was no veto, and the matter was of minor importance, it could be put to either a voice vote or a show of hands. If there was no veto and no obvious majority, and the matter was of a significant nature, there was usually a physical division of the house,[18] with senators voting by taking a place on either side of the chamber. Senate membership was controlled by the censors. By the time of Augustus, ownership of property worth at least one million sesterces was required for membership. The ethical requirements of senators were significant. In contrast to members of the Equestrian order, senators could not engage in banking or any form of public contract. They could not own a ship that was large enough to participate in foreign commerce,[18] they could not leave Italy without permission from the rest of the senate and they were not paid a salary. Election to magisterial office resulted in automatic senate membership.[23] Senate of the Roman Empire[edit] Main articles: Constitution of the Roman Empire, Senate of the Roman Empire, and Constitution of the Late Roman Empire After the fall of the Roman Republic, the constitutional balance of power shifted from the Roman senate to the Roman Emperor. Though retaining its legal position as under the republic, in practice, however, the actual authority of the imperial senate was negligible, as the emperor held the true power in the state. As such, membership in the senate became sought after by individuals seeking prestige and social standing, rather than actual authority. During the reigns of the first emperors, legislative, judicial, and electoral powers were all transferred from the Roman assemblies to the senate. However, since the emperor held control over the senate, the senate acted as a vehicle through which he exercised his autocratic powers. The Curia Julia in the Roman Forum, the seat of the imperial Senate. The first emperor, Augustus, reduced the size of the senate from 900 members to 600, even though there were only about 100 to 200 active senators at one time. After this point, the size of the senate was never again drastically altered. Under the empire, as was the case during the late republic, one could become a senator by being elected quaestor (a magistrate with financial duties), but only if one were already of senatorial rank.[24] In addition to quaestors, elected officials holding a range of senior positions were routinely granted senatorial rank by virtue of the offices that they held.[25] If an individual was not of senatorial rank, there were two ways for him to become a senator. Under the first method, the emperor manually granted that individual the authority to stand for election to the quaestorship,[24] while under the second method, the emperor appointed that individual to the senate by issuing a decree.[26] Under the empire, the power that the emperor held over the senate was absolute.[27] The two consuls were a part of the senate, but had more power than the senators. During senate meetings, the emperor sat between the two consuls,[28] and usually acted as the presiding officer. Senators of the early empire could ask extraneous questions or request that a certain action be taken by the senate. Higher ranking senators spoke before those of lower rank, although the emperor could speak at any time.[28] Besides the emperor, consuls and praetors could also preside over the senate. Since no senator could stand for election to a magisterial office without the emperor's approval, senators usually did not vote against bills that had been presented by the emperor. If a senator disapproved of a bill, he usually showed his disapproval by not attending the senate meeting on the day that the bill was to be voted on.[29] While the Roman assemblies continued to meet after the founding of the empire, their powers were all transferred to the senate, and so senatorial decrees (senatus consulta) acquired the full force of law.[27] The legislative powers of the imperial senate were principally of a financial and an administrative nature, although the senate did retain a range of powers over the provinces.[27] During the early Roman Empire, all judicial powers that had been held by the Roman assemblies were also transferred to the senate. For example, the senate now held jurisdiction over criminal trials. In these cases, a consul presided, the senators constituted the jury, and the verdict was handed down in the form of a decree (senatus consultum),[27][30] and, while a verdict could not be appealed, the emperor could pardon a convicted individual through a veto. The emperor Tiberius transferred all electoral powers from the assemblies to the senate,[30] and, while theoretically the senate elected new magistrates, the approval of the emperor was always needed before an election could be finalized. Around 300 AD, the emperor Diocletian enacted a series of constitutional reforms. In one such reform, he asserted the right of the emperor to take power without the theoretical consent of the senate, thus depriving the senate of its status as the ultimate repository of supreme power. Diocletian's reforms also ended whatever illusion had remained that the senate had independent legislative, judicial, or electoral powers. The senate did, however, retain its legislative powers over public games in Rome, and over the senatorial order. The senate also retained the power to try treason cases, and to elect some magistrates, but only with the permission of the emperor. In the final years of the western empire, the senate would sometimes try to appoint their own emperor, such as in the case of Eugenius, who was later defeated by forces loyal to Theodosius I. The senate remained the last stronghold of the traditional Roman religion in the face of the spreading Christianity, and several times attempted to facilitate the return of the Altar of Victory (first removed by Constantius II) to the senatorial curia. According to the Historia Augusta (Elagabalus 4.2 and 12.3) emperor Elagabalus had his mother or grandmother take part in Senate proceedings. "And Elagabalus was the only one of all the emperors under whom a woman attended the senate like a man, just as though she belonged to the senatorial order" (David Magie's translation). According to the same work, Elagabalus also established a women's senate called the senaculum, which enacted rules to be applied to matrons regarding clothing, chariot riding, the wearing of jewelry, etc. (Elagabalus 4.3 and Aurelian 49.6). Before this, Agrippina the Younger, mother of Nero, had been listening to Senate proceedings, concealed behind a curtain, according to Tacitus (Annales, 13.5). Post-Imperial Senate in Rome[edit] Senate in the West[edit] After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the senate continued to function under the Germanic chieftain Odoacer, and then under Ostrogothic rule. The authority of the senate rose considerably under barbarian leaders, who sought to protect the institution. This period was characterized by the rise of prominent Roman senatorial families, such as the Anicii, while the senate's leader, the princeps senatus, often served as the right hand of the barbarian leader. It is known that the senate successfully installed Laurentius as pope in 498, despite the fact that both King Theodoric and Emperor Anastasius supported the other candidate, Symmachus.[31] The peaceful coexistence of senatorial and barbarian rule continued until the Ostrogothic leader Theodahad found himself at war with Emperor Justinian I and took the senators as hostages. Several senators were executed in 552 as revenge for the death of the Ostrogothic king, Totila. After Rome was recaptured by the imperial (Byzantine) army, the senate was restored, but the institution (like classical Rome itself) had been mortally weakened by the long war. Many senators had been killed and many of those who had fled to the east chose to remain there, thanks to favorable legislation passed by Emperor Justinian, who, however, abolished virtually all senatorial offices in Italy. The importance of the Roman senate thus declined rapidly.[32] In 578 and again in 580, the senate sent envoys to Constantinople. They delivered 3000 pounds (=1,360 kilograms) of gold as a gift to the new emperor, Tiberius II Constantinus, along with a plea for help against the Lombards, who had invaded Italy ten years earlier. Pope Gregory I, in a sermon from 593, lamented the almost complete disappearance of the senatorial order and the decline of the prestigious institution.[33][34] It is not clearly known when the Roman senate disappeared in the West, but it is known from the Gregorian register that the senate acclaimed new statues of Emperor Phocas and Empress Leontia in 603,[35][36] and that was also the last time the senate was mentioned.[35] In 630, the house of the Senate, Curia Julia, was transformed into a church by Pope Honorius I, probably with the permission of the Emperor Heraclius.[37] In later medieval times[when?], the title "senator" was still in occasional use, but it had become a meaningless adjunct title of nobility and no longer implied membership in an organized governing body.[citation needed] In 1144, the Commune of Rome attempted to establish a government modeled on the old Roman Republic in opposition to the temporal power of the higher nobles and the pope. This included setting up a senate along the lines of the ancient one. The revolutionaries divided Rome into fourteen regions, each electing four senators for a total of 56 (although one source,[which?][according to whom?] often repeated, gives a total of 50). These senators elected as their leader Giordano Pierleoni, son of the Roman consul Pier Leoni, with the title patrician, since consul was also a deprecated noble styling.[citation needed] This renovated form of government was constantly embattled. By the end of the 12th century, it had undergone a radical transformation, with the reduction of the number of senators to a single one – Summus Senator – being thereafter the title of the head of the civil government of Rome. In modern terms, for example, this is comparable to the reduction of a board of commissioners to a single commissioner, such as the political head of the police department of New York City. Between 1191 and 1193, this was a certain Benedetto called Carus homo or carissimo.[citation needed] Senate in the East[edit] Main article: Byzantine Senate The senate continued to exist in Constantinople, although it evolved into an institution that differed in some fundamental forms from its predecessor. Designated in Greek as synkletos, or assembly, the Senate of Constantinople was made up of all current or former holders of senior ranks and official positions, plus their descendants. At its height during the 6th and 7th centuries, the Senate represented the collective wealth and power of the Empire, on occasion nominating and dominating individual emperors.[38] In the second half of the 10th century a new office, proëdrus (Greek: πρόεδρος), was created as head of the senate by Emperor Nicephorus Phocas. Up to the mid-11th century, only eunuchs could become proëdrus, but later this restriction was lifted and several proëdri could be appointed, of which the senior proëdrus, or protoproëdrus (Greek: πρωτοπρόεδρος), served as the head of the senate. There were two types of meetings practised: silentium, in which only magistrates currently in office participated and conventus, in which all syncletics (Greek: συγκλητικοί, senators) could participate. The Senate in Constantinople existed until at least the beginning of the 13th century, its last known act being the election of Nicolas Canabus as emperor in 1204 during the Fourth Crusade.[39] See also[edit] Acta Senatus Aedile Centuria Curia Comitia curiata Gerousia SPQR Cursus honorum Interrex Master of the Horse Pontifex Maximus Princeps senatus Promagistrate Roman Law Plebeian Council Praetor References[edit] ^ Abbott, 3 ^ a b Abbott, 1 ^ Abbott, 12 ^ a b c d Abbott, 6 ^ Abbott, 16 ^ a b Byrd, 42 ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:8 ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:35 ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 2.1 ^ a b c Abbott, 10 ^ a b Abbott, 17 ^ a b Abbott, 14 ^ Byrd, 20 ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1.41 ^ a b Byrd, 44 ^ Abbott, 233 ^ Abbott, 240 ^ a b c d e Byrd, 34 ^ Lintott, 72 ^ Lintott, 75 ^ a b Lintott, 78 ^ Lintott, 83 ^ Byrd, 36 ^ a b Abbott, 381 ^ Metz, 59, 60 ^ Abbott, 382 ^ a b c d Abbott, 385 ^ a b Abbott, 383 ^ Abbott, 384 ^ a b Abbott, 386 ^ Levillain, 907 ^ Schnurer, 339 ^ Bronwen, 3. "For since the Senate has failed, the people have perished, and the sufferings and groans of the few who remain are multiplied each day. Rome, now empty, is burning!" ^ Cooper, 23 ^ a b Levillain 1047 ^ Richards, 246 ^ Kaegi, 196 ^ Runciman, 60. ^ Phillips, 222–226. Bibliography[edit] Primary sources[edit] Cicero, Marcus Tullius De Re Publica, Book Two Cicero, Marcus Tullius (1841). The Political Works of Marcus Tullius Cicero: Comprising his Treatise on the Commonwealth; and his Treatise on the Laws. Translated from the original, with Dissertations and Notes in Two Volumes. By Francis Barham, Esq. London: Edmund Spettigue. Vol. 1. Livy, Ab urbe condita Polybius (1823). The General History of Polybius: Translated from the Greek. By James Hampton. Oxford: Printed by W. Baxter. Fifth Edition, Vol 2. Polybius, Rome at the End of the Punic Wars: An Analysis of the Roman Government Secondary sources[edit] Abbott, Frank Frost (1901). A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. Elibron Classics, ISBN 0-543-92749-0. Brewer, E. Cobham; Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (1898). Byrd, Robert (1995). The Senate of the Roman Republic. U.S. Government Printing Office, Senate Document 103-23. Cooper, Kate; Julia Hillner (13 September 2007). Religion, Dynasty, and Patronage in Early Christian Rome, 300–900. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-46838-1. Hooke, Nathaniel; The Roman History, from the Building of Rome to the Ruin of the Commonwealth, F. Rivington (Rome). Original in New York Public Library Kaegi, Walter Emil (27 March 2003). Heraclius, Emperor of Byzantium. Cambridge University Press. p. 196. ISBN 978-0-521-81459-1. Levillain, Philippe (2002). The Papacy: Gaius-Proxies. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-92230-2. Lintott, Andrew (1999). The Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press ( ISBN 0-19-926108-3). Metz, David (2008). Daily Life of the Ancient Romans. pp. 59 & 60. ISBN 978-0-87220-957-2. Neil, Bronwen; Matthew J. Dal Santo (9 September 2013). A Companion to Gregory the Great. BRILL. p. 3. ISBN 978-90-04-25776-4. Phillips, Jonathan (2004). The Fourth Crusade and the Siege of Constantinople. Penguin. ISBN 9781101127728. Richards, Jeffrey (1979). The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages, 476–752. Routledge. ISBN 9780710000989. Runciman, Steven (1956). Byzantine Civilisation. Meridian. Taylor, Lily Ross (1966). Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar. The University of Michigan Press ( ISBN 0-472-08125-X). Schnurer, Gustov (1956). Church And Culture in the Middle Ages 350–814. Kessinger Publishing ( ISBN 978-1-4254-2322-3). Wood, Reverend James, The Nuttall Encyclopædia (1907) – a work now in public domain. Further reading[edit] Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Senate. Cameron, A. The Later Roman Empire, (Fontana Press, 1993). Crawford, M. The Roman Republic, (Fontana Press, 1978). Eck, Werner. Monument und Inschrift. Gesammelte Aufsätze zur senatorischen Repräsentation in der Kaiserzeit (Berlin/New York: W. de Gruyter, 2010). Gruen, Erich, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (U California Press, 1974). Hoеlkeskamp, Karl-Joachim, Senatus populusque Romanus. Die politische Kultur der Republik – Dimensionen und Deutungen (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2004). Ihne, Wilhelm. Researches into the History of the Roman Constitution. William Pickering. 1853. Johnston, Harold Whetstone. Orations and Letters of Cicero: With Historical Introduction, An Outline of the Roman Constitution, Notes, Vocabulary and Index. Scott, Foresman and Company. 1891. Krieckhaus, Andreas, Senatorische Familien und ihre patriae (1./2. Jahrhundert n. Chr.) (Hamburg: Verlag Dr. Kovac, 2006) (Studien zur Geschichtesforschung des Altertums, 14). Millar, Fergus, The Emperor in the Roman World, (London, Duckworth, 1977, 1992). Mommsen, Theodor. Roman Constitutional Law. 1871–1888 Talbert, Richard A. The Senate of Imperial Rome (Princeton, Princeton Univerversity Press, 1984). Tighe, Ambrose. The Development of the Roman Constitution. D. Apple & Co. 1886. Von Fritz, Kurt. The Theory of the Mixed Constitution in Antiquity. 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en-wikipedia-org-8809	----	Marcus Manilius - Wikipedia Marcus Manilius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the poet. For the 4th-century BC consul, see Marcus Manlius Capitolinus. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Marcus Manilius" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (June 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Marcus Manilius (fl. 1st century AD) was a Roman poet, astrologer, and author of a poem in five books called Astronomica. Contents 1 The Astronomica 2 Honors 3 References 4 Editions 5 Further reading 6 External links The Astronomica[edit] Main article: Astronomica (Manilius) The author of Astronomica is neither quoted nor mentioned by any ancient writer. Even his name is uncertain, but it was probably Marcus Manilius; in the earlier books the author is anonymous, the later give Manilius, Manlius, Mallius. The poem itself implies that the writer lived under Augustus or Tiberius, and that he was a citizen of and resident in Rome, suggesting that Manilius wrote the work during the 20s CE. According to the early 18th century classicist Richard Bentley, he was an Asiatic Greek; according to the 19th-century classicist Fridericus Jacob, an African. His work is one of great learning; he had studied his subject in the best writers, and generally represents the most advanced views of the ancients on astronomy (or rather astrology).[1] Manilius frequently imitates Lucretius. Although his diction presents some peculiarities, the style is metrically correct, and he could write neat and witty hexameters.[1] The astrological systems of houses, linking human affairs with the circuit of the zodiac, have evolved over the centuries, but they make their first appearance in Astronomica. The earliest datable surviving horoscope that uses houses in its interpretation is slightly earlier, c. 20 BC. Claudius Ptolemy (c. AD 130–170) almost completely ignored houses (templa as Manilius calls them) in his astrological text, Tetrabiblos.[1] The work is also known for being the subject of the most salient of A. E. Housman's scholarly endeavours; his annotated edition he considered his magnum opus, and when the fifth and final volume was published in 1930, 27 years after the first, he remarked he would now "do nothing forever and ever." He nonetheless also thought that it was an obscure pursuit; to an American correspondent he wrote, "I do not send you a copy, as it would shock you very much; it is so dull that few professed scholars can read it, probably not one in the whole United States."[2] It remains a source of bafflement to many that Housman should have elected to abandon, as they thought, a poet like Propertius in favour of Manilius (though in fact he completed an edition of Propertius, but could not get it published). For example, the critic Edmund Wilson pondered the countless hours Housman devoted to Manilius and concluded, "Certainly it is the spectacle of a mind of remarkable penetration and vigor, of uncommon sensibility and intensity, condemning itself to duties which prevent it from rising to its full height." This is, however, to misunderstand the technical task of editing a classical text.[3] Honors[edit] Manilius (Lunar Orbiter 4) An impact crater on the Moon is named after him: Manilius is located in the Mare Vaporum. References[edit] ^ a b c Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Manilius". Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ^ Kermode, Frank (5 July 2007). "Nothing for Ever and Ever". pp. 7–8. Retrieved 27 April 2017 – via London Review of Books. ^ Wilson, Edmund (2007). Edmund Wilson: Literary Essays and Reviews of the 1930s & 1940s. New York: Library of America. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-59853-014-8. Editions[edit] J. R. Bram (ed), Ancient Astrology: Theory and Practice. Matheseos Libri VIII by Firmicus Maternus (Park Ridge, 1975). Manilio Il poema degli astri (Astronomica), testo critico a cura di E. Flores, traduzione di Ricardo Scarcia, commento a cura di S. Feraboli e R. Scarcia, 2 vols. (Milano, 1996–2001). Wolfgang Hübner (ed.), Manilius, Astronomica, Buch V (2 Bde) (Berlin/New York: De Gruyter, 2010) (Sammlung wissenschaftlicher Commentare). Further reading[edit] Colborn, Robert. 2013. "Solving Problems With Acrostics: Manilius Dates Germanicus." Classical Quarterly 63.1: 450–452. Fratantuono, Lee Michael. 2012. "Andromeda, Perseus, and the End of the Astronomica." Maia: rivista di letterature classiche 64.2: 305–315. Glauthier, Patrick. 2017. "Repurposing the Stars: Manilius, Astronomica 1, and the Aratean Tradition." American Journal of Philology 138.2: 267–303. Goold, G. P. 1961. "A Greek Professorial Circle at Rome." Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 92: 168–192. Green, Steven J. 2014. Disclosure and Discretion in Roman Astrology: Manilius and his Augustan Contemporaries. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. Green, Steven J., and Katharina Volk, eds. 2011. Forgotten Stars: Rediscovering Manilius’ Astronomica. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Habinek, Thomas N. 2007. "Probing the Entrails of the Universe: Astrology as Bodily Knowledge in Manilius’ Astronomica." In Ordering Knowledge in the Roman Empire. Edited by Jason König and Tim Whitmarsh, 229–240. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Komorowska, Joanna. 2016. "Ad Duo Templa Precor: Poetry, Astronomy, and the Authorial Persona in Manilius' Astronomica, I." Eirene 52: 341–358. Lapidge, Michael. 1989. "Stoic Cosmology and Roman Literature, First to Third Centuries A.D." Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt. Edited by Hildegard Temporini and Wolfgang Haase, 1379–1429. Berlin: de Gruyter. MacGregor, Alexander. 2004. "Which Art in Heaven: The Sphere of Manilius." Illinois Classical Studies 29: 143–157. Neuburg, Matt. 1993. "Hitch Your Wagon to a Star: Manilius and His Two Addressees." In Mega nepios: Il destinatario nell’epos didascalico/The Addressee in Didactic Epic. Edited by Alessandro Schiesaro, Philip Mitsis, and Jenny Strauss Clay, 243–282. Materiali e Discussioni per l’Analisi dei Testi Classici 31. Pisa: Giardini. Volk, Katharina. 2009. Manilius and His Intellectual Background. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Volk, Katharina. 2002. The Poetics of Latin Didactic: Lucretius, Vergil, Ovid, Manilius. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Marcus Manilius Library resources about Marcus Manilius Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Marcus Manilius Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries The Astronomica of Manilius at The Latin Library Die Astronomica of Manilius at Opolska Biblioteka Cyfrowa A. E. Housman's introduction M. Manilii astronomicon, 5 vols., A. E. Housman (ed.), Londinii, apud Grant Richards, 1903–30, vol. 1, vol. 2, vol. 3, vol. 4, vol. 5.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Manilius". Encyclopædia Britannica. 17 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 580–581. Authority control BIBSYS: 90211317 BNE: XX1029392 BNF: cb11886875w (data) CANTIC: a10602288 CiNii: DA00501174 GND: 118577077 ISNI: 0000 0001 1856 0813 LCCN: n79055083 MBA: df820b5e-f922-4521-bbf1-92bd21c7743a NDL: 00448686 NKC: osd2013771931 NTA: 068517173 SELIBR: 205893 SUDOC: 026662965 VcBA: 495/31837 VIAF: 22137113 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79055083 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Manilius&oldid=996421320" Categories: Ancient Roman astrologers Latin-language writers Roman-era poets 1st-century Romans 1st-century writers 1st-century Roman poets Manilii Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from July 2018 Articles needing additional references from June 2011 All articles needing additional references Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages العربية Asturianu Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Furlan 한국어 Հայերեն Italiano עברית Latina Latviešu Mirandés Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 26 December 2020, at 14:27 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8813	----	File:Quintus Horatius Flaccus.jpg - Wikipedia File:Quintus Horatius Flaccus.jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata Size of this preview: 301 × 600 pixels. Other resolutions: 120 × 240 pixels | 412 × 821 pixels. Original file ‎(412 × 821 pixels, file size: 316 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Artist Anton von Werner  (1843–1915)    Alternative names Anton Alexander von Werner Description German painter Date of birth/death 9 May 1843  4 January 1915  Location of birth/death Frankfurt (Oder) Berlin Work period between 1860s date QS:P,+1860-00-00T00:00:00Z/8 and 1915 Work location Paris (between March 1867 and July 1868); Rome (between November 1868 and November 1869); Berlin Authority control : Q77324 VIAF: 13106560 ISNI: 0000 0000 6675 1668 ULAN: 500010971 LCCN: n85044454 Open Library: OL501955A WorldCat artist QS:P170,Q77324 Title Quintus Horatius Flaccus Deutsch: Schwarz-Weiß-Reproduktion eines Phantasieportraits von Horaz nach Anton von Werner. English: B&W reproduction of an imaginary portrait of Horace. Français : Reproduction N&B d'un portrait imaginaire de Horace. Русский: изображение древнеримского поэта Горация Date Unknown dateUnknown date Medium Unknown technique Dimensions ? × ? cm Collection Unknown gallery Current location Unknown location Notes Book's original caption: Quintus Horatius Flaccus / Nach einem Gemälde von A. v. Werner Source/Photographer Scan by User:Gabor from the book Bibliothek des allgemeinen und praktischen Wissens. Bd. 5 (1905), Abriß der Weltliteratur, Seite 51. Permission (Reusing this file) This is a faithful photographic reproduction of a two-dimensional, public domain work of art. The work of art itself is in the public domain for the following reason: Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse The author died in 1915, so this work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 100 years or fewer. You must also include a United States public domain tag to indicate why this work is in the public domain in the United States. 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Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensions User Comment current 07:55, 4 June 2020 412 × 821 (316 KB) Aeduardus Imperator Mejora de calidad 21:40, 1 February 2005 300 × 594 (74 KB) Gabor~commonswiki Quintus Horatius Flaccus, "Horaz" File usage The following pages on the English Wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): A Legend of Old Egypt Ancient Greek comedy Ars Poetica (Horace) History of the concept of creativity Horace Poetry User:Jane023/philosophers User:TachyonJack/Prose Global file usage The following other wikis use this file: Usage on af.wikipedia.org Horatius Usage on am.wikipedia.org ሆራቲዩስ Usage on an.wikipedia.org Horacio Usage on ar.wikipedia.org هوراس Usage on arz.wikipedia.org هوراتيوس Usage on ast.wikipedia.org 8 e.C. Horaciu Usage on azb.wikipedia.org هوراس Usage on az.wikiquote.org Horatsi Usage on bar.wikipedia.org 8 v. Kr. Usage on bat-smg.wikipedia.org Huoracėjos Usage on be-tarask.wikipedia.org Гарацыюс Usage on be.wikipedia.org Гарацый Usage on be.wikiquote.org Гарацый Usage on be.wikisource.org Аўтар:Гарацый Usage on bg.wikipedia.org 27 ноември Хораций Usage on bg.wikiquote.org Хораций Usage on br.wikipedia.org Quintus Horatius Flaccus Usage on br.wikiquote.org Horatius Usage on bs.wikipedia.org Horacije Usage on bs.wikiquote.org Horacije Usage on ca.wikipedia.org Horaci Teoria de la literatura Aurea mediocritas Art poètica Usage on ca.wikisource.org Autor:Horaci Usage on cs.wikipedia.org Quintus Horatius Flaccus Usage on cs.wikiquote.org Quintus Horatius Flaccus Usage on cs.wikisource.org Autor:Quintus Horatius Flaccus Usage on cy.wikipedia.org Horas Usage on da.wikipedia.org Horats Wikipedia:WikiProjekt Wikidata/lister/personer uden egenskab fornavn Usage on de.wikipedia.org 8 v. Chr. Liste geflügelter Worte/D Usage on de.wikiquote.org Horaz Usage on de.wikisource.org Horaz Usage on diq.wikipedia.org Horatius Usage on el.wikipedia.org Οράτιος Usage on en.wikiquote.org Horace Virgil Homer User:Me56! Greece Sorrow John Conington Usage on en.wikisource.org Author:Quintus Horatius Flaccus Usage on eo.wikipedia.org Horacio Velleius Paterculus Marko Antonio Sabeliko View more global usage of this file. Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. If the file has been modified from its original state, some details may not fully reflect the modified file. Orientation Normal Horizontal resolution 300 dpi Vertical resolution 300 dpi Software used Adobe Photoshop Elements 10.0 Windows File change date and time 23:24, 3 June 2020 Color space Uncalibrated Image width 412 px Image height 821 px Date and time of digitizing 10:53, 3 June 2020 Date metadata was last modified 01:24, 4 June 2020 Unique ID of original document xmp.did:D02C8789E0A5EA11AB44B1AF32580901 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Quintus_Horatius_Flaccus.jpg" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces File Talk Variants Views Read View on Commons More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Upload file Special pages Printable version Page information Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8815	----	Climate of ancient Rome - Wikipedia Climate of ancient Rome From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The climate of ancient Rome varied throughout the existence of that civilization. In the first half of the 1st millennium BC the climate of Italy was more humid and cool than now and the presently arid south saw more precipitation.[1] The northern regions were situated in the temperate climate zone, while the rest of Italy was in the subtropics, having a warm and mild climate.[1] During the annual melt of the mountain snow even small rivers would overflow, swamping the terrain (Tuscany and the Pontine Marshes were deemed impassable in antiquity).[1] The existence of Roman civilization (including the Eastern Roman Empire) spanned three climatological periods: Early Subatlantic (900 BC–175 AD), Mid-Subatlantic (175–750) and Late Subatlantic (since 750).[2] The written, archaeological and natural-scientific proxy evidence independently but consistently shows that during the period of the Roman Empire's maximum expansion and final crisis, the climate underwent changes.[3] The Empire's greatest extent under Trajan coincided with the Roman climatic optimum.[4] The climate change occurred at different rates, from apparent near stasis during the early Empire to rapid fluctuations during the late Empire.[3] Still, there is some controversy in the notion of a generally moister period in the eastern Mediterranean in c. 1 AD–600 AD due to conflicting publications.[5] Contents 1 Stable climate 1.1 Winds 1.2 Precipitation 2 Environmental issues and climate change 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References Stable climate[edit] Leopards on the Magerius Mosaic from modern Tunisia. Numerous Roman mosaics from North African sites depict fauna now found only in tropical Africa,[6] although it's unclear whether any climate change contributed to that. Throughout the entire Roman Kingdom and the Republic there was the so-called Subatlantic period, in which the Greek and Etruscan city-states also developed.[7] It was characterized by cool summers and mild, rainy winters.[7] At the same time there were a number of severe winters, including the complete freezing of the Tiber in 398 BC, 396 BC, 271 BC and 177 BC.[8] In subsequent centuries the reports of occasional harsh winters became associated with flooding rather than ice on the Tiber.[8] Evidence for a cooler Mediterranean climate in 600 BC–100 BC comes from remains of ancient harbors at Naples and in the Adriatic which are located about one meter below current water level. Edward Gibbon, citing ancient sources, thought that the Rhine and the Danube were frequently frozen, facilitating the invasion of barbarian armies into the Empire "over a vast and solid bridge of ice".[9] Suggesting colder climate, Gibbon also contended that during Caesar's time reindeer were commonly found in the forests of modern Poland and Germany, whereas in his time reindeer were not observed south of the Baltic.[9] During the reign of Augustus the climate became warmer and the aridity in North Africa persisted.[10] The biotopes of Heterogaster urticae, which in Roman times occurred farther north than in the 1950s, suggest that in the early Empire mean July temperatures were at least 1 °C above those of the mid-20th-century.[3] Pliny the Younger wrote that wine and olives were cultivated in more northerly parts of Italy than in the previous centuries,[4] as did Saserna in the last century BC (both father and son).[8] Winds[edit] A comparison of modern wind roses with the situation in the 1st century AD shows some differences: in that time northern inflows in winter were quite rare.[11] The typical northwest winds which regularly blew in July are presently non-existent.[11] The sea breeze began a month earlier, in April.[11] Vitruvius mentioned moisture-carrying winds blowing from the south or west which could damage books.[11] There is also evidence indicating that in the Roman period the Mediterranean climate was influenced by low frequency fluctuations in sea level pressure over the North Atlantic, called the Centennial North Atlantic Oscillation (CNAO).[12] Precipitation[edit] During the Second Punic War, the Mediterranean coast saw such powerful storms that the Roman fleet was destroyed twice (in 249 BC and 225 BC).[13] This was followed by drought in Italy in 226 BC, which lasted six months.[13] In December of 170 BC there was a blood rain in Rome.[13] Written sources from about 75 BC to c. 175 AD also emphasize moisture, mainly in the form of the Tiber floods in Rome.[3] Large Tiber floods occurred in 5 (lasted seven days), 15, 36, 51, 69, 79 and 97 AD.[13] Starting from the Roman annexation of Egypt in 30 BC and until 155 AD favorable floods occurred more frequently in the Nile.[3] The winter of 69/70 AD was the driest known to Tacitus when he wrote his Histories around 100 AD; exactly at the same time the dry season persisted in the Americas.[14] Dry conditions returned during the reign of Hadrian.[14] In Timgad – on Hadrian's visit to that city in 133 rain fell for the first time in five years.[6] Some parts of the empire, however, saw better precipitation. A weather diary, compiled by Ptolemy in Alexandria in around 120, mentioned rain in every month except August and thunder throughout the summer. It helps to explain the agricultural prosperity of Roman Africa (the granary of Rome), and the prosperity of southern Spain in the Roman era.[15] According to Rhoads Murphey, the total yearly grain supply from North Africa to Rome, "estimated as enough to feed about 350,000 people, is by no means impossible to produce for export under present conditions".[6] Columella's weather calendar suggests that summer precipitation in southern Italy, particularly in Rome and Campania, occurred more often than now. Unusually high precipitation levels were in Roman Spain during the so-called Iberian–Roman Humid Period. Roman Spain experienced three major phases: the most humid interval in 550–190 BC, an arid interval in 190 BC–150 AD and another humid period in 150–350.[16] In 134 BC the army of Scipio Aemilianus in Spain had to march at night due to extreme heat, when some of its horses and mules died of thirst[17] (even though earlier, in 181 BC, heavy spring rains prevented the Celtiberians from relieving the Roman siege of Contrebia).[17] Through the 2nd century AD warm temperatures dominated particularly in the Austrian Alps, punctuated by further cool spells from c. 155 to 180.[3] After about 200 the temperatures fluctuated, trending toward cool.[3] Environmental issues and climate change[edit] According to Sheldon Judson, in the 2nd century BC the rate of soil erosion in Latium increased ten times, which is associated with the increased number of settlements in south Etruria.[15] Additionally, from the foundation of Rome until possibly 165 AD, the Romans deforested huge areas for arable land.[18] In 61 AD Seneca the Younger described the high level of air pollution in Rome, which was associated with the extensive wood burning for fuel.[15] From c. 200 to c. 290 there was a period of cooling, which affected the northwestern provinces of the Empire.[3] Dendrochronology indicates that severe drought which began in 338 and persisted until 377 forced the nomadic pastoral federation of Huns to seek pastures and predation farther to the west and south.[3] Their attacks north of the Black Sea drove the Goths to flee into the Roman Empire and ultimately to attack it (particularly in the Battle of Adrianople).[3] Increased climate variability from c. 250 to 600 coincided with the decline of the Western Roman Empire.[19] For the Eastern Roman Empire there is evidence for a regional prolonged drought in modern central Turkey in c. 400–540 AD.[5] See also[edit] Roman Warm Period Extreme weather events of 535–536 Notes[edit] ^ a b c Bokshchanin, Anatoly; Kuzishchin, Vasily, eds. (1970). Глава вторая. Природа и население древней Италии. Природа Апеннинского полуострова в древности [Chapter 2. Nature and population of ancient Italy. Nature of the Apennine Peninsula in antiquity]. История Древнего Рима [History of Ancient Rome] (in Russian). Moscow: Vysshaya Shkola. Retrieved 25 August 2014. ^ John E. Oliver, ed. (2005). The Encyclopedia of World Climatology. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 259. ISBN 1402032641. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Michael McCormick et al. (Autumn 2012). "Climate Change during and after the Roman Empire: Reconstructing the Past from Scientific and Historical Evidence". Journal of Interdisciplinary History. Retrieved 24 Aug 2014.CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link) ^ a b Behringer 2010, p. 62 ^ a b Harris 2013, p. 161 ^ a b c Rhoads Murphey. "The Decline of North Africa Since the Roman Occupation: Climatic or Human?" (PDF). Hunter College of the City University of New York. Retrieved 26 Aug 2014. ^ a b Behringer 2010, p. 60 ^ a b c H. H. Lamb (2013). Climate: Present, Past and Future (Routledge Revivals): Volume 2: Climatic History and the Future. Routledge. p. 424. ISBN 978-1136639692. ^ a b T. M. L. Wigley; M. J. Ingram; G. Farmer, eds. (1985). Climate and History: Studies in Past Climates and Their Impact on Man. CUP Archive. p. 381. ISBN 0521312205. ^ Behringer 2010, p. 61 ^ a b c d Dario Camuffo (1993). "Reconstructing the climate and the air pollution of Rome during the life of the Trajan Column". The Science of the Total Environment. 128 (2–3): 205–226. Bibcode:1993ScTEn.128..205C. doi:10.1016/0048-9697(93)90220-Z. Retrieved 27 Aug 2014. ^ B. J. Dermody et al. (2011). "Revisiting the humid Roman hypothesis: novel analyses depict oscillating patterns". Climate of the Past Discussions. 7 (4): 2355–2389. Bibcode:2011CliPD...7.2355D. doi:10.5194/cpd-7-2355-2011. hdl:1874/209564. S2CID 55950382.CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link) ^ a b c d Barash, Semyon (1989). "Глава I. История неурожаев и погоды в Европе в древности" [Chapter I. The history of crop failures and weather in Europe in antiquity]. История неурожаев и погоды в Европе [History of Crop Failures and Weather in Europe] (in Russian). Leningrad: Gidrometeoizdat. Retrieved 7 December 2018. ^ a b Samuel K. Eddy (1979). "Climate in Greco-Roman History". surface.syr.edu. Syracuse University. Retrieved 2 May 2016. ^ a b c Andrew Erskine, ed. (2012). A Companion to Ancient History. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1118581537. ^ Celia Martín-Puertas; et al. (March 2009). "The Iberian–Roman Humid Period (2600–1600 cal yr BP) in the Zoñar Lake varve record (Andalucía, southern Spain)". Quaternary Research. 71 (2): 108–120. Bibcode:2009QuRes..71..108M. doi:10.1016/j.yqres.2008.10.004. ^ a b Leonard A Curchin (2004). The Romanization of Central Spain: Complexity, Diversity and Change in a Provincial Hinterland. Routledge. p. 7. ISBN 1134451121. ^ Harris 2013, p. 173 ^ Ulf Büntgen et al. (January 13, 2011). "2500 Years of European Climate Variability and Human Susceptibility". Science. 331 (6017): 578–582. Bibcode:2011Sci...331..578B. doi:10.1126/science.1197175. PMID 21233349. S2CID 27661057.CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link) References[edit] Behringer, Wolfgang (2010). A Cultural History of Climate. Polity. ISBN 978-0745645292. Harris, William, ed. (2013). The Ancient Mediterranean Environment between Science and History. Brill. 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en-wikipedia-org-8834	----	Porphyry (philosopher) - Wikipedia Porphyry (philosopher) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Neoplatonist philosopher Porphyry of Tyre Porphire Sophiste, in a French 16th-century engraving Born c. 234 AD Tyre, Roman Empire Died 305 (aged 70–71) Rome, Roman Empire Notable work List Introduction to Categories (Εἰσαγωγή; Introductio in Praedicamenta or Isagoge et in Aristotelis Categorias commentarium), The Life of Pythagoras (Πυθαγόρου βίος; Vita Pythagorae), On Abstinence from Animal Food (Περὶ ἀποχῆς ἐμψύχων; De Abstinentia ab Esu Animalium), On the Cave of the Nymphs (Περὶ τοῦ ἐν Ὀδυσσείᾳ τῶν Νυμφῶν Ἄντρου; De Antro Nympharum), Introduction to Ptolemy's Tetrabiblos (Εἰσαγωγὴ εἰς τὴν Ἀποτελεσματικὴν τοῦ Πτολεμαίου), Commentary on Ptolemy's Harmonics (Εἰς τὰ ἁρμονικὰ Πτολεμαίου ὑπόμνημα), On the Life of Plotinus and the Arrangement of his Work (Περὶ τοῦ Πλωτίνου βίου καὶ τῆς τάξεως τῶν βιβλίων αὐτοῦ; Vita Plotini), Starting-points leading to the intelligibles (Ἀφορμαὶ πρὸς τὰ νοητά; Sententiae ad intelligibilia ducentes), Philosophy from Oracles (Περὶ τῆς ἐκ λογίων φιλοσοφίας; De Philosophia ex Oraculis Haurienda), Against the Christians (Κατὰ Χριστιανῶν; Adversus Christianos) Era Ancient philosophy Region Western philosophy School Neoplatonism Main interests Metaphysics, astrology Notable ideas Porphyrian tree, criticism of Christianity, vegetarianism Influences Plotinus, Middle Platonism, Plato, Aristotle Influenced Sossianus Hierocles, Boethius, Scholasticism and Arabic Aristotelianism (through the Isagoge), later Neoplatonism Porphyry of Tyre (/ˈpɔːrfɪri/; Greek: Πορφύριος, Porphýrios; Arabic: فرفوريوس‎, Furfūriyūs; c. 234 – c. 305 AD) was a Phoenician[1] Neoplatonic philosopher born in Tyre, Roman Syria[2] during Roman rule.[a] He edited and published The Enneads, the only collection of the work of Plotinus, his teacher. His commentary on Euclid's Elements was used as a source by Pappus of Alexandria.[3] He wrote original works on a wide variety of topics, ranging from music to Homer to vegetarianism.[b] His Isagoge, or Introduction, an introduction to logic and philosophy,[c] was the standard textbook on logic throughout the Middle Ages in its Latin and Arabic translations.[4] Through works such as Philosophy from Oracles and Against the Christians (which was banned by Constantine the Great),[5] he was involved in a controversy with early Christians.[6] Contents 1 Biography 2 Introduction (Isagoge) 3 Philosophy from Oracles (De Philosophia ex Oraculis Haurienda) 4 Against the Christians (Adversus Christianos) 5 Other subjects 6 Extant works 7 Lost works 8 Works of uncertain attribution 9 Editions and translations of multiple works 10 See also 11 References 11.1 Footnotes 11.2 Citations 11.3 Sources 11.4 Further reading 12 External links Biography[edit] The Suda (a 10th century Byzantine encyclopedia based on many sources now lost) reports that Porphyry was born in Phoenician city of Tyre.[7] His parents named him Malchus ("king" in the Semitic languages)[d] but his teacher in Athens, Cassius Longinus, gave him the name Porphyrius ("clad in purple"), possibly a reference to his Phoenician heritage, or a punning allusion to his name and the color of royal robes. Under Longinus he studied grammar and rhetoric. In 262 he went to Rome, attracted by the reputation of Plotinus, and for six years devoted himself to the practice of Neoplatonism, during which time he severely modified his diet. At one point he became suicidal.[8] On the advice of Plotinus he went to live in Sicily for five years to recover his mental health. On returning to Rome, he lectured on philosophy and completed an edition of the writings of Plotinus (who had died in the meantime) together with a biography of his teacher. Iamblichus is mentioned in ancient Neoplatonic writings as his pupil, but this most likely means only that he was the dominant figure in the next generation of philosophers. The two men differed publicly on the issue of theurgy. In his later years, he married Marcella, a widow with seven children and an enthusiastic student of philosophy. Little more is known of his life, and the date of his death is uncertain. Introduction (Isagoge)[edit] Imaginary debate between Averroes (1126–1198 AD) and Porphyry (234–c. 305 AD). Monfredo de Monte Imperiali Liber de herbis, 14th century.[9] Porphyry is best known for his contributions to philosophy. Apart from writing the Aids to the Study of the Intelligibles (Ἀφορμαὶ πρὸς τὰ νοητά; Sententiae Ad Intelligibilia Ducentes), a basic summary of Neoplatonism, he is especially appreciated for his Introduction to Categories (Introductio in Praedicamenta or Isagoge et in Aristotelis Categorias commentarium), a very short work often considered to be a commentary on Aristotle's Categories, hence the title.[e] According to Barnes 2003, however, the correct title is simply Introduction (Εἰσαγωγή Isagoge), and the book is an introduction not to the Categories in particular, but to logic in general, comprising as it does the theories of predication, definition, and proof. The Introduction describes how qualities attributed to things may be classified, famously breaking down the philosophical concept of substance into the five components genus, species, difference, property, accident. As Porphyry's most influential contribution to philosophy, the Introduction to Categories incorporated Aristotle's logic into Neoplatonism, in particular the doctrine of the categories of being interpreted in terms of entities (in later philosophy, "universal"). Boethius' Isagoge, a Latin translation of Porphyry's "Introduction", became a standard medieval textbook in European schools and universities, which set the stage for medieval philosophical-theological developments of logic and the problem of universals. In medieval textbooks, the all-important Arbor porphyriana ("Porphyrian Tree") illustrates his logical classification of substance. To this day, taxonomy benefits from concepts in Porphyry's Tree, in classifying living organisms (see cladistics). The Introduction was translated into Arabic by Abd-Allāh Ibn al-Muqaffaʿ from a Syriac version. With the Arabicized name Isāghūjī (إيساغوجي) it long remained the standard introductory logic text in the Muslim world and influenced the study of theology, philosophy, grammar, and jurisprudence. Besides the adaptations and epitomes of this work, many independent works on logic by Muslim philosophers have been entitled Isāghūjī. Porphyry's discussion of accident sparked a long-running debate on the application of accident and essence.[10] Philosophy from Oracles (De Philosophia ex Oraculis Haurienda)[edit] Porphyry is also known as an opponent of Christianity and defender of Paganism; his precise contribution to the philosophical approach to traditional religion may be discovered in the fragments of Philosophy from Oracles (Περὶ τῆς ἐκ λογίων φιλοσοφίας; De Philosophia ex Oraculis Haurienda), which was originally three books in length. There is debate as to whether it was written in his youth (as Eunapius reports[8]) or closer in time to the persecutions of Christians under Diocletian and Galerius.[f] Whether or not Porphyry was the pagan philosopher opponent in Lactantius' Divine Institutes, written at the time of the persecutions, has long been discussed. The fragments of the Philosophy from Oracles are only quoted by Christians, especially Eusebius, Theodoret, Augustine, and John Philoponus. The fragments contain oracles identifying proper sacrificial procedure, the nature of astrological fate, and other topics relevant for Greek and Roman religion in the third century. Whether this work contradicts his treatise defending vegetarianism, which also warned the philosopher to avoid animal sacrifice, is disputed among scholars.[12] Against the Christians (Adversus Christianos)[edit] Main article: Against the Christians See also: Celsus Porphyry, a detail of the Tree of Jesse, 1535, Sucevița Monastery. During his retirement in Sicily, Porphyry wrote Against the Christians (Κατὰ Χριστιανῶν; Adversus Christianos) which consisted of fifteen books. Some thirty Christian apologists, such as Methodius, Eusebius, Apollinaris, Augustine, Jerome, etc., responded to his challenge. In fact, everything known about Porphyry's arguments is found in these refutations, largely because Theodosius II ordered every copy burned in A.D. 435 and again in 448.[13][14][15][16] Porphyry became one of the most able pagan adversaries of Christianity of his day. His aim was not to disprove the substance of Christianity's teachings but rather the records within which the teachings are communicated.[17] Augustine and the 5th-century ecclesiastical historian Socrates of Constantinople, assert that Porphyry was once a Christian.[18] Other subjects[edit] Porphyry was opposed to the theurgy of his disciple Iamblichus. Much of Iamblichus' mysteries is dedicated to the defense of mystic theurgic divine possession against the critiques of Porphyry. French philosopher Pierre Hadot maintains that for Porphyry, spiritual exercises are an essential part of spiritual development.[19] Porphyry was, like Pythagoras, an advocate of vegetarianism on spiritual and ethical grounds. These two philosophers are perhaps the most famous vegetarians of classical antiquity. He wrote the On Abstinence from Animal Food (Περὶ ἀποχῆς ἐμψύχων; De Abstinentia ab Esu Animalium), advocating against the consumption of animals, and he is cited with approval in vegetarian literature up to the present day. Porphyry also wrote widely on astrology, religion, philosophy, and musical theory. He produced a History of Philosophy (Philosophos historia) with vitae of philosophers that included a life of his teacher, Plotinus. His life of Plato from book iv exists only in quotes by Cyril of Alexandria. [g] His book Vita Pythagorae on the life of Pythagoras is not to be confused with the book of the same name by Iamblichus. His commentary on Ptolemy's Harmonics[20] (Eis ta Harmonika Ptolemaiou hypomnēma) is an important source for the history of ancient harmonic theory. Porphyry also wrote about Homer. Apart from several lost texts known only from quotes by other authors, two texts survive at least in large parts: the Homerian Questions (Homēriká zētḗmata, largely a philological comment on the Iliad and Odyssey) and About the cave of the Nymphs in the Odyssey (Peri tou en Odysseia tōn nymphōn antrou). Extant works[edit] Life of Plotinus. Editions: Luc Brisson, La Vie de Plotin. Histoire de l'antiquité classique 6 & 16, Paris: Librairie Philosophique J. Vrin: 1986–1992, 2 vols; A. H. Armstrong, Plotinus, Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1968, pp. 2-84. Translation: Neoplatonic Saints: The Lives of Plotinus and Proclus. Translated Texts for Historians 35 (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2000). Life of Pythagoras. Edition: E. des Places, Vie de Pythagore, Lettre à Marcella, Paris: Les Belles Lettre, 1982. Introduction to Aristotle's Categories (Isagoge). Translations: E. Warren, Isagoge, Mediaeval Sources in Translation 16, Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1975; J. Barnes, Porphyry's Introduction. Translation of the 'Isagoge' with a Commentary, Oxford, 2003; Steven K. Strange, Porphyry. On Aristotle's Categories, Ithaca, New York, 1992; Octavius Freire Owen, The Organon or Logical Treatises of Aristotle with the Introduction of Porphyry. Bohn's Classical Library 11–12, London: G. Bell, 1908–1910, 2 vols; Paul Vincent Spade, Five Texts on the Mediaeval Problem of Universals: Porphyry, Boethius, Abelard, Duns Scotus, Ockham,Indianapolis: Hackett, 1994. Introduction to the Tetrabiblos of Ptolemy. Editions: Stefan Weinstock, in: Franz Cumont (ed.), Catalogus Codicum astrologorum Graecorum, (Brussels, 1940): V.4, 187-228; Kommentar zur Harmonielehre des Ptolemaios Ingemar Düring. ed. (Göteborg: Elanders, 1932). Translation: James Herschel Holden, Porphyry the Philosopher, Introduction to the Tetrabiblos and Serapio of Alexandria, Astrological Definitions, Tempe, Az.: A.F.A., Inc., 2009. Against the Christians (Contra Christianos). Editions: A. Ramos Jurado, J. Ritoré Ponce, A. Carmona Vázquez, I. Rodríguez Moreno, J. Ortolá Salas, J. M. Zamora Calvo (eds), Contra los Cristianos: Recopilación de Fragmentos, Traducción, Introducción y Notas – (Cádiz: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad de Cádiz 2006); Adolf von Harnack, Porphyrius, "Gegen die Christen," 15 Bücher: Zeugnisse, Fragmente und Referate. Abhandlungen der königlich preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften: Jahrgang 1916: philosoph.-hist. Klasse: Nr. 1 (Berlin: 1916). Translations: R. M. Berchman, Porphyry Against the Christians, Ancient Mediterranean and Medieval Texts and Contexts 1, Leiden: Brill, 2005; R. Joseph Hoffmann, Porphyry’s Against the Christians: The Literary Remains, Amherst: Prometheus Books, 1994. Commentary on Plato's Timaeus. Edition: A. R. Sodano, Porphyrii in Platonis Timaeum commentarium fragmenta, Napoli: 1964. Homeric Questions. Edition: The Homeric Questions: a Bilingual Edition – Lang Classical Studies 2, R. R. Schlunk, trans. (Frankfurt-am-Main: Lang, 1993). On the caves of the nymphs (De antro nympharum). Edition: The Cave of the Nymphs in the Odyssey. A revised text with translation by Seminar Classics 609, State University of New York at Buffalo, Arethusa Monograph 1 (Buffalo: Dept. of Classics, State University of New York at Buffalo, 1969). Translation: Robert Lamberton, On the Cave of the Nymphs, Barrytown, N. Y.: Station Hill Press, 1983. On the abstinence of eating animals (De abstinentia ab esu animalium). Edition: Jean Bouffartigue, M. Patillon, and Alain-Philippe Segonds, edd., 3 vols., Budé (Paris, 1979–1995). Translation: Gilliam Clark, On Abstinence from Killing Animals, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2000. On philosophy from oracles (De Philosophia ex oraculis haurienda). Edition: G. Wolf, Berlin: 1956. Aids to the Study of the Intelligibles (Sententiae ad Intelligibilia Ducentes). Edition: E. Lamberz, Leipzig: Teubner, 1975. Translation: K. Guthrie, Launching-Points to the Realm of Mind, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1988. Letter to Marcella. Edition: Kathleen O’Brien Wicker, Porphyry, the Philosopher, to Marcella: Text and Translation with Introduction and Notes , Text and Translations 28; Graeco-Roman Religion Series 10 (Atlanata: Scholars Press, 1987); Pros Markellan Griechischer Text, herausgegeben, übersetzt, eingeleitet und erklärt von W. Pötscher (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1969). Translation: Alice Zimmern, Porphyry's Letter to His Wife Marcella Concerning the Life of Philosophy and the Ascent to the Gods, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1989. Letter to Anebo (Epistula ad Anebonem). Edition: A. R. Sodano, Naples: L'arte Tipografia: 1958. Lost works[edit] Ad Gedalium, a lost commentary on Aristotle's Categories in seven books.[21] The testimonia are published in Andrew Smith (ed.), Porphyrius, Porphyrii Philosophi fragmenta. Fragmenta Arabica David Wasserstein interpretante, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1993. Works of uncertain attribution[edit] Ad Gaurum (of uncertain attribution)[22]. Edition: K. Kalbfleisch. Abhandlungen der Preussischen Akadamie der Wissenschaft. phil.-hist. kl. (1895): 33-62. Translation: J. Wilberding, To Gaurus On How Embryos are Ensouled, and On What is in our Power. Ancient Commentators on Aristotle Series, R. Sorabji (ed.), Bristol: Classical Press, 2011. #6 and #9 in Corpus dei Papiri Filosofici Greci e Latini III: Commentari – (Florence: Leo S. Olschki, 1995) may or may not be by Porphyry. Editions and translations of multiple works[edit] Fragments: Andrew Smith, Stvtgardiae et Lipsiae: B. G. Tevbneri, 1993. Opuscula selecta Augusts Nauck, ed. (Lipsiae: B. G. Tevbneri, 1886) (online at archive.org). Select Works of Porphyry. Translated by T. Taylor (Guildford, 1994). Contains Abstinence from Eating Animal Food, the Sententiae and the Cave of the Nymphs. Translations of several fragments are contained in Appendix 1 of Religion and Identity in Porphyry of Tyre by Aaron Johnson (Cambridge, 2013). See also[edit] Basilides of Tyre Macarius Magnes – his work Apocriticus contains a series of excerpts from Porphyry's Against the Christians References[edit] Footnotes[edit] ^ For Porphyry's dates, place of birth and philosophical school, see Barker 2003, pp. 1226–1227. Sarton 1936, pp. 429–430 identifies Transjordania as Porphyry's place of birth. ^ For a comprehensive list see Beutler (1894–1980); Guthrie 1988, p. 91 provides another list ^ Barnes 2003, p. xv clarifies that the Isagoge "[was] not an Introduction to the Categories, rather "[since it was] an introduction to the study of logic, [it] was... an introduction to philosophy--and hence accidentally an introduction to the Categories." ^ For connotations of West Semitic M-L-K, see Moloch and Malik; compare theophoric names like Abimelech. ^ Barnes 2003, p. xiv outlines the history of the opinion that Porphyry meant for his Isagoge to be an introductory work to the Categories. ^ The Christian apologist Eusebius states that "some Greek" might say "How can these people be thought worthy of forbearance? They have not only turned away from those who from earliest time have been thought of as divine among all Greeks and barbarians... but by emperors, law-givers and philosophers— all of a given mind... And to what sort of penalties might they not be subjected who... are fugitives from the things of their Fathers?" This material, once thought to be part of Against the Christians, but reassigned by Wilken 1979 to Philosophy from Oracles, is quoted in Digeser 1998, p. 129. However, it may not have been by Porphyry at all.[11] ^ Notopoulos 1940, pp. 284–293 attempted a reconstruction from Apuleius' use of it. Citations[edit] ^ Aaron P. Johnson, Religion and Identity in Porphyry of Tyre: The Limits of Hellenism in Late Antiquity (Greek Culture in the Roman World) Cambridge University Press, May 20, 2013, p. 236 "...at the very least, we can affirm that all external evidence points to his being a Tyrian from Phoencia." https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=mM7N_v0xcmQC&oi=fnd&pg=PR8&dq=Porphyry+of+Tyre+phoenicia&ots=fE4JHByGG3&sig=6oipv1fUejZm4csw3hoaNhOYrCE#v=onepage&q=phoenicia&f=false ^ Schott, Jeremy M. (2013-04-23). Christianity, Empire, and the Making of Religion in Late Antiquity. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-0346-2. ^ O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Porphyry Malchus", MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews . ^ Barnes 2003, p. ix. ^ Clarke 1989, p. 9. ^ Digeser 1998. ^ Suda, Porphyry ^ a b Eunapius (1921). "Lives of the Philosophers and Sophists". tertullian.org. pp. 343–565. Retrieved 6 September 2019. ^ Sadaune 2014, p. 112. ^ Rahman 1986, pp. 271-273. ^ Johnson 2010, p. 53-58. ^ Johnson 2013, p. 135. ^ Digeser 1998, p. 130: "Constantine and other emperors banned and burned Porphyry's work". ^ Socrates Scholasticus 1885, pp. Book I, Ch 9, pp. 30-31, Letter of Constantine proscribing the works of Porphyry and Arius. ^ Stevenson 1987: Gelasius, Historia Ecclesiastica, II.36 ^ Froom 1950, p. 326. ^ Froom 1950, p. 327. ^ Socrates Scholasticus 1885b, pp. Book III, Ch 23. ^ Hadot 1995, p. 100. ^ "Τοξόλυρος - Εἰς τὰ ἁρμονικὰ Πτολεμαίου ὑπόμνημα - φιλοσοφικό Ακαδημίας" [In Ptolemy's Harmonized Memoirs – Philosophical Academy] (in Greek). Archived from the original on 2011-07-21. ^ Simplicius, In Aristotelis Categorias commentarium, 2.5-9v ^ Barnes 2011, p. 109, n. 22. Sources[edit] Barker, A. (2003). "Porphyry". In Hornblower, S.; Spawforth, A. (eds.). Oxford Classical Dictionary (revised 3rd ed.). pp. 1226–1227. Barnes, Jonathan (2003). Porphyry: Introduction. Oxford: Clarendon. ISBN 9780199246144. Barnes, Jonathan (2011). Method and Metaphysics: Essays in Ancient Philosophy. Volume I. Oxford: OUP. ISBN 978-0-19-957751-4. Beutler, R. (1894–1980). "Porphyrios (21)" in A. Pauly, G. Wissowa, W. Kroll, K. Witte, K. Mittelhaus and K. Ziegler, eds., Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, vol. 22.1. Clarke, Gillian (1989). Iamblichus : On the Pythagorean Life. Liverpool University Press. ISBN 978-0-85323-326-8. Digeser, Elizabeth DePalma (1998). "Lactantius, Porphyry, and the Debate over Religious Toleration". Journal of Roman Studies. 88: 129–146. doi:10.2307/300808. ISSN 0075-4358. JSTOR 300808. Froom, LeRoy (1950). The Prophetic Faith of our Fathers (PDF). Volume 1. Washington, DC: Review and Herald. Guthrie, Kenneth Sylvan (1988). "The Works of Porphyry". Porphyry's Launching-points to the realm of mind: an introduction to the neoplatonic philosophy of Plotinus. Phanes Press. ISBN 978-0-933999-59-6. also available at tertullian.org Hadot, P. (1995). Philosophy as a Way of Life. Oxford: Blackwell. Johnson, Aaron (2010). "Rethinking the Authenticity of Porphyry, c.Christ. fr. 1". Studia Patristica. 46: 53–58. Johnson, Aaron P. (2013). Religion and Identity in Porphyry of Tyre: The Limits of Hellenism in Late Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-01273-8. Notopoulos, James A. (1940). "Porphyry's Life of Plato". Classical Philology. 35 (3): 284–293. doi:10.1086/362396. ISSN 0009-837X. S2CID 161160877. Rahman, F. (1986). "ʿARAŻ". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. II, Fasc. 3. pp. 271–273. Sarton, G. (1936). "The Unity and Diversity of the Mediterranean World". Osiris. 2: 406–463. doi:10.1086/368462. S2CID 143379839. Sadaune, Samuel (2014). Inventions et decouvertes au Moyen-Age [Inventions and Discoveries of the Middle Ages] (in French). Ouest-France. ISBN 9782737362415. Socrates Scholasticus (1885). Historia Ecclesiastica . Book I, Ch 9, pp. 30-31 – via Wikisource.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Socrates Scholasticus (1885b). Historia Ecclesiastica . Book III, Ch 23 – via Wikisource.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Stevenson, James (1987). A New Eusebius: Documents Illustrating the History of the Church to AD 337. SPCK. ISBN 978-0-281-04268-5. Wilken, R. (1979). "Pagan Criticism of Christianity: Greek Religion and Christian Faith". In Schoedel and, W.; Wilken, R. (eds.). Early Christian Literature and the Classical Intellectual Tradition. pp. 117–134. Further reading[edit] Bidez, J. (1913). Vie de Porphyre. Ghent. Clark, Gillian, "Porphyry of Tyre on the New Barbarians," in R. Miles (ed), Constructing Identities in Late Antiquity (London: Routledge, 1999), 112–132; = in Eadem, Body and Gender, Soul and Reason in Late Antiquity (Farnham; Burlington, VT, Ashgate, 2011) (Variorum collected studies series, CS978), art. XIV. Clark, Gillian, "Philosophic Lives and the philosophic life: Porphyry and Iamblichus," in T. Hägg and P. Rousseau (eds), Greek Biography and Panegyric in Late Antiquity (Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of California Press, 2000), 29–51; = in Eadem, Body and Gender, Soul and Reason in Late Antiquity (Farnham; Burlington, VT, Ashgate, 2011) (Variorum collected studies series, CS978), art. XV. Clark, Gillian, "Fattening the soul: Christian asceticism and Porphyry On Abstinence," Studia Patristica, 35, 2001, 41-51; = in Eadem, Body and Gender, Soul and Reason in Late Antiquity (Farnham; Burlington, VT, Ashgate, 2011) (Variorum collected studies series, CS978), art. XVI. Emilsson, E., "Porphyry". Retrieved April 19, 2009. Iamblichus: De mysteriis. Translated with an Introduction and Notes by Emma C. Clarke, John M. Dillon and Jackson P. Hershbell (Society of Biblical Literature; 2003) ISBN 1-58983-058-X. Girgenti, G. (1987) Porfirio negli ultimi cinquant'anni: bibliografia sistematica e ragionata della letteratura primaria e secondaria riguardante il pensiero porfiriano e i suoi influssi storici Milan. Smith, Andrew (1987) Porphyrian Studies since 1913, in W. Haase, ed., Aufstieg und Niedergang der Römischen Welt II.36.2, pp. 717–773. Smith, Andrew (1974) Porphyry's Place in the Neoplatonic Tradition. A Study in post-Plotinian Neoplatonism, The Hague, Nijhoff. Zuiddam, B. A. "Old Critics and Modern Theology," Dutch Reformed Theological Journal (South Africa), xxxvi, 1995, No. 2. External links[edit] Library resources about Porphyry Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Porphyry Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Media related to Porphyry (philosopher) at Wikimedia Commons Works written by or about Porphyry at Wikisource  Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Πορφύριος Quotations related to Porphyry (philosopher) at Wikiquote Porphyry Malchus (mathematician) – entry in MacTutor History of Maths Archives. Emilsson, Eyjólfur. "Porphyry". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. . Περὶ τοῦ ἐν Ὀδυσσείᾳ τῶν Νυμφῶν Ἄντρου (The Cave of the Nymphs in the Odyssey), original Greek text. Εἰσαγωγὴ εἰς τὴν Ἀποτελεσματικὴν τοῦ Πτολεμαίου (Introduction to Ptolemy's Tetrabiblos), original Greek text. Porphyry, On Abstinence from Animal Food, Book I, translated by Thomas Taylor. Porphyry, On Abstinence from Animal Food, Book II, translated by Thomas Taylor. Porphyry, On Abstinence from Animal Food, Book III, translated by Thomas Taylor. Porphyry, On Abstinence from Animal Food, Book IV, translated by Thomas Taylor. Porphyry, On the Cave of Nymphs, translated by Thomas Taylor. Porphyry, Auxiliaries to the Perception of Intelligible Natures, translated by Thomas Taylor. Porphyry, Isagoge, translated by Octavius Freire Owen. The Isagoge, or Introduction of Porphyry, translated by Thomas Taylor with an extensive preface by the translator. Porphyry, On the Life of Plotinus Porphyry, Comments on the Book of Daniel. Additional texts, edited by Roger Pearse Works by Porphyry at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) v t e Platonists Academic Old Plato Aristotle Eudoxus Philip of Opus Aristonymus Coriscus and Erastus of Scepsis Demetrius of Amphipolis Euaeon of Lampsacus Heraclides and Python of Aenus Hestiaeus of Perinthus Lastheneia of Mantinea Timolaus of Cyzicus Speusippus Axiothea of Phlius Heraclides Ponticus Menedemus of Pyrrha Xenocrates Crantor Polemon Crates of Athens Skeptic Middle Arcesilaus Diocles of Cnidus Lacydes Telecles and Evander Hegesinus New Carneades Hagnon of Tarsus Metrodorus of Stratonicea Clitomachus Charmadas Aeschines of Neapolis Philo of Larissa Cicero Dio of Alexandria Middle Platonist Antiochus Philo of Alexandria Plutarch Justin Martyr Gaius Albinus Alcinous Apuleius Atticus Maximus of Tyre Numenius of Apamea Longinus Clement of Alexandria Origen the Pagan Calcidius Neoplatonist Ancient Ammonius Saccas Plotinus Disciples Origen Amelius Porphyry Iamblichus Sopater Eustathius of Cappadocia Sosipatra Aedesius Dexippus Chrysanthius Theodorus of Asine Julian Sallustius Maximus of Ephesus Eusebius of Myndus Priscus of Epirus Antoninus Gregory of Nyssa Hypatia Augustine Macrobius Academy Plutarch of Athens Asclepigenia Hierocles Syrianus Hermias Aedesia Proclus Ammonius Hermiae Asclepiodotus Hegias Zenodotus Marinus Agapius Isidore Damascius Simplicius Priscian Medieval Boethius John Philoponus Olympiodorus Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite John Scotus Eriugena Islamic Golden Age Al-Farabi Anselm Peter Abelard Chartres Bernard Gilbert Thierry Henry of Ghent Bonaventure Theodoric of Freiberg Meister Eckhart Berthold of Moosburg Paul of Venice Modern Renaissance Florentine Academy Plethon Marsilio Ficino Cristoforo Landino Giovanni Pico della Mirandola Cambridge Ralph Cudworth Henry More Anne Conway Petrus Ramus Giordano Bruno Blaise Pascal Emanuel Swedenborg German idealist Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Christian Wolff Moses Mendelssohn Immanuel Kant Johann Gottlieb Fichte Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling Arthur Schopenhauer G. 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en-wikipedia-org-8868	----	Military tribune - Wikipedia Military tribune From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Tribunus militum) Jump to navigation Jump to search Part of a series on the Military of ancient Rome 753 BC – AD 476 Structural history Army Unit types and ranks Decorations and punishments Legions Auxilia Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Campaign history Wars and battles Technological history Military engineering Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Political history   Strategy and tactics Infantry tactics Frontiers and fortifications Limes Limes Britannicus Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Limes Germanicus Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes Norican Limes Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannonian Limes Limes Alutanus Limes Moesiae Trajan's Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmatiae Limes Arabicus Limes Tripolitanus Limes Mauretaniae  Ancient Rome portal •  War portal v t e A military tribune (Latin tribunus militum, "tribune of the soldiers", Greek chiliarchos, χιλίαρχος) was an officer of the Roman army who ranked below the legate and above the centurion. Young men of Equestrian rank often served as military tribune as a stepping stone to the Senate.[1] The tribunus militum should not be confused with the elected political office of tribune of the people (tribunus plebis) nor with that of tribunus militum consulari potestate. Contents 1 Early Rome 2 Republican period 3 After the Marian reforms 4 Principate 5 See also 6 References Early Rome[edit] The word tribunus derives from tribus, "tribe".[2] In Rome's earliest history, each of the three tribes (Ramnes, Luceres, and Tities) sent one commander when an army was mustered,[3] since there was no standing army. The tribunes were commanders of the original legion of 3,000. By the time of the Greek historian Polybius (d. 118 BC), the tribunes numbered six, and they were appointed by the consuls.[4] However, the process by which tribunes were chosen and assigned is complex and varies at different times. Republican period[edit] In the Republican period, there were six appointed to each legion. Authority was given to two at a time, and command rotated among the six. Tribunes were men of Senatorial status appointed by the Senate. To attain the position of tribune, one only needed to be a member of the ruling class. By 311 BC the people acquired the right to elect sixteen tribunes of the soldiers, that is, four out of the six tribunes assigned to each of the four legions that formed the Roman Army. Previously these places had been for the most part in the gift of consuls or dictators.[5] Additionally, in the early Republic, another type of military tribune was sometimes chosen in place of the annually elected consuls to be the heads of the Roman State. These are known in Latin as tribuni militum consulari potestate, "Military Tribunes with Consular Authority". At the time only Patricians could be chosen as Consuls, but both Patricians and Plebeians could be elected as tribunes with consular authority. Instead of the usual two consuls, between four and six military tribunes were elected for the year. The reasons for this choice are obscure, though Livy often cast the decision according to the class struggles he saw as endemic during this period, with patricians generally favoring consuls and plebs the military tribunes. The office of "consular tribune" eventually fell out of use after 366 BC. After the Marian reforms[edit] After the Marian reforms of 107 BC (subsequently further formalised by the emperor Claudius) created a professionalized military system, legions were commanded by a legionary legate (legatus). Six tribunes were still posted to a legion, but their duties and responsibilities had changed, becoming more a political position than a military rank. The second-in-command to the legate was the tribunus laticlavius or 'broad-stripe' tribune (named after the width of the stripe used to demarcate him on his tunic and toga),[6] usually a young man of Senatorial rank. He was given this position to learn and watch the actions of the legate. They often found themselves leading their unit in the absence of a legate, and some legions were permanently commanded by a broad-stripe tribune, such as those stationed in Egypt, as an Augustan law required that no member of the Senatorial Order ever enter Egypt.[7] In contrast to the broad-stripe tribune, the other five 'thin stripe' tribunes were lower in rank, and were called the tribuni angusticlavii. These 'officer cadets'[6] were men of equestrian rank who had military experience, and yet had no authority: they were allowed to sit on a court martial but they held no power in battle. Most thin-stripe tribunes served the legionary legate, yet a lucky few (such as Agricola) were selected to serve on the staff of the provincial governor.[8] According to Tacitus, they did not always take their appointment as seriously as they might, contrasting Agricola's tribuneship to his peers by saying "[Agricola did not], like many young men who convert military service into wanton pastime, avail himself licentiously or slothfully of his tribunitial title, or use his inexperience to spend his time in pleasures and absences from duty".[8] Principate[edit] Further information: Tres militiae Under Augustus, the five equestrian tribunes were sometimes promoted from the rank of centurion, and might advance to a command in the auxiliary cavalry or Praetorian Guard. See also[edit] Tribune List of Roman tribunes Tribunus militum consulari potestate Subrius Flavus References[edit] ^ Dio, LXVII, 2. ^ Entry on tribunus, Oxford Latin Dictionary (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982, 1985 reprinting), p. 1972. ^ Varro, De lingua latina 5.80. ^ Polybius, 6.12.6. ^ Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita Libri IX, 29, with translation and notes by B. O. Foster, Loeb Classical Library, ISBN 0-674-99210-5 ^ a b Dando-Collins 2010, p. 42. sfn error: no target: CITEREFDando-Collins2010 (help) ^ Dando-Collins 2010, p. 40. sfn error: no target: CITEREFDando-Collins2010 (help) ^ a b Agricola, Tacitus, 5 v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs 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Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 27 August 2020, at 11:17 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8907	----	Eboracum - Wikipedia Eboracum From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Roman city in present-day York, England For the 1736 publication of this name, see Francis Drake (antiquary). Eboracum Modern statue of the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great outside York Minster Shown within England Alternative name Eburacum Location York, North Yorkshire, England Region Britannia Coordinates 53°57′42″N 01°04′50″W / 53.96167°N 1.08056°W / 53.96167; -1.08056Coordinates: 53°57′42″N 01°04′50″W / 53.96167°N 1.08056°W / 53.96167; -1.08056 Type Fortification and settlement History Builder Quintus Petillius Cerialis Founded 71 Periods Roman Imperial Site notes Archaeologists Leslie Peter Wenham Part of a series on the Military of ancient Rome 753 BC – AD 476 Structural history Army Unit types and ranks Decorations and punishments Legions Auxilia Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Campaign history Wars and battles Technological history Military engineering Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Political history   Strategy and tactics Infantry tactics Frontiers and fortifications Limes Limes Britannicus Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Limes Germanicus Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes Norican Limes Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannonian Limes Limes Alutanus Limes Moesiae Trajan's Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmatiae Limes Arabicus Limes Tripolitanus Limes Mauretaniae  Ancient Rome portal •  War portal v t e Eboracum (Latin /ebo'rakum/, English /iːˈbɒrəkəm/ or /ˌiːbɔːˈrɑːkəm/)[1] was a fort and later a city in the Roman province of Britannia. In its prime it was the largest town in northern Britain and a provincial capital. The site remained occupied after the decline of the Western Roman Empire and ultimately evolved into the present-day city York, occupying the same site in North Yorkshire, England. Two Roman emperors died in Eboracum: Septimius Severus in 211 AD, and Constantius Chlorus in 306 AD. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Origins 3 Military 4 Visiting emperors 5 Government 6 Culture 6.1 Diet 6.2 Religion 6.3 Death and burial 7 Economy 7.1 Roads 7.2 Rivers 8 Late Roman York 9 Rediscovery of Roman York 10 Archaeological remains 10.1 Visible remains 11 See also 12 Bibliography 13 References 14 External links Etymology[edit] The first known recorded mention of Eboracum by name is dated c. 95–104 AD, and is an address containing the genitive form of the settlement's name, Eburaci, on a wooden stylus tablet from the Roman fortress of Vindolanda in what is now the modern Northumberland.[2] During the Roman period, the name was written both Eboracum and Eburacum (in nominative form).[2] The name Eboracum comes from the Common Brittonic Eburākon, which means "yew tree place".[3][failed verification] The word for "yew" was *ebura in Proto-Celtic (cf. Old Irish ibar "yew-tree", Irish: iúr (older iobhar), Scottish Gaelic: iubhar, Welsh: efwr "alder buckthorn", Breton: evor "alder buckthorn"), combined with the proprietive suffix *-āko(n) "having" (cf. Welsh -og, Gaelic -ach)[4] meaning "yew tree place" (cf. efrog in Welsh, eabhrach/iubhrach in Irish Gaelic and eabhrach/iobhrach in Scottish Gaelic, by which names the city is known in those languages). The name was then Latinized by replacing the Celtic neuter nominative ending -on by its Latin equivalent -um, a common use noted also in Gaul and Lusitania (Ebora Liberalitas Julia). Various place names, such as Évry, Ivry, Ivrey, Ivory and Ivrac in France would all come from *eburacon / *eburiacon; for example: Ivry-la-Bataille (Eure, Ebriaco in 1023–1033), Ivry-le-Temple (Evriacum in 1199),[5] and Évry (Essonne, Everiaco in 1158).[6][4] Peter Schrijver has instead argued that "eburos did not mean yew tree" and that the derivation from Latin ebur instead refers to boar's tusks.[7] Origins[edit] The Roman conquest of Britain began in 43 AD, but advance beyond the Humber did not take place until the early 70s AD. This was because the people in the area, known as the Brigantes by the Romans, became a Roman client state. When Brigantian leadership changed, becoming more hostile to Rome, Roman General Quintus Petillius Cerialis led the Ninth Legion north from Lincoln across the Humber.[8] Eboracum was founded in 71 AD when Cerialis and the Ninth Legion constructed a military fortress (castra) on flat ground above the River Ouse near its junction with the River Foss. In the same year, Cerialis was appointed Governor of Britain.[9] A legion at full strength at that time numbered some 5,500 men, and provided new trading opportunities for enterprising local people, who doubtless flocked to Eboracum to take advantage of them. As a result, permanent civilian settlement grew up around the fortress especially on its south-east side. Civilians also settled on the opposite side of the Ouse, initially along the main road from Eboracum to the south-west. By the later 2nd century, growth was rapid; streets were laid out, public buildings were erected and private houses spread out over terraces on the steep slopes above the river. Military[edit] A bust of Constantine I from 313 to 324 AD from Musei Capitolini, Rome From its foundation the Roman fort of Eboracum was aligned on a north-east/south-east bearing on the north bank of the River Ouse. It measured 1,600 pes monetalis (473.6m) by 1,360 pes monetalis (402.56m)[10] and covered an area of 50 acres (200,000 m2).[10] The standard suit of streets running through the castra is assumed, although some evidence exists for the via praetoria, via decumana and via sagularis.[10] Much of the modern understanding of the Fortress defences has come from extensive excavations undertaken by Leslie Peter Wenham.[11][12][13] The layout of the fortress also followed the standard for a legionary fortress with wooden buildings inside a square defensive boundary.[14] These defences originally consisting of turf ramparts on a green wood foundation, were built by the Ninth Legion between 71 and 74 AD. Later these were replaced by a clay mound with a turf front on a new oak foundation, and eventually, wooden battlements were added which were then replaced by limestone walls and towers.[15] The original wooden camp was refurbished by Agricola in 81, before being completely rebuilt in stone between 107 and 108. The fortress was garrisoned soon afterwards by the Sixth Legion, possibly as soon as 118.[16] Multiple phases of restructuring and rebuilding within the fortress are recorded. Rebuilding in stone began in the early second century AD under Trajan but may have taken as long as the start of the reign of Septimius Severus to be completed; a period of over 100 years.[17] Estimates suggest that over 48,000m3 of stone were required,[17] largely consisting of Magnesian Limestone from the quarries nearby the Roman settlement of Calcaria (Tadcaster).[18] Marble bust of Constantine the Great from Stonegate, York Visiting emperors[edit] There is evidence that the Emperor Hadrian visited in 122 on his way north to plan his great walled frontier. He either brought, or sent earlier, the Sixth Legion to replace the existing garrison. Emperor Septimius Severus visited Eboracum in 208[19] and made it his base for campaigning in Scotland. (The fortress wall was probably reconstructed during his stay and at the east angle it is possible to see this work standing almost to full height.) The Imperial court was based in York until at least 211, when Severus died and was succeeded by his sons, Caracalla and Geta.[19] A biographer, Cassius Dio, described a scene in which the Emperor utters the final words to his two sons on his death bed: "Agree with each other, make the soldiers rich, and ignore everyone else."[20] Severus was cremated in Eboracum shortly after his death.[19] Dio described the ceremony: "His body arrayed in military garb was placed upon a pyre, and as a mark of honour the soldiers and his sons ran about it and as for the soldier's gifts, those who had things at hand to offer them put them upon it and his sons applied the fire."[19] (The location of the cremation was not recorded. A hill to the west of modern York, known as Severus Hill, is associated by some antiquarians as the site where this cremation took place,[21] but no archaeological investigation has corroborated this claim.) In the later 3rd century, the western Empire experienced political and economic turmoil and Britain was for some time ruled by usurpers independent of Rome. It was after crushing the last of these that Emperor Constantius I came to Eboracum and, in 306, became the second Emperor to die there. His son Constantine was instantly proclaimed as successor by the troops based in the fortress. Although it took Constantine eighteen years to become sole ruler of the Empire, he may have retained an interest in Eboracum and the reconstruction of the south-west front of the fortress with polygonally-fronted interval towers and the two great corner towers, one of which (the Multangular Tower) still survives, is probably his work. In the colonia, Constantine's reign was a time of prosperity and a number of extensive stone town houses of the period have been excavated. Government[edit] For the Romans, Eboracum was the major military base in the north of Britain and, following the 3rd century division of the province of Britannia, the capital of northern Britain, Britannia Inferior. By 237 Eboracum had been made a colonia, the highest legal status a Roman city could attain, one of only four in Britain and the others were founded for retired soldiers.[22] This mark of Imperial favour was probably a recognition of Eboracum as the largest town in the north and the capital of Britannia Inferior. At around the same time Eboracum became self-governing, with a council made up of rich locals, including merchants and veteran soldiers.[23] In 296 Britannia Inferior was divided into two provinces of equal status with Eboracum becoming the provincial capital of Britannia Secunda. Culture[edit] Statue of Mars from Blossom Street in York As a busy port and a provincial capital Eboracum was a cosmopolitan city with residents from throughout the Roman Empire.[24] Diet[edit] Substantial evidence for the use of cereal crops and animal husbandry can be found in Eboracum.[25] A first-century warehouse fire from Coney Street, on the North bank of the Ouse and outside the fortress, showed that spelt wheat was the most common cereal grain used at that time, followed by barley.[25] Cattle, sheep/goat and pig are the major sources of meat.[25] Hunting scenes, as shown through Romano-British "hunt cups",[26] suggest hunting was a popular pastime and that diet would be supplemented through the hunting of hare, deer and boar. A variety of food preparation vessels (mortaria) have been excavated from the city[26] and large millstones used in the processing of cereals have been found in rural sites outside the colonia at Heslington and Stamford Bridge.[25] In terms of the ceremonial use of food; dining scenes are used on tombstones to represent an aspirational image of the deceased in the afterlife, reclining on a couch and being served food and wine.[27] The tombstones of Julia Velva, Mantinia Maercia and Aelia Aeliana each depict a dining scene.[27] Additionally, several inhumation burials from Trentholme Drive contained hen's eggs placed in ceramic urns as grave goods for the deceased.[28] Mithraic tauroctony scene from Micklegate, evidence of the cult of Mithras in Eboracum. Religion[edit] A range of evidence of Roman religious beliefs among the people of Eboracum have been found including altars to Mars, Hercules, Jupiter and Fortune. In terms of number of references, the most popular deities were the spiritual representation (genius) of Eboracum and the Mother Goddess.[29] There is also evidence of local and regional deities. Evidence showing the worship of eastern deities has also been found during excavations in York. For example, evidence of the Mithras cult, which was popular among the military, has been found including a sculpture showing Mithras slaying a bull and a dedication to Arimanius, the god of evil in the Mithraic tradition.[30] The Mithraic relief located in Micklegate[31] suggests the location of a temple to Mithras right in the heart of the Colonia.[32] Another example is the dedication of a temple to Serapis a Hellenistic-Egyptian God by the Commander of the Sixth Legion, Claudius Hieronymianus.[33] Other known deities from the city include: Tethys,[34] Veteris,[34] Venus,[35]Silvanus,[36] Toutatis, Chnoubis and the Imperial Numen. There was also a Christian community in Eboracum although it is unknown when this was first formed and in archaeological terms there is virtually no record of it. The first evidence of this community is a document noting the attendance of Bishop Eborius of Eboracum at the Council of Arles (314).[37] The Episcopal see at Eboracum was called Eboracensis in Latin and Bishops from the See also attended the First Council of Nicaea in 325, the Council of Sardica, and the Council of Ariminum.[38] The name is preserved in the abbreviated form Ebor as the official name of the archbishop of York.[16] Sarcophagus of Julia Fortunata, found in 1887; now in the Yorkshire Museum Death and burial[edit] The cemeteries of Roman York follow the major Roman roads out of the settlement; excavations in the Castle Yard (next to Clifford's Tower), beneath the railway station, at Trentholme Drive and the Mount[39] have located significant evidence of human remains using both inhumation and cremation burial rites. The cemetery beneath the railway station was subject to excavations in advance of railway works of 1839–41, 1845, and 1870–7.[40] Several sarcophagi were unearthed during this phase of excavations including those of Flavius Bellator[41] and Julia Fortunata.[42] Inhumation burial in sarcophagi can often include the body being encased in gypsum and then in a lead coffin. Variations on this combination exist. The gypsum casts, when found undisturbed, frequently retain a cast impression of the deceased in a textile shroud[39] – surviving examples of both adults and children show a selection of textiles used to wrap the body before interment, but usually plain woven cloth.[39] The high number of sarcophagi from Eboracum has provided a large number of these casts, in some cases with cloth surviving adhered to the gypsum.[39] Two gypsum burials at York have shown evidence for frankincense and another clear markers of Pistacia spp. (mastic) resin used as part of the funerary rite.[43] These resins had been traded to Eboracum from the Mediterranean and eastern Africa, or southern Arabia, the latter known as the "Frankincense Kingdom" in antiquity[44][page needed] This is the northernmost confirmed use of aromatic resins in mortuary contexts during the Roman period.[43] An excavation in advance of building work underneath the Yorkshire Museum in 2010 located a male skeleton with significant pathology to suggest that he may have died as a gladiator in Eboracum.[45][46] Economy[edit] The military presence at Eboracum was the driving force behind early developments in its economy. In these early stages, Eboracum operated as a command economy with workshops growing up outside the fortress to supply the needs of the 5,000 troops garrisoned there. Production included military pottery until the mid-3rd century, military tile kilns have been found in the Aldwark-Peasholme Green area, glassworking at Coppergate, metalworks and leatherworks producing military equipment in Tanner Row.[22] In the Roman period, Eboracum was the major manufacturing centre for Whitby Jet. Known as gagates in Latin, it was used from the early 3rd century as material for jewelry[47][page needed] and was exported from here throughout Britain and into Europe.[48] Examples found in York take the form of rings, bracelets, necklaces, and pendants depicting married couples and the Medusa.[47] There are fewer than 25 jet pendants in the Roman world,[49] of which six are known from Eboracum. These are housed in the Yorkshire Museum. Roads[edit] During construction of the York to Scarborough Railway Bridge in 1901, workmen discovered a large stone coffin, close to the River Ouse. Inside was a skeleton, accompanied by an array of unusual and expensive objects. This chance find represents one of the most significant discoveries ever made from Roman York. The true paths of all original Roman roads leading out of Eboracum are not known,[50] although eleven have been suggested.[50] The known roads include Dere Street leading North-West from the city through Clifton towards the site of Cataractonium (modern Catterick), Cade's Road Towards Petuaria (modern Brough), and Ermine Street towards Lindum (modern Lincoln).[50] A road bypassing the south wall of the fortress, between the fortress and the River Ouse has not been formally planned, although its path is conjectured to run beneath the York Museum Gardens.[50] Rivers[edit] The River Ouse and River Foss provided important access points for the importation of heavy goods. The existence of two possible wharves on the east bank of the River Foss[51] support this idea. A large deposit of grain, in a timber-structure beneath modern day Coney Street, on the north-east bank of the River Ouse[52] suggests the existence of storehouses for moving goods via the river. Late Roman York[edit] The decline of Roman Britain in early fifth century AD led to significant social and economic changes all over Britain. Whilst the latest datable inscription referencing Eboracum dates from 237 AD, the continuation of the settlement after this time is certain.[53] Building work in the city continued in the fourth century under Constantine and later Count Theodosius.[53] The locally produced Crambeck Ware pottery[54] arrives in Eboracum in the fourth century—the most famous form being intricately decorated buff-yellow "parchment ware" painted with bright shades of red. The effect of Constantine's religious policy allowed the greater development of Christianity in Roman Britain—a bishop of York named "Eborius" is attested here and several artifacts decorated with chi-rho symbols are known.[53] Additionally, a small bone plaque from an inhumation grave bore the phrase SOROR AVE VIVAS IN DEO ("Hail sister may you live in God").[55] Changes in the layout of both the fort and colonia occurred in the late fourth century AD, suggested as representing a social change in the domestic lives of the military garrison here whereby they might have lived in smaller family groups with wives, children or other civilians.[53] Rediscovery of Roman York[edit] The rediscovery and modern understanding of Eboracum began in the 17th century. Several prominent figures have been involved in this process. Martin Lister was the first to recognise that the Multangular Tower was Roman in date in a 1683 paper with the Royal Society.[56] John Horsley's 1732 Britannia Romana, or "The Roman Antiquities of Britain", included a chapter on Roman York and at least partly informed Francis Drake's 1736 Eboracum[57]—the first book of its kind on Roman York. Drake also published accounts in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.[51] The Rev. Charles Wellbeloved was one of the founders of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society and a curator of the antiquities in the Yorkshire Museum until his death in 1858. He published a systematic account of Roman York titled Eboracum or York under the Romans in 1842,[51] including first hand records of discoveries during excavations in 1835.[51] William Hargrove brought many new discoveries to the attention of the public through published articles in his newspaper the Herald and the Courant[51] and published a series of guides with references to casual finds. The first large-scale excavations were undertaken by S. Miller from Glasgow University in the 1920s[51] with a focus on the defences. Archaeological remains[edit] Substantial physical remains have been excavated in York in the last two centuries[58] including the city walls, the legionary bath-house and headquarters building, civilian houses, workshops, storehouses and cemeteries. Visible remains[edit] Remains of the Roman Basilica building, at the north side of the Principia are visible in the undercroft of York Minster. A column found during excavations and a modern statue of Constantine the Great are located outside.[59] The multangular tower of York city walls is a multi-period structure based on the south-west corner tower of the Roman Legionary Fortress. It is within the York Museum Gardens. The Roman Bath pub and museum (St Sampson's Square) displays remains of the military bath-house.[60] A fragment of foundations of the western curtain wall is visible through a glass floor in a cafe near Bootham bar.[61] A large number of Roman finds are now housed in the Yorkshire Museum.[62] The York Museum Gardens have Roman sarcophagi on open display. See also[edit] History of York Roman Britain Seal of New York City which is inscribed Sigillum Civitatis Novi Eboraci Bibliography[edit] Allason-Jones, Lindsay (1996). Roman Jet in the Yorkshire Museum. York: Yorkshire Museum. ISBN 9780905807171. Baines, Edward, ed. (1823). History, directory & gazetteer, of the county of York, Vol. II. Leeds: Leeds Mercury Office. Retrieved 15 January 2018 – via archive.org. Collingwood, R.G., ed. (1965). Roman Inscriptions of Britain, Vol I. Oxford: Claredon Press. Drake, Francis (1736). Eboracum or the History and Antiquities of the City of York. LCCN 03016196. Groom, N. (1981). Frankincense and Myrrh: a Study of the Arabian Incense Trade. Longman. ISBN 9780582764767. Hall, Richard (1996) [1996]. English Heritage: Book of York (1st ed.). B.T.Batsford Ltd. ISBN 0-7134-7720-2. Hartley, Elizabeth (1985). Roman Life at the Yorkshire Museum. The Yorkshire Museum. ISBN 0-905807-02-2. Nègre, Ernest (1990). Toponymie générale de la France (in French). Librairie Droz. ISBN 9782600028837. Ottaway, Patrick (2013). Roman Yorkshire: People, Culture and Landscape. Pickering: Blackthorn Press. ISBN 9781906259334. Ottaway, Patrick (2004). Roman York. Stroud: Tempus. ISBN 0-7524-2916-7. RCHME (1962). An Inventory of the Historical Monuments in City of York, Volume 1, Eburacum, Roman York (Royal Commission on Historical Monuments England) – via British History Online. Wellbeloved, c. 1852 (1st edition). A descriptive account of the antiquities in the grounds and in the Museum of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society Willis, Ronald (1988). The illustrated portrait of York (4th ed.). Robert Hale Limited. ISBN 0-7090-3468-7. References[edit] ^ "Eboracum". Collins Dictionary. n.d. Retrieved 26 September 2014. ^ a b Hall 1996, p. 13 ^ Hall 1996, p. 27; the wholly fictitious king Ebraucus (derived from the Old Welsh spelling of the place name, (Cair) Ebrauc), ruling in the days of biblical King David, was an invention of Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae. ^ a b Xavier Delamarre, Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise, éditions errance 2003, p. 159. ^ Nègre 1990, p. 213 ^ Nègre 1990, p. 212 ^ Peter Schrijver (2015). "The meaning of Celtic *eburos". In G. Oudaer; G. Hily; H. le Bihan (eds.). Mélanges en l'honneur de Pierre-Yves Lambert. pp. 65–76. ^ Willis 1988, pp. 16–17 ^ Hall 1996, pp. 26–28 ^ a b c Ottaway 2004, pp. 34–37 ^ Wenham, L. P. (1961). "Excavations and discoveries adjoining the south-west wall of the Roman legionary fortress in Feasegate, York, 1955–57". Yorkshire Archaeological Journal. 40: 329–50. ^ Wenham, L. P. (1962). "Excavations and discoveries within the Legionary Fortress in Davygate, York, 1955–58". Yorkshire Archaeological Journal. 40: 507–87. ^ Wenham, L. P. 1965 'The South-West defences of the Fortress of Eboracum' in Jarrett, M. G. and Dobson, B. (eds.) Britain and Rome. pp. 1–26 ^ Hall 1996, pp. 27–28 ^ Willis 1988, pp. 19–22 ^ a b Haverfield, Francis John (1911). "Eburācum" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 8 (11th ed.). p. 844. ^ a b Ottaway 2004, pp. 67–69 ^ Historic England (2007). "Calcaria Roman Town (54930)". PastScape. Retrieved 15 March 2014. ^ a b c d Ottaway 2004, pp. 79–81 ^ Dio, Cassius. Historia Romana 76.15.2 ^ Baines 1823, p. 15 ^ a b Hall 1996, p. 31 ^ Hartley 1985, p. 12 ^ Hartley 1985, p. 14 ^ a b c d Ottaway 2013, pp. 137–140 ^ a b Monaghan, J. 1993. Roman Pottery from the Fortress (Archaeology of York 16/7). York: York Archaeological Trust ^ a b Stewart, P (2009). "Totenmahl reliefs in the northern provinces: a case-study in imperial sculpture". Journal of Roman Archaeology. 22: 253–274. doi:10.1017/s1047759400020699. ^ RCHME 1962, p. 106 ^ RCHME 1962, p. 118a ^ Hall 1996, pp. 97-101 ^ RCHME 1962, p. 55 ^ Ottaway 2004, pp. 114–115 ^ Hartley 1985, p. 25 ^ a b RCHME 1962, pp. 113a–b ^ RCHME 1962, p. 120b ^ RCHME 1962, p. 116a ^ Hall 1996, pp. 97–101 ^ "Ancient See of York". New Advent. 2007. Retrieved 25 October 2007. ^ a b c d RCHME 1962, p. 67 ^ RCHME 1962, pp. 76–80 ^ Collingwood 1965, p. Ref:674 ^ Collingwood 1965, p. Ref:687 ^ a b Brettell, R. C. (2014). ""Choicest Unguents": molecular evidence for the use of resinous plant exudates in late roman mortuary rite in Britain". Journal of Archaeological Science. 53: 639–648. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2014.11.006. ^ Groom 1981 ^ Past Horizons (9 December 2010). "Roman Gladiator Beneath Yorkshire Museum". Archived from the original on 5 April 2014. Retrieved 6 November 2013. ^ "Roman gladiator skeleton found beneath Yorkshire Museum". York Press. 10 December 2010. Retrieved 27 April 2020. ^ a b Allason-Jones 1996 ^ Ottaway 2004, p. 107 ^ Allason-Jones 1996, p. 25 ^ a b c d RCHME 1962, pp. 1–4 ^ a b c d e f RCHME 1962, pp. 64–65 ^ Ottaway 2004, p. 54 ^ a b c d Ottaway 2004, pp. 140–150 ^ Potsherd (1996). "Crambeck Ware Pottery". Retrieved 13 December 2013. ^ York Museums Trust (2006). "Ivory Bangle Lady". Retrieved 13 December 2013. ^ Lidster, M. 1683. 'Some Observations upon the Ruins of a Roman Wall and Multangular-Tower at York'. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society Vol 13. pp. 238–242. ^ RCHME 1962, pp. xxxix–xli ^ RCHME 1962, pp. xvii-xix ^ Thomas, Brittany (2016). "Imperial Statues and Public Spaces in Late Antiquity: Conceptualising 'Constantine' at York as an Ancient Public Commission". In Mandichs, M. J.; Derrick, T. J.; Gonzalez Sanchez, S.; Savani, G.; Zampieri, E. (eds.). Proceedings of the Twenty-Fifth Annual Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference. Theoretical Roman Archaeology Journal. Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference. pp. 177–187. doi:10.16995/TRAC2015_177_187. ^ "Roman Bath Museum". 2013. Retrieved 31 October 2013. ^ Laycock, M. (13 July 2015). "Roman remains hidden for the past 105 years are revealed again, as works nears completion on new cafe in York". York Press. Retrieved 18 January 2018. ^ "Collections Highlights: Archaeology". York Museums Trust. 2018. Retrieved 18 January 2018. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Eboracum. The Romans in West Yorkshire Roman collections in the Yorkshire Museum York Minster Undercroft Roman Bath Museum v t e Major towns of Roman Britain Placenames in brackets are either present-day names or counties where the towns formerly existed. Capitals Britannia Superior Londinium (London) Britannia Inferior Eboracum (York) Camulodunum (Colchester) Surviving Caesaromagus (Chelmsford) Corinium Dobunnorum (Cirencester) Deva Victrix (Chester) Durnovaria (Dorchester) Durovernum Cantiacorum (Canterbury) Glevum (Gloucester) Isca Augusta (Caerleon) Isca Dumnoniorum (Exeter) Isurium Brigantum (Aldborough) Lactodurum (Towcester) Lindum Colonia (Lincoln) Luguvalium (Carlisle) Moridunum (Carmarthen) Noviomagus Reginorum (Chichester) Petuaria (Brough) Ratae Corieltauvorum (Leicester) Venta Belgarum (Winchester) Venta Silurum (Caerwent) Verulamium (St Albans) Viroconium Cornoviorum (Wroxeter) Extinct Alchester (Wendlebury) Bannaventa (Northamptonshire) Calleva Atrebatum (Hampshire) Cunetio (Wiltshire) Venta Icenorum (Norfolk) List of Roman place names in Britain v t e Roman visitor sites in the UK Villas Bignor Brading Chedworth Crofton Dover Painted House Fishbourne Great Witcombe Littlecote Lullingstone Newport Piddington Rockbourne Sparsholt Wroxeter Forts & military Ambleside Roman Fort Arbeia Banks East Turret Binchester Birdoswald Burgh Castle Caerleon Chesters Derventio Dover Castle Eboracum Hardknott Roman Fort Housesteads Lunt Carvoran Roman Army Museum Pevensey Castle Portchester Castle Ribchester Richborough Segedunum Venta Icenorum Vindolanda Towns Aldborough Roman Site Chichester Colchester Corbridge Silchester Venta Icenorum St Albans Wroxeter Museums Canterbury Roman Museum Carvoran Roman Army Museum Caerleon Roman Fortress and Baths Colchester Castle Museum Corinium Museum Jewry Wall Museum National Roman Legion Museum Ribchester Senhouse Roman Museum Trimontium Trust (Melrose) Verulamium Museum Other sites Bath Roman Baths Benwell Roman temple Caerleon Roman Baths Chester Roman Amphitheatre Jewry Wall, Leicester Welwyn Roman Baths York Roman Baths Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eboracum&oldid=996603653" Categories: History of North Yorkshire Roman fortifications in England Roman towns and cities in England History of York Archaeological sites in North Yorkshire 70s establishments in the Roman Empire 1st-century establishments in Roman Britain Roman sites in North Yorkshire Ancient Roman baths in England Roman legionary fortresses in England Coloniae (Roman) Hidden categories: Articles containing French-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from January 2015 Coordinates on Wikidata All articles with failed verification Articles with failed verification from April 2020 Articles containing Irish-language text Articles containing Scottish Gaelic-language text Articles containing Welsh-language text Articles containing Breton-language text Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from April 2020 Articles containing Latin-language text CS1 French-language sources (fr) Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Deutsch Esperanto Français Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Magyar Nederlands Português Română Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски اردو 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 27 December 2020, at 16:22 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8915	----	Romanization (cultural) - Wikipedia Romanization (cultural) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Romanization (disambiguation). Romanization or Latinization (or Romanisation or Latinisation), in the historical and cultural meanings of both terms, indicate different historical processes, such as acculturation, integration and assimilation of newly incorporated and peripheral populations by the Roman Republic and the later Roman Empire. Ancient Roman historiography and Italian historiography until the fascist period used to call the various processes the "civilizing of barbarians". Contents 1 Characteristics 2 Process 3 Legacy 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 External links Characteristics[edit] The Roman Empire at its greatest extent Acculturation proceeded from the top down, with the upper classes adopting Roman culture first and the old ways lingering for the longest among peasants in outlying countryside and rural areas.[1] Hostages played an important part in this process, as elite children, from Mauretania to Gaul, were taken to be raised and educated in Rome.[2] Ancient Roman historiography and traditional Italian historiography confidently identified the different processes involved with a "civilization of barbarians". Modern historians take a more nuanced view: by making their peace with Rome, local elites could make their position more secure and reinforce their prestige. New themes include the study of personal and group values and the construction of identity, which is the personal aspect of ethnogenesis. The transitions operated differently in different provinces; as Blagg and Millett point out[3] even a Roman province may be too broad a canvas to generalize. One characteristic of cultural Romanization was the creation of many hundreds of Roman coloniae in the territory of the Roman Republic and the subsequent Roman Empire. Until Trajan, colonies were created by using retired veteran soldiers, mainly from the Italian peninsula, who promoted Roman customs and laws, with the use of Latin. About 400 towns (of the Roman Empire) are known to have possessed the rank of colonia. During the empire, colonies were showcases of Roman culture and examples of the Roman way of life. The native population of the provinces could see how they were expected to live. Because of this function, the promotion of a town to the status of "Colonia civium Romanorum" implied that all citizens received full citizen rights and dedicated a temple to the Capitoline triad: Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, the deities venerated in the temple of Jupiter Best and Biggest on the Capitol in Rome. Livius[4] It has been estimated that at the beginning of the empire, about 750,000 Italians lived in the provinces.[5] Julius Caesar, Mark Anthony and Octavian settled many of their veterans in colonies: in Italy, and the provinces. The colonies that were established in Italy until 14 BCE have been studied by Keppie (1983). In his account of the achievements of his long reign, Res Gestae Divi Augusti, Augustus stated that he had settled 120,000 soldiers in twenty colonies in Italy in 31 BCE, then 100,000 men in colonies in Spain and southern Gaul in 14 BCE, followed by another 96,000 in 2 BCE.[6] Brian Campbell also states "From 49 to 32 BCE about 420,000 Italians were recruited", which would thus be the veteran (citizen) stock that was largely sent to the provinces (colonies) during Augustus. The Lex Calpurnia, however, also allowed citizenship to be granted for distinguished bravery. For example, the 1,000 socii from Camerinum after Vercellae 101 BCE (Plutarch Mar. XXXVIII) and the auxiliary (later Legio XXII Deiotariana) after Zela, got Roman citizenship. By the time of Augustus, the legions consisted mostly of ethnic Latins/Italics and Cisalpine Gauls.[7] However, Romanization did not always result in the extinction of all aspects of native cultures even when there was extensive acculturation. Many non-Latin provincial languages survived the entire period while sustaining considerable Latin influence, including the ancestor languages of Welsh, Albanian, Basque and Berber. Where there was language replacement, in some cases, such as Italy, it took place in the early imperial stage, while in others, native languages only totally succumbed to Latin after the fall of the Empire, as was likely the case with Gaulish. The Gaulish language is thought to have survived into the 6th century in France, despite considerable Romanization of the local material culture.[8] The last record of spoken Gaulish deemed to be plausibly credible[8] was when Gregory of Tours wrote in the 6th century (c. 560-575) that a shrine in Auvergne which "is called Vasso Galatae in the Gallic tongue" was destroyed and burnt to the ground.[9] Coexisting with Latin, Gaulish helped shape the Vulgar Latin dialects that developed into French, with effects including loanwords and calques (including oui,[10] the word for "yes"),[11][10] sound changes,[12][13] and influences in conjugation and word order.[11][10][14] Process[edit] All that led to many gradual developments. The very existence is a source of contention among modern archaeologists.[15] One of the first approaches, which now can be regarded as the "traditional" approach, was taken by Francis Haverfield.[16] He saw this process beginning in primarily post-conquest societies (such as Britain and Gaul), where direct Roman policy from the top promoted an increase in the Roman population of the province through the establishment of veteran colonies.[17] The coloniae would have spoken Latin and been citizens of Rome following their army tenure (See Roman citizenship). Haverfield thus assumes this would have a Romanising effect upon the native communities. This thought process, fueled though it was by early 20th century standards of imperialism and cultural change, forms the basis for the modern understanding of Romanization. However, recent scholarship has devoted itself to providing alternate models of how native populations adopted Roman culture and has questioned the extent to which it was accepted or resisted. Non-interventionist model[18] – Native elites were encouraged to increase social standing through association with the powerful conqueror be it in dress, language, housing and food consumption. That provides them with associated power. The establishment of a civil administration system is quickly imposed to solidify the permanence of Roman rule. Discrepant identity[19] – No uniformity of identity that can accurately be described as traditional Romanization. Fundamental differences within a province are visible through economics, religion and identity. Not all provincials supported Rome and not all elites wanted to be like the Roman upper classes. Acculturation[20] – Aspects of both Native and Roman cultures are joined together., as can be seen in the Roman acceptance, and adoption of, non-Classical religious practices. The inclusion of Isis, Epona, Britannia and Dolichenus into the pantheon are evidence. Creolization[21] – Romanization occurs as a result of negotiation between different elements of non-egalitarian societies and so material culture is ambiguous. Legacy[edit] Romance languages in Europe Roman names were adopted. The Latin language was spread, which was greatly facilitated by the fact that many cultures were mostly oral (particularly for the Gauls and Iberians). Anyone who wanted to deal (through writing) with the bureaucracy and/or with the Roman market had to write in Latin. The extent of the adoption is subject to ongoing debate, as the native languages were certainly spoken after the conquests. Moreover, in the eastern half of the Empire, Latin had to compete with Greek, which largely kept its position as lingua franca and even spread to new areas. Latin became prominent in certain areas around new veteran colonies like Berytus. The ancient tribal laws were replaced by Roman law, with its institutions of property rights. Typically-Roman institutions, such as public baths, the imperial cult and gladiator fights, were adopted. Gradually, the conquered would see themselves as Romans. The process was supported by the Roman Republic and then by the Roman Empire. The entire process was facilitated by the Indo-European origin of most of the languages and by the similarity of the gods of many ancient cultures. They also already had had trade relations and contacts with one another through the seafaring Mediterranean cultures like the Phoenicians and the Greeks. Romanization was largely effective in the western half of the empire, where native civilizations were weaker. In the Hellenized east, ancient civilizations like those of Ancient Egypt, Anatolia, The Balkans, Judea and Syria, effectively resisted all but its most superficial effects. When the Empire was divided, the east, with mainly Greek culture, was marked by the increasing strength of specifically Greek culture and language to the detriment of the Latin language and other Romanizing influences, but its citizens continued to regard themselves as Romans. While Britain certainly was Romanized, its approximation to the Roman culture seems to have been smaller than that of Gaul. The most romanized regions, as demonstrated by Dott. Bernward Tewes and Barbara Woitas of the computing center of the Catholic University Eichstätt-Ingolstadt, were Italy, the Iberian Peninsula, Gaul, southern Germany and Dalmatia.[22] Romanization in most of those regions remains such a powerful cultural influence in most aspects of life today that they are described as "Latin countries" and "Latin American countries". That is most evident in European countries in which Romance languages are spoken and former colonies that have inherited the languages and other Roman influences. According to Theodor Mommsen, cultural Romanisation was more complete in those areas that developed a "neolatin language" (like Spanish, French, Italian, Portuguese, and Romanian). The same process later developed in the recent centuries' colonial empires. See also[edit] Italic peoples Latinization of names Roman citizenship Romanitas Latin Rights Romance languages Romanization of Hispania Illyro-Roman Thraco-Roman Gallo-Roman Daco-Roman Romano-British culture List of cities founded by the Romans Spread of the Latin script Historiography of Romanization Notes[edit] ^ The identification of countryfolk as pagani is discussed at paganism. ^ Leonard A. Curchin, The Romanization of Central Spain: complexity, diversity, and change in a Provincial Hintellrfreshsrland, 2004, p. 130. ^ T. F. C. Blagg and M. Millett, eds., The Early Roman Empire in the West 1999, p. 43. ^ Coloniae ^ Scheidel, "Demography", 49–50, 64, 64 n. 114, citing P. A. Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 B.C.–A.D. 14 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), 263. ^ Pat Southern - The Roman Army: A Social and Institutional History (2006/Oxford Uni.) ^ B. Campbell The Roman Army, 31 BC–AD 337 p.9 ^ a b Laurence Hélix (2011). Histoire de la langue française. Ellipses Edition Marketing S.A. p. 7. ISBN 978-2-7298-6470-5. Le déclin du Gaulois et sa disparition ne s'expliquent pas seulement par des pratiques culturelles spécifiques: Lorsque les Romains conduits par César envahirent la Gaule, au 1er siecle avant J.-C., celle-ci romanisa de manière progressive et profonde. Pendant près de 500 ans, la fameuse période gallo-romaine, le gaulois et le latin parlé coexistèrent; au VIe siècle encore; le temoignage de Grégoire de Tours atteste la survivance de la langue gauloise. ^ Hist. Franc., book I, 32 Veniens vero Arvernos, delubrum illud, quod Gallica lingua Vasso Galatæ vocant, incendit, diruit, atque subvertit. And coming to Clermont [to the Arverni] he set on fire, overthrew and destroyed that shrine which they call Vasso Galatæ in the Gallic tongue. ^ a b c Matasovic, Ranko (2007). "Insular Celtic as a Language Area". Papers from the Workship within the Framework of the XIII International Congress of Celtic Studies. The Celtic Languages in Contact: 106. ^ a b Savignac, Jean-Paul (2004). Dictionnaire Français-Gaulois. Paris: La Différence. p. 26. ^ Henri Guiter, "Sur le substrat gaulois dans la Romania", in Munus amicitae. Studia linguistica in honorem Witoldi Manczak septuagenarii, eds., Anna Bochnakowa & Stanislan Widlak, Krakow, 1995. ^ Eugeen Roegiest, Vers les sources des langues romanes: Un itinéraire linguistique à travers la Romania (Leuven, Belgium: Acco, 2006), 83. ^ Adams, J. N. (2007). "Chapter V -- Regionalisms in provincial texts: Gaul". The Regional Diversification of Latin 200 BC – AD 600. Cambridge. p. 279–289. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511482977. ISBN 9780511482977. ^ Mattingly, D. J., 2004, "Being Roman: Expressing Identity in a provincial setting", Journal of Roman Archaeology Vol. 17, pp 5–26 ^ Haverfield, F., 1912, The Romanization of Roman Britain, Oxford: Claredon Press ^ MacKendrick, P. L (1952). "Roman Colonization". Phoenix. 6 (4): 139–146. doi:10.2307/1086829. JSTOR 1086829. ^ Millet, M., 1990, "Romanization: historical issues and archaeological interpretation", in Blagg, T. and Millett, M. (Eds.), The Early Roman Empire in the West, Oxford: Oxbow Books, pp. 35–44 ^ Mattingly, D. J., 2004, "Being Roman: Expressing Identity in a provincial setting", Journal of Roman Archaeology Vol. 17, pp. 13 ^ Webster, J., 1997 "Necessary Comparisons: A Post-Colonial Approach to Religious Syncretism in the Roman Provinces", World Archaeology Vol 28 No 3, pp. 324–338 ^ Webster, J., 2001, "Creolizing the Roman Provinces", American Journal of Archaeology Vol 105 No. 2, pp. 209–225, ^ "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss Slaby EDCS, unter Mitarbeit von Anne Kolb". References[edit] Adrian Goldsworthy (2003). The Complete Roman Army. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-05124-5. Francisco Marco Simón, "Religion and Religious Practices of the Ancient Celts of the Iberian Peninsula" in e-Keltoi: The Celts in the Iberian Peninsula, 6 287–345 (online) Interpretatio and the Romanization of Celtic deities. Mommsen, Theodore. The Provinces of the Roman Empire Barnes & Noble (re-edition). New York, 2004 Susanne Pilhofer: "Romanisierung in Kilikien? Das Zeugnis der Inschriften" (Quellen und Forschungen zur Antiken Welt 46), Munich 2006. External links[edit] Redfern, Rebecca and DeWitte, Sharon N., "A new approach to the study of Romanization in Britain: A regional perspective of cultural change in late Iron Age and Roman Dorset using the Siler and Gompertz–Makeham models of mortality", American Journal of Physical Anthropology, Volume 144, Issue 2, pages 269–285, February 2011 v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch 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en-wikipedia-org-8936	----	Latin literature - Wikipedia Latin literature From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Fiction, non-fiction, essays, poems, plays and other writings in Latin History of literature by era Bronze Age Ancient Egyptian Akkadian Sumerian Classical Avestan Chinese Greek Hebrew Latin Tamil Pali Prakrit Sanskrit Syriac Early Medieval Matter of Rome Matter of France Matter of Britain Armenian Byzantine Old English Georgian German Japanese Kannada Middle Persian Turkish Medieval Old Bulgarian Middle English Arabic Persian Armenian Byzantine Castilian Catalan Dutch French Georgian German Bengali Hindi Old Irish Italian Japanese Korean Malayalam Nepal Bhasa Norse Russian Serbian Telugu Turkish Welsh Early Modern Renaissance Baroque Modern by century 18th 19th 20th 21st  Literature portal v t e Latin literature includes the essays, histories, poems, plays, and other writings written in the Latin language. The beginning of Latin literature dates to 240 BC, when the first stage play was performed in Rome. Latin literature would flourish for the next six centuries. The classical era of Latin literature can be roughly divided into the following periods: Early Latin literature, The Golden Age, The Imperial Period and Late Antiquity. Latin was the language of the ancient Romans, but it was also the lingua franca of Western Europe throughout the Middle Ages, so Latin literature includes not only Roman authors like Cicero, Vergil, Ovid and Horace, but also includes European writers after the fall of the Empire, from religious writers like Aquinas (1225–1274), to secular writers like Francis Bacon (1561–1626), Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677), and Isaac Newton (1642–1727). Contents 1 History 1.1 Early Latin literature 1.2 The Golden Age 1.2.1 The age of Cicero 1.2.2 The Augustan Age 1.3 The Imperial Period 1.4 Latin in the Middle Ages, Renaissance, and Early Modernity 2 Characteristics 2.1 Language and form 3 See also 4 References 5 Sources 6 External links History[edit] Early Latin literature[edit] Main article: Old Latin Formal Latin literature began in 240 BC, when a Roman audience saw a Latin version of a Greek play.[1] The adaptor was Livius Andronicus, a Greek who had been brought to Rome as a prisoner of war in 272 BC.[citation needed] Andronicus also translated Homer's Greek epic the Odyssey into an old type of Latin verse called Saturnian. The first Latin poet to write on a Roman theme was Gnaeus Naevius during the 3rd century BC.[citation needed] He composed an epic poem about the first Punic War, in which he had fought. Naevius's dramas were mainly reworkings of Greek originals, but he also created tragedies based on Roman myths and history. Other epic poets followed Naevius. Quintus Ennius wrote a historical epic, the Annals (soon after 200 BC), describing Roman history from the founding of Rome to his own time.[2] He adopted Greek dactylic hexameter, which became the standard verse form for Roman epics. He also became famous for his tragic dramas. In this field, his most distinguished successors were Marcus Pacuvius and Lucius Accius. These three writers rarely used episodes from Roman history. Instead, they wrote Latin versions of tragic themes that the Greeks had already handled. But even when they copied the Greeks, their translations were not straightforward replicas. Only fragments of their plays have survived. Cato the Elder Considerably more is known about early Latin comedy, as 26 Early Latin comedies are extant – 20 of which Plautus wrote, and the remaining six of which Terence wrote.[3] These men modeled their comedies on Greek plays known as New Comedy. But they treated the plots and wording of the originals freely. Plautus scattered songs through his plays and increased the humor with puns and wisecracks, plus comic actions by the actors. Terence's plays were more polite in tone, dealing with domestic situations. His works provided the chief inspiration for French and English comedies of the 17th century AD, and even for modern American comedy. The prose of the period is best known through On Agriculture (160 BC) by Cato the Elder. Cato also wrote the first Latin history of Rome and of other Italian cities.[4] He was the first Roman statesman to put his political speeches in writing as a means of influencing public opinion. Early Latin literature ended with Gaius Lucilius, who created a new kind of poetry in his 30 books of Satires (2nd century BC). He wrote in an easy, conversational tone about books, food, friends, and current events. The Golden Age[edit] Main article: Classical Latin Traditionally, the height of Latin literature has been assigned to the period from 81 BC to AD 17, although recent scholarship has questioned the assumptions that privileged the works of this period over both earlier and later works.[5] This period is usually said to have begun with the first known speech of Cicero and ended with the death of Ovid. The age of Cicero[edit] Cicero Cicero has traditionally been considered the master of Latin prose.[6][7] The writing he produced from about 80 BC until his death in 43 BC exceeds that of any Latin author whose work survives in terms of quantity and variety of genre and subject matter, as well as possessing unsurpassed stylistic excellence. Cicero's many works can be divided into four groups: (1) letters, (2) rhetorical treatises, (3) philosophical works, and (4) orations. His letters provide detailed information about an important period in Roman history and offer a vivid picture of the public and private life among the Roman governing class. Cicero's works on oratory are our most valuable Latin sources for ancient theories on education and rhetoric. His philosophical works were the basis of moral philosophy during the Middle Ages. His speeches inspired many European political leaders and the founders of the United States. Roman orator Julius Caesar and Sallust were outstanding historical writers of Cicero's time. Caesar wrote commentaries on the Gallic and civil wars in a straightforward style to justify his actions as a general. He wrote descriptions of people and their motives. The birth of lyric poetry in Latin occurred during the same period. The short love lyrics of Catullus are noted for their emotional intensity. Catullus also wrote poems that attacked his enemies. Contemporary with Catullus, Lucretius expounded the Epicurean philosophy in a long poem, De rerum natura. One of the most learned writers of the period was Marcus Terentius Varro. Called "the most learned of the Romans" by Quintillian,[8] he wrote about a remarkable variety of subjects, from religion to poetry. But only his writings on agriculture and the Latin language are extant in their complete form. The Augustan Age[edit] Main article: Augustan literature (ancient Rome) Virgil The emperor Augustus took a personal interest in the literary works produced during his years of power from 27 BC to AD 14. This period is sometimes called the Augustan Age of Latin Literature. Virgil published his pastoral Eclogues, the Georgics, and the Aeneid, an epic poem describing the events that led to the creation of Rome. Virgil told how the Trojan hero Aeneas became the ancestor of the Roman people. Virgil also provided divine justification for Roman rule over the world. Although Virgil died before he could put the finishing touches on his poem, it was soon recognized as the greatest work of Latin literature.[9][10] Virgil's friend Horace wrote Epodes, Odes, Satires, and Epistles. The perfection of the Odes in content, form, and style has charmed readers for hundreds of years. The Satires and Epistles discuss ethical and literary problems in an urbane, witty manner. Horace's Art of Poetry, probably published as a separate work, greatly influenced later poetic theories. It stated the basic rules of classical writing as the Romans understood and used them. After Virgil died, Horace was Rome's leading poet.[11] The Latin elegy reached its highest development in the works of Tibullus, Propertius, and Ovid. Most of this poetry is concerned with love. Ovid also wrote the Fasti, which describes Roman festivals and their legendary origins. Ovid's greatest work, the Metamorphoses weaves various myths into a fast-paced, fascinating story. Ovid was a witty writer who excelled in creating lively and passionate characters. The Metamorphoses was the best-known source of Greek and Roman mythology throughout the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. It inspired many poets, painters, and composers. In prose, Livy produced a history of the Roman people in 142 books. Only 35 survived, but they are a major source of information on Rome.[12] The Imperial Period[edit] From the death of Augustus in AD 14 until about 200, Roman authors emphasized style and tried new and startling ways of expression. During the reign of Nero from 54 to 68, the Stoic philosopher Seneca wrote a number of dialogues and letters on such moral themes as mercy and generosity. In his Natural Questions, Seneca analyzed earthquakes, floods, and storms. Seneca's tragedies greatly influenced the growth of tragic drama in Europe. His nephew Lucan wrote the Pharsalia (about 60), an epic poem describing the civil war between Caesar and Pompey. The Satyricon (about 60) by Petronius was the first picaresque Latin novel.[13] Only fragments of the complete work survive. It describes the adventures of various low-class characters in absurd, extravagant, and dangerous situations, often in the world of petty crime. Epic poems included the Argonautica of Gaius Valerius Flaccus, following the story of Jason and the Argonauts in their quest for the Golden Fleece, the Thebaid of Statius, following the conflict of Oedipus's sons and the Seven Against Thebes, and the Punica of Silius Italicus, following the Second Punic War and the invasions of Hannibal into Italy. At the hands of Martial, the epigram achieved the stinging quality still associated with it. Juvenal satirized vice. The historian Tacitus painted an unforgettably dark picture of the early empire in his Histories and Annals, both written in the early 2nd century. His contemporary Suetonius wrote biographies of the 12 Roman rulers from Julius Caesar through Domitian. The letters of Pliny the Younger described Roman life of the period. Quintilian composed the most complete work on ancient education that we possess. Important works from the 2nd century include the Attic Nights of Aulus Gellius, a collection of anecdotes and reports of literary discussions among his friends; and the letters of the orator Marcus Cornelius Fronto to Marcus Aurelius. The most famous work of the period was Metamorphoses, also called The Golden Ass, by Apuleius. This novel concerns a young man who is accidentally changed into a donkey. The story is filled with tales of love and witchcraft. Latin in the Middle Ages, Renaissance, and Early Modernity[edit] Pagan Latin literature showed a final burst of vitality from the late 3rd century till the 5th centuries. Ammianus Marcellinus in history, Quintus Aurelius Symmachus in oratory, and Ausonius and Rutilius Claudius Namatianus in poetry. The Mosella by Ausonius demonstrated a modernism of feeling that indicates the end of classical literature as such. At the same time, other men laid the foundations of Christian Latin literature during the 4th century and 5th century. They included the church fathers Augustine of Hippo, Jerome, and Ambrose, and the first great Christian poet, Prudentius. During the Renaissance there was a return to the Latin of classical times, called for this reason Neo-Latin. This purified language continued to be used as the lingua franca among the learned throughout Europe, with the great works of Descartes, Francis Bacon, and Baruch Spinoza all being composed in Latin. Among the last important books written primarily in Latin prose were the works of Swedenborg (d. 1772), Linnaeus (d. 1778), Euler (d. 1783), Gauss (d. 1855), and Isaac Newton (d. 1727), and Latin remains a necessary skill for modern readers of great early modern works of linguistics, literature, and philosophy. Several of the leading English poets wrote in Latin as well as English. Milton's 1645 Poems are one example, but there were also Thomas Campion, George Herbert and Milton's colleague Andrew Marvell. Some indeed wrote chiefly in Latin and were valued for the elegance and Classicism of their style. Examples of these were Anthony Alsop and Vincent Bourne, who were noted for the ingenious way that they adapted their verse to describing details of life in the 18th century while never departing from the purity of Latin diction.[14] One of the last to be noted for the quality of his Latin verse well into the 19th century was Walter Savage Landor.[15] Characteristics[edit] Much Latin writing reflects the Romans' interest in rhetoric, the art of speaking and persuading. Public speaking had great importance for educated Romans because most of them wanted successful political careers. When Rome was a republic, effective speaking often determined who would be elected or what bills would pass. After Rome became an empire, the ability to impress and persuade people by the spoken word lost much of its importance. But training in rhetoric continued to flourish and to affect styles of writing. A large part of rhetoric consists of the ability to present a familiar idea in a striking new manner that attracts attention. Latin authors became masters of this art of variety. Language and form[edit] Latin is a highly inflected language, with many grammatical forms for various words. As a result, it can be used with a pithiness and brevity unknown in English. It also lends itself to elaboration, because its tight syntax holds even the longest and most complex sentence together as a logical unit. Latin can be used with conciseness, as in the works of Sallust and Tacitus. Or it can have wide, sweeping phrases, as in the works of Livy and the speeches of Cicero. Latin lacks poetic vocabulary that marks the Greek poetry. Some earlier Latin poets tried to make up for this deficiency by creating new compound words, as the Greeks had done. But Roman writers seldom invented words. Except in epic poetry, they tended to use a familiar vocabulary, giving it poetic value by combinations of words and by rich sound effects. Rome's leading poets had great technical skill in the choice and arrangement of language. They also had an intimate knowledge of the Greek poets, whose themes appear in almost all Roman literature. See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal Medieval Latin Renaissance Latin New Latin Contemporary Latin Prosody (Latin) Clausula (rhetoric) Alliteration (Latin) References[edit] ^ Duckworth, George Eckel. The nature of Roman comedy: a study in popular entertainment. University of Oklahoma Press, 1994. p. 3. Web. 15 October 2011. ^ "Annales | work by Ennius". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 22 January 2020. ^ Shipley, Joseph Twadell. Dictionary of world literature: criticism, forms, technique. Taylor & Francis, 1964. p. 109. Web. 15 October 2011. ^ Mehl, Andreas. Roman Historiography. Wiley-Blackwell, 2010. p 52. Web. 18 October 2011. ^ Hinds, Stephen (1998). Allusion and Intertext. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge. pp. 52–98. ISBN 0521571863. ^ Eliot, Charles W. Letters of Marcus Tullius Cicero and Letters of Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus: Part 9 Harvard Classics. Kessinger Publishing, 2004. p. 3. Web. 15 October 2011. ^ Nettleship, Henry; Haverfield, F. Lectures and Essays: Second Series. Cambridge University Press, 2010. p. 105. Web. 18 October 2011. ^ Institutio Oratoria by Quintillian ^ Morton Braund, Susanna. Latin literature. Routledge, 2002. p. 1. Web. 15 October 2011. ^ Colish, Marcía L. The Stoic Tradition from Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages: Stoicism in classical Latin literature. BRILL, 1990. p. 226. Web. 18 October 2011. ^ Britannica Educational Publishing. Poetry and Drama: Literary Terms and Concepts. The Rosen Publishing Group, 2011. p. 39. Web. 18 October 2011. ^ Cary, Max; Haarhoff, Theodore Johannes. Life and thought in the Greek and Roman world. Taylor & Francis, 1985. p. 268. Web. 15 October 2011. ^ Grube, George Maximilian Antony. The Greek and Roman critics. Hackett Publishing, 1965. p. 261. Web. 15 October 2011. ^ D.K.Money, "The Latin Poetry of English Gentlemen", in Neo-Latin Poetry in the British Isles, London 2012, pp.125ff ^ Poems online Sources[edit] Elaine Fantham, Ph.D., Giger Professor of Latin Emerita, Department of Classics, Princeton University. Fantham, Elaine. "Latin literature." World Book Advanced. World Book, 2011. Web. 18 October 2011. External links[edit] Library resources about Latin literature Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Corpus Scriptorum Latinorum. The Latin Library. Bibilotheca Augustana. Corpus Grammaticorum Latinorum: complete texts and full bibliography. Catalogus Translationum et Commentariorum "Latin Literature" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911. v t e Ages of Latin until 75 BC Old Latin 75 BC – 200 AD Classical Latin 200–900 Late Latin 900–1300 Medieval Latin 1300–1500 Renaissance Latin 1500–1900 New Latin 1900–present Contemporary Latin History of Latin Latin literature Vulgar Latin Ecclesiastical Latin Romance languages Latino sine flexione Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum Hiberno-Latin Judeo-Latin v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps 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en-wikipedia-org-8943	----	Populares - Wikipedia Populares From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Political faction of the Roman Republic Populares Main leaders Tiberius Gracchus Gaius Gracchus Gaius Marius Cinna Saturninus M. Aemilius Lepidus Clodius Pulcher Julius Caesar Mark Antony Octavian Founded c. 133 BC Dissolved c. 36 BC Ideology Populism Plebeians' interests Debt relief Expansionism Grain dole Land reform Direct democracy Politics of Ancient Rome Part of a series on Populism Variants Right-wing Left-wing Narodniks Poporanism Black Neo- Chauvinism Techno- Völkisch Welfare Penal Concepts Anti-establishment Anti-intellectualism Common people Demagogy Egalitarianism Elitism Ochlocracy Popular democracy Pluralism Social justice Third Position National variants American Canadian New Zealand Related topics Agrarianism Alt-right Authoritarianism Berlusconism Chavismo Communism Fascism Gaullism Janism Kirchnerism (Relato K) Nationalism New Left New Right Peronism Pink tide Putinism Radical centrism Socialism Trumpism Politics portal v t e The Populares (/ˌpɒpjʊˈlɛəriːz, -jə-, -ˈleɪriːz/; Latin for "favoring the people", singular popularis) were a political faction in the late Roman Republic who favoured the cause of the plebeians (the commoners). The Populares emerged as a political group with the reforms of the Gracchi brothers, who were tribunes of the plebs between 133 and 121 BC. Although the Gracchi belonged to the highest Roman aristocracy since they were the grandsons of Scipio Africanus, they were concerned for the urban poor, whose dire condition increased the risk of a social crisis at Rome. They tried to implement a vast social program comprising a grain dole, new colonies, and a redistribution of the Ager publicus in order to alleviate their situation. They also drafted laws to grant Roman citizenship to Italian allies and reform the judicial system to tackle corruption. Both brothers were murdered by their opponents, the Optimates, the conservative faction representing the interests of the landed aristocracy, which dominated the Senate. Several tribunes of the plebs later tried to pass the Gracchi's program by using plebiscites to bypass senatorial opposition, but Saturninus and Clodius Pulcher suffered the same fate as the Gracchi. Furthermore, many politicians of the late Republic postured as Populares to enhance their popularity among the plebs, notably Julius Caesar and Octavian (later Augustus), who finally enacted most of the Populares' agenda during their rule. The Populares counted a number of patricians, the most ancient Roman aristocrats, such as Appius Claudius Pulcher, Lucius Cornelius Cinna, and Julius Caesar among their number. They were allied to politicians of lesser status, especially "new men" like Gaius Marius, or Gaius Norbanus, who might have even been a new Roman citizen. Contents 1 History 2 Members 3 Ideology 4 Famous members 5 Footnotes 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links History[edit] Denarius of the Popularis Lucius Farsuleius Mensor, minted in 75 BC. The obverse depicts Libertas and a pileus, a probable reference to the restoration of the tribunate of the plebs that year. On the reverse, Mars helps a man in a toga into a biga, perhaps an allegory of the Populares' campaign for enrolling into the electoral rolls the Italians who had received the citizenship after the Social War.[1][2][i] The plebeian tribunes (the representatives of the plebeians) and the Plebeian Council (the assembly of the plebeians) at times clashed with the Senate over the mentioned reforms and over the power relationship between the plebeian institutions and the Senate. The Optimates among the senators spearheaded the senatorial opposition. These tribunes were supported by Populares politicians such as Gaius Marius and Julius Caesar, who were often patricians, or equites. Their conflicts also played a part in some of the civil wars of the Late Roman Republic: Sulla's first civil war (88–87 BC), Sulla's second civil war (82–81 BC), the Sertorian War (83–72 BC), Lepidus' rebellion (77 BC), Caesar's Civil War (49–45 BC), the post-Caesarian civil war (44–43 BC), the Liberators' civil war (44–42 BC) and the Sicilian revolt (44–36 BC). The Populares reached the height of their ascendancy four times. The first one was with the Gracchi brothers, who mobilized the plebeians in support of their land reform and their challenge to senatorial supremacy (133 BC and 122 BC). This almost was not the issue because the Populares had help from the Italians and they had to offer more land to the Italians than they wanted to. The land was meant to go to the poor.[3] The second time was with Gaius Marius and his son Gaius Marius the Younger, when the Marians (the supporters of Marius, who were Populares) seized power and held Rome from 87 BC to 82 BC. They were defeated in Sulla's Second Civil War. This was caused by the deteriorating relationship between Sulla and Marius as they started to fall apart from the consul stand point and lost view of what was important [what does this mean?].[4] The third time was when Julius Caesar was elected as consul in 59 BC with the support of Marcus Licinius Crassus and Pompey, who formed an informal alliance with Caesar which historians call the First Triumvirate (60–53 BC). These three helped bring Rome back to order from the scene it was when Sulla had left. The First Triumvirate gave each of the men their own land to watch over so parts of Rome were equally distributed among themselves so none of them would have too much to rule over.[5] Caesar managed to pass an agrarian law for a land reform, which had not been achieved since the agrarian law of Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus of 133 BC as all subsequent attempts at agrarian legislation had been thwarted by the opposition and obstructionism of the Optimates. Tensions between Populares and Optimates had increased with the Catiline conspiracy (63 BC) against the consulship of Marcus Tullius Cicero (an Optimate) during which Cicero, supported by a final decree (senatus consultum ultimum) of the Senate, had some of the conspirators executed without trial. There were demonstrations against these summary executions and this display of arbitrary senatorial power. There were two attempts to counter senatorial dominance which failed, but they were popular. The proponents were Quintus Caecilius Metellus Nepos Iunior, a plebeian tribune; and Julius Caesar, who at the time was a praetor.[6][7] This enhanced Caesar's popularity and was a help for his creation of the First Triumvirate three years later. The fourth time was with Caesar's Civil War, when Caesar held power from 49 BC to when he was assassinated in 44 BC. Caesar relied on the support of the people for his power.[8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16] After the defeat of Sextus Pompey (the son of Pompey) in the Sicilian Revolt by the Second Triumvirate in 36 BC, the Populares ceased to be a relevant political label. Members[edit] Notable Populares included men who held the plebeian tribunate such as the Gracchi brothers, Lucius Appuleius Saturninus, Marcus Livius Drusus, Publius Sulpicius Rufus, Servilius Rullus and Publius Clodius Pulcher; and men who held the consulship such as Appius Claudius Pulcher, Publius Mucius Scaevola, Marcus Fulvius Flaccus (who also became a plebeian tribune), Gaius Marius, Gaius Marius the Younger, Lucius Cornelius Cinna, Gnaeus Papirius Carbo, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus and Julius Caesar. There were other notable Populares such as Quintus Sertorius, who participated in the capture of Rome by the Marians in 87 BC and fought the Sertorian War, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus and Marc Antony, who fought for Caesar, were given a consulship by him and later became members of the Second Triumvirate. Although Marcus Licinius Crassus did not play a prominent part in Roman politics apart from his consulship in 70 BC, prior to being part of the First Triumvirate he was known as a supporter of the Populares.[17] Pompey was also a member of the First Triumvirate. The Optimates in the Senate side-lined him and frustrated his attempts to have his settlements in the east after his victory in the Third Mithridatic War ratified and to promote an agrarian reform to redistribute land to his veterans. Pompey's attacks pushed back Mithridates and Pompey even managed to get Mithridates's son to become an ally of Rome.[18] As a result, he joined forces with Caesar and Crassus. After the death of Crassus, Pompey drifted towards the Optimates.[19] These shifting allegiances are reminders that the designation Populares refers as much to political tactics as to any perceived policy. Holland notes that republican politicians "had always been more divided on issues of style than of policy".[20] Ideology[edit] Denarius of Gaius Minucius Augurinus, 135 BC. Roma is portrayed on the obverse, while the reverse depicts the Columna Minucia, with at the top a statue of his ancestor Lucius Minucius Augurinus, who as praefectus annonae in 439 BC organised a corn distribution. This coin participates to the Popularis propaganda in favour of the grain dole.[21] A historian of the Late Republic cautions against understanding the terms populares and optimates as formally organized factions with an ideological basis: Our chief contemporary witnesses to the political life of the late Republic, Cicero and Sallust, are fond of analyzing the political struggles of the period in terms of a distinction between optimates and populares, often appearing with slight variations in terminology, such as Senate, nobility, or boni versus People or plebs. But what precisely is denoted and connoted by this polarity? Clear enough, one who is designated in these sources as popularis was at least at that moment acting as 'the People's man,' that is a politician — for all practical purposes, a senator — advocating the rights and privileges of the People, implicitly in contrast to the leadership of the Senate; an 'optimate' (optimas), by contrast, was one upholding the special custodial and leadership role of the Senate, implicitly against the efforts of some popularis or other. The polarity obviously corresponds with the dual sources of institutional power in the Republic — Senate and People — and was realized in practice through contrasting political methods [...] and distinctive types of rhetorico-ideological appeals suited to tapping those alternative sources of power [...]. It is important to realize that references to populares in the plural do not imply a co-ordinated 'party' with a distinctive ideological character, a kind of political grouping for which there is no evidence in Rome, but simply allude to a recognizable, if statistically quite rare, type of senator whose activities are scattered sporadically across late-Republic history[.] [...] The 'life-long' popularis [...] was a new and worrying phenomenon at the time of Julius Caesar's consulship of 59: an underlying reason why the man inspired such profound fears.[22] This summarizes the dominant interpretation of the Populares in 20th-century scholarship, deriving in large part from Ronald Syme in the Anglophone literature. In the early 21st century and as early as the publication of the ninth volume of The Cambridge Ancient History in 1994,[23] the validity of examining Popularist ideology in the context of Roman political philosophy has been reasserted. In particular, T. P. Wiseman has rehabilitated the use of the word "party" to describe the political opposition between Optimates and Populares, based on Latin usage (partes) and pointing to the consistency of a sort of party platform based on the food supply and general welfare of the populus ("people"), making land available to those outside the senatorial elite and debt relief.[24] Politicians adhering to Popularist rhetoric or implementing Popularist policies usually did so not out of genuine belief in the cause or out of altruism, but rather to ingratiate themselves with the masses in order to achieve their own goals or those of patrons. Julius Caesar exemplified this once he became Roman dictator, involving himself in attracting teachers and doctors and the replacement of slaves on farms (important issues to the poor), but also disbanding clubs fellow Popularist Publius Clodius Pulcher used to maintain his own influence, seeing him as a threat to his rule. Those in the Populares tradition also tended to oppose the use of the death penalty. A true distinction between the populares and optimates usually only showed intermittently, however, mainly in relation to some contentious measure. Famous members[edit] Tiberius Gracchus, elected tribune in 133 BC. Appius Claudius Pulcher, consul in 143, then princeps senatus, and father-in-law of Tiberius Gracchus. Marcus Fulvius Flaccus, consul in 125. Gaius Gracchus, tribune of the plebs in 123 and 122. He tried to continue his brother's reforms but was murdered. Gaius Marius, seven times consul in 108, 104–100 and 86. Lucius Appuleius Saturninus, a radical tribune of the plebs in 103, 102 and 100. Gaius Servilius Glaucia, Saturninus' lieutenant, murdered with him in 100. Publius Sulpicius Rufus, tribune of the plebs in 88. Lucius Cornelius Cinna, consul between 87 and 84, he died during a mutiny of his troops. Gnaeus Papirius Carbo, consul in 85, 84 and 82. Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus, consul in 83. Gaius Marius the Younger, consul in 82. Gaius Marcius Censorinus, general who died against Sulla at the Battle of the Colline Gate in 82. Gaius Carrinas, general who died against Sulla at the Battle of the Colline Gate in 82. Quintus Sertorius, a former lieutenant of Marius, he led a rebellion in Hispania between 80 and 71. Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, consul in 78, he attempted to cancel Sulla's reforms in a rebellion that failed. Julius Caesar, elected consul in 59, 48, and between 46 and 44, as well as dictator between 49 and 44. Publius Clodius Pulcher, tribune of the plebs in 58, he passed several popular laws. Mark Antony, consul in 44 and 34, then Triumvir in 43. Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, consul in 46 and 42, then Triumvir in 43. Footnotes[edit] ^ The cognomen Mensor, referring to a land surveyor, further links the moneyer to the Populares and the agrarian reform they advocated. Notes[edit] ^ T. P. Wiseman, "The Census in the First Century B.C.", p. 65. ^ Crawford, Roman Republican Coinage, pp. 406, 407. ^ de Ligt, Luuk and Northwood, Simon J. People, Land, and Politics: Demographic Developments and the Transformation of Roman Italy 300 BC-AD 14 (2008). Leiden. Brill NV. ^ Santangelo, Federico (2007). Sulla, the Elites and the Empire a Study of Roman Policies in Italy and the Greek east. Brill Leiden. pp. 18–23. ^ Sheppard, P. (producer). (2010). Rome: Part Two: From the Late Republic to the Fall of the Roman Empire: 121 BC to 476 AD (2010, audio video file). Phil Sheppard Productions. Retrieved from World History in video database. ^ Sumner, G. V. Cicero, Pompeius, and Rullus (1966). Transactions and proceedings of the American Philological Association. Vol. 97. pp. 573. ^ Mitchell, T. N. Cicero, Pompey and the Rise of the First Triumvirate (1973). Traditio. Vol. 29. pp. 2–8. ^ Pelling, Christopher. "Plutarch and Roman Politics" in Past Perspectives: Studies in Greek and Roman Historical Writing. Papers Presented at a Conference in Leeds, 6–8 April 1983 (Cambridge University Press, 1986). pp. 159–16, 165–169. ^ Plutarch (Parallel Lives, the Life of Caesar) is very concerned to explain Julius Caesar's rise to tyranny. From the beginning, Caesar is the champion and the favorite of the Roman demos. When they support him, he rises, but when he loses their favor he falls too. ^ Cassius Dio (36.43.3) noted that Julius Caesar "courted the good-will of the multitude, observing how much stronger they were than the senate". ^ Millar, Fergus. The Crowd in Rome in the Late Republic (University of Michigan Press, 2002). pp. 75–76 et passim. ^ Taylor, Lily Ross. Party Politics in the Age of Caesar (University of California Press, 1949). p. 93 et passim. ^ Brunt, Peter. The Fall of the Roman Republic and Related Essays (Oxford University Press, 1988). pp. 1–92. ^ Yavetz, Zvi. "The Popularity of Julius Caesar" in Plebs and Princeps (Transaction, 1988). pp. 38–57; 45 ("Such was Caesar's policy: consolidation based on a body of supporters as heterogenous in class as possible, among them the plebs urbana"). ^ Mouritsen, Henrik. Plebs and Politics in the Late Roman Republic (Cambridge University Press, 2001). pp. 1, 9, et passim. ^ Baehr, Petter R. Caesar and the Fading of the Roman World: A Study in Republicanism and Caesarism. (Transaction Publishers, 1998).On the paradox of "Caesarism" (i.e. the combination of popular support and tyranny), ^ Sumner, G. V. Cicero, Pompeius, and Rullus (1996). Transactions and proceedings of the American Philological Association. Vol. 97. p. 573. ^ Mayor, Adrienne. The Poison King : The Life And Legend Of Mithradates, Rome's Deadliest Enemy (2009, e-book). Princeton, New Jersey. Princeton University Press. Available from eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) in Ipswich, Massachusetts. Retrieved 16 November 2017. ^ Boatwright, Gargola (2004). p. 244. ^ Holland, T. Rubicon: The Last Years of the Roman Republic (2003). London. Abacus. p. 194. ^ Crawford, Roman Republican Coinage, pp. 273–276. ^ Robert Morstein-Marx, Mass Oratory and Political Power in the Late Roman Republic (Cambridge University Press, 2003), pp. 204–205. ^ Andrew Lintott. "Political History, 146–96 B.C." in The Cambridge Ancient History (Cambridge University Press, 1994). p. 52. ^ Though this has been a strand in Wiseman's scholarship over the decades, see particularly the introduction and "Roman History and the Ideological Vacuum" in Remembering the Roman People: Essays on Late-Republican Politics and Literature (Oxford University Press, 2009) at p. 14 for partes and "party". A less truncated version of "Roman History and the Ideological Vacuum" may be found in Classics in Progress (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 285. References[edit] Brunt, Peter. "The Roman Mob" (1966). Past and Present. Vol. 35. pp. 3–27. Michael Crawford, Roman Republican Coinage, Cambridge University Press (1974, 2001). Holland, Tom. Rubicon: The Last Years of the Roman Republic (2003). London. Abacus. Hölkeskamp, Karl-J. "Conquest, Competition and Consensus: Roman Expansion in Italy and the Rise of the nobilitas" (1993). Historia. Vol. 42. pp. 12–39. Millar, Fergus. "Politics, Persuasion and the People before the Social War (150–90 B.C.)" (1986). Journal of Roman Studies. Vol. 76. pp. 1–11. Millar, Fergus. "Political Power in the Mid-Republic: Curia or Comitium?" (1989). Journal of Roman Studies. Vol. 79. pp. 138–150. Millar, Fergus. "Popular Politics at Rome in the Late Republic" (1995). Leaders and Masses in the Roman World: Studies in Honor of Zvi Yavetz. Edited by I. Malkin and Z. W. Rubinsohn. Leiden. E.J. Brill. Millar, Fergus. The Crowd in Rome in the Late Republic (2002). University of Michigan Press. Parenti, Michael. The Assassination of Julius Caesar: A People's History of Ancient Rome (2003). The New Press. ISBN 1-56584-797-0. Seager, Robin. "Cicero and the Word popularis" (1972). Classical Quarterly. Vol. 22. pp. 328–338. Sherwin-White, A. N. "The Lex repetundarum and the Political Ideas of Gaius Gracchus" (1982). Journal of Roman Studies. Vol. 72. pp. 18–31. Taylor, Lily Ross. Party Politics in the Age of Caesar (1949). Berkeley, California. University of California Press. T. P. Wiseman, "The Census in the First Century B.C.", in The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 59, No. 1/2 (1969), pp. 59–75. Yakobson, Alexander. "Petitio et largitio: Popular Participation in the Centuriate Assembly of the Late Republic" (1992). Journal of Roman Studies. Vol. 82. pp. 32–52. External links[edit] Oxford Classical Dictionary Videos of talks by Michael Parenti about his book The Assassination of Julius Caesar: A People's History of Ancient Rome, which describes the conflict between Optimates and Populares (in a 76 minute talk in one part and in eight parts). Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Populares&oldid=992522806" Categories: Populares Ancient Roman society Populism Roman Republic Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Italiano עברית Latina Latviešu Lietuvių മലയാളം Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Seeltersk Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 5 December 2020, at 18:34 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8945	----	Roman army - Wikipedia Roman army From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Armies of Ancient Rome Exercitus Romanus Vexillum with the imperial aquila Active 753 BC – 1453 AD Country Roman Empire Branch Romanum Legio Size 28–50 legions Headquarters Aquincum Bonn Lauriacum Isca Augusta Alexandria Singara Regensburg Novae Busra Motto(s) 'Gloria Exercitus' Engagements Roman–Gallic wars Samnite Wars Pyrrhic War Punic War Macedonian Wars Jugurthine War Mithridatic War Gallic Wars Roman civil wars Roman invasion of Britain Roman–Germanic wars Domitian's Dacian War Trajan's Dacian Wars Roman–Parthian War of 58–63 Jewish–Roman wars Commanders Magister militum, Strategos, Stratelates Caesar Notable commanders Marcus Furius Camillus Scipio Africanus Gaius Marius Julius Caesar Germanicus Flavius Stilicho Flavius Belisarius Coin showing (obverse) head of the late Roman emperor Julian (ruled 361–363 AD) wearing diadem and (reverse) soldier bearing standard holding kneeling barbarian captive by the hair, legend and Myth VIRTUS EXERCITUS ROMANORUM ("Valour of Roman army"). Gold solidus. Sirmium mint. The Roman army (Latin: exercitus Romanus) was the armed forces deployed by the Romans throughout the duration of Ancient Rome, from the Roman Kingdom (to c. 500 BC) to the Roman Republic (500–31 BC) and the Roman Empire (31 BC–395 AD), and its medieval continuation, the Eastern Roman Empire. It is thus a term that may span approximately 2,205 years (753 BC–1453 AD), during which the Roman armed forces underwent numerous permutations in composition, organisation, equipment and tactics, while conserving a core of lasting traditions.[1][2][3] Contents 1 Historical overview 1.1 Early Roman army (c. 500 BC to c. 300 BC) 1.2 Roman army of the mid-Republic (c. 300–88 BC) 1.3 Roman army of the late Republic (88–30 BC) 1.4 Imperial Roman army (30 BC–AD 284) 1.5 Later Roman army (284–476 AD) continuing as East Roman army (476–641 AD) 1.6 Middle Byzantine army (641–1081 AD) 1.7 Komnenian Byzantine army (1081–1204) 1.8 Palaiologan Byzantine army (1261–1453) 2 Early Roman army (c. 550 to c. 300 BC) 3 Roman army of the mid-Republic (c. 300 – 107 BC) 4 Imperial Roman army (30 BC – AD 284) 5 Late Roman army/East Roman army (284–641) 6 Byzantine army (641–1081) 7 Komnenian Byzantine army (1081–1204) 8 Palaiologan Byzantine army (1261–1453) 9 See also 10 References 11 External links Historical overview[edit] Further information: Military of ancient Rome Early Roman army (c. 500 BC to c. 300 BC)[edit] The early Roman army was the armed force of the Roman Kingdom and of the early Roman Republic. During this period, when warfare chiefly consisted of small-scale plundering raids, it has been suggested that the army followed Etruscan or Greek models of organisation and equipment. The early Roman army was based on an annual levy. The army consisted of 3,000 infantrymen and 300 cavalrymen. All of which were Equites. The Latins, Sabines, and Etruscans under the Roman state would each provide an extra 1,000 soldiers and 100 cavalrymen. King Servius of Rome would institute the Servian reforms. These would divide the population into five classes. Each of which would have different roles in the military. The first class could afford to have a cuirass, greaves, a shield, a sword, and a spear. The second class had greaves, a shield, a sword, and a spear. The third class could only afford to have the shield, a sword, and a spear. The fourth class had a shield and a spear. The fifth class would only be slingers. Any poorer citizen, called Capite Censi would have no weapons. The Capite Censi would not serve in the army unless it was an emergency.[3] The infantry ranks were filled with the lower classes while the cavalry (equites or celeres) were left to the patricians, because the wealthier could afford horses. Moreover, the commanding authority during the regal period was the king. When the army of Rome would be brought together on the Campus Martius it was called the Comitia Curiata.[3] Until the establishment of the Roman Republic and the office of consul, the king assumed the role of commander-in-chief.[4] However, from about 508 BC Rome no longer had a king. The commanding position of the army was given to the consuls, "who were charged both singly and jointly to take care to preserve the Republic from danger".[5] The term legion is derived from the Latin word legio; which ultimately means draft or levy. At first there were only four Roman legions. These legions were numbered "I" to "IIII", with the fourth being written as such and not "IV". The first legion was seen as the most prestigious. The bulk of the army was made up of citizens. These citizens could not choose the legion to which they were allocated. Any man "from ages 16–46 were selected by ballot" and assigned to a legion.[6] Until the Roman military disaster of 390 BC at the Battle of the Allia, Rome's army was organised similarly to the Greek phalanx. This was due to Greek influence in Italy "by way of their colonies". Patricia Southern quotes ancient historians Livy and Dionysius in saying that the "phalanx consisted of 3,000 infantry and 300 cavalry".[7] Each man had to provide their equipment in battle; the military equipment which they could afford determined which position they took in the battle. Politically they shared the same ranking system in the Comitia Centuriata. Roman army of the mid-Republic (c. 300–88 BC)[edit] The Roman army of the mid-Republic was also known as the "manipular army" or the "Polybian army" after the Greek historian Polybius, who provides the most detailed extant description of this phase. The Roman army started to have a full-time strength of 150,000 at all times and 3/4 of the rest were levied. During this period, the Romans, while maintaining the levy system, adopted the Samnite manipular organisation for their legions and also bound all the other peninsular Italian states into a permanent military alliance (see Socii). The latter were required to supply (collectively) roughly the same number of troops to joint forces as the Romans to serve under Roman command. Legions in this phase were always accompanied on campaign by the same number of allied alae (Roman non-citizen auxiliaries), units of roughly the same size as legions. After the Second Punic War (218–201 BC), the Romans acquired an overseas empire, which necessitated standing forces to fight lengthy wars of conquest and to garrison the newly gained provinces. Thus the army's character mutated from a temporary force based entirely on short-term conscription to a standing army in which the conscripts were supplemented by a large number of volunteers willing to serve for much longer than the legal six-year limit. These volunteers were mainly from the poorest social class, who did not have plots to tend at home and were attracted by the modest military pay and the prospect of a share of war booty. The minimum property requirement for service in the legions, which had been suspended during the Second Punic War, was effectively ignored from 201 BC onward in order to recruit sufficient volunteers. Between 150 BC and 100 BC, the manipular structure was gradually phased out, and the much larger cohort became the main tactical unit. In addition, from the Second Punic War onward, Roman armies were always accompanied by units of non-Italian mercenaries, such as Numidian cavalry, Cretan archers, and Balearic slingers, who provided specialist functions that Roman armies had previously lacked. Roman army of the late Republic (88–30 BC)[edit] Imperial Roman legionaries in tight formation, a relief from Glanum, a Roman town in what is now southern France that was inhabited from 27 BC to 260 AD (when it was sacked by invading Alemanni) The Roman army of the late Republic (88–30 BC) marks the continued transition between the conscription-based citizen levy of the mid-Republic and the mainly volunteer, professional standing forces of the imperial era. The main literary sources for the army's organisation and tactics in this phase are the works of Julius Caesar, the most notable of a series of warlords who contested for power in this period. As a result of the Social War (91–88 BC), all Italians were granted Roman citizenship, the old allied alae were abolished and their members integrated into the legions. Regular annual conscription remained in force and continued to provide the core of legionary recruitment, but an ever-increasing proportion of recruits were volunteers, who signed up for 16-year terms as opposed to the maximum 6 years for conscripts. The loss of ala cavalry reduced Roman/Italian cavalry by 75%, and legions became dependent on allied native horse for cavalry cover. This period saw the large-scale expansion of native forces employed to complement the legions, made up of numeri ("units") recruited from tribes within Rome's overseas empire and neighbouring allied tribes. Large numbers of heavy infantry and cavalry were recruited in Spain, Gaul and Thrace, and archers in Thrace, Anatolia and Syria. However, these native units were not integrated with the legions, but retained their own traditional leadership, organisation, armour and weapons. Imperial Roman army (30 BC–AD 284)[edit] Main article: Imperial Roman army God Bes as a Roman soldier. Sword in right hand and spear and shield in left hand. Limestone slab, in relief. Roman Period. From Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London During this period, the Republican system of citizen conscription was replaced by a standing professional army of mainly volunteers serving standard 20-year terms (plus five years as reservists), although many in the service of the Roman Empire would serve as many as 30 to 40 years on active duty, as established by the first Roman emperor, Augustus (sole ruler 30 BC–14 AD). Regular annual conscription of citizens was abandoned and only decreed in emergencies (e.g. during the Illyrian revolt of 6–9 AD). Under Augustus, there were 28 legions, consisting almost entirely of heavy infantry, with about 5,000 men each (total 125,000). This had increased to a peak of 33 legions of about 5,500 men each (c. 180,000 men in total) by 200 AD under Septimius Severus. Legions continued to recruit Roman citizens, mainly the inhabitants of Italy and Roman colonies, until 212. Legions were flanked by the auxilia, a corps of regular troops recruited mainly from peregrini, imperial subjects who did not hold Roman citizenship (the great majority of the empire's inhabitants until 212, when all were granted citizenship). Auxiliaries, who served a minimum term of 25 years, were also mainly volunteers, but regular conscription of peregrini was employed for most of the 1st century AD. Under Augustus, the auxilia consisted of about 250 regiments of roughly cohort size, that is, about 500 men (in total 125,000 men, or 50% of the total army). Under Septimius Severus, the number of regiments increased to about 400, of which about 13% were double-strength (250,000 men, or 60% of total army). Auxilia contained heavy infantry equipped similarly to legionaries, almost all of the army's cavalry (both armoured and light), archers and slingers. Later Roman army (284–476 AD) continuing as East Roman army (476–641 AD)[edit] Main article: Late Roman army Main article: Byzantine army Boxwood relief depicting the liberation of a besieged city by a relief force, with those defending the walls making a sortie (i.e. a sudden attack against a besieging enemy from within the besieged town); Western Roman Empire, early 5th Century AD The Late Roman army period stretches from (284–476 AD and its continuation, in the surviving eastern half of the empire, as the East Roman army to 641). In this phase, crystallised by the reforms of the emperor Diocletian (ruled 284–305 AD), the Roman army returned to regular annual conscription of citizens, while admitting large numbers of non-citizen barbarian volunteers. However, soldiers remained 25-year professionals and did not return to the short-term levies of the Republic. The old dual organisation of legions and auxilia was abandoned, with citizens and non-citizens now serving in the same units. The old legions were broken up into cohorts or even smaller units. At the same time, a substantial proportion of the army's effectives were stationed in the interior of the empire, in the form of comitatus praesentales, armies that escorted the emperors. Middle Byzantine army (641–1081 AD)[edit] The Middle Byzantine army (641–1081 AD) was the army of the Byzantine state in its classical form (i.e. after the permanent loss of its Near Eastern and North African territories to the Arab conquests after 641 AD). This army was largely composed of semi-professional troops (soldier-farmers) based on the themata military provinces, supplemented by a small core of professional regiments known as the tagmata. Ibn al-Fakih estimated the strength of the themata forces in the East c. 902 at 85,000 and Kodama c. 930 at 70,000.[8] This structure pertained when the empire was on the defensive, in the 10th century the empire was increasingly involved in territorial expansion, and the themata troops became progressively more irrelevant, being gradually replaced by 'provincial tagmata' units and an increased use of mercenaries. Komnenian Byzantine army (1081–1204)[edit] The Komnenian Byzantine army was named after the Komnenos dynasty, which ruled from 1081 to 1185. This was an army built virtually from scratch after the permanent loss of half of Byzantium's traditional main recruiting ground of Anatolia to the Turks following the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, and the destruction of the last regiments of the old army in the wars against the Normans in the early 1080s. It survived until the fall of Constantinople to the Western crusaders in 1204. This army had a large number of mercenary regiments composed of troops of foreign origin such as the Varangian Guard, and the pronoia system was introduced. Palaiologan Byzantine army (1261–1453)[edit] The Palaiologan Byzantine army was named after the Palaiologos dynasty (1261–1453), which ruled Byzantium from the recovery of Constantinople from the Crusaders until its fall to the Turks in 1453. Initially, it continued some practices inherited from the Komnenian era and retained a strong native element until the late 13th century. During the last century of its existence, however, the empire was little more than a city-state that hired foreign mercenary bands for its defence. Thus the Byzantine army finally lost any meaningful connection with the standing imperial Roman army.[citation needed] This article contains the summaries of the detailed linked articles on the historical phases above, Readers seeking discussion of the Roman army by theme, rather than by chronological phase, should consult the following articles: History Campaign history of the Roman military Structural history of the Roman military Corps Praetorian Guard Roman legion Roman auxiliaries Roman cavalry Strategy and tactics Defence-in-depth (Roman military) Roman infantry tactics Equipment & other Roman military equipment Roman military decorations and punishments Some of the Roman army's many tactics are still used in modern-day armies today. Early Roman army (c. 550 to c. 300 BC)[edit] Main article: Early Roman army Until c. 550 BC, there was no "national" Roman army, but a series of clan-based war-bands which only coalesced into a united force in periods of serious external threat. Around 550 BC, during the period conventionally known as the rule of king Servius Tullius, it appears that a universal levy of eligible adult male citizens was instituted. This development apparently coincided with the introduction of heavy armour for most of the infantry. Although originally low in numbers the Roman infantry was extremely tactical and developed some of the most influential battle strategies to date. The early Roman army was based on a compulsory levy from adult male citizens which was held at the start of each campaigning season, in those years that war was declared. There were no standing or professional forces. During the Regal Era (to c. 500 BC), the standard levy was probably of 9,000 men, consisting of 6,000 heavily armed infantry (probably Greek-style hoplites), plus 2,400 light-armed infantry (rorarii, later called velites) and 600 light cavalry (equites celeres). When the kings were replaced by two annually elected praetores in c. 500 BC, the standard levy remained of the same size, but was now divided equally between the Praetors, each commanding one legion of 4,500 men. It is likely that the hoplite element was deployed in a Greek-style phalanx formation in large set-piece battles. However, these were relatively rare, with most fighting consisting of small-scale border-raids and skirmishing. In these, the Romans would fight in their basic tactical unit, the centuria of 100 men. In addition, separate clan-based forces remained in existence until c. 450 BC at least, although they would operate under the Praetors' authority, at least nominally. In 493 BC, shortly after the establishment of the Roman Republic, Rome concluded a perpetual treaty of military alliance (the foedus Cassianum), with the combined other Latin city-states. The treaty, probably motivated by the need for the Latins to deploy a united defence against incursions by neighbouring hill-tribes, provided for each party to provide an equal force for campaigns under unified command. It remained in force until 358 BC. Roman army of the mid-Republic (c. 300 – 107 BC)[edit] Main article: Roman army of the mid-Republic Levy of the army, detail of the carved relief on the Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus, 122-115 BC. The central feature of the Roman army of the mid-Republic, or the Polybian army, was the manipular organization of its battle-line. Instead of a single, large mass (the phalanx) as in the Early Roman army, the Romans now drew up in three lines consisting of small units (maniples) of 120 men, arrayed in chessboard fashion, giving much greater tactical strength and flexibility. This structure was probably introduced in c. 300 BC during the Samnite Wars. Also probably dating from this period was the regular accompaniment of each legion by a non-citizen formation of roughly equal size, the ala, recruited from Rome's Italian allies, or socii. The latter were approximately 150 autonomous states which were bound by a treaty of perpetual military alliance with Rome. Their sole obligation was to supply to the Roman army, on demand, a number of fully equipped troops up to a specified maximum each year. The Second Punic War (218–201 BC) saw the addition of a third element to the existing dual Roman/Italian structure: non-Italian mercenaries with specialist skills lacking in the legions and alae: Numidian light cavalry, Cretan archers, and slingers from the Balearic islands. From this time, these units always accompanied Roman armies. The Republican army of this period, like its earlier forebear, did not maintain standing or professional military forces, but levied them, by compulsory conscription, as required for each campaigning season and disbanded thereafter (although formations could be kept in being over winter during major wars). The standard levy was doubled during the Samnite Wars to 4 legions (2 per Consul), for a total of c. 18,000 Roman troops and 4 allied alae of similar size. Service in the legions was limited to property-owning Roman citizens, normally those known as iuniores (age 16–46). The army's senior officers, including its commanders-in-chief, the Roman Consuls, were all elected annually at the People's Assembly. Only equites (members of the Roman knightly order) were eligible to serve as senior officers. Iuniores of the highest social classes (equites and the First Class of commoners) provided the legion's cavalry, the other classes the legionary infantry. The proletarii (those assessed at under 400 drachmae wealth) were ineligible for legionary service and were assigned to the fleets as oarsmen. Elders, vagrants, freedmen, slaves and convicts were excluded from the military levy, save in emergencies. Bronze bust of a Young Commander recovered from the Villa dei Papyri in Herculaneum 1st century BCE-1st century CE The legionary cavalry also changed, probably around 300 BC onwards from the light, unarmoured horse of the early army to a heavy force with metal armour (bronze cuirasses and, later, chain-mail shirts). Contrary to a long-held view, the cavalry of the mid-Republic was a highly effective force that generally prevailed against strong enemy cavalry forces (both Gallic and Greek) until it was decisively beaten by the Carthaginian general Hannibal's horsemen during the second Punic War. This was due to Hannibal's greater operational flexibility owing to his Numidian light cavalry. The Polybian army's operations during its existence can be divided into three broad phases. (1) The struggle for hegemony over Italy, especially against the Samnite League (338–264 BC); (2) the struggle with Carthage for hegemony in the western Mediterranean Sea (264–201 BC); and (3) the struggle against the Hellenistic monarchies for control of the eastern Mediterranean (201–91 BC). During the earlier phase, the normal size of the levy (including allies) was in the region of 40,000 men (2 consular armies of c. 20,000 men each). During the latter phase, with lengthy wars of conquest followed by permanent military occupation of overseas provinces, the character of the army necessarily changed from a temporary force based entirely on short-term conscription to a standing army in which the conscripts, whose service was in this period limited by law to 6 consecutive years, were complemented by large numbers of volunteers who were willing to serve for much longer periods. Many of the volunteers were drawn from the poorest social class, which until the 2nd Punic War had been excluded from service in the legions by the minimum property requirement: during that war, extreme manpower needs had forced the army to ignore the requirement, and this practice continued thereafter. Maniples were gradually phased out as the main tactical unit, and replaced by the larger cohorts used in the allied alae, a process probably complete by the time the general Marius assumed command in 107 BC. (The "Marian reforms" of the army hypothesised by some scholars are today seen by other scholars as having evolved earlier and more gradually.) In the period after the defeat of Carthage in 201 BC, the army was campaigning exclusively outside Italy, resulting in its men being away from their home plots of land for many years at a stretch. They were assuaged by the large amounts of booty that they shared after victories in the rich eastern theatre. But in Italy, the ever-increasing concentration of public lands in the hands of big landowners, and the consequent displacement of the soldiers' families, led to great unrest and demands for land redistribution. This was successfully achieved, but resulted in the disaffection of Rome's Italian allies, who as non-citizens were excluded from the redistribution. This led to the mass revolt of the socii and the Social War (91-88 BC). The result was the grant of Roman citizenship to all Italians and the end of the Polybian army's dual structure: the alae were abolished and the socii recruited into the legions. Imperial Roman army (30 BC – AD 284)[edit] Main article: Imperial Roman army God Bes as a Roman soldier. Sword in right hand and spear and shield in left hand. Limestone slab, in relief. Roman Period. From Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London Recreation of a Roman soldier wearing plate armour (lorica segmentata), National Military Museum, Romania. Roman relief fragment depicting the Praetorian Guard, c. 50 AD Ancient Roman statue fragment of either a general or an emperor wearing a corselet decorated with Selene, and two Nereids. Found at èmegara, dating from 100 to 130 AD. Relief scene of Roman legionaries marching, from the Column of Marcus Aurelius, Rome, Italy, 2nd century AD Under the founder–emperor Augustus (ruled 30 BC – 14 AD), the legions, c. 5,000-strong all-heavy infantry formations recruited from Roman citizens only, were transformed from a mixed conscript and volunteer corps serving an average of 10 years, to all-volunteer units of long-term professionals serving a standard 25-year term (conscription was only decreed in emergencies). In the later 1st century, the size of a legion's First Cohort was doubled, increasing legionary personnel to c. 5,500. Alongside the legions, Augustus established the auxilia, a regular corps of similar numbers to the legions, recruited from the peregrini (non-citizen inhabitants of the empire – about 90% of the empire's population in the 1st century). As well as comprising large numbers of extra heavy infantry equipped in a similar manner to legionaries, the auxilia provided virtually all the army's cavalry (heavy and light), light infantry, archers and other specialists. The auxilia were organised in c. 500-strong units called cohortes (all-infantry), alae (all-cavalry) and cohortes equitatae (infantry with a cavalry contingent attached). Around 80 AD, a minority of auxiliary regiments were doubled in size. Until about 68 AD, the auxilia were recruited by a mix of conscription and voluntary enlistment. After that time, the auxilia became largely a volunteer corps, with conscription resorted to only in emergencies. Auxiliaries were required to serve a minimum of 25 years, although many served for longer periods. On completion of their minimum term, auxiliaries were awarded Roman citizenship, which carried important legal, fiscal and social advantages. Alongside the regular forces, the army of the Principate employed allied native units (called numeri) from outside the empire on a mercenary basis. These were led by their own aristocrats and equipped in traditional fashion. Numbers fluctuated according to circumstances and are largely unknown. As all-citizen formations, and symbolic guarantors of the dominance of the Italian hegemony,[citation needed] legions enjoyed greater social prestige than the auxilia. This was reflected in better pay and benefits. In addition, legionaries were equipped with more expensive and protective armour than auxiliaries. However, in 212, the emperor Caracalla granted Roman citizenship to all the empire's inhabitants. At this point, the distinction between legions and auxilia became moot, the latter becoming all-citizen units also. The change was reflected in the disappearance, during the 3rd century, of legionaries' special equipment, and the progressive break-up of legions into cohort-sized units like the auxilia. By the end of Augustus' reign, the imperial army numbered some 250,000 men, equally split between legionaries and auxiliaries (25 legions and c. 250 auxiliary regiments). The numbers grew to a peak of about 450,000 by 211 (33 legions and c. 400 auxiliary regiments). By then, auxiliaries outnumbered legionaries substantially. From the peak, numbers probably underwent a steep decline by 270 due to plague and losses during multiple major barbarian invasions. Numbers were restored to their early 2nd-century level of c. 400,000 (but probably not to their 211 peak) under Diocletian (r. 284–305). After the empire's borders became settled (on the Rhine-Danube line in Europe) by 68, virtually all military units (except the Praetorian Guard) were stationed on or near the borders, in roughly 17 of the 42 provinces of the empire in the reign of Hadrian (r. 117–38). The military chain of command was relatively uniform across the Empire. In each province, the deployed legions' legati (legion commanders, who also controlled the auxiliary regiments attached to their legion) reported to the legatus Augusti pro praetore (provincial governor), who also headed the civil administration. The governor in turn reported direct to the emperor in Rome. There was no army general staff in Rome, but the leading praefectus praetorio (commander of the Praetorian Guard) often acted as the emperor's de facto military chief-of-staff. Legionary rankers were relatively well-paid, compared to contemporary common labourers. Compared with their subsistence-level peasant families, they enjoyed considerable disposable income, enhanced by periodic cash bonuses on special occasions such as the accession of a new emperor. In addition, on completion of their term of service, they were given a generous discharge bonus equivalent to 13 years' salary. Auxiliaries were paid much less in the early 1st century, but by 100 AD, the differential had virtually disappeared. Similarly, in the earlier period, auxiliaries appear not to have received cash and discharge bonuses, but probably did so from Hadrian onwards. Junior officers (principales), the equivalent of non-commissioned officers in modern armies, could expect to earn up to twice basic pay. Legionary centurions, the equivalent of mid-level commissioned officers, were organised in an elaborate hierarchy. Usually risen from the ranks, they commanded the legion's tactical sub-units of centuriae (c. 80 men) and cohorts (c. 480 men). They were paid several multiples of basic pay. The most senior centurion, the primus pilus, was elevated to equestrian rank upon completion of his single-year term of office. The senior officers of the army, the legati legionis (legion commanders), tribuni militum (legion staff officers) and the praefecti (commanders of auxiliary regiments) were all of at least equestrian rank. In the 1st and early 2nd centuries, they were mainly Italian aristocrats performing the military component of their cursus honorum (conventional career-path). Later, provincial career officers became predominant. Senior officers were paid enormous salaries, multiples of at least 50 times basic. A typical Roman army during this period consisted of five to six legions. One legion was made up of 10 cohorts. The first cohort had five centuria each of 160 soldiers. In the second through tenth cohorts there were six centuria of 80 men each. These do not include archers, cavalry or officers. Soldiers spent only a fraction of their lives on campaign. Most of their time was spent on routine military duties such as training, patrolling, and maintenance of equipment etc. Soldiers also played an important role outside the military sphere. They performed the function of a provincial governor's police force. As a large, disciplined and skilled force of fit men, they played a crucial role in the construction of a province's Roman military and civil infrastructure: in addition to constructing forts and fortified defences such as Hadrian's Wall, they built roads, bridges, ports, public buildings, entire new cities (Roman colonies), and also engaged in large-scale forest clearance and marsh drainage to expand the province's available arable land. Soldiers, mostly drawn from polytheistic societies, enjoyed wide freedom of worship in the polytheistic Roman system. They revered their own native deities, Roman deities and the local deities of the provinces in which they served. Only a few religions were banned by the Roman authorities, as being incompatible with the official Roman religion and/or politically subversive, notably Druidism and Christianity. The later Principate saw the rise in popularity among the military of Eastern mystery cults, generally centred on one deity, and involving secret rituals divulged only to initiates. By far the most popular in the army was Mithraism, an apparently syncretist religion which mainly originated in Asia Minor. Late Roman army/East Roman army (284–641)[edit] Main article: Late Roman army Main article: East Roman army The Late Roman army is the term used to denote the military forces of the Roman Empire from the accession of Emperor Diocletian in 284 until the Empire's definitive division into Eastern and Western halves in 395. A few decades afterwards, the Western army disintegrated as the Western empire collapsed. The East Roman army, on the other hand, continued intact and essentially unchanged until its reorganization by themes and transformation into the Byzantine army in the 7th century. The term "late Roman army" is often used to include the East Roman army. The army of the Principate underwent a significant transformation, as a result of the chaotic 3rd century. Unlike the Principate army, the army of the 4th century was heavily dependent on conscription and its soldiers were more poorly remunerated than in the 2nd century. Barbarians from outside the empire probably supplied a much larger proportion of the late army's recruits than in the army of the 1st and 2nd centuries. The size of the 4th-century army is controversial. More dated scholars (e.g. A.H.M. Jones, writing in the 1960s) estimated the late army as much larger than the Principate army, half the size again or even as much as twice the size. With the benefit of archaeological discoveries of recent decades, many contemporary historians view the late army as no larger than its predecessor: under Diocletian c. 390,000 (the same as under Hadrian almost two centuries earlier) and under Constantine no greater, and probably somewhat smaller, than the Principate peak of c. 440,000. The main change in structure was the establishment of large armies that accompanied the emperors (comitatus praesentales) and were generally based away from the frontiers. Their primary function was to deter usurpations. The legions were split up into smaller units comparable in size to the auxiliary regiments of the Principate. In parallel, legionary armour and equipment were abandoned in favour of auxiliary equipment. Infantry adopted the more protective equipment of the Principate cavalry. The role of cavalry in the late army does not appear to have been enhanced as compared with the army of the Principate. The evidence is that cavalry was much the same proportion of overall army numbers as in the 2nd century and that its tactical role and prestige remained similar. Indeed, the cavalry acquired a reputation for incompetence and cowardice for their role in three major battles in mid-4th century. In contrast, the infantry retained its traditional reputation for excellence. The 3rd and 4th centuries saw the upgrading of many existing border forts to make them more defensible, as well as the construction of new forts with much higher defensive specifications. The interpretation of this trend has fuelled an ongoing debate whether the army adopted a defence-in-depth strategy or continued the same posture of "forward defence" as in the early Principate. Many elements of the late army's defence posture were similar to those associated with forward defence, such as a looser forward location of forts, frequent cross-border operations, and external buffer-zones of allied barbarian tribes. Whatever the defence strategy, it was apparently less successful in preventing barbarian incursions than in the 1st and 2nd centuries. This may have been due to heavier barbarian pressure, and/or to the practice of keeping large armies of the best troops in the interior, depriving the border forces of sufficient support. Byzantine army (641–1081)[edit] Main article: Byzantine army Komnenian Byzantine army (1081–1204)[edit] Emperor John II Komnenos, the most successful commander of the Komnenian army. The Komnenian period marked a rebirth of the Byzantine army. At the beginning of the Komnenian period in 1081, the Byzantine Empire had been reduced to the smallest territorial extent. Surrounded by enemies, and financially ruined by a long period of civil war, the empire's prospects looked grim. At the beginning of the Komnenian period, the Byzantine army was reduced to a shadow of its former self: during the 11th century, decades of peace and neglect had reduced the old thematic forces, and the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 had destroyed the professional tagmata, the core of the Byzantine army. At Manzikert and later at Dyrrhachium, units tracing their lineage for centuries back to Late Roman army were wiped out, and the subsequent loss of Asia Minor deprived the Empire of its main recruiting ground. In the Balkans, at the same time, the Empire was exposed to invasions by the Norman Kingdom of Sicily, and by Pecheneg raids across the Danube. The Byzantine army's nadir was reached in 1091, when Alexios I could manage to field only 500 soldiers from the Empire's professional forces. These formed the nucleus of the army, with the addition of the armed retainers of Alexios' relatives and the nobles enrolled in the army and the substantial aid of a large force of allied Cumans, which won the Battle of Levounion against the Pechenegs (Petcheneks or Patzinaks).[9] Yet, through a combination of skill, determination and years of campaigning, Alexios, John and Manuel Komnenos managed to restore the power of the Byzantine Empire by constructing a new army from scratch. This process should not, however, at least in its earlier phases, be seen as a planned exercise in military restructuring. In particular, Alexios I was often reduced to reacting to events rather than controlling them; the changes he made to the Byzantine army were largely done out of immediate necessity and were pragmatic in nature. The new force had a core of units which were both professional and disciplined. It contained formidable guards units such as the Varangians, the Athanatoi, a unit of heavy cavalry stationed in Constantinople, the Vardariotai and the Archontopouloi, recruited by Alexios from the sons of dead Byzantine officers, foreign mercenary regiments, and also units of professional soldiers recruited from the provinces. These provincial troops included kataphraktoi cavalry from Macedonia, Thessaly and Thrace, and various other provincial forces such as Trebizond Archers from the Black Sea coast of Anatolia. Alongside troops raised and paid for directly by the state the Komnenian army included the armed followers of members of the wider imperial family and its extensive connections. In this can be seen the beginnings of the feudalisation of the Byzantine military. The granting of pronoia holdings, where land, or more accurately rights to revenue from land, was held in return for military obligations, was beginning to become a notable element in the military infrastructure towards the end of the Komnenian period, though it became much more important subsequently. In 1097, the Byzantine army numbered around 70,000 men altogether.[10] By 1180 and the death of Manuel Komnenos, whose frequent campaigns had been on a grand scale, the army was probably considerably larger. During the reign of Alexios I, the field army numbered around 20,000 men which was increased to about 30,000 men in John II's reign.[11] By the end of Manuel I's reign the Byzantine field army had risen to 40,000 men. Palaiologan Byzantine army (1261–1453)[edit] The Palaiologan army refers to the military forces of the Byzantine Empire from the late 13th century to its final collapse in the mid 15th century, under the House of the Palaiologoi. The army was a direct continuation of the forces of the Nicaean army, which itself was a fractured component of the formidable Komnenian army. Under the first Palaiologan emperor, Michael VIII, the army's role took an increasingly offensive role whilst the naval forces of the Empire, weakened since the days of Andronikos I Komnenos, were boosted to include thousands of skilled sailors and some 80 ships. Due to the lack of land to support the army, the Empire required the use of large numbers of mercenaries. After Andronikos II took to the throne, the army fell apart and the Byzantines suffered regular defeats at the hands of their eastern opponents, although they would continue to enjoy success against the crusader territories in Greece. By c. 1350, following a destructive civil war and the outbreak of the Black Death, the Empire was no longer capable of raising troops and the supplies to maintain them. The Empire came to rely upon troops provided by Serbs, Bulgarians, Venetians, Latins, Genoans and Ottoman Turks to fight the civil wars that lasted for the greater part of the 14th century, with the latter foe being the most successful in establishing a foothold in Thrace. The Ottomans swiftly expanded through the Balkans and cut off Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, from the surrounding land. The last decisive battle was fought by the Palaiologan army in 1453, when Constantinople was besieged and fell on 29 May. The last isolated remnants of the Byzantine state were conquered by 1461. See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal Military of ancient Rome Roman legion Roman auxiliaries Equestrian order List of Roman legions List of Roman auxiliary regiments Late Roman army Byzantine army East Roman army References[edit] ^ The Complete Roman Army, Adrian Goldsworthy Thames & Hudson, 2011 ^ Companion to the Roman Army, Paul Erdkamp, John Wiley & Sons, 31 March 2011 ^ a b c Southern, Pat (2007). The Roman Army: A Social and Institutional History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-532878-3. ^ Rostovtzeff, Michael. Rome. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1960 ^ Vegetius, The Military Institutions of the Romans (J. Clark, transl.) Harrisburg Penn.; 1944. ^ Dando-Collins, Stephen. Legions of Rome. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2010. ^ Southern, Pat. The Roman Army: A Social and Institutional History. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2007. ^ Heath, Ian (1979). Byzantine armies, 886-1118. Osprey. p. 19. ISBN 978-0850453065. ^ Angold, p. 127 ^ Konstam, p. 141. ^ W. 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en-wikipedia-org-896	----	Mos maiorum - Wikipedia Mos maiorum From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The customs and traditions of ancient Rome The Roman family, or domus, was one of the ways that the mos maiorum was passed along through the generations The mos maiorum (Classical Latin: [ˈmoːs majˈjoːrʊ̃]; "ancestral custom"[1] or "way of the ancestors," plural mores, cf. English "mores"; maiorum is the genitive plural of "greater" or "elder") is the unwritten code from which the ancient Romans derived their social norms. It is the core concept of Roman traditionalism,[2] distinguished from but in dynamic complement to written law. The mos maiorum was collectively the time-honoured principles, behavioural models, and social practices that affected private, political, and military life in ancient Rome.[3] Contents 1 Family and society 2 Tradition and evolution 3 Values 3.1 Fides 3.2 Pietas 3.3 Religio and cultus 3.4 Disciplina 3.5 Gravitas and constantia 3.6 Virtus 3.7 Dignitas and auctoritas 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Family and society[edit] The Roman family (the familia, better translated as "household" than "family") was hierarchical, as was Roman society. These hierarchies were traditional and self-perpetuating, that is, they supported and were supported by the mos maiorum. The pater familias, or head of household, held absolute authority over his familia, which was both an autonomous unit within society and a model for the social order,[4] but he was expected to exercise this power with moderation and to act responsibly on behalf of his family. The risk and pressure of social censure if he failed to live up to expectations was also a form of mos.[citation needed] The distinctive social relationship of ancient Rome was that between patron (patronus) and client (cliens). Although the obligations of this relationship were mutual, they were also hierarchical. The relationship was not a unit, but a network (clientela), as a patronus might himself be obligated to someone of higher status or greater power, and a cliens might have more than one patron, whose interests might come into conflict. If the familia was the discrete unit underlying society, these interlocking networks countered that autonomy and created the bonds that made a complex society possible.[5] Although one of the major spheres of activity within patron-client relations was the law courts, patronage was not itself a legal contract; the pressures to uphold one's obligations were moral, founded on the quality of fides, "trust" (see Values below), and the mos.[6] Patronage served as a model[7] when conquerors or governors abroad established personal ties as patron to whole communities, ties which then might be perpetuated as a family obligation. In this sense, mos becomes less a matter of unchanging tradition than precedent.[8] Tradition and evolution[edit] Roman conservatism finds succinct expression in an edict of the censors from 92 BC, as preserved by the 2nd-century historian Suetonius: "All new that is done contrary to the usage and customs of our ancestors, seems not to be right."[9] However, because the mos maiorum was a matter of custom, not written law, the complex norms that it embodied evolved over time. The ability to preserve a strongly-centralised sense of identity while it adapted to changing circumstances permitted the expansionism that took Rome from city-state to world power.[10] The preservation of the mos maiorum depended on consensus and moderation among the ruling elite whose competition for power and status threatened it.[11] Democratic politics, driven by the charismatic appeal of individuals (populares) to the Roman people (populus), potentially undermined the conservative principle of the mos.[12] Because the higher magistracies and priesthoods were originally the prerogative of the patricians, the efforts of plebeians (the plebs) for access could be cast as a threat to tradition (see Conflict of the Orders). Reform was accomplished by legislation, and written law replaced consensus.[13] When plebeians gained admission to nearly all the highest offices, except for a few arcane priesthoods, the interests of plebeian families who ascended to the elite began to align with those of the patricians, creating Rome's nobiles, an elite social status of nebulous definition during the Republic.[14] The plebs and their support of popular politicians continued as a threat to the mos and elite consensus into the late Republic, as noted in the rhetoric of Cicero.[15] During the transition to the Christian Empire, Quintus Aurelius Symmachus argued that Rome's continued prosperity and stability depended on preserving the mos maiorum, and the early Christian poet Prudentius dismissed the blind adherence to tradition as "the superstition of old grandpas" (superstitio veterum avorum) and inferior to the new revealed truth of Christianity.[16] After the final collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD and ascension of the various Barbarian kingdoms, the old Roman mores were then either superseded by or synthesized with the traditions of the Germanic elite and subsequent feudal values. Values[edit] Traditional Roman values were essential to the mos maiorum:[citation needed] Fides[edit] The Latin word fides encompasses several English words, such as trust/trustworthiness, good faith/faithfulness, confidence, reliability and credibility.[17] It was an important concept in Roman law, as oral contracts were common.[18] The concept of fides was personified by the goddess Fides whose role in the mos maiorum is indicated by the antiquity of her cult.[19] Her temple is dated from around 254 BC[20] and was located on the Capitoline Hill in Rome, near the Temple of Jupiter. Pietas[edit] Pietas was the Roman attitude of dutiful respect towards the gods, homeland, parents and family, which required the maintenance of relationships in a moral and dutiful manner.[21] Cicero defined pietas as "justice towards the gods.”[22] It went beyond sacrifice and correct ritual performance to inner devotion and righteousness of the individual, and it was the cardinal virtue of the Roman hero Aeneas in Vergil's Aeneid. The use of the adjectival form Pius as a cognomen reflects its importance as an identifying trait. Like Fides, Pietas was cultivated as a goddess, with a temple vowed to her in 191 BC[23] and dedicated ten years later. Religio and cultus[edit] Related to the Latin verb religare, "to bind", religio was the bond between gods and mortals, as carried out in traditional religious practices[24] for preserving the pax deorum (“peace of the gods”). Cultus was the active observance and the correct performance of rituals.[25] Religious practice, in this sense, is to be distinguished from pietas and its inherent morality. See religion in ancient Rome and imperial cult (ancient Rome). Disciplina[edit] The military character of Roman society suggests the importance of disciplina, as related to education, training, discipline and self-control.[citation needed] Gravitas and constantia[edit] Gravitas was dignified self-control.[26] Constantia was steadiness or perseverance.[27] In the face of adversity, a good Roman was to display an unperturbed façade. Roman myth and history reinforced this value by recounting tales of figures such as Gaius Mucius Scaevola,[28] who in a founding legend of the Republic demonstrated his seriousness and determination to the Etruscan king Lars Porsenna by holding his right hand in a fire. Virtus[edit] Derived from the Latin word vir ("man"), virtus constituted the ideal of the true Roman male.[29] Gaius Lucilius discusses virtus in some of his work and says that it is virtus for a man to know what is good, evil, useless, shameful or dishonorable.[30] Dignitas and auctoritas[edit] Dignitas and auctoritas were the end result of displaying the values of the ideal Roman and the service of the state, in the forms of priesthoods, military positions and magistracies. Dignitas was reputation for worth, honour and esteem. Thus, a Roman who displayed their gravitas, constantia, fides, pietas and other values of a Roman would possess dignitas among their peers. Similarly, by that path, a Roman could earn auctoritas ("prestige and respect").[31] See also[edit] Religion in ancient Rome – Ancestral ethnic religion of the city of Rome O tempora o mores ("Oh what times! Oh what customs!") Roman Polytheistic Reconstructionism – Contemporary reconstructionist movement reviving traditional Roman religion Notes[edit] ^ Karl-J. Hölkeskamp, Reconstructing the Roman Republic: An Ancient Political Culture and Modern Research (Princeton University Press, 2010), p. 17 online. ^ Mos Maiorum, Brill Online. ^ Hölkeskamp, Reconstructing the Roman Republic, pp. 17–18. ^ Hölkeskamp, Reconstructing the Roman Republic, p. 33. ^ Carlin A. Barton, The Sorrows of the Ancient Romans: The Gladiator and the Monster (Princeton University Press, 1993), pp. 176–177. ^ Hölkeskamp, Reconstructing the Roman Republic, pp. 33–35. ^ Cicero, De officiis 1.35. ^ Erich S. Gruen, "Patrocinium and clientela," in The Hellenistic World and the Coming of Rome (University of California Press, 1986), vol. 1, pp. 162–163. ^ Suetonius, De Claris Rhetoribus, i. ^ See, for instance, Hölkeskamp's reference to the Republic's "capacity for self-regulation", Reconstructing the Roman Republic, p. 18. Erich S. Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (University of California Press, 1974), p. 535. ^ Hölkeskamp, Reconstructing the Roman Republic, pp. 29, 41–42 et passim. ^ Hölkeskamp, Reconstructing the Roman Republic, p. 42. ^ Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic, pp. 258, 498, 507–508. ^ The Second Samnite War was a crucial period in the formation of this new elite; see E.T. Salmon, Samnium and the Samnites (Cambridge University Press, 1967), p. 217, and Erich S. Gruen, "Patrocinium and Clientela," in The Hellenistic World and the Coming of Rome (University of California Press, 1984), p. 163 online. ^ T.P. Wiseman, Clio's Cosmetics (Leicester University Press, 1979), pp. 67–69, 85, et passim. ^ Clifford Ando, "The Palladium and the Pentateuch: Towards a Sacred Topography of the Later Roman Empire," Phoenix 55 (2001), p. 388. ^ Hölkeskamp, Reconstructing the Roman Republic, p. 34. ^ “Bona fides,” Berger. pg 374 ^ Adkins. pg 78 ^ Ziolkowski, “Temples” ^ Adkins. p. 180 ^ De Natura Deorum. 1.116 ^ According to Livy, Ab urbe condita. xxxx. 34 ^ Adkins. pg 190 ^ Adkins. pg 55 ^ Ward. p. 58 ^ Ab urbe condita. xxii. 58. See also Ogilvie’s Commentary on Livy 1-5. ^ Ab urbe condita. ii. 12 ^ Ward. p. 57 ^ Ward. p. 57 ^ Ward. p. 58 References[edit] Adkins, L. and Adkins, R. Dictionary of Roman Religion. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. Berger, Adolph. Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law. Philadelphia: The American Philosophical Society, 1991. Brill's New Pauly. Antiquity volumes edited by: Huber Cancik and Helmuth Schneider. Brill, 2008 Brill Online. Oxford Classical Dictionary. 3rd Revised Ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. Stambaugh, John E. The Ancient Roman City. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988. Ward, A., Heichelheim, F., Yeo, C. A History of the Roman People. 4th Ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2003. Further reading[edit] Fredericks, S. C. 1969. Mos maiorum in Juvenal and Tacitus. University of Pennsylvania Pr. Hoffmann, Zsuzsanna. 1982. "The Parody of the Idea of mos maiorum in Plautus." Oikumene , III, 217-223. Hölkeskamp, Karl-Joachim. 2010. Reconstructing the Roman Republic: An Ancient Political Culture and Modern Research (translated by Henry Heitmann-Gordon; revised, updated, and augmented by the author). Princeton/Oxford: Princeton University Press. Kenty, Joanna. 2016. "Congenital Virtue: Mos Maiorum in Cicero's Orations." Classical Journal 111.4:429-462 Segal, Erich. 1976. “O tempora, o mos maiorum.” In The Conflict of Generations in Ancient Greece and Rome, Edited by Bertman, Stephen S., 135-142. Amsterdam: Grüner. Tröster, Manuel. 2012. "Plutarch and mos maiorum in the Life of Aemilius Paullus." Ancient Society 42, 219-254. 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en-wikipedia-org-8971	----	Cynicism (philosophy) - Wikipedia Cynicism (philosophy) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient school of philosophy For modern use of the word for distrust of others' motives, see Cynicism (contemporary). Statue of an unknown Cynic philosopher from the Capitoline Museums in Rome. This statue is a Roman-era copy of an earlier Greek statue from the third century BC.[1] The scroll in his right hand is an 18th-century restoration. Cynicism (Ancient Greek: κυνισμός) is a school of thought of ancient Greek philosophy as practiced by the Cynics (Ancient Greek: Κυνικοί, Latin: Cynici). For the Cynics, the purpose of life is to live in virtue, in agreement with nature. As reasoning creatures, people can gain happiness by rigorous training and by living in a way which is natural for themselves, rejecting all conventional desires for wealth, power, and fame. Instead, they were to lead a simple life free from all possessions. The first philosopher to outline these themes was Antisthenes, who had been a pupil of Socrates in the late 5th century BC. He was followed by Diogenes, who lived in a ceramic jar on the streets of Athens.[2] Diogenes took Cynicism to its logical extremes, and came to be seen as the archetypal Cynic philosopher. He was followed by Crates of Thebes, who gave away a large fortune so he could live a life of Cynic poverty in Athens. Cynicism gradually declined in importance after the 3rd century BC,[3] but it experienced a revival with the rise of the Roman Empire in the 1st century. Cynics could be found begging and preaching throughout the cities of the empire, and similar ascetic and rhetorical ideas appeared in early Christianity. By the 19th century, emphasis on the negative aspects of Cynic philosophy led to the modern understanding of cynicism to mean a disposition of disbelief in the sincerity or goodness of human motives and actions. Contents 1 Origin of the Cynic name 2 Philosophy 3 History of Cynicism 3.1 Influences 3.2 Symbolisms 3.3 Antisthenes 3.4 Diogenes of Sinope 3.5 Crates of Thebes 3.6 Other Cynics 4 Cynicism in the Roman world 5 Cynicism and Christianity 5.1 Jesus as a Jewish Cynic 5.2 Cynic influences on early Christianity 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 Further reading 9.1 Primary sources 9.2 Secondary sources 10 External links Origin of the Cynic name[edit] The name Cynic derives from Ancient Greek κυνικός (kynikos) 'dog-like', and κύων (kyôn) 'dog' (genitive: kynos).[4] One explanation offered in ancient times for why the Cynics were called "dogs" was because the first Cynic, Antisthenes, taught in the Cynosarges gymnasium at Athens.[5] The word cynosarges means the "place of the white dog". It seems certain, however, that the word dog was also thrown at the first Cynics as an insult for their shameless rejection of conventional manners, and their decision to live on the streets. Diogenes, in particular, was referred to as the "Dog",[6] a distinction he seems to have revelled in, stating that "other dogs bite their enemies, I bite my friends to save them."[7] Later Cynics also sought to turn the word to their advantage, as a later commentator explained: There are four reasons why the Cynics are so named. First because of the indifference of their way of life, for they make a cult of indifference and, like dogs, eat and make love in public, go barefoot, and sleep in tubs and at crossroads. The second reason is that the dog is a shameless animal, and they make a cult of shamelessness, not as being beneath modesty, but as superior to it. The third reason is that the dog is a good guard, and they guard the tenets of their philosophy. The fourth reason is that the dog is a discriminating animal which can distinguish between its friends and enemies. So do they recognize as friends those who are suited to philosophy, and receive them kindly, while those unfitted they drive away, like dogs, by barking at them.[8] Philosophy[edit] Cynicism is one of the most striking of all the Hellenistic philosophies.[9] It claimed to offer people the possibility of happiness and freedom from suffering in an age of uncertainty. Although there was never an official Cynic doctrine, the fundamental principles of Cynicism can be summarized as follows:[10][11][12] The goal of life is eudaimonia and mental clarity or lucidity (ἁτυφια) - literally "freedom from smoke (τύφος)" which signified false belief, mindlessness, folly, and conceit. Eudaimonia is achieved by living in accord with Nature as understood by human reason. Arrogance (τύφος) is caused by false judgments of value, which cause negative emotions, unnatural desires, and a vicious character. Eudaimonia, or human flourishing, depends on self-sufficiency (αὐτάρκεια), equanimity, arete, love of humanity, parrhesia, and indifference to the vicissitudes of life (adiaphora ἁδιαφορία).[12] One progresses towards flourishing and clarity through ascetic practices (ἄσκησις) which help one become free from influences – such as wealth, fame, and power – that have no value in Nature. Instead they promoted living a life of ponos. For the Cynics, this did not seem to mean actual physical work. Diogenes of Sinope, for example, lived by begging, not by doing manual labor. Rather, it means deliberately choosing a hard life — for instance, wearing only that thin cloak and going barefoot in winter.[13] A Cynic practices shamelessness or impudence (Αναιδεια) and defaces the nomos of society; the laws, customs, and social conventions which people take for granted. The Cynics adopted Heracles, shown here in this gilded bronze statue from the second century AD, as their patron hero.[14][15] Thus a Cynic has no property and rejects all conventional values of money, fame, power and reputation.[10] A life lived according to nature requires only the bare necessities required for existence, and one can become free by unshackling oneself from any needs which are the result of convention.[16] The Cynics adopted Heracles as their hero, as epitomizing the ideal Cynic.[14] Heracles "was he who brought Cerberus, the hound of Hades, from the underworld, a point of special appeal to the dog-man, Diogenes."[15] According to Lucian, "Cerberus and Cynic are surely related through the dog."[17] The Cynic way of life required continuous training, not just in exercising judgments and mental impressions, but a physical training as well: [Diogenes] used to say, that there were two kinds of exercise: that, namely, of the mind and that of the body; and that the latter of these created in the mind such quick and agile impressions at the time of its performance, as very much facilitated the practice of virtue; but that one was imperfect without the other, since the health and vigour necessary for the practice of what is good, depend equally on both mind and body.[18] None of this meant that a Cynic would retreat from society. Cynics were in fact to live in the full glare of the public's gaze and be quite indifferent in the face of any insults which might result from their unconventional behaviour.[10] The Cynics are said to have invented the idea of cosmopolitanism: when he was asked where he came from, Diogenes replied that he was "a citizen of the world, (kosmopolitês)."[19] The ideal Cynic would evangelise; as the watchdog of humanity, they thought it their duty to hound people about the error of their ways.[10] The example of the Cynic's life (and the use of the Cynic's biting satire) would dig up and expose the pretensions which lay at the root of everyday conventions.[10] Although Cynicism concentrated primarily on ethics, some Cynics, such as Monimus, addressed epistemology with regard to tuphos (τῦφος) expressing skeptical views. Cynic philosophy had a major impact on the Hellenistic world, ultimately becoming an important influence for Stoicism. The Stoic Apollodorus, writing in the 2nd century BC, stated that "Cynicism is the short path to virtue."[20] History of Cynicism[edit] Bust of Antisthenes The classical Greek and Roman Cynics regarded virtue as the only necessity for happiness, and saw virtue as entirely sufficient for attaining it. Classical Cynics followed this philosophy to the extent of neglecting everything not furthering their perfection of virtue and attainment of happiness, thus, the title of Cynic, derived from the Greek word κύων (meaning "dog") because they allegedly neglected society, hygiene, family, money, etc., in a manner reminiscent of dogs. They sought to free themselves from conventions; become self-sufficient; and live only in accordance with nature. They rejected any conventional notions of happiness involving money, power, and fame, to lead entirely virtuous, and thus happy, lives.[21] The ancient Cynics rejected conventional social values, and would criticise the types of behaviours, such as greed, which they viewed as causing suffering. Emphasis on this aspect of their teachings led, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries,[22] to the modern understanding of cynicism as "an attitude of scornful or jaded negativity, especially a general distrust of the integrity or professed motives of others."[23] This modern definition of cynicism is in marked contrast to the ancient philosophy, which emphasized "virtue and moral freedom in liberation from desire."[24] Influences[edit] Various philosophers, such as the Pythagoreans, had advocated simple living in the centuries preceding the Cynics. In the early 6th century BC, Anacharsis, a Scythian sage, had combined plain living together with criticisms of Greek customs in a manner which would become standard among the Cynics.[25] Perhaps of importance were tales of Indian philosophers, known as gymnosophists, who had adopted a strict asceticism. By the 5th century BC, the sophists had begun a process of questioning many aspects of Greek society such as religion, law and ethics. However, the most immediate influence for the Cynic school was Socrates. Although he was not an ascetic, he did profess a love of virtue and an indifference to wealth,[26] together with a disdain for general opinion.[27] These aspects of Socrates' thought, which formed only a minor part of Plato's philosophy, became the central inspiration for another of Socrates' pupils, Antisthenes. Symbolisms[edit] Cynics were often recognized in the ancient world by their apparel—an old cloak and a staff. The cloak came as an allusion to Socrates and his manner of dress, while the staff was to the club of Heracles. These items became so symbolic of the Cynic vocation that ancient writers accosted those who thought that donning the Cynic garb would make them suited to the philosophy.[28] In the social evolution from the archaic age to the classical, the public ceased carrying weapons into the poleis. Originally it was expected that one carried a sword while in the city; However, a transition to spears, and then to staffs occurred until wearing any weapon in the city became a foolish old custom.[29] Thus, the very act of carrying a staff was slightly taboo itself. According to modern theorists, the symbol of the staff was one which both functions as a tool to signal the user's dissociation from physical labour, that is, as a display of conspicuous leisure, and at the same time it also has an association with sport and typically plays a part in hunting and sports clothing. Thus, it displays active and warlike qualities, rather than being a symbol of a weak man's need to support himself.[30][31] The staff itself became a message of how the Cynic was free through its possible interpretation as an item of leisure, but, just as equivalent, was its message of strength - a virtue held in abundance by the Cynic philosopher. Antisthenes[edit] Main article: Antisthenes The story of Cynicism traditionally begins with Antisthenes (c. 445–365 BC),[32][33] who was an older contemporary of Plato and a pupil of Socrates. About 25 years his junior, Antisthenes was one of the most important of Socrates' disciples.[34] Although later classical authors had little doubt about labelling him as the founder of Cynicism,[35] his philosophical views seem to be more complex than the later simplicities of pure Cynicism. In the list of works ascribed to Antisthenes by Diogenes Laërtius,[36] writings on language, dialogue and literature far outnumber those on ethics or politics,[37] although they may reflect how his philosophical interests changed with time.[38] It is certainly true that Antisthenes preached a life of poverty: I have enough to eat till my hunger is stayed, to drink till my thirst is sated; to clothe myself as well; and out of doors not [even] Callias there, with all his riches, is more safe than I from shivering; and when I find myself indoors, what warmer shirting do I need than my bare walls?[39] Diogenes of Sinope[edit] Diogenes Searching for an Honest Man (c. 1780) attributed to J. H. W. Tischbein Main article: Diogenes Diogenes (c. 412–323 BC) dominates the story of Cynicism like no other figure. He originally went to Athens, fleeing his home city, after he and his father, who was in charge of the mint at Sinope, got into trouble for falsifying the coinage.[40] (The phrase "defacing the currency" later became proverbial in describing Diogenes' rejection of conventional values.)[41] Later tradition claimed that Diogenes became the disciple of Antisthenes,[42] but it is by no means certain that they ever met.[43][44][45] Diogenes did however adopt Antisthenes' teachings and the ascetic way of life, pursuing a life of self-sufficiency (autarkeia), austerity (askēsis), and shamelessness (anaideia).[46] There are many anecdotes about his extreme asceticism (sleeping in a tub),[47] his shameless behaviour (eating raw meat),[48] and his criticism of conventional society ("bad people obey their lusts as servants obey their masters"),[49] and although it is impossible to tell which of these stories are true, they do illustrate the broad character of the man, including an ethical seriousness.[50] Crates of Thebes[edit] Crates of Thebes (c. 365–c. 285 BC) is the third figure who dominates Cynic history. He is notable because he renounced a large fortune to live a life of Cynic poverty in Athens.[51] He is said to have been a pupil of Diogenes,[52] but again this is uncertain.[53] Crates married Hipparchia of Maroneia after she had fallen in love with him and together they lived like beggars on the streets of Athens,[54] where Crates was treated with respect.[55] Crates' later fame (apart from his unconventional lifestyle) lies in the fact that he became the teacher of Zeno of Citium, the founder of Stoicism.[56] The Cynic strain to be found in early Stoicism (such as Zeno's own radical views on sexual equality spelled out in his Republic) can be ascribed to Crates' influence.[57] Other Cynics[edit] There were many other Cynics in the 4th and 3rd centuries BC, including Onesicritus (who sailed with Alexander the Great to India), the skeptic Monimus, the moral satirist Bion of Borysthenes, the diatribist Teles and Menippus of Gadara. However, with the rise of Stoicism in the 3rd century BC, Cynicism as a serious philosophical activity underwent a decline,[3][58] and it is not until the Roman era that Cynicism underwent a revival. Cynicism in the Roman world[edit] Diogenes Sitting in His Tub (1860) by Jean-Léon Gérôme There is little record of Cynicism in the 2nd or 1st centuries BC; Cicero (c. 50 BC), who was much interested in Greek philosophy, had little to say about Cynicism, except that "it is to be shunned; for it is opposed to modesty, without which there can be neither right nor honor."[59] However, by the 1st century AD, Cynicism reappeared with full force. The rise of Imperial Rome, like the Greek loss of independence under Philip and Alexander three centuries earlier, may have led to a sense of powerlessness and frustration among many people, which allowed a philosophy which emphasized self-sufficiency and inner-happiness to flourish once again.[60] Cynics could be found throughout the empire, standing on street corners, preaching about virtue.[61] Lucian complained that "every city is filled with such upstarts, particularly with those who enter the names of Diogenes, Antisthenes, and Crates as their patrons and enlist in the Army of the Dog,"[62] and Aelius Aristides observed that "they frequent the doorways, talking more to the doorkeepers than to the masters, making up for their lowly condition by using impudence."[63] The most notable representative of Cynicism in the 1st century AD was Demetrius, whom Seneca praised as "a man of consummate wisdom, though he himself denied it, constant to the principles which he professed, of an eloquence worthy to deal with the mightiest subjects."[64] Cynicism in Rome was both the butt of the satirist and the ideal of the thinker. In the 2nd century AD, Lucian, whilst pouring scorn on the Cynic philosopher Peregrinus Proteus,[65] nevertheless praised his own Cynic teacher, Demonax, in a dialogue.[66] Cynicism came to be seen as an idealised form of Stoicism, a view which led Epictetus to eulogise the ideal Cynic in a lengthy discourse.[67] According to Epictetus, the ideal Cynic "must know that he is sent as a messenger from Zeus to people concerning good and bad things, to show them that they have wandered."[68] Unfortunately for Epictetus, many Cynics of the era did not live up to the ideal: "consider the present Cynics who are dogs that wait at tables, and in no respect imitate the Cynics of old except perchance in breaking wind."[69] Unlike Stoicism, which declined as an independent philosophy after the 2nd century AD, Cynicism seems to have thrived into the 4th century.[70] The emperor, Julian (ruled 361–363), like Epictetus, praised the ideal Cynic and complained about the actual practitioners of Cynicism.[71] The final Cynic noted in classical history is Sallustius of Emesa in the late 5th century.[72] A student of the Neoplatonic philosopher Isidore of Alexandria, he devoted himself to living a life of Cynic asceticism. Cynicism and Christianity[edit] Coptic icon of Saint Anthony of the Desert, an early Christian ascetic. Early Christian asceticism may have been influenced by Cynicism.[73] Jesus as a Jewish Cynic[edit] Some historians have noted the similarities between the teachings of Jesus and those of the Cynics. Some scholars have argued that the Q document, a hypothetical common source for the gospels of Matthew and Luke, has strong similarities to the teachings of the Cynics.[74][75] Scholars on the quest for the historical Jesus, such as Burton L. Mack and John Dominic Crossan of the Jesus Seminar, have argued that 1st-century AD Galilee was a world in which Hellenistic ideas collided with Jewish thought and traditions. The city of Gadara, only a day's walk from Nazareth, was particularly notable as a centre of Cynic philosophy,[76] and Mack has described Jesus as a "rather normal Cynic-type figure."[77] For Crossan, Jesus was more like a Cynic sage from a Hellenistic Jewish tradition than either a Christ who would die as a substitute for sinners or a messiah who wanted to establish an independent Jewish state of Israel.[78] Other scholars doubt that Jesus was deeply influenced by the Cynics and see the Jewish prophetic tradition as of much greater importance.[79] Cynic influences on early Christianity[edit] Many of the ascetic practices of Cynicism may have been adopted by early Christians, and Christians often employed the same rhetorical methods as the Cynics.[80] Some Cynics were martyred for speaking out against the authorities.[81] One Cynic, Peregrinus Proteus, lived for a time as a Christian before converting to Cynicism,[82] whereas in the 4th century, Maximus of Alexandria, although a Christian, was also called a Cynic because of his ascetic lifestyle. Christian writers would often praise Cynic poverty,[83] although they scorned Cynic shamelessness: Augustine stating that they had, "in violation of the modest instincts of men, boastfully proclaimed their unclean and shameless opinion, worthy indeed of dogs."[84] The ascetic orders of Christianity also had direct connection with the Cynics, as can be seen in the wandering mendicant monks of the early church who in outward appearance, and in many of their practices differed little from the Cynics of an earlier age.[73] See also[edit] Philosophy portal Anticonformism Asceticism Cynic epistles Encratites Foolishness for Christ List of ancient Greek philosophers List of Cynic philosophers Natural law Stoicism Kotzker Rebbe (a chasidic "Cynic" in the ancient sense of the word) Notes[edit] ^ Christopher H. Hallett, (2005), The Roman Nude: Heroic Portrait Statuary 200 BC–AD 300, page 294. Oxford University Press ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, VI:23 ; Jerome, Adversus Jovinianum, 2.14. ^ a b Dudley 1937, p. 117 ^ Kynikos, "A Greek-English Lexicon", Liddell and Scott, at Perseus ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 13. Cf. The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature, 2nd edition, p. 165. ^ An obscure reference to "the Dog" in Aristotle's Rhetoric (3.10.1411a25) is generally agreed to be the first reference to Diogenes. ^ Diogenes of Sinope, quoted by Stobaeus, Florilegium, iii. 13. 44. ^ Scholium on Aristotle's Rhetoric, quoted in Dudley 1937, p. 5 ^ Long 1996, p. 28 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLong1996 (help) ^ a b c d e Kidd 2005 ^ Long 1996, p. 29 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLong1996 (help) ^ a b Navia, Luis E. Classical Cynicism: A Critical Study. pg 140. ^ Adamson, Peter (2015). Philosophy in the Hellenistic and Roman Worlds. Oxford University Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-19-872802-3. ^ a b Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 2, 71; Dio Chrysostom, Orations, viii. 26–32; Pseudo-Lucian, Cynicus, 13; Lucian, De Morte Peregrini, 4, 33, 36. ^ a b Orlando Patterson: Freedom. p. 186 ^ Long 1996, p. 34 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLong1996 (help) ^ Lucian, Dialogues of the Dead, 21 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 70 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 63 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 121 ^ Cynics – The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy ^ David Mazella, (2007), The Making of Modern Cynicism, University of Virginia Press. ISBN 0-8139-2615-7 ^ Cynicism, The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Fourth Edition. 2006. Houghton Mifflin Company. ^ Bertrand Russell, A History of Western Philosophy, page 231. Simon and Schuster. ^ R. Martin, The Scythian Accent: Anacharsis and the Cynics, Bracht Branham & Goulet-Cazé 1996 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBracht_BranhamGoulet-Cazé1996 (help) ^ Plato, Apology, 41e. ^ Xenophon, Apology, 1. ^ Epictetus, 3.22 ^ Aristotle, Politics (Aristotle): bk 2, 1268b ^ Veblen, 1994[1899]: 162 ^ Jon Ploug Jørgensen, The taming of the aristoi - an ancient Greek civilizing process? History of the Human Sciences: July 2014 vol. 27 no. 3, pg 42-43 ^ Dudley 1937, p. 1 ^ Bracht Branham & Goulet-Cazé 1996, p. 6 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBracht_BranhamGoulet-Cazé1996 (help) ^ Xenophon, Symposium, 4.57–64. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 2 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 15–18 ^ Prince 2005, p. 79 ^ Navia 1996, p. 40 ^ Xenophon, Symposium, 4.34. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 20–21 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 20, 71 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 6, 18, 21; Aelian, x. 16; Epictetus, Discourses, iii. 22. 63 ^ Long 1996, p. 45 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLong1996 (help) ^ Dudley 1937, p. 2 ^ Prince 2005, p. 77 ^ Sarton, G., Ancient Science Through the Golden Age of Greece, Dover Publications. (1980). ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 23; Jerome, Adversus Jovinianum, 2.14 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 34 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 66 ^ Long 1996, p. 33 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLong1996 (help) ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 87–88 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 85, 87; Epictetus, Discourses, iii. 22. 63 ^ Long 1996, p. 46 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLong1996 (help) ^ Although there is no mention in ancient sources of them actually begging. Cf. Doyne Dawson, (1992), Cities of the gods: communist utopias in Greek thought, page 135. Oxford University Press ^ Plutarch, Symposiacs, 2.1; Apuleius, Florida, 22; Julian, Orations, 6.201b ^ Diogenes Laërtius, i. 15, vi. 105, vii. 2, etc ^ Schofield 1991 ^ Bracht Branham & Goulet-Cazé 1996, p. 13 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBracht_BranhamGoulet-Cazé1996 (help) ^ Cicero, De Officiis, i. 41. ^ Dudley 1937, p. 124 ^ Lucian, De Morte Peregrini, 3 ^ Lucian, Fugitivi, 16. ^ Aelius Aristides, iii. 654–694 ^ Seneca, De Beneficiis, vii. ^ Lucian, De Morte Peregrini. ^ Lucian, Demonax. ^ Epictetus, Discourses, 3. 22. ^ Epictetus, Discourses, 3. 22. 23 ^ Epictetus, Discourses, 3. 22. 80 ^ Dudley 1937, p. 202 ^ Julian, Oration 6: To the Uneducated Cynics; Oration 7: To the Cynic Heracleios. ^ Damascius, Life of Isidorus: fragments preserved in the Commentary on Plato's Parmenides by Proclus, in the Bibliotheca of Photius, and in the Suda. ^ a b Dudley 1937, pp. 209–211 ^ Leif Vaage, (1994), Galilean Upstarts: Jesus' First Followers According to Q. TPI ^ F. Gerald Downing, (1992), Cynics and Christian Origins. T. & T. Clark. ^ In particular, Menippus (3rd century BC), Meleager (1st century BC), and Oenomaus (2nd century AD), all came from Gadara. ^ Quoted in R. Ostling, Who was Jesus?", Time, August 15, 1988, pages 37–42. ^ John Dominic Crossan, (1991), The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant, ISBN 0-06-061629-6 ^ Craig A. Evans, Life of Jesus Research: An Annotated Bibliography, page 151. BRILL ^ F. Gasco Lacalle, (1986) Cristianos y cinicos. Una tificacion del fenomeno cristiano durante el siglo II, pages 111–119. Memorias de Historia Antigua 7. ^ Dio Cassius, Epitome of book 65, 15.5; Herodian, Roman History, 1.9.2–5 ^ Lucian, De Morte Peregrini, 10–15 ^ Origen, adv. Cels. 2.41, 6.28, 7.7; Basil of Caesarea, Leg. Lib. Gent. 9.3, 4, 20; Theodoret, Provid. 6; John Chrysostom, Ad. Op. Vit. Monast. 2.4, 5 ^ Augustine, De Civitate Dei 14.20. References[edit] Branham, R. Bracht; Goulet-Cazé, Marie-Odile, eds. (2000), The Cynics: The Cynic Movement in Antiquity and Its Legacy, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-21645-7 Dudley, R. (1937), A History of Cynicism from Diogenes to the 6th Century A.D., Cambridge University Press Kidd, I. (2005), "Cynicism", in Rée, Jonathan; Urmson, J. O. (eds.), The Concise Encyclopedia of Western Philosophy, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-32924-8 Long, A. A., "The Socratic Tradition: Diogenes, Crates, and Hellenistic Ethics", in Branham and Goulet-Cazé, pp. 28–46 (ed.), Missing or empty |title= (help) Navia, Luis (1996), Classical Cynicism: A Critical Study, Greenwood Press, ISBN 978-0-313-30015-8 Prince, Susan (2005), "Socrates, Antisthenes, and the Cynics", in Ahbel-Rappe, Sara; Kamtekar, Rachana (eds.), A Companion to Socrates, Blackwell Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4051-0863-8 Schofield, Malcolm (1991), The Stoic Idea of the City, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-226-74006-5 Further reading[edit] Primary sources[edit] Socratis et Socraticorum Reliquiae, ed. G. Giannantoni, 4 volumes (Naples, 1990). Volume 2 collects fragments of the early Cynics from Antisthenes to Crates. The Cynic Philosophers, ed. R. Dobbin (Penguin, 2012) Diogenes the Cynic: Sayings and Anecdotes: With Other Popular Moralists, ed. R. Hard (Oxford, 2012) Diogenes Laërtius, Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, Book VI: The Cynics Dio Chrysostom, Cynic Discourses: Oration 6, Oration 8, Oration 9, Oration 10. Epictetus, Discourse 3.22, On Cynicism Pseudo-Lucian[citation needed], The Cynic Julian the Apostate, 6th Oration - To the Uneducated Cynics Julian the Apostate, 7th Oration - To the Cynic Heracleios Secondary sources[edit] Ian Cutler, (2005), Cynicism from Diogenes to Dilbert. McFarland & Co. ISBN 0-7864-2093-6 William D. Desmond, (2006), The Greek Praise of Poverty: Origins of Ancient Cynicism. University of Notre Dame Press. ISBN 0-268-02582-7 ————, (2008), Cynics. Ancient Philosophies Series. Acumen Publishing. ISBN 1-84465-129-0 F. Gerald Downing, (1992), Cynics and Christian Origins. T. & T. Clark. ISBN 0-567-09613-0 Luis E. Navia, (1996), Classical Cynicism: A Critical Study. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-30015-1 Lousa Shea (2009), The Cynic Enlightenment: Diogenes in the Salon Johns Hopkins University Press. H. C. Baldry, "Zeno's Ideal State". Published in The Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. 79 (1959), pp. 3–15. DOI: 10.2307/627917 Kathy L. Gaca, "Early Stoic Eros: The Sexual Ethics of Zeno and Chrysippus and their Evaluation of the Greek Erotic Tradition". Published in Apeiron: A Journal for Ancient Philosophy and Science, Vol. 33, No. 3 (September 2000), pp. 207–238. External links[edit] Look up cynicism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cynic philosophers. Cynicism on In Our Time at the BBC "Cynicism (philosophy)". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. "Cynicism", in The Dictionary of the History of Ideas Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Cynic School of Philosophy" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 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en-wikipedia-org-8984	----	Ausonius - Wikipedia Ausonius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Late Roman poet This article is about the Roman poet. For the Swedish murderer, see John Ausonius. Decimius Magnus Ausonius Monument to Ausonius in Milan. Born c. 310 Burdigala Died c. 395 Nationality Roman Occupation poet, teacher Relatives Aemilia Hilaria (aunt) Aemilius Magnus Arborius (uncle) Paulinus of Pella (grandson) Decimus or Decimius Magnus Ausonius (/ɔːˈsoʊniəs/; c. 310 – c. 395) was a Roman poet and teacher of rhetoric from Burdigala in Aquitaine, modern Bordeaux, France. For a time he was tutor to the future emperor Gratian, who afterwards bestowed the consulship on him. His best-known poems are Mosella, a description of the river Moselle, and Ephemeris, an account of a typical day in his life. His many other verses show his concern for his family, friends, teachers, and circle of well-to-do acquaintances and his delight in the technical handling of meter. Contents 1 Biography 2 List of his works 3 Some characteristics of his works 4 Saw mill 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links Biography[edit] Decimius Magnus Ausonius was born c. 310 in Burdigala, the son of Julius Ausonius (c. AD 290–378), a physician of Greek ancestry,[1][2] and Aemilia Aeonia, daughter of Caecilius Argicius Arborius, descended on both sides from established, land-owning Gallo-Roman families of southwestern Gaul.[2] Ausonius was given a strict upbringing by his aunt and grandmother, both named Aemilia. He received an excellent education at Bordeaux and at Toulouse, where his maternal uncle, Aemilius Magnus Arborius, was a professor. Ausonius did well in grammar and rhetoric, but professed that his progress in Greek was unsatisfactory. When his uncle was summoned to Constantinople to tutor one of the sons of emperor Constantine I, Ausonius accompanied him to the capital. Having completed his studies, he trained for some time as an advocate, but he preferred teaching. In 334 he became a grammaticus (instructor) at a school of rhetoric in Bordeaux, and afterwards a rhetor or professor. His teaching attracted many pupils, some of whom became eminent in public life. His most famous pupil was the poet Paulinus, who later became a Christian and Bishop of Nola. After thirty years of this work Ausonius was summoned by emperor Valentinian I to teach his son, Gratian, the heir-apparent. When Valentinian took Gratian on the German campaigns of 368–9, Ausonius accompanied them. Ausonius was able to turn literary skill into political capital. In recognition of his services emperor Valentinian bestowed on Ausonius the rank of quaestor. His presence at court gave Ausonius the opportunity to connect with a number of influential people. In 369 he met Quintus Aurelius Symmachus; their friendship proved mutually beneficial.[3] Gratian liked and respected his tutor, and when he himself became emperor in 375 he began bestowing on Ausonius and his family the highest civil honors. That year Ausonius was made Praetorian Prefect of Gaul, campaigned against the Alemanni and received as part of his booty a slave-girl, Bissula (to whom he addressed a poem), while his father, though nearly ninety years old, was given the rank of Prefect of Illyricum. In 376 Ausonius's son, Hesperius, was made proconsul of Africa. In 379 Ausonius was awarded the consulate, the highest Roman honor.[4] In 383 the army of Britain, led by Magnus Maximus, revolted against Gratian and assassinated him at Lyons; and when emperor Valentinian II was driven out of Italy, Ausonius retired to his estates near Burdigala (now Bordeaux) in Gaul.[4] When Magnus Maximus was overthrown by emperor Theodosius I in 388, Ausonius did not leave his country estates. They were, he says, his nidus senectutis, the "nest of his old age", and there he spent the rest of his days, composing poetry and writing to many eminent contemporaries, several of whom had been his pupils. His estates supposedly included the land now owned by Château Ausone, which takes its name from him. Ausonius appears to have been a late and perhaps not very enthusiastic convert to Christianity.[4] He died about 395.[4] His grandson, Paulinus of Pella, was also a poet; his works attest to the devastation which Ausonius's Gaul would face soon after his death. List of his works[edit] Epigramata de diversis rebus. About 120 epigrams on various topics. Ephemeris. A description of the occupations of the day from morning till evening, in various meters, composed before 367. Only the beginning and end are preserved. Parentalia. 30 poems of various lengths, mostly in elegiac meter, on deceased relations, composed after his consulate, when he had already been a widower for 36 years. Commemoratio professorum Burdigalensium or Professores. A continuation of the Parentalia, dealing with the famous teachers of his native Bordeaux whom he had known. Epitaphia. 26 epitaphs of heroes from the Trojan war, translated from Greek Caesares. On the 12 emperors described by Suetonius. Ordo urbium nobilium. 14 pieces, dealing with 17 towns (Rome to Bordeaux), in hexameters, and composed after the downfall of Maximus in 388. Ludus VII Sapientium.[5] A kind of puppet play in which the seven wise men appear successively and have their say. The so-called Idyllia. 20 pieces are grouped under this arbitrary title, the most famous of which is the Mosella.[6] It also includes: Griphus ternarii numeri De aetatibus Hesiodon Monosticha de aerumnis Herculis De ambiguitate eligendae vitae Sculpture of Ausonius in Bordeaux by Bertrand Piéchaud [fr] De viro bono EST et NON De rosis nascentibus (dubious) Versus paschales Epicedion in patrem Technopaegnion Cento nuptialis, composed of lines and half-lines of Vergil. Bissula Protrepticus Genethliacon Eglogarum liber. A collection of all kinds of astronomical and astrological versifications in epic and elegiac meter. Epistolarum liber. 25 verse letters in various meters. Ad Gratianum gratiarum actio pro consulatu. Prose speech of thanks to the emperor Gratian on the occasion of attaining the consulship, delivered at Treves in 379. Periochae Homeri Iliadis et Odyssiae. A prose summary of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, attributed to but probably not written by Ausonius. Praefatiunculae. Prefaces by the poet to various collections of his poems, including a response to the emperor Theodosius I's request for his poems. Some characteristics of his works[edit] Although admired by his contemporaries, the writings of Ausonius have not since been ranked among Latin literature's finest. His style is easy and fluent, and his Mosella is appreciated for its evocation of the life and country along the River Moselle; but he is considered derivative and unoriginal. Edward Gibbon pronounced in his Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire that "the poetical fame of Ausonius condemns the taste of his age." [7] However, his works have several points of interest; for example: 1. his references to winemaking, frequently cited by historians as early evidence of large-scale viticulture in the now-famous wine country around his native Bordeaux. 2. his contribution to the carpe diem topic (if the following poem is indeed his): Collige, virgo, rosas, dum flos novus et nova pubes et memor esto aevum sic properare tuum. Gather, girl, roses while the flower is fresh and fresh is youth, remembering that your own time is hurrying on. —Epigrammata: «Rosae» 2:49 3. his somewhat unique Cento Nuptialis,[8] in which he fulfils an imperial commission to compose an epithalamium using the "love is war" trope[9] by writing it in the form of a cento (in other words, a mashup) lifting lines from Vergil: Itque reditque viam totiens | uteroque recusso transadigit costas | et pectine pulsat eburno. Iamque fere spatio extremo fessique sub ipsam finem adventabant: | tum creber anhelitus artus aridaque ora quatit, sudor fluit undique rivis, labitur exsanguis, | destillat ab inguine virus. Back and forth he plies his path and, the cavity reverberating, thrusts between the bones, and strikes with ivory quill. And now, their journey covered, wearily they neared their very goal: then rapid breathing shakes his limbs and parched mouth, his sweat in rivers flows; down he slumps bloodless; the fluid drips from his groin. Saw mill[edit] Scheme of a water-driven Roman sawmill at Hierapolis, Asia Minor. The 3rd century mill is the earliest known machine to incorporate a crank and connecting rod mechanism.[10] His writings are also remarkable for mentioning, in passing, the working of a water mill sawing marble on a tributary of the Moselle: ....renowned is Celbis for glorious fish, and that other, as he turns his mill-stones in furious revolutions and drives the shrieking saws through smooth blocks of marble, hears from either bank a ceaseless din... Modern reconstruction of Sutter's Mill, a water-powered 19th century Californian sawmill. The excerpt sheds new light on the development of Roman technology in using water power for different applications. It is one of the rare references in Roman literature to water mills used to cut stone, but is a logical consequence of the application of water power to mechanical sawing of stone (and presumably wood also). Earlier references to the widespread use of mills occur in Vitruvius in his De Architectura of circa 25 BC, and the Naturalis Historia of Pliny the Elder published in 77 AD. Such applications of mills were to multiply again after the fall of the Empire through the Middle Ages into the modern era. The mills at Barbegal in southern France are famous for their application of water power to grinding grain to make flour and were built in the 1st century AD. They consisted of 16 mills in a parallel sequence on a hill near Arles. The construction of a saw mill is even simpler than a flour or grinding mill, since no gearing is needed, and the rotary saw blade can be driven direct from the water wheel axle, as the example of Sutter's Mill in California shows. However, a different mechanism is shown by the sawmill at Hieropolis involving a frame saw operated through a crank and connecting rod. See also[edit] Ausones, Ausonia Château Ausone French wine List of wine personalities Roman aqueducts Roman engineering Roman technology Tiberianus Watermills Notes[edit] ^ Harvard Magazine, Harvard Alumni Association, University of Michigan, p.2 ^ a b The Cambridge History of Classical Literature, Edward John Kenney, Cambridge University Press, p.16 ^ Trout, Dennis E., Paulinus of Nola: Life, Letters, and Poems, University of California Press, 1999, p. 33 ISBN 9780520922327 ^ a b c d Chisholm 1911. ^ "Ausonius: Septem Sapientum Sententiae". thelatinlibrary.com. ^ "Ausonius Mosella". dickinson.edu. ^ Note 1 to chapter XXVII ^ translated as A Nuptial Cento by H.G. Evelyn-White for Loeb Classical Library ^ See, for example, the discussion in Ausonius and Proba on “love is war” and brutalizing men’s sexuality (retrieved, 1 July, 2020). ^ Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007, p. 161 References[edit] Ritti, Tullia; Grewe, Klaus; Kessener, Paul (2007), "A Relief of a Water-powered Stone Saw Mill on a Sarcophagus at Hierapolis and its Implications", Journal of Roman Archaeology, 20: 138–163, doi:10.1017/S1047759400005341  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Ausonius, Decimus Magnus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 935–936. Baynes, T. S., ed. (1875–1889). "Decimus Magnus Ausonius" . Encyclopædia Britannica (9th ed.). New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. Further reading[edit] Booth, Alan D. 1982. "The Academic Career of Ausonius." Phoenix 36: 329–343. Brown, Peter. 2014. In Through the Eye of a Needle: Wealth, the Fall of Rome, and the Making of Christianity in the West, 350-550 AD Princeton: Princeton University Press, 185–207. Della Corte, Francesco. 1977. “Bissula.” Romanobarbarica 2:17–25. Dill, Samuel. 1898. "The Society Of Aquitaine In The Time Of Ausonius." In Roman Society In The Last Century Of The Western Empire. London: Macmillan, 167-186. Green, R. P. H. 1999. "Ausonius’ Fasti and Caesares Revisited." Classical Quarterly 49:573–578. Kay, N. M. 2001. Ausonius: Epigrams. London: Duckworth. Knight, Gillian R. 2005. "Friendship and Erotics in the Late Antique Verse-Epistle: Ausonius to Paulinus Revisited." Rheinisches Museum 148:361–403. Shanzer, Danuta. 1998. "The Date and Literary Context of Ausonius's Mosella: Valentinian I's Alemannic Campaigns and an unnamed office-holder." Historia 47.2: 204-233. Sivan, Hagith. 1993. Ausonius of Bordeaux: Genesis of a Gallic Aristocracy. London and New York: Routledge. Sivan, Hagith. 1992. "The Dedicatory Presentation in Late Antiquity: The Example of Ausonius." Illinois Classical Studies 17.1: 83-101. Sowers, Brian P. 2016. "Amicitia and Late Antique Nugae: Reading Ausonius' Reading Community." American Journal of Philology. 137.3: 511-540. Taylor, Rabun. 2009. "Death, the Maiden, and the Mirror: Ausonius's Water World." Arethusa 42.2: 181-205 External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Ausonius Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ausonius. Library resources about Ausonius Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Ausonius Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Decimus Magnus Ausonius at the Encyclopædia Britannica Works by Ausonius at Perseus Digital Library Works by Ausonius at the Internet Archive Latin text of Mosella Ausonius' Opera Omnia: IntraText Digital Library Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Latina wiki text and translation of Moselle Wikipedia France: Ausone, vie et travaux Ausonius at Somni Political offices Preceded by Valens, Valentinian II Consul of the Roman Empire 379 with Quintus Clodius Hermogenianus Olybrius Succeeded by Gratian, Theodosius I Authority control BIBSYS: 90623238 BNE: XX1022547 BNF: cb11996240z (data) CANTIC: a10043846 CiNii: DA02535348 GND: 118505165 ICCU: IT\ICCU\RAVV\077725 ISNI: 0000 0001 2147 4924 LCCN: n80128611 MBA: d55529c8-1139-48d7-a0a5-a09a249a9b12 NKC: jn20010601050 NLA: 36590124 NLG: 85683 NLI: 000013231 NSK: 000085286 NTA: 069625182 RERO: 02-A000014144 RSL: 000101069 SELIBR: 279818 SNAC: w6ms6q5j SUDOC: 02727733X Trove: 1308941 VcBA: 495/18959 VIAF: 109786483 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n80128611 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ausonius&oldid=988236252" Categories: 310 births 395 deaths People from Bordeaux Roman-era Greeks Roman-era poets 4th-century Latin writers Ancient Roman rhetoricians Imperial Roman consuls Praetorian prefects of Gaul 4th-century Christians 4th-century Roman poets 4th-century Gallo-Roman people Julii Hidden categories: Articles containing Latin-language text Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles with hCards Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from EB9 Commons category link is on Wikidata Articles with Encyclopædia Britannica links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with RSL identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages Asturianu Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 11 November 2020, at 22:48 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8998	----	Decline of the Byzantine Empire - Wikipedia Decline of the Byzantine Empire From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Map of the changes in borders of the Byzantine Empire. The dates represented are 476 (Fall of the Western Roman Empire; Basiliscus deposed and Zeno restored), 550 (Justinian I's western reclamations; Ostrogothic Kingdom), 717 (Leo III reign; 2nd Arab siege), 867 (Basil I reign begins), 1025 (Basil II dies; Constantine VIII reign begins), 1095 (Alexius I Comnenus requests western aid against the Seljuk Turks), 1170 (Amalric I and Manuel I alliance), 1270 (Michael VIII reign), and 1400 (Closing of the Byzantine–Ottoman Wars). The Byzantine Empire experienced several cycles of growth and decay over the course of nearly a thousand years, including major losses during the Arab conquests of the 7th century. However, modern historians generally agree that the start of the empire's final decline began in the 11th century.[citation needed] In the 11th century the empire experienced a major catastrophe in which most of its heartland territory in Anatolia was lost to the Seljuk Turks following the Battle of Manzikert and ensuing civil war. At the same time, the empire lost its last territory in Italy to the Norman Kingdom of Sicily and faced repeated attacks on its territory in the Balkans. These events created the context for emperor Alexios I Komnenos to call to the west for help, which led to the First Crusade. However, economic concessions to the Italian Republics of Venice and Genoa weakened the empire's control over its own finances, especially from the 13th century onward, while tensions with the West led to the Sack of Constantinople by the forces of the Fourth Crusade in 1204 and the dismemberment of the empire. Although a number of small Byzantine successor states survived and eventually reclaimed Constantinople in 1261, the empire had been severely weakened. In the longer term, the rise of Turkish power in Anatolia eventually gave rise to the Ottoman Empire which rapidly conquered the former Byzantine heartland over the course of the 14th and 15th centuries, culminating in the Fall of Constantinople to the army of Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror in 1453. Contents 1 Timeline of decline 2 Causes of the decline 2.1 Civil wars 2.2 Fall of the theme system 2.3 Increasing reliance on mercenaries 2.4 Loss of control over revenue 2.5 The failed Union of the Churches 3 Conflict with Crusaders and Turks 3.1 Crusaders 3.2 Rise of the Seljuks and Ottomans 4 See also 5 Notes 6 Bibliography 7 External links Timeline of decline[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Further information: History of the Byzantine Empire The most significant events generally agreed by historians to have played a role in the decline of the Byzantine empire are summarised below: The Battle of Manzikert in 1071, which saw emperor Romanos IV Diogenes captured by the army of Seljuk Sultan Alp Arslan. The defeat led to a Byzantine civil war lasting ten years, in which eight different revolts took place. The damage was increased by the use of Turkish mercenaries by the various factions, which in some cases led to Turkish occupation of entire cities and regions. A notable example is the revolt of Nikephoros Melissenos in 1080, in which the towns he had occupied and garrisoned with Turkish soldiers in Ionia, Phrygia, Galatia, and Bithynia remained in their hands even after the revolt ended, including Nicaea, which for a time became the capital of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum. The Battle of Myriokephalon in 1176, in which an army led by emperor Manuel I Komnenos attempted to capture the Turkish capital at Konya, but was ambushed in a narrow mountain pass and defeated by the army of Turkish Sultan Kilij Arslan II. The battle is generally considered significant both because it put an end to Byzantine plans to recover central Anatolia, and because of the psychological effect it had both on the emperor himself, and the empire's international reputation. In the years after Manuel's death in 1180, the Seljuks built on their victory by expanding their control at the expense of the Byzantines, while Manuel's teenage successor Alexios II was overthrown in a coup. The Sack of Constantinople in 1204 saw the empire partitioned between the Republic of Venice and a Crusader army led by Boniface I, Marquess of Montferrat. A new Latin Empire was established, led by Baldwin I, Latin Emperor. Although Byzantine successor states emerged in Nicaea, Trebizond and Epirus, and went on to reclaim the capital in 1261, many historians cite the loss of the capital as a fatal blow to the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine civil wars of the 14th century, including the Byzantine civil war of 1321–1328 and the Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347, which completely destroyed what little strength the empire had left. The Fall of Gallipoli in 1354 saw the Ottoman Turks cross into Europe, while the empire was powerless to stop them. This event has been seen by modern historians such as Donald M. Nicol to be the point of no return for the Byzantine Empire, after which its fall was virtually inevitable. Causes of the decline[edit] Civil wars[edit] Probably the most important single cause of Byzantium's collapse was its recurrent debilitating civil wars. Three of the worst periods of civil war and internal infighting took place during Byzantium's decline. Each time, these civil wars coincided with a catastrophic reduction in Byzantine power and influence, which was never fully reversed before the next collapse. The period from 1071 to 1081 saw eight revolts: 1072: Uprising of Georgi Voiteh 1073–1074: Revolt of Roussel de Bailleul proclaims Caesar John Doukas Emperor. 1077–1078: Revolt and successful usurpation by Nikephoros III Botaneiates. 1077–1078: Revolt of Nikephoros Bryennios the Elder against Michael VII Doukas and Nikephoros III, defeated at the Battle of Kalavrye. 1078: Revolt of Philaretos Brachamios against Michael VII Doukas. 1078: Revolt of Nikephoros Basilakes against Nikephoros III. 1080–1081: Revolt of Nikephoros Melissenos against Nikephoros III. 1081: Revolt and successful usurpation by Alexios I Komnenos. This was followed by a period of secure dynastic rule by the Komnenos dynasty, under Alexios I (1081-1118), John II Komnenos (1118-43) and Manuel I Komnenos (1143-1180). Cumulatively, these three emperors were able to partially restore the empire's fortunes, but they never were able to fully undo the damage caused by the instability at the end of the 11th century, nor return the empire's frontiers to those of 1071. The second period of civil war and collapse took place after Manuel's death in 1180. Manuel's son Alexios II Komnenos was overthrown in 1183 by Andronikos I Komnenos, whose reign of terror destabilised the empire internally and led to his overthrow and death in Constantinople in 1185. The Angelos dynasty which ruled Byzantium from 1185 to 1204 has been considered one of the most unsuccessful and ineffectual administrations in the empire's history. During this period, Bulgaria, Serbia and Croatia broke away from the empire, further land was lost to the Seljuk Turks. In 1203, the imprisoned former emperor Alexios IV Angelos escaped jail and fled to the west, where he promised the leaders of the Fourth Crusade generous payment if they would help him regain the throne. These promises later proved to be impossible to keep; in the event, the dynastic squabbling between the weak and ineffectual members of the Angelid dynasty brought about the Sack of Constantinople; Constantinople was burned, pillaged and destroyed, thousands of its citizens were killed, many of the surviving inhabitants fled, and much of the city became a depopulated ruin. The damage to Byzantium was incalculable; many historians point to this moment as a fatal blow in the empire's history. Although the empire was reformed in 1261 by the recapture of the city by forces from the Empire of Nicaea, the damage was never reversed and the empire never returned to anywhere near its former territorial extent, wealth and military power. The third period of civil war took place in the 14th century. Two separate periods of civil war, again making extensive use of Turkish, Serbian and even Catalan troops, often operating independently under their own commanders, and often raiding and destroying Byzantine lands in the process, ruined the domestic economy and left the state virtually powerless and overrun by its enemies. Conflicts between Andronikos II and Andronikos III, and then later between John VI Kantakouzenos and John V Palaiologos, marked the final ruin of Byzantium. The Byzantine civil war of 1321–1328 allowed the Turks to make notable gains in Anatolia and set up their capital in Bursa 100 kilometers from Constantinople the Byzantine's capital. The civil war of 1341–1347 saw exploitation of the Byzantine Empire by the Serbs, whose ruler took advantage of the chaos to proclaim himself emperor of the Serbs and Greeks. The Serbian king Stefan Uroš IV Dušan made significant territorial gains in Byzantine Macedonia in 1345 and conquered large swathes of Thessaly and Epirus in 1348.[1] In order to secure his authority during the civil war, Kantakouzenos hired Turkish mercenaries. Although these mercenaries were of some use, in 1352 they seized Gallipoli from the Byzantines.[2] By 1354, the empire's territory consisted of Constantinople and Thrace, the city of Thessaloniki, and some territory in the Morea. Fall of the theme system[edit] Main article: Byzantine army Main article: Komnenian army This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The disintegration of the Byzantine Empire's traditional military system, the 'theme' system, played a role in its decline. Under this arrangement, which was in its heyday from circa 650 to 1025, the empire was divided into several regions which contributed locally raised troops to the imperial armies. The system provided an effective means of cheaply mobilizing large numbers of men, and the result was a comparatively large and powerful force – the army of the theme of Thrakesion alone had provided about 9,600 men in the period 902–936, for example. But from the 11th century onwards, the theme system was allowed to decay. This played a major role in the loss of Anatolia to the Turks at the end of that century. In the 12th century, the Komnenian dynasty re-established an effective military force. Manuel I Komnenos, for example, was able to muster an army of over 40,000 men. However, the theme system was never replaced by a viable long-term alternative, and the result was an empire that depended more than ever before on the strengths of each individual emperor or dynasty. The collapse of imperial power and authority after 1185 revealed the inadequacy of this approach. After the deposition of Andronikos I Komnenos in 1185, the dynasty of the Angeloi oversaw a period of military decline. From 1185 onwards, Byzantine emperors found it increasingly difficult to muster and pay for sufficient military forces, while the failure of their efforts to sustain their empire exposed the limitations of the entire Byzantine military system, dependent as it was on competent personal direction from the emperor. Despite the restoration under the Palaiologoi, Byzantium was never again a great power on the scale of the past. By the 13th century, the imperial army numbered a mere 6,000 men. As one of the main institutional strengths of the Byzantine state, the demise of the theme system left the empire lacking in underlying structural strengths. Increasing reliance on mercenaries[edit] As far back as the invasion of Africa by Belisarius, foreign soldiers were used in war.[3] While foreign military intervention was not an all together new occurrence,[4] the reliance on it, and its ability to damage political, social, and economic institutions were dramatically increased in the 11th, 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries. The 11th century saw increasing tensions between Courtly, and Military factions.[5][6] Until the mid 11th century the empire had long been under the control of the Military Factions with leaders such as Basil II, and John I Tzimiskes,[7] however the crisis of Basil II's succession led to increasing uncertainty in the future of politics.[5] The army demanded Constantine VIII's daughters ascend to the throne by virtue of their relation to Basil II, leading to a number of marriages, and increasing power for the Courtly faction.[5] This culminated after the failed Battle of Manzikert. As civil wars broke out, and tensions between courtly, and military factions reached a zenith, the demand for soldiers led to the hiring of Turkish mercenaries.[8] These mercenaries aided in the Byzantine loss of Anatolia by drawing more Turkish soldiers into the interior of the empire, and by giving the Turks an increasing presence in Byzantine politics. These interventions also led to further destabilization of the political system.[8][9] Reliance on foreign military intervention, and sponsorship for political motives, continued even during the Komnenoi Restoration, Alexius I used Turkish mercenaries in the civil wars he participated in with Nikephoros III Botaneiates.[9] In 1204, Alexios IV Angelos relied on Latin soldiers to claim the throne of Byzantium, leading to the sack of Constantinople, and the creation of the successor states. Loss of control over revenue[edit] Economic concessions to the Italian Republics of Venice and Genoa weakened the empire's control over its own finances, especially from the ascension of Michael VIII Palaiologos in the 13th century onward. At this time it was common for emperors to seek sponsorship from Venice, Genoa, and the Turks. This led to a series of disastrous trade deals with the Italian states; drying up one of the empire's final sources of revenue.[10] This further led to competition between Venice, and Genoa to get emperors on the throne who supported their respective trade agenda to the detriment of the other, adding another level of instability to the Byzantine political process.[10] By the time of the Byzantine–Genoese War (1348–49), only thirteen percent of custom dues passing through the Bosporus strait were going to the Empire. The remaining 87 percent was collected by the Genoese from their colony of Galata.[11] Genoa collected 200,000 hyperpyra from annual custom revenues from Galata, while Constantinople collected a mere 30,000.[12] The loss of control over its own revenue sources drastically weakened the Byzantine empire, hastening its decline. At the same time, the system of Pronoia (land grants in exchange for military service), became increasingly corrupt and dysfunctional by the later empire, and by the 14th century many of the empire's nobles were not paying any tax, nor were they serving in the empire's armies. This further undermined the financial basis of the state, and placed further reliance on unreliable mercenaries, which only hasted the empire's demise. The failed Union of the Churches[edit] John VI Kantakouzenos presiding over a synod of Orthodox clergy in 1351. Despite the return to Orthodoxy after 1282, Byzantium was unable to restore harmony. John VI abdicated in 1354; the civil war with John V Palaiologos weakened the empire Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos signed a union with the Catholic church in the 13th century in the hope of staving off western attack, but the policy was unsuccessful. The empire's western enemies soon resumed attacking the empire, while the social divisions the deeply unpopular union created inside the empire were damaging to Byzantine society. The controversy over church union failed to provide the empire with any lasting benefit, while the prisons were soon full of dissenters and Orthodox clergy. This undermined the legitimacy of the Palaiologos dynasty and further facilitated social divisions, which were ultimately to play a role in the loss of Anatolia to the Ottoman Turks. Byzantine envoys presented themselves at the Second Council of Lyons 24 June 1274. On the fourth session of the Council the formal act of union was performed,[13] however with Pope Gregory's death (January, 1276), the hoped for gains did not materialise.[14] While the union was opposed at all levels of society, it was especially opposed by the greater populace, led by the monks and the adherents of the deposed Patriarch Arsenios, known as the Arsenites. One of the chief anti-unionist leaders was Michael's own sister Eulogia (aka Irene), who fled to the court of her daughter Maria Palaiologina Kantakouzene, Tsarina of the Bulgars, from where she intrigued unsuccessfully against Michael. More serious was the opposition of the sons of Michael of Epirus, Nikephoros I Komnenos Doukas and his half-brother John the Bastard: they posed as the defenders of Orthodoxy and gave support to the anti-unionists fleeing Constantinople. Michael at first responded with comparative leniency, hoping to win the anti-unionists through persuasion, but eventually the virulence of the protests led him to resort to force. Many anti-unionists were blinded or exiled. Two prominent monks, Meletios and Ignatios, were punished: the first had his tongue cut out, the second was blinded. Even imperial officials were harshly treated, and the death penalty was decreed even for simply reading or possessing pamphlets directed against the Emperor.[15] "From the intensity of these disorders, tantamount almost to civil wars," concludes Geanakoplos, "it might appear that too great a price had been paid for the sake of union."[16] The religious situation only worsened for Michael. The Arsenite party found widespread support amongst the discontented in the Anatolian provinces, and Michael responded there with similar viciousness: according to Vryonis, "These elements were either removed from the armies or else, alienated, they deserted to the Turks".[17] Another attempt to clear the encroaching Turkmen from the Meaender valley in 1278 found limited success, but Antioch on the Maeander was irretrievably lost as were Tralles and Nyssa four years later.[18] On 1 May 1277, John the Bastard convoked a synod at Neopatras that anathematized the Emperor, Patriarch, and Pope as heretics.[19] In response, a synod was convoked at the Hagia Sophia on 16 July where both Nikephoros and John were anathematized in return. John called a final synod at Neopatras in December 1277, where an anti-unionist council of eight bishops, a few abbots, and one hundred monks, again anathematized the Emperor, Patriarch, and Pope.[20] Conflict with Crusaders and Turks[edit] Crusaders[edit] Though the Crusades assisted Byzantium in driving back some of the Turks, they went far beyond the military assistance envisaged by Alexios I. Instead of following the strategic necessities of the war against the Turks, the Crusaders were focussed on the quest of re-conquering Jerusalem, and instead of returning territory to Byzantium, the Crusaders established their own principalities, becoming a territorial rival to Byzantine interests in their own right. This was true already during the Third Crusade, which induced emperor Isaac II Angelos to make a secret alliance with Saladin to impede the progress of Frederick Barbarossa, but open conflict between Crusaders and Byzantium erupted in the Fourth Crusade, resulting in the Sack of Constantinople in 1204. Constantinople was now itself a Crusader state, known as the Latin Empire in historiography, but from the Greek perspective as Frankokratia or "rule of the Franks". Vestiges of imperial power were preserved in minor principalities, the Nicaean Empire, Trebizond and Epirus. Much of the Nicaean Emperors' efforts now went into combating the Latins, and even after Constantinople was returned to Greek rule under the Palaiologoi in 1261, the Empire exerted much of its efforts into defeating its Latin neighbours, contributing to the eventual failure of the Crusades by 1291. Rise of the Seljuks and Ottomans[edit] Main article: Byzantine–Seljuq wars Main article: Byzantine-Ottoman wars No emperor after the Komnenian period was in a position to expel the Turks from Asia Minor, while the preoccupation of the Nicaean emperors with the attempt to recover Constantinople meant that resources were diverted away from Asia Minor and towards the west. The result was a weakening of the Byzantine defenses in the region, which, when combined with insufficient resources and incompetent leadership, led to the complete loss of all the empire's Asian territory to the Turks by 1338. The disintegration of the Seljuk Turks led to the rise of the Ottoman Turks. Their first important leader was Osman I Bey, who attracted Ghazi warriors and carved out a domain in north-western Asia Minor.[21] Attempts by the Byzantine Emperors to drive back the Ottomans were unsuccessful, and ceased in 1329 with the Battle of Pelekanon. Following a number of civil disputes in the Byzantine Empire, the Ottomans subjugated the Byzantines as vassals in the late 14th century and attempts to relieve this vassal status culminated in the Fall of Constantinople in 1453. See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal Byzantine Dark Ages in the 7th–8th centuries Byzantine-Lombard Wars Byzantine–Seljuq wars Byzantine Empire under the Doukas dynasty Byzantine Empire under the Angelos dynasty Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty Notes[edit] ^ Robert Browning, The Byzantine Empire (Washington D. C. :The Catholic U of America P, 1992), 240. ^ Robert Browning, The Byzantine Empire (Washington D. C. :The Catholic U of America P, 1992), 241. ^ Procopius History of the Wars Book III ^ Justinian II Constance Head ^ a b c Chronographia Michael Psellos ^ The Histories Michael Attaleiites ^ A Synopsis of Byzantine History John Skylitzes ^ a b The Grand Byzantine Strategy Edward Luttwak ^ a b The Alexiad Anna Komnene ^ a b City of Fortune: How Venice Ruled the Seas Roger Crowley ^ Ostrogorsky, p.528. ^ Ostrogorsky, p.526. ^ Geanakoplos, Michael Palaeologus, pp. 258–264 ^ Geanakoplos, Michael Palaeologus, pp. 286–290 ^ Geanakoplos, Michael Palaeologus, pp. 264–275 ^ Geanakoplos, Michael Palaeologus, p. 276 ^ Vryonis, Decline of medieval Hellenism, p. 136 ^ Vryonis, Decline of medieval Hellenism, p. 137 ^ Geanakoplos, Michael Palaeologus, p. 275 ^ Geanakoplos, Michael Palaeologus, p. 309 ^ Stanford Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey (Cambridge: University Press, 1976), vol. 1 pp. 13f Bibliography[edit] Angold, Michael (1997). The Byzantine Empire, 1025–1204. Longman. ISBN 0-582-29468-1. Haldon, John (2002). Byzantium – A History. Tempus. ISBN 0-7524-2343-6. Harris, Jonathan (2003). Byzantium and the Crusades. Hambledon and London. ISBN 1-85285-298-4. Alan Harvey, "Economic expansion in the Byzantine empire, 900–1200" John Haldon, "The Byzantine Wars" J.W. Birkenmeier, The Development of the Komnenian Army 1081–1180 Magdalino, Paul, The empire of Manuel I Komnenos 1143–1180 Norwich, John Julius (1998). A Short History of Byzantium. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-025960-0. Runciman, Steven. The Fall of Constantinople 1453. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1965. Vryonis, Speros. The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971. External links[edit] Library resources about Decline of the Byzantine Empire Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries v t e Byzantine Empire topics History Preceding Roman Empire Dominate Early (330–717) Constantinian–Valentinianic era Constantinian dynasty Valentinianic dynasty Theodosian era Leonid era Justinian era Heraclian era "Byzantine Dark Ages" Twenty Years' Anarchy Middle (717–1204) Isaurian era Nikephorian era Amorian era Macedonian era Doukid era Komnenian era Angelid era Late (1204–1453) Sack of Constantinople Fourth Crusade Frankokratia Latin Empire Byzantine successor states (Nicaea / Epirus–Thessalonica / Morea / Trebizond) Palaiologan era Decline of the Byzantine Empire Fall of Constantinople By modern region or territory Albania Anatolia Armenia Bulgaria Corsica Crete Cyprus Dalmatia Egypt Greece Italy Sardinia Sicily Maghreb Malta Serbia Spain (Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands) Syria Thrace Governance Central Emperors Family tree 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en-wikipedia-org-9033	----	Leave It Up to Me - Wikipedia Leave It Up to Me From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Leave It Up to Me" Single by Aaron Carter from the album Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius soundtrack, Oh Aaron and Most Requested Hits Released June 11, 2002 Recorded 2001 Genre Teen pop, pop rap, dance-pop Length 2:59 Label Jive, Nick Songwriter(s) L. Secon; M. Power Aaron Carter singles chronology "I'm All About You" (2002) "Leave It Up to Me" (2002) "Another Earthquake" (2002) "Leave It Up to Me" is the lead single from Paramount/Nickelodeon's Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius soundtrack recorded by teen star Aaron Carter.[1] Carter performed two other songs along with this on the soundtrack, "A.C.'s Alien Nation" and "Go Jimmy Jimmy".[2][3] Music video[edit] The music video opens with Carter in a boring tour of a space museum. As the tour guide instructs him and the rest of his classmates to move onwards, Carter stumbles near a door to a restricted area. He enters it as his clothes morph into a futuristic outfit. Throughout the video, Carter sits in a chair near a control console and a stellar map that shows him singing. Among one of the buttons on the console is one that turns him CGI while singing with a group of men in black. While performing the song, Carter glances over near the screen, only to realize it's displaying a countdown warning about it self-destructing. Carter jumps and aborts it just in time, as the picture zooms out to black. An alternate version of the music video was featured on the VHS and DVD release of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius, where film clips are shown on the control screen instead of Carter singing. At the very end, instead of the picture zooming out, an explosion is shown with Jimmy on his rocket zooming by. Charts[edit] Chart (2002) Peak position UK Singles (OCC)[4] 22 References[edit] ^ Phares, Heather Original Television Soundtrack: Jimmy Neutron, Boy Genius Review AllMusic Retrieved January 18, 2016. ^ Roth, Madeline (9/14/2015) Here’s Why The ‘Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius’ Soundtrack Is Still The Best Of All Time mtv.com Retrieved January 18, 2016. ^ Fiasco, Lance (11.02.2001) Aaron Carter, Britney Spears, *NSYNC Featured On 'Jimmy Neutron' Soundtrack idobi Network LLC. idobi Radio. Retrieved January 18, 2016. ^ "Official Singles Chart Top 100". Official Charts Company. Retrieved January 18, 2016. v t e Aaron Carter Discography Songs Studio albums Aaron Carter (1997) Aaron's Party (Come Get It) (2000) Oh Aaron (2001) Another Earthquake! (2002) Love (2018) Compilation albums Most Requested Hits (2003) Come Get It: The Very Best of Aaron Carter (2006) 2 Good 2 B True (2006) EPs Love (2017) Singles "Crush on You" "Crazy Little Party Girl" "Surfin' USA" "Let the Music Heal Your Soul" "I Want Candy" "Aaron's Party (Come Get It)" "That's How I Beat Shaq" "Oh Aaron" "Not Too Young, Not Too Old" "Leave It Up to Me" "Fool's Gold" Other songs "Iko Iko" "Leave It Up to Me" DVDs Aaron's Party: The Videos Aaron's Party: Live in Concert Oh Aaron: Live in Concert Related articles House of Carters After Party Tour Leslie Carter Nick Carter Authority control MBW work: 4734bcf5-aa48-453a-b8b3-9998f002f34a This 2000s pop song-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leave_It_Up_to_Me&oldid=993893711" Categories: 2002 singles Aaron Carter songs Jive Records singles Songs written for animated films Songs written for films 2002 songs Songs written by Lucas Secon 2000s pop song stubs Hidden categories: Articles with hAudio microformats Singlechart usages for UK Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz work identifiers All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 13 December 2020, at 01:44 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9043	----	Ecclesiastical Latin - Wikipedia Ecclesiastical Latin From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ecclesiastical Latin Church Latin, Liturgical Latin Native to Never spoken as a native language; other uses vary widely by period and location Extinct Still used for many purposes, mostly as a liturgical language of the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church, as well as in the Anglican Churches, Lutheran Churches, and Methodist Churches.[1] Also used in the Western Orthodox Rite of the Eastern Orthodox Church.[2] Language family Indo-European Italic Latino-Faliscan Latin Ecclesiastical Latin Writing system Latin Official status Official language in   Holy See Language codes ISO 639-3 – Glottolog None This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. Ecclesiastical Latin, also called Church Latin, Liturgical Latin or Italian Latin, is a form of Latin initially developed to discuss Christian thought and later used as a lingua franca by the Medieval and Early Modern upper class of Europe. It includes words from Vulgar Latin and Classical Latin (as well as Greek and Hebrew) re-purposed with Christian meaning.[3] It is less stylized and rigid in form than Classical Latin, sharing vocabulary, forms, and syntax, while at the same time incorporating informal elements which had always been with the language but which were excluded by the literary authors of classical Latin.[4] Its pronunciation was partly standardized in the late 8th century during the Carolingian Renaissance as part of Charlemagne's educational reforms, and this new letter-by-letter pronunciation, used in France and England, was adopted in Iberia and Italy a couple centuries afterwards.[5] As time passed, pronunciation diverged depending on the local vernacular language, giving rise to even highly divergent forms such as the traditional English pronunciation of Latin, which has now been largely abandoned for reading Latin texts. Within the Roman Catholic Church and in certain Protestant churches, such as the Anglican Church, a pronunciation based on modern Italian phonology became common during the 20th century. Ecclesiastical Latin was the language of liturgical rites in the Catholic Church, as well as the Anglican Church, Lutheran Church, Methodist Church, and in the Western Rite of the Eastern Orthodox Church.[2] Today, ecclesiastical Latin is primarily used in official documents of the Roman Catholic Church, in the Tridentine Mass, and it is still learned by clergy.[3][1] The Ecclesiastical Latin that is used in theological works, liturgical rites and dogmatic proclamations varies in style: syntactically simple in the Vulgate Bible, hieratic (very restrained) in the Roman Canon of the Mass, terse and technical in Thomas Aquinas's Summa Theologica, and Ciceronian (syntactically complex) in Pope John Paul II's encyclical letter Fides et Ratio. Contents 1 Usage 1.1 Late antique usage 1.2 Medieval usage 1.3 Usage during the Reformation and in modern Protestant churches 1.4 Modern Catholic usage 2 Comparison with Classical Latin 3 Language materials 4 Current use 5 Church Latin kana 6 See also 7 References 7.1 Citations 7.2 Sources 8 Further reading 9 External links 9.1 Latin and the Catholic Church 9.2 Bibles 9.3 Breviaries 9.4 Other documents 9.5 Course Usage[edit] Late antique usage[edit] The use of Latin in the Church started in the late fourth century[6] with the split of the Roman Empire after Emperor Theodosius in 395. Before this split, Greek was the primary language of the Church as well as the language of the eastern half of the Roman Empire. Following the split, early theologians like Jerome translated Greek and Hebrew texts into Latin, the dominant language of the Western Roman Empire. The loss of Greek in the Western half of the Roman Empire, and the loss of Latin in the Eastern half of the Roman Empire were not immediate, but changed the culture of language as well as the development of the Church.[7] What especially differentiates Ecclesiastical Latin from Classical Latin is its utility as a language for translating, since it borrows and assimilates constructions and borrows vocabulary from the koine Greek, while adapting the meanings of some Latin words to those of the koine Greek originals, which are sometimes themselves translations of Hebrew originals.[6] Medieval usage[edit] At first there was no distinction between Latin and the actual Romance vernacular, the former being just the traditional written form of the latter. For instance, in ninth-century Spain ⟨saeculum⟩ was simply the correct way to spell [sjeglo], meaning 'century'. The writer would not have actually read it aloud as /sɛkulum/ any more than an English speaker today would pronounce ⟨knight⟩ as */knɪxt/.[8] The spoken version of Ecclesiastical Latin was created later during the Carolingian Renaissance. The British scholar Alcuin, tasked by Charlemagne with improving the standards of Latin writing in France, prescribed a pronunciation based on a fairly literal interpretation of Latin spelling. For example, in a radical break from the traditional system, a word such as ⟨viridiarium⟩ 'orchard' now had to be read aloud precisely as it was spelled rather than */verdʒjær/ (later spelled as Old French vergier). The Carolingian reforms soon brought the new Church Latin from France to other lands where Romance was spoken. Usage during the Reformation and in modern Protestant churches[edit] The use of Latin in the Western Church continued into the Early modern period. One of Martin Luther's tenets of the Reformation was to have services and religious texts in the common tongue, rather than Latin, a language that at the time, only clergy understood. Protestants refrained from using Latin in services, however Protestant clergy had to learn and understand Latin as it was the language of higher learning and theological thought until the 18th century.[9] After the Reformation, in the Lutheran churches, Latin was retained as the language of the Mass for weekdays, although for the Sunday Sabbath, the Deutsche Messe was to be said.[10] In Geneva, among the Reformed churches, "persons called before the consistory to prove their faith answered by reciting the Paternoster, the Ave Maria, and the Credo in Latin."[10] In the Anglican Church, the Book of Common Prayer was published in Latin, alongside English.[1] John Wesley, the founder of the Methodist churches, "used Latin text in doctrinal writings",[1] as Martin Luther and John Calvin did in their era.[1] In the training of Protestant clergy in Württemberg, as well as in the Rhineland, universities instructed divinity students in Latin and their examinations were conducted in this language.[10] The University of Montauban under Reformed auspices, required that seminarians complete two theses, with one being in Latin and as such, Reformed ministers were "Latinist by training", comparable to Roman Catholic seminarians.[10] Modern Catholic usage[edit] Ecclesiastical Latin continues to be the official language of the Roman Catholic Church. The Council decided to allow languages other than Latin to be used in Mass in order to relate the Church and its values to modern culture.[11] However, the Church still produces its official liturgical texts in Latin, which provide a single clear point of reference for translations into all other languages. The same holds for the official texts of canon law and many other doctrinal and pastoral communications and directives of the Holy See, such as encyclical letters, motu proprios, and declarations ex cathedra.[3] Pope Benedict XVI gave his unexpected resignation speech in Latin.[12] The Holy See has for some centuries usually drafted documents in a modern language, but the authoritative text, published in the Acta Apostolicae Sedis, is usually in Latin. Some texts may be published initially in a modern language and be later revised, according to a Latin version (or “editio typica”), after this Latin version is published. For example, the Catechism of the Catholic Church was drafted and published, in 1992, in French. The Latin text appeared only five years later, in 1997, and the French text was corrected to match the Latin version, which is regarded as the official text. The Latin-language department of the Vatican Secretariat of State (formerly the Secretaria brevium ad principes et epistolarum latinarum) is charged with the preparation in Latin of papal and curial documents. Occasionally the official text is published in a modern language, e.g., the well-known edict Tra le sollecitudini[13] (1903) by Pope Pius X (in Italian) and Mit brennender Sorge (1937) by Pope Pius XI (in German). The rule now in force on the use of Latin in the Eucharistic liturgy of the Roman Rite states Mass is celebrated either in Latin or in another language, provided that the liturgical texts used have been approved according to the norm of law. Except for celebrations of the Mass that are scheduled by the ecclesiastical authorities to take place in the language of the people, priests are always and everywhere permitted to celebrate Mass in Latin.[14] Comparison with Classical Latin[edit] See also: Latin spelling and pronunciation § Ecclesiastical pronunciation, and Latin regional pronunciation There are not many differences between Classical Latin and Church Latin. One can understand Church Latin knowing the Latin of classical texts, as the main differences between the two are in pronunciation and spelling, as well as vocabulary. In many countries, those who speak Latin for liturgical or other ecclesiastical purposes use the pronunciation that has become traditional in Rome by giving the letters the value they have in modern Italian but without distinguishing between open and close "E" and "O". "AE" and "OE" coalesce with "E"; before them and "I", "C" and "G" are pronounced /t͡ʃ/ (English "CH") and /d͡ʒ/ (English "J"), respectively. "TI" before a vowel is generally pronounced /tsi/ (unless preceded by "S", "T" or "X"). Such speakers pronounce consonantal "V" (not written as "U") as /v/ as in English, and double consonants are pronounced as such. The distinction in Classical Latin between long and short vowels is ignored, and instead of the 'macron', a horizontal line to mark the long vowel, an acute accent is used for stress. The first syllable of two-syllable words is stressed; in longer words, an acute accent is placed over the stressed vowel: adorémus 'let us adore'; Dómini 'of the Lord'.[15] Language materials[edit] The complete text of the Bible in Latin, the revised Vulgate, appears at Nova Vulgata - Bibliorum Sacrorum Editio.[16] New Advent[17] gives the entire Bible, in the Douay version, verse by verse, accompanied by the Vulgate Latin of each verse. In 1976, the Latinitas Foundation[18] (Opus Fundatum Latinitas in Latin) was established by Pope Paul VI to promote the study and use of Latin. Its headquarters are in Vatican City. The foundation publishes an eponymous quarterly in Latin. The foundation also published a 15,000-word Italian-Latin Lexicon Recentis Latinitatis (Dictionary of Recent Latin), which provides Latin coinages for modern concepts, such as a bicycle (birota), a cigarette (fistula nicotiana), a computer (instrumentum computatorium), a cowboy (armentarius), a motel (deversorium autocineticum), shampoo (capitilavium), a strike (operistitium), a terrorist (tromocrates), a trademark (ergasterii nota), an unemployed person (invite otiosus), a waltz (chorea Vindobonensis), and even a miniskirt (tunicula minima) and hot pants (brevissimae bracae femineae). Some 600 such terms extracted from the book appear on a page[19] of the Vatican website. The Latinitas Foundation was superseded by the Pontifical Academy for Latin (Latin: Pontificia Academia Latinitatis) in 2012. Current use[edit] See also: Canon law of the Catholic Church Latin remains the official language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church.[20] Until the 1960s and still later in Roman colleges like the Gregorian, Roman Catholic priests studied theology using Latin textbooks and the language of instruction in many seminaries was also Latin, which was seen as the language of the Church Fathers. The use of Latin in pedagogy and in theological research, however, has since declined. Nevertheless, canon law requires for seminary formation to provide for a thorough training in Latin,[21] though "the use of Latin in seminaries and pontifical universities has now dwindled to the point of extinction."[22] Latin was still spoken in recent international gatherings of Roman Catholic leaders, such as the Second Vatican Council, and it is still used at conclaves to elect a new Pope. The Tenth Ordinary General Assembly of the Synod of Bishops in 2004 was the most recent to have a Latin-language group for discussions. Although Latin is the traditional liturgical language of the Roman (Latin) Church, the liturgical use of the vernacular has predominated since the liturgical reforms that followed the Vatican II: liturgical law for the Latin Church states that Mass may be celebrated either in Latin or another language in which the liturgical texts, translated from Latin, have been legitimately approved.[23] The permission granted for continued use of the Tridentine Mass in its 1962 form authorizes use of the vernacular language in proclaiming the Scripture readings after they are first read in Latin.[24] In historic Protestant churches, such as the Anglican Communion and Lutheran churches, Ecclesiastical Latin is occasionally employed in sung celebrations of the Mass.[1] Church Latin kana[edit] In the hymnbook used in the Catholic Church in Japan, there are some special kana characters. To represent the /l/ sound in the Latin language, the R column kana letters with ゜(the handakuten diacritic) are used (such as ラ゚ for [la], レ゚ for [le], リ゚ for [li], ロ゚ for [lo] and ル゚ for [lu]). See also[edit] Christianity portal Catholicism portal Language portal Canon law of the Catholic Church Reginald Foster Latin Church Latin Mass Roman Rite References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ a b c d e f Cross, Frank Leslie; Livingstone, Elizabeth A. (2005). The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. Oxford University Press. p. 961. ISBN 9780192802903. The Second Vatican Council declared that the use of Latin was to be maintained in the liturgy, though permission was granted for some use of the vernacular; in the outcome, the use of the vernacular has almost entirely triumphed, although the official books continue to be published in Latin. In the Church of England the Latin versions of the Book of Common Prayer have never been widely used, though, for instance, John Wesley used Latin text in doctrinal writings. The option of using traditional Latin texts in sung worship has been retained by choirs in both the Anglican and Lutheran Churches. ^ a b "On the Western Rite Liturgy | Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese". antiochian.org. Retrieved 2017-12-30. ^ a b c "CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Church Latin". www.newadvent.org. Retrieved 2018-11-27. ^ Collens, Primer of Ecclesiastical Latin, pg. vi ^ Wright, Roger (1982). Late Latin and Early Romance in Spain and Carolingian France. ARCA (Classical & Medieval Texts, Papers & Monographs). 8. Liverpool: Francis Cairns. ISBN 9780905205120. ^ a b Collins, Primer of Ecclesiastical Latin, pg. vi ^ Leonhardt, Jürgen (2013). Latin: Story of a World Language. Munich: Harvard University Press. p. 94. ISBN 978-0-674-05807-1. ^ Wright, Roger (1982). Late Latin and Early Romance in Spain and Carolingian France. Liverpool: Francis Cairns. pp. 44–50. ISBN 0-905205-12-X. ^ Janson, Tore (2007). Natural History of Latin: The Story of the World's Most Successful Language. Oxford University Press. p. 126. ISBN 978-0199214051. ^ a b c d Waquet, Françoise (2002). Latin, Or, The Empire of a Sign: From the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Centuries. Verso. p. 78. ISBN 9781859844021. ^ "Second Vatican Council | Roman Catholic history [1962–1965]". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2018-11-27. ^ See it at the Catholic News Service channel. ^ "Tra Le Sollecitudini Instruction on Sacred Music". Adoremus Bulletin. November 22, 1903. ^ "Instruction Redemptionis Sacramentum". www.vatican.va. Archived from the original on February 3, 2008. ^ Roman Missal ^ "Nova Vulgata - Bibliorum Sacrorum Editio". www.vatican.va. ^ "HOLY BIBLE: Genesis 1". www.newadvent.org. ^ "Latinitas, Opus Fundatum in Civitate Vaticana". www.vatican.va. ^ "Lexicon Recentis Latinitatis, parvum verborum novatorum Léxicum". www.vatican.va. ^ As stated above, official documents are frequently published in other languages. The Holy See's diplomatic languages are French and Latin (such as letters of credence from Vatican ambassadors to other countries are written in Latin [Fr. Reginald Foster, on Vatican Radio, 4 June 2005]). Laws and official regulations of Vatican City, which is an entity that is distinct from the Holy See, are issued in Italian. ^ Can. 249, 1983 CIC ^ Cross, Frank Leslie; Livingstone, Elizabeth A. (2005). The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. Oxford University Press. p. 961. ISBN 9780192802903. ^ Can. 928 Archived December 4, 2010, at the Wayback Machine, 1983 CIC ^ ["Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2015-01-01. Retrieved 2015-03-27.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) Motu proprio Summorum Pontificum, article 6 Sources[edit] The New Missal Latin by Edmund J. Baumeister, S.M., Ph.D. Published by St. Mary's Publishing Company, P.O. Box 134, St. Mary's, KS 66536-0134, USA. Byrne, Carol (1999). "Simplicissimus". The Latin Mass Society of England and Wales. Archived from the original on 25 February 2014. Retrieved 20 April 2011. (A course in ecclesiastical Latin.) Further reading[edit] A Primer of Ecclesiastical Latin by John F. Collins, (Catholic University of America Press, 1985) ISBN 0-8132-0667-7. A learner's first textbook, comparable in style, layout, and coverage to Wheelock's Latin, but featuring text selections from the liturgy and the Vulgate: unlike Wheelock, it also contains translation and composition exercises. Mohrmann, Christine. 1957. Liturgical Latin, Its Origins and Character: Three Lectures. Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press. Scarre, Annie Mary. 1933. An Introduction to Liturgical Latin. Ditchling: Saint Dominic's Press. Rev. H.P.G. Nunn (M.A.) (1922). Introduction To Ecclesiastical Latin. archive.org. St. John's College, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 186. Archived from the original on October 13, 2018. Retrieved October 13, 2018. External links[edit] This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references. (July 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Ecclesiastical Latin Library resources about Ecclesiastical Latin Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Latin and the Catholic Church[edit] Pope John XXIII (1999) [1962]. "Veterum Sapientia: Apostolic Constitution on the Promotion of the Study of Latin". Adoremus: Society for the Renewal of the Sacred Liturgy. (in Latin here) "What the Church says on the Latin Language". Michael Martin. Una Voce - International organization promoting the Latin Tridentine Mass Catechism of the Catholic Church in Latin Fr. Nikolaus Gihr, The Holy Sacrifice of the Mass "The Language Used in the Celebration of the Holy Mass" Bibles[edit] The Bible in Latin - official text of the Roman Catholic Church NewAdvent.org Side-by-side comparisons of the Ancient Greek, English, and Latin Vulgate Bibles. Ordo Missae of the 1970 Roman Missal, Latin and English texts, rubrics in English only Latin-English Study Bible Side-by-side of the Vulgate Latin and English Parallel Latin-English Psalter Breviaries[edit] Divinum Officium Latin-English pre-Vatican-II Breviary Other documents[edit] "Documenta Latina". The Holy See. Retrieved 13 October 2009. "Documenta Catholica Omnia"-- Multi-language Catholic eBook database of all the writings of Holy Popes, Councils, Church Fathers and Doctors, and Allied Auctors. Retrieved November 2018. "Thesaurus Precum Latinarum: Treasury of Latin Prayers". Michael Martin. Retrieved 13 October 2009. The Christian Latin Library-- a collection of ecclesiastical Latin texts by Christian authors. Retrieved November 2018. "Ecclesiastical Abbreviations". Retrieved November 2018. Complete Latin works of St. Thomas Complete Latin works of St. Augustine Latin Logos Library-- contains Classical, Medieval, and Ecclesiastical texts. 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en-wikipedia-org-9067	----	Peripatetic school - Wikipedia Peripatetic school From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search School of philosophy in Ancient Greece Aristotle's School, a painting from the 1880s by Gustav Adolph Spangenberg The Peripatetic school was a school of philosophy in Ancient Greece. Its teachings derived from its founder, Aristotle (384–322 BC), and peripatetic is an adjective ascribed to his followers. The school dates from around 335 BC when Aristotle began teaching in the Lycaeum. It was an informal institution whose members conducted philosophical and scientific inquiries. After the middle of the 3rd century BC, the school fell into a decline, and it was not until the Roman era that there was a revival. Later members of the school concentrated on preserving and commenting on Aristotle's works rather than extending them; it died out in the 3rd century. The study of Aristotle's works continued by scholars who were called Peripatetics through Late Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Renaissance. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the works of the Peripatetic school were lost to the Latin West, but they were preserved in Byzantium and also incorporated into early Islamic philosophy. Western Europe recovered Aristotelianism from Byzantium and from Islamic sources in the Middle Ages. Contents 1 Background 2 Doctrines 3 History of the school 4 Influence 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References Background[edit] The term peripatetic is a transliteration of the ancient Greek word περιπατητικός (peripatētikós), which means "of walking" or "given to walking about".[1] The Peripatetic school, founded by Aristotle,[2] was actually known simply as the Peripatos.[3] Aristotle's school came to be so named because of the peripatoi ("walkways", some covered or with colonnades) of the Lyceum where the members met.[4] The legend that the name came from Aristotle's alleged habit of walking while lecturing may have started with Hermippus of Smyrna.[5] Unlike Plato (428/7–348/7 BC), Aristotle (384–322 BC)[2] was not a citizen of Athens and so could not own property; he and his colleagues therefore used the grounds of the Lyceum as a gathering place, just as it had been used by earlier philosophers such as Socrates.[6] Aristotle and his colleagues first began to use the Lyceum in this way about 335 BC,[7] after which Aristotle left Plato's Academy and Athens, and then returned to Athens from his travels about a dozen years later.[8] Because of the school's association with the gymnasium, the school also came to be referred to simply as the Lyceum.[6] Some modern scholars argue that the school did not become formally institutionalized until Theophrastus took it over, at which time there was private property associated with the school.[9] Originally at least, the Peripatetic gatherings were probably conducted less formally than the term "school" suggests: there was likely no set curriculum or requirements for students or even fees for membership.[10] Aristotle did teach and lecture there, but there was also philosophical and scientific research done in partnership with other members of the school.[11] It seems likely that many of the writings that have come down to us in Aristotle's name were based on lectures he gave at the school.[12] Among the members of the school in Aristotle's time were Theophrastus, Phanias of Eresus, Eudemus of Rhodes, Clytus of Miletus, Aristoxenus, and Dicaearchus. Much like Plato's Academy, there were in Aristotle's school junior and senior members, the junior members generally serving as pupils or assistants to the senior members who directed research and lectured. The aim of the school, at least in Aristotle's time, was not to further a specific doctrine, but rather to explore philosophical and scientific theories; those who ran the school worked as equal partners.[13] Doctrines[edit] The doctrines of the Peripatetic school were those laid down by Aristotle and henceforth maintained by his followers. Whereas Plato had sought to explain things with his theory of forms, Aristotle preferred to start from the facts given by experience. Philosophy to him meant science, and its aim was the recognition of the "why" in all things. Hence he endeavoured to attain to the ultimate grounds of things by induction; that is to say, by a posteriori conclusions from a number of facts toward a universal.[14] Logic either deals with appearances, and is then called dialectics; or of truth, and is then called analytics.[15] All change or motion takes place in regard to substance, quantity, quality, and place. There are three kinds of substances – those alternately in motion and at rest, as the animals; those perpetually in motion, as the sky; and those eternally stationary. The last, in themselves immovable and imperishable, are the source and origin of all motion. Among them, there must be one first being, unchangeable, which acts without the intervention of any other being. All that is proceeds from it; it is the most perfect intelligence – God. The immediate action of this prime mover – happy in the contemplation of itself – extends only to the heavens; the other inferior spheres are moved by other incorporeal and eternal substances, which the popular belief adores as gods. The heavens are of a more perfect and divine nature than other bodies. In the centre of the universe is the Earth, round and stationary. The stars, like the sky, beings of a higher nature, but of grosser matter, move by the impulse of the prime mover.[15] For Aristotle, matter is the basis of all that exists; it comprises the potentiality of everything, but of itself is not actually anything. A determinate thing only comes into being when the potentiality in matter is converted into actuality. This is achieved by form, the idea existent not as one outside the many, but as one in the many, the completion of the potentiality latent in the matter.[14] The soul is the principle of life in the organic body, and is inseparable from the body. As faculties of the soul, Aristotle enumerates the faculty of reproduction and nutrition; of sensation, memory and recollection; the faculty of reason, or understanding; and the faculty of desiring, which is divided into appetition and volition.[15] By the use of reason conceptions, which are formed in the soul by external sense-impressions, and may be true or false, are converted into knowledge. For reason alone can attain to truth either in understanding or action.[14] The best and highest goal is the happiness which originates from virtuous actions.[15] Aristotle did not, with Plato, regard virtue as knowledge pure and simple, but as founded on nature, habit, and reason.[14] Virtue consists in acting according to nature: that is, keeping the mean between the two extremes of the too much and the too little. Thus valor, in his view the first of virtues, is a mean between cowardice and recklessness; temperance is the mean in respect to sensual enjoyments and the total avoidance of them.[15] History of the school[edit] Aristotle and his disciples – Alexander, Demetrius, Theophrastus, and Strato, in an 1888 fresco in the portico of the National University of Athens The names of the first seven or eight scholarchs (leaders) of the Peripatetic school are known with varying levels of certainty. A list of names with the approximate dates they headed the school is as follows (all dates BC):[16] Aristotle (c. 334 – 322) Theophrastus (322–288) Strato of Lampsacus (288 – c. 269) Lyco of Troas (c. 269 – 225) Aristo of Ceos (225 – c. 190) Critolaus (c. 190 – 155) Diodorus of Tyre (c. 140) Erymneus (c. 110) There are some uncertainties in this list. It is not certain whether Aristo of Ceos was the head of the school, but since he was a close pupil of Lyco and the most important Peripatetic philosopher in the time when he lived, it is generally assumed that he was. It is not known if Critolaus directly succeeded Aristo, or if there were any leaders between them. Erymneus is known only from a passing reference by Athenaeus.[17] Other important Peripatetic philosophers who lived during these centuries include Eudemus of Rhodes, Aristoxenus, Dicaearchus, and Clearchus of Soli. Sometime shortly after the death of Alexander the Great in June 323 BC, Aristotle left Athens to avoid persecution by anti-Macedonian factions in Athens, due to his ties to Macedonia.[18] After Aristotle's death in 322 BC, his colleague Theophrastus succeeded him as head of the school. The most prominent member of the school after Theophrastus was Strato of Lampsacus, who increased the naturalistic elements of Aristotle's philosophy and embraced a form of atheism. After the time of Strato, the Peripatetic school fell into a decline. Lyco was famous more for his oratory than his philosophical skills, and Aristo is perhaps best known for his biographical studies;[19] although Critolaus was more philosophically active, none of the Peripatetic philosophers in this period seem to have contributed anything original to philosophy.[20] The reasons for the decline of the Peripatetic school are unclear. Undoubtedly, Stoicism and Epicureanism provided many answers for those people looking for dogmatic and comprehensive philosophical systems, and the scepticism of the Middle Academy may have seemed preferable to anyone who rejected dogmatism.[21] Later tradition linked the school's decline to Neleus of Scepsis and his descendants hiding the works of Aristotle and Theophrastus in a cellar until their rediscovery in the 1st century BC, and even though this story may be doubted, it is possible that Aristotle's works were not widely read.[22] In 86 BC, Athens was sacked by the Roman general Lucius Cornelius Sulla; all the schools of philosophy in Athens were badly disrupted, and the Lyceum ceased to exist as a functioning institution. Ironically, this event seems to have brought new life to the Peripatetic school. Sulla brought the writings of Aristotle and Theophrastus back to Rome, where they became the basis of a new collection of Aristotle's writings compiled by Andronicus of Rhodes which forms the basis of the Corpus Aristotelicum which exists today.[20] Later Neoplatonist writers describe Andronicus, who lived around 50 BC, as the eleventh scholarch of the Peripatetic school,[23] which would imply that he had two unnamed predecessors. There is considerable uncertainty over the issue, and Andronicus' pupil Boethus of Sidon is also described as the eleventh scholarch.[24] It is quite possible that Andronicus set up a new school where he taught Boethus. Whereas the earlier Peripatetics had sought to extend and develop Aristotle's works, from the time of Andronicus the school concentrated on preserving and defending his work.[25] The most important figure in the Roman era is Alexander of Aphrodisias (c. 200 AD) who wrote commentaries on Aristotle's writings. With the rise of Neoplatonism (and Christianity) in the 3rd century, Peripateticism as an independent philosophy came to an end, but the Neoplatonists sought to incorporate Aristotle's philosophy within their own system, and produced many commentaries on Aristotle's works. In the 5th century, Olympiodorus the Elder is sometimes described as a Peripatetic. Influence[edit] Main article: Aristotelianism See also: Avicennism, Averroism, Thomism, and Scholasticism The last philosophers in classical antiquity to comment on Aristotle were Simplicius and Boethius in the 6th century AD.[citation needed] After this, although his works were mostly lost to the west, they were maintained in the east where they were incorporated into early Islamic philosophy. Some of the greatest Peripatetic philosophers in the Islamic philosophical tradition were Al-Kindi (Alkindus), Al-Farabi (Alpharabius), Avicenna (Ibn Sina) and Averroes (Ibn Rushd). By the 12th century, Aristotle's works began being translated into Latin during the Latin translations of the 12th century, and gradually arose Scholastic philosophy under such names as Thomas Aquinas, which took its tone and complexion from the writings of Aristotle, the commentaries of Averroes, and The Book of Healing of Avicenna.[26] See also[edit] Look up Peripatetic in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Aristotelianism Peripatetic axiom Notes[edit] ^ The entry peripatêtikos Archived 2017-02-06 at the Wayback Machine in Liddell, Henry and Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon. ^ a b Grön, Arne; et al. (1988). Lübcke, Poul (ed.). Filosofilexikonet (in Swedish). Stockholm: Forum förlag. ^ Furley 2003, p. 1141; Lynch 1997, p. 311 ^ Nussbaum 2003, p. 166; Furley 2003, p. 1141; Lynch 1997, p. 311 ^ Furley 1970, p. 801 citing Diogenes Laërtius, Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers 5.2. Some modern scholars discredit the legend altogether; see p. 229 & p. 229 n. 156, in Hegel 2006, p. 229 ^ a b Furley 2003, p. 1141 ^ 336 BCE: Furley 2003, p. 1141; 335 BCE: Lynch 1997, p. 311; 334 BCE: Irwin 2003 ^ Barnes 2000, p. 14 ^ Ostwald & Lynch 1982, p. 623, citing Diogenes Laërtius, 5.39 & 5.52. ^ Barnes 2000, p. 9 ^ Barnes 2000, pp. 7–9 ^ Irwin 2003 ^ Ostwald & Lynch 1982, pp. 623–4 ^ a b c d "Greek Philosophy" entry in Seyffert 1895, p. 482 ^ a b c d e "Peripatetic philosophy" entry in Lieber, Wigglesworth & Bradford 1832, p. 22 ^ Ross & Ackrill 1995, p. 193 ^ Athenaeus, v. 211e ^ Barnes 2000, p. 11 ^ Sharples 2003, p. 150 ^ a b Drozdek 2007, p. 205 ^ Sharples 2003, p. 151 ^ Sharples 2003, p. 152 ^ Ammonius, In de Int. 5.24 ^ Ammonius, In An. Pr. 31.11 ^ Sharples 2003, p. 153 ^ Spade, Paul Vincent (2018). Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "Medieval Philosophy". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Center for the Study of Language and Information. References[edit] Barnes, Jonathan (2000), Aristotle: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford Paperbacks, ISBN 0-19-285408-9 . Drozdek, Adam (2007), Greek Philosophers as Theologians: The Divine Arche, Ashgate publishing, ISBN 0-7546-6189-X . Furley, David (1970), "Peripatetic School", in Hammond, N. G. L.; Scullard, H. H. (eds.), The Oxford Classical Dictionary (2nd ed.), Oxford University Press . Furley, David (2003), "Peripatetic School", in Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony (eds.), The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3rd ed.), Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-860641-9 . Hegel, G. W. F. (2006), Brown, Robert F. (ed.), Lectures on the History of Philosophy 1825–1826: Greek Philosophy, 2, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-927906-3 . Irwin, T. (2003), "Aristotle", in Craig, Edward (ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Routledge . Lieber, Francis; Wigglesworth, Edward; Bradford, T. G. (1832), Encyclopedia Americana, 10 . Lynch, J. (1997), "Lyceum", in Zeyl, Donald J.; Devereux, Daniel; Mitsis, Phillip (eds.), Encyclopedia of Classical Philosophy, Greenwood Press, ISBN 0-313-28775-9 . Nussbaum, M. (2003), "Aristotle", in Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony (eds.), The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3rd ed.), Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-860641-9 . Ostwald, M.; Lynch, J. (1982), "The Growth of Schools & the Advance of Knowledge", in Lewis, D. M.; Boardman, John; Hornblower, Simon; et al. (eds.), The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 6: The Fourth Century BCE, Cambridge University Press . Ross, David; Ackrill, John L. (1995), Aristotle, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-12068-3 . Seyffert, Oskar (1895), A Dictionary of Classical Antiquities . Sharples, Robert W. (2003), "The Peripatetic school", in Furley, David (ed.), From Aristotle to Augustine: Routledge History of Philosophy, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-30874-7 . Wehrli, Fritz (ed.), Die Schule des Aristoteles. Texte und Kommentare. 10 volumes and 2 Supplements. Basel 1944–1959, 2. Edition 1967–1969. I. Dikaiarchos (1944); II. Aristoxenos (1945); III. Klearchos (1948); IV. Demetrios von Phaleron (1949); V. Straton von Lampsakos (1950); VI. Lykon und Ariston von Keos (1952); VII: Herakleides Pontikos (1953); VIII. Eudemos von Rhodos (1955); IX. Phainias von Eresos, Chamaileon, Praxiphanes (1957); X. Hieronymos von Rhodos, Kritolaos und seine Schuler, Rückblick: Der Peripatos in vorchlisticher Zeit; Register (1959); Supplement I: Hermippos der Kallimacheer (1974); Supplement II: Sotio (1978). v t e Aristotelianism Overview Aristotle Lyceum Peripatetic school Physics Biology Ethics Logic Theology (unmoved mover) Ideas and interests Active intellect Antiperistasis Arete Category of being Catharsis Classical unities Correspondence theory of truth Essence–accident Eudaimonia Four causes Future contingents Genus–differentia Hexis Hylomorphism Intromission theory of vision Ignoratio elenchi Lexis Magnanimity Mimesis Minima naturalia Moderate realism Aristotle's theory of universals (substantial form) Mythos Philosophy of nature (sublunary sphere) Philia Plenism Rational animal Phronesis Potentiality and actuality Sensus communis Substance theory (hypokeimenon, ousia) Syllogism Telos Temporal finitism To ti en einai/to ti esti Use value/exchange value Virtue ethics Corpus Aristotelicum Physics Organon Nicomachean Ethics Politics Metaphysics On the Soul Rhetoric Poetics Followers Alexander the Great Lyceum Aristoxenus Clearchus of Soli Dicaearchus Eudemus of Rhodes Theophrastus Strato of Lampsacus Lyco of Troas Aristo of Ceos Critolaus Diodorus of Tyre Erymneus Andronicus of Rhodes Islamic Golden Age Al-Kindi Al-Farabi Avicenna Averroes Jewish Maimonides Scholastics Peter Lombard Albertus Magnus Thomas Aquinas Duns Scotus Peter of Spain Jacopo Zabarella Pietro Pomponazzi Cesar Cremonini Modern Newman Trendelenburg Brentano Adler Foot MacIntyre Smith Hursthouse Nussbaum Related topics Platonism Commentaries on Aristotle Recovery of Aristotle Scholasticism Thomism Conimbricenses Pseudo-Aristotle Views on women Aristotle's wheel paradox Aristotle's razor Metabasis paradox Related categories ► Aristotle  Philosophy portal v t e Ancient Greek schools of philosophy Pre-Socratic Ionian Epimenides of Knossos Pherecydes of Syros Diogenes Metrodorus of Lampsacus Xenophanes 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en-wikipedia-org-9082	----	Censorinus - Wikipedia Censorinus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the lunar crater, see Censorinus (crater). For other Romans named Censorinus, see Marcius Censorinus. This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (March 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Censorinus was a Roman grammarian and miscellaneous writer from the 3rd century AD. He was the author of a lost work De Accentibus and of an extant treatise De Die Natali, written in 238, and dedicated to his patron Quintus Caerellius as a birthday gift. The contents are of a varied character: the natural history of man, the influence of the stars and genii, music, religious rites, astronomy, the doctrines of the Greek philosophers, and antiquarian subjects. The second part deals with chronological and mathematical questions, and has been of great service in determining the principal epochs of ancient history. The whole is full of curious and interesting information. The style is clear and concise, although somewhat rhetorical, and the Latinity – for the period – good. The chief authorities used were Varro and Suetonius. Some scholars, indeed, hold that the entire work is practically an adaptation of the lost Pratum of Suetonius. The fragments of a work De Naturali Institutione, dealing with astronomy, geometry, music, and versification, and usually printed with the De Die Natali of Censorinus, are not by him. Part of the original manuscript, containing the end of the genuine work, and the title and name of the author of the fragment are lost. A bright crater in the Sea of Tranquility on the Moon has been named after him. References[edit] Good edition with commentary by Heinrich Lindenbrog (1614) Critical editions by Otto Jahn (1845) Friedrich Hultsch (1867) Ivan Cholodniak (1889) Kai Brodersen (2012) English translation of the De Die Natali (the first eleven chapters being omitted) with notes by William Maude (New York, 1900)  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Censorinus". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. New English translation of the De Die Natali by Holt N. Parker (trans.): Censorinus. The Birthday Book. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2007. Pp. xiv, 102. ISBN 0-226-09974-1 New German translation by Kai Brodersen (trans.): Censorinus. Das Geburtstagsbuch. Darmstadt: Primus, 2011. Pp. 120. ISBN 978-3-89678-752-1 New critical edition with German translation by Kai Brodersen: Censorinus. Über den Geburtstag (Edition Antike). Darmstadt: WBG, 2012. Pp. 160. ISBN 978-3-534-18154-4 External links[edit] de Die natali at LacusCurtius (Latin text, French translation: Cholodniak's edition) Corpus Grammaticorum Latinorum: complete texts and full bibliography Authority control BIBSYS: 90086673 BNE: XX1257603 BNF: cb11885953m (data) CANTIC: a10871627 CiNii: DA00879390 GND: 118667661 ISNI: 0000 0001 1028 1502 LCCN: n85215659 NKC: ola2002153981 NSK: 000118097 NTA: 069723540 RERO: 02-A003086751 SELIBR: 305148 SUDOC: 026652056 VIAF: 195718548 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n85215659 This ancient Roman biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Censorinus&oldid=943182957" Categories: 3rd-century Romans Post–Silver Age Latin writers Grammarians of Latin Latin-language writers 3rd-century Latin writers Ancient Roman antiquarians Ancient Roman people stubs Hidden categories: Articles lacking in-text citations from March 2012 All articles lacking in-text citations Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Asturianu Български Català Deutsch Español Esperanto Français Italiano עברית Latina Magyar Polski Português Русский Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 29 February 2020, at 10:41 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9085	----	Wikipedia:Contents - Wikipedia Wikipedia:Contents From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikipedia's contents Contents Overviews Outlines Lists Portals A–Z index Glossaries Categories Indices Reference Culture Geography Health History Human activities Mathematics Nature People Philosophy Religion Society Technology Explore Wikipedia's contents For Wikipedia’s internal directory, see Wikipedia:Directories and indexes. 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en-wikipedia-org-9103	----	Berytus - Wikipedia Berytus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Berytos" redirects here. For the defunct airline, see Berytos Airlines. For the women's association football club, see ÓBerytus. Berytus Biruta  (Phoenician) Βηρυτός  (Ancient Greek) Bērȳtus  (Latin) Roman ruins of Berytus, in front of Saint George Greek Orthodox Cathedral in modern-day Beirut Shown within Lebanon Alternative name Laodicea in Phoenicia (Ancient Greek: Λαοδίκεια ἡ ἐν Φοινίκῃ) or Laodicea in Canaan (2nd century to 64 BCE) Location Beirut, Lebanon Coordinates 33°53′44.8″N 35°30′18.5″E / 33.895778°N 35.505139°E / 33.895778; 35.505139Coordinates: 33°53′44.8″N 35°30′18.5″E / 33.895778°N 35.505139°E / 33.895778; 35.505139 Type Settlement History Founded (merchants from Berytus recorded by 110–109 BCE) Periods Hellenistic, Roman and Early Byzantine/late antiquity; previous port dating back to Iron Age III and Persian periods Cultures Phoenician, Greek, Roman Berytus (/ˈbɛrɪtəs, bəˈraɪtəs/;[1] Phoenician: Biruta; Ancient Greek: Βηρυτός, romanized: Bērytós; Latin: Bērȳtus), briefly known as Laodicea in Phoenicia (Ancient Greek: Λαοδίκεια ἡ ἐν Φοινίκῃ) or Laodicea in Canaan from the 2nd century to 64 BCE, was the ancient city of Beirut (in modern-day Lebanon) from the Hellenistic period through the Roman and Early Byzantine period/late antiquity. The city had been rebuilt by the Seleucids in the 2nd century BCE over the ruins of an older settlement centred on a Phoenician port dating back to Iron Age III and Persian periods. Berytus became a Roman colonia that would be the center of Roman presence in the eastern Mediterranean shores south of Anatolia.[2] The veterans of two Roman legions under Augustus were established in the city (the fifth Macedonian and the third Gallic), that afterward quickly became Romanized and was the only fully Latin-speaking city in the Syria-Phoenicia region until the fourth century. Although Berytus was an important city, Tyre was made the capital of the Roman province of Phoenicia. "Of the great law schools of Rome, Constantinople, and Berytus", the law school of Berytus stood "pre-eminent".[3] The Code of Justinian (one part of the Corpus Juris Civilis, the codification of Roman law ordered early in the 6th century AD by Justinian I and fully written in Latin) was mostly created in this school. Contents 1 History 1.1 Early history 1.2 Roman colonia 1.2.1 The Law School of Berytus 1.3 Early Byzantine rule 2 Recent discoveries 3 Notable people 4 See also 5 Notes 6 Bibliography History[edit] Early history[edit] In 140 BC the Phoenician village called "Biruta" was destroyed by Diodotus Tryphon in his contest with Antiochus VII Sidetes for the throne of the Macedonian Seleucid monarchy. Later it was rebuilt on a more conventional Hellenistic plan—the exact date is unclear but prosperous Berytian merchants were recorded in Delos by 110–109 BCE[4]—under the name of Laodicea in Phoenicia (Greek: Λαοδίκεια ἡ ἐν Φοινίκῃ) or Laodicea in Canaan in honor of a Seleucid Laodice. The city was conquered by the Romans of Pompey in 64 BC and renamed "Berytus", as a reference to the name of the old original Phoenician port-village. The city was assimilated into the Roman Empire, veteran soldiers were sent there, and large building projects were undertaken.[5][6][7] Roman colonia[edit] Roman Columns of Basilica near the Forum of Berytus In 14 BC, during the reign of Herod the Great, Berytus became an important Roman colonia. The city was named Colonia Iulia Augusta Felix Berytus in honor of Julia, the only daughter of Augustus (according to Theodore Mommsen, "Res gestae divi Augusti", II, 119). Furthermore, the veterans of two Roman legions were established in the city of Berytus by emperor Augustus: the fifth Macedonian and the third Gallic.[8] Consequently, the city quickly became fully Romanized. Large public buildings and monuments were erected and Berytus enjoyed full status as a part of the empire.[9] ...(Berytus) was made a Roman colony about 14 B.C. Herod the Great, Agrippa I and II, and Queen Berenice built exedras, porticos, temples, a forum, a theater, amphitheater, and baths here. In the 3d c. A.D. the city became the seat of a famous school of law and continued to flourish until the earthquake of A.D. 551 ravaged the city....Its streets, laid out on a grid plan, are spaced at roughly the same intervals as those of Damascus and Laodicea. The new Roman city spread farther S and W (of the port), with its Forum near the (actual) Place de l'Etoile. On its N side was a civic basilica 99 m long with a Corinthian portico of polychrome materials..., dating from the 1st c. A.D. Some large baths have been uncovered on the E slope of the (actual) Colline du Sérail, and the hippodrome lay on the NW side of the same hill. Some villas in a S suburb facing the sea had mosaic floors (now in the Beirut Museum).Some 12 km upstream on the Beirut river are the ruined arches of an aqueduct.[10] Berytus was considered the most Roman city in the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire.[11] It was one of four Roman colonies in the Syria-Phoenicia region and the only one with full Ius Italicum (meaning: exemption from imperial taxation). Its territory under Claudius reached the Bekaa valley and included Heliopolis: it was the only area mostly Latin-speaking in the Syria-Phoenicia region, because settled by Roman colonists who even promoted agriculture in the fertile lands around actual Yammoune. From the 1st century BC the Bekaa valley served as a source of grain for the Roman provinces of the Levant and even for the same Rome (today the valley makes up to 40 percent of Lebanon's arable land):Roman colonists created there even a "country district" called Pagus Augustus.[12] Agrippa greatly favoured the city of Berytus, and adorned it with a splendid theatre and amphitheatre, beside Baths and porticoes, inaugurating them with games and spectacles of every kind, including shows of gladiators. But now only minor ruins remains, in front of the Catholic Cathedral of Beirut. Indeed, four large bath complexes as well as numerous private baths increased the city's water consumption: the Romans constructed an aqueduct fed by the Beirut River whose main source was located 10 km from the city. The aqueduct crossed the river at Qanater Zbaydeh and the water finally reached the place of actual Riad Al Solh Square; there, at the foot of the Serail Hill, it was stored in large cisterns. An intricate network of lead or clay pipes and channels distributed the water to the various pools of the Roman Baths. Roman Berytus was a city of nearly 50,000 inhabitants during Trajan times and had a huge Forum and necropolis[13] The Hippodrome of Roman Berytus was the largest known in the Levant,[14] while literary sources indicate there was even a theater.[12] Scholars like Linda Hall pinpoint that the hippodrome was still working in the fifth century.[15] Roman coin minted in Berytus[16] Berytus had a monumental "Roman Gate" with huge walls (recently discovered[17]) and was a trade center of silk and wine production, well connected by efficient Roman roads to Heliopolis and Caesarea. According to Kevin Butcher,[12] the Latin character of Berytus remained dominant until the fifth century: the city was a center for the study of Latin literature and -after Septimius Severus- of Roman Law. Under Nero the son of a roman colonist, Marcus Valerius Probus (born in Berytus around 25 AD), was known in all the empire as a Latin grammarian and literature master philologist. Roman emperors promoted the development of high-level culture in the fully Romanized city (even in Greek language as with Hermippus of Berytus). The Law School of Berytus[edit] The Berytian law school was widely known in the Roman empire;:[18] it was famous the Latin motto Berytus Nutrix Legum ("Beirut, Mother of Laws"). Indeed, two of Rome's most famous jurists, Papinian and Ulpian, both natives of Phoenicia, taught there under the Severan emperors. When Justinian assembled his Pandects in the sixth century, a large part of the "Corpus of Laws" -all in Latin- was derived from these two jurists, and in 533 AD Justinian recognized the school as one of the three official law schools of the empire. The flag of Beirut features an open book with the motto "Berytus Nutrix Legum" (Beirut, Mother of Laws) on one side and its Arabic translation "بيروت أم الشرائع" on the other. The law school of Beirut supplied the Roman Empire, especially its eastern provinces, with lawyers and magistrates for three centuries until the school's destruction in a powerful earthquake. After the 551 Beirut earthquake[19] the students were transferred to Sidon.[20] Since the third century, the city had an important law college. It was here that the great codification of Roman Law, which was to be propagated by emperors like Theodosius II and Justinian, was prepared.[21] Early Byzantine rule[edit] Under the Eastern Roman Empire, some intellectual and economic activities in Berytus continued to flourish for more than a century, even if the Latin language started to be replaced by the Greek language and become Hellenised again. However, in the sixth century a series of earthquakes demolished most of the temples of Heliopolis (actual Baalbek) and destroyed the city of Berytus, leveling its famous law school and killing nearly 30,000 inhabitants. Furthermore, the ecumenical Christian councils of the fifth and sixth centuries AD were unsuccessful in settling religious disagreements within the surviving community. Berytus became a "Christian See" at an early date, and was a suffragan of Tyre in "Phoenicia Prima", a province of the "Patriarchate of Antioch". In antiquity its most famous bishop was Eusebius, afterwards Bishop of Nicomedia, the courtier-prelate and strong supporter of Arianism in the fourth century....In 450 AD Berytus obtained from Theodosius II the title of metropolis, with jurisdiction over six sees taken from Tyre; but in 451 AD the "Council of Chalcedon" restored these to Tyre, leaving, however, to Berytus its rank of metropolis (Mansi, VII, 85–98). Thus, from 451 AD Berytus was an exempt metropolis depending directly on the Patriarch of Antioch.[22] This turbulent Byzantine period weakened the alredy Hellenised (and fully Christian) population and made it easy prey to the newly converted Muslim Arabs of the Arabian Peninsula.[23][24] Eastern Roman Berytus -reduced to the size of a village- fell to the Arabs in 635 AD.[25] Roman Ruins in the "Roman Baths Garden" General view of the "Roman Baths Garden" Recent discoveries[edit] Recently at the Garden of Forgiveness the two main streets of Roman Berytus, the Cardo and Decumanus Maximus, were discovered in the Beirut Central District. Their shaded colonnades became busy markets on festival days. At other times, these streets would have been frequented by Law School students and citizens passing to the Forum or visiting temples and churches. In 1968 were discovered the "Roman Baths" Gardens, that is a landscaped public space that lies on the eastern slope of the Serail Hill. It consists of a garden and a set of uncovered ruins of the ancient Roman baths of Berytus (hence the name of the place). These ruins underwent a thorough cleaning and further excavation in 1995–1997. Designed by the British landscaping firm Gillepsies, the Garden's layout is dominated with low-slung glass walls and lookout platforms that can be turned into concert venues, thus giving a 21st-century touch without harming the area's historical fabric.[26] At the turn of the 20th century was identified the area were existed the famous school of Roman law at Berytus. Archaeological excavations in the area between the Saint George Greek Orthodox Cathedral and Saint George Cathedral of the Maronites unearthed a funerary stele etched with an epitaph to a man named Patricius, "whose career was consecrated for the study of law".[27] The epitaph was identified as being dedicated to the famous 5th-century law school professor.[28] In 1994, archaeological diggings underneath the Saint George Greek Orthodox Cathedral in Beirut Central District's Nejmeh Square identified structural elements of the Anastasis cathedral, but they were restricted to an area of 316 square metres (3,400 sq ft) and failed to unearth the interred school.[29] In the 5th century, Zacharias Rhetor reported that the school stood next to the "Temple of God", the description of which permitted its identification with the Byzantine Anastasis cathedral.[30] Notable people[edit] Hermippus of Berytus (fl. 2nd century AD) Marcus Valerius Probus (c. 20/30 – 105 AD) Vindonius Anatolius See also[edit] Cisterns of the Roman Baths, Beirut Phoenicia under Roman rule Roman Baths, Beirut Roman "Lex Schola" of Berytus Notes[edit] ^ Worcester, Joseph E. (1861) An Elementary Dictionary of the English Language, Boston: Swan, Brewer & Tileston, page 326 ^ Theodore Mommsen."The Provinces of the Roman Empire" Chapter: Phoenicia ^ Scott, Samuel Parsons (1973). The Civil Law, Including the Twelve Tables: The Institutes of Gaius, the Rules of Ulpian, the Opinions of Paulus, the Enactments of Justinian, and the Constitutions of Leo. ISBN 9780404110321. ^ Paturel 2019, p. 72. ^ About Beirut and Downtown Beirut, DownTownBeirut.com. ^ Beirut Travel Information, Lonely Planet ^ Czech excavations in Beirut, Martyrs' Square, Institute for Classical Archaeology, Archived July 23, 2013, at the Wayback Machine ^ Hall 2004, p. 45. ^ About Beirut and Downtown Beirut, DownTownBeirut.com. Retrieved November 17, 2007. ^ Princeton E.: Berytus ^ Morgan, James F. The Prodigal Empire: The Fall of the Western Roman Empire, page 87 ^ a b c Butcher 2003, p. 230. ^ "Data with map of Roman Berytus (in Spanish)". Archived from the original on 2009-09-16. Retrieved 2015-08-19. ^ "Roman wall removed from Beirut Hippodrome site". Beirut Report. October 25, 2013. ^ Hall 2004, p. 68. ^ "CNG: The Coin Shop. PHOENICIA, Berytus. Claudius. AD 41-54. Æ 20mm (8.92 g, 12h). Legionary issue". www.cngcoins.com. ^ "Possible Roman gate and road found in Beirut dig". Beirut Report. May 17, 2013. ^ Beirut Archived 2012-05-24 at Archive.today, Britannica.com ^ Archive, Full Text. "History of Phoenicia" – via www.fulltextarchive.com. ^ History of Berytus Archived 2009-06-28 at the Wayback Machine ^ "Livius: Berytus". ^ Catholic E.:Berytus ([1]) ^ Ostrogorsky, George (1959). "The Byzantine Empire in the World of the Seventh Century" (PDF). Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 13: 21. doi:10.2307/1291127. JSTOR 1291126. S2CID 165376375. ^ Wells, Herbert George (1922). "Chapter 33". A Short History of the World. New York: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-06-492674-4. ^ Donner, Fred McGraw (1981), "The Early Islamic Conquests". Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-05327-8 ^ "Beirut Shakes Off Rubble, Dons Slick New Architecture". Co.Design. 2010-08-11. ^ Collinet 1925, p. 73. ^ Collinet 1925, pp. 61–73. ^ Skaf & Assaf 2005, pp. 224–229. ^ Collinet 1925, pp. 63–73. Bibliography[edit] Look up Berytus in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Butcher, Kevin (2003). Roman Syria and the Near East. Los Angeles: Getty Publications. ISBN 978-0-89236-715-3. Collinet, Paul (1925). Histoire de l'école de droit de Beyrouth (in French). Paris: Société Anonyme du Recueil Sirey. Gil, Moshe (1997) [1983]. A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Translated by Ethel Broido. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-59984-9. Hall, Linda J. (2004). Roman Berytus: Beirut in Late Antiquity. London: Psychology Press. ISBN 978-1-134-44013-9. Mann, J.C. The settlement of veterans in the Roman Empire London University. London, 1956 Mommsen, Theodore. The Provinces of the Roman Empire from Caesar to Diocletian. Press Holdings International. New York, 2004. ISBN 9781410211675 Mouterde, René et Lauffray, Jean (1952) Beyrouth ville romaine. Publications de la Direction des Antiquités du Liban, Beyrouth. Paturel, Simone (2019). Baalbek-Heliopolis, the Bekaa, and Berytus from 100 BCE to 400 CE: A Landscape Transformed. Brill. ISBN 9789004400733. Skaf, Isabelle; Assaf, Yasmine Makaroun Bou (November 29 – December 3, 2005). Aïcha Ben Abed Ben Khader; Martha Demas; Thomas Roby (eds.). Une nouvelle approche pour la préservation in situ des mosaïques et vestiges archéologiques au Liban: La crypte de l'église Saint-Georges à Beyrouth. Lessons Learned: Reflecting on the Theory and Practice of Mosaic Conservation (9th ICCM Conference, Hammamet, Tunisia) (in French). Getty Publications. 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Jordan Petra: Petra Umm Qais: Gadara Jerash: Gerasa Lebanon Arqa: Arca Caesarea Beirut: Berytus Baalbek: Heliopolis Saida: Sidon Tyre: Tyrus Syria Bosra: Bostra Damascus: Damascus Dura-Europos: Dura-Europus Homs: Emesa Latakia: Laodicea Shahba: Philippopolis Tadmur: Palmyra Turkey Antakya: Antioch Samandağ: Seleucia 1 UNESCO World Heritage Sites; 2 Proposed; 3 in Danger See also: Legacy of the Roman Empire v t e Roman archaeological sites in Lebanon Roman Berytus (actual Beirut) Berytus 1 Roman Forum of Berytus Berytus Roman Baths Cisterns of Berytus Baths Berytus Cardo Decumanus Berytus Colonnaded street Byzantine mosaics Roman hippodrome of Berytus Roman Law school of Berytus Roman Phoenicia (actual Lebanon) Heliopolis Temple of Bacchus Temple of Jupiter (Roman Heliopolis) Temples of Mount Hermon Temples of the Beqaa Valley Aaqbe temple Afqa Ain Aata temple Amioun Monastery Arca Caesarea Bakka temple Batroumine Bziza temple Canalizations of Zenobia Dakoue temple Mansourieh Roman aqueduct Hebbariye temple Iaat column Kafr Zabad temples Labweh Roman temple Monastery of Saint Maron Nebi Safa temple Niha Qal'at Bustra temple Castra Chbib Castra El Banat Saraain El Faouqa Colonia Aurelia Pia "Sidon" Temnin el-Foka nymphaeum Tripolis in Phoenicia Tyrus 1 Tyre Necropolis Roman temple to Venus in Yammoune Related articles & lists Roman Lebanon Phoenice (Roman province) Stone of the Pregnant Woman Ulpianus Marcus Valerius Probus Palaestina Secunda Coele-Syria List of Christian cathedrals in Lebanon Christianity in Lebanon Catholic Church in Lebanon Saint George Greek Orthodox Cathedral 551 Beirut earthquake 1 UNESCO World Heritage Sites 2 Proposed Category:Roman sites in Lebanon v t e Archaeological sites in Lebanon Aadloun Aaiha Aammiq Aaqbe Ain Aata Ain Choaab Ain Harcha Akbiyeh Akkar plain foothills Al-Bireh Amioun Amlaq Qatih Anjar, Lebanon Antelias cave Apheca Ard Saouda Ard Tlaili Arqa Baalbek Baidar ech Chamout Batroumine Batroun Bechamoun Beirut Beit Mery Berytus (Roman Beirut) Bustan Birke Byblos Canalizations of Zenobia Dahr El Ahmar Dakoue Deir El Aachayer Deir Al-Ahmar Deir Mar Maroun Dekwaneh Douris (Baalbek) Elaea (Lebanon) Flaoui Fadous Sud Hebbariye Hadeth south Haret ech Cheikh Hashbai Heliopolis in Phoenicia Hermel plains Iaat Jabal es Saaïdé Jbaa Jdeideh Jebel Aabeby Jeita Grotto Joub Jannine Jieh Kafr Zabad Kamid al lawz Kamouh el Hermel Karak Nuh Kaukaba Kefraya Kafr Tebnit Kfar Qouq Kfarhata Khallet Michte Khirbet El-Knese Kouachra megalith field Ksar Akil Labweh Lake Qaraoun (Ain Jaouze) Libbaya Lion Tower Majdal Anjar Mansourieh Maronite mummies Mayrouba Mdoukha (Jebel Kassir) Moukhtara Mtaileb Nabi Zair Nachcharini Nahle, Lebanon Neba'a Faour Nebi Safa Niha Bekaa Phoenician port of Beirut Plain of Zgharta Qaa Qal'at Bustra Qalaat Tannour Qaraoun Qasr el Banat Ras Baalbek I Ras Beirut Ras El Kelb Rashaya Roman Forum of Berytus Roman temple of Bziza Roman hippodrome of Berytus Sands of Beirut Saraain El Faouqa Shheem Sidon Sin el Fil Sarepta Stone of the Pregnant Woman Tahun ben Aissa Taire Tayibe Tell Aalaq Tell Ablah Tell Addus Tell Ahle Tell Ain Cerif Tell Ain el Meten Tell Ain Ghessali Tell Ain Nfaikh Tell Ain Saouda Tell Ain Sofar Tell Ayoub Tell Bar Elias Tell Beshara Tell Bir Dakoue Tell Deir Tell Delhamieh Tell Derzenoun Tell Dibbine Tell el-Burak Tell El Ghassil Tell El Hadeth Tell Fadous Tell Hazzine Tell Hoch Rafqa Tell Karmita Tell Khardane Tell Kirri Tell Jezireh Tell Jisr Tell Kabb Elias Tell Majdaloun Tell Masoud Tell Mekhada Tell Meouchi Tell Mureibit Tell Murtafa Tell Nahariyah Tell Neba'a Chaate Tell Neba'a Litani Tell Qasr Labwe Tell Rasm El Hadeth Tell Rayak Tell Saatiya Tell Safiyeh Tell Saoudhi Tell Serhan Tell Shaikh Hassan al Rai Tell Shamsine Tell Sultan Yakoub Tell Taalabaya Tell Wardeen Tell Zenoub Tell Zeitoun Temnin el-Foka Temple of Bacchus Temple of Eshmun Temple of Jupiter Temple of the Obelisks Tlail megaliths Toron Tripolis (region of Phoenicia) Tyre Necropolis Tyre Umm al-Amad Wadi Boura Wadi Koura Wadi Yaroun Yammoune Yanta Ain W Zain Zahlé Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Berytus&oldid=988097489" Categories: Archaeological sites in Lebanon Beirut Coloniae (Roman) History of Beirut Seleucid colonies Razed cities Roman sites in Lebanon Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Webarchive template archiveis links Articles containing Phoenician-language text Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Latin-language text Coordinates on Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text Articles containing Arabic-language text CS1 French-language sources (fr) Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload 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en-wikipedia-org-9111	----	List of Roman nomina - Wikipedia List of Roman nomina From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikipedia list article This is a list of Roman nomina. Each nomen is for a gens, originally a single family, but later more of a political grouping. Contents 1 A 2 B 3 C 4 D 5 E 6 F 7 G 8 H 9 I–J 10 L 11 M 12 N 13 O 14 P 15 Q-R 16 S 17 T 18 U-V 19 See also 20 References A[edit] Abronius Abudius Aburius Accius Accoleius Acerronius Acilius Aconius Actorius Acutius Aebutius Aedinius — from inscriptions Aelius Aemilius Afinius Afranius or Afrenius Agorius Albanius Albatius Albinius Albius Albucius or Albutius Alfenus Alfius Alienus Allectius Amafinius Amatius Ambrosius Ampius Ampudius — found on a tombstone of a freedman Ancharius Anicius Annaeus Anneius Annius Anquirinnius Antistius Antius Antonius Apisius Aponius Appius Appuleius Apronius Apustius Aquillius Aquinius Arellius Arennius Arminius or Armenius Arpineius Arrecinus Arrius Arruntius Arsinius Articuleius Artorius Asconius Asellius Asinius Ateius Aternius Atius Atilius Atinius Atrius Attius — see Atius Audasius Aufeius Aufidius Aulius Aurelius Aurius Aurunculeius Ausonius Autronius Avianus Avidius Avienus Avilius Avius Axius B[edit] Babrius Baebius Balventius Bantius Barbatius Barrius Bavius Bellicius Bellienus Bellius Betilienus Betitius Betucius Betuus Blandius Blossius Boionius Bruttius Bucculeius Burbuleius Burrienus C[edit] Caecilius Caecina Caecius Caedicius Caelius Caeparius Caepasius Caerellius Caesellius Caesennius Caesetius Caesius Caesonius Caesulenus Caetronius Calavius Calesterna Calidius Calpurnius Calvenus Calventius Calvisius Campatius Canidius Caninius Canius Cantilius Cantius Canuleius Canutius Carfulenus Carisius Caristanius Carius Carpinatius Carrinas Carteius Carvilius Casperius Cassius Castricius Castrinius Catienus Catilius Catius Ceionius Centenius Ceppuleius Cestius Cicereius Cilnius Cincius Cispius Classidius Claudius or Clodius Cloelius or Cluilius Cluentius Clutorius Cluvius or Clovius Cocceius Coelius Cominius Condetius Consentius Considius Consius Coponius Cordius Corfidius Cornelius Cornificius Coruncanius Cosconius Cossinius Cossutius Cotius Cottius Crassitius Crepereius Critonius Cupiennius Curiatius Curius Curtilius Curtius Cusinius Cuspius D[edit] Decentius Decidius Decimius Decitius Decius Dellius Desticius — at least two governors known from inscriptions Dexsius — L. Dexsius Longinus mentioned in an inscription of 119 AD[1] Didius Digitius Dillius Domitius Dubius Duccius — inscriptions, notably on a tombstone of Lucius Duccius Rufinus at York[2] Duilius Durmius Duronius E[edit] Eggius Egilius Egnatius Egnatuleius Egrilius Elvius Ennius Epidius Eppius Equitius Erucius Expentanius F[edit] Fabius Fabricius Fadius Faenius Falcidius Falerius Faminius Fannius Farsuleius Faucius Favonius Festinius[3] — seen on a tombstone of a two-year-old child Fidiculanius Firmius Flaminius Flavinius Flavius Flavoleius — inscriptions Flavonius — inscriptions Floridius Florius Floronius — inscriptions Fonteius Foslius Fufetius Fuficius Fufidius Fufius Fulcinius Fulginas Fulvius Fundanius Furius Furnius G[edit] Gabinius Galerius Gallius Gargonius Gavius Geganius Gellius Geminius Genucius Gessius Glicius Granius Gratidius Gratius H[edit] Haterius Heius Helvidius Helvius Herennius Herennuleius Herminius Hirrius Hirtius Hirtuleius Horatius Hordeonius Hortensius Hosidius Hostilius Hostius I–J[edit] Iccius Icilius Insteius Jallius Julius Junius Juventius L[edit] Laberius Labienus Lacerius Laecanius Laelius Laenius Laetilius Laetorius Lafrenius Lamponius Laronius Lartius or Larcius Latinius Lavinius Lemonius Lentidius Lepidius Libertius Liburnius Licinius Ligarius Livinius Livius Lollius Longinius Loreius — House of Loreius Tiburtinus in Pompeii Lucceius Lucienus Lucilius Lucius Lucretius Lurius Luscius Lusius Lutatius M[edit] Macrinius Maecenas Maecilius Maecius Maelius Maenas Maenius Maevius Magius Mallius Mamercius Mamilius Manilius Manlius Marcius Marius Martinius Matienus Matinius Matius Matrinius Maximius Memmius Menenius Menius Mescinius Messienus Messius Mestrius Metilius Mettius Milonius Mimesius Minatius Minicius Minidius Minius Minucius Modius Mucius Mummius Munatius Munius Murrius Mussidius Mustius Mutius N[edit] Naevius Nasennius Nasidienus Nasidius Nautius Neratius Nerfinius Nerius Nigidius Ninnius Nipius Nonius Norbanus Novellius Novius Numerius Numicius Numisius Numitorius Nummius Numonius Nymphidius O[edit] Obellius Obultronius Occius Oclatinius Oclatius Octavenus Octavius Ofanius Ofilius Ogulnius Ollius Opellius Opetreius Opimius Opisius Opiternius Oppidius Oppius Opsidius Opsilius Opsius Oranius Orbicius Orbilius Orchius Orcivius Orfidius Orfius Orosius Oscius Ostorius Otacilius Ovidius Ovinius P[edit] Paccius Pacidius Pacilius Paconius Pactumeius Pacuvius Palfurius Palpellius Pantuleius Papinius Papirius Papius Pasidienus Pasidius Passienus Patrobius — known only by Nero's freedman Patulcius Pedanius Pedius Peducaeus Peltrasius Percennius Perperna or Perpenna Persius Pescennius Petillius or Petellius Petreius Petronius Petrosidius Pilius Pinarius Pinnius Pisentius Placidius Plaetorius Plaguleius Plancius Plarius Plautius or Plotius Pleminius Plinius Poetelius Pollius Pompeius Pompilius Pomponius Pomptinus Pontidius Pontificius Pontilienus Pontilius Pontius Popaedius Popidius Poppaeus Porcius or Portius Postumius Postumulenus Potitius Praecilius Praeconius Precius Priscius Procilius Proculeius Propertius Proxinius Publicius Publilius Pupius Q-R[edit] Quartinius Quartius Quinctilius Quinctius Quirinius Rabirius Rabonius Rabuleius Racilius Raecius Ragonius Rammius Ranius Rasinius Reginius Remmius Rennius Resius Romanius Romilius or Romulius Romogillius Roscius Rubellius Rubrenus Rubrius Rufinius Rufius Rufrius Rullius Rupilius Rusonius Rusticelius Rustius Rutilius S[edit] Sabellius Sabidius Sabinius Sabucius Saenius Safinius Salienus Sallustius Salonius Saltius Saltorius Salvidienus Salvidius Salvius Salvienus Sammius Sanquinius Sariolenus Sarius Satellius Satrienus Satrius Sattius Saturius Saufeius Scaevilius Scaevinius Scaevius Scandilius Scantinius Scantius Scaptius Scoedius Scuilius Scutarius Scribonius Seccius Secundinius Secundius Sedatius Segulius Seius Selicius Sellius Sempronius Sennius Sentius Seppienus Seppius Septicius Septimius Septimuleius Septueius Sepullius Sepunius Sergius Serius Sertorius Servaeus Servenius Servilius Servius Sestius Severius Sextilius Sextius Sibidienus Sicinius Silicius Silius Silvius Sinicius Sinuleius Sisenna Sittius Socellius Sollius Sornatius Sosius Sotidius Spedioleius[4] Spedius Spellius Spurinna Spurius Staius Statilius Statius Stertinius Suedius Suetonius Suilius or Suillius Sulpicius T[edit] Tadius Tanicius — inscriptions, including a prefect Lucius Tanicius Verus at Cadder in Britain Tanusius Tapsenna Tarpeius Tarquinius Tarquitius Terrasidius Terentilius Terentius Tertinius — inscriptions, Tertinius Severus of Legio VIII Augusta Tettidius — inscriptions Tettiedius Tettienus — inscriptions, suffect consul Galeo Tettienus Petronianus in 76 Tettius Thorius Tigellius Tineius Titanius Titinius Titius Titurius Tonantius Trebatius Trebellius Trebius Treblanus Trebonius Tremellius — quaestor Lucius Tremellius 143 BC, praetor Gaius Tremellius Scrofa 52 BC Tuccius Tullius Turallasius Turius Turpilius Turullius U-V[edit] Ulpius Umbrius Ummidius Urgulanius Urseius Valerius Varenus Varinius Varisidius Varius Vatinius Vecilius Vedius Velius Velleius Ventidius Vequasius Veranius Verecundius Vergilius (Virgil) or Virgilius Verginius or Virginius Verres Verrius Vesnius Vesonius Vestorius Vestricius Vettius Veturius Vibenius Vibidius Vibius Vicirius Victorinius Victorius or Vitorius Victricius Viducius Vigilius Villius Vinicius Vinius Vipsanius Vipstanus Viridius Virius Visellius Vistilius or Vestilius Vitellius Vitrasius Vitruvius Voconius Volcacius or Volcatius Volumnius Volusenna Volusenus Volusius Vorenius Vulius See also[edit] List of Roman gentes Roman naming conventions Praenomen List of Roman cognomina Roman victory title List of Imperial Roman victory titles Roman tribe Roman Republic Roman Empire References[edit] ^ "archeologhia.com". archeologhia.com. Retrieved 2012-01-26. ^ http://museums.ncl.ac.uk/archive/arma/contents/iconog/tombston/cent1/uk/york/duccius.htm Archived June 23, 2003, at the Wayback Machine ^ Togodumnus (Kevan White). "Deva Victrix". Roman-britain.org. Retrieved 2012-01-26. ^ AE 1995, 139, CIL VI, 9455. v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Roman_nomina&oldid=995952998" Categories: Ancient Rome-related lists Ancient Roman nomina Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Deutsch Français Bahasa Indonesia ქართული მარგალური Nederlands Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 23 December 2020, at 19:20 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9125	----	Pausanias (geographer) - Wikipedia Pausanias (geographer) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd-century AD Greek geographer For the general, see Pausanias (general). Pausanias Manuscript (1485), Description of Greece by Pausanias at the Laurentian Library Born c. 110 AD Lydia, Asia Minor Died c. 180 AD (aged 70) Occupation Traveler and geographer Pausanias (/pɔːˈseɪniəs/; Greek: Παυσανίας Pausanías; c. 110 – c. 180)[1] was a Greek traveler and geographer of the second century AD who lived in the time of Roman emperors Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius. He is famous for his Description of Greece (Ancient Greek: Ἑλλάδος Περιήγησις, Hellados Periegesis),[2] a lengthy work that describes ancient Greece from his firsthand observations. This work provides crucial information for making links between classical literature and modern archaeology. Andrew Stewart assesses him as: A careful, pedestrian writer ... interested not only in the grandiose or the exquisite but in unusual sights and obscure ritual. He is occasionally careless or makes unwarranted inferences, and his guides or even his own notes sometimes mislead him, yet his honesty is unquestionable, and his value without par.[3] Contents 1 Biography 2 Work 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links Biography[edit] Pausanias was born c. 110 AD into a Greek family [4] and was probably a native of Lydia; he was certainly familiar with the western coast of Asia Minor, but his travels extended far beyond the limits of Ionia. Before visiting Greece, he had been to Antioch, Joppa, and Jerusalem, and to the banks of the River Jordan. In Egypt, he had seen the pyramids. While at the temple of Ammon, he had been shown the hymn once sent to that shrine by Pindar. In Macedonia, he appears to have seen the tomb said to be that of Orpheus in Libethra (modern Leivithra).[5] Crossing over to Italy, he had seen something of the cities of Campania and of the wonders of Rome. He was one of the first known to write of seeing the ruins of Troy, Alexandria Troas, and Mycenae. Work[edit] Pausanias' Description of Greece is in ten books, each dedicated to some portion of Greece. He begins his tour in Attica (Ἀττικά), where the city of Athens and its demes dominate the discussion. Subsequent books describe Corinthia (Κορινθιακά) (second book), Laconia (Λακωνικά) (third), Messenia (Μεσσηνιακά) (fourth), Elis (Ἠλιακῶν) (fifth and sixth), Achaea (Ἀχαικά) (seventh), Arcadia (Ἀρκαδικά) (eighth), Boetia (Βοιωτικά) (ninth), Phocis (Φωκικά) and Ozolian Locris (Λοκρῶν Ὀζόλων) (tenth). The project is more than topographical; it is a cultural geography. Pausanias digresses from the description of architectural and artistic objects to review the mythological and historical underpinnings of the society that produced them. As a Greek writing under the auspices of the Roman empire, he was in an awkward cultural space, between the glories of the Greek past he was so keen to describe and the realities of a Greece beholden to Rome as a dominating imperial force. His work bears the marks of his attempt to navigate that space and establish an identity for Roman Greece.[citation needed] He is not a naturalist, although from time to time, he does comment on the physical realities of the Greek landscape. He notices the pine trees on the sandy coast of Elis, the deer and the wild boars in the oak woods of Phelloe, and the crows amid the giant oak trees of Alalcomenae. It is mainly in the last section that Pausanias touches on the products of nature, such as the wild strawberries of Helicon, the date palms of Aulis, and the olive oil of Tithorea, as well as the tortoises of Arcadia and the "white blackbirds" of Cyllene. Pausanias is most at home in describing the religious art and architecture of Olympia and of Delphi. Yet, even in the most secluded regions of Greece, he is fascinated by all kinds of depictions of deities, holy relics, and many other sacred and mysterious objects. At Thebes he views the shields of those who died at the Battle of Leuctra, the ruins of the house of Pindar, and the statues of Hesiod, Arion, Thamyris, and Orpheus in the grove of the Muses on Helicon, as well as the portraits of Corinna at Tanagra and of Polybius in the cities of Arcadia. Pausanias has the instincts of an antiquary. As his modern editor, Christian Habicht, has said, In general, he prefers the old to the new, the sacred to the profane; there is much more about classical than about contemporary Greek art, more about temples, altars and images of the gods, than about public buildings and statues of politicians. Some magnificent and dominating structures, such as the Stoa of King Attalus in the Athenian Agora (rebuilt by Homer Thompson) or the Exedra of Herodes Atticus at Olympia are not even mentioned.[6] Unlike a Baedeker guide, in Periegesis Pausanias stops for a brief excursus on a point of ancient ritual or to tell an apposite myth, in a genre that would not become popular again until the early nineteenth century. In the topographical part of his work, Pausanias is fond of digressions on the wonders of nature, the signs that herald the approach of an earthquake, the phenomena of the tides, the ice-bound seas of the north, and the noonday sun that at the summer solstice, casts no shadow at Syene (Aswan). While he never doubts the existence of the deities and heroes, he sometimes criticizes the myths and legends relating to them. His descriptions of monuments of art are plain and unadorned. They bear the impression of reality, and their accuracy is confirmed by the extant remains. He is perfectly frank in his confessions of ignorance. When he quotes a book at second hand he takes pains to say so. The work left faint traces in the known Greek corpus. "It was not read", Habicht relates; "there is not a single mention of the author, not a single quotation from it, not a whisper before Stephanus Byzantius in the sixth century, and only two or three references to it throughout the Middle Ages."[7] The only manuscripts of Pausanias are three fifteenth-century copies, full of errors and lacunae, which all appear to depend on a single manuscript that survived to be copied. Niccolò Niccoli had this archetype in Florence in 1418. At his death in 1437, it went to the library of San Marco, Florence, then it disappeared after 1500.[8] Until twentieth-century archaeologists concluded that Pausanias was a reliable guide to the sites they were excavating,[9] Pausanias was largely dismissed by nineteenth- and early twentieth-century classicists of a purely literary bent: they tended to follow the usually authoritative Wilamowitz in regarding him as little more than a purveyor of second-hand accounts, who, it was suggested, had not visited most of the places he described. Habicht (1985) describes an episode in which Wilamowitz was led astray by his misreading of Pausanias in front of an august party of travellers in 1873, and attributes to it Wilamowitz's lifelong antipathy and distrust of Pausanias. Modern archaeological research, however, has tended to vindicate Pausanias. See also[edit] Travel literature James George Frazer Notes[edit] ^ Historical and Ethnological Society of Greece, Aristéa Papanicolaou Christensen, The Panathenaic Stadium – Its History Over the Centuries (2003), p. 162 ^ Also known in Latin as Graecae descriptio; see Pereira, Maria Helena Rocha (ed.), Graecae descriptio, B. G. Teubner, 1829. ^ One Hundred Greek Sculptors: Their Careers and Extant Works, introduction. ^ Howard, Michael C. (2012). Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies: The Role of Cross-Border Trade and Travel. McFarland. p. 178. ISBN 9780786490332. Pausanias was a 2nd century ethnic Greek geographer who wrote a description of Greece that is often described as being the world’s first travel guide. ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece: Boeotia, 9.30.7: "Going from Dium along the road to the mountain, and advancing twenty stades, you come to a pillar on the right surmounted by a stone urn, which according to the natives contains the bones of Orpheus." ^ Christian Habicht, "An Ancient Baedeker and His Critics: Pausanias' 'Guide to Greece'" Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 129.2 (June 1985:220–224) p. 220. ^ Habicht 1985:220. ^ Aubrey Diller, "The Manuscripts of Pausanias The Manuscripts of Pausanias" Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 88 (1957):169–188. ^ In this, Heinrich Schliemann was a maverick and forerunner: a close reading of Pausanias guided him to the royal tombs at Mycenae. References[edit] Description of Greece, tr. W.H.S. Jones and H.A. Ormerod (1918) Description of Greece, Jones translation at Theoi Project Bibliography (in French) "The Oldest Guide-Book in the World", Charles Whibley in Macmillan's Magazine, Vol. LXXVII, Nov. 1897 to Apr. 1898, pp. 415–421. Andrew Stewart, One Hundred Greek Sculptors, Their Careers and Extant Works  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Pausanias (traveller)". Encyclopædia Britannica. 20 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. G. Hawes, Rationalizing myth in antiquity. Oxford: OUP, 2013 ISBN 9780199672776 contains much discussion of Pausanias’ sceptical approaches to myth. Further reading[edit] Arafat, K.W. 1992. "Pausanias' Attitude to Antiquities." Annual of the British School at Athens 87: 387–409. Akujärvi, J. 2005. Researcher, Traveller, Narrator: Studies in Pausanias’ Periegesis. Studia graeca et latina lundensia 12. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell. Alcock, S., J. Cherry, and J. Elsner, eds. 2001. Pausanias: Travel and Memory in Roman Greece. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Arafat, K. 1996. Pausanias’ Greece: Ancient Artists and Roman Rulers. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Diller, A. 1957. "The Manuscripts of Pausanias." Transactions of the American Philological Association 88:169–188. Habicht, C. 1984. "Pausanias and the Evidence of Inscriptions." Classical Antiquity 3:40–56. Habicht, C. 1998. Pausanias’ Guide to Ancient Greece. 2d ed. Sather Classical Lectures 50. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press. Hutton, W. E. 2005. Describing Greece: Landscape and Literature in the Periegesis of Pausanias. Greek Culture in the Roman World. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Pirenne-Delforge, V. 2008. Retour à la Source: Pausanias et la Religion Grecque. Kernos Supplément 20. Liège, Belgium: Centre International d‘Étude de la Religion Grecque. Pretzler, Maria. 2005. "Pausanias and Oral Tradition." Classical Quarterly 55.1: 235–249. Pretzler, M. 2007. Pausanias: Travel Writing in Ancient Greece. Classical Literature and Society. London: Duckworth. Pretzler, Maria. 2004, "Turning Travel into Text: Pausanias at Work" Greece & Rome 51.2: 199–216. Sanchez Hernandez, Juan Pablo. 2016. "Pausanias and Rome's Eastern Trade." Mnemosyne 69.6: 955–977. External links[edit] Library resources about Pausanias Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Pausanias Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Description of Greece at Perseus Digital Library, (Jones trans. 1918) Pausanias (geographer) An audio recording of this Wikipedia article Problems playing this file? See media help. New translation by Gregory Nagy of Harvard University's Center for Hellenic Studies (incomplete). Works written by or about Pausanias at Wikisource Quotations related to Pausanias (geographer) at Wikiquote Media related to Pausanias (geographer) at Wikimedia Commons Pausanias Description of Greece, tr. with a commentary by J.G. 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en-wikipedia-org-9140	----	Alexander Pope - Wikipedia Alexander Pope From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Not to be confused with Pope Alexander. For other uses, see Alexander Pope (disambiguation). English poet Alexander Pope Pope c. 1727 Born (1688-05-21)21 May 1688 London, England Died 30 May 1744(1744-05-30) (aged 56) Twickenham, Middlesex, England Resting place St Mary's Church, Twickenham, Middlesex, England Occupation Poet, writer, translator Notable works The Dunciad, The Rape of the Lock, An Essay on Criticism, His translation of Homer Signature Alexander Pope (21 May 1688 – 30 May 1744) is regarded as one of the greatest English poets, and the foremost poet of the early eighteenth century. He is best known for his satirical and discursive poetry, including The Rape of the Lock, The Dunciad, and An Essay on Criticism, as well as for his translation of Homer. After Shakespeare, Pope is the second-most quoted writer in the English language per The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations,[1] some of his verses having even become popular idioms in common parlance (e. g., Damning with faint praise). He is considered a master of the heroic couplet. Contents 1 Spirit, skill and satire 2 Life 2.1 Early life 2.2 Early career 3 Poetry 3.1 Essay on Criticism 3.2 The Rape of the Lock 3.3 The Dunciad and Moral Essays 3.4 An Essay on Man 3.5 Later life and works 4 Translations and editions 4.1 Translation of the Iliad 4.2 Translation of the Odyssey 4.3 Edition of Shakespeare's works 5 Reception 6 Works 6.1 Major works 6.2 Other works 6.3 Editions 7 See also 8 References 9 Bibliography 10 External links Spirit, skill and satire[edit] Pope's poetic career testifies to his indomitable spirit in the face of disadvantages, of health and of circumstance. The poet and his family were Catholics and thus fell subject to the Test Acts, prohibitive measures which severely hampered the prosperity of their co-religionists after the abdication of James II; one of these banned them from living within ten miles of London, and another from attending public school or university. For this reason, except for a few spurious Catholic schools, Pope was largely self-educated. He was taught to read by his aunt and became a lover of books. He learned French, Italian, Latin, and Greek by himself, and discovered Homer at the age of six. As a child Pope survived being once trampled by a cow, but when he was 12 began struggling with tuberculosis of the spine (Pott disease), along with fits of crippling headaches which troubled him throughout his life. In the year 1709, Pope showcased his precocious metrical skill with the publication of Pastorals, his first major poems. They earned him instant fame. By the time he was 23 he had written An Essay on Criticism, released in 1711. A kind of poetic manifesto in the vein of Horace's Ars Poetica, the essay was met with enthusiastic attention and won Pope a wider circle of prominent friends, most notably Joseph Addison and Richard Steele, who had recently started collaborating on the influential The Spectator. The critic John Dennis, having located an ironic and veiled portrait of himself, was outraged by what he considered the impudence of the younger author. Dennis hated Pope for the rest of his life, and, save for a temporary reconciliation, dedicated his efforts to insulting him in print, to which Pope retaliated in kind, making Dennis the butt of much satire. The Rape of the Lock, perhaps the poet's most famous poem, appeared first in 1712, followed by a revised and enlarged version in 1714. When Lord Petre forcibly snipped off a lock from Miss Arabella Fermor's head (the "Belinda" of the poem), the incident gave rise to a high-society quarrel between the families. With the idea of allaying this, Pope treated the subject in a playful and witty mock-heroic epic. The narrative poem brings into focus the onset of acquisitive individualism and conspicuous consumption, where purchased goods assume dominance over moral agency. A folio comprising a collection of his poems appeared in 1717, together with two new ones written about the passion of love. These were Verses to the Memory of an Unfortunate Lady and the famous proto-romantic poem Eloisa to Abelard. Though Pope never married, about this time he became strongly attached to Lady M. Montagu, whom he indirectly referenced in the popular poem Eloisa to Abelard, and to Martha Blount, with whom his friendship continued throughout his life. In his career as a satirist, Pope made his share of enemies as the critics, politicians, and certain other prominent figures felt the sting of his sharp-witted satires. Some were so virulent, that Pope even carried pistols at one point while walking his dog. After 1738, Pope composed relatively little. He toyed with the idea of writing a patriotic epic called Brutus. He mainly revised and expanded his masterpiece The Dunciad. Book Four appeared in 1742, and a complete revision of the whole poem in the following year. In this version, he replaced Lewis Theobald with the Poet Laureate Colley Cibber, as "king of dunces". However, his real target in the poem is the Whig politician Robert Walpole. By now Pope's health was failing, and when told by his physician, on the morning of his death, that he was better, Pope replied: "Here am I, dying of a hundred good symptoms." Life[edit] Portrait of Alexander Pope. Studio of Godfrey Kneller. Oil on canvas, c. 1716[2] Early life[edit] Alexander Pope was born in London on 21 May 1688, the year of the Glorious Revolution. His father (also Alexander, 1646–1717) was a successful linen merchant in the Strand. The poet's mother, Edith (1643–1733), was the daughter of William Turner, Esquire, of York. Both parents were Catholics.[3] Edith's sister, Christiana, was the wife of famous miniature painter Samuel Cooper. Pope's education was affected by the recently enacted Test Acts, which upheld the status of the established Church of England and banned Catholics from teaching, attending a university, voting, and holding public office on penalty of perpetual imprisonment. Pope was taught to read by his aunt and went to Twyford School in about 1698/99.[3] He then went on to two Roman Catholic schools in London.[3] Such schools, while illegal, were tolerated in some areas.[4] A look-a-like of Pope derived from a portrait by William Hoare[5] In 1700, his family moved to a small estate at Popeswood in Binfield, Berkshire, close to the royal Windsor Forest.[3] This was due to strong anti-Catholic sentiment and a statute preventing "Papists" from living within 10 miles (16 km) of London or Westminster.[6] Pope would later describe the countryside around the house in his poem Windsor Forest.[7] Pope's formal education ended at this time, and from then on, he mostly educated himself by reading the works of classical writers such as the satirists Horace and Juvenal, the epic poets Homer and Virgil, as well as English authors such as Geoffrey Chaucer, William Shakespeare and John Dryden.[3] He studied many languages and read works by English, French, Italian, Latin, and Greek poets. After five years of study, Pope came into contact with figures from London literary society such as William Congreve, Samuel Garth and William Trumbull.[3][4] At Binfield he made many important friends. One of them, John Caryll (the future dedicatee of The Rape of the Lock), was twenty years older than the poet and had made many acquaintances in the London literary world. He introduced the young Pope to the ageing playwright William Wycherley and to William Walsh, a minor poet, who helped Pope revise his first major work, The Pastorals. He also met the Blount sisters, Teresa and Martha, both of whom remained lifelong friends.[4] From the age of 12 he suffered numerous health problems, including Pott disease, a form of tuberculosis that affects the spine, which deformed his body and stunted his growth, leaving him with a severe hunchback. His tuberculosis infection caused other health problems including respiratory difficulties, high fevers, inflamed eyes and abdominal pain.[3] He grew to a height of only 1.37 m (4 ft 6 in). Pope was already removed from society as a Catholic, and his poor health alienated him further. Although he never married, he had many female friends to whom he wrote witty letters, including Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. It has been alleged that his lifelong friend Martha Blount was his lover.[4][8][9][10] His friend William Cheselden said, according to Joseph Spence, "I could give a more particular account of Mr. Pope's health than perhaps any man. Cibber's slander (of carnosity) is false. He had been gay [happy], but left that way of life upon his acquaintance with Mrs. B."[11] Early career[edit] Plaque above Pope's Grotto at Twickenham In May 1709, Pope's Pastorals was published in the sixth part of bookseller Jacob Tonson's Poetical Miscellanies. This earned Pope instant fame and was followed by An Essay on Criticism, published in May 1711, which was equally well received. Pope's villa at Twickenham, showing the grotto; from a watercolour produced soon after his death Around 1711, Pope made friends with Tory writers Jonathan Swift, Thomas Parnell and John Arbuthnot, who together formed the satirical Scriblerus Club. Its aim was to satirise ignorance and pedantry through the fictional scholar Martinus Scriblerus. He also made friends with Whig writers Joseph Addison and Richard Steele. In March 1713, Windsor Forest[7] was published to great acclaim.[4] During Pope's friendship with Joseph Addison, he contributed to Addison's play Cato, as well as writing for The Guardian and The Spectator. Around this time, he began the work of translating the Iliad, which was a painstaking process – publication began in 1715 and did not end until 1720.[4] In 1714 the political situation worsened with the death of Queen Anne and the disputed succession between the Hanoverians and the Jacobites, leading to the Jacobite rising of 1715. Though Pope, as a Catholic, might have been expected to have supported the Jacobites because of his religious and political affiliations, according to Maynard Mack, "where Pope himself stood on these matters can probably never be confidently known". These events led to an immediate downturn in the fortunes of the Tories, and Pope's friend Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke, fled to France. Pope lived in his parents' house in Mawson Row, Chiswick, between 1716 and 1719; the red brick building is now the Mawson Arms, commemorating him with a blue plaque.[12] The money made from his translation of Homer allowed Pope to move in 1719 to a villa at Twickenham, where he created his now famous grotto and gardens. The serendipitous discovery of a spring during the excavation of the subterranean retreat enabled it to be filled with the relaxing sound of trickling water, which would quietly echo around the chambers. Pope was said to have remarked that: "Were it to have nymphs as well – it would be complete in everything." Although the house and gardens have long since been demolished, much of the grotto survives. It now lies beneath Radnor House Independent Co-ed School and is occasionally opened to the public.[8][13] Poetry[edit] Mawson Arms, Chiswick Lane, with blue plaque to Pope Essay on Criticism[edit] Main article: An Essay on Criticism An Essay on Criticism was first published anonymously on 15 May 1711. Pope began writing the poem early in his career and took about three years to finish it. At the time the poem was published, the heroic couplet style in which it was written was a moderately new poetic form, and Pope's work was an ambitious attempt to identify and refine his own positions as a poet and critic. The poem was said to be a response to an ongoing debate on the question of whether poetry should be natural, or written according to predetermined artificial rules inherited from the classical past.[14] The 'essay' begins with a discussion of the standard rules that govern poetry by which a critic passes judgment. Pope comments on the classical authors who dealt with such standards and the authority that he believed should be accredited to them. He discusses the laws to which a critic should adhere while critiquing poetry, and points out that critics serve an important function in aiding poets with their works, as opposed to the practice of attacking them.[15] The final section of An Essay on Criticism discusses the moral qualities and virtues inherent in the ideal critic, who, Pope claims, is also the ideal man. The Rape of the Lock[edit] Pope's most famous poem is The Rape of the Lock, first published in 1712, with a revised version published in 1714. A mock-epic, it satirises a high-society quarrel between Arabella Fermor (the "Belinda" of the poem) and Lord Petre, who had snipped a lock of hair from her head without her permission. The satirical style is tempered, however, by a genuine and almost voyeuristic interest in the "beau-monde" (fashionable world) of 18th-century English society.[16] The revised, extended version of the poem brought more clearly into focus its true subject – the onset of acquisitive individualism and a society of conspicuous consumers. In the world of the poem, purchased artifacts displace human agency, and "trivial things" assume dominance.[17] The Dunciad and Moral Essays[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Alexander Pope, painting attributed to English painter Jonathan Richardson, c. 1736, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Though The Dunciad was first published anonymously in Dublin, its authorship was not in doubt. Pope pilloried a host of other "hacks", "scribblers" and "dunces" in addition to Theobald, and Maynard Mack has accordingly called its publication "in many ways the greatest act of folly in Pope's life." Though a masterpiece which would become "one of the most challenging and distinctive works in the history of English poetry", writes Mack, "it bore bitter fruit. It brought the poet in his own time the hostility of its victims and their sympathizers, who pursued him implacably from then on with a few damaging truths and a host of slanders and lies."[18] According to his half-sister Magdalen Rackett, some of Pope's targets were so enraged by The Dunciad that they threatened him. "My brother does not seem to know what fear is," she told Joseph Spence, explaining that Pope loved to walk alone, so went accompanied by his Great Dane Bounce, and for some time carried pistols in his pocket.[19] Together with John Gay's The Beggar's Opera and Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels, this first Dunciad was part of a concerted propaganda assault against Robert Walpole's Whig ministry and the financial revolution it stabilised. Although he was a keen participant in the stock and money markets, Pope never missed an opportunity to satirise the personal, social and political effects of the new scheme of things. From The Rape of the Lock onwards, these satirical themes are a constant in his work. In 1731, Pope published his "Epistle to Burlington," on the subject of architecture, the first of four poems which would later be grouped under the title Moral Essays (1731–1735). In the epistle, Pope ridiculed the bad taste of the aristocrat "Timon". Pope's enemies claimed he was attacking the Duke of Chandos and his estate, Cannons. Though the charge was untrue, it did much damage to Pope. An Essay on Man[edit] Main article: An Essay on Man An Essay on Man is a philosophical poem, written in heroic couplets and published between 1732 and 1734. Pope intended this poem to be the centrepiece of a proposed system of ethics that was to be put forth in poetic form. It was a piece of work that Pope intended to make into a larger work; however, he did not live to complete it.[20] The poem is an attempt to "vindicate the ways of God to Man", a variation on Milton's attempt in Paradise Lost to "justify the ways of God to Man" (1.26). It challenges as prideful an anthropocentric world-view. The poem is not solely Christian, however; it makes an assumption that man has fallen and must seek his own salvation.[20] Alexander Pope circa 1742 It consists of four epistles addressed to Lord Bolingbroke. Pope presents an idea on his view of the Universe: no matter how imperfect, complex, inscrutable and disturbing the Universe appears to be, it functions in a rational fashion according to the natural laws. The natural laws consider the Universe as a whole a perfect work of God. To humans, it appears to be evil and imperfect in many ways. Pope ascribes this to our limited mindset and limited intellectual capacity. He gets the message across that humans must accept their position in the "Great Chain of Being", at a middle stage between the angels and the beasts of the world. Accomplish this and we potentially could lead happy and virtuous lives.[20] The poem is an affirmative poem of faith: life seems to be chaotic and confusing to man when he is in the centre of it, but according to Pope it is really divinely ordered. In Pope's world, God exists and is what he centres the Universe around in order to have an ordered structure. The limited intelligence of man can only take in tiny portions of this order and can experience only partial truths, hence man must rely on hope which then leads into faith. Man must be aware of his existence in the Universe and what he brings to it, in terms of riches, power, and fame. It is man's duty to strive to be good regardless of other situations: this is the message Pope is trying to get across to the reader.[21] Later life and works[edit] The death of Alexander Pope from Museus, a threnody by William Mason. Diana holds the dying Pope, and John Milton, Edmund Spenser, and Geoffrey Chaucer prepare to welcome him to heaven. The Imitations of Horace followed (1733–38). These were written in the popular Augustan form of the "imitation" of a classical poet, not so much a translation of his works as an updating with contemporary references. Pope used the model of Horace to satirise life under George II, especially what he regarded as the widespread corruption tainting the country under Walpole's influence and the poor quality of the court's artistic taste. Pope also added a wholly original poem, Epistle to Doctor Arbuthnot, as an introduction to the "Imitations". It reviews his own literary career and includes the famous portraits of Lord Hervey ("Sporus") and Addison ("Atticus"). In 1738 he wrote the Universal Prayer.[22] Among the younger poets whose work Pope admired was Joseph Thurston.[23] After 1738, Pope himself wrote little. He toyed with the idea of composing a patriotic epic in blank verse called Brutus, but only the opening lines survive. His major work in these years was revising and expanding his masterpiece The Dunciad. Book Four appeared in 1742 and a complete revision of the whole poem the following year. Here Pope replaced the "hero" Lewis Theobald with the Poet Laureate, Colley Cibber as "king of dunces". However, the real focus of the revised poem is Walpole and his works. By now Pope's health, which had never been good, was failing. When told by his physician, on the morning of his death, that he was better, Pope replied: "Here am I, dying of a hundred good symptoms."[24][25] He died in his villa surrounded by friends on 30 May 1744, about eleven o'clock at night. On the previous day, 29 May 1744, Pope had called for a priest and received the Last Rites of the Catholic Church. He was buried in the nave of St Mary's Church, Twickenham. Translations and editions[edit] Translation of the Iliad[edit] Pope had been fascinated by Homer since childhood. In 1713, he announced his plans to publish a translation of the Iliad. The work would be available by subscription, with one volume appearing every year over the course of six years. Pope secured a revolutionary deal with the publisher Bernard Lintot, which earned him two hundred guineas (£210) a volume, a vast sum at the time. His translation of the Iliad appeared between 1715 and 1720. It was acclaimed by Samuel Johnson as "a performance which no age or nation could hope to equal" (although the classical scholar Richard Bentley wrote: "It is a pretty poem, Mr. Pope, but you must not call it Homer.")[citation needed] Translation of the Odyssey[edit] Frontispiece and title page of a 1752 edition of Pope's Odyssey Encouraged by the success of the Iliad, Bernard Lintot published Pope's five-volume translation of Homer's Odyssey in 1725 and 1726.[26] For this work Pope collaborated with William Broome and Elijah Fenton: Broome translated eight books (2, 6, 8, 11, 12, 16, 18, 23), Fenton four (1, 4, 19, 20) and Pope the remaining 12. Broome provided the annotations.[27] Pope tried to conceal the extent of the collaboration, but the secret leaked out.[28] It did some damage to Pope's reputation for a time, but not to his profits.[29] Leslie Stephen considered Pope's portion of the Odyssey inferior to his version of the Iliad, given that Pope had put more effort into the earlier work – to which, in any case, his style was better suited.[30] Edition of Shakespeare's works[edit] In this period, Pope was employed by publisher Jacob Tonson to produce an opulent new edition of Shakespeare.[31] When it appeared in 1725, this edition silently regularised Shakespeare's metre and rewrote his verse in a number of places. Pope also removed about 1,560 lines of Shakespearean material, arguing that some appealed to him more than others.[31] In 1726, lawyer, poet and pantomime-deviser Lewis Theobald published a scathing pamphlet called Shakespeare Restored, which catalogued the errors in Pope's work and suggested a number of revisions to the text. This enraged Pope, and thus, Theobald was the main target of Pope's poem The Dunciad.[32] The second edition of Pope's Shakespeare appeared in 1728.[31] Aside from making some minor revisions to the preface, it seems that Pope had little to do with it. Most later 18th-century editors of Shakespeare dismissed Pope's creatively motivated approach to textual criticism. Pope's preface continued to be highly rated. It was suggested that Shakespeare's texts were thoroughly contaminated by actors' interpolations and they would influence editors for most of the 18th century. Reception[edit] By the mid-18th century, new fashions in poetry emerged. A decade after Pope's death, Joseph Warton claimed that Pope's style of poetry was not the most excellent form of the art. The Romantic movement that rose to prominence in early 19th-century England was more ambivalent towards his work. Though Lord Byron identified Pope as one of his chief influences – believing his scathing satire of contemporary English literature English Bards and Scotch Reviewers to be a continuance of Pope's tradition) – William Wordsworth found Pope's style fundamentally too decadent to be a representation of the human condition.[4] George Gilfillan in his study of 1856 described Pope's talent as "a rose peering into the summer air, fine, rather than powerful".[33] In the 20th century, Pope's reputation revived. Pope's work was, of course, full of references to the people and places of his time, and these aided people's understanding of the past. The post-war period stressed the power of Pope's poetry, recognising that Pope's immersion in Christian and Biblical culture lent depth to his poetry. For example, Maynard Mack, a Pope scholar of the later 20th century, argued that Pope's moral vision demanded as much respect as his technical excellence. Between 1953 and 1967 the definitive Twickenham edition of Pope's poems was published in ten volumes, including an index volume.[4] Works[edit] Major works[edit] 1709: Pastorals 1711: An Essay on Criticism[34] 1712: Messiah (from the Book of Isaiah, and later translated into Latin by Samuel Johnson) 1712: The Rape of the Lock (enlarged in 1714)[34] 1713: Windsor Forest[7][34] 1715: The Temple of Fame: A Vision[35] 1715–1720: Translation of the Iliad[34] 1717: Eloisa to Abelard[34] 1717: Three Hours After Marriage, with others 1717: Elegy to the Memory of an Unfortunate Lady[34] 1723–1725: The Works of Shakespear, in Six Volumes 1725–1726: Translation of the Odyssey[34] 1727: Peri Bathous, Or the Art of Sinking in Poetry 1728: The Dunciad[34] 1733–1734: Essay on Man[34] 1735: The Prologue to the Satires (see the Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot and Who breaks a butterfly upon a wheel?) Other works[edit] 1700: Ode on Solitude 1713: Ode for Musick[36] 1717: The Court Ballad[37] 1731: An Epistle to the Right Honourable Richard Earl of Burlington[38] 1733: The Impertinent, or A Visit to the Court[39] 1736: Bounce to Fop[40] 1737: The First Ode of the Fourth Book of Horace[41] 1738: The First Epistle of the First Book of Horace[42] Editions[edit] The Works of Alexander Pope vol 3 vol 3 v 9 of 10 v 6 of 8 See also[edit] Characters and Observations List of abolitionist forerunners Pope's Urn References[edit] ^ The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations (5th ed.). Oxford University Press. 1999. ^ Portrait of Alexander Pope (1688–1744). Historical Portraits Image Library. Retrieved 1 January 2017. ^ a b c d e f g Erskine-Hill, Howard (2004). "Pope, Alexander (1688–1744)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/22526 ^ a b c d e f g h "Alexander Pope", Literature Online biography (Chadwyck-Healey: Cambridge, 2000). ^ "National Portrait Gallery – Portrait – NPG 299; Alexander Pope". npg.org.uk. ^ "An Act to prevent and avoid dangers which may grow by Popish Recusants" (3. Jac. 1, v). For details, see Catholic Encyclopedia, "Penal Laws". ^ a b c Pope, Alexander. Windsor-Forest. Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA). ^ a b Gordon, Ian (24 January 2002). "An Epistle to a Lady (Moral Essay II)". The Literary Encyclopedia. Retrieved 17 April 2009. ^ "Martha Blount". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Retrieved 17 April 2009. ^ The Life of Alexander Pope, by Robert Carruthers, 1857, with a corrupted and badly scanned version available from Internet Archive, or as an even worse 23MB PDF. For reference to his relationship with Martha Blount and her sister, see pp. 64–68 (p. 89 ff. of the PDF). In particular, discussion of the controversy over whether the relationship was sexual is described in some detail on pp. 76–78. ^ Zachary Cope (1953) William Cheselden, 1688–1752. Edinburgh: E. & S. Livingstone, p. 89. ^ Clegg, Gillian. "Chiswick History". People: Alexander Pope. chiswickhistory.org.uk. Retrieved 16 March 2012. ^ London Evening Standard, 2 November 2010. ^ Rogers, Pat (2006). The Major Works. Oxford University Press. pp. 17–39. ISBN 019920361X. ^ Baines, Paul (2001). The Complete Critical Guide to Alexander Pope. Routledge Publishing. pp. 67–90. ^ "from the London School of Journalism". Archived from the original on 31 May 2008. ^ Colin Nicholson (1994). Writing and the Rise of Finance: Capital Satires of the Early Eighteenth Century, Cambridge. ^ Maynard Mack (1985). Alexander Pope: A Life. W. W. Norton & Company, and Yale University Press, pp. 472–473. ISBN 0393305295 ^ Joseph Spence. Observations, Anecdotes, and Characters of Books and Men, Collected from the Conversation of Mr. Pope (1820), p. 38. ^ a b c Nuttal, Anthony (1984). Pope's Essay on Man. Allen & Unwin. pp. 3–15, 167–188. ISBN 9780048000170. ^ Cassirer, Ernst (1944). An Essay on Man; an introduction to a philosophy of human culture. Yale University Press. ^ McKeown, Trevor W. "Alexander Pope 'Universal Prayer'". bcy.ca. Full-text. Also at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA). ^ James Sambrook (2004) "Thurston, Josephlocked (1704–1732)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/70938 ^ Ruffhead, Owen (1769). The Life of Alexander Pope; With a Critical Essay on His Writings and Genius. p. 475. ^ Dyce, Alexander (1863). The Poetical Works of Alexander Pope, with a Life, by A. Dyce. p. cxxxi. ^ Homer (1725–1726). The Odyssey of Homer. Translated by Alexander Pope; William Broome & Elijah Fenton (1st ed.). London: Bernard Lintot. ^ Fenton, Elijah (1796). The poetical works of Elijah Fenton with the life of the author. Printed for, and under the direction of, G. Cawthorn, British Library, Strand. p. 7. ^ Fraser, George (1978). Alexander Pope. Routledge. p. 52. ISBN 9780710089908. ^ Damrosch, Leopold (1987). The Imaginative World of Alexander Pope. University of California Press. p. 59. ^ Stephen, Sir Leslie (1880). Alexander Pope. Harper & Brothers. pp. 80. ^ a b c "Preface to Shakespeare, 1725, Alexander Pope". ShakespeareBrasileiro. Retrieved 10 March 2020. ^ "Lewis Theobald" Encyclopaedia Britannica. ^ George Gilfillan (1856) "The Genius and Poetry of Pope", The Poetical Works of Alexander Pope, Vol. 11. ^ a b c d e f g h i Cox, Michael, editor, The Concise Oxford Chronology of English Literature, Oxford University Press, 2004, ISBN 0-19-860634-6 ^ Alexander Pope (1715) The Temple of Fame: A Vision. London: Printed for Bernard Lintott. Print. ^ Pope, Alexander. ODE FOR MUSICK.. Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA). ^ Pope, Alexander. The Court Ballad. Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA). ^ Pope, Alexander. Epistle to Richard Earl of Burlington. Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA). ^ Pope, Alexander. The IMPERTINENT, or A Visit to the COURT. A SATYR.. Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA). ^ Pope, Alexander. Bounce to Fop. Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA). ^ Pope, Alexander. THE FIRST ODE OF THE FOURTH BOOK OF HORACE.. Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA). ^ Pope, Alexander. THE FIRST EPISTLE OF THE FIRST BOOK OF HORACE.. Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA). Bibliography[edit] Davis, Herbert, ed. (1966). Poetical Works. Oxford Standard Authors. London: Oxford U.P. Hans Ostrom (1878) "Pope's Epilogue to the Satires, 'Dialogue I'." Explicator, 36:4, pp. 11–14. Rogers, Pat (2007). The Cambridge Companion to Alexander Pope. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Alexander Pope. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Alexander Pope Wikisource has original works written by or about: Alexander Pope Wikisource has the text of the 1885–1900 Dictionary of National Biography's article about Pope, Alexander (1688–1744). Alexander Pope at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA) Works by Alexander Pope at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Alexander Pope at Internet Archive Works by Alexander Pope at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) John Wilkes and Alexander Pope – UK Parliament Living Heritage Lennox, Patrick Joseph (1911). "Alexander Pope" . Catholic Encyclopedia. 12. BBC audio file. In Our Time, radio 4 discussion of Pope. University of Toronto "Representative Poetry Online" page on Pope Pope's Grave The Twickenham Museum Pope's Grotto Preservation Trust Richmond Libraries' Local Studies Collection. Local History. Accessed 2010-10-19 "Archival material relating to Alexander Pope". UK National Archives. Portraits of Alexander Pope at the National Portrait Gallery, London Images relating to Alexander Pope at the English Heritage Archive Blue Plaque at 110 Chiswick Lane South, Chiswick, London W4 2LR v t e Alexander Pope Plays Three Hours After Marriage (1717) Essays "Peri Bathous, Or the Art of Sinking in Poetry" (1727) Poetry "Ode on Solitude" (1700) An Essay on Criticism (1711) Messiah (English poem) (1712) The Rape of the Lock (1712) The Temple of Fame (1715) Eloisa to Abelard (1717) "Elegy to the Memory of an Unfortunate Lady" (1717) Messiah (Latin poem) (1728) The Dunciad (1728–29, 1742–43) An Essay on Man (1734) Moral Essays (1731-35) Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot (1735) Related Popeswood Binfield Scriblerus Club Memoirs of Martinus Scriblerus "Who breaks a butterfly upon a wheel?" 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en-wikipedia-org-9179	----	Optimates - Wikipedia Optimates From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the elite unit of the Byzantine army, see Optimatoi. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Optimates" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) conservative faction of the late Roman Republic Optimates Main leaders Scipio Nasica Serapio Sulla Cicero Cato the Younger Pompey Titus Annius Milo Caecilii Metelli Founded c. 133 BC Dissolved c. 36 BC Ideology Aristocracy Oligarchy Conservatism Mos majorum Supremacy of the Senate Politics of Ancient Rome Part of a series on Conservatism Variants Cultural Fiscal Green Liberal Libertarian National Neo New Right One-nation Paleo Paternalistic Progressive Reactionary Social Traditionalist Concepts Familism Family values Private property Rule of law Communitarianism Civil Society Solidarity People Edmund Burke Joseph de Maistre Louis de Bonald François-René de Chateaubriand Samuel Taylor Coleridge Klemens von Metternich Adam Müller Benjamin Disraeli Michael Oakeshott Russell Kirk William F. Buckley George Will Roger Scruton Organizations Alliance of Conservatives and Reformists in Europe European People's Party International Democrat Union Religious conservatism Christian Democracy (in Europe) Christian right Christian fundamentalism Jewish right Islamic fundamentalism Traditionalist Catholic National variants Australia Canada China Colombia Germany Conservative Revolution State Socialism Hong Kong India New Zealand Pakistan Serbia South Korea Taiwan Turkey United Kingdom United States Related topics Aristocracy Capitalism Centre-right politics Corporatism Counter-revolutionary Fascism Liberalism Monarchism Neoliberalism Old Right (United States) Radical centrism Radical right Europe United States Reactionary Right-wing politics Toryism  Conservatism portal  Politics portal v t e The Optimates (/ˈɒptəmɪts/; Latin for "best ones", singular: optimas), also known as boni ("good men"), were a conservative political faction in the late Roman Republic. They formed in reaction against the reforms of the Gracchi brothers—two tribunes of the plebs between 133 and 121 BC who tried to pass an agrarian law to help the urban poor, and a political reform that would have diminished the influence of the senatorial class. As the Optimates were senators and large landowners, they violently opposed the Gracchi, and finally murdered them, but their program was upheld by several politicians, called the Populares ("favouring the people"). For about 80 years, Roman politics was marked by the confrontation of these two factions. The Optimates favoured the ancestral Roman laws and customs, as well as the supremacy of the Senate over the popular assemblies and the tribunes of the plebs. They also rejected the massive extension of Roman citizenship to Rome's Italian allies advocated by the Populares. Although suspicious of powerful generals, they sided with Pompey when they came to believe that Julius Caesar—himself a Popularis—planned a coup against the Republic. They disappeared with their defeat in the subsequent Civil War. While several leaders of the Optimates were patricians—belonging to the oldest noble families—such as Sulla or Scipio Nasica Serapio, many were plebeians: the Caecilii Metelli, Pompey, Cato the Younger, Titus Annius Milo, etc. Cicero—the most famous Optimas—was even a novus homo (the first of his gens to be senator). Contents 1 History 2 Views 3 Ideology 4 Famous members 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links History[edit] John Edwin Sandys detects an Optimates grouping at time of the death of Tiberius Gracchus in 133 BC.[1] The Optimates' cause reached its peak under the dictatorship (81 BC) of Lucius Cornelius Sulla. Sulla's administration stripped the assemblies of nearly all power, raised the number of members of the Senate from 300 to 600, executed an equally large number of Populares via proscription lists and settled thousands of soldiers in northern Italy. However, after Sulla's withdrawal from public life (80 BC) and subsequent death (78 BC) many of their policies were gradually reversed. Besides Sulla, notable Optimates included Lucullus, Cato the Younger, Titus Annius Milo, Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus and Marcus Junius Brutus the Younger. Though the Optimates had opposed him for the entirety of his political career, Pompey also found himself as the leader of the Optimates' faction once their civil war with Julius Caesar began in 49 BC. Optimates who (along with disillusioned Populares) had carried out Julius Caesar's assassination in 44 BC called themselves Liberatores (liberatores meaning "liberators"). Views[edit] In general, the Optimates favored the nobiles and opposed the ascension of novi homines into Roman politics, though exceptions exist. For instance, Cicero (a strong supporter of the Optimates' cause) was himself a novus homo, being the first in his family to enter the Senate—he was thus never fully accepted by the Optimates.[2] On the other hand, during the civil war of 49 BC, Julius Caesar of a respectable old family contended against a Senate championed by Pompey, who was from a wealthy yet recently ennobled family. In addition to their political aims, the Optimates opposed the extension of Roman citizenship and sought the preservation of the mos maiorum, the ways of their forefathers, as well as the preservation of the sanctity of status quo property rights (opposing the debt reform and land distribution sought by the Populares). They sought to prevent successful generals such as Gaius Marius, Pompey and Julius Caesar from using their armies to accrue such power that they might be in a position to challenge the Senate. They opposed Marius' plan to enlist impoverished Romans who were too poor to provide their own arms and supplies in the legions and the generals' attempts to settle these veterans on state-owned land. Ideology[edit] Robert Morstein-Marx, a historian of the Late Republic, cautions against understanding the terms populares and optimates as solid factions or as ideological groupings: Our chief contemporary witnesses to the political life of the late Republic, Cicero and Sallust, are fond of analyzing the political struggles of the period in terms of a distinction between optimates and populares, often appearing with slight variations in terminology, such as Senate, nobility, or boni versus People or plebs. [...] The polarity obviously corresponds with the dual sources of institutional power in the Republic – Senate and People [...]. It is important to realize that references to populares in the plural do not imply a co-ordinated 'party' with a distinctive ideological character, a kind of political grouping for which there is no evidence in Rome, but simply allude to a recognizable, if statistically quite rare, type of senator whose activities are scattered sporadically across late-Republic history[.] [...] The 'life-long' popularis [...] was a new and worrying phenomenon at the time of Julius Caesar's consulship of 59: an underlying reason why the man inspired such profound fears.[3] This summarizes the dominant interpretation of the Populares in 20th-century scholarship, deriving in large part from Ronald Syme in the Anglophone literature. In the early 21st century and as early as the publication of the ninth volume of The Cambridge Ancient History in 1994,[4] the validity of examining Popularist ideology in the context of Roman political philosophy has been reasserted. In particular, T. P. Wiseman has rehabilitated the use of the word "party" to describe the political opposition between Optimates and Populares, based on Latin usage (partes) and pointing to the consistency of a sort of party platform based on the food supply and general welfare of the populus ("people"), making land available to those outside the senatorial elite and debt relief.[5] Famous members[edit] Gnaeus Octavius - Ancestor of emperor Augustus. A conservative member of the Senate that opposed Populares' reforms. Marcus Octavius - Ancestor of emperor Augustus. A major rival of Tiberius Gracchus. Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo - Father of the famous general Pompey Magnus. Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus - One of Sulla's main commanders. Later became the leader of the Optimates in the civil war against Julius Caesar. Marcus Porcius Cato Uticensis (Cato the Younger) - One of Caesar's major opponents. Known for his stubbornness and immunity to bribes. Marcus Licinius Crassus - The richest man in Rome. One of Sulla's close associates. Lucius Cornelius Sulla - The dictator of Rome. Marched into the city and killed all his political opponents. Marcus Junius Brutus - Assassin of Julius Caesar. Gaius Cassius Longinus - Assassin of Julius Caesar. Decimus Junius Brutus - Originally a supporter of Populares, but later sided with Optimates and assassinated Julius Caesar. Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Serapio - Murdered Tiberius Gracchus. Marcus Tullius Cicero - A famous orator. Titus Annius Milo - Rival of Publius Clodius Pulcher. The Caecilii Metelli - One of the most powerful families in the Roman Republic. A strong supporters of the Optimates. Lucius Licinius Lucullus - One of Sulla's major supporters. Lucius Opimius - Executed 3000 supporters of Gaius Gracchus. Titus Labienus - Originally a supporter of Julius Caesar, but later went over to the Optimates. Marcus Porcius Cato (son of Cato the Younger) - Fought against Caesar in the civil war. Later fought and died in Battle of Philippi. Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus - Opponent of Caesar. References[edit] ^ Sandys, John Edwin (1921). A Companion to Latin Studies (3 ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 125. 133[:] Tribute of Ti. Gracchus, his 'lex agraria' and destruction by a rabble of optimates, headed by P. Scipio Nasica [...]. ^ Everitt, Anthony (30 November 2001). Cicero: The Life and Times of Rome's Greatest Politician. Random House Publishing Group. p. 400. ISBN 9781588360342. ^ Morstein-Marx, Robert (5 February 2004). Mass Oratory and Political Power in the Late Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press. pp. 204–205. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511482878. ISBN 9781139449878. ^ Andrew Lintott. "Political History, 146–96 B.C." in The Cambridge Ancient History (Cambridge University Press, 1994). p. 52. ^ Though this has been a strand in Wiseman's scholarship over the decades, see particularly the introduction and "Roman History and the Ideological Vacuum" in Remembering the Roman People: Essays on Late-Republican Politics and Literature (Oxford University Press, 2009) at p. 14 for partes and "party". A less truncated version of "Roman History and the Ideological Vacuum" may be found in Classics in Progress (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 285. Further reading[edit] Parenti, Michael. The Assassination of Julius Caesar: A People's History of Ancient Rome. The New Press, 2003. ISBN 1-56584-797-0. External links[edit] Videos of talks by Michael Parenti about his book The Assassination of Julius Caesar: A People's History of Ancient Rome, which describes the conflict between Optimates and Populares, in a 76-minute talk (in one part and in eight parts). 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en-wikipedia-org-9189	----	Dominate - Wikipedia Dominate From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "despotic" phase of government in the ancient Roman Empire For the album by Adagio, see Dominate (album). Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e The Dominate is the name sometimes given to the "despotic" later phase of imperial government, following the earlier period known as the "Principate", in the ancient Roman Empire. This phase is more often called the Tetrarchy[1] at least until 313 when the empire was reunited.[2] It may begin with the commencement of the reign of Diocletian in AD 284, following the Third Century Crisis of AD 235–284, and to end in the west with the collapse of the Western Empire in AD 476, while in the east its end is disputed, as either occurring at the close of the reign of Justinian I (AD 565)[3] or of Heraclius (AD 641).[4] In form, the Dominate is considered to have been more authoritarian, less collegial and more bureaucratic than the Principate from which it emerged. Contents 1 Origin of the term 2 Transition from the Principate 3 Characteristics 3.1 Multiple emperors 3.2 Devaluation of the Consulate 3.3 Transformation of the traditional Senatorial order 3.4 Military reforms 3.5 Religious reforms 3.6 Downgrading of Rome as capital of the empire 3.7 Stylistic changes 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links Origin of the term[edit] The modern term dominate is derived from the Latin dominus, which translates into English as lord or master. Dominus, traditionally used by Roman slaves to address their masters, was sporadically used in addressing emperors throughout the Principate, usually in the form of excessive flattery (or political invective) when referring to the emperor.[5] Augustus actively discouraged the practice, and Tiberius in particular is said to have reviled it as sycophancy.[6] Domitian encouraged its use,[7] but none of the emperors used the term in any semi-official capacity until the reign of Aurelian in AD 274, where coins were issued bearing the inscription deus et dominus natus.[8] However, it was only under Diocletian that the term dominus was adopted as part of the emperor's official titulature, forming part of Diocletian's radical reforms.[9] Transition from the Principate[edit] The Dominate system of government emerged as a response to the 50 years of chaos that is referred to as the Crisis of the Third Century. The stresses and strains of those years (chronic usurpations, military insurrections, simultaneous military conflicts across multiple frontiers) exposed the weaknesses in the Roman state under the Principate, and saw a gradual movement from the collegiate model of government that existed prior to AD 235 to a more formally autocratic version that begins after AD 285.[10] In broad terms, it saw the gradual exclusion of the senatorial elite from high military commands and the parallel elevation of the equestrian orders, the reorganisation of the armed forces and the creation of mobile field armies, changes in imperial dress and ceremonial displays, a religious policy aiming at religious unity, large scale monetary reforms, and the creation of an empire-wide civil bureaucracy.[11] Although Diocletian is commonly thought of as creator of the Dominate, its origins lie in the innovations of earlier emperors, principally those undertaken by Aurelian (AD 270–275)[12] some stretching back to the reign of Gallienus (AD 253–268).[13] Not all the changes that produced the 'Dominate' were completed by the time of Diocletian's abdication in AD 305; many changes were either introduced or modified by Constantine I. Consequently, just as the Principate emerged over the period 31 BC through to 14 AD, it is only by AD 337 that the reforms that resulted in the Dominate were largely complete.[14] In the opinion of the historian John Bagnall Bury, the system of government, "constructed with the most careful attention to details, was a solution of the formidable problem of holding together a huge heterogeneous empire, threatened with dissolution and bankruptcy, an empire which was far from being geographically compact and had four long, as well as several smaller, frontiers to defend. To govern a large state by two independent but perfectly similar machines, controlled not from one centre but from two foci, without sacrificing its unity was an interesting and entirely new experiment. These bureaucratic machines worked moderately well, and their success might have been extraordinary if the monarchs who directed them had always been men of superior ability. Blots of course and defects there were, especially in the fields of economy and finance. The political creation of the Illyrian Emperors was not unworthy of the genius of Rome."[15] Characteristics[edit] Multiple emperors[edit] Under the Principate, the position of emperor saw the concentration of various civil and military offices within a single magistracy.[16] Augustus and his successors usually took great care to disguise the autocratic nature of the office by hiding behind the institutions of the Roman Republic and the fiction that the emperor was simply the princeps or first citizen, whose authority was granted by the Senate. This role was almost always filled by a single individual, and the date that the Potestas tribunicia was conferred onto that person was the point when imperial authority could be exercised.[17] Over the course of the Principate, it became common for the emperor (or Augustus) to nominate an heir (referred to as the Caesar), but the caesar did not have access to the powers of the emperor, nor was he delegated any official authority.[18] It was during the Crisis of the Third Century that the traditional imperial approach of a single imperial magistrate based at Rome became unable to cope with multiple and simultaneous invasions and usurpations that required the emperor to be everywhere at once. Further, it was their absence which caused usurpations to occur in response to a local or provincial crisis that traditionally would have been dealt with by the emperor.[19] Under the Dominate, the burden of the imperial position was increasingly shared between colleagues, referred to as the Consortium imperii. It was Diocletian who introduced this form of government, under a system called the Tetrarchy, which originally consisted of two co-emperors (augusti) and two respectively subordinate junior emperors (caesars), each of whom shared in the imperial power. This original power sharing model lasted from AD 289 through to AD 324, being undone during the Civil wars of the Tetrarchy. With Constantine I’s death in AD 337, the empire was again shared between multiple augusti, lasting until AD 350. The model became a permanent feature of the empire in AD 364 with the accession of Valentinian I, who shared the imperial office with his brother Valens. Barring the 3-year period of solitary rule by Theodosius I from AD 392–395, this approach would last until the overthrow of the last western emperor in AD 476. While each augustus was autonomous within each portion of the empire they managed, all laws that were introduced by any emperor were valid across the entirety of the empire. Devaluation of the Consulate[edit] During the Roman Republic, the office of Consul was the highest elected magistracy in the Roman state, with two consuls elected annually. With the arrival of the Principate, although all real power was invested in the emperor, the consuls were still in theory the head of state, and the calendar year was identified by the two ordinary consuls who began in office at the start of the year.[20] Throughout the Principate, the imperial consulate was an important position, albeit as the method through which the Roman aristocracy could progress through to the higher levels of imperial administration – only former consuls could become consular legates, the proconsuls of Africa and Asia, or the urban prefect of Rome.[21] Consequently, the high regard placed upon the ordinary consulate remained intact, as it was one of the few offices that one could share with the emperor, and during this period it was filled mostly by patricians or by individuals who had consular ancestors. It was a post that would be occupied by a man halfway through his career, in his early thirties for a patrician, or in his early forties for most others.[22] If they were especially skilled or valued, they may even have achieved a second (or rarely, a third) consulate. Prior to achieving the consulate, these individuals already had a significant career behind them, and would expect to continue serving the state, filling in the post upon which the state functioned.[23] Under the Dominate, the loss of many pre-consular functions and the encroachment of the equites into the traditional senatorial administrative and military functions meant that senatorial careers virtually vanished prior to their appointment as consuls.[24] This had the effect of seeing a suffect consulship granted at an earlier age, to the point that by the 4th century, it was being held by men in their early twenties, and possibly younger.[25] As time progressed, second consulates, usually ordinary, became far more common than had been the case during the first two centuries, while the first consulship was usually a suffect consulate. Also, the consulate during this period was no longer just the province of senators – the automatic awarding of a suffect consulship to the equestrian praetorian prefects (who were given the ornamenta consularia upon achieving their office) allowed them to style themselves cos. II when they were later granted an ordinary consulship by the emperor.[26] All this had the effect of further devaluing the office of consul, to the point that by time of the Dominate, holding an ordinary consulate was occasionally left out of the cursus inscriptions, while suffect consulships were hardly ever recorded.[27] Transformation of the traditional Senatorial order[edit] Roman Emperor Constantine, who adjusted much of the civil and military reforms initiated by Diocletian One of the key changes in the management of the empire during the Dominate was the large scale removal of old-style senatorial participation in administrative and military functions. The process began with the reforms of Gallienus, who removed senators from military commands, placing them in the hands of the Equites.[28] Under Diocletian, the military equestrian transformation was taken a stage further, with the removal of hereditary senators from most administrative, as well as military, posts (such as the Legatus legionis). Hereditary senators were limited to administrative jobs in Italy and a few neighbouring provinces (Sicily, Africa, Achaea and Asia), despite the fact that senior administrative posts had been greatly multiplied by the tripling of the number of provinces and the establishment of dioceses (or super-provinces). The exclusion of the old Italian aristocracy, both senatorial and equestrian, from the political and military power that they had monopolised for many centuries was largely complete. The Senate became politically insignificant, although it retained great prestige.[29] Constantine I, however, re-introduced a limited form of senatorial career, basing the magistracies on previous offices but with changed functions.[30] Beginning with the quaestorship, a role which had acted as a form of apprenticeship for an ambitious senator during the Principate, it was downgraded during the Dominate and assigned to the sons of senators, with the legal qualifying age lowered to sixteen. This was followed by a suffect consulship and/or a praetorship. The office of Praetor had also lost much of its influence, as it had been stripped of its legal functions, so that during the Dominate its purpose was primarily to organise the Ludi Romani.[31] The most prestigious post that a senator could hold under the Dominate was that of Praefectus urbi; during this period the office gained in effective power, as the imperial court was removed from the city of Rome, meaning that the prefects were no longer under the emperor's direct supervision. The most significant change was the return of provincial government to the senatorial order, with the larger or more important provinces handed over to those senators who had held an ordinary consulship. However, unlike the time of the Principate, the role of governor was much reduced, being a purely civil magistrate with no military functions, and with provinces greatly reduced in size, and the number increasing from the roughly fifty pre-existing provinces to approximately one hundred.[32] The decline in the functions carried out by the old aristocratic senatorial families acting collegially with the emperor in the running of the empire was offset by the rise of an expanded imperial bureaucracy who served the emperor in a subordinate role. Interposed between the governors and the emperors was the Vicarius and, above him, the Praetorian Prefect, both of which were civilian (non-military) roles. Gone was the division between provinces under the jurisdiction of the Senate and those under the authority of the emperor. Now all provinces, dioceses and Praetorian prefectures were under the authority of the emperor.[33] The Praetorian Prefects had wide-ranging administrative, financial, judicial and legislative powers. The provincial governors were appointed at his recommendation, and with him rested their dismissal, subject to the Emperor's approval. The only civilian officials not under the direct oversight of the Praetorian Prefects were the proconsular governors of Africa and Asia, along with the Urban Prefects.[34] The increasing administrative machinery surrounding the emperor resulted in an explosion of bureaucratic offices. These state officials were paid originally both in food and with money, but over the course of the Dominate, the annona (or food ration) was converted into money. Their salaries therefore consumed a considerable chunk of the imperial budget. Although precise numbers are not available, it has been speculated that the state bureaucracy in the Praetorian prefecture of the East and the Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum, including the diocesan and provincial governor's staffs, would have consisted of somewhere around 10,000 individuals.[35] This figure did not include the staff of the military commanders, or the financial and other central ministries, and contrasts with the estimated 300 state bureaucrats that were employed across all the provinces during the period of the Julio-Claudian emperors.[36] Among the most important offices under the Dominate were the: Quaestor sacri palatii (the officer responsible for drafting the laws, and the Imperial rescripts responding to petitions) Magister officiorum (officer responsible for managing the secretarial departments in the palace, the conduct of court ceremonies, and controlling the special department which dealt with ceremonial arrangements and Imperial audiences) Magistri scriniorum (the emperor's secretaries, belonging to the memoriae, epistularum, and libellorum bureaus) Praepositus sacri cubiculi (the emperor's chamberlain, who exercised a general authority over all officers associated with the imperial court). All important offices automatically carried with them admission into the Senate, thereby further eroding the standing of the traditional aristocratic Senatorial families of the Principate under the Dominate. This resulted in a senatorial body of around 2,000 members during the reign of Constantine,[37] and these numbers only increased when there were two senatorial bodies in existence, one at Rome and one at Constantinople. All the higher officials in the imperial bureaucracy belonged to one of the three classes or ranks introduced by Constantine I – the illustres, spectabiles and clarissimi, all of whom were automatically members of the senatorial order. The heads of the great central civil ministries, the magistri militum and other high level military commanders as well as the Praepositus sacri cubiculi were all graded as illustres, the highest of the new senatorial ranks. The second class (spectabiles) was assigned to a large group of civil servants, including the Proconsuls, vicarii, the military governors in the provinces and the magistri scriniorum.[38] The entry level class, clarissimus, was the minimum qualification for membership of the Senate. It was automatically awarded as part of the governorship of a province, and to a myriad of other lesser officers. It was held by a large number of junior imperial public servants, as well as being awarded to them after their retirement. The generosity of the emperors in bestowing the clarissimus witnessed the gradual erosion in its value. As a consequence, the emperors began to raise many clarissimi graded officials to the rank of spectabiles, which in turn cheapened the highest rank of illustres. This inflationary pressure resulted in the creation of a new senatorial rank before the middle of the 6th century, that of gloriosi. Higher in grading than the illustres, all of the highest state officials were regraded to this rank.[39] Military reforms[edit] The original command structure of the Late Roman army, with a separate magister equitum and a magister peditum in place of the later overall magister militum in the command structure of the army of the Western Roman Empire. Further information: Late Roman army Under the Principate, provinces that contained legions were under the proconsular authority of the emperor, who managed those provinces through designated legates (Legatus Augusti pro praetore), while the units stationed at Rome were under the authority of the Praetorian Prefect. During the Crisis of the Third Century, greater authority over imperial military matters was ceded to the Praetorian Prefects,[40] while the imperial legates took advantage of weakened centralised authority to use the troops under their command to rebel against the emperor and claim the imperial title for themselves. It was Diocletian who initially divided the military administrative apparatus and the civil administration in order to mitigate the risk that future imperial governors or Praetorian Prefects might attempt to seize the throne through force, and then he reorganized both of them.[41] During the Tetrarchy, the Praetorian Prefects were the Emperor's top administrators, ranking just below the Emperor himself in dignity. While initially serving as the Emperor's second in command in all matters of imperial administration (military, civil, judicial, taxation, etc.), during the course of the Dominate the Prefects gradually had portions of their authority stripped from them and given to other offices: the Masters of the Soldiers for military affairs and the Imperial Chancellor for central civilian administration.[42] These reforms were the result of both the lack of officials suitable for the prefect's wide-ranging tasks, and of the desire to reduce the potential challenge to the Emperor's authority posed by a powerful Prefect.[43] The next reforms were undertaken by Constantine I, who reorganised the supreme military command. Two significant parts of the reform are apparent: the separation of military commanders from civil administration and the division of the army into two classes: the Field Armies ("comitatenses") and the Frontier Troops ("limitanei").[44] The Field Armies served as the Empire's strategic reserve to respond to crisis where it may arise whereas the Frontier Troops were permanently stationed along the Empire's borders ("limes"). Recruited from the ranks of the Field Armies were the Palace Troops units ("Palatini"), who accompanied the Emperor as he travelled around the Empire, functioning as the successor to the Principate's Praetorian Guard.[45] Around the same time, Constantine established the new military roles of the Master of the Soldiers ("Magister Militum"), who were the supreme military commanders of the empire. Beginning with the head of the foot troops, the magister peditum ("Master of the Foot"), and one for the more prestigious horse troops, the magister equitum ("Master of the Horse"), these were established in each of the four Praetorian Prefectures. Over time, the numbers and types of Masters would vary across the empire. The establishment of solely military officials provided for a more professional military leadership. The Masters were all ranked as illustres. Within the East, by the late 4th century, there were Masters of the Soldiers, per Illyricum, per Thracias , and per Orientem. Each of these three Masters exercised independent command over one of the three Field Armies of the Eastern Empire. There were also two Masters of the Soldiers in the Presence (in praesenti) who accompanied the Eastern Emperor and who each commanded half of the Palace Troops. Each of the five Masters were of equal rank.[46] Within the West, there were originally four Masters of the Soldiers; foot and horse per Gallias and per Italiam. Over time, it became more common for the offices (foot and horse) to be combined under a single person, then styled magister equitum et peditum or magister utriusquae militiae ("master of both forces"). By the time of Stilicho, the Master of Both Services was the supreme military commander of the West, ranking only below the Emperor and above all other military commanders, and commander of half the Palace Troops. The Master of the Horse held command over half the Palace Troops and the Field Army of Gaul, but still under the command of the Master of Both Services.[47] To support the Masters of the Soldiers, the Empire established several Military Counts ("Comes rei militaris"). There were six such Military Counts throughout the Empire. The Military Counts were all ranked as spectabiles. Within the East, there was only one Military Count: the Military Count of Egypt ("Comes rei militaris Aegypti"). Unlike the Military Counts of the West, this Count commanded the Frontier Troops stationed in Egypt and reported directly to the Eastern Emperor. Within the West, there were six such Military Counts, one for each of the five Field Armies in Illyria, Africa, Tingitania, Hispania, and Britannia. The sixth military count, the Count of the Saxon Shore ("comes littoris Saxonici per Britanniam"), commanded Frontier Troops along both sides of the English Channel and reported to the Count of Britannia. The five regular Military Counts reported to the Master of Both Services. The various Frontier Troops were under the command of Dukes ("duces limitis" or "border commanders"). These commanders were the closest in function to the Imperial Legates of the Principate.[48] Most Dukes were given command of forces in a single province, but a few controlled more than one province. In the East, the Dukes reported to the Master of the Soldiers of their district whereas in the West they reported to their respective Military Count. Religious reforms[edit] The Dominate saw enormous changes in the official religion of the empire from its pantheistic Principate origins. Its principal feature was the elevation of a supreme deity that all peoples in the empire were to worship. According to John Bagnall Bury, "while in all ancient monarchies religion and sacerdotalism were a political as well as a social power, the position of the Christian Church in the Roman Empire was a new thing in the world, presenting problems of a kind with which no ruler had hitherto been confronted and to which no past experience offered a key. The history of the Empire would have been profoundly different if the Church had remained as independent of the State as it had been before Constantine. But heresies and schisms and religious intolerance on one side, and the despotic instinct to control all social forces on the other, brought about a close union between State and Church which altered the character and spirit of the State, and constituted perhaps the most striking difference between the early and the later Empire."[49] The origins of the change began in the reign of Aurelian, who promoted the worship of Sol Invictus as the supreme deity of the empire.[12] Although the worship of Sol Invictus did not remove the veneration towards the traditional Roman gods, it was seen as a mark of imperial favouritism, and the emperors linked his cult to the well being of the state and on-going military victories of the empire.[50] Next, it was during Diocletian's reign that emperor worship was fully adopted by the emperors, as a method of expressing loyalty to the state.[51] Previously, deceased emperors had been worshiped as divus across the empire. Living emperors had been worshiped as gods in the eastern half of the empire since the time of Augustus, but this was not officially encouraged during the Principate, and it was not introduced into Italy. It was Diocletian who altered this to have the worship of the living emperors as an official part of the religious framework of the entire empire.[52] To facilitate this, Diocletian was linked to the god Jupiter, while his colleague Maximian was associated with Hercules.[53] It was under Constantine I that the religious transformation began to take its late Dominate shape, initially with Constantine officially favouring the worship of a single deity in the shape of Sol Invictus.[54] During the course of his reign, the identification of Sol Invictus as the principal god began to merge with the Christian god.[55] To avoid offending Christians, Constantine abandoned the emperor's formal claim to divinity and ceased to demand sacrifices to the emperor that formed part of the imperial cult.[56] In an attempt to appeal to both Christians and pagans, Constantine adopted two new religious symbols into the imperial iconography, in the form of the Chi Rho and the Labarum.[57] By the time of Constantine's death in AD 337, this process was largely complete, with Constantine officially converting to Christianity on his deathbed. At the Imperial court, Christians began indiscernibly to rise in favour, to the detriment of pagans. This did not begin to immediately hamper the advancement of pagan courtiers after the defeat of Maxentius in 312, as the full effects were not visible until paganism was prohibited at the end of the 4th century.[58] Ultimately, however, as a result of the imperial patronage of Constantine and especially his sons, Christianity rapidly emerged as the official religion of the empire, although many vestiges of the imperial cult took some time to pass (such as the Emperors still assuming the role of Pontifex Maximus, chief priest of the pagan cults, until AD 381).[59] By the time of Theodosius I, the organisation of the Imperial Church had aligned to the civil administration of the empire. Every city had a Bishop, every province had a Metropolitan, and every civil diocese had an Exarch.[60] At the level of the Praetorian Prefectures sat the five Patriarchates. The Bishop of Rome's authority extended over the whole western or Latin half of the Empire, and included the Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum. The Patriarchate of Constantinople had oversight over the civil dioceses of Thrace, Pontus, and Asia. The Patriarchate of Alexandria corresponded to the Diocese of Egypt. The Patriarchate of Antioch had jurisdiction over the majority of the Praetorian prefecture of the East, while the smaller Patriarchate of Jerusalem dominated the three Palestinian provinces.[61] The emperors had, over time, conceded many privileges to the clergy and the churches. Firstly, all clergy, like the holders of the pagan religious offices, were exempted from taxation. There were no restrictions placed on churches receiving bequests through wills, and they were given the same rights as the pagan temples had in granting asylum to any who requested it. Bishops were permitted to act as judges in civil cases when both parties had agreed, and no appeal was permitted once the Bishop had made their ruling. The state made increasing use of the ecclesiastical authorities in local administration due to the decline in the civic life of the urban communities, which coincided with the increasing local influence of the bishops. Finally, bishops were given the same role as the defensor civitatis, who was responsible for protecting the poor against exploitation by government officials and defending them from other powerful individuals, during the course of which the bishop could bring cases of illegality directly to the emperor.[62] Downgrading of Rome as capital of the empire[edit] One of the most visible signs of the changes brought about by the Dominate was the downgrading of Rome from its status as the official residence of the emperor. This precedent had already been established by Gallienus in 260, who moved the imperial court to Mediolanum in response to a suspected future attack by the usurper Postumus as well as defending Italy from the ravages of the Alamanni.[63] Rome was increasingly seen to be too distant a residence for the emperor when troubles could erupt along any of the borders of the empire. In the west, Mediolanum was seen to be a much better strategic city for the emperor to be based at, as it gave good access through the Alps northwards to both the Danubian provinces in the east as well as the Rhine provinces and Gaul to the west. Further, it was well positioned to guard against incursions through the alpine passes.[64] This decision was confirmed when Diocletian established the Tetrarchy, and his colleague Maximian informally established Mediolanum as the senior western emperor's official residence.[65] Diocletian, conscious that the Persian threat to the eastern provinces required a continuous imperial presence, placed his eastern capital in the city of Nicomedia. Meanwhile, the Caesars also had imperial residences – Constantius Chlorus was based at Augusta Treverorum, while Galerius sited his residence at Sirmium.[66] After the collapse of the Tetrachy, Constantine I at first placed his imperial capital at Ulpia Serdica before erecting a new imperial capital on the site of the old Greek city of Byzantium. Naming it Constantinople, it finally replaced Nicomedia as the site of the emperor's residence in the east in 330.[67] Constantinople would remain the capital of the eastern provinces throughout the period of the Dominate. In the west, Mediolanum continued to be the imperial residence until the repeated invasions by Alaric I forced the western emperor Honorius to relocate to the strongly fortified city of Ravenna in 402.[68] Ravenna remained the western imperial capital until the loss of Italy in 476. Although Rome was reincorporated into the empire by Justinian I in 540, it was Ravenna which was selected as the official residence of the Exarch, the governor who represented the emperor in Italy. Ravenna would retain this position until 751, when the Byzantine Empire finally lost the central Italian provinces to the Lombards. Stylistic changes[edit] Diocletian and his augusti colleagues and successors openly displayed the naked face of Imperial power. They ceased using the more modest title of princeps; they adopted the veneration of the potentates of ancient Egypt and Persia; and, they started wearing jeweled robes and shoes in contrast to the simple toga praetexta used by Emperors of the Principate. Emperors inhabited luxurious palaces (the ruins of Diocletian's enormous palace in Dalmatia survive to this day; see Diocletian's Palace) and were surrounded by a court of individuals who, only due to the favor and proximity of the Emperor, attained the highest honorific titles and bureaucratic functions. In fact, many offices associated with the palatine life and that suggested intimate relationship with royalty eventually developed connotations of power, such as the offices of Chamberlain and Constable. The titles of Senator and Consul, after the loss of every residue of political power they had had in the Principate, became mere honorifics in the later Empire. Historian David Potter describes the transformation of government under Diocletian when describing the shifts in imagery the Emperor used to display his power (in this case the building of a huge new palace at Sirmium): The style of Government so memorably described by Marcus, whereby the emperor sought to show himself as a model of correct aristocratic deportment, had given way to a style in which the emperor was seen to be distinct from all other mortals. His house could no longer be a grander version of houses that other people might live in: it, like him, had to be different. The adoption of Dominus as a formal title reflected the divine status (divus) that has come to be a prerogative of the Imperial position. Originally an exceptional honour awarded by the Senate to an Emperor posthumously, the elevation had devolved to an expected convention for still-living Caesars. To dissuade the rebellions and usurpations of the Crisis of the Third Century, the Emperors sought the kind of divine legitimacy invoked by Eastern monarchies. Emperors imported rituals such as kneeling before the Emperor, and kissing of the hem of the Imperial robe (proskynesis). Even some Christian emperors, such as Constantine, were venerated after death. In the Eastern Roman Empire after 476 AD, the symbiotic relation between the Imperial Crown in Constantinople and the Orthodox Church led to the distinctive character of the medieval Roman state. Anastasius I was the last emperor known to be consecrated as divus on his death (518 AD). The title appears to have been abandoned thereafter on grounds of its spiritual impropriety. See Imperial cult (ancient Rome). The last ruler to use the titles Dominus Noster was Justinian I (died 565), giving place to the title of Basileus ("King"). In the Eastern half of the Empire, and especially from the time of Justinian I, the system of the Dominate evolved into autocratic absolutism.[69] In contrast to the situation in the Principate, however, emperors in the Dominate could not be deified as it was, excepting the two initial decades and the reign of Julian, the Christian period of the Roman Empire. Another clear symptom of the upgrading of the imperial status was the notion of the emperor as an incarnation of the majesty of Rome; thus lèse majesté became high treason.[citation needed] See also[edit] Constitution of the Late Roman Empire References[edit] ^ Menne, I., Power and Status in the Roman Empire, AD 193–284 (2011) p. 21 ^ Kuhoff, Wolfgang (2002). "Die diokletianische Tetrarchie als Epoche einer historischen Wende in antiker und moderner Sicht". International Journal of the Classical Tradition. 9 (2): 177–178. doi:10.1007/BF02898434 JSTOR 30224306 ^ Lee, A. D., From Rome to Byzantium AD 363 to 565: The Transformation of Ancient Rome (2013) p. xiii ^ Mitchell, S., A History of the Later Roman Empire, AD 284–641 (2014), Chapter 1 ^ Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. XI, The High Empire (2008) p. 82 ^ Shorter, D., Rome and her Empire (2014) p. 174 ^ Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. XI, The High Empire (2008) p. 81 ^ Watson, A., Aurelian and the Third Century (2004) p. 188 ^ Menne, I., Power and Status in the Roman Empire, AD 193–284 (2011) p. 21 ^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) pp. 12–13 ^ Bray, J. J., Gallienus: A Study in Reformist and Sexual Politics (1997) p. 2; Körner, C., Aurelian (A.D. 270–275), De Imperatoribus Romanis (2001) ^ a b Körner, C., Aurelian (A.D. 270–275), De Imperatoribus Romanis (2001) ^ Bray, J. J., Gallienus: A Study in Reformist and Sexual Politics (1997) pp. 2–3 ^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) p. 246 ^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), p. 25 ^ Bury, J. B., A History of the Roman Empire from its Foundation to the Death of Marcus Aurelius (1893) pp. 28–30 ^ Bury, J. B., A History of the Roman Empire from its Foundation to the Death of Marcus Aurelius (1893) pp. 23–26 ^ Bury, J. B., A History of the Roman Empire from its Foundation to the Death of Marcus Aurelius (1893) pp. 20; 523 ^ Watson, A. Aurelian and the Third Century (2004) p. 5; Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) pp. 251–2 ^ Bury, J. B., A History of the Roman Empire from its Foundation to the Death of Marcus Aurelius (1893) p. 38 ^ Bagnall, R. S.; Cameron, A.; Schwartz, S. R.; Worp, K. A., Consuls of the later Roman Empire (1987) pp.1–2 ^ Bagnall, R. S.; Cameron, A.; Schwartz, S. R.; Worp, K. A., Consuls of the later Roman Empire (1987) p.1 ^ Bagnall, R. S.; Cameron, A.; Schwartz, S. R.; Worp, K. A., Consuls of the later Roman Empire (1987) p.2 ^ Bagnall, R. S.; Cameron, A.; Schwartz, S. R.; Worp, K. A., Consuls of the later Roman Empire (1987) p.2 ^ Bagnall, R. S.; Cameron, A.; Schwartz, S. R.; Worp, K. A., Consuls of the later Roman Empire (1987) p.2 ^ Bagnall, R. S.; Cameron, A.; Schwartz, S. R.; Worp, K. A., Consuls of the later Roman Empire (1987) p.2 ^ Bagnall, R. S.; Cameron, A.; Schwartz, S. R.; Worp, K. A., Consuls of the later Roman Empire (1987) p.2 ^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) pp. 254–255 ^ Jones, A. H. M., The Later Roman Empire (1964) pp. 525–526 ^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) p. 255 ^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), p. 18; Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) p. 255 ^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) p. 255; Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), p. 25 ^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), pp. 26–28 ^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), pp. 27–28 ^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), pp. 32–33 ^ Bowman, A. K. Provincial Administration and Taxation in The Cambridge Ancient History Vol. 10: The Augustan Empire 43 B.C. – A.D. 69 (1996) p. 353 ^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) p. 255 ^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), pp. 19; 34 ^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), p. 34 ^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) p. 257 ^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) pp. 153–157 ^ Jones, A. H. M., The Later Roman Empire (1964) p. 371 ^ Kelly, Christopher. Bureaucracy and Government. In Lenski, Noel. The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine (2006), p. 187; Jones, A. H. M., The Later Roman Empire (1964) p. 101 ^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) pp. 271–273 ^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), p. 35 ^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), p. 36 ^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), p. 36 ^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), pp. 36–37 ^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), p. 63 ^ Halsberghe, G. H., The Cult of Sol Invictus (1972) pp. 152; 162 ^ Lieu, S. N. C., Manichaeism in the Later Roman Empire and Medieval China: A Historical Survey (1985) p. 93 ^ Sextus Aurelius Victor; Bird, H. W. Liber de Caesaribus (1994) pp. 161–162; Rees, R. Diocletian and the Tetrarchy (2004) p. 46 ^ Rees, R. Diocletian and the Tetrarchy (2004) pp. 54–55 ^ Williams, S. Diocletian and the Roman Recovery (1996) p. 203 ^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) p. 280 ^ Rees, R. Diocletian and the Tetrarchy (2004) p. 206 ^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) p. 281 ^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) p. 281 ^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) p. 281 ^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), p. 64 ^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), pp. 64–65 ^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), p. 65 ^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) p. 88 ^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) pp. 88–89 ^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) pp. 144; 180 ^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) p. 180 ^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) pp. 180–181 ^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), p. 163 ^ Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith (2009). "Conclusion: A Simple Answer". How Rome Fell: Death of a Superpower. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. pp. 405–415. ISBN 0-300-13719-2. OCLC 262432329. Retrieved 28 July 2011. Further reading[edit] Carson, Robert. 1981. Principal Coins of the Romans, III: The Dominate, A.D. 294–498. London: Brit. Museum Publ. Elton, Hugh. 2018. The Roman Empire in Late Antiquity, A Political and Military History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hebblewhite, Mark 2017. The Emperor and the Army in the Later Roman Empire, AD 235–395. London; New York: Routledge. Kelly, Christopher 2004. Ruling the Later Roman Empire. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Kulikowski, Michael. 2016. The Triumph of Empire: The Roman World from Hadrian to Constantine. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Melounová, Markéta. 2012. "Trials with Religious and Political Charges from the Principate to the Dominate." Sborník Prací Filosofické Fakulty Brnenské University = Studia minora Facultatis Philosophicae Universitatis Brunensis. Rada archeologicko-klasicka = Series archaeologica et classica. 17.2: 117–130. Minamikawa, Takashi ed. 2015. New Approaches to the later Roman Empire. Kyoto: Kyoto University. Roymans, Nico, Stijn Heeren, and Wim de Clerq eds. 2016. Social Dynamics in the Northwest Frontiers of the Late Roman Empire: Beyond Transformation or Decline. Amsterdam archaeological studies, 26. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. Vitiello, Massimiliano. 2015. "Blaming the Late Republic: Senatorial Ideology and Republican Institutions in Late Antiquity." Classical Receptions Journal 7.1: 31–45. 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en-wikipedia-org-9226	----	Vitruvius - Wikipedia Vitruvius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman writer, architect and engineer This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize its key points. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (June 2018) Vitruvius A 1684 depiction of Vitruvius (right) presenting De Architectura to Augustus Born Marcus Vitruvius Pollio 80–70 BC Roman Republic Died 15 BC (aged 55–65) Nationality Roman Occupation Author architect civil engineer military engineer Notable work De architectura Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (/vɪˈtruːviəs ˈpɒlioʊ/; c. 80–70 BC – after c. 15 BC), commonly known as Vitruvius, was a Roman author, architect, civil and military engineer during the 1st century BC, known for his multi-volume work entitled De architectura.[1] His discussion of perfect proportion in architecture and the human body led to the famous Renaissance drawing by Leonardo da Vinci of Vitruvian Man. He was also the one who, in 40 BC, invented the idea that all buildings should have three attributes: firmitas, utilitas, and venustas, meaning: strength, utility, and beauty.[2] These principles were later adopted by the Romans. Little is known about his life, but by his own description[3] Vitruvius served as an artilleryman, the third class of arms in the military offices. He probably served as a senior officer of artillery in charge of doctores ballistarum (artillery experts) and libratores who actually operated the machines.[4] As an army engineer he specialized in the construction of ballista and scorpio artillery war machines for sieges. It is possible that Vitruvius served with Caesar's chief engineer Lucius Cornelius Balbus. Vitruvius' De architectura was widely copied and survives in many dozens of manuscripts throughout the Middle Ages,[5] though in 1414 it was "rediscovered" by the Florentine humanist Poggio Bracciolini in the library of Saint Gall Abbey. Leon Battista Alberti published it in his seminal treatise on architecture, De re aedificatoria (c. 1450). The first known Latin printed edition was by Fra Giovanni Sulpitius in Rome, 1486. Translations followed in Italian, French, English, German, Spanish and several other languages. The original illustrations had been lost and the first illustrated edition was published in Venice in 1511 by Fra Giovanni Giocondo, with woodcut illustrations based on descriptions in the text. Contents 1 Life and career 2 De architectura 2.1 Scope 2.2 Proportions of man 2.3 Lists of names given in Book VII Introduction 2.4 Rediscovery 2.5 Notable editions 3 Roman technology 3.1 Machines 3.2 Aqueducts 3.3 Materials 3.4 Dewatering machines 3.5 Surveying instruments 3.6 Central heating 4 Legacy 5 In popular culture 6 See also 7 References 8 Sources 9 Further reading 10 External links Life and career[edit] Little is known about Vitruvius' life. Most inferences about him are extracted from his only surviving work De Architectura. Even his first name Marcus and his cognomen Pollio are uncertain. Marcus Cetius Faventinus writes of "Vitruvius Polio aliique auctores"; this can be read as "Vitruvius Polio, and others" or, less likely, as "Vitruvius, Polio, and others". An inscription in Verona, which names a Lucius Vitruvius Cordo, and an inscription from Thilbilis in North Africa, which names a Marcus Vitruvius Mamurra have been suggested as evidence that Vitruvius and Mamurra (who was a military praefectus fabrum under Julius Caesar) were from the same family;[6] or were even the same individual.[7][8] Neither association, however, is borne out by De Architectura (which Vitruvius dedicated to Augustus), nor by the little that is known of Mamurra. Vitruvius was a military engineer (praefectus fabrum), or a praefect architectus armamentarius of the apparitor status group (a branch of the Roman civil service). He is mentioned in Pliny the Elder's table of contents for Naturalis Historia (Natural History), in the heading for mosaic techniques.[9] Frontinus refers to "Vitruvius the architect" in his late 1st-century work De aquaeductu. Likely born a free Roman citizen, by his own account, Vitruvius served in the Roman army under Caesar with the otherwise poorly identified Marcus Aurelius, Publius Minidius, and Gnaeus Cornelius. These names vary depending on the edition of De architectura. Publius Minidius is also written as Publius Numidicus and Publius Numidius, speculated as the same Publius Numisius inscribed on the Roman Theatre at Heraclea.[10] As an army engineer he specialized in the construction of ballista and scorpio artillery war machines for sieges. It is speculated that Vitruvius served with Caesar's chief engineer Lucius Cornelius Balbus.[11] The locations where he served can be reconstructed from, for example, descriptions of the building methods of various "foreign tribes". Although he describes places throughout De Architectura, he does not say he was present. His service likely included north Africa, Hispania, Gaul (including Aquitaine) and Pontus. To place the role of Vitruvius the military engineer in context, a description of "The Prefect of the camp" or army engineer is quoted here as given by Flavius Vegetius Renatus in The Military Institutions of the Romans: The Prefect of the camp, though inferior in rank to the [Prefect], had a post of no small importance. The position of the camp, the direction of the entrenchments, the inspection of the tents or huts of the soldiers and the baggage were comprehended in his province. His authority extended over the sick, and the physicians who had the care of them; and he regulated the expenses relative thereto. He had the charge of providing carriages, bathhouses and the proper tools for sawing and cutting wood, digging trenches, raising parapets, sinking wells and bringing water into the camp. He likewise had the care of furnishing the troops with wood and straw, as well as the rams, onagri, balistae and all the other engines of war under his direction. This post was always conferred on an officer of great skill, experience and long service, and who consequently was capable of instructing others in those branches of the profession in which he had distinguished himself.[12] At various locations described by Vitruvius,[citation needed] battles and sieges occurred. He is the only source for the siege of Larignum in 56 BC.[13] Of the battlegrounds of the Gallic War there are references to: the siege and massacre of the 40,000 residents at Avaricum in 52 BC; Vercingetorix commented that "the Romans did not conquer by valor nor in the field, but by a kind of art and skill in assault, with which they [Gauls] themselves were unacquainted."[14] The broken siege at Gergovia in 52 BC. The circumvallation and Battle of Alesia in 52 BC; the women and children of the encircled city were evicted to conserve food, where they starved to death between the opposing walls of the defenders and besiegers. And the siege of Uxellodunum in 51 BC. These are all sieges of large Gallic oppida. Of the sites involved in Caesar's civil war, we find the Siege of Massilia in 49 BC,[15] the Battle of Dyrrhachium of 48 BC (modern Albania), the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC (Hellas – Greece), the Battle of Zela of 47 BC (modern Turkey) and the Battle of Thapsus in 46 BC in Caesar's African campaign.[16] A legion that fits the same sequence of locations is the Legio VI Ferrata, of which ballista would be an auxiliary unit. Mainly known for his writings, Vitruvius was himself an architect. In Roman times architecture was a broader subject than at present including the modern fields of architecture, construction management, construction engineering, chemical engineering, civil engineering, materials engineering, mechanical engineering, military engineering and urban planning;[17] architectural engineers consider him the first of their discipline, a specialization previously known as technical architecture. Frontinus mentions Vitruvious in connection with the standard sizes of pipes:[18] the role he is most widely respected. He is often credited as father of architectural acoustics for describing the technique of echeas placement in theaters.[19] The only building, however, that we know Vitruvius to have worked on is one he tells us about,[20] a basilica completed in 19 BC.[21] It was built at Fanum Fortunae, now the modern town of Fano. The Basilica di Fano (to give the building its Italian name) has disappeared so completely that its very site is a matter of conjecture, although various attempts have been made to visualise it.[22] The early Christian practice of converting Roman basilicae (public buildings) into cathedrals implies the basilica may be incorporated into the cathedral in Fano. In later years the emperor Augustus, through his sister Octavia Minor, sponsored Vitruvius, entitling him with what may have been a pension to guarantee financial independence.[3] Whether De architectura was written by one author or is a compilation completed by subsequent librarians and copyists, remains an open question. The date of his death is unknown, which suggests that he had enjoyed only little popularity during his lifetime.[citation needed] Gerolamo Cardano, in his 1552 book De subtilitate rerum, ranks Vitruvius as one of the 12 persons whom he supposes to have excelled all men in the force of genius and invention; and would not have scrupled to have given him the first place, if it could be imagined that he had delivered nothing but his own discoveries.[23] De architectura[edit] Roman house plan after Vitruvius Further information: Mathematics and architecture Vitruvius is the author of De architectura, libri decem, known today as The Ten Books on Architecture,[24] a treatise written in Latin on architecture, dedicated to the emperor Augustus. In the preface of Book I, Vitruvius dedicates his writings so as to give personal knowledge of the quality of buildings to the emperor. Likely Vitruvius is referring to Marcus Agrippa's campaign of public repairs and improvements. This work is the only surviving major book on architecture from classical antiquity. According to Petri Liukkonen, this text "influenced deeply from the Early Renaissance onwards artists, thinkers, and architects, among them Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472), Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), and Michelangelo (1475–1564)."[16] The next major book on architecture, Alberti's reformulation of Ten Books, was not written until 1452. Vitruvius is famous for asserting in his book De architectura that a structure must exhibit the three qualities of firmitatis, utilitatis, venustatis – that is, stability, utility, beauty. These are sometimes termed the Vitruvian virtues or the Vitruvian Triad. According to Vitruvius, architecture is an imitation of nature. As birds and bees built their nests, so humans constructed housing from natural materials, that gave them shelter against the elements. When perfecting this art of building, the Greeks invented the architectural orders: Doric, Ionic and Corinthian. It gave them a sense of proportion, culminating in understanding the proportions of the greatest work of art: the human body. This led Vitruvius in defining his Vitruvian Man, as drawn later by Leonardo da Vinci: the human body inscribed in the circle and the square (the fundamental geometric patterns of the cosmic order). In this book series, Vitruvius, also wrote about climate in relation to housing architecture and how to choose locations for cities.[25][26] Scope[edit] Vitruvius designed and supervised the construction of this basilica in Fano (reconstruction). However, many of the other things he did would not now be considered the realm of architecture Vitruvius is sometimes loosely referred to as the first architect, but it is more accurate to describe him as the first Roman architect to have written surviving records of his field. He himself cites older but less complete works. He was less an original thinker or creative intellect than a codifier of existing architectural practice. Vitruvius had a much wider scope than modern architects. Roman architects practised a wide variety of disciplines; in modern terms, they could be described as being engineers, architects, landscape architects, surveyors, artists, and craftsmen combined. Etymologically the word architect derives from Greek words meaning 'master' and 'builder'. The first of the Ten Books deals with many subjects which now come within the scope of landscape architecture. In Book I, Chapter 1, titled The Education of the Architect, Vitruvius instructs... 1. Architecture is a science arising out of many other sciences, and adorned with much and varied learning; by the help of which a judgment is formed of those works which are the result of other arts. Practice and theory are its parents. Practice is the frequent and continued contemplation of the mode of executing any given work, or of the mere operation of the hands, for the conversion of the material in the best and readiest way. Theory is the result of that reasoning which demonstrates and explains that the material wrought has been so converted as to answer the end proposed. 2. Wherefore the mere practical architect is not able to assign sufficient reasons for the forms he adopts; and the theoretic architect also fails, grasping the shadow instead of the substance. He who is theoretic as well as practical, is therefore doubly armed; able not only to prove the propriety of his design, but equally so to carry it into execution.[27] He goes on to say that the architect should be versed in drawing, geometry, optics (lighting), history, philosophy, music, theatre, medicine, and law. In Book I, Chapter 3 (The Departments of Architecture), Vitruvius divides architecture into three branches, namely; building; the construction of sundials and water clocks;[28] and the design and use of machines in construction and warfare.[29][30] He further divides building into public and private. Public building includes city planning, public security structures such as walls, gates and towers; the convenient placing of public facilities such as theatres, forums and markets, baths, roads and pavings; and the construction and position of shrines and temples for religious use.[27] Later books are devoted to the understanding, design and construction of each of these. Proportions of man[edit] "Vitruvian Man", illustration in the edition of De architectura by Vitruvius; illustrated edition by Cesare Cesariano (1521) Vitruvian Man by Leonardo da Vinci, an illustration of the human body inscribed in the circle and the square derived from a passage about geometry and human proportions in Vitruvius' writings In Book III, Chapter 1, Paragraph 3, Vitruvius writes about the proportions of man: 3. Just so the parts of Temples should correspond with each other, and with the whole. The navel is naturally placed in the centre of the human body, and, if in a man lying with his face upward, and his hands and feet extended, from his navel as the centre, a circle be described, it will touch his fingers and toes. It is not alone by a circle, that the human body is thus circumscribed, as may be seen by placing it within a square. For measuring from the feet to the crown of the head, and then across the arms fully extended, we find the latter measure equal to the former; so that lines at right angles to each other, enclosing the figure, will form a square.[31] It was upon these writings that Renaissance engineers, architects and artists like Mariano di Jacopo Taccola, Pellegrino Prisciani and Francesco di Giorgio Martini and finally Leonardo da Vinci based the illustration of the Vitruvian Man.[32] Vitruvius described the human figure as being the principal source of proportion. The drawing itself is often used as an implied symbol of the essential symmetry of the human body, and by extension, of the universe as a whole.[33] Lists of names given in Book VII Introduction[edit] In the introduction to book seven, Vitruvius goes to great lengths to present why he is qualified to write De Architectura. This is the only location in the work where Vitruvius specifically addresses his personal breadth of knowledge. Similar to a modern reference section, the author's position as one who is knowledgeable and educated is established. The topics range across many fields of expertise reflecting that in Roman times as today construction is a diverse field. Vitruvius is clearly a well-read man. In addition to providing his qualification, Vitruvius summarizes a recurring theme throughout the 10 books, a non-trivial and core contribution of his treatise beyond simply being a construction book. Vitruvius makes the point that the work of some of the most talented are unknown, while many of those of lesser talent but greater political position are famous.[24] This theme runs through Vitruvius’s ten books repeatedly – echoing an implicit prediction that he and his works will also be forgotten. Vitruvius illustrates this point by naming what he considers are the most talented individuals in history.[24] Implicitly challenging the reader that they have never heard of some of these people, Vitruvius goes on and predicts that some of these individuals will be forgotten and their works lost, while other, less deserving political characters of history will be forever remembered with pageantry. List of physicists: Thales, Democritus, Anaxagoras, Xenophanes List of philosophers: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Zeno, Epicurus List of kings: Croesus, Alexander the Great, Darius On plagiarism: Aristophanes, Ptolemy I Soter, a person named Attalus On abusing dead authors: Zoilus Homeromastix, Ptolemy II Philadelphus On divergence of the visual rays: Agatharchus, Aeschylus, Democritus, Anaxagoras List of writers on temples: Silenus, Theodorus, Chersiphron and Metagenes, Ictinus and Carpion, Theodorus the Phocian, Hermogenes, Arcesius, Satyrus and a person named Pytheos List of artists: Leochares, Bryaxis, Scopas, Praxiteles, Timotheos List of writers on laws of symmetry: Nexaris, Theocydes, a person named Demophilus, Pollis, a person named Leonidas, Silanion, Melampus, Sarnacus, Euphranor List of writers on machinery: Diades of Pella, Archytas, Archimedes, Ctesibius, Nymphodorus, Philo of Byzantium, Diphilus, Democles, Charias, Polyidus of Thessaly, Pyrrus, Agesistratus List of writers on architecture: Fuficius, Terentius Varro, Publius Septimius (writer) List of architects: Antistates, Callaeschrus, Antimachides, Pormus, Cossutius List of greatest temple architects: Chersiphron of Gnosus, Metagenes, Demetrius, Paeonius the Milesian, Ephesian Daphnis, Ictinus, Philo, Cossutius, Gaius Mucianus Rediscovery[edit] Battle of Thapsus as depicted in an engraving after Andrea Palladio The interior of the Pantheon (from an 18th-century painting by Panini). Although built after Vitruvius' death, its excellent state of preservation makes it of great importance to those interested in Vitruvian architecture Vitruvius' De architectura was "rediscovered" in 1414 by the Florentine humanist Poggio Bracciolini in the library of Saint Gall Abbey. Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472) publicised it in his seminal treatise on architecture, De re aedificatoria (c. 1450). The first known Latin printed edition was by Fra Giovanni Sulpitius in Rome, 1486.[34][35] Translations followed in Italian (Cesare Cesariano, 1521), French (Jean Martin, 1547[36]), English, German (Walther H. Ryff, 1543) and Spanish and several other languages. The original illustrations had been lost and the first illustrated edition was published in Venice in 1511 by Fra Giovanni Giocondo, with woodcut illustrations based on descriptions in the text.[37] Later in the 16th-century Andrea Palladio provided illustrations for Daniele Barbaro's commentary on Vitruvius, published in Italian and Latin versions. The most famous illustration is probably Da Vinci's Vitruvian Man. The surviving ruins of Roman antiquity, the Roman Forum, temples, theatres, triumphal arches and their reliefs and statues offered visual examples of the descriptions in the Vitruvian text. Printed and illustrated editions of De Architectura inspired Renaissance, Baroque and Neoclassical architecture. Filippo Brunelleschi, for example, invented a new type of hoist to lift the large stones for the dome of the cathedral in Florence and was inspired by De Architectura as well as surviving Roman monuments such as the Pantheon and the Baths of Diocletian. Notable editions[edit] Latin 1800 Augustus Rode, Berlin[38] 1857 Teubner Edition by Valentin Rose 1899 Teubner Edition 1912 Teubner edition at The Latin Library[39] Bill Thayer, transcription of the 1912 Teubner Edition[40] Italian Cesare Cesariano, 1521, Como, Italy, includes illustrations by Cesare Cesariano Danielle Barbaro, includes illustration by Andrea Palladio French Jean Martin, 1547[41] Claude Perrault, 1673[42] Auguste Choisy, 1909 English Henry Wotton, 1624 Joseph Gwilt, 1826 Bill Thayer transcription of the Gwilt 1826 Edition[27] Morris H. MorganMorris Hickey Morgan, with illustrations prepared by Herbert Langford Warren, 1914, Harvard University Press[43] Frank Granger, Loeb Edition, 1931[44] Ingrid Rowland, 2001[45] Thomas Gordon Smith, The Monacelli Press (January 5, 2004)[46] Roman technology[edit] Drainage wheel from Rio Tinto mines Books VIII, IX and X form the basis of much of what we know about Roman technology, now augmented by archaeological studies of extant remains, such as the water mills at Barbegal in France. The other major source of information is the Naturalis Historia compiled by Pliny the Elder much later in c. 75 AD. Machines[edit] The work is important for its descriptions of the many different machines used for engineering structures such as hoists, cranes and pulleys, as well as war machines such as catapults, ballistae, and siege engines. As a practising engineer, Vitruvius must be speaking from personal experience rather than simply describing the works of others. He also describes the construction of sundials and water clocks, and the use of an aeolipile (the first steam engine) as an experiment to demonstrate the nature of atmospheric air movements (wind). Aqueducts[edit] His description of aqueduct construction includes the way they are surveyed, and the careful choice of materials needed, although Frontinus (a general who was appointed in the late 1st century AD to administer the many aqueducts of Rome), writing a century later, gives much more detail of the practical problems involved in their construction and maintenance. Surely Vitruvius' book would have been of great assistance in this. Vitruvius was writing in the 1st century BC when many of the finest Roman aqueducts were built, and survive to this day, such as those at Segovia and the Pont du Gard. The use of the inverted siphon is described in detail, together with the problems of high pressures developed in the pipe at the base of the siphon, a practical problem with which he seems to be acquainted. Materials[edit] He describes many different construction materials used for a wide variety of different structures, as well as such details as stucco painting. Concrete and lime receive in-depth descriptions. Vitruvius is cited as one of the earliest sources to connect lead mining and manufacture, its use in drinking water pipes, and its adverse effects on health. For this reason, he recommended the use of clay pipes and masonry channels in the provision of piped drinking-water.[47] Vitruvius is the source for the anecdote that credits Archimedes with the discovery of the mass-to-volume ratio while relaxing in his bath. Having been asked to investigate the suspected adulteration of the gold used to make a crown, Archimedes realised that the crown's volume could be measured exactly by its displacement of water, and ran into the street with the cry of Eureka! Dewatering machines[edit] Design for an Archimedean water-screw He describes the construction of Archimedes' screw in Chapter X (without mentioning Archimedes by name). It was a device widely used for raising water to irrigate fields and drain mines. Other lifting machines he mentions include the endless chain of buckets and the reverse overshot water-wheel. Remains of the water wheels used for lifting water were discovered when old mines were re-opened at Rio Tinto in Spain, Rosia Montana in Romania and Dolaucothi in west Wales. The Rio Tinto wheel is now shown in the British Museum, and the Dolaucothi specimen in the National Museum of Wales. Surveying instruments[edit] That he must have been well practised in surveying is shown by his descriptions of surveying instruments, especially the water level or chorobates, which he compares favourably with the groma, a device using plumb lines. They were essential in all building operations, but especially in aqueduct construction, where a uniform gradient was important to the provision of a regular supply of water without damage to the walls of the channel. He also developed one of the first odometers, consisting of a wheel of known circumference that dropped a pebble into a container on every rotation. Central heating[edit] Ruins of the hypocaust under the floor of a Roman villa. The part under the exedra is covered. He describes the many innovations made in building design to improve the living conditions of the inhabitants. Foremost among them is the development of the hypocaust, a type of central heating where hot air developed by a fire was channelled under the floor and inside the walls of public baths and villas. He gives explicit instructions how to design such buildings so that fuel efficiency is maximised, so that for example, the caldarium is next to the tepidarium followed by the frigidarium. He also advises on using a type of regulator to control the heat in the hot rooms, a bronze disc set into the roof under a circular aperture which could be raised or lowered by a pulley to adjust the ventilation. Although he does not suggest it himself, it is likely that his dewatering devices such as the reverse overshot water-wheel were used in the larger baths to lift water to header tanks at the top of the larger thermae, such as the Baths of Diocletian. The one which was used in Bath of Caracalla for grinding flour. Legacy[edit] Vitruvian Man – a drawing by Leonardo da Vinci Vitruvius Britannicus – 18th century work on British architecture named after Vitruvius. Den Danske Vitruvius – 18th century work on Danish architecture – inspired by Vitruvius Britannicus.[48] The American Vitruvius – 20th century work on civil architecture by Werner Hegemann William Vitruvius Morrison (1794–1838), the son of Irish architect Sir Richard Morrison and himself a noted architect of great houses, bridges, court houses and prisons. A small lunar crater has been named after Vitruvius and also an elongated lunar mountain Mons Vitruvius close-by. The Design Quality Indicator (DQI) tool for buildings uses Vitruvius's principles. In popular culture[edit] The leader of the Master Builders in The Lego Movie is named Vitruvius. Vitruvius appears as a non-player character in the 2017 video game Assassin's Creed Origins. Vitruvius' work appears in The Rule of Four, a 2004 novel by Ian Caldwell and Dustin Thomason. See also[edit] Aristotle Ctesibius Colen Campbell Frontinus Pliny the Elder Roman architecture Roman aqueducts Roman engineering Roman technology Vitruvian man Vitruvian scroll Lucius Vitruvius Cordo References[edit] ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Vitruvius" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ^ The Oxford handbook of Greek and Roman art and architecture. Marconi, Clemente, 1966-. New York. 2015. ISBN 978-0-19-978330-4. OCLC 881386276.CS1 maint: others (link) ^ a b De Arch. Book 1, preface. section 2. ^ Yann Le Bohec, "The Imperial Roman Army", Routledge, p. 49, 2000, ISBN 0-415-22295-8. ^ Krinsky, Carol Herselle (1967). "Seventy-Eight Vitruvius Manuscripts". Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes. 30: 36–70. doi:10.2307/750736. JSTOR 750736. ^ Pais, E. Ricerche sulla storia e sul diritto publico di Roma (Rome, 1916). ^ History of ancient North Africa: CONFLICTS AND BATTLES OF THE HUMANITY, Ancient North Africa until the Roman conquest, last assessed 10/09/2011. http://miltiae.pagesperso-orange.fr/GB/Ancient_North_Africa.htm[permanent dead link] ^ Vitruvius Pollio http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Vitruvius.aspx ^ Moore, Richard E. M. (January 1968). "A Newly Observed Stratum in Roman Floor Mosaics". American Journal of Archaeology. Archaeological Institute of America. 72 (1): 57–68. doi:10.2307/501823. JSTOR 501823. ^ Niccolò Marcello Venuti Description of the First Discoveries of the Ancient City of Heraclea, Found Near Portici A Country Palace Belonging to the King of the Two Sicilies published by R. Baldwin, translated by Wickes Skurray, 1750. p62 [1] ^ Trumbull, David (2007). "Classical Sources, Greek and Roman Esthetics Reading: The Grand Tour Reader; Vitruvius Background: Life of Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (c. 90–20 BC)". An Epitome of Book III of Vitruvius. Retrieved 18 November 2009. [dead link] ^ Flavius Vegetius Renatus The Military Institutions of the Romans Translated from the Latin by Lieutenant John Clarke, Text written in 390 BC. British translation published in 1767. Copyright Expired, http://www.digitalattic.org/home/war/vegetius/ ^ Planning the twentieth-century American city By Mary Corbin Sies, Christopher Silver, JHU Press, 1996, page 42. https://books.google.com/books?id=TUpLvJrKc64C&lpg=PA42&dq=battle%20of%20Larignum&pg=PA42#v=onepage&q=battle%20of%20Larignum&f=false ^ Caesar, De bello Gallico 7.29 Archived 8 July 2012 at Archive.today ^ Vitruvius mentions Massilia several times, and the siege itself in Book X. ^ a b Liukkonen, Petri. "Vitruvius". Books and Writers (kirjasto.sci.fi). Finland: Kuusankoski Public Library. Archived from the original on 13 January 2015. ^ The "Vitruvius Project" at Carnegie Mellon University, Computer Science Department This software engineering project sees itself in the Vitruvian tradition. Accessed August 2008 ^ De Aquis, I.25 (in Latin) ebook of work also known as De aquaeductu, accessed August 2008 ^ Reed Business Information (21 November 1974). "New Scientist". New Scientist Careers Guide : The Employer Contacts Book for Scientists. Reed Business Information: 552–. ISSN 0262-4079. Retrieved 6 May 2013. ^ (De Arch., Book V.i.6) (in Latin) but with link to English translation, accessed August 2008 ^ Fausto Pugnaloni and Paolo Clini "Vitruvius Basilica in Fano, Italy, journey through the virtual space of the reconstructed memory" GISdevelopment.net last accessed 3/8/2008 [2] ^ P. Clini "VITRUVIUS’ BASILICA AT FANO: THE DRAWINGS OF A LOST BUILDING FROM DE ARCHITECTURA LIBRI DECEM" The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, Vol. XXXIV, Part 5/W12 pp121 – 126 2002 "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 May 2012. Retrieved 3 February 2016.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ Charles Hutton, Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary (1795) Archived 5 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine ^ a b c Vitruvius, Pollio (transl. Morris Hicky Morgan, 1960), The Ten Books on Architecture. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-20645-9. ^ "Philosophy of Architecture". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2015. ^ "Vitruvius The Ten Books On Architecture". The Project Gutenberg. ^ a b c "LacusCurtius • Vitruvius on Architecture — Book I". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ Turner, A. J., in Folkrets, M., and Lorch, R., (Editors), "Sic itur ad astra", Studien zur Geschichte der Mathematik und Naturwissenschaften – Festschrift für den Arabisten Paul Kunitzsch zum 70, Harrassowitz Verlag, 2000, p.563 ff. ^ Long, Pamela O., in Galison, Peter, and Thompson, Emily (Editors), The Architecture of Science, The MIT Press, 1999, p. 81 ^ Borys, Ann Marie, Vincenzo Scamozzi and the Chorography of Early Modern Architecture, Routledge, 2014, pp. 85, 179 ^ "LacusCurtius • Vitruvius on Architecture — Book III". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ Marc van den Broek (2019), Leonardo da Vinci Spirits of Invention. A Search for Traces, Hamburg: A.TE.M., ISBN 978-3-00-063700-1 ^ "Bibliographic reference". The Whole Universe Book. Retrieved 30 November 2011. ^ "CPSA Palladio's Literary Predecessors". www.palladiancenter.org. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Vitruvius, "De architectura", the First Printed Work on Classical Architecture (1486 – August 16, 1487) : HistoryofInformation.com". www.historyofinformation.com. Archived from the original on 30 April 2019. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ Architectura – Les livres d'Architecture (in French) ^ "Architectura – Les livres d'Architecture". architectura.cesr.univ-tours.fr. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "bibliotheca Augustana". www.hs-augsburg.de. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Vitruvius". www.thelatinlibrary.com. Archived from the original on 13 June 2017. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "LacusCurtius • Vitruvius de Architectura — Liber Primus". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ http://homes.chass.utoronto.ca/~wulfric/vitruve/ http://homes.chass.utoronto.ca/~wulfric/vitruve/ ^ Books on architecture by Claude Perrault, Architectura website. Retrieved on 18 January 2020. ^ Vitruvius, Pollio (1914). The Ten Books on Architecture. Translated by Morgan, Morris Hicky. Illustrations prepared by Herbert Langford Warren. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ^ Granger, Frank (1931). Vitruvius: On Architecture. Harvard University Press. p. 368. ISBN 0674992776. ^ Rowland, Ingrid (2001). Vitruvius: 'Ten Books on Architecture'. Cambridge University Press. p. 352. ISBN 0521002923. ^ Smith, Thoma Granger (2004). Vitruvius on Architecture. The Monacelli Press. p. 224. ISBN 1885254989. ^ Hodge, Trevor, A. (October 1981). "Vitruvius, Lead Pipes and Lead Poisoning". American Journal of Archaeology. Archaeological Institute of America. 85 (4): 486–491. doi:10.2307/504874. JSTOR 504874.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ "Den Danske Vitruvius". AOK. Retrieved 23 June 2009. Sources[edit] Indra Kagis McEwen, Vitruvius: Writing the Body of Architecture. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2004. ISBN 0-262-63306-X B. Baldwin, "The Date, Identity, and Career of Vitruvius". In Latomus 49 (1990), 425–34. Kai Brodersen & Christiane Brodersen: Cetius Faventinus. Das römische Eigenheim / De architectura privata, Latin and German. Wiesbaden: Marix 2015, ISBN 978-3-7374-0998-8 Further reading[edit] Library resources about Vitruvius Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Vitruvius Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Clarke, Georgia. 2002. "Vitruvian Paradigms". Papers of the British School at Rome 70:319–346. De Angelis, Francesco. 2015. "Greek and Roman Specialized Writing on Art and Architecture". In The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Art and Architecture. Edited by Clemente Marconi, 41–69. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. König, Alice. 2009. "From Architect to Imperator: Vitruvius and his Addressee in the De Architectura". In Authorial Voices in Greco-Roman Technical Writing. Edited by Liba Chaia Taub and Aude Doody, 31–52. Trier, Germany: WVT Wissenschaftlicher Verlag Trier. Milnor, Kristina L. 2005. "Other Men’s Wives". In Gender, Domesticity and the Age of Augustus: Inventing Private Life. By Kristina L. Milnor, 94–139. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Nichols, Marden Fitzpatrick. 2017".Author and Audience in Vitruvius’ De Architectura". Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Rowland, Ingrid D. 2014. "Vitruvius and His Influence". In A Companion to Roman Architecture. Edited by Roger B. Ulrich and Caroline K. Quenemoen, 412–425. Malden, MA, and Oxford: Blackwell. Sear, Frank B. 1990. "Vitruvius and Roman Theater Design". American Journal of Archaeology 94.2: 249–258. Smith, Thomas Gordon. 2004. Vitruvius on Architecture. New York: Monacelli Press. Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew. 1994. "The Articulation of the House". In Houses and Society in Pompeii and Herculaneum. By Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, 38–61. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press. Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew. 2008. "Vitruvius: Building Roman Identity". In Rome’s Cultural Revolution. By Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, 144–210. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Vitruvius. Wikisource has original works written by or about: Vitruvius Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: Marcus Vitruvius Pollio Wikiquote has quotations related to: Vitruvius Works by Vitruvius at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Vitruvius at Internet Archive Works by Vitruvius at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) The Ten Books on Architecture online: cross-linked Latin text and English translation The Ten Books on Architecture at the Perseus Classics Collection. Latin and English text. Latin text has hyperlinks to pop-up dictionary. Palladio's Literary Predecessors Latin text, version 2 An Abridgment of the Architecture of Vitruvius Ten Books on Architecture at Project Gutenberg (Morris Hicky Morgan translation with illustrations) Vitruvius online Leonardo da Vincis Vitruvian man as an algorithm for the approximation of the squaring of the circle Vitruvius' theories of beauty – a learning resource from the British Library Animation: The Odometer of Vitruv Discussion of the inventions of Vitruvius Online Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries High resolution images of works by Vitruvius in .jpg and .tiff format. digital scans in high resolution of 73 editions of Vitruvius from 1497 to 1909 from the Werner Oechslin Library, Einsiedeln, Switzerland Vitruvius Summary VITRUVII, M. De architectura. Naples, (c. 1480). 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ==Works== [[Image:Horatius - Boek I Ode XIV - Cleveringaplaats 1, Leiden.JPG|thumb|''Odes'' 1.14 – [[Wall poems in Leiden|Wall poem in Leiden]] ]] The dating of Horace's works isn't known precisely and scholars often debate the exact order in which they were first 'published'. There are persuasive arguments for the following chronology:<ref>R Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 17–21</ref> * ''[[Satires (Horace)|Satires 1]]'' (c. 35–34 BC) * ''[[Satires (Horace)|Satires 2]]'' (c. 30 BC) * ''[[Epodes (Horace)|Epodes]]'' (30 BC) * ''[[Odes (Horace)|Odes 1–3]]'' (c. 23 BC)<ref group="nb">According to a recent theory, the three books of ''Odes'' were issued separately, possibly in 26, 24 and 23 BC (see G. Hutchinson (2002), ''Classical Quarterly'' 52: 517–37)</ref> * ''[[Epistles (Horace)|Epistles 1]]'' (c. 21 BC) * ''[[Carmen Saeculare]]'' (17 BC) * ''[[Epistles (Horace)|Epistles 2]]'' (c. 11 BC)<ref group="nb">19 BC is the usual estimate but c. 11 BC has good support too (see R. Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 18–20</ref> * ''[[Odes (Horace)|Odes 4]]'' (c. 11 BC) * ''[[Ars Poetica (Horace)|Ars Poetica]]'' (c. 10–8 BC)<ref group="nb">The date however is subject to much controversy with 22–18 BC another option (see for example R. Syme, ''The Augustan Aristocracy'', 379–81</ref> ===Historical context=== Horace composed in traditional [[Meter (poetry)|metres]] borrowed from [[Archaic Greece]], employing [[hexameter]]s in his ''Satires'' and ''Epistles'', and [[iamb (poetry)|iambs]] in his ''Epodes'', all of which were relatively easy to adapt into [[Prosody (Latin)|Latin forms]]. His ''Odes'' featured more complex measures, including [[Alcaic verse|alcaics]] and [[Sapphic stanza|sapphics]], which were sometimes a difficult fit for Latin structure and [[syntax]]. Despite these traditional metres, he presented himself as a partisan in the development of a new and sophisticated style. He was influenced in particular by [[Hellenistic poetry|Hellenistic]] aesthetics of brevity, elegance and polish, as modelled in the work of [[Callimachus]].<ref>S. Harrison, ''Style and poetic texture'', 262</ref> {{Quotation|As soon as Horace, stirred by his own genius and encouraged by the example of Virgil, Varius, and perhaps some other poets of the same generation, had determined to make his fame as a poet, being by temperament a fighter, he wanted to fight against all kinds of prejudice, amateurish slovenliness, philistinism, reactionary tendencies, in short to fight for the new and noble type of poetry which he and his friends were endeavouring to bring about.|[[Eduard Fraenkel]]<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 124–25</ref>}} In modern literary theory, a distinction is often made between immediate personal experience (''Urerlebnis'') and experience mediated by cultural vectors such as literature, philosophy and the visual arts (''Bildungserlebnis'').<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gundolf|first1=Friedrich|title=Goethe|date=1916|publisher=Bondi|location=Berlin, Germany}}</ref> The distinction has little relevance for Horace{{citation needed|date=August 2014}} however since his personal and literary experiences are implicated in each other. ''Satires'' 1.5, for example, recounts in detail a real trip Horace made with Virgil and some of his other literary friends, and which parallels a Satire by [[Gaius Lucilius|Lucilius]], his predecessor.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 106–07</ref> Unlike much Hellenistic-inspired literature, however, his poetry was not composed for a small coterie of admirers and fellow poets, nor does it rely on abstruse allusions for many of its effects. Though elitist in its literary standards, it was written for a wide audience, as a public form of art.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 74</ref> Ambivalence also characterizes his literary persona, since his presentation of himself as part of a small community of philosophically aware people, seeking true peace of mind while shunning vices like greed, was well adapted to Augustus's plans to reform public morality, corrupted by greed—his personal plea for moderation was part of the emperor's grand message to the nation.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 95–96</ref> Horace generally followed the examples of poets established as classics in different genres, such as [[Archilochus]] in the ''Epodes'', Lucilius in the ''Satires'' and [[Alcaeus of Mytilene|Alcaeus]] in the ''Odes'', later broadening his scope for the sake of variation and because his models weren't actually suited to the realities confronting him. Archilochus and Alcaeus were aristocratic Greeks whose poetry had a social and religious function that was immediately intelligible to their audiences but which became a mere artifice or literary motif when transposed to Rome. However, the artifice of the ''Odes'' is also integral to their success, since they could now accommodate a wide range of emotional effects, and the blend of Greek and Roman elements adds a sense of detachment and universality.<ref>J. Griffin, ''Gods and Religion'', 182</ref> Horace proudly claimed to introduce into Latin the spirit and iambic poetry of Archilochus but (unlike Archilochus) without persecuting anyone (''Epistles'' 1.19.23–25). It was no idle boast. His ''Epodes'' were modelled on the verses of the Greek poet, as 'blame poetry', yet he avoided targeting real [[scapegoat]]s. Whereas Archilochus presented himself as a serious and vigorous opponent of wrong-doers, Horace aimed for comic effects and adopted the persona of a weak and ineffectual critic of his times (as symbolized for example in his surrender to the witch Canidia in the final epode).<ref>S. Harrison, ''Lyric and Iambic'', 192</ref> He also claimed to be the first to introduce into Latin the lyrical methods of Alcaeus (''Epistles'' 1.19.32–33) and he actually was the first Latin poet to make consistent use of Alcaic meters and themes: love, politics and the [[symposium]]. He imitated other Greek lyric poets as well, employing a 'motto' technique, beginning each ode with some reference to a Greek original and then diverging from it.<ref>S. Harrison, ''Lyric and Iambic'', 194–96</ref> The satirical poet Lucilius was a senator's son who could castigate his peers with impunity. Horace was a mere freedman's son who had to tread carefully.<ref name="E. Fraenkel, Horace, 32, 80">E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 32, 80</ref> Lucilius was a rugged patriot and a significant voice in Roman self-awareness, endearing himself to his countrymen by his blunt frankness and explicit politics. His work expressed genuine freedom or [[libertas]]. His style included 'metrical vandalism' and looseness of structure. Horace instead adopted an oblique and ironic style of satire, ridiculing stock characters and anonymous targets. His libertas was the private freedom of a philosophical outlook, not a political or social privilege.<ref>L. Morgan, ''Satire'', 177–78</ref> His ''Satires'' are relatively easy-going in their use of meter (relative to the tight lyric meters of the ''Odes'')<ref>S. Harrison, ''Style and poetic texture'', 271</ref> but formal and highly controlled relative to the poems of Lucilius, whom Horace mocked for his sloppy standards (''Satires'' 1.10.56–61)<ref group="nb">"[Lucilius]...resembles a man whose only concern is to force / something into the framework of six feet, and who gaily produces / two hundred lines before dinner and another two hundred after."{{spaced ndash}}''Satire'' 1.10.59–61 (translated by [[Niall Rudd]], ''The Satires of Horace and Persius'', Penguin Classics 1973, p. 69)</ref> The ''Epistles'' may be considered among Horace's most innovative works. There was nothing like it in Greek or Roman literature. Occasionally poems had had some resemblance to letters, including an elegiac poem from [[Solon]] to [[Mimnermus]] and some lyrical poems from [[Pindar]] to [[Hieron of Syracuse]]. Lucilius had composed a satire in the form of a letter, and some epistolary poems were composed by [[Catullus]] and [[Propertius]]. But nobody before Horace had ever composed an entire collection of verse letters,<ref>R. Ferri, ''The Epistles'', pp. 121–22</ref> let alone letters with a focus on philosophical problems. The sophisticated and flexible style that he had developed in his ''Satires'' was adapted to the more serious needs of this new genre.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', p. 309</ref> Such refinement of style was not unusual for Horace. His craftsmanship as a wordsmith is apparent even in his earliest attempts at this or that kind of poetry, but his handling of each genre tended to improve over time as he adapted it to his own needs.<ref name="E. Fraenkel, Horace, 32, 80"/> Thus for example it is generally agreed that his second book of ''Satires'', where human folly is revealed through dialogue between characters, is superior to the first, where he propounds his ethics in monologues. Nevertheless, the first book includes some of his most popular poems.<ref>V. Kiernan, ''Horace: Poetics and Politics'', 28</ref> ===Themes=== Horace developed a number of inter-related themes throughout his poetic career, including politics, love, philosophy and ethics, his own social role, as well as poetry itself. His ''Epodes'' and ''Satires'' are forms of 'blame poetry' and both have a natural affinity with the moralising and diatribes of [[Cynicism (philosophy)|Cynicism]]. This often takes the form of allusions to the work and philosophy of [[Bion of Borysthenes]] <ref group="nb">There is one reference to Bion by name in ''Epistles'' 2.2.60, and the clearest allusion to him is in ''Satire'' 1.6, which parallels Bion fragments 1, 2, 16 ''Kindstrand''</ref> but it is as much a literary game as a philosophical alignment. By the time he composed his ''Epistles'', he was a critic of [[Cynicism (philosophy)|Cynicism]] along with all impractical and "high-falutin" philosophy in general.<ref group="nb">''Epistles'' 1.17 and 1.18.6–8 are critical of the extreme views of [[Diogenes]] and also of social adaptations of Cynic precepts, and yet ''Epistle'' 1.2 could be either Cynic or Stoic in its orientation (J. Moles, ''Philosophy and ethics'', p. 177</ref><ref>J. Moles, ''Philosophy and ethics'', pp. 165–69, 177</ref> The ''Satires'' also include a strong element of [[Epicureanism]], with frequent allusions to the Epicurean poet [[Lucretius]].<ref group="nb">''Satires'' 1.1.25–26, 74–75, 1.2.111–12, 1.3.76–77, 97–114, 1.5.44, 101–03, 1.6.128–31, 2.2.14–20, 25, 2.6.93–97</ref> So for example the Epicurean sentiment ''[[carpe diem]]'' is the inspiration behind Horace's repeated punning on his own name (''Horatius ~ hora'') in ''Satires'' 2.6.<ref>K. J. Reckford, ''Some studies in Horace's odes on love''</ref> The ''Satires'' also feature some [[Stoicism|Stoic]], [[Peripatetic school|Peripatetic]] and [[Platonic Dialogues|Platonic]] (''Dialogues'') elements. In short, the ''Satires'' present a medley of philosophical programs, dished up in no particular order—a style of argument typical of the [[Satires (Horace)|genre]].<ref>J. Moles, ''Philosophy and ethics'', p. 168</ref> The ''Odes'' display a wide range of topics. Over time, he becomes more confident about his political voice.<ref>Santirocco "Unity and Design", Lowrie "Horace's Narrative Odes"</ref> Although he is often thought of as an overly intellectual lover, he is ingenious in representing passion.<ref>Ancona, "Time and the Erotic"</ref> The "Odes" weave various philosophical strands together, with allusions and statements of doctrine present in about a third of the ''Odes'' Books 1–3, ranging from the flippant (1.22, 3.28) to the solemn (2.10, 3.2, 3.3). [[Epicureanism]] is the dominant influence, characterizing about twice as many of these odes as Stoicism. A group of odes combines these two influences in tense relationships, such as ''Odes'' 1.7, praising Stoic virility and devotion to public duty while also advocating private pleasures among friends. While generally favouring the Epicurean lifestyle, the lyric poet is as eclectic as the satiric poet, and in ''Odes'' 2.10 even proposes Aristotle's [[golden mean (philosophy)|golden mean]] as a remedy for Rome's political troubles.<ref>J. Moles, ''Philosophy and ethics'', pp. 171–73</ref> Many of Horace's poems also contain much reflection on genre, the lyric tradition, and the function of poetry.<ref>Davis "Polyhymnia" and Lowrie "Horace's Narrative Odes"</ref> ''Odes'' 4, thought to be composed at the emperor's request, takes the themes of the first three books of "Odes" to a new level. This book shows greater poetic confidence after the public performance of his "Carmen saeculare" or "Century hymn" at a public festival orchestrated by Augustus. In it, Horace addresses the emperor Augustus directly with more confidence and proclaims his power to grant poetic immortality to those he praises. It is the least philosophical collection of his verses, excepting the twelfth ode, addressed to the dead Virgil as if he were living. In that ode, the epic poet and the lyric poet are aligned with [[Stoicism]] and [[Epicureanism]] respectively, in a mood of bitter-sweet pathos.<ref>J. Moles, ''Philosophy and ethics'', p. 179</ref> The first poem of the ''Epistles'' sets the philosophical tone for the rest of the collection: "So now I put aside both verses and all those other games: What is true and what befits is my care, this my question, this my whole concern." His poetic renunciation of poetry in favour of philosophy is intended to be ambiguous. Ambiguity is the hallmark of the ''Epistles''. It is uncertain if those being addressed by the self-mocking poet-philosopher are being honoured or criticized. Though he emerges as an [[Epicureanism|Epicurean]], it is on the understanding that philosophical preferences, like political and social choices, are a matter of personal taste. Thus he depicts the ups and downs of the philosophical life more realistically than do most philosophers.<ref>J. Moles, ''Philosophy and ethics'', pp. 174–80</ref> Return to Horace. 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en-wikipedia-org-9244	----	Dux - Wikipedia Dux From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman title For other uses, see Dux (disambiguation). Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e Dux (/dʌks, dʊks/; plural: ducēs) is Latin for "leader" (from the noun dux, ducis, "leader, general") and later for duke and its variant forms (doge, duce, etc.). During the Roman Republic, dux could refer to anyone who commanded troops including foreign leaders, but was not a formal military rank. In writing his commentaries on the Gallic Wars, Julius Caesar uses the term only for Celtic generals, with one exception for a Roman commander who held no official rank.[1] Contents 1 Roman Empire 1.1 Original usage 1.2 Change in usage 1.3 The office under the Dominate 2 Later developments 3 Post-Roman uses 3.1 Education 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 6.1 Citations 6.2 Sources 7 External links Roman Empire[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Original usage[edit] Until the 3rd century, dux was not a formal expression of rank within the Roman military or administrative hierarchy.[2] In the Roman military, a dux would be a general in charge of two or more legions. While the title of dux could refer to a consul or imperator, it usually refers to the Roman governor of the provinces. As the governor, the dux was both the highest civil official as well as the commander-in-chief of the legions garrisoned within the province. Change in usage[edit] By the mid-3rd century AD, it had acquired a more precise connotation defining the commander of an expeditionary force, usually made up of detachments (i.e. vexillationes) from one or more of the regular military formations. Such appointments were made to deal with specific military situations when the threat to be countered seemed beyond the capabilities of the province-based military command structure that had characterised the Roman army of the High Empire.[3] From the time of Gallienus onwards for more than a century duces were invariably Viri Perfectissimi, i.e. members of the second class of the Equestrian Order.[4] Thus, they would have out-ranked the commanders of provincial legions, who were usually Viri Egregii - equestrians of the third class.[5] Duces differed from praesides who were the supreme civil as well as military authority within their provinces in that the function of the former was purely military. However, the military authority of a dux was not necessarily confined to a single province and they do not seem to have been subject to the authority of the governor of the province in which they happened to be operating. It was not until the end of the 3rd century that the term dux emerged as a regular military rank held by a senior officer of limitanei - i.e. frontier troops as opposed those attached to an Imperial field-army (comitatenses) - with a defined geographic area of responsibility[note 1] The office under the Dominate[edit] During the time of the Dominate, the powers of a dux were split from the role of the governor and were given to a new office called dux. The dux was now the highest military office within the province and commanded the legions, but the governor had to authorize the use of the dux's powers. But once authorized, the dux could act independently from the governor and handled all military matters. An example would be the Dux per Gallia Belgica who was the dux of the province of Gallia Belgica. After Diocletian's Tetrarchy reform, the provinces were organized into dioceses each administered by a vicarius. As with the governors, the vicarius was assisted by a dux. This dux was superior to all other duces within the dioceses and when the vicarius called the legions of the dioceses into action, all of the legions were at the dux's command. An example would be the Dux per Gallia who was the dux of the dioceses of Gaul. The office of dux was, in turn, made subject to the magister militum of his respective praetorian prefecture, and above him to the emperor. Later developments[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) In the Byzantine era of the Roman Empire, the position of dux survived (Byzantine Greek: "δούξ", doux, plural "δούκες", doukes) as a rank equivalent to a general (strategos). In the late 10th and early 11th centuries, a doux or katepano was in charge of large circumscriptions consisting of several smaller themata and of the professional regiments (tagmata) of the Byzantine army (as opposed to the largely militia-like forces of most themata). In the Komnenian period, the title of doux replaced altogether the strategos in designating the military official in charge of a thema. In the Byzantine navy, doukes of the fleet appear in the 1070s, and the office of megas doux ("grand duke") was created in the 1090s as the commander-in-chief of the entire navy. The title also gave rise to a family name, the aristocratic Doukas clan, which in the 9th–11th centuries provided several Byzantine emperors and generals, while later bearers of the name (maternally descended from the original family) founded the Despotate of Epirus in northwestern Greece. Post-Roman uses[edit] See also: Duke (Lombard) This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) King Arthur, in one of his earliest literary appearances, is described as dux bellorum ("dux of battles") among the kings of the Romano-Britons in their wars against the Anglo-Saxons. A chronicle from St Martin's monastery in Cologne states that the monastery had been pillaged by the Saxons in 778, but that it was rebuilt by an "Olgerus, dux Daniæ" (who may have been the historical person around whom the myth of Ogier the Dane formed), with the help of Charlemagne. Dux is also the root of various high feudal noble titles of peerage rank, such as the English duke, the French duc, the Spanish and Portuguese duque, the Venetian doge, the Italian duca and duce, and the Byzantine Greek dukas or doukas (Gr. δούκας) (see Doukas). Italian Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini used the title of dux (and duce in Italian) to represent his leadership. One fascist motto was "DVX MEA LVX", Latin for "[The] Duce [is] my light" or "[The] Leader [is] my light".[7] In pre-revolutionary Russia, the Dux Factory built bicycles, automobiles and aircraft in Moscow.[citation needed] Education[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) In Scotland, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand dux is a modern title given to the highest-ranking student in academic, arts or sporting achievement (Dux Litterarum, Dux Artium and Dux Ludorum respectively) in each graduating year.[8] This can lead to scholarships at universities.[9] The runner-up may be given the title proxime accessit (meaning "he/she came next") or semidux.[10] In Portuguese universities the Dux is the most senior of students, usually in charge of overseeing the praxe (initiation rituals for the freshmen). See also[edit] Valedictorian Salutatorian Notes[edit] ^ The earliest attested dux with a defined regional responsibility seems to have been Aur. Firminianus, dux limit. prov. Scyt ...[6] – i.e. dux of the frontier troops of the province of Scythia – in the 290s AD. References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Thomas Wiedemann, “The Fetiales: A Reconsideration,” Classical Quarterly 36 (1986), p. 483. The Roman called dux is Publius Crassus, who was too young to hold a commission; see discussion of his rank. ^ Fergus Millar, The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.-A.D. 337 (Harvard University Press, 1993), pg. 191 online ^ Smith, Prof. R.E. (1979). "Dux; Praepositus". Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik. 36. pp. 277–78. ^ Christol, M. (1978). "Un duc dans une inscription de Termessos (Pisidie)". Chiron. 8: 537–38. ) ^ Nagy, Prof. T. (1965). "Commanders of Legions in the age of Gallienus". Acta Archeologica Hungarica. XVII: 290–307. ^ J.B. Campbell, CIL III 764 = ILS 4103, "Inscriptions to the Magna Mater in the Provinces of Moesia", The Roman Army, 31 BC-AD 337: A Sourcebook, books.google.com; accessed 15 May 2016. ^ DUCE-MUSSOLINI, delcampe.it; accessed 15 May 2016. ^ "Albion Park High School | Dux of the School". www.albionpk-h.schools.nsw.edu.au. Retrieved 2016-09-10. ^ "University of Otago Dux Scholarship, Scholarships Database, University of Otago, New Zealand". www.otago.ac.nz. Retrieved 2016-09-10. ^ "Prizes & Awards » Lincoln High School". www.lincoln.school.nz. Retrieved 2016-09-10. 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en-wikipedia-org-9259	----	View source for Horace - Wikipedia View source for Horace ← Horace Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ==Life== [[File:Horatii Flacci Sermonum.tif|thumb|''[[Horatii Flacci Sermonum]]'' (1577)]] Horace can be regarded as the world's first autobiographer.<ref>R. Barrow R., ''The Romans'' Pelican Books, 119</ref> In his writings, he tells us far more about himself, his character, his development, and his way of life, than any other great poet of antiquity. Some of the biographical material contained in his work can be supplemented from the short but valuable "Life of Horace" by [[Suetonius]] (in his ''Lives of the Poets'').<ref>Fraenkel, Eduard. ''Horace.'' Oxford: 1957, p. 1.<br /> For the Life of Horace by Suetonius, see: ([http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/6399/pg6399.html ''Vita Horati''])</ref> ===Childhood=== He was born on 8 December 65 BC<ref group="nb">The year is given in ''Odes'' 3.21.1 ([[Lucius Manlius Torquatus|"Consule Manlio"]]), the month in ''Epistles'' 1.20.27, the day in Suetonius' biography ''Vita'' (R. Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 7)</ref> in the [[Samnites|Samnite]] south of [[Italy (Roman Empire)|Italy]].<ref>''Brill's Companion to Horace'', edited by Hans-Christian Günther, Brill, 2012, p. 7, [https://books.google.com/books?id=N2b0YUwXfM8C&pg=PA7 Google Book]</ref> His home town, [[Venosa|Venusia]], lay on a trade route in the border region between [[Apulia]] and [[Lucania]] ([[Basilicata]]). Various Italic dialects were spoken in the area and this perhaps enriched his feeling for language. He could have been familiar with Greek words even as a young boy and later he poked fun at the jargon of mixed Greek and Oscan spoken in neighbouring [[Canusium]].<ref>''Satires'' 1.10.30</ref> One of the works he probably studied in school was the ''Odyssia'' of [[Livius Andronicus]], taught by teachers like the '[[Orbilius]]' mentioned in one of his poems.<ref>''Epistles'' 2.1.69 ff.</ref> Army veterans could have been settled there at the expense of local families uprooted by Rome as punishment for their part in the [[Social War (91–88 BC)]].<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 2–3</ref> Such state-sponsored migration must have added still more linguistic variety to the area. According to a local tradition reported by Horace,<ref>''Satires'' 2.1.34</ref> a colony of Romans or Latins had been installed in Venusia after the [[Samnites]] had been driven out early in the third century. In that case, young Horace could have felt himself to be a Roman<ref>T. Frank, ''Catullus and Horace'', 133–34</ref><ref>A. Campbell, ''Horace: A New Interpretation'', 84</ref> though there are also indications that he regarded himself as a Samnite or [[Sabellus]] by birth.<ref>''Epistles'' 1.16.49</ref><ref>R. Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 7</ref> Italians in modern and ancient times have always been devoted to their home towns, even after success in the wider world, and Horace was no different. Images of his childhood setting and references to it are found throughout his poems.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 3–4</ref> Horace's father was probably a Venutian taken captive by Romans in the Social War, or possibly he was descended from a [[Sabine]] captured in the [[Samnite Wars]]. Either way, he was a slave for at least part of his life. He was evidently a man of strong abilities however and managed to gain his freedom and improve his social position. Thus Horace claimed to be the free-born son of a prosperous 'coactor'.<ref name="Kiernan">V. Kiernan, ''Horace: Poetics and Politics'', 24</ref> The term 'coactor' could denote various roles, such as tax collector, but its use by Horace<ref>''Satires'' 1.6.86</ref> was explained by [[scholia]] as a reference to 'coactor argentareus' i.e. an auctioneer with some of the functions of a banker, paying the seller out of his own funds and later recovering the sum with interest from the buyer.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 4–5</ref> The father spent a small fortune on his son's education, eventually accompanying him to [[Rome]] to oversee his schooling and moral development. The poet later paid tribute to him in a poem<ref name="Satires 1.6">''Satires'' 1.6</ref> that one modern scholar considers the best memorial by any son to his father.<ref group="nb">"No son ever set a finer monument to his father than Horace did in the sixth satire of Book I...Horace's description of his father is warm-hearted but free from sentimentality or exaggeration. We see before us one of the common people, a hard-working, open-minded, and thoroughly honest man of simple habits and strict convictions, representing some of the best qualities that at the end of the Republic could still be found in the unsophisticated society of the Italian ''municipia''"&nbsp;{{emdash}}&nbsp;E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 5–6</ref> The poem includes this passage: <blockquote> If my character is flawed by a few minor faults, but is otherwise decent and moral, if you can point out only a few scattered blemishes on an otherwise immaculate surface, if no one can accuse me of greed, or of prurience, or of profligacy, if I live a virtuous life, free of defilement (pardon, for a moment, my self-praise), and if I am to my friends a good friend, my father deserves all the credit... As it is now, he deserves from me unstinting gratitude and praise. I could never be ashamed of such a father, nor do I feel any need, as many people do, to apologize for being a freedman's son. ''[[Satire]]s 1.6.65–92'' </blockquote> He never mentioned his mother in his verses and he might not have known much about her. Perhaps she also had been a slave.<ref name="Kiernan"/> ===Adulthood=== Horace left Rome, possibly after his father's death, and continued his formal education in Athens, a great centre of learning in the ancient world, where he arrived at nineteen years of age, enrolling in [[Platonic Academy|The Academy]]. Founded by [[Plato]], The Academy was now dominated by [[Epicureans]] and [[Stoics]], whose theories and practises made a deep impression on the young man from Venusia.<ref>V. Kiernan, ''Horace: Poetics and Politics'', 25</ref> Meanwhile, he mixed and lounged about with the elite of Roman youth, such as Marcus, the idle son of [[Cicero]], and the Pompeius to whom he later addressed a poem.<ref>''Odes'' 2.7</ref> It was in Athens too that he probably acquired deep familiarity with the ancient tradition of Greek lyric poetry, at that time largely the preserve of grammarians and academic specialists (access to such material was easier in Athens than in Rome, where the public libraries had yet to be built by [[Asinius Pollio]] and Augustus).<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 8–9</ref> Rome's troubles following the assassination of [[Julius Caesar]] were soon to catch up with him. [[Marcus Junius Brutus]] came to Athens seeking support for the republican cause. Brutus was fêted around town in grand receptions and he made a point of attending academic lectures, all the while recruiting supporters among the young men studying there, including Horace.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 9–10</ref> An educated young Roman could begin military service high in the ranks and Horace was made [[tribunus militum]] (one of six senior officers of a typical legion), a post usually reserved for men of senatorial or equestrian rank and which seems to have inspired jealousy among his well-born confederates.<ref>''Satires'' 1.6.48</ref><ref name="Nisbet">R. Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 8</ref> He learned the basics of military life while on the march, particularly in the wilds of northern Greece, whose rugged scenery became a backdrop to some of his later poems.<ref>V. Kiernan, ''Horace'', 25</ref> It was there in 42 BC that [[Octavian]] (later [[Augustus]]) and his associate [[Mark Antony]] crushed the republican forces at the [[Battle of Philippi]]. Horace later recorded it as a day of embarrassment for himself, when he fled without his shield,<ref>''Odes'' 2.7.10</ref> but allowance should be made for his self-deprecating humour. Moreover, the incident allowed him to identify himself with some famous poets who had long ago abandoned their shields in battle, notably his heroes [[Alcaeus of Mytilene|Alcaeus]] and [[Archilochus]]. The comparison with the latter poet is uncanny: Archilochus lost his shield in a part of Thrace near Philippi, and he was deeply involved in the Greek colonization of [[Thasos]], where Horace's die-hard comrades finally surrendered.<ref name="Nisbet"/> Octavian offered an early amnesty to his opponents and Horace quickly accepted it. On returning to Italy, he was confronted with yet another loss: his father's estate in Venusia was one of many throughout Italy to be confiscated for the settlement of veterans ([[Virgil]] lost his estate in the north about the same time). Horace later claimed that he was reduced to poverty and this led him to try his hand at poetry.<ref>''Epistles'' 2.2.51–52</ref> In reality, there was no money to be had from versifying. At best, it offered future prospects through contacts with other poets and their patrons among the rich.<ref>V. Kiernan, ''Horace: Poetics and politics''</ref> Meanwhile, he obtained the sinecure of ''scriba quaestorius'', a civil service position at the ''aerarium'' or Treasury, profitable enough to be purchased even by members of the ''ordo equester'' and not very demanding in its work-load, since tasks could be delegated to ''scribae'' or permanent clerks.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 14–15</ref> It was about this time that he began writing his ''Satires'' and ''Epodes''. ====Poet==== [[File:Fedor Bronnikov 014.jpg|thumb|Horace reads before Maecenas, by [[Fyodor Bronnikov]]]] The ''Epodes'' belong to [[iambic poetry]]. Iambic poetry features insulting and obscene language;<ref>Christopher Brown, in ''A Companion to the Greek Lyric Poets'', D.E. Gerber (ed), Leiden 1997, pages 13–88</ref><ref>Douglas E. Gerber, ''Greek Iambic Poetry'', Loeb Classical Library (1999), Introduction pages i–iv</ref> sometimes, it is referred to as ''blame poetry''.<ref>D. Mankin, ''Horace: Epodes'', C.U.P., 8</ref> ''Blame poetry'', or ''shame poetry'', is poetry written to blame and shame fellow citizens into a sense of their social obligations. Horace modelled these poems on the poetry of [[Archilochus]]. Social bonds in Rome had been decaying since the destruction of [[Carthage]] a little more than a hundred years earlier, due to the vast wealth that could be gained by plunder and corruption.<ref>D. Mankin, ''Horace: Epodes'', 6</ref> These social ills were magnified by rivalry between Julius Caesar, Mark Antony and confederates like [[Sextus Pompey]], all jockeying for a bigger share of the spoils. One modern scholar has counted a dozen civil wars in the hundred years leading up to 31 BC, including the [[Spartacus]] rebellion, eight years before Horace's birth.<ref>R. Conway, ''New Studies of a Great Inheritance'', 49–50</ref> As the heirs to Hellenistic culture, Horace and his fellow Romans were not well prepared to deal with these problems: {{Quotation|At bottom, all the problems that the times were stirring up were of a social nature, which the Hellenistic thinkers were ill qualified to grapple with. Some of them censured oppression of the poor by the rich, but they gave no practical lead, though they may have hoped to see well-meaning rulers doing so. Philosophy was drifting into absorption in self, a quest for private contentedness, to be achieved by self-control and restraint, without much regard for the fate of a disintegrating community.|[[V. G. Kiernan]]<ref>V. Kiernan, ''Horace: Poetics and Politics'', 18–19</ref>}} Horace's Hellenistic background is clear in his Satires, even though the genre was unique to Latin literature. He brought to it a style and outlook suited to the social and ethical issues confronting Rome but he changed its role from public, social engagement to private meditation.<ref>F. Muecke, ''The Satires'', 109–10</ref> Meanwhile, he was beginning to interest Octavian's supporters, a gradual process described by him in one of his satires.<ref name="Satires 1.6"/> The way was opened for him by his friend, the poet Virgil, who had gained admission into the privileged circle around Maecenas, Octavian's lieutenant, following the success of his ''[[Eclogues]]''. An introduction soon followed and, after a discreet interval, Horace too was accepted. He depicted the process as an honourable one, based on merit and mutual respect, eventually leading to true friendship, and there is reason to believe that his relationship was genuinely friendly, not just with Maecenas but afterwards with Augustus as well.<ref>R. Lyne, ''Augustan Poetry and Society'', 599</ref> On the other hand, the poet has been unsympathetically described by one scholar as "a sharp and rising young man, with an eye to the main chance."<ref>J. Griffin, ''Horace in the Thirties'', 6</ref> There were advantages on both sides: Horace gained encouragement and material support, the politicians gained a hold on a potential dissident.<ref name="ReferenceB">R. Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 10</ref> His republican sympathies, and his role at Philippi, may have caused him some pangs of remorse over his new status. However most Romans considered the civil wars to be the result of ''contentio dignitatis'', or rivalry between the foremost families of the city, and he too seems to have accepted the principate as Rome's last hope for much needed peace.<ref>D. Mankin, ''Horace: Epodes'', 5</ref> In 37 BC, Horace accompanied Maecenas on a journey to [[Brundisium]], described in one of his poems<ref>''Satires'' 1.5</ref> as a series of amusing incidents and charming encounters with other friends along the way, such as Virgil. In fact the journey was political in its motivation, with Maecenas en route to negotiatie the [[Treaty of Tarentum]] with Antony, a fact Horace artfully keeps from the reader (political issues are largely avoided in the first book of satires).<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Horace was probably also with Maecenas on one of Octavian's naval expeditions against the piratical Sextus Pompeius, which ended in a disastrous storm off [[Palinurus]] in 36 BC, briefly alluded to by Horace in terms of near-drowning.<ref>''Odes'' 3.4.28</ref><ref group="nb">''Odes'' 3.4.28: "nec (me extinxit) Sicula Palinurus unda"; "nor did Palinurus extinguish me with Sicilian waters". Maecenas' involvement is recorded by [[Appian]] ''Bell. Civ.'' 5.99 but Horace's ode is the only historical reference to his own presence there, depending however on interpretation. (R. Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 10)</ref> There are also some indications in his verses that he was with Maecenas at the [[Battle of Actium]] in 31 BC, where Octavian defeated his great rival, Antony.<ref>''Epodes'' 1 and 9</ref><ref group="nb">The point is much disputed among scholars and hinges on how the text is interpreted. ''Epodes'' 9 for example may offer proof of Horace's presence if 'ad hunc frementis' ('gnashing at this' man i.e. the traitrous Roman ) is a misreading of 'at huc...verterent' (but hither...they fled) in lines describing the defection of the Galatian cavalry, "ad hunc frementis verterunt bis mille equos / Galli canentes Caesarem" (R. Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 12).</ref> By then Horace had already received from Maecenas the famous gift of his [[Horace's villa|Sabine farm]], probably not long after the publication of the first book of ''Satires''. The gift, which included income from five tenants, may have ended his career at the Treasury, or at least allowed him to give it less time and energy.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 15</ref> It signalled his identification with the Octavian regime yet, in the second book of ''Satires'' that soon followed, he continued the apolitical stance of the first book. By this time, he had attained the status of ''eques Romanus'',<ref>''Satires'' 2.7.53</ref> perhaps as a result of his work at the Treasury.<ref>R. Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 11</ref> ====Knight==== ''Odes'' 1–3 were the next focus for his artistic creativity. He adapted their forms and themes from Greek lyric poetry of the seventh and sixth centuries BC. The fragmented nature of the [[Greek world]] had enabled his literary heroes to express themselves freely and his semi-retirement from the Treasury in Rome to [[Horace's Villa|his own estate]] in the Sabine hills perhaps empowered him to some extent also<ref>V. Kiernan, ''Horace: Poetics and Politics'', 61–62</ref> yet even when his lyrics touched on public affairs they reinforced the importance of private life.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Nevertheless, his work in the period 30–27 BC began to show his closeness to the regime and his sensitivity to its developing ideology. In ''Odes'' 1.2, for example, he eulogized Octavian in hyperboles that echo Hellenistic court poetry. The name ''Augustus'', which Octavian assumed in January 27 BC, is first attested in ''Odes'' 3.3 and 3.5. In the period 27–24 BC, political allusions in the ''Odes'' concentrated on foreign wars in Britain (1.35), Arabia (1.29) Spain (3.8) and Parthia (2.2). He greeted Augustus on his return to Rome in 24 BC as a beloved ruler upon whose good health he depended for his own happiness (3.14).<ref>R. Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 13</ref> The public reception of ''Odes'' 1–3 disappointed him, however. He attributed the lack of success to jealousy among imperial courtiers and to his isolation from literary cliques.<ref>''Epistles'' 1.19.35–44</ref> Perhaps it was disappointment that led him to put aside the genre in favour of verse letters. He addressed his first book of ''Epistles'' to a variety of friends and acquaintances in an urbane style reflecting his new social status as a knight. In the opening poem, he professed a deeper interest in moral philosophy than poetry<ref>''Epistles'' 1.1.10</ref> but, though the collection demonstrates a leaning towards stoic theory, it reveals no sustained thinking about ethics.<ref>V. Kiernan, ''Horace: Poetics and Politics'', 149, 153</ref> Maecenas was still the dominant confidante but Horace had now begun to assert his own independence, suavely declining constant invitations to attend his patron.<ref>''Epistles'' 1.7</ref> In the final poem of the first book of ''Epistles'', he revealed himself to be forty-four years old in the consulship of Lollius and Lepidus i.e. 21 BC, and "of small stature, fond of the sun, prematurely grey, quick-tempered but easily placated".<ref>''Epistles'' 1.20.24–25</ref><ref>R. Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 14–15</ref> According to Suetonius, the second book of ''Epistles'' was prompted by Augustus, who desired a verse epistle to be addressed to himself. Augustus was in fact a prolific letter-writer and he once asked Horace to be his personal secretary. Horace refused the secretarial role but complied with the emperor's request for a verse letter.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 17–18</ref> The letter to Augustus may have been slow in coming, being published possibly as late as 11 BC. It celebrated, among other things, the 15 BC military victories of his stepsons, Drusus and Tiberius, yet it and the following letter<ref>''Epistles'' 2.2</ref> were largely devoted to literary theory and criticism. The literary theme was explored still further in ''Ars Poetica'', published separately but written in the form of an epistle and sometimes referred to as ''Epistles'' 2.3 (possibly the last poem he ever wrote).<ref>R. Ferri, ''The Epistles'', 121</ref> He was also commissioned to write odes commemorating the victories of Drusus and Tiberius<ref>''Odes'' 4.4 and 4.14</ref> and one to be sung in a temple of Apollo for the [[Secular Games]], a long-abandoned festival that Augustus revived in accordance with his policy of recreating ancient customs (''Carmen Saeculare''). Suetonius recorded some gossip about Horace's sexual activities late in life, claiming that the walls of his bedchamber were covered with obscene pictures and mirrors, so that he saw erotica wherever he looked.<ref group="nb">Suetonius signals that the report is based on rumours by employing the terms "traditur...dicitur" / "it is reported...it is said" (E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 21)</ref> The poet died at 56 years of age, not long after his friend Maecenas, near whose tomb he was laid to rest. Both men bequeathed their property to Augustus, an honour that the emperor expected of his friends.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 23</ref> Return to Horace. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9265	----	Fyodor Bronnikov - Wikipedia Fyodor Bronnikov From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Fyodor Bronnikov Фёдор Андреевич Бронников Self-portrait (1856) Born 29 September [O.S. 17 September] 1827 Shadrinsk, Shadrinsky Uyezd, Perm Governorate, Russian Empire Died September 14, 1902 (1902-09-15) (aged 74) Anticoli Corrado, Rome Province, Italy Education Professor by rank (1864) Alma mater Imperial Academy of Arts Occupation Russian painter Movement Peredvizhniki Awards Fyodor Andreyevich Bronnikov (Russian: Фёдор Андреевич Бронников; 1827–1902) was a Russian-born history and genre painter who spent most of his life in Italy. Contents 1 Biography 2 Selected paintings 3 References 4 Further reading 5 External links Biography[edit] He displayed an early affinity for drawing and received his first art lessons from his father, who was a decorative painter.[1] At the age of sixteen, when his father died, he packed his bags and went to Saint Petersburg, hoping to enter the Imperial Academy of Arts. After failing to gain admission, he became an apprentice in the workshop of Evstafy Bernardsky [ru], a well known woodcutter. His talent drew the attention of the sculptor Pyotr Clodt, who arranged for him to audit classes at the Academy.[2] In 1850, he was able to become a regular student, and worked with Alexey Markov.[1] He graduated in 1853 and was awarded a stipend to study in Italy for his graduation painting, The Mother of God. The following year, he settled in Rome and established his own studio on Via Vittoria, near the Villa Borghese. He painted a wide variety of canvases, including landscapes, village scenes, genre scenes, historical works and, of course, portraits of the city's notable citizens. His health was poor, so he remained there after his stipend expired, to take advantage of the warm climate. He paid a long visit home from 1863 to 1865.[2] While there, the Academy awarded him a professorship in history painting for his depiction of Horace reading his satires to Gaius Maecenas.[1] He also came into contact with a group of dissident artists who would later be known as the Peredvizhniki; which inspired him to paint a series of genre works on peasant life. Later, he became a member of the group and regularly sent paintings from Italy to show in their exhibitions.[2] He was awarded the Order of St. Anna as well as being named an Academician and an honorary member of the Academy. During this period he created one of his best known works: The Cursed Field (1878), an indictment of slavery. He died near Rome and was buried in the Protestant Cemetery. Despite having lived in Italy for most of his life, he left over 300 paintings and drawings and the equivalent of 400 Rubles to establish an art school in Shadrinsk.[2] The school was not established until the Soviet period and the works were used as the basis for a museum.[citation needed] Selected paintings[edit] The Sick Artist The Wayfarer Sick Man at the Walls of a Monastery Pythagoreans Celebrate the Sunrise The Cursed Field (executed slaves) References[edit] ^ a b c Brief Biography from the Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary @ Russian WikiSource. ^ a b c d Brief biography @ "Sunday Afternoon". Further reading[edit] N. G. Vasileva, Фёдор Бронников, Biely Gorod, 2012 ISBN 5-7793-4082-X External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Fyodor Bronnikov. Fyodor Bronnikov @ WikiArt Authority control BNF: cb14970601q (data) GND: 129034843 ISNI: 0000 0000 6663 0321 LCCN: no2014087084 RKD: 12946 ULAN: 500045176 VIAF: 56884021 WorldCat Identities: lccn-no2014087084 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fyodor_Bronnikov&oldid=984173091" Categories: Professors by rank of the Academy of Arts Imperial Academy of Arts alumni Awarded with a large gold medal of the Academy of Arts 1827 births 1902 deaths People from Shadrinsk People from Shadrinsky Uyezd 19th-century Russian painters Russian male painters Imperial Russian emigrants to Italy History painters Russian genre painters Peredvizhniki Recipients of the Order of St. Anna, 3rd class Burials in the Protestant Cemetery, Rome Hidden categories: Death-date and age transclusions with invalid parameters Articles with hCards Articles containing Russian-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2020 Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with RKDartists identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Español Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 18 October 2020, at 16:51 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9275	----	Pindar - Wikipedia Pindar From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Pindar (disambiguation). Ancient Greek lyric poet from Thebes Pindar Pindar, Roman copy of Greek 5th century BC bust (Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples) Native name Πίνδαρος Born c. 518 [1] Cynoscephalae, Boiotia Died c. 438 (aged approx 80) Argos Occupation Lyric poet Genre Poetry Pindar (/ˈpɪndər/; Greek: Πίνδαρος Pindaros, [píndaros]; Latin: Pindarus; c. 518 – 438 BC) was an Ancient Greek lyric poet from Thebes. Of the canonical nine lyric poets of ancient Greece, his work is the best preserved. Quintilian wrote, "Of the nine lyric poets, Pindar is by far the greatest, in virtue of his inspired magnificence, the beauty of his thoughts and figures, the rich exuberance of his language and matter, and his rolling flood of eloquence, characteristics which, as Horace rightly held, make him inimitable."[2] His poems can also, however, seem difficult and even peculiar. The Athenian comic playwright Eupolis once remarked that they "are already reduced to silence by the disinclination of the multitude for elegant learning".[3] Some scholars in the modern age also found his poetry perplexing, at least until the 1896 discovery of some poems by his rival Bacchylides; comparisons of their work showed that many of Pindar's idiosyncrasies are typical of archaic genres rather than of only the poet himself. His poetry, while admired by critics, still challenges the casual reader and his work is largely unread among the general public.[4] Pindar was the first Greek poet to reflect on the nature of poetry and on the poet's role.[5] Like other poets of the Archaic Age, he has a profound sense of the vicissitudes of life, but he also articulates a passionate faith in what men can achieve by the grace of the gods, most famously expressed in the conclusion to one of his Victory Odes:[6] Creatures of a day! What is anyone? What is anyone not? A dream of a shadow Is our mortal being. But when there comes to men A gleam of splendour given of heaven, Then rests on them a light of glory And blessed are their days. (Pythian 8)[7][8] His poetry illustrates the beliefs and values of Archaic Greece at the dawn of the classical period.[9] Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Sources 1.2 Life 1.2.1 Infancy to adulthood 1.2.2 Middle age 1.2.3 Old age and death 1.2.4 Post mortem 1.3 Values and beliefs 2 Works 2.1 Victory odes 2.1.1 Style 2.1.2 Structure 2.1.3 Chronological order 2.2 Manuscripts, shreds and quotes 3 Influence and legacy 3.1 Horace's tribute 3.2 Bowra's tribute 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 Sources 8 Further reading 9 External links Biography[edit] Sources[edit] Five ancient sources contain all the recorded details of Pindar's life. One of them is a short biography discovered in 1961 on an Egyptian papyrus dating from at least 200 AD (P.Oxy.2438).[10] The other four are collections that weren't finalized until some 1600 years after his death: Commentaries on Pindar by Eustathius of Thessalonica; Vita Vratislavensis, found in a manuscript at Breslau, author unknown; a text by Thomas Magister; some meagre writings attributed to the lexicographer Suidas. Although these sources are based on a much older literary tradition, going as far back as Chamaeleon of Heraclea in the 4th century BC, they are generally viewed with scepticism today: much of the material is clearly fanciful.[11][12] Scholars both ancient and modern have turned to Pindar's own work – his victory odes in particular – as a source of biographical information: some of the poems touch on historic events and can be accurately dated. The 1962 publication of Elroy Bundy's ground-breaking work Studia Pindarica[13] led to a change in scholarly opinion—the Odes were no longer seen as expressions of Pindar's personal thoughts and feelings, but rather as public statements "dedicated to the single purpose of eulogizing men and communities."[14] It has been claimed that biographical interpretations of the poems are due to a "fatal conjunction" of historicism and Romanticism.[15] In other words, we know almost nothing about Pindar's life based on either traditional sources or his own poems. However, the pendulum of intellectual fashion has begun to change direction again, and cautious use of the poems for some biographical purposes is considered acceptable once more.[16][17][18][19] πολλὰ γὰρ πολλᾷ λέλεκται: νεαρὰ δ᾽ ἐξευ- ρόντα δόμεν βασάνῳ ἐς ἔλεγχον, ἅπας κίνδυνος.[20][21] Story is vast in range: new ways to find and test upon the touchstone, Here danger lies.[nb 1][22] Life[edit] Infancy to adulthood[edit] Pindar was born in circa 518 BC (the 65th Olympiad) in Cynoscephalae, a village in Boeotia, not far from Thebes. His father's name is variously given as Daiphantus, Pagondas or Scopelinus, and his mother's name was Cleodice.[11] It is told that he was stung on the mouth by a bee in his youth and this was the reason he became a poet of honey-like verses (an identical fate has been ascribed to other poets of the archaic period). Pindar was about twenty years old in 498 BC when he was commissioned by the ruling family in Thessaly to compose his first victory ode (Pythian 10). He studied the art of lyric poetry in Athens, where his tutor was Lasos of Hermione, and he is also said to have received some helpful criticism from Corinna. The early-to-middle years of Pindar's career coincided with the Greco-Persian Wars during the reigns of Darius and Xerxes. This period included the first Persian invasion of Greece, which ending at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC, and second Persian invasion of Greece (480-479 BC).[23][24] During the second invasion, when Pindar was almost forty years old, Thebes was occupied by Xerxes' general, Mardonius, who with many Theban aristocrats subsequently perished at the Battle of Plataea. It is possible that Pindar spent much of this time at Aegina. His choice of residence during the earlier invasion in 490 BC is not known, but he was able to attend the Pythian Games for that year, where he first met the Sicilian prince, Thrasybulus, nephew of Theron of Acragas. Thrasybulus had driven the winning chariot and he and Pindar were to form a lasting friendship, paving the way for his subsequent visit to Sicily. Middle age[edit] Pindar seems to have used his odes to advance his, and his friends', personal interests.[25] In 462 BC he composed two odes in honour of Arcesilas, king of Cyrene, (Pythians 4 and 5), pleading for the return from exile of a friend, Demophilus. In the latter ode Pindar proudly mentions his own ancestry, which he shared with the king, as an Aegeid or descendant of Aegeus, the legendary king of Athens. The clan was influential in many parts of the Greek world, having intermarried with ruling families in Thebes, in Lacedaemonia, and in cities that claimed Lacedaemonian descent, such as Cyrene and Thera. The historian Herodotus considered the clan important enough to deserve mention (Histories IV.147). Membership of this clan possibly contributed to Pindar's success as a poet, and it informed his political views, which are marked by a conservative preference for oligarchic governments of the Doric kind. "Pindar might not actually claim to be an Aegeid since his 'I' statements do not necessarily refer to himself. The Aegeid clan did however have a branch in Thebes, and his reference to 'my ancestors' in Pythian 5 could have been spoken on behalf of both Arcesilas and himself – he may have used this ambivalence to establish a personal link with his patrons."[26] He was possibly the Theban proxenos or consul for Aegina and/or Molossia, as indicated in another of his odes, Nemean 7,[27][28][29][30] in which he glorifies Neoptolemus, a national hero of Aegina and Molossia. According to tradition, Neoptolemus died disgracefully in a fight with priests at the temple in Delphi over their share of some sacrificial meat. Pindar diplomatically glosses over this and concludes mysteriously with an earnest protestation of innocence – "But shall my heart never admit that I with words none can redeem dishonoured Neoptolemus".[clarification needed] Possibly he was responding to anger among Aeginetans and/or Molossians over his portrayal of Neoptolemus in an earlier poem, Paean 6, which had been commissioned by the priests at Delphi and which depicted the hero's death in traditional terms, as divine retribution for his crimes. "Some doubt this biographical interpretation of Nemean 7 since it is largely based on marginal comments by scholiasts and Pindaric scholiasts are often unreliable. The fact that Pindar gave different versions of the myth may simply reflect the needs of different genres, and does not necessarily indicate a personal dilemma.[31] Nemean 7 in fact is the most controversial and obscure of Pindar's victory odes, and scholars ancient and modern have been ingenious and imaginative in their attempts to explain it, so far with no agreed success."[32] In his first Pythian ode, composed in 470 BC in honour of the Sicilian tyrant Hieron, Pindar celebrated a series of victories by Greeks against foreign invaders: Athenian and Spartan-led victories against Persia at Salamis and Plataea, and victories by the western Greeks led by Theron of Acragas and Hieron against the Carthaginians and Etruscans at the battles of Himera and Cumae. Such celebrations were not appreciated by his fellow Thebans: they had sided with the Persians and had incurred many losses and privations as a result of their defeat. His praise of Athens with such epithets as bulwark of Hellas (fragment 76) and city of noble name and sunlit splendour (Nemean 5) induced the authorities in Thebes to fine him 5000 drachmae, to which the Athenians are said to have responded with a gift of 10000 drachmae. According to another account,[33] the Athenians even made him their proxenus or consul in Thebes. His association with the fabulously rich Hieron was another source of annoyance at home. It was probably in response to Theban sensitivities over this issue that he denounced the rule of tyrants (i.e. rulers like Hieron) in an ode composed shortly after a visit to Hieron's sumptuous court in 476–75 BC (Pythian 11).[34] "Pindar's actual phrasing in Pythian 11 was "I deplore the lot of tyrants" and though this was traditionally interpreted as an apology for his dealings with Sicilian tyrants like Hieron, an alternative date for the ode has led some scholars to conclude that it was in fact a covert reference to the tyrannical behaviour of the Athenians, although this interpretation is ruled out if we accept the earlier note about covert references. According to yet another interpretation Pindar is simply delivering a formulaic warning to the successful athlete to avoid hubris.[17] It is highly unlikely that Pindar ever acted for Athenians as their proxenus or consul in Thebes."[35] Lyric verse was conventionally accompanied by music and dance, and Pindar himself wrote the music and choreographed the dances for his victory odes. Sometimes he trained the performers at his home in Thebes, and sometimes he trained them at the venue where they performed. Commissions took him to all parts of the Greek world – to the Panhellenic festivals in mainland Greece (Olympia, Delphi, Corinth and Nemea), westwards to Sicily, eastwards to the seaboard of Asia Minor, north to Macedonia and Abdera (Paean 2) and south to Cyrene on the African coast. Other poets at the same venues vied with him for the favours of patrons. His poetry sometimes reflects this rivalry. For example, Olympian 2 and Pythian 2, composed in honour of the Sicilian tyrants Theron and Hieron following his visit to their courts in 476–75 BC, refer respectively to ravens and an ape, apparently signifying rivals who were engaged in a campaign of smears against him – possibly the poets Simonides and his nephew Bacchylides.[36] Pindar's original treatment of narrative myth, often relating events in reverse chronological order, is said to have been a favourite target for criticism.[37] Simonides was known to charge high fees for his work and Pindar is said to have alluded to this in Isthmian 2, where he refers to the Muse as "a hireling journeyman". He appeared in many poetry competitions and was defeated five times by his compatriot, the poet Corinna, in revenge of which he called her Boeotian sow in one of his odes (Olympian 6. 89f.). "It was assumed by ancient sources that Pindar's odes were performed by a chorus, but this has been challenged by some modern scholars, who argue that the odes were in fact performed solo.[38] It is not known how commissions were arranged, nor if the poet travelled widely: even when poems include statements like "I have come" it is not certain that this was meant literally.[39] Uncomplimentary references to Bacchylides and Simonides were found by scholiasts but there is no reason to accept their interpretation of the odes.[40] In fact, some scholars have interpreted the allusions to fees in Isthmian 2 as a request by Pindar for payment of fees owed to himself.[41] His defeats by Corinna were probably invented by ancient commentators to account for the Boeotian sow remark, a phrase moreover that was completely misunderstood by scholiasts, since Pindar was scoffing at a reputation that all Boeotians had for stupidity."[42] Old age and death[edit] His fame as a poet drew Pindar into Greek politics. Athens, the most important city in Greece throughout his poetic career, was a rival of his home city, Thebes, and also of the island state Aegina, whose leading citizens commissioned about a quarter of his Victory Odes. There is no open condemnation of the Athenians in any of his poems but criticism is implied. For example, the victory ode mentioned above (Pythian 8) describes the downfall of the giants Porphyrion and Typhon and this might be Pindar's way of covertly celebrating a recent defeat of Athens by Thebes at the Battle of Coronea (447 BC).[43] The poem ends with a prayer for Aegina's freedom, long threatened by Athenian ambitions. Covert criticism of Athens (traditionally located in odes such as Pythian 8, Nemean 8 and Isthmian 7) is now dismissed as highly unlikely, even by scholars who allow some biographical and historical interpretations of the poems.[44] One of his last odes (Pythian 8) indicates that he lived near a shrine to the oracle Alcmaeon and that he stored some of his wealth there. In the same ode he says that he had recently received a prophecy from Alcmaeon during a journey to Delphi ("...he met me and proved the skills of prophecy that all his race inherit")[45] but he does not reveal what the long-dead prophet said to him nor in what form he appeared.[nb 2] The ode was written to commemorate a victory by an athlete from Aegina. "Pindar doesn't necessarily mean himself when he uses the first person singular. Many of his 'I' statements are generic, indicating somebody engaged in the role of a singer i.e. a 'bardic' I. Other 'I' statements articulate values typical of the audience, and some are spoken on behalf of the subjects celebrated in the poems.[46] The 'I' that received the prophecy in Pythian 8 therefore might have been the athlete from Aegina, not Pindar. In that case the prophecy must have been about his performance at the Pythian Games, and the property stored at the shrine was just a votive offering."[47] Nothing is recorded about Pindar's wife and son except their names, Megacleia and Daiphantus. About ten days before he died, the goddess Persephone appeared to him and complained that she was the only divinity to whom he had never composed a hymn. She said he would come to her soon and compose one then. Pindar lived to about eighty years of age. He died around 438 BC while attending a festival at Argos. His ashes were taken back home to Thebes by his musically-gifted daughters, Eumetis and Protomache. Post mortem[edit] One of Pindar's female relatives claimed that he dictated some verses to her in honour of Persephone after he had been dead for several days. Some of Pindar's verses were inscribed in letters of gold on a temple wall in Lindos, Rhodes. At Delphi, where he had been elected a priest of Apollo, the priests exhibited an iron chair on which he used to sit during the festival of the Theoxenia. Every night, while closing the temple doors, they intoned: "Let Pindar the poet go unto the supper of the gods!" Pindar's house in Thebes became one of the city's landmarks. When Alexander the Great demolished Thebes in 335 BC, as punishment for its resistance to Macedonian expansionism, he ordered the house be left intact out of gratitude for verses praising his ancestor, Alexander I of Macedon.[48] Values and beliefs[edit] Pindar's values and beliefs have been inferred from his poetry. No other ancient Greek poet has left so many comments about the nature of his art. He justified and exalted choral poetry at a time when society was turning away from it. It "...had for two centuries reflected and shaped the sentiments, the outlook, and the convictions of the Greek aristocracies...and Pindar spoke up for it with passionate assurance".[49] His poetry is a meeting ground for gods, heroes and men – even the dead are spoken of as participants: "Deep in the earth their heart listens".[50] His view of the gods is traditional but more self-consistent than Homer's and more reverent. He never depicts gods in a demeaning role. He seems indifferent to the intellectual reforms that were shaping the theology of the times. Thus an eclipse is not a mere physical effect, as contemplated by early thinkers such as Thales, Anaximander and Heraclitus, nor was it even a subject for bold wonder, as it was for an earlier poet, Archilochus;[51] instead Pindar treated an eclipse as a portent of evil.[nb 3][52][53] Gods are the embodiment of power, uncompromisingly proud of their nature and violent in defense of their privileges.[54][55] There is some rationalization of religious belief, but it is within a tradition at least as old as Hesiod, where abstractions are personified, such as "Truth the daughter of Zeus".[56] Sometimes the wording suggests a belief in 'God' rather than 'a god' (e.g. "What is God? Everything"),[nb 4] but the implications are not given full expression and the poems are not examples of monotheism.[citation needed] Nor do they vocalize a belief in Fate as the background to the gods, unlike the plays of Aeschylus for example. Pindar subjects both fortune and fate to divine will (e.g. "child of Zeus...Fortune").[57][53][58][59][60] A short Heracles: Pindar once ignored the traditional image of Heracles, the supreme example of the heroic physique, and described him as short in order to compare him with a short patron. He selects and revises traditional myths so as not to diminish the dignity and majesty of the gods. Such revisionism was not unique. Xenophanes had castigated Homer and Hesiod for the misdeeds they ascribed to gods, such as theft, adultery and deception, and Pythagoras had envisioned those two poets being punished in Hades for blasphemy. A subtle example of Pindar's approach can be found in his treatment of the myth of Apollo's rape of the nymph Cyrene.[61] As the god of the Delphic oracle, Apollo is all-knowing, yet in keeping with his anthropomorphic nature he seeks information about the nymph from a third party, in this case the centaur Chiron. Chiron however affirms the god's omniscience with an elegant compliment, as if Apollo had only pretended to be ignorant: "You, Sire, who know the appointed end of all, and all paths..."[nb 5][62] Apollo's abduction of the nymph is not presented as a shameful act. Pindar's gods are above such ethical issues and it is not for men to judge them by ordinary human standards. Indeed, the finest breeds of men resulted from divine passions: "For Pindar a mortal woman who is loved by a god is an outstanding lesson in divine favours handsomely bestowed".[63][64] Being descendants of divine unions with privileged mortals, mythical heroes are an intermediate group between gods and men, and they are sympathetic to human ambitions. Thus, for example, Pindar not only invokes Zeus for help on behalf of the island of Aegina but also its national heroes Aeacus, Peleus and Telamon.[65] Unlike the gods, however, heroes can be judged according to ordinary human standards and they are sometimes shown in the poems to demean themselves. Even in that case, they receive special consideration. Thus Pindar refers obliquely to the murder of Phocus by his brothers Peleus and Telamon ("I am shy of speaking of a huge risk, hazarded not in right"), telling the audience that he will not talk of it ("silence is a man's wisest counsel").[nb 6][66][67] The Theban hero Heracles was a favourite subject but in one poem he is depicted as small in order to be compared with a small Theban patron who had won the pankration at the Isthmian Games:[68] a unique example of Pindar's readiness to shape traditional myths to fit the occasion, even if not always flattering to the mythical hero. A hero's status is not diminished by an occasional blemish but rests on a summary view of his heroic exploits.[69][70][71] Some of his patrons claimed divine descent, such as Diagoras of Rhodes, but Pindar makes all men akin to gods if they realize their full potential: their innate gifts are divinely bestowed, and even then success still depends on the gods' active favour. In honouring such men, therefore, Pindar was honouring the gods too.[72][66][73] His statements about life after death were not self-consistent but that was typical for the times. Traditional ambivalence, as expressed by Homer, had been complicated by a growth of religious sects, such as the Eleusinian mysteries and Pythagoreanism, representing various schemes of rewards and punishments in the next life. However, for the poet, glory and lasting fame were men's greatest assurance of a life well-lived.[74] He presents no theory of history apart from the view that Fortune is variable even for the best men, an outlook suited to moderation in success, courage in adversity. Notions of 'good' and 'bad' in human nature were not analysed by him in any depth nor did he arrive at anything like the compassionate ethics of his near contemporary, Simonides of Ceos.[75][76][77] His poems are indifferent to the ordinary mass of people. They are dismissed with phrases such as "the brute multitude" (Pythian Ode 2.87). Nor are the poems concerned with the fate of rich and powerful men once they lose their wealth and social status (compared for example with the bitter and disillusioned poems of Theognis of Megara). They are more interested in what successful men do with their good fortune: success brings obligations, and religious and artistic activities need patrons.[78][79][80][81] Whereas the Muses inspired Homer with relevant information and with the language to express it, Pindar seems to receive only their inspiration: his role is to shape that inspiration with his own wisdom and skill. Like his patrons, whom he immortalizes in verse, he owes his success to hard work as well as to innate gifts; though he hires himself out, he has a vocation. The Muses are to him as an oracle is to a prophet, and lesser poets are to him as ravens are to an eagle; the art of such men is as hackneyed as garland-making; his is magical:[82][83][84][85] εἴρειν στεφάνους ἐλαφρόν: ἀναβάλεο: Μοῖσά τοι κολλᾷ χρυσὸν ἔν τε λευκὸν ἐλέφανθ᾽ ἁμᾷ καὶ λείριον ἄνθεμον ποντίας ὑφελοῖσ᾽ ἐέρσας. To plait garlands is easy. Strike up! The Muse Welds together gold and white ivory And the lily-flower snatched from the sea's dew.[86][87] Works[edit] Pindar's strongly individual genius is apparent in all his extant compositions but, unlike Simonides and Stesichorus for example, he created no new lyrical genres.[88] He was however innovative in his use of the genres he inherited – for example, in one of his victory odes (Olympian 3), he announces his invention of a new type of musical accompaniment, combining lyre, flute and human voice (though our knowledge of Greek music is too sketchy to allow us to understand the full nature of this innovation).[89] Although he probably spoke Boeotian Greek he composed in a literary language that tended to rely more on the Doric dialect than his rival Bacchylides, but less insistently than Alcman. There is an admixture of other dialects, especially Aeolic and epic forms, and an occasional use of some Boeotian words.[90] He composed 'choral' songs yet it is by no means certain that they were all sung by choirs – the use of choirs is testified only by the generally unreliable scholiasts.[91] Scholars at the Library of Alexandria collected his compositions in seventeen books organized according to genre:[92] 1 book of hymnoi – "hymns" 1 book of paianes – "paeans" 2 books of dithyramboi – "dithyrambs" 2 books of prosodia – "processionals" 3 books of parthenia – "songs for maidens" 2 books of hyporchemata – "songs for light dances" 1 book of enkomia – "songs of praise" 1 book of threnoi – "laments" 4 books of epinikia – "victory odes" Of this vast and varied corpus, only the epinikia – odes written to commemorate athletic victories – survive in complete form; the rest survive only by quotations in other ancient authors or from papyrus scraps unearthed in Egypt. Even in fragmentary form however they reveal the same complexity of thought and language that are found in the victory odes.[93] Dionysius of Halicarnassus singled out Pindar's work as an outstanding example of austere style (αὐστηρὰ ἁρμονία) but he noted its absence in the maiden songs or parthenia. One surviving fragment of a maiden song does seem to be different in tone, due however to the fact that it is spoken in the character of a girl:[94][95][96] ἐμὲ δὲ πρέπει παρθενήια μὲν φρονεῖν γλώσσᾳ τε λέγεσθαι. emè dè prépei parthenḗia mèn phroneîn glṓssāi te légesthai. I must think maidenly thoughts And utter them with my tongue.[96][53][97][98] Enough of his dithyrambic poetry survives for comparison with that of Bacchylides, who used it for narrative. Pindar's dithyrambs are an exuberant display of religious feeling, capturing the wild spirit of Dionysus and pointing forward to the ecstatic songs of Euripides' Bacchae. In one of these, dedicated to the Athenians and written to be sung in Spring, he depicts the divine energy of the revitalized world.[99][100] φοινικοεάνων ὁπότ' οἰχθέντος Ὡρᾶν θαλάμου εὔοδμον ἐπάγοισιν ἐάρ φυτὰ νεκτάρεα. τότε βάλλεται, τότ' ἐπ' ἀμβρόταν χθόν' ἐραταί ἴων φόβαι, ῥόδα τε κόμαισι μείγνυται, ἀχεῖ τ' ὀμφαὶ μελέων σὺν αὐλοῖς οἰχνεῖ τε Σεμέλαν ἑλικάμπυκα χοροί. phoinikoeánōn hopót' oikhthéntos Hōrân thalámou eúodmon epágoisin eár phutà nektárea. tóte bálletai, tót' ep' ambrótan khthón' erataí íōn phóbai, rhóda te kómaisi meígnutai, akheî t' omphaì meléōn sùn auloîs oikhneî te Semélan helikámpuka khoroí. When the chamber of the scarlet-clothed Hours is opened And the nectareous flowers usher in the fragrant spring, Then are scattered, then, on the immortal ground The lovely petals of violets; roses are wound in our hair; Loudly echo the voices of songs to the flutes, And choirs step in procession to dark-ribboned Semele.[100][101][87][102][103][104][105] Victory odes[edit] The so-called 'Farnese Diadumenos' is a Roman copy of a Greek original attributed to Polykleitos c. 440 BC, depicting an athlete tying a victory ribbon round his head. Almost all Pindar's victory odes are celebrations of triumphs gained by competitors in Panhellenic festivals such as the Olympian Games. The establishment of these athletic and musical festivals was among the greatest achievements of the Greek aristocracies. Even in the 5th century BC, when there was an increased tendency towards professionalism, they were predominantly aristocratic assemblies, reflecting the expense and leisure needed to attend such events either as a competitor or spectator. Attendance was an opportunity for display and self-promotion, and the prestige of victory, requiring commitment in time and/or wealth, went far beyond anything that accrues to athletic victories today, even in spite of the modern preoccupation with sport.[106] Pindar's odes capture something of the prestige and the aristocratic grandeur of the moment of victory, as in this stanza from one of his Isthmian Odes, here translated by Geoffrey S. Conway: If ever a man strives With all his soul's endeavour, sparing himself Neither expense nor labour to attain True excellence, then must we give to those Who have achieved the goal, a proud tribute Of lordly praise, and shun All thoughts of envious jealousy. To a poet's mind the gift is slight, to speak A kind word for unnumbered toils, and build For all to share a monument of beauty. (Isthmian I, antistrophe 3)[107] His victory odes are grouped into four books named after the Olympian, Pythian, Isthmian, and Nemean Games – Panhellenic festivals held respectively at Olympia, Delphi, Corinth and Nemea. This reflects the fact that most of the odes were composed in honour of boys, youths, and men who had recently enjoyed victories in athletic (and sometimes musical) contests at those festivals. In a few odes however much older victories, and even victories in lesser games, are celebrated, often as a pretext for addressing other issues or achievements. For example, Pythian 3, composed in honour of Hieron of Syracuse, briefly mentions a victory he had once enjoyed at the Pythian Games, but it is actually intended to console him for his chronic illness (similarly, Pythian 2 is like a private letter in its intimacy).[108] Nemean 9 and Nemean 10 celebrate victories in games at Sicyon and Argos, and Nemean 11 celebrates a victory in a municipal election on Tenedos (though it also mentions some obscure athletic victories). These three odes are the final odes in the Nemean book of odes, and there is a reason for their inclusion. In the original manuscripts, the four books of odes were arranged in the order of importance assigned to the festivals, with the Nemean festival, considered least important, coming last. Victory odes that lacked a Panhellenic subject were then bundled together at the end of the book of Nemean odes.[109] Style[edit] Pindar's poetic style is very distinctive, even when the peculiarities of the genre are set aside. The odes typically feature a grand and arresting opening, often with an architectural metaphor or a resounding invocation to a place or goddess. He makes rich use of decorative language and florid compound adjectives.[110] Sentences are compressed to the point of obscurity, unusual words and periphrases give the language an esoteric quality, and transitions in meaning often seem erratic, the images seem to burst out – it is a style that sometimes baffles but also makes his poetry vivid and unforgettable.[111] Pindar's power does not lie in the pedigrees of ... athletes ... It lies in a splendour of phrase and imagery that suggests the gold and purple of a sunset sky. – F. L. Lucas[112] He has that force of imagination which can bring clear-cut and dramatic figures of gods and heroes into vivid relief...he has that peculiar and inimitable splendour of style which, though sometimes aided by magnificent novelties of diction, is not dependent on them, but can work magical effects with simple words; he has also, at frequent moments, a marvellous swiftness, alike in the succession of images, and in the transitions from thought to thought; and his tone is that of a prophet who can speak with a voice as of Delphi. – Richard Claverhouse Jebb[88] His odes were animated by... one burning glow which darted out a shower of brilliant images, leapt in a white-hot spark across gaps unbridgeable by thought, passed through a commonplace leaving it luminous and transparent, melted a group of heterogeneous ideas into a shortlived unity and, as suddenly as a flame, died. – Gilbert Highet[113] Some of these qualities can be found, for example, in this stanza from Pythian 2, composed in honour of Hieron: θεὸς ἅπαν ἐπὶ ἐλπίδεσσι τέκμαρ ἀνύεται, θεός, ὃ καὶ πτερόεντ᾽ αἰετὸν κίχε, καὶ θαλασ- :σαῖον παραμείβεται δελφῖνα, καὶ ὑψιφρόνων τιν᾽ ἔκαμψε βροτῶν, ἑτέροισι δὲ κῦδος ἀγήραον παρέδωκ᾽. ἐμὲ δὲ χρεὼν φεύγειν δάκος ἀδινὸν κακαγοριᾶν. εἶδον γὰρ ἑκὰς ἐὼν τὰ πόλλ᾽ ἐν ἀμαχανίᾳ ψογερὸν Ἀρχίλοχον βαρυλόγοις ἔχθεσιν πιαινόμενον: τὸ πλουτεῖν δὲ σὺν τύχᾳ πό- :τμου σοφίας ἄριστον. [114] God achieves all his purpose and fulfills his every hope, God who can overtake the winged eagle, or upon the sea outstrip the dolphin; and he bends the arrogant heart of many a man, But gives to others eternal glory that will never fade. Now for me Is it needful that I shun the fierce and biting tooth of slanderous words. For from old have I seen sharp-tongued Archilochus in want and struggling, Grown fat on the harsh words of hate. The best that fate can bring is wealth joined with the happy gift of wisdom.[115] The stanza begins with a celebration of divine power, and then abruptly shifts to a darker, more allusive train of thought, featuring condemnation of a renowned poet, Archilochus, Grown fat on the harsh words of hate. Archilochus was an iambic poet, working within a genre that licensed abusive and scurrilous verse – a regrettable tendency from the viewpoint of Pindar, whose own persona is intensely earnest, preaching to Hieron the need for moderation (wealth with wisdom) and submission to the divine will. The reference to the embittered poet appears to be Pindar's meditative response to some intrigues at Hieron's court, possibly by his rivals, condemned elsewhere as a pair of ravens (Olympian 2). The intensity of the stanza suggests that it is the culmination and climax of the poem. In fact, the stanza occupies the middle of Pythian 2 and the intensity is sustained throughout the poem from beginning to end. It is the sustained intensity of his poetry that Quintilian refers to above as a rolling flood of eloquence and Horace below refers to as the uncontrollable momentum of a river that has burst its banks. Longinus likens him to a vast fire[116] and Athenaeus refers to him as the great-voiced Pindar.[117] Pindar's treatment of myth is another unique aspect of his style, often involving variations on the traditional stories,[118] since his original audience was familiar with the myths and this allowed him to concentrate on unique and surprising effects. Reversing the chronological order was one such effect, as in Olympian VII dedicated to Diagoras of Rhodes, but this could also resemble a circular pattern, beginning with a culminating event, followed by scenes leading up to it, and ending with its restatement, as in his account of the Dioscuri in Nemean 10.[119] Myths enabled him to develop the themes and lessons that pre-occupy him – in particular mankind's exulted relation with the gods via heroic ancestors and, in contrast, the limitations and uncertainties of human existence – but sometimes the traditional stories were an embarrassment and were carefully edited, as for example: "Be still my tongue: here profits not / to tell the whole truth with clear face unveiled," (Nemean 5, epode 1); "Away, away this story! / Let no such tale fall from my lips! / For to insult the gods is a fool's wisdom," (Olympian 9, strophe 2); "Senseless, I hold it, for a man to say / the gods eat mortal flesh. / I spurn the thought," (Olympian 1, epode 2).[120] His mythical accounts are edited for dramatic and graphic effects, usually unfolding through a few grand gestures against a background of large, often symbolic elements such as sea, sky, darkness, fire or mountain.[110] Structure[edit] Pindar's odes typically begin with an invocation to a god or the Muses, followed by praise of the victor and often of his family, ancestors and home-town. Then follows a narrated myth, usually occupying the central and longest section of the poem, which exemplify a moral, while aligning the poet and his audience with the world of gods and heroes.[121] The ode usually ends in more eulogies, for example of trainers (if the victor is a boy), and of relatives who have won past events, as well as with prayers or expressions of hope for future success.[122] The event where the victory was gained is never described in detail, but there is often some mention of the hard work needed to bring the victory about. A lot of modern criticism tries to find hidden structure or some unifying principle within the odes. 19th century criticism favoured 'gnomic unity' i.e. that each ode is bound together by the kind of moralizing or philosophic vision typical of archaic Gnomic poetry. Later critics sought unity in the way certain words or images are repeated and developed within a particular ode. For others, the odes are just celebrations of men and their communities, in which the elements such as myths, piety, and ethics are stock themes that the poet introduces without much real thought. Some conclude that the requirement for unity is too modern to have informed Pindar's ancient approach to a traditional craft.[90] The great majority of the odes are triadic in structure – i.e., stanzas are grouped together in three's as a lyrical unit. Each triad comprises two stanzas identical in length and meter (called 'strophe' and 'antistrophe') and a third stanza (called an 'epode'), differing in length and meter but rounding off the lyrical movement in some way. The shortest odes comprise a single triad, the largest (Pythian 4) comprises thirteen triads. Seven of the odes however are monostrophic (i.e., each stanza in the ode is identical in length and meter). The monostrophic odes seem to have been composed for victory marches or processions, whereas the triadic odes appear suited to choral dances.[122] Pindar's metrical rhythms are nothing like the simple, repetitive rhythms familiar to readers of English verse – typically the rhythm of any given line recurs infrequently (for example, only once every ten, fifteen or twenty lines). This adds to the aura of complexity that surrounds Pindar's work. In terms of meter, the odes fall roughly into two categories – about half are in dactylo-epitrites (a meter found for example in the works of Stesichorus, Simonides and Bacchylides) and the other half are in Aeolic metres based on iambs and choriambs.[90] Chronological order[edit] Modern editors (e.g., Snell and Maehler in their Teubner edition), have assigned dates, securely or tentatively, to Pindar's victory odes, based on ancient sources and other grounds. The date of an athletic victory is not always the date of composition but often serves merely as a terminus post quem. Many dates are based on comments by ancient sources who had access to published lists of victors, such as the Olympic list compiled by Hippias of Elis, and lists of Pythian victors made by Aristotle and Callisthenes. There were however no such lists for the Isthmian and Nemean Games[123] – Pausanias (6.13.8) complained that the Corinthians and Argives never kept proper records. The resulting uncertainty is reflected in the chronology below, with question marks clustered around Nemean and Isthmian entries, and yet it still represents a fairly clear general timeline of Pindar's career as an epinician poet. The code M denotes monostrophic odes (odes in which all stanzas are metrically identical) and the rest are triadic (i.e. featuring strophes, antistrophes, epodes): Estimated chronological order Date BC Ode Victor Event Focusing Myth 498 Pythian 10 Hippocles of Thessaly Boy's long foot-race Perseus, Hyperboreans 490 Pythian 6 (M) Xenocrates of Acragas Chariot-race Antilochus, Nestor 490 Pythian 12 (M) Midas of Acragas Flute-Playing Perseus, Medusa 488 (?) Olympian 14 (M) Asopichus of Orchomenus Boys' foot-race None 486 Pythian 7 Megacles of Athens Chariot-race None 485 (?) Nemean 2 (M) Timodemus of Acharnae Pancration None 485 (?) Nemean 7 Sogenes of Aegina Boys' Pentathlon Neoptolemus 483 (?) Nemean 5 Pythias of Aegina Youth's Pancration Peleus, Hippolyta, Thetis 480 Isthmian 6 Phylacides of Aegina Pancration Heracles, Telamon 478 (?) Isthmian 5 Phylacides of Aegina Pancration Aeacids, Achilles 478 Isthmian 8 (M) Cleandrus of Aegina Pancration Zeus, Poseidon, Thetis 476 Olympian 1 Hieron of Syracuse Horse-race Pelops 476 Olympians 2 & 3 Theron of Acragas Chariot-race 2.Isles of the Blessed 3.Heracles, Hyperboreans 476 Olympian 11 Agesidamus of Epizephyrian Locris Boys' Boxing Match Heracles, founding of Olympian Games 476 (?) Nemean 1 Chromius of Aetna Chariot-race Infant Heracles 475 (?) Pythian 2 Hieron of Syracuse Chariot-race Ixion 475 (?) Nemean 3 Aristocleides of Aegina Pancration Aeacides, Achilles 474 (?) Olympian 10 Agesidamus of Epizephyrian Locris Boys' Boxing Match None 474 (?) Pythian 3 Hieron of Syracuse Horse-race Asclepius 474 Pythian 9 Telesicrates of Cyrene Foot-race in armour Apollo, Cyrene 474 Pythian 11 Thrasydaeus of Thebes Boys' short foot-race Orestes, Clytemnestra 474 (?) Nemean 9 (M) Chromius of Aetna Chariot-race Seven against Thebes 474/3 (?) Isthmian 3 & 4 Melissus of Thebes Chariot race & pancration 3.None 4.Heracles, Antaeus 473 (?) Nemean 4 (M) Timisarchus of Aegina Boys' Wrestling Match Aeacids, Peleus, Thetis 470 Pythian 1 Hieron of Aetna Chariot-race Typhon 470 (?) Isthmian 2 Xenocrates of Acragas Chariot-race None 468 Olympian 6 Agesias of Syracuse Chariot-race with mules Iamus 466 Olympian 9 Epharmus of Opous Wrestling-Match Deucalion, Pyrrha 466 Olympian 12 Ergoteles of Himera Long foot-race Fortune 465 (?) Nemean 6 Alcimidas of Aegina Boys' Wrestling Match Aeacides, Achilles, Memnon 464 Olympian 7 Diagoras of Rhodes Boxing-Match Tlepolemus 464 Olympian 13 Xenophon of Corinth Short foot-race & pentathlon Bellerophon, Pegasus 462/1 Pythian 4 & 5 Arcesilas of Cyrene Chariot-race 4.Argonauts 5.Battus 460 Olympian 8 Alcimidas of Aegina Boys' Wrestling-Match Aeacus, Troy 459 (?) Nemean 8 Deinis of Aegina Foot-race Ajax 458 (?) Isthmian 1 Herodotus of Thebes Chariot-race Castor, Iolaus 460 or 456 (?) Olympian 4 & 5 Psaumis of Camarina Chariot-race with mules 4.Erginus 5.None 454 (?) Isthmian 7 Strepsiades of Thebes Pancration None 446 Pythian 8 Aristomenes of Aegina Wrestling-Match Amphiaraus 446 (?) Nemean 11 Aristagoras of Tenedos Inauguration as Prytanis None 444 (?) Nemean 10 Theaius of Argos Wrestling-Match Castor, Pollux Manuscripts, shreds and quotes[edit] Pindar's verses have come down to us in a variety of ways. Some are only preserved as fragments via quotes by ancient sources and papyri unearthed by archeologists, as at Oxyrhynchus – in fact the extant works of most of the other canonic lyric poets have survived only in this tattered form. Pindar's extant verses are unique in that the bulk of them – the victory odes – have been preserved in a manuscript tradition, i.e., generations of scribes copying from earlier copies, possibly originating in a single archetypal copy and sometimes graphically demonstrated by modern scholars in the form of a stemma codicum, resembling a 'family tree'. Pindar's victory odes are preserved in just two manuscripts, but incomplete collections are located in many others, and all date from the mediaeval period. Some scholars have traced a stemma through these manuscripts, for example Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, who inferred from them the existence of a common source or archetype dated no earlier than the 2nd century AD, while others, such as C.M. Bowra, have argued that there are too many discrepancies between manuscripts to identify a specific lineage, even while accepting the existence of an archetype. Otto Schroeder identified two families of manuscripts but, following on the work of Polish-born classicist, Alexander Turyn,[124] Bowra rejected this also.[125] Different scholars interpret the extant manuscripts differently. Bowra for example singled out seven manuscripts as his primary sources (see below), all featuring errors and/or gaps due to loss of folios and careless copying, and one arguably characterized by the dubious interpolations of Byzantine scholars. These he cross-referenced and then supplemented or verified by reference to other, still more doubtful manuscripts, and some papyrus fragments – a combination of sources on which he based his own edition of the odes and fragments. His general method of selection he defined as follows: Where all the codices agree, there perhaps the true reading shines out. Where however they differ, the preferred reading is that which best fits the sense, meter, scholia and grammatic conventions. Wherever moreover two or more readings of equal weight are found in the codices, I have chosen that which smacks most of Pindar. Yet this difficulty rarely occurs, and in many places the true reading will be found if you examine and compare the language of the codices with that of other Greek poets and especially of Pindar himself.[126] Selected manuscripts – a sample of preferred sources (Bowra's choice, 1947) Code Source Format Date Comments A codex Ambrosianus C 222inf. paper 35×25.5 cm 13–14th century Comprises Olympian Odes 1–12, with some unique readings that Bowra considered reliable, and including scholia. B codex Vaticanus graeca 1312 silk 24.3×18.4 cm 13th century Comprises odes Olympian 1 to Isthmian 8 (entire corpus), but with some leaves and verses missing, and includes scholia; Zacharias Callierges based his 1515 Roman edition on it, possibly with access to the now missing material. C codex Parisinus graecus 2774 silk 23×15 cm 14th century Comprises odes Olympian 1 to Pythian 5, including some unique readings but also with many Byzantine interpolations/conjectures (Turyn rejected this codex accordingly), and written in a careless hand. D codex Laurentianus 32, 52 silk 27×19 cm 14th century Comprises odes Olympian 1 to Isthmian 8 (entire corpus), including a fragment (Frag. 1) and scholia, written in a careless hand. E codex Laurentianus 32, 37 silk 24×17 cm 14th century Comprises odes Olympian 1 to Pythian 12, largely in agreement with B, including scholia but with last page removed and replaced with paper in a later hand. G codex Gottingensis philologus 29 silk 25×17 cm 13th century Comprises odes Olympian 2 to Pythian 12, largely in agreement with B (thus useful for comparisons), including Olympian 1 added in the 16th century. V codex Parisinus graecus 2403 silk 25×17 cm 14th century Comprises odes Olympian 1 to Nemean 4, including some verses from Nemean 6; like G, useful for supporting and verifying B. Influence and legacy[edit] The influential Alexandrian poet Callimachus was fascinated by Pindar's originality. His masterpiece Aetia (Callimachus)Aetia included an elegy in honour of Queen Berenice, celebrating a chariot victory at the Nemean Games, composed in a style and presented in a manner that recall Pindar.[127] The Hellenistic epic Argonautica, by Apollonius Rhodius, was influenced by some aspects of Pindar's style and his use of episodic vignettes in narrative. The epic concerns the adventures of Jason, also touched on by Pindar in Pythian 4, and both poems link the myth to a Greek audience in Africa.[128] There seems to have been a vogue for Pindaric-style lyrics following the 'publication' of Horace's Odes 1–3 – Horace had mastered other styles such as Sapphic and Alcaeic, which had discouraged his contemporaries from attempting anything in the same form, but he had not composed anything in triadic stanzas in the manner of Pindar.[129] Pindar was much read, quoted, and copied during the Byzantine Era. For example, Christophoros Mytilenaios of the 11th century parodied a chariot race in his sixth poem employing explicit allusions to Pindar.[130] During the 17th and 18th centuries, literary theorists in Europe distinguished between two types of lyric poetry, loosely associated with Horace and Pindar. Regular verses in four line stanzas were associated with Horace's Odes, which did in fact inspire and influence poets of the period. Irregular verses in longer stanzas were termed Pindarics though the association with Pindar was largely fanciful. Abraham Cowley was considered the main exponent of English Pindarics. In fact, the two styles were not always easy to distinguish and many 'Pindaric' odes were quite Horatian in content, as in some poems by Thomas Gray.[131] A 'Pindaric Ode' was composed for the revived 1896 Olympic Games in Athens by the Oxford scholar George Stuart Robinson, and similar compositions were commissioned from and composed by classicist Armand D'Angour for the Athens Olympics in 2004 and the London Olympics in 2012. Horace's tribute[edit] The Latin poet, Quintus Horatius Flaccus, was an admirer of Pindar's style. He described it in one of his Sapphic poems, addressed to a friend, Iullus Antonius: Pindarum quisquis studet aemulari, Iule, ceratis ope Daedalea nititur pennis vitreo daturus nomina ponto. monte decurrens velut amnis, imbres quem super notas aluere ripas, fervet immensusque ruit profundo Pindarus ore. (C.IV.II) Julus, whoever tries to rival Pindar, Flutters on wings of wax, a rude contriver Doomed like the son of Daedalus to christen Somewhere a shining sea. A river bursts its banks and rushes down a Mountain with uncontrollable momentum, Rain-saturated, churning, chanting thunder – There you have Pindar's style.[132] Bowra's tribute[edit] C. M. Bowra, the leading Pindaric scholar of his generation, and the editor of the 1935 O.U.P edition of his poems, summarized Pindar's qualities in the following words: "His innate, unquestioning pride in his poetical mission means that he gives to it all his gifts and all his efforts. The result is a poetry that by any standards deserves the name because it is based on a radiant vision of reality and fashioned with so subtle, so adventurous, and so dedicated an art that it is worthy to be an earthly counterpart of the songs which Pindar regards as the archetype of music on those lofty occasions when all discords are resolved and all misgivings obliterated by the power of the life-giving word."[133] See also[edit] John Wolcot Notes[edit] ^ Pindar (1972) p. 212. The three lines here, and in Bowra's Greek, are actually two lines or stichoi in Greek prosody. Stichoi however are often too long to be preserved as single lines in published form, and they are then broken into metrical units, or cola, the break indicated by indentation. This practice is observed both in Greek and in translations, but it is a modern convenience or preference and it has no historical authority: "...nullam habet apud codices auctoritatem neque veri simile est Pindarum ita carmina manu propria conscripsisse." ^ There are several other accounts of supernatural visitations relating to Pindar (see for example C.M. Bowra, Pindar, pages 49-51). According to a scholium, he and a pupil, Olympichus, once saw a mysterious flame on a mountain, attended by strange noises. Pindar then beheld Rhea, the Mother of the Gods, advancing in the form of a wooden image. Pausanias (9.25.3) reported that he set up a monument near his home, dedicated conjointly to Pan and the Mother of the Gods (Δινδυμήνη). According to Eustathius (Proem. 27, p. 298. 9 Dr) and Vit. Ambr. (p. 2. 2 Dr.), Pan was once heard between Cithaeron and Helicon singing a paean composed to him by Pindar (fr. 85). ^ Paean 9.13-20). The eclipse is mentioned in a fragment quoted by Stobaeus, addressed to the Thebans: Is it some sign of war you bring? / Or blight on crops, or snow-fall's strength / Beyond all telling, or murderous strife at home, / Or emptying of the sea on land, / Or frost binding the earth, or south-wind in summer / With a flood of furious rain, / Or will you drown the land and raise / A new breed of men from the beginning? ^ fr. 129: τί θεός; τὸ πάν ^ Chiron's compliment to Apollo: "You, Sire, who know / The appointed end of all, and all paths: / How many leaves in April the earth puts forth, / How many grains of sand / In the sea and rivers / Are troubled by the waves and the swirling winds, / And what shall be, and whence it shall come / You see with clear eyes." ^ Nemean Odes 5.14–18: I am shy of speaking of a huge risk / Hazarded not in right, / How they left the famous island, / And what fate drove strong men from the Vineland. / I shall halt. Truth does not always / Gain more if unflinching / She reveals her face; / And silence is often a man's wisest counsel. References[edit] ^ The Greek and Roman critics: "The odes of Pindar (518-438B.C.), written for the most part to celebrate victories in athletic contests, are interspersed with moral and philosophical reflections" ^ Quintilian 10.1.61; cf. Pseudo-Longinus 33.5 Archived 2011-08-06 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Eupolis F366 Kock, 398 K/A, from Athenaeus 3a, (Deipnosophistae, epitome of book I) ^ Lawrence Henry Baker (1923). "Some Aspects of Pindar's Style". The Sewanee Review. 31 (1): 100–110. JSTOR 27533621. ^ Gerber, p. 261 ^ de Romilly, p. 37 ^ Bowra, Pythia VIII, lines 95–7 ^ Pindar (1972) p. 144 ^ Pindar (1972) Introduction p. xv ^ Race, p. 4 ^ a b Gerber, p. 253 ^ Morice, pp. 211–15 ^ Escholarship.org ^ E.Bundy, Studia Pindarica, Berkeley (1962), p. 35 ^ Lloyd-Jones, Hugh (1982). "Pindar". Proceedings of the British Academy. 68: 139–163 (145). [permanent dead link] ^ Hornblower 2004, p. 38. ^ a b Hornblower 2004, p. 59. ^ Hornblower 2004, p. 67. ^ Currie, pp. 11–13 ^ Nemean 8, lines 20–21 ^ Bowra 1947. ^ Bowra 1947, p. 9. ^ "Ancient Greece - War - The British Museum". www.ancientgreece.co.uk. Retrieved 2020-07-18. ^ Editors, History com. "Battle of Marathon". HISTORY. Retrieved 2020-07-18.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) ^ Hubbard, T. K. (1992). "Remaking Myth and Rewriting History: Cult Tradition in Pindar's Ninth Nemean'". Harvard Studies in Classical Philology. 94: 77–111 [78]. doi:10.2307/311420. JSTOR 311420. ^ Gerber, p. 270 ^ Hornblower 2004, p. 177. ^ Hornblower 2004, p. 178. ^ Hornblower 2004, p. 179. ^ Hornblower 2004, p. 180. ^ Ian Rutherford, Pindar's Paeans, Oxford University Press (2001), pp. 321–22 ^ Woodbury, Leonard (1979). "Neoptolemus at Delphi: Pindar, Nem.7.30ff". Phoenix. 33 (2): 95–133. doi:10.2307/1087989. JSTOR 1087989. ^ Isocrates 15.166 ^ Pindar (1972) p. 158 ^ Hornblower 2004, p. 57. ^ Pindar (1972) pp. 10, 88–9 ^ Pindar (1972) Introduction p. XIII ^ Hornblower 2004, p. 16. ^ Race, pp. 10–11 ^ David Campbell, Greek Lyric IV, Loeb Classical Library (1992), page 6 ^ Pindar (1972) p. 239 ^ D. Campbell, Greek Lyric IV, p. 2 ^ Pindar (1972), p. 138 ^ Charles Segal, 'Choral Lyric in the Fifth Century', in Easterling, pp. 231–232 ^ Pindar (1972) p. 142 ^ Currie, p. 20 ^ Gerber, pp. 268–269 ^ Plutarch, Life of Alexander 11.6; Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri 1.9.10 ^ Bowra 1964, p. 2. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 38. ^ Archilochus fr. 122 West ^ Bowra 1964, p. 83. ^ a b c Bowra 1964, p. 84. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 42. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 43. ^ Olympic Ode 10.3-4 ^ Olympic Ode 12.1-2) ^ Bowra 1964, p. 85. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 86. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 87. ^ Pythian Ode 9 ^ Bowra 1964, p. 61. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 64. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 65. ^ Pythian Ode 8.99–100 ^ a b Bowra 1964, p. 67. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 68. ^ Isthmian Odes 4.57 ^ Bowra 1964, p. 47. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 48. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 71. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 66. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 96. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 89-96. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 76. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 77. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 120. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 100. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 101. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 102. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 103. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 4. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 5. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 6. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 7. ^ Nemean Ode 7.77-79 ^ a b Bowra 1964, p. 16. ^ a b Jebb, Richard (1905) Bacchylides: the poems and fragments, Cambridge University Press, p. 41 ^ Pindar (1972) p. 17 ^ a b c Gerber, p. 255 ^ Gregory Nagy, Greek Literature in the Hellenistic Period, Routledge (2001), page 66 ^ M.M. Willcock: Pindar: Victory Odes (1995). Cambridge University Press, p. 3. ^ Bowie, p. 110 ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus, de Comp. 22, de Dem. 39 ^ Bowra 1964, p. 193. ^ a b Bowra 1964, p. 363. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 25. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 26. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 62. ^ a b Bowra 1964, p. 63. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 15. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 17. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 18. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 19. ^ Bowra 1964, p. 20. ^ Antony Andrewes, Greek Society, Pelican Books (1971), pp. 219–22 ^ Pindar (1972) p. 235 ^ Pindar (1972), p. 88. 96 ^ Pindar (1972) Introduction p. xx ^ a b Charles Segal, 'Choral Lyric in the Fifth Century', in Easterling, p. 232 ^ de Romilly, p. 38 ^ Lucas, F. L. Greek Poetry for Everyman. Macmillan Company, New York. p. 262. ^ Gilbert Highet, The Classical Tradition, Oxford University Press (1949), p. 225 ^ Bowra, Pythia II 49–56 ^ Pindar (1972) pp. 92–3 ^ De Subl. 33.5 ^ Athenaeus 13.5.64c ^ Bowie, pp. 107–8 ^ Bowra 1964, p. 310. ^ Pindar (1972) pp. 192, 54, 4, respectively ^ Bowie, p. 108 ^ a b Pindar (1972) ^ Currie, p. 25 ^ Miroslav Marcovich (1982). "Alexander Turyn". Gnomon. 54 (1): 97–98. JSTOR 27688007. ^ Bowra, Praefatio iii–iv, vii ^ Bowra, Praefatio iv ^ A.W. Bulloch, 'Hellenistic Poetry', in Easterling, pp. 556–57 ^ William H. Race, Apollonius Rhodius: Argonautica, Loeb Classical Library (2008), page xiii ^ R. Tarrant, 'Ancient receptions of Horace', in The Cambridge Companion to Horace, Stephen Harrison (ed.), Cambridge university Press (2007), page 280 ^ F. Lauritzen, Readers of Pindar and students of Mitylinaios, Byzantion 2010 ^ David Money, 'The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries', in The Cambridge Companion to Horace, Stephen Harrison (ed), Cambridge University Press (2007), pp. 327–28 ISBN 0-521-83002-8 ^ The Odes of Horace James Michie (translator), Penguin Classics 1976 ^ Bowra 1964, p. 401. Sources[edit] Bowie, Ewen, 'Lyric and Elegiac Poetry' in The Oxford History of the Classical World, J. Boardman, J. Griffin and O. Murray (eds), Oxford University Press (1986) ISBN 0-19-872112-9 Bowra, C. M. (1947). Pindari Carmina Cum Fragmentis, Editio Altera. Oxford University Press. Bowra, Cecil Maurice (1964). Pindar. Clarendon Press. pp. 446. ISBN 978-0-19-814338-3. Campbell, David A. (1992). Greek Lyric IV: Bacchylides, Corinna and Others. Loeb Classical Library. ISBN 978-0-674-99508-6. Currie, Bruno (2005), Pindar and the Cult of Heroes, Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-161516-1 Easterling, P. & Knox, B. (eds) (1985), The Cambridge History of Classical Greek Literature "Greek Literature", Cambridge University Press Gerber, Douglas E. (1997) A Companion to the Greek lyric poets, Brill ISBN 90-04-09944-1 Hornblower, Simon (2004). Thucydides and Pindar: Historical Narrative and the World of Epinikian Poetry. Oxford University Press. p. 454. ISBN 978-0-19-929828-0. Morice, Francis David (2009), Pindar, Bibliobazaar, LLC ISBN 1-148-33210-3 Conway, Geoffrey Seymour (1972), The Odes of Pindar, Dent ISBN 978-0-460-01017-7 Race, William H. (1997), Pindar: Olympian Odes, Pythian Odes, Loeb Classical Library ISBN 0-674-99564-3 De Romilly, Jacqueline (1985), A Short History of Greek Literature, University of Chicage Press Further reading[edit] Nisetich, Frank J., Pindar's Victory Songs. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980: translations and extensive introduction, background and critical apparatus. Revard, Stella P., Politics, Poetics, and the Pindaric Ode 1450–1700, Turnhout, Brepols Publishers, 2010, ISBN 978-2-503-52896-0 Race, W. H. Pindar. 2 vols. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997. Bundy, Elroy L. (2006) [1962]. Studia Pindarica (PDF) (digital version ed.). Berkeley, California: Department of Classics, University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved 2007-02-12. Barrett, W. S., Greek Lyric, Tragedy, and Textual Criticism: Collected Papers, edited M. L. West (Oxford & New York, 2007): papers dealing with Pindar, Stesichorus, Bacchylides and Euripides Kiichiro Itsumi, Pindaric Metre: 'The Other Half' (Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, 2009). Burnett, Anne Pippin, Pindar (London: Bristol Classical Press, 2008) (Ancients in action). Wells, James Bradley. Pindar's Verbal Art: An Enthnographic Study of Epinician Style, Hellenic Studies Series 40. Washington, DC, Center for Hellenic Studies, 2010, ISBN 978-0-674-03627-7 External links[edit] Pindarat Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Data from Wikidata Wikisource has original text related to this article: Portal:Odes of Pindar Library resources about Pindar Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Pindar Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Works by Pindar at Perseus Digital Library Classical poetry at Curlie Works by Pindar at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Pindar at Internet Archive Works by Pindar at Open Library Selected odes, marked up to show selected rhetorical and poetic devices Olympian 1, read aloud in Greek, with text and English translation provided Pythian 8, 'Approaching Pindar' by William Harris (text, translation, analysis) Pindar by Gregory Crane, in the Perseus Encyclopedia Pindar's Life by Basil L. Gildersleeve, in Pindar: The Olympian and Pythian Odes Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Pindar, Olympian Odes, I, 1–64; read by William Mullen Perseus Digital Library Lexicon to Pindar, William J. Slater, De Gruyter 1969: scholarly dictionary for research into Pindar Pindar-A Hellenistic Bibliography compiled by Martine Cuypers William J. Slater, Lexicon to Pindar, Berlin, De Gruyter, 1969 on http://www.perseus.tufts.edu Historic editions The Odes of Pindar translated into English with notes, D.W.Turner, A Moore, Bohm Classical Library (1852), digitalized by Google Encyclopædia Britannica 11th ed. 1911 Vol. 21 'Pindar' Pindar – translations and notes by Reverend C.A.Wheelwright, printed by A.J.Valpy, M.A., London (1830): digitalized by Google Pindari carmina, adnotationem criticam addidit Tycho Mommsen, vol. 1, vol. 2, Berolini apud Weidmannos, 1864. Scholia of Pindar: Pindari opera quae supersunt. Scholia integra, Augustus Boeckhius (ed.), 2 voll., Lipsiae apud Ioann. August. Gottlob Weigen, 1811: vol. 1, vol. 2. Scholia vetera in Pindari carmina, Anders Bjørn Drachmann (ed.), 3 voll., Verlag Adolf M. 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Google Books and Amazon.com may be particularly helpful if you want to verify citations in Wikipedia articles, because they often enable you to search an online version of the book for specific words or phrases, or you can browse through the book (although for copyright reasons the entire book is usually not available). Online databases Find this book at Karlsruhe Virtual Catalog, a metasearch engine addressing many of the databases linked here and also some major commercial booksellers. 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en-wikipedia-org-9293	----	Quintus Curtius Rufus - Wikipedia Quintus Curtius Rufus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Curtius. First century Roman historian Quintus Curtius Rufus Occupation Historian Language Latin Citizenship Roman Empire Period 1st century Genres Biography, history Subject Life and times of Alexander the Great Literary movement Silver age of Latin literature Notable work Histories of Alexander the Great Qui. Curse En La Vie Alexand. Le Grand, illumination from manuscript located at the Laurentian Library of Florence Quintus Curtius Rufus (/ˈkwɪntəs ˈkɜːrʃiəs ˈruːfəs/) was a Roman historian, probably of the 1st century, author of his only known and only surviving work, Historiae Alexandri Magni, "Histories of Alexander the Great", or more fully Historiarum Alexandri Magni Macedonis Libri Qui Supersunt, "All the Books That Survive of the Histories of Alexander the Great of Macedon." Much of it is missing. Apart from his name on the manuscripts, nothing else certain is known of him. This fact alone has led philologists to believe that he had another historical identity, to which, due to the accidents of time, the link has been broken. A few theories exist. They are treated with varying degrees of credibility by various authors. Meanwhile, the identity of Quintus Curtius Rufus, historian, is maintained separately. Contents 1 The historical alter ego 1.1 Most credible date 1.2 Most credible identity 2 The Historiae 2.1 Manuscripts and editions 2.2 The vulgate authors 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References 6 External links The historical alter ego[edit] Curtius' work is uniquely isolated. No other ancient work refers to it, or as far as is known, to him.[1] Peter Pratt[2] pointing out that the Senate and emperors frequently proscribed or censored works, suggests that Curtius had not published the manuscript before his death, but left it in care of the emperor. The emperors intended to publish it posthumously but did not find a political opportunity. They had adopted the identity of Alexander for themselves. The provinces fashioned from the Macedonian Empire were difficult to govern, always on the point of rebellion. The work of Curtius, Pratt conjectures, was not politically appropriate because it would have encouraged independence. The earliest opportune moment was the year 167, when the campaign of the emperor Marcus Aurelius against the Parthian Empire had failed, and the returning troops were in bad morale and infected with the Antonine Plague. The emperor attempted to build national pride among the former Macedonian states. Avidius Cassius, commandant of Legio III Gallica, returning veterans, was promoted to Consul. He claimed descent from the Seleucids of Macedonia. New coins and medals were issued in Macedonia on Alexandrian themes. Pratt conjectures that the manuscript in storage, by this time damaged and partly destroyed, was published finally, accounting for the previous lack of references to it. It is also possible Books I and II along with other loci were censored out. As the emperors probably had surmised, it was immediately popular. Most credible date[edit] Claudius The dating available relies entirely on internal evidence, which is not certain, but offers some degree of preponderance. In Book X Curtius digresses to give an encomium on blessings of peace under empire, citing the Roman Empire with the implication of contemporaneity.[3] In essence he reasserts the policy of Augustus, which casts the empire as the restoration of monarchy for the suppression of the civil wars fomented by the contention of powerful noblemen vying for control of the Republic. Curtius' glowing endorsement of the policy dates him to the Roman Empire. He also mentions the Parthian Empire. It was formed by the eastern satrapies recusing themselves from Macedonian overlordship and restoring a purely Iranian empire. It defended itself successfully against Rome, even though Rome absorbed what was left of the Macedonian kingdoms. The dates of the Parthian Empire are 247 BC through 224 AD. Although Curtius may have been writing about an empire vanished in his own day, the most straightforward approach assumes that he wrote in a window, 63 BC (start of the Roman Empire) through 224 AD.[4] For further localization, the same imperial purple passage contrasts the civil wars of the Macedonians (Diadochi wars) due to failure to obtain a stable emperor, with an incident of the Roman Empire in which the risk of civil war was avoided by the appointment of a new emperor in a single night. Not very many incidents fit the description. Baynham summarizes the argument of Julius Nützell that the crisis might be the night of January 24/25, 41 AD, following the assassination of Caligula on that day. The Senate met on an emergency basis to debate whether the Roman Republic should be restored. The Praetorian Guard forced its way in to insist on the appointment of Caligula's uncle, Claudius. His reign concentrated on the restoration of the rule of law. A lawyer, he issued up to 20 imperial edicts per day, re-establishing the Pax Romana. If this argument is correct, Curtius' work must be dated to after 41 AD.[5] The upper limit is provided by a passage that mentions the "continued prosperity of Tyre under Roman dominion."[6] The peace of the empire came to an end in 43 AD when Claudius invaded Britain. None of these dates are certain, but the union of all the ranges presents a credible view of Curtius' date. Baynham says: "many modern scholars now accept a date in the middle to late part of the first century A.D. as a likely floruit for Curtius."[7] Most credible identity[edit] By his name, Quintus Curtius Rufus was a member of the Curtii Rufi branch of the Curtii family, one of the original nobility of Rome. Due to the frequently used institution of adoption, people of the name Curtius (or female Curtia) might not be consanguineous. Moreover, the same name tended to be repeated, typically from grandfather to grandson. After centuries of Curtii, a Curtius might turn up in history at any location or in any period. The candidates for the historical identity of the author are but few. Given the time frame of the mid-1st century, however, there is a credible candidate. He is a certain Curtius Rufus (The praenomen has been omitted. Presumably it is Quintus.) In the List of Roman consuls he served as Consul Suffectus for October through December, 43 AD under the emperor Claudius. He had been a protégé of Tiberius.[8] He must have written the Histories in the year or two before the consulship. Tacitus says that he was on the staff of the Quaestor of Africa during that time, which would have given him the opportunity to use the Library of Alexandria.[9] Tiberius had died in 37; Caligula was emperor then. Curtius’ relations with Caligula are not mentioned. But Caligula was not in his vicinity. On Curtius’ return, a book such as the Historiae unless politically incorrect would have impressed the scholarly Claudius. Tiberius already had been an admirer before the book: he said that Curtius Rufus was his own ancestor; i.e., a self-made man. Tacitus hints that Curtius was of low birth, possibly the son of a gladiator. The story is only compatible with the name if one assumes adoption, which Tiberius could easily have arranged, If Curtius took office at the minimum age of 25, and Tiberius made his comment in the year of his own death, Curtius would have been 19 or younger when described as a self-made man. In an age when Alexander had become regent of Macedon at 16, a rise to fame at 19, and consulship at 25, would not have been incredible. Tiberius would have been a senior emperor when Curtius came to his attention. What his qualifications were for the patronage remain obscure. If, on the other hand, Quintus Curtius Rufus is to be identified with Curtius Rufus, Consul Suffect of 43, then the most likely circumstantial evidence places his birth in the early years of the 1st century, in the reign of Augustus.[10] The Historiae[edit] Main article: Histories of Alexander the Great Manuscripts and editions[edit] Historiae survives in 123 codices, or bound manuscripts, all deriving from an original in the 9th century. As it was a partial text, already missing large pieces, they are partial as well. They vary in condition. Some are more partial than others, with lacunae that developed since the 9th century. The original contained ten libri, "books," equivalent to our chapters. Book I and II are missing, along with any Introduction that might have been expected according to ancient custom. There are gaps in V, VI, and X. Many loci, or "places," throughout are obscure, subject to interpretation or emendation in the name of restoration.[11] The work enjoyed popularity in the High Middle Ages. It is the main source for a genre of tales termed the Alexander Romance (some say romances); for example, Walter of Chatillon's epic poem Alexandreis, which was written in the style of Virgil's Aeneid. These romances spilled over into the Renaissance, especially of Italy, where Curtius was idolized.[12] Painters, such as Paolo Veronese and Charles Le Brun, painted scenes from Curtius. The Editio Princeps, or first printed edition, was published in 1470 or 1471 at Venice by Vindelinus Spirensis. A slow but steady stream of editions appeared subsequently until more of a need for standardization was perceived. In 1867 Edmund Hedicke instigated a convention that persists yet. He based his edition of that year on the five best manuscripts.[13] The vulgate authors[edit] In what remains of his work, Curtius mainly does not identify sources. They were, perhaps, stated in the missing books. Speculations of what they were based on thorough analysis of the content and style vary widely. Yardley and Heckel say: "The internal evidence for Curtius' sources is disappointing."[14] He does, however, mention Cleitarchus, a historian in camp, twice,[15] Ptolemy once, and Timagenes once. These men were participants in the Alexander story and therefore are counted as eyewitnesses, or primary sources. All accounts based on them are by analogy also termed "primary."[16] These works are also called "the Vulgate." See also[edit] Curtius Rufus Notes[edit] ^ Baynham 1998, p. 2 ^ Pratt 1809, pp. xvi-xxi The lesser known Pratt was a clerk in the library of East India House. His employment was to research and publish documents on the East Indies trade. He expanded that process into writing universal history books, such as the History of Japan. He did some writing to gratify his own interests, such as the translation of Curtius, which reveals the depth of his education and research. He remained so unself-confident that he did not put his name on the work. In the Preface he begins one footnote with “As a stranger to antiquarian studies, I hesitate to point out ....” He was certainly no stranger. The book received professional reviews, becoming popular. ^ Chapter 9, 1-6. ^ Baynham 1998, p. 7 ^ Baynham 1998, pp. 205–207 ^ Curtius 1896, p. xii On Book IV, Chapter 4, 21. ^ Baynham 1998, p. 8 ^ Yardley & Atkinson 2009, pp. 9–14. ^ Annales, Book XI, Section 21. ^ Hamilton 1988 ^ Baynham 1998, p. 1 ^ Baynham 1998, p. 3 ^ Baynham 1998, pp. 3–4. They are B for Bernensis, F for Florentinus, L for Leidensis, P for Parisinus, and V for Vosianus. ^ Yardley & Heckel 2004, Introduction: C. Curtius' Sources and Models. ^ 9.5.21, 9.18.15. ^ Yardely & Atkinson 2009, p. 1 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFYardelyAtkinson2009 (help) identifies five: Curtius, Diodorus Siculus Book 17; Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus, "Philippic History," Books 11-12 (in epitome by Justin); Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri, and Plutarch, "Life of Alexander." References[edit] Baynham, Elizabeth (1998). Alexander the Great: The Unique History of Quintus Curtius. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Curtius, Rufus Quintus (1896). Humphreys, Willard (ed.). Selections from the History of Alexander the Great. Boston: Ginn & Co. Hamilton, J.R. (1988). "The Date of Quintus Curtius Rufus". Zeitschrift für alte Geschichte. Bd. 37: 445–456. Lucarini, Carlo M. (2009). Q. Curtius Rufus: Historiae. Bibliotheca scriptorum Graecorum et Romanorum Teubneriana (in Latin). Berolini [Berlin]; Novi Eboraci [New York]: Walter De Gruyter. Pratt, P. (1809). The History of the Life and Reign of Alexander the Great. Volume I. London: Samuel Bagster. Rolfe, John C. (1971A) [1946]. Quintus Curtius, with an English Translation. Volume I, Books I-V. Cambridge; London: Harvard University Press; William Heinemann Ltd. Yardley, J.C., Translator; Atkinson, J.E., Commentator (2009). Curtius Rufus, Histories of Alexander the Great, Book 10. Clarendon Ancient History Series. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. Yardley, J.C., Translator; Heckel, Waldemar, Commentator (2004) [1984]. Quintus Curtius Rufus: The History of Alexander. London: Penguin Books. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Quintus Curtius Rufus Wikisource has original works written by or about: Quintus Curtius Rufus Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: Quintus Curtius Rufus Latin text of Curtius on LacusCurtius website. Latin text of Curtius. A slightly different version on the ForumRomanum website. Quintus Curtius Rufus. "Historiarum Alexandri Magni Libri Qui Supersunt" (in Latin). The Latin Library. "Quintus Curtius [History of Alexander] with an English translation by John C. Rolfe (2 voll., Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd, 1971-76)" (in Latin and English). Hathi Trust Digital Library. Huyse, Philip (1993, updated 2011). "Curtius Rufus, Quintus". Encyclopaedia Iranica, VI/5, pp. 464–465. Lendering, Jona (2014) [2004]. "Quintus Curtius Rufus". Livius.org. Quintus Curtius Rufus. Amir-Hussain Khunji (ed.). "Events Immediately After Alexander's Death; Curt. 10.6-10". History of the Persian Empire. irantarikh.com. Archived from the original on 2003-12-20. Sébastien, Barbara (2010). "Quinte-Curce, Histoires, VIII-X, orientations bibliographiques". Bibliothèque des Sciences de l'Antiquité. Université Lille. Archived from the original on 2009-06-17. Works by Quintus Curtius Rufus at Open Library v t e Hellenistic rulers Argeads Philip II Alexander III the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Antigonids Antigonus I Monophthalmus Demetrius I Poliorcetes Antigonus II Gonatas Demetrius II Aetolicus Antigonus III Doson Philip V Perseus Philip VI (pretender) Ptolemies Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Kings of Cyrene Magas Demetrius the Fair Ptolemy VIII Physcon Ptolemy Apion Seleucids Seleucus I Nicator Antiochus I Soter Antiochus II Theos Seleucus II Callinicus Seleucus III Ceraunus Antiochus III the Great Seleucus IV Philopator Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus V Eupator Demetrius I Soter Alexander I Balas Demetrius II Nicator Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Lysimachids Lysimachus Ptolemy Epigonos Antipatrids Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Attalids Philetaerus Eumenes I Attalus I Eumenes II Attalus II Attalus III Eumenes III Greco-Bactrians Diodotus I Diodotus II Euthydemus I Demetrius I Euthydemus II Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Demetrius II Eucratides I Plato Eucratides II Heliocles I Indo-Greeks Demetrius I Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Apollodotus I Demetrius II Antimachus II Menander I Zoilos I Agathokleia Lysias Strato I Antialcidas Heliokles II Polyxenos Demetrius III Philoxenus Diomedes Amyntas Epander Theophilos Peukolaos Thraso Nicias Menander II Artemidoros Hermaeus Archebius Telephos Apollodotus II Hippostratos Dionysios Zoilos II Apollophanes Strato II Strato III Kings of Bithynia Boteiras Bas Zipoetes I Nicomedes I Zipoetes II Etazeta (regent) Ziaelas Prusias I Prusias II Nicomedes II Nicomedes III Nicomedes IV Socrates Chrestus Kings of Pontus Mithridates I Ctistes Ariobarzanes Mithridates II Mithridates III Pharnaces I Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos Mithridates V Euergetes Mithridates VI Eupator Pharnaces II Darius Arsaces Polemon I Pythodorida Polemon II Kings of Commagene Ptolemaeus Sames II Mithridates I Antiochus I Mithridates II Antiochus II Mithridates III Antiochus III Antiochus IV Kings of Cappadocia Ariarathes I Ariarathes II Ariamnes II Ariarathes III Ariarathes IV Ariarathes V Orophernes Ariarathes VI Ariarathes VII Ariarathes VIII Ariarathes IX Ariobarzanes I Ariobarzanes II Ariobarzanes III Ariarathes X Archelaus Kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus Paerisades I Satyros II Prytanis Eumelos Spartokos III Hygiainon (regent) Paerisades II Spartokos IV Leukon II Spartokos V Paerisades III Paerisades IV Paerisades V Mithridates I Pharnaces Asander with Dynamis Mithridates II Asander with Dynamis Scribonius’ attempted rule with Dynamis Dynamis with Polemon Polemon with Pythodorida Aspurgus Mithridates III with Gepaepyris Mithridates III Cotys I Hellenistic rulers were preceded by Hellenistic satraps in most of their territories. Authority control BIBSYS: 90723819 BNE: XX1081498 BNF: cb12023228h (data) CANTIC: a10944801 CiNii: DA0152357X GND: 118523074 ICCU: IT\ICCU\RAVV\040588 ISNI: 0000 0001 1877 9161 LCCN: n50034703 LNB: 000073631 NDL: 00929441 NKC: jn19981000536 NLA: 35032817 NLG: 217350 NLI: 000036100 NLK: KAC199606152 NSK: 000051330 NTA: 06962562X RERO: 02-A000045552 SELIBR: 47478 SNAC: w6127h2k SUDOC: 028386604 Trove: 805444 VcBA: 495/65047 VIAF: 73866222 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n50034703 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quintus_Curtius_Rufus&oldid=995606637" Categories: Latin historians 1st-century historians 1st-century Romans Curtii Alexander the Great Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata CS1: long volume value CS1 Latin-language sources (la) Articles with Open Library links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers AC with 25 elements Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages العربية Asturianu تۆرکجه Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Français Furlan Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar Nederlands Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Русский Shqip Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 21 December 2020, at 23:36 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9294	----	Category:Roman-era Epicurean philosophers - Wikipedia Help Category:Roman-era Epicurean philosophers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Pages in category "Roman-era Epicurean philosophers" The following 12 pages are in this category, out of 12 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). A Amafinius C Catius D Diogenes of Oenoanda E Siro the Epicurean H Horace L Lucretius P Patro the Epicurean Phaedrus the Epicurean Philodemus Titus Pomponius Atticus R Rabirius (Epicurean) T Titus Albucius Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Roman-era_Epicurean_philosophers&oldid=547777950" Categories: Epicurean philosophers Roman-era philosophers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Português Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 30 March 2013, at 08:02 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9301	----	Aëtius of Amida - Wikipedia Aëtius of Amida From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 6th-century Byzantine physician Aëtius of Amida (/eɪˈiːʃəs/; Greek: Ἀέτιος Ἀμιδηνός; Latin: Aëtius Amidenus; fl. mid-5th century to mid-6th century) was a Byzantine Greek physician and medical writer,[1][2] particularly distinguished by the extent of his erudition.[3] His birth and death years are not known, but his writings appear to date from the end of the 5th century or the beginning of the 6th. Aëtius was probably a Christian.[4] If so, he would be among the earliest recorded Greek Christian physicians.[5] He is sometimes confused with Aëtius of Antioch, a famous Arian who lived in the time of the Emperor Julian. Contents 1 Life 2 Works 3 References 4 External links Life[edit] Aëtius was born a Greek [6][7] and a native of Amida (modern Diyarbakır, Turkey), a city of Mesopotamia,[8] and studied at Alexandria, which was the most famous medical school of the age. Though some writers[who?] place him in the 4th century, he mentions Patriarch Cyril of Alexandria, who died in 444,[9] and Petrus archiater, probably the physician of Theodoric the Great,[10] whom he defines as a contemporary, so it appears that he wrote at the very end of the 5th century or the beginning of the 6th. He is in turn quoted by Alexander of Tralles,[11] who lived probably in the middle of the 6th century. Aëtius traveled and visited the copper mines of Soli, Cyprus, Jericho, and the Dead Sea. In some manuscripts Aëtius has the title of komēs opsikiou (κόμης ὀψικίου), Latin comes obsequii, which means the chief officer in attendance on the emperor.[12] Works[edit] Aëtius seems to be the first Greek medical writer among the Christians who gives any specimen of the spells and charms so much in vogue with the Egyptians, such as that of Saint Blaise in removing a bone which sticks in the throat,[13] and another in relation to a fistula.[14] The division of Aëtius' work Sixteen Books on Medicine (Βιβλία Ἰατρικά Ἑκκαίδεκα) into four tetrabibli was not made by himself, but (as Fabricius observes) was the invention of some modern translator, as his way of quoting his own work is according to the numerical series of the books. Although his work does not contain much original matter, and is heavily indebted to Galen and Oribasius,[15] it is nevertheless one of the most valuable medical remains of antiquity, as being a very judicious compilation from the writings of many authors, many from the Alexandrian Library, whose works have long since been lost.[16] In the manuscript for book 8.13, the word ἀκμή (acme) is written as ἀκνή, the origin of the modern word acne.[17] Aëtius is recorded as having developed a concoction for contraception consisting of aloe, wallflower seed, pepper, and saffron. He is also known to have developed an abortifacient mixture, whose contents are not known.[18] References[edit] ^ Mercuriale, Girolamo (2008). De arte gymnastica. L. S. Olschki. p. 787. Aetius of Amida (1st half, 6' century), Greek Galenist doctor, author of a major encyclopedia of extracts. ^ Greenhill, William Alexander (1870). "Aetius". In Smith, William (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 1. Boston, MA. p. 53. ^ Dunglison, Robley (1872). History of Medicine from the Earliest Ages to the Commencement of the 19th Century. Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston. p. 182. ^ Colón, A. R.; Colón, P. A. (January 1999). Nurturing children: a history of pediatrics. Greenwood Press. p. 63. ISBN 9780313310805. Retrieved 19 October 2012. ^ Meade, Richard Hardaway (1968). An introduction to the history of general surgery. Saunders. p. 108. OCLC 438114. Aetius of Amida, who lived in the sixth century A.D. and was the first Greek physician who was a Christian, had a chapter on aneurysms in his book on surgery. ^ Plant, Ian Michael (2004). Women Writers of Ancient Greece and Rome: An Anthology. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 229. ISBN 9780806136219. Aetius: A Greek from Amida (in Mesopotamia), who wrote on philosophy in the mid- sixth century AD in Alexandria. ^ Kueny, Kathryn M. (2013). Conceiving Identities: Maternity in Medieval Muslim Discourse and Practice. SUNY Press. p. 340. ISBN 9781438447872. Greek physician Aetius of Amida (ca. sixth c. CE) likewise recommended rubbing an ointment made from pome— granate to prevent conception ^ Photius, cod. 221 ^ tetrab. iii. serm. i. 24, p. 464 ^ tetrab. ii. serm. iii. 110, p. 357 ^ Alexander of Tralles, xii. 8, p. 346 ^ see Du Cange, Gloss. Med. et Inf. Latin. ^ tetrab. ii. serm. iv. 50, p. 404 ^ tetrab. iv. serm. m. 14, p. 762 ^ Withington, Edward Theodore (1894). Medical History from the Earliest Times: A Popular History of the Healing Art. Scientific Press. p. 130. aetius medical. ^ Lawrence, J.J. (1905). "Medical brief". The Medical Brief: A Monthly Journal of Scientific Medicine and Surgery. Boston: Harvard University. 33: 166. Retrieved 2007-11-04. ^ Kudlien, Franz (1970). "Aetius of Amida". Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 1. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 68–69. ISBN 0-684-10114-9. ^ Riddle, John M. (1997). Eve's Herbs: A History of Contraception and Abortion in the West. Harvard University Press. pp. 55, 203. ISBN 0-674-27026-6.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870). "Aetius". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. External links[edit] Olivieri's CMG Greek text (1935-1950) [1] History of Magic and Experimental Science, Part 2, by Lynn Thorndike who reviewed both Aetius and Galen Authority control BIBSYS: 95005620 BNE: XX5584650 BNF: cb12515722z (data) CANTIC: a11758636 GND: 100935516 ISNI: 0000 0001 2095 8150 LCCN: n84805620 NTA: 071712658 RERO: 02-A012353468 SELIBR: 355928 SUDOC: 067062547 Trove: 971387 VcBA: 495/46193 VIAF: 79115278 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n84805620 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aëtius_of_Amida&oldid=992467026" Categories: Byzantine physicians 575 deaths Ancient Greek science writers 6th-century Byzantine people 5th-century Byzantine scientists 5th-century Byzantine writers 5th-century physicians 6th-century Byzantine scientists 6th-century Byzantine writers 6th-century physicians Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from February 2020 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM without a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Français Gàidhlig Galego Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina Mirandés Português Русский Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 5 December 2020, at 12:16 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9306	----	Parody - Wikipedia Parody From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Imitative work created to mock, comment on or trivialise an original work A parody, also called a spoof, a send-up, a take-off, a lampoon, a play on (something), or a caricature, is a creative work designed to imitate, comment on, and/or make fun of its subject by means of satiric or ironic imitation. Often its subject is an original work or some aspect of it — theme/content, author, style, etc. But a parody can also be about a real-life person (e.g. a politician), event, or movement (e.g. the French Revolution or 60's counterculture). Literary scholar Professor Simon Dentith defines parody as "any cultural practice which provides a relatively polemical allusive imitation of another cultural production or practice".[1] The literary theorist Linda Hutcheon said "parody ... is imitation, not always at the expense of the parodied text." Parody may be found in art or culture, including literature, music (but note that the term "parody music" has a second, earlier meaning that is somewhat different than for other art forms), theater, television & film, animation, and gaming. The writer and critic John Gross observes in his Oxford Book of Parodies, that parody seems to flourish on territory somewhere between pastiche ("a composition in another artist's manner, without satirical intent") and burlesque (which "fools around with the material of high literature and adapts it to low ends").[2] Meanwhile, the Encyclopédie of Denis Diderot distinguishes between the parody and the burlesque, "A good parody is a fine amusement, capable of amusing and instructing the most sensible and polished minds; the burlesque is a miserable buffoonery which can only please the populace."[3] Historically, when a formula grows tired, as in the case of the moralistic melodramas in the 1910s, it retains value only as a parody, as demonstrated by the Buster Keaton shorts that mocked that genre.[4] Contents 1 Origins 2 Music 3 English term 4 Modernist and post-modernist parody 5 Reputation 6 Film parodies 6.1 Copyright 7 Poetic parodies 8 Self-parody 9 Copyright issues 9.1 United States 9.2 Canada 9.3 United Kingdom 10 Internet culture 11 Social and political uses 12 Examples 12.1 Historic examples 12.2 Modern television examples 12.3 Anime and manga 13 See also 14 Notes 15 References 16 Further reading 17 External links Origins[edit] According to Aristotle (Poetics, ii. 5), Hegemon of Thasos was the inventor of a kind of parody; by slightly altering the wording in well-known poems he transformed the sublime into the ridiculous. In ancient Greek literature, a parodia was a narrative poem imitating the style and prosody of epics "but treating light, satirical or mock-heroic subjects".[5] Indeed, the components of the Greek word are παρά para "beside, counter, against" and ᾠδή oide "song". Thus, the original Greek word παρῳδία parodia has sometimes been taken to mean "counter-song", an imitation that is set against the original. The Oxford English Dictionary, for example, defines parody as imitation "turned as to produce a ridiculous effect".[6] Because par- also has the non-antagonistic meaning of beside, "there is nothing in parodia to necessitate the inclusion of a concept of ridicule."[7] In Greek Old Comedy even the gods could be made fun of. The Frogs portrays the hero-turned-god Heracles as a glutton and the God of Drama Dionysus as cowardly and unintelligent. The traditional trip to the Underworld story is parodied as Dionysus dresses as Heracles to go to the Underworld, in an attempt to bring back a poet to save Athens. The Ancient Greeks created satyr plays which parodied tragic plays, often with performers dressed like satyrs. Parody was used in early Greek philosophical texts to make philosophical points. Such texts are known as spoudaiogeloion, a famous example of which is the Silloi by Pyrrhonist philosopher Timon of Phlius which parodied philosophers living and dead. The style was a rhetorical mainstay of the Cynics and was the most common tone of the works made by Menippus and Meleager of Gadara.[8] In the 2nd century CE, Lucian of Samosata created a parody of travel texts such as Indica and The Odyssey. He described the authors of such accounts as liars who had never traveled, nor ever talked to any credible person who had. In his ironically named book True History Lucian delivers a story which exaggerates the hyperbole and improbable claims of those stories. Sometimes described as the first science fiction, the characters travel to the moon, engage in interplanetary war with the help of aliens they meet there, and then return to the earth to experience civilization inside a 200-mile-long creature generally interpreted as being a whale. This is a parody of Ctesias' claims that India has a one-legged race of humans with a single foot so huge it can be used as an umbrella, Homer's stories of one-eyed giants, and so on. Music[edit] Main article: Parody music In classical music, as a technical term, parody refers to a reworking of one kind of composition into another (for example, a motet into a keyboard work as Girolamo Cavazzoni, Antonio de Cabezón, and Alonso Mudarra all did to Josquin des Prez motets).[9] More commonly, a parody mass (missa parodia) or an oratorio used extensive quotation from other vocal works such as motets or cantatas; Victoria, Palestrina, Lassus, and other composers of the 16th century used this technique. The term is also sometimes applied to procedures common in the Baroque period, such as when Bach reworks music from cantatas in his Christmas Oratorio. The musicological definition of the term parody has now generally been supplanted by a more general meaning of the word. In its more contemporary usage, musical parody usually has humorous, even satirical intent, in which familiar musical ideas or lyrics are lifted into a different, often incongruous, context.[10] Musical parodies may imitate or refer to the peculiar style of a composer or artist, or even a general style of music. For example, The Ritz Roll and Rock, a song and dance number performed by Fred Astaire in the movie Silk Stockings, parodies the Rock and Roll genre. Conversely, while the best-known work of Weird Al Yankovic is based on particular popular songs, it also often utilises wildly incongruous elements of pop culture for comedic effect. English term[edit] Allegory of the Tulip omania [de], persiflage on the tulip mania, by Jan Brueghel the Younger (1640s) The first usage of the word parody in English cited in the Oxford English Dictionary is in Ben Jonson, in Every Man in His Humour in 1598: "A Parodie, a parodie! to make it absurder than it was." The next citation comes from John Dryden in 1693, who also appended an explanation, suggesting that the word was in common use, meaning to make fun of or re-create what you are doing. Modernist and post-modernist parody[edit] In the 20th century, parody has been heightened as the central and most representative artistic device, the catalysing agent of artistic creation and innovation.[11][12] This most prominently happened in the second half of the century with postmodernism, but earlier modernism and Russian formalism had anticipated this perspective.[11][13] For the Russian formalists, parody was a way of liberation from the background text that enables to produce new and autonomous artistic forms.[14][15] Historian Christopher Rea writes that "In the 1910s and 1920s, writers in China’s entertainment market parodied anything and everything.... They parodied speeches, advertisements, confessions, petitions, orders, handbills, notices, policies, regulations, resolutions, discourses, explications, sutras, memorials to the throne, and conference minutes. We have an exchange of letters between the Queue and the Beard and Eyebrows. We have a eulogy for a chamber pot. We have 'Research on Why Men Have Beards and Women Don’t,' 'A Telegram from the Thunder God to His Mother Resigning His Post,' and 'A Public Notice from the King of Whoring Prohibiting Playboys from Skipping Debts.'"[16][17] Jorge Luis Borges's (1939) short story "Pierre Menard, Author of the Quixote", is often regarded as predicting postmodernism and conceiving the ideal of the ultimate parody.[18][19] In the broader sense of Greek parodia, parody can occur when whole elements of one work are lifted out of their context and reused, not necessarily to be ridiculed.[20] Traditional definitions of parody usually only discuss parody in the stricter sense of something intended to ridicule the text it parodies. There is also a broader, extended sense of parody that may not include ridicule, and may be based on many other uses and intentions.[20][21] The broader sense of parody, parody done with intent other than ridicule, has become prevalent in the modern parody of the 20th century.[21] In the extended sense, the modern parody does not target the parodied text, but instead uses it as a weapon to target something else.[22][23] The reason for the prevalence of the extended, recontextualizing type of parody in the 20th century is that artists have sought to connect with the past while registering differences brought by modernity.[24][page needed] Major modernist examples of this recontextualizing parody include James Joyce's Ulysses, which incorporates elements of Homer's Odyssey in a 20th-century Irish context, and T. S. Eliot's The Waste Land,[22] which incorporates and recontextualizes elements of a vast range of prior texts, including Dante's The Inferno.[citation needed] The work of Andy Warhol is another prominent example of the modern "recontextualizing" parody.[22] According to French literary theorist Gérard Genette, the most rigorous and elegant form of parody is also the most economical, that is a minimal parody, the one that literally reprises a known text and gives it a new meaning.[25][26] Blank parody, in which an artist takes the skeletal form of an art work and places it in a new context without ridiculing it, is common.[citation needed] Pastiche is a closely related genre, and parody can also occur when characters or settings belonging to one work are used in a humorous or ironic way in another, such as the transformation of minor characters Rosencrantz and Guildenstern from Shakespeare's drama Hamlet into the principal characters in a comedic perspective on the same events in the play (and film) Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead.[citation needed] Similarly, Mishu Hilmy's Trapped in the Netflix uses parody to deconstruct contemporary Netflix shows like Mad Men providing commentary through popular characters. Don Draper mansplaining about mansplaining, Luke Danes monologizing about a lack of independence while embracing codependency.[27] In Flann O'Brien's novel At Swim-Two-Birds, for example, mad King Sweeney, Finn MacCool, a pookah, and an assortment of cowboys all assemble in an inn in Dublin: the mixture of mythic characters, characters from genre fiction, and a quotidian setting combine for a humor that is not directed at any of the characters or their authors. This combination of established and identifiable characters in a new setting is not the same as the post-modernist trope of using historical characters in fiction out of context to provide a metaphoric element.[citation needed] Reputation[edit] Sometimes the reputation of a parody outlasts the reputation of what is being parodied. For example, Don Quixote, which mocks the traditional knight errant tales, is much better known than the novel that inspired it, Amadis de Gaula (although Amadis is mentioned in the book). Another case is the novel Shamela by Henry Fielding (1742), which was a parody of the gloomy epistolary novel Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded (1740) by Samuel Richardson. Many of Lewis Carroll's parodies of Victorian didactic verse for children, such as "You Are Old, Father William", are much better known than the (largely forgotten) originals. Stella Gibbons's comic novel Cold Comfort Farm has eclipsed the pastoral novels of Mary Webb which largely inspired it. In more recent times, the television sitcom 'Allo 'Allo! is perhaps better known than the drama Secret Army which it parodies. Some artists carve out careers by making parodies. One of the best-known examples is that of "Weird Al" Yankovic. His career of parodying other musical acts and their songs has outlasted many of the artists or bands he has parodied. Yankovic is not required under law to get permission to parody; as a personal rule, however, he does seek permission to parody a person's song before recording it. Several artists, such as rapper Chamillionaire and Seattle-based grunge band Nirvana stated that Yankovic's parodies of their respective songs were excellent, and many artists have considered being parodied by him to be a badge of honor.[28][29] In the US legal system the point that in most cases a parody of a work constitutes fair use was upheld in the case of Rick Dees, who decided to use 29 seconds of the music from the song When Sonny Gets Blue to parody Johnny Mathis' singing style even after being refused permission. An appeals court upheld the trial court's decision that this type of parody represents fair use. Fisher v. Dees 794 F.2d 432 (9th Cir. 1986) Film parodies[edit] Main article: Parody film This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (May 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Some genre theorists, following Bakhtin, see parody as a natural development in the life cycle of any genre; this idea has proven especially fruitful for genre film theorists. Such theorists note that Western movies, for example, after the classic stage defined the conventions of the genre, underwent a parody stage, in which those same conventions were ridiculed and critiqued. Because audiences had seen these classic Westerns, they had expectations for any new Westerns, and when these expectations were inverted, the audience laughed. Perhaps the earliest parody film was the 1922 Mud and Sand, a Stan Laurel film that made fun of Rudolph Valentino's film Blood and Sand. Laurel specialized in parodies in the mid-1920s, writing and acting in a number of them. Some were send-ups of popular films, such as Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde—parodied in the comic Dr. Pyckle and Mr. Pryde (1926). Others were spoofs of Broadway plays, such as No, No, Nanette (1925), parodied as Yes, Yes, Nanette (1925). In 1940 Charlie Chaplin created a satirical comedy about Adolf Hitler with the film The Great Dictator, following the first-ever Hollywood parody of the Nazis, the Three Stooges' short subject You Nazty Spy!. About 20 years later Mel Brooks started his career with a Hitler parody as well. After his 1967 film The Producers won both an Academy Award and a Writers Guild of America Award for Best Original Screenplay[30], Brooks became one of the most famous film parodists and created spoofs in multiple film genres. Blazing Saddles (1974) is a parody of western films, History of the World, Part I (1981) is a historical parody, Robin Hood Men in Tights (1993) is Brooks' take on the classic Robin Hood tale, and his spoofs in the horror and sci-fi genres include Young Frankenstein (1974), Spaceballs (1987, a Star Wars spoof), Dinocroc (2004, a Godzilla spoof), and Supergator (2007, a King Kong spoof). The British comedy group Monty Python is also famous for its parodies, for example, the King Arthur spoof Monty Python and the Holy Grail (1974), and the Jesus satire Life of Brian (1979). In the 1980s the team of David Zucker, Jim Abrahams and Jerry Zucker parodied well-established genres such as disaster, war and crime movies with the Airplane!, Hot Shots! and Naked Gun series respectively. There is a 1989 film parody from Spain of the TV series The A-Team called El equipo Aahhgg directed by José Truchado. More recently, parodies have taken on whole film genres at once. One of the first was Don't Be a Menace to South Central While Drinking Your Juice in the Hood and the Scary Movie franchise. Other recent genre parodies include. Shriek If You Know What I Did Last Friday The 13th, Not Another Teen Movie, Date Movie, Epic Movie, Meet the Spartans, Superhero Movie, Disaster Movie, Vampires Suck, and The 41-Year-Old Virgin Who Knocked Up Sarah Marshall and Felt Superbad About It, all of which have been critically panned.[citation needed] Copyright[edit] Many parody films have as their target out-of-copyright or non-copyrighted subjects (such as Frankenstein or Robin Hood) whilst others settle for imitation which does not infringe copyright, but is clearly aimed at a popular (and usually lucrative) subject. The spy film craze of the 1960s, fuelled by the popularity of James Bond is such an example. In this genre a rare, and possibly unique, example of a parody film taking aim at a non-comedic subject over which it actually holds copyright is the 1967 James Bond spoof Casino Royale. In this case, producer Charles K. Feldman initially intended to make a serious film, but decided that it would not be able to compete with the established series of Bond films. Hence, he decided to parody the series.[31] Poetic parodies[edit] Kenneth Baker considered poetic parody to take five main forms.[32] The first was to use parody to attack the author parodied, as in J K Stephen's mimicry of Wordsworth, “Two voices are there: one is of the deep....And one is of an old half-witted sheep.”[33] The second was to pastiche the author's style, as with Henry Reed's parody of T. S. Eliot, Chard Whitlow: “As we get older we do not get any younger....”[34] The third type reversed (and so undercut) the sentiments of the poem parodied, as with Monty Python's All Things Dull and Ugly. A fourth approach was to use the target poem as a matrix for inserting unrelated (generally humorous) material – “To have it out or not? That is the question....Thus dentists do make cowards of us all.”[35] Finally, parody may be used to attack contemporary/topical targets by utilizing the format of a well-known piece of verse: “O Rushdie, Rushdie, it's a vile world” (Cat Stevens).[36] A further, more constructive form of poetic parody is one that links the contemporary poet with past forms and past masters through affectionate parodying – thus sharing poetic codes while avoiding some of the anxiety of influence.[37] More aggressive in tone are playground poetry parodies, often attacking authority, values and culture itself in a carnivalesque rebellion:[38] “Twinkle, Twinkle little star,/ Who the hell do you think you are?”[39] Self-parody[edit] Main article: Self-parody A subset of parody is self-parody in which artists parody their own work (as in Ricky Gervais's Extras). Copyright issues[edit] See also: Plagiarism Although a parody can be considered a derivative work of a pre-existing, copyrighted work, some countries have ruled that parodies can fall under copyright limitations such as fair dealing, or otherwise have fair dealing laws that include parody in their scope. United States[edit] Parodies are protected under the fair use doctrine of United States copyright law, but the defense is more successful if the usage of an existing copyrighted work is transformative in nature, such as being a critique or commentary upon it. In Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc., the Supreme Court ruled that a rap parody of "Oh, Pretty Woman" by 2 Live Crew was fair use, as the parody was a distinctive, transformative work designed to ridicule the original song, and that "even if 2 Live Crew's copying of the original's first line of lyrics and characteristic opening bass riff may be said to go to the original's 'heart,' that heart is what most readily conjures up the song for parody, and it is the heart at which parody takes aim." In 2001, the Eleventh Circuit Court of Appeals, in Suntrust v. Houghton Mifflin, upheld the right of Alice Randall to publish a parody of Gone with the Wind called The Wind Done Gone, which told the same story from the point of view of Scarlett O'Hara's slaves, who were glad to be rid of her. In 2007, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals denied a fair use defense in the Dr. Seuss Enterprises v. Penguin Books case. Citing the Campbell v. Acuff-Rose decision, they found that a satire of the O.J. Simpson murder trial and parody of The Cat in the Hat had infringed upon the children's book because it did not provide a commentary function upon that work.[40][41] Canada[edit] Parts of this article (those related to Changes from the Copyright Modernization Act, 2012) need to be updated. Please update this section to reflect recent events or newly available information. (September 2012) Under Canadian law, although there is protection for Fair Dealing, there is no explicit protection for parody and satire. In Canwest v. Horizon, the publisher of the Vancouver Sun launched a lawsuit against a group which had published a pro-Palestinian parody of the paper. Alan Donaldson, the judge in the case, ruled that parody is not a defence to a copyright claim.[42] United Kingdom[edit] In 2006 the Gowers Review of Intellectual Property recommended that the UK should "create an exception to copyright for the purpose of caricature, parody or pastiche by 2008".[43] Following the first stage of a two-part public consultation, the Intellectual Property Office reported that the information received "was not sufficient to persuade us that the advantages of a new parody exception were sufficient to override the disadvantages to the creators and owners of the underlying work. There is therefore no proposal to change the current approach to parody, caricature and pastiche in the UK."[44] However, following the Hargreaves Review in May 2011 (which made similar proposals to the Gowers Review) the Government broadly accepted these proposals. The current law (effective from 1 October 2014), namely Section 30A[45] of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, now provides an exception to infringement where there is fair dealing of the original work for the purpose of parody (or alternatively for the purpose of caricature or pastiche). The legislation does not define what is meant by "parody", but the UK IPO – the Intellectual Property Office (United Kingdom) – suggests[46] that a "parody" is something that imitates a work for humorous or satirical effect. See also Fair dealing in United Kingdom law. Internet culture[edit] Parody is a prominent genre in online culture, thanks in part to the ease with which digital texts may be altered, appropriated, and shared. Japanese kuso and Chinese e'gao are emblematic of the importance of parody in online cultures in Asia. Video mash-ups and other parodic memes, such as humorously-altered Chinese characters, have been particularly popular as a tool for political protest in the People's Republic of China, the government of which maintains an extensive censorship apparatus.[47] Chinese internet slang makes extensive use of puns and parodies on how Chinese characters are pronounced or written, as illustrated in the Grass-Mud Horse Lexicon. Social and political uses[edit] Satirical political cartoon that appeared in Puck magazine, October 9, 1915. Caption "I did not raise my girl to be a voter" parodies the anti-World War I song "I Didn't Raise My Boy To Be A Soldier". A chorus of disreputable men support a lone anti-suffrage woman. Reggie Brown, a voice actor and Barack Obama impersonator Parody is often used to make a social or political statement. Examples include Swift's "A Modest Proposal", which satirized English neglect of Ireland by parodying emotionally disengaged political tracts; and, recently, The Daily Show, The Larry Sanders Show and The Colbert Report, which parody a news broadcast and a talk show to satirize political and social trends and events. On the other hand, the writer and frequent parodist Vladimir Nabokov made a distinction: "Satire is a lesson, parody is a game."[48] Some events, such as a national tragedy, can be difficult to handle. Chet Clem, Editorial Manager of the news parody publication The Onion, told Wikinews in an interview the questions that are raised when addressing difficult topics: I know the September 11 issue was an obviously very large challenge to approach. Do we even put out an issue? What is funny at this time in American history? Where are the jokes? Do people want jokes right now? Is the nation ready to laugh again? Who knows. There will always be some level of division in the back room. It’s also what keeps us on our toes.[49] Parody is by no means necessarily satirical, and may sometimes be done with respect and appreciation of the subject involved, without being a heedless sarcastic attack. Parody has also been used to facilitate dialogue between cultures or subcultures. Sociolinguist Mary Louise Pratt identifies parody as one of the "arts of the contact zone", through which marginalized or oppressed groups "selectively appropriate", or imitate and take over, aspects of more empowered cultures.[50] Shakespeare often uses a series of parodies to convey his meaning. In the social context of his era, an example can be seen in King Lear where the fool is introduced with his coxcomb to be a parody of the king. Examples[edit] Historic examples[edit] Sir Thopas in Canterbury Tales, by Geoffrey Chaucer Morgante by Luigi Pulci The Nymph's Reply to the Shepherd by Sir Walter Raleigh La secchia rapita by Alessandro Tassoni Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes Beware the Cat by William Baldwin The Knight of the Burning Pestle by Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher Dragon of Wantley, an anonymous 17th century ballad Hudibras by Samuel Butler "MacFlecknoe", by John Dryden A Tale of a Tub by Jonathan Swift The Rape of the Lock by Alexander Pope Namby Pamby by Henry Carey Northanger Abbey by Jane Austen Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift The Dunciad by Alexander Pope Memoirs of Martinus Scriblerus by John Gay, Alexander Pope, John Arbuthnot, et al. Mozart's A Musical Joke (Ein musikalischer Spaß), K.522 (1787) – parody of incompetent contemporaries of Mozart, as assumed by some theorists Sartor Resartus by Thomas Carlyle Ways and Means, or The aged, aged man, by Lewis Carroll. Much of Alice in Wonderland and Through the Looking-Glass is parodic of Victorian schooling. Batrachomyomachia (battle between frogs and mice), an Iliad parody by an unknown ancient Greek author Modern television examples[edit] Saturday Night Live parodies of Hillary Clinton Saturday Night Live parodies of Sarah Palin Saturday Night Live parodies of Donald Trump Square One TV parodies of Dragnet Southpaw Regional Wrestling, WWE's parody of 80s territory-style professional wrestling On Cinema and spin-off Decker parody film review shows and political action thrillers, respectively. Anime and manga[edit] Attack on Titan: Junior High KonoSuba One Punch Man Panty & Stocking with Garterbelt See also[edit] Abridgement Anti-Barney Humor Détournement Internet meme Intertextuality Joke Literary technique Metaparody Parody advertisement Parody film Parody music Parody religion Parody science Persiflage P. D. Q. Bach Satire Subvertising Tom Lehrer "Weird Al" Yankovic Notes[edit] ^ Dentith (2000) p.9 ^ J.M.W. Thompson (May 2010). "Close to the Bone". Standpoint magazine. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ "Parody". Hdl.handle.net. Retrieved 3 October 2018. ^ Balducci, Anthony (28 November 2011). The Funny Parts: A History of Film Comedy Routines and Gags. McFarland. ISBN 9780786488933. Retrieved 3 October 2018 – via Google Books. ^ (Denith, 10) ^ Quoted in Hutcheon, 32. ^ (Hutcheon, 32) ^ Fain 2010, p. 201. ^ Tilmouth, Michael and Richard Sherr. "Parody (i)"' Grove Music Online, Oxford Music Online, accessed 19 February 2012 (subscription required) ^ Burkholder, J. Peter. "Borrowing", Grove Music Online, Oxford Music Online, accessed 19 February. 2012 (subscription required) ^ a b Sheinberg (2000) pp.141, 150 ^ Stavans (1997) p.37 ^ Bradbury, Malcolm No, not Bloomsbury p.53, quoting Boris Eikhenbaum: Nearly all periods of artistic innovation have had a strong parodic impulse, advancing generic change. As the Russian formalist Boris Eichenbaum once put it: "In the evolution of each genre, there are times when its use for entirely serious or elevated objectives degenerates and produces a comic or parodic form....And thus is produced the regeneration of the genre: it finds new possibilities and new forms." ^ Hutcheon (1985) pp.28, 35 ^ Boris Eikhenbaum Theory of the "Formal Method" (1925) and O. Henry and the Theory of the Short Story (1925) ^ https://www.thechinastory.org/2016/03/from-the-year-of-the-ape-to-the-year-of-the-monkey/ ^ Christopher Rea, The Age of Irreverence: A New History of Laughter in China (Oakland, CA: University of California Press, 2015), pp. 52, 53. ^ Stavans (1997) p.31 ^ Elizabeth Bellalouna, Michael L. LaBlanc, Ira Mark Milne (2000) Literature of Developing Nations for Students: L-Z p.50 ^ a b Elices (2004) p.90 quotation: From these words, it can be inferred that Genette's conceptualisation does not diverge from Hutcheon's, in the sense that he does not mention the component of ridicule that is suggested by the prefix paros. Genette alludes to the re-interpretative capacity of parodists in order to confer an artistic autonomy to their works. ^ a b Hutcheon (1985) p.50 ^ a b c Hutcheon (1985) p.52 ^ Yunck 1963 ^ Hutcheon (1985) ^ Gérard Genette (1982) Palimpsests: literature in the second degree p.16 ^ Sangsue (2006) p.72 quotation: Genette individua la forma "piú rigorosa" di parodia nella "parodia minimale", consistente nella ripresa letterale di un testo conosciuto e nella sua applicazione a un nuovo contesto, come nella citazione deviata dal suo senso ^ Willett, Bec (17 December 2017). "Trapped in the Netflix at iO". Performink. Retrieved 23 March 2018. ^ Ayers, Mike (24 July 2014). "'Weird Al' Yankovic Explains His Secret Formula for Going Viral and Hitting No. 1". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 12 September 2015. ^ Hamersly, Michael. ""Weird Al" Yankovic brings his masterful musical parody to South Florida". Miami Herald. Retrieved 12 September 2015. ^ "The Producers (1967)". imdb.com. Retrieved 17 October 2020. ^ Barnes, A. & Hearn, M. (1997) Kiss kiss bang bang: the unofficial James Bond film companion, Batsford, p. 63 ISBN 9780713481822 ^ K. Baker ed., Unauthorized Versions (London 1990) Introduction p. xx–xxii ^ K. Baker ed., Unauthorized Versions (London 1990) p. 429 ^ K. Baker ed., Unauthorized Versions (London 1990) p. 107 ^ K. Baker ed., Unauthorized Versions (London 1990) p. 319 ^ K. Baker ed., Unauthorized Versions (London 1990) p. 355 ^ S. Cushman ed., The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics (Princeton 2012) p. 1003 ^ J. Thomas, Poetry's Playground (2007) p. 45-52 ^ Quoted in S. Burt ed., The Cambridge History of American Poetry (Cambridge 2014) ^ Richard Stim. "Summaries of Fair Use Cases". Stanford Copyright and Fair Use Center. ^ "Google Scholar". google.com. ^ "The Tyee – Canwest Suit May Test Limits of Free Speech". The Tyee. 11 December 2008. ^ The Stationery Office. (2006) Gowers Review of Intellectual Property. [Online]. Available at official-documents.gov.uk (Accessed: 22 February 2011). ^ UK Intellectual Property Office. (2009) Taking Forward the Gowers Review of Intellectual Property: Second Stage Consultation on Copyright Exceptions. [Online]. Available at ipo.gov.uk Archived 2011-05-17 at the Wayback Machine (Accessed: 22 February 2011). ^ "The Copyright and Rights in Performances (Quotation and Parody) Regulations 2014". Legislation.gov.uk. Retrieved 3 October 2018. ^ "Exceptions to copyright : Guidance for creators and copyright owners" (PDF). Gov.uk. Retrieved 3 October 2018. ^ Christopher Rea, "Spoofing (e’gao) Culture on the Chinese Internet.” In Humour in Chinese Life and Culture: Resistance and Control in Modern Times. Jessica Milner Davis and Jocelyn Chey, eds. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2013, pp. 149–172 ^ Appel, Alfred, Jr.; Nabokov, Vladimir (1967). "An Interview with Vladimir Nabokov". Wisconsin Studies in Contemporary Literature. VIII (2): 127–152. doi:10.2307/1207097. JSTOR 1207097. Retrieved 28 Dec 2013. ^ An interview with The Onion, David Shankbone, Wikinews, November 25, 2007. ^ Pratt (1991) References[edit] Dentith, Simon (2000). Parody (The New Critical Idiom). Routledge. ISBN 0-415-18221-2. Elices Agudo, Juan Francisco (2004) Historical and theoretical approaches to English satire Hutcheon, Linda (1985). "3. The Pragmatic Range of Parody". A Theory of Parody: The Teachings of Twentieth-Century Art Forms. New York: Methuen. ISBN 0-252-06938-2. Mary Louise Pratt (1991). "Arts of the Contact Zone". Profession. New York: MLA. 91: 33–40. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-10-26. archived at University of Idaho, English 506, Rhetoric and Composition: History, Theory, and Research . From Ways of Reading, 5th edition, ed. David Bartholomae and Anthony Petroksky (New York: Bedford/St. Martin's, 1999 Sangsue, Daniel (2006) La parodia Sheinberg, Esti (2000) Irony, Satire, Parody and the Grotesque in the Music of Shostakovich Stavans, Ilan and Jesse H. Lytle, Jennifer A. Mattson (1997) Antiheroes: Mexico and its detective novel Ore, Johnathan (2014) Youtuber Shane Dawsons fans revolt after Sony pulls his Taylor Wwift parody video Further reading[edit] Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Parody. Bakhtin, Mikhail; Ed. Michael Holquist. Trans. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist (1981). The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays. Austin and London: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-71527-7. Gates, Henry Louis, Jr. (1988). The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of Afro-American Literary Criticism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-503463-5. Petrosky, Anthony; ed. David Bartholomae and Anthony Petroksky (1999). Ways of Reading (5th ed.). New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s. ISBN 978-0-312-45413-5. An anthology including Arts of the Contact ZoneCS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) Rose, Margaret (1993). Parody: Ancient, Modern and Post-Modern. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-41860-7. Caponi, Gena Dagel (1999). Signifyin(g), Sanctifyin', & Slam Dunking: A Reader in African American Expressive Culture. University of Massachusetts Press. ISBN 1-55849-183-X. Harries, Dan (2000). Film Parody. London: BFI. ISBN 0-85170-802-1. Pueo, Juan Carlos (2002). Los reflejos en juego (Una teoría de la parodia). Valencia (Spain): Tirant lo Blanch. ISBN 84-8442-559-2. Gray, Jonathan (2006). Watching with The Simpsons: Television, Parody, and Intertextuality. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-36202-4. John Gross, ed. (2010). The Oxford Book of Parodies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-954882-8. Fain, Gordon L. (2010). Ancient Greek Epigrams: Major Poets in Verse Translation. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 9780520265790. External links[edit] Media related to Parody at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of parody at Wiktionary v t e Appropriation in the arts By field Music Bootleg recording Contrafact List Contrafactum Cover version Interpolation List of musical medleys Music mashup Music plagiarism Musical quotation Parody music Pasticcio Plunderphonics Potpourri DJ mix Quodlibet Remix Sampling Sound collage Trope Variation Literature / theatre Assemblage Cut-up technique Joke theft Jukebox musical Trope Found poetry Flarf poetry Verbatim theatre Painting / sculpture / comics / photography Collage Swipe Comic strip switcheroo Photographic mosaic Combine painting By source material Mona Lisa Michelangelo's David Michelangelo's Pietà Statue of Liberty Cinema / television / video Video mashup Re-cut trailer TV format Found footage Remake Parody film Collage film Literal music video Supercut General concepts Intertextual figures Allusion Calque Plagiarism Pastiche Parody Quotation Translation Adaptation Drama Film Literary Theatre Other concepts Assemblage (art) Bricolage Citation Derivative work Détournement Found object Homage Imitation in art Mashup Reprise Source criticism in the arts Related artistic concepts Originality Artistic inspiration Afflatus Genius (literature) Genre Genre studies Parody advertisement In-joke Tribute act Fan fiction Simulacrum Archetypal literary criticism Readymades of Marcel Duchamp Anti-art Pop art Aesthetic interpretation Western canon Standard blocks and forms Jazz standard Stock character Plot device Dramatic structure Formula fiction Monomyth Archetype Epoch-marking works L.H.O.O.Q. 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en-wikipedia-org-9312	----	Ernest Dowson - Wikipedia Ernest Dowson From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ernest Christopher Dowson Ernest Dowson Born (1867-08-02)2 August 1867 Lee, London, UK Died 23 February 1900(1900-02-23) (aged 32) Catford, England, UK Nationality English Alma mater The Queen's College, Oxford Occupation Poet, novelist, and short-story writer Ernest Christopher Dowson (2 August 1867 – 23 February 1900) was an English poet, novelist, short-story writer, often associated with the Decadent movement. Contents 1 Biography 2 Works 2.1 Books 3 Legacy 4 Notes 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links Biography[edit] Ernest Dowson was born in Lee, London, in 1867. His great-uncle was Alfred Domett, a poet and politician who became Premier of New Zealand and had allegedly been the subject of Robert Browning's poem "Waring." Dowson attended The Queen's College, Oxford, but left in March 1888 without obtaining a degree.[1] In November 1888, he started work with his father at Dowson and Son, a dry-docking business in Limehouse, east London, which had been established by the poet's grandfather. He led an active social life, carousing with medical students and law pupils, going to music halls and taking the performers to dinner. He was also working assiduously at his writing during this time. He was a member of the Rhymers' Club, which included W. B. Yeats and Lionel Johnson. He was a contributor to such literary magazines as The Yellow Book and The Savoy.[2] Dowson collaborated on two unsuccessful novels with Arthur Moore, worked on a novel of his own, Madame de Viole, and wrote reviews for The Critic. Later in his career, Dowson was a prolific translator of French fiction, including novels by Balzac and the Goncourt brothers, and Les Liaisons dangereuses by Choderlos de Laclos.[3] In 1889, aged 23, Dowson became infatuated with the 11 year old Adelaide "Missie" Foltinowicz, daughter of a Polish restaurant owner; in 1893 he unsuccessfully proposed to her.[4] To Dowson's despair, Adelaide was eventually to marry a tailor.[5] In August 1894, Dowson's father, who was in the advanced stages of tuberculosis, died of an overdose of chloral hydrate. His mother, who was also consumptive, hanged herself in February 1895. Soon after her death, Dowson began to decline rapidly.[6] The publisher Leonard Smithers gave him an allowance to live in France and write translations,[7] but he returned to London in 1897 (where he stayed with the Foltinowicz family, despite the transfer of Adelaide's affections).[8] In 1899, Robert Sherard found Dowson almost penniless in a wine bar and took him back to the cottage in Catford, where Sherard was living. Dowson spent the last six weeks of his life at Sherard's cottage where he died at age 32. He had become a Catholic in 1892 and was interred in the Roman Catholic section of nearby Brockley and Ladywell Cemeteries.[9] After Dowson's death, Oscar Wilde wrote: "Poor wounded wonderful fellow that he was, a tragic reproduction of all tragic poetry, like a symbol, or a scene. I hope bay leaves will be laid on his tomb and rue and myrtle too for he knew what love was".[10] Wilde himself was dead before the end of the year. Works[edit] Dowson is best remembered for such vivid phrases as "Days of Wine and Roses": They are not long, the days of wine and roses: Out of a misty dream Our path emerges for a while, then closes Within a dream. – Ernest Dowson, from "Vitae Summa Brevis" (1896). and "Gone with the wind": I have forgot much, Cynara! gone with the wind, Flung roses, roses riotously with the throng, Dancing, to put thy pale, lost lilies out of mind; But I was desolate and sick of an old passion, Yea, all the time, because the dance was long: I have been faithful to thee, Cynara! in my fashion. – Ernest Dowson, from Non Sum Qualis eram Bonae Sub Regno Cynarae,[a] third stanza (1894). This latter poem was first published in The Second Book of the Rhymer's Club in 1894,[11] and was noticed by Richard Le Gallienne in his "Wanderings in Bookland" column in The Idler, volume 9.[12] This is also the source of the phrase 'I have been faithful..in my fashion'. Faithful in My Fashion became the title of a 1946 film. Cole Porter paraphrased Dowson in "Always True to You in My Fashion" from Kiss Me, Kate. Morrissey has the lines, "In my own strange way,/I've always been true to you./In my own sick way,/I'll always stay true to you," in "Speedway," on the album Vauxhall & I. Margaret Mitchell, touched by the "far away, faintly sad sound I wanted" of the third stanza's first line, chose that line as the title of her novel Gone with the Wind.[13] According to the Oxford English Dictionary, Dowson provides the earliest use of the word soccer in written language (although he spells it socca, presumably because it did not yet have a standard written form).[b] His prose works include the short stories collected as Dilemmas (1895), and the two novels A Comedy of Masks (1893) and Adrian Rome (each co-written with Arthur Moore). Books[edit] A Comedy of Masks: a Novel (1893) With Arthur Moore. Dilemmas, Stories and Studies in Sentiment (1895) Verses (1896) The Pierrot of the Minute : a Dramatic Phantasy in One Act (1897) Decorations in Verse and Prose (1899) Adrian Rome (1899) With Arthur Moore. Cynara: a Little Book of Verse (1907) Studies in Sentiment (1915) The Poems and Prose of Ernest Dowson, With a Memoir by Arthur Symons (1919) Letters of Ernest Dowson (1968) Collected Shorter Fiction (2003) Legacy[edit] His collaborator Arthur Moore wrote several witty comic novels about the young adult duo of Anthony 'Tony' Wilder and Paul Morrow (one, 'The Eyes of Light' is mentioned by friend E. Nesbit in her book 'The Phoenix and the Carpet'). Tony is based on Dowson, while Paul is based on Moore. “Days of Wine and Roses” was recited in the British TV series, The Durrells in Corfu; Season 2, Episode 4. Composer Frederick Delius set a number of Dowson's poems to music, in his Songs of Sunset and Cynara. John Ireland included a setting of "I Was Not Sorrowful (Spleen)" from Verses (1896) in his 1912 song cycle Songs of a Wayfarer. T. E. Lawrence quotes from Dowson's poem, "Impenitentia Ultima," in Seven Pillars of Wisdom, chapter LIV. In anticipation of the anniversary of Dowson's birth on 2 August 2010, his grave, which had fallen derelict and been vandalized, was restored. The unveiling and memorial service were publicised in the local (South London Press) and national (BBC Radio 4 and the Times Literary Supplement) British press, and dozens paid posthumous tribute to the poet 110 years after his death. In the Poems and Prose of Ernest Dowson, a 1919 memoir written by Arthur Symons, Symons described Dowson as, "... a man who was undoubtedly a man of genius ... There never was a poet to whom verse came more naturally ... He had the pure lyric gift, unweighed or unballasted by any other quality of mind or emotion..."[14] Notes[edit] ^ Non Sum Qualis eram Bonae Sub Regno Cynarae ("I am not what I was, under the reign of the good Cynara"), is a quotation from Horace's Odes, Book IV,1 "vitae summa brevis spem nos vetat incohare longam..." ^ "I absolutely decline to see socca' matches." (letter by Dowson, 21 February 1889). Soccer , in Oxford English Dictionary online, (subscription required), accessed 30 April 2014. References[edit] Citations ^ Jad 2000, p. 17. sfn error: no target: CITEREFJad2000 (help) ^ Richards, (n.d.) ^ Richards, (n.d.) ^ Anon (1968), pp. 61-2. ^ Richards, (n.d.) ^ Anon (1968), p. 62. ^ Richards, (n.d.) ^ Anon (1968), p. 63. ^ Richards, (n.d.) ^ Ernest Christopher Dowson, ed., The Letters of Ernest Dowson, Epilogue, p. 421; Retrieved 10 August 2013 ^ Mathews & Lane 1894, pp. 60–61. ^ The Idler Volume 9, p. 889. ^ https://www.awesomestories.com/asset/view/SOURCE-of-the-TITLE-GWTW-Margaret-Mitchell-Gone-with-the-Wind ^ Dowson 2007, Memoir from 1990 edition. Sources Adams, Jad (2000). Madder Music, Stronger Wine. The Life of Ernest Dowson, Poet and Decadent. London, England: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 1-86064-714-6.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Anon (1968) "Ernest Dowson", in Essays and Reviews from the Times Literary Supplement 1967, London: Oxford University Press, pp. 55–63. Originally published in the Times Literary Supplement, 2 November 1967. Dowson, Ernest (2007) [1900]. The Poems and Prose of Ernest Dowson. Middlesex, England: The Echo Library. ISBN 978-1406-825961.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Le Gallienne, Richard (1896). "Wanderings in Bookland". The Idler. London: Chatto & Windus. 9: 889. Mathews, Elkin; Lane, John (1894). The Second Book of the Rhymers' Club. Edinburgh, UK: J. Miller & Son.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Plarr,Victor (1914). Ernest Dowson 1888-1897: Reminiscences, Unpublished Letters and Marginalia, with a bibliography compiled by H. Guy Harrison. New York: Laurence J. Gomme. Richards, Bernard (n.d.). "Dowson, Ernest Christopher (1867–1900), poet", in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography online, (subscription required), accessed 30 April 2014. Further reading[edit] Primary Works (modern scholarly editions) Ernest Dowson, The Stories of Ernest Dowson, ed. by Mark Longaker (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1947) Ernest Dowson, The Poems of Ernest Dowson, ed. by Mark Longaker (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1962) Ernest Dowson, The Letters of Ernest Dowson, ed. by Desmond Flower and Henry Maas (London: Cassell, 1967) Ernest Dowson, The Poetry of Ernest Dowson, ed. by Desmond Flower (Cranbury, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1970) Ernest Dowson, The Pierrot of the Minute, restored edition with Aubrey Beardsley's illustrations (CreateSpace, 2012) Ernest Dowson, Le Pierrot de la Minute, bilingual illustrated edition with French translation by Philippe Baudry (CreateSpace, 2012) Biographies Jad Adams, Madder Music, Stronger Wine: The Life of Ernest Dowson, Poet and Decadent (London: I.B. Tauris & Co., 2000) Mark Longaker, Ernest Dowson: A Biography (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1945) Henry Maas, Ernest Dowson: Poetry and Love in the 1890s (London: Greenwich Exchange, 2009) Critical Studies on Dowson and the 1890s Elisa Bizzotto, La mano e l'anima. Il ritratto immaginario fin de siècle (Milano: Cisalpino, 2001) Jean-Jacques Chardin, Ernest Dowson et la crise fin de siècle anglaise (Paris: Editions Messene, 1995) Linda Dowling, Language and Decadence in the Victorian Fin de Siècle (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986) B. Ifor Evans, English Poetry in the Later Nineteenth Century (London: Methuen, 1966) Ian Fletcher, Decadence and the 1890s (London: Edward Arnold, 1979) Jessica Gossling and Alice Condé (eds), In Cynara’s Shadow: Collected Essays on Ernest Dowson (Bern, Switzerland: Peter Lang UK, 2019) Graham Hough, The Last Romantics (London: Duckworth, 1949) Holbrook Jackson, The Eighteen Nineties (London: Jonathan Cape, 1927) Agostino Lombardo, La poesia inglese dall'estetismo al simbolismo (Roma: Edizioni di Storia e Letteratura, 1950) Franco Marucci, Storia della letteratura inglese dal 1870 al 1921 (Firenze: Le Lettere, 2006) William Monahan (11 October 2000). "A Gallows Sermon: Life & Death Among the Decadents". New York Press. Archived from the original on 7 June 2007. Retrieved 6 March 2007. Murray G. H. Pittock, Spectrum of Decadence: The Literature of the 1890s (London: Routledge, 1993) Mario Praz, La carne, la morte e il diavolo nella letteratura romantica (Firenze: Sansoni, 1976) Bernard Richards, English Poetry of the Victorian Period (London: Longman, 1988) Thomas Burnett Swann, Ernest Dowson (New York: Twayne, 1964) Arthur Symons, The Memoirs of Arthur Symons, ed. by Karl Beckson (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1977) William Butler Yeats, Autobiographies (London: Macmillan, 1955) External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Ernest Dowson Wikisource has original text related to this article: Ernest Dowson Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ernest Dowson. Poems (1900) A few of Dowson's poems, through the University of Toronto. Arthur Symons' memoir of Dowson. Works by Ernest Christopher Dowson at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Ernest Dowson at Internet Archive Works by Ernest Dowson at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Dowson, Schoenberg and the birth of Modernism, Horizon Review Ernest Dowson at Find a Grave Text of Days of Wine and Roses Authority control BIBSYS: 90242850 BNE: XX1253570 BNF: cb11565040v (data) GND: 118672398 ISNI: 0000 0000 8367 7770 LCCN: n50029140 MBA: bc22ed99-cb76-4eca-a961-f22bdb11e799 NDL: 00438204 NKC: jn20030901014 NLA: 36590386 NLI: 000380529 NLP: A21695040 NTA: 06880606X SNAC: w65t3p8n SUDOC: 085893862 Trove: 1309093 VcBA: 495/314599 VIAF: 29527929 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n50029140 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Dowson&oldid=995555949" Categories: 1867 births 1900 deaths Alumni of The Queen's College, Oxford English Roman Catholics Converts to Roman Catholicism People from Lee, London Roman Catholic writers English male poets 19th-century English poets 19th-century British male writers Burials at Brockley and Ladywell Cemeteries French–English translators 19th-century translators Hidden categories: Pages containing links to subscription-only content Harv and Sfn no-target errors Use dmy dates from December 2012 Use British English from December 2012 Articles with hCards CS1 maint: ref=harv Commons category link is on Wikidata Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLP identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages Català Deutsch Español Français 한국어 Italiano Latina مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Português Русский Српски / srpski Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 21 December 2020, at 18:12 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9358	----	Spring of Bandusium - Wikipedia Spring of Bandusium From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Geographic feature Horace Odes 3.13 O fons Bandusiae splendidior vitro dulci digne mero non sine floribus, cras donaberis haedo, cui frons turgida cornibus primis et venerem et proelia destinat; frustra: nam gelidos inficiet tibi rubro sanguine rivos lascivi suboles gregis. te flagrantis atrox hora Caniculae nescit tangere, tu frigus amabile fessis vomere tauris praebes et pecori vago. fies nobilium tu quoque fontium me dicente cavis impositam ilicem saxis, unde loquaces lymphae desiliunt tuae. The Spring of Bandusium (Latin: fons Bandusiae) is a natural water source in rural Italy, to which the Roman poet Horace addressed a well-known ode (Odes 3.13). The location of the spring is unknown: speculation has centered on Apulia, the poet's birthplace, and the neighborhood of an archaeological ruin east of Rome, thought to be the site of poet's beloved Sabine farm in what is now the commune of Licenza. In the poem Horace promises to sacrifice a young goat to the spring and praises the spring's constancy in the hottest days of summer. The poem ends with Horace promising to immortalize the spring through his song. Location[edit] Evidence that the original Fons Bandusiae may have been located in Apulia, near Horace's childhood home, comes from a papal bull of Paschal II, dating to 1103. This bull mentions a "church of the Holy Martyrs Gervasius and Protasius at the Bandusine spring in Venusia" (ecclesia sanctorum martyrum Gervasii et Protasii in Bandusino fonte apud Venusiam).[1] Travelers have proposed the village of Palazzo San Gervasio, 13 km east of Venusia, as the probable location of the church but failed to match any of the nearby springs with Horace's description.[2] Recent scholarship suggests that Horace may have named a pleasant spring near his Sabine farm after a similar spring in the vicinity of his native Venusia.[3] See also[edit] Lucretilis Mons References[edit] ^ Ughelli, Ferdinando (1721), Italia sacra: sive De episcopis Italiae et insularum adjacentium, rebusque ab iis praeclare gestis, deducta serie ad nostram usque aetatem., viii (2nd ed.), Venice, p. 31 (Nendeln, Liechtenstein: Kraus Reprint, 1970); see also Jaffé, Philippus (1885). Regesta pontificum romanorum ab condita ecclesia ad annum post Christum natum MCXCVIII. i (2nd ed.). Leipzig: Veit. p. 748. ^ Ramage, Craufurd Tait (1868). Nooks and By-ways of Italy: wanderings in search of its ancient remains and modern superstitions. Liverpool: Edward Howell. pp. 208 ff. , Douglas, Norman (1915). Old Calabria. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. pp. 43 ff. ^ Nisbet, R. G. M.; Niall Rudd (2004). A Commentary on Horace, Odes, Book III. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. p. 173. ISBN 978-0-19-926314-1. v t e Works by Horace Poetry Satires Epodes Odes Epistles Carmen Saeculare Ars Poetica Collections Satires 2.5 Quote Ut pictura poesis Related Spring of Bandusium Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spring_of_Bandusium&oldid=994476074" Categories: Springs of Italy Poetry by Horace Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text AC with 0 elements Italy articles missing geocoordinate data All articles needing coordinates Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Italiano Latina Nederlands Русский Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 15 December 2020, at 22:27 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9368	----	Barcelona - Wikipedia Barcelona From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the city in Spain. For the football club, see FC Barcelona. For other uses, see Barcelona (disambiguation). City in Catalonia, Spain City and municipality in Catalonia, Spain Barcelona City and municipality Flag Coat of arms Nicknames: Ciutat Comtal  (Catalan) Ciudad Condal  (Spanish) 'Comital City' or 'City of Counts' Cap i Casal de Catalunya  (Catalan) 'Head and Hearth of Catalonia' Abbreviation(s): Barna, BCN Barcelona Location in the Province of Barcelona Show map of Province of Barcelona Barcelona Location in Catalonia Show map of Catalonia Barcelona Location in Spain Show map of Spain Coordinates: 41°23′N 2°11′E / 41.383°N 2.183°E / 41.383; 2.183Coordinates: 41°23′N 2°11′E / 41.383°N 2.183°E / 41.383; 2.183 Country  Spain Autonomous community  Catalonia Province Barcelona Comarca Barcelonès Districts 10 Ciutat Vella Eixample Gràcia Horta-Guinardó Les Corts Nou Barris Sant Andreu Sants–Montjuïc Sarrià-Sant Gervasi Sant Martí Government  • Type Ayuntamiento  • Body Ajuntament de Barcelona  • Mayor Ada Colau Ballano[1] (Barcelona en Comú) Area[2]  • City 101.4 km2 (39.2 sq mi) Elevation (AMSL) 12 m (39 ft) Population (2018)[5]  • City 1,620,343  • Rank 2nd  • Density 16,000/km2 (41,000/sq mi)  • Urban 4,840,000[3]  • Metro 5,474,482[4] Demonyms Barcelonan, Barcelonian barceloní, -ina  (Catalan) barcelonés, -esa  (Spanish) Postal code 080xx Area code +34 (E) 93 (B) INE code 08 0193 City budget (2014) €2.6 billion[6] Official language Catalan and Spanish Main festivity La Mercè Patron saint Eulalia of Barcelona Website www.barcelona.cat Barcelona (/ˌbɑːrsəˈloʊnə/ BAR-sə-LOH-nə, Catalan: [bəɾsəˈlonə], Spanish: [baɾθeˈlona] or Spanish: [baɾseˈlona]) is a city on the coast of northeastern Spain. It is the capital and largest city of the autonomous community of Catalonia, as well as the second most populous municipality of Spain. With a population of 1.6 million within city limits,[7] its urban area extends to numerous neighbouring municipalities within the Province of Barcelona and is home to around 4.8 million people,[3] making it the fifth most populous urban area in the European Union after Paris, the Ruhr area, Madrid, and Milan.[3] It is one of the largest metropolises on the Mediterranean Sea, located on the coast between the mouths of the rivers Llobregat and Besòs, and bounded to the west by the Serra de Collserola mountain range, the tallest peak of which is 512 metres (1,680 feet) high. Founded as a Roman city, in the Middle Ages Barcelona became the capital of the County of Barcelona. After merging with the Kingdom of Aragon, Barcelona continued to be an important city in the Crown of Aragon as an economic and administrative centre of the Crown and the capital of the Principality of Catalonia. Barcelona has a rich cultural heritage and is today an important cultural centre and a major tourist destination. Particularly renowned are the architectural works of Antoni Gaudí and Lluís Domènech i Montaner, which have been designated UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Since 1450, it is home to the University of Barcelona, widely considered the most prestigious university in Spain. The headquarters of the Union for the Mediterranean are located in Barcelona. The city is known for hosting the 1992 Summer Olympics as well as world-class conferences and expositions and also many international sport tournaments. Barcelona is a major cultural, economic, and financial centre in southwestern Europe,[8] as well as the main biotech hub in Spain.[9] As a leading world city, Barcelona's influence in global socio-economic affairs qualifies it for global city status (Beta +).[10] Barcelona is a transport hub, with the Port of Barcelona being one of Europe's principal seaports and busiest European passenger port,[11] an international airport, Barcelona–El Prat Airport, which handles over 50 million passengers per year,[12] an extensive motorway network, and a high-speed rail line with a link to France and the rest of Europe.[13] Contents 1 Names 2 History 2.1 Pre-history 2.2 Roman Barcelona 2.3 Medieval Barcelona 2.4 Barcelona under the Spanish monarchy 2.5 The Spanish Civil War and the Franco period 2.6 Late twentieth century 2.7 Recent history 3 Geography 3.1 Location 3.2 Climate 4 Demographics 4.1 Population density 4.2 Age structure 4.3 Migration 4.4 Religion 5 Economy 5.1 General information 5.2 Trade fair and exhibitions 5.3 Tourism 5.4 Manufacturing sector 5.5 Fashion 6 Government and administrative divisions 6.1 Districts 7 Education 8 Culture 8.1 Entertainment and performing arts 8.2 Media 8.3 Sports 8.4 Squatter's Movement 9 Transport 9.1 Airports 9.2 Seaport 9.3 National and international rail 9.4 Metro and regional rail 9.5 Tram 9.6 Funicular and cable car 9.7 Bus 9.8 Taxi 9.9 Roads and highways 10 Main sights 10.1 World Heritage Sites 10.2 Historic buildings and monuments 10.3 Museums 10.4 Parks 10.5 Beaches 10.6 Other sights 11 International relations 11.1 Twin towns – sister cities 11.2 Partnership and friendship 12 Notable people 13 See also 14 Notes and references 14.1 Notes 14.2 Citations 14.3 Gerenal references 15 External links Names The name Barcelona comes from the ancient Iberian Baŕkeno, attested in an ancient coin inscription found on the right side of the coin in Iberian script as ,[14] in ancient Greek sources as Βαρκινών, Barkinṓn;[15][16] and in Latin as Barcino,[17] Barcilonum[18] and Barcenona.[19][20][21] Some older sources suggest that the city may have been named after the Carthaginian general Hamilcar Barca, who was supposed to have founded the city in the 3rd century BC,[22] but there is no evidence that Barcelona was ever a Carthaginian settlement, or that its name in antiquity, Barcino, had any connection with the Barcid family of Hamilcar.[23] During the Middle Ages, the city was variously known as Barchinona, Barçalona, Barchelonaa, and Barchenona. Internationally, Barcelona's name is wrongly abbreviated to 'Barça'. However, this name refers only to FC Barcelona, the football club. The common abbreviated form used by locals is Barna. Another common abbreviation is 'BCN', which is also the IATA airport code of the Barcelona-El Prat Airport. The city is also referred to as the Ciutat Comtal in Catalan, and Ciudad Condal in Spanish (i.e. Comital City or City of Counts), owing to its past as the seat of the Count of Barcelona.[24] History Main articles: History of Barcelona and Timeline of Barcelona A marble plaque in the Museu d'Història de la Ciutat de Barcelona, dated from around 110–130 AD and dedicated to the Roman colony of Barcino Pre-history The origin of the earliest settlement at the site of present-day Barcelona is unclear. The ruins of an early settlement have been found, including different tombs and dwellings dating to earlier than 5000 BC.[25][26] The founding of Barcelona is the subject of two different legends. The first attributes the founding of the city to the mythological Hercules. The second legend attributes the foundation of the city directly to the historical Carthaginian general, Hamilcar Barca, father of Hannibal, who supposedly named the city Barcino after his family in the 3rd century BC,[27] but there is no historical or linguistic evidence that this is true.[23] Roman Barcelona In about 15 BC, the Romans redrew the town as a castrum (Roman military camp) centred on the "Mons Taber", a little hill near the contemporary city hall (Plaça de Sant Jaume). Under the Romans, it was a colony with the surname of Faventia,[28] or, in full, Colonia Faventia Julia Augusta Pia Barcino[29] or Colonia Julia Augusta Faventia Paterna Barcino. Pomponius Mela[30] mentions it among the small towns of the district, probably as it was eclipsed by its neighbour Tarraco (modern Tarragona), but it may be gathered from later writers that it gradually grew in wealth and consequence, favoured as it was with a beautiful situation and an excellent harbour.[31] It enjoyed immunity from imperial burdens.[32] The city minted its own coins; some from the era of Galba survive. The Mare de Déu de la Mercè statue on the Basílica de la Mercè Important Roman vestiges are displayed in Plaça del Rei underground, as a part of the Barcelona City History Museum (MUHBA); the typically Roman grid plan is still visible today in the layout of the historical centre, the Barri Gòtic (Gothic Quarter). Some remaining fragments of the Roman walls have been incorporated into the cathedral.[33] The cathedral, known very formally by the long name of Catedral Basílica Metropolitana de Barcelona, is also sometimes called La Seu, which simply means cathedral (and see, among other things) in Catalan.[34][35] It is said to have been founded in 343. Medieval Barcelona The city was conquered by the Visigoths in the early 5th century, becoming for a few years the capital of all Hispania. After being conquered by the Arabs in the early 8th century, it was conquered in 801 by Charlemagne's son Louis, who made Barcelona the seat of the Carolingian "Hispanic March" (Marca Hispanica), a buffer zone ruled by the Count of Barcelona. The Counts of Barcelona became increasingly independent and expanded their territory to include all of Catalonia, although on 6 July 985, Barcelona was sacked by the army of Almanzor.[36] The sack was so traumatic that most of Barcelona's population was either killed or enslaved.[37] In 1137, Aragon and the County of Barcelona merged in dynastic union[38][39] by the marriage of Ramon Berenguer IV and Petronilla of Aragon, their titles finally borne by only one person when their son Alfonso II of Aragon ascended to the throne in 1162. His territories were later to be known as the Crown of Aragon, which conquered many overseas possessions and ruled the western Mediterranean Sea with outlying territories in Naples and Sicily and as far as Athens in the 13th century. Barcelona was the leading slave trade centre of the Crown of Aragon up until the 15th century, when it was eclipsed by Valencia.[40] It initially fed from eastern and balkan slave stock later drawing from a Maghribian and, ultimately, Subsaharan pool of slaves.[41] The forging of a dynastic link between the Crowns of Aragon and Castile marked the beginning of Barcelona's decline.[why?] The Bank of Barcelona (Taula de canvi), probably the oldest public bank in Europe, was established by the city magistrates in 1401. It originated from necessities of the state, as did the Bank of Venice (1402) and the Bank of Genoa (1407).[42] Barcelona in 1563 Barcelona under the Spanish monarchy The marriage of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile in 1469 united the two royal lines. Madrid became the centre of political power whilst the colonisation of the Americas reduced the financial importance (at least in relative terms) of Mediterranean trade. Barcelona was a centre of Catalan separatism, including the Catalan Revolt (1640–52) against Philip IV of Spain. The great plague of 1650–1654 halved the city's population.[43] The fortress at Montjuïc, the most southerly point from which measurements were made when calculating the meridional definition of the metre In the 18th century, a fortress was built at Montjuïc that overlooked the harbour. In 1794, this fortress was used by the French astronomer Pierre François André Méchain for observations relating to a survey stretching to Dunkirk that provided the official basis of the measurement of a metre.[44] The definitive metre bar, manufactured from platinum, was presented to the French legislative assembly on 22 June 1799. Much of Barcelona was negatively affected by the Napoleonic wars, but the start of industrialisation saw the fortunes of the province improve. The Spanish Civil War and the Franco period Barcelona was the capital of the Republic of Spain from November 1937 until January 1939, Spanish Civil War.[45][46] In that time, both Barcelona and Madrid were still under the rule of the republic. In the image Azaña and Negrín on the city outskirts. During the Spanish Civil War, the city, and Catalonia in general, were resolutely Republican. Many enterprises and public services were collectivised by the CNT and UGT unions. As the power of the Republican government and the Generalitat diminished, much of the city was under the effective control of anarchist groups. The anarchists lost control of the city to their own allies, the Communists and official government troops, after the street fighting of the Barcelona May Days. The fall of the city on 26 January 1939, caused a mass exodus of civilians who fled to the French border. The resistance of Barcelona to Franco's coup d'état was to have lasting effects after the defeat of the Republican government. The autonomous institutions of Catalonia were abolished,[47] and the use of the Catalan language in public life was suppressed. Barcelona remained the second largest city in Spain, at the heart of a region which was relatively industrialised and prosperous, despite the devastation of the civil war. The result was a large-scale immigration from poorer regions of Spain (particularly Andalusia, Murcia and Galicia), which in turn led to rapid urbanisation. Late twentieth century In 1992, Barcelona hosted the Summer Olympics. The after-effects of this are credited with driving major changes in what had, up until then, been a largely industrial city. As part of the preparation for the games, industrial buildings along the sea-front were demolished and 3 kilometres (2 miles) of beach were created. New construction increased the road capacity of the city by 17%, the sewage handling capacity by 27% and the amount of new green areas and beaches by 78%. Between 1990 and 2004, the number of hotel rooms in the city doubled. Perhaps more importantly, the outside perception of the city was changed making, by 2012, Barcelona the 12th most popular city destination in the world and the 5th amongst European cities.[48][49][50][51][52] Recent history Main articles: History of Barcelona and Timeline of Barcelona Supporters of Catalan independence in October 2019 The death of Franco in 1975 brought on a period of democratisation throughout Spain. Pressure for change was particularly strong in Barcelona, which considered that it had been punished during nearly forty years of Francoism for its support of the Republican government.[53] Massive, but peaceful, demonstrations on 11 September 1977 assembled over a million people in the streets of Barcelona to call for the restoration of Catalan autonomy. It was granted less than a month later.[54] The development of Barcelona was promoted by two events in 1986: Spanish accession to the European Community, and particularly Barcelona's designation as host city of the 1992 Summer Olympics.[55][56] The process of urban regeneration has been rapid, and accompanied by a greatly increased international reputation of the city as a tourist destination. The increased cost of housing has led to a slight decline (−16.6%) in the population over the last two decades of the 20th century as many families move out into the suburbs. This decline has been reversed since 2001, as a new wave of immigration (particularly from Latin America and from Morocco) has gathered pace.[57] In 1987, an ETA car bombing at Hipercor killed 21 people. On 17 August 2017, a van was driven into pedestrians on La Rambla in the city, killing 14 and injuring at least 100, one of whom later died. Other attacks took place elsewhere in Catalonia. The Prime Minister of Spain, Mariano Rajoy, called the attack in Barcelona a jihadist attack. Amaq News Agency attributed indirect responsibility for the attack to the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL).[58][59][60] Geography A panoramic view of Barcelona Location Barcelona as seen by the European Space Agency's Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission Barcelona is located on the northeast coast of the Iberian Peninsula, facing the Mediterranean Sea, on a plain approximately 5 km (3 mi) wide limited by the mountain range of Collserola, the Llobregat river to the southwest and the Besòs river to the north.[61] This plain covers an area of 170 km2 (66 sq mi),[61] of which 101 km2 (39.0 sq mi)[62] are occupied by the city itself. It is 120 kilometres (75 miles) south of the Pyrenees and the Catalan border with France. Tibidabo, 512 m (1,680 ft) high, offers striking views over the city[63] and is topped by the 288.4 m (946.2 ft) Torre de Collserola, a telecommunications tower that is visible from most of the city. Barcelona is peppered with small hills, most of them urbanised, that gave their name to the neighbourhoods built upon them, such as Carmel (267 metres or 876 feet), Putget (181 metres or 594 feet) and Rovira (261 metres or 856 feet). The escarpment of Montjuïc (173 metres or 568 feet), situated to the southeast, overlooks the harbour and is topped by Montjuïc Castle, a fortress built in the 17–18th centuries to control the city as a replacement for the Ciutadella. Today, the fortress is a museum and Montjuïc is home to several sporting and cultural venues, as well as Barcelona's biggest park and gardens. The city borders on the municipalities of Santa Coloma de Gramenet and Sant Adrià de Besòs to the north; the Mediterranean Sea to the east; El Prat de Llobregat and L'Hospitalet de Llobregat to the south; and Sant Feliu de Llobregat, Sant Just Desvern, Esplugues de Llobregat, Sant Cugat del Vallès, and Montcada i Reixac to the west. The municipality includes two small sparsely-inhabited exclaves to the north-west. Climate Main article: Climate of Barcelona According to the Köppen climate classification, Barcelona has a hot summer Mediterranean climate (Csa), with mild winters and warm to hot summers,[64] while the rainiest seasons are autumn and spring. The rainfall pattern is characterised by a short (3 months) dry season in summer, as well as less winter rainfall than in a typical Mediterranean climate. This subtype, labelled as "Portuguese" by the French geographer George Viers after the climate classification of Emmanuel de Martonne[65] and found in the NW Mediterranean area (e.g. Marseille), can be seen as transitional to the humid subtropical climate (Cfa) found in inland areas such as the Po Valley (e.g. Milan), whose rainfall is greater in summer, a feature of continental climates. Its average annual temperature is 21.2 °C (70.2 °F) during the day and 15.1 °C (59.2 °F) at night. The average annual temperature of the sea is about 20 °C (68 °F). In the coldest month, January, the temperature typically ranges from 12 to 18 °C (54 to 64 °F) during the day, 6 to 12 °C (43 to 54 °F) at night and the average sea temperature is 13 °C (55 °F).[66] In the warmest month, August, the typical temperature ranges from 27 to 31 °C (81 to 88 °F) during the day, about 23 °C (73 °F) at night and the average sea temperature is 26 °C (79 °F).[66] Generally, the summer or "holiday" season lasts about six months, from May to October. Two months – April and November – are transitional; sometimes the temperature exceeds 20 °C (68 °F), with an average temperature of 18–19 °C (64–66 °F) during the day and 11–13 °C (52–55 °F) at night. December, January and February are the coldest months, with average temperatures around 15 °C (59 °F) during the day and 9 °C (48 °F) at night. Large fluctuations in temperature are rare, particularly in the summer months. Because of the proximity to the warm sea plus the urban heat island, frosts are very rare in the city of Barcelona. Snow is also very infrequent. Barcelona averages 78 rainy days per year (≥ 1 mm), and annual average relative humidity is 72%, ranging from 69% in July to 75% in October. Rainfall totals are highest in late summer and autumn (September–November) and lowest in early and mid-summer (June–August), with a secondary winter minimum (February–March). Sunshine duration is 2,524 hours per year, from 138 (average 4.5 hours of sunshine a day) in December to 310 (average 10 hours of sunshine a day) in July.[67] Climate data for Barcelona Can Bruixa – Barcelona (1987–2010) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high °C (°F) 14.8 (58.6) 15.6 (60.1) 17.4 (63.3) 19.1 (66.4) 22.5 (72.5) 26.1 (79.0) 28.6 (83.5) 29.0 (84.2) 26.0 (78.8) 22.5 (72.5) 17.9 (64.2) 15.1 (59.2) 21.2 (70.2) Daily mean °C (°F) 11.8 (53.2) 12.4 (54.3) 14.2 (57.6) 15.8 (60.4) 19.3 (66.7) 22.9 (73.2) 25.7 (78.3) 26.1 (79.0) 23.0 (73.4) 19.5 (67.1) 14.9 (58.8) 12.3 (54.1) 18.2 (64.8) Average low °C (°F) 8.8 (47.8) 9.3 (48.7) 10.9 (51.6) 12.5 (54.5) 16.1 (61.0) 19.8 (67.6) 22.7 (72.9) 23.1 (73.6) 20.0 (68.0) 16.5 (61.7) 11.9 (53.4) 9.5 (49.1) 15.1 (59.2) Average precipitation mm (inches) 43.7 (1.72) 31.4 (1.24) 33.0 (1.30) 47.7 (1.88) 47.4 (1.87) 32.5 (1.28) 25.1 (0.99) 40.8 (1.61) 81.9 (3.22) 96.5 (3.80) 45.1 (1.78) 46.8 (1.84) 571.9 (22.53) Average precipitation days (≥ 1 mm) 7.0 5.0 6.2 7.9 7.5 5.5 3.1 5.8 8.0 9.0 6.6 7.0 78.6 Mean monthly sunshine hours 149 163 200 220 244 262 310 282 219 180 146 138 2,524 Source: Servei Meteorològic de Catalunya – Agencia Estatal de Meteorología (sunshine hours)[68] Demographics Demographic evolution, 1900–2007, according to the Spanish Instituto Nacional de Estadística According to Barcelona's City Council, Barcelona's population as of 1 January 2016[update] was 1,608,746 people,[69] on a land area of 101.4 km2 (39 sq mi). It is the main component of an administrative area of Greater Barcelona, with a population of 3,218,071 in an area of 636 square kilometres (246 square miles) (density 5,060 inhabitants/km2). The population of the urban area was 4,840,000.[3] It is the central nucleus of the Barcelona metropolitan area, which relies on a population of 5,474,482.[4] Spanish is the most spoken language in Barcelona (according to the linguistic census held by the Government of Catalonia in 2013) and it is understood almost universally. Catalan is also very commonly spoken in the city: it is understood by 95% of the population, while 72.3% can speak it, 79% can read it, and 53% can write it.[70] Knowledge of Catalan has increased significantly in recent decades thanks to a language immersion educational system. In 1900, Barcelona had a population of 533,000 people,[61] which grew steadily but slowly until 1950, when it started absorbing a high number of people from other less-industrialised parts of Spain. Barcelona's population peaked in 1979 with 1,906,998 people, and fell throughout the 1980s and 1990s as more people sought a higher quality of life in outlying cities in the Barcelona Metropolitan Area. After bottoming out in 2000 with 1,496,266 people, the city's population began to rise again as younger people started to return, causing a great increase in housing prices.[71] Population density View over the Passeig de Gràcia avenue Note: This text is entirely based on the municipal statistical database provided by the city council. Barcelona is one of the most densely populated cities in Europe. For the year 2008 the city council calculated the population to 1,621,090 living in the 102.2 km2 sized municipality, giving the city an average population density of 15,926 inhabitants per square kilometre with Eixample being the most populated district. In the case of Barcelona though, the land distribution is extremely uneven. Half of the municipality or 50.2 km2, all of it located on the municipal edge is made up of the ten least densely populated neighbourhoods containing less than 10% of the city's population, the uninhabited Zona Franca industrial area and Montjuïc forest park. Leaving the remaining 90% or slightly below 1.5 million inhabitants living on the remaining 52 square kilometres (20 square miles) at an average density close to 28,500 inhabitants per square kilometre. Of the 73 neighbourhoods in the city, 45 had a population density above 20,000 inhabitants per square kilometre with a combined population of 1,313,424 inhabitants living on 38.6 km2 at an average density of 33,987 inhabitants per square km. The 30 most densely populated neighbourhoods accounted for 57.5% of the city population occupying only 22.7% of the municipality, or in other words, 936,406 people living at an average density of 40,322 inhabitants per square kilometre. The city's highest density is found at and around the neighbourhood of la Sagrada Família where four of the city's most densely populated neighbourhoods are located side by side, all with a population density above 50,000 inhabitants per square kilometre. Age structure In 1900 almost a third (28.9 percent) were children (aged younger than 14 years), In 2017 this age group constituted only 12.7; those aged between 15 and 24 years in 2017 were 9 percent; those aged between 25 and 44 years a 30.6 percent. In contrast, in 2017 the aged between 45 and 64 years formed the 56.9% of all Barcelonans; while in 1900 the aged 65 and older were just the 6.5 percent, in 2017 reached a 21.5.[72][73] Migration Largest groups of foreign residents in Barcelona[74] Nationality Population (2019) Italy 36,276 China 21,658 Pakistan 20,643 France 16,940 Morocco 14,418 Colombia 12,290 Honduras 11,744 Peru 10,558 Venezuela 10,185 Philippines 9,439 In 2016 about 59% of the inhabitants of the city were born in Catalonia and 18.5% coming from the rest of the country. In addition to that, 22.5% of the population was born outside of Spain, a proportion which has more than doubled since 2001 and more than quintupled since 1996 when it was 8.6% respectively 3.9%.[69] The most important region of origin of migrants is Europe, with many coming from Italy (26,676) or France (13,506).[69] Moreover, many migrants come from Latin American nations such as Bolivia, Ecuador or Colombia. Since the 1990s, and similar to other migrants, many Latin Americans have settled in northern parts of the city.[75] There exists a relatively large Pakistani community in Barcelona with up to twenty thousand nationals. The community consists of significantly more men than women. Many of the Pakistanis are living in Ciutat Vella. First Pakistani migrants came in the 1970s, with increasing numbers in the 1990s.[76] Other significant migrant groups come from Asia as from China and the Philippines.[69] There is a Japanese community clustered in Bonanova, Les Tres Torres, Pedralbes, and other northern neighbourhoods, and a Japanese international school serves that community.[77] Religion Main article: Religion in Barcelona Most of the inhabitants state they are Roman Catholic (208 churches).[78] In a 2011 survey conducted by InfoCatólica, 49.5% of Barcelona residents of all ages identified themselves as Catholic.[79] This was the first time that more than half of respondents did not identify themselves as Catholic Christians.[79] The numbers reflect a broader trend in Spain whereby the numbers of self-identified Catholics have declined.[79] In 2019, a survey by Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas showed that 53.2% of residents in Barcelona identified themselves as Catholic (9.9% practising Catholics, 43.3% non-practising Catholics).[80] The province has the largest Muslim community in Spain, 322,698 people in Barcelona province are of Muslim religion.[81] A considerable number of Muslims live in Barcelona due to immigration (169 locations, mostly professed by Moroccans in Spain).[78] In 2014, 322,698 out of 5.5 million people in the province of Barcelona identified themselves as Muslim,[81] which makes 5.6% of total population. The city also has the largest Jewish community in Spain, with an estimated 3,500 Jews living in the city.[82] There are also a number of other groups, including Evangelical (71 locations, mostly professed by Roma), Jehovah's Witnesses (21 Kingdom Halls), Buddhists (13 locations),[83] and Eastern Orthodox.[84] Economy General information A portion of the 22@Barcelona business and innovation district The Barcelona metropolitan area comprises over 66% of the people of Catalonia, one of the richer regions in Europe and the fourth richest region per capita in Spain, with a GDP per capita amounting to €28,400 (16% more than the EU average). The greater Barcelona metropolitan area had a GDP amounting to $177 billion (equivalent to $34,821 in per capita terms, 44% more than the EU average), making it the 4th most economically powerful city by gross GDP in the European Union, and 35th in the world in 2009.[85] Barcelona city had a very high GDP of €80,894 per head in 2004, according to Eurostat.[86] Furthermore, Barcelona was Europe's fourth best business city and fastest improving European city, with growth improved by 17% per year as of 2009[update].[87] Barcelona was the 24th most "livable city" in the world in 2015 according to lifestyle magazine Monocle.[88] Similarly, according to Innovation Analysts 2thinknow, Barcelona occupies 13th place in the world on Innovation Cities™ Global Index.[89] At the same time it is according to the Global Wealth and Lifestyle Report 2020 one of the most affordable cities in the world for a luxury lifestyle.[90] Barcelona has a long-standing mercantile tradition. Less well known is that the city industrialised early, taking off in 1833, when Catalonia's already sophisticated textile industry began to use steam power. It became the first and most important industrial city in the Mediterranean basin. Since then, manufacturing has played a large role in its history. Borsa de Barcelona (Barcelona Stock Exchange) is the main stock exchange in the northeastern part of the Iberian Peninsula. Barcelona was recognised as the Southern European City of the Future for 2014/15, based on its economic potential,[91] by FDi Magazine in their bi-annual rankings.[92] Trade fair and exhibitions The World Trade Center Barcelona The Palau de Congressos de Barcelona Drawing upon its tradition of creative art and craftsmanship, Barcelona is known for its award-winning industrial design. It also has several congress halls, notably Fira de Barcelona – the second largest trade fair and exhibition centre in Europe, that host a quickly growing number of national and international events each year (at present above 50). The total exhibition floor space of Fira de Barcelona venues is 405,000 m2 (41 ha), not counting Gran Via centre on the Plaza de Europa. However, the Eurozone crisis and deep cuts in business travel affected the council's positioning of the city as a convention centre. An important business centre, the World Trade Center Barcelona, is located in Barcelona's Port Vell harbour. The city is known for hosting well as world-class conferences and expositions, including the 1888 Exposición Universal de Barcelona, the 1929 Barcelona International Exposition (Expo 1929), the 2004 Universal Forum of Cultures and the 2004 World Urban Forum.[93] Tourism Part of the beach promenade and the beach of La Barceloneta towards Port Olimpic Barcelona was the 20th-most-visited city in the world by international visitors and the fifth most visited city in Europe after London, Paris, Istanbul and Rome, with 5.5 million international visitors in 2011.[94] By 2015, both Prague and Milan had more international visitors.[95] With its Rambles, Barcelona is ranked the most popular city to visit in Spain.[96] Barcelona as internationally renowned a tourist destination, with numerous recreational areas, one of the best beaches in the world,[97][98] mild and warm climate, historical monuments, including eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites, 519 hotels as of March 2016[update][99] including 35 five star hotels,[100] and developed tourist infrastructure. Due to its large influx of tourists each year, Barcelona, like many other tourism capitals, has to deal with pickpockets, with wallets and passports being commonly stolen items. For this reason, most travel guides recommend that visitors take precautions to ensure their possessions' safety, especially inside the metro premises. Despite its moderate pickpocket rate, Barcelona is considered one of the safest cities in terms of health security and personal safety,[101] mainly because of a sophisticated policing strategy that has dropped crime by 32% in just over three years and has led it to be considered the 15th safest city in the world by Business Insider.[102] While tourism produces economic benefits, according to one report[citation needed], the city is "overrun [by] hordes of tourists". In early 2017, over 150,000 protesters warned that tourism is destabilizing the city. Slogans included "Tourists go home", "Barcelona is not for sale" and "We will not be driven out". By then, number of visitors had increased from 1.7 million in 1990 to 32 million in a city with a population of 1.62 million, increasing the cost of rental housing for residents and overcrowding the public places. While tourists spent an estimated €30 billion in 2017, they are viewed by some as a threat to Barcelona's identity.[103] A May 2017 article in England's The Telegraph newspaper included Barcelona among the Eight Places That Hate Tourists the Most and included a comment from Mayor Ada Colau, "We don't want the city to become a cheap souvenir shop [like Venice]". To moderate the problem, the city has stopped issuing licenses for new hotels and holiday apartments; it also fined AirBnb with a €30,000. The mayor has suggested an additional tourist tax and setting a limit on the number of visitors.[104] One industry insider, Justin Francis, founder of the Responsible Travel agency, stated that steps must be taken to limit the number of visitors that are causing an "overtourism crisis" in several major European cities. "Ultimately, residents must be prioritised over tourists for housing, infrastructure and access to services because they have a long-term stake in the city's success.", he said.[105] "Managing tourism more responsibly can help", Francis later told a journalist, "but some destinations may just have too many tourists, and Barcelona may be a case of that".[106] Manufacturing sector Industry generates 21% of the total gross domestic product (GDP) of the region,[107] with the energy, chemical and metallurgy industries accounting for 47% of industrial production.[108] The Barcelona metropolitan area had 67% of the total number of industrial establishments in Catalonia as of 1997.[109] Barcelona has long been an important European automobile manufacturing centre. Formerly there were automobile factories of AFA, Abadal, Actividades Industriales, Alvarez, America, Artés de Arcos, Balandrás, Baradat-Esteve, Biscúter, J. Castro, Clúa, David, Delfín, Díaz y Grilló, Ebro trucks, Edis [ca], Elizalde, Automóviles España, Eucort, Fenix, Fábrica Hispano, Auto Academia Garriga, Fábrica Española de Automóviles Hebe, Hispano-Suiza, Huracán Motors, Talleres Hereter, Junior SL, Kapi, La Cuadra, M.A., Automóviles Matas, Motores y Motos, Nacional Custals, National Pescara, Nacional RG, Nacional Rubi, Nacional Sitjes, Automóviles Nike, Orix, Otro Ford, Partia, Pegaso, PTV, Ricart, Ricart-España, Industrias Salvador, Siata Española, Stevenson, Romagosa y Compañía, Garaje Storm, Talleres Hereter, Trimak, Automóviles Victoria, Manufacturas Mecánicas Aleu.[110][111] Today, the headquarters and a large factory of SEAT (the largest Spanish automobile manufacturer) are in one of its suburbs. There is also a Nissan factory in the logistics and industrial area of the city.[112] The factory of Derbi, a large manufacturer of motorcycles, scooters and mopeds, also lies near the city.[113] As in other modern cities, the manufacturing sector has long since been overtaken by the services sector, though it remains very important. The region's leading industries are textiles, chemical, pharmaceutical, motor, electronic, printing, logistics, publishing, in telecommunications industry and culture the notable Mobile World Congress, and information technology services. Fashion The Brandery fashion show of 2011 Main article: Fashion in Barcelona The traditional importance of textiles is reflected in Barcelona's drive to become a major fashion centre. There have been many attempts to launch Barcelona as a fashion capital, notably Gaudi Home.[citation needed] Beginning in the summer of 2000, the city hosted the Bread & Butter urban fashion fair until 2009, when its organisers announced that it would be returning to Berlin. This was a hard blow for the city as the fair brought €100 m to the city in just three days.[114][115] Since 2009, The Brandery, an urban fashion show, has been held in Barcelona twice a year until 2012. According to the Global Language Monitor's annual ranking of the world's top fifty fashion capitals Barcelona was named as the seventh most important fashion capital of the world right after Milano and before Berlin in 2015.[116] Government and administrative divisions See also: Municipal elections in Barcelona and List of mayors of Barcelona Palau de la Generalitat de Catalunya As the capital of the autonomous community of Catalonia, Barcelona is the seat of the Catalan government, known as the Generalitat de Catalunya; of particular note are the executive branch, the parliament, and the High Court of Justice of Catalonia. The city is also the capital of the Province of Barcelona and the Barcelonès comarca (district). Barcelona is governed by a city council formed by 41 city councillors, elected for a four-year term by universal suffrage. As one of the two biggest cities in Spain, Barcelona is subject to a special law articulated through the Carta Municipal (Municipal Law). A first version of this law was passed in 1960 and amended later, but the current version was approved in March 2006.[117] According to this law, Barcelona's city council is organised in two levels: a political one, with elected city councillors, and one executive, which administrates the programs and executes the decisions taken on the political level.[118] This law also gives the local government a special relationship with the central government and it also gives the mayor wider prerogatives by the means of municipal executive commissions.[119] It expands the powers of the city council in areas like telecommunications, city traffic, road safety and public safety. It also gives a special economic regime to the city's treasury and it gives the council a veto in matters that will be decided by the central government, but that will need a favourable report from the council.[117] The City Hall of Barcelona The Comissió de Govern (Government Commission) is the executive branch, formed by 24 councillors, led by the Mayor, with 5 lieutenant-mayors and 17 city councillors, each in charge of an area of government, and 5 non-elected councillors.[120] The plenary, formed by the 41 city councillors, has advisory, planning, regulatory, and fiscal executive functions.[121] The six Commissions del Consell Municipal (City council commissions) have executive and controlling functions in the field of their jurisdiction. They are composed by a number of councillors proportional to the number of councillors each political party has in the plenary.[122] The city council has jurisdiction in the fields of city planning, transportation, municipal taxes, public highways security through the Guàrdia Urbana (the municipal police), city maintenance, gardens, parks and environment, facilities (like schools, nurseries, sports centres, libraries, and so on), culture, sports, youth and social welfare. Some of these competencies are not exclusive, but shared with the Generalitat de Catalunya or the central Spanish government. In some fields with shared responsibility (such as public health, education or social services), there is a shared Agency or Consortium between the city and the Generalitat to plan and manage services.[123] The Saló de Cent, in the City Hall of Barcelona The executive branch is led by a Chief Municipal Executive Officer which answers to the Mayor. It is made up of departments which are legally part of the city council and by separate legal entities of two types: autonomous public departments and public enterprises.[124] The seat of the city council is on the Plaça de Sant Jaume, opposite the seat of Generalitat de Catalunya. Since the coming of the Spanish democracy, Barcelona had been governed by the PSC, first with an absolute majority and later in coalition with ERC and ICV. After the May 2007 election, the ERC did not renew the coalition agreement and the PSC governed in a minority coalition with ICV as the junior partner. After 32 years, on 22 May 2011, CiU gained a plurality of seats at the municipal election, gaining 15 seats to the PSC's 11. The PP hold 8 seats, ICV 5 and ERC 2. Districts Districts of Barcelona Main article: Districts of Barcelona Since 1987, the city has been divided into 10 administrative districts (districtes in Catalan, distritos in Spanish): Ciutat Vella Eixample Sants-Montjuïc Les Corts Sarrià-Sant Gervasi Gràcia Horta-Guinardó Nou Barris Sant Andreu Sant Martí The districts are based mostly on historical divisions, and several are former towns annexed by the city of Barcelona in the 18th and 19th centuries that still maintain their own distinct character. Each district has its own council led by a city councillor. The composition of each district council depends on the number of votes each political party had in that district, so a district can be led by a councillor from a different party than the executive council. Education Main article: Education in Spain Main hall of the University of Barcelona Barcelona has a well-developed higher education system of public universities. Most prominent among these is the University of Barcelona (established in 1450), a world-renowned research and teaching institution with campuses around the city. It is one of the degree-awarding bodies of the Institut Barcelona d'Estudis Internacionals (IBEI), a prestigious interuniversity postgraduate institution for international affairs located in the center of the city. Barcelona is also home to the Polytechnic University of Catalonia, and the newer Pompeu Fabra University, and, in the private sector the EADA Business School founded in 1957, became the first Barcelona institution to run manager training programmes for the business community. IESE Business School, as well as the largest private educational institution, the Ramon Llull University, which encompasses schools and institutes such as the ESADE Business School. The Autonomous University of Barcelona, another public university, is located in Bellaterra, a town in the Metropolitan Area. Toulouse Business School and the Open University of Catalonia (a private Internet-centred open university) are also based in Barcelona. The MareNostrum 4 supercomputer, hosted at the Barcelona Supercomputing Center The city has a network of public schools, from nurseries to high schools, under the responsibility of a consortium led by city council (though the curriculum is the responsibility of the Generalitat de Catalunya). There are also many private schools, some of them Roman Catholic. Most such schools receive a public subsidy on a per-student basis, are subject to inspection by the public authorities, and are required to follow the same curricular guidelines as public schools, though they charge tuition. Known as escoles concertades, they are distinct from schools whose funding is entirely private (escoles privades). The language of instruction at public schools and escoles concertades is Catalan, as stipulated by the 2009 Catalan Education Act. Spanish may be used as a language of instruction by teachers of Spanish literature or language, and foreign languages by teachers of those languages. An experimental partial immersion programme adopted by some schools allows for the teaching of a foreign language (English, generally) across the curriculum, though this is limited to a maximum of 30% of the school day. No public school or escola concertada in Barcelona may offer 50% or full immersion programmes in a foreign language, nor does any public school or escola concertada offer International Baccalaureate programmes. Culture Main article: Culture of Barcelona Barcelona's cultural roots go back 2000 years. Since the arrival of democracy, the Catalan language (very much repressed during the dictatorship of Franco) has been promoted, both by recovering works from the past and by stimulating the creation of new works. Barcelona is designated as a world-class city by the Globalization and World Cities Study Group and Network.[125] It has also been part of the UNESCO Creative Cities Network as a City of Literature since 2015.[126] Entertainment and performing arts Main article: List of theatres and concert halls in Barcelona The Liceu opera house Barcelona has many venues for live music and theatre, including the world-renowned Gran Teatre del Liceu opera house, the Teatre Nacional de Catalunya, the Teatre Lliure and the Palau de la Música Catalana concert hall. Barcelona also is home to the Barcelona Symphony and Catalonia National Orchestra (Orquestra Simfònica de Barcelona i Nacional de Catalunya, usually known as OBC), the largest symphonic orchestra in Catalonia. In 1999, the OBC inaugurated its new venue in the brand-new Auditorium (L'Auditori). It performs around 75 concerts per season and its current director is Eiji Oue.[127] It is home to the Barcelona Guitar Orchestra, directed by Sergi Vicente. The major thoroughfare of La Rambla is home to mime artists and street performers. Yearly, two major pop music festivals take place in the city, the Sónar Festival and the Primavera Sound Festival. The city also has a thriving alternative music scene, with groups such as The Pinker Tones receiving international attention.[128] Media El Periódico de Catalunya, La Vanguardia and Ara are Barcelona's three major daily newspapers (the first two with Catalan and Spanish editions, Ara only in Catalan) while Sport and El Mundo Deportivo (both in Spanish) are the city's two major sports daily newspapers, published by the same companies. The city is also served by a number of smaller publications such as Ara and El Punt Avui (in Catalan), by nationwide newspapers with special Barcelona editions like El Pais (in Spanish, with an online version in Catalan) and El Mundo (in Spanish), and by several free newspapers like 20 minutos and Què (all bilingual). Barcelona's oldest and main online newspaper VilaWeb is also the oldest one in Europe (with Catalan and English editions). Several major FM stations include Catalunya Ràdio, RAC 1, RAC 105 and Cadena SER. Barcelona also has a local TV stations, BTV, owned by city council. The headquarters of Televisió de Catalunya, Catalonia's public network, are located in Sant Joan Despí, in Barcelona's metropolitan area. Sports Main article: Sport in Barcelona Estadi Olímpic de Montjuïc (Barcelona Olympic Stadium) built for the 1936 Summer Olympics named People's Olympiad, main stadium of 1992 Summer Olympics Barcelona has a long sporting tradition and hosted the highly successful 1992 Summer Olympics as well as several matches during the 1982 FIFA World Cup (at the two stadiums). It has hosted about 30 sports events of international significance.[citation needed] The Camp Nou, the largest stadium in Europe FC Barcelona is a sports club best known worldwide for its football team, one of the largest and the second richest in the world.[129] It has 74 national trophies (while finishing 46 times as runners-up) and 17 continental prizes (with being runners-up 11 times), including five UEFA Champions League trophies out of eight finals and three FIFA Club World Cup wins out of four finals. It is the only male football team in the world to win six trophies in a calendar year (in 2009). FC Barcelona also has professional teams in other sports like FC Barcelona Regal (basketball), FC Barcelona Handbol (handball), FC Barcelona Hoquei (roller hockey), FC Barcelona Ice Hockey (ice hockey), FC Barcelona Futsal (futsal) and FC Barcelona Rugby (rugby union), all at one point winners of the highest national and/or European competitions. The club's museum is the second most visited in Catalonia. The matches against cross-town rivals RCD Espanyol are of particular interest, but there are other Barcelonan football clubs in lower categories, like CE Europa and UE Sant Andreu. FC Barcelona's basketball team has a noted rivalry in the Liga ACB with nearby Joventut Badalona. Palau Sant Jordi (St. George's sporting arena) and Montjuïc Communications Tower Barcelona has three UEFA elite stadiums: FC Barcelona's Camp Nou, the largest stadium in Europe with a capacity of 99,354; the publicly owned Estadi Olímpic Lluís Companys, with a capacity of 55,926; used for the 1992 Olympics; and Estadi Cornellà-El Prat, with a capacity of 40,500. Furthermore, the city has several smaller stadiums such as Mini Estadi (also owned by FC Barcelona) with a capacity of 15,000, Camp Municipal Narcís Sala with a capacity of 6,563 and Nou Sardenya with a capacity of 7,000. The city has a further three multifunctional venues for sports and concerts: the Palau Sant Jordi with a capacity of 12,000 to 24,000 (depending on use), the Palau Blaugrana with a capacity of 7,500, and the Palau dels Esports de Barcelona with a capacity of 3,500. Barcelona was the host city for the 2013 World Aquatics Championships, which were held at the Palau San Jordi.[130] Circuit de Catalunya/Circuit de Barcelona, race track of Formula 1 and MotoGP on the suburb of Barcelona Several road running competitions are organised year-round in Barcelona: the Barcelona Marathon every March with over 10,000 participants in 2010, the Cursa de Bombers in April, the Cursa de El Corte Inglés in May (with about 60,000 participants each year), the Cursa de la Mercè, the Cursa Jean Bouin, the Milla Sagrada Família and the San Silvestre. There's also the Ultratrail Collserola which passes 85 kilometres (53 miles) through the Collserola forest. The Open Seat Godó, a 50-year-old ATP World Tour 500 Series tennis tournament, is held annually in the facilities of the Real Club de Tenis Barcelona. Each Christmas, a swimming race across the port is organised.[citation needed] Near Barcelona, in Montmeló, the 107,000 capacity Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya racetrack hosts the Formula One Spanish Grand Prix, the Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix, the Spanish GT Championship and races in the GP2 Series. Skateboarding and cycling are also very popular in Barcelona; in and around the city there are dozens of kilometers of bicycle paths.[citation needed] Top sport clubs in Barcelona: Club League Sport Venue Established Capacity FC Barcelona Primera División Football Camp Nou 1899 100,000 RCD Espanyol[131] Primera División Football Estadi Cornellà-El Prat 1900 40,500 CE Europa Tercera División Football Nou Sardenya 1907 7,000 FC Barcelona Bàsquet Primera División Basketball Palau Blaugrana 1926 7,585 FC Barcelona Handbol Primera División Handball Palau Blaugrana 1942 7,585 FC Barcelona Ice Hockey Primera División Ice hockey Palau de Gel 1972 1,256 FC Barcelona Hoquei Primera División Roller hockey Palau Blaugrana 1942 7,585 FC Barcelona Futsal Primera División Futsal Palau Blaugrana 1986 7,585 FC Barcelona Rugby Primera División Rugby union CDMVdHT 1924 no data Barcelona Dragons World League American football Estadi Olímpic Lluís Companys 1991 (withheld) 56,000 Barcelona Búfals Primera División American football Camp Municipal Narcís Sala 1987 6,550 Squatter's Movement Barcelona is also home to numerous social centres and illegal squats that effectively form a shadow society mainly made up of the unemployed, immigrants, dropouts, anarchists, anti-authoritarians and autonomists.[132] Peter Gelderloos estimates that there around 200 squatted buildings and 40 social centres across the city with thousands of inhabitants, making it one of the largest squatter movements in the world. He notes that they pirate electricity, internet and water allowing them to live on less than one euro a day. He argues that these squats embrace an anarcho-communist and anti-work philosophy, often freely fixing up new houses, cleaning, patching roofs, installing windows, toilets, showers, lights and kitchens. In the wake of austerity, the squats have provided a number of social services to the surrounding residents, including bicycle repair workshops, carpentry workshops, self-defense classes, free libraries, community gardens, free meals, computer labs, language classes, theatre groups, free medical care and legal support services.[133] The squats help elderly residents avoid eviction and organise various protests throughout Barcelona. Notable squats include Can Vies and Can Masdeu. Police have repeatedly tried to shut down the squatters movement with waves of evictions and raids, but the movement is still going strong. Transport Main article: Transport in Barcelona Airports Barcelona–El Prat Airport as seen from the air Barcelona is served by Barcelona-El Prat Airport, about 17 km (11 mi) from the centre of Barcelona. It is the second-largest airport in Spain, and the largest on the Mediterranean coast, which handled more than 50.17 million passengers in 2018, showing an annual upward trend.[134] It is a main hub for Vueling Airlines and Ryanair, and also a focus for Iberia and Air Europa. The airport mainly serves domestic and European destinations, although some airlines offer destinations in Latin America, Asia and the United States. The airport is connected to the city by highway, metro (Airport T1 and Airport T2 stations), commuter train (Barcelona Airport railway station) and scheduled bus service. A new terminal (T1) has been built, and entered service on 17 June 2009. Some low-cost airlines, also use Girona-Costa Brava Airport, about 90 km (56 mi) to the north, Reus Airport, 77 km (48 mi) to the south, or Lleida-Alguaire Airport, about 150 km (93 mi) to the west, of the city. Sabadell Airport is a smaller airport in the nearby town of Sabadell, devoted to pilot training, aerotaxi and private flights. Seaport The Port of Barcelona The Port of Barcelona has a 2000-year-old history and a great contemporary commercial importance. It is Europe's ninth largest container port, with a trade volume of 1.72 million TEU's in 2013.[135] The port is managed by the Port Authority of Barcelona. Its 10 km2 (4 sq mi) are divided into three zones: Port Vell (the old port), the commercial port and the logistics port (Barcelona Free Port). The port is undergoing an enlargement that will double its size thanks to diverting the mouth of the Llobregat river 2 kilometres (1 mile) to the south.[136] Port Vell in winter The Barcelona harbour is the leading European cruiser port and a most important Mediterranean turnaround base.[137] In 2013, 3,6 million of pleasure cruises passengers used services of the Port of Barcelona.[135] The Port Vell area also houses the Maremagnum (a commercial mall), a multiplex cinema, the IMAX Port Vell and one of Europe's largest aquariums – Aquarium Barcelona, containing 8,000 fish and 11 sharks contained in 22 basins filled with 4 million litres of sea water. The Maremagnum, being situated within the confines of the port, is the only commercial mall in the city that can open on Sundays and public holidays. National and international rail The main railway station Estació de Sants Barcelona is a major hub for RENFE, the Spanish state railway network. The city's main Inter-city rail station is Barcelona Sants railway station, whilst Estació de França terminus serves a secondary role handling suburban, regional and medium distance services. Freight services operate to local industries and to the Port of Barcelona. RENFE's AVE high-speed rail system, which is designed for speeds of 310 km/h (193 mph), was extended from Madrid to Barcelona in 2008 in the form of the Madrid–Barcelona high-speed rail line. A shared RENFE-SNCF high-speed rail connecting Barcelona and France (Paris, Marseilles and Toulouse, through Perpignan–Barcelona high-speed rail line) was launched in 2013. Both these lines serve Barcelona Sants terminal station.[138][139] Metro and regional rail Barcelona Metro Barcelona is served by an extensive local public transport network that includes a metro system, a bus network, a regional railway system, trams, funiculars, rack railways, a Gondola lift and aerial cable cars. These networks and lines are run by a number of different operators but they are integrated into a coordinated fare system, administered by the Autoritat del Transport Metropolità (ATM). The system is divided into fare zones (1 to 6) and various Integrated Travel Cards are available.[140] The Barcelona Metro network comprises twelve lines, identified by an "L" followed by the line number as well as by individual colours. The Metro largely runs underground; eight Metro lines are operated on dedicated track by the Transports Metropolitans de Barcelona (TMB), whilst four lines are operated by the Ferrocarrils de la Generalitat de Catalunya (FGC) and some of them share tracks with RENFE commuter lines. In addition to the city Metro, several regional rail lines operated by RENFE's Rodalies de Catalunya run across the city, providing connections to outlying towns in the surrounding region. Tram Barcelona Tram The city's two modern tram systems, Trambaix and Trambesòs, are operated by TRAMMET.[141] A heritage tram line, the Tramvia Blau, also operates between the metro Line 7 and the Funicular del Tibidabo.[142] Funicular and cable car Barcelona's metro and rail system is supplemented by several aerial cable cars, funiculars and rack railways that provide connections to mountain-top stations. FGC operates the Funicular de Tibidabo up the hill of Tibidabo and the Funicular de Vallvidrera (FGC), while TMB runs the Funicular de Montjuïc up Montjuïc. The city has two aerial cable cars: the Montjuïc Cable Car, which serves Montjuïc castle, and the Port Vell Aerial Tramway that runs via Torre Jaume I and Torre Sant Sebastià over the port. Bus Buses in Barcelona are a major form of public transport, with extensive local, interurban and night bus networks. Most local services are operated by the TMB, although some other services are operated by a number of private companies, albeit still within the ATM fare structure. A separate private bus line, known as Aerobús, links the airport with the city centre, with its own fare structure. The Estació del Nord (Northern Station), a former railway station which was renovated for the 1992 Olympic Games, now serves as the terminus for long-distance and regional bus services. Taxi Two typical Barcelona taxis Barcelona has a metered taxi fleet governed by the Institut Metropolità del Taxi (Metropolitan Taxi Institute), composed of more than 10,000 cars. Most of the licences are in the hands of self-employed drivers. With their black and yellow livery, Barcelona's taxis are easily spotted, and can be caught from one of many taxi ranks, hailed on street, called by telephone or via app.[143][144] On 22 March 2007,[145] Barcelona's City Council started the Bicing service, a bicycle service understood as a public transport. Once the user has their user card, they can take a bicycle from any of the more than 400 stations spread around the city and use it anywhere the urban area of the city, and then leave it at another station.[146] The service has been a success, with 50,000 subscribed users in three months.[147] Roads and highways B-20 motorway in Barcelona Barcelona lies on three international routes, including European route E15 that follows the Mediterranean coast, European route E90 to Madrid and Lisbon, and European route E09 to Paris. It is also served by a comprehensive network of motorways and highways throughout the metropolitan area, including A-2, A-7/AP-7, C-16, C-17, C-31, C-32, C-33, C-60. The city is circled by three half ring roads or bypasses, Ronda de Dalt (B-20) (on the mountain side), Ronda del Litoral (B-10) (along the coast) and Ronda del Mig (separated into two parts: Travessera de Dalt in the north and the Gran Via de Carles III), two partially covered[148] fast highways with several exits that bypass the city. The city's main arteries include Diagonal Avenue, which crosses it diagonally, Meridiana Avenue which leads to Glòries and connects with Diagonal Avenue and Gran Via de les Corts Catalanes, which crosses the city from east to west, passing through its centre. The famous boulevard of La Rambla, whilst no longer an important vehicular route, remains an important pedestrian route. Main sights Sagrada Família church, designed by Gaudí The Barri Gòtic (Catalan for "Gothic Quarter") is the centre of the old city of Barcelona. Many of the buildings date from medieval times, some from as far back as the Roman settlement of Barcelona. Catalan modernista architecture (related to the movement known as Art Nouveau in the rest of Europe) developed between 1885 and 1950 and left an important legacy in Barcelona. Several of these buildings are World Heritage Sites. Especially remarkable is the work of architect Antoni Gaudí, which can be seen throughout the city. His best-known work is the immense but still unfinished church of the Sagrada Família, which has been under construction since 1882 and is still financed by private donations. As of 2015[update], completion is planned for 2026.[149] Barcelona was also home to Mies van der Rohe's Barcelona Pavilion. Designed in 1929 for the International Exposition for Germany, it was an iconic building that came to symbolise modern architecture as the embodiment of van der Rohe's aphorisms "less is more" and "God is in the details."[150] The Barcelona pavilion was intended as a temporary structure and was torn down in 1930 less than a year after it was constructed. A modern re-creation by Spanish architects now stands in Barcelona, however, constructed in 1986. Barcelona won the 1999 RIBA Royal Gold Medal for its architecture,[151] the first (and as of 2015[update], only) time that the winner has been a city rather than an individual architect. Plaça Reial World Heritage Sites Barcelona is the home of many points of interest declared World Heritage Sites by UNESCO:[152] Name Park Güell Palau Güell Casa Milà Casa Vicens Code, year 320–001, 1984 320–002, 1984 320–003, 1984 320–004, 2005 Coordinates 41°24′59.6″N 2°09′07.9″E / 41.416556°N 2.152194°E / 41.416556; 2.152194 (Park Güell) 41°22′45″N 2°10′28″E / 41.379183°N 2.174445°E / 41.379183; 2.174445 (Palau Güell) 41°23′51.3″N 2°09′46.9″E / 41.397583°N 2.163028°E / 41.397583; 2.163028 (Casa Milà) 41°24′13″N 2°09′04″E / 41.40361°N 2.15111°E / 41.40361; 2.15111 (Casa Vicens) Name Sagrada Família Casa Batlló Palau de la Música Catalana Hospital de Sant Pau Code, year 320–005, 2005 320–006, 2005 804–001, 1997 804–002, 1997 Coordinates 41°24′19.8″N 2°10′30.2″E / 41.405500°N 2.175056°E / 41.405500; 2.175056 (Temple Expiatori de la Sagrada Familia) 41°22′00.3″N 2°09′59.0″E / 41.366750°N 2.166389°E / 41.366750; 2.166389 41°23′16″N 2°10′30″E / 41.38778°N 2.17500°E / 41.38778; 2.17500 41°24′50″N 2°10′30″E / 41.41389°N 2.17500°E / 41.41389; 2.17500 Historic buildings and monuments Further information: List of Modernista buildings in Barcelona See also: Category:Buildings and structures in Barcelona. Barcelona Cathedral Minor basilica of Sagrada Família, the symbol of Barcelona. Palau de la Música Catalana and Hospital de Sant Pau, designed by Lluís Domènech i Montaner, included in the UNESCO Heritage List in 1997. Works by Antoni Gaudí, including Park Güell, Palau Güell, Casa Milà (La Pedrera), Casa Vicens, Sagrada Família (Nativity façade and crypt), Casa Batlló, crypt in Church of Colònia Güell. The first three works were inscribed as a World Heritage Site in 1984. The other four were added as extensions to the site in 2005. The Cathedral of the Holy Cross and St. Eulalia (Gothic) Gothic basilica of Santa Maria del Mar Gothic basilica of Santa Maria del Pi Romanesque church of Sant Pau del Camp Palau Reial Major, medieval residence of the sovereign Counts of Barcelona, later Kings of Aragon The Royal Shipyard (gothic) Monastery of Pedralbes (gothic) The Columbus Monument The Arc de Triomf, a triumphal arch built for entrance to 1888 Barcelona Universal Exposition. Expiatory church of the Sacred Heart of Jesus on the summit of Tibidabo. The Historic Building of the University of Barcelona Museums Main article: List of museums in Barcelona The National Museum of Art of Catalonia stands out for its collection of Romanesque painting, considered one of the most complete in Europe.[citation needed] Barcelona has a great number of museums, which cover different areas and eras. The National Museum of Art of Catalonia possesses a well-known collection of Romanesque art, while the Barcelona Museum of Contemporary Art focuses on post-1945 Catalan and Spanish art. The Fundació Joan Miró, Picasso Museum, and Fundació Antoni Tàpies hold important collections of these world-renowned artists, as well as the Can Framis Museum, focused on post-1960 Catalan Art owned by Fundació Vila Casas. Several museums cover the fields of history and archaeology, like the Barcelona City History Museum (MUHBA), the Museum of the History of Catalonia, the Archeology Museum of Catalonia, the Maritime Museum of Barcelona, the Music Museum of Barcelona and the privately owned Egyptian Museum. The Erotic museum of Barcelona is among the most peculiar ones, while CosmoCaixa is a science museum that received the European Museum of the Year Award in 2006.[citation needed] The Museum of Natural Sciences of Barcelona was founded in 1882 under the name of "Museo Martorell de Arqueología y Ciencias Naturales"[153][154] (Spanish for "Martorell Museum of Archaeology and Natural Sciences"). In 2011 the Museum of Natural Sciences ended up with a merge of five institutions: the Museum of Natural Sciences of Barcelona (the main site, at the Forum Building), the Martorell Museum (the historical seat of the Museum, opened to the public from 1924 to 2010 as a geology museum), the Laboratori de Natura, at the Castle of the Three Dragons (from 1920 to 2010: the Zoology Museum), the Historical Botanical Garden of Barcelona, founded 1930, and the Botanical garden of Barcelona, founded 1999. Those two gardens are a part of the Botanical Institute of Barcelona too. The FC Barcelona Museum has been the most visited museum in the city of Barcelona, with 1,506,022 visitors in 2013.[citation needed] Parks Parc de la Ciutadella north of La Barceloneta Barcelona contains sixty municipal parks, twelve of which are historic, five of which are thematic (botanical), forty-five of which are urban, and six of which are forest.[155] They range from vest-pocket parks to large recreation areas. The urban parks alone cover 10% of the city (549.7 ha or 1,358.3 acres).[62] The total park surface grows about 10 ha (25 acres) per year,[156] with a proportion of 18.1 square metres (195 sq ft) of park area per inhabitant.[157] Of Barcelona's parks, Montjuïc is the largest, with 203 ha located on the mountain of the same name.[62] It is followed by Parc de la Ciutadella (which occupies the site of the old military citadel and which houses the Parliament building, the Barcelona Zoo, and several museums); 31 ha or 76.6 acres including the zoo), the Guinardó Park (19 ha or 47.0 acres), Park Güell (designed by Antoni Gaudí; 17.2 ha or 42.5 acres), Oreneta Castle Park (also 17.2 ha or 42.5 acres), Diagonal Mar Park (13.3 ha or 32.9 acres, inaugurated in 2002), Nou Barris Central Park (13.2 ha or 32.6 acres), Can Dragó Sports Park and Poblenou Park (both 11.9 ha or 29.4 acres), the Labyrinth Park (9.10 ha or 22.5 acres), named after the garden maze it contains.[62] There are also several smaller parks, for example, the Parc de Les Aigües (2 ha or 4.9 acres). A part of the Collserola Park is also within the city limits. PortAventura World, one of the largest resort in Europe, with 5,837,509 visitors per year, is located one hour's drive from Barcelona.[158][159] Also, within the city lies Tibidabo Amusement Park, a smaller amusement park in Plaza del Tibidabo, with the Muntanya Russa amusement ride. Beaches Beaches of Barcelona Barcelona beach was listed as number one in a list of the top ten city beaches in the world according to National Geographic[97] and Discovery Channel.[160] Barcelona contains seven beaches, totalling 4.5 kilometres (2 3⁄4 miles) of coastline. Sant Sebastià, Barceloneta and Somorrostro beaches, both 1,100 m (3,610 ft) in length,[62] are the largest, oldest and the most-frequented beaches in Barcelona. The Olympic Harbour separates them from the other city beaches: Nova Icària, Bogatell, Mar Bella, Nova Mar Bella and Llevant. These beaches (ranging from 400 to 640 m (1,310 to 2,100 ft) were opened as a result of the city restructuring to host the 1992 Summer Olympics, when a great number of industrial buildings were demolished. At present, the beach sand is artificially replenished given that storms regularly remove large quantities of material. The 2004 Universal Forum of Cultures left the city a large concrete bathing zone on the eastmost part of the city's coastline. Most recently, Llevant is the first beach to allow dogs access during summer season. Other sights Santa Maria del Mar church Santa Maria del Pi church The Roman and Medieval walls Can Framis Museum Fabra Observatory The Arc de Triomf Castell dels Tres Dragons Hotel Arts (left) and Torre Mapfre (right) Torre Agbar The Torre de Collserola on Tibidabo Sagrat Cor on Tibidabo The view from Gaudí's Park Güell Port Vell Aerial Tramway Statue of Christopher Columbus W Barcelona (Hotel Vela) Colón building Magic Fountain of Montjuïc The Venetian Towers in Plaça d'Espanya Plaça de Catalunya La Rambla Gothic Quarter Barcelona's old Customs building at Port Vell La Illa de la Discòrdia International relations Twin towns – sister cities See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Spain Barcelona is twinned with:[161] Antwerp, Belgium (1997) Athens, Greece (1999) Boston, United States (1983) Busan, South Korea (1983) Cologne, Germany (1984) Dublin, Ireland (1998) Gaza City, Palestine (1998) Havana, Cuba (1993) Istanbul, Turkey (1997) Kobe, Japan (1993) Monterrey, Mexico (1977) Montevideo, Uruguay (1985) Montpellier, France (1963) Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (1972) Saint Petersburg, Russia (1985) San Francisco, United States (2010) São Paulo, Brazil (1985) Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina (2000) Shanghai, China (2001) Tel Aviv, Israel (1998) Tunis, Tunisia (1969) Valparaíso, Chile (2001) Partnership and friendship Barcelona also cooperates with:[161] Amman, Jordan Guangzhou, China Isfahan, Iran Kyoto, Japan Lampedusa, Italy Lesbos, Greece Maputo, Mozambique New York City, United States Ningbo, China Paris, France Rosario, Argentina Saïda, Algeria Seoul, South Korea Tétouan, Morocco Turin, Italy Notable people Further information: Category:People from Barcelona See also  Spain portal  European Union portal Outline of Barcelona Architecture of Barcelona List of markets in Barcelona List of tallest buildings in Barcelona Plans for Winter Olympics held in Barcelona Public art in Barcelona Mobile World Congress OPENCities Notes and references Notes Citations ^ "Ajuntament de Barcelona". 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"Barcelona". Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana. Barcelona: Ed. Enciclopèdia Catalana S.A. Busquets, Joan. Barcelona: The Urban Evolution of a Compact City (Harvard UP, 2006) 468 pp. McDonogh, G. W. (January 2011). "Review Essay: Barcelona: Forms, Images, and Conflicts: Joan Busquets (2005)". Journal of Urban History. 37 (1): 117–123. doi:10.1177/0096144210384250. S2CID 149302217. Marshall, Tim, ed. Transforming Barcelona (Routledge, 2004), 267 pp. Ramon Resina, Joan. Barcelona's Vocation of Modernity: Rise and Decline of an Urban Image (Stanford UP, 2008). 272 pp. External links Barcelonaat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Travel guide from Wikivoyage Resources from Wikiversity Official website of Barcelona Official website of Barcelona in Spain's national tourism portal Places adjacent to Barcelona Cerdanyola del Vallès Sant Cugat del Vallès Montcada i Reixac Santa Coloma de Gramenet Molins de Rei Sant Feliu de Llobregat Sant Just Desvern Barcelona Sant Adrià de Besòs Esplugues de Llobregat L'Hospitalet de Llobregat El Prat de Llobregat Balearic Sea Articles related to Barcelona v t e Districts and neighbourhoods of Barcelona Ciutat Vella La Barceloneta Gothic Quarter El Raval Sant Pere, Santa Caterina i la Ribera L'Eixample L'Antiga Esquerra de l'Eixample La Nova Esquerra de l'Eixample Dreta de l'Eixample Fort Pienc Sagrada Família Sant Antoni Sants-Montjuïc La Bordeta La Font de la Guatlla Hostafrancs La Marina de Port La Marina del Prat Vermell El Poble-sec Sants Sants-Badal Montjuïc Zona Franca – Port Les Corts Les Corts La Maternitat i Sant Ramon Pedralbes Sarrià-Sant Gervasi El Putget i Farró Sarrià Sant Gervasi – la Bonanova Sant Gervasi – Galvany les Tres Torres Vallvidrera, el Tibidabo i les Planes Gràcia Vila de Gràcia Camp d'en Grassot i Gràcia Nova La Salut El Coll Vallcarca i els Penitents Horta-Guinardó El Baix Guinardó El Guinardó Can Baró El Carmel La Font d'en Fargues Horta La Clota Montbau Sant Genís dels Agudells La Teixonera Vall d'Hebron Nou Barris Can Peguera Canyelles Ciutat Meridiana La Guineueta Porta La Prosperitat Roquetes Torre Baró La Trinitat Nova El Turó de la Peira Vallbona Verdum Vilapicina i la Torre Llobeta Sant Andreu Baró de Viver Bon Pastor El Congrés i els Indians Navas Sant Andreu de Palomar La Sagrera Trinitat Vella Sant Martí El Besòs i el Maresme El Clot El Camp de l'Arpa del Clot Diagonal Mar i el Front Marítim del Poblenou El Parc i la Llacuna del Poblenou El Poblenou Provençals del Poblenou Sant Martí de Provençals La Verneda i la Pau La Vila Olímpica del Poblenou v t e Barcelona landmarks Beaches Barceloneta Sant Sebastià Somorrostro Buildings and structures Ancient synagogue Arc de Triomf Arenas de Barcelona Avinguda Diagonal Barcelona Cathedral Barcelona Pavilion Barcelona Royal Shipyard Basilica of Our Lady of Mercy Basilica of Saint Joseph Oriol Basilica of Saints Justus and Pastor Basilica of the Immaculate Conception Bellesguard Casa Amatller Casa Batlló Casa Bonaventura Ferrer Casa Bonet Casa Calvet Casa de les Punxes Casa Lleó Morera Casa Martí Casa Milà Casa Vicens Castle of the Three Dragons Columbus Monument Diagonal Zero Zero Dona i Ocell Els Quatre Gats Estació de França Fabra Observatory Font de Canaletes Forum Building Fossar de les Moreres Habitat Sky Hospital de Sant Pau Hotel Arts Jonqueres Monastery La Boqueria La Monumental Magic Fountain of Montjuïc Mercat del Born Monastery of Pedralbes Montjuïc Castle Montjuïc Communications Tower National Library of Catalonia Old Hospital de la Santa Creu Palau de la Generalitat de Catalunya Palau del Parlament de Catalunya Palau Güell Palau Nacional Palau Reial de Pedralbes Palau Reial Major Palau Robert Poble Espanyol Port Olímpic Port Vell Sagrada Família Santa Maria del Mar Santa Maria del Pi Temple Expiatori del Sagrat Cor Torre de Collserola Torre Glòries Venetian Towers Virreina Palace World Trade Center Barcelona Museums Archaeology Museum of Catalonia Barcelona Museum of Contemporary Art CaixaForum Barcelona Can Framis Museum Centre d'Art Santa Mònica Centre de Cultura Contemporània de Barcelona CosmoCaixa Barcelona FC Barcelona Museum Fundació Antoni Tàpies Fundació Joan Miró Gabinet de les Arts Gràfiques Gaudí House Museum Jardí Botànic de Barcelona Maritime Museum Museu Barbier-Mueller d'Art Precolombí Museu de la Música Museu de les Arts Decoratives Museu Frederic Marès Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya Museu Picasso Museu Tèxtil i d'Indumentària Museu de la Xocolata Museum of the History of Barcelona Museum of the History of Catalonia Olympic and Sports Museum Joan Antoni Samaranch Perfume Museum Vil·la Joana Performing arts L'Auditori Coliseum Gran Teatre del Liceu Palau de la Música Catalana Teatre Grec Teatre Lliure Teatre Nacional de Catalunya Teatre Principal Parks and gardens Catalunya en Miniatura Mossèn Costa i Llobera Gardens Oreneta Park Parc de la Ciutadella Parc de la Creueta del Coll Park Güell Parc Joan Miró Parc del Laberint d'Horta Streets and squares Avinguda Diagonal Avinguda Meridiana Gran Via de les Corts Catalanes La Rambla Passeig de Gràcia Plaça d'Espanya Plaça d'Ildefons Cerdà Plaça de Catalunya Plaça de Francesc Macià Plaça del Rei Plaça Reial Plaça Sant Jaume Rambla de Catalunya Sports venues Anella Olímpica Camp de Les Corts Camp Municipal Narcís Sala Camp Nou Estadi Olímpic Lluís Companys Mini Estadi Palau Blaugrana Palau dels Esports Palau Sant Jordi Sarrià Stadium Zoos Aquarium Barcelona Barcelona Zoo v t e Transport in Barcelona Road Motorways A-2 A-7 AP-2 AP-7 B-21 B-22 B-23 B-24 C-16 C-17 C-31 C-32 C-33 C-58 Ring roads B-10 (Ronda Litoral) B-20 (Ronda Dalt) B-30 B-40 Public transport Companies ATM FGC Renfe TMB TramMet Networks Buses Metro Rodalies Tramways Trambaix Trambesòs Stations Bus Nord Sagrera (under construction) Sants Train (Adif) França Sagrera (under construction) Sants Airport Barcelona–El Prat Airport Sabadell Airport (domestic flights) Seaport Port of Barcelona Leisure Bicing Bus (Tourist) Montjuïc Cable Car Montjuïc Funicular Port Vell Aerial Tramway Tibidabo Funicular Vallvidrera Funicular Category v t e Municipalities of Barcelonès Badalona Barcelona L'Hospitalet de Llobregat Sant Adrià de Besòs Santa Coloma de Gramenet v t e Municipalities in the province of Barcelona 1,500,000+ Barcelona 250,000+ L'Hospitalet de Llobregat 200,000+ Badalona Sabadell Terrassa 100,000+ Mataró Santa Coloma de Gramenet 75,000+ Cornellà de Llobregat Manresa Sant Boi de Llobregat Sant Cugat del Vallès 50,000+ Castelldefels Cerdanyola del Vallès Granollers Mollet del Vallès El Prat de Llobregat Rubí Viladecans Vilanova i la Geltrú 25,000+ Barberà del Vallès Esplugues de Llobregat Gavà Igualada Martorell Molins de Rei Montcada i Reixac Pineda de Mar Premià de Mar Ripollet Sant Adrià de Besòs Sant Andreu de la Barca Sant Feliu de Llobregat Sant Joan Despí Sant Pere de Ribes Sant Vicenç dels Horts Santa Perpètua de Mogoda Sitges Vic Vilafranca del Penedès under 25,000 Abrera Aguilar de Segarra Aiguafreda Alella Alpens L'Ametlla del Vallès Arenys de Mar Arenys de Munt Argençola Argentona Artés Avià Avinyó Avinyonet del Penedès Badia del Vallès Bagà Balenyà Balsareny Begues Bellprat Berga Bigues i Riells Borredà El Bruc El Brull Les Cabanyes Cabrera de Mar Cabrera d'Anoia Cabrils Calaf Calders Caldes de Montbui Caldes d'Estrac Calella Calonge de Segarra Calldetenes Callús Campins Canet de Mar Canovelles Cànoves i Samalús Canyelles Capellades Capolat Cardedeu Cardona Carme Casserres Castell de l'Areny Castellar de n'Hug Castellar del Riu Castellar del Vallès Castellbell i el Vilar Castellbisbal Castellcir Castellet i la Gornal Castellfollit de Riubregós Castellfollit del Boix Castellgalí Castellnou de Bages Castellolí Castellterçol Castellví de la Marca Castellví de Rosanes Centelles Cercs Cervelló Collbató Collsuspina Copons Corbera de Llobregat Cubelles Dosrius Esparreguera L'Espunyola L'Esquirol Estany Figaró-Montmany Fígols Fogars de la Selva Fogars de Montclús Folgueroles Fonollosa Font-rubí Les Franqueses del Vallès Gaià Gallifa La Garriga Gelida Gironella Gisclareny La Granada Granera Gualba Guardiola de Berguedà Gurb Els Hostalets de Pierola Jorba La Llacuna La Llagosta Lliçà d'Amunt Lliçà de Vall Llinars del Vallès Lluçà Malgrat de Mar Malla Manlleu Marganell Martorelles Les Masies de Roda Les Masies de Voltregà El Masnou Masquefa Matadepera Mediona Moià Monistrol de Calders Monistrol de Montserrat Montclar Montesquiu Montgat Montmajor Montmaneu Montmeló Montornès del Vallès Montseny Muntanyola Mura Navarcles Navàs La Nou de Berguedà Òdena Olèrdola Olesa de Bonesvalls Olesa de Montserrat Olivella Olost Olvan Orís Oristà Orpí Òrrius Pacs del Penedès Palafolls Palau-solità i Plegamans La Palma de Cervelló Pallejà El Papiol Parets del Vallès Perafita Piera El Pla del Penedès La Pobla de Claramunt La Pobla de Lillet Polinyà El Pont de Vilomara i Rocafort Pontons Prats de Lluçanès Els Prats de Rei Premià de Dalt Puigdàlber Puig-reig Pujalt La Quar Rajadell Rellinars La Roca del Vallès Roda de Ter Rubió Rupit i Pruit Sagàs Saldes Sallent Sant Agustí de Lluçanès Sant Andreu de Llavaneres Sant Antoni de Vilamajor Sant Bartomeu del Grau Sant Boi de Lluçanès Sant Cebrià de Vallalta Sant Celoni Sant Climent de Llobregat Sant Cugat Sesgarrigues Sant Esteve de Palautordera Sant Esteve Sesrovires Sant Feliu de Codines Sant Feliu Sasserra Sant Fost de Campsentelles Sant Fruitós de Bages Sant Hipòlit de Voltregà Sant Iscle de Vallalta Sant Jaume de Frontanyà Sant Joan de Vilatorrada Sant Julià de Cerdanyola Sant Julià de Vilatorta Sant Just Desvern Sant Llorenç d'Hortons Sant Llorenç Savall Sant Martí d'Albars Sant Martí de Centelles Sant Martí de Tous Sant Martí Sarroca Sant Martí Sesgueioles Sant Mateu de Bages Sant Pere de Riudebitlles Sant Pere de Torelló Sant Pere de Vilamajor Sant Pere Sallavinera Sant Pol de Mar Sant Quintí de Mediona Sant Quirze de Besora Sant Quirze del Vallès Sant Quirze Safaja Sant Sadurní d'Anoia Sant Sadurní d'Osormort Sant Salvador de Guardiola Sant Vicenç de Castellet Sant Vicenç de Montalt Sant Vicenç de Torelló Santa Cecília de Voltregà Santa Coloma de Cervelló Santa Eugènia de Berga Santa Eulàlia de Riuprimer Santa Eulàlia de Ronçana Santa Fe del Penedès Santa Margarida de Montbui Santa Margarida i els Monjos Santa Maria de Besora Santa Maria de Martorelles Santa Maria de Merlès Santa Maria de Miralles Santa Maria de Palautordera Santa Maria d'Oló Santa Susanna Santpedor Sentmenat Seva Sobremunt Sora Subirats Súria Tagamanent Talamanca Taradell Tavèrnoles Tavertet Teià Tiana Tona Tordera Torelló La Torre de Claramunt Torrelavit Torrelles de Foix Torrelles de Llobregat Ullastrell Vacarisses Vallbona d'Anoia Vallcebre Vallgorguina Vallirana Vallromanes Veciana Vilada Viladecavalls Vilalba Sasserra Vilanova de Sau Vilanova del Camí Vilanova del Vallès Vilassar de Dalt Vilassar de Mar Vilobí del Penedès Viver i Serrateix v t e Cities in Spain by population 1,000,000+ Madrid Barcelona 500,000 - 999,999 Valencia Seville Zaragoza Málaga 200,000 - 499,999 Murcia Palma Las Palmas de Gran Canaria Bilbao Alicante Cordoba Valladolid Vigo Gijón L'Hospitalet de Llobregat A Coruña Vitoria-Gasteiz Granada Elche Oviedo Badalona Cartagena Terrassa Jerez de la Frontera Sabadell Santa Cruz de Tenerife Móstoles Alcalá de Henares 100,000 - 199,999 Pamplona Fuenlabrada Almería Leganés San Sebastián Burgos Santander Castellón de la Plana Getafe Albacete Alcorcón Logroño San Cristóbal de La Laguna Badajoz Salamanca Huelva Lleida Marbella Tarragona León Cádiz Lleida Dos Hermanas Tarragona Torrejón de Ardoz Parla Mataró Algeciras Santa Coloma de Gramenet Alcobendas Jaén Ourense Reus Barakaldo Girona Complete list v t e Capitals of provinces of Spain A Coruña Albacete Alicante Almería Ávila Badajoz Barcelona Bilbao Burgos Cáceres Cádiz Castellón de la Plana Ciudad Real Córdoba Cuenca Donostia-San Sebastián Girona Granada Guadalajara Huelva Huesca Jaén Logroño Las Palmas León Lleida Lugo Madrid Málaga Murcia Ourense Oviedo Palencia Palma Pamplona Pontevedra Salamanca Santander Santa Cruz Segovia Seville Soria Tarragona Teruel Toledo Valencia Valladolid Vitoria-Gasteiz Zamora Zaragoza v t e Capitals of autonomous communities of Spain Seville Andalusia Zaragoza Aragon Oviedo Asturias Palma Balearic Islands Vitoria-Gasteiz Basque Country Santa Cruz & Las Palmas Canary Islands Santander Cantabria Toledo Castilla–La Mancha Valladolid de facto, Castile and León Barcelona Catalonia Mérida Extremadura Santiago de Compostela Galicia Logroño La Rioja Madrid Community of Madrid Murcia Region of Murcia Pamplona Navarre Valencia Valencian Community Ceuta1 Melilla1 1 Autonomous cities v t e Summer Olympic Games host cities 1896: Athens 1900: Paris 1904: St. Louis 1908: London 1912: Stockholm 1916: None[c1] 1920: Antwerp 1924: Paris 1928: Amsterdam 1932: Los Angeles 1936: Berlin 1940: None[c2] 1944: None[c2] 1948: London 1952: Helsinki 1956: Melbourne 1960: Rome 1964: Tokyo 1968: Mexico City 1972: Munich 1976: Montreal 1980: Moscow 1984: Los Angeles 1988: Seoul 1992: Barcelona 1996: Atlanta 2000: Sydney 2004: Athens 2008: Beijing 2012: London 2016: Rio de Janeiro 2020: Tokyo[c3] 2024: Paris 2028: Los Angeles [c1] Cancelled due to World War I; [c2] Cancelled due to World War II; [c3] Postponed to 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic v t e Summer Paralympic Games host cities 1960: Rome 1964: Tokyo 1968: Tel Aviv 1972: Heidelberg 1976: Toronto 1980: Arnhem 1984: New York City / Stoke Mandeville 1988: Seoul 1992: Barcelona / Madrid 1996: Atlanta 2000: Sydney 2004: Athens 2008: Beijing 2012: London 2016: Rio de Janeiro 2020: Tokyo 2024: Paris 2028: Los Angeles v t e Mediterranean Games Alexandria 1951 Barcelona 1955 Beirut 1959 Naples 1963 Tunis 1967 İzmir 1971 Algiers 1975 Split 1979 Casablanca 1983 Latakia 1987 Athens 1991 Languedoc-Roussillon 1993 Bari 1997 Tunis 2001 Almería 2005 Pescara 2009 Mersin 2013 Tarragona 2018 Oran 2021 Taranto 2026 v t e Capitals of European states and territories Capitals of dependent territories and states whose sovereignty is disputed shown in italics. Sovereign states Amsterdam, Netherlands1 Andorra la Vella, Andorra Ankara, Turkey3 Athens, Greece Baku, Azerbaijan3 Belgrade, Serbia Berlin, Germany Bern, Switzerland Bratislava, Slovakia Brussels, Belgium2 Bucharest, Romania Budapest, Hungary Chișinău, Moldova Copenhagen, Denmark Dublin, Ireland Helsinki, Finland Kyiv, Ukraine Lisbon, Portugal Ljubljana, Slovenia London, United Kingdom Luxembourg, Luxembourg Madrid, Spain Minsk, Belarus Monaco5 Moscow, Russia3 Nicosia, Cyprus4 Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan3 Oslo, Norway Paris, France Podgorica, Montenegro Prague, Czech Republic Reykjavík, Iceland Riga, Latvia Rome, Italy San Marino, San Marino Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Skopje, North Macedonia Sofia, Bulgaria Stockholm, Sweden Tallinn, Estonia Tbilisi, Georgia3 Tirana, Albania Vaduz, Liechtenstein Valletta, Malta Vatican City5 Vienna, Austria Vilnius, Lithuania Warsaw, Poland Yerevan, Armenia4 Zagreb, Croatia States with limited recognition North Nicosia, Northern Cyprus4 Pristina, Kosovo Stepanakert, Republic of Artsakh3 Sukhumi, Abkhazia3 Tiraspol, Transnistria Tskhinvali, South Ossetia3 Dependencies United Kingdom Constituent countries Cardiff, Wales Belfast, Northern Ireland Edinburgh, Scotland Crown dependencies Douglas, Isle of Man Episkopi Cantonment, Akrotiri and Dhekelia Gibraltar, Gibraltar Saint Helier, Jersey Saint Peter Port, Guernsey Other Longyearbyen, Svalbard (Norway) Tórshavn, Faroe Islands (Denmark) Federal states Austria Bregenz, Vorarlberg Eisenstadt, Burgenland Graz, Styria Innsbruck, Tyrol Klagenfurt, Carinthia Linz, Upper Austria Salzburg, Salzburg Sankt Pölten, Lower Austria Germany Bremen, Bremen Dresden, Saxony Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf Erfurt, Thuringia Hamburg, Hamburg Hanover, Lower Saxony Kiel, Schleswig-Holstein Magdeburg, Saxony-Anhalt Mainz, Rhineland-Palatinate Munich, Bavaria Potsdam, Brandenburg Saarbrücken, Saarland Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern Stuttgart, Baden-Württemberg Wiesbaden, Wiesbaden Russia Republics Cheboksary, Chuvashia Cherkessk, Karachay-Cherkessia Elista, Kalmykia Grozny, Chechnya Izhevsk, Udmurtia Kazan, Tatarstan Magas, Ingushetia Makhachkala, Dagestan Maykop, Adygea Nalchik, Kabardino-Balkaria Petrozavodsk, Karelia Saransk, Mordovia Simferopol, Crimea (disputed) Syktyvkar, Komi Yoshkar-Ola, Mari El Ufa, Bashkortostan Vladikavkaz, North Ossetia–Alania Federal cities Saint Petersburg, Saint Petersburg Sevastopol, Sevastopol (disputed) Switzerland Aarau, Aargau Altdorf, Uri Appenzell, Appenzell Innerrhoden Basel, Basel-Stadt Bellinzona, Ticino Chur, Grisons Delémont, Jura Frauenfeld, Thurgau Fribourg, Canton of Fribourg Geneva, Republic and canton of Geneva Herisau, Appenzell Ausserrhoden Lausanne, Vaud Liestal, Basel-Landschaft Lucerne, Canton of Lucerne Neuchâtel, Canton of Neuchâtel Sarnen, Obwalden Schaffhausen, Canton of Schaffhausen Schwyz, Canton of Schwyz Sion, Valais Solothurn, Canton of Solothurn Stans, Nidwalden St. Gallen, Canton of St. Gallen Glarus, Canton of Glarus Zug, Canton of Zug Zürich, Zürich Canton Autonomous entities Italy Autonomous regions Cagliari, Sardinia Palermo, Sicily Trento, Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol Aosta, Aosta Valley Trieste, Friuli Venezia Giulia Spain Autonomous communities Barcelona, Catalonia Las Palmas & Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary Islands Logroño, La Rioja Mérida, Extremadura Murcia, Murcia Oviedo, Asturias Palma de Mallorca, Balearic Islands Pamplona, Navarre Santander, Cantabria Santiago de Compostela, Galicia Seville, Andalusia Toledo, Castilla–La Mancha (de facto) Valencia, Valencia Valladolid, Castile and León (de facto) Vitoria-Gasteiz , Basque Country (de facto) Zaragoza, Aragon Other Ajaccio, Corsica Collectivité (France) Banja Luka (de facto), Republika Srpska (Bosnia and Herzegovina) Batumi, Adjara (Georgia) Brčko, Brčko District (Bosnia and Herzegovina) Comrat, Gagauzia (Moldova) Eupen, German Community (Belgium) Karyes, Mount Athos (Greece) Mariehamn, Åland Islands (Finland) Nakhchivan, Nakhchivan (Azerbaijan) Namur, Wallonia (Belgium) Novi Sad, Vojvodina (Serbia) 1 Also the capital of the Kingdom of the Netherlands 2 Also the seat of the European Union, see Institutional seats of the European Union and Brussels and the European Union 3 Spans the conventional boundary between Europe and Asia 4 Entirely in Western Asia but having socio-political connections with Europe 5 A city-state Authority control BNF: cb11933374k (data) GND: 4004503-1 ISNI: 0000 0001 2321 7649 LCCN: n79021052 MBAREA: 12c3b82e-fcab-4219-9bd5-792089d8280e NARA: 10045182 NDL: 00628992 NKC: ge128716 NLI: 000974571 TDVİA: berselune VIAF: 124213732 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79021052 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Barcelona&oldid=996435604" Categories: Barcelona 1st-century BC establishments in Spain Coloniae (Roman) Establishments in Spain in the Roman era Historic Jewish communities Mediterranean port cities and towns in Spain Populated places in Barcelonès 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en-wikipedia-org-9375	----	Category:Horace - Wikipedia Help Category:Horace From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikimedia Commons has media related to Quintus Horatius Flaccus. The main article for this category is Horace. See also: Category:Roman-era poets. Subcategories This category has only the following subcategory. P ► Poetry by Horace‎ (8 P) Pages in category "Horace" The following 18 pages are in this category, out of 18 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more).   Horace A Ab ovo Helenius Acron C Carpe diem Jacques De Crucque Cruquianus D Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori F Aristius Fuscus H Stephen Harrison (classicist) Horace's Villa I In medias res N Ne quid nimis Nullius in verba P Poetaster (play) Pomponius Porphyrion Purple prose S Sapere aude U Ut pictura poesis Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Horace&oldid=930042197" Categories: 1st-century BC writers 1st-century BC Romans 1st-century BC Roman poets Horatii Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia categories named after ancient Roman writers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية تۆرکجه Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Deutsch Español فارسی 한국어 Italiano Latina Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 9 December 2019, at 21:13 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9380	----	Roman concrete - Wikipedia Roman concrete From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Building material used in construction during the late Roman Republic and Empire The Pantheon in Rome is an example of Roman concrete construction. Roman concrete, also called opus caementicium, was a material used in construction in Ancient Rome. Roman concrete was based on a hydraulic-setting cement. It is durable due to its incorporation of pozzolanic ash, which prevents cracks from spreading. By the middle of the 1st century, the material was used frequently, often brick-faced, although variations in aggregate allowed different arrangements of materials. Further innovative developments in the material, called the concrete revolution, contributed to structurally complicated forms, such as the Pantheon dome, the world's largest and oldest unreinforced concrete dome.[1] Roman concrete was normally faced with stone or brick, and interiors might be further decorated by stucco, fresco paintings, or thin slabs of fancy colored marbles. Made up of aggregate and cement, like modern concrete, it differed in that the aggregate pieces were typically far larger than in modern concrete, often amounting to rubble, and as a result it was laid rather than poured.[2] Some Roman concretes were able to be set underwater, which was useful for bridges and other waterside construction. It is uncertain when Roman concrete was developed, but it was clearly in widespread and customary use from about 150 BC; some scholars believe it was developed a century before that.[3] Contents 1 Historic references 2 Material properties 3 Seismic technology 4 Modern use 5 See also 6 Literature 7 References 8 External links Historic references[edit] Caesarea is the earliest known example to have used underwater Roman concrete technology on such a large scale. Vitruvius, writing around 25 BC in his Ten Books on Architecture, distinguished types of aggregate appropriate for the preparation of lime mortars. For structural mortars, he recommended pozzolana (pulvis puteolanus in Latin), the volcanic sand from the beds of Pozzuoli, which are brownish-yellow-gray in color in that area around Naples, and reddish-brown near Rome. Vitruvius specifies a ratio of 1 part lime to 3 parts pozzolana for cement used in buildings and a 1:2 ratio of lime to pozzolana for underwater work, essentially the same ratio mixed today for concrete used in marine locations.[4] By the middle of the first century, the principles of underwater construction in concrete were well known to Roman builders. The city of Caesarea was the earliest known example to have made use of underwater Roman concrete technology on such a large scale.[5] For rebuilding Rome after the fire in 64 AD, which destroyed large portions of the city, Nero's new building code largely called for brick-faced concrete. This appears to have encouraged the development of the brick and concrete industries.[5] Example of opus caementicium on a tomb on the ancient Appian Way in Rome. The original covering has been removed. Material properties[edit] Roman concrete, like any concrete, consists of an aggregate and hydraulic mortar – a binder mixed with water that hardens over time. The aggregate varied, and included pieces of rock, ceramic tile, and brick rubble from the remains of previously demolished buildings. Gypsum and quicklime were used as binders. Volcanic dusts, called pozzolana or "pit sand", were favored where they could be obtained. Pozzolana makes the concrete more resistant to salt water than modern-day concrete.[6] The pozzolanic mortar used had a high content of alumina and silica. Tuff was often used as an aggregate.[7] Concrete, and in particular, the hydraulic mortar responsible for its cohesion, was a type of structural ceramic whose utility derived largely from its rheological plasticity in the paste state. The setting and hardening of hydraulic cements derived from hydration of materials and the subsequent chemical and physical interaction of these hydration products. This differed from the setting of slaked lime mortars, the most common cements of the pre-Roman world. Once set, Roman concrete exhibited little plasticity, although it retained some resistance to tensile stresses. The setting of pozzolanic cements has much in common with setting of their modern counterpart, Portland cement. The high silica composition of Roman pozzolana cements is very close to that of modern cement to which blast furnace slag, fly ash, or silica fume have been added. The strength and longevity of Roman marine concrete is understood to benefit from a reaction of seawater with a mixture of volcanic ash and quicklime to create a rare crystal called tobermorite, which may resist fracturing. As seawater percolated within the tiny cracks in the Roman concrete, it reacted with phillipsite naturally found in the volcanic rock and created aluminous tobermorite crystals. The result is a candidate for "the most durable building material in human history". In contrast, modern concrete exposed to saltwater deteriorates within decades.[8][9][10] Crystal structure of tobermorite: elementary unit cell Compressive strengths for modern Portland cements are typically at the 50 megapascals (7,300 psi) level and have improved almost ten-fold since 1860.[11][12] There are no comparable mechanical data for ancient mortars, although some information about tensile strength may be inferred from the cracking of Roman concrete domes. These tensile strengths vary substantially from the water/cement ratio used in the initial mix. At present, there is no way of ascertaining what water/cement ratios the Romans used, nor are there extensive data for the effects of this ratio on the strengths of pozzolanic cements.[12][13] Seismic technology[edit] For an environment as prone to earthquakes as the Italian peninsula, interruptions and internal constructions within walls and domes created discontinuities in the concrete mass. Portions of the building could then shift slightly when there was movement of the earth to accommodate such stresses, enhancing the overall strength of the structure. It was in this sense that bricks and concrete were flexible. It may have been precisely for this reason that, although many buildings sustained serious cracking from a variety of causes, they continue to stand to this day.[14] Another technology used to improve the strength and stability of concrete was its gradation in domes. One example is the Pantheon, where the aggregate of the upper dome region consists of alternating layers of light tuff and pumice, giving the concrete a density of 1,350 kilograms per cubic metre (84 lb/cu ft). The foundation of the structure used travertine as an aggregate, having a much higher density of 2,200 kilograms per cubic metre (140 lb/cu ft).[15] Modern use[edit] Recent scientific breakthroughs examining Roman concrete have been gathering media and industry attention.[16] Because of its unusual durability, longevity and lessened environmental footprint, corporations and municipalities are starting to explore the use of Roman-style concrete in North America, replacing the coal fly ash with volcanic ash that has similar properties. Proponents claim that concrete made with volcanic ash can cost up to 60% less because it requires less cement, and that it has a smaller environmental footprint due to its lower cooking temperature and much longer lifespan.[17] Usable examples of Roman concrete exposed to harsh marine environments have been found to be 2000 years old with little or no wear.[18] See also[edit] Energetically modified cement (EMC) – Class of cements, mechanically processed to transform reactivity Geopolymer Roman brick – A style of brick used in Ancient Roman architecture Pozzolanic reaction Tobermorite – Inosilicate alteration mineral in metamorphosed limestone and in skarn Literature[edit] Jean-Pierre Adam, Anthony Mathews, Roman Building, 1994 Lynne C. Lancaster, Concrete Vaulted Construction in Imperial Rome, Cambridge University Press, 2005 Heather N. Lechtman & Linn W. Hobbs, "Roman Concrete and the Roman Architectural Revolution", Ceramics and Civilization Volume 3: High Technology Ceramics: Past, Present, Future, edited by W. D. Kingery and published by the American Ceramics Society, 1986 W. L. MacDonald, The Architecture of the Roman Empire, rev. ed. Yale University Press, New Haven, 1982 References[edit] ^ Moore, David (February 1993). "The Riddle of Ancient Roman Concrete". S Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Upper Colorado Region. www.romanconcrete.com. Retrieved 20 May 2013. ^ Henig, Martin (ed), A Handbook of Roman Art, p. 30, Phaidon, 1983, ISBN 0714822140 ^ Boëthius, Axel, Ling, Roger, Rasmussen, Tom, Etruscan and Early Roman Architecture, pp. 128–129, Yale/Pelican history of art, 1978, Yale University Press, ISBN 0300052901, 978-0300052909, Google Books ^ Heather Lechtman and Linn Hobbs "Roman Concrete and the Roman Architectural Revolution", Ceramics and Civilization Volume 3: High Technology Ceramics: Past, Present, Future, edited by W.D. Kingery and published by the American Ceramics Society, 1986; and Vitruvius, Book II:v,1; Book V:xii2 ^ a b Lechtman and Hobbs "Roman Concrete and the Roman Architectural Revolution" ^ Wayman, Erin. “The Secrets of Ancient Rome’s Buildings.” Smithsonian.com. 16 November 2011. Retrieved 24 April 2012. ^ "Rome's Invisible City". BBC One. Retrieved 6 July 2017. ^ Guarino, Ben (4 July 2017). "Ancient Romans made world's 'most durable' concrete. We might use it to stop rising seas". The Washington Post. ^ Jackson, Marie D.; Mulcahy, Sean R.; Chen, Heng; Li, Yao; Li, Qinfei; Cappelletti, Piergiulio; Wenk, Hans-Rudolf (2017). "Phillipsite and Al-tobermorite mineral cements produced through low-temperature water-rock reactions in Roman marine concrete". American Mineralogist. 102 (7): 1435–1450. doi:10.2138/am-2017-5993CCBY. ISSN 0003-004X. ^ McGrath, Matt (4 July 2017). "Scientists explain ancient Rome's long-lasting concrete". Retrieved 6 July 2017 – via www.bbc.co.uk. ^ Eden, N. B.; Bailey, J. E. (1984). "Mechanical Properties and Tensile Failure Mechanism of a High Strength Polymer Modified Portland Cement". Journal of Materials Science. 19 (8): 2677–2685. doi:10.1007/BF00550825. ^ a b Lechtman; Hobbs (1986). "Roman Concrete and the Roman Architectural Revolution". High technology ceramics: past, present, and future : the nature of innovation and change in ceramic technology. ISBN 091609488X. ^ C. A. Langton and D. M. Roy, "Longevity of Borehole and Shaft Sealing Materials: Characterization of Ancient Cement Based Building Materials", Mat. Res. Soc. SYmp. Proc. 26, 543–549 (1984); and Topical Report ONWI-202, Battelle Memorial Institute, Office of Nuclear Waste Isolation, Distribution Category UC-70, National Technical Information Service, U.S. Department of Commerce (1982). ^ W. L. MacDonald, The Architecture of the Roman Empire, rev. ed. Yale University Press, New Haven, 1982, fig. 131B; Lechtman and Hobbs "Roman Concrete and the Roman Architectural Revolution" ^ K. de Fine Licht, The Rotunda in Rome: A Study of Hadrian's Pantheon. Jutland Archaeological Society, Copenhagen, 1968, pp. 89–94, 134–35; and Lechtman and Hobbs "Roman Concrete and the Roman Architectural Revolution" ^ "Fixing Canada's Infrastructure with Volcanoes". Trebuchet Capital Partners Research. Retrieved 19 August 2016. ^ https://www.thevintagenews.com/2016/09/06/priority-25-bc-ancient-romans-developed-recipe-concrete-specifically-used-underwater-work-essentially-formula-used-today/ ^ M. D. Jackson, S. R. Chae, R. Taylor, C. Meral, J. Moon, S. Yoon, P. Li, A. M. Emwas, G. Vola, H.-R. Wenk, and P. J. M. Monteiro, "Unlocking the secrets of Al-tobermorite in Roman seawater concrete", American Mineralogist, Volume 98, pp. 1669–1687, 2013. External links[edit] The Secrets of Ancient Rome's Buildings – article on Smithsonian.com Roman Seawater Concrete Holds the Secret to Cutting Carbon Emissions – article on Berkeley Lab website v t e Concrete History Ancient Roman architecture Roman architectural revolution Roman concrete Roman engineering Roman technology Composition Cement Portland cement Water Water–cement ratio Aggregate Reinforcement Fly ash Ground granulated blast-furnace slag Silica fume Metakaolin Production Plant Concrete mixer Volumetric mixer Reversing drum mixer Slump test Flow table test Curing Concrete cover Cover meter Rebar Construction Precast Cast in place Formwork Climbing formwork Slip forming Screed Power screed Finisher Power trowel Pump Float Sealer Tremie Science Properties Degradation Environmental impact Recycling Segregation in concrete Alkali–silica reaction Types Energetically modified cement Fiber-reinforced Filigree Foam Lunarcrete Mass concrete Nanoconcrete Pervious Polished Polymer 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Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_concrete&oldid=991278793" Categories: Ancient Roman architecture Concrete Concrete buildings and structures Building materials Masonry Pavements Sculpture materials Ancient inventions Architecture of Italy Architectural history Lost inventions Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Boarisch Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto Français Galego Hrvatski Italiano עברית Latina Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 29 November 2020, at 06:23 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9382	----	Soldier - Wikipedia Soldier From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search One who serves as part of an organized military force For other uses, see Soldier (disambiguation). For broader coverage of this topic, see Military personnel. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Soldier" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (August 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Soldier U.S. Army soldier WCAP, by CPT Nathaniel Garcia Occupation Occupation type Profession Activity sectors Military Description Competencies Physical Stamina Mindset Fields of employment Armies and fireteams Related jobs Airman Sailor Marine Commando v t e Army units and organization Subordinated element Fireteam ●  Squad / Crew  ●●  Platoon / Troop / Flight ●●●  Unit Company / Squadron / Battery |  Battalion / Cohort ||  Regiment  |||   Formation Brigade / Group / Wing x  Division / Legion xx  Corps xxx  Command Field army / Command xxxx  Army group / Front xxxxx  Region / Theater XXXXXX  Temporary Detachment Patrol Task force Brigade group Flying column Field force Combat command Battlegroup Regimental combat team Comparative military ranks in English Armies / Marines Navies / Coast guards Air forces / Space forces Commissioned officers Field marshal or General of the army Admiral of the fleet Marshal of the air force General Admiral Air chief marshal Lieutenant general Vice admiral Air marshal Major general Rear admiral Air vice-marshal Brigadier or brigadier general Commodore Air commodore Colonel Captain Group captain Lieutenant colonel Commander Wing commander Major or commandant Lieutenant commander Squadron leader Captain Lieutenant Flight lieutenant Lieutenant or first lieutenant Lieutenant junior grade or sub-lieutenant Flying officer Second lieutenant Ensign or midshipman Pilot officer Officer cadet Officer cadet Flight cadet Enlisted grades Warrant officer or sergeant major Warrant officer or chief petty officer Warrant officer Sergeant Petty officer Sergeant Corporal or bombardier Leading seaman Corporal Private or gunner or trooper Seaman Aircraftman or airman or aviator v t e A U.S. soldier on riot control duty Mexican soldier manning a vehicle-mounted machine gun A soldier is one who fights as part of a military. A soldier can be a conscripted or volunteer enlisted person, a non-commissioned officer, or an officer. In other definition, soldiers are military personnel that participate in ground, sea, or air forces, commonly known as armies, navies, and air forces, respectively.[1] Contents 1 Etymology 2 Occupational designations 3 Other terms 4 Career soldiers and conscripts 4.1 Women as soldiers 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Etymology[edit] The word soldier derives from the Middle English word soudeour, from Old French soudeer or soudeour, meaning mercenary, from soudee, meaning shilling's worth or wage, from sou or soud, shilling.[2] The word is also related to the Medieval Latin soldarius, meaning soldier (literally, "one having pay").[3] These words ultimately derive from the Late Latin word solidus, referring to an Ancient Roman coin used in the Byzantine Empire.[2][3] Occupational designations[edit] In most armies use of the word "soldier" has taken on a more general meaning due to the increasing specialization of military occupations that require different areas of knowledge and skill-sets. As a result, "soldiers" are referred to by names or ranks which reflect an individual's military occupation specialty arm, service, or branch of military employment, their type of unit, or operational employment or technical use such as: trooper, tanker (a member of tank crew), commando, dragoon, infantryman, guardian, artilleryman, paratrooper, grenadier, ranger, sniper, engineer, sapper, craftsman, signaller, medic, or a gunner. Other terms[edit] In many countries soldiers serving in specific occupations are referred to by terms other than their occupational name. For example, military police personnel in the British Army are known as "red caps" because of the colour of their caps (and berets). Infantry are sometimes called "grunts" (in the United States Army) or "squaddies" (in the British Army), while U.S. Army artillery crews, or "gunners," are sometimes referred to as "redlegs", from the service branch color for artillery.[citation needed] U.S. soldiers are often called "G.I.s" (short for the term "General Issue"). French Marine Infantry are called marsouins (French: porpoises) because of their amphibious role.[citation needed] Military units in most armies have nicknames of this type, arising either from items of distinctive uniform, some historical connotation or rivalry between branches or regiments. Career soldiers and conscripts[edit] Some soldiers, such as conscripts or draftees, serve a single limited term. Others choose to serve until retirement; then they receive a pension and other benefits. In the United States, military members can retire after 20 years.[4] In other countries, the term of service is 30 years, hence the term "30-year man". Women as soldiers[edit] Female sergeant of the Ghana Army According to the United Nations, 10–30% of all soldiers worldwide are women. 70–90% are men.[5] See also[edit] Airman Marine Sailor Military ranks References[edit] ^ "soldier - Dictionary Definition". Vocabulary.com. Retrieved 19 July 2020. ^ a b Mish, Frederick C., ed. (2004). "soldier". Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (11th ed.). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster. ISBN 0-87779-809-5. ^ a b Harper, Douglas (2010). "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 17 August 2010. ^ "20-Year Retirement". Armytimes.com. Retrieved 8 March 2012. ^ "#YouthStats: Armed Conflict". United Nations Office of Secretary General. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Soldiers Look up soldier in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Media related to Soldier at Wikimedia Commons Authority control GND: 4055409-0 LCCN: sh85124554 NARA: 10642821 NDL: 00562631 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Soldier&oldid=996477676" Categories: Soldiers Military specialisms Military life Combat occupations Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles needing additional references from August 2011 All articles needing additional references Use dmy dates from April 2020 Articles containing Middle English (1100-1500)-language text Articles containing Old French (842-ca. 1400)-language text Articles containing Latin-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2016 Articles containing French-language text Articles with unsourced statements from October 2011 Commons link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NARA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deitsch Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 Hausa Հայերեն Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ Қазақша Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Lingála Magyar Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Монгол Nederlands नेपाली 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Tok Pisin Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Walon 吴语 ייִדיש 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 26 December 2020, at 21:08 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9411	----	Horace (disambiguation) - Wikipedia Horace (disambiguation) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Look up Horace in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Horace (65 BC–8 BC) was a Roman poet. Horace may also refer to: Horace (given name) Contents 1 Places 2 Other uses 3 See also Places[edit] Horace, Indiana Horace, Kansas Horace, Nebraska Horace, North Dakota Horace (crater), a crater on Mercury Other uses[edit] Horace (play), a 1640 play by Pierre Corneille Horace (television play), 1972 British play by Roy Minton Horace series, a 1980s video game series Horace, an 1840 novel by George Sand See also[edit] Horatio (disambiguation) Horus (disambiguation) Disambiguation page providing links to topics that could be referred to by the same search term This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Horace. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horace_(disambiguation)&oldid=976130865" Categories: Disambiguation pages Place name disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Disambiguation pages with short descriptions Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Brezhoneg Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano Nederlands Polski Português Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Volapük Edit links This page was last edited on 1 September 2020, at 10:16 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9423	----	Roman censor - Wikipedia Roman censor From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman magistrate responsible for the census and monitoring public morality For other uses, see Censor (disambiguation). This article relies too much on references to primary sources. Please improve this by adding secondary or tertiary sources. (February 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e The censor (at any time, there were two) was a magistrate in ancient Rome who was responsible for maintaining the census, supervising public morality, and overseeing certain aspects of the government's finances.[1] The power of the censor was absolute: no magistrate could oppose his decisions, and only another censor who succeeded him could cancel those decisions. The censor's regulation of public morality is the origin of the modern meaning of the words censor and censorship.[2] Contents 1 Early history of the magistracy 2 Election 3 Attributes 4 Abolition 5 Duties 5.1 Census 5.1.1 Census beyond Rome 5.1.2 Other uses of census 5.2 Regimen morum 5.2.1 Punishments 5.3 Administration of the finances of the state 5.3.1 Overseeing public works 5.4 Lustrum 6 Census statistics 6.1 Sources 7 See also 8 References 9 External links Early history of the magistracy[edit] The census was first instituted by Servius Tullius, sixth king of Rome, c. 575–535 BC. After the abolition of the monarchy and the founding of the Republic in 509 BC, the consuls had responsibility for the census until 443 BC.[citation needed] In 442 BC, no consuls were elected, but tribunes with consular power were appointed instead. This was a move by the plebeians to try to attain higher magistracies:[citation needed] only patricians could be elected consuls, while some military tribunes were plebeians. To prevent the possibility of plebeians obtaining control of the census, the patricians removed the right to take the census from the consuls and tribunes, and appointed for this duty two magistrates, called censores (censors), elected exclusively from the patricians in Rome.[citation needed] The magistracy continued to be controlled by patricians until 351 BC, when Gaius Marcius Rutilus was appointed the first plebeian censor.[3] Twelve years later, in 339 BC, one of the Publilian laws required that one censor had to be a plebeian.[4] Despite this, no plebeian censor performed the solemn purification of the people (the "lustrum"; Livy Periochae 13) until 280 BC. In 131 BC, for the first time, both censors were plebeians.[5] The reason for having two censors was that the two consuls had previously taken the census together. If one of the censors died during his term of office, another was chosen to replace him, just as with consuls. This happened only once, in 393 BC. However, the Gauls captured Rome in that lustrum (five-year period), and the Romans thereafter regarded such replacement as "an offense against religion".[6] From then on, if one of the censors died, his colleague resigned, and two new censors were chosen to replace them.[7] Initially the office of censor was limited to eighteen months by a law of the dictator Mamercus Aemilius Mamercinus;[8] and the office therefore was of less importance in the 5th and 4th centuries BC. However, during the censorship of Appius Claudius Caecus (312–308 BC) the prestige of the censorship massively increased: Caecus built the first-ever Roman road (the Via Appia) and the first Roman aqueduct (the Aqua Appia), both named after him;[9] he changed the organisation of the Roman tribes and was the first censor to draw the list of senators; and he also advocated the founding of Roman colonies (colonia) throughout Latium and Campania to support the Roman war effort in the Second Samnite War. With these efforts and reforms, Appius Claudius Caecus was able to hold the censorship for a whole lustrum (five-year period); and the office of censor, subsequently entrusted with various important duties, eventually attained one of the highest political statuses in the Roman Republic, second only to that of the consuls. Election[edit] The censors were elected in the Centuriate Assembly, which met under the presidency of a consul.[10] Barthold Niebuhr suggests that the censors were at first elected by the Curiate Assembly, and that the Assembly's selections were confirmed by the Centuriate, but William Smith believes that "there is no authority for this supposition, and the truth of it depends entirely upon the correctness of [Niebuhr's] views respecting the election of the consuls". Both censors had to be elected on the same day, and accordingly if the voting for the second was not finished in the same day, the election of the first was invalidated, and a new assembly had to be held.[11] The assembly for the election of the censors was held under different auspices from those at the election of the consuls and praetors, so the censors were not regarded as their colleagues, although they likewise possessed the maxima auspicia.[12] The assembly was held by the new consuls shortly after they began their term of office;[13] and the censors, as soon as they were elected and the censorial power had been granted to them by a decree of the Centuriate Assembly (lex centuriata), were fully installed in their office.[14] As a general principle, the only ones eligible for the office of censor were those who had previously been consuls, but there were a few exceptions. At first, there was no law to prevent a person being censor twice, but the only person who was elected to the office twice was Gaius Marcius Rutilus in 265 BC. In that year, he originated a law stating that no one could be elected censor twice. In consequence of this, he received the cognomen of Censorinus.[15] Attributes[edit] The censorship differed from all other Roman magistracies in the length of office. The censors were originally chosen for a whole lustrum (the period of five years), but as early as ten years after its institution (433 BC) their office was limited to eighteen months by a law of the dictator Mamercus Aemilius Mamercinus.[16] The censors were also unique with respect to rank and dignity. They had no imperium, and accordingly no lictors.[17] Their rank was granted to them by the Centuriate Assembly, and not by the curiae, and in that respect they were inferior in power to the consuls and praetors.[18] Notwithstanding this, the censorship was regarded as the highest dignity in the state, with the exception of the dictatorship; it was a "sacred magistracy" (sanctus magistratus), to which the deepest reverence was due.[19] The high rank and dignity which the censorship obtained was due to the various important duties gradually entrusted to it, and especially to its possessing the regimen morum, or general control over the conduct and the morals of the citizens. In the exercise of this power, they were regulated solely by their own views of duty, and were not responsible to any other power in the state.[20] The censors possessed the official stool called a "curule chair" (sella curulis),[21] but some doubt exists with respect to their official dress. A well-known passage of Polybius[22] describes the use of the imagines at funerals; we may conclude that a consul or praetor wore the purple-bordered toga praetexta, one who triumphed the embroidered toga picta, and the censor a purple toga peculiar to him, but other writers speak of their official dress as being the same as that of the other higher magistrates.[23] The funeral of a censor was always conducted with great pomp and splendour, and hence a "censorial funeral" (funus censorium) was voted even to the emperors.[24] Abolition[edit] The censorship continued in existence for 421 years, from 443 BC to 22 BC, but during this period, many lustra passed by without any censor being chosen at all. According to one statement, the office was abolished by Lucius Cornelius Sulla.[25] Although the authority on which this statement rests is not of much weight, the fact itself is probable, since there was no census during the two lustra which elapsed from Sulla's dictatorship to Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey)'s first consulship (82–70 BC), and any strict "imposition of morals" would have been found inconvenient to the aristocracy that supported Sulla.[citation needed] If the censorship had been done away with by Sulla, it was at any rate restored in the consulship of Pompey and Marcus Licinius Crassus. Its power was limited by one of the laws of the tribune Publius Clodius Pulcher (58 BC), which prescribed certain regular forms of proceeding before the censors in expelling a person from the Roman Senate, and required that the censors be in agreement to exact this punishment.[26] This law, however, was repealed in the third consulship of Pompey in 52 BC, on the urging of his colleague Q. Caecilius Metellus Scipio,[27] but the office of the censorship never recovered its former power and influence.[citation needed] During the civil wars which followed soon afterwards, no censors were elected; it was only after a long interval that they were again appointed, namely in 22 BC, when Augustus caused Lucius Munatius Plancus and Aemilius Lepidus Paullus to fill the office.[28] This was the last time that such magistrates were appointed; the emperors in future discharged the duties of their office under the name of Praefectura Morum ("prefect of the morals").[citation needed] Some of the emperors sometimes took the name of censor when they held a census of the Roman people; this was the case with Claudius, who appointed the elder Lucius Vitellius as his colleague,[29] and with Vespasian, who likewise had a colleague in his son Titus.[30] Domitian assumed the title of "perpetual censor" (censor perpetuus),[31] but this example was not imitated by succeeding emperors. In the reign of Decius, we find the elder Valerian nominated to the censorship,[32] but Valerian was never actually elected censor.[citation needed] Duties[edit] The duties of the censors may be divided into three classes, all of which were closely connected with one another: The Census, or register of the citizens and of their property, in which were included the reading of the Senate's lists (lectio senatus) and the recognition of who qualified for equestrian rank (recognitio equitum); The Regimen Morum, or keeping of the public morals; and The administration of the finances of the state, under which were classed the superintendence of the public buildings and the erection of all new public works.[33] The original business of the censorship was at first of a much more limited kind, and was restricted almost entirely to taking the census,[34] but the possession of this power gradually brought with it fresh power and new duties, as is shown below. A general view of these duties is briefly expressed in the following passage of Cicero:[35] "Censores populi aevitates, soboles, familias pecuniasque censento: urbis templa, vias, aquas, aerarium, vectigalia tuento: populique partes in tribus distribunto: exin pecunias, aevitates, ordines patiunto: equitum, peditumque prolem describunto: caelibes esse prohibento: mores populi regunto: probrum in senatu ne relinquunto." This can be translated as: "The Censors are to determine the generations, origins, families, and properties of the people; they are to (watch over/protect) the city's temples, roads, waters, treasury, and taxes; they are to divide the people into three parts; next, they are to (allow/approve) the properties, generations, and ranks [of the people]; they are to describe the offspring of knights and footsoldiers; they are to forbid being unmarried; they are to guide the behavior of the people; they are not to overlook abuse in the Senate." Census[edit] The Census, the first and principal duty of the censors, was always held in the Campus Martius, and from the year 435 BC onwards, in a special building called Villa Publica, which was erected for that purpose by the second pair of censors, Gaius Furius Pacilus Fusus and Marcus Geganius Macerinus.[36] An account of the formalities with which the census was opened is given in a fragment of the Tabulae Censoriae, preserved by Varro.[37] After the auspices had been taken, the citizens were summoned by a public crier to appear before the censors. Each tribe was called up separately,[38] and the names in each tribe were probably taken according to the lists previously made out by the tribunes of the tribes. Every paterfamilias had to appear in person before the censors, who were seated in their curule chairs, and those names were taken first which were considered to be of good omen, such as Valerius, Salvius, Statorius, etc.[39] The census was conducted according to the judgment of the censor (ad arbitrium censoris), but the censors laid down certain rules,[40] sometimes called leges censui censendo,[41] in which mention was made of the different kinds of property subject to the census, and in what way their value was to be estimated. According to these laws, each citizen had to give an account of himself, of his family, and of his property upon oath, "declared from the heart".[42] First he had to give his full name (praenomen, nomen, and cognomen) and that of his father, or if he were a Libertus ("freedman") that of his patron, and he was likewise obliged to state his age. He was then asked, "You, declaring from your heart, do you have a wife?" and if married he had to give the name of his wife, and likewise the number, names, and ages of his children, if any.[43] Single women and orphans were represented by their guardians; their names were entered in separate lists, and they were not included in the sum total of heads.[44] After a citizen had stated his name, age, family, etc., he then had to give an account of all his property, so far as it was subject to the census. Only such things were liable to the census (censui censendo) as were property according to the Quiritarian law. At first, each citizen appears to have merely given the value of his whole property in general without entering into details;[45] but it soon became the practice to give a minute specification of each article, as well as the general value of the whole.[46] Land formed the most important article of the census, but public land, the possession of which only belonged to a citizen, was excluded as not being Quiritarian property. If we may judge from the practice of the imperial period, it was the custom to give a most minute specification of all such land as a citizen held according to the Quiritarian law. He had to state the name and location of the land, and to specify what portion of it was arable, what meadow, what vineyard, and what olive-ground: and of the land thus described, he had to give his assessment of its value.[47] Slaves and cattle formed the next most important item. The censors also possessed the right of calling for a return of such objects as had not usually been given in, such as clothing, jewels, and carriages.[48] It has been doubted by some modern writers whether the censors possessed the power of setting a higher valuation on the property than the citizens themselves gave, but when we recollect the discretionary nature of the censors' powers, and the necessity almost that existed, in order to prevent fraud, that the right of making a surcharge should be vested in somebody's hands, we can hardly doubt that the censors had this power. It is moreover expressly stated that on one occasion they made an extravagant surcharge on articles of luxury;[48] and even if they did not enter in their books the property of a person at a higher value than he returned it, they accomplished the same end by compelling him to pay a tax upon the property at a higher rate than others. The tax was usually one per thousand upon the property entered in the books of the censors, but on one occasion the censors compelled a person to pay eight per thousand as a punishment.[49] A person who voluntarily absented himself from the census was considered incensus and subject to the severest punishment. Servius Tullius is said to have threatened such individuals with imprisonment and death,[50] and in the Republican period he might be sold by the state as a slave.[51] In the later period of the Republic, a person who was absent from the census might be represented by another, and be thus registered by the censors.[52] Whether the soldiers who were absent on service had to appoint a representative is uncertain. In ancient times, the sudden outbreaks of war prevented the census from being taken,[53] because a large number of the citizens would necessarily be absent. It is supposed from a passage in Livy[54] that in later times the censors sent commissioners into the provinces with full powers to take the census of the Roman soldiers there, but this seems to have been a special case. It is, on the contrary, probable from the way in which Cicero pleads the absence of Archias from Rome with the army under Lucullus, as a sufficient reason for his not having been enrolled in the census,[55] that service in the army was a valid excuse for absence. After the censors had received the names of all the citizens with the amount of their property, they then had to make out the lists of the tribes, and also of the classes and centuries; for by the legislation of Servius Tullius the position of each citizen in the state was determined by the amount of his property (Comitia Centuriata). These lists formed a most important part of the Tabulae Censoriae, under which name were included all the documents connected in any way with the discharge of the censors' duties.[56] These lists, insofar as they were connected with the finances of the state, were deposited in the aerarium, which was the temple of Saturn;[57] but the regular depository for all the archives of the censors was in earlier times the Atrium Libertatis, near the Villa Publica,[58] and in later times the temple of the Nymphs.[59] Besides the division of the citizens into tribes, centuries, and classes, the censors had also to make out the lists of the senators for the ensuing five years, or until new censors were appointed; striking out the names of such as they considered unworthy, and making additions to the body from those who were qualified. In the same manner they held a review of the Equestrians who received a horse from public funds (equites equo publico), and added and removed names as they judged proper. They also confirmed the princeps senatus, or appointed a new one. The princeps himself had to be a former censor. After the lists had been completed, the number of citizens was counted up, and the sum total announced. Accordingly, we find that in the account of a census, the number of citizens is likewise usually given. They are in such cases spoken of as capita ("heads"), sometimes with the addition of the word civium ("of the citizens"), and sometimes not. Hence, to be registered in the census was the same thing as "having a head" (caput habere). Census beyond Rome[edit] A census was sometimes taken in the provinces, even under the Republic.[60] The Emperor sent into the provinces special officers called Censitores to take the census;[61] but the duty was sometimes discharged by the Imperial legati.[62] The Censitores were assisted by subordinate officers, called Censuales, who made out the lists, etc.[63] In Rome, the census was still taken under the empire, but the old ceremonies connected with it were no longer performed, and the ceremony of the lustration was not performed after the time of Vespasian. The jurists Paulus and Ulpian each wrote works on the census in the imperial period; and several extracts from these works are given in a chapter in the Digest (50 15). Other uses of census[edit] The word census, besides the conventional meaning of "valuation" of a person's estate, has other meaning in Rome; it could refer to: the amount of a person's property (hence we read of census senatorius, the estate of a senator; census equestris, the estate of an eques). the lists of the censors. the tax which depended upon the valuation in the census. The Lexicons will supply examples of these meanings. Regimen morum[edit] Keeping the public morals (regimen morum, or in the empire cura morum or praefectura morum) was the second most important branch of the censors' duties, and the one which caused their office to be one of the most revered and the most dreaded in the Roman state; hence they were also known as Castigatores ("chastisers"). It naturally grew out of the right which they possessed of excluding persons from the lists of citizens; for, as has been well remarked, "they would, in the first place, be the sole judges of many questions of fact, such as whether a citizen had the qualifications required by law or custom for the rank which he claimed, or whether he had ever incurred any judicial sentence, which rendered him infamous: but from thence the transition was easy, according to Roman notions, to the decisions of questions of right; such as whether a citizen was really worthy of retaining his rank, whether he had not committed some act as justly degrading as those which incurred the sentence of the law." In this manner, the censors gradually assumed at least nominal complete superintendence over the whole public and private life of every citizen. They were constituted as the conservators of public morality; they were not simply to prevent crime or particular acts of immorality, but rather to maintain the traditional Roman character, ethics, and habits (mos majorum)—regimen morum also encompassed this protection of traditional ways,[64] which was called in the times of the empire cura ("supervision") or praefectura ("command"). The punishment inflicted by the censors in the exercise of this branch of their duties was called nota ("mark, letter") or notatio, or animadversio censoria ("censorial reproach"). In inflicting it, they were guided only by their conscientious convictions of duty; they had to take an oath that they would act biased by neither partiality nor favour; and, in addition to this, they were bound in every case to state in their lists, opposite the name of the guilty citizen, the cause of the punishment inflicted on him, Subscriptio censoria.[65] This part of the censors' office invested them with a peculiar kind of jurisdiction, which in many respects resembled the exercise of public opinion in modern times; for there are innumerable actions which, though acknowledged by everyone to be prejudicial and immoral, still do not come within the reach of the positive laws of a country; as often said, "immorality does not equal illegality". Even in cases of real crimes, the positive laws frequently punish only the particular offence, while in public opinion the offender, even after he has undergone punishment, is still incapacitated for certain honours and distinctions which are granted only to persons of unblemished character. Hence the Roman censors might brand a man with their "censorial mark" (nota censoria) in case he had been convicted of a crime in an ordinary court of justice, and had already suffered punishment for it. The consequence of such a nota was only ignominia and not infamia.[66] Infamia and the censorial verdict was not a judicium or res judicata,[67] for its effects were not lasting, but might be removed by the following censors, or by a lex (roughly "law"). A censorial mark was moreover not valid unless both censors agreed. The ignominia was thus only a transitory reduction of status, which does not even appear to have deprived a magistrate of his office,[68] and certainly did not disqualify persons labouring under it for obtaining a magistracy, for being appointed as judices by the praetor, or for serving in the Roman armies. Mamercus Aemilius Mamercinus was thus, notwithstanding the reproach of the censors (animadversio censoria), made dictator.[69] A person might be branded with a censorial mark in a variety of cases, which it would be impossible to specify, as in a great many instances it depended upon the discretion of the censors and the view they took of a case; and sometimes even one set of censors would overlook an offence which was severely chastised by their successors.[70] But the offences which are recorded to have been punished by the censors are of a threefold nature. Such as occurred in the private life of individuals, e.g. Living in celibacy at a time when a person ought to be married to provide the state with citizens.[71] The obligation of marrying was frequently impressed upon the citizens by the censors, and the refusal to fulfil it was punished with a fine (aes uxorium). The dissolution of matrimony or betrothment in an improper way, or for insufficient reasons.[72] Improper conduct towards one's wife or children, as well as harshness or too great indulgence towards children, and disobedience of the latter towards their parents.[73] Inordinate and luxurious mode of living, or an extravagant expenditure of money. A great many instances of this kind are recorded.[74] At a later time the leges sumptuariae were made to check the growing love of luxuries. Neglect and carelessness in cultivating one's fields.[75] Cruelty towards slaves or clients.[76] The carrying on of a disreputable trade or occupation,[77] such as acting in theatres.[78] Legacy-hunting, defrauding orphans, etc. Offences committed in public life, either in the capacity of a public officer or against magistrates, If a magistrate acted in a manner not befitting his dignity as an officer, if he was accessible to bribes, or forged auspices.[79] Improper conduct towards a magistrate, or the attempt to limit his power or to abrogate a law which the censors thought necessary.[80] Perjury.[81] Neglect, disobedience, and cowardice of soldiers in the army.[82] The keeping of the equus publicus (a horse kept by patrician equestrian militia at public expense) in bad condition. A variety of actions or pursuits which were thought to be injurious to public morality, might be forbidden by an edict,[83] and those who acted contrary to such edicts were branded with the nota and degraded. For an enumeration of the offences that might be punished by the censors with ignominia, see Niebuhr.[84] A person who had been branded with a nota censoria, might, if he considered himself wronged, endeavour to prove his innocence to the censors,[85] and if he did not succeed, he might try to gain the protection of one of the censors, that he might intercede on his behalf. Punishments[edit] The punishments inflicted by the censors generally differed according to the station which a man occupied, though sometimes a person of the highest rank might suffer all the punishments at once, by being degraded to the lowest class of citizens. But they are generally divided into four classes: Motio ("removal") or ejectio e senatu ("ejection from the Senate"), or the exclusion of a man from the ranks of senators. This punishment might either be a simple exclusion from the list of senators, or the person might at the same time be excluded from the tribes and degraded to the rank of an aerarian.[86] The latter course seems to have been seldom adopted; the ordinary mode of inflicting the punishment was simply this: the censors in their new lists omitted the names of such senators as they wished to exclude, and in reading these new lists in public, quietly omitted the names of those who were no longer to be senators. Hence the expression praeteriti senatores ("senators passed over") is equivalent to e senatu ejecti (those removed from the senate).[87] In some cases, however, the censors did not acquiesce to this simple mode of proceeding, but addressed the senator whom they had noted, and publicly reprimanded him for his conduct.[88] As, however, in ordinary cases an ex-senator was not disqualified by his ignominia for holding any of the magistracies which opened the way to the senate, he might at the next census again become a senator.[89] The ademptio equi, or the taking away the publicly funded horse from an equestrian. This punishment might likewise be simple, or combined with the exclusion from the tribes and the degradation to the rank of an aerarian.[90] The motio e tribu, or the exclusion of a person from his tribe. This punishment and the degradation to the rank of an aerarian were originally the same; but when in the course of time a distinction was made between the rural or rustic tribes and the urban tribes, the motio e tribu transferred a person from the rustic tribes to the less respectable city tribes, and if the further degradation to the rank of an aerarian was combined with the motio e tribu, it was always expressly stated.[91] The fourth punishment was called referre in aerarios[92] or facere aliquem aerarium,[93] and might be inflicted on any person who was thought by the censors to deserve it. This degradation, properly speaking, included all the other punishments, for an equestrian could not be made an aerarius unless he was previously deprived of his horse, nor could a member of a rustic tribe be made an aerarius unless he was previously excluded from it.[94] It was this authority of the Roman censors which eventually developed into the modern meaning of "censor" and "censorship"—i.e., officials who review published material and forbid the publication of material judged to be contrary to "public morality" as the term is interpreted in a given political and social environment. Administration of the finances of the state[edit] The administration of the state's finances was another part of the censors' office. In the first place the tributum, or property-tax, had to be paid by each citizen according to the amount of his property registered in the census, and, accordingly, the regulation of this tax naturally fell under the jurisdiction of the censors.[95] They also had the superintendence of all the other revenues of the state, the vectigalia, such as the tithes paid for the public lands, the salt works, the mines, the customs, etc. The censors typically auctioned off to the highest bidder for the space of a lustrum the collection of the tithes and taxes (tax farming). This auctioning was called venditio or locatio, and seems to have taken place in the month of March,[96] in a public place in Rome[97] The terms on which they were let, together with the rights and duties of the purchasers, were all specified in the leges censoriae, which the censors published in every case before the bidding commenced.[98] For further particulars see Publicani. The censors also possessed the right, though probably not without the assent of the Senate, of imposing new vectigalia,[99] and even of selling the land belonging to the state.[100] It would thus appear that it was the duty of the censors to bring forward a budget for a five-year period, and to take care that the income of the state was sufficient for its expenditure during that time. In part, their duties resembled those of a modern minister of finance. The censors, however, did not receive the revenues of the state. All the public money was paid into the aerarium, which was entirely under the jurisdiction of the senate; and all disbursements were made by order of this body, which employed the quaestors as its officers. Overseeing public works[edit] In one important department, the public works, the censors were entrusted with the expenditure of the public money (though the actual payments were no doubt made by the quaestors). The censors had the general superintendence of all the public buildings and works (opera publica), and to meet the expenses connected with this part of their duties, the senate voted them a certain sum of money or certain revenues, to which they were restricted, but which they might at the same time employ according to their discretion.[101] They had to see that the temples and all other public buildings were in a good state of repair,[102] that no public places were encroached upon by the occupation of private persons,[103] and that the aqueduct, roads, drains, etc. were properly attended to. The repairs of the public works and the keeping of them in proper condition were let out by the censors by public auction to the lowest bidder, just as the vectigalia were let out to the highest bidder. These expenses were called ultrotributa, and hence we frequently find vectigalia and ultrotributa contrasted with one another.[104] The persons who undertook the contract were called conductores, mancipes, redemptores, susceptores, etc.; and the duties they had to discharge were specified in the Leges Censoriae. The censors had also to superintend the expenses connected with the worship of the gods, even for instance the feeding of the sacred geese in the Capitol; these various tasks were also let out on contract.[105] It was ordinary for censors to expend large amounts of money (“by far the largest and most extensive” of the state)[106] in their public works. Besides keeping existing public buildings and facilities in a proper state of repair, the censors were also in charge of constructing new ones, either for ornament or utility, both in Rome and in other parts of Italy, such as temples, basilicae, theatres, porticoes, fora, walls of towns, aqueducts, harbours, bridges, cloacae, roads, etc. These works were either performed by them jointly, or they divided between them the money, which had been granted to them by the senate.[107] They were let out to contractors, like the other works mentioned above, and when they were completed, the censors had to see that the work was performed in accordance with the contract: this was called opus probare or in acceptum referre.[108] The first ever Roman road, the Via Appia, and the first Roman aqueduct, the Aqua Appia, were all constructed under the censorship of Appius Claudius Caecus, one of the most influential censors. The aediles had likewise a superintendence over the public buildings, and it is not easy to define with accuracy the respective duties of the censors and aediles, but it may be remarked in general that the superintendence of the aediles had more of a police character, while that of the censors were more financial in subject matter. Lustrum[edit] After the censors had performed their various duties and taken the five-yearly census, the lustrum, a solemn purification of the people, followed. When the censors entered upon their office, they drew lots to see which of them should perform this purification;[109] but both censors were of course obliged to be present at the ceremony. Long after the Roman census was no longer taken, the Latin word lustrum has survived, and been adopted in some modern languages, in the derived sense of a period of five years, i.e. half a decennium. Census statistics[edit] Census Number of Roman citizens Economic crises Wars Epidemics 508 BC 130,000 505–504 BC 503 BC 120,000 499 or 496 BC 498 BC 150,700 493 BC 110,000 492–491 BC 486 BC 474 BC 103,000 474 BC 474 BC 465 BC 104,714 459 BC 117,319 456 BC 454 BC 454 BC 440–439 BC 433 BC 433 BC 428 BC 428 BC 412 BC 412 BC 400 BC 396 BC 392 BC 152,573 392 BC 392 BC 390 BC 390 BC 386 BC 383 BC 383 BC 343–341 BC 340 BC 165,000 340–338 BC 326–304 BC 323 BC 150,000 299 BC 298–290 BC 294 BC 262,321 293/292 BC 289 BC 272,200 281 BC 280 BC 287,222 280–275 BC 276 BC 271,224 276 BC? 265 BC 292,234 264–241 BC 252 BC 297,797 250 BC 250 BC 247 BC 241,712 241 BC 260,000 234 BC 270,713 216 BC 216 BC 211–210 BC 211–210 BC 209 BC 137,108 204 BC 214,000 204 BC 203 BC 201 BC 200 BC 200–195 BC 194 BC 143,704 192–188 BC 189 BC 258,318 187 BC 182–180 BC 179 BC 258,318 176–175 BC 174 BC 269,015 171–167 BC 169 BC 312,805 165 BC 164 BC 337,022 159 BC 328,316 154 BC 324,000 153 BC 147 BC 322,000 142 BC 322,442 142 BC 138 BC 136 BC 317,933 131 BC 318,823 125 BC 394,736 123 BC 115 BC 394,336 104 BC 87 BC 86 BC 463,000 75 BC 70 BC 910,000 67 BC 65 BC 54 BC 49–46 BC 43 BC 28 BC 4,063,000 23–22 23–22 8 BC 4,233,000 5–6 10 14 AD 4,937,000 Sources[edit] Brunt, P. A. Italian Manpower 225 BC – AD 14. Oxford, 1971; Wiseman, T. P. (1969). "The Census in the First Century B.C". Journal of Roman Studies. 59 (1/2): 59–75. doi:10.2307/299848. JSTOR 299848. Virlouvet, C. Famines et émeutes à Rome, des origines de la République à la mort de Néron. Roma, 1985; Suder, W., Góralczyk, E. Sezonowość epidemii w Republice Rzymskiej. Vitae historicae, Księga jubileuszowa dedykowana profesorowi Lechowi A. Tyszkiewiczowi w siedemdziesiątą rocznicę urodzin. Wrocław, 2001. Suolahti, J. The Roman Censors: A Study on Social Structure. Helsinki, 1963. Melnichuk Y. Birth of the Roman censorship: Exploring the ancient tradition of the civil control of ancient Rome. - Moscow, 2010 See also[edit] Birth registration in Ancient Rome Constitution of the Roman Republic Cursus honorum Lex Caecilia De Censoria List of topics related to ancient Rome List of censors Political institutions of Rome Pauly–Wissowa Roman Republic References[edit] ^ Suolahti, J. (1963) The Roman Censors: A Study on Social Structure (Helsinki) ^ Online Etymology Dictionary ^ Livy vii.22. ^ Livy viii.12. ^ Swithinbank, Hannah J. (October 2012). "Censor". The Encyclopedia of Ancient History. doi:10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah20027. ^ Livy v.31. ^ Livy vi.27, ix.34, xxiv.43, xxvii.6. ^ Livy iv.24, ix.33. ^ "The Romans: From Village to Empire: A History of Rome from Earliest Times to the End of the Western Empire" by M. Boatwright, et al. 2nd edition. 2011. ^ Aulus Gellius xiii.15; Livy xl.45. ^ Livy ix.34. ^ Gellii xiii.15. ^ Livy xxiv.10, xxxix.41. ^ Cicero, de Lege Agraria ii.11; Livy xl.45. ^ Plutarch, Life of Coriolanus 1; Valerius Maximus iv.1 §3. ^ Livy iv.24, ix.33. ^ Zonar. vii.19. ^ Cicero, de Lege Agraria ii.11. ^ Plutarch Life of Cato the Elder 16, Life of Flaminius 18, Life of Camillus 2, 14, Life of Aemilius 38; Cicero ad Familiares iii.10. ^ Dionys. in Mai, Nova Coll. vol. ii p516; Livy iv.24, xxix.37; Valerius Maximus vii.2 §6. ^ Livy xl.45. ^ vi.53. ^ Zonar. vii.19; Athen. xiv. p660c. ^ Tacitus Annales iv.15, xiii.2. ^ Schol. Gronov. ad Cic. Div. in Caecil. 3, p384, ed. Johann Caspar Orelli. ^ Cassius Dio xxxviii.13; Cicero pro Sestio 25, de Prov. Cons. 15. ^ Cassius Dio xl.57. ^ Suetonius Life of Augustus 37, Life of Claudius 16; Cassius Dio liv.2. ^ Suetonius Life of Claudius 16; Tacitus Annales xii.4, Historia i.9. ^ Suet. Vesp. 8, Tit. 6. ^ Cassius Dio liii.18. ^ Symmach. Ep. iv.29, v.9) ^ Suolahti, J. (1963) The Roman Censors: A Study on Social Structure (Helsinki) 58f ^ Livy iv.8. ^ De legibus iii.3. ^ Livy iv.22; Varro de Re Rustica iii.2. ^ De lingua Latina vi.86, 87, ed. Müller. ^ Dionys. v.75. ^ Festus, s.v. Lacus Lucrinus; Schol. Bob. ad Cic. pro Scaur. p374, ed. Orelli. ^ Livy iv.8, xxix.15. ^ Liv. xliii.14. ^ Dionysius iv.15; Livy xliii.14. ^ Gell. iv.20; Cicero de Oratore ii.64; Tab. Heracl. 142 (68); Digesta Iustiniani 50 tit.15 s3. ^ cf. Livy iii.3, Periochae 59. ^ Dionysius iv.15; Cicero de Legibus iii.3; Festus, s.v. Censores. ^ cf. Cicero pro Flacc. 32; Gell. vii.11; Plutarch Life of Cato the Elder 18. ^ Digesta Iustiniani 50 tit.15 s4. ^ a b Livy xxxix.44; Plutarch Life of Cato the Elder 18. ^ Livy iv.24. ^ Livy i.44. ^ Cicero pro Caecina Oratio 34. ^ Varro De lingua Latina vi.86. ^ Livy vi.31. ^ xxix.37. ^ pro Licinio Archia 5. ^ Cicero de Legibus iii.3; Liv. xxiv.18; Plut. Cat. Maj. 16; Cic. de Leg. Agr. i.2. ^ Liv. xxix.37. ^ Liv. xliii.16, xlv.15. ^ Cic. pro Mil. 27. ^ Cicero In Verrem ii.53, 56. ^ Dig. 50 tit.15 s4 § 1; Cassiod. Var. ix.11; Orelli, Inscr. No. 3652. ^ Tacitus Ann. i.31, ii.6. ^ Capitol. Gordian. 12; Symmach. Ep. x.43; Cod. Theod. 8 tit.2. ^ Cicero de Legibus iii.3; Livy iv.8, xxiv.18, xl.46, xli.27, xlii.3; Suetonius Life of Augustus 27. ^ Livy xxxix.42; Cicero pro Cluentio Oratio 42‑48; Gell. iv.20. ^ Cicero de Re Publica iv.6. ^ Cicero pro Cluentio Oratio 42. ^ (Livy xxiv.18. ^ Livy iv.31. ^ Cicero de Senectute 12. ^ Valerius Maximus ii.9 §1. ^ Valerius Maximus ii.9 §2. ^ Plutarch Life of Cato the Elder 17; cf. Cicero de Re Publica iv.6; Dionys. xx.3. ^ Livy Periochae 14, xxxix.4; Plutarch Life of Cato the Elder 18; Gellius, iv.8; Valerius Maximus ii.9 §4. ^ Auli Gellii iv.12; Pliny Natural History xviii.3. ^ Dionysius xx.3. ^ Dionysius, l.c. ^ Livy vii.2. ^ Cicero de Senectute 12; Livy xxxix. 42; Valerius Maximus ii. 9. § 3; Plutarch Cato Major 17; Cicero De Divinatione i. 16. ^ Livy iv. 24; Cicero de Oratore ii. 64; Valerius Maximus ii. 9. § 5; Gellius, iv. 20. ^ Cicero de Oratore i. 13; Livy xxiv. 18; Gellius vii. 18. ^ Valerius Maximus ii. 9. § 7; Livy. xxiv. 18, xxvii. 11. ^ Gellius, xv.11. ^ History of Rome, vol. ii p399, &c. ^ causam agere apud censores, Varro de re Rustica i.7. ^ Liv. xxiv.18. ^ Livy xxxviii.28, xxvii.11, xxxiv.44; Festus, s.v. Praeteriti. ^ Livy xxiv.18. ^ Cicero pro Cluentio Oratio 42, Plutarch Life of Cicero 17. ^ Livy xxiv.18, 43, xxvii.11, xxix.37, xliii.16. ^ Liv. xlv.15, Plin. H.N. xviii.3. ^ Livy xxiv.18; Cicero pro Cluentio Oratio 43. ^ Livy xliii.43. ^ Livy iv.24, xxiv.18, &c. ^ cf. Livy xxxix.44. ^ Macrobius Saturnalia i.12. ^ Cicero de Lege Agraria i.3, ii.21. ^ Cicero ad Qu. Fr. i.1 §12, In Verrem iii.7, De Natura Deorum iii.19, Varro de re rustica ii.1. ^ Livy xxix.37, xl.51. ^ Livy xxxii.7. ^ Polybius vi.13; Livy xl.46, xliv.16. ^ aedes sacras tueri and sarta tecta exigere, Livy xxiv.18, xxix.37, xlii.3, xlv.15. ^ loca tueri, Livy xlii.3, xliii.16. ^ Livy xxxix.44, xliii.16. ^ Plutarch Roman Questions 98; Pliny Natural History x.22; Cicero pro Sexto Roscio Amerino Oratio 20. ^ Polybius 6.13.3 ^ Liv. xl.51, xliv.16. ^ Cicero In Verrem i.57; Livy iv.22, xlv.15; Lex Puteol. p73, Spang. ^ lustrum facere or condere, Varro De lingua Latina vi.86; Livy xxix.37, xxxv.9, xxxviii.36, xlii.10. External links[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. London: John Murray. 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en-wikipedia-org-9440	----	View source for Horace - Wikipedia View source for Horace ← Horace Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ====Knight==== ''Odes'' 1–3 were the next focus for his artistic creativity. He adapted their forms and themes from Greek lyric poetry of the seventh and sixth centuries BC. The fragmented nature of the [[Greek world]] had enabled his literary heroes to express themselves freely and his semi-retirement from the Treasury in Rome to [[Horace's Villa|his own estate]] in the Sabine hills perhaps empowered him to some extent also<ref>V. Kiernan, ''Horace: Poetics and Politics'', 61–62</ref> yet even when his lyrics touched on public affairs they reinforced the importance of private life.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Nevertheless, his work in the period 30–27 BC began to show his closeness to the regime and his sensitivity to its developing ideology. In ''Odes'' 1.2, for example, he eulogized Octavian in hyperboles that echo Hellenistic court poetry. The name ''Augustus'', which Octavian assumed in January 27 BC, is first attested in ''Odes'' 3.3 and 3.5. In the period 27–24 BC, political allusions in the ''Odes'' concentrated on foreign wars in Britain (1.35), Arabia (1.29) Spain (3.8) and Parthia (2.2). He greeted Augustus on his return to Rome in 24 BC as a beloved ruler upon whose good health he depended for his own happiness (3.14).<ref>R. Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 13</ref> The public reception of ''Odes'' 1–3 disappointed him, however. He attributed the lack of success to jealousy among imperial courtiers and to his isolation from literary cliques.<ref>''Epistles'' 1.19.35–44</ref> Perhaps it was disappointment that led him to put aside the genre in favour of verse letters. He addressed his first book of ''Epistles'' to a variety of friends and acquaintances in an urbane style reflecting his new social status as a knight. In the opening poem, he professed a deeper interest in moral philosophy than poetry<ref>''Epistles'' 1.1.10</ref> but, though the collection demonstrates a leaning towards stoic theory, it reveals no sustained thinking about ethics.<ref>V. Kiernan, ''Horace: Poetics and Politics'', 149, 153</ref> Maecenas was still the dominant confidante but Horace had now begun to assert his own independence, suavely declining constant invitations to attend his patron.<ref>''Epistles'' 1.7</ref> In the final poem of the first book of ''Epistles'', he revealed himself to be forty-four years old in the consulship of Lollius and Lepidus i.e. 21 BC, and "of small stature, fond of the sun, prematurely grey, quick-tempered but easily placated".<ref>''Epistles'' 1.20.24–25</ref><ref>R. Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 14–15</ref> According to Suetonius, the second book of ''Epistles'' was prompted by Augustus, who desired a verse epistle to be addressed to himself. Augustus was in fact a prolific letter-writer and he once asked Horace to be his personal secretary. Horace refused the secretarial role but complied with the emperor's request for a verse letter.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 17–18</ref> The letter to Augustus may have been slow in coming, being published possibly as late as 11 BC. It celebrated, among other things, the 15 BC military victories of his stepsons, Drusus and Tiberius, yet it and the following letter<ref>''Epistles'' 2.2</ref> were largely devoted to literary theory and criticism. The literary theme was explored still further in ''Ars Poetica'', published separately but written in the form of an epistle and sometimes referred to as ''Epistles'' 2.3 (possibly the last poem he ever wrote).<ref>R. Ferri, ''The Epistles'', 121</ref> He was also commissioned to write odes commemorating the victories of Drusus and Tiberius<ref>''Odes'' 4.4 and 4.14</ref> and one to be sung in a temple of Apollo for the [[Secular Games]], a long-abandoned festival that Augustus revived in accordance with his policy of recreating ancient customs (''Carmen Saeculare''). Suetonius recorded some gossip about Horace's sexual activities late in life, claiming that the walls of his bedchamber were covered with obscene pictures and mirrors, so that he saw erotica wherever he looked.<ref group="nb">Suetonius signals that the report is based on rumours by employing the terms "traditur...dicitur" / "it is reported...it is said" (E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 21)</ref> The poet died at 56 years of age, not long after his friend Maecenas, near whose tomb he was laid to rest. Both men bequeathed their property to Augustus, an honour that the emperor expected of his friends.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 23</ref> Return to Horace. 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en-wikipedia-org-9441	----	Castra - Wikipedia Castra From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the Latin term. For the star system, see Epsilon Capricorni. Play media Templeborough Roman Fort in South Yorkshire visualised 3D flythrough, produced for Rotherham Museums and Archives. Part of a series on the Military of ancient Rome 753 BC – AD 476 Structural history Army Unit types and ranks Decorations and punishments Legions Auxilia Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Campaign history Wars and battles Technological history Military engineering Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Political history   Strategy and tactics Infantry tactics Frontiers and fortifications Limes Limes Britannicus Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Limes Germanicus Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes Norican Limes Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannonian Limes Limes Alutanus Limes Moesiae Trajan's Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmatiae Limes Arabicus Limes Tripolitanus Limes Mauretaniae  Ancient Rome portal •  War portal v t e In the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, the Latin word castrum[1] (plural castra) was a building, or plot of land, used as a fortified military camp. In English, the terms 'Roman fort', 'Roman camp' and 'Roman fortress' are commonly used for castrum. However, scholastic convention tends toward the use of the words 'fort', 'camp', 'marching camp' and 'fortress' as a translation of castrum.[2] Castrum was the term used for different sizes of camps including a large legionary fortress, smaller forts for Cohorts or Auxiliaries, temporary encampments, and "marching" forts. The diminutive form castellum was used for fortlets,[3] typically occupied by a detachment of a cohort or a centuria. For a list of known castra see List of castra. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Linguistic development of the military castra 3 Description 4 Plan of forts 4.1 Sources and origins 4.2 Layout 4.3 Wall and ditch 4.4 Interval 4.5 Streets, gates and central plaza 4.6 Canteen 4.7 Major buildings 4.8 Barracks 4.9 Sanitation 4.10 Territory 4.11 Modifications in practice 4.12 Quadrangular camps in later times 5 Camp life 5.1 Ordinary life 5.2 Duties 6 See also 7 References 7.1 Primary sources 7.2 Secondary sources 8 External links 8.1 General 8.2 Forts and fortifications 8.3 Camp life Etymology[edit] Castrum appears in Oscan and Umbrian, two other Italic languages, suggesting an origin at least as old as Proto-Italic language. Julius Pokorny [4] traces a probable derivation from *k̂es-, schneiden (“cut”) in *k̂es-tro-m, Schneidewerkzeug (“cutting tool”). These Italic reflexes based on *kastrom include Oscan castrous (genitive case) and Umbrian castruo, kastruvuf (accusative case). They have the same meaning, says Pokorny, as Latin fundus, an estate, or tract of land. This is not any land, but is a prepared or cultivated tract, such as a farm enclosed by a fence or a wooden or stone wall of some kind. Cornelius Nepos uses Latin castrum in that sense: when Alcibiades deserts to the Persians, Pharnabazus gives him an estate (castrum) worth 500 talents in tax revenues.[5] This is a change of meaning from the reflexes in other languages, which still mean some sort of knife, axe, or spear. Pokorny explains it as ’Lager’ als ‘abgeschnittenes Stück Land’, “a lager, as a cut-off piece of land.” If this is the civilian interpretation, the military version must be “military reservation,” a piece of land cut off from the common land around it and modified for military use. All castra must be defended by works, often no more than a stockade, for which the soldiers carried stakes, and a ditch. The castra could be prepared under attack within a hollow square or behind a battle line. Considering that the earliest military shelters were tents made of hide or cloth, and all but the most permanent bases housed the men in tents placed in quadrangles and separated by numbered streets, one castrum may well have acquired the connotation of tent.[6] Linguistic development of the military castra[edit] The commonest Latin syntagmata (here phrases) for the term castra are: castra stativa Permanent camp/fortresses castra aestiva Summer camp/fortresses castra hiberna Winter camp/fortresses castra navalia / castra nautica Navy camp/fortresses In Latin the term castrum is much more frequently used as a proper name for geographical locations: e.g., Castrum Album, Castrum Inui, Castrum Novum, Castrum Truentinum, Castrum Vergium. The plural was also used as a place name, as Castra Cornelia, and from this comes the Welsh place name prefix caer- and English suffixes -caster and -chester; e.g., Winchester, Lancaster. Castrorum Filius, "son of the camps," was one of the names used by the emperor Caligula and then also by other emperors. Castro, also derived from Castrum, is a common Spanish family name as well as toponym in Italy, the Balkans and Spain and other Hispanophone countries, either by itself or in various compounds such as the World Heritage Site of Gjirokastër (earlier Argurokastro). The terms stratopedon (army camp) and phrourion (fortification) were used by Greek language authors to translate castrum and castellum, respectively. Description[edit] Basic ideal plan of a Roman castrum. (1) Principia; (2) Via Praetoria; (3) Via Principalis; (4) Porta Principalis Dextra; (5) Porta Praetoria (main gate); (6) Porta Principalis Sinistra; (7) Porta Decumana (back gate). A castrum was designed to house and protect the soldiers, their equipment and supplies when they were not fighting or marching. The most detailed description that survives about Roman military camps is De Munitionibus Castrorum, a manuscript of 11 pages that dates most probably from the late 1st to early 2nd century AD.[7] Regulations required a major unit in the field to retire to a properly constructed camp every day. "… as soon as they have marched into an enemy's land, they do not begin to fight until they have walled their camp about; nor is the fence they raise rashly made, or uneven; nor do they all abide ill it, nor do those that are in it take their places at random; but if it happens that the ground is uneven, it is first levelled: their camp is also four-square by measure, and carpenters are ready, in great numbers, with their tools, to erect their buildings for them."[8] To this end a marching column ported the equipment needed to build and stock the camp in a baggage train of wagons and on the backs of the soldiers. Camps were the responsibility of engineering units to which specialists of many types belonged, officered by architecti, "chief engineers", who requisitioned manual labor from the soldiers at large as required. They could throw up a camp under enemy attack in as little as a few hours. Judging from the names, they probably used a repertory of camp plans, selecting the one appropriate to the length of time a legion would spend in it: tertia castra, quarta castra, etc. (a camp of three days, four days, etc.).[9] More permanent camps were castra stativa (standing camps). The least permanent of these were castra aestiva or aestivalia, "summer camps", in which the soldiers were housed sub pellibus or sub tentoriis, "under tents".[10] Summer was the campaign season. For the winter the soldiers retired to castra hiberna containing barracks and other buildings of more solid materials, with timber construction gradually being replaced by stone.[11] The camp allowed the Romans to keep a rested and supplied army in the field. Neither the Celtic nor Germanic armies had this capability: they found it necessary to disperse after only a few days. The largest castra were legionary fortresses built as bases for one or more whole legions.[12][13] From the time of Augustus more permanent castra with wooden or stone buildings and walls were introduced as the distant and hard-won boundaries of the expanding empire required permanent garrisons to control local and external threats from war-like tribes. Previously, legions were raised for specific military campaigns and subsequently disbanded, requiring only temporary castra. From then on many castra of various sizes were established many of which became permanent settlements. Plan of forts[edit] Plan of a typical Roman fort. Reconstructed gateway of a Castrum Stativum at Arbeia (South Shields). Note the battlements, the Roman arches, the turres. Reconstruction of the specula or vigilarium (Germanic burgus), "watchtower", a type of castrum, at Rainau-Buch, Germany. An ancient watchtower would have been surrounded by wall and ditch.[14] Sources and origins[edit] From the most ancient times Roman camps were constructed according to a certain ideal pattern, formally described in two main sources, the De Munitionibus Castrorum and the works of Polybius.[15] P. Fl. Vegetius Renatus has a small section on entrenched camps as well. The terminology varies but the basic plan is the same.[16] The hypothesis of an Etruscan origin is a viable alternative.[17] Layout[edit] The reconstructed porta praetoria of Castrum Pfünz, Germany, near the Rhaetian Limes. Late Roman fort in Jordan Late Roman Quadriburgium in Hungary The ideal enforced a linear plan for a camp or fort: a square for camps to contain one legion or smaller unit, a rectangle for two legions, each legion being placed back-to-back with headquarters next to each other. Laying it out was a geometric exercise conducted by experienced officers called metatores, who used graduated measuring rods called decempedae ("10-footers") and gromatici who used a groma, a sighting device consisting of a vertical staff with horizontal cross pieces and vertical plumb-lines. Ideally the process started in the centre of the planned camp at the site of the headquarters tent or building (principia). Streets and other features were marked with coloured pennants or rods. The street plans of various present-day cities still retain traces of a Roman camp, for example Marsala in Sicily, the ancient Lilybaeum, where the name of the main street, the Cassaro, perpetuates the name "castrum". Wall and ditch[edit] Castrum at Masada. Note the classical "playing-card" layout. The Castrum's special structure also defended from attacks. The base (munimentum, "fortification") was placed entirely within the vallum ("wall"), which could be constructed under the protection of the legion in battle formation if necessary. The vallum was quadrangular aligned on the cardinal points of the compass. The construction crews dug a trench (fossa), throwing the excavated material inward, to be formed into the rampart (agger). On top of this a palisade of stakes (sudes or valli) was erected. The soldiers had to carry these stakes on the march.[18] Over the course of time, the palisade might be replaced by a fine brick or stone wall, and the ditch serve also as a moat. A legion-sized camp always placed towers at intervals along the wall with positions between for the division artillery. Interval[edit] Around the inside periphery of the vallum was a clear space, the intervallum, which served to catch enemy missiles, as an access route to the vallum and as a storage space for cattle (capita) and plunder (praeda). Legionaries were quartered in a peripheral zone inside the intervallum, which they could rapidly cross to take up position on the vallum. Inside of the legionary quarters was a peripheral road, the Via Sagularis, probably a type of "service road", as the sagum, a kind of cloak, was the garment of soldiers. Streets, gates and central plaza[edit] Reconstructed east gate of a Castrum Stativum, a more permanent base, at Welzheim, Germany. Porta called Savoia, Susa, Piedmont, 275-290 BC. Every camp included "main street", which ran through the camp in a north-south direction and was very wide. The names of streets in many cities formerly occupied by the Romans suggest that the street was called cardo or cardus maximus. This name applies more to cities than it does to ancient camps.[19] Typically "main street" was the via principalis. The central portion was used as a parade ground and headquarters area. The "headquarters" building was called the praetorium because it housed the praetor or base commander ("first officer"), and his staff. In the camp of a full legion he held the rank of consul or proconsul but officers of lesser ranks might command. On one side of the praetorium was the quaestorium, the building of the quaestor (supply officer). On the other side was the forum, a small duplicate of an urban forum, where public business could be conducted. Along the Via Principalis were the homes or tents of the several tribunes in front of the barracks of the units they commanded. The Via Principalis went through the vallum in the Porta Principalis Dextra ("right principal gate") and Porta Principalis Sinistra ("left, etc."), which were gates fortified with turres ("towers"). Which was on the north and which on the south depends on whether the praetorium faced east or west, which remains unknown. The central region of the Via Principalis with the buildings for the command staff was called the Principia (plural of principium). It was actually a square, as across this at right angles to the Via Principalis was the Via Praetoria, so called because the praetorium interrupted it. The Via Principalis and the Via Praetoria offered another division of the camp into four quarters. Porta Decumana at Weißenburg, Bavaria, Germany Across the central plaza (principia) to the east or west was the main gate, the Porta Praetoria. Marching through it and down "headquarters street" a unit ended up in formation in front of the headquarters. The standards of the legion were located on display there, very much like the flag of modern camps. On the other side of the praetorium the Via Praetoria continued to the wall, where it went through the Porta Decumana. In theory this was the back gate. Supplies were supposed to come in through it and so it was also called, descriptively, the Porta Quaestoria. The term Decumana, "of the 10th", came from the arranging of manipuli or turmae from the first to the 10th, such that the 10th was near the intervallum on that side. The Via Praetoria on that side might take the name Via Decumana or the entire Via Praetoria be replaced with Decumanus Maximus.[20] Canteen[edit] In peaceful times the camp set up a marketplace with the natives in the area. They were allowed into the camp as far as the units numbered 5 (half-way to the praetorium). There another street crossed the camp at right angles to the Via Decumana, called the Via Quintana, "5th street". If the camp needed more gates, one or two of the Porta Quintana were built, presumably named dextra and sinistra. If the gates were not built, the Porta Decumana also became the Porta Quintana. At "5th street" a public market was allowed.[citation needed] Major buildings[edit] Model of the legionary fortress of Deva (Chester) plus adjoining amphitheatre in Britannia (reconstruction). Not much remains of these horrea (granaries) at Arbeia, but the longitudinal supports for the floor can be seen. The Via Quintana and the Via Principalis divided the camp into three districts: the Latera Praetorii, the Praetentura and the Retentura. In the latera ("sides") were the Arae (sacrificial altars), the Auguratorium (for auspices), the Tribunal, where courts martial and arbitrations were conducted (it had a raised platform), the guardhouse, the quarters of various kinds of staff and the storehouses for grain (horrea) or meat (carnarea). Sometimes the horrea were located near the barracks and the meat was stored on the hoof. Analysis of sewage from latrines indicates the legionary diet was mainly grain. Also located in the Latera was the Armamentarium, a long shed containing any heavy weapons and artillery not on the wall. Roman artillery piece (Onager) The Praetentura ("stretching to the front") contained the Scamnum Legatorum, the quarters of officers who were below general but higher than company commanders (Legati).[21] Near the Principia were the Valetudinarium (hospital), Veterinarium (for horses), Fabrica ("workshop", metals and wood), and further to the front the quarters of special forces. These included Classici ("marines", as most European camps were on rivers and contained a river naval command), Equites ("cavalry"), Exploratores ("scouts"), and Vexillarii (carriers of vexillae, the official pennants of the legion and its units). Troops who did not fit elsewhere also were there. The part of the Retentura ("stretching to the rear") closest to the Principia contained the Quaestorium. By the late empire it had developed also into a safekeep for plunder and a prison for hostages and high-ranking enemy captives. Near the Quaestorium were the quarters of the headquarters guard (Statores), who amounted to two centuries (companies). If the Imperator was present they served as his bodyguard. Barracks[edit] A sanitary channel at Potaissa, Dacia (modern Romania). It is placed cross-slope with a slight decline and then exits down-slope. Further from the Quaestorium were the tents of the Nationes ("natives"), who were auxiliaries of foreign troops, and the legionaries themselves in double rows of tents or barracks (Strigae). One Striga was as long as required and 18 m wide. In it were two Hemistrigia of facing tents centered in its 9 m strip. Arms could be stacked before the tents and baggage carts kept there as well. Space on the other side of the tent was for passage. In the northern places like Britain, where it got cold in the winter, they would make wood or stone barracks. The Romans would also put a fireplace in the barracks. They had about three bunk beds in it. They had a small room beside it where they put their armour; it was as big as the tents. They would also make these barracks if the fort they had was going to stay there for good.[22] A tent was 3 by 3.5 metres (0.6 m for the aisle), ten men per tent. Ideally a company took 10 tents, arranged in a line of 10 companies, with the 10th near the Porta Decumana. Of the c. 9.2 square metres of bunk space each man received 0.9, or about 0.6 by 1.5 m, which was only practical if they slept with heads to the aisle. The single tent with its men was called contubernium, also used for "squad". A squad during some periods was 8 men or fewer. The Centurion, or company commander, had a double-sized tent for his quarters, which served also as official company area. Other than there, the men had to find other places to be. To avoid mutiny, it became extremely important for the officers to keep them busy. A covered portico might protect the walkway along the tents. If barracks had been constructed, one company was housed in one barracks building, with the arms at one end and the common area at the other. The company area was used for cooking and recreation, such as gaming. The army provisioned the men and had their bread (panis militaris) baked in outdoor ovens, but the men were responsible for cooking and serving themselves. They could buy meals or supplementary foods at the canteen. The officers were allowed servants. Sanitation[edit] For sanitary facilities, a camp had both public and private latrines. A public latrine consisted of a bank of seats situated over a channel of running water. One of the major considerations for selecting the site of a camp was the presence of running water, which the engineers diverted into the sanitary channels. Drinking water came from wells; however, the larger and more permanent bases featured the aqueduct, a structure running a stream captured from high ground (sometimes miles away) into the camp. The praetorium had its own latrine, and probably the quarters of the high-ranking officers. In or near the intervallum, where they could easily be accessed, were the latrines of the soldiers. A public bathhouse for the soldiers, also containing a latrine, was located near or on the Via Principalis. Territory[edit] Reconstructed barracks of a Castra Hiberna, or "winter camp", at Arbeia (South Shields). Each doorway provides entry to a large room, the sleeping quarters of one contubernium, or "squad" of about 10 men. The influence of a base extended far beyond its walls. The total land required for the maintenance of a permanent base was called its territoria. In it were located all the resources of nature and the terrain required by the base: pastures, woodlots, water sources, stone quarries, mines, exercise fields and attached villages. The central castra might also support various fortified adjuncts to the main base, which were not in themselves self-sustaining (as was the base). In this category were speculae, "watchtowers", castella, "small camps", and naval bases. All the major bases near rivers featured some sort of fortified naval installation, one side of which was formed by the river or lake. The other sides were formed by a polygonal wall and ditch constructed in the usual way, with gates and watchtowers. The main internal features were the boat sheds and the docks. When not in use, the boats were drawn up into the sheds for maintenance and protection. Since the camp was placed to best advantage on a hill or slope near the river, the naval base was usually outside its walls. The classici and the optiones of the naval installation relied on the camp for its permanent defense. Naval personnel generally enjoyed better quarters and facilities. Many were civilians working for the military. Modifications in practice[edit] This ideal was always modified to suit the terrain and the circumstances. Each camp discovered by archaeology has its own specific layout and architectural features, which makes sense from a military point of view. If, for example, the camp was built on an outcrop, it followed the lines of the outcrop. The terrain for which it was best suited and for which it was probably designed in distant prehistoric times was the rolling plain. The camp was best placed on the summit and along the side of a low hill, with spring water running in rivulets through the camp (aquatio) and pastureland to provide grazing (pabulatio) for the animals. In case of attack, arrows, javelins and sling missiles could be fired down at an enemy tiring himself to come up. For defence troops could be formed in an acies, or "battle-line", outside the gates, where they could be easily resupplied and replenished, as well as being supported by archery from the palisade. The streets, gates and buildings present depended on the requirements and resources of the camp. The gates might vary from two to six and not be centred on the sides. Not all the streets and buildings might be present. Quadrangular camps in later times[edit] Many settlements in Europe originated as Roman military camps and still show traces of their original pattern (e.g. Castres in France, Barcelona in Spain).[23] The pattern was also used by Spanish colonizers in America following strict rules by the Spanish monarchy for founding new cities in the New World. Many of the towns of England still retain forms of the word castra in their names, usually as the suffixes "-caster", "-cester" or "-chester" – Lancaster, Tadcaster, Worcester, Gloucester, Mancetter, Uttoxeter, Colchester, Chester, Manchester and Ribchester for example. Castle has the same derivation, from the diminutive castellum or "little fort", but does not usually indicate a former Roman camp. Whitley Castle however is an exception, referring to the Roman fort of Epiacum in Northumberland. Camp life[edit] Activities conducted in a castra can be divided into ordinary and "the duty" or "the watch". Ordinary activity was performed during regular working hours. The duty was associated with operating the installation as a military facility. For example, none of the soldiers were required to man the walls all the time, but round-the clock duty always required a portion of the soldiers to be on duty at any time. Duty time was divided into vigilia, the eight watches into which the 24-hour day was divided so they stood guard for 3 hours that day.[24] The Romans used signals on brass instruments to mark time. These were mainly the buccina or bucina, the cornu and the tuba. As they did not possess valves for regulating the pitch, the range of these instruments was somewhat limited. Nevertheless, the musicians (Aenatores, "brassmen") managed to define enough signals for issuing commands. The instrument used to mark the passage of a watch was the buccina, from which the trumpet derives. It was sounded by a buccinator. Ordinary life[edit] The pillars supported a raised floor to keep food dry and free from vermin in the northern granary at Housesteads Roman Fort (Vercovicium) on Hadrian's Wall. Ordinary camp life began with a buccina call at daybreak, the first watch of the day. The soldiers arose at this time and shortly after collected in the company area for breakfast and assembly. The centurions were up before them and off to the principia where they and the equites were required to assemble. The regimental commanders, the tribunes, were already converging on the praetorium. There the general staff was busily at work planning the day. At a staff meeting the Tribunes received the password and the orders of the day. They brought those back to the centuriones, who returned to their company areas to instruct the men. For soldiers, the main item of the agenda was a vigorous training session lasting about a watch long. Recruits received two, one in the morning and one in the afternoon.[25] Planning and supervision of training were under a general staff officer, who might manage training at several camps. According to Vegetius, the men might take a 32 kilometres (20 mi) hike or a 6–8 kilometres (3.7–5.0 mi) jog under full pack, or swim a river. Marching drill was always in order. Each soldier was taught the use of every weapon and also was taught to ride. Seamanship was taught at naval bases. Soldiers were generalists in the military and construction arts. They practiced archery, spear-throwing and above all swordsmanship against posts (pali) fixed in the ground.[25] Training was taken very seriously and was democratic. Ordinary soldiers would see all the officers training with them including the praetor, or the Emperor, if he was in camp. Swordsmanship lessons and use of the shooting range probably took place on the campus, a "field" outside the castra, from which English camp derives. Its surface could be lightly paved. Winter curtailed outdoor training. The general might in that case have sheds constructed, which served as field houses for training. There is archaeological evidence in one case of an indoor equestrian ring. Apart from the training, each soldier had a regular job on the base, of which there were a large variety from the various kinds of clerks to the craftsmen. Soldiers changed jobs frequently. The commander's policy was to have all the soldiers skilled in all the arts and crafts so that they could be as interchangeable as possible. Even then the goal was not entirely achievable. The gap was bridged by the specialists, the optiones or "chosen men", of which there were many different kinds. For example, a skilled artisan might be chosen to superintend a workshop. An aureus of the late republic The supply administration was run as a business using money as the medium of exchange.[26] The aureus was the preferred coin of the late republic and early empire; in the late empire the solidus came into use. The larger bases, such as Moguntiacum, minted their own coins. As does any business, the base quaestorium required careful record keeping, performed mainly by the optiones. A chance cache of tablets from Vindolanda in Britain gives us a glimpse of some supply transactions. They record, among other things, the purchase of consumables and raw supplies, the storage and repair of clothing and other items, and the sale of items, including foodstuffs, to achieve an income. Vindolanda traded vigorously with the surrounding natives.[27] Another feature of the camp was the military hospital (valetudinarium, later hospitium). Augustus instituted the first permanent medical corps in the Roman army. Its physicians, the medici ordinarii,[28] had to be qualified physicians. They were allowed medical students, practitioners and whatever orderlies they needed; i.e., the military hospitals were medical schools and places of residency as well.[29] Further information on on hospitals and physicians in the military: Medical community of ancient Rome Officers were allowed to marry and to reside with their families on base. The army did not extend the same privileges to the men, who were not allowed to marry.[30] However, they often kept common law families off base in communities nearby. The communities might be native, as the tribesmen tended to build around a permanent base for purposes of trade, but also the base sponsored villages (vici) of dependents and businessmen. Dependants were not allowed to follow an army on the march into hostile territory. Military service was for about 25 years. At the end of that time, the veteran was given a certificate of honorable discharge (honesta missio). Some of these have survived engraved on stone. Typically they certify that the veteran, his wife (one per veteran) and children or his sweetheart were now Roman citizens, which is a good indication that troops, which were used chiefly on the frontier, were from peoples elsewhere on the frontier who wished to earn Roman citizenship. However, under Antoninus Pius, citizenship was no longer granted to the children of rank-and-file veterans, the privilege becoming restricted only to officers.[31] Veterans often went into business in the communities near a base.[32] They became permanent members of the community and would stay on after the troops were withdrawn, as in the notable case of Saint Patrick's family. Duties[edit] The remains of the southern granary at Housesteads Roman Fort on Hadrian's Wall. Conducted in parallel with the ordinary activities was "the duty", the official chores required by the camp under strict military discipline. The Legate was ultimately responsible for them as he was for the entire camp, but he delegated the duty to a tribune chosen as officer of the day. The line Tribunes were commanders of Cohortes and were approximately the equivalent of colonels. The 6 tribunes were divided into units of two, with each unit being responsible for filling the position of officer of the day for two months. The two men of a unit decided among themselves who would take what day. They could alternate days or each take a month. One filled in for the other in case of illness. On his day, the tribune effectively commanded the camp and was even respected as such by the Legate. The equivalent concept of the duties performed in modern camps is roughly the detail. The responsibilities (curae) of the many kinds of detail were distributed to the men by all the methods considered fair and democratic: lot, rotation and negotiation. Certain kinds of cura were assigned certain classes or types of troops; for example, wall sentries were chosen only from Velites. Soldiers could be temporarily or permanently exempted: the immunes. For example, a Triarius was immunis from the curae of the Hastati. The duty year was divided into time slices, typically one or two months, which were apportioned to units, typically maniples or centuries. They were always allowed to negotiate who took the duty and when. The most common kind of cura were the posts of the sentinels, called the excubiae by day and the vigilae at night. Wall posts were praesidia, gate posts, custodiae, advance positions before the gates, stationes. In addition were special guards and details. One post was typically filled by four men, one sentinel and the others at ease until a situation arose or it was their turn to be sentinel. Some of the details were: guarding, cleaning and maintaining the principia. guarding and maintaining the quarters of each tribune. tending the horses of each cavalry turma. guarding the praetorium.[33] See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal War portal Fortification List of topics related to ancient Rome Military history of ancient Rome Roman legion References[edit] ^ A 2nd declension neuter noun. According to Lewis & Short, dictionary item linked in External links, General, either the singular or plural was used, castra with a possible meaning of 'tents'. ^ Campbell 2009, p. 4 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFCampbell2009 (help). Included is a discussion about the typologies of Roman fortifications. ^ See Vegetius, Epitoma rei militaris, 3.8. In Clark's translation, 3.8 is "Rules for Encamping an Army," last paragraph. "Small fort" is castellum, which Vegetius explains is the diminutive of castra. He conceives of them as fortified outposts to be manned by cavalry protecting a supply route; i.e., a base from which to conduct patrols. ^ Pokorny, Julius (1959). Indogermanisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch (in German). 2. Bern: Francke. p. 586. ^ Nepos, Cornelius. "Alcibiades 9.3". Latin Library. ^ Lewis & Short under External links, General, as well as many uncited Latin dictionaries, make this suggestion. ^ Campbell, Duncan B. (2009). "A Camp in search of a Campaign: The reality of Hyginus' Roman army". Ancient Warfare. 3 (3): 46–49. Retrieved 18 April 2019. ^ Flavius Josephus: The Jewish War. III.5.1, trans. William Whiston. ^ Ramsay's classic article, linked under External links, General, below, covers types of camps and camps in general. This Wikipedia article is heavily indebted but not exclusively to it. ^ See Rebecca H. Jones 2012 Roman camps in Britain, Amberley Press, Stroud. ^ see W.S. Hanson 2009 Building the forts and frontiers, in W.S. Hanson (ed) The army and frontiers of Rome. Papers offered to David Breeze on the occasion of his sixty-fifth birthday and his retirement from Historic Scotland, JRA Supplementary Series 74, Portsmouth, Rhode Island, 33-43. ^ Roman Legionary Fortresses 27BC-378AD, D.B.Campbell, Osprey. ^ M. C. Bishop, Handbook to Roman Legionary Fortresses, Pen & Sword, Hbk 208 pp ISBN 9781848841383 ^ See Hanson and Friel (1995) under External links, Forts and fortifications, below. ^ Book VI Section 19 The Roman Military System pages 313-368 in Thayer's Loeb's Polybius under Primary sources below.. ^ An extensive lexicon at the Romans in Britain site, linked under External links, General, below, matches military terms of all periods of ancient Rome to English equivalents. ^ Bell (2001) linked in External links, General, favors the view that the Greeks either influenced the Romans directly in the choice of the quadrangular plan or influenced the Etruscans, who influenced the Romans. The Greek theory certainly does not exclude an Indo-European origin. ^ Smith (1875) under External links, Forts and fortifications. The sudes were not just simple stakes. Three or four branches were left on for interlocking. ^ Cardo is the hinge line of a door and therefore is any main axis. In surveying it was the line drawn across (at 90° using a groma) the east-west decumanus, which was the first line drawn based on the position of the sun at sunrise. The via principalis would certainly be a cardo. ^ Decumana (feminine of decumanus) derives most likely from decima manus, "tenth part" or "tenfold". As tenfold, it meant "immense." As tenth part, it also meant "across", such as a cross-path or cross-boundary. In surveying it was the first line drawn, after noting the position of the sun at sunrise in order to know exactly where east was; the cardo was then drawn across it at right angles. This was necessary, because the ancient Romans did not have the compass to determine the position of the magnetic north. The connection between tenth and across remains obscure. The presence of numbered streets makes it less likely that the via decumana was "cross street" than that it was "10th street." ^ The term legatus had other meanings in other contexts, such as governor or ambassador. ^ Sims, Lesley: "Roman Soldier's Handbook", page 55-56. Usborne Publishing Ltd, 2004. ^ Spain was especially heavily colonized by veterans, who Romanized the language and the architecture. Refer to Miranda (2002) under External links, Camp life, below. ^ Roby under Secondary sources below. ^ a b Vegetius Book I, linked in Primary sources below. ^ Verboven, pages 15-17, under External links, Camp life. The author states estimates of coinage passing hands at various locations. A soldier received pay less deductions for expenses. He could borrow from or invest with the first bankers, the argentarii or negotiatores nummularii, whose business was to supply the legion with money for a percentage. ^ A link to the Vindolanda tablets database with introductions, descriptions and bibliography is given under Primary sources below. ^ See The Tombstone of Anicius Ingenuus, a medicus ordinarius, under Primary sources below. ^ Scheidel page 14 under External links, Camp life. ^ Scheidel pages 2-8 under External links, Camp life. ^ Duncan B. Campbell, "Women in Roman forts: Residents, visitors or barred from entry?", Ancient Warfare, vol. IV (2010), issue 6, pp. 48-53, cf. p. 50 ^ Verboven describes the process. A veteran with a certain skill continued it as a contractor for the army. For example, a gladiarius or maker of swords, became a negotiator gladiarius, a supplier of swords. There were a large number of such names: the negotiatores vestiarii for clothing, frumentarii for grain, salsari leguminari for the salted vegetable concession, and so on. ^ Forman, Joan: "The Romans", page15. Macdonald educational. 1975 Primary sources[edit] Josephus. The War of the Jews . Translated by William Whiston – via Wikisource. Population of Vindolanda (100 AD). "(the Tablets)" (shtml). Vindolanda Tablets Online: The Roman Army: Activities. Centre for the Study of Ancient Documents, Academic Computing Development Team at Oxford University. pseudo-Hyginus. "De Munitionibus Castrorum". The Latin Library. Ad fontes Academy. (Latin text.) Polybius. "The Histories (English translation) Book VI". The Loeb Classical Library, Volume III Section VI. Web publication on Bill Thayer's Polybius site. Roman government (160 AD). "(Military Diploma)". Military Diploma of Discharge and Roman Citizenship. Metz, George W. Legion xxiv website. Unknown inscriber (3rd century AD). "(the Tombstone)". Tombstone of Anicius Ingenuus, Museum of Antiquities Website. Newcastle University. Archived from the original on 2006-08-25. Vegetius. "Flavius Vegetius Renatus Epitoma Rei Militaris Book I". Armamentarium. Archived from the original on 2006-06-18. Selections, Latin and English juxtaposed by paragraph. Translator unknown. Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus (2001). "The Military Institutions of the Romans (De Re Militari)". Digital Attic 2.0. Clarke, Lieutenant John (translator); unknown editor. Brevik, Mads. Books I-III only. The unknown editor altered the translation "to conform to modern usage" and abbreviated the text. Access is by subtitle. Search only within subsection. Secondary sources[edit] Bishop, M.C. (2012). Handbook to Roman Legionary Fortresses. Barnsley: Pen and Sword. ISBN 978-1-84884-138-3. Campbell, Duncan B. (2009). Roman Auxiliary Forts 27 BC-AD 378. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84603-380-3. Johnson, Anne (1983). Roman Forts of the 1st and 2nd centuries AD in Britain and the German Provinces. London: Adam & Charles Black. ISBN 0-7136-2223-7. Hanel, Norbert (2007). "Military camps, canabae and vici: The archaeological evidence". In Erdkamp, Paul (ed.). The Companion to the Roman Army. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 395–416. ISBN 978-1-4443-3921-5. Keppie, Lawrence (1994). The Making of the Roman Army from Republic to Empire. New York: Barnes and Noble Books. ISBN 1-56619-359-1. Roby, Henry John (1872). A Grammar of the Latin Language from Plautus to Suetonius: Second Edition. London: Macmillan. p. 453. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Castra. Below are a number of links to sites reporting or summarizing current research or thinking. Many are reprints of articles made available to the public at no charge. The historical researcher will find their bibliographies of great interest. General[edit] "Fortress Study Group". Study Group devoted to the knowledge of Forts and Fortifications of all times and Greek and Roman ones: with a Journal Fort and a newsletter Casemate. Fortress Study Group. "Army Picture Index". Illustrated History of the Roman Empire. roman-empire.net. Archived from the original on 2010-06-12. Retrieved 2006-06-04. Bell, Anders (2001). "Castra et urbs romana: An Examination of the Common Features of Roman Settlements in Italy and the Empire and a System to aid in the Discovery of their Origins". CAC Undergraduate Essay Contest for 2000-2001. Classical Association of Canada. Archived from the original on 2011-07-06. Retrieved 2009-04-01. Lewis, Charlton T.; Short, Charles. "Castrum/Castra". A Latin Dictionary. The Perseus Digital Library. Ramsay, William (1875). "Castra". William Smith A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. John Murray, republished on Bill Thayer's LacusCurtius site. "The Roman Military in Britain". roman-britain.org. Archived from the original on 2010-06-13. Retrieved 2006-06-11. Links to a Glossary. The Romans in Britain, Glossary of Military terms. Note that both Latin and Greek terms with the same meaning are included. Forts and fortifications[edit] "Antonine Wall Fort: Bearsden, New Kilpatrick, Strathclyde". roman-britain.org. Archived from the original on 2010-06-10. Retrieved 2006-06-03. Hanson, W.S.; Friel, J.G.P. (1995). "Westerton: A Roman Watchtower on the Gask Frontier" (PDF). Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. 125: 499–519. "Iron-Age Hillfort, Roman Stores Depot Brandon Camp, Leintwardine Herefordshire". roman-britain.org. Archived from the original on 2006-09-27. Retrieved 2006-06-03. Lendering, Jona. "Haltern". Livius articles on ancient history. livius.org. "Nidum: Roman Auxiliary Fort: Neath, West Glamorgan". roman-britain.org. Archived from the original on 2006-05-27. Retrieved 2006-06-03. "Pinnata Castra: Roman Legionary Fortress & Marching Camps: Inchtuthill, Tayside". roman-britain.org. [permanent dead link] "Roman Fortress". Time trail. Exeter City Council. Archived from the original on 2006-06-12. Smith, William (1875). "Vallum". A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. London: John Murray. p. 1183. . Article republished on Bill Thayer's LacusCurtius site, which has the advantage of linking to ancient texts cited by Smith. Tribus. "The Roman Camp in Bonn". Eduvinet Services. "The Roman Camp Sostra". bulgariancastles.com. Archived from the original on 2008-07-24. Camp life[edit] Campbell, Duncan B. (2010). "Women in Roman forts: Residents, visitors or barred from entry?". Ancient Warfare. IV (6): 48–53. Miranda, Frank (2002). "Castra et Coloniae: The Role of the Roman Army in the Romanization and Urbanization of Spain" (PDF). Quaestio: The UCLA Undergraduate History Journal. Phi Alpha Theta: History Honors Society, UCLA Theta Upsilon Chapter, UCLA Department of History. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-09-13. Scheidel, Walter (November 2005). "Marriage, Families and Survival in the Roman Imperial Army: Demographic Aspects" (PDF). Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics. Princeton University. Verboven, Koenraad (2007). "Good for Business. The Roman Army and the Emergence of a 'Business Class' in the Northwestern Provinces of the Roman Empire (1st century BCE - 3rd century CE)" (PDF). In Lukas, De Blois; Elio, Lo Cascio (eds.). The Impact of the Roman Army (200 BC - AD 476). Economic, Social, Political, Religious and Cultural Aspects. Leiden & Boston: Brill. pp. 295–314. ISBN 978-90-04-16044-6. v t e Fortifications Ancient Abatis Agger Broch Burgus Castellum Castra Castros Circular rampart City gate Crannog Ditch Defensive wall Dun Faussebraye Gatehouse Gord Hillfort Limes Oppidum Palisade Pincer gate Promontory fort Rampart Ringfort (Rath) Refuge castle Schwedenschanze Stockade Sudis Trou de loup Vallum Wagon fort (Laager) Vitrified fort Post-classical Advanced work Albarrana tower Alcazaba Alcázar Arrowslit Barbican Bartizan Bastion Battery tower Battlement Bawn Bent entrance Bergfried Bretèche Bridge castle Bridge tower Butter-churn tower Caer Caltrop Castle Chamber gate Chartaque Chashi Chemin de ronde Chemise Cheval de frise Citadel Coercion castle Concentric castle Corner tower Counter-castle Curtain Drawbridge Enceinte Embrasure Flanking tower Fortified buildings (church, house) Fujian tulou Ganerbenburg Gate tower Gabion Glacis Guard tower Gulyay-gorod Gusuku Half tower Hoarding Inner bailey Keep Kremlin (Detinets) Landesburg L-plan castle Machicolation Merlon Moat Motte-and-bailey Murder-hole Neck ditch Outer bailey Outwork Peel tower Portcullis Postern Reduit Ricetto Ringwork Quadrangular castle Shell keep Shield wall Toll castle Tower castle Tower house Turret Wall tower Bailey (or ward) Watchtower Witch tower Yett Z-plan castle Zwinger Modern 18th century and earlier Abwurfdach Bastion Blockhouse Breastwork Canal Caponier Casemate Cavalier Counterguard Counterscarp Couvreface Coupure Covertway Crownwork Device Forts Entrenchment Flèche Gorge Hornwork Kotta mara Lunette Orillon Ostrog Palanka Place-of-arms Polygonal fort Presidio (Spanish America) Punji sticks Ravelin Redan Redoubt Retrenchment Sandbag Scarp Sconce Schanze Sea fort Station Star fort Tenaille 19th century Barbed wire Barbette Border outpost Bunker Coastal artillery Disappearing gun Fire control tower Gun turret Land mine Martello tower Outpost Polygonal fort Sangar Wire obstacles 20th century Admiralty scaffolding Air raid shelter Anti-tank trench Barbed tape Belgian gate Blast shelter Blast wall Border security Buoy Bremer wall Concertina wire Defensive fighting position British "hedgehog" road block Czech hedgehog Dragon's teeth Entry control point (ECP) Electric fence Fallout shelter Fire support base Flak tower Hardened aircraft shelter Hesco bastion Main line of resistance Missile launch facility Pillbox Revetment Sentry gun Spider hole Submarine pen Underground hangar By topography Cave castle Hill castle Hillfort Hillside castle Hilltop castle Island castle Lowland castle Marsh castle Moated castle Promontory fort Ridge castle Rocca Rock castle Spur castle Water castle Floating water castle By role Coastal defence Coercion castle Counter-castle Ganerbenburg Hunting lodge Imperial castle Kaiserpfalz Landesburg Lustschloss Ordensburg Refuge castle Toll castle Urban castle By design Bridge castle Circular rampart Concentric castle L-plan castle Motte-and-bailey castle Quadrangular castle Ringfort Ringwork Tower castle Other 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en-wikipedia-org-9446	----	Ovid - Wikipedia Ovid From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman poet who lived during the reign of Augustus For other uses, see Ovid (disambiguation). Ovid Statue by Ettore Ferrari (1887) commemorating Ovid's exile in Tomis, Romania Born Publius Ovidius Naso[a] 20 March 43 BC Sulmo, Italy, Roman Republic Died 17 or 18 AD (age 60–61) Tomis, Scythia Minor, Roman Empire Occupation Poet Genre Elegy, epic, drama Publius Ovidius Naso (Classical Latin: [ˈpuːblɪ.ʊs ɔˈwɪdɪ.ʊs ˈnaːsoː]; 20 March 43 BC – 17/18 AD), known as Ovid (/ˈɒvɪd/ OV-id)[1] in the English-speaking world, was a Roman poet who lived during the reign of Augustus. Contents 1 Overview 2 Life 2.1 Birth, early life, and marriage 2.2 Literary success 2.3 Exile to Tomis 2.4 Death 3 Works 3.1 Heroides ("The Heroines") 3.2 Amores ("The Loves") 3.3 Medicamina Faciei Femineae ("Women's Facial Cosmetics") 3.4 Ars Amatoria ("The Art of Love") 3.5 Remedia Amoris ("The Cure for Love") 3.6 Metamorphoses ("Transformations") 3.7 Fasti ("The Festivals") 3.8 Ibis ("The Ibis") 3.9 Tristia ("Sorrows") 3.10 Epistulae ex Ponto ("Letters from the Black Sea") 3.11 Lost works 4 Spurious works 4.1 Consolatio ad Liviam ("Consolation to Livia") 4.2 Halieutica ("On Fishing") 4.3 Nux ("The Walnut Tree") 4.4 Somnium ("The Dream") 5 Style 6 Legacy 6.1 Criticism 6.2 Ovid's influence 6.2.1 Literary and artistic 6.2.2 Retellings, adaptations, and translations of Ovidian works 7 Gallery 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Editions 12 Further reading 13 External links 13.1 Latin and English translation 13.2 Original Latin only 13.3 English translation only Overview[edit] He was the first major Roman poet to begin his career during Augustus' reign.[2] Ovid was a contemporary of the older poets Virgil and Horace. Collectively, they are considered the three canonical poets of Latin literature. The Imperial scholar Quintilian described Ovid as the last of the Latin love elegists.[3] He enjoyed enormous popularity during his lifetime. Regardless, the emperor Augustus banished him to a remote province on the Black Sea, where he remained until his death. Ovid himself attributes his exile to carmen et error ("a poem and a mistake"). His reluctance to disclosing specifics has resulted in much speculation among scholars. Today, Ovid is most famous for the Metamorphoses, a continuous mythological narrative in fifteen books written in the meter of epic. He is also known for works in elegiac couplets such as Ars Amatoria ("The Art of Love") and Fasti. His poetry was much imitated during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, and greatly influenced Western art and literature. The Metamorphoses remains one of the most important sources of classical mythology.[4] Life[edit] Ovid talks more about his own life than most other Roman poets. Information about his biography is drawn primarily from his poetry, especially Tristia 4.10, which gives a lengthy autobiographical account of his life. Other sources include Seneca the Elder and Quintilian. Birth, early life, and marriage[edit] Statue of Ovid by Ettore Ferrari in the Piazza XX Settembre, Sulmona, Italy. Ovid was born in the Paelignian town of Sulmo (modern-day Sulmona, in the province of L'Aquila, Abruzzo), in an Apennine valley east of Rome, to an important equestrian family, the gens Ovidia, on 20 March 43 BC. That was a significant year in Roman politics.[b] Along with his brother, who excelled at oratory, Ovid was educated in rhetoric in Rome under the teachers Arellius Fuscus and Porcius Latro.[5] His father wanted him to study rhetoric, so that he might practice law. According to Seneca the Elder, Ovid tended to the emotional, not the argumentative pole of rhetoric. Following the death of his brother at 20 years of age, Ovid renounced law and travelled to Athens, Asia Minor, and Sicily.[6] He held minor public posts, as one of the tresviri capitales,[7] as a member of the Centumviral court[8] and as one of the decemviri litibus iudicandis,[9] but resigned to pursue poetry probably around 29–25 BC, a decision which his father apparently disapproved of.[10] Ovid's first recitation has been dated to around 25 BC, when he was eighteen.[11] He was part of the circle centred on the esteemed patron Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus, and likewise seems to have been a friend of poets in the circle of Maecenas. In Trist. 4.10.41–54, Ovid mentions friendships with Macer, Propertius, Horace, Ponticus and Bassus. (He only barely met Virgil and Tibullus, a fellow member of Messalla's circle, whose elegies he admired greatly). He married three times and had divorced twice by the time he was thirty. He had one daughter, who would bear him grandchildren.[12] His last wife was connected in some way to the influential gens Fabia and would help him during his exile in Tomis (now Constanța in Romania).[13] Literary success[edit] The first 25 years of Ovid's literary career were spent primarily writing poetry in elegiac meter with erotic themes.[14] The chronology of these early works is not secure; tentative dates, however, have been established by scholars. His earliest extant work is thought to be the Heroides, letters of mythological heroines to their absent lovers, which may have been published in 19 BC, although the date is uncertain as it depends on a notice in Am. 2.18.19–26 that seems to describe the collection as an early published work.[15] The authenticity of some of these poems has been challenged, but this first edition probably contained the first 14 poems of the collection. The first five-book collection of the Amores, a series of erotic poems addressed to a lover, Corinna, is thought to have been published in 16–15 BC; the surviving version, redacted to three books according to an epigram prefixed to the first book, is thought to have been published c. 8–3 BC. Between the publications of the two editions of the Amores can be dated the premiere of his tragedy Medea, which was admired in antiquity but is no longer extant. Ovid's next poem, the Medicamina Faciei, a fragmentary work on women's beauty treatments, preceded the Ars Amatoria, the Art of Love, a parody of didactic poetry and a three-book manual about seduction and intrigue, which has been dated to AD 2 (Books 1–2 would go back to 1 BC[16]). Ovid may identify this work in his exile poetry as the carmen, or song, which was one cause of his banishment. The Ars Amatoria was followed by the Remedia Amoris in the same year. This corpus of elegiac, erotic poetry earned Ovid a place among the chief Roman elegists Gallus, Tibullus, and Propertius, of whom he saw himself as the fourth member.[15] By 8 AD, Ovid had completed Metamorphoses, his most ambitious work, a hexameter epic poem in 15 books. Here he catalogued encyclopaedically transformations in Greek and Roman mythology, from the emergence of the cosmos to the apotheosis of Julius Caesar. The stories follow each other in the telling of human beings transformed to new bodies: trees, rocks, animals, flowers, constellations etc. Simultaneously, he worked on the Fasti, a six-book poem in elegiac couplets on the theme of the calendar of Roman festivals and astronomy. The composition of this poem was interrupted by Ovid's exile,[c] and it is thought that Ovid abandoned work on the piece in Tomis. It is probably in this period, if they are indeed by Ovid, that the double letters (16–21) in the Heroides were composed. Exile to Tomis[edit] Main article: Exile of Ovid In AD 8, Ovid was banished to Tomis, on the Black Sea, by the exclusive intervention of the Emperor Augustus, without any participation of the Senate or of any Roman judge.[17] This event shaped all his following poetry. Ovid wrote that the reason for his exile was carmen et error – "a poem and a mistake",[18] claiming that his crime was worse than murder,[19] more harmful than poetry.[20] The Emperor's grandchildren, Julia the Younger and Agrippa Postumus (the latter adopted by him), were also banished around the same time. Julia's husband, Lucius Aemilius Paullus, was put to death for a conspiracy against Augustus, a conspiracy of which Ovid potentially knew.[21] The Julian marriage laws of 18 BC, which promoted monogamous marriage to increase the population's birth rate, were fresh in the Roman mind. Ovid's writing in the Ars Amatoria concerned the serious crime of adultery. He may have been banished for these works, which appeared subversive to the emperor's moral legislation. However, in view of the long time that elapsed between the publication of this work (1 BC) and the exile (AD 8), some authors suggest that Augustus used the poem as a mere justification for something more personal.[22] Ovid Banished from Rome (1838) by J.M.W. Turner. In exile, Ovid wrote two poetry collections, Tristia and Epistulae ex Ponto, which illustrated his sadness and desolation. Being far from Rome, he had no access to libraries, and thus might have been forced to abandon his Fasti, a poem about the Roman calendar, of which only the first six books exist – January through June. The five books of the elegiac Tristia, a series of poems expressing the poet's despair in exile and advocating his return to Rome, are dated to AD 9–12. The Ibis, an elegiac curse poem attacking an adversary at home, may also be dated to this period. The Epistulae ex Ponto, a series of letters to friends in Rome asking them to effect his return, are thought to be his last compositions, with the first three books published in AD 13 and the fourth book between AD 14 and 16. The exile poetry is particularly emotive and personal. In the Epistulae he claims friendship with the natives of Tomis (in the Tristia they are frightening barbarians) and to have written a poem in their language (Ex P. 4.13.19–20). Yet he pined for Rome – and for his third wife, addressing many poems to her. Some are also to the Emperor Augustus, yet others are to himself, to friends in Rome, and sometimes to the poems themselves, expressing loneliness and hope of recall from banishment or exile.[23] The obscure causes of Ovid's exile have given rise to endless explanations from scholars. The medieval texts that mention the exile offer no credible explanations: their statements seem incorrect interpretations drawn from the works of Ovid.[24] Ovid himself wrote many references to his offense, giving obscure or contradictory clues.[25] In 1923, scholar J. J. Hartman proposed a theory that is little considered among scholars of Latin civilization today: that Ovid was never exiled from Rome and that all of his exile works are the result of his fertile imagination. This theory was supported and rejected[clarification needed] in the 1930s, especially by Dutch authors.[26] In 1985, a research paper by Fitton Brown advanced new arguments in support of Hartman's theory.[27] Brown's article was followed by a series of supports and refutations in the short space of five years.[28] Among the supporting reasons Brown presents are: Ovid's exile is only mentioned by his own work, except in "dubious" passages by Pliny the Elder[29] and Statius,[30] but no other author until the 4th century;[31] that the author of Heroides was able to separate the poetic "I" of his own and real life; and that information on the geography of Tomis was already known by Virgil, by Herodotus and by Ovid himself in his Metamorphoses.[d][32] Orthodox scholars, however, oppose these hypotheses.[33] One of the main arguments of these scholars is that Ovid would not let his Fasti remain unfinished, mainly because this poem meant his consecration as an imperial poet.[34] Death[edit] Ovid died at Tomis in 17 or 18 AD.[35] It is thought that the Fasti, which he spent time revising, were published posthumously.[36] Works[edit] Heroides ("The Heroines")[edit] Medea in a fresco from Herculaneum. Main article: Heroides See also: Double Heroides The Heroides ("Heroines") or Epistulae Heroidum are a collection of twenty-one poems in elegiac couplets. The Heroides take the form of letters addressed by famous mythological characters to their partners expressing their emotions at being separated from them, pleas for their return, and allusions to their future actions within their own mythology. The authenticity of the collection, partially or as a whole, has been questioned, although most scholars would consider the letters mentioned specifically in Ovid's description of the work at Am. 2.18.19–26 as safe from objection. The collection comprises a new type of generic composition without parallel in earlier literature.[37] The first fourteen letters are thought to comprise the first published collection and are written by the heroines Penelope, Phyllis, Briseis, Phaedra, Oenone, Hypsipyle, Dido, Hermione, Deianeira, Ariadne, Canace, Medea, Laodamia, and Hypermestra to their absent male lovers. Letter 15, from the historical Sappho to Phaon, seems spurious (although referred to in Am. 2.18) because of its length, its lack of integration in the mythological theme, and its absence from Medieval manuscripts.[38] The final letters (16–21) are paired compositions comprising a letter to a lover and a reply. Paris and Helen, Hero and Leander, and Acontius and Cydippe are the addressees of the paired letters. These are considered a later addition to the corpus because they are never mentioned by Ovid and may or may not be spurious. The Heroides markedly reveal the influence of rhetorical declamation and may derive from Ovid's interest in rhetorical suasoriae, persuasive speeches, and ethopoeia, the practice of speaking in another character. They also play with generic conventions; most of the letters seem to refer to works in which these characters were significant, such as the Aeneid in the case of Dido and Catullus 64 for Ariadne, and transfer characters from the genres of epic and tragedy to the elegiac genre of the Heroides.[39] The letters have been admired for their deep psychological portrayals of mythical characters, their rhetoric, and their unique attitude to the classical tradition of mythology.[by whom?] A popular quote from the Heroides anticipates Machiavelli's "the end justifies the means". Ovid had written "Exitus acta probat" - the result justifies the means. Amores ("The Loves")[edit] Main article: Amores (Ovid) The Amores is a collection in three books of love poetry in elegiac meter, following the conventions of the elegiac genre developed by Tibullus and Propertius. Elegy originates with Propertius and Tibullus; however, Ovid is an innovator in the genre. Ovid changes the leader of his elegies from the poet, to Amor (love). This switch in focus from the triumphs of the poet, to the triumphs of love over people is the first of its kind for this genre of poetry. This Ovidian innovation can be summarized as the use of love as a metaphor for poetry.[40] The books describe the many aspects of love and focus on the poet's relationship with a mistress called Corinna. Within the various poems, several describe events in the relationship, thus presenting the reader with some vignettes and a loose narrative. Book 1 contains 15 poems. The first tells of Ovid's intention to write epic poetry, which is thwarted when Cupid steals a metrical foot from him, changing his work into love elegy. Poem 4 is didactic and describes principles that Ovid would develop in the Ars Amatoria. The fifth poem, describing a noon tryst, introduces Corinna by name. Poems 8 and 9 deal with Corinna selling her love for gifts, while 11 and 12 describe the poet's failed attempt to arrange a meeting. Poem 14 discusses Corinna's disastrous experiment in dyeing her hair and 15 stresses the immortality of Ovid and love poets. The second book has 19 pieces; the opening poem tells of Ovid's abandonment of a Gigantomachy in favor of elegy. Poems 2 and 3 are entreaties to a guardian to let the poet see Corinna, poem 6 is a lament for Corinna's dead parrot; poems 7 and 8 deal with Ovid's affair with Corinna's servant and her discovery of it, and 11 and 12 try to prevent Corinna from going on vacation. Poem 13 is a prayer to Isis for Corinna's illness, 14 a poem against abortion, and 19 a warning to unwary husbands. Book 3 has 15 poems. The opening piece depicts personified Tragedy and Elegy fighting over Ovid. Poem 2 describes a visit to the races, 3 and 8 focus on Corinna's interest in other men, 10 is a complaint to Ceres because of her festival that requires abstinence, 13 is a poem on a festival of Juno, and 9 a lament for Tibullus. In poem 11 Ovid decides not to love Corinna any longer and regrets the poems he has written about her. The final poem is Ovid's farewell to the erotic muse. Critics have seen the poems as highly self-conscious and extremely playful specimens of the elegiac genre.[41] Medicamina Faciei Femineae ("Women's Facial Cosmetics")[edit] Main article: Medicamina Faciei Femineae About a hundred elegiac lines survive from this poem on beauty treatments for women's faces, which seems to parody serious didactic poetry. The poem says that women should concern themselves first with manners and then prescribes several compounds for facial treatments before breaking off. The style is not unlike the shorter Hellenistic didactic works of Nicander and Aratus. Ars Amatoria ("The Art of Love")[edit] Main article: Ars Amatoria       Si quis in hoc artem populo non novit amandi,            hoc legat et lecto carmine doctus amet.[42] The Ars Amatoria is a Lehrgedicht, a didactic elegiac poem in three books that sets out to teach the arts of seduction and love. The first book addresses men and teaches them how to seduce women, the second, also to men, teaches how to keep a lover. The third addresses women and teaches seduction techniques. The first book opens with an invocation to Venus, in which Ovid establishes himself as a praeceptor amoris (1.17) – a teacher of love. Ovid describes the places one can go to find a lover, like the theater, a triumph, which he thoroughly describes, or arena – and ways to get the girl to take notice, including seducing her covertly at a banquet. Choosing the right time is significant, as is getting into her associates' confidence. Ovid emphasizes care of the body for the lover. Mythological digressions include a piece on the Rape of the Sabine women, Pasiphaë, and Ariadne. Book 2 invokes Apollo and begins with a telling of the story of Icarus. Ovid advises men to avoid giving too many gifts, keep up their appearance, hide affairs, compliment their lovers, and ingratiate themselves with slaves to stay on their lover's good side. The care of Venus for procreation is described as is Apollo's aid in keeping a lover; Ovid then digresses on the story of Vulcan's trap for Venus and Mars. The book ends with Ovid asking his "students" to spread his fame. Book 3 opens with a vindication of women's abilities and Ovid's resolution to arm women against his teaching in the first two books. Ovid gives women detailed instructions on appearance telling them to avoid too many adornments. He advises women to read elegiac poetry, learn to play games, sleep with people of different ages, flirt, and dissemble. Throughout the book, Ovid playfully interjects, criticizing himself for undoing all his didactic work to men and mythologically digresses on the story of Procris and Cephalus. The book ends with his wish that women will follow his advice and spread his fame saying Naso magister erat, "Ovid was our teacher". (Ovid was known as "Naso" to his contemporaries.[43]) Remedia Amoris ("The Cure for Love")[edit] Main article: Remedia Amoris This elegiac poem proposes a cure for the love Ovid teaches in the Ars Amatoria, and is primarily addressed to men. The poem criticizes suicide as a means for escaping love and, invoking Apollo, goes on to tell lovers not to procrastinate and be lazy in dealing with love. Lovers are taught to avoid their partners, not perform magic, see their lover unprepared, take other lovers, and never be jealous. Old letters should be burned and the lover's family avoided. The poem throughout presents Ovid as a doctor and utilizes medical imagery. Some have interpreted this poem as the close of Ovid's didactic cycle of love poetry and the end of his erotic elegiac project.[44] Metamorphoses ("Transformations")[edit] Engraved frontispiece of George Sandys’s 1632 London edition of Ovid's Metamorphoses Englished. Main article: Metamorphoses The Metamorphoses, Ovid's most ambitious and well-known work, consists of a 15-book catalogue written in dactylic hexameter about transformations in Greek and Roman mythology set within a loose mytho-historical framework. The word "metamorphoses" is of Greek origin and means "transformations". Appropriately, the characters in this work undergo many different transformations. Within an extent of nearly 12,000 verses, almost 250 different myths are mentioned. Each myth is set outdoors where the mortals are often vulnerable to external influences. The poem stands in the tradition of mythological and aetiological catalogue poetry such as Hesiod's Catalogue of Women, Callimachus' Aetia, Nicander's Heteroeumena, and Parthenius' Metamorphoses. The first book describes the formation of the world, the ages of man, the flood, the story of Daphne's rape by Apollo and Io's by Jupiter. The second book opens with Phaethon and continues describing the love of Jupiter with Callisto and Europa. The third book focuses on the mythology of Thebes with the stories of Cadmus, Actaeon, and Pentheus. The fourth book focuses on three pairs of lovers: Pyramus and Thisbe, Salmacis and Hermaphroditus, and Perseus and Andromeda. The fifth book focuses on the song of the Muses, which describes the rape of Proserpina. The sixth book is a collection of stories about the rivalry between gods and mortals, beginning with Arachne and ending with Philomela. The seventh book focuses on Medea, as well as Cephalus and Procris. The eighth book focuses on Daedalus' flight, the Calydonian boar hunt, and the contrast between pious Baucis and Philemon and the wicked Erysichthon. The ninth book focuses on Heracles and the incestuous Byblis. The tenth book focuses on stories of doomed love, such as Orpheus, who sings about Hyacinthus, as well as Pygmalion, Myrrha, and Adonis. The eleventh book compares the marriage of Peleus and Thetis with the love of Ceyx and Alcyone. The twelfth book moves from myth to history describing the exploits of Achilles, the battle of the centaurs, and Iphigeneia. The thirteenth book discusses the contest over Achilles' arms, and Polyphemus. The fourteenth moves to Italy, describing the journey of Aeneas, Pomona and Vertumnus, and Romulus. The final book opens with a philosophical lecture by Pythagoras and the deification of Caesar. The end of the poem praises Augustus and expresses Ovid's belief that his poem has earned him immortality. In analyzing the Metamorphoses, scholars have focused on Ovid's organization of his vast body of material. The ways that stories are linked by geography, themes, or contrasts creates interesting effects and constantly forces the reader to evaluate the connections. Ovid also varies his tone and material from different literary genres; G. B. Conte has called the poem "a sort of gallery of these various literary genres".[45] In this spirit, Ovid engages creatively with his predecessors, alluding to the full spectrum of classical poetry. Ovid's use of Alexandrian epic, or elegiac couplets, shows his fusion of erotic and psychological style with traditional forms of epic. A concept drawn from the Metamorphoses is the idea of the white lie or pious fraud: "pia mendacia fraude". Fasti ("The Festivals")[edit] Main article: Fasti (poem) Six books in elegiacs survive of this second ambitious poem that Ovid was working on when he was exiled. The six books cover the first semester of the year, with each book dedicated to a different month of the Roman calendar (January to June). The project seems unprecedented in Roman literature. It seems that Ovid planned to cover the whole year, but was unable to finish because of his exile, although he did revise sections of the work at Tomis, and he claims at Trist. 2.549–52 that his work was interrupted after six books. Like the Metamorphoses, the Fasti was to be a long poem and emulated aetiological poetry by writers like Callimachus and, more recently, Propertius and his fourth book. The poem goes through the Roman calendar, explaining the origins and customs of important Roman festivals, digressing on mythical stories, and giving astronomical and agricultural information appropriate to the season. The poem was probably dedicated to Augustus initially, but perhaps the death of the emperor prompted Ovid to change the dedication to honor Germanicus. Ovid uses direct inquiry of gods and scholarly research to talk about the calendar and regularly calls himself a vates, a priest. He also seems to emphasize unsavory, popular traditions of the festivals, imbuing the poem with a popular, plebeian flavor, which some have interpreted as subversive to the Augustan moral legislation.[46] While this poem has always been invaluable to students of Roman religion and culture for the wealth of antiquarian material it preserves, it recently has been seen as one of Ovid's finest literary works and a unique contribution to Roman elegiac poetry. Ibis ("The Ibis")[edit] Main article: Ibis (Ovid) The Ibis is an elegiac poem in 644 lines, in which Ovid uses a dazzling array of mythic stories to curse and attack an enemy who is harming him in exile. At the beginning of the poem, Ovid claims that his poetry up to that point had been harmless, but now he is going to use his abilities to hurt his enemy. He cites Callimachus' Ibis as his inspiration and calls all the gods to make his curse effective. Ovid uses mythical exempla to condemn his enemy in the afterlife, cites evil prodigies that attended his birth, and then in the next 300 lines wishes that the torments of mythological characters befall his enemy. The poem ends with a prayer that the gods make his curse effective. Tristia ("Sorrows")[edit] Main article: Tristia The Tristia consist of five books of elegiac poetry composed by Ovid in exile in Tomis. Book 1 contains 11 poems; the first piece is an address by Ovid to his book about how it should act when it arrives in Rome. Poem 3 describes his final night in Rome, poems 2 and 10 Ovid's voyage to Tomis, 8 the betrayal of a friend, and 5 and 6 the loyalty of his friends and wife. In the final poem Ovid apologizes for the quality and tone of his book, a sentiment echoed throughout the collection. Book 2 consists of one long poem in which Ovid defends himself and his poetry, uses precedents to justify his work, and begs the emperor for forgiveness. Book 3 in 14 poems focuses on Ovid's life in Tomis. The opening poem describes his book's arrival in Rome to find Ovid's works banned. Poems 10, 12, and 13 focus on the seasons spent in Tomis, 9 on the origins of the place, and 2, 3, and 11 his emotional distress and longing for home. The final poem is again an apology for his work. The fourth book has ten poems addressed mostly to friends. Poem 1 expresses his love of poetry and the solace it brings; while 2 describes a triumph of Tiberius. Poems 3–5 are to friends, 7 a request for correspondence, and 10 an autobiography. The final book of the Tristia with 14 poems focuses on his wife and friends. Poems 4, 5, 11, and 14 are addressed to his wife, 2 and 3 are prayers to Augustus and Bacchus, 4 and 6 are to friends, 8 to an enemy. Poem 13 asks for letters, while 1 and 12 are apologies to his readers for the quality of his poetry. Epistulae ex Ponto ("Letters from the Black Sea")[edit] Main article: Epistulae ex Ponto The Epistulae ex Ponto is a collection in four books of further poetry from exile. The Epistulae are each addressed to a different friend and focus more desperately than the Tristia on securing his recall from exile. The poems mainly deal with requests for friends to speak on his behalf to members of the imperial family, discussions of writing with friends, and descriptions of life in exile. The first book has ten pieces in which Ovid describes the state of his health (10), his hopes, memories, and yearning for Rome (3, 6, 8), and his needs in exile (3). Book 2 contains impassioned requests to Germanicus (1 and 5) and various friends to speak on his behalf at Rome while he describes his despair and life in exile. Book 3 has nine poems in which Ovid addresses his wife (1) and various friends. It includes a telling of the story of Iphigenia in Tauris (2), a poem against criticism (9), and a dream of Cupid (3). Book 4, the final work of Ovid, in 16 poems talks to friends and describes his life as an exile further. Poems 10 and 13 describe Winter and Spring at Tomis, poem 14 is halfhearted praise for Tomis, 7 describes its geography and climate, and 4 and 9 are congratulations on friends for their consulships and requests for help. Poem 12 is addressed to a Tuticanus, whose name, Ovid complains, does not fit into meter. The final poem is addressed to an enemy whom Ovid implores to leave him alone. The last elegiac couplet is translated: "Where’s the joy in stabbing your steel into my dead flesh?/ There’s no place left where I can be dealt fresh wounds."[47] Lost works[edit] One loss, which Ovid himself described, is the first five-book edition of the Amores, from which nothing has come down to us. The greatest loss is Ovid's only tragedy, Medea, from which only a few lines are preserved. Quintilian admired the work a great deal and considered it a prime example of Ovid's poetic talent.[48] Lactantius quotes from a lost translation by Ovid of Aratus' Phaenomena, although the poem's ascription to Ovid is insecure because it is never mentioned in Ovid's other works.[49] A line from a work entitled Epigrammata is cited by Priscian.[50] Even though it is unlikely, if the last six books of the Fasti ever existed, they constitute a great loss. Ovid also mentions some occasional poetry (Epithalamium,[51] dirge,[52] even a rendering in Getic[53]) which does not survive. Also lost is the final portion of the Medicamina. Spurious works[edit] Consolatio ad Liviam ("Consolation to Livia")[edit] The Consolatio is a long elegiac poem of consolation to Augustus' wife Livia on the death of her son Nero Claudius Drusus. The poem opens by advising Livia not to try to hide her sad emotions and contrasts Drusus' military virtue with his death. Drusus' funeral and the tributes of the imperial family are described as are his final moments and Livia's lament over the body, which is compared to birds. The laments of the city of Rome as it greets his funeral procession and the gods are mentioned, and Mars from his temple dissuades the Tiber river from quenching the pyre out of grief.[54] Grief is expressed for his lost military honors, his wife, and his mother. The poet asks Livia to look for consolation in Tiberius. The poem ends with an address by Drusus to Livia assuring him of his fate in Elysium. Although this poem was connected to the Elegiae in Maecenatem, it is now thought that they are unconnected. The date of the piece is unknown, but a date in the reign of Tiberius has been suggested because of that emperor's prominence in the poem.[54] Halieutica ("On Fishing")[edit] The Halieutica is a fragmentary didactic poem in 134 poorly preserved hexameter lines and is considered spurious. The poem begins by describing how every animal possesses the ability to protect itself and how fish use ars to help themselves. The ability of dogs and land creatures to protect themselves is described. The poem goes on to list the best places for fishing, and which types of fish to catch. Although Pliny the Elder mentions a Halieutica by Ovid, which was composed at Tomis near the end of Ovid's life, modern scholars believe Pliny was mistaken in his attribution and that the poem is not genuine.[55] Nux ("The Walnut Tree")[edit] This short poem in 91 elegiac couplets is related to Aesop's fable of "The Walnut Tree" that was the subject of human ingratitude. In a monologue asking boys not pelt it with stones to get its fruit, the tree contrasts the formerly fruitful golden age with the present barren time, in which its fruit is violently ripped off and its branches broken. In the course of this, the tree compares itself to several mythological characters, praises the peace that the emperor provides and prays to be destroyed rather than suffer. The poem is considered spurious because it incorporates allusions to Ovid's works in an uncharacteristic way, although the piece is thought to be contemporary with Ovid.[56] Somnium ("The Dream")[edit] This poem, traditionally placed at Amores 3.5, is considered spurious. The poet describes a dream to an interpreter, saying that he sees while escaping from the heat of noon a white heifer near a bull; when the heifer is pecked by a crow, it leaves the bull for a meadow with other bulls. The interpreter interprets the dream as a love allegory; the bull represents the poet, the heifer a girl, and the crow an old woman. The old woman spurs the girl to leave her lover and find someone else. The poem is known to have circulated independently and its lack of engagement with Tibullan or Propertian elegy argue in favor of its spuriousness; however, the poem does seem to be datable to the early empire.[57] Style[edit] Ovid is traditionally considered the final significant love elegist in the evolution of the genre and one of the most versatile in his handling of the genre's conventions. Like the other canonical elegiac poets Ovid takes on a persona in his works that emphasizes subjectivity and personal emotion over traditional militaristic and public goals, a convention that some scholars link to the relative stability provided by the Augustan settlement.[58][59] However, although Catullus, Tibullus and Propertius may have been inspired in part by personal experience, the validity of "biographical" readings of these poets' works is a serious point of scholarly contention.[60] Ovid has been seen as taking on a persona in his poetry that is far more emotionally detached from his mistress and less involved in crafting a unique emotional realism within the text than the other elegists.[61] This attitude, coupled with the lack of testimony that identifies Ovid's Corinna with a real person[62] has led scholars to conclude that Corinna was never a real person – and that Ovid's relationship with her is an invention for his elegiac project.[63] Some scholars have even interpreted Corinna as a metapoetic symbol for the elegiac genre itself.[64] Ovid has been considered a highly inventive love elegist who plays with traditional elegiac conventions and elaborates the themes of the genre;[65] Quintilian even calls him a "sportive" elegist.[3] In some poems, he uses traditional conventions in new ways, such as the paraklausithyron of Am. 1.6, while other poems seem to have no elegiac precedents and appear to be Ovid's own generic innovations, such as the poem on Corinna's ruined hair (Am. 1.14). Ovid has been traditionally seen as far more sexually explicit in his poetry than the other elegists.[66] His erotic elegy covers a wide spectrum of themes and viewpoints; the Amores focus on Ovid's relationship with Corinna, the love of mythical characters is the subject of the Heroides, and the Ars Amatoria and the other didactic love poems provide a handbook for relationships and seduction from a (mock-)"scientific" viewpoint. In his treatment of elegy, scholars have traced the influence of rhetorical education in his enumeration, in his effects of surprise, and in his transitional devices.[67] Some commentators have also noted the influence of Ovid's interest in love elegy in his other works, such as the Fasti, and have distinguished his "elegiac" style from his "epic" style. Richard Heinze in his famous Ovids elegische Erzählung (1919) delineated the distinction between Ovid's styles by comparing the Fasti and Metamorphoses versions of the same legends, such as the treatment of the Ceres–Proserpina story in both poems. Heinze demonstrated that, "whereas in the elegiac poems a sentimental and tender tone prevails, the hexameter narrative is characterized by an emphasis on solemnity and awe..."[68] His general line of argument has been accepted by Brooks Otis, who wrote: The gods are "serious" in epic as they are not in elegy; the speeches in epic are long and infrequent compared to the short, truncated and frequent speeches of elegy; the epic writer conceals himself while the elegiac fills his narrative with familiar remarks to the reader or his characters; above all perhaps, epic narrative is continuous and symmetrical... whereas elegiac narrative displays a marked asymmetry ...[69] Otis wrote that in the Ovidian poems of love, he "was burlesquing an old theme rather than inventing a new one".[70] Otis states that the Heroides are more serious and, though some of them are "quite different from anything Ovid had done before [...] he is here also treading a very well-worn path" to relate that the motif of females abandoned by or separated from their men was a "stock motif of Hellenistic and neoteric poetry (the classic example for us is, of course, Catullus 66)".[70] Otis also states that Phaedra and Medea, Dido and Hermione (also present in the poem) "are clever re-touchings of Euripides and Vergil".[70] Some scholars, such as Kenney and Clausen, have compared Ovid with Virgil. According to them, Virgil was ambiguous and ambivalent while Ovid was defined and, while Ovid wrote only what he could express, Virgil wrote for the use of language.[71] Legacy[edit] Criticism[edit] A 1484 figure from Ovide Moralisé, edition by Colard Mansion. Ovid's works have been interpreted in various ways over the centuries with attitudes that depended on the social, religious and literary contexts of different times. It is known that since his own lifetime, he was already famous and criticized. In the Remedia Amoris, Ovid reports criticism from people who considered his books insolent.[72] Ovid responded to this criticism with the following: Gluttonous Envy, burst: my name’s well known already it will be more so, if only my feet travel the road they’ve started. But you’re in too much of a hurry: if I live you’ll be more than sorry: many poems, in fact, are forming in my mind.[73] After such criticism subsided, Ovid became one of the best known and most loved Roman poets during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.[74] Writers in the Middle Ages used his work as a way to read and write about sex and violence without orthodox "scrutiny routinely given to commentaries on the Bible".[75] In the Middle Ages the voluminous Ovide moralisé, a French work that moralizes 15 books of the Metamorphoses was composed. This work then influenced Chaucer. Ovid's poetry provided inspiration for the Renaissance idea of humanism, and more specifically, for many Renaissance painters and writers. Likewise, Arthur Golding moralized his own translation of the full 15 books, and published it in 1567. This version was the same version used as a supplement to the original Latin in the Tudor-era grammar schools that influenced such major Renaissance authors as Christopher Marlowe and William Shakespeare. Many non-English authors were heavily influenced by Ovid's works as well. Montaigne, for example, alluded to Ovid several times in his Essais, specifically in his comments on Education of Children when he says: The first taste I had for books came to me from my pleasure in the fables of the Metamorphoses of Ovid. For at about seven or eight years of age I would steal away from any other pleasure to read them, inasmuch as this language was my mother tongue, and it was the easiest book I knew and the best suited by its content to my tender age.[76] Miguel de Cervantes also used the Metamorphoses as a platform of inspiration for his prodigious novel Don Quixote. Delacroix, Ovid among the Scythians, 1859. National Gallery (London). In the 16th century, some Jesuit schools of Portugal cut several passages from Ovid's Metamorphoses. While the Jesuits saw his poems as elegant compositions worthy of being presented to students for educational purposes, they also felt his works as a whole might corrupt students.[77] The Jesuits took much of their knowledge of Ovid to the Portuguese colonies. According to Serafim Leite (1949), the ratio studiorum was in effect in Colonial Brazil during the early 17th century, and in this period Brazilian students read works like the Epistulae ex Ponto to learn Latin grammar.[78] In Spain, Ovid is both praised and criticized by Cervantes in his Don Quixote, where he warns against satires that can exile poets, as happened to Ovid.[79] In the 16th century, Ovid's works were criticized in England. The Archbishop of Canterbury and the Bishop of London ordered that a contemporary translation of Ovid's love poems be publicly burned in 1599. The Puritans of the following century viewed Ovid as pagan, thus as an immoral influence.[80] John Dryden composed a famous translation of the Metamorphoses into stopped rhyming couplets during the 17th century, when Ovid was "refashioned [...] in its own image, one kind of Augustanism making over another".[74] The Romantic movement of the 19th century, in contrast, considered Ovid and his poems "stuffy, dull, over-formalized and lacking in genuine passion".[74] Romantics might have preferred his poetry of exile.[81] The picture Ovid among the Scythians, painted by Delacroix, portrays the last years of the poet in exile in Scythia, and was seen by Baudelaire, Gautier and Edgar Degas.[82] Baudelaire took the opportunity to write a long essay about the life of an exiled poet like Ovid.[83] This shows that the exile of Ovid had some influence in 19th century Romanticism since it makes connections with its key concepts such as wildness and the misunderstood genius.[84] The exile poems were once viewed unfavorably in Ovid's oeuvre.[85] They have enjoyed a resurgence of scholarly interest in recent years, though critical opinion remains divided on several qualities of the poems, such as their intended audience and whether Ovid was sincere in the "recantation of all that he stood for before".[86] Ovid's influence[edit] Ovid as imagined in the Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493. Literary and artistic[edit] (c. 800–810) Moduin, a poet in the court circle of Charlemagne, adopts the pen name Naso. (12th century) The troubadours and the medieval courtoise literature. In particular, the passage describing the Holy Grail in the Conte du Graal by Chrétien de Troyes contains elements from the Metamorphoses.[87] (13th century) The Roman de la Rose, Dante Alighieri (14th century) Petrarch, Geoffrey Chaucer, Juan Ruiz (15th century) Sandro Botticelli (16th century–17th century) Luís de Camões, Christopher Marlowe, William Shakespeare, John Marston, Thomas Edwards (17th century) John Milton, Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Miguel de Cervantes's Don Quixote, 1605 and 1615, Luis de Góngora's La Fábula de Polifemo y Galatea, 1613, Landscape with Pyramus and Thisbe by Nicolas Poussin, 1651, Stormy Landscape with Philemon and Baucis by Peter Paul Rubens, c. 1620, "Divine Narcissus" by Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz c. 1689.[88] (1820s) During his Odessa exile, Alexander Pushkin compared himself to Ovid; memorably versified in the epistle To Ovid (1821). The exiled Ovid also features in his long poem Gypsies, set in Moldavia (1824), and in Canto VIII of Eugene Onegin (1825–1832). (1916) James Joyce's A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man has a quotation from Book 8 of Metamorphoses and introduces Stephen Dedalus. The Ovidian reference to "Daedalus" was in Stephen Hero, but then metamorphosed to "Dedalus" in A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man and in Ulysses. (1920s) The title of the second poetry collection by Osip Mandelstam, Tristia (Berlin, 1922), refers to Ovid's book. Mandelstam's collection is about his hungry, violent years immediately after the October Revolution. (1951) Six Metamorphoses after Ovid by Benjamin Britten, for solo oboe, evokes images of Ovid's characters from Metamorphoses. (1960) God Was Born in Exile, the novel by the Romanian writer Vintila Horia about Ovid's stay in exile (the novel received the Prix Goncourt in 1960). (1960s–2010s) Bob Dylan has made repeated use of Ovid's wording, imagery, and themes. (2006) His album Modern Times contains songs with borrowed lines from Ovid's Poems of Exile, from Peter Green's translation. The songs are "Workingman's Blues #2", "Ain't Talkin'", "The Levee's Gonna Break", and "Spirit on the Water". (1978) Australian author David Malouf's novel An Imaginary Life is about Ovid's exile in Tomis. (1998) In Pandora, by Anne Rice, Pandora cites Ovid as a favorite poet and author of the time, quoting him to her lover Marius de Romanus. (2000) The Art of Love by Robin Brooks, a comedy, emphasizing Ovid's role as lover. Broadcast 23 May on BBC Radio 4, with Bill Nighy and Anne-Marie Duff (not to be confused with the 2004 radio play by the same title on Radio 3). (2004) The Art of Love by Andrew Rissik, a drama, part of a trilogy, which speculates on the crime that sent Ovid into exile. Broadcast 11 April on BBC Radio 4, with Stephen Dillane and Juliet Aubrey (not to be confused with the 2000 radio play by the same title on Radio 4).[89] (2007) Russian author Alexander Zorich's novel Roman Star is about the last years of Ovid's life. (2007) the play "The Land of Oblivion " by Russian-American dramatist Mikhail Berman-Tsikinovsky was published in Russian by Vagrius Plus (Moscow).The play was based on author's new hypothesis unrevealing the mystery of Ovid's exile to Tomi by Augustus. (2008) "The Love Song of Ovid", a two-hour radio documentary by Damiano Pietropaolo, recorded on location in Rome (the recently restored house of Augustus on the Roman forum), Sulmona (Ovid's birthplace) and Constanta (modern day Tomis, in Romania). Broadcast on the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, CBC Radio One, 18 and 19 Dec 2008. (2012) The House Of Rumour, a novel by British author Jake Arnott, opens with a passage from Metamorphoses 12.39–63, and the author muses on Ovid's prediction of the internet in that passage. (2013) Mikhail Berman-Tsikinovsky's "To Ovid, 2000 years later, (A Road Tale)" describes the author's visits to the places of Ovid's birth and death. (2015) In The Walking Dead season 5, episode 5 ("Now"), Deanna begins making a long-term plan to make her besieged community sustainable and writes on her blueprint a Latin phrase attributed to Ovid: "Dolor hic tibi proderit olim".[90] The phrase is an excerpt from the longer phrase, "Perfer et obdura, dolor hic tibi proderit olim" (English translation: Be patient and tough; someday this pain will be useful to you").[91] (2017) Canadian composer Marc Sabat and German poet Uljana Wolf collaborated on a free homophonic translation of the first 88 lines of Ovid's Metamorphoseon to create the cantata Seeds of skies, alibis premiered by the vocal ensemble Ekmeles in New York on 22 February 2018.[92] Dante twice mentions him in: De vulgari eloquentia, along with Lucan, Virgil and Statius as one of the four regulati poetae (ii, vi, 7) Inferno as ranking alongside Homer, Horace, Lucan and Virgil (Inferno, IV, 88) Retellings, adaptations, and translations of Ovidian works[edit] Metamorphoses, 1618 (1609) The Wisdom of the Ancients, a retelling and interpretation of Ovidian fables by Francis Bacon (1767) Apollo et Hyacinthus, an early opera by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1938) Daphne, an opera by Richard Strauss (1949) Orphée, a film by Jean Cocteau, retelling of the Orpheus myth from the Metamorphoses (1978) Ovid's Metamorphoses (Translation in Blank Verse), by Brookes More (1978) Ovid's Metamorphoses in European Culture (Commentary), by Wilmon Brewer (1991) The Last World by Christoph Ransmayr (1997) Polaroid Stories by Naomi Iizuka, a retelling of Metamorphoses, with urchins and drug addicts as the gods. (1994) After Ovid: New Metamorphoses edited by Michael Hofmann and James Lasdun is an anthology of contemporary poetry envisioning Ovid's Metamorphoses (1997) Tales from Ovid by Ted Hughes is a modern poetic translation of twenty four passages from Metamorphoses (2000) Ovid Metamorphosed edited by Phil Terry, a short story collection retelling several of Ovid's fables (2002) An adaptation of Metamorphoses of the same name by Mary Zimmerman was performed at the Circle in the Square Theatre[93] (2006) Patricia Barber's song cycle, Mythologies (2008) Tristes Pontiques, translated from Latin by Marie Darrieussecq (2011) A stage adaptation of Metamorphoses by Peter Bramley, entitled Ovid's Metamorphoses was performed by Pants on Fire, presented by the Carol Tambor Theatrical Foundation at the Flea Theater in New York City and toured the United Kingdom (2012) "The Song of Phaethon", a post-rock/musique concrète song written and performed by Ian Crause (former leader of Disco Inferno) in Greek epic style, based on a Metamorphoses tale (as recounted in Hughes' Tales from Ovid) and drawing parallels between mythology and current affairs (2013) Clare Pollard, Ovid's Heroines (Bloodaxe), new poetic version of Heroides Gallery[edit] Ovid by Anton von Werner. Ovid by Luca Signorelli. Scythians at the Tomb of Ovid (c.1640), by Johann Heinrich Schönfeld. Bust of Ovid by anonymous sculptor, Uffizi gallery Florence See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal Literature portal Biography portal Cultural influence of Metamorphoses List of characters in Metamorphoses Metamorphoses (2014 film) Ovid Prize Prosody (Latin) Sabinus (Ovid) Sexuality in ancient Rome Notes[edit] a. ^ The cognomen Naso means "the one with the nose" (i.e. "Bignose"). Ovid habitually refers to himself by his nickname in his poetry because the Latin name Ovidius does not fit into elegiac metre. b. ^ It was a pivotal year in the history of Rome. A year before Ovid's birth, the murder of Julius Caesar took place, an event that precipitated the end of the republican regime. After Caesar's death, a series of civil wars and alliances followed (See Roman civil wars), until the victory of Caesar's nephew, Octavius (later called Augustus) over Mark Antony (leading supporter of Caesar), from which arose a new political order.[94] c. ^ Fasti is, in fact, unfinished. Metamorphoses was already completed in the year of exile, missing only the final revision.[95] In exile, Ovid said he never gave a final review on the poem.[96] d. ^ Ovid cites Scythia in I 64, II 224, V 649, VII 407, VIII 788, XV 285, 359, 460, and others. References[edit] ^ Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary: "Ovid" ^ Fergus Millar, "Ovid and the Domus Augusta: Rome Seen from Tomoi", Journal of Roman Studies 83 (1993), p. 6. ^ a b Quint. Inst. 10.1.93 ^ Mark P.O. Morford, Robert J. Lenardon, Classical Mythology (Oxford University Press US, 1999), p. 25. ISBN 0195143388, 978-0195143386 ^ Seneca, Cont. 2.2.8 and 9.5.17 ^ Trist. 1.2.77 ^ Trist. 4.10.33–34 ^ Trist. 2.93ff.; Ex P. 5.23ff. ^ Fast. 4.383–34 ^ Trist. 4.10.21 ^ Trist. 4.10.57–58 ^ Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (2014). The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization. Oxford University Press. p. 562. ISBN 978-0198706779. ^ Brill's New Pauly: Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World s.v. Ovid ^ The most recent chart that describes the dating of Ovid's works is in Knox. P. "A Poet's Life" in A Companion to Ovid ed. Peter Knox (Oxford, 2009) pp. xvii–xviii ^ a b Trist. 4.10.53–54 ^ Hornblower, Simon; Antony Spawforth (1996). Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford University Press. p. 1085. ^ See Trist. II, 131–32. ^ Ovid, Tristia 2.207 ^ Ovid, Epistulae ex Ponto 2.9.72 ^ Ovid, Epistulae ex Ponto 3.3.72 ^ Norwood, Frances, "The Riddle of Ovid's Relegatio", Classical Philology (1963) p. 158 ^ José González Vázquez (trans.), Ov. Tristes e Pónticas (Editorial Gredos, Madrid, 1992), p. 10 and Rafael Herrera Montero (trans.), Ov. Tristes; Cartas del Ponto (Alianza Editorial, Madrid, 2002). The scholars also add that it was no more indecent than many publications by Propertius, Tibullus and Horace that circulated freely in that time. ^ The first two lines of the Tristia communicate his misery:Parve – nec invideo – sine me, liber, ibis in urbem; ei mihi, quod domino non licet ire tuo! "Little book – for I don't begrudge it – go on to the city without me; Alas for me, because your master is not allowed to go with you!" ^ J. C. Thibault, The Mystery of Ovid's Exile (Berkeley-L. A. 1964), pp. 20–32. ^ About 33 mentions, according to Thibault (Mystery, pp. 27–31). ^ A. W. J. Holleman, "Ovid's exile", Liverpool Classical Monthly 10.3 (1985), p. 48. H. Hofmann, "The unreality of Ovid's Tomitan exile once again", Liverpool Classical Monthly 12.2 (1987), p. 23. ^ A. D. F. Brown, "The unreality of Ovid's Tomitan exile", Liverpool Classical Monthly 10.2 (1985), pp. 18–22. ^ Cf. the summary provided by A. Alvar Ezquerra, Exilio y elegía latina entre la Antigüedad y el Renacimiento (Huelva, 1997), pp. 23–24 ^ Naturalis Historia, 32.152: "His adiciemus ab Ovidio posita animalia, quae apud neminem alium reperiuntur, sed fortassis in Ponto nascentia, ubi id volumen supremis suis temporibus inchoavit". ^ Silvae, 1.2, 254–55: "nec tristis in ipsis Naso Tomis". ^ Short references in Jerome (Chronicon, 2033, an. Tiberii 4, an. Dom. 17: "Ovidius poeta in exilio diem obiit et iuxta oppidum Tomos sepelitur") and in Epitome de Caesaribus (I, 24: "Nam [Augustus] poetam Ovidium, qui et Naso, pro eo, quod tres libellos amatoriae artis conscripsit, exilio damnavit"). ^ A. D. F. Brown, "The unreality of Ovid's Tomitan exile", Liverpool Classical Monthly 10.2 (1985), pp. 20–21. ^ J. M. Claassen, "Error and the imperial household: an angry god and the exiled Ovid's fate", Acta classica: proceedings of the Classical Association of South Africa 30 (1987), pp. 31–47. ^ Although some authors such as Martin (P. M. Martin, "À propos de l'exil d'Ovide... et de la succession d'Auguste", Latomus 45 (1986), pp. 609–11.) and Porte (D. Porte, "Un épisode satirique des Fastes et l'exil d'Ovide", Latomus 43 (1984), pp. 284–306.) detected in a passage of the Fasti (2.371–80) an Ovidian attitude contrary to the wishes of Augustus to his succession, most researchers agree that this work is the clearest testimony of support of Augustan ideals by Ovid (E. Fantham, Ovid: Fasti. Book IV (Cambridge 1998), p. 42.) ^ Smith, R. Scott (15 March 2014). Ancient Rome: An Anthology of Sources. Hackett Publishing. ISBN 978-1624661167. ^ Green, Steven J. (1 January 2004). Ovid, Fasti 1: A Commentary. Brill. p. 22. ISBN 978-9004139855. ^ Knox, P. Ovid's Heroides: Select Epistles (Cambridge, 1995) pp. 14ff. ^ Knox, P. pp. 12–13 ^ Knox, P. pp. 18ff. ^ Athanassaki, Lucia (1992). "The Triumph of Love in Ovid's Amores 1, 2". Materiali e Discussioni per l'Analisi dei Testi Classici. No. 28 (28): 125–41. doi:10.2307/40236002. JSTOR 40236002. ^ Conte, G. p. 343 ^ Book 1 Verse 1, 2: "If you do not know the art of love, read my book, and you will be a 'doctor' of love in the future". ^ Liveley, Genevieve. (2011). Ovid's Metamorphoses : a reader's guide. London: Continuum. ISBN 978-1-4411-7081-1. OCLC 703573507. ^ Conte, G. Latin Literature a History trans. J. Solodow (Baltimore, 1994) p. 346 ^ Conte, G. p. 352 ^ Herbert-Brown, G. "Fasti: the Poet, the Prince, and the Plebs" in Knox, P. (2009) pp. 126ff. ^ PoetryInTranslation.com, a translation of all of Ovid's exile poetry can be found here by A. S. Kline, 2003 ^ Quint. Inst. 10.1.98. Cfr. Tacitus, Dial. Orat. 12. ^ Lact. Div. Inst. 2.5.24. Another quotation by Probus ad Verg. Georg. 1, 138 ^ Inst. gramm. 5, 13, Gramm. Lat. 2, 149, 13 Keil. ^ Ex P. 1.2.131 ^ Ex P. 1.7.30 ^ Ex P. 4.13.19> ^ a b Knox, P. "Lost and Spurious Works" in Knox, P. (2009) p. 214 ^ Pliny Nat. 32.11 and 32.152 and Knox, P. "Lost" in Knox, P. (2009) ^ Knox, P. "Lost" in Knox, P. (2009) pp. 212–13 ^ Knox, P. "Lost" in Knox, P. (2009) pp. 210–11 ^ Ettore Bignone, Historia de la literatura latina (Buenos Aires: Losada, 1952), p. 309. ^ A. Guillemin, "L’élement humain dans l’élégie latine". In: Revue des études Latines (Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1940), p. 288. ^ In fact, it is generally accepted in most modern classical scholarship on elegy that the poems have little connection to autobiography or external reality. See Wycke, M. "Written Women:Propertius' Scripta Puella" in JRS 1987 and Davis, J. Fictus Adulter: Poet as Auctor in the Amores (Amsterdam, 1989) and Booth, J. "The Amores: Ovid Making Love" in A Companion to Ovid (Oxford, 2009) pp. 70ff. ^ Booth, J. pp. 66–68. She explains: "The text of the Amores hints at the narrator's lack of interest in depicting unique and personal emotion." p. 67 ^ Apuleius Apology 10 provides the real names for every elegist's mistress except Ovid's. ^ Barsby, J. Ovid Amores 1 (Oxford, 1973) pp.16ff. ^ Keith, A. "Corpus Eroticum: Elegiac Poetics and Elegiac Puellae in Ovid's 'Amores'" in Classical World (1994) 27–40. ^ Barsby, p. 17. ^ Booth, J. p. 65 ^ Jean Bayet, Literatura latina (Barcelona: Ariel, 1985), p. 278 and Barsby, pp. 23ff. ^ Quoted by Theodore F. Brunner, "Deinon vs. eleeinon: Heinze Revisited" In: The American Journal of Philology, Vol. 92, No. 2 (Apr. 1971), pp. 275–84. ^ Brooks Otis, Ovid as an epic poet (CUP Archive, 1970), p. 24. ISBN 0521076153, 978-0521076159 ^ a b c Brooks Otis, Ovid as an epic poet, p. 264. ^ Kenney, E. J. y ClausenL, W. V. História de la literatura clásica (Cambridge University), vol. II. Literatura Latina. Madrid: Gredos, w/d, p. 502. ^ Ov. Rem. VI, 6. ^ Ov. Rem. VI, 33–36. Translated by A. S. Kline and available in Ovid: Cures for Love (2001). ^ a b c See chapters II and IV in P. Gatti, Ovid in Antike und Mittelalter. Geschichte der philologischen Rezeption, Stuttgart 2014, ISBN 978-3515103756; Peter Green (trad.), The poems of exile: Tristia and the Black Sea letters (University of California Press, 2005), p. xiii. ISBN 0520242602, 978-0520242609 ^ Robert Levine, "Exploiting Ovid: Medieval Allegorizations of the Metamorphoses," Medioevo Romanzo XIV (1989), pp. 197–213. ^ Michel de Montaigne, The complete essays of Montaigne (translated by Donald M. Frame), Stanford University Press 1958, p. 130. ISBN 0804704864, 978-0804704861 ^ Agostinho de Jesus Domingues, Os Clássicos Latinos nas Antologias Escolares dos Jesuítas nos Primeiros Ciclos de Estudos Pré-Elementares No Século XVI em Portugal (Faculdade de Letras da Universidade do Porto, 2002), Porto, pp. 16–17. ^ Serafim da Silva Leite, História da Companhia de Jesus no Brasil. Rio de Janeiro, Instituto Nacional do Livro, 1949, pp. 151–52 – Tomo VII. ^ Frederick A. De Armas, Ovid in the Age of Cervantes (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2010), pp. 11–12. ^ Ovid's Metamorphoses, Alan H. F. Griffin, Greece & Rome, Second Series, Vol. 24, No. 1 (Apr. 1977), pp. 57–70. Cambridge University Press. ^ Peter Green (trad.), The poems of exile: Tristia and the Black Sea letters (University of California Press, 2005), p. xiv. ISBN 0520242602, 978-0520242609 ^ "Recent Acquisitions, A Selection: 2007–2008," in The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, v. 66, no. 2 (Fall, 2008). ^ Timothy Bell Raser, The simplest of signs: Victor Hugo and the language of images in France, 1850–1950 (University of Delaware Press, 2004), p. 127. ISBN 0874138671, 978-0874138672 ^ Matt Cartmill, A View to a Death in the Morning: Hunting and Nature Through History, Harvard University Press, 1996, pp. 118–19. ISBN 0674937368 ^ Ovid (2005). The Poems of Exile: Tristia and the Black Sea Letters. Translated by Green, Peter. University of California Press. p. xxxvi. ISBN 978-0520931374. ^ Claassen, Jo-Marie (2013). Ovid Revisited: The Poet in Exile. A&C Black. p. 2. ISBN 978-1472521439. ^ Peron, Goulven. L'influence des Metamorphoses d'Ovide sur la visite de Perceval au chateau du Roi Pecheur, Journal of the International Arthurian Society, Vol. 4, Issue 1, 2016, pp. 113–34. ^ Tavard, George H. Juana Ines de la Cruz and the Theology of Beauty: The First Mexican theology, University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame, IN, 1991, pp. 104–05 ^ Reynolds, Gillian (13 April 2004). "Tune in, and turn back the clock". The Daily Telegraph. London. ^ Ovid. "Elegy XI: Weary at Length of His Mistress' Infidelities, He Swears that He Will Love Her No Longer". Sacred Texts. Retrieved 14 November 2015. ^ Faherty, Allanah Faherty (9 November 2015). "5 Things You Might Have Missed in The Walking Dead 'Now'". MoviePilot. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 14 November 2015. ^ "Seeds of skies, alibis". ^ TalkinBroadway.com, Review: Metamorphoses ^ (in Portuguese) Met., Ovid, translation to Portuguese by Paulo Farmhouse Alberto, Livros Cotovia, Intro, p. 11. ^ Carlos de Miguel Moura. O mistério do exílio ovidiano. In Portuguese. In: Àgora. Estudos Clássicos em Debate 4 (2002), pp. 99–117. ^ Tristia 1, 7, 14. Editions[edit] McKeown, J. (ed), Ovid: Amores. Text, Prolegomena and Commentary in four volumes, Vol. I–III (Liverpool, 1987–1998) (ARCA, 20, 22, 36). Ryan, M. B.; Perkins, C. A. (ed.), Ovid's Amores, Book One: A Commentary (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2011) (Oklahoma Series in Classical Culture, 41). Tarrant, R. J. (ed.), P. Ovidi Nasonis Metamorphoses (Oxford: OUP, 2004) (Oxford Classical Texts). Anderson, W. S., Ovid's Metamorphoses, Books 1–5 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1996). Anderson, W. S., Ovid's Metamorphoses, Books 6–10 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1972). Kenney, E. J. (ed.), P. Ovidi Nasonis Amores, Medicamina Faciei Femineae, Ars Amatoria, Remedia Amoris (Oxford: OUP, 19942) (Oxford Classical Texts). Myers, K. Sara Ovid Metamorphoses 14. Cambridge Greek and Latin Classics. (Cambridge University Press, 2009). Ramírez de Verger, A. (ed.), Ovidius, Carmina Amatoria. Amores. Medicamina faciei femineae. Ars amatoria. Remedia amoris. (München & Leipzig: Saur, 20062) (Bibliotheca Teubneriana). Dörrie, H. (ed.), Epistulae Heroidum / P. Ovidius Naso (Berlin & New York: de Gruyter, 1971) (Texte und Kommentare ; Bd. 6). Fornaro, P. (ed.), Publio Ovidio Nasone, Heroides (Alessandria: Edizioni del'Orso, 1999) Alton, E.H.; Wormell, D.E.W.; Courtney, E. (eds.), P. Ovidi Nasonis Fastorum libri sex (Stuttgart & Leipzig: Teubner, 19974) (Bibliotheca Teubneriana). Fantham, Elaine. Fasti. Book IV. Cambridge Greek and Latin Classics. (Cambridge University Press, 1998). Wiseman, Anne and Peter Wiseman Ovid: Fasti. (Oxford University Press, 2013). Goold, G.P., et alii (eds.), Ovid, Heroides, Amores; Art of Love, Cosmetics, Remedies for Love, Ibis, Walnut-tree, Sea Fishing, Consolation; Metamorphoses; Fasti; Tristia, Ex Ponto, Vol. I-VI, (Cambridge, Massachusetts/London: HUP, 1977–1989, revised ed.) (Loeb Classical Library) Hall, J.B. (ed.), P. Ovidi Nasonis Tristia (Stuttgart & Leipzig: Teubner 1995) (Bibliotheca Teubneriana). Ingleheart, Jennifer Tristia Book 2. (Oxford University Press, 2010). Richmond, J. A. (ed.), P. Ovidi Nasonis Ex Ponto libri quattuor (Stuttgart & Leipzig: Teubner 1990) (Bibliotheca Teubneriana). Further reading[edit] William Turpin (2016). Ovid, Amores (Book 1). Open Book Publishers. A free textbook for download. Brewer, Wilmon, Ovid's Metamorphoses in European Culture (Commentary), Marshall Jones Company, Francestown, NH, Revised Edition 1978 More, Brookes, Ovid's Metamorphoses (Translation in Blank Verse), Marshall Jones Company, Francestown, NH, Revised Edition 1978 Ovid Renewed: Ovidian Influences on Literature and Art from the Middle Ages to the Twentieth Century. Ed. Charles Martindale. Cambridge, 1988. Richard A. Dwyer "Ovid in the Middle Ages" in Dictionary of the Middle Ages, 1989, pp. 312–14 Federica Bessone. P. Ovidii Nasonis Heroidum Epistula XII: Medea Iasoni. Florence: Felice Le Monnier, 1997. pp. 324. Theodor Heinze. P. Ovidius Naso. Der XII. Heroidenbrief: Medea an Jason. Mit einer Beilage: Die Fragmente der Tragödie Medea. Einleitung, Text & Kommentar. Mnemosyne Supplement 170 Leiden: Brill Publishers, 1997. pp. xi, 288. R. A. Smith. Poetic Allusion and Poetic Embrace in Ovid and Virgil. Ann Arbor; The University of Michigan Press, 1997. pp. ix, 226. Michael Simpson, The Metamorphoses of Ovid. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2001. pp. 498. Philip Hardie (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Ovid. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. pp. xvi, 408. Ovid's Fasti: Historical Readings at its Bimillennium. Edited by Geraldine Herbert-Brown. Oxford, OUP, 2002, 327 pp. Susanne Gippert, Joseph Addison's Ovid: An Adaptation of the Metamorphoses in the Augustan Age of English Literature. Die Antike und ihr Weiterleben, Band 5. Remscheid: Gardez! Verlag, 2003. pp. 304. Heather van Tress, Poetic Memory. Allusion in the Poetry of Callimachus and the Metamorphoses of Ovid. Mnemosyne, Supplementa 258. Leiden: Brill Publishers, 2004. pp. ix, 215. Ziolkowski, Theodore, Ovid and the Moderns. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2005. pp. 262. Desmond, Marilynn, Ovid's Art and the Wife of Bath: The Ethics of Erotic Violence. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2006. pp. 232. Rimell, Victoria, Ovid's Lovers: Desire, Difference, and the Poetic Imagination. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. pp. 235. Pugh, Syrithe, Spenser and Ovid. Burlington: Ashgate, 2005. p. 302. Montuschi, Claudia, Il tempo in Ovidio. Funzioni, meccanismi, strutture. Accademia la colombaria studi, 226. Firenze: Leo S. Olschki, 2005. p. 463. Pasco-Pranger, Molly, Founding the Year: Ovid's Fasti and the Poetics of the Roman Calendar. Mnemosyne Suppl., 276. Leiden: Brill Publishers, 2006. p. 326. Martin Amann, Komik in den Tristien Ovids. (Schweizerische Beiträge zur Altertumswissenschaft, 31). Basel: Schwabe Verlag, 2006. pp. 296. P. J. Davis, Ovid & Augustus: A political reading of Ovid's erotic poems. London: Duckworth, 2006. p. 183. Lee Fratantuono, Madness Transformed: A Reading of Ovid's Metamorphoses. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books, 2011. Peter E. Knox (ed.), Oxford Readings in Ovid. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. p. 541. Andreas N. Michalopoulos, Ovid Heroides 16 and 17. Introduction, text and commentary. (ARCA: Classical and Medieval Texts, Papers and Monographs, 47). Cambridge: Francis Cairns, 2006. pp. x, 409. R. Gibson, S. Green, S. Sharrock, The Art of Love: Bimillennial Essays on Ovid's Ars Amatoria and Remedia Amoris. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. pp. 375. Johnson, Patricia J. Ovid before Exile: Art and Punishment in the Metamorphoses. (Wisconsin Studies in Classics). Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press, 2008. pp. x, 184. Massimo Colella, «Ti trasformasti in Dafne»: mythos ovidiano e metamorfosi nella poesia di Eugenio Montale, in «Italica», 96, 1, 2019, pp. 21–53. External links[edit] Ovidat Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Resources from Wikiversity Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: Publius Ovidius Naso Library resources about Ovid Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Ovid Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Ovid at the Encyclopædia Britannica University of Virginia, "Ovid Illustrated: The Renaissance Reception of Ovid in Image and Text" Works by Ovid at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Ovid at Internet Archive Works by Ovid at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Nihon University, "Ovid Metamorphoses: Paris 1651 (1619) Dickinson College Commentaries: Amores Book 1 Ovid’s “Metamorphoses”: A Common Core Exemplar SORGLL: Ovid, Metamorphoses VIII, 183–235, (Daedalus & Icarus); read by Stephen Daitz [1] Updated list of 29 digitized medieval manuscripts and 207 early printed editions on the internet. Latin and English translation[edit] Perseus/Tufts: P. Ovidius Naso Amores, Ars Amatoria, Heroides (on this site called Epistulae), Metamorphoses, Remedia Amoris. Enhanced brower. Not downloadable. Sacred Texts Archive: Ovid Amores, Ars Amatoria, Medicamina Faciei Femineae, Metamorphoses, Remedia Amoris. The Metamorphoses of Publius Ovidius Naso; elucidated by an analysis and explanation of the fables, together with English notes, historical, mythological and critical, and illustrated by pictorial embellishments: with a dictionary, giving the meaning of all the words with critical exactness. By Nathan Covington Brooks. Publisher: New York, A. S. Barnes & co.; Cincinnati, H. W. Derby & co., 1857 (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & layered PDF format) Original Latin only[edit] Latin Library: Ovid Amores, Ars Amatoria, Epistulae ex Ponto, Fasti, Heroides, Ibis, Metamorphoses, Remedia Amoris, Tristia. Works by Ovid English translation only[edit] New translations by A. S. Kline Amores, Ars Amatoria, Epistulae ex Ponto, Fasti, Heroides, Ibis, Medicamina Faciei Femineae, Metamorphoses, Remedia Amoris, Tristia with enhanced browsing facility, downloadable in HTML, PDF, or MS Word DOC formats. Site also includes wide selection of works by other authors. Two translations from Ovid's Amores by Jon Corelis. English translations of Ovid's Amores with introductory essay and notes by Jon Corelis Perseus/Tufts: Commentary on the Heroides of Ovid v t e Poems by Ovid Metamorphoses Amores Ars Amatoria Remedia Amoris Heroides Fasti Tristia Epistulae ex Ponto Ibis Medicamina Faciei Femineae Double Heroides (authorship uncertain) Category Associated subjects v t e Pygmalion from Ovid's Metamorphoses Characters Galatea Propoetides Opera Pigmalion (1748) Pygmalion (1779) Pimmalione (1809) Il Pigmalione (1816) Die schöne Galathée (1863 operetta) Ballet Pygmalion, ou La Statue de Chypre Play Pygmalion (1762) Pygmalion and Galatea (1871) Pygmalion (1912) Musical Pygmalion; or, The Statue Fair (1872) Galatea, or Pygmalion Reversed (1883) One Touch of Venus (1943) My Fair Lady (1956) Video game Galatea Art Pygmalion and the Image series Pygmalion and Galatea (Gérôme) Television "If I Had a Hammer" A Mulher Invisível Literature Pintosmalto Mr Simigdáli Fall Out Toy Works Film Pygmalion and Galatea (1898) Pygmalion (1938) One Touch of Venus (1948) My Fair Lady (1964) Mannequin (1987) Ruby Sparks (2012) Related 96189 Pygmalion Agalmatophilia Gynoid Comic Potential (1998) v t e "Apollo and Daphne" from Ovid's Metamorphoses Characters Apollo Daphne Operas Dafne (1597) La Dafne (1608) Dafne (1627) Gli amori d'Apollo e di Dafne (1640) Daphne (1938) Other Apollo e Dafne (cantata) Apollo and Daphne (sculpture) Related Daphnomancy The Wood of Suicides v t e "Pyramus and Thisbe" from Ovid's Metamorphoses Operas Pirame et Thisbé (1726 Francoeur and Rebel) Pyramus and Thisbe (1745 Lampe) Piramo e Tisbe (1768 Hasse) Other "Amoryus and Cleopes" (poem) Related A Midsummer Night's Dream Romeo and Juliet v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies 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Contents 1 Online text 2 Online databases 3 Subscription eBook databases 4 Libraries 4.1 Worldwide 4.2 Africa 4.2.1 Nigeria 4.2.2 South Africa 4.2.3 Zimbabwe 4.3 Central America and the Caribbean 4.3.1 Barbados 4.3.2 Guatemala 4.3.3 Jamaica 4.3.4 Mexico 4.3.5 Trinidad and Tobago 4.4 Canada 4.4.1 Public libraries 4.4.2 Universities and colleges 4.5 United States 4.5.1 Public libraries by state 4.5.2 Universities and colleges 4.6 South America 4.6.1 Argentina 4.6.2 Brazil 4.6.3 Colombia 4.6.4 Ecuador 4.7 Asia 4.7.1 Bangladesh 4.7.2 China, People's Republic 4.7.3 Hong Kong, S.A.R. of China 4.7.4 India 4.7.5 Indonesia 4.7.6 Iran 4.7.7 Israel 4.7.8 Japan 4.7.9 Korea 4.7.10 Malaysia 4.7.11 Philippines 4.7.11.1 Universities and colleges 4.7.11.2 Other libraries 4.7.12 Singapore 4.7.13 Taiwan, Republic of China 4.7.14 Thailand 4.8 Australasia and Oceania 4.8.1 Australia 4.8.1.1 Public libraries 4.8.1.2 Academic libraries 4.8.2 New Zealand 4.8.2.1 Public libraries 4.8.2.2 Academic libraries 4.9 Europe 4.9.1 Austria 4.9.2 Belgium 4.9.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina 4.9.4 Croatia 4.9.5 Czech Republic 4.9.6 Denmark 4.9.7 Estonia 4.9.8 Finland 4.9.9 France 4.9.10 Germany 4.9.11 Greece 4.9.12 Hungary 4.9.13 Iceland 4.9.14 Ireland 4.9.15 Italy 4.9.16 Luxembourg 4.9.17 Montenegro 4.9.18 Netherlands 4.9.19 Norway 4.9.20 Poland 4.9.21 Portugal 4.9.22 Russia 4.9.23 Serbia 4.9.24 Slovenia 4.9.25 Spain 4.9.26 Sweden 4.9.27 Switzerland 4.9.28 Turkey 4.9.29 United Kingdom 4.9.29.1 Public libraries 4.9.29.2 Universities 5 Bookselling and swapping 5.1 Price comparison sites 5.2 Search many booksellers 5.3 Individual booksellers 5.4 Book-swapping websites 6 Non-English book sources 7 Bibliographical information 8 Find other editions 9 Find on Wikipedia 10 See also Online text Find this book on Google Books Find this book at the Open Library Find this book on Amazon.com (or .au, .br, .ca, .cn, .de, .es, .fr, .in, .it, .jp, .mx, .nl, .uk). Google Books and Amazon.com may be particularly helpful if you want to verify citations in Wikipedia articles, because they often enable you to search an online version of the book for specific words or phrases, or you can browse through the book (although for copyright reasons the entire book is usually not available). Online databases Find this book at Karlsruhe Virtual Catalog, a metasearch engine addressing many of the databases linked here and also some major commercial booksellers. Find this book at WorldCat free online catalog of the world's libraries Find this book at OttoBib.com citation metasearch Find this book at Copyright Clearance Center online rights database Find this book at Goodreads personal library catalog Find this book at LibraryThing personal library catalog Find this book at aNobii personal library catalog Find this book at iDreamBooks book review aggregator Find this book at the Grand Comics Database Find this book at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database Subscription eBook databases Find this book at Alexander Street Press by ProQuest Find this book at eBookCentral by ProQuest Find this book at EBSCO Industries eBooks Find this book at Gale by Cengage Find this book at HathiTrust Find this book at Overdrive by Rakuten Find this book at Project MUSE Find this book at ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Open Find this book at Safari Books Online by O'Reilly Media Find this book at ScienceDirect Libraries Select your region from the map above Worldwide Find this book at your local library through WorldCat Africa Nigeria Find this book on the Ahmadu Bello University Library catalogue Find this book on the University of Ilorin Library catalogue South Africa Find this book on the National Library of South Africa catalogue Find this book on the SEALS Consortium catalogue Find this book on the University of South Africa catalogue Find this book on the University of the Witwatersrand Library catalogue Zimbabwe Find this book on the University of Zimbabwe Library catalogue Central America and the Caribbean Barbados Find this book in the University of the West Indies (Cave Hill campus) Library catalogue Guatemala Find this book in the University of San Carlos of Guatemala Central Library catalogue Jamaica Find this book in the University of the West Indies (Mona campus) Library catalogue Mexico Find this book in the National Autonomous University of Mexico Library System Trinidad and Tobago Find this book in the University of 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en-wikipedia-org-9462	----	Roman people - Wikipedia Roman people From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the Romans as a cultural group and "Roman" as an identity. For an overview of the ancient Roman state, see Ancient Rome. For other uses, see Roman. Not to be confused with Romani people, an Indo-Aryan ethnic group. Historical national/ethnic group Romans Latin: Rōmānī Ancient Greek: Rhōmaîoi Fresco from the Villa of the Mysteries. Pompeii, 80 BC Languages Latin Classical Greek Other languages Religion Imperial cult, Roman religion, Hellenistic religion, Christianity Related ethnic groups Other Mediterranean Sea peoples, other Italic peoples, modern Romance peoples and Greeks The Romans (Latin: Rōmānī, Classical Greek: Rhōmaîoi) were a cultural group, variously referred to as an ethnicity[1] or a nationality,[2] that in classical antiquity, from the 2nd century BC to the 5th century AD, came to rule large parts of Europe, the Near East and North Africa through conquests made during the Roman Republic and the later Roman Empire. The Romans themselves did not see being "Roman" as something based on shared language or inherited ethnicity,[3][4][5][6] but saw it as something based on being part of the same larger religious or political community and sharing common customs, values, morals and ways of life.[3] The city of Rome is traditionally held to have been founded in 753 BC,[7] its early inhabitants constituting just one group of the many Italic peoples in the Italian peninsula. As the land under Roman dominion continued to increase, citizenship was gradually granted to the various peoples under Roman rule. The number of Romans rapidly increased due to the creation of colonies throughout the empire, through grants of citizenship to veterans of the Roman army, and through personal grants by the Roman emperors. In 212 AD, Emperor Caracalla extended citizenship rights to all the free inhabitants of the Roman Empire through his Antonine Constitution, with the exception of the dediticii, people who had become subject to Rome through surrender in war, and freed slaves.[8] Roman identity in Western Europe survived the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century as a diminished but still important political resource. It was only with the wars of the eastern Emperor Justinian I, aimed at restoring the western provinces to imperial control, that "Roman" began to fade as an identity in Western Europe, more or less disappearing in the 8th and 9th centuries and increasingly being applied by westerners only to the citizens of the city of Rome. The city itself continued to be important to Western Europeans but this importance stemmed from Rome being the seat of the Pope, not from it once having been the capital of a great empire. However, in the primarily Greek-speaking eastern empire, often called the Byzantine Empire by modern historians, Roman identity survived until its fall in 1453 and beyond, despite some interruption of the Empire's existence during the Frankokratia and ensuing rise of the Hellenic-Orthodox national consciousness against the Crusaders of Latin West, with the Roman identity in the east undergoing transition from a universal/multiethnical one to a precursor of a Greek nationalistic one. Roman identity even survives today, though in a significantly reduced form. "Roman" is still used to refer to a citizen of the city itself and the term Romioi is sometimes (albeit rarely) used as their identity by modern Greeks. Additionally, the names and identities of some Romance peoples remain connected to their Roman roots especially in the Alps (such as the Romansh people and the Romands) and the Balkans (such as the Romanians, Aromanians and Istro-Romanians). Contents 1 Meaning of "Roman" 2 Roman Republic 2.1 Political history 2.2 Roman citizenship 3 (Ancient/Classical) Roman Empire 3.1 Extensions of citizenship 3.2 Romans in Late Antiquity 4 Later history in Western Europe 4.1 Romans in the post-Roman west 4.2 Possibility of reunification and Justinian's wars 4.3 Disappearance of the Romans 4.4 Reversion to association with the city of Rome 5 Later history in the Eastern Mediterranean 5.1 Romans in the Byzantine Empire 5.2 Late Byzantine identity 5.3 Romans in the Ottoman Empire 6 As a modern identity 6.1 Greeks 6.2 Western Romance peoples 6.3 Balkan Romance peoples 7 See also 8 References 8.1 Citations 8.2 Cited bibliography 8.3 Cited web sources Meaning of "Roman"[edit] See also: Romanitas 1st century AD wall painting from Pompeii depicting a multigenerational banquet. The term "Roman" is typically used interchangeably to describe a historical timespan, a material culture, a geographical location and a personal identity. Though these concepts are obviously related, they are not identical. Although modern historians tend to have a preferred idea of what being Roman meant, so-called Romanitas (a term rarely used in Ancient Rome itself), the idea of "Romanness" was never static or unchanging.[9] What being Roman meant and what Rome itself was would have been viewed considerably different by a Roman under the Roman Republic in the 2nd century BC and a Roman living in Constantinople in the 6th century AD. Even then, some elements remained common throughout much of Roman history.[9] Unlike other ancient peoples, such as the Greeks or Gauls, the Romans did not see their common identity as one necessarily based on shared language or inherited ethnicity. Instead, the important factors of being Roman were being part of the same larger religious or political community and sharing common customs, values, morals and ways of life.[3] What an individual believed and did was far more important to the concept of Roman identity than bloodlines and shared descent.[4] The key to "Romanness" in the minds of some famous Roman orators, such as Cicero, was keeping with Roman tradition and serving the Roman state. They did not, however, by any means dismiss the importance of blood kinship and its influence on the character of individual Romans; to do so would, paradoxically, be un-Roman in itself. Instead, they made frequent appeals to their noble contemporaries to live up to the greatness of their forefathers.[10] Genealogy was typically only invoked by individual illustrious families; other important Roman traditions emphasize the collective descent of Rome. Rome was uniquely capable of incorporating other peoples, a sentiment originating from the city of Rome's foundation myths, such as the city functioning as an asylum opened up by Romulus and the rape of the Sabine women,[5] used to represent the commingling of peoples that featured in their city's history from the very beginning.[11] Cicero and other Roman authors sneered at peoples such as the Athenians, who prided themselves in their shared descent, and instead found pride in Rome's status as a "mongrel nation".[6] Dionysius of Halicarnassus, a Greek historian who lived in Roman times, even embellished the multicultural origin of the Romans, writing that Romans had since the foundation of Rome welcomed innumerable immigrants not only from the rest of Italy, but from the entire world, whose cultures merged with theirs.[6] Though some Roman authors, such as Tacitus and Suetonius, expressed concerns of Roman "blood purity" as Roman citizens from outside of Roman Italy increased in number, their ideas of "purity" differed significantly from modern ideas of race and ethnicity.[12] Voicing their concerns, neither suggested stopping the naturalization of new citizens, but instead limiting the number of citizenships granted.[12] Based on their writings, ancient authors do not appear to have closely associated traits such as physical features or skin color with ideas of blood purity, descent or "race".[12] Roman Republic[edit] Political history[edit] See also: Rise of Rome A graphic showing border changes of the Roman state from the 6th century BC to the 5th century AD. One of the most important aspects of ancient Roman life was warfare; the Romans went on military campaigns almost every year, rituals marked the beginning and the end of the campaigning seasons and elections of chief magistrates (commanders of the army) generally took place on the Campus Martius ("Field of Mars", Mars being the Roman god of war). All Roman citizens were liable for military service, with most serving for several years during their youth. All soldiers could earn honors and rewards for valor in battle, though the highest military reward of all, the triumph, was reserved for commanders and generals.[13] Roman warfare was not overwhelmingly successful for the first few centuries of the city's history, with most campaigns being small engagements with the other Latin city-states in the immediate vicinity, but from the middle of the 4th century BC onwards, the Romans won a series of victories which saw them rise to rule all of Italy south of the Po river by 270 BC. Following the conquest of Italy, the Romans waged war against the great powers of their time; Carthage to the south and west and the various Hellenistic kingdoms to the east, and by the middle of the second century BC, all rivals had been defeated and Rome became recognized by other countries as the definite masters of the Mediterranean.[14] Political divisions in Roman-controlled Italy before the Social War. Roman communities are indicated with green. Although Roman technological prowess and their ability to adopt strategies and technology from their enemies made their army among the most formidable in the ancient world, the Roman war machine was also made powerful by the vast pool of manpower available for the Roman legions. This manpower derived from the way in which the Romans had organized their conquered land in Italy. By the late 3rd century BC, about a third of the people in Italy south of the Po river had been made Roman citizens (meaning they were liable for military service) and the rest had been made allies, frequently called on to join Roman wars.[14] These allies were eventually made Roman citizens as well after refusal by the Roman government to make them so was met with the Social War, after which Roman citizenship was extended to all the people south of the Po river.[15] In 49 BC, citizenship rights were also extended to the people of Cisalpine Gaul by Julius Caesar.[16] Though Rome had throughout its history been continually generous with its granting of citizenship than other city states, granting significant rights to peoples of conquered territories, immigrants and their freed slaves, it was only with the Social War that a majority of the people in Italy became recognized as Romans, with the number of Romans rapidly increasing throughout the centuries that followed due to further extensions of citizenship.[16] Roman citizenship[edit] See also: Roman citizenship A collection of ancient Roman busts displayed in the Vatican Museums in Rome. Though it could be explicitly granted by the Roman people to non-citizens, Roman citizenship (or civitas) was automatically granted to children whose parents consisted of either two Roman citizens or one citizen and one peregrinus ("foreigner") who possessed connubium (the right to a Roman marriage). Citizenship allowed for participation in Roman affairs, such as voting rights. By the time of the 3rd century BC, Romans of all social classes held nominally equal voting rights, though the value of your vote was tied to your personal wealth. In addition to voting rights, citizenship also made citizens eligible for military service and public office, both of these rights also tied to wealth and property qualifications.[17] The Latin Rights, which originally encompassed Latium but was then extended to encompass most of Italy, ensured that most of the people in Italy enjoyed the benefits of Roman citizenship but lacked voting rights. Because they were bound to Rome and often called upon for military service but lacked the rights of the Roman citizens, Rome's Italian allies rebelled in the Social War, after which the Latin Rights in their traditional sense were more or less abolished in favor of a complete integration of the people in Italy as Romans.[17] Typically, a non-citizen could acquire Roman citizenship through five different mechanisms: Non-citizens who served in the Roman army were typically granted citizenship.[18] Men without citizenship could obtain it through holding office in cities and other settlements with the Latin right.[18] Specific individuals could be granted citizenship directly.[18] Whole communities could receive "block grants", with all their inhabitants becoming citizens.[18] Slaves freed by Roman citizens became Roman citizens themselves.[18] (Ancient/Classical) Roman Empire[edit] See also: Demography of the Roman Empire Extensions of citizenship[edit] Emperor Caracalla's (r. 211–217) Antonine Constitution (212) formally made all the free inhabitants of the Roman Empire into Roman citizens. The populace in the early Roman Empire was composed of several groups of distinct legal standing, including the Roman citizens themselves (cives romani), the provincials (provinciales), foreigners (peregrini) and free non-citizens such as freedmen (freed slaves) and slaves. Roman citizens were subject to the Roman legal system while provincials were subject to whatever laws and legal systems had been in place in their area at the time it was annexed by the Romans. Over time, Roman citizenship was gradually extended more and more and there was a regular "siphoning" of people from less privileged legal groups to more privileged groups, increasing the total percentage of subjects recognized as Roman citizens (e.g. Romans) though the incorporation of the provinciales and peregrini.[19] The Roman Empire's capability to integrate peoples in this way was one of the key elements which ensured its success. In Antiquity, it was significantly easier to become a Roman than it was to become a member or citizen of any other contemporary state. This aspect of the Roman state was seen as important even by some of the emperors. For instance, Emperor Claudius pointed it out when questioned by the senate on admitting Gauls to join the senate: What else proved fatal to Lacedaemon or Athens, in spite of their power in arms, but their policy of holding the conquered aloof as alien-born? But the sagacity of our own founder Romulus was such that several times he fought and naturalized a people in the course of the same day![20] From the Principate onwards, "barbarians" (peoples from beyond Rome's borders) settled and integrated into the Roman world. Such settlers would have been granted certain legal rights simply by being within Roman territory, becoming provinciales and thus being eligible to serve as auxilia (auxiliary soldiers), which in turn made them eligible to become full cives Romani. Through this relatively rapid process, thousands of former barbarians could quickly become Romans. This tradition of straightforward integration eventually culminated in the Antonine Constitution, issued by Emperor Caracalla in 212, in which all free inhabitants of Empire were granted the citizenship, with the exception of the dediticii, people who had become subject to Rome through surrender in war, and freed slaves.[21][8] At this point, Roman citizenship in the empire was not as significant as it had been in the republic, chiefly due to the change from a republican to an imperial government invalidating the need for voting rights and because service in the Roman military was no longer compulsory.[17] Caracalla's grant contributed to a vast increase in the number of people with the nomen (name indicating familial association) Aurelius (Caracalla was a nickname for the emperor, whose actual name was Marcus Aurelius Severus Antoninus).[22] By the time of Caracalla's edict, there were already many people throughout the provinces who were considered (and considered themselves) Romans; through the centuries of Roman expansion large numbers of veterans and opportunists had settled in the provinces. Colonies founded by Julius Caesar and Augustus alone saw between 500.000 and a million people from Italy settled in Rome's provinces. Around the time of Augustus's death, four to seven percent of the free people in the provinces of the empire were Roman citizens.[16] In addition to colonists, many provincials had also become citizens through grants by emperors (who sometimes granted citizenship to individuals, families or cities), holding offices in certain cities or serving in the army.[23] Romans in Late Antiquity[edit] 4th century portrait of a woman from Roman Egypt. By Late Antiquity, many inhabitants of the Roman Empire had become Romani, with the term no longer simply being a civic designation for a citizen of the city of Rome, but referred to a citizen of the orbis Romanus, the Roman world. By this time, the city of Rome had lost its exceptional status in the empire. The historian Ammianus Marcellinus, definitely one of the Romani, hailing from modern-day Greece, wrote in the 4th century and refers to Rome almost as a foreign city, full of vice and corruption. Few of the Romani probably embodied all aspects of what the term had previously meant, many of them would have come from remote or less prestigious provinces and practiced religions and cults unheard of in Rome itself. Many of them would also have spoken "Barbarian" languages or Greek instead of Latin.[20] The prelevant view of the Romans themselves was that the populus Romanus, Roman people, represented a "people by constitution" as opposed to Barbarian peoples such as the Franks or Goths, who were described as gentes ("people by descent"; ethnicities). To the people of the empire, "Roman" was just one layer of identification, in addition to local identities (similar to local and national identities today, a person from California can identify him/herself as a "Californian" within the context of the United States and an "American" in the context of the world).[20] If a person originated from one of the major imperial regions, such as Gaul or Britannia, one might have been viewed as a Roman, but still distinct from Romans of other major regions. It is clear from the writings of later historians, such as the Gallo-Roman Gregory of Tours, that such lower levels of identity, such as being the citizen of a particular region, province or city, were important within the empire. This importance, combined with there being clearly understood differences between local populations (the Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus comments on the difference between "Gauls" and "Italians" for instance) illustrates that there were no fundamental differences between the local Roman identities and the gentes-identities applied to Barbarians, though the Romans themselves would not have seen the two as equivalent concepts. In the late Roman army, there were regiments named after Roman sub-identities (such as "Celts" and "Batavians") as well as regiments named after gentes, such as the Franks or Saxons.[24] Religion had been an important aspect of Romanitas since Pagan times and as Christianity gradually became the dominant religion in the empire, Pagan aristocrats became aware that power was slipping from their hands as times changed. Some of them began to emphasize that they were the only "true Romans" because they preserved the traditional Roman literary culture and religion. This view enjoyed some support by poets and orators, such as the orator Quintus Aurelius Symmachus, who saw these Pagan aristocrats as preserving the ancient Roman way of life, which would eventually allow Rome to triumph over all of its enemies, as it had before. This movement was met with strong opposition from the leaders of the church in Rome, with some church leaders, such as Ambrose, the Archbishop of Mediolanum, launching formal and vicious assaults on paganism and those members of the elite which defended it. Followers of paganism viewed Rome as the greatest city in the empire because of its glorious Pagan past, and though Christians accepted Rome as a great city, it was great because of its glorious Christian present, not its Pagan past. This gave Romanitas a new Christian element, which would become important in later centuries. Though the city would be important as the source of auctoritas and the self-perception of the imperial elite, it was not as important politically during the late empire as it had been before.[25] Later history in Western Europe[edit] Romans in the post-Roman west[edit] Brick with the emblem of Theodoric the Great, King of the Ostrogoths, found in the Temple of Vesta, Rome. It reads "+REG(nante) D(omino) N(ostro) THEODERICO [b]O[n]O ROM(a)E", which translates as With our master Theodoric the Good reigning in Rome [this brick was made]. The titulature Dominus Noster had in previous times mostly been applied only to Roman emperors. The end of direct imperial control in Western Europe did not mean an end to the Roman identity, which remained somewhat prominent for centuries.[20] The predominant socio-political situation in Western Europe between the death of the last Western emperor, Julius Nepos, in 480 and the wars of Emperor Justinian I in the 6th century was a more or less completely Barbarian military but also a more or less completely Roman civil aristocracy and administration, a situation different, but clearly evolved, from the situation that existed in Late Antiquity. The Romans in Western Europe at the time appear to have been somewhat confused; they were well aware that the Western Roman Empire was no longer functioning but seem to have been unaware that it had ended.[24] The Barbarian kings in Western Europe often assumed imperial powers and took over imperial institutions, this practice was especially prominent in Italy since it was the empire's ancient heartland.[26] The early Barbarian kings of Italy, first Odoacer and later Theoderic the Great, acted ostensibly as viceroys to the remaining Roman emperor in Constantinople. Like the Western Roman emperors had done before them, these Barbarian kings continued to appoint western consuls which would in turn be accepted by the emperors in the east and by other Barbarian kings throughout Western Europe.[27] Although the Romans detested kings, a holdover from the anti-monarchical sentiment that had led to the foundation of the Roman Republic almost a thousand years prior, the title of rex, assumed by the Barbarian kings, formed a useful basis of authority that Barbarian rulers could use in diplomacy with other kingdoms and with the surviving imperial court in Constantinople.[24] Consular diptych of Rufius Gennadius Probus Orestes exhibited at the Victoria and Albert Museum. Orestes was a Roman consul appointed in 530, during the time that Rome was under Ostrogothic rule. Theoderic was careful to maintain the loyalty of his Roman subjects (which represented the majority of the people in his kingdom) and he deliberately likened himself to the old emperors, minting coins in much the same way, wearing purple clothing in public and during official ceremonies and maintained his court at Ravenna in imperial splendor. Theoderic's laws, the Edictum Theoderici, were also clearly connected to Roman law in both content and form.[25] Emperor Anastasius I returned the Western Roman imperial regalia, held in Constantinople since they had been sent there by Odoacer in 476, to Italy, then ruled by Theoderic.[26] These imperial regalia appear to have been worn by Theoderic and there are references by Roman senators to Theoderic as an emperor, indicating that the citizens of Rome itself viewed these Barbarian kings as taking on the traditional role of the emperor. An inscription by Caecina Mavortius Basilius Decius (western consul in 486, Praetorian prefect of Italy 486–493) titles Theoderic as dominus noster gloriosissimus adque inclytus rex Theodericus victor ac triumfator semper Augustus, but Theoderic himself appears to have preferred to title himself simply as "king".[28] Theoderic's unwillingness to assume the imperial title may have been mainly due to being careful not to insult the emperors in Constantinople.[25] Roman law continued to be in use and be important in Western Europe through the early Middle Ages. Both the Visigoths and the Franks issued law collections which either explicitly mention, or presuppose, the existence of a large population of Romans within their territories as Barbarian laws distinguish between the Barbarians who live by their own laws and the Romans, who live by Roman law.[20] It was still possible to become a "Roman citizen" in the west in the 7th century, as indicated by Visigothic and Frankish works referencing the benefits of doing so. There is preserved letters from both East and West around this time which reference the act of freeing slaves and making them Roman citizens; Pope Gregory the Great is recorded as having freed slaves and made them cives Romanos and there is documentation in Bari, part of Byzantine Italy, on a slave who was freed and thus became a politēs Rōmaiōn. Roman status could also be conferred on people who weren't slaves, a 731 law by the Lombard king Liutprand specifies that if a "Roman" married a Lombard wife, that wife and all children of the couple would become Roman and the wife's relatives would no longer have the right to sue her, perhaps an idea which seemed attractive to Lombard women who wanted to escape the control of their relatives.[20] Possibility of reunification and Justinian's wars[edit] Map of the realm of the Gothic king Theodoric the Great at its height in 523, following the annexation of the southern parts of the Burgundian kingdom. Theoderic ruled both the Visigothic and Ostrogothic kingdoms and exerted hegemony over the Burgundians and Vandals. Though Theoderic was sometimes called by the title Augustus (emperor) by his subjects, he never formally assumed the title, using rex (king) instead. Western Europe after the fall of the Western Roman Empire was not destined to develop into what later historians have referred to as the Dark Ages. One of many possibilities for Europe's future at the time was reunification through military action. In 510, most of Western Europe was under the control of two Barbarian kings; Clovis I of the Franks and Theoderic of the Goths. Both of these kings were called by the title Augustus by their Roman subjects, though neither formally adopted the title, and they were poised to war against each other. To their contemporaries, the looming conflict between the Goths and Franks might have looked like the next, perhaps decisive war in the struggle between the Gallic and Italian factions which had dominated inter-imperial relations in the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century (such as the war between Emperor Honorius and the usurper Constantine III). Had the war happened, and been as decisive as other battles in this period typically were, it is likely that the victorious king would have re-established the Western Roman Empire under his own rule.[24] The war between Theoderic and Clovis never transpired, but the idea that a powerful Barbarian king might restore the Western Roman Empire under Barbarian rule saw the court at Constantinople beginning to emphasize its exclusive Roman legitimacy. Through the remaining part of its thousand-year history, the eastern empire would repeatedly attempt to assert its right to govern the West through military campaigns. A key development was what later historians have termed the "Justiniaic ideological offensive"; a re-writing of 5th century history which portrayed the West as lost to barbarian invasions (rather than the true situation, that the Barbarian rulers had been gradually given power by the Western emperors themselves and worked within a fundamentally Roman framework). This ideology is prominently seen in Procopius's Wars and Marcellinus Comes's Chronicle.[24] Though the Eastern emperor Justinian I restored much of the former Western Roman Empire to imperial Roman control, his wars also brought with them the end of the ancient Roman Senate (though a senate survived in Constantinople) and ensured the gradual disappearance of Roman identity in Western Europe. A fundamental turning point in what it meant to be Roman was the eastern emperor Justinian I's wars aimed at reconquering the lost provinces of the Western Roman Empire. By the end of his wars (533–555), the Justiniaic ideology that the west was no longer part of the Roman Empire had been asserted. Though Italy and North Africa were restored to imperial control, there could be no doubt in the aftermath of the wars that areas beyond Justinian's authority were no longer part of the Roman Empire and instead remained lost to Barbarians. This resulted in a dramatic decline in Roman identity beyond the regions controlled by the Byzantine Empire and led to the decisive end of the "Roman world" that had existed since the days of the Roman Republic.[24] The Roman Senate continued to function during Gothic rule of Italy and senators dominated the politics within the city of Rome well into the Gothic Wars, during which the senate in the city eventually disappeared and most of its members moved to Constantinople instead. The Senate as an idea achieved a certain legacy in the west. In Gaul, members of the aristocracy were sometimes identified as "senators" from the 5th century to the 7th century and the Carolingian dynasty claimed to be descended from a former Roman senatorial family. In Spain, references to people of "senatorial stock" appear as late as the 7th century and in Lombard Italy, "Senator" became a personal name, with at least two people known to have had the name in the 8th century. The practice of representing themselves as "the Senate" was revived by the aristocracy within the city of Rome in the 8th century, though the institution itself was not revived.[20] Disappearance of the Romans[edit] See also: Romano-Germanic culture King Clovis I of the Franks dictates the Salic Law surrounded by his military chiefs. In Salic Law, the Romans were recognized as a parallel population alongside the Franks within Clovis's Frankish Kingdom. There is substantial evidence that the meaning of "Roman" changed significantly during the 6th century. In the East, being Roman became defined not only by loyalty to the emperor but also increasingly by religious orthodoxy (though what that explicitly meant also changed through the ages). The Gothic Wars in Italy had split the Roman elite unto those who supported the Goths and later enjoyed Lombard rule and those who supported the emperor and later withdrew to regions still governed by the empire. With this, Roman identity no longer provided a sense of social cohesion. This, combined with the abolition of the senate in Rome itself, removed groups of people who had previously always set the standard for what "Roman" was supposed to mean. Through the centuries that followed, the division between the non-Roman and Roman parts of the population faded in the west as Roman political unity collapsed.[20] This decline in people identifying as Romans in the west can be prominently seen in northern Gaul. In the 6th century, the personnel of churches in northern Gaul had been dominated by people with Roman names, for instance only a handful of names of non-Roman and non-Biblical origin are recorded in the episcopal list of Metz from before the year 600, a situation that is reversed after 600 when bishops had predominantly Frankish names. The reason for this change in naming practices might be a change in naming practices in Gaul, that people entering church services no longer adopted Roman names or that the Roman families which had provided the church personnel dropped in status.[24] In Salic law, produced under Clovis I around the year 500, the Romans and the Franks are two parallel major populations in the Frankish kingdom and although the Franks have somewhat of an advantage, both have well-defined legal statuses. A century later in the Lex Ripuaria, the Romani are just one of many smaller semi-free populations, restricted in their legal capacity. This legal arrangement would have been unthinkable during the rule of the Roman Empire, and even under the reign of Clovis.[24] Through the Early Middle Ages, the legal significance of having Roman status also faded away in Western Europe and spoken Latin fragmented and split into what would develop into the modern Romance languages. The unifying and sometimes contradictory Roman identity was replaced with local identities based on the region one was from (such as Provence or Aquitania). Where Romans had once been accepted as making up the majority of the population, such as in Hispania and Gaul, they quietly faded away as their descendants accepted other names and identities.[20] The benefit of abandoning the identity as Roman and reverting to more local identities was that local identities were not binary opposed to the identity as a "Frank" or "Goth" and could exist together with them, providing legal advantages that "Roman" no longer did.[24] Furthermore, it is possible that people who identified as "Romans" were victims of anti-Roman sentiments, as experienced by the 7th century Saint Goar of Aquitaine. Although Roman identity would linger on in Western Europe in some places, mostly being restricted to a few minorities in the alpine regions, some residual meanings of "Roman" would remain important through the Middle Ages, such as "Roman" as a citizen of the Byzantine Empire or "Roman" as a citizen of the city of Rome or representative of the Roman Catholic Church.[20] The significance of being a Roman thus eventually completely disappeared in Western Europe, together with the Roman identity itself. 8th century sources from Salzburg still reference that there was a social group in the city called the Romani tributales but Romans at this time mostly merged with the wider tributales (tributary peoples) distinction rather than having a separate Roman distinction in Frankish documents. Throughout most of former Gaul, the Roman elite which had lingered for centuries merged with the Frankish elite and lost their previously distinct identity and though "Romans" continued to be a dominant identity in regional politics in southern Gaul for a while, the specific references to some individuals as "Romans" or "descendants of Romans" indicates that the Roman status of some people in Gaul was perhaps no longer being taken for granted and needed pointing out. The last groups of Romani in the Frankish realm lingered for some time, especially in Salzburg and Raetia, but seem to fade away in the early 9th century[20] (except for the Romansh people in southeastern Raetia).[29] By 800, when Charlemagne was crowned as a new Roman emperor in Rome, the first time an emperor was crowned in Rome itself since antiquity, self-identification as a Roman was largely gone in Western Europe. Nevertheless, the name of Rome was to remain a source of power and prestige throughout history, becoming associated with two most powerful figures of the Catholic Western Europe (the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor) and also being invoked by later aristocratic medieval families who sometimes proclaimed and were proud of their alleged Roman origins.[20] Reversion to association with the city of Rome[edit] Personifications of (from left to right) the Slavic, German, Gallic (French) and Roman peoples bringing gifts to Holy Roman Emperor Otto III, depicted in the 10th or 11th century Gospels of Otto III. As the seat of the Pope, the city of Rome continued to hold significance despite the fall of the Western Roman Empire and sack of the city by both the Visigoths and the Vandals.[20] Although the glorious past of Rome was remembered in the Middle Ages, whatever power Rome had once held was completely overshadowed by the city being the seat of the Papal see. In the 6th century writings of Gregory of Tours, Rome is always described as a Christian city, first being mentioned once Saint Peter arrives there. The longest discussion on Rome is about the election of Pope Gregory the Great, and Gregory of Tours appears indifferent to Rome at one point having been the capital of a great empire.[25] Through the Early Middle Ages, the term Romani became more and more heavily associated by authors in Western Europe with the population of the city itself, or the population of the larger Duchy of Rome. The change from an identity applied to people throughout Italy to an identity applied to the city itself can be pinpointed to the 6th century; Cassiodorus, who served the Gothic kings, use the term Romani to describe Roman people across Italy and Pope Gregory the Great, at the end of the 6th century, uses Romani almost exclusively for the people in the city. The Historia Langobardorum, written by Paul the Deacon in the 8th century, postulates that the term civis Romanus ("Roman citizen") is applied solely to someone who either lived in, or was born in, the city of Rome and it could for instance be applied to the Archbishop of Ravenna, Marinianus, only because he had originally been born in Rome. This indicates that the term at some point ceased to generally refer to all the Latin-speaking subjects of the Lombard kings and became restricted to the city itself.[20] After the Byzantine Empire restored imperial control over Rome, the city had become a peripheral city within the empire. Its importance stemmed from being the seat of the Pope, the first in order among five foremost Patriarchs of the Church, and the city's population was not specially administered and lacked political participation in wider imperial affairs except for its interactions with the papacy.[30] Under Byzantine rule, the Popes often used the fact that they had the backing of the "people of Rome" as a legitimizing factor when clashing with the emperors. The political implications of the name and citizenry of Rome thus remained somewhat important, at least in the eyes of the westerners.[20] 15th-century illustration depicting the Sack of Rome (410) by the Visigothic king Alaric I. When the temporal power of the popes was established through the foundation of the Papal States (established through the Frankish king Pepin granting control of former Byzantine provinces conquered from the Lombards to the Pope), the population of the city of Rome became a constitutional identity which accompanied and supported the sovereignty of the popes. In the minds of the contemporary popes, the sovereign of the Papal States was Saint Peter, who delegated control to his vicars on Earth, the popes. However, the popes were too deeply rooted in the Roman imperial system to imagine a worldly government established only on religious relationships. As such, the "Romans" became the political body of this new state and the term, once used for all the inhabitants of Byzantine Italy, became increasingly used to exclusively refer to the inhabitants of the city. After Pepin's donations the Popes also revived the concept of respublica Romanorum as something associated with, but distinct from, the Church. In the new version of the idea, the Pope was the lord of the Romans, but the Romans themselves, as citizens of Rome, had a share in the public rights connected to the sovereignty of the city.[30] Medieval sources on the "Romans" as the people living in Rome are generally quite hostile. The Romans are frequently described as being "as proud as they are helpless" and as speaking the ugliest of all the Italian dialects. Because they repeatedly attempted to take a position independent from the Papacy and/or the Holy Roman Emperors (both of whom were considered as more universal rulers. whose policies extended much further than the city itself), the Romans were often seen as intruders in affairs that exceeded their competence. The Roman people were in turn overwhelmingly negatively oriented towards the Franks, which they identified as "the Gauls". The Frankish emperors from Charlemagne onwards decreed that Frankish law could be used in the courts of their empire when demanded. This soured relations, and Frankish nobility which visited Italy and Rome would often speak in their own Frankish language when they did not want the Romans to understand them. Roman sources from this time typically describe "the Gauls" as vain, aggressive and insolent. The Roman dislike for the Franks sometimes turned into fear, as the Franks would more and more frequently appear outside their gates with armies.[30] Despite this fear, the population of Rome and people in most other parts of Italy (with the exception of Southern Italy, still under Byzantine influence) saw Charlemagne and his successors as true Roman emperors.[31] The reasons for this were many. Although the Romans accepted that there was continuity between Rome and Constantinople, and saw the Carolingian emperors as having more to do with the Lombard kings of Italy than the ancient Roman emperors,[31] the Byzantines were often seen as Grieci ("Greeks") rather than Romans and were seen as having abandoned Rome, the seat of empire, and lost the Roman way of life and the Latin language; thus the empire ruling in Constantinople had not survived, but had fled from its responsibilities. This disconnect shows that the city of Rome and the Byzantines had grown very far apart from each other.[32] To the citizens of Rome and other Italians of the 8th and 9th century, the original Roman Empire was a thing of the past. There definitely used to be an empire, such as during the time of Constantine the Great, but it had now transferred itself to the Eastern Mediterranean and ceased to be properly Roman, now inhabited by "Greeks". Rome was no longer a city of emperors, but was the city of Saint Peter only. A real Roman Empire could have only one capital, Rome, and its possible existence rested on the man who ruled in Rome, the Pope. As such, the new emperors in the West (an office that eventually developed into the Holy Roman emperors) could be emperors only because they were crowned and anointed by the Pope.[31] The support of what was perceived by Western Europe as the populus Romanus was a highly important factor during Charlemagne's coronation. Charlemagne himself actively hoped to suppress the idea of Romani as an ethnicity, in an effort to avoid the possibility of the population of Rome proclaiming an emperor in the same way that the Franks could proclaim a rex Francorum (King of the Franks).[20] Later history in the Eastern Mediterranean[edit] Romans in the Byzantine Empire[edit] Main article: Byzantine Greeks 6th century mosaic in the Basilica of San Vitale, Ravenna depicting Emperor Justinian I (center) surrounded by court officials and guards. The figures to his immediate left and right are assumed to be the prominent generals Belisarius (left) and Narses (right). In stark contrast to the catastrophic collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the Eastern Roman Empire (frequently called the Byzantine Empire by modern historians) survived the 5th century more or less intact and its predominantly Greek-speaking population continued to identify themselves as Romans (Rhomaioi), as they remained inhabitants of the Roman Empire. The name Romania ("land of the Romans"), a later popular designation by the people of the Byzantine Empire for their country, is attested as early as 582 when it was used by the inhabitants of the city of Sirmium for their country. Although rarely expressed as an idea before the 9th century, the earliest mention of the Byzantine Empire as being "Greek" is from the 6th century, written by Bishop Avitus of Vienne in the context of the Frankish king Clovis I's baptism; "Let Greece, to be sure, rejoice in having an orthodox ruler, but she is no longer the only one to deserve such a great gift".[20] To the early Byzantines (up until around the 11th century) the term "Greeks" or "Hellenes" was offensive, as it downplayed their Roman nature and furthermore associated them with the ancient Pagan Greeks rather than the more recent Christian Romans.[33] The idea of the res publica remained an important imperial concept for centuries. In the Frankish king Childebert II's letters to Emperor Maurice, the emperor is called the princeps Romanae reipublicae and through the 6th and 8th centuries, terms such as res publica and sancta res publica was still sometimes applied to the Byzantine Empire by authors in Western Europe. This practice only ceased as Byzantine control over Italy and Rome itself crumbled and "Roman" as a name and concept became more heavily associated by Western authors with the city itself. The use of the term Romani was somewhat similar, usually often used in reference to the inhabitants of the Byzantine Empire by early Medieval western authors when not used for the population of the city itself. In Isidore of Seville's History of the Goths, the term Romani refers to the Byzantine Empire and their remaining garrisons in Spain, and the term is never applied to the population of the former western provinces.[20] 11th century Hagia Sophia mosaic. On the left, Emperor Constantine IX is identified as "faithful in Christ the God, Emperor of the Romans". References to the Romans as a gens, like the Barbarian gentes, begin to appear around the time of Justinian's conquests. Priscian, a grammarian who was born in Roman North Africa and later lived in Constantinople during the late 5th century and early 6th century, refers in his work to the existence of a gens Romana. Letters written by the Frankish king Childebert II to Emperor Maurice in Constantinople in the 580s talk of the peace between the two "gentes of the Franks and the Romans". The 6th century historian Jordanes, himself identifying as a Roman, refers to the existence of a Roman gens in the title of his work on Roman history, De summa temporum vel de origine actibusque gentis Romanorum. The idea of Romans as a gens like any other didn't become generally accepted in the East until the 11th century.[20] For instance, Emperor Basil I (r. 867–886) still considered "Roman" to be an identity that was defined as an opposite to being of a Barbarian gens.[32] Before the 11th century, the "Romans" discussed in Byzantine texts usually refer to individuals loyal to the Byzantine emperor who followed Chalcedonian Christianity. As such, the Romans were all the Christian subjects of the emperor.[20] The biblical Joshua portrayed as a Byzantine soldier wearing the lamellar klivanion cuirass and a straight spathion sword (Hosios Loukas). In the 27th chapter of Emperor Constantine VII's 10th century political treatise De Administrando Imperio, the emperor expressed the idea that the Imperium had been transferred from Rome to Constantinople once Rome stopped being ruled by an emperor. The 12th century historian John Kinnamos expresses similar views, seeing the rights to the imperium as having disappeared from Rome and the west since power passed there from the last Western Roman emperors to Barbarian kings who had no claim to being Roman. As such, the ruler in Constantinople was the sole ruler in Europe who could claim to be a true Roman. As such, the transfer of power from Rome to Constantinople that had begun under Constantine the Great had been finished once the last few Western Roman emperors were dethroned or killed. This view was important in Byzantine ideology as it served as the basis for their idea of unbroken continuity between Rome and Constantinople.[34] The population within the Byzantine Empire saw themselves as living within the Roman Empire but were aware that their empire was no longer as powerful as it once had been. The 7th century text Doctrina Jacobi, set in Carthage, states that the territory ruled by the Romans had once stretched from Spain in the west to Persia in the east and Africa in the south to Britain in the north, with all the people in it having been subordinated to the Romans by the will of God. Though the old borders were still visible through the presence of monuments erected by the ancient emperors, the author of the Doctrina Jacobi stated that one could now see that the present Roman realm (the Romania) had been humbled.[35] The losses that the empire had experienced, in particular the loss of the Levant, Egypt, and Northwest Africa in the Muslim conquests in the 7th century, were typically blamed on the heresy of the emperors (e.g. iconoclasm) and the Christians who had once lived in these lost regions ceased to be recognized by the Byzantines as "Romans". This eventually led to "Roman" being applied more to the dominant Greek-speaking population of the remaining empire than to inhabitants of the empire in general. The late 7th century was the first time (in the writings of St. Anastasios the Persian) that Greek, rather than Latin, was referred to as the rhomaisti (Roman way of speaking).[35] In Leo the Deacon's 10th century histories, Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas is described as having settled communities of Armenians, Rhomaioi and other ethnicities on Crete, indicating that Romans by this time were just one of the groups within the empire (for instance alongside the Armenians).[36] By the late 11th century, the transformation of "Roman" to an identity by descent rather than political or religious affiliation was complete, with references to people as "Rhomaios by birth" beginning to appear in the writings of Byzantine historians. The label was now also applied to Greek-speakers outside of the empire's borders, such as the Greek-speaking Christians under Seljuk rule in Anatolia, who were referred to as Rhomaioi despite actively resisting attempts at re-integration by the Byzantine emperors.[37] Late Byzantine identity[edit] Byzantine portrait of Alexios Apokaukos, a 14th-century megas doux in the service of Emperors Andronikos III and John V. After the crusaders of the Fourth Crusade captured Constantinople in 1204 and shattered the Byzantine view of unbroken continuity from Rome to Constantinople, new alternative sources were required for the legitimacy of the Byzantines as Romans. The Byzantine elite thus began to increasingly detach their self-identity from the Roman Empire as a unit and look to Greek cultural heritage and Orthodox Christianity as the markers of what Romans were, and connected the contemporary Romans to the ancient Greeks as the precursors who had once ruled the current homeland of the Romans. Ethnic Romanness became increasingly identified as someone who was ethno-culturally Hellenic, an idea which was taken a step further by Emperors John III and Theodore II (who ruled at Nicaea while the Crusaders and their descendants occupied Constantinople), who stated that the present Rhomaioi were Hellenes, descendants of the Ancient Greeks.[38] This is not to say that the Byzantines stopped identifying as Romans. The Byzantine view changed from Constantine the Great bestowing the empire to Constantinople to Constantine the Great bestowing the empire to the Hellenes and as such a Roman and a Greek was the same thing. This in no way invalidated them as Romans; though the Nicaean emperors explicitly referred to their lands and subjects as Hellenic, they also identified themselves as the only true Roman emperors. "Greek" and "Roman" were not contrasting or distinct identities, but building blocks of the same identity as Rhomaioi. This double-identity lasted beyond the 1261 reconquest of the city under Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos and remained the main view on the issue by the time of the last few Byzantine emperors. In the text Comparison of the Old and the New Rome by Manuel Chrysoloras, addressed to Emperor Manuel II Palaiologos, Rome is presented as the mother of the daughter Constantinople, a city founded by the two most wise and powerful peoples in the world, the Romans and the Hellenes, who came together to create a city destined to rule the entire world.[39] Romans in the Ottoman Empire[edit] Main articles: Ottoman Greeks and Rûm Ottoman Greeks in Constantinople, painted by Luigi Mayer (1755–1803) Rhomaioi survived the 1453 Fall of Constantinople, the end of the Byzantine Empire, as the primary self-designation for the Christian Greek-speaking inhabitants in the new Turkish Ottoman Empire. The popular historical memory of these Rhomaioi was not occupied with the glorious past of the Roman Empire of old or the Hellenism in the Byzantine Empire but by legends of the fall and loss of their Christian homeland and Constantinople, such as the myth that the last emperor, Constantine XI Palaiologos (who had died fighting the Ottomans at Constantinople in 1453), would one day return from the dead to reconquer the city.[40] In the early modern period, an educated, urban-dwelling Turkish-speaker who was not a member of the military-administrative class would often refer to himself neither as an Osmanlı ("Ottoman") nor as a Türk ("Turk"), but rather as a Rūmī (رومى‎), or "Roman", meaning an inhabitant of the territory of the former Byzantine Empire in the Balkans and Anatolia. The term Rūmī was also used to refer to Turkish-speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and beyond.[41] As applied to Ottoman Turkish-speakers, this term began to fall out of use at the end of the seventeenth century, and instead the word increasingly became associated with the Greek population of the empire, a meaning that it still bears in Turkey today.[42] As a modern identity[edit] See also: Names of the Greeks, Rome § Demographics, and Romance peoples Greeks[edit] Map of "Rumelia" in 1801. Almost all the Balkan peninsula was called "land of the Romans" by the Ottoman Empire. For centuries following the Fall of Constantinople, the dominant self-identity of the Greeks remained "Roman" (Romioi or Rhomaioi). The 18th century Greek scholar and revolutionary Rigas Feraios called for the "Bulgars and Arvanites, Armenians and Romans" to rise in arms against the Ottomans.[43] The 19th century general Yannis Makriyannis, who served in the Greek War of Independence, recalled in his memoirs that a friend had asked him "What say you, is the Roman State far away from coming? Are we to sleep with the Turks and awaken with the Romans?".[44] For the Greeks, the Roman identity only lost ground by the time of the Greek War of Independence in the 19th century, when multiple factors saw the name "Hellene" rise to replace it. Among these factors were that names such as "Hellene", "Hellas" or "Greece" were already in use for the country and its people by the other nations in Europe, the absence of the old Byzantine government to reinforce Roman identity, and the term Romioi becoming associated with those Greeks still under Ottoman rule rather than those actively fighting for independence. In the eyes of the independence movement, a Hellene was a brave and rebellious freedom fighter while a Roman was an idle slave under the Ottomans.[45][46] Though some parts of Byzantine identity were preserved (notably a desire to take Constantinople itself), the name Hellene fostered a fixation on more ancient (pre-Christian) Greek history and a negligence for other periods of the country's history (such as the Byzantine period).[47] Many Greeks, particularly those outside the then newly founded Greek state, continued to refer to themselves as Romioi well into the 20th century. Peter Charanis, who was born on the island of Lemnos in 1908 and later became a professor of Byzantine history at Rutgers University, recounts that when the island was taken from the Ottomans by Greece in 1912, Greek soldiers were sent to each village and stationed themselves in the public squares. Some of the island children ran to see what Greek soldiers looked like. ‘‘What are you looking at?’’ one of the soldiers asked. ‘‘At Hellenes,’’ the children replied. ‘‘Are you not Hellenes yourselves?’’ the soldier retorted. ‘‘No, we are Romans’’ the children replied.[48] The modern Greek people still sometimes use Romioi to refer to themselves, as well as the term "Romaic" ("Roman") to refer to their Modern Greek language.[49] Western Romance peoples[edit] Proclamation of the Roman Republic in 1849, in Piazza del Popolo. In addition to the Greeks, another group of people who have continually self-identified as Roman since Antiquity are the present day citizens of the city of Rome, though modern Romans identify nationally and ethnically as Italians, with "Roman" being a local identity within the larger scope of Italy. Today, Rome is the most populous city in Italy with the city proper having about 2.8 million citizens and the Rome metropolitan area is home to over four million people.[50] Governments inspired by the ancient Roman Republic have been revived in the city four times since its ancient collapse; as the Commune of Rome in the 12th century (an opposition to Papal temporal power), as the government of Cola di Rienzo (who used the titles "tribune" and "senator") in the 14th century, as a sister republic to revolutionary France in 1798–1799 (which briefly restored the office of Roman consul) and in 1849 with a government based on the ancient Roman triumvirates.[51][52][53] Though most of the Romance peoples that descended from the Romans following the collapse of Roman political unity in the 5th century diverged into groups no longer identifying as Romans, the name of Rome has remained associated with some modern Romance peoples. Examples of this are the Romansh people (descended from the Romani recorded in the Alps in the 8th and 9th centuries) and the Romands.[54] Romands represent the French-speaking community of Switzerland, with French being the native language of 20% of the Swiss people. Their homeland is called Romandy, which covers the western part of the country. Originally, the majority of the Romands spoke the Arpitan language (also known as Franco-Provençal), but it has been almost completely extinguished in favor of French.[55] On the other hand, the Romansh people are an ethnic group living in southeastern Switzerland. This region, anciently known as Raetia, was inhabited by the Rhaetian people (though probably only in the east), with the Celtic Helvetii at their west. The ethnicity of the Rhaetians is uncertain, but their language was probably related to Etruscan, perhaps with Indo-European, specifically Celtic influences. The Rhaetians were conquered by the Romans in 15 AD. They were seen by the Romans as excellent fighters and were included in several legions, where their usage of Latin would start. Over the centuries, Latin would replace indigenous languages in Raetia, with Roman culture only strongly consolidated in the province during the times of the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. After this, Germanic tribes would settle in the province, where they would eventually assimilate most of this Romanized Rhaetian population. The ones that resisted the Germanic invasions evolved into the modern Romansh people, who call their language and themselves rumantsch or romontsch, derived from the Latin word romanice, which means "Romance".[29] Balkan Romance peoples[edit] The Balkan Romance peoples have also maintained their Roman identity over the centuries, and it has remained especially prominent in the Romanians. One of the main principles of Romanian identity and nationalism is the theory of Daco-Roman continuity. This theory claims that Dacia, after its conquest by Trajan, was so extensively colonized that the indigenous Dacians mixed with the Roman settlers, thus creating a culture of Daco-Romans. These would resist the invasions of Slavs and other peoples by hiding in the Carpathians, eventually evolving into the modern day Romanians. This theory is not universally accepted, however.[56] One of the earliest records of the Romanians being referred to as Romans is given in the Nibelungenlied, a German epic poem written before 1200 in which a "Duke Ramunc from the land of Vlachs (Wallachia)" is mentioned. "Vlach" was an exonym (name employed by forgeiners) used almost exclusively for the Romanians during the Middle Ages. It has been argued that "Ramunc" was not the name of the duke, but a collective name that highlighted his ethnicity. Other documents, especially Byzantine or Hungarian ones, also mention the old Romanians as Romans or their descendants.[57] Today, Romanians call themselves români and their nation România.[58] The Aromanians are another Balkan Romance ethnic group scattered in the Balkans. Their origins are highly uncertain. Romanians often say that they originally were Romanians who migrated from north to south of the Danube and that they are still Romanians. The Greeks, on the other hand, say that they descend from indigenous Greeks and Roman soldiers placed there to guard the passes of the Pindus (and that they are therefore ethnic Greeks who speak a Romance language). The debates of their origins have been widely discussed throughout recent history, and the opinions of the Aromanians themselves are divided. Regardless of where they come from, the Aromanians have a large number of names with which they identify, among which are arumani, armani, aromani and rumani, all of them derived from "Roman".[59] Another group related to the last two are the Istro-Romanians, with some of them still calling themselves rumeri or similar names, although this name has lost strength and the Istro-Romanians often prefer to use different terms.[60] The Megleno-Romanians, the last of the Balkan Romance peoples, identified in the past as rumâni, but this name was completely lost centuries ago mostly in favor of vlasi, derived from "Vlach".[61] See also[edit] Culture of ancient Rome List of ancient Italic peoples Romance-speaking world Legacy of the Roman Empire Pan-Latinism References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Gruen 2014, p. 426. ^ Darling Buck 1916, p. 51. ^ a b c Woolf 2000, p. 120. ^ a b Arno 2012, p. 12. ^ a b Dench 2010, p. 7. ^ a b c Gruen 2013, p. 4. ^ Enyclopaedia Britannica – Ancient Rome. ^ a b Giessen Papyrus, 40,7-9 "I grant to all the free inhabitants of the Empire the Roman citizenship and no one remains outside a civitas, with the exception of the dediticii" ^ a b Revell 2009, p. x. ^ Arno 2012, p. 57. ^ Gruen 2013, p. 5. ^ a b c Dench 2010, p. 8. ^ Rich & Shipley 1995, p. 1. ^ a b Rich & Shipley 1995, p. 2. ^ Rich & Shipley 1995, p. 3. ^ a b c Lavan 2016, p. 2. ^ a b c Britannica. ^ a b c d e Lavan 2016, p. 7. ^ Mathisen 2015, p. 153. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Pohl 2018. ^ Mathisen 2015, p. 154. ^ Lavan 2016, p. 5. ^ Lavan 2016, p. 3. ^ a b c d e f g h i Halsall 2018. ^ a b c d Hen 2018. ^ a b Jones 1962, p. 127. ^ Jones 1962, p. 126. ^ Jones 1962, p. 128. ^ a b Billigmeier 1979. ^ a b c Delogu 2018. ^ a b c Granier 2018. ^ a b West 2016. ^ Cameron 2009, p. 7. sfn error: no target: CITEREFCameron2009 (help) ^ Stouraitis 2017, p. 72. ^ a b Stouraitis 2017, p. 74. ^ Stouraitis 2017, p. 79. ^ Stouraitis 2017, p. 80. ^ Stouraitis 2017, p. 85. ^ Stouraitis 2017, p. 86. ^ Stouraitis 2017, p. 88. ^ Kafadar 2007, p. 11. ^ Greene 2015, p. 51. ^ Rigas Feraios, Thurius, line 45. ^ Makrygiannis 1849, p. 117. ^ Ambrosius Phrantzes (Αμβρόσιος Φραντζής, 1778–1851). Επιτομή της Ιστορίας της Αναγεννηθείσης Ελλάδος (= "Abridged history of the Revived Greece"), vol. 1. Athens 1839, p. 398 ([1]). ^ Dionysius Pyrrhus, Cheiragogy, Venice 1810. ^ Spyros Markezinis. Πολιτική Ιστορία της συγχρόνου Ελλάδος (= "Political History of Modern Greece"), book I. Athens 1920–2, p. 208 (in Greek). ^ Kaldellis 2007, pp. 42–43. ^ Merry 2004, p. 376; Institute for Neohellenic Research 2005, p. 8; Kakavas 2002, p. 29. ^ World Population Review. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWorld_Population_Review (help) ^ Wilcox 2013. ^ Vandiver Nicassio 2009, p. 21. ^ Ridley 1976, p. 268. ^ Minahan 2000, p. 776. ^ Gess, Lyche & Meisenburg 2012, pp. 173–174. ^ Light & Dumbrăveanu Andone 1997. ^ Drugaș 2016. ^ Berciu Drăghicescu 2012. ^ Ružica 2006. ^ Burlacu 2010, pp. 15–22. ^ Berciu Drăghicescu 2012, p. 311. Cited bibliography[edit] Arno, Claudia I. (2012). "How Romans Became "Roman": Creating Identity in an Expanding World" (PDF). A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Greek and Roman History) in The University of Michigan. Averil, Cameron (2009). The Byzantines. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-1-4051-9833-2. Berciu Drăghicescu, Adina (2012). "Aromâni, meglenoromâni, istroromâni: Aspecte identitare și culturale". Editura Universității Din București (in Romanian): 788. Billigmeier, Robert Henry (1979). A Crisis in Swiss pluralism: The Romansh and their relations with the German- and Italian-Swiss in the perspective of a millenium. Mouton Publishers. p. 450. ISBN 978-9-0279-7577-5. Burlacu, Mihai (2010). "Istro-Romanians: the legacy of a culture". Bulletin of the "Transilvania" University of Brașov. 3 (52): 15–22. Darling Buck, Carl (1916). "Language and the Sentiment of Nationality". American Political Science Review. 10 (1): 44–69. doi:10.2307/1946302. JSTOR 1946302. Delogu, Paolo (2018). "The post-imperial Romanness of the Romans". In Pohl, Walter; Gantner, Clemens; Grifoni, Cinzia; Pollheimer-Mohaupt, Marianne (eds.). Transformations of Romanness: Early Medieval Regions and Identities. De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-059838-4. Dench, Emma (2010). "Roman Identity". In Barchiesi, Alessandro; Scheidel, Walter (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Roman Studies. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199211524. Drugaș, Șerban George Paul (2016). "The Wallachians in the Nibelungenlied and their Connection with the Eastern Romance Population in the Early Middle Ages". Hiperboreea. 3 (1): 71–124. doi:10.3406/hiper.2016.910. JSTOR 10.5325/hiperboreea.3.1.0071. Gess, Randall; Lyche, Chantal; Meisenburg, Trudel, eds. (2012). Phonological Variation in French: Illustrations from three continents. John Benjamins Publishing. pp. 1–397. ISBN 9789027273185. Granier, Thomas (2018). "Rome and Romanness in Latin southern Italian sources, 8th - 10th centuries". In Pohl, Walter; Gantner, Clemens; Grifoni, Cinzia; Pollheimer-Mohaupt, Marianne (eds.). Transformations of Romanness: Early Medieval Regions and Identities. De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-059838-4. Greene, Molly (2015). The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, 1453 to 1768. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0748693993. Gruen, Erich S. (2013). "Did Ancient Identity Depend on Ethnicity? A Preliminary Probe". Phoenix. 67 (1/2): 1–22. doi:10.7834/phoenix.67.1-2.0001. ISSN 0031-8299. Gruen, Erich S. (2014). "Romans and Jews". In McInerney, Jeremy (ed.). A Companion to Ethnicity in the Ancient Mediterranean. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1444337341. Halsall, Guy (2018). "Transformations of Romanness: The northern Gallic case". In Pohl, Walter; Gantner, Clemens; Grifoni, Cinzia; Pollheimer-Mohaupt, Marianne (eds.). Transformations of Romanness: Early Medieval Regions and Identities. De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-059838-4. Hen, Yitzhak (2018). "Compelling and intense: the Christian transformation of Romanness". In Pohl, Walter; Gantner, Clemens; Grifoni, Cinzia; Pollheimer-Mohaupt, Marianne (eds.). Transformations of Romanness: Early Medieval Regions and Identities. De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-059838-4. Institute for Neohellenic Research (2005). The Historical Review. II. Athens: Institute for Neohellenic Research. Jones, A. H. M. (1962). "The Constitutional Position of Odoacer and Theoderic" (PDF). The Journal of Roman Studies. 52 (1–2): 126–130. doi:10.2307/297883. JSTOR 297883. Kafadar, Cemal (2007). "A Rome of One's Own: Cultural Geography and Identity in the Lands of Rum". Muqarnas. 24: 7–25. doi:10.1163/22118993_02401003. Kaldellis, Anthony (2007). Hellenism in Byzantium: The Transformations of Greek Identity and the Reception of the Classical Tradition. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-87688-9. Kakavas, George (2002). Post-Byzantium: The Greek Renaissance 15th–18th Century Treasures from the Byzantine & Christian Museum, Athens. Athens: Hellenic Ministry of Culture. ISBN 978-960-214-053-6. Lavan, Myles (2016). "The Spread of Roman Citizenship, 14–212 CE: Quantification in the Face of High Uncertainty" (PDF). Past & Present. 230 (1): 3–46. doi:10.1093/pastj/gtv043. hdl:10023/12646. Light, Duncan; Dumbrăveanu Andone, Daniela (1997). "Heritage and national identity: Exploring the relationship in Romania". International Journal of Heritage Studies. 3 (1): 28–43. doi:10.1080/13527259708722185. Makrygiannis, Strategus (1849). Memoirs (book 1). Athens. Mathisen, Ralph W. (2015). "Barbarian Immigration and Integration in the Late Roman Empire: The Case of Barbarian Citizenship". In Sänger, Patrick (ed.). Minderheiten und Migration in der griechisch-römischen Welt. BRILL. ISBN 978-3-506-76635-9. Merry, Bruce (2004). Encyclopedia of Modern Greek Literature. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-30813-0. Minahan, James (2000). One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0313309841. Pohl, Walter (2018). "Introduction: Early medieval Romanness - a multiple identity". In Pohl, Walter; Gantner, Clemens; Grifoni, Cinzia; Pollheimer-Mohaupt, Marianne (eds.). Transformations of Romanness: Early Medieval Regions and Identities. De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-059838-4. Revell, Louise (2009). Roman Imperialism and Local Identities. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-88730-4. Rich, John; Shipley, Graham (1995). War and Society in the Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0415121675. Ridley, Jasper (1976). Garibaldi. Viking Press. Russell, J. C. (1958). "Late Ancient and Medieval Population". Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. 48 (3): 1–152. doi:10.2307/1005708. JSTOR 1005708. Ružica, Miroslav (2006). "The Balkan Vlachs/Aromanians awakening, national policies, assimilation". Proceedings of the Globalization, Nationalism and Ethnic Conflicts in the Balkans and Its Regional Context: 28–30. S2CID 52448884. Scheidel, Walter (2006). "Population and demography" (PDF). Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics. Stouraitis, Yannis (2017). "Reinventing Roman Ethnicity in High and Late Medieval Byzantium" (PDF). Medieval Worlds. 5: 70–94. doi:10.1553/medievalworlds_no5_2017s70. Vandiver Nicassio, Susan (2009). Imperial City: Rome under Napoleon. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226579733. Woolf, Greg (2000). Becoming Roman: The Origins of Provincial Civilization in Gaul. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521789820. Cited web sources[edit] "Ancient Rome". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 2 August 2020. "Civitas". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 19 March 2020. "Rome Population 2020". World Population Review. Retrieved 16 January 2020. West, Charles (2016). "Will the real Roman Emperor please stand up?". Turbulent Priests. Retrieved 4 January 2020. Wilcox, Charlie (2013). "Historical Oddities: The Roman Commune". The Time Stream. 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en-wikipedia-org-9479	----	Frontinus - Wikipedia Frontinus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (August 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Sextus Julius Frontinus Born c. 40 AD Died 103 AD Nationality Roman Occupation Engineer, author, soldier & politician Notable work De aquaeductu Strategemata Office Roman consul Children 1+ Sextus Julius Frontinus (c. 40 – 103 AD) was a prominent Roman civil engineer, author, soldier and senator of the late 1st century AD. He was a successful general under Domitian, commanding forces in Roman Britain, and on the Rhine and Danube frontiers. A novus homo, he was consul three times. Frontinus ably discharged several important administrative duties for Nerva and Trajan. However, he is best known to the post-Classical world as an author of technical treatises, especially De aquaeductu, dealing with the aqueducts of Rome. Contents 1 Career 2 Family 3 Writings 3.1 Aqueducts of Rome 3.1.1 Fraud and theft 3.1.2 Distribution system 3.1.3 Maintenance 3.2 Military tactics 4 Selected editions and translations 4.1 De aquaeductu 4.2 Other works 5 In fiction 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links Career[edit] In AD 70, Frontinus participated in the suppression of the Rhineland revolt, and later recorded that he received the surrender of 70,000 Lingones.[1] Between that date and being appointed governor of Britain to succeed Quintus Petillius Cerialis a few years later, Frontinus was appointed suffect consul. While governor of Britain, he subjugated the Silures of South Wales and is thought to have likewise campaigned against the Brigantes.[2] He was succeeded by Gnaeus Julius Agricola, the father-in-law of the famous historian Tacitus, in 77. Birley believes it "is fair to speculate" that Frontinus was with Domitian during the German campaign of 83. An inscription at Hieropolis in Phrygia, as well as a number of coins of Smyrna, attests that he was proconsul of Asia in AD 86.[2] In 97, he was appointed curator aquarum (supervisor of the aqueducts) by the emperor Nerva, an office only conferred upon persons of very high standing. In this capacity, he followed another distinguished Roman statesman, Agrippa, the friend, ally and son-in-law of Augustus, who organised in 34 BC a campaign of public repairs and improvements, including renovation of the aqueduct Aqua Marcia and an extension of its pipes to cover more of the city. The following year Frontinus held a second consulship as suffect in February, with Trajan as his colleague, and two years later he was made consul ordinarius with Trajan. Birley notes, "This exceptional honour underlines the high regard in which he [Frontinus] was held, and suggests, further, that Trajan had a debt to repay."[3] He was also a member of the College of Augurs.[3] He died in 103 or 104, a date based on Pliny the Younger writing to his friends that he was elected to the college of augurs to fill the vacancy Frontinus' death had created.[3] Family[edit] Due to a lack of either a titulus honorarius or sepulcralis, there is no outline of Frontinus' life, the names of his parents, or of his wife. Some details can be inferred from chance mentions: He is thought to be of Narbonese origins, and originally of the equestrian class.[4] From the nomenclature of the name of Publius Calvisius Ruso Julius Frontinus (consul c. 84), it is likely Frontinus had a sister, who was the other's mother.[5] Frontinus had at least one daughter, the wife of Quintus Sosius Senecio (cos. 99, II 107) and mother of Sosia Polla.[6] Writings[edit] Aqueducts of Rome[edit] Remains of aqueducts Aqua Claudia and Aqua Anio Novus, integrated into the Aurelian Wall as a gate in 271 AD. Frontinus's chief work is De aquaeductu, in two books, an official report to the emperor on the state of the aqueducts of Rome. It presents a history and description of the water-supply of Rome, including the laws relating to its use and maintenance. He provides the history, sizes and discharge rates of all of the nine aqueducts of Rome at the time at which he was writing at the turn of the 1st century AD: the Aqua Marcia, Aqua Appia, Aqua Alsietina, Aqua Tepula, Anio Vetus, Anio Novus, Aqua Virgo, Aqua Claudia and Aqua Augusta. Frontinus describes the quality of water delivered by each, mainly depending on their source, be it river, lake, or spring. Fraud and theft[edit] One of the first jobs he undertook when he was appointed water commissioner was to prepare maps of the system so that he could assess their condition before undertaking their maintenance. He says that many had been neglected and were not working at their full capacity. He was especially concerned by diversion of the supply by unscrupulous farmers and tradesmen, among many others. They would insert pipes into the channel of the aqueducts to tap the supply. He, therefore, made a meticulous survey of the intake and the supply of each line, and then investigated the discrepancies. Lead pipe stamps bearing the name of the owner were also used to prevent such water theft. He was well aware of the seminal work De Architectura by Vitruvius, which mentions aqueduct construction and maintenance published in the previous century; Frontinus refers to the possible influence of Vitruvius on the plumbers.[7] Remains of Aqua Claudia Distribution system[edit] Distribution of the water depended in a complex way on its height entering the city, the quality of the water, and its rate of discharge. Thus, poor-quality water would be sent for irrigation, gardens, or flushing, while only the best would be reserved for drinking water. Intermediate-quality water would be used for the many baths and fountains. However, Frontinus criticized the practice of mixing supplies from different sources, and one of his first decisions was to separate the waters from each system. Maintenance[edit] He was very concerned by leaks in the system, especially those in the underground conduits, which were difficult to locate and mend, a problem still faced by water engineers today. The aqueducts above ground needed care to ensure that the masonry was kept in good condition, especially those running on arched superstructures. It was, he said, essential to keep trees at a distance so that their roots would not damage the structures. He reviewed the existing law governing the state aqueducts, as well as the need for enforcement of those statutes. Military tactics[edit] Frontinus also wrote a theoretical treatise on military science, which is lost. His extant work on military matters, the Stratagems (Latin: Strategemata), is a collection of examples of military stratagems from Greek and Roman history, for the use of generals. He draws on his own experience as a general in Germania under Domitian, but similarities between the anecdotes he records and versions of other Roman authors like Valerius Maximus and Livy suggest that he drew mainly on literary sources. The authenticity of the fourth book has been challenged.[8] One example he gives of control of river water during a siege reads: Lucius Metellus, when fighting in Hither Spain, diverted the course of a river and directed it from a higher level against the camp of the enemy, which was located on low ground. Then, when the enemy were in a panic from the sudden flood, he had them slain by men whom he had stationed in ambush for this very purpose. Selected editions and translations[edit] De aquaeductu[edit] The standard edition of the Latin text of Frontinus' major work, with extensive commentary in English, is now R.H. Rodgers, Frontinus: De aquaeductu urbis Romae (Cambridge University Press, 2004). Rodgers has published his English translation online [1] An English translation by Charles E. Bennet, edited by Mary B. McElwain, has been published in the Loeb Classical Library.[9] A translation by Herschel is useful for his commentary on the engineering aspects of the De aquaeductu. Other works[edit] The latest edition of the Stratagems is by R. I. Ireland (Teubner, 1990 ISBN 3-322-00746-4) (in Latin); English translation in Loeb Classical Library (translated by Charles Bennet and edited by Mary B. McElwain), 1925. ISBN 9780674991927 Extracts from a treatise on land surveying ascribed to Frontinus are preserved in B. Campbell (2000), The Writings of the Roman Land Surveyors: Introduction, Text, Translation and Commentary, London. The Stratagems and The Aqueducts of Rome , translated by Charles E. BENNETT (1858 - 1921), available on Librivox as an audiobook. In fiction[edit] He appears as a fictionalised character in the Marcus Didius Falco novels The Silver Pigs, Shadows in Bronze, Three Hands in the Fountain, and The Jupiter Myth. He also appears as a character in The Centurions novels Barbarian Princess and The Emperor's Games. See also[edit] Cloaca Maxima De aquaeductu De Architectura Dolaucothi Gromatici List of aqueducts in the city of Rome List of aqueducts in the Roman Empire List of Roman aqueducts by date Quinaria Roman aqueducts Roman conquest of Britain Vitruvius Aggenus Urbicus References[edit] ^ Strategemata 4.3.14. A.R. Birley, The Fasti of Roman Britain (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981), p. 70 ^ a b Birley, Fasti, p. 71 ^ a b c Birley, Fasti, p. 72 ^ William McDermott, "Stemmata quid faciunt? The descendants of Frontinus", Ancient Society, 7 (1976), p. 255 ^ Ronald Syme, "P. Calvisius Ruso. One Person or Two?", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 56 (1984), pp. 190f ^ McDermott, "Stemmata quid faciunt?", p. 254 ^ [25:1] ^ Paper by Rogier van der Wal (Amsterdam) to the 2010 Classical Association Conference, Cardiff ^ no. L174, Stratagems. De aquaeductu (1925)  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Frontinus, Sextus Julius". Encyclopædia Britannica. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 250. Further reading[edit] Ashby, Thomas (1934) The Aqueducts of Rome, Oxford. Blackman, Deane R., Hodge, A. Trevor (2001). Frontinus' Legacy: Essays on Frontinus' de aquis urbis Romae. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-06793-0 Dahm, Murray K (1997), The Career and Writings of Sextus Julius Frontinus. Master's Thesis, University of Auckland. Herschel, C (1973) The Two Books on The Water Supply of the City of Rome of Frontinus, (trans with explanatory chapters) New England Water Works Association. Hodge, A.T. (2001). Roman Aqueducts & Water Supply, 2nd ed. London: Duckworth. External links[edit] Frontinus at LacusCurtius: full texts of De aquis and Strategemata in Latin and English; illustrated with some of the Monscassinensis manuscript from the Herschel edition. Works by Sextus Julius Frontinus at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Frontinus at Internet Archive Sextus Iulius Frontinus (fr) Models of Various Aqueducts of Ancient Rome Routes of Various Aqueducts of Ancient Rome Famous Fountains of Rome The Fountains of Rome (by Region) Spanish site dedicated to Roman technology, especially aqueducts and mines Political offices Preceded by Lucius Aelius Oculatus, and Quintus Gavius Atticus as Suffect consuls Suffect Consul of the Roman Empire 73 with ignotus Succeeded by Vespasian V, and Titus III as Ordinary consuls Preceded by Gnaeus Domitius Afer Curvius Tullus II Suffect Consul of the Roman Empire 98 with Trajan II Succeeded by Lucius Julius Ursus II Preceded by Tiberius Julius Ferox, and ignotus as Suffect consuls Consul of the Roman Empire 100 with Trajan III, followed by Lucius Julius Ursus III Succeeded by Marcus Marcius Macer, and Gaius Cilnius Proculus as Suffect consuls Preceded by Quintus Petillius Cerialis Roman governors of Britain 73/4-77 Succeeded by Gnaeus Julius Agricola Authority control BIBSYS: 90121749 BNE: XX1021193 BNF: cb12174476c (data) CANTIC: a11228957 CiNii: DA00878536 GND: 118536443 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\092029 ISNI: 0000 0001 2120 9098 LCCN: n83236155 NDL: 001158486 NKC: jn19981001261 NLA: 35105668 NLG: 220760 NLI: 000049806 NSK: 000329767 NTA: 06944417X RERO: 02-A000066745 SELIBR: 187603 SNAC: w6bp06vh SUDOC: 030299926 Trove: 828194 ULAN: 500240666 VcBA: 495/49825 VIAF: 12349897 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n83236155 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frontinus&oldid=972079832" Categories: 40s births 103 deaths 1st-century Romans 1st-century writers 2nd-century Romans Ancient Romans in Britain Ancient Roman civil engineers Augurs of the Roman Empire Julii Imperial Roman consuls Latin-language writers Roman aqueducts Roman governors of Britain Roman governors of Asia Roman military writers Silver Age Latin writers Hidden categories: Articles lacking in-text citations from August 2011 All articles lacking in-text citations Articles with hCards Articles with Latin-language sources (la) Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth uncertain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages العربية Asturianu Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 August 2020, at 01:45 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9483	----	Prosody (Latin) - Wikipedia Prosody (Latin) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Latin prosody (from Middle French prosodie, from Latin prosōdia, from Ancient Greek προσῳδία prosōidía, "song sung to music, pronunciation of syllable") is the study of Latin poetry and its laws of meter.[1] The following article provides an overview of those laws as practised by Latin poets in the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire, with verses by Catullus, Horace, Virgil and Ovid as models. Except for the early Saturnian poetry, which may have been accentual, Latin poets borrowed all their verse forms from the Greeks, despite significant differences between the two languages. Contents 1 Latin verse: a Greek gift 1.1 A brief history 1.2 Two rhythms 2 Prosody 2.1 Quantity 2.2 Feet 2.2.1 Cola: a different way to look at it 2.3 Elision 2.4 Caesura 3 Meters 3.1 Guide to symbols used 3.2 Dactylic meters 3.2.1 Dactylic hexameter 3.2.2 Dactylic pentameter 3.2.2.1 Elegiac couplet 3.2.2.2 First Archilochian 3.2.3 Dactylic tetrameter catalectic 3.2.3.1 Alcmanian strophe 3.3 Iambic meters 3.3.1 Iambic trimeter and Senarius 3.3.2 Iambic dimeter 3.3.2.1 Iambic distich 3.3.2.2 Second Archilochian 3.3.2.3 Third Archilochian 3.3.2.4 Pythiambics 3.3.3 Iambic tetrameter catalectic 3.3.4 Choliambics 3.4 Hendecasyllables 4 Post-classical poetry 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Bibliography Latin verse: a Greek gift[edit] A brief history[edit] The start of Latin literature is usually dated to the first performance of a play by Livius Andronicus in Rome in 240 BC.[2] Livius, a Greek slave, translated Greek New Comedy for Roman audiences. He not only established the genre fabula palliata, but also adapted meters from Greek drama to meet the needs of Latin. He set a precedent followed by all later writers of the genre, notably Plautus and Terence.[3] The principles of scansion observed by Plautus and Terence (i.e. the rules for identifying short and long syllables, the basis of Greek and Latin meter) are mostly the same as for classical Latin verses.[nb 1] Livius, a versatile author, also translated Homer's Odyssey into a rugged native meter known as Saturnian, but it was his near contemporary, Ennius (239–169 BC), who introduced the traditional meter of Greek epic, the dactylic hexameter, into Latin literature. Ennius employed a poetic diction and style well suited to the Greek model, thus providing a foundation for later poets such as Lucretius and Virgil to build on.[4] The late republic saw the emergence of Neoteric poets. They were rich young men from the Italian provinces, conscious of metropolitan sophistication. They, and especially Catullus, looked to the scholarly Alexandrian poet Callimachus for inspiration.[5] The Alexandrians' preference for short poems influenced Catullus to experiment with a variety of meters borrowed from Greece, including Aeolian forms such as hendecasyllabic verse, the Sapphic stanza and Greater Asclepiad, as well as iambic verses such as the choliamb and the iambic tetrameter catalectic (a dialogue meter borrowed from Old Comedy).[6] Horace, whose career spanned both republic and empire, followed Catullus' lead in employing Greek lyrical forms, though he calls himself the first to bring Aeolic verse to Rome.[7] He identified with, among others, Sappho and Alcaeus of Mytilene, composing Sapphic and Alcaic stanzas, and with Archilochus, composing poetic invectives in the Iambus tradition (in which he adopted the metrical form of the epode or "iambic distich"). Horace also wrote verses in dactylic hexameter, employing a conversational and epistolary style. Virgil, his contemporary, composed dactylic hexameters on light and serious themes and his verses are generally regarded as "the supreme metrical system of Latin literature".[8] Modern scholars have developed different theories about how Latin prosody was influenced by these adaptations from Greek models. Two rhythms[edit] English meter is said to be stress timed: the regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables produces an "accentual rhythm." Classical Greek meter is said to be mora timed: the alternation of long and short syllables produces a "quantitative rhythm." Classical Latin meter obeyed rules of syllable length, like the Greek, even though Latin has a strong word accent like English. Modern scholars have had differing opinions about how these different influences affect the way Latin verse was sounded out. Accentual rhythm in Latin may have been observed in pre-classical verse (in Saturnian meter) and in some medieval verse,[9] but otherwise the rhythm of Latin verse appears ambivalent and complex. Latin, like English, was characterized by a stress accent, whereas ancient Greek was characterized by a pitch accent. In English poetry, accent governs the stress-timed rhythm. In ancient Greek poetry, on the other hand, pitch accent rose and fell independently of the mora timed rhythm, just as musical pitch is not governed by the duration of musical notes. Some modern scholars have suggested that the stress accent in Latin turned into a pitch accent under the Greek influence and thus Latin verse could have functioned in the melodic manner of Greek verse,[10] yet most scholars today reject such a theory as unrealistic.[11] Latin poets might instead have recited long and short syllables as if they were stressed and unstressed, or, more probably, they gave words their natural stress, so that the quantitative metrical pattern acted like an orderly undercurrent to natural speech.[12] Here, for example, is dactylic verse from Virgil's Georgics when the words are given their natural stress: quíd fáciat laétas ségetes, quó sídere térram, and here is the same verse when the metrical pattern is allowed to determine the stress: quíd faciát laetás segetés, quo sídere térram. Possibly the rhythm was held in suspense until stress and meter happened to coincide (as in "sídere térram" above).[13] English-speaking, as opposed to e.g. German-speaking, readers of Latin tend to observe the natural word stress, an approach to Latin verse that was also practised in ancient times (a 5th-century AD papyrus shows hexameter verse with accents recorded separately from the meter), yet there is also an ancient precedent for letting the meter produce an artificial stress accent.[14] In the hands of a master poet such as Vergil, however, the natural stress accent may be thought to function as a second rhythm, whose interplay with the quantitative rhythm can even be regarded as a source of unique aesthetic effects.[15] Prosody[edit] Quantity[edit] Generally a syllable in Latin verse is long "by nature" when it has a long vowel or diphthong (scrī-bae) or it ends in two consonants or a compound consonant (dant, dux) and long "by position" when it ends in a consonant and is followed by a syllable that begins with a consonant (mul-tos; dat sonitum) or it is the final syllable in a line of verse i.e. brevis in longo. Otherwise syllables are counted as short. Syllables ending in a vowel are called open syllables, and those ending in a consonant are called closed syllables. Only the nucleus and coda of the syllable are relevant for metrical purposes: the quantity of a syllable is not affected by consonants preceding the vowel. Long syllables are sometimes called heavy and short ones light, using terminology borrowed from Sanskrit. For the above rules to apply the digraphs ch, th, ph, representing single Greek letters, count as one consonant; h at the beginning of a word is ignored; qu counts as one consonant; the consonants x [ks] and z [zz] count as two consonants; A plosive (p, b, t, d, c, g) plus a liquid (r, l) can count as either one consonant or two, at the poet's discretion. Thus the first syllable of words like agrum or patris can be long (ag-rum, pat-ris) or short (a-grum, pa-tris). This choice is not permitted, as a rule, in compound words (e.g. ab-rumpo begins with a long syllable and will not be resyllabified *a-brumpo), nor is it available for all plosive-liquid combinations. If a final short open vowel stands before a plosive followed by a liquid in the same line, it remains short, save for some very rare occurrences such as Virgil's "lappaeque tribolique", where the first -que is scanned as long. A short open final vowel may not stand before other double consonants, including x and z, in the same line, again with rare exceptions such as Ovid's "alta Zacynthus", where the short final a remains short. In the comedies of Plautus and Terence some other exceptions to these rules are found, most notably the phenomenon called brevis brevians (see Metres of Roman comedy#Brevis brevians (iambic shortening)), in which a theoretically long syllable, if unstressed, can be shortened after a short one, e.g. vidēn hanc? ("do you see this woman?"), which is scanned u u –.[16] Another exception found in early poetry (including Lucretius) is that a final -is or -us can sometimes count as short (as in omnibu(s) rēbu(s) profundant, Lucretius 4.1035, scanned – u u – u u – –).[17] Feet[edit] Verses were divided into "feet" by ancient grammarians and poets, such as Ovid himself, who called the elegiac couplet "eleven-footed poetry" (Amores 1.30). This practice is followed by traditionalists among modern scholars, especially, perhaps, those who compose Latin verses. In foot-based analysis, the "metrically dominant" part of the foot is sometimes called the "rise" and the other is called the "fall," the Greek terms for which are arsis and thesis. In Greek, these terms were applied to the movement of human feet in dancing and/or marching, Arsis signifying the lifting of a foot, and Thesis its placement. In the Greek scheme Thesis was the dominant part of the meter, but the Romans applied the terms to the voice rather than to the feet, so that Arsis came to signify the lifting of the voice and thus the dominant part of the meter (William W. Goodwin, Greek Grammar, MacMillan Education (1894), page 348). This caused confusion, as some authors followed the Greek custom and others the Latin; thus these terms are no longer generally used. Sometimes the dominant part of the foot, in either quantitative or stressed verse, is called the ictus. Long and short syllables are marked (-) and (u) respectively. The main feet in Latin are: Iamb: 1 short + 1 long syllable (cărō) Trochee: 1 long + 1 short (mēnsă) Dactyl: 1 long + 2 shorts (lītŏră) Anapaest: 2 shorts + 1 long (pătŭlaē) Spondee: 2 longs (fātō) Tribrach: 3 shorts (tĕmĕrĕ) According to the laws of quantity, 1 long = 2 shorts. Thus a Tribrach, Iamb and Trochee all equate to the same durations or morae: each of them comprises 3 morae. Similarly a Dactyl, an Anapaest and a Spondee are quantitatively equal, each being 4 morae. These equivalences allow for easy substitutions of one foot by another e.g. a spondee can be substituted for a dactyl. In certain circumstances, however, unequal substitutions are also permitted. It is often more convenient to consider iambics, trochaics and anapests in terms of metra rather than feet; for each of these families, a metron is two feet. Thus the iambic metron is u-u-, the trochaic -u-u and the anapestic uu-uu-. Cola: a different way to look at it[edit] The division into feet is a tradition that produces arbitrary metrical rules, because it does not follow the actual metrical structure of the verse (see for example the listed variations in the tables below). In particular, though a long syllable and two short ones have the same number of morae, they are not always interchangeable: some metres permit substitutions where others do not. Thus a more straightforward analysis, favoured by recent scholarship, is by cola, considered to be the actual building blocks of the verse. A colon (from the Greek for "limb") is a unit of (typically) 5 to 10 syllables that can be re-used in various metrical forms.[18] Standard cola include the hemiepes, the glyconic, and the lekythion. Elision[edit] A vowel at the end of a word does not count as a syllable if the following word begins with a vowel or h: thus Phyllida amo ante alias reads as Phyllid' am' ant' alias. This is called elision. At the (rare) discretion of the poet, however, the vowel can be retained, and is said to be in Hiatus. An example of this, in Virgil's fémineó ululátú the "o" is not elided. A word ending in vowel + m is similarly elided (sometimes this is called Ecthlipsis): thus nec durum in pectore ferrum reads as nec dur' in pectore ferrum.[19] Caesura[edit] The last syllable of a foot might or might not coincide with the ending of a word. A too frequent repetition of this coincidence apparently grated on the Roman ear, as in the following example of a poorly composed dactylic hexameter, where each of the first four feet consists of a spondaic word (the feet are marked out by vertical lines): spārsīs | hāstīs | lōngīs| cāmpūs | splēndĕt ĕt | hōrrĕt.[20] The ending of a word and foot together, as in this line, is termed diaeresis. To avoid such lines, caesuras, or "cuttings", were employed, a caesura being a place where a word ends within a foot, here marked ||. For convenience, in the following two examples from Virgil the foot endings are marked -|- when they occur within words and | when they occur between words. Tīty̆rĕ | tū || pătŭ-|-laē || rĕcŭ-|-bāns || sūb | tēgmĭnĕ | fāgī nōn om-|-nīs || ar-|-busta || iu-|-vant, || humi-|-lēsque || myr-|-īcae There are two kinds of caesura: strong caesura, when the caesura occurs after a long syllable; weak caesura, when the caesura occurs after a short syllable (none in the first line above, two in the second). Meters[edit] The dividing of verse into long and short syllables and analysis of the metrical family or pattern is called 'scanning' or 'scansion.' The names of the metrical families come from the names of the cola or feet in use, such as iambic, trochaic, dactylic and anapaestic meters. Sometimes meter is named after the subject matter (as in epic or heroic meter), sometimes after the musical instrument that accompanied the poetry (such as lyric meter, accompanied by the lyre), and sometimes according to the verse form (such as Sapphic, Alcaic and elegiac meter). Guide to symbols used[edit] — for long syllable or long element u for short syllable or short element ῡ for brevis in longo | for end of foot ‖ main caesura Notes: words are hyphenated wherever they include the end of a foot e.g Trō-iae below; long and short vowels are marked with - and u directly above them e.g. Ā, ă, ĭ, ī, ō, ŏ, ŭ, ū (these don't indicate syllable lengths) There are four basic families of verse: dactylic, iambic (and trochaic), Aeolic, and anapestic. In the dactylic family short syllables come in pairs, and these pairs may be contracted (two short replaced by one long). In the iambic/trochaic family short syllables come one at a time, and some long elements may be resolved (one long replaced by two short). In the anapestic family short syllables come in pairs, and both contraction and resolution are allowed. In the Aeolic family there are both paired and single short syllables, and neither contraction nor resolution is allowed. Other important metres are hendecasyllabics and the Asclepiads, and Catullus composed important poetry in Glyconics. There are individual Wikipedia entries on various metres. A would-be composer in any metre, however, would need a more detailed knowledge than can be found here. Dactylic meters[edit] The "dactyl," as a foot, is — u u; the name comes from the Greek for "finger," because it looks like the three bones of a finger, going outward from the palm. The principal colon of dactylic verse is the "hemiepes" or "half-epic" colon, — u u — u u — (sometimes abbreviated D). The two short syllables (called a biceps element) may generally be contracted, but never in the second half of a pentameter, and only rarely in the fifth foot of a hexameter. The long syllable (the princeps element) may never be resolved. Roman poets use two dactylic forms, the hexameter and the elegiac couplet. Dactylic hexameter[edit] Dactylic hexameter was used for the most serious Latin verse. Influenced by Homer's Greek epics, it was considered the best meter for weighty and important matters, and long narrative or discursive poems generally. Thus it was used in Ennius's Annals, Lucretius's On The Nature of Things, Virgil's "Aeneid" and Ovid's "Metamorphoses"; also in Juvenal's caustic satires and Horace's genial Talks and Letters. A dactylic hexameter consists of a hemiepes, a biceps, a second hemiepes, and a final long element, so DuuD—. This is conventionally re-analyzed into six "feet," all dactyls with the last one either catalectic or necessarily contracted. Roman poets rarely contract the fifth foot.[nb 2] Since Latin was richer in long syllables than was Greek, contraction of biceps elements (producing the so-called spondee) was more common among Roman poets. Neoteric poets of the late republic, such as Catullus, sometimes employed a spondee in the fifth foot, a practice Greek poets generally avoided and which became rare among later Roman poets.[21] Variations 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th[nb 3] dactyls — u u — u u — u u — u u — u u — — spondees — — — — — — — — There will be a caesura in the third or fourth foot (or in both). If there is a weak caesura, or none, in the third foot, there will usually be a strong one in the fourth, as in these two examples from Virgil: sī nescīs, meus ille caper fuit, et mihi Dāmōn ... et nōbīs īdem Alcimedōn duo pōcula fēcit ... but here is a line from Virgil with only one caesura, a weak one: frangeret indēprēnsus et irremeābilis error. Variations are common, and are used to avoid monotony. Their absence would be a definite fault of versification. Various positions for caesura (in the foot-based analysis) have traditional names: the caesura "in the third foot" is called penthemimeral, that in the fourth hephthemimeral, and that in the second trihemimeral. These names refer to the number of half-feet before the position of the caesura.[22] Dactylic hexameter often has a bucolic diaeresis (a diaeresis between the fourth and fifth feet of a line), as in the first of the following lines from the introduction to Virgil's epic poem, the Aeneid. - u u| - u u| -|| -| - -| - u u |- - Ărmă vĭ-rŭmquĕ că-nō, Trō-iae quī prīmŭs ăb ōrīs - u u|- -| - || u u| - -| - u u| - - Ītălĭ-ǎm fā-tō prŏfŭ-gŭs Lā-vīniăquĕ vēnĭt - u u | - - | - - | - || - | - u u |- - lītŏră, mŭlt(um) ĭl-l(e) ĕt tĕr-rīs iăc-tātŭs ĕt ăltō - u u| - || - | - u u| - -| - u u |- - vī sŭpĕ-rŭm, sae-vae mĕmŏ-rĕm Iū-nōnĭs ŏb īrăm; There are two elisions in line 3 and a bucolic diaeresis in line 1 (quī | prīmus ). Venit and iram at the ends of lines 2 and 4 count as spondees by brevis in longo, despite their naturally short second syllables. The 'i' in 'Troiae' and 'iactatus', the first 'i' in 'Iunonis' and the second 'i' in 'Laviniaque' are all treated as consonants. Bucolic diaeresis has this name because it is common in bucolic or pastoral verse. (NB, however, that this term is sometimes, or even usually, reserved for lines where the fourth foot is a dactyl, as in forte sub argūtā cōnsīdĕrăt īlice Daphnis.) Dactylic hexameters regularly end with a disyllabic or a trisyllabic word. Exceptions tend to be Greek words. Dactylic pentameter[edit] The name "pentameter" comes from the fact that it consists of two separate parts, with a word-break between them, with each part, or hemiepes, having two and a half feet, summing to five (thus giving Ovid his count of eleven feet in a couplet). The first hemiepes may have contraction, the second may not. By Ovid's time there was a rule, with very few exceptions, that the last word should be of two syllables, and it was almost always a noun, verb, personal pronoun (mihi, tibi or sibi) or pronominal adjective (meus etc.). The last syllable would either be closed, or a long open vowel or a diphthong: very seldom an open short vowel. Variations 1st 2nd ½ 3rd 4th ½ — u u — u u — — u u — u u — spondees — — — — There is a strong danger of monotony in this rigid structure, which poets were able to alleviate, up to a point, by keeping the first half of a line out of conformity with the stricter rules governing the second half, and by varying as much as possible the word-pattern of the second half. Elegiac couplet[edit] An elegiac couplet is a dactylic hexameter followed by a dactylic pentameter. The sense of the hexameter frequently runs into the pentameter, an effect known as enjambement, but a pentameter comparatively seldom runs on into a following hexameter. The pentameter came into Latin usage later than the hexameter and therefore it was not always handled with rigour by Catullus, compared for example with the later poets, especially Ovid. Catullus used elisions very freely, and sometimes he even allowed an elision to span the central diaeresis (e.g. Carmina 77.4). The following is from one of his most famous elegies, mourning for a lost brother (Carmina 101).[23] - - | - - | - ||- | - u u | - u u| - - Mŭltās pĕr gĕn-tēs ĕt mŭltă pĕr aequŏră vĕctŭs - u u | - u u |- || - u u |- u u|- ădvĕnĭ(o) hās mĭsĕr-ās, frātĕr, ăd īnfĕrĭ-ās - -| - -| -||- |- - | - u u| - - ŭt tē pŏstrē-mō dōn-ārĕm mūnĕrĕ mŏrtĭs - -| - -| - || - u u| - u u| - ĕt mū-tăm nē-quīqu-(am) adlŏquĕ-rĕr cĭnĕ-rĕm, Note: the diaeresis after the first hemiepes is marked here like a caesura (a conventional practice.)[24] Observe the elisions in line 2 (o) and line 4 (am). The latter elision spans the diaeresis in the last line. First Archilochian[edit] If only one hemiepes is employed, instead of a full pentameter, the elegiac couplet takes the form known as the First Archilochian, named after the Greek poet Archilochus. An example is found in the fourth book of Horace's Odes (Carmina 4.7), which A. E. Housman once described as "the most beautiful poem in ancient literature",[25] introduced with these two lines: - -| - u u| - || uu| - - | - u u | - - Dīffū-gērĕ nĭ-vēs, rĕdĕ-ŭnt iăm grāmĭnă cămpīs - u u| - u u | - ărbŏrĭ-bŭsquĕ cŏm-ae; Dactylic tetrameter catalectic[edit] Most extant examples of this meter are found in Lyric poetry, such as Horace's Carmina 1.7 and 1.28, but also in Iambi. Variations 1st 2nd 3rd 4th — u u — u u — u u — — spondees — — Note: the final syllable in the 4th foot is marked long or short in some schemes to indicate natural syllable length but it is always long by position. Alcmanian strophe[edit] A dactylic tetrameter catalectic is sometimes joined to the dactylic hexameter to form a couplet termed the Alcmanian Strophe, named after the lyric poet Alcman (some scholars however refer to the Alcmanian Strophe as the First Archilochian, as indeed there is a strong likeness between the two forms). Examples of the form are found in Horace's Odes (carmina) and Epodes, as here in his Epode 12.[26] - u u | - - |- || - | - u u |- u u | - - Ō ĕgŏ | nōn fēl-īx, quăm tū fŭgĭs ŭt păvĕt ācrīs - u u| - u u| - u u|- - ăgnă lŭ-pōs căprĕ-aēquĕ lĕ-ōnēs Note that the plosive + liquid combination pr in 'capreaeque', syllabified ca.pre.ae.que, leaves the first open syllable (ca) metrically short. Iambic meters[edit] The iambic family has short syllables one at a time, not in pairs like the dactylic family, and it allows resolution of long elements. In this family there may also be anceps positions, that is, positions in which either a long or a short syllable is allowed. Iambic trimeter and Senarius[edit] Further information: Metres of Roman comedy Used for the theatre by poets such as Plautus and Terence, an iambic line of six feet allowed for numerous variations and it is known as an iambic senarius ('senarius' = 'grouped in sixes'). Poets such as Horace and Catullus however employed iambic feet in pairs, each called a metron, in which fewer variations were allowed. Such a line of verse has three metra and the meter in that case is called 'iambic trimeter'. Here is the list of variations found in Horace,[27] which are more numerous than those in Catullus.[28] Some variations are due to resolution (replacing a long with two shorts) and some are due to anceps (when a syllable may be either long or short—see following Note and the article iambic trimeter). Others are the result of outright substitution (prosody), such as the anapaest in the first foot below. Variations 1a 1b 2a 2b 3a 3b u — u — u — u — u — u — spondees — — — — — — tribrachs uuu uuu uuu uuu dactyls —uu —uu anapests uu— Note: The caesura usually follows the first syllable of the third foot (2a), and sometimes the first syllable of the fourth foot (2b). A short syllable can be replaced by a long syllable in certain positions, here marked bold: i.e. the first short syllable in feet 1a, 2a, 3a may be long. These short/long syllables are said to be in anceps. Some variations never appear; thus for example there is no resolution in foot 3a and therefore no tribrach or dactyl in that foot. The following example of iambic trimeter is from Horace's Epode 5: - u u |u u u| u|| - | u - |u - |u - | Cānĭdĭ-ă brĕvi-bus ĭmp-lĭcāt-ă vīp-ĕrīs Note that the first syllable Ca- in Canidia is long and it is thus in anceps, while -idi- is the equivalent of a long syllable and it is said to be resolved into two shorts—thus the first foot appears as if a dactyl has been substituted for an iamb. Long syllables are resolved into two shorts (uu) in the first metron (1a-1b), an effect that may have been intended to suggest the quick movement of tiny snakes that Canidia has tied to her hair.[29] The second foot (1b) is read as a tribrach (uuu) since 'br' in 'brevibus' can be taken as a single consonant, making the preceding 'a' short. Iambic dimeter[edit] Iambic verse of four feet, paired to make two metra, hence the name 'iambic dimeter'. It is constituted like the first and third metra of the iambic trimeter (1a, 1b, 3a, 3b), with which it is often joined to form couplets known as Iambic Distich. Variations 1a 1b 2a 2b u — u — u — u — spondees — — — — tribrachs uuu uuu dactyls —uu anapests uu— Note: The short syllables in 1a and 2a (marked bold) are in anceps and can be replaced by long syllables. Iambic distich[edit] The iambic distich—a couplet comprising an iambic trimeter and iambic dimeter—is the basis of many poems of a genre known as Iambus, in which the poet abuses and censures individuals or even communities, whether real or imaginary. Iambic rhythms were felt to be especially suited to this role. The Greek poet Archilochus was one of the main exponents of the iambic distich and he provided a model for Horace's Epodes 1-10. The following couplet forms the first two lines of Epode 7. - - | u - | - uu| u || - | - - | u - Quo quo sceles-ti rui-tis? aut cur dex-teris - - | u - | - - | u - aptan-tur en-ses con-diti? Note that the first syllables in both lines (Quo and ap) are in anceps and thus a spondee appears to have been substituted for an iamb in both the initial feet. Also ti in scelesti is long by nature and it too is in anceps; the third foot would otherwise be a tribrach (uuu) thanks to the resolution of a long syllable into the two shorts in rui. As a result of all these variations, the 3rd foot instead resembles a dactyl (-uu). Second Archilochian[edit] An iambic dimeter may be followed by a hemiepes to form the second line of a couplet, in which the first line is dactylic hexameter. This combination is called the second Archilochian. The iambic dimeter functions like an independent line, however, since it keeps the elements of a line-end i.e. it is marked off from the hemiepes by a pause through brevis in longo, or through a hiatus. An example of this system is found in Horace's epode 13, lines 9–10 - - | - - | - u u | - u u | - -| - - pěrfun-dī nār-dō iuvǎt ět fĭdě Cyllē-naeā u - | u -| - - | u ῡ|| - u u | - u u| - lĕvār-ĕ dī-rīs pĕc-tǒră sǒllĭcĭ-tūdĭnĭ-bŭs Note that the 5th foot in this example is a spondee—this is rare for Horace and it is meant to evoke the affectation of Neoteric poets like Catullus, thus complementing the sense of being suffused with perfume while listening to the lyre at a drinking party (the Greek word Cyllenaea, which creates the double spondee, adds to the exotic aura).[30] Observe also that the iambic dimeter ends with brevis in longo, the short syllable a in pectora becoming long by the addition of a pause. The hemiepes also ends with brevis in longo. Third Archilochian[edit] Here an iambic trimeter forms the first line of the couplet, and the positions of the iambic dimeter and hemiepes are reversed to form the second line, the hemiepes now coming before the iambic dimeter. The hemiepes still functions as if it were independent, retaining the pause of a line-end through brevis in longo or hiatus. An example has survived in Horace's Epode 11, as in lines 5-6 here: - - | u- | - -| u ||- | - - |u - hīc těr-tĭŭs Dēcĕm-bĕr, ĕx quō dēs-tĭtī - u u |- u u |ῡ || - - | u -| - - | u - Iānăchĭ-ā fŭrĕr-ĕ, sĭlvīs hŏnō-rĕm dē-cŭtĭt. Pythiambics[edit] Another couplet is formed when a line of dactylic hexameter is followed by a line of iambic dimeter, and this is called the First Pythiambic. The Greek poet Archilochus composed in this form but only fragments remain. Two of Horace's epodes (14 and 15) provide complete examples in Latin. The following couplet introduces his Epode 15: - u u |- - |- || - | - - | - u u |- - Nŏx ĕrăt ĕt cae-lō fŭl-gē-băt lūnă sĕ-rēnō - - | u -| u - |u ῡ ĭntĕr mĭnō-ră sīd-ĕră The Second Pythiambic features an iambic trimeter instead of iambic dimeter in the second line. Horace's Epode 16 is an example. Iambic tetrameter catalectic[edit] Usually associated with the comic theatre, it consists of seven feet with an extra syllable at the end instead of a full iambic foot. In that case it is called iambic septenarius ('septenarius' means grouped in sevens). Used outside the theatre, the feet are paired and then it is called iambic tetrameter catalectic (catalectic means that the meter is incomplete). The stage allowed many variations but poets were quite strict in their use of it and Catullus allowed variations only in the first and fifth feet:[31] Variations 1a 1b 2a 2b 3a 3b 4a 4b u — u — u — u — u — u — u — — spondees — — — — An example is found in Catullus' Carmina 25, beginning with these two lines: u - | u - | u - | u -| u -| u - |u - | - Cĭnae-dĕ Thăl-lĕ, mŏl-lĭŏr cŭnī-cŭlī căpĭl-lō u - | u - | u - | u -| u -| u - |u - | - vĕl ān-sĕrĭs mĕdŭl-lŭlā vĕl ī-mŭl(ā) ōr-ĭcĭl-lā Catullus uses no variations at all here and he employs diminutives (cuniculi, medullula, imula, oricila) contemptuously in a description of the 'soft' Thallus. Note that doubling of the consonant l lengthens several syllables that are naturally short, thus enabling a strict iambic rhythm. Choliambics[edit] This meter was originated by the Greek iambic poet, Hipponax. The name choliambics means lame iambics and sometimes it is called scazons or limpers. ("Lame trochaics" exist as well, being a trochaic tetrameter catalectic with the same ending as the iambic.) It is intended to be graceless and awkward "...in order to mirror in symbolically appropriate fashion the vices and crippled perversions of mankind."[32] It was taken up by the neoteric poets Catullus and his friend Calvus but with fewer variations than Hipponax had employed. It is basically an iambic trimeter but with a surprise ending in the last foot, featuring a trochee or spondee that cripples the iambic rhythm. As used by Catullus, the variations are as follows: Variations 1a 1b 2a 2b 3a 3b u — u — u — u — u — — — spondees — — — — — — tribrachs uuu dactyls —uu —uu Caesuras are found after the first syllable either in the third or fourth feet, sometimes in both. Lines 2 and 3 of Catullus' Carmina 59 about the grave-robbing wife of Menenius offer a good example: - -| u -|- || - | u - | u - | - - ŭxŏr Mĕnē-nī, sae-pĕ qu(ăm) ĭn sĕpŭl-crētīs - - | u - | -||u u |u - | u -| - - vīdĭs-tĭs ĭp-sō răpĕr-ĕ dē rŏgō cēnăm The dactyl in the third foot of the second line reinforces the meaning, as she greedily reaches for food from the funeral pyre without regard for taboos. Martial used more variations, such as an anapaest in the fourth foot and a tribrach in the third. Hendecasyllables[edit] The hendecasyllable is an 11-syllable line used extensively by Catullus and Martial, for example in Catullus's famous poem (Catullus 5), which begins: - -|- uu| - u |- u|- - vīvāmus mea Lesbi(a) atqu(e) amēmus - -|- u u|- u|- u|- - rūmōrēsque senum sevēriōrum - - |- uu | - u|- u |- - omnēs ūnius aestimēmus assis! "Let us live, my Lesbia, and let us love, and as for the mutterings of over-strict old men let us count them all as worth one dime!" Poems in hendecasyllables all run on in the same meter, namely spondee (but see below), dactyl, trochee, trochee, spondee. Catullus is rather freer than Martial, in that he will occasionally start a line with a trochee or iambus, as in lines 2 and 4 respectively of the opening poem of his book, whereas Martial keeps to a spondaic opening. Post-classical poetry[edit] After the classical period, the pronunciation of Latin changed and the distinction between long and short vowels was lost in the popular language. Some authors continued writing verse in the classical meters, but this way of pronouncing long and short vowels was not natural to them; they used it only in poetry. Popular poetry, including the bulk of Christian Latin poetry, continued to be written in accentual meters (sometimes incorporating rhyme, which was never systematically used in classical verse) just like modern European languages. This accentual Latin verse was called sequentia, especially when used for a Christian sacred subject. See also[edit] Metres of Roman comedy Brevis in longo Anceps Biceps (prosody) Resolution (meter) Clausula (rhetoric) Golden line Latin spelling and pronunciation Notes[edit] ^ Two significant differences are that word-final s may not be counted as making a heavy syllable, and mute-plus-liquid combinations never make a syllable heavy. R. H. Martin, Terence: Adelphoe, Cambridge University Press (1976), page 32 ^ According to the stress-timed theory of Latin prosody, there is a strong tendency to harmonize word-stress and verse-ictus in the final two feet of a hexameter. The fifth foot, therefore, is almost always a dactyl whereas the sixth foot always consists of a spondee; this line ending is perhaps the most notable feature of the meter. In classical times, it was the only readily audible metrical feature, and Romans unfamiliar with Greek literature and versification often heard no sound pattern at all save in the stress-pattern of the last two feet (William Sidney Allen, Vox Latina: a Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin, 2nd edition, Cambridge University Press (2003) ISBN 0-521-37936-9, pages 86, 127). ^ In some schemes, the final syllable in the 6th foot is marked either long or short to reflect the natural syllable length, but it is always long by position and it is therefore only marked long in this table. References[edit] ^ B. H. Kennedy and James Mountford, The Revised Latin Primer, Longman (1962), page 201 ^ See Goldberg for details. ^ R. H. Martin, Terence: Adelphoe, Cambridge University Press (1976), page 1 ^ P. G. McBrown, 'The First Roman Literature' in The Oxford History of the Classical World, J.Boardman, J.Griffin and O.Murray (eds), Oxford University Press (1995) page 450-52 ^ Robin Nisbet, 'The Poets of the Late Republic' in The Oxford History of the Classical World, J.Boardman, J.Griffin and O.Murray (eds), Oxford University Press (1995) page 487-90 ^ Peter Green, The Poems of Catullus, University of California Press (2005), pages 32-7 ^ "Princeps Aeolium carmen ad Italum," Odes 3.30.13; for Horace's engagement with Catullus see Putnam (2006). ^ Richard F. Thomas, Virgil: Georgics Vol. I, Cambridge University Press (1988), page 28 ^ For the contrast between stress-based and quantitative verse, and for developments after the classical period, see especially Gasparov. For Saturnians, Halporn et al. say "most Saturnians make some kind of sense if we assume that the natural word accent alone carries the rhythm" (p. 60-61). See also Parsons, Freeman, Cole, Mahoney. ^ R.G. Kent, The alleged conflict of accents in Latin verse, T.A.P.A. 51 (1920), pages 19-29) ^ Richard F. Thomas, Virgil: Georgics Vol. I, Cambridge University Press (1988), pages 29 ^ L.P. Wilkinson, Golden Latin Artistry, Cambridge (1963), page 94 ^ William Sidney Allen, Vox Latina: a Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin, 2nd edition, Cambridge University Press (2003) ISBN 0-521-37936-9, pages 83-88 ^ Richard F. Thomas, Virgil: Georgics Vol. I, Cambridge University Press (1988), pages 28-9 ^ R. D. Williams, The Aeneid of Virgil, Books I-VI, MacMillan (1972), Introduction page xxvii; W. F. Jackson Knight, Accentual Symmetry in Virgil, Basil Blackwell (1950) ^ Article "Brevis Brevians", Oxford Classical Dictionary, 2nd edition. ^ Bailey, C. (1947) Titi Lucreti Cari De Rerum Natura Libri Sex, vol 1. pp. 123-126. ^ See Halporn, Ostwald, Rosenmeyer (1994). ^ B. H. Kennedy and James Mountford, The Revised Latin Primer, Longman (1962), page 203 ^ B. H. Kennedy and James Mountford, The Revised Latin Primer, Longman (1962), page 204 ^ Peter Green, The Poems of Catullus, University of California Press (2005), pages 40 ^ B. H. Kennedy and James Mountford, The Revised Latin Primer, Longman (1962), pages 204-5) ^ Peter Green, The Poems of Catullus, University of California Press (2005), pages 40-1 ^ see for example Peter Green, The Poems of Catullus, University of California Press (2005), page 40 ^ William Flesch, The facts on File Companion to British Poetry, 19th Century, Facts on File, Inc. (2010), page 98; see Google preview ^ David Mankin, Horace: Epodes, Cambridge University Press (1995), pages 20-22 ^ B. H. Kennedy and James Mountford, The Revised Latin Primer, Longman (1962), pages 206) ^ Peter Green, The Poems of Catullus, University of California Press (2005), pages 34 ^ David Mankin, Horace: Epodes, Cambridge University Press (1995), note 15 page 114 ^ David Mankin, Horace: Epodes, Cambridge university Press (1995), pages 219-20 ^ Peter Green, The Poems of Catullus, University of California Press (2005), pages 34-5 ^ Peter Green, The Poems of Catullus, University of California Press (2005), pages 33 Bibliography[edit] Allen, William Sidney (2003). Vox Latina — a Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-37936-9. Cole, Thomas (1972). "The Saturnian Verse". Yale Classical Studies. 21: 3–73. Fortson, Benjamin W. 2011. "Latin Prosody and Metrics." In A Companion to the Latin Language. Edited by James Clackson, 92–104. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell Freeman, Philip (1998). "Saturnian Verse and Early Latin Poetics". Journal of Indo-European Studies. 26: 61–90. Gasparov, M. L. (1996). A History of European Versification. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-815879-3. Goldberg, Sander (2005). Constructing Literature in the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-85461-X. Halporn, James W.; Martin Ostwald; Thomas G. Rosenmeyer (1994) [1963]. The Meters of Greek and Latin Poetry. Hackett. ISBN 0-87220-244-5. Mahoney, Anne (2001). "Alliteration in Saturnians". New England Classical Journal. 28: 78–82. Morgan, Llewelyn. (2010). Musa Pedestris: Metre and Meaning in Roman Verse. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Parsons, J (1999). "A New Approach to the Saturnian Verse". Transactions of the American Philological Association. 129: 117–137. Probert, Philomen. 2002. "On the Prosody of Latin Enclitics." Oxford University Working Papers in Linguistics, Philology and Phonetics 7:181–206. Putnam, Michael C. J. (2006). Poetic Interplay: Catullus and Horace. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-12537-4. Raven, David S. (1965). Latin Metre: An Introduction. London: Faber and Faber. Watkins, Calvert (1995). How to Kill a Dragon: Aspects of Indo-European Poetics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-508595-7. Wilkinson, L. Patrick. 1963. Golden Latin Artistry. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prosody_(Latin)&oldid=982146865" Categories: Latin poetry Poetry movements Prosodies by language Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Македонски Edit links This page was last edited on 6 October 2020, at 12:34 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. 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en-wikipedia-org-9486	----	Stalky & Co. - Wikipedia Stalky & Co. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Stalky & Co. is a novel by Rudyard Kipling about adolescent boys at a British boarding school. It is a collection of school stories whose juvenile protagonists display a know-it-all, cynical outlook on patriotism and authority. It was first published in 1899 (following serialisation in the Windsor Magazine). It is set at a school dubbed "the College" or "the Coll.", which is based on the actual United Services College that Kipling attended as a boy.[1] The character Beetle, one of the main trio, is partly based on Kipling himself, while the charismatic character Stalky is based on Lionel Dunsterville, M'Turk is based on George Charles Beresford, Mr King is based on William Carr Crofts,[2] and the school Head, Mr. Bates, is based on Cormell Price. The stories have elements of revenge, the macabre, bullying and violence, and hints about sex, making them far from childish or idealised. For example, Beetle pokes fun at an earlier, more earnest, boys' book, Eric, or, Little by Little, thus flaunting his more worldly outlook. The final chapter recounts events in the lives of the boys when, as adults, they are in the armed forces in India. It is implied that the mischievous pranks of the boys in school were splendid training for their role as instruments of the British Empire. Teddy Roosevelt disdained the novel, calling it "a story which ought never to have been written, for there is hardly a single form of meanness which it does not seem to extol, or of school mismanagement which it does not seem to applaud."[3] Contents 1 Contents 1.1 Rare and missing materials 2 Characters 2.1 Boys 2.2 Staff 3 Sources and allusions 4 Further stories 5 Posthumously published manuscript 6 Television adaptation 7 References 8 External links Contents[edit] The novel is a compilation of nine previously published stories,[4] with a prefatory untitled poem beginning "Let us now praise famous men". Several of the stories appeared in more than one magazine before being collected in book form. The stories are listed below in the order in which they appeared in the book, along with the date and location of their magazine appearances: "In Ambush" (August 1898, McClure's Magazine; December, 1898, Pearson's Magazine) "Slaves of the Lamp, Part I." (April 1897, Cosmopolis: A Literary Review;[5][6]) "An Unsavoury Interlude" (January, 1899, McClure's Magazine and Windsor Magazine) "The Impressionists" (February, 1899, McClure's Magazine and Windsor Magazine) "The Moral Reformers" (March, 1899, McClure's Magazine and Windsor Magazine) A Little Prep." (April, 1899, McClure's Magazine and Windsor Magazine) "The Flag of Their Country" (May 1899, McClure's Magazine; July, 1899, Pearson's Magazine) "The Last Term" (May, 1899, Windsor Magazine) "Slaves of the Lamp, Part II." (May 1897, Cosmopolis: A Literary Review)[7] Rare and missing materials[edit] Kipling expert Flora Virginia Milner Livingston, of Houghton Library, Harvard College Library, wrote in a 1972 Kipling bibliography: No. 1 of the Stalky & Co. series in the Windsor Magazine was entitled "Stalky" and appeared in the "December, 1898" number of that Magazine. It was not included in the book, nor has it ever been reproduced. However, as the Kipling Society states, it was indeed collected in 1923, as one of the Land and Sea Tales for Scouts and Guides.[8] An expanded version of "Stalky & Co." called "The Complete Stalky and Co." was published by Doubleday and Company (New York) in 1946. It contains all of the 1899 stories plus five more. They appear in the following order: "Stalky" (originally published 1898) "In Ambush" (1898) Slaves of the Lamp (Part I) (1897) An Unsavory Interlude (1899) The Impressionists (1899) The Moral Reformers (1899) The United Idolaters (1924) Regulus (1917) A Little Prep. (1899) The Flag of Their Country (1899) The Propagation of Knowledge (1926) The Satisfaction of a Gentleman (1929) The Last Term (1899) Slaves of the Lamp (Part II) (1899) Characters[edit] Boys[edit] "Stalky" (real name: Arthur Lionel Corkran[9]). He knows that he is destined for Sandhurst, so he does not care about many academic subjects. Stalky later turns out to be brilliant in battle. Reginald (or Reggie) Beetle William "Turkey" M'Turk (pronounced McTurk; he comes from a landed estate in Ireland) Staff[edit] Mr. Bates - the Headmaster Mr. Prout – a housemaster in charge of Stalky's House Mr. King – a housemaster who sometimes bedevils the boys; "generally held to be based on W. C. Crofts"[10] Mr. Hartopp – a housemaster, President of the Natural History Society; a naive young man, he rather likes Stalky and his friends Foxy – a "subtle red-haired school Sergeant" Sources and allusions[edit] Kipling portrays the boys as being widely read, at least in the literature available to them. Much of their casual talk is held in Latin, not unusual for schoolboys of the time, and they quote or purposefully misquote the classical authors such as Cicero and Horace. Other texts appearing in dialogue include: The Boy's Own Paper Eric, or, Little by Little (referred to often in mockery)[11] Example: "Wasn't it glorious? Didn't I Eric 'em splendidly?" (Stalky: Ch. 8, "The Last Term") Fors Clavigera, by John Ruskin "The Gold-Bug", by Edgar Allan Poe Jabberwocky, by Lewis Carroll (M'Turk uses the phrase 'frabjously immoral') A Jorrocks novel, probably Handley Cross (1843), by Robert Smith Surtees. Stalky quotes the line, "Hellish dark and smells of cheese." (Stalky: Ch. 8, "The Last Term") Julius Caesar, by William Shakespeare. Stalky, accusing another student of betrayal, says, "And Tulkus ... is an honourable man." The Last of the Mohicans, by James Fenimore Cooper. Stalky and friends often refer to a school officer as "Chingachgook". Oliver Twist, by Charles Dickens (an allusion to Fagin) Wisdom of Sirach. ("Let us now praise famous men...") Uncle Remus and His Legends of the Old Plantation, by Joel Chandler Harris, London edition, 1881. The principal basis for "The United Idolaters." The youths also discuss the painting "A Day With Puffington's Hounds", by caricaturist John Leech, which outrages them. Further stories[edit] More tales about Stalky & Co. appeared in magazines and later in collections:[12] "Regulus" and "The Honours of War" in A Diversity of Creatures (1917); "Stalky" in Land and Sea Tales for Scouts and Guides (1923); "The United Idolators" (first published in magazine form in 1924) and "The Propagation of Knowledge" in Debits and Credits (1926); and "The Satisfaction of a Gentleman" (with the others) in The Complete Stalky & Co (1929). Kipling describes "Stalky" as the first of the Stalky & Co tales to be written: it was originally published in The Windsor Magazine and McClure's Magazine in 1898.[13] Posthumously published manuscript[edit] Kipling wrote an additional story about Stalky and Co., "Scylla and Charybdis", that remained unpublished in his lifetime. It depicts Stalky and his friends catching a colonel cheating at golf near Appledore in North Devon. The story existed only in manuscript form, attached to the end of the original manuscript of Stalky & Co.: it may have been planned as the opening chapter. On his death in 1936 Kipling bequeathed the manuscript to the Imperial Service Trust, the body that administered the Imperial Service College (successor institution to the United Services College). That school merged with Haileybury in 1942 to form Haileybury and Imperial Service College. The manuscript was displayed at Haileybury in 1962, in an exhibition to mark the school's centenary; and in 1989, after spending many years in a bank vault, was transferred to the College archives. While the story "Scylla and Charybdis" was known to exist, it had never been transcribed or widely discussed. It was "discovered" in 2004 by Jeremy Lewins, a former Kipling Fellow at Magdalene College, Cambridge. The school subsequently decided to publish it, in association with the Kipling Society.[14][15] Television adaptation[edit] The tales were adapted for television by the BBC in 1982. The six-part series starred Robert Addie as Stalky and David Parfitt as Beetle. It was directed by Rodney Bennett and produced by Barry Letts. References[edit] ^ "Stalky & Co.: The general background", Roger Lancelyn Green ^ "Boy-Society in Rudyard Kipling's Stalky & Co.", Lynne M. Rosenthal, The Lion and the Unicorn (journal) Volume 2, Number 2, 1978 pp. 16–26 ^ Roosevelt, Theodore (May 1900). "What We Can Expect of the American Boy". St. Nicholas. Retrieved 7 August 2016. ^ Livingston, Flora V. (1972). A Bibliography of the Works of Rudyard Kipling (1881–1921). 2. London: Haskell House. p. 48. ^ Green, Roger Lancelyn (April 2, 2003). "Slaves of the Lamp, Part I". Kipling Society. Retrieved January 21, 2016. This was the first 'Stalky' story to be published, and possibly the first to be written. It first appeared in Cosmopolis in April 1897, and was subsequently collected in Stalky & Co. (1899) It was later included in The Complete Stalky & Co. (1929) It is twinned with "Slaves of the Lamp" Part II, in which the tactics used by Stalky against his enemies at school are used again with great success on the North West Frontier of India. ^ Livingston, Flora V. (1972). A Bibliography of the Works of Rudyard Kipling (1881–1921). 2. London: Haskell House. p. 48. 'Slaves of the Lamp, Parts I & II,' McClure's Magazine, August, 1897). ^ Green, Roger Lancelyn (February 17, 2003). "Slaves of the Lamp, Part II". Kipling Society. Retrieved 21 January 2016. ^ Green, Roger Lancelyn (February 24, 2003). "Stalky". Kipling Society. Retrieved January 21, 2016. ^ Kipling, Rudyard. "Land and Sea Tales: Stalky". www.telelib.com. Retrieved January 19, 2016. ^ Green, Roger Lancelyn (1961). "Some Notes on the Characters". Kipling Society. Retrieved January 19, 2016. ... or rather, like the essence of Crofts distilled with genius, with the perspective of more than thirty years to colour even Kipling's recollection of the real man. The first written of the stories, "Slaves of the Lamp", suggests that to begin with Kipling's "mixture" for King contained a large percentage of Crofts, but with a certain admixture of Mr. F. W. Haslam... ^ Rouse, John (1968). "Introduction". Stalky & Co. New York: Dell. p. 8. One of the most popular novels of school life in Kipling's time was Frederick Farrar's Eric, or Little by Little, a book that went through nearly fifty editions in as many years. It is a novel that Stalky & Co. know very well and constantly ridicule. Eric's troubles begin one night in the dormitory when he listens to boys swearing and fails to warn them about the dangers of foul language. From there on it's moral decay all the way. ^ List of Stories ^ "Stalky" ^ The Haileybury Connection, Andrew Hambling, 2004 ^ Milner, Catherine (22 February 2004). "Kipling's 'missing Stalky and Co. chapter' found in school library". The Telegraph (online). London: Telegraph Media Group. Retrieved 21 January 2016. External links[edit] Wikisource has original text related to this article: Stalky & Co. Stalky & Co. public domain audiobook at LibriVox Project Gutenberg e-text, stalky.com e-text, Words e-text Stalky & Co. on IMDb v t e Rudyard Kipling Novels The Light That Failed (1891) The Naulahka: A Story of West and East (co-author, Wolcott Balestier, 1892) Captains Courageous (1896) Kim (1901) Collections Plain Tales from the Hills (1888) Soldiers Three (1888) The Story of the Gadsbys (1888) In Black and White (1888) The Phantom 'Rickshaw and other Eerie Tales (1888) Under the Deodars (1888) Wee Willie Winkie and Other Child Stories (1888) From Sea to Sea and Other Sketches, Letters of Travel (1889) Barrack-Room Ballads (1892, poetry) Many Inventions (1893) The Jungle Book (1894) "Mowgli's Brothers" "Kaa's Hunting" "Tiger! Tiger!" "Rikki-Tikki-Tavi" The Second Jungle Book (1895) "Letting in the Jungle" "Red Dog" All the Mowgli Stories (c. 1895) The Seven Seas (1896, poetry) The Day's Work (1898) Stalky & Co. (1899) Just So Stories (1902) The Five Nations (1903, poetry) Puck of Pook's Hill (1906) Rewards and Fairies (1910) The Fringes of the Fleet (1915, non-fiction) Debits and Credits (1926) Limits and Renewals (1932) Rudyard Kipling's Verse: Definitive Edition (1940) A Choice of Kipling's Verse (by T. S. Eliot, 1941) Poems "The Absent-Minded Beggar" "The Ballad of the 'Clampherdown'" "The Ballad of East and West" "The Beginnings" "The Bell Buoy" "The Betrothed" "Big Steamers" "Boots" "Cold Iron" "Dane-geld" "Danny Deever" "A Death-Bed" "The Female of the Species" "Fuzzy-Wuzzy" "Gentleman ranker" "The Gods of the Copybook Headings" "Gunga Din" "Hymn Before Action" "If—" "In the Neolithic Age" "The King's Pilgrimage" "The Last of the Light Brigade" "The Lowestoft Boat" "Mandalay" "The Mary Gloster" "McAndrew's Hymn" "My Boy Jack" "Recessional" "A Song in Storm" "The Sons of Martha" "Submarines" "The Sweepers" "Tommy" "Ubique" "The White Man's Burden" "The Widow at Windsor" Short stories ".007" "The Arrest of Lieutenant Golightly" "Baa Baa, Black Sheep" "Bread upon the Waters" "The Broken Link Handicap" "The Butterfly that Stamped" "Consequences" "The Conversion of Aurelian McGoggin" "Cupid's Arrows" "The Devil and the Deep Sea" "The Drums of the Fore and Aft" "Fairy-Kist" "False Dawn" "A Germ-Destroyer" "His Chance in Life" "His Wedded Wife" "In the House of Suddhoo" "Kidnapped" "Learoyd, Mulvaney and Ortheris" "Lispeth" "The Man Who Would Be King" "A Matter of Fact" "Miss Youghal's Sais" "The Mother Hive" "Ortheris" "The Other Man" "The Rescue of Pluffles" "The Ship that Found Herself" "The Sing-Song of Old Man Kangaroo" "The Taking of Lungtungpen" "Three and – an Extra" "The Three Musketeers" "Thrown Away" "Toomai of the Elephants" "Watches of the Night" "Wireless" "Yoked with an Unbeliever" Related Bibliography Bateman's (house) Indian Railway Library Ritual of the Calling of an Engineer Iron Ring Law of the jungle Aerial Board of Control My Boy Jack (1997 play) Rudyard Kipling: A Remembrance Tale (2006 documentary) My Boy Jack (2007 film) Family Elsie Bambridge (daughter) John Kipling (son) John Lockwood Kipling (father) MacDonald sisters (mother's family) Stanley Baldwin (cousin) Georgiana Burne-Jones (aunt) Edward Burne-Jones (uncle) Philip Burne-Jones (cousin) Edward Poynter (uncle) Alfred Baldwin (uncle) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stalky_%26_Co.&oldid=993879150" Categories: 1899 British novels Novels by Rudyard Kipling Works originally published in The Windsor Magazine Novels set in schools Hidden categories: Articles with LibriVox links Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Français Italiano Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 13 December 2020, at 00:00 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9498	----	View source for Horace - Wikipedia View source for Horace ← Horace Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ===Historical context=== Horace composed in traditional [[Meter (poetry)|metres]] borrowed from [[Archaic Greece]], employing [[hexameter]]s in his ''Satires'' and ''Epistles'', and [[iamb (poetry)|iambs]] in his ''Epodes'', all of which were relatively easy to adapt into [[Prosody (Latin)|Latin forms]]. His ''Odes'' featured more complex measures, including [[Alcaic verse|alcaics]] and [[Sapphic stanza|sapphics]], which were sometimes a difficult fit for Latin structure and [[syntax]]. Despite these traditional metres, he presented himself as a partisan in the development of a new and sophisticated style. He was influenced in particular by [[Hellenistic poetry|Hellenistic]] aesthetics of brevity, elegance and polish, as modelled in the work of [[Callimachus]].<ref>S. Harrison, ''Style and poetic texture'', 262</ref> {{Quotation|As soon as Horace, stirred by his own genius and encouraged by the example of Virgil, Varius, and perhaps some other poets of the same generation, had determined to make his fame as a poet, being by temperament a fighter, he wanted to fight against all kinds of prejudice, amateurish slovenliness, philistinism, reactionary tendencies, in short to fight for the new and noble type of poetry which he and his friends were endeavouring to bring about.|[[Eduard Fraenkel]]<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 124–25</ref>}} In modern literary theory, a distinction is often made between immediate personal experience (''Urerlebnis'') and experience mediated by cultural vectors such as literature, philosophy and the visual arts (''Bildungserlebnis'').<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gundolf|first1=Friedrich|title=Goethe|date=1916|publisher=Bondi|location=Berlin, Germany}}</ref> The distinction has little relevance for Horace{{citation needed|date=August 2014}} however since his personal and literary experiences are implicated in each other. ''Satires'' 1.5, for example, recounts in detail a real trip Horace made with Virgil and some of his other literary friends, and which parallels a Satire by [[Gaius Lucilius|Lucilius]], his predecessor.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 106–07</ref> Unlike much Hellenistic-inspired literature, however, his poetry was not composed for a small coterie of admirers and fellow poets, nor does it rely on abstruse allusions for many of its effects. Though elitist in its literary standards, it was written for a wide audience, as a public form of art.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 74</ref> Ambivalence also characterizes his literary persona, since his presentation of himself as part of a small community of philosophically aware people, seeking true peace of mind while shunning vices like greed, was well adapted to Augustus's plans to reform public morality, corrupted by greed—his personal plea for moderation was part of the emperor's grand message to the nation.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 95–96</ref> Horace generally followed the examples of poets established as classics in different genres, such as [[Archilochus]] in the ''Epodes'', Lucilius in the ''Satires'' and [[Alcaeus of Mytilene|Alcaeus]] in the ''Odes'', later broadening his scope for the sake of variation and because his models weren't actually suited to the realities confronting him. Archilochus and Alcaeus were aristocratic Greeks whose poetry had a social and religious function that was immediately intelligible to their audiences but which became a mere artifice or literary motif when transposed to Rome. However, the artifice of the ''Odes'' is also integral to their success, since they could now accommodate a wide range of emotional effects, and the blend of Greek and Roman elements adds a sense of detachment and universality.<ref>J. Griffin, ''Gods and Religion'', 182</ref> Horace proudly claimed to introduce into Latin the spirit and iambic poetry of Archilochus but (unlike Archilochus) without persecuting anyone (''Epistles'' 1.19.23–25). It was no idle boast. His ''Epodes'' were modelled on the verses of the Greek poet, as 'blame poetry', yet he avoided targeting real [[scapegoat]]s. Whereas Archilochus presented himself as a serious and vigorous opponent of wrong-doers, Horace aimed for comic effects and adopted the persona of a weak and ineffectual critic of his times (as symbolized for example in his surrender to the witch Canidia in the final epode).<ref>S. Harrison, ''Lyric and Iambic'', 192</ref> He also claimed to be the first to introduce into Latin the lyrical methods of Alcaeus (''Epistles'' 1.19.32–33) and he actually was the first Latin poet to make consistent use of Alcaic meters and themes: love, politics and the [[symposium]]. He imitated other Greek lyric poets as well, employing a 'motto' technique, beginning each ode with some reference to a Greek original and then diverging from it.<ref>S. Harrison, ''Lyric and Iambic'', 194–96</ref> The satirical poet Lucilius was a senator's son who could castigate his peers with impunity. Horace was a mere freedman's son who had to tread carefully.<ref name="E. Fraenkel, Horace, 32, 80">E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 32, 80</ref> Lucilius was a rugged patriot and a significant voice in Roman self-awareness, endearing himself to his countrymen by his blunt frankness and explicit politics. His work expressed genuine freedom or [[libertas]]. His style included 'metrical vandalism' and looseness of structure. Horace instead adopted an oblique and ironic style of satire, ridiculing stock characters and anonymous targets. His libertas was the private freedom of a philosophical outlook, not a political or social privilege.<ref>L. Morgan, ''Satire'', 177–78</ref> His ''Satires'' are relatively easy-going in their use of meter (relative to the tight lyric meters of the ''Odes'')<ref>S. Harrison, ''Style and poetic texture'', 271</ref> but formal and highly controlled relative to the poems of Lucilius, whom Horace mocked for his sloppy standards (''Satires'' 1.10.56–61)<ref group="nb">"[Lucilius]...resembles a man whose only concern is to force / something into the framework of six feet, and who gaily produces / two hundred lines before dinner and another two hundred after."{{spaced ndash}}''Satire'' 1.10.59–61 (translated by [[Niall Rudd]], ''The Satires of Horace and Persius'', Penguin Classics 1973, p. 69)</ref> The ''Epistles'' may be considered among Horace's most innovative works. There was nothing like it in Greek or Roman literature. Occasionally poems had had some resemblance to letters, including an elegiac poem from [[Solon]] to [[Mimnermus]] and some lyrical poems from [[Pindar]] to [[Hieron of Syracuse]]. Lucilius had composed a satire in the form of a letter, and some epistolary poems were composed by [[Catullus]] and [[Propertius]]. But nobody before Horace had ever composed an entire collection of verse letters,<ref>R. Ferri, ''The Epistles'', pp. 121–22</ref> let alone letters with a focus on philosophical problems. The sophisticated and flexible style that he had developed in his ''Satires'' was adapted to the more serious needs of this new genre.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', p. 309</ref> Such refinement of style was not unusual for Horace. His craftsmanship as a wordsmith is apparent even in his earliest attempts at this or that kind of poetry, but his handling of each genre tended to improve over time as he adapted it to his own needs.<ref name="E. Fraenkel, Horace, 32, 80"/> Thus for example it is generally agreed that his second book of ''Satires'', where human folly is revealed through dialogue between characters, is superior to the first, where he propounds his ethics in monologues. Nevertheless, the first book includes some of his most popular poems.<ref>V. Kiernan, ''Horace: Poetics and Politics'', 28</ref> Return to Horace. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9501	----	Nonius Marcellus - Wikipedia Nonius Marcellus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Nonius Marcellus was a Roman grammarian of the 4th or 5th century AD. His only surviving work is the De compendiosa doctrina, a dictionary or encyclopedia in 20 books that shows his interests in antiquarianism and Latin literature from Plautus to Apuleius. Nonius may have come from Africa.[1] Contents 1 Life 2 Works 3 Literature 3.1 Editions 3.2 Studies 4 References 5 External links Life[edit] Little is known about Nonius. The full title of his work, Noni Marcelli Peripatetici Tubursicensis de Conpendiosa Doctrina ad filium, indicates that he was a Peripatetic philosopher from Thubursicum in Numidia. An inscription at Thubursicum dedicated by a certain "Nonius Marcellus Herculius" in 323 AD indicates that his family was based in that area.[2] Since Nonius does not mention Christianity and calls himself a peripatetic, he seems not to have converted.[3] Nonius quotes Aulus Gellius and other 2nd-century compilers, and is himself quoted and praised three times by Priscian in the 5th century, and so must have lived between these dates.[4] According to the Cambridge History of Classical Literature, he was probably active in the first half of the 4th century,[5] although some scholars of the 19th and early 20th centuries thought he might have lived later in the 4th or even in the 5th century.[6] More recently it has been argued that Nonius lived in the Severan period and can be dated to around A.D. 205–20.[7] Works[edit] The De compendiosa doctrina is one of the major sources for lost works of the Roman Republic, including the tragedies of Accius and Pacuvius, the satires of Lucilius, and the history of Sisenna. It consists of words, a short definition, and then quotations of authors using the word.[8] It has been printed under a number of titles, including De proprietate latini sermonis and De varia significatione Verborum. It is one of three major Latin dictionaries preserved from antiquity, along with that of Festus, which was an epitome of Verrius Flaccus' work De verborum significatu, and the Etymologiae of Isidore of Seville. The first twelve of Nonius's twenty books are organized grammatically around words or forms of words, and the remaining eight by subject matter such as clothing, weapons, food, etc. Each entry of either type consists of a brief definition and quotations from Republican-era writers, taken from 2nd-century sources, including Aulus Gellius and Fronto, rather than the original texts. "His ignorance and inattention," notes the Cambridge History of Classical Literature, "diminish but cannot destroy the value of his compilation."[9] The research of W. M. Lindsay[10] and later of Strzelecki[11] has shown that Nonius obtained many of his lemmata (entries) and the first citation for each from earlier grammatical texts which are now lost. The remainder of the entries and the extra citations belong to 41 books which he either owned or borrowed from a local library. For each section (either a book or a letter entry within a book), Nonius worked through his 41 lists from 41 volumes in the same order, first to find the lead-citation, and then again in order for additional citations. Based on this methodology, it can be determined whether Nonius is quoting an author first-hand, or from a grammar which was full of errors.[12] The Doctrina preserves fragments from early dramatists, annalists, satirists, and antiquarian writers. In arranging quotations from authors, Nonius always follows the same order, beginning with Plautus and ending with Varro and Cato. The grammarians Priscian and Fulgentius borrowed largely from his book, and in the 5th century a certain Julius Tryphonianus Sabinus brought out a revised and annotated edition.[13] The Doctrina was edited with notes by J. Mercier in 1614 at Paris under the title De varia significatione Verborum.[14] The page numbers of the Mercier edition are used as a reference in later editions (e.g. 121 M. means "page 121 of the Mercier edition"). Nonius also wrote a volume of letters On the neglect of study, which is lost but to which he refers in the Doctrina.[15] Literature[edit] Editions[edit] Christophe Plantin (1565): (Nonii Marcelli Compendiosa Doctrina ad filium) de Proprietate Sermonum L. Müller (1888): vol. 1, vol. 2. J. H. Onions (1895) W. M. Lindsay (Teubner, 1903, also with Müller's pagination): vol. 1, vol. 2, vol. 3. Studies[edit] Articles in the Classical Review, Dec. 1888, June and July 1889. J. H. Onions, Classical Review Oct. 1890, Oct. 1895, Feb. 1896, Feb. 1902. W. M. Lindsay, Journal of Philology, xvi. (1888), xviii. (1890), (JH Onions), xxi. (1893). ("The Printed Editions of Nonius," by Henry Nettleship) W. M. Lindsay, 1901 article online at Google books here Paul Monceaux, Les Africains. Etude sur la littérature latine d'Afrique : les Païens, P., Lecène, Oudin & Cie, V+500pp (1894) W. S. Teuffel, History of Roman Literature (Eng. trans.), 404A; Martin Schanz, Geschichte der römischen Literatur, iv. 1 (1904). References[edit] ^ Matthew Bunson, A Dictionary of the Roman Empire (Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 258. ^ CIL VIII 4878; W. M. Lindsay, Noni Marcelli, vol. 1, Teubner, 1903, p. xiii. ^ H. Nettleship, American Journal of Philology Vol. 3, No. 9 (1882), pp. 1-16. pp. 2–3: "His assumption of the title Peripateticus justifies us in concluding further that he was not a Christian; the contents of his book prove that he was an eager student of ancient and classical Latin. He may fairly therefore be classed, for literary purposes, among the non-Christian scholars and antiquarians of the fourth and fifth centuries; with Servius the commentator on Vergil, Macrobius, and the elder Symmachus." ^ W. M. Lindsay, Noni Marcelli, vol. 1, Teubner, 1903, p. xiii. Note 2 lists references to Nonius by Priscian in Inst. I, p. 35; I. p. 269 and 499. ^ Robert Browning, "Grammarians," in the Cambridge History of Classical Literature, vol. 2: Latin Literature, 1982, p. 769. ^ W. M. Lindsay, Nonius Marcellus, St. Andrews University Publications 1, Oxford: Parker (1901), p. 1. ^ Paul T. Keyser, Late Authors in Nonius Marcellus and Other Evidence of His Date, Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, Vol. 96 (1994), pp. 369–389. pp. 388–9: "The prevailing belief that Nonius must belong roughly to the fourth century A.D. is based on little more than the tendency to presume that an undatable Latin work associated with a Roman aristocrat dates from the fourth century A.D. ... The inference that Nonius is Severan is ... based on ... the otherwise isolated and inexplicable cluster of quotations of authors dated to ca. A.D. 160-210 in the context of Nonius' express preference for the auctoritas of Republican and Augustan authors. Furthermore, this is supported by some items of contemporary language he records, by his heavy use of rolls rather than codices, and by his designation as a Peripatetic. In the end, one can conclude that he is to be dated to ca. A.D. 205–20." ^ W. M. Lindsay, Nonius Marcellus, St. Andrews University Publications 1, Oxford: Parker (1901), p. 1. ^ Browning, Cambridge History of Classical Literature, vol. 2: Latin Literature, p. 769. ^ Nonius Marcellus' Dictionary of Republican Latin, 1901. Reference from Habinek. ^ Paulys Real-Encyclopadie 33.882-97. Reference from Habinek. ^ Thomas N. Habinek, The colometry of Latin prose (1985), pp. 115–6. Preview here. ^ 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica entry. ^ George Crabb (1833), Universal historical dictionary, volume 2, no page numbers, online here: "NONIUS, Marcellus, (Biog.) a grammarian and peripatetic philosopher and a native of Tibur, whose treatise, 'De varia significatione verborum' was edited by Mercer, 8vo, Paris, 1614." ^ W. M. Lindsay, Nonius Marcellus, St. Andrews University Publications 1, Oxford: Parker (1901), p. 1: "He published a volume of letters 'On the Neglect of Study,' from which he quotes a pompous sentence in illustration of the word meridies (p. 451 of Mercier's edition)." External links[edit] Wikisource has original works written by or about: Nonius Marcellus Roger Pearse, How the text of Nonius Marcellus reaches us – Information on manuscripts 10th century British Library manuscript of Nonius Marcellus in digital form Authority control BIBSYS: 90585562 BNE: XX1767300 BNF: cb119465711 (data) CiNii: DA08150142 GND: 118786385 ISNI: 0000 0001 0905 8530 LCCN: n86113590 NTA: 070036756 RERO: 02-A003644245 SELIBR: 289374 SUDOC: 033806853 VcBA: 495/12614 VIAF: 59182520 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n86113590 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nonius_Marcellus&oldid=929252358" Categories: Grammarians of Latin 4th-century Latin writers Lexicographers Ancient Roman antiquarians People from Souk Ahras Province Nonii 4th-century Romans 5th-century Romans Encyclopedias in Classical Antiquity Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of death unknown Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikisource Languages العربية Asturianu Български Català Deutsch Español Esperanto Français Italiano Magyar Nederlands Русский Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 December 2019, at 16:27 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9519	----	Carolingian Renaissance - Wikipedia Carolingian Renaissance From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Carolingian minuscule, one of the products of the Carolingian Renaissance. The Carolingian Renaissance was the first of three medieval renaissances, a period of cultural activity in the Carolingian Empire. It occurred from the late 8th century to the 9th century, which took inspiration from the Christian Roman Empire of the fourth century. During this period, there was an increase of literature, writing, the arts, architecture, jurisprudence, liturgical reforms, and scriptural studies. The Carolingian Renaissance occurred mostly during the reigns of Carolingian rulers Charlemagne and Louis the Pious. It was supported by the scholars of the Carolingian court, notably Alcuin of York.[1] Charlemagne's Admonitio generalis (789) and Epistola de litteris colendis served as manifestos. The effects of this cultural revival were mostly limited to a small group of court literati. According to John Contreni, "it had a spectacular effect on education and culture in Francia, a debatable effect on artistic endeavors, and an unmeasurable effect on what mattered most to the Carolingians, the moral regeneration of society".[2][3] The secular and ecclesiastical leaders of the Carolingian Renaissance made efforts to write better Latin, to copy and preserve patristic and classical texts, and to develop a more legible, classicizing script, with clearly distinct capital and minuscule letters. (This was the Carolingian minuscule that Renaissance humanists took to be Roman and employed as humanist minuscule, from which has developed early modern Italic script.) They also applied rational ideas to social issues for the first time in centuries, providing a common language and writing style that enabled communication throughout most of Europe. Contents 1 Background 2 Import 3 Scholarly efforts 4 Carolingian art 5 Carolingian architecture 6 Carolingian currency 7 Gallery 8 Notes 9 References 9.1 Citations 9.2 Bibliography 10 External links Background[edit] Lorsch Abbey gatehouse, c. 800, an example of the Carolingian architectural style - a first, albeit isolated classical movement in architecture As Pierre Riché points out, the expression "Carolingian Renaissance" does not imply that Western Europe was barbaric or obscurantist before the Carolingian era.[4] The centuries following the collapse of the Roman Empire in the West did not see an abrupt disappearance of the ancient schools, from which emerged Martianus Capella, Cassiodorus and Boethius, essential icons of the Roman cultural heritage in the Middle Ages, thanks to which the disciplines of liberal arts were preserved.[5] The 7th century saw the "Isidorian Renaissance" in the Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania[6] in which sciences flourished[7][8][9] and the integration of Christian and pre-Christian thought occurred,[10] while the spread of Irish monastic schools (scriptoria) over Europe laid the groundwork for the Carolingian Renaissance.[11][12] There were numerous factors in this cultural expansion, the most obvious of which was that Charlemagne's uniting of most of Western Europe brought about peace and stability, which set the stage for prosperity. This period marked an economic revival in Western Europe, following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. Local economies in the West had degenerated into largely subsistence agriculture by the early seventh century, with towns functioning merely as places of gift-exchange for the elite.[13] By the late seventh century, developed urban settlements had emerged, populated mostly by craftsmen, merchants and boaters and boasting street grids, artisanal production as well as regional and long-distance trade.[13] A prime example of this type of emporium was Dorestad.[13] The development of the Carolingian economy was fueled by the efficient organization and exploitation of labor on large estates, producing a surplus of primarily grain, wine and salt.[14][15] In turn, inter-regional trade in these commodities facilitated the expansion of towns.[14][15] Archaeological data shows the continuation of this upward trend in the early eighth century.[13] The zenith of the early Carolingian economy was reached from 775 to 830, coinciding with the largest surpluses of the period, large-scale building of churches as well as overpopulation and three famines that showed the limits of the system.[16] After a period of disruption from 830 to 850, caused by civil wars and Viking raids, economic development resumed in the 850s, with the emporiums disappearing completely and being replaced by fortified commercial towns.[16] One of the major causes of the sudden economic growth was the slave trade. Following the rise of the Arab empires, the Arab elites created a major demand for slaves with European slaves particularly prized. As a result of Charlemagne's wars of conquest in Eastern Europe, a steady supply of captured Slavs, Avars, Saxons and Danes reached mostly Jewish merchants in Western Europe, who then exported the slaves via Ampurias, Girona and the Pyrenees passes to Muslim Spain and other parts of the Arab world.[17] The market for slaves was so lucrative that it almost immediately transformed the long-distance trade of the European economies.[18][19] The slave trade enabled the West to re-engage with the Muslim and Eastern Roman empires so that other industries, such as textiles, were able to grow in Europe as well.[20] Import[edit] Kenneth Clark was of the view that by means of the Carolingian Renaissance, Western civilization survived by the skin of its teeth.[21] However, the use of the term renaissance to describe this period is contested, notably by Lynn Thorndike,[22] due to the majority of changes brought about by this period being confined almost entirely to the clergy, and due to the period lacking the wide-ranging social movements of the later Italian Renaissance.[23] Instead of being a rebirth of new cultural movements, the period was more an attempt to recreate the previous culture of the Roman Empire.[24] The Carolingian Renaissance in retrospect also has some of the character of a false dawn, in that its cultural gains were largely dissipated within a couple of generations, a perception voiced by Walahfrid Strabo (died 849), in his introduction to Einhard's Life of Charlemagne,[n 1] summing up the generation of renewal: Charlemagne was able to offer the cultureless and, I might say, almost completely unenlightened territory of the realm which God had entrusted to him, a new enthusiasm for all human knowledge. In its earlier state of barbarousness, his kingdom had been hardly touched at all by any such zeal, but now it opened its eyes to God's illumination. In our own time the thirst for knowledge is disappearing again: the light of wisdom is less and less sought after and is now becoming rare again in most men's minds.[26] Scholarly efforts[edit] See also: Carolingian minuscule and Medieval Latin A lack of Latin literacy in eighth-century western Europe caused problems for the Carolingian rulers by severely limiting the number of people capable of serving as court scribes in societies where Latin was valued. Of even greater concern to some rulers was the fact that not all parish priests possessed the skill to read the Vulgate Bible. An additional problem was that the vulgar Latin of the later Western Roman Empire had begun to diverge into the regional dialects, the precursors to today's Romance languages, that were becoming mutually unintelligible and preventing scholars from one part of Europe being able to communicate with persons from another part of Europe. Alcuin (pictured centre), was one of the leading scholars of the Carolingian Renaissance. To address these problems, Charlemagne ordered the creation of schools in a capitulary known as the Charter of Modern Thought, issued in 787.[27] A major part of his program of reform was to attract many of the leading scholars of the Christendom of his day to his court. Among the first called to court were Italians: Peter of Pisa, who from 776 to about 790 instructed Charlemagne in Latin, and from 776 to 787 Paulinus of Aquileia, whom Charlemagne nominated as patriarch of Aquileia in 787. The Lombard Paul the Deacon was brought to court in 782 and remained until 787, when Charles nominated him abbot of Montecassino. Theodulf of Orléans was a Spanish Goth who served at court from 782 to 797 when nominated as bishop of Orléans. Theodulf had been in friendly competition over the standardization of the Vulgate with the chief among the Charlemagne's scholars, Alcuin of York. Alcuin was a Northumbrian monk and deacon who served as head of the Palace School from 782 to 796, except for the years 790 to 793 when he returned to England. After 796, he continued his scholarly work as abbot of St. Martin's Monastery in Tours.[23] Among those to follow Alcuin across the Channel to the Frankish court was Joseph Scottus, an Irishman who left some original biblical commentary and acrostic experiments. After this first generation of non-Frankish scholars, their Frankish pupils, such as Angilbert, would make their own mark. The later courts of Louis the Pious and Charles the Bald had similar groups of scholars. The Irish monk Dicuil attended the former court, and the more famous Irishman John Scotus Eriugena attended the latter. One of the primary efforts was the creation of a standardized curriculum for use at the recently created schools. Alcuin led this effort and was responsible for the writing of textbooks, creation of word lists, and establishing the trivium and quadrivium as the basis for education.[28] Another contribution from this period was the development of Carolingian minuscule, a "book-hand" first used at the monasteries of Corbie and Tours that introduced the use of lower-case letters. A standardized version of Latin was also developed that allowed for the coining of new words while retaining the grammatical rules of Classical Latin. This Medieval Latin became a common language of scholarship and allowed administrators and travellers to make themselves understood in various regions of Europe.[29] Carolingian workshops produced over 100,000 manuscripts in the 9th century, of which some 6000 to 7000 survive.[30] The Carolingians produced the earliest surviving copies of the works of Cicero, Horace, Martial, Statius, Lucretius, Terence, Julius Caesar, Boethius and Martianus Capella.[31] No copies of the texts of these authors were made in the Latin West in the 7th and 8th centuries.[31] Carolingian art[edit] Main article: Carolingian art Carolingian art spans the roughly hundred-year period from about 800–900. Although brief, it was an influential period. Northern Europe embraced classical Mediterranean Roman art forms for the first time, setting the stage for the rise of Romanesque art and eventually Gothic art in the West. Illuminated manuscripts, metalwork, small-scale sculpture, mosaics, and frescos survive from the period. Carolingian architecture[edit] Main article: Carolingian architecture Instrumental music A musician playing a cithara that is thought to have evolved from the Greek lyre, from the 9th century Charles the Bald Bible. Player with cithara that appears lute-like, from the 9th century Utrecht Psalter. A cithara (word used by the early 9th century Stuttgart Psalter) being held as a citole would three centuries later. Documents created during the Carolingian Renaissance show growth of instrumental music with new instruments. The images may document earlier European cythara (lute types) or else a "revival of the Roman kithara."[32] Carolingian architecture is the style of North European architecture promoted by Charlemagne. The period of architecture spans the late eighth and ninth centuries until the reign of Otto I in 936, and was a conscious attempt to create a Roman Renaissance, emulating Roman, Early Christian and Byzantine architecture, with its own innovation, resulting in having a unique character. Its architecture was the most salient Carolingian art to a society that never saw an illuminated manuscript and rarely handled one of the new coins. "The little more than eight decades between 768 to 855 alone saw the construction of 27 new cathedrals, 417 monasteries, and 100 royal residences", John Contreni calculates.[33] Carolingian currency[edit] See also: Denier, Solidus, Livre, and English currency Around AD 755, Charlemagne's father Pepin the Short reformed France's currency.[34] A variety of local systems was standardized, with minor mints being closed, royal control over the rest strengthened,[34] and purity increased.[35] In place of the gold Roman and Byzantine solidus then common, he established a system based on a new .940-fine silver penny (Latin: denarius; French: denier) weighing 1/240 of a pound (librum, libra, or lira; livre).[35] (The Carolingian pound seems to have been about 489.5 grams,[36][37] making each penny about 2 grams.) As the debased solidus was then roughly equivalent to 11 of these pennies, the shilling (solidus; sol) was established at that value, making it 1/22 of the silver pound.[38] This was later adjusted to 12 and 1/20, respectively. During the Carolingian period, however, neither shillings or pounds were minted, being instead used as notional units of account.[35] (For instance, a "shilling" or "solidus" of grain was a measure equivalent to the amount of grain that 12 pennies could purchase.)[39] Despite the purity and quality of the new pennies, however, they were repeatedly rejected by traders throughout the Carolingian period in favor of the gold coins used elsewhere, a situation that led to repeated legislation against such refusal to accept the king's currency.[38] The Carolingian system was imported to England by Offa of Mercia and other kings, where it formed the basis of English currency until the late 20th century.[35] Gallery[edit] Aachen Gospels (c. 820), an example of Carolingian illumination. A copy of the Plan of Saint Gall Notes[edit] ^ Einhard's use of the Roman historian Suetonius as a model for the new genre of biography is itself a marker for the Carolingian Renaissance.[25] References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Trompf (1973). ^ Contreni (1984), p. 59. ^ Nelson (1986). ^ Pierre Riché, Les Carolingiens. Une famille qui fit l'Europe, Paris, Hachette, coll. « Pluriel », 1983 p. 354 ^ Michel Lemoine, article Arts libéraux in Claude Gauvard (dir.), Dictionnaire du Moyen Âge, Paris, PUF, coll. « Quadrige », 2002 p. 94 ^ Sur le sujet, voir Jacques Fontaine, Isidore de Séville et la culture classique dans l'Espagne wisigothique, Paris, 1959 ^ Fernández-Morera, Darío (2016). The Myth of the Andalusian Paradise. Muslims, Christians and Jews under Islamic Rule in Medieval Spain. ISI Books. p. 70. ISBN 9781504034692. ^ Fear, A. T. (1997). Lives of the Visigothic Fathers. Liverpool University. p. XXII-XXIII. ISBN 978-0853235828. ^ Kampers, Gerd (2008). Geschichte der Westgoten. Ferdinand Schöningh. p. 322. ISBN 9783506765178. ^ Jacques Fontaine, Isidore de Séville et la culture classique dans l'Espagne wisigothique, Paris, 1959 ^ Pierre Riché, Éducation et culture dans l'Occident barbare (VIe-VIIIe siècles), Paris, Le Seuil, coll. « Points Histoire », 1995, 4e éd.. p.256-257, 264, 273-274, 297 ^ Louis Halphen, Les Barbares, Paris, 1936, p. 236 ; Étienne Gilson, La Philosophie au Moyen Âge, Paris, 1944, p. 181. ^ a b c d Verhulst 2002, p. 133. ^ a b Verhulst 2002, p. 113. ^ a b Verhulst 2002, p. 135. ^ a b Verhulst 2002, p. 134. ^ Verhulst 2002, p. 105. ^ McCormick, Michael (1 November 2002). "New Light on the 'Dark Ages': How the Slave Trade Fuelled the Carolingian Economy". Past & Present. 177 (1): 17–54. doi:10.1093/past/177.1.17. ^ Frost, Peter (September 14, 2013). "From Slavs to Slaves". Evo and Proud. ^ Goody, Jack (2012). The Theft of History. Cambridge University Press. pp. 87–88. ISBN 9781107394704. ^ Clark, Civilization. ^ Thorndike (1943). ^ a b Scott (1964), p. 30. ^ Cantor (1993), p. 190. ^ Innes (1997). ^ Lewis Thorpe, tr., Einhard and Notker the Stammerer, Two Lives of Charlemagne, 1969:49f. ^ Carolingian Schools, Carolingian Schools of Thought. ^ Cantor (1993), p. 189. ^ Chambers & al. (1983), pp. 204-205. ^ Buringh 2010, p. 237. ^ a b Buringh 2010, p. 139. ^ Winternitz, Emanuel (July–December 1961). "THE SURVIVAL OF THE KITHARA AND THE EVOLUTION OF THE CITTERN, A Study in Morphology". Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes. 24 (3/4): 213. Retrieved 24 November 2016. ^ Contreni (1984), p. 63. ^ a b Allen (2009). ^ a b c d Chown (1994), p. 23. ^ Ferguson (1974), "Pound". ^ Munro (2012), p. 31. ^ a b Suchodolski (1983). ^ Scott (1964), p. 40. Bibliography[edit] Allen, Larry (2009), "Carolingian Reform", The Encyclopedia of Money, Sta. Barbara: ABC Clio, pp. 59–60, ISBN 978-1-59884-251-7 . Buringh, Eltjo (2010). Medieval Manuscript Production in the Latin West. Brill Publishers. ISBN 978-9004175198. Cantor, Norman F. (1993). The Civilization of the Middle Ages: a completely revised and expanded edition of Medieval history, the life and death of a civilization. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-017033-2. Chambers, Mortimer; et al. (1983), The Western Experience to 1715 (3rd ed.), New York: Alfred A. Knopf, ISBN 978-0-394-33085-3 . Chown, John F (1994), A History of Money from AD 800, London: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-10279-7 . Contreni, John G. (1984), "The Carolingian Renaissance", Renaissances before the Renaissance: cultural revivals of late antiquity and the Middle Ages . Ferguson, Wallace K. (1974), "Money and Coinage of the Age of Erasmus: An Historical and Analytical Glossary with Particular Reference to France, the Low Countries, England, the Rhineland, and Italy", The Correspondence of Erasmus: Letters 1 to 141: 1484 to 1500, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, pp. 311–349, ISBN 978-0-8020-1981-3 . Grier, James (Spring 2003), "Ademar de Chabannes, Carolingian Musical Practices, and "Nota Romana", Journal of the American Musicological Society, 56, [University of California Press, American Musicological Society], pp. 43–98, doi:10.1525/jams.2003.56.1.43, JSTOR 10.1525/jams.2003.56.1.43 . Innes, M. (1997), "The classical tradition in the Carolingian Renaissance: Ninth-century encounters with Suetonius", International Journal of the Classical Tradition . Munro, John H. (2012), "The Technology and Economics of Coinage Debasements in Medieval and Early Modern Europe: With Special Reference to the Low Countries and England", Money in the Pre-Industrial World: Bullion, Debasements, and Coin Substitutes, Pickering & Chatto, republished 2016 by Routledge, pp. 30 ff, ISBN 978-1-84893-230-2 . Nelson, Janet L. (1986), "On the limits of the Carolingian renaissance", Politics and Ritual in Early Medieval Europe . Panofsky, Erwin. Renaissance and Renascences in Western Art. New York/Evanston: Harpers Torchbooks, 1969. Scott, Martin (1964), Medieval Europe, New York: Dorset Press, ISBN 978-0-88029-115-6 . Suchodolski, Stanislaw (1983), "On the Rejection of Good Coin in Carolingian Europe", Studies in Numismatic Method: Presented to Philip Grierson, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 147–152, ISBN 978-0-521-22503-8 . Thorndike, Lynn (1943), "Renaissance or Prenaissance?", Journal of the History of Ideas, No. 4, pp. 65 ff . Trompf, G.W. (1973), "The concept of the Carolingian Renaissance", Journal of the History of Ideas, pp. 3 ff . Verhulst, Adriaan (2002). The Carolingian Economy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-00474-9. External links[edit] The Carolingian Renaissance, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Matthew Innes, Julia Smith & Mary Garrison (In Our Time, Mar, 30, 2006) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carolingian_Renaissance&oldid=995909398" Categories: Carolingian Latin literature Carolingian art Hidden categories: Articles containing Latin-language text Articles containing French-language text CS1: long volume value Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Беларуская Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Українська West-Vlams 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 23 December 2020, at 15:01 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9555	----	File:Michelin Poster 1898.jpg - Wikipedia File:Michelin Poster 1898.jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata Size of this preview: 446 × 599 pixels. Other resolutions: 179 × 240 pixels | 357 × 480 pixels | 447 × 600 pixels | 572 × 768 pixels | 762 × 1,024 pixels | 1,500 × 2,015 pixels. Original file ‎(1,500 × 2,015 pixels, file size: 1.76 MB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Summary O'Galop: Now is the time to drink!!.. Artist O'Galop  (1867–1946)   Alternative names Marius Rossillon Description French painter and cartoonist Date of birth/death 8 June 1867  2 January 1946 Location of birth/death Lyon, France Carsac-Aillac, France Work period 1893-1946 Work location France  Authority control : Q3347401 VIAF: 66634618 ISNI: 0000 0001 2137 5096 LCCN: no2009074854 GND: 137387261 SUDOC: 053448871 WorldCat artist QS:P170,Q3347401 Title Latin: Nunc est bibendum!!.. Now is the time to drink!!..title QS:P1476,la:"Nunc est bibendum!!.." label QS:Lla,"Nunc est bibendum!!.." label QS:Les,"Ahora es el momento para beber!!.." label QS:Lde,"Jetzt ist die Zeit, um zu trinken!!.." label QS:Len,"Now is the time to drink!!.." label QS:Lfr,"C'est maintenant le temps de boire!!.." label QS:Lnl,"Nu is de tijd om te drinken!!.." Description The first depiction of the Michelin Man making a toast. He is also known as Bibendum, possibly because of this poster. The phrase Nunc est Bibendum! is taken from the Odes of Horace. Date 1898date QS:P571,+1898-00-00T00:00:00Z/9 Inscriptions Text top: Nunc est bibendum!!.. [Now is the time to drink!!..] Text: c'est à dire: // "à Votre Santé // le pneu Michelin // boit l'obstacle!." [that's to say: // "To your health // the Michelin tire // drinks up all obstacles!."] Signature right: O'Galop Source/Photographer Own work - Scanned by user APPER from a calendar. Permission (Reusing this file) This is a faithful photographic reproduction of a two-dimensional, public domain work of art. The work of art itself is in the public domain for the following reason: Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse The author died in 1946, so this work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 70 years or fewer. This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published (or registered with the U.S. Copyright Office) before January 1, 1925. 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Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensions User Comment current 07:40, 23 November 2017 1,500 × 2,015 (1.76 MB) Nikon1803 new upgrade version 18:06, 5 January 2007 1,000 × 1,398 (562 KB) APPER '''deutsch''' * Michelin-Plakat von 1898 * Quelle: selbst aus Kalender gescannt '''english''' * Poster of Michelin, 1898 * Source: Scanned from calendar File usage The following pages on the English Wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): History of advertising Horace Jabba the Hutt Logo Michelin Michelin Man User talk:Xanthomelanoussprog/Archive 1 Global file usage The following other wikis use this file: Usage on ar.wikipedia.org بيبندوم تاريخ السيارات Usage on azb.wikipedia.org میشلن Usage on bs.wikipedia.org Michelin Usage on ca.wikipedia.org Bibendum Usage on ckb.wikipedia.org میشلان Usage on cs.wikipedia.org 28. květen Michelin Usage on de.wikipedia.org Bibendum Liste lateinischer Phrasen/N Benutzer:Jens Oloff/Reifenservice Usage on el.wikipedia.org Πουί-ντε-Ντομ Usage on es.wikipedia.org Bibendum Usage on eu.wikipedia.org Bibendum Usage on fi.wikipedia.org Michelin Usage on fr.wikipedia.org Auvergne Chronologie des faits économiques Puy-de-Dôme Slogan publicitaire Histoire de l'automobile Michelin Bibendum Discussion:Bibendum Histoire de l'Auvergne Wikipédia:Statistiques des anecdotes de la page d'accueil/Visibilité des anecdotes (2016) Wikipédia:Le saviez-vous ?/Anecdotes proposées/Archivage des discussions/Archives/2016-3 Wikipédia:Statistiques des anecdotes de la page d'accueil/Visibilité des anecdotes (2016)/2016 11 Wikipédia:Le saviez-vous ?/Archives/2016 Discussion:Bibendum/LSV 15565 Usage on gl.wikipedia.org Jabba o Hutt Usage on he.wikipedia.org מישלן Usage on hu.wikipedia.org Michelin Usage on id.wikipedia.org Michelin Usage on it.wikipedia.org Alvernia Michelin Omino Michelin Utente:Debora.freddi/Sandbox Usage on ja.wikipedia.org ミシュラン ジャバ・ザ・ハット Usage on lb.wikipedia.org Bibendum Usage on mk.wikipedia.org Оверњ Usage on nl.wikipedia.org Bibendum Usage on pl.wikipedia.org Michelin (przedsiębiorstwo) Bibendum Usage on pt.wikipedia.org Bibendum Usage on ro.wikipedia.org Michelin Usage on ru.wikipedia.org Michelin Usage on simple.wikipedia.org Michelin Guide Usage on sr.wikipedia.org Мишелин Usage on sv.wikipedia.org Michelingubben View more global usage of this file. 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en-wikipedia-org-9559	----	Thermae - Wikipedia Thermae From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Public facilities for bathing in ancient Rome For other uses, see Thermae (disambiguation). "Roman baths" redirects here. For other uses, see Roman Baths (disambiguation). This article is about buildings used for Roman recreation and cleaning. For the activity in general, see Ancient Roman bathing. Roman public baths in Bath, England. The entire structure above the level of the pillar bases is a later reconstruction. Thermae Maiores, Aquincum, Budapest The mosaics of the thermal baths The thermal baths from inside In ancient Rome, thermae (from Greek θερμός thermos, "hot") and balneae (from Greek βαλανεῖον balaneion) were facilities for bathing. Thermae usually refers to the large imperial bath complexes, while balneae were smaller-scale facilities, public or private, that existed in great numbers throughout Rome.[1] Most Roman cities had at least one – if not many – such buildings, which were centres not only for bathing, but socializing and reading as well. Bath-houses were also provided for wealthy private villas, town houses, and for forts. They were supplied with water from an adjacent river or stream, or within cities by aqueduct. The water would be heated by fire then channelled into the caldarium (hot bathing room). The design of baths is discussed by Vitruvius in De architectura (V.10). Contents 1 Terminology 2 Building layout 2.1 Atrium 2.1.1 Use of the atrium 2.2 Apodyterium and frigidarium 2.3 Tepidarium 2.4 Caldarium 2.5 Laconicum 2.6 Service areas 2.7 Women's bath 3 Purpose 4 Cultural significance 5 Location 6 Remains of Roman public baths 7 See also 8 References 8.1 Citations 8.2 Sources 9 Further reading 10 External links Terminology[edit] Mosaic bath sign from Sabratha, Libya, showing bathing sandals, three strigils, and the slogan SALVOM LAVISSE, "A bath is good for you"[2] Thermae, balneae, balineae, balneum and balineum may all be translated as "bath" or "baths", though Latin sources distinguish among these terms. Balneum or balineum, derived from the Greek βαλανεῖον[3][4] signifies, in its primary sense, a bath or bathing-vessel, such as most persons of any consequence among the Romans possessed in their own houses,[5] and hence the chamber which contained the bath,[6] which is also the proper translation of the word balnearium. The diminutive balneolum is adopted by Seneca[7] to designate the bathroom of Scipio in the villa at Liternum, and is expressly used to characterize the modesty of republican manners as compared with the luxury of his own times. But when the baths of private individuals became more sumptuous and comprised many rooms, instead of the one small chamber described by Seneca, the plural balnea or balinea was adopted, which still, in correct language, had reference only to the baths of private persons. Thus, Cicero terms the baths at the villa of his brother Quintus[8] balnearia. Balneae and balineae, which according to Varro[9] have no singular number, were the public baths, but this accuracy of diction is neglected by many of the subsequent writers, and particularly by the poets, amongst whom balnea is not uncommonly used in the plural number to signify the public baths, since the word balneae could not be introduced in a hexameter verse. Pliny also, in the same sentence, makes use of the neuter plural balnea for public, and of balneum for a private bath.[10] Thermae (Greek: Θέρμαι, Thermai, "hot springs, hot baths",[11] from the Greek adjective thermos, "hot") meant properly warm springs, or baths of warm water; but came to be applied to those magnificent edifices which grew up under the empire, in place of the simple balneae of the republic, and which comprised within their range of buildings all the appurtenances belonging to the Greek gymnasia, as well as a regular establishment appropriated for bathing.[12] Writers, however, use these terms without distinction. Thus the baths erected by Claudius Etruscus, the freedman of the Emperor Claudius, are styled by Statius[13] balnea, and by Martial[14] Etrusci thermulae. In an epigram by Martial[15]—subice balneum thermis—the terms are not applied to the whole building, but to two different chambers in the same edifice. Building layout[edit] Plan of the Old Baths at Pompeii A public bath was built around three principal rooms: the tepidarium (warm room), the caldarium (hot room), and the frigidarium (cold room). Some thermae also featured steam baths: the sudatorium, a moist steam bath, and the laconicum, a dry hot room much like a modern sauna.[citation needed][dubious – discuss] By way of illustration, this article will describe the layout of Pompeii's Old Baths adjoining the forum, which are among the best-preserved Roman baths. The references are to the floor plan pictured to the right.[16] The whole building comprises a double set of baths, one for men, one for women. It has six different entrances from the street, one of which (b) gives admission to the smaller women's set only. Five other entrances lead to the men's department, of which two (c and c2), communicate directly with the furnaces, and the other three (a3, a2, a) with the bathing apartments. Atrium[edit] Passing through the principal entrance, a (barely visible, right side, one third of the total length from above), which is removed from the street by a narrow footway surrounding the building and after descending three steps, the bather would find a small chamber on his left (x) with a toilet (latrina), and proceed into a covered portico (g, g), which ran round three sides of an open court (atrium, A). These together formed the vestibule of the baths (vestibulum balnearum),[17] in which the servants waited. Use of the atrium[edit] This atrium was the exercise ground for the young men, or perhaps served as a promenade for visitors to the baths. Within this court the keeper of the baths (balneator), who exacted the quadrans paid by each visitor, was also stationed. The room f, which runs back from the portico, might have been appropriated to him; but most probably it was an oecus or exedra, for the convenience of the better classes while awaiting the return of their acquaintances from the interior. In this court, advertisements for the theatre, or other announcements of general interest, were posted up, one of which, announcing a gladiatorial show, still remains. At the sides of the entrance were seats (scholae). The 1898 edition of Harper's Dictionary of Classical Antiquities provided illustrations envisioning the rooms of the Old Baths at Pompeii: Apodyterium Tepidarium Caldarium Frigidarium Apodyterium and frigidarium[edit] Main articles: Apodyterium and Frigidarium A passage (c) leads into the apodyterium (B), a room for undressing in which all visitors must have met before entering the baths proper. Here, the bathers removed their clothing, which was taken in charge by slaves known as capsarii, notorious in ancient times for their dishonesty.[18] The apodyterium was a spacious chamber, with stone seats along three sides of the wall (h). Holes are still visible on the walls, and probably mark the places where the pegs for the bathers' clothes were set. The chamber was lighted by a glass window, and had six doors. One of these led to the tepidarium (D) and another to the frigidarium (C), with its cold plunge-bath referred to as baptisterium (more commonly called natatorium or piscina), loutron, natatio, or puteus; the terms natatio and natatorium suggest that some of those baths were also swimming pools. The bath in this chamber is of white marble, surrounded by two marble steps. Tepidarium[edit] Main article: Tepidarium Pompeian interior, The Thermae by Forum by Joseph Theodor Hansen (1848–1912) From the apodyterium the bather who wished to go through the warm bath and sweating process entered the tepidarium (D). It did not contain water neither at Pompeii nor at the Baths of Hippias, but was merely heated with warm air of an agreeable temperature, in order to prepare the body for the great heat of the vapour and warm baths, and, upon returning, to prevent a too-sudden transition to the open air. In the baths at Pompeii this chamber also served as an apodyterium for those who took the warm bath. The walls feature a number of separate compartments or recesses for receiving the garments when taken off. The compartments are divided from each other by figures of the kind called atlantes or telamones, which project from the walls and support a rich cornice above them in a wide arch. Three bronze benches were also found in the room, which was heated as well by its contiguity to the hypocaust of the adjoining chamber, as by a brazier of bronze (foculus), in which the charcoal ashes were still remaining when the excavation was made. Sitting and perspiring beside such a brazier was called ad flammam sudare.[19] The tepidarium is generally the most highly ornamented room in baths. It was merely a room to sit and be anointed in. In the Forum Baths at Pompeii the floor is mosaic, the arched ceiling adorned with stucco and painting on a coloured ground, the walls red. Anointing was performed by slaves called unctores and aliptae. It sometimes took place before going to the hot bath, and sometimes after the cold bath, before putting on the clothes, in order to check the perspiration.[20] Some baths had a special room (destrictarium or unctorium) for this purpose. Caldarium[edit] Main article: Caldarium From the tepidarium a door opened into the caldarium (E), whose mosaic floor was directly above the furnace or hypocaust. Its walls also were hollow, behind the decorated plaster one part of the wall was made from interconnected hollow bricks called tubuli lateraci, forming a great flue filled with heated air. At one end was a round basin (labrum), and at the other a quadrangular bathing place (puelos, alveus, solium, calida piscina), approached from the platform by steps. The labrum held cold water, for pouring upon the bather's head before he left the room. These basins are of marble in the Old Baths, but we hear of alvei of solid silver.[21] Because of the great heat of the room, the caldarium was but slightly ornamented. Laconicum[edit] Main article: Laconicum The Old Baths have no laconicum, which was a chamber still hotter than the caldarium, and used simply as a sweating-room, having no bath. It was said to have been introduced at Rome by Agrippa[22] and was also called sudatorium and assa. Service areas[edit] A three-tiered water boiler (miliarium) The apodyterium has a passage (q) communicating with the mouth of the furnace (i), called praefurnium or propigneum and, passing down that passage, we reach the chamber M, into which the praefurnium projects, and which is entered from the street at c. It was assigned to the fornacatores, or persons in charge of the fires. Of its two staircases, one leads to the roof of the baths, and one to the boilers containing the water. There were three boilers, one of which (caldarium) held the hot water; a second, the tepid (tepidarium); and the third, the cold (frigidarium). The warm water was filled into the warm bath by a pipe through the wall, marked on the plan. Underneath the hot chamber was set the circular furnace d, of more than 7 ft. in diameter, which heated the water and poured hot air into the hollow cells of the hypocaustum. It passed from the furnace under the first and last of the caldrons by two flues, which are marked on the plan. The boiler containing hot water was placed immediately over the furnace; as the water was drawn out from there, it was supplied from the next, the tepidarium, which was raised a little higher and stood a little way off from the furnace. It was already considerably heated from its contiguity to the furnace and the hypocaust below it, so that it supplied the deficiency of the former without materially diminishing its temperature; and the vacuum in this last was again filled up from the farthest removed, which contained the cold water received directly from the square reservoir seen behind them. The boilers themselves no longer remain, but the impressions which they have left in the mortar in which they were embedded are clearly visible, and enable us to determine their respective positions and dimensions. Such coppers or boilers appear to have been called miliaria, from their similarity of shape to a milestone.[23] Behind the boilers, another corridor leads into the court or atrium (K), appropriated to the servants of the bath. Women's bath[edit] The adjoining, smaller set of baths were assigned to the women. The entrance is by the door b, which conducts into a small vestibule (m) and from there into the apodyterium (H), which, like the one in the men's bath, has a seat (pulvinus, gradus) on either side built up against the wall. This opens upon a cold bath (J), answering to the natatio of the men's set, but of much smaller dimensions. There are four steps on the inside to descend into it. Opposite to the door of entrance into the apodyterium is another doorway which leads to the tepidarium (G), which also communicates with the thermal chamber (F), on one side of which is a warm bath in a square recess, and at the farther extremity the labrum. The floor of this chamber is suspended, and its walls perforated for flues, like the corresponding one in the men's baths. The tepidarium in the women's baths had no brazier, but it had a hanging or suspended floor. Purpose[edit] Ruins of the enormous Baths of Caracalla, completed in 216 on a 25 hectare (33 acre) site The baths often included, aside from the three main rooms listed above, a palaestra, or outdoor gymnasium where men would engage in various ball games and exercises. There, among other things, weights were lifted and the discus thrown. Men would oil themselves (as soap was still a luxury good and thus not widely available), shower,[citation needed] and remove the excess with a strigil (cf. the well known Apoxyomenus of Lysippus from the Vatican Museum). Often wealthy bathers would bring a capsarius, a slave that carried his master's towels, oils, and strigils to the baths and then watched over them once in the baths, as thieves and pickpockets were known to frequent the baths. The changing room was known as the apodyterium (from Greek apodyterion from apoduein "to take off"). Cultural significance[edit] In many ways, baths were the ancient Roman equivalent of community centres. Because the bathing process took so long, conversation was necessary. Many Romans would use the baths as a place to invite their friends to dinner parties, and many politicians would go to the baths to convince fellow Romans to join their causes. The thermae had many attributes in addition to the baths. There were libraries, rooms for poetry readings, and places to buy and eat food. The modern equivalent would be a combination of a library, art gallery, mall, restaurant, gym, and spa.[24] One important function of the baths in Roman society was their role as what we would consider a “branch library” today. Many in the general public did not have access to the grand libraries in Rome and so as a cultural institution the baths served as an important resource where the more common citizen could enjoy the luxury of books. The Baths of Trajan, of Caracalla, and Diocletian all contained rooms determined to be libraries. They have been identified through the architecture of the baths themselves. The presence of niches in the walls are assumed to have been bookcases and have been shown to be sufficiently deep to have contained ancient scrolls. There is little documentation from the writers of the time that there did exist definitive public libraries maintained in the baths, but records have been found that indicated a slave from the imperial household was labelled vilicus thermarum bybliothecae Graecae ("maintenance man of the Greek library of the baths"). However, this may only indicate that the same slave held two positions in succession: "maintenance man of the baths" (vilicus thermarum) and "employee in the Greek library" (a bybliothecae Graecae). The reason for this debate is that, although Julius Caesar and Asinius Pollio advocated for public access to books and that libraries be open to all readers, there is little evidence that public libraries existed in the modern sense as we know it. It is more likely that these reserves were maintained for the wealthy elite.[25] Roman thermal baths, Aeclanum, Mirabella Eclano Baths were a site for important sculpture; among the well-known pieces recovered from the Baths of Caracalla are the Farnese Bull and Farnese Hercules and over life-size early 3rd century patriotic figures somewhat reminiscent of Soviet Socialist realism works (now in the Museo di Capodimonte, Naples). The Romans believed that good health came from bathing, eating, massages, and exercise. The baths, therefore, had all of these things in abundance. Since some citizens would be bathing multiple times a week, Roman society was surprisingly clean.[26] When asked by a foreigner why he bathed once a day, a Roman emperor is said to have replied "Because I do not have the time to bathe twice a day."[27] Emperors often built baths to gain favour for themselves and to create a lasting monument of their generosity. If a rich Roman wished to gain the favour of the people, he might arrange for a free admission day in his name. For example, a senator hoping to become a Tribune might pay all admission fees at a particular bath on his birthday to become well known to the people of the area. Location[edit] Virtual historical reconstruction of the Roman Baths in Weißenburg, Germany, using data from laser scan technology Baths sprang up all over the empire. Where natural hot springs existed (as in Bath, England; Băile Herculane, Romania or Aquae Calidae near Burgas and Serdica, Bulgaria) thermae were built around them. Alternatively, a system of hypocausta (from hypo "below" and kaio "to burn") were utilised to heat the piped water from a furnace (praefurnium). Remains of Roman public baths[edit] Main article: List of remains of Roman public baths A number of Roman public baths survive, either as ruins or in varying degrees of conservation. Among the more notable are the Roman baths of Bath and the Ravenglass Roman Bath House in England as well as the Baths of Caracalla, of Diocletian, of Titus, of Trajan in Rome and the baths of Sofia, Serdica and Varna.[28] Probably the most complete are various public and private baths in Pompeii and nearby sites. See also[edit] Ancient Roman bathing Diocletian window (thermal window) Greek baths History of sanitation Roman architecture Roman culture Roman engineering Roman technology Spa town Thermae Romae (manga and film) Turkish Bath Victorian Turkish bath References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Harry B. Evans (1997). Water Distribution in Ancient Rome: The Evidence of Frontinus. University of Michigan Press. pp. 9, 10. ISBN 0-472-08446-1. Archived from the original on 2018-05-07. ^ More literally, "It is a healthful thing to have bathed." ^ βαλανεῖον. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project. ^ Varro, De Ling. Lat. ix. 68, ed. Müller (cited by Rich, 183) ^ Cicero, Ad Atticum ii. 3. ^ Cicero, Ad Fam. xiv. 20 (cited by Rich, 183). ^ Ep. 86 (cited by Rich, 183) ^ Ad Q. Frat. iii. 1. § 1 (cited by Rich, 183) ^ De Ling. Lat. viii. 25, ix. 41, ed. Müller (cited by Rich, 183) ^ Ep. ii. 17. (cited by Rich, 184) ^ Θέρμαι in Liddell and Scott. ^ Juv. Sat. vii. 233 (cited by Rich, 184) ^ Sylv. i. 5. 13 (cited by Rich, 184) ^ vi. 42 (cited by Rich, 184) ^ ix. 76 (cited by Rich, 184) ^ The following is adapted from the 1898 Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities entry edited by Harry Thurston Peck. ^ Pro Cael. 26 (cited by Peck) ^ Dig. xlvii. 17 (cited by Peck) ^ Suet. Aug. 82 (cited by Peck) ^ Galen. x. 49 (cited by Peck) ^ Plin. H. N.xxxiii. 152 (cited by Peck) ^ Dio Cass. liii. 27 (cited by Peck) ^ Pallad. i. 40; v. 8 (cited by Peck) ^ Garrett G. Fagan (2002). Bathing in Public in the Roman World. University of Michigan Press. p. 9. ISBN 0-472-08865-3. Archived from the original on 2018-05-07. ^ Dix, Keith (1994). "'Public Libraries' in Ancient Rome: Ideology and Reality". Libraries & Culture. 29 (3): 288. ^ Andrews, Cath. “Ancient Roman Baths: Cleanliness and Godliness under one roof.” Explore Italian Culture. Web. 4/22/12. ^ "NOVA Online | Secrets of Lost Empires | Roman Bath | A Day at the Baths". Pbs.org. Archived from the original on 2012-11-13. Retrieved 2012-08-24. ^ http://www.ancient-bulgaria.com/2008/05/09/the-roman-thermae-in-varna/ Sources[edit] This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1890). "Balneae" . Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (3rd ed.). London: John Murray. p. 183 et seq.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Peck, Harry Thurston, ed. (1898). "Balneae". Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities. New York: Harper & Brothers. Aaland, Mikkel (May 15, 1998). "Mass Bathing: The Roman BaInea and Thermae". Cyber-Bohemia. Retrieved August 2, 2006. Further reading[edit] Bruun, Christer. 1991. The water supply of ancient Rome: A study of Roman imperial administration. Helsinki: Societas Scientiarum Fennica. DeLaine, Janet. 1997. The Baths of Caracalla: A Study In the Design, Construction, and Economics of Large-Scale Building Projects In Imperial Rome. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology. DeLaine, Janet, and David E Johnston. 1999. Roman Baths and Bathing: Proceedings of the First International Conference On Roman Baths Held At Bath, England, 30 March-4 April 1992. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology. Fagan, Garrett G. 2001. "The genesis of the Roman public bath: Recent approaches and future directions." American Journal of Archaeology 105, no. 3: 403–26. Manderscheid, Hubertus. 2004. Ancient Baths and Bathing: A Bibliography for the Years 1988-2001. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology. Marvin, M. 1983. "Freestanding sculptures from the Baths of Caracalla." American Journal of Archaeology 87: 347–84. Nielsen, Inge. 1993. Thermae Et Balnea: The Architecture and Cultural History of Roman Public Baths. 2nd ed. Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus University Press. Ring, James W. 1996. "Windows, baths and solar energy in the Roman Empire." American Journal of Archaeology 100: 717–24. Rotherham, Ian D. 2012. Roman Baths In Britain. Stroud: Amberley. Roupas, N. 2012. "Roman bath tiles." Archaeology 65, no. 2: 12. Yegül, Fikret K. 1992. Baths and bathing in classical antiquity. New York: Architectural History Foundation. --. 2010. Bathing In the Roman World. New York: Cambridge University Press. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ancient Roman thermae. William Smith Roman Baths (Balneae) from "A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities", pub. John Murray, London, 1875. ThermeMuseum (Museum of the Thermae) in Heerlen Traianus – Technical investigation of Roman public works Roman Bath: a day at the baths An interactive site using the Baths of Caracalla as an example Barbara F. 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en-wikipedia-org-9587	----	Stephanus of Byzantium - Wikipedia Stephanus of Byzantium From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Stephenus or Stephan of Byzantium (Latin: Stephanus Byzantinus; Greek: Στέφανος Βυζάντιος, Stéphanos Byzántios; fl. 6th century AD), was the author of an important geographical dictionary entitled Ethnica (Ἐθνικά). Of the dictionary itself only meagre fragments survive, but we possess an epitome compiled by one Hermolaus, not otherwise identified. Contents 1 Life 2 The Ethnica 3 Editions 4 References 5 Sources 6 Further reading Life[edit] Byzantium during Stephanus lifetime Nothing is known about the life of Stephanus, except that he was a grammarian at Constantinople, and lived after the time of Arcadius and Honorius, and before that of Justinian II. Later writers provide no information about him, but they do note that the work was later reduced to an epitome by a certain Hermolaus, who dedicated his epitome to Justinian; whether the first or second emperor of that name is meant is disputed, but it seems probable that Stephanus flourished in Byzantium in the earlier part of the sixth century AD, under Justinian I. The Ethnica[edit] Even as an epitome, the Ethnica is of enormous value for geographical, mythological, and religious information about ancient Greece. Nearly every article in the epitome contains a reference to some ancient writer, as an authority for the name of the place. From the surviving fragments, we see that the original contained considerable quotations from ancient authors, besides many interesting particulars, topographical, historical, mythological, and others. Stephanus cites[1] Artemidorus, Polybius, Aelius Herodianus, Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Strabo and other writers. The chief fragments remaining of the original work are preserved by Constantine Porphyrogennetos, De administrando imperio, ch. 23 (the article Ίβηρίαι δύο) and De thematibus, ii. 10 (an account of Sicily); the latter includes a passage from the comic poet Alexis on the Seven Largest Islands. Another respectable fragment, from the article Δύμη to the end of Δ, exists in a manuscript of the Fonds Coislin, the library formed by Pierre Séguier. The first modern printed edition of the work was that published by the Aldine Press in Venice, 1502. The complete standard edition is still that of Augustus Meineke (1849, reprinted at Graz, 1958), and by convention, references to the text use Meineke's page numbers. A new completely revised edition in German, edited by B. Wyss, C. Zubler, M. Billerbeck, J.F. Gaertner, was published between 2006 and 2017, with a total of 5 volumes.[2] Editions[edit] Aldus Manutius (pr.), 1502, Στέφανος. Περὶ πόλεων (Peri poleōn) = Stephanus. De urbibus ("On cities") (Venice). Google Books Guilielmus Xylander, 1568, Στέφανος. Περὶ πόλεων = Stephanus. De urbibus (Basel). Thomas de Pinedo, 1678, Στέφανος. Περὶ πόλεων = Stephanus. De urbibus (Amsterdam). Contains parallel Latin translation. Google Books Claudius Salmasius (Claude Saumaise) and Abraham van Berkel, 1688, Στεφάνου Βυζαντίου Ἐθνικὰ κατ' ἐπιτομήν Περὶ πόλεων = Stephani Byzantini Gentilia per epitomen, antehac De urbibus inscripta (Leiden). Contains parallel Latin translation. Google Books Lucas Holstenius, 1692, Notae & castigationes in Stephanum Byzantium De urbibus (Leiden). Google Books Thomas de Pinedo, 1725, Stephanus de urbibus (Amsterdam). Google Books Karl Wilhelm Dindorf, 1825, Stephanus Byzantinus. Opera, 4 vols, (Leipzig). Incorporating notes by L. Holsteinius, A. Berkelius, and T. de Pinedo. Google Books Anton Westermann, 1839, Stephani Byzantii ethnikon quae supersunt (Leipzig). Google Books Augustus Meineke, 1849, Stephani Byzantii ethnicorum quae supersunt (Berlin). Google Books Margarethe Billerbeck et al. (edd), Stephani Byzantii Ethnica. 5 volumes: 2006–2017. Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter, (Corpus Fontium Historiae Byzantinae 43/1)[2][3][4] References[edit] ^ J. S. Richardson, Hispaniae: Spain and the Development of Roman Imperialism, 218-82 BC: "In four places, the lexicographer Stephanus of Byzantium refers to towns and ... Artemidorus as source, and in three of the four examples cites Polybius.; From political architecture to Stephanus Byzantius ^ a b de Gruyter ^ Reviewed by C. Neri in ^ Reviewed by Martin L. West Sources[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Stephanus Byzantinus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 880. (The Britannica page as a TIFF scan[permanent dead link]) Further reading[edit] Smith, W., Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. 3, s.v. "Stephanus" (2) of Byzantium. Diller, Aubrey 1938, "The tradition of Stephanus Byzantius", Transactions of the American Philological Association 69: 333–48. E.H. Bunbury, 1883, History of Ancient Geography (London), vol. i. 102, 135, 169; ii. 669–71. Holstenius, L., 1684 (posth.), Lucae Holstenii Notae et castigationes postumae in Stephani Byzantii Ethnika, quae vulgo Peri poleōn inscribuntur (Leiden). Niese, B., 1873, De Stephani Byzantii auctoribus (Kiel) Johannes Geffcken, 1886, De Stephano Byzantio (Göttingen) Whitehead, D. (ed.), 1994, From political architecture to Stephanus Byzantius : sources for the ancient Greek polis (Stuttgart). Authority control BNE: XX1644944 BNF: cb15556605k (data) GND: 100961223 ISNI: 0000 0001 1585 4883 LCCN: n93031595 NLP: A26169009 NTA: 073572403 SELIBR: 282381 SUDOC: 079577911 VIAF: 1679057 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n93031595 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stephanus_of_Byzantium&oldid=945545686" Categories: 6th-century Byzantine writers 6th-century Byzantine people Ancient Greek anthologists Ancient Greek lexicographers Byzantine geographers Hidden categories: Articles containing Latin-language text Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from June 2018 Articles with permanently dead external links Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLP identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikisource Languages العربية Български Brezhoneg Català Cymraeg Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar مصرى Nederlands Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Shqip Simple English Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 14 March 2020, at 17:35 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-959	----	John Dryden - Wikipedia John Dryden From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 17th-century English poet and playwright "Dryden" redirects here. For the NHL goaltender, see Ken Dryden. For other uses, see Dryden (disambiguation). For other people of the same name, see John Dryden (disambiguation). John Dryden Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom In office 13 April 1668 – January 1688 Monarch Charles II Preceded by Inaugural holder Succeeded by Thomas Shadwell Personal details Born (1631-08-19)19 August 1631 Aldwincle, Northamptonshire, England Died 12 May 1700(1700-05-12) (aged 68) London, England Spouse(s) Lady Elizabeth Howard Children Charles, John, and Erasmus Henry Alma mater Westminster School Trinity College, Cambridge Occupation Poet, literary critic, playwright, librettist John Dryden (/ˈdraɪdən/; 19 August [O.S. 9 August] 1631 – 12 May  [O.S. 1 May] 1700) was an English poet, literary critic, translator, and playwright who was appointed England's first Poet Laureate in 1668.[1] He is seen as dominating the literary life of Restoration England to such a point that the period came to be known in literary circles as the Age of Dryden. Romanticist writer Sir Walter Scott called him "Glorious John".[2] Contents 1 Early life 2 Later life and career 3 Reputation and influence 4 Poetic style 4.1 Translation style 5 Personal life 6 Selected works 6.1 Dramatic works 6.2 Other works 7 References 8 Further reading 8.1 Editions 8.2 Biography 8.3 Modern criticism 9 External links Early life[edit] Dryden was born in the village rectory of Aldwincle near Thrapston in Northamptonshire, where his maternal grandfather was rector of All Saints. He was the eldest of fourteen children born to Erasmus Dryden and wife Mary Pickering, paternal grandson of Sir Erasmus Dryden, 1st Baronet (1553–1632), and wife Frances Wilkes, Puritan landowning gentry who supported the Puritan cause and Parliament. He was a second cousin once removed of Jonathan Swift. As a boy, Dryden lived in the nearby village of Titchmarsh, where it is likely that he received his first education. In 1644 he was sent to Westminster School as a King's Scholar where his headmaster was Dr. Richard Busby, a charismatic teacher and severe disciplinarian.[3] Having been re-founded by Elizabeth I, Westminster during this period embraced a very different religious and political spirit encouraging royalism and high Anglicanism. Whatever Dryden's response to this was, he clearly respected the headmaster and would later send two of his sons to school at Westminster. As a humanist public school, Westminster maintained a curriculum which trained pupils in the art of rhetoric and the presentation of arguments for both sides of a given issue. This is a skill which would remain with Dryden and influence his later writing and thinking, as much of it displays these dialectical patterns. The Westminster curriculum included weekly translation assignments which developed Dryden's capacity for assimilation. This was also to be exhibited in his later works. His years at Westminster were not uneventful, and his first published poem, an elegy with a strong royalist feel on the death of his schoolmate Henry, Lord Hastings from smallpox, alludes to the execution of King Charles I, which took place on 30 January 1649, very near the school where Dr. Busby had first prayed for the King and then locked in his schoolboys to prevent their attending the spectacle. In 1650 Dryden went up to Trinity College, Cambridge.[4] Here he would have experienced a return to the religious and political ethos of his childhood: the Master of Trinity was a Puritan preacher by the name of Thomas Hill who had been a rector in Dryden's home village.[5] Though there is little specific information on Dryden's undergraduate years, he would most certainly have followed the standard curriculum of classics, rhetoric, and mathematics. In 1654 he obtained his BA, graduating top of the list for Trinity that year. In June of the same year Dryden's father died, leaving him some land which generated a little income, but not enough to live on.[6] Returning to London during the Protectorate, Dryden obtained work with Oliver Cromwell's Secretary of State, John Thurloe. This appointment may have been the result of influence exercised on his behalf by his cousin the Lord Chamberlain, Sir Gilbert Pickering. At Cromwell's funeral on 23 November 1658 Dryden processed with the Puritan poets John Milton and Andrew Marvell. Shortly thereafter he published his first important poem, Heroic Stanzas (1659), a eulogy on Cromwell's death which is cautious and prudent in its emotional display. In 1660 Dryden celebrated the Restoration of the monarchy and the return of Charles II with Astraea Redux, an authentic royalist panegyric. In this work the interregnum is illustrated as a time of chaos, and Charles is seen as the restorer of peace and order. Later life and career[edit] After the Restoration, as Dryden quickly established himself as the leading poet and literary critic of his day, he transferred his allegiances to the new government. Along with Astraea Redux, Dryden welcomed the new regime with two more panegyrics: To His Sacred Majesty: A Panegyric on his Coronation (1662) and To My Lord Chancellor (1662). These poems suggest that Dryden was looking to court a possible patron, but he was to instead make a living in writing for publishers, not for the aristocracy, and thus ultimately for the reading public. These, and his other nondramatic poems, are occasional—that is, they celebrate public events. Thus they are written for the nation rather than the self, and the Poet Laureate (as he would later become) is obliged to write a certain number of these per annum.[7] In November 1662 Dryden was proposed for membership in the Royal Society, and he was elected an early fellow. However, Dryden was inactive in Society affairs and in 1666 was expelled for non-payment of his dues. Dryden, by John Michael Wright, 1668 Dryden, by James Maubert, c. 1695 On 1 December 1663 Dryden married the royalist sister of Sir Robert Howard—Lady Elizabeth. Dryden's works occasionally contain outbursts against the married state but also celebrations of the same. Thus, little is known of the intimate side of his marriage. Lady Elizabeth bore three sons and outlived her husband. With the reopening of the theatres in 1660 after the Puritan ban, Dryden began writing plays. His first play The Wild Gallant appeared in 1663, and was not successful, but was still promising, and from 1668 on he was contracted to produce three plays a year for the King's Company in which he became a shareholder. During the 1660s and 1670s, theatrical writing was his main source of income. He led the way in Restoration comedy, his best-known work being Marriage à la Mode (1673), as well as heroic tragedy and regular tragedy, in which his greatest success was All for Love (1678). Dryden was never satisfied with his theatrical writings and frequently suggested that his talents were wasted on unworthy audiences. He thus was making a bid for poetic fame off-stage. In 1667, around the same time his dramatic career began, he published Annus Mirabilis, a lengthy historical poem which described the English defeat of the Dutch naval fleet and the Great Fire of London in 1666. It was a modern epic in pentameter quatrains that established him as the preeminent poet of his generation, and was crucial in his attaining the posts of Poet Laureate (1668) and historiographer royal (1670). When the Great Plague of London closed the theatres in 1665, Dryden retreated to Wiltshire where he wrote Of Dramatick Poesie (1668), arguably the best of his unsystematic prefaces and essays. Dryden constantly defended his own literary practice, and Of Dramatick Poesie, the longest of his critical works, takes the form of a dialogue in which four characters—each based on a prominent contemporary, with Dryden himself as 'Neander'—debate the merits of classical, French and English drama. The greater part of his critical works introduce problems which he is eager to discuss, and show the work of a writer of independent mind who feels strongly about his own ideas, ideas which demonstrate the breadth of his reading. He felt strongly about the relation of the poet to tradition and the creative process, and his best heroic play Aureng-zebe (1675) has a prologue which denounces the use of rhyme in serious drama. His play All for Love (1678) was written in blank verse, and was to immediately follow Aureng-Zebe. At around 8pm on 18 December 1679, Dryden was attacked in Rose Alley behind the Lamb & Flag pub, near his home in Covent Garden, by thugs hired by the Earl of Rochester,[8][9] with whom he had a long-standing conflict.[10] The pub was notorious for staging bare-knuckle prize fights, earning the nickname "The Bucket of Blood."[11] Dryden's poem, "An Essay upon Satire," contained a number of attacks on King Charles II, his mistresses and courtiers, but most pointedly on the Earl of Rochester, a notorious womaniser.[12] Rochester responded by hiring thugs who attacked Dryden whilst walking back from Will's Coffee House (a popular London coffee house where the Wits gathered to gossip, drink and conduct their business) back to his house on Gerrard Street.[13] Dryden survived the attack, offering £50 for the identity of the thugs placed in the London Gazette, and a Royal Pardon if one of them would confess. No one claimed the reward.[12] Dryden's greatest achievements were in satiric verse: the mock-heroic Mac Flecknoe, a more personal product of his laureate years, was a lampoon circulated in manuscript and an attack on the playwright Thomas Shadwell. Dryden's main goal in the work is to "satirize Shadwell, ostensibly for his offenses against literature but more immediately we may suppose for his habitual badgering of him on the stage and in print."[14] It is not a belittling form of satire, but rather one which makes his object great in ways which are unexpected, transferring the ridiculous into poetry.[15] This line of satire continued with Absalom and Achitophel (1681) and The Medal (1682). His other major works from this period are the religious poems Religio Laici (1682), written from the position of a member of the Church of England; his 1683 edition of Plutarch's Lives Translated From the Greek by Several Hands in which he introduced the word biography to English readers; and The Hind and the Panther, (1687) which celebrates his conversion to Roman Catholicism. Frontispiece and title page, vol. II, 1716 edition, Works of Virgil translated by Dryden He wrote Britannia Rediviva celebrating the birth of a son and heir to the Catholic King and Queen on 10 June 1688.[16] When later in the same year James II was deposed in the Glorious Revolution, Dryden's refusal to take the oaths of allegiance to the new monarchs, William and Mary, left him out of favour at court. Thomas Shadwell succeeded him as Poet Laureate, and he was forced to give up his public offices and live by the proceeds of his pen. Dryden translated works by Horace, Juvenal, Ovid, Lucretius, and Theocritus, a task which he found far more satisfying than writing for the stage. In 1694 he began work on what would be his most ambitious and defining work as translator, The Works of Virgil (1697), which was published by subscription. The publication of the translation of Virgil was a national event and brought Dryden the sum of £1,400.[17] His final translations appeared in the volume Fables Ancient and Modern (1700), a series of episodes from Homer, Ovid, and Boccaccio, as well as modernised adaptations from Geoffrey Chaucer interspersed with Dryden's own poems. As a translator, he made great literary works in the older languages available to readers of English. Dryden died on 12 May 1700, and was initially buried in St. Anne's cemetery in Soho, before being exhumed and reburied in Westminster Abbey ten days later.[18] He was the subject of poetic eulogies, such as Luctus Brittannici: or the Tears of the British Muses; for the Death of John Dryden, Esq. (London, 1700), and The Nine Muses. A Royal Society of Arts blue plaque commemorates Dryden at 43 Gerrard Street in London's Chinatown.[19] He lived at 137 Long Acre from 1682 to 1686 and at 43 Gerrard Street from 1686 until his death.[20] In his will, he left The George Inn at Northampton to trustees, to form a school for the children of the poor of the town. This became John Dryden's School, later The Orange School.[21] Reputation and influence[edit] Dryden near end of his life Dryden was the dominant literary figure and influence of his age. He established the heroic couplet as a standard form of English poetry by writing successful satires, religious pieces, fables, epigrams, compliments, prologues, and plays with it; he also introduced the alexandrine and triplet into the form. In his poems, translations, and criticism, he established a poetic diction appropriate to the heroic couplet—Auden referred to him as "the master of the middle style"[22]—that was a model for his contemporaries and for much of the 18th century. The considerable loss felt by the English literary community at his death was evident in the elegies written about him.[23] Dryden's heroic couplet became the dominant poetic form of the 18th century. Alexander Pope was heavily influenced by Dryden and often borrowed from him; other writers were equally influenced by Dryden and Pope. Pope famously praised Dryden's versification in his imitation of Horace's Epistle II.i: "Dryden taught to join / The varying pause, the full resounding line, / The long majestic march, and energy divine." Samuel Johnson[24] summed up the general attitude with his remark that "the veneration with which his name is pronounced by every cultivator of English literature, is paid to him as he refined the language, improved the sentiments, and tuned the numbers of English poetry." His poems were very widely read, and are often quoted, for instance, in Henry Fielding's Tom Jones and Johnson's essays. Johnson also noted, however, that "He is, therefore, with all his variety of excellence, not often pathetic; and had so little sensibility of the power of effusions purely natural, that he did not esteem them in others. Simplicity gave him no pleasure." Readers in the first half of the 18th century did not mind this too much, but later generations considered Dryden's absence of sensibility a fault. One of the first attacks on Dryden's reputation was by William Wordsworth, who complained that Dryden's descriptions of natural objects in his translations from Virgil were much inferior to the originals. However, several of Wordsworth's contemporaries, such as George Crabbe, Lord Byron, and Walter Scott (who edited Dryden's works), were still keen admirers of Dryden. Besides, Wordsworth did admire many of Dryden's poems, and his famous "Intimations of Immortality" ode owes something stylistically to Dryden's "Alexander's Feast." John Keats admired the "Fables," and imitated them in his poem Lamia. Later 19th-century writers had little use for verse satire, Pope, or Dryden; Matthew Arnold famously dismissed them as "classics of our prose." He did have a committed admirer in George Saintsbury, and was a prominent figure in quotation books such as Bartlett's, but the next major poet to take an interest in Dryden was T. S. Eliot, who wrote that he was "the ancestor of nearly all that is best in the poetry of the eighteenth century," and that "we cannot fully enjoy or rightly estimate a hundred years of English poetry unless we fully enjoy Dryden."[25] However, in the same essay, Eliot accused Dryden of having a "commonplace mind." Critical interest in Dryden has increased recently, but, as a relatively straightforward writer (William Empson, another modern admirer of Dryden, compared his "flat" use of language with Donne's interest in the "echoes and recesses of words"[26]), his work has not occasioned as much interest as Andrew Marvell's, John Donne's or Pope's.[27] Dryden Dryden is believed to be the first person to posit that English sentences should not end in prepositions because Latin sentences cannot end in prepositions.[28][29] Dryden created the proscription against preposition stranding in 1672 when he objected to Ben Jonson's 1611 phrase, "the bodies that those souls were frighted from," though he did not provide the rationale for his preference.[30] Dryden often translated his writing into Latin, to check whether his writing was concise and elegant, Latin being considered an elegant and long-lived language with which to compare; then Dryden translated his writing back to English according to Latin-grammar usage. As Latin does not have sentences ending in prepositions, Dryden may have applied Latin grammar to English, thus forming the rule of no sentence-ending prepositions, subsequently adopted by other writers.[31] The phrase "blaze of glory" is believed to have originated in Dryden's 1686 poem The Hind and the Panther, referring to the throne of God as a "blaze of glory that forbids the sight."[32] Poetic style[edit] What Dryden achieved in his poetry was neither the emotional excitement of the early nineteenth-century romantics nor the intellectual complexities of the metaphysicals. His subject matter was often factual, and he aimed at expressing his thoughts in the most precise and concentrated manner. Although he uses formal structures such as heroic couplets, he tried to recreate the natural rhythm of speech, and he knew that different subjects need different kinds of verse. In his preface to Religio Laici he says that "the expressions of a poem designed purely for instruction ought to be plain and natural, yet majestic... The florid, elevated and figurative way is for the passions; for (these) are begotten in the soul by showing the objects out of their true proportion.... A man is to be cheated into passion, but to be reasoned into truth." Translation style[edit] While Dryden had many admirers, he also had his share of critics, Mark Van Doren among them. Van Doren complained that in translating Virgil's Aeneid, Dryden had added "a fund of phrases with which he could expand any passage that seemed to him curt." Dryden did not feel such expansion was a fault, arguing that as Latin is a naturally concise language it cannot be duly represented by a comparable number of words in English. "He...recognized that Virgil 'had the advantage of a language wherein much may be comprehended in a little space' (5:329–30). The 'way to please the best Judges...is not to Translate a Poet literally; and Virgil least of any other' (5:329)."[33] For example, take lines 789–795 of Book 2 when Aeneas sees and receives a message from the ghost of his wife, Creusa. iamque vale et nati serva communis amorem.' haec ubi dicta dedit, lacrimantem et multa volentem dicere deseruit, tenuisque recessit in auras. ter conatus ibi collo dare bracchia circum; ter frustra comprensa manus effugit imago, par levibus ventis volucrique simillima somno. sic demum socios consumpta nocte reviso[34] Dryden translates it like this: I trust our common issue to your care.' She said, and gliding pass'd unseen in air. I strove to speak: but horror tied my tongue; And thrice about her neck my arms I flung, And, thrice deceiv'd, on vain embraces hung. Light as an empty dream at break of day, Or as a blast of wind, she rush'd away. Thus having pass'd the night in fruitless pain, I to my longing friends return again[35] Dryden's translation is based on presumed authorial intent and smooth English. In line 790 the literal translation of haec ubi dicta dedit is "when she gave these words." But "she said" gets the point across, uses half the words, and makes for better English. A few lines later, with ter conatus ibi collo dare bracchia circum; ter frustra comprensa manus effugit imago, he alters the literal translation "Thrice trying to give arms around her neck; thrice the image grasped in vain fled the hands," in order to fit it into the metre and the emotion of the scene. In his own words, The way I have taken, is not so streight as Metaphrase, nor so loose as Paraphrase: Some things too I have omitted, and sometimes added of my own. Yet the omissions I hope, are but of Circumstances, and such as wou'd have no grace in English; and the Addition, I also hope, are easily deduc'd from Virgil's Sense. They will seem (at least I have the Vanity to think so), not struck into him, but growing out of him. (5:529)[36] In a similar vein, Dryden writes in his Preface to the translation anthology Sylvae: Where I have taken away some of [the original authors'] Expressions, and cut them shorter, it may possibly be on this consideration, that what was beautiful in the Greek or Latin, would not appear so shining in the English; and where I have enlarg’d them, I desire the false Criticks would not always think that those thoughts are wholly mine, but that either they are secretly in the Poet, or may be fairly deduc’d from him; or at least, if both those considerations should fail, that my own is of a piece with his, and that if he were living, and an Englishman, they are such as he wou’d probably have written.[37] Personal life[edit] On 1 December 1663 Dryden married Lady Elizabeth Howard (died 1714).[38] The marriage was at St. Swithin's, London, and the consent of the parents is noted on the licence, though Lady Elizabeth was then about twenty-five. She was the object of some scandals, well or ill founded; it was said that Dryden had been bullied into the marriage by her playwright brothers. A small estate in Wiltshire was settled upon them by her father. The lady's intellect and temper were apparently not good; her husband was treated as an inferior by those of her social status.[39] Both Dryden and his wife were warmly attached to their children.[40] They had three sons: Charles (1666–1704), John (1668–1701), and Erasmus Henry (1669–1710).[41] Lady Elizabeth Dryden survived her husband, but went insane soon after his death.[42] Though some have historically claimed to be from the lineage of John Dryden, his three children had no children themselves.[43] Selected works[edit] The title page of The Hind and the Panther An illustration in Alexander's Feast Dramatic works[edit] Dates given are (acted/published) and unless otherwise noted are taken from Scott's edition.[44] The Wild Gallant, a Comedy (1663/1669) The Rival Ladies, a Tragi-Comedy (1663/1664) The Indian Queen, a Tragedy (1664/1665) The Indian Emperor, or the Conquest of Mexico by the Spaniards (1665/) Secret Love, or the Maiden Queen (1667/) Sir Martin Mar-all, or the Feigned Innocence, a Comedy (1667/1668) The Tempest, or the Enchanted Island, a Comedy (1667/1670), an adaptation with William D'Avenant of Shakespeare's The Tempest An Evening's Love, or the Mock Astrology, a Comedy (1668/1668) Tyrannick Love, or the Royal Martyr, a Tragedy (1668 or 1669/1670) Almanzor and Almahide, or the Conquest of Granada by the Spaniards, a Tragedy, Part I & Part II (1669 or 1670/1672) Marriage-a-la-Mode, a Comedy (1673/1673) The Assignation, or Love in a Nunnery, a Comedy (1672/1673) Amboyna; or the Cruelties of the Dutch to the English Merchants, a Tragedy (1673/1673) The Mistaken Husband (comedy) (1674/1675)[45] The State of Innocence, and Fall of Man, an Opera (/1674) Aureng-Zebe, a Tragedy (1676/1676) All for Love, or the World Well Lost, a Tragedy (1678/1678) Limberham, or the Kind Keeper, a Comedy (/1678) Oedipus, a Tragedy (1678 or 1679/1679), an adaptation with Nathaniel Lee of Sophocles' Oedipus Troilus and Cressida, or Truth found too late, a Tragedy (/1679) The Spanish Friar, or the Double Discovery (1681 or 1682/) The Duke of Guise, a Tragedy (1682/1683) with Nathaniel Lee Albion and Albanius, an Opera (1685/1685) Don Sebastian, a Tragedy (1690/1690) Amphitryon, or the Two Sosias, a Comedy (1690/1690) King Arthur, or the British Worthy, a Dramatic Opera (1691/1691) Cleomenes, the Spartan Hero, a Tragedy (1692/1692) Love Triumphant, or Nature will prevail, a Tragedy (1693 or 1694/1693 or 1694) The Secular Masque (1700/1700) Other works[edit] The infant Prince of Wales whose birth Dryden celebrated in Britannia Rediviva Astraea Redux, 1660 Annus Mirabilis (poem), 1667 An Essay of Dramatick Poesie, 1668 Absalom and Achitophel, 1681 Mac Flecknoe, 1682 The Medal, 1682 Religio Laici, 1682 To the Memory of Mr. Oldham, 1684 Threnodia Augustalis, 1685 The Hind and the Panther, 1687 A Song for St. Cecilia's Day, 1687 Britannia Rediviva, 1688, written to mark the birth of James, Prince of Wales. Epigram on Milton, 1688 Creator Spirit, by whose aid, 1690. Translation of Rabanus Maurus' Veni Creator Spiritus[46] The Works of Virgil, 1697 Alexander's Feast, 1697 Fables, Ancient and Modern, 1700 The Art of Satire References[edit] ^ "John Dryden (British author)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 13 May 2014. ^ Scott, W. Waverley, vol. 12, ch. 14, The Pirate: "I am desirous to hear of your meeting with Dryden". "What, with Glorious John?" ^ Hopkins, David, John Dryden, ed. by Isobel Armstrong, (Tavistock: Northcote House Publishers, 2004), 22 ^ "Dryden, John (DRDN650J)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge. ^ John Dryden The Major Works, ed. by Keith Walker, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), ix–x ^ John Dryden The Major Works, ed. by Keith Walker, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), x ^ Abrams, M.H., and Stephen Greenblatt eds. 'John Dryden' in The Norton Anthology of English Literature, 7th ed., (New York: Norton & Co, 2000), 2071 ^ John Richardson, The Annals of London. University of California Press. 2000. p. 156. ISBN 978-0520227958. Retrieved 30 July 2010. ^ Wilson, Harold J (1939). "Rochester, Dryden, and the Rose-Street Affair". The Review of English Studies. 15 (59): 294–301. doi:10.1093/res/os-XV.59.294. JSTOR 509792. ^ "John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester". luminarium.org. Retrieved 2 August 2010. ^ "The Lamb & Flag - Fuller's Pub and Restaurant London". lambandflagcoventgarden.co.uk. Retrieved 5 February 2019. ^ a b Peschel, Bill (18 December 2008). "John Dryden Suffers For His Art (1679)". Bill Peschel. Retrieved 5 February 2019. ^ "Dryden". London Remembers. Retrieved 5 February 2019. ^ Oden, Richard, L. Dryden and Shadwell, The Literary Controversy and 'Mac Flecknoe' (1668–1679) ISBN 0820112895 ^ Eliot, T.S., 'John Dryden', in Selected Essays, (London: Faber and Faber, 1932), 308 ^ Britannia Rediviva: a Poem on the Birth of the Prince. John Dryden. 1913. The Poems of John Dryden. Bartleby.com. Retrieved 12 May 2014. ^ John Dryden The Major Works, ed. by Keith Walker, xiv ^ Winn, James Anderson. John Dryden and His World. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987. p. 512 ^ "Dryden, John (1631–1700)". English Heritage. Retrieved 26 April 2017. ^ Wheatley, Henry B. (1904). "Gerrard Street and its neighbourhood". K. Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co; 35 pages Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ Dryden, John (1800). The Critical and Miscellaneous Prose Works of John Dryden: Now First Collected : with Notes and Illustrations. Cadell and Davies. ^ Auden, W.H. (2007). "New Year Letter". In Mendelson, Edward (ed.). Collected Poems. Modern Library. p. 202. ISBN 9780679643500. ^ John Dryden The Major Works, 37 ^ Johnson, Samuel (2009) [First Published 1779]. "Dryden". In Greene, Donald (ed.). Samuel Johnson: The Major Works. Oxford University Press. p. 717. ISBN 978-0199538331. ^ Eliot, T.S., John Dryden, 305–06 ^ Empson, William (1966). "VII". Seven Types of Ambiguity. New Directions Publishing. p. 199. ISBN 9780811200370. ^ Robert M. Adams, "The Case for Dryden", New York Review of Books 17 March 1988 ^ Gilman, E. Ward (ed.). 1989. "A Brief History of English Usage", Webster's Dictionary of English Usage. Springfield, Mass.: Merriam-Webster, pp. 7a–11a, Archived 1 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine ^ Greene, Robert Lane. "Three Books for the Grammar Lover in Your Life : NPR". NPR. Retrieved 18 May 2011. ^ Rodney Huddleston and Geoffrey K. Pullum, 2002, The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 627ff. ^ Stamper, Kory (1 January 2017). Word by Word: The Secret Life of Dictionaries. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 47. ISBN 978-1101870945. ^ Cresswell, Julia (2007). The Cat's Pyjamas: The Penguin Book of Clichés (2nd ed.). Penguin Books. p. 98. ISBN 978-0141025162. ^ Corse, Taylor. Dryden's Aeneid. Associated University Presses. p. 15. ^ Virgil. The Aeneid. Mundelein IL: Bolchazy-Carducci. p. 140. ^ Virgil (March 1995). Aeneid. Retrieved 15 April 2014. ^ Dryden, Jonh (1697). The Works of Virgil in English. Berkeley: University of California Press. ^ Dryden, John. "Preface to Sylvae". Bartelby.com. Retrieved 27 April 2015. ^ "The Life of John Dryden". luminarium.org. Retrieved 6 May 2017. ^  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Stephen, Leslie (1888). "Dryden, John". In Stephen, Leslie (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. 16. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 66, 73–74. ^ Stephen 1888, p. 66. ^ Stephen 1888, p. 74. ^ Stephen 1888, p. 72. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 17 June 2014. Retrieved 25 June 2014.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ Walter Scott, ed. (1808). The Works of John Dryden. London: William Miller. ^ Authorship is unresolved; not included in Scott. ^ Hatfield, Edwin F., ed., The Church Hymn book, 1872 (n. 313, pp. 193–94), New York and Chicago Further reading[edit] Editions[edit] The Works of John Dryden, 20 vols., ed. H.T. Swedenberg Jr. et al. (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1956–2002) John Dryden The Major Works, ed. by Keith Walker, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987) The Works of John Dryden, ed. by David Marriott (Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Editions, 1995) John Dryden Selected Poems, ed. by David Hopkins (London: Everyman Paperbacks, 1998) John Dryden Selected Poems, ed. by Steven N. Swicker and David Bywaters (London: Penguin Books, 2001) ISBN 978-0140439144 Biography[edit] Winn, James Anderson. John Dryden and His World (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987) Modern criticism[edit] Eliot, T. S., "John Dryden," in Selected Essays (London: Faber and Faber, 1932) Hopkins, David, John Dryden, ed. by Isobel Armstrong (Tavistock: Northcote House Publishers, 2004) Oden, Richard, L. Dryden and Shadwell, The Literary Controversy and 'Mac Flecknoe (1668–1679) (Scholars' Facsimiles and Reprints, Inc., Delmar, New York, 1977) Wilding, Michael, 'Allusion and Innuendo in MacFlecknoe', Essays in Criticism, 19 (1969) 355-70 Van Doren, Mark (2007). John Dryden: A Study of His Poetry. Read Books. ISBN 978-1406724882. Stark, Ryan. "John Dryden, New Philosophy, and Rhetoric," in Rhetoric, Science, and Magic in Seventeenth-Century England (Washington: Catholic University of America Press, 2009) External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to John Dryden. Wikiquote has quotations related to: John Dryden Wikisource has original works written by or about: John Dryden Works by John Dryden at Project Gutenberg Works by or about John Dryden at Internet Archive Works by John Dryden at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Poems by John Dryden at PoetryFoundation.org John Dryden at the National Portrait Gallery, London Court offices Preceded by William Davenant English Poet Laureate 1668–1689 Succeeded by Thomas Shadwell Preceded by James Howell English Historiographer Royal 1670–1689 Succeeded by Thomas Shadwell v t e Works by John Dryden Essays Essay of Dramatick Poesie (1668) Translations Fables, Ancient and Modern (1700) Operas The State of Innocence (1677) Albion and Albanius (1685) King Arthur (1691) Poetry Astraea Redux (1660) Annus Mirabilis (1667) Absalom and Achitophel (1681-82) Mac Flecknoe (1682) Religio Laici (1682) Threnodia Augustalis (1685) The Hind and the Panther (1687) Alexander's Feast (1697) Plays The Wild Gallant (1663) The Indian Queen (1664) The Indian Emperour (1665) The Maiden Queen (1667) The Tempest (1667) Sir Martin Mar-all (1667) An Evening's Love (1668) Tyrannick Love (1669) The Conquest of Granada (1670) The Assignation (1672) Marriage à la mode (1672) Amboyna (1673) The Mistaken Husband (1674) Aureng-zebe (1675) All for Love (1678) Mr. Limberham; or, the Kind Keeper (1678) Oedipus (1679) Amphitryon (1691) Related Heroic couplet v t e Restoration comedy Playwrights Aphra Behn Susanna Centlivre Colley Cibber William Congreve John Dryden George Etherege George Farquhar Edward Howard James Howard Robert Howard Thomas Otway Charles Sedley Thomas Shadwell Thomas Southerne Richard Steele John Vanbrugh George Villiers William Wycherley Notable Plays The Indian Emperour (1665) The Committee; Or, The Faithful Irishman (1665) The Mulberry-Garden (1668) Tarugo's Wiles: or, The Coffee-house (1668) The Rehearsal (1671) Marriage à la mode (1672) The Country Wife (1675) Aureng-zebe (1675) The Plain-Dealer (1676) The Man of Mode (1676) Venice Preserv'd (1682) Bellamira (1687) Love for Love (1700) Love's Last Shift (1696) The Relapse (1696) The Way of the World (1700) The Recruiting Officer (1706) The Beaux' Stratagem (1707) Characters Fop Spark Rake Related People Charles II Jeremy Collier Thomas Hobbes Marquis de Sade Molière James II Georg Monck John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester Related articles Bedlam Chocolate houses Comedy of manners Court Drury Lane Fleet Prison Hedonism The Libertine (1994) The Libertine (film) Libertinism Lincoln's Inn Fields Mode Restoration of Charles II Second Anglo-Dutch War Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English Stage Wit v t e The works of Plutarch Works Parallel Lives Moralia "De genio Socratis" "On the Malice of Herodotus" Pseudo-Plutarch Lives Alcibiades and Coriolanus1 Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar Aratus of Sicyon / Artaxerxes and Galba / Otho2 Aristides and Cato the Elder1 Crassus and Nicias1 Demetrius and Antony1 Demosthenes and Cicero1 Dion and Brutus1 Fabius and Pericles1 Lucullus and Cimon1 Lysander and Sulla1 Numa and Lycurgus1 Pelopidas and Marcellus1 Philopoemen and Flamininus1 Phocion and Cato the Younger Pompey and Agesilaus1 Poplicola and Solon1 Pyrrhus and Gaius Marius Romulus and Theseus1 Sertorius and Eumenes1 Agis / Cleomenes1 and Tiberius Gracchus / Gaius Gracchus Timoleon and Aemilius Paulus1 Themistocles and Camillus Translators and editors Jacques Amyot Arthur Hugh Clough John Dryden Philemon Holland Thomas North 1 Comparison extant 2 Four unpaired Lives v t e Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom John Dryden (1668–88) Thomas Shadwell (1689–92) Nahum Tate (1692–1715) Nicholas Rowe (1715–18) Laurence Eusden (1718–30) Colley Cibber (1730–57) William Whitehead (1757–85) Thomas Warton (1785–90) Henry James Pye (1790–1813) Robert Southey (1813–43) William Wordsworth (1843–50) Alfred, Lord Tennyson (1850–92) Alfred Austin (1896–1913) Robert Bridges (1913–30) John Masefield (1930–67) Cecil Day-Lewis (1968–72) John Betjeman (1972–84) Ted Hughes (1984–98) Andrew Motion (1999–2009) Carol Ann Duffy (2009–2019) Simon Armitage (2019–) Authority control BNE: XX880861 BNF: cb119862951 (data) BPN: 35352108 CANTIC: a10420964 CiNii: DA0025088X GND: 118680897 ISNI: 0000 0001 1028 8042 LCCN: n79006406 LNB: 000035307 MBA: 525993e8-47af-44d5-91d1-dd1bfb5fdab4 NDL: 00438269 NKC: jn19990001882 NLA: 35046283 NLG: 132260 NLK: KAC199607470 NSK: 000072579 NTA: 068421044 SELIBR: 184079 SNAC: w6n87bh0 SUDOC: 027924459 Trove: 810992 ULAN: 500317012 VcBA: 495/143017 VIAF: 68937979 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79006406 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Dryden&oldid=996526520" Categories: 1631 births 1700 deaths 17th-century English dramatists and playwrights 17th-century English poets 17th-century male writers Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge British Poets Laureate Burials at Westminster Abbey Converts to Roman Catholicism from Anglicanism English Catholic 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en-wikipedia-org-9600	----	Latin alphabet - Wikipedia Latin alphabet From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Alphabet used to write the Latin language It has been suggested that Latin script be merged into this article. (Discuss) Proposed since October 2020. This article is about the alphabet used to write the Latin language. For modern alphabets derived from it used in other languages and applications, see Latin script and Latin-script alphabet. Latin Type Alphabet Languages Latin Romance Germanic some dialects of Kurdish Celtic Baltic Some Slavic languages Some Turkic languages Some Uralic languages Some Caucasic languages Some Niger–Congo languages Some Nilo-Saharan languages Afroasiatic languages Austronesian languages Austroasiatic languages Official script in: 131 sovereign states  Albania  Andorra  Angola  Antigua and Barbuda  Argentina  Australia  Austria  Azerbaijan  Bahamas  Barbados  Belgium  Belize  Benin  Bolivia  Botswana  Brazil  Burkina Faso  Burundi  Cameroon  Canada  Cape Verde  Central African Republic  Chile  Colombia  Congo  Costa Rica  Cote D'Ivoire  Croatia  Cuba  Czech Republic  Denmark  Democratic Republic of Congo  Dominica  Dominican Republic  East Timor  Ecuador  El Salvador  Equatorial Guinea  Estonia  Fiji  Finland  France  Gabon  Gambia  Ghana  Germany  Grenada  Guatemala  Guinea  Guyana  Haiti  Honduras  Hungary  Iceland  Indonesia  Ireland  Italy  Jamaica  Kenya  Kiribati  Kazakhstan  Latvia  Lesotho  Liberia  Liechtenstein  Lithuania  Luxembourg  Madagascar  Malawi  Malaysia  Mali  Malta  Marshall Islands  Mexico  Micronesia  Moldova  Monaco  Mozambique  Namibia  Nauru  Netherlands  New Zealand  Nicaragua  Niger  Nigeria  Norway  Palau  Panama  Papua New Guinea  Paraguay  Peru  Philippines  Poland  Portugal  Romania  Rwanda  Samoa  San Marino  Saint Kitts and Nevis  Saint Lucia  São Tomé and Príncipe  Saint Vincent and the Grenadines  Senegal  Sierra Leone  Singapore  Slovakia  Slovenia  Solomon Islands  South Africa  Spain  South Sudan  Suriname  Swaziland  Sweden   Switzerland  Tanzania  Togo  Tonga  Trinidad and Tobago  Turkey  Turkmenistan  Tuvalu  Uganda  United Kingdom  United States  Uruguay  Uzbekistan  Vanuatu   Vatican City  Venezuela  Vietnam  Zambia  Zimbabwe Co-official script in: 12 sovereign states  Bosnia and Herzegovina  Chad  Djibouti  Eritrea  India  Kazakhstan  Mauritania  Montenegro  Pakistan  Serbia  Somalia  Sudan  European Union Time period c. 700 BC – present Parent systems Egyptian hieroglyphs Proto-Sinaitic alphabet Phoenician alphabet Greek alphabet Old Italic script Latin Child systems Numerous Latin alphabets; also more divergent derivations such as Osage Sister systems Cyrillic Coptic Armenian Georgian Runic (Futhark) Direction Left-to-right ISO 15924 Latn, 215 Unicode alias Latin Unicode range See Latin characters in Unicode This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. This article contains special characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols. History of the alphabet Egyptian hieroglyphs 32 c. BCE Hieratic 32 c. BCE Demotic 7 c. BCE Meroitic 3 c. BCE Proto-Sinaitic 19 c. BCE Ugaritic 15 c. BCE Epigraphic South Arabian 9 c. BCE Ge’ez 5–6 c. BCE Phoenician 12 c. BCE Paleo-Hebrew 10 c. BCE Samaritan 6 c. BCE Libyco-Berber 3 c. BCE Tifinagh Paleohispanic (semi-syllabic) 7 c. BCE Aramaic 8 c. BCE Kharoṣṭhī 3 c. BCE Brāhmī 3 c. BCE Brahmic family (see) E.g. Tibetan 7 c. CE Devanagari 10 c. CE Canadian syllabics 1840 Hebrew 3 c. BCE Square Aramiac Alphabet 2007 Pahlavi 3 c. BCE Avestan 4 c. CE Palmyrene 2 c. BCE Nabataean 2 c. BCE Arabic 4 c. CE N'Ko 1949 CE Syriac 2 c. BCE Sogdian 2 c. BCE Orkhon (old Turkic) 6 c. CE Old Hungarian c. 650 CE Old Uyghur Mongolian 1204 CE Mandaic 2 c. CE Greek 8 c. BCE Etruscan 8 c. BCE Latin 7 c. BCE Cherokee (syllabary; letter forms only) c. 1820 CE Osage 2006 CE Runic 2 c. CE Ogham (origin uncertain) 4 c. CE Coptic 3 c. CE Gothic 3 c. CE Armenian 405 CE Caucasian Albanian (origin uncertain) c. 420 CE Georgian (origin uncertain) c. 430 CE Glagolitic 862 CE Cyrillic c. 940 CE Old Permic 1372 CE Hangul 1443 Thaana 18 c. CE (derived from Brahmi numerals) v t e Calligraphy Arabic Chinese Georgian Indian Islamic Japanese Korean Mongolian Persian Tibetan Vietnamese Western v t e The Latin or Roman alphabet is the collection of letters originally used by the ancient Romans to write the Latin language and its extensions used to write modern languages. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Evolution 2.1 Diacritics 2.2 Signs and abbreviations 3 History 3.1 Origins 3.1.1 Old Italic alphabet 3.1.2 Archaic Latin alphabet 3.1.3 Old Latin alphabet 3.1.4 Classical Latin alphabet 3.2 Medieval and later developments 3.3 Spread 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Etymology The term Latin alphabet may refer to either the alphabet used to write Latin (as described in this article) or other alphabets based on the Latin script, which is the basic set of letters common to the various alphabets descended from the classical Latin alphabet, such as the English alphabet. These Latin-script alphabets may discard letters, like the Rotokas alphabet, or add new letters, like the Danish and Norwegian alphabets. Letter shapes have evolved over the centuries, including the development in Medieval Latin of lower-case, forms which did not exist in the Classical period alphabet. Evolution Due to its use in writing Germanic, Romance and other languages first in Europe and then in other parts of the world and due to its use in Romanizing writing of other languages, it has become widespread (see Latin script). It is also used officially in Asian countries such as China (separate from its ideographic writing), Malaysia, Indonesia, and Vietnam, and has been adopted by Baltic and some Slavic states. The Latin alphabet evolved from the visually similar Etruscan alphabet, which evolved from the Cumaean Greek version of the Greek alphabet, which was itself descended from the Phoenician alphabet, which in turn derived from Egyptian hieroglyphics.[1] The Etruscans ruled early Rome; their alphabet evolved in Rome over successive centuries to produce the Latin alphabet. During the Middle Ages, the Latin alphabet was used (sometimes with modifications) for writing Romance languages, which are direct descendants of Latin, as well as Celtic, Germanic, Baltic and some Slavic languages. With the age of colonialism and Christian evangelism, the Latin script spread beyond Europe, coming into use for writing indigenous American, Australian, Austronesian, Austroasiatic and African languages. More recently, linguists have also tended to prefer the Latin script or the International Phonetic Alphabet (itself largely based on the Latin script) when transcribing or creating written standards for non-European languages, such as the African reference alphabet. Diacritics Although it does not seem that classical Latin used diacritics (accents etc), modern English is the only major modern European language that does not have any for native words.[note 1] Signs and abbreviations Although Latin did not use diacritical signs, signs of truncation of words, often placed above the truncated word or at the end of it, were very common. Furthermore, abbreviations or smaller overlapping letters were often used. This was due to the fact that if the text was engraved on the stone, the number of letters to be written was reduced, while if it was written on paper or parchment, it was spared the space, which was very precious. This habit continued even in the Middle Ages. Hundreds of symbols and abbreviations exist, varying from century to century.[4] History Main article: History of the Latin script This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Origins It is generally believed that the Latin alphabet used by the Romans was derived from the Old Italic alphabet used by the Etruscans.[citation needed] That alphabet was derived from the Euboean alphabet used by the Cumae, which in turn was derived from the Phoenician alphabet.[citation needed] Old Italic alphabet The Duenos inscription, dated to the 6th century BC, shows the earliest known forms of the Old Latin alphabet. Old Italic alphabet Letters 𐌀 𐌁 𐌂 𐌃 𐌄 𐌅 𐌆 𐌇 𐌈 𐌉 𐌊 𐌋 𐌌 𐌍 𐌎 𐌏 𐌐 𐌑 𐌒 𐌓 𐌔 𐌕 𐌖 𐌗 𐌘 𐌙 𐌚 Transliteration A B C D E V Z H Θ I K L M N Ξ O P Ś Q R S T Y X Φ Ψ F Archaic Latin alphabet Archaic Latin alphabet As Old Italic 𐌀 𐌁 𐌂 𐌃 𐌄 𐌅 𐌆 𐌇 𐌉 𐌊 𐌋 𐌌 𐌍 𐌏 𐌐 𐌒 𐌓 𐌔 𐌕 𐌖 𐌗 As Latin A B C D E F Z H I K L M N O P Q R S T V X Old Latin alphabet Latin included 21 different characters. The letter ⟨C⟩ was the western form of the Greek gamma, but it was used for the sounds /ɡ/ and /k/ alike, possibly under the influence of Etruscan, which might have lacked any voiced plosives. Later, probably during the 3rd century BC, the letter ⟨Z⟩ – unneeded to write Latin properly – was replaced with the new letter ⟨G⟩, a ⟨C⟩ modified with a small vertical stroke, which took its place in the alphabet. From then on, ⟨G⟩ represented the voiced plosive /ɡ/, while ⟨C⟩ was generally reserved for the voiceless plosive /k/. The letter ⟨K⟩ was used only rarely, in a small number of words such as Kalendae, often interchangeably with ⟨C⟩. Old Latin alphabet Letter A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T V X Classical Latin alphabet The apices in this first-century inscription are very light. (There is one over the ó in the first line.) The vowel I is written taller rather than taking an apex. The interpuncts are comma-shaped, an elaboration of a more typical triangular shape. From the shrine of the Augustales at Herculaneum. After the Roman conquest of Greece in the 1st century BC, Latin adopted the Greek letters ⟨Y⟩ and ⟨Z⟩ (or readopted, in the latter case) to write Greek loanwords, placing them at the end of the alphabet. An attempt by the emperor Claudius to introduce three additional letters did not last. Thus it was during the classical Latin period that the Latin alphabet contained 23 letters: Classical Latin alphabet Letter A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T V X Y Z Latin name (majus) á bé cé dé é ef gé há í ká el em en ó pé q v́ er es té v́ ix í graeca zéta Latin name ā bē cē dē ē ef gē hā ī kā el em en ō pē qū er es tē ū ix ī Graeca zēta Latin pronunciation (IPA) aː beː keː deː eː ɛf ɡeː haː iː kaː ɛl ɛm ɛn oː peː kuː ɛr ɛs teː uː iks iː ˈɡraɪka ˈdzeːta The Latin names of some of these letters are disputed; for example, ⟨H⟩ may have been called Latin pronunciation: [ˈaha] or Latin pronunciation: [ˈaka].[5] In general the Romans did not use the traditional (Semitic-derived) names as in Greek: the names of the plosives were formed by adding /eː/ to their sound (except for ⟨K⟩ and ⟨Q⟩, which needed different vowels to be distinguished from ⟨C⟩) and the names of the continuants consisted either of the bare sound, or the sound preceded by /e/. The letter ⟨Y⟩ when introduced was probably called "hy" /hyː/ as in Greek, the name upsilon not being in use yet, but this was changed to "i Graeca" (Greek i) as Latin speakers had difficulty distinguishing its foreign sound /y/ from /i/. ⟨Z⟩ was given its Greek name, zeta. This scheme has continued to be used by most modern European languages that have adopted the Latin alphabet. For the Latin sounds represented by the various letters see Latin spelling and pronunciation; for the names of the letters in English see English alphabet. Diacritics were not regularly used, but they did occur sometimes, the most common being the apex used to mark long vowels, which had previously sometimes been written doubled. However, in place of taking an apex, the letter i was written taller: ⟨ á é ꟾ ó v́⟩. For example, what is today transcribed Lūciī a fīliī was written ⟨ lv́ciꟾ·a·fꟾliꟾ⟩ in the inscription depicted. The primary mark of punctuation was the interpunct, which was used as a word divider, though it fell out of use after 200 AD. Old Roman cursive script, also called majuscule cursive and capitalis cursive, was the everyday form of handwriting used for writing letters, by merchants writing business accounts, by schoolchildren learning the Latin alphabet, and even emperors issuing commands. A more formal style of writing was based on Roman square capitals, but cursive was used for quicker, informal writing. It was most commonly used from about the 1st century BC to the 3rd century, but it probably existed earlier than that. It led to Uncial, a majuscule script commonly used from the 3rd to 8th centuries AD by Latin and Greek scribes. New Roman cursive script, also known as minuscule cursive, was in use from the 3rd century to the 7th century, and uses letter forms that are more recognizable to modern eyes; ⟨a⟩, ⟨b⟩, ⟨d⟩, and ⟨e⟩ had taken a more familiar shape, and the other letters were proportionate to each other. This script evolved into the medieval scripts known as Merovingian and Carolingian minuscule. Medieval and later developments De chalcographiae inventione (1541, Mainz) with the 23 letters. J, U and W are missing. Jeton from Nuremberg, c. 1553 It was not until the Middle Ages that the letter ⟨W⟩ (originally a ligature of two ⟨V⟩s) was added to the Latin alphabet, to represent sounds from the Germanic languages which did not exist in medieval Latin, and only after the Renaissance did the convention of treating ⟨I⟩ and ⟨U⟩ as vowels, and ⟨J⟩ and ⟨V⟩ as consonants, become established. Prior to that, the former had been merely allographs of the latter.[citation needed] With the fragmentation of political power, the style of writing changed and varied greatly throughout the Middle Ages, even after the invention of the printing press. Early deviations from the classical forms were the uncial script, a development of the Old Roman cursive, and various so-called minuscule scripts that developed from New Roman cursive, of which the insular script developed by Irish literati & derivations of this, such as Carolingian minuscule were the most influential, introducing the lower case forms of the letters, as well as other writing conventions that have since become standard. The languages that use the Latin script generally use capital letters to begin paragraphs and sentences and proper nouns. The rules for capitalization have changed over time, and different languages have varied in their rules for capitalization. Old English, for example, was rarely written with even proper nouns capitalized, whereas Modern English writers and printers of the 17th and 18th century frequently capitalized most and sometimes all nouns,[6] which is still systematically done in Modern German, e.g. in the preamble and all of the United States Constitution: We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. Spread Main article: Spread of the Latin script This map shows the countries in the world that use only language(s) predominantly written in a Latin alphabet as the official (or de facto official) national language(s) in dark green. The lighter green indicates the countries that use a language predominantly written in a Latin alphabet as a co-official language at the national level. The Latin alphabet spread, along with the Latin language, from the Italian Peninsula to the lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea with the expansion of the Roman Empire. The eastern half of the Empire, including Greece, Anatolia, the Levant, and Egypt, continued to use Greek as a lingua franca, but Latin was widely spoken in the western half, and as the western Romance languages evolved out of Latin, they continued to use and adapt the Latin alphabet. With the spread of Western Christianity during the Middle Ages, the script was gradually adopted by the peoples of northern Europe who spoke Celtic languages (displacing the Ogham alphabet) or Germanic languages (displacing earlier Runic alphabets), Baltic languages, as well as by the speakers of several Uralic languages, most notably Hungarian, Finnish and Estonian. The Latin alphabet came into use for writing the West Slavic languages and several South Slavic languages, as the people who spoke them adopted Roman Catholicism. Later, it was adopted by non-Catholic countries. Romanian, most of whose speakers are Orthodox, was the first major language to switch from Cyrillic to Latin script, doing so in the 19th century, although Moldova only did so after the Soviet collapse. It has also been increasingly adopted by Turkic-speaking countries, beginning with Turkey in the 1920s. After the Soviet collapse, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan all switched from Cyrillic to Latin. The government of Kazakhstan announced in 2015 that the Latin alphabet would replace Cyrillic as the writing system for the Kazakh language by 2025.[7] The spread of the Latin alphabet among previously illiterate peoples has inspired the creation of new writing systems, such as the Avoiuli alphabet in Vanuatu, which replaces the letters of the Latin alphabet with alternative symbols. See also Latin spelling and pronunciation Calligraphy Euboean alphabet Latin script in Unicode ISO basic Latin alphabet Latin-1 Legacy of the Roman Empire Palaeography Phoenician alphabet Pinyin Roman letters used in mathematics Typography Western Latin character sets (computing) Notes ^ A diaeresis may be seen in words such as "coöperation", though this is unusual. As an example, an article in the New Yorker contained a diaeresis in "coöperate" (as well as cedilla in "façades" and a circumflex in the word "crêpe", both imported from French).[2][3] References ^ Michael C. Howard (2012), Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies. p. 23. ^ Grafton, Anthony (2006-10-23). "Books: The Nutty Professors, The history of academic charisma". The New Yorker. ^ "The New Yorker's odd mark — the diaeresis". 16 December 2010. Archived from the original on 16 December 2010. ^ Cappelli, Adriano (1990). Dizionario di Abbreviature Latine ed Italiane. Milano: Editore Ulrico Hoepli. ISBN 88-203-1100-3. ^ Liberman, Anatoly (7 August 2013). "Alphabet soup, part 2: H and Y". Oxford Etymologist. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 3 October 2013. ^ Crystal, David (4 August 2003). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521530330 – via Google Books. ^ Kazakh language to be converted to Latin alphabet – MCS RK. Inform.kz (30 January 2015). Retrieved on 2015-09-28. Further reading Jensen, Hans (1970). Sign Symbol and Script. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd. ISBN 0-04-400021-9. Transl. of Jensen, Hans (1958). Die Schrift in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart. Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften. , as revised by the author Rix, Helmut (1993). "La scrittura e la lingua". In Cristofani, Mauro (hrsg.) (ed.). Gli etruschi – Una nuova immagine. Firenze: Giunti. pp. S.199–227. Sampson, Geoffrey (1985). Writing systems. London (etc.): Hutchinson. Wachter, Rudolf (1987). Altlateinische Inschriften: sprachliche und epigraphische Untersuchungen zu den Dokumenten bis etwa 150 v.Chr. Bern (etc.). : Peter Lang. Allen, W. Sidney (1978). "The names of the letters of the Latin alphabet (Appendix C)". Vox Latina – a guide to the pronunciation of classical Latin. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-22049-1. Biktaş, Şamil (2003). Tuğan Tel. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Latin alphabet. 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en-wikipedia-org-961	----	Gaius Lucilius - Wikipedia Gaius Lucilius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Gaius Lucilius (c. 180 – 103/02 BC),[1] the earliest Roman satirist, of whose writings only fragments remain, was a Roman citizen of the equestrian class, born at Suessa Aurunca in Campania. He was a member of the Scipionic Circle. Contents 1 Problem of his birthdate 2 Life and satire 3 Editions of the fragments 4 References 5 Sources 5.1 Ancient sources 5.2 Modern works 6 External links Problem of his birthdate[edit] The dates assigned by Jerome for his birth and death are 148 BC and 103 BC or 102 BC. But it is impossible to reconcile the first of these dates with other facts recorded of him, and the date given by Jerome must be due to an error, the true date being about 180 BC. His sister was Lucilia, being the mother of Roman Politician Sextus Pompeius and the paternal grandmother of Roman Triumvir Pompey. We learn from Velleius Paterculus that he served under Scipio Aemilianus at the siege of Numantia in 134 BC. We learn from Horace that he lived on the most intimate terms of friendship with Scipio and Laelius (Satire ii.1), and that he celebrated the exploits and virtues of the former in his satires. Fragments of those books of his satires which seem to have been first given to the world (XXVI–XXIX) clearly indicate that they were written in the lifetime of Scipio. Some of these bring the poet before us as either corresponding with, or engaged in controversial conversation with, his great friend. 621 Marx, "Percrepa pugnam Popilli, facta Corneli cane" ("Make a loud noise about Popillius' battle, and sing the exploits of Cornelius") in which the defeat of Marcus Popillius Laenas, in 138 BC, is contrasted with the subsequent success of Scipio, bears the stamp of having been written while the news of the capture of Numantia was still fresh. It is in the highest degree improbable that Lucilius served in the army at the age of fourteen; it is still more unlikely that he could have been admitted into the familiar intimacy of Scipio and Laelius at that age. It also seems an impossibility that between the ages of fifteen and nineteen—i.e. between 133 BC and 129 BC, the year of Scipio's death—he could have come before the world as the author of an entirely new kind of composition, and one which, to be at all successful, demands especially maturity of judgment and experience. It may further be said that the well-known words of Horace (Satires, ii. 1, 33), in which he characterizes the vivid portraiture of his life, character and thoughts, which Lucilius bequeathed to the world, "quo fit ut omnis Votiva pateat veluti descripta tabella Vita senis," ("Whereby the whole life of the old (great) man may be laid out as upon a votive tablet") lose much of their force unless senis is to be taken in its ordinary sense—which it cannot be if Lucilius died at the age of forty-six. Life and satire[edit] Lucilius spent the greater part of his life at Rome, and died, according to Jerome, at Naples. He belonged to the equestrian order, a fact indicated by Horace's notice of himself as infra Lucili censum. Though not himself belonging to any of the great senatorial families, he was in a position to associate with them on equal terms. As an equestrian, he was "one of the few outstanding poets of the period not of lowly birth".[2] This circumstance contributed to the boldness, originality and thoroughly national character of his literary work. Had he been a semi-Graecus, like Ennius and Pacuvius, or of humble origin, like Plautus, Terence or Accius, he would scarcely have ventured, at a time when the senatorial power was strongly in the ascendant, to revive the role which had proved disastrous to Naevius; nor would he have had the intimate knowledge of the political and social life of his day which fitted him to be its painter. Another circumstance determining the bent of his mind was the character of the time. The origin of Roman political and social satire is to be traced to the same disturbing and disorganizing forces which led to the revolutionary projects and legislation of the Gracchi. The reputation which Lucilius enjoyed in the best ages of Roman literature is proved by the terms in which Cicero and Horace speak of him. Persius, Juvenal and Quintilian vouch for the admiration with which he was regarded in the first century of the empire. The popularity which he enjoyed in his own time is attested by the fact that at his death, although he had filled none of the offices of state, he received the honour of a public funeral. His chief claim to distinction is his literary originality. He may be called the inventor of poetical satire, as he was the first to impress upon the rude inartistic medley, known to the Romans by the name of satura, that character of aggressive and censorious criticism of persons, morals, manners, politics, literature, etc. which the word satire has ever since denoted. In point of form, the satire of Lucilius owed nothing to the Greeks. It was a legitimate development of an indigenous dramatic entertainment, popular among the Romans before the first introduction of the forms of Greek art among them; also, it seems largely to have employed the form of the familiar epistle. But the style, substance and spirit of his writings were apparently as original as the form. He seems to have commenced his poetical career by ridiculing and parodying the conventional language of epic and tragic poetry, and to have used the language commonly employed in the social intercourse of educated men. Even his frequent use of Greek words, phrases and quotations, reprehended by Horace, was probably taken from the actual practice of men, who found their own speech as yet inadequate to give free expression to the new ideas and impressions which they derived from their first contact with Greek philosophy, rhetoric and poetry. Further, he not only created a style of his own, but, instead of taking the substance of his writings from Greek poetry, or from a remote past, he treated of the familiar matters of daily life, of the politics, the wars, the administration of justice, the eating and drinking, the money-making and money-spending, the scandals and vices, which made up the public and private life of Rome in the last quarter of the 2nd century BC. This he did in a singularly frank, independent and courageous spirit, with no private ambition to serve, or party cause to advance, but with an honest desire to expose the iniquity or incompetence of the governing body, the sordid aims of the middle class, and the corruption and venality of the city mob. There was nothing of stoical austerity or of rhetorical indignation in the tone in which he treated the vices and follies of his time. His character and tastes were much more akin to those of Horace than those of either Persius or Juvenal. But he was what Horace was not, a thoroughly good hater; and he lived at a time when the utmost freedom of speech and the most unrestrained indulgence of public and private animosity were the characteristics of men who took a prominent part in affairs. Although Lucilius took no active part in the public life of his time, he regarded it in the spirit of a man of the world and of society, as well as a man of letters. His ideal of public virtue and private worth had been formed by intimate association with the greatest and best of the soldiers and statesmen of an older generation. The remains of Lucilius extend to about eleven hundred, mostly unconnected lines, most of them preserved by late grammarians, as illustrative of peculiar verbal usages. He was, for his time, a voluminous as well as a very discursive writer. He left behind him thirty books of satires, and there is reason to believe that each book, like the books of Horace and Juvenal, was composed of different pieces. The order in which they were known to the grammarians was not that in which they were written. The earliest in order of composition were probably those numbered from xxvi. to xxix., which were written in the trochaic and iambic metres that had been employed by Ennius and Pacuvius in their Saturae. In these he made those criticisms on the older tragic and epic poets of which Horace and other ancient writers speak. In them too he speaks of the Numantine War as recently finished, and of Scipio as still living. Book i., on the other hand, in which the philosopher Carneades, who died in 128, is spoken of as dead, must have been written after the death of Scipio. Most of the satires of Lucilius were written in hexameters, but, so far as an opinion can be formed from a number of unconnected fragments, he seems to have written the trochaic tetrameter with a smoothness, clearness and simplicity which he never attained in handling the hexameter. The longer fragments produce the impression of great discursiveness and carelessness, but at the same time of considerable force. He appears, in the composition of his various pieces, to have treated everything that occurred to him in the most desultory fashion, sometimes adopting the form of dialogue, sometimes that of an epistle or an imaginary discourse, and often to have spoken in his own name, giving an account of his travels and adventures, or of amusing scenes that he had witnessed, or expressing the results of his private meditation and experiences. Like Horace he largely illustrated his own observations by personal anecdotes and fables. The fragments clearly show how often Horace has imitated him, not only in expression, but in the form of his satires (see for instance i. 5 and ii. 2), in the topic which he treats of, and the class of social vices and the types of character which he satirizes. Editions of the fragments[edit] Dousa, F: Leiden (1597), 2nd edition Amsterdam (1661) Marx, F: C. Lucili Carminum Reliquiae (Teubner, Leipzig) vol. I Prolegomena and Text (1904) vol. II Commentary (1905) The best and standard edition from its appearance and still a century later Loeb Classical Library (L329, 1938), Remains of Old Latin, vol.III: Lucilius, The Twelve Tables, edited with Latin text and English translation by E. H. Warmington. ISBN 0-674-99363-2 References[edit] ^ "Gaius Lucilius". Encyclopædia Britannica. ^ Boak, Arthur E. R. & Sinnigen, William G. History of Rome to A.D. 565. Fifth Edition. The Macmillan Company, 1965. p. 165 Sources[edit] Ancient sources[edit] Stangl, Thomas: Ciceronis Orationum Scholiastae: Asconius. Scholia Bobiensia. Scholia Pseudoasconii Sangallensia. Scholia Cluniacensia et recentiora Ambrosiana ac Vaticana. Scholia Lugdunensia sive Gronoviana et eorum excerpta Lugdunensia (Vienna, 1912; reprinted Georg Olms, Hildesheim, 1964) Asconius. Caesar Giarratano (ed.) Q. Asconii Pediani Commentarii (Rome, 1920; reprinted Adolf M. Hakkert, Amsterdam, 1967) Modern works[edit] Cichorius, C: Untersuchungen zu Lucilius (Berlin, 1908). Christes, J: "Lucilius. Ein Bericht über die Forschung seit F. MARX (1904/5)", in H.Temporini (ed.) ANRW I.2 (1972), 1182–1239. Krenkel, W A: "Zur Biographie des Lucilius", in H. Temporini (ed.) ANRW I.2 (1972), 1240–1259. Gruen, Erich S: Culture and National Identity in Republican Rome (Cornell University Press, 1992), especially chapter 7: "Lucilius and the Contemporary Scene", pp. 272–317.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Lucilius, Gaius". Encyclopædia Britannica. 17 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 104–105. External links[edit] Works by Gaius Lucilius at Project Gutenberg Authority control BIBSYS: 90807490 BNE: XX1008397 BNF: cb11913597c (data) GND: 118574779 ISNI: 0000 0001 2142 9576 LCCN: n50079083 LNB: 000118958 NKC: jn19990210390 NLA: 35958289 NLI: 000086311 NTA: 069614105 SELIBR: 205081 SUDOC: 026997509 Trove: 1163025 VcBA: 495/31667 VIAF: 89131128 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n50079083 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gaius_Lucilius&oldid=993312555" Categories: 103 BC deaths Roman-era satirists 2nd-century BC Romans Lucilii Old Latin-language writers People from the Province of Caserta Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Articles with Project Gutenberg links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Asturianu Български Català Čeština Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Furlan 한국어 Italiano עברית Latina Latviešu Nederlands Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 9 December 2020, at 23:40 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9640	----	Horus - Wikipedia Horus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Egyptian war deity This article is about the ancient Egyptian deity. For the Roman poet, see Horace. For other uses, see Horus (disambiguation). Horus Horus was often the ancient Egyptians' national tutelary deity. He was usually depicted as a falcon-headed man wearing the pschent, or a red and white crown, as a symbol of kingship over the entire kingdom of Egypt. Name in hieroglyphs Major cult center Nekhen, Edfu[1] Symbol Eye of Horus Personal information Parents Osiris and Isis Siblings Anubis,[a] Bastet Consort Hathor Offspring Ihy Horus or Her, Heru, Hor, Har in Ancient Egyptian, is one of the most significant ancient Egyptian deities who served many functions, most notably god of kingship and the sky. He was worshipped from at least the late prehistoric Egypt until the Ptolemaic Kingdom and Roman Egypt. Different forms of Horus are recorded in history and these are treated as distinct gods by Egyptologists.[2] These various forms may possibly be different manifestations of the same multi-layered deity in which certain attributes or syncretic relationships are emphasized, not necessarily in opposition but complementary to one another, consistent with how the Ancient Egyptians viewed the multiple facets of reality.[3] He was most often depicted as a falcon, most likely a lanner falcon or peregrine falcon, or as a man with a falcon head.[4] The earliest recorded form of Horus is the tutelary deity of Nekhen in Upper Egypt, who is the first known national god, specifically related to the ruling pharaoh who in time came to be regarded as a manifestation of Horus in life and Osiris in death.[2] The most commonly encountered family relationship describes Horus as the son of Isis and Osiris, and he plays a key role in the Osiris myth as Osiris's heir and the rival to Set, the murderer and brother of Osiris. In another tradition Hathor is regarded as his mother and sometimes as his wife.[2] Claudius Aelianus wrote that Egyptians called the god Apollo 'Horus' in their own language.[5] Contents 1 Etymology 2 Horus and the pharaoh 3 Origin mythology 4 Mythological roles 4.1 Sky god 4.2 Conflict between Horus and Set 4.3 Golden Horus Osiris 5 Other forms of Horus 5.1 Her-ur (Horus the Elder) 5.2 Heru-pa-khered (Horus the Younger) 5.3 Heru-Behdeti (Horus of Behdet) 5.4 Her-em-akhet (Horus in the Horizon) 6 Celebrations of Horus 7 In popular culture 8 Influences on Christianity 9 Gallery 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 External links Etymology[edit] ḥr "Horus" in hieroglyphs Horus is recorded in Egyptian hieroglyphs as ḥr.w "Falcon"; the pronunciation has been reconstructed as /ˈħaːruw/. Additional meanings are thought to have been "the distant one" or "one who is above, over".[6] As the language changed over time, it appeared in Coptic varieties variously as /hoːɾ/ or /ħoːɾ/ and was adopted into ancient Greek as Ὧρος Hōros (pronounced at the time as /hɔ̂ːros/). It also survives in Late Egyptian and Coptic theophoric name forms such as Siese "son of Isis" and Harsiese "Horus, Son of Isis". Nekheny may have been another falcon god worshipped at Nekhen, city of the falcon, with whom Horus was identified from early on. Horus may be shown as a falcon on the Narmer Palette, dating from about the 31st century BC. Horus and the pharaoh[edit] The Pyramid Texts (c. 2400–2300 BC) describe the nature of the pharaoh in different characters as both Horus and Osiris. The pharaoh as Horus in life became the pharaoh as Osiris in death, where he was united with the other gods. New incarnations of Horus succeeded the deceased pharaoh on earth in the form of new pharaohs.[7] The lineage of Horus, the eventual product of unions between the children of Atum, may have been a means to explain and justify pharaonic power. The gods produced by Atum were all representative of cosmic and terrestrial forces in Egyptian life. By identifying Horus as the offspring of these forces, then identifying him with Atum himself, and finally identifying the Pharaoh with Horus, the Pharaoh theologically had dominion over all the world. Origin mythology[edit] Part of a series on Ancient Egyptian religion Beliefs Afterlife Duat Ma'at Mythology Numerology Philosophy Soul Practices Funerals Offering formula Temples Pyramids Deities (list) Ogdoad Amun Amunet Hauhet Heh Kauket Kek Naunet Nu Ennead Atum Geb Isis Nephthys Nut Osiris Set Shu Tefnut A Aker Akhty Ammit Am-heh Anat Andjety Anhur Anput Anubis Anuket Apedemak Apep Apis Apt Aqen Arensnuphis Ash Assessors Astarte Aten B Babi Banebdjedet Bastet Bat Bata Ba-Pef Bennu Bes Buchis C Cavern deities D Dedun F Four sons of Horus Duamutef Hapi Imset Qebehsenuef G Gate deities H Ha Hapi Hathor Hatmehit Hedetet Hedjhotep Heka Hemen Hemsut Heqet Hermanubis Hesat Horus Heryshaf Hu I Iabet Iah Iat Ihy Imentet Imhotep Iunit Iusaaset K Kebechet Khensit Khenti-Amentiu Khenti-kheti Khepri Kherty Khnum Khonsu Kothar-wa-Khasis M Maahes Ma'at Mandulis Medjed Mafdet Mehen Mehet-Weret Mehit Menhit Meret Meretseger Meskhenet Min Mnevis Montu Mut N Nebethetepet Nebtuwi Nefertem Nehebkau Nehmetawy Neith Nemty Nekhbet Neper P Pakhet Petbe Ptah Q Qebui Qetesh R Ra Raet-Tawy Rem Renenutet Renpet Repyt Resheph S Sah Satis Sekhmet Seker Serapis Serket Seshat Shai Shed Shesmetet Shezmu Sia Sobek Sopdet Sopdu Souls of Pe and Nekhen T Tatenen Taweret Tayt Ta-Bitjet Tenenet Thoth Hermes Trismegistus Tjenenyet Tutu U Unut W Wadjet Wadj-wer Weneg Wepset Wepwawet Werethekau Wosret Locations Neter-khertet Aaru Benben Duat Land of Manu The Indestructibles Symbols and objects Aani Abtu Ankh Atef Atet Book of Thoth Cartouche Crook and flail Deshret Djed Egyptian obelisk Egyptian pool Eye of Horus Eye of Ra Griffin Hedjet Hemhem crown Hennu Hieracosphinx Imiut fetish Khepresh Kneph Matet boat Medjed Menat Nebu Nemes Neshmet Ouroboros Pschent Scarab Seqtet boat Serekh Serpopard Set animal Shen ring Sphinx Tyet Uraeus Ushabti Was-sceptre Winged sun Texts Funerary texts (Amduat • Books of Breathing • Book of Caverns • Book of the Dead • Book of the Earth • Book of Gates) Related religions Atenism Hermeticism Thelema Kemeticism (Kemetic Orthodoxy • Church of the Most High Goddess)  Ancient Egypt portal v t e Horus was born to the goddess Isis after she retrieved all the dismembered body parts of her murdered husband Osiris, except his penis, which was thrown into the Nile and eaten by a catfish,[8][9] or sometimes depicted as instead by a crab, and according to Plutarch's account used her magic powers to resurrect Osiris and fashion a phallus[10] to conceive her son (older Egyptian accounts have the penis of Osiris surviving). After becoming pregnant with Horus, Isis fled to the Nile Delta marshlands to hide from her brother Set, who jealously killed Osiris and who she knew would want to kill their son.[11] There Isis bore a divine son, Horus. Mythological roles[edit] rˁ-ḥr-3ḫty "Ra-Horakhty" in hieroglyphs Sky god[edit] Since Horus was said to be the sky, he was considered to also contain the Sun and Moon.[12] It became said[by whom?] that the Sun was his right eye and the Moon his left, and that they traversed the sky when he, a falcon, flew across it. Later, the reason that the Moon was not as bright as the Sun was explained by a tale, known as The Contendings of Horus and Seth. In this tale, it was said that Set, the patron of Upper Egypt, and Horus, the patron of Lower Egypt, had battled for Egypt brutally, with neither side victorious, until eventually, the gods sided with Horus. As Horus was the ultimate victor he became known as ḥr.w wr "Horus the Great", but more usually translated "Horus the Elder". In the struggle, Set had lost a testicle, and Horus' eye was gouged out. Horus was occasionally shown in art as a naked boy with a finger in his mouth sitting on a lotus with his mother. In the form of a youth, Horus was referred to as nfr ḥr.w "Good Horus", transliterated Neferhor, Nephoros or Nopheros (reconstructed as naːfiru ħaːruw). Eye of Horus or Wedjat The Eye of Horus is an ancient Egyptian symbol of protection and royal power from deities, in this case from Horus or Ra. The symbol is seen on images of Horus' mother, Isis, and on other deities associated with her. In the Egyptian language, the word for this symbol was "wedjat" (wɟt).[13][14] It was the eye of one of the earliest of Egyptian deities, Wadjet, who later became associated with Bastet, Mut, and Hathor as well. Wadjet was a solar deity and this symbol began as her all-seeing eye. In early artwork, Hathor is also depicted with this eye.[15] Funerary amulets were often made in the shape of the Eye of Horus. The Wedjat or Eye of Horus is "the central element" of seven "gold, faience, carnelian and lapis lazuli" bracelets found on the mummy of Shoshenq II.[16] The Wedjat "was intended to protect the king [here] in the afterlife"[16] and to ward off evil. Egyptian and Near Eastern sailors would frequently paint the symbol on the bow of their vessel to ensure safe sea travel.[17] Conflict between Horus and Set[edit] Horus, Louvre, Shen rings in his grasp Horus was told by his mother, Isis, to protect the people of Egypt from Set, the god of the desert, who had killed Horus' father, Osiris.[18][19] Horus had many battles with Set, not only to avenge his father, but to choose the rightful ruler of Egypt. In these battles, Horus came to be associated with Lower Egypt, and became its patron. According to The Contendings of Horus and Seth, Set is depicted as trying to prove his dominance by seducing Horus and then having sexual intercourse with him. However, Horus places his hand between his thighs and catches Set's semen, then subsequently throws it in the river so that he may not be said to have been inseminated by Set. Horus (or Isis herself in some versions) then deliberately spreads his own semen on some lettuce, which was Set's favorite food. After Set had eaten the lettuce, they went to the gods to try to settle the argument over the rule of Egypt. The gods first listened to Set's claim of dominance over Horus, and call his semen forth, but it answered from the river, invalidating his claim. Then, the gods listened to Horus' claim of having dominated Set, and call his semen forth, and it answered from inside Set.[20][21] Figure of a Horus Falcon, between circa 300 and circa 250 BC (Greco-Roman).[22] The Walters Art Museum. Horus falcon, after 600 BCE. Original in the Department of Ancient Egypt and Sudan, British Museum However, Set still refused to relent, and the other gods were getting tired from over eighty years of fighting and challenges. Horus and Set challenged each other to a boat race, where they each raced in a boat made of stone. Horus and Set agreed, and the race started. But Horus had an edge: his boat was made of wood painted to resemble stone, rather than true stone. Set's boat, being made of heavy stone, sank, but Horus' did not. Horus then won the race, and Set stepped down and officially gave Horus the throne of Egypt.[23] After the New Kingdom, Set was still considered lord of the desert and its oases.[24] In many versions of the story, Horus and Set divide the realm between them. This division can be equated with any of several fundamental dualities that the Egyptians saw in their world. Horus may receive the fertile lands around the Nile, the core of Egyptian civilization, in which case Set takes the barren desert or the foreign lands that are associated with it; Horus may rule the earth while Set dwells in the sky; and each god may take one of the two traditional halves of the country, Upper and Lower Egypt, in which case either god may be connected with either region. Yet in the Memphite Theology, Geb, as judge, first apportions the realm between the claimants and then reverses himself, awarding sole control to Horus. In this peaceable union, Horus and Set are reconciled, and the dualities that they represent have been resolved into a united whole. Through this resolution, order is restored after the tumultuous conflict.[25] Egyptologists have often tried to connect the conflict between the two gods with political events early in Egypt's history or prehistory. The cases in which the combatants divide the kingdom, and the frequent association of the paired Horus and Set with the union of Upper and Lower Egypt, suggest that the two deities represent some kind of division within the country. Egyptian tradition and archaeological evidence indicate that Egypt was united at the beginning of its history when an Upper Egyptian kingdom, in the south, conquered Lower Egypt in the north. The Upper Egyptian rulers called themselves "followers of Horus", and Horus became the tutelary deity of the unified nation and its kings. Yet Horus and Set cannot be easily equated with the two halves of the country. Both deities had several cult centers in each region, and Horus is often associated with Lower Egypt and Set with Upper Egypt. Other events may have also affected the myth. Before even Upper Egypt had a single ruler, two of its major cities were Nekhen, in the far south, and Nagada, many miles to the north. The rulers of Nekhen, where Horus was the patron deity, are generally believed to have unified Upper Egypt, including Nagada, under their sway. Set was associated with Nagada, so it is possible that the divine conflict dimly reflects an enmity between the cities in the distant past. Much later, at the end of the Second Dynasty (c. 2890–2686 BCE), Pharaoh Seth-Peribsen used the Set animal to writing his serekh name in place of the falcon hieroglyph representing Horus. His successor Khasekhemwy used both Horus and Set in the writing of his serekh. This evidence has prompted conjecture that the Second Dynasty saw a clash between the followers of the Horus king and the worshippers of Set led by Seth-Peribsen. Khasekhemwy's use of the two animal symbols would then represent the reconciliation of the two factions, as does the resolution of the myth.[26] Golden Horus Osiris[edit] Horus gradually took on the nature as both the son of Osiris and Osiris himself. He was referred to as Golden Horus Osiris.[27][28][29][30][31] In the temple of Denderah he is given the full royal titulary of both that of Horus and Osiris. He was sometimes believed to be both the father of himself as well as his own son, and some later accounts have Osiris being brought back to life by Isis.[32] Other forms of Horus[edit] Heru-ur God of Nekhen, Egypt, and the pharaohs Major cult center Heliopolis, Gizah Symbol hawk-headed man Personal information Parents Geb and Nut Siblings Osiris, Isis, Set, and Nephthys Consort Serqet, Hathor Offspring Imset, Hapi, Duamutef, Qebehsenuef Her-ur (Horus the Elder)[edit] Heru-ur (or Herwer), (Haroeris to the Ptolemaic Greeks), also known as Horus the Elder, was a form of Horus, where he was the son of Geb and Nut. He was one of the oldest gods of ancient Egypt. He absorbed a number of local gods including a hawk god Nekheny the nome of Nekhen and Wer (a god of light known as “the great one” whose eyes were the sun and moon) to become the patron of Nekhen (Hierakonpolis), the first national god ("God of the Kingdom") and later the patron god of the pharaohs. Nekhen was a powerful city in the pre-dynastic period, and the early capital of Upper Egypt. By the Old Kingdom he was simply referred to as Horus had become the first national god and the patron of the Pharaoh. He was called the son of truth[33] – signifying his role as an important upholder of Maat. His right eye was the Sun and the left one was the Moon. Her-ur was sometimes depicted fully as a falcon, he was sometimes given the title Kemwer, meaning "(the) great black (one)". Other variants include Hor Merti 'Horus of the two eyes' and Horkhenti Irti.[34] Heru-pa-khered (Horus the Younger)[edit] Heru-pa-khered (Harpocrates to the Ptolemaic Greeks), also known as Horus the Younger, is represented in the form of a youth wearing a lock of hair (a sign of youth) on the right of his head while sucking his finger. In addition, he usually wears the united crowns of Egypt, the crown of Upper Egypt and the crown of Lower Egypt. He is a form of the rising sun, representing its earliest light. Heru-Behdeti (Horus of Behdet)[edit] The winged sun of Horus of Edfu and depicted on the top of pylons in the ancient temples throughout Egypt. Her-em-akhet (Greek: Harmakhis), the wall relief of a hieracosphinx depicted at the Temple of Horus in Edfu Her-em-akhet (Horus in the Horizon)[edit] Her-em-akhet (or Horemakhet), (Harmakhis in Greek), represented the dawn and the early morning sun. He was often depicted as a sphinx with the head of a man (like the Great Sphinx of Giza), or as a hieracosphinx, a creature with a lion's body and a falcon's head and wings, sometimes with the head of a lion or ram (the latter providing a link to the god Khepri, the rising sun). It was believed that he was the inspiration for the Great Sphinx of Giza, constructed under the order of Khafre, whose head it depicts. Other forms of Horus include: - Hor Merti ('Horus of the Two Eyes'); - Horkhenti Irti;[34] - Her-sema-tawy ('Horus Uniter of the Two Lands'), the Greek Harsomptus, depicted like the double-crowned Horus Her-iunmutef (Iunmutef), ('Horus, Pillar of His Mother'), depicted as a priest wearing a leopard-skin over torso in the Tomb of Nefertari, Valley of the Queens Herui, the 5th nome god of Upper Egypt in Coptos besides the pharaoh Sahure - Her-iunmutef or Iunmutef, depicted as a priest with a leopard-skin over the torso; - Herui (the "double falcon or Horuses"), the 5th nome god of Upper Egypt in Coptos Her-sema-tawy ('Horus, Uniter of the Two Lands'), tying the papyrus and reed plants in the sema tawy symbol for the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt opposite with Set (Sutekh) Celebrations of Horus[edit] Macrobius' Chronicon noted the annual ancient Egyptian celebration of Horus, specifying the time as the winter solstice. An analysis of the works of Epiphanius of Salamis noted the Egyptian winter solstice celebration of Horus in Panarion.[35] In popular culture[edit] Main article: Ancient Egyptian deities in popular culture § Horus Influences on Christianity[edit] William R. Cooper's 1877 book and Acharya S's self-published 2008 book, among others, have suggested that there are many similarities between the story of Horus and the much posterior story of Jesus.[36][37] However, this theory has been rejected by both Christian and non-Christian scholars.[38][39][40][41] Gallery[edit] Falcon Horus, deity of Hierakonpolis, on a Naqada IIC jar, circa 3500 BCE, British Museum EA36328.[42][43] God Horus as a falcon wearing the Double Crown of Egypt. 27th dynasty. State Museum of Egyptian Art, Munich Horus, patron deity of Hierakonpolis (near Edfu), the predynastic capital of Upper Egypt. Its head was executed by means of beating the gold then connecting it with the copper body. A uraeus is fixed to the diadem which supports two tall openwork feathers. The eyes are inlaid with obsidian. Sixth Dynasty. Horus represented in relief with Wadjet and wearing the double crown. Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut Horus relief in the Temple of Edfu Statue of Horus from the reign of Amenhotep II (Eighteenth Dynasty, ca. 1400 BCE) in the Musée royal de Mariemont, Belgium Relief of Horus in the temple of Seti I in Abydos See also[edit] Hawk of Quraish Osiris myth Notes[edit] ^ (in some accounts) References[edit] ^ Sims, Lesley (2000). "Gods & goddesses". A Visitor's Guide to Ancient Egypt. Saffron Hill, London: Usborne Publishing. p. 29. ISBN 0-7460-30673. ^ a b c "The Oxford Guide: Essential Guide to Egyptian Mythology", Edited by Donald B. Redford, Horus: by Edmund S. Meltzer, pp. 164–168, Berkley, 2003, ISBN 0-425-19096-X ^ "The Oxford Guide: Essential Guide to Egyptian Mythology", Edited by Donald B. Redford, p106 & p165, Berkley, 2003, ISBN 0-425-19096-X ^ Wilkinson, Richard H. (2003). The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. p. 202. ^ Aelian, Characteristics of Animals, 10.14 ^ Meltzer, Edmund S. (2002). Horus. In D. B. Redford (Ed.), The ancient gods speak: A guide to Egyptian religion (pp. 164). New York: Oxford University Press, USA. ^ Allen, James P. (2005). The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts. Society of Biblical Literature. ISBN 978-1-58983-182-7. ^ New York Folklore Society (1973). "New York folklore quarterly". 29. Cornell University Press. p. 294. ^ Ian Shaw (2003). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-815034-3. ^ Piotr O. Scholz (2001). Eunuchs and castrati: a cultural history. Markus Wiener Publishers. p. 32. ISBN 978-1-55876-201-5. ^ Roy G. Willis (1993). World Mythology. Macmillan. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-8050-2701-3. ^ "Horus". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2019-02-22. ^ Pommerening, Tanja, Die altägyptischen Hohlmaße (Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur, Beiheft 10), Hamburg, Helmut Buske Verlag, 2005 ^ M. Stokstad, "Art History" ^ "Lady of the West". hethert.org. Archived from the original on 27 January 2010. Retrieved 18 January 2015. ^ a b Silverman, David P. (1997). "Egyptian Art". Ancient Egypt. Duncan Baird Publishers. p. 228. ^ Charles Freeman, The Legacy of Ancient Egypt, Facts on File, Inc. 1997. p. 91 ^ "The Goddesses and Gods of Ancient Egypt". Archived from the original on 4 June 2010. ^ "Ancient Egypt: the Mythology – Horus". egyptianmyths.net. ^ Scott David Foutz. "Theology WebSite: Etext Index: Egyptian Myth: The 80 Years of Contention Between Horus and Seth". theologywebsite.com. Retrieved 18 January 2015. ^ Fleming, Fergus, and Alan Lothian. The Way to Eternity: Egyptian Myth. Duncan Baird Publishers, 1997. pp. 80–81 ^ "Figure of a Horus Falcon". The Walters Art Museum. ^ Mythology, published by DBP, Chapter: Egypt's divine kingship ^ te Velde, Herman (1967). Seth, God of Confusion: A Study of His Role in Egyptian Mythology and Religion. Probleme der Ägyptologie 6. Translated by van Baaren-Pape, G. E. (2nd ed.). Leiden: E. J. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-05402-8. ^ te Velde 1967, pp. 59–63. ^ Meltzer in Redford, pp. 165–166 ^ Yoyotte, Jean, Une notice biographique du roi Osiris, BIFAO 77 (1977), p.145 ^ Hymn to Osiris Un-Nefer, Translated by E.A.Wallis Budge ^ Budge, E.A. Wallis ; 1901, Egyptian Magic, Kegan, Paul, Trench and Trübner & Co., London ^ "The Abydos Triad, Osiris, Isis and Horus, and Seth". www.reshafim.org.il. ^ Roxburgh, Kevin. "Horus - Egyptian God Horus - Egyptian Mythology - Horus - Eye of Horus". www.egyptiangods.co.uk. ^ E.A. Wallis Budge, Osiris and the Egyptian resurrection, Volume 2 (London: P. L. Warner; New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1911), 31. ^ Wilson, Erasmus (January 1, 1877). Cleopatra's needle: With brief notes on Egypt and Egyptian obelisks. London: Brain & Company. p. 208. Retrieved 6 December 2014. ^ a b Patricia Turner, Charles Russell Coulter, Dictionary of ancient deities, 2001. ^ "MACROBIUS, Saturnalia – Loeb Classical Library". Loeb Classical Library. ^ Murdock, D. M.; S, Acharya (December 2008). Christ in Egypt: The Horus-Jesus Connection. Stellar House Publishing. ISBN 978-0-9799631-1-7. ^ Cooper, William Ricketts (1877). The Horus Myth in Its Relation to Christianity. Hardwicke & Bogue. p. 3. jesus horus. ^ Ehrman, Bart D. (2012). Did Jesus Exist?: The Historical Argument for Jesus of Nazareth. HarperOne. ISBN 978-0062206442. ^ C Henderson, S Hayes, Debunking the Horus-Jesus Connection, 2015, Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1996 ^ Houdmann, S. Michael, Questions about Jesus Christ, WestBow Press, 2013 ^ Klar, Sonnen, Seeking Hard Evidence for the Similarity of the Horus and Jesus Myths, Richard Dawkins Foundation ^ "British Museum notice". ^ "Jar, British Museum". The British Museum. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Horus. Article about Horus Britannica Online: Horus (Egyptian God) v t e Ancient Egyptian religion Beliefs Afterlife Creation myths Isfet Maat Maa Kheru Mythology Numerology Osiris myth Philosophy Soul Practices Canopic jars Embalming ritual Funerals Mortuary temples Offering formula Opening of the mouth Pyramids Temples Veneration of the dead Deities Ogdoad Amun Amunet Heh Hauhet Kek Kauket Nu Naunet Ennead Atum Shu Tefnut Geb Nut Osiris Isis Set Nephthys Triads Theban Triad A Aker Akhty Amesemi Ammit Am-heh Anat Andjety Anhur Anput Anubis Anuket Apedemak Apep Apis Apt Aqen Arensnuphis Ash Assessors Astarte Aten B Babi Banebdjedet Bastet Bat Bata Ba-Pef Bennu Bes Buchis C Cavern deities D Dedun Dionysus-Osiris F Four sons of Horus Duamutef Hapi Imset Qebehsenuef G Gate deities H Ha Hapi Hathor Hatmehit Hedetet Hedjhotep Heka Hemen Hemsut Heqet Hermanubis Hesat Horus Harpocrates Heryshaf Hu I Iabet Iah Iat Ihy Imentet Imhotep Iunit Iusaaset K Kebechet Khensit Khenti-Amentiu Khenti-kheti Khepri Kherty Khnum Khonsu Kothar-wa-Khasis M Maahes Ma'at Mafdet Mandulis Medjed Mehen Mehet-Weret Mehit Menhit Meret Meretseger Meskhenet Min Mnevis Montu Mut N Nebethetepet Nebtuwi Nefertem Nehebkau Nehmetawy Neith Nekhbet Nemty Neper P Pakhet Petbe Ptah Q Qebui Qetesh R Ra Raet-Tawy Rem Renenutet Renpet Repyt Resheph S Sah Satis Sebiumeker Sekhmet Seker Serapis Serket Seshat Shai Shed Shesmetet Shezmu Sia Sobek Sopdet Sopdu Souls of Pe and Nekhen T Tatenen Taweret Tayt Ta-Bitjet Thoth Hermes Trismegistus Tjenenyet Tutu U Unut W Wadjet Wadj-wer Weneg Wepset Wepwawet Werethekau Wosret Creatures Aani Abtu Griffin Hieracosphinx Medjed Serpopard Sha Sphinx Uraeus Characters Dedi Djadjaemankh Rededjet Ubaoner Locations Aaru Akhet Benben Duat Land of Manu Neter-khertet The Indestructibles Symbols and objects Ankh Atef Cartouche Crook and flail Crown of justification Deshret Djed Egyptian obelisk Egyptian pool Eye of Horus Eye of Ra Hedjet Hemhem crown Hennu Imiut fetish Khepresh Kneph Menat Nebu Nemes Neshmet Ouroboros Pschent Scarab Serekh Shen ring Solar barque Tyet Ushabti Vulture crown Was-sceptre Winged sun Writings Amduat Books of Breathing Book of Caverns Book of the Dead Book of the Earth Book of Gates Book of the Heavenly Cow Book of Traversing Eternity Coffin Texts The Contendings of Horus and Seth Enigmatic Book of the Netherworld Great Hymn to the Aten Litany of the Eye of Horus Litany of Re Pyramid Texts Spell of the Twelve Caves Festivals Beautiful Festival of the Valley Cattle count Coronation of the pharaoh Min festival Opet Festival Sed festival Related religions Atenism Gnosticism Hermeticism Kemetism Mysteries of Isis Temple of Set Thelema Book  Ancient Egypt portal Authority control GND: 118707205 LCCN: no2015152881 SUDOC: 02757508X VIAF: 69724039 WorldCat Identities: viaf-69724039 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horus&oldid=995930911" Categories: Horus LGBT themes in mythology Mythological birds of prey Savior gods Sky and weather gods Tutelary deities Hidden categories: CS1: Julian–Gregorian uncertainty Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles having same image on Wikidata and Wikipedia Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from January 2016 Articles having different image on Wikidata and Wikipedia Commons link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски മലയാളം მარგალური مصرى Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan پنجابی پښتو Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 23 December 2020, at 17:10 (UTC). 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ===Adulthood=== Horace left Rome, possibly after his father's death, and continued his formal education in Athens, a great centre of learning in the ancient world, where he arrived at nineteen years of age, enrolling in [[Platonic Academy|The Academy]]. Founded by [[Plato]], The Academy was now dominated by [[Epicureans]] and [[Stoics]], whose theories and practises made a deep impression on the young man from Venusia.<ref>V. Kiernan, ''Horace: Poetics and Politics'', 25</ref> Meanwhile, he mixed and lounged about with the elite of Roman youth, such as Marcus, the idle son of [[Cicero]], and the Pompeius to whom he later addressed a poem.<ref>''Odes'' 2.7</ref> It was in Athens too that he probably acquired deep familiarity with the ancient tradition of Greek lyric poetry, at that time largely the preserve of grammarians and academic specialists (access to such material was easier in Athens than in Rome, where the public libraries had yet to be built by [[Asinius Pollio]] and Augustus).<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 8–9</ref> Rome's troubles following the assassination of [[Julius Caesar]] were soon to catch up with him. [[Marcus Junius Brutus]] came to Athens seeking support for the republican cause. Brutus was fêted around town in grand receptions and he made a point of attending academic lectures, all the while recruiting supporters among the young men studying there, including Horace.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 9–10</ref> An educated young Roman could begin military service high in the ranks and Horace was made [[tribunus militum]] (one of six senior officers of a typical legion), a post usually reserved for men of senatorial or equestrian rank and which seems to have inspired jealousy among his well-born confederates.<ref>''Satires'' 1.6.48</ref><ref name="Nisbet">R. Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 8</ref> He learned the basics of military life while on the march, particularly in the wilds of northern Greece, whose rugged scenery became a backdrop to some of his later poems.<ref>V. Kiernan, ''Horace'', 25</ref> It was there in 42 BC that [[Octavian]] (later [[Augustus]]) and his associate [[Mark Antony]] crushed the republican forces at the [[Battle of Philippi]]. Horace later recorded it as a day of embarrassment for himself, when he fled without his shield,<ref>''Odes'' 2.7.10</ref> but allowance should be made for his self-deprecating humour. Moreover, the incident allowed him to identify himself with some famous poets who had long ago abandoned their shields in battle, notably his heroes [[Alcaeus of Mytilene|Alcaeus]] and [[Archilochus]]. The comparison with the latter poet is uncanny: Archilochus lost his shield in a part of Thrace near Philippi, and he was deeply involved in the Greek colonization of [[Thasos]], where Horace's die-hard comrades finally surrendered.<ref name="Nisbet"/> Octavian offered an early amnesty to his opponents and Horace quickly accepted it. On returning to Italy, he was confronted with yet another loss: his father's estate in Venusia was one of many throughout Italy to be confiscated for the settlement of veterans ([[Virgil]] lost his estate in the north about the same time). Horace later claimed that he was reduced to poverty and this led him to try his hand at poetry.<ref>''Epistles'' 2.2.51–52</ref> In reality, there was no money to be had from versifying. At best, it offered future prospects through contacts with other poets and their patrons among the rich.<ref>V. Kiernan, ''Horace: Poetics and politics''</ref> Meanwhile, he obtained the sinecure of ''scriba quaestorius'', a civil service position at the ''aerarium'' or Treasury, profitable enough to be purchased even by members of the ''ordo equester'' and not very demanding in its work-load, since tasks could be delegated to ''scribae'' or permanent clerks.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 14–15</ref> It was about this time that he began writing his ''Satires'' and ''Epodes''. ====Poet==== [[File:Fedor Bronnikov 014.jpg|thumb|Horace reads before Maecenas, by [[Fyodor Bronnikov]]]] The ''Epodes'' belong to [[iambic poetry]]. Iambic poetry features insulting and obscene language;<ref>Christopher Brown, in ''A Companion to the Greek Lyric Poets'', D.E. Gerber (ed), Leiden 1997, pages 13–88</ref><ref>Douglas E. Gerber, ''Greek Iambic Poetry'', Loeb Classical Library (1999), Introduction pages i–iv</ref> sometimes, it is referred to as ''blame poetry''.<ref>D. Mankin, ''Horace: Epodes'', C.U.P., 8</ref> ''Blame poetry'', or ''shame poetry'', is poetry written to blame and shame fellow citizens into a sense of their social obligations. Horace modelled these poems on the poetry of [[Archilochus]]. Social bonds in Rome had been decaying since the destruction of [[Carthage]] a little more than a hundred years earlier, due to the vast wealth that could be gained by plunder and corruption.<ref>D. Mankin, ''Horace: Epodes'', 6</ref> These social ills were magnified by rivalry between Julius Caesar, Mark Antony and confederates like [[Sextus Pompey]], all jockeying for a bigger share of the spoils. One modern scholar has counted a dozen civil wars in the hundred years leading up to 31 BC, including the [[Spartacus]] rebellion, eight years before Horace's birth.<ref>R. Conway, ''New Studies of a Great Inheritance'', 49–50</ref> As the heirs to Hellenistic culture, Horace and his fellow Romans were not well prepared to deal with these problems: {{Quotation|At bottom, all the problems that the times were stirring up were of a social nature, which the Hellenistic thinkers were ill qualified to grapple with. Some of them censured oppression of the poor by the rich, but they gave no practical lead, though they may have hoped to see well-meaning rulers doing so. Philosophy was drifting into absorption in self, a quest for private contentedness, to be achieved by self-control and restraint, without much regard for the fate of a disintegrating community.|[[V. G. Kiernan]]<ref>V. Kiernan, ''Horace: Poetics and Politics'', 18–19</ref>}} Horace's Hellenistic background is clear in his Satires, even though the genre was unique to Latin literature. He brought to it a style and outlook suited to the social and ethical issues confronting Rome but he changed its role from public, social engagement to private meditation.<ref>F. Muecke, ''The Satires'', 109–10</ref> Meanwhile, he was beginning to interest Octavian's supporters, a gradual process described by him in one of his satires.<ref name="Satires 1.6"/> The way was opened for him by his friend, the poet Virgil, who had gained admission into the privileged circle around Maecenas, Octavian's lieutenant, following the success of his ''[[Eclogues]]''. An introduction soon followed and, after a discreet interval, Horace too was accepted. He depicted the process as an honourable one, based on merit and mutual respect, eventually leading to true friendship, and there is reason to believe that his relationship was genuinely friendly, not just with Maecenas but afterwards with Augustus as well.<ref>R. Lyne, ''Augustan Poetry and Society'', 599</ref> On the other hand, the poet has been unsympathetically described by one scholar as "a sharp and rising young man, with an eye to the main chance."<ref>J. Griffin, ''Horace in the Thirties'', 6</ref> There were advantages on both sides: Horace gained encouragement and material support, the politicians gained a hold on a potential dissident.<ref name="ReferenceB">R. Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 10</ref> His republican sympathies, and his role at Philippi, may have caused him some pangs of remorse over his new status. However most Romans considered the civil wars to be the result of ''contentio dignitatis'', or rivalry between the foremost families of the city, and he too seems to have accepted the principate as Rome's last hope for much needed peace.<ref>D. Mankin, ''Horace: Epodes'', 5</ref> In 37 BC, Horace accompanied Maecenas on a journey to [[Brundisium]], described in one of his poems<ref>''Satires'' 1.5</ref> as a series of amusing incidents and charming encounters with other friends along the way, such as Virgil. In fact the journey was political in its motivation, with Maecenas en route to negotiatie the [[Treaty of Tarentum]] with Antony, a fact Horace artfully keeps from the reader (political issues are largely avoided in the first book of satires).<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Horace was probably also with Maecenas on one of Octavian's naval expeditions against the piratical Sextus Pompeius, which ended in a disastrous storm off [[Palinurus]] in 36 BC, briefly alluded to by Horace in terms of near-drowning.<ref>''Odes'' 3.4.28</ref><ref group="nb">''Odes'' 3.4.28: "nec (me extinxit) Sicula Palinurus unda"; "nor did Palinurus extinguish me with Sicilian waters". Maecenas' involvement is recorded by [[Appian]] ''Bell. Civ.'' 5.99 but Horace's ode is the only historical reference to his own presence there, depending however on interpretation. (R. Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 10)</ref> There are also some indications in his verses that he was with Maecenas at the [[Battle of Actium]] in 31 BC, where Octavian defeated his great rival, Antony.<ref>''Epodes'' 1 and 9</ref><ref group="nb">The point is much disputed among scholars and hinges on how the text is interpreted. ''Epodes'' 9 for example may offer proof of Horace's presence if 'ad hunc frementis' ('gnashing at this' man i.e. the traitrous Roman ) is a misreading of 'at huc...verterent' (but hither...they fled) in lines describing the defection of the Galatian cavalry, "ad hunc frementis verterunt bis mille equos / Galli canentes Caesarem" (R. Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 12).</ref> By then Horace had already received from Maecenas the famous gift of his [[Horace's villa|Sabine farm]], probably not long after the publication of the first book of ''Satires''. The gift, which included income from five tenants, may have ended his career at the Treasury, or at least allowed him to give it less time and energy.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 15</ref> It signalled his identification with the Octavian regime yet, in the second book of ''Satires'' that soon followed, he continued the apolitical stance of the first book. By this time, he had attained the status of ''eques Romanus'',<ref>''Satires'' 2.7.53</ref> perhaps as a result of his work at the Treasury.<ref>R. Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 11</ref> ====Knight==== ''Odes'' 1–3 were the next focus for his artistic creativity. He adapted their forms and themes from Greek lyric poetry of the seventh and sixth centuries BC. The fragmented nature of the [[Greek world]] had enabled his literary heroes to express themselves freely and his semi-retirement from the Treasury in Rome to [[Horace's Villa|his own estate]] in the Sabine hills perhaps empowered him to some extent also<ref>V. Kiernan, ''Horace: Poetics and Politics'', 61–62</ref> yet even when his lyrics touched on public affairs they reinforced the importance of private life.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Nevertheless, his work in the period 30–27 BC began to show his closeness to the regime and his sensitivity to its developing ideology. In ''Odes'' 1.2, for example, he eulogized Octavian in hyperboles that echo Hellenistic court poetry. The name ''Augustus'', which Octavian assumed in January 27 BC, is first attested in ''Odes'' 3.3 and 3.5. In the period 27–24 BC, political allusions in the ''Odes'' concentrated on foreign wars in Britain (1.35), Arabia (1.29) Spain (3.8) and Parthia (2.2). He greeted Augustus on his return to Rome in 24 BC as a beloved ruler upon whose good health he depended for his own happiness (3.14).<ref>R. Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 13</ref> The public reception of ''Odes'' 1–3 disappointed him, however. He attributed the lack of success to jealousy among imperial courtiers and to his isolation from literary cliques.<ref>''Epistles'' 1.19.35–44</ref> Perhaps it was disappointment that led him to put aside the genre in favour of verse letters. He addressed his first book of ''Epistles'' to a variety of friends and acquaintances in an urbane style reflecting his new social status as a knight. In the opening poem, he professed a deeper interest in moral philosophy than poetry<ref>''Epistles'' 1.1.10</ref> but, though the collection demonstrates a leaning towards stoic theory, it reveals no sustained thinking about ethics.<ref>V. Kiernan, ''Horace: Poetics and Politics'', 149, 153</ref> Maecenas was still the dominant confidante but Horace had now begun to assert his own independence, suavely declining constant invitations to attend his patron.<ref>''Epistles'' 1.7</ref> In the final poem of the first book of ''Epistles'', he revealed himself to be forty-four years old in the consulship of Lollius and Lepidus i.e. 21 BC, and "of small stature, fond of the sun, prematurely grey, quick-tempered but easily placated".<ref>''Epistles'' 1.20.24–25</ref><ref>R. Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 14–15</ref> According to Suetonius, the second book of ''Epistles'' was prompted by Augustus, who desired a verse epistle to be addressed to himself. Augustus was in fact a prolific letter-writer and he once asked Horace to be his personal secretary. Horace refused the secretarial role but complied with the emperor's request for a verse letter.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 17–18</ref> The letter to Augustus may have been slow in coming, being published possibly as late as 11 BC. It celebrated, among other things, the 15 BC military victories of his stepsons, Drusus and Tiberius, yet it and the following letter<ref>''Epistles'' 2.2</ref> were largely devoted to literary theory and criticism. The literary theme was explored still further in ''Ars Poetica'', published separately but written in the form of an epistle and sometimes referred to as ''Epistles'' 2.3 (possibly the last poem he ever wrote).<ref>R. Ferri, ''The Epistles'', 121</ref> He was also commissioned to write odes commemorating the victories of Drusus and Tiberius<ref>''Odes'' 4.4 and 4.14</ref> and one to be sung in a temple of Apollo for the [[Secular Games]], a long-abandoned festival that Augustus revived in accordance with his policy of recreating ancient customs (''Carmen Saeculare''). Suetonius recorded some gossip about Horace's sexual activities late in life, claiming that the walls of his bedchamber were covered with obscene pictures and mirrors, so that he saw erotica wherever he looked.<ref group="nb">Suetonius signals that the report is based on rumours by employing the terms "traditur...dicitur" / "it is reported...it is said" (E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 21)</ref> The poet died at 56 years of age, not long after his friend Maecenas, near whose tomb he was laid to rest. Both men bequeathed their property to Augustus, an honour that the emperor expected of his friends.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 23</ref> Return to Horace. 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en-wikipedia-org-969	----	Help:IPA/English - Wikipedia Help:IPA/English From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia < Help:IPA Jump to navigation Jump to search This page is about the pronunciation of words in English. For sounds not found in English, see Help:IPA. For a basic introduction to the IPA, see Help:IPA/Introduction. For a guide to adding IPA characters to Wikipedia articles, see Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Pronunciation § Entering IPA characters. Wikipedia key to pronunciation of English This is the pronunciation key for IPA transcriptions of English on Wikipedia.It provides a set of symbols to represent the pronunciation of English in Wikipedia articles, and example words that illustrate the sounds that correspond to them. Integrity must be maintained between the key and the transcriptions that link here; do not change any symbol or its value without establishing consensus on the talk page first. Shortcuts H:IPA-EN H:IPAE H:IPAEN Throughout Wikipedia, the pronunciation of words is indicated by means of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The following tables list the IPA symbols used for English words and pronunciations. Please note that several of these symbols are used in ways that are specific to Wikipedia and differ from those used by dictionaries. If the IPA symbols are not displayed properly by your browser, see the links below. If you are adding a pronunciation using this key, such pronunciations should generally be formatted using the template {{IPAc-en}}. The template provides tooltips for each symbol in the pronunciation. See the template page for instructions. Contents 1 Key 2 Dialect variation 3 Other transcriptions 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 Bibliography 8 External links Key If there is an IPA symbol you are looking for that you do not see here, see Help:IPA, which is a more complete list. For a table listing all spellings of the sounds on this page, see English orthography § Sound-to-spelling correspondences. For help converting spelling to pronunciation, see English orthography § Spelling-to-sound correspondences. The words given as examples for two different symbols may sound the same to you. For example, you may pronounce cot and caught the same, do and dew, or marry and merry. This often happens because of dialect variation (see our articles English phonology and International Phonetic Alphabet chart for English dialects). If this is the case, you will pronounce those symbols the same for other words as well.[1] Whether this is true for all words, or just when the sounds occur in the same context, depends on the merger.[2] The footnotes explain some of these cases. Consonants IPA Examples b buy, cab d dye, cad, ladder[3] dj dew[4] dʒ giant, badge ð thy, breathe, father f fan, leaf ɡ guy, bag h high, ahead hw whine[5] j[6] yes, hallelujah k sky, crack l lie, sly, gal[7] lj lute[4] m my, smile, cam n nigh, snide, can nj new[4] ŋ sang, sink, singer p pie, spy, cap r[8] rye, try, very s sigh, mass sj consume[4] ʃ shy, cash, emotion t tie, sty, cat, latter[3] tj tune[4] tʃ China, catch θ thigh, math θj enthuse[4] v vine, leave w wine, swine z zoo, has zj Zeus[4] ʒ pleasure, beige[9]   Marginal segments IPA Examples x ugh, loch, Chanukah[10] ʔ uh-oh /ˈʔʌʔoʊ/ ɒ̃ bon vivant[11] æ̃ fin de siècle[11] ɜː Möbius (UK only)[12] Vowels Strong vowels ...followed by R[13] IPA Examples IPA Examples ɑː PALM, bra ɑːr START ɒ LOT, blockade[14] ɒr moral[15] æ TRAP, tattoo[16] ær marry[17] aɪ PRICE, pie[18] aɪər hire[19] aɪ.ər higher[20] aʊ MOUTH, how[18] aʊər flour[19] aʊ.ər flower[20] ɛ DRESS, prestige[21] ɛr merry[17] eɪ FACE ɛər SQUARE, Mary[17][22] eɪər player[20] ɪ KIT, historic[23] ɪr mirror iː FLEECE, pedigree, idea[24] ɪər NEAR, serious[22] iːər freer oʊ GOAT[25][23] oʊər mower ɔː THOUGHT[26] ɔːr NORTH, FORCE[27] ɔːər sawer ɔɪ CHOICE ɔɪər coir[19] ɔɪ.ər employer[20] ʊ FOOT ʊr courier uː GOOSE, cruel[24] ʊər tour, CURE (/ˈkjʊər/)[22][28] uːər truer ʌ STRUT, untidy, trustee[29][30] ɜːr NURSE, blurry, urbane, foreword[31] ʌr hurry[32] Weak vowels IPA Examples IPA Examples ə COMMA, addition, abbot ər LETTER, forward, history[33] ɪ edition, rabbit, Latin, heating[23][34] oʊ motto, retroactive, follower[23][35] i HAPPY, mediocre[36] iə California[37] u fruition[35][36] uə influence[38] Syllabic consonants[33] IPA Examples IPA Examples əl bottle (either [əl] or [l̩]) ən button (either [ən] or [n̩]) əm rhythm (either [əm] or [m̩])   Stress[39] Syllabification IPA Examples IPA Examples ˈ intonation /ˌɪntəˈneɪʃən/ . /ˈhaɪər/ hire, /ˈhaɪ.ər/ higher[40] /ˈtæks.peɪər/ taxpayer ˌ Notes Words in SMALL CAPITALS are the standard lexical sets.[41] The length mark ⟨ː⟩ does not mean that the vowels transcribed with it are always longer than those without it. When unstressed, followed by a voiceless consonant, or in a polysyllabic word, a vowel in the former group is frequently shorter than the latter in other environments (see Clipping (phonetics) § English). Dialect variation Further information: English phonology and International Phonetic Alphabet chart for English dialects This key represents diaphonemes, abstractions of speech sounds that accommodate General American, Received Pronunciation (RP) and to a large extent also Australian, Canadian, Irish (including Ulster), New Zealand, Scottish, South African and Welsh pronunciations. Therefore, not all of the distinctions shown here are relevant to a particular dialect: ⟨i⟩ does not represent a phoneme but a variation between /iː/ and /ɪ/ in unstressed positions. Speakers of dialects with happy tensing (Australian English, General American, modern RP) should read it as an unstressed /iː/, whereas speakers of other dialects (e.g. some Northern England English) should treat it the same as /ɪ/. In Scotland, this vowel can be considered the same as the short allophone of /eɪ/, as in take. Before /ə/ within the same word, another possible pronunciation is /j/ as in yet. Many speakers of American and Canadian English pronounce cot /ˈkɒt/ and caught /ˈkɔːt/ the same.[j] You may simply ignore the difference between the symbols /ɒ/ and /ɔː/, just as you ignore the distinction between the written vowels o and au when pronouncing them. Speakers of rhotic dialects (Irish English, North American English, Scottish English) do not distinguish between the vowels of near /ˈnɪər/, cure /ˈkjʊər/ and square /ˈskwɛər/ on the one hand and freerunning /ˈfriːrʌnɪŋ/, Q-rating /ˈkjuːreɪtɪŋ/ and dayroom /ˈdeɪruːm/ on the other. If you speak such a dialect, read /ɪər, ʊər, ɛər/ as /iːr, uːr, eɪr/. In Northern Ireland, Scotland and many North American dialects the distinction between /ʊr/ as in courier and the aforementioned /ʊər/ and /uːr/ does not exist. If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between /ʊr/, /ʊər/ and /uːr/. In Northern Ireland and Scotland this merger occurs in all environments, which means that foot /ˈfʊt/ and goose /ˈɡuːs/ also have the same vowel.[k][l] If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between /ʊ/ and /uː/ in all contexts. In North America, the /ʊr/ of courier and the /ʊər/ of cure may instead merge with /ɔːr/ as in north or /ɜːr/ as in nurse. No such merger is possible in the case of the sequence which we transcribe as /uːr/ as there is an implied morpheme boundary after the length mark. In North American dialects that do not distinguish between /ʊr/, /ʊər/ and /uːr/ there is also no distinction between the /ɪr/ of mirror and the aforementioned /ɪər/ and /iːr/. If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between /ɪr/, /ɪər/ and /iːr/. In many North American dialects there is also no distinction between the vowels in merry /ˈmɛri/, Mary /ˈmɛəri/ and marry /ˈmæri/. If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between /ɛr/, /ɛər/ and /ær/. Some speakers keep marry and/or merry separate from the rest, but in the General American accent all three vowels are the same and may not be distinct from /eɪr/ as in dayroom /ˈdeɪruːm/. In rhotic North American English there is no distinction between the vowels in nurse /ˈnɜːrs/ and letter /ˈlɛtər/. If you speak such a dialect, read /ɜːr/ as /ər/. The /ʌr/ of hurry often joins this neutralization; if you have it in your speech, read /ɜːr/, /ər/ and /ʌr/ as /ər/. Some speakers from Northern England do not distinguish the vowel of square /ˈskwɛər/ and nurse /ˈnɜːrs/.[m] If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between the symbols /ɛər/ and /ɜːr/. In New Zealand English, the vowels of kit /ˈkɪt/ and focus /ˈfoʊkəs/ have the same schwa-like quality.[n][o] If you are from New Zealand, ignore the difference between the symbols /ɪ/ and /ə/. In contemporary New Zealand English and some other dialects, the vowels of near /ˈnɪər/ and square /ˈskwɛər/ are not distinguished.[p] If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between the symbols /ɪər/ and /ɛər/. In Northern England English, the vowels of foot /ˈfʊt/ and strut /ˈstrʌt/ are not distinguished.[q] If you are from Northern England, ignore the difference between the symbols /ʊ/ and /ʌ/. In Welsh English and some other dialects, the vowels of unorthodoxy /ʌnˈɔːrθədɒksi/ and an orthodoxy /ən ˈɔːrθədɒksi/ are not distinguished.[r] If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between the symbols /ʌ/ and /ə/. Depending on the dialect, vowels can be subject to various mergers before /l/, so that e.g. fill /ˈfɪl/ and feel /ˈfiːl/ or pull /ˈpʊl/ and pool /ˈpuːl/ may not be distinguished. L-vocalization may trigger even more mergers, so that e.g. cord /ˈkɔːrd/ and called /ˈkɔːld/ may be homophonous as /ˈkɔːd/ in non-rhotic dialects of South East England. See English-language vowel changes before historic /l/ for more information. In many dialects, /r/ occurs only before a vowel; if you speak such a dialect, simply ignore /r/ in the pronunciation guides where you would not pronounce it, as in cart /kɑːrt/. In other dialects, /j/ (yes) cannot occur after /t, d, n/, etc., within the same syllable; if you speak such a dialect, then ignore the /j/ in transcriptions such as new /njuː/. For example, New York is transcribed /njuː ˈjɔːrk/. For most people from England and for some New Yorkers, the /r/ in /jɔːrk/ is not pronounced; for most people from the United States, including some New Yorkers, the /j/ in /njuː/ is not pronounced and may be ignored. (See yod-dropping.) On the other hand, there are some distinctions which you might make but which this key does not encode, as they are seldom reflected in the dictionaries used as sources for Wikipedia articles: The vowels of kit and bit, distinguished in South Africa.[s] Both of them are transcribed as /ɪ/ in stressed syllables and as /ɪ/ or /ə/ in unstressed syllables. The difference between the vowels of fir, fur and fern, maintained in some Scottish and Irish English but lost elsewhere.[t] All of them are transcribed as /ɜːr/. The vowels of north and force, distinguished in Scottish English, Irish English and by a minority of American speakers.[t] Both of them are transcribed as /ɔːr/. The vowels of pause and paws, distinguished in Cockney and by some Estuary English speakers.[u] Both of them are transcribed as /ɔː/ when the spelling does not contain ⟨r⟩ and /ɔːr/ or /ʊər/ (depending on the word) when it does. The vowels of manning and Manning, distinguished in some parts of the United States (see /æ/ raising). Both of them are transcribed as /æ/. The difference between the vowels of pain and pane found in some English, Welsh, and Newfoundland dialects. Both of them are transcribed as /eɪ/. The difference between the vowels of holy and wholly found in Cockney and many Estuary English speakers.[v] Both of them are transcribed as /oʊ/. Any allophonic distinctions, such as: The vowels of bad and lad, distinguished in many parts of Australia. Both of them are transcribed as /æ/. The vowels of spider and spied her, distinguished in many parts of Scotland,[w] plus many parts of North America. Both of them are transcribed as /aɪ/. The vowels of rider and writer, distinguished in most parts of Canada and many parts of the United States. Both of them are transcribed as /aɪ/. The vowels of powder and pouter distinguished in most parts of Canada and some parts of the United States. Both of them are transcribed as /aʊ/. Allophonic vowel length (including the Scottish vowel length rule), as in knife /ˈnaɪf/ vs. knives /ˈnaɪvz/. Phonemic vowel length, which exists in some dialects and involves pairs such as /ɛ/ vs. /ɛər/ and /ə/ vs. /ɜːr/ is also not marked explicitly. /i/ and /u/ do not represent phonemes; see above. Flapping in words such as better, which we write /ˈbɛtər/, rather than /ˈbɛdər/. Glottalization in words such as jetlag and, in some accents, daughter, which we write /ˈdʒɛtlæɡ/ and /ˈdɔːtər/, rather than /ˈdʒɛʔlæɡ/ and /ˈdɔːʔər/. In this system, /ʔ/ is used only for paralanguage or in loanwords where it occurs phonemically in the original language. L-vocalization in words such as bottle and Alps, which we write /ˈbɒtəl/ and /ˈælps/, rather than /ˈbɒtʊ/ and /ˈæwps/. The difference between allophones of /ə/ in balance ([ə]) vs. the ones in about and Russia (and, in non-rhotic dialects, better), both of which may be closer to /ʌ/ in dialects with the foot-strut split (that is, [ɐ]) vs. the one in button (the syllabicity of the following consonant). All are transcribed as /ə/ in our system. The difference between the phonetic realization of English sounds (mostly vowels) in various dialects. Let's pick some grapes for Betty should be transcribed /lɛts ˈpɪk səm ˈɡreɪps fər ˈbɛti/ regardless of the variety of English and everyone should interpret that transcription according to their own dialect. Thus, a person from South East England will read it as something like [lɛʔs ˈpʰɪk səm ˈɡɹɛɪps fə ˈbɛtˢɪi], a Scot as [ɫɛts ˈpʰɪk səm ˈɡɾeps fɚ ˈbɛte], whereas someone from New Zealand will interpret that transcription as [ɫɪts ˈpʰək səm ˈɡɹæɪps fə ˈbɪɾi]. Because we are transcribing diaphonemes rather than phones (actual sounds), it is irrelevant that, for example, the vowel in let's as pronounced by someone from New Zealand overlaps with how people with England and Scotland typically pronounce the first vowel in pick, or that the Scottish realization of /r/ after /ɡ/ overlaps with the New Zealand realization of /t/ between vowels. In other words, the symbol ⟨ɛ⟩ does not stand specifically for the open-mid front unrounded vowel in our system but any vowel that can be identified as the vowel in let's, depending on the accent. This is also why we use the simple symbol ⟨r⟩ for the second sound in grapes. Other words may have different vowels depending on the speaker. The pronunciation of the /æ/ vowel in most dialects of Scotland, Northern Ireland, Northern England and Wales has always been closer to [a]. Received Pronunciation has moved away from the traditional near-open front realization [æ] towards almost fully open front realization [a], and both the Oxford English Dictionary and the 2014 edition of Gimson's Pronunciation of English transcribe the vowel in lad, bad, cat, trap with /a/.[x] For more extensive information on dialect variations, you may wish to see the IPA chart for English dialects. Note that place names are not generally exempted from being transcribed in this abstracted system, so rules such as the above must be applied in order to recover the local pronunciation. Examples include place names in much of England ending ‑ford, which although locally pronounced [‑fəd] are transcribed /‑fərd/. This is best practice for editors. However, readers should be aware that not all editors may have followed this consistently, so for example if /‑fəd/ is encountered for such a place name, it should not be interpreted as a claim that the /r/ would be absent even in a rhotic dialect. Other transcriptions If you feel it is necessary to add a pronunciation respelling using another convention, then please use the conventions of Wikipedia's pronunciation respelling key. To compare the following IPA symbols with non-IPA American dictionary conventions that may be more familiar, see Pronunciation respelling for English, which lists the pronunciation guides of fourteen English dictionaries published in the United States. To compare the following IPA symbols with other IPA conventions that may be more familiar, see Help:IPA/Conventions for English, which lists the conventions of eight English dictionaries published in Britain, Australia, and the United States. See also If your browser does not display IPA symbols, you probably need to install a font that includes the IPA (for good, free IPA fonts, see the download links in the articles for Gentium and the more complete Charis SIL; for a monospaced font, see the complete Everson Mono) To add IPA pronunciations to Wikipedia articles, see the {{IPA}} template For a guide to adding IPA characters to Wikipedia articles, see Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Pronunciation § Entering IPA characters. Help:IPA/Conventions for English Help:Pronunciation respelling key Pronunciation respelling for English Notes ^ This rule is generally employed in the pronunciation guide of our articles, even for local terms such as place names. However, be aware that not all editors may have followed this consistently, so for example if a pronunciation of an English town ending in ‑ford reads /‑fəd/, it doesn't mean that the /r/ would be absent in a rhotic dialect. ^ For example, if you have the marry–merry merger, you probably only merge /æ/ and /ɛ/ before /r/. You would still distinguish man and men. ^ a b In varieties with flapping, /t/ and sometimes also /d/ between a vowel and a weak or word-initial vowel may be pronounced with a voiced tap [ɾ], making latter sound similar or identical to ladder. Some dictionaries transcribe /t/ subject to this process as ⟨d⟩ or ⟨t̬⟩, but they are not distinguished in this transcription system. In those varieties, the sequence /nt/ in the same environment may also be realized as a nasalized tap [ɾ̃], making winter sound similar or identical to winner. This is also not distinguished in this system. ^ a b c d e f g In dialects with yod dropping, /j/ in /juː/, /ju/, or /jʊər/ is not pronounced after coronal consonants (/t/, /d/, /s/, /z/, /n/, /θ/, and /l/) in the same syllable, so that dew /djuː/ is pronounced the same as do /duː/. In dialects with yod coalescence, /tj/ and /dj/ mostly merge with /tʃ/ and /dʒ/, so that the first syllable in Tuesday is pronounced the same as choose. In some dialects /sj/ and /zj/ are also affected and frequently merge with /ʃ/ and /ʒ/. Where /j/ in /juː/, /ju/, or /jʊər/ following a coronal is still pronounced in yod-dropping accents, place a syllable break before it: menu /ˈmɛn.juː/. ^ The phoneme /hw/ is not distinguished from /w/ in the many dialects with the wine–whine merger, such as RP and most varieties of General American. For more information on this sound, see voiceless labialized velar approximant. ^ The IPA value of the letter ⟨j⟩ may be counterintuitive to English speakers, but the spelling is found even in some common English words like hallelujah and fjord. ^ /l/ in the syllable coda, as in the words all, cold, or bottle, is pronounced as [o], [u], [w] or a similar sound in many dialects through L-vocalization. ^ In most varieties of English, /r/ is pronounced as an approximant [ɹ]. Although the IPA symbol ⟨r⟩ represents the alveolar trill, ⟨r⟩ is widely used instead of ⟨ɹ⟩ in broad transcriptions of English. ^ A number of English words, such as genre and garage, may be pronounced with either /ʒ/ or /dʒ/. ^ In most dialects, /x/ can also be replaced by /k/ in most words, including loch. It is also replaced with /h/ in some words, particularly of Yiddish origin, such as Chanukah. ^ a b /ɒ̃, æ̃/ are only found in French loanwords and often replaced by another vowel and a nasal consonant: bon vivant /ˌbɒn viːˈvɒnt/, ensemble /ɒnˈsɒmbəl/, etc.[a] ^ /ɜː/ is only found in loanwords and represents a situation where such an r-less vowel is used only in British or Southern Hemisphere accents, and therefore a transcription that includes it must always be prefaced with a label indicating the variety of English. It is to be used only when a reliable source shows that General American has a different vowel in the same position. If r-ful NURSE is used even in GA, even if spelled without ⟨r⟩, as in Goethe and hors d'oeuvre, use /ɜːr/. /ɜː/ is also not the same as ⟨œ⟩ seen in some American dictionaries. ⟨œ⟩ in those dictionaries is merely a notational convention and does not correspond to any vowel in any accent of English, so a transcription containing ⟨œ⟩ cannot be converted to one that uses this key. ^ In non-rhotic accents like RP, /r/ is not pronounced unless followed by a vowel. ^ In dialects with the father–bother merger such as General American, /ɒ/ is not distinguished from /ɑː/. ^ In most of the United States, /ɒr/ is merged with /ɔːr/, except for a handful of words such as borrow, tomorrow and sorry, which instead have /ɑːr/. In some parts of the Southern and Northeastern US, it is always merged with /ɑːr/. In Canada, it is always merged with /ɔːr/. ^ In North America, /æ/ is often pronounced like a diphthong [eə~ɛə] before nasal consonants and, in some particular regional dialects, other environments. See /æ/ raising. ^ a b c /ær/, /ɛr/ and /ɛər/ are not distinguished in many North American accents (Mary–marry–merry merger). Some speakers merge only two of the sounds (most typically /ɛər/ with one of the short vowels) and less than a fifth of speakers of American English make a full three-way distinction, like RP and similar accents.[b] ^ a b In much of North America, /aɪ/ or /aʊ/ may have a slightly different quality when it precedes a voiceless consonant, as in price or mouth, from that in ride/pie or loud/how, a phenomenon known as Canadian raising. Since this occurs in a predictable fashion, it is not distinguished in this transcription system. ^ a b c In some dialects, especially in the UK, the second segment in a diphthong followed by /ə/ is often omitted. This process or lack thereof may help choose between /aɪər, aʊər, ɔɪər/ in some words (diary, admirer) and /aɪr, aʊr, ɔɪr/ in others (pirate, siren), a distinction not always clear. ^ a b c d Some speakers pronounce higher, flower, mayor and coyer ("more coy") with two syllables, and hire, flour, mare and coir with one. Most pronounce them the same. ^ /ɛ/ is transcribed with ⟨e⟩ in many dictionaries. However, /eɪ/ is also sometimes transcribed with ⟨e⟩, especially in North American literature, so ⟨ɛ⟩ is chosen here. ^ a b c /ɛə/, /ɪə/, or /ʊə/ may be separated from /r/ only when a stress follows it. The IPAc-en template supports /ɛəˈr/, /ɪəˈr/, /ʊəˈr/, /ɛəˌr/, /ɪəˌr/, and /ʊəˌr/ as distinct diaphonemes for such occasions. ^ a b c d /ɪ/ and /oʊ/ may be strong or weak depending on context.[c] Whether an instance of unstressed /ɪ/ is strong or weak may not be clear in some circumstances.[d] ^ a b Words like idea, real, theatre, and cruel may be pronounced with /ɪə/ or /ʊə/ in non-rhotic accents such as Received Pronunciation, and some dictionaries transcribe them with /ɪə, ʊə/,[e] but since they do not stem from historical /r/ and are not pronounced with /r/ in rhotic accents, they should be transcribed with /iːə, uːə/, not with /ɪə, ʊə/, in this transcription system. ^ /oʊ/ is often transcribed with ⟨əʊ⟩, particularly in British literature, based on its modern realization in Received Pronunciation. It is also transcribed with ⟨o⟩, particularly in North American literature. ^ /ɔː/ is not distinguished from /ɒ/ in dialects with the cot–caught merger such as Scottish English, Canadian English and many varieties of General American. In North America, the two vowels most often fall together with /ɑː/. ^ Some conservative dialects make a distinction between the vowels in horse and hoarse, but the number of speakers who make this distinction any longer is very small and many dictionaries do not differentiate between them (horse–hoarse merger). The vowel in hoarse was formerly represented as /ɔər/ on Wikipedia, but is now represented as /ɔːr/, identical to horse. ^ /ʊər/ is not distinguished from /ɔːr/ in dialects with the cure–force merger, including many younger speakers. In England, the merger may not be fully consistent and may only apply to more common words. In conservative RP and Northern England English /ʊər/ is much more commonly preserved than in modern RP and Southern England English. In Australia and New Zealand, /ʊər/ does not exist as a separate phoneme and is replaced either by the sequence /uːər/ (/uːr/ before vowels within the same word, save for some compounds) or the monophthong /ɔːr/. ^ Some, particularly North American, dictionaries notate /ʌ/ with the same symbol as /ə/, which is found only in unstressed syllables, and distinguish it from /ə/ by marking the syllable as stressed. Also note that although ⟨ʌ⟩, the IPA symbol for the open-mid back vowel, is used, the typical modern pronunciation is rather close to the near-open central vowel [ɐ] in most dialects, including Received Pronunciation and General American. ^ /ʌ/ is not used in the dialects of the northern half of England, some bordering parts of Wales, and some broad eastern Ireland accents. These words would take the /ʊ/ vowel: there is no foot–strut split. ^ In Received Pronunciation, /ɜːr/ is pronounced as a lengthened schwa, [əː]. In General American, it is phonetically identical to /ər/. Some dictionaries therefore use ⟨əː, ər⟩ instead of the conventional notations ⟨ɜː, ɜr⟩. When ⟨ər⟩ is used for /ɜːr/, it is distinguished from /ər/ by marking the syllable as stressed. Word-initially, /ər/ never occurs, giving way to /ɜːr/. Where there is a free variation between /ɜːr/ and /ər/ in RP, it is acceptable to transcribe only the more common variant (e.g. /ər/ for persona). ^ /ʌr/ is not distinguished from /ɜːr/ in dialects with the hurry–furry merger such as General American. ^ a b In a number of contexts, /ə/ in /ər/, /əl/, /ən/, or /əm/ is often omitted, resulting in a syllable with no vowel. Some dictionaries show /ə/ in those contexts in parentheses, superscript, or italics to indicate this possibility, or simply omit /ə/. When followed by a weak vowel, the syllable may be lost altogether, with the consonant moving to the next syllable, so that doubling /ˈdʌb.əl.ɪŋ/ may alternatively be pronounced as [ˈdʌb.lɪŋ], and Edinburgh /ˈɛd.ɪn.bər.ə/ as [ˈɛd.ɪn.brə].[i] When not followed by a vowel, /ər/ merges with /ə/ in non-rhotic accents. ^ In accents with the weak vowel merger such as most Australian and American accents, /ɪ/ in unstressed positions is not distinguished from /ə/, making rabbit and abbot rhyme and Lenin and Lennon homophonous. Pairs like roses and Rosa's are kept distinct in American accents because of the difference in morphological structure,[f] but may be homophonous in Australian.[g] In these accents, unstressed /ɪl, ɪn, ɪm/ merge with /əl, ən, əm/, so that the second vowel in Latin may be lost and cabinet may be disyllabic (see the previous note). ^ a b /oʊ/ and /u/ in unstressed, prevocalic positions are transcribed as /əw/ by Merriam-Webster, but no other dictionary uniformly follows this practice.[h] Hence a difference between /əw/ in Merriam-Webster and /oʊ/ or /u/ in another source is most likely one in notation, not in pronunciation, so /əw/ in such cases may be better replaced with /oʊ/ or /u/ accordingly, to minimize confusion: /ˌsɪtʃəˈweɪʃən/ → /ˌsɪtʃuˈeɪʃən/, /ˈfɒləwər/ → /ˈfɒloʊər/. ^ a b ⟨i⟩ represents variation between /iː/ and /ɪ/ in unstressed prevocalic or morpheme-final positions. It is realized with a quality closer to /iː/ in accents with happy tensing, such as Australian English, General American, and modern RP, and to /ɪ/ in others. ⟨u⟩ likewise represents variation between /uː/ and /ʊ/ in unstressed prevocalic positions. ^ The sequence ⟨iə⟩ may be pronounced as two syllables, [i.ə] or [ɪ.ə], or as one, [jə] or [ɪə̯]. When pronounced as one syllable in a non-rhotic accent, it may be indistinguishable from, and identified as, the NEAR vowel (/ɪər/).[e] This transcription system uses ⟨iə⟩, not ⟨i.ə⟩, ⟨ɪə⟩, etc., to cover all these possibilities. ^ The sequence ⟨uə⟩ may be pronounced as two syllables, [u.ə] or [ʊ.ə], or as one, [wə] or [ʊə̯]. When pronounced as one syllable in a non-rhotic accent, it may be indistinguishable from, and identified as, the CURE vowel (/ʊər/).[e] This transcription system uses ⟨uə⟩, not ⟨u.ə⟩, ⟨ʊə⟩, etc., to cover all these possibilities. ^ The IPA stress mark ⟨ˈ⟩ comes before the syllable that has the stress, in contrast to stress marking in pronunciation keys of some dictionaries published in the United States. ^ Syllable divisions are not usually marked, but the IPA dot ⟨.⟩ may be used when it is wished to make explicit where a division between syllables is (or may be) made. ^ Not all of the sets defined in Wells Standard Lexical Sets for English are used here. In particular, we excluded words in the lexical sets BATH and CLOTH, which may be given two transcriptions, the former either with /ɑː/ or /æ/, the latter with /ɒ/ or /ɔː/. References ^ Jones (2011). ^ Vaux, Bert; Golder, Scott (2003). "How do you pronounce Mary/merry/marry?". Harvard Dialect Survey. Harvard University Linguistics Department. ^ Flemming & Johnson (2007), pp. 91–2. ^ Wells, John (25 March 2011). "strong and weak". John Wells's phonetic blog. ^ a b c Wells (1982), p. 240. ^ Flemming & Johnson (2007), pp. 94–5. ^ Wells (1982), p. 601. ^ Windsor Lewis, Jack (10 April 2009). "The Elephant in the Room". PhonetiBlog. ^ Wells (2008), pp. 173, 799. ^ Wells (1982), pp. 473–6, 493, 499. ^ Stuart-Smith (2004), p. 58. ^ Corrigan (2010), pp. 33–5. ^ Wells (1982), pp. 361, 372. ^ Wells (1982), pp. 605–7. ^ Bauer et al. (2007), pp. 98–9. ^ Bauer et al. (2007), p. 98. ^ Wells (1982), pp. 351–3, 363–4. ^ Wells (1982), pp. 380–1. ^ Wells (1982), pp. 612–3. ^ a b Stuart-Smith (2004), p. 56. ^ Wells (1982), pp. 304, 310–1. ^ Wells (1982), pp. 304, 312–3. ^ Stuart-Smith (2004), p. 57. ^ Cruttenden (2014), pp. 119–20. Bibliography Bauer, Laurie; Warren, Paul; Bardsley, Dianne; Kennedy, Marianna; Major, George (2007). "New Zealand English". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 37 (1): 97–102. doi:10.1017/S0025100306002830. Corrigan, Karen P. (2010). Irish English, volume 1 – Northern Ireland. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-3429-3. Cruttenden, Alan (2014). Gimson's Pronunciation of English (8th ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-4441-8309-2. Flemming, Edward; Johnson, Stephanie (2007). "Rosa's roses: reduced vowels in American English" (PDF). Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 37 (1): 83–96. doi:10.1017/S0025100306002817. Jones, Daniel (2011). Roach, Peter; Setter, Jane; Esling, John (eds.). Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary (18th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-15255-6. Stuart-Smith, Jane (2004). "Scottish English: phonology". In Schneider, Edgar W.; Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd; Mesthrie, Rajend; Upton, Clive (eds.). A Handbook of Varieties of English. Volume 1: Phonology. Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 47–67. doi:10.1515/9783110175325.1.47. ISBN 3-11-017532-0. Wells, John C. (1982). Accents of English. Volume 1: An Introduction (pp. i–xx, 1–278), Volume 2: The British Isles (pp. i–xx, 279–466), Volume 3: Beyond the British Isles (pp. i–xx, 467–674). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-52129719-2 , 0-52128540-2 , 0-52128541-0 . Wells, John C. (2008). Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.). Longman. ISBN 978-1-4058-8118-0. 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en-wikipedia-org-9703	----	William Wordsworth - Wikipedia William Wordsworth From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on 23 December 2020. Jump to navigation Jump to search English Romantic poet "Wordsworth" redirects here. For other uses, see Wordsworth (disambiguation). For the English composer, see William Wordsworth (composer). William Wordsworth Portrait of William Wordsworth by Benjamin Robert Haydon (National Portrait Gallery). Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom In office 6 April 1843 – 23 April 1850 Monarch Victoria Preceded by Robert Southey Succeeded by Alfred, Lord Tennyson Personal details Born (1770-04-07)7 April 1770 Cockermouth, Cumberland, England Died 23 April 1850(1850-04-23) (aged 80) Rydal, Westmorland, England Spouse(s) Mary Hutchinson (1802–1850; his death) Relatives Christopher Wordsworth (sibling) Dorothy Wordsworth (sibling) Dora Wordsworth (child) Alma mater St John's College, Cambridge Occupation Poet William Wordsworth (7 April 1770 – 23 April 1850) was an English Romantic poet who, with Samuel Taylor Coleridge, helped to launch the Romantic Age in English literature with their joint publication Lyrical Ballads (1798). Wordsworth's magnum opus is generally considered to be The Prelude, a semi-autobiographical poem of his early years that he revised and expanded a number of times. It was posthumously titled and published by his wife in the year of his death, before which it was generally known as "the poem to Coleridge". Wordsworth was Poet Laureate from 1843 until his death from pleurisy on 23 April 1850. Contents 1 Early life 2 Relationship with Annette Vallon 3 First publication and Lyrical Ballads 4 The Borderers 5 Germany and move to the Lake District 6 Marriage and children 7 Autobiographical work and Poems, in Two Volumes 8 The Prospectus 9 Religious beliefs 10 Laureateship and other honours 11 Death 12 In popular culture 13 Major works 14 References 15 Further reading 16 External links Early life[edit] Main article: Early life of William Wordsworth The second of five children born to John Wordsworth and Ann Cookson, William Wordsworth was born on 7 April 1770 in what is now named Wordsworth House in Cockermouth, Cumberland,[1] part of the scenic region in northwestern England known as the Lake District. William's sister, the poet and diarist Dorothy Wordsworth, to whom he was close all his life, was born the following year, and the two were baptised together. They had three other siblings: Richard, the eldest, who became a lawyer; John, born after Dorothy, who went to sea and died in 1805 when the ship of which he was captain, the Earl of Abergavenny, was wrecked off the south coast of England; and Christopher, the youngest, who entered the Church and rose to be Master of Trinity College, Cambridge.[2] Wordsworth's father was a legal representative of James Lowther, 1st Earl of Lonsdale, and, through his connections, lived in a large mansion in the small town. He was frequently away from home on business, so the young William and his siblings had little involvement with him and remained distant from him until his death in 1783.[3] However, he did encourage William in his reading, and in particular set him to commit large portions of verse to memory, including works by Milton, Shakespeare and Spenser. William was also allowed to use his father's library. William also spent time at his mother's parents' house in Penrith, Cumberland, where he was exposed to the moors, but did not get along with his grandparents or his uncle, who also lived there. His hostile interactions with them distressed him to the point of contemplating suicide.[4] Wordsworth was taught to read by his mother and attended, first, a tiny school of low quality in Cockermouth, then a school in Penrith for the children of upper-class families, where he was taught by Ann Birkett, who insisted on instilling in her students traditions that included pursuing both scholarly and local activities, especially the festivals around Easter, May Day and Shrove Tuesday. Wordsworth was taught both the Bible and the Spectator, but little else. It was at the school in Penrith that he met the Hutchinsons, including Mary, who later became his wife.[5] After the death of Wordsworth's mother, in 1778, his father sent him to Hawkshead Grammar School in Lancashire (now in Cumbria) and sent Dorothy to live with relatives in Yorkshire. She and William did not meet again for nine years. Wordsworth made his debut as a writer in 1787 when he published a sonnet in The European Magazine. That same year he began attending St John's College, Cambridge. He received his BA degree in 1791.[6] He returned to Hawkshead for the first two summers of his time at Cambridge, and often spent later holidays on walking tours, visiting places famous for the beauty of their landscape. In 1790 he went on a walking tour of Europe, during which he toured the Alps extensively, and visited nearby areas of France, Switzerland, and Italy.[7] Relationship with Annette Vallon[edit] In November 1791, Wordsworth visited Revolutionary France and became enchanted with the Republican movement. He fell in love with a French woman, Annette Vallon, who, in 1792, gave birth to their daughter Caroline. Financial problems and Britain's tense relations with France forced him to return to England alone the following year.[8] The circumstances of his return and his subsequent behaviour raised doubts as to his declared wish to marry Annette. However, he supported her and his daughter as best he could in later life. The Reign of Terror left Wordsworth thoroughly disillusioned with the French Revolution and the outbreak of armed hostilities between Britain and France prevented him from seeing Annette and his daughter for some years. With the Peace of Amiens again allowing travel to France, in 1802 Wordsworth and his sister Dorothy visited Annette and Caroline in Calais. The purpose of the visit was to prepare Annette for the fact of his forthcoming marriage to Mary Hutchinson.[8] Afterwards he wrote the sonnet "It is a beauteous evening, calm and free", recalling a seaside walk with the 9-year-old Caroline, whom he had never seen before that visit. Mary was anxious that Wordsworth should do more for Caroline. Upon Caroline's marriage, in 1816, Wordsworth settled £30 a year on her (equivalent to £2,313 as of 2019), payments which continued until 1835, when they were replaced by a capital settlement.[9][10] First publication and Lyrical Ballads[edit] Wordsworth in 1798, about the time he began The Prelude.[11] The year 1793 saw the first publication of poems by Wordsworth, in the collections An Evening Walk and Descriptive Sketches. In 1795 he received a legacy of £900 from Raisley Calvert and became able to pursue a career as a poet. It was also in 1795 that he met Samuel Taylor Coleridge in Somerset. The two poets quickly developed a close friendship. For two years from 1795, William and his sister Dorothy lived at Racedown House in Dorset—a property of the Pinney family—to the west of Pilsdon Pen. They walked in the area for about two hours every day, and the nearby hills consoled Dorothy as she pined for the fells of her native Lakeland. She wrote, "We have hills which, seen from a distance almost take the character of mountains, some cultivated nearly to their summits, others in their wild state covered with furze and broom. These delight me the most as they remind me of our native wilds."[12] In 1797, the pair moved to Alfoxton House, Somerset, just a few miles away from Coleridge's home in Nether Stowey. Together Wordsworth and Coleridge (with insights from Dorothy) produced Lyrical Ballads (1798), an important work in the English Romantic movement.[13] The volume gave neither Wordsworth's nor Coleridge's name as author. One of Wordsworth's most famous poems, "Tintern Abbey", was published in this collection, along with Coleridge's "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner". The second edition, published in 1800, had only Wordsworth listed as the author, and included a preface to the poems.[14] It was augmented significantly in the next edition, published in 1802.[15] In this preface, which some scholars consider a central work of Romantic literary theory, Wordsworth discusses what he sees as the elements of a new type of verse, one that is based on the ordinary language "really used by men" while avoiding the poetic diction of much 18th-century verse. Wordsworth also gives his famous definition of poetry as "the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings: it takes its origin from emotion recollected in tranquility", and calls his own poems in the book "experimental". A fourth and final edition of Lyrical Ballads was published in 1805.[16] The Borderers[edit] Between 1795–1797, Wordsworth wrote his only play, The Borderers, a verse tragedy set during the reign of King Henry III of England, when Englishmen in the North Country came into conflict with Scottish border reivers. He attempted to get the play staged in November 1797, but it was rejected by Thomas Harris, the manager of the Covent Garden Theatre, who proclaimed it "impossible that the play should succeed in the representation". The rebuff was not received lightly by Wordsworth and the play was not published until 1842, after substantial revision.[17] Germany and move to the Lake District[edit] Wordsworth, Dorothy and Coleridge travelled to Germany in the autumn of 1798. While Coleridge was intellectually stimulated by the journey, its main effect on Wordsworth was to produce homesickness.[8] During the harsh winter of 1798–99 Wordsworth lived with Dorothy in Goslar, and, despite extreme stress and loneliness, began work on the autobiographical piece that was later titled The Prelude. He wrote a number of other famous poems in Goslar, including "The Lucy poems". In the Autumn of 1799, Wordsworth and his sister returned to England and visited the Hutchinson family at Sockburn. When Coleridge arrived back in England he travelled to the North with their publisher Joseph Cottle to meet Wordsworth and undertake a proposed tour of the Lake District. This was the immediate cause of the brother and sister's settling at Dove Cottage in Grasmere in the Lake District, this time with another poet, Robert Southey, nearby. Wordsworth, Coleridge and Southey came to be known as the "Lake Poets".[18] Throughout this period many of Wordsworth's poems revolved around themes of death, endurance, separation and grief. Marriage and children[edit] Dove Cottage (Town End, Grasmere) – home of William and Dorothy Wordsworth, 1799–1808; home of Thomas De Quincey, 1809–1820 In 1802, Lowther's heir, William Lowther, 1st Earl of Lonsdale, paid the £4,000 owed to Wordsworth's father through Lowther's failure to pay his aide.[19] It was this repayment that afforded Wordsworth the financial means to marry. On 4 October, following his visit with Dorothy to France to arrange matters with Annette, Wordsworth married his childhood friend Mary Hutchinson.[8] Dorothy continued to live with the couple and grew close to Mary. The following year Mary gave birth to the first of five children, three of whom predeceased her and William: John Wordsworth (18 June 1803 – 1875). Married four times: Isabella Curwen (died 1848) had six children: Jane, Henry, William, John, Charles and Edward. Helen Ross (died 1854). No children. Mary Ann Dolan (died after 1858) had one daughter Dora (born 1858). Mary Gamble. No children. Dora Wordsworth (16 August 1804 – 9 July 1847). Married Edward Quillinan in 1841. Thomas Wordsworth (15 June 1806 – 1 December 1812). Catherine Wordsworth (6 September 1808 – 4 June 1812). William "Willy" Wordsworth (12 May 1810 – 1883). Married Fanny Graham and had four children: Mary Louisa, William, Reginald, Gordon Autobiographical work and Poems, in Two Volumes[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "William Wordsworth" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Wordsworth had for years been making plans to write a long philosophical poem in three parts, which he intended to call The Recluse. In 1798–99 he started an autobiographical poem, which he referred to as the "poem to Coleridge" and which he planned would serve as an appendix to a larger work called The Recluse. In 1804 he began expanding this autobiographical work, having decided to make it a prologue rather than an appendix. He completed this work, now generally referred to as the first version of The Prelude, in 1805, but refused to publish such a personal work until he had completed the whole of The Recluse. The death of his brother John, also in 1805, affected him strongly and may have influenced his decisions about these works. Rydal Mount – home to Wordsworth 1813–1850. Hundreds of visitors came here to see him over the years Wordsworth's philosophical allegiances as articulated in The Prelude and in such shorter works as "Lines written a few miles above Tintern Abbey" have been a source of critical debate. It was long supposed that Wordsworth relied chiefly on Coleridge for philosophical guidance, but more recently scholars have suggested that Wordsworth's ideas may have been formed years before he and Coleridge became friends in the mid-1790s. In particular, while he was in revolutionary Paris in 1792, the 22-year-old Wordsworth made the acquaintance of the mysterious traveller John "Walking" Stewart (1747–1822),[20] who was nearing the end of his thirty years of wandering, on foot, from Madras, India, through Persia and Arabia, across Africa and Europe, and up through the fledgling United States. By the time of their association, Stewart had published an ambitious work of original materialist philosophy entitled The Apocalypse of Nature (London, 1791), to which many of Wordsworth's philosophical sentiments may well be indebted. In 1807 Wordsworth published Poems, in Two Volumes, including "Ode: Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood". Up to this point, Wordsworth was known only for Lyrical Ballads, and he hoped that this new collection would cement his reputation. Its reception was lukewarm, however. In 1810, Wordsworth and Coleridge were estranged over the latter's opium addiction,[8] and in 1812, his son Thomas died at the age of 6, six months after the death of 3-year-old Catherine. The following year he received an appointment as Distributor of Stamps for Westmorland, and the stipend of £400 a year made him financially secure, albeit at the cost of political independence. In 1813, he and his family, including Dorothy, moved to Rydal Mount, Ambleside (between Grasmere and Rydal Water), where he spent the rest of his life.[8] The Prospectus[edit] In 1814 Wordsworth published The Excursion as the second part of the three-part work The Recluse, even though he had not completed the first part or the third part, and never did. He did, however, write a poetic Prospectus to The Recluse in which he laid out the structure and intention of the whole work. The Prospectus contains some of Wordsworth's most famous lines on the relation between the human mind and nature:                       ... my voice proclaims How exquisitely the individual Mind (And the progressive powers perhaps no less Of the whole species) to the external World Is fitted:—and how exquisitely, too— Theme this but little heard of among Men, The external World is fitted to the Mind; And the creation (by no lower name Can it be called) which they with blended might Accomplish ...[21] Some modern critics[22] suggest that there was a decline in his work beginning around the mid-1810s, perhaps because most of the concerns that characterised his early poems (loss, death, endurance, separation and abandonment) had been resolved in his writings and his life.[23] By 1820, he was enjoying considerable success accompanying a reversal in the contemporary critical opinion of his earlier works. Following the death of his friend the painter William Green in 1823, Wordsworth also mended his relations with Coleridge.[24] The two were fully reconciled by 1828, when they toured the Rhineland together.[8] Dorothy suffered from a severe illness in 1829 that rendered her an invalid for the remainder of her life. Coleridge and Charles Lamb both died in 1834, their loss being a difficult blow to Wordsworth. The following year saw the passing of James Hogg. Despite the death of many contemporaries, the popularity of his poetry ensured a steady stream of young friends and admirers to replace those he lost. Religious beliefs[edit] Wordsworth's youthful political radicalism, unlike Coleridge's, never led him to rebel against his religious upbringing. He remarked in 1812 that he was willing to shed his blood for the established Church of England, reflected in his Ecclesiastical Sketches of 1822. This religious conservatism also colours The Excursion (1814), a long poem that became extremely popular during the nineteenth century. It features three central characters: the Wanderer; the Solitary; who has experienced the hopes and miseries of the French Revolution; and the Pastor, who dominates the last third of the poem.[25] Laureateship and other honours[edit] Wordsworth remained a formidable presence in his later years. In 1837, the Scottish poet and playwright Joanna Baillie reflected on her long acquaintance with Wordsworth. "He looks like a man that one must not speak to unless one has some sensible thing to say. However he does occasionally converse cheerfully & well; and when one knows how benevolent & excellent he is, it disposes one to be very much pleased with him."[26] In 1838, Wordsworth received an honorary doctorate in Civil Law from the University of Durham and the following year he was awarded the same honorary degree by the University of Oxford, when John Keble praised him as the "poet of humanity", praise greatly appreciated by Wordsworth.[8][27] (It has been argued that Wordsworth was a great influence on Keble's immensely popular book of devotional poetry, The Christian Year (1827).[28]) In 1842, the government awarded him a Civil List pension of £300 a year. Following the death of Robert Southey in 1843 Wordsworth became Poet Laureate. He initially refused the honour, saying that he was too old, but accepted when the Prime Minister, Robert Peel, assured him that "you shall have nothing required of you". Wordsworth thus became the only poet laureate to write no official verses. The sudden death of his daughter Dora in 1847 at age 42 was difficult for the aging poet to take and in his depression, he completely gave up writing new material. Death[edit] Gravestone of William Wordsworth, Grasmere, Cumbria William Wordsworth died at home at Rydal Mount from an aggravated case of pleurisy on 23 April 1850,[29][30] and was buried at St Oswald's Church, Grasmere. His widow, Mary, published his lengthy autobiographical "Poem to Coleridge" as The Prelude several months after his death.[31] Though it failed to interest people at the time, it has since come to be widely recognised as his masterpiece. In popular culture[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Wordsworth has appeared as a character in works of fiction, including: William Kinsolving – Mister Christian. 1996 Jasper Fforde – The Eyre Affair. 2001 Val McDermid – The Grave Tattoo. 2006 Sue Limb – The Wordsmiths at Gorsemere. 2008 Isaac Asimov's 1966 novelisation of the 1966 film Fantastic Voyage sees Dr. Peter Duval quoting Wordsworth's The Prelude as the miniaturised submarine sails through the cerebral fluid surrounding a human brain, comparing it to the "strange seas of thought". Taylor Swift's 2020 album Folklore mentions Wordsworth in her bonus track "The Lakes", which is thought to be about the Lake District.[32] Major works[edit] Main article: List of poems by William Wordsworth Lyrical Ballads, with a Few Other Poems (1798) "Simon Lee" "We are Seven" "Lines Written in Early Spring" "Expostulation and Reply" "The Tables Turned" "The Thorn" "Lines Composed A Few Miles above Tintern Abbey" Lyrical Ballads, with Other Poems (1800)[dubious – discuss] Preface to the Lyrical Ballads "Strange fits of passion have I known"[33] "She Dwelt among the Untrodden Ways"[33] "Three years she grew"[33] "A Slumber Did my Spirit Seal"[33] "I travelled among unknown men"[33] "Lucy Gray" "The Two April Mornings" "The Solitary Reaper" "Nutting" "The Ruined Cottage" "Michael" "The Kitten at Play" Poems, in Two Volumes (1807) "Resolution and Independence" "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud" Also known as "Daffodils" "My Heart Leaps Up" "Ode: Intimations of Immortality" "Ode to Duty" "The Solitary Reaper" "Elegiac Stanzas" "Composed upon Westminster Bridge, September 3, 1802" "London, 1802" "The World Is Too Much with Us" "French Revolution" (1810)[34] Guide to the Lakes (1810) "To the Cuckoo" The Excursion (1814) Laodamia (1815, 1845) The White Doe of Rylstone (1815) Peter Bell (1819) Ecclesiastical Sonnets (1822) The Prelude (1850) References[edit] ^ Historic England. "Wordsworth House (1327088)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 21 December 2009. ^ Allport, Denison Howard; Friskney, Norman J. (1986). "Appendix A (Past Governors)". A Short History of Wilson's School. Wilson's School Charitable Trust. ^ Moorman 1968 pp. 5–7. ^ Moorman 1968:9–13. ^ Moorman 1968:15–18. ^ "Wordsworth, William (WRDT787W)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge. ^ Andrew Bennett (12 February 2015). William Wordsworth in Context. Cambridge University Press. p. 191. ISBN 978-1-107-02841-8. ^ a b c d e f g h Everett, Glenn, "William Wordsworth: Biography" at The Victorian Web, accessed 7 January 2007. ^ Gill (1989) pp. 208, 299 ^ "Purchasing Power of British Pounds from 1245 to Present". MeasuringWorth.com. Retrieved 28 May 2012. ^ "The Cornell Wordsworth Collection". Cornell University. Retrieved 13 February 2009. ^ Roland Gant (1980). Dorset Villages. Robert Hale Ltd. pp. 111–112. ISBN 0-7091-8135-3. ^ Lyricall Ballads: With a Few Other Poems (1 ed.). London: J. & A. Arch. 1798. Retrieved 13 November 2014. via archive.org ^ Wordsworth, William (1800). Lyrical Ballads with Other Poems. I (2 ed.). London: Printed for T.N. Longman and O. Rees. Retrieved 13 November 2014. ; Wordsworth, William (1800). Lyrical Ballads with Other Poems. II (2 ed.). London: Printed for T.N. Longman and O. Rees. Retrieved 13 November 2014. via archive.org ^ Wordsworth, William (1802). Lyrical Ballads with Pastoral and other Poems. I (3 ed.). London: Printed for T.N. Longman and O. Rees. Retrieved 13 November 2014. via archive.org. ^ Wordsworth, William (1805). Lyrical Ballads with Pastoral and other Poems. I (4 ed.). London: Printed for Longman, Hurst, Rees, and Orme, by R. Taylor. Retrieved 13 November 2014. via archive.org. ^ Stephen Gill, William Wordsworth: A Life, Oxford University Press, 1989, pp. 132–133. ^ Recollections of the Lake Poets. ^ Moorman 1968 p. 8 ^ Kelly Grovier, "Dream Walker: A Wordsworth Mystery Solved", Times Literary Supplement, 16 February 2007 ^ Poetical Works. Oxford Standard Authors. London: Oxford U.P. 1936. p. 590. ^ Hartman, Geoffrey (1987). Wordsworth's Poetry, 1787–1814. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 329–331. ISBN 9780674958210. ^ Already in 1891 James Kenneth Stephen wrote satirically of Wordsworth having "two voices": one is "of the deep", the other "of an old half-witted sheep/Which bleats articulate monotony". ^ Sylvanus Urban, The Gentleman's Magazine, 1823 ^ "Wordsworth's Religion". www.victorianweb.org. ^ Baillie, Joanna (2010). Thomas McLean (ed.). Further Letters of Joanna Baillie. Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p. 181. ISBN 978-0-8386-4149-1. ^ Gill, pp396-7 ^ http://www.victorianweb.org/religion/herb4.html#ww1 ^ "Poet Laureate", The British Monarchy official website. ^ Stephen Gill, William Wordsworth: A Life, Oxford University Press, 1989, pp. 422–3. ^ e g Dorothy Wordsworth's Journal 26 December 1801 ^ "Taylor Swift dedicates Folklore song to the Lake District". BBC. 12 August 2020. ^ a b c d e M. H. Abrams, editor of The Norton Anthology of English Literature: The Romantic Period, writes of these five poems: "This and the four following pieces are often grouped by editors as the 'Lucy poems,' even though 'A slumber did my spirit seal' does not identify the 'she' who is the subject of that poem. All but the last were written in 1799, while Wordsworth and his sister were in Germany, and homesick. There has been diligent speculation about the identity of Lucy, but it remains speculation. The one certainty is that she is not the girl of Wordsworth's 'Lucy Gray'" (Abrams 2000). ^ Wordsworth, William (4 January 1810). "French Revolution". The Friend (20). Retrieved 8 June 2018. Further reading[edit] poetry portal Juliet Barker. Wordsworth: A Life, HarperCollins, New York, 2000, ISBN 978-0060787318 Hunter Davies, William Wordsworth: A Biography, Frances Lincoln, London, 2009, ISBN 978-0-7112-3045-3 Stephen Gill, William Wordsworth: A Life, Oxford University Press, 1989, ISBN 978-0192827470 Emma Mason, The Cambridge Introduction to William Wordsworth (Cambridge University Press, 2010) Minto, William; Chisholm, Hugh (1911). "Wordsworth, William" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 28 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 826–831.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Mary Moorman, William Wordsworth, A Biography: The Early Years, 1770–1803 v. 1, Oxford University Press, 1957, ISBN 978-0198115656 Mary Moorman, William Wordsworth: A Biography: The Later Years, 1803–1850 v. 2, Oxford University Press, 1965, ISBN 978-0198116172 M. R. Tewari, One Interior Life—A Study of the Nature of Wordsworth's Poetic Experience (New Delhi: S. Chand & Company Ltd, 1983) Report to Wordsworth, Written by Boey Kim Cheng, as a direct reference to his poems "Composed Upon Westminster Bridge" and "The World Is Too Much with Us" External links[edit] William Wordsworthat Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Resources from Wikiversity Internet archive of Volume 1 of Christopher Wordsworth's 1851 biography Internet archive of Volume 2 of Christopher Wordsworth's 1851 biography Works by William Wordsworth at Project Gutenberg Works by or about William Wordsworth at Internet Archive Works by William Wordsworth at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) William Wordsworth Collection. General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book andManuscript Library, Yale University. Court offices Preceded by Robert Southey British Poet Laureate 1843–1850 Succeeded by Alfred Tennyson v t e William Wordsworth Topics Early life Lake Poets Lyrical Ballads Preface to the Lyrical Ballads "Anecdote for Fathers" "The Idiot Boy" "Lucy Gray" The Lucy poems "She dwelt among the untrodden ways" "A slumber did my spirit seal" "Strange fits of passion have I known" "Three years she grew in sun and shower" The Matthew poems "Michael, a Pastoral" Lines Written a Few Miles above Tintern Abbey "Poor Susan" "We Are Seven" Later poetry Poems, in Two Volumes Peter Bell The White Doe of Rylstone "Composed upon Westminster Bridge" "Elegiac Stanzas" "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud" The Lucy poems "I travelled among unknown men" "London, 1802" "My Heart Leaps Up" "Ode: Intimations of Immortality" "Resolution and Independence" "The Solitary Reaper" "The World Is Too Much with Us" "To a Butterfly" "Character of the Happy Warrior" The Recluse The Excursion The Prelude Prose Guide to the Lakes People Dora Wordsworth (daughter) Dorothy Wordsworth (sister) Christopher Wordsworth (brother) Samuel Taylor Coleridge Robert Southey Homes Wordsworth House (birthplace and childhood home) Alfoxton House (1797-1798) Dove Cottage (1799-1808) Allan Bank (1808-1811) Rydal Mount (1813-1850) Related Wordsworth Trust v t e Romanticism Countries Denmark England (literature) France (literature) Germany Norway Poland Russia (literature) Scotland Spain (literature) Sweden (literature) Movements Bohemianism Coppet group Counter-Enlightenment Dark romanticism Düsseldorf School Gesamtkunstwerk Gothic fiction Gothic Revival (architecture) Hudson River School Indianism Jena Romanticism Lake Poets Nazarene movement Ossian Romantic hero Romanticism and Bacon Romanticism in science Romantic nationalism Romantic poetry Opium and Romanticism Transcendentalism Ultra-Romanticism Wallenrodism Writers Abovian Abreu Alencar Alfieri Alves Andersen A. v. Arnim B. v. Arnim Azevedo Baratashvili Baratynsky Barbauld (Aikin) Batyushkov Baudelaire Bécquer Beer Bertrand Blake Botev Brentano Bryant Burns Byron Castelo Branco Castilho Chateaubriand Chavchavadze Clare Coleridge Cooper De Quincey Dias Dumas Eichendorff Emerson Eminescu Espronceda Fouqué Foscolo Frashëri Fredro Freire Garrett Gautier Goethe Grimm Brothers Günderrode Gutiérrez Gutzkow Hauff Hawthorne Heine Heliade Herculano Hoffmann Hölderlin Hugo Kostić Irving Isaacs Jakšić Jean Paul Karamzin Keats Kleist Krasiński Küchelbecker Lamartine Landor Lenau Leopardi Lermontov Longfellow Lowell Macedonski Macedo Mácha Magalhães Malczewski Manzoni Maturin Mérimée Mickiewicz Mörike Musset Nalbandian Nerval Njegoš Nodier Norwid Novalis Oehlenschläger O'Neddy Orbeliani Poe Polidori Potocki Prešeren Pushkin Raffi Saavedra Sand Schiller Schwab Scott Seward M. Shelley P. B. Shelley Shevchenko Słowacki Southey De Staël Stendhal Tieck Tyutchev Uhland Varela Vörösmarty Vyazemsky Wordsworth Zhukovsky Zorrilla Music Adam Alkan Auber Beethoven Bellini Bennett Berlioz Bertin Berwald Busoni Brahms Bruch Bruckner Cherubini Chopin Czerny Félicien David Ferdinand David Donizetti Dvořák Elgar Fauré Field Franck Franz Glinka Grieg Gomis Halévy Hummel Joachim Kalkbrenner Liszt Loewe Mahler Marschner Masarnau Medtner Méhul Fanny Mendelssohn Felix Mendelssohn Méreaux Meyerbeer Moniuszko Moscheles Moszkowski Mussorgsky Niedermeyer Onslow Paganini Paderewski Prudent Rachmaninoff Reicha Rimsky-Korsakov Rossini Rubinstein Saint-Saëns Schubert Clara Schumann Robert Schumann Scriabin Sibelius Smetana Sor Spohr Spontini Richard Strauss Tchaikovsky Thalberg Verdi Voříšek Wagner Weber Wolf Theologians and philosophers Barante Belinsky Berchet Chaadayev Coleridge Constant Díaz Emerson Feuerbach Fichte Goethe Hazlitt Hegel Hunt Khomyakov Lamennais Larra Mazzini Michelet Müller Pellico Quinet Ritschl Rousseau Schiller A. Schlegel F. Schlegel Schleiermacher Senancour De Staël Tieck Wackenroder Visual artists Aivazovsky Bierstadt Blake Bonington Bryullov Chassériau Church Constable Cole Corot Dahl David d'Angers Delacroix Friedrich Fuseli Géricault Girodet Głowacki Goya Gude Hayez Janmot Jones Kiprensky Koch Lampi Leutze Loutherbourg Maison Martin Michałowski Palmer Porto-Alegre Préault Révoil Richard Rude Runge Saleh Scheffer Stattler Stroj Tidemand Todorović Tropinin Turner Veit Ward Wiertz Related topics German idealism Historical fiction Mal du siècle Medievalism Neo-romanticism Preromanticism Post-romanticism Sturm und Drang  « Age of Enlightenment Realism »  v t e Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom John Dryden (1668–88) Thomas Shadwell (1689–92) Nahum Tate (1692–1715) Nicholas Rowe (1715–18) Laurence Eusden (1718–30) Colley Cibber (1730–57) William Whitehead (1757–85) Thomas Warton (1785–90) Henry James Pye (1790–1813) Robert Southey (1813–43) William Wordsworth (1843–50) Alfred, Lord Tennyson (1850–92) Alfred Austin (1896–1913) Robert Bridges (1913–30) John Masefield (1930–67) Cecil Day-Lewis (1968–72) John Betjeman (1972–84) Ted Hughes (1984–98) Andrew Motion (1999–2009) Carol Ann Duffy (2009–2019) Simon Armitage (2019–) Authority control BIBSYS: 90087570 BNE: XX998992 BNF: cb120285721 (data) CANTIC: a11380020 CiNii: DA00372355 GND: 118635212 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\085984 ISNI: 0000 0001 2127 8691 LCCN: n79006595 LNB: 000021794 MBA: 6a0e8574-d332-4562-91bb-ecd51479af6a NDL: 00461449 NKC: jn20000605662 NLA: 36578488 NLG: 62633 NLI: 000143255 NLK: KAC199630569 NSK: 000072580 NTA: 068478534 RSL: 000025820 SELIBR: 206223 SNAC: w6mk69t1 SUDOC: 027369528 Trove: 1017043 ULAN: 500071872 VcBA: 495/119725 VIAF: 35723133 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79006595 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Wordsworth&oldid=995994110" Categories: William Wordsworth 1770 births 1850 deaths 18th-century Christian mystics 18th-century English poets 18th-century English writers 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en-wikipedia-org-9668	----	Cleopatra - Wikipedia Cleopatra From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search last active pharaoh of Ptolemaic Egypt For other uses, see Cleopatra (disambiguation). Cleopatra The Berlin Cleopatra, a Roman sculpture of Cleopatra wearing a royal diadem, mid-1st century BC (around the time of her visits to Rome in 46–44 BC), discovered in an Italian villa along the Via Appia and now located in the Altes Museum in Germany.[1][2][3][note 1] Queen of the Ptolemaic Kingdom Reign 51 BC to 10 or 12 August 30 BC (21 years)[4][note 2] Predecessor Ptolemy XII Auletes Successor Ptolemy XV Caesarion[note 3] Co-rulers Ptolemy XII Auletes Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Born Early 69 BC Alexandria, Ptolemaic Kingdom Died 10 or 12 August 30 BC (aged 39)[note 2] Alexandria, Roman Egypt Burial Unlocated tomb (probably in Egypt) Spouse Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Ptolemy XIV Mark Antony Issue Caesarion Alexander Helios Cleopatra Selene II Ptolemy Philadelphus Full name Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator Dynasty Ptolemaic Father Ptolemy XII Auletes Mother Presumably Cleopatra VI Tryphaena (also known as Cleopatra V Tryphaena)[note 4] Cleopatra VII in hieroglyphs Cleopatra Qlwpdrt ​ Horus name (1): Wer(et)-neb(et)-neferu-achet-seh Wr(.t)-nb(.t)-nfrw-3ḫ(t)-sḥ The great Lady of perfection, excellent in counsel ​ Horus name (2): Weret-tut-en-it-es Wr.t-twt-n-jt=s The great one, sacred image of her father Cleopatra netjeret mer(et) ites Qlwpdrt nṯrt mr(t) jts The goddess Cleopatra who is beloved of her father Part of a series on Ancient Rome and the fall of the Republic People Mark Antony Augustus Brutus Cato Cicero Cleopatra Clodius Pulcher Crassus Lepidus Pompey Sextus Pompey Events First Triumvirate Caesar's Civil War Assassination of Caesar Second Triumvirate Liberators' Civil War Sicilian Revolt Final War of the Roman Republic Places Caesareum Comitium Curia Julia Curia Hostilia Rostra Theatre of Pompey v t e Part of a series on Cleopatra VII Early life (69–51 BC) Reign (51–30 BC) Death (30 BC) v t e Cleopatra VII Philopator (Koinē Greek: Κλεοπάτρα Φιλοπάτωρ;[5] 69 – 10 or 12 August 30 BC)[note 2] was the last active ruler of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt.[note 5] As a member of the Ptolemaic dynasty, she was a descendant of its founder Ptolemy I Soter, a Macedonian Greek general and companion of Alexander the Great.[note 6] After the death of Cleopatra, Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire, marking the end of the second to last Hellenistic state and the age that had lasted since the reign of Alexander (336–323 BC).[note 7] Her native language was Koine Greek, and she was the only Ptolemaic ruler to learn the Egyptian language.[note 8] In 58 BC, Cleopatra presumably accompanied her father, Ptolemy XII Auletes, during his exile to Rome after a revolt in Egypt (a Roman client state) allowing his daughter Berenice IV to claim the throne. Berenice was killed in 55 BC when Ptolemy returned to Egypt with Roman military assistance. When he died in 51 BC, the joint reign of Cleopatra and her brother Ptolemy XIII began, but a falling-out between them led to open civil war. After losing the 48 BC Battle of Pharsalus in Greece against his rival Julius Caesar (a Roman dictator and consul) in Caesar's Civil War, the Roman statesman Pompey fled to Egypt. Pompey had been a political ally of Ptolemy XII, but Ptolemy XIII, at the urging of his court eunuchs, had Pompey ambushed and killed before Caesar arrived and occupied Alexandria. Caesar then attempted to reconcile the rival Ptolemaic siblings, but Ptolemy's chief adviser Potheinos viewed Caesar's terms as favoring Cleopatra, so his forces besieged her and Caesar at the palace. Shortly after the siege was lifted by reinforcements, Ptolemy XIII died in the 47 BC Battle of the Nile; Cleopatra's half-sister Arsinoe IV was eventually exiled to Ephesus for her role in carrying out the siege. Caesar declared Cleopatra and her brother Ptolemy XIV joint rulers, but maintained a private affair with Cleopatra that produced a son, Caesarion. Cleopatra traveled to Rome as a client queen in 46 and 44 BC, where she stayed at Caesar's villa. After the assassinations of Caesar and (on her orders) Ptolemy XIV in 44 BC, she named Caesarion co-ruler. In the Liberators' civil war of 43–42 BC, Cleopatra sided with the Roman Second Triumvirate formed by Caesar's grandnephew and heir Octavian, Mark Antony, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. After their meeting at Tarsos in 41 BC, the queen had an affair with Antony. He carried out the execution of Arsinoe at her request, and became increasingly reliant on Cleopatra for both funding and military aid during his invasions of the Parthian Empire and the Kingdom of Armenia. The Donations of Alexandria declared their children Alexander Helios, Cleopatra Selene II, and Ptolemy Philadelphus rulers over various erstwhile territories under Antony's triumviral authority. This event, their marriage, and Antony's divorce of Octavian's sister Octavia Minor led to the Final War of the Roman Republic. Octavian engaged in a war of propaganda, forced Antony's allies in the Roman Senate to flee Rome in 32 BC, and declared war on Cleopatra. After defeating Antony and Cleopatra's naval fleet at the 31 BC Battle of Actium, Octavian's forces invaded Egypt in 30 BC and defeated Antony, leading to Antony's suicide. When Cleopatra learned that Octavian planned to bring her to his Roman triumphal procession, she killed herself by poisoning, contrary to the popular belief that she was bitten by an asp. Cleopatra's legacy survives in ancient and modern works of art. Roman historiography and Latin poetry produced a generally critical view of the queen that pervaded later Medieval and Renaissance literature. In the visual arts, her ancient depictions include Roman busts, paintings, and sculptures, cameo carvings and glass, Ptolemaic and Roman coinage, and reliefs. In Renaissance and Baroque art, she was the subject of many works including operas, paintings, poetry, sculptures, and theatrical dramas. She has become a pop culture icon of Egyptomania since the Victorian era, and in modern times, Cleopatra has appeared in the applied and fine arts, burlesque satire, Hollywood films, and brand images for commercial products. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Biography 2.1 Background 2.2 Early childhood 2.3 Reign and exile of Ptolemy XII 2.4 Accession to the throne 2.5 Assassination of Pompey 2.6 Relationship with Julius Caesar 2.7 Cleopatra in the Liberators' civil war 2.8 Relationship with Mark Antony 2.9 Donations of Alexandria 2.10 Battle of Actium 2.11 Downfall and death 3 Cleopatra's kingdom and role as a monarch 4 Legacy 4.1 Children and successors 4.2 Roman literature and historiography 4.3 Cultural depictions 4.3.1 Depictions in ancient art 4.3.1.1 Statues 4.3.1.2 Coinage portraits 4.3.1.3 Greco-Roman busts and heads 4.3.1.4 Paintings 4.3.1.5 Portland Vase 4.3.1.6 Native Egyptian art 4.3.2 Medieval and Early Modern reception 4.3.3 Modern depictions and brand imaging 4.4 Written works 5 Ancestry 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 8.1 Sources 8.1.1 Online 8.1.2 Print 9 Further reading 10 External links Etymology The Latinized form Cleopatra comes from the Ancient Greek Kleopátra (Κλεοπάτρα), meaning "glory of her father",[6] from κλέος (kléos, "glory") and πᾰτήρ (patḗr, "father").[7] The masculine form would have been written either as Kleópatros (Κλεόπᾰτρος) or Pátroklos (Πᾰ́τροκλος).[7] Cleopatra was the name of Alexander the Great's sister, as well as Cleopatra Alcyone, wife of Meleager in Greek mythology.[8] Through the marriage of Ptolemy V Epiphanes and Cleopatra I Syra (a Seleucid princess), the name entered the Ptolemaic dynasty.[9][10] Cleopatra's adopted title Theā́ Philopátōra (Θεᾱ́ Φιλοπάτωρα) means "goddess who loves her father."[11][12][note 9] Biography Background Main article: Early life of Cleopatra Hellenistic Kingdoms that emerged after the death of Alexander the Great Hellenistic portrait of Ptolemy XII Auletes, the father of Cleopatra, located in the Louvre, Paris[13] Ptolemaic pharaohs were crowned by the Egyptian high priest of Ptah at Memphis, but resided in the multicultural and largely Greek city of Alexandria, established by Alexander the Great of Macedon.[14][15][16][note 10] They spoke Greek and governed Egypt as Hellenistic Greek monarchs, refusing to learn the native Egyptian language.[17][18][19][note 8] In contrast, Cleopatra could speak multiple languages by adulthood and was the first Ptolemaic ruler to learn the Egyptian language.[20][21][19][note 11] Plutarch implies that she also spoke Ethiopian, the language of the "Troglodytes", Hebrew (or Aramaic), Arabic, the Syrian language (perhaps Syriac), Median, and Parthian, and she could apparently also speak Latin, although her Roman contemporaries would have preferred to speak with her in her native Koine Greek.[21][19][22][note 12] Aside from Greek, Egyptian, and Latin, these languages reflected Cleopatra's desire to restore North African and West Asian territories that once belonged to the Ptolemaic Kingdom.[23] Roman interventionism in Egypt predated the reign of Cleopatra.[24][25][26] When Ptolemy IX Lathyros died in late 81 BC, he was succeeded by his daughter Berenice III.[27][28] However, with opposition building at the royal court against the idea of a sole reigning female monarch, Berenice III accepted joint rule and marriage with her cousin and stepson Ptolemy XI Alexander II, an arrangement made by the Roman dictator Sulla.[27][28] Ptolemy XI had his wife killed shortly after their marriage in 80 BC, but was lynched soon thereafter in the resulting riot over the assassination.[27][29][30] Ptolemy XI, and perhaps his uncle Ptolemy IX or father Ptolemy X Alexander I, willed the Ptolemaic Kingdom to Rome as collateral for loans, so that the Romans had legal grounds to take over Egypt, their client state, after the assassination of Ptolemy XI.[27][31][32] The Romans chose instead to divide the Ptolemaic realm among the illegitimate sons of Ptolemy IX, bestowing Cyprus to Ptolemy of Cyprus and Egypt to Ptolemy XII Auletes.[27][29] Early childhood Main article: Early life of Cleopatra Cleopatra VII was born in early 69 BC to the ruling Ptolemaic pharaoh Ptolemy XII and an unknown mother,[33][34][note 13] presumably Ptolemy XII's wife Cleopatra VI Tryphaena (also known as Cleopatra V Tryphaena),[35][36][37][note 14][note 4] the mother of Cleopatra's older sister, Berenice IV Epiphaneia.[38][39][40][note 15] Cleopatra Tryphaena disappears from official records a few months after the birth of Cleopatra in 69 BC.[41][42] The three younger children of Ptolemy XII, Cleopatra's sister Arsinoe IV and brothers Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator and Ptolemy XIV,[38][39][40] were born in the absence of his wife.[43][44] Cleopatra's childhood tutor was Philostratos, from whom she learned the Greek arts of oration and philosophy.[45] During her youth Cleopatra presumably studied at the Musaeum, including the Library of Alexandria.[46][47] Reign and exile of Ptolemy XII Main article: Early life of Cleopatra Further information: First Triumvirate In 65 BC the Roman censor Marcus Licinius Crassus argued before the Roman Senate that Rome should annex Ptolemaic Egypt, but his proposed bill and the similar bill of tribune Servilius Rullus in 63 BC were rejected.[48][49] Ptolemy XII responded to the threat of possible annexation by offering remuneration and lavish gifts to powerful Roman statesmen, such as Pompey during his campaign against Mithridates VI of Pontus, and eventually Julius Caesar after he became Roman consul in 59 BC.[50][51][52][note 16] However, Ptolemy XII's profligate behavior bankrupted him and he was forced to acquire loans from the Roman banker Gaius Rabirius Postumus.[53][54][55] Most likely a posthumously painted portrait of Cleopatra with red hair and her distinct facial features, wearing a royal diadem and pearl-studded hairpins, from Roman Herculaneum, Italy, 1st century AD[56][57][note 17] In 58 BC the Romans annexed Cyprus and on accusations of piracy drove Ptolemy of Cyprus, Ptolemy XII's brother, to commit suicide instead of enduring exile to Paphos.[58][59][55][note 18] Ptolemy XII remained publicly silent on the death of his brother, a decision which, along with ceding traditional Ptolemaic territory to the Romans, damaged his credibility among subjects already enraged by his economic policies.[58][60][61] Ptolemy XII was then exiled from Egypt by force, traveling first to Rhodes, then Athens, and finally the villa of triumvir Pompey in the Alban Hills, near Praeneste, Italy.[58][59][62][note 19] Ptolemy XII spent nearly a year there on the outskirts of Rome, ostensibly accompanied by his daughter Cleopatra, then about 11.[58][62][note 20] Berenice IV sent an embassy to Rome to advocate for her rule and oppose the reinstatement of her father Ptolemy XII, but Ptolemy had assassins kill the leaders of the embassy, an incident that was covered up by his powerful Roman supporters.[63][54][64][note 21] When the Roman Senate denied Ptolemy XII the offer of an armed escort and provisions for a return to Egypt, he decided to leave Rome in late 57 BC and reside at the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus.[65][66][67] The Roman financiers of Ptolemy XII remained determined to restore him to power.[68] Pompey persuaded Aulus Gabinius, the Roman governor of Syria, to invade Egypt and restore Ptolemy XII, offering him 10,000 talents for the proposed mission.[68][69][70] Although it put him at odds with Roman law, Gabinius invaded Egypt in the spring of 55 BC by way of Hasmonean Judea, where Hyrcanus II had Antipater the Idumaean, father of Herod the Great, furnish the Roman-led army with supplies.[68][71] As a young cavalry officer, Mark Antony was under Gabinius's command. He distinguished himself by preventing Ptolemy XII from massacring the inhabitants of Pelousion, and for rescuing the body of Archelaos, the husband of Berenice IV, after he was killed in battle, ensuring him a proper royal burial.[72][73] Cleopatra, then 14 years of age, would have traveled with the Roman expedition into Egypt; years later, Antony would profess that he had fallen in love with her at this time.[72][74] The Roman Republic (green) and Ptolemaic Egypt (yellow) in 40 BC Gabinius was put on trial in Rome for abusing his authority, for which he was acquitted, but his second trial for accepting bribes led to his exile, from which he was recalled seven years later in 48 BC by Caesar.[75][76] Crassus replaced him as governor of Syria and extended his provincial command to Egypt, but he was killed by the Parthians at the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC.[75][77] Ptolemy XII had Berenice IV and her wealthy supporters executed, seizing their properties.[78][79][80] He allowed Gabinius's largely Germanic and Gallic Roman garrison, the Gabiniani, to harass people in the streets of Alexandria and installed his longtime Roman financier Rabirius as his chief financial officer.[78][81][82][note 22] Within a year Rabirius was placed under protective custody and sent back to Rome after his life was endangered for draining Egypt of its resources.[83][84][80][note 23] Despite these problems, Ptolemy XII created a will designating Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII as his joint heirs, oversaw major construction projects such as the Temple of Edfu and a temple at Dendera, and stabilized the economy.[85][84][86][note 24] On 31 May 52 BC Cleopatra was made a regent of Ptolemy XII as indicated by an inscription in the Temple of Hathor at Dendera.[87][88][89][note 25] Rabirius was unable to collect the entirety of Ptolemy XII's debt by the time of the latter's death, and so it was passed on to his successors Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII.[83][76] Accession to the throne Main articles: Early life of Cleopatra and Reign of Cleopatra Left: Cleopatra dressed as a pharaoh and presenting offerings to the goddess Isis, on a limestone stele dedicated by a Greek man named Onnophris, dated 51 BC, and located in the Louvre, Paris Right: The cartouches of Cleopatra and Caesarion on a limestone stele of the High Priest of Ptah in Egypt, dated to the Ptolemaic period, and located in the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London Ptolemy XII died sometime before 22 March 51 BC, when Cleopatra, in her first act as queen, began her voyage to Hermonthis, near Thebes, to install a new sacred Buchis bull, worshiped as an intermediary for the god Montu in the Ancient Egyptian religion.[5][90][91][note 26] Cleopatra faced several pressing issues and emergencies shortly after taking the throne. These included famine caused by drought and a low level of the annual flooding of the Nile, and lawless behavior instigated by the Gabiniani, the now unemployed and assimilated Roman soldiers left by Gabinius to garrison Egypt.[92][93] Inheriting her father's debts, Cleopatra also owed the Roman Republic 17.5 million drachmas.[94] In 50 BC Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, proconsul of Syria, sent his two eldest sons to Egypt, most likely to negotiate with the Gabiniani and recruit them as soldiers in the desperate defense of Syria against the Parthians.[95] However, the Gabiniani tortured and murdered these two, perhaps with secret encouragement by rogue senior administrators in Cleopatra's court.[95][96] Cleopatra sent the Gabiniani culprits to Bibulus as prisoners awaiting his judgment, but he sent them back to Cleopatra and chastised her for interfering in their adjudication, which was the prerogative of the Roman Senate.[97][96] Bibulus, siding with Pompey in Caesar's Civil War, failed to prevent Caesar from landing a naval fleet in Greece, which ultimately allowed Caesar to reach Egypt in pursuit of Pompey.[97] By 29 August 51 BC, official documents started listing Cleopatra as the sole ruler, evidence that she had rejected her brother Ptolemy XIII as a co-ruler.[94][96][98] She had probably married him,[77] but there is no record of this.[5] The Ptolemaic practice of sibling marriage was introduced by Ptolemy II and his sister Arsinoe II.[99][100][101] A long-held royal Egyptian practice, it was loathed by contemporary Greeks.[99][100][101][note 27] By the reign of Cleopatra, however, it was considered a normal arrangement for Ptolemaic rulers.[99][100][101] Despite Cleopatra's rejection of him, Ptolemy XIII still retained powerful allies, notably the eunuch Potheinos, his childhood tutor, regent, and administrator of his properties.[102][93][103] Others involved in the cabal against Cleopatra included Achillas, a prominent military commander, and Theodotus of Chios, another tutor of Ptolemy XIII.[102][104] Cleopatra seems to have attempted a short-lived alliance with her brother Ptolemy XIV, but by the autumn of 50 BC Ptolemy XIII had the upper hand in their conflict and began signing documents with his name before that of his sister, followed by the establishment of his first regnal date in 49 BC.[5][105][106][note 28] Assassination of Pompey Main article: Reign of Cleopatra A Roman portrait of Pompey made during the reign of Augustus (27 BC – 14 AD), a copy of an original from 70–60 BC, and located in the Venice National Archaeological Museum, Italy In the summer of 49 BC, Cleopatra and her forces were still fighting against Ptolemy XIII within Alexandria when Pompey's son Gnaeus Pompeius arrived, seeking military aid on behalf of his father.[105] After returning to Italy from the wars in Gaul and crossing the Rubicon in January of 49 BC, Caesar had forced Pompey and his supporters to flee to Greece.[107][108] In perhaps their last joint decree, both Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII agreed to Gnaeus Pompeius's request and sent his father 60 ships and 500 troops, including the Gabiniani, a move that helped erase some of the debt owed to Rome.[107][109] Losing the fight against her brother, Cleopatra was then forced to flee Alexandria and withdraw to the region of Thebes.[110][111][112] By the spring of 48 BC Cleopatra had traveled to Roman Syria with her younger sister, Arsinoe IV, to gather an invasion force that would head to Egypt.[113][106][114] She returned with an army, but her advance to Alexandria was blocked by her brother's forces, including some Gabiniani mobilized to fight against her, so she camped outside Pelousion in the eastern Nile Delta.[115][106][116] In Greece, Caesar and Pompey's forces engaged each other at the decisive Battle of Pharsalus on 9 August 48 BC, leading to the destruction of most of Pompey's army and his forced flight to Tyre, Lebanon.[115][117][118][note 29] Given his close relationship with the Ptolemies, Pompey ultimately decided that Egypt would be his place of refuge, where he could replenish his forces.[119][118][116][note 30] Ptolemy XIII's advisers, however, feared the idea of Pompey using Egypt as his base in a protracted Roman civil war.[119][120][121] In a scheme devised by Theodotus, Pompey arrived by ship near Pelousion after being invited by a written message, only to be ambushed and stabbed to death on 28 September 48 BC.[119][117][122][note 31] Ptolemy XIII believed he had demonstrated his power and simultaneously defused the situation by having Pompey's head, severed and embalmed, sent to Caesar, who arrived in Alexandria by early October and took up residence at the royal palace.[123][124][125][note 31] Caesar expressed grief and outrage over the killing of Pompey and called on both Ptolemy XIII and Cleopatra to disband their forces and reconcile with each other.[123][126][125][note 32] Relationship with Julius Caesar Main article: Reign of Cleopatra Further information: Military campaigns of Julius Caesar, Siege of Alexandria (47 BC), Battle of the Nile (47 BC), and Caesareum of Alexandria Ptolemy XIII arrived at Alexandria at the head of his army, in clear defiance of Caesar's demand that he disband and leave his army before his arrival.[127][128] Cleopatra initially sent emissaries to Caesar, but upon allegedly hearing that Caesar was inclined to having affairs with royal women, she came to Alexandria to see him personally.[127][129][128] Historian Cassius Dio records that she did so without informing her brother, dressed in an attractive manner, and charmed Caesar with her wit.[127][130][131] Plutarch provides an entirely different and perhaps mythical account that alleges she was bound inside a bed sack to be smuggled into the palace to meet Caesar.[127][132][133][note 33] The Tusculum portrait, a contemporary Roman sculpture of Julius Caesar located in the Archaeological Museum of Turin, Italy When Ptolemy XIII realized that his sister was in the palace consorting directly with Caesar, he attempted to rouse the populace of Alexandria into a riot, but he was arrested by Caesar, who used his oratorical skills to calm the frenzied crowd.[134][135][136] Caesar then brought Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII before the assembly of Alexandria, where Caesar revealed the written will of Ptolemy XII—previously possessed by Pompey—naming Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII as his joint heirs.[137][135][129][note 34] Caesar then attempted to arrange for the other two siblings, Arsinoe IV and Ptolemy XIV, to rule together over Cyprus, thus removing potential rival claimants to the Egyptian throne while also appeasing the Ptolemaic subjects still bitter over the loss of Cyprus to the Romans in 58 BC.[138][135][139][note 34] Judging that this agreement favored Cleopatra over Ptolemy XIII and that the latter's army of 20,000, including the Gabiniani, could most likely defeat Caesar's army of 4,000 unsupported troops, Potheinos decided to have Achillas lead their forces to Alexandria to attack both Caesar and Cleopatra.[138][135][140][note 35] After Caesar managed to execute Potheinos, Arsinoe IV joined forces with Achillas and was declared queen, but soon afterward had her tutor Ganymedes kill Achillas and take his position as commander of her army.[141][142][143][note 36] Ganymedes then tricked Caesar into requesting the presence of the erstwhile captive Ptolemy XIII as a negotiator, only to have him join the army of Arsinoe IV.[141][144][145] The resulting siege of the palace, with Caesar and Cleopatra trapped together inside, lasted into the following year of 47 BC.[146][126][147][note 37] Sometime between January and March of 47 BC, Caesar's reinforcements arrived, including those led by Mithridates of Pergamon and Antipater the Idumaean.[141][126][148][note 38] Ptolemy XIII and Arsinoe IV withdrew their forces to the Nile, where Caesar attacked them. Ptolemy XIII tried to flee by boat, but it capsized, and he drowned.[149][126][150][note 39] Ganymedes may have been killed in the battle. Theodotus was found years later in Asia, by Marcus Junius Brutus, and executed. Arsinoe IV was forcefully paraded in Caesar's triumph in Rome before being exiled to the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus.[151][152][153] Cleopatra was conspicuously absent from these events and resided in the palace, most likely because she had been pregnant with Caesar's child since September 48 BC.[154][155][156] Caesar's term as consul had expired at the end of 48 BC.[151] However, Antony, an officer of his, helped to secure Caesar's appointment as dictator lasting for a year, until October 47 BC, providing Caesar with the legal authority to settle the dynastic dispute in Egypt.[151] Wary of repeating the mistake of Cleopatra's sister Berenice IV in having a female monarch as sole ruler, Caesar appointed Cleopatra's 12-year-old brother, Ptolemy XIV, as joint ruler with the 22-year-old Cleopatra in a nominal sibling marriage, but Cleopatra continued living privately with Caesar.[157][126][148][note 40] The exact date at which Cyprus was returned to her control is not known, although she had a governor there by 42 BC.[158][148] Cleopatra and Caesar (1866), a painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme Caesar is alleged to have joined Cleopatra for a cruise of the Nile and sightseeing of Egyptian monuments,[126][159][160] although this may be a romantic tale reflecting later well-to-do Roman proclivities and not a real historical event.[161] The historian Suetonius provided considerable details about the voyage, including use of Thalamegos, the pleasure barge constructed by Ptolemy IV, which during his reign measured 90 metres (300 ft) in length and 24 metres (80 ft) in height and was complete with dining rooms, state rooms, holy shrines, and promenades along its two decks, resembling a floating villa.[161][162] Caesar could have had an interest in the Nile cruise owing to his fascination with geography; he was well-read in the works of Eratosthenes and Pytheas, and perhaps wanted to discover the source of the river, but turned back before reaching Ethiopia.[163][164] Caesar departed from Egypt around April 47 BC, allegedly to confront Pharnaces II of Pontus, the son of Mithridates VI of Pontus', who was stirring up trouble for Rome in Anatolia.[165] It is possible that Caesar, married to the prominent Roman woman Calpurnia, also wanted to avoid being seen together with Cleopatra when she bore him their son.[165][159] He left three legions in Egypt, later increased to four, under the command of the freedman Rufio, to secure Cleopatra's tenuous position, but also perhaps to keep her activities in check.[165][166][167] Caesarion, Cleopatra's alleged child with Caesar, was born 23 June 47 BC and was originally named "Pharaoh Caesar", as preserved on a stele at the Serapeum in Memphis.[168][126][169][note 41] Perhaps owing to his still childless marriage with Calpurnia, Caesar remained publicly silent about Caesarion (but perhaps accepted his parentage in private).[170][note 42] Cleopatra, on the other hand, made repeated official declarations about Caesarion's parentage, naming Caesar as the father.[170][171][172] Egyptian portrait of a Ptolemaic queen, possibly Cleopatra, c. 51–30 BC, located in the Brooklyn Museum[173] Cleopatra and her nominal joint ruler Ptolemy XIV visited Rome sometime in late 46 BC, presumably without Caesarion, and were given lodging in Caesar's villa within the Horti Caesaris.[174][169][175][note 43] As with their father Ptolemy XII, Caesar awarded both Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIV the legal status of "friend and ally of the Roman people" (Latin: socius et amicus populi Romani), in effect client rulers loyal to Rome.[176][177][178] Cleopatra's visitors at Caesar's villa across the Tiber included the senator Cicero, who found her arrogant.[179][180] Sosigenes of Alexandria, one of the members of Cleopatra's court, aided Caesar in the calculations for the new Julian calendar, put into effect 1 January 45 BC.[181][182][183] The Temple of Venus Genetrix, established in the Forum of Caesar on 25 September 46 BC, contained a golden statue of Cleopatra (which stood there at least until the 3rd century AD), associating the mother of Caesar's child directly with the goddess Venus, mother of the Romans.[184][182][185] The statue also subtly linked the Egyptian goddess Isis with the Roman religion.[179] Cleopatra's presence in Rome most likely had an effect on the events at the Lupercalia festival a month before Caesar's assassination.[186][187] Antony attempted to place a royal diadem on Caesar's head, but the latter refused in what was most likely a staged performance, perhaps to gauge the Roman public's mood about accepting Hellenistic-style kingship.[186][187] Cicero, who was present at the festival, mockingly asked where the diadem came from, an obvious reference to the Ptolemaic queen whom he abhorred.[186][187] Caesar was assassinated on the Ides of March (15 March 44 BC), but Cleopatra stayed in Rome until about mid-April, in the vain hope of having Caesarion recognized as Caesar's heir.[188][189][190] However, Caesar's will named his grandnephew Octavian as the primary heir, and Octavian arrived in Italy around the same time Cleopatra decided to depart for Egypt.[188][189][191] A few months later, Cleopatra had Ptolemy XIV killed by poisoning, elevating her son Caesarion as her co-ruler.[192][193][172][note 44] Cleopatra in the Liberators' civil war Main article: Reign of Cleopatra Further information: Liberators' civil war Cleopatra's Gate in Tarsos (now Tarsus, Mersin, Turkey), the site where she met Mark Antony in 41 BC[194] Octavian, Antony, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate in 43 BC, in which they were each elected for five-year terms to restore order in the Republic and bring Caesar's assassins to justice.[195][196] Cleopatra received messages from both Gaius Cassius Longinus, one of Caesar's assassins, and Publius Cornelius Dolabella, proconsul of Syria and Caesarian loyalist, requesting military aid.[195] She decided to write Cassius an excuse that her kingdom faced too many internal problems, while sending the four legions left by Caesar in Egypt to Dolabella.[195][197] However, these troops were captured by Cassius in Palestine.[195][197] While Serapion, Cleopatra's governor of Cyprus, defected to Cassius and provided him with ships, Cleopatra took her own fleet to Greece to personally assist Octavian and Antony, but her ships were heavily damaged in a Mediterranean storm and she arrived too late to aid in the fighting.[195][198] By the autumn of 42 BC, Antony had defeated the forces of Caesar's assassins at the Battle of Philippi in Greece, leading to the suicide of Cassius and Brutus.[195][199] By the end of 42 BC, Octavian had gained control over much of the western half of the Roman Republic and Antony the eastern half, with Lepidus largely marginalized.[200] In the summer of 41 BC, Antony established his headquarters at Tarsos in Anatolia and summoned Cleopatra there in several letters, which she rebuffed until Antony's envoy Quintus Dellius convinced her to come.[201][202] The meeting would allow Cleopatra to clear up the misconception that she had supported Cassius during the civil war and address territorial exchanges in the Levant, but Antony also undoubtedly desired to form a personal, romantic relationship with the queen.[203][202] Cleopatra sailed up the Kydnos River to Tarsos in Thalamegos, hosting Antony and his officers for two nights of lavish banquets on board the ship.[204][205][note 45] Cleopatra managed to clear her name as a supposed supporter of Cassius, arguing she had really attempted to help Dolabella in Syria, and convinced Antony to have her exiled sister, Arsinoe IV, executed at Ephesus.[206][207] Cleopatra's former rebellious governor of Cyprus was also handed over to her for execution.[206][208] Relationship with Mark Antony Main article: Reign of Cleopatra A Roman marble bust of the consul and triumvir Mark Antony, late 1st century AD, Vatican Museums Cleopatra invited Antony to come to Egypt before departing from Tarsos, which led Antony to visit Alexandria by November 41 BC.[206][209] Antony was well received by the populace of Alexandria, both for his heroic actions in restoring Ptolemy XII to power and coming to Egypt without an occupation force like Caesar had done.[210][211] In Egypt, Antony continued to enjoy the lavish royal lifestyle he had witnessed aboard Cleopatra's ship docked at Tarsos.[212][208] He also had his subordinates, such as Publius Ventidius Bassus, drive the Parthians out of Anatolia and Syria.[211][213][214][note 46] Cleopatra carefully chose Antony as her partner for producing further heirs, as he was deemed to be the most powerful Roman figure following Caesar's demise.[215] With his powers as a triumvir, Antony also had the broad authority to restore former Ptolemaic lands, which were currently in Roman hands, to Cleopatra.[216][217] While it is clear that both Cilicia and Cyprus were under Cleopatra's control by 19 November 38 BC, the transfer probably occurred earlier in the winter of 41–40 BC, during her time spent with Antony.[216] By the spring of 40 BC, Antony left Egypt due to troubles in Syria, where his governor Lucius Decidius Saxa was killed and his army taken by Quintus Labienus, a former officer under Cassius who now served the Parthian Empire.[218] Cleopatra provided Antony with 200 ships for his campaign and as payment for her newly acquired territories.[218] She would not see Antony again until 37 BC, but she maintained correspondence, and evidence suggests she kept a spy in his camp.[218] By the end of 40 BC, Cleopatra had given birth to twins, a boy named Alexander Helios and a girl named Cleopatra Selene II, both of whom Antony acknowledged as his children.[219][220] Helios (the Sun) and Selene (the Moon) were symbolic of a new era of societal rejuvenation,[221] as well as an indication that Cleopatra hoped Antony would repeat the exploits of Alexander the Great by conquering the Parthians.[211] The Meeting of Antony and Cleopatra (1885), by Lawrence Alma-Tadema Mark Antony's Parthian campaign in the east was disrupted by the events of the Perusine War (41–40 BC), initiated by his ambitious wife Fulvia against Octavian in the hopes of making her husband the undisputed leader of Rome.[221][222] It has been suggested that Fulvia wanted to cleave Antony away from Cleopatra, but the conflict emerged in Italy even before Cleopatra's meeting with Antony at Tarsos.[223] Fulvia and Antony's brother Lucius Antonius were eventually besieged by Octavian at Perusia (modern Perugia, Italy) and then exiled from Italy, after which Fulvia died at Sicyon in Greece while attempting to reach Antony.[224] Her sudden death led to a reconciliation of Octavian and Antony at Brundisium in Italy in September 40 BC.[224][211] Although the agreement struck at Brundisium solidified Antony's control of the Roman Republic's territories east of the Ionian Sea, it also stipulated that he concede Italia, Hispania, and Gaul, and marry Octavian's sister Octavia the Younger, a potential rival for Cleopatra.[225][226] In December 40 BC Cleopatra received Herod in Alexandria as an unexpected guest and refugee who fled a turbulent situation in Judea.[227] Herod had been installed as a tetrarch there by Antony, but he was soon at odds with Antigonus II Mattathias of the long-established Hasmonean dynasty.[227] The latter had imprisoned Herod's brother and fellow tetrarch Phasael, who was executed while Herod was fleeing toward Cleopatra's court.[227] Cleopatra attempted to provide him with a military assignment, but Herod declined and traveled to Rome, where the triumvirs Octavian and Antony named him king of Judea.[228][229] This act put Herod on a collision course with Cleopatra, who would desire to reclaim the former Ptolemaic territories that comprised his new Herodian kingdom.[228] An ancient Roman sculpture possibly depicting either Cleopatra of Ptolemaic Egypt,[230][231][note 47] or her daughter, Cleopatra Selene II, Queen of Mauretania,[232] located in the Archaeological Museum of Cherchell, Algeria Relations between Antony and Cleopatra perhaps soured when he not only married Octavia, but also sired her two children, Antonia the Elder in 39 BC and Antonia Minor in 36 BC, and moved his headquarters to Athens.[233] However, Cleopatra's position in Egypt was secure.[211] Her rival Herod was occupied with civil war in Judea that required heavy Roman military assistance, but received none from Cleopatra.[233] Since the authority of Antony and Octavian as triumvirs had expired on 1 January 37 BC, Octavia arranged for a meeting at Tarentum, where the triumvirate was officially extended to 33 BC.[234] With two legions granted by Octavian and a thousand soldiers lent by Octavia, Antony traveled to Antioch, where he made preparations for war against the Parthians.[235] Antony summoned Cleopatra to Antioch to discuss pressing issues, such as Herod's kingdom and financial support for his Parthian campaign.[235][236] Cleopatra brought her now three-year-old twins to Antioch, where Antony saw them for the first time and where they probably first received their surnames Helios and Selene as part of Antony and Cleopatra's ambitious plans for the future.[237][238] In order to stabilize the east, Antony not only enlarged Cleopatra's domain,[236] he also established new ruling dynasties and client rulers who would be loyal to him, yet would ultimately outlast him.[239][217][note 48] In this arrangement Cleopatra gained significant former Ptolemaic territories in the Levant, including nearly all of Phoenicia (Lebanon) minus Tyre and Sidon, which remained in Roman hands.[240][217][236] She also received Ptolemais Akko (modern Acre, Israel), a city that was established by Ptolemy II.[240] Given her ancestral relations with the Seleucids, she was granted the region of Coele-Syria along the upper Orontes River.[241][236] She was even given the region surrounding Jericho in Palestine, but she leased this territory back to Herod.[242][229] At the expense of the Nabataean king Malichus I (a cousin of Herod), Cleopatra was also given a portion of the Nabataean Kingdom around the Gulf of Aqaba on the Red Sea, including Ailana (modern Aqaba, Jordan).[243][229] To the west Cleopatra was handed Cyrene along the Libyan coast, as well as Itanos and Olous in Roman Crete.[244][236] Although still administered by Roman officials, these territories nevertheless enriched her kingdom and led her to declare the inauguration of a new era by double-dating her coinage in 36 BC.[245][246] Roman aureus bearing the portraits of Mark Antony (left) and Octavian (right), issued in 41 BC to celebrate the establishment of the Second Triumvirate by Octavian, Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus in 43 BC Antony's enlargement of the Ptolemaic realm by relinquishing directly controlled Roman territory was exploited by his rival Octavian, who tapped into the public sentiment in Rome against the empowerment of a foreign queen at the expense of their Republic.[247] Octavian, fostering the narrative that Antony was neglecting his virtuous Roman wife Octavia, granted both her and Livia, his own wife, extraordinary privileges of sacrosanctity.[247] Some 50 years before, Cornelia Africana, daughter of Scipio Africanus, had been the first living Roman woman to have a statue dedicated to her.[245] She was now followed by Octavia and Livia, whose statues were most likely erected in the Forum of Caesar to rival that of Cleopatra's, erected by Caesar.[245] In 36 BC, Cleopatra accompanied Antony to the Euphrates in his journey toward invading the Parthian Empire.[248] She then returned to Egypt, perhaps due to her advanced state of pregnancy.[249] By the summer of 36 BC, she had given birth to Ptolemy Philadelphus, her second son with Antony.[249][236] Antony's Parthian campaign in 36 BC turned into a complete debacle for a number of reasons, in particular the betrayal of Artavasdes II of Armenia, who defected to the Parthian side.[250][217][251] After losing some 30,000 men, more than Crassus at Carrhae (an indignity he had hoped to avenge), Antony finally arrived at Leukokome near Berytus (modern Beirut, Lebanon) in December, engaged in heavy drinking before Cleopatra arrived to provide funds and clothing for his battered troops.[250][252] Antony desired to avoid the risks involved in returning to Rome, and so he traveled with Cleopatra back to Alexandria to see his newborn son.[250] Donations of Alexandria Main articles: Donations of Alexandria and Reign of Cleopatra A denarius minted by Antony in 34 BC with his portrait on the obverse, which bears the inscription reading "ANTONIVS ARMENIA DEVICTA", alluding to his Armenian campaign. The reverse features Cleopatra, with the inscription "CLEOPATR[AE] REGINAE REGVM FILIORVM REGVM". The mention of her children on the reverse refers to the Donations of Alexandria.[253][254] As Antony prepared for another Parthian expedition in 35 BC, this time aimed at their ally Armenia, Octavia traveled to Athens with 2,000 troops in alleged support of Antony, but most likely in a scheme devised by Octavian to embarrass him for his military losses.[255][256][note 49] Antony received these troops but told Octavia not to stray east of Athens as he and Cleopatra traveled together to Antioch, only to suddenly and inexplicably abandon the military campaign and head back to Alexandria.[255][256] When Octavia returned to Rome Octavian portrayed his sister as a victim wronged by Antony, although she refused to leave Antony's household.[257][217] Octavian's confidence grew as he eliminated his rivals in the west, including Sextus Pompeius and even Lepidus, the third member of the triumvirate, who was placed under house arrest after revolting against Octavian in Sicily.[257][217][252] Dellius was sent as Antony's envoy to Artavasdes II in 34 BC to negotiate a potential marriage alliance that would wed the Armenian king's daughter to Alexander Helios, the son of Antony and Cleopatra.[258][259] When this was declined, Antony marched his army into Armenia, defeated their forces and captured the king and Armenian royal family.[258][260] Antony then held a military parade in Alexandria as an imitation of a Roman triumph, dressed as Dionysus and riding into the city on a chariot to present the royal prisoners to Cleopatra, who was seated on a golden throne above a silver dais.[258][261] News of this event was heavily criticized in Rome as a perversion of time-honored Roman rites and rituals to be enjoyed instead by an Egyptian queen.[258] A papyrus document dated February 33 BC granting tax exemptions to a person in Egypt and containing the signature of Cleopatra written by an official, but with "γινέσθωι" (ginésthōi; lit. "make it happen"[262][263] or "so be it"[264]) added in Greek, likely by the queen's own hand[262][263][264] In an event held at the gymnasium soon after the triumph, Cleopatra dressed as Isis and declared that she was the Queen of Kings with her son Caesarion, King of Kings, while Alexander Helios was declared king of Armenia, Media, and Parthia, and two-year-old Ptolemy Philadelphos was declared king of Syria and Cilicia.[265][266][267] Cleopatra Selene II was bestowed with Crete and Cyrene.[268][269] Antony and Cleopatra may have been wed during this ceremony.[268][267][note 50] Antony sent a report to Rome requesting ratification of these territorial claims, now known as the Donations of Alexandria. Octavian wanted to publicize it for propaganda purposes, but the two consuls, both supporters of Antony, had it censored from public view.[270][269] In late 34 BC, Antony and Octavian engaged in a heated war of propaganda that would last for years.[271][269][172][note 51] Antony claimed that his rival had illegally deposed Lepidus from their triumvirate and barred him from raising troops in Italy, while Octavian accused Antony of unlawfully detaining the king of Armenia, marrying Cleopatra despite still being married to his sister Octavia, and wrongfully claiming Caesarion as the heir of Caesar instead of Octavian.[271][269] The litany of accusations and gossip associated with this propaganda war have shaped the popular perceptions about Cleopatra from Augustan-period literature through to various media in modern times.[272][273] Cleopatra was said to have brainwashed Mark Antony with witchcraft and sorcery and was as dangerous as Homer's Helen of Troy in destroying civilization.[274] Pliny the Elder claims in his Natural History that Cleopatra once dissolved a pearl worth tens of millions of sesterces in vinegar just to win a dinner-party bet.[275][276] The accusation that Antony had stolen books from the Library of Pergamum to restock the Library of Alexandria later turned out to be an admitted fabrication by Gaius Calvisius Sabinus.[277] A papyrus document dated to February 33 BC, later used to wrap a mummy, contains the signature of Cleopatra, probably written by an official authorized to sign for her.[262][263] It concerns certain tax exemptions in Egypt granted to either Quintus Caecillius or Publius Canidius Crassus,[note 52] a former Roman consul and Antony's confidant who would command his land forces at Actium.[278][263] A subscript in a different handwriting at the bottom of the papyrus reads "make it happen"[278][263] or "so be it"[264] (Ancient Greek: γινέσθωι, romanized: ginésthōi);[note 53] this is likely the autograph of the queen, as it was Ptolemaic practice to countersign documents to avoid forgery.[278][263] Battle of Actium Main articles: Battle of Actium and Reign of Cleopatra A reconstructed statue of Augustus as a younger Octavian, dated c. 30 BC In a speech to the Roman Senate on the first day of his consulship on 1 January 33 BC, Octavian accused Antony of attempting to subvert Roman freedoms and territorial integrity as a slave to his Oriental queen.[279] Before Antony and Octavian's joint imperium expired on 31 December 33 BC, Antony declared Caesarion as the true heir of Caesar in an attempt to undermine Octavian.[279] In 32 BC the Antonian loyalists Gaius Sosius and Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus became consuls. The former gave a fiery speech condemning Octavian, now a private citizen without public office, and introduced pieces of legislation against him.[278][280] During the next senatorial session, Octavian entered the Senate house with armed guards and levied his own accusations against the consuls.[278][281] Intimidated by this act, the consuls and over 200 senators still in support of Antony fled Rome the next day to join the side of Antony.[278][281][282] Antony and Cleopatra traveled together to Ephesus in 32 BC, where she provided him with 200 of the 800 naval ships he was able to acquire.[278] Ahenobarbus, wary of having Octavian's propaganda confirmed to the public, attempted to persuade Antony to have Cleopatra excluded from the campaign against Octavian.[283][284] Publius Canidius Crassus made the counterargument that Cleopatra was funding the war effort and was a competent monarch.[283][284] Cleopatra refused Antony's requests that she return to Egypt, judging that by blocking Octavian in Greece she could more easily defend Egypt.[283][284] Cleopatra's insistence that she be involved in the battle for Greece led to the defections of prominent Romans, such as Ahenobarbus and Lucius Munatius Plancus.[283][281] During the spring of 32 BC Antony and Cleopatra traveled to Athens, where she persuaded Antony to send Octavia an official declaration of divorce.[283][281][267] This encouraged Plancus to advise Octavian that he should seize Antony's will, invested with the Vestal Virgins.[283][281][269] Although a violation of sacred and legal rights, Octavian forcefully acquired the document from the Temple of Vesta, and it became a useful tool in the propaganda war against Antony and Cleopatra.[283][269] Octavian highlighted parts of the will, such as Caesarion being named heir to Caesar, that the Donations of Alexandria were legal, that Antony should be buried alongside Cleopatra in Egypt instead of Rome, and that Alexandria would be made the new capital of the Roman Republic.[285][281][269] In a show of loyalty to Rome, Octavian decided to begin construction of his own mausoleum at the Campus Martius.[281] Octavian's legal standing was also improved by being elected consul in 31 BC.[281] With Antony's will made public, Octavian had his casus belli, and Rome declared war on Cleopatra,[285][286][287] not Antony.[note 54] The legal argument for war was based less on Cleopatra's territorial acquisitions, with former Roman territories ruled by her children with Antony, and more on the fact that she was providing military support to a private citizen now that Antony's triumviral authority had expired.[288] Left: A silver tetradrachm of Cleopatra minted at Seleucia Pieria, Syria Right: A silver tetradrachm of Cleopatra minted at Ascalon, Israel Antony and Cleopatra had a larger fleet than Octavian, but the crews of Antony and Cleopatra's navy were not all well-trained, some of them perhaps from merchant vessels, whereas Octavian had a fully professional force.[289][284] Antony wanted to cross the Adriatic Sea and blockade Octavian at either Tarentum or Brundisium,[290] but Cleopatra, concerned primarily with defending Egypt, overrode the decision to attack Italy directly.[291][284] Antony and Cleopatra set up their winter headquarters at Patrai in Greece, and by the spring of 31 BC they had moved to Actium, on the southern side of the Ambracian Gulf.[291][290] Cleopatra and Antony had the support of various allied kings, but Cleopatra had already been in conflict with Herod, and an earthquake in Judea provided him with an excuse to be absent from the campaign.[292] They also lost the support of Malichus I, which would prove to have strategic consequences.[293] Antony and Cleopatra lost several skirmishes against Octavian around Actium during the summer of 31 BC, while defections to Octavian's camp continued, including Antony's long-time companion Dellius[293] and the allied kings Amyntas of Galatia and Deiotaros of Paphlagonia.[293] While some in Antony's camp suggested abandoning the naval conflict to retreat inland, Cleopatra urged for a naval confrontation, to keep Octavian's fleet away from Egypt.[294] On 2 September 31 BC the naval forces of Octavian, led by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, met those of Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium.[294][290][286] Cleopatra, aboard her flagship, the Antonias, commanded 60 ships at the mouth of the Ambracian Gulf, at the rear of the fleet, in what was likely a move by Antony's officers to marginalize her during the battle.[294] Antony had ordered that their ships should have sails on board for a better chance to pursue or flee from the enemy, which Cleopatra, ever concerned about defending Egypt, used to swiftly move through the area of major combat in a strategic withdrawal to the Peloponnese.[295][296][297] Burstein writes that partisan Roman writers would later accuse Cleopatra of cowardly deserting Antony, but their original intention of keeping their sails on board may have been to break the blockade and salvage as much of their fleet as possible.[297] Antony followed Cleopatra and boarded her ship, identified by its distinctive purple sails, as the two escaped the battle and headed for Tainaron.[295] Antony reportedly avoided Cleopatra during this three-day voyage, until her ladies in waiting at Tainaron urged him to speak with her.[298] The Battle of Actium raged on without Cleopatra and Antony until the morning of 3 September, and was followed by massive defections of officers, troops, and allied kings to Octavian's side.[298][296][299] Downfall and death Main article: Death of Cleopatra Further information: Epaphroditus (freedman of Augustus) and Tomb of Antony and Cleopatra A Roman painting from the House of Giuseppe II in Pompeii, early 1st century AD, most likely depicting Cleopatra, wearing her royal diadem and consuming poison in an act of suicide, while her son Caesarion, also wearing a royal diadem, stands behind her[300][301] While Octavian occupied Athens, Antony and Cleopatra landed at Paraitonion in Egypt.[298][302] The couple then went their separate ways, Antony to Cyrene to raise more troops and Cleopatra to the harbor at Alexandria in a misleading attempt to portray the activities in Greece as a victory.[298] It is uncertain whether or not, at this time, she actually executed Artavasdes II and sent his head to his rival, Artavasdes I of Media Atropatene, in an attempt to strike an alliance with him.[303][304] Lucius Pinarius, Mark Antony's appointed governor of Cyrene, received word that Octavian had won the Battle of Actium before Antony's messengers could arrive at his court.[303] Pinarius had these messengers executed and then defected to Octavian's side, surrendering to him the four legions under his command that Antony desired to obtain.[303] Antony nearly committed suicide after hearing news of this but was stopped by his staff officers.[303] In Alexandria he built a reclusive cottage on the island of Pharos that he nicknamed the Timoneion, after the philosopher Timon of Athens, who was famous for his cynicism and misanthropy.[303] Herod, who had personally advised Antony after the Battle of Actium that he should betray Cleopatra, traveled to Rhodes to meet Octavian and resign his kingship out of loyalty to Antony.[305] Octavian was impressed by his speech and sense of loyalty, so he allowed him to maintain his position in Judea, further isolating Antony and Cleopatra.[305] Cleopatra perhaps started to view Antony as a liability by the late summer of 31 BC, when she prepared to leave Egypt to her son Caesarion.[306] Cleopatra planned to relinquish her throne to him, take her fleet from the Mediterranean into the Red Sea, and then set sail to a foreign port, perhaps in India, where she could spend time recuperating.[306][304] However, these plans were ultimately abandoned when Malichus I, as advised by Octavian's governor of Syria, Quintus Didius, managed to burn Cleopatra's fleet in revenge for his losses in a war with Herod that Cleopatra had largely initiated.[306][304] Cleopatra had no other option but to stay in Egypt and negotiate with Octavian.[306] Although most likely later pro-Octavian propaganda, it was reported that at this time Cleopatra started testing the strengths of various poisons on prisoners and even her own servants.[307] The Death of Cleopatra (1658), by Guido Cagnacci Cleopatra had Caesarion enter into the ranks of the ephebi, which, along with reliefs on a stele from Koptos dated 21 September 31 BC, demonstrated that Cleopatra was now grooming her son to become the sole ruler of Egypt.[308] In a show of solidarity, Antony also had Marcus Antonius Antyllus, his son with Fulvia, enter the ephebi at the same time.[306] Separate messages and envoys from Antony and Cleopatra were then sent to Octavian, still stationed at Rhodes, although Octavian seems to have replied only to Cleopatra.[307] Cleopatra requested that her children should inherit Egypt and that Antony should be allowed to live in exile in Egypt, offered Octavian money in the future, and immediately sent him lavish gifts.[307][304] Octavian sent his diplomat Thyrsos to Cleopatra after she threatened to burn herself and vast amounts of her treasure within a tomb already under construction.[309] Thyrsos advised her to kill Antony so that her life would be spared, but when Antony suspected foul intent, he had this diplomat flogged and sent back to Octavian without a deal.[310] After lengthy negotiations that ultimately produced no results, Octavian set out to invade Egypt in the spring of 30 BC,[311] stopping at Ptolemais in Phoenicia, where his new ally Herod provided his army with fresh supplies.[312] Octavian moved south and swiftly took Pelousion, while Cornelius Gallus, marching eastward from Cyrene, defeated Antony's forces near Paraitonion.[313][314] Octavian advanced quickly to Alexandria, but Antony returned and won a small victory over Octavian's tired troops outside the city's hippodrome.[313][314] However, on 1 30 August BC, Antony's naval fleet surrendered to Octavian, followed by Antony's cavalry.[313][296][315] Cleopatra hid herself in her tomb with her close attendants and sent a message to Antony that she had committed suicide.[313][316][317] In despair, Antony responded to this by stabbing himself in the stomach and taking his own life at age 53.[313][296][304] According to Plutarch, he was still dying when brought to Cleopatra at her tomb, telling her he had died honorably and that she could trust Octavian's companion Gaius Proculeius over anyone else in his entourage.[313][318][319] It was Proculeius, however, who infiltrated her tomb using a ladder and detained the queen, denying her the ability to burn herself with her treasures.[320][321] Cleopatra was then allowed to embalm and bury Antony within her tomb before she was escorted to the palace.[320][304] The Death of Cleopatra (1796–1797), by Jean-Baptiste Regnault Octavian entered Alexandria, occupied the palace, and seized Cleopatra's three youngest children.[320][322] When she met with Octavian, Cleopatra told him bluntly, "I will not be led in a triumph" (Ancient Greek: οὑ θριαμβεύσομαι, romanized: ou thriambéusomai), according to Livy, a rare recording of her exact words.[323][324] Octavian promised that he would keep her alive but offered no explanation about his future plans for her kingdom.[325] When a spy informed her that Octavian planned to move her and her children to Rome in three days, she prepared for suicide as she had no intentions of being paraded in a Roman triumph like her sister Arsinoe IV.[325][296][304] It is unclear if Cleopatra's suicide in 30 August BC, at age 39, took place within the palace or her tomb.[326][327][note 2] It is said she was accompanied by her servants Eiras and Charmion, who also took their own lives.[325][328] Octavian was said to have been angered by this outcome but had Cleopatra buried in royal fashion next to Antony in her tomb.[325][329][330] Cleopatra's physician Olympos did not explain her cause of death, although the popular belief is that she allowed an asp or Egyptian cobra to bite and poison her.[331][332][304] Plutarch relates this tale, but then suggests an implement (κνῆστις, knêstis, lit. 'spine, cheese-grater') was used to introduce the toxin by scratching, while Dio says that she injected the poison with a needle (βελόνη, belónē), and Strabo argued for an ointment of some kind.[333][332][334][note 55] No venomous snake was found with her body, but she did have tiny puncture wounds on her arm that could have been caused by a needle.[331][334][330] Cleopatra decided in her last moments to send Caesarion away to Upper Egypt, perhaps with plans to flee to Kushite Nubia, Ethiopia, or India.[335][336][314] Caesarion, now Ptolemy XV, would reign for a mere 18 days until executed on the orders of Octavian on 29 August 30 BC, after returning to Alexandria under the false pretense that Octavian would allow him to be king.[337][338][339][note 3] Octavian was convinced by the advice of the philosopher Arius Didymus that there was room for only one Caesar in the world.[340][note 56] With the fall of the Ptolemaic Kingdom, the Roman province of Egypt was established,[341][296][342][note 57] marking the end of the Hellenistic period.[343][344][note 7] In 27 January BC Octavian was renamed Augustus ("the revered") and amassed constitutional powers that established him as the first Roman emperor, inaugurating the Principate era of the Roman Empire.[345] Cleopatra's kingdom and role as a monarch Main article: Reign of Cleopatra § Egypt under the monarchy of Cleopatra Further information: Ptolemaic coinage and Ancient Greek coinage Cleopatra on a coin of 40 drachms from 51–30 BC, minted at Alexandria; on the obverse is a portrait of Cleopatra wearing a diadem, and on the reverse an inscription reading "ΒΑΣΙΛΙΣΣΗΣ ΚΛΕΟΠΑΤΡΑΣ" with an eagle standing on a thunderbolt. Following the tradition of Macedonian rulers, Cleopatra ruled Egypt and other territories such as Cyprus as an absolute monarch, serving as the sole lawgiver of her kingdom.[346] She was the chief religious authority in her realm, presiding over religious ceremonies dedicated to the deities of both the Egyptian and Greek polytheistic faiths.[347] She oversaw the construction of various temples to Egyptian and Greek gods,[348] a synagogue for the Jews in Egypt, and even built the Caesareum of Alexandria, dedicated to the cult worship of her patron and lover Julius Caesar.[349][350] Cleopatra was directly involved in the administrative affairs of her domain,[351] tackling crises such as famine by ordering royal granaries to distribute food to the starving populace during a drought at the beginning of her reign.[352] Although the command economy that she managed was more of an ideal than a reality,[353] the government attempted to impose price controls, tariffs, and state monopolies for certain goods, fixed exchange rates for foreign currencies, and rigid laws forcing peasant farmers to stay in their villages during planting and harvesting seasons.[354][355][356] Apparent financial troubles led Cleopatra to debase her coinage, which included silver and bronze currencies but no gold coins like those of some of her distant Ptolemaic predecessors.[357] Legacy Children and successors Left: A Roman head of either Cleopatra or her daughter Cleopatra Selene II, Queen of Mauretania, from the late 1st century BC, located in the Archaeological Museum of Cherchell, Algeria[232][358][359][note 47] Right: A likely depiction of Cleopatra Selene II, wearing an elephant skin cap, raised relief image on a gilded silver dish from the Boscoreale Treasure, dated to the early 1st century AD[360][361][note 58] After her suicide, Cleopatra's three surviving children, Cleopatra Selene II, Alexander Helios, and Ptolemy Philadelphos, were sent to Rome with Octavian's sister Octavia the Younger, a former wife of their father, as their guardian.[362][363] Cleopatra Selene II and Alexander Helios were present in the Roman triumph of Octavian in 29 BC.[362][238] The fates of Alexander Helios and Ptolemy Philadelphus are unknown after this point.[362][238] Octavia arranged the betrothal of Cleopatra Selene II to Juba II, son of Juba I, whose North African kingdom of Numidia had been turned into a Roman province in 46 BC by Julius Caesar due to Juba I's support of Pompey.[364][363][322] The emperor Augustus installed Juba II and Cleopatra Selene II, after their wedding in 25 BC, as the new rulers of Mauretania, where they transformed the old Carthaginian city of Iol into their new capital, renamed Caesarea Mauretaniae (modern Cherchell, Algeria).[364][238] Cleopatra Selene II imported many important scholars, artists, and advisers from her mother's royal court in Alexandria to serve her in Caesarea, now permeated in Hellenistic Greek culture.[365] She also named her son Ptolemy of Mauretania, in honor of their Ptolemaic dynastic heritage.[366][367] Cleopatra Selene II died around 5 BC, and when Juba II died in 23/24 AD he was succeeded by his son Ptolemy.[366][368] However, Ptolemy was eventually executed by the Roman emperor Caligula in 40 AD, perhaps under the pretense that Ptolemy had unlawfully minted his own royal coinage and utilized regalia reserved for the Roman emperor.[369][370] Ptolemy of Mauretania was the last known monarch of the Ptolemaic dynasty, although Queen Zenobia, of the short-lived Palmyrene Empire during the Crisis of the Third Century, would claim descent from Cleopatra.[371][372] A cult dedicated to Cleopatra still existed as late as 373 AD when Petesenufe, an Egyptian scribe of the book of Isis, explained that he "overlaid the figure of Cleopatra with gold."[373] Roman literature and historiography Further information: Roman historiography, Greek historiography, Latin literature, and Latin poetry Cleopatra Testing Poisons on Condemned Prisoners (1887), by Alexandre Cabanel[374] Although almost 50 ancient works of Roman historiography mention Cleopatra, these often include only terse accounts of the Battle of Actium, her suicide, and Augustan propaganda about her personal deficiencies.[375] Despite not being a biography of Cleopatra, the Life of Antonius written by Plutarch in the 1st century AD provides the most thorough surviving account of Cleopatra's life.[376][377][378] Plutarch lived a century after Cleopatra but relied on primary sources, such as Philotas of Amphissa, who had access to the Ptolemaic royal palace, Cleopatra's personal physician named Olympos, and Quintus Dellius, a close confidant of Mark Antony and Cleopatra.[379] Plutarch's work included both the Augustan view of Cleopatra—which became canonical for his period—as well as sources outside of this tradition, such as eyewitness reports.[376][378] The Jewish Roman historian Josephus, writing in the 1st century AD, provides valuable information on the life of Cleopatra via her diplomatic relationship with Herod the Great.[380][381] However, this work relies largely on Herod's memoirs and the biased account of Nicolaus of Damascus, the tutor of Cleopatra's children in Alexandria before he moved to Judea to serve as an adviser and chronicler at Herod's court.[380][381] The Roman History published by the official and historian Cassius Dio in the early 3rd century AD, while failing to fully comprehend the complexities of the late Hellenistic world, nevertheless provides a continuous history of the era of Cleopatra's reign.[380] A restructured marble Roman statue of Cleopatra wearing a diadem and 'melon' hairstyle similar to coinage portraits, found along the Via Cassia near the Tomba di Nerone [it], Rome, and now located in the Museo Pio-Clementino[1][382][383] Cleopatra is barely mentioned in De Bello Alexandrino, the memoirs of an unknown staff officer who served under Caesar.[384][385][386][note 59] The writings of Cicero, who knew her personally, provide an unflattering portrait of Cleopatra.[384] The Augustan-period authors Virgil, Horace, Propertius, and Ovid perpetuated the negative views of Cleopatra approved by the ruling Roman regime,[384][387] although Virgil established the idea of Cleopatra as a figure of romance and epic melodrama.[388][note 60] Horace also viewed Cleopatra's suicide as a positive choice,[389][387] an idea that found acceptance by the Late Middle Ages with Geoffrey Chaucer.[390][391] The historians Strabo, Velleius, Valerius Maximus, Pliny the Elder, and Appian, while not offering accounts as full as Plutarch, Josephus, or Dio, provided some details of her life that had not survived in other historical records.[384][note 61] Inscriptions on contemporary Ptolemaic coinage and some Egyptian papyrus documents demonstrate Cleopatra's point of view, but this material is very limited in comparison to Roman literary works.[384][392][note 62] The fragmentary Libyka commissioned by Cleopatra's son-in-law Juba II provides a glimpse at a possible body of historiographic material that supported Cleopatra's perspective.[384] Cleopatra's gender has perhaps led to her depiction as a minor if not insignificant figure in ancient, medieval, and even modern historiography about ancient Egypt and the Greco-Roman world.[393] For instance, the historian Ronald Syme asserted that she was of little importance to Caesar and that the propaganda of Octavian magnified her importance to an excessive degree.[393] Although the common view of Cleopatra was one of a prolific seductress, she had only two known sexual partners, Caesar and Antony, the two most prominent Romans of the time period, who were most likely to ensure the survival of her dynasty.[394][395] Plutarch described Cleopatra as having had a stronger personality and charming wit than physical beauty.[396][16][397][note 63] Cultural depictions Further information: List of cultural depictions of Cleopatra Depictions in ancient art Further information: Hellenistic art, Art of ancient Egypt, and Death of Cleopatra § Depictions in art and literature Statues Further information: Roman portraiture, Roman sculpture, Esquiline Venus, and Sleeping Ariadne Left: An Egyptian statue of either Arsinoe II or Cleopatra as an Egyptian goddess in black basalt from the second half of the 1st century BC,[398] located in the Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg Right: The Esquiline Venus, a Roman or Hellenistic-Egyptian statue of Venus (Aphrodite) that may be a depiction of Cleopatra,[399] located in the Capitoline Museums, Rome Cleopatra was depicted in various ancient works of art, in the Egyptian as well as Hellenistic-Greek and Roman styles.[2] Surviving works include statues, busts, reliefs, and minted coins,[2][374] as well as ancient carved cameos,[400] such as one depicting Cleopatra and Antony in Hellenistic style, now in the Altes Museum, Berlin.[1] Contemporary images of Cleopatra were produced both in and outside of Ptolemaic Egypt. For instance, a large gilded bronze statue of Cleopatra once existed inside the Temple of Venus Genetrix in Rome, the first time that a living person had their statue placed next to that of a deity in a Roman temple.[3][184][401] It was erected there by Caesar and remained in the temple at least until the 3rd century AD, its preservation perhaps owing to Caesar's patronage, although Augustus did not remove or destroy artworks in Alexandria depicting Cleopatra.[402][403] In regards to surviving Roman statuary, a life-sized Roman-style statue of Cleopatra was found near the Tomba di Nerone [it], Rome, along the Via Cassia and is now housed in the Museo Pio-Clementino, part of the Vatican Museums.[1][382][383] Plutarch, in his Life of Antonius, claimed that the public statues of Antony were torn down by Augustus, but those of Cleopatra were preserved following her death thanks to her friend Archibius paying the emperor 2,000 talents to dissuade him from destroying hers.[404][373][329] Since the 1950s scholars have debated whether or not the Esquiline Venus—discovered in 1874 on the Esquiline Hill in Rome and housed in the Palazzo dei Conservatori of the Capitoline Museums—is a depiction of Cleopatra, based on the statue's hairstyle and facial features, apparent royal diadem worn over the head, and the uraeus Egyptian cobra wrapped around the base.[399][405][406] Detractors of this theory argue that the face in this statue is thinner than the face on the Berlin portrait and assert that it was unlikely she would be depicted as the naked goddess Venus (or the Greek Aphrodite).[399][405][406] However, she was depicted in an Egyptian statue as the goddess Isis,[407] while some of her coinage depicts her as Venus-Aphrodite.[408][409] She also dressed as Aphrodite when meeting Antony at Tarsos.[205] The Esquiline Venus is generally thought to be a mid-1st-century AD Roman copy of a 1st-century BC Greek original from the school of Pasiteles.[405] Coinage portraits Further information: Ptolemaic coinage, Roman currency, and Ancient Greek coinage Cleopatra and Mark Antony on the obverse and reverse, respectively, of a silver tetradrachm struck at the Antioch mint in 36 BC, with Greek legends: BACIΛΙCCA KΛΕΟΠΑΤΡΑ ΘΕΑ ΝΕΩΤΕΡΑ, ANTΩNIOC AYTOKPATΩP TPITON TPIΩN ANΔPΩN. Surviving coinage of Cleopatra's reign include specimens from every regnal year, from 51 to 30 BC.[410] Cleopatra, the only Ptolemaic queen to issue coins on her own behalf, almost certainly inspired her partner Caesar to become the first living Roman to present his portrait on his own coins.[408][note 64] Cleopatra was also the first foreign queen to have her image appear on Roman currency.[411] Coins dated to the period of her marriage to Antony, which also bear his image, portray the queen as having a very similar aquiline nose and prominent chin as that of her husband.[3][412] These similar facial features followed an artistic convention that represented the mutually-observed harmony of a royal couple.[3][2] Her strong, almost masculine facial features in these particular coins are strikingly different from the smoother, softer, and perhaps idealized sculpted images of her in either the Egyptian or Hellenistic styles.[2][413][414] Her masculine facial features on minted currency are similar to that of her father, Ptolemy XII Auletes,[415][114] and perhaps also to those of her Ptolemaic ancestor Arsinoe II (316–260 BC)[2][416] and even depictions of earlier queens such as Hatshepsut and Nefertiti.[414] It is likely, due to political expediency, that Antony's visage was made to conform not only to hers but also to those of her Macedonian Greek ancestors who founded the Ptolemaic dynasty, to familiarize himself to her subjects as a legitimate member of the royal house.[2] The inscriptions on the coins are written in Greek, but also in the nominative case of Roman coins rather than the genitive case of Greek coins, in addition to having the letters placed in a circular fashion along the edges of the coin instead of across it horizontally or vertically as was customary for Greek ones.[2] These facets of their coinage represent the synthesis of Roman and Hellenistic culture, and perhaps also a statement to their subjects, however ambiguous to modern scholars, about the superiority of either Antony or Cleopatra over the other.[2] Diana Kleiner argues that Cleopatra, in one of her coins minted with the dual image of her husband Antony, made herself more masculine-looking than other portraits and more like an acceptable Roman client queen than a Hellenistic ruler.[413] Cleopatra had actually achieved this masculine look in coinage predating her affair with Antony, such as the coins struck at the Ashkelon mint during her brief period of exile to Syria and the Levant, which Joann Fletcher explains as her attempt to appear like her father and as a legitimate successor to a male Ptolemaic ruler.[114][417] Various coins, such as a silver tetradrachm minted sometime after Cleopatra's marriage with Antony in 37 BC, depict her wearing a royal diadem and a 'melon' hairstyle.[3][417] The combination of this hairstyle with a diadem is also featured in two surviving sculpted marble heads.[418][374][419][note 65] This hairstyle, with hair braided back into a bun, is the same as that worn by her Ptolemaic ancestors Arsinoe II and Berenice II in their own coinage.[3][420] After her visit to Rome in 46–44 BC it became fashionable for Roman women to adopt it as one of their hairstyles, but it was abandoned for a more modest, austere look during the conservative rule of Augustus.[3][418][419] Greco-Roman busts and heads An ancient Roman portrait head, c. 50–30 BC, now located in the British Museum, London, that depicts a woman from Ptolemaic Egypt, either Queen Cleopatra or a member of her entourage during her 46–44 BC visit to Rome with her lover Julius Caesar[418] Of the surviving Greco-Roman-style busts and heads of Cleopatra,[note 66] the sculpture known as the "Berlin Cleopatra", located in the Antikensammlung Berlin collection at the Altes Museum, possesses her full nose, whereas the head known as the "Vatican Cleopatra", located in the Vatican Museums, is damaged with a missing nose.[421][422][423][note 67] Both the Berlin Cleopatra and Vatican Cleopatra have royal diadems, similar facial features, and perhaps once resembled the face of her bronze statue housed in the Temple of Venus Genetrix.[422][424][423][note 68] Both heads are dated to the mid-1st century BC and were found in Roman villas along the Via Appia in Italy, the Vatican Cleopatra having been unearthed in the Villa of the Quintilii.[3][421][423][note 69] Francisco Pina Polo writes that Cleopatra's coinage present her image with certainty and asserts that the sculpted portrait of the Berlin head is confirmed as having a similar profile with her hair pulled back into a bun, a diadem, and a hooked nose.[425] A third sculpted portrait of Cleopatra accepted by scholars as being authentic survives at the Archaeological Museum of Cherchell, Algeria.[403][358][359] This portrait features the royal diadem and similar facial features as the Berlin and Vatican heads, but has a more unique hairstyle and may actually depict Cleopatra Selene II, daughter of Cleopatra.[359][426][232][note 47] A possible Parian-marble sculpture of Cleopatra wearing a vulture headdress in Egyptian style is located at the Capitoline Museums.[427] Discovered near a sanctuary of Isis in Rome and dated to the 1st century BC, it is either Roman or Hellenistic-Egyptian in origin.[428] Other possible sculpted depictions of Cleopatra include one in the British Museum, London, made of limestone, which perhaps only depicts a woman in her entourage during her trip to Rome.[1][418] The woman in this portrait has facial features similar to others (including the pronounced aquiline nose), but lacks a royal diadem and sports a different hairstyle.[1][418] However, the British Museum head, once belonging to a full statue, could potentially represent Cleopatra at a different stage in her life and may also betray an effort by Cleopatra to discard the use of royal insignia (i.e. the diadem) to make herself more appealing to the citizens of Republican Rome.[418] Duane W. Roller speculates that the British Museum head, along with those in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo, the Capitoline Museums, and in the private collection of Maurice Nahmen, while having similar facial features and hairstyles as the Berlin portrait but lacking a royal diadem, most likely represent members of the royal court or even Roman women imitating Cleopatra's popular hairstyle.[429] Cleopatra, mid-1st century BC, with a "melon" hairstyle and Hellenistic royal diadem worn over her head, now in the Vatican Museums[1][3][421] Profile view of the Vatican Cleopatra Cleopatra, mid-1st century BC, showing Cleopatra with a "melon" hairstyle and Hellenistic royal diadem worn over the head, now in the Altes Museum[1][3][421] Profile view of the Berlin Cleopatra Paintings A Roman Second Style painting in the House of Marcus Fabius Rufus at Pompeii, Italy, depicting Cleopatra as Venus Genetrix and her son Caesarion as a cupid, mid-1st century BC[405][430] In the House of Marcus Fabius Rufus at Pompeii, Italy, a mid-1st century BC Second Style wall painting of the goddess Venus holding a cupid near massive temple doors is most likely a depiction of Cleopatra as Venus Genetrix with her son Caesarion.[405][430] The commission of the painting most likely coincides with the erection of the Temple of Venus Genetrix in the Forum of Caesar in September 46 BC, where Caesar had a gilded statue erected depicting Cleopatra.[405][430] This statue likely formed the basis of her depictions in both sculpted art as well as this painting at Pompeii.[405][431] The woman in the painting wears a royal diadem over her head and is strikingly similar in appearance to the Vatican Cleopatra, which bears possible marks on the marble of its left cheek where a cupid's arm may have been torn off.[405][432][423][note 70] The room with the painting was walled off by its owner, perhaps in reaction to the execution of Caesarion in 30 BC by order of Octavian, when public depictions of Cleopatra's son would have been unfavorable with the new Roman regime.[405][433] Behind her golden diadem, crowned with a red jewel, is a translucent veil with crinkles that suggest the "melon" hairstyle favored by the queen.[432][note 71] Her ivory-white skin, round face, long aquiline nose, and large round eyes were features common in both Roman and Ptolemaic depictions of deities.[432] Roller affirms that "there seems little doubt that this is a depiction of Cleopatra and Caesarion before the doors of the Temple of Venus in the Forum Julium and, as such, it becomes the only extant contemporary painting of the queen."[405] A steel engraving published by John Sartain in 1885 (left) depicting the now lost painted death portrait of Cleopatra, an encaustic painting discovered in 1818 in the ancient Roman ruins of the Egyptian temple of Serapis at Hadrian's Villa in Tivoli, Lazio;[434] she is seen here wearing the knotted garment of Isis (corresponding with Plutarch's description of her wearing the robes of Isis),[435] as well as the radiant crown of the Ptolemaic rulers such as Ptolemy V (pictured to the right in a golden octodrachm minted in 204–203 BC).[436] Another painting from Pompeii, dated to the early 1st century AD and located in the House of Giuseppe II, contains a possible depiction of Cleopatra with her son Caesarion, both wearing royal diadems while she reclines and consumes poison in an act of suicide.[300][301][note 72] The painting was originally thought to depict the Carthaginian noblewoman Sophonisba, who toward the end of the Second Punic War (218–201 BC) drank poison and committed suicide at the behest of her lover Masinissa, King of Numidia.[300] Arguments in favor of it depicting Cleopatra include the strong connection of her house with that of the Numidian royal family, Masinissa and Ptolemy VIII Physcon having been associates, and Cleopatra's own daughter marrying the Numidian prince Juba II.[300] Sophonisba was also a more obscure figure when the painting was made, while Cleopatra's suicide was far more famous.[300] An asp is absent from the painting, but many Romans held the view that she received poison in another manner than a venomous snakebite.[437] A set of double doors on the rear wall of the painting, positioned very high above the people in it, suggests the described layout of Cleopatra's tomb in Alexandria.[300] A male servant holds the mouth of an artificial Egyptian crocodile (possibly an elaborate tray handle), while another man standing by is dressed as a Roman.[300] In 1818 a now lost encaustic painting was discovered in the Temple of Serapis at Hadrian's Villa, near Tivoli, Lazio, Italy, that depicted Cleopatra committing suicide with an asp biting her bare chest.[434] A chemical analysis performed in 1822 confirmed that the medium for the painting was composed of one-third wax and two-thirds resin.[434] The thickness of the painting over Cleopatra's bare flesh and her drapery were reportedly similar to the paintings of the Fayum mummy portraits.[438] A steel engraving published by John Sartain in 1885 depicting the painting as described in the archaeological report shows Cleopatra wearing authentic clothing and jewelry of Egypt in the late Hellenistic period,[439] as well as the radiant crown of the Ptolemaic rulers, as seen in their portraits on various coins minted during their respective reigns.[436] After Cleopatra's suicide, Octavian commissioned a painting to be made depicting her being bitten by a snake, parading this image in her stead during his triumphal procession in Rome.[438][335][311] The portrait painting of Cleopatra's death was perhaps among the great number of artworks and treasures taken from Rome by Emperor Hadrian to decorate his private villa, where it was found in an Egyptian temple.[434][note 73] Ancient Roman fresco in the Pompeian Third Style possibly depicting Cleopatra, from the House of the Orchard at Pompeii, Italy, mid-1st century AD[56] A Roman panel painting from Herculaneum, Italy, dated to the 1st century AD possibly depicts Cleopatra.[56][57] In it she wears a royal diadem, red or reddish-brown hair pulled back into a bun,[note 74] pearl-studded hairpins,[440] and earrings with ball-shaped pendants, the white skin of her face and neck set against a stark black background.[56] Her hair and facial features are similar to those in the sculpted Berlin and Vatican portraits as well as her coinage.[56] A highly similar painted bust of a woman with a blue headband in the House of the Orchard at Pompeii features Egyptian-style imagery, such as a Greek-style sphinx, and may have been created by the same artist.[56] Portland Vase Further information: Portland Vase A possible depiction of Mark Antony being lured by Cleopatra, straddling a serpent, while Anton, Antony's alleged ancestor, looks on and Eros flies above[441][442] The Portland Vase, a Roman cameo glass vase dated to the Augustan period and now in the British Museum, includes a possible depiction of Cleopatra with Antony.[441][443] In this interpretation, Cleopatra can be seen grasping Antony and drawing him toward her while a serpent (i.e. the asp) rises between her legs, Eros floats above, and Anton, the alleged ancestor of the Antonian family, looks on in despair as his descendant Antony is led to his doom.[441][442] The other side of the vase perhaps contains a scene of Octavia, abandoned by her husband Antony but watched over by her brother, the emperor Augustus.[441][442] The vase would thus have been created no earlier than 35 BC, when Antony sent his wife Octavia back to Italy and stayed with Cleopatra in Alexandria.[441] Native Egyptian art Further information: Portraiture in ancient Egypt and Reign of Cleopatra § Egypt under the monarchy of Cleopatra Cleopatra and her son Caesarion at the Temple of Dendera The Bust of Cleopatra in the Royal Ontario Museum represents a bust of Cleopatra in the Egyptian style.[444] Dated to the mid-1st century BC, it is perhaps the earliest depiction of Cleopatra as both a goddess and ruling pharaoh of Egypt.[444] The sculpture also has pronounced eyes that share similarities with Roman copies of Ptolemaic sculpted works of art.[445] The Dendera Temple complex, near Dendera, Egypt, contains Egyptian-style carved relief images along the exterior walls of the Temple of Hathor depicting Cleopatra and her young son Caesarion as a grown adult and ruling pharaoh making offerings to the gods.[446][447] Augustus had his name inscribed there following the death of Cleopatra.[446][448] A large Ptolemaic black basalt statue measuring 104 centimetres (41 in) in height, now in the Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg, is thought to represent Arsinoe II, wife of Ptolemy II, but recent analysis has indicated that it could depict her descendant Cleopatra due to the three uraei adorning her headdress, an increase from the two used by Arsinoe II to symbolize her rule over Lower and Upper Egypt.[404][400][398] The woman in the basalt statue also holds a divided, double cornucopia (dikeras), which can be seen on coins of both Arsinoe II and Cleopatra.[404][398] In his Kleopatra und die Caesaren (2006), Bernard Andreae [de] contends that this basalt statue, like other idealized Egyptian portraits of the queen, does not contain realistic facial features and hence adds little to the knowledge of her appearance.[449][note 75] Adrian Goldsworthy writes that, despite these representations in the traditional Egyptian style, Cleopatra would have dressed as a native only "perhaps for certain rites" and instead would usually dress as a Greek monarch, which would include the Greek headband seen in her Greco-Roman busts.[450] Medieval and Early Modern reception Further information: Medieval art, Medieval literature, Renaissance art, Renaissance literature, and Early Modern literature The Banquet of Cleopatra (1744), by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, now in the National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne[451] In modern times Cleopatra has become an icon of popular culture,[374] a reputation shaped by theatrical representations dating back to the Renaissance as well as paintings and films.[452] This material largely surpasses the scope and size of existent historiographic literature about her from classical antiquity and has made a greater impact on the general public's view of Cleopatra than the latter.[453] The 14th-century English poet Geoffrey Chaucer, in The Legend of Good Women, contextualized Cleopatra for the Christian world of the Middle Ages.[454] His depiction of Cleopatra and Antony, her shining knight engaged in courtly love, has been interpreted in modern times as being either playful or misogynistic satire.[454] However, Chaucer highlighted Cleopatra's relationships with only two men as hardly the life of a seductress and wrote his works partly in reaction to the negative depiction of Cleopatra in De Mulieribus Claris and De Casibus Virorum Illustrium, Latin works by the 14th-century Italian poet Giovanni Boccaccio.[455][391] The Renaissance humanist Bernardino Cacciante [it], in his 1504 Libretto apologetico delle donne, was the first Italian to defend the reputation of Cleopatra and criticize the perceived moralizing and misogyny in Boccaccio's works.[456] Works of Islamic historiography written in Arabic covered the reign of Cleopatra, such as the 10th-century Meadows of Gold by Al-Masudi,[457] although his work erroneously claimed that Octavian died soon after Cleopatra's suicide.[458] Cleopatra appeared in miniatures for illuminated manuscripts, such as a depiction of her and Antony lying in a Gothic-style tomb by the Boucicaut Master in 1409.[390] In the visual arts, the sculpted depiction of Cleopatra as a free-standing nude figure committing suicide began with the 16th-century sculptors Bartolommeo Bandinelli and Alessandro Vittoria.[459] Early prints depicting Cleopatra include designs by the Renaissance artists Raphael and Michelangelo, as well as 15th-century woodcuts in illustrated editions of Boccaccio's works.[460] In the performing arts, the death of Elizabeth I of England in 1603, and the German publication in 1606 of alleged letters of Cleopatra, inspired Samuel Daniel to alter and republish his 1594 play Cleopatra in 1607.[461] He was followed by William Shakespeare, whose Antony and Cleopatra, largely based on Plutarch, was first performed in 1608 and provided a somewhat salacious view of Cleopatra in stark contrast to England's own Virgin Queen.[462] Cleopatra was also featured in operas, such as George Frideric Handel's 1724 Giulio Cesare in Egitto, which portrayed the love affair of Caesar and Cleopatra.[463] Modern depictions and brand imaging Further information: List of cultural depictions of Cleopatra, History of modern literature, and Egyptomania The Triumph of Cleopatra (1821), by William Etty, now in the Lady Lever Art Gallery, Port Sunlight, England In Victorian Britain, Cleopatra was highly associated with many aspects of ancient Egyptian culture and her image was used to market various household products, including oil lamps, lithographs, postcards and cigarettes.[464] Fictional novels such as H. Rider Haggard's Cleopatra (1889) and Théophile Gautier's One of Cleopatra's Nights (1838) depicted the queen as a sensual and mystic Easterner, while the Egyptologist Georg Ebers's Cleopatra (1894) was more grounded in historical accuracy.[464][465] The French dramatist Victorien Sardou and Irish playwright George Bernard Shaw produced plays about Cleopatra, while burlesque shows such as F. C. Burnand's Antony and Cleopatra offered satirical depictions of the queen connecting her and the environment she lived in with the modern age.[466] Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra was considered canonical by the Victorian era.[467] Its popularity led to the perception that the 1885 painting by Lawrence Alma-Tadema depicted the meeting of Antony and Cleopatra on her pleasure barge in Tarsus, although Alma-Tadema revealed in a private letter that it depicts a subsequent meeting of theirs in Alexandria.[468] In his unfinished 1825 short story The Egyptian Nights, Alexander Pushkin popularized the claims of the 4th-century Roman historian Aurelius Victor, previously largely ignored, that Cleopatra had prostituted herself to men who paid for sex with their lives.[469][470] Cleopatra also became appreciated outside the Western world and Middle East, as the Qing-dynasty Chinese scholar Yan Fu wrote an extensive biography of her.[471] Georges Méliès's Robbing Cleopatra's Tomb (French: Cléopâtre), an 1899 French silent horror film, was the first film to depict the character of Cleopatra.[472] Hollywood films of the 20th century were influenced by earlier Victorian media, which helped to shape the character of Cleopatra played by Theda Bara in Cleopatra (1917), Claudette Colbert in Cleopatra (1934), and Elizabeth Taylor in Cleopatra (1963).[473] In addition to her portrayal as a "vampire" queen, Bara's Cleopatra also incorporated tropes familiar from 19th-century Orientalist painting, such as despotic behavior, mixed with dangerous and overt female sexuality.[474] Colbert's character of Cleopatra served as a glamour model for selling Egyptian-themed products in department stores in the 1930s, targeting female moviegoers.[475] In preparation for the film starring Taylor as Cleopatra, women's magazines of the early 1960s advertised how to use makeup, clothes, jewelry, and hairstyles to achieve the "Egyptian" look similar to the queens Cleopatra and Nefertiti.[476] By the end of the 20th century there were forty-three separate films, two hundred plays and novels, forty-five operas, and five ballets associated with Cleopatra.[477] Written works Further information: Ancient Greek literature and Ancient Egyptian literature Whereas myths about Cleopatra persist in popular media, important aspects of her career go largely unnoticed, such as her command of naval forces, administrative acts, and publications on ancient Greek medicine.[375] Only fragments exist of the medical and cosmetic writings attributed to Cleopatra, such as those preserved by Galen, including remedies for hair disease, baldness, and dandruff, along with a list of weights and measures for pharmacological purposes.[478][19][479] Aëtius of Amida attributed a recipe for perfumed soap to Cleopatra, while Paul of Aegina preserved alleged instructions of hers for dyeing and curling hair.[478] The attribution of certain texts to Cleopatra, however, is doubted by Ingrid D. Rowland, who highlights that the "Berenice called Cleopatra" cited by the 3rd- or 4th-century female Roman physician Metrodora was likely conflated by medieval scholars as referring to Cleopatra.[480] Ancestry See also: Cleopatra race controversy Left: A Hellenistic bust of Ptolemy I Soter, now in the Louvre, Paris Right: A bust of Seleucus I Nicator, a Roman copy of a Greek original, from the Villa of the Papyri, Herculaneum, and now in the National Archaeological Museum, Naples Cleopatra belonged to the Macedonian Greek dynasty of the Ptolemies,[8][481][482][note 76] their European origins tracing back to northern Greece.[483] Through her father, Ptolemy XII Auletes, she was a descendant of two prominent companions of Alexander the Great of Macedon: the general Ptolemy I Soter, founder of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt, and Seleucus I Nicator, the Macedonian Greek founder of the Seleucid Empire of West Asia.[8][484][485][note 77] While Cleopatra's paternal line can be traced, the identity of her mother is unknown.[486][487][488][note 78] She was presumably the daughter of Cleopatra VI Tryphaena (also known as Cleopatra V Tryphaena),[note 4] the sister-wife of Ptolemy XII who had previously given birth to their daughter Berenice IV.[13][487][489][note 79] Cleopatra I Syra was the only member of the Ptolemaic dynasty known for certain to have introduced some non-Greek ancestry. Her mother Laodice III was a daughter born to King Mithridates II of Pontus, a Persian of the Mithridatic dynasty, and his wife Laodice who had a mixed Greek-Persian heritage.[490] Laodice III's father Antiochus III the Great was a descendant of Queen Apama, the Sogdian Iranian wife of Seleucus I Nicator.[491][492][493][note 80] It is generally believed that the Ptolemies did not intermarry with native Egyptians.[40][494][note 81] Michael Grant asserts that there is only one known Egyptian mistress of a Ptolemy and no known Egyptian wife of a Ptolemy, further arguing that Cleopatra probably did not have any Egyptian ancestry and "would have described herself as Greek."[491][note 82] Stacy Schiff writes that Cleopatra was a Macedonian Greek with some Persian ancestry, arguing that it was rare for the Ptolemies to have an Egyptian mistress.[495][note 83] Duane W. Roller speculates that Cleopatra could have been the daughter of a theoretical half-Macedonian-Greek, half-Egyptian woman from Memphis in northern Egypt belonging to a family of priests dedicated to Ptah (a hypothesis not generally accepted in scholarship),[note 84] but contends that whatever Cleopatra's ancestry, she valued her Greek Ptolemaic heritage the most.[496][note 85] Ernle Bradford writes that Cleopatra challenged Rome not as an Egyptian woman "but as a civilized Greek."[497] Claims that Cleopatra was an illegitimate child never appeared in Roman propaganda against her.[35][498][note 86] Strabo was the only ancient historian who claimed that Ptolemy XII's children born after Berenice IV, including Cleopatra, were illegitimate.[35][498][499] Cleopatra V (or VI) was expelled from the court of Ptolemy XII in late 69 BC, a few months after the birth of Cleopatra, while Ptolemy XII's three younger children were all born during the absence of his wife.[41] The high degree of inbreeding among the Ptolemies is also illustrated by Cleopatra's immediate ancestry, of which a reconstruction is shown below.[note 87] The family tree given below also lists Cleopatra V, Ptolemy XII's wife, as a daughter of Ptolemy X Alexander I and Berenice III, which would make her a cousin of her husband, Ptolemy XII, but she could have been a daughter of Ptolemy IX Lathyros, which would have made her a sister-wife of Ptolemy XII instead.[500][35] The confused accounts in ancient primary sources have also led scholars to number Ptolemy XII's wife as either Cleopatra V or Cleopatra VI; the latter may have actually been a daughter of Ptolemy XII, and some use her as an indication that Cleopatra V had died in 69 BC rather than reappearing as a co-ruler with Berenice IV in 58 BC (during Ptolemy XII's exile in Rome).[55][501] Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Cleopatra Selene of Syria Ptolemy IX Lathyros Cleopatra IV Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III Cleopatra V Tryphaena Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VII See also Biography portal History portal Ancient Egypt portal Ancient Rome portal Ancient Greece portal List of female hereditary rulers Notes ^ For further validation about the Berlin Cleopatra, see Pina Polo (2013, pp. 184–186), Roller (2010, pp. 54, 174–175), Jones (2006, p. 33), and Hölbl (2001, p. 234). ^ a b c d Theodore Cressy Skeat, in Skeat (1953, pp. 98–100), uses historical data to calculate the death of Cleopatra as having occurred on 12 August 30 BC. Burstein (2004, p. 31) provides the same date as Skeat, while Dodson & Hilton (2004, p. 277) tepidly supports this, saying it occurred circa that date. Those in favor of claiming her death occurred on 10 August 30 BC include Roller (2010, pp. 147–148), Fletcher (2008, p. 3), and Anderson (2003, p. 56). ^ a b Roller (2010, p. 149) and Skeat (1953, pp. 99–100) explain the nominal short-lived reign of Caesarion as lasting 18 days in 30 August BC. However, Duane W. Roller, relaying Theodore Cressy Skeat, affirms that Caesarion's reign "was essentially a fiction created by Egyptian chronographers to close the gap between [Cleopatra's] death and official Roman control of Egypt (under the new pharaoh, Octavian)", citing, for instance, the Stromata by Clement of Alexandria (Roller 2010, pp. 149, 214, footnote 103). Plutarch, translated by Jones (2006, p. 187), wrote in vague terms that "Octavian had Caesarion killed later, after Cleopatra's death." ^ a b c Grant (1972, pp. 3–4, 17), Fletcher (2008, pp. 69, 74, 76), Jones (2006, p. xiii), Preston (2009, p. 22), Schiff (2011, p. 28) and Burstein (2004, p. 11) label the wife of Ptolemy XII Auletes as Cleopatra V Tryphaena, while Dodson & Hilton (2004, pp. 268–269, 273) and Roller (2010, p. 18) call her Cleopatra VI Tryphaena, due to the confusion in primary sources conflating these two figures, who may have been one and the same. As explained by Whitehorne (1994, p. 182), Cleopatra VI may have actually been a daughter of Ptolemy XII who appeared in 58 BC to rule jointly with her alleged sister Berenice IV (while Ptolemy XII was exiled and living in Rome), whereas Ptolemy XII's wife Cleopatra V perhaps died as early as the winter of 69–68 BC, when she disappears from historical records. Roller (2010, pp. 18–19) assumes that Ptolemy XII's wife, who he numbers as Cleopatra VI, was merely absent from the court for a decade after being expelled for an unknown reason, eventually ruling jointly with her daughter Berenice IV. Fletcher (2008, p. 76) explains that the Alexandrians deposed Ptolemy XII and installed "his eldest daughter, Berenike IV, and as co-ruler recalled Cleopatra V Tryphaena from 10 years' exile from the court. Although later historians assumed she must have been another of Auletes' daughters and numbered her 'Cleopatra VI', it seems she was simply the fifth one returning to replace her brother and former husband Auletes." ^ She was also a diplomat, naval commander, linguist, and medical author; see Roller (2010, p. 1) and Bradford (2000, p. 13). ^ Southern (2009, p. 43) writes about Ptolemy I Soter: "The Ptolemaic dynasty, of which Cleopatra was the last representative, was founded at the end of the fourth century BC. The Ptolemies were not of Egyptian extraction, but stemmed from Ptolemy Soter, a Macedonian Greek in the entourage of Alexander the Great." For additional sources that describe the Ptolemaic dynasty as "Macedonian Greek", please see Roller (2010, pp. 15–16), Jones (2006, pp. xiii, 3, 279), Kleiner (2005, pp. 9, 19, 106, 183), Jeffreys (1999, p. 488) and Johnson (1999, p. 69). Alternatively, Grant (1972, p. 3) describes them as a "Macedonian, Greek-speaking" dynasty. Other sources such as Burstein (2004, p. 64) and Pfrommer & Towne-Markus (2001, p. 9) describe the Ptolemies as "Greco-Macedonian" or just Macedonians who possessed a Greek culture, as in Pfrommer & Towne-Markus (2001, pp. 9–11, 20). ^ a b Grant (1972, pp. 5–6) notes that the Hellenistic period, beginning with the reign of Alexander the Great, came to an end with the death of Cleopatra in 30 BC. Michael Grant stresses that the Hellenistic Greeks were viewed by contemporary Romans as having declined and diminished in greatness since the age of Classical Greece, an attitude that has continued even into the works of modern historiography. Regarding Hellenistic Egypt, Grant argues, "Cleopatra VII, looking back upon all that her ancestors had done during that time, was not likely to make the same mistake. But she and her contemporaries of the first century BC had another, peculiar, problem of their own. Could the 'Hellenistic Age' (which we ourselves often regard as coming to an end in about her time) still be said to exist at all, could any Greek age, now that the Romans were the dominant power? This was a question never far from Cleopatra's mind. But it is quite certain that she considered the Greek epoch to be by no means finished, and intended to do everything in her power to ensure its perpetuation." ^ a b The refusal of Ptolemaic rulers to speak the native language, Late Egyptian, is why Ancient Greek (i.e. Koine Greek) was used along with Late Egyptian on official court documents such as the Rosetta Stone ("Radio 4 Programmes – A History of the World in 100 Objects, Empire Builders (300 BC – 1 AD), Rosetta Stone". BBC. Archived from the original on 23 May 2010. Retrieved 7 June 2010.). As explained by Burstein (2004, pp. 43–54), Ptolemaic Alexandria was considered a polis (city-state) separate from the country of Egypt, with citizenship reserved for Greeks and Ancient Macedonians, but various other ethnic groups resided there, especially the Jews, as well as native Egyptians, Syrians, and Nubians. For further validation, see Grant (1972, p. 3). For the multiple languages spoken by Cleopatra, see Roller (2010, pp. 46–48) and Burstein (2004, pp. 11–12). For further validation about Ancient Greek being the official language of the Ptolemaic dynasty, see Jones (2006, p. 3). ^ Tyldesley (2017) offers an alternative rendering of the title Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator as "Cleopatra the Father-Loving Goddess". ^ For a thorough explanation about the foundation of Alexandria by Alexander the Great and its largely Hellenistic Greek nature during the Ptolemaic period, along with a survey of the various ethnic groups residing there, see Burstein (2004, pp. 43–61). For further validation about the founding of Alexandria by Alexander the Great, see Jones (2006, p. 6). For further validation of Ptolemaic rulers being crowned at Memphis, see Jeffreys (1999, p. 488). ^ For further information, see Grant (1972, pp. 20, 256, footnote 42). ^ For the list of languages spoken by Cleopatra as mentioned by the ancient historian Plutarch, see Jones (2006, pp. 33–34), who also mentions that the rulers of Ptolemaic Egypt gradually abandoned the Ancient Macedonian language. For further information and validation see Schiff (2011, p. 36). ^ Grant (1972, p. 3) states that Cleopatra could have been born in either late 70 BC or early 69 BC. ^ For further information and validation see Schiff (2011, p. 28) and Kleiner (2005, p. 22). For alternate speculation, see Burstein (2004, p. 11) and Roller (2010, pp. 15, 18, 166). ^ Due to discrepancies in academic works, in which some consider Cleopatra VI to be either a daughter of Ptolemy XII or his wife, identical to that of Cleopatra V, Jones (2006, p. 28) states that Ptolemy XII had six children, while Roller (2010, p. 16) mentions only five. ^ For further information and validation, see Grant (1972, pp. 12–13). In 1972, Michael Grant calculated that 6,000 talents, the price of Ptolemy XII's fee for receiving the title "friend and ally of the Roman people" from the triumvirs Pompey and Julius Caesar, would be worth roughly £7 million or US$17 million, roughly the entire annual tax revenue for Ptolemaic Egypt. ^ Fletcher (2008, p. 87) describes the painting from Herculaneum further: "Cleopatra's hair was maintained by her highly skilled hairdresser Eiras. Although rather artificial looking wigs set in the traditional tripartite style of long straight hair would have been required for her appearances before her Egyptian subjects, a more practical option for general day-to-day wear was the no-nonsense 'melon hairdo' in which her natural hair was drawn back in sections resembling the lines on a melon and then pinned up in a bun at the back of the head. A trademark style of Arsinoe II and Berenice II, the style had fallen from fashion for almost two centuries until revived by Cleopatra; yet as both traditionalist and innovator, she wore her version without her predecessor's fine head veil. And whereas they had both been blonde like Alexander, Cleopatra may well have been a redhead, judging from the portrait of a flame-haired woman wearing the royal diadem surrounded by Egyptian motifs which has been identified as Cleopatra." ^ For political background information on the Roman annexation of Cyprus, a move pushed for in the Roman Senate by Publius Clodius Pulcher, see Grant (1972, pp. 13–14). ^ For further information, see Grant (1972, pp. 15–16). ^ Fletcher (2008, pp. 76–77) expresses little doubt about this: "deposed in late summer 58 BC and fearing for his life, Auletes had fled both his palace and his kingdom, although he was not completely alone. For one Greek source reveals he had been accompanied 'by one of his daughters', and since his eldest Berenice IV, was monarch, and the youngest, Arisone, little more than a toddler, it is generally assumed that this must have been his middle daughter and favourite child, eleven-year-old Cleopatra." ^ For further information, see Grant (1972, p. 16). ^ For further information on Roman financier Rabirius, as well as the Gabiniani left in Egypt by Gabinius, see Grant (1972, pp. 18–19). ^ For further information, see Grant (1972, p. 18). ^ For further information, see Grant (1972, pp. 19–20, 27–29). ^ For further information, see Grant (1972, pp. 28–30). ^ For further information, see Fletcher (2008, pp. 88–92) and Jones (2006, pp. 31, 34–35). Fletcher (2008, pp. 85–86) states that the partial solar eclipse of 7 March 51 BC marked the death of Ptolemy XII and accession of Cleopatra to the throne, although she apparently suppressed the news of his death, alerting the Roman Senate to this fact months later in a message they received on 30 June 51 BC. However, Grant (1972, p. 30) claims that the Senate was informed of his death on 1 August 51 BC. Michael Grant indicates that Ptolemy XII could have been alive as late as May, while an ancient Egyptian source affirms he was still ruling with Cleopatra by 15 July 51 BC, although by this point Cleopatra most likely "hushed up her father's death" so that she could consolidate her control of Egypt. ^ Pfrommer & Towne-Markus (2001, p. 34) writes the following about the sibling marriage of Ptolemy II and Arsinoe II: "Ptolemy Keraunos, who wanted to become king of Macedon ... killed Arsinoë's small children in front of her. Now queen without a kingdom, Arsinoë fled to Egypt, where she was welcomed by her full brother Ptolemy II. Not content, however, to spend the rest of her life as a guest at the Ptolemaic court, she had Ptolemy II's wife exiled to Upper Egypt and married him herself around 275 B.C. Though such an incestuous marriage was considered scandalous by the Greeks, it was allowed by Egyptian custom. For that reason, the marriage split public opinion into two factions. The loyal side celebrated the couple as a return of the divine marriage of Zeus and Hera, whereas the other side did not refrain from profuse and obscene criticism. One of the most sarcastic commentators, a poet with a very sharp pen, had to flee Alexandria. The unfortunate poet was caught off the shore of Crete by the Ptolemaic navy, put in an iron basket, and drowned. This and similar actions seemingly slowed down vicious criticism." ^ For further information, see Fletcher (2008, pp. 92–93). ^ For further information, see Fletcher (2008, pp. 96–97) and Jones (2006, p. 39). ^ For further information, see Jones (2006, pp. 39–41). ^ a b For further information, see Fletcher (2008, p. 98) and Jones (2006, pp. 39–43, 53–55). ^ For further information, see Fletcher (2008, pp. 98–100) and Jones (2006, pp. 53–55). ^ For further information, see Burstein (2004, p. 18) and Fletcher (2008, pp. 101–103). ^ a b For further information, see Fletcher (2008, p. 113). ^ For further information, see Fletcher (2008, p. 118). ^ For further information, see Burstein (2004, p. 76). ^ For further information, see Burstein (2004, pp. xxi, 19) and Fletcher (2008, pp. 118–120). ^ For further information, see Fletcher (2008, pp. 119–120). As part of the siege of Alexandria, Burstein (2004, p. 19) states that Caesar's reinforcements came in January, but Roller (2010, p. 63) says that his reinforcements came in March. ^ For further information and validation, see Anderson (2003, p. 39) and Fletcher (2008, p. 120). ^ For further information and validation, see Fletcher (2008, p. 121) and Jones (2006, p. xiv). Roller (2010, pp. 64–65) states that at this point (47 BC) Ptolemy XIV was 12 years old, while Burstein (2004, p. 19) claims that he was still only 10 years of age. ^ For further information and validation, see Anderson (2003, p. 39) and Fletcher (2008, pp. 154, 161–162). ^ Roller (2010, p. 70) writes the following about Caesar and his parentage of Caesarion: "The matter of parentage became so tangled in the propaganda war between Antonius and Octavian in the late 30s B.C.—it was essential for one side to prove and the other to reject Caesar's role—that it is impossible today to determine Caesar's actual response. The extant information is almost contradictory: it was said that Caesar denied parentage in his will but acknowledged it privately and allowed the use of the name Caesarion. Caesar's associate C. Oppius even wrote a pamphlet proving that Caesarion was not Caesar's child, and C. Helvius Cinna—the poet who was killed by rioters after Antonius' funeral oration—was prepared in 44 B.C. to introduce legislation to allow Caesar to marry as many wives as he wished for the purpose of having children. Although much of this talk was generated after Caesar's death, it seems that he wished to be as quiet as possible about the child but had to contend with Cleopatra's repeated assertions." ^ For further information and validation, see Jones (2006, pp. xiv, 78). ^ For further information, see Fletcher (2008, pp. 214–215). ^ As explained by Burstein (2004, p. 23), Cleopatra, having read Antony's personality, boldly presented herself to him as the Egyptian goddess Isis (in the appearance of the Greek goddess Aphrodite) meeting her divine husband Osiris (in the form of the Greek god Dionysus), knowing that the priests of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus had associated Antony with Dionysus shortly before this encounter. According to Brown (2011), a cult surrounding Isis had been spreading across the region for hundreds of years, and Cleopatra, like many of her predecessors, sought to identify herself with Isis and be venerated. In addition, some surviving coins of Cleopatra also depict her as Venus–Aphrodite, as explained by Fletcher (2008, p. 205). ^ For further information about Publius Ventidius Bassus and his victory over Parthian forces at the Battle of Mount Gindarus, see Kennedy (1996, pp. 80–81). ^ a b c Ferroukhi (2001a, p. 219) provides a detailed discussion about this bust and its ambiguities, noting that it could represent Cleopatra, but that it is more likely her daughter Cleopatra Selene II. Kleiner (2005, pp. 155–156) argues in favor of its depicting Cleopatra rather than her daughter, while Varner (2004, p. 20) mentions only Cleopatra as a possible likeness. Roller (2003, p. 139) observes that it could be either Cleopatra or Cleopatra Selene II, while arguing the same ambiguity applies to the other sculpted head from Cherchel featuring a veil. In regards to the latter head, Ferroukhi (2001b, p. 242) indicates it as a possible portrait of Cleopatra, not Cleoptra Selene II, from the early 1st century AD while also arguing that its masculine features, earrings, and apparent toga (the veil being a component of it) could likely mean it was intended to depict a Numidian nobleman. Fletcher (2008, image plates between pp. 246–247) disagrees about the veiled head, arguing that it was commissioned by Cleopatra Selene II at Iol (Caesarea Mauretaniae) and was meant to depict her mother, Cleopatra. ^ According to Roller (2010, pp. 91–92), these client state rulers installed by Antony included Herod, Amyntas of Galatia, Polemon I of Pontus, and Archelaus of Cappadocia. ^ Bringmann (2007, p. 301) claims that Octavia Minor provided Antony with 1,200 troops, not 2,000 as stated in Roller (2010, pp. 97–98) and Burstein (2004, pp. 27–28). ^ Roller (2010, p. 100) says that it is unclear if Antony and Cleopatra were ever truly married. Burstein (2004, pp. xxii, 29) says that the marriage publicly sealed Antony's alliance with Cleopatra and in defiance of Octavian he would divorce Octavia in 32 BC. Coins of Antony and Cleopatra depict them in the typical manner of a Hellenistic royal couple, as explained by Roller (2010, p. 100). ^ Jones (2006, p. xiv) writes that "Octavian waged a propaganda war against Antony and Cleopatra, stressing Cleopatra's status as a woman and a foreigner who wished to share in Roman power." ^ Stanley M. Burstein, in Burstein (2004, p. 33) provides the name Quintus Cascellius as the recipient of the tax exemption, not the Publius Canidius Crassus provided by Duane W. Roller in Roller (2010, p. 134). ^ Reece (2017, p. 203) notes that "[t]he fragmentary texts of ancient Greek papyri do not often make their way into the modern public arena, but this one has, and with fascinating results, while remaining almost entirely unacknowledged is the remarkable fact that Cleopatra's one-word subscription contains a blatant spelling error: γινέσθωι, with a superfluous iota adscript." This spelling error "has not been noted by the popular media", however, being "simply transliterated [...] including, without comment, the superfluous iota adscript" (p. 208). Even in academic sources, the misspelling was largely unacknowledged or quietly corrected (pp. 206–208, 210). Although described as "'normal' orthography" (in contrast with "'correct' orthography") by Peter van Minnen (p. 208), the spelling error is "much rarer and more puzzling" than the sort one would expect from the Greek papyri from Egypt (p. 210)—so rare, in fact, that it occurs only twice in the 70,000 Greek papyri between the 3rd century BC and 8th century AD in the Papyrological Navigator's database. This is especially so when considering it was added to a word "with no etymological or morphological reason for having an iota adscript" (p. 210) and was written by "the well-educated, native Greek-speaking, queen of Egypt" Cleopatra VII (p. 208). ^ As explained by Jones (2006, p. 147), "politically, Octavian had to walk a fine line as he prepared to engage in open hostilities with Antony. He was careful to minimize associations with civil war, as the Roman people had already suffered through many years of civil conflict and Octavian could risk losing support if he declared war on a fellow citizen." ^ For the translated accounts of both Plutarch and Dio, Jones (2006, pp. 194–195) writes that the implement used to puncture Cleopatra's skin was a hairpin. ^ Jones (2006, p. 187), translating Plutarch, quotes Arius Didymus as saying to Octavian that "it is not good to have too many Caesars", which was apparently enough to convince Octavian to have Caesarion killed. ^ Contrary to regular Roman provinces, Egypt was established by Octavian as territory under his personal control, barring the Roman Senate from intervening in any of its affairs and appointing his own equestrian governors of Egypt, the first of whom was Gallus. For further information, see Southern (2014, p. 185) and Roller (2010, p. 151). ^ Walker (2001, p. 312) writes the following about the raised relief on the gilded silver dish: "Conspicuously mounted on the cornucopia is a gilded crescent moon set on a pine cone. Around it are piled pomegranates and bunches of grapes. Engraved on the horn are images of Helios (the sun), in the form of a youth dressed in a short cloak, with the hairstyle of Alexander the Great, the head surrounded by rays ... The symbols on the cornucopia can indeed be read as references to the Ptolemaic royal house and specifically to Cleopatra Selene, represented in the crescent moon, and to her twin brother, Alexander Helios, whose eventual fate after the conquest of Egypt is unknown. The viper seems to be linked with the pantheress and the intervening symbols of fecundity rather than the suicide of Cleopatra VII. The elephant scalp could refer to Cleopatra Selene's status as ruler, with Juba II, of Mauretania. The visual correspondence with the veiled head from Cherchel encourages this identification, and many of the symbols used on the dish also appear on the coinage of Juba II." ^ Jones (2006, p. 60) offers speculation that the author of De Bello Alexandrino, written in Latin prose sometime between 46–43 BC, was a certain Aulus Hirtius, a military officer serving under Caesar. ^ Burstein (2004, p. 30) writes that Virgil, in his Aeneid, described the Battle of Actium against Cleopatra "as a clash of civilizations in which Octavian and the Roman gods preserved Italy from conquest by Cleopatra and the barbaric animal-headed gods of Egypt." ^ For further information and extracts of Strabo's account of Cleopatra in his Geographica see Jones (2006, pp. 28–30). ^ As explained by Chauveau (2000, pp. 2–3), this source material from Egypt dated to the reign of Cleopatra includes about 50 papyri documents in Ancient Greek, mostly from the city of Heracleopolis, and only a few papyri from Faiyum, written in the Demotic Egyptian language. Overall this is a much smaller body of surviving native texts than those of any other period of Ptolemaic Egypt. ^ For the description of Cleopatra by Plutarch, who claimed that her beauty was not "completely incomparable" but that she had a "captivating" and "stimulating" personality, see Jones (2006, pp. 32–33). ^ Fletcher (2008, p. 205) writes the following: "Cleopatra was the only female Ptolemy to issue coins on her own behalf, some showing her as Venus-Aphrodite. Caesar now followed her example and, taking the same bold step, became the first living Roman to appear on coins, his rather haggard profile accompanied by the title 'Parens Patriae', 'Father of the Fatherland'." ^ For further information, see Raia & Sebesta (2017). ^ There is academic disagreement on whether the following portraits are considered "heads" or "busts". For instance, Raia & Sebesta (2017) exclusively uses the former, while Grout (2017b) prefers the latter. ^ For further information and validation, see Curtius (1933, pp. 182–192), Walker (2008, p. 348), Raia & Sebesta (2017) and Grout (2017b). ^ For further information and validation, see Grout (2017b) and Roller (2010, pp. 174–175). ^ For further information, see Curtius (1933, pp. 182–192), Walker (2008, p. 348) and Raia & Sebesta (2017). ^ The observation that the left cheek of the Vatican Cleopatra once had a cupid's hand that was broken off was first suggested by Ludwig Curtius in 1933. Kleiner concurs with this assessment. See Kleiner (2005, p. 153), as well as Walker (2008, p. 40) and Curtius (1933, pp. 182–192). While Kleiner (2005, p. 153) has suggested the lump on top of this marble head perhaps contained a broken-off uraeus, Curtius (1933, p. 187) offered the explanation that it once held a sculpted representation of a jewel. ^ Curtius (1933, p. 187) wrote that the damaged lump along the hairline and diadem of the Vatican Cleopatra likely contained a sculpted representation of a jewel, which Walker (2008, p. 40) directly compares to the painted red jewel in the diadem worn by Venus, most likely Cleopatra, in the fresco from Pompeii. ^ For further information about the painting in the House of Giuseppe II (Joseph II) at Pompeii and the possible identification of Cleopatra as one of the figures, see Pucci (2011, pp. 206–207, footnote 27). ^ In Pratt & Fizel (1949, pp. 14–15), Frances Pratt and Becca Fizel rejected the idea proposed by some scholars in the 19th and early 20th centuries that the painting was perhaps done by an artist of the Italian Renaissance. Pratt and Fizel highlighted the Classical style of the painting as preserved in textual descriptions and the steel engraving. They argued that it was unlikely for a Renaissance period painter to have created works with encaustic materials, conducted thorough research into Hellenistic period Egyptian clothing and jewelry as depicted in the painting, and then precariously placed it in the ruins of the Egyptian temple at Hadrian's Villa. ^ Walker & Higgs (2001, pp. 314–315) describe her hair as reddish brown, while Fletcher (2008, p. 87) describes her as a flame-haired redhead and, in Fletcher (2008, image plates and captions between pp. 246–247), likewise describes her as a red-haired woman. ^ Preston (2009, p. 305) comes to a similar conclusion about native Egyptian depictions of Cleopatra: "Apart from certain temple carvings, which are anyway in a highly stylised pharaonic style and give little clue to Cleopatra's real appearance, the only certain representations of Cleopatra are those on coins. The marble head in the Vatican is one of three sculptures generally, though not universally, accepted by scholars to be depictions of Cleopatra." ^ For further information on Cleopatra's Macedonian Greek lineage, see Pucci (2011, p. 201), Grant (1972, pp. 3–5), Burstein (2004, pp. 3, 34, 36, 43, 63–64) and Royster (2003, pp. 47–49). ^ For further information and validation of the foundation of Hellenistic Egypt by Alexander the Great and Cleopatra's ancestry stretching back to Ptolemy I Soter, see Grant (1972, pp. 7–8) and Jones (2006, p. 3). ^ For further information, see Grant (1972, pp. 3–4) and Burstein (2004, p. 11). ^ For further information, see Fletcher (2008, pp. 69, 74, 76). Contrary to other sources cited here, Dodson & Hilton (2004, pp. 268–269, 273) refer to Cleopatra V Tryphaena as a possible cousin or sister of Ptolemy XII Auletes. ^ For the Sogdian ancestry of Apama, wife of Seleucus I Nicator, see Holt (1989, pp. 64–65, footnote 63). ^ As explained by Burstein (2004, pp. 47–50), the main ethnic groups of Ptolemaic Egypt were Egyptians, Greeks, and Jews, each of whom were legally segregated, living in different residential quarters and forbidden to intermarry with one another in the multicultural cities of Alexandria, Naucratis, and Ptolemais Hermiou. However, as explained by Fletcher (2008, pp. 82, 88–93), the native Egyptian priesthood was strongly linked to their Ptolemaic royal patrons, to the point where Cleopatra is speculated to have had an Egyptian half-cousin, Pasherienptah III, the High Priest of Ptah at Memphis, Egypt. ^ Grant (1972, p. 5) argues that Cleopatra's grandmother, i.e. the mother of Ptolemy XII, might have been a Syrian (though conceding that "it is possible she was also partly Greek"), but almost certainly not an Egyptian because there is only one known Egyptian mistress of a Ptolemaic ruler throughout their entire dynasty. ^ Schiff (2011, p. 42) further argues that, considering Cleopatra's ancestry, she was not dark-skinned, though notes Cleopatra was likely not among the Ptolemies with fair features, and instead would have been honey-skinned, citing as evidence that her relatives were described as such and it "would have presumably applied to her as well." Goldsworthy (2010, pp. 127, 128) agrees to this, contending that Cleopatra, having Macedonian blood with a little Syrian, was probably not dark-skinned (as Roman propaganda never mentions it), writing "fairer skin is marginally more likely considering her ancestry," though also notes she could have had a "darker more Mediterranean complexion" because of her mixed ancestry. Grant (1972, p. 5) agrees to Goldsworthy's latter speculation of her skin color, that though almost certainly not Egyptian, Cleopatra had a darker complexion due to being Greek mixed with Persian and possible Syrian ancestry. Preston (2009, p. 77) agrees with Grant that, considering this ancestry, Cleopatra was "almost certainly dark-haired and olive-skinned." Bradford (2000, p. 14) contends that it is "reasonable to infer" Cleopatra had dark hair and "pale olive skin." ^ For further information on the identity of Cleopatra's mother, see Burstein (2004, p. 11), Fletcher (2008, p. 73), Goldsworthy (2010, pp. 127, 128), Grant (1972, p. 4), and Roller (2010, pp. 165–166). Joann Fletcher finds this hypothesis to be dubious and lacking evidence. Stanley M. Burstein claims that strong circumstantial evidence suggests Cleopatra's mother could have been a member of the priestly family of Ptah, but that historians generally assume her mother was Cleopatra V Tryphaena, wife of Ptolemy XII. Adrian Goldsworthy dismisses the idea of Cleopatra's mother being a member of an Egyptian priestly family as "pure conjecture," adding that either Cleopatra V or a concubine "probably of Greek origin" would be Cleopatra VII's mother. Michael Grant contends that Cleopatra V was most likely Cleopatra VII's mother. Duane W. Roller notes that while Cleopatra could have been the daughter of the priestly family of Ptah, the other main candidate would be Cleopatra VI, maintaining the uncertainty stems from Cleopatra V/VI's "loss of favor" that "obscured the issue." Roller (2010, pp. 165-166) also posits that Cleopatra being the only known ruler of the Ptolemaic Dynasty to speak Egyptian, along with her daughter Cleopatra Selene II as Queen of Mauretania publicly honoring the native Egyptian elite, both lend credence to the priestly class mistress hypothesis for maternity. ^ Schiff (2011, pp. 2) concurs with this, concluding that Cleopatra "upheld the family tradition." As noted by Dudley (1960, pp. 57), Cleopatra and her family were "the successor[s] to the native Pharaohs, exploiting through a highly organized bureaucracy the great natural resources of the Nile Valley." ^ Grant (1972, p. 4) argues that if Cleopatra had been illegitimate, her "numerous Roman enemies would have revealed this to the world." ^ The family tree and short discussions of the individuals can be found in Dodson & Hilton (2004, pp. 268–281). Aidan Dodson and Dyan Hilton refer to Cleopatra V as Cleopatra VI and Cleopatra Selene of Syria is called Cleopatra V Selene. Dotted lines in the chart below indicate possible but disputed parentage. 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(1983), "The Political History of Iran Under the Arsacids", in Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.), Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(1): The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian periods, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 21–99, ISBN 9780521200929. Bradford, Ernle (2000) [1971], Cleopatra, Penguin Group, ISBN 9780141390147. Bringmann, Klaus (2007) [2002], A History of the Roman Republic, translated by W. J. Smyth, Cambridge: Polity Press, ISBN 9780745633718. Brosius, Maria (2006), The Persians: An Introduction, London & New York: Routledge, ISBN 9780415320894. Burstein, Stanley M. (2004), The Reign of Cleopatra, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, ISBN 9780313325274. Caygill, Marjorie (2009), Treasures of the British Museum, London: British Museum Press (Trustees of the British Museum), ISBN 9780714150628. Chauveau, Michel (2000) [1997], Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra: History and Society Under the Ptolemies, translated by David Lorton, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, ISBN 9780801485763. 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Ferroukhi, Mafoud (2001a), "197 Marble portrait, perhaps of Cleopatra VII's daughter, Cleopatra Selene, Queen of Mauretania", in Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (eds.), Cleopatra of Egypt: from History to Myth, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press (British Museum Press), p. 219, ISBN 9780691088358. Ferroukhi, Mafoud (2001b), "262 Veiled head from a marble portrait statue", in Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (eds.), Cleopatra of Egypt: from History to Myth, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press (British Museum Press), p. 242, ISBN 9780691088358. Fletcher, Joann (2008), Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend, New York: Harper, ISBN 9780060585587. Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith (2010), Antony and Cleopatra, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, ISBN 9780300165340 . Grant, Michael (1972), Cleopatra, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson; Richard Clay (the Chaucer Press), ISBN 9780297995029. Gurval, Robert A. (2011), "Dying Like a Queen: the Story of Cleopatra and the Asp(s) in Antiquity", in Miles, Margaret M. (ed.), Cleopatra : a sphinx revisited, Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 54–77, ISBN 9780520243675. Higgs, Peter (2001), "Searching for Cleopatra's image: classical portraits in stone", in Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (eds.), Cleopatra of Egypt: from History to Myth, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press (British Museum Press), pp. 200–209, ISBN 9780691088358. Holt, Frank L. (1989), Alexander the Great and Bactria: the Formation of a Greek Frontier in Central Asia, Leiden: E.J. Brill, ISBN 9789004086128. Hölbl, Günther (2001) [1994], A History of the Ptolemaic Empire, translated by Tina Saavedra, London: Routledge, ISBN 9780415201452. Hsia, Chih-tsing (2004), C.T. Hsia on Chinese Literature, New York: Columbia University Press, ISBN 9780231129909. Jeffreys, David (1999), "Memphis", in Bard, Kathryn A. (ed.), Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt, London: Routledge, pp. 488–490, ISBN 9780415185899. Johnson, Janet H. (1999), "Late and Ptolemaic periods, overview", in Bard, Kathryn A. (ed.), Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt, London: Routledge, pp. 66–72, ISBN 9780415185899. Jones, Prudence J. (2006), Cleopatra: a sourcebook, Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, ISBN 9780806137414. Kennedy, David L. (1996), "Parthia and Rome: eastern perspectives", in Kennedy, David L.; Braund, David (eds.), The Roman Army in the East, Ann Arbor: Cushing Malloy Inc., Journal of Roman Archaeology: Supplementary Series Number Eighteen, pp. 67–90, ISBN 9781887829182 Kleiner, Diana E. E. (2005), Cleopatra and Rome, Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, ISBN 9780674019058. Lippold, Georg (1936), Die Skulpturen des Vaticanischen Museums (in German), 3, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co., OCLC 803204281. Meadows, Andrew; Ashton, Sally-Ann (2001), "186 Bronze coin of Cleopatra VII", in Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (eds.), Cleopatra of Egypt: from History to Myth, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press (British Museum Press), p. 178, ISBN 9780691088358. Newman, Robert (1990), "A Dialogue of Power in the Coinage of Antony and Octavian (44–30 B.C.)", American Journal of Numismatics, 2: 37–63, JSTOR 43580166. Pfrommer, Michael; Towne-Markus, Elana (2001), Greek Gold from Hellenistic Egypt, Getty Museum Studies on Art, Los Angeles: Getty Publications (J. Paul Getty Trust), ISBN 9780892366330. Pina Polo, Francisco (2013), "The Great Seducer: Cleopatra, Queen and Sex Symbol", in Knippschild, Silke; García Morcillo, Marta (eds.), Seduction and Power: Antiquity in the Visual and Performing Arts, London: Bloomsbury Academic, pp. 183–197, ISBN 9781441190659. Pratt, Frances; Fizel, Becca (1949), Encaustic Materials and Methods, New York: Lear Publishers, OCLC 560769. Preston, Diana (2009), Cleopatra and Antony: Power, Love, and Politics in the Ancient World, New York: Walker and Company, ISBN 9780802717382. Pucci, Giuseppe (2011), "Every Man's Cleopatra", in Miles, Margaret M. (ed.), Cleopatra : a sphinx revisited, Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 195–207, ISBN 9780520243675. Roller, Duane W. (2003), The World of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene: Royal Scholarship on Rome's African Frontier, New York: Routledge, ISBN 9780415305969. Roller, Duane W. (2010), Cleopatra: a biography, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 9780195365535. Rowland, Ingrid D. (2011), "The Amazing Afterlife of Cleopatra's Love Potions", in Miles, Margaret M. (ed.), Cleopatra : a sphinx revisited, Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 132–149, ISBN 9780520243675. Royster, Francesca T. (2003), Becoming Cleopatra: The Shifting Image of an Icon, New York: Palgrave MacMillan, ISBN 9781403961099 Sartain, John (1885), On the Antique Painting in Encaustic of Cleopatra: Discovered in 1818, Philadelphia: George Gebbie & Co., OCLC 3806143. Schiff, Stacy (2011), Cleopatra: A Life, UK: Random House, ISBN 9780753539569. Skeat, T. C. (1953), "The Last Days of Cleopatra: A Chronological Problem", The Journal of Roman Studies, 43 (1–2): 98–100, doi:10.2307/297786, JSTOR 297786. Southern, Patricia (2014) [1998], Augustus (2nd ed.), London: Routledge, ISBN 9780415628389. Southern, Patricia (2009) [2007], Antony and Cleopatra: The Doomed Love Affair That United Ancient Rome and Egypt, Stroud, Gloucestershire: Amberley Publishing, ISBN 9781848683242. Varner, Eric R. (2004), Mutilation and Transformation: Damnatio Memoriae and Roman Imperial Portraiture, Leiden: Brill, ISBN 9789004135772. Walker, Susan (2004), The Portland Vase, British Museum Objects in Focus, British Museum Press, ISBN 9780714150222. Walker, Susan (2008), "Cleopatra in Pompeii?", Papers of the British School at Rome, 76: 35–46, 345–348, doi:10.1017/S0068246200000404, JSTOR 40311128. Walker, Susan (2001), "324 Gilded silver dish, decorated with a bust perhaps representing Cleopatra Selene", in Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (eds.), Cleopatra of Egypt: from History to Myth, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press (British Museum Press), pp. 312–313, ISBN 9780691088358. Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (2001), "325 Painting with a portrait of a woman in profile", in Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (eds.), Cleopatra of Egypt: from History to Myth, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press (British Museum Press), pp. 314–315, ISBN 9780691088358. Whitehorne, John (1994), Cleopatras, London: Routledge, ISBN 9780415058063 Woodstra, Chris; Brennan, Gerald; Schrott, Allen (2005), All Music Guide to Classical Music: The Definitive Guide to Classical Music, Ann Arbor, MI: All Media Guide (Backbeat Books), ISBN 9780879308650. Wyke, Maria; Montserrat, Dominic (2011), "Glamour Girls: Cleomania in Mass Culture", in Miles, Margaret M. (ed.), Cleopatra : a sphinx revisited, Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 172–194, ISBN 9780520243675. Further reading Chauveau, Michel (2004). Cleopatra: Beyond the Myth. Cornell University Press. ISBN 9780801489532. Flamarion, Edith (1997). Cleopatra: The Life and Death of a Pharaoh. "Abrams Discoveries" series. Translated by Bonfante-Warren, Alexandra. New York: Harry N. Abrams. ISBN 9780810928053. Foss, Michael (1999). The Search for Cleopatra. Arcade Publishing. ISBN 9781559705035. Fraser, P.M. (1985). Ptolemaic Alexandria. 1–3 (reprint ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198142782. Lindsay, Jack (1972). Cleopatra. New York: Coward-McCann. OCLC 671705946. Nardo, Don (1994). Cleopatra. Lucent Books. ISBN 9781560060239. Pomeroy, Sarah B. (1984). Women in Hellenistic Egypt: from Alexander to Cleopatra. New York: Schocken Books. ISBN 9780805239119. Samson, Julia (1990). Nefertiti & Cleopatra. Stacey International. ISBN 9780948695186. Southern, Pat (2000). Cleopatra. Tempus. ISBN 9780752414942. Syme, Ronald (1962) [1939]. The Roman Revolution. Oxford University Press. OCLC 404094. Tyldesley, Joyce (2008). Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt. Basic Books. ISBN 9780465018925. Volkmann, Hans (1958). Cleopatra: a Study in Politics and Propaganda. T.J. Cadoux, trans. New York: Sagamore Press. OCLC 899077769. Weigall, Arthur E. P. Brome (1914). The Life and Times of Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt. Edinburgh: Blackwood. OCLC 316294139. External links Cleopatraat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Ancient Roman depictions of Cleopatra VII of Egypt, at YouTube Cleopatra on In Our Time at the BBC Cleopatra (1852), a Victorian children's book by Jacob Abbott, Project Gutenberg edition "Mysterious Death of Cleopatra" at the Discovery Channel Cleopatra VII at BBC History Cleopatra VII at Ancient History Encyclopedia Eubanks, W. Ralph. (1 November 2010). "How History and Hollywood Got 'Cleopatra' Wrong". National Public Radio (NPR) (a book review of Cleopatra: A Life, by Stacy Schiff). Jarus, Owen (13 March 2014). "Cleopatra: Facts & Biography". Live Science. Watkins, Thayer. "The Timeline of the Life of Cleopatra." San Jose State University. Draycott, Jane (22 May 2018). "Cleopatra's Daughter: While Antony and Cleopatra have been immortalised in history and in popular culture, their offspring have been all but forgotten. Their daughter, Cleopatra Selene, became an important ruler in her own right". History Today. Cleopatra Ptolemaic dynasty Born: 69 BC Died: 30 BC Regnal titles Preceded by Ptolemy XII Queen of Egypt 51–30 BC with Ptolemy XII, Ptolemy XIII, Ptolemy XIV and Ptolemy XV Office abolished Egypt annexed by Roman Republic v t e Hellenistic rulers Argeads Philip II Alexander III the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Antigonids Antigonus I Monophthalmus Demetrius I Poliorcetes Antigonus II Gonatas Demetrius II Aetolicus Antigonus III Doson Philip V Perseus Philip VI (pretender) Ptolemies Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Kings of Cyrene Magas Demetrius the Fair Ptolemy VIII Physcon Ptolemy Apion Seleucids Seleucus I Nicator Antiochus I Soter Antiochus II Theos Seleucus II Callinicus Seleucus III Ceraunus Antiochus III the Great Seleucus IV Philopator Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus V Eupator Demetrius I Soter Alexander I Balas Demetrius II Nicator Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Lysimachids Lysimachus Ptolemy Epigonos Antipatrids Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Attalids Philetaerus Eumenes I Attalus I Eumenes II Attalus II Attalus III Eumenes III Greco-Bactrians Diodotus I Diodotus II Euthydemus I Demetrius I Euthydemus II Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Demetrius II Eucratides I Plato Eucratides II Heliocles I Indo-Greeks Demetrius I Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Apollodotus I Demetrius II Antimachus II Menander I Zoilos I Agathokleia Lysias Strato I Antialcidas Heliokles II Polyxenos Demetrius III Philoxenus Diomedes Amyntas Epander Theophilos Peukolaos Thraso Nicias Menander II Artemidoros Hermaeus Archebius Telephos Apollodotus II Hippostratos Dionysios Zoilos II Apollophanes Strato II Strato III Kings of Bithynia Boteiras Bas Zipoetes I Nicomedes I Zipoetes II Etazeta (regent) Ziaelas Prusias I Prusias II Nicomedes II Nicomedes III Nicomedes IV Socrates Chrestus Kings of Pontus Mithridates I Ctistes Ariobarzanes Mithridates II Mithridates III Pharnaces I Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos Mithridates V Euergetes Mithridates VI Eupator Pharnaces II Darius Arsaces Polemon I Pythodorida Polemon II Kings of Commagene Ptolemaeus Sames II Mithridates I Antiochus I Mithridates II Antiochus II Mithridates III Antiochus III Antiochus IV Kings of Cappadocia Ariarathes I Ariarathes II Ariamnes II Ariarathes III Ariarathes IV Ariarathes V Orophernes Ariarathes VI Ariarathes VII Ariarathes VIII Ariarathes IX Ariobarzanes I Ariobarzanes II Ariobarzanes III Ariarathes X Archelaus Kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus Paerisades I Satyros II Prytanis Eumelos Spartokos III Hygiainon (regent) Paerisades II Spartokos IV Leukon II Spartokos V Paerisades III Paerisades IV Paerisades V Mithridates I Pharnaces Asander with Dynamis Mithridates II Asander with Dynamis Scribonius’ attempted rule with Dynamis Dynamis with Polemon Polemon with Pythodorida Aspurgus Mithridates III with Gepaepyris Mithridates III Cotys I Hellenistic rulers were preceded by Hellenistic satraps in most of their territories. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Queens of Ancient Egypt Early Dynastic Period to First Intermediate Period  (3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Neithhotep Benerib Khenthap Herneith Nakhtneith Penebui Merneith Seshemetka Semat Serethor Betrest II Nimaathap Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Hetephernebti Djeseretnebti Djefatnebti Meresankh I IV Hetepheres I Meritites I Henutsen Khentetka Meresankh II Hetepheres II Meresankh III Khamerernebty I Persenet Hekenuhedjet Khamerernebty II Rekhetre Bunefer V Khentkaus I Neferhetepes Meretnebty Khentkaus II Khentkaus III Reptynub Khuit I Meresankh IV Setibhor Nebet Khenut VI Iput I Khuit II Ankhesenpepi I Ankhesenpepi II Nubwenet Meritites IV Inenek-Inti Nedjeftet Neith Iput II Udjebten Ankhesenpepi III Ankhesenpepi IV Nitocris Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Neferu I Neferukayet Iah Tem Neferu II Ashayet Henhenet Sadeh Kawit Kemsit XII Neferitatjenen Neferu III Keminub Khenemetneferhedjet I Nofret II Itaweret Khenmet Sithathoriunet Khenemetneferhedjet II Neferthenut Meretseger Aat Khenemetneferhedjet III Sobekneferu 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Nofret Nubhetepti Senebhenas Neni Tjan Ineni Nubkhaes Aya XIV Tati XVI Mentuhotep XVII Nubemhat Sobekemsaf Haankhes Tetisheri Ahhotep I Ahmose Inhapy Sitdjehuti Ahhotep II New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose-Nefertari Ahmose-Sitkamose Ahmose-Henuttamehu Ahmose-Meritamun Ahmose Mutnofret Hatshepsut Iset Satiah Merytre-Hatshepsut Nebtu Menhet, Menwi and Merti Nebsemi Tiaa Nefertari Iaret Mutemwiya Tiye Gilukhipa Sitamun Iset Tadukhipa / Kiya Nefertiti Meritaten Neferneferuaten Ankhesenamun Tey Mutnedjmet Nebetnehat XIX Sitre Tuya Tanedjemet Nefertari Isetnofret Henutmire Maathorneferure Meritamen Bintanath Nebettawy Merytre Isetnofret II Takhat Twosret Tiaa XX Tiy-Merenese Iset Ta-Hemdjert Tyti Tiye Duatentopet Henutwati Tawerettenru Nubkhesbed Baketwernel Tentamun 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Tentamun Mutnedjmet Karimala XXII Karomama Patareshnes Maatkare Tashedkhonsu Nesitaudjatakhet Nesitanebetashru Kapes Karomama I Tadibast III XXIII Karomama II XXV Pebatjma Tabiry Abar Khensa Peksater Arty Qalhata Tabekenamun Takahatenamun Naparaye Atakhebasken Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Mehytenweskhet Khedebneithirbinet I Takhuit Tentkheta Nakhtubasterau Ladice XXVII Atossa Artystone Parmys Amestris Damaspia Parysatis XXXI Stateira I Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Roxana Stateira II Parysatis II Eurydice II of Macedon Ptolemaic Eurydice Berenice I Arsinoe I Arsinoe II Berenice II Arsinoe III Cleopatra I Cleopatra II Cleopatra III Cleopatra IV Cleopatra Selene Berenice III Cleopatra V Cleopatra VI Berenice IV Cleopatra VII Arsinoe IV Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic v t e Julius Caesar Major life events Early life and career First Triumvirate Lucca Conference Gallic Wars Caesar's Civil War Crossing the Rubicon Constitutional reforms Dictator perpetuo Assassination Military campaigns Gallic Wars Arar Bibracte Vosges Axona Sabis Atuatuci Octodurus Invasions of Britain Ambiorix's revolt Avaricum Gergovia Alesia Uxellodunum Civil War Corfinium Brundisium Ilerda Dyrrhachium Gomphi Pharsalus Nile Alexandria Zela Ruspina Thapsus Munda Planned invasion of the Parthian Empire Works Laudatio Iuliae amitae Anticato Commentarii de Bello Civili Commentarii de Bello Gallico De analogia Poems by Julius Caesar Portraits Green Caesar Tusculum portrait Arles bust Buildings Forum of Caesar Curia Julia Basilica Julia Temple of Venus Genetrix Caesar's Rhine bridges Quotes Alea iacta est Veni, vidi, vici Ut est rerum omnium magister usus last words Family Wives Cossutia (disputed) Cornelia Pompeia Calpurnia Children Julia Caesarion Augustus (adopted) Other Gaius Julius Caesar (father) Aurelia (mother) Julia Major (sister) Julia Minor (sister) Legacy Cultural depictions of Julius Caesar Temple of Caesar Caesar's Comet Caesarism Julio-Claudian dynasty Related Julia gens Mark Antony Cleopatra Servilia Marcus Junius Brutus Category v t e William Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra Characters Mark Antony Octavius Caesar Lepidus Cleopatra Sextus Pompey Domitius Enobarbus Ventidius Canidius Scarus Octavia Maecenas Agrippa Taurus Dolabella Gallus Menas Charmian Sources Parallel Lives Stage adaptations The False One (c.1620) All for Love (1677) Opera Antony and Cleopatra (1966) On screen 1908 1913 1959 (TV) The Spread of the Eagle (1963; TV) 1972 1974 (TV) 1981 (TV) Zulfiqar (2016; film) Related Cultural depictions of Cleopatra Cultural depictions of Augustus Salad days Asp Thomas North Cleopatra (1912) Cleopatra (1917) Roman Tragedies (2007) Category Authority control BIBSYS: 90224949 BNC: 000068584 BNE: XX889851 BNF: cb11938532d (data) CANTIC: a10832221 GND: 11856322X ISNI: 0000 0001 0927 8576 LCCN: n80067160 LNB: 000138426 NDL: 00620501 NKC: jn20000700908 NLA: 49682372 NLI: 000032491 NLK: KAC201624465 NTA: 069889511 SELIBR: 182837 SNAC: w6nt5bj6 SUDOC: 027316564 TePapa: 49549 Trove: 1458864 VIAF: 67762941 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n80067160 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cleopatra&oldid=995084300" Categories: Cleopatra 69 BC births 30 BC deaths 1st-century BC Pharaohs 1st-century BC Egyptian people 1st-century BC women rulers Deaths due to snake bites Egyptian queens regnant Female pharaohs Female Shakespearean characters Female suicides Hellenistic-era people Mistresses of Julius Caesar Pharaohs of the Ptolemaic dynasty Royal suicides in the classical world 1st-century BC women writers Hellenistic Cyprus Wives of Mark Antony Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles 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en-wikipedia-org-9706	----	Vigintisexviri - Wikipedia Vigintisexviri From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search College of minor magistrates of the Roman Republic Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e The Vigintisexviri (sing. vigintisexvir) was a college (collegium) of minor magistrates (magistratus minores) in the Roman Republic; the name literally means "Twenty-Six Men". The college consisted of six boards: decemviri stlitibus judicandis – 10 magistrates who judged lawsuits, including those dealing with whether a man was free or a slave; the tresviri capitales, also known as nocturni – three magistrates who had a police function in Rome, in charge of prisons and the execution of criminals; [1] the tresviri aere argento auro flando feriundo, also known as tresviri monetales – three magistrates who were in charge of striking and casting bronze, silver and gold (minting coins); the quattuorviri viis in urbe purgandis, also known as quattuorviri viarum curandarum – four magistrates overseeing road maintenance within the city of Rome; the duoviri viis extra urbem purgandis, also known as duoviri curatores viarum – two magistrates overseeing road maintenance near Rome; the four praefecti Capuam Cumas – praefecti sent to Capua and Cumae in Campania to administer justice there. The singular of tresviri is triumvir; triumviri is also sometimes used for the plural but is considered to be less correct.[2] In the Republic, the Vigintisexvirate had served as a stepping stone for the sons of senators to begin their own public careers in the cursus honorum; Julius Caesar had served as curator viarum and restored parts of the Via Appia. In AD 13, however, the Senate passed a senatus consultum restricting the reduced Vigintivirate to the Equestrians. During the Principate, Caesar Augustus abolished the duoviri viis extra urbem purgandis and the four praefecti Capuam Cumas, thereby changing the vigintisexviri into the vigintiviri ("Twenty Men"). References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Hornblower 1999:police ^ Melville Jones 1990:Mint magistrates Sources[edit] Melville Jones, John R. (1990). A Dictionary of Ancient Roman Coins, Seaby, republished by Spink. ISBN 1-85264-026-X Hornblower, Simon & Spaworth, Antony (1999). The Oxford Classical Dictionary. Third Edition. ISBN 0-19-866172-X Smith, William (1875). A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, John Murray, London. External links[edit] Smith, 1985:Vigintisexviri v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vigintisexviri&oldid=938724639" Categories: Roman Republic Ancient Roman titles Cursus honorum Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Български Català Deutsch Español Français Italiano עברית Latina Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Türkçe 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 2 February 2020, at 00:28 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9763	----	Carmen Saeculare - Wikipedia Carmen Saeculare From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The Carmen Saeculare (Latin for "Secular Hymn" or "Song of the Ages") is a hymn in Sapphic meter written by the Roman poet Horace. It was commissioned by the Roman emperor Augustus in 17 BC. The hymn was sung by a chorus of twenty-seven maidens and the same number of youths on the occasion of the Ludi Saeculares (Secular Games), which celebrated the end of one saeculum (typically 110 years in length) and the beginning of another. The mythological and religious song is in the form of a prayer addressed to Apollo and Diana; it especially brings to prominence Apollo, functioning as a surrogate for and patron of the princeps (Augustus), for whom a new temple on the Palatine had recently been consecrated. A marble inscription recording the ceremony and the part played by Horace still survives. The Carmen Saeculare is the earliest fully preserved lyric poem for which there is definite information about the circumstances of its public performance.[1] The term "secular hymn" has recently been applied to popular music. See also[edit] Occasional poetry References[edit] ^ Michael C J Putnam, Horace's "Carmen Saeculare": Ritual Magic and the Poet`s Art, Yale University Press, 2000 External links[edit]  Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: Carmen Saeculare The text of the Carmen Saeculare in Latin English translation of the Carmen Saeculare Latin Text of Carmen Saeculare at the Latin Library Commentary on Latin text by Paul Shorey Carmen Saeculare public domain audiobook at LibriVox Carmina Horatiana The Carmen Saeculare recited in Latin by Thomas Bervoets. v t e Works by Horace Poetry Satires Epodes Odes Epistles Carmen Saeculare Ars Poetica Collections Satires 2.5 Quote Ut pictura poesis Related Spring of Bandusium Authority control VIAF: 230152140015511100002 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 230152140015511100002 This poetry-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carmen_Saeculare&oldid=947160879" Categories: 1st-century BC Latin books Ancient Roman culture Poetry by Horace Poetry stubs Hidden categories: Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Español Français Interlingua Italiano Latina Nederlands Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 24 March 2020, at 17:38 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-976	----	Roman aqueduct - Wikipedia Roman aqueduct From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on 25 December 2020. Jump to navigation Jump to search The multiple arches of the Pont du Gard in Roman Gaul (modern-day southern France). The upper tier encloses an aqueduct that carried water to Nimes in Roman times; its lower tier was expanded in the 1740s to carry a wide road across the river. Play media Aerial footage of a Roman provincial aqueduct at Mória (Lesbos) The Romans constructed aqueducts throughout their Republic and later Empire, to bring water from outside sources into cities and towns. Aqueduct water supplied public baths, latrines, fountains, and private households; it also supported mining operations, milling, farms, and gardens. Aqueducts moved water through gravity alone, along a slight overall downward gradient within conduits of stone, brick, or concrete; the steeper the gradient, the faster the flow. Most conduits were buried beneath the ground and followed the contours of the terrain; obstructing peaks were circumvented or, less often, tunneled through. Where valleys or lowlands intervened, the conduit was carried on bridgework, or its contents fed into high-pressure lead, ceramic, or stone pipes and siphoned across. Most aqueduct systems included sedimentation tanks, which helped to reduce any water-borne debris. Sluices and castella aquae (distribution tanks) regulated the supply to individual destinations. In cities and towns, the run-off water from aqueducts scoured the drains and sewers. Rome's first aqueduct was built in 312 BC, and supplied a water fountain at the city's cattle market. By the 3rd century AD, the city had eleven aqueducts, sustaining a population of over a million in a water-extravagant economy; most of the water supplied the city's many public baths. Cities and towns throughout the Roman Empire emulated this model, and funded aqueducts as objects of public interest and civic pride, "an expensive yet necessary luxury to which all could, and did, aspire".[1] Most Roman aqueducts proved reliable and durable; some were maintained into the early modern era, and a few are still partly in use. Methods of aqueduct surveying and construction are noted by Vitruvius in his work De architectura (1st century BC). The general Frontinus gives more detail in his official report on the problems, uses and abuses of Imperial Rome's public water supply. Notable examples of aqueduct architecture include the supporting piers of the Aqueduct of Segovia, and the aqueduct-fed cisterns of Constantinople. Contents 1 Background 1.1 Aqueducts in the Roman Empire 1.2 Rome's aqueducts 1.2.1 Timeline 2 Planning, surveying and construction 2.1 Planning 2.2 Sources and surveying 2.3 Health issues 2.4 Conduits and gradients 2.5 Bridgework and siphons 2.6 Inspection and maintenance 2.7 Distribution 3 Uses 3.1 Civic and domestic 3.2 Farming 3.3 Industrial 4 Decline in use 5 See also 6 References 7 Bibliography 8 External links Background[edit] "The extraordinary greatness of the Roman Empire manifests itself above all in three things: the aqueducts, the paved roads, and the construction of the drains." Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities[2] Before the development of aqueduct technology, Romans, like most of their contemporaries in the ancient world, relied on local water sources such as springs and streams, supplemented by groundwater from privately or publicly owned wells, and by seasonal rain-water drained from rooftops into storage jars and cisterns.[3] The reliance of ancient communities upon such water resources restricted their potential growth. Rome's aqueducts were not strictly Roman inventions – their engineers would have been familiar with the water-management technologies of Rome's Etruscan and Greek allies – but they proved conspicuously successful. By the early Imperial era, the city's aqueducts supported a population of over a million, and an extravagant water supply for public amenities had become a fundamental part of Roman life.[4] The run-off of aqueduct water scoured the sewers of cities and towns. Water from aqueducts was also used to supply villas, ornamental urban and suburban gardens, market gardens, farms, and agricultural estates, the latter being the core of Rome's economy and wealth.[5] Aqueducts in the Roman Empire[edit] See also: List of aqueducts in the Roman Empire Hundreds of similar aqueducts were built throughout the Roman Empire. Many of them have since collapsed or been destroyed, but a number of intact portions remain. The Zaghouan Aqueduct is 92.5 km (57.5 mi) in length. It was built in the 2nd century to supply Carthage (in modern Tunisia). Surviving aqueduct bridges include the Pont du Gard in France and the Aqueduct of Segovia in Spain. The longest single conduit, at over 240 km, is associated with the Valens Aqueduct of Constantinople (Mango 1995). "The known system is at least two and half times the length of the longest recorded Roman aqueducts at Carthage and Cologne, but perhaps more significantly it represents one of the most outstanding surveying achievements of any pre-industrial society".[6] Rivalling this in terms of length and possibly equaling or exceeding it in cost and complexity, is the provincial Aqua Augusta that supplied an entire region, which contained at least eight cities, including the major ports at Naples and Misenum; sea voyages by traders and the Roman navy required copious supplies of fresh water.[7] Rome's aqueducts[edit] See also: List of aqueducts in the city of Rome Map of Rome's aqueducts Map showing aqueducts' sources Rome had several springs within its perimeter walls but its groundwater was notoriously unpalatable; water from the river Tiber was badly affected by pollution and waterborne diseases. The city's demand for water had probably long exceeded its local supplies by 312 BC, when the city's first aqueduct, the Aqua Appia, was commissioned by the censor Appius Claudius Caecus. The Aqua Appia was one of two major public projects of the time; the other was a military road between Rome and Capua, the first leg of the so-called Appian Way. Both projects had significant strategic value, as the Third Samnite War had been under way for some thirty years by that point. The road allowed rapid troop movements; and by design or fortunate coincidence, most of the Aqua Appia ran within a buried conduit, relatively secure from attack. It was fed by a spring 16.4 km from Rome, and dropped 10 metres over its length to discharge approximately 75,500 cubic metres of water each day into a fountain at Rome's cattle market, the Forum Boarium, one of the city's lowest-lying public spaces.[8] A second aqueduct, the Aqua Anio Vetus, was commissioned some forty years later, funded by treasures seized from Pyrrhus of Epirus. Its flow was more than twice that of the Aqua Appia, and it entered the city on raised arches, supplying water to higher elevations of the city.[9] By 145 BC, the city had again outgrown its combined supplies. An official commission found the aqueduct conduits decayed, their water depleted by leakage and illegal tapping. The praetor Quintus Marcius Rex restored them, and introduced a third, "more wholesome" supply, the Aqua Marcia, Rome's longest aqueduct and high enough to supply the Capitoline Hill. The works cost 180,000,000 sesterces, and took two years to complete.[10] As demand grew still further, more aqueducts were built, including the Aqua Tepula in 127 BC and the Aqua Julia in 33 BC. Aqueduct-building programmes reached a peak in the Imperial Era. Augustus' reign saw the building of the Aqua Virgo, and the short Aqua Alsietina that supplied Trastevere with large quantities of non-potable water for its gardens and to create an artificial lake for staged sea-fights to entertain the populace. Another short Augustan aqueduct supplemented the Aqua Marcia with water of "excellent quality".[11] The emperor Caligula added or began two aqueducts completed by his successor Claudius; the 69 km (42.8 mile) Aqua Claudia, which gave good quality water but failed on several occasions; and the Anio Novus, highest of all Rome's aqueducts and one of the most reliable but prone to muddy, discoloured waters, particularly after rain, despite its use of settling tanks.[12] Parco degli Acquedotti, a park in Rome named after the aqueducts that run through it Most of Rome's aqueducts drew on various springs in the valley and highlands of the Anio, the modern river Aniene, east of the Tiber. A complex system of aqueduct junctions, tributary feeds and distribution tanks supplied every part of the city.[13] Trastevere, the city region west of the Tiber, was primarily served by extensions of several of the city's eastern aqueducts, carried across the river by lead pipes buried in the roadbed of the river bridges, thus forming an inverted siphon.[14] Whenever this cross-river supply had to be shut down for routine repair and maintenance works, the "positively unwholesome" waters of the Aqua Alsietina were used to supply Trastevere's public fountains.[11] The situation was finally ameliorated when the emperor Trajan built the Aqua Traiana in 109 AD, bringing clean water directly to Trastavere from aquifers around Lake Bracciano.[15] By the late 3rd century AD, the city was supplied with water by 11 state-funded aqueducts. Their combined conduit length is estimated between 780 and a little over 800 kilometres, of which approximately 47 km (29 mi) were carried above ground level, on masonry supports. They supplied around 1 million cubic metres (300 million gallons) a day: a capacity 126% of the current[when?] water supply of the city of Bangalore,[citation needed] which has a population of 10 million. Timeline[edit] See also: List of Roman aqueducts by date 312 BC Aqua Appia, Rome's first aqueduct is built by Appius Claudius Caecus, the aqueduct is nearly all underground. 272 BC Aqua Anio Vetus 144 BC Aqua Marcia, 90 km (56 miles) in length, construction starts. 33 BC Aqua Julia is built by Octavian (Emperor Augustus) 19 BC Aqua Virgo is built to supply the thermal baths in the Campus Martius. 38-52 AD Aqua Claudia built 109 AD Aqua Traiana brings water from Lake Bracciano to supply Rome’s suburbs, now called Trastevere.[16] Galería de los Espejos (Gallery of Mirrors), a tunnelled part of a 25 km Roman aqueduct built during the 1st century AD near Albarracín (Spain) Planning, surveying and construction[edit] Planning[edit] Whether state-funded or privately built, aqueducts were protected and regulated by law. Any proposed aqueduct had to be submitted to the scrutiny of civil authorities. Permission (from the senate or local authorities) was granted only if the proposal respected the water rights of other citizens; on the whole, Roman communities took care to allocate shared water resources according to need.[17] The land on which a state-funded aqueduct was built might be state land (ager publicus) or privately owned, but in either case was subject to restrictions on usage and encroachment that might damage the fabric of the aqueduct. To this end, state funded aqueducts reserved a wide corridor of land, up to 15 feet each side of the aqueduct's outer fabric. Ploughing, planting and building were prohibited within this boundary. Such regulation was necessary to the aqueduct's long-term integrity and maintenance but was not always readily accepted or easily enforced at a local level, particularly when ager publicus was understood to be common property. Some privately built or smaller municipal aqueducts may have required less stringent and formal arrangements.[18] Sources and surveying[edit] Springs were by far the most common sources for aqueduct water; for example, most of Rome's supply came from various springs in the Anio valley and its uplands. Spring-water was fed into a stone or concrete springhouse, then entered the aqueduct conduit. Scattered springs would require several branch conduits feeding into a main channel. Some systems drew water from open, purpose-built, dammed reservoirs, such as the two (still in use) that supplied the aqueduct at the provincial city of Emerita Augusta.[19] The territory over which the aqueduct ran had to be carefully surveyed to ensure the water would flow at an acceptable gradient for the entire distance.[20] Roman engineers used various surveying tools to plot the course of aqueducts across the landscape. They checked horizontal levels with a chorobates, a flatbedded wooden frame fitted with a water level. They plotted courses and angles could be plotted and checked using a groma, a relatively simple apparatus that was probably displaced by the more sophisticated dioptra, precursor of the modern theodolite. In Book 8 of his De architectura, Vitruvius describes the need to ensure a constant supply, methods of prospecting, and tests for potable water. Health issues[edit] See also: Sanitation in ancient Rome Greek and Roman physicians knew the association between stagnant or tainted waters and water-borne disease. They also knew the adverse health effects of lead on those who mined and processed it, and for this reason, ceramic pipes were preferred over lead. Where lead pipes were used, a continuous water-flow and the inevitable deposition of water-borne minerals within the pipes somewhat reduced the water's contamination by soluble lead.[21] Nevertheless, the level of lead in this water was 100 times higher than in local spring waters.[22] Conduits and gradients[edit] The water conduit of the Tarragona Aqueduct, Spain. Most Roman aqueducts were flat-bottomed, arch-section conduits that ran 0.5 to 1 m beneath the ground surface, with inspection-and-access covers at regular intervals.[23] Conduits above ground level were usually slab-topped. Early conduits were ashlar-built but from around the late Republican era, brick-faced concrete was often used instead. The concrete used for conduit linings was usually waterproof. The flow of water depended on gravity alone. The volume of water transported within the conduit depended on the catchment hydrology – rainfall, absorption, and runoff – the cross section of the conduit, and its gradient; most conduits ran about two-thirds full. The conduit's cross section was also determined by maintenance requirements; workmen must be able to enter and access the whole, with minimal disruption to its fabric.[24] Vitruvius recommends a low gradient of not less than 1 in 4800 for the channel, presumably to prevent damage to the structure through erosion and water pressure. This value agrees well with the measured gradients of surviving masonry aqueducts. The gradient of the Pont du Gard is only 34 cm per km, descending only 17 m vertically in its entire length of 50 km (31 mi): it could transport up to 20,000 cubic metres a day. The gradients of temporary aqueducts used for hydraulic mining could be considerably greater, as at Dolaucothi in Wales (with a maximum gradient of about 1:700) and Las Medulas in northern Spain. Where sharp gradients were unavoidable in permanent conduits, the channel could be stepped downwards, widened or discharged into a receiving tank to disperse the flow of water and reduce its abrasive force.[25] The use of stepped cascades and drops also helped re-oxygenate and thus "freshen" the water.[26] Bridgework and siphons[edit] The arches of an elevated section of the Roman provincial Aqueduct of Segovia, in modern Spain. Some aqueduct conduits were supported across valleys or hollows on arches of masonry, brick or concrete; the Pont du Gard, one of the most impressive surviving examples of a massive masonry multiple-piered conduit, spanned the Gardon river-valley some 48.8 m (160 ft) above the Gardon itself. Where particularly deep or lengthy depressions had to be crossed, inverted siphons could be used, instead of arched supports; the conduit fed water into a header tank, which fed it into pipes. The pipes crossed the valley at lower level, supported by a low "venter" bridge, then rose to a receiving tank at a slightly lower elevation. This discharged into another conduit; the overall gradient was maintained. Siphon pipes were usually made of soldered lead, sometimes reinforced by concrete encasements or stone sleeves. Less often, the pipes themselves were stone or ceramic, jointed as male-female and sealed with lead.[27] Vitruvius describes the construction of siphons and the problems of blockage, blow-outs and venting at their lowest levels, where the pressures were greatest. Nonetheless, siphons were versatile and effective if well-built and well-maintained. A horizontal section of high-pressure siphon tubing in the Aqueduct of the Gier was ramped up on bridgework to clear a navigable river, using nine lead pipes in parallel, cased in concrete.[28][29] Modern hydraulic engineers use similar techniques to enable sewers and water pipes to cross depressions. At Arles, a minor branch of the main aqueduct supplied a local suburb via a lead siphon whose "belly" was laid across a riverbed, eliminating any need for supporting bridgework.[30] Inspection and maintenance[edit] Catchment basin of the aqueduct of Metz, France. The single arched cover protects two channels; either one could be closed off, allowing repair while the other continued to provide at least partial supply Roman aqueducts required a comprehensive system of regular maintenance. The "clear corridors" created to protect the fabric of underground and overground conduits were regularly patrolled for unlawful ploughing, planting, roadways and buildings. In De aquaeductu, Frontinus describes the penetration of conduits by tree-roots as particularly damaging.[18] The aqueducts conduits would have been regularly inspected and maintained by working patrols, to reduce algal fouling, repair accidental breaches, to clear the conduits of gravel and other loose debris, and to remove channel-narrowing accretions of calcium carbonate in systems fed by hard water sources. Inspection and access points were provided at regular intervals on the standard, buried conduits. Accretions within syphons could drastically reduce flow rates, due to the already narrow diameter of their pipes. Some had sealed openings that might have been used as rodding eyes, possibly using a pull-through device. In Rome, where a hard-water supply was the norm, main pipework was shallowly buried beneath road kerbs, for ease of access; the accumulation of calcium carbonate in these pipes would have necessitated their frequent replacement.[31] The aqueducts were under the overall care and governance of a water commissioner (curator aquarum). It was a high status, high-profile appointment. In 97, Frontinus served both as consul and as curator aquarum, under the emperor Nerva.[32] Little is known of the day-to-day business of aqueduct maintenance teams (aquarii). Under the emperor Claudius, Rome's contingent of imperial aquarii comprised a familia aquarum of 700 people both slave and free, funded through a combination of Imperial largesse and water taxes. They were supervised by an Imperial freedman, who held office as procurator aquarium.[33] Theirs was probably a never-ending routine of patrol, inspection and cleaning, punctuated by occasional emergencies. Full closure of any aqueduct for servicing would have been a rare event, kept as brief as possible, with repairs preferably made when water demand was lowest, which was presumably at night.[34] The water supply could be shut off at its aqueduct outlet when small or local repairs were needed, but substantial maintenance and repairs to the aqueduct conduit itself required the complete diversion of water at any point upstream or at the spring-head itself. Urban distribution tank at Nîmes, France. Circular section pipes radiate from a central reservoir, fed by a square-sectioned aqueduct. Distribution[edit] Aqueduct mains could be directly tapped, but they more usually fed into public distribution terminals, known as castellum aquae, which supplied various branches and spurs, usually via large-bore lead or ceramic pipes. Thereafter, the supply could be further subdivided. Licensed, fee-paying private users would have been registered, along with the bore of pipe that led from the public water supply to their private property – the wider the pipe, the greater the flow and the higher the fee. Tampering and fraud to avoid or reduce payment were commonplace; methods included the fitting of unlicensed outlets, additional outlets, and the illegal widening of lead pipes; any of which might involve the bribery or connivance of unscrupulous aqueduct officials or workers. Official lead pipes carried inscriptions with information on the pipe's manufacturer, its fitter, and probably on its subscriber and their entitlement.[35] During the Imperial era, lead production became an Imperial monopoly, and the granting of rights to draw water for private use from state-funded aqueducts was made an imperial privilege.[36][37] Uses[edit] Civic and domestic[edit] The ruins of the Aqua Marcia near Tivoli, built in 144–140 BC during the Roman Republic Rome's first aqueduct (312 BC) discharged at very low pressure and at a more-or-less constant rate in the city's main trading centre and cattle-market, probably into a low-level, cascaded series of troughs or basins; the upper for household use, the lower for watering the livestock traded there. Most Romans would have filled buckets and storage jars at the basins and carried the water to their apartments; the better-off would have sent slaves to perform the same task. The outlet's elevation was too low to offer any city household or building a direct supply; the overflow drained into Rome's main sewer, and from there into the Tiber. At this time, Rome had no public baths. The first were probably built in the next century, based on precursors in neighboring Campania; a limited number of private baths and small, street-corner public baths would have had a private water supply, but once aqueduct water was brought to the city's higher elevations, large and well-appointed public baths were built throughout the city, and drinking water was delivered to public fountains at high pressure. Public baths and fountains became distinctive features of Roman civilization, and the baths in particular became important social centres.[38][39] The majority of urban Romans lived in multi-storeyed blocks of flats (insulae). Some blocks offered water services, but only to tenants on the more expensive, lower floors; the rest would have drawn their water gratis from public fountains.[40] Farming[edit] Between 65 and 90% of the Roman Empire's population was involved in some form of agricultural work. Farmers whose villas or estates were near a public aqueduct could draw, under license, a specified quantity of aqueduct water for summer irrigation at a predetermined time; this was intended to limit the depletion of water supply to users further down the gradient, and help ensure a fair distribution among competitors at the time when water was most needed and scarce. Water was possibly the most important variable in the agricultural economy of the Mediterranean world. Roman Italy's natural water sources – springs, streams, rivers and lakes – were unevenly distributed across the landscape, and water tended to scarcity when most needed, during the warm, dry summer growing season. Columella recommends that any farm should contain a spring, stream or river;[41] but acknowledges that not every farm did. Aqueduct near Belgrade in Ottoman Serbia, painted by Luigi Mayer Farmland without a reliable summer water-source was virtually worthless. During the growing season, the water demand of a "modest local" irrigation system might consume as much water as the city of Rome; and the livestock whose manure fertilised the fields must be fed and watered all year round. At least some Roman landowners and farmers relied in part or whole on aqueduct water to raise crops as their primary or sole source of income but the fraction of aqueduct water involved can only be guessed at. More certainly, the creation of municipal and city aqueducts brought a growth in the intensive and efficient suburban market-farming of fragile, perishable commodities such as flowers (for perfumes, and for festival garlands), grapes, vegetables and orchard fruits; and of small livestock such as pigs and chickens, close to the municipal and urban markets.[42] A licensed right to aqueduct water on farmland could lead to increased productivity, a cash income through the sale of surplus foodstuffs, and an increase in the value of the land itself. In the countryside, permissions to draw aqueduct water for irrigation were particularly hard to get; the exercise and abuse of such rights were subject to various known legal disputes and judgements, and at least one political campaign; in the early 2nd century BC Cato tried to block all unlawful rural outlets, especially those owned by the landed elite - "Look how much he bought the land for, where he is channeling the water!" - during his censorship. His attempted reform proved impermanent at best. Though illegal tapping could be punished by seizure of assets, including the illegally watered land and its produce, this law seems never to have been used, and was probably impracticable; food surpluses kept prices low. Grain shortages in particular could lead to famine and social unrest. Any practical solution must strike a balance between the water-needs of urban populations and grain producers, tax the latter's profits, and secure sufficient grain at reasonable cost for the Roman poor (the so-called "corn dole") and the army. Rather than seek to impose unproductive and probably unenforcable bans, the authorities issued individual water grants (though seldom in rural areas) and licenses, and regulated water outlets, with variable success. In the 1st century AD, Pliny the Elder, like Cato, could fulminate against grain producers who continued to wax fat on profits from public water and public land.[43] Some landholders avoided such restrictions and entanglements by buying water access rights to distant springs, not necessarily on their own land. A few, of high wealth and status, built their own aqueducts to transport such water from source to field or villa; Mumius Niger Valerius Vegetus bought the rights to a spring and its water from his neighbour, and access rights to a corridor of intervening land, then built an aqueduct of just under 10 kilometres, connecting the springhead to his own villa. The senatorial permission for this "Aqua Vegetiana" was given only when the project seemed not to impinge on the water rights of other citizens.[44] Industrial[edit] Rock-cut aqueduct feeding water to the mining site at Las Médulas Some aqueducts supplied water to industrial sites, usually via an open channel cut into the ground, clay lined or wood-shuttered to reduce water loss. Most such leats were designed to operate at the steep gradients that could deliver the high water volumes needed in mining operations. Water was used in hydraulic mining to strip the overburden and expose the ore by hushing, to fracture and wash away metal-bearing rock already heated and weakened by fire-setting, and to power water-wheel driven stamps and trip-hammers that crushed ore for processing. Evidence of such leats and machines has been found at Dolaucothi in south-west Wales.[45][46] Mining sites such as Dolaucothi and Las Medulas in northwest Spain show multiple aqueducts that fed water from local rivers to the mine head. The channels may have deteriorated rapidly, or become redundant as the nearby ore was exhausted. Las Medulas shows at least seven such leats, and Dolaucothi at least five. At Dolaucothi, the miners used holding reservoirs as well as hushing tanks, and sluice gates to control flow, as well as drop chutes for diversion of water supplies. The remaining traces (see palimpsest) of such channels allows the mining sequence to be inferred. Map of the gold mine at Dolaucothi, showing its aqueducts A number of other sites fed by several aqueducts have not yet been thoroughly explored or excavated, such as those at Longovicium near Lanchester south of Hadrian's wall, in which the water supplies may have been used to power trip-hammers for forging iron. At Barbegal in Roman Gaul, a reservoir fed an aqueduct that drove a cascaded series of 15 or 16 overshot water mills, grinding flour for the Arles region. Similar arrangements, though on a lesser scale, have been found in Caesarea, Venafrum and Roman-era Athens. Rome's Aqua Traiana drove a flour-mill at the Janiculum, west of the Tiber. A mill in the basement of the Baths of Caracalla was driven by aqueduct overspill; this was but one of many city mills driven by aqueduct water, with or without official permission. A law of the 5th century forbade the illicit use of aqueduct water for milling.[47] Decline in use[edit] A portion of the Eifel Aqueduct, Germany, built in 80 AD. Its channel is narrowed by an accretion of calcium carbonate, accumulated through lack of maintenance. During the fall of the Roman Empire, some aqueducts were deliberately cut by enemies but more fell into disuse because of deteriorating Roman infrastructure and lack of maintenance, such as the Eifel aqueduct (pictured right). Observations made by the Spaniard Pedro Tafur, who visited Rome in 1436, reveal misunderstandings of the very nature of the Roman aqueducts: Through the middle of the city runs a river, which the Romans brought there with great labour and set in their midst, and this is the Tiber. They made a new bed for the river, so it is said, of lead, and channels at one and the other end of the city for its entrances and exits, both for watering horses and for other services convenient to the people, and anyone entering it at any other spot would be drowned.[48] During the Renaissance, the standing remains of the city's massive masonry aqueducts inspired architects, engineers and their patrons; Pope Nicholas V renovated the main channels of the Roman Aqua Virgo in 1453.[49] Many aqueducts in Rome's former empire were kept in good repair. The 15th-century rebuilding of an aqueduct at Segovia in Spain shows advances on the Pont du Gard by using fewer arches of greater height, and so greater economy in its use of the raw materials. The skill in building aqueducts was not lost, especially of the smaller, more modest channels used to supply water wheels. Most such mills in Britain were developed in the medieval period for bread production, and used similar methods as that developed by the Romans with leats tapping local rivers and streams. See also[edit] List of Roman aqueduct bridges Roman architectural revolution Roman architecture Roman engineering Roman technology References[edit] ^ Gargarin, M. and Fantham, E. (editors). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome, Volume 1. p. 145. ^ Cited by Quilici, Lorenzo (2008). "Land Transport, Part 1: Roads and Bridges" in Oleson, John Peter (ed.): The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World. Oxford University Press. New York. ISBN 978-0-19-518731-1. pp. 551–579 (552). ^ Mays, L. (editor). Ancient Water Technologies. Springer. 2010. pp. 115–116. ^ Gargarin, M. and Fantham, E. (editors). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome, Volume 1. Oxford University Press. 2010. pp. 144–145. ^ Cynthia Bannon, Gardens and Neighbors: Private Water Rights in Roman Italy. University of Michigan Press, 2009, pp. 65–73. ^ Historical and Archaeological Context Constantinople and the longest Roman aqueduct Accessed August 28, 2016. ^ Da Feo, G., and Napoli, R. M. A., "Historical development of the Augustan Aqueduct in Southern Italy: twenty centuries of works from Serino to Naples", Water Science & Technology Water Supply, March 2007 ^ The Roman general and hydraulic engineer Frontinus later calculated its delivery at 1825 quinariae (75,537 cubic meters) in 24 hours; see Samuel Ball Platner (1929, as completed and revised by Thomas Ashby): A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. London: Oxford University. p. 29. ^ Sextus Julius Frontinus. The Aqueducts of Rome. pp.1, 6–20. ^ "At that time the Decemvirs, on consulting the Sibylline Books for another purpose, are said to have discovered that it was not right for the Marcian water, or rather the Anio (for tradition more regularly mentions this) to be brought to the Capitol. The matter is said to have been debated in the Senate, in the consulship of Appius Claudius and Quintus Caecilius, Marcus Lepidus acting as spokesman for the Board of Decemvirs; and three years later the matter is said to have been brought up again by Lucius Lentulus, in the consulship of Gaius Laelius and Quintus Servilius, but on both occasions the influence of Marcius Rex carried the day; and thus the water was brought to the Capitol." Sextus Julius Frontinus, The Aqueducts of Rome, 6–20, [1] ^ a b The Aqua Alsietina was also known as "Aqua Augusta"; Frontinus distinguishes its "unwholesome" supply from the "sweet waters" of the Aqua Augusta that fed into the Aqua Marcia. On the one hand, he says the Naumachia's supply is "nowhere delivered for consumption by the people... [but the surplus is allowed] to the adjacent gardens and to private users for irrigation". On the other hand, "It is customary, however, in the district across the Tiber, in an emergency, whenever the bridges are undergoing repairs and the water supply is cut off from this side of the river, to draw from Alsietina to maintain the flow of the public fountains." Frontinus, The Aqueducts of Rome 1, 6–20. ^ Sextus Julius Frontinus, The Aqueducts of Rome, 6–20 ^ CARON, André. "THE AQUEDUCTS". www.maquettes-historiques.net. Retrieved 17 September 2017. ^ Taylor, Rabun (2002), Tiber River bridges and the development of the ancient city of Rome, pp. 16–17, accessed 22 June 2013 ^ Hodge, A. Trevor, Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply, Duckworth Archaeology, 2002, pp. 255 – 6, and note 43. ^ "Aqueducts: Quenching Rome's Thirst". 2016-11-15. Retrieved 2016-11-18. ^ Cynthia Bannon, Gardens and Neighbors: Private Water Rights in Roman Italy. University of Michigan Press, 2009, pp. 5-10 ^ a b Taylor, R., Public Needs and Private Pleasures: Water Distribution, the Tiber River and the Urban Development of Ancient Rome, (Studia Archaeologica), L'ERMA di BRETSCHNEIDER, 2000, pp. 56-60 ^ Mays, L., (Editor), Ancient Water Technologies, Springer, 2010. p. 116. ^ Taylor, R. (2012). Rome's Lost Aqueduct. (Cover story). Archaeology, 65(2), 34–40. ^ James Grout, Encyclopedia Romana, Lead Poisoning and Rome [2] (accessed 21 May 2013) ^ Delile, Hugo; Blichert-Toft, Janne; Goiran, Jean-Philippe; Keay, Simon; Albarède, Francis (6 May 2014). "Lead in ancient Rome's city waters". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 111 (18): 6594–6599. Bibcode:2014PNAS..111.6594D. doi:10.1073/pnas.1400097111. PMC 4020092. PMID 24753588. ^ Hodge, A. Trevor, Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply, Duckworth Archaeology, 2002. pp. 93–4. ^ Hodge, A. Trevor, Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply, Duckworth Archaeology, 2002. p. 2. ^ Mays, L., (Editor), Ancient Water Technologies, Springer, 2010. p. 119. ^ H. Chanson, "Hydraulics of Roman Aqueducts: Steep Chutes, Cascades, and Drop Shafts," American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 104 No. 1 (2000). 47-51. ^ Hodge, A. Trevor, Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply, Duckworth Archaeology, 2002. pp. 110 – 11. ^ The sense of venter as "belly" is apparent in Vitruvius 8.6: "if there be long valleys, and when it [the water] arrives at the bottom, let it be carried level by means of a low substruction as great a distance as possible; this is the part called the venter, by the Greeks koilia; when it arrives at the opposite acclivity, the water therein being but slightly swelled on account of the length of the venter, it may be directed upwards... Over the venter long stand pipes should be placed, by means of which, the violence of the air may escape. Thus, those who have to conduct water through leaden pipes, may by these rules, excellently regulate its descent, its circuit, the venter, and the compression of the air."Vitruvius, 8.6.5-6, trans Gwilt ^ Mays, L., (Editor), Ancient Water Technologies, Springer, 2010. p.120.[3] ^ Taylor, R., Public Needs and Private Pleasures: Water Distribution, the Tiber River and the Urban Development of Ancient Rome, (Studia Archaeologica), L'ERMA di BRETSCHNEIDER, 2000, p. 31 ^ Taylor, R., Public Needs and Private Pleasures: Water Distribution, the Tiber River and the Urban Development of Ancient Rome (Studia Archaeologica), L'ERMA di BRETSCHNEIDER, 2000, pp. 30-33, for calcined accretions and replacement of pipework. Water regulations prescribed a 5 foot distance between buildings and mains piping; an urban version of the protective "corridors" afforded to aqueducts. ^ Hodge, A. Trevor, Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply, Duckworth Archaeology, 2002, pp. 16-17: Frontinus had already had a distinguished career as consul, general and provincial governor; and he served again as consul in 100 ^ Taylor, R., Public Needs and Private Pleasures: Water Distribution, the Tiber River and the Urban Development of Ancient Rome, (Studia Archaeologica), L'ERMA di BRETSCHNEIDER, 2000, pp. 30-33 ^ Hodge, A. Trevor, Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply, Duckworth Archaeology, 2002; debris and gravel, pp. 24−30, 275: calcium carbonate, pp. 2, 17, 98: apertures in pipes as possible rodding eyes, p. 38. ^ Hodge, A. Trevor, Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply, Duckworth Archaeology, 2002, pp. 291−298, 305−311, and footnotes. ^ Taylor, R., Public Needs and Private Pleasures: Water Distribution, the Tiber River and the Urban Development of Ancient Rome, (Studia Archaeologica), L'ERMA di BRETSCHNEIDER, 2000, pp. 85-86 ^ H B Evans, Water Distribution in Ancient Rome: The Evidence of Frontinus, University of Michigan Press, 1997, pp. 41−43, 72. ^ For the earliest likely development of Roman public bathing, see Fagan, Garrett T., Bathing in Public in the Roman World, University of Michigan Press, 1999, pp. 42−44. googlebooks preview ^ Hodge, A. Trevor, Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply, Duckworth Archaeology, 2002, pp. 3, 5, 49. ^ Gill N.S. (2007). Aqueducts, Water Supply and Sewers in Ancient Rome. Web. 22 Apr. 2013. http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/aqueducts/p/RomanWater.htm ^ Columella, De Re Rustica, Book 1, English translation at Loeb Classical Library, 1941 [4] ^ Cynthia Bannon, Gardens and Neighbors: Private Water Rights in Roman Italy. University of Michigan Press, 2009, pp. 5−10; citing Hodge, Roman Aqueducts, pp. 246 – 247 for estimate on water consumption by irrigation. ^ Cynthia Bannon, Gardens and Neighbors: Private Water Rights in Roman Italy. University of Michigan Press, 2009, pp. 5−10; citing Hodge, Roman Aqueducts, pp. 246−247 for estimate on water consumption by irrigation; p. 219 for Cato's legislation on misuse of water: the quotation is from Cato's speech against L. Furius Purpureus, who was consul in 196 BC. ^ Cynthia Bannon, Gardens and Neighbors: Private Water Rights in Roman Italy. University of Michigan Press, 2009, p. 73. ^ Wilson, Andrew (2002): "Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy", The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 92, pp. 1–32 (21f.), p. 21f. ^ Lewis, M.J.T., "Millstone and Hammer: the Origins of Water Power", Hull Academic Press, 1998, Section 2. ^ Hodge, A. Trevor, Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply, Duckworth Archaeology, 2002. pp. 255−258. [Paperback] [5] ^ Pedro Tafur, Travels and Adventures (1435–1439), trans. Malcolm Letts, Harper & brothers, 1926. link to washington.edu ^ Gross, Hanns (1990). Rome in the Age of Enlightenment: the Post-Tridentine syndrome and the ancien regime. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 28. ISBN 0-521-37211-9. Bibliography[edit] Blackman, Deane R., Hodge, A. Trevor (2001). "Frontinus' Legacy". University of Michigan Press. Bossy, G.; G. Fabre, Y. Glard, C. Joseph (2000). "Sur le Fonctionnement d'un Ouvrage de Grande Hydraulique Antique, l'Aqueduc de Nîmes et le Pont du Gard (Languedoc, France)" in Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences de Paris. Sciences de la Terre et des Planètes. Vol. 330, pp. 769–775. Chanson, H. (2002). "Certains Aspects de la Conception hydraulique des Aqueducs Romains". Journal La Houille Blanche. No. 6/7, pp. 43–57. Chanson, H. (2008). "The Hydraulics of Roman Aqueducts: What do we know? Why should we learn ?" in Proceedings of World Environmental and Water Resources Congress 2008 Ahupua'a. ASCE-EWRI Education, Research and History Symposium, Hawaii, USA. Invited Keynote lecture, 13–16 May, R.W. Badcock Jr and R. Walton Eds., 16 pages ( ISBN 978-0-7844-0976-3) Coarelli, Filippo (1989). Guida Archeologica di Roma. Milano: Arnoldo Mondadori Editore. Claridge, Amanda (1998). Rome: An Oxford Archaeological Guide. New York: Oxford University Press. Fabre, G.; J. L. Fiches, J. L. Paillet (2000). L'Aqueduc de Nîmes et le Pont du Gard. Archéologie, Géosystème, Histoire. CRA Monographies Hors Série. Paris: CNRS Editions. Gebara, C.; J. M. Michel, J. L. Guendon (2002). "L'Aqueduc Romain de Fréjus. Sa Description, son Histoire et son Environnement", Revue Achéologique de Narbonnaise, Supplément 33. Montpellier, France. Hodge, A.T. (2001). Roman Aqueducts & Water Supply, 2nd ed. London: Duckworth. Kamash, Zena (2010). Archaeologies of Water in the Roman Near East. Gorgias Press. Leveau, P. (1991). "Research on Roman Aqueducts in the Past Ten Years" in T. Hodge (ed.): Future Currents in Aqueduct Studies. Leeds, UK, pp. 149–162. Lewis, P. R.; G. D. B. Jones (1970). "Roman gold-mining in north-west Spain". Journal of Roman Studies 60 : 169-85. Lewis, P. R.; G. D. B. Jones (1969). "The Dolaucothi gold mines, I: the surface evidence". The Antiquaries Journal, 49, no. 2: 244–72. Martínez Jiménez, J. (2019). Aqueducts and Urbanism in post-Roman Hispania. Gorgias Press. Sánchez López, E. & Martínez Jiménez, J. (2016). Los Acueductos de Hispania: Construcción y Abandono, Madrid .(Text online). Taylor, R., Public Needs and Private Pleasures: Water Distribution, the Tiber River and the Urban Development of Ancient Rome, (Studia Archaeologica) L'ERMA di BRETSCHNEIDER, 2000. Tucci, Pier Luigi (2006). "Ideology and technology in Rome’s water supply: castella, the toponym AQVEDVCTIVM, and supply to the Palatine and Caelian hill". Journal of Roman Archaeology 19 : 94-120. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ancient Roman aqueducts. Sextus Julius Frontinus. De Aquaeductu Urbis Romae (On the water management of the city of Rome). Translated by R. H. Rodgers. University of Vermont. 2003. Lacus Curtius – entry on Roman waterworks, uchicago.edu Aqueduct survey on-line project 600 Roman aqueducts – with 25 descriptions in detail, romanaqueducts.info Map of Roman aqueducts (in Italian), archeoroma.com Planimetry of Ancient aqueducts in Roman countryside (in Italian), acquedottidiroma.it Recent advances in study of Roman aqueducts by Chanson Hubert Chanson – A dozen freely available published research articles on Roman aqueduct hydraulics and culvert design, and related topics by Professor Hubert Chanson, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Queensland. John Hooper, Secrets of Roman aqueduct lie in chapel. The Guardian. 24 January 2010. 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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9776	----	Sozomen - Wikipedia Sozomen From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Sozomen" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (June 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Salminius Hermias Sozomenus[a] (Greek: Σωζομενός; c. 400 – c. 450 AD), also known as Sozomen was a historian of the Christian Church. Contents 1 Family and home 1.1 Grandfather 2 Life and career 2.1 Education 2.2 Lawyer 3 Writings on Church history 3.1 Other writings 3.2 Sources 3.3 Publication 4 Notes 5 References 5.1 Citations 5.2 Sources 6 Further reading 7 External links Family and home[edit] He was born around 400 in Bethelia, a small town near Gaza, into a wealthy Christian family of Palestine. What he has to tell us of the history of Southern Palestine was derived from oral tradition.[1] He appears familiar with the region around Gaza, and mentions having seen Bishop Zeno of Majuma, the seaport of Gaza. Grandfather[edit] Sozomen wrote that his grandfather lived at Bethelia,[2] near Gaza, and became a Christian together with his household, probably under Constantius II. A neighbor named Alaphrion was miraculously healed by Saint Hilarion who cast out a demon from Alaphrion, and, as eyewitnesses to the miracle, his family converted, along with Alaphrion's. The conversion marked a turning-point in the Christianization of southern Palestine, according to his account. The grandfather became within his own circle a highly esteemed interpreter of Scripture. The descendants of the wealthy Alaphrion founded churches and convents in the district, and were particularly active in promoting monasticism. Sozomen himself had conversed with one of these, a very old man. He tells us that he was brought up under monkish influences and his history bears him out.[1] Life and career[edit] Education[edit] Sozomen seems to have been brought up in the circle of Alaphrion and acknowledges a debt of gratitude to the monastic order. His early education was directed by the monks in his native place. It is impossible to ascertain what curriculum he followed in these monastic schools, but his writings give clear evidence of the thoroughness with which he was grounded in Greek studies.[3] As a man he retained the impressions of his youth, and his great work later was to be also a monument of his reverence for the monks in general and for the disciples of Hilarion in particular.[1] Lawyer[edit] As an adult he acquired training as a lawyer. He studied law in Beirut.[citation needed] He then went to Constantinople to start his career as a lawyer, perhaps at the court of Theodosius II. While thus engaged he conceived, around the year 443 the project of writing a history of the Church.[3] Writings on Church history[edit] Sozomen wrote two works on church history, of which only the second one is extant. His first work covered the history of the Church, from the Ascension of Jesus to the defeat of Licinius in 323, in twelve books. His sources for it included Eusebius of Caesarea, the Clementine homilies, Hegesippus, and Sextus Julius Africanus. Sozomen's second work continues approximately where his first work left off. He wrote it in Constantinople, around the years 440 to 443 and dedicated it to Emperor Theodosius II. The work is structured into nine books, roughly arranged along the reigns of Roman Emperors: Book I: from the conversion of Constantine I until the Council of Nicea (312–325) Book II: from the Council of Nicea to Constantine's death (325–337) Book III: from the death of Constantine I to the death of Constans I (337–350) Book IV: from the death of Constans I to the death of Constantius II (350–361) Book V: from the death of Constantius II to the death of Julian the Apostate (361–363) Book VI: from the death of Julian to the death of Valens (363–375) Book VII: from the death of Valens to the death of Theodosius I (375–395) Book VIII: from the death of Theodosius I to the death of Arcadius (395–408). Book IX: from the death of Arcadius to the accession of Valentinian III (408–25). Book IX is incomplete. In his dedication of the work, he states that he intended cover up to the 17th consulate of Theodosius II, that is, to 439. The extant history ends about 425. Scholars disagree on why the end is missing. Albert Guldenpenning supposed that Sozomen himself suppressed the end of his work because in it he mentioned the Empress Aelia Eudocia,[1] who later fell into disgrace through her supposed adultery. However, it appears that Nicephorus, Theophanes, and Theodorus Lector actually read the end of Sozomen's work, according to their own histories later.[citation needed] Therefore, most scholars believe that the work actually came down to that year and that consequently it has reached us only in a damaged condition.[1] Other writings[edit] According to historian and scholar of Islam Michael Cook, Sozomen wrote that a group of "Saracens" (Arabs) in Palestine had adopted Jewish laws and customs after coming into contact with Jews and may have been (according to Cook) the forerunners of Islam and Muslims.[4] Sources[edit] Sozomen borrowed heavily from other sources for his work. The source for about three fourths of his material was the writings of Socrates Scholasticus. The literary relationship of those writers appears everywhere.[5] Valesius asserted that Sozomen read Socrates, and Robert Hussey and Guldenpenning have proved this. For example, Socrates, in I.x, relates an anecdote which he had heard, and says that neither Eusebius nor any other author reports it, yet this anecdote is found in Sozomen, I.xxii, the similarity of diction showing that the text of Socrates was the source. The extent of this dependence cannot be accurately determined. Sozomen used the work of Socrates as a guide to sources and order. In some matters, such as in regard to the Novatians, Sozomen is entirely dependent on Socrates.[3] But Sozomen did not simply copy Socrates. He went back to the principal sources used by Socrates and other sources, often including more from them than Socrates did. He used the writings of Eusebius, the first major Church historian. The Vita Constantini of Eusebius is expressly cited in the description of the vision of Constantine. Sozomen appears also to have consulted the Historia Athanasii and also the works of Athanasius including the Vita Antonii. He completes the statements of Socrates from the Apologia contra Arianos, lix, sqq., and copies Athanasius' Adv. episcopos AEgypti, xviii-xix. Rufinus is frequently used. Instructive in this respect is a comparison of Sozomen, Socrates, and Rufinus on the childhood of Athanasius. Rufinus is the original; Socrates expressly states that he follows Rufinus, while Sozomen knows Socrates' version, but is not satisfied with it and follows Rufinus more closely. The ecclesiastical records used by Sozomen are principally taken from Sabinus, to whom he continually refers. In this way he uses records of the synods from that of Tyre (335) to that of Antioch in Caria (367). For the period from Theodosius I, Sozomen stopped following the work of Socrates and followed Olympiodorus of Thebes, who was probably Sozomen's only secular source. A comparison with Zosimus, who also made use of Olympiodorus, seems to show that the whole ninth book of Sozomen, is mostly an abridged extract from Olympiodorus. Sozomen used many other authorities. These include sources relating to Christianity in Persia, monkish histories, the Vita Martini of Sulpicius Severus, the works of Hilarius, logoi of Eustathius of Antioch, the letter of Cyril of Jerusalem to Constantius concerning the miraculous vision of the cross, and Palladius. He also used oral tradition, adding some of the most distinctive value to his work. Publication[edit] The work of Sozomen was first printed (editio princeps) by Robert Estienne at Paris in 1544,[3] on the basis of Codex Regius, 1444.[citation needed] There are later editions by Christophorson and Ictrus (Cologne, 1612).[3] A noteworthy edition was done by Valesius (Cambridge, 1720), who used, besides the text of Stephens, a Codex Fucetianus (now at Paris, 1445), "Readings" of Savilius, and the indirect traditions of Theodorus Lector and of Cassiodorus-Epiphanius. Hussey's posthumous edition (largely prepared for the press by John Barrow, who wrote the preface) is important, since in it the archetype of the Codex Regius, the Codex Baroccianus 142, is collated for the first time. But this manuscript was written by various hands and at various times and therefore is not equally authoritative in all its parts. There is an excellent English translation published in 1846 (London, Samuel Bagster and sons), translator unnamed, later reprinted and credited to Chester David Hartranft (1839-1914), with a learned though somewhat diffuse introduction, in the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, II (published New York, 1890).[3] (This text is available on-line at the Christian Classics Ethereal Library.) Notes[edit] ^ Variations on his name include, Salamanes and Salaminius. References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ a b c d e Harnack & McGiffert 1911, p. 525. ^ Sozomenus, Historia Ecclesiastica, Bk.1, Chap. 15 ^ a b c d e f Healy 1912. ^ Cook 2000, p. 141. ^ For a recent discussion of their relationship see H. Leppin, "The Church Historians (I): Socrates, Sozomenus, and Theodoretus", in Gabriele Marasco, Greek & Roman Historiography in Late Antiquity, Brill, 2003, pp. 219-254. Sources[edit] Cook, Michael (2000). The Koran : A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0192853449. The Koran : A Very Short Introduction. Attribution:  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Harnack, Adolf; McGiffert, Arthur Cushman (1911). "Sozomen". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 525.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Healy, Patrick J. (1912). "Salminius Hermias Sozomen". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. 14. New York: Robert Appleton Company.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Loeschke, G. (1914). "Sozomen, Salminius Hermias". In Jackson, Samuel Macauley (ed.). New Schaff–Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge. XI (third ed.). London and New York: Funk and Wagnalls. pp. 22–23. Further reading[edit] On ethnic identity and ecclesiastical politics in Sozomen, see: Argov, Eran I. (2005). "A Church Historian in Search of an Identity: Aspects of Early Byzantine Palestine in Sozomen's Historia Ecclesiastica". Zeitschrift für Antikes Christentum. 9: 367–396. The English translation of the Ecclesiastical History ascribed to Chester D. Hartranft is available online: Sozomen (1890). "Ecclesiastical History". In Schaff, Philip; Wace, Henry (eds.). Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series. 2. Translated by Chester D. Hartranft. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co. Retrieved 13 March 2016 – via New Advent. The English translation of the Ecclesiastical History by Edward Walford as originally published in the Bohn Ecclesiastical Library, is available in book form: Sozomen, Hermias (2018). The Ecclesiastical History of Sozomen. Merchantville, New Jersey: Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-935228-15-8. External links[edit] Wikisource has original text related to this article: Ecclesiastical History Online text of the Ecclesiastical History Greek Text by Migne Patrologia Graeca with analytical index Authority control BIBSYS: 90301783 BNE: XX1443304 BNF: cb120123913 (data) CANTIC: a12142414 CiNii: DA01043370 GND: 118798162 ISNI: 0000 0003 5566 8377 LCCN: n84076239 NKC: xx0019968 NLA: 35924822 NLI: 000125153 NTA: 069729697 RERO: 02-A003851158 SELIBR: 198350 SNAC: w6hz03bv SUDOC: 02824902X Trove: 1148118 VcBA: 495/28107 VIAF: 305409681 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n84076239 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sozomen&oldid=995857682" Categories: Late Antique writers Byzantine historians 5th-century historians 400 births 450 deaths Christian anti-Gnosticism 5th-century Byzantine people 5th-century Christians Roman-era Greek historians 5th-century Byzantine writers Hidden categories: Articles needing additional references from June 2018 All articles needing additional references Articles containing Greek-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2020 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Articles incorporating text from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the Schaff-Herzog with a title parameter Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the Schaff-Herzog Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikisource Languages العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Magyar مصرى Nederlands Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 23 December 2020, at 07:00 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9767	----	Plato - Wikipedia Plato From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation) and Platon (disambiguation). Classical Greek Athenian philosopher, founder of Platonism Plato Roman copy of a portrait bust by Silanion for the Academia in Athens (c. 370 BC) Born 428/427 or 424/423 BC Athens, Greece Died 348/347 BC (age c. 80) Athens, Greece Notable work Apology Crito Euthyphro Meno Parmenides Phaedo Phaedrus Republic Symposium Timaeus Era Ancient Greek philosophy Region Western philosophy School Platonism Notable students Aristotle Eudoxus of Cnidus Main interests Metaphysics Ethics Politics Epistemology Aesthetics Soul Love Mathematics Language Education Cosmology Eschatology Notable ideas Platonic philosophy Innatism Theory of forms Idealism Influences Socrates Pythagoras Parmenides Heraclitus Cratylus the Sophists Eleusinian Mysteries Orphism Diotima[1] Theaetetus Theodorus Homer Hesiod Influenced Virtually all subsequent Western philosophy (and religion), especially Platonism, including Aristotle, Speusippus and Xenocrates, Academic skepticism, Middle Platonism, Philo, Plotinus and Neoplatonism, Augustine and Christian Platonism, Boethius, Islamic Platonism and Isma'ilism, Gemistus Pletho, Florentine Academy and Renaissance Platonism, Cambridge Platonism, Modern Platonism Part of a series on Platonism Plato from Raphael's The School of Athens (1509–1511) Early life Works Epistemology Idealism / realism Demiurge Theory of forms Theory of soul Transcendentals Form of the Good Third man argument Euthyphro dilemma Five regimes Philosopher king Plato's unwritten doctrines political philosophy Allegories and metaphors Atlantis Ring of Gyges The Cave The Divided Line The Sun Ship of State Myth of Er The Chariot Related articles Commentaries The Academy in Athens Socratic problem Academic skepticism Middle Platonism Neoplatonism and Christianity Allegorical interpretations of Plato Related categories ► Plato  Philosophy portal v t e Plato (/ˈpleɪtoʊ/ PLAY-toe;[2] Greek: Πλάτων Plátōn, pronounced [plá.tɔːn] in Classical Attic; 428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC) was an Athenian philosopher during the Classical period in Ancient Greece, founder of the Platonist school of thought, and the Academy, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. He is widely considered the pivotal figure in the history of Ancient Greek and Western philosophy, along with his teacher, Socrates, and his most famous student, Aristotle.[a] Plato has also often been cited as one of the founders of Western religion and spirituality.[4] The so-called Neoplatonism of philosophers like Plotinus and Porphyry greatly influenced Christianity through Church Fathers such as Augustine. Alfred North Whitehead once noted: "the safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato."[5] Plato was the innovator of the written dialogue and dialectic forms in philosophy. Plato is also considered the founder of Western political philosophy. His most famous contribution is the theory of Forms known by pure reason, in which Plato presents a solution to the problem of universals known as Platonism (also ambiguously called either Platonic realism or Platonic idealism). He is also the namesake of Platonic love and the Platonic solids. His own most decisive philosophical influences are usually thought to have been along with Socrates, the pre-Socratics Pythagoras, Heraclitus and Parmenides, although few of his predecessors' works remain extant and much of what we know about these figures today derives from Plato himself.[b] Unlike the work of nearly all of his contemporaries, Plato's entire body of work is believed to have survived intact for over 2,400 years.[7] Although their popularity has fluctuated over the years, Plato's works have never been without readers since the time they were written.[8] Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Early life 1.1.1 Birth and family 1.1.2 Name 1.1.3 Education 1.2 Later life and death 2 Influences 2.1 Pythagoras 2.1.1 Plato and mathematics 2.2 Heraclitus and Parmenides 2.3 Socrates 3 Philosophy 3.1 Metaphysics 3.1.1 The Forms 3.1.2 The soul 3.2 Epistemology 3.2.1 Recollection 3.2.2 Justified true belief 3.3 Ethics 3.3.1 Justice 3.4 Politics 3.5 Art and poetry 3.6 Unwritten doctrines 4 Themes of Plato's dialogues 4.1 Trial of Socrates 4.1.1 The trial in other dialogues 4.2 Allegories 4.2.1 The Cave 4.2.2 Ring of Gyges 4.2.3 Chariot 4.3 Dialectic 4.4 Family 4.5 Narration 5 History of Plato's dialogues 5.1 Chronology 5.1.1 Writings of doubted authenticity 5.1.2 Spurious writings 5.2 Textual sources and history 5.2.1 Modern editions 6 Criticism 7 Legacy 7.1 In the arts 7.2 In philosophy 8 See also 8.1 Philosophy 8.2 Ancient scholars 8.3 Modern scholars 8.4 Other 9 Notes 10 References 10.1 Works cited 11 Further reading 12 External links Biography Early life Main article: Early life of Plato Birth and family Diogenes Laertius is a principal source for the history of ancient Greek philosophy. Due to a lack of surviving accounts, little is known about Plato's early life and education. Plato belonged to an aristocratic and influential family. According to a disputed tradition, reported by doxographer Diogenes Laërtius, Plato's father Ariston traced his descent from the king of Athens, Codrus, and the king of Messenia, Melanthus.[9] According to the ancient Hellenic tradition, Codrus was said to have been descended from the mythological deity Poseidon.[10][11] Through his mother, Plato was related to Solon. Plato's mother was Perictione, whose family boasted of a relationship with the famous Athenian lawmaker and lyric poet Solon, one of the seven sages, who repealed the laws of Draco (except for the death penalty for homicide).[11] Perictione was sister of Charmides and niece of Critias, both prominent figures of the Thirty Tyrants, known as the Thirty, the brief oligarchic regime (404–403 BC), which followed on the collapse of Athens at the end of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC).[12] According to some accounts, Ariston tried to force his attentions on Perictione, but failed in his purpose; then the god Apollo appeared to him in a vision, and as a result, Ariston left Perictione unmolested.[13] The exact time and place of Plato's birth are unknown. Based on ancient sources, most modern scholars believe that he was born in Athens or Aegina[c] between 429 and 423 BC, not long after the start of the Peloponnesian War.[d] The traditional date of Plato's birth during the 87th or 88th Olympiad, 428 or 427 BC, is based on a dubious interpretation of Diogenes Laërtius, who says, "When [Socrates] was gone, [Plato] joined Cratylus the Heracleitean and Hermogenes, who philosophized in the manner of Parmenides. Then, at twenty-eight, Hermodorus says, [Plato] went to Euclides in Megara." However, as Debra Nails argues, the text does not state that Plato left for Megara immediately after joining Cratylus and Hermogenes.[23] In his Seventh Letter, Plato notes that his coming of age coincided with the taking of power by the Thirty, remarking, "But a youth under the age of twenty made himself a laughingstock if he attempted to enter the political arena." Thus, Nails dates Plato's birth to 424/423.[24] According to Neanthes, Plato was six years younger than Isocrates, and therefore was born the same year the prominent Athenian statesman Pericles died (429 BC).[25] Jonathan Barnes regards 428 BC as the year of Plato's birth.[21][22] The grammarian Apollodorus of Athens in his Chronicles argues that Plato was born in the 88th Olympiad.[18] Both the Suda and Sir Thomas Browne also claimed he was born during the 88th Olympiad.[17][26] Another legend related that, when Plato was an infant, bees settled on his lips while he was sleeping: an augury of the sweetness of style in which he would discourse about philosophy.[27] Speusippus was Plato's nephew. Besides Plato himself, Ariston and Perictione had three other children; two sons, Adeimantus and Glaucon, and a daughter Potone, the mother of Speusippus (the nephew and successor of Plato as head of the Academy).[12] The brothers Adeimantus and Glaucon are mentioned in the Republic as sons of Ariston,[28] and presumably brothers of Plato, though some have argued they were uncles.[e] In a scenario in the Memorabilia, Xenophon confused the issue by presenting a Glaucon much younger than Plato.[30] Ariston appears to have died in Plato's childhood, although the precise dating of his death is difficult.[31] Perictione then married Pyrilampes, her mother's brother,[32] who had served many times as an ambassador to the Persian court and was a friend of Pericles, the leader of the democratic faction in Athens.[33] Pyrilampes had a son from a previous marriage, Demus, who was famous for his beauty.[34] Perictione gave birth to Pyrilampes' second son, Antiphon, the half-brother of Plato, who appears in Parmenides.[35] In contrast to his reticence about himself, Plato often introduced his distinguished relatives into his dialogues or referred to them with some precision. In addition to Adeimantus and Glaucon in the Republic, Charmides has a dialogue named after him; and Critias speaks in both Charmides and Protagoras.[36] These and other references suggest a considerable amount of family pride and enable us to reconstruct Plato's family tree. According to Burnet, "the opening scene of the Charmides is a glorification of the whole [family] connection ... Plato's dialogues are not only a memorial to Socrates but also the happier days of his own family."[37] Name The fact that the philosopher in his maturity called himself Platon is indisputable, but the origin of this name remains mysterious. Platon is a nickname from the adjective platýs (πλατύς) 'broad'. Although Platon was a fairly common name (31 instances are known from Athens alone),[38] the name does not occur in Plato's known family line.[39] The sources of Diogenes Laërtius account for this by claiming that his wrestling coach, Ariston of Argos, dubbed him "broad" on account of his chest and shoulders, or that Plato derived his name from the breadth of his eloquence, or his wide forehead.[40][41] While recalling a moral lesson about frugal living Seneca mentions the meaning of Plato's name: "His very name was given him because of his broad chest."[42] Plato was a wrestler His true name was supposedly Aristocles (Ἀριστοκλῆς), meaning 'best reputation'.[f] According to Diogenes Laërtius, he was named after his grandfather, as was common in Athenian society.[43] But there is only one inscription of an Aristocles, an early archon of Athens in 605/4 BC. There is no record of a line from Aristocles to Plato's father, Ariston. Recently a scholar has argued that even the name Aristocles for Plato was a much later invention.[44] However, another scholar claims that "there is good reason for not dismissing [the idea that Aristocles was Plato's given name] as a mere invention of his biographers", noting how prevalent that account is in our sources.[39] Education Ancient sources describe him as a bright though modest boy who excelled in his studies. Apuleius informs us that Speusippus praised Plato's quickness of mind and modesty as a boy, and the "first fruits of his youth infused with hard work and love of study".[45] His father contributed all which was necessary to give to his son a good education, and, therefore, Plato must have been instructed in grammar, music, and gymnastics by the most distinguished teachers of his time.[46] Plato invokes Damon many times in the Republic. Plato was a wrestler, and Dicaearchus went so far as to say that Plato wrestled at the Isthmian games.[47] Plato had also attended courses of philosophy; before meeting Socrates, he first became acquainted with Cratylus and the Heraclitean doctrines.[48] Ambrose believed that Plato met Jeremiah in Egypt and was influenced by his ideas. Augustine initially accepted this claim, but later rejected it, arguing in The City of God that "Plato was born a hundred years after Jeremiah prophesied."[49][need quotation to verify] Later life and death Plato in his academy, drawing after a painting by Swedish painter Carl Johan Wahlbom Plato may have travelled in Italy, Sicily, Egypt and Cyrene.[50]Plato's own statement was that he visited Italy and Sicily at the age of forty and was disgusted by the sensuality of life there. Said to have returned to Athens at the age of forty, Plato founded one of the earliest known organized schools in Western Civilization on a plot of land in the Grove of Hecademus or Academus.[51] This land was named after Academus, an Attic hero in Greek mythology. In historic Greek times it was adorned with oriental plane and olive plantations[52][53] The Academy was a large enclosure of ground about six stadia (a total of between a kilometer and a half mile) outside of Athens proper. One story is that the name of the Academy comes from the ancient hero, Academus; still another story is that the name came from a supposed former owner of the plot of land, an Athenian citizen whose name was (also) Academus; while yet another account is that it was named after a member of the army of Castor and Pollux, an Arcadian named Echedemus.[54] The Academy operated until it was destroyed by Lucius Cornelius Sulla in 84 BC. Many intellectuals were schooled in the Academy, the most prominent one being Aristotle.[55][56] Throughout his later life, Plato became entangled with the politics of the city of Syracuse. According to Diogenes Laërtius, Plato initially visited Syracuse while it was under the rule of Dionysius.[57] During this first trip Dionysius's brother-in-law, Dion of Syracuse, became one of Plato's disciples, but the tyrant himself turned against Plato. Plato almost faced death, but he was sold into slavery.[g] Anniceris, a Cyrenaic philosopher, subsequently bought Plato's freedom for twenty minas,[59] and sent him home. After Dionysius's death, according to Plato's Seventh Letter, Dion requested Plato return to Syracuse to tutor Dionysius II and guide him to become a philosopher king. Dionysius II seemed to accept Plato's teachings, but he became suspicious of Dion, his uncle. Dionysius expelled Dion and kept Plato against his will. Eventually Plato left Syracuse. Dion would return to overthrow Dionysius and ruled Syracuse for a short time before being usurped by Calippus, a fellow disciple of Plato. According to Seneca, Plato died at the age of 81 on the same day he was born.[60] The Suda indicates that he lived to 82 years,[17] while Neanthes claims an age of 84.[18] A variety of sources have given accounts of his death. One story, based on a mutilated manuscript,[61] suggests Plato died in his bed, whilst a young Thracian girl played the flute to him.[62] Another tradition suggests Plato died at a wedding feast. The account is based on Diogenes Laërtius's reference to an account by Hermippus, a third-century Alexandrian.[63] According to Tertullian, Plato simply died in his sleep.[63] Plato owned an estate at Iphistiadae, which by will he left to a certain youth named Adeimantus, presumably a younger relative, as Plato had an elder brother or uncle by this name. Influences Pythagoras Bust of Pythagoras in Rome. Although Socrates influenced Plato directly as related in the dialogues, the influence of Pythagoras upon Plato, or in a broader sense, the Pythagoreans, such as Archytas also appears to have been significant. Aristotle claimed that the philosophy of Plato closely followed the teachings of the Pythagoreans,[64] and Cicero repeats this claim: "They say Plato learned all things Pythagorean."[65] It is probable that both were influenced by Orphism, and both believed in metempsychosis, transmigration of the soul. Pythagoras held that all things are number, and the cosmos comes from numerical principles. He introduced the concept of form as distinct from matter, and that the physical world is an imitation of an eternal mathematical world. These ideas were very influential on Heraclitus, Parmenides and Plato.[66] George Karamanolis notes that Numenius accepted both Pythagoras and Plato as the two authorities one should follow in philosophy, but he regarded Plato's authority as subordinate to that of Pythagoras, whom he considered to be the source of all true philosophy—including Plato's own. For Numenius it is just that Plato wrote so many philosophical works, whereas Pythagoras' views were originally passed on only orally.[67] According to R. M. Hare, this influence consists of three points: The platonic Republic might be related to the idea of "a tightly organized community of like-minded thinkers", like the one established by Pythagoras in Croton. The idea that mathematics and, generally speaking, abstract thinking is a secure basis for philosophical thinking as well as "for substantial theses in science and morals". They shared a "mystical approach to the soul and its place in the material world".[68][69] Plato and mathematics Plato may have studied under the mathematician Theodorus of Cyrene, and has a dialogue named for and whose central character is the mathematician Theaetetus. While not a mathematician, Plato was considered an accomplished teacher of mathematics. Eudoxus of Cnidus, the greatest mathematician in Classical Greece, who contributed much of what is found in Euclid's Elements, was taught by Archytas and Plato. Plato helped to distinguish between pure and applied mathematics by widening the gap between "arithmetic", now called number theory and "logistic", now called arithmetic.[h] Assignment to the elements in Kepler's Mysterium Cosmographicum In the dialogue Timaeus Plato associated each of the four classical elements (earth, air, water, and fire) with a regular solid (cube, octahedron, icosahedron, and tetrahedron respectively) due to their shape, the so-called Platonic solids. The fifth regular solid, the dodecahedron, was supposed to be the element which made up the heavens. Heraclitus and Parmenides The two philosophers Heraclitus and Parmenides, following the way initiated by pre-Socratic Greek philosophers like Pythagoras, depart from mythology and begin the metaphysical tradition that strongly influenced Plato and continues today.[66] Heraclitus (1628) by Hendrick ter Brugghen Bust of Parmenides from Velia The surviving fragments written by Heraclitus suggest the view that all things are continuously changing, or becoming. His image of the river, with ever-changing waters, is well known. According to some ancient traditions like that of Diogenes Laërtius, Plato received these ideas through Heraclitus' disciple Cratylus, who held the more radical view that continuous change warrants scepticism because we cannot define a thing that does not have a permanent nature.[71] Parmenides adopted an altogether contrary vision, arguing for the idea of changeless Being and the view that change is an illusion.[66] John Palmer notes "Parmenides' distinction among the principal modes of being and his derivation of the attributes that must belong to what must be, simply as such, qualify him to be seen as the founder of metaphysics or ontology as a domain of inquiry distinct from theology."[72] These ideas about change and permanence, or becoming and Being, influenced Plato in formulating his theory of Forms.[71] Plato's most self-critical dialogue is called Parmenides, featuring Parmenides and his student Zeno, who following Parmenides' denial of change argued forcefully with his paradoxes to deny the existence of motion. Plato's Sophist dialogue includes an Eleatic stranger, a follower of Parmenides, as a foil for his arguments against Parmenides. In the dialogue Plato distinguishes nouns and verbs, providing some of the earliest treatment of subject and predicate. He also argues that motion and rest both "are", against followers of Parmenides who say rest is but motion is not. Socrates See also: Socratic problem Bust of Socrates at the Louvre. Plato was one of the devoted young followers of Socrates. The precise relationship between Plato and Socrates remains an area of contention among scholars. Plato never speaks in his own voice in his dialogues, and speaks as Socrates in all but the Laws. In the Second Letter, it says, "no writing of Plato exists or ever will exist, but those now said to be his are those of a Socrates become beautiful and new";[73] if the Letter is Plato's, the final qualification seems to call into question the dialogues' historical fidelity. In any case, Xenophon's Memorabilia and Aristophanes's The Clouds seem to present a somewhat different portrait of Socrates from the one Plato paints. The Socratic problem asks how to reconcile these various accounts. Leo Strauss notes that Socrates' reputation for irony casts doubt on whether Plato's Socrates is expressing sincere beliefs.[74] Aristotle attributes a different doctrine with respect to Forms to Plato and Socrates.[75] Aristotle suggests that Socrates' idea of forms can be discovered through investigation of the natural world, unlike Plato's Forms that exist beyond and outside the ordinary range of human understanding. In the dialogues of Plato though, Socrates sometimes seems to support a mystical side, discussing reincarnation and the mystery religions, this is generally attributed to Plato.[clarification needed][76] Regardless, this view of Socrates cannot be dismissed out of hand, as we cannot be sure of the differences between the views of Plato and Socrates. In the Meno Plato refers to the Eleusinian Mysteries, telling Meno he would understand Socrates's answers better if he could stay for the initiations next week. It is possible that Plato and Socrates took part in the Eleusinian Mysteries.[77] Philosophy Metaphysics In Plato's dialogues, Socrates and his company of disputants had something to say on many subjects, including several aspects of metaphysics. These include religion and science, human nature, love, and sexuality. More than one dialogue contrasts perception and reality, nature and custom, and body and soul. The Forms The "windmill proof" of the Pythagorean theorem found in Euclid's Elements. "Platonism" and its theory of Forms (or theory of Ideas) denies the reality of the material world, considering it only an image or copy of the real world. The theory of Forms is first introduced in the Phaedo dialogue (also known as On the Soul), wherein Socrates refutes the pluralism of the likes of Anaxagoras, then the most popular response to Heraclitus and Parmenides, while giving the "Opposites Argument" in support of the Forms. According to this theory of Forms there are at least two worlds: the apparent world of concrete objects, grasped by the senses, which constantly changes, and an unchanging and unseen world of Forms or abstract objects, grasped by pure reason (λογική). which ground what is apparent. It can also be said there are three worlds, with the apparent world consisting of both the world of material objects and of mental images, with the "third realm" consisting of the Forms. Thus, though there is the term "Platonic idealism", this refers to Platonic Ideas or the Forms, and not to some platonic kind of idealism, an 18th-century view which sees matter as unreal in favour of mind. For Plato, though grasped by the mind, only the Forms are truly real. Plato's Forms thus represent types of things, as well as properties, patterns, and relations, to which we refer as objects. Just as individual tables, chairs, and cars refer to objects in this world, 'tableness', 'chairness', and 'carness', as well as e. g. justice, truth, and beauty refer to objects in another world. One of Plato's most cited examples for the Forms were the truths of geometry, such as the Pythagorean theorem. In other words, the Forms are universals given as a solution to the problem of universals, or the problem of "the One and the Many", e. g. how one predicate "red" can apply to many red objects. For Plato this is because there is one abstract object or Form of red, redness itself, in which the several red things "participate". As Plato's solution is that universals are Forms and that Forms are real if anything is, Plato's philosophy is unambiguously called Platonic realism. According to Aristotle, Plato's best known argument in support of the Forms was the "one over many" argument.[78] What is justice? Aside from being immutable, timeless, changeless, and one over many, the Forms also provide definitions and the standard against which all instances are measured. In the dialogues Socrates regularly asks for the meaning – in the sense of intensional definitions – of a general term (e. g. justice, truth, beauty), and criticizes those who instead give him particular, extensional examples, rather than the quality shared by all examples. There is thus a world of perfect, eternal, and changeless meanings of predicates, the Forms, existing in the realm of Being outside of space and time; and the imperfect sensible world of becoming, subjects somehow in a state between being and nothing, that partakes of the qualities of the Forms, and is its instantiation. The soul Plato advocates a belief in the immortality of the soul, and several dialogues end with long speeches imagining the afterlife. In the Timaeus, Socrates locates the parts of the soul within the human body: Reason is located in the head, spirit in the top third of the torso, and the appetite in the middle third of the torso, down to the navel.[79][80] Epistemology Socrates, such as wisdom also discuss several aspects of epistemology. More than one dialogue contrasts knowledge and opinion. Plato's epistemology involves Socrates arguing that knowledge is not empirical, and that it comes from divine insight. The Forms are also responsible for both knowledge or certainty, and are grasped by pure reason. In several dialogues, Socrates inverts the common man's intuition about what is knowable and what is real. Reality is unavailable to those who use their senses. Socrates says that he who sees with his eyes is blind. While most people take the objects of their senses to be real if anything is, Socrates is contemptuous of people who think that something has to be graspable in the hands to be real. In the Theaetetus, he says such people are eu amousoi (εὖ ἄμουσοι), an expression that means literally, "happily without the muses".[81] In other words, such people are willingly ignorant, living without divine inspiration and access to higher insights about reality. In Plato's dialogues, Socrates always insists on his ignorance and humility, that he knows nothing, so called Socratic irony. Several dialogues refute a series of viewpoints, but offer no positive position of its own, ending in aporia. Recollection In several of Plato's dialogues, Socrates promulgates the idea that knowledge is a matter of recollection of the state before one is born, and not of observation or study.[82] Keeping with the theme of admitting his own ignorance, Socrates regularly complains of his forgetfulness. In the Meno, Socrates uses a geometrical example to expound Plato's view that knowledge in this latter sense is acquired by recollection. Socrates elicits a fact concerning a geometrical construction from a slave boy, who could not have otherwise known the fact (due to the slave boy's lack of education). The knowledge must be present, Socrates concludes, in an eternal, non-experiential form. In other dialogues, the Sophist, Statesman, Republic, and the Parmenides, Plato himself associates knowledge with the apprehension of unchanging Forms and their relationships to one another (which he calls "expertise" in Dialectic), including through the processes of collection and division.[83] More explicitly, Plato himself argues in the Timaeus that knowledge is always proportionate to the realm from which it is gained. In other words, if one derives one's account of something experientially, because the world of sense is in flux, the views therein attained will be mere opinions. And opinions are characterized by a lack of necessity and stability. On the other hand, if one derives one's account of something by way of the non-sensible forms, because these forms are unchanging, so too is the account derived from them. That apprehension of forms is required for knowledge may be taken to cohere with Plato's theory in the Theaetetus and Meno.[84] Indeed, the apprehension of Forms may be at the base of the "account" required for justification, in that it offers foundational knowledge which itself needs no account, thereby avoiding an infinite regression.[85] Justified true belief A Venn diagram illustrating the classical theory of knowledge. Many have interpreted Plato as stating—even having been the first to write—that knowledge is justified true belief, an influential view that informed future developments in epistemology.[86] This interpretation is partly based on a reading of the Theaetetus wherein Plato argues that knowledge is distinguished from mere true belief by the knower having an "account" of the object of their true belief.[87] And this theory may again be seen in the Meno, where it is suggested that true belief can be raised to the level of knowledge if it is bound with an account as to the question of "why" the object of the true belief is so.[88][89] Many years later, Edmund Gettier famously demonstrated the problems of the justified true belief account of knowledge. That the modern theory of justified true belief as knowledge which Gettier addresses is equivalent to Plato's is accepted by some scholars but rejected by others.[90] Plato himself also identified problems with the justified true belief definition in the Theaetetus, concluding that justification (or an "account") would require knowledge of difference, meaning that the definition of knowledge is circular.[91][92] Ethics Several dialogues discuss ethics including virtue and vice, pleasure and pain, crime and punishment, and justice and medicine. Plato views "The Good" as the supreme Form, somehow existing even "beyond being". Socrates propounded a moral intellectualism which claimed nobody does bad on purpose, and to know what is good results in doing what is good; that knowledge is virtue. In the Protagoras dialogue it is argued that virtue is innate and cannot be learned. Socrates presents the famous Euthyphro dilemma in the dialogue of the same name: "Is the pious (τὸ ὅσιον) loved by the gods because it is pious, or is it pious because it is loved by the gods?" (10a) Justice As above, in the Republic, Plato asks the question, “What is justice?” By means of the Greek term dikaiosune – a term for “justice” that captures both individual justice and the justice that informs societies, Plato is able not only to inform metaphysics, but also ethics and politics with the question: “What is the basis of moral and social obligation?” Plato's well-known answer rests upon the fundamental responsibility to seek wisdom, wisdom which leads to an understanding of the Form of the Good. Plato further argues that such understanding of forms produces and ensures the good communal life when ideally structured under a philosopher king in a society with three classes (philosophers kings, guardians and workers) that neatly mirror his triadic view of the individual soul (reason, spirit and appetite). In this manner, justice is obtained when knowledge of how to fulfill one's moral and political function in society is put into practice.[93] Politics Oxyrhynchus Papyri, with fragment of Plato's Republic The dialogues also discuss politics. Some of Plato's most famous doctrines are contained in the Republic as well as in the Laws and the Statesman. Because these doctrines are not spoken directly by Plato and vary between dialogues, they cannot be straightforwardly assumed as representing Plato's own views. Socrates asserts that societies have a tripartite class structure corresponding to the appetite/spirit/reason structure of the individual soul. The appetite/spirit/reason are analogous to the castes of society.[94] Productive (Workers) – the labourers, carpenters, plumbers, masons, merchants, farmers, ranchers, etc. These correspond to the "appetite" part of the soul. Protective (Warriors or Guardians) – those who are adventurous, strong and brave; in the armed forces. These correspond to the "spirit" part of the soul. Governing (Rulers or Philosopher Kings) – those who are intelligent, rational, self-controlled, in love with wisdom, well suited to make decisions for the community. These correspond to the "reason" part of the soul and are very few. According to this model, the principles of Athenian democracy (as it existed in his day) are rejected as only a few are fit to rule. Instead of rhetoric and persuasion, Socrates says reason and wisdom should govern. As Socrates puts it: "Until philosophers rule as kings or those who are now called kings and leading men genuinely and adequately philosophize, that is, until political power and philosophy entirely coincide, while the many natures who at present pursue either one exclusively are forcibly prevented from doing so, cities will have no rest from evils,... nor, I think, will the human race."[95] Socrates describes these "philosopher kings" as "those who love the sight of truth"[96] and supports the idea with the analogy of a captain and his ship or a doctor and his medicine. According to him, sailing and health are not things that everyone is qualified to practice by nature. A large part of the Republic then addresses how the educational system should be set up to produce these philosopher kings. In addition, the ideal city is used as an image to illuminate the state of one's soul, or the will, reason, and desires combined in the human body. Socrates is attempting to make an image of a rightly ordered human, and then later goes on to describe the different kinds of humans that can be observed, from tyrants to lovers of money in various kinds of cities. The ideal city is not promoted, but only used to magnify the different kinds of individual humans and the state of their soul. However, the philosopher king image was used by many after Plato to justify their personal political beliefs. The philosophic soul according to Socrates has reason, will, and desires united in virtuous harmony. A philosopher has the moderate love for wisdom and the courage to act according to wisdom. Wisdom is knowledge about the Good or the right relations between all that exists. Wherein it concerns states and rulers, Socrates asks which is better—a bad democracy or a country reigned by a tyrant. He argues that it is better to be ruled by a bad tyrant, than by a bad democracy (since here all the people are now responsible for such actions, rather than one individual committing many bad deeds.) This is emphasised within the Republic as Socrates describes the event of mutiny on board a ship.[97] Socrates suggests the ship's crew to be in line with the democratic rule of many and the captain, although inhibited through ailments, the tyrant. Socrates' description of this event is parallel to that of democracy within the state and the inherent problems that arise. According to Socrates, a state made up of different kinds of souls will, overall, decline from an aristocracy (rule by the best) to a timocracy (rule by the honourable), then to an oligarchy (rule by the few), then to a democracy (rule by the people), and finally to tyranny (rule by one person, rule by a tyrant).[98] Aristocracy in the sense of government (politeia) is advocated in Plato's Republic. This regime is ruled by a philosopher king, and thus is grounded on wisdom and reason. The aristocratic state, and the man whose nature corresponds to it, are the objects of Plato's analyses throughout much of the Republic, as opposed to the other four types of states/men, who are discussed later in his work. In Book VIII, Socrates states in order the other four imperfect societies with a description of the state's structure and individual character. In timocracy the ruling class is made up primarily of those with a warrior-like character.[99] Oligarchy is made up of a society in which wealth is the criterion of merit and the wealthy are in control.[100] In democracy, the state bears resemblance to ancient Athens with traits such as equality of political opportunity and freedom for the individual to do as he likes.[101] Democracy then degenerates into tyranny from the conflict of rich and poor. It is characterized by an undisciplined society existing in chaos, where the tyrant rises as popular champion leading to the formation of his private army and the growth of oppression.[102][98][103] Art and poetry Several dialogues tackle questions about art, including rhetoric and rhapsody. Socrates says that poetry is inspired by the muses, and is not rational. He speaks approvingly of this, and other forms of divine madness (drunkenness, eroticism, and dreaming) in the Phaedrus,[104] and yet in the Republic wants to outlaw Homer's great poetry, and laughter as well. In Ion, Socrates gives no hint of the disapproval of Homer that he expresses in the Republic. The dialogue Ion suggests that Homer's Iliad functioned in the ancient Greek world as the Bible does today in the modern Christian world: as divinely inspired literature that can provide moral guidance, if only it can be properly interpreted. Unwritten doctrines Bust excavated at the Villa of the Papyri, possibly of Dionysus, Plato or Poseidon. For a long time, Plato's unwritten doctrines[105][106][107] had been controversial. Many modern books on Plato seem to diminish its importance; nevertheless, the first important witness who mentions its existence is Aristotle, who in his Physics writes: "It is true, indeed, that the account he gives there [i.e. in Timaeus] of the participant is different from what he says in his so-called unwritten teachings (ἄγραφα δόγματα)."[108] The term "ἄγραφα δόγματα" literally means unwritten doctrines or unwritten dogmas and it stands for the most fundamental metaphysical teaching of Plato, which he disclosed only orally, and some say only to his most trusted fellows, and which he may have kept secret from the public. The importance of the unwritten doctrines does not seem to have been seriously questioned before the 19th century. A reason for not revealing it to everyone is partially discussed in Phaedrus where Plato criticizes the written transmission of knowledge as faulty, favouring instead the spoken logos: "he who has knowledge of the just and the good and beautiful ... will not, when in earnest, write them in ink, sowing them through a pen with words, which cannot defend themselves by argument and cannot teach the truth effectually."[109] The same argument is repeated in Plato's Seventh Letter: "every serious man in dealing with really serious subjects carefully avoids writing."[110] In the same letter he writes: "I can certainly declare concerning all these writers who claim to know the subjects that I seriously study ... there does not exist, nor will there ever exist, any treatise of mine dealing therewith."[111] Such secrecy is necessary in order not "to expose them to unseemly and degrading treatment".[112] It is, however, said that Plato once disclosed this knowledge to the public in his lecture On the Good (Περὶ τἀγαθοῦ), in which the Good (τὸ ἀγαθόν) is identified with the One (the Unity, τὸ ἕν), the fundamental ontological principle. The content of this lecture has been transmitted by several witnesses. Aristoxenus describes the event in the following words: "Each came expecting to learn something about the things that are generally considered good for men, such as wealth, good health, physical strength, and altogether a kind of wonderful happiness. But when the mathematical demonstrations came, including numbers, geometrical figures and astronomy, and finally the statement Good is One seemed to them, I imagine, utterly unexpected and strange; hence some belittled the matter, while others rejected it."[113] Simplicius quotes Alexander of Aphrodisias, who states that "according to Plato, the first principles of everything, including the Forms themselves are One and Indefinite Duality (ἡ ἀόριστος δυάς), which he called Large and Small (τὸ μέγα καὶ τὸ μικρόν)", and Simplicius reports as well that "one might also learn this from Speusippus and Xenocrates and the others who were present at Plato's lecture on the Good".[44] Their account is in full agreement with Aristotle's description of Plato's metaphysical doctrine. In Metaphysics he writes: "Now since the Forms are the causes of everything else, he [i.e. Plato] supposed that their elements are the elements of all things. Accordingly the material principle is the Great and Small [i.e. the Dyad], and the essence is the One (τὸ ἕν), since the numbers are derived from the Great and Small by participation in the One".[114] "From this account it is clear that he only employed two causes: that of the essence, and the material cause; for the Forms are the cause of the essence in everything else, and the One is the cause of it in the Forms. He also tells us what the material substrate is of which the Forms are predicated in the case of sensible things, and the One in that of the Forms—that it is this the duality (the Dyad, ἡ δυάς), the Great and Small (τὸ μέγα καὶ τὸ μικρόν). Further, he assigned to these two elements respectively the causation of good and of evil".[114] The most important aspect of this interpretation of Plato's metaphysics is the continuity between his teaching and the Neoplatonic interpretation of Plotinus[i] or Ficino[j] which has been considered erroneous by many but may in fact have been directly influenced by oral transmission of Plato's doctrine. A modern scholar who recognized the importance of the unwritten doctrine of Plato was Heinrich Gomperz who described it in his speech during the 7th International Congress of Philosophy in 1930.[115] All the sources related to the ἄγραφα δόγματα have been collected by Konrad Gaiser and published as Testimonia Platonica.[116] These sources have subsequently been interpreted by scholars from the German Tübingen School of interpretation such as Hans Joachim Krämer or Thomas A. Szlezák.[k] Themes of Plato's dialogues Trial of Socrates The Death of Socrates (1787), by Jacques-Louis David The trial of Socrates and his death sentence is the central, unifying event of Plato's dialogues. It is relayed in the dialogues Apology, Crito, and Phaedo. Apology is Socrates' defence speech, and Crito and Phaedo take place in prison after the conviction. Apology is among the most frequently read of Plato's works. In the Apology, Socrates tries to dismiss rumours that he is a sophist and defends himself against charges of disbelief in the gods and corruption of the young. Socrates insists that long-standing slander will be the real cause of his demise, and says the legal charges are essentially false. Socrates famously denies being wise, and explains how his life as a philosopher was launched by the Oracle at Delphi. He says that his quest to resolve the riddle of the oracle put him at odds with his fellow man, and that this is the reason he has been mistaken for a menace to the city-state of Athens. In Apology, Socrates is presented as mentioning Plato by name as one of those youths close enough to him to have been corrupted, if he were in fact guilty of corrupting the youth, and questioning why their fathers and brothers did not step forward to testify against him if he was indeed guilty of such a crime.[117] Later, Plato is mentioned along with Crito, Critobolus, and Apollodorus as offering to pay a fine of 30 minas on Socrates' behalf, in lieu of the death penalty proposed by Meletus.[118] In the Phaedo, the title character lists those who were in attendance at the prison on Socrates' last day, explaining Plato's absence by saying, "Plato was ill".[119] The trial in other dialogues See also: List of speakers in Plato's dialogues If Plato's important dialogues do not refer to Socrates' execution explicitly, they allude to it, or use characters or themes that play a part in it. Five dialogues foreshadow the trial: In the Theaetetus and the Euthyphro Socrates tells people that he is about to face corruption charges.[120][121] In the Meno, one of the men who brings legal charges against Socrates, Anytus, warns him about the trouble he may get into if he does not stop criticizing important people.[122] In the Gorgias, Socrates says that his trial will be like a doctor prosecuted by a cook who asks a jury of children to choose between the doctor's bitter medicine and the cook's tasty treats.[123] In the Republic, Socrates explains why an enlightened man (presumably himself) will stumble in a courtroom situation.[124] Plato's support of aristocracy and distrust of democracy is also taken to be partly rooted in a democracy having killed Socrates. In the Protagoras, Socrates is a guest at the home of Callias, son of Hipponicus, a man whom Socrates disparages in the Apology as having wasted a great amount of money on sophists' fees. Two other important dialogues, the Symposium and the Phaedrus, are linked to the main storyline by characters. In the Apology, Socrates says Aristophanes slandered him in a comic play, and blames him for causing his bad reputation, and ultimately, his death.[125] In the Symposium, the two of them are drinking together with other friends. The character Phaedrus is linked to the main story line by character (Phaedrus is also a participant in the Symposium and the Protagoras) and by theme (the philosopher as divine emissary, etc.) The Protagoras is also strongly linked to the Symposium by characters: all of the formal speakers at the Symposium (with the exception of Aristophanes) are present at the home of Callias in that dialogue. Charmides and his guardian Critias are present for the discussion in the Protagoras. Examples of characters crossing between dialogues can be further multiplied. The Protagoras contains the largest gathering of Socratic associates. In the dialogues Plato is most celebrated and admired for, Socrates is concerned with human and political virtue, has a distinctive personality, and friends and enemies who "travel" with him from dialogue to dialogue. This is not to say that Socrates is consistent: a man who is his friend in one dialogue may be an adversary or subject of his mockery in another. For example, Socrates praises the wisdom of Euthyphro many times in the Cratylus, but makes him look like a fool in the Euthyphro. He disparages sophists generally, and Prodicus specifically in the Apology, whom he also slyly jabs in the Cratylus for charging the hefty fee of fifty drachmas for a course on language and grammar. However, Socrates tells Theaetetus in his namesake dialogue that he admires Prodicus and has directed many pupils to him. Socrates' ideas are also not consistent within or between or among dialogues. Allegories Main article: Allegorical interpretations of Plato Mythos and logos are terms that evolved along classical Greek history. In the times of Homer and Hesiod (8th century BC) they were essentially synonyms, and contained the meaning of 'tale' or 'history'. Later came historians like Herodotus and Thucydides, as well as philosophers like Heraclitus and Parmenides and other Presocratics who introduced a distinction between both terms; mythos became more a nonverifiable account, and logos a rational account.[126] It may seem that Plato, being a disciple of Socrates and a strong partisan of philosophy based on logos, should have avoided the use of myth-telling. Instead he made an abundant use of it. This fact has produced analytical and interpretative work, in order to clarify the reasons and purposes for that use. Plato, in general, distinguished between three types of myth.[l] First there were the false myths, like those based on stories of gods subject to passions and sufferings, because reason teaches that God is perfect. Then came the myths based on true reasoning, and therefore also true. Finally there were those non verifiable because beyond of human reason, but containing some truth in them. Regarding the subjects of Plato's myths they are of two types, those dealing with the origin of the universe, and those about morals and the origin and fate of the soul.[127] It is generally agreed that the main purpose for Plato in using myths was didactic. He considered that only a few people were capable or interested in following a reasoned philosophical discourse, but men in general are attracted by stories and tales. Consequently, then, he used the myth to convey the conclusions of the philosophical reasoning. Some of Plato's myths were based in traditional ones, others were modifications of them, and finally he also invented altogether new myths.[128] Notable examples include the story of Atlantis, the Myth of Er, and the Allegory of the Cave. The Cave Plato's Allegory of the Cave by Jan Saenredam, according to Cornelis van Haarlem, 1604, Albertina, Vienna The theory of Forms is most famously captured in his Allegory of the Cave, and more explicitly in his analogy of the sun and the divided line. The Allegory of the Cave is a paradoxical analogy wherein Socrates argues that the invisible world is the most intelligible ('noeton') and that the visible world ((h)oraton) is the least knowable, and the most obscure. Socrates says in the Republic that people who take the sun-lit world of the senses to be good and real are living pitifully in a den of evil and ignorance. Socrates admits that few climb out of the den, or cave of ignorance, and those who do, not only have a terrible struggle to attain the heights, but when they go back down for a visit or to help other people up, they find themselves objects of scorn and ridicule. According to Socrates, physical objects and physical events are "shadows" of their ideal or perfect forms, and exist only to the extent that they instantiate the perfect versions of themselves. Just as shadows are temporary, inconsequential epiphenomena produced by physical objects, physical objects are themselves fleeting phenomena caused by more substantial causes, the ideals of which they are mere instances. For example, Socrates thinks that perfect justice exists (although it is not clear where) and his own trial would be a cheap copy of it. The Allegory of the Cave is intimately connected to his political ideology, that only people who have climbed out of the cave and cast their eyes on a vision of goodness are fit to rule. Socrates claims that the enlightened men of society must be forced from their divine contemplation and be compelled to run the city according to their lofty insights. Thus is born the idea of the "philosopher-king", the wise person who accepts the power thrust upon him by the people who are wise enough to choose a good master. This is the main thesis of Socrates in the Republic, that the most wisdom the masses can muster is the wise choice of a ruler.[129] Ring of Gyges A ring which could make one invisible, the Ring of Gyges is proposed in the Republic by the character of Glaucon, and considered by the rest of characters for its ethical consequences, whether an individual possessing it would be most happy abstaining or doing injustice. Chariot He also compares the soul (psyche) to a chariot. In this allegory he introduces a triple soul which composed of a charioteer and two horses. The charioteer is a symbol of intellectual and logical part of the soul (logistikon), and two horses represents the moral virtues (thymoeides) and passionate instincts (epithymetikon), respectively, to illustrate the conflict between them. Dialectic Socrates employs a dialectic method which proceeds by questioning. The role of dialectic in Plato's thought is contested but there are two main interpretations: a type of reasoning and a method of intuition.[130] Simon Blackburn adopts the first, saying that Plato's dialectic is "the process of eliciting the truth by means of questions aimed at opening out what is already implicitly known, or at exposing the contradictions and muddles of an opponent's position."[130] A similar interpretation has been put forth by Louis Hartz, who suggests that elements of the dialectic are borrowed from Hegel.[131] According to this view, opposing arguments improve upon each other, and prevailing opinion is shaped by the synthesis of many conflicting ideas over time. Each new idea exposes a flaw in the accepted model, and the epistemological substance of the debate continually approaches the truth. Hartz's is a teleological interpretation at the core, in which philosophers will ultimately exhaust the available body of knowledge and thus reach "the end of history." Karl Popper, on the other hand, claims that dialectic is the art of intuition for "visualising the divine originals, the Forms or Ideas, of unveiling the Great Mystery behind the common man's everyday world of appearances."[132] Family Plato often discusses the father-son relationship and the question of whether a father's interest in his sons has much to do with how well his sons turn out. In ancient Athens, a boy was socially located by his family identity, and Plato often refers to his characters in terms of their paternal and fraternal relationships. Socrates was not a family man, and saw himself as the son of his mother, who was apparently a midwife. A divine fatalist, Socrates mocks men who spent exorbitant fees on tutors and trainers for their sons, and repeatedly ventures the idea that good character is a gift from the gods. Plato's dialogue Crito reminds Socrates that orphans are at the mercy of chance, but Socrates is unconcerned. In the Theaetetus, he is found recruiting as a disciple a young man whose inheritance has been squandered. Socrates twice compares the relationship of the older man and his boy lover to the father-son relationship,[133][134] and in the Phaedo, Socrates' disciples, towards whom he displays more concern than his biological sons, say they will feel "fatherless" when he is gone. Though Plato agreed with Aristotle that women were inferior to men, in the fourth book of the Republic the character of Socrates says this was only because of nomos or custom and not because of nature, and thus women needed paidia, rearing or education to be equal to men. In the "merely probable tale" of the eponymous character in the Timaeus, unjust men who live corrupted lives would be reincarnated as women or various animal kinds. Narration Plato never presents himself as a participant in any of the dialogues, and with the exception of the Apology, there is no suggestion that he heard any of the dialogues firsthand. Some dialogues have no narrator but have a pure "dramatic" form (examples: Meno, Gorgias, Phaedrus, Crito, Euthyphro), some dialogues are narrated by Socrates, wherein he speaks in first person (examples: Lysis, Charmides, Republic). One dialogue, Protagoras, begins in dramatic form but quickly proceeds to Socrates' narration of a conversation he had previously with the sophist for whom the dialogue is named; this narration continues uninterrupted till the dialogue's end. Painting of a scene from Plato's Symposium (Anselm Feuerbach, 1873) Two dialogues Phaedo and Symposium also begin in dramatic form but then proceed to virtually uninterrupted narration by followers of Socrates. Phaedo, an account of Socrates' final conversation and hemlock drinking, is narrated by Phaedo to Echecrates in a foreign city not long after the execution took place.[m] The Symposium is narrated by Apollodorus, a Socratic disciple, apparently to Glaucon. Apollodorus assures his listener that he is recounting the story, which took place when he himself was an infant, not from his own memory, but as remembered by Aristodemus, who told him the story years ago. The Theaetetus is a peculiar case: a dialogue in dramatic form embedded within another dialogue in dramatic form. In the beginning of the Theaetetus,[136] Euclides says that he compiled the conversation from notes he took based on what Socrates told him of his conversation with the title character. The rest of the Theaetetus is presented as a "book" written in dramatic form and read by one of Euclides' slaves.[137] Some scholars take this as an indication that Plato had by this date wearied of the narrated form.[138] With the exception of the Theaetetus, Plato gives no explicit indication as to how these orally transmitted conversations came to be written down. History of Plato's dialogues Volume 3, pp. 32–33, of the 1578 Stephanus edition of Plato, showing a passage of Timaeus with the Latin translation and notes of Jean de Serres Thirty-five dialogues and thirteen letters (the Epistles) have traditionally been ascribed to Plato, though modern scholarship doubts the authenticity of at least some of these. Plato's writings have been published in several fashions; this has led to several conventions regarding the naming and referencing of Plato's texts. The usual system for making unique references to sections of the text by Plato derives from a 16th-century edition of Plato's works by Henricus Stephanus known as Stephanus pagination. One tradition regarding the arrangement of Plato's texts is according to tetralogies. This scheme is ascribed by Diogenes Laërtius to an ancient scholar and court astrologer to Tiberius named Thrasyllus. Chronology No one knows the exact order Plato's dialogues were written in, nor the extent to which some might have been later revised and rewritten. The works are usually grouped into Early (sometimes by some into Transitional), Middle, and Late period.[139][140] This choice to group chronologically is thought worthy of criticism by some (Cooper et al),[141] given that it is recognized that there is no absolute agreement as to the true chronology, since the facts of the temporal order of writing are not confidently ascertained.[142] Chronology was not a consideration in ancient times, in that groupings of this nature are virtually absent (Tarrant) in the extant writings of ancient Platonists.[143] Whereas those classified as "early dialogues" often conclude in aporia, the so-called "middle dialogues" provide more clearly stated positive teachings that are often ascribed to Plato such as the theory of Forms. The remaining dialogues are classified as "late" and are generally agreed to be difficult and challenging pieces of philosophy. This grouping is the only one proven by stylometric analysis.[144] Among those who classify the dialogues into periods of composition, Socrates figures in all of the "early dialogues" and they are considered the most faithful representations of the historical Socrates.[145] The following represents one relatively common division.[146] It should, however, be kept in mind that many of the positions in the ordering are still highly disputed, and also that the very notion that Plato's dialogues can or should be "ordered" is by no means universally accepted. Increasingly in the most recent Plato scholarship, writers are sceptical of the notion that the order of Plato's writings can be established with any precision,[147] though Plato's works are still often characterized as falling at least roughly into three groups.[6] Early: Apology, Charmides, Crito, Euthyphro, Gorgias, (Lesser) Hippias (minor), (Greater) Hippias (major), Ion, Laches, Lysis, Protagoras Middle: Cratylus, Euthydemus, Meno, Parmenides, Phaedo, Phaedrus, Republic, Symposium, Theaetetus Late: Critias, Sophist, Statesman / Politicus, Timaeus, Philebus, Laws.[145] A significant distinction of the early Plato and the later Plato has been offered by scholars such as E.R. Dodds and has been summarized by Harold Bloom in his book titled Agon: "E.R. Dodds is the classical scholar whose writings most illuminated the Hellenic descent (in) The Greeks and the Irrational ... In his chapter on Plato and the Irrational Soul ... Dodds traces Plato's spiritual evolution from the pure rationalist of the Protagoras to the transcendental psychologist, influenced by the Pythagoreans and Orphics, of the later works culminating in the Laws."[148] Lewis Campbell was the first[149] to make exhaustive use of stylometry to prove the great probability that the Critias, Timaeus, Laws, Philebus, Sophist, and Statesman were all clustered together as a group, while the Parmenides, Phaedrus, Republic, and Theaetetus belong to a separate group, which must be earlier (given Aristotle's statement in his Politics[150] that the Laws was written after the Republic; cf. Diogenes Laërtius Lives 3.37). What is remarkable about Campbell's conclusions is that, in spite of all the stylometric studies that have been conducted since his time, perhaps the only chronological fact about Plato's works that can now be said to be proven by stylometry is the fact that Critias, Timaeus, Laws, Philebus, Sophist, and Statesman are the latest of Plato's dialogues, the others earlier.[144] Protagoras is often considered one of the last of the "early dialogues". Three dialogues are often considered "transitional" or "pre-middle": Euthydemus, Gorgias, and Meno. Proponents of dividing the dialogues into periods often consider the Parmenides and Theaetetus to come late in the middle period and be transitional to the next, as they seem to treat the theory of Forms critically (Parmenides) or only indirectly (Theaetetus).[151] Ritter's stylometric analysis places Phaedrus as probably after Theaetetus and Parmenides,[152] although it does not relate to the theory of Forms in the same way. The first book of the Republic is often thought to have been written significantly earlier than the rest of the work, although possibly having undergone revisions when the later books were attached to it.[151] While looked to for Plato's "mature" answers to the questions posed by his earlier works, those answers are difficult to discern. Some scholars[145] indicate that the theory of Forms is absent from the late dialogues, its having been refuted in the Parmenides, but there isn't total consensus that the Parmenides actually refutes the theory of Forms.[153] Writings of doubted authenticity Jowett mentions in his Appendix to Menexenus, that works which bore the character of a writer were attributed to that writer even when the actual author was unknown.[154] For below: (*) if there is no consensus among scholars as to whether Plato is the author, and (‡) if most scholars agree that Plato is not the author of the work.[155] First Alcibiades (*), Second Alcibiades (‡), Clitophon (*), Epinomis (‡), Epistles (*), Hipparchus (‡), Menexenus (*), Minos (‡), (Rival) Lovers (‡), Theages (‡) Spurious writings The following works were transmitted under Plato's name, most of them already considered spurious in antiquity, and so were not included by Thrasyllus in his tetralogical arrangement. These works are labelled as Notheuomenoi ("spurious") or Apocrypha. Axiochus, Definitions, Demodocus, Epigrams, Eryxias, Halcyon, On Justice, On Virtue, Sisyphus. Textual sources and history First page of the Euthyphro, from the Clarke Plato (Codex Oxoniensis Clarkianus 39), 895 AD. The text is Greek minuscule. See also: List of manuscripts of Plato's dialogues Some 250 known manuscripts of Plato survive.[156] The texts of Plato as received today apparently represent the complete written philosophical work of Plato and are generally good by the standards of textual criticism.[157] No modern edition of Plato in the original Greek represents a single source, but rather it is reconstructed from multiple sources which are compared with each other. These sources are medieval manuscripts written on vellum (mainly from 9th to 13th century AD Byzantium), papyri (mainly from late antiquity in Egypt), and from the independent testimonia of other authors who quote various segments of the works (which come from a variety of sources). The text as presented is usually not much different from what appears in the Byzantine manuscripts, and papyri and testimonia just confirm the manuscript tradition. In some editions however the readings in the papyri or testimonia are favoured in some places by the editing critic of the text. Reviewing editions of papyri for the Republic in 1987, Slings suggests that the use of papyri is hampered due to some poor editing practices.[158] In the first century AD, Thrasyllus of Mendes had compiled and published the works of Plato in the original Greek, both genuine and spurious. While it has not survived to the present day, all the extant medieval Greek manuscripts are based on his edition.[159] The oldest surviving complete manuscript for many of the dialogues is the Clarke Plato (Codex Oxoniensis Clarkianus 39, or Codex Boleianus MS E.D. Clarke 39), which was written in Constantinople in 895 and acquired by Oxford University in 1809.[160] The Clarke is given the siglum B in modern editions. B contains the first six tetralogies and is described internally as being written by "John the Calligrapher" on behalf of Arethas of Caesarea. It appears to have undergone corrections by Arethas himself.[161] For the last two tetralogies and the apocrypha, the oldest surviving complete manuscript is Codex Parisinus graecus 1807, designated A, which was written nearly contemporaneously to B, circa 900 AD.[162] A must be a copy of the edition edited by the patriarch, Photios, teacher of Arethas.[163][164][165]A probably had an initial volume containing the first 7 tetralogies which is now lost, but of which a copy was made, Codex Venetus append. class. 4, 1, which has the siglum T. The oldest manuscript for the seventh tetralogy is Codex Vindobonensis 54. suppl. phil. Gr. 7, with siglum W, with a supposed date in the twelfth century.[166] In total there are fifty-one such Byzantine manuscripts known, while others may yet be found.[167] To help establish the text, the older evidence of papyri and the independent evidence of the testimony of commentators and other authors (i.e., those who quote and refer to an old text of Plato which is no longer extant) are also used. Many papyri which contain fragments of Plato's texts are among the Oxyrhynchus Papyri. The 2003 Oxford Classical Texts edition by Slings even cites the Coptic translation of a fragment of the Republic in the Nag Hammadi library as evidence.[168] Important authors for testimony include Olympiodorus the Younger, Plutarch, Proclus, Iamblichus, Eusebius, and Stobaeus. During the early Renaissance, the Greek language and, along with it, Plato's texts were reintroduced to Western Europe by Byzantine scholars. In September or October 1484 Filippo Valori and Francesco Berlinghieri printed 1025 copies of Ficino's translation, using the printing press at the Dominican convent S.Jacopo di Ripoli.[169][170] Cosimo had been influenced toward studying Plato by the many Byzantine Platonists in Florence during his day, including George Gemistus Plethon. The 1578 edition[171] of Plato's complete works published by Henricus Stephanus (Henri Estienne) in Geneva also included parallel Latin translation and running commentary by Joannes Serranus (Jean de Serres). It was this edition which established standard Stephanus pagination, still in use today.[172] Modern editions The Oxford Classical Texts offers the current standard complete Greek text of Plato's complete works. In five volumes edited by John Burnet, its first edition was published 1900–1907, and it is still available from the publisher, having last been printed in 1993.[173][174] The second edition is still in progress with only the first volume, printed in 1995, and the Republic, printed in 2003, available. The Cambridge Greek and Latin Texts and Cambridge Classical Texts and Commentaries series includes Greek editions of the Protagoras, Symposium, Phaedrus, Alcibiades, and Clitophon, with English philological, literary, and, to an extent, philosophical commentary.[175][176] One distinguished edition of the Greek text is E. R. Dodds' of the Gorgias, which includes extensive English commentary.[177][178] The modern standard complete English edition is the 1997 Hackett Plato, Complete Works, edited by John M. Cooper.[179][180] For many of these translations Hackett offers separate volumes which include more by way of commentary, notes, and introductory material. There is also the Clarendon Plato Series by Oxford University Press which offers English translations and thorough philosophical commentary by leading scholars on a few of Plato's works, including John McDowell's version of the Theaetetus.[181] Cornell University Press has also begun the Agora series of English translations of classical and medieval philosophical texts, including a few of Plato's.[182] Criticism The most famous criticism of the Theory of Forms is the Third Man Argument by Aristotle in the Metaphysics. Plato had actually already considered this objection with the idea of "large" rather than "man" in the dialogue Parmenides, using the elderly Elean philosophers Parmenides and Zeno characters anachronistically to criticize the character of the younger Socrates who proposed the idea. The dialogue ends in aporia. Many recent philosophers have diverged from what some would describe as the ontological models and moral ideals characteristic of traditional Platonism. A number of these postmodern philosophers have thus appeared to disparage Platonism from more or less informed perspectives. Friedrich Nietzsche notoriously attacked Plato's "idea of the good itself" along with many fundamentals of Christian morality, which he interpreted as "Platonism for the masses" in one of his most important works, Beyond Good and Evil (1886). Martin Heidegger argued against Plato's alleged obfuscation of Being in his incomplete tome, Being and Time (1927), and the philosopher of science Karl Popper argued in The Open Society and Its Enemies (1945) that Plato's alleged proposal for a utopian political regime in the Republic was prototypically totalitarian. The Dutch historian of science Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis criticizes Plato, stating that he was guilty of "constructing an imaginary nature by reasoning from preconceived principles and forcing reality more or less to adapt itself to this construction."[183] Dijksterhuis adds that one of the errors into which Plato had "fallen in an almost grotesque manner, consisted in an over-estimation of what unaided thought, i.e. without recourse to experience, could achieve in the field of natural science."[184] Legacy In the arts Plato (left) and Aristotle (right) a detail of The School of Athens, a fresco by Raphael. Aristotle gestures to the earth while holding a copy of his Nicomachean Ethics in his hand. Plato holds his Timaeus and gestures to the heavens. Plato's Academy mosaic was created in the villa of T. Siminius Stephanus in Pompeii, around 100 BC to 100 CE. The School of Athens fresco by Raphael features Plato also as a central figure. The Nuremberg Chronicle depicts Plato and other as anachronistic schoolmen. In philosophy Plato's thought is often compared with that of his most famous student, Aristotle, whose reputation during the Western Middle Ages so completely eclipsed that of Plato that the Scholastic philosophers referred to Aristotle as "the Philosopher". However, in the Byzantine Empire, the study of Plato continued. The only Platonic work known to western scholarship was Timaeus, until translations were made after the fall of Constantinople, which occurred during 1453.[185] George Gemistos Plethon brought Plato's original writings from Constantinople in the century of its fall. It is believed that Plethon passed a copy of the Dialogues to Cosimo de' Medici when in 1438 the Council of Ferrara, called to unify the Greek and Latin Churches, was adjourned to Florence, where Plethon then lectured on the relation and differences of Plato and Aristotle, and fired Cosimo with his enthusiasm;[186] Cosimo would supply Marsilio Ficino with Plato's text for translation to Latin. During the early Islamic era, Persian and Arab scholars translated much of Plato into Arabic and wrote commentaries and interpretations on Plato's, Aristotle's and other Platonist philosophers' works (see Al-Farabi, Avicenna, Averroes, Hunayn ibn Ishaq). Many of these commentaries on Plato were translated from Arabic into Latin and as such influenced Medieval scholastic philosophers.[187] During the Renaissance, with the general resurgence of interest in classical civilization, knowledge of Plato's philosophy would become widespread again in the West. Many of the greatest early modern scientists and artists who broke with Scholasticism and fostered the flowering of the Renaissance, with the support of the Plato-inspired Lorenzo (grandson of Cosimo), saw Plato's philosophy as the basis for progress in the arts and sciences. More problematic was Plato's belief in metempsychosis as well as his ethical views (on polyamory and euthanasia in particular), which did not match those of Christianity. It was Plethon's student Bessarion who reconciled Plato with Christian theology, arguing that Plato's views were only ideals, unattainable due to the fall of man.[188] The Cambridge Platonists were around in the 17th century. By the 19th century, Plato's reputation was restored, and at least on par with Aristotle's. Notable Western philosophers have continued to draw upon Plato's work since that time. Plato's influence has been especially strong in mathematics and the sciences. Plato's resurgence further inspired some of the greatest advances in logic since Aristotle, primarily through Gottlob Frege and his followers Kurt Gödel, Alonzo Church, and Alfred Tarski. Albert Einstein suggested that the scientist who takes philosophy seriously would have to avoid systematization and take on many different roles, and possibly appear as a Platonist or Pythagorean, in that such a one would have "the viewpoint of logical simplicity as an indispensable and effective tool of his research."[189] "The safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato." (Alfred North Whitehead, Process and Reality, 1929). The political philosopher and professor Leo Strauss is considered by some as the prime thinker involved in the recovery of Platonic thought in its more political, and less metaphysical, form. Strauss' political approach was in part inspired by the appropriation of Plato and Aristotle by medieval Jewish and Islamic political philosophers, especially Maimonides and Al-Farabi, as opposed to the Christian metaphysical tradition that developed from Neoplatonism. Deeply influenced by Nietzsche and Heidegger, Strauss nonetheless rejects their condemnation of Plato and looks to the dialogues for a solution to what all three latter day thinkers acknowledge as 'the crisis of the West.[citation needed] W. V. O. Quine dubbed the problem of negative existentials "Plato's beard". Noam Chomsky dubbed the problem of knowledge Plato's problem. One author calls the definist fallacy the Socratic fallacy[190].[relevant? – discuss] More broadly, platonism (sometimes distinguished from Plato's particular view by the lowercase) refers to the view that there are many abstract objects. Still to this day, platonists take number and the truths of mathematics as the best support in favour of this view. Most mathematicians think, like platonists, that numbers and the truths of mathematics are perceived by reason rather than the senses yet exist independently of minds and people, that is to say, they are discovered rather than invented.[citation needed] Contemporary platonism is also more open to the idea of there being infinitely many abstract objects, as numbers or propositions might qualify as abstract objects, while ancient Platonism seemed to resist this view, possibly because of the need to overcome the problem of "the One and the Many". Thus e. g. in the Parmenides dialogue, Plato denies there are Forms for more mundane things like hair and mud. However, he repeatedly does support the idea that there are Forms of artifacts, e. g. the Form of Bed. Contemporary platonism also tends to view abstract objects as unable to cause anything, but it is unclear whether the ancient Platonists felt this way.[citation needed] See also Library resources about Plato Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Plato Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Philosophy portal Philosophy Socratic Problem Platonic Academy Plato's unwritten doctrines List of speakers in Plato's dialogues Commentaries on Plato Neoplatonism Academic Skepticism Ancient scholars Philip of Opus, Plato's amanuensis Speusippus, Plato's nephew and the second scholarch of the academy Menedemus of Pyrrha Xenocrates Crantor Polemon Crates of Athens Arcesilaus Carneades Plotinus, founder of Neoplatonism, although he had no connection to the previous Academy of Plato Proclus Ammonius Saccas Yahya Ibn al-Batriq, Syrian scholar and associate of Al-Kindi who translated Timaeus into Arabic Hunayn ibn Ishaq, Arab scholar who either amended or surpassed the Timaeus of al-Batriq and translated Plato's Republic and Laws into Arabic Ishaq ibn Hunayn, translated Plato's Sophist with the commentary of Olympiodorus the Younger Yahya ibn Adi, translated Laws into Arabic Al-Farabi, author of a commentary on Plato's political philosophy Averroes, author of a commentary on the Republic Marsilio Ficino, Italian scholar and first translator of Plato's complete works into Latin Stephanus pagination, the standard reference numbering in Platonic scholarship, based on the 1578 complete Latin translation by Jean de Serres, and published by Henri Estienne Modern scholars Johann Gottfried Stallbaum, major Plato scholar and commentator in Latin Eduard Zeller, scholar and classicist John Alexander Stewart, major Plato scholar and classicist Victor Cousin, scholar and the first translator Plato's complete works into French Émile Saisset, scholar and a translator Plato's complete works into French Émile Chambry, scholar and a translator Plato's complete works into French Otto Apelt, scholar and the first translator Plato's complete works into German Benjamin Jowett, scholar and the first translated Plato's complete works into English James Adam, major Plato scholar and author of the authoritative critical edition of the Republic John Burnet, major Plato scholar and translator Francis Macdonald Cornford, translator of Republic and author of commentaries William Keith Chambers Guthrie, classical scholar and historian E. R. Dodds, classical scholar and author of commentaries on Plato Allan Bloom, major Plato scholar and translator of Republic in English Myles Burnyeat, major Plato scholar Harold F. Cherniss, major Plato scholar Guy Cromwell Field, Plato scholar Paul Friedländer, Plato scholar Terence Irwin, major Plato scholar Richard Kraut, major Plato scholar Ellen Francis Mason, translator of Plato Eric Havelock, Plato scholar Debra Nails, Plato scholar Alexander Nehamas, major Plato scholar Thomas Pangle, major Plato scholar and translator of Laws in English Friedrich Schleiermacher, commentator Paul Shorey, major Plato scholar and translator of Republic John Madison Cooper, major Plato scholar and translator of several works of Plato, and editor of the Hackett edition of the complete works of Plato in English Leo Strauss, major Plato scholar Seth Benardete, major Plato scholar Gregory Vlastos, major Plato scholar Hans-Georg Gadamer, major Plato scholar Paul Woodruff, major Plato scholar Catherine Zuckert, Plato scholar and political philosopher Julia Annas, Plato scholar and moral philosopher John McDowell, translated Theaetetus in English Robin Waterfield, Plato scholar and translator in English Léon Robin, scholar of Ancient Greek philosophy, translator of the complete works of Plato in French Alain Badiou, French philosopher, loosely translated Republic in French Chen Chung-hwan, scholar and commentator, translated Parmenides in Chinese Liu Xiaofeng, scholar and commentator, translated Symposium in Chinese Michitaro Tanaka and Norio Fujisawa, translators of the complete works of Plato in Japanese Joseph Gerhard Liebes, major scholar and commentator, the first to translate Plato's complete works in Hebrew Margalit Finkelberg, scholar and commentator, translated Symposium in Hebrew Virgilio S. Almario, translated Republic to Filipino Mahatma Gandhi, translated Apology in Gujarati Zakir Husain, Indian politician and academic, translated Republic in Urdu[191] Pierre Hadot, scholar and author of commentaries of Plato in French Luc Brisson, translator and author of commentaries on several works of Plato, and editor of the complete French translations; widely considered to be the most important contemporary scholar of Plato[192] Other Oxyrhynchus Papyri, including the Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 228, containing the oldest fragment of the Laches, and Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 24, that of the Book X of the Republic Plato, a lunar impact crater on the Moon aged 3.8 billion years, named after the Greek philosopher Notes ^ "...the subject of philosophy, as it is often conceived—a rigorous and systematic examination of ethical, political, metaphysical, and epistemological issues, armed with a distinctive method—can be called his invention."[3] ^ "Though influenced primarily by Socrates, to the extent that Socrates is usually the main character in many of Plato's writings, he was also influenced by Heraclitus, Parmenides, and the Pythagoreans"[6] ^ Diogenes Laërtius mentions that Plato "was born, according to some writers, in Aegina in the house of Phidiades, the son of Thales." Diogenes mentions as one of his sources the Universal History of Favorinus. According to Favorinus, Ariston, Plato's family, and his family were sent by Athens to settle as cleruchs (colonists retaining their Athenian citizenship), on the island of Aegina, from which the Spartans expelled them after Plato's birth there.[14] Nails points out, however, that there is no record of any Spartan expulsion of Athenians from Aegina between 431–411 BC.[15] On the other hand, at the Peace of Nicias, Aegina was silently left under Athens' control, and it was not until the summer of 411 that the Spartans overran the island.[16] Therefore, Nails concludes that "perhaps Ariston was a cleruch, perhaps he went to Aegina in 431, and perhaps Plato was born on Aegina, but none of this enables a precise dating of Ariston's death (or Plato's birth).[15] Aegina is regarded as Plato's place of birth by the Suda as well.[17] ^ Apollodorus of Athens said Plato was born on the seventh day of the month Thargelion; according to this tradition the god Apollo was born this day.[18] Renaissance Platonists celebrated Plato's birth on November 7.[19] Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff estimates that Plato was born when Diotimos was archon eponymous, namely between July 29, 428 BC and July 24, 427 BC.[20] Greek philologist Ioannis Kalitsounakis believes that he was born on May 26 or 27, 427 BC.[21][22] ^ According to James Adam, some have held that "Glaucon and Adeimantus were uncles of Plato, but Zeller decides for the usual view that they were brothers."[29] ^ From aristos and kleos ^ A scroll by Philodemus analysed in 2019 may suggest that Plato was enslaved earlier than was previously believed.[58] ^ He regarded "logistic" as appropriate for business men and men of war who "must learn the art of numbers or he will not know how to array his troops," while "arithmetic" was appropriate for philosophers "because he has to arise out of the sea of change and lay hold of true being."[70] ^ Plotinus describes this in the last part of his final Ennead (VI, 9) entitled On the Good, or the One (Περὶ τἀγαθοῦ ἢ τοῦ ἑνός). Jens Halfwassen states in Der Aufstieg zum Einen' (2006) that "Plotinus' ontology—which should be called Plotinus' henology—is a rather accurate philosophical renewal and continuation of Plato's unwritten doctrine, i.e. the doctrine rediscovered by Krämer and Gaiser." ^ In one of his letters (Epistolae 1612) Ficino writes: "The main goal of the divine Plato ... is to show one principle of things, which he called the One (τὸ ἕν)", cf. Montoriola 1926, p. 147. ^ For a brief description of the problem see for example Gaiser 1980. A more detailed analysis is given by Krämer 1990. Another description is by Reale 1997 and Reale 1990. A thorough analysis of the consequences of such an approach is given by Szlezak 1999. Another supporter of this interpretation is the German philosopher Karl Albert, cf. Albert 1980 or Albert 1996. Hans-Georg Gadamer is also sympathetic towards it, cf. Grondin 2010 and Gadamer 1980. Gadamer's final position on the subject is stated in Gadamer 1997. ^ Some use the term allegory instead of myth. This is in accordance with the practice in the specialized literature, in which it is common to find that the terms allegory and myth are used as synonyms. Nevertheless, there is a trend among modern scholars to use the term myth and avoid the term allegory, as it is considered more appropriate to modern interpretation of Plato's writings. One of the first to initiate this trend was the Oxford University professor John Alexander Stewart, in his work The Myths of Plato. ^ "The time is not long after the death of Socrates; for the Pythagoreans [Echecrates & co.] have not heard any details yet".[135] References ^ Ragland-Sullivan, Ellie (Fall 1989). "Plato's Symposium and the Lacanian Theory of Transference: Or, What Is Love?". The South Atlantic Quarterly. Duke University Press. 88: 740. ^ Jones 2006. ^ Kraut 2013 ^ Michel Foucault, The Hermeneutics of the Subject, Palgrave Macmillan, 2005, p. 17. ^ Whitehead 1978, p. 39. ^ a b Brickhouse & Smith. ^ Cooper, John M.; Hutchinson, D.S., eds. (1997): "Introduction." ^ Cooper 1997, p. vii. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Plato, III • Nails 2002, p. 53 • Wilamowitz-Moellendorff 2005, p. 46 ^ The Great Books of the Western World: Plato, Biographical Note. ^ a b Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Plato, I ^ a b Guthrie 1986, p. 10 • Taylor 2001, p. xiv • Wilamowitz-Moellendorff 2005, p. 47 ^ Apuleius, De Dogmate Platonis, 1 • Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Plato, I • "Plato". Suda. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Plato, III ^ a b Nails 2002, p. 54. ^ Thucydides, 5.18 • Thucydides, 8.92 ^ a b c "Plato". Suda. ^ a b c Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Plato, II ^ Nails 2006, p. 1. ^ Wilamowitz-Moellendorff 2005, p. 46. ^ a b Plato at the Encyclopædia Britannica ^ a b "Plato". Encyclopaedic Dictionary The Helios Volume V (in Greek). 1952. ^ Nails 2002, p. 247. ^ Nails 2002, p. 246. ^ Nietzsche 1967, p. 32. ^ Browne 1672. ^ Cicero, De Divinatione, I, 36 ^ Plato, Republic 368a • Wilamowitz-Moellendorff 2005, p. 47 ^ "Plato, Republic, Book 2, page 368". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Archived from the original on 21 April 2015. Retrieved 17 January 2016. ^ Xenophon, Memorabilia, 3.6.1 Archived 25 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine ^ Nails 2002, p. 53 • Taylor 2001, p. xiv ^ Plato, Charmides 158a • Nails 2002, pp. 228–229 ^ Plato, Charmides 158a • Plutarch, Pericles, IV ^ Plato, Gorgias 481d and Gorgias 513b • Aristophanes, Wasps, 97 Archived 25 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine ^ Plato, Parmenides 126c ^ Guthrie 1986, p. 11. ^ Kahn 1996, p. 186. ^ Guthrie 1986, p. 12 (footnote). ^ a b Sedley, David, Plato's Cratylus, Cambridge University Press 2003, pp. 21–22 Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Plato, IV ^ Notopoulos 1939, p. 135 ^ Seneca, Epistulae, VI 58:29-30; translation by Robert Mott Gummere ^ Laërtius 1925, § 4. ^ a b see Tarán 1981, p. 226. ^ Apuleius, De Dogmate Platonis, 2 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Plato, IV • Smith 1870, p. 393 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Plato, V ^ Aristotle, Metaphysics, 1.987a Archived 25 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine ^ Craig, Edward, ed. (1998). Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Routledge. p. 432. ISBN 978-0-415-07310-3. ^ McEvoy 1984. ^ Cairns 1961, p. xiii. ^ Plutarch, Cimon 13 ^ Schmitz, Leonhard (1867), "Academus", in Smith, William (ed.), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, 1, Boston, p. 5 ^ Robinson 1827, p. 16. ^ Dillon 2003, pp. 1–3. ^ Press 2000, p. 1. ^ Riginos 1976, p. 73. ^ Kennedy, Merrit (4 October 2019). "Ancient Greek Scroll's Hidden Contents Revealed Through Infrared Imaging". NPR.org. Archived from the original on 5 October 2019. Retrieved 5 October 2019. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, Book iii, 20 Archived 28 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine ^ Seneca, Epistulae, VI, 58, 31: natali suo decessit et annum umum atque octogensimum. ^ Riginos 1976, p. 194. ^ Schall 1996. ^ a b Riginos 1976, p. 195. ^ Metaphysics, 1.6.1 (987a) ^ Tusc. Disput. 1.17.39. ^ a b c McFarlane, Thomas J. "Plato's Parmenides". Integralscience. Archived from the original on 22 February 2017. Retrieved 12 February 2017. ^ George Karamanolis (2013). "Numenius". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 20 October 2017. Retrieved 17 October 2017. ^ R.M. Hare, Plato in C.C.W. Taylor, R.M. Hare and Jonathan Barnes, Greek Philosophers, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999 (1982), 103–189, here 117–119. ^ Russell, Bertrand (1991). History of Western Philosophy. Routledge. pp. 120–124. ISBN 978-0-415-07854-2. ^ Boyer 1991, p. 86 ^ a b Large, William. "Heraclitus". Arasite. Archived from the original on 6 March 2017. Retrieved 3 March 2017. ^ John Palmer (2019). Parmenides. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 20 October 2017. Retrieved 18 October 2017. ^ Second Letter 341c ^ Strauss 1964, pp. 50–51. ^ Metaphysics 987b1–11 ^ McPherran, M.L. (1998). The Religion of Socrates. Penn State Press. p. 268. ^ "The Eleusinian Mysteries: The Rites of Demeter". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 27 April 2019. Retrieved 27 April 2019. ^ Aristotle, Metaphysics, Book 1. The original term is "ἓν ἐπὶ πολλῶν." ^ Plato, Timaeus 44d & Timaeus 70 ^ Dorter 2006, p. 360. ^ Theaetetus 156a ^ Baird & Kaufmann 2008. ^ Taylor 2011, pp. 176–187. ^ Lee 2011, p. 432. ^ Taylor 2011, p. 189. ^ Fine 2003, p. 5. ^ Theaetetus 201c–d ^ Meno 97d–98a ^ McDowell 1973, p. 230. ^ Fine 1979, p. 366. ^ Theaetetus 210a–b ^ McDowell 1973, p. 256. ^ Republic, Book IV. ^ Blössner 2007, pp. 345–349. ^ Republic 473c–d ^ Republic 475c ^ Plato, Republic 488 ^ a b Blössner 2007, p. 350. ^ Republic 550b ^ Republic 554a ^ Republic 561a–b ^ Republic 571a ^ Dorter 2006, pp. 253–267. ^ Phaedrus (265a–c) ^ Rodriguez-Grandjean 1998. ^ Reale 1990. Cf. p. 14 and onwards. ^ Krämer 1990. Cf. pp. 38–47. ^ Physics 209b ^ Phaedrus 276c ^ Seventh Letter 344c ^ Seventh Letter 341c ^ Seventh Letter 344d ^ Elementa harmonica II, 30–31; quoted in Gaiser 1980, p. 5. ^ a b Metaphysics 987b ^ Gomperz 1931. ^ Gaiser 1998. ^ Apology 33d–34a ^ Apology38b ^ Phaedo 59b ^ Theaetetus 210d ^ Euthyphro 2a–b ^ Meno 94e–95a ^ Gorgias 521e–522a ^ Republic 7.517e ^ Apology 19b, c ^ Chappel, Timothy. "Mythos and Logos in Plato". Open University. Retrieved 20 August 2017. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ Edelstein, Ludwig (October 1949). "The Function of the Myth in Plato's Philosophy". Journal of the History of Ideas. X (4): 463–481. doi:10.2307/2707185. JSTOR 2707185. ^ Partenie, Catalin. "Plato's Myths". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 27 May 2017. Retrieved 29 October 2017. ^ "Plato's The Allegory of the Cave: Meaning and Interpretation". Bachelor and Master. Archived from the original on 15 February 2017. Retrieved 25 February 2017. ^ a b Blackburn 1996, p. 104. ^ Hartz, Louis. 1984. A Synthesis of World History. Zurich: Humanity Press ^ Popper 1962, p. 133. ^ Lysis 213a ^ Republic 3.403b ^ Burnet 1911, p. 5 ^ Theaetetus 142c–143b ^ Theaetetus 143c ^ Burnet 1928a, § 177. ^ CDC Reeve (Delta Kappa Epsilon Distinguished Professor of Philosophy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill), A Plato Reader: Eight Essential Dialogues (p. vi) Archived 24 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Hackett Publishing, 2012 ISBN 1-60384-917-3. ^ Robin Barrow (Professor of Philosophy of Education at Simon Fraser University, Canada and Fellow of The Royal Society of Canada), Plato: Appendix 2: Notes on the authenticity and Groupings of Plato's works Archived 24 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Bloomsbury Publishing, 2014 ISBN 1-4725-0485-2. ^ Platonic Writings/Platonic Readings (page x) Archived 23 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine (edited by CL Griswold Jr Archived 15 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine), Penn State Press, 2010 ISBN 0-271-04481-0. ^ JM Cooper (Stuart Professor of Philosophy, Princeton University, 1997); DS Hutchinson, Complete Works (p. xii) Archived 1 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine, Hackett Publishing, 1997. ^ H Tarrant (Professor of Classics at the University of Newcastle, New South Wales), Plato's First Interpreters Archived 24 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Cornell University Press, 2000 ISBN 0-8014-3792-X. ^ a b Cooper 1997, p. xiv. ^ a b c Dodds 2004. ^ See Guthrie 1986; Vlastos 1991; Penner 1992; Kahn 1996; Fine 1999b. ^ Kraut 2013; Schofield 2002; and Rowe 2006. ^ Bloom 1982, p. 5. ^ Burnet 1928b, p. 9. ^ Aristotle, Politics 1264b24-27 Archived 25 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine. ^ a b Brandwood 1990, p. 251. ^ Brandwood 1990, p. 77. ^ Meinwald 1991. ^ B Jowett, Menexenus: Appendix I (1st paragraph) Archived 24 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine. ^ The extent to which scholars consider a dialogue to be authentic is noted in Cooper 1997, pp. v–vi. ^ Brumbaugh & Wells 1989. ^ Irwin 2011, pp. 64 & 74. See also Slings 1987, p. 34: "... primary MSS. together offer a text of tolerably good quality" (this is without the further corrections of other sources). ^ Slings 1987, p. 31. ^ Cooper 1997, pp. viii–xii. ^ "Manuscripts – Philosophy Faculty Library". 2 March 2012. Archived from the original on 2 March 2012. ^ Dodds 1959, pp. 35–36. ^ Dodds 1959, p. 37. ^ RD McKirahan, Philosophy Before Socrates: An Introduction with Texts and Commentary (2nd ed.), Hackett Publishing, 2011, p. 1 Archived 23 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine ISBN 1-60384-612-3. ^ RS Brumbaugh, Plato for the Modern Age (p. 199) Archived 23 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine, University Press of America, 1991 ISBN 0-8191-8356-3. ^ J Duffy Byzantine Philosophy and Its Ancient Sources: "The lonely mission of Michael Psellos" Archived 22 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine edited by K Ierodiakonou (Oxford University Press, 2004) ISBN 0-19-926971-8. ^ Dodds 1959, p. 39. ^ Irwin 2011, p. 71. ^ Slings 2003, p. xxiii. ^ J Hankins, Plato in the Italian Renaissance Vol. 1 (p. 300) Archived 23 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Brill, 1990 ISBN 90-04-09161-0. ^ Allen 1975, p. 12. ^ Platonis opera quae extant omnia edidit Henricus Stephanus, Genevae, 1578. ^ Suzanne 2009. ^ Cooper 1997, pp. xii & xxvii. ^ Oxford Classical Texts – Classical Studies & Ancient History Series Archived 11 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Oxford University Press ^ Cambridge Greek and Latin Classics – Series. Cambridge University Press ^ Cambridge Classical Texts and Commentaries. Cambridge University Press ^ Irwin 1979, pp. vi & 11. ^ Dodds 1959. ^ Fine 1999a, p. 482. ^ Complete Works – Philosophy Archived 11 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine ^ Clarendon Plato Series – Philosophy Series Archived 11 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Oxford University Press ^ Cornell University Press : Agora Editions Archived 13 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine ^ Dijksterhuis, Eduard Jan (1969). The mechanization of the world picture. Translated by C. Dikshoorn. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 69. ^ Dijksterjuis, Eduard Jan (1969). The mechanization of the world picture. Translated by C. Dikshoorn. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 118. ^ C.U. M.Smith – Brain, Mind and Consciousness in the History of Neuroscience (page 1) Archived 23 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine Springer Science & Business, 1 January 2014, 374 pages, Volume 6 of History, philosophy and theory of the life sciences SpringerLink : Bücher ISBN 94-017-8774-3 [Retrieved 27 June 2015] ^ Lackner 2001, p. 21. ^ See Burrell 1998 and Hasse 2002, pp. 33–45. ^ Harris, Jonathan (2002). "Byzantines in Renaissance Italy". ORB: The Online Reference Book for Medieval Studies. College of Staten Island, City University of New York. Archived from the original on 30 September 2003. Retrieved 9 February 2015. ^ Einstein 1949, pp. 683–684. ^ Prior, William J. (1 January 1998). "Plato and the "Socratic Fallacy"". Phronesis. 43 (2): 97–113. doi:10.1163/15685289860511041. JSTOR 4182581. Retrieved 14 December 2020. ^ https://ia802507.us.archive.org/17/items/RayasatAflatoon/Rayasat%20Aflatoon%20%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%20%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%88%D9%86.pdf ^ “Le plus grand spécialiste de Platon”. Works cited Primary sources (Greek and Roman) Apuleius, De Dogmate Platonis, I. See original text in Latin Library. Aristophanes, The Wasps. See original text in Perseus program. Aristotle, Metaphysics. See original text in Perseus program. Cicero, De Divinatione, I. See original text in Latin library.  Laërtius, Diogenes (1925). "Plato" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. 1:3. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Plato. Charmides . Translated by Jowett, Benjamin – via Wikisource. See original text in Perseus program. Plato. Gorgias . Translated by Jowett Benjamin – via Wikisource. See original text in Perseus program. Plato (1903). Parmenides. Translated by Burnet, John. 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Plato: Complete Works. Hackett Publishing. Dillon, John (2003). The Heirs of Plato: A Study of the Old Academy. Oxford University Press. Dodds, E.R. (1959). Plato Gorgias. Oxford University Press. Dodds, E.R. (2004) [1951]. The Greeks and the Irrational. University of California Press. Dorter, Kenneth (2006). The Transformation of Plato's Republic. Lexington Books. Einstein, Albert (1949). "Remarks to the Essays Appearing in this Collective Volume". In Schilpp (ed.). Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist. The Library of Living Philosophers. 7. MJF Books. pp. 663–688. Fine, Gail (July 1979). "Knowledge and Logos in the Theaetetus". Philosophical Review. 88 (3): 366–397. doi:10.2307/2184956. JSTOR 2184956. Reprinted in Fine 2003. Fine, Gail (1999a). "Selected Bibliography". Plato 1: Metaphysics and Epistemology. Oxford University Press. pp. 481–494. Fine, Gail (1999b). "Introduction". Plato 2: Ethics, Politics, Religion, and the Soul. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–33. Fine, Gail (2003). "Introduction". Plato on Knowledge and Forms: Selected Essays. Oxford University Press. Gadamer, Hans-Georg (1980) [1968]. "Plato's Unwritten Dialectic". Dialogue and Dialectic. Yale University Press. pp. 124–155. Gadamer, Hans-Georg (1997). "Introduzione". In Girgenti, Giuseppe (ed.). La nuova interpretazione di Platone. Milan: Rusconi Libri. Gaiser, Konrad (1980). "Plato's Enigmatic Lecture 'On the Good'". Phronesis. 25 (1): 5–37. doi:10.1163/156852880x00025. Gaiser, Konrad (1998). Reale, Giovanni (ed.). Testimonia Platonica: Le antiche testimonianze sulle dottrine non scritte di Platone. Milan: Vita e Pensiero. First published as "Testimonia Platonica. Quellentexte zur Schule und mündlichen Lehre Platons" as an appendix to Gaiser's Platons Ungeschriebene Lehre, Stuttgart, 1963. Gomperz, H. (1931). "Plato's System of Philosophy". In Ryle, G. (ed.). Proceedings of the Seventh International Congress of Philosophy. London. pp. 426–431. Reprinted in Gomperz, H. (1953). Philosophical Studies. Boston: Christopher Publishing House 1953, pp. 119–124. Grondin, Jean (2010). "Gadamer and the Tübingen School". In Gill, Christopher; Renaud, François (eds.). Hermeneutic Philosophy and Plato: Gadamer's Response to the Philebus. Academia Verlag. pp. 139–156. Guthrie, W.K.C. (1986). A History of Greek Philosophy: Volume 4, Plato: The Man and His Dialogues: Earlier Period. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-31101-4. Hasse, Dag Nikolaus (2002). "Plato Arabico-latinus". In Gersh; Hoenen (eds.). The Platonic Tradition in the Middle Ages: A Doxographic Approach. De Gruyter. pp. 33–66. Irwin, T.H. (1979). Plato: Gorgias. Oxford University Press. Irwin, T.H. (2011). "The Platonic Corpus". In Fine, G. (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Plato. Oxford University Press. Jones, Daniel (2006). Roach, Peter; Hartman, James; Setter, Jane (eds.). Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary (17 ed.). Cambridge University Press. Kahn, Charles H. (1996). Plato and the Socratic Dialogue: The Philosophical Use of a Literary Form. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-64830-1. Kierkegaard, Søren (1992). "Plato". The Concept of Irony. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-02072-3. Krämer, Hans Joachim (1990). Catan, John R. (ed.). Plato and the Foundations of Metaphysics: A Work on the Theory of the Principles and Unwritten Doctrines of Plato with a Collection of the Fundamental Documents. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-0433-1. Lee, M.-K. (2011). "The Theaetetus". In Fine, G. (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Plato. Oxford University Press. pp. 411–436. Kraut, Richard (11 September 2013). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). "Plato". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University. Retrieved 3 April 2014. Lackner, D. F. (2001). "The Camaldolese Academy: Ambrogio Traversari, Marsilio Ficino and the Christian Platonic Tradition". In Allen; Rees (eds.). Marsilio Ficino: His Theology, His Philosophy, His Legacy. Brill. Meinwald, Constance Chu (1991). Plato's Parmenides. Oxford: Oxford University Press. McDowell, J. (1973). Plato: Theaetetus. Oxford University Press. McEvoy, James (1984). "Plato and The Wisdom of Egypt". Irish Philosophical Journal. 1 (2): 1–24. doi:10.5840/irishphil1984125. ISSN 0266-9080. Archived from the original on 5 December 2007. Retrieved 3 December 2007. Montoriola, Karl Markgraf von (1926). Briefe Des Mediceerkreises Aus Marsilio Ficino's Epistolarium. Berlin: Juncker. Nails, Debra (2002). The People of Plato: A Prosopography of Plato and Other Socratics. Hackett Publishing. ISBN 978-0-87220-564-2. Nails, Debra (2006). "The Life of Plato of Athens". In Benson, Hugh H. (ed.). A Companion to Plato. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4051-1521-6. Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm (1967). "Vorlesungsaufzeichnungen". Werke: Kritische Gesamtausgabe (in German). Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-013912-9. Notopoulos, A. (April 1939). "The Name of Plato". 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Robinson, John (1827). Archæologica Græca (Second ed.). London: A. J. Valpy. Archived from the original on 1 July 2014. Retrieved 4 February 2017. Rodriguez-Grandjean, Pablo (1998). Philosophy and Dialogue: Plato's Unwritten Doctrines from a Hermeneutical Point of View. Twentieth World Congress of Philosophy. Boston. Rowe, Christopher (2006). "Interpreting Plato". In Benson, Hugh H. (ed.). A Companion to Plato. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 13–24. Schall, James V. (Summer 1996). "On the Death of Plato". The American Scholar. 65. Schofield, Malcolm (23 August 2002). Craig, Edward (ed.). "Plato". Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Routledge. Archived from the original on 10 October 2008. Retrieved 3 April 2014. Sedley, David (2003). Plato's Cratylus. Cambridge University Press. Slings, S.R. (1987). "Remarks on Some Recent Papyri of the Politeia". Mnemosyne. Fourth. 40 (1/2): 27–34. doi:10.1163/156852587x00030. Slings, S.R. (2003). Platonis Rempublicam. Oxford University Press. Smith, William (1870). "Plato". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Strauss, Leo (1964). The City and the Man. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Suzanne, Bernard (8 March 2009). "The Stephanus edition". Plato and his dialogues. Retrieved 3 April 2014. Szlezak, Thomas A. (1999). Reading Plato. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-18984-2. Tarán, Leonardo (1981). Speusippus of Athens. Brill Publishers. Tarán, Leonardo (2001). "Plato's Alleged Epitaph". Collected Papers 1962–1999. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-12304-5. Taylor, Alfred Edward (2001) [1937]. Plato: The Man and His Work. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-41605-2. Taylor, C.C.W. (2011). "Plato's Epistemology". In Fine, G. (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Plato. Oxford University Press. pp. 165–190. Vlastos, Gregory (1991). Socrates: Ironist and Moral Philosopher. Cambridge University Press. Whitehead, Alfred North (1978). Process and Reality. New York: The Free Press. Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Ulrich von (2005) [1917]. Plato: His Life and Work (translated in Greek by Xenophon Armyros). Kaktos. ISBN 978-960-382-664-4. Further reading Alican, Necip Fikri (2012). Rethinking Plato: A Cartesian Quest for the Real Plato. Amsterdam and New York: Editions Rodopi B.V. ISBN 978-90-420-3537-9. Allen, R.E. (1965). Studies in Plato's Metaphysics II. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-7100-3626-4 Ambuel, David (2007). Image and Paradigm in Plato's Sophist. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-04-9 Anderson, Mark; Osborn, Ginger (2009). Approaching Plato: A Guide to the Early and Middle Dialogues (PDF). Nashville: Belmont University. Arieti, James A. Interpreting Plato: The Dialogues as Drama, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. ISBN 0-8476-7662-5 Bakalis, Nikolaos (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing ISBN 1-4120-4843-5 Barrow, Robin (2007). Plato: Continuum Library of Educational Thought. Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-8408-6. Cadame, Claude (1999). Indigenous and Modern Perspectives on Tribal Initiation Rites: Education According to Plato, pp. 278–312, in Padilla, Mark William (editor), "Rites of Passage in Ancient Greece: Literature, Religion, Society", Bucknell University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8387-5418-X Cooper, John M.; Hutchinson, D.S., eds. (1997). Plato: Complete Works. Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. ISBN 978-0-87220-349-5. Corlett, J. Angelo (2005). Interpreting Plato's Dialogues. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-02-5 Durant, Will (1926). The Story of Philosophy. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-69500-2. Derrida, Jacques (1972). La dissémination, Paris: Seuil. (esp. cap.: La Pharmacie de Platon, 69–199) ISBN 2-02-001958-2 Field, G.C. (1969). The Philosophy of Plato (2nd ed. with an appendix by Cross, R.C. ed.). London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-888040-0. Fine, Gail (2000). Plato 1: Metaphysics and Epistemology Oxford University Press, US, ISBN 0-19-875206-7 Finley, M.I. (1969). Aspects of antiquity: Discoveries and Controversies The Viking Press, Inc., US Garvey, James (2006). Twenty Greatest Philosophy Books. Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-9053-7. Guthrie, W.K.C. (1986). A History of Greek Philosophy (Plato – The Man & His Dialogues – Earlier Period), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-31101-2 Guthrie, W.K.C. (1986). A History of Greek Philosophy (Later Plato & the Academy) Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-31102-0 Havelock, Eric (2005). Preface to Plato (History of the Greek Mind), Belknap Press, ISBN 0-674-69906-8 Hamilton, Edith; Cairns, Huntington, eds. (1961). The Collected Dialogues of Plato, Including the Letters. Princeton Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-691-09718-3. Harvard University Press publishes the hardbound series Loeb Classical Library, containing Plato's works in Greek, with English translations on facing pages. Irvine, Andrew David (2008). Socrates on Trial: A play based on Aristophanes' Clouds and Plato's Apology, Crito, and Phaedo, adapted for modern performance. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-9783-5, 978-0-8020-9538-1 Hermann, Arnold (2010). Plato's Parmenides: Text, Translation & Introductory Essay, Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-71-1 Irwin, Terence (1995). Plato's Ethics, Oxford University Press, US, ISBN 0-19-508645-7 Jackson, Roy (2001). Plato: A Beginner's Guide. London: Hoder & Stroughton. ISBN 978-0-340-80385-1. Jowett, Benjamin (1892). [The Dialogues of Plato. Translated into English with analyses and introductions by B. Jowett.], Oxford Clarendon Press, UK, UIN:BLL01002931898 Kochin, Michael S. (2002). Gender and Rhetoric in Plato's Political Thought. Cambridge Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-521-80852-1. Kraut, Richard, ed. (1993). The Cambridge Companion to Plato. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-43610-6. LeMoine, Rebecca (2020). Plato's Caves: The Liberating Sting of Cultural Diversity. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0190936983. Lilar, Suzanne (1954), Journal de l'analogiste, Paris, Éditions Julliard; Reedited 1979, Paris, Grasset. Foreword by Julien Gracq Lilar, Suzanne (1963), Le couple, Paris, Grasset. Translated as Aspects of Love in Western Society in 1965, with a foreword by Jonathan Griffin London, Thames and Hudson. Lilar, Suzanne (1967) A propos de Sartre et de l'amour , Paris, Grasset. Lundberg, Phillip (2005). Tallyho – The Hunt for Virtue: Beauty, Truth and Goodness Nine Dialogues by Plato: Pheadrus, Lysis, Protagoras, Charmides, Parmenides, Gorgias, Theaetetus, Meno & Sophist. Authorhouse. ISBN 978-1-4184-4977-3. Márquez, Xavier (2012) A Stranger's Knowledge: Statesmanship, Philosophy & Law in Plato's Statesman, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-79-7 Melchert, Norman (2002). The Great Conversation: A Historical Introduction to Philosophy. McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-0-19-517510-3. Miller, Mitchell (2004). The Philosopher in Plato's Statesman. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-16-2 Mohr, Richard D. (2006). God and Forms in Plato – and other Essays in Plato's Metaphysics. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-01-8 Mohr, Richard D. (Ed.), Sattler, Barbara M. (Ed.) (2010) One Book, The Whole Universe: Plato's Timaeus Today, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-32-2 Moore, Edward (2007). Plato. Philosophy Insights Series. Tirril, Humanities-Ebooks. ISBN 978-1-84760-047-9 Nightingale, Andrea Wilson. (1995). "Genres in Dialogue: Plato and the Construct of Philosophy", Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-48264-X Oxford University Press publishes scholarly editions of Plato's Greek texts in the Oxford Classical Texts series, and some translations in the Clarendon Plato Series. Patterson, Richard (Ed.), Karasmanis, Vassilis (Ed.), Hermann, Arnold (Ed.) (2013) Presocratics & Plato: Festschrift at Delphi in Honor of Charles Kahn, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-75-9 Piechowiak, Marek (2019). Plato's Conception of Justice and the Question of Human Dignity. Peter Lang: Berlin. ISBN 978-3-631-65970-0. Sallis, John (1996). Being and Logos: Reading the Platonic Dialogues. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-21071-5. Sallis, John (1999). Chorology: On Beginning in Plato's "Timaeus". Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-21308-2. Sayre, Kenneth M. (2005). Plato's Late Ontology: A Riddle Resolved. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-09-4 Seung, T.K. (1996). Plato Rediscovered: Human Value and Social Order. Rowman and Littlefield. ISBN 0-8476-8112-2 Smith, William. (1867). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. University of Michigan/Online version. Stewart, John. (2010). Kierkegaard and the Greek World – Socrates and Plato. Ashgate. ISBN 978-0-7546-6981-4 Thesleff, Holger (2009). Platonic Patterns: A Collection of Studies by Holger Thesleff, Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-29-2 Thomas Taylor has translated Plato's complete works. Thomas Taylor (1804). The Works of Plato, viz. His Fifty-Five Dialogues and Twelve Epistles 5 vols Vlastos, Gregory (1981). Platonic Studies, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-10021-7 Vlastos, Gregory (2006). Plato's Universe – with a new Introduction by Luc Brisson, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-13-1 Zuckert, Catherine (2009). Plato's Philosophers: The Coherence of the Dialogues, The University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-99335-5 External links Platoat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Data from Wikidata Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Platon Works available online: Works by Plato at Perseus Project – Greek & English hyperlinked text Works by Plato at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Plato at Internet Archive Works by Plato at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Other resources: Plato at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project Plato at PhilPapers "Plato and Platonism" . Catholic Encyclopedia. 1913. v t e Plato General Early life Concepts Platonism Platonic epistemology Platonic idealism Platonic realism Innatism Platonic love Cardinal virtues Demiurge Theory of Forms Transcendentals Form of the Good Third man argument Euthyphro dilemma Five regimes Theory of soul Philosopher king Platonic solid True name Agathos kai sophos Khôra Metaxy Peritrope Philotimon Poiesis Psychagogy Sophrosyne Theia mania Topos hyperuranios Legacy Unwritten doctrines Cultural influence of Plato's Republic Neoplatonism and Gnosticism Platonism in the Renaissance Works Uncontested Apology Charmides Cratylus Critias Crito Euthydemus Euthyphro Gorgias Hippias Minor Ion Laches Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 228 Laws Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 23 Lysis Menexenus Meno Parmenides Phaedo Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 229 Phaedrus Philebus Protagoras Republic Sophist Statesman Symposium Theaetetus Timaeus Of doubtful authenticity Axiochus Clitophon Definitions Demodocus Epigrams Epinomis Epistles Letter I II IV V VI VII IX X XI XII Eryxias First Alcibiades Halcyon Hipparchus Hippias Major Minos On Justice On Virtue Rival Lovers Second Alcibiades Sisyphus Theages Allegories and metaphors Atlantis Ring of Gyges The Cave The Divided Line The Sun Ship of State Myth of Er The Chariot Allegorical interpretations of Plato Family Ariston of Athens (father) Pyrilampes (stepfather) Perictione (mother) Adeimantus of Collytus (brother) Glaucon (brother) Antiphon (brother) Potone (sister) Speusippus (nephew) Related Commentaries The Academy in Athens Socratic problem Middle Platonism Neoplatonism and Christianity Poitier Meets Plato List of speakers in Plato's dialogues "Plato's Dream" Articles related to Plato v t e Platonists Academic Old Plato Aristotle Eudoxus Philip of Opus Aristonymus Coriscus and Erastus of Scepsis Demetrius of Amphipolis Euaeon of Lampsacus Heraclides and Python of Aenus Hestiaeus of Perinthus Lastheneia of Mantinea Timolaus of Cyzicus Speusippus Axiothea of Phlius Heraclides Ponticus Menedemus of Pyrrha Xenocrates Crantor Polemon Crates of Athens Skeptic Middle Arcesilaus Diocles of Cnidus Lacydes Telecles and Evander Hegesinus New Carneades Hagnon of Tarsus Metrodorus of Stratonicea Clitomachus Charmadas Aeschines of Neapolis Philo of Larissa Cicero Dio of Alexandria Middle Platonist Antiochus Philo of Alexandria Plutarch Justin Martyr Gaius Albinus Alcinous Apuleius Atticus Maximus of Tyre Numenius of Apamea Longinus Clement of Alexandria Origen the Pagan Calcidius Neoplatonist Ancient Ammonius Saccas Plotinus Disciples Origen Amelius Porphyry Iamblichus Sopater Eustathius of Cappadocia Sosipatra Aedesius Dexippus Chrysanthius Theodorus of Asine Julian Sallustius Maximus of Ephesus Eusebius of Myndus Priscus of Epirus Antoninus Gregory of Nyssa Hypatia Augustine Macrobius Academy Plutarch of Athens Asclepigenia Hierocles Syrianus Hermias Aedesia Proclus Ammonius Hermiae Asclepiodotus Hegias Zenodotus Marinus Agapius Isidore Damascius Simplicius Priscian Medieval Boethius John Philoponus Olympiodorus Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite John Scotus Eriugena Islamic Golden Age Al-Farabi Anselm Peter Abelard Chartres Bernard Gilbert Thierry Henry of Ghent Bonaventure Theodoric of Freiberg Meister Eckhart Berthold of Moosburg Paul of Venice Modern Renaissance Florentine Academy Plethon Marsilio Ficino Cristoforo Landino Giovanni Pico della Mirandola Cambridge Ralph Cudworth Henry More Anne Conway Petrus Ramus Giordano Bruno Blaise Pascal Emanuel Swedenborg German idealist Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Christian Wolff Moses Mendelssohn Immanuel Kant Johann Gottlieb Fichte Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling Arthur Schopenhauer G. 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Dick Joseph Ratzinger Bernard Bolzano v t e Ancient Greek schools of philosophy Pre-Socratic Ionian Epimenides of Knossos Pherecydes of Syros Diogenes Metrodorus of Lampsacus Xenophanes Xeniades Theodorus of Cyrene Anacharsis Milesian Thales Anaximander Anaximenes Ephesian Heraclitus Cratylus Antisthenes Atomist Leucippus Democritus Italian Hippo Musaeus of Athens Themistoclea Pythagorean Pythagoras Hippasus Philolaus Archytas Alcmaeon Brontinus Theano Arignote Myia Damo Calliphon Hermotimus Metrodorus of Cos Eurytus Eleatic Parmenides Zeno Melissus Pluralist Anaxagoras Archelaus Empedocles Sophist Protagoras Gorgias Prodicus Hippias Antiphon Lycophron Damon Callicles Thrasymachus Euthydemus Dionysodorus Euenus Critias Socratic Socrates Xenophon Cebes of Thebes Simmias of Thebes Cynic Antisthenes Diogenes Diodorus Zoilus Onesicritus Philiscus Crates Hipparchia Metrocles Monimus Cleomenes Bion Sotades Menippus Menedemus Cercidas Teles Meleager Favonius Demetrius Dio Chrysostom Agathobulus Secundus Demonax Peregrinus Proteus Theagenes Oenomaus Pancrates Crescens Heraclius Horus Asclepiades Sallustius Cyrenaic Aristippus Arete of Cyrene Aristippus the Younger Theodorus the Atheist Antipater of Cyrene Aristotle of Cyrene Hegesias of Cyrene Anniceris Dionysius the Renegade Euhemerus Eretrian Phaedo of Elis Menedemus Asclepiades of Phlius Megarian Euclid of Megara Ichthyas Thrasymachus Eubulides Stilpo Nicarete Pasicles Bryson Dialectical Clinomachus Apollonius Cronus Euphantus Dionysius Diodorus Cronus Philo Alexinus Panthoides Peripatetic Aristotle Aristoxenus Clearchus of Soli Dicaearchus Eudemus of Rhodes Theophrastus Strato of Lampsacus Lyco of Troas Aristo of Ceos Critolaus Diodorus of Tyre Erymneus Andronicus of Rhodes Cratippus Andronicus of Rhodes Boethus of Sidon Aristocles of Messene Aspasius Adrastus Alexander of Aphrodisias Themistius Olympiodorus the Elder Platonic Plato Eudoxus Philip of Opus Aristonymus Coriscus Erastus of Scepsis Demetrius of Amphipolis Euaeon of Lampsacus Heraclides Python of Aenus Hestiaeus of Perinthus Lastheneia of Mantinea Timolaus of Cyzicus Speusippus Axiothea of Phlius Heraclides Ponticus Menedemus of Pyrrha Xenocrates Crantor Polemon Crates of Athens Hellenistic Academic Skeptic Middle Arcesilaus Diocles of Cnidus Lacydes Telecles Evander Hegesinus New Carneades Hagnon of Tarsus Metrodorus of Stratonicea Clitomachus Charmadas Aeschines of Neapolis Philo of Larissa Cicero Dio of Alexandria Epicurean Epicurus Polyaenus Metrodorus Batis Leontion Carneiscus Idomeneus Hermarchus Colotes Themista Leonteus Polystratus Dionysius of Lamptrai Basilides Philonides Diogenes of Tarsus Alcaeus and Philiscus Apollodorus Demetrius Lacon Zeno of Sidon Amafinius Rabirius Titus Albucius Phaedrus Philodemus Lucretius Patro Catius Siro Diogenes of Oenoanda Middle Platonic Antiochus Philo of Alexandria Plutarch Justin Martyr Gaius Albinus Alcinous Apuleius Atticus Maximus of Tyre Numenius of Apamea Longinus Clement of Alexandria Origen the Pagan Calcidius Neoplatonist Ammonius Saccas Plotinus Disciples Origen Amelius Porphyry Iamblichus Sopater Eustathius of Cappadocia Sosipatra Aedesius Dexippus Chrysanthius Theodorus of Asine Julian Sallustius Maximus of Ephesus Eusebius of Myndus Priscus of Epirus Antoninus Gregory of Nyssa Hypatia Augustine Macrobius Plutarch of Athens Hierius Asclepigenia Hierocles Syrianus Hermias Aedesia Proclus Ammonius Hermiae Asclepiodotus Hegias Zenodotus Marinus Agapius Isidore Damascius Simplicius Priscian Neopythagorean Nigidius Figulus Apollonius of Tyana Moderatus of Gades Nicomachus Alexicrates Anaxilaus Bolus of Mendes Cronius Damis Numenius of Apamea Secundus the Silent Quintus Sextius Sotion Theon of Smyrna Pyrrhonist Pyrrho Aenesidemus Agrippa the Skeptic Arcesilaus Hecataeus of Abdera Heraclides of Tarentum Herodotus of Tarsus Menodotus of Nicomedia Nausiphanes Sextus Empiricus Theodas of Laodicea Timon of Phlius Stoic Greek Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aratus of 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en-wikipedia-org-9782	----	Sapphic stanza - Wikipedia Sapphic stanza From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The Sapphic stanza, named after Sappho, is an Aeolic verse form spanning four lines (originally three: in the poetry of Sappho and Alcaeus, there is no line-end before the final Adonean). Contents 1 Classical Greek and Latin 1.1 Sappho 1.2 Other poets 2 Modern adaptations 2.1 English 2.2 Other languages 3 Notes 4 External links Classical Greek and Latin[edit] The form is two hendecasyllabic verses, and a third verse beginning the same way and continuing with five additional syllables (given as the stanza's fourth verse in ancient and modern editions, and known as the Adonic or adonean line). Using "–" for a long syllable, "∪" for a short syllable, and "x" for an "anceps" (free syllable), and displaying the Adonic as a fourth line:[1] – ∪ – x – ∪ ∪ – ∪ – – – ∪ – x – ∪ ∪ – ∪ – – – ∪ – x – ∪ ∪ – ∪ – – – ∪ ∪ – – Sappho[edit] While Sappho used several metrical forms for her poetry, she is most famous for the Sapphic stanza. Her poems in this meter (collected in Book I of the ancient edition) ran to 330 stanzas, a significant part of her complete works (and of her surviving poetry: fragments 1-42). It is not clear if she created it or if it was already part of the Aeolic tradition; according to Marius Victorinus (Ars grammatica 6.161 Keil), it was invented by Alcaeus but then used more frequently by Sappho, and so is more strongly associated with her. Sappho's most famous poem in this metre is Sappho 31, written in the Aeolic Greek dialect of her home island of Lesbos, which begins as follows: φαίνεταί μοι κῆνος ἴσος θέοισιν ἔμμεν᾽ ὤνηρ, ὄττις ἐνάντιός τοι ἰσδάνει καὶ πλάσιον ἆδυ φωνεί- σας ὐπακούει. phaínetaí moi kênos ísos théoisin émmen᾽ ṓnēr, óttis enántiós toi isdánei kaì plásion âdu phōneí- sas upakoúei. "That man seems to me to be equal to the gods who is sitting opposite you and hears you nearby speaking sweetly." Other poets[edit] Sappho's contemporary and countryman, Alcaeus of Mytilene, also used the Sapphic stanza. A few centuries later, the Roman poet Catullus admired Sappho's work and used the Sapphic meter in two poems, Catullus 11 and Catullus 51. The latter is a rough translation of Sappho 31. Sapphics were also used by Horace in several of his Odes, including Ode 1.22: Integer vītae scelerīsque pūrus nōn eget Maurīs iaculīs neque arcū nec venēnātīs gravidā sagittīs, Fusce, pharetrā... The man who is upright in life and free of wickedness, he needs no Moorish spears nor bow nor quiver heavy with envenomed arrows, Fuscus... The Sapphic stanza was one of the few classical quantitative meters to survive into the Middle Ages, when accentual rather than quantitative prosody became the norm. Many Latin hymns were written in Sapphic stanzas, including the famous hymn for St John the Baptist which gave the original names of the sol-fa scale: Ut queant laxis resonare fibris/ Mira gestorum famuli tuorum/ Solve polluti labii reatum/ Sancte Joannes Modern adaptations[edit] English[edit] Though some English poets attempted quantitative effects in their verse, quantity is not phonemic in English. So imitations of the Sapphic stanza are typically structured by replacing long with stressed syllables, and short with unstressed syllables (and often additional alterations, as exemplified below). The Sapphic stanza was imitated in English, using a line articulated into three sections (stressed on syllables 1, 5, and 10) as the Greek and Latin would have been, by Algernon Charles Swinburne in a poem he simply called Sapphics: So the goddess fled from her place, with awful Sound of feet and thunder of wings around her; While behind a clamour of singing women Severed the twilight. Thomas Hardy chose to open his first verse collection Wessex Poems and other verses 1898 with "The Temporary the All," a poem in Sapphics, perhaps as a declaration of his skill and as an encapsulation of his personal experience. Change and chancefulness in my flowering youthtime, Set me sun by sun near to one unchosen; Wrought us fellowly, and despite divergence, Friends interblent us. Rudyard Kipling wrote a tribute to William Shakespeare in Sapphics called "The Craftsman". He hears the line articulated into four, with stresses on syllables 1, 4, 6, and 10 (called a 'schoolboy error' by classical scholar L. P. Wilkinson, arising from a misunderstanding of Horace's regularisation of the 4th syllable as a long and his frequent use of the 5th-element caesura in his Sapphics). His poem begins: Once, after long-drawn revel at The Mermaid, He to the overbearing Boanerges Jonson, uttered (if half of it were liquor Blessed be the vintage!) Allen Ginsberg also experimented with the form: Red cheeked boyfriends tenderly kiss me sweet mouthed under Boulder coverlets winter springtime hug me naked laughing & telling girl friends gossip til autumn Isaac Watts penned "The Day of Judgment" subtitled An Ode Attempted in English Sapphic (here are the third and fourth stanzas, the full poem is at this link): Such shall the noise be and the wild disorder, (If things eternal may be like these earthly) Such the dire terror, when the great Archangel Shakes the creation, Tears the strong pillars of the vault of heaven, Breaks up old marble, the repose of princes; See the graves open, and the bones arising, Flames all around 'em! Australian Classicist and poet John Lee wrote a Sapphic stanza about the impossibility of writing Sapphic stanzas in English: Making Sapphics isn't that easy, shackling Our reluctant language with trochees. Since you First begot them, songstress of Lesbos, keep them. I'll never write them. (the poem exists also in a Latin version). The Australian poet John Tranter has also written a poem ("Writing in the Manner of Sappho") in two Sapphic stanzas about the difficulty of writing Sapphics in English: Writing Sapphics well is a tricky business. Lines begin and end with a pair of trochees; in between them dozes a dactyl, rhythm rising and falling, like a drunk asleep at a party. Ancient Greek — the language seemed to be made for Sapphics, not a worry; anyone used to English finds it a bastard. The Oxford classicist Armand D'Angour has created mnemonics to illustrate the difference between Sapphics heard as 1) a four-beat line (as in Kipling) and 2) in the (correct) three-beat measure, as follows: 1. Four-beat: Conquering Sappho's not an easy business: Masculine ladies cherish independence. Only good music penetrates the souls of Lesbian artists. 2. Three-beat: Independent metre is overrated: What's the point if nobody knows the dance-form? Wisely, Sappho chose to create a stately regular stanza. Notable contemporary Sapphic poems include "Sapphics for Patience" by Annie Finch, "Dusk: July" by Marilyn Hacker, "Buzzing Affy" (a translation of "An Ode to Aphrodite") by Adam Lowe, and "Sapphics Against Anger" by Timothy Steele. Other languages[edit] Further information: Sapphic stanza in Polish poetry The Sapphic stanza has been very popular in Polish literature since the 16th century. It was used by many poets. Sebastian Klonowic wrote a long poem, Flis, using the form.[2] The formula of 11/11/11/5 syllables[3] was so attractive that it can be found in other forms, among others the Słowacki stanza: 11a/11b/11a/5b/11c/11c.[4] In 1653, Paul Gerhardt used the Sapphic strophe format in the text of his sacred morning song "Lobet den Herren alle, die ihn ehren". Sapphic stanza was often used in poetry of German Humanism and Baroque. It is also used in hymns such as "Herzliebster Jesu" by Johann Heermann. Notes[edit] ^ For long or anceps in the last position of the adonean, see e.g. Sappho fr. 31, vv. 4, 8, 12, 16. fr. 32. and Horatius I. 25, vv. 8, 12, 16, 20. ^ Lucylla Pszczołowska,Wiersz polski. Zarys historyczny, Wrocław 1997, p.77. ^ Stanisław Sierotwiński, Słownik terminów literackich, Wrocław 1966, p.258. ^ Wiktor Jarosław Darasz, Mały przewodnik po wierszu polskim Kraków 2003, p.145-146. External links[edit] http://www.aoidoi.org/articles/meter/intro.pdf http://www.dl.ket.org/latinlit/carmina/scansion/metersofcat.htm v t e Sappho Fragments Ode to Aphrodite (1) 2 16 31 44 Tithonus poem (58) 94 Midnight poem (168B) Brothers Poem Papyri Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 7 Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 1231 Related Sapphic stanza Sapphic love Category v t e Poetic forms Stanzas Alcaic stanza Ballad stanza Biolet Burns stanza Chaubola Cinquain Couplet Ghazal Quatorzain Quatrain Quintain Sapphic stanza Sestain Sestet Sonnet Tercet Triolet Terza rima Verse paragraph Villanelle Rhymes Alliteration Assonance Broken rhyme Consonance Cross rhyme Forced/Oblique Half rhyme Holorime Imperfect/Near Internal rhyme Off-centered rhyme Monorhyme Pararhyme Perfect rhyme Rhyme scheme Semirhyme Syllabic Tail rhyme Weak/Unaccented Authority control LCCN: sh85117455 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sapphic_stanza&oldid=985945461" Categories: Stanzaic form Sappho Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Français Frysk Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Polski Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 28 October 2020, at 21:58 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-978	----	History of the Roman Constitution - Wikipedia History of the Roman Constitution From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e The History of the Roman Constitution is a study of Ancient Rome that traces the progression of Roman political development from the founding of the city of Rome in 753 BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD. The constitution of the Roman Kingdom vested the sovereign power in the King of Rome. The king did have two rudimentary checks on his authority, which took the form of a board of elders (the Roman Senate) and a popular assembly (the Curiate Assembly). The arrangement was similar to the constitutional arrangements found in contemporary Greek city-states (such as Athens or Sparta). These Greek constitutional principles probably came to Rome through the Greek colonies of Magna Graecia in southern Italy. The Roman Kingdom was overthrown in 510 BC, according to legend, and in its place the Roman Republic was founded. The constitutional history of the Roman Republic can be divided into five phases. The first phase began with the revolution which overthrew the Roman Kingdom in 510 BC, and the final phase ended with the revolution which overthrew the Roman Republic, and thus created the Roman Empire, in 27 BC. Throughout the history of the republic, the constitutional evolution was driven by the struggle between the aristocracy (the "Patricians") and the ordinary citizens (the "Plebeians"). Approximately two centuries after the founding of the republic, the Plebeians attained, in theory at least, equality with the Patricians. In practice, however, the plight of the average Plebeian remained unchanged. This set the stage for the civil wars of the 1st century BC, and Rome's transformation into a formal empire. The general who won the last civil war of the Roman Republic, Gaius Octavian, became the master of the state. In the years after 30 BC, Octavian set out to reform the Roman constitution, and to found the Principate. The ultimate consequence of these reforms was the abolition of the republic, and the founding of the Roman Empire. Octavian was given the honorific Augustus ("venerable") by the Roman Senate, and became known to history by this name, and as the first Roman Emperor. Octavian's reforms did not, at the time, seem drastic, since they did nothing more than reorganize the constitution. The reorganization was revolutionary, however, because the ultimate result was that Octavian ended up with control over the entire constitution, which itself set the stage for outright monarchy. When Diocletian became Roman Emperor in 284, the Principate was abolished, and a new system, the Dominate, was established. This system survived until the ultimate fall of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire in 1453.[1] Contents 1 Under the Kingdom 2 Under the Republic 3 Under the Empire 4 Decline and fall 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links Under the Kingdom[edit] Main articles: History of the Constitution of the Roman Kingdom and Constitution of the Roman Kingdom The period of the kingdom can be divided into two epochs based on the legends, handed down to us principally in the first book of Livy's Ab Urbe condita ("From the City Having Been Founded", or simply "History of Rome").[2] While the specific legends were probably not true, they were likely based on historical fact. It is likely that, before the founding of the republic, Rome actually had been ruled by a succession of kings. The first legendary epoch saw the reigns of the first four legendary kings. During this time, the political foundations of the city were laid,[3] the city grew increasingly organized, the religious institutions were established, and the senate and the assemblies evolved into formal institutions.[3] The early Romans were divided into three ethnic groups.[4] The families that belonged to one of these ethnic groups were the original Patrician families. In an attempt to add a level of organization to the city, these Patrician families were divided into units called curia.[3] The vehicle through which the early Romans expressed their democratic impulses was known as a "committee" (comitia or "assembly"). The two principle assemblies that formed were known as the Curiate Assembly and the Calculate Assembly. The two assemblies were designed to mirror the ethnic divisions of the city, and as such, the assemblies were organized by curia. The vehicle through which the early Romans expressed their aristocratic impulses was a council of town elders,[2] which became the Roman senate. The elders of this council were known as patres ("fathers"), and thus are known to history as the first Roman senators. The demos ("people") and the elders eventually recognized the need for a single political leader,[2] and thus elected such a leader, the rex (Roman King). The demos elected the rex, and the elders advised the rex.[2] Aeneas, whom the Romans believed Romulus and Remus descended from, fleeing from the burning city of Troy The second epoch saw the reigns of the last three legendary kings. The second epoch was more consequential than was the first, which was in part due to the significant degree of territorial expansion which occurred during this period.[2] Regardless of how true these legends were, it is likely that, as the legends suggest, a series of conquests did occur during the late monarchy. As a result of these conquests, it became necessary to determine what was to be done with the conquered people.[2] Often, individuals whose towns had been conquered remained in those towns,[5] while other such individuals came to Rome.[5] To acquire legal and economic standing, these newcomers adopted a condition of dependency toward either a Patrician family, or toward the king.[5] Eventually, the individuals who were dependents of the king were released from their state of dependency, and became the first Plebeians.[5] As Rome grew, it needed more soldiers to continue its conquests. When the Plebeians were released from their dependency, they were released from their Curia. When this occurred, while they were no longer required to serve in the army, they also lost their political and economic standing.[6] To bring these new Plebeians back into the army, the Patricians were forced to make concessions.[7] While it is not known exactly what concessions were made, the fact that they were not granted any political power[7] set the stage for what history knows as the Conflict of the Orders. The reign of the first four kings was distinct from that of the last three kings. The first kings were elected. Between the reigns of the final three kings, however, the monarchy became hereditary,[8] and as such, the senate became subordinated to the king.[8] This breach in the senate's sovereignty, rather than an intolerable tyranny, was probably what led the Patricians in the senate to overthrow the last king.[8] The king may have sought the support of the Plebeians; however, the Plebeians were no doubt exhausted from their continued military service, and from their forced labor in the construction of public works. They were probably also embittered by their lack of political power, and therefore did not come to the aide of either the king or the senate.[8] Under the Republic[edit] Main articles: History of the Constitution of the Roman Republic and Constitution of the Roman Republic After the monarchy had been overthrown, and the Roman Republic had been founded, the people of Rome began electing two Consuls each year.[9] In the year 494 BC, the Plebeians (commoners) seceded to the Aventine Hill, and demanded of the Patricians (the aristocrats) the right to elect their own officials.[10][11] The Patricians duly capitulated, and the Plebeians ended their secession. The Plebeians called these new officials Plebeian Tribunes, and gave these Tribunes two assistants, called Plebeian Aediles.[12] In 449 BC, the Senate promulgated the Twelve Tables as the centerpiece of the Roman Constitution. In 443 BC, the office of Censor was created,[13] and in 367 BC, Plebeians were allowed to stand for the Consulship. The opening of the Consulship to the Plebeian class implicitly opened both the Censorship as well as the Dictatorship to Plebeians.[14] In 366 BC, in an effort by the Patricians to reassert their influence over the magisterial offices, two new offices were created. While these two offices, the Praetorship and the Curule Aedileship, were at first open only to Patricians, within a generation, they were open to Plebeians as well.[12] Beginning around the year 350 BC, the senators and the Plebeian Tribunes began to grow closer.[15] The Senate began giving Tribunes more power, and, unsurprisingly, the Tribunes began to feel indebted to the senate.[15] As the Tribunes and the senators grew closer, Plebeian senators began to routinely secure the office of Tribune for members of their own families.[16] Also around the year 350 BC, the Plebeian Council (popular assembly) enacted a significant law (the "Ovinian Law")[17] which transferred, from the Consuls to the Censors, the power to appoint new senators. This law also required the Censors to appoint any newly elected magistrate to the Senate,[17] which probably resulted in a significant increase in the number of Plebeian senators.[18] This, along with the closeness between the Plebeian Tribunes and the Senate, helped to facilitate the creation of a new Plebeian aristocracy.[18] This new Plebeian aristocracy soon merged with the old Patrician aristocracy, creating a combined "Patricio-Plebeian" aristocracy.[19] The old aristocracy existed through the force of law, because only Patricians had been allowed to stand for high office. Now, however, the new aristocracy existed due to the organization of society, and as such, this order could only be overthrown through a revolution.[20] In 287 BC, the Plebeians seceded to the Janiculum hill. To end the secession, a law (the "Hortensian Law") was passed, which ended the requirement that the Patrician senators consent before a bill could be brought before the Plebeian Council for a vote.[21] The ultimate significance of this law was in the fact that it robbed the Patricians of their final weapon over the Plebeians. The result was that the ultimate control over the state fell, not onto the shoulders of democracy, but onto the shoulders of the new Patricio-Plebeian aristocracy.[22] By the middle of the second century BC, the economic situation for the average Plebeian had declined significantly.[23] Farmers became bankrupted, and soon masses of unemployed Plebeians began flooding into Rome, and thus into the ranks of the legislative assemblies, where their economic status usually led them to vote for the candidate who offered them the most. A new culture of dependency was emerging, which would look to any populist leader for relief.[24] Cornelia, mother of the future Gracchi tribunes, pointing to her children as her treasures In 88 BC, an aristocratic senator named Lucius Cornelius Sulla was elected Consul,[25] and soon left for a war in the east. When a Tribune revoked Sulla's command of the war, Sulla brought his army back to Italy, marched on Rome, secured the city, and left for the east again.[26] In 83 BC he returned to Rome, and captured the city a second time.[27] In 82 BC, he made himself Dictator, and then used his status as Dictator to pass a series of constitutional reforms that were intended to strengthen the senate.[28] In 80 BC he resigned his Dictatorship, and by 78 BC he was dead. While he thought that he had firmly established aristocratic rule, his own career had illustrated the fatal weakness in the constitution: that it was the army, and not the senate, which dictated the fortunes of the state.[29] In 70 BC, the generals Pompey Magnus and Marcus Licinius Crassus were both elected Consul, and quickly dismantled Sulla's constitution.[30] In 62 BC Pompey returned to Rome from battle in the east, and soon entered into an agreement with Julius Caesar.[31] Caesar and Pompey, along with Crassus, established a private agreement, known as the First Triumvirate. Under the agreement, Pompey's arrangements were to be ratified, Crassus was to be promised a future Consulship, and Caesar was to be promised the Consulship in 59 BC, and then the governorship of Gaul (modern France) immediately afterwards.[31] In 54 BC, violence began sweeping the city,[32] and in 53 BC Crassus was killed. In January 49 BC, the senate passed a resolution which declared that if Caesar did not lay down his arms by July of that year, he would be considered an enemy of the republic.[33] In response, Caesar quickly crossed the Rubicon with his veteran army, and marched towards Rome. Caesar's rapid advance forced Pompey, the Consuls and the senate to abandon Rome for Greece, and allowed Caesar to enter the city unopposed.[34] By 48 BC, after having defeated the last of his major enemies, Julius Caesar wanted to ensure that his control over the government was undisputed.[35] He assumed these powers by increasing his own authority, and by decreasing the authority of Rome's other political institutions. Caesar held the office of Roman Dictator, and alternated between the Consulship (the chief-magistracy) and the Proconsulship (in effect, a military governorship).[35] In 48 BC, Caesar was given the powers of a Plebeian Tribune,[36] which made his person sacrosanct, gave him the power to veto the Senate, and allowed him to dominate the legislative process. After Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC, Mark Antony formed an alliance with Caesar's adopted son and great-nephew, Gaius Octavian. Along with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, they formed an alliance known as the Second Triumvirate,[34] and held powers that were nearly identical to the powers that Caesar had held under his constitution. While the conspirators who had assassinated Caesar were defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC, the peace that resulted was only temporary. Antony and Octavian fought against each other in one last battle in 31 BC. Antony was defeated, and in 30 BC he committed suicide. In 29 BC, Octavian returned to Rome as the unchallenged master of the state. The reign of Octavian, whom history remembers as Augustus, the first Roman Emperor, marked the dividing line between the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire. By the time this process was complete, Rome had completed its transition from a city-state with a network of dependencies, to the capital of an empire.[37] Under the Empire[edit] Main articles: History of the Constitution of the Roman Empire and Constitution of the Roman Empire When Octavian returned to Rome two years after defeating Mark Antony, no one remained to oppose him.[38] Decades of war had taken a terrible toll on the People of Rome. The political situation was unstable, and there was a constant threat of renewed warfare.[38] Octavian's arrival alone caused a wave of optimism to ripple throughout Italy.[38] As soon as he arrived, he began addressing the problems that were plaguing Rome. Octavian's popularity soon reached new heights, which ultimately gave him the support he needed to implement his reforms. When Octavian deposed Mark Antony in 32 BC, he resigned his position as triumvir, but was probably vested with powers similar to those that he had given up.[39] Octavian wanted to solidify his status as master of the state, but avoid the fate of his adopted father. On January 13 of 27 BC, Octavian transferred control of the state back to the Senate and the People of Rome,[39] but neither the Senate nor the People of Rome were willing to accept what was, in effect, Octavian's resignation. Octavian was allowed to remain Roman Consul (the chief-executive under the old Republic), and was also allowed to retain his tribunician powers (similar to those of the Plebeian Tribunes, or chief representatives of the people).[40] This arrangement, in effect, functioned as a popular ratification of his position within the state. The Senate then granted Octavian a unique grade of Proconsular command power (imperium) which gave him the authority over all of Rome's military governors, and thus, over the entire Roman army.[40] Octavian was also granted the title of "Augustus" ("venerable") and of Princeps ("first citizen").[40] In 23 BC, Augustus (as Octavian now called himself) gave up his Consulship, and expanded both his Proconsular imperium and his tribunician powers.[41] After these final reforms had been instituted, Augustus never again altered his constitution.[42] Augustus' final goal was to ensure an orderly succession. In 6 BC Augustus granted tribunician powers to his stepson Tiberius,[43] and quickly recognized Tiberius as his heir. In 13 AD a law was passed which made Tiberius' legal powers equivalent to, and independent from, those of Augustus. Within a year, Augustus was dead.[44] Augustus, the first Roman Emperor. When Augustus died in 14 AD, the Principate legally ended.[45] Tiberius knew that if he secured the support of the army, the rest of the government would soon follow. Therefore, Tiberius assumed command of the Praetorian Guard, and used his Proconsular imperium to force the armies to swear allegiance to him.[45] As soon as this occurred, the Senate and the magistrates acquiesced. Under Tiberius, the power to elect magistrates was transferred from the assemblies to the Senate.[46] When Tiberius died, Caligula was proclaimed Emperor by the Senate. In 41 Caligula was assassinated, and for two days following his assassination, the Senate debated the merits of restoring the Republic.[47] Due to the demands of the army, however, Claudius was declared emperor, but he was ultimately killed, and Nero was declared Emperor.[48] In the decades after the death of Augustus, the Roman Empire was, in a sense, a union of inchoate principalities, which could have disintegrated at any time.[49] In 68 AD, Ser. Sulpicius Galba, the governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, was proclaimed Emperor by his troops.[48] In Rome, the emperor Nero quickly lost his supporters and committed suicide.[48] The governor of Lower Germany, A. Vitellius, was soon proclaimed Emperor by his troops, and in Rome, the Praetorian Guard proclaimed M. Salvius Otho Emperor.[48] In 69, Galba was assassinated and Otho took an army to Germany to defeat Vitellius, but instead was himself defeated. He committed suicide,[48] and Vitellius was proclaimed Emperor, but was quickly defeated and the executed by Vespasian, who was then declared Emperor.[50] Under the Emperor Vespasian, the Roman constitution began a slide toward outright monarchy.[51] Vespasian died in 79, and was succeeded by his son, Titus, who presided over a further weakening of the senate.[52] He was succeeded by his brother, Domitian, in 81. Domitian's reign marked a significant turning point on the road to monarchy,[52] as he made himself Censor for life, and unlike his father, used these powers to further subjugate the Senate.[52] Domitian, ultimately, was a tyrant with the character which always makes tyranny repulsive,[53] and this derived in part from his own paranoia, which itself was a consequence of the fact that he had no son, and thus no obvious heir. In September 96, Domitian was assassinated.[54] During the period that began with the accession of the Emperor Nerva and ended with the death of the Emperor Commodus, the Empire continued to weaken. It was becoming difficult to recruit enough soldiers for the army, inflation was becoming an issue, and on at least one occasion, the Empire almost went bankrupt. The most significant constitutional development during this era was the steady drift towards monarchy. M. Cocceius Nerva succeeded Domitian, and although his reign was too short for any major constitutional reforms, he did reverse some of his predecessor's abuses.[55] He was succeeded by Trajan in 98, who then went further than even Nerva had in restoring the image of a free republic,[55] by, for example, allowing the senate to regain some independent legislative abilities.[55] Hadrian succeeded Trajan as Emperor. By far, his most important constitutional alteration was his creation of a bureaucratic apparatus,[56] which included a fixed gradation of clearly defined offices, and a corresponding order of promotion.[56] Hadrian was succeeded by Antonius Pius, who made no real changes to the constitution.[57] Antonius Pius was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius in 161. The most significant constitutional development that occurred during the reign of Marcus Aurelius was the revival of the republican principle of collegiality,[57] as he made his brother, L. Aelius, his co-emperor. In 169, Aelius died, and in 176, Marcus Aurelius made his son, L. Aurelius Commodus, his new co-emperor. In 180, Marcus Aurelius died, and Commodus became Emperor. Commodus' tyranny revived the worst memories of the later Julian emperors,[58] as he was more explicit than any of his predecessors in taking powers that he did not legally have, and in disregarding the constitution. He was killed in 192.[59] No further constitutional reforms were enacted during the Principate.[60] The only development of any significance was the continuing slide towards monarchy, as the constitutional distinctions that had been set up by Augustus lost whatever meaning that they still had.[60] Starting in 235, with the reign of the barbarian Emperor Maximinus Thrax, the Empire was put through a period of severe military, civil, and economic stress. The crisis arguably reached its height during the reign of Gallienus, from 260 to 268.[61] The crisis ended with the accession of Diocletian in 284, and the abolishment of the Principate.[62] Decline and fall[edit] Main articles: History of the Constitution of the Late Roman Empire and Constitution of the Late Roman Empire When Diocletian became Roman Emperor in 284, the military situation had recently stabilized,[62] which allowed him to enact badly needed constitutional reforms. Diocletian resurrected the "collegial" system that Marcus Aurelius had first used, and divided the empire into east and west.[63] Each half was to be ruled by one of two co-emperors, called the Augusti. He then resurrected the precedent set by Hadrian, and ensured that each emperor named his successor early in his reign. Diocletian called that successor a Caesar.[63] Diocletian then created a bureaucratic apparatus that was similar to the system that Hadrian had created, wherein each office had a defined set of responsibilities, a set rank, and a set path of promotion. In this administrative system, Diocletian followed the example that had been set by Domitian, and divided the Empire into small administrative units.[1] He also assigned to the four tetrarchs (the two Augusti and the two Caesares) honorary titles and insignia that had been used by Domitian.[1] One important consequence of these reforms was the fact that the image of a free republic had finally given way, and the centuries-old reality of monarchy now became obvious.[1] When Diocletian resigned, chaos ensued, but after the chaos had subsided, most of his reforms remained in effect.[64] While the Emperor Constantine the Great did enact some revisions to this constitution, the most significant change over the centuries was in the abolition of the Caesares. Ultimately this constitution survived, in one form or another, until the Western Roman Empire fell in 476.[65] Diocletian's division of the Empire into west and east set the stage for ages to come, and was a significant factor behind the ultimate division of the Christian church into western Roman Catholic and eastern Greek Orthodox, while his division of the Empire into prefectures and dioceses is used by the Catholic Church to this day. See also[edit] ‹ The template below (Columns) is being considered for deletion. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus. › Centuria Master of the Horse Byzantine Senate Interrex Promagistrate Acta Senatus Notes[edit] ^ a b c d Abbott, 340 ^ a b c d e f Abbott, 6 ^ a b c Abbott, 3 ^ Abbott, 5 ^ a b c d Abbott, 7 ^ Abbott, 7-8 ^ a b Abbott, 8 ^ a b c d Abbott, 10 ^ Holland, 2 ^ Abbott, 28 ^ Holland, 22 ^ a b Holland, 5 ^ Abbott, 37 ^ Abbott, 42 ^ a b Abbott, 44 ^ Abbott, 45 ^ a b Abbott, 46 ^ a b Abbott, 47 ^ Holland, 27 ^ Abbott, 48 ^ Abbott, 52 ^ Abbott, 53 ^ Abbott, 77 ^ Abbott, 80 ^ Holland, 64 ^ Holland, 69 ^ Holland, 90 ^ Holland, 99 ^ Holland, 106 ^ Abbott, 109 ^ a b Abbott, 112 ^ Abbott, 114 ^ Abbott, 115 ^ a b Goldsworthy, 237 ^ a b Abbott, 134 ^ Abbott, 135 ^ Abbott, 129 ^ a b c Abbott, 266 ^ a b Abbott, 267 ^ a b c Abbott, 269 ^ Abbott, 270 ^ Abbott, 271 ^ Abbott, 272 ^ Abbott, 273 ^ a b Abbott, 289 ^ Abbott, 292 ^ Abbott, 293 ^ a b c d e Abbott, 297 ^ Abbott, 296 ^ Abbott, 305 ^ Abbott, 309 ^ a b c Abbott, 310 ^ Abbott, 312 ^ Abbott, 313 ^ a b c Abbott, 317 ^ a b Abbott, 318 ^ a b Abbott, 319 ^ Abbott, 320 ^ Abbott, 321 ^ a b Abbott, 329 ^ Abbott, 333 ^ a b Abbott, 334 ^ a b Abbott, 339 ^ Williams, 196-98 ^ Williams, 205-6 References[edit] Abbott, Frank Frost (1901). A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. Elibron Classics. ISBN 0-543-92749-0. Goldsworthy, Adrian (2003). In the Name of Rome: The Men Who Won the Roman Empire. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-84666-3. Holland, Tom (2005). Rubicon: The Last Years of the Roman Republic. Random House Books. ISBN 1-4000-7897-0. Peter N. Stearns, William Leonard Langer (2001). "The Middle East". The Encyclopedia of World History. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Books. ISBN 0-395-65237-5. Williams, Stephen (1997). Diocletian and the Roman Recovery. New York, NY: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-91827-8. Further reading[edit] Cambridge Ancient History, Volumes 9–13. Cameron, A. The Later Roman Empire, (Fontana Press, 1993). Crawford, M. The Roman Republic, (Fontana Press, 1978). Gruen, E. S. "The Last Generation of the Roman Republic" (U California Press, 1974) Ihne, Wilhelm. Researches Into the History of the Roman Constitution. William Pickering. 1853. Johnston, Harold Whetstone. Orations and Letters of Cicero: With Historical Introduction, An Outline of the Roman Constitution, Notes, Vocabulary and Index. Scott, Foresman and Company. 1891. Millar, F. The Emperor in the Roman World, (Duckworth, 1977, 1992). Mommsen, Theodor. Roman Constitutional Law. 1871–1888 Polybius. The Histories Tighe, Ambrose. The Development of the Roman Constitution. D. Apple & Co. 1886. Von Fritz, Kurt. The Theory of the Mixed Constitution in Antiquity. Columbia University Press, New York. 1975. External links[edit] Library resources about History of the Roman Constitution Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Cicero's De Re Publica, Book Two Rome at the End of the Punic Wars: An Analysis of the Roman Government; by Polybius Considerations on the Causes of the Greatness of the Romans and their Decline, by Montesquieu The Roman Constitution to the Time of Cicero What a Terrorist Incident in Ancient Rome Can Teach Us v t e Roman Constitution Ancient Rome History Constitution Senate Assemblies Curiate Century Tribal Plebeian Magistrates Roman Kingdom History Constitution Senate Assemblies Magistrates Roman Republic History Constitution (reforms of Sulla • reforms of Caesar • reforms of Augustus) Senate Assemblies Magistrates Roman Empire History (post Diocletian) Constitution (post Diocletian) Senate Assemblies Magistrates Miscellaneous Sulla's Constitutional Reforms Caesar's Constitutional Reforms Conflict of the Orders Roman law v t e Ancient Rome 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Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Roman_Constitution&oldid=988259922" Categories: Government of the Kingdom of Rome Roman Republic Government of the Roman Empire Constitutions of ancient Rome Hidden categories: Pages using columns with the default column width 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en-wikipedia-org-9798	----	Curiate Assembly - Wikipedia Curiate Assembly From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e The Curiate Assembly (comitia curiata) was the principal assembly that evolved in shape and form over the course of the Roman Kingdom up until the Comitia Centuriata organized by Servius Tullius.[1] During these first decades, the people of Rome were organized into thirty units called "Curiae".[2][3] The Curiae were ethnic in nature, and thus were organized on the basis of the early Roman family, or, more specifically, on the basis of the thirty original patrician (aristocratic) clans.[4] The Curiae formed an assembly for legislative, electoral, and judicial purposes. The Curiate Assembly passed laws, elected Consuls (the only elected magistrates at the time),[5] and tried judicial cases. Consuls always presided over the assembly. While plebeians (commoners) could participate in this assembly, only the patricians (the Roman aristocrats) could vote. Since the Romans used a form of direct democracy, citizens, and not elected representatives, voted before each assembly. As such, the citizen-electors had no power, other than the power to cast a vote. Each assembly was presided over by a single Roman Magistrate, and as such, it was the presiding magistrate who made all decisions on matters of procedure and legality. Ultimately, the presiding magistrate's power over the assembly was nearly absolute. The only check on that power came in the form of vetoes handed down by other magistrates, and decisions made by presiding magistrates could also be vetoed by higher-ranking magistrates. In addition, after 493 BC, any decision made by a presiding magistrate, including one concerning the Curiate Assembly, could be vetoed by a magistrate known as a plebeian tribune, or tribune of the plebs. Contents 1 Procedure 2 Decline 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References 6 Further reading 6.1 Primary sources 6.2 Secondary source material 7 External links Procedure[edit] In the Roman system of direct democracy, primary types of gatherings were used to vote on legislative, electoral, and judicial matters. The first was the Assembly (comitia, literally "going together" or "meeting place").[6] The Curiate Assembly was a comitia. Assemblies represented all citizens,[7] even if they excluded the plebs like the Curiate Assembly did, and were used for official purposes, such as for the enactment of statutes. Acts of an Assembly applied to all Roman citizens. The second type of gathering was the Council (concilium), which was a forum where a specific class of citizen met. In contrast, the Convention (conventio, literally "coming together") was an unofficial forum for communication. Conventions were simply forums where Romans met for specific unofficial purposes, such as, for example, to hear a political speech.[6] Private citizens who did not hold political office could only speak before a Convention, and not before an Assembly or a Council.[8] Conventions were simply meetings, and no legal or legislative decisions could be made in them. Voters always assembled first into Conventions to hear debates and conduct other business before voting, and then into Assemblies or Councils to vote.[9] Chart Showing the Checks and Balances of the Constitution of the Roman Republic A notice always had to be given several days before the Assembly was to vote. For elections, at least three market-days (often more than seventeen actual days) had to pass between the announcement of the election, and the actual election. During this time period (the trinundinum), the candidates interacted with the electorate, and no legislation could be proposed or voted upon. In 98 BC, a statute was passed (the lex Caecilia Didia) which required a similar three market-day interval to pass between the proposal of a statute and the vote on that statute.[10] During criminal trials, the assembly's presiding magistrate had to give a notice (diem dicere) to the accused person on the first day of the investigation (anquisito). At the end of each day, the magistrate had to give another notice to the accused person (diem prodicere), which informed him of the status of the investigation. After the investigation was complete, a three market-day interval had to elapse before a final vote could be taken with respect to conviction or acquittal.[11] Only one assembly could operate at any given point in time, and any session already underway could be dissolved if a magistrate "called away" (avocare) the electors.[10] In addition to the presiding magistrate, several additional magistrates were often present to act as assistants. They were available to help resolve procedural disputes, and to provide a mechanism through which electors could appeal decisions of the presiding magistrate.[12] There were also religious officials (known as Augurs) either in attendance or on-call, who would be available to help interpret any signs from the gods (omens), since the Romans believed that the gods let their approval or disapproval with proposed actions be known.[12] In addition, a preliminary search for omens (auspices) was conducted by the presiding magistrate the night before any meeting.[13] On several known occasions, presiding magistrates used the claim of unfavorable omens as an excuse to suspend a session that was not going the way they wanted. On the day of the vote, the electors first assembled into their Conventions for debate and campaigning.[9] In the Conventions, the electors were not sorted into their Curiae. Speeches from private citizens were only heard if the issue to be voted upon was a legislative or judicial matter, and even then, only if the citizen received permission from the presiding magistrate.[14] If the purpose of the ultimate vote was for an election, no speeches from private citizens were heard, and instead, the candidates for office used the Convention to campaign.[15] During the Convention, the bill to be voted upon was read to the assembly by an officer known as a "Herald". Then the order of the vote had to be determined. An urn was brought in, and lots were cast to determine the sequence by which the Curiae were to vote.[16] The electors were then told to break up the Convention ("depart to your separate groups", or discedite, quirites). The electors assembled behind a fenced off area[9] and voted by placing a pebble or written ballot into an appropriate jar.[17] The baskets (cistae) that held the votes were watched by specific officers (the custodes), who then counted the ballots, and reported the results to the presiding magistrate. The majority of votes in any Curia decided how that Curia voted. If the process was not complete by nightfall, the electors were dismissed without having reached a decision, and the process had to begin again the next day.[18] Decline[edit] Shortly after the founding of the republic, many of the political powers of the Curiate Assembly were transferred to the Centuriate Assembly and the Tribal Assembly.[2] This included the transfer of the election of tribunes to the Tribal Assembly by the Lex Publilia in 471 BC.[19] While it then fell into disuse, it did retain some theoretical powers, most importantly, the power to ratify elections of the top-ranking Roman Magistrates (consuls and praetors) by passing a law (lex curiata de imperio or "Curiate law on imperium") that gave them their legal command (imperium) authority. In practice, however, they received this authority from the Centuriate assembly (which formally elected them), and as such, this functioned as nothing more than a reminder of Rome's regal heritage.[3] Even after it lost its powers, the Curiate Assembly continued to be presided over by Consuls and Praetors, and was subject to obstruction by Roman magistrates (especially plebeian tribunes) and unfavorable omens (as were the other assemblies).[3] By the time of the middle and late Republic, there was considerable debate about the need for confirmation in imperium by the Curiate assembly. For example, praetors were not permitted to undertake judicial business without confirmation in the imperium and nor could consuls command troops or call the comitia centuriata to hold the election of his successor.[20] Cicero's contemporaries argued that without confirmation in the imperium, a magistrate could not as a promagistrate, or without it, govern the province at his own expense and be ineligible for a triumph after a military victory.[20] These rules would have prohibited magistrates from engaging in serious public business before confirmation, but for the fact they were widely ignored and legislation often included provisions stating that in the lack of a curiate law, they "be magistrates in as legal a sense as those who are elected according to the strictest forms of law".[20] By 212 BC, the lack of such a law granting imperium to the propraetor of Spain, Lucius Marcius, was no issue for the senate, which refrained from declaring the election illegal.[21] During the late Republic, by 54, the consul Appius Claudius insisted that he held imperium, due to statute passed by Sulla granting imperium to promagistrates until their return to the city without mention of the curiate grant of imperium, and also that he held the authority to call the Assembly to elect new magistrates.[22] However, in the late Republic, with increasing conflict between the optimates and the populares, it is likely that the senate, trying to increase its control over provincial governors, stressed the importance of this law, even as magistrates ignored their complaints.[23] Acts that the Curiate Assembly voted on were mostly symbolic and usually in the affirmative.[3] At one point, possibly as early as 218 BC, the Curiate Assembly's thirty Curiae were abolished, and replaced with thirty lictors, one from each of the original Patrician clans.[3] Since the Curiae had always been organized on the basis of the Roman family,[4] it retained jurisdiction over clan matters even after the fall of the Roman Republic in 27 BC.[5] Under the presidency of the Pontifex Maximus,[2] it witnessed wills and ratified adoptions,[2] inaugurated certain priests, and transfer citizens from Patrician class to Plebeian class (or vice versa). In 59 BC, it transferred Publius Clodius Pulcher from Patrician status to Plebeian status so that he could run for Plebeian Tribune. In 44 BC, it ratified the will of Julius Caesar, and with it Caesar's adoption of his nephew Gaius Octavian (the future Roman Emperor Augustus) as his son and heir.[3] With the rise of the empire, the sanctioning powers of the Curiate assembly fell into disuse, as the power to grant imperium, along with the vast majority of the other powers of the Curiate assembly, were transferred into the hands of the Senate or delegated to the emperor through a special lex de imperio.[24] See also[edit] ‹ The template below (Columns) is being considered for deletion. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus. › Roman Kingdom Roman Republic Roman Empire Roman Law Plebeian Council Centuria Curia Roman consul Praetor Roman censor Quaestor Aedile Roman Dictator Master of the Horse Roman Senate Cursus honorum Byzantine Senate Pontifex Maximus Princeps senatus Interrex Procurator (Roman) Acta Senatus Notes[edit] ^ Duncan, Michael (2016). "The History of Rome". ^ a b c d Byrd, Robert (1995). The Senate of the Roman Republic. U.S. Government Printing Office, Senate Document 103-23. ^ a b c d e f Taylor, 3, 4 ^ a b Abbott, 250 ^ a b Abbott, 253 ^ a b Lintott, Andrew (1999). The Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press. p. 42. ^ Abbott, 251 ^ Abbott, 252 ^ a b c Taylor, Lily Ross (1966). Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar. The University of Michigan Press. p. 2. ^ a b Lintott 1999, p. 44. ^ Lintott 1999, pp. 44-45. ^ a b Taylor, 63 ^ Taylor, 7 ^ Lintott 1999, p. 45. ^ Taylor, 16 ^ Lintott 1999, p. 46. ^ Lintott 1999, pp. 46-47. ^ Lintott 1999, p. 48. ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, ii. 58. ^ a b c Botsworth, George Willis (1909). The Roman Assemblies. New York: Cooper Square Publishers, Inc. p. 190. ^ Botsworth 1909, p. 192. ^ Botsworth 1909, p. 193. ^ Botsworth 1909, p. 198. ^ Taylor, Thomas Marris (1899). A Constitutional and Political History of Rome. London: Methuen & Co. p. 428. References[edit] Abbott, Frank Frost (1901). A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. Elibron Classics ( ISBN 0-543-92749-0). Botsford, George Willis (1909, repr. 2005). The Roman Assemblies. From their Origin to the End of the Republic, New York. Byrd, Robert (1995). The Senate of the Roman Republic. U.S. Government Printing Office, Senate Document 103-23. Lintott, Andrew (1999). The Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press ( ISBN 0-19-926108-3). Polybius (1823). The General History of Polybius: Translated from the Greek. By James Hampton. Oxford: Printed by W. Baxter. Fifth Edition, Vol 2. Taylor, Lily Ross (1966). Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar. The University of Michigan Press ( ISBN 0-472-08125-X). Tullius Cicero, Marcus (1841 edition). The Political Works of Marcus Tullius Cicero: Comprising his Treatise on the Commonwealth; and his Treatise on the Laws. Translated from the original, with Dissertations and Notes in Two Volumes. By Francis Barham, Esq. London: Edmund Spettigue. Vol. 1. Further reading[edit] Ihne, Wilhelm. Researches Into the History of the Roman Constitution. William Pickering. 1853. Johnston, Harold Whetstone. Orations and Letters of Cicero: With Historical Introduction, An Outline of the Roman Constitution, Notes, Vocabulary and Index. Scott, Foresman and Company. 1891. Mommsen, Theodor. Roman Constitutional Law. 1871-1888 Tighe, Ambrose. The Development of the Roman Constitution. D. Apple & Co. 1886. Von Fritz, Kurt. The Theory of the Mixed Constitution in Antiquity. Columbia University Press, New York. 1975. The Histories by Polybius Cambridge Ancient History, Volumes 9–13. A. Cameron, The Later Roman Empire, (Fontana Press, 1993). M. Crawford, The Roman Republic, (Fontana Press, 1978). E. S. Gruen, "The Last Generation of the Roman Republic" (U California Press, 1974) F. Millar, The Emperor in the Roman World, (Duckworth, 1977, 1992). A. Lintott, "The Constitution of the Roman Republic" (Oxford University Press, 1999) Primary sources[edit] Cicero's De Re Publica, Book Two Rome at the End of the Punic Wars: An Analysis of the Roman Government; by Polybius Secondary source material[edit] Considerations on the Causes of the Greatness of the Romans and their Decline, by Montesquieu The Roman Constitution to the Time of Cicero What a Terrorist Incident in Ancient Rome Can Teach Us External links[edit] Library resources about Curiate Assembly Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries v t e Roman Constitution Ancient Rome History Constitution Senate Assemblies Curiate Century Tribal Plebeian Magistrates Roman Kingdom History Constitution Senate Assemblies Magistrates Roman Republic History Constitution (reforms of Sulla • reforms of Caesar • reforms of Augustus) Senate Assemblies Magistrates Roman Empire History (post Diocletian) Constitution (post Diocletian) Senate Assemblies Magistrates Miscellaneous Sulla's Constitutional Reforms Caesar's Constitutional Reforms Conflict of the Orders Roman law v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Curiate_Assembly&oldid=993010198" Categories: Government of the Kingdom of Rome Government of the Roman Republic Government of the Roman Empire Roman law Popular assemblies Hidden categories: Pages using columns with the default column width Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Español Esperanto Français 한국어 Italiano Latina Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 8 December 2020, at 09:00 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9813	----	Wikipedia:Citation needed - Wikipedia Wikipedia:Citation needed From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikipedia information page This is an information page. It is not one of Wikipedia's policies or guidelines, but rather intends to describe some aspect(s) of Wikipedia:Verifiability policy. It may reflect varying levels of consensus and vetting. Shortcut WP:CITENEED A complete version of the documentation for this template is provided at Template:Citation needed. If you are new to editing and instead just need a general overview of how sources work, please visit the referencing for beginners help page. The {{Citation needed}} template aims to promote accountable discourse. To ensure that all Wikipedia content is verifiable, anyone may question an uncited claim. If your work has been tagged, please provide a reliable source for the statement, and discuss if needed. You can add a citation by selecting from the drop-down menu at the top of the editing box. In markup, you can add a citation manually using ref tags. There are also more elaborate ways to cite sources. In wiki markup, you can question an uncited claim by inserting a simple {{Citation needed}} tag, or a more comprehensive {{Citation needed|reason=Your explanation here|date=December 2020}}. Alternatively, {{fact}} and {{cn}} will produce the same result. These all display as: Example: 87% of statistics are made up on the spot.[citation needed] For information on adding citations in articles, see Help:Referencing for beginners. For information on when to remove this template messages, see Help:Maintenance template removal. Contents 1 When to use this tag 2 When not to use this tag 3 If your work has been tagged 4 How to help reduce the backlog 5 See also 6 External links When to use this tag A "citation needed" tag is a request for another editor to verify a statement: a form of communication between members of a collaborative editing community. It is never, in itself, an "improvement" of an article. Though readers may be alerted by a "citation needed" that a particular statement is not supported, many readers don't fully understand the community's processes. Not all tags get addressed in a timely manner, staying in place for months or years, forming an ever growing Wikipedia backlog—this itself can be a problem. Best practice recommends the following: Tag thoughtfully. Avoid "hit-and-run" or pointed tagging. Try to be courteous and consider the hypothetical fellow-editor who will, we hope, notice your tag and try to find the citation you have requested. 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In the process, you may end up confirming that the statement needs to be edited or deleted to better reflect the best knowledge about the topic. If an article, or a section within an article, is under-referenced, then consider adding an {{Unreferenced}}, {{Refimprove}}, or {{Unreferenced section}} tag to the article or section concerned – these tags allow you to indicate more systemic problems to the page. A reference at the end of a paragraph typically refers to the whole paragraph, and similarly a reference at the end of a sentence may almost always be taken as referring to the whole sentence. If a particular part of a sentence or paragraph seems to require a separate citation, or looks as if it may have been inserted into the text at a sentence or paragraph level, try to check the original reference rather than adding tags to text that may already be well referenced. 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The most constructive thing to do in most cases is probably to supply the reference(s) requested, even if you feel the tags are "overdone" or unnecessary. How to help reduce the backlog Currently, there are over 417,547 articles with "Citation needed" statements. You can browse the whole list of these articles at Category:All articles with unsourced statements. Frequently the authors of statements do not return to Wikipedia to support the statement with citations, so other Wikipedia editors have to do work checking those statements. With 417,547 statements that need WP:Verification, sometimes it's hard to choose which article to work on. The tool Citation Hunt makes that easier by suggesting random articles, which you can sort by topical category membership. I can help! Give me a random citation to find! 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en-wikipedia-org-9814	----	Michel de Montaigne - Wikipedia Michel de Montaigne From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Montaigne) Jump to navigation Jump to search French-Occitan author, humanistic philosopher, statesman (1533-1592) "Montaigne" redirects here. For the Australian singer-songwriter, see Montaigne (musician). Michel de Montaigne Born Michel de Montaigne 28 February 1533 Château de Montaigne, Guyenne, Kingdom of France Died 13 September 1592(1592-09-13) (aged 59) Château de Montaigne, Guyenne, Kingdom of France Education College of Guienne Era Renaissance philosophy Region Western philosophy School Renaissance humanism Renaissance skepticism Pyrrhonism Notable ideas The essay Montaigne's wheel argument[1] Public opinion[2] Influences Horace, Heraclitus, Sextus Empiricus, Seneca, Plutarch, Cato, Lucretius, Virgil, Cicero, Ovid, Plato, Aristotle, Socrates Influenced William Shakespeare, René Descartes, Pierre Charron, Karl Marx, Sigmund Freud, Virginia Woolf, Charles Darwin, Friedrich Nietzsche, Jean-François Lyotard, Ralph Waldo Emerson, John Henry Newman, Blaise Pascal, Gore Vidal, David Hume, Edward Gibbon, Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Albert Hirschman, William Hazlitt, Eric Hoffer, Jean Paul Sartre, Michel Foucault, Albert Camus, Michel Onfray, José Saramago[3] Signature The coat of arms of Michel Eyquem, Lord of Montaigne French literature by category French literary history Medieval Renaissance 17th 18th 19th 20th century Contemporary French writers Chronological list Writers by category Essayists Novelists Playwrights Poets Short story writers Children's writers Portals France Literature v t e Part of a series on Pyrrhonism Precursors Heraclitus Democritus Buddha Anaxarchus Xenophanes Philosophy Acatalepsy Adiaphora Aporia Ataraxia Astathmēta Impermanence Dependent origination Dogma Epoché Agrippa's trilemma Phantasiai Problem of induction Problem of the criterion Reductio ad absurdum Regress argument Relativism Circular reasoning Dissent Ten Modes of Aenesidemus Five Modes of Agrippa Pyrrhonists Pyrrho Aenesidemus Agrippa the Skeptic Arcesilaus Michel de Montaigne Sextus Empiricus Timon of Phlius Similar philosophies Academic Skepticism Madhyamaka Buddhism Empiric school Cyrenaicism Cynicism Contrary philosophies Stoicism Aristotelianism Epicureanism  Philosophy portal v t e Michel Eyquem de Montaigne (/mɒnˈteɪn/ mon-TAYN;[4] French: [miʃɛl ekɛm də mɔ̃tɛɲ]; 28 February 1533 – 13 September 1592[5]), also known as Lord of Montaigne, was one of the most significant philosophers of the French Renaissance, known for popularizing the essay as a literary genre. His work is noted for its merging of casual anecdotes[6] and autobiography with intellectual insight. His massive volume Essais contains some of the most influential essays ever written. Montaigne had a direct influence on Western writers including Francis Bacon, René Descartes,[7] Blaise Pascal, Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, David Hume, Edward Gibbon, Virginia Woolf, Albert Hirschman, William Hazlitt,[8] Ralph Waldo Emerson, John Henry Newman, Karl Marx, Sigmund Freud, Charles Darwin, Friedrich Nietzsche, Stefan Zweig, Eric Hoffer,[9] Isaac Asimov, and possibly, on the later works of William Shakespeare. During his lifetime, Montaigne was admired more as a statesman than as an author. The tendency in his essays to digress into anecdotes and personal ruminations was seen as detrimental to proper style rather than as an innovation, and his declaration that, "I am myself the matter of my book", was viewed by his contemporaries as self-indulgent. In time, however, Montaigne came to be recognized as embodying, perhaps better than any other author of his time, the spirit of freely entertaining doubt that began to emerge at that time. He is most famously known for his skeptical remark, "Que sçay-je?" ("What do I know?", in Middle French; now rendered as Que sais-je? in modern French). Contents 1 Life 2 Essais 3 Montaigne's influence on psychology 3.1 Child education 4 Related writers and influence 5 Discovery of remains 6 Commemoration 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links Life[edit] Montaigne was born in the Aquitaine region of France, on the family estate Château de Montaigne, in a town now called Saint-Michel-de-Montaigne, close to Bordeaux. The family was very wealthy; his great-grandfather, Ramon Felipe Eyquem, had made a fortune as a herring merchant and had bought the estate in 1477, thus becoming the Lord of Montaigne. His father, Pierre Eyquem, Seigneur of Montaigne, was a French Catholic soldier in Italy for a time and he also had been the mayor of Bordeaux.[5] Although there were several families bearing the patronym "Eyquem" in Guyenne, his father's family is thought to have had some degree of Marrano (Spanish and Portuguese Jewish) origins,[10] while his mother, Antoinette López de Villanueva, was a convert to Protestantism.[11] His maternal grandfather, Pedro Lopez,[12] from Zaragoza, was from a wealthy Marrano (Sephardic Jewish) family that had converted to Catholicism.[13][14][15][16] His maternal grandmother, Honorette Dupuy, was from a Catholic family in Gascony, France.[17] During a great part of Montaigne's life his mother lived near him and even survived him, but is mentioned only twice in his essays. Montaigne's relationship with his father, however, is frequently reflected upon and discussed in his essays. Montaigne's education began in early childhood and followed a pedagogical plan that his father had developed, refined by the advice of the latter's humanist friends. Soon after his birth, Montaigne was brought to a small cottage, where he lived the first three years of life in the sole company of a peasant family, in order to, according to the elder Montaigne, "draw the boy close to the people, and to the life conditions of the people, who need our help".[18] After these first spartan years, Montaigne was brought back to the château. Another objective was for Latin to become his first language. The intellectual education of Montaigne was assigned to a German tutor (a doctor named Horstanus, who could not speak French). His father hired only servants who could speak Latin, and they also were given strict orders always to speak to the boy in Latin. The same rule applied to his mother, father, and servants, who were obliged to use only Latin words he employed, and thus they acquired a knowledge of the very language his tutor taught him. Montaigne's Latin education was accompanied by constant intellectual and spiritual stimulation. He was familiarized with Greek by a pedagogical method that employed games, conversation, and exercises of solitary meditation, rather than the more traditional books. The atmosphere of the boy's upbringing, although designed by highly refined rules taken under advisement by his father, created in the boy's life the spirit of "liberty and delight" that he later would describe as making him "relish... duty by an unforced will, and of my own voluntary motion...without any severity or constraint"; yet he would have everything to take advantage of his freedom. And so a musician woke him every morning, playing one instrument or another,[19] and an épinettier (with a zither) was the constant companion to Montaigne and his tutor, playing tunes to alleviate boredom and tiredness. Around the year 1539, Montaigne was sent to study at a highly regarded boarding school in Bordeaux, the College of Guienne, then under the direction of the greatest Latin scholar of the era, George Buchanan, where he mastered the whole curriculum by his thirteenth year. He finished the first phase of his educational studies at the College of Guienne in 1546.[20] He then began his study of law (his alma mater remains unknown since there are no certainties about his activity from 1546 to 1557)[21] and entered a career in the local legal system. He was a counselor of the Court des Aides of Périgueux and, in 1557, he was appointed counselor of the Parlement in Bordeaux, a high court. From 1561 to 1563 he was courtier at the court of Charles IX and he was present with the king at the siege of Rouen (1562). He was awarded the highest honour of the French nobility, the collar of the Order of Saint Michael, something to which he aspired from his youth. While serving at the Bordeaux Parlement, he became a very close friend of the humanist poet Étienne de La Boétie, whose death in 1563 deeply affected Montaigne. It has been suggested by Donald M. Frame, in his introduction to The Complete Essays of Montaigne that because of Montaigne's "imperious need to communicate", after losing Étienne he began the Essais as a new "means of communication" and that "the reader takes the place of the dead friend".[22] Montaigne married Françoise de la Cassaigne in 1565, probably in an arranged marriage. She was the daughter and niece of wealthy merchants of Toulouse and Bordeaux. They had six daughters, but only the second-born, Léonor, survived infancy.[23] Little is known about their marriage, he wrote very little about their relationship, however, he did write about of his daughter Léonor, "All my children die at nurse; but Léonore, our only daughter, who has escaped this misfortune, has reached the age of six and more without having been punished, the indulgence of her mother aiding, except in words, and those very gentle ones."[24] His daughter married François de la Tour and later, Charles de Gamaches. She had a daughter by each.[25] Following the petition of his father, Montaigne started to work on the first translation of the Catalan monk Raymond Sebond's Theologia naturalis, which he published a year after his father's death in 1568 (in 1595, Sebond's Prologue was put on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum because of its declaration that the Bible is not the only source of revealed truth). After this, he inherited the family's estate, the Château de Montaigne, to which he moved back in 1570, thus becoming the Lord of Montaigne. Another literary accomplishment was Montaigne's posthumous edition of the works of his friend, Boétie. Château de Montaigne, a house built on the land once owned by Montaigne's family; his original family home no longer exists, although the tower in which he wrote still stands The Tour de Montaigne (Montaigne's tower), where Montaigne's library was located, remains mostly unchanged since the sixteenth century In 1571, he retired from public life to the Tower of the château, his so-called "citadel", in the Dordogne, where he almost totally isolated himself from every social and family affair. Locked up in his library, which contained a collection of some 1,500 works, he began work on his Essais ("Essays"), first published in 1580. On the day of his 38th birthday, as he entered this almost ten-year period of self-imposed reclusion, he had the following inscription placed on the crown of the bookshelves of his working chamber: In the year of Christ 1571, at the age of thirty-eight, on the last day of February, his birthday, Michael de Montaigne, long weary of the servitude of the court and of public employments, while still entire, retired to the bosom of the learned virgins, where in calm and freedom from all cares he will spend what little remains of his life, now more than half run out. If the fates permit, he will complete this abode, this sweet ancestral retreat; and he has consecrated it to his freedom, tranquility, and leisure.[26] During this time of the Wars of Religion in France, Montaigne, a Roman Catholic, acted as a moderating force,[citation needed] respected both by the Catholic King Henry III and the Protestant Henry of Navarre. Montaigne believed that a knowledge of devastating effects of vice is calculated to excite an aversion to vicious habits. Portrait of Michel de Montaigne around 1578 by Dumonstier Portrait of 1587 by Étienne Martellange Portrait of around 1590 by an anonymous artist In 1578, Montaigne, whose health had always been excellent, started suffering from painful kidney stones, a tendency he inherited from his father's family. Throughout this illness, he would have nothing to do with doctors or drugs.[5] From 1580 to 1581, Montaigne traveled in France, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and Italy, partly in search of a cure, establishing himself at Bagni di Lucca, where he took the waters. His journey was also a pilgrimage to the Holy House of Loreto, to which he presented a silver relief depicting him, his wife, and their daughter kneeling before the Madonna, considering himself fortunate that it should be hung on a wall within the shrine.[27] He kept a journal recording regional differences and customs[28] and a variety of personal episodes, including the dimensions of the stones he succeeded in expelling. This was published much later, in 1774, after its discovery in a trunk that is displayed in his tower.[29] During a visit to the Vatican that Montaigne described in his travel journal, the Essais were examined by Sisto Fabri, who served as Master of the Sacred Palace under Pope Gregory XIII. After Fabri examined Montaigne's Essais the text was returned to him on 20 March 1581. Montaigne had apologized for references to the pagan notion of "fortuna" as well as for writing favorably of Julian the Apostate and of heretical poets, and was released to follow his own conscience in making emendations to the text.[30] Journey to Italy by Michel de Montaigne 1580–1581 While in the city of Lucca in 1581, he learned that, like his father before him, he had been elected mayor of Bordeaux. He returned and served as mayor. He was re-elected in 1583 and served until 1585, again moderating between Catholics and Protestants. The plague broke out in Bordeaux toward the end of his second term in office, in 1585. In 1586, the plague and the French Wars of Religion prompted him to leave his château for two years.[5] Montaigne continued to extend, revise, and oversee the publication of the Essais. In 1588 he wrote its third book and also met Marie de Gournay, an author who admired his work and later edited and published it. Montaigne later referred to her as his adopted daughter.[5] King Henry III was assassinated in 1589, and Montaigne then helped to keep Bordeaux loyal to Henry of Navarre, who would go on to become King Henry IV. Montaigne died of quinsy at the age of 59, in 1592 at the Château de Montaigne. In his case the disease "brought about paralysis of the tongue",[31] especially difficult for one who once said, "the most fruitful and natural play of the mind is conversation. I find it sweeter than any other action in life; and if I were forced to choose, I think I would rather lose my sight than my hearing and voice."[32] Remaining in possession of all his other faculties, he requested Mass, and died during the celebration of that Mass.[33] He was buried nearby. Later his remains were moved to the church of Saint Antoine at Bordeaux. The church no longer exists: it became the Convent des Feuillants, which also has disappeared.[34] The Bordeaux Tourist Office says that Montaigne is buried at the Musée Aquitaine, Faculté des Lettres, Université Bordeaux 3 Michel de Montaigne, Pessac. His heart is preserved in the parish church of Saint-Michel-de-Montaigne. The humanities branch of the University of Bordeaux is named after him: Université Michel de Montaigne Bordeaux 3.[35] Essais[edit] Main article: Essays (Montaigne) His humanism finds expression in his Essais, a collection of a large number of short subjective essays on various topics published in 1580 that were inspired by his studies in the classics, especially by the works of Plutarch and Lucretius.[36] Montaigne's stated goal was to describe humans, and especially himself, with utter frankness. Montaigne's writings are studied as literature and philosophy around the world. Michel de Montaigne Inspired by his consideration of the lives and ideals of the leading figures of his age, he finds the great variety and volatility of human nature to be its most basic features. He describes his own poor memory, his ability to solve problems and mediate conflicts without truly getting emotionally involved, his disdain for the human pursuit of lasting fame, and his attempts to detach himself from worldly things to prepare for his timely death. He writes about his disgust with the religious conflicts of his time. He believed that humans are not able to attain true certainty. The longest of his essays, Apology for Raymond Sebond, marking his adoption of Pyrrhonism,[37] contains his famous motto, "What do I know?" Montaigne considered marriage necessary for the raising of children, but disliked strong feelings of passionate love because he saw them as detrimental to freedom. In education, he favored concrete examples and experience over the teaching of abstract knowledge intended to be accepted uncritically. His essay "On the Education of Children" is dedicated to Diana of Foix. The Essais exercised an important influence on both French and English literature, in thought and style.[38] Francis Bacon's Essays, published over a decade later, in 1596, usually are presumed to be directly influenced by Montaigne's collection, and Montaigne is cited by Bacon alongside other classical sources in later essays.[39] Montaigne's influence on psychology[edit] Although not a scientist, Montaigne made observations on topics in psychology.[40] In his essays, he developed and explained his observations of these topics. His thoughts and ideas covered topics such as thought, motivation, fear, happiness, child education, experience, and human action. Montaigne's ideas have influenced psychology and are a part of its rich history. Child education[edit] Child education was among the psychological topics that he wrote about.[40] His essays On the Education of Children, On Pedantry, and On Experience explain the views he had on child education.[41]:61:62:70 Some of his views on child education are still relevant today.[42] Montaigne's views on the education of children were opposed to the common educational practices of his day.[41]:63:67 He found fault both with what was taught and how it was taught.[41]:62 Much of the education during Montaigne's time was focused on the reading of the classics and learning through books.[41]:67Montaigne disagreed with learning strictly through books. He believed it was necessary to educate children in a variety of ways. He also disagreed with the way information was being presented to students. It was being presented in a way that encouraged students to take the information that was taught to them as absolute truth. Students were denied the chance to question the information. Therefore, students could not truly learn. Montaigne believed that, to learn truly, a student had to take the information and make it their own. At the foundation Montaigne believed that the selection of a good tutor was important for the student to become well educated.[41]:66 Education by a tutor was to be conducted at the pace of the student.[41]:67He believed that a tutor should be in dialogue with the student, letting the student speak first. The tutor also should allow for discussions and debates to be had. Such a dialogue was intended to create an environment in which students would teach themselves. They would be able to realize their mistakes and make corrections to them as necessary. Individualized learning was integral to his theory of child education. He argued that the student combines information already known with what is learned and forms a unique perspective on the newly learned information.[43]:356 Montaigne also thought that tutors should encourage the natural curiosity of students and allow them to question things.[41]:68He postulated that successful students were those who were encouraged to question new information and study it for themselves, rather than simply accepting what they had heard from the authorities on any given topic. Montaigne believed that a child's curiosity could serve as an important teaching tool when the child is allowed to explore the things that the child is curious about. Experience also was a key element to learning for Montaigne. Tutors needed to teach students through experience rather than through the mere memorization of information often practised in book learning.[41]:62:67He argued that students would become passive adults, blindly obeying and lacking the ability to think on their own.[43]:354 Nothing of importance would be retained and no abilities would be learned.[41]:62 He believed that learning through experience was superior to learning through the use of books.[42] For this reason he encouraged tutors to educate their students through practice, travel, and human interaction. In doing so, he argued that students would become active learners, who could claim knowledge for themselves. Montaigne's views on child education continue to have an influence in the present. Variations of Montaigne's ideas on education are incorporated into modern learning in some ways. He argued against the popular way of teaching in his day, encouraging individualized learning. He believed in the importance of experience, over book learning and memorization. Ultimately, Montaigne postulated that the point of education was to teach a student how to have a successful life by practising an active and socially interactive lifestyle.[43]:355 Related writers and influence[edit] Student taking notes on Montaigne's Essays at Shimer College Thinkers exploring ideas similar to Montaigne include Erasmus, Thomas More, and Guillaume Budé, who all worked about fifty years before Montaigne.[44] Many of Montaigne's Latin quotations are from Erasmus' Adagia, and most critically, all of his quotations from Socrates. Plutarch remains perhaps Montaigne's strongest influence, in terms of substance and style.[45] Montaigne's quotations from Plutarch in the Essays number more than 500.[46] Ever since Edward Capell first made the suggestion in 1780, scholars have suggested Montaigne to be an influence on Shakespeare.[47] The latter would have had access to John Florio's translation of Montaigne's Essais, published in English in 1603, and a scene in The Tempest "follows the wording of Florio [translating Of Cannibals] so closely that his indebtedness is unmistakable".[48] Most parallels between the two may be explained, however, as commonplaces:[47] as similarities with writers in other nations to the works of Cervantes and Shakespeare could be due simply to their own study of Latin moral and philosophical writers such as Seneca the Younger, Horace, Ovid, and Virgil. Much of Blaise Pascal's skepticism in his Pensées has been attributed traditionally to his reading Montaigne.[49] The English essayist William Hazlitt expressed boundless admiration for Montaigne, exclaiming that "he was the first who had the courage to say as an author what he felt as a man. ... He was neither a pedant nor a bigot. ... In treating of men and manners, he spoke of them as he found them, not according to preconceived notions and abstract dogmas".[50] Beginning most overtly with the essays in the "familiar" style in his own Table-Talk, Hazlitt tried to follow Montaigne's example.[8] Ralph Waldo Emerson chose "Montaigne; or, the Skeptic" as a subject of one of his series of lectures entitled, Representative Men, alongside other subjects such as Shakespeare and Plato. In "The Skeptic" Emerson writes of his experience reading Montaigne, "It seemed to me as if I had myself written the book, in some former life, so sincerely it spoke to my thought and experience." Friedrich Nietzsche judged of Montaigne: "That such a man wrote has truly augmented the joy of living on this Earth".[51] Sainte-Beuve advises us that "to restore lucidity and proportion to our judgments, let us read every evening a page of Montaigne."[52] The American philosopher Eric Hoffer employed Montaigne both stylistically and in thought. In Hoffer's memoir, Truth Imagined, he said of Montaigne, "He was writing about me. He knew my innermost thoughts." The British novelist John Cowper Powys expressed his admiration for Montaigne's philosophy in his books, Suspended Judgements (1916)[53] and The Pleasures of Literature (1938). Judith N. Shklar introduces her book Ordinary Vices (1984), "It is only if we step outside the divinely ruled moral universe that we can really put our minds to the common ills we inflict upon one another each day. That is what Montaigne did and that is why he is the hero of this book. In spirit he is on every one of its pages..." Twentieth-century literary critic Erich Auerbach called Montaigne the first modern man. "Among all his contemporaries", writes Auerbach (Mimesis, Chapter 12), "he had the clearest conception of the problem of man's self-orientation; that is, the task of making oneself at home in existence without fixed points of support".[54] Discovery of remains[edit] The Musée d'Aquitaine announced on 20 November 2019 that the human remains, which had been found in the basement of the museum a year earlier, might belong to Montaigne.[55] Investigation of the remains, postponed because of the COVID-19 pandemic, resumed in September 2020.[56] Commemoration[edit] The birthdate of Montaigne served as the basis to establish National Essay Day in the USA. References[edit] ^ Robert P. Amico, The Problem of the Criterion, Rowman & Littlefield, 1995, p. 42. Primary source: Montaigne, Essais, II, 12: "Pour juger des apparences que nous recevons des subjets, il nous faudroit un instrument judicatoire ; pour verifier cet instrument, il nous y faut de la demonstration ; pour verifier la demonstration, un instrument : nous voilà au rouet [To judge of the appearances that we receive of subjects, we had need have a judicatorie instrument: to verifie this instrument we should have demonstration; and to approve demonstration, an instrument; thus are we ever turning round]" (transl. by Charles Cotton). ^ Kurt Braatz, Friedrich Nietzsche: Eine Studie zur Theorie der Öffentlichen Meinung, Walter de Gruyter, 2011, p. 1. ^ FT.com "Small Talk: José Saramago". "Everything I’ve read has influenced me in some way. Having said that, Kafka, Borges, Gogol, Montaigne, Cervantes are constant companions." ^ "Montaigne". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary. ^ a b c d e Reynolds, Francis J., ed. (1921). "Montaigne, Michel, Seigneur" . Collier's New Encyclopedia. New York: P. F. Collier & Son Company. ^ His anecdotes are 'casual' only in appearance; Montaigne writes: 'Neither my anecdotes nor my quotations are always employed simply as examples, for authority, or for ornament...They often carry, off the subject under discussion, the seed of a richer and more daring matter, and they resonate obliquely with a more delicate tone,' Michel de Montaigne, Essais, Pléiade, Paris (ed. A. Thibaudet) 1937, Bk. 1, ch.40, p. 252 (tr. Charles Rosen) ^ Buckley, Michael J., At the Origins of Modern Atheism, Yale UP, 1990, p. 69. ^ a b Kinnaird, John, William Hazlitt: Critic of Power, Columbia University Press, 1978, p. 274. ^ from Truth Imagined, memoir by Eric Hoffer. ^ Sophie Jama, L’Histoire Juive de Montaigne [The Jewish History of Montaigne], Paris, Flammarion, 2001, p. 76. ^ "His mother was a Jewish Protestant, his father a Catholic who achieved wide culture as well as a considerable fortune." Civilization, Kenneth Clark, (Harper & Row: 1969), p. 161. ^ Winkler, Emil (1942). "Zeitschrift für Französische Sprache und Literatur". Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ Goitein, Denise R (2008). "Montaigne, Michel de". Encyclopaedia Judaica. The Gale Group. Retrieved 6 March 2014. ^ Introduction: Montaigne's Life and Times, in Apology for Raymond Sebond, By Michel de Montaigne (Roger Ariew), (Hackett: 2003), p. iv: "Michel de Montaigne was born in 1533 at the chateau de Montagine (about 30 miles east of Bordeaux), the son of Pierre Eyquem, Seigneur de Montaigne, and Antoinette de Louppes (or Lopez), who came from a wealthy (originally Iberian) Jewish family". ^ "...the family of Montaigne's mother, Antoinette de Louppes (Lopez) of Toulouse, was of Spanish Jewish origin...." – The Complete Essays of Montaigne, translated by Donald M. Frame, "Introduction," p. vii ff., Stanford University Press, Stanford, 1989 ISBN 0-8047-0486-4 ^ Popkin, Richard H (20 March 2003). The History of Scepticism: From Savonarola to Bayle. ISBN 9780195107678. ^ Green, Toby (17 March 2009). Inquisition: The Reign of Fear. ISBN 9781429938532. ^ Montaigne. Essays, III, 13 ^ Hutchins, Robert Maynard; Hazlitt, W. Carew, eds. (1952). The Essays of Michel Eyquem de Montaigne. Great Books of the Western World. twenty-five. Trans. Charles Cotton. Encyclopædia Britannica. p. v. He had his son awakened each morning by 'the sound of a musical instrument' ^ Philippe Desan (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Montaigne, Oxford University Press, 2016, p. 60. ^ Bibliothèque d'humanisme et Renaissance: Travaux et documents, Volume 47, Librairie Droz, 1985, p. 406. ^ Frame, Donald (translator). The Complete Essays of Montaigne. 1958. p. v. ^ Kramer, Jane (31 August 2009). "Me, Myself, And I". The New Yorker. Retrieved 16 March 2019. ^ St. John, Bayle (16 March 2019). "Montaigne the essayist. A biography". London, Chapman and Hall. Retrieved 16 March 2019 – via Internet Archive. ^ Bertr, Lauranne. "Léonor de Montaigne – MONLOE : MONtaigne à L'Œuvre". Montaigne.univ-tours.fr. Retrieved 16 March 2019. ^ As cited by Richard L. Regosin, ‘Montaigne and His Readers', in Denis Hollier (ed.) A New History of French Literature, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, London 1995, pp. 248–52, p. 249. The Latin original runs: 'An. Christi 1571 aet. 38, pridie cal. mart., die suo natali, Mich. Montanus, servitii aulici et munerum publicorum jamdudum pertaesus, dum se integer in doctarum virginum recessit sinus, ubi quietus et omnium securus (quan)tillum in tandem superabit decursi multa jam plus parte spatii: si modo fata sinunt exigat istas sedes et dulces latebras, avitasque, libertati suae, tranquillitatique, et otio consecravit.' as cited in Helmut Pfeiffer, 'Das Ich als Haushalt: Montaignes ökonomische Politik’, in Rudolf Behrens, Roland Galle (eds.) Historische Anthropologie und Literatur: Romanistische Beträge zu einem neuen Paradigma der Literaturwissenschaft, Königshausen und Neumann, Würzburg, 1995 pp. 69–90 p. 75 ^ Edward Chaney, The Evolution of the Grand Tour: Anglo-Italian Cultural Relations since the Renaissance, 2nd ed. (London, 2000), p. 89. ^ Cazeaux, Guillaume (2015). Montaigne et la coutume [Montaigne and the custom]. Milan: Mimésis. ISBN 9788869760044. Archived from the original on 30 October 2015. ^ Montaigne's Travel Journal, translated with an introduction by Donald M. Frame and foreword by Guy Davenport, San Francisco, 1983 ^ Treccani.it, L'encicolpedia Italiana, Dizionario Biografico. Retrieved 10 August 2013 ^ Montaigne, Michel de, Essays of Michel de Montaigne, tr. Charles Cotton, ed. William Carew Hazlitt, 1877, "The Life of Montaigne" in v. 1. n.p., Kindle edition. ^ "The Autobiography of Michel De Montaign", translated, introduced, and edited by Marvin Lowenthal, David R. Godine Publishing, p. 165 ^ "Biographical Note", Encyclopædia Britannica "Great Books of the Western World", Vol. 25, p. vi "Montaigne" ^ Bakewell, Sarah. How to Live – or – A Life of Montaigne in One Question and Twenty Attempts at an Answer (2010), pp. 325–26, 365 n. 325. ^ brigoulet#utilisateurs (27 February 2019). "Bordeaux's humanist university". Université Bordeaux Montaigne. Retrieved 16 March 2019. ^ "Titi Lucretii Cari De rerum natura libri sex (Montaigne.1.4.4)". Cambridge Digital Library. Retrieved 9 July 2015. ^ Bruce Silver (2002). "Montainge, Apology for Raymond Sebond: Happiness and the Poverty of Reason" (PDF). Midwest Studies in Philosophy XXVI. pp. 95–110. ^ Bloom, Harold (1995). The Western Canon. ^ Bakewell, Sarah (2010). How to live : a life of Montaigne in one question and twenty attempts at an answer. London: Vintage. p. 280. ISBN 9780099485155. ^ a b King, Brett; Viney, Wayne; Woody, William.A History of Psychology: Ideas and Context, 4th ed., Pearson Education, Inc. 2009, p. 112. ^ a b c d e f g h i Hall, Michael L. Montaigne's Uses of Classical Learning. "Journal of Education" 1997, Vol. 179 Issue 1, p. 61 ^ a b Ediger, Marlow. Influence of ten leading educators on American education.Education Vol. 118, Issue 2, p. 270 ^ a b c Worley, Virginia. Painting With Impasto: Metaphors, Mirrors, and Reflective Regression in Montagne's 'Of the Education of Children.' Educational Theory, June 2012, Vol. 62 Issue 3, p. 343–70. ^ Friedrich, Hugo; Desan, Philippe (1991). Montaigne. ISBN 9780520072534. ^ Friedrich 1991, p. 71. sfn error: no target: CITEREFFriedrich1991 (help) ^ Billault, Alain (2002). "Plutarch's Lives". In Gerald N. Sandy (ed.). The Classical Heritage in France. p. 226. ISBN 9789004119161. ^ a b Olivier, T. (1980). "Shakespeare and Montaigne: A Tendency of Thought". Theoria. 54: 43–59. ^ Harmon, Alice (1942). "How Great Was Shakespeare's Debt to Montaigne?". PMLA. 57 (4): 988–1008. doi:10.2307/458873. JSTOR 458873. ^ Eliot, Thomas Stearns (1958). Introduction to Pascal's Essays. New York: E. P. Dutton and Co. p. viii. ^ Quoted from Hazlitt's "On the Periodical Essayists" in Park, Roy, Hazlitt and the Spirit of the Age, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1971, pp. 172–73. ^ Nietzsche, Untimely Meditations, Chapter 3, "Schopenhauer as Educator", Cambridge University Press, 1988, p. 135 ^ Sainte-Beuve, "Montaigne", "Literary and Philosophical Essays", Ed. Charles W. Eliot, New York: P. F. Collier & Son, 1938. ^ Powys, John Cowper (1916). Suspended Judgments. New York: G.A. Shaw. pp. 17. ^ Auerbach, Erich, Mimesis: Representations of Reality in Western Literature', Princeton UP, 1974, p. 311 ^ "French museum has 'probably' found remains of philosopher Michel de Montaigne". Japan Times. 21 November 2019. ^ "'Mystery' endures in France over Montaigne tomb: archaeologist". France 24. 18 September 2020. Further reading[edit] Jean Lacouture. Bibliothèque de la Pléiade (2007). Album Montaigne (in French). Gallimard. ISBN 9782070118298. . Kuznicki, Jason (2008). "Montaigne, Michel de (1533–1592)". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). Montaigne, Michel (1533–1592). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; Cato Institute. pp. 339–41. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n208. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024. Marvin Lowenthal (1935). The Autobiography of Michel de Montaigne: Comprising the Life of the Wisest Man of his Times: his Childhood, Youth, and Prime; his Adventures in Love and Marriage, at Court, and in Office, War, Revolution, and Plague; his Travels at Home and Abroad; his Habits, Tastes, Whims, and Opinions. Composed, Prefaced, and Translated from the Essays, Letters, Travel Diary, Family Journal, etc., withholding no signal or curious detail. Houghton Mifflin. ASIN B000REYXQG. Charlotte C. S. Thomas (2014). No greater monster nor miracle than myself. Mercer University Press. ISBN 9780881464856. Michel de Montaigne; Charles Henry Conrad Wright (1914). Selections from Montaigne, ed. with notes, by C.H. Conrad Wright. D.C. Heath & Co. External links[edit] Biography portal Philosophy portal France portal Michel de Montaigneat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Resources from Wikiversity Works by Michel de Montaigne at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Michel de Montaigne at Internet Archive Works by Michel de Montaigne at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Contains Book 1 of the Essays, lightly edited for easier reading Facsimile and HTML versions of the 10 Volume Essays of Montaigne at the Online Library of Liberty Essays by Montaigne at Quotidiana.org The Charles Cotton translation of some of Montaigne's Essays: plain text version by Project Gutenberg Essays English audio by Librivox The complete, searchable text of the Villey-Saulnier edition from the ARFTL project at the University of Chicago (in French) Montaigne Studies at the University of Chicago Michel de Montaigne, entry by Christopher Edelman in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Foglia, Marc. "Montaigne". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Background and digital facsimile of 1595 volume at the Gordon Collection of the University of Virginia "Montaigne on Self-esteem" on YouTube, a documentary by Alain de Botton about Montaigne and his philosophy Titi Lucretii Cari De rerum natura libri sex, published in Paris 1563, later owned and annotated by Montaigne, fully digitised in Cambridge Digital Library Montaigne “On Cruelty”: A Close Reading of a Classic Essay from EDSITEment The Montaigne Library of Gilbert de Botton, digitised in Cambridge Digital Library The Essays of Michel de Montaigne eBook at The University of Adelaide, translator: Charles Cotton, editor: William Carew Hazlitt Essays of Michel De Montaigne Authority control BIBSYS: 90057264 BNE: XX1642800 BNF: cb11916599s (data) CANTIC: a10433764 CiNii: DA00158785 GND: 118583573 HDS: 018724 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\017256 ISNI: 0000 0001 2144 1268 LCCN: n79068499 LNB: 000012977 MBA: be371e6a-f23a-418b-8bd2-8864095e89da NDL: 00450354 NKC: jn19990005794 NLA: 35950586 NLG: 96530 NLK: KAC199619170 NSK: 000051711 NTA: 068443722 RERO: 02-A000115407 SELIBR: 205998 SNAC: w6x06n7g SUDOC: 027035549 Trove: 776065 VcBA: 495/47357 VIAF: 95153547 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79068499 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Michel_de_Montaigne&oldid=996474250" Categories: 1533 births 1592 deaths People from Dordogne French nobility French Roman Catholic writers Writers from Nouvelle-Aquitaine Early Modern philosophers Epistemologists French people of Spanish-Jewish descent Skeptics Pyrrhonism Aphorists French Renaissance humanists 16th-century French writers 16th-century male writers 16th-century French philosophers Mayors of Bordeaux Catholic philosophers French philosophers Christian humanists French male writers French male essayists Prisoners of the Bastille Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from Collier's Encyclopedia CS1 errors: missing periodical CS1: long volume value Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles with 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en-wikipedia-org-9845	----	Prosody (Latin) - Wikipedia Prosody (Latin) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Latin prosody (from Middle French prosodie, from Latin prosōdia, from Ancient Greek προσῳδία prosōidía, "song sung to music, pronunciation of syllable") is the study of Latin poetry and its laws of meter.[1] The following article provides an overview of those laws as practised by Latin poets in the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire, with verses by Catullus, Horace, Virgil and Ovid as models. Except for the early Saturnian poetry, which may have been accentual, Latin poets borrowed all their verse forms from the Greeks, despite significant differences between the two languages. Contents 1 Latin verse: a Greek gift 1.1 A brief history 1.2 Two rhythms 2 Prosody 2.1 Quantity 2.2 Feet 2.2.1 Cola: a different way to look at it 2.3 Elision 2.4 Caesura 3 Meters 3.1 Guide to symbols used 3.2 Dactylic meters 3.2.1 Dactylic hexameter 3.2.2 Dactylic pentameter 3.2.2.1 Elegiac couplet 3.2.2.2 First Archilochian 3.2.3 Dactylic tetrameter catalectic 3.2.3.1 Alcmanian strophe 3.3 Iambic meters 3.3.1 Iambic trimeter and Senarius 3.3.2 Iambic dimeter 3.3.2.1 Iambic distich 3.3.2.2 Second Archilochian 3.3.2.3 Third Archilochian 3.3.2.4 Pythiambics 3.3.3 Iambic tetrameter catalectic 3.3.4 Choliambics 3.4 Hendecasyllables 4 Post-classical poetry 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Bibliography Latin verse: a Greek gift[edit] A brief history[edit] The start of Latin literature is usually dated to the first performance of a play by Livius Andronicus in Rome in 240 BC.[2] Livius, a Greek slave, translated Greek New Comedy for Roman audiences. He not only established the genre fabula palliata, but also adapted meters from Greek drama to meet the needs of Latin. He set a precedent followed by all later writers of the genre, notably Plautus and Terence.[3] The principles of scansion observed by Plautus and Terence (i.e. the rules for identifying short and long syllables, the basis of Greek and Latin meter) are mostly the same as for classical Latin verses.[nb 1] Livius, a versatile author, also translated Homer's Odyssey into a rugged native meter known as Saturnian, but it was his near contemporary, Ennius (239–169 BC), who introduced the traditional meter of Greek epic, the dactylic hexameter, into Latin literature. Ennius employed a poetic diction and style well suited to the Greek model, thus providing a foundation for later poets such as Lucretius and Virgil to build on.[4] The late republic saw the emergence of Neoteric poets. They were rich young men from the Italian provinces, conscious of metropolitan sophistication. They, and especially Catullus, looked to the scholarly Alexandrian poet Callimachus for inspiration.[5] The Alexandrians' preference for short poems influenced Catullus to experiment with a variety of meters borrowed from Greece, including Aeolian forms such as hendecasyllabic verse, the Sapphic stanza and Greater Asclepiad, as well as iambic verses such as the choliamb and the iambic tetrameter catalectic (a dialogue meter borrowed from Old Comedy).[6] Horace, whose career spanned both republic and empire, followed Catullus' lead in employing Greek lyrical forms, though he calls himself the first to bring Aeolic verse to Rome.[7] He identified with, among others, Sappho and Alcaeus of Mytilene, composing Sapphic and Alcaic stanzas, and with Archilochus, composing poetic invectives in the Iambus tradition (in which he adopted the metrical form of the epode or "iambic distich"). Horace also wrote verses in dactylic hexameter, employing a conversational and epistolary style. Virgil, his contemporary, composed dactylic hexameters on light and serious themes and his verses are generally regarded as "the supreme metrical system of Latin literature".[8] Modern scholars have developed different theories about how Latin prosody was influenced by these adaptations from Greek models. Two rhythms[edit] English meter is said to be stress timed: the regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables produces an "accentual rhythm." Classical Greek meter is said to be mora timed: the alternation of long and short syllables produces a "quantitative rhythm." Classical Latin meter obeyed rules of syllable length, like the Greek, even though Latin has a strong word accent like English. Modern scholars have had differing opinions about how these different influences affect the way Latin verse was sounded out. Accentual rhythm in Latin may have been observed in pre-classical verse (in Saturnian meter) and in some medieval verse,[9] but otherwise the rhythm of Latin verse appears ambivalent and complex. Latin, like English, was characterized by a stress accent, whereas ancient Greek was characterized by a pitch accent. In English poetry, accent governs the stress-timed rhythm. In ancient Greek poetry, on the other hand, pitch accent rose and fell independently of the mora timed rhythm, just as musical pitch is not governed by the duration of musical notes. Some modern scholars have suggested that the stress accent in Latin turned into a pitch accent under the Greek influence and thus Latin verse could have functioned in the melodic manner of Greek verse,[10] yet most scholars today reject such a theory as unrealistic.[11] Latin poets might instead have recited long and short syllables as if they were stressed and unstressed, or, more probably, they gave words their natural stress, so that the quantitative metrical pattern acted like an orderly undercurrent to natural speech.[12] Here, for example, is dactylic verse from Virgil's Georgics when the words are given their natural stress: quíd fáciat laétas ségetes, quó sídere térram, and here is the same verse when the metrical pattern is allowed to determine the stress: quíd faciát laetás segetés, quo sídere térram. Possibly the rhythm was held in suspense until stress and meter happened to coincide (as in "sídere térram" above).[13] English-speaking, as opposed to e.g. German-speaking, readers of Latin tend to observe the natural word stress, an approach to Latin verse that was also practised in ancient times (a 5th-century AD papyrus shows hexameter verse with accents recorded separately from the meter), yet there is also an ancient precedent for letting the meter produce an artificial stress accent.[14] In the hands of a master poet such as Vergil, however, the natural stress accent may be thought to function as a second rhythm, whose interplay with the quantitative rhythm can even be regarded as a source of unique aesthetic effects.[15] Prosody[edit] Quantity[edit] Generally a syllable in Latin verse is long "by nature" when it has a long vowel or diphthong (scrī-bae) or it ends in two consonants or a compound consonant (dant, dux) and long "by position" when it ends in a consonant and is followed by a syllable that begins with a consonant (mul-tos; dat sonitum) or it is the final syllable in a line of verse i.e. brevis in longo. Otherwise syllables are counted as short. Syllables ending in a vowel are called open syllables, and those ending in a consonant are called closed syllables. Only the nucleus and coda of the syllable are relevant for metrical purposes: the quantity of a syllable is not affected by consonants preceding the vowel. Long syllables are sometimes called heavy and short ones light, using terminology borrowed from Sanskrit. For the above rules to apply the digraphs ch, th, ph, representing single Greek letters, count as one consonant; h at the beginning of a word is ignored; qu counts as one consonant; the consonants x [ks] and z [zz] count as two consonants; A plosive (p, b, t, d, c, g) plus a liquid (r, l) can count as either one consonant or two, at the poet's discretion. Thus the first syllable of words like agrum or patris can be long (ag-rum, pat-ris) or short (a-grum, pa-tris). This choice is not permitted, as a rule, in compound words (e.g. ab-rumpo begins with a long syllable and will not be resyllabified *a-brumpo), nor is it available for all plosive-liquid combinations. If a final short open vowel stands before a plosive followed by a liquid in the same line, it remains short, save for some very rare occurrences such as Virgil's "lappaeque tribolique", where the first -que is scanned as long. A short open final vowel may not stand before other double consonants, including x and z, in the same line, again with rare exceptions such as Ovid's "alta Zacynthus", where the short final a remains short. In the comedies of Plautus and Terence some other exceptions to these rules are found, most notably the phenomenon called brevis brevians (see Metres of Roman comedy#Brevis brevians (iambic shortening)), in which a theoretically long syllable, if unstressed, can be shortened after a short one, e.g. vidēn hanc? ("do you see this woman?"), which is scanned u u –.[16] Another exception found in early poetry (including Lucretius) is that a final -is or -us can sometimes count as short (as in omnibu(s) rēbu(s) profundant, Lucretius 4.1035, scanned – u u – u u – –).[17] Feet[edit] Verses were divided into "feet" by ancient grammarians and poets, such as Ovid himself, who called the elegiac couplet "eleven-footed poetry" (Amores 1.30). This practice is followed by traditionalists among modern scholars, especially, perhaps, those who compose Latin verses. In foot-based analysis, the "metrically dominant" part of the foot is sometimes called the "rise" and the other is called the "fall," the Greek terms for which are arsis and thesis. In Greek, these terms were applied to the movement of human feet in dancing and/or marching, Arsis signifying the lifting of a foot, and Thesis its placement. In the Greek scheme Thesis was the dominant part of the meter, but the Romans applied the terms to the voice rather than to the feet, so that Arsis came to signify the lifting of the voice and thus the dominant part of the meter (William W. Goodwin, Greek Grammar, MacMillan Education (1894), page 348). This caused confusion, as some authors followed the Greek custom and others the Latin; thus these terms are no longer generally used. Sometimes the dominant part of the foot, in either quantitative or stressed verse, is called the ictus. Long and short syllables are marked (-) and (u) respectively. The main feet in Latin are: Iamb: 1 short + 1 long syllable (cărō) Trochee: 1 long + 1 short (mēnsă) Dactyl: 1 long + 2 shorts (lītŏră) Anapaest: 2 shorts + 1 long (pătŭlaē) Spondee: 2 longs (fātō) Tribrach: 3 shorts (tĕmĕrĕ) According to the laws of quantity, 1 long = 2 shorts. Thus a Tribrach, Iamb and Trochee all equate to the same durations or morae: each of them comprises 3 morae. Similarly a Dactyl, an Anapaest and a Spondee are quantitatively equal, each being 4 morae. These equivalences allow for easy substitutions of one foot by another e.g. a spondee can be substituted for a dactyl. In certain circumstances, however, unequal substitutions are also permitted. It is often more convenient to consider iambics, trochaics and anapests in terms of metra rather than feet; for each of these families, a metron is two feet. Thus the iambic metron is u-u-, the trochaic -u-u and the anapestic uu-uu-. Cola: a different way to look at it[edit] The division into feet is a tradition that produces arbitrary metrical rules, because it does not follow the actual metrical structure of the verse (see for example the listed variations in the tables below). In particular, though a long syllable and two short ones have the same number of morae, they are not always interchangeable: some metres permit substitutions where others do not. Thus a more straightforward analysis, favoured by recent scholarship, is by cola, considered to be the actual building blocks of the verse. A colon (from the Greek for "limb") is a unit of (typically) 5 to 10 syllables that can be re-used in various metrical forms.[18] Standard cola include the hemiepes, the glyconic, and the lekythion. Elision[edit] A vowel at the end of a word does not count as a syllable if the following word begins with a vowel or h: thus Phyllida amo ante alias reads as Phyllid' am' ant' alias. This is called elision. At the (rare) discretion of the poet, however, the vowel can be retained, and is said to be in Hiatus. An example of this, in Virgil's fémineó ululátú the "o" is not elided. A word ending in vowel + m is similarly elided (sometimes this is called Ecthlipsis): thus nec durum in pectore ferrum reads as nec dur' in pectore ferrum.[19] Caesura[edit] The last syllable of a foot might or might not coincide with the ending of a word. A too frequent repetition of this coincidence apparently grated on the Roman ear, as in the following example of a poorly composed dactylic hexameter, where each of the first four feet consists of a spondaic word (the feet are marked out by vertical lines): spārsīs | hāstīs | lōngīs| cāmpūs | splēndĕt ĕt | hōrrĕt.[20] The ending of a word and foot together, as in this line, is termed diaeresis. To avoid such lines, caesuras, or "cuttings", were employed, a caesura being a place where a word ends within a foot, here marked ||. For convenience, in the following two examples from Virgil the foot endings are marked -|- when they occur within words and | when they occur between words. Tīty̆rĕ | tū || pătŭ-|-laē || rĕcŭ-|-bāns || sūb | tēgmĭnĕ | fāgī nōn om-|-nīs || ar-|-busta || iu-|-vant, || humi-|-lēsque || myr-|-īcae There are two kinds of caesura: strong caesura, when the caesura occurs after a long syllable; weak caesura, when the caesura occurs after a short syllable (none in the first line above, two in the second). Meters[edit] The dividing of verse into long and short syllables and analysis of the metrical family or pattern is called 'scanning' or 'scansion.' The names of the metrical families come from the names of the cola or feet in use, such as iambic, trochaic, dactylic and anapaestic meters. Sometimes meter is named after the subject matter (as in epic or heroic meter), sometimes after the musical instrument that accompanied the poetry (such as lyric meter, accompanied by the lyre), and sometimes according to the verse form (such as Sapphic, Alcaic and elegiac meter). Guide to symbols used[edit] — for long syllable or long element u for short syllable or short element ῡ for brevis in longo | for end of foot ‖ main caesura Notes: words are hyphenated wherever they include the end of a foot e.g Trō-iae below; long and short vowels are marked with - and u directly above them e.g. Ā, ă, ĭ, ī, ō, ŏ, ŭ, ū (these don't indicate syllable lengths) There are four basic families of verse: dactylic, iambic (and trochaic), Aeolic, and anapestic. In the dactylic family short syllables come in pairs, and these pairs may be contracted (two short replaced by one long). In the iambic/trochaic family short syllables come one at a time, and some long elements may be resolved (one long replaced by two short). In the anapestic family short syllables come in pairs, and both contraction and resolution are allowed. In the Aeolic family there are both paired and single short syllables, and neither contraction nor resolution is allowed. Other important metres are hendecasyllabics and the Asclepiads, and Catullus composed important poetry in Glyconics. There are individual Wikipedia entries on various metres. A would-be composer in any metre, however, would need a more detailed knowledge than can be found here. Dactylic meters[edit] The "dactyl," as a foot, is — u u; the name comes from the Greek for "finger," because it looks like the three bones of a finger, going outward from the palm. The principal colon of dactylic verse is the "hemiepes" or "half-epic" colon, — u u — u u — (sometimes abbreviated D). The two short syllables (called a biceps element) may generally be contracted, but never in the second half of a pentameter, and only rarely in the fifth foot of a hexameter. The long syllable (the princeps element) may never be resolved. Roman poets use two dactylic forms, the hexameter and the elegiac couplet. Dactylic hexameter[edit] Dactylic hexameter was used for the most serious Latin verse. Influenced by Homer's Greek epics, it was considered the best meter for weighty and important matters, and long narrative or discursive poems generally. Thus it was used in Ennius's Annals, Lucretius's On The Nature of Things, Virgil's "Aeneid" and Ovid's "Metamorphoses"; also in Juvenal's caustic satires and Horace's genial Talks and Letters. A dactylic hexameter consists of a hemiepes, a biceps, a second hemiepes, and a final long element, so DuuD—. This is conventionally re-analyzed into six "feet," all dactyls with the last one either catalectic or necessarily contracted. Roman poets rarely contract the fifth foot.[nb 2] Since Latin was richer in long syllables than was Greek, contraction of biceps elements (producing the so-called spondee) was more common among Roman poets. Neoteric poets of the late republic, such as Catullus, sometimes employed a spondee in the fifth foot, a practice Greek poets generally avoided and which became rare among later Roman poets.[21] Variations 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th[nb 3] dactyls — u u — u u — u u — u u — u u — — spondees — — — — — — — — There will be a caesura in the third or fourth foot (or in both). If there is a weak caesura, or none, in the third foot, there will usually be a strong one in the fourth, as in these two examples from Virgil: sī nescīs, meus ille caper fuit, et mihi Dāmōn ... et nōbīs īdem Alcimedōn duo pōcula fēcit ... but here is a line from Virgil with only one caesura, a weak one: frangeret indēprēnsus et irremeābilis error. Variations are common, and are used to avoid monotony. Their absence would be a definite fault of versification. Various positions for caesura (in the foot-based analysis) have traditional names: the caesura "in the third foot" is called penthemimeral, that in the fourth hephthemimeral, and that in the second trihemimeral. These names refer to the number of half-feet before the position of the caesura.[22] Dactylic hexameter often has a bucolic diaeresis (a diaeresis between the fourth and fifth feet of a line), as in the first of the following lines from the introduction to Virgil's epic poem, the Aeneid. - u u| - u u| -|| -| - -| - u u |- - Ărmă vĭ-rŭmquĕ că-nō, Trō-iae quī prīmŭs ăb ōrīs - u u|- -| - || u u| - -| - u u| - - Ītălĭ-ǎm fā-tō prŏfŭ-gŭs Lā-vīniăquĕ vēnĭt - u u | - - | - - | - || - | - u u |- - lītŏră, mŭlt(um) ĭl-l(e) ĕt tĕr-rīs iăc-tātŭs ĕt ăltō - u u| - || - | - u u| - -| - u u |- - vī sŭpĕ-rŭm, sae-vae mĕmŏ-rĕm Iū-nōnĭs ŏb īrăm; There are two elisions in line 3 and a bucolic diaeresis in line 1 (quī | prīmus ). Venit and iram at the ends of lines 2 and 4 count as spondees by brevis in longo, despite their naturally short second syllables. The 'i' in 'Troiae' and 'iactatus', the first 'i' in 'Iunonis' and the second 'i' in 'Laviniaque' are all treated as consonants. Bucolic diaeresis has this name because it is common in bucolic or pastoral verse. (NB, however, that this term is sometimes, or even usually, reserved for lines where the fourth foot is a dactyl, as in forte sub argūtā cōnsīdĕrăt īlice Daphnis.) Dactylic hexameters regularly end with a disyllabic or a trisyllabic word. Exceptions tend to be Greek words. Dactylic pentameter[edit] The name "pentameter" comes from the fact that it consists of two separate parts, with a word-break between them, with each part, or hemiepes, having two and a half feet, summing to five (thus giving Ovid his count of eleven feet in a couplet). The first hemiepes may have contraction, the second may not. By Ovid's time there was a rule, with very few exceptions, that the last word should be of two syllables, and it was almost always a noun, verb, personal pronoun (mihi, tibi or sibi) or pronominal adjective (meus etc.). The last syllable would either be closed, or a long open vowel or a diphthong: very seldom an open short vowel. Variations 1st 2nd ½ 3rd 4th ½ — u u — u u — — u u — u u — spondees — — — — There is a strong danger of monotony in this rigid structure, which poets were able to alleviate, up to a point, by keeping the first half of a line out of conformity with the stricter rules governing the second half, and by varying as much as possible the word-pattern of the second half. Elegiac couplet[edit] An elegiac couplet is a dactylic hexameter followed by a dactylic pentameter. The sense of the hexameter frequently runs into the pentameter, an effect known as enjambement, but a pentameter comparatively seldom runs on into a following hexameter. The pentameter came into Latin usage later than the hexameter and therefore it was not always handled with rigour by Catullus, compared for example with the later poets, especially Ovid. Catullus used elisions very freely, and sometimes he even allowed an elision to span the central diaeresis (e.g. Carmina 77.4). The following is from one of his most famous elegies, mourning for a lost brother (Carmina 101).[23] - - | - - | - ||- | - u u | - u u| - - Mŭltās pĕr gĕn-tēs ĕt mŭltă pĕr aequŏră vĕctŭs - u u | - u u |- || - u u |- u u|- ădvĕnĭ(o) hās mĭsĕr-ās, frātĕr, ăd īnfĕrĭ-ās - -| - -| -||- |- - | - u u| - - ŭt tē pŏstrē-mō dōn-ārĕm mūnĕrĕ mŏrtĭs - -| - -| - || - u u| - u u| - ĕt mū-tăm nē-quīqu-(am) adlŏquĕ-rĕr cĭnĕ-rĕm, Note: the diaeresis after the first hemiepes is marked here like a caesura (a conventional practice.)[24] Observe the elisions in line 2 (o) and line 4 (am). The latter elision spans the diaeresis in the last line. First Archilochian[edit] If only one hemiepes is employed, instead of a full pentameter, the elegiac couplet takes the form known as the First Archilochian, named after the Greek poet Archilochus. An example is found in the fourth book of Horace's Odes (Carmina 4.7), which A. E. Housman once described as "the most beautiful poem in ancient literature",[25] introduced with these two lines: - -| - u u| - || uu| - - | - u u | - - Dīffū-gērĕ nĭ-vēs, rĕdĕ-ŭnt iăm grāmĭnă cămpīs - u u| - u u | - ărbŏrĭ-bŭsquĕ cŏm-ae; Dactylic tetrameter catalectic[edit] Most extant examples of this meter are found in Lyric poetry, such as Horace's Carmina 1.7 and 1.28, but also in Iambi. Variations 1st 2nd 3rd 4th — u u — u u — u u — — spondees — — Note: the final syllable in the 4th foot is marked long or short in some schemes to indicate natural syllable length but it is always long by position. Alcmanian strophe[edit] A dactylic tetrameter catalectic is sometimes joined to the dactylic hexameter to form a couplet termed the Alcmanian Strophe, named after the lyric poet Alcman (some scholars however refer to the Alcmanian Strophe as the First Archilochian, as indeed there is a strong likeness between the two forms). Examples of the form are found in Horace's Odes (carmina) and Epodes, as here in his Epode 12.[26] - u u | - - |- || - | - u u |- u u | - - Ō ĕgŏ | nōn fēl-īx, quăm tū fŭgĭs ŭt păvĕt ācrīs - u u| - u u| - u u|- - ăgnă lŭ-pōs căprĕ-aēquĕ lĕ-ōnēs Note that the plosive + liquid combination pr in 'capreaeque', syllabified ca.pre.ae.que, leaves the first open syllable (ca) metrically short. Iambic meters[edit] The iambic family has short syllables one at a time, not in pairs like the dactylic family, and it allows resolution of long elements. In this family there may also be anceps positions, that is, positions in which either a long or a short syllable is allowed. Iambic trimeter and Senarius[edit] Further information: Metres of Roman comedy Used for the theatre by poets such as Plautus and Terence, an iambic line of six feet allowed for numerous variations and it is known as an iambic senarius ('senarius' = 'grouped in sixes'). Poets such as Horace and Catullus however employed iambic feet in pairs, each called a metron, in which fewer variations were allowed. Such a line of verse has three metra and the meter in that case is called 'iambic trimeter'. Here is the list of variations found in Horace,[27] which are more numerous than those in Catullus.[28] Some variations are due to resolution (replacing a long with two shorts) and some are due to anceps (when a syllable may be either long or short—see following Note and the article iambic trimeter). Others are the result of outright substitution (prosody), such as the anapaest in the first foot below. Variations 1a 1b 2a 2b 3a 3b u — u — u — u — u — u — spondees — — — — — — tribrachs uuu uuu uuu uuu dactyls —uu —uu anapests uu— Note: The caesura usually follows the first syllable of the third foot (2a), and sometimes the first syllable of the fourth foot (2b). A short syllable can be replaced by a long syllable in certain positions, here marked bold: i.e. the first short syllable in feet 1a, 2a, 3a may be long. These short/long syllables are said to be in anceps. Some variations never appear; thus for example there is no resolution in foot 3a and therefore no tribrach or dactyl in that foot. The following example of iambic trimeter is from Horace's Epode 5: - u u |u u u| u|| - | u - |u - |u - | Cānĭdĭ-ă brĕvi-bus ĭmp-lĭcāt-ă vīp-ĕrīs Note that the first syllable Ca- in Canidia is long and it is thus in anceps, while -idi- is the equivalent of a long syllable and it is said to be resolved into two shorts—thus the first foot appears as if a dactyl has been substituted for an iamb. Long syllables are resolved into two shorts (uu) in the first metron (1a-1b), an effect that may have been intended to suggest the quick movement of tiny snakes that Canidia has tied to her hair.[29] The second foot (1b) is read as a tribrach (uuu) since 'br' in 'brevibus' can be taken as a single consonant, making the preceding 'a' short. Iambic dimeter[edit] Iambic verse of four feet, paired to make two metra, hence the name 'iambic dimeter'. It is constituted like the first and third metra of the iambic trimeter (1a, 1b, 3a, 3b), with which it is often joined to form couplets known as Iambic Distich. Variations 1a 1b 2a 2b u — u — u — u — spondees — — — — tribrachs uuu uuu dactyls —uu anapests uu— Note: The short syllables in 1a and 2a (marked bold) are in anceps and can be replaced by long syllables. Iambic distich[edit] The iambic distich—a couplet comprising an iambic trimeter and iambic dimeter—is the basis of many poems of a genre known as Iambus, in which the poet abuses and censures individuals or even communities, whether real or imaginary. Iambic rhythms were felt to be especially suited to this role. The Greek poet Archilochus was one of the main exponents of the iambic distich and he provided a model for Horace's Epodes 1-10. The following couplet forms the first two lines of Epode 7. - - | u - | - uu| u || - | - - | u - Quo quo sceles-ti rui-tis? aut cur dex-teris - - | u - | - - | u - aptan-tur en-ses con-diti? Note that the first syllables in both lines (Quo and ap) are in anceps and thus a spondee appears to have been substituted for an iamb in both the initial feet. Also ti in scelesti is long by nature and it too is in anceps; the third foot would otherwise be a tribrach (uuu) thanks to the resolution of a long syllable into the two shorts in rui. As a result of all these variations, the 3rd foot instead resembles a dactyl (-uu). Second Archilochian[edit] An iambic dimeter may be followed by a hemiepes to form the second line of a couplet, in which the first line is dactylic hexameter. This combination is called the second Archilochian. The iambic dimeter functions like an independent line, however, since it keeps the elements of a line-end i.e. it is marked off from the hemiepes by a pause through brevis in longo, or through a hiatus. An example of this system is found in Horace's epode 13, lines 9–10 - - | - - | - u u | - u u | - -| - - pěrfun-dī nār-dō iuvǎt ět fĭdě Cyllē-naeā u - | u -| - - | u ῡ|| - u u | - u u| - lĕvār-ĕ dī-rīs pĕc-tǒră sǒllĭcĭ-tūdĭnĭ-bŭs Note that the 5th foot in this example is a spondee—this is rare for Horace and it is meant to evoke the affectation of Neoteric poets like Catullus, thus complementing the sense of being suffused with perfume while listening to the lyre at a drinking party (the Greek word Cyllenaea, which creates the double spondee, adds to the exotic aura).[30] Observe also that the iambic dimeter ends with brevis in longo, the short syllable a in pectora becoming long by the addition of a pause. The hemiepes also ends with brevis in longo. Third Archilochian[edit] Here an iambic trimeter forms the first line of the couplet, and the positions of the iambic dimeter and hemiepes are reversed to form the second line, the hemiepes now coming before the iambic dimeter. The hemiepes still functions as if it were independent, retaining the pause of a line-end through brevis in longo or hiatus. An example has survived in Horace's Epode 11, as in lines 5-6 here: - - | u- | - -| u ||- | - - |u - hīc těr-tĭŭs Dēcĕm-bĕr, ĕx quō dēs-tĭtī - u u |- u u |ῡ || - - | u -| - - | u - Iānăchĭ-ā fŭrĕr-ĕ, sĭlvīs hŏnō-rĕm dē-cŭtĭt. Pythiambics[edit] Another couplet is formed when a line of dactylic hexameter is followed by a line of iambic dimeter, and this is called the First Pythiambic. The Greek poet Archilochus composed in this form but only fragments remain. Two of Horace's epodes (14 and 15) provide complete examples in Latin. The following couplet introduces his Epode 15: - u u |- - |- || - | - - | - u u |- - Nŏx ĕrăt ĕt cae-lō fŭl-gē-băt lūnă sĕ-rēnō - - | u -| u - |u ῡ ĭntĕr mĭnō-ră sīd-ĕră The Second Pythiambic features an iambic trimeter instead of iambic dimeter in the second line. Horace's Epode 16 is an example. Iambic tetrameter catalectic[edit] Usually associated with the comic theatre, it consists of seven feet with an extra syllable at the end instead of a full iambic foot. In that case it is called iambic septenarius ('septenarius' means grouped in sevens). Used outside the theatre, the feet are paired and then it is called iambic tetrameter catalectic (catalectic means that the meter is incomplete). The stage allowed many variations but poets were quite strict in their use of it and Catullus allowed variations only in the first and fifth feet:[31] Variations 1a 1b 2a 2b 3a 3b 4a 4b u — u — u — u — u — u — u — — spondees — — — — An example is found in Catullus' Carmina 25, beginning with these two lines: u - | u - | u - | u -| u -| u - |u - | - Cĭnae-dĕ Thăl-lĕ, mŏl-lĭŏr cŭnī-cŭlī căpĭl-lō u - | u - | u - | u -| u -| u - |u - | - vĕl ān-sĕrĭs mĕdŭl-lŭlā vĕl ī-mŭl(ā) ōr-ĭcĭl-lā Catullus uses no variations at all here and he employs diminutives (cuniculi, medullula, imula, oricila) contemptuously in a description of the 'soft' Thallus. Note that doubling of the consonant l lengthens several syllables that are naturally short, thus enabling a strict iambic rhythm. Choliambics[edit] This meter was originated by the Greek iambic poet, Hipponax. The name choliambics means lame iambics and sometimes it is called scazons or limpers. ("Lame trochaics" exist as well, being a trochaic tetrameter catalectic with the same ending as the iambic.) It is intended to be graceless and awkward "...in order to mirror in symbolically appropriate fashion the vices and crippled perversions of mankind."[32] It was taken up by the neoteric poets Catullus and his friend Calvus but with fewer variations than Hipponax had employed. It is basically an iambic trimeter but with a surprise ending in the last foot, featuring a trochee or spondee that cripples the iambic rhythm. As used by Catullus, the variations are as follows: Variations 1a 1b 2a 2b 3a 3b u — u — u — u — u — — — spondees — — — — — — tribrachs uuu dactyls —uu —uu Caesuras are found after the first syllable either in the third or fourth feet, sometimes in both. Lines 2 and 3 of Catullus' Carmina 59 about the grave-robbing wife of Menenius offer a good example: - -| u -|- || - | u - | u - | - - ŭxŏr Mĕnē-nī, sae-pĕ qu(ăm) ĭn sĕpŭl-crētīs - - | u - | -||u u |u - | u -| - - vīdĭs-tĭs ĭp-sō răpĕr-ĕ dē rŏgō cēnăm The dactyl in the third foot of the second line reinforces the meaning, as she greedily reaches for food from the funeral pyre without regard for taboos. Martial used more variations, such as an anapaest in the fourth foot and a tribrach in the third. Hendecasyllables[edit] The hendecasyllable is an 11-syllable line used extensively by Catullus and Martial, for example in Catullus's famous poem (Catullus 5), which begins: - -|- uu| - u |- u|- - vīvāmus mea Lesbi(a) atqu(e) amēmus - -|- u u|- u|- u|- - rūmōrēsque senum sevēriōrum - - |- uu | - u|- u |- - omnēs ūnius aestimēmus assis! "Let us live, my Lesbia, and let us love, and as for the mutterings of over-strict old men let us count them all as worth one dime!" Poems in hendecasyllables all run on in the same meter, namely spondee (but see below), dactyl, trochee, trochee, spondee. Catullus is rather freer than Martial, in that he will occasionally start a line with a trochee or iambus, as in lines 2 and 4 respectively of the opening poem of his book, whereas Martial keeps to a spondaic opening. Post-classical poetry[edit] After the classical period, the pronunciation of Latin changed and the distinction between long and short vowels was lost in the popular language. Some authors continued writing verse in the classical meters, but this way of pronouncing long and short vowels was not natural to them; they used it only in poetry. Popular poetry, including the bulk of Christian Latin poetry, continued to be written in accentual meters (sometimes incorporating rhyme, which was never systematically used in classical verse) just like modern European languages. This accentual Latin verse was called sequentia, especially when used for a Christian sacred subject. See also[edit] Metres of Roman comedy Brevis in longo Anceps Biceps (prosody) Resolution (meter) Clausula (rhetoric) Golden line Latin spelling and pronunciation Notes[edit] ^ Two significant differences are that word-final s may not be counted as making a heavy syllable, and mute-plus-liquid combinations never make a syllable heavy. R. H. Martin, Terence: Adelphoe, Cambridge University Press (1976), page 32 ^ According to the stress-timed theory of Latin prosody, there is a strong tendency to harmonize word-stress and verse-ictus in the final two feet of a hexameter. The fifth foot, therefore, is almost always a dactyl whereas the sixth foot always consists of a spondee; this line ending is perhaps the most notable feature of the meter. In classical times, it was the only readily audible metrical feature, and Romans unfamiliar with Greek literature and versification often heard no sound pattern at all save in the stress-pattern of the last two feet (William Sidney Allen, Vox Latina: a Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin, 2nd edition, Cambridge University Press (2003) ISBN 0-521-37936-9, pages 86, 127). ^ In some schemes, the final syllable in the 6th foot is marked either long or short to reflect the natural syllable length, but it is always long by position and it is therefore only marked long in this table. References[edit] ^ B. H. Kennedy and James Mountford, The Revised Latin Primer, Longman (1962), page 201 ^ See Goldberg for details. ^ R. H. Martin, Terence: Adelphoe, Cambridge University Press (1976), page 1 ^ P. G. McBrown, 'The First Roman Literature' in The Oxford History of the Classical World, J.Boardman, J.Griffin and O.Murray (eds), Oxford University Press (1995) page 450-52 ^ Robin Nisbet, 'The Poets of the Late Republic' in The Oxford History of the Classical World, J.Boardman, J.Griffin and O.Murray (eds), Oxford University Press (1995) page 487-90 ^ Peter Green, The Poems of Catullus, University of California Press (2005), pages 32-7 ^ "Princeps Aeolium carmen ad Italum," Odes 3.30.13; for Horace's engagement with Catullus see Putnam (2006). ^ Richard F. Thomas, Virgil: Georgics Vol. I, Cambridge University Press (1988), page 28 ^ For the contrast between stress-based and quantitative verse, and for developments after the classical period, see especially Gasparov. For Saturnians, Halporn et al. say "most Saturnians make some kind of sense if we assume that the natural word accent alone carries the rhythm" (p. 60-61). See also Parsons, Freeman, Cole, Mahoney. ^ R.G. Kent, The alleged conflict of accents in Latin verse, T.A.P.A. 51 (1920), pages 19-29) ^ Richard F. Thomas, Virgil: Georgics Vol. I, Cambridge University Press (1988), pages 29 ^ L.P. Wilkinson, Golden Latin Artistry, Cambridge (1963), page 94 ^ William Sidney Allen, Vox Latina: a Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin, 2nd edition, Cambridge University Press (2003) ISBN 0-521-37936-9, pages 83-88 ^ Richard F. Thomas, Virgil: Georgics Vol. I, Cambridge University Press (1988), pages 28-9 ^ R. D. Williams, The Aeneid of Virgil, Books I-VI, MacMillan (1972), Introduction page xxvii; W. F. Jackson Knight, Accentual Symmetry in Virgil, Basil Blackwell (1950) ^ Article "Brevis Brevians", Oxford Classical Dictionary, 2nd edition. ^ Bailey, C. (1947) Titi Lucreti Cari De Rerum Natura Libri Sex, vol 1. pp. 123-126. ^ See Halporn, Ostwald, Rosenmeyer (1994). ^ B. H. Kennedy and James Mountford, The Revised Latin Primer, Longman (1962), page 203 ^ B. H. Kennedy and James Mountford, The Revised Latin Primer, Longman (1962), page 204 ^ Peter Green, The Poems of Catullus, University of California Press (2005), pages 40 ^ B. H. Kennedy and James Mountford, The Revised Latin Primer, Longman (1962), pages 204-5) ^ Peter Green, The Poems of Catullus, University of California Press (2005), pages 40-1 ^ see for example Peter Green, The Poems of Catullus, University of California Press (2005), page 40 ^ William Flesch, The facts on File Companion to British Poetry, 19th Century, Facts on File, Inc. (2010), page 98; see Google preview ^ David Mankin, Horace: Epodes, Cambridge University Press (1995), pages 20-22 ^ B. H. Kennedy and James Mountford, The Revised Latin Primer, Longman (1962), pages 206) ^ Peter Green, The Poems of Catullus, University of California Press (2005), pages 34 ^ David Mankin, Horace: Epodes, Cambridge University Press (1995), note 15 page 114 ^ David Mankin, Horace: Epodes, Cambridge university Press (1995), pages 219-20 ^ Peter Green, The Poems of Catullus, University of California Press (2005), pages 34-5 ^ Peter Green, The Poems of Catullus, University of California Press (2005), pages 33 Bibliography[edit] Allen, William Sidney (2003). Vox Latina — a Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-37936-9. Cole, Thomas (1972). "The Saturnian Verse". Yale Classical Studies. 21: 3–73. Fortson, Benjamin W. 2011. "Latin Prosody and Metrics." In A Companion to the Latin Language. Edited by James Clackson, 92–104. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell Freeman, Philip (1998). "Saturnian Verse and Early Latin Poetics". Journal of Indo-European Studies. 26: 61–90. Gasparov, M. L. (1996). A History of European Versification. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-815879-3. Goldberg, Sander (2005). Constructing Literature in the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-85461-X. Halporn, James W.; Martin Ostwald; Thomas G. Rosenmeyer (1994) [1963]. The Meters of Greek and Latin Poetry. Hackett. ISBN 0-87220-244-5. Mahoney, Anne (2001). "Alliteration in Saturnians". New England Classical Journal. 28: 78–82. Morgan, Llewelyn. (2010). Musa Pedestris: Metre and Meaning in Roman Verse. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Parsons, J (1999). "A New Approach to the Saturnian Verse". Transactions of the American Philological Association. 129: 117–137. Probert, Philomen. 2002. "On the Prosody of Latin Enclitics." Oxford University Working Papers in Linguistics, Philology and Phonetics 7:181–206. Putnam, Michael C. J. (2006). Poetic Interplay: Catullus and Horace. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-12537-4. Raven, David S. (1965). Latin Metre: An Introduction. London: Faber and Faber. Watkins, Calvert (1995). How to Kill a Dragon: Aspects of Indo-European Poetics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-508595-7. Wilkinson, L. Patrick. 1963. Golden Latin Artistry. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prosody_(Latin)&oldid=982146865" Categories: Latin poetry Poetry movements Prosodies by language Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Македонски Edit links This page was last edited on 6 October 2020, at 12:34 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. 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en-wikipedia-org-9863	----	Category:Roman-era satirists - Wikipedia Help Category:Roman-era satirists From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Pages in category "Roman-era satirists" The following 7 pages are in this category, out of 7 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). H Horace J Juvenal L Gaius Lucilius M Martial P Persius Petronius S Seneca the Younger Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Roman-era_satirists&oldid=547771999" Categories: Roman-era poets Satirists by nationality Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Dansk Estremeñu Português Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 30 March 2013, at 07:10 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9864	----	Satire - Wikipedia Satire From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Genre of arts and literature in the form of humor or ridicule "Satires" redirects here. For other uses, see Satires (disambiguation). Not to be confused with satyr or Saltire. 1867 edition of Punch, a ground-breaking British magazine of popular humour, including a great deal of satire of the contemporary, social, and political scene. Literature Major forms Novel Poetry Drama Short story Novella Genres Adventure Comedy Drama Epic Erotic Nonsense Lyric Mythopoeia Rogue Romance Satire Speculative fiction Tragedy Tragicomedy Media Performance Play Books Techniques Prose Poetry History and lists History modern Outline Glossary of terms Books Writers Literary awards poetry Discussion Criticism Theory (critical theory) Sociology Magazines  Literature portal v t e Performing arts Acrobatics Ballet Circus skills Clown Dance General Gymnastics Magic Mime Music Opera Professional wrestling Puppetry Speech Theatre Ventriloquism v t e Satire is a genre of literature and performing arts, usually fiction and less frequently in non-fiction, in which vices, follies, abuses and shortcomings are held up to ridicule, ideally with the intent of shaming individuals, corporations, government, or society itself into improvement.[1] Although satire is usually meant to be humorous, its greater purpose is often constructive social criticism, using wit to draw attention to both particular and wider issues in society. A feature of satire is strong irony or sarcasm —"in satire, irony is militant", according to literary critic Northrup Frye—[2] but parody, burlesque, exaggeration,[3] juxtaposition, comparison, analogy, and double entendre are all frequently used in satirical speech and writing. This "militant" irony or sarcasm often professes to approve of (or at least accept as natural) the very things the satirist wishes to question. Satire is found in many artistic forms of expression, including internet memes, literature, plays, commentary, music, film and television shows, and media such as lyrics. Contents 1 Etymology and roots 2 Humour 3 Social and psychological functions 4 Classifications 4.1 Horatian, Juvenalian, Menippean 4.1.1 Horatian 4.1.2 Juvenalian 4.1.3 Menippean 4.2 Satire versus teasing 4.3 Classifications by topics 5 Development 5.1 Ancient Egypt 5.2 Ancient Greece 5.3 Roman world 5.4 Medieval Islamic world 5.5 Medieval Europe 5.6 Early modern western satire 5.7 Ancient and modern India 5.8 Age of Enlightenment 5.9 Satire in Victorian England 5.10 20th-century satire 5.11 Contemporary satire 6 Techniques 7 Legal status 7.1 Australia 8 Censorship and criticism 8.1 Typical arguments 8.1.1 Bad taste 8.1.2 Targeting the victim 8.1.3 Romantic prejudice 8.2 History of opposition toward notable satires 8.2.1 1599 book ban 8.2.2 21st-century polemics 9 Satirical prophecy 10 Satire celebration 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 13.1 Citations 13.2 Sources 14 Bibliography 15 Further reading 15.1 Theories/critical approaches to satire as a genre 15.2 The plot of satire 16 External links Etymology and roots[edit] The word satire comes from the Latin word satur and the subsequent phrase lanx satura. Satur meant "full" but the juxtaposition with lanx shifted the meaning to "miscellany or medley": the expression lanx satura literally means "a full dish of various kinds of fruits".[4] The word satura as used by Quintilian, however, was used to denote only Roman verse satire, a strict genre that imposed hexameter form, a narrower genre than what would be later intended as satire.[4][5] Quintilian famously said that satura, that is a satire in hexameter verses, was a literary genre of wholly Roman origin (satura tota nostra est). He was aware of and commented on Greek satire, but at the time did not label it as such, although today the origin of satire is considered to be Aristophanes' Old Comedy. The first critic to use the term "satire" in the modern broader sense was Apuleius.[4] To Quintilian, the satire was a strict literary form, but the term soon escaped from the original narrow definition. Robert Elliott writes: As soon as a noun enters the domain of metaphor, as one modern scholar has pointed out, it clamours for extension; and satura (which had had no verbal, adverbial, or adjectival forms) was immediately broadened by appropriation from the Greek word for “satyr” (satyros) and its derivatives. The odd result is that the English “satire” comes from the Latin satura; but "satirize", "satiric", etc., are of Greek origin. By about the 4th century AD the writer of satires came to be known as satyricus; St. Jerome, for example, was called by one of his enemies 'a satirist in prose' ('satyricus scriptor in prosa'). Subsequent orthographic modifications obscured the Latin origin of the word satire: satura becomes satyra, and in England, by the 16th century, it was written 'satyre.'[1] The word satire derives from satura, and its origin was not influenced by the Greek mythological figure of the satyr.[6] In the 17th century, philologist Isaac Casaubon was the first to dispute the etymology of satire from satyr, contrary to the belief up to that time.[7] Humour[edit] The rules of satire are such that it must do more than make you laugh. No matter how amusing it is, it doesn't count unless you find yourself wincing a little even as you chuckle.[8] Laughter is not an essential component of satire;[9] in fact there are types of satire that are not meant to be "funny" at all. Conversely, not all humour, even on such topics as politics, religion or art is necessarily "satirical", even when it uses the satirical tools of irony, parody, and burlesque. Even light-hearted satire has a serious "after-taste": the organizers of the Ig Nobel Prize describe this as "first make people laugh, and then make them think".[10] Social and psychological functions[edit] Satire and irony in some cases have been regarded as the most effective source to understand a society, the oldest form of social study.[11] They provide the keenest insights into a group's collective psyche, reveal its deepest values and tastes, and the society's structures of power.[12][13] Some authors have regarded satire as superior to non-comic and non-artistic disciplines like history or anthropology.[11][14][15][16] In a prominent example from ancient Greece, philosopher Plato, when asked by a friend for a book to understand Athenian society, referred him to the plays of Aristophanes.[17][18] Historically, satire has satisfied the popular need to debunk and ridicule the leading figures in politics, economy, religion and other prominent realms of power.[19] Satire confronts public discourse and the collective imaginary, playing as a public opinion counterweight to power (be it political, economic, religious, symbolic, or otherwise), by challenging leaders and authorities. For instance, it forces administrations to clarify, amend or establish their policies. Satire's job is to expose problems and contradictions, and it's not obligated to solve them.[20] Karl Kraus set in the history of satire a prominent example of a satirist role as confronting public discourse.[21] For its nature and social role, satire has enjoyed in many societies a special freedom license to mock prominent individuals and institutions.[22] The satiric impulse, and its ritualized expressions, carry out the function of resolving social tension.[23] Institutions like the ritual clowns, by giving expression to the antisocial tendencies, represent a safety valve which re-establishes equilibrium and health in the collective imaginary, which are jeopardized by the repressive aspects of society.[24][25] The state of political satire in a given society reflects the tolerance or intolerance that characterizes it,[19] and the state of civil liberties and human rights. Under totalitarian regimes any criticism of a political system, and especially satire, is suppressed. A typical example is the Soviet Union where the dissidents, such as Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn and Andrei Sakharov were under strong pressure from the government. While satire of everyday life in the USSR was allowed, the most prominent satirist being Arkady Raikin, political satire existed in the form of anecdotes[26] that made fun of Soviet political leaders, especially Brezhnev, famous for his narrow-mindedness and love for awards and decorations. Classifications[edit] Satire is a diverse genre which is complex to classify and define, with a wide range of satiric "modes".[27][28] Horatian, Juvenalian, Menippean[edit] "Le satire e l'epistole di Q. Orazio Flacco", printed in 1814. Satirical literature can commonly be categorized as either Horatian, Juvenalian, or Menippean.[29] Horatian[edit] Horatian satire, named for the Roman satirist Horace (65–8 BCE), playfully criticizes some social vice through gentle, mild, and light-hearted humour. Horace (Quintus Horatius Flaccus) wrote Satires to gently ridicule the dominant opinions and "philosophical beliefs of ancient Rome and Greece" (Rankin).[30] Rather than writing in harsh or accusing tones, he addressed issues with humor and clever mockery. Horatian satire follows this same pattern of "gently [ridiculing] the absurdities and follies of human beings" (Drury).[31] It directs wit, exaggeration, and self-deprecating humour toward what it identifies as folly, rather than evil. Horatian satire's sympathetic tone is common in modern society.[32] A Horatian satirist's goal is to heal the situation with smiles, rather than by anger. Horatian satire is a gentle reminder to take life less seriously and evokes a wry smile.[31] A Horatian satirist makes fun of general human folly rather than engaging in specific or personal attacks. Shamekia Thomas suggests, "In a work using Horatian satire, readers often laugh at the characters in the story who are the subject of mockery as well as themselves and society for behaving in those ways." Alexander Pope has been established as an author whose satire "heals with morals what it hurts with wit" (Green).[33] Alexander Pope—and Horatian satire—attempt to teach. Examples of Horatian satire: The Ig Nobel Prizes. Bierce, Ambrose, The Devil's Dictionary. Defoe, Daniel, The True-Born Englishman . The Savoy Operas of Gilbert and Sullivan. Trollope, Anthony, The Way We Live Now . Gogol, Nikolai, Dead Souls . Groening, Matthew "Matt", The Simpsons . Lewis, Clive Staples, The Screwtape Letters . Mercer, Richard ‘Rick’, The Rick Mercer Report . More, Thomas, Utopia Pope, Alexander, The Rape of the Lock . Reiner, Rob, This Is Spinal Tap . Twain, Mark, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn . Ralston Saul, John, The Doubter's Companion: A Dictionary of Aggressive Common Sense . Juvenalian[edit] See also: Satires of Juvenal Juvenalian satire, named for the writings of the Roman satirist Juvenal (late first century – early second century AD), is more contemptuous and abrasive than the Horatian. Juvenal disagreed with the opinions of the public figures and institutions of the Republic and actively attacked them through his literature. "He utilized the satirical tools of exaggeration and parody to make his targets appear monstrous and incompetent" (Podzemny).[34] Juvenal's satire follows this same pattern of abrasively ridiculing societal structures. Juvenal also, unlike Horace, attacked public officials and governmental organizations through his satires, regarding their opinions as not just wrong, but evil. Following in this tradition, Juvenalian satire addresses perceived social evil through scorn, outrage, and savage ridicule. This form is often pessimistic, characterized by the use of irony, sarcasm, moral indignation and personal invective, with less emphasis on humor. Strongly polarized political satire can often be classified as Juvenalian. A Juvenal satirist's goal is generally to provoke some sort of political or societal change because he sees his opponent or object as evil or harmful.[35] A Juvenal satirist mocks "societal structure, power, and civilization" (Thomas)[36] by exaggerating the words or position of his opponent in order to jeopardize their opponent's reputation and/or power. Jonathan Swift has been established as an author who "borrowed heavily from Juvenal's techniques in [his critique] of contemporary English society" (Podzemny).[34] Examples of Juvenalian satire: Barnes, Julian, England, England . Beatty, Paul, The Sellout . Bradbury, Ray, Fahrenheit 451 . Brooker, Charlie, Black Mirror . Bulgakov, Mikhail, Heart of a Dog . Burgess, Anthony, A Clockwork Orange . Burroughs, William, Naked Lunch . Byron, George Gordon, Lord, Don Juan . Barth, John, The Sot-Weed Factor; or, A Voyage to Maryland,—a satire, in which is described the laws, government, courts, and constitutions of the country, and also the buildings, feasts, frolics, entertainments, and drunken humors of the inhabitants in that part of America . Ellis, Bret Easton, American Psycho . Golding, William, Lord of the Flies . Hall, Joseph, Virgidemiarum . Heller, Joseph, Catch-22 . Huxley, Aldous, Brave New World . Johnson, Samuel, London , an adaptation of Juvenal, Third Satire . Junius, Letters . Kubrick, Stanley, Dr. Strangelove . Mencken, HL, Libido for the Ugly . Morris, Chris, Brass Eye . ———, The Day Today . Orwell, George, Nineteen Eighty-Four . Orwell, George, Animal Farm . Palahniuk, Chuck, Fight Club . Swift, Jonathan, A Modest Proposal . Voltaire, Candide . Zamyatin, Yevgeny, We . Menippean[edit] See Menippean satire. Satire versus teasing[edit] In the history of theatre there has always been a conflict between engagement and disengagement on politics and relevant issue, between satire and grotesque on one side, and jest with teasing on the other.[37] Max Eastman defined the spectrum of satire in terms of "degrees of biting", as ranging from satire proper at the hot-end, and "kidding" at the violet-end; Eastman adopted the term kidding to denote what is just satirical in form, but is not really firing at the target.[38] Nobel laureate satirical playwright Dario Fo pointed out the difference between satire and teasing (sfottò).[39] Teasing is the reactionary side of the comic; it limits itself to a shallow parody of physical appearance. The side-effect of teasing is that it humanizes and draws sympathy for the powerful individual towards which it is directed. Satire instead uses the comic to go against power and its oppressions, has a subversive character, and a moral dimension which draws judgement against its targets.[40][41][42][43] Fo formulated an operational criterion to tell real satire from sfottò, saying that real satire arouses an outraged and violent reaction, and that the more they try to stop you, the better is the job you are doing.[44] Fo contends that, historically, people in positions of power have welcomed and encouraged good-humoured buffoonery, while modern day people in positions of power have tried to censor, ostracize and repress satire.[37][40] Teasing (sfottò) is an ancient form of simple buffoonery, a form of comedy without satire's subversive edge. Teasing includes light and affectionate parody, good-humoured mockery, simple one-dimensional poking fun, and benign spoofs. Teasing typically consists of an impersonation of someone monkeying around with his exterior attributes, tics, physical blemishes, voice and mannerisms, quirks, way of dressing and walking, and/or the phrases he typically repeats. By contrast, teasing never touches on the core issue, never makes a serious criticism judging the target with irony; it never harms the target's conduct, ideology and position of power; it never undermines the perception of his morality and cultural dimension.[40][42] Sfottò directed towards a powerful individual makes him appear more human and draws sympathy towards him.[45] Hermann Göring propagated jests and jokes against himself, with the aim of humanizing his image.[46][47] Classifications by topics[edit] Types of satire can also be classified according to the topics it deals with. From the earliest times, at least since the plays of Aristophanes, the primary topics of literary satire have been politics, religion and sex.[48][49][50][51] This is partly because these are the most pressing problems that affect anybody living in a society, and partly because these topics are usually taboo.[48][52] Among these, politics in the broader sense is considered the pre-eminent topic of satire.[52] Satire which targets the clergy is a type of political satire, while religious satire is that which targets religious beliefs.[53] Satire on sex may overlap with blue comedy, off-color humor and dick jokes. Scatology has a long literary association with satire,[48][54][55] as it is a classical mode of the grotesque, the grotesque body and the satiric grotesque.[48][56] Shit plays a fundamental role in satire because it symbolizes death, the turd being "the ultimate dead object".[54][55] The satirical comparison of individuals or institutions with human excrement, exposes their "inherent inertness, corruption and dead-likeness".[54][57][58] The ritual clowns of clown societies, like among the Pueblo Indians, have ceremonies with filth-eating.[59][60] In other cultures, sin-eating is an apotropaic rite in which the sin-eater (also called filth-eater),[61][62] by ingesting the food provided, takes "upon himself the sins of the departed".[63] Satire about death overlaps with black humor and gallows humor. Another classification by topics is the distinction between political satire, religious satire and satire of manners.[64] Political satire is sometimes called topical satire, satire of manners is sometimes called satire of everyday life, and religious satire is sometimes called philosophical satire. Comedy of manners, sometimes also called satire of manners, criticizes mode of life of common people; political satire aims at behavior, manners of politicians, and vices of political systems. Historically, comedy of manners, which first appeared in British theater in 1620, has uncritically accepted the social code of the upper classes.[65] Comedy in general accepts the rules of the social game, while satire subverts them.[66] Another analysis of satire is the spectrum of his possible tones: wit, ridicule, irony, sarcasm, cynicism, the sardonic and invective.[67][68] The type of humour that deals with creating laughter at the expense of the person telling the joke is called reflexive humour.[69] Reflexive humour can take place at dual levels of directing humour at self or at the larger community the self identifies with. The audience's understanding of the context of reflexive humour is important for its receptivity and success.[69] Satire is found not only in written literary forms. In preliterate cultures it manifests itself in ritual and folk forms, as well as in trickster tales and oral poetry.[23] It appears also in graphic arts, music, sculpture, dance, cartoon strips, and graffiti. Examples are Dada sculptures, Pop Art works, music of Gilbert and Sullivan and Erik Satie, punk and rock music.[23] In modern media culture, stand-up comedy is an enclave in which satire can be introduced into mass media, challenging mainstream discourse.[23] Comedy roasts, mock festivals, and stand-up comedians in nightclubs and concerts are the modern forms of ancient satiric rituals.[23] Development[edit] Ancient Egypt[edit] The satirical papyrus at the British Museum Satirical ostracon showing a cat guarding geese, c.1120 BC, Egypt. Figured ostracon showing a cat waiting on a mouse, Egypt One of the earliest examples of what we might call satire, The Satire of the Trades,[70] is in Egyptian writing from the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. The text's apparent readers are students, tired of studying. It argues that their lot as scribes is not only useful, but far superior to that of the ordinary man. Scholars such as Helck[71] think that the context was meant to be serious. The Papyrus Anastasi I[72] (late 2nd millennium BC) contains a satirical letter which first praises the virtues of its recipient, but then mocks the reader's meagre knowledge and achievements. Ancient Greece[edit] The Greeks had no word for what later would be called "satire", although the terms cynicism and parody were used. Modern critics call the Greek playwright Aristophanes one of the best known early satirists: his plays are known for their critical political and societal commentary,[73] particularly for the political satire by which he criticized the powerful Cleon (as in The Knights). He is also notable for the persecution he underwent.[73][74][75][76] Aristophanes' plays turned upon images of filth and disease.[77] His bawdy style was adopted by Greek dramatist-comedian Menander. His early play Drunkenness contains an attack on the politician Callimedon. The oldest form of satire still in use is the Menippean satire by Menippus of Gadara. His own writings are lost. Examples from his admirers and imitators mix seriousness and mockery in dialogues and present parodies before a background of diatribe. As in the case of Aristophanes plays, menippean satire turned upon images of filth and disease.[77] Roman world[edit] The first Roman to discuss satire critically was Quintilian, who invented the term to describe the writings of Gaius Lucilius. The two most prominent and influential ancient Roman satirists are Horace and Juvenal, who wrote during the early days of the Roman Empire. Other important satirists in ancient Latin are Gaius Lucilius and Persius. Satire in their work is much wider than in the modern sense of the word, including fantastic and highly coloured humorous writing with little or no real mocking intent. When Horace criticized Augustus, he used veiled ironic terms. In contrast, Pliny reports that the 6th-century-BC poet Hipponax wrote satirae that were so cruel that the offended hanged themselves.[78] In the 2nd century AD, Lucian wrote True History, a book satirizing the clearly unrealistic travelogues/adventures written by Ctesias, Iambulus, and Homer. He states that he was surprised they expected people to believe their lies, and stating that he, like them, has no actual knowledge or experience, but shall now tell lies as if he did. He goes on to describe a far more obviously extreme and unrealistic tale, involving interplanetary exploration, war among alien life forms, and life inside a 200 mile long whale back in the terrestrial ocean, all intended to make obvious the fallacies of books like Indica and The Odyssey. Medieval Islamic world[edit] Main articles: Arabic satire and Persian satire Medieval Arabic poetry included the satiric genre hija. Satire was introduced into Arabic prose literature by the author Al-Jahiz in the 9th century. While dealing with serious topics in what are now known as anthropology, sociology and psychology, he introduced a satirical approach, "based on the premise that, however serious the subject under review, it could be made more interesting and thus achieve greater effect, if only one leavened the lump of solemnity by the insertion of a few amusing anecdotes or by the throwing out of some witty or paradoxical observations. He was well aware that, in treating of new themes in his prose works, he would have to employ a vocabulary of a nature more familiar in hija, satirical poetry."[79] For example, in one of his zoological works, he satirized the preference for longer human penis size, writing: "If the length of the penis were a sign of honor, then the mule would belong to the (honorable tribe of) Quraysh". Another satirical story based on this preference was an Arabian Nights tale called "Ali with the Large Member".[80] In the 10th century, the writer Tha'alibi recorded satirical poetry written by the Arabic poets As-Salami and Abu Dulaf, with As-Salami praising Abu Dulaf's wide breadth of knowledge and then mocking his ability in all these subjects, and with Abu Dulaf responding back and satirizing As-Salami in return.[81] An example of Arabic political satire included another 10th-century poet Jarir satirizing Farazdaq as "a transgressor of the Sharia" and later Arabic poets in turn using the term "Farazdaq-like" as a form of political satire.[82] The terms "comedy" and "satire" became synonymous after Aristotle's Poetics was translated into Arabic in the medieval Islamic world, where it was elaborated upon by Islamic philosophers and writers, such as Abu Bischr, his pupil Al-Farabi, Avicenna, and Averroes. Due to cultural differences, they disassociated comedy from Greek dramatic representation and instead identified it with Arabic poetic themes and forms, such as hija (satirical poetry). They viewed comedy as simply the "art of reprehension", and made no reference to light and cheerful events, or troubled beginnings and happy endings, associated with classical Greek comedy. After the Latin translations of the 12th century, the term "comedy" thus gained a new semantic meaning in Medieval literature.[83] Ubayd Zakani introduced satire in Persian literature during the 14th century. His work is noted for its satire and obscene verses, often political or bawdy, and often cited in debates involving homosexual practices. He wrote the Resaleh-ye Delgosha, as well as Akhlaq al-Ashraf ("Ethics of the Aristocracy") and the famous humorous fable Masnavi Mush-O-Gorbeh (Mouse and Cat), which was a political satire. His non-satirical serious classical verses have also been regarded as very well written, in league with the other great works of Persian literature. Between 1905 and 1911, Bibi Khatoon Astarabadi and other Iranian writers wrote notable satires. Medieval Europe[edit] In the Early Middle Ages, examples of satire were the songs by Goliards or vagants now best known as an anthology called Carmina Burana and made famous as texts of a composition by the 20th-century composer Carl Orff. Satirical poetry is believed to have been popular, although little has survived. With the advent of the High Middle Ages and the birth of modern vernacular literature in the 12th century, it began to be used again, most notably by Chaucer. The disrespectful manner was considered "unchristian" and ignored, except for the moral satire, which mocked misbehaviour in Christian terms. Examples are Livre des Manières by Étienne de Fougères [fr] (~1178), and some of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. Sometimes epic poetry (epos) was mocked, and even feudal society, but there was hardly a general interest in the genre. Early modern western satire[edit] Pieter Bruegel's 1568 satirical painting The Blind Leading the Blind. Direct social commentary via satire returned with a vengeance in the 16th century, when farcical texts such as the works of François Rabelais tackled more serious issues (and incurred the wrath of the crown as a result). Two major satirists of Europe in the Renaissance were Giovanni Boccaccio and François Rabelais. Other examples of Renaissance satire include Till Eulenspiegel, Reynard the Fox, Sebastian Brant's Narrenschiff (1494), Erasmus's Moriae Encomium (1509), Thomas More's Utopia (1516), and Carajicomedia (1519). The Elizabethan (i.e. 16th-century English) writers thought of satire as related to the notoriously rude, coarse and sharp satyr play. Elizabethan "satire" (typically in pamphlet form) therefore contains more straightforward abuse than subtle irony. The French Huguenot Isaac Casaubon pointed out in 1605 that satire in the Roman fashion was something altogether more civilised. Casaubon discovered and published Quintilian's writing and presented the original meaning of the term (satira, not satyr), and the sense of wittiness (reflecting the "dishfull of fruits") became more important again. Seventeenth-century English satire once again aimed at the "amendment of vices" (Dryden). In the 1590s a new wave of verse satire broke with the publication of Hall's Virgidemiarum, six books of verse satires targeting everything from literary fads to corrupt noblemen. Although Donne had already circulated satires in manuscript, Hall's was the first real attempt in English at verse satire on the Juvenalian model.[84][page needed] The success of his work combined with a national mood of disillusion in the last years of Elizabeth's reign triggered an avalanche of satire—much of it less conscious of classical models than Hall's — until the fashion was brought to an abrupt stop by censorship.[note 1] Ancient and modern India[edit] Satire (Kataksh or Vyang) has played a prominent role in Indian and Hindi literature, and is counted as one of the "ras" of literature in ancient books.[86] With the commencement of printing of books in local language in the nineteenth century and especially after India's freedom, this grew.[87] Many of the works of Tulsi Das, Kabir, Munshi Premchand,[88][89] village ministrels, Hari katha singers, poets, Dalit singers and current day stand up Indian comedians incorporate satire, usually ridiculing authoritarians, fundamentalists and incompetent people in power.[90][91][92] In India, it has usually been used as a means of expression and an outlet for common people to express their anger against authoritarian entities.[93] A popular custom in Northern India of "Bura na mano Holi hai" continues, in which comedians on the stage roast local people of importance (who are usually brought in as special guests).[94][95][96] Age of Enlightenment[edit] 'A Welch wedding' Satirical Cartoon c.1780 The Age of Enlightenment, an intellectual movement in the 17th and 18th centuries advocating rationality, produced a great revival of satire in Britain. This was fuelled by the rise of partisan politics, with the formalisation of the Tory and Whig parties—and also, in 1714, by the formation of the Scriblerus Club, which included Alexander Pope, Jonathan Swift, John Gay, John Arbuthnot, Robert Harley, Thomas Parnell, and Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke. This club included several of the notable satirists of early-18th-century Britain. They focused their attention on Martinus Scriblerus, "an invented learned fool... whose work they attributed all that was tedious, narrow-minded, and pedantic in contemporary scholarship".[97] In their hands astute and biting satire of institutions and individuals became a popular weapon. The turn to the 18th century was characterized by a switch from Horatian, soft, pseudo-satire, to biting "juvenal" satire.[98] Jonathan Swift was one of the greatest of Anglo-Irish satirists, and one of the first to practise modern journalistic satire. For instance, In his A Modest Proposal Swift suggests that Irish peasants be encouraged to sell their own children as food for the rich, as a solution to the "problem" of poverty. His purpose is of course to attack indifference to the plight of the desperately poor. In his book Gulliver's Travels he writes about the flaws in human society in general and English society in particular. John Dryden wrote an influential essay entitled "A Discourse Concerning the Original and Progress of Satire"[99] that helped fix the definition of satire in the literary world. His satirical Mac Flecknoe was written in response to a rivalry with Thomas Shadwell and eventually inspired Alexander Pope to write his satirical [[Dunciad]. Other satirical works by Pope include the Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot. Alexander Pope (b. May 21, 1688) was a satirist known for his Horatian satirist style and translation of the Iliad. Famous throughout and after the long 18th century, Pope died in 1744.[100] Pope, in his The Rape of the Lock, is delicately chiding society in a sly but polished voice by holding up a mirror to the follies and vanities of the upper class. Pope does not actively attack the self-important pomp of the British aristocracy, but rather presents it in such a way that gives the reader a new perspective from which to easily view the actions in the story as foolish and ridiculous. A mockery of the upper class, more delicate and lyrical than brutal, Pope nonetheless is able to effectively illuminate the moral degradation of society to the public. The Rape of the Lock assimilates the masterful qualities of a heroic epic, such as the Iliad, which Pope was translating at the time of writing The Rape of the Lock. However, Pope applied these qualities satirically to a seemingly petty egotistical elitist quarrel to prove his point wryly.[101] Daniel Defoe pursued a more journalistic type of satire, being famous for his The True-Born Englishman which mocks xenophobic patriotism, and The Shortest-Way with the Dissenters—advocating religious toleration by means of an ironical exaggeration of the highly intolerant attitudes of his time. The pictorial satire of William Hogarth is a precursor to the development of political cartoons in 18th-century England.[102] The medium developed under the direction of its greatest exponent, James Gillray from London.[103] With his satirical works calling the king (George III), prime ministers and generals (especially Napoleon) to account, Gillray's wit and keen sense of the ridiculous made him the pre-eminent cartoonist of the era.[103] Ebenezer Cooke (1665–1732), author of "The Sot-Weed Factor" (1708), was among the first American colonialists to write literary satire. Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) and others followed, using satire to shape an emerging nation's culture through its sense of the ridiculous. Satire in Victorian England[edit] A Victorian satirical sketch depicting a gentleman's donkey race in 1852 Several satiric papers competed for the public's attention in the Victorian era (1837–1901) and Edwardian period, such as Punch (1841) and Fun (1861). Perhaps the most enduring examples of Victorian satire, however, are to be found in the Savoy Operas of Gilbert and Sullivan. In fact, in The Yeomen of the Guard, a jester is given lines that paint a very neat picture of the method and purpose of the satirist, and might almost be taken as a statement of Gilbert's own intent: "I can set a braggart quailing with a quip, The upstart I can wither with a whim; He may wear a merry laugh upon his lip, But his laughter has an echo that is grim!" Novelists such as Charles Dickens (1812-1870) often used passages of satiric writing in their treatment of social issues. Continuing the tradition of Swiftian journalistic satire, Sidney Godolphin Osborne (1808-1889) was the most prominent writer of scathing "Letters to the Editor" of the London Times. Famous in his day, he is now all but forgotten. His maternal grandfather William Eden, 1st Baron Auckland was considered to be a possible candidate for the authorship of the Junius letters. If this were true, we can read Osborne as following in his grandfather's satiric "Letters to the Editor" path. Osborne's satire was so bitter and biting that at one point he received a public censure from Parliament's then Home Secretary Sir James Graham. Osborne wrote mostly in the Juvenalian mode over a wide range of topics mostly centered on British government's and landlords' mistreatment of poor farm workers and field laborers. He bitterly opposed the New Poor Laws and was passionate on the subject of Great Britain's botched response to the Irish Famine and its mistreatment of soldiers during the Crimean War. Later in the nineteenth century, in the United States, Mark Twain (1835–1910) grew to become American's greatest satirist: his novel Huckleberry Finn (1884) is set in the antebellum South, where the moral values Twain wishes to promote are completely turned on their heads. His hero, Huck, is a rather simple but goodhearted lad who is ashamed of the "sinful temptation" that leads him to help a runaway slave. In fact his conscience, warped by the distorted moral world he has grown up in, often bothers him most when he is at his best. He is prepared to do good, believing it to be wrong. Twain's younger contemporary Ambrose Bierce (1842–1913) gained notoriety as a cynic, pessimist and black humorist with his dark, bitterly ironic stories, many set during the American Civil War, which satirized the limitations of human perception and reason. Bierce's most famous work of satire is probably The Devil's Dictionary (1906), in which the definitions mock cant, hypocrisy and received wisdom. 20th-century satire[edit] Karl Kraus is considered the first major European satirist since Jonathan Swift.[21] In 20th-century literature, satire was used by English authors such as Aldous Huxley (1930s) and George Orwell (1940s), which under the inspiration of Zamyatin's Russian 1921 novel We, made serious and even frightening commentaries on the dangers of the sweeping social changes taking place throughout Europe. Anatoly Lunacharsky wrote ‘Satire attains its greatest significance when a newly evolving class creates an ideology considerably more advanced than that of the ruling class, but has not yet developed to the point where it can conquer it. Herein lies its truly great ability to triumph, its scorn for its adversary and its hidden fear of it. Herein lies its venom, its amazing energy of hate, and quite frequently, its grief, like a black frame around glittering images. Herein lie its contradictions, and its power.’[104] Many social critics of this same time in the United States, such as Dorothy Parker and H. L. Mencken, used satire as their main weapon, and Mencken in particular is noted for having said that "one horse-laugh is worth ten thousand syllogisms" in the persuasion of the public to accept a criticism. Novelist Sinclair Lewis was known for his satirical stories such as Main Street (1920), Babbitt (1922), Elmer Gantry (1927; dedicated by Lewis to H. L. Menchen), and It Can't Happen Here (1935), and his books often explored and satirized contemporary American values. The film The Great Dictator (1940) by Charlie Chaplin is itself a parody of Adolf Hitler; Chaplin later declared that he would have not made the film if he had known about the concentration camps.[105] Benzino Napaloni and Adenoid Hynkel in The Great Dictator (1940). Chaplin later declared that he would have not made the film if he had known about the concentration camps.[105] In the United States 1950s, satire was introduced into American stand-up comedy most prominently by Lenny Bruce and Mort Sahl.[23] As they challenged the taboos and conventional wisdom of the time, were ostracized by the mass media establishment as sick comedians. In the same period, Paul Krassner's magazine The Realist began publication, to become immensely popular during the 1960s and early 1970s among people in the counterculture; it had articles and cartoons that were savage, biting satires of politicians such as Lyndon Johnson and Richard Nixon, the Vietnam War, the Cold War and the War on Drugs. This baton was also carried by the original National Lampoon magazine, edited by Doug Kenney and Henry Beard and featuring blistering satire written by Michael O'Donoghue, P.J. O'Rourke, and Tony Hendra, among others.[106] Prominent satiric stand-up comedian George Carlin acknowledged the influence The Realist had in his 1970s conversion to a satiric comedian.[107][108] A more humorous brand of satire enjoyed a renaissance in the UK in the early 1960s with the satire boom, led by such luminaries as Peter Cook, Alan Bennett, Jonathan Miller, and Dudley Moore, whose stage show Beyond the Fringe was a hit not only in Britain, but also in the United States. Other significant influences in 1960s British satire include David Frost, Eleanor Bron and the television program That Was The Week That Was.[109] Joseph Heller's most famous work, Catch-22 (1961), satirizes bureaucracy and the military, and is frequently cited as one of the greatest literary works of the twentieth century.[110] Departing from traditional Hollywood farce and screwball, director and comedian Jerry Lewis used satire in his self-directed films The Bellboy (1960), The Errand Boy (1961) and The Patsy (1964) to comment on celebrity and the star-making machinery of Hollywood.[111] The film Dr. Strangelove (1964) starring Peter Sellers was a popular satire on the Cold War. Contemporary satire[edit] Contemporary popular usage of the term "satire" is often very imprecise. While satire often uses caricature and parody, by no means all uses of these or other humorous devices are satiric. Refer to the careful definition of satire that heads this article. The Cambridge Companion to Roman Satire also warns of the ambiguous nature of satire: [W]hile "satire," or perhaps rather "satiric(al)," are words we run up against constantly in analyses of contemporary culture [...], the search for any defining formal charcteristic (sic) [of satire] that will link past to present may turn out to be more frustrating than enlightening.[112] Puppet of Manchester United striker Eric Cantona from the British satirical puppet show Spitting Image Satire is used on many UK television programmes, particularly popular panel shows and quiz shows such as Mock the Week (2005–ongoing) and Have I Got News for You (1990–ongoing). It is found on radio quiz shows such as The News Quiz (1977–ongoing) and The Now Show (1998–ongoing). One of the most watched UK television shows of the 1980s and early 1990s, the puppet show Spitting Image was a satire of the royal family, politics, entertainment, sport and British culture of the era.[113] Court Flunkey from Spitting Image is a caricature of James Gillray, intended as a homage to the father of political cartooning.[114] Created by DMA Design in 1997, satire features prominently in the British video game series Grand Theft Auto.[115][116] Another example is the Fallout series, namely Interplay-developed Fallout: A Post Nuclear Role Playing Game (1995).[117] Other games utilizing satire include Postal (1997),[118] and State of Emergency (2002).[118] Trey Parker and Matt Stone's South Park (1997–ongoing) relies almost exclusively on satire to address issues in American culture, with episodes addressing racism, anti-Semitism, militant atheism, homophobia, sexism, environmentalism, corporate culture, political correctness and anti-Catholicism, among many other issues. Satirical web series and sites include Emmy-nominated video game-themed Honest Trailers (2012–),[119] Internet phenomena-themed Encyclopedia Dramatica (2004–),[120] Uncyclopedia (2005–),[121] and self-proclaimed "America's Finest News Source" The Onion (1988–).[122] Stephen Colbert satirically impersonated an opinionated and self-righteous television commentator on his Comedy Central program in the U.S. In the United States, Stephen Colbert's television program, The Colbert Report (2005–14) is instructive in the methods of contemporary American satire; sketch comedy television show Saturday Night Live is also known for its satirical impressions and parodies of prominent persons and politicians, among some of the most notable, their parodies of U.S. political figures Hillary Clinton[123] and of Sarah Palin.[124] Colbert's character is an opinionated and self-righteous commentator who, in his TV interviews, interrupts people, points and wags his finger at them, and "unwittingly" uses a number of logical fallacies. In doing so, he demonstrates the principle of modern American political satire: the ridicule of the actions of politicians and other public figures by taking all their statements and purported beliefs to their furthest (supposedly) logical conclusion, thus revealing their perceived hypocrisy or absurdity. In the United Kingdom, a popular modern satirist was the late Sir Terry Pratchett, author of the internationally best-selling Discworld book series. One of the most well-known and controversial British satirists is Chris Morris, co-writer and director of Four Lions. In Canada, satire has become an important part of the comedy scene. Stephen Leacock was one of the best known early Canadian satirists, and in the early 20th century, he achieved fame by targeting the attitudes of small town life. In more recent years, Canada has had several prominent satirical television series and radio shows. Some, including CODCO, The Royal Canadian Air Farce, This Is That, and This Hour Has 22 Minutes deal directly with current news stories and political figures, while others, like History Bites present contemporary social satire in the context of events and figures in history. The Beaverton is a Canadian news satire site similar to The Onion. Canadian songwriter Nancy White uses music as the vehicle for her satire, and her comic folk songs are regularly played on CBC Radio. Cartoonists often use satire as well as straight humour. Al Capp's satirical comic strip Li'l Abner was censored in September 1947. The controversy, as reported in Time, centred on Capp's portrayal of the US Senate. Said Edward Leech of Scripps-Howard, "We don't think it is good editing or sound citizenship to picture the Senate as an assemblage of freaks and crooks... boobs and undesirables."[125] Walt Kelly's Pogo was likewise censored in 1952 over his overt satire of Senator Joe McCarthy, caricatured in his comic strip as "Simple J. Malarky". Garry Trudeau, whose comic strip Doonesbury focuses on satire of the political system, and provides a trademark cynical view on national events. Trudeau exemplifies humour mixed with criticism. For example, the character Mark Slackmeyer lamented that because he was not legally married to his partner, he was deprived of the "exquisite agony" of experiencing a nasty and painful divorce like heterosexuals. This, of course, satirized the claim that gay unions would denigrate the sanctity of heterosexual marriage. Political satire by Ranan Lurie Like some literary predecessors, many recent television satires contain strong elements of parody and caricature; for instance, the popular animated series The Simpsons and South Park both parody modern family and social life by taking their assumptions to the extreme; both have led to the creation of similar series. As well as the purely humorous effect of this sort of thing, they often strongly criticise various phenomena in politics, economic life, religion and many other aspects of society, and thus qualify as satirical. Due to their animated nature, these shows can easily use images of public figures and generally have greater freedom to do so than conventional shows using live actors. News satire is also a very popular form of contemporary satire, appearing in as wide an array of formats as the news media itself: print (e.g. The Onion, Waterford Whispers News, Private Eye), radio (e.g. On the Hour), television (e.g. The Day Today, The Daily Show, Brass Eye) and the web (e.g. Faking News, El Koshary Today, Babylon Bee, The Beaverton, The Daily Bonnet and The Onion). Other satires are on the list of satirists and satires. In an interview with Wikinews, Sean Mills, President of The Onion, said angry letters about their news parody always carried the same message. "It's whatever affects that person", said Mills. "So it's like, 'I love it when you make a joke about murder or rape, but if you talk about cancer, well my brother has cancer and that's not funny to me.' Or someone else can say, 'Cancer's hilarious, but don't talk about rape because my cousin got raped.' Those are rather extreme examples, but if it affects somebody personally, they tend to be more sensitive about it."[126] Techniques[edit] Literary satire is usually written out of earlier satiric works, reprising previous conventions, commonplaces, stance, situations and tones of voice.[127] Exaggeration is one of the most common satirical techniques.[3] Contrarily diminution is also a satirical technique. Legal status[edit] For its nature and social role, satire has enjoyed in many societies a special freedom license to mock prominent individuals and institutions.[22] In Germany[128] and Italy[19][129] satire is protected by the constitution. Since satire belongs to the realm of art and artistic expression, it benefits from broader lawfulness limits than mere freedom of information of journalistic kind.[129] In some countries a specific "right to satire" is recognized and its limits go beyond the "right to report" of journalism and even the "right to criticize".[129] Satire benefits not only of the protection to freedom of speech, but also to that to culture, and that to scientific and artistic production.[19][129] Australia[edit] Main article: The Juice Media § Controversy In September 2017 The Juice Media received an e-mail from the Australian National Symbols Officer requesting that the use of a satirical logo, called the "Coat of Harms" based on the Australian Coat of Arms, no longer be used as they had received complaints from the members of the public.[130] Coincidentally 5 days later a Bill was proposed to Australian parliament to amend the Criminal Code Act 1995.[131] If passed, those found to be in breach of the new amendment can face 2–5 years imprisonment.[132] As of June 2018, the Criminal Code Amendment (Impersonating a Commonwealth Body) Bill 2017 was before the Australian Senate with the third reading moved May 10, 2018.[133] Censorship and criticism[edit] Descriptions of satire's biting effect on its target include 'venomous', 'cutting', 'stinging',[134] vitriol. Because satire often combines anger and humor, as well as the fact that it addresses and calls into question many controversial issues, it can be profoundly disturbing. Typical arguments[edit] Because it is essentially ironic or sarcastic, satire is often misunderstood. A typical misunderstanding is to confuse the satirist with his persona.[135] Bad taste[edit] Common uncomprehending responses to satire include revulsion (accusations of poor taste, or that "it's just not funny" for instance) and the idea that the satirist actually does support the ideas, policies, or people he is attacking. For instance, at the time of its publication, many people misunderstood Swift's purpose in A Modest Proposal, assuming it to be a serious recommendation of economically motivated cannibalism. Targeting the victim[edit] Some critics of Mark Twain see Huckleberry Finn as racist and offensive, missing the point that its author clearly intended it to be satire (racism being in fact only one of a number of Mark Twain's known concerns attacked in Huckleberry Finn).[136][137] This same misconception was suffered by the main character of the 1960s British television comedy satire Till Death Us Do Part. The character of Alf Garnett (played by Warren Mitchell) was created to poke fun at the kind of narrow-minded, racist, little Englander that Garnett represented. Instead, his character became a sort of anti-hero to people who actually agreed with his views. (The same situation occurred with Archie Bunker in American TV show All in the Family, a character derived directly from Garnett.) The Australian satirical television comedy show The Chaser's War on Everything has suffered repeated attacks based on various perceived interpretations of the "target" of its attacks. The "Make a Realistic Wish Foundation" sketch (June 2009), which attacked in classical satiric fashion the heartlessness of people who are reluctant to donate to charities, was widely interpreted as an attack on the Make a Wish Foundation, or even the terminally ill children helped by that organisation. Prime Minister of the time Kevin Rudd stated that The Chaser team "should hang their heads in shame". He went on to say that "I didn't see that but it's been described to me. ...But having a go at kids with a terminal illness is really beyond the pale, absolutely beyond the pale."[138] Television station management suspended the show for two weeks and reduced the third season to eight episodes. Romantic prejudice[edit] The romantic prejudice against satire is the belief spread by the romantic movement that satire is something unworthy of serious attention; this prejudice has held considerable influence to this day.[139] Such prejudice extends to humour and everything that arouses laughter, which are often underestimated as frivolous and unworthy of serious study.[140] For instance, humor is generally neglected as a topic of anthropological research and teaching.[141] History of opposition toward notable satires[edit] Because satire criticises in an ironic, essentially indirect way, it frequently escapes censorship in a way more direct criticism might not. Periodically, however, it runs into serious opposition, and people in power who perceive themselves as attacked attempt to censor it or prosecute its practitioners. In a classic example, Aristophanes was persecuted by the demagogue Cleon. 1599 book ban[edit] In 1599, the Archbishop of Canterbury John Whitgift and the Bishop of London Richard Bancroft, whose offices had the function of licensing books for publication in England, issued a decree banning verse satire. The decree, now known as the Bishops' Ban of 1599, ordered the burning of certain volumes of satire by John Marston, Thomas Middleton, Joseph Hall, and others; it also required histories and plays to be specially approved by a member of the Queen's Privy Council, and it prohibited the future printing of satire in verse.[142] The motives for the ban are obscure, particularly since some of the books banned had been licensed by the same authorities less than a year earlier. Various scholars have argued that the target was obscenity, libel, or sedition. It seems likely that lingering anxiety about the Martin Marprelate controversy, in which the bishops themselves had employed satirists, played a role; both Thomas Nashe and Gabriel Harvey, two of the key figures in that controversy, suffered a complete ban on all their works. In the event, though, the ban was little enforced, even by the licensing authority itself. 21st-century polemics[edit] In 2005, the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy caused global protests by offended Muslims and violent attacks with many fatalities in the Near East. It was not the first case of Muslim protests against criticism in the form of satire, but the Western world was surprised by the hostility of the reaction: Any country's flag in which a newspaper chose to publish the parodies was being burnt in a Near East country, then embassies were attacked, killing 139 people in mainly four countries; politicians throughout Europe agreed that satire was an aspect of the freedom of speech, and therefore to be a protected means of dialogue. Iran threatened to start an International Holocaust Cartoon Competition, which was immediately responded to by Jews with an Israeli Anti-Semitic Cartoons Contest. In 2006 British comedian Sacha Baron Cohen released Borat: Cultural Learnings of America for Make Benefit Glorious Nation of Kazakhstan, a "mockumentary" that satirized everyone, from high society to frat boys. The film was criticized by many. Although Baron Cohen is Jewish, some complained that it was antisemitic, and the government of Kazakhstan boycotted the film. The film itself had been a reaction to a longer quarrel between the government and the comedian. In 2008, popular South African cartoonist and satirist Jonathan Shapiro (who is published under the pen name Zapiro) came under fire for depicting then-president of the ANC Jacob Zuma in the act of undressing in preparation for the implied rape of 'Lady Justice' which is held down by Zuma loyalists.[143] The cartoon was drawn in response to Zuma's efforts to duck corruption charges, and the controversy was heightened by the fact that Zuma was himself acquitted of rape in May 2006. In February 2009, the South African Broadcasting Corporation, viewed by some opposition parties as the mouthpiece of the governing ANC,[144] shelved a satirical TV show created by Shapiro,[145] and in May 2009 the broadcaster pulled a documentary about political satire (featuring Shapiro among others) for the second time, hours before scheduled broadcast.[146] Apartheid South Africa also had a long history of censorship. On December 29, 2009, Samsung sued Mike Breen, and the Korea Times for $1 million, claiming criminal defamation over a satirical column published on Christmas Day, 2009.[147][148] On April 29, 2015, the UK Independence Party (UKIP) requested Kent Police investigate the BBC, claiming that comments made about Party leader Nigel Farage by a panelist on the comedy show Have I Got News For You might hinder his chances of success in the general election (which would take place a week later), and claimed the BBC breached the Representation of the People Act.[149] Kent Police rebuffed the request to open an investigation, and the BBC released a statement, "Britain has a proud tradition of satire, and everyone knows that the contributors on Have I Got News for You regularly make jokes at the expense of politicians of all parties."[149] Satirical prophecy[edit] Satire is occasionally prophetic: the jokes precede actual events.[150][151] Among the eminent examples are: The 1784 presaging of modern daylight saving time, later actually proposed in 1907. While an American envoy to France, Benjamin Franklin anonymously published a letter in 1784 suggesting that Parisians economise on candles by arising earlier to use morning sunlight.[152] In the 1920s, an English cartoonist imagined a laughable thing for the time: a hotel for cars. He drew a multi-story car park.[151] The second episode of Monty Python's Flying Circus, which debuted in 1969, featured a sketch entitled "The Mouse Problem" (meant to satirize contemporary media exposés on homosexuality), which depicted a cultural phenomenon similar to some aspects of the modern furry fandom (which did not become widespread until the 1980s, over a decade after the sketch was first aired). The comedy film Americathon, released in 1979 and set in the United States of 1998, predicted a number of trends and events that would eventually unfold in the near future, including an American debt crisis, Chinese capitalism, the fall of the Soviet Union, a presidential sex scandal, and the popularity of reality shows. In January 2001, a satirical news article in The Onion, entitled "Our Long National Nightmare of Peace and Prosperity Is Finally Over"[153] had newly elected President George Bush vowing to "develop new and expensive weapons technologies" and to "engage in at least one Gulf War-level armed conflict in the next four years". Furthermore, he would "bring back economic stagnation by implementing substantial tax cuts, which would lead to a recession". This prophesied the Iraq War, the Bush tax cuts, and the Great Recession. In 1975, the first episode of Saturday Night Live included an ad for a triple blade razor called the Triple-Trac; in 2001, Gillette introduced the Mach3. In 2004, The Onion satirized Schick and Gillette's marketing of ever-increasingly multi-blade razors with a mock article proclaiming Gillette will now introduce a five-blade razor.[154] In 2006, Gillette released the Gillette Fusion, a five-blade razor. After the Iran nuclear deal in 2015, The Onion ran an article with the headline "U.S. Soothes Upset Netanyahu With Shipment Of Ballistic Missiles". Sure enough, reports broke the next day of the Obama administration offering military upgrades to Israel in the wake of the deal.[155] In July 2016, The Simpsons released the most recent in a string of satirical references to a potential Donald Trump presidency (although the first was made back in a 2000 episode). Other media sources, including the popular film Back to the Future Part II have also made similar satirical references.[156] Infinite Jest, published in 1996, described an alternate America following the presidency of Johnny Gentle, a celebrity who had not held prior political office. Gentle's signature policy was the erection of a wall between the United States and Canada for use as a hazardous waste dump. The US territory behind the wall was "given" to Canada, and the Canadian government was forced to pay for the wall. This appeared to parody the signature campaign promise and background of Donald Trump.[157] Satire celebration[edit] In June 2019, Punocracy, Nigeria's foremost satire platform organised a nationwide writing competition for youth in the country with the objective to make satire a widely accepted and understood tool of socio-political commentary.[158] Some of the entries addressed issues like gender violence, political corruption, religious hypocrisy, internet fraud, educational decay and so on.[159] The group also declared November 9 as World Satire Day with the idea of "trying to fight against the ills in the society not by ammunition but by humour, sarcasm etcetera".[160] See also[edit] Culture jamming Freedom of the press Onomasti komodein Parody religion Satiric misspellings Notes[edit] ^ The Archbishop of Canterbury and the Bishop of London, the censors of the press, issued Orders to the Stationers' Company on June 1 and 4, 1599, prohibiting the further printing of satires—the so-called 'Bishop's Ban'.[85][page needed] References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ a b Elliott 2004. ^ Frye, Northrup (1957). Anatomy of Criticism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP. p. 222. ISBN 0-691-06004-5. ^ a b Claridge, Claudia (2010) Hyperbole in English: A Corpus-based Study of Exaggeration p.257 ^ a b c Kharpertian, Theodore D (1990), "Thomas Pynchon and Postmodern American Satire", in Kharpertian (ed.), A hand to turn the time: the Menippean satires of Thomas Pynchon, pp. 25–7, ISBN 9780838633618 ^ Branham 1997, p. xxiv. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBranham1997 (help) ^ Ullman, BL (1913), "Satura and Satire", Classical Philology, 8 (2): 172–194, doi:10.1086/359771, JSTOR 262450, S2CID 161191881, The Renaissance confusion of the two origins encouraged a satire more aggressive than that of its Roman forebearers ^ Antonia Szabari (2009) Less Rightly Said: Scandals and Readers in Sixteenth-Century France p.2 ^ "Forecast". Galaxy Science Fiction. June 1968. p. 113. ^ Corum 2002, p. 175. ^ "Ig", Improbable ^ a b Rosenberg, Harold (1960), "Community, Values, Comedy", Commentary, The American Jewish Committee, 30: 155, the oldest form of social study is comedy... If the comedian, from Aristophanes to Joyce, does not solve sociology's problem of "the participant observer", he does demonstrate his objectivity by capturing behavior in its most intimate aspects yet in its widest typicality. Comic irony sets whole cultures side by side in a multiple exposure (e.g., Don Quixote, Ulysses), causing valuation to spring out of the recital of facts alone, in contrast to the hidden editorializing of tongue-in-cheek ideologists. ^ Deloria, Vine (1969), "Indian humor", Custer Died For Your Sins: An Indian Manifesto, p. 146, ISBN 9780806121291, Irony and satire provide much keener insights into a group's collective psyche and values than do years of [conventional] research as quoted in Ryan, Allan J (1999), The trickster shift: humour and irony in contemporary native art, p. 9, ISBN 9780774807043 ^ Nash, Roderick Frazier (1970), "21. The New Humor", The Call of the Wild: 1900–1916, p. 203, Humor is one of the best indicators of popular thought. To ask what strikes a period as funny is to probe its deepest values and tastes. ^ Babcock, Barbara A. (1984), "Arrange Me Into Disorder: Fragments and Reflections on Ritual Clowning", in MacAloon (ed.), Rite, Drama, Festival, Spectacle . Also collected as Babcock, Barbara A Grimes (1996), Ronald, L (ed.), Readings in ritual studies, p. 5, ISBN 9780023472534, Harold Rosenberg has asserted that sociology needs to bring comedy into the foreground, including "an awareness of the comedy of sociology with its disguises", and, like Burke and Duncan, he has argued that comedy provides "the radical effect of self- knowledge which the anthropological bias excludes. ^ Coppola, Jo (1958), "An Angry Young Magazine ...", The Realist (1), Good comedy is social criticism—although you might find that hard to believe if all you ever saw were some of the so-called clowns of videoland.... Comedy is dying today because criticism is on its deathbed... because telecasters, frightened by the threats and pressure of sponsors, blacklists and viewers, helped introduce conformity to this age... In such a climate, comedy cannot flourish. For comedy is, after all, a look at ourselves, not as we pretend to be when we look in the mirror of our imagination, but as we really are. Look at the comedy of any age and you will know volumes about that period and its people which neither historian nor anthropologist can tell you. ^ Coppola, Jo (December 12, 1958). Comedy on Television. Commonweal. p. 288. ^ Willi, Andreas (2003), The Languages of Aristophanes: Aspects of Linguistic Variation in Classical Attic Greek, Oxford University Press, pp. 1–2, ISBN 9780199262649 ^ Ehrenberg, Victor (1962), The people of Aristophanes: a sociology of old Attic comedy, p. 39 ^ a b c d Bevere, Antonio and Cerri, Augusto (2006) Il Diritto di informazione e i diritti della persona pp.265–6 quotation: nella storia della nostra cultura, la satira ha realizzato il bisogno popolare di irridere e dissacrare il gotha politico ed economico, le cui reazioni punitive non sono certo state condizionate da critiche estetiche, ma dalla tolleranza o intolleranza caratterizzanti in quel momento storico la società e i suoi governanti. (...) la reale esistenza della satira in una società deriva, (...) dal margine di tolleranza espresso dai poteri punitivi dello Stato. ^ Amy Wiese Forbes (2010) The Satiric Decade: Satire and the Rise of Republicanism in France, 1830–1840 p.xv, quotation: a critical public discourse (...) Satire rose the daunting question of what role public opinion would play in government. (...) satirists criticized government activities, exposed ambiguities, and forced administrators to clarify or establish policies. Not surprisingly, heated public controversy surrounded satiric commentary, resulting in an outright ban on political satire in 1835 (...) Government officials cracked down on their humorous public criticism that challenged state authority through both its form and content. Satire had been a political resource in France for a long time, but the anxious political context of the July Monarchy had unlocked its political power. Satire also taught lessons in democracy. It fit into the July Monarchy's tense political context as a voice in favor of public political debate. Satiric expression took place in the public sphere and spoke from a position of public opinion-that is, from a position of the nation’s expressing a political voice and making claims on its government representatives and leadership. Beyond mere entertainment, satire's humor appealed to and exercised public opinion, drawing audiences into new practices of representative government. ^ a b Knight, Charles A. (2004) Literature of Satire p.254 ^ a b Test (1991) p.9 quotation: A surprising variety of societies have allowed certain persons the freedom to mock other individuals and social institutions in rituals. From the earliest times the same freedom has been claimed by and granted to social groups at certain times of the year, as can be seen in such festivals as the Saturnalia, the Feast of Fools, Carnival, and similar folk festivals in India, nineteenth-century Newfoundland, and the ancient Mediterranean world. ^ a b c d e f Test (1991) pp.8–9 ^ Cazeneuve (1957) p.244-5 quotation: Ils constituent donc pour la tribu un moyen de donner une satisfaction symbolique aux tendances anti-sociales. Les Zunis, précisément parce qu'ils sont un peuple apollinien [où la règle prédomine], avaient besoin de cette soupape de sûreté. Les Koyemshis représentent ce que M. Caillois nomme le « Sacré de transgression ». ^ Durand (1984) p.106 quotation: Déjà Cazeneuve (2) [Les dieux dansent à Cibola] avait mis auparavant en relief, dans la Société « apollinienne » des Zuñi, l'institution et le symbolisme saturnal des clowns Koyemshis, véritable soupape de sûreté « dionysienne ». ^ Yatsko, V, Russian folk funny stories ^ Corum (2002) p.163 ^ David Worcester (1968) The Art of Satire p.16 ^ Müller, Rolf Arnold (1973). Komik und Satire (in German). Zürich: Juris-Verlag. p. 92. ISBN 978-3-260-03570-8. ^ "What Is Horatian Satire?". wiseGEEK. ^ a b "Satire Terms". nku.edu. ^ Sharma, Raja (2011). "Comedy" in New Light-Literary Studies. ^ Patricia, Green. "The Golden Age of Satire: Alexander Pope and Jonathan Swift" (PDF). ^ a b "What Is Juvenalian Satire?". wiseGEEK. ^ "Satire Examples and Definition". Literary Devices. ^ "Satire in Literature: Definition, Types & Examples". Education Portal. ^ a b Fo (1990) p.9 quotation: Nella storia del teatro si ritrova sempre questo conflitto in cui si scontrano impegno e disimpegno ... grottesco, satirico e lazzo con sfottò. E spesso vince lo sfotto. tanto amato dal potere. Quando si dice che il potere ama la satira ^ Eastman, Max (1936), "IV. Degrees of Biting", Enjoyment of Laughter, pp. 236–43, ISBN 9781412822626 ^ Fo, Dario; Lorch, Jennifer (1997), Dario Fo, p. 128, ISBN 9780719038488, In other writings Fo makes an important distinction between sfottò and satire. ^ a b c Fo (1990) pp.2–3 ... Una caricatura che, è ovvio, risulta del tutto bonaria, del tutto epidermica, che indica, come dicevo prima, soltanto la parte più esteriore del loro carattere, i tic la cui messa in risalto non lede assolutamente l'operato, l'ideologia, la morale e la dimensione culturale di questi personaggi. ... ricordando che i politici provano un enorme piacere nel sentirsi presi in giro; è quasi un premio che si elargisce loro, nel momento stesso in cui li si sceglie per essere sottoposti alla caricatura, a quella caricatura. ... Di fatto questa è una forma di comicità che non si può chiamare satira, ma solo sfottò. ... Pensa quanti pretesti satirici si offrirebbero se solo quei comici del "Biberon" volessero prendere in esame il modo in cui questi personaggi gestiscono il potere e lo mantengono, o si decidessero a gettare l'occhio sulle vere magagne di questa gente, le loro violenze più o meno mascherate, le loro arroganze e soprattutto le loro ipocrisie. ...un teatro cabaret capostipite: il Bagaglino, un teatro romano che, già vent'anni fa, si metteva in una bella chiave politica dichiaratamente di estrema destra, destra spudoratamente reazionaria, scopertamente fascista. Nelle pieghe del gruppo del Bagaglino e del suo lavoro c'era sempre la caricatura feroce dell'operaio, del sindacalista, del comunista, dell'uomo di sinistra, e una caricatura bonacciona invece, e ammiccante, accattivante, degli uomini e della cultura al potere ^ Fo (1990) quotation: L'ironia fatta sui tic, sulla caricatura dei connotati più o meno grotteschi dei politici presi di mira, dei loro eventuali difetti fisici, della loro particolare pronuncia, dei loro vezzi, del loro modo di vestire, del loro modo di camminare, delle frasi tipiche che vanno ripetendo. ...[lo sfottò è] una chiave buffonesca molto antica, che viene di lontano, quella di giocherellare con gli attributi esteriori e non toccare mai il problema di fondo di una critica seria che è l'analisi messa in grottesco del comportamento, la valutazione ironica della posizione, dell'ideologia del personaggio. [page needed] ^ a b Arroyo, José Luís Blas; Casanova, Mónica Velando (2006), Discurso y sociedad: contribuciones al estudio de la lengua en..., 1, pp. 303–4, ISBN 9788480215381 ^ Morson, Gary Saul (1988), Boundaries of Genre, p. 114, ISBN 9780810108110, second, that parodies can be, as Bakhtin observes, "shallow" as well as "deep" (Problems of Dostoevsky's Poetics, 160), which is to say, directed at superficial as well as fundamental faults of the original. [...] the distinction between shallow and deep [...] [is] helpful in understanding the complex ways in which parodies are used. For instance, shallow parody is sometimes used to pay an author an indirect compliment. The opposite of damning with faint praise, this parody with faint criticism may be designed to show that no more fundamental criticism could be made. ^ Luttazzi, Daniele (2005), Matrix, IT, archived from the original on December 25, 2005, Dario Fo disse a Satyricon: —La satira vera si vede dalla reazione che suscita. ^ Luttazzi, Daniele (October 2003), Fracassi, Federica; Guerriero, Jacopo (eds.), "State a casa a fare i compiti" (interview), Nazione Indiana (in Italian), Lo sfottò è reazionario. Non cambia le carte in tavola, anzi, rende simpatica la persona presa di mira. La Russa, oggi, è quel personaggio simpatico, con la voce cavernosa, il doppiatore dei Simpson di cui Fiorello fa l’imitazione. Nessuno ricorda più il La Russa picchiatore fascista. Nessuno ricorda gli atti fascisti e reazionari di questo governo in televisione. ^ Kremer, S Lillian (2003), Holocaust Literature: Agosín to Lentin, p. 100, ISBN 9780415929837 ^ Lipman, Stephen ‘Steve’ (1991), Laughter in hell: the use of humour during the Holocaust, Northvale, NJ: J Aronson, p. 40 ^ a b c d Clark (1991) pp.116–8 quotation: ...religion, politics, and sexuality are the primary stuff of literary satire. Among these sacret targets, matters costive and defecatory play an important part. ... from the earliest times, satirists have utilized scatological and bathroom humor. Aristophanes, always livid and nearly scandalous in his religious, political, and sexual references... ^ Clark, John R; Motto, Anna Lydia (1973), Satire–that blasted art, p. 20 ^ Clark, John R; Motto, Anna Lydia (1980), "Menippeans & Their Satire: Concerning Monstrous Leamed Old Dogs and Hippocentaurs", Scholia Satyrica, 6 (3/4): 45, [Chapple's book Soviet satire of the twenties]... classifying the very topics his satirists satirized: housing, food, and fuel supplies, poverty, inflation, "hooliganism", public services, religion, stereotypes of nationals (the Englishman, German, &c), &c. Yet the truth of the matter is that no satirist worth his salt (Petronius, Chaucer, Rabelais, Swift, Leskov, Grass) ever avoids man's habits and living standards, or scants those delicate desiderata: religion, politics, and sex. ^ Ferdie Addis (2012) Qual è il tuo "tallone da killer"? p.20 ^ a b Hodgart (2009) ch 2 The topics of satire: politics p.33 The most pressing of the problems that face us when we close the book or leave the theatre are ultimately political ones; and so politics is the pre-eminent topic of satire. ...to some degree public affairs vex every man, if he pays taxes, does military service or even objects to the way his neighbour is behaving. There is no escape from politics where more than a dozen people are living together. There is an essential connection between satire and politics in the widest sense: satire is not only the commonest form of political literature, but, insofar as it tries to influence public behaviours, it is the most political part of all literature. ^ Hodgart (2009) p.39 ^ a b c Wilson (2002) pp. 14–5, 20 and notes 25 (p. 308), 32 (p. 309) ^ a b Anspaugh, Kelly (1994) 'Bung Goes the Enemay': Wyndham Lewis and the Uses of Disgust. in Mattoid (ISSN 0314-5913) issue 48.3, pp.21–29. As quoted in Wilson (2002): The turd is the ultimate dead object. ^ Lise Andries Etat des recherche. Présentation in Dix-Huitième Siècle n.32, 2000, special on Rire p.10, as quoted in Jean-Michel Racault (2005) Voyages badins, burlesques et parodiques du XVIIIe siècle, p.7, quotation: "Le corps grotesque dans ses modalités clasiques – la scatologie notamment – ..." ^ Klein, Cecelia F. (1993) Teocuitlatl, 'Divine Excrement': The Significance of 'Holy Shit' in Ancient Mexico, in Art Journal (CAA), Vol.52, n.3, Fall 1993, pp.20–7 ^ Duprat, Annie (1982) La dégradation de l'image royale dans la caricature révolutionnaire p.178 quotation: Le corps grotesque est una realite populaire detournee au profit d'une representation du corps a but politique, plaquege du corps scatologique sur le corps de ceux qu'il covient de denoncer. Denonciation scatologique projetee sur le corps aristocratique pour lui signifier sa degenerescence. ^ Parsons, Elsie Clews; Beals, Ralph L. (October–December 1934). "The Sacred Clowns of the Pueblo and Mayo-Yaqui Indians". American Anthropologist. 36 (4): 491–514. doi:10.1525/aa.1934.36.4.02a00020. JSTOR 661824. ^ Hyers, M. Conrad (1996) [1996]. The Spirituality of Comedy: comic heroism in a tragic world. Transaction Publishers. p. 145. ISBN 1-56000-218-2. ^ Donald Alexander Mackenzie (1923) Myths of Pre-Columbian America p.229 ^ Patrick Marnham (2000) Dreaming with His Eyes Open: A Life of Diego Rivera p.297 ^ Hilda Ellis Davidson (1993) Boundaries & Thresholds p.85 quotation: It is this fear of what the dead in their uncontrollable power might cause which has brought forth apotropaic rites, protective rites against the dead. (...) One of these popular rites was the funeral rite of sin-eating, performed by a sin-eater, a man or woman. Through accepting the food and drink provided, he took upon himself the sins of the departed. ^ Bloom, Edward Alan; Bloom, Lillian D. (1979), Satire's persuasive voice, ISBN 9780801408397 .[page needed] ^ Nicoll, Allardyce (1951), British drama: an historical survey from the beginnings to the present time, p. 179 ^ Hodgart (2009) p.189 ^ Pollard, Arthur (1970), "4. Tones", Satire, p. 66 ^ Clark, Arthur Melville (1946), "The Art of Satire and the Satiric Spectrum", Studies in literary modes, p. 32 ^ a b Zekavat, Massih (2020). "Reflexive humour and satire: a critical review". European Journal of Humour. 7 (4): 125–136. doi:10.7592/EJHR2019.7.4.zekavat – via Open Access Journal. ^ Lichtheim, M (1973), Ancient Egyptian Literature, I, pp. 184–93 ^ Helck, W (1970), Die Lehre des DwA-xtjj, Wiesbaden ^ Gardiner, Alan H (1911), Egyptian Hieratic Texts, I: Literary Texts of the New Kingdom, I, Leipzig ^ a b Sutton, DF (1993), Ancient Comedy: The War of the Generations, New York, p. 56 ^ Bates, Alfred, ed. (1906), "Political and social satires of Aristophanes", The Drama, Its History, Literature and Influence on Civilization, 2, London: Historical Publishing, pp. 55–59 ^ Atkinson, JE (1992), "Curbing the Comedians: Cleon versus Aristophanes and Syracosius' Decree", The Classical Quarterly, New, 42 (1): 56–64, doi:10.1017/s0009838800042580, JSTOR 639144 ^ Anderson, John Louis, Aristophanes: the Michael Moore of his Day, archived from the original on October 19, 2006 ^ a b Wilson 2002, p. 17. ^ Cuddon (1998), "Satire", Dictionary of Literary Terms, Oxford ^ Bosworth 1976, p. 32. ^ Marzolph, Ulrich; van Leeuwen, Richard; Wassouf, Hassan (2004). The Arabian Nights Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 97–8. ISBN 1-57607-204-5. ^ Bosworth 1976, pp. 77–8. ^ Bosworth 1976, p. 70. ^ Webber, Edwin J (January 1958). "Comedy as Satire in Hispano-Arabic Spain". Hispanic Review. University of Pennsylvania Press. 26 (1): 1–11. doi:10.2307/470561. JSTOR 470561. ^ Hall 1969: ‘Hall's Virgidemiae was a new departure in that the true Juvenalian mode of satire was being attempted for the first time, and successfully, in English.’ ^ Davenport 1969. sfn error: no target: CITEREFDavenport1969 (help) ^ "हास्य व्यंग्य कविता हिन्दी में Hasya Vyangya Kavita In Hindi funny poetry". suvicharhindi.com. Retrieved April 19, 2019. ^ Pritam, Sarojani. 51 Shresth Vyang Rachnayen. Diamond pocket books. ^ Premchand, Munshi; Gopal, Madan. My Life and Times. Roli Books. ^ Premchand, Munshi. Premchand Ki Amar Kahaniyan. ^ Shankarji, Sung by. "The Modi song". Rough cut productions. Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan. Retrieved April 16, 2019. ^ "Kunal Kamra: The accidental revolutionary". Live Mint. March 17, 2018. Retrieved April 16, 2019. ^ "Gujarat Varsity Cancels Show by 'Anti-National' Comedian Kunal Kamra After Alumni Complaint". The Wire. Retrieved April 16, 2019. ^ Tyagi, Ravindranath. Urdu Hindi Hashya Vyang. Rajkamal Prakashan. ^ Sekhri, Abhinandan (April 17, 2019). "Interview with Kunal Kamra". News laundry. Retrieved April 19, 2019. ^ Gujarati, Ashok. Vyang Ke Rang. Prabhat Prakashan. ^ Jaimini, Arun. Hasya Vyang Ki Shikhar Kavitaye. ISBN 8183615686. ^ The Broadview Anthology of British Literature: The Restoration and the Eighteenth Century, 3, p. 435 ^ Weinbrot, Howard D. (2007) Eighteenth-Century Satire: Essays on Text and Context from Dryden to Peter... p.136 ^ Dryden, John, Lynch, Jack (ed.), Discourse, Rutgers ^ "Biography of Alexander Pope § Synopsis". Biography.com. ^ Jonathan J. Szwec (2011). "Satire in 18th Century British Society: Alexander Pope's The Rape of the Lock and Jonathan Swift's A Modest Proposal". Student Pulse. 3 (6). ^ Charles Press (1981). The Political Cartoon. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p. 34. ISBN 9780838619018. ^ a b "Satire, sewers and statesmen: why James Gillray was king of the cartoon". The Guardian. June 18, 2015. ^ David King & Cathy Porter 'Blood & Laughter: Caricatures from the 1905 Revolution' Jonathan Cape 1983 p.31 ^ a b Chaplin (1964) My Autobiography, p.392, quotation: Had I known of the actual horrors of the German concentration camps, I could not have made The Great Dictator, I could not have made fun of the homicidal insanity of the Nazis. ^ Stein, Nathaniel (July 1, 2013). "Funny Pages: How the National Lampoon made American Humor". The Daily Beast. Retrieved July 22, 2020. ^ Sullivan, James (2010) Seven Dirty Words: The Life and Crimes of George Carlin p.94 ^ George Carlin (2002) Introduction to Murder At the Conspiracy Convention ^ "David Frost's Q&A on how to be a satirist". The Guardian (London). Retrieved February 2, 2015 ^ "What is Catch-22? And why does the book matter?". BBC. March 12, 2002. ^ Dalton, Stephen (August 21, 2017). "Critics Notebook: Jerry Lewis a Comic Genius by Turns Sweet and Bitter". The Hollywood Reporter. ^ Freudenburg, Kirk (2001). Satires of Rome: Threatening Poses from Lucilius to Juvenal. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 299. ISBN 0-521-00621-X. ^ Van Norris (2014). British Television Animation 1997–2010: Drawing Comic Tradition". p. 153. Palgrave Macmillan, ^ "James Gillray". lambiek.net. Archived from the original on November 25, 2016. ^ Embrick DG, Talmadge J. Wright TJ, Lukacs A (2012). Social Exclusion, Power, and Video Game Play: New Research in Digital Media and Technology, Lexington Books, p. 19, ISBN 9780739138625. Quote: "In-game television programs and advertisements, radio stations, and billboards provide a running satirical commentary on the state of civilization in general, and on the roles of males in particular." ^ "GTA 5: a Great British export". The Telegraph. September 29, 2015. ^ Canavan G, Robinson KS (2014). Green Planets: Ecology and Science Fiction, Wesleyan University Press, p. 278, ISBN 9780819574282. ^ a b Byron G, Townshend D (2013). The Gothic World. Routledge. p. 456. ISBN 9781135053062. Quote: "[P]resent themselves as deliberately controversial, incorporating hyper-violent gameplay, dark social satire and conspicuous political incorrectness[.]" ^ Lavender III, Isiah (2017). Dis-Orienting Planets: Racial Representations of Asia in Science Fiction. Univ. Press of Mississippi, p. 208, ISBN 9781496811554. ^ Deumert, Ana (2014). Sociolinguistics and Mobile Communication. Edinburgh University Press. p. 181. ISBN 9780748655779. Retrieved June 12, 2017. . ^ Lund, Arwid (2020). Wikipedia, Work, and Capitalism. Springer: Dynamics of Virtual Work. ISBN 9783319506890. , p. 48. ^ Kaye, Sharon M. (2010). The Onion and Philosophy: Fake News Story True, Alleges Indignant Area Professor. Open Court Publishing. p. 243. ISBN 9780812696875. Quote: "People might be justified in concluding that the Onion is a legitimate small-town paper when they see headlines like "Local Woman Devotes Life To Doing God's Busy Work" (10/4/08), "God Help Him, Area Man Loves That Crazy Bitch" (11/22/08), or "Area Woman Wouldn't Mind Feeding Your Cats" (12/6/08). Even if they read the full story, they may never figure out it is a satire. Maybe if they scroll to the bottom of the webpage and notice the disclaimer, 'The Onion is not intended for readers under 18 years of age' they would realize that this is not your average news source. Maybe not--especially if they think that there might be such a thing as "adult news."" ^ Liz Raftery – "Who Did the Best Hillary Clinton Impression on SNL?", TV Guide, April 30, 2015. (Video) Retrieved August 15, 2015 ^ "You betcha—Tina Fey wins Emmy as Sarah Palin on 'SNL'". Los Angeles Times. September 13, 2009. Retrieved September 13, 2009. ^ "Tain't Funny – Time". Time.com. September 29, 1947. Retrieved August 29, 2009. ^ An interview with The Onion, David Shankbone, Wikinews, November 25, 2007. ^ Griffin, Dustin H. (1994) Satire: A Critical Reintroduction p.136 ^ Geisler, Michael E. (2005) National Symbols, Fractured Identities: Contesting the National Narrative p.73 ^ a b c d Pezzella, Vincenzo (2009) La diffamazione: responsabilità penale e civile pp.566–7 quotation: Il diritto di satira trova il suo fondamento negli artt. 21 e 33 della Costituzione che tutelano, rispettivamente, la libertà di manifestazione del pensiero e quella di elaborazione artistica e scientifica. (...) la satira, in quanto operante nell'ambito di ciò che è arte, non è strettamente correlata ad esigenze informative, dal che deriva che i suoi limiti di liveità siano ben più ammpi di quelli propri del diritto di cronaca ^ "theJuice on Twitter". Twitter. Retrieved June 10, 2018. ^ corporateName=Commonwealth Parliament; address=Parliament House, Canberra. "Criminal Code Amendment (Impersonating a Commonwealth Body) Bill 2017". Retrieved June 10, 2018.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ "ParlInfo - Criminal Code Amendment (Impersonating a Commonwealth Body) Bill 2017". parlinfo.aph.gov.au. Retrieved June 10, 2018. ^ corporateName=Commonwealth Parliament; address=Parliament House, Canberra. "Criminal Code Amendment (Impersonating a Commonwealth Body) Bill 2017". Retrieved June 10, 2018.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Kinservik, Matthew J. (2002) Disciplining Satire: The Censorship of Satiric Comedy on the Eighteenth... p.21 ^ Test (1991) p.10 ^ Leonard, James S; Tenney, Thomas A; Davis, Thadious M (December 1992). Satire or Evasion?: Black Perspectives on Huckleberry Finn. Duke University Press. p. 224. ISBN 978-0-8223-1174-4. ^ Fishin, Shelley Fisher (1997), Lighting out for the Territory: Reflections on Mark Twain and American Culture, New York: Oxford University Press ^ "'Hang your heads' Rudd tells Chaser boys". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. June 4, 2009. Retrieved June 5, 2009. ^ Sutherland, James (1958), English Satire ^ Martin, Rod A (2007), The Psychology of Humor: An Integrative Approach, pp. 27–8, ISBN 9780080465999 ^ Apte, Mahadev L (1985), "Introduction", Humor and laughter: an anthropological approach, p. 23, ISBN 9780801493072, The general neglect of humor as a topic of anthropological research is reflected in teaching practice. Most introductory textbooks do not even list humor as a significant characteristic of cultural systems together with kinship, social roles, behavioral patterns, religion, language, economic transactions, political institutions, values, and material culture. ^ Arber, Edward, ed. (1875–94), A Transcript of the Registers of the Company of Stationers of London, 1554–1640, III, London, p. 677 ^ "Zuma claims R7m over Zapiro cartoon". Mail and Guardian. ZA. December 18, 2008. ^ "How a lone cameraman 'dented' SABC's credibility". Mail and Guardian. ZA. Archived from the original on September 12, 2005. ^ "ZNews: Zapiro's puppet show". Dispatch. ZA. Archived from the original on March 26, 2012. ^ "SABC pulls Zapiro doccie, again". Mail and Guardian. ZA. September 26, 2009. ^ "Samsung Sues Satirist, Claiming Criminal Defamation, Over Satirical Column Poking Fun At Samsung". Techdirt. May 11, 2010. Retrieved June 9, 2012. ^ Glionna, John M (May 10, 2010). "Samsung doesn't find satirical spoof amusing". Los Angeles Times. ^ a b "Ukip asks police to investigate the BBC over Have I Got News for You". BBC. Retrieved June 18, 2015 ^ Krassner, Paul (August 26, 2003), "Terminal velocity television is here", New York Press, 16 (35) ^ a b Luttazzi, Daniele (2007), Lepidezze postribolari (in Italian), Feltrinelli, p. 275 ^ Franklin, Benjamin (April 26, 1784). "Aux auteurs du Journal". Journal de Paris (in French) (117). Wrote anonymously. Its first publication was in the journal's "Économie" section. An Economical Project (revised English version ed.), retrieved May 26, 2007 has a title that is not Franklin's; see Aldridge, A. O. (1956). "Franklin's essay on daylight saving". American Literature. 28 (1): 23–29. doi:10.2307/2922719. JSTOR 2922719. ^ "Bush: 'Our Long National Nightmare of Peace And Prosperity Is Finally Over'". The Onion. Retrieved June 9, 2012. ^ "Fuck Everything, We're Doing Five Blades". The Onion. Archived from the original on November 16, 2017. Retrieved October 30, 2020. ^ "Where Satire Meets Truth: Did The Onion Just Predict a Real Israeli Headline?". Haaretz. Retrieved January 1, 2016. ^ "Back to the future: how the Simpsons and others predicted President Trump". The Guardian. Retrieved February 5, 2017. ^ "Donald Trump wants to build a wall on the border with Mexico. Can he do it?". PBS. Retrieved August 3, 2020. ^ "Punocracy Prize for Satire (PuPS) Writing Competition 2019 for Nigerians (Up to N100,000 in prizes)". Retrieved November 19, 2019. ^ "Shortlist: 2019 Punocracy Prize for Satire". Retrieved November 19, 2019. ^ "Group holds award ceremony for satire writing". Premium Times. Retrieved November 19, 2019. Sources[edit] Jonson, Ben; Miola, Robert S. (2000). Every Man in His Humour: Quarto Version. Manchester University Press. ISBN 9780719015656. Bibliography[edit] Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (1976), The Mediaeval Islamic Underworld: The Banu Sasan in Arabic Society and Literature, Brill Publishers, ISBN 90-04-04392-6 . Branham, R Bracht; Kinney, Daniel (1997), Introduction, ISBN 9780520211186 to Petronius, Satyrica, p. xxiv . Clark, John R (1991), The Modern Satiric Grotesque and its traditions, Lexington: U of Kentucky P, ISBN 9780813130323 . Corum, Robert T (2002), "The rhetoric of disgust and contempt in Boileau", in Birberick, Anne Lynn; Ganim, Russell (eds.), The Shape of Change: Essays in Early Modern Literature and La Fontaine in Honor of David Lee Rubin, ISBN 9042014490 . Elliott, Robert C (2004), "The nature of satire", Encyclopædia Britannica . Fo, Dario (1990), "Satira e sfottò", in Allegri, Luigi (ed.), Dialogo provocatorio sul comico, il tragico, la follia e la ragione (interview) (in Italian), pp. 2, 9 . Fo, Dario (1993), Provocative Dialogue on the Comic, the Tragic, Folly and Reason, London: Methuen Publishing (transl.). Frye, Northrop (1957), Anatomy of Criticism (in particular the discussion of the 4 "myths"). Hall, Joseph (1969), Davenport, A (ed.), The Poems, Liverpool University Press . Hodgart, Matthew; Connery, Brian (2009) [1969], Satire: Origins and Principles, ISBN 9781412833646 . Pietrasik, Vanessa (2011), La satire en jeu. Critique et scepticisme en Allemagne à la fin du XVIIIe siècle (in French), Tusson: Du Lérot éditeur, Charente . Test, George Austin (1991), Elliott's Bind; or, What Is Satire, Anyway? in Satire: Spirit & Art, ISBN 9780813010878 Wilson, R Rawdon (2002), The hydra's tale: imagining disgust, ISBN 9780888643681 . Further reading[edit] Bloom, Edward A (1972), "Sacramentum Militiae: The Dynamics of Religious Satire", Studies in the Literary Imagination, 5: 119–42 . Bronowski, Jacob; Mazlish, Bruce (1993) [1960], The Western Intellectual Tradition From Leonardo to Hegel, Barnes & Noble, p. 252 . Connery, Brian A, Theorizing Satire: A Bibliography, Oakland University . Dooley, David Joseph (1972), Contemporary satire, ISBN 9780039233853 . Feinberg, Leonard, The satirist . Lee, Jae Num (1971), Scatology in Continental Satirical Writings from Aristophanes to Rabelais and English Scatological Writings from Skelton to Pope, 1,2,3 maldita madre. Swift and Scatological Satire, Albuquerque: U of New Mexico P, pp. 7–22, 23–53 . Theories/critical approaches to satire as a genre[edit] Connery, Brian; Combe, Kirk, eds. (1995). Theorizing Satire: Essays in Literary Criticism. New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 212. ISBN 0-312-12302-7. Draitser, Emil (1994), Techniques of Satire: The Case of Saltykov-Shchedrin, Berlin-New York: Mouton de Gruyter, ISBN 3-11-012624-9 . Hammer, Stephanie, Satirizing the Satirist . Highet, Gilbert, Satire . Kernan, Alvin, The Cankered Muse . Kindermann, Udo (1978), Satyra. Die Theorie der Satire im Mittellateinischen, Vorstudie zu einer Gattungsgeschichte (in German), Nürnberg . Κωστίου, Αικατερίνη (2005), Εισαγωγή στην Ποιητική της Ανατροπής: σάτιρα, ειρωνεία, παρωδία, χιούμορ (in Greek), Αθήνα: Νεφέλη The plot of satire[edit] Seidel, Michael, Satiric Inheritance . Zdero, Rad (2008), Entopia: Revolution of the Ants . External links[edit] Harry Furniss Parliamentary Satire Book - 1890s - UK Parliament Living Heritage Wikiquote has quotations related to: Satire Look up satire in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Satire. Garnett, Richard (1911). "Satire" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 24 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 228–229. v t e Narrative Character Antagonist Antihero Archenemy Character arc Character flaw Characterization Deuteragonist False protagonist Focal character Foil Gothic double Narrator Protagonist Stock character Straight man Supporting character Title character Tragic hero Tritagonist Plot Act Act structure Three-act structure Action Backstory Chekhov's gun Cliché Cliffhanger Conflict Deus ex machina Dialogue Dramatic structure Exposition/Protasis Rising action/Epitasis Climax/Peripeteia Falling action/Catastasis Denouement/Catastrophe Eucatastrophe Foreshadowing Flashback Flashforward Frame story In medias res Kishōtenketsu MacGuffin Occam's razor Pace Plot device Plot twist Poetic justice Red herring Reveal Self-fulfilling prophecy Shaggy dog story Story arc Subplot Suspense Trope Setting Alternate history Backstory Crossover Dreamworld Dystopia Fictional location city country universe Utopia Theme Irony Leitmotif Metaphor Moral Motif Style Allegory 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en-wikipedia-org-9890	----	Theatre of ancient Rome - Wikipedia Theatre of ancient Rome From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Theatrical genre Roman mosaic depicting actors and an aulos player (House of the Tragic Poet, Pompeii). The architectural form of theatre in Rome has been linked to later, more well-known examples from the 1st century B.C.E. to the 3rd Century C.E.[1] The Theatre of ancient Rome referred to as a period of time in which theatrical practice and performance took place in Rome has been linked back even further to the 4th century B.C.E., following the state’s transition from monarchy to republic. [1] Theatre during this era is generally separated into genres of tragedy and comedy, which are represented by a particular style of architecture and stage play, and conveyed to an audience purely as a form of entertainment and control.[2] When it came to the audience, Romans favored entertainment and performance over tragedy and drama, displaying a more modern form of theatre that is still used in contemporary times.[2] 'Spectacle' became an essential part of an everyday Romans expectations when it came to Theatre.[1] Some works by Plautus, Terence, and Seneca the Younger that survive to this day, highlight the different aspects of Roman society and culture at the time, including advancements in Roman literature and theatre.[1]Theatre during this period of time would come to represent an important aspect of Roman society during the republican and imperial periods of Rome.[1] Contents 1 Origins of Roman theatre 2 Genres of ancient Roman theatre 2.1 Roman tragedy 2.2 Roman comedy 2.2.1 Stock characters in Roman comedy 3 Roman theatre in performance 3.1 Stage and physical space 3.2 Actors 4 Notable Roman playwrights 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Origins of Roman theatre[edit] Rome was founded in 753 B.C.E as a monarchy under Etruscan rule, and remained as such throughout the first two and a half centuries of its existence. Following the expulsion of Rome's last king, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, or "Tarquin the Proud," circa 509 B.C.E., Rome became a republic and was henceforth led by a group of magistrates elected by the Roman people. It is believed that Roman theatre was born during the first two centuries of the Roman Republic, following the spread of Roman rule into a large area of the Italian Peninsula, circa 364 B.C.E. Following the devastation of widespread plague in 364 B.C.E, Roman citizens began including theatrical games as a supplement to the Lectisternium ceremonies already being performed, in a stronger effort to pacify the gods. In the years following the establishment of these practices, actors began adapting these dances and games into performances by acting out texts set to music and simultaneous movement. As the era of the Roman Republic progressed, citizens began including professionally performed drama in the eclectic offerings of the ludi (celebrations of public holidays) held throughout each year—the largest of these festivals being the Ludi Romani, held each September in honor of the Roman god Jupiter.[3] It was as a part of the Ludi Romani in 240 B.C.E. that author and playwright Livius Adronicus became the first to produce translations of Greek plays to be performed on the Roman stage.[4][5][6] Prior to 240 B.C.E, Roman contact with northern and southern Italian cultures began to influence Roman concepts of entertainment. [7]The early Roman stage was dominated by: Phylakes(a form of tragic parody that arose in Italy during the Roman Republic from 500 to 250 B.C.E), Atellan farces (or a type of comedy that depicted the supposed backwards thinking of the southeastern Oscan town of Atella; a form of ethnic humor that arose around 300 B.C.E), and Fescennine verses (originating in southern Etruria).[7] Furthermore, Phylakes scholars have discovered vases depicting productions of Old Comedy (e.g. Aristophanes, a Greek play), leading many to ascertain that such Comedic plays were presented at one point to an Italian, if not "Latin-Speaking" audience as early as the 4th century.[7] This is supported by the fact that Latin was an essential component to Roman Theatre.[7] From 240 B.C.E to 100 B.C.E, Roman theatre had been introduced to a period of literary drama, within which classical and post-classical Greek plays had been adapted to Roman theatre.[7] From 100 B.C.E till 476 C.E, Roman entertainment began to be captured by circus-like performances, spectacles, and miming while remaining allured by theatrical performances.[7] Ancient Roman Theatre in Orange, South of France, 2008 The early drama that emerged was very similar to the drama in Greece. Rome had engaged in a number of wars, some of which had taken place in areas of Italy, in which Greek culture had been a great influence.[8] Examples of this include the First Punic War (264-241 B.C.E) in Sicily.[8] Through this came relations between Greece and Rome, starting with the emergence of a Hellenistic world, one in which Hellenistic culture was more widely spread and through political developments via Roman conquests of Mediterranean colonies.[8] Acculturation had become specific to Greco-Roman relations, with Rome mainly adopting aspects of Greek culture, their achievements, and developing those aspects into Roman literature, art, and science.[8] Rome had become one of the first developing European cultures to shape their own culture after another.[8] With the end of the Third Macedonian War (168 B.C.E), Rome had gained greater access to a wealth of Greek art and literature, and an influx of Greek migrants, particularly Stoic philosophers such as Crates of Mallus (168 B.C.E) and even Athenian philosophers (155 B.C.E).This allowed the Romans to develop an interest in a new form of expression, philosophy.[8] The development that occurred was first initiated by playwrights that were Greeks or half-Greeks living in Rome.[8] While Greek literary tradition in drama influenced the Romans, the Romans chose to not fully adopt these traditions, and instead the dominant local language of Latin was used.[8] These Roman plays that were beginning to be performed were heavily influenced by the Etruscan traditions, particularly regarding the importance of music and performance.[8] Genres of ancient Roman theatre[edit] A Roman actor playing Papposilenus, marble statue, c. 100 AD, after a Greek original from the 4th century BC The first important works of Roman literature were the tragedies and comedies written by Livius Andronicus beginning in 240 BC. Five years later, Gnaeus Naevius, a younger contemporary of Andronicus, also began to write drama, composing in both genres as well. No plays from either writer have survived. By the beginning of the 2nd century BC, drama had become firmly established in Rome and a guild of writers (collegium poetarum) had been formed.[9] Roman tragedy[edit] No early Roman tragedy survives, though it was highly regarded in its day; historians know of three early tragedians—Ennius, Pacuvius and Lucius Accius. One important aspect of tragedy that differed from other genres was the implementation of choruses that were included in the action on the stage during the performances of many tragedies.[10] From the time of the empire, however, the work of two tragedians survives—one is an unknown author, while the other is the Stoic philosopher Seneca. Nine of Seneca's tragedies survive, all of which are fabulae crepidatae (A fabula crepidata or fabula cothurnata is a Latin tragedy with Greek subjects) Seneca appears as a character in the tragedy Octavia, the only extant example of fabula praetexta (tragedies based on Roman subjects, first created by Naevius), and as a result, the play was mistakenly attributed as having been authored by Seneca himself. However, though historians have since confirmed that the play was not one of Seneca's works, the true author remains unknown.[9] Senecan Tragedy put forth a declamatory style, or a style of tragedy that emphasized rhetoric structures.[11] It was a style characterized through paradox, discontinuity, antithesis, and the adoption of declamatory structures and techniques that involved a aspects of compression, elaboration, epigram, and of course, hyperbole, as most of his plays seemed to emphasize such exaggerations in order to make points more persuasive.[11] Seneca wrote tragedies that reflected the soul, through which rhetoric would be used within that process of creating a tragic character and reveal something about the state of one's mind.[11] One of the most notable ways that Seneca developed a tragedy, was through the use of an aside, or a common theatre device found within Hellenistic drama, which at the time was foreign to the world of Attic tragedy.[11] Seneca explored the interior of the psychology of the mind through 'self-representational soliloquies or monologues,' which focused on one's inner thoughts, the central causes of their emotional conflicts, their self-deception, as well as other varieties of psychological turmoil that served to dramatize emotion in a way that became central to Roman tragedy, distinguishing itself from the prior used forms of Greek tragedy.[11] Those that witnessed Seneca's use of Rhetoric; pupils, readers, and audience, were noted to have been taught Seneca's use of verbal strategy, psychic mobility, and public role-play, which for many, substantially altered the mental states of many individual's.[11] Roman comedy[edit] Further information: Metres of Roman comedy A well preserved Roman theater in Bosra (Syria) All Roman comedies that have survived can be categorized as fabula palliata (comedies based on Greek subjects) and were written by two dramatists: Titus Maccius Plautus (Plautus) and Publius Terentius Afer (Terence). No fabula togata (Roman comedy in a Roman setting) has survived. In adapting Greek plays to be performed for Roman audiences, the Roman comic dramatists made several changes to the structure of the productions. Most notable is the removal of the previously prominent role of the chorus as a means of separating the action into distinct episodes. Additionally, musical accompaniment was added as a simultaneous supplement to the plays' dialogue. The action of all scenes typically took place in the streets outside the dwelling of the main characters, and plot complications were often a result of eavesdropping by a minor character. Plautus wrote between 205 and 184 B.C. and twenty of his comedies survive to present day, of which his farces are best known. He was admired for the wit of his dialogue and for his varied use of poetic meters. As a result of the growing popularity of Plautus' plays, as well as this new form of written comedy, scenic plays became a more prominent component in Roman festivals of the time, claiming their place in events that had previously only featured races, athletic competitions, and gladiatorial battles. All six of the comedies that Terence composed between 166 and 160 BC have survived. The complexity of his plots, in which he routinely combined several Greek originals into one production, brought about heavy criticism, including claims that in doing so, he was ruining the original Greek plays, as well as rumors that he had received assistance from high ranking men in composing his material. In fact, these rumors prompted Terence to use the prologues in several of his plays as an opportunity to plead with audiences, asking that they lend an objective eye and ear to his material, and not be swayed by what they may have heard about his practices. This was a stark difference from the written prologues of other known playwrights of the period, who routinely utilized their prologues as a way of prefacing the plot of the play being performed.[12][9] Stock characters in Roman comedy[edit] An ivory statuette of a Roman actor of tragedy, 1st. century. The following are examples of stock characters in Roman comedy: The adulescens is an unmarried man, usually in late teens or twenties; his action typically surrounds the pursuit of the love of a prostitute or slave girl, who is later revealed to be a free-born woman, and therefore eligible for marriage. The adulescens character is typically accompanied by a clever slave character, who attempts to solve the adulescens’ problems or shield him from conflict.[13] The senex is primarily concerned with his relationship with his son, the adulescens. Although he often opposes his son's choice of love interest, he sometimes helps him to achieve his desires. He is sometimes in love with the same woman as his son, a woman who is much too young for the senex. He never gets the girl and is often dragged off by his irate wife.[13] The leno is the character of the pimp or 'slave dealer.' Although the activities of the character are portrayed as highly immoral and vile, the leno always acts legally and is always paid in full for his services.[13] The miles gloriosus is an arrogant, braggart soldier character, deriving from Greek Old Comedy. The character’s title is taken from a play of the same name written by Plautus. The miles gloriosus character is typically gullible, cowardly, and boastful.[14] The parasitus (parasite) is often portrayed as a selfish liar. He is typically associated with the miles gloriosus character, and hangs upon his every word. The parasitus is primarily concerned with his own appetite, or from where he will obtain his next free meal.[13] The matrona is the character of the wife and mother, and is usually displayed as an annoyance to her husband, constantly getting in the way of his freedom to pursue other women. After catching her husband with another woman, she typically ends the affair and forgives him. She loves her children, but is often temperamental towards her husband.[13] The virgo (young maiden) is an unmarried young woman, and is the love interest of the adulescens, She is often spoken of, but remains offstage. A typical plot point in the last act of the play reveals her to be of freeborn descent, and therefore eligible for marriage.[13] Roman theatre in performance[edit] A sculpture of Lucius Annaeus Seneca, by Puerta de Almodóvar in Córdoba Stage and physical space[edit] Beginning with the first presentation of theatre in Rome in 240 B.C., plays were often presented during public festivals. Since these plays were less popular than the several other types of events (gladiatorial matches, circus events, etc.) held within the same space, theatrical events were performed using temporary wooden structures, which had to be displaced and dismantled for days at a time, whenever other spectacle events were scheduled to take place. The slow process of creating a permanent performance space was due to the staunch objection of high-ranking officials: it was the opinion of the members of the senate that citizens were spending too much time at theatrical events, and that condoning this behavior would lead to corruption of the Roman public. As a result, no permanent stone structure was constructed for the purpose of theatrical performance until 55 B.C.E.Sometimes theatre building projects could last generations before being completed, and would take a combination of private benefactors, public subscription, and proceeds from the summae honorariae or payments for office positions made by magistrates.[15] To demonstrate their benefactions, statues or inscriptions (sometimes in sums of money) were erected or inscribed for all to see in front of the tribunalia, in the proscaenium or scaenae frons, parts of the building meant to be in the public eye.[15] Building theatres required both a massive undertaking and a significant amount of time, often lasting generations.[15] Roman theatres, particularly ones constructed in western-Roman, were mainly modeled off of Greek ones.[15] They were often arranged in a semicircle around an orchestra, but both the stage and scene building were joined together with the auditorium and were elevated to the same height, creating an enclosure very similar in structure and appearance to that of a modern theatre.[15] This was furthered by odea or smaller theatres having roofs or larger theatres having vela, allowing for the audience to have some shade.[15] During the time of these temporary structures, theatrical performances featured a very minimalist atmosphere. This included space for spectators to stand or sit to watch the play, known as a cavea, and a stage, or scaena. The setting for each play was depicted using an elaborate backdrop (scaenae frons), and the actors performed on the stage, in the playing space in front of the scaenae frons, called the proscaenium. These structures were erected in several different places, including temples, arenas, and at times, plays were held in Rome’s central square (the forum).[12][4] Societal divisions within the theatre were made apparent in how the auditorium was divided, typically by broad corridors or praecinctiones, into one of three zones, the ima, media, and summa cavea.[16] These zones served to section off certain groups within the population.[16] Of these three divisions, the summa cavea or 'the gallery' was where men (without togas or pullati (poor)), women, and sometimes slaves (by admission) were seated.[16] The seating arrangements of the theatre highlight the gender disparities in Roman society, as women were seated among the slaves.[16] Sur notes that it wasn’t until Augustus that segregation in the theatre was enforced, to which women had to either sit at or near the back.[16] Theatres were paid for by certain benefactors and were seen as targets for benefaction, mainly out of the need to maintain civil order and as a consequence of the citizens desire for theatrical performance.[16] Theatres were constructed almost always through the interests of those who held the highest ranks and positions in the Roman Republic.[16] In order to maintain segregation of power, those of high rank were often seated near the front or in the public eye (tribunalia).[16] Individuals who made benefactions to the construction of theatres would often do so for propaganda reasons.[16] Whether it be at the hand of an imperial benefactor or a wealthy individual, the high cost of building a theatre usually required more than a single individual’s donations.[16] In 55 B.C., the first permanent theatre was constructed. Built by Pompey the Great, the main purpose of this structure was actually not for the performance of drama, but rather, to allow current and future rulers a venue with which they could assemble the public and demonstrate their pomp and authority over the masses. With seating for 20,000 audience members, the grandiose structure held a 300-foot-wide stage, and boasted a three-story scaenae frons flanked with elaborate statues. The Theatre of Pompey remained in use through the early 6th century, but was dismantled for it stone in the Middle Ages. Virtually nothing of the vast structure is visible above ground today.[12][3] Actors[edit] Roman actors. The first actors that appeared in Roman performances were originally from Etruria. This tradition of foreign actors would continue in Roman dramatic performances. Beginning with early performances, actors were denied the same political and civic rights that were afforded to ordinary Roman citizens because of the low social status of actors. In addition, actors were exempt from military service, which further inhibited their rights in Roman society because it was impossible for an individual to hold a political career without having some form of military experience. While actors did not possess many rights, slaves did have the opportunity to win their freedom if they were able to prove themselves as successful actors.[17] The open-air declaiming, gesturing, singing, and dancing of Roman stage acting required stamina and agility.[18] The spread of dramatic performance throughout Rome occurred with the growth of acting companies that are believed to have eventually begun to travel throughout all of Italy. These acting troupes were usually composed of four to six trained actors. Usually, two to three of the actors in the troupe would have speaking roles in a performance, while the other actors in the troupe would be present on stage as attendants to the speaking actors. For the most part, actors specialized in one genre of drama and did not alternate between other genres of drama.[19] The most famous actor to develop a career in the late Roman Republic was Quintus Roscius Gallus (125BCE- 62BCE). He was primarily known for his performances in the genre of comedy and became renowned for his performances among the elite circles of Roman society.[20] Through these connections he became intimate with Lucius Licinius Crassus, the great orator and member of the Senate, and Lucius Cornelius Sulla.[21] In addition to the acting career Gallus would build, he also would take his acting abilities and use them to teach amateur actors the craft of becoming successful in the art. He would further distinguish himself through his financial success as an actor and a teacher of acting in a field that was not highly respected. Ultimately, he chose to conclude his career as an actor without being paid for his performances because he wanted to offer his performances as a service to the Roman people.[22] Until recently, it was commonly believed, that although the possibility exists that women may have performed non-speaking roles in Roman theatrical performances, historical evidence dictated that male actors portrayed all speaking roles. Later research has shown that, although likely rare, there were women who performed speaking roles.[23] Bassilla and Fabia Arete were, for example, two actresses known for their role of Charition in a popular folk comedy.[24] There were certainly successful women stage performers within dance and singing in theatrical performances, many of whom apparently enjoyed widespread fame, and even a guild exclusively for female stage performers, the Sociae Mimae. The public opinion of actors was very low, placing them within the same social status as criminals and prostitutes, and acting as a profession was considered illegitimate and repulsive. Many Roman actors were slaves, and it was not unusual for a performer to be beaten by his master as punishment for an unsatisfactory performance. These actions and opinions differ greatly from those demonstrated during the time of ancient Greek theatre, a time when actors were regarded as respected professionals, and were granted citizenship in Athens.[13][4] Notable Roman playwrights[edit] Livius Andronicus, a Greek slave taken to Rome in 240 BC; wrote plays based on Greek subjects and existing plays. Rome's first playwright Plautus, 3rd century BC comedic playwright and author of Miles Gloriosus, Pseudolus, and Menaechmi Terence, wrote between 170 and 160 BC Titinius, writing in the second century BC Gaius Maecenas Melissus, 1st century playwright of a "comedy of manners" Seneca, 1st century dramatist most famous for Roman adaptations of ancient Greek plays (e.g. Medea and Phaedra) Ennius, contemporary of Plautus who wrote both comedy and tragedy Lucius Accius, tragic poet and literary scholar Pacuvius, Ennius's nephew and tragic playwright See also[edit] History of theatre Theatre of ancient Greece Roman theatre (structure) Atellan farce Roman funerals and burial Ludi Floralia Latin literature Theatre Area of Pompeii Sociae Mimae References[edit] ^ a b c d e Phillips, Laura Klar (2006). "The architecture of the Roman theater: Origins, canonization, and dissemination". ProQUEST. pp. 13–50. Retrieved 2020-02-11. ^ a b Hammer, Dean (2010). "ROMAN SPECTACLE ENTERTAINMENTS AND THE TECHNOLOGY OF REALITY": 63–68. ProQuest 221210783. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ a b Zarrilli, Phillip B.; McConachie, Bruce; Williams, Gary Jay; Fisher Sorgenfrei, Carol (2006). Theatre Histories: An Introduction. Routledge. pp. 102, 106. ISBN 978-0-415-22728-5. ^ a b c Moore, Timothy J. (2012). Roman Theatre. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521138185. ^ Banham, Martin (1995). The Cambridge Guide to Theatre. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521434379. ^ Beacham, Richard C. (1991). The Roman Theatre and Its Audience. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674779143. ^ a b c d e f Phillips, Laura Klar (2006). "The architecture of the Roman theater: Origins, canonization, and dissemination". ProQUEST. Retrieved 2020-02-11. ^ a b c d e f g h i Gesine, Manuwald (2011). Roman Republican Theatre. EBSCOhost: Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. 2011. p. 385. ISBN 9780521110167. ^ a b c Brockett, Oscar; Hildy, Franklin J. (2003). History of the Theatre. Allyn and Bacon. ISBN 9780205358786. ^ Gesine Manuwald, Roman Republican Theatre, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 74. ^ a b c d e f Boyle, A. J. (1997). Tragic Seneca : An Essay in the Theatrical Tradition. Ebscohost. pp. 15–32. ISBN 1134802315. Retrieved 2020-02-20. ^ a b c Bieber, Margarete (1961). The History of Greek & Roman Theater. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. 151–171. ^ a b c d e f g Thorburn, John E. (2005). The Facts on File Companion to Classical Drama. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 9780816074983. ^ Hochman, Stanley (1984). McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of World Drama. VNR AG. p. 243. ISBN 9780070791695. ^ a b c d e f Sear, Frank. "Roman Theatres: An Architectural Study". Academia: 1–83. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Sear, Frank. "Roman Theatres: An Architectural Study". Academia: 1–83. ^ Gesine Manuwald, Roman Republican Theatre, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 22-24). ^ Gesine Manuwald, Roman Republican Theatre, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 73. ^ Gesine Manuwald, Roman Republican Theatre, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 85. ^ William J. Slater, Roman Theater and Society, (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996), 36. ^ William J. Slater, Roman Theater and Society, (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996), 37. ^ William J. Slater, Roman Theater and Society, (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996), 41. ^ Pat Easterling, Edith Hall: Greek and Roman Actors: Aspects of an Ancient Profession ^ Pat Easterling, Edith Hall: Greek and Roman Actors: Aspects of an Ancient Profession External links[edit] The Ancient Theatre Archive, Greek and Roman theatre architecture - Dr. Thomas G. Hines, Department of Theatre, Whitman College Cliff, U.The Roman Theatre, Clio History Journal, 2009. Roman Theater, Roman Colosseum, 2008. Classical Drama and Theatre, Mark Damen, Utah State University What the Roman Play Was Like, A Short History of the Drama, Martha Fletcher Bellinger Rhyme, Women, and Song: Getting in Tune with Plautus, Anne H. 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Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Català Deutsch Español Euskara Français 한국어 Interlingua Italiano Қазақша Português Русский Српски / srpski Sunda தமிழ் Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 13 December 2020, at 15:31 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9909	----	Forum (Roman) - Wikipedia Forum (Roman) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the type of ancient civic center. For other uses, see Forum. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Forum" Roman – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Roman Forum in Rome, Italy A forum (Latin forum "public place outdoors",[1] plural fora; English plural either fora or forums) was a public square in a Roman municipium, or any civitas, reserved primarily for the vending of goods; i.e., a marketplace, along with the buildings used for shops and the stoas used for open stalls. Many fora were constructed at remote locations along a road by the magistrate responsible for the road, in which case the forum was the only settlement at the site and had its own name, such as Forum Popili or Forum Livi.[2] Contents 1 The functions of a forum 2 Typical forum structures 3 Equivalent spaces in other cultures 4 See also 5 References 6 External links The functions of a forum[edit] In addition to its standard function as a marketplace, a forum was a gathering place of great social significance, and often the scene of diverse activities, including political discussions and debates, rendezvous, meetings, et cetera. In that case it supplemented the function of a conciliabulum. Every municipium had a forum. Fora were the first of any civitas synoecized whether Latin, Italic, Etruscan, Greek, Celtic or some other. The first forums were sited between independent villages in the period, known only through archaeology. After the rise of the Roman Republic, the most noted forum of the Roman world, the Roman Forum in Rome itself, served as a model of new construction. By the time of the late Republic expansions refurbishing of the forums of the city had inspired Pompey Magnus to create the Theatre of Pompey in 55 BC. The Theatre included a massive forum behind the theatre arcades known as the Porticus Pompei (Colonnades of Pompey). The structure was the forebearer to Julius Caesar's first Imperial forum and the rest to follow. Other major fora are found in Italy; however, they are not to be confused with the piazza of the modern town, which may have originated from a number of different types of ancient civic centers, or more likely was its own type. While similar in use and function to fora, most were created in the Middle Ages and are often not a part of the original city footprint. The Forum of Jerash, in Jordan. The columns mark the location of a stoa, or covered walkway, where the stalls of open-air vendors might be located in bad weather. Note the semi-circular shape and traces of a central podium, similar in function to a theatre. Fora were a regular part of every Roman province in the Republic and the Empire, with archaeological examples at: Forum of Plovdiv, Bulgaria Forum of Philippi, Greece Forum of Thessaloniki, Greece Forum of Beirut, Lebanon Forum and Provincial Forum of Mérida, Spain Colonial forum and Provincial forum of Tarragona, Spain In new Roman towns the forum was usually located at, or just off, the intersection of the main north–south and east–west streets (the cardo and decumanus). All fora would have a Temple of Jupiter at the north end, and would also contain other temples, as well as the Basilica; a public weights and measures table, so customers at the market could ensure they were not being sold short measures; and would often have the baths nearby. At election times, candidates would use the steps of the temples in the forum to make their election speeches, and would expect their clients to come to support them. Typical forum structures[edit] Basilica Roman baths Roman temple Triumphal arch Victory column Equivalent spaces in other cultures[edit] Agora Civic center Internet forum Piazza Plateia Plaza Town square See also[edit] Amphitheatre Circus Hippodrome Theatre A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum References[edit] ^ From Proto-Indo-European *dʰworom "enclosure, courtyard", i.e. "something enclosed by a door"; cognate with English door and Old Church Slavonic дворъ dvorŭ "court, courtyard". ^ Abbott, Frank Frost; Johnson, Allan Chester (1926). Municipal Administration in the Roman Empire. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 12. External links[edit] Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Forum. Media related to Ancient Roman forums at Wikimedia Commons v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the Plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Roman people Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius 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Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices Maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Forum_(Roman)&oldid=973419232" Categories: Ancient Roman forums Urban studies and planning terminology Ancient Roman city planning Hidden categories: Articles needing additional references from April 2013 All articles needing additional references Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto Euskara Français 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano עברית Lietuvių Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Tagalog ไทย Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 17 August 2020, at 03:22 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9912	----	James Thomson (poet, born 1700) - Wikipedia James Thomson (poet, born 1700) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from James Thomson (poet)) Jump to navigation Jump to search For the 19th-century poet, see James Thomson (poet, born 1834). For the weaver poet, see James Thomson (weaver poet). For other people named James Thomson, see James Thomson. James Thomson Born c. 11 September 1700 (1700-09-11) Ednam, Roxburghshire, Kingdom of Scotland Died 27 August 1748 (1748-08-28) (aged 47) Richmond upon Thames, Kingdom of Great Britain Alma mater University of Edinburgh James Thomson (c. 11 September 1700 – 27 August 1748) was a Scottish poet and playwright, known for his poems The Seasons and The Castle of Indolence, and for the lyrics of "Rule, Britannia!". Contents 1 Scotland, 1700–1725 2 London, 1725–1727 3 Later life, 1728–1748 4 Memorials 5 Editions 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links Scotland, 1700–1725[edit] James Thomson was born in Ednam in Roxburghshire around 11 September 1700 and baptised on 15 September.[1][2] He was the fourth of nine children of Thomas Thomson and Beatrix Thomson (née Trotter).[3] Beatrix Thomson was born in Fogo, Berwickshire and was a distant relation of the house of Hume. Thomas Thomson was the Presbyterian minister of Ednam until eight weeks after Thomson's birth, when he was admitted as minister of Southdean, where Thomson spent most of his early years.[4] Thomson may have attended the parish school of Southdean before going to the grammar school in Jedburgh in 1712. He failed to distinguish himself there. Shiels, his earliest biographer, writes: 'far from appearing to possess a sprightly genius, [Thomson] was considered by his schoolmaster, and those which directed his education, as being really without a common share of parts'.[5] He was, however, encouraged to write poetry by Robert Riccaltoun (1691–1769), a farmer, poet and Presbyterian minister; and Sir William Bennet (d. 1729), a whig laird who was a patron of Allan Ramsay.[4] While some early poems by Thomson survive, he burned most of them on New Year's Day each year.[6] Thomson entered the College of Edinburgh in autumn 1715, destined for the Presbyterian ministry. At Edinburgh he studied metaphysics, Logic, Ethics, Greek, Latin and Natural Philosophy. He completed his arts course in 1719 but chose not to graduate, instead entering Divinity Hall to become a minister.[7] In 1716 Thomas Thomson died, with local legend saying that he was killed whilst performing an exorcism.[4] At Edinburgh Thomson became a member of the Grotesque Club, a literary group, and he met his lifelong friend David Mallet. After the successful publication of some of his poems in the "Edinburgh Miscellany" Thomson followed Mallet to London in February 1725 in an effort to publish his verse.[4] London, 1725–1727[edit] James Thomson, from Samuel Johnson's Lives of the English Poets (c.1779) In London, Thomson became a tutor to the son of Charles Hamilton, Lord Binning, through connections on his mother's side of the family. Through David Mallet, by 1724 a published poet, Thomson met the great English poets of the day including Richard Savage, Aaron Hill and Alexander Pope.[4] Thomson's mother died on 12 May 1725, around the time of his writing ‘Winter’, the first poem of ‘‘The Seasons’’. ‘Winter’ was first published in 1726 by John Millian, with a second edition being released (with revisions, additions and a preface) later the same year. By 1727, Thomson was working on Summer, published in February, and was working at Watt's Academy, a school for young gentlemen and a bastion of Newtonian science. In the same year Millian published a poem by Thomson titled ‘A Poem to the Memory of Sir Isaac Newton’ (who had died in March). Leaving Watt's academy, Thomson hoped to earn a living through his poetry, helped by his acquiring several wealthy patrons including Thomas Rundle, the countess of Hertford and Charles Talbot, 1st Baron Talbot.[8] Later life, 1728–1748[edit] He wrote Spring in 1728 and finally Autumn in 1730, when the set of four was published together as The Seasons. During this period he also wrote other poems, such as to the Memory of Sir Isaac Newton, and his first play, Sophonisba (1730). The latter is best known today for its mention in Samuel Johnson's Lives of the English Poets, where Johnson records that one 'feeble' line of the poem – "O, Sophonisba, Sophonisba, O!" was parodied by the wags of the theatre as, "O, Jemmy Thomson, Jemmy Thomson, O!".[9] In 1730, he became tutor to the son of Sir Charles Talbot, then Solicitor-General, and spent nearly two years in the company of the young man on a tour of Europe. On his return Talbot arranged for him to become a secretary in chancery, which gave him financial security until Talbot's death in 1737. Meanwhile, there appeared his next major work, Liberty (1734).[8] This is a lengthy monologue by the "Goddess of Liberty", describing her travels through the ancient world, and then English and British history, before the resolution of the Glorious Revolution of 1688.[10] In 1738 his tragedy Agamemnon was played at Drury Lane and the following year he wrote a prologue when Mallet's Mustapha was performed there. In 1740, he collaborated with Mallet on the masque Alfred which was first performed at Cliveden, the country home of Frederick, Prince of Wales. Thomson's words for "Rule Britannia", written as part of that masque and set to music by Thomas Arne, became one of the best-known British patriotic songs – quite apart from the masque which is now virtually forgotten. The Prince gave him a pension of £100 per annum. He had also introduced him to George Lyttelton, who became his friend and patron.[8] In later years, Thomson lived in Richmond upon Thames, and it was there that he wrote his final work The Castle of Indolence, which was published just before his untimely death on 27 August 1748. Johnson writes about Thomson's death, "by taking cold on the water between London and Kew, he caught a disorder, which, with some careless exasperation, ended in a fever that put end to his life".[11][2] He is buried in St. Mary Magdalene church in Richmond.[8] A dispute over the publishing rights to one of his works, The Seasons, gave rise to two important legal decisions (Millar v. Taylor; Donaldson v. Beckett) in the history of copyright. Thomson's The Seasons was translated into German by Barthold Heinrich Brockes (1745). This translation formed the basis for a work with the same title by Gottfried van Swieten, which became the libretto for Haydn's oratorio The Seasons. Memorials[edit] The poet James Thomson as depicted on the Scott Monument Thomson is one of the sixteen Scottish poets and writers appearing on the Scott Monument on Princes Street in Edinburgh. He appears on the right side of the east face. Thomson has a large memorial in Westminster Abbey's Poets' Corner, next to William Shakespeare and underneath Thomson's countryman, Robert Burns. Thomson is the poet memorialised at Poet's Corner in Richmond Park's Pembroke Lodge Gardens. A bench sculpted by Richard Farrington,[12] and known as "Poet's seat", is inscribed with lines by Thomson, who was living in Richmond at the time of his death.[13] A wooden memorial plaque with an ode to Thomson by the writer and historian John Heneage Jesse was installed in 1851. The plaque was replaced by the Selborne Society in 1895[13] and by a re-gilded board in 2014..[14] King Henry's Mound, which is also in Richmond Park, has a seat inscribed with a few lines from Thomson's poem "The Seasons".[13] Editions[edit] The frontispiece of The Seasons by James Thomson. Published by Alexander Donaldson. The four seasons, and other poems. By James Thomson. London: printed for J. Millan, near Scotland-Yard, White-Hall; and A. Millar, in the Strand, M.DCC.XXXV., 1735. [2];77,[3];64;72;79,[1]p., plates; 8⁰. (ESTC T83; Foxon T242; OTA K019862.000) Thomson, James & Bloomfield, Robert, The Seasons & Castles of Indolence / The Farmer's Boy, Rural Tales, Banks of the Wye, &c. &c., (London: Scott, Webster & Geary, 1842). Gilfillan, Rev. George, Thomson's Poetical Works, with Life, Critical Dissertation, and Explanatory Notes, Library Edition of the British Poets (1854). Thomson, James. The Seasons, by ... A New Edition. Adorned with A Set of Engravings, from Original Paintings. Together with an Original Life of the Author, and a Critical Essay on the Seasons. by Robert Heron, (Perth: R. Morison, 1793) Thomson, James The Seasons and Castle of Indolence Printed for J. and F.C. Rivington and the other proprietors, James Marsh, 1820 Thomson, James. Poems, edited by William Bayne, London : Walter Scott Publishing Co., [1900], (Series: The Canterbury poets). Thomson, James. The Seasons, edited with introduction and commentary by James Sambrook, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981) ISBN 0-19-812713-8. Thomson, James. Liberty, The Castle of Indolence and other poems, edited with introduction and commentary by James Sambrook, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986) ISBN 0-19-812759-6. Bayne, William, Life of James Thomson, Edinburgh: Oliphant, Anderson and Ferrier, 1898, ("Famous Scots Series"). See also[edit] List of abolitionist forerunners References[edit] ^ 11 September is the date of birth given in Murdoch, Patrick, 'An Account of the Life and Writings of Mr. James Thomson', in The Works of James Thomson (1762), vol. i, p.i. ^ a b Beach, Chandler B., ed. (1914). "Thomson, James" . The New Students Reference Work . Chicago: F. E. Compton and Co. ^ Sambrook, James, James Thomson 1700–1748; A Life (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991) ^ a b c d e Sambrook, 2004 ^ Robert Sheilds, 'Mr James Thomson' in Theophilus Cibber, Lives of the Poets of Great-Britain and Ireland (1753), vol. v, p.190. ^ Murdoch, p.iii.. ^ Drennon, Herbert, 'James Thomson's Contact with Newtonianism and his interest in Natural Philosophy', PMLA, vol. 49, no. 1 (1934) p.72. ^ a b c d Tovey 1911. ^ Johnson, Samuel. Lives of the English Poets. pp. 320–321 in Google Books edition. ^ text of Liberty online ^ Johnson, op.cit., p. 323. ^ "Richmond – Poet's Seat". Richard Farrington: Sculptor. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 28 February 2015. ^ a b c "Monuments in Richmond Park". The Royal Parks. Archived from the original on 11 May 2012. Retrieved 7 February 2015. ^ "New Poet's Corner". Friends of Richmond Park Newsletter: 6. Autumn 2014. Bibliography[edit] Tovey, Duncan Crookes (1911). "Thomson, James (poet, 1700–1748)" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) "Thomson, James (1700–1748)" . Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885–1900. Sambrook, James. "Thomson, James (1700–1748)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/27306. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) External links[edit] James Thomsonat Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource James Thomson at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA) Works by or about James Thomson at Internet Archive Works by James Thomson at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Selected Poetry of James Thomson (1700–1748), Representative Poetry On-line Local History Notes: James Thomson (1700–1748), London Borough of Richmond upon Thames Authority control BNE: XX1006807 BNF: cb149593249 (data) CANTIC: a1104620x GND: 118622277 ISNI: 0000 0001 0871 7821 LCCN: n79065635 MBA: 0967bb1e-69cd-4fd8-b844-c812e2c03f09 NDL: 00621557 NKC: jn20010420042 NLA: 35548444 NLI: 000131238 NTA: 069122652 SELIBR: 280619 SNAC: w69k4915 SUDOC: 027912345 Trove: 992040 ULAN: 500326942 VcBA: 495/206330 VIAF: 14778969 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79065635 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Thomson_(poet,_born_1700)&oldid=979479160" Categories: 1700 births 1748 deaths Alumni of the University of Edinburgh People of the Scottish Enlightenment Scottish male poets 18th-century Scottish writers 18th-century Scottish poets 18th-century male writers Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating citation to the NSRW Wikipedia articles incorporating citation to the NSRW with an wstitle parameter Use dmy dates from July 2018 Use British English from January 2018 CS1 maint: ref=harv Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Articles incorporating Cite DNB template Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the ODNB Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages العربية Brezhoneg Čeština Deutsch Español Français Italiano Nederlands Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Русский Suomi Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 21 September 2020, at 01:12 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9976	----	Herodian - Wikipedia Herodian From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Greek historian This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (March 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) For the grammarian, see Aelius Herodianus. For the dynasty, see Herodian Dynasty. For the saint numbered among the Seventy Disciples, see Herodion of Patras. Herodian or Herodianus (Greek: Ἡρωδιανός) of Syria, sometimes referred to as "Herodian of Antioch" (c. 170 – c. 240), was a minor Roman civil servant who wrote a colourful history in Greek titled History of the Empire from the Death of Marcus (τῆς μετὰ Μάρκον βασιλείας ἱστορία) in eight books covering the years 180 to 238. His work is not entirely reliable although his relatively unbiased account of Elagabalus is more useful than that of Cassius Dio. He was a Greek (perhaps from Antioch) who appears to have lived for a considerable period of time in Rome, but possibly without holding any public office. From his extant work, we gather that he was still living at an advanced age during the reign of Gordianus III, who ascended the throne in 238. Beyond this, nothing is known of his life. Herodian writes (1.1.3; 2.15.7) that the events described in his history occurred during his lifetime. Photius (Codex 99) gives an outline of the contents of this work and passes a flattering encomium on the style of Herodian, which he describes as clear, vigorous, agreeable, and preserving a happy medium between an utter disregard of art and elegance and a profuse employment of the artifices and prettinesses which were known under the name of Atticism, as well as between boldness and bombast. He appears to have used Thucydides as a model to some extent, both for style and for the general composition of his work, often introducing speeches wholly or in part imaginary. In spite of occasional inaccuracies in chronology and geography, his narrative is in the main truthful and impartial[citation needed]. However, some[who?] charge him with showing too great a partiality for Pertinax. Contents 1 Birth, life, and death 2 Occupation and social status 3 Accomplishments 4 References 5 External links Birth, life, and death[edit] The dates of the birth and death of Herodian are unknown. All available information concerning his life is derived from what he himself wrote, so the evidence is scarce. One can assume that he must have reached the age of ten by the year 180 due to the attentive detail in his descriptions of the events of that time. One notion is that Herodian must have finished writing around 240, which would have made him about 70. He mentions, “My aim is to write a systematic account of the events within a period of seventy years, covering the reigns of several emperors, of which I have personal experience.” (2.15.7) This reaffirms the notion that Herodian was about 70 years of age when this was written and that the actions did indeed occur during his lifetime. However, it is possible that his history was composed at a later date. Herodian's descriptions of Gordian III are less than flattering, and it is doubtful that he released such a negative review of a current emperor. Following this logic, his history was finished in 244 at the earliest, when Gordian III died. In his first and third books, Herodian mentions the games of Commodus in 192, and the Secular Games of Septimius Severus in 204. Did Herodian attend the games of Commodus, he had been at least 14 at the time, which is to say that he was born in 178 at the latest. The nationality of Herodian is also unclear. He was not from Italy, for he says the Alps were bigger than anything “in our part of the world.” (2.11.8) It has been suggested that Herodian was from Alexandria since he placed such a large emphasis on Caracalla's massacre of this city and its inhabitants. It is also believed that he could have possibly been an eyewitness to these attacks.[citation needed] Herodian does refer to Alexandria as the second city of the empire; however, this may be disregarded since he also applies the same title to Antioch and Carthage. It has been proposed that Herodian was the son of Aelius Herodianus, an Alexandrian grammarian. Although this does fit chronologically, there is no other evidence to support it. The popular speculation, however, is that Herodian was from Antioch. Herodian describes the character of the Syrians as quick-witted and mentions them twice more. However, there are also gaps in Herodian's knowledge of Syrian affairs which lead one to believe that he might not have been from the region at all. For example, he confuses two Parthian kings, and his chronology and geography of the Parthian campaign in 197–198 are deeply flawed. These flaws could be explained with a lack of knowledge of a small part of the empire; however, one would assume that an inhabitant of Syria would have had access to this knowledge. In short, unless an inscription is discovered, Herodian's place of birth will never be known for certain. Occupation and social status[edit] Neither the occupation nor the social status of Herodian is known. Herodian mentions, “I have written a history of the events following the death of Marcus which I saw and heard in my lifetime. I had a personal share in some of these events during my imperial and public service.” (1.2.5) It has been suggested that Herodian was a senator due to his knowledge of the senatus consultum tacitum, which was a secret declaration by the senate when they chose the emperors Pupienus and Balbinus. However, it is also stated that news of this was leaked by some senators, and it certainly would not have remained a secret for the entirety of Herodian's lifetime. It is possible, however, that Herodian was a freedman. This fits the profile perfectly, for he would not have cared for the larger political issues, and instead, would have concentrated on personalities and intricacies. Still yet, Herodian could have been an apparitor, a scribe or an attendant to the emperor. This would be suiting, for he would have had access to senatorial documents, traveled extensively, and been knowledgeable in the field of fiscal affairs, which Herodian repetitively stressed in his history.[1] Accomplishments[edit] Herodian's Roman History is a collection of eight books covering the period from the death of Marcus Aurelius in 180 A.D. to the beginning of Gordian III's reign in 238. It provides a first person account of one of the most politically diverse times of the Roman Empire. The first book describes the reign of Commodus from 180 to 192, and the second discusses the Year of the Five Emperors in 193. Book Three encompasses the reign of Septimius Severus from 193 to 211, while the fourth discusses the reign of Caracalla from 211 to 217. Book five is about the reign of Elagabalus from 218 through 222, and book six deals with the reign of Severus Alexander from 222 to 235. The seventh book recounts the reign of Maximinus Thrax from 235 to 238, and the final one describes the Year of the Six Emperors in 238. Most likely, Herodian is writing for an eastern audience, for he often explains different Roman customs and beliefs that would have seemed foreign to Easterners. Herodian has been both praised and criticized by scholars. The first person on record to review Herodian is the ninth-century patriarch of Constantinople, Photius. Of Herodian, Photius wrote “he neither exaggerates with hyperbole nor omits anything essential; in short, in all the virtues of historiography there are few men who are his superior.” Zosimus used him as a source as did John of Antioch when writing his World Chronicle. An English translator of the Roman History wrote in 1705 that Herodian "still preserves a Majesty suitable to the Greatness of the Subject which he treats, and has something in him so pleasing and comely, as perhaps all the Art and Labour of other Men can never reach.” Altheim commended Herodian's wide vision of the period, and F.A. Wolf acclaimed Herodian's lack of bias and superstition. However, not all views of Herodian are positive. For example, Wolf also charged Herodian with a deficiency in critical faculty. While the author of the Historia Augusta drew from Herodian, he also censured him for bias, and Herodian was by no means Zosimus’ first choice. Similarly, Joannes Zonaras only utilized Herodian where Cassius Dio's history leaves off. Herodian has long been criticized for a lack of historical accuracy, but recent studies have tended to side with him, legitimizing his historical facts[citation needed]. In the second book, Herodian states that his intention was to “narrate only the most important and conclusive…actions separately and in chronological order.” (2.15.7) Because of this, Herodian sometimes conflates a large number of events into a single reference or two. For example, all of Caracalla's campaign in the north during 213 through 214 is condensed into two short allusions. Similarly, a single reference to a winter in Sirmium sums up Maximinus’ battles on the Rhine and Danube in 236 through 238. Herodian also occasionally falls short in his descriptions of geography. He confuses Arabia Scenite with Arabia Felix and claims that Issus was where the final battle and capture of Darius III took place. In regards to Cassius Dio, both he and Herodian admittedly make many errors in their histories. Dio is credited as the expert when it comes to the senate; however, Herodian challenges Dio on his description of the people's reaction to the proclamation of Septimius Severus as their new emperor. Dio's work is not always the more accurate of the two and must not be immediately chosen over Herodian's. References[edit] ^ Bartolomeo Borghesi suggested that CIL 10, 7286, for a legate of Sicily, may be in his honour See ILS 2938. Browning, Robert. The Classical Review, New Series, Vol. 21, No. 2 (Jun., 1971), pp. 194–196. Oxford: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Carney, T.F.. The Classical Review, New Series, Vol. 21, No. 2 (Jun., 1971), pp. 194–196. Oxford: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Downey, Glanville. The Classical Journal, Vol. 67, No. 2 (Dec., 1971 - Jan., 1972), pp. 182–184. Northfield: The Classical Association of the Middle West and South, Inc. Roos, A.G. The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 5, (1915), pp. 191–202. London: Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies. Whittaker, C.R.. Herodian: History of the Empire, Volume I, Books 1–4 (Loeb Classical Library No. 455). London: Loeb Classical Library, 1970. External links[edit] Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Herodianus. English translation of Herodian Livius, Herodian by Jona Lendering, with full text in translation Authority control BIBSYS: 90055781 BNE: XX823866 BNF: cb12118729d (data) CANTIC: a12161627 CiNii: DA01524153 GND: 118639587 ISNI: 0000 0000 8065 5592 LCCN: n50068736 NKC: jn19990003492 NSK: 000512061 NTA: 069613818 RERO: 02-A000079945 SELIBR: 190605 SNAC: w6x93nh1 SUDOC: 029594685 Trove: 936348 VIAF: 87614586 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n50068736 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Herodian&oldid=978306307" Categories: Roman-era Greek historians Ancient Greeks in Rome 2nd-century Greek people 3rd-century Greek people 2nd-century Romans 3rd-century Romans 3rd-century historians 170 births 240 deaths Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles lacking in-text citations from March 2013 All articles lacking in-text citations Articles containing Greek-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2009 All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from August 2015 Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego Հայերեն Italiano Latina Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Shqip Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 September 2020, at 03:24 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-998	----	Propertius - Wikipedia Propertius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the Latin elegiac poet. For other people named Propertius, see Propertia gens. For the butterfly genus, see Propertius (skipper). Auguste Vinchon, Propertius and Cynthia at Tivoli Sextus Propertius was a Latin elegiac poet of the Augustan age. He was born around 50–45 BC in Assisium and died shortly after 15 BC.[1] Propertius' surviving work comprises four books of Elegies (Elegiae). He was a friend of the poets Gallus and Virgil and, with them, had as his patron Maecenas and, through Maecenas, the emperor Augustus. Although Propertius was not as renowned in his own time as other Latin elegists,[2] he is today regarded by scholars as a major poet.[3][4] Contents 1 Life 2 Poetry 3 Textual problems 4 Influence 5 Modern assessment 6 Latin editions 7 Notes 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Life[edit] Very little information is known about Propertius outside of his own writing. His praenomen "Sextus" is mentioned by Aelius Donatus,[5] a few manuscripts list him as "Sextus Propertius", but the rest of his name is unknown. From numerous references in his poetry[6] it is clear he was born and raised in Umbria. His birthplace is generally regarded as modern Assisi, where tourists can view the excavated remains of a house thought to have belonged at least to the poet's family, if not to the poet himself.[7] During Propertius' childhood, his father died and the family lost land as part of a confiscation,[8] probably the same one which reduced Virgil's estates when Octavian allotted lands to his veterans in 41 BC. Along with cryptic references in Ovid[9] that imply that he was younger than his contemporary Tibullus, this suggests a birthdate after 55 BC. After his father's death, Propertius' mother set him on course for a public career,[10] indicating his family still had some wealth, while the abundance of obscure mythology present in his poetry indicates he received a good education. Frequent mention of friends like Tullus,[11] the nephew of Lucius Volcatius Tullus, consul in 33 BC, plus the fact that he lived on Rome's Esquiline Hill[12] indicate he moved among the children of the rich and politically connected during the early part of the 20s BC. It was during this time that he met Cynthia, the older woman[13] who would inspire him to express his poetic genius. Propertius published a first book of love elegies in 25 BC, with Cynthia herself as the main theme; the book's complete devotion gave it the natural title Cynthia Monobiblos. The Monobiblos must have attracted the attention of Maecenas, a patron of the arts who took Propertius into his circle of court poets. A second, larger book of elegies was published perhaps a year later, one that includes poems addressed directly to his patron and (as expected) praises for Augustus. The 19th century classics scholar Karl Lachmann argued, based on the unusually large number of poems in this book and Propertius' mention of tres libelli,[14] that the single Book II actually comprises two separate books of poetry conflated in the manuscript tradition, an idea supported by the state of the manuscript tradition of "Book II." An editor of Propertius, Paul Fedeli, accepts this hypothesis, as does G.P. Goold, editor of the Loeb edition. The publication of a third book came sometime after 23 BC.[15] Its content shows the poet beginning to move beyond simple love themes, as some poems (e.g. III.5) use Amor merely as a starting point for other topics. The book also shows the poet growing tired of the demanding yet fickle Cynthia,[16] and implies a bitter end to their torrid love affair. Book IV, published sometime after 16 BC, displays more of the poet's ambitious agenda, and includes several aetiological poems explaining the origin of various Roman rites and landmarks. Book IV, the last Propertius wrote, has only half the number of poems as Book I. Given the change in direction apparent in his poetry, scholars assume only his death a short time after publication prevented him from further exploration; the collection may in fact have been published posthumously. It is also possible that Propertius had children, either with Cynthia or a later liaison.[17] An elegy of Ovid dated to 2 BC makes it clear that Propertius was dead by this time. Poetry[edit] Propertius' fame rests on his four books of elegies, totaling around 92 poems (the exact number cannot be known as over the intervening years, scholars have divided and regrouped the poems, creating doubt as to the precise number). All his poems are written using the elegiac couplet, a form in vogue among the Roman social set during the late 1st century BC. Like the work of nearly all the elegists, Propertius' work is dominated by the figure of a single woman, one he refers to throughout his poetry by the pseudonym Cynthia. She is named in over half the elegies of the first book and appears indirectly in several others, right from the first word of the first poem in the Monobiblos: Cynthia prima suis miserum me cepit ocellis, contactum nullis ante cupidinibus. Cynthia first captivated wretched me with her eyes, I who had never before been touched by Cupid. —(I.1.1-2) Apuleius[18] identifies her as a woman named Hostia, and Propertius suggests[19] she is a descendant of the Roman poet Hostius. Scholars guess that she was probably a courtesan. Propertius frequently compliments her as docta puella 'learned girl',[20] and, like Sulpicia, she herself was a writer of verse.[21] Their affair veers wildly between emotional extremes, and as a lover she clearly dominates his life at least through the publication of the third book: cuncta tuus sepelivit amor, nec femina post te ulla dedit collo dulcia vincla meo. Thy love has buried all others, nor has any woman after thee put sweet fetters upon my neck. —(III.15.11-2) It is difficult to precisely date many of Propertius' poems, but they chronicle the kind of declarations, passions, jealousies, quarrels, and lamentations that were commonplace subjects among the Latin elegists. The last two poems in Book III seem to indicate a final break with her (versibus insignem te pudet esse meis - "It is a shame that my verses have made you famous"[22]), and Cynthia died some time before the publication of the final book IV. In this last book Cynthia is the subject of only two poems, best regarded as a postscript. The bi-polar complexity of the relationship is amply demonstrated in a poignant, if amusing, poem from the final book. Cynthia's ghost addresses Propertius from beyond the grave with criticism (among other things) that her funeral was not lavish enough, yet the longing of the poet remains in the final line inter complexus excidit umbra meos. - "Her shade then slipped away from my embrace."[23] Book IV strongly indicates Propertius was planning a new direction for his poetry. The book includes several aetiological poems which, in reviewing the mythological origins of Rome and its landmarks, can also be read as critical—even vaguely subversive—of Augustus and his agenda for the new Rome. The position is currently a subject of debate among modern classicists.[24] The final poem[25] is a touching address by the recently deceased Cornelia consoling her husband Lucius Aemilius Lepidus Paullus and their three children. Although the poem (given Cornelia's connection to Augustus' family) was most likely an imperial commission, its dignity, nobility, and pathos have led critics to call it the "queen of the elegies", and it is commonly considered the best in the collection. Propertius' style is marked by seemingly abrupt transitions (in the manner of Latin neoteric poetry) and a high and imaginative allusion, often to the more obscure passages of Greek and Roman myth and legend. His idiosyncratic use of language, together with the corrupted state of the text, have made his elegies a challenge to edit; among the more famous names who have offered criticism of and emendations to the text have been the classicist John Percival Postgate and the English classicist and poet A. E. Housman. Textual problems[edit] The text contains many syntactic, organizational and logical problems as it has survived. Some of these are no doubt exacerbated by Propertius' bold and occasionally unconventional use of Latin. Others have led scholars to alter and sometimes rearrange the text as preserved in the manuscripts. A total of 146 Propertius manuscripts survive, the oldest of which dates from the 12th century. However, some of the poems in these manuscripts appear disjointed, such as I.8, which begins as a plea for Cynthia to abandon a planned sea voyage, then closes with sudden joy that the voyage has been called off. This poem has therefore been split by most scholars into a I.8a (comprising the first 26 lines) and I.8b (lines 27-46). More complicated organizational problems are presented by poems like II.26, a confusing piece in which Propertius first (1) dreams of Cynthia being shipwrecked, and then (2) praises Cynthia's faithfulness. Following this, he (3) declares that she plans to sail and he will come along, (4) shifts to the couple together on the shore, and then (5) quickly has them back on-board ship, ready to face the potential dangers of the sea. The images seem to conflict logically and chronologically, and have led different commentators to rearrange the lines or assume some lacuna in the text. More modern critics[26] have pointed out that all the proposed rearrangements assume Propertius' original poetry adhered strictly to the classical literary principles as set down by Aristotle, and so the apparent jumble is a result of manuscript corruptions. Another possibility is that Propertius was deliberately presenting disjointed images in violation of principles such as the Classical Unities, a theory which argues for different unifying structures in Propertius' elegies. This interpretation also implies that Propertius' style represented a mild reaction against the orthodoxy of classical literary theory. However, although these theories may have some bearing on issues of continuity in the other three surviving books of Propertius, modern philological scholarship tends toward a consensus that the extant text "Book Two" in fact represents the conflated remains of what were originally two books of poems. Influence[edit] Propertius himself says he was popular and even scandalous in his own day.[27] Horace, however, says that he would have to "endure much" and "stop up his ears" if he had to listen to "Callimachus...to please the sensitive stock of poets";[28] Postgate and others see this as a veiled attack on Propertius, who considered himself the Roman heir to Callimachus.[29] This judgement also seems to be upheld by Quintilian, who ranks the elegies of Tibullus higher and is somewhat dismissive of the poet, but Propertius' popularity is attested by the presence of his verses in the graffiti preserved at Pompeii. Propertius fell into obscurity in the Middle Ages, but was rediscovered during the Italian Renaissance along with the other elegists. Petrarch's love sonnets certainly show the influence of his writing, and Aeneas Silvius (the future Pope Pius II) titled a collection of his youthful elegies "Cinthia". There are also a set of "Propertian Elegies" attributed to the English writer Ben Jonson, though the authorship of these is disputed. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's 1795 collection of "Elegies" also shows some familiarity with Propertius' poetry. Propertius is the lyrical protagonist of Joseph Brodsky's poem "Anno Domini" (1968), originally written in Russian. His relationship with Cynthia is also addressed in Robert Lowell's poem, "The Ghost. After Sextus Propertius", which is a free translation of Propertius' Elegy IV 7. Modern assessment[edit] In the 20th century Ezra Pound's poem "Homage to Sextus Propertius" cast Propertius as something of a satirist and political dissident,[30] and his translation/interpretation of the elegies presented them as ancient examples of Pound's own Imagist theory of art. Pound identified in Propertius an example of what he called (in "How to Read") 'logopoeia', "the dance of the intellect among words." Gilbert Highet, in Poets in a Landscape, attributed this to Propertius' use of mythic allusions and circumlocution, which Pound mimics to more comic effect in his Homage. The imagist interpretation, the poet's tendency to sustain an interior monologue, and the deeply personal nature of his poetry have made Propertius a favorite in the modern age. Three modern English translations of his work have appeared since 2000,[31] and the playwright Tom Stoppard suggests in his best-known work The Invention of Love that the poet was responsible for much of what the West regards today as "romantic love". The most recent translation appeared in September 2018 from Carcanet Press, and was a Poetry Book Society Autumn Recommended Translation. The collection entitled Poems is edited by Patrick Worsnip with a foreword by Peter Heslin. Latin editions[edit] Emil Baehrens, Bibliotheca Teubneriana, 1880 John Percival Postgate, Cambridge, 1894 E.A. Barber, Oxford Classical Text, 1953 (2nd ed., 1960) W.A. Camps, Book 1, Cambridge, 1961 L. Richardson, Jr., Lawrence, Okla., 1977 Rudolf Hanslik, Bibliotheca Teubneriana, 1979 Paolo Fedeli, Bibliotheca Teubneriana, 1984 Paolo Fedeli, Book 3, Bari, 1985 G.P. Goold, Loeb Classical Library, 1990 Robert J. Baker, Book 1, Warminster, 2000 Paolo Fedeli, Book 2, Cambridge, 2005 Giancarlo Giardina, Rome, 2005 Simone Viarre, Collection Budé, 2005 Gregory Hutchinson, Book 4, Cambridge, 2006 S. J. Heyworth, Oxford Classical Text, 2007 Notes[edit] ^ John Lemprière's Classical Dictionary ^ Thorsen, Thea S. (2013). The Cambridge Companion to Latin Love Elegy. Cambridge University Press. p. 97. ISBN 978-0521765367. ^ Tarrant, Richard (2016). Texts, Editors, and Readers: Methods and Problems in Latin Textual Criticism. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1316538807. ^ Fain, Gordon L. (2010). Ancient Greek Epigrams: Major Poets in Verse Translation. University of California Press. p. 119. ISBN 978-0520265790. ^ Vita Vergiliana, V ^ e.g. I.22.9-10; IV.1.63-6 and 121-6; unless otherwise noted numerical references refer to Propertius' collections ^ http://www.keytoumbria.com/Assisi/Roman_Monuments.html ^ IV.1.127 ^ e.g. Tristia IV.10.41-54 ^ IV.1.131 ^ e.g. I.1.9, 6.2, 14.20, and 22.1 ^ III.23.24 ^ cf. II.18.19 ^ II.13.25 ^ See III.18, a poem which mentions the death of Marcellus in 23 BC ^ See e.g. III.21 and III.24 ^ Cf. Pliny Epistles VI.15, where Pliny says a Roman knight Passennus Paulus scribit elegos ... atque etiam inter maiores suos Propertium numerat. (writes elegies ... and even numbers among his ancestors Propertius); though this may be nothing more than a tall tale ^ Apologia, ch. X ^ III.20.8 ^ I.7.11; II.131.6; II.13.11 ^ I.2.27-8: cum tibi praesertim Phoebus sua carmina donet/Aoniamque libens Calliopea lyram - "While Apollo grants you above all his power of song, and Calliope willingly an Aonian lyre" ^ III.24.4 ^ IV.7.96 ^ Micaela Janan, The Politics of Desire: Propertius IV (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), p. 255. ISBN 0-520-22321-7 ^ IV.11 ^ e.g. D. Thomas Benediktson - "Propertius: Modernist Poet of Antiquity", Southern Illinois University Press (1989) ^ II.24a.1-8 ^ For his complete criticism, v. Epistles II.2.87-104 ^ cf. e.g. III.1.1-2 ^ Slavitt, p. 8 ^ Slavitt's translation appeared in 2002, Katz's 2004 translation was a winner of the 2005 National Translation Award, American Literary Translators Association. References[edit] Propertius, The Poems (Oxford World's Classics) - see especially Lyne's introduction David Slavitt, Propertius in Love: The Elegies University of Cal. Press (2002) Vincent Katz, The Complete Elegies of Sextus Propertius Princeton University Press (2004) D.Feeney, Literature and Religion at Rome: Cultures, Contexts, and Beliefs M.Beard, J. North & S.Price, Religions of Rome J.North, 'Religion and Politics: from Republic to Principate' in Journal of Roman Studies 76 J.Hallett, 'Queens, princeps and women of the Augustan elite: Propertius' Cornelia elegy and the Res Gestae Divi Augusti' in R. Winkes (ed.) 'The Age of Augustus' Max Turiel, Propertivs: Algunas Elegías y Variaciones, Spanish edition, ( Ediciones RIE, 2008 ), ISBN 978-84-96785-56-4. Syndikus, H. P. 2010. Die Elegien des Properz: Eine Interpretation. Darmstadt: WBG, Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. Robert Karacsony, Properzens Vertumnus-Elegie (4,2) und das Dichtungsprogramm des vierten Buches. Ein intertextueller Kommentar. Hamburger Studien zu Gesellschaften und Kulturen der Vormoderne. Band 3. 2018. ISBN 978-3-515-11881-1 Further reading[edit] Breed, B. (2010). "Propertius on Not Writing about Civil Wars." In Citizens of Discord: Rome and Its Civil Wars. Oxford: Oxford University Press. DeBrohun, J. B. (2003). Roman Propertius and the Reinvention of Elegy. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Hubbard, M. (2001). Propertius. Bristol: Bristol Classical Press. Janan, M. (2001). The Politics of Desire: Propertius IV. Berkeley: University of California Press. Lindheim, S. (2011). "What's Love Got To Do with It?: Mapping Cynthia in Propertius' Paired Elegies 1.8A-B and 1.11-12." The American Journal of Philology, 132.4: 633-665. Maltby, R. (2006). "Major Themes and Motifs in Propertius’s Love Poetry." In Brill’s Companion to Propertius. Edited by H. C. Günther, 147–182. Leiden: Brill. Newman, J. K. (1997). Augustan Propertius: The Recapitulation of a Genre. Spudasmata 63. Hildesheim: G. Olms. Racette-Campbell, M. (2013). "Marriage Contracts, Fides, and Gender Roles in Propertius 3.20." The Classical Journal, 108.3: 297-317. Syndikus, H. P. (2010). Die Elegien des Properz: Eine Interpretation. Darmstadt: WBG, Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. Welch, T. S. (2005). The Elegiac Cityscape. Propertius and the Meaning of Roman Monuments. Columbus, OH: The Ohio State University Press. Worsnip, P. (2018). Poems Sextus Propertius, edited by Patrick Worsnip. Carcanet Press External links[edit] Library resources about Propertius Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Propertius Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries  Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: Propertius Quotations related to Propertius at Wikiquote Works by Sextus Propertius at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Propertius at Internet Archive Works by Propertius at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) The Elegies of Propertius at The Latin Library English translations of Propertius with introductory essay and notes by Jon Corelis Complete English translation of the Elegies by A. S. 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en-wikiquote-org-6256	----	Horace - Wikiquote Horace From Wikiquote Jump to navigation Jump to search He wins every hand who mingles profit with pleasure, by delighting and instructing the reader at the same time. What odds does it make to the man who lives within Nature's bounds, whether he ploughs a hundred acres or a thousand? Quintus Horatius Flaccus (8 December 65 BC – 27 November 8 BC), known in the English-speaking world as Horace, was the leading lyric poet in Latin. Contents 1 Quotes 1.1 Satires (c. 35 BC and 30 BC) 1.2 Odes (c. 23 BC and 13 BC) 1.3 Epistles (c. 20 BC and 14 BC) 1.4 Ars Poetica, or The Epistle to the Pisones (c. 18 BC) 2 Misattributed 3 External links Quotes[edit] Life grants nothing to us mortals without hard work. Never despair... Tommorrow we'll be back on the vast ocean Cras ingens iterabimus aequor Tommorrow we will be back on the vast ocean. The Routledge Dictionary of Latin Quotations: The Illiterati's Guide to Latin Maxims, Mottoes, Proverbs and Sayings Satires (c. 35 BC and 30 BC)[edit] Quamquam ridentem dicere verum quid vetat? ut pueris olim dant crustula blandi doctores, elementa velint ut discere prima. What is to prevent one from telling truth as he laughs, even as teachers sometimes give cookies to children to coax them into learning their A B C? Book I, satire i, line 24 (translation by H. Fairclough) What odds does it make to the man who lives within Nature's bounds, whether he ploughs a hundred acres or a thousand? Book I, satire i, line 48 People are enticed by a desire which continually cheats them. ‘Nothing is enough,’ they say, ‘for you’re only worth what you have.’ Book I, satire i, lines 61-62, as translated by N. Rudd Saepe stilum vertas, iterum quae digna legi sint scripturus. Often must you turn your pencil to erase, if you hope to write something worth a second reading. Book I, satire i, lines 72-3, (transl. Rushton Fairclough, 1926) Let’s put a limit to the scramble for money. ... Having got what you wanted, you ought to begin to bring that struggle to an end. Book I, satire i, lines 92-94, as translated by N. Rudd Inde fit ut raro, qui se vixisse beatum dicat et exacto contentus tempore vita cedat uti conviva satur, reperire queamus. We rarely find anyone who can say he has lived a happy life, and who, content with his life, can retire from the world like a satisfied guest. Book I, satire i, line 117 Non satis est puris versum perscribere verbis. 'Tis not sufficient to combine Well-chosen words in a well-ordered line. Book I, satire iv, line 54 (translated by John Conington) Atqui si vitiis mediocribus ac mea paucis mendosa est natura, alioqui recta, velut si egregio inspersos reprehendas corpore naevos, si neque avaritiam neque sordes nec mala lustra obiciet vere quisquam mihi, purus et insons, ut me collaudem, si et vivo carus amicis... at hoc nunc laus illi debetur et a me gratia maior. nil me paeniteat sanum patris huius, eoque non, ut magna dolo factum negat esse suo pars, quod non ingenuos habeat clarosque parentis, sic me defendam. If my character is flawed by a few minor faults, but is otherwise decent and moral, if you can point out only a few scattered blemishes on an otherwise immaculate surface, if no one can accuse me of greed, or of prurience, or of profligacy, if I live a virtuous life, free of defilement (pardon, for a moment, my self-praise), and if I am to my friends a good friend, my father deserves all the credit... As it is now, he deserves from me unstinting gratitude and praise. I could never be ashamed of such a father, nor do I feel any need, as many people do, to apologize for being a freedman's son. Book I, satire vi, lines 65–92 Nil sine magno vita labore dedit mortalibus. Life grants nothing to us mortals without hard work. / Life has given nothing to mortals without great labor. Book I, satire ix, line 59 in pace, ut sapiens, aptarit idonea bello In peace, as a wise man, he should make suitable preparation for war. Book II, satire ii, line 111 Adclinis falsis animus meliora recusat. The mind enamored with deceptive things, declines things better. Book II, satire ii, line 6 Quocirca vivite fortes, fortiaque adversis opponite pectora rebus So live, my boys, as brave men; and if fortune is adverse, front its blows with brave hearts. Book II, Satire II, Line 135-136 (trans. E. C. Wickham) Ille sinistrorsum, hie dextrorsum abit : unus utrique Error, sed variis illudit partibus. This to the right, that to the left hand strays, And all are wrong, but wrong in different ways. Book II, satire iii, line 50 (trans. Conington) Heu, Fortuna, quis est crudelior in nos Te deus? Ut semper gaudes illudere rebus Humanis! O Fortune, cruellest of heavenly powers, Why make such game of this poor life of ours? Book II, satire viii, line 61 (trans. Conington) Sed convivatoris uti ducis ingenium res Adversae nudare solent, celare secundae. A host is like a general: calamities often reveal his genius. Book II, satire viii, lines 73–74 [1] Dum licet, in rebus jucundis vive beatus; Vive memor quam sis aevi brevis. Then take, good sir, your pleasure while you may; With life so short 'twere wrong to lose a day. Book II, satire viii, line 96 (trans. Conington) Odes (c. 23 BC and 13 BC)[edit] I have made a monument more lasting than bronze. Nequiquam deus abscidit Prudens Oceano dissociabili Terras, si tamen impiae Non tangenda rates transiliunt vada. In vain did Nature's wife command Divide the waters from the land, If daring ships and men profane, Invade th' inviolable main. Book I, ode iii, line 21 (trans. by John Dryden) Vitae summa brevis spem nos vetat inchoare longam. Life's short span forbids us to enter on far reaching hopes. Book I, ode iv, line 15 Nil desperandum... Never despair... Book I, ode vii, line 27 Nunc vino pellite curas. Now drown care in wine. Book I, ode vii, line 32 Permitte divis cetera. Leave all else to the gods. Book I, ode ix, line 9 Dum loquimur, fugerit invida Aetas: carpe diem, quam minimum credula postero. As we speak cruel time is fleeing. Seize the day, believing as little as possible in the morrow. Book I, ode xi, line 7 John Conington's translation: In the moment of our talking, envious time has ebbed away, Seize the present, trust tomorrow e'en as little as you may. O matre pulchra filia pulchrior O fairer daughter of a fair mother! Book I, ode xvi, line 1 Nunc est bibendum, nunc pede libero pulsanda tellus. Now is the time for drinking, now the time to dance footloose upon the earth. Book I, ode xxxvii, line 1 Aequam memento rebus in arduis servare mentem. In adversity, remember to keep an even mind. Book II, ode iii, line 1 Auream quisquis mediocritatem diligit, tutus caret obsoleti sordibus tecti, caret invidenda sobrius aula. Whoever cultivates the golden mean avoids both the poverty of a hovel and the envy of a palace. Book II, ode x, line 5 Eheu fugaces, Postume, Postume, labuntur anni nec pietas moram rugis et instanti senectae adferet indomitaeque morti. Ah, Postumus! they fleet away, Our years, nor piety one hour Can win from wrinkles and decay, And Death's indomitable power. Book II, ode xiv, line 1 (trans. John Conington) Virginibus puerisque canto. I sing for maidens and boys. Book III, ode i, line 4 Aequa lege Necessitas Sortitur insignes et imos; Omne capax movet urna nomen. Death takes the mean man with the proud; The fatal urn has room for all. Book III, ode i, line 14 (trans. John Conington) Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori. It is sweet and honorable to die for one's country. Book III, ode ii, line 13 Iustum et tenacem propositi virum non civium ardor prava iubentium, non vultus instantis tyranni mente quatit solida. The man who is tenacious of purpose in a rightful cause is not shaken from his firm resolve by the frenzy of his fellow citizens clamoring for what is wrong, or by the tyrant's threatening countenance. Book III, ode iii, line 1 Si fractus illabatur orbis, impavidum ferient ruinae. If the world should break and fall on him, it would strike him fearless. Book III, ode iii, line 7 Vis consili expers mole ruit sua. Force without wisdom falls of its own weight. Book III, ode iv, line 65 Crescentem sequitur cura pecuniam, Maiorumque fames. As money grows, care follows it and the hunger for more. Book III, ode xvi, line 17 Magnas inter opes inops. A pauper in the midst of wealth. Book III, ode xvi, line 28. Conington's translation: "'Mid vast possessions poor." Quod adest memento componere aequus. Enjoy the present smiling hour, And put it out of Fortune's power. Book III, ode xxix, line 32 (as translated by John Dryden) Ille potens sui laetusque deget, cui licet in diem dixisse "vixi: cras vel atra nube polum pater occupato vel sole puro." He will through life be master of himself and a happy man who from day to day can have said, "I have lived: tomorrow the Father may fill the sky with black clouds or with cloudless sunshine." Book III, ode xxix, line 41 John Dryden's paraphrase: Happy the man, and happy he alone, He, who can call to day his own: He who, secure within, can say, To-morrow do thy worst, for I have lived to-day. Exegi monumentum aere perennius I have made a monument more lasting than bronze. Book III, ode xxx, line 1 Pulvis et umbra sumus. We are but dust and shadow. Book IV, ode vii, line 16 Vixere fortes ante Agamemnona. Brave men were living before Agamemnon. Book IV, ode ix, line 25 Epistles (c. 20 BC and 14 BC)[edit] I am not bound over to swear allegiance to any master; where the storm drives me I turn in for shelter. To flee vice is the beginning of virtue, and to have got rid of folly is the beginning of wisdom. He who has begun has half done. Dare to be wise; begin! Quid verum atque decens curo et rogo, et omnis in hoc sum. My cares and my inquiries are for decency and truth, and in this I am wholly occupied. Book I, epistle i, line 11 Nullius addictus iurare in verba magistri, quo me cumque rapit tempestas, deferor hospes. I am not bound over to swear allegiance to any master; where the storm drives me I turn in for shelter. Book I, epistle i, line 14 Virtus est vitium fugere et sapientia prima stultitia caruisse. To flee vice is the beginning of virtue, and to have got rid of folly is the beginning of wisdom. Book I, epistle i, line 41 Nos numerus sumus et fruges consumere nati. We are but numbers, born to consume resources. Book I, epistle ii, line 27 Nam cur quae laedunt oculum festinas demere; si quid est animum, differs curandi tempus in annum? For why do you hasten to remove things that hurt your eyes, but if anything gnaws your mind, defer the time of curing it from year to year? Book I, epistle ii, lines 37–39; translation by C. Smart Dimidium facti qui coepit habet; sapere aude; incipe! He who has begun has half done. Dare to be wise; begin! Book I, epistle ii, lines 40–41 Qui recte vivendi prorogat horam, Rusticus exspectat dum defluat amnis. He who postpones the hour of living rightly is like the rustic who waits for the river to run out before he crosses. Book I, epistle ii, lines 41–42 Semper avarus eget. The covetous man is ever in want. Book I, epistle ii, line 56 Ira furor brevis est: animum rege: qui nisi paret imperat. Anger is a momentary madness so control your passion or it will control you. Book I, epistle ii, line 62 Inter spem curamque, timores inter et iras, Omnem crede diem tibi diluxisse supremum: Grata superveniet quae non sperabitur hora. Let hopes and sorrows, fears and angers be, And think each day that dawns the last you'll see; For so the hour that greets you unforeseen Will bring with it enjoyment twice as keen. Book I, epistle iv, line 12 (translated by John Conington) Omnem crede diem tibi diluxisse supremum. grata superveniet, quae non sperabitur hora. Think to yourself that every day is your last; the hour to which you do not look forward will come as a welcome surprise. Book I, epistle iv, line 13–14 Me pinguem et nitidum bene curata cute vises, cum ridere voles Epicuri de grege porcum. As for me, when you want a good laugh, you will find me in fine state... fat and sleek, a true hog of Epicurus' herd. Book I, epistle iv, lines 15–16 Naturam expellas furca, tamen usque recurret. You may drive out Nature with a pitchfork, yet she still will hurry back. Book I, epistle x, line 24 Caelum, non animum mutant, qui trans mare currunt. Sky, not spirit, do they change, those who cross the sea. Book I, epistle xi, line 27 Pauper enim non est, cui rerum suppetit usus. si ventri bene, si lateri est pedibusque tuis, nil divitiae poterunt regales addere maius. He is not poor who has enough of things to use. If it is well with your belly, chest and feet, the wealth of kings can give you nothing more. Book I, epistle xii, line 4 Quid velit et possit rerum concordia discors What the discordant harmony of circumstances would and could effect. Book I, epistle xii, line 19 Nam neque divitibus contingunt gaudia solis, nec vixit male, qui natus moriensque fefellit. For joys fall not to the rich alone, nor has he lived ill, who from birth to death has passed unknown. Book I, epistle xvii, line 9 Sedit qui timuit ne non succederet. He who feared that he would not succeed sat still. Book I, epistle xvii, line 37 Semel emissum volat irrevocabile verbum. Once a word has been allowed to escape, it cannot be recalled. Book I, epistle xviii, line 71 Qualem commendes, etiam atque etiam aspice, ne mox incutiant aliena tibi peccata pudorem. Look round and round the man you recommend, For yours will be the shame should he offend. Book I, epistle xviii, line 76 (translated by John Conington). Variant translation: Study carefully the character of the one you recommend, lest his misdeeds bring you shame. Nam tua res agitur, paries cum proximus ardet. It is your concern when your neighbor's wall is on fire. Book I, epistle xviii, line 84 Dulcis inexpertis cultura potentis amici; Expertus metuit.[2] To have a great man for an intimate friend seems pleasant to those who have never tried it; those who have, fear it. Book I, epistle xviii, line 86 Interdum volgus rectum videt, est ubi peccat. At times the world sees straight, but many times the world goes astray. Book II, epistle i, line 63 Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit et artes intulit agresti Latio. Conquered Greece took captive her savage conqueror and brought her arts into rustic Latium. Book II, epistle i, lines 156–157 Singula de nobis anni praedantur euntes. The years as they pass plunder us of one thing after another. Book II, epistle ii, line 55 Natales grate numeras? Do you count your birthdays with gratitude? Book II, epistle ii, line 210 Ars Poetica, or The Epistle to the Pisones (c. 18 BC)[edit] The mountains will be in labor, and a ridiculous mouse will be brought forth. Inceptis gravibus plerumque et magna professis purpureus, late qui splendeat, unus et alter adsuitur pannus. Often a purple patch or two is tacked on to a serious work of high promise, to give an effect of colour. Line 14 Brevis esse laboro, obscurus fio. Struggling to be brief I become obscure. Line 25 Non satis est pulchra esse poemata; dulcia sunto Et, quocumque uolent, animum auditoris agunto. Mere grace is not enough: a play should thrill The hearer's soul, and move it at its will. Line 99 (tr. John Conington) Si vis me flere, dolendum est primum ipsi tibi. If you wish me to weep, you yourself Must first feel grief. Line 102 Format enim Natura prius nos intus ad omnem Fortunarum habitum, juvat, aut impellit ad iram, Aut ad humum moerore gravi deducit, et angit. For nature forms our spirits to receive Each bent that outward circumstance can give: She kindles pleasure, bids resentment glow, Or bows the soul to earth in hopeless woe. Line 108 (tr. Conington) Difficile est proprie communia dicere. It is difficult to speak of the universal specifically. Line 128 Nec verbum verbo curabis reddere fidus Interpres. Nor word for word too faithfully translate. Line 133 (tr. John Dryden) Parturient montes, nascetur ridiculus mus. The mountains will be in labor, and a ridiculous mouse will be brought forth. Line 139. Horace is hereby poking fun at heroic labours producing meager results; his line is also an allusion to one of Æsop's fables, The Mountain in Labour. The title to Shakespeare's play Much Ado About Nothing expresses a similar sentiment. In medias res. Into the middle things. Line 148 Et quae Desperat tractata nitescere posse relinquit. And what he fears he cannot make attractive with his touch he abandons. Line 149 (tr. H. R. Fairclough) Scribendi recte sapere est et principium et fons. To have good sense, is the first principle and fountain of writing well. Line 309 Grais ingenium, Grais dedit ore rotundo Musa loqui, præter laudem nullius avaris. . . The Muse gave the Greeks their native character, and allowed them to speak in noble tones, they who desired nothing but praise. Line 323 Quidquid praecipies, esto brevis, ut cito dicta percipiant animi dociles teneantque fideles: omne supervacuum pleno de pectore manat. When you wish to instruct, be brief; that men’s minds may take in quickly what you say, learn its lesson, and retain it faithfully. Every word that is unnecessary only pours over the side of a brimming mind. Lines 335–337; Edward Charles Wickham translation Omne tulit punctum qui miscuit utile dulci, lectorem delectando pariterque monendo. He wins every hand who mingles profit with pleasure, by delighting and instructing the reader at the same time. Line 343 Sunt delicta tamen quibus ignovisse velimus. Some faults may claim forgiveness. Line 347 (tr. Conington) Indignor quandoque bonus dormitat Homerus; I am displeased when sometimes even the worthy Homer nods; Whence the familiar expression, Even Homer nods (i.e. No one is perfect: even the wisest make mistakes). Line 359 Mediocribus esse poetis Non homines, non di, non concessere columnae. Mediocrity in poets has never been tolerated by either men, or gods, or booksellers. Lines 372–373 Nec satis apparet, cur versus factitet. None knows the reason why this curse Was sent on him, this love of making verse. Line 470 (tr. Conington) Misattributed[edit] Ars longa, vita brevis. Art is long, life is short. Seneca's (De Brevitate Vitae, 1.1) Latin translation of the Greek by Hippocrates. External links[edit] Wikipedia has an article about: Horace Look up Horace in Wiktionary, the free dictionary Wikisource has original works written by or about: Horace Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Quintus Horatius Flaccus Works by Horace at Project Gutenberg The works of Horace at The Latin Library Selected Poems of Horace The Perseus Project — Latin and Greek authors (with English translations), including Horace Biography and chronology Horace at Litweb Horace's works – text, concordances and frequency list SORGLL: Horace, Odes I.22, read by Robert Sonkowsky Retrieved from "https://en.wikiquote.org/w/index.php?title=Horace&oldid=2898482" Categories: Roman poets Philosophers from Rome Satirists Literary critics Latin authors BCE births BCE deaths People from Basilicata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Page Discussion Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Community portal Village pump Recent changes Random page Help Donate Contact Wikiquote Wikiquote links People Literary works Proverbs Films TV shows Themes Categories Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikipedia Wikisource In other languages Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Eesti Français עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kurdî Latina Lietuvių Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 29 November 2020, at 20:40. 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en-wikisource-org-1348	----	Carmina (Horatius)/Liber IV/Carmen XV - Wikisource Carmina (Horatius)/Liber IV/Carmen XV E Wikisource < Carmina (Horatius)Unchecked Jump to navigation Jump to search Quintus Horatius FlaccusCarmina023 a.Ch.n. Quintus Horatius Flaccus Carmina Liber IV Carmen XV 23 a.Ch.n.  IV, XIV Phoebus volentem proelia me loqui victas et urbis increpuit lyra,    ne parva Tyrrhenum per aequor       vela darem. tua, Caesar, aetas fruges et agris rettulit uberes et signa nostro restituit Iovi    derepta Parthorum superbis       postibus et vacuom duellis Ianum Quirini clausit et ordinem rectum evaganti frena licentiae    iniecit emovitque culpas       et veteres revocavit artis, per quas Latinum nomen et Italae crevere vires famaque et imperi    porrecta maiestas ad ortus       solis ab Hesperio cubili. custode rerum Caesare non furor civilis aut vis exiget otium,    non ira, quae procudit ensis       et miseras inimicat urbis. non qui profundum Danuvium bibunt edicta rumpent Iulia, non Getae,    non Seres infidique Persae,       non Tanain prope flumen orti. nosque et profestis lucibus et sacris inter iocosi munera Liberi    cum prole matronisque nostris,       rite deos prius adprecati, virtute functos more patrum duces Lydis remixto carmine tibiis    Troiamque et Anchisen et almae       progeniem Veneris canemus.  IV, XIV Receptum de "https://la.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=Carmina_(Horatius)/Liber_IV/Carmen_XV&oldid=86458" Categoriae: Capita ex operibus 75% Tabula navigationis Instrumenta personalia Nomen nondum datum est Disputatio huius IP Conlationes Sibi nomen imponere Nomen dare Spatia nominalia Opus Disputatio Variantes Visae Legere Recensere Historiam inspicere More Quaerere Navigatio Pagina prima English Main Page Scriptorium Scriptores Chronologia Nuper mutata Pagina fortuita Auxilium Instrumenta Nexus ad hanc paginam Nuper mutata annexorum Onerare fascicula Paginae speciales Nexus perpetuus De hac pagina Hanc paginam citare Imprimere vel exportare Librum creare Paginam prehendere formá PDF Forma impressibilis Aliae linguae Français Italiano Add links Novissima mutatio die 31 Ianuarii 2018 hora 23:08 facta. Nonobstantibus ceteris condicionibus hunc textum tractare licet secundum "Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License". Vide modos et condiciones. Consilium de secreto De Wikisource Repudiationes Pagina mobilis Elaboratores Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikisource-org-3161	----	Carmina (Horatius)/Liber III/Carmen XIII - Wikisource Carmina (Horatius)/Liber III/Carmen XIII E Wikisource < Carmina (Horatius)Unchecked Jump to navigation Jump to search Quintus Horatius FlaccusCarmina023 a.Ch.n. Quintus Horatius Flaccus Carmina Liber III Carmen XIII 23 a.Ch.n.  III, XII III, XIV  O fons Bandusiae splendidior vitro, dulci digne mero non sine floribus, cras donaberis haedo, cui frons turgida cornibus primis et venerem et proelia destinat; frustra: nam gelidos inficiet tibi rubro sanguine rivos lascivi suboles gregis. te flagrantis atrox hora Caniculae nescit tangere, tu frigus amabile fessis vomere tauris praebes et pecori vago. fies nobilium tu quoque fontium me dicente cavis inpositam ilicem saxis, unde loquaces lymphae desiliunt tuae.  III, XII III, XIV  Receptum de "https://la.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=Carmina_(Horatius)/Liber_III/Carmen_XIII&oldid=86426" Categoriae: Capita ex operibus 75% Tabula navigationis Instrumenta personalia Nomen nondum datum est Disputatio huius IP Conlationes Sibi nomen imponere Nomen dare Spatia nominalia Opus Disputatio Variantes Visae Legere Recensere Historiam inspicere More Quaerere Navigatio Pagina prima English Main Page Scriptorium Scriptores Chronologia Nuper mutata Pagina fortuita Auxilium Instrumenta Nexus ad hanc paginam Nuper mutata annexorum Onerare fascicula Paginae speciales Nexus perpetuus De hac pagina Hanc paginam citare Imprimere vel exportare Librum creare Paginam prehendere formá PDF Forma impressibilis Aliae linguae Français Italiano Add links Novissima mutatio die 31 Ianuarii 2018 hora 23:00 facta. Nonobstantibus ceteris condicionibus hunc textum tractare licet secundum "Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License". Vide modos et condiciones. Consilium de secreto De Wikisource Repudiationes Pagina mobilis Elaboratores Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikisource-org-3381	----	Carmina (Horatius)/Liber I/Carmen XIX - Wikisource Carmina (Horatius)/Liber I/Carmen XIX E Wikisource < Carmina (Horatius)Unchecked Jump to navigation Jump to search Quintus Horatius FlaccusCarmina023 a.Ch.n. Quintus Horatius Flaccus Carmina Liber I Carmen XIX 23 a.Ch.n.  I, XVIII I, XX  Mater saeva Cupidinum Thebanaeque iubet me Semelae puer et lasciva Licentia finitis animum reddere amoribus. urit me Glycerae nitor splendentis Pario marmore purius, urit grata protervitas et voltus nimium lubricus adspici. in me tota ruens Venus Cyprum deseruit nec patitur Scythas et versis animosum equis Parthum dicere nec quae nihil attinent. hic vivum mihi caespitem, hic verbenas, pueri, ponite turaque bimi cum patera meri: mactata veniet lenior hostia.  I, XVIII I, XX  Receptum de "https://la.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=Carmina_(Horatius)/Liber_I/Carmen_XIX&oldid=86375" Categoriae: Capita ex operibus 75% Tabula navigationis Instrumenta personalia Nomen nondum datum est Disputatio huius IP Conlationes Sibi nomen imponere Nomen dare Spatia nominalia Opus Disputatio Variantes Visae Legere Recensere Historiam inspicere More Quaerere Navigatio Pagina prima English Main Page Scriptorium Scriptores Chronologia Nuper mutata Pagina fortuita Auxilium Instrumenta Nexus ad hanc paginam Nuper mutata annexorum Onerare fascicula Paginae speciales Nexus perpetuus De hac pagina Hanc paginam citare Imprimere vel exportare Librum creare Paginam prehendere formá PDF Forma impressibilis Aliae linguae Français Italiano Add links Novissima mutatio die 31 Ianuarii 2018 hora 22:48 facta. Nonobstantibus ceteris condicionibus hunc textum tractare licet secundum "Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License". Vide modos et condiciones. Consilium de secreto De Wikisource Repudiationes Pagina mobilis Elaboratores Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikisource-org-3903	----	Carmina (Horatius)/Liber IV/Carmen I - Wikisource Carmina (Horatius)/Liber IV/Carmen I E Wikisource < Carmina (Horatius)Unchecked Jump to navigation Jump to search Quintus Horatius FlaccusCarmina023 a.Ch.n. Quintus Horatius Flaccus Carmina Liber IV Carmen I 23 a.Ch.n. IV, II  Intermissa, Venus, diu rursus bella moves? parce, precor precor. non sum qualis eram bonae sub regno Cinarae. desine, dulcium mater saeva Cupidinum, circa lustra decem flectere mollibus iam durum imperiis: abi, quo blandae iuvenum te revocant preces. tempestivius in domum Pauli purpureis ales oloribus comissabere Maximi, si torrere iecur quaeris idoneum; namque et nobilis et decens et pro sollicitis non tacitus reis et centum puer artium late signa feret militiae tuae et, quandoque potentior largi muneribus riserit aemuli, Albanos prope te lacus ponet marmoream sub trabe citrea. illic plurima naribus duces tura lyraeque et Berecyntiae delectabere tibiae mixtis carminibus non sine fistula; illic bis pueri die numen cum teneris virginibus tuum laudantes pede candido in morem Salium ter quatient humum. me nec femina nec puer iam nec spes animi credula mutui nec certare iuvat mero nec vincire novis tempora floribus. sed cur heu, Ligurine, cur manat rara meas lacrima per genas? cur facunda parum decoro inter verba cadit lingua silentio? nocturnis ego somniis iam captum teneo, iam volucrem sequor te per gramina Martii campi, te per aquas, dure, volubilis IV, II  Receptum de "https://la.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=Carmina_(Horatius)/Liber_IV/Carmen_I&oldid=86444" Categoriae: Capita ex operibus 75% Tabula navigationis Instrumenta personalia Nomen nondum datum est Disputatio huius IP Conlationes Sibi nomen imponere Nomen dare Spatia nominalia Opus Disputatio Variantes Visae Legere Recensere Historiam inspicere More Quaerere Navigatio Pagina prima English Main Page Scriptorium Scriptores Chronologia Nuper mutata Pagina fortuita Auxilium Instrumenta Nexus ad hanc paginam Nuper mutata annexorum Onerare fascicula Paginae speciales Nexus perpetuus De hac pagina Hanc paginam citare Imprimere vel exportare Librum creare Paginam prehendere formá PDF Forma impressibilis Aliae linguae Français Italiano Add links Novissima mutatio die 31 Ianuarii 2018 hora 23:05 facta. Nonobstantibus ceteris condicionibus hunc textum tractare licet secundum "Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License". Vide modos et condiciones. Consilium de secreto De Wikisource Repudiationes Pagina mobilis Elaboratores Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikisource-org-4078	----	Carmina (Horatius)/Liber I/Carmen XXXVII - Wikisource Carmina (Horatius)/Liber I/Carmen XXXVII E Wikisource < Carmina (Horatius)Unchecked Jump to navigation Jump to search Quintus Horatius FlaccusCarmina023 a.Ch.n. Quintus Horatius Flaccus Carmina Liber I Carmen XXXVII 23 a.Ch.n.  I, XXXVI I, XXXVIII  Nunc est bibendum, nunc pede libero pulsanda tellus; nunc Saliaribus ornare pulvinar deorum tempus erat dapibus, sodales. antehac nefas depromere Caecubum cellis avitis, dum Capitolio regina dementis ruinas, funus et imperio parabat contaminato cum grege turpium morbo virorum quidlibet inpotens sperare fortunaque dulci ebria. sed minuit furorem vix una sospes navis ab ignibus mentemque lymphatam Mareotico redegit in veros timores Caesar ab Italia volantem remis adurgens, accipiter velut mollis columbas aut leporem citus venator in campis nivalis Haemoniae, daret ut catenis fatale monstrum. quae generosius perire quaerens nec muliebriter expavit ensem nec latentis classe cita reparavit oras. ausa et iacentem visere regiam voltu sereno, fortis et asperas tractare serpentes, ut atrum corpore conbiberet venenum, deliberata morte ferocior; saevis Liburnis scilicet invidens privata deduci superbo, non humilis mulier, triumpho  I, XXXVI I, XXXVIII  Receptum de "https://la.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=Carmina_(Horatius)/Liber_I/Carmen_XXXVII&oldid=86393" Categoriae: Capita ex operibus 75% Tabula navigationis Instrumenta personalia Nomen nondum datum est Disputatio huius IP Conlationes Sibi nomen imponere Nomen dare Spatia nominalia Opus Disputatio Variantes Visae Legere Recensere Historiam inspicere More Quaerere Navigatio Pagina prima English Main Page Scriptorium Scriptores Chronologia Nuper mutata Pagina fortuita Auxilium Instrumenta Nexus ad hanc paginam Nuper mutata annexorum Onerare fascicula Paginae speciales Nexus perpetuus De hac pagina Hanc paginam citare Imprimere vel exportare Librum creare Paginam prehendere formá PDF Forma impressibilis Aliae linguae Français Italiano Add links Novissima mutatio die 31 Ianuarii 2018 hora 22:52 facta. Nonobstantibus ceteris condicionibus hunc textum tractare licet secundum "Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License". Vide modos et condiciones. Consilium de secreto De Wikisource Repudiationes Pagina mobilis Elaboratores Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikisource-org-4217	----	Carmina (Horatius)/Liber I/Carmen XXXVIII - Wikisource Carmina (Horatius)/Liber I/Carmen XXXVIII E Wikisource < Carmina (Horatius)Unchecked Jump to navigation Jump to search Quintus Horatius FlaccusCarmina023 a.Ch.n. Quintus Horatius Flaccus Carmina Liber I Carmen XXXVIII 23 a.Ch.n.  I, XXXVII Persicos odi, puer, adparatus, displicent nexae philyra coronae, mitte sectari, rosa quo locorum sera moretur. simplici myrto nihil adlabores sedulus curo: neque te ministrum dedecet myrtus neque me sub arta vite bibentem  I, XXXVII Receptum de "https://la.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=Carmina_(Horatius)/Liber_I/Carmen_XXXVIII&oldid=86394" Categoriae: Capita ex operibus 75% Sapphici Tabula navigationis Instrumenta personalia Nomen nondum datum est Disputatio huius IP Conlationes Sibi nomen imponere Nomen dare Spatia nominalia Opus Disputatio Variantes Visae Legere Recensere Historiam inspicere More Quaerere Navigatio Pagina prima English Main Page Scriptorium Scriptores Chronologia Nuper mutata Pagina fortuita Auxilium Instrumenta Nexus ad hanc paginam Nuper mutata annexorum Onerare fascicula Paginae speciales Nexus perpetuus De hac pagina Hanc paginam citare Imprimere vel exportare Librum creare Paginam prehendere formá PDF Forma impressibilis Aliae linguae Français Italiano Vèneto Add links Novissima mutatio die 31 Ianuarii 2018 hora 22:52 facta. Nonobstantibus ceteris condicionibus hunc textum tractare licet secundum "Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License". Vide modos et condiciones. Consilium de secreto De Wikisource Repudiationes Pagina mobilis Elaboratores Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikisource-org-4285	----	Epodi - Wikisource Epodi E Wikisource Jump to navigation Jump to search  EPUB   MOBI   PDF   RTF   TXT Quintus Horatius FlaccusEpodi0Post 40 a.Ch.n. Quintus Horatius Flaccus Epodi Post 40 a.Ch.n. editio: incognita fons: incognitus Index 1 I 2 II 3 III 4 IV 5 V 6 VI 7 VII 8 VIII 9 IX 10 X 11 XI 12 XII 13 XIII 14 XIV 15 XV 16 XVI 17 XVII I[recensere]     Ibis Liburnis inter alta navium,           amice, propugnacula,     paratus omne Caesaris periculum           subire, Maecenas, tuo:     quid nos, quibus te vita sit superstite           iucunda, si contra, gravis?     utrumne iussi persequemur otium           non dulce, ni tecum simul,     an hunc laborem mente laturi, decet           qua ferre non mollis viros?     feremus et te vel per Alpium iuga           inhospitalem et Caucasum     vel occidentis usque ad ultimum sinum           forti sequemur pectore.     roges, tuom labore quid iuvem meo,           inbellis ac firmus parum?     comes minore sum futurus in metu,           qui maior absentis habet:     ut adsidens inplumibus pullis avis           serpentium adlapsus timet     magis relictis, non, ut adsit, auxili           latura plus praesentibus.     libenter hoc et omne militabitur           bellum in tuae spem gratiae,     non ut iuvencis inligata pluribus           aratra nitantur meis     pecusve Calabris ante Sidus fervidum           Lucana mutet pascuis     neque ut superni villa candens Tusculi           Circaea tangat moenia:     satis superque me benignitas tua           ditavit, haud paravero     quod aut avarus ut Chremes terra premam,           discinctus aut perdam nepos. II[recensere]     'Beatus ille qui procul negotiis,           ut prisca gens mortalium,     paterna rura bubus exercet suis           solutus omni faenore     neque excitatur classico miles truci           neque horret iratum mare     forumque vitat et superba civium           potentiorum limina.     ergo aut adulta vitium propagine           altas maritat populos     aut in reducta valle mugientium           prospectat errantis greges     inutilisque falce ramos amputans           feliciores inserit     aut pressa puris mella condit amphoris           aut tondet infirmas ovis.     vel cum decorum mitibus pomis caput           Autumnus agris extulit,     ut gaudet insitiva decerpens pira           certantem et uvam purpurae,     qua muneretur te, Priape, et te, pater           Silvane, tutor finium.     libet iacere modo sub antiqua ilice,           modo in tenaci gramine:     labuntur altis interim ripis aquae,           queruntur in Silvis aves     frondesque lymphis obstrepunt manantibus,           somnos quod invitet levis.     at cum tonantis annus hibernus Iovis           imbris nivisque conparat,     aut trudit acris hinc et hinc multa cane           apros in obstantis plagas     aut amite levi rara tendit retia           turdis edacibus dolos     pavidumque leporem et advenam laqueo gruem           iucunda captat praemia.     quis non malarum quas amor curas habet           haec inter obliviscitur?     quodsi pudica mulier in partem iuvet           domum atque dulcis liberos,     Sabina qualis aut perusta Solibus           pernicis uxor Apuli,     sacrum vetustis exstruat lignis focum           lassi Sub adventum viri     claudensque textis cratibus laetum pecus           distenta siccet ubera     et horna dulci vina promens dolio           dapes inemptas adparet:     non me Lucrina iuverint conchylia           magisve rhombus aut scari,     siquos Eois intonata fluctibus           hiems ad hoc vertat mare,     non Afra avis descendat in ventrem meum,           non attagen Ionicus     iucundior quam lecta de pinguissimis           oliva ramis arborum     aut herba lapathi prata amantis et gravi           malvae salubres corpori     vel agna festis caesa Terminalibus           vel haedus ereptus lupo.     has inter epulas ut iuvat pastas ovis           videre properantis domum,     videre fessos vomerem inversum boves           collo trahentis languido     positosque vernas, ditis examen domus,           circum renidentis Laris.'     haec ubi locutus faenerator Alfius,           iam iam futurus rusticus,     omnem redegit idibus pecuniam,           quaerit kalendis ponere. III[recensere]     Parentis olim siquis inpia manu           senile guttur fregerit,     edit cicutis alium nocentius.           o dura messorum ilia.     quid hoc veneni saevit in praecordiis?           num viperinus his cruor     incoctus herbis me fefellit? an malas           Canidia tractavit dapes?     ut Argonautas praeter omnis candidum           Medea mirata est ducem,     ignota tauris inligaturum iuga           perunxit hoc Iasonem,     hoc delibutis ulta donis paelicem           serpente fugit alite.     nec tantus umquam Siderum insedit vapor           siticulosae Apuliae     nec munus umeris efficacis Herculis           inarsit aestuosius.     at siquid umquam tale concupiveris,           iocose Maecenas, precor,     manum puella savio opponat tuo,           extrema et in sponda cubet. IV[recensere]     Lupis et agnis quanta Sortito obtigit,           tecum mihi discordia est,     Hibericis peruste funibus latus           et crura dura compede.     licet superbus ambules pecunia,           fortuna non mutat genus.     videsne, sacram metiente te viam           cum bis trium ulnarum toga,     ut ora vertat huc et huc euntium           liberrima indignatio?     'sectus flagellis hic triumviralibus           praeconis ad fastidium     arat Falerni mille fundi iugera           et Appiam mannis terit     sedilibusque magnus in primis eques           Othone contempto sedet.     quid attinet tot ora navium gravi           rostrata duci pondere     contra latrones atque servilem manum           hoc, hoc tribuno militum?' V[recensere]     'At o deorum quidquid in caelo regit           terras et humanum genus,     quid iste fert tumultus aut quid omnium           voltus in unum me truces?     per liberos te, si vocata partubus           Lucina veris adfuit,     per hoc inane purpurae decus precor,           per inprobaturum haec Iovem,     quid ut noverca me intueris aut uti           petita ferro belua?'     ut haec trementi questus ore constitit           insignibus raptis puer,     inpube corpus, quale posset inpia           mollire Thracum pectora:     Canidia, brevibus illigata viperis           crinis et incomptum caput,     iubet sepulcris caprificos erutas,           iubet cupressos funebris     et uncta turpis ova ranae Sanguine           plumamque nocturnae strigis     herbasque, quas Iolcos atque Hiberia           mittit venenorum ferax,     et ossa ab ore rapta ieiunae canis           flammis aduri Colchicis.     at expedita Sagana, per totam domum           spargens Avernalis aquas,     horret capillis ut marinus asperis           echinus aut Laurens aper.     abacta nulla Veia conscientia           ligonibus duris humum     exhauriebat, ingemens laboribus,           quo posset infossus puer     longo die bis terque mutatae dapis           inemori spectaculo,     cum promineret ore, quantum exstant aqua           suspensa mento corpora;     exsucta uti medulla et aridum iecur           amoris esset poculum,     interminato cum semel fixae cibo           intabuissent pupulae.     non defuisse masculae libidinis           Ariminensem Foliam     et otiosa credidit Neapolis           et omne vicinum oppidum,     quae sidera excantata voce Thessala           lunamque caelo deripit.     hic inresectum saeva dente livido           Canidia rodens pollicem     quid dixit aut quid tacuit? 'o rebus meis           non infideles arbitrae,     Nox et Diana, quae silentium regis,           arcana cum fiunt sacra,     nunc, nunc adeste, nunc in hostilis domos           iram atque numen vertite.     formidulosis cum latent silvis ferae           dulci sopore languidae,     senem, quod omnes rideant, adulterum           latrent Suburanae canes     nardo perunctum, quale non perfectius           meae laborarint manus.     quid accidit? cur dira barbarae minus           venena Medeae valent,     quibus Superbam fugit ulta paelicem,           magni Creontis filiam,     cum palla, tabo munus imbutum, novam           incendio nuptam abstulit?     atqui nec herba nec latens in asperis           radix fefellit me locis.     indormit unctis omnium cubilibus           oblivione paelicum?     a, a, solutus ambulat veneficae           scientioris carmine.     non usitatis, Vare, potionibus,           o multa fleturum caput,     ad me recurres nec vocata mens tua           Marsis redibit vocibus.     maius parabo, maius infundam tibi           fastidienti poculum     priusque caelum Sidet inferius mari           tellure porrecta super     quam non amore sic meo flagres uti           bitumen atris ignibus.'     sub haec puer iam non, ut ante, mollibus           lenire verbis inpias,     sed dubius unde rumperet silentium,           misit Thyesteas preces:     'venena maga non fas nefasque, non valent           convertere humanam vicem.     diris agam vos: dira detestatio           nulla expiatur victima.     quin, ubi perire iussus exspiravero,           nocturnus occurram Furor     petamque voltus umbra curvis unguibus,           quae vis deorum est Manium,     et inquietis adsidens praecordiis           pavore somnos auferam.     vos turba vicatim hinc et hinc saxis petens           contundet obscaenas anus;     post insepulta membra different lupi           et Esquilinae alites     neque hoc parentes, heu mihi superstites,           effugerit spectaculum.' VI[recensere]     Quid inmerentis hospites vexas, canis           ignavos adversum lupos?     quin huc inanis, si potes, vertis minas           et me remorsurum petis?     nam qualis aut Molossus aut fulvos Lacon,           amica vis pastoribus,     agam per altas aure sublata nivis           quaecumque praecedet fera;     tu, cum timenda voce complesti nemus,           proiectum odoraris cibum.     cave, cave, namque in malos asperrimus           parata tollo cornua,     qualis Lycambae spretus infido gener           aut acer hostis Bupalo.     an si quis atro dente me petiverit,           inultus ut flebo puer? VII[recensere]     Quo, quo scelesti ruitis? aut cur dexteris           aptantur enses conditi?     parumne campis atque Neptuno super           fusum est Latini sanguinis,     non ut superbas invidae Karthaginis           Romanus arces ureret,     intactus aut Britannus ut descenderet           sacra catenatus via,     sed ut Secundum vota Parthorum sua           Vrbs haec periret dextera?     neque hic lupis mos nec fuit leonibus           umquam nisi in dispar feris.     furorne caecos an rapit vis acrior           an culpa? responsum date.     tacent et albus ora pallor inficit           mentesque perculsae Stupent.     sic est: acerba fata Romanos agunt           scelusque fraternae necis,     ut inmerentis fluxit in terram Remi           sacer nepotibus cruor. VIII[recensere]     Rogare longo putidam te saeculo,           viris quid enervet meas,     cum sit tibi dens ater et rugis vetus           frontem senectus exaret     hietque turpis inter aridas natis           podex velut crudae bovis.     sed incitat me pectus et mammae putres           equina quales ubera     venterque mollis et femur tumentibus           exile suris additum.     esto beata, funus atque imagines           ducant triumphales tuom     nec sit marita, quae rotundioribus           onusta bacis ambulet.     quid? quod libelli Stoici inter Sericos           iacere pulvillos amant,     inlitterati num minus nervi rigent           minusve languet fascinum?     quod ut superbo povoces ab inguine,           ore adlaborandum est tibi. IX[recensere]     Quando repositum Caecubum ad festas dapes           victore laetus Caesare     tecum sub alta---sic Iovi gratum---domo,           beate Maecenas, bibam     sonante mixtum tibiis carmen lyra,           hac Dorium, illis barbarum?     ut nuper, actus cum freto Neptunius           dux fugit ustis navibus     minatus Vrbi vincla, quae detraxerat           servis amicus perfidis.     Romanus eheu---posteri negabitis---           emancipatus feminae     fert vallum et arma miles et spadonibus           servire rugosis potest     interque signa turpe militaria           sol adspicit conopium.     ad hunc frementis verterunt bis mille equos           Galli canentes Caesarem     hostiliumque navium portu latent           puppes sinistrorsum citae.     io Triumphe, tu moraris aureos           currus et intactas boves?     io Triumphe, nec Iugurthino parem           bello reportasti ducem     neque Africanum, cui super Karthaginem           virtus Sepulcrum condidit.     terra marique victus hostis Punico           lugubre mutavit sagum.     aut ille centum nobilem Cretam urbibus           ventis iturus non suis     exercitatas aut petit Syrtis noto           aut fertur incerto mari.     capaciores adfer huc, puer, Scyphos           et Chia vina aut Lesbia     vel quod fluentem nauseam coerceat           metire nobis Caecubum.     curam metumque Caesaris rerum iuvat           dulci Lyaeo solvere. X[recensere]     Mala soluta navis exit alite           ferens olentem Mevium.     ut horridis utrumque verberes latus,           Auster, memento fluctibus;     niger rudentis Eurus inverso mari           fractosque remos differat;     insurgat Aquilo, quantus altis montibus           frangit trementis ilics;     nec sidus atra nocte amicum adpareat,           qua tristis Orion cadit;     quietiore nec feratur aequore           quam Graia victorum manus,     cum Pallas usto vertit iram ab Ilio           in inpiam Aiacis ratem.     o quantus instat navitis sudor tuis           tibique pallor luteus     et illa non virilis heiulatio           preces et aversum ad Iovem,     Ionius udo cum remugiens sinus           Noto carinam ruperit     opima quodsi praeda curvo litore           porrecta mergos iuverit,     libidinosus immolabitur caper           et agna Tempestatibus. XI[recensere]     Petti, nihil me sicut antea iuvat           scribere versiculos amore percussum gravi,     amore, qui me praeter omnis expetit           mollibus in pueris aut in puellis urere.     hic tertius December, ex quo destiti           Inachia furere, silvis honorem decutit.     heu me, per Vrbem (nam pudet tanti mali)           fabula quanta fui, conviviorum et paenitet,     in quis amantem languor et silentium           arguit et latere petitus imo spiritus.     'contrane lucrum nil valere candidum           pauperis ingenium' querebar adplorans tibi,     simul calentis inverecundus deus           fervidiore mero arcana promorat loco.     'quodsi meis inaestuet praecordiis           libera bilis, ut haec ingrata ventis dividat     fomenta volnus nil malum levantia,           desinet inparibus certare submotus pudor.'     ubi haec severus te palam laudaveram,           iussus abire domum ferebar incerto pede     ad non amicos heu mihi postis et heu           limina dura, quibus lumbos et infregi latus.     nunc gloriantis quamlibet mulierculam           vincere mollitia amor Lycisci me tenet;     unde expedire non amicorum queant           libera consilia nec contumeliae graves,     sed alius ardor aut puellae candidae           aut teretis pueri longam renodantis comam. XII[recensere]     Quid tibi vis, mulier nigris dignissima barris?           munera quid mihi quidve tabellas     mittis nec firmo iuveni neque naris obesae?           namque sagacius unus odoror,     polypus an gravis hirsutis cubet hircus in alis           quam canis acer ubi lateat sus.     qui sudor vietis et quam malus undique membris           crescit odor, cum pene Soluto     indomitam properat rabiem sedare, neque illi           iam manet umida creta colorque     stercore fucatus crocodili iamque Subando           tenta cubilia tectaque rumpit.     vel mea cum saevis agitat fastidia verbis:           'Inachia langues minus ac me;     Inachiam ter nocte potes, mihi Semper ad unum           mollis opus. pereat male quae te     Lesbia quaerenti taurum monstravit inertem.           cum mihi Cous adesset Amyntas,     cuius in indomito constantior inguine nervos           quam nova collibus arbor inhaeret.     muricibus Tyriis iteratae vellera lanae           cui properabantur? tibi nempe,     ne foret aequalis inter conviva, magis quem           diligeret mulier sua quam te.     o ego non felix, quam tu fugis, ut pavet acris           agna lupos capreaeque leones!' XIII[recensere]     Horrida tempestas caelum contraxit et imbres           nivesque deducunt Iovem; nunc mare, nunc siluae     Threicio Aquilone sonant. rapiamus, amici,           Occasionem de die dumque virent genua     et decet, obducta solvatur fronte senectus.           tu vina Torquato move consule pressa meo.     cetera mitte loqui: deus haec fortasse benigna           reducet in sedem vice. nunc et Achaemenio     perfundi nardo iuvat et fide Cyllenea           levare diris pectora Sollicitudinibus,     nobilis ut grandi cecinit Centaurus alumno:           'invicte, mortalis dea nate puer Thetide,     te manet Assaraci tellus, quam frigida parvi           findunt Scamandri flumina lubricus et Simois,     unde tibi reditum certo Subtemine Parcae           rupere, nec mater domum caerula te revehet.     illic omne malum vino cantuque levato,     deformis aegrimoniae dulcibus adloquiis.' XIV[recensere]     Mollis inertia cur tantam diffuderit imis           oblivionem sensibus,     pocula Lethaeos ut si ducentia somnos           arente fauce traxerim,     candide Maecenas, occidis Saepe rogando:           deus, deus nam me vetat     inceptos, olim promissum carmen, iambos           ad umbilicum adducere.     non aliter Samio dicunt arsisse Bathyllo           Anacreonta Teium,     qui persaepe cava testudine flevit amorem           non elaboratum ad pedem.     ureris ipse miser: quodsi non pulcrior ignis           accendit obsessam Ilion,     gaude sorte tua; me libertina, nec uno           contenta, Phryne macerat. XV[recensere]     Nox erat et caelo fulgebat Luna sereno           inter minora sidera,     cum tu, magnorum numen laesura deorum,           in verba iurabas mea,     artius atque hedera procera adstringitur ilex           lentis adhaerens bracchiis;     dum pecori lupus et nautis infestus Orion           turbaret hibernum mare     intonsosque agitaret Apollinis aura capillos,           fore hunc amorem mutuom,     o dolitura mea multum virtute Neaera:           nam siquid in Flacco viri est,     non feret adsiduas potiori te dare noctes           et quaeret iratus parem     nec semel offensi cedet constantia formae,           si certus intrarit dolor.     et tu, quicumque es felicior atque meo nunc           superbus incedis malo,     sis pecore et multa dives tellure licebit           tibique Pactolus fluat     nec te Pythagorae fallant arcana renati           formaque vincas Nirea,     heu heu, translatos alio maerebis amores,           ast ego vicissim risero. XVI[recensere]     Altera iam teritur bellis civilibus aetas,           suis et ipsa Roma viribus ruit.     quam neque finitimi valuerunt perdere Marsi           minacis aut Etrusca Porsenae manus,     aemula nec virtus Capuae nec Spartacus acer           novisque rebus infidelis Allobrox     nec fera caerulea domuit Germania pube           parentibusque abominatus Hannibal:     inpia perdemus devoti sanguinis aetas           ferisque rursus occupabitur solum:     barbarus heu cineres insistet victor et Vrbem           eques sonante verberabit ungula,     quaeque carent ventis et solibus ossa Quirini,           (nefas videre) dissipabit insolens.     forte quid expediat communiter aut melior pars,           malis carere quaeritis laboribus;     nulla sit hac potior sententia: Phocaeorum           velut profugit exsecrata civitas     agros atque lares patrios habitandaque fana           apris reliquit et rapacibus lupis,     ire, pedes quocumque ferent, quocumque per undas           Notus vocabit aut protervos Africus.     sic placet? an melius quis habet suadere? Secunda           ratem occupare quid moramur alite?     sed iuremus in haec: 'simul imis saxa renarint           vadis levata, ne redire sit nefas;     neu conversa domum pigeat dare lintea, quando           Padus Matina laverit cacumina,     in mare seu celsus procurrerit Appenninus           novaque monstra iunxerit libidine     mirus amor, iuvet ut tigris subsidere cervis,           adulteretur et columba miluo,     credula nec ravos timeant armenta leones           ametque salsa levis hircus aequora.'     haec et quae poterunt reditus abscindere dulcis           eamus omnis exsecrata civitas     aut pars indocili melior grege; mollis et exspes           inominata perpremat cubilia.     vos, quibus est virtus, muliebrem tollite luctum,           Etrusca praeter et volate litora.     nos manet Oceanus circum vagus: arva beata           petamus, arva divites et insulas,     reddit ubi cererem tellus inarata quotannis           et inputata floret usque vinea,     germinat et numquam fallentis termes olivae           suamque pulla ficus ornat arborem,     mella cava manant ex ilice, montibus altis           levis crepante lympha desilit pede.     illic iniussae veniunt ad mulctra capellae           refertque tenta grex amicus ubera     nec vespertinus circumgemit ursus ovile           nec intumescit alta viperis humus;     pluraque felices mirabimur, ut neque largis           aquosus Eurus arva radat imbribus,     pinguia nec siccis urantur semina glaebis,           utrumque rege temperante caelitum.     non huc Argoo contendit remige pinus           neque inpudica Colchis intulit pedem,     non huc Sidonii torserunt cornua nautae,           laboriosa nec cohors Vlixei.     nulla nocent pecori contagia, nullius astri           gregem aestuosa torret impotentia.     Iuppiter illa piae secrevit litora genti,           ut inquinavit aere tempus aureum,     aere, dehinc ferro duravit saecula, quorum           piis secunda vate me datur fuga. XVII[recensere]     'Iam iam efficaci do manus scientiae,     supplex et oro regna per Proserpinae,     per et Dianae non movenda numina,     per atque libros carminum valentium     refixa caelo devocare sidera,     Canidia: parce vocibus tandem sacris     citumque retro solve, solve turbinem.     movit nepotem Telephus Nereium,     in quem superbus ordinarat agmina     Mysorum et in quem tela acuta torserat.     unxere matres Iliae additum feris     alitibus atque canibus homicidam Hectorem,     postquam relictis moenibus rex procidit     heu pervicacis ad pedes Achillei.     saetosa duris exuere pellibus     laboriosi remiges Vlixei     volente Circa membra; tunc mens et sonus     relapsus atque notus in voltus honor.     dedi satis superque poenarum tibi,     amata nautis multum et institoribus.     fugit iuventas et verecundus color     reliquit ossa pelle amicta lurida,     tuis capillus albus est odoribus,     nullum a labore me reclinat otium;     urget diem nox et dies noctem neque est     levare tenta spiritu praecordia.     ergo negatum vincor ut credam miser,     Sabella pectus increpare carmina     caputque Marsa dissilire nenia.     quid amplius vis? o mare et terra, ardeo,     quantum neque atro delibutus Hercules     Nessi cruore nec Sicana fervida     virens in Aetna flamma; tu, donec cinis     iniuriosis aridus ventis ferar,     cales venenis officina Colchicis.     quae finis aut quod me manet stipendium?     effare; iussas cum fide poenas luam,     paratus expiare, seu poposceris     centum iuvencos sive mendaci lyra     voles sonare: tu pudica, tu proba     perambulabis astra sidus aureum.     infamis Helenae Castor offensus vice     fraterque magni Castoris, victi prece,     adempta vati reddidere lumina:     et tu, potes nam, solve me dementia,     o nec paternis obsoleta sordibus     neque in sepulcris pauperum prudens anus     novendialis dissipare pulveres.     tibi hospitale pectus et purae manus     tuosque venter Pactumeius et tuo     cruore rubros obstetrix pannos lavit,     utcumque fortis exsilis puerpera.'           'quid obseratis auribus fundis preces?     non saxa nudis surdiora navitis     Neptunus alto tundit hibernus salo.     inultus ut tu riseris Cotytia     volgata, sacrum liberi Cupidinis,     et Esquilini pontifex venefici     inpune ut Vrbem nomine inpleris meo?     quid proderat ditasse Paelignas anus     velociusve miscuisse toxicum?     sed tardiora fata te votis manent:     ingrata misero vita ducenda est in hoc,     novis ut usque suppetas laboribus.     optat quietem Pelopis infidi pater,     egens benignae Tantalus semper dapis,     optat Prometheus obligatus aliti,     optat supremo collocare Sisyphus     in monte saxum; sed vetant leges Iovis.     voles modo altis desilire turribus,     frustraque vincla gutturi innectes tuo     modo ense pectus Norico recludere     fastidiosa tristis aegrimonia.     vectabor umeris tunc ego inimicis eques     meaeque terra cedet insolentiae.     an quae movere cereas imagines,     ut ipse nosti curiosus, et polo     deripere lunam vocibus possim meis,     possim crematos excitare mortuos     desiderique temperare pocula,     plorem artis in te nil agentis exitus?' 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en-wikisource-org-4393	----	Epodi - Wikisource Epodi E Wikisource Jump to navigation Jump to search  EPUB   MOBI   PDF   RTF   TXT Quintus Horatius FlaccusEpodi0Post 40 a.Ch.n. Quintus Horatius Flaccus Epodi Post 40 a.Ch.n. editio: incognita fons: incognitus Index 1 I 2 II 3 III 4 IV 5 V 6 VI 7 VII 8 VIII 9 IX 10 X 11 XI 12 XII 13 XIII 14 XIV 15 XV 16 XVI 17 XVII I[recensere]     Ibis Liburnis inter alta navium,           amice, propugnacula,     paratus omne Caesaris periculum           subire, Maecenas, tuo:     quid nos, quibus te vita sit superstite           iucunda, si contra, gravis?     utrumne iussi persequemur otium           non dulce, ni tecum simul,     an hunc laborem mente laturi, decet           qua ferre non mollis viros?     feremus et te vel per Alpium iuga           inhospitalem et Caucasum     vel occidentis usque ad ultimum sinum           forti sequemur pectore.     roges, tuom labore quid iuvem meo,           inbellis ac firmus parum?     comes minore sum futurus in metu,           qui maior absentis habet:     ut adsidens inplumibus pullis avis           serpentium adlapsus timet     magis relictis, non, ut adsit, auxili           latura plus praesentibus.     libenter hoc et omne militabitur           bellum in tuae spem gratiae,     non ut iuvencis inligata pluribus           aratra nitantur meis     pecusve Calabris ante Sidus fervidum           Lucana mutet pascuis     neque ut superni villa candens Tusculi           Circaea tangat moenia:     satis superque me benignitas tua           ditavit, haud paravero     quod aut avarus ut Chremes terra premam,           discinctus aut perdam nepos. II[recensere]     'Beatus ille qui procul negotiis,           ut prisca gens mortalium,     paterna rura bubus exercet suis           solutus omni faenore     neque excitatur classico miles truci           neque horret iratum mare     forumque vitat et superba civium           potentiorum limina.     ergo aut adulta vitium propagine           altas maritat populos     aut in reducta valle mugientium           prospectat errantis greges     inutilisque falce ramos amputans           feliciores inserit     aut pressa puris mella condit amphoris           aut tondet infirmas ovis.     vel cum decorum mitibus pomis caput           Autumnus agris extulit,     ut gaudet insitiva decerpens pira           certantem et uvam purpurae,     qua muneretur te, Priape, et te, pater           Silvane, tutor finium.     libet iacere modo sub antiqua ilice,           modo in tenaci gramine:     labuntur altis interim ripis aquae,           queruntur in Silvis aves     frondesque lymphis obstrepunt manantibus,           somnos quod invitet levis.     at cum tonantis annus hibernus Iovis           imbris nivisque conparat,     aut trudit acris hinc et hinc multa cane           apros in obstantis plagas     aut amite levi rara tendit retia           turdis edacibus dolos     pavidumque leporem et advenam laqueo gruem           iucunda captat praemia.     quis non malarum quas amor curas habet           haec inter obliviscitur?     quodsi pudica mulier in partem iuvet           domum atque dulcis liberos,     Sabina qualis aut perusta Solibus           pernicis uxor Apuli,     sacrum vetustis exstruat lignis focum           lassi Sub adventum viri     claudensque textis cratibus laetum pecus           distenta siccet ubera     et horna dulci vina promens dolio           dapes inemptas adparet:     non me Lucrina iuverint conchylia           magisve rhombus aut scari,     siquos Eois intonata fluctibus           hiems ad hoc vertat mare,     non Afra avis descendat in ventrem meum,           non attagen Ionicus     iucundior quam lecta de pinguissimis           oliva ramis arborum     aut herba lapathi prata amantis et gravi           malvae salubres corpori     vel agna festis caesa Terminalibus           vel haedus ereptus lupo.     has inter epulas ut iuvat pastas ovis           videre properantis domum,     videre fessos vomerem inversum boves           collo trahentis languido     positosque vernas, ditis examen domus,           circum renidentis Laris.'     haec ubi locutus faenerator Alfius,           iam iam futurus rusticus,     omnem redegit idibus pecuniam,           quaerit kalendis ponere. III[recensere]     Parentis olim siquis inpia manu           senile guttur fregerit,     edit cicutis alium nocentius.           o dura messorum ilia.     quid hoc veneni saevit in praecordiis?           num viperinus his cruor     incoctus herbis me fefellit? an malas           Canidia tractavit dapes?     ut Argonautas praeter omnis candidum           Medea mirata est ducem,     ignota tauris inligaturum iuga           perunxit hoc Iasonem,     hoc delibutis ulta donis paelicem           serpente fugit alite.     nec tantus umquam Siderum insedit vapor           siticulosae Apuliae     nec munus umeris efficacis Herculis           inarsit aestuosius.     at siquid umquam tale concupiveris,           iocose Maecenas, precor,     manum puella savio opponat tuo,           extrema et in sponda cubet. IV[recensere]     Lupis et agnis quanta Sortito obtigit,           tecum mihi discordia est,     Hibericis peruste funibus latus           et crura dura compede.     licet superbus ambules pecunia,           fortuna non mutat genus.     videsne, sacram metiente te viam           cum bis trium ulnarum toga,     ut ora vertat huc et huc euntium           liberrima indignatio?     'sectus flagellis hic triumviralibus           praeconis ad fastidium     arat Falerni mille fundi iugera           et Appiam mannis terit     sedilibusque magnus in primis eques           Othone contempto sedet.     quid attinet tot ora navium gravi           rostrata duci pondere     contra latrones atque servilem manum           hoc, hoc tribuno militum?' V[recensere]     'At o deorum quidquid in caelo regit           terras et humanum genus,     quid iste fert tumultus aut quid omnium           voltus in unum me truces?     per liberos te, si vocata partubus           Lucina veris adfuit,     per hoc inane purpurae decus precor,           per inprobaturum haec Iovem,     quid ut noverca me intueris aut uti           petita ferro belua?'     ut haec trementi questus ore constitit           insignibus raptis puer,     inpube corpus, quale posset inpia           mollire Thracum pectora:     Canidia, brevibus illigata viperis           crinis et incomptum caput,     iubet sepulcris caprificos erutas,           iubet cupressos funebris     et uncta turpis ova ranae Sanguine           plumamque nocturnae strigis     herbasque, quas Iolcos atque Hiberia           mittit venenorum ferax,     et ossa ab ore rapta ieiunae canis           flammis aduri Colchicis.     at expedita Sagana, per totam domum           spargens Avernalis aquas,     horret capillis ut marinus asperis           echinus aut Laurens aper.     abacta nulla Veia conscientia           ligonibus duris humum     exhauriebat, ingemens laboribus,           quo posset infossus puer     longo die bis terque mutatae dapis           inemori spectaculo,     cum promineret ore, quantum exstant aqua           suspensa mento corpora;     exsucta uti medulla et aridum iecur           amoris esset poculum,     interminato cum semel fixae cibo           intabuissent pupulae.     non defuisse masculae libidinis           Ariminensem Foliam     et otiosa credidit Neapolis           et omne vicinum oppidum,     quae sidera excantata voce Thessala           lunamque caelo deripit.     hic inresectum saeva dente livido           Canidia rodens pollicem     quid dixit aut quid tacuit? 'o rebus meis           non infideles arbitrae,     Nox et Diana, quae silentium regis,           arcana cum fiunt sacra,     nunc, nunc adeste, nunc in hostilis domos           iram atque numen vertite.     formidulosis cum latent silvis ferae           dulci sopore languidae,     senem, quod omnes rideant, adulterum           latrent Suburanae canes     nardo perunctum, quale non perfectius           meae laborarint manus.     quid accidit? cur dira barbarae minus           venena Medeae valent,     quibus Superbam fugit ulta paelicem,           magni Creontis filiam,     cum palla, tabo munus imbutum, novam           incendio nuptam abstulit?     atqui nec herba nec latens in asperis           radix fefellit me locis.     indormit unctis omnium cubilibus           oblivione paelicum?     a, a, solutus ambulat veneficae           scientioris carmine.     non usitatis, Vare, potionibus,           o multa fleturum caput,     ad me recurres nec vocata mens tua           Marsis redibit vocibus.     maius parabo, maius infundam tibi           fastidienti poculum     priusque caelum Sidet inferius mari           tellure porrecta super     quam non amore sic meo flagres uti           bitumen atris ignibus.'     sub haec puer iam non, ut ante, mollibus           lenire verbis inpias,     sed dubius unde rumperet silentium,           misit Thyesteas preces:     'venena maga non fas nefasque, non valent           convertere humanam vicem.     diris agam vos: dira detestatio           nulla expiatur victima.     quin, ubi perire iussus exspiravero,           nocturnus occurram Furor     petamque voltus umbra curvis unguibus,           quae vis deorum est Manium,     et inquietis adsidens praecordiis           pavore somnos auferam.     vos turba vicatim hinc et hinc saxis petens           contundet obscaenas anus;     post insepulta membra different lupi           et Esquilinae alites     neque hoc parentes, heu mihi superstites,           effugerit spectaculum.' VI[recensere]     Quid inmerentis hospites vexas, canis           ignavos adversum lupos?     quin huc inanis, si potes, vertis minas           et me remorsurum petis?     nam qualis aut Molossus aut fulvos Lacon,           amica vis pastoribus,     agam per altas aure sublata nivis           quaecumque praecedet fera;     tu, cum timenda voce complesti nemus,           proiectum odoraris cibum.     cave, cave, namque in malos asperrimus           parata tollo cornua,     qualis Lycambae spretus infido gener           aut acer hostis Bupalo.     an si quis atro dente me petiverit,           inultus ut flebo puer? VII[recensere]     Quo, quo scelesti ruitis? aut cur dexteris           aptantur enses conditi?     parumne campis atque Neptuno super           fusum est Latini sanguinis,     non ut superbas invidae Karthaginis           Romanus arces ureret,     intactus aut Britannus ut descenderet           sacra catenatus via,     sed ut Secundum vota Parthorum sua           Vrbs haec periret dextera?     neque hic lupis mos nec fuit leonibus           umquam nisi in dispar feris.     furorne caecos an rapit vis acrior           an culpa? responsum date.     tacent et albus ora pallor inficit           mentesque perculsae Stupent.     sic est: acerba fata Romanos agunt           scelusque fraternae necis,     ut inmerentis fluxit in terram Remi           sacer nepotibus cruor. VIII[recensere]     Rogare longo putidam te saeculo,           viris quid enervet meas,     cum sit tibi dens ater et rugis vetus           frontem senectus exaret     hietque turpis inter aridas natis           podex velut crudae bovis.     sed incitat me pectus et mammae putres           equina quales ubera     venterque mollis et femur tumentibus           exile suris additum.     esto beata, funus atque imagines           ducant triumphales tuom     nec sit marita, quae rotundioribus           onusta bacis ambulet.     quid? quod libelli Stoici inter Sericos           iacere pulvillos amant,     inlitterati num minus nervi rigent           minusve languet fascinum?     quod ut superbo povoces ab inguine,           ore adlaborandum est tibi. IX[recensere]     Quando repositum Caecubum ad festas dapes           victore laetus Caesare     tecum sub alta---sic Iovi gratum---domo,           beate Maecenas, bibam     sonante mixtum tibiis carmen lyra,           hac Dorium, illis barbarum?     ut nuper, actus cum freto Neptunius           dux fugit ustis navibus     minatus Vrbi vincla, quae detraxerat           servis amicus perfidis.     Romanus eheu---posteri negabitis---           emancipatus feminae     fert vallum et arma miles et spadonibus           servire rugosis potest     interque signa turpe militaria           sol adspicit conopium.     ad hunc frementis verterunt bis mille equos           Galli canentes Caesarem     hostiliumque navium portu latent           puppes sinistrorsum citae.     io Triumphe, tu moraris aureos           currus et intactas boves?     io Triumphe, nec Iugurthino parem           bello reportasti ducem     neque Africanum, cui super Karthaginem           virtus Sepulcrum condidit.     terra marique victus hostis Punico           lugubre mutavit sagum.     aut ille centum nobilem Cretam urbibus           ventis iturus non suis     exercitatas aut petit Syrtis noto           aut fertur incerto mari.     capaciores adfer huc, puer, Scyphos           et Chia vina aut Lesbia     vel quod fluentem nauseam coerceat           metire nobis Caecubum.     curam metumque Caesaris rerum iuvat           dulci Lyaeo solvere. X[recensere]     Mala soluta navis exit alite           ferens olentem Mevium.     ut horridis utrumque verberes latus,           Auster, memento fluctibus;     niger rudentis Eurus inverso mari           fractosque remos differat;     insurgat Aquilo, quantus altis montibus           frangit trementis ilics;     nec sidus atra nocte amicum adpareat,           qua tristis Orion cadit;     quietiore nec feratur aequore           quam Graia victorum manus,     cum Pallas usto vertit iram ab Ilio           in inpiam Aiacis ratem.     o quantus instat navitis sudor tuis           tibique pallor luteus     et illa non virilis heiulatio           preces et aversum ad Iovem,     Ionius udo cum remugiens sinus           Noto carinam ruperit     opima quodsi praeda curvo litore           porrecta mergos iuverit,     libidinosus immolabitur caper           et agna Tempestatibus. XI[recensere]     Petti, nihil me sicut antea iuvat           scribere versiculos amore percussum gravi,     amore, qui me praeter omnis expetit           mollibus in pueris aut in puellis urere.     hic tertius December, ex quo destiti           Inachia furere, silvis honorem decutit.     heu me, per Vrbem (nam pudet tanti mali)           fabula quanta fui, conviviorum et paenitet,     in quis amantem languor et silentium           arguit et latere petitus imo spiritus.     'contrane lucrum nil valere candidum           pauperis ingenium' querebar adplorans tibi,     simul calentis inverecundus deus           fervidiore mero arcana promorat loco.     'quodsi meis inaestuet praecordiis           libera bilis, ut haec ingrata ventis dividat     fomenta volnus nil malum levantia,           desinet inparibus certare submotus pudor.'     ubi haec severus te palam laudaveram,           iussus abire domum ferebar incerto pede     ad non amicos heu mihi postis et heu           limina dura, quibus lumbos et infregi latus.     nunc gloriantis quamlibet mulierculam           vincere mollitia amor Lycisci me tenet;     unde expedire non amicorum queant           libera consilia nec contumeliae graves,     sed alius ardor aut puellae candidae           aut teretis pueri longam renodantis comam. XII[recensere]     Quid tibi vis, mulier nigris dignissima barris?           munera quid mihi quidve tabellas     mittis nec firmo iuveni neque naris obesae?           namque sagacius unus odoror,     polypus an gravis hirsutis cubet hircus in alis           quam canis acer ubi lateat sus.     qui sudor vietis et quam malus undique membris           crescit odor, cum pene Soluto     indomitam properat rabiem sedare, neque illi           iam manet umida creta colorque     stercore fucatus crocodili iamque Subando           tenta cubilia tectaque rumpit.     vel mea cum saevis agitat fastidia verbis:           'Inachia langues minus ac me;     Inachiam ter nocte potes, mihi Semper ad unum           mollis opus. pereat male quae te     Lesbia quaerenti taurum monstravit inertem.           cum mihi Cous adesset Amyntas,     cuius in indomito constantior inguine nervos           quam nova collibus arbor inhaeret.     muricibus Tyriis iteratae vellera lanae           cui properabantur? tibi nempe,     ne foret aequalis inter conviva, magis quem           diligeret mulier sua quam te.     o ego non felix, quam tu fugis, ut pavet acris           agna lupos capreaeque leones!' XIII[recensere]     Horrida tempestas caelum contraxit et imbres           nivesque deducunt Iovem; nunc mare, nunc siluae     Threicio Aquilone sonant. rapiamus, amici,           Occasionem de die dumque virent genua     et decet, obducta solvatur fronte senectus.           tu vina Torquato move consule pressa meo.     cetera mitte loqui: deus haec fortasse benigna           reducet in sedem vice. nunc et Achaemenio     perfundi nardo iuvat et fide Cyllenea           levare diris pectora Sollicitudinibus,     nobilis ut grandi cecinit Centaurus alumno:           'invicte, mortalis dea nate puer Thetide,     te manet Assaraci tellus, quam frigida parvi           findunt Scamandri flumina lubricus et Simois,     unde tibi reditum certo Subtemine Parcae           rupere, nec mater domum caerula te revehet.     illic omne malum vino cantuque levato,     deformis aegrimoniae dulcibus adloquiis.' XIV[recensere]     Mollis inertia cur tantam diffuderit imis           oblivionem sensibus,     pocula Lethaeos ut si ducentia somnos           arente fauce traxerim,     candide Maecenas, occidis Saepe rogando:           deus, deus nam me vetat     inceptos, olim promissum carmen, iambos           ad umbilicum adducere.     non aliter Samio dicunt arsisse Bathyllo           Anacreonta Teium,     qui persaepe cava testudine flevit amorem           non elaboratum ad pedem.     ureris ipse miser: quodsi non pulcrior ignis           accendit obsessam Ilion,     gaude sorte tua; me libertina, nec uno           contenta, Phryne macerat. XV[recensere]     Nox erat et caelo fulgebat Luna sereno           inter minora sidera,     cum tu, magnorum numen laesura deorum,           in verba iurabas mea,     artius atque hedera procera adstringitur ilex           lentis adhaerens bracchiis;     dum pecori lupus et nautis infestus Orion           turbaret hibernum mare     intonsosque agitaret Apollinis aura capillos,           fore hunc amorem mutuom,     o dolitura mea multum virtute Neaera:           nam siquid in Flacco viri est,     non feret adsiduas potiori te dare noctes           et quaeret iratus parem     nec semel offensi cedet constantia formae,           si certus intrarit dolor.     et tu, quicumque es felicior atque meo nunc           superbus incedis malo,     sis pecore et multa dives tellure licebit           tibique Pactolus fluat     nec te Pythagorae fallant arcana renati           formaque vincas Nirea,     heu heu, translatos alio maerebis amores,           ast ego vicissim risero. XVI[recensere]     Altera iam teritur bellis civilibus aetas,           suis et ipsa Roma viribus ruit.     quam neque finitimi valuerunt perdere Marsi           minacis aut Etrusca Porsenae manus,     aemula nec virtus Capuae nec Spartacus acer           novisque rebus infidelis Allobrox     nec fera caerulea domuit Germania pube           parentibusque abominatus Hannibal:     inpia perdemus devoti sanguinis aetas           ferisque rursus occupabitur solum:     barbarus heu cineres insistet victor et Vrbem           eques sonante verberabit ungula,     quaeque carent ventis et solibus ossa Quirini,           (nefas videre) dissipabit insolens.     forte quid expediat communiter aut melior pars,           malis carere quaeritis laboribus;     nulla sit hac potior sententia: Phocaeorum           velut profugit exsecrata civitas     agros atque lares patrios habitandaque fana           apris reliquit et rapacibus lupis,     ire, pedes quocumque ferent, quocumque per undas           Notus vocabit aut protervos Africus.     sic placet? an melius quis habet suadere? Secunda           ratem occupare quid moramur alite?     sed iuremus in haec: 'simul imis saxa renarint           vadis levata, ne redire sit nefas;     neu conversa domum pigeat dare lintea, quando           Padus Matina laverit cacumina,     in mare seu celsus procurrerit Appenninus           novaque monstra iunxerit libidine     mirus amor, iuvet ut tigris subsidere cervis,           adulteretur et columba miluo,     credula nec ravos timeant armenta leones           ametque salsa levis hircus aequora.'     haec et quae poterunt reditus abscindere dulcis           eamus omnis exsecrata civitas     aut pars indocili melior grege; mollis et exspes           inominata perpremat cubilia.     vos, quibus est virtus, muliebrem tollite luctum,           Etrusca praeter et volate litora.     nos manet Oceanus circum vagus: arva beata           petamus, arva divites et insulas,     reddit ubi cererem tellus inarata quotannis           et inputata floret usque vinea,     germinat et numquam fallentis termes olivae           suamque pulla ficus ornat arborem,     mella cava manant ex ilice, montibus altis           levis crepante lympha desilit pede.     illic iniussae veniunt ad mulctra capellae           refertque tenta grex amicus ubera     nec vespertinus circumgemit ursus ovile           nec intumescit alta viperis humus;     pluraque felices mirabimur, ut neque largis           aquosus Eurus arva radat imbribus,     pinguia nec siccis urantur semina glaebis,           utrumque rege temperante caelitum.     non huc Argoo contendit remige pinus           neque inpudica Colchis intulit pedem,     non huc Sidonii torserunt cornua nautae,           laboriosa nec cohors Vlixei.     nulla nocent pecori contagia, nullius astri           gregem aestuosa torret impotentia.     Iuppiter illa piae secrevit litora genti,           ut inquinavit aere tempus aureum,     aere, dehinc ferro duravit saecula, quorum           piis secunda vate me datur fuga. XVII[recensere]     'Iam iam efficaci do manus scientiae,     supplex et oro regna per Proserpinae,     per et Dianae non movenda numina,     per atque libros carminum valentium     refixa caelo devocare sidera,     Canidia: parce vocibus tandem sacris     citumque retro solve, solve turbinem.     movit nepotem Telephus Nereium,     in quem superbus ordinarat agmina     Mysorum et in quem tela acuta torserat.     unxere matres Iliae additum feris     alitibus atque canibus homicidam Hectorem,     postquam relictis moenibus rex procidit     heu pervicacis ad pedes Achillei.     saetosa duris exuere pellibus     laboriosi remiges Vlixei     volente Circa membra; tunc mens et sonus     relapsus atque notus in voltus honor.     dedi satis superque poenarum tibi,     amata nautis multum et institoribus.     fugit iuventas et verecundus color     reliquit ossa pelle amicta lurida,     tuis capillus albus est odoribus,     nullum a labore me reclinat otium;     urget diem nox et dies noctem neque est     levare tenta spiritu praecordia.     ergo negatum vincor ut credam miser,     Sabella pectus increpare carmina     caputque Marsa dissilire nenia.     quid amplius vis? o mare et terra, ardeo,     quantum neque atro delibutus Hercules     Nessi cruore nec Sicana fervida     virens in Aetna flamma; tu, donec cinis     iniuriosis aridus ventis ferar,     cales venenis officina Colchicis.     quae finis aut quod me manet stipendium?     effare; iussas cum fide poenas luam,     paratus expiare, seu poposceris     centum iuvencos sive mendaci lyra     voles sonare: tu pudica, tu proba     perambulabis astra sidus aureum.     infamis Helenae Castor offensus vice     fraterque magni Castoris, victi prece,     adempta vati reddidere lumina:     et tu, potes nam, solve me dementia,     o nec paternis obsoleta sordibus     neque in sepulcris pauperum prudens anus     novendialis dissipare pulveres.     tibi hospitale pectus et purae manus     tuosque venter Pactumeius et tuo     cruore rubros obstetrix pannos lavit,     utcumque fortis exsilis puerpera.'           'quid obseratis auribus fundis preces?     non saxa nudis surdiora navitis     Neptunus alto tundit hibernus salo.     inultus ut tu riseris Cotytia     volgata, sacrum liberi Cupidinis,     et Esquilini pontifex venefici     inpune ut Vrbem nomine inpleris meo?     quid proderat ditasse Paelignas anus     velociusve miscuisse toxicum?     sed tardiora fata te votis manent:     ingrata misero vita ducenda est in hoc,     novis ut usque suppetas laboribus.     optat quietem Pelopis infidi pater,     egens benignae Tantalus semper dapis,     optat Prometheus obligatus aliti,     optat supremo collocare Sisyphus     in monte saxum; sed vetant leges Iovis.     voles modo altis desilire turribus,     frustraque vincla gutturi innectes tuo     modo ense pectus Norico recludere     fastidiosa tristis aegrimonia.     vectabor umeris tunc ego inimicis eques     meaeque terra cedet insolentiae.     an quae movere cereas imagines,     ut ipse nosti curiosus, et polo     deripere lunam vocibus possim meis,     possim crematos excitare mortuos     desiderique temperare pocula,     plorem artis in te nil agentis exitus?' Receptum de "https://la.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=Epodi&oldid=127719" Categoriae: Opera omnia Opera quae Quintus Horatius Flaccus scripsit Carmina Saeculi primi ante Christum opera Opera sine editione Opera sine fonte Opera sine re wikidata 25% Tabula navigationis Instrumenta personalia Nomen nondum datum est Disputatio huius IP Conlationes Sibi nomen imponere Nomen dare Spatia nominalia Opus Disputatio Variantes Visae Legere Recensere Historiam inspicere More Quaerere Navigatio Pagina prima English Main Page Scriptorium Scriptores Chronologia Nuper mutata Pagina fortuita Auxilium Instrumenta Nexus ad hanc paginam Nuper mutata annexorum Onerare fascicula Paginae speciales Nexus perpetuus De hac pagina Hanc paginam citare Imprimere vel exportare Librum creare Paginam prehendere formá PDF Forma impressibilis Aliae linguae Català Português Add links Novissima mutatio die 4 Maii 2020 hora 17:24 facta. 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en-wikisource-org-4642	----	Carmina (Horatius)/Liber IV/Carmen X - Wikisource Carmina (Horatius)/Liber IV/Carmen X E Wikisource < Carmina (Horatius)Unchecked Jump to navigation Jump to search Quintus Horatius FlaccusCarmina023 a.Ch.n. Quintus Horatius Flaccus Carmina Liber IV Carmen X 23 a.Ch.n.  IV, IX IV, XI  O crudelis adhuc et Veneris muneribus potens, insperata tuae cum veniet pluma superbiae et, quae nunc umeris involitant, deciderint comae, nunc et qui color est puniceae flore prior rosae mutatus, Ligurine, in faciem verterit hispidam, dices 'heu,' quotiens te in speculo videris alterum, 'quae mens est hodie, cur eadem non puero fuit vel cur his animis incolumes non redeunt genae?'  IV, IX IV, XI  Receptum de "https://la.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=Carmina_(Horatius)/Liber_IV/Carmen_X&oldid=86453" Categoriae: Capita ex operibus 75% Tabula navigationis Instrumenta personalia Nomen nondum datum est Disputatio huius IP Conlationes Sibi nomen imponere Nomen dare Spatia nominalia Opus Disputatio Variantes Visae Legere Recensere Historiam inspicere More Quaerere Navigatio Pagina prima English Main Page Scriptorium Scriptores Chronologia Nuper mutata Pagina fortuita Auxilium Instrumenta Nexus ad hanc paginam Nuper mutata annexorum Onerare fascicula Paginae speciales Nexus perpetuus De hac pagina Hanc paginam citare Imprimere vel exportare Librum creare Paginam prehendere formá PDF Forma impressibilis Aliae linguae Français Italiano Add links Novissima mutatio die 31 Ianuarii 2018 hora 23:07 facta. Nonobstantibus ceteris condicionibus hunc textum tractare licet secundum "Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License". Vide modos et condiciones. Consilium de secreto De Wikisource Repudiationes Pagina mobilis Elaboratores Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikisource-org-4844	----	Carmina (Horatius)/Liber I/Carmen XXV - Wikisource Carmina (Horatius)/Liber I/Carmen XXV E Wikisource < Carmina (Horatius)Unchecked Jump to navigation Jump to search Quintus Horatius FlaccusCarmina023 a.Ch.n. Quintus Horatius Flaccus Carmina Liber I Carmen XXV 23 a.Ch.n.  I, XXIV I, XXVI  Parcius iunctas quatiunt fenestras Iactibus crebris iuvenes protervi, Nec tibi somnos adimunt, amatque           Ianua limen, Quae prius multum facilis movebat Cardines. Audis minus et minus iam: ‘Me tuo longas pereunte noctes,           Lydia, dormis?’ Invicem moechos anus arrogantis Flebis in solo levis angiportu, Thracio bacchante magis sub inter-           lunia vento, Cum tibi flagrans amor et libido, Quae solet matres furiare equorum, Saeviet circa iecur ulcerosum,           Non sine questu, Laeta quod pubes hedera virenti Gaudeat pulla magis atque myrto, Aridas frondes hiemis sodali           Dedicet Hebro.  I, XXIV I, XXVI  Receptum de "https://la.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=Carmina_(Horatius)/Liber_I/Carmen_XXV&oldid=86381" Categoriae: 100% Capita ex operibus Sapphici Tabula navigationis Instrumenta personalia Nomen nondum datum est Disputatio huius IP Conlationes Sibi nomen imponere Nomen dare Spatia nominalia Opus Disputatio Variantes Visae Legere Recensere Historiam inspicere More Quaerere Navigatio Pagina prima English Main Page Scriptorium Scriptores Chronologia Nuper mutata Pagina fortuita Auxilium Instrumenta Nexus ad hanc paginam Nuper mutata annexorum Onerare fascicula Paginae speciales Nexus perpetuus De hac pagina Hanc paginam citare Imprimere vel exportare Librum creare Paginam prehendere formá PDF Forma impressibilis Aliae linguae Français Italiano Add links Novissima mutatio die 31 Ianuarii 2018 hora 22:50 facta. Nonobstantibus ceteris condicionibus hunc textum tractare licet secundum "Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License". Vide modos et condiciones. Consilium de secreto De Wikisource Repudiationes Pagina mobilis Elaboratores Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikisource-org-5499	----	Carmina (Horatius)/Liber IV/Carmen VII - Wikisource Carmina (Horatius)/Liber IV/Carmen VII E Wikisource < Carmina (Horatius)Unchecked Jump to navigation Jump to search Quintus Horatius FlaccusCarmina023 a.Ch.n. Quintus Horatius Flaccus Carmina Liber IV Carmen VII 23 a.Ch.n.  IV, VI IV, VIII  Diffugere nives, redeunt iam gramina campis    arboribusque comae; mutat terra vices et decrescentia ripas    flumina praetereunt; Gratia cum Nymphis geminisque sororibus audet    ducere nuda choros: inmortalia ne speres, monet annus et almum    quae rapit hora diem. frigora mitescunt Zephyris, ver proterit aestas    interitura, simul pomifer autumnus fruges effuderit, et mox    bruma recurrit iners. damna tamen celeres reparant caelestia lunae:    nos ubi decidimus quo pius Aeneas, quo Tullus dives et Ancus,    pulvis et umbra sumus. quis scit an adiciant hodiernae crastina summae    tempora di superi? cuncta manus avidas fugient heredis amico    quae dederis animo. cum semel occideris et de te, splendide, Minos    fecerit arbitria, non, Torquate, genus, non te facundia, non te    restituet pietas; infernis neque enim tenebris Diana pudicum    liberat Hippolytum nec Lethaea valet Theseus abrumpere caro    vincula Perithoo.  IV, VI IV, VIII  Receptum de "https://la.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=Carmina_(Horatius)/Liber_IV/Carmen_VII&oldid=86450" Categoriae: Capita ex operibus 75% Tabula navigationis Instrumenta personalia Nomen nondum datum est Disputatio huius IP Conlationes Sibi nomen imponere Nomen dare Spatia nominalia Opus Disputatio Variantes Visae Legere Recensere Historiam inspicere More Quaerere Navigatio Pagina prima English Main Page Scriptorium Scriptores Chronologia Nuper mutata Pagina fortuita Auxilium Instrumenta Nexus ad hanc paginam Nuper mutata annexorum Onerare fascicula Paginae speciales Nexus perpetuus De hac pagina Hanc paginam citare Res Wikidata Imprimere vel exportare Librum creare Paginam prehendere formá PDF Forma impressibilis Inceptis aliis Vicipaedia Aliae linguae Suomi Français Magyar Italiano Українська Vèneto Nexus recensere Novissima mutatio die 31 Ianuarii 2018 hora 23:06 facta. Nonobstantibus ceteris condicionibus hunc textum tractare licet secundum "Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License". Vide modos et condiciones. Consilium de secreto De Wikisource Repudiationes Pagina mobilis Elaboratores Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikisource-org-6274	----	Quintus Horatius Flaccus - Wikisource, the free online library Author:Quintus Horatius Flaccus From Wikisource Jump to navigation Jump to search ←Author Index: Fl Quintus Horatius Flaccus (65 BCE – 8 BCE) sister projects: Wikipedia article, Commons gallery, Commons category, quotes, Wikidata item. known in the English-speaking world as Horace; the leading Roman lyric poet during the time of Augustus Quintus Horatius Flaccus 41781Q6197Quintus Horatius FlaccusQuintus HoratiusFlaccusFlaccus,_Quintus Horatiusknown in the English-speaking world as Horace; the leading Roman lyric poet during the time of Augustus Contents 1 Works 1.1 Compilations 2 Imitations of the works of Horace 3 Works about Horace Works[edit] Ars Poetica ("The Art of Poetry") Q Horati Flacci Carminum librum quintum (1920) (tr.) Odes of Horace, Book V., edited by Alfred Denis Godley, translated by Rudyard Kipling and Charles Larcom Graves Carminum Liber Tertius (The Necessity For Reform) Epistulae ("Letters") Odes, translated by Wikisource "Ode to Augustus" in Littell's Living Age, 145 (1877) Sermones ("Satires") Compilations[edit] The works of Horace, translated by Christopher Smart (transcription project) The odes and epodes of Horace (1869), translated by Lord Lytton (external scan) The Odes and Carmen Sæculare of Horace (1872), translated by John Conington The Satires, Epistles, and Art of Poetry of Horace (1874), translated by John Conington Imitations of the works of Horace[edit] Horace’s Art of Poetry, imitated in English, (1854) by John Oldham Works about Horace[edit] “Q. Horatius Flaccus”, by Henry Hart Milman in Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, 1870. "Horace," in Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed., 1911) "Horace, Quintus Horatius Flaccus," in The New Student's Reference Work, Chicago: F.E. Compton and Co. (1914) Works by this author published before January 1, 1925 are in the public domain worldwide because the author died at least 100 years ago. Translations or editions published later may be copyrighted. Posthumous works may be copyrighted based on how long they have been published in certain countries and areas.   Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse Authority control VIAF: 100227522 LCCN: n79081354 ISNI: 0000 0001 2145 2178 GND: 118553569 SELIBR: 189659 SUDOC: 026659166 BNF: cb11886570b BIBSYS: 90055203 ULAN: 500404135 NLA: 35206138 NDL: 00540086 NKC: jn20000603003 CiNii: DA00782980 SBN: IT\ICCU\CFIV\000246 RSL: 000083136 PTBNP: 19592 NTA: 068304579 BAV: ADV12139878 NLI: 000064806 NUKAT: n96210540 LibriVox: 3050 Project Gutenberg: 1790 BNE: XX891549 Open Library: OL20088A Freebase: /m/03kgs IMSLP: Category:Horace GEC: 0032926 BN.br: 000573561  English Wikisource: 41781  WorldCat Retrieved from "https://en.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=Author:Quintus_Horatius_Flaccus&oldid=10518061" Categories: 65 BCE births 8 BCE deaths Ancient authors Authors-Fl Male authors Author-PD-old Ancient poets Ancient Roman authors Hidden categories: Author pages with Wikidata image Author pages with gender in Wikidata Author pages connected to Wikidata Author pages with authority control data VIAF not on Wikisource Author pages with VIAF on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Author Discussion Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main Page Community portal Central discussion Recent changes Subject index Authors Random work Random author Random transcription Help Donate Tools What links here Related changes Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Download/print Compile a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikipedia Wikiquote In other languages Беларуская Català Čeština Deutsch Esperanto Español Suomi Français עברית Magyar Italiano Latina Nederlands Norsk Polski Português Română Русский Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 20 October 2020, at 23:22. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Privacy policy About Wikisource Disclaimers Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikisource-org-8347	----	Epodi - Wikisource Epodi E Wikisource Jump to navigation Jump to search  EPUB   MOBI   PDF   RTF   TXT Quintus Horatius FlaccusEpodi0Post 40 a.Ch.n. Quintus Horatius Flaccus Epodi Post 40 a.Ch.n. editio: incognita fons: incognitus Index 1 I 2 II 3 III 4 IV 5 V 6 VI 7 VII 8 VIII 9 IX 10 X 11 XI 12 XII 13 XIII 14 XIV 15 XV 16 XVI 17 XVII I[recensere]     Ibis Liburnis inter alta navium,           amice, propugnacula,     paratus omne Caesaris periculum           subire, Maecenas, tuo:     quid nos, quibus te vita sit superstite           iucunda, si contra, gravis?     utrumne iussi persequemur otium           non dulce, ni tecum simul,     an hunc laborem mente laturi, decet           qua ferre non mollis viros?     feremus et te vel per Alpium iuga           inhospitalem et Caucasum     vel occidentis usque ad ultimum sinum           forti sequemur pectore.     roges, tuom labore quid iuvem meo,           inbellis ac firmus parum?     comes minore sum futurus in metu,           qui maior absentis habet:     ut adsidens inplumibus pullis avis           serpentium adlapsus timet     magis relictis, non, ut adsit, auxili           latura plus praesentibus.     libenter hoc et omne militabitur           bellum in tuae spem gratiae,     non ut iuvencis inligata pluribus           aratra nitantur meis     pecusve Calabris ante Sidus fervidum           Lucana mutet pascuis     neque ut superni villa candens Tusculi           Circaea tangat moenia:     satis superque me benignitas tua           ditavit, haud paravero     quod aut avarus ut Chremes terra premam,           discinctus aut perdam nepos. II[recensere]     'Beatus ille qui procul negotiis,           ut prisca gens mortalium,     paterna rura bubus exercet suis           solutus omni faenore     neque excitatur classico miles truci           neque horret iratum mare     forumque vitat et superba civium           potentiorum limina.     ergo aut adulta vitium propagine           altas maritat populos     aut in reducta valle mugientium           prospectat errantis greges     inutilisque falce ramos amputans           feliciores inserit     aut pressa puris mella condit amphoris           aut tondet infirmas ovis.     vel cum decorum mitibus pomis caput           Autumnus agris extulit,     ut gaudet insitiva decerpens pira           certantem et uvam purpurae,     qua muneretur te, Priape, et te, pater           Silvane, tutor finium.     libet iacere modo sub antiqua ilice,           modo in tenaci gramine:     labuntur altis interim ripis aquae,           queruntur in Silvis aves     frondesque lymphis obstrepunt manantibus,           somnos quod invitet levis.     at cum tonantis annus hibernus Iovis           imbris nivisque conparat,     aut trudit acris hinc et hinc multa cane           apros in obstantis plagas     aut amite levi rara tendit retia           turdis edacibus dolos     pavidumque leporem et advenam laqueo gruem           iucunda captat praemia.     quis non malarum quas amor curas habet           haec inter obliviscitur?     quodsi pudica mulier in partem iuvet           domum atque dulcis liberos,     Sabina qualis aut perusta Solibus           pernicis uxor Apuli,     sacrum vetustis exstruat lignis focum           lassi Sub adventum viri     claudensque textis cratibus laetum pecus           distenta siccet ubera     et horna dulci vina promens dolio           dapes inemptas adparet:     non me Lucrina iuverint conchylia           magisve rhombus aut scari,     siquos Eois intonata fluctibus           hiems ad hoc vertat mare,     non Afra avis descendat in ventrem meum,           non attagen Ionicus     iucundior quam lecta de pinguissimis           oliva ramis arborum     aut herba lapathi prata amantis et gravi           malvae salubres corpori     vel agna festis caesa Terminalibus           vel haedus ereptus lupo.     has inter epulas ut iuvat pastas ovis           videre properantis domum,     videre fessos vomerem inversum boves           collo trahentis languido     positosque vernas, ditis examen domus,           circum renidentis Laris.'     haec ubi locutus faenerator Alfius,           iam iam futurus rusticus,     omnem redegit idibus pecuniam,           quaerit kalendis ponere. III[recensere]     Parentis olim siquis inpia manu           senile guttur fregerit,     edit cicutis alium nocentius.           o dura messorum ilia.     quid hoc veneni saevit in praecordiis?           num viperinus his cruor     incoctus herbis me fefellit? an malas           Canidia tractavit dapes?     ut Argonautas praeter omnis candidum           Medea mirata est ducem,     ignota tauris inligaturum iuga           perunxit hoc Iasonem,     hoc delibutis ulta donis paelicem           serpente fugit alite.     nec tantus umquam Siderum insedit vapor           siticulosae Apuliae     nec munus umeris efficacis Herculis           inarsit aestuosius.     at siquid umquam tale concupiveris,           iocose Maecenas, precor,     manum puella savio opponat tuo,           extrema et in sponda cubet. IV[recensere]     Lupis et agnis quanta Sortito obtigit,           tecum mihi discordia est,     Hibericis peruste funibus latus           et crura dura compede.     licet superbus ambules pecunia,           fortuna non mutat genus.     videsne, sacram metiente te viam           cum bis trium ulnarum toga,     ut ora vertat huc et huc euntium           liberrima indignatio?     'sectus flagellis hic triumviralibus           praeconis ad fastidium     arat Falerni mille fundi iugera           et Appiam mannis terit     sedilibusque magnus in primis eques           Othone contempto sedet.     quid attinet tot ora navium gravi           rostrata duci pondere     contra latrones atque servilem manum           hoc, hoc tribuno militum?' V[recensere]     'At o deorum quidquid in caelo regit           terras et humanum genus,     quid iste fert tumultus aut quid omnium           voltus in unum me truces?     per liberos te, si vocata partubus           Lucina veris adfuit,     per hoc inane purpurae decus precor,           per inprobaturum haec Iovem,     quid ut noverca me intueris aut uti           petita ferro belua?'     ut haec trementi questus ore constitit           insignibus raptis puer,     inpube corpus, quale posset inpia           mollire Thracum pectora:     Canidia, brevibus illigata viperis           crinis et incomptum caput,     iubet sepulcris caprificos erutas,           iubet cupressos funebris     et uncta turpis ova ranae Sanguine           plumamque nocturnae strigis     herbasque, quas Iolcos atque Hiberia           mittit venenorum ferax,     et ossa ab ore rapta ieiunae canis           flammis aduri Colchicis.     at expedita Sagana, per totam domum           spargens Avernalis aquas,     horret capillis ut marinus asperis           echinus aut Laurens aper.     abacta nulla Veia conscientia           ligonibus duris humum     exhauriebat, ingemens laboribus,           quo posset infossus puer     longo die bis terque mutatae dapis           inemori spectaculo,     cum promineret ore, quantum exstant aqua           suspensa mento corpora;     exsucta uti medulla et aridum iecur           amoris esset poculum,     interminato cum semel fixae cibo           intabuissent pupulae.     non defuisse masculae libidinis           Ariminensem Foliam     et otiosa credidit Neapolis           et omne vicinum oppidum,     quae sidera excantata voce Thessala           lunamque caelo deripit.     hic inresectum saeva dente livido           Canidia rodens pollicem     quid dixit aut quid tacuit? 'o rebus meis           non infideles arbitrae,     Nox et Diana, quae silentium regis,           arcana cum fiunt sacra,     nunc, nunc adeste, nunc in hostilis domos           iram atque numen vertite.     formidulosis cum latent silvis ferae           dulci sopore languidae,     senem, quod omnes rideant, adulterum           latrent Suburanae canes     nardo perunctum, quale non perfectius           meae laborarint manus.     quid accidit? cur dira barbarae minus           venena Medeae valent,     quibus Superbam fugit ulta paelicem,           magni Creontis filiam,     cum palla, tabo munus imbutum, novam           incendio nuptam abstulit?     atqui nec herba nec latens in asperis           radix fefellit me locis.     indormit unctis omnium cubilibus           oblivione paelicum?     a, a, solutus ambulat veneficae           scientioris carmine.     non usitatis, Vare, potionibus,           o multa fleturum caput,     ad me recurres nec vocata mens tua           Marsis redibit vocibus.     maius parabo, maius infundam tibi           fastidienti poculum     priusque caelum Sidet inferius mari           tellure porrecta super     quam non amore sic meo flagres uti           bitumen atris ignibus.'     sub haec puer iam non, ut ante, mollibus           lenire verbis inpias,     sed dubius unde rumperet silentium,           misit Thyesteas preces:     'venena maga non fas nefasque, non valent           convertere humanam vicem.     diris agam vos: dira detestatio           nulla expiatur victima.     quin, ubi perire iussus exspiravero,           nocturnus occurram Furor     petamque voltus umbra curvis unguibus,           quae vis deorum est Manium,     et inquietis adsidens praecordiis           pavore somnos auferam.     vos turba vicatim hinc et hinc saxis petens           contundet obscaenas anus;     post insepulta membra different lupi           et Esquilinae alites     neque hoc parentes, heu mihi superstites,           effugerit spectaculum.' VI[recensere]     Quid inmerentis hospites vexas, canis           ignavos adversum lupos?     quin huc inanis, si potes, vertis minas           et me remorsurum petis?     nam qualis aut Molossus aut fulvos Lacon,           amica vis pastoribus,     agam per altas aure sublata nivis           quaecumque praecedet fera;     tu, cum timenda voce complesti nemus,           proiectum odoraris cibum.     cave, cave, namque in malos asperrimus           parata tollo cornua,     qualis Lycambae spretus infido gener           aut acer hostis Bupalo.     an si quis atro dente me petiverit,           inultus ut flebo puer? VII[recensere]     Quo, quo scelesti ruitis? aut cur dexteris           aptantur enses conditi?     parumne campis atque Neptuno super           fusum est Latini sanguinis,     non ut superbas invidae Karthaginis           Romanus arces ureret,     intactus aut Britannus ut descenderet           sacra catenatus via,     sed ut Secundum vota Parthorum sua           Vrbs haec periret dextera?     neque hic lupis mos nec fuit leonibus           umquam nisi in dispar feris.     furorne caecos an rapit vis acrior           an culpa? responsum date.     tacent et albus ora pallor inficit           mentesque perculsae Stupent.     sic est: acerba fata Romanos agunt           scelusque fraternae necis,     ut inmerentis fluxit in terram Remi           sacer nepotibus cruor. VIII[recensere]     Rogare longo putidam te saeculo,           viris quid enervet meas,     cum sit tibi dens ater et rugis vetus           frontem senectus exaret     hietque turpis inter aridas natis           podex velut crudae bovis.     sed incitat me pectus et mammae putres           equina quales ubera     venterque mollis et femur tumentibus           exile suris additum.     esto beata, funus atque imagines           ducant triumphales tuom     nec sit marita, quae rotundioribus           onusta bacis ambulet.     quid? quod libelli Stoici inter Sericos           iacere pulvillos amant,     inlitterati num minus nervi rigent           minusve languet fascinum?     quod ut superbo povoces ab inguine,           ore adlaborandum est tibi. IX[recensere]     Quando repositum Caecubum ad festas dapes           victore laetus Caesare     tecum sub alta---sic Iovi gratum---domo,           beate Maecenas, bibam     sonante mixtum tibiis carmen lyra,           hac Dorium, illis barbarum?     ut nuper, actus cum freto Neptunius           dux fugit ustis navibus     minatus Vrbi vincla, quae detraxerat           servis amicus perfidis.     Romanus eheu---posteri negabitis---           emancipatus feminae     fert vallum et arma miles et spadonibus           servire rugosis potest     interque signa turpe militaria           sol adspicit conopium.     ad hunc frementis verterunt bis mille equos           Galli canentes Caesarem     hostiliumque navium portu latent           puppes sinistrorsum citae.     io Triumphe, tu moraris aureos           currus et intactas boves?     io Triumphe, nec Iugurthino parem           bello reportasti ducem     neque Africanum, cui super Karthaginem           virtus Sepulcrum condidit.     terra marique victus hostis Punico           lugubre mutavit sagum.     aut ille centum nobilem Cretam urbibus           ventis iturus non suis     exercitatas aut petit Syrtis noto           aut fertur incerto mari.     capaciores adfer huc, puer, Scyphos           et Chia vina aut Lesbia     vel quod fluentem nauseam coerceat           metire nobis Caecubum.     curam metumque Caesaris rerum iuvat           dulci Lyaeo solvere. X[recensere]     Mala soluta navis exit alite           ferens olentem Mevium.     ut horridis utrumque verberes latus,           Auster, memento fluctibus;     niger rudentis Eurus inverso mari           fractosque remos differat;     insurgat Aquilo, quantus altis montibus           frangit trementis ilics;     nec sidus atra nocte amicum adpareat,           qua tristis Orion cadit;     quietiore nec feratur aequore           quam Graia victorum manus,     cum Pallas usto vertit iram ab Ilio           in inpiam Aiacis ratem.     o quantus instat navitis sudor tuis           tibique pallor luteus     et illa non virilis heiulatio           preces et aversum ad Iovem,     Ionius udo cum remugiens sinus           Noto carinam ruperit     opima quodsi praeda curvo litore           porrecta mergos iuverit,     libidinosus immolabitur caper           et agna Tempestatibus. XI[recensere]     Petti, nihil me sicut antea iuvat           scribere versiculos amore percussum gravi,     amore, qui me praeter omnis expetit           mollibus in pueris aut in puellis urere.     hic tertius December, ex quo destiti           Inachia furere, silvis honorem decutit.     heu me, per Vrbem (nam pudet tanti mali)           fabula quanta fui, conviviorum et paenitet,     in quis amantem languor et silentium           arguit et latere petitus imo spiritus.     'contrane lucrum nil valere candidum           pauperis ingenium' querebar adplorans tibi,     simul calentis inverecundus deus           fervidiore mero arcana promorat loco.     'quodsi meis inaestuet praecordiis           libera bilis, ut haec ingrata ventis dividat     fomenta volnus nil malum levantia,           desinet inparibus certare submotus pudor.'     ubi haec severus te palam laudaveram,           iussus abire domum ferebar incerto pede     ad non amicos heu mihi postis et heu           limina dura, quibus lumbos et infregi latus.     nunc gloriantis quamlibet mulierculam           vincere mollitia amor Lycisci me tenet;     unde expedire non amicorum queant           libera consilia nec contumeliae graves,     sed alius ardor aut puellae candidae           aut teretis pueri longam renodantis comam. XII[recensere]     Quid tibi vis, mulier nigris dignissima barris?           munera quid mihi quidve tabellas     mittis nec firmo iuveni neque naris obesae?           namque sagacius unus odoror,     polypus an gravis hirsutis cubet hircus in alis           quam canis acer ubi lateat sus.     qui sudor vietis et quam malus undique membris           crescit odor, cum pene Soluto     indomitam properat rabiem sedare, neque illi           iam manet umida creta colorque     stercore fucatus crocodili iamque Subando           tenta cubilia tectaque rumpit.     vel mea cum saevis agitat fastidia verbis:           'Inachia langues minus ac me;     Inachiam ter nocte potes, mihi Semper ad unum           mollis opus. pereat male quae te     Lesbia quaerenti taurum monstravit inertem.           cum mihi Cous adesset Amyntas,     cuius in indomito constantior inguine nervos           quam nova collibus arbor inhaeret.     muricibus Tyriis iteratae vellera lanae           cui properabantur? tibi nempe,     ne foret aequalis inter conviva, magis quem           diligeret mulier sua quam te.     o ego non felix, quam tu fugis, ut pavet acris           agna lupos capreaeque leones!' XIII[recensere]     Horrida tempestas caelum contraxit et imbres           nivesque deducunt Iovem; nunc mare, nunc siluae     Threicio Aquilone sonant. rapiamus, amici,           Occasionem de die dumque virent genua     et decet, obducta solvatur fronte senectus.           tu vina Torquato move consule pressa meo.     cetera mitte loqui: deus haec fortasse benigna           reducet in sedem vice. nunc et Achaemenio     perfundi nardo iuvat et fide Cyllenea           levare diris pectora Sollicitudinibus,     nobilis ut grandi cecinit Centaurus alumno:           'invicte, mortalis dea nate puer Thetide,     te manet Assaraci tellus, quam frigida parvi           findunt Scamandri flumina lubricus et Simois,     unde tibi reditum certo Subtemine Parcae           rupere, nec mater domum caerula te revehet.     illic omne malum vino cantuque levato,     deformis aegrimoniae dulcibus adloquiis.' XIV[recensere]     Mollis inertia cur tantam diffuderit imis           oblivionem sensibus,     pocula Lethaeos ut si ducentia somnos           arente fauce traxerim,     candide Maecenas, occidis Saepe rogando:           deus, deus nam me vetat     inceptos, olim promissum carmen, iambos           ad umbilicum adducere.     non aliter Samio dicunt arsisse Bathyllo           Anacreonta Teium,     qui persaepe cava testudine flevit amorem           non elaboratum ad pedem.     ureris ipse miser: quodsi non pulcrior ignis           accendit obsessam Ilion,     gaude sorte tua; me libertina, nec uno           contenta, Phryne macerat. XV[recensere]     Nox erat et caelo fulgebat Luna sereno           inter minora sidera,     cum tu, magnorum numen laesura deorum,           in verba iurabas mea,     artius atque hedera procera adstringitur ilex           lentis adhaerens bracchiis;     dum pecori lupus et nautis infestus Orion           turbaret hibernum mare     intonsosque agitaret Apollinis aura capillos,           fore hunc amorem mutuom,     o dolitura mea multum virtute Neaera:           nam siquid in Flacco viri est,     non feret adsiduas potiori te dare noctes           et quaeret iratus parem     nec semel offensi cedet constantia formae,           si certus intrarit dolor.     et tu, quicumque es felicior atque meo nunc           superbus incedis malo,     sis pecore et multa dives tellure licebit           tibique Pactolus fluat     nec te Pythagorae fallant arcana renati           formaque vincas Nirea,     heu heu, translatos alio maerebis amores,           ast ego vicissim risero. XVI[recensere]     Altera iam teritur bellis civilibus aetas,           suis et ipsa Roma viribus ruit.     quam neque finitimi valuerunt perdere Marsi           minacis aut Etrusca Porsenae manus,     aemula nec virtus Capuae nec Spartacus acer           novisque rebus infidelis Allobrox     nec fera caerulea domuit Germania pube           parentibusque abominatus Hannibal:     inpia perdemus devoti sanguinis aetas           ferisque rursus occupabitur solum:     barbarus heu cineres insistet victor et Vrbem           eques sonante verberabit ungula,     quaeque carent ventis et solibus ossa Quirini,           (nefas videre) dissipabit insolens.     forte quid expediat communiter aut melior pars,           malis carere quaeritis laboribus;     nulla sit hac potior sententia: Phocaeorum           velut profugit exsecrata civitas     agros atque lares patrios habitandaque fana           apris reliquit et rapacibus lupis,     ire, pedes quocumque ferent, quocumque per undas           Notus vocabit aut protervos Africus.     sic placet? an melius quis habet suadere? Secunda           ratem occupare quid moramur alite?     sed iuremus in haec: 'simul imis saxa renarint           vadis levata, ne redire sit nefas;     neu conversa domum pigeat dare lintea, quando           Padus Matina laverit cacumina,     in mare seu celsus procurrerit Appenninus           novaque monstra iunxerit libidine     mirus amor, iuvet ut tigris subsidere cervis,           adulteretur et columba miluo,     credula nec ravos timeant armenta leones           ametque salsa levis hircus aequora.'     haec et quae poterunt reditus abscindere dulcis           eamus omnis exsecrata civitas     aut pars indocili melior grege; mollis et exspes           inominata perpremat cubilia.     vos, quibus est virtus, muliebrem tollite luctum,           Etrusca praeter et volate litora.     nos manet Oceanus circum vagus: arva beata           petamus, arva divites et insulas,     reddit ubi cererem tellus inarata quotannis           et inputata floret usque vinea,     germinat et numquam fallentis termes olivae           suamque pulla ficus ornat arborem,     mella cava manant ex ilice, montibus altis           levis crepante lympha desilit pede.     illic iniussae veniunt ad mulctra capellae           refertque tenta grex amicus ubera     nec vespertinus circumgemit ursus ovile           nec intumescit alta viperis humus;     pluraque felices mirabimur, ut neque largis           aquosus Eurus arva radat imbribus,     pinguia nec siccis urantur semina glaebis,           utrumque rege temperante caelitum.     non huc Argoo contendit remige pinus           neque inpudica Colchis intulit pedem,     non huc Sidonii torserunt cornua nautae,           laboriosa nec cohors Vlixei.     nulla nocent pecori contagia, nullius astri           gregem aestuosa torret impotentia.     Iuppiter illa piae secrevit litora genti,           ut inquinavit aere tempus aureum,     aere, dehinc ferro duravit saecula, quorum           piis secunda vate me datur fuga. XVII[recensere]     'Iam iam efficaci do manus scientiae,     supplex et oro regna per Proserpinae,     per et Dianae non movenda numina,     per atque libros carminum valentium     refixa caelo devocare sidera,     Canidia: parce vocibus tandem sacris     citumque retro solve, solve turbinem.     movit nepotem Telephus Nereium,     in quem superbus ordinarat agmina     Mysorum et in quem tela acuta torserat.     unxere matres Iliae additum feris     alitibus atque canibus homicidam Hectorem,     postquam relictis moenibus rex procidit     heu pervicacis ad pedes Achillei.     saetosa duris exuere pellibus     laboriosi remiges Vlixei     volente Circa membra; tunc mens et sonus     relapsus atque notus in voltus honor.     dedi satis superque poenarum tibi,     amata nautis multum et institoribus.     fugit iuventas et verecundus color     reliquit ossa pelle amicta lurida,     tuis capillus albus est odoribus,     nullum a labore me reclinat otium;     urget diem nox et dies noctem neque est     levare tenta spiritu praecordia.     ergo negatum vincor ut credam miser,     Sabella pectus increpare carmina     caputque Marsa dissilire nenia.     quid amplius vis? o mare et terra, ardeo,     quantum neque atro delibutus Hercules     Nessi cruore nec Sicana fervida     virens in Aetna flamma; tu, donec cinis     iniuriosis aridus ventis ferar,     cales venenis officina Colchicis.     quae finis aut quod me manet stipendium?     effare; iussas cum fide poenas luam,     paratus expiare, seu poposceris     centum iuvencos sive mendaci lyra     voles sonare: tu pudica, tu proba     perambulabis astra sidus aureum.     infamis Helenae Castor offensus vice     fraterque magni Castoris, victi prece,     adempta vati reddidere lumina:     et tu, potes nam, solve me dementia,     o nec paternis obsoleta sordibus     neque in sepulcris pauperum prudens anus     novendialis dissipare pulveres.     tibi hospitale pectus et purae manus     tuosque venter Pactumeius et tuo     cruore rubros obstetrix pannos lavit,     utcumque fortis exsilis puerpera.'           'quid obseratis auribus fundis preces?     non saxa nudis surdiora navitis     Neptunus alto tundit hibernus salo.     inultus ut tu riseris Cotytia     volgata, sacrum liberi Cupidinis,     et Esquilini pontifex venefici     inpune ut Vrbem nomine inpleris meo?     quid proderat ditasse Paelignas anus     velociusve miscuisse toxicum?     sed tardiora fata te votis manent:     ingrata misero vita ducenda est in hoc,     novis ut usque suppetas laboribus.     optat quietem Pelopis infidi pater,     egens benignae Tantalus semper dapis,     optat Prometheus obligatus aliti,     optat supremo collocare Sisyphus     in monte saxum; sed vetant leges Iovis.     voles modo altis desilire turribus,     frustraque vincla gutturi innectes tuo     modo ense pectus Norico recludere     fastidiosa tristis aegrimonia.     vectabor umeris tunc ego inimicis eques     meaeque terra cedet insolentiae.     an quae movere cereas imagines,     ut ipse nosti curiosus, et polo     deripere lunam vocibus possim meis,     possim crematos excitare mortuos     desiderique temperare pocula,     plorem artis in te nil agentis exitus?' Receptum de "https://la.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=Epodi&oldid=127719" Categoriae: Opera omnia Opera quae Quintus Horatius Flaccus scripsit Carmina Saeculi primi ante Christum opera Opera sine editione Opera sine fonte Opera sine re wikidata 25% Tabula navigationis Instrumenta personalia Nomen nondum datum est Disputatio huius IP Conlationes Sibi nomen imponere Nomen dare Spatia nominalia Opus Disputatio Variantes Visae Legere Recensere Historiam inspicere More Quaerere Navigatio Pagina prima English Main Page Scriptorium Scriptores Chronologia Nuper mutata Pagina fortuita Auxilium Instrumenta Nexus ad hanc paginam Nuper mutata annexorum Onerare fascicula Paginae speciales Nexus perpetuus De hac pagina Hanc paginam citare Imprimere vel exportare Librum creare Paginam prehendere formá PDF Forma impressibilis Aliae linguae Català Português Add links Novissima mutatio die 4 Maii 2020 hora 17:24 facta. Nonobstantibus ceteris condicionibus hunc textum tractare licet secundum "Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License". Vide modos et condiciones. Consilium de secreto De Wikisource Repudiationes Pagina mobilis Elaboratores Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikisource-org-8690	----	Carmina (Horatius)/Liber III/Carmen V - Wikisource Carmina (Horatius)/Liber III/Carmen V E Wikisource < Carmina (Horatius)Unchecked Jump to navigation Jump to search Quintus Horatius FlaccusCarmina023 a.Ch.n. Quintus Horatius Flaccus Carmina Liber III Carmen V 23 a.Ch.n.  III, IV III, VI  Caelo tonantem credidimus Iovem regnare; praesens divus habebitur Augustus adiectis Britannis imperio gravibusque Persis. milesne Crassi coniuge barbara turpis maritus vixit et hostium, pro curia inversique mores! consenuit socerorum in armis sub rege Medo Marsus et Apulus, anciliorum et nominis et togae oblitus aeternaeque Vestae, incolumi Iove et urbe Roma? hoc caverat mens provida Reguli dissentientis condicionibus foedis et exemplo trahentis perniciem veniens in aevum, si non periret inmiserabilis captiva pubes. ‘signa ego Punicis adfixa delubris et arma militibus sine caede’ dixit ‘derepta vidi, vidi ego civium retorta tergo bracchia libero portasque non clausas et arva Marte coli populata nostro. auro repensus scilicet acrior miles redibit: flagitio additis damnum; neque amissos colores lana refert medicata fuco nec vera virtus, cum semel excidit, curat reponi deterioribus. si pugnat extricata densis cerva plagis, erit ille fortis qui perfidis se credidit hostibus et Marte Poenos proteret altero; qui lora restrictis lacertis sensit iners timuitque mortem, hic, unde vitam sumeret inscius, pacem duello miscuit. o pudor! o magna Carthago, probrosis altior Italiae ruinis!’ fertur pudicae coniugis osculum parvosque natos ut capitis minor ab se removisse et virilem torvus humi posuisse voltum, donec labantis consilio patres firmaret auctor numquam alias dato interque maerentis amicos egregius properaret exul. atqui sciebat, quae sibi barbarus tortor pararet: non aliter tamen dimovit obstantis propinquos et populum reditus morantem quam si clientum longa negotia diiudicata lite relinqueret tendens Venafranos in agros aut Lacedaemonium Tarentum  III, IV III, VI  Receptum de "https://la.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=Carmina_(Horatius)/Liber_III/Carmen_V&oldid=86419" Categoriae: Capita ex operibus 75% Tabula navigationis Instrumenta personalia Nomen nondum datum est Disputatio huius IP Conlationes Sibi nomen imponere Nomen dare Spatia nominalia Opus Disputatio Variantes Visae Legere Recensere Historiam inspicere More Quaerere Navigatio Pagina prima English Main Page Scriptorium Scriptores Chronologia Nuper mutata Pagina fortuita Auxilium Instrumenta Nexus ad hanc paginam Nuper mutata annexorum Onerare fascicula Paginae speciales Nexus perpetuus De hac pagina Hanc paginam citare Imprimere vel exportare Librum creare Paginam prehendere formá PDF Forma impressibilis Aliae linguae Français Italiano Add links Novissima mutatio die 31 Ianuarii 2018 hora 22:58 facta. Nonobstantibus ceteris condicionibus hunc textum tractare licet secundum "Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License". Vide modos et condiciones. Consilium de secreto De Wikisource Repudiationes Pagina mobilis Elaboratores Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikisource-org-9719	----	Carmina (Horatius)/Liber II/Carmen XI - Wikisource Carmina (Horatius)/Liber II/Carmen XI E Wikisource < Carmina (Horatius)Unchecked Jump to navigation Jump to search Quintus Horatius FlaccusCarmina023 a.Ch.n. Quintus Horatius Flaccus Carmina Liber II Carmen XI 23 a.Ch.n.  II, X II, XII  Quid bellicosus Cantaber et Scythes, Hirpine Quinti, cogitet Hadria divisus obiecto, remittas quaerere nec trepides in usum poscentis aevi pauca: fugit retro levis iuventas et decor arida pellente lascivos amores canitie facilemque somnum. non semper idem floribus est honor vernis neque uno luna rubens nitet voltu: quid aeternis minorem consiliis animum fatigas? cur non sub alta vel platano vel hac pinu iacentes sic temere et rosa canos odorati capillos, dum licet, Assyriaque nardo potamus uncti? dissipat Euhius curas edacis. quis puer ocius restinguet ardentis Falerni pocula praetereunte lympha? quis devium scortum eliciet domo Lyden? eburna, dic age, cum lyra maturet, in comptum Lacaenae more comam religata nodum  II, X II, XII  Receptum de "https://la.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=Carmina_(Horatius)/Liber_II/Carmen_XI&oldid=86405" Categoriae: Capita ex operibus 75% Tabula navigationis Instrumenta personalia Nomen nondum datum est Disputatio huius IP Conlationes Sibi nomen imponere Nomen dare Spatia nominalia Opus Disputatio Variantes Visae Legere Recensere Historiam inspicere More Quaerere Navigatio Pagina prima English Main Page Scriptorium Scriptores Chronologia Nuper mutata Pagina fortuita Auxilium Instrumenta Nexus ad hanc paginam Nuper mutata annexorum Onerare fascicula Paginae speciales Nexus perpetuus De hac pagina Hanc paginam citare Imprimere vel exportare Librum creare Paginam prehendere formá PDF Forma impressibilis Aliae linguae Français Italiano Русский Add links Novissima mutatio die 31 Ianuarii 2018 hora 22:54 facta. Nonobstantibus ceteris condicionibus hunc textum tractare licet secundum "Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License". Vide modos et condiciones. Consilium de secreto De Wikisource Repudiationes Pagina mobilis Elaboratores Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikisource-org-979	----	Carmina (Horatius)/Liber IV/Carmen XI - Wikisource Carmina (Horatius)/Liber IV/Carmen XI E Wikisource < Carmina (Horatius)Unchecked Jump to navigation Jump to search Quintus Horatius FlaccusCarmina023 a.Ch.n. Quintus Horatius Flaccus Carmina Liber IV Carmen XI 23 a.Ch.n.  IV, X IV, XII  Est mihi nonum superantis annum Plenus Albani cadus; est in horto, Phylli, nectendis apium coronis;              Est hederae vis Multa, qua crinis religata fulges; Ridet argento domus; ara castis Vincta verbenis avet immolato              Spargier agno; Cuncta festinat manus, huc et illuc Cursitant mixtae pueris puellae; Sordidum flammae trepidant rotantes              Vertice fumum. Ut tamen noris quibus advoceris Gaudiis, Idus tibi sunt agendae, Qui dies mensem Veneris marinae              Findit Aprilem, Iure sollemnis mihi sanctiorque Paene natali proprio, quod ex hac Luce Maecenas meus adfluentis              Ordinat annos. Telephum, quem tu petis, occupavit Non tuae sortis iuvenem puella Dives et lasciva tenetque grata              Compede vinctum. Terret ambustus Phaethon avaras Spes, et exemplum grave praebet ales Pegasus terrenum equitem gravatus              Bellerophonten, Semper ut te digna sequare et ultra Quam licet sperare nefas putando Disparem vites. Age iam, meorum              Finis amorum, (Non enim posthac alia calebo Femina) condisce modos, amanda Voce quos reddas: minuentur atrae              Carmine curae.  IV, X IV, XII  Receptum de "https://la.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=Carmina_(Horatius)/Liber_IV/Carmen_XI&oldid=86454" Categoriae: 100% Capita ex operibus Sapphici Tabula navigationis Instrumenta personalia Nomen nondum datum est Disputatio huius IP Conlationes Sibi nomen imponere Nomen dare Spatia nominalia Opus Disputatio Variantes Visae Legere Recensere Historiam inspicere More Quaerere Navigatio Pagina prima English Main Page Scriptorium Scriptores Chronologia Nuper mutata Pagina fortuita Auxilium Instrumenta Nexus ad hanc paginam Nuper mutata annexorum Onerare fascicula Paginae speciales Nexus perpetuus De hac pagina Hanc paginam citare Imprimere vel exportare Librum creare Paginam prehendere formá PDF Forma impressibilis Aliae linguae Français Italiano Add links Novissima mutatio die 31 Ianuarii 2018 hora 23:07 facta. Nonobstantibus ceteris condicionibus hunc textum tractare licet secundum "Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License". Vide modos et condiciones. Consilium de secreto De Wikisource Repudiationes Pagina mobilis Elaboratores Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikisource-org-985	----	Quintus Horatius Flaccus - Wikisource, the free online library Author:Quintus Horatius Flaccus From Wikisource (Redirected from Author:Horace) Jump to navigation Jump to search ←Author Index: Fl Quintus Horatius Flaccus (65 BCE – 8 BCE) sister projects: Wikipedia article, Commons gallery, Commons category, quotes, Wikidata item. known in the English-speaking world as Horace; the leading Roman lyric poet during the time of Augustus Quintus Horatius Flaccus 41781Q6197Quintus Horatius FlaccusQuintus HoratiusFlaccusFlaccus,_Quintus Horatiusknown in the English-speaking world as Horace; the leading Roman lyric poet during the time of Augustus Contents 1 Works 1.1 Compilations 2 Imitations of the works of Horace 3 Works about Horace Works[edit] Ars Poetica ("The Art of Poetry") Q Horati Flacci Carminum librum quintum (1920) (tr.) Odes of Horace, Book V., edited by Alfred Denis Godley, translated by Rudyard Kipling and Charles Larcom Graves Carminum Liber Tertius (The Necessity For Reform) Epistulae ("Letters") Odes, translated by Wikisource "Ode to Augustus" in Littell's Living Age, 145 (1877) Sermones ("Satires") Compilations[edit] The works of Horace, translated by Christopher Smart (transcription project) The odes and epodes of Horace (1869), translated by Lord Lytton (external scan) The Odes and Carmen Sæculare of Horace (1872), translated by John Conington The Satires, Epistles, and Art of Poetry of Horace (1874), translated by John Conington Imitations of the works of Horace[edit] Horace’s Art of Poetry, imitated in English, (1854) by John Oldham Works about Horace[edit] “Q. Horatius Flaccus”, by Henry Hart Milman in Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, 1870. "Horace," in Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed., 1911) "Horace, Quintus Horatius Flaccus," in The New Student's Reference Work, Chicago: F.E. Compton and Co. (1914) Works by this author published before January 1, 1925 are in the public domain worldwide because the author died at least 100 years ago. Translations or editions published later may be copyrighted. Posthumous works may be copyrighted based on how long they have been published in certain countries and areas.   Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse Authority control VIAF: 100227522 LCCN: n79081354 ISNI: 0000 0001 2145 2178 GND: 118553569 SELIBR: 189659 SUDOC: 026659166 BNF: cb11886570b BIBSYS: 90055203 ULAN: 500404135 NLA: 35206138 NDL: 00540086 NKC: jn20000603003 CiNii: DA00782980 SBN: IT\ICCU\CFIV\000246 RSL: 000083136 PTBNP: 19592 NTA: 068304579 BAV: ADV12139878 NLI: 000064806 NUKAT: n96210540 LibriVox: 3050 Project Gutenberg: 1790 BNE: XX891549 Open Library: OL20088A Freebase: /m/03kgs IMSLP: Category:Horace GEC: 0032926 BN.br: 000573561  English Wikisource: 41781  WorldCat Retrieved from "https://en.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=Author:Quintus_Horatius_Flaccus&oldid=10518061" Categories: 65 BCE births 8 BCE deaths Ancient authors Authors-Fl Male authors Author-PD-old Ancient poets Ancient Roman authors Hidden categories: Author pages with Wikidata image Author pages with gender in Wikidata Author pages connected to Wikidata Author pages with authority control data VIAF not on Wikisource Author pages with VIAF on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Author Discussion Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main Page Community portal Central discussion Recent changes Subject index Authors Random work Random author Random transcription Help Donate Tools What links here Related changes Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Download/print Compile a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikipedia Wikiquote In other languages Беларуская Català Čeština Deutsch Esperanto Español Suomi Français עברית Magyar Italiano Latina Nederlands Norsk Polski Português Română Русский Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 20 October 2020, at 23:22. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Privacy policy About Wikisource Disclaimers Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wiktionary-org-6073	----	Horace - Wiktionary Horace Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary Jump to navigation Jump to search Contents 1 English 1.1 Etymology 1.2 Pronunciation 1.3 Proper noun 1.3.1 Related terms 1.3.2 Translations 1.4 Further reading 1.5 Anagrams English[edit] English Wikipedia has an article on:Horace Wikipedia Etymology[edit] From Latin Horatius, a Roman family name of obscure origin, possibly from Etruscan. Pronunciation[edit] IPA(key): /ˈhɒɹəs/, enPR: hŏr'əs IPA(key): /ˈhɔɹəs/, enPR: hôr'əs Proper noun[edit] Horace (plural Horaces) Quintus Horatius Flaccus, a poet and philosopher of the Roman Augustan Age. Born 65 B.C.E. in Venusia, died 27 November, 8 B.C.E. in Rome. Horace was a contemporary and friend of Virgil. Although of low birth, Horace was admired by the Emperor Augustus and was offered, but refused, to become his private secretary. A male given name from Latin Related terms[edit] Horry (diminutive) Translations[edit] poet Armenian: Հորացիոս (Horacʿios) Catalan: Horaci (ca) French: Horace (fr) m Old French: Orace m German: Horaz m Greek: Οράτιος (el) m (Orátios) Hungarian: Horatius Italian: Orazio (it) m Latin: Horatius m Persian: (please verify) هراس‎ (fa) (horâs) Polish: Horacy (pl) m Portuguese: Horácio (pt) m Romanian: Horațiu m Russian: Гора́ций (ru) m (Gorácij) Spanish: Horacio (es) m Swedish: Horatius male given name Esperanto: Horacio (eo) French: Horace (fr) m Greek: Οράτιος (el) m (Orátios) Irish: Horás m Italian: Orazio (it) m Latin: Horatius m Polish: Horacy (pl) m Portuguese: Horácio (pt) m Romanian: Horațiu m Russian: Гораций (ru) m (Goracij) Spanish: Horacio (es) m Further reading[edit] Horace at OneLook Dictionary Search Anagrams[edit] HORECA, HoReCa, Roache, archeo-, chorea, ochrea, orache Retrieved from "https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=Horace&oldid=61092004" Categories: English terms derived from Latin English 2-syllable words English terms with IPA pronunciation English lemmas English proper nouns English countable proper nouns English given names English male given names English male given names from Latin en:Individuals Hidden categories: etyl cleanup/en/la Requests for review of Persian translations Russian redlinks Russian redlinks/t+ Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Entry Discussion Variants Views Read Edit History More Search Navigation Main Page Community portal Preferences Requested entries Recent changes Random entry Help Glossary Donations Contact us Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other languages Eesti Ελληνικά Español Français Kurdî Magyar Norsk Polski Русский Српски / srpski Suomi This page was last edited on 11 November 2020, at 17:11. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Privacy policy About Wiktionary Disclaimers Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
eo-wikipedia-org-1838	----	Horacio - Vikipedio Horacio El Vikipedio, la libera enciklopedio Nuna versio (nereviziita) Salti al navigilo Salti al serĉilo Horacio Persona informo Naskiĝo en Venosa Morto en Romo Tombo Romo [#] Etno Romianoj [#] Lingvoj latina lingvo [#] Ŝtataneco Roma regno [#] Familio Patro nekonata valoro [#] Patrino nekonata valoro [#] Profesio Okupo poeto • verkisto • filozofo [#] Aktiva en Romo [#] Verkado Verkoj Ars Poetica [#] [#] Fonto: Vikidatumoj v • d • r Horacio aŭ pli ĝuste Quintus Horatius Flaccus (8-an de decembro 65- 27-an de novembro 8 a. Kr.), estas kun Vergilio unu el la plej gravaj poetoj de Romo dum la epoko de Aŭgusto, t.e. inter 43 a. Kr. kaj 14 p. Kr., de la morto de Cicerono ĝis la morto de Aŭgusto. En 35 a.Kr. aperis lia unua libro de Satiroj; la dua samtitola libro aperis en 30 a.Kr. La satiroj de Horacio neniel estas sarkasmaj, male - ofte mildegaj. La satirojn li verkis en heksametroj. Pli malpli samepoke li verkis sian libron Epodoj; tio estas kolekto plejparte en jamba formo. Lia famo ege kreskis, kiam en 23 a.K. aperis la unuaj tri libroj de Odoj. En tiu verko li klopodis por stile rivali la klasikajn Grekajn poetojn - kiel Sapfoa, Alkajo kaj Pindaro. En siaj odoj li aplikis preskaŭ ĉiujn jam ekzistantajn metrikojn. Neniam iu ajn Latina poeto tion faris! La temoj estas ĉefe amo, vino, festeno kaj la bonfaroj de, kaj bonfarto sub, la regado de Aŭgusto. La verkado de l' Odoj postulis pli malpli sep jarojn. Liaj Odoj estis ege laŭdataj tra la jarcentoj, sed preskaŭ neniu eĉ klopodis por iom imiti lin. Oni lin admiras, kaj tre ofte citas po unu aŭ du versojn, sed imiti... Specialan lokon inter la Odoj havas la Odoj III:1-6, kiujn ofte oni nomas la Romaj Odoj. En tiuj ses Odoj la poeto esprimas sian politikan kaj etikan esperon je la estonto de Romo. Multe pli poste li ankoraŭ aldonis kvaran libron da Odoj. En 20 kaj 13 a.Kr. aperis ambaŭ liaj libroj Epistoloj, leteroj en heksametra formo. Inter ili troviĝas unu el la plej influaj tekstojn, kiujn entute li verkis: la Epistolo al la Pizonoj, pli konata kiel lia Arto Poetika. En Esperanto aperis ...[redakti | redakti fonton] En El Parnaso de Popoloj de Antoni Grabowski - 1913 - aperis traduko de Odo III:30. En Tutmonda Sonoro de Kálmán Kalocsay - 1981 - aperis de li tradukoj je paĝoj 196-212. En Antologio Latina, volumo 2, de Gerrit Berveling - 1998 - aperis el ĉiuj liaj verkoj ekzemplaj eroj en la paĝoj 325-382. Ĉe tio la tradukinto ĉiam sekvis la originan metrikon. La Romaj Odoj aperis kiel memstara libreto ĉe VoKo kun dediĉo al s-ino Perla Martinelli - 1991, 24 p. Eksteraj ligiloj[redakti | redakti fonton] Spaco Horace (france) La tuta originala verko de Horacio (latine) Mallonga biografio (germane) Horacio en la Vikimedia Komunejo (Multrimedaj datumoj) Kategorio Horacio en la Vikimedia Komunejo (Multrimedaj datumoj) Horacio en Vikifontaro (Universala biblioteko) Bibliotekoj PeEnEo: 123172 GND: 118553569 LCCN: no92010069 n79081354, no92010069 VIAF: 2130151778256418130004 100227522, 2130151778256418130004 ISNI: 0000 0001 2145 2178 LIBRIS: 189659 SUDOC: 026659166 BNF: 11886570b ULAN: 500404135 MBA: af616f1f-6242-4802-a1bf-8d3f0647083c NLA: 35206138 NDL: 00540086 BIBSYS: 90055203 NKC: jn20000603003 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\000246 BNE: XX891549 Elŝutita el "https://eo.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horacio&oldid=6771849" Kategorioj: Mortintoj en Romo Naskiĝintoj en la 1-a jarcento a.K. Mortintoj en la 1-a jarcento a.K. Romiaj poetoj Latinlingvaj poetoj Latina literaturo Personoj cititaj en La Dia Komedio (Infero) GLAT-verkistoj Navigada menuo Personaj iloj Ne ensalutinta Diskuto Kontribuoj Krei konton Ensaluti Nomspacoj Artikolo Diskuto Variantoj Vidoj Legi Redakti Redakti fonton Vidi historion Pli Serĉi Navigado Ĉefpaĝo Komunuma portalo Diskutejo Aktualaĵoj Lastaj ŝanĝoj Novaj paĝoj Hazarda paĝo Helpo Donaci Iloj Ligiloj ĉi tien Rilataj ŝanĝoj Alŝuti dosieron Specialaj paĝoj Konstanta ligilo Informoj pri la paĝo Citi ĉi tiun artikolon Vikidatumoj‑ero Presi/elporti Krei libron Elŝuti kiel PDF Presebla versio En aliaj projektoj Vikimedia Komunejo Vikifontaro En aliaj lingvoj Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Redakti ligilojn Ĉi tiu paĝo estis lastafoje redaktita je 08:40, 29 okt. 2019. La teksto disponeblas laŭ la permesilo Krea Komunaĵo Atribuite-Samkondiĉe 3.0 Neadaptita; eble aldonaj kondiĉoj aplikeblas. Vidu la uzkondiĉojn por detaloj. Regularo pri respekto de la privateco Pri Vikipedio Malgarantioj Poŝtelefona vido Programistoj Statistics Deklaro pri kuketoj 
es-wikipedia-org-6636	----	Horacio - Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre Horacio De Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre Ir a la navegación Ir a la búsqueda Este artículo trata sobre el poeta romano. Para el nombre propio, véase Horacio (nombre). Horacio Quinto Horacio Flaco, por Anton von Werner (1905) Información personal Nombre de nacimiento Quinto Horacio Flaco Nombre en latín Q. Horatius Flaccus Nacimiento 8 de diciembre de 65 a. C. Venusia, hoy Venosa, Basilicata Fallecimiento 27 de noviembre de 8 a. C. (56 años) Roma Sepultura Roma Familia Padres valor desconocido valor desconocido Educación Alumno de Cratipo de Pérgamo Información profesional Ocupación Poesía Obras notables Epístola a los Pisones [editar datos en Wikidata] Quinto Horacio Flaco [a]​ (Venusia, hoy Venosa, Basilicata, 8 de diciembre de 65 a. C.-Roma, 27 de noviembre de 8 a. C.), conocido como Horacio, fue el principal poeta lírico y satírico en lengua latina.[2]​ Fue un poeta reflexivo, que expresaba aquello que desea con una perfección casi absoluta. Los principales temas que trató en su poesía son el elogio de una vida retirada («beatus ille») y la invitación de gozar de la juventud («carpe diem»), temas retomados por poetas españoles como Garcilaso de la Vega y Fray Luis de León. Escribió, además, epístolas (cartas), las últimas de las cuales, dirigida «A los Pisones», es conocida como Arte poética.[cita requerida] Índice 1 Biografía 2 Obra 3 Influencia 4 Cronología 5 Véase también 6 Notas 7 Referencias 8 Bibliografía 9 Enlaces externos Biografía[editar] Era hijo de un esclavo liberto, si bien nació cuando su padre ya gozaba de la libertad. Su padre, aunque pobre, invirtió mucho dinero en la educación de su hijo, acompañándolo a Roma donde inició sus estudios de Gramática con Orbilio y, es probable, los de retórica con Heliodoro. A los 20 años se trasladó a Atenas para estudiar griego y Filosofía en la Academia con Teomnesto, donde tomó contacto por primera vez con el epicureísmo. Horacio siempre reconoció los cuidados y el gran sacrificio que su padre hizo por él, su relación es uno de los más bellos episodios de amor filial que sobreviven del periodo clásico. Tras el asesinato de Julio César, se unió al partido republicano, formando parte del ejército que Marco Junio Bruto preparaba en Grecia para oponerse a los triunviros Octavio, Lépido y Marco Antonio, siendo nombrado tribuno militar. El ejército republicano fue derrotado en la doble batalla de Filipos (42 a. C.), en la cual, dadas sus escasas aptitudes militares, hubo de escapar para salvar así su vida. Cuando Octavio decretó una amnistía a favor de aquellos que habían luchado en su contra, Horacio decidió volver a Roma. Conoció entonces la noticia de la muerte de su padre y la confiscación de sus propiedades. Sumido en la pobreza, consiguió no obstante trabajo como escribano de cuestor, un puesto que le permitió practicar su arte poético. Con el tiempo, Horacio fue ganando el respeto y la admiración de los círculos literarios romanos, al que pertenecían Virgilio y Lucio Vario Rufo, quienes le presentaron a Cayo Mecenas (38 a. C.), amigo y consejero de César Augusto. El emperador le brindó su protección, llegó a ofrecerle un puesto como secretario personal, si bien Horacio declinó debido a sus principios epicúreos. Mecenas llegó a convertirse en su protector y amigo personal, y obsequió a Horacio con una finca en Tiber, en las montañas Sabinas (33 a. C.), donde el poeta se retiró a redactar sus obras. Su amistad fue tal que fueron enterrados uno junto al otro. Obra[editar] Su obra poética no se redujo al subgénero de la lírica, sino que también tocó otros aspectos del conocimiento. Los críticos proponen dos periodos de su producción. Un primer período en el que compuso las Sátiras,[3]​ una poesía donde da una versión de la cultura humana y una visión del comienzo de la humanidad,[2]​ y que presenta abundantes elementos autobiográficos que persiguen un fin moral. También compuso los Epodos, composiciones de carácter lírico en las que tampoco está ausente la crítica social. El epodo es una composición de origen griego destinada al insulto y al improperio. Algunos de los epodos de Horacio conservan este carácter, pero otros son de carácter eminentemente lírico. Destaca aquel cuyo comienzo, Beatus ille, ha dado nombre a un tema literario, la alabanza de la vida en el campo. En el segundo periodo escribiría las Odas y las Epístolas. Las odas son composiciones de carácter lírico que constituyen la obra cumbre de la lírica latina. Son cuatro libros con un total de 104 odas. En ellos se jacta de haber sido el primero en trasplantar al latín la lírica eolia en su conjunto, imitando los temas y los metros líricos griegos, sobre todo de Alceo, Safo y Anacreonte. Horacio tiene conciencia de que sus odas son lo mejor de su obra y afirma que serán más duraderas que el bronce. En las Odas el componente fundamental es el lírico. Podemos agrupar las odas en varios grupos temáticos: alabanza de Augusto, elogio de la amistad, tema filosófico y moral, el amor, y finalmente el campo y la naturaleza. Expone el poeta su filosofía de la vida: hay que saber hacer uso de las riquezas y ser generoso; no hay que dejarse abatir por la adversidad y debe uno gozar de los bienes presentes, que son precarios; lo mejor para ser feliz es la «áurea medianía» («aurea mediocritas»). Hay una invitación a gozar del momento presente, ya que el día de mañana es incierto: «carpe diem». Este tema tendrá gran fortuna en la literatura universal. Las Epístolas son la poesía de la reflexión moral y filosófica. Entre estas últimas destaca Epistula ad Pisones, más conocida como Arte poética, en la que sienta principios de preceptiva literaria que han tenido durante siglos pervivencia en nuestra cultura. Influencia[editar] Estatua de Horacio en Venosa. Los temas y tópicos creados por Horacio gozarán de un respaldo universal a lo largo de la literatura posterior a su fallecimiento. Esencialmente partiendo desde el Renacimiento es difícil no hallar una sola composición influida por los tópicos o las formas horacianas. Así, destacan poetas como Ronsard, Petrarca o Garcilaso, que se vieron envueltos por la dulzura y las reflexiones horacianas. En España podemos encontrar grandes influencias horacianas en Fray Luis de León, que prácticamente lo parafrasea en algunas de sus poesías, José Cadalso o Leandro Fernández de Moratín; e incluso otros autores que seguirán el camino labrado por el poeta romano. Algunos poetas ingleses se verán también influidos por Horacio, como John Keats o John Milton. Más adelante, en la Generación del 27, también encontraremos influencias horacianas en poetas como en el vallisoletano Jorge Guillén. Su figura sigue asociada hoy día a los tópicos a los que le asoció la Edad Media, y que ahora pueden considerarse casi más medievales que plenamente romanos: la «aurea mediocritas», el «carpe diem» y el «beatus ille». No obstante, la vitalidad de Horacio, pese a cierto anacronismo en su perspectiva que revela el siglo XXI, sigue activa como uno de los clásicos latinos más extraordinarios, junto a otros como Cicerón, Virgilio, Ovidio y demás artistas inmortales. Cronología[editar] Carpe diem. Año 65 a. C. Nace Horacio. 63. Nace Octavio. Conjuración de Catilina. 60. Constitución del llamado Primer Triunvirato (Julio César, Pompeyo y Craso). 53. Derrota de Craso en Carras por los partos. 49. Julio César pasa el río Rubicón. Guerra civil entre Julio César y Pompeyo. 48. Victoria de Julio César en Farsalia. 45. Llega Horacio a Atenas. 44. Asesinato de Julio César. 43. Guerra de Módena. Constitución del Segundo Triunvirato (Octavio, Marco Antonio y Lépido). Proscripciones y muerte de Marco Tulio Cicerón. Nacimiento de Ovidio. 42. Victoria de los cesarianos en Filipos. Horacio entre los derrotados. 39. Presentación de Horacio a Mecenas. 37. Viaje a Brindisi con ocasión de la conferencia de Tarento. 36. Derrota de Sexto Pompeyo en Nauloco. 35. Publicación del primer libro de Sátiras. 31. Victoria de Octavio en Accio sobre Marco Antonio y Cleopatra. 30. Publicación del libro II de Sátiras y el libro de los Epodos. 27. Fin de la ilegalidad revolucionaria. Octavio recibe el título de Augusto. 23. Publicación de los tres primeros libros de Odas. 20. Publicación del primer libro de Epístolas. 19. Mueren Virgilio y Tibulo. 17. Celebración de los Juegos Seculares. Canto secular. 15. Publicación del libro II de las Epístolas. 13. Publicación del libro IV de las Odas. 8 a. C. Muere Mecenas. Muere Horacio. Véase también[editar] Carmen saeculare Notas[editar] ↑ En latín, Q. Horatius Flaccus.[1]​ Referencias[editar] ↑ PIR2 H 0198. ↑ a b Ripoll López, Sergio; Muñoz Ibáñez, Francisco Javier (octubre de 2002). «Conceptos generales de cazadores-recolectores». Economía, sociedad e ideología de los cazadores-recolectores (1ª edición). Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia. p. 15. ISBN 9788436247718.  ↑ Moralejo, José Luis (2008). Las sátiras, epístolas y Ars Poetica. Madrid: Editorial Gredos. ISBN 9788424935771.  Bibliografía[editar] Horacio (2008). Sátiras. Epístolas. Arte poética. Edición José Luis Moralejo (Premio Nacional a la Mejor Traducción 2009). Madrid: Editorial Gredos. ISBN 978-84-249-3577-1.  Horacio (2007). Moralejo, José Luis, ed. Odas. Canto secular. Epodos. Madrid: Editorial Gredos. ISBN 978-84-249-2879-7.  Enlaces externos[editar] Wikimedia Commons alberga una categoría multimedia sobre Horacio. Wikiquote alberga frases célebres de o sobre Horacio. Wikisource contiene traducciones en castellano de Horacio. Wikisource en latín contiene obras originales de Horacio. Textos de Horacio, en latín, en el sitio The Latin Library. SUETONIO: Sobre hombres ilustres (De viris illustribus); Sobre poetas (De poetis); Quinto Horacio Flaco (Q. Horatius Flaccus). Texto en latín, en Wikisource. Texto en latín, en The Latin Library. NAGY, Gregory: Copies and Models in Horace Odes 4.1 and 4.2 (Copias y modelos de las odas IV.I y IV.II de Horacio), 2008. HORACIO: Odas (Carmina). IV: traducción española de Germán Salinas, de 1909. En latín, en Wikisource: IV, I; IV, II. Artículo de G. Nagy, en inglés, en el sitio del Centro de Estudios Helénicos (CHS o Center for Hellenic Studies), institución de Washington afiliada a la Universidad de Harvard y dirigida por el propio Nagy. Para las citas: http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:hlnc.essay:Nagy.Copies_and_Models_in_Horace_Odes_4.1_and_4.2.1994 Carmina Horatiana: todos los carmina de Horacio recitados en latín por Thomas Bervoets. Control de autoridades Proyectos Wikimedia Datos: Q6197 Multimedia: Quintus Horatius Flaccus Citas célebres: Horacio Textos: Autor:Horacio Identificadores WorldCat VIAF: 100227522 ISNI: 0000 0001 2145 2178 BNE: XX891549 BNF: 11886570b (data) BNC: 000035928 CANTIC: a10101214 GND: 118553569 LCCN: n79081354 NDL: 00540086 NKC: jn20000603003 NLA: 35206138 BER: 000083136 CiNii: DA00782980 SNAC: w6pk0m9c SUDOC: 026659166 ULAN: 500404135 BIBSYS: 90055203 UB: a1001212 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\000246 Open Library: OL20088A DPRR: 2731 Diccionarios y enciclopedias Britannica: url Repositorios digitales BVMC: 7568 Proyecto Gutenberg: 1790 TLL: hor Datos: Q6197 Multimedia: Quintus Horatius Flaccus Citas célebres: Horacio Textos: Autor:Horacio Obtenido de «https://es.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horacio&oldid=131292064» Categorías: Hombres Nacidos en 65 a. C. Fallecidos en 8 a. C. Poetas de la Antigua Roma Escritores del siglo I a. C. Escritores en latín Epicureísmo Antiguos romanos del siglo I a. C. Poetas del siglo I a. C. 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et-wikipedia-org-5644	----	Horatius – Vikipeedia Horatius Allikas: Vikipeedia Mine navigeerimisribale Mine otsikasti Horatiuse kuju tema sünnilinnas Venosas (antiikaja Venusia) Horatius kujutatuna Anton von Werneri poolt Horatius (Quintus Horatius Flaccus; 8. detsember 65 eKr Apuulia, Venusia – 27. november 8 eKr Rooma) oli Vana-Rooma tähtsamaid lüürilisi luuletajaid. Sisukord 1 Teosed eesti keeles 2 Ajalooline tähtsus 3 Kirjandus 4 Välislingid Teosed eesti keeles[muuda | muuda lähteteksti] "Melpomenele". Tõlkinud Johannes Semper – Looming 1935, nr 10, lk 1131 "Pompejus Grosphusele"; "Maecenasele"; "Manilius Torquatusele". Tõlkinud ja järelmärkused: Ants Oras – samas, lk 1131–34 Rooma kirjanduse antoloogia, Eesti Raamat, Tallinn 1971, lk 322–352 (oodid ja epoodid, tõlkinud Ain Kaalep, satiirid, tõlkinud Leo Anvelt, ja kirjad, tõlkinud Ülo Torpats); kommentaarid lk 617–629 Ood 2.13 : 'Ta halval päeval mulda su istutas...' / Ladina keelest tõlkinud ja kommenteerinud Mari Murdvee; Ood 1.37 : 'Nüüd, sõbrad, joogem, nüüd vabas tantsuhoos...' / tõlkinud ja kommenteerinud Janika Päll; Episood 9 : 'Maecenas õnnis, millal siis su häärberis...' / tõlkinud Katrin Kiisler – Vikerkaar 1996, nr 8/9, lk 41–47 "Kuis, vaata, seisab kõrglumest valgena..."; I.17 : "Ühtpuhku kärmelt armsat Lucretilist..."; II.4 : "Et sa armsaks pead oma teenijannat..."; II.9 : "Ühtsoodu söötis põllule vihmasid..."; II.11 : "Mis on kantaabril nõuks sõjalembesel..."; II.15 : "Mõnd harva juugrit jätmas on adrale..."; II. 16 : "Vaikust taevastelt palub kimpujäänu..."; II. 17 : "Miks kaeveldes mind muudad sa hingetuks..."; II.20 : "Ei kandma habras, argine tiivasulg..." : [luuletused]. Ladina keelest tõlkinud ja kommenteerinud Mari Murdvee – Vikerkaar 1999, nr 4, lk 45, 48–60 Ajalooline tähtsus[muuda | muuda lähteteksti] Üks Horatiuse luuletusi, "Exegi monumentum" ("Püstitasin monumendi"), on olnud hiljem temaatiliseks eeskujuks mitmetele kunstnikele ja kirjanikele (näiteks Puškinile). Kirjandus[muuda | muuda lähteteksti] Pärtel Haliste, "Horatiuse 2000-aastase sünnipäeva puhul" – Looming 1935, nr 10, lk 1127–30 Anne Lill, "Carpe diem: lootuse lootusetus Horatiuse luules" – Keel ja Kirjandus 1994, nr 9, lk 520–526 Välislingid[muuda | muuda lähteteksti] Tsitaadid Vikitsitaatides: Horatius Pildid, videod ja helifailid Commonsis: Horatius Pärit leheküljelt "https://et.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horatius&oldid=5638933" Kategooriad: Vana-Rooma kirjanikud Sündinud 65 eKr Surnud 8 eKr Epikureism Navigeerimismenüü Personaalsed tööriistad Sisse logimata Arutelu Kaastöö Loo konto Logi sisse Nimeruumid Artikkel Arutelu Variandid vaatamisi Vaata Muuda Muuda lähteteksti Näita ajalugu Veel Otsing Navigeerimine Esileht Üldine arutelu Sündmused maailmas Viimased muudatused Juhuslik lehekülg Juhend Annetused Kontakt Trüki või ekspordi Koosta raamat Laadi alla PDF-failina Prinditav versioon Tööriistad Lingid siia Seotud muudatused Erileheküljed Püsilink Lehekülje teave Viita leheküljele Andmeüksus Teistes projektides Commons Vikitsitaadid Teistes keeltes Afrikaans አማርኛ العربية Aragonés Asturianu تۆرکجه Bahasa Indonesia Bahasa Melayu Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Bosanski Brezhoneg Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी مصرى Монгол Nāhuatl Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Sardu Seeltersk Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Tarandíne Татарча/tatarça Tiếng Việt Türkçe Українська Volapük Võro Walon Winaray 吴语 粵語 Zazaki Žemaitėška 中文 Redigeeri linke Selle lehekülje viimane muutmine: 01:27, 23. mai 2020. Tekst on kasutatav vastavalt Creative Commonsi litsentsile "Autorile viitamine + jagamine samadel tingimustel"; sellele võivad lisanduda täiendavad tingimused. Täpsemalt vaata Wikimedia kasutamistingimustest. Andmekaitse Tiitelandmed Lahtiütlused Mobiilivaade Arendajad Arvandmed Küpsiste avaldus 
eu-wikipedia-org-4020	----	Horazio - Wikipedia, entziklopedia askea. Jump to content Toggle sidebar Bilatu Tresna pertsonalak Saioa hasi gabe Eztabaida Ekarpenak Sortu kontua Hasi saioa Nabigazioa Azala Txikipedia Txokoa Albisteak Aldaketa berriak Ausazko orria Laguntza Dohaintza egin Tresnak Honanzko lotura duten orriak Lotutako orrietako aldaketak Fitxategia igo Orri bereziak Lotura iraunkorra Orri honen datuak Artikulu hau aipatu Wikidata itema Inprimatu/esportatu Liburu bat sortu PDF gisa jaitsi Inprimatzeko bertsioa Beste proiektuetan Wikimedia Commons Beste hizkuntzak Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Aldatu loturak Nabigazio menua Izen-tarteak Artikulua Eztabaida Aldaerak Ikusketak Irakurri Aldatu Aldatu iturburu kodea Ikusi historia Gehiago Horazio Wikipedia, Entziklopedia askea Horazio Irudi gehiago Bizitza Jaiotza Venosa, K.a. 65eko abenduaren 8a Talde etnikoa antzinako erromatarra Heriotza Erroma, K.a. 8ko azaroaren 27a (56 urte) Hobiratze lekua Erroma Familia Aita ezezaguna Ama ezezaguna Hezkuntza Hizkuntzak latina Irakaslea(k) Kratipo Pergamokoa Aristo Axkelongoa Jarduerak Jarduerak poeta, idazlea eta filosofoa Lantokia(k) Erroma Lan nabarmenak Ars Poetica (en) Kinto Horazio Flako (latinez Quintus Horatius Flaccus; Venusia, K.a. 65eko abenduaren 8a - Erroma, K.a. 8ko azaroaren 27a) Antzinako Erromako poeta izan zen. Virgiliorekin batean poesia latinoaren buru, klasizismoaren eredutzat hartua izan zen eta oso irakurria antzinatearen amaiera arte. Haren zorroztasuna, oreka eta perfekzio nahia direla eta, Errenazimentuan Horazioren poesia Europako herrialde guztietan izan zen ezaguna. Eduki-taula 1 Bizitza 2 Idazgintza 3 Lanak 3.1 Odak (edo Carmina) 3.2 Satirak 3.3 Eskutitzak (edo Epistolae) 4 Erreferentziak 5 Kanpo loturak Bizitza[aldatu | aldatu iturburu kodea] Venusian jaio zen, Lukaniatik oso gertu. Aita, koaktorra, zergak kobratzen ziharduen esklabo libertoa zen. Horaziok berak aipatzen du datu hori, baina Suetoniok salsamentarius, hots, arrain gazitu saltzailea zela dio. Suetonioren arabera, norbaitek zirikatu nahi zuenean, Quotiens ego vidi patrem tuum bracchio se emungentem!, esaten zion; hau da: «Zure aita hainbat alditan ikusi dut besoa ukondoraino sartua zuela»[1]. Horazio ez zen bere jatorriaz inoiz lotsatu, aitak haundikiek jasotzen zuten hezkuntza eta hezibide moral ona izateko baliabide guztiak eman baizizkion. Oso gaztea zelarik, aitak Erromara eroan eta bere diruaren zati handi bat haren heziketan erabili zuen. Bertan Lucius Orbilius Pupillus gramatikalari eta erretorikalariarekin ikasi zuen[2], klasiko latinoak eta grekoak irakurriz; eta olerki grekoak irakurriz bere edertasunerako joera kausitu zuen. Lehenengo olerkiak grezieraz idatzi zituen. Aitaren eskuzabaltasuna eta azkartasunari esker, Horazio Atenasera joan ahal izan zen filosofia ikastera. Han zegoela, Julio Zesarren heriotzaren eta Erroman sortu ziren arazoen berri izan zituen. Horaziok errepublikazaleekin bat egin zuen, eta Marko Bruto buru zuen Greziako armadan sartu zen. Oktavianoren eta Marko Antonioren aurka borrokatu zen tribuno militar gisa. K.a. 42. urtean, Filiposko guduan, Errepublikaren armadak hondoa jo eta, ihes egin behar izan zuen. Hala ere, ihes egin izana ez zuen desohoretzat hartu. K.a. 41 inguruan, Oktavianoren amnistia politikoarekin Erromara itzuli zen, eta aitak utzitako ondasunak konfiskatuak izan baitziren, kuestore (latinez: Scriba quaestorius) lan egin behar izan zuen administrazioan. Esperientzia mingots horren edo Siron napolitarraren irakatsien eraginez, Epikuroren dotrinarekin bat eginda, gizarte bizitzatik at bizi izan zen aldi hartan. Horrela, olerkiak (epodoak eta satirak) idazteari lotu zitzaion. Virgiliok eta Variok berehala antzeman zuten haren etorkizuna poesiaren munduan, eta K.a. 39. urtean Mezenas aurkeztu zioten. Lehenbiziko elkarrizketa hotza izan zen, Horazio lotsatia zelako, eta ez zen elkarrenganako elkartasunik izan. Geroago, berriro topatu zuten elkar, Mezenasek lagunen taldean sartu zuen, eta lagun minak izatera iritsi ziren[2]. K.a. 34 aldean, beharbada Mezenas ahaltsuaren laguntzarekin, landetxe bat erosi zuen Sabinia aldean[2]: babesleku hartan idatzi zuen izadiaren eta aisiaren oihartzuna dakarren olerki anitz, eta maiz asko bertara erretiratzen zen hiriko nahasmenetik ihesi. Mezenasen bidez Augusto ezagutu zuen, eta honek idazkari gisa eraman nahi izan zuen, baina poetak ezezkoa eman zion bere bizimodu lasaitik urrutiratuko zuelakoan[3]. Izan ere, baretasun lasaia eta ezusterik gabeko aurea mediocritas-a nahiago zuen. Bizitza Erroma eta Sabiniako landetxearen artean lerratzen zen, era lasaian. Horrek denbora uzten zion bere olerkiei lotzeko. Suetoniok ematen du Horazioren azken egunen berri: K.a. 8. urtean Mezenas hil zen, teatamentuan Horazio Augustori gomendatu eta gero; baina Horazio ere gutxi barru zendu zen, supituki, testamentua egin barik. Hala ere, lekukoen aurrean Augusto izendatu zuen oinordeko. Eskilinon hilobiratu zuten, Mezenasen alboan[2]. Gizon gizentsu eta lasaia izan zen. Erromako gizartea eta landetxeko bakartasuna gozatu zituen zaratarik atera gabe. Begirale eta psikologo zorrotza, guzti-guztia arakatzen zuen. Bere morala praktikotasunaren eta errealismoarena zen. Eraso egiten ziotenean defendatzen zen, eta norbaitek txarto idaztean haserretzen zen. Berekoi samarra izan zen eta ez zen batere heroia izan. Idazgintza[aldatu | aldatu iturburu kodea] Horazio irakurtzen Mezenasen aurrean, Fyodor Bronnikoven margoa, 1863 Horazioren lehen obrak Satirak (Satirae edo Sermones) eta Epodoak (Epodon Liber) K.a. 40 eta 30 bitartean argitaratu ziren. Epodoak izenekoan garai hartako gorabeherak eta poetaren ezinegona islatzen dira. Satiretan, ordea, Gaio Luzilioren gaiak erabili zituen berriro: garai hartako ohiturei buruzko gogarteak eta moralaren arazoak, baina eguneroko bizitzaren zertzeladez zipriztinduak eta barrerako beti prest agertzen zela. Oda-k (Carmina), K.a. 23tik 13ra argitaratuak, Epodoak-ekin batera, latinoen lirikaren maisulanak dira. Obra konplexu horretan, formaren perfekzioa helburu duela, Safo, Alzeo edo Pindaro greziarren molde lirikoak sartzen ditu literatura latinoan. Bigarren pertsonan idatzitakoak dira eta gaiei dagokienez, bizitzaren ezdeusa, heriotza, amodioa eta edertasun poetikoa dira gogapenerako bide, betiere ironia eta autokritikaz beteak. Amodioa eta unean unekoaz gozatzeko gonbitea (carpe diem) dira Horazioren lirikaren gunea. Gutunak (Epistulae) biltzen dituzten bi liburuetan eta Ad Pisones edo Arte Poetikoa (Ars poetica) ere deituan, bere buruarekiko elkarrizketa bildua isuri eta epikureismoaren azalpena egiten du. Liburu horietan literatura latinoa ere eztabaidagai da. Augustoren eskariz, Carmen saeculare kantu aberkoia ondu zuen (K.a. 17). Lanak[aldatu | aldatu iturburu kodea] Saturae, 1577 Odak (edo Carmina)[aldatu | aldatu iturburu kodea] Carminum liber primus edo Odes I [4] (K.a. 23) Carminum liber secundus edo Odes II [5] (K.a. 23) Carminum liber tertius edo Odes III [6] (K.a. 23) Carminum liber quartus edo Odes IV [7] (K.a. 13) Satirak[aldatu | aldatu iturburu kodea] Sermonum liber primus edo Satirae I [8] (K.a. 35) Sermonum liber secundus edo Satirae II [9] (K.a. 30) Eskutitzak (edo Epistolae)[aldatu | aldatu iturburu kodea] Epistularum liber primus [10] (K.a. 20) Ars Poetica [11] (K.a. 18) Epistularum liber secundus [12] (K.a. 14) Erreferentziak[aldatu | aldatu iturburu kodea] Artikulu honen edukiaren zati bat Lur hiztegi entziklopedikotik edo Lur entziklopedia tematikotik txertatu zen 2015/06/03 egunean. Egile-eskubideen jabeak, Eusko Jaurlaritzak, hiztegi horiek CC-BY 3.0 lizentziarekin argitaratu ditu, Open Data Euskadi webgunean. ↑ Suetonio. Vita Horatii. Books.google.es. ↑ a b c d Horace. Poetryfoundation.org. ↑ Horacio. Biografiasyvidas.com. ↑ Horazio: Carminum liber primus Thelatinlibrary.com ↑ Horazio: Carminum liber secundus Thelatinlibrary.com ↑ Horazio: Carminum liber tertius Thelatinlibrary.com ↑ Horazio: Carminum liber quartus Thelatinlibrary.com ↑ Horazio: Sermonum liber primus Thelatinlibrary.com ↑ Horazio: Sermonum liber secundus Thelatinlibrary.com ↑ Horazio: Epistularum liber primus Thelatinlibrary.com ↑ Horazio: Ars Poetica Thelatinlibrary.com ↑ Horazio: Epistularum liber secundus Thelatinlibrary.com Kanpo loturak[aldatu | aldatu iturburu kodea] Wikimedia Commonsen badira fitxategi gehiago, gai hau dutenak: Horazio Euskarari ekarriak: Horazio Ekarriak.armiarma.eus Autoritate kontrola Wikimedia proiektuak Datuak: Q6197 Multimedia: Quintus Horatius Flaccus Identifikadoreak WorldCat VIAF: 100227522 ISNI: 0000 0001 2145 2178 BNE: XX891549 BNF: 11886570b (data) BNC: 000035928 CANTIC: a10101214 GND: 118553569 LCCN: n79081354 NDL: 00540086 NKC: jn20000603003 NLA: 35206138 BER: 000083136 CiNii: DA00782980 SNAC: w6pk0m9c SUDOC: 026659166 ULAN: 500404135 BIBSYS: 90055203 UB: a1001212 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\000246 Open Library: OL20088A Hiztegiak eta entziklopediak Britannica: url Bilduma digitalak BVMC: 7568 Gutenberg proiektua: 1790 Datuak: Q6197 Multimedia: Quintus Horatius Flaccus "https://eu.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horazio&oldid=7011996"(e)tik eskuratuta Kategoriak: K.a. 65eko jaiotzak K.a. 8ko heriotzak Latinezko poetak Antzinako Erromako idazleak K.a. 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fa-wikipedia-org-4360	----	هوراس - ویکی‌پدیا، دانشنامهٔ آزاد پرش به محتوا جمع و باز کردن نوار کناری جستجو ابزارهای شخصی به سامانه وارد نشده‌اید بحث مشارکت‌ها ایجاد حساب کاربری ورود بازدید محتوا صفحهٔ اصلی رویدادهای کنونی مقالهٔ تصادفی کمک مالی همکاری تغییرات اخیر ویکی‌نویس شوید! راهنما تماس با ویکی‌پدیا ابزارها پیوندها به این صفحه تغییرات مرتبط بارگذاری پرونده صفحه‌های ویژه پیوند پایدار اطلاعات صفحه یادکرد پیوند این مقاله آیتم ویکی‌داده نسخه‌برداری ایجاد کتاب دریافت به‌صورت PDF نسخهٔ قابل چاپ در دیگر پروژه‌ها ویکی‌انبار به زبان‌های دیگر Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 ویرایش پیوندها منوی ناوبری فضاهای نام مقاله بحث گویش‌ها بازدیدها خواندن ویرایش نمایش تاریخچه بیشتر هوراس از ویکی‌پدیا، دانشنامهٔ آزاد برای دیگر کاربردها، هوراس (ابهام‌زدایی) را ببینید. هوراس Horace هوراس، اثر آنتون ورنر زاده کوینتوس هوراسیوس فلاکوس ۸ دسامبر ۶۵ پیش از میلاد ونوسیا، لوچانیا، جمهوری رم درگذشته (سن ۵۶ سالگی)۲۷ نوامبر ۸ پیش از میلاد رم، امپراتوری رم آرامگاه رم پیشه شاعر زبان(ها) لاتین ملیت اهل رم سبک نوشتاری غزل کار(های) برجسته اودس، ستیر، هنر شاعری هوراس با نام کامل کوینتوس هوراسیوس فلاکوس (به لاتین: Quintus Horatius Flaccus)‏ (۶۵–۸ ق. م) از شاعران سرشناس رومی است. در دهکده و نوزیا در آپولیا به دنیا آمد ظاهراً پدرش برده آزاد شده‌ای بود که به ماهی فروشی یا تحصیلداری مالیاتی اشتغال داشت و برای فرزند خویش وسائل تحصیل معانی و بیان را در رم و فلسفه را در آتن فراهم کرد. هوراس در ۲۵ سالگی با ویرژیل آشنا و به مسناس معرفی شد و بعد از مدتی دربه‌دری و فقر در ۴۵ کیلومتری رم به امر مسناس مزرعه‌ای به او داده شد. هوراس مردی کوتاه و چاق و مغرور و در عین حال خجالتی بود، با اینکه نمی‌توانست به طبقات بالا راه یابد با عامه مردم میانه خوشی نداشت. هوراس که آسایش خیالی از لحاظ معیشت بدست آورده بود به خلق آثار ادبی به‌طور جدی پرداخت و با سود جستن از آثار قدما و آداب و عادات زندگی روزمره رومیان با هوس‌ها و آرزوها و خوبی‌ها و بدی‌هایشان دو هجونامه در بین سالهای ۳۴ و ۳۰ ق. م بر وزن هشت هجائی سرود و به قدری در کار توصیف مردم در حرفه‌های گوناگون مهارت به خرج داد که از خواندن اشعار وی احساسات و خوبی و بدی آنان را می‌توان لمس کرد. شکمبارگی، آزمندی و شیطنت مردم شهر رم در اشعار هوراس به خوبی وصف گشته‌است. هوراس در اشعار خویش از خود و دیگران انتقاد می‌کند و اخلاق زشت و شهوت پرستی رومیان و آزمندی و حرص و ولع آن‌ها را وصف می‌کند. در سال ۳۹ ق. م منظومه‌ای در وزن دو هجائی (ترجیع بندها) خشن و تقریباً کم‌مایه‌تر از آثار قبلی خود پیرامون روابط زن و مرد سرود، گویی این منظومه پرتوی از زندگی رو به انحطاط شهرنشینان رومی است و خود را در کشتی شکسته‌ای بی‌مقصد و مقصود می‌یابد. او درحالی‌که غرق در بیکارگی، می‌گساری روزگار می‌گذراند از زندگی آرام و خوش روستائی سخن می‌گفت و بیشتر به خارج شهر و مزرعه خویش پناه می‌جست و با کارگران ساده‌ای که در مزرعه‌اش کار می‌کردند طرف صحبت می‌شد و آنقدر در آنجا می‌ماند که یاران شهریش را گویی فراموش کرده‌است. هوراس از شیوه‌های شعری و افکار شاعران یونانی سود فراوان می‌جست و در اشعارش از زندگی زودگذر و از خیالات دور و دراز هوس‌آلود جاهلانه سخن می‌گفت و دربارهٔ عشق و شراب، دین و دولت، مرگ و زندگی نیز مضامین جالب آورده‌است. اشعار هوراس و شاعران معاصر او چندان با شکوه و فیلسوفانه و متصف به صنعت سهل و ممتنع است که شور و ظرافت از آن‌ها پرتوافکنی می‌کند حتی این شکوه در قصاید نیز به چشم می‌خورد. به امر آگوستوس (اوگوستوس) هوراس منظومه‌ای در وزن هشت هجائی پرداخت که در آن همچون فیلسوفی دربارهٔ خدا، بشر و غیره سخن می‌گوید. هوراس مضامینی در هنر شاعری فراهم و به صورت اندرز برای طالبان عرضه نمود و چنین گفته بود: «موضوعی را که درخور قدرت شما باشد انتخاب کنید، اما برحذر باشید که همچون آن کوه داستانی، پس از درد بسیار، موش نزائید کتاب دلخواه آنست که در آن واحد، آموزنده و سرگرمی‌آور باشد هر که چیز مفید را با چیز دلپذیر درآمیخته باشد، صدای احسنت را برخواهد آورد. از بکار بردن الفاظ جدید یا منسوخ یا بسیار طویل خودداری کنید. تا آن حد که بروشنی کلام برنخورد، سخن را به اختصار بگوئید، مستقیم و لب مطلب را بکاوید. هنگام سرودن شعر، مپندارید که احساس، کار همه چیز را انجام می‌دهد. راست است که اگر بخواهید خواننده احساسی را درک کند، شما خود باید آن احساس را درک کرده باشید، اگر بخواهی مرا دریابی نخست باید من خود همان را دریافته باشم. اما هنر ادراک نیست بلکه صورت و ظاهر است. برای آنکه بتوانید صورت هنری را بیافرینید، آثار یونانیان را شبانه‌روز مطالعه کنید. تقریباً هر چه می‌نویسید پاک کنید، هر «پاره ارغوانی» (خودنمایانه) را قلم بزنید، اثر خود را به نقادان توانا بسپرید و از دوستان خود بپرهیزید. اگر از این خوان‌ها گذشت، هشت سال آن را به کناری نهید. اگر در آن هنگام فایده فراموشی را در نیافتید، آن را انتشار دهید، اما به یاد داشته باشید که جز به مرور زمان هرگز به یاد نخواهد آمد: اگر نمایشنامه می‌نویسید، بگذارید نفس نمایش و نه کلمات شما داستان را نقل و افراد نمایش را تصویر کند. صحنه‌های موحش را نمودار مسازید. از وحدت سه‌گانه عمل، زمان و مکان پیروی کنید. داستان یکی باشد و در مدتی کوتاه در یک محل اتفاق بیفتد. در زندگی و فلسفه مطالعه کنید، چون بدون مشاهده و درک سبک کامل هم چیزی میان تهی است. هوراس از مشرب زنون پیروی می‌کرد. چنانچه خود گفته‌است «پس کیست که آزاد باشد؟» «خردمند، آنکه بر خود چیره باشد، آنکه نه مرگش بترساند، نه فقر نه کند و زنجیر، آنکه تمنیات خود را نهیب می‌زند، بلندپروازی را شماتت می‌کند و بخودی خود کامل است».[۱] او با اینکه لامذهب بود مذهب را موعظه می‌کرد. در اواخر عمر به بیماری‌های گوناگون دچار شد و زندگی پررنجی داشت و در سال ۸ قبل از میلاد درگذشت. پانویس[ویرایش] ↑ نقل از تاریخ تمدن ویل دورانت ترجمه پرویز داریوش جلد هشتم منابع[ویرایش] در ویکی‌انبار پرونده‌هایی دربارهٔ هوراس موجود است. دانشنامهٔ رشد ن ب و روم باستان خلاصه سیر زمانی دوره‌ها بنیان‌گذاری پادشاهی روم انقلاب جمهوری روم امپراتوری روم سیر زمانی، پاکس رومانا، پرینسیپاته، دومیناته، افول, سقوط امپراتوری روم غربی / امپراتوری روم شرقی قانون اساسی تاریخ پادشاهی جمهوری امپراتوری امپراتوری متاخر سنا شوراهای قانون‌گذاری Curiate مجمع چنتوراتا Tribal Plebeian قاضی‌های اجرایی حکومت جرگه میدانگاه سلسله مناصب Collegiality امپراتور سپهدار سرفرمانده دیوانخانه فرماندار قائم‌مقام بیست‌وشش‌مرد تبردار سردار سپاه فرمانفرما ارشد سنا کاهن اعظم آگوستوس سزار تریوم‌ویرات اول چهارسالاری اشراف پوپولارها اپتیمات‌ها استان‌های روم مناصب کلانتری عادی تریبون کوایستور ادیل (روم) پرایتور کنسول کنسور تریبون مردم پروکنسول کلانتر بدیل Governor فوق العاده دیکتاتور Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Rex Interrex حقوق روم قانون دوازده لوحه منش نیاکان Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation نظامی مرزها Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications کاستروم Technology ارتش لژیونر Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy fleets Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia اقتصاد کشاورزی Deforestation Commerce Finance ارز Republican currency Imperial currency مجلس سنا و مردم روم فناوری چرتکه عددنویسی رومی مهندسی شهری مهندسی نظامی فناوری نظامی قنات Bridges Circus Concrete Forum Metallurgy جاده‌های رومی Sanitation حمام رومی فرهنگ معماری هنر Bathing گاه‌شماری رومی Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education ادبیات لاتین Music اساطیر روم آیین رومی‌سازی Sexuality Theatre Wine جامعه پاتریسین پلب‌ها Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equestrian order Gens Tribes Naming conventions زنان ازدواج Adoption بردگی Bagaudae زبان لاتین تاریخ الفبا زبان‌های رومی دوره‌ها باستان کلاسیک عامیانه متأخر میانه رنسانس نو معاصر کلیسایی نویسندگان آپولیوس ژولیوس سزار کاتولوس سیسرون انیوس هوراس جوونال تیتوس لیویوس لوکانوس لوکرتیوس مارتیال اووید پترونیوس پلوتس پلینیوس پلینی کوچک پروپرتیوس کوئنتیلی سالوست سنکای جوان استاتیوس سوئیتونیس تاسیتوس (تاریخ‌نگار) پوبلیوس ترنتیوس آفر تیبولوس وارو ویرژیل ویترویوس کرنلیوس نپوس فهرست‌ها Wars Battles Generals لژیونر فهرست امپراتوران روم Geographers Institutions Laws Consuls Distinguished women شهرهای مهم اسکندریه انطاکیه آکویلیا بولونیا کارتاژ قسطنطنیه لپتیس مگنا لوندینیوم Mediolanum پمپئی راونا رم سمیرانا موضوعات دیگر Fiction set in ancient Rome films video games Portal برگرفته از «https://fa.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=هوراس&oldid=30017761» رده‌ها: هوراس اهالی ونسا درگذشتگان ۸ (پیش از میلاد) رومیان سده اول (پیش از میلاد) زادگان ۶۵ (پیش از میلاد) سربازان روم باستان شاعران اهل ایتالیا شاعران دوره روم نویسندگان دوره طلایی لاتین نویسندگان سده ۱ (پیش از میلاد) نویسندگان لاتین‌زبان رده‌های پنهان: مقالات دارای جعبه اطلاعات مقاله‌های دارای الگوهای زبان ناشناخته ایزو ۶۳۹ انبار رده با پیوند محلی مشابه در ویکی‌داده مقاله‌های دانشنامه رشد این صفحه آخرین‌بار در ‏۲۵ سپتامبر ۲۰۲۰ ساعت ‏۰۳:۰۵ ویرایش شده‌است. همهٔ نوشته‌ها تحت مجوز Creative Commons 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fiu-vro-wikipedia-org-5273	----	Horatius – Wikipedia Horatius Läteq: Wikipedia Mine navigeerimisribale Mine otsikasti Horatius (Quintus Horatius Flaccus, 65 i.m.a. – 8 i.m.a.) oll' Vana-Rooma luulõtaja. Kaeq artikli Horatius kotsilõ ka Wikimedia Commonsi kogost. Vällä otsit teedüskogost "https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horatius&oldid=169400" Katõgooria: Vana-Rooma luulõtajaq Juhtmisvaliguq Erätüüriistaq Olõ-i nimega sisse mint Seo puutri võrgoaadrõsi arotus Hindä kirotusõq Tiiq hindäle pruukjanimi Nimega sisseminek Nimeruumiq Artikli Arotus Tõõsõndiq Kaemisõq Loeq Toimõndaq Muudaq lätteteksti Näütäq aoluku Veel Otsiq Juhtminõ Pääleht Arotusõtarõ Miä sünnüs Viimädseq muutmisõq Johuslinõ artikli Abi Tugõminõ Tüüriistakast Siiäq näütäjäq lingiq Siiäq putvaq muutmisõq Teedüstü üleslaatminõ Tallitusleheküleq Püsülink Leheküle andmõq Tsiteeriq seod artiklit Andmõütsüs Trüküq vai ekspordiq Luuq raamat Laadiq alla ku PDF-fail Trükükujo Tõisin projekten Commons Tõisin keelin Afrikaans አማርኛ العربية Aragonés Asturianu تۆرکجه Bahasa Indonesia Bahasa Melayu Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Bosanski Brezhoneg Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά English Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी مصرى Монгол Nāhuatl Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Sardu Seeltersk Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Tarandíne Татарча/tatarça Tiếng Việt Türkçe Українська Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 粵語 Zazaki Žemaitėška 中文 Toimõndaq linke Seo leht om viimäte muudõt 14:02, 29. hainakuu 2019. Teksti või pruukiq Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike-litsendsi tingimüisi perrä; mõnikõrd või päält taa ollaq ka muid tingimüisi. Taa kotsilõ kaeq täpsämbähe Wikimedia pruukmistingimüisist. Eräteedüse kaitsminõ Wikipedia tutvustus Hoiatuisi Mobiilikaehus Edendäjäq Arvandmed Küpsiste avaldus 
fi-wikipedia-org-179	----	Horatius – Wikipedia Horatius Wikipediasta Siirry navigaatioon Siirry hakuun Tämä artikkeli kertoo runoilijasta. Horatius Cocles oli roomalainen sotasankari. Quintus Horatius Flaccus Horatius Anton von Wernerin maalauksessa. Henkilötiedot Syntynyt 8. joulukuuta 65 eaa. Venusia, Rooman valtakunta Kuollut 27. marraskuuta 8 eaa. Rooma, Rooman valtakunta Kansalaisuus Rooman valtakunta Ammatti runoilija Kirjailija Tuotannon kieli latina Aiheesta muualla Löydä lisää kirjailijoitaKirjallisuuden teemasivulta [ Muokkaa Wikidatassa ] Infobox OK Quintus Horatius Flaccus (8. joulukuuta 65 eaa. – 27. marraskuuta 8 eaa.) oli roomalainen runoilija. Häntä pidetään yhtenä merkittävimmistä latinaksi kirjoittaneista runoilijoista. Horatius oli vapautetun orjan poika. Hän kuului Vergiliuksen tavoin Maecenaksen ylläpitämään kirjailijapiiriin. Parhaiten Horatiukselta tunnetaan nykypäivän yleinen lausahdus carpe diem eli tartu hetkeen tai kirjaimellisesti poimi päivä. [1] Sisällysluettelo 1 Elämä 2 Teokset 3 Kirjallisuutta 3.1 Suomennokset 4 Lähteet 4.1 Viitteet 5 Aiheesta muualla Elämä[muokkaa | muokkaa wikitekstiä] Horatius syntyi Etelä-Italiassa, Venusiassa, vapautetun orjan perheeseen. Perheellä oli varallisuutta hankkia pieni maatila ja he halusivat antaa pojalleen parhaat mahdollisuudet omaa elämäänsä varten. Vanhemmat lähettivätkin poikansa opiskelemaan Roomaan, mutta eivät halunneet tätä kouluvuosien ajaksi vieraiden vieraiden kasvatettavaksi, joten he antoivat maatilansa vuokralle voidakseen asua poikansa luona. Horatius muisteli myöhemmin nuoruuttaan ja vanhempiaan suurella lämmöllä. [2] Horatiuksen nuoruudessa Rooman valtakuntaa piinasivat poliitikkojen valtakamppailut, salamurhat ja sisällissodat. Horatiuskin osallistui sisällissotaan, mutta häviäjän eli Brutuksen puolella. Hänen oli onnistunut nousta päällikön asemaan ja hänen oli tarkoitus osallistua Filippoin taisteluun. Taistelun alkaessa hän kuitenkin heitti kilpensä ja aseensa maahan ja juoksi pakoon. [3] Horatius lukee runojaan Maecenakselle. Fjodor Bronnikov, 1863. Sisällissodan voittaja, keisari Augustus antoi Horatiukselle armahduksen ja tarjosi hänelle yksityissihteerinsä hyväpalkkaista virkaa. Runoilija kuitenkin kieltäytyi ottamasta työtä vastaan, sillä halusi elää vapaana runoilijana. Augustus piti runoilijaa ystävänään, sillä hän arvosti Horatiuksen hyväntahtoisuutta ja nopeaa älyä. [4] Taiteiden suosija ja Augustuksen ystävä Maecenas lahjoitti Horatiukselle maatilan läheltä Tivolia. Horatius oli tyytyväinen, sillä nyt hän saattoi elää tuntemattomuudessa maaseudulla tavallisten ihmisten parissa ilman toimeentulohuolia. Maecenaan kautta hän ystävystyi Vergiliuksen ja Variuksen kanssa. Heidän kanssaan Roomasta Brundisiumiin tehtyä matkaa hän myöhemmin kuvaili purevan satiirisesti kirjeissään. [5] Kun elämä oli rauhoittunut, Horatiuksesta kehittyi onnellinen ja tyytyväinen. Ruumiinrakenteeltaan hän oli lyhyt ja pyöreä ja kuvaili itseään "hyvinruokituksi porsaaksi Epikuroksen laumassa." Runoissaan hän käsitteli elämän pieniä iloja kuten viiniä, ystävyyttä ja rakkautta. Ihmisten heikkouksista hän teki satiireissaan raakaakin pilaa. Osassa runoistaan hän ylistää Augustusta. Monien mielestä Augustus vei roomalaisilta vapauden, mutta Horatiuksen mielestä hän on suuri hyväntekijä lopettaessaan maata repineet sisällissodat. [6] Testamentissaan Maecenas pyysi että Augustus pitäisi huolta Horatiuksen asioista. Kovinkaan kauan ei keisarin tarvinnut sitä tehdä, sillä runoilija kuoli vain muutaman viikon mesenaattinsa jälkeen. Horatius haudattiin Roomaan Esquilinus kukkulalle. [7] Teokset[muokkaa | muokkaa wikitekstiä] Useat Horatiuksen käyttämät runomitat ovat kreikkalaisten kehittämiä, ja niiden täydellinen ymmärtäminen vaatii antiikin Kreikan kirjallisuuden tuntemusta. Horatiuksen oodit taas olivat ainutlaatuisia ja ilmestyessään uusi muoto Rooman kirjallisuudessa. Ne poikkesivat suuresti esimerkiksi Catulluksen lyyrisestä tuotannosta. Lähimpinä esikuvina Horatiukselle olivat kreikkalaiset runoilijat Alkaios[8] ja Arkhilokhos. Oodeissa Horatius käsitteli sekä henkilökohtaisia kokemuksiaan että esikuvilta lainattuja aiheita, esimerkiksi maalaiselämän ylistystä. Monet hänen oodeistaan ovat hyökkäyksiä hänen aikalaisiaan vastaan tai pilkkarunoja heistä. [1] Oodeissa tulevat esille liiallisuuksien välttäminen eli kultainen keskitie, ajan nopea kuluminen, oikeaan hetkeen tarttuminen, rakkaus, viini, isänmaallisuus ja terve itsetietoisuus. [8] Horatiuksen jambimittaisista oodeista kootulle teokselle on myöhemmin annettu nimi Epodes. Epodeissaan Horatius kehitteli oodien runomittaa Arkhilokhoksen mallin mukaisiksi säepareiksi. Hän ilmaisi niissä oman aikansa roomalaisten huolia ja toiveita, poliittisia aiheita sekä rakkauden tunteita. [8] Kahdeksassatoista satiirissaan (Sermones, 'Pakinoita') Horatius nojautui Luciliuksen kehittelemään tyyliin. Myös Pindaros on niiden innoittaja, ja toisin päin ajateltuna Horatius on ehkä huomattavin Pindaroksen runouden ymmärtäjä. [1] Myös Horatiuksen kirjeenvaihtoa on julkaistu. Epistulat on tavallisesti lähetetty hänen huomattaville tuttavilleen, kuten Maecenaalle. Ne eivät kuitenkaan ole arkisia kirjeitä vaan runomuotoisia esseitä, joiden aiheina ovat elämänfilosofia ja kirjallisuuskritiikki. Epistulat ovat tyyliltään viehättäviä, sillä niissä on yllättäviä kielikuvia ja rinnastuksia, joita on maustettu anekdooteilla ja tarinoilla.[1] Horatiuksen Satiirien vuoden 1577 painoksen kansilehti. Teosten kirjoitusvuodet ovat arvioita. Satiirit I (Sermonum liber primus tai Satirae I) (35 eaa.) Teos Latin Libraryssä. Epodit (Epodes) (30 eaa.) Teos Latin Libraryssä. Satiirit II (Sermonum liber secundus tai Satirae II) (30 eaa.) Teos Latin Libraryssä. Oodit (Carminum liber) Carminum liber primus (23 eaa.) Teos Latin Libraryssä. Carminum liber secundus (23 eaa.) Teos Latin Libraryssä. Carminum liber tertius (23 eaa.) Teos Latin Libraryssä. Carminum liber quartus (13 eaa.) Teos Latin Libraryssä. Kirjeet I (Epistularum liber primus) Teos Latin Libraryssä. (20 eaa.) Ars poetica (Runotaide) Teos Latin Libraryssä. (18 eaa.) Carmen saeculare Teos Latin Libraryssä. (17 eaa.) Kirjeet II (Epistularum liber secundus) (14 eaa.) Teos Latin Libraryssä. Kirjallisuutta[muokkaa | muokkaa wikitekstiä] Suomennokset[muokkaa | muokkaa wikitekstiä] Kvintus Horatius Flakkuksen teokset 1: Oodit, karmenseekulaare ja epoodit. (Carminum liber, 23 eaa.; Carmen saeculare, 17 eaa.; Epodes, 30 eaa.) Suomentanut ja selityksillä varustanut A. Leino. Helsinki: Holm, 1891. Horatius: Runoudesta. Suorasanaisesti suomentanut K. J. Hidén. Roomalaisten ja kreikkalaisten kirjailijain teoksia 3. Näköispainos. Alkuteos: Helsingissä: Yrjö Weilin, 1904. Helsinki: Kirja kerrallaan, 2004. ISBN 952-5439-63-1. Horatius: Ars poetica. Runotaide. (Ars poetica, noin 18 eaa.) Alkuteksti ja proosasuomennos, johdanto ja selityksiä. Toimittaneet Teivas Oksala ja Erkki Palmén. 2., tarkistettu painos (1. painos: Gaudeamus, 1978). Helsinki: Finn Lectura, 1992. ISBN 951-8905-62-2. 4 Horatius: Oodeja ja epoodeja. Suomennos Eero Kivikari. Hämeenlinna: Karisto, 1930. Horatius: Horatiuksen oodeja. Teivas Oksala, Erkki Palmén. Helsinki: Finn Lectura, 1989. ISBN 951-8905-08-8. Horatius, Quintus Flaccius: Horatiuksen avoimet runot. Eripainos: Kirjallisuudentutkijain Seuran vuosikirja 20. Suomentaja Teivas Oksala. Kirjallisuudentutkijain Seura, 1963. Castrén, Paavo: Pakinoita antiikin Roomasta. Horatiuksen satiirit. Sisältää tekijän suomennoksen Horatiuksen satiireista. Helsingissä: Otava, 2013. ISBN 978-951-1-26658-7. Lähteet[muokkaa | muokkaa wikitekstiä] Grimberg, Carl: Kansojen historia, osa 6, Rooma. Suomentaneet Weikko Pakarinen, Jussi Teljo ja Aaro Lassi. WSOY:n graafiset laitokset, Porvoo 1980. ISBN 951-0-09734-9 Viitteet[muokkaa | muokkaa wikitekstiä] ↑ a b c d Otavan Suuri Ensyklopedia, 3. osa (Hašek-juuri), s. 1852–1853, art. Horatius. Otava, 1978. ISBN 951-1-02232-6. ↑ Grimberg, C.: Kansojen historia, osa 6, s. 75. ↑ Grimberg, C.: Kansojen historia, osa 6, s. 76. ↑ Grimberg, C.: Kansojen historia, osa 6, s. 79. ↑ Grimberg, C.: Kansojen historia, osa 6, s. 77, 82. ↑ Grimberg, C.: Kansojen historia, osa 6, s. 77, 79. ↑ Grimberg, C.: Kansojen historia, osa 6, s. 84. ↑ a b c Castrén, Paavo: Uusi antiikin historia, s. 386–387. Helsinki: Otava, 2011. ISBN 978-951-1-21594-3. Aiheesta muualla[muokkaa | muokkaa wikitekstiä] Wikimedia Commonsissa on kuvia tai muita tiedostoja aiheesta Horatius. Wikiaineistoon on tallennettu tekstiä aiheesta: Horatius Wikisitaateissa on kokoelma sitaatteja aiheesta Horatius. Vapaasti ladattavia Horatiuksen e-kirjoja Projekti Lönnrotilta sekä Project Gutenbergiltä. Horatius ja runoilijakoulu. Jyväskylän yliopisto. Shorey, Paul: Commentary on Horace, Odes, Epodes, and Carmen Saeculare. Perseus Digital Library. (englanniksi) Virtanen, Reijo: Keskitien satiirikko. Kiiltomato.net 25.6.2014. Auktoriteettitunnisteet BIBSYS: 90055203 BNC: 000035928 BNE: XX891549 BNF: cb11886570b (data) CANTIC: a10101214 CiNii: DA00782980 GND: 118553569 ISNI: 0000 0001 2145 2178 LCCN: n79081354 LNB: 000000375 MusicBrainz: af616f1f-6242-4802-a1bf-8d3f0647083c NDL: 00540086 NKC: jn20000603003 NLA: 35206138 NLG: 62641 NLI: 000064806 NLK: KAC199612791 NLP: A11793144 NSK: 000013522 NTA: 068304579 RERO: 02-A000081296 RSL: 000083136 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\000246 SELIBR: 189659 SNAC: w6pk0m9c SUDOC: 026659166 Trove: 864697 ULAN: 500404135 VIAF: 100227522 WorldCat (VIAF): 100227522 Noudettu kohteesta ”https://fi.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horatius&oldid=19284234” Luokka: Roomalaiset runoilijat Piilotetut luokat: Sivut, jotka käyttävät ISBN-taikalinkkejä Kirjallisuuteen liittyvät artikkelit Wikipedia-artikkelit BIBSYS-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit BNC-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit BNE-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit BNF-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit CANTIC-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit CINII-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit GND-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit ISNI-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit LCCN-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit LNB-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit MusicBrainz-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit NDL-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit NKC-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit NLA-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit NLG-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit NLI-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit NLK-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit NLP-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit NSK-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit NTA-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit RERO-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit RSL-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit SBN-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit SELIBR-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit SNAC-ID-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit SUDOC-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit Trove-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit ULAN-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit VIAF-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit WorldCat-VIAF -tunnisteilla AC with 29 elements Seulonnan keskeiset artikkelit Navigointivalikko Henkilökohtaiset työkalut Et ole kirjautunut Keskustelu Muokkaukset Luo tunnus Kirjaudu sisään Nimiavaruudet Artikkeli Keskustelu Kirjoitusjärjestelmät Näkymät Lue Muokkaa Muokkaa wikitekstiä Näytä historia Muut Haku Valikko Etusivu Tietoja Wikipediasta Kaikki sivut Satunnainen artikkeli Osallistuminen Ohje Kahvihuone Ajankohtaista Tuoreet odottavat muutokset Tuoreet muutokset Lahjoitukset Työkalut Tänne viittaavat sivut Linkitettyjen sivujen muutokset Toimintosivut Ikilinkki Sivun tiedot Viitetiedot Wikidata-kohde Tulosta tai vie Lataa PDF-tiedostona Tulostettava versio Muissa hankkeissa Wikimedia Commons Wikiaineisto Muilla kielillä Afrikaans አማርኛ العربية Aragonés Asturianu تۆرکجه Bahasa Indonesia Bahasa Melayu Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Bosanski Brezhoneg Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά English Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी مصرى Монгол Nāhuatl Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Sardu Seeltersk Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Tarandíne Татарча/tatarça Tiếng Việt Türkçe Українська Volapük Võro Walon Winaray 吴语 粵語 Zazaki Žemaitėška 中文 Muokkaa linkkejä Sivua on viimeksi muutettu 4. marraskuuta 2020 kello 23.46. Teksti on saatavilla Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike -lisenssillä; lisäehtoja voi sisältyä. Katso käyttöehdot. Wikipedia® on Wikimedia Foundationin rekisteröimä tavaramerkki. Ongelma artikkelissa? Tietosuojakäytäntö Tietoja Wikipediasta Vastuuvapaus Mobiilinäkymä Kehittäjät Tilastot Evästekäytäntö 
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Introduction Use of info Sharing Protection Important info Contents Contents 1 Introduction 1.1 Welcome! 1.1.1 Definitions 1.1.2 What This Privacy Policy Does & Doesn't Cover 2 Collection & Use of Info 2.1 Types of Information We Receive From You & How We Get It 2.1.1 Your Public Contributions 2.1.2 Account Information & Registration 2.1.3 Location Information 2.1.3.1 GPS & Other Location Technologies 2.1.3.2 Metadata 2.1.3.3 IP Addresses 2.2 Information Related to Your Use of the Wikimedia Sites 2.2.1 Information We Receive Automatically 2.2.2 Information We Collect 2.3 How We Use Information We Receive From You 2.4 Other 2.4.1 Location Information 2.4.1.1 GPS & Other Location Technologies 2.4.1.2 Metadata 2.4.1.3 IP Addresses 3 Sharing 3.1 When May We Share Your Information? 3.1.1 With Your Permission 3.1.2 For Legal Reasons 3.1.3 If the Organization is Transferred (Really Unlikely!) 3.1.4 To Protect You, Ourselves & Others 3.1.5 To Our Service Providers 3.1.6 To Understand & Experiment 3.1.7 Because You Made It Public 4 Protection 4.1 How Do We Protect Your Data? 4.2 How Long Do We Keep Your Data? 5 Important info 5.1 Where is the Foundation & What Does That Mean for Me? 5.2 Our Response to Do Not Track (DNT) signals 5.3 Changes to This Privacy Policy 5.4 Contact Us 5.5 Thank You! Introduction Welcome! The Wikimedia Foundation is the nonprofit organization that operates collaborative, free knowledge websites, like Wikipedia, Wikimedia Commons, and Wiktionary. This Policy explains how we collect, use, and share your personal information. We collect very little personal information about you. We do not rent or sell your information to third parties. By using Wikimedia Sites, you consent to this Policy. The Wikimedia movement is founded on a simple, but powerful principle: we can do more together than any of us can do alone. We cannot work collectively without gathering, sharing, and analyzing information about our users as we seek new ways to make the Wikimedia Sites more usable, safer, and more beneficial. We believe that information-gathering and use should go hand-in-hand with transparency. This Privacy Policy explains how the Wikimedia Foundation, the non-profit organization that hosts the Wikimedia Sites, like Wikipedia, collects, uses, and shares information we receive from you through your use of the Wikimedia Sites. It is essential to understand that, by using any of the Wikimedia Sites, you consent to the collection, transfer, processing, storage, disclosure, and use of your information as described in this Privacy Policy. That means that reading this Policy carefully is important. We believe that you shouldn't have to provide nonpublic personal information to participate in the free knowledge movement. You do not have to provide things like your real name, address, or date of birth to sign up for a standard account or contribute content to the Wikimedia Sites. We do not sell or rent your Personal Information, nor do we give it to others to sell you anything. We use it to figure out how to make the Wikimedia Sites more engaging and accessible, to see which ideas work, and to make learning and contributing more fun. Put simply: we use this information to make the Wikimedia Sites better for you. After all, it's people like you, the champions of free knowledge, who make it possible for the Wikimedia Sites to not only exist, but also grow and thrive. Definitions Back to top We recognize that only a minority of you are familiar with technical terms like “tracking pixels” and “cookies” used in the Privacy Policy. Whether you are brand new to privacy terminology or you are an expert who just wants a refresher, you might find our Glossary of Key Terms helpful. Because everyone (not just lawyers) should be able to easily understand how and why their information is collected and used, we use common language instead of more formal terms throughout this Policy. To help ensure your understanding of some particular key terms, here is a table of translations: When we say... ... we mean: "the Wikimedia Foundation" / "the Foundation" / "we" / "us" / "our" The Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., the non-profit organization that operates the Wikimedia Sites. "Wikimedia Sites" / "our services" Wikimedia websites and services (regardless of language), including our main projects, such as Wikipedia and Wikimedia Commons, as well as mobile applications, APIs, emails, and notifications; excluding, however, sites and services listed in the "What This Privacy Policy Doesn't Cover" section below. "you" / "your" / "me" You, regardless of whether you are an individual, group, or organization, and regardless of whether you are using the Wikimedia Sites or our services on behalf of yourself or someone else. "this Policy" / "this Privacy Policy" This document, entitled the "Wikimedia Foundation Privacy Policy". "contributions" Content you add or changes you make to any Wikimedia Sites. "personal information" Information you provide us or information we collect from you in the context of your use of the Wikimedia Sites that could be used to personally identify you. To be clear, while we do not necessarily collect all of the following types of information, we consider at least the following to be Personal Information if it can be used to identify you: (a) name, address, phone number, email address, username, password, identification number on government-issued ID, IP addresses, user-agent information, and credit card number; and; (b) when associated with an identifiable person, any sensitive data such as date of birth, gender, sexual orientation, racial or ethnic origins, marital or familial status, genetic and biometric data, medical conditions or disabilities, political affiliation, and religion. "third party" / "third parties" Individuals, entities, websites, services, products, and applications that are not controlled, managed, or operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. This includes other Wikimedia users and independent organizations or groups who help promote the Wikimedia movement such as Wikimedia chapters, thematic organizations, and user groups as well as volunteers, employees, directors, officers, grant recipients, and contractors of those organizations or groups. What This Privacy Policy Does & Doesn't Cover Except as explained below, this Privacy Policy applies to our collection and handling of information about you that we receive as a result of your use of any of the Wikimedia Sites. This Policy also applies to information that we receive from our partners or other third parties. To understand more about what this Privacy Policy covers, please see below. Examples of What This Privacy Policy Covers For the sake of clarity, this Privacy Policy covers, regardless of language: All of our major sites (found at list of major projects), such as Wikipedia, including user pages, discussion pages, and noticeboards. Our blogs and APIs (unless we have provided a separate policy for those services). Official Wikimedia Foundation mobile applications. Emails, SMS, and notifications from us or sent to us from you. This Privacy Policy, however, does not cover some situations where we may gather or process information. For example, some uses may be covered by separate privacy policies (like those of the Wikimedia Shop) or sites or services run by third parties (such as third-party developer projects on Wikimedia Cloud Services). To understand more about what this Privacy Policy does not cover, please see below. More on what this Privacy Policy doesn’t cover This section is part of the Privacy Policy and is meant to explain in detail which situations are not covered by our Privacy Policy. Wikimedia Sites and Tools with alternative policies Some Wikimedia Foundation websites or tools have alternative privacy policies or provisions that differ from this Privacy Policy. These websites include: Wikimedia Shop (covered by the shop's policy); donate.wikimedia.org, including the donation process, such as clicking on a donation banner (covered by the Donor Privacy Policy); and the Wikipedia Reading Lists Browser Extension, which is governed by a separate Privacy Policy. This separate policy will also be made available where the Extension can be downloaded. If a Wikimedia Foundation website is governed by an alternative privacy policy, it will link to such policy. When a Wikimedia Foundation tool is governed by an alternative privacy policy, the page where the tool may be downloaded or enabled will include a link to that policy. Community members The Wikimedia Sites are collaborative labors of love that are constantly maintained and updated by a global community of volunteers. As a result, some volunteers have access to certain Personal Information, and use of that Personal Information may not be governed by this Privacy Policy. Volunteers that have such access include: Administrative volunteers, such as CheckUsers or Stewards. These are volunteers who enforce Wikimedia Site policies and ensure the safety of the Wikimedia Sites. When these administrators access Personal Information that is nonpublic, they are required to comply with our Access to Nonpublic Information Policy, as well as other, tool-specific policies. Tool providers. Tool providers. We support platforms for third-party developers to experiment and develop new tools and sites, such as wmflabs.org. When you use one of the tools developed by these volunteers, you may transfer information to them. When these volunteers access nonpublic information or Personal Information, they are required to comply with the terms governing the particular platform the tool is available on. Other users. We provide several tools that allow users to communicate with each other. The communications may be covered by this Policy while they pass through our systems, but the users who receive these communications, and what they do with the communications once they receive them, are not covered by this Policy. Examples include: posting to Foundation-hosted email lists; requesting support from volunteers through our online ticketing system (email sent to info[at]wikimedia.org goes to this system); emailing other users through the Wikimedia Sites (for example, by using the "Email this user" feature); and chatting on IRC (such as on the #wikipedia channel). Third parties This Privacy Policy only covers the way the Wikimedia Foundation collects, uses and discloses Personal Information and does not address the practices of third parties. For example, this Privacy Policy does not address the practices of: Websites run by other organizations, like websites linked to from the “References” sections of Wikipedia, or run by Wikimedia chapters or other movement organizations. These organizations may receive information from you if you visit their websites after using one of the Wikimedia Sites. They are governed by their own privacy policies. Mobile applications provided by other organizations or individuals. These organizations or individuals may receive information from you if you use those applications to access the Wikimedia Sites or Wikimedia Site content. They are governed by their own privacy policies. Sometimes, volunteers may place a data-collecting tool, such as a script, gadget, tracking pixel, or share button, on a Wikimedia Site without our knowledge. This Policy does not cover how third parties handle the information they receive as a result of such a tool. If you come across such a third-party tool, and you believe it violates this Policy, you can remove the tool yourself, or report it to privacy[at]wikimedia.org so we can investigate. Where community policies govern information, such as the CheckUser policy, the relevant community may add to the rules and obligations set out in this Policy. However, they are not permitted to create new exceptions or otherwise reduce the protections offered by this Policy. Collection & Use of Info Types of Information We Receive From You & How We Get It Your Public Contributions Whatever you post on Wikimedia Sites can be seen and used by everyone. When you make a contribution to any Wikimedia Site, including on user or discussion pages, you are creating a permanent, public record of every piece of content added, removed, or altered by you. The page history will show when your contribution or deletion was made, as well as your username (if you are signed in) or your IP address (if you are not signed in). We may use your public contributions, either aggregated with the public contributions of others or individually, to create new features or data-related products for you or to learn more about how the Wikimedia Sites are used. Publicly Visible Information Unless this Policy says otherwise, you should assume that information that you actively contribute to the Wikimedia Sites, including Personal Information, is publicly visible and can be found by search engines. Like most things on the Internet, anything you share may be copied and redistributed throughout the Internet by other people. Please do not contribute any information that you are uncomfortable making permanently public, like revealing your real name or location in your contributions. You should be aware that specific data made public by you or aggregated data that is made public by us can be used by anyone for analysis and to infer further information, such as which country a user is from, political affiliation and gender. Back to top Account Information & Registration You do not need to create an account to use any Wikimedia Site. If you do create an account, you do not need to give us your name or email address. If you do not create an account, your contributions will be publicly attributed to your IP address. Want to create an account? Great! Don't want to create an account? No problem! You are not required to create an account to read or contribute to a Wikimedia Site, except under rare circumstances. However, if you contribute without signing in, your contribution will be publicly attributed to the IP address associated with your device. If you want to create a standard account, in most cases we require only a username and a password. More on Usernames Your username will be publicly visible, so please be careful about using your real name as your username. Your password is only used to verify that the account is yours. Your IP address is also automatically submitted to us, and we record it temporarily to help prevent abuse. No other personal information is required: no name, no email address, no date of birth, no credit card information. Once created, user accounts cannot be removed entirely (although you can usually hide the information on your user page if you choose to). This is because your public contributions must be associated with their author (you!). In some circumstances, the Wikimedia communities can assist users with removing additional information related to their account from the projects. To gain a better understanding of the demographics of our users, to localize our services and to learn how we can improve our services, we may ask you for more demographic information, such as gender or age, about yourself. We will tell you if such information is intended to be public or private, so that you can make an informed decision about whether you want to provide us with that information. Providing such information is always completely optional. If you don't want to, you don't have to—it's as simple as that. Back to top Location Information GPS & Other Location Technologies Some features we offer work better if we know what area you are in. If you consent, we can use GPS (and other technologies commonly used to determine location) to show you more relevant content. We keep information obtained by these technologies confidential, except as provided in this Policy. You can learn more by checking out the list of examples of how we use these technologies in our FAQ. Back to top Metadata Sometimes, we automatically receive location data from your device. For example, if you want to upload a photo on the Wikimedia Commons mobile app, we may receive metadata, such as the place and time you took the photo, automatically from your device. Please be aware that, unlike location information collected using GPS signals described above, the default setting on your mobile device typically includes the metadata in your photo or video upload to the Wikimedia Sites. If you do not want metadata sent to us and made public at the time of your upload, please change your settings on your device. Back to top IP Addresses Finally, when you visit any Wikimedia Site, we automatically receive the IP address of the device (or your proxy server) you are using to access the Internet, which could be used to infer your geographical location. Back to top Information Related to Your Use of the Wikimedia Sites We use certain technologies to collect information about how you use Wikimedia Sites. Like other websites, we receive some information about you automatically when you visit the Wikimedia Sites. We also use a variety of commonly-used technologies, like cookies, to collect information regarding how you use the Wikimedia Sites, make our services safer and easier to use, and to help create a better and more customizable experience for you. We want to make the Wikimedia Sites better for you by learning more about how you use them. Examples of this might include how often you visit the Wikimedia Sites, what you like, what you find helpful, how you get to the Wikimedia Sites, and whether you would use a helpful feature more if we explained it differently. We also want this Policy and our practices to reflect our community's values. For this reason, we keep information related to your use of the Wikimedia Sites confidential, except as provided in this Policy. Back to top Information We Receive Automatically Because of how browsers work, we receive some information automatically when you visit the Wikimedia Sites. This information includes the type of device you are using (possibly including unique device identification numbers, for some beta versions of our mobile applications), the type and version of your browser, your browser's language preference, the type and version of your device's operating system, in some cases the name of your internet service provider or mobile carrier, the website that referred you to the Wikimedia Sites, which pages you request and visit, and the date and time of each request you make to the Wikimedia Sites. Put simply, we use this information to enhance your experience with Wikimedia Sites. For example, we use this information to administer the sites, provide greater security, and fight vandalism; optimize mobile applications, customize content and set language preferences, test features to see what works, and improve performance; understand how users interact with the Wikimedia Sites, track and study use of various features, gain understanding about the demographics of the different Wikimedia Sites, and analyze trends. Back to top Information We Collect We use a variety of commonly-used technologies, like cookies, to understand how you use the Wikimedia Sites, make our services safer and easier to use, and to help create a better and more customizable experience for you. We actively collect some types of information with a variety of commonly-used technologies. These generally include tracking pixels, JavaScript, and a variety of "locally stored data" technologies, such as cookies and local storage. We realize that some of these technologies do not have the best reputation in town and can be used for less-than-noble purposes. So we want to be as clear as we can about why we use these methods and the type of information we collect with them. Depending on which technology we use, locally stored data can be anything from text, pictures, and whole articles (as we explain further below) to Personal Information (like your IP address) and information about your use of the Wikimedia Sites (like your username or the time of your visit). We use this information to make your experience with the Wikimedia Sites safer and better, to gain a greater understanding of user preferences and their interaction with the Wikimedia Sites, and to generally improve our services. We will never use third-party cookies, unless we get your permission to do so. If you ever come across a third-party data collection tool that has not been authorized by you (such as one that may have been mistakenly placed by another user or administrator), please report it to us at privacy@wikimedia.org. More on Locally Stored Data Locally stored data, JavaScript, and tracking pixels help us do things like: Provide you with a customizable experience, such as using cookies to know your language preference, to remember the user preferences you set so we can provide you with the customized look and feel that you want, and to tell you about interesting Wikimedia issues and events in your area. Deliver more relevant content to you faster. For example, we use local storage to store your most recently read articles directly on your device, so they can be retrieved quickly. Also, we use cookies to learn about the topics searched so that we can optimize the search results we deliver to you. Understand how you use the Wikimedia Sites, so that we know what works and what is useful. For example, we might use cookies to learn about the list of articles you are following on your watchlist so that we can recommend similar articles that you may be interested in. Understand how you use the Wikimedia Sites across different devices, so that we can make our varied Wikimedia Sites more efficient and effective for you. Make the Wikimedia Sites more convenient to use, such as by using cookies to maintain your session when you log in or to remember your username in the login field. Want to know even more? You can read more about some of the specific cookies we use, when they expire, and what we use them for in our FAQ. We believe this data collection helps improve your user experience, but you may remove or disable some or all locally stored data through your browser settings, depending on your browser. You can learn more about some options you have in our FAQ. While locally stored data may not be necessary to use our sites, some features will not function properly if you disable locally stored data. While the examples above concerning information about you collected through the use of data collection tools are kept confidential in accordance with this Policy, please note that some information about the actions taken by your username is made publicly available through public logs alongside actions taken by other users. For example, a public log may include the date your account was created on a Wikimedia Site along with the dates that other accounts were created on a Wikimedia Site. Back to top How We Use Information We Receive From You We and our service providers use your information for the legitimate purpose of pursuing our charitable mission, including: Operating the Wikimedia Sites, sharing your contributions and administering our Services. To help you share your knowledge with the world and add new features to our Services. To arrange access to your account and provide you with related service. To send administrative information to you, such as changes to our policies. To allow you to send messages to another person if you choose to do so. Direct communications between users (such as messages sent through the "Email this user" feature), to the extent such communications are nonpublic and stored in or in transit through Wikimedia Foundation systems, are kept confidential by us, except as provided in this Policy. We engage in these activities to manage our relationship with you, because we have a legitimate interest and/or to comply with our legal obligations. Providing customized Services. To provide to you custom content, notices and settings and to enhance your experience with the Wikimedia Sites. We will customize the Services, in some instances, at your direction; in all instances, in keeping with our legitimate charitable purpose of pursuing our mission. Sending emails with news updates, surveys and communications about items we believe may be of interest to you. To let you know about things that are happening with the Wikimedia Foundation, the Wikimedia Sites or the Wikimedia movement. To alert you when there has been a change to an article that you have decided to follow. We will send these types of emails to you only with your consent. We do not sell, rent, or use your email address to advertise third-party products or services to you. You can manage what kinds of notifications you receive and how often you receive them by going to your Notifications Preferences. You can learn more about email and notifications and how to change your preferences in our FAQ. Sending optional surveys and requesting feedback. We will always tell you, at the time we give you an opportunity to share your thoughts, how we plan on using your answers and any personal information you provide. Your responses to our surveys and feedback requests are always optional. We will email these types of requests to you only with your consent. You can manage what kinds of notifications you receive and how often you receive them by going to your Notifications Preferences. You can learn more about email and notifications and how to change your preferences in our FAQ. Improving the Wikimedia Sites and making your user experience safer and better. To use your public contributions, either aggregated with the public contributions of others or individually, to create new features or data-related products for you or to learn more about how the Wikimedia Sites are used. For research and analytics. To fight spam, identity theft, malware and other kinds of abuse. To optimize mobile and other applications. To test features to see what works, understand how users interact with the Wikimedia Sites, track and study use of various features, gain understanding about the demographics of the different Wikimedia Sites and analyze trends. We engage in these activities to further our legitimate charitable purpose and/or to comply with our legal obligations. Back to top Other Location Information GPS & Other Location Technologies As stated above, we can use commonly-used location technologies to show you more relevant content. For example, our mobile apps can identify articles from the Wikimedia sites about points of interest near your location. As a reminder, you can deactivate our access to these location technologies at any time, and still use the Wikimedia Sites. Back to top Metadata As stated above, we may automatically receive location data from your device. For example, if you upload a photo using the Wikimedia Commons mobile app, please be aware that the default setting on your mobile device typically results in the metadata associated with your photo being included in the upload. As a reminder, if you do not want metadata sent to us and made public at the time of your upload, please change your settings on your device. Back to top IP Addresses When you visit any Wikimedia Site, we automatically receive the IP address of the device (or your proxy server) you are using to access the Internet, which could be used to infer your geographical location. We keep IP addresses confidential, except as provided in this Policy. If you are visiting Wikimedia Sites with your mobile device, we may use your IP address to provide anonymized or aggregated information to service providers regarding the volume of usage in certain areas. We use this location information to make your experience with the Wikimedia Sites safer and better, to gain a greater understanding of user preferences and their interaction with the Wikimedia Sites, and to generally improve our services. For example, we use this information to provide greater security, optimize mobile applications, and learn how to expand and better support Wikimedia communities. We also use Personal Information in the manner described in the sections of this Policy titled "For Legal Reasons" and "To Protect You, Ourselves & Others." Back to top Sharing When May We Share Your Information? We may share your information when you give us specific permission to do so, for legal reasons, and in the other circumstances described below. With Your Permission We share your information when you give us specific permission to do so. We share your information for a particular purpose, if you agree. You can find more information in the list of examples in our FAQ. Back to top For Legal Reasons We will disclose your information in response to an official legal process only if we believe it to be legally valid. We will notify you of such requests when possible. We will access, use, preserve, and/or disclose your Personal Information if we reasonably believe it necessary to satisfy a valid and legally enforceable warrant, subpoena, court order, law or regulation, or other judicial or administrative order. However, if we believe that a particular request for disclosure of a user's information is legally invalid or an abuse of the legal system and the affected user does not intend to oppose the disclosure themselves, we will try our best to fight it. We are committed to notifying you via email at least ten (10) calendar days, when possible, before we disclose your Personal Information in response to a legal demand. However, we may only provide notice if we are not legally restrained from contacting you, there is no credible threat to life or limb that is created or increased by disclosing the request, and you have provided us with an email address. Nothing in this Privacy Policy is intended to limit any legal objections or defenses you may have to a third party's request (whether it be civil, criminal, or governmental) to disclose your information. We recommend seeking the advice of legal counsel immediately if such a request is made involving you. For more information, see our Subpoena FAQ. Back to top If the Organization is Transferred (Really Unlikely!) In the unlikely event that the ownership of the Foundation changes, we will provide you 30 days’ notice before any personal information is transferred to the new owners or becomes subject to a different privacy policy. In the extremely unlikely event that ownership of all or substantially all of the Foundation changes, or we go through a reorganization (such as a merger, consolidation, or acquisition), we will continue to keep your Personal Information confidential, except as provided in this Policy, and provide notice to you via the Wikimedia Sites and a notification on WikimediaAnnounce-L or similar mailing list at least thirty (30) calendar days before any Personal Information is transferred or becomes subject to a different privacy policy. Back to top To Protect You, Ourselves & Others We, or users with certain administrative rights, may disclose information that is reasonably necessary to: enforce or investigate potential violations of the Wikimedia Foundation or community-based policies; protect our organization, infrastructure, employees, contractors, or the public; or prevent imminent or serious bodily harm or death to a person. We, or particular users with certain administrative rights as described below, may need to share your Personal Information if it is reasonably believed to be necessary to enforce or investigate potential violations of our Terms of Use, this Privacy Policy, or any Wikimedia Foundation or user community-based policies. We may also need to access and share information to investigate and defend ourselves against legal threats or actions. Wikimedia Sites are collaborative, with users writing most of the policies and selecting from amongst themselves people to hold certain administrative rights. These rights may include access to limited amounts of otherwise nonpublic information about recent contributions and activity by other users. They use this access to help protect against vandalism and abuse, fight harassment of other users, and generally try to minimize disruptive behavior on the Wikimedia Sites. These various user-selected administrative groups have their own privacy and confidentiality guidelines, but all such groups are supposed to agree to follow our Access to Nonpublic Information Policy. These user-selected administrative groups are accountable to other users through checks and balances: users are selected through a community-driven process and overseen by their peers through a logged history of their actions. However, the legal names of these users are not known to the Wikimedia Foundation. We hope that this never comes up, but we may disclose your Personal Information if we believe that it's reasonably necessary to prevent imminent and serious bodily harm or death to a person, or to protect our organization, employees, contractors, users, or the public. We may also disclose your Personal Information if we reasonably believe it necessary to detect, prevent, or otherwise assess and address potential spam, malware, fraud, abuse, unlawful activity, and security or technical concerns. (Check out the list of examples in our FAQ for more information.) Back to top To Our Service Providers We may disclose personal information to our third party service providers or contractors to help run or improve the Wikimedia Sites and provide services in support of our mission. As hard as we may try, we can't do it all. So sometimes we use third-party service providers or contractors who help run or improve the Wikimedia Sites for you and other users. We give access to your Personal Information to these providers or contractors as needed to perform their services for us or to use their tools and services. We put requirements, such as confidentiality agreements, in place to help ensure that these service providers treat your information consistently with, and no less protective of your privacy than, the principles of this Policy. (Check out the list of examples in our FAQ.) If you are visiting Wikimedia Sites with your mobile device, we use your IP address to provide anonymized or aggregated information to service providers regarding the volume of usage in certain areas. Back to top To Understand & Experiment We give volunteer developers and researchers access to systems that contain your information to allow them to protect, develop, and contribute to the Wikimedia Sites. We also share non-Personal Information or aggregated information with third parties interested in studying the Wikimedia Sites. When we share information with third parties for these purposes, we put reasonable technical and contractual protections in place to protect your information consistent with this Policy. The open-source software that powers the Wikimedia Sites depends on the contributions of volunteer software developers, who spend time writing and testing code to help it improve and evolve with our users' needs. To facilitate their work, we give some developers limited access to systems that contain your Personal Information, but only as reasonably necessary for them to develop and contribute to the Wikimedia Sites. Similarly, we share non-Personal Information or aggregated information with researchers, scholars, academics, and other interested third parties who wish to study the Wikimedia Sites. Sharing this information helps them understand usage, viewing, and demographics statistics and patterns. They then can share their findings with us and our users so that we can all better understand and improve the Wikimedia Sites. When we give access to personal information to third-party developers or researchers, we put requirements, such as reasonable technical and contractual protections, in place to help ensure that these service providers treat your information consistently with the principles of this Policy and in accordance with our instructions. If these developers or researchers later publish their work or findings, we ask that they not disclose your personal information. Please note that, despite the obligations we impose on developers and researchers, we cannot guarantee that they will abide by our agreement, nor do we guarantee that we will regularly screen or audit their projects. (You can learn more about re-identification in our FAQ.) Back to top Because You Made It Public Information that you post is public and can been seen and used by everyone. Any information you post publicly on the Wikimedia Sites is just that – public. For example, if you put your mailing address on your talk page, that is public, and not protected by this Policy. And if you edit without registering or logging into your account, your IP address will be seen publicly. Please think carefully about your desired level of anonymity before you disclose Personal Information on your user page or elsewhere. Back to top Protection How Do We Protect Your Data? We use a variety of physical and technical measures, policies, and procedures to help protect your information from unauthorized access, use, or disclosure. We strive to protect your information from unauthorized access, use, or disclosure. We use a variety of physical and technical measures, policies, and procedures (such as access control procedures, network firewalls, and physical security) designed to protect our systems and your Personal Information. Unfortunately, there's no such thing as completely secure data transmission or storage, so we can't guarantee that our security will not be breached (by technical measures or through violation of our policies and procedures). We will never ask for your password by email (but may send you a temporary password via email if you have requested a password reset). If you ever receive an email that requests your password, please let us know by sending it to privacy@wikimedia.org, so we can investigate the source of the email. Back to top How Long Do We Keep Your Data? Except as otherwise stated in this policy, we only keep your Personal Information as long as necessary to maintain, understand and improve the Wikimedia Sites or to comply with U.S. law. Once we receive Personal Information from you, we keep it for the shortest possible time that is consistent with the maintenance, understanding, and improvement of the Wikimedia Sites, and our obligations under applicable U.S. law. Non-personal information may be retained indefinitely. (Check out the list of examples in our FAQ.) Please remember that certain information, such as your IP address (if you edit while not logged in) and any public contributions to the Wikimedia Sites, is archived and displayed indefinitely by design; the transparency of the projects’ contribution and revision histories is critical to their efficacy and trustworthiness. To learn more about our data retention practices, see our data retention guidelines. For further information about how you may request access to or deletion of your Personal Information, or other rights you may have with respect to your Personal Information, see our FAQ. Back to top Important info For the protection of the Wikimedia Foundation and other users, if you do not agree with this Privacy Policy, you may not use the Wikimedia Sites. Where is the Foundation & What Does That Mean for Me? The Wikimedia Foundation is a non-profit organization based in San Francisco, California, with servers and data centers located in the U.S. If you decide to use Wikimedia Sites, whether from inside or outside of the U.S., you understand that your Personal Information will be collected, transferred, stored, processed, disclosed and otherwise used in the U.S. as described in this Privacy Policy. You also understand that your information may be transferred by us from the U.S. to other countries, which may have different or less stringent data protection laws than your country, in connection with providing services to you. Back to top Our Response to Do Not Track (DNT) signals We do not allow tracking by third-party websites you have not visited. We do not share your data with third parties for marketing purposes. We are strongly committed to not sharing nonpublic information and Personal Information with third parties. In particular, we do not allow tracking by third-party websites you have not visited (including analytics services, advertising networks, and social platforms), nor do we share your Personal Information with any third parties for marketing purposes. Under this Policy, we may share your information only under particular situations, which you can learn more about in the “When May We Share Your Information” section of this Privacy Policy. Because we protect all users in this manner, we do not change our behavior in response to a web browser's "do not track" signal. For more information regarding Do Not Track signals and how we handle them, please visit our FAQ. Back to top Changes to This Privacy Policy Substantial changes to this Policy will not be made until after a public comment period of at least 30 days. Because things naturally change over time and we want to ensure our Privacy Policy accurately reflects our practices and the law, it may be necessary to modify this Privacy Policy from time to time. We reserve the right to do so in the following manner: In the event of substantial changes, we will provide the proposed changes to our users in at least three (3) languages (selected at our discretion) for open comment period lasting at least thirty (30) calendar days. Prior to the start of any comment period, we will provide notice of such changes and the opportunity to comment via the Wikimedia Sites, and via a notification on WikimediaAnnounce-L or a similar mailing list. For minor changes, such as grammatical fixes, administrative or legal changes, or corrections of inaccurate statements, we will post the changes and, when possible, provide at least three (3) calendar days' prior notice via WikimediaAnnounce-L or similar mailing list. We ask that you please review the most up-to-date version of our Privacy Policy. Your continued use of the Wikimedia Sites after this Privacy Policy becomes effective constitutes acceptance of this Privacy Policy on your part. Your continued use of the Wikimedia Sites after any subsequent version of this Privacy Policy becomes effective, following notice as outlined above, constitutes acceptance of that version of the Privacy Policy on your part. Contact Us If you have questions or suggestions about this Privacy Policy, or the information collected under this Privacy Policy, please email us at privacy@wikimedia.org or contact us directly. Depending on your jurisdiction, you also may have the right to lodge a complaint with a supervisory authority competent for your country or region. Thank You! Thank you for reading our Privacy Policy. We hope you enjoy using the Wikimedia Sites and appreciate your participation in creating, maintaining, and constantly working to improve the largest repository of free knowledge in the world. Please note that in the event of any differences in meaning or interpretation between the original English version of this Privacy Policy and a translation, the original English version takes precedence. Back to top This version was approved by Katherine Maher on May 17, 2018, pursuant to the Delegation of policy-making authority by the Board, and went into effect on May 24, 2018. Previous versions can be found below: Privacy policy (June 2014 - May 2018): effective from June 6, 2014 until May 24, 2018 Privacy policy (November 2008 - June 2014): effective from November 25, 2008 until June 6, 2014 Privacy policy (August 2008 - November 2008): effective from August 19, 2008 until November 25, 2008. Privacy policy (June 2006 - August 2008): effective from June 21, 2006 until August 19, 2008. Privacy policy (April 2005 to June 2006): effective from April 2005 until June 21, 2006 Please note that in the event of any differences in meaning or interpretation between the original English version of this Privacy Policy and a translation, the original English version takes precedence. ± Privacy-related pages Privacy policy · FAQ · Glossary of key terms · Wikimedia blog privacy policy · Subpoena FAQ · Access to nonpublic information · Data retention guidelines · Donor policy · Requests for user information Retrieved from "https://foundation.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Privacy_policy&oldid=123545" Categories: Privacy policy Policy Hidden category: Governance wiki Navigation menu Personal tools English Log in Namespaces Page Discussion Variants Views Read Feedback View history More Search About Wikimedia Home Official website Contact us Wikimedia Blog Questions for Wikimedia? Support Donate Volunteering Wikimedia Shop Corporate Bylaws Values Policies Resolutions Annual Report Financial reports and Form 990 Fundraising reports Movement affiliates Wiki Give feedback Recent changes Tools What links here Related changes Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version This page was last edited on 8 October 2020, at 00:45. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Privacy policy About Wikimedia Foundation Governance Wiki Disclaimers Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
foundation-wikimedia-org-9540	----	Cookie statement - Wikimedia Foundation Governance Wiki Cookie statement From the Wikimedia Foundation Governance Wiki Jump to navigation Jump to search As stated in our Privacy Policy, Wikimedia believes strongly in the values of privacy and transparency. To that end, we’ve created this Cookie Statement as a clear reference guide to the use of cookies on Wikimedia Sites. This Cookie Statement explains how we use cookies (and other locally stored data technologies), how we use third-party cookies, and how you can manage your cookie options. For more information on our privacy practices, please visit our Privacy Policy. The Wikimedia Foundation, the non-profit organization that hosts the Wikimedia Sites, actively collects some types of information with a variety of commonly-used technologies. These generally include tracking pixels, JavaScript, and a variety of "locally stored data" technologies, such as cookies and local storage. Contents 1 What is a cookie? 2 What types of cookies does Wikimedia use and for what purposes? 3 What are my cookie options? 4 Where can I find more information? What is a cookie? A “cookie” is a tiny data file that we transfer onto your computer, mobile phone, or any other device that you use to access the Wikimedia Sites, and is generally used for authentication and tracking. Every cookie expires after a certain period of time, but that period varies depending on what the cookie is used for and how your browser is configured. Cookies are often categorized based on how long they remain active before they expire. A “session” cookie is one that generally expires when you close your web browser or mobile application. A “persistent” cookie is one that remains in your device, even after you close your browser or mobile application.  A persistent cookie expires according to the duration set by us, or when you delete it manually. You can learn more about cookies on Wikipedia. You may remove or disable cookies through your browser settings. For more information on how to manage your cookie options, please see Section 3 of this Cookie Statement below. For more information on this and other key terms that may be relevant, please read through our Privacy Policy Glossary. What types of cookies does Wikimedia use and for what purposes? Cookies are not required in order to read or edit the Wikimedia Sites. We use the information we receive from cookies and other locally-stored data technologies to make your experience with the Wikimedia Sites safer and better, to gain a greater understanding of user preferences and interactions with the Wikimedia Sites, and to generally improve our services. Cookies are required in order to login and for your edits to be associated to a user account; without cookies, your edits will be anonymous and unassociated with an account. We use cookies, JavaScript, tracking pixels, and other locally-stored data technologies to accomplish different purposes. Below is a list of the categories of cookies we use and what they are used for. Functionality: These cookies help the Wikimedia Sites work and are essential in order to enable you to move around the Wikimedia site and use their features. These cookies are useful for remembering your username in the login field, maintaining your session and remembering previous actions, keeping you logged in (if selected), and more. Here are a few examples: Name Expires Category What does it do? centralauth_Token {$wgCookiePrefix}* Token 365 days, if the user chooses ‘Keep me logged in’. Otherwise omitted. Functionality Provides ‘Keep me logged in’ functionality. {$wgCookiePrefix}* UserID, UserName 365 days, if the user chooses ‘Keep me logged in’. Otherwise 30 days. Functionality Helps identify you to the wiki, and keeps you logged in. loginnotify_prevlogins 180 days Functionality Verifies that you are logging in from a known device. This affects the threshold for how many unsuccessful login attempts trigger a notification to the user. centralauth_Session {$wgCookiePrefix}* Session When user exits browser Functionality Manage sessions. Provides functionality such as logging in to Wikimedia Projects. Preferences: These cookies store your preferences, so that they can be remembered the next time you use the Wikimedia Sites, for a more customized experience.  These cookies are useful for recognizing and maintaining your language preference, remembering changes you have made to text size, fonts and other display preferences, so we can provide you with the look and feel that you want, and more.   Here are a few examples: Name Expires Category What does it do? stopMobileRedirect 30 days Preferences Tells us not to redirect to the mobile site if you don’t like that. uls-preferences Local Storage, not a cookie Preferences Allows you to set preferences for the Universal Language Selector functionality. hidewatchlistmessage- [watchlistMessageId] ● where watchlistMessageld is the Id of the message being hidden 28 days Preferences Allows a user to hide a watchlist message. userFontSize Local Storage, not a cookie Preferences Keeps track of your preferred font size on the mobile site. preferredEditor Local Storage, not a cookie Preferences Keeps track of your preferred editor on the mobile site. Performance and Analysis: These cookies count the number of visitors and collect information about how you use the Wikimedia Sites. This allows us to better understand your user experience on the Wikimedia Sites and helps us improve them for you and other users — for instance, by making sure users are finding what they need easily. Other examples include: remembering pages visited, and actions taken on the Wikimedia sites so we can optimize the pages; remembering if users get error messages from web pages; storing your most recently read articles directly on your device, so they can be retrieved quickly; remembering the topics searched so that we can optimize the search results we deliver to you; remembering the list of articles you are following on your watchlist so that we can recommend similar articles that you may be interested in. Here are a few examples: Name Expires Category What does it do? centralnotice_bucket 7 days Performance and Analysis Helps us understand the effectiveness of notices provided to users through the CentralNotice extension. For more details, see https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:CentralNotice ext.popups.core.previewCount Local Storage, not a cookie Performance and Analysis Helps us understand the effectiveness of Hovercards. WMF-Last-Access 30 days Performance and Analysis Helps us calculate Unique devices accessing our site. See: https://blog.wikimedia.org/2016/03/30/unique-devices-dataset/ Third-Party: We will never use third-party cookies on our wikis unless we get your permission to do so. These cookies would allow us to render services provided by third parties, such as “like” and “share” buttons. When a third party provides these kinds of services, they may require the use of a cookie in order to provide their services. If you ever come across a third-party cookie transferred to your device during your access of the Wikimedia wiki sites, where you did not take any action to authorize the use and/or transfer of that cookie  (such as one that may have been mistakenly placed by another user or administrator), please report that cookie to us at privacy@wikimedia.org. A note about Wikimedia sites hosted by WordPress: Some non-wiki Wikimedia Foundation sites are hosted by a third-party service provider, WordPress VIP. These sites may have the WordPress Stats module enabled. Stats is a service that allows us to understand how many visitors we get to our WordPress-hosted non-wiki sites, their location by country, and which pages, posts and links are the most popular. Only the Wikimedia Foundation and the service provider, Automattic/WordPress, have access to the raw Stats data, which is retained for a maximum of 30 days. For more information about Stats, see WordPress’ support page on the module. What are my cookie options? While this is not a comprehensive list, below are some of the things that you can do to limit use of cookies and other locally-stored data technologies on your device. While cookies and other locally-stored data technologies may not be necessary to use our sites, some features may not function properly if you disable them. You can: remove or disable specific locally-stored data on your browser’s settings (you can reset your web browser to refuse all cookies or to indicate when a cookie is being sent); use a browser that can block third-party cookies; or install a plug-in to block locally-stored data, if one is available. Turning off the browser’s cookies will prevent tracking pixels from tracking your specific activity. A tracking pixel may still record an anonymous visit from your IP address, but unique information will not be recorded. If you do not want to receive tracking pixels, you will need to disable HTML images in your browser-based email client, and that may affect your ability to view images in other emails that you receive. Where can I find more information? Please read through our Privacy Policy for more information. If you have any further questions, contact privacywikimedia.org. Thanks! Please note that in the event of any differences in meaning or interpretation between the original English version of this document and a translation, the original English version takes precedence. Retrieved from "https://foundation.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cookie_statement&oldid=117662" Category: Policy Hidden category: Governance wiki Navigation menu Personal tools English Log in Namespaces Page Discussion Variants Views Read Feedback View history More Search About Wikimedia Home Official website Contact us Wikimedia Blog Questions for Wikimedia? Support Donate Volunteering Wikimedia Shop Corporate Bylaws Values Policies Resolutions Annual Report Financial reports and Form 990 Fundraising reports Movement affiliates Wiki Give feedback Recent changes Tools What links here Related changes Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version This page was last edited on 21 September 2018, at 17:57. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Privacy policy About Wikimedia Foundation Governance Wiki Disclaimers Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
foundation-wikimedia-org-9885	----	Terms of Use - Wikimedia Foundation Governance Wiki Terms of Use From the Wikimedia Foundation Governance Wiki < Terms of Use(Redirected from Terms of Use) Jump to navigation Jump to search In other languages English  · العربية · asturianu · български · বাংলা · català · čeština · Deutsch · English · español · suomi · français · galego · עברית · Bahasa Indonesia · italiano · 日本語 · 한국어 · македонски · മലയാളം · Nederlands · polski · português do Brasil · русский · ไทย · українська · Tiếng Việt This is a summary of the Terms of Use. To read the full terms, scroll down or click here. Terms of Use This is a human-readable summary of the Terms of Use. Disclaimer: This summary is not a part of the Terms of Use and is not a legal document. It is simply a handy reference for understanding the full terms. Think of it as the user-friendly interface to the legal language of our Terms of Use. Part of our mission is to: Empower and Engage people around the world to collect and develop educational content and either publish it under a free license or dedicate it to the public domain. Disseminate this content effectively and globally, free of charge. You are free to: Read and Print our articles and other media free of charge. Share and Reuse our articles and other media under free and open licenses. Contribute To and Edit our various sites or Projects. Under the following conditions: Responsibility – You take responsibility for your edits (since we only host your content). Civility – You support a civil environment and do not harass other users. Lawful Behavior – You do not violate copyright or other laws. No Harm – You do not harm our technology infrastructure. Terms of Use and Policies – You adhere to the below Terms of Use and to the applicable community policies when you visit our sites or participate in our communities. With the understanding that: You License Freely Your Contributions – you generally must license your contributions and edits to our sites or Projects under a free and open license (unless your contribution is in the public domain). No Professional Advice – the content of articles and other projects is for informational purposes only and does not constitute professional advice. Our Terms of Use Imagine a world in which every single human being can freely share in the sum of all knowledge. That's our commitment. – Our Vision Statement Welcome to Wikimedia! The Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. (“we” or “us”), is a nonprofit charitable organization whose mission is to empower and engage people around the world to collect and develop content under a free license or in the public domain, and to disseminate it effectively and globally, free of charge. To support our vibrant community, we provide the essential infrastructure and organizational framework for the development of multilingual wiki Projects and their editions (as explained here) and other endeavors which serve this mission. We strive to make and keep educational and informational content from the Projects available on the internet free of charge, in perpetuity. We welcome you (“you” or the “user”) as a reader, editor, author, or contributor of the Wikimedia Projects, and we encourage you to join the Wikimedia community. Before you participate, however, we ask that you please read and agree to the following Terms of Use (“Terms of Use”). Overview These Terms of Use tell you about our public services at the Wikimedia Foundation, our relationship to you as a user, and the rights and responsibilities that guide us both. We want you to know that we host an incredible quantity of educational and informational content, all of which is contributed and made possible by users like yourself. Generally we do not contribute, monitor, or delete content (with the rare exception of policies like these Terms of Use or legal compliance for DMCA notices). This means that editorial control is in the hands of you and your fellow users who create and manage the content. We merely host this content. The community – the network of users who are constantly building and using the various sites or Projects – are the principal means through which the goals of the mission are achieved. The community contributes to and helps govern our sites. The community undertakes the critical function of creating and enforcing policies for the specific Project editions (such as the different language editions for the Wikipedia Project or the Wikimedia Commons multi-lingual edition). You are welcome to join as a contributor, editor, or author, but you should follow the policies that govern each of the independent Project editions. The largest of our Projects is Wikipedia, but we host other Projects too, each with different objectives and work methods. Each Project edition has a team of contributors, editors or authors who work together to create and manage the content on that Project edition. You are welcome to join these teams and work with them to improve these Projects. Because we are dedicated to making content freely accessible to the public, we generally require that all content you contribute is available under a free license or in the public domain. Please be aware that you are legally responsible for all of your contributions, edits, and re-use of Wikimedia content under the laws of the United States of America and other applicable laws (which may include the laws where you live or where you view or edit content). This means it is important that you use caution when posting content. In light of this responsibility, we have some rules about what you cannot post, most of which is either for your own protection or for the protection of other users like yourself. Please keep in mind that the content we host is for general informational purposes only, so if you need expert advice for a particular question (such as medical, legal, or financial issues), you should seek the help of a licensed or qualified professional. We also include other important notices and disclaimers, so please read these Terms of Use in their entirety. For clarity, other organizations, such as local Wikimedia chapters and associations, that may share in the same mission are nevertheless legally independent and separate from the Wikimedia Foundation and have no responsibility for the operations of the website or its content. Contents 1 Our Terms of Use 2 Overview 3 1. Our Services 4 2. Privacy Policy 5 3. Content We Host 6 4. Refraining from Certain Activities 7 5. Password Security 8 6. Trademarks 9 7. Licensing of Content 10 8. DMCA Compliance 11 9. Third-party Websites and Resources 12 10. Management of Websites 13 11. Resolutions and Project Policies 14 12. Termination 15 13. Disputes and Jurisdiction 16 14. Disclaimers 17 15. Limitation on Liability 18 16. Modifications to these Terms of Use 19 17. Other Terms 20 Thank You! 1. Our Services The Wikimedia Foundation is dedicated to encouraging the growth, development and distribution of free multilingual content, and to hosting the full content of these wiki-based Projects for the public free of charge. Our role is to host some of the largest collaboratively edited reference Projects in the world, which can be found here. However, we act only as a hosting service, maintaining the infrastructure and organizational framework that allows our users to build the Wikimedia Projects by contributing and editing content themselves. Because of our unique role, there are a couple of things you should be aware of when considering our relationship to you, the Projects, and the other users: We do not take an editorial role: Because the Wikimedia Projects are collaboratively edited, all of the content that we host is provided by users like yourself, and we do not take an editorial role. This means that we generally do not monitor or edit the content of the Project websites, and we do not take any responsibility for this content. Similarly, we do not endorse any opinions expressed via our services, and we do not represent or guarantee the truthfulness, accuracy, or reliability of any submitted community content. Instead, we simply provide access to the content that your fellow users have contributed and edited. You are responsible for your own actions: You are legally responsible for your edits and contributions on Wikimedia Projects, so for your own protection you should exercise caution and avoid contributing any content that may result in criminal or civil liability under any applicable laws. For clarity, applicable law includes at least the laws of the United States of America. Although we may not agree with such actions, we warn editors and contributors that authorities may seek to apply other country laws to you, including local laws where you live or where you view or edit content. WMF generally cannot offer any protection, guarantee, immunity or indemnification. 2. Privacy Policy We ask that you review the terms of our Privacy Policy, so that you are aware of how we collect and use your information. Because our services are used by people all over the world, personal information that we collect may be stored and processed in the United States of America or any other country in which we or our agents maintain facilities. By using our services, you consent to any such transfer of information outside your country. 3. Content We Host You may find some material objectionable or erroneous: Because we provide a wide array of content that is produced or gathered by fellow users, you may encounter material that you find offensive, erroneous, misleading, mislabeled, or otherwise objectionable. We therefore ask that you use common sense and proper judgment when using our services. Our content is for general informational purposes only: Although we host a great deal of information that pertains to professional topics, including medical, legal, or financial issues, this content is presented for general informational purposes only. It should not be taken as professional advice. Please seek independent professional counseling from someone who is licensed or qualified in the applicable area in lieu of acting on any information, opinion, or advice contained in one of the Project websites. 4. Refraining from Certain Activities The Projects hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation only exist because of the vibrant community of users like you who collaborate to write, edit, and curate the content. We happily welcome your participation in this community. We encourage you to be civil and polite in your interactions with others in the community, to act in good faith, and to make edits and contributions aimed at furthering the mission of the shared Project. Certain activities, whether legal or illegal, may be harmful to other users and violate our rules, and some activities may also subject you to liability. Therefore, for your own protection and for that of other users, you may not engage in such activities on our sites. These activities include: Harassing and Abusing Others Engaging in harassment, threats, stalking, spamming, or vandalism; and Transmitting chain mail, junk mail, or spam to other users. Violating the Privacy of Others Infringing the privacy rights of others under the laws of the United States of America or other applicable laws (which may include the laws where you live or where you view or edit content); Soliciting personally identifiable information for purposes of harassment, exploitation, violation of privacy, or any promotional or commercial purpose not explicitly approved by the Wikimedia Foundation; and Soliciting personally identifiable information from anyone under the age of 18 for an illegal purpose or violating any applicable law regarding the health or well-being of minors. Engaging in False Statements, Impersonation, or Fraud Intentionally or knowingly posting content that constitutes libel or defamation; With the intent to deceive, posting content that is false or inaccurate; Attempting to impersonate another user or individual, misrepresenting your affiliation with any individual or entity, or using the username of another user with the intent to deceive; and Engaging in fraud. Committing Infringement Infringing copyrights, trademarks, patents, or other proprietary rights under applicable law. Misusing Our Services for Other Illegal Purposes Posting child pornography or any other content that violates applicable law concerning child pornography; Posting or trafficking in obscene material that is unlawful under applicable law; and Using the services in a manner that is inconsistent with applicable law. Engaging in Disruptive and Illegal Misuse of Facilities Posting or distributing content that contains any viruses, malware, worms, Trojan horses, malicious code, or other device that could harm our technical infrastructure or system or that of our users; Engaging in automated uses of the site that are abusive or disruptive of the services and have not been approved by the Wikimedia community; Disrupting the services by placing an undue burden on a Project website or the networks or servers connected with a Project website; Disrupting the services by inundating any of the Project websites with communications or other traffic that suggests no serious intent to use the Project website for its stated purpose; Knowingly accessing, tampering with, or using any of our non-public areas in our computer systems without authorization; and Probing, scanning, or testing the vulnerability of any of our technical systems or networks unless all the following conditions are met: such actions do not unduly abuse or disrupt our technical systems or networks; such actions are not for personal gain (except for credit for your work); you report any vulnerabilities to MediaWiki developers (or fix it yourself); and you do not undertake such actions with malicious or destructive intent. Paid contributions without disclosure These Terms of Use prohibit engaging in deceptive activities, including misrepresentation of affiliation, impersonation, and fraud. As part of these obligations, you must disclose your employer, client, and affiliation with respect to any contribution for which you receive, or expect to receive, compensation. You must make that disclosure in at least one of the following ways: a statement on your user page, a statement on the talk page accompanying any paid contributions, or a statement in the edit summary accompanying any paid contributions. Applicable law, or community and Foundation policies and guidelines, such as those addressing conflicts of interest, may further limit paid contributions or require more detailed disclosure. A Wikimedia Project community may adopt an alternative paid contribution disclosure policy. If a Project adopts an alternative disclosure policy, you may comply with that policy instead of the requirements in this section when contributing to that Project. An alternative paid contribution policy will only supersede these requirements if it is approved by the relevant Project community and listed in the alternative disclosure policy page. For more information, please read our FAQ on disclosure of paid contributions. We reserve the right to exercise our enforcement discretion with respect to the above terms. 5. Password Security You are responsible for safeguarding your own password and should never disclose it to any third party. 6. Trademarks Although you have considerable freedoms for re-use of the content on the Project websites, it is important that, at the Wikimedia Foundation, we protect our trademark rights so that we can protect our users from fraudulent impersonators. Because of this, we ask that you please respect our trademarks. All Wikimedia Foundation trademarks belong to the Wikimedia Foundation, and any use of our trade names, trademarks, service marks, logos, or domain names must be in compliance with these Terms of Use and in compliance with our Trademark Policy. 7. Licensing of Content To grow the commons of free knowledge and free culture, all users contributing to the Projects are required to grant broad permissions to the general public to re-distribute and re-use their contributions freely, so long as that use is properly attributed and the same freedom to re-use and re-distribute is granted to any derivative works. In keeping with our goal of providing free information to the widest possible audience, we require that when necessary all submitted content be licensed so that it is freely reusable by anyone who cares to access it. You agree to the following licensing requirements: Text to which you hold the copyright: When you submit text to which you hold the copyright, you agree to license it under: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License (“CC BY-SA”), and GNU Free Documentation License (“GFDL”) (unversioned, with no invariant sections, front-cover texts, or back-cover texts). (Re-users may comply with either license or both.) The only exception is if the Project edition or feature requires a different license. In that case, you agree to license any text you contribute under that particular license. For example, at the publication of this version of the Terms of Use, English Wikinews mandates that all text content is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Generic License (CC BY 2.5) and does not require a dual license with GFDL. Please note that these licenses do allow commercial uses of your contributions, as long as such uses are compliant with the terms. Attribution: Attribution is an important part of these licenses. We consider it giving credit where credit is due – to authors like yourself. When you contribute text, you agree to be attributed in any of the following fashions: Through hyperlink (where possible) or URL to the article to which you contributed (since each article has a history page that lists all authors and editors); Through hyperlink (where possible) or URL to an alternative, stable online copy that is freely accessible, which conforms with the license, and which provides credit to the authors in a manner equivalent to the credit given on the Project website; or Through a list of all authors (but please note that any list of authors may be filtered to exclude very small or irrelevant contributions). Importing text: You may import text that you have found elsewhere or that you have co-authored with others, but in such case you warrant that the text is available under terms that are compatible with the CC BY-SA 3.0 license (or, as explained above, another license when exceptionally required by the Project edition or feature)("CC BY-SA"). Content available only under GFDL is not permissible. You agree that, if you import text under a CC BY-SA license that requires attribution, you must credit the author(s) in a reasonable fashion. Where such credit is commonly given through page histories (such as Wikimedia-internal copying), it is sufficient to give attribution in the edit summary, which is recorded in the page history, when importing the text. The attribution requirements are sometimes too intrusive for particular circumstances (regardless of the license), and there may be instances where the Wikimedia community decides that imported text cannot be used for that reason. Non-text media: Non-text media on the Projects are available under a variety of different licenses that support the general goal of allowing unrestricted re-use and re-distribution. When you contribute non-text media, you agree to comply with the requirements for such licenses as described in our Licensing Policy, and also comply with the requirements of the specific Project edition or feature to which you are contributing. Also see the Wikimedia Commons Licensing Policy for more information on contributing non-text media to that Project. No revocation of license: Except as consistent with your license, you agree that you will not unilaterally revoke or seek invalidation of any license that you have granted under these Terms of Use for text content or non-text media contributed to the Wikimedia Projects or features, even if you terminate use of our services. Public domain content: Content that is in the public domain is welcome! It is important however that you confirm the public domain status of the content under the law of the United States of America as well as the laws of any other countries as required by the specific Project edition. When you contribute content that is in the public domain, you warrant that the material is actually in the public domain, and you agree to label it appropriately. Re-use: Re-use of content that we host is welcome, though exceptions exist for content contributed under "fair use" or similar exemptions under copyright law. Any re-use must comply with the underlying license(s). When you re-use or re-distribute a text page developed by the Wikimedia community, you agree to attribute the authors in any of the following fashions: Through hyperlink (where possible) or URL to the page or pages that you are re-using (since each page has a history page that lists all authors and editors); Through hyperlink (where possible) or URL to an alternative, stable online copy that is freely accessible, which conforms with the license, and which provides credit to the authors in a manner equivalent to the credit given on the Project website; or Through a list of all authors (but please note that any list of authors may be filtered to exclude very small or irrelevant contributions). If the text content was imported from another source, it is possible that the content is licensed under a compatible CC BY-SA license but not GFDL (as described in “Importing text,” above). In that case, you agree to comply with the compatible CC BY-SA license and do not have the option to re-license it under GFDL. To determine the license that applies to the content that you seek to re-use or re-distribute, you should review the page footer, page history, and discussion page. In addition, please be aware that text that originated from external sources and was imported into a Project may be under a license that attaches additional attribution requirements. Users agree to indicate these additional attribution requirements clearly. Depending on the Project, such requirements may appear for example in a banner or other notations pointing out that some or all of the content was originally published elsewhere. Where there are such visible notations, re-users should preserve them. For any non-text media, you agree to comply with whatever license under which the work has been made available (which can be discovered by clicking on the work and looking at the licensing section on its description page or reviewing an applicable source page for that work). When re-using any content that we host, you agree to comply with the relevant attribution requirements as they pertain to the underlying license or licenses. Modifications or additions to material that you re-use: When modifying or making additions to text that you have obtained from a Project website, you agree to license the modified or added content under CC BY-SA 3.0 or later (or, as explained above, another license when exceptionally required by the specific Project edition or feature). 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fr-wikipedia-org-1083	----	Horace — Wikipédia Aller au contenu Afficher/cacher la barre latérale Rechercher Outils personnels Non connecté Discussion Contributions Créer un compte Se connecter Navigation Accueil Portails thématiques Article au hasard Contact Contribuer Débuter sur Wikipédia Aide Communauté Modifications récentes Faire un don Outils Pages liées Suivi des pages liées Téléverser un fichier Pages spéciales Lien permanent Informations sur la page Citer cette page Élément Wikidata Imprimer / exporter Créer un livre Télécharger comme PDF Version imprimable Dans d’autres projets Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Dans d’autres langues Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Modifier les liens Menu de navigation Espaces de noms Article Discussion Variantes Affichages Lire Modifier Modifier le code Voir l’historique Plus Horace Un article de Wikipédia, l'encyclopédie libre. Pour les articles homonymes, voir Horace (homonymie). Horace Portrait imaginaire d'Horace par Anton von Werner. Données clés Nom de naissance Quintus Horatius Flaccus Naissance 8 décembre 65 av. J.-C. Vénouse, Italie Décès 27 novembre 8 av. J.-C. (à 56 ans) Rome Activité principale poésie Auteur Langue d’écriture latin Genres épître, épode, ode, satire Adjectifs dérivés horatien modifier Horace (en latin Quintus Horatius Flaccus) est un poète latin né à Vénouse dans le sud de l'Italie le 8 décembre 65 av. J.-C. et mort à Rome le 27 novembre 8 av. J.-C.. Sommaire 1 Biographie 1.1 Famille et enfance 1.2 En Grèce 1.3 Retour à Rome 1.4 Client de Mécène 1.5 Maturité 2 L'œuvre d'Horace 2.1 Satires 2.2 Épodes 2.3 Odes 2.4 Chant séculaire 2.5 Épîtres 3 Convictions 3.1 Religion 3.2 Philosophie 3.3 Horace et la politique augustéenne 4 Le travail du poète 4.1 Modèles et goûts 4.2 Représentation du poète 4.3 Qu'est-ce qu'un bon poète ? 5 Postérité 5.1 Dans l'Antiquité 5.2 Au Moyen Âge : l’aetas Horatiana 5.3 Pendant la Renaissance 5.4 Au XIXe siècle 5.5 Horace, personnage littéraire 5.6 Citations célèbres 6 Notes et références 6.1 Notes 6.2 Références anciennes 6.3 Références modernes 7 Bibliographie 7.1 Œuvres 7.2 Ouvrages généraux 7.3 Études 7.4 Articles 8 Voir aussi 8.1 Articles connexes 8.2 Liens externes Biographie[modifier | modifier le code] La vie d'Horace nous est essentiellement connue par son œuvre, riche en informations et considérée comme une source fiable[1]. Quelques renseignements supplémentaires figurent dans la biographie De viris illustribus (Des hommes illustres) de Suétone. Famille et enfance[modifier | modifier le code] Horace est issu d'une famille modeste. Son père est devenu esclave dans des circonstances mal connues, peut-être comme prisonnier de guerre au cours de la Guerre sociale en 89 av. J.-C.[2], puis a été affranchi. Le nom d'Horatius était probablement, comme il était l'usage, celui de son ancien maître : deux familles romaines portaient ce nom, ainsi qu'un ami de Cicéron qui possédait des champs près de Brundisium, c'est-à-dire près de la ville de naissance du poète ; il est impossible de savoir de qui le père a été l'esclave. Il a pu également être un esclave public de la ville de Venose[3]. Une fois affranchi, il exerce le métier de coactor, c'est-à-dire de caissier de ventes aux enchères, puis celui de praeco (« commissaire-priseur »). Il possède quelques terres, confisquées après la mort de Jules César[4], et n'est pas pauvre, puisqu'il peut envoyer son fils passer l'été dans la fraîcheur du Mont Vultur[5]. On ne sait rien de la mère du poète, qui ne mentionne ni frère ni sœur non plus[6]. Le nom complet du poète, Quintus Horatius Flaccus, indique qu'il faisait partie de la famille des Horatii[7]. Il n'est attesté que par l'inscription commandée à l'occasion des jeux séculaires organisés par Auguste en 17 av. J.-C. : CARMEN COMPOSVIT Q. HORATIVS FLACCVS (« Le poème a été composé par Q. Horatius Flaccus »)[8] ; il s'agit du Chant séculaire. Horace naît à Venose, aux frontières de l'Apulie et de la Lucanie, le 8 décembre 65 av. J.-C. vers trois heures du matin[n 1]. Quand le jeune Horace atteint l'âge de sept ou dix ans, son père s'installe à Rome ; on ne sait s'il y abandonne les affaires pour vivre des revenus de ses terres[9] ou s'il y poursuit sa carrière[10]. Il consacre son temps et une bonne partie de son argent à l'éducation de son fils et lui fait suivre les leçons du grammairien Lucius Orbilius Pupillus, qui enseigne Ennius, Livius Andronicus et bien sûr Homère. Horace témoigne de cette période et de sa gratitude envers son père dans les Satires[n 2] : « Si [...] ma vie est pure et innocente, mes jours chers à mes amis, le mérite en appartient à mon père qui, tout pauvre qu'il était, possesseur d'un maigre champ, ne voulut pas toutefois m'envoyer à l'école de Flavius, où allaient pour quelque argent, payé au retour des ides, avec leur bourse à jetons et leurs tablettes sous le bras gauche, les nobles fils de nos nobles centurions. Il osa me transporter à Rome, encore enfant, pour y apprendre ce que tout chevalier, tout sénateur voudrait qu'on enseignât à son fils. » — Satires, I, 6, vers 71-77 En Grèce[modifier | modifier le code] Horace a environ vingt ans lorsqu'il part pour Athènes, pour y poursuivre l'étude du grec et découvrir la philosophie. Son père semble être mort avant ce départ[11] et c'est à la même époque qu'il aurait commencé à écrire[n 3], dont au moins quelques vers en grec[12]. Il étudie à l'Académie auprès d'Aristos d'Ascalon[13]. Horace est toujours en Grèce lors de l'assassinat de Jules César en 44 av. J.-C.[14]. Peu après, Brutus et Cassius arrivent à Athènes et enrôlent de jeunes aristocrates dans leur armée ; Horace obtient le grade de tribun militaire en 42 av. J.-C.[15], ce qui le fait entrer dans l'ordre des chevaliers et lui assure des privilèges à vie[16]. Lors de la première bataille de Philippes (première semaine d'octobre 42 av. J.-C.), les troupes de Brutus s'emparent du camp d'Octave, qui échappe de peu à la capture. Mais lors du second combat, le 22 octobre, Octave et Marc Antoine sont vainqueurs. Brutus se suicide. Horace fait partie des fuyards. Virgile (à gauche) déclamant ses vers devant Horace (au milieu), Varius (au fond) et Mécène (à droite) par Charles François Jalabert. Retour à Rome[modifier | modifier le code] Quand une amnistie est accordée aux vaincus, Horace retourne en Italie (fin 42 ou début 41 av. J.-C.[17]) ; ses terres lui ont été confisquées[18], et il prétend s'être retrouvé pauvre[19]. Pourtant il possède encore suffisamment d'argent pour acheter, vers 40 av. J.-C., la charge de scriba quaestorius, c'est-à-dire de secrétaire au trésor (le questeur est le magistrat chargé des finances)[20] : il n'a certainement jamais quitté cette charge, même s'il a pu ultérieurement en alléger les obligations[21]. Rapidement, il se lie d'amitié avec Virgile. Entre 40 et 38 av. J.-C., Virgile et Lucius Varius Rufus le présentent à Mécène, confident d'Auguste, protecteur des arts et des lettres, poète à ses heures. Mécène le prend sous sa protection neuf mois plus tard[22], l'introduit dans les cercles politiques et littéraires de Pollion et Messala[23], et lui offre une villa en Sabine[a 1]. Les premières satires sont composées dès son retour à Rome[24] et le premier livre des Satires semble être publié vers 35 ou 34 av. J.-C.[25]. Il continue à l'élever socialement dans l'ordre équestre : après avoir été fait eques equo publico (chevalier dont le cheval est payé sur fonds publics) par Brutus en Grèce, puis avoir acheté la charge de scriba questorius à son retour à Rome, il devient iudex selectus (« juge de paix ») entre 35 et 30 av. J.-C.[26]. La villa offerte par Mécène procure à Horace une retraite campagnarde appréciable ainsi que des revenus importants[27]. Il atteint une vraie aisance financière et proclame qu'il pourrait, s'il le voulait, se faire élire questeur et devenir ainsi sénateur[28]. Il est alors définitivement lié au régime[27]. Client de Mécène[modifier | modifier le code] Mécène est le dédicataire des Satires, des Épodes et des Odes et une vraie amitié liait les deux hommes. Maturité[modifier | modifier le code] Il est possible qu'Horace soit présent à la bataille d'Actium en 31 av. J.-C.[27] et c'est peu après (vers 30 av. J.-C.) que sont publiées les Épodes, poèmes dans la veine de l'iambographe grec Archiloque[29]. Suit à une date inconnue le second livre des Satires. La paix revenue avec Auguste, c'est une période de production intense qui s'ouvre. Jusqu'en 27 av. J.-C., il se consacre à des poèmes politiques et confirme ainsi son rapprochement avec le pouvoir augustéen[30] : célébration de la mort de Cléopâtre, joie de la défaite des partisans d'Antoine, éloge de la réparation des temples par Auguste en 28[a 2]. Jusqu'en 24 av. J.-C., il célèbre les victoires d'Auguste hors d'Italie[30]. Ces pièces, mêlées à des poèmes lyriques, forment les trois premiers livres des Odes, vraisemblablement parus vers 23 av. J.-C.[31]. Le succès est mitigé[a 3] et Horace s'essaie ensuite à un nouveau genre, ce qui aboutit à la publication du premier livre des Épîtres en 21 av. J.-C.[32]. Auguste, revenu à Rome en 19 av. J.-C., offre à Horace d'être son secrétaire, poste que le poète refuse[a 4]. En 17 av. J.-C., le prince lui confie l'honneur de composer le Chant séculaire (Carmen Saeculare) qu'interprètent solennellement, à l'occasion des Jeux séculaires, des chœurs mixtes d'enfants choisis parmi l'élite de la noblesse romaine. C'est peut-être aussi Auguste qui lui commande des poèmes pour les victoires de Tibère et Drusus[a 5] ; ces poèmes sont recueillis avec d'autres dans un quatrième livre d’Odes qui paraît entre 13 et 8 av. J.-C.[33]. Suivent encore les deux lettres du second livre des Épîtres et l’Art poétique, difficiles à dater[34]. Il meurt brutalement en 8 av. J.-C., quelques mois seulement après Mécène qui, sur son lit de mort, l'aurait encore recommandé à Auguste[a 6]. Il est enterré au cimetière de l'Esquilin[35], près de la tombe de Mécène. L'œuvre d'Horace[modifier | modifier le code] En dépit de sa grande difficulté, l'œuvre d'Horace a eu une influence non négligeable sur la littérature latine ; il est admiré, cité et repris par de nombreux auteurs, dont Perse[36], Jérôme[37], Sidoine Apollinaire[38] ou Prudence[39], parfois au prix de malentendus ou de contresens, comme en témoigne par exemple le détournement de la fameuse devise Carpe diem, ou de la non moins célèbre formule Aurea mediocritas (« juste milieu précieux comme l'or »), tirées respectivement des Odes, I, 11 et II, 10. Satires[modifier | modifier le code] Saturae, 1577. Article détaillé : Satires (Horace). Les Satires, connues dans les manuscrits sous le nom de Sermones (« causeries »), sont des poèmes de longueur variables en hexamètres dactyliques, regroupés en deux livres : le premier, de dix poèmes, est publié vers 35, le second, de huit pièces, vers 29 av. J.-C.[25]. S'inspirant de son prédécesseur Lucilius (IIe siècle av. J.-C.), Horace renouvelle pourtant le genre en en limitant l'extension, en s'interdisant la satire politique, et en évitant de tomber dans la crudité et la vulgarité. Par ses nombreux portraits de personnages pleins de vices (avarice, gloutonnerie, raffinement extrême et ridicule dans la gastronomie, libido incontrôlée), Horace construit une morale de la modération et développe déjà le thème du juste milieu qu'il célèbre ultérieurement dans les Odes et les Épîtres. Dès les Satires, le poète est un personnage important de son œuvre : le recueil, en plus de fournir des éléments biographiques importants, offre un portrait d'Horace mitigé, certes ridiculisé par son esclave ou par une prostituée, mais globalement « entaché de défauts médiocrement graves et en petit nombre[a 7] »[40]. Les poèmes, composés sur une période d'au moins dix ans, témoignent de l'entrée d'Horace dans le cercle de Mécène et permettent de saisir le nouveau statut social qu'il a ainsi acquis[41]. Épodes[modifier | modifier le code] Article détaillé : Épodes. Intérieur de la maison d'Horace (Venosa). Imitées d'Archiloque et de Callimaque de Cyrène, les Épodes sont le deuxième recueil d'Horace. Publiées vers 30 av. J.-C. sous le titre d'Iambi (Iambes) elles réunissent dix-sept pièces écrites en distiques, à l'exception de la dernière, et utilisant l'iambe[42]. Genre du blâme, l'iambe permet à Horace d'attaquer ses ennemis sur des sujets variés : des ennemis personnels, comme un poète malveillant, les femmes en général, dont il attaque la lubricité, et les magiciennes en particulier, dont le personnage récurrent de Canidie[43]. Le recueil se place aussi dans l'actualité des guerres civiles et alterne entre les pièces les plus anciennes, qui témoignent d'une vision très sombre de ces guerres interminables, et celles, plus récentes, qui célèbrent la victoire d'Actium. L'hommage à Octave y reste discret, mais Horace se montre comme membre à part entière du cercle de Mécène[44]. Le ton y est celui de l'invective ; le style est âpre et tendu ; l'érotisme le plus cru peut y côtoyer les accents les plus patriotiques. Odes[modifier | modifier le code] Article détaillé : Odes (Horace). Les Odes furent publiées en 23 ou 22 av. J.-C. pour les trois premiers livres et en 12 ou 7 av. J.-C. pour le quatrième. Ces quatre livres qu'Horace comparait fièrement aux pyramides d'Égypte, contiennent respectivement 38, 20, 30 et 15 pièces, soit au total 3 038 vers, dont six sans doute apocryphes (IV, 6, 21-24 et IV, 8, 15-16). On a tour à tour salué[45], dans les Odes, l'exploit métrique (avec la mise en œuvre de quatre types de strophes différentes, six variétés de distiques et trois espèces de vers employés seuls), l'équilibre dans une harmonieuse architecture qui se déploie selon des proportions numériques aussi complexes qu'impeccables, la circulation, les interconnexions, les réseaux, les correspondances, les combinaisons et les symétries diverses, dont l'ensemble constitue une immense et ultrasensible chambre de résonance. Quant à l'incroyable virtuosité verbale qui tire du choix et de la place de chaque mot le maximum d'énergie possible, elle impressionnait Friedrich Nietzsche au plus haut degré par ce qu'il appelait sa « noblesse ». « On reconnaîtra jusque dans mon Zarathoustra une ambition très sérieuse de style romain, d'« aere perennius » dans le style. — Il n'en a pas été autrement de mon premier contact avec Horace. Jusqu'à présent aucun poète ne m'a procuré le même ravissement artistique que celui que j'ai éprouvé dès l'abord à la lecture d'une ode d'Horace. Dans certaines langues il n'est même pas possible de vouloir ce qui est réalisé ici. Cette mosaïque des mots, où chaque mot par son timbre, sa place dans la phrase, l’idée qu’il exprime, fait rayonner sa force à droite, à gauche et sur l'ensemble, ce minimum dans la somme et le nombre des signes et ce maximum que l'on atteint ainsi dans l'énergie des signes — tout cela est romain, et, si l'on veut m'en croire, noble par excellence*. Tout le reste de la poésie devient, à côté de cela, quelque chose de populaire, — un simple bavardage de sentiments... » — Friedrich Nietzsche, Le Crépuscule des idoles ou comment philosopher à coups de marteau, chapitre « Ce que je dois aux anciens » 1888. Mais là où Horace se surpasse, là où il mérite le mieux le « laurier delphique » (Odes, III, 30), c'est dans la maîtrise du contenu. En apparence, rien de plus hétéroclite que les Odes, où semblent interférer de manière aléatoire la sphère privée et la sphère publique, les amours et la politique, le monde grec et le monde latin, la mythologie et l'actualité la plus brûlante, l'épicurisme poussé jusqu’au sybaritisme, et un stoïcisme aiguisé jusqu’à l'ascétisme et à un renoncement presque monacal avant la lettre. Chant séculaire[modifier | modifier le code] Article détaillé : Chant séculaire. À l'occasion des jeux séculaires de 17 av. J.-C., Auguste commande à Horace un poème qu'un chœur mixte d'enfants récite à la fin des cérémonies. Horace compose alors un hymne de 76 vers, adressé principalement à Apollon et Diane. Le poète y appelle les dieux à assurer la prospérité et la fécondité de Rome. Il célèbre l'avènement d'Auguste, qu'il inscrit dans la continuité d'Énée et de Romulus, et qui ouvre une ère de vertu et de félicité[46]. Épîtres[modifier | modifier le code] Article détaillé : Épîtres (Horace). La statue d'Horace (Venosa). Les Épîtres (Epistulae) furent publiées en 19 ou 18 av. J.-C., plutôt qu'en 20, date traditionnellement admise, et probablement après 13 av. J.-C. pour le second recueil. Le premier recueil compte 20 pièces (soit 1 006 vers, dont sept probablement apocryphes dans la première pièce), le second 2 seulement, mais très longues (270 et 216 vers). S'y ajoute l'Épître aux Pisons, plus connue sous le nom d'Art poétique (476 vers). Elles sont écrites en hexamètres, comme les Satires, et, comme elles, ce sont des « causeries » d'allure assez libre. Mais les Epîtres étant des lettres fictives, elles s'adressent à des personnes bien précises, et le ton y est moins vif, le style plus détendu. La première épître du second recueil s'adresse ainsi directement à Auguste : ou comment tirer la queue du lion sans se faire mordre. Florus est le destinataire de la seconde, où Horace a déposé comme son testament spirituel et la quintessence de sa sagesse. Convictions[modifier | modifier le code] Religion[modifier | modifier le code] Horace se considérait sous la protection de Mercure[10] : c'est lui qui le fait disparaître du champ de bataille de Philippes à la manière d'un héros homérique. Philosophie[modifier | modifier le code] Horace proclame tout au long de son œuvre son indépendance vis-à-vis des écoles philosophiques : « aucune astreinte ne m'a contraint de jurer sur les paroles d'un maître[a 8] ». Horace et la politique augustéenne[modifier | modifier le code] S'il se trouve du « mauvais côté », celui des Républicains de Brutus, à la bataille de Philippes (42 av. J.-C.), Horace, en faisant son entrée dans le cercle de Mécène (entre 40 et 38 av. J.-C.), rejoint le camp bientôt vainqueur d'Auguste. Tout au long de sa carrière, il donne à l'empereur une place de plus en plus importante dans ses œuvres[47]. Le premier recueil publié, le premier livre des Satires, l'ignore presque totalement[48]. Dans les plus anciennes des Épodes (VII et XVI), Horace déplore les guerres civiles qui ravagent perpétuellement Rome et accuse le « courroux du destin qui poursuit[a 9] » les Romains ; sans prendre parti, il évite ainsi de mentionner les responsables de ces malheurs. Quant aux plus récents poèmes de ce recueil, adressés à Mécène, Horace y célèbre la victoire d'Actium, mais ne mentionne le futur empereur que de manière oblique[49]. Il faut attendre le second livre des Satires pour qu'Horace consacre un poème à Auguste ; dans la première pièce, il évoque les dangers que court le poète à investir le champ politique, mais achève en consacrant l'empereur comme juge « juste et fort[a 10] » de sa production[50]. Les trois premiers livres des Odes rassemblent des poèmes à caractère essentiellement privé, mais la politique « s'introduit de l'extérieur dans l'espace lyrique calme et retiré d'Horace[50] ». Auguste est, comme dans les Épodes, d'abord un homme d'action : vainqueur de Cléopâtre[a 11], il poursuit la conquête de l'Hispanie[a 12]. Mais Horace lui confère aussi peu à peu une stature d'homme d'État[51], « père de cités[a 13] » et hôte des dieux[a 14]. La proximité des deux hommes se manifeste à l'occasion des Jeux séculaires de 17 av. J.-C. : Auguste commande le Chant séculaire à Horace, qui embrasse alors la fonction de poète officiel[52]. Il y célèbre la nouvelle législation sur le mariage[a 15] et la paix augustéenne. Le quatrième livre des Odes, qui paraît en 13 av. J.-C., multiplie les références à Auguste, destinataire de plusieurs poèmes[52]. L'éloge est sans réserve : « je chanterai, heureux, le retour de César[a 16] ». Le dernier témoignage de la relation entre les deux hommes apparaît dans la première épître du second livre, qui discute de la place du poète dans la société : Horace y loue un empereur protecteur des arts, fondateur de la Bibliothèque palatine et soutien de Virgile[53]. Pourtant, il décline l'invitation à écrire la geste d'Auguste[a 17] et proclame ainsi son indépendance[54]. Le travail du poète[modifier | modifier le code] Modèles et goûts[modifier | modifier le code] Il semble qu'on puisse rattacher Horace au groupe des poètes nouveaux dont Catulle, qu'admire Mécène, est le plus grand représentant ; la question est disputée, et Horace a toujours marqué son indépendance vis-à-vis des écoles et des cercles. Plusieurs points communs avec cet alexandrinisme romain sont cependant à noter : le goût des œuvres courtes et ciselées, longuement travaillées, destinées à un public choisi. Cette caractéristique rattache Horace à l'atticisme et l'oppose à l'asianisme du vieux Varron ou de Cicéron[55]. Représentation du poète[modifier | modifier le code] La première personne est primordiale dans l'œuvre d'Horace ; tous les genres qu'il a choisis laissent la place de choix au « je » poétique : l'iambe est le genre de l'invective personnelle ; la satire se nourrit d'éléments autobiographiques ; la lettre met en scène son auteur[56]. Le poète nous fournit quelques indications sur son physique : petit[a 18], gros[a 19], ses cheveux ont blanchi prématurément[a 20]. Il se dit également irascible[a 21] et coureur, ayant eu des relations avec « mille jeunes filles et mille jeunes hommes[a 22] ». Horace est un personnage religieux. Dès son enfance, il est protégé des dieux : alors qu'il s'était endormi dans la forêt, des oiseaux sont venus le couvrir de feuilles pour le soustraire aux « vipères et aux ours sinistres[a 23] ». Plusieurs anecdotes relatent les miracles auxquels il doit la vie : un loup rencontré dans la forêt, un arbre qui est tombé juste à côté de lui, la bataille de Philippes et la tempête du cap Palinure en route vers la bataille de Nauloque[a 24]. Dès ses premières œuvres, Horace se peint avec autodérision : paresseux et malade en voyage dans les Satires, peureux et impuissant dans les Épodes, l'autocélébration du poète n'est pas exempte de détails triviaux jusque dans les trois premiers livres des Odes[57]. Cela n'empêche pas au poète de proclamer son immortalité : « J'ai achevé un monument plus durable que le bronze, plus haut que la décrépitude des royales Pyramides[a 25] ». À plusieurs reprises, Horace fait ses adieux à la poésie. Les trois premiers livres des Odes se concluent sur le « laurier delphique[a 26] » qui couronne une carrière achevée, mais le premier poème du livre IV montre Vénus forçant le poète à chanter l'amour derechef. Les Épîtres sont à nouveau l'occasion de proclamer son renoncement à la poésie en faveur de la philosophie ; il n'est pas toujours facile de trancher si Horace renonce seulement à la poésie lyrique pour se consacrer au genre du sermo, ou bien s'il prétend avec humour renoncer aux vers tout en en écrivant[58]. Cette affirmation est répétée jusque dans l’Art poétique : « J'enseignerai, sans rien écrire moi-même[a 27] ». Qu'est-ce qu'un bon poète ?[modifier | modifier le code] Dès les Satires, Horace fustige les mauvais poètes capables d'aligner deux cents vers en une matinée, prêts à tout pour trouver un libraire et plaire à la plèbe[59]. Lui « lime[60] » ses vers, les travaille longuement, et produit peu. Il n'écrit que pour ses amis et conseille au poète : « Ne te mets pas en peine d'être admiré par la foule, satisfait d'un petit nombre de lecteurs[61] ». Postérité[modifier | modifier le code] Dans l'Antiquité[modifier | modifier le code] L'œuvre d'Horace, et notamment les deux recueils des Odes et le premier livre des Épîtres, exerce une influence immédiate sur les poètes contemporains[62]. À sa suite, plusieurs poètes se proclament « prêtre des Muses[a 28] » ; le troisième livre des Élégies de Properce, qui paraît un ou deux ans après les trois premiers livres des Odes, témoigne, tout comme les Métamorphoses d'Ovide[a 29], de la revendication à l'immortalité du poète déjà avancée par Horace[a 30]. Quintilien analyse l'influence d'Horace selon les genres[a 31]. Si les Épodes paraissent être le dernier ouvrage du genre[63], il est évident qu'Horace a participé du renouveau de la satire et de la célébrité de son créateur Lucilius : son influence sur Perse est déterminante[n 4] et Juvénal le mentionne plusieurs fois[64]. Les Odes, quant à elles, forment un ensemble lyrique tel qu'aucun auteur latin antique postérieur n'en compose ; pourtant, elles restent l'œuvre la plus célèbre et la plus commentée du poète[64]. Leur réception est sans doute mitigée, mais leur qualité suggère à Auguste de commander à leur auteur le Chant séculaire, faisant ainsi d'Horace le premier poète lyrique de Rome[65]. La virtuosité et la variété métrique du recueil sont célébrées[a 32] et imitées par Stace[a 33] et Sénèque[a 34]. Au IVe siècle, Horace inspire Prudence, qui réinterprète les thèmes horatiens dans un sens chrétien, et est le principal modèle des parties versifiées de la Consolation de la philosophie de Boèce (vers 524)[66]. Horace devient aussi rapidement l'objet d'études[67]. Sa virtuosité métrique occupe une part importante du traité de versification De metris de Césius Bassus (milieu du Ier siècle). Les commentaires de l'œuvre, dont celui de Porphyrion (IIe ou IIIe siècle) et un recueil d'études variées attribué par un manuscrit à Helenius Acro, appelé aujourd'hui Pseudo-Acron, régulièrement copiés, et souvent avec les poèmes eux-mêmes, témoignent d'une activité académique importante et continue consacrée au poète[68] Au Moyen Âge : l’aetas Horatiana[modifier | modifier le code] Le christianisme se méfie des poètes païens dont la moralité est bien loin de ce qu'enseigne la théologie ; saint Jérôme met en garde le chrétien : « Quel rapport peut-il y avoir entre la lumière et les ténèbres, entre Jésus-Christ et Bélial ? comment allier Horace avec les Psaumes [...][a 35] ? ». Pourtant, Horace reste l'un des poètes romains les plus lus au Moyen Âge[69]. Il est encore présent et parfois cité au début du Moyen Âge, chez Dracontius et Avit de Vienne par exemple. Comme tous les auteurs classiques, il est un peu oublié à partir du milieu du VIe siècle[70]. Au VIIIe siècle, il est encore connu, mais indirectement, par Alcuin, qui lui emprunte son cognomen, Flaccus, et Paul Diacre. Il semble que la redécouverte d'Horace ait lieu au milieu du IXe siècle : on connaît six manuscrits de ce siècle, ainsi que deux du commentaire de Porphyrion[71]. Le poète est à nouveau cité, par exemple par Heiric d'Auxerre, ce qui montre une connaissance directe de l'œuvre[72]. On dénombre environ 850 manuscrits d'Horace pour l'ensemble du Moyen Âge, dont près de la moitié pour le seul XVe siècle, répartis à peu près équitablement entre les quatre recueils des Odes, des Épîtres, de l’Art poétique et des Satires[69]. Pour le XIe siècle, les manuscrits des Odes sont plus nombreux que ceux de l’Énéide (50 contre 46). C'est effectivement aux Xe et XIe siècles que Ludwig Traube place l'aetas Horatiana (« ère horatienne »), période qui célèbre Horace comme le premier poète latin, après l’aetas Vergiliana des VIIIe et IXe siècles et avant l’aetas Ovidiana des XIIe et XIIIe siècles[69]. La strophe sapphique est imitée dès le IXe siècle par Walafrid Strabon, Sedulius et Notker le Bègue, puis par Alfan de Salerne (mort en 1085), qui actualise l'idéal horatien de pauvreté dans un sens chrétien[73]. C'est la diversité des mètres (uarietas) qui impressionne le plus les lecteurs du Moyen Âge et nourrit les gloses qui accompagnent fréquemment les manuscrits ; Metellus de Tegernsee compose un recueil de poèmes vers 1170 où il réutilise l'un après l'autre tous les mètres du poète latin[74]. L'intérêt pour Horace semble s'essouffler au XIIIe siècle, jusqu'à ce que Pétrarque lui emprunte de nombreuses citations et lui adresse une lettre, le qualifiant de « roi de la poésie lyrique[75] » et vantant la variété de son inspiration et la diversité de ses styles[76]. Cet hommage à la grâce inimitable du poète latin est repris par Ange Politien puis Petrus Crinitus et Salmon Macrin[77]. L'étude du poète fait partie du cursus scolaire certainement dès le IXe siècle[78] et Gerbert d'Aurillac, le futur pape Sylvestre II, enseigne les Satires à Reims peu avant l'an 1000. Une cinquantaine de manuscrits sont complétés par une notation musicale en neumes servant vraisemblablement à aider la mémorisation des mètres horatiens. L'hymne à Jean le Baptiste de Paul Diacre « Vt queant laxis », à l'origine du nom des notes de musique, est écrite en strophe sapphique, imitée d'Horace[78]. Pendant la Renaissance[modifier | modifier le code] L'édition princeps d'Horace paraît vers 1470[69]. Au XIXe siècle[modifier | modifier le code] Horace a la faveur du siècle. Il est l'auteur latin le plus traduit[n 5], devant Virgile[79]. La traduction de Pierre Daru (1797) lance une sorte de concours informel de traductions en vers et doit à son auteur son élection à l'Académie française. Cette suite de traductions marque une évolution vers des versions moins élégantes mais plus fidèles au texte[80]. Les poètes (Théophile Gautier, Victor Hugo, Leconte de Lisle et Alfred de Musset), tous formés à Horace[n 6], traduisent aussi le poète latin[81]. La principale voix discordante dans ce concert d'éloges est Alphonse de Lamartine qui reproche au poète son indifférence aux souffrances du peuple[81]. L'engouement pour le poète apparaît même dans la fiction : Julien Sorel (Le Rouge et le Noir) est capable de réciter les Odes en entier[82] ; un bandit de Colomba demande en récompense au lieutenant Orso un volume du poète latin[83]. Horace, personnage littéraire[modifier | modifier le code] Mémoires d'Horace. Écrits par lui-même, d'Alexandre Dumas Citations célèbres[modifier | modifier le code] De nombreuses citations d'Horace sont devenues célèbres et il semble que leur pouvoir d'évocation participe de la renommée du poète, et ce dès l'Antiquité[66]. « Carpe diem » (« Cueille le jour », Odes I, 11, 8) « Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori. » (« Il est doux et glorieux de mourir pour sa patrie. », Odes, III, 2, 13) « In medias res » (« Au milieu des choses », Art poétique, 148) : procédé littéraire qui place le lecteur dès le début de l'ouvrage en pleine action « Nunc est bibendum » (« Maintenant il faut boire », Odes I, 37, 1) « Odi profanum vulgus, et arceo » (« je déteste le vulgaire profane, et je l'éloigne »[84] « Sapere aude ! » (« Ose savoir ! », Épîtres I, 2, 40) « Bis repetita placent ! » (« Les choses qu'on répète plaisent ! ») Notes et références[modifier | modifier le code] Notes[modifier | modifier le code] ↑ L'année et le mois sont donnés par Horace lui-même (Odes, III, 21, 1), ainsi que l'heure (Odes, II, 17, 17) et le jour par Suétone (Des hommes illustres XXVIII, « Vie d'Horace ») ↑ Les citations sont tirées de la traduction de Patin 1860. ↑ L'anecdote de la satire I, 7, en présence de Brutus, a de toute évidence été écrite avant la bataille de Philippes en 42 av. J.-C.. ↑ On a compté jusqu'à 80 allusions à Horace dans les 134 vers de la première satire. ↑ En tout, on compte une trentaine de traductions intégrales et plus de cent cinquante traductions partielles entre 1797 et 1895 ↑ Il est au programme de la seconde années d'humanités, c'est-à-dire la seconde, dans les lycées à partir du Consulat Références anciennes[modifier | modifier le code] ↑ Satires, II, 6, 1-5 ↑ Dans les Odes, respectivement I, 37 ; III, 4 ; III, 6 ↑ Épîtres, I, 19, 35 ↑ Suétone, « Vie d'Horace », 18-25 ↑ Respectivement Odes, IV, 4 et 14 ↑ Suétone, « Vie d'Horace », 17 ↑ Satires, I, 6, 67. ↑ Épîtres, I, 1, 14 ↑ Épodes, VII, 17 ↑ Satires, II, 1, 16 ↑ Odes, I, 37 ↑ Odes, III, 14 ↑ Odes, III, 24, 27 ↑ Odes, III, 3 ↑ Chant séculaire, 17-20 ↑ Odes, IV, 2, 47-48 ↑ Épîtres, II, 1, 251 ↑ Épîtres, I, 20, 24 ↑ Épîtres, I, 4, 15 ↑ Épîtres, I, 7, 26 ↑ Épîtres, I, 20, 25 ↑ Satires, II, 3, 325 ↑ Odes, III, 4, 17-18 ↑ Odes, I, 22, 9-16 et III, 4, 26-28 ↑ Odes, III, 30, 1-2 ↑ Odes, III, 30, 15-16 ↑ Art poétique, 306 ↑ Odes, III, 1, 3 ↑ Ovide, Métamorphoses, XV, 871-878 ↑ Odes, III, 30 ↑ Quintilien, Institution oratoire, X, 1, 93 ↑ Par exemple par Pline le Jeune, Lettres, III, 1, 7 ↑ Stace, Silves, IV, 5 et 7 ↑ Sénèque, Agamemnon et Œdipe ↑ Saint Jérôme, Lettres, XXII, 29 (traduction Benoît Matougues, 1838) Références modernes[modifier | modifier le code] ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 7 ↑ Levi 1997, p. 9 ↑ Perret 1959, p. 8 ↑ Levi 1997, p. 11 ↑ Davis 2010, p. 9 ↑ Davis 2010, p. 12 ↑ Levi 1997, p. 10 ↑ CIL VI, 32323, conservée au Musée des Thermes de Dioclétien ↑ Levi 1997, p. 16 ↑ a et b Perret 1959, p. 13 ↑ Levi 1997, p. 20 ↑ Levi 1997, p. 19 ↑ Perret 1959, p. 22 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 8 ↑ Levi 1997, p. 26 ↑ Davis 2010, p. 17 ↑ Perret 1959, p. 31 ↑ Épîtres II, 2, vers 49-53 ↑ Épîtres, II, 2, 54 ↑ Levi 1997, p. 32 ↑ Perret 1959, p. 32 ↑ Satires, I, 6, 54 ↑ Perret 1959, p. 35 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 9 ↑ a et b Harrison 2007, p. 10 ↑ Davis 2010, p. 18 ↑ a b et c Harrison 2007, p. 11 ↑ Satires, I, 6 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 12 ↑ a et b Harrison 2007, p. 13 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 14 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 15 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 17 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 19 ↑ Levi 1997, p. 34 ↑ (en) D. M. Hooley, The Knotted Thong : Structures of Mimesis in Persius, Ann Harbor, The University of Michigan Press, 2000 (1997), 286 p. (ISBN 0-472-10792-5) ↑ A. V. Nazzaro, « Girolamo » dans Enciclopedia oraziana III, col. 29-31. ↑ G. Mazzoli, « Sidonio, Orazio e la lex saturae », dans L. Cristante (ed.), Il calamo della memoria. Riuso di testi e mestiere letterario nella tarda antichità, 2006, p. 171-184 ↑ M. Lühken, Christianorum Maro et Flaccus : zur Vergil- und Horazrezeption des Prudentius, 2002. ↑ Perret 1959, p. 75. ↑ Perret 1959, p. 74. ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 94 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 98 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 97 ↑ Jacques Perret, article « Horace », in op. cit. ; Pierre Grimal, Horace, Paris, Seuil, 1967 ; Hubert Zehnacker et J.-Cl. Fredouille, Littérature latine, P.U.F., 1993. ↑ Fraenkel 1957, p. 374 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 77 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 81 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 80 ↑ a et b Harrison 2007, p. 82 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 83 ↑ a et b Harrison 2007, p. 86 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 88 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 87 ↑ Perret 1959, p. 54 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 22 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 29 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 33 ↑ Perret 1959, p. 49 ↑ Satires, I, 10, 68 ↑ Satires, I, 10, 73-74 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 277 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 278 ↑ a et b Harrison 2007, p. 279 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 280 ↑ a et b Harrison 2007, p. 283 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 281 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 282 ↑ a b c et d Harrison 2007, p. 293 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 285 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 286 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 287 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 297 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 298 ↑ Pétrarque, Lettres familières, XXIV, 10 ↑ Dauvois 2012, p. 3 ↑ Dauvois 2012, p. 5 ↑ a et b Harrison 2007, p. 288 ↑ Merle 1999, p. 101 ↑ Merle 1999, p. 103 ↑ a et b Merle 1999, p. 98 ↑ Stendhal, Le Rouge et le Noir, livre premier, XXIX ↑ Prosper Mérimée, Colomba, chap. XX ↑ (it) « Odi profanum vulgus, et arceo », dans Wikipedia, 29 décembre 2019 (lire en ligne) Bibliographie[modifier | modifier le code] Œuvres[modifier | modifier le code] Œuvres complètes d'Horace, traduites en vers par P. Daru, 2 Tomes, à Paris, chez Janet et Cotelle, Libraires, M DCCC XXIII, Tome premier, 497 p., Tome second 567 p. Horace et Henri Patin (traducteur), Œuvres complètes, Paris, Charpentier, 1860 Horace et François Villeneuve (introduction, édition, apparat critique et traduction), Œuvres d'Horace, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, coll. « Collection des Universités de France » Odes et Épodes, t. I, 1929 Comprend aussi le Chant séculaire Satires, t. II, 1932 Épîtres, t. III, 1934 Comprend aussi l’Art poétique Horace, Œuvres, Garnier-Flammarion, 1993, 374 p. Œuvres complètes : tome 1, Satire, Épodes, Epîtres / Horace ; traduit par Danielle Carlès. - Publie.net, 2019. ( (ISBN 9782371772229) en versions imprimées et numériques) Ouvrages généraux[modifier | modifier le code] Jean Bayet, Littérature latine, Armand Colin, Paris, 1996 M. C. Howatson, Dictionnaire de l'Antiquité. Mythologie, littérature, civilisation, coll. « Bouquin », Robert Laffont, 1993, (ISBN 978-2221068007) Hubert Zehnacker et Jean-Claude Fredouille, Littérature latine, PUF, Paris, 1993 Études[modifier | modifier le code] (en) Gregson Davis, A Companion to Horace, John Wiley & Sons, 2010 (en) Eduard Fraenkel, Horace, Oxford University Press, 1957 Victor Giraud, Les idées morales d'Horace, Paris, 1907 Pierre Grimal, Horace, Seuil, Paris, 1967 (en) Stephen Harrison, The Cambridge companion to Horace, Cambridge University Press, 2007 (en) Peter Levi, Horace : A Life, Londres/New York, Tauris Parke Paperbacks, 1997, 288 p. (ISBN 978-1-78076-139-8) Jean Marmier, Horace en France au dix-septième siècle, Paris, PUF, 1962. Jean Marmier, La survie d'Horace à l'époque romantique, Paris, Klincksieck, 1965. Jacques Perret, Horace, Paris, Hatier, coll. « Connaissance des lettres », 1959 (en) Frank Stack, Pope and Horace: Studies in Imitation, Cambridge University Press, 1985, 316 p. (ISBN 0521266955) Articles[modifier | modifier le code] Nathalie Dauvois, « Horace à la Renaissance, modèle de varietas et modèle d'écriture, l'exemple des poèmes à l'éloge d'Horace », Camenae, no 12,‎ juin 2012 (lire en ligne) Raymond Lebègue, « Horace en France à la Renaissance », Humanisme et Renaissance, 1936, p. 139-164, 289-308, 384-419. Denis Merle, « Sur les traductions d'Horace en France, au XIXe siècle », Romantisme « Traduire au xixe siècle », no 106,‎ 1999, p. 97-108 (lire en ligne) Gaston Boissier, La maison de campagne d'Horace, Revue des Deux Mondes, 3e période, tome 57, 1883. Voir aussi[modifier | modifier le code] Sur les autres projets Wikimedia : Horace, sur Wikimedia Commons Horace, sur Wikisource Horace, sur Wikiquote Articles connexes[modifier | modifier le code] Satires Bavius Bertrand Capmartin de Chaupy, auteur de Découverte de la maison de campagne d'Horace. (4294) Horace Liens externes[modifier | modifier le code] Notices d'autorité : Fichier d’autorité international virtuel International Standard Name Identifier CiNii Bibliothèque nationale de France (données) Système universitaire de documentation Bibliothèque du Congrès Gemeinsame Normdatei Service bibliothécaire national Bibliothèque nationale de la Diète Bibliothèque nationale d’Espagne Bibliothèque royale des Pays-Bas Bibliothèque nationale de Pologne Bibliothèque nationale d’Israël Bibliothèque universitaire de Pologne Bibliothèque nationale de Catalogne Bibliothèque nationale de Suède Réseau des bibliothèques de Suisse occidentale Bibliothèque apostolique vaticane WorldCat espace-horace.org, site consacré au poète latin Œuvres d'Horace : textes avec concordances et liste de fréquence, sur intratext.com « Renaissances d'Horace », sur http://www.univ-paris3.fr/ Site sur les éditions et les traductions humanistes d'Horace Les Odes d'Horace sur Itinera Electronica (portail des œuvres et auteurs antiques de l'université catholique de Louvain) Carmina Horatiana Tous les carmina d'Horace récités en latin par Thomas Bervoets. v · m Horace Œuvres Chant séculaire · Épîtres · Épodes · Odes · Satires Lieux Athènes · Rome · Venosa Famille Tribu Horatia · Gens Horatii Entourage Auguste · Mécène · Virgile Citations célèbres Carpe diem · Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori · Nunc est bibendum · In medias res · Sapere aude Portail de la littérature Portail de la poésie Portail de la Rome antique Ce document provient de « https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horace&oldid=177907417 ». Catégories : Écrivain romain du Ier siècle av. J.-C. Poète de la Rome antique Poète élégiaque Poète satirique Naissance à Venosa Naissance en 65 av. J.-C. Décès à Rome Décès en 8 av. J.-C. Décès à 56 ans Personnage cité dans la Divine Comédie (Enfer) Écrivain latin classique Catégories cachées : Article utilisant une Infobox Catégorie Commons avec lien local différent sur Wikidata Article de Wikipédia avec notice d'autorité Page utilisant le modèle Bases littérature inactif Portail:Littérature/Articles liés Portail:Poésie/Articles liés Portail:Rome antique/Articles liés Portail:Italie/Articles liés Portail:Monde antique/Articles liés Portail:Histoire/Articles liés Wikipédia:Article biographique Portail:Biographie/Articles liés/Culture et arts La dernière modification de cette page a été faite le 22 décembre 2020 à 08:41. Droit d'auteur : les textes sont disponibles sous licence Creative Commons attribution, partage dans les mêmes conditions ; d’autres conditions peuvent s’appliquer. Voyez les conditions d’utilisation pour plus de détails, ainsi que les crédits graphiques. En cas de réutilisation des textes de cette page, voyez comment citer les auteurs et mentionner la licence. Wikipedia® est une marque déposée de la Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., organisation de bienfaisance régie par le paragraphe 501(c)(3) du code fiscal des États-Unis. Politique de confidentialité À propos de Wikipédia Avertissements Contact Version mobile Développeurs Statistiques Déclaration sur les témoins (cookies) 
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ftl-toolforge-org-7854	----	Browse subject: Horace | The Online Books Page The Online Books Page Browsing subject area: Horace (Include extended shelves) You can also browse an alphabetical list from this subject or from: Horace Online books by this author are available. See also what's at Wikipedia, your library, or elsewhere. Narrower terms: Horace -- Concordances Horace -- Criticism and interpretation Horace -- Influence Horace -- Knowledge Horace -- Parodies, imitations, etc. Horace -- Translations into English Horace. Ars poetica Horace. Carmina Filed under: Horace Q. Horatius Flaccus; Mit Vorzugsweiser Rücksicht Auf die Unechten Stellen und Gedichte (Latin text with German commentary; Leipzig: F. C. W. Vogel, 1869), by Horace, ed. by Karl Lehrs page images at HathiTrust page images in Germany Filed under: Horace -- Concordances A Concordance to the Works of Horace (Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1916), ed. by Lane Cooper (page images at HathiTrust) Filed under: Horace -- Criticism and interpretation Horace, by Theodore Martin (Gutenberg text) Filed under: Horace -- Influence Pope's Horatian Poems (Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press, c1966), by Thomas E. Maresca (PDF files with commentary at Ohio State Press) Filed under: Horace -- Knowledge -- Economics Horace and the Gift Economy of Patronage (Berkeley: University of California Press, c2001), by Phebe Lowell Bowditch (frame-dependent HTML with commentary at UC Press) Filed under: Horace -- Parodies, imitations, etc. Pope's Horatian Poems (Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press, c1966), by Thomas E. Maresca (PDF files with commentary at Ohio State Press) The Art of Cookery, in Imitation of Horace's Art of Poetry, With Some Letters to Dr. Lister, and Others (second edition; some material in Latin; London: Printed for B. Lintott, ca. 1709), by William King (page images at HathiTrust) Filed under: Horace -- Translations into English Echoes From the Sabine Farm, by Horace, trans. by Eugene Field and Roswell Martin Field Gutenberg text and illustrated HTML page images at MOA The Odes and Carmen Saeculare of Horace, Translated Into English Verse (third edition), by Horace, trans. by John Conington (Gutenberg text) Filed under: Horace. Ars poetica The Fusion of Horatian and Aristotelian Literary Criticism, 1531-1555 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1946), by Marvin T. Herrick (page images at HathiTrust) Filed under: Horace. Carmina Time and the Erotic in Horace's Odes (Durham, NC and London: Duke University Press, 1994), by Ronnie Ancona (page images at HathiTrust) Items below (if any) are from related and broader terms. Help with reading books -- Report a bad link -- Suggest a new listing Home -- Search -- New Listings -- Authors -- Titles -- Subjects -- Serials Books -- News -- Features -- Archives -- The Inside Story Edited by John Mark Ockerbloom (onlinebooks@pobox.upenn.edu) OBP copyrights and licenses. 
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fur-wikipedia-org-2479	----	Orazi - Vichipedie Orazi De Vichipedie, la enciclopedie libare dute in marilenghe. Jump to navigation Jump to search Orazi bêf un tai. Orazi declame. Quint Orazi Flac (par latin Quintus Horatius Flaccus; Venose, 65 p.d.C. - Rome, ai 27 di Novembar 8 p.d.C.) fo un poete di Rome antighe. Tabele dai contignûts 1 Biografie 1.1 La prime formazion 1.2 I incuintris gjovevui a Rome e il suces 2 Il spirt dal poete e il stîl de poesie 3 Lis oparis 4 La figure 5 Bibliografie 6 Leams esternis Biografie[cambie | modifiche il codiç] La prime formazion[cambie | modifiche il codiç] Stant che Orazi al è, di ducj i poetis latins, chel che al parave dentri plui autobiografie tai siei viers, de sô vite o vin tantis informazions. Al nassè tal 65 p.d.C. a Venose, in Lucanie, di un libert, che, no cate che no a jerin siorons, al fasè di dut par fâlu studià cui mestris miôrs: te citât là che al jere nât, po a Rome cun Orbili, l'inomenât gramatic che al sfuarçave i rilêfs a parâ jù la aromai rangide Odissee di Livi Andronîc a sun di stafiladis, a Napoli cul filosof epicureu Siron e ancje a Atene; chi, za compenetrât di elenisim, si metè a lei la liriche greghe arcaiche e a studiâ la filosofie e al cjatà un gnûf amì, Brût, che, daspò vê scurtisât a muart Juli Cesar cui altris conzurâts, al jere daûr a organizâ la vuere cuintri Otavian e Marc Antoni, profitant de ocasion par frecuentâ lessons di filosofie. A Orazi, di salt republican che al jere in chê volte, Cesar e i cesarians no lu convincevin par nuie, al pensà ben di lâ a combati cun lui te bataie di Filipos, tal 42, fasint di tribun militâr; a forin sdramassâts e, come che al conte propite lui, Orazi salvà la ghirbe dome scjampant vie a gjambis puartaitmi, come che a vevin fat prin di lui Archiloc e Alceu. L'amâr de grande delusion politiche e morâl lu leà ancjemò di plui al epicureisim, che 'nd' veve za supât un grum cuant che al jere in Campanie, là che a filosofavin chei dal circul di Filoden di Gadare; di chel amâr nol rivà mai a disfâsi e difat no lu bandonà mai un ciert abatiment e malincûr, che a vignivin fûr a periodis. I incuintris gjovevui a Rome e il suces[cambie | modifiche il codiç] Finide la vuere civîl, si veve di paiâ chei che le vevin combatude e a Orazi i puartarin vie i bens dal pari, cussì par campâle si metè a fâ il secretari pe cuesture, fin che, vignût amì di Virgili e Vari Rûf, chescj tal 38 p.d.C. lu presentarin a Mecenât, che, conseîr di August, jere il plui influent dai protetôrs di leterâts: cul timp, al fasè tele ancje cun lui, che lu tirà dentri dal so circul leterari (si cjatà tant ben che al vignì il centri di chel zîr di poetis), e po ben dal princip. Aromai avonde ric e sigûr, par vie dai amìs possents, al molà vore, vint miôr avodâsi dut ae poesie e gjoldisi la pâs dal mâs in Sabine che lu veve regalât Mecenât, là che al podeve respirâ la cuiete che no i concedeve la frenetiche e indafarade Rome, ma cence rivâ mai a parâ vie chel so sutîl ma ustinât lancûr. Al continuà a fâ su e jù fin al 8 p.d.C., cuant che di fermâlu a Rome e viodè la muart; al lassà dut ce che al veve a August e al fo infossât dongje di Mecenât. Il spirt dal poete e il stîl de poesie[cambie | modifiche il codiç] Ve une alegorie dal sintiment che al dîs Orazi: nol è miôr contentâsi di bevi planc a planc di une biele fontanute che no riscjâ di colâ jù e di inneâ par lâ a scjafoiâsi di aghe intune flumere insiliose? Il temperament di Orazi jere in sostance amant de cuiete e solitari: il so ideâl di vite jere chel di un vivi cuiet par jessi seren, seont il pinsîr dai stoics e dai epicureus, che al spartive cun convinciment, e chel che i veve insegnât la sangagnose esperience des vueris civîls. Chest vul dî che al lave daûr di une serenitât di vite che lu faseve suspietâ des passions masse vivarosis che a sconzortin e a scjassin lis dìs dai omps, simpri ducj cjapâts a cirî di otignî chest o chel altri che no a àn invezit di contentâsi di chel che a àn za: lui al veve miôr doprâ la moderazion, che lu parave dai pericui dai fogôrs e i permeteve di gjoldi dai plasês che al veve, invezit di stramudâju in malcuietece cul lâ daûr di altris robis, stant che al è simpri miôr jessi avonde par se stes che no dipindi dal esterni. Sichè tes poesiis al dismuele e al stanze ducj i slançs passionâi (al disè lui di jessi irasci celerem, tamen ut placabilis essem, vadì un che si inrabie a colp, ma dome par po calmâsi), vint miôr (diviers di Catul) une judiziose e ecuilibrade prudence che no la plenece des emozions. Paraltri, stant che al ere un poete, al crodeve di vê di dâ ai altris un model di vite: si sintive di vê propite la responsabilitât di doprâ sintiment e cussì al finive par sfumâ i impits cuntun sutîl velut di ironie o cuntun savôr di pulide malincunie. Cussì la sô poesie, clare e lampide e metude sù cuntune capacitât straordenarie di paronâ i viers e cuntune cure certosine e finissime pai detais (chest jal veve stramandât la formazion elenistiche), par jessi controlade e cui slançs che a lavin simpri di sbris, judiziose e prudente come lui, jere unevore divierse di chê dai poetis lirichis che al cjapave a model, come i fogôs Alceu, Saf e Anacreont, che di lôr al veve supât il gust pal slis e pal colôr ma no la plenece des emozions. Lis oparis[cambie | modifiche il codiç] Orazi al scrivè i Epodis, butâts fûr tal 30 p.d.C., cun invetivis personâls, impegn civîl e sugestions elenistichis; lis Sataris, publicadis atôr dal 35 p.d.C. e dal 30 p.d.C., là che al metè in esametris, sielzint il metri regolâr che al veve doprât Lucili e no chel miscliç di Varon, lis andis dai omps, ripuartantsi a la sô esperience personâl: cussì al faseve la sô funzion di vuide morâl, instradant chei che a leievin ai usâts valôrs di ecuilibri e prudence; lis Odis, plenis d'impegn civîl e ancjemò morâl; il Carmen saeculare, scrit tal 17 p.d.C., cuant che August i domandà di butâ jù alc par celebrâ une gnove ete di pâs e grandetât che, al sigurave l'imperadôr, autorevulis profeziis disevin che e sarès scomençade in chê volte; lis Epistulis, di gnûf cui cantins des Sataris e cun altris di leterature, chescj soredut in chê ai Pisons, che al à non Ars poetica, vadì Art poetiche. La figure[cambie | modifiche il codiç] Stant a chel che al conte lui, al veve i voi sgarbelôs e al jere scûr di piel, blanc di cjavei ancje cuant che nol jere ancjemò masse vecjo, tarondin e bas. Bibliografie[cambie | modifiche il codiç] Ettore Paratore, Storia della letteratura latina, Bologne, Sansoni, 1957 Paolo Fedeli, Storia letteraria di Roma, Napoli, Ferraro, 2004 Orazi, Le lettere, Milan, Fabbri, 2001 Leams esternis[cambie | modifiche il codiç] Oràzio Flacco, Quinto, treccani.it Cjapât fûr di https://fur.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Orazi&oldid=165576 Categoriis: Poetis romans antîcs Poetis latins Menù di Navigazion Imprescj personâi No tu sês jentrât Discussions Contribûts Regjistris Coleghiti Spazis dai nons Vôs Discussion Variants Visitis Lei Cambie Modifiche il codiç Cjale il storic Altro Ricercje Navigazion Pagjine principâl Une pagjine a câs Jutori Comunitât Portâl de comunitât Ostarie Ultins cambiaments Doninus Contatinus imprescj Leams a cheste vôs Cambiaments leâts Cjame sù un file Pagjinis speciâls Leam permanent Informazions Cite cheste vôs Element Wikidata Stampe/esporte Cree un libri Discjame tant che PDF Version stampabil Altris progjets Wikimedia Commons Altris lenghis Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Modifiche i leams Cambiât par l'ultime volte ai 16:44, 27 di Lui 2018 Il test al è disponibil daûr la licence Creative Commons Atribuzion-Condivît te stesse maniere; al è pussibil meti cundizions ulteriôrs. 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ga-wikipedia-org-2393	----	Quintus Horatius Flaccus - Vicipéid Quintus Horatius Flaccus Ón Vicipéid, an chiclipéid shaor. Jump to navigation Jump to search Quintus Horatius Flaccus Dáta breithe 8 Nollaig, 65 RC   Venusia, Lucania Dáta báis 27 Samhain, 27 RC Gairm File Seánra Filíocht, Glámh B'fhile Rómhánach é Quintus Horatius Flaccus (8 Nollaig, 65 RC – 27 Samhain, 27 RC), nó Horatius ( tugtha sa Ghaeilge mar 'Hórás' (ag P.Ua Duinnín), 'Horás' (ag de Bhaldraithe) agus 'Horáit' (ag Tearma.ie). Bhí sé, in éineacht le Veirgil agus Óivid, ar dhuine de na filí ba thábhachtaí agus ba mhó sa Sean-Róimh. Clár ábhair 1 Íomhánna 2 Saothair 2.1 Glámha agus eapóidí (Sermones & Epodes) (42 RC - 30 RC 2.2 Óideanna (Carmina) 30 RC - 11 RC 2.3 Eipistilí (Epistola) ón mbliain 21 RC amach 3 Aistriúcháin Íomhánna[cuir in eagar | athraigh foinse] Íomhá ón 19ú haois Leathanach den leabhar a bhí eagraithe ag Aldus Manutius sa bhliain 1501 Teach Horatius san áit bhreithe Venusia Saothair[cuir in eagar | athraigh foinse] Glámha agus eapóidí (Sermones & Epodes) (42 RC - 30 RC[cuir in eagar | athraigh foinse] Sermonum liber I Sermonum liber II Epodum libri I - XVII Óideanna (Carmina) 30 RC - 11 RC[cuir in eagar | athraigh foinse] Carminum liber I Carminum liber II Carminum liber III Carminum liber IV Carmen Saeculare Eipistilí (Epistola) ón mbliain 21 RC amach[cuir in eagar | athraigh foinse] Epistularum liber I Epistularum liber II Ars Poetica Aistriúcháin[cuir in eagar | athraigh foinse] Glámha (Sermones): wikisource.org (Laidin le haistriúchán Bhéarla) Óideanna (Carmina): wikisource.org (Laidin le haistriúchán Bhéarla) Óideanna (Carmina): gottwein.de Carpe diem (Laidin in éineacht le haistriúchán ó Laidin go Gearmáinis) f • p • a Litríocht na Sean-Róimhe  · Tréimhse chlasaiceach ar na blianta 100 RC - 150 AD  ·  ·  · Na húdair Chlasaiceacha ba thábhachtaí  · Cicearó · Veirgil · Óivid · Horatius · Catullus · Iúil Caesar · Sallustius · Livias · Seneca · Suetonius · Tacitus · Plinias Mór · Plinias Óg · Propertius · Tibullus · Lucretius · Martialis · Aulus Gellius Aisghafa ó "https://ga.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quintus_Horatius_Flaccus&oldid=960831" Catagóirí: Scríbhneoirí na Sean-Róimhe Filí na Sean-Róimhe Roghchlár nascleanúna Do chuid uirlisí Níl tú logáilte isteach Plé Dréachtaí Cruthaigh cuntas Logáil isteach Ainmspásanna Alt Plé Leaganacha Malartacha Radhairc Léigh Cuir in eagar Cuir foinse in eagar Féach ar stair More Cuardaigh Nascleanúint Príomhleathanach Tairseach chomhphobail Cúrsaí reatha Athruithe deireanacha Leathanach fánach Cabhair Síntiúis Uirlisí Cad a nascann anseo Athruithe gaolmhara Uaslódáil comhad Leathanaigh speisialta Nasc buan Eolas faoin leathanach Luaigh an lch seo Mír Wikidata Priontáil/easpórtáil Cruthaigh leabhar Íoslódáil mar PDF Leagan inphriontáilte I dtionscadail eile Wikimedia Commons I dteangacha eile Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Athraigh naisc Tugadh an leathanach seo cothrom le dáta an 6 Bealtaine 2020 ag 11:31. Tá an téacs ar fáil faoi réir an Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License; féadann téarmaí eile a bheith i bhfeidhm sa bhreis. Féach ar Téarmaí Úsáide le sonraí a fháil. Trádmharc cláraithe is ea Wikipedia® de chuid Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., eagraíocht neamhbhrabúis. Polasaí príobháideachais Maidir le Vicipéid Séanadh Amharc móibíleach Forbróirí Statistics Cookie statement 
gl-wikipedia-org-8600	----	Horacio - Wikipedia, a enciclopedia libre Horacio Na Galipedia, a Wikipedia en galego. Saltar ata a navegación Saltar á procura Horacio Horacio (retrato idealizado) Nacemento 8 de decembro de 65 a. C.   Venosa Falecemento 27 de novembro de 8 a. C.   Roma Soterrado Roma Nacionalidade Roma Antiga Etnia Ancient Romans Ocupación poeta, escritor e filósofo Pai valor descoñecido Nai valor descoñecido Coñecido por Ars Poetica [ editar datos en Wikidata ] v c e Horacio (Quintus Horatius Flaccus en latín) naceu en Venosa o 8 de decembro do 65 a. C. e morreu en Tívoli o 27 de novembro do 8 a. C. Cóntase entre os máis ilustres poetas de todos os tempos. A súa obra ten un dobre nivel de escritura, obxecto de malentendidos e de contrasentidos fáciles, como o testemuña por exemplo a famosa divisa carpe diem, ou a non menos célebre fórmula aurea mediocritas, tiradas respectivamente das Odas, I, 11 e II, 10. Biografía[editar | editar a fonte] Nado en Venosa no 65 a. C., nos confíns entre a Apulia e a Lucania, fillo dun liberto que se trasladou a Roma para traballar como exactor nas poxas públicas, tarefa pouco estimada mais rendíbel. O poeta era por tanto de humilde orixe, mais gozaba de boa posición económica. Seguiu cursos regulares de estudos en Roma e despois en Atenas, onde estudaría filosofía. Cando estalou a guerra civil Horacio enrolouse no exército de Bruto, combatendo como tribuno militar na batalla de Filipos (42 a. C.). No 41 a. C. volveu a Italia grazas a unha amnistía e, coñecida a noticia da confiscación dos bens paternos, gañou o sustento como secretario dun cuestor. En 38 a. C. foi presentado a Mecenas por Virxilio e Varo. Nove meses despois Mecenas admitiuno no seu círculo. Daquela Horacio dedicouse enteiramente á literatura. Nin casou nin tivo fillos. Mecenas dooulle unha villa en Sabinia, que foi moi pracenteira para o poeta, que non gustaba da vida cidadá. Coa súa poesía fixo intensa propaganda a favor do Emperador Augusto. Temos un exemplo claro nas Odas e no Carmen saeculare. Faleceu en novembro do 8 a. C.; foi sepultado no outeiro do Esquilino, ó pé do seu amigo Mecenas, morto tan só dous meses antes. Obras[editar | editar a fonte] Sátiras (Saturae ou Sermóns, como as definira o autor), en dous libros que comprenden 18 sátiras, escritas entre o ano 41 a. C. e o 30 a. C.: o I libro (10 sátiras) foi dedicado a Mecenas e publicado entre o 35 a. C. e o 33 a. C., mentres o II libro (8 sátiras) foi publicado no 30 a. C. xunto cos Épodos. Épodos (Epodon libri), 17 composicións, publicadas no 30 a. C. Odas (Carmina), en tres libros con 88 composicións, publicadas no 23 a. C. Un cuarto libro con outras 15 composicións publicouse en torno ao 13 a. C. Carmen saeculare ou "Canto das Idades", do 17 a.C., escrito por encargo de Augusto e destinado á cerimonia de clausura dos ludi saeculares. Epístolas (Epistulae), en dous libros. O I libro comprende 20 cartas compostas a partir do 23 e publicadas no 20 a. C., con dedicación a Mecenas, mentres o II libro, con tres cartas, escrito entre 19 e 13 a. C., comprende a Epístola aos Pisóns, o Ars Poetica (Arte Poética) en 476 hexámetros, que foi elevada a canon polas súas composicións poéticas en épocas posteriores. Control de autoridades : Q6197 WorldCat VIAF: 100227522 BAV: ADV12139878 BIBSYS: 90055203 BiTraGa: 2476 BLBNB: 000573561 BMT: 58659 BNCHL: 000035928 BNE: XX891549 BNF: 11886570b BRE: 2370010 BVMC: 7568 CANTIC: a10101214 CERL: cnp01316190 CiNii: DA00782980 DeutscheBio: 118553569 Discogs: 4499695 EBID: ID EGAXA: vtls000023274 Europeana: ID FAST: 39544 GEC: 0032926 GND: 118553569 Gutenberg: 1790 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\000246 IMSLP: ID ISNI: 0000 0001 2145 2178 LAC: 0009G0402 LCCN: n79081354 LibriVox: 3050 MusicBrainz: ID NDL: 00540086 NKC: jn20000603003 NLA: 35206138 NLG: 62641 NNDB: 000087584 NPG: mp163933 NTA: 068304579 OL: OL20088A openMLOL: 4508 PTBNP: 19592 RSL: 000083136 SELIBR: 189659 SNAC: w6pk0m9c SUDOC: 026659166 Treccani: quinto-orazio-flacco ULAN: 500404135 UNZ: Horace WomenWriters: ID Traído desde "https://gl.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horacio&oldid=5003958" Categorías: Nados na provincia de Potenza Escritores en lingua latina Nados en -65 Finados en -8 Menú de navegación Ferramentas persoais Non accedeu ao sistema Conversa Contribucións Crear unha conta Acceder ao sistema Espazos de nomes Artigo Conversa Variantes Vistas Ler Editar Editar a fonte Ver o historial Mais Procura Navegación Portada Portal da comunidade A Taberna Actualidade Cambios recentes Artigos de calidade Páxina aleatoria Axuda Doazóns Ferramentas Páxinas que ligan con esta Cambios relacionados Páxinas especiais Ligazón permanente Información da páxina Citar esta páxina Elemento de Wikidata Imprimir/exportar Crear un libro Descargar como PDF Versión para imprimir Noutros proxectos Wikimedia Commons Outras linguas Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Editar as ligazóns A última edición desta páxina foi o 2 de decembro de 2018 ás 09:52. Todo o texto está dispoñible baixo a licenza Creative Commons recoñecemento compartir igual 3.0; pódense aplicar termos adicionais. Consulte os termos de uso para obter máis información. Wikipedia® é unha marca rexistrada da Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., unha organización sen fins lucrativos. Política de protección de datos Acerca de Wikipedia Advertencias Vista móbil Desenvolvedores Estatísticas Declaración de cookies 
he-wikipedia-org-4658	----	הורטיוס – ויקיפדיה לדלג לתוכן שינוי מצב סרגל צד חיפוש כלים אישיים לא בחשבון שיחה תרומות יצירת חשבון כניסה לחשבון ניווט עמוד ראשי ברוכים הבאים שינויים אחרונים ערכים מומלצים פורטלים ערך אקראי תרומה לוויקיפדיה קהילה שער הקהילה עזרה ייעוץ מזנון כיכר העיר חדשות לוח מודעות יצירת קשר ספר אורחים כלים דפים המקושרים לכאן שינויים בדפים המקושרים דפים מיוחדים קישור קבוע מידע על הדף ציטוט דף זה פריט ויקינתונים הדפסה/ייצוא יצירת ספר הורדה כ־PDF גרסה להדפסה במיזמים אחרים ויקישיתוף ויקיציטוט ויקיטקסט דף זה בשפות אחרות English Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 עריכת הקישורים תפריט ניווט מרחבי שם ערך שיחה גרסאות שפה צפיות קריאה עריכת קוד מקור עריכה גרסאות קודמות עוד הורטיוס מתוך ויקיפדיה, האנציקלופדיה החופשית הורטיוס Q. Horatius Flaccus לידה 8 בדצמבר 65 לפנה״ס ונוסה, הרפובליקה הרומית פטירה 27 בנובמבר 8 לפנה״ס (בגיל 56) רומא, האימפריה הרומית עיסוק משורר, סופר, פילוסוף לאום הרומאים העתיקים שפות היצירה לטינית יצירות בולטות על אמנות הפיוט קווינטוס הורטיוס פלקוס (בלטינית Quintus Horatius Flaccus; בעברית שמו מבוטא גם הורציוס; 8 בדצמבר 65 לפנה"ס - 27 בנובמבר 8 לפנה"ס) היה משורר רומי מפורסם. תוכן עניינים 1 תולדות חייו 2 יצירותיו 2.1 האפודות (Epodi) 2.2 הסאטירות (Saturae) 2.3 השירים \ האוֹדות (Carmina / Odae) 2.4 האיגרות (Epistulae) 2.5 שיר היובל (Carmen Saeculare) 3 היהודים אצל הורטיוס 4 תרגומי יצירותיו לעברית 5 ראו גם 6 לקריאה נוספת 7 קישורים חיצוניים 8 הערות שוליים תולדות חייו[עריכת קוד מקור | עריכה] הורטיוס נולד בשנת 65 לפנה"ס בוונוסיה (כיום ונוסה שבאיטליה) והיה בנו של עבד משוחרר אמיד. אביו דאג לחינוכו וליווה אותו לרומא, שם למד את תורת הנאום, ואחר כך לאתונה, שבה למד יוונית ופילוסופיה ככל הנראה שליחתו מעיר מולדתו נועדה להציל אותו מהשמצות' שכן להיות בן עבד לשעבר נחשב בזוי בחברה הרומאית ולכן הורטיוס ואביו היו מטרה ללגלוגים חוזרים ונשנים. הורטיוס היה אסיר תודה לאביו על כך והתייחס אליו בהערצה רבה. אחרי רצח יוליוס קיסר בשנת 44 לפנה"ס, הורטיוס, שהתרשם מהגעתם של מרקוס יוניוס ברוטוס וגאיוס קסיוס לונגינוס לאתונה, הצטרף לצבאם ולחם כטריבון צבאי בקרב פיליפי בשנת 42 לפנה"ס כנגד אוקטביאנוס ומרקוס אנטוניוס. כוחותיהם של ברוטוס וקסיוס הובסו בקרב אך הורטיוס הצליח להימלט על נפשו ולימים סיפר שזרק את מגינו ונמלט משדה הקרב. לאחר שהוכרזה חנינה לאלה שלחמו נגד אוקטביאנוס, חזר הורטיוס לרומא ומצא שרכושו הולאם וחולק לחיילי הצבא המשוחררים וכך הוא הוכרח לקנות לעצמו משרה של מזכיר במשרדי הקוואיסטורים, דבר שאפשר לו להתמסר לשירה. הורטיוס השתייך לחוגים הספרותיים ברומא שעליהם נמנה המשורר ורגיליוס. ורגיליוס הפגיש את הורטיוס עם גאיוס קילניוס מאיקנס, שהיה ידידו ואיש סודו של אוקטביאנוס. מאיקנס הפך לידידו ולפטרונו של הורטיוס והעמיד לרשותו חווילה בסאביניום, לא הרחק מרומא. הורטיוס, ורגיליוס ומאיקנס נעשו ידידים, וידידותם נמשכה עד מותם. אוקטביאנוס ביקש למנות את הורטיוס למזכירו, אך הורטיוס העדיף להמשיך ולעסוק בשירתו. יצירותיו[עריכת קוד מקור | עריכה] בשנת 41 לפנה"ס, הקיסר אוקטוויאנוס העניק חנינה להורטיוס. הורטיוס חזר מן הגלות לרומי, וגילה שאביו נפטר ורכושו הוחרם. הורטיוס נאלץ להתחיל לעבוד כמזכירו של גובה-מיסים. בתקופה זו הוא החל בכתיבת שירה. שירתו הסיבה את תשומת לבם של לוקיוס ואריוס רופוס, ושל פובליוס ורגיליוס מארו, שני משוררים בעלי שם בעולם הספרות הרומי. דרכם, הורטיוס התוודע למאיקאנס[1] שהיה עוזרו ויועצו של אוגוסטוס, ופטרון ספרות ידוע.[2] בשנת 38 לפנה"ס צירף אותו מאיקאנס לחוגו הספרותי, דבר ששיחרר את הורטיוס מדאגות כלכליות. בהמשך, מאיקאנס אף הציג אותו בפני אוגוסטוס.[2] האפודות (Epodi)[עריכת קוד מקור | עריכה] בשנת 31 לפנה"ס פרסם הורטיוס 17 שירים שכונו "אפודות" בשל המבנה המיוחד שלהן: שורה ארוכה, ולאחריה – שורה קצרה. הורטיוס כינה את האפודות בשם "יאמבים" (Iambi).[3] בכתיבת האפודות הושפע הורטיוס מסגנונו הלעגני של המשורר היווני הקדום ארכילוכוס מפארוס, שחי במאה השביעית לפנה"ס.[4] האפודות עסקו בנושאים מגוונים, מסיפורי אהבה ועד למלחמות-האזרחים בתקופתו.[5] הסאטירות (או בשמן האחר-שיחות, בלטינית Sermonum) בפרסום משנת 1577 הסאטירות (Saturae)[עריכת קוד מקור | עריכה] עשר הסאטירות הראשונות התפרסמו בספר בשנת 35 לפנה"ס, ושמונה נוספות יצאו בשנת 30 לפנה"ס.[6] הורטיוס כינה את הסאטירות שלו בשם "שיחות" (Sermones).[7] את הסאטירות חיבר הורטיוס בהשראתו של לוקיליוס, מחבר סאטירות רומי שחי במאה ה-2 לפנה"ס.[7] בניגוד לסאטירה של לוקיליוס הורטיוס לא עסק בסאטירה שלו בפוליטיקה, אלא שם ללעג בעיות שרווחו בחברה בזמנו, כגון: רדיפת-בצע, קמצנות, שחיתות ועוד.[8] בשנת 35 לפנה"ס הורטיוס הקדיש את ספר הסאטירות הראשון שלו למאיקנאס, ובתור הכרת תודה העניק לו מאיקנאס אחוזה קטנה, שמיקומה 25 מיל צפונית לרומא (אחוזה זו מוזכרת רבות ביצירותיו). מנקודה זו והלאה הורטיוס חילק את זמנו בין האחוזה לבין רומא. בנוסף, ייתכן שנכח בקרב אקטיום בשנת 31 לפנה"ס. השירים \ האוֹדות (Carmina / Odae)[עריכת קוד מקור | עריכה] ערך מורחב – שירים (הורטיוס) שלושת ספרי השירה הראשונים שפורסמו סביב שנת 23 לפנה"ס הם שהביאו להורטיוס את תהילתו כמשורר. בספר הראשון הורטיוס מקדיש את שלושת השירים הראשונים למאיקנאס, לאוגוסטוס ולורגיליוס.[9] השירים הם בעלי איזון – הורטיוס משתמש בחוש מידה ומאזן בין עצב ושמחה. השיר האחרון בספר השלישי הוא צוואתו, שבה חוזה הורטיוס לעצמו תהילת נצח.[10] ספר השירים הרביעי: נכתב בין השנים 13-17 לפנה"ס. בתוכו מופיעים שירי אהבה, שירי-תהילה לאוגוסטוס, ושירי-תהילה לרגל ניצחונם של בניו המאומצים של אוגוסטוס: טיבריוס ודרוסוס, על הווינדליקים. ניצחון זה הרחיב את גבולות האימפריה הרומית עד לגדות נהר הדנובה. האיגרות (Epistulae)[עריכת קוד מקור | עריכה] לאחר פרסום ספרי השירה שב הורטיוס לכתוב "שיחות" (sermones), שבהמשך קיבלו את השם "איגרות" (Epistulae).[11] ספר האיגרות הראשון פורסם בשנת 20 לפנה"ס לערך, והספר השני פורסם בין השנים 13-17 לפנה"ס. כתיבה זו של שירה במגוון נושאים, בצורה של איגרות לאישים ידועים, הייתה חדשנית. הספר הראשון הוקדש למאיקונאס. הוא עוסק בהנהגה נכונה ובספרות. הספר השני כולל שלוש איגרות. הראשונה, לאגוסטוס, דנה במצב השירה הרומית. הורטיוס טוען באיגרת כי לדרמה אין סיכוי לשגשג, ושעל כן, על אגוסטוס לתמוך בשירה. האיגרת השנייה מופנית ליוליוס פלורוס (Iulius Floras), ובה הורטיוס מנסה להרחיקו מהשירה כיוון שהיא רוויה בכזב ובצביעות. האיגרת השלישית ידוע בשם האיגרת אל הפיסונים (Epistula Ad Pisones), וכן בשם "(על) אמנות הפיוט" (ארס פואטיקה). איגרת זו מופנית אל פיסו (piso) ואל שני בניו. היא נחשבת למסמך החשוב ביותר של ביקורת הספרות בעת העתיקה, והשפיעה רבות על התפתחות ביקורת הספרות האירופית. ביטויים, פתגמים ומונחים ששאולים ממנה משמשים עד היום בביקורת הספרות האירופית.[12] דוגמה לדבר: "אף הומרוס הטוב לפעמים מתנמנם".[13] שיר היובל (Carmen Saeculare)[עריכת קוד מקור | עריכה] בשנת 44 לפנה"ס, לאחר רצח יוליוס קיסר, הופיע בשמים כוכב שביט. החוזים במזלות פרשו זאת כאות המבשר על תחילתה של המאה החדשה. עקב המצב ששרר אז במדינה נדחו החגיגות. בשנת 17 לפנה"ס, לאחר שהבטיח אוגוסטוס את הגבולות, הוא ערך את "חגיגות-המאה". חגיגות אלו נערכו בעבר בשנים 249, ו-146 לפנה"ס. הן סימלו את סופה של המאה, ואת תחילתה של מאה חדשה, שכולם קיוו שתהיה טובה מהמאה שלפניה. אוגוסטוס הטיל על הורטיוס לכתוב המנון לאומי לרגל החגיגה. ההמנון שכתב הורטיוס פונה אל האלים בבקשה שיעתירו חסד על רומא, ומהלל את אוגוסטוס. כתיבת המנון זה גרמה לכך שהורטיוס הוכר כמשוררה הלאומי של רומא (Romanae Fidicen Lyrae).[14] הורטיוס וורגיליוס נחשבים לגדולי המשוררים הרומים. בין יצירותיו של הורטיוס נכללים שני ספרי סאטירה שהוא כינה בשם "דברי מוסר", אך למעשה הם דברים הנאמרים בלשון שיחתם של אנשי רומא של תקופתו: נואמים, פילוסופים, מדינאים, אנשי עסקים, וגם עבדים, פרוצות והולכי בטל פטפטנים. הורטיוס עצמו מעיד על כך: "אין לכנות בשם משורר מי שכותב כמוני, שירה בנוסח פרוזה". אוגוסטוס קיסר הכריז על שירתו של הורטיוס כ"שירה נצחית". רבות מאמרותיו של הורטיוס נשארו בשימוש עד ימינו: "טוב ומכובד לאדם למות בעד ארצו", "קרפה דיים" ("חיה את הרגע" [מילולית: את היום]) ו"העז לדעת". היהודים אצל הורטיוס[עריכת קוד מקור | עריכה] בשירתו של הורטיוס ישנן 4 התייחסויות ברורות ליהודים. לדעת ההיסטוריון מנחם שטרן, הדבר מעיד על השפעתם של היהודים על החברה הרומאית בתקופת אוגוסטוס.[15] היהודים היו ככל הנראה קבוצה אתנית מפורסמת מספיק ברומא של אותה התקופה, כך שאפשר היה להתבדח עליה מתוך ביטחון שהקהל מכיר אותה כקבוצה מובחנת בפני עצמה. ייתכן ותהלוכת הניצחון של גאיוס סוסיוס בשנת 34 לפנה"ס, בה חגג את כיבוש ירושלים בשנת 37 לפנה"ס, היא זו שהעלתה את היהודים לתודעת הקהל הרומאי, בדיוק בתקופה שבה כתב ופרסם הורטיוס את ספר הסאטירות הראשון שלו. בספר זה, שיצא לאור כנראה בשנת 35 לפנה"ס או זמן קצר לאחר מכן, נמצאת ההתייחסות הראשונה אל יהודים ויהדות בספרות הקומית-הסאטירית. שלוש מתוך ארבע ההתייחסויות נמצאות בספר הסאטירות הראשון הזה, וכל אחת מהן חותמת את היצירה שבה היא מופיעה, בבחינת בדיחה אחרונה שאמור להיות לה רושם רב. מיקומן של הבדיחות הללו מלמד על כך שהורטיוס ייחס להן אפקטיביות רבה, והוא אף בחר לסיים 3 מתוך 10 הסאטירות שבספר הראשון בהתייחסות אל יהודים.[16] בספר הסאטירות הראשון, בסוף הסאטירה הרביעית, מציין הורטיוס את חולשתו לכתיבת סאטירות ומזהיר את יריבו שאם לא יסכים לקבלה, "יגיע להק גדול של כותבי שירה" להיות לו לעזר: "ואותך אז נכריח, כמו שעושים היהודים, לצעוד ולחבור לקהלנו".[17] לדעת חוקרים רבים, השורה האחרונה מתייחסת לפעילות מיסיונרית יהודית נמרצת ברומא.[18] בסאטירה החמישית הוא מלגלג על תמימות האמונה היהודית, שכבר הפכה ידועה,[15] כשהוא מצהיר: "לזאת יאמין נא אַפֶּלָא היהודי, לא אני".[19] בסאטירה התשיעית מראה הורטיוס ידיעה על ברית המילה והשבת. בעודו עסוק בשיחה עם אדם טרחן ופטפטן, הוא פוגש בחברו המשורר אריסטיוס פוסקוס ומנסה לרמוז לו שיציל אותו, אך ללא הועיל, החבר משים עצמו כלא מבין: "בשחוק בן בליעל הוא מתעלם". הורטיוס רותח מזעם אך מנסה שוב: "הן רצונך לשוחח עמי ביחידות, כך אמרת". החבר הבדחן משיב לו כי כך אמנם בכוונתו לעשות, אך במועד אחר: "כי היום השבת השלושים. הרצית שנזלזל ברגשות יהודים נימולים?'".[20] החבר המשורר בסיפור של הורטיוס הצהיר שמאחר שזה יום שבת, הוא לא יכול להעליב את היהודים בשיחה על עסקים.[21] אולם אין בסיפור הזה נימה שלילית. היהודים מתאפיינים בשמירת שבת ובמילה והחבר פשוט מנצל את העובדה הזו.[22] לרוב מפרשים את הביטוי "השבת השלושים" לא כשבת רגילה אלא כראש חודש, שנחשב ביהדות למעין חג. על פי הסבר אחר מדובר על השבת ה-30 מתחילת השנה.[21] אולם ייתכן גם שלא היה חג יהודי כזה והחבר הבדחן המציא אותו באותו הרגע כדי להראות את "אדיקותו" ו"בקיאותו" ברזי הדת שאינו רוצה להעליבה.[23] בחיבורו "האיגרות", דן הורטיוס בצורותיו השונות של העושר - בכך שישנם כאלה שאין בעיניהם שום חשיבות למה שאחרים מעריכים מאד, ומזכיר את "עושר תמרי חורש הורדוס הרוחיים".[24] תרגומי יצירותיו לעברית[עריכת קוד מקור | עריכה] הוראטיוס, האיגרות, אמנות הפיוט, תרגמה מרומית והוסיפה מבוא, הערות ומפתחות: רחל בירנבאום, ירושלים: מוסד ביאליק תשע"ה (2014). הוראטיוס הסטירות, תרגמה מרומית והוסיפה מבוא, הערות ומפתחות רחל בירנבאום, מוסד ביאליק, תשע"ב. על אמנות הפיוט. תרגום, הערות ומבוא: יורם ברונובסקי. הוצאת ספרית פועלים והוצאת הקיבוץ המאוחד, 1983. 53 עמ'. האיגרת אל הפיסונים (על אמנות הפיוט). תרגם: נתן שפיגל. בתוך: נתן שפיגל. הוראטיוס - האיש ויצירתו. ירושלים, מאגנס, תשמ"ד. עמ' 179–209. מבחר מאמרות מיצירותיו של הוראטיוס. שם, עמ' 210–224. אמנות הפיוט, תרגום הערות ומבוא: דבורה גילולה. הוצאת מאגנס. 2004. השירים (האודות). תרגמה מרומית והוסיפה מבואות, הערות ומפתחות רחל בירנבאום. ירושלים, מוסד ביאליק, תשנ"ח-1998. 535 עמ'. הורטיוס, מבחר שירים (ארכיון), תרגם מלטינית שמעון בוזגלו. מבחר שירה / הוראטיוס תרגם יהושע פרידמן פרויקט בן-יהודה ראו גם[עריכת קוד מקור | עריכה] שירים (הורטיוס) לקריאה נוספת[עריכת קוד מקור | עריכה] נתן שפיגל. הוראטיוס - האיש ויצירתו. ירושלים, הוצאת הספרים ע"ש י"ל מאגנס האוניברסיטה העברית בירושלים (1978) בע"מ, תשמ"ד. מנחם שטרן – Menahem Stern, Greek and Latin Authors on Jews and Judaism, Jerusalem, 1976, Vol. I: XLV. Horace, pp. 321-327 קישורים חיצוניים[עריכת קוד מקור | עריכה] מיזמי קרן ויקימדיה ציטוטים בוויקיציטוט: הורטיוס טקסט בוויקיטקסט: קטגוריה:הורטיוס תמונות ומדיה בוויקישיתוף: הורטיוס כתבי הורטיוס בפרויקט בן-יהודה יואב רינון, האיש שחיבר את השיר המושלם ביותר בשפה הלטינית, באתר הארץ, 16 באוגוסט 2013. אריק גלסנר, על "האיגרות", של הוראטיוס, באתר "מבקר חופשי", 26 בפברואר 2015, פורסם במקור במדור לספרות ב"7 לילות" של "ידיעות אחרונות". מבחר שירה / הוראטיוס בתרגום יהושע פרידמן. הורטיוס, האודות, ספר 1, באתר הארץ, שיר 5, בתרגום יהושע פרידמן, שלמה דיקמן ורחל בירנבוים. הורטיוס, האודות, ספר 1, דבר, 4 באפריל 1966, שיר 11, בתרגום שלמה דיקמן. הורטיוס, האודות, ספר 3, שיר 30 בתרגום מאיר הלוי לטריס. אהוביה כהנא, הוראטיוס, לגמרי בן זמננו, באתר הארץ, 19 בינואר 2015 (ביקורת על התרגום לעברית של "האיגרות"). מבחר שירים של הורטיוס, מתוך האתר של שמעון בוזגלו. הורטיוס, באתר אנציקלופדיה בריטניקה (באנגלית) הערות שוליים[עריכת קוד מקור | עריכה] ^ נתן שפיגל, הוראטיוס: האיש ויצירתו (ירושלים: מאגנס, תשמ"ד) עמ' 26 ^ 1 2 רחל בירנבאום, הוראטיוס: שירים (האודות) (ירושלים: מוסד ביאליק, 1998) עמ' 3  ^ נתן שפיגל, הוראטיוס: האיש ויצירתו עמ' 29 ^ רחל בירנבאום, הוראטיוס: שירים (האודות) עמ' 3 ^ נתן שפיגל, הוראטיוס: האיש ויצירתו עמ' 39 ^ נתן שפיגל, הוראטיוס: האיש ויצירתו עמ' 41 ^ 1 2 רחל בירנבאום, הוראטיוס: שירים (האודות) עמ' 3  ^ נתן שפיגל, הוראטיוס: האיש ויצירתו, עמ' 42 ^ רחל בירנבאום, הוראטיוס: שירים (האודות) עמ' 8  ^ נתן שפיגל, הוראטיוס: האיש ויצירתו, עמ' 30 ^ נתן שפיגל, הוראטיוס: האיש ויצירתו, עמ' 111 ^ רחל בירנבאום, הוראטיוס: שירים (האודות) עמ' 8-9 ^ טור 359 Bonus dormitat Homerus ^ נתן שפיגל, הוראטיוס: האיש ויצירתו עמ' 133-135 ^ 1 2 Menahem Stern, Greek and Latin Authors on Jews and Judaism, Vol. I: XLV. Horace, p. 321 ^ דבורה גילולה, הלצות על יהודים בספרות הרומית (מחקרי ירושלים בפולקלור יהודי, כרך תשמ"ו), א. הורטיוס, עמ' 8. ^ Horace, Sermons, I, 4: 139-143; הוראטיוס הסטירות, סטירה א 4, שורות 140–143, עמ' 70. תרגמה מרומית: רחל בירנבאום. ^ פטר שפר, יודופוביה, פרק 6 גיור, הורטיוס, עמ' 161-160. ^ Horace, Sermons, I, 5: 96-104; הוראטיוס הסטירות, סטירה א 5, שורות 100–101, עמ' 82. תרגמה מרומית: רחל בירנבאום. ^ Horace, Sermons, I, 9: 60-78; הוראטיוס הסטירות, סטירה א 9, שורות 60–78, עמ' 110–111. תרגמה מרומית: רחל בירנבאום. ^ 1 2 Menahem Stern, Greek and Latin Authors on Jews and Judaism, Vol. I: XLV. Horace, p. 325-326 ^ פטר שפר, יודופוביה, פרק 4 שבת, עמ' 126. ^ דבורה גילולה, הלצות על יהודים בספרות הרומית (מחקרי ירושלים בפולקלור יהודי, כרך תשמ"ו), א. הורטיוס, עמ' 14. ^ Horace, Epistulae, II, 2 :183-189; הוראטיוס, האיגרות, איגרת ב 2, טור 184, עמ' 190. תרגמה מרומית: רחל בירנבאום. בקרת זהויות BIBSYS: 90055203 BNC: 000035928 BNE: XX891549 BnF: cb11886570b (data) CANTIC: a10101214 CiNii: DA00782980 GND: 118553569 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\000246 ISNI: 0000 0001 2145 2178 LCCN: n79081354 LNB: 000000375 MusicBrainz: af616f1f-6242-4802-a1bf-8d3f0647083c NDL: 00540086 NKC: jn20000603003 NLA: 35206138 NLG: 62641 NLI: 000064806 NLK: KAC199612791 NLP: A11793144 NSK: 000013522 NTA: 068304579 RERO: 02-A000081296 RSL: 000083136 SELIBR: 189659 SNAC: w6pk0m9c SUDOC: 026659166 Trove: 864697 ULAN: 500404135 VcBA: 495/53093 VIAF: 100227522 WorldCat: lccn-n79081354 אוחזר מתוך "https://he.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=הורטיוס&oldid=29469385" קטגוריות: משוררים רומאים רומאים בתקופת הקיסרות אישים שהונצחו על בולי רומניה ונוסה אישים שחיו במאה ה-1 לפנה"ס קטגוריות מוסתרות: ויקינתונים - השוואת ערכים: מתאים ויקינתונים - השוואת ערכים: מתאים: מקום לידה ויקינתונים - השוואת ערכים: מתאים: מקום פטירה ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה BIBSYS ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה BNC ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה BNE ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה BNF ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה CANTIC ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה CINII ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה GND ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה ICCU ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה ISNI ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה LCCN ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה LNB ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה MusicBrainz ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה NDL ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה NKC ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה NLA ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה NLG ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה NLI ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה NLK ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה NLP ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה NSK ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה NTA ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה RERO ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה RSL ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה SELIBR ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה SNAC-ID ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה SUDOC ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה Trove ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה ULAN ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה VcBA ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה VIAF ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה WORLDCATID בקרת זהויות עם 30 פריטים דף זה נערך לאחרונה ב־05:19, 8 באוקטובר 2020. הטקסט מוגש בכפוף לרישיון Creative Commons ייחוס-שיתוף זהה 3.0; ייתכן שישנם תנאים נוספים. ר' את תנאי השימוש לפרטים. מדיניות הפרטיות אודות ויקיפדיה הבהרות משפטיות תצוגת מכשירים ניידים מפתחים סטטיסטיקות הצהרה על עוגיות 
ftl-toolforge-org-9829	----	Horace | The Online Books Page The Online Books Page Online Books by Horace Online books about this author are available, as is a Wikipedia article. Horace: The Art of Poetry: An Epistle to the Pisos (in Latin and English), ed. by George Colman (Gutenberg text) Horace: The Art of Poetry: The Poetical Treatises of Horace, Vida, and Boileau, With the Translations by Howes, Pitt, and Soame (Boston et al.: Ginn and Co., c1892), also by Marco Girolamo Vida and Nicolas Boileau Despréaux, ed. by Albert S. Cook, trans. by Francis Howes, Christopher Pitt, and William Soame (multiple formats at Google; US access only) Horace: Echoes From the Sabine Farm, trans. by Eugene Field and Roswell Martin Field Gutenberg text and illustrated HTML page images at MOA Horace, contrib.: Memorial Day, and Other Verse (Original and Translated) (Boston: De Wolfe and Fiske Co., c1917), by Helen Leah Reed (Gutenberg text) Horace: The Odes and Carmen Saeculare of Horace, Translated Into English Verse (third edition), trans. by John Conington (Gutenberg text) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus; Mit Vorzugsweiser Rücksicht Auf die Unechten Stellen und Gedichte (Latin text with German commentary; Leipzig: F. C. W. Vogel, 1869), ed. by Karl Lehrs page images at HathiTrust page images in Germany Horace: The Satires, Epistles, and Art of Poetry of Horace, Translated Into English Verse, trans. by John Conington (Gutenberg text) Horace: The Works of Horace, ed. by C. Smart and Theodore Alois Buckley (HTML with commentary at Perseus) Help with reading books -- Report a bad link -- Suggest a new listing Additional books from the extended shelves: Horace: ... The Odes and Epodes of Horace, (Boston, Ginn & company, 1894), ed. by Clement Lawrence Smith (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: (Werke) / (Berling, 1884-1889) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: 24 Oden des Horas, (Pless, 1885), trans. by Wiesner (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: 24 Oden des Horaz [microform] / (Pless [Poland] : Druck von A. Krummer, 1885), also by Oberlehrer Wiesner (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: [Dai libri Carminum III, 2.] ([n.p.] S. Calderini e figlio, 1887), trans. by Francesco Cassoli (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: [Oden en epoden; (Leiden, E.J. Brill, 1885]), also by W. G. van der Weerd (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: [Opera] (Gotha, Perthes, 1888-1905), also by Conrad Wilhelm Gustav Wegehaupt and Emil Rosenberg, ed. by K. O. Breithaupt (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: [Opera]; (Dresdae, 1832), ed. by C. D. Jani (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: [Opera] / (Berlin : Weidmann, 1886-90), also by Adolf Kiessling (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: [Opera] / (Lipsiae, 1855), also by Franz Pauly (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: [Q. Horatii Flacci] Eclogal, (Londini, G. et W.B. Whittaker, etc., 1822) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: [Q. Horatii Flacci] Opera omnia. (Oxonii; Londini, J. Parker et Soc., 1873) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: [Quinti Horatii Flacci] Opera. (Londini, W. Innys, etc., 1752) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: [The first two satires or] poesyes of Horace [translated into English] meeter by Levvis Euans schoolemayster. ([London] : Imprynted at London in Fletestreate beneath the Conduite, at the sygne of S. Iohn Euangelyst, by Thomas Colwell, [1565?]), also by Lewis Evans (HTML at EEBO TCP) Horace: [The] works [of Horace], (Cambridge [Mass.], Sever and Francis, 1866), ed. by Reginald H. Chase and A. J. Macleane (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: [The] works [of Horace.] (Cambridge, [Mass.], J. Bartlett, 1857) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: [Werke] / (Berlin, 1906-1908), also by Richard Heinze and Adolf Gotlieb Kiessling (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Ad codices saeculi noni decimique exactum commentario critico et exegetico illustratum; (Leipzig, W. Englemann, 1856-57) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Algunas odas, (Me xico : Impr. de Escalante, 1899 [cover 1900]), also by Fr. Du bner and Joaqui n Demetric Casasus (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Algunas odas, tr. en verso castellano por Joaquín D. Casasus. (México : Impr. de Escalante, 1899 [cover 1900]), also by Fr. Dübner, trans. by Joaquín D. Casasús (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Ars poetica ... (1888), trans. by Theodor Kayser (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Ars poetica des Horaz übersetzt und erlautert [microform], (Stuttgart, Liebich, 1888), also by Theodor Kayser (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Ars poetica. English (London : Printed for Henry Herringman ..., 1680), also by Wentworth Dillon Roscommon and Edmund Waller (HTML at EEBO TCP) Horace: Ars poetica. English (London : Printed by I. Okes, for Iohn Benson, 1640), also by Ben Jonson and William Marshall (HTML at EEBO TCP) Horace: The art of poetry of Horace / (Edinburgh ; London : William Blackwood and Sons, 1880), also by Daniel Bagot (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The art of poetry; the poetical treaties of Horace, Vida, and Boileau, with the translations by Howes, Pitt, and Soame. (New York, G. E. Stechert & Co., 1892), also by Albert S. Cook, Nicolas Boileau Despréaux, and Marco Girolamo Vida, trans. by William Soames, Christopher Pitt, and Francis Howes (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The art of poetry; the poetical treatises of Horace Vida, and Boileau (Boston, Ginn & company, 1892), also by Albert S. Cook, Nicolas Boileau Despréaux, and Marco Girolamo Vida, trans. by William Soames, Christopher Pitt, and Francis Howes (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The art of poetry : the poetical treatises of Horace, Vida and Boileau with the translations by Howes, Pitt, and Soame / (Boston : Ginn, 1892), also by Albert S. Cook, Nicolas Boileau Despréaux, and Marco Girolamo Vida (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Art poétique. (Paris, L. Hachette et cie., 1858) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Art poétique. (Paris, Hachette et cie, 1873), also by E. Taillefert (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Art poétique (Paris, Hachette et cie, 1877), also by E. Taillefert (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Art poétique. (Paris, Hachett et cie, 1882) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Art poétique ... (Paris, Hachette, 1841), trans. by Bon Le Camus (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Art poétique. Texte latin publié d'apres les travaux les plus récents de la philologie avec un commentaire critique et explicatif et une introduction (Paris, Hachette, 1886), ed. by Maurice Albert (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Arte poe tica de Horacio / (Madrid : Imprenta Moderna, 1901), trans. by Dolores Gorta zar Serantes (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Arte poetica de Horacio Flacco,/ (Lisboa: Rollandiana, 1778), trans. by Francisco José Freire (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Arte poetica de Q. Horacio Flacco / (Lisboa : Na Officina patriarcal de F. L. Ameno, 1758), also by Francisco José Friere (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Arte poética de Quinto Horacio Flacco. Epístola a los Pisones. (Madrid, J. Pueyo, 1923) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Arte poetica; ou, Epistola de Q. Horacio Flacco aos Pisoes. (Lisboa, Na Officina de S.T. Ferreira, 1794), ed. by Joaquim José da Costa e Sa (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Aulus Persius Flaccus, his satyres. (London : printed for W.R. and J.W., 1652), also by Persius, T. H., and Barten Holyday (HTML at EEBO TCP) Horace: Ausgewèalte Lieder des Horatius in deutscher Nachbildung (Kempten, K. bayr. Studienanstalt, 1878), also by Albert Kellerbauer (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Ausgewählte Lieder des Horatius [microform] / (Stadtamhof : Druck von J. & K. Mayr, [1899]), also by Alphous Steinberger (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Ausgewälte Lieder des Horatius [microform] / (Kempten : Druckerei J. Hartmann, 1878), also by Albert Kellerbauer (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Auswahl römischer Satyren und Epigramme, (Stuttgart, A. Krabbe, 1841), also by Ludwig Bauer, Persius, Martial, and Juvenal (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: A book of satires / (Woodstock [Vermont] : Elm Tree Press, 1916) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Bréf Hórazar / (Reykjavík : Ísafoldarprentsmiðja, 1886), trans. by Jón Þorkelsson and Gísli Magnússon (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Brief an die Pisonen; oder, Beweis, dass dichten eine kunst sei; (Stargard, 1834), trans. by Gotthilf Samuel Falbe (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Brief an die Pisonen, oder, Beweis dass dichten eine kunst sei [microform]... (Stargard, Hendess, 1834), trans. by Gotthilf Samuel Falbe (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Briefe, (Leipzig, Weidmann, 1816), also by Christoph Martin Wieland (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Briefe (Leipzig, Weidmann, 1790), trans. by Christoph Martin Wieland (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Briefe / (Berlin : Weidmann, 1914), also by Richard Heinze (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Briefe / (Berlin : Weidmann, 1889), also by Adolf Kiessling (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Briefe, aus dem lateinischen übersezt und mit historischen einleitungen und andern nöthigen erläuterungen versehen (Leipzig, In der Weidmannischen Buchhandlung, 1801), trans. by Christoph Martin Wieland (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Carmina; (Lipsiae, in aedibvs B. G. Tevbneri, 1897.), ed. by Lucian Müller (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Carmina, (Parisiis, apud J. Barbou, 1774) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Carmina; (Leipzig, Teubner, 1879) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Carmina. (Lipsiae, in aedibus B. G. Tevbneri, 1893), ed. by Lucian Müller (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Carmina; (Lipsiae, B. G. Teubneri, 1881) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Carmina. (Lipsiae, B.G. Tevbner, 1898) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Carmina; (Lipsiae, in aedibvs B. G. Tevbneri, 1907) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Carmina; (Lipsiae, in aedibvs B. G. Tevbneri, 1908), ed. by Friedrich Vollmer (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Carmina. (Chicago, T. MacCoun, etc., etc., 1882) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Carmina (Berolini, Apud Weidmannos, 1892), also by Martin Hertz (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Carmina / (Lipsiae : B. G. Teubneri, 1904), also by Lucian Müller (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Carmina ... / (London : Whittaker, 1890), also by A. J. Macleane (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Carmina / (Lipsiae : B.G. Teubneri, 1903), also by Lucian Müller (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Carmina [microform], (Amstelodami, apud Fredericum Muller, 1862) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Carmina, carefully revised. (Montreal, Armour, 1849) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Carmina. English. Selections (London : Printed by H[umphrey] L[ownes] for Richard Moore; and are to be solde at his shop in Saint Dunstans Church-yard, in Fleet-street, 1621), also by John Ashmore (HTML at EEBO TCP) Horace: Carmina et Epodon liber; (Stockholm, P.A. Norstedt, [1888]), ed. by Anders Frigell (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Carmina expurgata, (Parisiis, Barbou, 1728), also by Joseph de Jouvency (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Carmina expurgata. Ab mendis denuo mundata & notis illustrata, auctore Josepho Juvencio. (Venetiis, apus J. Orlandelli, 1806) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Carmina expurgata notis Jos. Juventii et aliorum ... (Catabrigiae, C. Hilliard, 1806) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Carmina lyrica [Odes and Epodes]. (Carolstadii, 1872), also by N. G. Ljungberg (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Carmina; oden und epoden. (Paderborn., etc., 1890), also by K. K. Küster (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Carmina recensvit varietate lectionis et perpetva adnotatione illvstravit M. Christianvs David Iani ... (Lipsiae, svmptibvs F.C.G. Vogelii, 1809) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Carminum liber i-[iv] (London, etc., Macmillan and Co., 1895-96, '87), also by T. E. Page (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Carminum, liber I-IV / (Cambridge, [Eng.] : University Press, 1895-1896), also by James Gow (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Carminum liber III. (London, Macmillan, 1885), also by T. E. Page (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Carminum, liber IV; (London, Macmillan, 1905), also by T. E. Page (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Caroli de la Rue e Societate Jesu, Idyllia. (Parisiis, apud Simonem Benard..., 1672), also by Charles de La Rue, Simon Benard, Louis Coquin, and Pierre Corneille (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Causes of Scotland's miseries a poem in imitation of the VI. Ode of the third book of Horace. (Edinburgh : Printed by James Watson ..., 1700) (HTML at EEBO TCP) Horace: The classical student's translation of Horace; (London, Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans, 1844), also by Henry Philip Haughton (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Coleccion de obras en verso y prosa / (Madrid : Benito Cano, 1787), also by Tomás de Iriarte and Virgil (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Commento metrico a XIX Odi di Orazio Flacco di metro rispettivamente diverso [microform], col testo relativo conforme alle migliori edizioni, (Torino, Loescher, 1881), also by Ettore Stampini (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The complete works of Horace, (London, J. M. Dent & sons, ltd.; New York, E.P. Dutton & co., [1911, reprinted 1931]), also by Christopher Smart, Wentworth Dillon Roscommon, and John Marshall (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The complete works of Horace : the original text reduced to the natural English order, with a literal interlinear translation. (New York : A. Hinds, 1894) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Da Orazio e da Marziale. Luoghi scelti ad illustrazione del costume romano, (Torino [etc.] G. B. Paravia & c., [1924]), also by Martial, ed. by Paolo Fabbri (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Daily thoughts from Horace / (London : G. Bell, 1907), also by Frederick Henry Watkins (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Darstellung des philosophischen standpunktes des Horaz. (Kremsier, H. Gusek, 1888), also by Karl Maier (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: De arte poëtica; ([Vienna], 1827) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: De arte poetica liber. (London, 1850.) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: De epodo Horatii Cataleptis Vergilii inserto / (Budapestini : Sumptibus Academiæ Litterarum Hungaricæ, 1908), also by Géza Némethy (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: De Horatii itinere Brundisino [microform] / (Freiberg : Wolf, 1853), also by Werner Proessel (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: De verborum compositorum apud Horatium structura: dissertatio inauguralis quam ... (Halis Saxonum, Colbatzky, 1885), also by Ludwig Alex Ferdinand Teetz (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Debita Flacco. Echoes of Ode and Epode, (London, Printed at the Chiswick Press for private distribution, 1891), also by Edward Henry Pember, Horace. Works. Selections. Latin (Pember) 1891, Horace. Works. Selections. Latin (Pember), Horace. Works. Selections. 1891, and Chiswick Press. prt (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Dell' arte poetica : epistola di Q. Orazio Flacco a' Pisoni / (Firenze : Il Diaspro, [1993]), also by Pietro Metastasio (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Delle opere di Q. Orazio Flacco, (Napoli, Dalla Stamperia francese, 1826) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Delle opere di Q. Orazio Flacco, recate in versi italiani ... ([Napoli, dalla Stamperia Reale, 1820]), also by Tommaso Gargallo and Italy) Stamperia reale (Naples (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: ...Der einfluss der Ars poetica des Horaz auf die deutsche litteratur des XVIII. jahrhunderts, von J. Bintz. (Hamburg :, 1892) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Des Horatius Flaccus Sämmtliche lyrische Dichtungen. (Halberstadt, H. Vogler, 1820), also by Klamer Eberhard Carl Schmidt (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Des Horaz Brief an die Pisonen, oder, über die Dichtkunst, als Einleitung in die Aesthetik, für Schulen und für gebildete Überhaupt. (Berlin, Posen, Bromberg, Ernst Siegfried Mittler, 1836), also by August Arnold (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Des Horaz dichtkunst / (Berlin, 1867) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Des Q. Horatius Flaccus Brief an die Pisonen ... (Lüneburg, 1844), trans. by Constantin Schmalfuss (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Des Q. Horatius Flaccus Episteln / (Leipzig : In der Hahn'schen Verlags-Buchhandlung, 1833), also by Franz Ludwig Carl Friederich Passow (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Des Q. Horatius Flaccus Episteln und Buch von den Dichtkunst, (Berlin. Verlag von I. Guttenrag., 1869), also by Otto Ribbeck (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Des Q. Horatius Flaccus Oden und Epoden. (Leipzig, Druck und Verlag von B. G. Teubner., 1871), also by Horace. Epodae and C. W. Nauck (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Des Q. Horatius Flaccus Oden und epoden. (Leipzig, B.G. Teubner, 1880) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Des Q. Horatius Flaccus Oden und epoden. (Leipzig, B.G. Teubner, 1876) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Des Q. Horatius Flaccus Oden und epoden; für den schulgebrauch erklärt, (Leipzig, Teubner, 1894) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Des Q. Horatius Flaccus Oden und Epoden : für den Schulgebrauch erklärt / (Jena : F. Mauke, 1856), also by Lobegott Samuel Obbarius and Friedrich August Theodor Obbarius (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Des Q. Horatius Flaccus sämmtliche Werke für den Schulgebrauch / (Leipzig : Druck und verlag von B.G. Teubner, 1871-), also by C. W. Nauck (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Des Q. Horatius Flaccus Sämmtliche Werke für den Schulgebrauch erklar̈t. (Leipzig : B. G. Teubner, 1856), also by C. W. Nauck and G. T. A. Krüger (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Des Q. Horatius Flaccus Sämmtliche Werke für den Schulgebrauch erklar̈t. (Leipzig : B. G. Teubner, 1863), also by C. W. Nauck and G. T. A. Krüger (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Des Q. Horatius Flaccus Sämmtliche Werke für den Schulgebrauch erklar̈t. (Leipzig : B.G. Teubner, 1889-1894), also by Gustav Krüger, G. T. A. Krüger, and C. W. Nauck (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Des Q. Horatius Flaccus Sämmtliche Werke für den Schulgebrauch erklärt. (Leipzig, B. G. Teubner, 1876-1879), also by Gustav Krüger and Carl Wilhelm Nauck, ed. by Georg Theodor August Krüger (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Des Q. Horatius Flaccus Sämmtliche Werke für den Schulgebrauch erklar̈t. (Leipzig : B. G. Teubner, 1860), also by C. W. Nauck and G. T. A. Krüger (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Des Q. Horatius Flaccus sämmtliche werke für den schulgebrauch erklärt ... (Leipzig, B. G. Teubner, 1856), also by C. W. Nauck, ed. by Georg Theodor August Krüger (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Des Q. Horatius Flaccus sämmtliche werke für den schulgebrauch erklärt ... (Leipzig, B.G. Teubner, 1863), also by C. W. Nauck, ed. by Georg Theodor August Krüger (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Des Q. Horatius Flaccus Sämmtliche Werke für den Schulgebrauch erklar̈t ... [Hrsg.] von Dr. C.W. Nauck ... (Leipzig : B.G. Teubner, 1882-), also by C. W. Nauck (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Des Q. Horatius Flaccus sammtliche werke ...v.1, 2:2 fur den schulgebrauch erklart. (Leipzig, 1908-1910) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Des Q. Horatius Flaccus sämtliche werke für den schulgerauch erklärt. (Leipzig : B. G. Teubner, 1882-), also by C. W. Nauck (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Des Q. Horatius Flaccus sämtliche werke. Oden und Epoden / (Leipzig : B.G. Teubner, 1915), also by Paul Hoppe and C. W. Nauck (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Des Q. Horatius Flaccus Satiren, (Leipzig, Friedrich Ludwig Herbig., 1859), also by Ludwig von Doederlein and Ludwig Friedrich Heindorf (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Des Q. Horatius Flaccus Satiren, (Leipzig, Herbig, 1843), also by Karl Gottlob Zumpt and Ludwig Friedrich Heindorf, ed. by Ernst Friedrich Wuestemann (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Des Q. Horatius Flaccus Satiren, (Stuttgart : Verlag der J.B. Metzler'schen Buchhandlung, 1852), also by W. S. Teuffel and Wilhelm Ernst Weber (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Des Q. Horatius Flaccus Satiren / (Stralsund : In der Loefflerschen Buchhandlung, 1829-), also by Karl Kirchner (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Des Q. Horatius Flaccus Satiren und episteln / (Leipzig : B. G. Teubner, 1872), also by G. T. A. Krüger (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Des Q. Horatius Flaccus Satiren und episteln / (Leipzig : B.G. Teubner, 1894), also by Gustav Krüger and Georg Theodor August Krüger (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Des Q. Horatius Flaccus Satiren und Episteln : für den Schulgebrauch / (Leipzig : B.G. Teubner, 1879), also by Gustav Krüger, G. T. A. Krüger, and Horace. Epistulae (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Des Q. Horatius Flaccus Satiren und Episteln : für den Schulgebrauch / (Leipzig : B.G. Teubner, 1876), also by G.T.A. Krüger, Gustav Krüger, and Horace. Epistulae (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Des Q. Horatius Flaccus Satiren und episteln; für den schulgebrauch erklärt (Leipzig, Teubner, 1894) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Des Q. Horatius Flaccus Satiren und Episteln für Schulgebrauch erklärt von Dr. G.T.A. Krüger. (Leipzig, B.G. Teubner, 1889), also by G. T. A. Krüger, ed. by Gustav Krüger (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Des Q. Horatius Flaccus Sermonen. (Leipzig, B.G. Teubner, 1875) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Des Q. Horatius Flaccus Werke : erklärende Schulausgabe / (Paderborn : F. Schöningh, 1868-69), also by Heinrich Düntzer (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Des Q. Horatius Werke. (Paderborn, Verlag von Ferdinand Schöningh., 1868), also by Heinrich Düntzer (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Des Q. Horazius Flakkus Werke (Stettin, J.S. Kaffke, 1801) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Des Qu. Horatius Flaccus erster brief des ersten buches. (Rudolstadt, 1822), also by Lobegott Samuel Obbarius (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Des Quintus Horatius Flaccus Buch u ber die Dichtkunst oder Brief an die Pisonen. (Passau : Pustet, 1824) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Des Quintus Horatius Flaccus buch uber die dichtkunst; oder Brief an die Pisonen. (Passau, 1824) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Des Quintus Horatius Flaccus Episteln / (Halberstadt, 1828-30), also by Friedrich Ernst Theodor Schmid (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Des Quintus Horatius Flaccus Satiren; (Breslau, Korn, 1815) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Des Quintus Horatius Flaccus Satiren / (Reutlingen : J.J. Mäcken, 1818), also by Ludwig Friedrich Heindorf (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Des Quintus Horatius Flaccus Werke, (Braunschweig, F. Vieweg, 1820), also by Johann Heinrich Voss (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Des Quintus Horatius Flaccus Werke / (Braunschweig : F. Vieweg, 1822), also by Johann Heinrich Voss (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Des Quintus Horatius Flaccus Werke / (Leipzig : Philipp Reclam, [18--?]) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Des Quintus Horatius Flakkus vier Bücher der oden in gereimter (Prenzlau, L. Ragoezysche buchhandlung, 1820), also by Karl Ludwig Kannegiesser (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Des Quintus Horativs Flaccus Werke / (Heidelberg : Bei Mohr und Zimmer, 1806), also by Johann Heinrich Voss (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Des Qvintvs Horativs Flaccvs Episteln / (Halberstadt : bei C. Brveggemann, 1828-30), also by Friedrich Ernst Theodor Schmid (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Diatrivē peri tēn Tinōn Ōidōn Horatiou Phlakkou tou lyrikou metaphrasin eis tēn hellēnikēn phōnēn. (En Petropolei : Alexandrou Plychartou, 1810) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Dichtkunst, op onze tyden, én éden gepast, (Amsterdam, 1681) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Dichtungen (Leipzig, F. A. Brockhaus, 1880), also by Johann Fischart, ed. by Karl Goedeke (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Die Aufgabe der ästhetischen Würdigung der Horazischen Gedichte [microform] / (Ostern : Gerloff, 1874), also by F. Teichmüller (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Die Briefe des Horaz an Augustus und Julius Florus [microform] / (Erlangen : Deichert, 1882), also by Friedrich List (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Die Briefe des Quintus Horatius Flaccus / (Leipzig : Druck und Verlag von B. G. Teubner, 1891), also by Otto Keller and Adolf Bacmeister (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Die Dichtkunst des Horaz; oder, Der Brief an die Pisonen. (Halle, 1860) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Die Epistel an die Pisonen (Über die dichtkunst) [microform] (Rostock, Druck von Adlers erben, 1890), trans. by Julius Kipper (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Die Episteln. (Rostock i/M., Volckmann & Jerosch, 1890), also by Julius Kipper (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Die episteln des Horatius Flaccus. Lateinisch und deutsch mit erlauterungen von F. S. Felbausch. (Leipzig :, 1860) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Die epistlen. (Leipzig, etc., 1860) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Die Gedichte des Q. Horatius Flaccus. (Leipzig : B.G. Teubner, 1896-99), also by Gustav Schimmelpfeng (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Die Gedichte des Q. Horatius Flaccus, (Stuttgart, J.B. Metzler, 1859-) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Die Gedichte des Q. Horatius Flaccus / (Leipzig : B.G. Teubner, 1913), also by Georg Schimmelpfeng and Gustav Schimmelpfeng (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Die Horazische lyrik und deren kritik. (Tübingen : Fues, 1876), also by W. S. Teuffel (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Die Horazischen Metren : in deutschen Kompositionen des XVI. Jahrhunderts : mit Notenbeilagen / (Leipzig : Breitkopf & Härtel, 1887), also by Rochus Liliencron, Paul Hofhaimer, Ludwig Senfl, and Petrus Tritonius (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Die Horazischen Metren'in deutschen Kompositionen des XVI. Jahrhunderts. (Leipzig, Breitkopf & Härtel, 1887), ed. by Rochus Liliencron (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Die Lebensweisheit des Horaz. Eine übersichtliche Zusammenstellung der schönsten Sentenzen aus den Werken desselben ... (Leipzig, B.G. Teubner, 1869), also by Theodor Vogel (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Die Oden des Horaz (Berlin, G. Reimer, 1901), also by Carl Georg Leopold Staedler (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Die Oden des Horaz im Reimstrophen verdeutscht und zu einem Lebensbilde des Dichters geordnet (Berlin, G. Reimer, 1901), also by Karl Staedler (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Die Oden des Horaz : in deutscher Sprache / (Berlin : W. Borngräber, [1916?]), also by Vincenz Hundhausen (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Die Oden des Quintus Horatius Flaccus. (Berlin, K. Geheimen Ober-hofbuchdruckerei (R.v. Decker), 1866), also by Ferdinand Otto Nordenflycht (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Die Oden und Epoden des Horaz : für Freunde klassischer Bildung, besonders für die Primaner unserer Gymnasien / (Berlin : Langenscheidt, [1899]), also by Hermann Menge (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Die Oden und Epoden des Horaz : für Freunde klassischer Bildung, besonders für die Primaner unserer Gymnasien / (Berlin : Langenscheidt, c1910), also by Horace. Epodae. German and Hermann Menge (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Die Oden und Epoden des Horaz : für Freunde klassischer Bildung, besonders für die Primaner unserer Gymnasien / (Berlin : Langenscheidtsche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1904), also by Hermann Menge (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Die Oden und Epoden des Q. Horatius Flaccus; (Gotha, F.A. Perthes, 1898), also by Horace. Epodae and Horace. Carmina (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Die Oden und Epoden des Q. Horatius Flaccus; (Gotha, F.A. Perthes, 1898) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Die Oden und epoden des Q. Horatius Flaccus [microform]; (Gotha, F. A. Perthes, 1898), ed. by Emil Rosenberg (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Die Oden und Epoden Für den Schulgebranch; (Gotha, Perthes, 1890) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Die satiren und episteln des Quintus Horatius Flaccus / (Berlin : F. Dümmler (Harrwitz und Gossmann), 1867), also by Eduard Munk (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Die Satyren. (Breslau, 1881) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Die Sermonen des Q. Horatius Flaccus. (Berlin, Weidmann, 1907), also by C. Bardt (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Die Sermonen des Q. Horatius Flaccus; (Berlin, Weidmann, 1914), trans. by C. Bardt (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Die sieben und dreissigste ode im ersten buche des Hiraz (Kleopatra). (Essen, [1871]) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Die wiederholungen bei Horaz ... (Güstrow, [1903]), also by Th. Fritzsche (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Dionysii Lambini Monstroliensis regii professoris, In Q. Horatium Flaccum ex fide atque auctoritate complurium librorum manuscriptorum / (Francofurti ad Moenum : Ex officina typographica Andreae Wecheli., 1577), also by Andreas Wechel and Denys Lambin (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Disputatio de loco Q. Horatii Fl. satir. I. 6, 42-44. (Paderborn, Junfermann, 1847), also by J. B. Ahlemeyer (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Disputatio philologico-critica de Q. Horatii Flacci Epistola ad Pisones... (Amstelodami, apud H. Diederiks, 1806), also by David Jacob van Lennep (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Donee gratus eram tibi. : Nachdichtungen aus drei jahrhunderten ... ([Berlin : R. Boll, 1890]), also by Johann Imelmann (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Dos Q. Horatius Flaccus episteln und buch von der dichtkunst, mit einleitung und kritischen bemerkungen (Berlin, Guttentag, 1869), also by Horace. Ars poetica, ed. by Otto Ribbeck (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Drammi di Pietro Metastasio ... (Livorno : Tip. di G.P. Pozzolini, 1825-32), also by Pietro Metastasio and Juvenal (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Drei episteln des Q. Horatius Flaccus I.6.10.16 lateinsich und deutsch (Prag, 1885) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Drei episteln des Q. Horatius Flaccus I.6.10.16 lateinsich und deutsch (Parg, 1885) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Drei Satiren des Horaz, die erste, dritte und neunte des ersten buches, hexametrisch üebers. ... (Breslau, 1829), trans. by Karl Wilhelm Geisheim (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Dritte Satire des zweiten Buches [microform] : probe einer Schulausgabe der Satiren und Episteln des Horaz / (Braunschweig : Friedrich Otto, 1852), also by G. T. A. Krüger and Braunschweig. Obergymnasium. Programm (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Dritte Satire des zweiten Buches; probe einer Schulausgabe der Satiren und Episteln des Horaz ... (Braunschweig, Friedrich Otto, 1852), also by G. T. A. Krüger and Braunschweig. Obergymnasium. Programm (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Dritte Satire lateinisch u. deutsch mit Rechtfertigungen ([n.p.], 1827), also by C. Passow (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Dritte satire, lateinisch und deutsch, (Berlin, T.H. Riemann, 1827), also by Carl Passow (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Echoes from Horace in English verse. (Toronto University Press, 1922), also by Edward Douglas Armour (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Echoes from the Sabine farm, (New York, C. Scribner's sons, 1895), trans. by Roswell Martin Field and Eugene Field (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Echoes from the Sabine farm. (New York : Scribner, 1899, c1895), also by Eugene Field (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Echoes from the Sabine farm, (Chicago, A. C. McClurg and company, 1893), trans. by Roswell Martin Field and Eugene Field (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Echoes from the Sabine farm / (New York : C. Scribner's Sons, 1909, c1895), also by Roswell Martin Field and Eugene Field (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Echoes from the Sabine farm / (New York : Scribner's, 1904, c1895), also by Roswell Martin Field and Eugene Field (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Echoklänge aus Venusia ... (1862-65) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Echoklänge aus Venusia; Horazische dichtungen in deutscher liederform; (Celle, Schulze, 1862), also by Adelbert Herrmann (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Eclogae, (Lipsiae, Svmptibus librariae Hahnianae, 1815), also by Johann Carl Zeune, Johann Matthias Gesner, and William Baxter (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Eclogae : cum scholiis veteribus / (Lpz. : [s.n.], 1802) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Eclogæ, cum scholiis veteribus castigavit et notis illustravit Guilielmus Baxterus, varias lectiones et observationes (Londini, impensis J. Johnson, 1809) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Eclogae ex [Q. Horatii Flacci] poematibus. [Edited by K.G. and A.W. Zumpt.] (Philadelphia, Blanchard and Lea, 1854) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Eclogae ex Q. Horatii Flacci poematibus. (Philadelphia, Blanchard & Lea, 1854) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Eclogae ex Q. Horatii Flacci poematibus. (Philadelphia, Blanchard and Lea, 1852), also by A. W. Zumpt and Karl Gottlob Zumpt (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Eclogae ex Q. Horatii Flacci poematibus. (Philadelphia : Blanchard and Lea, 1852), also by A. W. Zumpt and Karl Gottlob Zumpt (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Eclogae ex Q. Horatii Flacci poematibus. (Philadelphia, Blanchard and Lea, 1853) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Eclogae ex Q. Horatii Flacci poematibus [microform]. (Philadelphia : Blanchard and Lea, 1852), also by A. W. Zumpt and Karl Gottlob Zumpt (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Eclogae Horatianae ... (1848, '43), also by Thomas Kerchever Arnold (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Eine Auswahl Horazischer Oden in jambisch-rhythmischer Uebersetzung [microform] / (Waldenburg i. Schl. [Walbrzych, Poland] : P. Schmidt's Druckerei, 1883), also by Dr Storch (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Einleitung und Proben einer neuen Uebersetzung der horazischen Lieder [microform] / (Trier : Fr. Lintz'sche Buchdr., 1865), also by Nicolaus Fritsch (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Emblemi di Q. Orazio Flacco / (Firenze : [s.n.], MDCCLXXVII [1777]), also by Otto van Veen and Stefano Mulinari (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Encore un a peu près des epîtres d'Horace. (Bruxelles, [1855]) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: An English paraphrase of Horace's Art of poetry, (New York, W.R. Jenkins, 1896), also by Abby Osborne Russell (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: English verse translations of selections from the Odes of Horace, the epigrams of Martial and other writers; to which are appended a few original pieces in English and Latin, ([Edinburgh] Priv. print. [R. & R. Clark, limited], 1920), also by Martial, trans. by Hubert Dynes Ellis (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Epigrammata Horace. English. Selections. 1653 (London : Printed by T.R. & E.M. :, And are to be sold by Joseph Barker ..., 1653), also by Henry Harflete and John Owen (HTML at EEBO TCP) Horace: Epistel an die Pisonen [microform]... (Lahr, Geiger, 1883), trans. by L. Durban (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Episteln, (Leipzig, 1833), trans. by Karl Friedrich Rudolf Passow (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Episteln in poln. metrischer Übersetzung ([n.p.], 1856), trans. by M. Motty (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Epistles and Ars poetica. (Oxford, etc., 1877) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Epistles and Art of poetry of Horace / (Edinburgh : W.P. Nimmo, 1872), trans. by Andrew Wood (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Epistles book ii, and Epistola ad Pisones, or Art of poetry. (London, 1880) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The Epistles of Horace, (Cambridge: at the University Press, 1888), also by Evelyn S. Shuckburgh (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The epistles of Horace, (London, New York, Macmillan and Co., 1892), also by Augustus S. Wilkins (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The epistles of Horace / (London : Macmillan and co., 1888 c1885), also by Augustus S. Wilkins (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The epistles of Horace, book I / (Cambridge [Eng.] : University Press, 1888), also by Evelyn S. Shuckburgh (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Epístola á los Pisones, tr. en prosa, anotada y dispuesta para uso de los alumnos de segunda enseñanza (Orense, A. Otero, 1894) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Epistola ad Augustum, (Groningae, W. van Boekeren, 1831), also by Hendrik Riedel (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Epistola ad Augustum with an English commentary and notes; to which is added a discourse concerning poetical imitation by the author of the commentary &c on the Epistle to the Pisos. (London, 1751) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Epistola ad Pisones / (Leidae : Hazenberg & Socios, 1845), also by Petrus Hofman Peerlkamp (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Epistolae ad Pisones et Augustum, with an English commentary and notes, (London, Thurlbourne, 1753) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Epistulae / (London : Macmillan, 1885), also by Augustus S. Wilkins (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Épitres. (Par. : [s.n.], 1900), also by Émile Teillefert (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Épîtres. (Paris, Hachette et Cie, 1868) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Épîtres. (Paris, Hachette et cie, 1875), also by E. Taillefert (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Epode II. (Dublin, Printed by G. Faulkner, 1754), also by Samuel Shepherd (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Epodes, (London, W. B. Clive, [1895?]), also by John Thompson (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The Epodes and carmen seculare of Horace, with a vocabulary, and some account of the Horatian metres &c. (London, Longmans, Green, and Co., 1883), also by Horace. Carmina and John T. White (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The Epodes and Carmen seculare. With a vocabulary and some account of the Horatian metres etc., (London, 1883) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Epodes of Horace. (London : Macmillan, 1898), also by Arthur Sanders Way (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The Epodes of Horace; tr. into English verse (London, Macmillan, 1898), also by Arthur Sanders Way (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The Epodes, Satires, and Epistles of Horace. (London : W. Pickering, 1845), also by C. Howes and Francis Howes (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Epodon liber / (London ; New York : Macmillan, 1895), ed. by T. E. Page (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Epodos : con la version literal y diferentes traducciones en las lenguas ibericas / (Madrid : Victoriano Suarez, [1910]), also by Cosme Parpal y Marqués (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Erste Satire, (Frankfurt am Main, Andreäischen Buchhandlung, 1830) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Federici Ceruti Veronensis In Q. Horatii Flacci Carmina, Epodos, Satyras, atque Epistolas paraphrasis. (Veronae, : Apud Hieronymum Discipulum, & fratres,, 1585), also by Hieronymus Discipulus and Federico Ceruti (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Fifty odes of Horace, (San Bernardino, Calif., Barnum & Flagg Company, 1920), also by William Hathorn Mills (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The first book of the Odes of Horace; with a vocabulary and some account of the Horatian metres &c. (London, Longmans, Green, 1887), ed. by John T. White (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The first book of the Satires ... (London, 1870) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The first book of the satires of Horace, in English verses. With illustrations from Rich's "Antiquities"; a life of Horace; and articles on the Roman house ... and Circus, (London, Longmans, Green, Reader & Dyer, 1870), also by Anthony Rich and Robert Millington (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Fünf Oden des Horaz in moderner deutscher Übertragung [microform] : mit Studien zu denselben und einem Vorwort / (Stadtamhof : Druck von J. & K. Mayr, [1886]), also by Johann Proschberger (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Gedancken von der dicht-kunst, (Lubeck, In verlegung seel. J.C. Schmidten wittwe, Gedruckt von J.N. Green, 1730), trans. by Karl Heinrich Lange (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Gedichte; in den Versmassen der Urschrift übersetz und erläutert (Stuttgart, Metzler, 1859-1860), also by W. S. Teuffel, W. C. Weber, and Gustav Ludwig (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Gli epodi d'Orazio (Firenze, 1905) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: ...Gli epodi e il carme secolare per opera de C. Chierichetti e R. Gatti; testo latino, traduzione poetica- traduzione letterale metrica-note. (Milano, 1911) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The Hawarden Horace (London : Smith, Elder & co., 1894), also by Charles L. Graves (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The Hawarden Horace / (London : Smith, Elder, 1897), also by Charles L. Graves (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Hawarden Horace / (London : Smith, Elder, 1895), also by Charles L. Graves (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Hieroglyphics, and other antiquities. In treating of which many favourite pieces of Butler, Shakespeare, and other great writers ... are put in a light now entirely of two hundred engravings in wood and cooper. (London, T. and J. Allman, 1816), also by Robert Deverell, Sophocles, Terence, Samuel Butler, and William Shakespeare (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Hints from the Works and days, or, Moral, economical and agricultural maxims and reflections of Hesiod. To which is added Praises of rural life, from Horace. (New York, Brentano, 1883), also by Hesiod (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace. (New York, Harper & brothers, 1835), trans. by Philip Francis (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace. (New York : Harper & bros., 1860), trans. by Philip Francis (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace. (New York, Harper & brothers, 1844), trans. by Philip Francis (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace, (London, W. Suttaby [etc.], 1806), also by Henry James Pye, trans. by Philip Francis (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace. (London, 1868) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horace. (L, Bell, 1888) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horace, (London, Longman, 1857-), also by John Eyre Yonge (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horace ... (Oxford : Clarendon press, 1903-1904), also by E. C. Wickham (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horace / (New York : Harper & Bros., 1842-1844) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace / (London : J.F. Dove, 1827), also by Henry James Pye and Philip Francis (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace / (London : Printed by A. J. Valpy, 1831), also by Phaedrus. Phaedrus : with the appendix of Gudius and Philip Francis (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace / (New York : Harper & Bro., 1846), also by Philip Francis (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace / (London : W. Suttaby, 1809), also by Henry James Pye and Philip Francis (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace / (Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1903-1904), ed. by E. C. Wickham (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horace [microform]: Quintus Horatius Flaccus ... the Roman poet presented to modern readers; (Woodstock, Vt., Elm Tree Press, 1908), ed. by John Cotton Dana and Charles L. Dana (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace. Art poétique. (Paris, Hachette et cie, 1900), also by E. Taillefert (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horace, épitres / (Paris : Hachette, 1911) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horace for English readers, being a translation of the poems of Quintus Horatius Flaccus into English prose (Oxford : Clarendon press, 1903), also by E. C. Wickham (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horace: his life, (New York, The Evening post job printing house, 1904), also by Clarence Gary (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace; his life, friendships and philosophy as told by himself in unrhymed metrical translation, (New York, The Evening post job printing house, 1904), trans. by Clarence Cary (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: "Horace in quantity," et caetera. (n.p.], 1895), also by O. A. S. (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horace, Juvénal et Perse. Oeuvres complètes, (Paris, J.J. Dubochet et ce, 1841), also by Persius. Works and Juvenal. Works (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace. Odes. (Paris, A. Lemerre, 1885), also by Ernest de Champglin (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horace: Odes and Art of poetry. (St. Louis, Blackwell Wielandy company, 1938), also by Horace. Ars poetica. English, trans. by John B. Quinn (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace, Odes and epodes (Boston, Sanborn, 1913), also by Gordon Jennings Laing, ed. by Paul Shorey (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace; Odes and epodes, (Boston, B. H. Sanborn & co., 1911), ed. by Gordon Jennings Laing and Paul Shorey (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace. Odes and epodes; (Boston, B. H. Sanborn & co., [1898]), also by Paul Shorey (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horace: Odes and epodes, (Boston, B. H. Sanborn & co., 1907), also by Paul Shorey (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace: Odes and epodes, (Boston : B.H. Sanborn & co., 1916), also by Gordon Jennings Laing and Paul Shorey (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace; Odes and epodes, (Boston, B.H. Sanborn & Co., 1906), also by Gordon Jennings Laing, ed. by Paul Shorey (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace; Odes and epodes, (Boston, B. H. Sanborn & co., 1910), also by Gordon Jennings Laing and Paul Shorey (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace; Odes and epodes; (Boston : B. H. Sanborn & co., 1901, c1898), also by Paul Shorey (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace, Odes and epodes / (Boston : Allyn and Bacon, c1901), also by Charles E. Bennett (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace: Odes and Epodes; a study in poetic word-order, (Cambridge [Eng.] The University press, 1922), also by Henry Darnley Naylor (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace: of the art of poetry: a poem (London, Printed and sold by H. Hills, 1709), also by Wentworth Dillon Roscommon (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace: Quintus Horatius Flaccus. The letters of Horace presented to modern readers, (Woodstock, Vt., Elm Tree Press, 1911), also by John Cotton Dana and Charles Loomis Dana (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horace: Quintus Horatius Flaccus ... the Roman poet presented to modern readers; (Woodstock, Vt., Elm Tree Press, 1908), ed. by John Cotton Dana and Charles Loomis Dana (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace. Satires. (Paris, 1873) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace; Satires and Epistles, (Boston, B.H. Sanborn & co., 1893), also by James H. Kirkland (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace : satires and epistles / (Boston, B. H. Sanborn & Co., 1915, c1893), also by James Hampton Kirkland (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace : satires and epistles / (Boston : B.H. Sanborn & Co., 1900, c1893), also by James H. Kirkland (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horace. Satires, Epistles, and Ars poetica, (London, Crosby Lockwood & co., 1878) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace talks; a translation (Norwood, Mass. : Plimpton Press, [c1940]), trans. by Henry Harmon Chamberlin (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace. The Epistles; (New York, American book co., [c1911]), also by E. P. Morris (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace: the Epistles. (London, W.B. Clive, [1893]), also by Frank Percy Shipham and F. G. Plaistowe (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horace. The Epistles. (New York, Cincinnati [etc.] American book company, [1911]), also by Edward Parmelee Morris (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace, the greatest of lyric poets; (Des Moines, Iowa [W. Greenwodd], 1907), also by William Greenwood (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace, the Odes and Epodes, (London, W. Heinemann; New York, The Macmillan Co., 1914), also by Charles E. Bennett (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horace, The Odes and Epodes, (London, W. Heinemann; New York, G. P. Putnam's sons, [1914]), also by Charles E. Bennett (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horace, the Odes and Epodes / (London : W. Heinemann; New York : G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1918), trans. by Charles E. Bennett (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horace : the Odes and Epodes / (New York : American Book Company, c1902), also by Edward Parmelee Morris and Clifford Herschel Moore (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace: The odes, Carmen seculare, and epodes. (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1887), also by E. C. Wickham (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace; the Odes, Epodes and Carmen saeculare, (New York, Cincinnati [etc.] American book company, [c1902]), also by Clifford Herschel Moore (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horace; the Odes, Epodes and Carmen saeculare, (New York, Cincinnati [etc.] : American Book Company, [c1902]), also by Clifford Herschel Moore (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace : the Odes, Epodes and Carmen saeculare / (New York : American book co., 1902) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace: the Odes, Epodes, Satires, and Epistles. (London, C. A. Pearson, limited, 1899) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horace : the odes, epodes, satires and epistles / (London ; New York : Frederick Warne, 1892) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horace; the satires, (New York, Cincinnati [etc.] American Book Company, [c1909]), ed. by Edward Parmelee Morris (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace. The satires. (New York : Cincinnati ; American book company, 1909) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace : traduction en vers / (Paris : Librarie des bibliophiles, 1873-1874), also by Henry Siméon (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace: Wuintus Horatius Flaccus ... (Woodstock, Vt., The Elm tree press, 1911), also by Charles Loomis Dana, ed. by John Cotton Dana (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace's life and character. (London, 1878), also by Robert Hovenden (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace's life and character [microform]. An epitome of his Satires and Epistles. (London, Macmillan, 1877), trans. by Robert Meyrick Hovenden (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horace's life and character. An epitome of his Satires and Epistles. (London, Macmillan, 1877), trans. by Robert Hovenden (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace's life and character : an epitome of his Satires and Epistles / (London : [publisher not identified], 1877) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace's odes. (London, G. Bell, 1880), also by Charles W. F. Cooper (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horace's Propempticon to Virgil [microform] / ([Chicago?] : Printed at the University of Chicago Ppress, 1908), also by G. L. Hendrickson and Virgil (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horace's Satires, epistles and Art of poetry : done into English, with notes / (London : Printed by M. Jenour, for D. Browne, and J. Walthoe, 1712) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horacianas. (La Plata, [Talleres de publicaciones del Museo], 1894) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horacianas ad litteram versae, con notas y nuevos comentarios por un Árcade de Roma. (Buenos Aires, Imprenta, litografía y encuadernación de J. Peuser, 1900) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horacianas. Ad litteram versae por un árcade de Roma ... (Buenos Aires, Impr. de J. Peuser, 1896), also by Bartolomé Mitre (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horacianas ad litteram versae, por un Árcade de Roma ... con notas y comentarios del traductor ... (Buenos Aires, Imprenta, litografía y encuadernación de J. Peuser, 1896-98 [v.1, '98]) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horacianas. Ad litteram verse por un Arcade de Roma [pseud.] (La Plata : Talleres de publicaciones del Museo, 1895), also by Bartolomé Mitre (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horacianas : interpretção de varias odes e epodos de Horácio / (Ponte de Lima : Tip. Confiança, 1916), also by António Ferreira (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horacio. Epistola á los Pisones. Texto latino, ([Barcelona, 1910]) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horæ nauseæ. (London, Printed by Bradbury and Evans, 1841), also by Lawrence Peel (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horæ nauseæ. (London : Printed by Bradbury and Evans, 1841), also by Lawrence Peel (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horati carminum. (London : G. Bell & Sons, 1899, 1900-1902), ed. by C. G. Botting and Hugh Latter (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horati carminum / (London : G. Bell, 1900-), also by H. Latter and Cecil G. Botting (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horati carminum : liber IV et carmen seculare / (London : G. Bell, 1901), also by H. Latter (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horati libri II satiram VI / (Magdeburg, Baench, 1892-1893), also by H. Dittmar (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horatian echoes, (Boston, New York, Houghton, Mifflin and Company; Cambridge, The Riverside Press, 1893), also by Oliver Wendell Holmes and John Osborne Sargent (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horatian echoes, ([n. p.], 1893) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horatian echoes; translations of the Odes of Horace, (Boston and New York, Houghton, Mifflin & co., 1893), also by James K. Moffitt, Oliver Wendell Holmes, John Osborne Sargent, and Mass.) Book producer Riverside Press (Cambridge (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horatii bref Om skaldekonsten [microform], (Helsingfors, 1901), trans. by F. Gustafsson (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horatii Carmina et epodi. Ad codices saecvli noni decimqve exacta, commentario critico et exegetico, illvstrata, (Lipsiae: W. Engelmann, 1856), also by Horace. Epodae and Franz Ritter (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horatii Flacci opera. (London, Bell, 1869), ed. by H. A. J. Munro, illust. by Charles William King (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horation echoes; translations of the Odes of Horace, (Boston and New York, Houghton, Mifflin & co., 1893), also by Oliver Wendell Holmes, trans. by John Osborne Sargent (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horatius' dritte Satire lateinisch und deutsch mit Rechtfertigungen [microform] / (Berlin : T. H. Riemann, 1827), also by C. Passow (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horatius' erste Satire [microform] : Lateinisch und Deutsch mit einigen Scholien. (Berlin : E. Hitzig, 1813), also by F. A. Wolf (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horatius' Erste Satire, lateinisch und deutsch mit einigen Scholien. (Berlin, 1813) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horatius Flaccus. Erklärt von Adolf Kiessling. (Berlin : Weidmann, 1910-1917), also by Adolf Gottlieb Kiessling (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horatius restitutus; (London, 1837) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horatius restitutus; or, The books of Horace arranged in chronological order according to the scheme of Dr. Bentley, from the text of Gesner, corrected and improved. With a preliminary dissertation, very much enlarged, on the chronology of the works, on the localities, and on the life and character of that poet, (London, Longmans, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1837), also by Richard Bentley and James Tate (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horatius restitutus: or, the books of Horace, arranged in chronological order according to the scheme of Dr. Bentley, from the text of Gesner, corrected and improved. / (London : Printed for Baldwin and Cradock, 1837), also by James Tate and Richard Bentley (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horatius restitutus; or The books of Horace arranged in chronological order according to the scheme of Dr. Bentley, from the text of his second edition in 1713, and the common readings subjoined; with a preliminary dissertation on the chronology and the localities of that poet. (Cambridge, Printed by J. Smith ... for J. & J.J. Deighton, 1832), also by James Tate and Richard Bentley (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horatius' vierte Satire [microform] : Lateinisch und Deutsch / (Berlin : T.H. Riemann, 1828), also by Franz Passow (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horativs. (Lvgdvgni, Apud Haeredes Gvillelmi Roville, svbscvto Verieto., 1610), also by Aldo Manuzio and Marc-Antoine Muret (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horats Lyriske digte; (Kjøbenhavn, Gyldendalske boghandels forlag (F. Hegel & søn), 1903) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horaz; (Gotha, Ettinger, 1793), ed. by Jacob Friedrich Schmidt (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horaz : Auswahl für den Schulgebrauch / (Berlin : Weidmann, 1911), also by Karl Paul Schulze (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horaz : Auswahl für den Schulgebrauch / (Berlin : Weidmannsche, 1904), also by Karl Paul Schulze (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horaz. Für den Schulgebrauch, (Bielefeld, Velhagen & Klasing, 1896) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horaz' iamben- und sermonendichtung vollständig in heimischen versformen verdeutscht von Karl Staedler. (Berlin, Weidmann, 1907), also by Karl Staedler (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horaz in der Lederhos'n, (München, J. Lindauersche Buchhandlung, [1905]), ed. by Eduard Stemplinger (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horaz' lyrische Gedichte. (Strassburg, Strassburger Druckerei und Verlagsanstalt, vorm. R. Schultz u. Comp., 1892) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horaz' lyrische Gedichte [microform]. (Strassburg, Strassburger Druckerei und Verlagsanstalt, vorm. R. Schultz u. Comp., 1892) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: ...Horaz, nebst (Koln, 1874) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horaz' Oden der Weihe in Reimstrophen verdeutscht [microform] :mit Beiwort, besonders über Horaz' Verhältnis zur Religion, zu seiner Kunst und zu Mäcen / (Berlin : R. Gaertners Verlagsbuchh., 1899), also by Karl Staedler (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horazen Satiren (Leipzig, 1819) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horazens (Leipzig, 1801) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horazens Briefe (Leipzig, Weidmann, 1801), also by Christoph Martin Wieland (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horazens Briefe (Leipzig, Weidmann, 1816), also by Christoph Martin Wieland (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horazens Briefe (Leipzig, Weidmanns Erben und Reich, 1787), also by Christoph Martin Wieland (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horazens Briefe aus dem Lateinischen (Dessau, 1782), also by Christoph Martin Wieland (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horazens Epistel an die Pisonen. (Mainz, in der kurfürstlichen privilegirten Universitaetsbuchhandlung, 1791), also by Michael Engel (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horazens Episteln : Lateinisch und deutsch mit Erläuterungen / (Leipzig : B.G. Teubner, 1856-1858), also by Ludwig von Doederlein (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horazens Oden, (Berlin, Sandersche Buchhandlung, 1818) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horazens Oden, (Stuttgard, in der Cottaischen Buchhandlung, 1823), also by Joseph Nürnberger (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horazens Oden, (Berlin, J.D. Sander, 1800), also by Karl Wilhelm Ramler (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horazens Ofellus. [microform] : Lateinisch und Deutsch mit kritischen und ërlauternden Bemerkungen : Einladungsschrift ... / (Stralsund : In der Königl. Regierungs-Buchh., 1817), also by Carl Kirchner (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horazens satiren ... (Leipzig, 1804) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horazens Satiren / (Leipzig : In der Weidmannischen Buchhandlung, 1804), also by Christoph Martin Wieland (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horazens Satiren : aus dem Lateinischen übersetzt und mit Einleitungen und erläuternden Anmerkungen versehen / (Leipzig : in der Weidmannischen Buchhandlung, 1819), also by Christoph Martin Wieland (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horazens Satiren, aus dem lateinischen übersetzt und mit Einleitungen und erläuternden Anmerkungen versehen von C.M. Wieland ... (Leipzig, in der Weidmannischen Buchhandlung, 1819), also by Christoph Martin Wieland (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horazens Satiren : lateinisch und deutsch / (Leipzig : B. G. Teubner, 1860), also by Ludwig von Doederlein (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horazens Satyren / (Leipzig : Bey Weidmanns Erben und Reich, 1786), also by Christoph Martin Wieland (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horazens Satyren : aus dem lateinischen übersetzt und mit einleitungen und erläuternden anmerkungen verschen / (Wien : F. Haas, 1801), also by Christoph Martin Wieland (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Horazische lieder und briefe, (Gotha, F. A. Perthes, 1920), trans. by Friedrich Schultess (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horazische Oden des 3. u. 4. Buches in freier Nachdichtung [microform] / (Pless [Poland] : Druck von A. Krummer, 1891), also by Oberlehrer Wiesner (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Horazische Oden in deutscher Nachbildung [microform] / (Stade : Druck von A. Pockwitz, [1882]), also by Julius Bartsch (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The I and II books of the Odes of Horace, tr. ... ([n.p.], 1865) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Icarian flights; translations of some of the Odes of Horace, (London, John Lane; New York, John Lane company, 1920), trans. by Walter Herries Pollock and Francis Burdett Money-Coutts (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Imitations and translations from the ancient and modern classics, together with original poems never before published. (London, Longman, Hurst, Rees. and Orme, 1809), also by John Cam Hobhouse Broughton, Juvenal, and George Gordon Byron Byron (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: In Lust un Leed : plattdeutsche Gedichte nebst Nachdichtungen zu Horaz und Scenen aus Homer / (Wismar : Hinstorff'sche Hofbuchhandlung Verlagsconto, 1896), also by Felix Stillfried and Homer (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Interpretations of Horace by the late William Medley, M. A.; (London, New York [etc.] H. Frowde, [1910]), also by William Medley, ed. by George Watson Macalpine and John Green Skemp (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Iz druge knjige Horatijevih Satira 1, 5, i 8 sat.; (Zadar, 1884), trans. by Tomo Brajković (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Izbrannyi︠a︡ ody Gorat︠s︡īi︠a︡ / (Moskva : Tip. T-va I.D. Sytina, 1909), trans. by A. N. Popov (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Karl Wilhelm Ramlers Oden aus dem Horaz. (Berlin, C.F. Voss, 1769), also by Karl Wilhelm Ramler (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Kniga Gorat͡sīi͡a Flakka desi͡atʹ pisem pervoī knigi : perevedeny s Latinskikh stikhov na Ruskīe i primi͡echanīi͡ami izʺi͡asneny / (V Sanktpeterburgi͡e : Pri Imperatorskoĭ Akademīi Nauk, 1788), also by Antiokh Dmitrievich Kantemir (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Kuintosi Orateay Pʻlakkosi Aruest kʻertʻoghakan / (Venetik : I Vans Srboyn Ghazaru, 1847), also by Arsēn Komitas Bagratuni (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Kwinta Horacyusza Flakka ... List do Pizonów (o sztuce poetyckiej; (Złoczów, 1892), trans. by B. Dobrzański (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: La doctrine des moeurs : tiree de la philosophie des stoiques: representee en cent tableaux. Et expliquee en cent discours pour l'instruction de la ieunesse. Au Roy. (A Paris : De l'Imprimerie de Louys Seuestre, ruë de Meurier, prés sainct Nicolas du Chardonnet, MDCXLVI [1646]), also by Otto van Veen, former owner. IU-R La Trémoille family, Emma Hamilton, Louis Sevestre, King of France Louis XIV, Queen Anne, Jules Mazarin, François Tristan L'Hermite, Pierre Daret, and M. Le Roy Gomberville (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: La poetica di Q. Orazio Flacco / (Torino : Carlo Clausen, 1890), also by Giacomo Giri (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Lambini Q. Horativs Flaccvs, ex fide, atqve avctoritate complvrivm librorvm manvscriptorvm, opera Dionysii Lambini Monstraliensis. (Lvtetia, Apud Bartholomaeum Maceam, in nonte D. Haliarii, sub scuto Britanniae, 1587, 1578) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: L'arte poetica; (Milano, etc., 1901), also by Augusto Mancini (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: L'Arte poetica di Q. Orazio Flacco, (Torino, Ermanno Loescher, 1888) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: L'arte poetica di Q. Orazio Flacco / (Torino : E. Loescher, 1913), also by G. B. Bonino (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Las poesías de Horacio; (Madrid, J. Cuesta, 1844) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Las poesías de Horacio, (Paris, V. Salvá, 1841), also by Javier de Burgos (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Las poesías de Horacio / (Madrid : Imprenta de Collado, 1820-1823), also by Javier de Burgos (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Le liriche di Orazio. (Torino, G. Chiantore, successore E. Loescher, 1922), also by Vincenzo Ussani (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Le liriche di Orazio / (Torino : E. Loescher, 1900-1901), also by Vincenzo Ussani (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Le odi di Orazio / (Genova : Tipografia Ferrando, 1841), also by V. Serra (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Le odi di Q. Orazio Flacco, (Torino, G.B. Paravia, 1897), trans. by Enrico Ottino (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Le odi di Q. Orazio Flacco / (Torino : G.B. Paravia, 1882), also by Enrico Ottino (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Le odi di Quinto Orazio Flacco (Catanzaro, 1874), trans. by Giovanni Cristiani (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Le Odi e gli Epodi; commento ad uso delle scuole [di] Pietro Rasi. (Milano, Remo Sandron, 1902), also by Pietro Rasi (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Le opere di Q. Orazio Flacco. (Venezia, Nella stamperia Tosi, 1792) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Le Satire ... (Siena, Nella stamperìa di A. Bindi, 1759), also by Francesco Corsetti (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Le satire di Orazio, (Napoli, F. Perrella, [1916]), ed. by Vincenzo Ussani (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Le satire di Orazio (Torino, Chiantore, 1921), ed. by Remigio Sabbadini (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Le satire di Orazio / (Torino : G. Chiantore, 1921) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Le satire di Orazio / (Torino : E. Loescher, 1913), also by Remigio Sabbadini (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Le Satire d'Orazio / (Padova, 1893) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Le satire e le epistole (Torino [etc.] G.B. Paravia e comp., [1888]), also by Enrico Ottino (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Le satire e le epistole / (Milano : R. Sandron, 1906), also by Pietro Rasi (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Le satire e le epistole di Q. Orazio Flacco; (Torino, G.B. Paravia, 1897), ed. by Enrico Ottino (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Les idées morales d'Horace. (Paris, Librairie Bloud, 1909), also by Victor Giraud (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Les œeuvres d'Horace, poëte latin du siècle d'Auguste. Odes--satires--épitres, (Paris, Librairie des bibliophiles, 1878), trans. by Jules Gabriel Janin (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Les oeuvres d'Horace / (Paris : Hachette, 1865), also by Jules Gabriel Janin (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Les oeuvres d'Horace Odes-satires-èpitres. (Paris, Librairie des bibliophiles, 1878), trans. by Jules Janin (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Les poësias, (Paris, Chez Davidtz, 1755) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Les poësies d'Horace, (A Paris, par la Compagnie des Libraires, 1756), trans. by Noël Etienne Sanadon (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Les poésies d'Horace, (Avignon, Chaillot, 1813), trans. by Charles Batteux (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Les poësies d'Horace ; traduites en françois. (Paris : Desaint, 1768), trans. by Charles Batteux (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Les poësies d'Horace ; traduites en Francois, avec des remarques et des dissertations critiques, par le R. P. Sanadon, de la Compagnie de Jesus. (A Amsterdam : Arkstee et Merkus, 1756), also by Jean Bonhier and Noël Étienne Sanadon (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Les quatre Poétiques: d'Aristote, d'Horace, de Vida, de Despréaux, (À Paris, Chez Saillant & Nyon, 1771), also by Nicolas Boileau Despréaux, Marco Girolamo Vida, and Aristotle, ed. by Charles Batteux (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Les trois satiriques latins (Bruxelles, Wouters, 1842), also by Juvenal, Persius, and Louis Vincent. ed. and tr Raoul (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Les trois satiriques latins traduits en vers français. (Bruxelles, Wouters, Raspoet et cie, 1842), also by Persius and Juvenal, trans. by Louis Vincent Raoul (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The letters of Horace presented to modern readers, (Woodstock, Vt. : The Elm tree press, 1911), also by John Cotton Dana and Charles Loomis Dana (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Levelei. (Pesten, A' Magyar Tudós Társaság költségével, 1833), ed. by Janos Kis (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Lieder. (Halle, Buchhandlung des Waisenhauses, 1875), also by Wilhelm Osterwald and Moriz Haupt (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Lieder und Briefe, (Gotha, 1920), also by Friedrich Hermann Albert Schultess (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Loisirs d'une militaire; ou, traduction en vers français d'une partie des Odes d'Horace, avec le texte en regard, et la traduction en prose de MM. Campenon et Deprès, (Paris, Didot, 1822), trans. by Auguste Nicolas Le Noir (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: A long journey and a short one / (Woodstock, Vt. : The Elm Tree Press, 1917), also by Charles L. Dana, John Cotton Dana, and Charles Loomis Dana (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: L'Opere d'Oratio [in Latin] ... commentate da Giovanni Fabrini da Fighine in lingua volgare toscana. (Venetia, Appresso G.B. Brigna, 1669) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: L'opere d'Oratio, poeta lirico, / (In Venetia : Appresso gli Heredi de Marchiò Sessa, 1587), also by Melchiorre Sessa and Giovanni Fabrini (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The lyric pieces of Horace dispos'd according to chronologic order / (Dublin : A. Reilly, 1742-), also by Noël Etienne Sanadon (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The lyric works of Horace, / (Philadelphia: : Printed by Eleazer Oswald, at the Coffee-House., M,DCC,LXXXVI. [1786]), also by John Parke, Horace. Carmen saeculare, and David French (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The lyric works of Horace : translated into English verse : to which are added, a number of original poems / (Philadelphia : Printed by Eleazer Oswald, 1786), also by Eleazer. Book producer Oswald and John Parke (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: A lyrica de Q. Horacio Flacco, poeta romano; (Lisboa, Na impressam regia, 1807), trans. by Antonio Ribeiro dos Sanctos (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: A lyrica de Q. Horacio Flacco, poeta romano, (Lisboa, Na Impressam regia, 1807), also by António Ribeiro dos Santos (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The lyrics of Horace : being the first four books of his Odes / (London : Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown, 1821), also by Francis Wrangham (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Massime raccolte e confrontate con quelle della maggior parte dei classici greci, latini ed. italiani da Guglielmo Capozzo. (Palermo, 1838) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Maximes de morale, tirées des poësies d'Horace et réduites en forme de jeu. (Gotha, 1759) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: A metrical version of the odes of Horace / (London : Blades, 1889), also by E. H. Stanley (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Moralia Horatiana, das ist, Die Horatzische sitten-lehre : aus der ernst-sittigen geselschaft der alten weise-meister gezogen, und mit 113 [i.e. 103] in kupfer gestochenen sinn-bildern, und eben so viel erklärungen und andern anmärkungen vorgestellet / (Gedruckt zu Amsterdam : Auf kosten Kornelis Dankers durch Kornelis de Bruyn, im 1656 Heil-jahre), also by Kornelis de Bruyn, Kornelis Dankers, and Philipp von Zesen (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: More Hawarden Horace / (London : Smith, Elder, 1896), also by Charles L. Graves (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Nauka poezii, ili, Poslanie k Pizonam Kvinta Goratsiia Flakka / (Moskva : V Tip. A. Semena, 1853), also by M. Dmitriev (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: A new translation of Horace's Art of poetry : attempted in rhyme / (London : Printed for W. Pepper and sold by J. Roberts, et al., 1727), trans. by Henry Ames (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Nineteen odes of Horace, (San Bernardino, Calif., Barnum & Flagg co., 1920) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Nineteen odes to Horace, (San Bernardino, Calif., Barnum & Flagg Co., 1920) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Obras, (Lisboa, [Na officina de] M. Manescal, [& à sua Custa], 1681) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Obras completas / (Paris : Baudry, 1844-1845), also by Francisco Martínez de la Rosa (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Obras completas de d. Francisco Martinez de la Rosa. (Paris : Baudry, 1844-), also by Francisco Martínez de la Rosa (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Obras completas de Horacio / (Madrid : Perlado, Páez y Ca., 1909) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Obras de Horacio, (Lisboa, Na Impressão Regia, 1806), trans. by José Agostinho de Macedo (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Obras de Horacio, principe dos poetas latinos lyricos, (Coimbra, Na officina de J. Antunes de Sylva, 1718) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Obras literarias de D. Francisco Martinez de la Rosa. (Londres, Imprénta de S. Bagster, 1838), also by Francisco Martínez de la Rosa (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Ódái; (Budán, A Magyar Királyi Universitas' betüivel, 1824), trans. by Benedek Virág (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Odas de Horacio, (Cádiz, La viuda de Niel, 1893), also by Mateo Alemán (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Odas de Horacio, (Santiago de Chile, Impr. Cervantes, 1899), also by Eduardo de la Barra (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Odas de Q. Horacio Flaco; / (Barcelona : Biblioteca, 1882) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Odas de Q. Horacio Flaco. Libro primero, (Buenos Aires, 1860) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Odas; traduccion literal con la construccion en latin (Buenos-Aires, P. Morta, 1868), also by Juan Mariano Larsen (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Oden an seine freunde, in reimstrophen verdeutscht nebst einleitung und einem nachtrag zu den "Horaz-verdeutschungen", (Berlin, 1897), trans. by Karl Staedler (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Oden des Horaz, erstes Buch [microform] / (Tübingen : Gedr. bei H. Laupp, 1867), also by Theodore Kayser (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Oden und Epoden, (Berlin, Weidmannsche Buchhandlung, 1901), ed. by Richard Heinze and Adolf Kiessling (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Oden und Epoden: (1877) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Oden und epoden. (Helmstädt, C. G. Fleckeisen, 1821), trans. by Karl Friedrich Arend Scheller (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Oden und Epoden; (Paderborn, etc., 1890), also by Horace. Epodae. Latin. Künster. 1890 (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Oden und Epoden, (Berlin, Weidmannsche Buchhandlung, 1884) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Oden und Epoden / (Berlin : Weidmann, 1917), also by Richard. 1867-1929 Heinze and Adolf Kiessling (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Oden und Epoden / (Berlin : Weidmannsche, 1890), also by Adolf Kiessling (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Oden und Epoden / (St. Petersburg ; Leipzig : K.L. Ricker, 1900), also by Lucian Müller (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Oden und Epoden / (Leipzig : B. G. Teubner, 1894), also by Oskar Weissenfels and C. W. Nauck (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Oden und Epoden / (München : G. Müller, 1913), also by Horace. Epodi. German. 1913 (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Oden und Epoden / (St. Petersburg ; Leipzig : K. L. Ricker, 1900), also by Lucian Müller (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Oden und Epoden. Für den Schulgebrauch, (Leipzig, B.G. Teubner, 1910) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Oden und Epoden für den Schulgebrauch/ (Leipzig : B.G. Teubner, 1899), also by Gustav Krüger and C. W. Nauck (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Oden und Epoden : nebst 5 Elegieen des Properz / (Strassburg : J.H. Ed. Heiss (Heiss & Mündel), 1894), also by Horace. Epodae. German and Sextus. Elegiae. German Propertius (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The Odes. (London, W.B. Clive, [1899]), also by B. J. Hayes and A. H. Allcroft (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Odes. (Angra do Heroísmo, Typ. do Angrense, 1853), also by José Augusto Cabral de Mello (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Odes, (Boston : Houghton, 1893), also by J. O. Sargent (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Odes, (Lond., Rivingtons, [1874?]), also by James MacCall Marshall (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Odes & Epodes of Horace. (Boston : Issued for the Bibliophile Society for members only, 1901), also by John Ireland and Mass.) Bibliophile Society (Boston, ed. by Clement Lawrence Smith (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Odes & Epodes of Horace : Latin text / (Boston : Issued by the Bibliophile Society for members only, 1901), also by James K. Moffitt, Horace. Epodae. English & Latin. 1901, Howard Pyle, John Ireland, James Hannay, Clement Lawrence Smith, Houghton (H.O.) & Company. Book producer, and Mass.) Bibliophile Society (Boston (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The odes & Satyrs of Horace, that have been done into English by the most eminent hands... With his Art of poetry...To this ed. is added several Odes never before published. (London, Printed for Jacob Tonson, 1717) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The odes and carmen saeculare ... / (London : Bell & Daldy, 1892, c1863), also by John Conington (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The Odes and carmen saeculare of Horace, (London : Bell and Daldy, 1872), also by John Conington (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Odes and Carmen sæculare of Horace, (London, Bell and Daldy, 1863), also by John Conington (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Odes and Carmen saeculare of Horace / (London : Bell and Daldy, 1870), also by John Conington (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The odes, and Carmen seculare of Horace. (London : Stock, 1893) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The odes and carmen seculare of Horace / (Glasgow : Maclehose, 1896), also by A. S. Aglen (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The odes and Carmen seculare of Horace / (London : Bell and Daldy, 1865), also by John Conington (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Odes and Carmen seculare of Horace, in Latin and English, with critical notes collected from his best Latin and French commentators ... (London, printed for W. Strahan, 1778) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Odes and epodes. (Chicago, B. H. Sanborn, Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh Press, 1919, 1960), ed. by Paul Shorey (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Odes and Epodes, (London, W. Heinemannn, 1914), also by Horace. Epodae, Horace. Epodi. English & Latin, and Charles E. Bennett (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The Odes and Epodes, (Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1960), also by Horace. Epodae. English & Latin, trans. by Charles E. Bennett (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Odes and Epodes. ([Pittsburgh] University of Pittsburgh Press, c1960), also by Gordon Jennings Laing and Paul Shorey (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Odes and epodes, (Boston, Allyn and Bacon, [c1934]), also by John Carew Rolfe and Charles E. Bennett (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Odes and epodes. (Boston, B.H. Sanborn & co., [c.1898]) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Odes and epodes; (Boston, B. H. Sanborn & co., 1904), also by Horace. Epodae, ed. by Paul Shorey (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Odes and epodes / (Boston : Sanborn, 1900, c1898), also by Paul Shorey, ed. by Paul Shorey (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Odes and epodes / (Boston : Allyn and Bacon, 1901), also by Charles E. Bennett (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Odes and epodes / (New York : [publisher not identified], 1907), also by Horace. Epodae. English and John Marshall (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Odes and Epodes [by] Horace; with an English translation, by C.E. Bennett. (Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1914, t.p.1968), also by Charles E. Bennett (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The odes and epodes of Horace; (Boston, London, Ginn & Company, 1903), ed. by Clement Lawrence Smith (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The Odes and Epodes of Horace. (Boston, Ginn, 1899), ed. by Clement Lawrence Smith (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Odes and Epodes of Horace; (London, Longmans, Green, and Co., 1872), also by Edward Bulwer Lytton Lytton (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Odes and Epodes of Horace. (Harper & brothers, 1870), also by Edward Bulwer Lytton Lytton (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Odes and Epodes of Horace; (London : J. M. Dent & Co.; New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1907), also by Horace. Epodae. English and John Marshall (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The odes and epodes of Horace; (London, Methuen & co., 1898), trans. by A. D. Godley (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The odes and epodes of Horace; (London, George Routledge and sons, 1894), also by Edward Bulwer-Lytton (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The odes and epodes of Horace; (Boston and London, Ginn & company, 1895), ed. by Clement Lawrence Smith (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The odes and epodes of Horace, (Boston, Ginn & company, 1898 [c1894]), ed. by Clement Lawrence Smith (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Odes and Epodes of Horace, (Boston, Ginn & co., 1896 [c1894]), ed. by Clement Lawrence Smith (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Odes and Epodes of Horace, (Boston [etc.] Ginn & Company, [1903]) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The odes and epodes of Horace, (London, H.G. Bohn, 1850), trans. by William Sewell (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Odes and Epodes of Horace / (New York : Putnam, 1892), also by John B. Hague (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The odes and epodes of Horace / (Boston ; London : Ginn & Company, 1894), also by Horace. Epodae and Clement Lawrence Smith (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The odes and epodes of Horace / (Boston : Ginn, c1903), also by Horace. Epodae and Clement Lawrence Smith (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The odes and epodes of Horace / (Edinburgh : William Blackwood and Sons, 1869), also by Edward Bulwer-Lytton (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The odes and epodes of Horace / (London ; New York : Bell, 1893), also by Stephen E. De Vere (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The odes and epodes of Horace / (Boston ; New York [etc.] : Ginn & Company, [c1931]), also by Clement Lawrence Smith (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The odes and epodes of Horace / (Boston ; London : Ginn, [1894]), also by Horace. Epodae. Smith, ed. by Clement Lawrence Smith (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Odes and Epodes of Horace. A metrical tr. into English ... (Edinburgh, 1869) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The odes and epodes of Horace : a metrical translation into English / (New York : Harper, 1870), also by Edward Bulwer Lytton Lytton and Horace. Epodae. English & Latin (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The odes and epodes of Horace : a metrical translation into English with introduction and commentaries / (Leipzig : B. Tauchnitz, 1869), also by Edward Bulwer Lytton Lytton (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The odes and saecular hymn : with selections from the Epodes of Quintus Horatius Flaccus rendered into English verse / (Chester : Phillipson and Golder, 1886), trans. by Charles William Duncan (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The odes and satyrs of Horace / (London : Printed for J. Tonson, 1717), also by Wentworth Dillon Roscommon and Horace. Ars poetica. English (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The odes and satyrs of Horace, that have been done into English by the most eminent hands, viz. Earl of Rochester. Earl of Roscommon. Mr. Cowley. Mr. Otway. Mr. Congreve. Mr. Prior. Mr. Maynwaring. Mr. Dryden. Mr. Milton. Mr. Pooly. (London : Printed for J. Tonson, 1721) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Odes and Secular hymn of Horace, (Privately printed, 1917), also by Warren H. Cudworth (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The Odes and Secular hymn of Horace, (New York, A. A Knopf, 1917), also by Warren Handel Cudworth (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Odes and Secular hymn of Horace, Englished into rimed verse corresponding to the original meters, ([Norwood, Mass., Plimpton press] Privately printed, 1917), also by Warren Handel Cudworth (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Odes, Carmen seculare and Epodes; (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1891) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The Odes, Carmen, Seculare and Epodes; with a commentary (Oxford, Clarendon press, 1887), also by E. C. Wickham (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Odes d'Horace, (Paris, L. Potier, 1867), ed. by Melchior Potier (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Odes d'Horace; (Paris, Dezobry, E. Magdeleine et cie, 1850), also by Antoine Anquetil and Hippolyte Rigault (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Odes d'Horace, (Paris, Gosselin, 1836) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Odes d'Horace / (Paris : E. Fasquelle, 1897), also by M. Patin (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Odes d'Horace / (Berlin : [publisher not identified], 1759), also by Pierre-François Guyot Desfontaines (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Odes, Epodes, and Carmen seculare; (New York, Cincinnati, American book company, [1902]), ed. by Clifford Herschel Moore (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The odes, epodes, and Carmen Seculare of Horace, (London J. Stockdale, 1793), also by William Boscawen (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The Odes, Epodes, and Carmen seculare of Horace / (London : Printed for C. Hitch & L. Hawes, R. Baldwin, [and ten others], 1760) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Odes, epodes and carmen seculare of Horace. : In Latin and English. With critical notes collected from his best Latin and French commentators / (London : Printed for A. Millar, 1743-1746), also by Philip Francis and Andrew Millar (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Odes, Epodes, and Carmen Seculare of Horace : translated into English prose, as near as the two languages will admit. Together with the original Latin from the Best editions ... / (London : Printed for J. Oswald, 1741), trans. by David Watson (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The odes, epodes, and satires of Horace / (Edinburgh ; London : William Blackwood and Sons, 1870), also by Charlotte S. Montgomery, Theodore Martin, printer Whittingham & Wilkins, and Chiswick Press, contrib. by Douglass William Montgomery, Anthony Trollope, and William Blackwood and Sons (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Odes, épodes et chant séculaire, (Paris, Hachette, [c1924]), also by Frédéric Edouard Plessis (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The odes, epodes, satires, and epistles / (London ; New York : F. Warne, 1889) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Odes et épodes. (Paris, Hachette et cie, 1869), ed. by E. Sommer, trans. by Auguste Desportes (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Odes et épodes. (Paris, Hachette et cie, 1877, '74), also by Auguste Desportes, trans. by E. Sommer (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Odes et épodes : chant séculaire / (Paris : A. Quantin, 1883), also by Ulysse François Ange Séguier, illust. by F. Méaulle (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The Odes in Latin and English / (London ; New York : Unit Library, Ltd., 1902), also by Philip Francis (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The odes of Horace; (London, Longmans, 1876) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Odes of Horace, (London, J.W. Parker and son, 1860), trans. by Theodore Martin (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Odes of Horace. (London : Harrison, 1885), also by Herbert Grant (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The Odes of Horace, (Oxford, Talboys and Wheeler, 1824) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The odes of Horace, (New York, N. L. Brown, 1924), also by Richard A. Zerega (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The odes of Horace (London, John Murray, 1894) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The odes of Horace, (London, Parker, son, and Bourn, 1861), also by Theodore Martin (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Odes of Horace, (Boston, Ticknor and Fields, 1846), also by Theodore Martin (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Odes of Horace, (London, A.L. Humphreys, 1918) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The Odes of Horace, (London : Methuen & co., 1898), also by A. D. Godley (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The Odes of Horace : (Philadelphia : Porter & Coates, [1880?]), also by Theodore Martin (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The odes of Horace / (London : Blackie, 1898-), also by Stephen Lucius Gwynn (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The odes of Horace / (London : J. Murray, 1894), also by W. E. Gladstone (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The Odes of Horace / (New York : C. Scribner's sons, 1894), also by W. E. Gladstone (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Odes of Horace / (London : W. Pickering, 1843), also by John. trl Scriven (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The odes of Horace / (Berkley, Calif. : Lederer Street & Zeuz Co., 1921), also by William Hathorn Mills (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The odes of Horace / (New York : G.P. Putnam, [19?̲̲]) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The odes of Horace / (Glasgow : J. Maclehose, 1914), also by A. L. Taylor (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The odes of Horace / (Boston : Ticknor and Fields, 1861), also by Theodore Martin (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The odes of Horace : a translation and an exposition / (London : Swan Sonnenschein, 1907), trans. by E. R. Garnsey (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The odes of Horace, and his Secular hymn, rendered in English verse (London, Digby, Long & co., 1903) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The odes of Horace and the Carmen Saeculare / (London : J. Murray, 1895), also by W. E. Gladstone (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The Odes of Horace, books I and II. (London, Frowde, 1894), trans. by J. Howard Deazeley (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The Odes of Horace, books I-IV & the Saecular hymn translated into English verse / ([London, New York, etc.] H. Frowde, Oxford university press, 1912), also by William Sinclair Marris (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The odes of Horace : books I-IV, and the Saecular hymn / ([Oxford, Oxfordshire] : H. Frowde : Oxford University Press, 1912), also by Horace. Carmen saeculare. English & Latin. 1912, E. C. Wickham, and W. S. Marris (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The Odes of Horace. Complete in English rhyme and blank verse. (Philadelphia, London, J.B. Lippincott & Co., 1884) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The odes of Horace, illustrated by parallel passages from the Greek, Roman, and British poets, and notes, critical and explanatory, (Oxford, D.A. Talboys; London, Longman, Orme, Brown, Green, and Longman, 1838), also by Alexander James Howell (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Odes of Horace in a metrical paraphrase. (London, Macmillan and Co., 1874), also by Robert Hovenden (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The odes of Horace : in English, in the original metres / (London : J. Parker, 1897), also by Philip E. Phelps (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The Odes of Horace in four books translated into English lyric verse, (London, Upham and Beet, 1858) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Odes of Horace : rendered into English prose / (New York, NY : N.L. Brown, 1924), also by Richard A. Zerega (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The odes of Horace : translated into English verse with a life and notes / (Edinburgh : Wm. Blackwood and Sons, 1864), also by Theodore Martin (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The odes of Horace : translated into unrhymed metres, with introduction and notes / (London : Walton and Maberly, 1853), also by Francis William Newman (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Odes of Horace : translated into unrhymed metres, with introductions and notes / (London : J. Chapman, 1853), also by Francis William Newman (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Odes, Satyrs, and Epistles of Horace. (London, Printed for J. and R. Tonson, 1737), trans. by Thomas Creech (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The odes, satyrs, and epistles of Horace / (London, Printed for J. Tonson in the Strand, 1730), trans. by Thomas Creech (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Odes. Specimen of an attempt to give a closer English verse translation. (London, 1879), also by J. J. Lonsdale (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Odes. With a vocabulary and some account of the Horatian metres etc., (London, etc., 1896, 87-92) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Odi ed epodi; (Zena, A. Donath, 1899) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Odi, epistole, satire, (Castello, S. Lapi, 1897) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Ody Kvinta Goratsiia Flakka : v chetyrekh knigakh / (Sanktpeterburg : V Tip. Koroleva, 1856), also by A. A. Fet (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Oeuvres, (Amsterdam, J. Wetstein & G. Smith, 1735), also by P. Sanadon and M. Dacier (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Œuvres complètes. (Paris, 1895) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Œuvres complètes d' Horace / (Paris : C. L. F. Panckoucke, 1837), also by C. L. F. Panckoucke (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Oeuvres completes d'Horace, (Paris, Garnier frères, [1872]), also by Hippolyte Rigault and Felix Lemaistre (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Œuvres completes d'Horace, (Paris, Dubochet, 1848) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Oeuvres complètes d'Horace; (Paris, Firmin, 1895), also by Ulysse François Ange de Seguier (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Oeuvres complètes d'Horace. (Paris, Dalibon, 1823), also by N. L. Achaintre, trans. by Charles Batteux (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: OEuvres complètes d'Horace / (Paris ; Lyon : Cormon et Blanc, 1834), also by Jean Baptiste Monfalcon (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Oeuvres completes d'Horace / (Paris : Janet et Cotelle, 1816), also by P. Daru (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Oeuvres completes d'Horace / (Paris : C.L.F. Panckouke, Editeur, 1837) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Oeuvres completes d'Horace, 1 v. en vers (Paris, 1816) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Oeuvres completes d'Horace, de Juvénal, de Perse, de Sulpicia, de Turnus, de Catulle, de Properce, de Gallus et Maximien, de Tibulle, de Phèdre et de Syrus. (Paris, J.J. Dubochet et compagnie, 1845), also by Phaedrus. Fabulae. French & Latin. 1839, Sextus. Elegiae. French & Latin. 1839 Propertius, Tibullus. Elegiae. French and Latin, F. Arnaud, F. Génin, Henri Joseph Guillaume Patin, Syrus Publilius, 6th cent Maximianus, Gaius Cornelius Gallus, Gaius Valerius Catullus, Turnus, Sulpicia, Persius, and Juvenal, ed. by D. Nisard, trans. by Claude Jules Fleutelot, Théophile Charles Étienne Baudement, Louis Puget, Pierre Jacques René Denne-Baron, ancien é;ève de l'Ecole normale Joguet, Ferdinand Collet, Jean Jacques Courtaud-Divernéresse, Auguste Nisard, Théodore Guiard, and ancien élève de l'École normale Chevriau (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Oeuvres complètes d'Horace par ordre de production. (Paris, Guiraudet et Jouaust, 1847) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Oeuvres complètes d'Horace parordre de production. (Paris, F. Didot frères, 1857), trans. by Louis Goupy (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Œuvres de Horace / (Paris : .A. Lemerre, 1873), also by Leconte de Lisle (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Oeuvres de Horace : traduction nouvelle / (Paris : A. Lemerre, 1873), also by Leconte de Lisle and Horace. Works. 1873 (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Oeuvres d'Horace. (Paris, Charpentier, 1860), ed. by Henri Joseph Guillaume Patin (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Oeuvres d'Horace. (Paris, Librairie des Bibliophiles, 1877), also by Victor de Laprade, trans. by Charles Chautard (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Oeuvres d'Horace, (Paris, Levrault, Schoell et ce., 1804-05), trans. by Pierre-Antoine-Noël-Bruno Daru (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Oeuvres d'Horace; (Paris, G. Charpentier et cie., 1886), ed. by Henri Joseph Guillaume Patin (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Oeuvres d'Horace / (Paris : Garnier, 1888), also by A. Waltz (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Oeuvres d'Horace / (Paris : Bibliothèque-Charpentier, [19--]), also by M. Patin (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Oeuvres d'Horace; ed. classique ... (Paris, 1895) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Oeuvres d'Horace : en latin / (A Amsterdam : Chez J. Wetstein & G. Smith, 1735), also by Noël Étienne Sanadon and André Dacier (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Oeuvres d'Horace : en latin et en françois, avec des remarques critiques et historiques / (A Amsterdam : Chez les Freres Wetstein, 1727), also by André Dacier (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Oeuvres d'Horace en latin et francois, avec des remarques critiques et historiques par Monsieur Dacier, ... (Paris, J.B. Christophe Ballard, 1709) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Œuvres d'Horace: odes, épodes, chant séculaire; (Paris, Delalain, 1829), also by M. Cournand (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Œuvres d'Horace : text latin : publiées avec une étude biographique et lettérataire ... / (Paris : Hachette, 1915), also by Paul Lejay and Frédéric Plessis (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Œuvres d'Horace : texte latin / (Paris, Librairie Hachette, 1904), also by Frédéric Edouard Plessis and Paul Lejay (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Œuvres d'Horace : texte Latin : publiées avec une étude biographique et littéraire, une notice sur la métrique et la prosodie dans les Odes et Épodes ... / (Paris : Librairie Hachette, [1911]), also by Paul Lejay and Frédéric Plessis (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Oeuvres d'Horace. Texte latin publiées avec une étude biographique et littéraire, une notice sur la métrique et la prosodie dans les Odes et Epodes, des notes critiques, un index des noms propres et des notes explicatives (Paris, Hachette, 1909), also by Frederic Edouard Plessis and Paul Antoine Augustin Lejay (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Oeuvres d'Horace. Texte latine avec un commentaire critique et explicatif des introductions et des tables (Paris, Librairie Hachette, 1911) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Oeuvres lyriques d'Horace, (Paris, F. Didot, 1856), trans. by Gabriel de Nattes (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Of the art of poetry, in English numbers, with an attempt to explain the more difficult and material passages in a few notes; (London, 1735) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Ofellus II. B. 2. Satire. Lat. u. deutsch mit Anmerk. ([n.p.], 1817), also by C. Kirchner (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: On the Tibur road; a freshman's Horace, (Princeton : Princeton University Press, 1912), also by George Frisbie Whicher and George Meason Whicher (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: On the Tibur road : a freshman's Horace / (Princeton : Princeton University Press, 1911), also by George Frisbie Whicher and George Meason Whicher (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Oodit, Karmen-Seekulaare ja Epoodit (in Finnish), trans. by Adam Leino (Gutenberg ebook) Horace: Opera, (Oxonii, Impensis Bliss et Baxter; Londini, F.C. et J. Rivington [etc.], 1812) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera. (Lipsiae, Svmtibvs S.L. Crvsii, 1778-82), ed. by Christian David Jani (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera. (Parisiis, excudebat F. Leonard, 1691), also by Louis Desprez (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera. (Bostoniæ, B.B. Mussey, 1844) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera. (Londini, F. & C. Rivington, etc., 1810) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera. (Londini, impensis F.C. & J. Rivington [etc.], 1815) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera. (Hagae Comitum, apud Petrum van Thol, 1708) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera; (Manhemii, sumtu T. Loeffleri, 1820), also by Frid. Henr Bothe (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera. (Lipsiae, sumtibus et typis C. Tauchnitii, 1824) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera: (Lipsiae, Apud S. Hirselium, 1861), also by Mauricius Hauptius (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera. (Londini, Kegan Paul, Trench & Soc., 1888), also by Francis Warre Cornish (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Opera, (Lipsiae, B. G. Tevbner, 1899-1925), also by Alfred Holder, ed. by Otto Keller (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Opera; (Neapoli, apud fratres Raymundos, 1771) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera. (Lipsiae, sumtibus et typis C. Tauchnitii, 1853), also by Karl Hermann Weise (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera, (Philadelphiæ, impensis M. Carey, et T. et G. Bradford. Fry et Kammerer, typographi, 1809) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera, (London, Macmillan & co.; New York, The Macmillan co., 1896) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera. (Lipsiae, 1851), also by Georg Aenotheus Koch (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera, (Mvtinae, Sarasino, 1892), ed. by Ettore Stampini (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Opera. (Londini, apud Joannem Murray, 1853), ed. by Henry Hart Milman (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera, (Philadelphiae, impensis W. Poyntell, 1804), also by André Dacier and Louis Desprez (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera, (Oxonii, E Typographeo Clarendoniano, [Pref. 1912]), also by H. W. Garrod and E. C. Wickham (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Opera, (Glasguae, J. Mundell, [etc., etc.], 1796) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera, (Edinburgi, apud Mundell, Doig, et Stevenson; Londini, apud T. Payne & G.H. Lunn, 1806) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera. (Lipsiae, Sumtibus & typis Car. Tauchnitii, 1828) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera, (London, Longman, Rees, Orme, and Co., 1832), ed. by Henry Pemble and Friedrich Wilhelm Doering (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera, (Lipsiae : Grusii, 1800), also by Christoph Wilhelm Mitscherlich (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera. (Leipzig, B.G. Teubner, 1899), also by Alfred Theophil Holder and Otto Keller (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Opera. (New York, Appleton, 1883) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera. (Paris, Belin, 1891), ed. by Charles Aubertin (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Opera / (Londini : Impensis, C.Bathurst [etc.], 1776), also by Louis Desprez and André Dacier (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera / (Bostoniæ : Hillard, Gray, 1838, c1828), ed. by Benjamin A. Gould (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera / (Londini : Harding, Mavor, et Lepard, 1824), also by Johann Matthias Gesner (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera / (Lipsia : Teubner, 1864-69), also by Otto Keller and Alfred Holder (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera / (Oxonii : E Typographeo Clarendoniano, 1901), also by Heathcote William Garrod and E. C. Wickham, ed. by H. W. Garrod and E. C. Wickham (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Opera / (Oxonii : e typographeo Clarendoniano, 1901), also by H. W. Garrod and E. C. Wickham (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Opera / (Londini : Kegan Paul, Trench & Soc, 1882) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Opera / (Oxonii : E Typographeo Clarendoniano, [praef. 1900]), also by E. C. Wickham (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Opera / (Leipzig : Insel Verlag, 1921) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Opera [microform]; the works of Horace, with English notes original and selected.../ (London: Griffin, [1860?]), ed. by Joseph Currie (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera a Mauricio Hauptio recognita. (Lipsiae : apud S. Hirzelium, 1881), also by Johannes Vahlen and Moriz Haupt (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Opera, accedunt clavis metrica et notae Anglicae ... (Boston, 1828) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Opera, accedunt clavis metrica et nota︠e︡ anglica︠e︡ juventuti accomdata︠e︡, (Bostonia︠e︡, Hilliard, Gray et soc., 1833) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera : accedunt clavis metrica et notæ anglicæ juventuti accommodatæ / (Bostoniæ : Hilliard, Gray, 1835), also by Benjamin Apthorp Gould (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera, accedunt clavis metrica et notæ Anglicæ juventuti accomodatæ, (Bostoniæ, Hilliard, 1831) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera. Accedunt clavis metrica et notae Anglica︠e︡. Juventuti accomodata︠e︡. (Bostonia︠e︡, B.B. Mussey, 1844) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera ad examplar recensionis Bentleianæ plerumque emendata et brevibus notis instructa. (Cantabrigiæ, apud J. Deighton et filios; [etc., etc.], 1817), ed. by Thomas Kidd and Richard Bentley (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera ad fidem editionum optimarum castigata. (Etonae, Pote & Williams, 1805) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera ad lectiones probatiores diligenter emendata, et interpunctione nova saepius illustrata / (Edinburgi : Veneunt apud J. Anderson, 1813), also by John Hunter (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera : ad lectiones probatiores diligenter emendata, et varietate lectionis et notulis instructa / (Andreapoli : In Aedibus Academicis excudebat Jacobus Morison, Academiae Typographus, 1797) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera : ad mss. codices ... plvrimis in locis emendavit notisque illvstravit ... / (Romae : Franciscvs Bovrlie, 1811), ed. by Carlo Fèa (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera : ad mss. codices Vaticanos, Chisianos, Angelicos, Barberinos, Gregorianos, Vallicellanos, aliosque, plurimis in locis emendavit ... / (Heidelbergae : A. Osswald, 1827), also by Friedrich Heinrich Bothe and Carlo Fèa (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera : ad mss. codices vaticanos, chisianos, angelicos, barberinos, gregorianos, vallicellanos, aliosque, plurimis in locis emendavit, notisque illustravit praesertim in iis, quae romanas antiquitates spectant / (Heidelbergae, etc. : [s.n.], 1827), also by Carlo Fea and Friedrich Heinrich Bothe (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera : ad mss. codices Vaticanos, Chrisianos, Angelicos, Barberinos, Gregorianos, Vallicellanos, aliosque, plurimis in locis emendavit ... / (Heidelbergae : A. Oswald, 1821), also by Friedrich Heinrich Bothe and Carlo Fèa (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera. Ad optima exemplaria recognovit et in usum scholarum edidit Georg Ænotheus Koch. (Lipsiæ, sumptibus Philippi Reclam jun., [1851]), also by Georg Ænotheus Koch (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera, ad optimas editiones collata : (Biponti, ex typographia Societatis, 1792) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera : ad praestantium librorum lectiones / (Lipsiae : sumptibus O. Holtze, 1882), also by C. H. Weise (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Opera cum notis gallicis... (Parisiis, 1832) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera, cum scholiis veteribus castigavit, (Edinburgi : Mundell, Doig, et Stevenson, 1806), also by Johann Carl Zeune, Gesner Johann Matthias, and William Baxter (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera, cum selectis scholiis et observationibus Baxteri, Gesneri, et Zeunii. (Londini, impensis Geo. B. Whittaker, 1826) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera cum selectis scholiis et observationibus Baxteri, Gesneri et Zeunii ... (Londini, 1826) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera expurgata, notis anglicis illustrata quibus praefixum syntagma prosodiale, (Philadelphia, impensis S.W. Conrad, 1815) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera; illustravit Christ. Guil. Mitscherlich ... (Lipsiae, S. Lebrecht, 1800) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera ... Illustravit Ludovicus Desprez ... ([n.p.], 1827) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera. Interpretatione et notis illustravit Ludovicus Desprez. (Philadelphia︠e︡, J. Allen, 1828) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera, interpretatione et notis illustravit Ludovicus Desprez ...huic editioni accessere vita Horatii cum Dacerii notis. (Londini, 1815) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera omnia. (Oxonii, etc., J.H. et J. Parker, 1858) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera omnia. (Oxonii, J.H. Parker, 1851) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera omnia. (Oxonii; Londini, J. Parker et Soc., 1868) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera omnia. (Bonnae, Sumptibus A. Marci, 1844), ed. by Wilhelm Dillenburger (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera omnia. (London, 1853) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera omnia, (London, Longman and co., etc., etc., 1855) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera omnia; (Lipsiae, 1824) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera omnia. (Bonnae, sumptibus Adolphi Marci, 1848), also by Wilhelm Dillenburger (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera omnia. (New York, Harper & Brothers, 1869) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera omnia; (Lipsiae, Sumptibus librariae Hahnianae, 1836-39. [v.1, '39]), also by Ferdinand Gustav Regel and Friedrich Wilhelm Doering (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera omnia; (London, Whittaker, 1881), also by George Long and A. J. Macleane (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Opera omnia. (Novi Eboraci, Apud Harperos, fratres, 1889) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Opera omnia (Cantabrigiae, Deighton, Bell et soc., etc., etc., 1890) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Opera omnia, (Novi Eboraci, apud Harperos fratres, 1882) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Opera omnia. (Novi Eboraci, apud Harperos fratres, 1878) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera omnia. (Lipsiae, Teubneri, 1863), ed. by Johann Christian Jahn (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera omnia. (Bonnae, sumptibus A. Marci, 1881), ed. by Wilhelm Dillenburger (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Opera omnia ... (1798) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera omnia / (Lipsiae : Hahn, 1829-), also by F. W. Döring (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Opera omnia / (London : George Bell & Sons, 1894), also by George Long and Arthur John Maclean (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Opera omnia [microform] / (Lipsiae, sumtibus Librariae Hahnianae, 1836-39,[v.1, 1839]), also by F. W. Döring, ed. by Ferdinand Gustav Regel (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera omnia [microform], ex recensione Gvilielmi Bravnhardi ... (Lipsiae, svmptibvs Librariae Navokianae, 1833-35), ed. by Wilhelm Braunhard (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera omnia, ad optimorum exemplarium fidem recensitus. (Edinburgi, J. Dickson et C. Elliot, 1783) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera omnia cum indicibus locupletissimis, (Glasguae, A. et J.M. Duncan, 1826) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera omnia curis secundis emendavit (Parisiis, apud Lefèvre, 1825), also by Jean Augustin Amar du Rivier (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera omnia, ex recensione A. J. Macleane. (New York, Harper & brothers, [1858?]), also by Arthur John Macleane (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera omnia ex recensione A.J. Macleane. (New York, Harper & brothers, 1863) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera omnia ex recensione A.J. Macleane. (Novi Eboraci, apud Harperos Fratres, 1877) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: ...Opera omnia ex recensione Joannis Casparis Orellii. (Parisiis : edidit Lefrevre veneunt apud Garnier fratres, 1851) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera omnia illustravit Frid. Guil. Doering. (Londini, sumtibus Priestleii, 1831), ed. by F. W. Döring (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera omnia poetica. (Halae, Impensis Orphanotrophei, 1801) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera omnia, recensuit et illustravit Fridericus Guil. Doering. (Lipsiae, Librarie Hahnianae, 1828-29 [v. 1, 1829]), also by Friedrich Wilhelm Doering (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera omnia. Recognovit et commentariis in usum scholarum instruxit Guil. (Bonnae, sumptibus Adolphi Marci, 1854), also by Wilhelm Dillenburger (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera omnia: the works of Horace (Oxford, Clarendon press, 1874-), also by E. C. Wickham (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera omnia: The works of Horace; (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1881-), also by E. C. Wickham (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Opera omnia, works ; (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1874-1891), also by E. C. Wickham (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Opera; recensuerunt O. Keller et A. Holder. (Lipsiae, B. G. Teubner, 1878), also by Otto Keller, ed. by Alfred Theophil Holder (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera recensvervnt O. Keller et A. Holder. (Lipsiae : B. G. Tevbner, 1864-70), ed. by Alfred Holder and Otto Keller (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Opera recensvervnt O. Keller et A. Holder ... (Lipsiae, B.G. Tevbner, 1864-1870), also by Otto Keller, ed. by Alfred Theophil Holder (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Opera scholarum in usem ediderunt O. Keller et J. Haeussner. (Vindobonae, F. Tempsky, 1892) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Opera; the works of Horace. (London, Rivingtons, 1874), also by James McCall Marshall (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera; the works of Horace: the odes on the basis of Anthon: the satires and epistles by McCaul: (Dublin : Cumming and Ferguson, 1846) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opera with annotations in English ... (London, 1832) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opere (Venezia, Tip. di G. antonelli, 1838), also by Tommaso Gargallo (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opere (Genova, 1806) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opere del Signor abate Pietro Metastasio ... (Parigi, Vedova Herissant, 1780-82), also by Pietro Metastasio (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opere di Pietro Metastasio. (Firenze : Gabinetto di Pallade, 1819), also by Pietro Metastasio, Ranieri de Calzabigi, Sebastiano D'Ayala, Juvenal, and Mauro Boni (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opere di Pietro Metastasio. (Padova, G. Foglierini, 1810-1812), also by Pietro Metastasio, Ranieri de Calzabigi, Sebastiano Ayala, Juvenal, and Mauro Boni (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Opere purgate per uso delle scuole, (Prato, Tipografia Aldina, 1865) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Paraphrase da Epistola aos Pisões, commummente denominada Arte poetica de Quinto Horacio Flacco, (Lisboa, Na typographia de J.B. Morando, 1853), also by Gastão Fausto da Camara Coutinho (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Paraphrase da Epistola aos pisões, commummente denominada Arte poetica, de Quinto Horacio Flacco, com annotações sobre muitos lugares, (Lisboa, Typ. de J. B. Morando, 1853), also by Gastão Fausto da Camara Coutinho (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Pensamientos de Horacio sobre moral, literatura y urbanidad / (San Juan de los Lagos : Tipografia de Jose Martin, 1874), also by Agustín Rivera (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Petri Rodellii e Societate Jesu, Horatius ad serenissimum Galliarum Delphinum (Parisiis : Apud Viduam Claudii Thiboust et Petrum Esclassan ..., 1686), also by Pierre de Rodelle (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Poemata: (Roterodami, 1577 [1677]) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Poëmata ... ([n.p.], 1830) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Poemata omnia, (Antverpiae, Apud P. & d. Belleros, 1617) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Poëmata : textum ad praestantissimas editiones recognitum, et praecipua lectionis varietate nec non vv. dd. conjecturis instructum, prolegomenis et excursibus, varii argumenti, donavit, notisque perpetuis, patria lingua exaratis, et ad aestheticen, historiam ... / (Novi Eboraci : Carvill, 1830), also by Charles Anthon (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Poemata, textum ad praestantissimas editiones recognitum ... prolegomenis et excursibus varii argumenti donavit ... (Novi Eboraci, Impensis G. & C. & H. Carvill, 1830) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Poemata. The works of Horace ... (N.Y., 1833) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Poems from Horace, Catullus and Sappho : and other pieces / (London : J.M. Dent, 1897), also by Edward George Harman, Sappho, and Gaius Valerius Catullus (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The poems of Horace; (London, G. Bell & sons, 1897) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The poems of Horace; (London, Bell & Sons, 1902), also by Archibald Hamilton Bryce (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The poems of Horace / (London : [publisher not identified], 1902), also by Archibald Hamilton Bryce (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The poems of Horace : a literal translation / (London : G. Bell & sons, 1913), also by Archibald Hamilton Bryce (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Poems on several occasions. (Edinburgh, W. Gordon, 1760), also by William Hamilton and John. PRO Foster (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Poesies (Paris, Saillant, 1768), also by Charles Batteux (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Poésies lyriques; Odes, Épodes, Chant séculaire. (Paris : J. Hetzel, 1866), also by Emmanuel Worms de Romilly (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Poetica de Horatio, e O ensaio sobre a critica de Alexandre Pope. (Londres, Na officina de T. Harper, jun [etc., etc.], 1812), also by Huma Portugueza. trl and Alexander Pope (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: A poetical translation of the works of Horace / (London : Printed for A. Millar, 1753), also by Philip Francis (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: A poetical translation of the works of Horace, with notes collected from his best Latin and French commentators, (Edinburgh : Printed for A. Donaldson, 1779), also by Philip Francis (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: A poetical translation of the works of Horace; with the original text, and critical notes. (London, Printed for A. Miller, 1750), also by Philip Francis (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: A poetical translation of the works of Horace : with the original text, and critical notes collected from his best Latin and French commentators / (London : W. Strahan, J. Rivington and Sons, T. Caslon, B. Law, T. Cadell, G. Robinson, W. Stewart, T. Becket, J. Murray, W. Domville, J. Bell, and T. Evans, 1778) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: A poetical translation of the works of Horace : with the original text, and critical notes collected from his best Latin and French commentators / (London : Printed for A. Millar, in the Strand, 1756), trans. by Philip Francis (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: A poetical translation of the works of Horace : with the original text, and critical notes collected from his best Latin and French commentators. (London : Printed for A. Millar in the Strand, 1753), also by Philip Francis (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The poetical works of Dr. William King : with the life of the author. (Edinburg : at the Apollo press, by the Martins, anno 1781), also by William King, 43 B.C.-17 or 18 A.D. Ars amatoria Ovid, Horace. Ars poetica, and 43 B.C.-17 or 18 A.D. Ovid, illust. by Thomas Stothard (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The preludes. A collection of poems. (New York, C. L. MacArthur, 1846), also by Eugene Liés (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Publius Virgilius Maro; (Stuttgart, Nübling, 1880-[85?]), also by Virgil and W. Binder (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci Carmina (Lipsiae, in aedibvs B. G. Tevbneri, 1907), also by Friedrich Vollmer (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci Carmina; (Lipsiae, in aedibvs B.G. Tevbneri, 1890) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci Carmina (Pragae, sumptus fecit F. Tempsky; [etc., etc.], 1883), also by Michael Petschenig (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci Carmina (Lipsiae, in aedibvs B. G. Tevbneri, 1912), also by Friedrich Vollmer (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci Carmina. (Lipsia, Teubner, 1904), ed. by Eduard Friedrich Hermann Lucian Mueller (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci Carmina / (Lipsiae : B. G. Tevbner, 1903), also by Lucian Müller (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci Carmina / (Lipsiae : B. G. Tevbner, 1903), also by Lucian Müller (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci Carmina / (Lipsiae : in aedibvs B.G. Tevbneri, 1907), also by Friedrich Vollmer (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci Carmina / (Lipsiae : B. G. Teubneri, 1903), also by Lucian Müller (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci Carmina / (Lipsiae : In aedibus B.G. Teubneri, 1874), also by Lucian Müller (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci Carmina / (Lipsiae : B. G. Teubneri, 1913), also by Friedrich Vollmer (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci Carmina : liber epodon / (Cambridge [Cambridgeshire] : University press, 1914), also by James Gow (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci Carmina : liber epodon / (Cambridge [Cambridgeshire] : University Press, 1896), also by James Gow (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci Carmina. Oden und epoden des Horaz. (Giessen, J. Ricker, 1882), ed. by Lucian Müller (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci Carmina recensvit Fridericvs Vollmer. (Lipsiae, in aedibvs B.G. Tevbneri, 1908), ed. by Friedrich Vollmer (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci De arte poëtica liber : praemissa disputatione de consilio, quod Horatius in condendo poëmate suo secutus sit / (Lipsiae : G. Martini, 1806), also by Karl Gottlob Schelle (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. HoratI Flacci Emblemata : imaginibus in aes incisis, notisq[ue] illustrata / (Antuerpiae : Ex officina Hieronymi Verdussen, auctoris aere & cura, MDCVII [1607]), also by Otto van Veen and Hieronymus Verdussen (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci Epistulae, (Torino: Ermanno Loerscher, 1913), also by Remigio Sabbadini (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci Epistulae. = The epistles of Horace, (London, Macmillan and Co., 1886), also by Augustus S. Wilkins (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci Epistulae; the Epistles of Horace / (London, New York : Macmillan, 1899 [c1885]) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci Epistvlae [microform]. The Epistles of Horace; (London, Macmillan, 1885), ed. by Augustus S. Wilkins (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci opera. (Oxonii, e typographeo Clarendoniano, [1912]), ed. by Edward Charles Wickham (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci opera; (Oxonii, e typographeo Clarendoniano, [1900]), also by E. C. Wickham (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci Opera, (Lipsiae, B.G. Tevbner, 1864), also by Alfred Holder and Otto Keller (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci Opera; (Vindobonae, Pragae, sumptus fecit F. Tempsky; [etc.], 1892), also by Joseph Haeussner, ed. by Otto Keller (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci opera (Lipsiae, B. G. Teubner, 1864-68) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci Opera. (London, New York, Macmillan and Co., 1895), also by T. E. Page (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci opera; (Lipsiae, B. G. Teubner, 1878), also by Otto Keller and Alfred Theophil Holder, ed. by Alfred Theophil Holder (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci Opera (Londini : K. Paul, Trench & Soc., 1882), also by Francis Warre Cornish (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci Opera / (Lipsiae : B. G. Teubner, 1864-1869), also by Alfred Theophil Holder and Otto Keller (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci opera / (London ; New York : Macmillan, 1896), also by Arthur Palmer, Augustus S. 1843-1905 Wilkins, and T. E. Page (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci opera / (Leipzig : Insel-Verlag, 1921), also by Richard Heinze (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci opera / (Lipsiae : Apud S. Hirzelium, 1881) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci opera / (London ; New York : Macmillan, 1896), also by Augustus S. Wilkins, Arthur Palmer, and T. E. Page (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci Opera [microform]. (Londini : K. Paul, Trench & Soc., 1882), also by Francis Warre Cornish (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci Opera. Oeuvres d'Horace. (Paris, Hachette, 1924-), also by Édouard Galletier, Paul Antoine Augustin Lejay, and Frédéric Édouard Plessis (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci Opera. Oeuvres d'Horace. (Paris, Hachette, 1911-), ed. by Édouard Galletier, Paul Antoine Augustin Lejay, and Frédéric Plessis (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci Opera omnia. (Oxonii, E Prelo Clarendoniano, 1897), also by E. C. Wickham (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci Saturarum liber I. / (Cambridge : University Press, 1901), also by James Gow (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci Satvrarvm liber II, (Cambridge [Eng.] : The University Press, 1909), also by James Gow (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci sermones et epistulae / (Boston : Allyn and Bacon, 1901), also by Horace. Epistulae and John Carew Rolfe (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci Sermones : the satires of Horace / (London : Macmillan, 1899), also by Arthur Palmer (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q Horati Flacci sermones : the satires of Horace / (London ; New York : Macmillan, 1905), also by Arthur Palmer (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci sermonum et epistularum libri. Satiren und Episteln des Horaz. (Wien, Prag, Tempsky; Leipzig, G. Freytag, 1891), also by Lucian Müller and Ludwig Friedrich Heindorf (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci Sermonum et Epistularum libri : Satiren und Episteln des Horaz / (Prag : F. Tempsky, 1893), also by Lucian Müller (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horati Flacci Sermonum et spistularum libra : Satiren und Episteln des Horaz / (Wien : F. Tempsky, 1891-1893), also by Horace. Epistolae. 1891 and Lucian Müller (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatii Fl. Opera ad Lectiones probatiores diligenter emendata et Interpunctione nova sæpius illustrata (Cupri Fifanorum, 1813) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci, (Londini, impensis Kearsley, 1794), ed. by Gilbert Wakefield (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Carmina, (Berolini, apud Weidmannos, 1892), ed. by Martin Julius Hertz (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Carmina. (Lipsiae, in aedibus B. G. Teubneri, 1875), ed. by Lucian Müller (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Carmina. (Lipsiae, in aedibus B. G. Teubneri, 1877), ed. by Lucian Müller (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Carmina, (Amstelodami, apud F. Muller, 1862), ed. by Petrus Hofman Peerlkamp (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Carmina. (Lipsiae, in aedibus B.G. Teubneri, 1889), also by Lucian Müller, ed. by Lucian Müller (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Carmina. (Lipsiae, in aedibvs B. G. Tevbneri, 1881), also by Lucian Müller (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Carmina. (Lipsiae : in aedibvs B. G. Tevbneri, 1893), also by Lucian Müller (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Carmina / (Groningae : C.M. Van Bolhuis Hoitsema, 1843), also by Johannes Lenting (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Carmina / (Jena : F. Mauke, 1848), also by Friedrich August Theodor Obbarius (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Carmina / (Lipsiae : In aedibus B.G. Teubneri, 1887), also by Lucian Müller (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Carmina / (Lipsiae : F.C.G. Vogelii, 1809), also by Christian David Jani (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Carmina [microform] (Lipsiae, Tevbner, 1908) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Carmina ... castigata et brevi annotatione instructa. (Amst., Van Kampen, 1847) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Carmina expurgata : accuratis notis ac appendice de diis et Heroibus Poëticis illustravit Josephus Juvencius. (Lugduni : Apud A. Leroy, 1814) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Carmina expurgata, et accuratis notis illustrata, (Romæ, Apud P. Junchium, 1782), also by Joseph de Jouvency (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Carmina selecta / (Vindobonae : Sumptus fecit F. Tempsky ; Lipsiae : Sumptus fecit G. Freytag, 1888), also by Michael Petschenig (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Carmina selecta / (Vindobonae : C. Gerold Filii, 1881), ed. by Michael Gitlbauer (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Carmina : Textausgabe für den Schulgebrauch / (Leipzig : Teubner, 1899), also by Gustav Krüger (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Carminia selecta cum adnotationibus et græca interpretatione. Kointou Horatiou Phlakkou ōdai hypo Panou Kōnstantinidou. (En Athēnais, ek tou typographeiou Parnassou, 1875), also by Panos Konstantinides (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Carminum. (London : Macmillan, 1902), also by T. E. Page (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Carminum liber I [-IV] ... / (London : Macmillan, 1879-1883), also by T.E. Page (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Carminum liber I[-IV]. (London, MacMillan, 1910-16), also by T. E. Page (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Carminum liber I[-IV] (1892-95) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Carminum libri IV [microform], (London, Macmillan, 1890) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Carminum libri IV; Epodon liber; (London : Macmillan, 1920), also by T. E. Page (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Carminum libri IV ; Epodon liber / (London : Macmillan, 1895), also by T. E. Page and Horace. Epodae. 1895 (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Carminum libri V. ad fidem xviii mss. parisiensium recensuit, notis illustravit, (Lutetiae Parisiorum, F. Schoell, 1812-1813), also by Martin Marie Charles de Boudens Vanderbourg (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci de arte Poëtica liber ad Pisiones [microform] / (Coburgi : Ahliana, 1815), also by Johann Christoph Matthias Reinecke (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci De arte poetica liber, vulgo Epistola ad Pisones. (Wien : Bey Friedrich Volke, 1824), also by E. Th. Hohler (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Eclogae / (Lipsiae : Svmtibvs Caspari Fritsch, 1802), also by ca. 69-ca. 122 Suetonius, Johann Matthias Gesner, William Baxter, and Johann Carl Zeune (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci eclogae cum scholiis veteribus. (Londini, Geo. B. Whittaker, [etc], 1826), also by Isaäc Verburg, Richard Bentley, Daniel Aveman, Tomasz Treter, Johann Carl Zeune, Johann Matthias Gesner, and William Baxter (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Eclogae : cum scholiis veteribus / (Londini : Impensis J. Johnson, 1809), also by Johann Carl Zeune, Johann Matthias Gesner, and William Baxter (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Eclogae, cum scholiis veteribvs (Lipsiae : C. Fritsch, 1802), also by Johann Carl Zeune, Johann Matthias Gesner, and William Baxter (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Eclogae cum selectis scholiastarum veterum et Guilielmi Baxteri, Io. Matthiae Gesneri et Io. Car. Zeunii annotationibus. Recognovit Frider. Henr. Bothe ... (Lipsiae, sumtibus Librariae Hahnianae, 1822), also by Johann Carl Zeune, Johann Matthias Gesner, and William Baxter, ed. by Friedrich Heinrich Bothe (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci eclogae : cvm scholiis veteribvs / (Lipsiae : C. Fritsch, 1788), also by Johann Carl Zeune, Johann Matthias Gesner, and William Baxter (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Eclogae cvm scholiis veteribvs castigavit et notis illvstravit Gvilielmvs Baxtervs. (Lipsiae, svmtibvs librariae, Hahnianae, 1815), also by Johann Carl Zeune, Johann Matthias Gesner, and William Baxter (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Eclogae cvm scholiis veteribvs castigavit et notis illvstravit Gvilielmvs Baxtervs. (Lipsiae, svmtibvs C. Fritsch, 1788), also by Johann Carl Zeune, Johann Matthias Gesner, and William Baxter (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Eclogae : una cum scholiis perpetuis, tam veteribus quàm novis / (Londini : Typis Guilielmi Bowyer : Impensis autem J. Batley ..., 1725), also by William Bowyer, John Baxter, and William Baxter, contrib. by Jeremiah Batley (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Eclogae : una cum scholiis perpetuis, tam veteribus quam novis, praecipuè verò antiquorum grammaticorum, Helenij Acronis, Pomponiique Porphyrionis : quorum quae exstant reliquiae foedis interpolationibus purgatae nunc primum ferè integrae reponuntur / (Londini : Typis J.L. impensis autem A.&J. Churchill, 1701), also by William Baxter (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Epistola ad Augustum / (Groningae : W. van Boeker, 1831), also by H. Reidel (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Epistola ad Pisones / (Leidae : Apud H. W. Hazenberg, 1845), also by Petrus Hofman Peerlkamp (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Epistola ad Pisones [microform]/ (Leidae : Apud H. W. Hazenberg, 1845), also by Petrus Hofman Peerlkamp (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Epistola ad Pisones, De arte poetica. The art of poetry: an epistle to the Pisos. (London, Printed for T. Cadell, 1783), trans. by George Colman (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Epistolae ad Pisones, et Augustum. (London, Printed by W. Bowyer and J. Nichols for T. Cadell and J. Woodyer, 1776), also by William Mason and Richard Hurd (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci epistolae ad Pisones, et Augustum, with an English commentary and notes, to which are added critical dissertations (London, Printed for A. Millar et al., 1766), also by Richard Hurd (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Epistula ad Pisones de arte poetica : Horace, art poétique, texte Latin / (Paris ; Londres : Librairie Hachette, 1886), also by Maurice Albert and Horace. Ars poetica (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Epistulae. (Gotha, Friedr. Andr. Perthes, 1888), also by H. S. Anton (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Epistvlae = The epistles of Horace / (London : Macmillan, 1896), ed. by Augustus S. Wilkins (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Epodon liber, (London, Macmillan and Co., limited, 1921), also by T. E. Page (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci ex ed. Bipontina II, (Parisiis, etc., Treuttel et Würtz, 1828), ed. by Jean-Baptiste Modeste Gence (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci, ex ed. Bipontina II, ad optimas lectiones mss. et edd. Nova editio recensita, brevibus notis critic. et interp. subjunctis, necnon Horatiano indice; cum adnotata Horatii vita, et notitia litteraria. De hujus edd. comment. et vers amplissima. (Parisiis [etc], apud Treuttel et Würtz, 1828), also by Jean Baptiste Modeste Gence (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera. (Lipsiae, svmtibvs et typis c. Tavchnitii, 1824) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci opera, (Lipsiae, Svmtibvs librariae Hahnianae, 1815-28), also by F. W. Döring (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera. (Lipsiæ, sumptibus Philippi Reclam jun., 1851), ed. by Georg Koch (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera. (Londini, Kegan, Paul, Trench, 1882), also by Francis Warre Cornish (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera, (London, Bell and Daldy, 1869), also by H. A. J. Munro (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera, (Lipsiae, svmtibvs S. L. Crvsii, 1800) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera, (Lipsiae, svmtibvs S. L. Crvsii, 1800), also by Book Traces Project, ed. by Christoph Wilhelm Mitscherlich (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera. (Florentiae : G. Barbe ra, 1911) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci opera. (Lipsiae : C. Tauchnitii, 1827) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera, (Lipsiae, apud S. Hirzelium, 1908), ed. by Johannes Vahlen and Moriz Haupt (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci opera. (Lipsiae, sumtibus et typis C. Tauchnitii, 1853), also by Karl Hermann Weise (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci opera. (Paris : E. Belin, [1864?]), also by Charles Aubertin (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera. (Lipsiae : Sumtibus Siegfried Lebrecht Crusii, 1800), also by Horace. Carmina and Christoph Wilhelm Mitscherlich (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera / (Lipsiae : O. Holtze, 1873), also by C. H. Weise (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera / (Reutlingae : in Officina Libraria Maeckeniana, 1814-16), ed. by Christoph Wilhelm Mitscherlich (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci opera / (Oxonii : D. A. Talboys, 1838) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera / (Berolini : A. Havde et I. C. Speneri, 1761), also by Johann Peter Miller (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera / (Glasguae : In aedibus academicis, excudebat J. Mundell, 1796), also by Johann Carl Zeune, Johann Matthias Gesner, and William Baxter (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera / (Bassani ; Sed prostant Venetiis : Apud Remondini, 1794), also by Louis Desprez (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera / (Lipsiae : S. Hirzel, 1871), also by Moriz Haupt (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera /, also by Christoph Wilhelm Mitscherlich (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera / (Oxonii : D. A. Talboys, 1831), also by F. W. Döring (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera / (Mutinae : E. Sarasino, 1892), also by Ettore Stampini (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera / accedunt indices locupletissimi. (Oxonii : D. A. Talboys; [etc., etc.], 1838), also by Friedrich Wilhelm Doering (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera [microform] ad fidem sex Codicum MSPT. nondum adhibitorum Bibliothecae Regiae Bambergensis, nec non Schoenborniano-Gaibacensis aeque ac Hellerianae, (Vinariae, in novo Bibliopolo, vulgo Landes-Industrie-Comptoir., 1821), also by Carlo Fèa and Joachim H. Jäck (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci opera : ad fidem LXXVI codicum: Accedunt I. Synopsis chronoligica rerum Romanarum, vivente Horatio. II. Tractatulus de metris Horatianis. III. Variae LXXVI codicum lectiones. IV. Phrasium subdifficilium enucleatio. V. Lexicon Mythologicum, Historicum & Geographicum. VI. Dictionarium Latino-Gallicum vocum Horatianarum quae Lectorem morari possunt / (Parisiis : Typis Michaelis Lambert, 1770), also by Joseph Valart (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera ad fidem sex Codicum MSPT. nondum adhibitorum Bibliothecae Regiae Bambergensis, nec non Schoenborniano-Gaibacensis aeque ac Hellerianae, (Vinariae, in novo Bibliopolo, vulgo Landes-Industrie-Comptoir., 1821), also by Carlo Fea and Jaeck (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera ad mss. codices vaticanos, chisianos, angelicos, barberinos, gregorianos, vallicellanos, aliosque, plurimis in locis emendavit, notisque illustravit... Carolus Fea... Denuo recensuit, adhibitsque novissimis subsidiis curavit, Fridericus Henricus Bothe ... (Heidelbergae et Spirae, sumtibus A. Oswald, 1821), also by Friedrich Heinrich Bothe and Carlo Fèa (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci opera : ad mss. codices Vaticanos, Chisianos, Angelicos, Barberinos, Gregorianos, Vallicellanos, aliosque, plurimis in locis emendavit, notisque illustravit praesertim in iis, quae Romanas antiquitates spectant / (Heidelbergae et Spirae : Sumtibus Aug. Osswald, 1827), also by Friedrich Heinrich Bothe, ed. by Carlo Fea (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera. Ad optimorvm librorvm fidem acevrate edita. (Lipsiae, ex officina C. Tavchnitii, 1820) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci opera : Ad praestantium librorum lectiones accurate recensuit Car. Herm. Weise. (Lipsiae : sumtibus et typis C. Tauchnitii, 1843), also by Karl Hermann Weise (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera. Ad praestantium librorum lectiones accurate recensuit Car. Herm. Weise. (Lipsiae, O. Holtze, [1895]) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera, cum variis lectionibus, notis variorum, et indice locupletissimo. ... (Londini, excudebant G. Browne, et J. Warren, et prostant venales apud T. Payne et J. Edwards, 1792-93), also by Henry Homer and Charles Combe (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera illustrated from antique gems (London :, 1869) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera interpretatione et notis illustravit Ludovicus Desprez ... jussu Christianissimi regis in usum serenissimi Delphini ae serenissimorum princium Burgundiae, Andium, Biturigum ... (Bassani, suis typis Remondini edidit, 1844), also by Louis Desprez (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci opera : nova editio stereotypa, iteratis curis castigata et expolita. (Lipsiae : Tauchniti, 1828) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera omnia, (Lipsiae, sumptibus et typis B. G. Teubneri, 1853), also by Friedrich Ernst Theodor Schmid and Johann Christian Jahn (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera omnia. (Bonnae, sumptibus Adolphi Marci, 1881), also by Dillenburger (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera omnia, (Lipsiae, sumtibus C. Fritsch, 1803-), also by F. W. Döring (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera omnia, (Lipsiae, sumptibus et typis B. G. Teubneri, 1855), also by Friedrich Ernst Theodor Schmid and Johann Christian Jahn (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera omnia. (Bonnae, sumptibus Adolphi Marci, 1867), also by Wilhelm Dillenburger (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera omnia (Lipsiae Sumtibus librariae hahnianae, 1828-29), also by F. W. Döring (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera omnia, (Lipsiae, Teubneri, 1850) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera omnia (1839-) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera omnia, (Lipsiae : sumtibus librariae Hahnianae, 1836-39), also by Friedrich Wilhelm Doering (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci opera omnia. (Oxonii, J. Henricus et J. Parker, 1858) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera omnia / (Lipsiae : Sumptibus et typis B. G. Teubneri, 1859), also by Theodor Schmid and Johann Christian Jahn (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera omnia / (Bonnae : Sumptibus A. Marci, 1875), also by Wilhelm Dillenburger (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci opera omnia / (Lipsiae : Ex Officina B. Tauchnitz, 1854), also by Gottfried Stallbaum (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera omnia / (Lipsiae : Ex Officina Bernhardi Tauchnitz, 1854) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera omnia / (Lipsiae : Sumptibus et typis B. G. Teubneri, 1857), also by Theodor Schmid and Johann Christian Jahn (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera omnia / (Bonnae : Aumptibus A. Marci, 1854), also by Wilhelm Dillenburger (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera omnia / (Lipsiae : Librarie Hahnianae, 1830), also by F. W. Döring (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera omnia / (London : Hamilton and Co., [18--]), also by Charles Anthon and F. W. Döring (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera omnia : cum indicibus locupletissimis / (Glasguae : Excudebant Andreas et Joannes M. Duncan, fimpensis Ricardi Priestley), 1826), also by F. W. Döring (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera omnia : cum indicibus locupletissimis / (Glasguae : A. et J. M. Duncan ; Londini : R. Priestley, 1826), also by Friedrich Wilhelm Doering (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera omnia : ex recensione Frid. Guil. Doering ; explanatory notes by Charles Anthon. (London : J.R. Priestley, 1835), also by Charles Anthon and F. W. Döring (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera omnia poetica. (Halae, impensis Orphanotrophei, 1801) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera omnia ; recensuit et illustravit / Fridericus Guil. Doering. (Lipsiae : Libraria Hahn, 1824), also by F. W. Döring (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera omnia : Textum denuo recensuit, varietate lectionis integra instruxit, optimorum interpretum commentarios subjecit, suas adnotationes cum criticas tum exegeticas adspersit, scholiastarum veterum Acronis et Porphyrionis scholia typis excudenda curavit, etc. / (Lipsiae : prostat in libraria Gvilielmi Navckii, 1831-1838), also by Wilhelm Braunhard (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Opera. The Works of Horace, from the text of Orellius. (London : C. Griffin and Company, [1857?]), also by Joseph Currie and Johann Kaspar von Orelli (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci operum ... (Harlemi, ex typographia Nicolai Braau, [1696]), also by Eduard van Zurck (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci poemata, (Hamburgi, A. Vandenhoeck, 1733), also by Noël Étienne Sanadon, Alexander Cunningham, and Richard Bentley (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Poemata. (Parisiis : ex officina Michaëlis Vascosani ..., 1545), also by Antonio Mancinelli and Pietro Crinito (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci poemata in quibus multa correcta sunt, & institutiones suis locis positae, commentariorum quodammodo uice funguntur. Vndeuiginti metrorum genera, et quaenam sint, & e quibus constent pedibus, et ante uolumen simul habentur, et intus in uolumine suis locis. Adnotationes nonnullae in toto opere, in quibus uel aliquid mutandum ostenditur, uel cur mutatum sit, ratio redditur. (Venetiis : Apvd Aldvm Romanvm, Mense Martio 1509), also by Aldo Manuzio (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Poemata. Ratio mensuum quibus Odae eiusdem poetae tene[n]tur. Centimetrum Marij Seruij. Variae lectiones ex vetustiss. codicibus. (Parisiis. : Ex officina Roberti Stephani typographi regij., 1544), also by Robert Estienne, Horace. Variae lectiones ex vetustiss. codicibus, 4th cent. Centimetrum Servius, and Niccolò Perotti (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Poëmata : textum, ad praestantissimas editiones recognitum, et praecipua lectionis varietate nec non VV.DD. conjecturis instructum, prolegomenis et excursibus, varii argumenti, donavit, notisque perpetuis, patria lingua exaratis, et ad aestheticen, historiam, geographiam, mythologiam, archaeologiam, remque botanicam, spectantibus, (Novi Eboraci : Impensis G. & C. H. Carvill, 1830), also by Charles Anthon (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Poëmata ... with ... notes ... (N.Y., G. & C. Carvill & Co., 1836), ed. by Charles Anthon (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci poetae venusini, Omnia poemata cum ratione carminum, & argumentis vbique insertis (Venetiis : Apvd Ioannem Mariam Bonellvm, 1559) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci poetae Venvsini omnia poemata cvm ratione carminvm, & argumentis vbique insertis, interpretatibus Acrone, Porphyrione, Iano Parrhasio, Antonio Mancinello, necnon Iodoco Badio Ascension viris eruditissimi. Scholiisqve Angeli Politiani, M. Antonii Sabellici ... & Iacobi Bononiensis nuper adiunctis. His nos praeterea annotationes doctissimorum Antonij Thylesij, Consentini, Francisci Robortelli Vtinensis, atque Henrici Glareani apprime uvtiles addidimus. Nicolai Peroti Sipontini libellvs De metris odarvm. Auctoris vita ex Petro Crinito Florentino. Quae omnia longè politius, ac diligentius, quàm hactenus excusa in lucem prodeunt ... (Venetiis : Apvd Ioannem Mariam Bonellvm, 1559) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Satirae. (Gotha. Friedr. Andr. Perthes., 1887), also by Karl Otto Breithaupt (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Satirae, (Amstelodami, apud F. Muller, 1863), also by Petrus Hofman Peerlkamp (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Sermonum et Epistularum libri. Satiren und Episteln des Horaz mit anmerkungen von Lucian Mueller. (Prag, Tempsky, 1891-1893), also by Horace. Epistulae. 1891 and Eduard Friedrich Hermann Lucian Mueller (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Sermonum libri duo. (Leipzig, Teubner, 1854-1857), also by Carl Christian Jacob Kirchner, ed. by Wilhelm Sigismund Teuffel (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Sermonum libri duo. Edidit germanice reddidit et triginta codicum recens colatorum grammaticorum veterum omniumque msstorum adhuc a variis adhibitorum ope librorumque potiorum a primordiis artis typographicae usque ad hunc diem editorum lectionibus excussis recensuit apparatu critico instruxit et commentario illustravit C. Kirchner. (Lipsiae, sumptibus et typis B.G. Teubneri, 1854-1857), also by C. Kirchner (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacci Sermonum libri quattuor, seu, Satyrarum libri duo. Epistolarum libri duo. / (Lugduni : Apud Ioan. Tornaesium, 1561), also by Jean de Tournes, Denys Lambin, and Horace. Epistulae (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacii De arte poetica liber, quem interpretatione atque notis criticis et aestheticis illustravit et vernaculo tum Germanorum tum Bohemorum versu reddidit Simeon Carolus Machaček. (Pragae, Kronberger, 1827) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Flacii Opera omnia. (Lipsiae, Bernhard Tauchnitz, 1854), also by Gottfried Stallbaum (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatii Satirae et Epistolae, ad optimorum librorum fidem castigatae et brevi annotatione instructae. (Amstelodami, sumptibus P. N. van Kampen, 1847) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatius Flacci Carmina / (Lipsiae : in aedibvs B. G. Tevbneri, 1899), ed. by Lucian Müller (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus; (Turici, Sumptibus Orelli Fuesslini et sociorum, etc., 1843), also by Johann Kaspar von Orelli (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus. (Berloini, G. Reimer, 1835), also by August Meineke (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus, (Berolini, Reimer, 1834) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus. (Turici, sumptibus Orellii, Fuesslini et Sociurum., [1850]-52), also by Johann Georg Baiter and Johann Kaspar von Orelli (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus. (Paris, L. Hachette et cie., 1853), also by E. Sommer (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus. (1838-39) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus. (Berlin, Weidmann, 1880-81) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus. (Lipsiae, apud Weidmannos, 1851) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus. (Berlin, Weidmann, 1881-89 [v. 1, '89]), ed. by Hermann Schütz (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q Horatius Flaccus, (Berlin, 1895-98) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus. (Paris, L. Hachette et cie., 1865) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q Horatius Flaccus, (Berlin, 1895-98) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus. (Paris, Hachette et cie., 1872), ed. by E Sommer (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. HOratius Flaccus. (Paris, Hachette et cie., 1890), also by E Sommer (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus. (Turici, Orellii, Fuesslini, 1851-52), also by Johann Georg Baiter and Johann Kaspar von Orelli (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus. (Berol., 1835) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus. (Turici, sumptibus Orellii, Fuesslini et sociorum; [etc., etc.], 1843-44), ed. by Johann Kaspar von Orelli (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus, (Berolini, apud Weidmannos, 1869) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus; (Berlin, S. Calvary eiusque socius, 1886-92), also by J. G. Baiter, ed. by W. Mewes, Wilhelm Hirschfelder, and Johann Kaspar von Orelli (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus. (Berlin, Weidmann, 1908-21), also by Richard Heinze and Adolf Kiessling (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus, (Cantabrigiae, 1711), also by Richard Bentley (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus. (Turici, Sumptibus Orellii, Fuesslini et Sociorum, 1837-38), ed. by Johann Kaspar von Orelli (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus. (Turici, Sumptibus Orellii, Fuesslini et sociorum. Londini, apud Black et Armstrong., 1838-39), also by Johann Kaspar von Orelli (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus. (Berolini, typis et impensis G. Reimeri, 1874), ed. by August Meineke (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus; (Berlin, Weidmann, 1914-21 [v.1, 1917]), also by Richard Heinze, ed. by Adolf Kiessling (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus; (Berolini, Sumptus fecit S. Calvary eiusque socius, 1891), also by Wilhelm Mewes (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus. (Leipzig, G. Freytag, 1907), ed. by Josef Häussner and Otto Keller (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus. (Berlin, Weidmannsche buchhandlung, 1890-1898), also by Adolf Kiessling (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus. (Paris, L. Hachette et cie, 1869), also by Édouard Sommer (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus. (Berlin, Weidmann, 1881-89 [v.1, '89]), ed. by Hermann Schütz (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus. (Berlin, Weidmann, 1908-1921), also by Richard Heinze, ed. by Adolf Kiessling (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus. (Leipzig, G. Freytag, 1903), also by Joseph Haeussner, ed. by Otto Keller (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus, (Paris, Hachette, 1881), ed. by Édouard Sommers (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus; (Leipzig, Freytag, 1896), also by Andreas Christoph Weidner (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus. (Berlin, Weidmann, 1886-90 (v.1, 1890)) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus. (Berlin, Weidmann, 1906-1908), ed. by Richard Heinze and Adolf Gottlieb Kiessling (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus / (Berolini : Sumptus Fecit S. Calvary Eiusque Socius, 1882-1884), also by Johann Georg Baiter, Wilhelm Hirschfelder, and Johann Kaspar von Orelli (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus / (Berolini : typis et impensis Georgii Reimeri, 1854), ed. by August Meineke (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus / (Lipsiae : Hahn, 1855), also by Franz Pauly (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus / (Berlin : Weidmannsche buchhandlung, 1886-1890 (v.1, 1890)) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus / (Berlin, Weidmann, 1898-), also by Richard Heinze and Adolf Kiessling (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus / (Antverpiae : Ex officina Plantiniana, apud Ioannem Moretum., 1608), also by Petrus Nannius and Laevinus Torrentius (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus / (Amstelaedami : Apud R. & J. Wetstenios & G. Smith, 1728), also by Isaac Verburg, Daniel Aveman, Tomasz Treter, and Richard Bentley (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus / (Lipsiae : Weidmannia, 1826), also by Richard Bentley (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus / (Berlin : Weidmannsche, 1884-1889), also by Adolf Gottlieb Kiessling (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus / (Cantabrigiae : [Cambridge University Press], 1711), also by Richard Bentley (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus / (Berlin : Weidmann, 1874-1883), ed. by H. Schütz (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus / (Turici : sumptibus Orelii, Fuesslini et sociorum, 1850-52), also by Johann Georg Baiter and Johann Kaspar von Orelli (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus / (Berlin : [s.n.], 1890-921) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus / (Berol : S. Calvary, 1882), also by Wilhelm Hirschfelder, Johann Georg Baiter, and Johann Kaspar von Orelli (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus / (Berlin : Weidmann, 1884-1889), also by Adolf Kiessling (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus / (Berlin : Weidmann, 1910- ; v.1, 1917) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus / (Berlin : Weidmann, 1880-), also by Hermann Schütz (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus / (Berlin : S. Calvary eiusque socius, 1886-1892), also by W. Mewes, Wilhelm Hirschfelder, Johann Georg Baiter, and Johann Kaspar Orelli (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q Horatius Flaccus / (Berolini : S. Calvery eiusque socius, 1884) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus [microform], (Turici, Sumptibus Orellii, Fuesslini et sociorum; Londinii, Asher & Soc., [etc.], 1843-44) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus : [werke] / (Berlin : Weidmann, 1901-1921), also by Adolf Gottlieb Kiessling (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus, denuo recognovit et praefatus est Augustus Meineke. (Berolini, typis et impensis Georgii Reimeri, 1854), also by August Meineke (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus Dichtkunst : op onze tyden, én zéden gepast / (Te Amsterdam : By Albert Magnus ..., 1681), also by A. Pels and Romeyn de Hooghe (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus, erklärt (Berlin, Wiedmannsche Buchhandlung, 1889-95), also by Adolf Kiessling, ed. by Hermann Schütz (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus, ex recensione et cum notis / (Berolini : [s.n.], 1869), also by Richard Bentley (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus im Licht des Evangeliums. Die vier Bücher der Oden deutsch in den Versweisen des Dichters wiedergegeben und mit Erläuterungen ihres religiös-sittlichen Inhalts Versehen (Leipzig, F. Richter, 1893), also by G. Kob (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus Lierzangen en dichtkunst / (t'Amsterdam : By Jan Lamsvelt ..., anno 1703), also by Joost van den Vondel and Jan Lamsvelt (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus. Mit vorzugsweiser rucksicht auf die unechten stellen und gedichte. (Lpz. :, 1869) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus Oden und epoden / (Berlin : Weidmann, 1889), also by Hermann Schütz (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus. Recensuit atque interpretatus est Io. Gaspar Orellius. (Turici : Sumptibus Orellii ..., 1850-1852), also by Johann Georg Baiter and Johann Kaspar von Orelli (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus recensuit atque interpretatus est Io. Gaspar Orellius. (Berolini, S. Calvary eiusque socius, 1882-1884), also by J. G. Baiter, ed. by Wilhelm Hirschfelder and Johann Kaspar von Orelli (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus recensuit atque interpretatus est Io. Gaspar Orellius / (Berolini : S. Cavalry, 1886-92), also by Wilhelm Hirschfelder, J. G. Baiter, and Johann Kaspar von Orelli (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus : Recensuit atque interpretatus est Io. Gaspar Orellius, Addita varietate lectionis Codicum Bentleianorum, Bernensium IV., sangallensis et turicensis / (Turici : Sumptibus Orellii, Fuesslini et sociorum, 1850-1852) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus sämmtliche werke : Deutsch / (Halberstadt : H. Voglers, 1830), trans. by Karl Friedrich Arend Scheller (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus Satiren für den schulgebrauch erklärt von Gustav Krüger. (Leipzig und Berlin, B. G. Teubner, 1923), also by Paul Hoppe, ed. by Gustav Krüger (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus : scholarum in usum / (Vindobonae : C. Gerold Filii, 1856), ed. by Gustav Wilhelm Reinhard Linker (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus scholiis, commentarii instar illustratus a Ioanne Bond. (Amstelodami : Apud Joannem Janssonium a Waesberge, 1670), also by John Bond (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus Werke; (Bremen, M. Heinsius Nachfolger, 1898) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horatius Flaccus' Werke. Lateinisch mit metrischer Uebersetzung von J.S. Strodtmann. (Leipzig, W. Engelmann, 1852-1855), also by J. S. Strodtmann (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horativs Flaccus (Lugd. Batavorum, 1663) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horativs Flaccus (Lugd. Batavorum, Ex officina Hackiana, 1663), also by John Bond, ed. by Cornelis Schrevel (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horativs Flaccus cum commentariis selectissimis variorum: & scholiis integris Johannis Bond. Accedunt indices locupletissimi, tum auctorum, tum rerum. (Lugd. Batavorum, apud Franciscum Hackium, 1658), also by Cornelis Schrevel and John Bond (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horativs Flaccus cum commentariis selectissimis variorum: & scholiis integris Johannis Bond. Accedunt indices locupletissimi tum auctorum, tum rerum. (Lugd. Batavorum, ex officina Hackiana, 1663), also by Cornelis Schrevel and John Bond (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horativs Flaccvs, (Lipsiae, impensis G.T. Georgi, 1764) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horativs Flaccvs. (Lipsiae: W. Engelmann, 1856-57), also by Franz Ritter (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q Horativs Flaccvs (Patavii, ex typ. Semin, [1732]) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horativs Flaccvs. Ad codices secvli noni decimqve exactvm, (Lipsiae: W. Engelmann, 1856-57), also by Franz Ritter (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horativs Flaccvs, cum erudito Laevini Torrentii commentario ... Item Petri Nannii Alcmariano in artem poëticam (Antverpiae, Ex officina Plantiniana, apud Ioannem Moretum, 1608), also by Petrus Nannius and Laevinus Torrentius (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horativs Flaccvs. Oden und Epoden (St. Petersburg, Ricker, 1900), ed. by Eduard Friedrich Hermann Lucian Mueller (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horativs Flaccvs. Oden und Epoden, erklaert von Lucien Mueller ... (St. Petersburg und Leipzig, K.L. Ricker, 1900), also by Lucian Müller (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q. Horativs Flaccvs recensvit codicvm selectorvm varias scripturas (Lipsia, Hahn, 1855), also by Franz Pauly (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horativs Flaccvs, scholarvm in vsvm (Vindobonae, 1856) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horativs Flacevs: cvm commentariis & enarrationibus commentatoris veteris, et Iacobi Crvqvii Messenii ... Accesserunt, Iani Dovsæ Nordovicis in eundem commentariolus, vnà cum succidaneâ appendice ad superiorem commentariolum. Item avetarivm commentatoris veteris à Cruquio editi. [Printer's mark] (Lvgdvni Batavorvm, ex officina Plantiniana, apud Franciscum Raphelengium, 1597) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Horazius Flakkus sämmtliche Werke. (Wien : Bey Joseph Oehler, 1800), also by ca. 69-ca. 122 Suetonius, Christoph Martin Wieland, Jakob Friedrich Schmidt, and Karl Wilhelm Ramler (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q. Orazio Flacco : le satire / (Firenze : G.C. Sansoni, 1910), also by Augusto Balsamo (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Q.Horati Flacci Opera. (New York, New Amsterdam book co., 1905), ed. by Francis Warre Cornish (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q.Horatii Flacci opera omnia; (London, Longman, 1861), also by F. W. Döring, ed. by Charles Anthon (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q.Horatii Flacci Opera omnia ... (Lipsiae, Huebner, [1833]), ed. by Wilhelm Braunhard (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q.Horatii Flacci poëmata. The works of Horace, with explanatory notes selected from the larger edition (New York, Carvill, 1838), ed. by Charles Anthon (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Q.Horatii Flaci Carmina. (Lipsiae, in aedibvs B. G. Tevbneri, 1870), ed. by Lucian Müller (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Queen Elizabeth's Englishings of Boethius, De consolatione philosophiae, A.D. 1593; Plutarch, de curiositate [1598]; Horace, De arte poetica (part) A.D. 1598. (London, Pub. for the Early English Text Society by Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co., 1899), also by Queen Elizabeth I of England, Caroline Pemberton, Plutarch, and Boethius (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Queen Elizabeth's Englishings of Boethius, De consolatione philosophiae, A.D. 1593; Plutarch, de curiositate [1598]; Horace, De arte poetica (part) A.D. 1598. (London, Pub. for the Early English Text Society by K. Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co., 1899), also by Plutarch and Boethius, ed. by Caroline Pemberton, trans. by Queen Elizabeth I of England (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Quinti Horati Flacci carminum librum quintum a Rudyardo Kipling et Carolo Graves. Anglice redditum et variorum notis adornatum ad fidem codicum mss. edidit Aluredus D. Godley. (Oxford : B. Blackwell, 1922), also by A. D. Godley, Charles L. Graves, and Rudyard Kipling (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Quinti Horati Flacci Opera. (Paris, Delegrave, 1899), ed. by August Cartelier and Louis Passerat (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Quinti Horati Flacci Opera / (Paris : C. Delegrave, 1895), also by August Cartelier and Louis Passerat (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Quinti Horati Flacci : opera omnia / (Londini : Apud P.H. Lee Warner Mediceae Societatis librarium, 1910), also by E. C. Wickham (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Quinti Horati Flacci opera omnia recensuit Filon. (Parisiis, 1828), also by Charles Auguste De sire Filon (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horati Flacci opera omnia: the works of Horace (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1891-96), ed. by E. C. Wickham (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Quinti Horati Flacci Opera. The complete works of Horace, (London, Longmans, Green, and co., 1867), ed. by John Eyre Yonge (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatic Flacci Opera omnia / (New York : Harper, 1860), also by A. J. Macleane (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Carmina : detersis recentibus plerumque maculis, nitori suo restituta. (Parisiis : typis J. Barbou, 1775), also by Jean Nicolas Lallemand and Joseph Valart (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Carmina expurgata accuratissimis notis illustravit (Paris, Impr. et librairie classiques de J. Delalan, 1854), also by Joseph de Jouvency (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Carmina selecta : in usum scholarum Belgicae. (Bruxelles : Typis Regiae Academiae, 1779) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Epistolas, (Lipsiae, Sumptus fecit Georgius Wigandus, 1841-1847), also by Friedrich Ernst Theodor Schmid and Lobegott Samuel Obbarius (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Epistolas commentariis uberrimis instructas ediderunt S. Obbarius et Th. Schmidius ... (Lipsiae, sumptus fecit G. Wiganus: Parisiis, Brockhaus & Avenarius; [etc., etc.], 1841-47), ed. by Friedrich Ernst Theodor Schmid and Lobegott Samuel Obbarius (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci opera. (Dublinii, Impensis J. Exshaw, 1812), also by André Dacier and Louis Desprez (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera. (Londini, T. Longman, 1793), also by André Dacier, ed. by Louis Desprez (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera. (Londini : Prostant apud Gul. Sandby ... , 1749), illust. by John Miller (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera, (Londini, apud J. Murray, 1868), also by Henry Hart Milman (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera. (Londini, impensis Longman, Rees, Orme [etc.], 1831), also by André Dacier, ed. by Louis Desprez (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci opera. (Philadelphia, H.C. Carey & Lea, 1825) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera. (Philadelphiæ, impensis H.C. Carey & I. Lea, 1823), also by Louis Desprez (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci opera (Londini : I. Pine, 1733-1737), contrib. by John Pine (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci opera. (Londini: Prostant apud Gul. Sandby in vico dicto Fleetstreet., 1749) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera ... (Parisiis, excudunt Plon fratres, 1845), ed. by Jean Pierre Charpentier and Théodose Burette (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera / (Philadelphiæ : M. Carey, 1821), also by André Dacier and Louis Desprez (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera / (Londini : Impensis C. Bathurst, J. Beecroft, W. Strahan [etc.], 1770), also by André Dacier and Louis Desprez (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci opera, / (Nova-Eboraci : T. et J. Swords, 1825), ed. by Hohann Karl Zeune (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera. / (Philadelphiæ: : Impensis H.C. Carey & I. Lea., 1824), also by André Dacier and Louis Desprez (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera / (Londini : J. Johnson, 1799), also by André Dacier and Louis Desprez (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera / (Londini : Sumtibus Rodwell et Martin [and 7 others] excudit T. Davison, 1822), also by Johann Carl Zeune (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci opera / (Londini : Apud Joannem Murray, 1853), also by Henry Hart Milman (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera / (Londoni : Harding, Mavor, et Lepard, 1824) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera / (Londini : Impensis W. Innys & J. Richardson, J. & P. Knapton, S. Birt, J. Clark, C. Hitch & L. Hawes, T. Longman, J. Shuckbrugh, J. Hodges, E. Wicksteed, C. Bathurst, B. Dod, J. & J. Rivington, J. Ward & M. Cooper, 1752), also by André Dacier and Louis Desprez (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera / (Philadelphia : Carey & Lea, 1827), also by Louis Desprez and André Dacier (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera / (Philadelphiæ : Joseph Allen, 1828), also by André Dacier and Louis Desprez (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera / (Philadelphia : J. Allen, 1835), also by Louis Desprez and André Dacier (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera / (Paris : F. Didot, 1855), also by Noël Desvergers and John Bond (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci opera ... / (Salmurii : Apud R. Pean, 1672), also by Tannegui Lefebvre (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera / (Philadelphia : published by J. Allen and sold by J. B. Lippincott & Co., 1859), also by Louis Desprez and André Dacier (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci opera / ex editione J. C. Zeunii, cum notis et interpretatione in usum Delphini variis lectionibus notis variorum recensu editionum et codicum et indice locupletissimo accurate recensita. (Londini : A.J. Valpy, 1825), ed. by Johann Carl Zeune (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera = The works of Horace / (London ; Oxford : Rivingtons, 1874-), also by J. M. Marshall (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera : accedunt clavis metrica et notae Anglicae juventuti accommodatae / (Bostoniae : Sumptibus Hilliard, Gray et Soc., 1833) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera : accedunt clavis metrica et notæ anglicæ juventuti accommodatæ / (Bostoniæ : Hilliard, Gray, Little, et Wilkins, 1828), also by Benjamin A. Gould (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera : accedunt clavis metrica et notæ anglicæ juventuti accommodatæ / (Bostoniæ : Hilliard, Gray, Little, et Wilkins, 1831), also by Benjamin A. Gould (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera : accedunt clavis metrica et notæ anglicæ juventuti accommodatæ / (Bostoniæ : Hilliard, Gray et Soc., 1835, c1828), also by Benjamin A. Gould (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera. Accedunt Clavis metrica et notae Anglicae, juventuti accomodatae. (Bostoniae: Benjamin B. Mussey, 1844), also by Benjamin Apthorp Gould (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera : ad optimas editiones collata : praemittitur notitia literaria / (Biponti : Ex typographia Societatis, 1792), also by Johann August Ernesti, Johann Albert Fabricius, and Societas Bipontina (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci opera, ad optimas editiones collata. Præmittitur notitia literaria. Studiis Societatis Bipontinæ. (Biponti, Ex Typographia Societatis, 1783) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera ad optimas editiones collata. Praemittitur notitia literaria studiis Societatis bipontinae. (Biponti, ex typographia Societatis, 1792) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci opera expurgata, (Philadelphiae, E. Kimber, 1815), ed. by Thomas Dugdale (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci opera expurgata : notis anglicis illustrata: quibus praefixum syntagma prosodiale / (Philadelphia : Impensis Solomon W. Conrad, 1815), also by Thomas Dugdale (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci opera : interpretatione & notis illustravit Ludovicus Desprez ... (Londini : impensis J. Clarke, 1762), ed. by Louis Desprez (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera : Interpretatione & notis illustravit Ludovicus Desprez, cardinalitius socius ac rhetor emeritus, jussu Christianissime regis, in usum serenissimi Delphini ac serenissimorum principum Burgundiae, Andium et Biturigum / (Dublinii : Printed for F. Smith, W. Wilson, L. L. Flin, J. Exshaw, and W. Hallhead, 1779), also by Louis Desprez (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera : interpretatione et notis / (Londini : J.F. & C. Rivington [etc., etc.], 1788) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera. Interpretatione et notis illustravit Ludovicus Desprez, cardinalitius socius ac rhetor emeritus, jussu Christianissime regis, in usum serenissimi Delphini ac serenissimorum principum Burgundiae, Andium et Biturigum. (Philadelphia, H.C. Carey & I. Lea, 1826), also by André Dacier and Louis Desprez (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera. Interpretatione et notis illustravit Ludovicus Desprez ... in usum serenissimi delphini ... (Novi Eboraci, Impensis D. et G. Bruce, 1820), also by Louis Desprez and André Dacier (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera. Interpretatione et notis illustravit Ludovicus Desprez ... jussu Christianissimi regis, in usum serenissimi Delphini ac serenissimorum principum Burgundiæ, Andium et Biturigum. (Parisiis, excudebat F. Leonard, 1691), also by Louis Desprez (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci opera. Interpretatione et notis illustravit Ludoviens Desprez, cardinalitius socius ae rhetor emeritus, jussu Christianissimi regis, in usum serenissimi Delphini ae serenissimorum principum Burgundiæ. Andium et Biturigum. (Philadelphiæ, J. Allen, 1839), also by André Dacier and Louis Desprez (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera omnia. (London: Whittaker & Co., George Bell & Sons, 1881), also by George Long and A. J. Macleane (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci opera omnia; (Novi Eboraci, Harperi fratres, 1895), also by A. J. Macleane (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera omnia. (London, Whittaker & Co. [etc.], 1869), ed. by George Long and A. J. Macleane (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera omnia (Londini, curante et imprimente A. J. Valpy, 1825), ed. by Johann Carl Zeune (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera omnia, (London, Whittaker & Co., 1874), also by George Long and A. J. Macleane (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci opera omnia, (New York, Harper & Brothers, [1858?]), ed. by A. J. Macleane (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera omnia (Londini: curante et imprimente A. J. Valpy, A. M., 1825), also by Johann Carl Zeune (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera omnia, (Novi Eboraci, apud Harperos fratres, 1883), ed. by A. J. Macleane (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci opera omnia. (Novi Eboraci, Harperos fratres, 1884), also by A. J. Maeleane (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera omnia / (New York : Harper, 1876), also by A. J. Macleane (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera omnia / (New York : Harper, 1868), also by A. J. Macleane (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci opera omnia / (Novi Eboraci : Harperos fratres, 1877), ed. by A. J Macleane (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera omnia / (Novi Eboraci : Harper, 1894), also by A. J. Macleane (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera omnia / (London : Whittaker, 1853), also by A. J. Macleane (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera omnia; ad optimorum exemplarium fidem recensita. (Edinburgi, apud G. Mudie, J. Elder [etc., etc.], 1792) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera omnia ex recensione A.J. Macleane. (New York, Harper, 1874) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci, opera omnia, ... Horaz' sämmtliche Werke. In metrischen Uebersetzungen. (Berlin, Fr. Kortkampf, 1866), also by Theodor Obbarius (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci opera omnia: the works of Horace (Oxford, Clarendon press, 1874), ed. by Edward Charles Wickham (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci opera omnia: the works of Horace (Oxford, Clarendon press, 1877-91), ed. by Edward Charles Wickham (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci opera omnia: the works of Horace (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1881), also by E. C. Wickham (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci Poemata, scholiis sive annotationibus, commentarii instar, illustrata à Joanne Bond. Accesserunt Parodiae, in libros Odarum & Epodon, rebus sacris maximam partem accommodatae, M. David. Hoppii; item aliorum el. virorum ... (Brunsvigae, typis ac sumtibus C. F. Zilligeri, 1668), also by David Hoppius, ed. by John Bonde (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quinti Horatii Flacci poëmata, scholiis sive annotationibus, instar commentarii, (Aurelianis, typis C. de Villeneuve, 1767), also by John Bond (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quintus Horatius Flaccus. (Parisiis, excudebam P. Didot, major, 1800) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quintus Horatius Flaccus. (Stuttgart. Hoffmann'sche Verlags-Buchhandlung., 1871-), also by W. Binder (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Quintus Horatius Flaccus. (Parisus, P. Didot et F. Didot, 1817) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quintus Horatius Flaccus, (Parisiis, 1829-31), also by N. E. Lemaire (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quintus Horatius Flaccus. (Parisiis, In Aedibus Palatinis Scientiarum et Artium, Excudebam Petrus Didot, 1799, reip. VIII) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quintus Horatius Flaccus. (Parisiis, Ex officina stereotypa P. Didot et F. Didot, Anno VIII (1800)) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quintus Horatius Flaccus. (London : Bell and Daldy, 1855) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quintus Horatius Flaccus. (Parisiis, ex officina stereotypa, P. Didot et F. Didot, 1817) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quintus Horatius Flaccus Brief an die Pisonen / (Thorn : [Gruenauer], 1825), also by Karl Friedrich August. Nachricht von dem Gymnasium zu Thorn von Ostern 1824 bis Ostern 1825 Brohm and Karl Friedrich August Brohm (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quintus Horatius Flaccus, cum scholiis J. Bond / (Parisiis : Apud P.D. Méquignon Juniorem, 1806), also by N. L. Achaintre and John Bond (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quintus Horatius Flaccus, cum variis lectionibus argumentis, notis veteribus ac novis, quibus accedit recens omniumque locupletissimus, (Parisiis, colligebat Nicolaus Eligius Lemaire, 1829-31), also by N. E. Lemaire (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Quintus Horatius Flaccus sämmtliche gedichte ... (Trier, Troschel, 1845), trans. by Karl Georg Neumann (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Qvaestionvm Blandinianarvm capita tria [microform]; dissertatio inavgvralis philologica qvam... (Halis Saxonvm, 1882), also by Franz Matthias (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Qvincti Horatii Flacci Opera. Ad mss. codices vaticanos, chisianos angelicos, barberinos, gregorianos, vallicellanos, aliosqve, plvrimis in locis (Romae, excvdebat F. Bovrlie, 1827), also by Carlo Fèa (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Qvincti Horatii Flacci Opera, ad MSS. codices Vaticanos, Chisianos, Angelicos, Barberinos, Gregorianos, Vallicellanos, aliosque, plvrimis in locis emendavit notisqve illvstravit praesertim in iis, quae Romanae antiquitates spectant Carolvs Fea ... (Romae : Exovdebat Franciscvs Bovrlie, prostant apvd heredes Raggi, 1811), also by Carlo Fea (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Qvinti Horatii Flacci Carmina / (Bielefeldæ ; Lipsiæ : Svmptibvs Velhageni & Klasingii, 1876), also by Friedrich August Eckstein (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Qvinti Horatii Flacci opera. (Londini : aeneis tabvlis incidit Iohannes Pine, 1733-1737) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Qvinti Horatij Flacci poemata, ([Genevae] Excudebat Paulus Stephanus, 1600), also by Aldo Manuzio and Henri Estienne (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The reliques of Father Prout. (London, H.G. Bohn, 1860), also by Francis Sylvester Mahony, Daniel Maclise, and Gresset (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The reliques of Father Prout ... (London, G. Bell and sons, 1889), also by Francis Sylvester Mahony, illust. by Daniel Maclise (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The reliques of Father Prout ... (London, H. G. Bohn, 1860), also by Francis Sylvester Mahony and Gresset, illust. by Daniel Maclise (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The reliques of Father Prout ... (London, Bell & Daldy, 1866), also by Francis Sylvester Mahony and Daniel Maclise (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The reliques of Father Prout ... (London : G. Bell and sons, 1909), also by Francis Sylvester Mahony and Daniel Maclise (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The reliques of Father Prout, late P. P. of Watergrasshill, in the county of Cork, Ireland. (London, Bell & Daldy, 1868), also by Francis Mahony, illust. by Daniel Maclise (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Remarques critiques sur les œuvres d'Horace, (Paris, D. Thierry, etc., 1687) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Rivi tiburtini : metres of Horace set to music / (Boston ; London : Ginn and Co., 1896), also by Frances Ellen Lord (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: A Roma. (Milano, 1919), also by Luigi Siciliani, Claudius Claudianus, and Claudius Rutilius Namatianus, trans. by Mario Rapisardi (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Runoudesta (in Finnish), trans. by K. J. Hidén (Gutenberg ebook) Horace: The Sabine farm, a poem: into which is interwoven a series of translations, chiefly descriptive of the villa and life of Horace, occasioned by an excursion from Rome to Licenza. (London, Printed for J. Mawman, 1810), also by Robert Bradstreet and P. Papinius Statius (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Sammtliche werke. (Wien : A. Doll, [18-?]), also by Christoph Martin Wieland, Isocrates, Xenophon, and Lucian of Samosata (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Sämmtliche werke. (Leipzig, 1869), also by G. T. A. Krüger (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Sämmtliche Werke ... für den Schulgebrauch. (Leipzig, Teubner, 1853-1854 [pt.1, 1854]), also by G. T. A. Krüger and C. W. Nauck (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Sämmtliche Werke; für den Schulgebrauch erklärt. (Leipzig, B.G. Teubner, 1868-), also by C. W. Nauck (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Sämmtliche werke für den schulgebrauch erklärt. (Leipzig, 1880-82) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Sämmtliche Werke für den Schulgebrauch erklärt. (Leipzig, B.G. Teubner, 1872-89 [v. 1, 1889]), also by Theodor August, Georg Krüger, and C. W. Nauck (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Sämtliche werke [microform], für den schulgebrauch erklärt ... (Leipzig, Teubner, 1889-1908), ed. by Gustav Krüger, G. T. A. Krüger, and Karl Wilhelm Nauck (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Sämtliche Werke : für den Schulgebrauch erklärt. (Leipzig : B.G. Teubner, 1882), also by Gustav Krüger, G. T. A. Krüger, and C. W. Nauck (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Sämtliche werke, für den schulgebrauch erklärt ... (Leipzig, Teubner, 1889-1908), ed. by Gustav Krüger, G. T. A. Krüger, and Karl Wilhelm Nauck (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Satirae. (Gotha, 1903), also by K. O. Breithaupt (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Satirae. English (Imprinted at London : In Fletestrete by Thomas Marshe, M.D.LXVI. [1566]), also by Thomas Drant (HTML at EEBO TCP) Horace: Satiræ, Epistolæ, et Ars poetica. The Satires, (Dublin, Cumming and Ferguson; London, W. S. Orr and co., 1846), also by George B. Wheeler and John McCaul (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Satirae. With short English notes. (Oxford, [etc.,], 1874) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Satirarum et epistolarum, et De arte poetica libri : with English notes / (London : G. Bell, 1891), also by A. J. Macleane (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Satire; (Torino, E. Loescher, 1913), also by Remigio Sabbadini (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Satiren, (Leipzig, Weidmann, 1804), also by Christoph Martin Wieland (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Satiren; (Leipzig, Herbig, 1859), ed. by Ludwig Friedrich Heindorf (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Satiren; / (Berlin : Weidmann, 1881), also by Hermann Schütz (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Satiren, ubersetzt und erlautert (Stuttgart :, 1874-83) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Satiren und Briefe [von] Horaz. (Schleswig, Smissen, 1856), trans. by Fr Frolich (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Satiren und episteln, (Leipzig, 1897-1900) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Satiren und episteln / (München ; Leipzig : Georg Müller, 1911), also by Horace. Epistolae. German. 1911 (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Satiren und Episteln für den Schulgebrauch, (Leipzig, Teubner, 1897-1900), also by G. T. A. Krüger (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Satiren und Episteln, für den Schulgebrauch, (Leipzig, Teubner, 1889), also by Gustav Krüger and G. T. A. Krüger (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Satiren und Episteln : Für den Schulgebraucht erklärt / (Leipzig : B.G. Teubner, 1900-1904 [v. 1, 1904]), also by Gustav Krüger, Gustav Krüger, and G. T. A. Krüger (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Satiren und Episteln : mit Anmerkungen / (München : G. Müller, 1911), also by Christoph Martin Wieland and Heinrich Conrad (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Satires, (Tournay, Imprimerie de D. Casterman, 1818) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The satires. (London, W.B. Clive, [189- ]) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The satires; (New York, American Book Co., [1909]), ed. by Edward Parmelee Morris (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Satires. (Paris, Hachette et cie, 1876), also by Auguste Desportes, trans. by E. Sommer (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The satires. (New York, Cincinnati [etc.] : American book company, [c1909]), also by Edward Parmelee Morris (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Satires / (Paris : Hachette, 1911), also by Paul Antoine Augustin Lejay (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Satires and epistles (Boston, Leach, Shewell, & Sanborn, 1893), also by James H. Kirkland (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Satires and epistles [microform] (Boston, Leach, Shewell, & Sanborn, 1893), ed. by James H. Kirkland (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Satires and epistles in Latin and English / (London ; New York : Unit Library, 1902), also by Philip Francis (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The satires and epistles of Horace, (Boston, Ginn & Company, 1902), also by J. B. Greenough (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Satires and epistles of Horace. (Boston, Ginn and Co., c1915), also by J. B. Greenough (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The satires and epistles of Horace; (Boston, Ginn & company, 1887) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Satires and epistles of Horace / (London ; New York : Macmillan, 1909), also by W. J. Vashon Baker (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The satires and epistles of Horace / (Boston : Ginn, 1896), also by J. B. Greenough, Horace. Epistulae, and Horace. Satirae (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The satires and epistles of Horace / (Boston : Ginn, 1888), also by J. B. Greenough, Horace. Epistulae, and Horace. Satirae (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The Satires and Epistles of Horace, with notes and excursus, (London, Whittaker, 1848), also by Thomas Keightley (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The satires and epistles of Horace, with notes and excursus, (London, Whittaker and Co., 1848), also by Thomas Keightley (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Satires d'Horace et de Perse / (Bruges : Bogaert-Dumortier, 1829), also by L.-V. Raoul (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Satires, Epistles & Art of poetry; (London, Bell, 1874), trans. by John Conington (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Satires, Epistles and Ars poetica, (Cambridge, Mass. Harvard university press; London, W. Heinemann ltd., 1936), also by Horace. Ars Poetica. English & Latin and Horace. Epistulae. English & Latin, trans. by H. Rushton Fairclough (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Satires, Epistles and Ars poetica, (Cambridge, Mass. Harvard University Press, 1936), also by Horace. Ars Poetica. English & Latin and Horace. Epistulae. English & Latin, trans. by H. Rushton Fairclough (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Satires, epistles, and art of poetry, done into English, with notes. (London, Printed by T.W. for W. Mears, F. Clay, and D. Browne, 1729), also by Mr. Dunstar (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Satires, Epistles, and Art of poetry of Horace; (London, Bell, 1902), trans. by John Conington (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The satires, epistles, and art of poetry of Horace / (London : G. Bell, 1892), also by John Conington (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The satires, Epistles, and Art of poetry of Horace / (London : Bell and Daldy, 1888) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The Satires, Epistles and Art of poetry of Horace / (London, Bell and Daldy, 1870), also by John Conington (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The satires, epistles, and art of poetry of Horace, translated into English verse, (London, Printed for John Stockdale, 1797), also by William Boscawen (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Satires, I. (London, etc., 1892), also by Edward Ross Wharton (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The satires of Decimus Junius Juvenalis / (Chiswick : Press of C. Whittingham, [1822]), also by Juvenal, Persius, and John Dryden (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Satires of Horace. (Boston : Priv. print. by N.H. Dole, [c1905]) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Satires of Horace, (Boston, Priv. print. by N. H. Dole, [1905]) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The satires of Horace; (London : Macmillan and co., 1915), also by Arthur Palmer (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The satires of Horace / (London : Macmillan, 1883), also by Arthur Palmer (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The satires of Horace / (London ; New York : Macmillan, 1896), also by Arthur Palmer (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The satires of Horace / (London : Macmillan, 1888), also by Arthur Palmer (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The satires of Horace in rhythmic prose ... (1870) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The satires of Horace in rhythmic prose for the student : with illustrated articles based on those in Rich's "Antiquities" on the Roman house, ampitheatre, the principal articles of dress, the Forum, the baths, and the loom and notes translated from those in Orelli's edition / (London : Longmans, Green, Reader & Dyer, 1870), also by R. M. Millington (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Satires of Persius. (London, Printed by C. Reynell, 1841), also by Persius, trans. by Charlton Byam Wollaston (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Satires traduites en vers français (Roven, C. Métérie, 1879), trans. by Gustave Asse (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Satiry Kvinta Goratsiia Flakka / (Moskva : V Tip. V. Gote, 1858), also by M. Dmitriev and Yudin Collection (Library of Congress) DLC (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Satura, ausgewahlte Satiren des Horaz, Persius, und Iuvenal, (Leipzig, B.G. Teubner, 1897), also by Hugo Blümner (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Satyrae et De arte poetica, (Mediolani, Monast. S. Ambrosii, 1784), also by Pietro Metastasio and Horace. Ars poetica, ed. by Giuseppe De' Necchi Aquila (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Satyras e Epistolas de Quinto Horacio Flacco / (Porto : Cruz Coutinho, 1846), also by Horace. Epistulae. Portuguese and Antonio Luiz de Seabra Seabra (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Schiller and Horace / (London ; New York : G. Routledge, 1875), also by Friedrich Schiller and Edward Bulwer-Lytton (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Scholia Horatiana / (Pragae : Sumptibus Formis et Charta C. Bellmanni, 1858-1859), also by Pseudo-Acro, Franz Pauly, Georg Fabricus, and active 3rd century Pomponius Porphyrio (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Schouwtoneel des menschelyken leevens, of, Lessen der wysheid : uytgedrukt in 103. fraaye konstplaaten, welker zinspeelingen uyt Horatius verzaamellt zyn / (In 's Gravenhage : By Joannes van Duren, 1755), also by Jean Le Clerc and Otto van Veen (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Select epodes and Ars poetica (London : Macmillan, 1884), ed. by Herbert Andrew Dalton (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Select odes of Horace in English lyrics. A specimen of a new translation of the poet, (London, Smith, Elder, 1857), ed. by Gilbert Malcolm Sproat, trans. by J. T. Black (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Selected parts of Horace, prince of lyricks; and of all the Latin poets the fullest fraught with excellent morality. Concluding with a piece out of Ausonius. and another out of Virgil. Now newly put into English. (London : Printed for M.M. Gabriel Bedell, and T. Collins, and are to be sold at their shop at the middle-Temple-gate, 1652), also by Richard Fanshawe, Virgil, and Decimus Magnus Ausonius (HTML at EEBO TCP) Horace: Selection from the poems of Catullus; with parallel passages from Horace, Ovid, and Martial. (Amherst, Mass., Press of Carpenter & Morehouse, 1896), also by Gaius Valerius Catullus, William Lyman Cowles, Martial, and 43 B.C.-17 or 18 A.D. Ovid (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Selections. English (Imprinted at London : In Fletestrete, nere to S. Dunstones Churche, by Thomas Marshe, 1567), also by Thomas Drant (HTML at EEBO TCP) Horace: Selections. English (Imprinted at London : By A[ugustine]: M[athewes]: for Will: Lee and are to be sold at his shoppe in Fleet-street, at the signe of the Goulden Bucke, [1625]), also by T.H. (HTML at EEBO TCP) Horace: Selections. English (London : Printed by Iohn Haviland, for Robert Rider, Anno Dom. 1638), also by Henry Rider (HTML at EEBO TCP) Horace: Selections. English. 1688. (London : printed for Jacob Tonson, and sold by Tim. Goodwin at the Maiden-head against St. Dunstans Church in Fleetstreet, 1684), also by Thomas Creech (HTML at EEBO TCP) Horace: Selectis fere omnium interpretum, ac praecipue Dacierii, & Sanadonis notis, & argumentis illustratus opera et industria Francisci Dorighello. (Patavii, typis seminarii, 1780) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Serie degli scritti impressi in dialetto veneziano, (Venezia, Tip. di Alvisopoli, 1832), also by Bartolommeo Gamba, trans. by Pietro Bussolin (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Sermonen; (Leipzig, Teubner, 1875-1876), also by Ad. Th. Hermann Fritzsche (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Sermonen ... (Bielefeld, Leipzig : Verlag von Velhagen und Klasing, 1887-90), also by C. Bardt (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Sermonen / (Berlin, 1900) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Sermonen des Q. Horatius Flaccus / (Berlin : Weidmann, 1900), also by C. Bardt (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Sermones et epistulae: (Boston, Allyn and Bacon, 1901), also by John Carew Rolfe (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Sermones : the satires of Horace / (London, New York; Macmillan, 1899), ed. by Arthur Palmer (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Sermoni, altrimenti satire, e le morali epistole di Horatio ... / (In Venegia : Appresso Gabriel Giolito de' Ferrari, MDLIX. [1559]), also by Gabriele Giolito de' Ferrari and Lodovico Dolce (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Sermonum. (Lipsiae, 1854-1857), also by Wilhelm Sigismund Teuffel and Karl Kirchner (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Sermonum et epistularum libri = Satiren und episteln des Horaz / (Wien : Tempsky, 1891), also by Lucien Mueller (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Sermonum et Epistularum libri; Satiren und Episteln des Horaz (Wien : Tempsky, 1891-1893), also by Lucian Müller (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Sermonum et epistularum libri; Satiren und episteln des Horaz (Prag, Tempsky, 1891-1893), also by Lucian Müller (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Sermonum libri duo ... (Lipsiae, Teubner, 1854-1857), ed. by W. S. Teuffel and Karl Kirchner (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Siebzehn der schönsten Oden des Horaz, (Stargard, 1863), trans. by Heinrich Runge (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Siebzehn der schönsten Oden des Horaz [microform] / aufs neue Deutsch in der ursprünglichen Versmassen wortgetreu nachgedichtet / (Stargard [Szczecinski, Poland] : Gedr. bei C.F. Hendess, 1863), also by Gymnasiallehrer Runge (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Six satires of Horace, in a style between free imitation and literal version. (Ipswich, Printed and sold by George Jermyn, 1795), also by William Clubbe (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The sixth epistle of the first book of Horace: by Mr. Pope. (Dublin : printed by and for J. Jones, 1738), also by Alexander Pope (HTML at ECCO TCP) Horace: Sober advice from Horace: to the young gentlemen about town. As deliver'd in his second sermon. Imitated in the manner of Mr. Pope. Together with the original text, as restored by the Rev'd. R. Bentley ... And some remarks on the version. (London : printed for T. Boreman; sold by the booksellers of London and Westminster, [1734]), also by Alexander Pope (HTML at ECCO TCP) Horace: Specimen literarium inaugurale : in quo Q. Horatii Flacci Epistola ad Augustum commentario illustratur / (Groningae : W. van Boekeren, 1831), also by Hendrik Riedel (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Szatirák Horátiusból. (Budán, A' Királyi Magyar Universitás betüivel, 1820) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Theatro moral de la vida humana, en cien emblemas : con el Enchiridion de Epicteto : y La tabla de Cebes, philosofo platonico. (En Amberes : Por la viuda de Henrico Verdussen, año 1733), also by Otto van Veen, Epictetus. Enchiridion. Spanish, and M. Le Roy Gomberville (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Theatro moral de la vida humana, en cien emblemas; con el Enchiridion de Epicteto, y La tabla de Cebes, philosofo platonico. (Amberes : H. y C. Verdussen, 1701), also by Otto van Veen, Epictetus. Manual. Spanish, and M. Le Roy Gomberville (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: A thousand Horatian quotations : with appreciations (testimonia) of Horace in ancient writers / (Boston : Issued only to members of the Bibliophile society, 1904), also by Henry Aiken Metcalf and Mass.) Bibliophile Society (Boston (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Þýðíng brjefa Hórazar / (Reykjavík : Gefin út af Hinu íslenzka bókmentafjelagi, 1864), trans. by Jón Þorkelsson and Gísli Magnússon (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Traduccion de la Epistola de Horacio a los Pisones sobre el arte poética. (Paris : J. Didot, 1829), also by Francisco Martínez e la Rosa (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Traducciones poeticas, (Bogota, Imprenta nacional, 1917), also by Lorenzo Marroquín and Antonio Gómez Restrepo, trans. by Rafael Pombo (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Traduction des odes d'Horace ... (1781), ed. by Gérand Valet de Reganhac (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Traduction en vers de quelques Odes d'Horace, (Troyes, chez Bouquot, 1853) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Translations from Catullus, Horace, &c. [electronic resource] / (Halifax, N.S. : [s.n.], 1872), also by Gaius Valerius Catullus and W. B. Bliss (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Translations from Horace. [Odes.] (Chicago, Tribune Company, Printers, 1865), trans. by George Howland (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Translations from Horace, and a few original poems / (London : G. Bell, 1886), also by Chiswick Press, trans. by Stephen E. De Vere (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Translations from Horace. With notes. / (London : Walter Scott ; New York : Thomas Whittaker, 1888), also by Stephen Edward De Vere (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Translations from The odes of Horace, ([London, etc., Sherratt & Hughes], 1910) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Translations of the Odes of Horace, (London, J. M. Dent, 1904), also by Margaret Jourdain (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Translations of the Odes of Horace, (London : J. M. Dent, 1904) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Übersetzungen aus Horaz, (Schleusingen, 1852), trans. by Adam Johann Hartung (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Uebersetzung des ersten Buches der Horazi'schen Oden [microform]. (Pless [Poland] : Druck von A. Krummer, 1875), also by Oberlehrer Wiesner (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Versión parafrástica de sus odas por Don Joaquín Arcadio Pagaza, obispo de Veracruz. (Jalapa, Imp. "El Progreso" de Concepción V. de Mendizábal, 1905) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Vierte Satire, lateinisch und deutsch mit Rechtfertigungen ([n.p.], 1828), also by C. Passow (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Vierzehn politische Gedichte des Horaz [microform] / in Trimetern übersetzt und mit Einleitungen und Anmerkungen erläutert von Heinrich Kern. (Stuttgart : Gedr. bei den Königl. Hof- und Kanileibuchdruckern, Gebr. Mäntler, [1849]), also by Heinrich Kern (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Werke. (Leipzig, W. Engelmann, 1852-55), also by I. S. Strodtmann (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Werke (Braunschweig : F. Vieweg, 1820), also by Johann Heinrich Voss (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Werke. (Stuttgart : Metzler, 1853), also by G. Schwab, C.R. v Osiander, and Gustav Ludwig (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Werke; (Bremen., 1898), also by C. Wagener and O. Henke (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Werke ... (1855) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Werke / (Stuttgart : Krais & Hoffmann, 1861-), also by W. Binder (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Word for word from Horace, the odes literally versified, (London, Macmillan and Co., 1878), also by William Thomas Thornton (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Works. (Philadelphia, Hunt, 1850) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Works (London, printed by Ellerton and Byworth for J. Walker etc., 1807) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Works, (New York, Harper & brothers, 1882), trans. by Christopher Smart (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Works. (Philadelphia, Eldredge & brother, 1876) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Works, (London, John Murray, 1849), ed. by Henry Hart Milman, illust. by Owen Jones and George Scharf (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Works / (Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1877-1891) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Works. English. 1671 (London : Printed by E. Cotes for Henry Brome ..., M. DC. LXVI [1666]), also by Alexander Brome, Richard Fanshawe, Sir T. H. (Thomas Hawkins), John Dunstall, and David Loggan (HTML at EEBO TCP) Horace: Works. Illustrated chiefly from the remains of ancient art. With a life of Horace (London : J. Murray, 1849), also by Henry Hart Milman (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Works. in English verse. (1767) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace, (1818), also by Christopher Smart (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace; (London, S. Sonnenschein & co., 1893), also by John Charles. trl Elgood (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The works of Horace. (New York, Harper & Brothers, 1863), trans. by Christopher Smart (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Works of Horace, (London: Macmillan and Co., 1881), also by Samuel Lee and James Gylby Lonsdale (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The works of Horace; (Philadelphia, McKay, [c1896]), also by Christopher Smart (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace, (Cambridge, J. Bartlett, 1856), also by Charles Beck and A. J. Macleane, ed. by Reginald H. Chase (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace (Edinburgh, Printed for A. Guthrie, and J. & J. Fairbairn, 1801), trans. by Christopher Smart (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace, (London, Printed for Carnan and Newbery, 1770), trans. by Christopher Smart (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace, (London, C. Griffin and co., [1879]) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace. (Philadelphia, Eldredge, 1870), ed. by Thomas Chase (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Works of Horace. (New York, 1857) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace. (London, H. G. Bohn, 1853), ed. by Theodore Alois Buckley, trans. by Christopher Smart (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace, (New York, Harper & brothers, 1871), also by Henry Hart Milman, ed. by Charles Anthon (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace, (New York, Harper & brothers, 1849), also by Henry Hart Milman, ed. by Charles Anthon (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace, (New-York, Harper & brothers, 1839), ed. by Charles Anthon (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace, (New York, Harper & brothers, 1855), also by Henry Hart Milman, ed. by Charles Anthon (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace, (New York, Harper & Brothers, 1853), also by Henry Hart Milman, ed. by Charles Anthon (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace. (New York : Harper & brothers, 1844), ed. by Charles Anthon (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace. (London, Macmillan and co., [c1873]), also by Samuel Lee and James Lonsdale (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace, (New York : E. Duyckinck [etc.], 1826), also by Christopher Smart (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace, (London, Printed by Plummer and Brewis for Doig and Sterling; Edinburgh, P. Griffin, 1815), also by Philip Francis, P. Papinius Statius, and 43 B.C.-17 or 18 A.D. Works. English. 1815 Ovid (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace, (New-York, Harper & brothers, 1839), also by Charles Anthon (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Works of Horace. (New York : Harper and Brothers, 1882), also by Christopher Smart (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace; (Philadelphia, Eldredge & brother, 1881), ed. by Thomas Chase (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace, (Cambridge, J. Bartlett, 1860), also by Charles Beck and A. J. Macleane, ed. by Reginald H. Chase (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace. (London, G. Bell & sons, 1885), ed. by Theodore Alois Buckley, trans. by Christopher Smart (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The works of Horace, (Boston, Allyn, 1872) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace. (New York [etc.] : American Book Company, [1906?]), also by Theodore William Alois Buckley and Christopher Smart (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace; (Edinburgh, W. Blackwood and sons, 1881), also by Theodore Martin (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The works of Horace, (New York, Harper, 1872), ed. by Theodore William Alois Buckley, trans. by Christopher Smart (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace. (Cambridge, J. Bartlett, 1854), ed. by Edward Moore (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace: (New York, American book company, [c1882]), also by John L. Lincoln (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Works of Horace (Gutenberg ebook) Horace: The works of Horace / (London : Printed for F. Power, 1790), also by Christopher Smart (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace / (Philadelphia : Printed for D. Hogan, A. Towar, B. Warner, and M.Carey, 1821), trans. by Christopher Smart (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Works of Horace / (New-York : D. Appleton & Company, [1851]), also by John L. Lincoln (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace / (New York : Harper, [1850]), also by Henry Hart Milman and Charles Anthon (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Works of Horace / (New-York : D. Appleton & Co., 1860), also by John L. Lincoln (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace / (Philadelphia : Uriah Hunt, [18--]), trans. by Christopher Smart (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace / (Boston : John Allyn, 1880), also by Charles Beck, Reginald H. Chase, and A. J. Macleane (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace / (Edinburgh : W. Blackwood and sons, 1888), also by Theodore Martin (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The works of Horace / (New York : Harper, 1861), also by Theodore Alois Buckley and Christopher Smart (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace / (New York : Harper, 1859), also by Henry Hart Milman and Charles Anthon (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace / (New York city : Hinds & Noble, [191-?]), also by Theodore Alois Buckley and Christopher Smart (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace / (New York : Harper, 1891), also by Theodore Alois Buckley and Christopher Smart (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace / (New York : Harper, 1868), ed. by Theodore Alois Buckley, trans. by Christopher Smart (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace / (New York: Hinds & Noble, [189-]), also by Theodore Alois Buckley and Christopher Smart (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace / (Philadelphia : Eldredge & Brother, 1873), also by Thomas Chase (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace / (Philadelphia : Eldredge & Bros., 1872), also by Thomas Chase (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace / (London ; New York : Macmillan, 1890), also by Samuel Lee and James Gylby Lonsdale (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The works of Horace / (Philadelphia : Eldredge, 1874, c1869), also by Thomas Chase (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace / (London : Printed for R. Baldwin, [etc.], 1811) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace / (New York : S. King, 1825), also by Philip Francis (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace / (New York : Harper, 1884), also by Theodore Alois Buckley and Christopher Smart (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace / (New York : Harper & Brothers, 1869), also by Theodore Alois Buckley and Christopher Smart (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace / (Philadelphia : Eldredge, [1892]), also by Thomas Chase (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace / (London : H.G. Bohn, 1856), also by Theodore Alois Buckley (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace / (London, H. G. Bohn, 1855), ed. by Theodore Alois Buckley, trans. by Christopher Smart (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace / Ed., with explanatory notes, by Thomas Chase ... (Philadelphia : Eldredge & brother; Boston : J.L. Hammett; [etc., etc.], 1870) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace : consisting of his Odes, Satires, Epistles, and Art of poetry / (London : Printed for Doig and Sterling, 1815), also by 43 B.C.-17 A.D. or 18 A.D. Works. English Ovid and P. Papinius Statius (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace, from the text of Doering [electronic resource] : with notes critical, philological and explanatory : together with an historical, geographical and mythological index / (Charlottetown [P.E.I.] : J.D. Haszard, 1845), also by E. R. Humphreys and Friedrich Wilhelm Doering (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace in English verse. (London, R. and J. Dodsley, 1757-59), also by William Congreve, André Dacier, John Duncombe, and William Duncombe (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace rendered into English prose, with introductions, running analysis, notes and an index. (London, Macmillan and co., 1874), also by Samuel Lee and James Gylby Lonsdale (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The works of Horace rendered into English prose, with introductions, running analysis, notes and an index. (London, Macmillan and co., 1883), trans. by Samuel Lee and James Gylby Lonsdale (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The works of Horace : rendered into English prose with introductions, running analysis, notes and an index / (London : Macmillan, 1908), also by Sam-yŏl Yi and James Lonsdale (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The works of Horace, rendered into English prose; with life, introduction and notes, (London, New York and Bombay, Longmans, Green, 1898), also by William Coutts (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The works of Horace, translated into English prose ... Together with the original Latin, from the best editions, wherein the words of the Latin text are ranged in their grammatical order ... the observations of the most valuable commentators ... represented; and the author's design ... set forth in a key annexed to each poem; with notes geographical and historical; also the various readings of Dr. Bentley ... (London, T. Longman [etc.], 1792), also by James Douglas, Richard Bentley, William Crakelt, and David Watson (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace, translated into English prose ... with the Latin text and order of construction ... and ... notes ... (London, D. Browne, 1753) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace; translated into English verse, with a life and notes, (Edinburgh, London, W. Blackwood and sons, 1881), also by Theodore Martin (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The works of Horace : translated into English verse, with a life and notes (Edinburgh ; London : W. Blackwoods, 1881), trans. by Theodore Martin (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The works of Horace : translated into verse / (London : Printed for W. Flexney, ... Mess. Johnson and Co. ... and T. Caslon, ... , 1767), also by Christopher Smart (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace : translated literally into English prose, (New York : Harper & Brothers, 1855), ed. by Theodore Alois Buckley, trans. by Christopher Smart (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace : translated literally into English prose : for the use of those who are desirous of acquiring or recovering a competent knowledge of the Latin language / (New York : E. Duyckinck, S. Campbell & Son, G. Long ..., 1821), also by Christopher Smart (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace : translated literally into English prose; for the use of those who are desirous of acquiring or recovering a competent knowledge of the Latin language / (Philadelphia : Joseph Whetham, 1836), also by Christopher Smart (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace; with English notes. (New York, D. Appleton, 1884), also by John Larkin Lincoln (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace, with English notes, (Boston, Allyn and Bacon, [c1856]), also by Charles Beck and A. J. Macleane, ed. by Reginald Heber Chase (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace, with English notes, (Cambridge, Sever and Francis, 1866), also by Charles Beck and A. J. Macleane, ed. by Reginald Heber Chase (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace; with English notes. (New-York, D. Appleton & co., 1860), ed. by John L. Lincoln (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace with English notes... ([n.p.], 1882) (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The works of Horace, with English notes, (Boston, J. Allyn, 1880), also by Charles Beck and A. J. Macleane, ed. by Reginald Heber Chase (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace, with English notes, (Boston, Sever, Francis & Co., 1869), also by Reginald Heber Chase and A. J. Macleane (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace : with English notes / by A.J. Macleane ; revised and edited by Reginald H. Chase. (Boston : J. Allyn, 1878, c1856), also by Reginald H. Chase and A. J. Macleane (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace : with English notes / by J.L. Lincoln. (New York : D. Appleton, 1884, c1882), also by J. L. Lincoln (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace : with English notes, a life of Horace, and an explanation of the metres / (Cambridge : J. Bartlett, 1850), also by Edward Moore (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace, with English notes, critical and explanatory, (New York, Harpers & brothers, 1840), ed. by Charles Anthon (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace, with English notes, critical and explanatory. (New York, Harper & brothers, 1887), also by Henry Hart Milman and Charles Anthon (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace, with English notes, critical and explanatory, (New York, Harper & brothers, 1843), also by Charles Anthon (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace, with English notes, critical and explanatory, (New-York, Harper & brothers, 1846) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace, with English notes, critical and explanatory. (New York, Harper & Brothers, 1897), also by Henry Hart Milman, ed. by Charles Anthon (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace : with English notes, critical and explanatory / (New York : Harper & brothers, 1860), also by Henry Hart Milman, ed. by Charles Anthon (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace : with English notes, critical and explanatory / (New York : Harper, 1848), also by Charles Anthon (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace : with English notes, critical and explanatory / (New York : Harper, 1857), also by Henry Hart Milman and Charles Anthon (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace, with English notes, critical and explanatory / (New York : Harpers & brothers, 1849), also by Henry Hart Milman and Charles Anthon (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace : with English notes, critical and explanatory / (New York : Harper and brothers, 1849), also by Henry Hart Milman and Charles Anthon (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace : with English notes, critical and explanatory / (New York : Harper & brothers, 1856 [c1849]), also by Henry Hart Milman, ed. by Charles Anthon (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace: with English notes. For the use of schools and colleges, (New York, D. Appleton and Company, 1880), also by John Larkin Lincoln (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace; with English notes for the use of schools and colleges, (New York: Appleton, 1856), also by John L. Lincoln (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace: with English notes. For the use of schools and colleges. (New-York, D. Appleton & Co., 1858), ed. by John L. Lincoln (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace : with English notes. For the use of schools and colleges / (New-York : D. Appleton & Co., 1866), also by John L. Lincoln (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace : with English notes : for the use of schools and colleges / (New York : D. Appleton and Company, 1869, c1851), also by John L. Lincoln (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Horace : with English notes : for the use of schools and colleges / (New York : D. Appleton and Company, 1876), ed. by John L. Lincoln (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Works of Horace, with English Notes: Twentieth Edition (in Latin), ed. by Reginald Heber Chase, contrib. by A. J. Macleane (Gutenberg ebook) Horace: The works of Mr. Thomas Brown, serious and comical, in prose and verse. (1760), also by Thomas Brown, Martial, Pope Pius II, Marcus Tullius Cicero, Pliny the Younger, Aristaenetus, and James Drake (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Mr. Thomas Brown, serious and comical, in prose and verse. (London, Printed for S. Briscoe, 1720), also by Thomas Brown, Ernest Hamilton. PRO Sharp, Martial, Pope Pius II, Marcus Tullius Cicero, Pliny the Younger, Aristaenetus, and James Drake (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of O. Horatius Flaccus; (London, Wyman, 1886), trans. by J. C. Elgood (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The works of Q. Horatius Flaccus. (Philadelphia, C. Desilver [etc.]; Boston, Nichols & Hall; [etc., etc.], 1869), also by John Stirling, ed. by Thomas Clark and P. Austin Nuttall (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Quintus Horatius Flaccus, (London, etc., R. Griffin and co., [1854?]) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Quintus Horatius Flaccus / (London ; Glasgow : R. Griffin, 1854) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The works of Quintus Horatius Flaccus : illustrated chiefly from the remains of ancient art / (London : J. Murray, 1849), also by George Scharf, Owen Jones, and Henry Hart Milman (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The writings in prose and verse of Eugene Field. (New York : Scribner, 1904-1905), also by Eugene Field, Roswell Martin Field, and American Popular Literature Collection (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The writings in prose and verse of Eugene Field.. (New York, C. Scribner's sons, 1898-1901), also by Eugene Field and Roswell Martin Field (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The writings in prose and verse of Eugene Field... (New York, C. Scribner's sons, 1899), also by Eugene Field and Roswell Martin Field (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The writings in prose and verse of Eugene Field. (New York : C. Scribner's Sons, c1889-1901, 1907 printing), also by Eugene Field and Roswell Martin Field (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The writings in prose and verse of Eugene Field. (New York, Scribner, [c1896-c1900]), also by Eugene Field and Roswell Martin Field (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The writings in prose and verse of Eugene Field... (New York, C. Scribner's sons, 1899), also by Eugene Field and Roswell Martin Field (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The writings in prose and verse of Eugene Field ... (New York, C. Scribner's sons, 1897-1901, c1892-1896), also by Eugene Field and Roswell Martin Field (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The Writings in prose and verse of Eugene Field ... (New York : C. Scribner's Sons, 1920), also by Eugene Field and Roswell Martin Field (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: The writings in prose and verse of Eugene Field ... (New York, C. Scribner's sons, 1911), also by Eugene Field and Roswell Martin Field (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: The writings in prose and verse of Eugene Field .. (New York, C. Scribner's sons, 1898-1901), also by Eugene Field and Roswell Martin Field (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: XXV select allusions to several places of Horace, Martial, Anacreon and Petron. Arbitr. Part I written by Mr. Dilke. (London : Printed for Peter Buck ... and sold by R. Baldwin ..., 1698), also by Mr. Dilke, Anacreon, Petronius Arbiter, and Martial (HTML at EEBO TCP) Horace: Zehn Oden des Horaz in metrischer Übersetzung [microform] / ([Greifswald?] : Druck der Buch- und Steindruckerei von F.W. Kunike, 1883), also by Fritz Steinhausen (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Zinnebeelden / (T'Amsteldam : By Justus Dankerts, konst, kaert, en boekverkooper in de Kalverstraet in de Dankbaerheyt, 1683), also by Otto van Veen and Anthony Janssen (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Zu Augusteischen dichtern. (Berlin, Weidmann, 1881), also by Friedrich Leo, Adolf Kiessling, and Tibullus (page images at HathiTrust; US access only) Horace: Zwei Bücher Satiren ... kritisch hergestelt, (Leipzig, B.G. Tuebner, 1854-57) (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Zwei gespräche des Horaz, 1, 6 und 2, 6; (Schaffhausen, 1862), trans. by T. Hug (page images at HathiTrust) Horace: Zwei gespräche des Horaz, I, 6 und II, 6 [microform] / (Schaffhausen : Murbach und Gelzer, 1862), trans. by T. Hug (page images at HathiTrust) See also what's at your library, or elsewhere. Help with reading books -- Report a bad link -- Suggest a new listing Home -- Search -- New Listings -- Authors -- Titles -- Subjects -- Serials Books -- News -- Features -- Archives -- The Inside Story Edited by John Mark Ockerbloom (onlinebooks@pobox.upenn.edu) OBP copyrights and licenses. 
hif-wikipedia-org-6481	----	Horace - Wikipedia Horace Wikipedia se Jump to navigation Jump to search Horace, as imagined by Anton von Werner Quintus Horatius Flaccus, (Venosa, December 8, 65 BC – Rome, November 27, 8 BC), jiske English-speaking waala des me Horace ke naam se jaana jaawe hae, Augustus ke time Roman ke ek writer rahaa. References[badlo | source ke badlo] Michie, James (1964). The Odes of Horace. Rupert Hart-Davis. Bahaari jorr[badlo | source ke badlo] The works of Horace at The Latin Library Selected Poems of Horace The Perseus Project — Latin and Greek authors (with English translations), including Horace Biography and chronology Litweb Horace's works: text, concordances and frequency list SORGLL: Horace, Odes I.22, read by Robert Sonkowsky Persondata NAME Horace ALTERNATIVE NAMES Quintus Horatius Flaccus SHORT DESCRIPTION Roman lyric poet DATE OF BIRTH December 8, 65 BC PLACE OF BIRTH Venosa DATE OF DEATH November 27, 8 BC PLACE OF DEATH Rome "https://hif.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horace&oldid=178704" se lawa gais hae Vibhag: -0065BC janam -0008BC maut Writers Italy ke log Navigate kare waala menu Aapan aujaar Aap logged in nai hai Baat Yogdaan Nawaa account banao Log in karo Naam Panna Salah Antar Bichar Parrho Badlo Source ke edit karo Itihaas dekho More Khojo Navigation Pahila Panna Samaj portal Abhi ke ghatna Nawaa badlao Koi bhi panna Madat karo Daan Aujaar ke dabba Hian konchij jurre hae Panna ke jurraa badlao File ke upload karo Khaas panna Pakka jorr Panna ke jaankari Ii panna ke cite karo Wikidata item Print/export karo Book banao PDF ke naam pe download karo Chhape ke khaatir Duusra project me Wikimedia Commons Duusra bhasa me Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Links ke badlo Ii panna ke 8 March 2013, ke 15:01 baje, pichhla time badla gais rahaa. Ii text Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ke niche available hai; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Gupt niti Wikipedia ke baare me Jimmewari se chhutkaari Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
hi-wikipedia-org-3438	----	होरेस - विकिपीडिया होरेस मुक्त ज्ञानकोश विकिपीडिया से Jump to navigation Jump to search इस लेख में सन्दर्भ या स्रोत नहीं दिया गया है। कृपया विश्वसनीय सन्दर्भ या स्रोत जोड़कर इस लेख में सुधार करें। स्रोतहीन सामग्री ज्ञानकोश के उपयुक्त नहीं है। इसे हटाया जा सकता है। (दिसम्बर 2017) Saturae, 1577 होरेस (Horace ; वास्तविक नाम : Quintus Horatius Flaccus ; दिसम्बर 8, 65 BCE – नवम्बर 27, 8 BCE) प्रसिद्ध रोमन कवि था। इसका जीवन काल अगस्टस सीज़र ( Augustus Caeser ) के शासनकाल के दौरान रहा I रचनाएँ[संपादित करें] स्टायर - I, II इपोड्स ओड्स एपिस्टलस आर्स पोएटिका आर्स पोएटिका[संपादित करें] होरेस द्वारा लिखी गई रचनाओं में सबसे प्रमुख आर्स पोएटिका ( Ars Poetica ) है I इस शीर्षक का शाब्दिक अर्थ है काव्य की कला (Art of Poetry) I यह पत्रों के रूप में लिखी हुई है I अंग्रेजी के लेखक बेन जोनसन (Ben Jonson) ने इसका अनुवाद अंग्रेजी भाषा में किया था I यह रचना मूल रूप से अरस्तु के आलोचनात्मक सिद्धांतो पर आधारित है I इसके तीन भाग हैं - पोएसिस (Poesis), पोएमा (Poema) और पोएटा (Poeta) I "https://hi.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=होरेस&oldid=4437724" से लिया गया श्रेणी: रोमन कवि छुपी हुई श्रेणियाँ: लेख जो दिसम्बर 2017 से स्रोतहीन हैं सभी स्रोतहीन लेख दिक्चालन सूची व्यक्तिगत उपकरण लॉग इन नहीं किया है वार्ता योगदान खाता बनाएँ लॉग इन नामस्थान लेख संवाद संस्करण दर्शाव पढ़ें सम्पादन इतिहास देखें और खोजें परिभ्रमण मुखपृष्ठ चौपाल हाल में हुए परिवर्तन हाल की घटनाएँ समाज मुखपृष्ठ निर्वाचित विषयवस्तु यादृच्छिक लेख योगदान प्रयोगपृष्ठ अनुरोध दान करें सहायता सहायता स्वशिक्षा अक्सर पूछे जाने वाले प्रश्न देवनागरी कैसे टाइप करें दूतावास (Embassy) उपकरण यहाँ क्या जुड़ता है पृष्ठ से जुड़े बदलाव फ़ाइल अपलोड करें विशेष पृष्ठ स्थायी कड़ी इस पृष्ठ पर जानकारी यह लेख उद्धृत करें छोटा यू॰आर॰एल Wikidata प्रविष्टि मुद्रण/निर्यात पुस्तक बनायें पीडीएफ़ रूप डाउनलोड करें प्रिन्ट करने लायक अन्य परियोजनाओं में विकिमीडिया कॉमन्स अन्य भाषाओं में Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 कड़ी संपादित करें अन्तिम परिवर्तन 15:37, 5 जनवरी 2020। यह सामग्री क्रियेटिव कॉमन्स ऍट्रीब्यूशन/शेयर-अलाइक लाइसेंस के तहत उपलब्ध है; अन्य शर्ते लागू हो सकती हैं। विस्तार से जानकारी हेतु देखें उपयोग की शर्तें गोपनीयता नीति विकिपीडिया के बारे में अस्वीकरण मोबाइल दृश्य डेवेलपर्स Statistics कुकी का वर्णन 
hr-wikipedia-org-2962	----	Horacije – Wikipedija Horacije Izvor: Wikipedija Prijeđi na navigaciju Prijeđi na pretraživanje Horacije Kvint Horacije Flak (Quintus Horatius Flaccus, prosinac 65. pr. Kr. - 27. studenog 8. pr. Kr.), rimski pjesnik i satiričar. Životopis[uredi | uredi kôd] Horacije je rođen u prosincu 65. pr. Kr. u Venusiji (danas Venosa) na jugu Italije, umro je 27. studenog 8. pr. Kr. u Rimu. Njegov otac je bio rob koji je stekao slobodu prije Horacijevog rođenja. Moglo bi se pretpostaviti da je u ropstvo pao za vrijeme Pompeja, odnosno nakon Spartakovog ustanka. Svog sina je odveo u jednu od najpoznatijih škola Sabelijanca po imenu Orbilus (koji je po Horaciju bio pristalica tjelesnog kažnjavanja). Godine 46. pr. Kr. Horacije posjećuje predavanja na atenskoj Akademiji, gdje prve stihove počinje pisati na grčkom. Kad je Brut u Ateni prikupljao vojsku protiv Oktavijana Augusta i Antonija, zajedno sa sinovima Cicerona i Katona, u nju stupa i Horacije. Međutim, u bitci kod Filipa poražena je Republika, a i tribunus militium Horacije. Nakon toga se Horacije vraća u Rim i posvećuje pjesništvu. Godine 38. pr. Kr. doveden je kod Mecene, učenog čovjeka iz Etrurije iz središnje Italije, koji je bio glavni politički savjetnik Oktavijana Augusta. Mecena je Horacija uveo u pjesnički književni krug, a uz to mu poklonio i luksuznu vilu. Izgledom je Horacije bio nizak i debeo, posijedio prije vremena, lako bi se iznervirao, ali brzo i smirio. Na stranicama Wikicitata postoji zbirka osobnih ili citata o temi: Horacije v • r • u Rimski i grčki antički književnici Rimski antički književnici Nevije - Lucije - Horacije - Luvenal - Petronije - Seneka - Apulej - Vergilije - Gaj Valerije Katul - Plaut - Publije - Marko Terencije Varon - Tit Lukrecije Kar - Ovidije - Tit Livije - Nikolaj iz Damaska - Arijan - Klaudije Elijan - Justin - Avijan Grčki antički književnici Homer - Heziod - Eshil - Sofoklo - Euripid - Kratin - Aristofan - Eupolis - Kalimah - Apolonije - Teokrit - Rođanin - Longo - Heriton - Heliodor - Sapfa - Pindar - Alkej - Anakreont - Hesiod - Teognid - Ksenofan - Arhiloh - Alkman - Ezop - Ktezije - Ksenofont - Herodot Humanizam, Predrenesansa, Renesansa >> Dobavljeno iz "https://hr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horacije&oldid=4256621" Kategorije: Rimski književnici Satira Navigacijski izbornik Osobni alati Niste prijavljeni Razgovor Doprinosi Stvori račun Prijavi se Imenski prostori Stranica Razgovor Inačice Pogledi Čitaj Uredi Uredi kôd Vidi povijest Više Traži Orijentacija Glavna stranica Kafić Novosti Nedavne promjene Slučajna stranica Pomoć Donacije Pomagala Što vodi ovamo Povezane promjene Postavi datoteku Posebne stranice Trajna poveznica Podatci o stranici Citiraj ovu stranicu Stavka (Wikipodatci) Ispis/izvoz Stvori knjigu Preuzmi kao PDF Inačica za ispis Wikimedijini projekti Zajednički poslužitelj Wikicitat Drugi jezici Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Uredi međuwikije Ova stranica posljednji je put uređivana 1. veljače 2014. u 14:12. Tekst je dostupan pod licencijom Creative Commons Imenovanje/Dijeli pod istim uvjetima; dodatni uvjeti mogu se primjenjivati. Pogledajte Uvjete upotrebe za detalje. Zaštita privatnosti Impresum Odricanje od odgovornosti Prikaz za mobilne uređaje Razvojni programeri Statistika Izjava o kolačićima 
hu-wikipedia-org-1756	----	Quintus Horatius Flaccus – Wikipédia Quintus Horatius Flaccus A Wikipédiából, a szabad enciklopédiából Ez a közzétett változat, ellenőrizve: 2020. december 5. Pontosság ellenőrzött Ugrás a navigációhoz Ugrás a kereséshez Ez a szócikk a római költőről szól. Hasonló címmel lásd még: Horatius (egyértelműsítő lap). Quintus Horatius Flaccus Egy 18. századi Horatius-ábrázolás Élete Született Kr. e. 65. december 8. Venusia, ma Venosa, Olaszország Elhunyt Kr. e. 8. november 27. (56 évesen) Róma Sírhely Róma Nemzetiség római Szülei nem ismert nem ismert Pályafutása Jellemző műfaj(ok) levélirodalom, ódaköltészet Fontosabb művei Sermones (Beszélgetések) Carmina (Versek) Epistulae (Levelek) Epodes (Epódoszok) A Wikimédia Commons tartalmaz Quintus Horatius Flaccus témájú médiaállományokat. Quintus Horatius Flaccus (Venusia, ma Venosa, Olaszország, Kr. e. 65. december 8. – Róma, Kr. e. 8. november 27.) római költő. Tartalomjegyzék 1 Élete 2 Művei 3 Magyarul 3.1 1849-ig 3.2 1850–1919 3.3 1920–1944 3.4 1945– 4 További irodalom 5 Külső hivatkozások Élete[szerkesztés] Egy dél-itáliai kisvárosban, Venusiában született, apja felszabadított rabszolga. Felszabadítása után apja Rómába költözött, ahol ingatlanközvetítőként tevékenykedett. Az így keresett pénzéből fiát a legjobb tanítókhoz küldte. Kr. e. 45 körül Horatius filozófia tanulmányokat folytat Athénban. Caesar meggyilkolásakor csatlakozik Brutus és társai közé. Részt vett Kr. e. 42-ben a philippi ütközetben(wd), ahonnan elmenekült. A csata után visszatért Rómába, ahol időközben elkobozták házukat és birtokaikat. A szegénység hatására verseket írt (Episztolák 2. 50-52). Később írnokként dolgozott az államkincstárnál. Először görögül kezdett verselni (Szatírák 1, 10, 31-35), később latinul folytatta. Vergilius támogatásával a híres művészetpártoló, Maecenas(wd), barátjává fogadta Horatiust, és támogatta. Ideje nagy részét Sabinumban, majd később tiburi házában töltötte. Két hónappal támogatója, Maecenas halála után halt meg Rómában. Testét Maecenas mellé temették. Művei[szerkesztés] Sermones (Beszélgetések) Carmina (Versek) Epistulae (Levelek) többek között: Thaliarchushoz, Leuconoéhoz, Aristius Fuscushoz, Licinius Murenához és Melpomenéhez Ars poetica (Költői hitvallás) Carmen saeculare (Százados ének) Epodes (Epódoszok) Magyarul[szerkesztés] 1849-ig[szerkesztés] Mi a poézis? És ki az igaz poéta? Egy rövid elmélkedés, mellyben a költésnek mivolta, eszközei, tzéllya és tárgya előállíttatnak / Függelék: Horátziusnak Pizóhoz és ennek fiaihoz írtt levele / Költeményes enyelgések; prózaford. Verseghy Ferenc; Landerer Ny., Buda, 1793 Horátzius poétikája / Ars poetica / Toldalék; prózaford., jegyz. Virág Benedek; Trattner Ny., Pest, 1801 Horátzius levelei; ford. Kis János, jegyz. Christoph Martin Wieland; Sziesz Ny., Sopron, 1811 Flakkus Q. Horatius levelei; ford. Virág Benedek; Egyetemi Ny., Buda, 1815 Epodusok; ford. Virág Benedek; Universitas Ny., Buda, 1817 Szatírák-ból; ford. Virág Benedek; Universitas Ny., Buda, 1820 Q. Horatius F. ódái. 5 könyv; ford. Virág Benedek; Universitas Ny., Buda, 1824 Q. Flaccus Horatiusnak ódái; ford., jegyz. Lassu István; Universitas Ny., Buda, 1829 Horatius levelei; ford. Kis János, jegyz. Wieland, szöveggond. Kazinczy Ferenc; Magyar Tudós Társaság, Pest, 1833 Horatius Levele a Pisókhoz a költészetről; ford. Czuczor Gergely; in: Széptani remekírók, 1-2.; Egyetemi Ny., Buda, 1846 1850–1919[szerkesztés] Q. Horatius Flaccus értelmezve; ford., jegyz. Szenthmártony József; Jäger Ny., Sárospatak, 1860 Horácz ódái; ford. Virág Benedek; Lampel, Pest, 1862 (Római remekírók) Quintus Horatius Flaccus ódái, 1-2.; ford., jegyz. Vajdafy József; Bucsánszky, Pest, 1863 Horatius episztolája a Pisokhoz a költészetről; ford. Czuczor Gergely; in: Széptani remekírók; Eggenberger, Bp., 1875 Horatius Pizókhoz írt levele a költészetről; ford. Fábián Gábor; Réthy Ny., Arad, 1876 Horác levele a Pizókhoz; ford. Édes Albert; Aigner, Bp., 1876 Horatius Quintus Flaccus episztolái; ford., jegyz. Csalomjai [Pajor István]; Kék Ny., Balassagyarmat, 1877 Horácz néhány költeménye magyarul; ford. Kolosy Lajos; Bakos Ny., Jászberény, 1878 Jámbor Pál: Ó és új világ. 2-3. könyv. Fordítások [Horatius, Vergilius, Victor Hugo]; Tettey, Szabadka, 1882 (Hiador művei) Flaccus Horatius satirái; ford. Boros Gábor; Lampel, Bp., 1882 Horatius Q. Flaccus epistolái; ford. Boros Gábor; Lampel, Bp., 1883 Horatius Quintus Flaccus levele a két Piso fivérekhez a költészetről; ford., jegyz. Pajor István; Kék Ny., Balassagyarmat, 1883 Horatius Ódái és epodosai; ford., jegyz. Dávid István; Stampfel, Pozsony, 1884 Q. Horatius Flaccus satíráinak két könyve; ford., jegyz. Barna Ignác; Athenaeum, Bp., 1884 Horátz levelei; ford., jegyz. Márki József; Rudnyánszky Ny., Bp., 1884 Q. Flaccus Horatius válogatott ódái; folyóbeszédben magyarítá Gyurits Antal; Ungár Ny., Szatmár, 1885 (Római remekírók magyar nyelven) Q. Flaccus Horatius ódái. Latinul és magyarul; ford. Barna Ignác; Révai, Bp., 1886 Horátius satirái, 1-2.; ford., jegyz. Rózsa Vitál; Stampfel, Pozsony, 1895–1897 Q. Horatius Flaccus válogatott ódái és epodosai; prózaford., jegyz. Kárpáti Kelemen; Szele-Breitfeld, Szombathely, 1899 Horatius Levelei; ford. Paulovits Károly; Lampel, Bp., 1910 (Magyar könyvtár) Horatius ódái és epodosai; ford. ifj. Szász Béla; kiad. a Kisfaludy-társaság; Franklin, Bp., 1913 1920–1944[szerkesztés] Horatius Qu. Flaccus "Carmina"-i. A gimnázium 8. osztályának anyaga; szójegyzék, szószerinti és magyaros ford. Pongrátz Elemér; Révai Ny., Bp., 1921 (Bangó tanintézet könyvtára) Horatius költeményei Csengery János átültetésében, 1-2.; Délmagyarország Ny., Szeged, 1922 Horatius levele a költészetről; ford. Vietórisz József; Jóba Ny., Nyíregyháza, 1928 Horatius ódái. I-III. füzet; ford., jegyz. Dankovits Béla; Aczél, Bp., 1930 (Diákkönyvtár) Versek; ford. Trencséni József; Radó Ny., Bp., 1935 Horatius ódái. Praeparatio, fordítás, mythológiai és nyelvtani magyarázatok, 1-3.; ford., jegyz. Dankovits Béla; Aczél, Bp., 1937–1939 Szemelvények Quintus Flaccus Horatius ódáiból; bilinguis kiad.; ford. Dömötör István; fordítói, Szekszárd, 1939 Horatius szatírái. 1. füzet. Teljes szószedet, magyarázat és fordítás; készítette Pongrácz Elemér; Aczél, Bp., 1944 (Új tanulók könyvtára) 1945–[szerkesztés] Versek; ford. Bede Anna, Novák József; vál., utószó Révay József, jegyz. Földy József; Európa, Bp., 1959 (Világirodalmi kiskönyvtár) Opera omnia / Quintus Horatius Flaccus összes versei; szerk., ford., bev., utószó Borzsák István, Devecseri Gábor, jegyz. Szepessy Tibor, Borzsák István; Corvina, Bp., 1961 Horatius legszebb ódái; ford. Szepesy Gyula; szerzői, Bp., 1984 Ódák; ford. Arany János et al.; Európa, Bp., 1985 (Lyra mundi) Horatius összes művei; ford. Bede Anna; Európa, Bp., 1989 Quintus Horatius Flaccus legszebb versei; ford. András László et al.; Móra, Bp., 1993 (A világirodalom gyöngyszemei) Horatius költeményei. Ódák és epodoszok; ford. Csengery János, szerk., jegyz., utószó Bálint István János; Seneca, Bp., 1997 (Seneca könyvek) Ars poetica; ford. Muraközy Gyula; in: Poétikák; jegyz. Osztovits Szabolcs, Unghy-Seress Fanny; Európa, Bp., 2007 (Európa diákkönyvtár) További irodalom[szerkesztés] Horatius levelei (Pest, 1833) Módi Mihály: Horatius és Bacchylides (Kolozsvár, 1913) Online Quintus Horatius Flaccus összes költeményei (Budapest, 1961) Erósz és Ámor (Budapest, 1957) Horatius költeményei – Ódák és epodoszok (Budapest, 1997) Falus Róbert: Apollón lantja. A görög-római irodalom kistükre. Móra Ferenc Könyvkiadó, Bp. 1982 Falus Róbert: A római irodalom története, Gondolat, Bp. 1970 Falus Róbert: Horatius (Budapest, 1958) Leffler Sámuelː Római irodalomtörténet – A középiskolák felsőbb osztályai számára és a művelt közönség használatára, Lampel Róbert (Wodianer F. és Fiai) Cs. és Kir. könyvkereskedése, Budapest, 1903, 133–138. o. Sebestyén Károlyː A római irodalom története – szemelvényekkel magyar írók latin műfordításaiból, Lampel Róbert (Wodianer F. és Fiai) Cs. és Kir. Udvari Könyvkereskedés Kiadása, 1902, 85–92. o. Külső hivatkozások[szerkesztés] A Wikimédia Commons tartalmaz Quintus Horatius Flaccus témájú médiaállományokat. A magyar Wikidézetben további idézetek találhatóak Horatius témában. A magyar Wikiforrásban további forrásszövegek találhatóak Horatius témában. 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hy-wikipedia-org-521	----	Հորացիոս - Վիքիպեդիա՝ ազատ հանրագիտարան Հորացիոս Վիքիպեդիայից՝ ազատ հանրագիտարանից Jump to navigation Jump to search Հորացիոս լատ.՝ Q. Horatius Flaccus Ծնվել է դեկտեմբերի 8, մ. թ. ա. 65[1][2][3] Ծննդավայր Վենոզա, Պոտենցա, Բազիլիկատա, Իտալիա[2][3] Վախճանվել է նոյեմբերի 27, մ. թ. ա. 8[1][2] (56 տարեկան) Վախճանի վայր Հռոմ, Հին Հռոմ Գերեզման Հռոմ Մասնագիտություն բանաստեղծ, գրող և փիլիսոփա Լեզու լատիներեն[4] Ազգություն հին հռոմեացիներ Քաղաքացիություն Հին Հռոմ Ուշագրավ աշխատանքներ Պոետական արվեստ Հորացիոս Վիքիքաղվածքում Quintus Horatius Flaccus Վիքիպահեստում Քվինտոս Հորացիոս[5] Փլակոս (լատ.՝ Quintus Horatius Flaccus; դեկտեմբերի 8, մ. թ. ա. 65[1][2][3], Վենոզա, Պոտենցա, Բազիլիկատա, Իտալիա[2][3] - նոյեմբերի 27, մ. թ. ա. 8[1][2], Հռոմ, Հին Հռոմ), հին հռոմեացի նշանավոր գրող, հռոմեական գրականության «ոսկեդարի» ներկայացուցիչ։ Կենսագրություն[խմբագրել | խմբագրել կոդը] Ծնվել է Վենոզայում, հայրը եղել է ազատարձակ։ Ստացել է կրթություն Հռոմում, հետագայում Աթենքում, որտեղ հունական գրականություն է ուսումնասիրել։ Այնտեղ նա ծանոթացել և մտերմացել է Բրուտոսի հետ, հանրապետականների բանակում նշանակվել է լեգեոնի հրամանատար։ Օկտավիանոս Օգոստոսի և Մարկոս Անտոնիոսի կողմից Բրուտոսի և Կասիոսի ջախջախումից հետո Հորացիոսը վերադառնում է Հռոմ, հաշտվում Օգոստոսի հետ և նվիրվում գրական գործունեությանը՝ վայելելով կայսրի հովանավորությունը։ Հորացիոսի առաջին բանաստեղծությունները երկտող էպոդներ են։ Հիմնականում երգիծանքի են ենթարկվում նրա ժամանակակիցները՝ անչափ երկար տոգայով զբոսնող տրիբունը (4 էպոդ), պոետ Մեվիոսը, որի նավը պիտի խորտակվի (10 էպոդ), չար կախարդը, դավաճան սիրուհին և այլն։ Հռոմեացիներին «հեռու կղզիներ փախչելու» կոչ է անում (16 էպոդ)։ Էպոդներից անցնում է սատիրաներին, ընտրելով փիլիսոփայական դիատրիբայի ձևը։ Նրա սատիրաները նվիրված են տարբեր թեմաների՝ քաղաքական, փիլիսոփայական, երգիծական։ I գրքի I սատիրայում պոետը ծաղրում է իրենց գանձերը թաքցրած և ցնցոտիներ հագած ժլատներին։ Ըստ Հորացիոսի, մարդը պիտի ապրի բնության հետ ներդաշնակ՝ հաճույքներ ստանալով առօրյա կյանքից։ VI սատիրայում նա նկարագրում է սեփական համեստ կյանքը. նա երջանիկ է, քանի որ ոչ մեկից կախում չունի և ազատ տնօրինում է ժամանակը։ Հորացիոսը գովերգում է ընկերական հավատարմությունը և կոչ է անում ընկերոջ թուլությունների հանդեպ ներողամիտ լինել։ V սատիրայում պոետը նկարագրում է Օկտավիանոսի և Անտոնիոսի բանակցություններին մասնակցելու համար Մեկենասի և Վերգիլիոսի հետ Բրունդիզիում կատարած ճանապարհորդությունը։ Շրջանցելով քաղաքական հարցերը, Հորացիոսը նկարագրում է կենցաղային մանրամասները, ճանապարհի դժվարությունները, համեստ ուրախությունները։ Սատիրաների II ժողովածուն ավելի հասուն է, նախապատվությունը տրված է երկխոսության ձևին։ VI սատիրայում հեղինակը պատմում է իր կալվածքի դրվածքի մասին։ Հետաքրքիր է սեփական դիմանկարի ինքնաքննադատությունը. պոետը խոստովանում է իր բնավորության փոփոխականությունը, ծուլությունը և դյուրագրգռությունը։ II գրքի V սատիրայում հույն գուշակ Տիրեսիասը Ուլիսեսին՝ Ոդիսևսին կորցրած հարստությունը վերադարձնելու ուղիներ է հուշում, խորհուրդ տալիս դիմել Օգոստոսի դարաշրջանին հատուկ շողոքորթությանը և ստորությանը։ Մ.թ.ա. 23 թ.–ից Հորացիոսը սկսում է գրել օդաներ (ներբողներ), որոնց մեջ այլևս չի շոշափում քննադատական և ծաղրական մոտիվներ։ Ի տարբերություն Կատուլոսի սուբյեկտիվ պոեզիայի՝ Հորացիոսի օդաները, ժամանակի վեհակերտությանը համահունչ, գրված են հանդիսավոր տոնով, կոչ են անում «իմաստության», զերծ են հուզականությունից, կրքերի և դժբախտությունների նկարագրություններից։ Հորացիոսի օդաները բազմազան են՝ ուղերձներ ընկերներին, հիմներ աստվածներին, մտորումներ, սիրային բանաստեղծություններ։ Մ.թ.ա. 17 թ. Հռոմում կազմակերպվեցին քաղաքացիական պատերազմների ավարտը խորհրդանշող «սեկուլյար խաղեր» տոնը։ Տոնական հիմնի ստեղծումը հանձնարարվեց Հորացիոսին, ով Վերգիլիոսի մահից հետո (մ.թ.ա. 19 թ.) համարվում էր կայսրության մեծագույն պոետը։ Հիմնում Հորացիոսը գովերգում է Օկտավիանոս Օգոստոսին, նրա բարեփոխումները, հռոմեական պետությունը, «նոր դարի սկիզբը»։ Հորացիոսի ստեղծագործական վերջին տարիների նախընտրած ժանրը ուղերձներն են՝ չափածո նամակները։ Ինչպես և սատիրաները, դրանք նույնպես գրված են անկաշկանդ զրույցի ձևով, սակայն այստեղ բացակայում է ծաղրանքը, իսկ «հորացիական իմաստությունը» արտահայտվում է Օգոստոսին, Մեկենասին, Տիբերիոսի քարտուղար Ֆլորին ուղղված խորհուրդների ձևով։ Ուղերձների երկու գրքերը լույս տեսան համապատասխանաբար մ.թ.ա. 20 և 14 թթ.։ Երկրորդ գիրքը բաղկացած է գրականությանը նվիրված երեք նամակից, որոնցից կարևորագույնը հայտնի է «Պոետական արվեստ» խորագրով։ Այստեղ Հորացիոսը ներկայանում է որպես հռոմեական կլասիցիզմի տեսաբան։ Պոետական ստեղծագործությունից նա պահանջում է ներդաշնակություն և մասերի համաչափություն, իսկ պոետից՝ կրթվածություն և դատողություն։ Տաղանդը պետք է ամրապնդել քրտնաջան մասնագիտական աշխատանքով։ Հորացիոսի պոեզիան բարձր է գնահատվել Պետրարկայի և Վերածննդի մյուս հումանիստների, XVII դարի տեսաբանների, ինչպես նաև XVIII և XIX դարի սկզբի ֆրանսիական և ռուսական պոետների կողմից։ Ծանոթագրություններ[խմբագրել | խմբագրել կոդը] ↑ 1,0 1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4 http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/quinto-orazio-flacco_(Enciclopedia-Italiana)/ ↑ 2,0 2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5 2,6 2,7 Любкер Ф. Horatii (ռուս.) // Реальный словарь классических древностей по Любкеру / под ред. Ф. Ф. Зелинский, А. И. Георгиевский, М. С. Куторга, Ф. Гельбке, П. В. Никитин, В. А. Канский — СПб.: Общество классической филологии и педагогики, 1885. — С. 641—643. ↑ 3,0 3,1 3,2 3,3 3,4 W. Y. S., J. G. Horace // Encyclopædia Britannica — 11 — NYC: 1911. — Vol. 13. — P. 687—691. ↑ https://www.mirabileweb.it/author/-/42404 (իտալ.) — SISMEL – Edizioni del Galluzzo. ↑ Հովհաննես Բարսեղյան (2006)։ «Աշխարհագրական անունների հայերեն տառադարձության մասին որոշում»։ Տերմինաբանական և ուղղագրական տեղեկատու։ Երևան: 9-րդ հրաշալիք։ էջ 59։ ISBN 99941-56-03-9       Թեմատիկ կայքեր Discogs · International Music Score Library Project · MusicBrainz · Գուտենբերգ նախագիծ · Գուտենբերգ նախագիծ Բառարաններ և հանրագիտարաններ Բրիտանիկա (11-th) · Բրիտանիկա (օնլայն) · Բրոքհաուս · Բրոքհաուսի և Եփրոնի · Բրոքհաուսի և Եփրոնի փոքր · Դասական հնությունների իրական բառարան · Մեծ կատալոնական · Մեծ նորվեգական · Մեծ ռուսական · Մեծ սովետական (1 հրտ.) · Notable Names Database · Treccani · Universalis · Universalis  Չափորոշչային վերահսկողություն ՀԳՀԳ ID: 18797 · BAV: ADV12139878, ADV11561527, ADV11452220 · BIBSYS: 90055203 · BNC: a10101214 · BNE: XX891549 · BNF: 11886570b · CiNii: DA00782980 · CONOR: 8323171 · EGAXA: vtls000023274 · GND: 118553569 · ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\000246 · ISNI: 0000 0001 2145 2178 · LCCN: n79081354, no92010069 · LNB: 000000375 · NDL: 00540086 · NKC: jn20000603003 · NLA: 35206138 · NLG: 62641 · NLP: A11793144 · NSK: 000013522 · NTA: 068304579 · NUKAT: n96210540 · PTBNP: 19592 · РГБ: 000083136, 000039740 · LIBRIS: 189659 · SUDOC: 026659166 · VIAF: 100227522, 2130151778256418130004 · ULAN: 500404135 · WorldCat VIAF: 100227522, 2130151778256418130004 Ստացված է «https://hy.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Հորացիոս&oldid=7330151» էջից Կատեգորիաներ: Դեկտեմբերի 8 ծնունդներ Մ. թ. ա. 65 ծնունդներ Իտալիայում ծնվածներ Նոյեմբերի 27 մահեր Մ. թ. ա. 8 մահեր Հռոմ քաղաքում մահացածներ Անձինք այբբենական կարգով Գրողներ այբբենական կարգով Անտիկ գրականություն Հռոմեացի բանաստեղծներ Թաքցված կատեգորիա: Վիքիպեդիա:Հոդվածներ Վիքիտվյալներից աղբյուրներով Նավարկման ցանկ Անձնական գործիքներ Դուք չեք մտել համակարգ Քննարկում Ներդրումներ Ստեղծել մասնակցային հաշիվ Մուտք գործել Անվանատարածքներ Հոդված Քննարկում Տարբերակներ Դիտումները Կարդալ Խմբագրել Խմբագրել կոդը Դիտել պատմությունը Ավելին Որոնել Նավարկում Գլխավոր էջ Կատեգորիաներ Պատահական հոդված Նոր էջեր Ընթացիկ իրադարձություններ Մասնակցել Էությունը Խորհրդարան Վերջին փոփոխություններ Օգնություն Նվիրաբերել Գործիքներ Այստեղ հղվող էջերը Կապված փոփոխություններ Սպասարկող էջեր Մշտական հղում Էջի վիճակագրություն Մեջբերել այս էջը Վիքիտվյալների տարր Տպել/արտահանել Ստեղծել գիրք Ներբեռնել որպես PDF Տպելու տարբերակ Այլ նախագծերում Վիքիպահեստ Վիքիքաղվածք Այլ լեզուներով Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Փոխել հղումները Այս էջը վերջին անգամ փոփոխվել է 19 Օգոստոսի 2020-ի ժամը 15:35-ին: Տեքստը հասանելի է Քրիեյթիվ Քոմոնս Հղման-Համանման տարածման թույլատրագրի ներքո, առանձին դեպքերում հնարավոր են հավելյալ պայմաններ։ Մանրամասնությունների համար այցելեք՝ Օգտագործման պայմաններ։ Գաղտնիության քաղաքականություն Վիքիպեդիայի մասին Հրաժարագրեր Տեսքը բջջայինով Ծրագրավորողներ Վիճակագրություն Cookie statement 
ia-wikipedia-org-7871	----	Horatio - Wikipedia, le encyclopedia libere Horatio De Wikipedia, le encyclopedia libere Non revidite Saltar al navigation Saltar al recerca Horatio Sexo mascule Nascentia 65-12-08 BC (Venosa) Decesso 8-11-27 BC (Roma) Loco de reposo Roma Ethnicitate Ancient Romans[*] Citatania Roma antique Occupation poeta[*], scriptor, philosopho[*] Obras notabile Ars Poetica[*] Parentes matre unknown value patre unknown value Lingua latino Identificatores ISNI 0000 0001 2145 2178 VIAF 100227522, 2130151778256418130004 Commons Quintus Horatius Flaccus Horatio (in latino: Quintus Horatius Flaccus; nascite in Venosa le 8 de decembre 65 aEC e morte in Roma le 27 de novembre 8 aEC) era un poeta roman. Considerate un del major poetas del etate antique e maestro del elegantia artistic e dotate de inusual ironia, sapeva affrontar le vicissitudes politic e civil de su tempore como epicureo amante del placer del vita, establiente celle que por multos es ancora le canones del ars vivendi. Pecietta de biographia Iste articulo es ancora in stato embryonic: illo es un pecietta. Nos te invita cordialmente a completar lo pro meliorar Wikipedia in interlingua. Obtenite de "https://ia.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horatio&oldid=593924" Categorias: Peciettas de biographia Antique romanos Poetas Menu de navigation Instrumentos personal Tu non ha aperite session Discussion Contributiones Crear conto Aperir session Spatios de nomines Articulo Discussion Variantes Representationes Leger Modificar Modificar fonte Vider historia Plus Recerca Navigation Pagina principal Portal del communitate Actualitates Modificationes recente Pagina aleatori Adjuta Donationes Instrumentos Paginas ligate a iste Modificationes ligate Incargar file Paginas special Ligamine permanente Information sur le pagina Citar iste pagina Elemento Wikidata Imprimer/exportar Crear un libro Discargar como PDF Version pro imprimer In altere projectos Wikimedia Commons In altere linguas Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Modificar ligamines Iste pagina esseva modificate le plus recentemente le 17 februario 2018 a 23:43. Le texto es disponibile sub le licentia Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike; additional conditiones pote esser in vigor. Vide Conditiones de uso pro detalios. Politica de confidentialitate A proposito de Wikipedia Declaration de non-responsabilitate Version mobile Programmatores Statistics Cookie statement 
id-loc-gov-949	----	Horace - LC Linked Data Service: Authorities and Vocabularies | Library of Congress skip navigation Library of Congress Search Everything Audio Recordings Books/Printed Material Films, Videos Legislation Manuscripts/Mixed Material Maps Notated Music Newspapers Periodicals Personal Narratives Photos, Prints, Drawings Software, E-Resources Archived Web Sites Web Pages 3D Objects Suggestions enabled. Search Search toggle menu Discover Services Visit Education Connect About Ask a Librarian Help Contact Search Online Catalog Copyright.gov Congress.gov The Library of Congress > Linked Data Service > LC Name Authority File (LCNAF) Horace URI(s) http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n79081354 Instance Of MADS/RDF PersonalName MADS/RDF Authority SKOS Concept Scheme Membership(s) Library of Congress Name Authority File Collection Membership(s) Names Collection - Authorized Headings LC Names Collection - General Collection Variants Gorat︠s︡īĭ Gorat︠s︡iĭ Flakk, Kvint Horacij Horacio, 65 B.C.-8 B.C. Horacio Flaco, Q. Horacjusz Horacjusz Flakkus, Kwintus Horacy Horatius Flaccus, Quintus Horaṭiyos Horaṭiyus Horats Horaz Khorat︠s︡iĭ Khorat︠s︡iĭ Flak, Kvint Orazio Orazio Flacco, Quinto הוראציוס הורטיוס Additional Information http://id.loc.gov/rwo/agents/n79081354 Birth Date (edtf) -0064 Death Date (edtf) -0007 Associated Locale Rome Gender male Associated Language lat Occupation Poets Exact Matching Concepts from Other Schemes http://viaf.org/viaf/sourceID/LC%7Cn++79081354#skos:Concept Closely Matching Concepts from Other Schemes Horace Horace Label from public data source Wikidata Horace Earlier Established Forms Horatius Flaccus, Quintus Sources found: His Q. Horativs Flaccvs, ex fide atqve avctoritate decem librorum manuscriptorum opera ... M D LXVI. found: Speigel, N. Horaṭiyus, c1984. found: His Satiry Kvinta Gorat︠s︡īi︠a︡ Flakka, 1858:p. v (Gorat︠s︡īi︠a︡) found: His Dzieła wszystkie, 1988v. 2, t.p. (Kwintus Horacjusz Flakkus) found: Gandeva, R. Kvint Khorat︠s︡iĭ Flak, 1991:t.p. (Kvint Khorat︠s︡iĭ Flak) verso t.p. (Khorat︠s︡iĭ) found: Postera crescam laude, 1993:p. 11 (Quinto Orazio Flacco) found: A Leuconoe, e altre poesie, 1993:t.p. (Quinto Orazio Flacco) found: Študije o Horaciju, 1993:t.p. (... Horaciju) p. 5 (Horacij) found: Tamayo, F. Crítica del duelo, 2000:t.p. (Horacio) p. 65 (author of Epístola ad pisones) found: Oxford classical dict., 1996(Horace (Quintus Horatius Flaccus); b. 8 Dec. 65 B.C.; d. 27 Nov. 8 B.C.) found: Poesía lírica, 2007:t.p. (Q. Horacio Flaco) LC Classification PA6393-PA6444 Editorial Notes [Machine-derived non-Latin script reference project.] [Non-Latin script references not evaluated.] Change Notes 1979-09-20: new 2015-12-14: revised Alternate Formats RDF/XML (MADS and SKOS) N-Triples (MADS and SKOS) JSON (MADS/RDF and SKOS/RDF) MADS - RDF/XML MADS - N-Triples MADS/RDF - JSON SKOS - RDF/XML SKOS - N-Triples SKOS - JSON MADS/XML MARC/XML Subject Of Works Looking for related works... Contributor To Works Looking for related works... Follow Us Email Facebook Twitter Youtube Pinterest Flickr Instagram iTunes Take our survey External Accessibility Legal Inspector General External Link Disclaimer USA.gov Careers Contact Media Donate Shop Congress.gov United States Copyright Office 
id-wikipedia-org-7189	----	Horatius - Wikipedia bahasa Indonesia, ensiklopedia bebas Horatius Dari Wikipedia bahasa Indonesia, ensiklopedia bebas Loncat ke navigasi Loncat ke pencarian Horatius Nama dalam bahasa asli (la) Q. Horatius Flaccus Biografi Kelahiran 8 Desember 65 SM Venosa (en) Kematian 27 November 8 SM (56 tahun) Roma Tempat pemakaman Roma Kelompok etnis Ancient Romans (en) Kegiatan Pekerjaan Penyair, penulis dan filsuf Periode Republik Romawi Murid dari Cratippus of Pergamon (en) dan Aristos of Ascalon (en) Karya kreatif Karya terkenal Ars Poetica (en) Keluarga Orang tua nilai tidak diketahui , nilai tidak diketahui Quintus Horatius Flaccus (8 Desember 65 SM - 27 November 8 SM), atau lebih dikenal sebagai Horatius adalah seorang penyair terkenal di Kekaisaran Romawi. Tidak ada lukisan apalagi foto yang ada dari masa hidup. Ini hanyalah imajinasi Anton von Werner. Kehidupan[sunting | sunting sumber] Horatius lahir di Venosa, sebuah kota kecil di Italia. Ayahnya adalah seorang budak yang dibebaskan oleh majikannya. Mereka pindah ke Roma beberapa waktu kemudian. Ayah Horatius bekerja sebagai makelar. Dari pekerjaannya ayahnya menjadi kaya dan bisa mengirim Horatius ke sekolah terbaik di Roma. Ayahnya juga bisa mengirimnya ke Athena (Yunani) untuk belajar bahasa dan filsafat Yunani. Bahasa ibu Horatius adalah Latin. Horatius amat bangga dengan ayahnya, dan tak malu mengakui anak seorang budak yang dibebaskan. Di awal masa mudanya, Julius Caesar, diktator Romawi, terbunuh. Perang dikumandangkan terhadap orang-orang yang membunuhnya. Horatius bergabung dengan militer. Saat perang selesai, Horatius kembali ke Romawi dan mengetahui orang lain tinggal di apartemennya. Ayahnya sudah pergi. Horatius menjadi amat miskin. Akhirnya, ia menemukan pekerjaan di perbendaharaan, menyortir uang. Kawannya Lucius Varius Rufus dan Virgil, yang juga menulis, memperkenalkannya dengan Maecenas. Maecenas adalah kawan dekat Augustus, Kaisar Romawi. Horatius tinggal di Tibur, sebuah daerah di Roma. Saat meninggal, Horatius memberikan tanah yang dimilikinya kepada Augustus, untuk menambah tanah yang dimiliki negara. Kini, banyak penulis yang mengunjungi tanah itu untuk mengingatnya. Puisi[sunting | sunting sumber] Beberapa puisi Horatius sulit diterjemahkan karena sintaksis, tata bahasa, dan strukturnya yang amat berbeda dengan bahasa-bahasa modern. Horatius banyak dipandang sejumlah orang, termasuk para ahli, sebagai salah satu penyair terbaik bahasa Latin. Pranala luar[sunting | sunting sumber] Wikiquote memiliki koleksi kutipan yang berkaitan dengan Horatius. Wikisource Latin memiliki teks asli yang berkaitan dengan artikel ini: Latin texts of Quintus Horatius Flaccus Wikisource Inggris memiliki teks asli yang berkaitan dengan artikel ini: English translations of texts of Quintus Horatius Flaccus Karya Horace di Project Gutenberg Espace Horace Karya Horatius di The Latin Library Selected Poems of Horace The Perseus Project -- pengarang bahasa Latin dan Yunani (dengan terjemahan bahasa Inggris), termasuk Horatius Biografi dan kronologi Litweb Karya Horatius: teks, indeks, dan daftar frekuensi Diperoleh dari "https://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horatius&oldid=16872526" Kategori: Artikel dengan tautan Proyek Gutenberg Romawi Kuno Kelahiran 65 SM Kematian 8 SM Kategori tersembunyi: Halaman dengan label Wikidata belum diterjemahkan Menu navigasi Perkakas pribadi Belum masuk log Pembicaraan Kontribusi Buat akun baru Masuk log Ruang nama Halaman Pembicaraan Varian Tampilan Baca Sunting Sunting sumber Versi terdahulu Lainnya Pencarian Navigasi Halaman Utama Perubahan terbaru Artikel pilihan Peristiwa terkini Halaman baru Halaman sembarang Komunitas Warung Kopi Portal komunitas Bantuan Wikipedia Tentang Wikipedia Pancapilar Kebijakan Menyumbang Hubungi kami Bak pasir Bagikan Perkakas Pranala balik Perubahan terkait Halaman istimewa Pranala permanen Informasi halaman Kutip halaman ini Butir di Wikidata Cetak/ekspor Buat buku Unduh versi PDF Versi cetak Dalam proyek lain Wikimedia Commons Bahasa lain Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Sunting interwiki Halaman ini terakhir diubah pada 27 April 2020, pukul 07.23. Teks tersedia di bawah Lisensi Atribusi-BerbagiSerupa Creative Commons; ketentuan tambahan mungkin berlaku. Lihat Ketentuan Penggunaan untuk lebih jelasnya. Kebijakan privasi Tentang Wikipedia Penyangkalan Tampilan seluler Pengembang Statistik Pernyataan kuki 
io-wikipedia-org-6814	----	Horatius - Wikipedio Horatius De Wikipedio Salti al navigilo Irez a serchilo Horatius Profesiono: poeto Lando: Romana imperio Naskodato: 8 di decembro 65 BC Nasko-loko: Venusia (nune Venosa), Romana Imperio Mortodato: 27 di novembro 8 BC Morto-loko: Roma, Romana Imperio Quintus Horatius Flaccus (n. 65 aK til 8 aK) esis Romana poeto. Obtenita de "https://io.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horatius&oldid=939412" Kategorii: Romana skriptisti Poeti Selektar dum la navigado Personala utensili Sesiono ne esas iniciata Debatar per ca IP-adreso Kontributadi Krear konto Enirar Nomaro Artiklo Debato Varianti Apari Lektar Redaktar Redaktar fonto Vidar versionaro Pluse Serchuro Navigado Chefpagino Portalo di la komunitato Aktualajo Recenta chanji Pagino hazarde Helpo Donacaji Utensili Quo ligesas adhike? Relatanta chanji Adkargar arkivo Specala pagini Permananta ligilo Informo di ca pagino Citar ca pagino Redakto en Wikidata Imprimar/prezervar Kreez libro Deskargar quale PDF-formato Imprimebla versiono En altra projeti Wikimedia Commons Altra lingui Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Redaktar ligili Ica pagino modifikesis ye 14:25, 16 sep. 2018. La texto esas disponebla sub la Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; suplementala reguli forsan aplikesas. Videz Reguli pri uzo por detali. Sistemo di agado pri privateso Pri Wikipedio Legala averto Vidado por portebla aparati Kreinti di la programo Statistics Informo pri l'uzo di 'cookies' 
isni-org-3076	----	ISNI 0000000121452178 Flacci, Q. Horati ( v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 ) Database copyright © ISNI-IA, powered by OCLCSearch | Results | Advanced | Terms of Use & Use of Cookies | Help | Privacy  User id: ISNI | log in | logout search [or] search [and] browse restrict enlarge except rerank Any Phrase (APH:) ISNI Number (ISN:) ORCID Identifier (ORCID:) Name Keyword (NW:) Name (NA:) Superseded Number (XN:) Pica Production Number (PPN:) sort by name relevance × less approximate search 1shortlisttitle datasearch history   results search [or] ISN:0000000121452178 | 1 hits labelssources datamarc21 Please help us improve this record If you have any supplemental information about the identity listed here, please click in this box to go to the contribution form. Thank you in advance! ISNI ISNI:  0000 0001 2145 2178 https://isni.org/isni/0000000121452178 Name Name:  Flacci, Q. Horati Flacco (, Orazio Q.) Flacco (Q. Horacio) Flacco (Quinto Horacio) Flacco, Quinto Orazio Flaccus, Horatius Flaccus, Qu. Horatius Flaccus, Quintus H. Flaccus, Quintus Horatius Flaccvs, Quintus Horatius Flaco (Quinto Horacio) Flaco (Quinto Orazio) Flak, Kvint Horacije Goracìj Goracij Flakk, Kvint Gorat̸s̶ĭ̄ Gorat︠s︡īĭ Gorat︠s︡iĭ Flakk, Kvint Goraz Flakk, Kvint Ho-la-tz'ŭ Hor Horace Horace (auteur latin) Horace (de Venouse) Horace (Flacce) Horace, Quintus Horatius Flaccus Horace (Roman lyric poet) Horacego Horaci Horaci Flac, Q. Horacij Horacije Horacije Flak, Kvint Horācijs Horācijs Flaks, Kvints Horacijus Horácio Horacio Flacco, Q. Horacio Flacco, Quinto Horacio Flaco, Q. Horacio Flaco (Quinto) Horacio Flako, Kvinto Horacio (poeta lírico e satírico en lingua latina) Horacio (poeta lírico y satírico en lengua latina) Horacius Horacius Flakus, Quintus Horacjusz Horacjusz Flakkus, Kwintus Horacy Horacy (rzymski poeta liryczny) Horacyusz Horacyusz Flakk Horas Horati Flacci, Q. Horātijs Horatio Horatio Flacco, Quinto Horatius Horatius (dichter uit Oude Rome (65v Chr-8v Chr)) Horatius F, Q. Horatius Flaccus, .. Horatius Flaccus, Q. Horatius Flaccus, Quinctus Horatius Flaccus (Quintus) Horatius (Poeta) Horatius (, Q.) Horatius, Quintus Horatius, Quintus Flaccus Horatius (romersk författare och poet) Horaṭiyos Horaṭiyus Horats Horats (romersk skribent og poet) Horatsi Horatz, .. Horaz Horaz (römischer Dichter) Horazio Horazius Flaccus, Quintus Horazius Flakkus, Quintus Horazius Flakus, Quintus Huoracėjos Hūrās Khorat︠s︡iĭ Khorat︠s︡iĭ Flak, Kvint Kvint Goracij Flakk Kvint Horacije Flak Kwintus Horacjusz Flakkus Oracio Oracius Flaccus Orassi Oratio Oratius Orazio Orazio (Flacco) Orazio Flacco (, Q.) Orazio Flacco (, Quinto) Orazjus Flaccus, Quintus Q. Horatius Flaccus Q. Orazio Flacco Quinde Orazio Flacco Quinto Horatio Flacco Quinto Orazio Flacco (poeta romano) Quintu Orazziu Flaccu Quintus Horacius Flakus Quintus Horatius Flaccus Quintus Horatius Flaccus (poet roman din „perioada de aur” a literaturii romane) Quintus Horatius Flaccus (romersk skribent og poet) Οράτιος (Ρωμαίος λυρικός ποιητής) Гарацый Гарацыюс Гораций Гораций (римский поэт) Гораций Флакк, К Гораций Флакк, Квинт Горацій (римський поет) Хораций Хорациј Хорације ჰორაციუსი Հորացիուս הוראטיוס פלקוס, קוינטוס הוראציו הוראציוס הורטיוס הורטיוס פלקוס, קוינטוס הורציוס פלקוס, קוינטוס هوراتيوس هوراس هوراس (شاعر و نویسنده در روم باستان) होरेस ਹੋਰੇਸ ஓராசு ഹൊറസ് 호라티우스 クイントゥス ホラーティウス ホラティウス 贺拉斯 Dates Dates:  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Creation class Creation class:  bm Computer file cre Language material Manuscript language material Manuscript notated music Mixed materials Musical sound recording Nonmusical sound recording Notated music Two-dimensional nonprojectable graphic Creation role Creation role:  author contributor creator lyricist performer Related names Related names:  Bejarano, Virgilio (co-author) Bond, Johannes (1550-1612) Bovie, Smith Palmer (co-author) Caesarius, Johann (1468-1550; Bekanntschaft; see also from) Caesarius, Johannes (Bekanntschaft; see also from) Caesarius, Johannes╬c (Bekanntschaft; see also from) Campos, Urbano Chamorro Luis, Bonifacio Colamarino, Tito (co-author) Cristóbal López, Vicente Duflot, Roland (co-author) Fedeli, Paolo (co-author) Freire, Francisco José (1719-1773, C.O.) Friedlieb, Franz (Bekanntschaft; see also from) Friedlieb, Franz╬c (Bekanntschaft; see also from) Frischlin, Nicodemus (1547-1590; Bekanntschaft; see also from) Frischlin, Nikodemus (Bekanntschaft; see also from) Frischlin, Nikodemus╬c (Bekanntschaft; see also from) Gowers, Emily (co-author) Hartung, Johannes (Bekanntschaft; see also from) Hartung, Johannes╬c (Bekanntschaft; see also from) Heinze, Richard (1867-1929) Honorius, Johannes (1450-1504; Bekanntschaft; see also from) Honorius, Johannes╬c (Bekanntschaft; see also from) Irenicus, Franciscus (1495-1559; Bekanntschaft; see also from) Joly, Jaspar Robert (1819-1892) Jouvancy, Joseph de (1643-1719) Kaimowitz, Jeffrey H. (co-author) Karl-gymnasium, Stuttgart Kiessling, Adolf (1837-1892) Klingner, Friedrich (co-author) LaRamée, Pierre de (Bekanntschaft; see also from) Lejay, Paul (1861-1920)) Lock, Margaret (1950-) Luque Moreno, Jesús (co-author) Lyons, Stuart (co-author) Manuzio, Aldo (1450?-1515)) Manuzio, Aldo (el Jove, 1547-1597) Mayer, Jean (latiniste; co-author) Mayer, Roland (co-author) Michie, James (co-author) Moralejo Álvarez, José Luís (co-author) Moralejo, José Luis (1943-) Navarro Antolín, Fernando (co-author) Peletier, Jacques (co-author) Petschenig, Michael (1845-1923) Pezzana, Niccolò (hereus) Poelmann, Theodor (1510-1580; Bekanntschaft; see also from) Poelmann, Theodor╬c (Bekanntschaft; see also from) Porphyrio, Pomponius (02..-02.) Pre-1801 Imprint Collection (Library of Congress) Ramus, Petrus (1515-1572; Bekanntschaft; see also from) Sabbadini, Remigio Sanadon, Noël Étienne (1676-1733) Servius (ca. 4./5. Jh; Bekanntschaft; see also from) Servius, Maurus Honoratus (Bekanntschaft; see also from) Servius, Maurus Honoratus╬c (Bekanntschaft; see also from) Smart, Christopher (1722-1771) Tabart, Claude-André (co-author) Teubner, Benedictus Gotthelf (1784-1856) Thomas, Richard F. (co-author) Treibenraiff, Peter (Bekanntschaft; see also from) Treibenraiff, Peter╬c (Bekanntschaft; see also from) Tritonius, Petrus (1456-1525; Bekanntschaft; see also from) Valart, Joseph (1698-1781) Vergilius Maro, Publius Vettori, Pietro (1499-1585; Bekanntschaft; see also from) Vettori, Pietro (Bekanntschaft; see also from) Vettori, Pietro╬c (Bekanntschaft; see also from) Villeneuve, François Villeneuve, François (18..-1956) Virgile (co-author) West, David (co-author) Wetstein Officine Wheeler, George B. (1805-1877) Wheeler, George Bomford (1805-1877) Wyss, Bernhard בירנבאום, רחל عوض، لويس، (1915-1990) 松本, 仁助 (1927-) Titles Titles:  Ad Augustium Ars poetica : alkuteksti ja proosasuomennos, johdanto ja selityksiä Art poétique arte poetica 1-294, De Arte poetica di Q. Orazio Flacco;, L' Auswahl aus seinen Dichtungen Carmen saeculare Carmina. Liber 1. 4 Carmina. Liber 3 Carmina. Liber 4. 2 Carmina. Liber 4. 7 Carmina selecta et De arte poetica liber Carmina. Selections Carminum libri quattuor et carmen saeculare : latinaksi ja suomeksi Carminum libri quatuor Chant séculaire classical literature/philosophy Collège 5e latin Dichtkunst Donec gratus eram tibi Eclogae epistles of Horace;, The Epístola a los pisones Epistolae Epístolas Epistulae 1,1 Epistulae 1,5 Epistulae 1,6 Epistulae 1,7 Epistulae 2,1 Epistulae. Liber 1 Epistulae. Liber 2. 18 Epistulae. Selections Epistularum Épitres. Texte établi et traduit par François Villeneuve Epodae Epodi 2 Epodi 7 Epodi 9 Epodi. Liber 4 Epodo Epodos Gedichte Gruppi, scelte Horace's odes and the mystery of do-re-mi Horace : selected odes and Satire 1.9 Horacio lírico notas de clase Horatiuksen oodeja Horatius' satiren en brieven Horaz : Briefe Horaz lateinisch und deutsch Izabrane pjesme Kleine Übersetzungs-Bibliothek röm. und griech. Klassiker Kvintus Horatius Flakkuksen teokset L'art poétique d'Horace traduit en vers françois Le opere di Quinto Orazio Flacco Les Satires Lettres. Lierzangen Mollis inertia cum tantam diffuderil imis (Epodes, 14) Non usitata nec tenui ferar (Odes, Livre 2, 20) Obra selecta Obras Obres Odae 1,1-6 Odae 1-3 Odae 1,4 Odae 1,9 Odae 2-3 Odae 3,1-6 Odae 3,14 Odae 3,25 Odae 3,26 Odae 3,27 Odae 3,29 Odae 3,4 Odae 4,12 Odae 4,2 Odae 4,7 Odae 4,8 Odas selectas : texto latino Oden und Epoden Odes and epodes Odes Book I Odes Book IV Odes with the Latin text Odi, Le Ódy a epódy Ody i epody Œuvre Oeuvres complètes d'Horace Oeuvres d'Horace en latin et en françois avec des remarques critiques et historiques. Oodeja ja epoodeja Opera, interpretatione et notis illustravit Ludovicus Desprez ... Opera. Latin. [from old catalog] Opera omnia opere di Q. Orazio Flacco, Le Petti, nihil me sicut antea juvat (Epodes, 11) Poemata Poesía lírica traducción rítmica Poesias de Horacio, Las Poesias escogidas poésies, Les Q. Horatii Flacci Carmina Liber IV Q. Horatius Flaccus Quinti Horati Flacci Opera : with English notes and introduction Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera Runoudesta Sammlung Satirae. Liber 1. 1 Satirae. Liber 1. 9 Satirae. Liber 2, 1 Sátiras Satire e Epistole ; a cura di Alessandro Ronconi Satiren und Episteln : mit Anmerkungen Satires and epistles Saturae 1,1 Saturae 1,2 Saturae 1,5 Saturae 1,8 Saturae 2,1 Saturae 2,2 Saturae 2,7 Satyry i listy Sermones Songs of Remembrance: II. Pallida mors Speigel, N. HoratÌ£iyus, c1984 The odes of Horace The Satires and Epistles of Horace Traduction des oeuvres d'Horace Tutte le poesie Valittuja lauluja Vestigios de antigua llama antología Werke... Works Wybór poezji Zinnebeelden 詩論 Contributed to or performed Contributed to or performed:  Ode Welcome to the World of the Classics Notes Notes:  Programm--Karl-gymnasium, Stuttgart https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatius http://viaf.org/viaf/100227522 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace https://www.discogs.com/artist/4499695 https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6197 Wikipedia https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatius Wikipedia https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace Wikipedia https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horacio Wikipedia https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/هوراس Wikipedia https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/هوراتيوس Wikipedia https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horaciu Wikipedia https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/Гораций Wikipedia https://bat_smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huoracėjos Wikipedia https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/Гарацый Wikipedia https://be_x_old.wikipedia.org/wiki/Гарацыюс Wikipedia https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Хораций Wikipedia https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus_Horatius_Flaccus Wikipedia https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horacije Wikipedia https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horaci Wikipedia https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus_Horatius_Flaccus Wikipedia https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horas Wikipedia https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horats Wikipedia https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horaz Wikipedia https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatius Wikipedia https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Οράτιος Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace Wikipedia https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horacio Wikipedia https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horacio Wikipedia https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatius Wikipedia https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horazio Wikipedia https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/هوراس Wikipedia https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatius Wikipedia https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace Wikipedia https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatius Wikipedia https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horacio Wikipedia https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/הורטיוס Wikipedia https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace Wikipedia https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horacije Wikipedia https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus_Horatius_Flaccus Wikipedia https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Հորացիոս Wikipedia https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quinto_Horatio_Flacco Wikipedia https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatius Wikipedia https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatius Wikipedia https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hóratíus Wikipedia https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quinto_Orazio_Flacco Wikipedia https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/ホラティウス Wikipedia https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/ჰორაციუსი Wikipedia https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Гораций Wikipedia https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/호라티우스 Wikipedia https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatius Wikipedia https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus_Horatius_Flaccus Wikipedia https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horacijus Wikipedia https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horācijs Wikipedia https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace Wikipedia https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Хорациј Wikipedia https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/ഹൊറസ് Wikipedia https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Гораций Wikipedia https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/होरेस Wikipedia https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus_Horatius_Flaccus Wikipedia https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatius Wikipedia https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horats Wikipedia https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus_Horatius_Flaccus Wikipedia https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/ਹੋਰਸ Wikipedia https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horacy_(poeta) Wikipedia https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orassi Wikipedia https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horácio Wikipedia https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus_Horatius_Flaccus Wikipedia https://roa_tara.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quinde_Orazio_Flacco Wikipedia https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Гораций Wikipedia https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quinto_Orazio_Flacco Wikipedia https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintu_Orazziu_Flaccu Wikipedia https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace Wikipedia https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvint_Horacije_Flak Wikipedia https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace Wikipedia https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatius Wikipedia https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horacij Wikipedia https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Хорације Wikipedia https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus_Horatius_Flaccus Wikipedia https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatius Wikipedia https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatius Wikipedia https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/ஓராசு Wikipedia https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace Wikipedia https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatius Wikipedia https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Гораций Wikipedia https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Горацій Wikipedia https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace Wikipedia https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatius Wikipedia https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace Wikipedia https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horacio Wikipedia https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/贺拉斯 Wikidata Sources Sources:  VIAF VIAF B2Q BAV BNC BNCHL BNE DNB EGAXA ICCU LAC LC LNB N6I NDL NKC NLI NLP NSK NUKAT PERSEUS PTBNP SUDOC SWNL WKD BNF MUBZ NLFIN NLN NLS NTA OCLCT 1 
is-wikipedia-org-1801	----	Hóratíus - Wikipedia, frjálsa alfræðiritið Hóratíus Úr Wikipediu, frjálsa alfræðiritinu Jump to navigation Jump to search Hóratíus Quintus Horatius Flaccus, (8. desember 65 f.Kr. – 27. nóvember 8 f.Kr.), þekktur sem Hóratíus og stundum sem Hóras, var helsta skáld lýrísks kveðskapar í Rómaveldi á valdatíma Ágústusar. Efnisyfirlit 1 Ævi 2 Ritverk 3 Heimild 4 Útgáfur og þýðingar 4.1 Fræðilegar útgáfur 4.2 Skýringarrit 4.3 Þýðingar 4.3.1 Íslenskar þýðingar 4.3.2 Enskar þýðingar 5 Tenglar Ævi[breyta | breyta frumkóða] Hóratíus fæddist í Venosa (Lucania). Hann var sonur leysingja en var sjálfur frjálsborinn. Faðir hans var ekki efnaður en varði þó umtalsverðu fé í menntun Hóratíusar og fluttist með syni sínum til fyrst Rómar til að láta mennta hann. Síðar hélt Hóratíus til Aþenu þar sem hann nam grísku og heimspeki. Hóratíus var ævinlega þakklátur föður sínum fyrir þær fórnir sem hann færði til þess að geta menntað son sinn. Samband hans við föður sinn þykir eitt það hjartnæmasta sem vitað er um frá fornöld. Með hans eigin orðum (athugið að fegurð kveðskaparins glatast í þýðingu): Séu lestir mínir fáir og óverulegir en ég er að öðru leyti heiðarlegur maður, getirðu bent á einungis fáa bletti á annars óaðfinnanlegu yfirborði, geti enginn sakað mig um græðgi, illsku eða óhóf, sé ég hreinn og beinn (svo ég hæli nú sjálfum mér) og sé ég vinum mínum vinur í raun, þá á faðir minn heiðurinn skilinn ... Eins og mál hafa æxlast verðskuldar hann þakklæti mitt og lof. Aldrei gæti ég skammast mín vegna slíks föður né finn ég neina þörf, líkt og margir, til að afsaka mig fyrir að vera sonur leysingja. Satires 1.6.65-92 Eftir morðið á Júlíusi Caesar gekk Hóratíus í herinn undir stjórn Brútusar. Hann tók þátt í orrustunni við Filippí en bjargaði lífi sínu á flótta. Hann sneri aftur til Ítalíu eftir að þeir sem höfðu barist gegn hinum sigursæla Octavíanusi höfðu verið náðaðir. Faðir hans var þá látinn og jörð þeirra hafði verið gerð upptæk. Hóratíus bjó við sára fátækt. Eigi að síður gat hann keypt sér stöðu sem ritari á skrifstofu quaestors (gjaldkera) og það gerði honum kleift að draga fram lífið og iðka kveðskap sinn. Hóratíus tilheyrði sama hópi skálda og menntamanna og Virgill og Lucius Varius Rufus. Þeir kynntu hann fyrir Maecenasi, vini og trúnaðarmanni Octavíanusar Ágústusar. Maecenas varð styrktaraðili Hóratíusar og náinn vinur og gaf Hóratíusi jörð nærri Tibur, í dag Tivoli. Ritverk[breyta | breyta frumkóða] Saturae, 1577 Fornfræðingar álíta Hóratíus almennt vera, ásamt Virgli, mestan allra skálda á latínu. Fjölmargir latneskir frasar sem enn eru í notkun eru komnir úr kvæðum Hóratíusar, t.d. „carpe diem“ (nýttu daginn), „dulce et decorum est pro patria mori“ (sætt er og viðeigandi að deyja fyrir föðurlandið) og „aurea mediocritas“ (gullni meðalvegurinn). Kvæði hans eru undir grískum bragarháttum (eins og verk elstu skáldanna á latínu), allt frá sexliðahætti, sem hæfir latínunni vel, til flóknari bragarhátta eins og saffískum hætti, sem hæfa latínunni og latneskri setningafræði ekki alltaf jafnvel. Enginn annar höfundur á latínu notar þessa hætti af jafnmiklum þokka, jafnmikilli nákvæmni og léttleika, þótt Catullus komist stundum nálægt því. Verk Hóratíusar eru (í tímaröð): Sermonum liber primus eða Satirae I [1] (35 f.Kr.) Epodon [2] (30 BC) Sermonum liber secundus eða Satirae II [3] (30 f.Kr.) Carminum liber primus [4] (23 f.Kr.) Carminum liber secundus [5] (23 f.Kr.) Carminum liber tertius [6] (23 f.Kr.) Epistularum liber primus [7] (20 f.Kr.) Ars Poetica eða Bréf til Písóanna [8] (18 f.Kr.) Carmen Saeculare [9] (17 f.Kr.) Epistularum liber secundus [10] (14 f.Kr.) Carminum liber quartus [11] (13 f.Kr.) Heimild[breyta | breyta frumkóða] Fyrirmynd greinarinnar var „Horace“ á ensku útgáfu Wikipedia. Sótt 14. maí 2006. Útgáfur og þýðingar[breyta | breyta frumkóða] Fræðilegar útgáfur[breyta | breyta frumkóða] E.C. Wickham (ritstj.), Q. Horati Flacci Opera (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1901). Oxford Classical Texts útgáfa m. handritafræðilegum og textafræðilegum skýringum. Skýringarrit[breyta | breyta frumkóða] Horace, Epistles: Book I. Roland Mayer (ritstj.) (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994). Horace, Epistles: Book II and Epistle to the Pisones (Ars Poetica). Niall Rudd (ritstj.) (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989). Horace, Epodes. David Mankin (ritstj.) (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). Þýðingar[breyta | breyta frumkóða] Íslenskar þýðingar[breyta | breyta frumkóða] Quintus Horatius Flaccus, Í skugga lárviðar. Helgi Hálfdanarson (þýð.) (Reykjavík: Vaka-Helgafell, 1991). Enskar þýðingar[breyta | breyta frumkóða] Horace, Odes and Epodes. Niall Rudd (þýð.) (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2004). Horace, Satires, Epistles, Ars Poetica. H.R. Fairclough (þýð.) (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999). Tenglar[breyta | breyta frumkóða]   Wikivitnun er með safn tilvitnana á síðunni Horatius Espace Horace (á frönsku) Verk Hóratíusar á The Latin Library Sótt frá „https://is.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hóratíus&oldid=1669130“ Flokkar: Fólk fætt árið 65 f.Kr. Fólk dáið árið 8 f.Kr. Rómversk skáld Leiðsagnarval Tenglar Ekki skráð/ur inn Spjall Framlög Stofna aðgang Skrá inn Nafnrými Síða Spjall Útgáfur Sýn Lesa Breyta Breyta frumkóða Breytingaskrá Meira Leit Flakk Forsíða Úrvalsefni Efnisflokkar Handahófsvalin síða Hjálp Verkefnið Nýlegar breytingar Nýjustu greinar Samfélagsgátt Potturinn Fjárframlög Verkfæri Hvað tengist hingað Skyldar breytingar Hlaða inn skrá Kerfissíður Varanlegur tengill Síðuupplýsingar Vitna í þessa síðu Wikidata hlutur Prenta/sækja Búa til bók Sækja PDF-skrá Prentvæn útgáfa Í öðrum verkefnum Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Á öðrum tungumálum Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Breyta tenglum Þessari síðu var síðast breytt 1. apríl 2020, klukkan 21:11. Textinn er gefinn út samkvæmt Creative Commons Tilvísun-DeilaEins leyfi. Sjá nánar í notkunarskilmálum. Meðferð persónuupplýsinga Um Wikipediu Fyrirvarar Farsímaútgáfa Forritarar Statistics Yfirlýsing vegna vefkakna 
it-wikipedia-org-5636	----	Quinto Orazio Flacco - Wikipedia Quinto Orazio Flacco Da Wikipedia, l'enciclopedia libera. Jump to navigation Jump to search Disambiguazione – "Orazio" rimanda qui. Se stai cercando altri significati, vedi Orazio (disambigua). Quinto Orazio Flacco in un ritratto immaginario di Anton von Werner Quinto Orazio Flacco, noto più semplicemente come Orazio (in latino: Quintus Horatius Flaccus; Venosa, 8 dicembre 65 a.C. – Roma, 27 novembre 8 a.C.), è stato un poeta romano. Indice 1 Biografia 2 Il mondo poetico e concettuale di Orazio 3 Opere 4 Note 5 Bibliografia 5.1 Opere in latino 5.2 Opere tradotte in italiano 6 Voci correlate 7 Altri progetti 8 Collegamenti esterni Biografia[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Orazio nacque l'8 dicembre del 65 a.C. a Venosa, colonia romana fondata in posizione strategica tra Apulia e Lucania, allora in territorio dauno e attualmente in Basilicata. Fu figlio di un fattore liberto che si trasferì poi a Roma per fare l'esattore delle aste pubbliche (coactor auctionarius), compito poco stimato, ma redditizio; il poeta era dunque di umili origini, ma di buona condizione economica. Recepì le prime nozioni di favolistica dalla nutrice Pullia, che amava raccontare le fiabe. Orazio seguì perciò un regolare corso di studi a Roma, sotto l'insegnamento del grammatico Orbilio e poi ad Atene, all'età di circa vent'anni, dove studiò greco e filosofia presso Cratippo di Pergamo. Qui entrò in contatto con la lezione epicurea, ma, sebbene se ne sentisse particolarmente attratto, decise di non aderire alla scuola. Sarà all'interno dell'ambiente romano che Orazio aderirà alla corrente, la quale gli permise di trovare un rifugio nell'otium contemplativo. Il poeta espresse la sua gratitudine verso il padre in un tributo nelle Satire (I, 6). Placca a Taranto che reca inciso il verso di un'ode che Orazio dedicò alla città Dopo la morte di Cesare, quando scoppiò la guerra civile, Orazio si arruolò nell'esercito di Bruto, nel quale il poeta incarnò il proprio ideale di libertà in antitesi alla tirannide imperante. Combatté come tribuno militare[1] nell'esercito repubblicano comandato da Bruto nella battaglia di Filippi (42 a.C.), persa dai sostenitori di Bruto e vinta da Ottaviano. In questa battaglia Bruto e Cassio perirono, mentre Orazio si diede alla fuga dopo il secondo combattimento, come confessa egli stesso in una delle sue odi, nella quale dice che si era di già trovato in alcune altre azioni molto pericolose. Una lettura innovativa sulla battaglia è stata proposta da Giuliano Pisani.[2] Nel 41 a.C. tornò in Italia grazie a un'amnistia e, appresa la notizia della confisca del podere paterno, si mantenne divenendo segretario di un questore (scriba quæstorius). In questo periodo cominciò a scrivere versi, che cominciarono a dargli una certa notorietà. Nel 38 a.C. venne presentato a Mecenate da Virgilio e Vario, probabilmente incontrati nel contesto delle scuole epicuree di Sirone, presso Napoli ed Ercolano. Dopo nove mesi Mecenate lo ammise nel suo circolo e da allora il poeta poté dedicarsi interamente alla letteratura, non si sposò mai e non ebbe figli. Già in questo periodo Orazio risulta debole di occhi, avendo contratto una congiuntivite.[3] Mecenate gli donò nel 33 a.C. un piccolo possedimento in Sabina, le cui rovine sono ancor oggi visitabili nei pressi di Licenza (RM). Il dono fu cosa molto gradita al poeta che, in perfetta osservanza del modus vivendi predicato da Epicuro, non amava la vita cittadina. Con la sua poesia Orazio sostenne la figura e la politica dell'imperatore Augusto, che peraltro in questo periodo lasciava una grande libertà compositiva ai suoi poeti (tendenza che sarebbe però stata invertita dopo la scomparsa di Mecenate: lo testimonia la vicenda biografica di Ovidio). Esempi di propaganda augustea sono, a ogni modo, alcune Odi e il Carmen sæculare, composto nel 17 a.C. in occasione della ricorrenza dei Ludi Sæculares. Orazio morì nel novembre dell'8 a.C. all'età di 57 anni e fu sepolto sul colle Esquilino, accanto al suo amico Mecenate, morto solo due mesi prima. Il mondo poetico e concettuale di Orazio[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Considerato uno dei maggiori poeti dell'età antica, nonché maestro di eleganza stilistica e dotato di inusuale ironia, seppe affrontare le vicissitudini politiche e civili del suo tempo da placido epicureo amante dei piaceri della vita, dettando quelli che per molti sono ancora i canoni dell'ars vivendi. (LA) «Dum loquimur, fugerit invida aetas: carpe diem, quam minimum credula postero.» (IT) «Mentre parliamo, il tempo invidioso sarà già fuggito: Assapora ogni istante, confidando il meno possibile nel domani.» (Orazio, Odi, I, 11, 7-8) (LA) «Alme Sol [...] possis nihil urbe Roma visere maius.» (IT) «Almo Sole [...] che tu possa contemplare nulla di più grande della città di Roma.» (Orazio, Carmen saeculare.) Si può riconoscere in molte delle occasioni, da cui Orazio trae spunto per i suoi componimenti, una funzione comunicativa: ma difficilmente essa si traduce in un mero fine encomiastico, nei confronti del circolo dei suoi potenti protettori, perché assai più spesso essa svolge la funzione di trasmettere al lettore (e ai posteri) un'esperienza concreta di socievolezza e di rapporti umani, da cui trarre un insegnamento o semplicemente una riflessione[4]. Achille D’Orsi, monumento a Quinto Orazio Flacco, 1898, Venosa Convertitosi all'epicureismo[5], anch'egli alla ricerca di risposte sui grandi temi esistenziali, risposte che di fatto non troverà mai: il poeta sembra infatti non essere mai sfuggito all'angoscia della morte, percepita sempre come imminente. È interessante analizzare la visione che il poeta latino aveva dell'aldilà, in quanto è indubbiamente molto sincera: sebbene velata da una certa sicurezza, propria di quella "aurea mediocritas" di cui Orazio voleva essere esempio, in molteplici occasioni traspare una vena di malinconia, accompagnata da cupe note di lirismo e di elegia, che tradisce il suo reale stato interiore. Orazio appare, a sprazzi, come quello che forse veramente era: un uomo che ha trovato nella vita il rifugio dalla morte, ma che in verità non è mai riuscito a curare del tutto la paura di essa, che preferisce fuggire piuttosto che combattere stoicamente. La sua personalità può quindi risultare, a una prima lettura, ambigua: tale ambiguità nasce dalla discordanza che talvolta si viene a creare tra l'immagine che Orazio voleva dare di sé, e la vera personalità del poeta che inevitabilmente trapela dalle righe: non a caso, come sostiene Ugo Enrico Paoli, "nulla [...] appare così difficile come penetrare nell'animo di Orazio". La rappresentazione dell'aldilà oraziano è comunque di forte stampo epicureo, e viene suggellata nel modo migliore nell'affermazione, non priva di una nota malinconica, espressa nell'Ode 7 del Libro IV (v. 16): «Pulvis et umbra sumus» Quinto Orazio Flacco in un ritratto immaginario di Giacomo Di Chirico In questa affermazione Orazio riesce a esprimere non solo il suo punto di vista sulla morte, ma anche l'angoscia che lo investe in vita, proprio in funzione del prossimo e certo annullamento dell'esperienza terrena. Dai versi di Orazio, quando il poeta parla della morte, risulta davvero difficile cogliere una nota di serenità, di gioia: il sentimento che invece predomina e che si identifica nella reazione psicologica del poeta di fronte alla morte, è una triste accettazione di un fatto naturale. In particolare questo sentimento viene espresso nell'Ode 14 del II libro, nella quale afferma (vv. 8 -12): «...tristi [...] unda, scilicet omnibus, quicumquae terrae munere vescimur, enaviganda, sive reges sive inopes erimus coloni.» Questi versi ci esprimono quanto Orazio percepisse la morte cupa e fonte di grande turbamento: viene qui rappresentata come una palude (unda, parola che già nel suono anticipa il concetto che sta per essere espresso, e rafforza il simbolismo di cui è oggetto: palude=morte), a cui accosta l'aggettivo "triste" (tristi), che reca con sé anche un profondo senso di inevitabilità. La palude a cui allude Orazio è lo Stige: in questo caso, il riferimento mitologico ha valore simbolico, ed è funzionale non solo a esprimere il concetto della morte, ma anche a rendere più vivida ed espressiva la poesia. Invece scilicet (come è naturale) afferma un dato di fatto: l'inevitabilità della morte, alla quale non vi è modo di sfuggire. Questo concetto in realtà viene qui ripetuto, ma era già stato espresso all'inizio dell'ode: «...nec pietas moram Rugis et instanti senectae Adfert indomitaeque morti.» Inutile e vana è la religione, incapace di porre un rimedio (moram) all'incalzante vecchiaia e alla morte: questo è il punto di vista del poeta riguardo alla religione, e traduce un sentimento diffuso ed esteso a tutta la romanità del secolo. La religione è ormai incapace di dare spiegazioni sufficienti riguardo alla vita dopo la morte, il fervore religioso (pietas) non potrà salvare l'uomo dalla sua naturale condizione di mortale. Venosa, interno della casa di Orazio È davvero grande la differenza che corre tra l'attacco e la critica che Lucrezio aveva fatto nei confronti della religio, accusata di offuscare la ragione e di far nascere inutili tribolazioni e angosce, e questa, che suona più come una triste constatazione dell'incapacità di essere rasserenati da una religione nella quale non si riesce più a credere. Centrale nei versi 8-12 è il gerundivo enaviganda, che esprime pienamente l'inevitabilità e la certezza della morte, non senza una nota di cupa e profonda malinconia, già anticipata da tristi unda. Risulta già chiara da questi pochi versi la percezione che Orazio aveva della morte, percezione che spiega e motiva la sua scelta di vita: una vita caratterizzata dal godere del presente e delle poche gioie che la vita ci offre (identificabili principalmente nell'amicizia, nel convivio, nella pace interiore) e che ci consentono di vivere con serenità e stabilità. Orazio appare a tratti molto pessimista: la morte è sempre in agguato e la vita potrebbe finire in ogni momento; è meglio, quindi, non riporre le proprie speranze nel domani. Questa idea di brevità della vita (che ritroviamo anche in Catullo: brevis lux) è un ulteriore invito a godersi la vita il più possibile, concetto che ritroviamo in numerosi versi, come nell'Ode 11 del libro I: «...Dum loquimur fugerit invida Aetas: carpe diem, quam minimum credula postero.[6]» Il tempo è in una fuga perpetua, che non lascia adito a speranze future: occorre sfruttare al massimo il tempo che ci è concesso, e considerare ogni momento che ci è dato come un dono, così come afferma nell'Ode 9, del libro I (vv.14-15: "...Quem Fors dierum cumque dabit, lucro/Adpone..."); la sua concezione della fuga temporis sarà un perfetto modello per un grande poeta italiano come Francesco Petrarca, che, dopo aver letto classici come Orazio, Seneca e Agostino, lamenterà, nel Canzoniere, la caducità del tempo e la sua essenza fuggitiva in liriche come La vita fugge, et non s'arresta un'ora, molto vicina alla poetica oraziana. È chiaro dai suoi versi quanto la visione della morte condizioni in modo netto l'esperienza di vita del poeta, che ci viene vivacemente descritta dalla sua poesia: la morte non è, al contrario di quanto si crede, un evento che ci attende alla fine del nostro percorso vitale, ma è qualcosa che ci lasciamo dietro ogni giorno e dietro ogni momento, che estingue e brucia, attraverso il tempo, tutto ciò che è. Opere[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Le Odi di Orazio tradotte da Mario Rapisardi Horatii Flacci Sermonum, 1577 Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Storia della letteratura latina (31 a.C. - 14 d.C.). Orazio è considerato dal classicismo uno dei più importanti poeti latini, citato addirittura nell'Inferno di Dante nel Limbo, al verso 89 del Canto IV. Molte delle sue frasi sono diventate modi di dire ancora in uso: esempi sono carpe diem, nunc est bibendum e aurea mediocritas, oltre che Odi profanum vulgus, et arceo, e, recentemente, gli è stato intitolato anche un cratere sulla superficie di Mercurio. Epodi (Epodon libri o Iambi, come li definisce l'autore), 17 componimenti, pubblicati nel 30 a.C. Satire (Saturæ o Sermones, come le definisce l'autore), in due libri che comprendono 18 satire, scritte tra il 41 e il 30 a.C.: il I libro (10 satire) fu dedicato a Mecenate e pubblicato tra il 35 e il 33 a.C., mentre il II libro (8 satire) fu pubblicato nel 30 a.C. insieme agli Epodi. Odi (Carmina, come li definisce l'autore), in tre libri con 88 componimenti, pubblicati nel 23 a.C. Un quarto libro con altri 15 componimenti venne pubblicato intorno al 13 a.C. Epistole, in due libri. Il I libro comprende 20 lettere composte a partire dal 23 e pubblicate nel 20 a.C., con dedica a Mecenate, mentre il II libro, con tre lettere, scritto tra il 19 e il 13 a.C., comprende l'epistola ai Pisoni, o Ars Poetica in 476 esametri, che fu presa a canone per la composizione poetica nelle epoche successive. Carme secolare (Carmen sæculare), del 17 a.C., scritto per incarico di Augusto e destinato alla cerimonia conclusiva dei ludi sæculares. Note[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Bibliografia[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Opere in latino[modifica | modifica wikitesto] (LA) Quinto Orazio Flacco, [Opere], Francofurti ad Moenum, Ex officina typographica Andreae Wecheli, 1577. (LA) Quinto Orazio Flacco, [Opere. Poesia], Francofurti ad Moenum, Ex officina typographica Andreae Wecheli, 1577. Opere tradotte in italiano[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Enzo Mandruzzato (a cura di), Odi ed epodi. Testo latino a fronte, in Classici greci e latini, Milano, BUR, 1985, ISBN 978-88-17-16513-6. Gavino Manca (a cura di), Cinque satire sulla saggezza del vivere, in Collezione di poesie, Torino, Einaudi, 1991, ISBN 978-88-17-16513-6. Tito Colamarino e Domenico Bo (a cura di), Opere. Testo latino a fronte, in Classici latini, Torino, UTET, 2015, ISBN 978-88-51-12756-5. Ugo Dotti (a cura di), Epistole-Ars poetica. Testo latino a fronte, in Universale economica. I classici, Milano, Feltrinelli, 2015, ISBN 978-88-07-90211-6. Donatella Puliga (a cura di), con introduzione di Maurizio Bettini, Poesia classica latina. Testo latino a fronte, La biblioteca di Repubblica, Einaudi, Torino, 1990, rist. 2004, pp. 331–367. Voci correlate[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Certamen Horatianum Enciclopedia oraziana Gaio Fundanio Gens Horatia Genus irritabile vatum Atilio Fortunaziano Altri progetti[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Altri progetti Wikisource Wikisource Wikiquote Wikimedia Commons Wikisource contiene una pagina dedicata a Quinto Orazio Flacco Wikisource contiene una pagina in lingua latina dedicata a Quinto Orazio Flacco Wikiquote contiene citazioni di o su Quinto Orazio Flacco Wikimedia Commons contiene immagini o altri file su Quinto Orazio Flacco Collegamenti esterni[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Quinto Orazio Flacco, su Treccani.it – Enciclopedie on line, Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana. Quinto Orazio Flacco, in Enciclopedia Italiana, Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana. (EN) Quinto Orazio Flacco, su Enciclopedia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Quinto Orazio Flacco, su BeWeb, Conferenza Episcopale Italiana. (LA) Opere di Quinto Orazio Flacco, su Musisque Deoque. (LA) Opere di Quinto Orazio Flacco, su PHI Latin Texts, Packard Humanities Institute. Opere di Quinto Orazio Flacco, su openMLOL, Horizons Unlimited srl. (EN) Opere di Quinto Orazio Flacco, su Open Library, Internet Archive. (EN) Opere di Quinto Orazio Flacco / Quinto Orazio Flacco (altra versione), su Progetto Gutenberg. (EN) Audiolibri di Quinto Orazio Flacco, su LibriVox. (EN) Horatius, su Goodreads. Quinto Orazio Flacco, su Discografia nazionale della canzone italiana, Istituto centrale per i beni sonori ed audiovisivi. (EN) Spartiti o libretti di Quinto Orazio Flacco, su International Music Score Library Project, Project Petrucci LLC. Opera Omnia di Quinto Orazio Flacco: testi con concordanze e liste di frequenza Opera Omnia di Quinto Orazio Flacco: testi con numerazione dei versi Carmina Horatiana: Tutti i carmi di Orazio declamati in lingua latina da Tommaso Bervoets. Della fama d'Orazio fino a' dì nostri, in Italia, lezione di Mario Rapisardi, dicembre 1885 Quinto Orazio Flacco Opere letterarie principali Satire (Sermones) • Epòdi • Odi • Epistole (contenente il componimento Ars Poetica) • Carmen saeculare Orazio 65 ~ 8 a.C. Citazioni celebri Carpe diem • Nunc est bibendum • Aurea mediocritas • In medias res • Odi profanum vulgus, et arceo • Caelum, non animum mutant qui trans mare currunt • Vides ut alta stet nive candidum Soracte Corrente di pensiero Epicureismo Circolo di Mecenate Promotori Gaio Cilnio Mecenate • Ottaviano Augusto Membri Publio Virgilio Marone • Quinto Orazio Flacco • Sesto Properzio • Cornelio Gallo • Plozio Tucca • Aristio Fusco • Lucio Vario Rufo • Valgio Rufo • Domizio Marso • Quintilio Varo • Gaio Melisso • Emilio Macro V · D · M Epicureismo Filosofi greci Epicuro · Polieno · Metrodoro · Batis · Leonzia · Carneisco · Idomeneo · Ermarco · Colote · Temista · Leonteo · Polistrato · Dionisio di Lamptrai · Basilide · Filonide · Diogene di Tarso · Alceo e Filisco · Diogene di Enoanda · Apollodoro · Demetrio di Laconia · Zenone di Sidone romani Amafinio · Rabirio · Tito Albucio · Tito Pomponio Attico · Fedro · Filodemo · Lucrezio · Orazio · Patrone · Cazio · Plotina · Sirone Pensiero Epicureismo · Edonismo · Eudemonismo Concetti Aponia · Atarassia · Clinamen · Intermundia Opere De rerum natura (Lucrezio) · Scritti di Epicuro: Lettera a Meneceo · Lettera a Erodoto · Lettera a Pitocle V · D · M Lucani illustri Antichità Ocello Lucano · Orazio · Libio Severo Medioevo Tristano di Montepeloso · Arnolino Età Moderna e Contemporanea Giacinto Albini · Nicola Alianelli · Carlo Alianello · Gaetano Ambrico · Andrea Avellino · Laura Battista · Ascanio Branca · Rocco Brienza · Antonio Busciolano · Nino Calice · Giacomo Cenna · Raffaele Ciasca · Ettore Ciccotti · Emilio Colombo · Matteo Cristiano · Carmine Crocco · Il Pietrafesa · Sergio De Pilato · Egidio Romualdo Duni · Michele Granata · Isabella di Morra · Francesco Mario Pagano · Nicola Fiorentino · Tommaso Pedio · Giambattista Pentasuglia · Altobello Persio · Giacomo Racioppi · Tommaso Stigliani · Onofrio Tataranni · Giovanni Todisco · Vincenzo Verrastro Controllo di autorità VIAF (EN) 100227522 · ISNI (EN) 0000 0001 2145 2178 · SBN IT\ICCU\CFIV\000246 · Europeana agent/base/60033 · LCCN (EN) n79081354 · GND (DE) 118553569 · BNF (FR) cb11886570b (data) · BNE (ES) XX891549 (data) · ULAN (EN) 500404135 · NLA (EN) 35206138 · BAV (EN) 495/53093 · CERL cnp01316190 · NDL (EN, JA) 00540086 · WorldCat Identities (EN) lccn-n79081354 Portale Antica Roma Portale Basilicata Portale Biografie Portale Età augustea Portale Letteratura ^ Satira sesta ^ Orazio: la parmula di Filippi e l'Epicuri de grege porcum, in Atti e Memorie dell'Accademia Galileiana di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti in Padova, CXXXI - Parte III, Padova 2020, pp. 291-310.. ^ Orazio, Satire, I, 5, vv. 30 e 49. Il periodo in questione è il 38-37 a.C., vd. Orazio, Satire, Corriere della Sera, I Classici del pensiero libero greci e latini, nº 50, 2012, n. 8 a pag. 63. ^ Mario Citroni, Occasione e piani di destinazione nella lirica di Orazio, Materiali e discussioni per l'analisi dei testi classici, No. 10/11 (1983), pp. 133-214. ^ Book.google.it ^ Tante le traduzioni di questa celebre poesia, da Tommaso Gargallo, a Giosuè Carducci (in Opere, ed. naz., Bologna, Zanichelli, 1962, vol. XXIX, p. 47), a Giovanni Pascoli (in Poesie. Poesie varie. Traduzioni. Riduzioni, a cura di Augusto Vicinelli, Milano, Mondadori, 1968, p. 1657), a Alberto Caramella (in I viaggi del Nautilus, Firenze, Le Lettere, 1997, p. 1). Estratto da "https://it.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quinto_Orazio_Flacco&oldid=117375043" Categorie: Poeti romani Nati nel 65 a.C. Morti nell'8 a.C. Nati l'8 dicembre Morti il 27 novembre Nati a Venosa Morti a Roma Aforisti romani Autori di favole Epicurei Horatii Quinto Orazio Flacco Personaggi citati nella Divina Commedia (Inferno) Categorie nascoste: BioBot P3365 letta da Wikidata P4223 letta da Wikidata P1417 letta da Wikidata P7796 letta da Wikidata P6999 letta da Wikidata P6941 letta da Wikidata P3762 letta da Wikidata P648 letta da Wikidata P1938 multipla letta da Wikidata senza qualificatore P1899 letta da Wikidata Voci con template Collegamenti esterni e qualificatori sconosciuti P2963 letta da Wikidata P2510 letta da Wikidata P839 letta da Wikidata Voci con template Collegamenti esterni e molti collegamenti Voci con codice VIAF Voci con codice ISNI Voci con codice SBN Voci con codice Europeana Voci con codice LCCN Voci con codice GND Voci con codice BNF Voci con codice BNE Voci con codice ULAN Voci con codice NLA Voci con codice BAV Voci con codice CERL Voci con codice NDL Voci con codice WorldCat Identities Voci biografiche con codici di controllo di autorità Menu di navigazione Strumenti personali Accesso non effettuato discussioni contributi registrati entra Namespace Voce Discussione Varianti Visite Leggi Modifica Modifica wikitesto Cronologia Altro Ricerca Navigazione Pagina principale Ultime modifiche Una voce a caso Nelle vicinanze Vetrina Aiuto Sportello informazioni Comunità Portale Comunità Bar Il Wikipediano Fai una donazione Contatti Strumenti Puntano qui Modifiche correlate Pagine speciali Link permanente Informazioni pagina Cita questa voce Elemento Wikidata Stampa/esporta Crea un libro Scarica come PDF Versione stampabile In altri progetti Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource In altre lingue Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Modifica collegamenti Questa pagina è stata modificata per l'ultima volta il 20 dic 2020 alle 00:14. 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ja-wikipedia-org-8096	----	ホラティウス - Wikipedia ホラティウス 出典: フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ナビゲーションに移動 検索に移動 クィントゥス・ホラティウス・フラックス クィントゥス・ホラティウス・フラックス（ラテン語: Quintus Horatius Flaccus, 紀元前65年12月8日 - 紀元前8年11月27日）は、古代ローマ時代の南イタリアの詩人。一般には単にホラティウスと呼ばれる。 目次 1 概要 2 作品 3 関連項目 4 参考文献 5 脚注 概要[編集] アウグストゥスと同時代に生きたラテン文学黄金期の詩人で、ウェルギリウスと並んで評価される。 書簡詩『詩について』（Ars poetica）はアリストテレスの『詩学』と並んで、古典主義詩論で重要視された。このなかの一節「詩は絵のように（ut pictura poesis）」は、のちに絵画にも拡大され、近世詩論および絵画論に影響を与えた。 また「征服されたギリシア人は、猛きローマを征服した（Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit）」という、有名な言葉を残した。 作品[編集] Saturae, 1577 『風刺詩（英語版）』 Satires 1 (c. 35–34 BC) Satires 2 (c. 30 BC) 『エポーデス（英語版）』 (30 BC) 『カルミナ』抒情詩集 Odes 1–3 (c. 23 BC)[nb 1] Odes 4 (c. 11 BC) Epistles Epistles 1 (c. 21 BC) Epistles 2 (c. 11 BC)[nb 2] en:Carmen Saeculare (17 BC) 『詩について』 (c. 10–8 BC)[nb 3] 関連項目[編集] その日を摘め 参考文献[編集] 『ホラティウス全集』 鈴木一郎訳、玉川大学出版部、2001年、ISBN 4-472-11901-3。 鈴木一郎 『ホラティウス 人と作品』 玉川大学出版部、2001年、ISBN 4-472-11911-0。 ピエール・グリマル 『アウグストゥスの世紀』 北野徹訳、白水社〈文庫クセジュ〉、2004年、170頁。 脚注[編集] ^ According to a recent theory, the three books of Odes were issued separately, possibly in 26, 24 and 23 BC (see G. Hutchinson (2002), Classical Quarterly 52: 517–37 ^ 19 BC is the usual estimate but c. 11 BC has good support too (see R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 18–20 ^ The date however is subject to much controversy with 22–18 BC another option (see for example R. Syme, The Augustan Aristocracy, 379–81 ウィキクォートにホラティウスに関する引用句集があります。 ウィキメディア・コモンズには、ホラティウスに関連するメディアがあります。 この項目は、文人（小説家・詩人・歌人・俳人・著作家・作詞家・脚本家・作家・劇作家・放送作家・随筆家/コラムニスト・文芸評論家）に関連した書きかけの項目です。この項目を加筆・訂正などしてくださる協力者を求めています（P:文学/PJ作家）。 この項目は、イタリアの歴史に関連した書きかけの項目です。この項目を加筆・訂正などしてくださる協力者を求めています（P:イタリア/P:歴史/PJイタリア/PJ歴史）。 典拠管理 BIBSYS: 90055203 BNC: 000035928 BNE: XX891549 BNF: cb11886570b (データ) CANTIC: a10101214 CiNii: DA00782980 GND: 118553569 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\000246 ISNI: 0000 0001 2145 2178 LCCN: n79081354 LNB: 000000375 MusicBrainz: af616f1f-6242-4802-a1bf-8d3f0647083c NDL: 00540086 NKC: jn20000603003 NLA: 35206138 NLG: 62641 NLI: 000064806 NLK: KAC199612791 NLP: A11793144 NSK: 000013522 NTA: 068304579 RERO: 02-A000081296 RSL: 000083136 SELIBR: 189659 SNAC: w6pk0m9c SUDOC: 026659166 Trove: 864697 ULAN: 500404135 VcBA: 495/53093 VIAF: 100227522 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79081354 「https://ja.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ホラティウス&oldid=80893146」から取得 カテゴリ: 古代ローマの文筆家 古代ローマの風刺作家 紀元前1世紀の古代ローマ人 バジリカータ州出身の人物 ホラティウス氏族 紀元前65年生 紀元前8年没 隠しカテゴリ: 文人関連のスタブ イタリアの歴史関連のスタブ項目 BIBSYS識別子が指定されている記事 BNC識別子が指定されている記事 BNE識別子が指定されている記事 BNF識別子が指定されている記事 CANTIC識別子が指定されている記事 CINII識別子が指定されている記事 GND識別子が指定されている記事 ICCU識別子が指定されている記事 ISNI識別子が指定されている記事 LCCN識別子が指定されている記事 LNB識別子が指定されている記事 MusicBrainz識別子が指定されている記事 NDL識別子が指定されている記事 NKC識別子が指定されている記事 NLA識別子が指定されている記事 NLG識別子が指定されている記事 NLI識別子が指定されている記事 NLK識別子が指定されている記事 NLP識別子が指定されている記事 NSK識別子が指定されている記事 NTA識別子が指定されている記事 RERO識別子が指定されている記事 RSL識別子が指定されている記事 SELIBR識別子が指定されている記事 SNAC-ID識別子が指定されている記事 SUDOC識別子が指定されている記事 Trove識別子が指定されている記事 ULAN識別子が指定されている記事 VcBA識別子が指定されている記事 VIAF識別子が指定されている記事 WorldCat識別子が指定されている記事 ISBNマジックリンクを使用しているページ 案内メニュー 個人用ツール ログインしていません トーク 投稿記録 アカウント作成 ログイン 名前空間 ページ ノート 変種 表示 閲覧 編集 履歴表示 その他 検索 案内 メインページ コミュニティ・ポータル 最近の出来事 新しいページ 最近の更新 おまかせ表示 練習用ページ アップロード (ウィキメディア・コモンズ) ヘルプ ヘルプ 井戸端 お知らせ バグの報告 寄付 ウィキペディアに関するお問い合わせ ツール リンク元 関連ページの更新状況 ファイルをアップロード 特別ページ この版への固定リンク ページ情報 このページを引用 ウィキデータ項目 印刷/書き出し ブックの新規作成 PDF 形式でダウンロード 印刷用バージョン 他のプロジェクト コモンズ ウィキクォート 他言語版 Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 リンクを編集 最終更新 2020年12月15日 (火) 19:18 （日時は個人設定で未設定ならばUTC）。 テキストはクリエイティブ・コモンズ 表示-継承ライセンスの下で利用可能です。追加の条件が適用される場合があります。詳細は利用規約を参照してください。 プライバシー・ポリシー ウィキペディアについて 免責事項 モバイルビュー 開発者 統計 Cookieに関する声明 
katalog-nsk-hr-2096	----	NSK normativna baza - Cjeloviti prikaz Baza podataka: NSK normativna baza Popis baza podataka PRETRAŽIVANJE | POPIS REZULTATA | PRETHODNA PRETRAŽIVANJA     Pohranite / Pošaljite e-poštom Prikaz: Prikaz: Cjeloviti prikaz | MARC Zapis 000013522 od NSK10   Sistemski broj   000013522 Odrednica   Horatius Flaccus, Quintus Neusvojeni oblik   Horacije Flak, Kvint   Horacije   Flak, Kvint Horacije   Horati Flacci, Q.   Flacci, Q. Horati   Orazio Biografski podaci   Rimski pjesnik i satiričar. Rođen 65. pr. Kr. u Venusiji (danas Venosa), umro 8. pr. Kr. u Rimu. Pristup   Wikipedija (Horacije)  Prikaz: Cjeloviti prikaz | MARC Početna - Postavke - Pišite nam - Pomoć - Pretraživanje - Popis rezultata - Prethodna pretraživanja - Odaberite drugu bazu © Nacionalna i sveučilišna knjižnica u Zagrebu 2020. Sva prava pridržana. | Ul. Hrvatske bratske zajednice 4 p.p. 550, 10000 Zagreb. HRVATSKA | Tel. ++ 385 1 616-4111 Izjava o pristupačnosti 
kk-wikipedia-org-1238	----	Гораций — Уикипедия Гораций Уикипедия — ашық энциклопедиясынан алынған мәлімет Jump to navigation Jump to search Квинт Гораций Флакк - Августа дәуірінің көрнекті ақыны, Виргилийдің кіші замандасы болды. Гораций — Римдік эстетика мен Римдік классиканың көшбасшысы Гораций б.з.д. 64 ж. Италияның оңтүстігінде, Венузияда дүниеге келген. Әкесі жай адам болып, кішкентай ғана қонысқа ие болған. Өз ұлына жақсы білім берген. Алдымен, Гораций Римде, мектепте оқыған, ал кейін Афиныға кетті. Онда Гораций грек поэзиясыман шұғылданған. Горацийдің ақындығы[өңдеу] Saturae, 1577 Гораций драма теориясына да ерекше көңіл бөлді. Оны әсіресе классикалық трагедия жанры қызықтырды. Ал поэзия, ақын ойынша, жеңіл-желпі өнер емес, поэзия – зерттеуді талап ететін, өзіндік заңдылықтары бар ұлы өнер. Ал б.з.б. 30 жылы сегіз сатирадан тұратын екінші кітабымен қатар «Эпод» атты кітабы дүниеге келді. «Эпод» кітабы 17 эподтан тұратын немесе ямбтық өлең жолдарынан тұрды. Кітапқа «эпод» деген атау оған енген өлеңдердің екі тармақтан түзілуіне байланысты берілді, екінші тармақ бірінші тармақтан қысқа болды. Горацийдің өзі мұны «ямбтар» деп атаған. Негізінен грек поэзиясы метрикалық өлең жүйесіне жатады. Гораций өз поэзиясына үлгі еткен ямб өлшемін оның алдында б.з.б. VІІ ғасырда өмір сүрген грек ақыны Архилох кеңінен пайдаланған болатын. Гораций сол Архилох лирикасына еліктеп, римдік тақырыптарға эподтар жазды, жаңа теориялар мен кейбір әдеби жанрларды сынап, сықаққа айналдырды. Жалпы, Гораций эподтарының мазмұнынан оның жоғары мәдениеті мен асқан білімділігі байқалады. Б.з.б. 33-31 жылдары Гораций кішігірім шаруа қожалығына ие болды. Жаңа ауыл өмірі оның екінші эподты жазуына шабыт береді. Екінші эподында ақын өзінің аңғалдығымен, жанға жайлы тыныштығымен, еркін аңшылық өмірімен қала адамдарының қызығушылығын тудыратын ауыл тіршілігінің артықшылықтарын бейнелейді. Ақын ауыл өміріне деген жалаң қызығушылықты күлкіге айналдырып, оны көре, сезіне білу қажеттігін ескертеді. Ақын сонымен бірге, ел тыныштығын лайлатқан азаматтық соғыстарға қарсы болды. Ол Вергилий секілді «алтын ғасырдың» болатындығына сенбейді. Керісінше, барлық римдіктерді алыс, тыныш аралдарға қашып кетуге шақырады. Ақын ойынша, тек сонда ғана азат, бейбіт өмір бар. Кейбір эподтарында ақын рим өмірінің шынайы сипатын береді. Мысалы, төртінші эподында әскери трибунаны, оныншы эподында дарынсыз бірақ танымал ақын Мевийді күлкі етеді. Горацийдің эподындағы персонаждар қатары «кішкентай адамдармен» шектеледі. Сондықтан оның эподтары таза, шынайы дүниелер болды. Ол эподтар жазу барысында әр кезеңдердегі әдеби мұраларды еркін, шеберлікпен қолдана білді. Кейінгі жазған эподтарында Гораций Архилох лирикасынан да ары тереңдеп, күрделі мәселелерді қозғай білді. Гораций негізінде б.з.б. 30-жылдардан бастап лирикалық өлеңдер жаза бастаған. Оның алғашқы үш кітабы б.з.б. 23 жылдың екінші жартысында «Өлеңдер» деген атаумен жеке кітап болып жарыққа шықты. Бірақ, сол дәуірдің өзінде оны «ода» деп атай бастаған. [1] Гораций одалары эподтар мен сатираларынан жоғары стилімен ерекшеленеді. «Римдік одалар» атты еңбегінде Гораций Октавиан Августтың идеологиялық бағдарламасына өз көзқарасын білдіреді. «Римдік одалар» шығармасы жалпы мазмұны жағынан әкелер күнәлары, олардың азамат соғысы кезінде жіберген қателіктері жөнінде болды. Ал әйгілі 30 одасында Гораций өзіне ақын ретінде мәңгі өшпес ғұмыр тілейді. Ақынның бұл одасына кейінгі дәуірлерде еліктеген ақындар аз болған жоқ. Олардың қатарында еуропалық ақындармен қатар, атақты Пушкин мен Державинді де атауға болады. [2] Шынайы классик ретінде ақын өзінің лирикалық образын ежелгі грек лирикасынан іздейді. Образ жасауда Анакреонт, Сапфа, Алкий секілді ақындарды өзіне үлгі тұтады. Бірақ ешқайсысының туындысын аударып пайдаланбай немесе бұрмаламай, өзі жазуға тырысқан. Гораций одаларының тақырыптары алуан түрлі. Атап айтқанда, махаббат, достық жайлы өлеңдер, құдайларға арналған гимндер және саяси мәселелерге ақын ерекше көңіл бөлген. Гораций кейде құдайларды мадақтап, оларға арнап гимндер жазумен де айналысқан. Көбіне тірі, жанды заттарға және адамзатқа арнап өлеңдер жазған талантты ақын жансыз заттарға аса үлкен мән бермеген. Көптеген өлеңдерінде Гораций сезімге жол береді. Өзгелердің көңілін аудару мақсатында ақын қаратпа сөздерді жиі қолданады. Гораций өлеңдерінің тағы бір ерекшелігі – ақын өз шығармалары арқылы бұқара халыққа ақыл-кеңес беріп отырған. [3] Ол өз туындыларына махаббат пен шарап жайындағы тақырыптарды арқау етті. Оның махаббат жайлы өлеңдерінде махаббаттың қайғы-қасіреті жеңіл ирониямен сыналады. Б.з.б. 39-38 жылдары Гораций алғашқы шығармаларын жазады. Бұл шығармалар әуелгіде латын тілінде жарық көріп, уақыт өте «Сатира» деген атпен жеке кітап болып шығады. Гораций сатираларында басқа ақын-жазушылармен салыстырғанда ешқандай кемсіту, сынап-мінеу болмады. Саясатты да Гораций өз сатираларына арқау етпейді. Оның бұл әдіс-тәсілдері Октавиан Августтың көңілінен шықты, сондықтан ол ақынды үнемі қолдап отырды. Гораций сатира саласында көп еңбектенді. Б.з.б. 30-жылдары оның 2 сатиралық жинағы жарыққа шығады. Біріншісі, шамамен б.з.б. 35-34 жылдары, ал екіншісі шамамен б.з.б. 30 жылы. Ақын өз сатираларын әңгімелесу (sermons) деп атаған. Гораций сатиралары диатриба (философиялық әңгімелесу) жанрына ұқсайды. Гораций диатрибалары автор мен белгілі бір адам арасындағы қарым-қатынас кезінде көрінеді. [4] Ақын өз сатираларында жеке адамның бақыты мәселесіне де тоқталады. Ол арқылы оқырмандарына өмір даналығын түсіндірмекші болды. Бірінші кітаптың алғашқы сатирасында ақын байлық жинау үшін өзінің барлық қалауын шектеген сараң адамдарды сынға алады. Алтыншы сатирасында өзі үшін ең аяулы әрі жағымды идеал – әкесін, оның қарапайымдылығын әңгімелейді. Бесінші сатирасында Луцилий сияқты Меценат, Вергилий, Вариймен бірге Римнен Брундизиумға дейін жасаған саяхатын сипаттайды. Азаматтық соғыстардың аяқталуы мен жаңа, бақытты кезеңнің басталуының белгісі – «ғасырдың жаңаруы» мерекесі Римде б.з.б. 17 жылы салтанатты түрде тойланды. Атаулы мерекеге күшті дайындық жұмыстары жүргізілді. Жоспар бойынша бұл мерекеге Римнің барлық атақты адамдары қатысуға міндетті болды. Октавиан Август «мұндай мерекені әлем әлі көрген жоқ және көрмейді де» деп жар салды. Бекітілген жоспар бойынша мереке соңы гимнмен бітуі тиіс болатын. Бұл міндет Горацийға жүктеліп, ол өз міндетін абыроймен атқарып шықты. Гимннің басталуында ақын табиғат сұлулығын әсем тілмен суреттеп, одан рим халқының патриоттық сезімін оятуға тырысты. Гимн алғаш Аполлон Палатинскийдің храмында б.з.б. 17 жылдың 3 маусымында айтылды. Гимнді хор түрінде 27 жігіт пен 27 қыз орындап шықты. Сонымен бірге бұл ресми гимнде Гораций император Октавиан Август пен оның реформаларын дәріптеп, мақтап, Августтың атағын асқақтатады. Бұдан басқа да император Августты мадақтайтын өлеңдер жинағын – төрт ода кітабын шығарады. Осы кезден бастап Гораций елге атақты ақын ретінде таныла бастайды. Ол үнемі басқа ақындарды грек ақындарынан үйренуге шақырады. Ақын ойынша, дарындылық еңбекқорлықпен ұштасып отыру керек. [5] Гораций шығармашылығы рим әдебиетінің тарихында ерекше орын алады. Бірақ, оның атақ-даңқы Вергилий секілді шарықтап кеткен жоқ. Дегенмен оның поэзиясы жаңа заманның лирикасын орнатуда ерекше роль атқарды. Гораций – ой ақыны, белгілі бір образдың, қысқа және өткір сөздің шебері. Осындай қасиеттері ақын бойында жас кезінен-ақ дамып, жетіліп отырды, алайда, кей кезде бар ойын жинақтап, бүтін, тұтас сурет жасау қолынан келе бермейтін. Гораций бүтін сурет жасауға өзінің кейінгі шығармаларында қол жеткізді. Ерте ортағасыр кезеңінде Горацийдің рухани-философиялық тұрғыда жазылған шығармалары мен жолдауының ерекшеліктеріне, лирикасымен салыстырғанда сатира жанрындағы туындыларына көп көңіл бөлінді. Бірақ оған қарамастан, қайта өрлеу дәуірінде өмір сүрген итальяндық ақын Петрарка Горацийді эпикалық қана емес, лирикалық ақын ретінде де үлгі тұтып, бағалаған. Француз классицизмінің теоретигі Н.Буало Горацийді ұлы ұстаз деп танып, Аристотельмен қатар қояды. Антикалық әдебиет тарихын зерттеуші А.Ф.Лосев ақынға «Гораций – Римдік эстетика мен Римдік классиканың көшбасшысы. Филологиялық талғампаз адамдардың идеалы» деп жоғары баға береді. [6] Гораций негізінен классик ақын болды. Оның шығармалары Рим мектептерінде оқытылып, оқушыларға көп тәлім-тәрбие берді. Заман өте келе Гораций шығармаларымен қоса, автордың өзіне, оның жеке тұлғасына деген қызығушылық та арта түсті. Ақынның орта есеппен алғанда 250-ге тарта туындысы біздің заманымызға дейін сақталып, бүгінгі күннің ұлы ескерткішіне айналып отыр. Горацийдің өлең өнерін мадақтаған “Ескерткіш” одасы соған дәлел. Горацийдің ақындық сырын ашқан “Поэзия ғылымы” еңбегін кейін классицизм теоретиктері пайдаланған. Гораций мұрасы Еуропа поэзиясының, әсіресе XVI – XVIII ғасырлардағы лирика жанрының қалыптасуында үлкен рөл атқарды. [7] Дереккөздер[өңдеу] ↑ Античная литература. Анпеткова-Шарова Г.Г., Чекалова Е.И. Ленинград, 1981 ↑ Радциг С.И. История древнегреческой литературы. Москва, 1969 ↑ Людинина О.Е. Античная литература. Пропедевтика. ↑ Людинина О.Е. Античная литература. Пропедевтика. ↑ Радциг С.И. История древнегреческой литературы. Москва, 1969 ↑ Античная литература. Анпеткова-Шарова Г.Г., Дуров В.С. Москва, 2004 ↑ Тоқшылықова Г.Б. Антика әдебиетінің тарихы. Алматы, 2011. «https://kk.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Гораций&oldid=2575560» бетінен алынған Санат: Ежелгі Грекия ақындары Эстетиктер Ежелгі Рим ақындары Бағыттау мәзірі Жеке құралдар Кірмегенсіз Талқылау Үлесім Тіркелу Кіру Есім кеңістіктері Мақала Талқылау disable disable Кирил Latın توتە disable disable disable Көрініс Оқу Өңдеу Өңделу тарихы More Іздеу Шарлау Басты бет Қауым порталы Жуықтағы өзгерістер Ең жаңа беттер Кездейсоқ бет А — Я тізімдеуі Анықтама Форум Талқылау легі Қателер туралы хабарлау Демеу беру Құралдар Мұнда сілтейтін беттер Қатысты өзгерістер Арнайы беттер Тұрақты сілтеме Мәлімет Беттен дәйексөз алу Уикидерек данасы Баспа/экспорт PDF ретінде жүктеп алу Басып шығару Басқа жобаларда Ортаққор Басқа тілдерде Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Сілтемелерді өңдеу Бұл беттің соңғы өзгертілген кезі: 23:34, 2017 ж. қарашаның 13. 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ka-wikipedia-org-3390	----	ჰორაციუსი - ვიკიპედია ჰორაციუსი მასალა ვიკიპედიიდან — თავისუფალი ენციკლოპედია Jump to navigation Jump to search ჰორაციუსი დაბადების თარიღი 8 დეკემბერი ძვ. წ. 65[1] [2] [3] დაბადების ადგილი ვენოზა[2] [3] გარდაცვალების თარიღი 27 ნოემბერი ძვ. წ. 8[1] [2] (56 წლის) გარდაცვალების ადგილი რომი დასაფლავებულია რომი საქმიანობა პოეტი[3] [4] , მწერალი[5] და ფილოსოფოსი ენა ლათინური ენა[5] ეროვნება ძველი რომაელები მოქალაქეობა ძველი რომი Magnum opus Ars Poetica ჰორაციუსი ვიკისაწყობში კვინტუს ჰორაციუს ფლაკუსი (ლათ. Quintus Horatius Flaccus; დ. 8 დეკემბერი, ძვ. წ. 65, აპულიის ვენუზია — გ. 27 ნოემბერი, ძვ. წ. 8, ტივოლი) — რომაელი პოეტი, განსაკუთრებით ცნობილი გახდა თავისი ოდებით. სექციების სია 1 ბიოგრაფია 2 შემოქმედება 2.1 სატირები 2.2 ეპოდები 2.3 ოდები 2.4 ეპიტრები 3 ლიტერატურა 4 რესურსები ინტერნეტში 5 სქოლიო ბიოგრაფია[რედაქტირება | წყაროს რედაქტირება] ჰორაციუსი ჯერ კიდევ ბავშვი იყო, როცა მამამ ოჯახი რომში საცხოვრებლად გადაიყვანა, რათა მის შვილს საუკეთესო განათლება მიეღო. 18 წლის ჰორაციუსს იგი ათენში გზავნის ბერძნული ენისა და ფილოსოფიის შესასწავლად. იულიუს კეისრის მკვლელობის შემდეგ, ძვ. წ. 44 წელს ჰორაციუსი ლიბერატორთა არმიაში შედის და ბრძოლაში თავს გამოიჩენს. 21 წლისას ბრუტუსი ლეგიონის სარდლობას ჩააბარებს. ფილიპების ბრძოლაში ბრუტუსის ჯარი ოქტავიუსის (მომავალი იმპერატორის) ბანაკს აიღებს, თუმცა თავად მომავალი იმპერატორი გაქცევას მოახერხებს. მეორე ბრძოლაში კი იქტავიუსი იმარჯვებს. დამარცხებულთა შორისაა ჰორაციუსიც. მალე მათ გაატავისუფლებენ და პოეტი იტალიაში ბრუნდება, სადაც მამის გარდაცვალებისა და ქონების კონფისკაციის ამბავს შეიტყობს. გაღარიბებული ჰორაციუსი გადამწერის ადგილს შოულობს, თუმცა უარს არ ამბობს ავტორიტარიზმის წინააღმდეგ ბრძოლაზე, რასაც უკვე არა ხმლით, არამედ კალმით წარმართავს. წერს ეპოდებსა და სატირებს, რომლებიც ოქტავიუსის წინააღმდეგაა მიმართული. მალე ჰორაციუსი დაუმეგობრდება ვერგილიუსს, რომელიც მას წარუდგენს ოქტავიუსთან დაახლოებულ პირს, მეცენატს. ეს უკანასკნელი ჰორაციუსს თავის პროტექტორობას შესთავაზებს და აძლევს მამულს ტიბურთან (დღევანდელი ტივოლი) ახლოს. სულ მალე ჰორაციუსის პოპულარობა ლიტერატურულ წრეებში გაიზრდება. ჰორაციუსი გარდაიცვლება თავისი პროტექტორის სიკვდილიდან 2 თვის შემდეგ, ძვ. წ. 8, 27 ნოემბერს. შემოქმედება[რედაქტირება | წყაროს რედაქტირება] Saturae, 1577 სატირები[რედაქტირება | წყაროს რედაქტირება] ჰორაციუსის სატირები ორ კრებულადაა გაერთიანებული, ერთში ათი პიესა შედის, მეორეში - რვა. სატირათა უმრავლესობა ავტოპორტრეტს წარმოადგენს და თვისუფალი ტონითაა დაწერილი. მათში მოცემულია პოლიტიკური, სოციალური, ეთიკური და ლიტერატურული საკითხების შესახებ პოლემიკები. ეპოდები[რედაქტირება | წყაროს რედაქტირება] ჰორაციუსს ეკუთვნის ჩვიდმეტი ეპოდი, რომელნიც მთლიანობაში 625 სტროფს ითვლის. თავად ავტორი მათ იამბებად მოიხსენიებდა. ეპოდების სტილი დაძაბულია, ტონი - საყვედურის. მათსი ადგილი აქვს როგორც ეროტიზმს ასევე პატრიოტულ თემატიკას. ოდები[რედაქტირება | წყაროს რედაქტირება] ჰორაციუსის ოდები 4 წიგნადაა დაწერილი, მათგან თითოეული შეიცავს 38, 20, 30 და 15 ოდას. ავტორი მათ ეგვიპტურ პირამიდებს ადარებდა. ოდები ჰორაციუსის ყველაზე მნიშვნელოვან და საერთოდ რომაული ლირიკის შედევრად ითვლება. შინაარსის მხრივ აქ ერთმანეთს ენაცვლება პირადული და საჯარო საკითხები, სიყვარული და პოლიტიკა, ბერძნული და ლათინური სამყარო, დახვეწილი მითოლოგია და უხეში რეალობა, ეპიკურიზმი და სტოიციზმი, ეპიტრები[რედაქტირება | წყაროს რედაქტირება] პირველი კრებული 20 ეპიტრს შეიცავს, მეორე კი მხოლოდ ორს. ამას ემატება ჰორაციუსის ცნობილი ეპიტრი პოეტური ხელოვნება. ისინი დაწერილია ჰექსამეტრით, ისევე, როგორც სატირები. ეპიტრები მიემართება კონკრეტულ ადამიანებს და ფიქტიურ წერილებს წარმოადგენს. მათი ტონი ნაკლებად სხარტი და შედარებით თავისუფალია. ლიტერატურა[რედაქტირება | წყაროს რედაქტირება] ქართული საბჭოთა ენციკლოპედია, ტ. 11, თბ., 1987. — გვ. 688. რესურსები ინტერნეტში[რედაქტირება | წყაროს რედაქტირება] შეგიძლიათ იხილოთ მედიაფაილები თემაზე „ჰორაციუსი“ ვიკისაწყობში. ჰორაციუსისადმი მიძღვნილი გვერდი ჰორაციუსის ნაწარმოებები ინგლისურ და ლათინურ ენებზე ჰორაციუსი — ნამუშევრები პროექტ „გუტენბერგზე“ ჰორაციუსი — ნამუშევრები საიტზე Internet Archive ჰორაციუსი — ნამუშევრები საიტზე LibriVox (უფასო აუდიო წიგნები) სქოლიო[რედაქტირება | წყაროს რედაქტირება] ↑ 1.0 1.1 http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/quinto-orazio-flacco_(Enciclopedia-Italiana)/ ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Любкер Ф. Horatii // Реальный словарь классических древностей по Любкеру / под ред. Ф. Ф. Зелинский, А. И. Георгиевский, М. С. Куторга и др. — СПб: Общество классической филологии и педагогики, 1885. — С. 641–643.<a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q45181613"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q4249594"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q101490"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q1459210"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q694826"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q4135787"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q30059240"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q24933120"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q656"></a> ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 W. Y. S., J. G. Horace // Encyclopædia Britannica — 11 — NYC: 1911. — Vol. 13. — P. 687–691.<a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q60"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q50841769"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q867541"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q18511751"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q2581148"></a> ↑ BeWeB<a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q77541206"></a> ↑ 5.0 5.1 Mirabile: Digital Archives for Medieval Culture — SISMEL – Edizioni del Galluzzo.<a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q85138432"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q85135665"></a> მოძიებულია „https://ka.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ჰორაციუსი&oldid=3487401“-დან კატეგორია: დაბადებული 8 დეკემბერი დაბადებული ძვ. წ. 65 გარდაცვლილი 27 ნოემბერი გარდაცვლილი ძვ. წ. 8 რომაელი პოეტები სანავიგაციო მენიუ პირადი ხელსაწყოები შესული არ ხართ განხილვა წვლილი ანგარიშის შექმნა შესვლა სახელთა სივრცე სტატია განხილვა ვარიანტები გადახედვა კითხვა რედაქტირება წყაროს რედაქტირება ისტორია მეტი ძიება ნავიგაცია მთავარი გვერდი თემატური ძიება რჩეული სტატიები შემთხვევითი გვერდი ახალი გვერდები მონაწილეობა ინფორმაცია დახმარება ფორუმი ბოლო ცვლილებები შემოწირულობები ხელსაწყოები ბმული გვერდზე დაკავშირებული ცვლილებები სპეციალური გვერდები მუდმივი ბმული გვერდის ინფორმაცია ამ გვერდის ციტირება ვიკიმონაცემები ელემენტი ბეჭდვა/ექსპორტი წიგნის შექმნა გადაწერა PDF ფორმატში დასაბეჭდი ვერსია სხვა პროექტებში ვიკისაწყობი ვიკიციტატა სხვა ენებზე Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 ბმულების რედაქტირება ეს გვერდი ბოლოს დარედაქტირდა: 07:55, 3 მაისი 2018. ტექსტი ვრცელდება Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike ლიცენზიით; და შესაძლოა არსებობდეს დამატებითი პირობები. იხილეთ გამოყენების პირობები დამატებითი ინფორმაციისთვის. ვიკიპედია® არის არამომგებიანი ორგანიზაცია Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.-ის რეგისტრირებული სავაჭრო ნიშანი. დაგვიკავშირდით კონფიდენციალურობის პოლიტიკა ვიკიპედიის შესახებ პასუხისმგებლობის უარყოფა მობილური ვერსია შემქმნელები Statistics Cookie statement 
kopkatalogs-lv-8415	----	Autoritatīvā DB - Full View of Record Latvijas Nacionālās bibliotēkas autoritatīvā datubāze Reģistrēties | Beigt darbu | Lietotājs | Datubāzes | Komentāri | Palīdzība     Pārlūkošana | Meklēšana | Rezultātu saraksts | Iepriekšējie meklējumi | Mans e-plaukts | English         Pievienot e-Plauktam  |  Saglabāt/Sūtīt  |    Pilns ieraksts Formāta izvēle: Standarta MARC Sistēmas nr.   000000375 Entītes veids   Persona Persona   Horācijs, 65-8 p.m.ē. Norāde   Horātijs, 65-8 p.m.ē.   Horācijs Flaks, Kvints, 65-8 p.m.ē.   Horatius Flaccus, Quintus   Horats, 65-8 p.m.ē.   Horacy, 65-8 p.m.ē.   Horace, 65-8 p.m.ē.   Horaz, 65-8 p.m.ē.   Гораций, 65-8 p.m.ē.   Гораций Флакк, К., 65-8 p.m.ē.   Гораций Флакк, Квинт, 65-8 p.m.ē. Saist. ieraksts   Horācijs, 65-8 p.m.ē. [VIAF] http://viaf.org/viaf/100227522    Horācijs, 65-8 p.m.ē. [ISNI] http://www.isni.org/0000000121452178    Horācijs, 65-8 p.m.ē. [Wikidata] https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6197    Horācijs, 65-8 p.m.ē. [Union List of Artist Names] http://vocab.getty.edu/page/ulan/500404135  Formāta izvēle: Standarta MARC Komentāri - Palīdzība - Pārlūkošana - Meklēšana - Rezultātu saraksts - Iepriekšējie meklējumi - Datubāzes © 2014 Ex Libris 
ko-wikipedia-org-5317	----	호라티우스 - 위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전 호라티우스 위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전. 둘러보기로 가기 검색하러 가기 이탈리아 남부 베노사(Venosa)에 있는 호라티우스의 동상. 퀸투스 호라티우스 플라쿠스(Quintus Horatius Flaccus, 기원전 65년 12월 8일 - 기원전 8년 11월 27일)는 고대 로마 공화정 말기의 시인이다. 생애[편집] 호라티우스의 출신 가문은 정확히 알려져 있지 않다. 아마 그의 아버지는 노예에서 해방된 자유신분(libertinus)으로서 로마 자유시민권을 가진 여인과 결혼한 것으로 보인다. 호라티우스는 어린시절부터 아버지로부터 세심한 교육을 받았으며, 기원전 45년에 당시 문화와 예술의 중심지인 고대 그리스의 아테네에 유학하여 고대 그리스 철학과 문학을 공부한다. 이 시기에 그는 역시 고대 그리스 문화를 사랑하는 마르쿠스 브루투스와 친교를 맺게되어 그를 따라 소아시아 지방에서 여러 전투에 참가한다. 기원전 약 40년을 전후로 호라티우스는 로마로 돌아와 젊은 문학자와 사귀면서, 특히 베르길리우스의 주선으로 당시의 로마의 문학 애호가이자 부호인 가이우스 마에케나스(Gaius Maecenas)에게 소개된다. 이 만남은 호라티우스가 사망할 때까지 깊은 우정관계로 발전한다. 특히 마이케나스는 호라티우스에게 기원전 32년 사비나 농장을 선물함으로써, 여기서 호라티우스는 경제적 어려움에서 완전히 해방되어 시 창작에 열중하게 된다. 같이 보기[편집] 위키미디어 공용에 관련된 미디어 분류가 있습니다.호라티우스 가이우스 루킬리우스 읽어 보기[편집] 원전 Q. Horatii Flacci Opera, 편집 D. R. Shackleton Bailey, 1995 Stuttgart. 해설서 Eduard Fraenkel, Horace, 1957 Oxford. 번역본 호라티우스 지음, 김남우 옮김, 카르페 디엠(제1권)/소박함의 지혜(제2권), 민음사, 2016 -라틴어 원전 번역 전거 통제 BIBSYS: 90055203 BNC: 000035928 BNE: XX891549 BNF: cb11886570b (data) CANTIC: a10101214 CiNii: DA00782980 GND: 118553569 ISNI: 0000 0001 2145 2178 LCCN: n79081354 LNB: 000000375 뮤직브레인즈: af616f1f-6242-4802-a1bf-8d3f0647083c NDL: 00540086 NKC: jn20000603003 NLA: 35206138 NLG: 62641 NLI: 000064806 NLK: KAC199612791 NLP: A11793144 NSK: 000013522 NTA: 068304579 RERO: 02-A000081296 RSL: 000083136 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\000246 SELIBR: 189659 SNAC: w6pk0m9c SUDOC: 026659166 Trove: 864697 ULAN: 500404135 VIAF: 100227522 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79081354 이 글은 고대 로마에 관한 토막글입니다. 여러분의 지식으로 알차게 문서를 완성해 갑시다. 원본 주소 "https://ko.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=호라티우스&oldid=28129557" 분류: 호라티우스 기원전 65년 태어남 기원전 8년 죽음 고대 로마의 시인 고대 로마의 철학자 고대 로마의 병사 문학 평론가 풍자가 해방 노예 에피쿠로스 철학자 바실리카타주 출신 1세기 시인 1세기 철학자 숨은 분류: BIBSYS 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 BNC 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 BNE 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 BNF 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 CANTIC 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 CINII 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 GND 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 ISNI 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 LCCN 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 LNB 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 MusicBrainz 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 NDL 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 NKC 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 NLA 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 NLG 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 NLI 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 NLK 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 NLP 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 NSK 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 NTA 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 RERO 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 RSL 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 SBN 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 SELIBR 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 SNAC-ID 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 SUDOC 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 Trove 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 ULAN 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 VIAF 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 월드캣 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 29개의 요소가 포함된 전거 통제 고대 로마에 관한 토막글 모든 토막글 문서 둘러보기 메뉴 개인 도구 로그인하지 않음 토론 기여 계정 만들기 로그인 이름공간 문서 토론 변수 보기 읽기 편집 역사 보기 더 보기 검색 둘러보기 대문 최근 바뀜 요즘 화제 임의의 문서로 기부 사용자 모임 사랑방 사용자 모임 관리 요청 편집 안내 도움말 정책과 지침 질문방 도구 여기를 가리키는 문서 가리키는 글의 최근 바뀜 파일 올리기 특수 문서 목록 고유 링크 문서 정보 이 문서 인용하기 위키데이터 항목 인쇄/내보내기 책 만들기 PDF로 다운로드 인쇄용 판 다른 프로젝트 위키미디어 공용 다른 언어 Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 링크 편집 이 문서는 2020년 11월 27일 (금) 07:45에 마지막으로 편집되었습니다. 모든 문서는 크리에이티브 커먼즈 저작자표시-동일조건변경허락 3.0에 따라 사용할 수 있으며, 추가적인 조건이 적용될 수 있습니다. 자세한 내용은 이용 약관을 참고하십시오. Wikipedia®는 미국 및 다른 국가에 등록되어 있는 Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 소유의 등록 상표입니다. 개인정보처리방침 위키백과 소개 면책 조항 모바일 보기 개발자 통계 쿠키 정책 
ku-wikipedia-org-8622	----	Horatius - Wîkîpediya Horatius Ji Wîkîpediya, ensîklopediya azad. Jump to navigation Jump to search Quintus Horatius Flaccus Quintus Horatius Flaccus (8ê kanûna pêşîn B.Z. 65[1] - 27ê çiriya paşîn B.Z. 8[2]), helbestvanê romayî yê herî girîng ê serdema Augustus e. Jiyan[biguherîne] Horatius, li bajarokekî ku wê demê bi navê Venosa yan jî Venusia dihat zanîn û di navbera Apulia û Lucania de bû, ji dayik bû.[2] Wekî layê zilamekî xulam ku dawiyê azadiya xwe bi dest xistibû, hatibû dinyê, lê ew wekî kesekî azad hatibû hesibandin. Bavê wî bi mezadê mijûl dibû. Horatius bavê xwe wekî cotkarekî hejar û birûmet bi bîr aniye. lê tu carî qala dayîka xwe nekiriye ku ibe ku ew xulam bûye.[3] Bavê wî ji bo perwerdekirina Horatius ked û kespa xwe xerakiribû û wî ji bo dibistanê şandibû Romayê. Piştî jî ji bo perwerdeya yewnanî û felsefeyê şandibû Atînayê. Helbestvan hurmeta xwe ya ji bo bavê xwe dihisî, di helbestên xwe de xuya kiriye.[4] Piştî kuştina Julius Caesar, Horatius ket artêşê û ji bo Brutus di Şerê Philippi de şer kir. Brutus hat xwarê û dawiya vê şerê Horatius qala berdana mertal û revîna xwe kiriye. Dema Augustus efuya giştî weşand, Horatius vegeriya Îtalyayê. Her tiştê wî ji destê wî çûbû û xizan bûbû. Lê ji ber ku li qada helbestê serkeftî bû, cardin ji aliyê dewletê destek li berê hat xistin.[5] Horatius bi Virgil û Lucius Varius Rufus re xebitî û bi riya wan bi Maecenas re ku hevalê Augustus bû, hev û din nas kirin. Piştî nasînê, Maecenas him bû hevalê wî him jî bû patronê wî û jê re axeke li ser girên Sabine dabû. Ji ber ku berî mirina wî merivekî wî tunebû, mîrata xwe ji Maecenas û împarator Augustus re hişt.[5] Çavkanî[biguherîne] ↑ The year is given in Odes 3.21.1 ("Consule Manlio"), the month in Epistles 1.20.27, the day in Suetonius' biography Vita (R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 7) ↑ a b Brill's Companion to Horace, edited by Hans-Christian Günther, Brill, 2012, p.7, Google Book ↑ Kiernan, V. Horace: Poetics and Politics. r. 24. ↑ Rudd, N. The Satires of Horace and Persius. ↑ a b Fraenkel, Eduard (1957). Horace. Oxford. r. 1. Ji "https://ku.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horatius&oldid=830436" hatiye standin. Kategorî: Romayî Helbestvan Wêje Menûya navîgasyonê Amûrên kesane Têneketî Gotûbêj Beşdariyên min Hesabekî çêke Têkeve Valahiya nav Gotar Gotûbêj Kurdî/کوردی Kurdî/کوردی Tîpên erebî Tîpên latînî Dîtin Bixwîne Biguherîne Dîrokê bibîne Bêhtir Lêgerîn Navîgasyon Destpêk · Sereta Bûyerên rojane Rûpeleke ketober Beşdarî Portala komê Dîwana Wîkîpediyayê Guhartinên dawî Bexş bike Alîkarî Qutiya amûran Girêdanên li ser vê rûpelê Guhartinên têkildar Wêneyekî bar bike Rûpelên taybet Girêdana daîmî Agahiyên rûpelê Qalkirina rûpelê bibîne Hêmana Wîkîdane Çap bike/derxîne Wek PDF daxe Guhertoya çapkirinê Di projeyên din de Wikimedia Commons Wîkîgotin Bi zimanên din Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Girêdanan biguherîne Ev rûpel cara dawî 27 kanûna pêşîn 2020, saet li 16:35an de hatiye guhartin. Nivîsar di bin lîsansa Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License de derbasdar e; heke tiştên din werin xwestin dikarin lê bên zêdekirin. Ji bo hûragahiyan li Mercên Bikaranînê binêre. Siyaseta veşarîtiyê Der barê Wîkîpediya de Ferexetname Xuyakirina mobîl Pêşdebir Statistics Cookie statement 
kw-wikipedia-org-4696	----	Horace - Wikipedia Horace Dhyworth Wikipedya, an godhoniador rydh Jump to navigation Jump to search Qunitus Horatius Flaccus (8ves Mys Kevardhu, 65 KOK - 27ves Mys Du, 8 OK), aswonnys dhe redoryon Sowsnek avel Horace, o bardh gerys-da y'n Emperoureth Romanek. Dhyworth "https://kw.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horace&oldid=178757" Klass: Skriforyon Rol lewya Toulys personel Digelmys Keskows rag an drigva IP-ma Kevrohow Gwruthyl akont Omgelmi Spasys hanow Folen Keskows Variennow Gwelyansow Redya Chanjya Pennfenten Gweles an istori More Hwilas Kevrennow lewya Folen dre Klassys Folen jonsus Chanjyow a-dhiwedhes Kemeneth Porth an gemeneth An tavern Gweres A-dro dhe Wikipedia Argevri Toulys Folennow kevrennys Chanjyow kelmys Ughkarga restren Folennow arbennek Kevren fast Kedhlow an folen Devynna an erthygel ma Elven Wikidata Pryntya/esperthi Gwruthyl lyver Iskarga avel PDF Versyon pryntyadow Yn ragdresow erel Wikimedia Commons Yn tavosow erel Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Chanjya an kevrennow Diwettha chanj an folen ma a veu an 5 Gortheren 2020, dhe 09:21. Kavadow yw an tekst yn-dann Leshyans Attribution-ShareAlike Creative Commons; termynyow keworransel a allsa omvyska. Gwelewgh an Termynyow Devnydh rag manylyon. Polici privetter A-dro dhe Wikipedia Avisyansow Gwel pellgowsel Displegyoryon Statistics Cookie statement 
la-wikipedia-org-1532	----	Quintus Horatius Flaccus - Vicipaedia Quintus Horatius Flaccus E Vicipaedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Vide etiam paginam discretivam: Horatius (nomen) Quintus Horatius Flaccus Res apud Vicidata repertae: Nativitas: 8 Decembris 65 BCE; Venusia Obitus: 27 Novembris 8 BCE; Roma Patria: Roma antiqua Officium Munus: poëta, scriptor, philosophus Familia Genitores: unknown value; unknown value Memoria Sepultura: Roma Quintus Horatius Flaccus, breviter Horatius, fuit illustris poeta Romanus aetatis aureae litterarum Latinarum. Index 1 Curriculum vitae 1.1 Ante Augustum 1.2 Scriptor 1.3 Finis vitae 1.4 Fontes 2 Opera 3 De arte et Latinitate Horatii 3.1 Exemplum artis 3.2 Iudicia de Horatio facta 3.3 De re metrica 3.3.1 Sermones, Epistulae, Ars Poetica (hexametri) 3.3.2 Epodi (disticha) 3.3.3 Carmina (versus varii) 4 Aemulationes 4.1 Poetae quos Horatius aemulatus est 4.2 Poetae qui Horatium aemulati sunt 5 Notae 6 Bibliographia 6.1 Opera antiquiora 6.2 Alii libri 7 Nexus interni 8 Nexus externi Curriculum vitae[recensere | fontem recensere] Ante Augustum[recensere | fontem recensere] Q. Horatius Flaccus natus est Venusiae in Lucania die 8 Decembris anno sexagesimo quinto a.C.n., Lucio Manlio Torquato, Lucio Aurelio Cotta consulibus. Pater, libertus satis dives, Horatium Romam ad Orbilium grammaticum illustrem et postea Athenas misit, ubi artibus optimis studeret. Is vero, Caesare occiso, Brutum Cassiumque auctores facinoris secutus est; postquam in proelio ad Philippos facto tribunus militum meruit, Romam revertit. Empto autem ibidem scribae munere satis otiosus fuisse ad carmina videtur facienda. Anno enim duodequadragesimo, Vergilio Varioque tantopere placuisse constat, ut Maecenati eum commendarent, qui amicitia Caesaris et familiaritate plurimum potuit. Scriptor[recensere | fontem recensere] Anno fere 35 a.C.n., Sermones vel Satiras scripsit, Lucilium sequens. Primum librum, decem carmina continentem, anno 35, alterum, octo carmina continentem, anno fere 30 protulit. Haec carmina hexametris utuntur; forma et metro numeri autem non tam politi nec elegantes atque hexametri epici. Eodem tempore atque alterum librum sermonum, librum Epodon edidit, quae sunt septendecim carmina iambica carminum Archilochi similia. Carmina lyrica nondum scripserat, sed anno 23 a.C.n. tres libros edidit quos nunc Carmina appellamus. Metri sunt Aeolici, praecipue strophae Alcaica et Sapphica; Horatius se recte dicit "principem Aeolium carmen ad Italos modos deduxisse" (Carm. 3.30.13–14; vide infra), quod primus fuit qui totum librum numeris Aeolicis faceret. Tunc ad versum hexametrum revenit: primum librum Epistularum anno 20 protulit. Epistulae huius libri sunt breviores quam Satirae. Alterum librum Epistularum ultimis vitae annis protulit; duae sunt, longiores, quarum altera ad Augustum, altera ad Florum, scripta est. Aliud carmen hexametrum, quod Ars Poetica et Epistula ad Pisones nominatur, secundo libro nonnumquam adiungitur. Anno 17 a.C.n., Augustus Ludos Saeculares celebravit. Horatius Carmen Saeculare scripsit, ut nobis dicit inscriptio de ludis. Postea, verisimiliter anno 13, quartum librum Carminum protulit. Finis vitae[recensere | fontem recensere] "Fons Bandusiae, splendidior vitro" (Carm. 3.13.1): fons in Sabino Horatii. Traditur Maecenas denique Horatio Sabinum illud donavisse, quo pro beneficio poeta sua carmina illi dicavit; anno autem a.C.n. octavo post Maecenatem, nunc amicum et patronum suum, die 27 Novembris, Horatius quoque mortuus, prope Maecenatem in monte Esquilino sepultus. Fontes[recensere | fontem recensere] De vita et factis Horatii nos docent cum scripta ipsius[1] tum Suetonius, cuius descriptio exstat in commentariis ad opera Horatii conscriptis. Is autem, "Habitu," scripsit, "corporis fuit brevis atque obesus, qualis et a semet ipso in saturis describitur et ab Augusto hac epistula: 'Pertulit ad me Onysius libellum tuum, quem ego ut excusantem, quantuluscumque est, boni consulo. Vereri autem mihi videris ne maiories libelli tui sint, quam ipse es; sed tibi statura deest, corpusculum non deest. Itaque licebit in sextariolo scribas, quo circuitus voluminis tui sit ogkodestatos, sicut est ventriculi tui.'" Opera[recensere | fontem recensere] Libri ordine alphabetico digesti: Ars poetica (Vicifons), fere anno 10, vel Epistula ad Pisones. Carmen 476 versuum hexametrorum. "Carmen saeculare" (Vicifons), anno 17. Carmen 76 versuum (h.e. 19 stanzarum Sapphicarum) quod cecinerunt pueri puellaeque in Ludis Saecularibus Augusti. Carmina (Vicifons): quattuor libri, tres anno 23, quartus anno 13 editi. 103 carmina lyrica, de amore, moribus, amicitia, aliis rebus variis. Inter his notissima sunt "Nunc est bibendum" (1.37), de Cleopatra ab Augustu vincta; "Carmina Romana" (3.1-6), de virtutibus Romanis; "Exegi monumentum aere perennius" (3.30), de fama poetae; "Pindarum quisquis studet aemulari" (4.2), de generibus carminorum. Epistulae (Vicifons), primus liber anno 20, alter postea, fortasse anno 12.[2] In primo libro sunt 20 epistulae breviores, versu hexametro, ad amicos Horatii. Secundus liber epistulam ad Augustum et epistulam ad Florum continet, quae longiores sunt quam eae primi libri; Ars Poetica, quamquam formam epistulae habet, non recte hoc in libro mittitur. Epodi (Vicifons), anno 30. Sunt 17 carmina brevia, modo iambico (etiamsi aliqua metro dactylico utuntur). Satirae seu Sermones (Vicifons), primus liber anno 35, alter anno 30. 18 carmina, versu hexametro, in quibus sunt dialogi, narrationes, fabulae. Quintus e primo libro, vel Iter Brundisium, fabulam narrat de Horatio, Maecena, aliis ad Brundisium iter facientibus. Ultimus sermo (2.8) Cena Nasidieni nominatur, quod de convivia apud Nasidienus Rufus narrat. Editio princeps operum Horatii anno 1474 p.C.n. Mediolani ab Antonio Zaroto edita est; aliae editiones in Germania (anno 1492) et Francia (anno 1501) sequuntur.[3] Libri ordine chronologico digesti: 35 a.C.n., Sermonum primus liber 30, Epodi et Sermonum liber alter 23, Carminum libri 1-3 20, Epistularum primus liber 17, Carmen saeculare 13, Carminum liber 4 12, Epistularum alter liber 10, Ars poetica De arte et Latinitate Horatii[recensere | fontem recensere] Exemplum artis[recensere | fontem recensere] Quod Horatius ipse de dignitate et auctoritate artis suae sentiret, carmine tricesimo libri tertii carminum exposuit. Quae oda hoc loco exemplo etiam sit, quomodo Horatius a poetis lyricis Graecis profectus, ut poesis Latinae summam excoleret perfectionem, studuerit. Horatii vero carmen anno 1836 Alexander Sergii f. Puscinius linguae quae dicitur litterariae Russicae auctor maximus felicissime aemulatus est. Hoc poema e versibus Asclepiadeis primis vel minoribus constat, qui versus est glyconeus cum duplici nucleo (xx -uu- -uu- u-): Exegi monumentum aere perennius regalique situ pyramidum altius, quod non imber edax, non aquilo impotens possit diruere aut innumerabilis annorum series et fuga temporum, non omnis moriar multaque pars mei vitabit Libitinam: usque ego postera crescam laude recens, dum Capitolium scandet cum tacita virgine pontifex. dicar, qua violens obstrepit Aufidus et qua pauper aquae Daunus agrestium regnavit populorum, ex humili potens princeps Aeolium carmen ad Italos deduxisse modos. sume superbiam quaesitam meritis et mihi Delphica lauro cinge volens, Melpomene, comam. Iudicia de Horatio facta[recensere | fontem recensere] Marcus Fabius Quintilianus Horatium praecipuum inter scriptores satirarum nominat (x.1.94), et "lyricorum," inquit, "idem Horatius fere solus legi dignus. Nam et insurgit aliquando et plenus est iucunditatis et gratiae et varius figuris et verbis felicissime audax" (x.1.96). Personae in dialogo Erasmi cuius titulus est Ciceronianus, sive de optimo dicendi genere dicunt Horatium "summum" poetam Latinum in genere lyrico (182), etiam "Adulescens adamabam poetas omnes. Verum simul atque sum Horatio factus familiarior, prae hoc omnes ceteri putere coeperunt alioqui per se mirabiles." (328) Fridericus Nietzsche cum "quemadmodum auctoribus antiquis obligatus sit" exposuit, "Usque ad hunc diem," scripsit, "poeta nullus tam vehementer me quam Horatius delectavit inde a primo quod legeram carmine. Sunt autem, qui propter patrii sermonis egestatem, quod ille adeptus est, id ne velle quidem possint. Carmina enim verbis quasi tesselavit, quorum cuiusque sonus locus sensus et huc et illuc abundante virtute omnia illustrat, quorum copia atque multitudo quam maxime cohibita, vis significandi quam maxime aucta est. Haec omnia, inquam, vere Romana sunt et nobilissima quidem. Itaque ceteri prae Horatio poetae nimium esse populares videntur et ex affectu tantum loquaces." De re metrica[recensere | fontem recensere] Horatius (Lugdunum Batavorum) Sermones, Epistulae, Ars Poetica (hexametri)[recensere | fontem recensere] In Satiris et Epistulis Horatius hexametro dactylico utitur, non, autem, eodem modo atque poetae epicae Latinae hoc versu utuntur. Verbum finale potest unam tantum syllabam habere, ut "hoc facit insanum: multae tibi tum officient res" (Sat. 1.2.97) vel "parturient montes, nascetur ridiculus mus" (Ars 139). Multae et variae caesurae inter cola praebentur, non modo caesura mascula vel penthemimera (post hemiepes primum) sed etiam feminea (inter brevia tertii bicipis), modo Homerico. Caesura metrica et punctuatio rhetorica saepe non cohaerent -- saepius quam apud Vergilium vel in carminibus epicis. Syllaba brevis rarius potest ante caesuram stare et longa fieri, ut "qui non defendit alio culpante, solutos..." (Sat. 1.4.82: syllaba finalis verbi defendit longa fit).[4] Epodi (disticha)[recensere | fontem recensere] Primi 16 epodi distichis utuntur, vel iambicis vel dactylis; metrum septimi decimi est trimeter iambicus (senarius) κατὰ στίχον. Distichon primorum 10 carminum est trimeter iambicus et dimeter iambicus. In carmine undecimo utitur Horatius trimetro iambico, tunc "elegiambo," hoc est versus ex hemiepe et dimetro iambico factus. Disticha carmina 12 ad 16 hexametrum dactylicum habent, cum tetrametro dactylico, "iambelego" (hoc est, dimeter iambicus et hemiepes), dimetro iambico, trimetro iambico. Carmina (versus varii)[recensere | fontem recensere] Femina et vir de musica disputantes, dicti Sappho et Alcaeus Odi et Carmen Saeculare varia metra praebent, quorum paene omnia sunt aeolica.[5] Stropha Alcaica saepius quam aliae formae apparuit, in 38 carminibus, et Stropha Sapphica in 25, et in Carmine Saeculari. Apud poetas Graecos, basis aeolica unam aut duas syllabas ancipites continet; Horatius autem hanc variationem supprimit. Pausam fere semper in eodem loco in versu habet. Poetae qui post Horatium scribunt easdem regulas sequuntur (quamquam Catullus versus aeolicos modo Graeco scripserat). Stropha Alcaica apud Horatium, ergo, hoc est: X — ∪ — — | — ∪ ∪ — ∪ — X — ∪ — — | — ∪ ∪ — ∪ — X — ∪ — — — ∪ — — — ∪ ∪ — ∪ ∪ — ∪ — — Schema est: duo hendecasyllabi alcaici, ubi quinta syllaba, anceps apud Alcaeum ipsum, est longa, et pausa sequitur; tunc dimeter iambicus et longum, et quinta syllabua, anceps in metro iambico, est longa; tunc hemiepes et bacchius, vel versus aristophanicus dactylo auctus. Stropha Sapphica quoque simplicius est apud Horatium quam apud poetas Graecos. Hoc est schema: — ∪ — — — | ∪ ∪ — ∪ — — — ∪ — — — | ∪ ∪ — ∪ — — — ∪ — — — | ∪ ∪ — ∪ — — — ∪ ∪ — — vel tres hendecasyllabi sapphici, ubi quarta syllaba non est anceps sed longa, et pausa quintam syllabam sequitur, tunc versus adonius. Aliae strophae versibus "asclepiadeis" dictis utuntur, qui sunt glyconei cum extensione interna. Metrum primi carminis est asclepiadeus minor, hoc est glc: — — — ∪ ∪ — | — ∪ ∪ — ∪ — Maecenas atavis edite regibus o et praesidium et dulce decus meum ... (1.1.1-2) Pausa vel caesura semper inter choriambos stat (ubi poetae Graeci quoque saepius pausam faciunt). Idem metrum habemus in 3.30 (vide supra) et 4.8. Etiamsi metrum non est stropha sed stichum, dicitur "prima stropha asclepiadea." Horatius stropham "sapphicam maiorem" dictam in 1.8 habet: hoc est, versus aristophanicus et versus Sapphicus maior qui est hendecasyllabus sapphicus, choriambo auctus: — ∪ ∪ — ∪ — — — ∪ — — — | ∪ ∪ — | — ∪ ∪ — ∪ — — Asclepiadeus maior, vel gl2c, invenitur in tribus carminibus (1.11, 1.18, 4.10): — — — ∪ ∪ — | — ∪ ∪ — | — ∪ ∪ — ∪ — Tu ne quaesieris --- scire nefas! --- quem mihi, quem tibi finem di dederint, Leuconoe, nec Babylonios temptaris numeros. Ut melius, quidquid erit, pati,...' (1.11.1-3) Pausa choriambos dividit. Haec forma dicitur "quinta stropha asclepiadea." Aliae strophae e versibus asclepiadeis factae sunt: glc glc glc gl ("secunda stropha asclepiadea") -- 1.6, 1.15, 1.24, 1.33, 2.12, 3.10, 3.16, 4.5, 4.12 glc glc gl^ gl ("tertia stropha asclepiadea") -- 1.5, 1.14, 1.21, 1.23, 3.7, 3.13, 4.13 gl glc ("quarta stropha asclepiadea") -- 1.3, 1.13, 1.19, 1.36, 3.9, 3.15, 3.24, 3.25, 3.28, 4.1, 4.3 Pluria carmina distichis utuntur similibus eis quae in epodis inveniuntur. In carminibus 1.7 et 1.28 metrum est hexameter dactylicus et tetrameter dactylicus, ut in Ep. 12. Carmen 4.7 habet hexametrum et hemiepes. Carmen 2.18 habet dimetrum trochaicum catalecticum et trimetrum iambicum catalecticum; est solum carmen Horatii quod colo trochaico utitur. Et in carmen 1.4, metrum est versus archilochius et trimeter iambicus catalectus: — ∪ ∪ — ∪ ∪ — | ∪ ∪ — ∪ ∪ | — ∪ — ∪ — — — — ∪ — ∪ — ∪ — ∪ — — Versus archilochius est tetrameter dactylicus et versus ithyphallicus. Carmen 3.12 metro ionico utitur. Vir doctus Augustus Meineke observavit omnia carmina Horatii numerum versuum habere quod dividit quattuor. Horatius numquam distichon elegiacum habet. Aemulationes[recensere | fontem recensere] Poetae quos Horatius aemulatus est[recensere | fontem recensere] Horatius dicit se Lucilium in Sermonibus, Archilochum in Epodis, Sappho et Alcaeum in Carminibus sequi. Non modo hi poetae verum etiam Catullus, Lucretius, Pindarus in Horatii operis videntur. Poetae qui Horatium aemulati sunt[recensere | fontem recensere] Parnassus a Raphael pictus: pars picturae ubi videntur poetae lyrici. Vir sedens est fortasse Horatius. Aulus Persius Flaccus et Decimus Iunius Iuvenalis satiras post Horatium scripserunt. Medio Aevo Archipoeta Horatium legit et secutus est. Liber Decem Capitulorum a Marbodo Redonense scriptus decem carmina continet, similia satirarum Horatii. Franciscus Petrarca epistulam ad Horatium, in metro asclepiadeo, scripsit (Fam. 24.10). Iacobus Balde, Conradus Celtis, Matthias Casimirus Sarbievius, necnon multi alii poetae Renascentiae carmina Horatiana scripserunt. Ioannes Pascoli saepissime de Horatio scripsit, in carminibus ut Fanum Vacunae, Cena in Caudiano Nervae, Sosii Fratres Bibliopoli; verbis versubusque Horatii per totum opus utitur. Notae[recensere | fontem recensere] ↑ De origine: Sermonum liber primus, opus VI (S.1.6) "Non quia, Maecenas, Lydorum quidquid Etruscos"; de bello civile et proelio iuxta Philippos commisso: carminum liber alter, opus septimum (C.2.7), "O saepe mecum". ↑ Vide Nisbet in Companion (ed. Harrison), p. 18-20 ↑ Michael McGann, "The Reception of Horace in the Renaissance," in Harrison, ed., Companion, p. 305-6, et Lowell Edmunds, "The Reception of Horace's Odes," in Davis, ed., Companion, p. 339-346. ↑ Nougaret, p. 53-55, differentias inter hexametros Horatii Vergiliique explicat. ↑ Shackleton Bailey conspectum metrorum dat, p. 333-337 Bibliographia[recensere | fontem recensere] Opera, 1517 Editiones operum 1517 : Iodocus Badius Ascensius, ed., Opera Q. Horatii Flacci poete amoenissimi cum quatuor commentariis. Parrisiis: apud Ioannem Parvum Textus apud Internet Archive 1546 : Henricus Glareanus, ed. Q. Horatii Flacci poemata omnia. Basileae: per Nic. Bryl. Textus apud e-Rara. 1984 : Stephan Borzsák, ed. Q. Horati Flacci Opera. Bibliotheca Teubneriana. Lipsiae: Teubner. 1995 : D. R. Q. Shackleton Bailey, ed. Horati Flacci Opera. Bibliotheca Teubneriana. Stutgardiae: Teubner. ISBN 3519214369. Commentarii Brown, P. M. 1993. Horace: Satires 1. Warminster: Aris and Phillips Mankin, D. 1995. Horace: Epodes. Cantabridgiae: Cambridge University Press. Mayer, R. 1994. Horace: Epistles book 1. Cantabridgiae: Cambridge University Press. Muecke, F. 1993. Horace: Satires II. Warminster: Aris and Phillips. Nisbet, R. G. M., et M. Hubbard. 1970. A Commentary on Horace, Odes I. Oxonii: Oxford University Press. Nisbet, R. G. M., et M. Hubbard. 1978. A Commentary on Horace, Odes II. Oxonii: Oxford University Press. Nisbet, R. G. M., et N. Rudd. 2004. A Commentary on Horace, Odes III. Oxonii: Oxford University Press. Putnam, Michael C. J. 1986. Artifices of Eternity: Horace’s Fourth Book of Odes. Ithacae et Londinii: Cornell University Press. Quinn, Kenneth. 1980. Horace: Odes. Londinii. Rudd, N. 1989. Horace: Epistles Book II and Epistle to the Pisones. Cantabridgiae: Cambridge University Press. Watson, Lindsay C. 2003. A commentary on Horace’s Epodes. Oxoniae. Aliae encyclopaediae "Horace" in Encyclopaedia Britannica. 11a ed. (Sicagi, 1911) html djvu Encyclopedia oraziana, 1996–1998. Roma: Istituto della Enciclopedia italiana. Perret, Jacques. 1992. Horace. In Encyclopaedia universalis, vol. 11. Lutetiae. Opera antiquiora[recensere | fontem recensere] Iohannes Albertus Fabricius, Bibliotheca Latina (Hamburgi: Schillerus, 1712) (Textus apud Google Books) pp. 233–250. Alii libri[recensere | fontem recensere] Barié, Paul. 2008. Horaz „Carpe diem: Pflücke den Tag“. Lebensweisheit in der Lyrik des Horaz. Sonnenberg, Annweiler. Exemplarische Reihe Literatur und Philosophie, 25. Literaturverz. ISBN 9783933264527. Bayet, Jean. 1996. Littérature latine. Lutetiae: Armand Colin. Becker, Carl. 1963. Das Spätwerk des Horaz. Gotingae: Vandenhoeck und Rupprecht. Carne-Ross, D. S., et Kenneth Haynes, edd. 1996. Horace in English. Londinii: Penguin. ISBN 0140423877. Chevallier, Raymond, ed. 1988. Présence d'Horace. Turoni: Centre de recherches A. Piganiol. ISBN 2869060238. Davis, Gregson. 2010. A Companion to Horace. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 9781405155403. Draheim, Joachim, et Günther Wille, edd. 1985. Horaz-Vertonungen vom Mittelalter bis zur Gegenwart: eine Anthologie. Amstelodami: B. R. Grüner. ISBN 9060321804. Fraenkel, Eduard. 1957. Horace. Oxonii: Oxford University Press. OCLC 310366. Giraud, Victor. 1907. Les idées morales d'Horace. Lutetiae. Grimal, Pierre. 1967. Horace. Lutetiae: Seuil. Halporn, James W., Martin Ostwald, et Thomas G. Rosenmeyer. 1994. The Meters of Greek and Latin Poetry, editio altera. Indianapolis: Hackett. ISBN 0872202437. Harrison, Stephen, ed. 2007. The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cantabridgiae: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521830027. Holzberg, Niklas. 2009. Horaz. Dichter und Werk. Monaci: C. H. Beck Verlag. ISBN 9783406579622. Houghton, L. B. T., et Maria Wyke, edd. 2009. Perceptions of Horace: A Roman Poet and his Readers. Cantabridgiae: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521765084. Howatson, M. C. 1993. Dictionnaire de l'Antiquité. Mythologie, littérature, civilisation. Coll. "Bouquins." Robert Laffont. ISBN 9782221068007. Johnson, Timothy S. 2012. Horace's Iambic Criticism: Casting Blame. Mnemosyne Supplements 334. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9789004215238 Johnson, Timothy S. 2004. A Symposium of Praise: Horace Returns to Lyric in Odes 4. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0299207404. Kytzler, Bernhard. 1996, 2000. Horaz: Eine Einführung. Übersichtliche und gut verständliche Einführung. Stuttgart: Reclam. Lee, Rensselaer. 1967. Ut pictura poesis: The Humanistic Theory of Painting. Movi Eboraci. Licht, Tino. 2006. Horazüberlieferung im Frühmittelalter. In Ex Praeteritis Praesentia. Pp. 109–134. Heidelberg. Ludwig, Walther, ed. 1993. Horace: L'Oeuvre et les imitations: un siècle d'interprétation. Fondation Hardt entretiens, 39. Marmier, Jean. 1965. La Survie d'Horace à l'époque romantique. Lutetiae: Librarie Marcel Didier. McNeill, Randall L. B. 2001. Horace: Image, Identity, and Audience. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0801866669. Mindt, Nina. 2008. Die meta-sympotischen Oden und Epoden des Horaz. Vertumnus. Berliner Beiträge zur Klassischen Philologie und zu ihren Nachbargebieten, 3, Göttingen: Edition Ruprecht. ISBN 9783897442573. Nougaret, Louis. 1986. Traité de métrique latine classique. Lutetiae: Klincksieck. ISBN 2252019522. Numberger, Karl. 1993. Horaz, Lyrische Gedichte, Kommentar für Lehrer der Gymnasien und für Studierende. Ed. 3a. Münster: Aschendorff Verlag. Oppermann, Hans, ed. 1980. Wege zu Horaz. Darmstadt. Reckford, Kenneth. 1969. Horace. Twayne's World Authors Series. Novi Eboraci: Twayne. OCLC 78191. Reis, Martin. 1994. Sport bei Horaz. Darmstadt: Weidemann. ISBN 3615001362. Rudd, Niall. 1993. Horace 2000: A Celebration. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 047210490X. Shackleton Bailey, D. R. 1982. Profile of Horace. Cantabrigiae: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674713257. Zehnacker, Hubert, et Jean-Claude Fredouille. 1993. Littérature latine. Lutetiae: PUF. Nexus interni Maximilianus Manitius Vides ut alta stet nive candidum Soracte 4294 Horatius Nexus externi[recensere | fontem recensere] Vicicitatio habet citationes quae ad Quintum Horatium Flaccum spectant. Vide Quintum Horatium Flaccum apud Vicifontem. Vicimedia Communia plura habent quae ad Quintum Horatium Flaccum spectant. Brevis biographia, apud www.ceryx.de "Espace Horace—Sententiae Quinti Horatii Flacci," apud quintus.horatius.free.fr Opera, apud The Latin Library Horati opera, Acronis et Porphyrionis commentarii, varia lectio etc. Carmina Horatiana Carmina Horatii omnia a Thoma Nudipede Latine recitata. 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lfn-wikipedia-org-2087	----	Horatio - Vicipedia Horatio De Vicipedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Quintus Horatius Flaccus (65–8 aec) ia es un poesiste famosa roman. Un esemplo: Odi profanum volgus et arceo, Favete linguis; carmina non prius Audita Musarum sacerdos Virginibus puerisque canto. (Odi 3:1) En prosa lo ta es: Latina Elefen Odi et arceo profanum volgus. Favete linguis; canto, Me odia e evita la fola nonsanta. Silenti, per favore; sacerdos Musarum, carmina non prius audita virginibus puerisque me canta, prete de la Musas, cantas no ancora oiada par virjines e jovenes Retraeda de "https://lfn.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horatio&oldid=25252" Categorias: Biografia Leteratur latina Romanes antica Menu de naviga Utiles personal No autenticida Discute Contribuis Crea un conta Autentici Spasios de nom Paje Discute Varias Aspetas Leje Edita Edita la fonte Mostra istoria More Xerca Naviga Paje xef Porton de comunia Avenis corente Cambias resente Paje acaso Aida Fa un dona Utiles Lias a esta paje Cambias relatada Carga fix Pajes spesial Lia permanente Informa de paje Refere a esta paje Dato de Vicidatos Primi/esporta Crea un libro Descarga como PDF Varia primable En otra projetas Wikimedia Commons En otra linguas Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Edita lias La edita la plu resente de esta paje ia es a 18 desembre 2018, a 09:24 Testo es disponeda su la Lisensa Attribution-ShareAlike de Creative Commons; plu restrinjes pote pertine. Vide Contrata de usa per detalias. Promete de privatia Sur Vicipedia Renunsias Aspeta per telefoneta Developores Statistics Declara de cuci 
librivox-org-2584	----	LibriVox Librivox Acoustical liberation of books in the public domain Menu Skip to content about forum contact help Twitter rss Search Librivox Advanced search Browse the catalog Author Title Genre/Subject Language Project type all solo group Donate to Librivox Thank a reader LibriVox recordings are Public Domain in the USA. If you are not in the USA, please verify the copyright status of these works in your own country before downloading, otherwise you may be violating copyright laws. Quintus Horatius Flaccus (Horace) (65 BCE - 8 BCE) Quintus Horatius Flaccus (8 December 65 BC – 27 November 8 BC), known in the English-speaking world as Horace, was the leading Roman lyric poet during the time of Augustus. The rhetorician Quintillian regarded his Odes as just about the only Latin lyrics worth reading: "He can be lofty sometimes, yet he is also full of charm and grace, versatile in his figures, and felicitously daring in his choice of words." Horace also crafted elegant hexameter verses (Sermones and Epistles) and caustic iambic poetry (Epodes). The hexameters are amusing yet serious works, friendly in tone, leading the ancient satirist Persius to comment: "as his friend laughs, Horace slyly puts his finger on his every fault; once let in, he plays about the heartstrings". Some of his iambic poetry has seemed repulsive to modern audiences. His career coincided with Rome's momentous change from Republic to Empire. An officer in the republican army defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC, he was befriended by Octavian's right-hand man in civil affairs, Maecenas, and became a spokesman for the new regime. For some commentators, his association with the regime was a delicate balance in which he maintained a strong measure of independence (he was "a master of the graceful sidestep"), but for others he was, in John Dryden's phrase, "a well-mannered court slave". External Links Wiki - Quintus Horatius Flaccus (Horace) Total matches: 19 Order by Alphabetically Release date 
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lt-wikipedia-org-4207	----	Horacijus – Vikipedija Horacijus Straipsnis iš Vikipedijos, laisvosios enciklopedijos. Jump to navigation Jump to search    Šiam straipsniui ar jo daliai trūksta išnašų į šaltinius (pažymėtas nuo 2020 m. lapkričio). Jūs galite padėti Vikipedijai pridėdami tinkamas išnašas su šaltiniais. Horacijus Horacijus Gimė 65 m. pr. m. e. gruodžio 8 d. Mirė 08 m. lapkričio 27 d. Veikla vienas žymiausių lotynų kalba rašiusių poetų Vikiteka HoracijusVikiteka Horacijus (Quintus Horatius Flaccus, 65 m. pr. m. e. gruodžio 8 – 8 m. lapkričio 27 d.) – vienas žymiausių lotynų kalba rašiusių poetų. Horacijus turėjo galimybę mokytis Romoje, o vėliau Atėnuose, kur domėjosi filosofija. Po trumpos karinės karjeros, grįžo prie civilinių darbų, dirbo notaru, laisvu laiku eiliavo. Horacijaus kūryba, daugiausiai parašyta hegzametru, buvo labai vertinama amžininkų ir Renesanso periodu. Poeto tėvas buvo atleistinis.    Šis straipsnis apie Senovės Romos asmenybę yra nebaigtas. Jūs galite prisidėti prie Vikipedijos papildydami šį straipsnį. Vikicitatos Puslapis Vikicitatose – Horacijus Rodomas puslapis "https://lt.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horacijus&oldid=5990759" Kategorijos: Straipsniai be šaltinių Nepilni Senovės Romos asmenybės Senovės Romos poetai Paslėptos kategorijos: Straipsniai be šaltinių nuo 2005 m. rugpjūčio Straipsniai be šaltinių pažymėti nuo 2020 m. lapkričio Naršymo meniu Asmeniniai įrankiai Neprisijungęs Šio IP aptarimų puslapis Indėlis Sukurti paskyrą Prisijungti Vardų sritys Straipsnis Aptarimas Variantai Žiūrėti Skaityti Keisti Keisti vikitekstą Istorija Daugiau Paieška Naršymas Pagrindinis puslapis Bendruomenės portalas Forumas Naujausi keitimai Atsitiktinis straipsnis Pagalba Parama Įrankiai Susiję straipsniai Susiję keitimai Specialieji puslapiai Nuolatinė nuoroda Puslapio informacija Cituoti straipsnį Vikiduomenys įrašas Spausdinti/eksportuoti Kurti knygą Parsisiųsti kaip PDF Versija spausdinimui Kituose projektuose Vikiteka Vikicitatos Kitomis kalbomis Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Keisti nuorodas Šis puslapis paskutinį kartą keistas 2 gruodžio 2020 21:31. Tekstas pateikiamas pagal Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike Licenciją; gali būti taikomos papildomos sąlygos. Detaliau – Terms of Use . Privatumo politika Apie Vikipediją Jokių garantijų Mobili peržiūra Kūrėjai Statistika Slapukų politika 
lv-wikipedia-org-7483	----	Horācijs — Vikipēdija Horācijs Vikipēdijas lapa Jump to navigation Jump to search Kvints Horācijs Flaks Quintus Horatius Flaccus Horācijs Antona von Vernera darbā Personīgā informācija Dzimis 65. p.m.ē. Venūzija, Romas republika (Venoza, Potencas province, Bazilikata,  Itālija) Miris 8. p.m.ē. Roma, Romas impērija (Lacio,  Itālija) Literārā darbība Nodarbošanās dzejnieks Valoda latīņu valoda Rakstīšanas laiks romiešu literatūra Slavenākie darbi Odas (Carmina), Satīras (Satirae vai Sermones) Mākslas portāls / Literatūras vikiprojekts                         Kvints Horācijs Flaks (latīņu: Quintus Horatius Flaccus, 65.–8. p.m.ē.) bija romiešu dzejnieks. Dzimis Dienviditālijas laukos, brīvlaista verga dēls. Horācijs izglītību ieguva gan Romā, gan Atēnās, kur viņam radās interese par dzeju. Pēc atgriešanās Romā viņa dzejoļi guva panākumus, jo tie iepatikās tolaik slavenajam Vergilijam. Pateicoties viņam, Horācijs iekļuva augstākajā sabiedrībā un par savu draugu un labvēli ieguva romiešu valsts darbinieku Mecenātu, kas atbalstīja jaunos dzejniekus un veicināja viņu literāro darbību. Horācija darbu mantojums ir saglabājies pilnībā. Horācija epodi ir 17 dzejoļi, to tapšanu ietekmējis sengrieķu dzejnieks Arhilohs. Ārējās saites[labot šo sadaļu | labot pirmkodu] Vikikrātuvē par šo tēmu ir pieejami multivides faili. Skatīt: Kvints Horācijs Flaks. Horācija darbi (latīniski) Horācija darbi[novecojusi saite] (angliski) Biogrāfija un hronoloģija (angliski) Šis biogrāfiskais raksts ir nepilnīgs. Jūs varat dot savu ieguldījumu Vikipēdijā, papildinot to. s d l s d l Romiešu literatūra Agrīnā romiešu literatūra Lūcijs Akcijs Līvijs Andronīks Kvints Ennijs Katons Vecākais Gajs Lucīlijs Gnejs Nēvijs Pakūvijs Plauts Terencijs Klasiskā literatūra: zelta laikmets Dzeja Horācijs Katulls Lukrēcijs Ovidijs Propercijs Sulpīcija Tibulls Vergilijs Proza Cicerons Tits Līvijs Varrons Klasiskā literatūra: sudraba laikmets Dzeja Gajs Valērijs Flaks Juvenāls Kalpurnijs Lukāns Marks Manilijs Marciāls Nemesiāns Persijs Sīlijs Itāliks Stacijs Proza Apulejs Gellijs Kvintiliāns Petronijs Seneka Vecākais Svetonijs Dramaturģija Seneka Jaunākais Fabula Fēdrs Vēlīnā romiešu literatūra Ausonijs Kasiodors Klaudiāns Vegēcijs Romiešu rakstnieki Romiešu filozofi Romiešu vēsturnieki Autoritatīvā vadība WorldCat VIAF: 100227522 LNB: 000000375 LCCN: n79081354 ISNI: 0000 0001 2145 2178 GND: 118553569 SELIBR: 189659 SUDOC: 026659166 BNF: cb11886570b (data) BIBSYS: 90055203 ULAN: 500404135 NLA: 35206138 NDL: 00540086 NKC: jn20000603003 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\000246 RLS: 000083136 BNE: XX891549 CiNii: DA00782980 Saturs iegūts no "https://lv.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horācijs&oldid=3227988" Kategorijas: Nepabeigti raksti par cilvēkiem Latīņu valodā rakstošie Romiešu rakstnieki 65. gadā p.m.ē. dzimušie 8. gadā p.m.ē. mirušie Slēptas kategorijas: Visi Vikipēdijas uzlabojamie raksti Raksti ar novecojušām saitēm Visi Vikipēdijas aizmetņi Navigācijas izvēlne Dalībnieka rīki Nav pieslēdzies Diskusijas Devums Izveidot jaunu Vikipēdijas kontu Ieiet Vikipēdijā Vārdtelpas Raksts Diskusija Varianti Apskates Skatīt Labot Labot pirmkodu Hronoloģija Vairāk Meklēt Navigācija Sākumlapa Kopienas portāls Aktualitātes Pēdējās izmaiņas Nejauša lapa Palīdzība Paziņot par kļūdu Ziedojumi Kontakti Rīki Norādes uz šo rakstu Saistītās izmaiņas Īpašās lapas Pastāvīgā saite Lapas informācija Atsauce uz šo lapu Ieraksts Vikidatos Drukāt/eksportēt Izveidot grāmatu Lejupielādēt kā PDF Drukājama versija Citos projektos Vikikrātuve Citās valodās Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Labot saites Šī lapa pēdējoreiz labota: 2020. gada 2. jūnijs plkst. 08.41. Teksts ir pieejams saskaņā ar Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike licenci; var pastāvēt papildu ierobežojumi. Plašākai informācijai skatīt lietošanas noteikumus. Privātuma politika Par Vikipēdiju Saistību atrunas Mobilais skats Izstrādātāji Statistika Sīkdatņu deklarācija 
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mg-wikipedia-org-2211	----	Horace - Wikipedia Horace Avy amin'i Wikipedia Sauter à la navigation Sauter à la recherche Horace Ankapobeny Anarana Horace Teraka 8 Desambra -65 Maty 27 Novambra -8 Fiaviana sy ny andraikitra Firenena Roma Taloha Asa : Poeta mpanoratra mpanao asa soratra Fiainana manokana Horace dia Poeta, mpanoratra, mpanao asa soratra mizaka ny zom-pirenen'i Roma Taloha teraka ny 8 Desambra -65 ary maty ny 27 Novambra -8 tao Roma Jereo koa[hanova | hanova ny fango] Biôgrafia Rohy ivelany[hanova | hanova ny fango] Ao amin'i Freebase: [1] Mbola ambangovangony ity lahatsoratra ity ary tokony hofenoina. Azonao atao ny mandray anjara eto amin'ny Wikipedia amin'ny alàlan'ny fanitarana azy. Jereo koa ny pejy Ahoana ny manao takelaka rehefa te-hijery hoe ahoana no fanaovana azy. Hita tao amin'ny "https://mg.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horace&oldid=792346" Sokajy : Pages avec des arguments non numériques dans formatnum Olona Biôgrafia Vangovango Poeta Mpanoratra Mpanao asa soratra Teraka tamin'ny taona -65 Maty tamin'ny taona -8 Meny fitetezana Fitaovana manokana Tsy tafiditra Pejin-dresaka Fandraisan'anjara Hamorona kaonty Hiditra Valam-pejy Lahatsoratra dinika Ny ''skin'' Voasintona Fijerena Hamaky Hanova Hanova ny fango Hijery ny tantara Plus Tadiavo Fikarohana Fandraisana Wikipedia finday Pejy rehetra Pejy vaovao Takelaka kisendra Fikambanana Toerana iraisana Toerana iombonana Non-malagasy speakers Handray anjara Fampidirana Fiovana farany Ny vaovao Handefa takelaka Fanomezana Kianjam-pasika Fanoroana sy fitsipika Renipejy Fototra dimy Fanamboarana takelaka Fitaovana Pejy mirohy eto Novaina Handefa rakitra Pejy manokana Rohy maharitra Fampahalalana mikasika ny pejy Hitanisa ity pejy ity Zavatra Wikidata Printiana/avoaka Hanorina boky Hampidina ho toa PDF Ny votoatiny azo atonta printy Amin'ny tetikasa hafa Wikimedia Commons Amin'ny tenim-pirenena hafa Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Hanova ny rohy Voaova farany tamin'ny 8 Jiona 2016 amin'ny 17:39 ity pejy ity. Azo ampiasaina araka ny fepetra apetraky ny lisansa Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike ; Mety misy ny fepetra fanampiny mihatra. Jereo fepetram-pampiasana ho an'ny antsipirihany. Fitsipika momba ny zavatra tsy sarababem-bahoaka Mombamomba ny Wikipedia Fampitandremana Jery am-pinday Mpanitatra Statistiques Déclaration sur les témoins (cookies) 
mk-wikipedia-org-4884	----	Хорациј — Википедија Хорациј Од Википедија — слободната енциклопедија Прејди на прегледникот Прејди на пребарувањето Квинт Хорациј Флак (латински: Quintus Horatius Flaccus , 8 декември 65 п.н.е. - 27 ноември 8 п.н.е.) - римски поет. Содржина 1 Животопис 2 Творештво 3 Наводи 4 Надворешни врски Животопис[уреди | уреди извор] Хорациј се родил во градот Венузија, во областа Апулија, на границата со Луканија, како син на еден ослободен роб, а мајка му воопшто не ја споменува, можеби затоа што умрела млада. Неговиот татко бил сиромашен и имал скромен имот (macro pauper agello), но се трудел на Хорациј да му обезбеди добро образование. Основното образование, Хорациј го завршил кај некој Флавиј, „во која одеа синовите на големите центуриони“, а потоа тој и татко му се преселиле во Рим. Таму, татко му работел како коактор (инкасант на лицитациите), занимање кое не било ценето, но било добро платено, а Хорациј се здобил со одлично средношколско образование, посетувајќи настава кај повеќе педагози, меѓу кои бил и познатиот Луциј Орбилиј Пупил, кој се споменува како „Орбилиј што дава ќотек“ (plagosus Orbilius). Кај него, Хорациј ги читал „Одисеја“ (во превод на Лавиј Андроник) и „Илијада“. Сепак, главен воспитувач му бил неговиот грижлив татко.[1][2] Во потрага по највисоко образование, Хорациј се преселил во Атина, каде студирал философија, т.е. „за да умеам доброто да го разликувам од лошото“ (ut vellem curvo dignoscere rectum). Таму го затекнала граѓанската војна, кога Марко Јуниј Брут пристигнал во градот и почнал да ги привлекува римските студенти со своите републикански идеи. Хорациј бил висок офицер во војската на Брут кого веројатно го придружувал во воениот поход во Мала Азија, а учествувал и во Битката кај Филипи (42 п.н.е.), во која републиканците биле поразени од војската на Марко Антониј и Октавијан Август.[3] По завршувањето на граѓанската војна, неговиот имот во Венузија бил конфискуван и им бил поделен на воените ветерани. Уште повеќе, за време на неговото враќање, неговиот брод претрпел бродолом при што Хорациј едвај останал жив. Така, тој „со пресечени крилја, останувајќи без татковиот дом и имотот“ (me demisere Philippi decisis humilem pennis inopemque paterni et laris fundi) се вратил во Рим, каде добил амнестија и со последните пари успеал да стекне место во писарскиот еснаф, и тоа во финансиската струка (квестура). На таа служба останал сè додека во 38 година, најпрвин Вергилиј, а потоа и поетот Луциј Вариј Руф, го запознале со Мецена, кој по девет месеци го повикал кај себе и тогаш започнало нивното долгогодишно пријателство. Во 33 година, во замена за одземениот имот во Венузија, Хорациј добил (најверојатно од Мецена) мал имот во сабинските ридови, во близина на градот Вариј (денес, Виковаро), крај реката Тибар. На својот сабински имот (fundus Sabinus), Хорациј го поминал целиот свој живот, при што живеел повлечено и мирно, а единствениот значаен настан во неговиот живот се случил во 29 г. п.н.е., кога за малку ќе погинел кога во дворот на неговата куќа се урнало едно дрво.[4][5] Овој настан, тој го опеал во една своја песна, посветена на Мецена.[6] На имотот, тој читал, пишувал песни, добро се согласувал со робовите и со соседите, а одвреме-навреме го посетувале неговите моќни пријатели од Рим (негов голем пријател бил конзулот Сестиј).[5] Само понекогаш, тој се враќал во Рим, каде времето го минувал во прошетки по улиците и во разговори со обичните луѓе. Најмногу сакал да престојува во бањата Бајама, лечејќи се од ревматизмот.[7] Со помош на Мецена, Хорациј се поврзал со Октавијан Август, кој му го понудил местото на личен секретар.[5] Така, во едно писмо до Мецена, Октавијан Август вели: „... сакам нашиот Хорациј да го одвлечкам од тебе... па ќе ми помага во пишувањето писма.“ Со цел да ја задржи уметничката слобода, Хорациј ја одбил понудата, правдајќи се со лошото здравје. Оттука, одвреме-навреме, императорот продолжил да му врши благ притисок, пишувајќи му „ако ти гордо го презре моето пријателство, не мислам поради тоа кон тебе да заземам надмен став“ и „знај дека ти се лутам поради тоа што во повеќето твои записи (т.н. Sermones) не водиш разговор првенествено со мене. Случајно, да не мислиш дека на твоето добро име кај потомството, ако те сметаат за мој интимен пријател?“[8] Хорациј бил образован човек и добро ги познавал хеленскиот јазик и книжевност, а имал познавања и од философијата. Тој имал независен дух и сакал да биде независен, за што сведочи одбивањето на понудата на царот Октавијан Август да му биде личен секретар. Неговата сакана девојка се викала Лудија.[9] Инаку, тој бил низок, дебел и со црна коса, која рано му побелела. На пример, во едно писмо до него, Октавијан Август пишува: „... иако ти недостига висина, телесниот волумен не ти недостига...“ Хорациј никогаш не се оженил, живеел скромно и бил претежно вегетаријанец.[10] Творештво[уреди | уреди извор] Хорациј почнал да пишува уште во Атина, каде составувал стихови на грчки јазик. Потоа, по враќањето во Рим, почнал да пишува латински стихови, а според неговите зборови, „сиромаштијата, која ја буди смелоста, ме натера да правам стихови“ (paupertas inpulit audax, ut versus facerem). Така, благодарејќи на својата поезија, тој успеал да ги придобие богатите покровители.[4] Неговиот опус не е голем, но затоа пак е целосно сочуван и се состои од четири книги со лирска поезија и четири книги со сатири. На почетокот од поетската кариера, под влијание на големиот римски сатиричар Луцилиј и на хеленскиот јамбограф Архилох, Хорациј пишувал сатири и јамби. Подоцна, тој си поставил задача на римска почва да ја пренесе еолската лирика на Сафо и Алкеј, т.е. за разлика од неговите современици кои пишувале под влијание на хеленистичката (александриска) поезија, Хорациј бил под влијание на архајската хеленска традиција. Така, во текот на седум години пишувал лиркси песни по примерот на еолската мелика и во 23 п.н.е. веќе имал доволно песни за една збирка.[11] Ѕидна поема во Лајден Хорациј е автор на следниве дела:[12][13] „Сатири“ (во две книги), кои самиот тој ги нарекувал „Разговори“ (Sermones), испеани во хексаметри, а посветени на Мецена. Во нив, тој ги критикувал негативните страни на општеството. Во 35 п.н.е., ја објавил првата книга „Сатири“ (10 песни, со вкупно 1.000 хексаметри) кои подоцна ги нарекувал козерии, т.е. лесни разговори (Sermones). Исто така, тие биле напишани и по примерот на дијатрибите (актуелни философски разговори) водени меѓу Бион и Бористен. Во 30 п.н.е., ја објавил втората збирка „Сатири“ (8 песни, со 1.000 хексаметри), која е позрела од првата (авторот не зборува во прво лице, развиен е дијалогот, итн.). Меѓутоа, самиот Хорациј не им придавал големо значење на своите Sermones и ги нарекувал „проза во стихови“ (musa pedestris).[11] „Еподи“ (вкупно 17 песни со 600 стихови), т.е. кратки и долги лирски песни, кои тој ги нарекувал јамби. Во нив, по примерот на Архилох, тој напаѓа одделни личности. Оваа збирка е објавена околу 30 п.н.е., при што тој ги нарекувал пенсите „јамби“, но поради мешањето на кратките стихови (еподи) со долгите, подоцна целата збирка го добила името „Еподи“.[10] „Песни“ (Carmina), т.е. 104 кратки и долги песни (објавени во четири книги кои содржат по 38, 20, 30 и 15 песни, соодветно), испеани во стилот на Сафо, Анакреонт и Алкеј, но во кои тој ја сочувал самостојноста. Станува збор за химни во кои се опеваат боговите и пријателите, како и пригодни песни и песни за виното. Тие се одликуваат со разум, совршена форма и звучен јазик. Од нив, особено се истакнуваат првите шест песни од третата книга (т.н. „Римски оди“). Првите три години биле напишани во текот на седум години и биле завршени во 23 п.н.е., додека четвртата книга била објавена веројатно во 13 п.н.е., а била напишана по убедување на Октавијан Август.[14] „Писма“, т.е. „Посланија“ (Epistulae) во две книги, од кои првата содржи 20, а втората само три посланија. По „Песните“, Хорациј повторно им се вратил на дијатрибите и во 20 п.н.е. ја објавил првата збирка „Посланија“ составена од 20 песни, со вкупно 1.000 хексаметри, кои според содржината сосема малку се разликуваат од „Сатирите“. Во втората книга на „Посланијата“ (три песни со 1.000 хексаметри) тој се свртел кон философијата и во нив пишува за естетиката и за поетската уметност. Од нив се истакнува третото послание, кое набргу било издвоено како посебно дело, „За поетската уметност“ (De arte poetica) со 476 стихови, напишано под влијание на сличното дело на Неоптолем од Парион.[14] Неговите писма се сметаат за едно од врвните дела на римската книжевност. „Столетна песна“ (Carmen saeculare) е химна во 19 строфи. Имено, со намера да го одбележи крајот на граѓанските војни и почетокот на новата ера на мирот, во 17 п.н.е., Октавијан Август сакал да го прослави Секуларниот празник (ludi saeculares), кој се празнувал на секои сто години. На Хорациј му припаднала честа да напише химна во која ги моли боговите да му дадат материјална благосостојба на римскиот народ. Празникот бил славен три дена и три ноќи со полна месечина, од 31 мај до 3 јуни, а химната ја пеел хор составен од 27 момчиња и 27 девојчиња. Во 1890 година, од реката Тибар била извадена камена плоча на која пишувало: carmen composuit Q. Horatius Flaccus. Тогаш, Хорациј се стекнал со голема слава и оттогаш тој бил сметан за „поет на римската лира“ (Romanae fidicen lyrae).[14] Во своето време, Хорациј бил најголемиот римски поет. И тој самиот, во песната посветена на музата Мелпомена, ја опеал својата поетска слава: во неа, тој вели дека подигнал споменик потраен од камен, кого нема да го сотре ниту чекорот на времето; дека голем дел од него ќе остане во срцата на потомците и, на тој начин, никогаш нема да умре; дека од сиромашен човек станал голем; и дека прв во Римското Царство ја пренесол песната на Еолија.[15] Од неговите 104 лирски песни, 38 се напишани со алкејски а 26 во сафички строфи. Во тој поглед, Хорациј го надминал проблемот на оригиналноста, присутен во римската поезија и на хеленската форма ѝ дал своја содржина во духот на неговата животна философија. Навистина, во младоста, тој бил епикуреец (зашто му бил ученик на Филодем), но таа црта не е пресудна во неговото творештво од зрелата возраст и од староста. Според неговата меланхолија, песимизам и апатија, како и по паролата „Ништо да не се чудиш!“ (Nil admirari), тој е поблиску до етиката на Зеноновата „стоа“. Хорациј ја побарал утехата во индивидуалната слобода, во создавањето слобода во себе, во изолацијата и во апатијата. Затоа, неговата поезија е рационално студена и стоички мирна. Како човек кој се разочарал во животот и како пасивен републиканец, во својата поезија ги фалел минатите времиња (laudator temporis acti). Тој претставува еден вид пасивен стоички отпор кон монархијата и може да се смета за првиот предвесник на познатиот „сенаторски стоицизам“ во времето на царството.[16] Рефлексивната лирика на Хорациј извршила големо влијание не само врз неговите современици, туку и врз поезијата во средниот и во новиот век: токму по примерот на Хорациј, Сенека почнал да пишува стоички дијатриби (разговори), само во проза, наместо во стихови; Плејадата во Франција и анакреонтичарите во Германија од него го позајмиле епикурејскиот хедонизам; класичарите ја зеле неговата „поезија на разумот“; а неговите мисли за поезијата и за драмата имале големо влијание врз Боало и биле прифатени како канони во времето на калсицизмот.[17][18] Неговиот придонес кон светската книжевност не е толку во оригиналноста на мотивот, туку во силата на изразот. Исто така, неговата поезија се одликува со јасна и прецизна версификација, како и со различност на јазикот. Така, во сатирите, тој употребува полународен јазик, додека во лирските песни пее со пуристичкиот јазик.[18] Говорејќи за Хорациј, Гете вели дека тој бил над неговото време и сатирично и иронично ја прикажувал моралната расипаност.[19] Наводи[уреди | уреди извор] ↑ Мирослав Марковић, „Квинт Хорације Флак“, во: Хорације, Одабране песме. Београд: Нолит, 1956, стр. 51-52. ↑ „Objašnjenja“, во: Rimska lirika. Beograd: Rad, 1964, стр. 105. ↑ Мирослав Марковић, „Квинт Хорације Флак“, во: Хорације, Одабране песме. Београд: Нолит, 1956, стр. 52. ↑ 4,0 4,1 Мирослав Марковић, „Квинт Хорације Флак“, во: Хорације, Одабране песме. Београд: Нолит, 1956, стр. 52-53. ↑ 5,0 5,1 5,2 „Objašnjenja“, во: Rimska lirika. Beograd: Rad, 1964, стр. 108. ↑ Хорације, Одабране песме. Београд: Нолит, 1956, стр. 41. ↑ Мирослав Марковић, „Квинт Хорације Флак“, во: Хорације, Одабране песме. Београд: Нолит, 1956, стр. 53. ↑ Мирослав Марковић, „Квинт Хорације Флак“, во: Хорације, Одабране песме. Београд: Нолит, 1956, стр. 53-54. ↑ „Objašnjenja“, во: Rimska lirika. Beograd: Rad, 1964, стр. 107. ↑ 10,0 10,1 Мирослав Марковић, „Квинт Хорације Флак“, во: Хорације, Одабране песме. Београд: Нолит, 1956, стр. 55. ↑ 11,0 11,1 Мирослав Марковић, „Квинт Хорације Флак“, во: Хорације, Одабране песме. Београд: Нолит, 1956, стр. 55-56. ↑ „Kvint Horacije Flak“, во: Rimska lirika. Beograd: Rad, 1964, стр. 97-98. ↑ Jevrosima Drašković, „Razvitak rimske lirike“, во: Rimska lirika. Beograd: Rad, 1964, стр. 111. ↑ 14,0 14,1 14,2 Мирослав Марковић, „Квинт Хорације Флак“, во: Хорације, Одабране песме. Београд: Нолит, 1956, стр. 56-57. ↑ Хорације, Одабране песме. Београд: Нолит, 1956, стр. 50. ↑ Мирослав Марковић, „Квинт Хорације Флак“, во: Хорације, Одабране песме. Београд: Нолит, 1956, стр. 58-60. ↑ Jevrosima Drašković, „Razvitak rimske lirike“, во: Rimska lirika. Beograd: Rad, 1964, стр. 111-112. ↑ 18,0 18,1 Мирослав Марковић, „Квинт Хорације Флак“, во: Хорације, Одабране песме. Београд: Нолит, 1956, стр. 60. ↑ J. P. Ekerman, Razgovori sa Geteom: Poslednjih godina njegova života. Beograd: Rad, 1960, стр. 62. Надворешни врски[уреди | уреди извор] Викицитат има збирка цитати поврзани со: Horace Викиизворот на латински има изворна содржина поврзана со оваа статија: Latin texts of Quintus Horatius Flaccus Викиизворот на англиски има изворна содржина поврзана со оваа статија: English translations of texts of Quintus Horatius Flaccus Енциклопедијата Британика 1911 на Викиизворот има текст поврзан со „Horace“. „Хорациј“ на Ризницата ? Full text (in Latin): Horace’s Satirae (= Satires), Epistolae (= Epistles, Letters), etc. From archive.org. Retrieved 13 September 2010. Дела од Horace на проектот „Гутенберг“ The works of Horace at The Latin Library Selected Poems of Horace The Perseus Project — Latin and Greek authors (with English translations), including Horace Biography and chronology Horace's works: text, concordances and frequency list SORGLL: Horace, Odes I.22, read by Robert Sonkowsky Translations of several odes in the original meters (with accompaniment). A discussion and comparison of three different contemporary translations of Horace's Odes Some spurious lines in the Ars Poetica? 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ml-wikipedia-org-1784	----	ഹൊറസ് - വിക്കിപീഡിയ ഹൊറസ് വിക്കിപീഡിയ, ഒരു സ്വതന്ത്ര വിജ്ഞാനകോശം. Jump to navigation Jump to search ഇംഗ്ലീഷ് വിലാസം https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace ഹൊറസ്, ആന്റൻ വോൺ വെർണറുടെ ഭാവനയിൽ അഗസ്റ്റസ് ചക്രവർത്തിയുടെ കാലത്തെ പ്രസിദ്ധനായ റോമൻ കവിയായിരുന്നു ഹൊറസ് എന്ന് ആംഗലേയലോകത്ത് അറിയപ്പെടുന്ന ക്വിന്തൂസ് ഹൊറഷ്യൂസ് ഫ്ലാച്ചൂസ്(വെനോസ, ഡിസംബർ 8, 65 ബി.സി. - റോം, നവംബർ 27, 8 ബി.സി.).വാഗ്മിയായ ക്വിന്റിലിയൻ തന്റെ ഓഡസിന്റെ വായനയിലുളള ഒരേയൊരു ലത്തീൻ ഭാഷയിലെ വരികളെ മാത്രമായിരുന്നു പരാമർശിച്ചത്: അദ്ദേഹം ചിലപ്പോൾ ഉന്നതമായതാവാം. എങ്കിലും അദ്ദേഹത്തിന്റെ ആകർഷകത്വവും, മഹത്ത്വവും തികച്ചും നിഗൂഢത നിറഞ്ഞതാണ്. അദ്ദേഹത്തിന്റെ കണക്കുകൾക്കുമൊപ്പം വ്യക്തിരിക്തനും, വാക്കുകളുടെ തെരഞ്ഞെടുപ്പിൽ ധൈര്യപൂർവ്വം സംസാരിച്ചും കാണപ്പെടുന്നു. [1] ഉള്ളടക്കം 1 ഇവയും കാണുക 2 Notes 3 Citations 4 അവലംബം 5 കൂടുതൽ വായനയ്ക്ക് 6 പുറം കണ്ണികൾ ഇവയും കാണുക[തിരുത്തുക] Horatia (gens) Otium Prosody (Latin) Translation Notes[തിരുത്തുക] Citations[തിരുത്തുക] ↑ Quintilian 10.1.96. The only other lyrical poet Quintilian thought comparable with Horace was the now obscure poet/metrical theorist, Caesius Bassus (R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 280) Library resources About Horace Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Horace Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries അവലംബം[തിരുത്തുക] Arnold, Matthew (1970). Selected Prose. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-043058-5. Barrow, R (1949). The Romans. Penguin/Pelican Books. Barchiesi, A (2001). Speaking Volumes: Narrative and Intertext in Ovid and Other Latin Poets. Duckworth. Bischoff, B (1971). "Living with the satirists". Classical Influences on European Culture AD 500–1500. Cambridge University Press. Bush, Douglas (1966). Milton: Poetical Works. Oxford University Press. Campbell, A (1924). Horace: A New Interpretation. London. Conway, R (1921). New Studies of a Great Inheritance. London. Davis, Gregson (1991). Polyhymnia. The Rhetoric to Horatian Lyric Discourse. University of California. Ferri, Rolando (2007). "The Epistles". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-53684-4. Flesch, William (2009). The Facts on File Companion to British Poetry, 19th Century. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-5896-9. Frank, Tenney (1928). Catullus and Horace. New York. Fraenkel, Eduard (1957). Horace. Oxford University Press. Friis-Jensen, Karsten (2007). "Horace in the Middle Ages". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Griffin, Jasper (1993). "Horace in the Thirties". Horace 2000. Ann Arbor. Griffin, Jasper (2007). "Gods and religion". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge university Press. Harrison, Stephen (2005). "Lyric and Iambic". A Companion to Latin Literature. Blackwell Publishing. Harrison, Stephen (2007). "Introduction". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Harrison, Stephen (2007). "Style and poetic texture". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Harrison, Stephen (2007). "The nineteenth and twentieth centuries". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Hooley, D (1997). The Knotted Thong: Structures of Mimesis in Persius. Ann Arbor. Hutchinson, G (2002). "The publication and individuality of Horace's Odes 1–3". Classical Quarterly 52. Kiernan, Victor (1999). Horace: Poetics and Politics. St Martin's Press. Kupersmith, W (1985). Roman Satirists in Seventeenth Century England. Lincoln, Nabraska and London. Loveling, Benjamin (1741). Latin and English Poems, by a Gentleman of Trinity College, Oxford. London. Lowrie, Michèle (1997). Horace's Narrative Odes. Oxford University Press. Lyne, R (1986). "Augustan Poetry and Society". The Oxford History of the Classical World. Oxford University Press. Mankin, David (1995). Horace: Epodes. Cambridge university Press. McNeill, Randall (2010). Horace. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-980511-2. Michie, James (1967). "Horace the Man". The Odes of Horace. Penguin Classics. Moles, John (2007). "Philosophy and ethics". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Money, David (2007). "The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Morgan, Llewelyn (2005). "Satire". A Companion to Latin Literature. Blackwell Publishing. Muecke, Frances (2007). "the Satires". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Nisbet, Robin (2007). "Horace: life and chronology". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Reckford, K. J. (1997). Horatius: the man and the hour. 118. American Journal of Philology. pp. 538–612. Rivers, Elias (1983). Fray Luis de León: The Original Poems. Grant and Cutler. Rossetti, Christina (2001). The Complete Poems. Penguin Books. Rudd, Niall (1973). The Satires of Horace and Persius. Penguin Classics. Santirocco, Matthew (1986). Unity and Design in Horace's Odes. University of North Carolina. Syme, R (1986). The Augustan Aristocracy. Oxford University Press. Talbot, J (2001). "A Horatian Pun in Paradise Lost". Notes and Queries 48 (1). Oxford University Press. Tarrant, Richard (2007). "Ancient receptions of Horace". The Cambridge Companion to Horace. Cambridge University Press. Tollet, Elizabeth (1755). Poems on Several Occasions. London. കൂടുതൽ വായനയ്ക്ക്[തിരുത്തുക] Davis, Gregson (1991). Polyhymnia the rhetoric of Horatian lyric discourse. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-91030-3. Fraenkel, Eduard (1957). Horace. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Horace (1983). The complete works of Horace. Charles E. Passage, trans. New York: Ungar. ISBN 0-8044-2404-7. Johnson, W.R. (1993). Horace and the dialectic of freedom : readings in Epistles 1. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-2868-8. Lyne, R.O.A.M. (1995). Horace : behind the public poetry. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press. ISBN 0-300-06322-9. Lyons, Stuart (1997). Horace's Odes and the Mystery of Do-Re-Mi. Aris & Phillips. Lyons, Stuart (2010). Music in the Odes of Horace. Aris & Phillips. Michie, James (1964). The Odes of Horace. Rupert Hart-Davis. Newman, J.K. (1967). Augustus and the New Poetry. Brussels: Latomus, revue d’études latines. Noyes, Alfred (1947). Horace: A Portrait. New York: Sheed and Ward. Perret, Jacques (1964). Horace. Bertha Humez, trans. New York: New York University Press. Putnam, Michael C.J. (1986). Artifices of eternity : Horace's fourth book of Odes. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-1852-6. Reckford, Kenneth J. (1969). Horace. New York: Twayne. Rudd, Niall, ed. (1993). Horace 2000: a celebration : essays for the bimillennium. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-10490-X. Sydenham, Colin (2005). Horace The Odes. Duckworth. West, David (1997). Horace The Complete Odes and Epodes. Oxford University Press. Wilkinson, L.P. (1951). Horace and His Lyric Poetry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. പുറം കണ്ണികൾ[തിരുത്തുക] വിക്കിചൊല്ലുകളിലെ Horace എന്ന താളിൽ ഈ ലേഖനവുമായി ബന്ധപ്പെട്ട ചൊല്ലുകൾ ലഭ്യമാണ്‌: ലാറ്റിൻ വിക്കിഗ്രന്ഥശാലയിൽ ഈ ലേഖനവുമായി ബന്ധപ്പെട്ട ഉള്ളടക്കം ഉണ്ട്: Latin texts of Quintus Horatius Flaccus ഇംഗ്ലീഷ് വിക്കിഗ്രന്ഥശാലയിൽ ഈ ലേഖനവുമായി ബന്ധപ്പെട്ട ഉള്ളടക്കം ഉണ്ട്: English translations of texts of Quintus Horatius Flaccus Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Horace. വിക്കിമീഡിയ കോമൺസിലെ Quintus Horatius Flaccus എന്ന വർഗ്ഗത്തിൽ ഇതുമായി ബന്ധപ്പെട്ട കൂടുതൽ പ്രമാണങ്ങൾ ലഭ്യമാണ്. Horace എന്ന വ്യക്തിയുടെ രചനകൾ പ്രോജക്ട് ഗുട്ടൻബർഗിൽനിന്ന് Works by or about ഹൊറസ് at Internet Archive ഹൊറസ് public domain audiobooks from LibriVox Q. Horati Flacci opera, recensuerunt O. Keller et A. Holder, 2 voll., Lipsiae in aedibus B. G. Teubneri, 1864-9. Common sayings from Horace The works of Horace at The Latin Library Selected Poems of Horace Works by Horace at Perseus Digital Library Biography and chronology Horace's works: text, concordances and frequency list SORGLL: Horace, Odes I.22, read by Robert Sonkowsky Translations of several odes in the original meters (with accompaniment). A discussion and comparison of three different contemporary translations of Horace's Odes Some spurious lines in the Ars Poetica? Horati opera, Acronis et Porphyrionis commentarii, varia lectio etc. (latine) Horace MS 1a Ars Poetica and Epistulae at OPenn കാ സം തി Works by Horace Poetry Satires Epodes Odes Epistles Carmen Saeculare Ars Poetica Collections Satires 2.5 Quote Ut pictura poesis Related Spring of Bandusia കാ സം തി പുരാതന റോമുമായി ബന്ധപ്പെട്ട വിഷയങ്ങൾ Outline Timeline Epochs Foundation Monarchy Republic Empire timeline Principate Dominate Decline Fall Western Empire / Eastern Empire Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Century Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Tribune Quaestor Aedile Praetor Consul Censor Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Dictator Magister Equitum Decemviri Consular Tribune Triumvir Rex Interrex Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Roman citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Military Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications Castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy fleets Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency SPQR Technology Abacus Numerals Civil engineering Military engineering Military technology Aqueducts Bridges Circus Concrete Forum Metallurgy Roads Sanitation Thermae Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Hairstyles Education Literature Music Mythology Religion Romanization Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equestrian order Gens Tribes Naming conventions Women Marriage Slavery Bagaudae Language (Latin) History Alphabet Romance languages Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Writers Apuleius Caesar Catullus Cicero Ennius Horace Juvenal Livy Lucan Lucretius Martial Ovid Petronius Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Propertius Quintilian Sallust Seneca Statius Suetonius Tacitus Terence Tibullus Varro Virgil Vitruvius Lists Wars Battles Generals Legions Emperors Geographers Institutions Laws Consuls Distinguished women Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Bononia Carthage Constantinople Londinium Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Rome Smyrna Other topics Fiction set in ancient Rome films video games Portal Authority control WorldCat Identities VIAF: 100227522 LCCN: n79081354 ISNI: 0000 0001 2145 2178 GND: 118553569 SELIBR: 189659 SUDOC: 026659166 BNF: cb11886570b (data) BIBSYS: 90055203 ULAN: 500404135 MusicBrainz: af616f1f-6242-4802-a1bf-8d3f0647083c NLA: 35206138 NDL: 00540086 NKC: jn20000603003 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\000246 RLS: 000083136 BNE: XX891549 CiNii: DA00782980 ഒരു കവിയെ /കവയത്രിയെ കുറിച്ചുള്ള ഈ ലേഖനം അപൂർണ്ണമാണ്‌. ഇതു വികസിപ്പിക്കുവാൻ സഹായിക്കുക. സഹായത്തിനു ഈ ലേഖനത്തിന്റെ ഇംഗ്ലീഷ് പതിപ്പും കാണുക. "https://ml.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ഹൊറസ്&oldid=3086861" എന്ന താളിൽനിന്ന് ശേഖരിച്ചത് വർഗ്ഗങ്ങൾ: കവികൾ - അപൂർണ്ണലേഖനങ്ങൾ റോമൻ കവികൾ മറഞ്ഞിരിക്കുന്ന വർഗ്ഗങ്ങൾ: AC with 17 elements Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SBN identifiers ഗമന വഴികാട്ടി വ്യക്തിഗത ഉപകരണങ്ങൾ പ്രവേശിച്ചിട്ടില്ല സംവാദം സംഭാവനകൾ അംഗത്വമെടുക്കുക പ്രവേശിക്കുക നാമമേഖലകൾ ലേഖനം സംവാദം രൂപഭേദങ്ങൾ ദർശനീയത വായിക്കുക തിരുത്തുക നാൾവഴി കാണുക കൂടുതൽ തിരയൂ ഉള്ളടക്കം പ്രധാന താൾ ഉള്ളടക്കം സമകാലികം പുതിയ താളുകൾ ഏതെങ്കിലും താൾ പങ്കാളിത്തം ലേഖനം തുടങ്ങുക സമീപകാല മാറ്റങ്ങൾ സാമൂഹികകവാടം കവാടം പഞ്ചായത്ത് Embassy ധനസമാഹരണം വഴികാട്ടി സഹായം എഴുത്തുകളരി ശൈലീപുസ്തകം നയങ്ങളും മാർഗ്ഗരേഖകളും ആശയവിനിമയം തത്സമയ സംവാദം മെയിലിങ് ലിസ്റ്റ് ഉപകരണങ്ങൾ ഈ താളിലേക്കുള്ള കണ്ണികൾ അനുബന്ധ മാറ്റങ്ങൾ അപ്‌ലോഡ്‌ പ്രത്യേക താളുകൾ സ്ഥിരംകണ്ണി താളിന്റെ വിവരങ്ങൾ ഈ താൾ ഉദ്ധരിക്കുക വിക്കിഡേറ്റ ഇനം അച്ചടിയ്ക്കുക/കയറ്റുമതി ചെയ്യുക പുസ്തകം സൃഷ്ടിക്കുക PDF ആയി ഡൗൺലോഡ് ചെയ്യുക അച്ചടിരൂപം ഇതരപദ്ധതികളിൽ വിക്കിമീഡിയ കോമൺസ് ഇതരഭാഷകളിൽ Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 കണ്ണികൾ തിരുത്തുക ഈ താൾ അവസാനം തിരുത്തപ്പെട്ടത്: 22:12, 19 ഫെബ്രുവരി 2019. വിവരങ്ങൾ ക്രിയേറ്റീവ് കോമൺസ് ആട്രിബ്യൂഷൻ-ഷെയർഎലൈക്ക് അനുമതിപത്ര പ്രകാരം ലഭ്യമാണ്; മേൽ നിബന്ധനകൾ ഉണ്ടായേക്കാം. കൂടുതൽ വിവരങ്ങൾക്ക് ഉപയോഗനിബന്ധനകൾ കാണുക. സ്വകാര്യതാനയം വിക്കിപീഡിയ സം‌രംഭത്തെക്കുറിച്ച് നിരാകരണങ്ങൾ മൊബൈൽ ദൃശ്യരൂപം ഡെവലപ്പർമാർ സ്ഥിതിവിവരക്കണക്കുകൾ കുക്കി പ്രസ്താവന 
mn-wikipedia-org-3268	----	Гораций — Википедиа нэвтэрхий толь Гораций Чөлөөт нэвтэрхий толь — Википедиагаас Jump to navigation Jump to search Гораций, Антон фон Вернерийн зураг Гораций(Quintus Horatius Flaccus, МЭӨ 65 он - МЭӨ 8 он ) нь Эртний Ромын эриний Өмнөд Италийн яруу найрагч юм. Августтай нэг үед амьдарч байсан Латин утга зохиолын алтан үеийн яруу найрагч. Тэрээр Вергилийтэй зэрэгцэн үнэлэгддэг. "Хошин элэглэл", "Шүлгийн түүвэр", "Эпидос" зэрэг бүтээлүүдээрээ алдартай. Түүний "Шүлгийн тухай" захидлын цуглуулга нь Аристотелийн "Шүлэг судлахуй"-той зэрэгцэн, сонгодог шүлгийн хэлэлцүүлэгт чухал байр суурь эзэлдэг. Энэ дундаас "Шүлэг нь зураг шиг..." (ut pictura poesis) гэх мөр нь, дараа үедээ уран зурагт нөлөө үзүүлсэн байна. Энэ өгүүлэл хэт богино байна. Үүнийг өргөжүүлж Википедиад туслаарай. "https://mn.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Гораций&oldid=434028"-с авсан Ангилал: Түүхий Эртний Ромын яруу найрагч Хажуугийн цэс Хувийн хэрэгсэлүүд нэвтрээгүй байна Энэ IP-н яриа Contributions Бүртгүүлэх Нэвтрэх Хуудсын төрөл Өгүүлэл Хэлэлцүүлэг Хувилбарууд Харсан тоо Унших Засварлах Edit source Түүх More Хайх Залуурдагч Нүүр хуудас Сүүлийн үеийн мэдээ Сүүлийн өөрчлөлтүүд Санамсаргүй хуудас Тусламж А — Я хэлхээс Багаж хэрэгсэл Энэ холбогдсон нь Холбогдох өөрчлөлт Файл оруулах Тусгай хуудсууд Тогтмол холбоос Хуудасны мэдээлэл Эндээс эш татах Төслөөр холбогдох Хэвлэх/Экспортлох Шинээр ном нээх PDF хэлбэрээр татаж авах Хэвлэх хувилбар In other projects Wikimedia Commons Бусад хэлээр Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Холбоос засах Энэ хуудсыг хамгийн сүүлд өөрчилсөн нь 03:59, 8 Тавдугаар сар 2015. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Хувийн мэдээллийн талаарх баримтлал Википедиагийн тухай Татгалзал Мобайл хувилбар Хөгжүүлэгчид Statistics Cookie statement 
mr-wikipedia-org-9503	----	होरेस - विकिपीडिया होरेस विकिपीडिया, मुक्‍त ज्ञानकोशातून Jump to navigation Jump to search होरेस Quintus Horatius Flaccus जन्म ८ डिसेंबर, इ.स.पू. ६५ रोमन प्रजासत्ताक मृत्यू २७ नोव्हेंबर, इ.स.पू. ८ रोम, रोमन साम्राज्य पेशा कवी होरेस (लॅटिन: Quintus Horatius Flaccus; ८ डिसेंबर, इ.स.पू. ६५ — २७ नोव्हेंबर, इ.स.पू. ८) हा प्राचीन रोममधील ऑगस्टसच्या काळातील एक कवी होता. ओदेस ही त्याचा कवितासंग्रह लॅटिन साहित्यामधील महत्त्वाची मानली जातो. व्हर्जिल, ओव्हिड व होरेस हे तत्कालीन लॅटिन साहित्याचे तीन मार्गदर्शक स्तंभ म्हणून ओळखले जात असत. बाह्य दुवे[संपादन] विकिमीडिया कॉमन्सवर होरेस संबंधित संचिका आहेत होरेसचे साहित्य होरेसचे व्यक्तिचित्र "https://mr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=होरेस&oldid=1138271" पासून हुडकले वर्ग: रोमन कवी इ.स.पू. ६५ मधील जन्म इ.स.पू. ८ मधील मृत्यू दिक्चालन यादी वैयक्तिक साधने आल्याची नोंद केलेली नाही(लॉग इन केलेले नाही) चर्चा पान योगदान नवीन खाते तयार करा प्रवेश करा(लॉग इन करा) नामविश्वे लेख चर्चा चले(व्हेरियंट्स) दृष्ये वाचा संपादन इतिहास पहा More शोध सुचालन मुखपृष्ठ धूळपाटी कार्यशाळा साहाय्य/मदतकेंद्र अलीकडील बदल अविशिष्ट लेख चावडी दूतावास (Embassy) ऑनलाइन शब्दकोश दान साधनपेटी येथे काय जोडले आहे या पृष्ठासंबंधीचे बदल संचिका चढवा विशेष पृष्ठे शाश्वत दुवा पानाबद्दलची माहिती लेखाचा संदर्भ द्या लघु यूआरएल(Short URL) विकिडाटा कलम छापा/ निर्यात करा ग्रंथ तयार करा PDF म्हणून उतरवा छापण्यायोग्य आवृत्ती इतर प्रकल्पात विकिमिडिया कॉमन्स इतर भाषांमध्ये Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 दुवे संपादा या पानातील शेवटचा बदल ९ मार्च २०१३ रोजी २२:४० वाजता केला गेला. येथील मजकूर हा क्रियेटीव्ह कॉमन्स अट्रीब्युशन-शेअरअलाईक लायसन्स अंतर्गत उपलब्ध आहे; अतिरिक्त अटी लागू असू शकतात. हे संकेतस्थळ वापरुन आपण याच्या वापरण्याच्या अटी आणि गोपनीयता धोरणांचे पालन करण्यास आपली सहमती देत आहात. Wikipedia® हे Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. एक ना-नफा ना-तोटा संस्थेचे नोंदणीकृत ट्रेडमार्क आहे. गुप्तता नीती विकिपीडिया बद्दल उत्तरदायित्वास नकार भ्रमणध्वनी-दृश्य विकसक Statistics कुकिंचा तक्ता 
ms-wikipedia-org-1781	----	Horatius - Wikipedia Bahasa Melayu, ensiklopedia bebas Horatius Daripada Wikipedia, ensiklopedia bebas. Jump to navigation Jump to search Horatius Gambaran Horatius oleh Anton von Werner Info kelahiran Quintus Horatius Flaccus 8 December 65 BC Venusia, Itali, Republik Roma Kematian 27 November 8 BC (age 56) Roma Kubur Roma Pekerjaan Askar, scriba quaestorius, Penyajak, senator Bahasa bahasa Latin Warganegara Republik Rom Genre Puisi berlirik Pencapaian ketara Carmina "Ars Poetica" Quintus Horatius Flaccus (8 Disember 65 SM – 27 November 8 SM, nama Bahasa Inggeris: Horace) ialah seorang askar dan penyajak Romawi; beliau merupakan pengarang tersohor di Empayar Rom semasa zaman Maharaja Augustus. Isi kandungan 1 Biografi 1.1 Awal hidup 1.2 Sebagai pegawai= 2 Gaya pengkaryaan 3 Senarai karya 4 Nota 5 Rujukan 6 Pautan luar Biografi[sunting | sunting sumber] Awal hidup[sunting | sunting sumber] Horatius lahir di Venosa, sebuah kota kecil di Itali. Ayahnya merupakan seorang hamba dimerdekakan. Dua anak-beranak pindah ke Roma beberapa waktu kemudian, di mana ayahnya bekerja sebagai makelar lalu meningkatkan taraf hidup mereka menjadi kaya dan bisa mengirim Horatius ke sekolah terbaik di Roma. Ayahnya juga bisa mengirimnya ke kota Athina di Yunani untuk belajar bahasa dan falsafah Yunani. Keadaan mereka yang banyak berubah ini menjadikan Horatius amat bangga dengan ayahnya, malah beliau berbangga dengan latar belakang mereka yang mampu mengangkat diri daripada serba kekurangan. Sebagai pegawai=[sunting | sunting sumber] Di awal masa mudanya, Julius Caesar, diktator Romawi, terbunuh - perang segera diisytiharkankan terhadap orang-orang yang membunuhnya, Horatius sendiri memihak kepada militer. Saat perang selesai, Horatius kembali ke Romawi dan mengetahui orang lain tinggal di apartemennya. Ayahnya sudah pergi. Horatius menjadi amat miskin. Akhirnya, ia menemukan pekerjaan di perbendaharaan menyusun wang mahsul empayar. Kawannya Lucius Varius Rufus dan Virgil, yang juga menulis, memperkenalkannya dengan Maecenas. Maecenas adalah kawan dekat Augustus, Maharaja Romawi. Horatius tinggal di Tibur, sebuah daerah di Roma. Saat meninggal, Horatius memberikan tanah yang dimilikinya kepada Augustus, untuk menambah tanah yang dimiliki negara. Kini, banyak penulis yang mengunjungi tanah itu untuk mengingatnya. Gaya pengkaryaan[sunting | sunting sumber] Beberapa puisi Horatius sulit diterjemahkan karena sintaksis, tatabahasa, dan strukturnya yang amat berbeda dengan bahasa-bahasa modern. Horatius banyak dipandang sejumlah orang, termasuk para ahli, sebagai salah satu penyair terbaik bahasa Latin Senarai karya[sunting | sunting sumber] Berikut merupakan turutan pengkaryaan Horatius sepanjang hidupnya sepertimana yang dipersetujui banyak pengkaji:[1] Satirae 1 (s. 35–34 SM) Satirae 2 (s. 30 SM) Epode (30 SM) Carmina I, II, III (s. 23 SM)[nb 1] Epistularum liber primus (s. 21 SM) Carmen Saeculare (17 SM) Epistularum liber secundus (s. 11 SM)[nb 2] Carmina IV (c. 11 BC) Ars Poetica (c. 10–8 BC)[nb 3] Nota[sunting | sunting sumber] ^ According to a recent theory, the three books of Odes were issued separately, possibly in 26, 24 and 23 BC (see G. Hutchinson (2002), Classical Quarterly 52: 517–37) ^ 19 BC is the usual estimate but c. 11 BC has good support too (see R. Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 18–20 ^ The date however is subject to much controversy with 22–18 BC another option (see for example R. Syme, The Augustan Aristocracy, 379–81 Rujukan[sunting | sunting sumber] ^ R Nisbet, Horace: life and chronology, 17–21 Pautan luar[sunting | sunting sumber] Projek Gutenberg: Karya-karya oleh Horace Karya oleh atau tentang Horatius di Internet Archive Karya oleh Horatius di LibriVox (buku audio domain awam) The works of Horace - The Latin Library Selected Poems of Horace Works by Horace = Perseus Digital Library Diambil daripada "https://ms.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horatius&oldid=4755985" Kategori: Rencana dengan pautan LibriVox Ahli politik Rom Kategori-kategori tersembunyi: Rencana yang mengandungi teks bahasa Inggeris Rencana dengan pautan Internet Archive Menu pandu arah Alat peribadi Belum log masuk Perbincangan Sumbangan Buka akaun Log masuk Ruang nama Rencana Perbincangan Kelainan Rupa Baca Sunting Sunting sumber Lihat sejarah More Cari Pandu arah Laman Utama Tinjau Hal semasa Rencana rawak Perhubungan Tentang Wikipedia Portal masyarakat Perubahan terkini Hubungi kami Menderma Bantuan Kedai Kopi Peralatan Pautan ke laman ini Perubahan berkaitan Muat naik fail Laman khas Pautan kekal Maklumat laman Petik laman ini Item Wikidata Cetak/eksport Cipta buku Muat turun sebagai PDF Versi boleh cetak Dalam projek lain Wikimedia Commons Dalam bahasa lain Afrikaans አማርኛ العربية Aragonés Asturianu تۆرکجه Bahasa Indonesia Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Bosanski Brezhoneg Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά English Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी مصرى Монгол Nāhuatl Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Sardu Seeltersk Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Tarandíne Татарча/tatarça Tiếng Việt Türkçe Українська Volapük Võro Walon Winaray 吴语 粵語 Zazaki Žemaitėška 中文 Sunting pautan Laman ini kali terakhir disunting pada 18:00, 2 April 2020. Teks disediakan dengan Lesen Creative Commons Pengiktirafan/Perkongsian Serupa; terma tambahan mungkin digunakan. Lihat Terma Penggunaan untuk butiran lanjut. Dasar privasi Perihal Wikipedia Penafian Paparan mudah alih Pembangun Statistik Kenyataan kuki 
musicbrainz-org-8145	----	Quintus Horatius Flaccus - MusicBrainz Log In Create Account Artist Event Recording Release Release Group Series Work Area Instrument Label Place Annotation Tag CD Stub Editor Documentation About Us ▾ About MusicBrainz Sponsors Team Shop Contact Us Data Licenses Social Contract Code of Conduct Privacy Policy GDPR Compliance Auto-editor Elections Privileged User Accounts Statistics Timeline Graph Products ▾ MusicBrainz Picard AudioRanger Yate Music Tagger MusicBrainz for Android MusicBrainz Server MusicBrainz Database Developer Resources MusicBrainz API Live Data Feed Search ▾ Search Entities Search Edits Tags Top CD Stubs Documentation ▾ Beginners Guide Style Guidelines How Tos FAQs Documentation Index Edit Types Relationship Types Instrument List Genre List Development English ▾ Deutsch English Français Nederlands (reset language) Help Translate Quintus Horatius Flaccus ~ Person Overview Releases Recordings Works Events Relationships Aliases Tags Details Edit Discography Filter Album + Compilation + Audiobook Year Title Artist Rating Releases 1999 Welcome to the World of the Classics Various Artists 1 This artist only has unofficial release groups by various artists. Showing all release groups for various artists. Artist information Sort name: Flaccus, Quintus Horatius Type: Person Gender: Male Born in: Venosa, Potenza, Basilicata, Italy Died: [unknown] Died in: Rome, Roma, Lazio, Italy Area: Italy ISNI code: 0000 0001 2145 2178 Rating Genres (none) Other tags invalid date for birth and death See all tags External links BnF Catalogue Discogs DNB en: Horace IMSLP Library of Congress Open Library SNAC Trove VIAF: 100227522 Wikidata: Q6197 WorldCat View all relationships Editing Log in to edit Open edits Editing history Subscriptions Subscribe Subscribers Last updated on 2019-07-19 21:47 UTC Donate | Wiki | Forums | IRC | Bug Tracker | Blog | Twitter | Use beta site Brought to you by MetaBrainz Foundation and our sponsors and supporters. Cover Art provided by the Cover Art Archive. 
nah-wikipedia-org-2515	----	Quintus Horatius Flaccus - Huiquipedia, in yōllōxoxouhqui cēntlamatilizāmoxtli Quintus Horatius Flaccus Īhuīcpa Huiquipedia, in yōllōxoxouhqui cēntlamatilizāmoxtli Ir a la navegación Ir a la búsqueda Horatius Tlācatlanōnōtzaliztli Tlācatōcāitl Quintus Horatius Flaccus Tlācatiliztli Tlamahtlācōnti 8, 65 a.X. Venusia Miquiztli Tlamahtlāccēti 27, 8 a.X. Roma Quintus Horatius Flaccus (65 a.X. - 8 a.X.) ītōcā huēyi romatēcatl xōchicuīcani. Nō xiquitta[Ticpatlaz | Ticpatlaz itzintiliz] Oquiz itech "https://nah.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quintus_Horatius_Flaccus&oldid=376204" Neneuhcāyōtl: 65 a.X. tlācatiliztli 8 a.X. tlācatiliztli Romatēcah tlahcuilōni Nemiliztlahtolpohualamatl Motequitihuilocahuan Ahmo otimocalac Teixnamiquiliztli Notlahcuilol Xicchihua motlapohual Xicalaqui Tocatlacauhtli Tlahcuilolamatl Teixnamiquiliztli Nepapan Tlachiyaliztli Tamapohuaz Ticpatlaz Ticpatlaz itzintiliz Tiquittaz tlahtollotl Más Tlatemoliztli ācalpapanōliztli Yacatlahcuilolli Necentlaliloyan Axcancayotl Yancuic tlapatlaliztli Cecen tlahcuilolli Tepalehuiliztli Teyocatiliztli Tequitihualoni In tlein quitzonhuilia nican Itloc itlapatlalizhuan Tlahcuilolquetzaliztli Nōncuahquīzqui āmatl Mochipa tzonhuiliztli Tlahtolamatl itlahtolmelahualiz Tlahtoa itech inin tlahcuilolamatl Elemento de Wikidata Tepoztlahcuiloliztli/tlazazacaliztli Ticchihuaz ce amoxtli Tocontemoz iuhqui PDF Tepoztlahcuilolli En otros proyectos Wikimedia Commons Occequi tlahtolli Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Ticpatlaz in tlatzonhuiliztli Inin tlahcuilolamatl omopatlac immanin 8 Yēt 2013, ipan 22:08. El texto está disponible bajo la Licencia Creative Commons Atribución-CompartirIgual 3.0; pueden aplicarse términos adicionales. Véase Términos de uso para más detalles. Tlahcuilolli piyaliznahuatilli Itechpa Huiquipedia tlamamalquixtiliztli Versión para móviles Matlachihchiuhqueh Estadísticas Declaración de cookies 
nla-gov-au-7564	----	Horace - Full record view - Libraries Australia Search Please enable JavaScript. JavaScript is required to use most of the features of Libraries Australia. Skip to content National Library of Australia   Login Home Help Contact us Login     Libraries Australia Authorities - Full view Record ID: 35206138 (Libraries Australia Authorities) Authority type: Name. Description conventions: rda LC number: n 79081354 Heading: Horace Birth: -0064 Death: -0007 Occupations: poet Used for: Horaz Orazio Gorat︠s︡iĭ Flakk, Kvint Horacjusz Horacy Horats Horaṭiyus Horaṭiyos Gorat︠s︡īĭ Horacjusz Flakkus, Kwintus Khorat︠s︡iĭ Flak, Kvint Khorat︠s︡iĭ Orazio Flacco, Quinto Horacij Horacio, 65 B.C.-8 B.C. הוראציוס הורטיוס Horacio Flaco, Q. Horatius Flaccus, Quintus Notes: Machine-derived non-Latin script reference project. Non-Latin script references not evaluated. His Q. Horativs Flaccvs, ex fide atqve avctoritate decem librorum manuscriptorum opera ... M D LXVI. Speigel, N. Horaṭiyus, c1984. His Satiry Kvinta Gorat︠s︡īi︠a︡ Flakka, 1858 p. v (Gorat︠s︡īi︠a︡) His Dzieła wszystkie, 1988 v. 2, t.p. (Kwintus Horacjusz Flakkus) Gandeva, R. Kvint Khorat︠s︡iĭ Flak, 1991 t.p. (Kvint Khorat︠s︡iĭ Flak) verso t.p. (Khorat︠s︡iĭ) Postera crescam laude, 1993 p. 11 (Quinto Orazio Flacco) A Leuconoe, e altre poesie, 1993 t.p. (Quinto Orazio Flacco) Študije o Horaciju, 1993 t.p. (... Horaciju) p. 5 (Horacij) Tamayo, F. Crítica del duelo, 2000 t.p. (Horacio) p. 65 (author of Epístola ad pisones) Oxford classical dict., 1996 (Horace (Quintus Horatius Flaccus); b. 8 Dec. 65 B.C.; d. 27 Nov. 8 B.C.) Poesía lírica, 2007 t.p. (Q. Horacio Flaco) Local system number: (AuCNL)187027 000000207158 abv00208882 Cataloguing source: DLC eng DLC DLC OCoLC DLC OCoLC ICU UPB IEN AKIN:NBD rda Authentication code: kin Quick links Australian Libraries Gateway Trove Help Fact sheets and user guides Manual (PDF) Training Privacy © National Library of Australia Version: 1.9.7 
nl-go-kr-3415	----	국가전거서비스 > 국가전거검색 > Horatius Flaccus, Quintus 상세화면 본문내용 바로가기 상단메뉴 가기 국가전거소개 국가전거 소개 국가전거 구상도 국가전거 기대효과 국가전거검색 전거 간략검색 전거 상세검색 전거 분류별검색 국가전거현황 국가전거현황 직업 활동분야 단체유형 지역 언어 게시판 공지사항 FAQ 자료실 수정요청조회 국가전거소개 국가전거 소개 국가전거 구상도 국가전거 기대효과 국가전거검색 전거 간략검색 전거 상세검색 전거 분류별검색 국가전거현황 국가전거현황 직업 활동분야 단체유형 지역 언어 게시판 공지사항 FAQ 자료실 수정요청조회 국가전거검색 전거 간략검색 전거 상세검색 전거 분류별검색 저자작품 차트 데이터 저자작품 저자관련작품 차트 데이터 저자관련작품 주제명 공저자 저자정보 저자맵 작품맵 LODVIAF 수정요청 marc 보기 Horatius Flaccus, Quintus KAC199612791 회원의 상세내역입니다. 생몰년, ISNI, 출생지, 관련지역, 직업, 관련언어, 활동분야, 관련단체, 다른이름을 확인합니다. 생몰년 B.C.-B.C. ISNI 0000 0001 2145 2178 출생지 이탈리아 (로마) 관련지역 이탈리아 직 업 작가;시인 관련언어 라틴어 활동분야 문학;철학 관련단체 - 다른이름 Horatius Flaccus, Q.;Horatius Flaccys, Quintus;Horatius;Horace;호라티우스 플라키스, 퀸투스;호라티우스 마지막 수정일 : 2018-11-05 발행년도 1971-1980[3] 1981-1990[2] 1991-2000[4] 2001-2010[1] 2011-2020[5] 분야별 문학[12] 언어 Korean[15] 가나다순 ▲ 연도순 ▲ 저자작품 저자관련작품 수정요청 국가전거신청자 등록 테이블 이름 생물년 전거제어번호 활동분야 신청자명 이메일 주소 @ 직접입력 naver.com gmail.com nate.com hanmail.net daum.net 제목 요청내용 창작물 추가 창작물 검색 추가하기 첨부파일 #1 첨부파일 #2 개인정보 수집 및 이용목적 안내 수정 요청 내용은 '게시판 > 수정 요청 조회' 메뉴에서 입력하신 이메일 정보로 확인하실 수 있으며, 언제든지 수정 및 삭제가 가능합니다. 개인정보 파일명칭 운영근거 수집 밎 이용 목적 보유 및 이용기간 수집하는 개인정보 항목 국가전거·ISNI 신청자 DB 정보주체의 이용 동의 - ISNI 신규 발급 신청 및 국가전거·ISNI 수정 신청 정보 인증 - 신청 처리 결과 확인 3년 (필수) 이름, E-Mail, 요청내용 신청자는 개인정보 수집 및 이용에 거부할 권리가 있습니다. 단, 동의를 거부할 경우 국가전거 및 ISNI 데이터 수정 신청이 불가능합니다. (필수 항목) 개인정보 수집 및 이용에 동의합니다. 동의 미동의 닫기 수정요청 창작물 검색 창작물 검색창작물 검색 테이블 제목 창작자명 발행기관 창작물 식별자 ? 정확한 DOI 입력 시, 해당되는 DOI가 KISTI DOI 센터에서 검색됩니다. 선택하세요 DOI ISBN ISSN 검색 국립중앙도서관 KISTI DOI 센터 단행자료 연속간행자료 온라인자료 DOI 창작물단행자료 창작물목록 테이블 선정 창작물 창작물연속간행자료 창작물목록 테이블 선정 창작물 창작물온라인자료 창작물목록 테이블 선정 창작물 창작물DOI 창작물목록 테이블 선정 창작물 창작물 추가 닫기 개인정보처리방침 이메일 무단수집 거부 개인정보 제3자 이용·제공 우편번호 06579 서울시 서초구 반포대로 201(반포동) Copyright © 2018 by National Library of Korea. All rights reserved. 유관사이트 공공데이터포털 국민권익위원회 대한민국전자정부 문화체육관광부 한국언론진흥재단 외규장각 의궤 국회도서관 도서관정보정책위원회 법원도서관 간행물윤리위원회 한국도서관협회 한국복제전송저작권협회 국가도서관통계시스템 (사)공공도서관협의회 이동 
nl-wikipedia-org-7474	----	Horatius - Wikipedia Horatius Uit Wikipedia, de vrije encyclopedie Naar navigatie springen Naar zoeken springen Zie Horatius (doorverwijspagina) voor andere betekenissen van Horatius. Fantasieportret van Horatius, van de hand van Anton von Werner (1843-1915) Quintus Horatius Flaccus (Venusia, 8 december 65 v.Chr. - Rome, 27 november 8 v.Chr.) was een Romeins dichter. Inhoud 1 Leven 2 Werk 2.1 Oden 2.1.1 De Soracte-ode 2.1.2 Carpe Diem 3 Nederlandse vertalingen (selectie) 4 Noten 5 Externe links Leven[bewerken | brontekst bewerken] Horatius werd geboren op 8 december 65 v.Chr. Zijn vader, Flaccus, was een vrijgelaten gemeenteslaaf in de Romeinse kolonie Venusia, nu Venosa, gelegen langs de Via Appia op de grens tussen Apulië en Lucanië. De vader van Horatius bezat enig land[1] en had in korte tijd een behoorlijk vermogen vergaard[2] met het ontvangen van heffingen.[3] De naam van Horatius' moeder is niet bekend, waarschijnlijk stierf ze bij of kort na zijn geboorte, want zij wordt nooit in zijn werken vermeld. Hoewel Horatius een man van de wereld was, was hij niet ambitieus voor publieke erkenning.[4] Horatius was vooral geïnteresseerd in het verbeteren en hervormen van de Latijnse poëzie.[4] Horatius was klein en dik, zoals hij zichzelf in zijn satiren beschrijft, en door Augustus in een brief: "Onysius bracht mij jouw boekje. Ik ben er heel tevreden over, ook al vind ik het jammer, dat het zo klein is. Je wekt bij mij de indruk, dat je bang bent, dat jouw boekjes groter zijn dan jij zelf bent. Maar jij mist lengte, geen omvang. Je mag dus best in de breedte schrijven; dan wordt de omtrek van jouw boekrol zeer kolossaal, zoals die van je buik."[3] Op zijn tiende ging Horatius met zijn vader naar Rome. Daar kreeg hij een uitstekende opvoeding, zoals normaal alleen de zonen van patriciërs of senatoren die kregen. Zijn leermeester in Rome was Orbilius.[4] Orbilius gebruikte graag zweepslagen om te zorgen dat zijn studenten Livius zouden bestuderen.[5] In 45 v.Chr. ging hij naar Athene om zich er te verdiepen in de Griekse cultuur en de wijsbegeerte. Horatius ging grammatica en retorica volgen. Hij studeerde er tevens filosofie, waarvoor hij onder andere luisterde naar de lezingen van Cratippus van Pergamum.[5] Dit dus allemaal dankzij zijn vader.[6] In Athene ontmoette Horatius Marcus Brutus, die pas Caesar had vermoord en daar jonge Romeinse soldaten aan het ronselen was voor de strijd tegen Octavianus en Antonius. Horatius sloot zich bij hen aan en werd tot krijgstribuun in het leger van Brutus benoemd. Hiervoor moest hij zijn studie onderbreken.[5] Hij nam deel aan de veldslag bij Philippi in 42 v.Chr., waarin Octavianus en Antonius Brutus versloegen. Na deze nederlaag kon Horatius dankzij amnestie ontkomen en keerde hij terug naar Italië. Hij kreeg na het debacle van Philippi een functie als stafofficier. Hij vestigde zich uiteindelijk in Rome, want het land van zijn vader was onteigend toen die was gestorven, terwijl hij in het kamp van de verliezers verkeerde. In Rome kreeg hij een goede baan op het ministerie van Financiën.[6] Als geletterd man ging hij bij de schatkist werken als klerk (scriba quaestorius), maar heel tevreden was hij niet met dit beroep. In deze periode schreef hij zijn eerste poëzie. Horatius schiep een nieuw genre, de levensbeschouwelijke brief in dichtvorm.[7] Zijn eerste dichtwerk was een bundel gedichten, een boekrol met tien Satiren. Deze boekrol kwam uit toen Horatius dertig jaar oud was. De Satiren gingen over morele en maatschappelijke kwesties, waarbij Horatius zich voordoet als een man van het midden. Een voorbeeld uit de Satiren: Geniet, maar drink met mate, zorg ervoor dat je seksueel aan je trekken komt, maar vermijd hoeren en gehuwde vrouwen, wees tegenover je lezers bot noch onderdanig. [6] Lange tijd polijstte hij zijn gedichten (limae labor, ‘het werk van de vijl’) voordat hij ze publiceerde.[8] Horatius zelf zegt, dat de Satiren geen gedichten zijn, maar één gedicht verwekt door een menselijke inspiratie en een stem met sublieme geluiden. Taalnuancering heeft Horatius opgedaan in wijze gesprekken tijdens zijn schoolcarrière en studietijd. Het werk Satiren laat de gedachten van een elegante, zeer geleerde man van de wereld zien.[7] Ook schreef Horatius het werk Epode, dat uit jambische disticha bestaat en in 30 v.Chr. werd gepubliceerd. Deze gedichten werden door Horatius zelf iambi genoemd. Jambische verzen zijn verzen waarbij een lange regel afgewisseld wordt met een korte regel.[9] Horatius leverde in zijn werken veel kritiek. Zijn grootste bijdrage in het geven van literaire kritiek is zijn Ars poetica.[9] Horatius van Adalbert von Roessler, ca. 1922 Zijn literaire talent werd snel opgemerkt, en rond 38 v.Chr. werd hij opgenomen in de literaire kring rond Maecenas, nadat hij door Vergilius ingeleid was.[2] Maecenas schonk de dichter Horatius 33 v.Chr. een villa, inclusief een groot landgoed, in de bergen in de buurt van de Tiber.[8] Daar zou hij zich bijna de rest van zijn leven bezighouden met zijn poëzie. Zijn huis is te zien bij het kleine bos van Tibur.[3] Toen in 19 v.Chr. twee van zijn beste vrienden, Vergilius en Rufus, stierven, bleef hij ontroostbaar achter als enige van een grote generatie dichters. In 17 v.Chr.[1] kreeg Horatius de eer om de officiële hymne te mogen schrijven voor het door Augustus ingestelde eeuwfeest Carmen Saeculare (een hymne is een verheven lofzang op een bepaald onderwerp).[6] Dit werd door een koor van 27 jongens en 27 meisjes gezongen.[8] In zijn werk is Horatius veel beïnvloed door Griekse voorbeelden (vooral door archaïsche dichters zoals Archilochus van Paros, Alcaeus van Mytilene en Sappho van Lesbos). Toch laat zijn eigen inspiratie, op inhoudelijk en op stilistisch vlak, hem ver boven het niveau van de imitator uitsteken. Vooral in de ‘vorm’ is hij zeer geleerd. Horatius’ stijl onderscheidt zich door een grote afwisseling, van ernstig en plechtig taalgebruik tot bijna onbeduidende spreektaal. Het woordgebruik is erg precies en daardoor past de formulering steeds perfect.[10] Tijdens zijn leven werden Horatius' werken gewaardeerd. Nog voor hij stierf werden zijn Carmina, liederen, een schooltekstboek. Hij had toen weinig navolgers in zijn lyrische vormen. Tijdens de Middeleeuwen werd Horatius ijverig bestudeerd, zowel in als buiten de scholen. In de Middeleeuwen was Horatius vooral populair om zijn moraliserende Sermones en Epistulae. De Carmina werden toen niet zoveel gelezen, maar onder invloed van de Duitse humanist Conrad Celtis werd het gebruikelijk om Horatius' oden op muziek te zetten zodat de studenten ze elke dag konden zingen aan het eind van de lessen.[11] In 8 v.Chr. stierf Maecenas. Horatius overleed negenenvijftig dagen later op 57-jarige leeftijd op 27 november 8 v.Chr..[3] Hij had Augustus tot erfgenaam benoemd, in het openbaar, omdat hij door zijn ziekte niet meer in staat was een testament te ondertekenen.[3] Hij is begraven en bijgezet aan de rand van de Esquilijn, naast de grafheuvel van Maecenas.[3] Werk[bewerken | brontekst bewerken] Gedicht van Horatius op een muur in Leiden Epodae (Epoden, 41-30 v.Chr.): in navolging Griekse dichters probeert Horatius zijn gevoelens van onbehagen en rancune een plaats te geven door er gedichten aan te wijden. De Epoden gaan onder andere over de rust van het landleven en de ellende van de burgeroorlogen, maar ook over andere maatschappelijk en morele problemen. Hij stelde zich hierbij op als de man in het midden. Geniet, maar drink met mate was een uitspraak die Horatius vaak deed in deze gedichten. Ook ging je bij deze gedichten ervan uit dat Horatius het zei, maar blijkt aan het einde dat iemand anders het aan het vertellen was. Het werk bevatte 17 Epoden, agressieve Jambische gedichten in de traditie van Archilochus van Paros (Archilochus was een Grieks dichter van spotdichten.). Na zeeslag Actium in het jaar 31, publiceerde Horatius dit boek.[8] Sermones (Satiren, 35-30 v.Chr.): in navolging van de Romeinse dichter Lucilius stelt hij met milde spot in gesprekken (Lat.: sermones) dwaasheden en fouten van het Romeinse volk aan de kaak. Dit was het tweede boek dat Horatius schreef.[7] Deze gedichten zijn de afgelopen 200 jaar haast niet tot de dichtkunst gerekend. Het werd namelijk gezien als dichterlijk geklets en geouwehoer, al is de structuur van de gedichten goed. Mensen en toestanden worden hierin door de dichter op kritische wijze, maar zonder bijtend cynisme onder de loep genomen. Hij leverde literaire kritiek en kritiek via bijvoorbeeld schilderijen van menselijke gebreken, zoals eer en geldzucht[8] Carmina (Oden, vanaf 30 v.Chr.): in navolging van de Griekse lyrici, vooral Alcaeus en Sappho, verwerkt hij allerlei onderwerpen in korte, lyrische gedichten. Het werk bestond uit drie boeken en verscheen in het jaar 23.[6] Het bestaat uit zo'n 88 gedichten. Hij maakte hierbij goed gebruik van de vrijheden van de woordvolgorde die de Latijnse grammatica toeliet. Horatius probeerde met zijn Carmina, liederen, de oudere Griekse lyriek een plekje te geven in de Romeinse Poëzie en, uitgaande van deze klassieke oude vormen, in het Latijn gelijkwaardige werken te pubiceren. Hoofdthema’s in deze gedichten/liederen zijn liefde, wijn, feestvreugde en de positieve periodes van Augustus’ regering.[9] Epistulae (20 en 14 v.Chr.): net als in de Sermones bekritiseert hij de volkse dwaasheden, alleen minder scherp. In de Epistulae spreekt Horatius van menselijkheid en zijn levenswijsheid.[9] In de laatste 12 jaar van zijn leven is dit werk gemaakt, de exacte datum is niet zeker.[9] Als antwoord op Augustus’ beroep, schreef hij hem een brief, het eerste deel van het tweede boek van Epistulae. Hij begint met een protest tegen degenen die niet het positieve inzien van de moderne tijd.[9] Het eerste boek bevat 19 brieven in hexameters.[1] Ars poetica (12 v.Chr.): ook bekend als de Epistula ad Pisones, een leerdicht over het schrijven van poëzie. De datering hiervan is omstreden. Men gaat ervan uit dat dit zijn laatste gedicht was. Het is een brief gericht aan Calpurnius Piso en zijn 2 zonen.[2] Carmen saeculare (17 v.Chr.): het Eeuwgedicht dat Horatius schreef voor het eeuwfeest dat aanvang juni 17 v.Chr. in Rome gevierd werd. Het Carmen saeculare bestaat uit negentien strofen van vier verzen (totaal: 76 verzen); de dichter richt zich tot Apollo en Diana. Het Eeuwgedicht werd gezongen door koren van jongens en meisjes. In zijn werken zijn duidelijk invloeden van het epicurisme merkbaar. Oden[bewerken | brontekst bewerken] Horatius' lyriek (vooral in de Oden) kan niet los van zijn relatie met de Griekse traditie worden gezien. Een kenmerk van de relatie van Horatius met de Griekse lyriek, is dat hij vaak begint met een saai stuk. Dit moet dan dienen als het motto van de tekst.[9] De Soracte-ode[bewerken | brontekst bewerken] De Soracte-ode is een gedicht waarin Horatius een zekere Thaliarchus aanspoort om bij de dag te leven en ervan te genieten. Latijnse tekst: Nederlandse vertaling Vides ut alta stet nive candidum Soracte, nec iam sustineant onus silvae laborantes, geluque flumina constiterint acuto? Dissolve frigus ligna super foco large reponens atque benignius deprome quadrimum Sabina, o Thaliarche, merum diota. Permitte divis cetera, qui simul stravere ventos aequore fervido deproeliantes, nec cupressi nec veteres agitantur orni. Quid sit futurum cras, fuge quaerere et quem Fors dierum cumque dabit, lucro appone, nec dulces amores sperne, puer, neque tu choreas, donec virenti canities abest morosa. Nunc et Campus et areae lenesque sub noctem susurri composita repetantur hora, nunc et latentis proditor intimo gratus puellae risus ab angulo pignusque dereptum lacertis aut digito male pertinaci Zie je hoe de Soracte blinkend wit door de diepe sneeuw staat, en (hoe) de zwoegende bossen de last niet meer kunnen dragen, en de rivieren bevroren zijn door de felle vorst? Verdrijf de koude, doordat je rijkelijk hout op de haard gooit en haal overvloediger vier jaar oude onvermengde wijn tevoorschijn. Oh Thaliarchus, uit Sabijnse kruik. Laat de rest aan de goden over; zodra zij de winden die vechten op de bruisende zee, tot rust hebben gebracht, worden noch de cipressen noch de oude essen hevig geschud. Wat er morgen zal zijn, wil dat niet vragen en boek als winst welke ook maar van de dagen het Lot zal geven, en versmaad jij, als jongen, niet de zoete liefde en ook niet de koordansen, zolang als het lastige grijze haar afwezig is (bij jou), in de kracht van je leven (lett: die krachtig bent). Laten nu het Marsveld en de pleinen en het zachte gefluister tegen de nacht worden opgezocht op het afgesproken uur. en nu (laat ook) het aangename gelach, dat haar verraadt, van het meisje dat zich verbergt vanuit een verborgen hoekje (opgezocht worden) en het onderpand, ontnomen aan haar armen of aan de vinger die nauwelijks tegenstribbelt. Carpe Diem[bewerken | brontekst bewerken] Latijnse tekst: Nederlandse vertaling Tu ne quaesieris - scire nefas - quem mihi, quem tibi finem di dederint, Leuconoe, nec Babylonios temptaris numeros. Ut melius, quidquid erit, pati! Seu plures hiemes seu tribuit Iuppiter ultimam, quae nunc oppositis debilitat pumicibus mare Tyrrhenum, sapias: vina liques et spatio brevi spem longam reseces. Dum loquimur, fugerit invida aetas: carpe diem, quam minimum credula postero. Onderzoek niet, het is goddeloos om het te weten, welk einde de goden aan mij, welk aan jou hebben gegeven, Leuconoë, en raadpleeg ook niet de berekeningen van de Babyloniërs. Hoeveel beter is het, wat het ook maar zal zijn, te dragen! Hetzij Jupiter meer winters, hetzij hij deze als laatste toedeelt, die de Tyrreense Zee nu met er tegenover gelegen rotsen verzwakt, moge je wijs zijn: moge je de wijn zeven en op korte termijn lange hoop snoeien. Terwijl wij praten zal de afgunstige tijd al gevlucht zijn Pluk de dag, zo min mogelijk vertrouwend op de volgende dag. Nederlandse vertalingen (selectie)[bewerken | brontekst bewerken] Pluk de dag. Vijftig oden, ingeleid, vertaald en verklaard door Paul Claes, 2015 Verzamelde gedichten, Latijnse tekst van de satiren, epoden, oden, brieven en eeuwzang, met vertaling en toelichting van Piet Schrijvers, 2003 Voltooid mijn monument. De oden van Horatius, vertaald door Anton van Wilderode, 1995 Noten[bewerken | brontekst bewerken] ↑ a b c G.J.M. Bartelink, Klassieke letterkunde, Utrecht, 20007, pp. 212-215. ↑ a b c P. Gerbrandy, Het feest van Saturnus, Amsterdam, 2007, pp. 160-165. ↑ a b c d e f Suetonius, Vita Horati (Nederlandse vertaling op koxkollum.nl) ↑ a b c H.J. Rose, A Handbook of Latin Literature, Londen, 19662 (= 1991), pp. 264-265. ↑ a b c G.B. Conte - trad. J.B. Solodow - revv. D. Fowler - G.W. Most, Latin Literature: A History, Baltimore - Londen, 1994 (= 1999), pp. 292-293. ↑ a b c d e P. Gerbrandy, Het feest van Saturnus, Amsterdam, 2007, pp. 169-178. ↑ a b c G.B. Conte - trad. J.B. Solodow - revv. D. Fowler - G.W. Most, Latin Literature: A History, Baltimore - Londen, 1994 (= 1999), pp. 292-320. ↑ a b c d e G.J.M. Bartelink, Klassieke letterkunde, Utrecht, 20007, pp. 212-214. ↑ a b c d e f g H.J. Rose, A Handbook of Latin Literature, Londen, 19662 (= 1991), pp. 264-285. ↑ P. Claes (trad. introd. annot.), Horatius. Pluk de dag: vijftig oden, Amsterdam, 2015, p. 6. ↑ E. Stemplinger, Das Fortleben der horazischen Lyrik seit der Renaissance, Leipzig, 1906, pp. 42-43. Externe links[bewerken | brontekst bewerken] (la) Sermones, Carmina en Epistulae van Horatius, Latijnse tekst, van website thelatinlibrary.com. Geraadpleegd 9 november 2010. (la) Carmina Horatiana: Alle carmina van Horatius in het Latijn gereciteerd door Thomas Bervoets. (en) A rhytmical translation of the First Book of the Satires of Horace. door R.M. Millington, M.A.. Londen: Longmans, Green, Reader, and Dyer. 1869. Mediabestanden Mediabestanden die bij dit onderwerp horen, zijn te vinden op de pagina Quintus Horatius Flaccus op Wikimedia Commons. Wikisource Originele werken van of over deze auteur zijn te vinden op de pagina Horatius op Wikisource. Overgenomen van "https://nl.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horatius&oldid=57738443" Categorieën: Gens Horatia Romeins dichter Romeins schrijver Schrijver in de 1e eeuw v.Chr. 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nn-wikipedia-org-1699	----	Horats – Wikipedia Horats Frå Wikipedia – det frie oppslagsverket Hopp til navigering Hopp til søk Horats Horats, som Anton von Werner tenkte seg han Fødd 8. desember 65 f.Kr. Venosa Død 27. november 8 f.Kr. Roma Yrke lyrikar, skribent, filosof Horats på Commons Horats, eigentleg Quintus Horatius Flaccus, var ein romarske skald fødd i Venusia i Sør-Italia i år 65 fvt. Venusia var ein småby i grenseområdet mellom Apulia og Lucania. Innhaldsliste 1 Liv 2 Verk 3 Kjelder 4 Bakgrunnsstoff Liv[endre | endre wikiteksten] Horats kom frå etter måten små kår, som son av ein frigjeven slave, men fekk likevel god opplæring i gresk språk, filosofi og dikting. Etter å ha teke del i borgarkrigen på 40-talet fvt., fekk Horats stilling som skrivar i skattkammeret i Roma. Det var no han byrja å dikte på rett, etter mønster av greske dikt, men på latin. Han vart kjend med Vergil, Varius og Maecenas, og den sistnemnde gav han ein gard aust for Roma, der Horats budde mykje av livet sitt. Maecenas var ein nær ven av Horats livet ut, og fleire av Horats sine dikt er stila til han. Det var etter at Julius Cæsar var drepen, at Horats gjekk inn i hæren, der han tente under Marcus Junius Brutus. Han kjempa då som stabsoffiser, tribunus militum, i slaget ved Filippi. Ifølgje han sjølv, berga han seg frå å bli drepen i dette slaget ved å kaste skjoldet og springe derifrå. Då det vart erklært amnesti for dei som hadde stridd mot den sigerrike Octavian (sidan Augustus), vende Horats attende til Italia, men fann då at eigedomen åt familien hadde vorte konfiskert. Horats fekk då arbeid som scriba quaestorius, funksjonær for skattkammeret, som gjorde at han klarte seg bra økonomisk og gjorde det mogleg for han å halde fram med diktinga si. Horats var med i den litterære krinsen som omfatta Virgil og Varius, og det var desse som introduserte han til Maecenas, som var ein ven og fortruleg til Augustus. Maecenas vart støttespelar og god ven for Horats, og det var han som lét Horats få denne garden nær Tiberen i Sabinardalen, dagens Tivoli i Italia. Garden er i dag ein pilegrimsstad for dei litterært interesserte. Etter borgarkrigen var slutt i år 31 fvt., var Augustus herskar i Romarriket. Han lika Horats godt, og ville gjere Horats til sin personlege sekretær. Men Horats takka høfleg nei, og dette vart godteke. Horats døydde i år 8 fvt., få dagar etter Maecenas. Verk[endre | endre wikiteksten] Horats er kanskje mest kjend for odane sine, og brevet om diktekunsten. Odar er lyriske dikt. Tre av samlingane med odar kom ut i år 23, og ei fjerde kom i år 13. Men også ein av epistlane hans er svært velkjend, det er Ars Poetica, der Horats kjem med ein dikt-teori. Han meiner poesi må vere både godt laga semantisk og formelt, og og samtidig gje glede åt lesaren eller tilhøyraren. Dette blir gjerne referert som dulce et utile, både behageleg og nyttig. Johannes Gjerdåker har attdikta alle odane åt Horats, og dei er gjevne ut på Det Norske Samlaget og i Norsk Årbok.[1] Horats var den leiande lyriske poeten i Romarriket i keisar Augustus si tid. Han blir av klassisistane generelt sedd som den største av dei latinske poetane. Mange av uttrykka hans er i bruk den dag i dag, på latin eller i omsetjing, såleis grip dagen (carpe diem), det er godt og rett å døy for fedrelandet (dulce et decorum est pro patria mori) og den gylne mellomvegen (aurea mediocritas). Kjelder[endre | endre wikiteksten] Denne artikkelen bygger på «Horace» frå Wikipedia på engelsk, den 29. desember 2007. Referansar ↑ Norsk Årbok 2008 Bakgrunnsstoff[endre | endre wikiteksten] Om Horats' lyrikk på snl.no Autoritetsdata WorldCat BIBSYS Store Norske leksikon VIAF GND LCCN ISNI BNF BNF (data) LIBRIS Henta frå «https://nn.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horats&oldid=3123172» Kategoriar: Einskildmenn Romerske diktarar Romarriket Gøymde kategoriar: Sporing av AboutTopic Artiklar med autoritetsdata Navigasjonsmeny Personlege verktøy Ikkje innlogga Diskusjon Bidrag Opprett konto Logg inn Namnerom Artikkel Diskusjon Variantar Visningar Les Endre Endre wikiteksten Sjå historikken Meir Søk Navigering Hovudside Arbeidskontoret Samfunnshuset Siste endringar Tilfeldig side Hjelp Gåver Kontakt Verktøy Lenkjer hit Relaterte endringar Last opp fil Spesialsider Fast lenkje Sideinformasjon Siter denne sida Wikidata-element Skriv ut / eksporter Opprett ei bok Last ned som PDF Utskriftsversjon På andre prosjekt Wikimedia Commons Wikifrasar På andre språk Norsk bokmål Svenska Dansk Afrikaans አማርኛ العربية Aragonés Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά English Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Монгол Nāhuatl Nederlands 日本語 Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Sardu Seeltersk Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Tagalog தமிழ் Tarandíne Татарча/tatarça Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon Winaray 吴语 粵語 Zazaki Žemaitėška 中文 Endra lenkjer Denne sida vart sist endra den 11. mars 2019 kl. 11:47. 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no-wikipedia-org-7525	----	Horats – Wikipedia Horats Fra Wikipedia, den frie encyklopedi Hopp til navigering Hopp til søk Horats Født 8. desember 65 f.Kr.[1][2][3] Venosa[4][5] Død 27. november 8 f.Kr.[1][6] (56 år) Roma Gravlagt Roma Far ukjent Mor ukjent Beskjeftigelse Lyriker[7][4], skribent[8], filosof Nasjonalitet Romerriket Horats på Commons Horatius, portrettert av Giacomo Di Chirico Quintus Horatius Flaccus (født 65 f.Kr., død 8 f.Kr.), som regel bare kalt Horats, var blant de aller fremste romerske diktere og en betydelig litteraturteoretiker. Innhold 1 Liv 2 Diktning 3 Referanser 4 Litteratur 5 Eksterne lenker Liv[rediger | rediger kilde] Horats ble født i Venosa syd i dagens Italia i 65 f.Kr., som sønn av en frigitt slave. Foreldrene bekostet en utdannelse først i Roma, siden i Athen der han studerte gresk og filosofi. Etter mordet på Julius Cæsar gikk Horats inn i hæren under Brutus og deltok i slaget ved Filippi – på den tapende siden. Han hevdet selv at han kun hadde berget livet fordi han kastet skjoldet sitt og løp sin vei. Da Octavian, som seiret, lovet amnesti til alle som hadde kjempet, vendte Horats tilbake til Italia og var blitt en fattig mann, for jordeiendommene hans var blitt beslaglagt. Han fikk en stilling som scriba quastorius, ansatt i statskassen. Horats tilhørte den samme krets som Vergil og Lucius Varius Rufus, og her ble han introdusert for Maecenas, som og var en venn av Augustus. Maecenas ble Horats venn og beskytter,[9] og skaffet ham en eiendom. Horats døde i Roma i 8 f.Kr., kun få måneder etter Maecenas' død. Diktning[rediger | rediger kilde] Saturae, 1577 Horats regnes, i likhet med Vergil, som en av de store dikterne i romersk litteratur. Som de fleste tidlige romerske poeter, brukte også Horats heksameteret, den greske seksstavete verselinjen, som versemål. Dette versemålet passet godt til latinens syntaks og struktur, men Horats tok også i bruk verselinjer som det det sapfiske og det det alcaiske. Horats skrev også satirer. Her videreutviklier han de klassiske greske komediene, og ble senere inspirasjonskilde for franske klassisister som blant annet Molière. Horats skrev oder, satirer, epoder og brev. Horats har øvet stor innvirkning på den vestlige litteraturen gjennom sitt brev til pisonerne, kjent som Ars Poetica, der han gjør rede for sine teorier om litteratur og diktning. Folkevisen Astri, mi Astri er en oversettelse av en Ode av Horats.[10] Horats skiller seg fra mange av antikkens diktere ved at han har hatt plass i europeisk litterær tradisjon nærmest uavbrutt[11] Omreisende skalder i middelalderen lot seg inspirere av livsbejaende holdninger i Horats oder, mens man i renessansen gikk til Horats regler for diktekunsten.[12] Senere la de franske klassisistene stor vekt på verket Ars Poetica. Horats er også opphavet til ordtaket «Carpe diem!» (Grip dagen!), og sangen Integer vitae (uberørt av livet) som synges ved offisielle høytideligheter. Referanser[rediger | rediger kilde] ^ a b www.treccani.it ^ EB-11 / Horace, «... was born on the 8th of December 65 B.C. at Venusia ...» ^ Q45181613, «... родился в 689 г. от основания города, т. е. в 65 г. до Р. Х. 8 декабря в Венузии ...» ^ a b EB-11 / Horace ^ Q45181613 ^ Q45181613, «Поэт, согласно предсказанию, которое он дал Меценату, умер вскоре после смерти последнего, когда ему было почти 57 лет, 27 ноября в 8 г. до Р. Х.» ^ BeWeB, BeWeb person ID 518, besøkt 4. august 2020 ^ Mirabile: Digital Archives for Medieval Culture ^ Weideman, side 109 ^ Horats: Brevet om dikterkunsten. Tanum. kommentert av Svein Østerud. Forordet, s 7. ^ Ibid. s. 8 ^ Ibid. s. 8 Litteratur[rediger | rediger kilde] Horats: Brevet om dikterkunsten, Tanum, oversatt og kommentert av Svein Østerud. Weidemann, Einar: Antikken i perspektiv. Kulturhistoriske emner fra det gamle Hellas og Roma. Aschehoug, 1991. ISBN 82-03-13030-5 Eksterne lenker[rediger | rediger kilde] Wikikilden: Horats – originaltekster av og om forfatteren Portal: Litteratur Autoritetsdata Store norske leksikon · Encyclopædia Britannica · Brockhaus Enzyklopädie · Deutsche Biographie · Encyclopædia Universalis · Encyclopædia Universalis · BIBSYS · VIAF · VIAF · GND · LCCN · LCCN · ISNI · BNF · BNF (data) · LIBRIS · SUDOC · ULAN · NLA · NDL · NKC · ICCU · RLS · RLS · BNE Hentet fra «https://no.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horats&oldid=20220934» Kategorier: Fødsler i 65 f.Kr. Dødsfall i 8 f.Kr. Personer fra Venosa Romerske forfattere Latinspråklige forfattere Skjulte kategorier: Sider med referanser fra utsagn Sider med tre referanser fra utsagn Artikler hvor referanser mangler oversettelse Fødsler 8. desember Sider med to referanser fra utsagn Artikler hvor fsted hentes fra Wikidata Artikler hvor dsted hentes fra Wikidata Artikler hvor gravlagt hentes fra Wikidata Artikler hvor far hentes fra Wikidata Artikler hvor mor hentes fra Wikidata Sider med én referanse fra utsagn Artikler hvor beskjeftigelse hentes fra Wikidata Artikler hvor nasjonalitet hentes fra Wikidata Menn Artikler hvor bilde er hentet fra Wikidata - biografi Artikler med autoritetsdatalenker fra Wikidata Sider som bruker magiske ISBN-lenker Navigasjonsmeny Personlig Ikke logget inn Brukerdiskusjon Bidrag Opprett konto Logg inn Navnerom Artikkel Diskusjon Varianter Visninger Les Rediger Rediger kilde Vis historikk Mer Søk Navigasjon Forside Svaksynte Utmerkede artikler Hjelp Siste endringer Prosjekt Stilmanual Prosjektportal Tinget Torget Konkurranser Notiser Nybegynnerforum Tilfeldig side Wikipedia Kontakt Wikipedia Doner Wikimedia Norge Eksterne søk Lager På andre prosjekter Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikikilden Skriv ut / eksporter Opprett en bok Last ned som PDF Utskriftsvennlig versjon Verktøy Lenker hit Relaterte endringer Spesialsider Permanent lenke Sideinformasjon Siter denne siden Wikidata-element På andre språk Norsk nynorsk Dansk Svenska Íslenska Afrikaans አማርኛ العربية Aragonés Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά English Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Монгол Nāhuatl Nederlands 日本語 Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Sardu Seeltersk Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Tagalog தமிழ் Tarandíne Татарча/tatarça Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon Winaray 吴语 粵語 Zazaki Žemaitėška 中文 Rediger lenker Denne siden ble sist redigert 25. feb. 2020 kl. 18:20. Innholdet er tilgjengelig under Creative Commons-lisensen Navngivelse-Del på samme vilkår, men ytterligere betingelser kan gjelde. Se bruksvilkårene for detaljer. Personvern Om Wikipedia Forbehold Mobilvisning Utviklere Statistikk Erklæring om informasjonskapsler 
oc-wikipedia-org-8721	----	Oraci - Wikipèdia Oraci Un article de Wikipèdia, l'enciclopèdia liura. Salta a la navegació Salta a la cerca Oraci Retrach imaginari d'Oraci per Anton von Werner. Naissença 8 de decembre de -65 Venosa, Itàlia N. a Decès 27 de novembre de -8 Roma D. a Causa de decès Assassinat/ada per Luòc d'enterrament Lenga mairala Fogal ancestral País de nacionalitat Paire Maire Oncle Tanta Grands Bèlamaire Bèlpaire Fraire Sòrre Conjunt Companh/a Filh/a Religion Membre de Familha nòbla Membre de l'equipa esportiva posicion de jòc tir (esquèrra/drecha) grad dan/kyu Grop etnic Orientacion sexuala Profession Emplegaire Domeni d'activitat Escolaritat Diplòma Director de tèsi Estudiant de tèsi Foncion politica Residéncia oficiala Predecessor Successor Partit Tessitura Label discografic Lista de cançons Discografia Mission de l'astronauta Distincions e prèmis Branca militara Grad militar Etapa de canonizacion Familha nòbla Títol de noblesa Títol onorific Comandament Conflicte Jorn de la fèsta Nom de naissença Quintus Horatius Flaccus Activitat(s) poèta, istorian Lenga d'escritura Latin Genre(s) epistòla, epòda, òda, satira Oraci (en latin Quintus Horatius Flaccus) es un poèta latin nascut a Venosa dins lo sud de l'Itàlia romana, lo 8 de decembre de 64 AbC e mòrt a Roma lo 27 de novembre de 8 AbC. Somari 1 Biografia 1.1 Familha e enfança 1.2 En Grècia 1.3 Retorn a Roma 1.4 Client de Mecènas 1.5 L'òme madur 2 L'òbra d'Oraci 2.1 Satiras 2.2 Epòdas 2.3 Òdas 2.4 Epistòlas 3 Conviccions 3.1 Religion 3.2 Filosofia 3.3 Oraci e la politica augustèa 4 Lo trabalh del poèta 4.1 Modèls e gosts 4.2 Representacion del poèta 4.3 Un bon poèta qu'es aquò? 5 Posteritat 5.1 Dins l'Antiquitat 5.2 A l'Edat Mejana: l’aetas Horatiana 5.3 Citacions celèbras 6 Nòtas e referéncias 6.1 Nòtas 6.2 Referéncias ancianas 6.3 Referéncias modèrnas 7 Bibliografia 7.1 Òbras 7.2 Obratges generals 7.3 Estudis 7.4 Articles Biografia[modificar | modificar la font] La vida d'Oraci nos es subretot coneguda per la siuena òbra, ric en informacions e considerada coma una font fisabla[1]. D'informacions suplementàrias se trapan dins la biografia De viris illustribus (Dels òmes illustres) de Suetoni. Familha e enfança[modificar | modificar la font] Oraci es eissit d'una familha modèsta. Son paire venguèt esclau dins d'escasenças mal conegudas, benlèu coma prisonièr de guèrra pendent la Guèrra sociala en 89 AbC.[2], puèi afranquit. Le nom de Horacius èra benlèu, coma èra d'usatge, aquel de son ancian mèstre: doas familhas romanas portavan aquel nom, coma un amic de Ciceron que possedava de camps près de Brundisi, es a dire près de la vila de naissença du poèta; es impossible de saber de qui lo paire èra l'esclau. Tanben auriá podut èsser un esclau public de la vila de Venosa[3]. Un cop afranquit, exercís lo mestièr de coactor, es a dire de caissièr de vendas a l'enquant, puèi aquel de praeco (enquentaire). Possedís de tèrras, confiscadas après la mòrt de Juli Cesar[4], e es pas pauvre, que pòt enviar son filh passar l'estiu dins la frescor del Mont Vultur[5]. Se sap pas res de la maire del poèta, tanpauc se menciona ni fraire ni sòrre[6]. Lo nom complet du poèta, Quintus Horatius Flaccus, mòstra qu'èra de la Tribú Horatia[7]. Es atestat que per l'inscripcion mandada a l'escasença dels jòcs seculars organizats per August en 17 AbC.: CARMEN COMPOSVIT Q. HORATIVS FLACCVS[8]; s'agís del Cant secular. Oraci naís a Venosa, a las frontièras de l'Apúlia e de la Lucània, lo 8 de decembre de 65 AbC vèrs tres oras del matin[n 1]. Quand lo jove Oraci fa sos set o detz ans, son paire s'installa a Roma; se sap pas s'bandona los afar per viure de las rendas de sas tèrras[9] o se contunh sa carrièra[10]. Utiliza son temps e una bona partida de son argent a l'educacion de son filh e loi fai seguir las leissons du gramatician Lucius Orbilius Pupillus, qu'ensenha Enni, Livi Andronic e plan segur Omèr. Oraci testimònia d'aquel periòde e de sa gratitud per son paire dins las. En Grècia[modificar | modificar la font] A vint ans d'edat Oraci s'ana per Atenas, per i persegir l'estudi del grèc e descobrir la filosofia. Son paire sembla èsser mòrt abans aquela partença[11] e es a aquel moment que comença a escriure[n 2], amb al mens unes verses en grèc[12]. Estudís a l'Acadèmia près d'Aristos d'Ascalon[13]. Oraci es encara en Grècia pendent l'assassinat de Juli Cesar en 44 AbC[14]. Pauc après, Brutus e Cassius arridon a Atenas e enròtlan de joves aristocratas dins lor armada; Oraci obten lo grade de tribun militar en 42 AbC[15], çò que lo fa dintrar dins l'òrdre dels cavalièrs e li assegura de privilègis a vida[16]. Pendent la primièra batalha de Filipes (premièra setmana d'octobre de 42 AbC), las tropas de Brutus prenon lo camp d'Octavi, que de pauc se'n escapa. Mas pendent lo segond combat, lo 22 d'octobre, Octavi et Marc Antòni son venceires. Brutus se suicidís, Oraci fugís. Virgili (esquèrra) declamant sos verses dabans Oraci (centre), Vari (fond) e Mecènas (drecha) per Charles François Jalabert. Retorn a Roma[modificar | modificar la font] Quand una amnistia es consedida al vencuts, Oraci torna en Itàlia (fin -42 o començament de -41[17]); sas tèrra li foguèron sasidas[18], e pretend èsser vengut paure[19]. Pasmens possedís encara pro d'argent per crompar, vèrs 40 AbC, la carga de scriba quaestorius, es a dire del secretari al tresaur[20]: de segur jamai daissèt sa carga, quitament se podèt, mai tard, ne far mai leugièras sas obligacions[21]. Lèu, venguèt amic amb Virgili. Entre -40 e -38, Virgil et Luci Vari Ruf lo prese tan à Mecènas, confident d'August, protector de las arts e letras, poèta entre temps. Mecènas lo prend jos sa proteccion nòu meses mai tard[22], l'introduguèt dins les cercles politics e literaris de Pollion e Messala[23], e li ofrís una vilá en Sabina[a 1]. Las primièras satiras son compausadas a son retorn a Roma[24] e lo primier libre de las Satiras sembla èsser poblicat vèrs -35 o -34[25]. Contunha a s'auçar socialament dins l'òrdre equèstre: après aver èsser  fach eques equo publico (cavalièr que lo caval es pagat pels fons publics) per Brutus en Grècia, puèi combrar la carga de scriba questorius a son retorn a Roma, ven iudex selectus (jutge de patz) entre -35 e -30[26]. La vilá ofèrta per Mecènas dona a Oraci una retirada al camp apreciabla e de rendas importantas[27]. Ven plan aisit financièrament e proclama que poiriá, se volgava, se far elegir questor e venir alara senator[28]. Es dons definitivament ligat al regim. Client de Mecènas[modificar | modificar la font] Mecènas es lo dedicatari de las Satiras, dels Epòdas e de las Òdas e una veraia amistat ligava ambedos òmes. L'òme madur[modificar | modificar la font] Es possible qu'Oraci siá estat present a la batalha d'Actium en 31 AbC e es pauc après (vèrs 30 AbC) que son publicadas las Epòdas, poèmas dins a dralha de l'iambograf grèc Arquilòc[29]. Seguís a una data desconeguda lo segond libre de las Satiras. La patz tornada amb August, es un periòde de produccion intens que se dubrís. Fins a 27 AbC, se consacra a de poèmas politics e confirma atal son aprochament amb lo poder augustèu[30]: celebracion de la mòrt de Cleopatra, jòia de la desfacha dels partisans d'Antòni, elògi de la reparacion dels temples per August en -28[a 2]. Fins a 24 AbC, celèbra las victòrias d'August fòra d'Itàlia. Aquelas pèças, mescladas a de poèmas lirics, forman los tres primièrs livbes de las Òdas, segurament pareguts vèrs 23 AbC[31]. Lo succès es tebés[a 3] e Oraci ensag enseguida un genre novèl, e publica son primièr libre de las Epistòlas en 21 AbC[32]. August, tornat a Roma en 19 AbC, ofrís a Oraci d'èsser son secretari, pòste que lo poèta refusa[a 4]. En 17 AbC, lo prince li confia l'onor de compausar lo Cant secular (Carmen Saeculare) qu'interpretan solemnalament, a l'escasença dels Jòcs seculars, ds còrs mixtes d'enfants causits d'entre l'elèit de la noblesa romana. Es benlèu tanben August que li comanda de poèmas per las victòrias de Tibèri e Drus[a 5]; aqueles poèmas son recampats amb d'autres dins un quatren libre d’Òdas que paréis entre -13 e -8[33]. Seguisson encara las doas letras del segond libre de las Epistòlas e l’Art poetic, dificils de datar[34]. Morrís subte en 8 AbC, sonque unes après Mecènas que, sus son lièch de mòrt, l'auriá encara recomandat a August[a 6]. Es dintrat al cimentèri de l'Esquilin[35], près de la tomba de Mecènas. L'òbra d'Oraci[modificar | modificar la font] Malgrat sa granda dificultat, l'òbra d'Oraci aguèt una influéncia non negligible sus la literatura latina; es admirat, citat e utilizat per fòrça autors, coma Jeròni d'Estridon[36], Sidòni d'Apolinari[37] o Prudénci[38], a vegadas amb malentenduts o contresens, coma ne mòstra per exemple lo desviament de la famosa devisa Carpe diem, o de la tanben celèbre formula Aurea mediocritas (« just al mitan coma l'aur »), tiradas respectivament de las Òdes, I, 11 e II, 10. Satiras[modificar | modificar la font] Saturae, 1577 Las Satiras, conegudas dins los manuscrits jol nom de Sermones (convèrsas) son de poèmas de longor variablas en examètres dactilics, amassats en dos libres: lo primièr, de detz poèmas, foguèt publicat vèrs -35, lo segond, de uèit pèças, vers 29 AbC. S'inspirant de son predecessor Lucili (sègle II AbC), Oraci renòva pasmens lo genre ne limitant l'extension, en s'interdisent la satira politica, e evitant de tombar dins la cruditat e la vulgaritat. Per fòrça retrachs de personatges plen de vices (avarícia, glotoniá, rafinament extrèma e ridicul dins la gastronomia, libido incontrolada), Oraci bastís una morala de la moderacion e desvolopa ja un tèma del just mitan que celèbra mai tard dins las Òdas e loas Epistòlas. Dempuèi las Satiras, lo poèta es un personatge important de son òbra: lo recuèlh, ma que de donar d'elements biografics importants, ofrís un retrach d'Oraci tebés, de segur ridiculizat per son esclatge o per una prostituida, mas globalament « endeçat de mancas mediocrament gravas e de pichon nombre » [a 7] [39]. Los poèmas, composats sus un periòde d'al mens detz ans, testimònian de a dintrada d'Oraci dins lo cercle de Mecènas e permeton de sasir l'estatut social novèl qu'atal aqueriguèt[40]. Epòdas[modificar | modificar la font] Interior de l'ostal d'Oraci (Venosa) Imitadas d'Arquilòc e de Callimac de Cirèna, las Epòdas son lo segon recuèlh d'Oraci. Publicats vèrs 30 AbC jol títol d'Iambi (Iambes) amassan dètz e set pèças escrichas en distics, levat la darrièra, e utilisant l'iambe[41]. Genre del blaime, l'iambe permet a Oraci d'atacar sos enemics sus de subjèctes variats: d'enemics personals, coma un poèta malvolent, las femnas en general, qu'ataca la lubricitat, e las mascas subretot, que lo personatge recurrent de Canídia[42]. Lo recuèlh se plaça atal dins l'actualitat de las guèrras civilas e altèrna entre las pèças mai ancianas, que testimònian d'una vision plan escura d'aquelas guèrras interminablas, e aquelas, mai recentas, que celèbran la victòria d'Actium. L'omenatge a Octavi i demora discrèt, mas Oraci se mòstra coma membre verai del cercle de Mecènas[43]. Lo ton i es aquel de l'invectiva; l'estil es aspre e dificil; l'erotisme mai crud pòt i costejar los accents mai patriotics. Òdas[modificar | modificar la font] Las Òdas foguèron publicadas en -23 o -22 pels tres primièrs libres e en -12 o -7 pel quatren. Aqueles quatre libres qu'Oraci comparava fièrament a las piramidas d'Egipte, contenon respectivament 38, 20, 30 e 15 pèças, o al total 3 038 verses, que sièis son de segur apocrifs (IV, 6, 21-24 e IV, 8, 15-16). A lor torn saluat[44], dins las Òdas, l'explech metric (amb realizacion de quatre tipes d'estrofas diferentas, sièis varietats de distics e tres espècias de verses emplegats sols), l'equilibri dins una armoniosa arquitectura que se desplega segon de proporcions numericas tan complèxas qu'impeccablas, la circulacion, las interconnexions, los malhums, las correspondéncias, las combinasons e las simetrias diferentas, que l'ensemble constituís una imensa e ultrasensibla cambra de resson. Quand a l'incresiblas virtuositat verbala que tira de la causida e de la plaça de cada mot lo maxim d'energia possibla, impressionava Friedrich Nietzsche al gra mai naut per çò que novenava sa « noblesa ». Mas ont Oraci se subrepassa, ont merita melhor lo « laurièr delfic » (Òdas, III, 30), es dins la mestresa dels contengut. En aparéncia, pas res mai d'eteroclit que las Òdas, ont semblan interferir de biais aleatòri l'esfèra privada e la publica, las amors e la politica, lo mond grèc e lo mond latin, la mitologias e l'actualitat mai recenta, l'epicurisme menat fins al sibaritisme, e un estoïcisme agut fins l'ascetisme e à un renonçament gaireben monacal quitament abans son existéncia. Epistòlas[modificar | modificar la font] L'estatua d'Oraci (Venosa) Los Epistòlas (Epistulae) foguèron publicadas en -19 o -18, puslèu qu'en -20, data tradicionalament admesa, e benlèu après -13 pel segond recuèlh. Lo primièr recuèlh compta 20 pèças (o 1 006 verses, que set benlèu apocrifs dins la primièra pèça), lo segond pas que 2, mas fòrça longas (270 e 216 verses). S'i apond l'Epistòla als Piçards, mai coneguda jol nom d'Art poetic (476 verses). Son escrichas en examètres, coma las Satiras, e, coma elas, son de « convèrsas » d'allura pro liura. Mas las Epistòlas essent de letras fictivas, s'adreçan a de personas plan precisas, e le ton i es mens viu, l'estil mai destibat. La primièra espistòla del segond recuèlh s'adreça tanben dirèctament a August: o cossí tirar la coa del leon sens se far mòrdre. Flor es lo destinatari de la segonda, ont Oraci pausèt coma son testament espirital e la quintesséncia de sa saviesa. Conviccions[modificar | modificar la font] Religion[modificar | modificar la font] Oraci se considerava jos la proteccion de Mercuri: es el que lo fa desaparéisser del camp de batalha de Filipes al biais d'un eròi omeric. Filosofia[modificar | modificar la font] Oraci proclama tot lo long de son òbra son independéncia al vejaire de las escòlas filosoficas: « pas cap astrenta m'astrenhiá de jutjar sus las paraulas d'un mèstre « aucune astreinte ne m'a contraint de jurer sur les paroles d'un maître[a 8] ». Oraci e la politica augustèa[modificar | modificar la font] Se se trapa del costat que « cal pas », aqueles dels Republicans de Brutus, a la batalha de Filipes (42 AbC), Oraci, fasent son intrada dins lo cercle de Mecènas (entre -40 e -38), rejonh lo camp lèu venceire d'August. Tot lo long de sa carrièra, dona a l'emperaire una plaça totjorn mai importanta dins sas òbras[45]. Lo primièr recuèlh publicat, lo primièr libre de las Satiras, l'ignora gaireben totalament[46]. Dins las Epòdas mai ancianas (VII e XVI), Oraci deplora las guèrras civilas que degalhan de contunh Roma e accusaa la « colèra de destin que percaç « courroux du destin qui poursuit[a 9] » los Romans; sens prene partit, evita tanben de mencionar los responsables d'aqueles malastre. Al subjècte dels mai recents poèmas del recuèlh, adreçats a Mecènas, Oraci i celèbra la victòria d'Actium, mas ne menciona lo futur emperaire que de biais oblic[47]. Cal esperar lo segons libre de las Satiras per qu'Oraci consacre un poèma a August; dins la primièra pèça, evòca los dangièrs que mena lo poèta a investir lo camp politic, mas acaba consacrant l'emperaire coma jutge « just e fòrt »[a 10] de sa produccion[48]. Los tres primièrs libres de las Òdas recampant de poèmas de caractèr subretot privat, mas la politica « s'introduch de l'exterior dins l'espaci liric calm e retirat d'Oraci « s'introduit de l'extérieur dans l'espace lyrique calme et retiré d'Horace ». August es, coma dins las Epòdas, d'en primièr un òme d'accion: venceire de Cleopatre[a 11], contunhèt la conquista de l'Ispània[a 12]. Mas Oraci li balha tanben pauc a pauc una estatura d'òme d'Estat[49], « paire de las ciutats « père de cités[a 13] » e òste dels dieus[a 14]. La proximitat desls dos òmes se manifèsta a l'escasença dels Jòcs seculars de 17 AbC: August comanda lo Cant secular a Oraci, que pren alara la foncion de poèta oficial[50]. I celèbra la novèla legislacion sul maridatge[a 15] e la patz augustèa. Lo quatren libre de las Òdas, que paréis en 13 AbC, multiplica las referéncias a August, destinatari de mai d'un poèmas. L'elogi es sens retenguda:  « cantarai, aüros, lo retorn de Cesar « je chanterai, heureux, le retour de César[a 16] ». Lo darrièr testimòni de la relacion entre los dos òmas aparéis dins la primièra epistòlas del segond libre, que discuta de la plaça del poèta dins la societat: Oraci i lausa un emperaire aparaire de las arts, fondator de la Bibliotèca palatina e sosten de Virgili[51]. Pasmens, declina l'invitacion a escriure la gèst d'August[a 17] e proclama tanben son independéncia[52]. Lo trabalh del poèta[modificar | modificar la font] Modèls e gosts[modificar | modificar la font] Sembla que se poiriá ligar a Oraci al grop dels poètas novèls coma Catul, qu'admira Mecènas, es lo mai grand representant; la question es disputada, e Oraci sempre marquèt son independéncia al vejaire de las escòlas e dels cercles. De punts comuns amb aquel alexandrinisme roman son pasmens de notar: lo gost de las òbras cortas e ciseladas, longament trabalhadas, destinadas a un public trait. Aquela caracteristica liga Oraci a l'aticisme e l'opausa a l'asianisme del vièlh Varron o de Ciceron[53]. Representacion del poèta[modificar | modificar la font] La primièra persona es primordial dins l'òbra d'Oraci; totes los genres que causiguèt daissa la plaça de causida al « ièu » poetic: l'iambe es le genre de l'invectiva personala; la satira se noirís d'elements autobiografics; la letra met en scèna son autor[54]. Lo poèta nos dona d'indicacions sus son fisic: pichon[a 18], gròs[a 19], sa cabeladura blanquida abans ora[a 20]. tanben se dich iretge[a 21] e galant, avent agut de relacions amb « mila joventas e mila jovents »[a 22]. Oraci es un personatge religiós. Enfant, es apararat dels dieus: alara que dormissiá pel bòsc, d'aucèls venguèron lo cobrir de fuèlhas per lo traire a las « vipèras e als ors sinistres » [a 23]. I a d'anecdòtas contan los miracles a que se deu la vida: un lop encontrat pel bòsc, un arbre ques casèt just a costat d'el, la batalha de Filipes e la tempèsta del cap Palinura capa a la batalha de Naulòc[a 24]. D"empuèi las primièras òbra, Oraci se pench amb autoderision: pigre e malaut en viatge dins las Satiras, pigre e impotant dins las Epòdas, l'autocelebracion del poèta s"acompanha tanben de detalhs trivials find a dins los tres primièrs libres de las Òdas[55]. Aquò impacha pas lo poèta de proclamar son immortalitat: « Acabèri un monument mai duradís que lo bronze, mai naut que la decrepitud de las reialas Piramidas »[a 25]. Mai d'un còp, Oraci fa sos adieus a la poesia. Los tres primièrs libres de las Òdas se concluson sul « laurièr delfic »[a 26] que corona una carrièra acabada, mas lo primièr poèma del libre IV mòstra Vènus forçant lo poèta a cantar l'amor tornarmai. Las Epistòlas son encara l'occasion de proclamar son renonciament a la poèsia en favor de la filosofia; es pas totjorn aisit de trencar se Oraci renoncia sonque a la poèsias lirica per se consacrar al genre sermo, o se se pretend amb umor renonciar als verses vers tot en escrivent[56]. CAquela afirmacion torna dins l’Art poetic: « Ensenharai, sens escriure pas res, ièu »[a 27]. Un bon poèta qu'es aquò?[modificar | modificar la font] Dempuèi las Satiras, Oraci castiga los poètas marrits capables d'alinhar dos cents verses dins un matin, prèsts a tot per trapar un librari e plaire a la plèba[57]. El a « lima » los sieus verses, los trabalha longament, e produch pauc. Escriu pas que pels sieus amics e conselha al poètas: « te metas pas en pena d'èsser admirat per la fola, te satisfai  d'un pichon nombre de legidors »[58]. Posteritat[modificar | modificar la font] Dins l'Antiquitat[modificar | modificar la font] L'òbra d'Oraci, e subretot los sos recuèlhs de las Òdas e lo primièr libre de las Epistòlas, exercís una influéncia immediata suls poètas contemporanèus[59]. Après d'èl, fòrça poètas se proclaman « prèire de la Musas »[a 28]; lo tresen libre de las Elegias de Properci, que paréis un o dos ans après los tres primièrs libres de las Òdas, testimòniz, tot coma las Metamorfòsis d'Ovidi[a 29], de la revendicacion a l'Immortalitat del poèta ja avançada per Oraci[a 30]. Quintilian analisi l'influéncia d'Oraci segon los genres[a 31]. Se los Epòdas pareisson èsser lo darrièr obratge del genre[60], Es evident qu'Oraci participèt al novelum de la satira e de la celebritat de son creator Lucili: son influéncia sus Persi es determinanta[n 3] e Juvenal lo menciona sovent[61]. Las Òdes, elas, son un ensemble liric coma pas cap autre autor latin antic latin posterior ne compausèt; pasmens, demoran l'òbra mai celèbra e comentada del poèta. Lor recepcion es de segur tibesa, mas lor qualitat suggerís a August de commandar a lor autor lo Cant secular, fasent tanben d'Oraci lo primièr poèta liric de Roma[62]. La virtuositat e la varietat metrica del recuèlh son celebradas[a 32] e imitadas per Estaci[a 33] e Senèca[a 34]. Al Sègle IV, Oraci inspira Prudenci, que torna interpretar los tèmas oracians dins un sens crestian, e es lo modèl màger principal de las partidas versificadas de la Consolacion de la filosofia de Boeci (vèrs 524)[63]. Oraci ven lèu l'objècte d'estudis[64]. Sa virtuositat metrica ocupas una partida important del tractat de versificacion De metris de Cesi Bas (mitan del sègle I). Los comentaris de l'òbra, coma aquel de Porfirion (sègle II o III) es un recuèlh d'estudis variats atribuits per un manuscrit a Elèni Acron, o Pseudo-Acron, regularament copiats, e sovent quitament amb los poèmas, mòstran una activitat academica importanta e de contunh consacrada al poèta[65] A l'Edat Mejana: l’aetas Horatiana[modificar | modificar la font] Lo cristianisme se mesfisa dels poètas pagans que la moralitat es plan luènh d'aquò qu'ensenha la teologia; sant Jeròni avertís lo crestian: « Quin rapòrt pòt existir entre la lutz e las tenèbras, entre Jèsus-Crist e Belial? Cossí acordar Oraci amb los Psalmas [...]? ».[a 35]. Pasmens, Oraci demora un dels poètas romans mai legit de l'Edat Mejana[66]. Es encara present e a vegada citat al començament de l'Edat Mejana, per Draconci e Avit de Viena per exemple. Coma totes los autors calssics, es obliat a partir de la mitat del sègle VI[67]. Al sègle VIII, es encara conegut, mas inderèctament, per Alcuin, que pren lo sieus cognomen, Flaccus e Paul Diacre. Sembla que la nòva descobèrta d'Oraci se faguèt a la mitat del sègle IX: se conéis sièis manuscrits d'aquel sègle, e dos cementairis de Porfirion[68]. Lo poèta es de nèu citat, per exemple, per  Eiric d'Aussèrra, çò que mòstra una coneissença dirècta de l'òbra[69]. Citacions celèbras[modificar | modificar la font] Fòrça citacions d'Oraci venguèron celèbras e sembla que lor poder d'evocation participa a la cebritat du poèta, e quitament dempuèi l'Antiquitat. « Carpe diem » (« Culhís lo jorn », Òdas I, 11, 8) « Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori. » (« Es doç e gloriós de morir per sa patria. », Ódas, III, 2, 13) « In medias res » (« Al mitan de las causas », Art poetic, 148): procediment literari que plaça lo legidor al començament de l'obratge en plena accion « Nunc est bibendum » (« Ara cal beure », Òdas I, 37, 1) « Sapere aude ! » (« Ausa de saber ! », Epistòla I, 2, 40) Nòtas e referéncias[modificar | modificar la font] Nòtas[modificar | modificar la font] ↑ L'an e lo mes son donats pel quita Oraci (Òdas, III, 21, 1), e tanben l'ora (Òdas, II, 17, 17) e lo jorn per Sueton (Dels òmes illustres XXVIII, « Vida d'Oraci ») ↑ L'anecdòta de la satira I, 7, en preséncia de Brut, foguèt de segur escricha abans la batalha de Filipes en 42 AbC ↑ Foguèt comptat fins a 80 allusions a Oraci dins los 134 verses de la primièra satira. Referéncias ancianas[modificar | modificar la font] ↑ Satiras, II, 6, 1-5 ↑ Dins las Òdas, respectivament I, 37 ; III, 4 ; III, 6 ↑ Epistòlas, I, 19, 35 ↑ Sueton, « Vida d'Oraci », 18-25 ↑ Respectivament Òdas, IV, 4 e 14 ↑ Sueton, « Vida d'Oraci », 17 ↑ Satiras, I, 6, 67 ↑ Epistòlas, I, 1, 14 ↑ Épodes, VII, 17 ↑ Satiras, II, 1, 16 ↑ Òdas, I, 37 ↑ Òdas, III, 14 ↑ Òdas, III, 24, 27 ↑ Òdas, III, 3 ↑ Chant séculaire, 17-20 ↑ Òdas, IV, 2, 47-48 ↑ Epistòlas, II, 1, 251 ↑ Epistòlas, I, 20, 24 ↑ Epistòlas, I, 4, 15 ↑ Epistòlas, I, 7, 26 ↑ Epistòlas, I, 20, 25 ↑ Satiras, II, 3, 325 ↑ Òdas, III, 4, 17-18 ↑ Òdas, I, 22, 9-16 et III, 4, 26-28 ↑ Òdas, III, 30, 1-2 ↑ Òdas, III, 30, 15-16 ↑ Art poetic, 306 ↑ Òdas, III, 1, 3 ↑ Ovidi, Metamorfòsis, XV, 871-878 ↑ Òdas, III, 30 ↑ Quintilian, X, 1, 93 ↑ Per exemple per Plini lo Jove, III, Letras 1, 7 ↑ Estaci, Silves, IV, 5 et 7 ↑ Seneca, Agamemnon e Edip ↑ Sant Jeròni, Lettres, XXII, 29}} Referéncias modèrnas[modificar | modificar la font] ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 7 ↑ Levi 1997, p. 9 ↑ Perret 1959, p. 8 ↑ Levi 1997, p. 11 ↑ Davis 2010, p. 9 ↑ Davis 2010, p. 12 ↑ Levi 1997, p. 10 ↑ Modèl:CIL, conservada al Musèa dels Tèrmes de Dioclecian ↑ Levi 1997, p. 16 ↑ Perret 1959, p. 13 ↑ Levi 1997, p. 20 ↑ Levi 1997, p. 19 ↑ Perret 1959, p. 22 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 8 ↑ Levi 1997, p. 26 ↑ Davis 2010, p. 17 ↑ Perret 1959, p. 31 ↑ Epistòlas II, 2, vers 49-53 ↑ Epistòlas, II, 2, 54 ↑ Levi 1997, p. 32 ↑ Perret 1959, p. 32 ↑ Satiras, I, 6, 54 ↑ Perret 1959, p. 35 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 9 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 10 ↑ Davis 2010, p. 18 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 11 ↑ Satiras, I, 6 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 12 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 13 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 14 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 15 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 17 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 19 ↑ Levi 1997, p. 34 ↑ A. V. Nazzaro, « Girolamo » dans Enciclopedia oraziana III, col. 29-31. ↑ G. Mazzoli, « Sidonio, Orazio e la lex saturae », dans L. Cristante (ed. ↑ M. Lühken, Christianorum Maro et Flaccus : zur Vergil- und Horazrezeption des Prudentius, 2002. ↑ Perret 1959, p. 75 ↑ Perret 1959, p. 74 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 94 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 98 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 97 ↑ Jacques Perret, article « Horace », in op. cit. ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 77 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 81 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 80 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 82 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 83 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 86 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 88 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 87 ↑ Perret 1959, p. 54 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 22 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 29 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 33 ↑ Perret 1959, p. 49 ↑ Satiras, I, 10, 73-74 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 277 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 278 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 279 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 280 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 283 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 281 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 282 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 293 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 285 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 286 ↑ Harrison 2007, p. 287 Bibliografia[modificar | modificar la font] Òbras[modificar | modificar la font] Obratges generals[modificar | modificar la font] Jean Bayet, Littérature latine, Armand Colin, Paris, 1996 M. C. Howatson, Dictionnaire de l'Antiquité. Mythologie, littérature, civilisation, coll. "Bouquins", Robert Laffont, 1993, (ISBN 978-2221068007) Hubert Zehnacker et Jean-Claude Fredouille, Littérature latine, PUF, Paris, 1993 Estudis[modificar | modificar la font] (en) {{Obratge}} : paramètre titre mancant Victor Giraud, Les idées morales d'Horace, Paris, 1907 Pierre Grimal, Horace, Seuil, Paris, 1967 (en) {{Obratge}} : paramètre titre mancant (en) {{Obratge}} : paramètre titre mancant Jean Marmier, Horace en France au dix-septième siècle, Paris, PUF, 1962. Jean Marmier, La survie d'Horace à l'époque romantique, Paris, Klincksieck, 1965. (en) {{Obratge}} : paramètre titre mancant (en) Frank Stack, Pope and Horace: Studies in Imitation, Cambridge University Press, 1985, 316 p. (ISBN 0521266955) Articles[modificar | modificar la font] {{{2}}}, Raymond Lebègue, « Horace en France à la Renaissance », Humanisme et Renaissance, 1936, p. . {{{2}}}, Recuperada de « https://oc.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oraci&oldid=2201916 » Categorias de la pagina : Escrivan roman Naissença en -64 Decès en -8 Categorias amagadas : Paginas amb de proprietats pas resolgudas Pagina del modèl Obratge que compòrta una error Menú de navigacion Aisinas personalas Vos sètz pas identificat(ada) Discussion Contribucions Crear un compte Se connectar Espacis de noms Article Discussion Variantas Afichatges Legir Modificar Modificar la font Veire l'istoric Mai Recercar Navigacion Acuèlh La tavèrna Portals tematics Indèx alfabetic Una pagina a l'azard contact Far un don Contribuir Ajuda Comunautat Darrièrs cambiaments Acuèlh dels novèls venguts Far un don Bóstia d'aisinas Paginas ligadas a aquesta Seguit dels ligams Importar un fichièr Paginas especialas Ligam permanent Informacion sus la pagina Citar aqueste article Element Wikidata Imprimir / exportar Crear un libre Telecargar coma PDF Version imprimibla Dins d'autres projèctes Wikimedia Commons Dins d'autras lengas Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Modificar los ligams Aquesta pagina es estada modificada pel darrièr còp lo 6 junh de 2020 a 08.52. 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opac-sbn-it-89	----	Scheda di autorità (Autori)  OPAC SBN Catalogo del Servizio Bibliotecario Nazionale ITA ENG Cerca Toggle navigation Home Ricerca avanzata Voci controllate Le mie ricerche Preferiti Ricerche effettuate Altri Cataloghi Cataloghi Z39.50 disponibili Nuovo catalogo Z39.50 Cataloghi storici Servizi Prestito e riproduzioni Statistiche Biblioteche SBN Aiuto Ricerca: VID=IT\ICCU\CFIV\000246 ← Lista sintetica Stampa E-mail Scheda: 1/1 Scheda Unimarc Scarico Unimarc Tipo autore Persona Nome autore Horatius Flaccus, Quintus Forme varianti · Flacco, Orazio · Orazio · Orazio Flacco, Quinto · Flacco, Orazio Q. · Orazio Flacco, Q. · Horatius, Q. · Horatius · Horace Datazione 65-8 a. C. Nota informativa Poeta latino. Nato a Venosa e morto a Roma. Fonti · Deutsche National Bibliographie · Enciclopedia italiana di scienze lettere ed arti. Roma, Istituto della Enciclopedia italiana. 1929- · Censimento delle edizioni italiane del secolo XVI. Roma, ICCU: http://edit16.iccu.sbn.it/ Regole di catalogazione REICAT Identificativo SBN IT\ICCU\CFIV\000246 ISNI 0000 0001 2145 2178 Data di aggiornamento 06/02/2020 ← Lista sintetica Stampa E-mail X Invio email Email Inserisci il testo Invia X Citazioni 2018 - Istituto Centrale per il Catalogo Unico delle Biblioteche Italiane e per le Informazioni Bibliografiche Informazioni Accessibilità Informativa Contatti Crediti Facebook 
openn-library-upenn-edu-8850	----	OPenn: Horace MS 1a Ars Poetica and Epistulae Introduction - Technical Help - Repositories - Curated Collections - Search Home | Repositories | Free Library of Philadelphia, Special Collections Collection ID: 0023 | Metadata type: TEI | TEI XML | Data Horace MS 1a Ars Poetica and Epistulae Title Ars Poetica and Epistulae Authors Horace (https://viaf.org/viaf/100227522/) Other related names Hodossy, Imre, former owner Funders Council on Library and Information Resources Call number Horace MS 1a (Philadelphia, United States, Free Library of Philadelphia, Horace Collection) Publisher Free Library of Philadelphia Language Latin Origin Fourth quarter 15th century Place Austria? Hungary? Summary This manuscript, the first of two volumes, contains the Ars Poetica and Epistulae by Horace. It was written in Austria or Hungary in the fourth quarter of the 15th century. Notes Probably once bound in with a larger manuscript, as seventeenth-century (?) folio numbering begins on fol. 1r with 89   Back Flyleaves 1 and 2 are part of quire 3   Watermark Briquet No. 2454 (a balance) Extent Ii+37+iv; 194 x 143 mm bound to 199 x 151 mm Foliation Modern foliation in pencil, upper right recto; earlier (seventeenth century?) foliation in ink, upper middle recto, begins on fol. 1 with "89" Collation 1 (11, +1), 2 (16), 3 (12) Support Paper Binding Modern binding, blue cloth with gold stamping over paper boards Layout Single column of twenty-four to twenty-nine lines (most pages twenty-seven to twenty-eight); lines begin with capitals; drypoint frame-ruled, no line ruling; written area: 146 x 81 mm Decoration Occasional manicules Script Gothic--cursiva Provenance Imre Hodossy; Purchased by Maggs Bros; LTD in 1955 for the Free Library at a Munich auction   Keywords 15th century Austria Manicules Literature -- Poetry Licenses Text These images and the content of Free Library of Philadelphia, Horace MS 1a: Ars Poetica and Epistulae are free of known copyright restrictions and in the public domain. See the Creative Commons Public Domain Mark page for usage details, http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/. URL http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/ Text To the extent possible under law, Free Library of Philadelphia, Special Collections has waived all copyright and related or neighboring rights to this metadata about Free Library of Philadelphia Horace MS 1a: Ars Poetica and Epistulae. This work is published from: United States. For a summary of CC0, see https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/. Legal code: https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/legalcode. URL https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/legalcode Table of contents insert recto — Letter from Maggs Bros. to Free Library, January 6, 1955 Decorations Inside front cover — Bookplate, Hodossy Imre fol. 2v — Manicule fol. 6v — Manicule fol. 7r — Manicule fol. 7v — Manicule fol. 8r — Manicule fol. 8v — Manicule fol. 9r — Manicule fol. 19r — Manicule fol. 20r — Manicule fol. 20r — Manicule fol. 23r — Manicule fol. 23v — Manicule fol. 27r — Manicule fol. 30v — Manicule fol. 32r — Manicule Images Front cover 5915_0000.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0000_thumb.jpg (4.3 KB) 5915_0000_web.jpg (602.4 KB) Inside front cover 5915_0001.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0001_thumb.jpg (8.2 KB) 5915_0001_web.jpg (438.5 KB) Decoration: Bookplate, Hodossy Imre insert recto 5915_0002.tif (73.7 MB) 5915_0002_thumb.jpg (4.8 KB) 5915_0002_web.jpg (283.6 KB) Section: Letter from Maggs Bros. to Free Library, January 6, 1955 insert verso 5915_0003.tif (73.7 MB) 5915_0003_thumb.jpg (3.6 KB) 5915_0003_web.jpg (235.6 KB) Flyleaf 1 recto 5915_0004.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0004_thumb.jpg (8.0 KB) 5915_0004_web.jpg (429.8 KB) Flyleaf 1 verso 5915_0005.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0005_thumb.jpg (3.7 KB) 5915_0005_web.jpg (348.1 KB) Flyleaf 2 recto 5915_0006.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0006_thumb.jpg (2.8 KB) 5915_0006_web.jpg (283.6 KB) Flyleaf 2 verso 5915_0007.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0007_thumb.jpg (3.2 KB) 5915_0007_web.jpg (305.1 KB) fol. 1r 5915_0008.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0008_thumb.jpg (6.1 KB) 5915_0008_web.jpg (433.2 KB) fol. 1v 5915_0009.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0009_thumb.jpg (6.2 KB) 5915_0009_web.jpg (439.2 KB) fol. 2r 5915_0010.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0010_thumb.jpg (5.8 KB) 5915_0010_web.jpg (413.5 KB) fol. 2v 5915_0011.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0011_thumb.jpg (6.4 KB) 5915_0011_web.jpg (449.7 KB) Decoration: Manicule fol. 3r 5915_0012.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0012_thumb.jpg (6.3 KB) 5915_0012_web.jpg (429.2 KB) fol. 3v 5915_0013.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0013_thumb.jpg (6.8 KB) 5915_0013_web.jpg (459.3 KB) fol. 4r 5915_0014.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0014_thumb.jpg (6.2 KB) 5915_0014_web.jpg (432.4 KB) fol. 4v 5915_0015.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0015_thumb.jpg (6.3 KB) 5915_0015_web.jpg (435.3 KB) fol. 5r 5915_0016.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0016_thumb.jpg (6.3 KB) 5915_0016_web.jpg (435.7 KB) fol. 5v 5915_0017.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0017_thumb.jpg (6.3 KB) 5915_0017_web.jpg (442.2 KB) fol. 6r 5915_0018.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0018_thumb.jpg (6.1 KB) 5915_0018_web.jpg (419.2 KB) fol. 6v 5915_0019.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0019_thumb.jpg (6.7 KB) 5915_0019_web.jpg (464.0 KB) Decoration: Manicule fol. 7r 5915_0020.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0020_thumb.jpg (6.3 KB) 5915_0020_web.jpg (434.9 KB) Decoration: Manicule fol. 7v 5915_0021.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0021_thumb.jpg (6.3 KB) 5915_0021_web.jpg (433.8 KB) Decoration: Manicule fol. 8r 5915_0022.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0022_thumb.jpg (5.9 KB) 5915_0022_web.jpg (414.7 KB) Decoration: Manicule fol. 8v 5915_0023.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0023_thumb.jpg (6.3 KB) 5915_0023_web.jpg (433.4 KB) Decoration: Manicule fol. 9r 5915_0024.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0024_thumb.jpg (6.2 KB) 5915_0024_web.jpg (424.4 KB) Decoration: Manicule fol. 9v 5915_0025.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0025_thumb.jpg (5.5 KB) 5915_0025_web.jpg (411.7 KB) fol. 10r 5915_0026.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0026_thumb.jpg (6.5 KB) 5915_0026_web.jpg (431.6 KB) fol. 10v 5915_0027.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0027_thumb.jpg (6.2 KB) 5915_0027_web.jpg (415.5 KB) fol. 11r 5915_0028.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0028_thumb.jpg (5.8 KB) 5915_0028_web.jpg (396.3 KB) fol. 11v 5915_0029.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0029_thumb.jpg (6.0 KB) 5915_0029_web.jpg (422.7 KB) fol. 12r 5915_0030.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0030_thumb.jpg (6.0 KB) 5915_0030_web.jpg (405.7 KB) fol. 12v 5915_0031.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0031_thumb.jpg (6.3 KB) 5915_0031_web.jpg (430.2 KB) fol. 13r 5915_0032.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0032_thumb.jpg (6.4 KB) 5915_0032_web.jpg (423.3 KB) fol. 13v 5915_0033.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0033_thumb.jpg (6.2 KB) 5915_0033_web.jpg (434.2 KB) fol. 14r 5915_0034.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0034_thumb.jpg (6.5 KB) 5915_0034_web.jpg (434.2 KB) fol. 14v 5915_0035.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0035_thumb.jpg (6.3 KB) 5915_0035_web.jpg (443.5 KB) fol. 15r 5915_0036.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0036_thumb.jpg (6.1 KB) 5915_0036_web.jpg (424.9 KB) fol. 15v 5915_0037.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0037_thumb.jpg (6.2 KB) 5915_0037_web.jpg (423.7 KB) fol. 16r 5915_0038.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0038_thumb.jpg (6.9 KB) 5915_0038_web.jpg (464.3 KB) fol. 16v 5915_0039.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0039_thumb.jpg (6.3 KB) 5915_0039_web.jpg (421.1 KB) fol. 17r 5915_0040.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0040_thumb.jpg (6.2 KB) 5915_0040_web.jpg (416.5 KB) fol. 17v 5915_0041.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0041_thumb.jpg (6.1 KB) 5915_0041_web.jpg (434.1 KB) fol. 18r 5915_0042.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0042_thumb.jpg (6.7 KB) 5915_0042_web.jpg (445.8 KB) fol. 18v 5915_0043.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0043_thumb.jpg (6.5 KB) 5915_0043_web.jpg (453.6 KB) fol. 19r 5915_0044.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0044_thumb.jpg (6.4 KB) 5915_0044_web.jpg (431.3 KB) Decoration: Manicule fol. 19v 5915_0045.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0045_thumb.jpg (6.8 KB) 5915_0045_web.jpg (471.8 KB) fol. 20r 5915_0046.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0046_thumb.jpg (6.4 KB) 5915_0046_web.jpg (450.0 KB) Decoration: Manicule Decoration: Manicule fol. 20v 5915_0047.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0047_thumb.jpg (6.5 KB) 5915_0047_web.jpg (447.7 KB) fol. 21r 5915_0048.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0048_thumb.jpg (6.6 KB) 5915_0048_web.jpg (460.6 KB) fol. 21v 5915_0049.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0049_thumb.jpg (6.5 KB) 5915_0049_web.jpg (452.7 KB) fol. 22r 5915_0050.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0050_thumb.jpg (6.4 KB) 5915_0050_web.jpg (450.5 KB) fol. 22v 5915_0051.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0051_thumb.jpg (6.9 KB) 5915_0051_web.jpg (476.9 KB) fol. 23r 5915_0052.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0052_thumb.jpg (6.3 KB) 5915_0052_web.jpg (427.1 KB) Decoration: Manicule fol. 23v 5915_0053.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0053_thumb.jpg (6.1 KB) 5915_0053_web.jpg (441.6 KB) Decoration: Manicule fol. 24r 5915_0054.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0054_thumb.jpg (6.4 KB) 5915_0054_web.jpg (425.8 KB) fol. 24v 5915_0055.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0055_thumb.jpg (6.7 KB) 5915_0055_web.jpg (454.6 KB) fol. 25r 5915_0056.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0056_thumb.jpg (6.9 KB) 5915_0056_web.jpg (461.6 KB) fol. 25v 5915_0057.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0057_thumb.jpg (6.5 KB) 5915_0057_web.jpg (431.0 KB) fol. 26r 5915_0058.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0058_thumb.jpg (6.3 KB) 5915_0058_web.jpg (453.3 KB) fol. 26v 5915_0059.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0059_thumb.jpg (6.5 KB) 5915_0059_web.jpg (447.1 KB) fol. 27r 5915_0060.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0060_thumb.jpg (6.3 KB) 5915_0060_web.jpg (457.9 KB) Decoration: Manicule fol. 27v 5915_0061.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0061_thumb.jpg (6.5 KB) 5915_0061_web.jpg (452.1 KB) fol. 28r 5915_0062.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0062_thumb.jpg (6.7 KB) 5915_0062_web.jpg (467.7 KB) fol. 28v 5915_0063.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0063_thumb.jpg (5.9 KB) 5915_0063_web.jpg (416.7 KB) fol. 29r 5915_0064.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0064_thumb.jpg (6.6 KB) 5915_0064_web.jpg (454.1 KB) fol. 29v 5915_0065.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0065_thumb.jpg (6.4 KB) 5915_0065_web.jpg (440.3 KB) fol. 30r 5915_0066.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0066_thumb.jpg (6.3 KB) 5915_0066_web.jpg (436.7 KB) fol. 30v 5915_0067.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0067_thumb.jpg (6.4 KB) 5915_0067_web.jpg (459.9 KB) Decoration: Manicule fol. 31r 5915_0068.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0068_thumb.jpg (6.4 KB) 5915_0068_web.jpg (443.9 KB) fol. 31v 5915_0069.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0069_thumb.jpg (6.2 KB) 5915_0069_web.jpg (449.8 KB) fol. 32r 5915_0070.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0070_thumb.jpg (6.3 KB) 5915_0070_web.jpg (454.0 KB) Decoration: Manicule fol. 32v 5915_0071.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0071_thumb.jpg (6.0 KB) 5915_0071_web.jpg (433.8 KB) fol. 33r 5915_0072.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0072_thumb.jpg (6.4 KB) 5915_0072_web.jpg (445.7 KB) fol. 33v 5915_0073.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0073_thumb.jpg (6.1 KB) 5915_0073_web.jpg (455.6 KB) fol. 34r 5915_0074.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0074_thumb.jpg (6.3 KB) 5915_0074_web.jpg (455.8 KB) fol. 34v 5915_0075.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0075_thumb.jpg (6.2 KB) 5915_0075_web.jpg (441.6 KB) fol. 35r 5915_0076.tif (69.1 MB) 5915_0076_thumb.jpg (6.3 KB) 5915_0076_web.jpg 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pa-wikipedia-org-768	----	ਹੋਰਸ - ਵਿਕੀਪੀਡੀਆ, ਇਕ ਅਜ਼ਾਦ ਵਿਸ਼ਵਗਿਆਨਕੋਸ਼ ਹੋਰਸ ਵਿਕੀਪੀਡੀਆ, ਇੱਕ ਅਜ਼ਾਦ ਗਿਆਨਕੋਸ਼ ਤੋਂ Jump to navigation Jump to search ਹੋਰਸ ਐਂਤਨ ਵਾਨ ਵੇਰਨਰ ਦਾ ਕਲਪਿਤ ਹੋਰਸ ਜਨਮ ਕੁਇੰਟਸ ਹੋਰਸੀਆ ਫਲਾਕਸ 8 ਦਸੰਬਰ 65 ਈਪੂ Venusia, ਇਟਲੀ, ਰੋਮਨ ਰਿਪਬਲਿਕ ਮੌਤ 27 ਨਵੰਬਰ 8 ਈਪੂ (ਉਮਰ 56) ਰੋਮ ਕਬਰ ਰੋਮ ਵੱਡੀਆਂ ਰਚਨਾਵਾਂ ਓਡਜ, Satires, Ars Poetica ਕੌਮੀਅਤ ਰੋਮਨ ਕਿੱਤਾ ਸੈਨਿਕ, scriba quaestorius, ਕਵੀ ਪ੍ਰਭਾਵਿਤ ਹੋਣ ਵਾਲੇ Garcilaso de la Vega, Juan Boscán Almogáver, Torquato Tasso, Pierre de Ronsard, Luis de León ਵਿਧਾ ਪ੍ਰਗੀਤਕ ਕਵਿਤਾ ਕੁਇੰਟਸ ਹੋਰਸੀਆ ਫਲਾਕਸ (8 ਦਸੰਬਰ 65 ਈਪੂ – 27 ਨਵੰਬਰ 8 ਈਪੂ), ਅੰਗਰੇਜ਼ੀ ਬੋਲਣ ਵਾਲੇ ਜਗਤ ਵਿੱਚ ਹੋਰਸ (/ˈhɔrɪsˌ ˈhɒr-/) ਵਜੋਂ ਮਸ਼ਹੂਰ, ਅਗਸਟਸ ਦੇ ਵੇਲੇ ਮੋਹਰੀ ਰੋਮਨ ਪ੍ਰਗੀਤਕ ਕਵੀ ਸੀ। ਭਾਸ਼ਾ-ਮਾਹਿਰ ਕੁਇੰਤਲੀਅਨ ਕੇਵਲ ਉਸਦੇ ਓਡਜ ਨੂੰ ਹੀ ਪੜ੍ਹਨਯੋਗ ਲਾਤੀਨੀ ਪ੍ਰਗੀਤ ਮੰਨਦਾ ਸੀ: "ਉਹ ਕਈ ਵਾਰ ਉੱਚਾ ਹੋ ਸਕਦਾ ਹੈ, ਪਰ ਫਿਰ ਵੀ ਉਹ, ਸੁਹਜ ਅਤੇ ਸੁਨੱਖ ਪੱਖੋਂ ਪੂਰੀ ਤਰ੍ਹਾਂ ਲਬਰੇਜ਼ ਹੈ, ਉਸ ਦੇ ਬਿੰਬ ਪਰਭਾਵਸ਼ੀਲ ਹਨ, ਅਤੇ ਸ਼ਬਦਾਂ ਦੀ ਆਪਣੀ ਚੋਣ ਵਿੱਚ ਵਾਹਵਾ ਪ੍ਰਬੀਨ ਹੈ।"[1] ਹਵਾਲੇ[ਸੋਧੋ] ↑ Quintilian 10.1.96. The only other lyrical poet Quintillian thought comparable with Horace was the now obscure poet/metrical theorist, Caesius Bassus (R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 280) "https://pa.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ਹੋਰਸ&oldid=546082" ਤੋਂ ਲਿਆ ਕੈਟੇਗਰੀ: ਰੋਮਨ ਕਵੀ ਲੁਕਵੀਂਆਂ ਸ਼੍ਰੇਣੀਆਂ: Pages using duplicate arguments in template calls Articles with hCards ਨੇਵੀਗੇਸ਼ਨ ਮੇਨੂ ਨਿੱਜੀ ਸੰਦ ਲਾਗਇਨ ਨਹੀਂ ਹੋ ਗੱਲ-ਬਾਤ ਯੋਗਦਾਨ ਖਾਤਾ ਬਣਾਓ ਦਾਖਲ ਨਾਮਸਥਾਨ ਸਫ਼ਾ ਗੱਲਬਾਤ ਬਦਲ ਵਿਊ ਪੜ੍ਹੋ ਸੋਧੋ ਅਤੀਤ ਵੇਖੋ More ਖੋਜ ਨੇਵੀਗੇਸ਼ਨ ਮੁੱਖ ਸਫ਼ਾ ਸੱਥ ਹਾਲੀਆ ਤਬਦੀਲੀਆਂ ਹਾਲੀਆ ਘਟਨਾਵਾਂ ਰਲ਼ਵਾਂ ਸਫ਼ਾ ਮਦਦ ਦਾਨ ਕਰੋ ਵਿਕੀ ਰੁਝਾਨ ਵਧੇਰੇ ਵੇਖੇ ਜਾਣ ਵਾਲੇ ਸਫ਼ੇ ਹਮੇਸ਼ਾ ਪੁੱਛੇ ਜਾਣ ਵਾਲੇ ਪ੍ਰਸ਼ਨ ਸੰਦ ਕਿਹੜੇ ਸਫ਼ੇ ਇੱਥੇ ਜੋੜਦੇ ਹਨ ਸਬੰਧਤ ਤਬਦੀਲੀਆਂ ਖ਼ਾਸ ਸਫ਼ੇ ਪੱਕੀ ਲਿੰਕ ਸਫ਼ੇ ਬਾਬਤ ਜਾਣਕਾਰੀ ਇਸ ਸਫ਼ੇ ਦਾ ਹਵਾਲਾ ਦਿਉ Short URL Wikidata ਆਈਟਮ ਛਾਪੋ/ਬਰਾਮਦ ਕਰੋ ਕਿਤਾਬ ਤਿਆਰ ਕਰੋ PDF ਵਜੋਂ ਲਾਹੋ ਛਪਣਯੋਗ ਸੰਸਕਰਣ ਹੋਰ ਪ੍ਰਾਜੈਕਟਾਂ ਵਿੱਚ Wikimedia Commons ਹੋਰ ਬੋਲੀਆਂ ਵਿੱਚ Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 ਜੋੜ ਸੋਧੋ ਇਸ ਸਫ਼ੇ ਵਿੱਚ ਆਖ਼ਰੀ ਸੋਧ 17 ਸਤੰਬਰ 2020 ਨੂੰ 05:42 ਵਜੇ ਹੋਈ। ਇਹ ਲਿਖਤ Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License ਦੇ ਤਹਿਤ ਉਪਲਬਧ ਹੈ; ਵਾਧੂ ਸ਼ਰਤਾਂ ਲਾਗੂ ਹੋ ਸਕਦੀਆਂ ਹਨ। ਤਫ਼ਸੀਲ ਲਈ ਵਰਤਣ ਦੀਆਂ ਸ਼ਰਤਾਂ ਵੇਖੋ। Wikipedia® ਮੁਨਾਫ਼ਾ ਨਾ ਕਮਾਉਣ ਵਾਲ਼ੀ ਵਿਕੀਮੀਡੀਆ ਫ਼ਾਊਂਡੇਸ਼ਨ, ਇਨਕੌਰਪੋਰੇਟਡ ਦਾ ਰਜਿਸਟ੍ਰਡ ਟ੍ਰੇਡਮਾਰਕ ਹੈ। ਪਰਦਾ ਨੀਤੀ ਵਿਕੀਪੀਡੀਆ ਬਾਰੇ ਦਾਅਵੇ ਮੋਬਾਈਲੀ ਦਿੱਖ ਵਿਕਾਸਕਾਰ Statistics Cookie statement 
pl-wikipedia-org-9358	----	Horacy (poeta) – Wikipedia, wolna encyklopedia Horacy (poeta) Z Wikipedii, wolnej encyklopedii Przejdź do nawigacji Przejdź do wyszukiwania Zobacz też: inne znaczenia tej nazwy. Horacy Kwintus Horacjusz Flakkus Domniemany portret Horacego. Relief rzymski z około 50 roku. Boston, Museum of Fine Arts Data i miejsce urodzenia 8 grudnia 65 p.n.e. Wenuzja Data śmierci 27 listopada 8 p.n.e. Zawód, zajęcie poeta Multimedia w Wikimedia Commons Teksty w Wikiźródłach Cytaty w Wikicytatach Zobacz w łacińskich Wikiźródłach tekst oryginalny dzieł Horacego Horacy (łac. Horatius), właściwie Kwintus Horacjusz Flakkus (łac. Quintus Horatius Flaccus) (ur. 8 grudnia 65 p.n.e. w Wenuzji, zm. 27 listopada 8 p.n.e.) – poeta rzymski, często określany mianem największego łacińskiego liryka i mistrza satyry[1]. W czasach cesarza Augusta, w których żył i tworzył, sławą przewyższał go jedynie Wergiliusz[2]. Napisał 162 utwory poetyckie, liczące łącznie 7816 wersów, zebrane w czterech zbiorach – Epodach, Satyrach(ang.), Odach(ang.) i Listach(ang.). Wszystko, co wyszło spod jego pióra, uważane było przez wieki za doskonałe zarówno w swym kształcie poetyckim, jak i w przebogatej treści – od błahych motywów poezji biesiadnej lub erotycznej, aż do poważnych problemów filozoficznych, moralnych, politycznych, retorycznych. Te ostatnie znalazły wyraz zwłaszcza w Sztuce poetyckiej – pierwszym łacińskim podręczniku teorii literatury[3]. Był wielbicielem piękna świata i uroków życia. Głosił chwałę rzymskich cnót, chociaż przeszedł skomplikowaną drogę życiową. Pochodził z nizin społecznych południowej Italii, był synem wyzwoleńca. W młodości walczył w obronie republiki, przeciwko Oktawianowi, jako oficer w armii zabójcy Cezara, Marka Brutusa. W wieku dojrzałym zaczął wspierać pryncypat Augusta i cesarski program reform oraz odnowienia imperium[4]. Jego utwory charakteryzowały się refleksją moralną rozbudowaną w stopniu wcześniej niespotykanym. Dzieła Horacego zawierały rozważania o nieuchronności śmierci, o wartości pełnego umiaru, rozumnego życia. Swoim uczuciom i chwilowym nastrojom nadawał formę uniwersalną, która przemawiała przez wieki i stała się jednym z fundamentów europejskiej tradycji literackiej. Uważany jest za jedną z najważniejszych postaci w dziejach światowej poezji[1]. W drugiej połowie I wieku Marek Waleriusz Probus(ang.) dokonał pierwszego w dziejach krytycznego wydania pełnej twórczości jednego autora – Horacego. Wydanie to było używane w okresie Cesarstwa Rzymskiego, średniowieczu, renesansie i jest wciąż wznawiane współcześnie. Zachowało się w ponad dwustu pięćdziesięciu rękopisach, z których najstarsze spisane zostały w VIII i IX wieku[3]. Spis treści 1 Życie 1.1 Dzieciństwo 1.2 Młodość 1.3 Początki kariery literackiej 1.4 Pierwszy okres twórczości 1.5 Okres liryczny twórczości 1.6 Późny okres twórczości 1.7 Śmierć 2 Dzieła 2.1 Epody 2.2 Satyry 2.3 Ody 2.4 Listy 3 Recepcja 3.1 Starożytność 3.2 Średniowiecze i nowożytność 3.3 W Polsce 4 Przypisy 5 Bibliografia 5.1 Przekłady polskie 5.2 Literatura 6 Linki zewnętrzne Życie[edytuj | edytuj kod] O życiu Horacego zachowało się stosunkowo dużo informacji. Przede wszystkim dlatego, że w swoich utworach poeta często nawiązywał do własnych przeżyć i podawał wiele, skądinąd nieznanych, szczegółów biografii. Zachował się także, oceniany przez badaczy jako wiarygodny, żywot autorstwa Swetoniusza (Vita Horati). Swetoniusz, poza dziełami Horacego, oparł się na wielu źródłach współcześnie nieznanych – między innymi na pismach z kancelarii Augusta. Żywot sporządzony przez Porfyriona w pierwszej połowie III wieku nie wniósł już żadnych nowych informacji[5]. Dzieciństwo[edytuj | edytuj kod] Domniemany dom rodzinny Horacego w Wenuzji. Horacy przyszedł na świat w dniu, w którym konsulami zostali Lucjusz Manliusz Torkwatus i Lucjusz Kotta – 8 grudnia 65 roku przed Chrystusem. Pochodził z Wenuzji, miasta w południowo-wschodniej Italii, podbitego w czasie II wojny samnickiej i przekształconego w rzymską kolonię wojskową. Mieszkańcy Wenuzji wchodzili w skład drugiego tribus, czyli rzymskiego okręgu wyborczego, zwanego Tribus Horatia. Wenuzja była ważnym punktem strategicznym przy Via Appia wiodącej do Tarentu. Leżała na spornym pograniczu Apulii i Lukanii. Sam poeta uważał się za Samnitę, żywił jednak wątpliwości, czy wywodził się z plemienia Lukanów, czy też z Apulijczyków[6]. Ojciec Horacego był wyzwoleńcem. Urodził się jako człowiek wolny, ale wzięto go do niewoli podczas wojny Rzymu ze sprzymierzeńcami. Pracował w Wenuzji jako niewolnik publiczny (servus publicus). Po wyzwoleniu przybrał nazwisko od Tribus Horatia. Kwintus urodził się już jako obywatel rzymski, chociaż o jeszcze niepełnych prawach. Niektórzy uczeni próbowali wykazać, że Horacy był pochodzenia greckiego lub żydowskiego. Twierdzenia takie są współcześnie odrzucane przez niemal wszystkich badaczy. Powszechnie uważa się, że ojciec poety był ambitnym i przedsiębiorczym Apulijczykiem, który zdołał nie tylko wykupić się z niewoli, ale także nabyć niewielkie gospodarstwo rolne wraz z zabudowaniami, położone nieco na zachód od Wenuzji, u stóp wulkanicznej góry Wultur[7]. Góra Wultur, u stóp której ojciec Horacego kupił gospodarstwo rolne. Pierwsze lata życia spędził Horacy pod opieką piastunki Pulii. Matka, zapewne również wyzwolenica, zmarła bardzo wcześnie, tak że Horacy nie zachował o niej żadnego wspomnienia. Naukę rozpoczął w prowincjonalnej szkole prowadzonej przez niejakiego Flawiusza w Wenuzji. Tam wykazał się znacznymi zdolnościami, więc ojciec postanowił zapewnić mu wykształcenie, które otworzyłoby synowi drogę do kariery. Wydzierżawił gospodarstwo i gdy Kwintus miał około dziesięciu lat przeniósł się do Rzymu. Za zaoszczędzone pieniądze nabył posadę maklera na licytacjach (exactionum coactor). Zarabiał na pośrednictwie 1% od sum uzyskanych ze sprzedaży. Przy większych transakcjach, na przykład spadkowych, dochody sięgały bardzo wysokich kwot[8]. W jednej z najlepszych szkół rzymskim nauczycielem Kwintusa był surowy i wymagający Lucjusz Orbiliusz Pupillus – weteran, ekwita rodem z Benewentu. Horacy wspominał go jako „chętnego do bicia”. Orbiliusz nauczał łaciny, stosując jako podręcznik przekład Odysei pióra Liwiusza Andronika, oraz greki poprzez lekturę Iliady Homera. Kwintus miał również innych nauczycieli (doctores), lecz po latach za najlepszego nauczyciela i wychowawcę uznawał ojca, nie szczędząc mu wzruszających, pełnych wdzięczności słów (pater optimus)[9]. Młodość[edytuj | edytuj kod] Ojciec Horacego zadecydował, że jego syn otrzyma najlepsze wykształcenie w greckich szkołach filozoficznych i retorycznych. U schyłku 46 lub na początku roku 45, Kwintus wyjechał do Aten. Słuchał wykładów Kratipposa (kierownika szkoły perypatetycznej) oraz Teomnestosa (scholarchy nowej Akademii). Jego kolegami podczas studiów w Grecji byli między innymi Gnejusz Domicjusz Ahenobarbus i syn Cycerona Marek[10]. Jesienią 44 roku Brutus, morderca Cezara, zebrał w Grecji resztki wojsk Pompejusza, rozproszone po bitwie pod Farsalos. Do swojego sztabu przyjął wielu młodych Rzymian studiujących w Atenach. Horacy postanowił bronić, u boku kolegów, republikańskich ideałów przed Oktawianem i Markiem Antoniuszem – zaciągnął się do armii Brutusa. Braki kadrowe były w niej tak duże, że niedoświadczonego Kwintusa przydzielono do sztabu i nadano stopień oficerski (tribunus militum). W roku 42 uczestniczył w operacjach zajmowania przez legiony Brutusa Macedonii, Ilirii i Azji. W październiku bitwa pod Filippi zakończyła się klęską wojsk republikańskich. Horacy szukał ratunku w ucieczce, podczas której porzucił spowalniające go uzbrojenie. Uratowawszy życie postanowił powrócić do Rzymu[11]. Wracał przez Grecję i Adriatyk. Na Morzu Tyrreńskim przeżył burzę morską w pobliżu Przylądka Palinura, u zachodnich wybrzeży Lukanii. Niewiele brakowało, by jego statek rozbił się o skały. Wydarzenie to zaliczył później do jednego z trzech najgroźniejszych momentów w swoim życiu[12]. Po powrocie do Rzymu Horacy uzyskał ułaskawienie i zdołał ocalić życie. Skorzystał z amnestii ogłoszonej przez Oktawiana. Ukarany jednak został całkowitą konfiskatą majątku rodzinnego. Utracił nieruchomości, inwentarz i niewolników na rzecz weteranów Oktawiana. Mniej więcej też w tym czasie zmarł jego ojciec. Bez rodziny i majątku, bezrobotny i osamotniony – znalazł się Horacy w stolicy bez środków do życia. Z resztek oszczędności, w roku 41, nabył stanowisko sekretarza w urzędzie finansowym jednego z kwestorów. Stał się tym samym członkiem korporacji sekretarzy (scribae quaestorii), do których obowiązków należało prowadzenie ksiąg buchalteryjnych i akt archiwum państwowego. To zapewniło mu skromne utrzymanie i pozwoliło zająć się twórczością literacką[13]. Początki kariery literackiej[edytuj | edytuj kod] Portret Horacego – muzeum w Wenuzji. Jak sam wyznał, skrajna bieda zmusiła go do pisania wierszy. Ówcześni początkujący poeci odczytywali swoje utwory w kręgu najbliższych przyjaciół, omawiali je, doskonalili, zanim zostały one zaprezentowane publicznie. Horacy zaprzyjaźnił się z pięć lat od niego starszym Wergiliuszem, sławnym już autorem Bukolik i z Lucjuszem Wariuszem, autorem wierszy epicznych. Należeli oni do kręgu Mecenasa, który skupił wokół siebie najwybitniejsze talenty literackie i potrafił wyzyskać je dla polityki Oktawiana. Oni też pierwsi poznali się na talencie młodego kolegi[14]. Co prawda Horacy próbował już swoich sił w poezji, pisząc w Atenach zaginione wiersze po grecku, ale jako poeta łaciński debiutował przed gronem przyjaciół w Rzymie, około roku 40. Za jego najstarsze utwory uchodzą dwie epody – jedna wyrażającą niepokój o losy ojczyzny (uszeregowaną później jako Epoda XVI) oraz druga, ostrzegającą przed grozą kolejnej wojny domowej (Epoda VII)[15]. Do domu Mecenasa wprowadzili Horacego Wergiliusz i Wariusz wiosną 38 roku. W pałacu na Eskwilinie Horacy przedstawił się Mecenasowi, mówiąc krótko o sobie. Jak wspominał po latach, miał powiedzieć więcej, lecz z nieśmiałości głos uwiązł mu w krtani. Dopiero po dziewięciu miesiącach Mecenas wezwał go ponownie, co dało początek ich długoletniej przyjaźni. Podobne usposobienie, niezbyt dobry stan zdrowia, ten sam stosunek do życia, takie same poglądy potężnego Mecenasa i chudego literata sprawiły, że ich przyjaźń była trwała. Po kilku latach nie mogli już żyć bez siebie. Mecenas wyznał w jednym z utworów, że kocha Horacego całym jestestwem, a w testamencie polecił go szczególnej pamięci Augusta. Horacy dał wyraz przyjaźni nie tylko w licznych dedykacjach, ale również układając inwokacje do Mecenasa aż trzydzieści jeden razy[16]. Pierwszy okres twórczości[edytuj | edytuj kod] Widok na Tybur i okolice. Ponte dell Acquoria a Tivoli – obraz Thomasa Dessoulavy, namalowany w latach 1830–1840. W dolinie, mniej więcej pośrodku płótna, poniżej wodospadów, widoczny jest kościół św. Antoniego. Według tradycji kościół ten został zbudowany na miejscu willi Horacego. Na lata przed rokiem 30 przypada pierwszy okres twórczości Horacego. Powstały wówczas Epody i Satyry. Znany jest z dużym prawdopodobieństwem rok wydania ksiąg Satyr, natomiast o Epodach wiemy jedynie, że powstawały równocześnie z nimi. Tradycyjnie jednak uważa się Epody za pierwsze opublikowane dzieło Horacego. Większość uczonych skłania się do tezy, że oba zbiory wierszy zostały wydane w roku 30[17]. Epody przewyższały siłą temperamentu późniejsze wiersze Horacego. Jak wyznał poeta, słodka młodość i zapał serca wpędziły mnie w szybkie jamby. Odcinał się w nich od dotychczasowej konwencji, tak na płaszczyźnie ideowej, jak i artystycznej. Pragnął wierszami wpływać na społeczeństwo, jako jego przywódca i sumienie – dlatego szukał wzorów nie wśród poetów aleksandryjskich, jak na przykład Wergiliusz, ale zwrócił się ku lirykom greckim. Wybór padł na Archilocha, żyjącego w podobnie jak Horacy burzliwej epoce, którego formę wiersza przeniósł Horacy do poezji łacińskiej[18]. W Epodach Horacy komentował aktualne wydarzenia. Epoda VII była protestem przeciw wojnie domowej między Oktawianem a Sekstusem Pompejuszem. Epoda IV zawierała aluzje do pokonanych w 36 roku przez Marka Agryppę piratów. Wiosną 31 roku, podczas przygotowań do wojny domowej zakończonej bitwą pod Akcjum, powstała Epoda I, zaś Epoda IX wyraża radość ze zwycięstwa Oktawiana nad Antoniuszem[19]. Natomiast w Satyrach stronił Horacy od tematyki politycznej. Odzwierciedliło się jednak w nich rosnące zainteresowanie działalnością Oktawiana. O nabraniu przekonania do jego polityki świadczy Satyra II, datowana na rok 30, w której obiecuje w przyszłości sławić sprawiedliwość i dzielność princepsa. Satyry wyrażały już po części ideologię, której hołdował Oktawian – zachętę do skromnego życia oraz pochwałę starorzymskiej cnoty, dzięki której miał się odrodzić naród rzymski[20]. Zyskawszy przyjaźń i zaufanie Mecenasa oraz poparcie Oktawiana, już na wiosnę 37 roku Horacy, wraz z Wergiliuszem i Wariuszem, brał udział w misji dyplomatycznej do Brundisium w celu uzyskania pomocy od Antoniusza przeciwko Sekstusowi Pompejuszowi[21]. W 33 lub 32 roku poeta otrzymał od Mecenasa niewielką posiadłość ziemską w Górach Sabińskich, zwaną Sabinum bądź Sabini. Willę obsługiwało ośmiu niewolników pod nadzorem wilikusa. Ziemię rolną Horacy wydzierżawił. Sabinum pod Tyburem, oddalone od stolicy niespełna czterdzieści pięć kilometrów, leżące w dolinie wartkiego potoku Digentia, z panującym tam przez większą część roku łagodnym klimatem i malowniczą okolicą, stało się od razu ulubionym miejscem pobytu poety, inspirującym jego wyobraźnię[22]. Okres liryczny twórczości[edytuj | edytuj kod] Krąg Mecenasa. Od lewej: Wergiliusz, Horacy, Wariusz i Mecenas. Charles François Jalabert, ilustracja z około roku 1846. Na lata 30–23 przypada właściwy okres dojrzałej, lirycznej twórczości Horacego. Między 35 a 42 rokiem życia pisał ody, czego owocem był wydany w roku 23. zbiór pierwszych trzech ksiąg Pieśni. W tym okresie Horacy zyskał sławę największego, po Wergiliuszu, poety Rzymu. Przechodnie pokazywali go sobie na ulicach, nazywając pieśniarzem rzymskiej liry. Horacy przeszedł całkowicie na pozycje augustowskie, dawał wyraz wiary w posłannictwo Augusta oraz popierał jego dążenia polityczne i ideowe[23]. Nie ożenił się, żył na umiarkowanym poziomie i nie zabiegał o powiększenie majątku. Stronił od bieżącej polityki. Poznał osobiście Oktawiana, ale odrzucał konsekwentnie propozycje objęcia jakichkolwiek urzędów. Kiedy w roku 25 August zaoferował mu wpływowe i intratne stanowisko swego osobistego sekretarza, poeta stanowczo odmówił tłumacząc się marnym zdrowiem. Unikał zbyt częstego spotykania się z princepsem, nie chcąc być oskarżanym o wpływanie na politykę państwa. August wyrzucał niekiedy Horacemu, że „z nim nie rozmawia”[24]. Poeta dzielił czas między swoją wieś, pobliski Tybur i Rzym. Pozbawiony trosk materialnych, coraz chętniej i dłużej przebywał w Sabinum. Tam spędzał święta, tworzył i spacerował po okolicy, a w zimie zasiadał przy kominku. Dużo czasu poświęcał lekturze, zwłaszcza poezji greckiej. Odwiedzał sąsiada Cerwiusza, przyjmował u siebie gości na ucztach i skromnych posiłkach. Przeżył też groźną chwilę, gdy w czasie przechadzki nagle upadło stare drzewo i omal nie roztrzaskało mu głowy. Uznał, że ocalał dzięki interwencji Fauna i do śmierci uroczyście obchodził rocznicę tego wydarzenia[25]. Z przekazów pochodzących z tego okresu wiadomo, że miał ciemne włosy, ale już przyprószone siwizną. Często chorował. Dokuczały mu bóle reumatyczne, leczone w uzdrowiskach bądź naświetlaniem promieniami słonecznymi. Niejednokrotnie nawiedzało go zapalenie spojówek, na które stosował specjalne maści. Miewał kłopoty gastryczne. Popadał też w depresje, w czasie których stronił od przyjaciół i czekał aż krytyczny stan minie. Był cholerykiem, nagle wpadał w gniew i szybko się uspokajał, po czym żałował wybuchu i przepraszał. Łatwo zjednywał sobie ludzi, chociaż do zawierania przyjaźni nie był skory. August nazywał go „przemiłym człowieczkiem”[26]. Późny okres twórczości[edytuj | edytuj kod] Quintus Horatius Flaccus. Ilustracja z 1905 roku, Anton von Werner. Pod koniec lat dwudziestych utrwaliła się pozycja poety jako niemal oficjalnego wieszcza pryncypatu. Po śmierci Wergiliusza, w roku 19, August uznał Horacego za najwybitniejszego żyjącego poetę Rzymu i – jak twierdził Swetoniusz – tak cenił jego pisma, że uważał, że będą one wiecznie żyły[27]. W roku 23 Horacy porzucił lirykę. W programowym liście, skierowanym do Mecenasa, poeta uzasadniał ten zwrot w twórczości wiekiem. Jak wysłużony gladiator, który wycofuje się z areny na czas, nie czekając, aż skompromituje się wobec publiczności – tak Horacy odłożył na bok wiersze i inne igraszki (versus et cetera ludicra) i wrócił do rozważań moralnych, którym przed laty poświęcił się w Satyrach. Uczynił to w nowej formie, liście poetyckim, ponieważ – jak sam zaznaczył – starszy wiekiem poszukiwał mądrości i prawdy[28]. Horacy w chwili śmierci Wergiliusza miał już za sobą pokaźny dorobek poetycki. W liście do Juliusza Florusa (Listy II, 2) z roku 18 nie omieszkał tego dorobku przypomnieć. List ten otwierał serię tzw. listów literackich, do których należał też list do Pizonów o sztuce poetyckiej. Horacy potwierdził w nich rozbrat z dawniejszą twórczością epodyczną, satyryczną i liryczną oraz ponowił decyzję o skupieniu się na twórczości dydaktyczno-wychowawczej, jako odpowiedniej dla starszego pisarza. Jak twierdził, nadszedł czas, by zaniechać poezji innej poza podejmującą walkę z chciwością, żądzą chwały, zabobonnością, strachem przed śmiercią i innymi ludzkimi wadami[29]. W roku 17 August urządził „obrzędy wiekowe” (ludi saeculares). Horacy otrzymał zamówienie państwowe na napisanie hymnu uświetniającego tę uroczystość, co spowodowało jego nawrót do pisania liryki. Hymn Horacego, przeznaczony do odśpiewania przez chóry chłopców i dziewcząt na zakończenie trzydniowych uroczystości, odpowiadał w swym układzie ich przebiegowi. Jakkolwiek nie należy on, zdaniem krytyków, do najlepszych utworów poety, głosił potęgę Rzymu Augusta, miasta ukochanego przez bogów, nad który nie ujrzy nic większego na ziemi słonce wędrując po firmamencie niebieskim[27]. Tematy związane z potęgą Rzymu i Augustem charakteryzowały również czwartą księgę pieśni, na którą złożyło się 15 ód napisanych w latach 17–13, a więc już w nowym „saeculum”[30]. Rozpoczyna księgę oda do Wenus, w której poeta, bliski już pięćdziesiątki, wyrzeka się miłości, stwierdzając, że już nie jest tym, kim był za młodu[31]. Horacy spędzał już mniej czasu w Sabinum. Gdy w Górach Albańskich spadały pierwsze śniegi, chronił się przed dolegliwościami reumatycznymi nad morzem. Zazwyczaj spędzał zimę u boku Augusta i Mecenasa w Bajach, słynnych ze źródeł leczących choroby gośćcowe. Tam był pod opieką osobistego lekarza Augusta, Antoniusza Musy, który stosował skuteczne, ale nieprzyjemne zabiegi hydroterapeutyczne[32]. Od wiosny do jesieni często przyjeżdżał do Rzymu. Sypiał tam do dziesiątej, w chłodniejszych godzinach porannych chodził na Pole Marsowe, by podziwiać walki zapaśników lub pograć w piłkę. Otaczał go zawsze tłum gapiów, słyszał skierowane do siebie słowa: „dziecko szczęścia”. Zatrzymywano go prosząc o drobne przysługi i protekcję. Około południa spożywał lekki posiłek, potem najgorętszą porę dnia spędzał na odpoczynku w domu. Wieczorem spotykał się z petentami – proszono go o wstawiennictwo, a młodzi poeci chcieli, by wysłuchał ich wierszy. Odwiedzał też chorych przyjaciół. Niekiedy spacerował po Rynku Warzywnym (Forum Holitorium) lub Wielkim Cyrku, gdzie przyglądał się życiu zwykłych ludzi i rozmawiał z przechodniami. Zmęczony powracał do domu i brał kąpiel. Ostatni posiłek dnia składał się z jarzyn i naleśników. Ten tryb życia przerywany był częstymi zaproszeniami na uczty do Mecenasa, z którym niekiedy wyjeżdżał poza miasto. Po pewnym czasie miał dosyć wielkomiejskiego życia i tęsknił za willą sabińską, skąd po krótszym lub dłuższym pobycie, upływającym na pisaniu i lekturze, tęsknił z kolei za Rzymem. Sam mówił o sobie, że był niezdecydowany – gdy przebywał w Rzymie, kochał Tybur, będąc w Tyburze, kochał Rzym[33]. Śmierć[edytuj | edytuj kod] Horacy umarł 27 listopada 8 roku przed Chrystusem, kilka tygodni lub miesięcy po Mecenasie. Śmierć była nagła, a poeta nie zostawił testamentu. Wzbudziło to podejrzenia, że popełnił samobójstwo zażywając trucizny, by dotrzymać przysięgi danej przed laty Mecenasowi: dzień twojej śmierci pociągnie za sobą zgon nas obu. Podejrzeń tych nigdy nie potwierdzono. Zwłok poety nie spalono, lecz pochowano je obok grobowca Mecenasa, w ogrodach przyjaciela na Eskwilinie (horti Maecenatiani)[34]. Dzieła[edytuj | edytuj kod] Cytat z Horacego na zegarze słonecznym. Szczecin, Zamek Książąt Pomorskich Epody[edytuj | edytuj kod] Najwcześniejsze utwory Horacego, powstałe w latach 40–30, zostały zebrane w zbiorze Epody (Epodi) i wydane w roku 30 w jednej księdze. Sam poeta nazywał te utwory iambi. Nazwę Epody nadali im późniejsi gramatycy ze względu na budowę, ponieważ najczęściej po wersach dłuższych następował w nich wers krótszy, czyli epodos („dośpiew”)[35]. W jambach nawiązywał Horacy do Archilocha z Paros i Hipponaksa (druga połowa VI wieku przed Chrystusem). Poeta uważał, że to on pierwszy wprowadził do literatury łacińskiej wzorowane na greckich jambach wiersze, chociaż próbował już tego wcześniej Lucyliusz[35]. Horacy używał w epodach formę jambiczną – trymetr z dymetrem – ale próbował jeszcze kilku kombinacji jambiczno-daktylicznych. Zrezygnował natomiast całkowicie z form strof i wersów używanych wcześniej przez neoteryków[36]. Epody zawierały tony złośliwe i napastliwe, a także patriotyczne oraz hymniczne. Utwory złośliwe są anonimowe lub pseudoanonimowe. Krytykuje w nich Horacy innych poetów, dorobkiewiczów, oszczerców, rozpustne kobiety czy swoich osobistych nieprzyjaciół, chociaż poeta jest ostrożny w bezpośrednim wymienianiu imion poszczególnych osób[37]. Wśród utworów patriotycznych szczególnie popularna była Epoda VII – pełne dramatyczności wezwanie do zaprzestania wojen domowych, wynikających z klątwy, ciążącej na Rzymianach za zabójstwo brata przez Romulusa. Wstrząsający obraz upadku Rzymu, miotanego wojnami domowymi, przedstawił Horacy w Epodzie XVI. Nie widział w niej dla rodaków innej drogi, jak porzucenie Rzymu i przeniesienie się daleko za morza, na szczęśliwe wyspy[38]. Satyry[edytuj | edytuj kod] Pomnik Horacego w Wenuzji. Satyry składały się z dwóch ksiąg. W rękopisach tytułowane były jako Sermones, czyli „Gawędy”, gdyż prawdopodobnie tak te utwory nazywał sam poeta. Pierwsza księga zawierała 10 satyr (łącznie 1030 wersów), księga druga 8 satyr w 1083 wersach. Ponieważ w pierwszej księdze nie było żadnych wzmianek o Sabinum, przypuszczalnie zbiór powstał przed rokiem 32. Żaden z utworów drugiej księgi nie został napisany później niż w pierwszej połowie 29 roku. Według większości badaczy Satyry powstały równolegle z Epodami[39]. W miarę powstawania poszczególne utwory Horacy czytał przyjaciołom, a około roku 35 po raz pierwszy zaprezentował część z nich publicznie. Obserwował, jak zostały przyjęte i odnotował to w kolejnych satyrach. Zdaniem niektórych krytyków poeta przejawiał zbytni egocentryzm, zbyt ostrą agresywność, nadużywał praw satyryka i niepotrzebnie wywoływał nienawiść. Inni zarzucali Horacemu brak odpowiedniej satyrze sprężystości i doradzali, żeby poświęcił się na przykład epopei. Poeta jednak pisał w następnych latach kolejne satyry, w których odnosił się do krytyki ze strony publiczności[40]. Chociaż Horacy kontynuował tradycję wcześniejszej, rzymskiej satyry i greckiej diatryby, to w opozycji do nich jako właściwy wers satyry ustalił heksametr daktyliczny. W budowie strof przestrzegał harmonii formy z treścią, niekiedy nadając im epicki koloryt rytmu, a gdy wynikało to z treści stosował zwykły tok mowy. Kunsztu tego satyrycznego heksametru nikt potem naśladować nie umiał, choć wydawało się, że nic łatwiejszego[41]. Horacy często posługiwał się formą fikcyjnego dialogu, przytaczał przykłady ze zwykłych, codziennych wydarzeń; korzystał z anegdoty i dowcipu, dotykał swobodnie różnych tematów z życia społecznego i osobistego. Nie zabrakło przykładów ilustrujących temat, a także pełnych dygresji i aluzji uwag, porównań – powiązanych jednak zawsze jakąś główną myślą przewodnią[42]. Poeta unikał w Satyrach tematów politycznych, a także krytyki wysoko postawionych osobistości, czy ludu rzymskiego. Poruszał tematykę uniwersalną, tylko pośrednio odnosząc się do aktualnych wydarzeń. Krytykował szerzące się naruszanie wierności małżeńskiej a gonitwa za przygodami z cudzymi żonami wyszydzona została jako typowy przykład głupoty. Atakował, na przykład, chciwości i zawiści, uważając je za źródła ludzkiego niezadowolenia z życia[42]. Ody[edytuj | edytuj kod] Tekst Ody XIV z Księgi I – na budynku przy Cleveringaplaats 1 w holenderskiej Lejdzie: Czyż trzeba, by cię nowa fala niosła... Pieśni liryczne (Carmina), znane także jako „Ody” (Odes), wydane zostały w czterech księgach. Trzy pierwsze ukazały się w roku 23 jako oddzielny zbiór, zawierający 88 utworów. Około roku 13 Horacy opublikował ostatnią, czwartą księgę liczącą 15 pieśni. Ody napisane zostały w różnych metrach poetyckich i zawierały różnorodną tematykę[43]. Chociaż w tematyce ód znalazły się zapożyczenia z poezji greckiej, to jednak większość z nich zrodziły okoliczności związane z życiem poety, czy też jego wspomnienia. Wiele utworów była to poezja okazyjna, skierowana do przyjaciół i znajomych. Wielokrotnie też zajmował Horacy głos w sprawach publicznych. Charakterystyczną cechą pieśni było rozpoczynanie wiersza od jakiegoś konkretnego wydarzenia, niekiedy opowiedzianego szczegółowo, częściej ledwie wspomnianego. Wychodząc od tego wydarzenia poeta przechodzi do refleksji natury ogólnej – praktycznej lub filozoficznej. Wiele utworów składało się z dwóch części – pierwsza, sytuacyjna, była podstawą do ogólnych rozważań w drugiej, refleksyjnej[44]. W budowie strof Horacy adaptował do języka łacińskiego niekiedy poezję Alkajosa i Safony, ale przeważnie używał własnych schematów stroficznych, układanych w zespoły czterowierszowe. Za swoim wyczuciem rytmicznym znormalizował schematy wersów i strof. Zrezygnował na przykład, najczęściej na korzyść sylaby długiej, z dowolności iloczasu niektórych sylab; ustabilizował w wierszach miejsca cezur, a odchylenia od tych zasad stosował rzadko. Ograniczył również przenoszenie końcówki zdania do wersu następnego, czyli tzw. enjambement. Natomiast kończenie strof w środku zdania, czyli dośpiew (epod), nadal stosował często[45]. Podobnie jak tematyka i forma, tak również zmienia się w odach nastrój. O nastroju decyduje treść utworu i jej ujęcie przez poetę, a nie określona forma stroficzna czy rytm. Nie ma więc w pieśniach harmonii treści i formy, w sensie określonego doboru formy do treści lub odwrotnie. Wynikało to z ambitnych zamierzeń poety, zarówno co do tematyki i charakteru utworów, jak co do formy. Ambicje te potwierdza już dobór pierwszych dziewięciu utworów pierwszej księgi – każdy z nich był w innym rodzaju strofki i różnił się od poprzedniego poruszaną treścią[46]. Ody były w poezji całkowitą nowością. Jako szczególną innowację odebrano liryczne pieśni patriotyczne. Słuchano w Rzymie patriotycznych przemówień z ust wodzów i polityków, czytano je w epopejach. Ale żaden liryk nie przemawiał dotąd z piedestału wieszcza narodowego czy kapłana muz – z wyjątkiem Eklogi IV Wergiliusza. W takiej roli próbował Horacy występować już w niektórych Epodach, jednak w Odach ze szczególnym jednak poczuciem wieszczej powinności przemówił do społeczeństwa rzymskiego, a zwłaszcza do młodzieży, jako przez bogów wybrany poeta i wychowawca[47]. Po przerwie, w której Horacy poświęcił się twórczości heksametrycznej, najprawdopodobniej w roku 13 poeta ogłosił czwartą księgę Pieśni, zawierającą 15 utworów. Poprzedziło ją napisanie Carmen saeculare, na święcone w roku 17 Ludi saeculares. Dotąd strzegący swej niezależności Horacy, pod koniec życia stworzył utwory o tematyce „augustowskiej”, przeszczepiając na grunt liryki chóralne epinikia Pindara, zwłaszcza w odach sławiących zwycięstwa Tyberiusza i Druzusa (Pieśni IV, 4 i 14)[48]. Listy[edytuj | edytuj kod] Rękopis dzieł Horacego spisany w XIII wieku. Noty marginalne i interlinearne pochodzą od czytelników z XIV i XV wieku. Biblioteka Narodowa Francji (fr. Bibliothèque nationale de France), Paryż. Po ogłoszeniu w roku 23 pierwszego zbioru Pieśni powrócił Horacy do poezji heksametrycznej. W latach 23–20 napisał Listy (Epistulae), których pierwsza księga, zawierająca dwadzieścia utworów o różnej treści, została opublikowana w roku 20. Kilka lat później ogłosił poeta drugą księgę Listów, obejmującą trzy długie utwory omawiające zagadnienia literackie, wśród nich Sztukę poetycką, zwaną także Listem do Pizonów[49]. W księdze pierwszej znajduje się kilka utworów, które można zinterpretować jako pozostałości po rzeczywistej korespondencji. W piśmie do studiującego retorykę młodego Lolliusza (Listy I, 2) zachęcał Horacy do naśladowania Odyseusza, rozumianego jako symbol stoickiej dzielności i rozsądku. Przykładem pisma skierowanego do przyjaciela był list do Juliusza Florusa (Listy I, 3), uczestnika wyprawy przeciw Partom pod wodzą Tyberiusza. Również listem skierowanym do przebywającego „w wirze walki”, było pismo do biorącego udział w wyprawie Tyberiusza do Azji, Celsusa Albinowana (Listy I, 8). Dla Septymiusza, pragnącego wyruszyć z Tyberiuszem, napisał Horacy z taktem i wytwornym dowcipem list polecający (Listy I, 9). Przykładem eleganckiego zaproszenia na lampkę wina był list do prawnika, Manliusza Torkwata (Listy I, 5)[50]. Do traktatów filozoficznych w formie listu zalicza się, poza listem dedykacyjnym dla Mecenasa (Listy I, 1), list szósty zawierający przykłady prawdziwego i pozornego dobra, czy list szesnasty podający definicję człowieka rzeczywiście cnotliwego (vir bonus). Sprawę właściwej postawy na dworze możnego patrona, pozwalającej na zachowanie swej godności i niezależności, poruszają listy siedemnasty i osiemnasty. Przykładem autoironii jest ostatni utwór z pierwszej księgi – skierowany do Książeczki, która marzy o czytelnikach. Podobny charakter ma utwór trzynasty, zawierający na pozór poważne rady, jak powinien zachować się Winniusz Asina, który miał wręczyć Augustowi trzy pierwsze księgi Pieśni. Odpowiedzią krytykom twórczości Horacego jest list osiemnasty, zawierający credo literackie poety i zapowiadający księgę drugą Listów, poświęconą zagadnieniom literackim[50]. W drugiej księdze, zwanej Listami literackimi, Horacy rozwinął myśli z zakresu sztuki poetyckiej, oparte na dydaktycznym dziele greckiego filologa i poety Neoptolemosa z Parionu, ale wzbogacone o własne doświadczenia. Horacy pisał o zasadzie jednolitości utworu, właściwym jego rozplanowaniu, doborze języka i stylu oraz tematu. Poświęcił też nieco uwagi dziełu epickiemu, najwięcej jednak poezji scenicznej. Wszystkie rodzaje poezji dawały, jego zdaniem, okazję do popisu przez wyzyskanie nabytych umiejętności. Poruszył Horacy również problemy dotyczące twórcy, jego wykształcenia, charakteru, zadań poety oraz głosił postulat nierozłączności talentu i znajomości sztuki jako warunku właściwej realizacji utworu poetyckiego[51]. W sporze o to, czy poezja powinna być rozrywką czy też pełnić funkcje dydaktyczne, zajął Horacy stanowisko pośrednie: wszystkie zaś głosy pozyska, łącząc przyjemność z pożytkiem, kto czytelnika nie tylko bawi, lecz oraz poucza. Sformułował również zasadę, że dzieło literackie przed opublikowaniem powinno przeleżeć w biurku co najmniej dziewięć lat i być w tym czasie udoskonalane. Duże znaczenie odegrała w wiekach następnych uwaga Horacego, że jeśli poeta chce wzruszyć czytelnika, to musi wpierw sam przeżyć uczucia, które chce w nim wzbudzić (si vis me flere, dolendum est primum ipsi tibi)[52]. Recepcja[edytuj | edytuj kod] Starożytność[edytuj | edytuj kod] Wydaje się, że wkrótce po śmierci Horacego, jeszcze w czasach Augusta, na warsztat filologiczny i pulpit szkolny wziął jego poezję Cecyliusz Epirota. W każdym razie poeta figurował jako autor lektur szkolnych już w czasach Kwintyliana[53], który w Kształceniu mówcy stwierdził, że z liryków rzymskich Horacy bodajże jedyny zasługuje na to, żeby go czytać. Największy późniejszy liryk Rzymu, chrześcijanin Prudencjusz z wieku IV, wzorował się w dużym stopniu na Horacym. Jako satyryk znalazł w starożytności Horacy kilku kontynuatorów. Persjusz w drugiej połowie I wieku akcentował moralny charakter satyry i zamiast przykładami z życia posługiwał się postaciami z poezji Horacego. Natomiast Juwenalis na początku II wieku zastąpił uśmiechniętą i wyrozumiałą mądrość Horacego świętym oburzeniem moralisty[54]. W drugiej połowie I wieku Marek Waleriusz Probus sporządził krytyczne wydanie pism Horacego. Było ono tak dokładne, że spośród poprawek, jakie przez wieki poczynili do niego uczeni, niewiele zostało powszechnie przyjętych. W II wieku żywot poety sporządził historyk i filolog Swetoniusz. Nie zachował się komentarz do poezji Horacego, napisany na przełomie II i III wieku przez Akrona. Natomiast znany jest współcześnie komentarz Porfiriona z III wieku oraz późniejsze tzw. Scholia pseudoacroniana[54]. Średniowiecze i nowożytność[edytuj | edytuj kod] W średniowieczu poezję Horacego czytano w szkołach i przepisywano w klasztorach. Zachowało się około 250 rękopisów jego dzieł, najstarsze pochodzą z VIII i IX wieku. Ceniono przede wszystkim Satyry i Listy, ale wielką powagą cieszyła się Sztuka poetycka, zwana wówczas Poetrią. Wielu liryków kościelnych wzorowało się na Horacym, czego przykładem są hymny ku czci św. Kwiryna, pióra Metellusa, XII-wiecznego zakonnika z Tegernsee w Bawarii, wzorowane na języku i pisane w metrach Horacego[55]. W Boskiej komedii Dante przyznaje Horacemu trzecie miejsce w panteonie poetów – po Wergiliuszu i Homerze. Horacy był dla Dantego przede wszystkim mistrzem satyry, którego naśladował poddając ostrej krytyce własną epokę[56]. Jeszcze Boccaccio czytał jedynie Satyry i Listy. Horacego jako liryka odkrył w XIV wieku Petrarka. W XV i XVI wieku coraz bardziej popularne stawały się Ody, a szeregi naśladowców w różnych krajach Europy tworzyły łacińską poezję opartą na liryce Horacego. Apogeum tego zjawiska przypada na wiek XVII, gdy w Niemczech tworzy Jakub Balde, a w Polsce jezuita Maciej Sarbiewski. Jeszcze na początku XX wieku pod wpływem Horacego łacińskie liryki pisał Giovanni Pascoli. Od drugiej połowy XVI aż do XIX wieku tworzono również tzw. parodiae Horatianae, w których najpierw protestanci, a potem także jezuici, zachowując strofikę oraz bieg myśli poszczególnych ód, uzupełniali ich treści o wartości chrześcijańskie[55]. Od XVI wieku lirycy tworzący w językach wernakularnych naśladowali powszechnie Horacego. We Francji czynili tak poeci zebrani w Plejadzie, przede wszystkim Pierre de Ronsard, natomiast w Polsce szkoła Jana Kochanowskiego. Do XVIII wieku niemal cała liryka europejska opiera się na poezji Horacego, stąd stworzono we wszystkich krajach olbrzymią liczbę przekładów, parafraz, naśladowań, trawestacji czy parodii do każdej ody Horacego. Renesansowa, barokowa i klasycystyczna teoria poezji opierała się na Sztuce poetyckiej. Szczyt popularności Horacego przypadł na wiek XVIII, dopiero romantycy odeszli od naśladowania Ód i Satyr[57]. W Polsce[edytuj | edytuj kod] Od początku XVI wieku piszący po łacinie poeci polscy naśladowali ody Horacego w metrach, słownictwie i tematyce. Największymi osiągnięciami polskiego horacjanizmu były Lyricorum libellus Jana Kochanowskiego z 1580 roku oraz Lyricorum libri IV, Epodon liber unus alterque epigrammatum Macieja Sarbiewskiego z 1631 roku. Sarbiewski w całej Europie zasłynął jako Horatius Sarmaticus i jeszcze na początku XIX wieku był czytany w angielskich szkołach zamiast Horacego. Inne znaczące utwory oparte na Horacym to między innymi Carminum liber I Joachima Bielskiego z 1588 roku, Opera lyrica Stanisława Konarskiego z 1767 roku czy Ode in Bomarsundum captum Adama Mickiewicza, prawdopodobnie z 1855 roku[58]. Pieśni Jana Kochanowskiego są świadectwem tego, jaką rolę odegrał Horacy w rozwoju liryki pisanej w języku polskim. Część zbioru to, mniej lub bardziej wierne, przekłady z łaciny. Większość pozostałych utworów to parafrazy, opierające się bezpośrednio lub pośrednio na motywach ód. Liryczna twórczość Kochanowskiego stanowi przykład twórczego przekształcenia dzieł Horacego, opartego także na zbieżnościach biografii obu poetów – ich niezależności, ucieczki od dworu, chronieniu się w wiejskim zaciszu[59]. Wpływ Horacego na poezję polską trwał, poprzez poetów ze szkoły Kochanowskiego, aż do końca XVIII wieku. Jeszcze Adam Naruszewicz naśladował Horacego w Liryków ksiąg czworo. Tenże Naruszewicz napisał w 1770 roku Horacjusza życie, z pism jego po części zebrane. Satyry i Listy stały się wzorem dla Satyr (1779) oraz Listów (1780-1783) Ignacego Krasickiego, a także Satyr Naruszewicza z 1779 roku. Sztuka poetycka została natomiast podstawą dla wydanej w 1788 roku Sztuki rymotwórczej Franciszka Ksawerego Dmochowskiego[59]. Dzieła Horacego używane były w nauczaniu początkowym w Rzeczypospolitej Obojga Narodów. Włączono je w program edukacyjny według zaleceń Komisji Edukacji Narodowej. Znalazły się one w Wypisach z autorów klasycznych do nauk w szkołach narodowych wydrukowanych przez Towarzystwo do Ksiąg Elementarnych. W klasie V korzystał z nich „profesor wymowy’, a w klasie VI w całości omawiał on list Horacego „de arte poetica”[60]. Chociaż Horacy był spośród poetów najczęściej przekładany na język polski, to wielowiekowe próby spotykały się przeważnie z negatywnymi ocenami krytyków. Większość filologów i historyków uważała, że kolejne pokolenia translatorów nie sprostały poezji wenuzyjczyka, czego przyczyn upatrywali w niedostatecznych kompetencjach większości z nich. Tłumaczom-naukowcom, ich zdaniem, brakowało poetyckiego polotu a tłumaczom-poetom należytej wiedzy oraz wyczucia horacjańskiej łaciny[61]. Niemal każdy znaczący polski poeta miał w swoim dorobku przekłady z Horacego. Za najlepsze w powszechnej opinii, obok dzieł Jana Kochanowskiego, uchodzą tłumaczenia Juliana Tuwima, ogłaszane w latach 1936–1938. Cechuje je powściągliwość i autodyscyplina, jaka była właściwością poezji Horacego. Podobną adekwatność środków wyrazu i unikanie wtrętów obcych konwencji poetyckiej wieszcza wenuzyjskiego, obok Kochanowskiego i Tuwima, stosowali jeszcze niekiedy Adam Asnyk, Lucjan Rydel czy Henryk Sienkiewicz[62]. Przypisy[edytuj | edytuj kod] ↑ a b Cytowska 1990 ↓, s. 256–257. ↑ Krókowski 2007 ↓, s. III. ↑ a b Jurewicz 1986 ↓, s. 7. ↑ Krókowski 2007 ↓, s. III-IV. ↑ Cytowska 1990 ↓, s. 158. ↑ Jurewicz 1986 ↓, s. 9. ↑ Jurewicz 1986 ↓, s. 10. ↑ Jurewicz 1986 ↓, s. 11. ↑ Jurewicz 1986 ↓, s. 12. ↑ Jurewicz 1986 ↓, s. 13. ↑ Jurewicz 1986 ↓, s. 13–14. ↑ Jurewicz 1986 ↓, s. 14. ↑ Jurewicz 1986 ↓, s. 14–15. ↑ Jurewicz 1986 ↓, s. 15–16. ↑ Jurewicz 1986 ↓, s. 16. ↑ Jurewicz 1986 ↓, s. 16–17. ↑ Krókowski 2007 ↓, s. VIII-X. ↑ Cytowska 1990 ↓, s. 164. ↑ Cytowska 1990 ↓, s. 165. ↑ Cytowska 1990 ↓, s. 177–177. ↑ Cytowska 1990 ↓, s. 157. ↑ Jurewicz 1986 ↓, s. 17–18. ↑ Krókowski 2007 ↓, s. XVIII-XIX. ↑ Jurewicz 1986 ↓, s. 24. ↑ Jurewicz 1986 ↓, s. 19–20. ↑ Jurewicz 1986 ↓, s. 23. ↑ a b Krókowski 2007 ↓, s. XXXVII. ↑ Krókowski 2007 ↓, s. XXXIV. ↑ Brożek 1969 ↓, s. 306. ↑ Krókowski 2007 ↓, s. XXXIX. ↑ Krókowski 2007 ↓, s. XXXVIII. ↑ Jurewicz 1986 ↓, s. 21. ↑ Jurewicz 1986 ↓, s. 21–22. ↑ Jurewicz 1986 ↓, s. 22. ↑ a b Cytowska 1990 ↓, s. 159. ↑ Brożek 1969 ↓, s. 262. ↑ Brożek 1969 ↓, s. 263. ↑ Krókowski 2007 ↓, s. XII. ↑ Cytowska 1990 ↓, s. 166–167. ↑ Brożek 1969 ↓, s. 266. ↑ Brożek 1969 ↓, s. 263–264. ↑ a b Brożek 1969 ↓, s. 264. ↑ Cytowska 1990 ↓, s. 187. ↑ Brożek 1969 ↓, s. 279. ↑ Brożek 1969 ↓, s. 277. ↑ Brożek 1969 ↓, s. 278. ↑ Brożek 1969 ↓, s. 280. ↑ Cytowska 1990 ↓, s. 201. ↑ Cytowska 1990 ↓, s. 239. ↑ a b Cytowska 1990 ↓, s. 240. ↑ Brożek 1969 ↓, s. 307. ↑ Krókowski 2007 ↓, s. XLII. ↑ Brożek 1969 ↓, s. 311. ↑ a b Krókowski 2007 ↓, s. XLIII. ↑ a b Krókowski 2007 ↓, s. XLIV. ↑ Curtius 1997 ↓, s. 23. ↑ Krókowski 2007 ↓, s. XLV. ↑ Krókowski 2007 ↓, s. XLV-XLVI. ↑ a b Krókowski 2007 ↓, s. XLVI. ↑ Antoni Karbowiak 1893 ↓. ↑ Stroh 2013 ↓, s. 36–37. ↑ Krókowski 2007 ↓, s. XLIX. Bibliografia[edytuj | edytuj kod] Przekłady polskie[edytuj | edytuj kod] Wybór poezji, opr. J. Zawirowski, Biblioteka Narodowa, wyd. 1923 (kolejne opr. J.Krókowski, 2-4 wyd. Wrocław 1967, 1971, 1973) Dzieła wszystkie, t. 1-2, [zestawienie dwujęzyczne], opr. O. Jurewicz, Wrocław 1986, 2 wyd. Warszawa 2000. Q.Horatii Flacci Opera. Horacy. Dzieła, [zestawienie dwujęzyczne], przeł. i wstępem opatrzył S. Gołębiowski, t.I-II, wyd. Biblioteka Klasyki Polskiej i Obcej Ludowa Spółdzielnia Wydawnicza, Warszawa 1980 Dzieła wszystkie, przeł. i opr. Andrzej Lam, 2 wyd. Verum, Warszawa 1996; toż: Wydanie nowe z dodatkiem Emblematów horacjańskich Ottona Vaeniusa (103 miedzioryty), Akademia Humanistyczna im. A. Gieysztora i Aspra-JR, Pułtusk-Warszawa 2010; toż: Wydanie dwujęzyczne polsko-łacińskie, Aspra-JR, Warszawa 2019 Literatura[edytuj | edytuj kod] Mieczysław Brożek: Historia literatury łacińskiej w Starożytności. Zarys. Wrocław, Warszawa, Kraków: Zakład Narodowy imienia Ossolińskich, 1969. (pol.) Ernst Robert Curtius: Literatura europejska i łacińskie średniowiecze. Kraków: Wydawnictwo Universitas, 1997. ISBN 83-7052-128-2. (pol.) Oktawiusz Jurewicz: Życie poety. W: Kwintus Horacjusz Flakkus. Dzieła wszystkie. Tom I. Ody i epody. Wrocław: Ossolineum, 1986, s. 7–24. ISBN 83-04-02266-4. Jerzy Krókowski: Wstęp. W: Horacy. Wybór poezji. Wrocław: Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich, 1975, s. III-LIV. Wilfried Stroh: Łacina umarła, niech żyje łacina! Mała historia wielkiego języka. Aleksandra Arnd (tł.), Elżbieta Wesołowska (wst.). Poznań: Wydawnictwo Poznańskiego Towarzystwa Przyjaciół Nauk, 2013. ISBN 978-83-7654-266-9. (pol.) Maria Cytowska, Hanna Szelest: Literatura rzymska. Okres augustowski. Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1990. ISBN 83-01-09067-7. (pol.) Antoni Karbowiak: O książkach elementarnych na szkoły wojewódzkie z czasów Komisyi edukacyi narodowej. Lwów: Muzeum, 1893. Linki zewnętrzne[edytuj | edytuj kod] Nowsze przekłady dzieł Horacego w PBI Starsze przekłady dzieł Horacego w PBI Dzieła Horacego w sieci Horacy Utwory Carmina Horatiana: Wszystkie carmina Horacego po łacinie recytuje Thomas Bervoets. Kontrola autorytatywna (osoba): ISNI: 0000 0001 2145 2178 VIAF: 100227522, 2130151778256418130004 ULAN: 500404135 LCCN: n79081354, no92010069 GND: 118553569 NDL: 00540086 LIBRIS: fcrtvznz06j57nd BnF: 11886570b SUDOC: 026659166 SBN: IT\ICCU\CFIV\000246 NLA: 35206138 NKC: jn20000603003 RSL: 000083136, 000039740 BNE: XX891549 NTA: 068304579 BIBSYS: 90055203 CiNii: DA00782980 Open Library: OL20088A PLWABN: 9810582428505606 NUKAT: n96210540 NLI: 000064806 PTBNP: 19592 CANTIC: a10101214 LNB: 000000375 NSK: 000013522 CONOR: 8323171 BNC: 000035928 ΕΒΕ: 62641 BLBNB: 000573561 KRNLK: KAC199612791 LIH: LNB:V*44890;=BL RISM: pe411425 WorldCat: lccn-n79081354 Źródło: „https://pl.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horacy_(poeta)&oldid=61564722” Kategorie: Pisarze i poeci starożytnego Rzymu Pisarze I wieku p.n.e. Urodzeni w 65 p.n.e. Zmarli w 8 p.n.e. 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Tekst udostępniany na licencji Creative Commons: uznanie autorstwa, na tych samych warunkach, z możliwością obowiązywania dodatkowych ograniczeń. Zobacz szczegółowe informacje o warunkach korzystania. Polityka prywatności O Wikipedii Korzystasz z Wikipedii tylko na własną odpowiedzialność Wersja mobilna Dla deweloperów Statystyki Komunikat na temat ciasteczek 
pms-wikipedia-org-6108	----	Orassi - Wikipedia an piemontèis, l'enciclopedìa lìbera e a gràtis Orassi Da Wikipedia. Jump to navigation Jump to search Vos an lenga piemontèisa Për amprende a dovré 'l sistema dle parlà locaj ch'a varda sì. Quint Orassi Flach Poeta an lenga latin-a. Quint Orassi Flach a l'era nassù a Venosa l'8 dë dzèmber dël 65 aGC e a l'é mòrt a Roma ël 27 novèmber ëd l'8 aGC. Euvre prinsipaj[modìfica | modifiché la sorgiss] Epodi Saturae Odi Epistole Carmen saeculare Aiuto per la lettura Ayuda para la lectura Help for Reading Rintré ant la Piòla Contaté j'Aministrator Lìber për Amprende Coression ortogràfica Tastadura piemontèisa Portaj e Proget Agiut pr'ij Contributor Travajòt sempi Pijàit da "https://pms.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Orassi&oldid=765934" Categorìe: Poeta Scritor an lenga latin-a Lista ëd navigassion Utiss përsonaj a l'é pa ant ël sistema Discussion Contribussion Creé un cont Rintré ant ël sistema Spassi nominaj Artìcol Discussion Variant vìsite Lese Modifiché Modifiché la sorgiss Smon-e la stòria Altro Sërca navigassion Intrada Piòla Neuve Ùltime modìfiche Na pàgina qualsëssìa Agiut Doné! utiss Pàgine con dj'anliure che a men-o a costa-sì Modìfiche colegà Pàgine Speciaj Anliura fissa Anformassion an sla pàgina Sita sta pàgina-sì Element Wikidata Stampa/espòrta Crea un lìber Dëscaria com PDF Version bon-a për stampé An autri proget Wikimedia Commons Àutre lenghe Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Modifiché j'anliure Modificà l'ùltima vira dël 17 mar 2013, al 06:14. Ël test a l'é disponìbil sota la licensa Creative Commons atribussion-partagi ugual; a podrìo aplichesse d'àutre condission. Ch'a vëdda le Condission d'usagi për ij detaj. Polìtica ëd confidensialità Difide Visualisassion an sël sacociàbil Dësvlupator Statistiche Dichiarazione sui cookie 
pt-wikipedia-org-3786	----	Horácio – Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre Horácio Origem: Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre. Saltar para a navegação Saltar para a pesquisa  Nota: Para outros significados, veja Horácio (desambiguação). Esta página cita fontes confiáveis, mas que não cobrem todo o conteúdo. Ajude a inserir referências. Conteúdo não verificável poderá ser removido.—Encontre fontes: Google (notícias, livros e acadêmico) (Fevereiro de 2020) Horácio Nascimento 8 de dezembro de 65 a.C. Venosa Morte 27 de novembro de 8 a.C. (56 anos) Roma Sepultamento Roma Cidadania Roma Antiga Etnia antigos romanos Progenitores Mãe:Desconhecido Pai:Desconhecido Ocupação poeta, escritor, filósofo [edite no Wikidata] Quinto Horácio Flaco, em latim Quintus Horatius Flaccus, (Venúsia, 8 de dezembro de 65 a.C. — Roma, 27 de novembro de 8 a.C.) foi um poeta lírico e satírico romano, além de filósofo. É conhecido por ser um dos maiores poetas da Roma Antiga. Índice 1 Vida 2 Filosofia Epicurista 3 Bibliografia 3.1 Livros 4 Referências 5 Ver também 6 Ligações externas Vida[editar | editar código-fonte] Filho de um escravo liberto, que possuía a função de receber o dinheiro público nos leilões, recebeu uma boa educação para alguém com suas origens sociais, graças aos recursos que seu pai conseguiu, levando-o para Roma onde foi discípulo de Orbílio Pupilo.[1] Seus estudos literários de Roma foram completados em Atenas, para onde foi, aos vinte anos.[1] Quando em 44 a.C. eclodiu a guerra civil que se seguiu ao assassinato de Júlio César, Horácio tomou partido daqueles que participaram da morte deste, Bruto e Cássio, servindo até a Batalha de Filipos onde, ao avizinhar-se a derrota, fugiu de volta para Roma.[1] Já sem o pai, que havia morrido, e tendo perdido todos os bens que este possuía, que foram confiscados, Horácio conseguiu um trabalho como escriturário, tendo assim ocasião de começar a escrever suas obras literárias.[1] Conhece então o poeta Virgílio, que o apresenta a Mecenas que, após nove meses, o convoca para integrar o círculo de artistas protegidos, tornando-se assim um dos poetas oficiais do estado, tendo a amizade a partir dali aumentado a tal ponto que o protetor deu-lhe de presente uma vila.[1] Eclodem, então, as lutas de Otaviano contra Cleópatra e Marco Antônio (32-30 a.C.), tomando então Horácio entusiasta partido do primeiro que, sagrando-se vitorioso em Ácio, dele recebeu exultação pela conquista.[1] Tendo início o Império, e Otaviano passando a chamar-se Augusto, tem início um período de paz que o poeta louvou, agradando ao imperador que, então, lhe oferece o cargo de secretário, sendo a oferta recusada.[1] Também recusa os pedidos de Mecenas e Augusto para que cantasse os feitos guerreiros, preferindo exaltar o papel de pacificador do governante, dedicando-se aos poemas curtos e com temas variados.[1] Segundo Enzo Marmorale, Horácio “era de baixa estatura, quase gordo, moreno, de cabelos pretos, e bom orador”; mesmo havendo jurado que não sobreviveria a Mecenas, sua morte deu-se a 27 de novembro de 8 a.C., meses após o falecimento do amigo, ao lado de quem foi sepultado no Esquilino.[1] Filosofia Epicurista[editar | editar código-fonte] Alguns de seus poemas são apontados como exemplos do impacto da filosofia epicurista na Roma Antiga.[2] Não sendo um filósofo ele mesmo no sentido estreito do termo, ele se mostrou um filósofo ao não evitar o tema em seus poemas[3] alguns temas epicuristas destacam-se em sua obra, como a importância em se aproveitar o presente (carpe diem) pelo reconhecimento da brevidade da vida e a busca pela tranquilidade (fugere urbem). Bibliografia[editar | editar código-fonte] Saturae, 1577 Sua obra pode ser dividida em quatro gêneros: Sátiras ou sermones — Retrata ironia de seu tempo dividida em dois livros escritos em hexâmetros. Baseado em assuntos literários ou morais, discute questões éticas. Odes ou Carminas — Divididos em quatro livros de longos poemas líricos sobre assuntos diversos, geralmente sobre mitologia. Também em hexâmetros. Epístolas ou cartas — Dois livros feitos de coleções de cartas sobre vários assuntos. Dentre elas destaca-se a maior, a Epístola aos Pisões, conhecida como Arte Poética. Epodos ou iambos — Um livro somente, com 17 pequenos poemas líricos escritos na mocidade sobre assuntos de Roma e imitava, tanto na métrica quanto no estilo satírico, o poeta Arquíloco. Livros[editar | editar código-fonte] (35 a.C.) Sermonum liber primus ou Sátira I (30 a.C.) Epodos (30 a.C.) Sermonum liber secundus ou Sátira II (23 a.C.) Carminum liber primus ou Odes I (23 a.C.) Carminum liber secundus ou Odes II (23 a.C.) Carminum liber tertius ou Odes III (20 a.C.) Epistularum liber primus (18 a.C.) Ars Poetica, ou Epístola aos Pisões (17 a.C.) Carmen Saeculare ou Canto secular (14 a.C.) Epistularum liber secundus (13 a.C.) Carminum liber quartus ou Odes IV Referências ↑ a b c d e f g h i Vivian de Azevedo Garcia Salema (s/d). «Análise do Epodo X de Horácio». UFRJ. Consultado em 10 de novembro de 2015  ↑ WOODMAN, Tony & FEENEY, Denis (ed.). Traditions and Contexts in the Poetry of Horace. Cambridge: Cambridge University, 2002. ↑ MOLES, John. Poetry, philosophy, politics and play. In: WOODMAN, Tony & FEENEY, Denis (ed.). Traditions and Contexts in the Poetry of Horace. Cambridge: Cambridge University, 2002.p. 157 Ver também[editar | editar código-fonte] O Wikiquote possui citações de ou sobre: Horácio O Commons possui imagens e outros ficheiros sobre Horácio Epicuro Virgílio Mecenas César Augusto Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori Fugere urbem Ligações externas[editar | editar código-fonte] UFRGS - Biografia Mundo Cultural - Horácio Obras de Horácio: textos com concordâncias e lista de freqüência Arte poética em latim no Perseus Project Carmina em latim no Perseus Project Horácio - Arte Poética (Tradução de Cândido Lusitano) - em Bibliotrónica Portuguesa v d e Horácio (obras) Sátiras (2 livros) Epodos Odes (4 livros) Cartas (2 livros) Canto Secular Obtida de "https://pt.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horácio&oldid=59889004" Categorias: Nascidos em 65 a.C. Mortos em 8 a.C. Naturais de Venosa Satiristas da Roma Antiga Filósofos da Roma Antiga Filósofos pagãos Escritores pagãos Horatii Categorias ocultas: !Artigos que carecem de notas de rodapé desde fevereiro de 2020 !Artigos que carecem de notas de rodapé sem indicação de tema Menu de navegação Ferramentas pessoais Não autenticado Discussão Contribuições Criar uma conta Entrar Espaços nominais Artigo Discussão Variantes Vistas Ler Editar Editar código-fonte Ver histórico Mais Busca Navegação Página principal Conteúdo destacado Eventos atuais Esplanada Página aleatória Portais Informar um erro Loja da Wikipédia Colaboração Boas-vindas Ajuda Página de testes Portal comunitário Mudanças recentes Manutenção Criar página Páginas novas Contato Donativos Ferramentas Páginas afluentes Alterações relacionadas Carregar ficheiro Páginas especiais Hiperligação permanente Informações da página Citar esta página Elemento Wikidata Imprimir/exportar Criar um livro Descarregar como PDF Versão para impressão Noutros projetos Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Noutras línguas Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Editar hiperligações Esta página foi editada pela última vez às 14h00min de 27 de novembro de 2020. 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roa-tara-wikipedia-org-8925	----	Quinde Orazio Flacco - Wikipedia Quinde Orazio Flacco Da Uicchipèdie, 'a 'ngeclopedije lìbbere. Zumbe sus 'a navigazzione Zumbe sus 'a recerche Note disambiggue – "Orazio" manne aqquà. ce stè cirche , 'ndruche Orazio, disambiggue. (LA) « Dum loquimur fugerit invida aetas: carpe diem, quam minimum credula postero. » (TA)« Mendre ca ste parlame 'u tiembe se n'ha sciute. Arruèbbe 'nu sciurne, speranne 'u mene possibbele a creje. » (Orazio, Odi, I, 11, 7-8) Quinde Orazio Flacco, ritratte de Anton von Werner Quinde Orazio Flacco, in latine Quintus Horatius Flaccus e canusciute semblicemende cumme Orazio (Venosa, 8 decemmre 65 n.C. – Rome, 27 novemmre 8 n.C.), ha state 'nu poete romano. Conziderate une de le megghie poete de l'età andiche, eppure maestre de eleganze stilisteche e dotate de 'n'ironie speciale, sapìe affrondà le avveneminde politeche e civile d'u tiembe sue da placide epicurèe amande de le piacere d'a vite, dettanne chidde ca pe assaije crestiàne angore so le canone de l'ars vivendi. Condenute 1 Biografije 2 Orazio nnade 'a morte 2.1 'A crise escatologgeche d'u paganesime 2.2 'U rapporte de Orazio cu 'a morte 3 Opere 4 'Ndruche pure 5 Otre pruggette 6 Collegaminde fore a Uicchipèdie 7 Note Biografije[cange • cange 'a sorgende] Orazio nascìe 'u 8 decemmre d'u 65 n.C. a Venosa, colonie romane funnate in posizione strateggeche 'mbrà Apulia e Lucania, quedde ca osce a die jè 'a Basilicata, figghie de 'nu fattore libberte ca se trasferìe pò 'a Rome pe fà l'esattore de le aste pubbleche (coactor), combite picche stimate ma redditizie. 'U poete ere quinde de origgene umile, ma de bbona condizione economeche. Orazio seguì allore 'nu corse de studie regolare a Rome, sotte 'u 'nzegnamende d'u grammateche Orbilio e pò a Atene, a l'età de cchiù o mene vinde anne, addò studiò greche e felosofije da Cratippo de Pergamo. Aqquà trasìe in condatte cu 'a lezione epicurèe ma, pure ca se sendève particolarmende attratte, decedìe de nò aderì a 'a scole. Ha state a 'u 'nderne de l'ambiende romane ca Orazio pigghie parte a 'a corrende, 'a quale le permettìe de acchià 'nu refugge jndr'à l'otium contemplativo. 'U poete espremìe 'a gratitudina soje verse l'attane jndr'à 'nu tribbute jndr'à le Satire (I, 6). Quanne sckattò 'a uerre civile Orazio se arruolò, apprisse 'a morte de Cesare, jndr'à l'esercite de Bruto, jndr'à 'u quale 'u poete 'ngarnò 'u probbie ideale de libbertà condre a 'a tirannide 'mberande e combattìe cumme tribbune militare jndr'à battagghie de Filippi (42 n.C.), perse da le sosteniture de Bruto e vingiute da Ottaviano. Jndr'à 'u 41 n.C. turnò in Itaglie grazie a 'n'amnistie e, avute 'a notizie d'a confische d'u podere de l'attane, se mandenìe devendanne segretarie de 'nu questore (scriba quaestorius), jndr'à stu periode accumenzò a scrivere verse, ca accumenzarene a darle 'na certe 'mbortanze. Jndr'à 'u 38 n.C. avenìe presendate a Mecenate da Virgilio e Vario, probbabbilmende 'ngundrate jndr'à 'u condeste de le scole epicurèe de Sirone, a Napule e Ercolano. Apprisse nove mise Mecenate 'u facìe trasè jndr'à 'u circole sue. Da allore Orazio se dedicò 'nderamende a 'a letterature, non ge se 'nzurò maje e non g'avìe figghie. Ggià jndr'à stu periode Orazio resulte debbole de uecchie, avenne pigghiate 'na congiundivite.[1] Mecenate le rialò jndr'à ' 33 n.C. 'nu possedimende piccinne jndr'à Sabine, le quale rovine sò angore osce a die visitabbile vecine a Licenza (RM), cose assaije gradite a 'u poete ca, in perfette osservanze d'u modus vivendi predicate da Epicure, non g'amave 'a vite cetadine. Cu 'a poesia soje facìe assaije vote aziune de propagande pu 'mberatore Auguste, pure ce, a dicere 'a vernate, jndr'à stu periode Ottaviane lassò 'na maggiore libbertà combositive a le poete sue (tendenze ca pò avere state invertite apprisse 'a scombarse de Mecenate: 'u testimonie 'a vicende biografeche de Ovidio). Esembie de propaganne augustèe sò, a ogne mode, certe Odi e 'u Carmen saeculare, cmboste jndr'à 'u 17 n.C. in occasionae d'a ricorrenze de le Ludi Saeculares. Murìe jndr'à 'u novemmre d'u 8 n.C. e avenìe brucate sus a 'u colle Esquiline, affianghe a l'amiche sue Mecenate, muèrte sulamende doje mise apprime. Orazio nnade 'a morte[cange • cange 'a sorgende] 'A crise escatologgeche d'u paganesime[cange • cange 'a sorgende] 'A accussìditte case de Orazio a Venosa Verse 'a fine d'u 'Mbere 'a romanità accumenzò a perdè fede jndr'à 'u sisteme releggiose d'u paganesime, ca non ge defenneve cchiù da nemice e soprattutte da le barbare. Accumme avère successe pe le Etrusche, nnande a granne pericole de fore 'a releggione se cange. Le dei de le Etrusche, assaije disinvolte e allegre apprime, addevendane terrifice quanne le Romane accumenzane a assoggettarle e a destruggere le cetate lore. Ma sta fede non ge avenìe scacchiate accussì libberamende, purcé a picche a vote avenìe obbligate, attraverse le persecuziune e demoliziune o sostituziune de tembie. Ma jndr'à 'u I sechele n.C. sta fede non ge se scummove, anzi 'a scola greche se trasmette a Rome 'nzieme a le splendide arte sue. L'epicureisme jè une de le scole de penziere ca se face domande sus a l'omme e sus a 'u combortamende sue, a 'a fine cerche 'na resposte a le male e a le dulure d'u munne, ca non ge onne scunnè 'a ggioie de vivere. Jndr'à stu periode nascene jndr'à le cetate romane 'nu sbuènne de epicurèe, addò forse Orazio avère canusciute Virgilio e Vario, ca forse 'u facèrene canoscere a Mecenate. L'epicureisme non ge vulève fà sparìe ogne angosce e dubbie esistenziale riguarde a 'a morte attraverse 'na fede de l'aldilà, ossie attraverse 'a consapevolezze d'a probbie precarietà. 'A morte jè allore viste cumme 'na libberazione serene d'a vite, chiene de dulure, ma soprattutte cumme 'na certezze ca l'omme forte e sagge addà sapè affrundà. Pure Lucrezio recanosce 'a vernate d'a nature e le illusiune de le releggiune, pe jidde avaste 'ndrucà 'a nature e osservà 'a scienze pe recanoscere 'a vernate. 'U rapporte de Orazio cu 'a morte[cange • cange 'a sorgende] Statue de Orazio a Venosa Orazio s'avvicine parzialmende a l'epicureisme, pure jidde 'a ricerche de resposte sus a le granne teme esistenziale, resposte ca de fatte non ge riesce ad acchià maje: 'u poete pare infatte de no essere maje fusciute a l'angosce d'a morte, percepite sembre cumme ca mò arrive mò arrive. Jè inderessande analizzà 'a visione ca 'u poete latine tenève de l'aldilà, in quande jè indubbiamende assaije singere: pure scunnute da 'na certe securezze, probbie de quedde "aurea mediocritas" d'a quale Orazio vuleve essere esembie, jndr'à 'nu sacche de occasiune iesse 'na vene malengoneche, accumbagnate da note gnore de lirisme e de eleggìe, ca tradisce 'u sue reale state inderiore. Orazio iesse, a mumende, cumme quidde ca forse forse avveramende ere: 'n'omme ca ave acchiate jndr'à vite 'u refugge da 'a morte, ma ca vernate, non g'ave maje riuscite a curà combletamende 'a paure d'a morte, ca preferisce fuscersene invece de combattre stoicamende. 'A personalità soje pò allroe resultà, a 'na prime letture, ambiggue: sta ambigguità nasce da 'a discordanze ca certe vote se avène a ccrejà 'mbrà l'immaggine ca Orazio vuleve dà de jidde e, 'a vere personalità d'u poete ca inevitabbilmende iesse da le righe: none a case, cumme dice Ugo Enrico Paoli, "ninde [...] pare accussì difficile cumme sbunnà l'anime de Orazio". 'A rappresendazione de l'aldilà oraziane jè de stamde epicurèe forte forte e avène suggellate jndr'à 'u mode megghie megghie jndr'à l'affermazione, ca tène 'na note malengoneche, espresse jndr'à l'Ode 7 d'u Libbre IV: « Pulvis et umbra sumus » Quinde Orazio Flacco, ritratte de Giacomo Di Chirico Jndr'à sta affermazione Orazio riesce a esprimere none sule 'u punde di viste sue susu 'a morte, ma pure l'angosce ca 'u pigghie jndr'à vite, probbie in funzione d'u prossime e certe annullamende de l'esperienze terrene. Da le verse de Orazio, quanne 'u poete parte d'a morte, resulte avveramende difficile pigghià 'na note de serenità, de gioie: 'u sendimende ca invece cumanne e ca se idendifiche jndr'à reazione psicologgeche d'u poete 'mbacce 'a morte, jè 'na triste accettazione de 'nu fatte naturale. In particolare stu sendimende avène espresse jndr'à l'Ode 14 d'u Libbre II, addò dice (vv. 8 -12): « ...tristi [...] unda, scilicet omnibus, quicumquae terrae munere vescimur, enaviganda, sive reges sive inopes erimus coloni. » Ste verse ne dicene quande Orazio vedève 'a morte cumme cupe e fonde de granne turbamende: avène rappresendate aqquà cumme 'na palude (unda, parole ca ggià jndr'à 'u suène sue andicipe 'u congette ca stè pe essere espresse e, dè forze a 'u simbolisme da 'u quale jè oggette: palude = morte), a 'a quale affianghe l'aggettive "triste" (tristi), ca porte cu jidde 'nu sienze profonne de inevitabbilità. 'A palude a 'a quale face reèrimende Orazio jè 'u Stige: Jndr'à stu case, 'u refèrimende mitologgeche ave valore simboliche, e jè funzionale none sulamende pe esprimere 'u congette d'a morte, ma pure pe rendere cchiù forte e espressive 'a poesie. 'Nvece scilicet (cumme jè naturale) dice 'nu date de fatte: l'inevitabbilità d'a morte, a 'a quale non ge stè mode de fuscersene. Stu congette in realtà avène ripetute aqquà, ma avère ggià state espresse a l'inizie de l'ode: « ...nec pietas moram Rugis et instanti senectae Adfert indomitaeque morti. » Inutile jè 'a releggione, 'ngapace de acchià 'na soluzione ((moram) a 'a vecchiaie ca avanze e a 'a morte: quiste jè 'nu punde de viste d'u poete reguardanne 'a releggione, e traduce 'nu sendimende diffuse e estese a tutte 'a romanità d'u sechele. 'A releggione jè oramaije 'ngapace de dà spiegaziune sufficiende ca reguardane 'a vite apprisse 'a morte, 'u fervore releggiose (pietas) non ge pò salvà l'omme da 'a naturale soje condizione de mortale. 'Nderne d'a case de Orazio Jè probbie 'a granne differenze ca fusce 'mbrà l'attacche e 'a criteche ca Lucrezio avère fatte jndr'à le combronde d'a religio, accusate de sconnere 'a raggione e de fà nascere inutile tribbolaziune e angosce e queste, ca sone cchiù cumme 'na triste constatazione de l'ingapacità de essere rasserenate da 'na releggione jndr'à quale non ge se riesce cchiù a credere. Cendrale jndr'à le verse 8-12 jè 'u gerundive enaviganda, ca esprime l'inevitabbilità e 'a certezze d'a morte, none senze 'na note de cupe e profonne malingonie, ggià andicipate da tristi unda. Resulte ggià chiare da ste picche verse 'a percezione ca Orazio avère d'a morte, percezione ca spieghe e motive 'a scelta soje de vite: 'na vite caratterizzate da 'u godè d'u presende e de le picche gioie ca 'a vite ne offre (idendificabbile prengepalmende jndr'à l'amicizie, jndr'à 'u convivie, jndr'à pace inderiore) e ca ne donne 'a possibbilità de vivere cu serenità e stabbilità. Orazio pare a tratte pessimiste assaije probbie: 'a morte jè sembre rrete a l'angole e 'a vite pò spiccià jndr'à ogne mumende; jè megghie, allore, no remèttere le probbie speranze jndr'à ccreje. St'idea d'a vite ca jè corte (ca acchiame arrete jndr'à Catullo: brevis lux) jè 'n'otre invite a goderse 'a vite 'u cchiù possibbile, congette ca acchiame jndr'à 'nu sbuènne de verse, cumme jndr'à l'Ode 11 d'u libbre I: « ...Dum loquimur fugerit invida Aetas: carpe diem, quam minimum credula postero.[2] » 'U tiembe jè 'na fughe condinue, ca non ge lasse ninde a le speranze future: serve sfruttà a 'u massime 'u tiembe ca 'n'avène date, e conziderà ogne mumende ca 'n'avène date cumme a 'nu riale, accussì cumme dice jndr'à l'Ode 9 d'u libbre I (vv.14-15: "...Quem Fors dierum cumque dabit, lucro/Adpone..."); 'a congeziona soje d'a fuga temporis jè 'nu perfette modelle pe 'nu granne poete tagliàne cumme a Frangische Petrarca, ca, apprisse ca avere lette classece cumme Orazio, Seneca e Agustine, se vè lamende, jndr'à 'u Canzoniere, 'u fatte ca 'u tiembe jè malate, e l'essenza soje fuggitive jndr'à liriche cumme 'A vite fusce e non ge se ferme 'n'ore, assaije vicine a 'a poetiche oraziane. Jè chiare da le verse sue quande 'a visione d'a morte condizione jndr'à 'nu mode nette l'esperienze de vite d'u poete, ca n'avène vivacemende descritte da 'a poesia soje: 'a morte non g'è, a 'u condrarie de quanne se penze, 'nu fatte ca ne aspette quanne 'u percorse vitale nuèstre spicce, ma jè quacchecose ca ne lassame rrete ogne sciurne e rrete a ogne mumende, ca sparisce e iuscke, attraverse 'u tiembe, tutte quidde ca jè. Opere[cange • cange 'a sorgende] File:Le Odi di Orazio.gif Le Odi de Orazio tradotte da Mario Rapisardi Saturae, 1577 Orazio jè considerate da 'u classicisme une de le cchiù 'mbortande oete latine, cirate addiritture jndr'à' 'u 'Nfirne de Dante ndr'à 'u Limbe, a 'u verse 89 d'u Cande IV. Assaije de le frase sue onne devendate muttette angore osce ausate: esembie sò carpe diem, nunc est bibendum e aurea mediocritas, eppure Odi profanum vulgus, et arceo, e, urtemamende, l'ha state 'nditolate pure 'nu cratere sus 'a superficie de Mercurie. Pò Orazio jè protagoniste d'u gialle storeche Meminisse Iuvabit, ambiendate jndr'à 'u 23 n.C. e scritte da Luigge Calcerano. Epodi (Epodon libri o Iambi, cumme le definisce l'autore), 17 comboneminde, pubblecate jndr'à 'u 30 n.C. Satire (Saturae o Sermones, cumme le definisce l'autore), jndr'à doje libbre ca combrennene 18 satire, scritte 'mbrà 'u 41 e 'u 30 n.C.: 'u I libbre (10 satire) avenìe dedicate a Mecenate e pubblecate jndr'à 'u 35 e 'u 33 a.C., invece 'u II libbre (8 satire) avenìe pubblecate jndr'à 'u 30 n.C. 'nzieme a le Epodi. Odi (Carmina, cumme le definisce l'autore), jndr'à ttre libbre cu 88 comboneminde, pubblecate jndr'à 'u 23 n.C. 'Nu quarte libbre cu otre 15 comboneminde avenìe pubblecate atturne a 'u 13 n.C. Epistole, jndr'à doje libbre. 'U I libbre tène 20 lettere comboste a partì da 'u 23 e pubblecate jndr'à 'u 20 n.C., cu dediche a Mecenate, invece 'u II libbre, cu ttre lettere, scritte 'mbrà 'u 19 e 'u 13 n.C., tène l'epistole a le Pisone, o Ars Poetica jndr'à 476 esametre, ca avenìe pigghiate a canone pa combosizione poeteche jndr'à l'epoche cchiù nnande. Carme secolare (Carmen saeculare), d'u 17 n.C., scritte pe 'ngareche de Auguste e destinate a 'a cerimonie conglusive de le ludi saeculares. 'Ndruche pure[cange • cange 'a sorgende] Mario Rapisardi (traduzione de Le Odi de Orazio. Id ib. 1883) Gens Horatia Otre pruggette[cange • cange 'a sorgende] Altri progetti Uicchisource Uicchiquote Uicchimedia Commons Uicchisource tène una pagina dedicata a Quinde Orazio Flacco Uicchiquote tène citazioni di o su Quinde Orazio Flacco Uicchimedia Commons tène file multimediali su Quinde Orazio Flacco Collegaminde fore a Uicchipèdie[cange • cange 'a sorgende] Della fama d'Orazio fino a' dì nostri, in Italia, lezione de Mario Rapisardi, decemmre 1885 Il carme secolare, tratte da 'u libbre IV Le Odi de Orazio, traduzione de Mario Rapisardi Opera Omnia de Quinde Orazio Flacco: teste cu congordanze e elenghe de frequenze Opera Omnia de Quinde Orazio Flacco: teste cu numerazione de le verse 'U Soratte; Fonte Bandusia; 'U faune tradotte da Alessandro Natucci A. Perutelli, G. Paduano; E. Rossi, Alcune Traduziune de Orazio in Tagliàne (PDF), in Storie e teste d'a letterature latine On-line, Zanichelli, 2010, Perutelli, Paduano, Rossi, traduzioni. URL consultato il 10 sciugne 2011. A. Perutelli, G. Paduano; E. Rossi, Quacche Traduzione cu Note de Orazio in Tagliàne (PDF), in Storie e teste d'a letterature latine On-line, Zanichelli, 2010, Perutelli, Paduano, Rossi, traduziune cu note. URL consultato il 10 sciugne 2011. A. Perutelli, G. Paduano; E. Rossi, Quacche Teste cu Metriche (PDF), in Storie e teste d'a letterature latine On-line, Zanichelli, 2010, Perutelli, Paduano, Rossi, originali latini. URL consultato il 10 sciugne 2011. Note[cange • cange 'a sorgende] ↑ Orazio, Satire, I, 5, vv. 30 e 49. 'U periode in questione jè 'u 38-37 n.C., vd. Orazio, Satire, Corriere della Sera, I Classici del pensiero libero greci e latini, n° 50, 2012, n. 8 a pàg. 63. ↑ Tande le traduziune de sta poesie famose, da Tommase Gargallo, a Giosuè Carducci (jndr'à Opere, ed. naz., Bologne, Zanichelli, 1962, vol. XXIX, p. 47), a Giuanne Pascoli (jndr'à Poesie. Poesie varie. Traduzioni. Riduzioni, a cure de Auguste Vicinelli, Melane, Mondadori, 1968, p. 1657), a Alberto Caramella (jndr'à I viaggi del Nautilus, Firenze, Le Lettere, 1997, p. 1). Quinde Orazio Flacco (65 ~ 8 a.C.) Quinde Orazio Flacco (65 ~ 8 a.C.) Opere letterarie principali Satire (Sermones) • Epòdi • Odi • Epistole (ca tène 'u combonimende Ars Poetica) • Carmen saeculare Citaziune famose Carpe diem • Aurea mediocritas • In medias res • Odi profanum vulgus, et arceo • Coelum non animum mutant qui trans mare currunt Corrende de penziere Epicureisme v • d • m Circolo de Mecenate Promotore Gaio Cilnio Mecenate • Ottaviane Auguste Membre Domizio Marso • Orazio • Sesto Properzio • Vario Rufo • Virgilio Template:Epicureismo Pigghjete da "https://roa-tara.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quinde_Orazio_Flacco&oldid=134957" Categorije: Pàggene ca ausane le argumende a doppie jndr'à le chiamate d'u template Biografije Poete romani Collegamento interprogetto a Wikiquote presente ma assente su Wikidata Collegamento interprogetto a Wikisource presente ma assente su Wikidata Aforisti romani Autori di favole Epicurei Horatii Personaggi citati nella Divina Commedia (Inferno) Poeti romani categorije scunnute: BioBot Pàggene cu collegaminde a le file scuasciate Menu de navegazione Struminde personele Non ge sì colleghete 'Ngazzaminde Condrebbute Ccreje 'nu cunde utende Tràse Namespace Vôsce 'Ngazzaminde Variande Visite Ligge Cange Cange 'a sorgende Vide 'u cunde De cchiù Cirche Navigazione Pàgene Prengepàle Purtale d'a communitate Fatte Recende Urteme cangiaminde 'Na pàgene 'a uecchje Vuè 'na màne? 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ro-wikipedia-org-4024	----	Quintus Horatius Flaccus - Wikipedia Quintus Horatius Flaccus De la Wikipedia, enciclopedia liberă Sari la navigare Sari la căutare Deși acest articol conține o listă de referințe bibliografice, sursele sale rămân neclare deoarece îi lipsesc notele de subsol. Puteți ajuta introducând citări mai precise ale surselor. Quintus Horatius Flaccus Quintus Horatius Flaccus Date personale Născut 8 decembrie 65 î.Hr.[3][4][5] Venosa, Italia[4][5] Decedat 27 noiembrie 8 î.Hr. (56 de ani)[3][4] Roma, Roma Antică Înmormântat Roma Cetățenie Roma Antică Etnie Ancient Romans[*]​ Ocupație poet scriitor filozof Activitate Limbi limba latină[1]  Pregătire Cratippus of Pergamon[*]​[2] Aristos of Ascalon[*]​  Opere semnificative Ars poëtica (Horatius)[*][[Ars poëtica (Horatius) |​]]  Modifică date / text  Quintus Horatius Flaccus, în limba română Horațiu, (n. 8 decembrie 65 î.Hr., Venosa; d. 27 noiembrie 8 î.Hr., Roma) a fost unul dintre cei mai importanți poeți romani din "perioada de aur" a literaturii romane ("Secolul lui Augustus") sau "epoca augustană", cuprinsă între 43 î.Hr. (moartea lui Cicero) și 14 d. Hr. (moartea împăratului Augustus). Cuprins 1 Biografie 2 Opera 2.1 Satirele 2.2 Epodele 2.3 Odele 2.4 Epistole 3 Repere ale operei lui Horațiu 4 Traducători români din operele lui Horațiu 5 Citate 6 Note 7 Bibliografie 8 Legături externe Biografie[modificare | modificare sursă] Horațiu s-a născut la 8 decembrie 65 î.Hr. în Venusia (astăzi Venosa) din provincia Apulia, fiu al unui libert (sclav eliberat). Tatăl său avea funcția de coactor argentarius (încasator de impozite) și realizase o oarecare avere. Familia se mută la Roma și Horațiu are posibilitatea să obțină o cultură aleasă, frecventând școala de retorică a lui Orbilius. Continuă studiile la Academia din Atena, ocupându-se în special de filosofie și poezie. După asasinarea lui Caesar în anul 44 î.Hr., Horațiu se alătură trupelor republicane conduse de conspiratorii Brutus și Cassius și devine tribun militar. După înfrângerea suferită în bătălia de la Philippi (42 î.Hr.) în fața trupelor lui Marcus Antonius și Octavianus Augustus (viitorul împărat), Horațiu se întoarce la Roma, beneficiind de o amnistie generală instituită de învingători. Averea părintească a fost însă confiscată, Horațiu obține o funcție de secretar în administrația statului și are timp să se dedice poeziei. Primele sale versuri sunt remarcate de Virgiliu, pe atunci "Poeta laureatus" al Romei, care îl prezintă nobilului și influentului încurajator al artelor, Gaius Maecenas. Între Horațiu și Maecenas se dezvoltă o strânsă și durabilă prietenie. În anul 33 î.Hr., Maecena îi dăruiește o proprietate în regiunea munților Sabinici, nu departe de Roma. Aici are liniștea și tihna (otium) necesare pentru a se dedica întru-totul creației sale literare. După moartea lui Virgiliu, în anul 19 î.Hr., Horațiu este cel care primește distincția de "Poeta laureatus". În anul 8 î.Hr. Maecena moare și în același an, la 27 noiembrie, moare și Horațiu, fiind înmormântat pe colina Esquilina. Opera[modificare | modificare sursă] Creația lui Horațiu s-a păstrat în întregime până în zilele noastre și poate fi împărțită în trei perioade: Opera timpurie (42 î.Hr.-30 î.Hr.): Satirae, satire care evoluează de la tonul violent sau sarcastic la ironia amuzantă și înțeleaptă, prin care răzbate conținutul didactic, dar și grație spirituală, umor și eleganță Epodon liber Perioada clasică a maturității (31 î.Hr.-20 î.Hr.): Carmina I-III, unde este prefigurată concepția epicureică echilibrată a poetului și realismul său psihologic Epistulae I, prin care se realizează trecerea de la satira personală la filozofia morală Opere târzii (18 î.Hr.-13 î.Hr.): Carmen saeculare, imn scris la cererea împăratului August în cinstea Dianei și a lui Apollo Carmina IV Epistulae II, cuprinde celebra Ars poetica, în care sunt formulate principiile clasicismului antic reluate ulterior de Boileau și Pope. Satirele[modificare | modificare sursă] Satirae, 1577 Cele două cărți cu Satire (Satirae), numite de Horațiu Sermones ("Convorbiri"), cuprind 18 poezii scrise în hexametre dactilice, inspirate din operele satiricului Gaius Lucillius. Sub forma unui dialog cu Maecena, sunt tratate teme etice, criticându-se, pe baza unor exemple, ambiția nemăsurată, prostia, avariția, defecte și vicii care îi fac pe oameni nefericiți, într-un mod tolerant și cu umor, fără asprimea predecesorului său. Uneori se referă la slăbiciunile propriei sale persoane. Dialogul dintre poet și interlocutorul său ia sfârșit prin postularea principiului epicurian, al cărui adept a fost Horațiu, bazat pe preconizarea ataraxiei, a echilibrului interior și armoniei: "Est modus in rebus, sunt certi denique fines, Quos ultra citraque nequit consistere rectum" "E o măsură-n toate: tu, drumul drept îl ține Și nu călca hotarul pus între rău și bine" (Sermones, I,1: trad. de Al. Hodoș și Th. Măinescu) Epodele[modificare | modificare sursă] Cartea Epodelor (Epodon liber, din limba greacă: "epódos" = refren), denumită de Horațiu "Iambi", deși numai o parte din poezii sunt scrise în ritm iambic, restul în dactile, cuprinde 17 poeme lirico-satirice cu referire la evenimentele și problemele politice ale epocii, după modelul poetului grec Archilochos din Paros. Odele[modificare | modificare sursă] Horațiu a scris patru cărți de ode, intitulate "Carmina", care cuprind 104 poeme pe teme civice, mitologico-religioase, politice, morale, erotice, bacchice, unele consacrate Romei sau lui Augustus, reprezentând o culme a măiestriei sale poetice. Primele trei cărți au fost realizate în anul 23 î.Hr., ultima în anul 13 î.Hr. Ca modele i-au folosit creațiile din literatura greacă ale lui Alceu, Anakreon, Pindar și Sappho. Spre deosebire de predecesorii săi greci, odele lui Horațiu sunt poezii lirice pure și nu au fost transpuse pe muzică. Meditația asupra scurgerii ireversibile a timpului este un motiv major în odele horațiene, încercarea de a opri trecerea timpului și apropierea sfârșitului prin rugăminți și ofrande aduse zeilor este zadarnică (Carmina, II,14: Ad Postumum). Având în vedere meditația asupra acestor motive, în oda Ad Leuconoen, poetul îndeamnă la trăirea clipei - carpe diem - și renunțarea la cercetarea inutilă a viitorului: Spem longam reseces. Dum loquimur, fugerit invida / aetas: CARPE DIEM, quam minimum credula postero! ("Speranța după timp ți-o păsuiește / căci vremea, cât de rea, se scurge cât vorbim / CULEGE ZIUA CEA DE ASTĂZI, ce va fi mâine noi nu știm!” - Carmina, I,11: Ad Leuconoen) În poemul-epilog al cărții a treia de Ode se regăsește expresia celebră a motivului autoelogiului propriei opere literare: Exegi monumentum... (Carmina, III,30). Carmen saeculare, scrisă cu ocazia sărbătorilor „seculare” (ludi saeculares) organizate de împăratul Augustus (17 î.Hr.), este oda patriotică cea mai avântată închinată gloriei Romei. Epistole[modificare | modificare sursă] Epistulae ("Scrisori"), două cărți (20 și 13 a.Chr.) în hexametru dactilic cu problematică filosofică, morală, literară etc. Ca filosof, Horațiu preferă principiul aristotelian al "căii de mijloc de aur" (aurea mediocritas) și învățăturile lui Epicur, conform cărora plăcerea reprezintă bunul unic, iar durerea singurul rău existent. Adevărata plăcere se găsește în starea de absolută liniște sufletească, în tihnă, într-un mod de viață bazat pe virtuțile majore (mores maiorum): modestia, curajul, fidelitatea, statornicia, dreptatea și respectul. A doua carte de epistole este consacrată problemelor literaturii. Se remarcă printre ele "Epistula ad Pisones" ("Scrisoare către Pisoni", Lucius Calpurnius Piso, consul în anul 15 a.Chr., și cei doi fii ai săi, Lucius și Gaius, iubitori și protectori ai literelor), cunoscută mai târziu ca "Ars poetica" ("Artă poetică"). Fără a avea pretenția de a redacta un tratat de poetică după toate regulile, Horațiu își exprimă clar în 476 de versuri, sub forma unei conversații prietenești cu Pisonii, ideile sale referitoare la problemele scrierii operelor literare. Această operă a exercitat o deosebită influență asupra posterității, până în timpurile moderne. Astfel Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux, poet și critic literar francez, sintetizează în "Art poétique" 1674) principiile clasicismului, fructificând izvoarele antice: Aristotel (poezia este o imitație a vieții - mimesis) și ideile estetice ale lui Horațiu. Repere ale operei lui Horațiu[modificare | modificare sursă] Opera lui Horațiu, prin concepția filosofică, spiritul ei larg, lirismul avântat, înclinația satirică, ironia fină, eleganța și concizia, varietatea de ritmuri a versurilor, valorificarea experienței umane și artistice în funcție de principiile morale, a găsit un ecou profund în conștiința artistică a multor poeți moderni, printre care și Mihai Eminescu, admirator entuziast al marelui poet latin. Seninătății, echilibrului armonios din meditațiile horațiene îi corespunde o artă literară întemeiată pe simetrie, pe stăpânirea rațională a expresiei. Traducători români din operele lui Horațiu[modificare | modificare sursă] Alexandru Hodoș Theodor Măinescu Petre Stati Dan Slușanschi Dumitru C. Ollănescu-Ascanio Ionel Marinescu Lozinschi Doina Citate[modificare | modificare sursă] Quae virtus et quanta sit vivere parvo! ("A se mulțumi cu puțin este o virtute atât de mare!") - Sermones, II,2,1 Dum licet, in rebus iucundis vive beatus! ("Fii fericit cu lucrurile plăcute, cât îți este cu putință") - Sermones, II,6,96 Ira furor brevis est; animum rege, qui nisi paret, imperat. ("Mânia este o nebunie de scurtă durată; stăpânește-ți mânia, căci dacă nu este ținută în frâu, ea îți poruncește") - Epistulae, I,2,62-63 Carpe diem, quam minimum credula postero! ("Trăiește-ți ziua de azi, nu te încrede în cea următoare!") - Carmina, I,11,7-8 Dimidium facti qui coepit habet. ("Lucrul început este pe jumătate făcut.") - Sermones, I,2,14 Beatus ille procul negotiis... ("Fericit acela departe de orice griji...") - Epodae, II,1 Quidquid praecipies, esto brevis! ("Orice sfat vei da, să fii concis!") - Ars poetica, 335 Scribendi recte sapere est et principium et fons. ("Bunul simț este pentru scrisul cel bun și izvor, și principiu") - Ars poetica, 309 Note[modificare | modificare sursă] ^ Mirabile: Archivio digitale della cultura medievale  ^ Dictionnaire des philosophes antiques II[*]​, p. 502  Verificați valoarea |titlelink= (ajutor) ^ a b http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/quinto-orazio-flacco_(Enciclopedia-Italiana)/  Lipsește sau este vid: |title= (ajutor) ^ a b c Q45181613[*]​  Verificați valoarea |titlelink= (ajutor) ^ a b EB-11 / Horace[*]​  Verificați valoarea |titlelink= (ajutor) Bibliografie[modificare | modificare sursă] Eugen Cizek: Istoria literaturii latine, Ed. Adevărul S.A., București, 1994, reeditare la editura "Corint" Traian Costa și Mihai Nichita (ed.): Horatius: Opera omnia, Ed. Univers, București, 1980 Bernhardt Kytzler: Horaz. Eine Einführung, Reclam-Verlag, Stuttgart, 2000 Legături externe[modificare | modificare sursă] Wikimedia Commons conține materiale multimedia legate de Quintus Horatius Flaccus Q.Horatius Flaccus: Opera completă în limba latină Quintus Horatius Flaccus (en.) Espace Horace: Oeuvres choisies (fr.) Centro Studi Oraziani (it.) Informații bibliotecare BIBSYS: 90055203 BNE: XX891549 BNF: cb11886570b (data) CiNii: DA00782980 GND: 118553569 ISNI: 0000 0001 2145 2178 LCCN: n79081354 LNB: 000000375 MusicBrainz: af616f1f-6242-4802-a1bf-8d3f0647083c NDL: 00540086 NKC: jn20000603003 NLA: 35206138 NSK: 000013522 RSL: 000083136 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\000246 SELIBR: 189659 SNAC: w6pk0m9c SUDOC: 026659166 ULAN: 500404135 VIAF: 100227522 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 100227522 Adus de la https://ro.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quintus_Horatius_Flaccus&oldid=13735974 Categorii: Nașteri în 65 î.Hr. Decese în 8 î.Hr. Poeți latini Literatură latină Nașteri pe 8 decembrie Decese pe 27 noiembrie Romani din secolul I î.Hr. 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ru-wikipedia-org-677	----	Гораций — Википедия Гораций Материал из Википедии — свободной энциклопедии Перейти к навигации Перейти к поиску Для термина «Гораций» см. также другие значения. Гораций лат. Horatius Портрет Горация работы Антона фон Вернера Имя при рождении Квинт Гора́ций Флакк Дата рождения 8 декабря 65 г. до н. э. Место рождения Веноза Дата смерти 27 ноября 8 г. до н. э. Место смерти Рим Гражданство (подданство) Древний Рим Род деятельности древнеримский поэт Язык произведений Латынь Произведения в Викитеке  Медиафайлы на Викискладе Цитаты в Викицитатнике Предполагаемый портрет Горация с римского барельефа 50 г. н. э. Музей изящных искусств (Бостон) Квинт Гора́ций Флакк (лат. Quintus Horatius Flaccus), часто просто Гора́ций (8 декабря 65 до н. э. (0-65-12-08), Венузия — 27 ноября 8 до н. э., Рим) — древнеримский поэт «золотого века» римской литературы. Его творчество приходится на эпоху гражданских войн конца республики и первые десятилетия нового режима Октавиана Августа. Содержание 1 Биография 2 Творчество 2.1 Сатиры 2.2 Эподы 2.3 Оды 2.4 Послания 2.5 Юбилейный гимн 3 Влияние 4 Изречения 5 Произведения 6 Переводы 6.1 Переводы на русский язык 7 См. также 8 Примечания 9 Библиография 10 Ссылки Биография[править | править код] Квинт Гораций Флакк родился 8 декабря 65 года до н. э. в семье вольноотпущенника, владельца скромного имения в Венузии — римской военной колонии на юго-востоке Италии, на границе Лукании и Апулии[1]. Его полное имя засвидетельствовано в его работах и в подписи к «Юбилейному Гимну», который он написал по поручению императора Августа к столетним играм 17 года до н. э.; «Quintus Horatius Flaccus carmen composuit» («Квинт Гораций Флакк сочинил песнь»). Отец Горация был вольноотпущенником. Юридически дети вольноотпущенников приравнивались к свободнорождённым, но такое происхождение, тем не менее, рассматривалось как социальная неполноценность, которая окончательно сглаживалась только в следующем поколении. Этот фактор оказал определённое влияние на мировоззрение и творчество Горация. О матери поэт не рассказывает, хотя упоминает няню Пуллию. Когда будущий поэт был ребёнком, его отец оставил имение, спокойную экономную жизнь в провинции и переехал в Рим, чтобы дать сыну должное столичное образование, которое могло бы ввести его в более высокие общественные круги. В столице отец исполнял должность комиссионера на аукционах, получая по одному проценту со сделки от покупателя и продавца. Согласно Светонию, он также торговал солёной рыбой[2]. «Бедный, честный крестьянин», каким рисует отца сам Гораций, тем не менее, посредством такого занятия сумел покрывать расходы, связанные с образованием сына. Гораций прошёл через все ступени образования, обычного у римской знати своего времени: от первоначального обучения в школе Орбилия в Риме, где он изучал «Латинскую Одиссею» Ливия Андроника и Гомера до платоновской Академии в Афинах, где он занимался греческой литературой и философией (Академия того времени служила своего рода университетом или высшей школой для молодой аристократии Рима; одним из «одноклассников» Горация был, например, сын Цицерона). В Афинах Гораций так хорошо овладел греческим, что даже писал на нём стихи. Литературные и философские занятия Горация в Афинах были прерваны гражданской войной, наступившей после убийства Цезаря в 44 году до н. э. Осенью этого года, приблизительно через полгода после убийства Цезаря, в Афины прибыл Брут. Посещая философские лекции, он вербовал приверженцев республиканского строя для борьбы с преемниками Цезаря — Антонием и Октавианом. Как и Цицерон, Гораций стал сторонником дела республики и присоединился к Бруту. Гораций поступил в армию Брута и получил даже несколько неожиданную для сына вольноотпущенника должность военного трибуна (то есть офицера легиона) — должности военных трибунов занимали в основном дети всадников и сенаторов, и она являлась первым шагом в карьере военного или магистрата. Этот факт позволяет предположить, что к этому времени Гораций (скорее всего, не без денег отца) обладал суммой в 400 000 сестерциев, то есть цензом, необходимым для зачисления в сословие всадников, какая сумма позже позволила ему вкупиться в коллегию писцов. В битве при Филиппах в ноябре 42 года до н. э. войско Брута и Кассия было рассеяно и обращено в бегство, после чего и Брут и Кассий покончили самоубийством. После этого поражения Гораций пересмотрел свою позицию и отказался от какой-либо деятельности в этом направлении. Впоследствии Гораций неоднократно упоминал о своих ранних республиканских «иллюзиях» и авантюре, которая могла оказаться для него роковой. В одной из Од он обратился к своему другу Помпею, который также принимал участие в сражении при Филиппах, где сообщил, что выжил только «бросив щит и бежав с поля боя» (что, между прочим, считалось первым признаком трусости). В Италию он вернулся, вероятно, в начале 41 года до н. э. Отца уже не было в живых; его родина, Венузия, попала в число городов, отданных ветеранам Цезаря, и наследственное имущество Горация оказалось конфискованным. После амнистии, объявленной в 40 году до н. э. сторонникам Брута, он приехал в Рим и остался там. Несмотря на собственные жалобы о бедности, которая заставляет его заняться поэзией, Гораций имел достаточно средств, чтобы вступить в коллегию квесторских писцов (по ведомству государственных финансов). Римское общество относилось с предубеждением к оплачиваемому труду, но на некоторые квалифицированные профессии такое отношение не распространялось; пожизненные должности этой коллегии считались почётными. Гораций работал секретарём (scriba quaestorius), что обеспечило ему возможность жить в Риме и заниматься литературой. Видимо, к 39-38 годам до н. э. относятся первые поэтические опыты Горация на латинском языке: гекзаметрические стихотворения, впоследствии ставшие первой книгой «Сатир», и ямбические, впоследствии ставшие «Эподами». Литературные поиски Горация перекликаются с классицистическим движением, которое возглавлял Публий Вергилий Марон и Луций Варий Руф. Оба старших поэта стали его друзьями. В 39—38 годах до н. э. они представил Горация Гаю Цильнию Меценату, близкому другу и соратнику Октавиана. Меценат, после девятимесячных раздумий, приблизил к себе поэта. Попав в окружение Мецената и соответственно принцепса, Гораций сохранил присущую ему осмотрительность, не пытался выделиться, во всем проявлял уравновешенность. К программе социальных и политических реформ, проводимых Августом, Гораций относился с должным вниманием, не опускаясь, однако, до уровня «придворного льстеца». Горацием двигало не столько согласие с идеологией принципата, сколько чувство благодарности за долгожданный мир, восстановленный Августом в Италии, в которой почти сто лет происходили гражданские войны. Бронников Ф. А. «Гораций, читающий свои „Сатиры“ Меценату» (1863) Светоний свидетельствует, что Октавиан Август предложил Горацию должность своего личного секретаря[3]. Это предложение, в общем сулившее большие выгоды, Горация привлечь не могло, и было им тактично отвергнуто. Гораций опасался в том числе того, что, приняв предложение, он лишится своей независимости, которой значительно дорожил. В 38 году до н. э. Гораций предположительно присутствовал, вместе с Меценатом, при морском поражении Октавиана у мыса Палинур. В этом же году Гораций в обществе Мецената, юриста Кокцея Нервы (прадеда императора Марка Кокцея Нервы), Фонтена Капитона (уполномоченного и легата Антония в Азии), поэтов Вергилия, Вария, издателя «Энеиды» Плотия Тукки совершил путешествие в Брундизий; об этом путешествии идёт речь в известной Сатире (I 5). Между 36 и 33 годами до н. э. (наиболее вероятно зимой 36—35) вышел первый сборник стихотворений Горация, книга «Сатир», посвященная Меценату. В своей поэзии Гораций всегда подчеркивал, что его отношения с Меценатом основаны на взаимном уважении и дружбе, независимо от социального статуса; он стремился развеять представление о том, что их отношения имели характер отношений патрона и клиента. Гораций никогда не злоупотреблял дружбой Мецената и не пользовался его расположением в ущерб кому-либо. Гораций был далёк от того, чтобы требовать от своего покровителя большего; он даже не пользовался этой дружбой, чтобы вернуть отцовское имение, конфискованное Октавианом в пользу ветеранов после сражения при Филиппах. Однако такое в известной мере зависимое состояние Горация не раз становилось источником щекотливых положений, из которых он всегда выходил с совершенным тактом и достоинством. Далекий от честолюбивых стремлений, заботам и хлопотам городской жизни Гораций предпочитал тихую и спокойную жизнь в деревне. Сблизившись с Меценатом и его окружением, Гораций обзавёлся сильными покровителями и безусловно получил от Мецената существенные подарки. Предположительно в 33 году до н. э. Гораций приобрёл своё прославленное имение в Сабинских горах, на реке Тибур, около теперешнего Тиволи. По некоторым текстам Горация был сделан вывод, что имение ему было подарено Меценатом (напр. Carmina II 18: 11—14), но ни сам Гораций, ни его биограф Светоний об этом не упоминают. Подобные фрагменты вообще проблематично рассматривать как непосредственное свидетельство того, что вилла Горация была подарком; вдобавок, существуют свидетельства о значительном собственном достатке Горация к этому времени. Интересно, что Гораций уважал основателя школы киренаиков Аристиппа и не раз восхвалял его в своих произведениях. Например, про себя он писал: «незаметно опять к наставленьям скачусь Аристиппа — / Вещи себе подчинить, а не им подчиняться стараюсь» (Horat. Epist. I I)[4]. Также см. Horat. Epist. I XCVII. Вероятно, это связано с общей чертой: и философ, и поэт имели знатных и богатых покровителей, принимали их подарки как заслуженные, но при этом очень ценили независимость и занимались делом своей жизни, а не прислуживали за блага. 2 сентября 31 года до н. э. Гораций вместе с Меценатом присутствовали при битве у мыса Акций. В 30 году до н. э. вышла вторая книга «Сатир» и «Эподы», сборник из 17 стихотворений, которые он писал одновременно с сатирами. Название «Эподы» было дано сборнику грамматиками и указывает на форму двустиший, где короткий стих следует за длинным. Сам Гораций назвал эти стихотворения «ямбами»; образцом для них послужили ямбы греческого поэта первой половины VII века до н. э. Архилоха. Примечательно, что Гораций с самого начала творческого пути брал за образец древнегреческую классику, а не поэзию александрийцев, в соответствии с тенденцией своего времени и окружения. Начиная с 30 года до н. э. Гораций с перерывами писал лирические стихотворения, первый сборник которых, книги Ι—III, вышел во второй половине 23 года до н. э. Лирические стихотворения вышли под названием «Песни» («Carmina»), но ещё в античности их стали называть одами. Это название сохранилось за ними до нашего времени. В античности греческий термин «ода» не был связан с собственно торжественным пафосом и употреблялся в значении «песня», как эквивалент латинского carmen. Между 23 и 20 годами до н. э. Гораций старался держаться вдали от Рима, забросив «чистую поэзию» и вернувшись к полуфилософской «прозаической Музе» своих «Сатир». На этот раз уже не в полемической форме сатиры, а с преобладанием «мирного положительного» содержания; он написал 1-ю книгу «Посланий», в которую вошло двадцать стихотворений. Послания вышли в 20 (или в начале 19) года до н. э. В промежутке с конца 20 до осени 19 года до н. э. выходит Послание Юлию Флору, впоследствии второе во втором сборнике «Посланий». В 17 году до н. э. с беспрецедентной торжественностью справлялись «вековые игры», празднество «обновления века», которое должно было знаменовать конец периода гражданских войн и начало новой эры процветания Рима. Август поручил Горацию написать гимн для церемонии праздников. Для поэта это явилось государственным признанием ведущего положения, которое он занял в римской литературе. Торжественный «Юбилейный гимн» был исполнен в храме Аполлона Палатинского хором из 27 юношей и 27 девушек 3 июня 17 года до н. э. Можно сказать, что теперь, когда Гораций давно «охладел» к лирике, он стал популярным, признанным её мастером. Август обращается к Горацию с новым поручением написать стихотворения, прославляющие воинскую доблесть своих пасынков Тиберия и Друза. По словам Светония, сочинения Горация император «так нравились, что и он настолько был уверен в том, что они останутся в веках, что поручил ему не только сочинение столетнего гимна, но и прославление победы его пасынков Тиберия и Друза над винделиками»[3]. Так, в 13 году до н. э. появилась 4-я книга од, в которую вошло пятнадцать стихотворений, написанных в дифирамбической манере древнегреческого поэта Пиндара. Империя окончательно стабилизировалась, и в одах уже не остается следа республиканской идеологии. Помимо прославления императора и его пасынков, внешней и внутренней политики Августа как носителя мира и благоденствия, сборник содержит вариации прежних лирических тем. К последнему десятилетию жизни Горация относится также вторая книга «Посланий», посвященная вопросам литературы. Книга, состоящая из трех писем, создавалась между 19 и 10 годами до н. э. Первое послание, обращенное к Августу (который выражал своё неудовольствие по поводу того, что до сих пор ещё не попал в число адресатов) вышло предположительно в 12 году до н. э. Второе послание, обращенное к Юлию Флору, вышло раньше, между 20 и 19 годами до н. э.; третье, обращенное к Пизонам, вышло предположительно в 10 (и выходило отдельно, возможно, ещё в 18) году до н. э. Смерть Горация наступила от внезапной болезни, незадолго до его 57-летия, 27 ноября 8 года. Как указывает Светоний, умер Гораций «в пятый день до декабрьских календ, в консульство Гая Марция Цензорина и Гая Азиния Галла, в Риме, через пятьдесят девять дней после смерти Мецената, на пятьдесят седьмом году жизни. Наследником своим вслух объявил Августа, так как, мучимый приступом болезни, был не в силах подписать таблички завещания. Погребен и зарыт на окраине Эсквилина, подле гробницы Мецената»[5]. Творчество[править | править код] Горация много читали не только в древности, но и в новое время, поэтому до нас дошли все его произведения: сборник стихов «Ямбы», или «Эподы», две книги сатир («Беседы»), четыре книги лирических стихотворений, известных под названием «Оды», юбилейный гимн «Песнь столетия» и две книги посланий. Сатиры[править | править код] Saturae, 1577 Вернувшись после амнистии в Рим и столкнувшись там с нуждой, для стартового сборника Гораций, тем не менее, избирает именно сатиру (несмотря на такую комбинацию факторов, как своё низкое происхождение и «подмоченную республиканскую» репутацию). Однако концепция Горация позволяет ему взяться за жанр, наименее подходящий для человека в его положении. В «Сатирах» Гораций не нападает на изъяны своих современников, но только демонстрирует их и высмеивает; изменять поведение людей или «наказывать» их Гораций не мыслит. Гораций не «брызжет яростью», но обо всем говорит с веселой серьёзностью, как человек доброжелательный. Он воздерживается от прямых порицаний, приглашает к размышлению о природе людей, оставляя за каждым право делать собственные выводы. Он не затрагивает актуальную политику и далек от личностей, его насмешки и поучения имеют общий характер. Такая концепция совпадает со стремлениями Октавиана укрепить нравственные устои государства (следовательно, свой авторитет и свои позиции в Риме) посредством возврата к «добрым нравам» предков. (Пропаганда в этом направлении активно ведется под контролем самого Октавиана на протяжении всего первого десятилетия империи, когда Гораций писал «Сатиры».) Гораций считает, что примеры чужих пороков удерживают людей от ошибок. Эта позиция отвечает программе Октавиана, который считает, что сильная императорская власть необходима также и для контроля над «порочными представителями» общества. Вместе с современной романтически настроенной интеллигенцией Гораций приходит к стоико-эпикурейской философии, проповедующей презрение к богатству и роскоши, стремление к «aurea mediocritas» («золотой середине»), умеренность во всем, довольство малым на лоне природы, наслаждение за бокалом вина. Это учение послужило той призмой, через которую Гораций стал рассматривать явления жизни. В тех случаях, когда эти явления вступали в противоречие с моралью философии, они естественно настраивали поэзию Горация на сатирический лад. Такая философия вызывала у него (как и у многих его современников), романтическое возвеличение доблести и строгости нравов прежних времен. Она же отчасти определила и форму его нелирических произведений — форму разговора по образцу так называемой «философской диатрибы» — диалога с мнимым собеседником, возражения которого автором опровергаются. У Горация диатриба чаще видоизменяется в разговор автора с определёнными лицами или, реже, в беседу разных лиц. Такова форма его «Сатир» (лат. satura — смесь, всякая всячина). Сам Гораций называет их «Sermones», «Беседы». Это написанные гекзаметром беседы на разные темы, часто в форме собственно «чистой» диатрибы. Они представляют собой сатиру в нашем смысле слова: или моралистического характера (против роскоши, зависти и пр.; напр. о преимуществах деревенской жизни, с басней о городской и сельской мыши, впоследствии переработанной Лафонтеном); или инвективного, нефилософского; или просто описания. «Разговоры» Горация — настоящие «causeries» («беседы»); в обстановке зарождающейся монархии в них нет чувства политической независимости, характерного для сатир Луцилия, последователем которого Гораций себя считал. Эподы[править | править код] Почтовая марка Румынии, посвящённая Горацию Основная статья: Эподы (Гораций) Первые эподы создавались ещё в то время, когда двадцатитрехлетний Гораций только вернулся в Рим, после битвы при Филиппах 42 г. до н. э.; они «дышат ещё не остывшим жаром гражданской войны». Другие были созданы незадолго до публикации, в конце войны между Октавианом и Антонием, накануне битвы при Акции 31 г. до н. э. и сразу после неё. Сборник также содержит «юношески пылкие строки», обращенные к недругам поэта и «пожилым прелестницам», домогающимся «молодой любви». Уже в «Эподах» виден широкий метрический горизонт Горация; но пока, в отличие от лирических од, метры эподов не логаэдические, и восходят не к изысканным эолийцам Сапфо и Алкею, а «прямолинейному» горячему Архилоху. Первые десять эподов написаны чистым ямбом; в Эподах с XI по XVI соединяются разнодольные метры — трехдольные дактилические (гекзаметр) и двудольные ямбические (ямбический метр); Эпод XVII состоит из чистых ямбических триметров. Среди тем ранних эподов особенно интересной и важной представляется тема гражданская; она проходит красной нитью через все творчество Горация, но с наибольшей силой и пафосом звучит, возможно, именно здесь, в этих ранних стихотворениях (Эпод VII, Эпод XVI). О том, как развивались взгляды Горация (как заканчивалась его «антиреспубликанская» трансформация), позволяют судить два «актийских» Эпода (I и IX), написанных в 31 г до н. э., в год битвы при Акции. Между 33—31 гг. Гораций приобретает своё прославленное имение в Сабинских горах; новая деревенская обстановка, возможно, вдохновила Горация написать прославленный Эпод II. Эподы XI, XIII, XIV, XV образуют особую группу: здесь нет ни политики, ни язвительности, насмешек, злого сарказма, свойственных ямбографии. Они отличаются особым настроением — Гораций явно пробует силы в области «чистой лирики», а эподы написаны уже не чистым ямбом, но квази-логаэдическими стихами. В «любовных» Эподах XIV и XV Гораций уже далеко отходит от лирики Архилоха. В смысле пыла и страсти Архилоху ближе лирика Катулла, спектр переживаний и сомнений которой сложнее и намного «взъерошеннее», чем у Горация. Лирика же Горация открывает иное чувство (можно сказать, более римское) — сдержанное, неповерхностное, прочувствованное одинаково «умом и сердцем» — согласованное с отточенным, бесстрастно-изящным образом его поэзии в целом. Ближе всего к своим древним прототипам, эподам Архилоха, стоят Эподы IV, V, VI, VIII, X и XII. Язвительный сатирический тон в них «доходит до бичующего сарказма»; в то же время «пыл ненависти» в этих эподах явно более технологичен — для Горация, характерно сдержанного даже в пору «горячей ветреной юности», такой пыл здесь скорее художественный прием, инструмент. Тем не менее, обычно сдержанный и изящно-бесстрастный даже в ранние годы, Гораций мог быть и яростен и циничен; откровенные до непристойности Эподы VIII и XII ставят немалые преграды перед переводчиками. Однако сам Гораций не испытывал в связи с ними никакого стеснения — подобные стихи были обычны в среде, для которой они предназначались. (Вообще, сохранившиеся фрагменты переписки Августа доносят до нас дух грубоватого цинизма, имевшего место среди ближайшего окружения принцепса.) В коротких «Эподах», сильных и звучных, полных огня и юного пыла, заключено ясное видение мира, доступное настоящему гению. Мы находим здесь незаурядную палитру образов, мыслей и чувств, отлитых в чеканную форму, которая в целом для латинской поэзии была свежей и необычной. Эподам ещё недостает того кристально чистого звучания, неповторимой лаконичности и вдумчивой глубины, которой будут отличаться лучшие оды Горация. Но уже этой небольшой книгой стихов Гораций представил себя как «звезда первой величины» на литературном небосводе Рима. Оды[править | править код] Сборник Carmina (название традиционно переводится как Оды) состоит из четырёх частей («книг») и в общей сложности охватывает 103 стихотворения: Lib. I (38), Lib. II (20), Lib. III (30) и Lib. IV (15). От архилохова стиля эподов Гораций переходит к формам монодической лирики. Теперь его образцы — Анакреонт, Пиндар, Сапфо, в первую очередь Алкей, и Гораций видит своё право на литературное бессмертие в том, что он «первый свел эолийскую песнь на италийский лад». Первый сборник содержит стихотворения, написанные исконно греческими размерами: алкеевой строфой, сапфической, асклепиадовой и другими в различных вариациях. В сумме тринадцать строфических форм, и почти все они для латинской поэзии новые (только сапфическая строфа встречалась ранее у Катулла). В латинской трактовке греческих прототипов, обладающих «неродными» для латинского языка свойствами, Гораций обнаруживает метрическое мастерство, не превзойденное никем из последующих римских поэтов. Оды отличаются высоким стилем, который отсутствует в эподах и от которого он отказывается в сатирах. Воспроизводя метрическое построение и общий стилистический тон эолийской лирики, Гораций во всем остальном идет по собственному пути. Как и в эподах, он использует художественный опыт разных периодов и часто перекликается с эллинистической поэзией. Древнегреческая форма служит облачением для эллинистически-римского содержания. Отдельное место занимают т. н. «Римские оды» (III, 1—6), в которых наиболее законченно выражено отношение Горация к идеологической программе Августа. Оды связаны общей темой и единым стихотворным размером (излюбленной Горацием Алкеевой строфой). Программа «Римских од» такова: грехи отцов, совершенные ими во время гражданских войн и как проклятие тяготеющие над детьми, будут искуплены только возвращением римлян к старинной простоте нравов и древнему почитанию богов. «Римские оды» отражают состояние римского общества, вступившее в решающую стадию эллинизации, которая придала культуре Империи ясный греко-римский характер. Любопытно, что ювелирно обработанная и «насыщенная мыслью», но сдержанная и бесстрастная лирика не встретила у современников того приема, которого ожидал автор. Её находили излишне аристократичной и недостаточно оригинальной (следует сделать вывод, что таково было мнение общей «образованной массы»). В целом оды проводят все ту же мораль умеренности и квиетизма. В знаменитой 30 Оде третьей книги Гораций сулит себе бессмертие как поэту; ода вызвала многочисленные подражания, из которых наиболее известны подражания Державина и Пушкина). Послания[править | править код] По форме, содержанию, художественным приемам и разнообразию тем «Послания» сближаются с «Сатирами», с которых поэтическая карьера Горация начинается. Гораций сам указывает на связь посланий с сатирами, назвав их, как раньше «Сатиры», «беседами» («sermones»); в них, как до этого в сатирах, Гораций использует дактилический гекзаметр. Комментаторы всех периодов считают «Послания» значительным шагом в искусстве изображения внутренней жизни человека; сам же Гораций даже не причислял их к собственно поэзии. Отдельное место занимает знаменитое «Послание к Пизонам» («Epistola ad Pisones»), названное позднее «Ars poëtica». Послание относится к типу «нормативных» поэтик, содержащих «догматические предписания» с позиций определённого литературного направления. В этом послании мы находим наиболее полное изложение теоретических взглядов Горация на литературу и тех принципов, которым в своей поэтической практике он следовал сам. Этим посланием Гораций включается в литературную полемику между поклонниками архаической литературы и почитателями современной поэзии (последние эпической напыщенности и примитивной форме старых поэтов противопоставляли поэзию субъективных чувств и отточенность поэтической техники). В послании звучит предостережение Августу, который намеревался возродить древний театр как искусство народных масс и использовать его в целях политической пропаганды. Гораций полагает, что принцепсу не следует угождать грубым вкусам и прихотям необразованной публики. По сообщению античного комментатора, теоретическим источником Горация был трактат Неоптолема из Париона, которому он следует в расположении материала и в основных эстетических представлениях. (Поэзия вообще, поэтическое произведение, поэт — этот ход изложения Неоптолема сохранен у Горация.) Но Гораций не ставит целью создать какой-либо полный трактат. Свободная форма «послания» позволяет ему остановиться только на некоторых вопросах, более-менее актуальных с точки зрения литературных направлений в Риме. «Наука поэзии» представляет собой своего рода «теоретический манифест» римского классицизма времени Августа. Юбилейный гимн[править | править код] В 17 году до н. э. с беспрецедентной торжественностью справлялись «вековые игры», празднество «обновления века», которое должно было знаменовать конец периода гражданских войн и начало новой эры процветания Рима. Предполагалась сложная, тщательно разработанная церемония, которую, согласно официальному объявлению, «ещё никто не видел и никогда более не увидит» и в которой должны были принять участие знатнейшие люди Рима. Она завершалась гимном, подводившим итог всему празднеству. Гимн был поручен Горацию. Для поэта это явилось государственным признанием ведущего положения, которое он занял в римской литературе. Гораций принял поручение и решил этот вопрос превратив формулы культовой поэзии во славу живой природе и манифест римского патриотизма. Торжественный «Юбилейный гимн» был исполнен в храме Аполлона Палатинского хором из 27 юношей и 27 девушек 3 июня 17 г. до н. э. Влияние[править | править код] Сам поэт измерял в «Памятнике» своё литературное бессмертие вечностью римского государства, но наибольший расцвет его славы был ещё впереди. Начиная с каролингских времён интерес к Горацию возрастает; свидетельством этого интереса служат 250 дошедших до нас средневековых рукописей его произведений. В период раннего Средневековья морально-философские произведения Горация, сатиры и в особенности послания привлекали большее внимание, чем лирика; Горация почитали как моралиста и знали главным образом в качестве автора сатир и посланий. Ему, «сатирику Горацию», Данте (Ад IV) отводит место в Аиде вслед за Вергилием и Гомером. Новую оценку принёс с собой Ренессанс, когда нарождавшаяся «буржуазная личность» противопоставила себя «церковному созерцанию». (Известно, что в 1347 г. рукопись с произведениями Горация приобрел Петрарка; в некоторых его стихотворениях обнаруживается явное влияние Горация.) Как лирический выразитель такого нового мироощущения, Гораций стал любимым поэтом Возрождения (вместе с Вергилием, и часто превосходя его). Гуманисты считали Горация «своим» всецело; но высоко ценили его также иезуиты — выхолощенный или христианизированный Гораций оказывал положительное нравственное воздействие на учеников. Картины простой деревенской («горацианской») жизни приходились по душе людям сходной с ним судьбы, близких вкусов (какими были, например, Петрарка, Ронсар, Монтень, Роберт Геррик, Бен Джонсон, Мильтон). Лирические размеры Горация использовались в новолатинском стихосложении, что, как считается, особенно удачно получалось у немецкого гуманиста Конрада Цельтиса, который кроме того установил обычай петь оды Горация в школе (что в 16 в. стало повсеместной практикой). Впоследствии Горация стали переводить на новые языки (удачнее всего, как считается, на немецкий). В России Горацию подражал Кантемир; увлекались им Пушкин, Дельвиг, Майков и другие. «Искусство поэзии» оказало колоссальное влияние на литературную критику; из него заимствовались классические принципы, ссылками на него обосновывались старания обуздать излишества барокко. Из «Ars poëtica» для своей «Поэтики» много заимствует Буало; им восторгается Байрон, его изучают Лессинг и др. Однако «Буре и натиску», другим движениям романтиков было не по пути с «певцом благоразумия, уравновешенности и умеренности», и с той поры популярность Горация больше не поднималась на прежнюю высоту. После изобретения книгопечатания ни один античный автор не издавался столько раз, сколько Гораций. Его наследие вызвало огромное количество как новолатинских, так и национальных подражаний и сыграло большую роль в формировании новоевропейской лирики. В честь Горация назван кратер на Меркурии. Изречения[править | править код] Carpe diem — «хватай день» (Carmina I 11, 8). В полном виде: «carpe diem quam minimum credula postero», «пользуйся (каждым) днем, как можно менее полагаясь на следующий» Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori — «Красиво и сладко умереть за отечество» (Carmina III 2, 13). Часто использовавшийся в газетах Первой мировой войны лозунг; также заглавие горько ироничного стихотворения английского поэта Уилфреда Оуэна «Dulce Et Decorum Est» об этой войне. Sapere aude — «решись быть мудрым» (Epistulae I 2, 40). Изречение было воспринято Иммануилом Кантом и стало своеобразным лозунгом Эпохи Просвещения. Данное изречение является девизом Московского физико-технического института (вариант «дерзай знать»). Произведения[править | править код] В хронологическом порядке: Sermonum liber primus, Сатиры I (35 до н. э.) Epodes, Эподы (30 до н. э.) Sermonum liber secundus, Сатиры II (30 до н. э.) Carminum liber primus, Оды I (23 до н. э.) Carminum liber secundus, Оды II (23 до н. э.) Carminum liber tertius, Оды III (23 до н. э.) Epistularum liber primus, Послания I (20 до н. э.) Ars Poetica, Послание Пизонам (24/10 до н. э.) Carmen Saeculare, Вековой Гимн (17 до н. э.) Epistularum liber secundus, Послания II (14 до н. э.) Carminum liber quartus, Оды IV (13 до н. э.) Переводы[править | править код] В серии «Loeb classical library» сочинения изданы в 2 томах (№ 33, 194). В серии «Collection Budé» сочинения изданы в 3 томах. Переводы на русский язык[править | править код] Среди переводивших произведения на русский язык: Артюшков, Алексей Владимирович Барков, Иван Семёнович Водовозов, Василий Иванович Давыдов, Денис Васильевич Дельвиг, Антон Антонович Державин, Гавриил Романович Дмитриев, Михаил Александрович Загорский, Михаил Павлович Казанский, Борис Васильевич Красинский, Адам Станислав Крестовский, Всеволод Владимирович Крешев, Иван Петрович Лермонтов, Михаил Юрьевич Ломоносов, Михаил Васильевич Майков, Аполлон Николаевич Мерзляков, Алексей Фёдорович Модестов, Василий Иванович Норов, Авраам Сергеевич Ошеров, Сергей Александрович Позняков, Николай Сергеевич Пастернак, Борис Леонидович Пушкин, Александр Сергеевич Срезневский, Иван Евсеевич Тютчев, Фёдор Иванович Фет, Афанасий Афанасьевич Филимонов, Владимир Сергеевич Шаховской, Александр Александрович Шебор, Осип Антонович Неоднократно выходили «школьные издания» избранных стихов Горация. Основные русские переводы: Квинта Горация Флакка Десять писем первой книги. / Пер. Харитона Макентина. 2-е изд. — СПб., 1744. — 81, 24 с. Письмо Горация Флакка о стихотворстве к Пизонам / Пер. Н. Поповского. — СПб., 1753. — 40 с. Квинта Горация Флакка Сатиры, или Беседы с примечаниями / Пер. И. С. Баркова. — СПб., 1763. — 184 с. Наука поэзии, или Послание к Пизонам Кв. Горация Флакка / Пер. и прим. М. Дмитриева. — М., 1853. — 90 с. Оды Квинта Горация Флакка / Пер. А. Фета. — СПб., 1856. — 130 с. Сатиры Квинта Горация Флакка / Пер. М. Дмитриева. — М., 1858. — 191 с. К. Гораций Флакк / В пер. А. Фета. — М., 1883. — 485 с. (почти полный перевод с незначит. пропусками) Избранные стихотворения / Пер. и комм. О. А. Шебора. — СПб., 1894. — Вып. 1-2. (Первое издание. Всего было 16 изданий.) Квинт Гораций Флакк. Полное собрание сочинений / Пер. под ред. Ф. А. Петровского, вступ. ст. В. Я. Каплинского. — М.-Л.: Academia. 1936. — 447 с. — 5300 экз. переизд. под назв. «Собрание сочинений» / Вступ. ст. В. С. Дурова. — СПб.: Студиа биографика, 1993. — 446 с. Гораций. Оды. Эподы. Сатиры. Послания / Вступ. ст. М. Л. Гаспарова. — М., Худож. лит. 1970. — 479 с. — 40 000 экз. (в частности, издание включает новый перевод Гаспаровым «Науки поэзии») Квинт Гораций Флакк. Наука поэзии / Пер. М. М. Позднева // Книга сочинителя. — СПб.: Амфора, 2008. — С. 113—142. Квинт Гораций Флакк. Книга Эподов / Пред., пер. и прим. Г. М. Севера. — Toronto: Aeterna, 2015. — (Новые переводы классиков). — ISBN 978-1-329-45480-4. Квинта Горацiя Флакка двадцать четыре избранныя оды въ переводѣ Алексѣя Кокотова. - Toronto: Aeterna Publishing, 2016 Квинт Гораций Флакк. Оды. - М., Летний Сад, 2018. Двуязычное издание, включающее два полных перевода (А. Фета и А. Кокотова) всех четырех книг од и избранные переводы отдельных од, принадлежащие русским поэтам и переводчикам от Державина и Востокова до наших современников. Квинтъ Горацιй Флаккъ. Оды въ переводѣ Алексѣя Кокотова. - М., Водолей, 2019 См. также[править | править код] Ab ovo Ab ovo usque ad mala Exegi monumentum Примечания[править | править код] ↑ Гораций, поэт // Энциклопедический словарь Брокгауза и Ефрона : в 86 т. (82 т. и 4 доп.). — СПб., 1890—1907. ↑ Светоний. О поэтах / Пер. М. Л. Гаспарова // В кн.: Гай Светоний Транквилл. Жизнь двенадцати цезарей. — М.: Наука, 1964. — С. 241. ↑ 1 2 Светоний. О поэтах. — С. 242. ↑ Гораций. Собрание сочинений — СПб.: Студиа биографика, 1993. — 448 С. ↑ Светоний. О поэтах. — С. 243. Библиография[править | править код] Новое издание Heinze R., Lpz., 1921. Критич. изд. Volmer F., Lpz., 1921. Гай Светоний Транквилл. Жизнеописание Горация. Schanz M., Gesch. d. röm. Liter., I, München, 1927. Ribbeck, Gesch. d. röm. Dichtung, Stuttg. 1889. Stemplinger, Ed., Horaz im Urteil der Jahrhunderte, Lpz. 1921. Campbell A. V., Horace. A new interpretation. 1924. Нагуевский Д. И. История римской литературы. т. II. Казань. 1925. Благовещенский Н. М. Гораций и его время. СПб, 1864. 2-е изд. Варшава, 1878. Коссович И. А. Горацианские лирические размеры, их применение к русской метрике, с приложениями и пояснениями. Варшава, 1874. 118 стр. Цветков П. Мысли Горация о поэзии и условиях совершенства поэтических произведений в «Посланиях к Пизонам» (речь). М., 1885. Зенгер Г. Э. Критический комментарий к некоторым спорным текстам Горация. Варшава, 1886. XL, 451 стр. Детто В. А. Гораций и его время. Вильна, 1888. 172 стр. Каплинский В. Я. «Поэтика» Горация. Спорные вопросы интерпретации, формы и содержания. Саратов, 1920. Борухович В. Г. Квинт Гораций Флакк. Поэзия и время. Саратов, Изд-во Сарат.ун-та. 1993. Алексеев В. М. Римлянин Гораций и китаец Лу Цзи о поэтическом мастерстве.// Известия АН СССР. Отделение литературы и языка. 1944, Том 3. Выпуск 4. С. 154—164. То же.- Алексеев В. М. Труды по китайской литературе. В 2 кн. Кн. I. М., 2002. Ссылки[править | править код] Гораций: Цитаты в Викицитатнике Тексты в Викитеке Медиафайлы на Викискладе HORATIUS.RU — все переводы с 1730-х гг. по настоящее время; материалы и пр. HORATIUS.NET — тексты и комментарии (на латинском) Гораций в библиотеке Максима Мошкова Оды Горация «Книга Эподов», очерк     Тематические сайты Discogs · International Music Score Library Project · MusicBrainz · Проект «Гутенберг» · Проект «Гутенберг» Словари и энциклопедии Большая каталанская · Большая норвежская · Большая российская · Большая советская (1 изд.) · Брокгауза и Ефрона · Малый Брокгауза и Ефрона · Реальный словарь классических древностей · Britannica (11-th) · Britannica (онлайн) · Brockhaus · Notable Names Database · Treccani · Universalis · Universalis Нормативный контроль BAV: ADV12139878, ADV11561527, ADV11452220 · BIBSYS: 90055203 · BNC: a10101214 · BNE: XX891549 · BNF: 11886570b · CiNii: DA00782980 · CONOR: 8323171 · EGAXA: vtls000023274 · GND: 118553569 · ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\000246 · ISNI: 0000 0001 2145 2178 · LCCN: n79081354, no92010069 · LNB: 000000375 · NDL: 00540086 · NKC: jn20000603003 · NLA: 35206138 · NLG: 62641 · NLP: A11793144 · NSK: 000013522 · NTA: 068304579 · NUKAT: n96210540 · PTBNP: 19592 · РГБ: 000083136, 000039740 · LIBRIS: 189659 · SUDOC: 026659166 · VIAF: 100227522, 2130151778256418130004 · ULAN: 500404135 · WorldCat VIAF: 100227522, 2130151778256418130004 Источник — https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Гораций&oldid=110450755 Категории: Персоналии по алфавиту Писатели по алфавиту Родившиеся 8 декабря Родившиеся в 65 году до н. э. Родившиеся в Венозе Умершие 27 ноября Умершие в 8 году до н. э. Умершие в Риме Гораций Латинские поэты Поэты Древнего Рима Поэты I века до н. э. Поэтика Персонажи «Божественной комедии» Авторы и произведения, переводившиеся Пушкиным Эстетики Античные писатели, чьи труды дошли до нашего времени Горации Скрытые категории: Википедия:Статьи с ручной викификацией дат в карточке Википедия:Ссылка на Викитеку непосредственно в статье Википедия:Ссылка на Викицитатник непосредственно в статье Страницы, использующие волшебные ссылки ISBN Навигация Персональные инструменты Вы не представились системе Обсуждение Вклад Создать учётную запись Войти Пространства имён Статья Обсуждение Варианты Просмотры Читать Править Править код История Ещё Поиск Навигация Заглавная страница Рубрикация Указатель А — Я Избранные статьи Случайная статья Текущие события Участие Сообщить об ошибке Сообщество Форум Свежие правки Новые страницы Справка Пожертвовать Инструменты Ссылки сюда Связанные правки Служебные страницы Постоянная ссылка Сведения о странице Цитировать страницу Элемент Викиданных Печать/экспорт Создать книгу Скачать как PDF Версия для печати В других проектах Викисклад Викицитатник Викитека На других языках Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Править ссылки Эта страница в последний раз была отредактирована 12 ноября 2020 в 21:31. 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scn-wikipedia-org-6869	----	Quintu Orazziu Flaccu - Wikipedia Quintu Orazziu Flaccu Dâ Wikipedia, la nciclupidìa lìbbira. Jump to navigation Jump to search Orazziu Orazziu Flaccu Quintu (Venosa, 8 di dicèmmiru 65 a.C. - Roma, 27 di nuvèmmiru 8 a.C.), cchiu canusciutu comu "Orazziu", fu un pueta latinu di l'Antica Roma. Mastru di eleganza stilìstica e dutatu di inusuali irunìa, sappi affruntari li vicissitùdini pulìtichi e civili dû sò tempu comu placidu epicureu amanti dî piaciri dâ vita. Lu cèlibbri muttu Carpe diem, pi diri apprufitta di chiddu chi la vita ti dunna òi, è attribbuitu a iddu. Assiemi a Ovidiu (43 p.e.v., 17-18 e.v.) e Virgiliu (70 p.e.v., 19 p.e.v.) eni cunzidiratu un di li tri cchiu grandi pueta di l'Antica Roma. Estrattu di "https://scn.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quintu_Orazziu_Flaccu&oldid=660654" Catigurìi: Roma antica Biografìi Littiratura Littiratura latina Menù di navigazzioni Strumenta pirsunali Nun v'aviti riggistratu Discussioni cuntribbuti Crea un cuntu novu Trasi Namespace artìculu Discussioni Varianti Vìsiti Leggi Cancia Cancia surgenti Talìa la crunuluggìa Altro Arriscedi Navigazzioni Pàggina principali Porta dâ cumunitati Nutizzî Canciati antura Na pàggina a muzzu Ajutu Cumunitati Lu Cìrculu Artìculu ntâ vitrina IRC (#wikipedia-scn) Grammàtica Cumpenniu stilìsticu Dunazzioni Pirmessi bot (Request bot status) Strumenta Chi punta ccà Canciamenti culligati Càrrica nu file Pàggini spiciali Liami pirmanenti Nfurmazzioni ncapu la pàggina Cita st'artìculu Suggettu nta Wikidata Stampa/esporta Crea nu libbru Scàrrica comu PDF Virsioni stampàbbili Àutri pruggetti Wikimedia Commons Àutri lingui Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Cancia li culligamenti Sta pàggina fu canciata a 07:10 di lu 9 mar 2013. Stu testu è dispunìbbili sutta â Licenza Creative Commons Attribuzzioni/Spartuta dâ stissa manera; si ponnu applicari àutri cunnizzioni. Talìa li Cunnizzioni d'Usu pi li dittagghî. Pulìtica supra la privacy Nfurmazzioni supra a Wikipedia Avvirtenzi Virsioni mòbbili Sviluppatura Statistiche Dichiarazione sui cookie 
sc-wikipedia-org-3389	----	Quinto Orazio Flacco - Wikipedia Quinto Orazio Flacco Dae Wikipedia, s'entziclopedia lìbera. Jump to navigation Jump to search Articulu in logudoresu {{}} la« Dum loquimur fugerit invida aetas: carpe diem, quam minimum credula postero. » (SC)« In su mentre chi semus faeddende su tempus imbidiosu si ch'ada a esse' già fuidu. Profitta de s'attimu, fidendedi su pius pagu possibile de su cras. » (Orazio - Odes, I, 11, 7-8) Saturae, 1577 Quinto Orazio Flacco (Venosa, 8 de nadale 65 a. C. – Roma, 27 de sant'andrìa 8 a.C.) filosofo poete romanu antigu. Est cunsideradu unu de sos pius mannos poetes de s'antighidade, fit dotadu de grande ironia, at ischidu vivere comente epicureu amante de sos piagheres de sa vida. Controllu de autoridade VIAF (EN) 100227522 · ISNI (EN) 0000 0001 2145 2178 · BIBSYS (EN) 90055203 · BNC 000035928 · BNE (ES) XX891549 (data) · BNF (FR) cb11886570b (data) · BAV (IT) ADV12139878 · CANTIC (CA) a10101214 · CERL (IT) cnp01316190 · CiNii (JA, EN) DA00782980 · Europeana agent/base/60033 · GND (DE) 118553569 · LCCN (EN) n79081354 · LNB (LV, EN) 000000375 · MusicBrainz af616f1f-6242-4802-a1bf-8d3f0647083c · NDL (EN, JA) 00540086 · NKC (EN, CS) jn20000603003 · NLA (EN) 35206138 · NLG (EN) 62641 · NLI (EN, HE) 000064806 · NLK (KO) KAC199612791 · NLP (PL) A11793144 · NSK (HR) 000013522 · NTA (EN) 068304579 · RERO 02-A000081296 · RSL (EN, RU) 000083136 · SBN (IT) IT\ICCU\CFIV\000246 · SELIBR (SE) 189659 · SNAC (EN) w6pk0m9c · SUDOC (FR) 026659166 · Trove (EN) 864697 · ULAN (EN) 500404135 · WorldCat Identities (EN) n79-081354 Bogadu dae "https://sc.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quinto_Orazio_Flacco&oldid=157202" Categorias: Logudoresu Biografias Artìculos cun còdighe VIAF Artìculos cun còdighe ISNI Artìculos cun còdighe BIBSYS Artìculos cun còdighe BNC Artìculos cun còdighe BNE Artìculos cun còdighe BNF Artìculos cun còdighe BAV Artìculos cun còdighe CANTIC Artìculos cun còdighe CERL Artìculos cun còdighe CINII Artìculos cun còdighe Europeana Artìculos cun còdighe GND Artìculos cun còdighe LCCN Artìculos cun còdighe LNB Artìculos cun còdighe MBA Artìculos cun còdighe NDL Artìculos cun còdighe NKC Artìculos cun còdighe NLA Artìculos cun còdighe NLG Artìculos cun còdighe NLI Artìculos cun còdighe NLK Artìculos cun còdighe NLP Artìculos cun còdighe NSK Artìculos cun còdighe NTA Artìculos cun còdighe RERO Artìculos cun còdighe RSL Artìculos cun còdighe SBN Artìculos cun còdighe SELIBR Artìculos cun còdighe SNAC-ID Artìculos cun còdighe SUDOC Artìculos cun còdighe Trove Artìculos cun còdighe ULAN Artìculos biogràficos cun còdighes de controllu de autoridade Romanos antigos Poetes romanos Categoria cuada: BioBot Menu pro navigatzione Ainas personales Non ses intradu Cuntierras Contributziones Registra·ti Intra Nùmene-logos Pàgina Cuntierras Variantes Vìsitas Leghe Modìfica Modìfica còdighe de orìgine Càstia istòria More Chirca Navigatzione Pàgina printzipale Ùrtimas mudàntzias Pàgina a sa tzurpa Agiudu Comunidade Tzilleri Portale comunidade Donatziones Ainas Pàginas chi ligant a custa Mudàntzias ligadas Càrriga documentu Pàginas ispetziales Ligàmene permanente Informatziones pro sa pàgina Tzita custa pàgina Elementu Wikidata Imprenta/esporta Crea unu libru Iscàrriga comente PDF Versione de imprenta In àteros progetos Wikimedia Commons Àteras limbas Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Modìfica sos ligàmenes Ùrtima modìfica su 3 Fre 2019, a is 22:16. Su testu est disponìbile segundu sa litzèntzia Atributzione Creative Commons-Cumpartzi a sa pròpria manera; si podent aplicare prus cunditziones galu. Abbàida is cunditziones de impreu pro is particulares. Polìtica pro is datos privados A propòsitu de Wikipedia Avertèntzias Mobile view Isvilupadores Statistics Cookie statement 
sh-wikipedia-org-9790	----	Kvint Horacije Flak - Wikipedia Kvint Horacije Flak Iz Wikipedije, slobodne enciklopedije Idi na navigaciju Idi na pretragu "Horacije" preusmjerava ovdje. Za ostala značenja, v. Horacije (razvrstavanje). Horacije Puno ime Kvint Horacije Flak Rođenje 65. pne. Venuzija, Italija Smrt 8. pne. Rim, Italija Književni period zlatno doba rimske književnosti Važnija djela :::Ode Ars poetica Epistole Kvint Horacije Flak (lat. Quintus Horatius Flaccus, 65–8. god. st. e.) bio je jedan od najvećih lirskih pesnika antičkog Rima, koji je stvarao tokom Avgustovog doba rimske književnosti. Sadržaj/Садржај 1 Životopis 2 Epode 3 Satire 4 Ode 5 Poslanice 6 Značaj i uticaj 7 Eksterni linkovi Životopis[uredi - уреди | uredi izvor] Horacije je rođen 65. godine stare ere u gradu Venuziji u južnoitalskoj pokrajini Apulija. Otac mu je bio neznatnog porekla i slabog imovinskog stanja, ali je svome sinu ipak uspeo obezbediti odlično obrazovanje: Horacije se školovao najpre u Rimu, a zatim u Atini, gde ga je zatekao i građanski rat između trijumvira i Cezarovih ubica. Tu je Horacije stupio u Brutovu republikansku vojsku i kao vojni tribun učestvovao u bici kod Filipa (42. god. st. e.). Sećajući se nakon mnogo godina bekstva Brutove vojske, Horacije koristi književne reminiscencije iz grčke lirike i arhilohovske slike gubitka štita (Od. II, 7, 9–12): Tecum Philippos et celerem fugam sensi relicta non bene parmula, cum fracta virtus et minaces turpe solum tetigere mento. Doživeh s tobom filipski brzi beg, Gde nečasno odbacih od sebe štit, Kad hrabrost skrši se i ružno hvališe taknuše bradom zemlju. Nakon poraza kod Filipa, trijumviri su objavili amnestiju, pa se Horacije vratio u Rim i tu dobio ugledan položaj kvestorskog pisara (scriba). Ubrzo je stekao glas dobroga pesnika te se upoznao prvo s Vergilijem, a preko njega i sa Mecenatom i najzad s Oktavijanom Avgustom. Mecenat je Horaciju 32. godine stare ere poklonio lepo imanje u sabinskoj zemlji, gde će od tada pesnik radije boraviti nego u Rimu. Horacije je umro ubrzo nakon Mecenata, 8. godine stare ere: pored Mecenata je bio i sahranjen. Horacije je bio izuzetno obrazovan čovek: znao je odlično grčki jezik i književnost, a u mlađim danima pisao je i grčke stihove. Bio je dobro upućen i u filozofiju, naročito epikurejsku i stoičku. Horacije je voleo da bude nazavisan, čak i u odnosu na svoje prijatelje, pa je odbio i Avgustovu ponudu da mu bude lični sekretar. Epode[uredi - уреди | uredi izvor] Glavni članak: Epode (Horacije) Sačuvan je celokupan pesnički opus Horacijev. Stvaranje je započeo Epodama (Epodon libri, 17 pesama, izdatih 30. god. st. e.) i Satirama. Epode su nazvane po metričkom obliku, jer su mnoge pisane u distisima (prvih deset u tzv. jampskim epodama, tj. kombinaciji jampskog trimetra i dimetra), od kojih je drugi stih kraći i koji se prema grčkom ἐπῳδός (= pripev) zove versus epodus. Sam Horacije naziva ove svoje pesme Jambima (Iambi), jer se u njima u izvesnoj meri podražava metrički oblik i oštar, satirički ton grčkoga jambografa Arhiloha. Uz snažan protest protiv građanskih ratova koji su u to doba potresali rimsku državu i društvo (npr. Kud, kud, bezbožni srljate? – Quo, quo, scelesti ruitis?), Horacijeva je kritika usmerena na neke tipove rimskoga društva (zelenaše, skorojeviće, književne protivnike, vračare). Osim ovakve kritike – koja nije tako snažna i duboka kao kod Arhiloha – ima u Epodama i elegijskih motiva, a neke epode – u kojima se oseća uticaj Katula i aleksandrijske poezije – predstavljaju zametke kasnije refleksivne lirike Horacijeve. U izboru tema i njihovoj obradi primećuje se Horacijeva težnja da se odmakne od subjektivizma neoterika, te da, kao jedno od sredstava objektiviranja, upotrebi dramski oblik dijaloga ili monologa, u kojem nosilac teme više nije sam pesnik, nego neka osoba koju on prikazuje. U vreme kada Vergilije u 4. eklogi najavljuje dolazak novog zlatnog veka, Horacije je mnogo pesimističniji: ne samo da vatreno protestuje protiv građanskog rata, nego u 16. epodi takođe najavljuje zlatni vek, ali ne u Italiji, nego na dalekim "blaženim ostrvima", jer tamo se jedino može pobeći iz Rima koji srlja u sve dublju propast. Druga epoda hvali dražesti jednostavna seoskog života, da bi se pri kraju pesme pokazalo da svu tu modernu zanesenost jednostavnošću predačkoga života izgovara niko drugi do licemerni i lakomi zelenaš (faenerator). Element parodije, koji se otkriva pri kraju epode, te poentiranog preokretanja i komičkog patosa daje specifičnu boju i čitavoj ovoj zbirci pa zahvata i epode s ljubavnom tematikom. Tako se u 11. epodi parodira sentimentalna ljubavna elegija: tu se u oštrim tonovima proklinje književni protivnik, te cela pesma dobija ton izvrnutog propemtikona, tj. pesme kojom se želi srećan put osobi koja odlazi na kakvo putovanje. Satire[uredi - уреди | uredi izvor] Glavni članak: Satire (Horacije) Saturae, 1577 Satire (Saturae, 18 heksametarskih pesama, 1. knjiga izdata 35. godine, 2. knjiga 30. godine. st. e.) bave se isključivo društvenim, književnim i filozofskim pitanjima. Ponekad u njima pripoveda Horacije i kakve zanimljive događaje iz života, kao što je na primer njegov put u Brundizij, na koji je krenuo zajedno s Mecenatom. U pisanju Satira Horacije se u velikoj meri oslonio na Gaja Lucilija, pa mu je i za opis spomenutog puta kao uzor poslužio Lucilijev Put na Siciliju (Iter Siculum). Osim Lucilija, Horacije se ugledao i na Menipove satire te srodne književne vrste iz oblasti popularne filozofije – tzv. dijatribe. Od njih je Horacije preuzeo veseo ton i neusiljen način pripovedanja, oblikovan u pripovednim hekstametrima, svakodnevnom jeziku i jednostavnim metaforama. Uopšte uzev, Lucilijevu oštru ličnu porugu i političke napade zamenjuje Horacije blažom i vedrijom kritikom, u kojoj je puno blagonaklonosti i koja je zapravo više peckava nego sarkastična, prožeta finom ironijom i intimnošću pesnikova kazivanja i obraćanja čitaocima. Zato je Satire i kasnije Pisma Horacije nazvao zajedničkim imenom Razgovori (Sermones) – kako je već Lucilije nazvao svoje satire – dakle ćaskanjem, u kojem pesnik kroz smeh izriče životne istine (ridendo dicere verum). Pisane u vreme konačne propasti Rimske republike i sve jasnijih obrisa budućeg Avgustovog principata, Satire i sva kasnija Horacijeva dela duboko su zaokupljena pitanjem lične čovekove sreće i njegovog odnosa prema društvu. Mireći se s novim političkim sistemom koji je zaustavio građanske ratove, Horacije u duhu Epikurove filozofije sreću nalazi u "zlatnoj sredini" (aurea mediocritas – taj izraz i pripada njemu), koja u zadovoljstvu malim osigurava unutrašnju čovekovu samostalnost i umereno uživanje životnih dobara. Upravo se zbog toga na udaru Horacijeve kritike nalaze živo ocrtani tipovi nametljivaca, zelenaša, lakomaca, umišljenih filozofa, koji trče za prividnim dobrima. Satire su po tematici moralno-filozofske, književne i autobiografske. Moralno-filozofsku tematiku obrađuju, na primer, satire I, 1, 2. i 3, koje su građene kao razmišljanja o nezadovoljstvu sudbinom i koristoljublju, o postupanju s prijateljima i sl., s argumentacijom preuzetom iz popularne filozofske literature. Premda se Horacije ne libi ni lične poruge savremenicima, posebno u prvim satirama, on je ipak pritom oprezan i radije za mete svojih satira bira u sredini ljudi s već sumnjivom reputacijom. Najvećim umetničkim kvalitetom, u smislu tematsko-sadržajne izgrađenosti i zaokruženosti, odlikuju se one satire u kojima pesnik govori o sebi, svojim ukusima, težnjama i životu (na primer, I, 3; II, 6). U 2. knjizi Satira dodatno je oslabljena lična usmerenost i izlaganje, pretežno dijaloški komponovano, zadobilo je više opšte značenje, svakako pod uticajem definitivnog učvršćivanja Avgusta na čelu novoosnovanog Rimskog carstva. Ode[uredi - уреди | uredi izvor] Glavni članak: Ode (Horacije) Drugom stvaralačkom razdoblju pripadaju Horacijeve Pesme (Carmina, prva zbirka u 3 knjige, izdata 23. godine st. e.; 4. knjiga izdata zasebno 13. godine; ukupno 103 pesama u raznovrsnim metrima i strofama, posebno u alkejskoj, safičkoj i asklepijadskoj strofi). Antički komentatori nazvali su ih prema grčkom Odae, pa se taj naziv ustalio, premda se u mnogim pesmama ne poklapa s današnjim pojmom te vrste lirske poezije. Pesme imaju vrlo raznoliku sadržinu: to su ode prijateljima (npr. Mecenatu, Carm, I, 1), himne bogovima (npr. seoskom bogu Faunu, Carm. III, 18), refleksivne pesme (npr. Aequam memento – To pamti mirne duše, II, 3) vinske i ljubavne pesme (npr. Donec gratus eram tibi – Dok ti bejah drag, III, 9), razne prigodne pesme itd. Ima i socijalnih, političkih i patriotski intoniranih pesama, kojih je naročito mnogo onih posvećenih Avgustu u 4. knjizi, ali među kojima se posebno izdvajaju prvih šest pesama u 3. knjizi, koje čine tzv. Rimske ode – Carmina Romana – u kojima se veličaju starorimske vrline. Sam Horacije za ove svoje pesme koristi naziv Aeolium carmen (= eolska pesma) ili Lesbium carmen (= lezbljanska pesma), zato što je, u težnji da na rimsko tlo presadi klasičnu grčku liriku, Horacije reprodukovao metričku građu i opšti ton eolske melike, u prvom redu Alkeja, Sapfu i Anakreonta. Ugledajući se na ove pesnike, te na helenističke liričare, može se reći da Horacije u Pesme često unosi više učenosti i znanja nego iskrenog pesničkog oduševljenja. Horacije, uostalom, i sam želi da se o njegovoj poeziji tako misli (Carm, IV, 2, 27–32, prev. Radmila Šalabalić): ego apis Matinae more modoque grata carpentis thyma per laborem plurimum circa nemus uvidique Tiburis ripas operosa parvus carmina fingo. Ja, moj Antonije, kano pčela sa Matinskih brda leteć vredno mučim se i skupljam slast mirisnu majčine dušice iz gajeva, uz obale Tibra, silne reke, ponosite vodom, stvaram mukom, k'o i one sitan, pesme svoje pune teška truda. Nama se u Horacijevoj lirici najviše dapada njegov trezveni duh, brižljiva i savršena forma, biran i zvučan jezik. U nekoliko pesama razvija Horacije teme iz oblasti savremene popularne filozofije, na primer II, 24 (Eheu fugaces), II, 16 (Otium divos rogat) itd., što je značajno zbog toga što antička lirika pre Horacije nije bila pod uticajem filozofije. Horacijeva lirika je lirika razuma: njegove pesme, odmerene i pomalo hladne u lepoti kristalne jasnoće, retko su nastale kao izraz neposrednog pesnikovog doživljaja. Refleksija u njima preovlađuje nad osećajem, pa se po dubini osećaja ne mogu meriti s Katulovim pesmama, ali se Horacijeva lirika ipak visoko izdiže i iznad Katulove i iznad ostale rimske poezije po majstorskom izbrušenošću kako jezičnog izraza tako i raznovrsnih ritmova, visoko umetnički biranih prema tematici. Horacije gradi svoje ode oko ideja šireg, univerzalnog značenja, natapajući ih refleksivnošću i senzibilnošću, koja je dublja i bogatija od svih pesnikovih klasičnih i helenističkih grčkih uzora. Po tome se Horacijeve ode mogu smatrati ne samo njegovim najboljim pesničkim delom, nego i vrhuncem celokupne rimske lirike. Kvintilijan se o Pesmama pohvalno izražava: "Od liričara gotovo jedini zaslužuje da bude čitan Horacije: on često dolazi u visoko nadahnuće, pun je lepote i elegancije, neiscrpan u figurama, i u jeziku vrlo smeo, što uvek ostavlja najbolji utisak". Horacije je pobornik idejne sadržajnosti poezije, u filozofskom pogledu na svet epikurejski materijalista s jakim primesama eklektičkog stoicizma u zrelijim godinama. Kao takav Horacije u odama izražava i osećaj snage i sigurnosti koji rimskom narodu i društvu pružaju Avgustove reforme i stabilnost njegova poretka. Stoga počašćen prihvata zadatak da za proslavu jubilarnih stoletnih igara (ludi saeculares) 17. godine stare ere, koja je trebalo da obeleži završetak perioda građanskih ratova i početak mirne epohe, sastavi Stoletnu pesmu (Carmen saeculare). Ovu himnu, upućenu raznim božanstvima, a pre svega Apolonu i Dijani, kojima se upućuju molbe da rimskom narodu podare sreću i blagostanje, pevao je na Palatinu hor dečaka i devojaka. Godine 1890. nađen je na Palatinu poduži natpis u vezi s ovom pesmu: to je bio zvaničan program svetkovine, u kome se spominje i Horacijevo ime. Poslanice[uredi - уреди | uredi izvor] Glavni članak: Pisma (Horacije) Vraćajući se tematici i stilu mladalačkih Satira, objavio je Horacije 20. godine st. e. prvu, a u poslednjim godinama života i drugu knjigu Pisama ili Poslanica (Epistulae, ukupno 23 poslanice u heksametrima). Poslanice po značaju i književnoj vrednosti zauzimaju jedno od prvih mesta u rimskoj književnosti. Za razliku od Satira, u kojima se pesnik obraća publici uopšte, Poslanice su upućene pojedinim ličnostima, a obrađuju teme iz svakodnevnog života, upravo kao i prava pisma, te etičku i književnu tematiku. Poslanice su ustvari popularne filozofske rasprave u obliku pesničkog pisma, pisane bez izrugivanja ljudskim manama, u mirnijem tonu, u savršenijoj pesničkoj formi i brižljivijoj jezičko-metričkoj obradi, sa zrelijim mislima, premda im nedostaje nešto od onog oduševljenja i svežine na koje nailazimo u Satirama. Sve tri poslanice u 2. knjizi raspravljaju o književnim pitanjima. Prva je upućena Avgustu, ali je najznamenitija od svih Horacijevih poslanica upravo treća u 2. knjizi – Poslanica Pizonima (Epistula ad Pisones), koja je već u antici navođena pod posebnim naslovom Pesničko umeće (Ars poetica ili De arte poetica). Cilj je ove poslanice da se pesnicima skrene pažnja na pogreške kojih se u svom pesničkom radu moraju čuvati. Horacije nema nameru dati neku sistematsku teoriju književnosti, nego samo da saopšti nekoliko praktičnih saveta: tu je zapravo izložena Horacijeva klasicistička estetika, s posebnim osvrtom na dramsko stvaralaštvo. Raspored građe prilično je slab: strukturisane celine uglavnom nema, ali zato ima dosta uspelih mesta i duhovitih misli. Pesničko umeće postalo je kanonom evropske normativne poetike. Značaj i uticaj[uredi - уреди | uredi izvor] Horacija su visoko cenili i savremenici i potomci. Njegove su pesme često komentarisane i čitane u školama, ali svakako ne vrlo mnogo: zanimljivo je da među natpisima iz Pompeja ima stihova iz Vergilija, Ovidija, Propercija, Tibula i drugih, ali niti jedan iz Horacija. Njegov uticaj se naročito oseća u Persijevim satirama i Senekinim tragedijama. Nije čudno što je sačuvano vrlo mnogo Horacijevih rukupisa – ukupno oko njih 250. Tradicija teksta prilično je dobra: različitih lekcija nema mnogo, a i one varijante koje se javljaju nisu znatne. Ogroman je bio Horacijev uticaj tokom renesanse i tokom 18. veka, npr. Pierre de Ronsard, Jan Kochanowski, Gabriello Chiabrera, Ben Jonson, Fulvio Testi, Martin Opitz, Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock, Giuseppe Parini, Marco Antonio Foscolo, Fantoni, Mihail Vasiljevič Lomonosov, Gavrila Romanovič Deravžin, Aleksandr Sergejevič Puškin. U južnoslovenskim književnostima posebno su se na Horacija ugledali Brno Džamanjić, Ignjat Đurđević, Marko Bruerević, Lukijan Mušicki i Stevan Lazić. Horacije i danas ostaje najprevođeniji antički pisac svih vremena. Eksterni linkovi[uredi - уреди | uredi izvor] Kvint Horacije Flak na Wikimedijinoj ostavi Djela čiji je autor Horace na Projektu Gutenberg Espace Horace The works of Horace at The Latin Library Selected Poems of Horace The Perseus Project -- Latin and Greek authors (with English translations), including Horace Biography and chronology Litweb "Odes of Horace" (translations & notes for selected odes) Horace's works: text, concordances and frequency list English translation of Horace Odes III.5: the Regulus ode, translated by Jon Corelis IV Oda: srpski prevod Normativna kontrola WorldCat identiteti VIAF: 100227522 LCCN: n79081354 ISNI: 0000 0001 2145 2178 GND: 118553569 SELIBR: 189659 SUDOC: 026659166 BNF: cb11886570b (podaci) BIBSYS: 90055203 ULAN: 500404135 MusicBrainz: af616f1f-6242-4802-a1bf-8d3f0647083c NLA: 35206138 NDL: 00540086 NKC: jn20000603003 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\000246 RSL: 000083136 BNE: XX891549 CiNii: DA00782980 CONOR.SI: 8323171 NSK: 000013522 Dobavljeno iz "https://sh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kvint_Horacije_Flak&oldid=40986982" Kategorije: Rođeni 65. pne. 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simple-wikipedia-org-3950	----	Horace - Simple English Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Horace From Simple English Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search No photographs or paintings exist from when Horace was alive. This is how Anton von Werner imagined he would look. Quintus Horatius Flaccus (December 8, 65 BC - November 27, 8 BC), known to English speakers as Horace, was a famous poet in the Roman Empire. Contents 1 Life 2 Quotes 3 Poetry 4 Other websites Life[change | change source] Horace was born in the small Italian town of Venusia. His father used to be a slave, but was known as a freedman because his master had freed him. They moved to Rome a short time later. Horace's father had a job taking items from the seller to the buyer. He received money from these sales. His father became richer and was able to send Horace to the best schools in Rome. He was also able to send him to Athens (Greece) to study the Greek language and philosophy. Horace's native language was Latin. Horace was incredibly proud of his father, and said he felt no shame in being the son of a freedman. In his early adult life, Julius Caesar, the Roman dictator, was killed. War was declared against the people who killed him. Horace joined the army. When the war was over, Horace returned to Italy to find that other people were living in his apartment. His father was also gone. Horace became very poor. Eventually, he found a job in the treasury. This involved sorting the country's money. His friends, Lucius Varius Rufus and Virgil, who were also writers, introduced him to Maecenas. Maecenas was a close friend of Augustus, the emperor of Rome. Horace lived in Tivoli, an area of Rome. When he died, he gave the land he owned to Augustus, to increase the land the state owned. Today, other writers visit the land to remember him. Quotes[change | change source] Horace wrote many famous quotes in his poems. These lines are still spoken today, by speakers of every language, in the original Latin. Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori - It is sweet and fitting to die for one's country. Carpe diem - Pluck the day (Seize the day is the common translation, though it is incorrect in terms of translation and usage). Poetry[change | change source] Some of Horace's poems are difficult to translate because of their syntax, grammar and structure, which is sometimes very different to modern languages. Horace is viewed by many people, including experts, to be one of the best Latin poets. Other websites[change | change source] Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Horace Latin Wikisource has original writing related to this article: Latin texts of Quintus Horatius Flaccus English Wikisource has original writing related to this article: English translations of texts of Quintus Horatius Flaccus Wikimedia Commons has media related to Quintus Horatius Flaccus. Works by Horace at Project Gutenberg Espace Horace The works of Horace at The Latin Library Selected Poems of Horace The Perseus Project -- Latin and Greek authors (with English translations), including Horace Biography and chronology Litweb Horace's works: text, concordances and frequency list Retrieved from "https://simple.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horace&oldid=6366938" Categories: 65 BC births 8 BC deaths Ancient Roman writers Hidden category: Articles with Project Gutenberg links Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Page Talk Variants Views Read Change Change source View history More Search Getting around Main page Simple start Simple talk New changes Show any page Help Contact us Give to Wikipedia About Wikipedia Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Make a book Download as PDF Page for printing In other projects Wikimedia Commons In other languages Afrikaans አማርኛ العربية Aragonés Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά English Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Монгол Nāhuatl Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Sardu Seeltersk Sicilianu Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Tarandíne Татарча/tatarça Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon Winaray 吴语 粵語 Zazaki Žemaitėška 中文 Change links This page was last changed on 27 December 2018, at 00:22. 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sk-wikipedia-org-1104	----	Horatius – Wikipédia Horatius z Wikipédie, slobodnej encyklopédie Skočit na navigaci Skočit na vyhledávání Quintus Horatius Flaccus rímsky básnik Narodenie 8. december 65 pred Kr. Venusia Úmrtie 27. november 8 pred Kr. pochovaný je v Ríme Odkazy Projekt Guttenberg 46370 Horatius (plné texty diel autora) Commons Horatius Biografický portál Quintus Horatius Flaccus známy pod menom Horatius (* 8. december 65 pred Kr., Venusia – † 27. november 8 pred Kr., pochovaný v Ríme) bol rímsky básnik žijúci za vlády cisára Augusta. Jeho životnou filozofiou bol umiernený epikureizmus (kontaminovaný so zásadami stoicizmu), proklamujúci právo na nerušený súkromný život, drobné radosti a nezávislosť[1]. Obsah 1 Život 2 Dielo 2.1 Epodi (Epódy) 2.2 Saturae (Satiry) 2.3 Carmina (Ódy) 2.4 Epistulae (Listy) 3 Referencie 4 Literatúra 5 Iné projekty 6 Externé odkazy Život[upraviť | upraviť kód] Horatius sa narodil v malom meste Venusia na hranici Apúlie a Lukánie. Jeho otcom bol prepustenec (Horatius sám ale už bol slobodný), ktorý vlastnil vo Venusii malú usadlosť. Neskôr sa presťahoval do Ríma, kde pracoval ako coactor, prostredník pri aukciách. Napriek nízkemu postaveniu Horatius Starší na synovom vzdelaní nešetril. Najprv ho poslal do Ríma, kde Horatius študoval u gramatika Orbilia, neskôr do Atén, kde sa mohol Horatius zdokonaľovať v gréčtine a filozofii. Po zavraždení Caesara (44 pred Kr.) zavládli v Grécku, ktoré sa stalo útočiskom Caesarových vrahov, rušné pomery. Mladý Horatius sa nechal zlákať sľubnou vojenskou kariérou a ideálom boja za republiku a vstúpil do vojska proticaesarovských optimátov v hodnosti vojenského tribúna. V tejto hodnosti bojoval aj v bitke pri Filipách (42 pred Kr.), kde boli republikánske sily porazené. Do Itálie sa mohol vrátiť až po vyhlásení všeobecnej amnestie nasledujúceho roku, to ale nezabránilo tomu, aby jeho majetok nebol skonfiškovaný. Sám Horatius neskôr poznamená, že v tomto období trel nesmiernu biedu. Aby sa uživil, zamestnal sa ako kvestororský pisár (scriba quaestorius). V tomto období tiež začal písať prvé verše. Približne v roku 38 pred Kr. sa dostal Horatius do okruhu umelcov združených okolo vplyvného patróna a blízkeho Augustovho priateľa Maecenata. Maecenatovi ho predstavili básnici Vergílius a Lucius Varius Rufus. Až do svojej smrti tvoril diela v tomto krúžku. Roku 33 pred Kr. obdaroval Horatia Maecenas statkom v Tibure (dnes Tivoli). Sem sa básnik utiahol a ďalej tvoril. Hoci jeho literárna tvorba bola spojená s Augustovou osobou a Horatius bol cisárovým blízkym priateľom, ich vzťah nebol založený na básnikovej poplatnosti mocnému Augustovi. Keď napríklad Augustus Horatia požiadal, aby zložil verše na jeho počesť, básnik to rázne odmietol. Horatius zomrel roku 8 pred Kr., len dva mesiace po svojom patrónovi Maecenatovi. Pretože umrel bez dedičov, odkázal svoj statok cisárovi. Dielo[upraviť | upraviť kód] Saturae, 1577 Epodi (Epódy)[upraviť | upraviť kód] Sedemnásť básnických skladieb napísaných v rokoch 41 – 30 pred Kr. nieslo pôvodne podľa Horatia názov Iambi (Jamby). Označenie Epódy dostalo jeho dielo podľa metrickej formy básní (termín epodos označuje kratší, záverečný verš v dvojverší, distichu). Väčšina básní v zbierku je písaná skutočne jambickými metrami – jambickým dimetrom, jambickým trimetrom a štyri z nich v striedavých jamboch a hexametroch. Tematicky sa epódy rôznia od útočných skladieb v tradičnom jambickom duchu, cez erotickú, občiansku a oslavnú poéziu. Saturae (Satiry)[upraviť | upraviť kód] Dve knihy satír vyšli s odstupom v roku 35 pred Kr. a 30 pred Kr., súčasne s Epódami. Prvá obsahuje 10 skladieb, druhá 8, v oboch prípadoch zložených v hexametroch. Carmina (Ódy)[upraviť | upraviť kód] Tri knihy Ód boli vydané v roku 23 pred Kr. Horatius na nich pracoval približne sedem rokov. Okolo roku 13 pred Kr. k ním pripojil knihu štvrtú. Celkovo ide o viac ako 100 básní, rôznych námetov, dĺžky a metier. Horatius sa v tomto prípade prejavuje ako experimentátor, ktorý sa odvažuje zavádzať do rímskej poézie neobvyklé metrá určené pre grécky jazyk. Ódy sú vystavané podľa vzoru alexandrijskej neóterickej poézie a vyznačujú sa teda vysokou učenosťou a prepracovanosťou. K Ódam býva niekedy počítaná ešte básnická skladba Carmen saeculare (Storočná pieseň) zložená roku 17 pred Kr. pri príležitosti Storočných hier (ludi Saeculares) na podnet Augustov. Báseň bola určená pre prednes zborom pri verejnej príležitosti. Jej metrom je sapfická strofa. Epistulae (Listy)[upraviť | upraviť kód] Dve knihy Listov vznikli v rokoch 20 – 13 pred Kr. (druhá kniha bola publikovaná až posmrtne). Celkom obsahujú 22 listov písaných v hexametroch (20 prvá kniha a 2 dlhé listy druhá kniha). Témy i adresáti listov sa rôznia, opäť sa prejavuje Horatiova snaha dosiahnuť rôznorodosť (variatio), jedno z kritérií neóterickej poézie. K Listom býva niekedy pripájaný ešte jeden list, Ad Pisones (Pisonom), ktorý je známejší ako „Ars poetica“ (O básnickom umení). Pravdepodobne bol napísaný roku 13 pred Kr. Ide o literárno-teoretické dielo pojednávajúce o básnictve, jeden zo základných prameňov teórie rímskej poézie. Referencie[upraviť | upraviť kód] ↑ KUŤÁKOVÁ, Eva; VIDMANOVÁ, Anežka. Slovník latinských spisovatelů. 1. vyd. Praha : Odeon, 1984. (po česky) Literatúra[upraviť | upraviť kód] CONTE, Gian Biagio. Dějiny římské literatury. Preklad Dagmar Bartoňková et al. Vyd. 1. Praha : KLP, 2003. 790 s. ISBN 80-85917-87-4. HORATIUS: Ódy a Epódy. Prel. I. Šafár. Bratislava: Slovenské vydavateľstvo krásnej literatúry 1965. Iné projekty[upraviť | upraviť kód] Wikicitáty Commons Wikicitáty ponúkajú citáty od alebo o Horatius Commons ponúka multimediálne súbory na tému Horatius Externé odkazy[upraviť | upraviť kód] Horatiovo dielo (latinsky) FILIT – zdroj, z ktorého pôvodne čerpal tento článok. Zdroj: „https://sk.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horatius&oldid=6775879“ Kategórie: Narodenia v 65 pred Kr. Úmrtia v 8 pred Kr. 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sl-wikipedia-org-9268	----	Horacij - Wikipedija, prosta enciklopedija Horacij Iz Wikipedije, proste enciklopedije Jump to navigation Jump to search Horacij Rojstvo 8. december 65 pr. n. št.[1][2][3] Venosa[d][2][3] Smrt 27. november 8 pr. n. št.[1][2] (56 let) Rim Državljanstvo Starorimska civilizacija Poklic pesnik, pisatelj, filozof Kvint Horacij Flak, bolje znan kot Horácij ali Horác (latinsko: Quintus Horatius Flaccus), rimski pesnik, * 8. december 65 pr. n. št., † 27. november 8 pr. n. št. Vsebina 1 Življenjepis 2 Snov in slog 2.1 Odnos z grško književnostjo 2.2 Odnos z Avgustom in Mecenom 3 Dela 3.1 Epode (Jambi) 3.2 Satire (Sermones) 3.2.1 Prva knjiga satir 3.2.2 Druga knjiga satir 3.2.3 Snov in slog v Satirah in Epodah 3.3 Ode (Carmina - Pesmi) 3.3.1 Prva knjiga Pesmi 3.3.2 Druga knjiga Pesmi 3.3.3 Tretja knjiga Pesmi 3.3.4 Četrta knjiga Pesmi 3.3.5 Snov in slog v Horacijevih Pesmih (Carmina) 3.4 Pisma (Epistulae) 4 Glej tudi 5 Viri 5.1 Življenjepis 5.2 Dela, slog, jezik 5.3 Za Satire 5.4 Za Ode in Epode 6 Sklici 7 Zunanje povezave Življenjepis[uredi | uredi kodo] Quintus Horatius Flaccus, bolje znan kot Horacij, je bil latinski pesnik v Avgustovi dobi. Rodil se je v Venosi (v današnji Bazilikati) leta 65. pr. n. št. Šolal se je v Rimu, kjer je imel kot prvega učitelja Orbilija. Pri 20. letih se je preselil v Atene, kjer se je učil retoriko. V Atenah se je pridružil mladim rimskim študentom, skupaj z njimi je zagovarjal republikanske ideje in se izrazil proti Cezarju. Po Cezarjevem umoru je zaradi svojega blagostanja postal vojaški tribun. Vodil je del Brutove vojske skupaj s senatorjem Gajem Kasijem Longinom proti Oktavijanu in Marku Antoniju. Po porazu pri Filipih, leta 42. pr. n. št., je bila njegova vojaška kariera končana. Lotil se je ponižnega dela – postal je scriba quaestorius, kvestorjev pisec in pomočnik, nižji uradnik. Takrat je napisal Epode. Po srečanju z Vergilijem, ga je ta vpeljal v Mecenov krožek leta 38. pr. n. št.. Z Mecenom je nato postal velik prijatelj in od njega je prejel posest (villa) v Sabinskih gorah, na katero se je vračal do konca svojih dni. Horac je postal neke vrste dvorni pesnik in je svojo hvaležnost Mecenu in cesarju Avgustu izkazoval s tem, da ju je omenjal in slavil v svojih pesmih. V starejših letih se je izogibal razgibanega življenja v Rimu. V skladu s svojo filozofijo o zmernem uživanju življenja (epikurejstvo) se je rajši zadrževal na podeželskem posestvu. Umrl je v Rimu leta 8 pr. n. št., pokopali so ga na Eskvilinu. Snov in slog[uredi | uredi kodo] Bil je pesimističen avtor, ki je postavljal v središče pozornosti pesnika. Pisal je o družbi s svojega vidika in jo kritiziral z namenom, da bi pokazal pravilno pot politikom, literatom in bralcem nasploh. Veliko pozornost je namenil tradicionalni moralnosti, omiki in vzgoji odraslih. Prav Avgust želi uvesti to moralnost, ki daje pomoč državi, ko je v krizi: morala je v tem primeru družbeno vezivo. Horacijeva morala temelji na vzgoji in tradicionalni zdravi pameti, poleg tega jo je pesnik dogradil s predelanimi vsebinami helenističnih filozofij, ki so do njega prišle tudi preko izročila poljudne filozofske književnosti. V njegovih delih večkrat nastopa melanholija. Imel je poseben pogled na onstranstvo in iskal je načinov, kako se izogibati misli na smrt. O tem je tudi pisal v svojih Odah. Horacij se je v glavnem spraševal o eksistencialnih tematikah, na katere ni nikoli našel odgovora. V iskanju osebne sreče je skušal najti srednjo pot med filozofijama, ki se medsebojno izključujeta: epikurejstvo in stoicizem. Epikurejstvo zagovarja zmerno uživanje vsakega trenutka: posameznik se tu znebi trpljenja s tem, da uživa. Sreče ne dobi v politiki, a v otiumu. Po mnenju stoikov pa srečo doživiš, če se držiš stroge morale, če si dober državljan, upoštevaš mos maiorum in skrbiš za posmrtno življenje. Odnos z grško književnostjo[uredi | uredi kodo] Horacijeve lirike ne moremo doumeti, če ne upoštevamo odnosa z grško tradicijo. Osrednjo vlogo v Horacijevi liriki imata razmišljanje in filozofska kultura. Pri njem ne gre več za pravo moralno iskanje, ki temelji na kritičnem opazovanju drugih, temveč za iskanje notranje sreče, ki je bilo med glavnimi vprašanji helenističnih filozofij. Horacijevo iskanje domišljavosti, zlasti v pesmih domoljubne vsebine dokazuje, da navdih za njegovo liriko izhaja iz Pindarja: od njega Horacij črpa pomembne ideje, kot so zavest o visoki vlogi poezije, prepričanje, da lahko pesnik podeli nesmrtnost, pozitivno vrednotenje etične modrosti. Poleg tega Horacij piše svoje lirične pesmi za branje in zato večkrat opisuje izmišljene ali vsaj močno stilizirane situacije ter teži k veliki prefinjenosti in literarni rafiniranosti. Poleg Pindarja so za Horacija vir navdiha grški pesniki Alkaj, Sapfo in Arhiloh. Prisvoji si tudi njihov simbol – eolsko kitaro. Odnos z Avgustom in Mecenom[uredi | uredi kodo] Drugi pol Horacijeve lirike, domoljubno in nacionalno angažirana poezija, slavi osebnosti, dogodke in mite Augustovega režima. V marsičem se oddaljuje od osebnih tem, čeprav ves Horacijev osebni svet vedno dobi splošno veljavnost in izraža splošni človeški položaj. V tem se pomenljivo razlikuje od neoterične lirike. Nastanek domoljubnih lirik je zagotovo povezan s pripadnostjo Mecenovemu „krožku“. Domoljubna Horacijeva lirika pozna slavljenje Rima in Avgusta, hvaležnost za končno pridobljeni mir, uradni ton, vendar ni samo propaganda v verzih. Horacij, pesnik skupnosti, večkrat namreč spregovori o negotovosti, bojazni, malodušnosti in tudi nepričakovanem osvobajujočem navdušenju: o čustvih in gobokih željah sočasne družbe. Dela[uredi | uredi kodo] Epode (Jambi)[uredi | uredi kodo] Epode je Horacijevo delo, sestavljeno iz sedemnajstih pesmi. Nastalo je okoli leta 42-41 pr.n.š., obljavljeno pa leta 31 pr.n.š. To je mladostniško delo, saj je v primerjavi z ostalimi deli manj uglajeno ter je Horacij v pisanju bolj strasten in agresiven. Epode so izraz njegovega notranjega nemira. Na začetku Horacij imenuje to delo Jambi, ker so pesmi sestavljene iz jambskih verzov in jambskih elementov. Le kasneje je bilo delo poimenovano Epode, ker sledi daljšemu ali krajšemu verzu pripeva. Jamb je sestavljen iz dveh verzov, od katerih je prvi daljši, drugi pa krajši. To daje živahnejši ritem pesmi. V Grčiji so epode spremljali s posebnim glasbenim inštrumentom na strune ali s piščaljo. Horacij se v tem delu zgleduje po grškem pesniku Arhilohu. V primerjavi z Grki, ki so v epodah dovolili osebne napade, Rimljani tega niso. Horacij v Epodah obravnava in kritizira obnašanja, ki so tipična za ljudi, za družbene kategorije in za literarne zvrsti. To delo Horaciju prisluži vstop v Mecenov krožek. Samo v deseti pesmi direktno napada osebo, to je Mevija, kateremu želi smrt v brodolomu. Kljub temu se domneva, da je Horac uporabljal Mevija zato, da bi kritiziral različne družbene kategorije, posebno pa pesnike nizkega nivoja. Ob priložnosti objave Horacij posveti epode prijatelju in pokrovitelju Mecenu. Satire (Sermones)[uredi | uredi kodo] Horacij je napisal 18 satiričnih pesmi, ki so razdeljene v dve knjigi. Prva knjiga jih vsebuje 10, druga pa le 8. Prvo je izdal leta 35. pr.n.š., drugo pa 30. pr.n.š. Pesmi so napisane v heksametru. Horacij obravnava številne teme: od človeškega nezadovoljstva do prešuštva. Horacij je za to delo našel navdiha v Lucilijevih satirah. Čeprav so nekatere pesmi (2, 7 in 8) izrazitega napadalnega značaja, je večina teh zapisana na nov način in v tem se približuje načinu pisanja Pisem. Satire so v primerjavi z Epodami bolj individualne in postanejo prikaz pesnikovega življenja in okolja. Za satire je značilna pogovorna in vsakodnevna uporaba jezika. Zaradi tega je Horacij dal delu naslov Sermones (pomenki, pogovori). Zbirka vsebuje številne pripombe, zagovore, pregovore in moralne misli iz ljudskega izročila. Zelo pomembno vlogo v Satirah ima ton. Ta je razvezan od vsebine (ko je vsebina skromna ali iz vsakodnevnega življenja, je ton lahko visok in obratno). Ton je v delu izredno raznolik: od visokega do nizkega ali od resnega do ironičnega. Horacijevo geslo je ridendo dicere verum (v smehu povedati resnico). Njegova naloga je preko smeha izobraziti in vzgojiti bralca. Teme lahko v glavnem zberemo v tri kategorije: filozofska, književnostna in osebna. Pesnik si je preko novih spoznanj prizadeval priti do etične zavesti in meni, da idealno življenjsko pot najdemo v modrosti in razumevanju. Iz tega izhajajo znana Horacijeva splošna načela, kot so na primer srednja pot ali zadovoljstvo z malim. Prva knjiga satir[uredi | uredi kodo] Prva pesem - Horacij je prvo pesem napisal leta 38. pr.n.š. in jo posvetil Mecenatu. V njej razpravlja o človeškem nezadovoljstvu. Nihče ni zadovoljen z lastno usodo in zaradi tega zavida bližnjemu. Pesnik meni, da je človek srečen le, ko ne razsiplje bogastva in obenem ni skopuh. Druga pesem - V tej pesmi Horac je napadalen, podobno kot v Epodah. Satira deluje kot kritika nesposobnosti in nenaravnosti, a v največji meri prešuštva. Tretja pesem - Horacij se navdihuje po epikurejskih nazorih; je satira prizanesljivosti. Pesnik meni, da če posameznik hoče, da bodo drugi do njega dobrohotni, more tudi on biti dobrohoten do drugih. Poleg tega izpostavlja misel, da ne vsi ljudje imajo isto stopnjo odgovornosti, kar nasprotuje stoičnemu mišljenju. Četrta pesem - Četrta pesem vsebuje literarne teme. Horacij se sprva brani pred napadi nasprotnikov. Poleg tega trdi, da ne posnema Lucilija, saj je ta rimski pesnik pisal preveč, tudi ko to je bilo nepotrebno. Horacij tega noče storiti in izrazi, da bo pisal samo, da bo zadovoljil ožjemu krogu prijateljev. Peta pesem - Horacij napiše potopis iz Rima v Brundizij in pri tem se navdihuje po Luciliju. Pesem je lahkotnega značaja, saj Horacij vključi prijetne dogodke. Šesta pesem - Horacij posveti šesti spev prijatelju Mecenu in mu je hvaležen, saj si on izbira prijatelje ne glede na naziv in stan, temveč po duhu in zaslužnosti. Sedma pesem- Sedma pesem je tista, ki je bila zapisana kot prva in deluje kot smešen popis prepira med Rutilijem Regom in Persijem. Osma pesem - V osmi pesmi Horacij obnavlja zgodbo boga Priapa, ki naj bi čuval Mecenove vrtove. Deveta pesem - Horacij pripoveduje zgodbo, ko ga je nekdo sitno spraševal za priporočilno pismo za Mecena. Deseta pesem - Deseta satira je po vsebini zelo podobna četrti: v obeh Horacij razpravlja o rimskem pesniku Luciliju. Druga knjiga satir[uredi | uredi kodo] Prva pesem - Prva pesem iz druge knjige se navezuje na literarne tematike iz četrte in desete satire iz prve knjige. Druga pesem - Horacij se v tej pesmi povezuje na temo, ki jo je že razvil v prvi in drugi pesmi prve knjige: srednja pot in o tem, da bi človek moral živeti po tem načelu. Tretja pesem – Horacij v zelo dolgi pesmi prikaže razgovor med samim pesnikom in filozofom Damazipom. Četrta pesem – Pesnik navaja kuhinjske recepte, katere mu jih je izročil kuhinjski mojster. Peta pesem – Peta pesem obravnava zelo razširjen pesniški argument iz tistega obdobja: lov na oporoke. Šesta pesem – Navezuje se na šesto pesem iz prve knjige, saj spet se zahvaljuje prijatelju Mecenu. Sedma pesem – V tej satiri nastopa stoični nauk. Osma pesem – opisuje dogodek, ko je Horacij srečal komediografa Fundanija in opisuje obilno kosilo. Snov in slog v Satirah in Epodah[uredi | uredi kodo] Satira je književna zvrst, ki se bliža prozi in se od nje razlikuje samo po metriki. Slog satir je lahko sad lahkotne improvizacije. V primerjavi z Lucilijem, Horacij izraža potrebo, ki dokazuje jasno programsko usmerjenost. Pesnik hoče doseči discipliniran in preprost jezik. Z razliko od Lucijevega sloga, Horacij skuša doseči močne učinke z maloštevilnimi izraznimi sredstvi. Od satire zahteva težko dosegljiv standard izražanja, zahteva koncentracijo in prilagodljivost. K temu lahko dodamo ponavljanja, svobodno stavčno gradnjo in sklope vrinjenih stavkov. Horacij poudarja dialog. Ta namreč pritegne sogovornike, prehiti ugovore, uvede dramske prizore, zglede iz mitologije ali zgodovine, parodije, anekdote in besedne igre. Satire in Epode je pisal istočasno in zdi se, da je slednjim namenil tisto raznolikost tem, tonov in slogovnih ravni, ki jih je rimska tradicija prej dodeljevala satiri. Jasno zaokroženo skupino sestavljajo na primer »erotične« epode, ljubezenske pesmi, ki obravnavajo motive in situacije helenistične ljubezenske lirike ter prevzemajo tudi njen jezik in patetično intonacijo. Tudi na izrazni ravni je lahko Horacijeva jambska poezija sprejela bolj zadržano izrazje, čeprav je za Epode še vedno značilen napet in pomensko nabit jezik, ki se včasih zadržuje pri najbolj surovih in občasno ostudnih vidikih realnosti. Ob pesnikovem pretiravanju zaslutimo tudi emotivno zadržanost. Giacomo Di Chirico (1844-1883), Quinto Orazio Flacco Ode (Carmina - Pesmi)[uredi | uredi kodo] Horac je poleg epod in pisem pisal tudi ode ali Carmina, te so se delile v štiri knjige. Prve tri knjige so bile napisane leta 23 pr.n.š.. Prva kniga obsega 38 pesmi, druga 20 in tretja 30. Četrta knjiga, ki vsebuje 15 pesmi, je bila objavljena leta 13 pr.n.š. Ode so nastale po Kleopatrini smrti in koncu državljanske vojne med Oktavijanom in Markom Antonijem. Po tem dogodku so Rimljani imeli občutek, da so vse vojne končale in Oktavjan, ki se je vrnil v Rim, je želel dati vtis kontinuitete s staro republiko. Zbirko pesmi imenujemo Ode, ker so nekatere pesmi naslovljene na Rimljane, Avgusta ali druge pomembne figure. Horac je pisal za družbo, ki je bila na strani Avgusta in svetovnega poslanstva rimskega imperija. Horacijeve teme so zelo raznovrstne. Prvi dve knjigi vsebujeta v glavnem ode s posvetilnimi temami, v zadnjih dveh knjigah pa Horac ugotavlja, kaj je uspel doseči. Poleg pesmi, ki govorijo o politiki, lahko najdemo tudi pivske pesmi. Zasledimo tudi krajše aleksandrijske motive, kot so na primer epigramatično kratka posvetila, vabila, pesmi ob odhodu prijatelja. Dobimo tudi ljubezenske zgodbe, pri katerih je značilno obvladovanje čustva. V njegovih pesmih najdemo tudi refleksije in razmišljanja. Pogosto dobimo misli o kratkosti življenja in o človeški nespametnosti. Slavil je poezijo kot stil življenja, ki te zaznamuje od množice. Pisal je o večnosti in nesmrtnosti poezije ter o želji o preprostejšem in bolj vedrem življenju. Metri, v katerih je pesnil, so zelo pestri in raznoliki. Pesmi ni spesnil za glasno branje v javnosti ali petje, ampak za tiho branje in občasno zbrano recitacijo. Prva knjiga Pesmi[uredi | uredi kodo] V prvi knjigi najdemo epikurejske misli; pesnik razmišlja o minljivosti življenja in večnosti smrti. Druga tema, ki je prisotna v prvi knjigi, je vabilo k izkoriščanju lepih trenutkov življenja, preden izginejo, ne da bi se spraševali o prihodnosti. Prisotna je tudi oda o Kleopatrini smrti (1,37). Zadnja pesem knjige je posvečena skromnosti pesnika. Druga knjiga Pesmi[uredi | uredi kodo] Druga knjiga poudarja stoične tematike in neizogibnost smrti. Stoične tematike so razvidne v deseti odi, v kateri je prisoten pojem aurea mediocritas (zlata sredina, srednja pot-prava pot). V 2,16 dobimo soprisotnost stoičnih in epikurejskih idej, v odah 2,3 in 2,14 pa tematiko smrti. Tretja knjiga Pesmi[uredi | uredi kodo] Tretjo knjigo zaznamuje močan poudarek na stoicizmu, katerega dobimo utrjenega v nekaterih verzih od 3,2, 3,16, 3,29 in še predvsem v trideseti pesmi. Četrta knjiga Pesmi[uredi | uredi kodo] Četrta knjiga je bila napisana ab urbe condita. V zadnji knjigi se Horacij loteva njemu najbolj pomembnih tem: hvala Oktavijana Avgusta, misel o trdnosti duha, o poeziji, ki podeli umetniku nesmrtnost, življenjsko zadovoljstvo. Snov in slog v Horacijevih Pesmih (Carmina)[uredi | uredi kodo] S formalnega vidika lahko povemo, da strukturalna zapletenost Horacijevih Od verjetno izhaja iz zborovske lirike, čeprav so Ode najbolj uporabljene metrične oblike podedovale po monodični liriki. Horacijevo navezovanje na grško arhaično liriko ima nedvomno značilnosti jasne programske izbire: pesnik se zavestno želi oddaljiti od aleksandrinstva neoterikov. Njegova lirika upošteva helenistične izkušnje: iz teh izhaja široka paleta motivov, podob, situacij, ki se nanašajo predvsem na ljubezen in ljubezenska razmerja, pa tudi na praznike in javne obrede, pojedine, pokrajine. Iz helenističnega sveta Horacij črpa osrednje elemente svoje kulture, ideologije in pesniške občutljivosti. Pomemben vpliv, čeprav ga večkrat zapostavljamo, je imela na Horacijevo liriko tudi proza: helenistične razprave o dobrem vladarju, slavilni spisi, priročniki o govorništvu. Stilna dovršenost je značilen znak zrele Horacijeve lirike: gre za prefinjenost. Horacij uporablja zelo preprosto besedišče. Preprostost in klenost narekujeta tudi izbiro pridevnikov, skromno uporabo glasovnih figur, previdnost pri metaforah in primerjavah. Skladnja je manj predvidljiva, a še vedno precej preprosta. Pesnik ljubi elipse, skladnjo, ki spominja na grščino, hiperbaton, enjambement. Primerno vzvišenost sloga doseže z nadzorovanim zmanjšanjem izraznih sredstev, s suho in uglajeno dikcijo, ki ne pozna preobilja. Ekspresivnost zagotavljata tudi metrična virtuoznost in umetnost besednega razporeda. V nekem smislu se Ode začenjajo, kjer se končujejo Satire. Osrednja misel je zavest o končnosti in kratkosti življenja, zato se moramo predati trenutni sreči. Spopadal se je z bojaznijo pred smrtjo, saj ta lahko doleti vsakogar v vsakem trenutku. Pomemben je nauk carpe diem, ki ga je izrazil v zadnjem verzu ode 1,11. Bil je prepričan, da je treba izkoristiti vsak trenutek, ki ga imamo na razpolago, saj je življenje kratkotrajno: od neprestanega toka časa je treba izluščiti in iztrgati/odtrgati (carpere) nekatere lepe trenutke. Ne smemo torej misliti, da je carpe diem banalno vabilo k uživanju. Pri Horaciju, kakor tudi pri Epikuru, je vabilo k zmernemu užitku tesno povezano z jasno zavestjo, da je sam užitek kratkotrajen, kot je kratkotrajno človeško življenje. Pisma (Epistulae)[uredi | uredi kodo] Pisma so zadnje Horacijevo delo ter eno izmed njegovih najizvirnejših del. Epistulae obsegajo dve knjigi. Prva knjiga vsebuje dvajset pisem, medtem ko druga knjiga tri, če ji prištevamo tudi Pismo o pesništvu (Ars poetica ali Epistŭla ad Pisōnes). Druga knjiga obravnava razvoj rimske literature in umetnosti. Prva knjiga je bila objavljena leta 20 pr. n. št. in je posvečena Mecenatu. Pisma so zrcalo Horaceve osebnosti in njegove volje, da bi izpolnil samega sebe. Pesniška epistula kot literarna zvrst pred Horacijem ni obstajala. Horacij jo ustvari ob koncu svojega življenja, bogatega s človeškimi in umetniškimi izkušnjami. V Pismih je izvirno to, da jih je odel v pesniško obliko, oz. heksametre. Zgledoval se je po Epikuru, saj se je v proznih pismih obračal na prijatelje in učence ter jim svetoval. Razvidno je, kako vzgaja samega sebe in poskuša voditi druge. Iz pisem je razvidno to, kako se Horacij suče v rimski najvišji družbi, kako se obrača na svojega sužnja, upravnika posestva, katero življenje je najboljše. Pisma so naslovljena na resnične osebe, oziroma na Horacijeve prijatelje. Zaradi tega je pomen v njih zaupnejši in bolj odkrit. V pismih Mecenu in Floru pesnik izjavlja, kaj mu pomenijo Pisma in njihova pesniška obdelava: v njih preiskuje etični smoter pesništva in umetnosti nasploh. Iz takšnega duhovnega razpoloženja Horacij napiše Ars poetĭca, ki je najbolj gosposki in učen izraz Horacijeve misli. V tem delu se pesnik odtujuje nazorom epikurejske šole, a se navdihuje ob aristotelskih estetskih načelih. Horacij je prepričan, da se mora umetniško delo oblikovati po nazoru pulchrum in decorum. Pisma ne kažejo samo Horacijeve zrele misli, a tudi visoko moralno smotrnost. Pesnik hoče oblikovati novo umetniško pojmovanje augustejske dobe, ki bo ostalo do modernih časov kot zakonik antičnih estetskih nazorov. Horacijeva Ars poetica še danes velja za najtrdnejši spomenik antične kritične misli. Glej tudi[uredi | uredi kodo] seznam rimskih pesnikov Viri[uredi | uredi kodo] Življenjepis[uredi | uredi kodo] http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/quinto-orazio-flacco Dela, slog, jezik[uredi | uredi kodo] E. Castorina, La poesia di Orazio, Roma 1965; A. La Penna, Orazio e la morale mondana, Firenze 1968; A. Sovre, Pismo o pesništvu(prevod), Ljubljana 1963; K. Gantar, Študij o Horaciju, Maribor 1993; G. B. Conte, Zgodovina latinske književnosti – od začetkov do padca rimskega cesarstva, Ljubljana 2010 Butkovič D.: Storia della letteratura latina, 1983 Gantar K.: Študije o Horaciju, Maribor 1993 Za Satire[uredi | uredi kodo] N. Terzaghi, Per la storia della satira, Torino 1932; Za Ode in Epode[uredi | uredi kodo] G. Pasquali, Orazio lirico, Firenze 1920; A. La Penna, Orazio e l'ideologia del principato, Torino 1963 Sklici[uredi | uredi kodo] ↑ 1,0 1,1 http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/quinto-orazio-flacco_(Enciclopedia-Italiana)/ ↑ 2,0 2,1 2,2 Любкер Ф. Horatii // Реальный словарь классических древностей по Любкеру — Sankt Peterburg.: Общество классической филологии и педагогики, 1885. — С. 641—643.d:Track:Q101490d:Track:Q45181613d:Track:Q24933120d:Track:Q30059240 ↑ 3,0 3,1 W. Y. S., J. G. Horace // Encyclopædia Britannica — 11 — NYC: 1911. — Vol. 13. — P. 687—691.d:Track:Q60d:Track:Q50841769d:Track:Q867541d:Track:Q18511751d:Track:Q2581148 Zunanje povezave[uredi | uredi kodo] Poglejte si besedo horacij v Wikislovarju, prostem slovarju. Wikinavedek vsebuje navedke o temi: Horacij Normativna kontrola WorldCat Identities VIAF: 100227522 LCCN: n79081354 ISNI: 0000 0001 2145 2178 GND: 118553569 SELIBR: 189659 SUDOC: 026659166 BNF: cb11886570b (data) BIBSYS: 90055203 ULAN: 500404135 MusicBrainz: af616f1f-6242-4802-a1bf-8d3f0647083c NLA: 35206138 NDL: 00540086 NKC: jn20000603003 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\000246 RLS: 000083136 BNE: XX891549 CiNii: DA00782980 CONOR.SI: 8323171 Vzpostavljeno iz »https://sl.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horacij&oldid=5414043« Kategorije: Rojeni leta 65 pr. n. št. Umrli leta 8 pr. n. št. Rimski pesniki Rimski filozofi Rimljani v 1. stoletju pr. n. št. Ljudje, po katerih so poimenovali asteroid Skrite kategorije: Brez lokalne slike, slika je v Wikipodatkih Članki z viri iz Wikipodatkov Članki s hCards 18 elementov normativne kontrole Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji VIAF Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji LCCN Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji ISNI Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji GND Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji SELIBR Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji SUDOC Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji BNF Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji BIBSYS Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji ULAN Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji MusicBrainz Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji NLA Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji NDL Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji NKC Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji SBN Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji BNE Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji CINII Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji CONOR.SI Navigacijski meni Osebna orodja Niste prijavljeni Pogovorna stran Prispevki Ustvari račun Prijava Imenski prostori Stran Pogovor Različice Pogled Preberi Uredi Uredi kodo Zgodovina Več Iskanje Navigacija Glavna stran Dobrodošli Izbrani članki Naključni članek Zadnje spremembe Občestvo Portal občestva Pod lipo Kontaktna stran Pomoč Denarni prispevki Orodja Kaj se povezuje sem Sorodne spremembe Posebne strani Trajna povezava Podatki o strani Navedba članka Predmet v Wikipodatki Tiskanje/izvoz Ustvari e-knjigo Prenesi kot PDF Različica za tisk V drugih projektih Wikimedijina zbirka Wikinavedek V drugih jezikih Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Uredi povezave Čas zadnje spremembe strani: 08:32, 22. december 2020. Besedilo se sme prosto uporabljati v skladu z dovoljenjem Creative Commons Priznanje avtorstva-Deljenje pod enakimi pogoji 3.0; uveljavljajo se lahko dodatni pogoji. Za podrobnosti glej Pogoje uporabe. Wikipedia® je tržna znamka neprofitne organizacije Wikimedia Foundation Inc. Politika zasebnosti O Wikipediji Zanikanja odgovornosti Mobilni pogled Razvijalci Statistics O piškotkih 
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sr-wikipedia-org-6504	----	Хорације — Википедија Хорације С Википедије, слободне енциклопедије Пређи на навигацију Пређи на претрагу Квинт Хорације Флак Хорације - имагинација Антона фон Вернера Датум рођења 8. децембар 65. п. н. е. Место рођења Веноза  Римска република Датум смрти 27. новембар 8. п. н. е. Место смрти Рим  Римско царство Квинт Хорације Флак (лат. Quintus Horatius Flaccus; 8. децембар 65. п. н. е. - 27. новембар 8. п. н. е.) је био највећи римски лирски песник током владавине Октавијана Августа. Садржај 1 Биографија 2 Дела 3 Референце 4 Спољашње везе Биографија[уреди | уреди извор] Хорације је рођен у децембру 65. п. н. е. у Венусији, Италија, умро је 27. новембра 8. п. н. е. у Риму. Његов отац је био роб који је стекао слободу пре Хорацијевог рођења. Могло би се претпоставити да је у ропство пао за време Помпеја, односно након Спартаковог устанка. Свог сина је одвео у једну од најпознатијих школа познатог Сабелијанца по имену Орбилус (који је по Хорацију био присталица телесног кажњавања). 46. п. н. е. Хорације посећује предавања на Атинској Академији где прве стихове почиње да пише на грчком.[1] Кад је Брут у Атини прикупљао војску против Октавијана и Антонија, заједно са синовима Цицерона и Катона, у њу ступа и Хорације. Међутим, у бици код Филипа, република је поражена. Када је проглашена амнестија за све оне који су се борили против Октавијана, Хорације се вратио у Италију, само да би сазнао да му је отац умро, а имање конфисковано, чиме је Хорације запао у сиромаштво. Ипак, успео је да се запосли као писар у уреду квестора, што му је омогућило да вежба своје поетске способности. 38. п. н. е. је доведен код Мецене, ученог човека из Етрурије из централне Италије, који је био главни политички саветник Августа. Мецена је Хорација увео у песнички књижевни круг, а уз то му поклонио и луксузну вилу. Дела[уреди | уреди извор] Овај чланак је недовршен. Можете помоћи да се унапреди или покренути расправу о томе на страници за разговор. Референце[уреди | уреди извор] ^ „Хорације - Изреке и цитати”. Едукација.  Спољашње везе[уреди | уреди извор] Портал Биографија Више информација о чланкуХорацијепронађите на Википедијиним сестринским пројектима: Медији на Остави Цитати на Викицитату Подаци на Википодацима Espace Horace Хорацијеви радови у Латинској библиотеци Одабране Хорацијеве поеме Пројекат Персеј, грчки и латински аутори (са преводима), укључујући и Хорација Биографија Litweb Хорацијеве оде (преводи и ноте за одабране оде) Нормативна контрола WorldCat VIAF: 100227522 LCCN: n79081354 ISNI: 0000 0001 2145 2178 GND: 118553569 SELIBR: 189659 SUDOC: 026659166 BNF: cb11886570b (подаци) BIBSYS: 90055203 ULAN: 500404135 MusicBrainz: af616f1f-6242-4802-a1bf-8d3f0647083c NLA: 35206138 NDL: 00540086 NKC: jn20000603003 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\000246 RLS: 000083136 BNE: XX891549 CiNii: DA00782980 IATH: w6pk0m9c CONOR: 8323171 NSK: 000013522 Преузето из „https://sr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Хорације&oldid=23178463” Категорије: Рођени 65. п. н. е. Умрли 8. п. н. е. Римско царство Римски писци Римски песници Сакривене категорије: Articles with hCards Чланци који садрже текст на језику — латински Чланци које треба проширити НК са 20 елемената Википедијски чланци са VIAF идентификаторима Википедијски чланци са LCCN идентификаторима Википедијски чланци са ISNI идентификаторима Википедијски чланци са GND идентификаторима Википедијски чланци са SELIBR идентификаторима Википедијски чланци са BNF идентификаторима Википедијски чланци са BIBSYS идентификаторима Википедијски чланци са ULAN идентификаторима Википедијски чланци са MusicBrainz идентификаторима Википедијски чланци са NLA идентификаторима Википедијски чланци са SBN идентификаторима Википедијски чланци са SNAC-ID идентификаторима Википедијски чланци са CONOR.SI идентификаторима Википедијски чланци са NSK идентификаторима Мени за навигацију Личне алатке Нисте пријављени Разговор Доприноси Отвори налог Пријави ме Именски простори Чланак Разговор Ћир./lat. Ћир./lat. 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stq-wikipedia-org-6171	----	Quintus Horatius Flaccus – Wikipedia Quintus Horatius Flaccus Uut Wikipedia Zur Navigation springen Zur Suche springen Saturae, 1577 Quintus Horatius Flaccus (ap düütsk kuut Horaz, in Seelter Skrieuwwiese Horaats; 8. Dezember 65 f. Kr. in Venusia; † 27. November 8 f. Kr.) waas aan roomsken Skrieuwer, die in sien latienske Skriften deelwiese een fon dän Epikureismus, man uk fon sien oain Toanken bestimde Philosophie beskrift. Man hie skreeuw uk flugge Dichtenge. Dissen Artikkel uur ju Literatuur is aan Stump. Hälp jädden deeran mee, dät tou ferbeeterjen. Fon "https://stq.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quintus_Horatius_Flaccus&oldid=114826" Kategorien: Stump-Literatuur Dichter Roomske Riek Skrieuwer Navigationsmenü Persöönelke Reewen Nit anmälded Diskussionssiede foar dissen IP Beiträge Benutzerkonto erstellen Anmelden Noomeruume Siede Diskussion Variante Anwiesengen Leese Beoarbaidje Quelltext bearbeiten Versionsgeskichte Weitere Säike (0) Navigation Haudsiede Wikipedia-Portoal Aktuälle Geböärnisse Lääste Annerengen Toufällige Siede Hälpe Spenden Reewen Links ap disse Siede Annerengen an ferlinkede Sieden Hoochleede Spezioalsieden Permanentlink Seiten­informationen Disse Siede zitierje Wikidata-Datenobjekt Drucken/­exportieren Kollektion As PDF deelleede Drukversion In anderen Projekten Wikimedia Commons Uur Sproaken Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Links bearbeiten Disse Siede wuude toulääst annerd uum 17:35, 13. November 2017. Die Text is unner ju Lizenz „Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike“ ferföigboar; Bedingengen uurhoop konnen anweendboar weese. Eenpeldhaide sunt in do Nutsengsbedingengen beschrieuwen. Ouroupstatistik Doatenskuts Uur Wikipedia Begriepskläärenge Mobile Ansicht Entwickler Statistiken Stellungnahme zu Cookies 
sv-wikipedia-org-5267	----	Horatius – Wikipedia Horatius Från Wikipedia Hoppa till navigering Hoppa till sök Horatius Horatius, egentligen Quintus Horatius Flaccus, född 8 december 65 f.Kr. i Venusia, död 27 november 8 f.Kr., var en romersk poet. Horatius var mannen som myntade begreppet Carpe Diem. "Libertino patre natus", det vill säga son till en frigiven slav, flyttade han som pojke till Rom, och fick studera tillsammans med söner från de rikaste adelsfamiljerna. Han hade vidare Gaius Cilnius Maecenas som beskyddare, och blev en av de mest kända diktarna i Rom under Augustus tid. Han skrev Epoderna, Epistlarna, Sermonerna, Odena, Carmen Seculare och Ars Poetica. Innehåll 1 Biografi 2 Textexempel 3 Citat 4 Fotnoter 5 Externa länkar Biografi[redigera | redigera wikitext] Liber I Ode XIV som väggdikt på Cleveringaplaats 1 i den holländska staden Leiden.[1] Som son till en relativt rik före detta slav växte Horatius upp i Venusia, en liten stad i Apulien. Fadern tycks ha varit verksam som skatteindrivare. Andra hävdar att han försörjde familjen som fiskhandlare. Fadern, som tidigt såg sonens begåvning, spenderade ansenligt mycket pengar på Horatius utbildning, tog honom först till Rom för hans primära utbildning och sedan till Aten för att låta honom studera grekiska och filosofi. Horatius tog aldrig sin fars uppoffringar för givna och hans kärlek till sin far är vida känd. Han undervisades av de bästa lärare, mest känd är Orbilius Pupillus från Beneventum, plagosus Orbilius, vilket säger lite om tidens pedagogiska metoder (plagosus, en som ger många slag, mycket stryk). Horatius ungdom präglas av den sociala oro som rådde i Rom i övergången mellan republik och kejsardöme. Brutus lärde Horatius känna i Aten, dåtidens förnämsta universitetsstad. Filosofi var huvudämnet, och Horatius en flitig sanningssökare, "inter silvas Academi quaerere verum". Brutus fick fly från Rom efter att Julius Caesar blivit mördad. Horatius gjorde en kort och misslyckad karriär som militär och fick efter allmän amnesti återvända till Rom. Hans fädernegård vid Venusia var konfiskerad, men han hankade sig fram i Rom som sekreterare. Det dröjde inte länge innan han uppmärksammades av Vergilius och Varius som introducerade honom för Maecenas. Därmed var hans lycka som skald gjord, ty Maecenas var dåtidens störste beskyddare av litteratur och vetenskap. Horatius fick plats i den inre litterära cirkel som Maecenas samlade kring sig i sitt palats på Esquilinen. Horatius dog den 27 november år 8 f.Kr. strax efter det att Maecenas gått ur tiden. Skalden hade då nått en position som gjort honom till en av de mest framstående personerna i Rom Om hans liv i övrigt vet vi ganska lite. Dock berättar han en del om sig själv i sin litterära produktion. Av Maecenas fick han en lantgård, en villa, i Sabinerbergen utanför Rom vid Tibur. Dit drog han sig tillbaka både då hettan i Rom blev för stark och då han ville koppla av från livet i etablissemanget. Horatius prisande av det enkla i kontrast mot den flärdfulla, komplicerade tillvaron i världens huvudstad gör att meningar som "carpe diem, nil admirari, beatus ille qui..." fortfarande appellerar till människors känsla för "livets" innersta väsen. Det Horatius skrivit kan man dela in i två grupper: Hans lyriska produktion med Oden och Epoder samt Carmen Saeculare. Satirerna, Epistlarna och Ars Poetica. Satirerna och Epoderna tillhör den tidigare delen av hans diktning. Textexempel[redigera | redigera wikitext] Dessa förföriska rader skickar Horatius till en mycket ung flicka: Ständigt flyr du för mig min Cloe, lik hindens kalv, som bland ensliga berg söker sin skygga mor, helt betagen av grundlös skräck för träden och vindens sus. Ty om endast en fläkt av ett törnesnårs lätta blad, om en grön ödla blott genomfar björnbärsbusken, så skälva hennes hjärta och hennes knän. Icke följer jag dig som ett Getuliens lejon eller en grym tiger i mordbegär. Lämna äntligt din moder; du är mogen för mannen nu. Citat[redigera | redigera wikitext] "Græcia capta ferum victorem cepit et artes intulit agresti Latio" - det övervunna Grekland övervann den vilde segraren och införde kulturen i det obildade Latium. (Ur epistel till Augustus). Detta ses som ett tydligt tecken på att romarna inte såg ner på grekerna efter att dessa år 146 hade erövrats av Rom. Fotnoter[redigera | redigera wikitext] ^ Uppgifter kring väggdikten Liber I Ode XIV i Leiden. Arkiverad 13 december 2011 hämtat från the Wayback Machine. muurgedichten.nl Externa länkar[redigera | redigera wikitext] Wikiquote har citat av eller om Horatius.Citat Horatius i Libris Horatius hos Litteraturbanken Auktoritetsdata • WorldCat • VIAF: 100227522 • LCCN: n79081354 • ISNI: 0000 0001 2145 2178 • GND: 118553569 • LIBRIS: fcrtvznz06j57nd • SUDOC: 026659166 • BNF: cb11886570b (data) • BIBSYS: 90055203 • ULAN: 500404135 • NLA: 35206138 • NDL: 00540086 • NKC: jn20000603003 • ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\000246 • RLS: 000083136 • BNE: XX891549 • CiNii: DA00782980 • CANTIC: a10101214 Hämtad från "https://sv.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horatius&oldid=47461022" Kategorier: Personer från Venosa Latinskspråkiga författare Romerska författare Födda 65 f.Kr. Avlidna 8 f.Kr. 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sw-wikipedia-org-2838	----	Horatius - Wikipedia, kamusi elezo huru Horatius Kutoka Wikipedia, kamusi elezo huru Jump to navigation Jump to search Sanamu ya Horasi mjini Verona, Italia. Quintus Horatius Flaccus (pia: Horasi; 8 Desemba 65 KK - 27 Novemba 8 KK) alikuwa mshairi mashuhuri wa Roma ya Kale. Alizaliwa kama mtoto wa mtumwa aliyepewa uhuru na bwana wake na kutajirika baadaye. Hivyo aliweza kumpa mwanawe elimu nzuri. Alisomea Roma na baadaye Ugiriki. Aliandika mengi kwa lugha ya Kilatini akasifiwa wakati wake na katika karne zilizofuata. Kati ya maneno yake yaliyorudiwa mara kwa mara ni: Sapere aude! - "Thubutu kujua" (yaani: Ujiamini kutumia akili!) Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori - "Ni tamu, tena inafaa, kufa kwa nchi yako." Carpe diem - "Shika siku" (yaani: Usipoteze fursa za kufurahia leo!) Viungo vya nje[hariri | hariri chanzo] Wikimedia Commons ina media kuhusu: Quintus Horatius Flaccus‎ Espace Horace The works of Horace at The Latin Library Selected Poems of Horace The Perseus Project -- Latin and Greek authors (with English translations), including Horace Biography and chronology Litweb Horace's works: text, concordances and frequency list Rudishwa kutoka "https://sw.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horatius&oldid=1008146" Jamii: Waliozaliwa 65 KK Waliofariki 8 KK Waandishi wa Roma ya Kale Urambazaji Vifaa binafsi Hujaingia Majadiliano ya IP hii Michango Unda akaunti Ingia Maeneo ya wiki Makala Majadiliano Vibadala Mitazamo Soma Hariri Hariri chanzo Fungua historia More Tafuta Urambazaji Mwanzo Jumuia Matukio ya hivi karibuni Mabadiliko ya karibuni Ukurasa wa bahati Msaada Michango Vifaa Viungo viungavyo ukurasa huu Mabadiliko husika Pakia faili Kurasa maalum Kiungo cha daima Maelezo ya ukurasa Taja ukurasa huu Wikidata item Chapa/peleka nje Tunga kitabu Pakua kama PDF Ukurasa wa kuchapika Miradi mingine Wikimedia Commons Lugha zingine Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Hariri viungo Ukurasa huu umebadilishwa kwa mara ya mwisho tarehe 9 Agosti 2017, saa 13:05. Maandishi yanapatikana chini ya leseni ya Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; matakwa mengine yanaweza kutakiwa. Tazama maelezo zaidi ya Matakwa ya Utumiaji. Sera ya faragha Kuhusu Wikipedia Kanusho Mtazamo wa rununu Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
ta-wikipedia-org-1732	----	ஓராசு - தமிழ் விக்கிப்பீடியா ஓராசு கட்டற்ற கலைக்களஞ்சியமான விக்கிப்பீடியாவில் இருந்து. Jump to navigation Jump to search இந்தக் கட்டுரையில் மேற்கோள்கள் அல்லது உசாத்துணைகள் எதுவும் இல்லை. நடுநிலையான மேற்கோள்கள் அல்லது உசாத்துணைகளைக் கொடுத்து இந்தக் கட்டுரையை மேம்படுத்த நீங்களும் உதவலாம். உசாத்துணைகள் இல்லாத கட்டுரைகள் விக்கிப்பீடியாவிலிருந்து நீக்கப்படலாம். (மே 2019) ஓராசு ஹோராஸ், ஆன்டன் வொன் வேர்னர் கற்பனையில் வரைந்த படம் பிறப்பு 8 திசம்பர் 65 BC வேநோசா இறப்பு 27 நவம்பர் 8 BC (அகவை Expression error: Unexpected < operator.) உரோம் கல்லறை உரோம் பணி கவிஞர், எழுத்தாளர், மெய்யியலாளர் குறிப்பிடத்தக்க பணிகள் Ars Poetica [விக்கித்தரவில் திருத்து] ஓராசு அல்லது ஓரேசு (Horace) என அறியப்படும் குயின்டசு ஓராசியசு ஃபிளேக்கசு (Quintus Horatius Flaccus - டிசம்பர் 8, கிமு 65 - நவம்பர் 27, கிமு 8) அகசுட்டசின் காலத்தில் வாழ்ந்த ஒரு முன்னணி இத்தாலியக் கவிஞர் ஆவார். இவர் அக்காலத்தில் வெனூசியா என அழைக்கப்பட்ட இன்றைய வெனோசாவில் பிறந்தார். இது ஆபுலியாவுக்கும், லூசானியாவுக்கும் இடையில் எல்லைப் பகுதியில் இருந்த ஒரு இடம் ஆகும். ஓராசின் தந்தை ஒரு விடுதலை பெற்ற அடிமை. எனினும் ஓராசு ஒரு விடுதலை பெற்ற மனிதனாகவே பிறந்தார். ஓராசின் தந்தை வெனூசியாவில் ஒரு சிறிய தோட்டம் வைத்திருந்தார். பின்னர் உரோமுக்குக் குடி பெயர்ந்த அவர் அங்கே ஏலவிற்பனை இடங்களில் ஒரு இடைத் தரகராக இருந்தார். இதனால் ஓராசின் தந்தையாரால் ஓராசின் படிப்புக்காகப் போதிய அளவு பணம் செலவு செய்ய முடிந்தது. தொடக்கக் கல்வியை உரோமில் பெற்ற ஓராசு, கிரேக்கமும், மெய்யியலும் கற்பதற்காக ஏதென்சுக்குச் சென்றார். "https://ta.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ஓராசு&oldid=2733740" இருந்து மீள்விக்கப்பட்டது பகுப்பு: இத்தாலியக் கவிஞர்கள் மறைக்கப்பட்ட பகுப்புகள்: மேற்கோள் எதுவுமே தரப்படாத பக்கங்கள் Articles with hCards விக்கித்தரவிலிருந்து முழுமையாக எழுதப்பட்ட தகவற்சட்டங்களைக் கொண்டக் கட்டுரைகள் தகவற்சட்டம் நபர் விக்கித்தரவு வார்ப்புருவைக் கொண்டக் கட்டுரைகள் வழிசெலுத்தல் பட்டி சொந்தப் பயன்பாட்டுக் கருவிகள் புகுபதிகை செய்யப்படவில்லை இந்த ஐபி க்கான பேச்சு பங்களிப்புக்கள் புதிய கணக்கை உருவாக்கு புகுபதிகை பெயர்வெளிகள் கட்டுரை உரையாடல் மாறிகள் பார்வைகள் படிக்கவும் தொகு வரலாற்றைக் காட்டவும் மேலும் தேடுக வழிசெலுத்தல் முதற் பக்கம் அண்மைய மாற்றங்கள் உதவி கோருக புதிய கட்டுரை எழுதுக தேர்ந்தெடுத்த கட்டுரைகள் ஏதாவது ஒரு கட்டுரை தமிழில் எழுத ஆலமரத்தடி Embassy சென்ற மாதப் புள்ளிவிவரம் Traffic stats உதவி உதவி ஆவணங்கள் Font help புதுப்பயனர் உதவி தமிழ் விக்கிமீடியத் திட்டங்கள் விக்சனரி விக்கிசெய்திகள் விக்கிமூலம் விக்கிநூல்கள் விக்கிமேற்கோள் பொதுவகம் விக்கித்தரவு பிற விக்கிப்பீடியர் வலைவாசல் நன்கொடைகள் நடப்பு நிகழ்வுகள் கருவிப் பெட்டி இப்பக்கத்தை இணைத்தவை தொடர்பான மாற்றங்கள் கோப்பைப் பதிவேற்று சிறப்புப் பக்கங்கள் நிலையான இணைப்பு இப்பக்கத்தின் தகவல் இக்கட்டுரையை மேற்கோள் காட்டு குறுந்தொடுப்பு விக்கித்தரவுஉருப்படி அச்சு/ஏற்றுமதி ஒரு புத்தகம் உருவாக்கு PDF என தகவலிறக்கு ஏற்றுக்கொள்ளப்பட்ட பதிப்பு பிற திட்டங்களில் விக்கிமீடியா பொதுவகம் மற்ற மொழிகளில் Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 இணைப்புக்களைத் தொகு இப்பக்கத்தைக் கடைசியாக 16 மே 2019, 10:43 மணிக்குத் திருத்தினோம். அனைத்துப் பக்கங்களும் படைப்பாக்கப் பொதுமங்கள் அனுமதியுடன் பகிரப்பட்டுள்ளன; கூடுதலான கட்டுப்பாடுகளுக்கு உட்படலாம். தகவல் பாதுகாப்பு விக்கிப்பீடியா பற்றி பொறுப்புத் துறப்புகள் கைபேசிப் பார்வை உருவாக்குனர்கள் புள்ளிவிவரங்கள் நினைவி அறிக்கை 
tl-wikipedia-org-6052	----	Horacio - Wikipedia, ang malayang ensiklopedya Horacio Mula sa Wikipedia, ang malayang ensiklopedya Jump to navigation Jump to search Horace Kapanganakan 8 Disyembre 65 BCE Venosa (Lalawigan ng Potenza, Basilicata, Italya) Namatay 27 Nobyembre 8 BCE Roma (Roma Capitale, Kalakhang Lungsod ng Roma Capital, Lazio, Italya) Inilibing sa Roma Mamamayan Sinaunang Roma Trabaho manunula, manunulat, pilosopo Magulang unknown unknown Si Quinto Horacio Flaco (8 Disyembre 65 BCE – 27 Nobyembre 8 BCE), na mas nakikilala bilang Horace o Horacio lamang, at tinatawag ding Horacio o Quinto Horacio Flaco, ay ang nangungunang Romanong makatang liriko noong panahon ni Augustus. Itinuring ng mangreretorikong si Quintillian ang Odes ni Horace bilang halos ang tanging liriko o panitik na Latin na mahalagang basahin, na pinangatwiranan ang kanyang pagtaya sa pamamagitan ng mga pananalitang: "Maaari siyang maging matayog o mapagmataas kung minsan, ngunit siya ay puno rin ng karisma at kagaanang-loob, marami siyang nalalaman at nagagawa sa kanyang mga pigura, at may matinding kasiyahan sa kalakasan ng loob sa pagpili ng mga salita."[1] Si Horace ay gumawa rin ng mga eleganteng heksametrong mga berso (Sermones o "Mga Sermon" at Mga Liham) at mga eskandoloso at mapanira ng reputasyon ng ibang tao na iambikong panulaan (Epodes). Ang mga heksametro ay mapaglaro ngunit seryosong mga gawa, na nagbunsod sa sinaunang satiristang si Persius na magpuna ng ganito: "habang tumatawa ang kanyang kaibigan, patago at pataksil na itinuturo ni Horace ang kanyang daliri sa bawat isang kamalian niya; kapag pinapasok na, pinaglalaruan niya ang mga bagting ng puso (Chordae tendineae)".[2] Subalit ang ilan sa kanyang panulaang iambiko ay maaaring tila malupit na nakaririmarim sa modernong mga mambabasa o tagapakinig.[3] Ang kanyang karera sa larangan ng panulaan ay kapareho o tumutugon at tumutugma sa napakadakilang pagbabago ng Roma mula sa pagiging isang Republika hanggang sa pagiging isang Imperyo. Bilang isang opisyal sa hukbong republikano na nasaktan sa Labanan sa Philippi noong 42 BCE, kinaibigan siya ng kanang kamay na pangkapakanang sibil ni Octavian na si Maecenas, at naging isang parang tagapagsalita para sa bagong rehimen. Para sa ilang mga mamumuna, ang kanyang kaugnayan sa rehimen ay isang maselang paninimbang kung saan nakapagpanatili siya ng isang malakas na sukat ng kalayaan (siya ay "isang maestro ng matikas na paghakbang na pagilid")[4] ngunit para sa iba siya ay, sa parirala ni John Dryden, "isang alipin may mabuting pangingilos at asal".[5][6] Ang kanyang panulaan ay naging "ang pangkaraniwang pera ng kabihasnan", at nakapagpapanatili pa rin siya ng isang masugid na mga tagasunod, sa kabila ng ilang istigmatisasyon (nadungisan) pagkalipas ng Ikalawang Digmaang Pandaigdig (marahil dahil sa malawakang hindi pagtitiwala ng makalumang pagkamakabayan at luwalhating pang-imperyo, na ikinakilala sa kanya, patas o hindi man makatwiran).[7] Ang mga pag-aaral ukol kay Horace ay naging samu't sari at matindi sa loob ng kamakailang mga taon na hindi na marahil maaaring mangyari na mapangasiwaan ng sinumang dalubhasa ang isang buong saklaw ng mga argumento at mga paksa.[8] Mga sanggunian[baguhin | baguhin ang batayan] ↑ Quintilian 10.1.96. Ang tanging isa pang makatang lirikal na inisip ni Quintillian na maihahambing kay Horace ay ang ngayong hindi na tanyag na makata at teoristang metrikal na si Caesius Bassus (R. Tarrant, Ancient receptions of Horace, 280) ↑ Isinalinwika mula sa sariling 'Mga Satiro' 1.116–17 ni Persius: "omne vafer vitium ridenti Flaccus amico / tangit et admissus circum praecordia ludit." ↑ E. Fraenkel, Horace, 58 ↑ J. Michie, The Odes of Horace, 14 ↑ Siniping pagbanggit ni N. Rudd mula Discourse Concerning the Original and Progress of Satire ni John Dryden, sinipi mula sa edisyon ni W.P. Ker ng mga sanaysay ni Dryden, Oxford 1926, tomo 2, pp. 86–7 ↑ N. Rudd, The Satires of Horace and Persius, 10 ↑ V. Kiernan, Horace: Poetics and Politics, ix ↑ S. Harrison, The Cambridge Companion to Horace, 1 Kinuha mula sa "https://tl.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horacio&oldid=1818449" Mga kategorya: Ipinanganak noong 65 BCE Namatay noong 8 BCE Mga Romano Mga makata Nakatagong kategorya: Articles with hCards Menu ng paglilibot Mga pansariling kagamitan Hindi naka-login Usapan Mga inambag Lumikha ng account Mag-login Mga ngalan-espasyo Artikulo Usapan Mga baryante Mga tingin Basahin Baguhin Baguhin ang batayan Kasaysayan Karagdagan Hanapin Paglilibot Unang Pahina Mga nilalaman Napiling nilalaman Mga kaganapan Alinmang artikulo Pakikihalubilo Patungkol Pamayanan Kapihan Mga huling binago Magkaloob Makipag-ugnayan Tulong Mga kagamitan Mga nakaturo rito Kaugnay na mga pagbabago Mag-upload ng file Mga natatanging pahina Permanenteng kawing Impormasyon ng pahina Sumangguni Item na Wikidata Ilimbag/iluwas Lumikha ng isang aklat Ikargang-pakuha bilang PDF Bersiyong maililimbag Sa iba pang mga proyekto Wikimedia Commons Sa ibang wika Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Baguhin ang mga kawing Huling pagbabago: 04:54, 4 Disyembre 2020. 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tools-wmflabs-org-2247	----	BAZY BIBLIOTEKI NARODOWEJ Baza: Deskryptory BN Indeks: Unik._ident. Szukasz: A11793144            Dokument 1 LDR   b n c z d + e + f n g + h +4500 001   a 9810582428505606 008   a 050120n!!aznnnaabn++++++++++!a+aaa++++!+ 010   a p 2004408877 040   a WA N c WA N 100 0. a Horacy d (65-8 p.n.e.) 400 0. a Quintus Horatius Flaccus 400 1. a Horatius Flaccus, Quintus 400 0. a Horac 400 0. a Horaz 400 0. a Horace 400 1. a Horatius Flaccus, Q. 400 0. a Kwintus Horacjusz Flakkus 400 0. a Horatius 400 0. a Horacyusz 400 0. a Q. Horacyusz Flakk 667   a osobowe 667   a Rzymski poeta klasyczny epoki augustowskiej. 670   a PAnt. 670   a A garden of Roman verse. - Los Angeloe, 1998. b Współaut. 670   a Q. Horacyusza Flakka O sztuce rymotworczey [...] / przekładania Onufrego Korytynskiego. - W Warszawie, 1795. Program MAKWWW, wersja 1.47 z dnia 03.09.2012 (LINUX) Program opracowany przez: Właściciel programu: Biblioteka Narodowa Biblioteka Narodowa Zakład Technologii Informatycznych al. Niepodległości 213 02-086 Warszawa 
toutcoule-blogspot-com-717	----	tout coule: horace tout coule Showing posts with label horace. Show all posts Showing posts with label horace. Show all posts 23.2.11 Horatii Carmen 1.4 Winter is melting, its bitterness yielding to pleasing, breezy Springtime;       slow winches drag dry vessels onto water. And in the stables no longer rejoices a herd, nor ploughman by fire.       Fields aren’t gleaming white with morning hoarfrost. Now Cytherea is leading the choruses: Venus under bright moons       and Nymphs accompanied by seemly Graces thump Earth hard with rhythmical feet, as determined Vulcan goes back       to work in bright hot forges of the Cyclops. Now it is fitting to garland your shimmering head with verdant myrtle       or flowers, which Earth, as it thaws, produces. Now in the shadowy groves it is fitting to sacrifice to Faunus       an ewe, if called for, or a kid, if favored. Colorless Death kicks over the tables of beggars and the towers       of kings alike. O blessed Sestius, how  Life's brief span disallows us embarking on limitless endeavors!       Now night's upon you pressing, now the fabled Manes, and Pluto's diaphanous House, where as soon as you have entered,       you neither will cast lots to see who drinks first nor be able to marvel at slender Lycidas, who incites now       all youths, and whom soon virgins will be hot for. Posted by Tout Coule at 02:23 2 comments Email ThisBlogThis!Share to TwitterShare to FacebookShare to Pinterest Links to this post Labels: archilochian, death, horace, latin, lyric, metrical translation, ode, poetry, renewal, Spring 8.12.10 Horatii Carmen 3.13 for professor Raish O Bandusian fount, clearer than crystal glass, Meritorious of blossoms in sweet merlot, Take this kid on the morrow Whose head swells with an early horn That would meet, in a clash, goats but alas, revered, It will not; he will dye red hoary rivulets Run with blood from the sprouted Lineage of a playful flock. The unbearable slow hour of eternity Does not know how to touch you, who are proffering Swift, sweet cold to the vagrant Herd and plow-beaten cow as well. Your nobility I make, singing verse of the Hollows growing up oaks set in the empty stones Whence loquacious nymphs come Trickling down in a dance to you. Posted by Tout Coule at 12:28 0 comments Email ThisBlogThis!Share to TwitterShare to FacebookShare to Pinterest Links to this post Labels: asclepiadean, carmen 3.13, horace, latin, lyric, metrical translation, ode, poetry Home Subscribe to: Posts (Atom) one time... Hypnos Sweet dreams, delightful one. You are free to go wherever. Fancy takes you away. Tonight   you don't belong to conscious meadows... archives ▼  2016 (3) ▼  September (2) Horatii Carmen 1.5 You Cannot Trust Him If you don't love him ►  August (1) ►  2014 (1) ►  January (1) ►  2013 (1) ►  June (1) ►  2012 (1) ►  June (1) ►  2011 (23) ►  June (2) ►  May (2) ►  April (3) ►  March (4) ►  February (5) ►  January (7) ►  2010 (7) ►  December (7) qu'il fait beau! merci Arata I'm hit! © 2010-2016 tout coule. Picture Window theme. Powered by Blogger. 
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tr-wikipedia-org-7868	----	Horatius - Vikipedi Horatius Vikipedi, özgür ansiklopedi Gezinti kısmına atla Arama kısmına atla Horatius Anton von Werner tarafından Horatius Doğum 8 Aralık MÖ 65 Venusia, Lucania, Roma Cumhuriyeti Ölüm 27 Kasım MÖ 8 (56 yaşındaydı) Roma, Roma İmparatorluğu Meslek Asker, Şair Milliyet Roman Tür Lirik şiir Quintus Horatius Flaccus (8 Aralık MÖ 65 - 27 Kasım MÖ 8), Augustus döneminin en önemli Romalı şairiydi. Hayatı[değiştir | kaynağı değiştir] Horatius o dönemki ismiyle Venosa ya da Venusia isimli Apulia ve Lucania arasındaki küçük bir kasabada doğdu. Köleyken özgürlüğüne kavuşmuş bir adamın oğluydu, ama kendisi özgür doğmuştu. Babası açık arttırma işlerinde çalışıyordu, Horatius da babasını fakir ama onurlu bir çiftçi olarak anlatıyordu. Babası bütün parasını oğlu Horatius'un eğitimine harcamıştı ve ilköğretimini alması için onu Roma'ya gönderdi. Ardından Atina'ya Yunanca ve felsefe çalışması için yolladı. Şair, babasına olan saygısını şiirlerinde de gösterdi. Sezar'ın öldürülmesinden sonra Horatius orduya katıldı ve Brutus için Philippi Savaşı'nda savaştı. Brutus savaşı kaybetmişti, ve bu savaş sonrasında Horatius kalkanını bırakıp kaçtığını anlatmıştır. Augustus, kendisine karşı savaşanlara karşı genel af ilan ettikten sonra İtalya'ya geri döndü. Bu dönüşünde, babası tahminen ölmüştü ve sahip oldukları da başkalarının eline geçmişti. Horatius'un tanımına göre fakirliğe düşmüştü. Ancak eserleriyle göze girince, ülkenin hazinesi tarafından desteklenmiş ve şiir sanatını uygulamasına oldukça rahat koşullarda devam etmiştir. Horatius; Virgil ve Lucius Varius Rufus ile beraber çalışıyordu, ve Augustus'un arkadaşı Maecenas ile tanışmasına aracı oldular. Maecenas bundan sonra arkadaşı ve patronu oldu. Horatius'a Tibur'un Sabine tepelerinde bir arazi verdi. Ölmeden önce, bir akrabası olmayan Horatius; malvarlığını Maecenas ve İmparator Augustus'a imparatorluk içinde kullanılması için verdi. "Resim, kelimesiz bir şiirdir." sözü ona aittir. "Ölmek isteyeni kurtarmak, öldürmekle birdir." sözü de ona aittir. Vikipedi'nin kardeş projelerinden hakkında daha fazla bilgi edinin Commons'ta dosyalar Vikisöz'de alıntılar Bir şair biyografisi ile ilgili bu madde taslak seviyesindedir. Madde içeriğini genişleterek Vikipedi'ye katkı sağlayabilirsiniz. "https://tr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horatius&oldid=22258919" sayfasından alınmıştır Kategori: Şair taslakları MÖ 65 doğumlular MÖ 8 yılında ölenler MÖ 1. yüzyıl Romalıları MÖ 1. yüzyıl yazarları Antik Romalı askerî personel Roma dönemi şairleri Basilicata doğumlular Edebiyat tarihi Gizli kategori: Tüm taslak maddeler Gezinti menüsü Kişisel araçlar Oturum açık değil Mesaj Katkılar Hesap oluştur Oturum aç Ad alanları Madde Tartışma Türevler Görünüm Oku Değiştir Kaynağı değiştir Geçmişi gör Daha fazla Ara Gezinti Anasayfa Hakkımızda İçindekiler Rastgele madde Seçkin içerik Yakınımdakiler Katılım Bağış yapın Deneme tahtası İş birliği projesi Köy çeşmesi Son değişiklikler Topluluk portali Wikimedia dükkânı Yardım Araçlar Sayfaya bağlantılar İlgili değişiklikler Özel sayfalar Kalıcı bağlantı Sayfa bilgisi Bu sayfaya kaynak göster Vikiveri öğesi Yazdır/dışa aktar Bir kitap oluştur PDF olarak indir Basılmaya uygun görünüm Diğer projelerde Wikimedia Commons Vikisöz Diğer diller Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն İnterlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska İtaliano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Bağlantıları değiştir Bu sayfa son olarak 30 Nisan 2020 tarihinde ve 12.11 saatinde değiştirilmiştir. Metin Creative Commons Atıf-BenzerPaylaşım Lisansı altındadır; ek koşullar uygulanabilir. Bu siteyi kullanarak, Kullanım Şartlarını ve Gizlilik Politikasını kabul etmiş olursunuz. Vikipedi® (ve Wikipedia®) kâr amacı gütmeyen kuruluş olan Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. tescilli markasıdır. Gizlilik politikası Vikipedi hakkında Sorumluluk reddi Mobil görünüm Geliştiriciler İstatistikler Tanımlama bilgisi bildirgesi 
tt-wikipedia-org-88	----	Гораций — Wikipedia Гораций Wikipedia — ирекле энциклопедия проектыннан ([http://tt.wikipedia.org.ttcysuttlart1999.aylandirow.tmf.org.ru/wiki/Гораций latin yazuında]) Навигациягә күчү Эзләүгә күчү Гораций Туган телдә исем Quintus Horatius Flaccus Туган 8 декабрь БЭК 65 (-065-12-08) Венузия Үлгән 27 ноябрь БЭК 8 (-008-11-27) (56 яшь) Рим Күмү урыны Рим Ватандашлыгы Борынгы Рим Һөнәре шагыйрь  Гораций Викиҗыентыкта Квинт Гораций Флакк (лат. Quintus Horatius Flaccus; 8 декабрь, 65 ел (б. э. к.), Венузия — 27 ноябрь, 8 ел (б. э. к.), Рим) — Борынгы Рим шагыйре, «алтын гасыр»да иҗат итә. Азат ителгән кол гаиләсендә туган. Республикачыларга хәерхаһ булган. Ватандашлар сугышында (БЭК 42 ел) республикачылар җиңелүгә очрагачтын, империя белән килешүчәнлек юлына күчкән.  «Одалар», «Сатиралар», «Юлламалар» тупламлары белән теге дәвердәге шигъриятне яңа җанр һәм яңа шигъри үлчәүләр белән баеткан. Шулай ук карагыз[үзгәртү | вики-текстны үзгәртү] Шәхесләр порталы Викиөзек эчендә Гораций темасы буенча бит бар Бу мәкаләнең сыйфатын арттырыр өчен түбәндәгеләрне эшләргә кирәк?: Мәкаләне тулыландырырга (мәкалә бик кыска) Башка телле бүлектә тулырак мәкалә бар: Гораций (рус.)Сез тәрҗемә ярдәме белән бу мәкаләне язып бетереп проектка ярдәм итә аласыз. Чыганагы — https://tt.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Гораций&oldid=2155834 Төркемнәр: 8 декабрь көнне туганнар 65елда (БЭК) туганнар 27 ноябрь көнне вафатлар 8елда (БЭК) вафатлар Әлифба буенча шәхесләр Латин шагыйрьләре Борынгы Рим шагыйрьләре Яшерен төркемнәр: Билгесез параметрларны куллана торган битләр (Шәхес калыбы) HCardлы мәкаләләр No local image but image on Wikidata Википедия:Мәкалә төпчекләре Википедия:Рус теленнән тәрҗемә соралган Википедия:Тәрҗемә соралган Навигация Шәхси кораллар Сез хисап язмагызга кермәгәнсез Бәхәс Кертем Хисап язмасын төзү Керү Исемнәр киңлекләре Мәкалә Бәхәс Вариантлар Караулар Уку Үзгәртү Вики-текстны үзгәртү Тарихын карау Ещё Эзләү Навигация Баш бит Эчтәлек Исемлек Очраклы бит Хәзерге вакыйгалар Катнашу Җәмгыять үзәге Бәхәслек Соңгы үзгәрешләр Яңа битләр Белешмә Иганә итү Кораллар Бирегә нәрсә сылтый Бәйләнешле үзгәрешләр Махсус битләр Даими сылтама Бит турында мәгълүмат Бу биткә (чыганакка) җибәрү Викимәгълүмат элементы Бастыру/чыгару Китап булдыру PDF форматында күчереп алу Басма версия Башка проектларда Викиҗыентык Башка телләрдә Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Сылтамалар өстәү Бу бит соңгы тапкыр 24 мар 2017 көнендә 21:19 вакытында үзгәртелгән. Текст Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike лицензиясе буенча бирелә, аерым очракларда өстәмә шартлар булырга мөмкин. Өстәмә мәгълүматны Куллану шартларында карагыз. Яшеренлек сәясәте Wikipedia турында Җаваплылыктан баш тарту Мобиль юрама Ясаучылар Статистика Cookie турында белдерү 
uk-wikipedia-org-7650	----	Горацій — Вікіпедія Горацій Матеріал з Вікіпедії — вільної енциклопедії. 6 змін у цій версії очікують на перевірку. Стабільну версію було перевірено 12 вересня 2019. 6 змін у цій версії очікують на перевірку. Стабільну версію було перевірено 12 вересня 2019. Перейти до навігації Перейти до пошуку Горацій Horatius Ім'я при народженні Quintus Horatius Flaccus Народився 8 грудня 65 до н. е.(-065-12-08) Венузія, Римська республіка Помер 27 листопада 8 до н. е.(-008-11-27) (56 років) Рим Поховання Рим Країна Стародавній Рим Національність римлянин Діяльність поет Вчителі Cratippus of Pergamond[1] і Аріст з Аскалонуd Знання мов латина Жанр лірика Magnum opus Ars Poeticad Батько невідомо Мати невідомо Роботи у Вікіджерелах Висловлювання у Вікіцитатах  Медіафайли у Вікісховищі |Фото= Квінт Горацій Флакк (лат. Quintus Horatius Flaccus; 8 грудня 65 до н. е. — 27 листопада 8 до н. е.) — поет «золотого віку» римської літератури, разом з Вергілієм і Овідієм, один з найуславленіших авторів у всій світовій літературі. Зміст 1 Біографія 2 Творчість 2.1 Епóди Горація 2.2 Оди Горація 3 Твори 4 Стиль 5 Спадок 6 Відлуння в Україні 7 Див. також 8 Посилання 9 Примітки Біографія[ред. | ред. код] Горацій народився 8 грудня 65 р. до н. е. у Венузії (суч. Веноза) в області Апулія на півдні Італії. Батько, про якого сам поет згадував із захватом і преклонінням (про матір він не згадує), був вільновідпущеником. Ремеслом помічника розпорядника аукціонів він заробив на невеликий маєток. Бажаючи, щоб здібний юнак дістав гарну освіту, батько привіз Горація до Риму і довірив його виховання відомому граматику і наставнику Орбілію Пупіллу. Сам батько взяв на себе роль «педагога», тобто людини, яка супроводжує дитину до школи (зазвичай цей обов'язок покладався на раба). У 20 років Горацій вирушив до Афін, щоб завершити свою освіту. У 44 до н. е. Марк Юній Брут, один із заколотників, що вбили Цезаря, також прибув до Афін нібито для занять філософією, насправді ж — щоб завербувати серед молодих римлян, які навчалися у Греції, офіцерів своєї майбутньої армії. Коли Марк Антоній і Октавіан відкрили проти «визволителів» воєнні дії, Горацій встав на бік Брута. У 22 роки він одержав чин військового трибуна і супроводжував Брута в Малу Азію. Але переконаним республіканцем Горацій не був; після фатальної для Брута битви при Філіппах (42 до н. е.), він повернувся до Риму, де його маєток був вже конфіскований на користь демобілізованих ветеранів. По загальній амністії Горацію вдалося отримати посаду переписувача-скарбника. Вірші, написані Горацієм у цей час, привернули увагу Вергілія і Варія Руфа. Вони познайомили молоду людину з Меценатом, і в 38 до н. е. останній прийняв Горація в коло своїх друзів. Меценат був не тільки другом, а й заступником поетів. Він удостоївся вічної вдячності Горація, коли увів його до літературних і політичних кіл Риму, а в 33 до н. е. Горацій одержав від Мецената невелику садибу в Сабінських горах (поблизу суч. Тиволі), завдяки чому йому більше не треба було турбуватися про гроші. У цей період політика усе ще турбувала поета. Природно, він приєднався до партії свого заступника, хоча ніколи не зрікався стародавніх друзів-республіканців. Горацій став діяльним прихильником Октавіана Авґуста лише в результаті військового конфлікту між ним і його колишнім союзником Марком Антонієм, що завершився перемогою при Акції (31 до н. е.) і взяттям Олександрії (30 до н. е.). Після цих подій Горацій зробив чималий внесок у кампанію, що проводилася Авґустом, з політичного і морального відродження Риму, оскільки був вихідцем із середовища вільновідпущеників, — з тієї соціальної групи, що, збагачувалась від торгівлі і витісняла родову аристократію, стаючи надійною опорою нового режиму. Звернувшись до поезії в пору розчарування після поразки при Філіппах, Горацій обрав за зразок двох дотепних і уїдливих авторів: у грека Архілоха (бл. 675 до н. е. — бл. 635 до н. е.) він запозичив ямб, у італійця Луцилія (бл. 168 до н. е. — 102/103 до н. е.) — сатиру. Перша книга Сатир Горація (сам він називав їх Sermones, тобто Бесіди), що складалася з десяти віршів, написаних гекзаметром, вийшла бл. 35 до н. е. Після перемоги Октавіана Авґуста, бл. 30 до н. е., Горацій зібрав ще 8 сатир у другій книзі, приєднавши до неї 17 коротких ямбічних творів, названих Еподи. Після цього у творчості Горація відбувся рішучий поворот. Він відшукав розміри, що відповідають своєму нині позитивному умонастроєві, у еолійській ліричній (тобто для виконання під акомпанемент) поезії початку VI ст. до н. е., в Алкея й Сапфо, у них же він черпав і натхнення. Звертався він і до більш легковажної лірики Анакреонта, і до більш розумової й ученої елліністичної поезії. Горацій мистецьки пристосував ці розміри до латинської мови, з легкістю справжнього майстра використовував він і шляхетний алкеїв вірш, і витончену сапфічну строфу, і текучі асклепіади. У 23 до н. е. він випустив у світло Оди, 88 різноманітних по метриці, розміру (від 8 до 80 рядків) і інтонації віршів, ретельно розподілених по трьох книгах (лат. Carmina, тобто Пісні, Одами їх назвали вже після античності). У наступні шість років Горацій перестав складати ліричні (в античному значенні слова) вірші. У 20 до н. е. вийшла перша книга написаних гекзаметром Послань, куди ввійшли 20 листів переважно філософського змісту, строгіших за формою, ніж Сатири, але цілком індивідуальних і щирих. В ці роки Горацій у силу ряду причин значною мірою втрачає колишнє легкодумство. Він гостро відчуває, що молодість із усіма її відрадами його залишає. У 23 до н. е. Меценат не догодив Октавіану Авґусту і був відлучений з позиції найбільш наближеної до нього особи. У 19 до н. е. померли шанований Горацієм Вергілій, а також Тібулл. Однак у 17 до н. е. Авґуст доручає Горацію укладання гімну на честь великих Столітніх ігор. Це нарешті принесло Горацію широку популярність, і він повернувся до лірики. При створенні написаних у кілька наступних років 15 од, зібраних в IV книзі, Горацієм рухало відчуття того, що поезія здатна дарувати людині безсмертя. Тут ми знаходимо замилування імператором, а часом і лестощі. Такий саме натхненний, блискучій 1-і вірш з ІІ книги Послань, звернений до Октавіана Авґуста на пряме його прохання. У ньому обговорюється стан римської поезії, причому Горацій захищає сучасних йому авторів від нападок з боку прихильників старовини. Час написання знаменитого Послання до Пісонів (названого в пізній традиції Ars Poetica, тобто Поетичне мистецтво) не встановлений, як невідомо і те, коли саме Горацій відповів відмовою на пропозицію Октавіана Авґуста зайняти місце його особистого секретаря. Светоній розповідає, що на вигляд Горацій був невисокий і гладкий: таким він описується в його власних сатирах. У справах любовних, судячи з розповідей, був він непомірний, і кажуть, що зі своїми коханками він розташовувався в спальні, прибраній дзеркалами, з таким розрахунком, щоб скрізь, куди ні глянути, відбивалося б їхнє злягання. Жив він, головним чином, на самоті, у своєму сабінскому або тибуртинському маєтку. У 8 до н. е. Меценат помер, і Горацій пережив його лише на два місяці. Його поховали на Есквіліні поруч з Меценатом. Творчість[ред. | ред. код] Всі його твори, крім четвертої книги од і другої книги послань, присвячені Меценатові. «Сатири» і «Послання» написані гекзаметром, і Горацій назвав їх «бесідами»; інші твори написані складними ліричними розмірами. Епóди Горація[ред. | ред. код] Перші свої твори Горацій назвав епóдами («приспівами»), це двовірші, де другий рядок є коротшим за перший, немов би «приспівом» до нього. Написані вони під явним впливом елліна Архілоха, ямбами. Щоправда, Горацій відразу заявив, що його вірші схожі на Архілохові лише формою, а не змістом (за легендою, Архілох своїми ямбами довів до самогубства свого земляка Лікамба, який порушив свою обіцянку віддати свою доньку Ніобу за поета) «…Запозичив я дух Архілоха, / Ритми його, а не зміст, не слова, що Лікамба карали» Оди Горація[ред. | ред. код] Горацієві «Оди» вирізняються художньою довершеністю та тематичним розмаїттям. Однією з перлин римської поезії є ода «До Манлія Торквата», присвячена римському ораторові, товаришеві поета. І хто б його знав зараз, якби не рядки Горація. Своєю філософічністю, якимось елегійним смутком ця поезія виходить за межі дружнього послання і зливається з традицією елегії у світовій літературі. Зокрема, тут талановито реалізовано наявний у багатьох наступних творах світової літератури паралелізм у зображенні циклів природи і людського життя: Білі вже сніги. На луги повертається зелень, Знов кучерявиться гай. В красній обнові земля, і знову, спадаючи, води В'ються в своїх берегах…. …Зиму змагає весна, її ж переборює літо Й гине само, як лише Осінь розсипле плоди, за нею — на сон лиш багата — Вже пробігає зима. Тоншає місяця серп і знов ясніє уповні. Ми ж, коли канем туди, Звідки Еней не вернувсь, де Анк, де Тулл можновладний, — Порохом, тінню стаєм… Природа оновлюється, зимову «смерть» замінює весняне «воскресіння», але люди, померши, уже не відроджуються, стають «порохом, тінню». Далі поет висловлює думку, близьку до кредо епікурейців — «лови днину», «зривай день», «càrme diém»: «Рік, і година, та й мить, останок милої днини, / Радять: безсмертя не жди. / Хтозна, чи зводять боги до годин, що поминули, додати / Частку й наступного дня?…» У першій книзі «Од» Горацій вже вживав цей вислів: «àpre dièm, guàm minimùm crèdula postero» (користуйся днем, і найменше вір у майбутнє"). Адже «…Коли вмреш і коли над тобою в усім своїм блиску / Мінос вершитиме суд — / Ні красномовство, ні рід, ні побожність велика, Торквате, / Сонця не верне тобі…» Це філософічний вірш, у якому знайшла відображення не лише художня майстерність, а й високий інтелект Горація. Горацій пішов своїм шляхом у літературі, віддавши перевагу чіткому та вишуканому класичному стилю, спираючись — через голови своїх сучасників — на творчість давньогрецьких поетів: Архілоха, Алкея, Сапфо та ін. Показово, що, підбиваючи підсумок свого життя, Горацій особливо підкреслював як свою заслугу саме те, що дав друге життя еллінській ліриці латинською мовою. Твори[ред. | ред. код] (35 до н. е.) Sermonum liber primus або Сатири I (30 до н. е.) Epodes (Еподи) (30 до н. е.) Sermonum liber secundus або Сатири II (23 до н. е.) Carminum liber primus або Оди I (23 до н. е.) Carminum liber secundus або Оди II (23 до н. е.) Carminum liber tertius або Оди III (20 до н. е.) Epistularum liber primus (Послання) (18 до н. е.) Ars Poetica, Поетичне мистецтво або Послання до Пісонів (17 до н. е.) Carmen Saeculare або Пісня вікового свята (14 до н. е.) Epistularum liber secundus (Послання) (13 до н. е.) Carminum liber quartus або Оди IV (Дати приблизні) Стиль[ред. | ред. код] Сатири починалися з близького копіювання Луцілія. Навіть опис реальної поїздки Горація з Риму в Брундизій був підказаний віршем Луцілія про подорож по Сицилії. Як і той, Горацій майстерно відтворює невпорядкованість живого мовного потоку, непомітно переходить від одного предмета до іншого, украпляє подекуди мальовничі сценки й алюзії, а також обривки діалогу. До Горація поступово приходить усвідомлення того, що цінність і значення сатир Луцілія — у їхній автобіографічності. В ІІ книзі Сатир Горацій невимушено розвиває цю форму одночасно в двох напрямах: до автобіографічності своїх Послань і до викривальної патетики, що ми звикли зв'язувати насамперед з Ювеналом і з жанром сатири як таким. ІІ книга Послань складається з двох великих трактатів, яким надана відповідна форма: одне послання звернене до Октавіана Авґуста, інше — до Юлія Флора. Щодо більш великого (476 рядків) Поетичного мистецтва античний коментатор повідомляє, що в основі цього твору — трактат Неоптолема Пароського (III ст. до н. е.) Горацій — поет думки і разом з тим майстер сильного, стиснутого слова і чіткого, конкретного образу. Усі ці моменти присутні вже в ранній творчості, але поету не завжди вдається створити з них єдине художнє ціле, і образний бік виявляється нерідко лише ілюстрацією для відстороненого міркування. Більшої цілісності Горацій досягає у своїх пізніших творах. Навіть за деякими фрагментами Архілоха, що дійшли до нас, ми можемо зробити висновок, що у своїх Еподах Горацій запозичає в Архілоха якусь ідею, а потім розвиває її згідно зі своїм, як правило більш добродушним, умонастроєм. Також і в Одах він бере в Алкея або в іншого грецького поета ідею, а потім додає їй такий напрям, що жодним образом не міг з'явитися в оригіналі. Якщо казати про формальний бік, для цих ліричних творів характерна винахідлива продуманість аж до найменших деталей, метрична розмаїтість, дбайливість у словах, їхня благозвучність і дивне витончене розташування. Тут використане все краще, що дали латинській мові обороти Цицеронових промов. Майже усі вірші до когось звернені. Це явно на них позначається: по інтонації все це скоріше напучувальні або підбадьорливі, ніж чисто особисті твори. Багато з них написані з якоїсь нагоди (так, принаймні, у них стверджується). Для співу призначалися не всі оди. Є тут і величні патріотичні гімни (під впливом Піндара), насамперед перші шість в III книзі. Любов не викликає в поета глибоких почуттів, пристрасть виявляє себе тільки в Еподах. В Одах поет, що досяг зрілих років, перетворюється в байдужого глядача людської комедії, готового посміятися як над чужим, так і над своїм невіглаством. Є в Горація і чарівні вірші, присвячені сільському життю. Спадок[ред. | ред. код] У Римі Горація читали в школах, складали коментарі до його творів, йому наслідували. У III ст. Помпонієм Порфиріоном було складено дуже цінний та цікавий коментар до творів Горація. У Середні віки Горація шанували як мораліста, автора написаних гекзаметром сатир. Йому, «сатирику Горацію», Данте відводить місце в Лімбі слідом за Вергілієм і Гомером. Відродження по справжньому відкрило Горація. Петрарка (1347) придбав рукопис з його творами, і в деяких віршах у нього проявляється явний вплив Горація. Гуманісти вважали Горація цілком своїм, але його високо цінували і єзуїти, тому що вихолощений або християнізований Горацій міг давати позитивний моральний вплив на учнів. Намальована ним картина простого сільського життя була по душі людям подібної з ним долі, що дотримувались близьких смаків, якими були Петрарка, Ронсар, Монтень. Особливо високо цінувався досить умовний у вираженні почуттів 2-й епод. В Англії першим популяризатором Горація став Бен Джонсон, під безсумнівним впливом Горація виникали і деякі сонети Мілтона. Ці поети, а також літератори XVII ст. розуміли Горація краще, ніж більшість його шанувальників у XVIII ст., чиї поверхневі захвати скоріше зашкодили його репутації. У той же час ліричні розміри Горація використовувалися й у латинському віршуванні, особливо вдало це робив німецький гуманіст Конрад Цельтіс (1459—1508), що впровадив, крім того, звичай співати оди Горація в школі, що зробилося в XVI ст. загальнопоширеною практикою. Згодом Горація стали перекладати на нові європейські мови, найвдаліше на німецьку. Трактат «Мистецтво поезії» вплинув на літературну критику. Це з нього запозичалися класичні принципи, посиланнями на нього обґрунтовувалися намагання приборкати надмірності бароко. Однак рухам романтиків було не по дорозі зі співаком розсудливості, урівноваженості і помірності, і з того часу популярність Горація більше не піднімалася на колишню висоту. Відлуння в Україні[ред. | ред. код] Твори Горація були високо поціновані і в Україні. Трактат Горація «Послання до Пісонів» часто згадує ректор Києво-Могилянської академії Ф. Прокопович у праці «Про поетичне мистецтво», написаній «для юнацтва» в 1705 р. Повний переклад трактату Горація українською мовою «Про поетичне мистецтво» зробив А. Содомора. Особливі заслуги в справі популяризації поезій Горація в Україні має письменник-гуманіст Павло Русин із Кросна. Твори Горація вивчали у братських школах, Києво-Могилянській академії, на нього посилалися частіше, ніж на інших «латинців». Ф. Прокопович закликав вчитись у Горація майстерності. Г. Сковорода «претолковал малоросійським діалектом» його оди, зокрема, гораціанські мотиви звучать у збірці «Сад божественных песней». Наслідуючи І. Котляревського, котрий «українізував» «Енеїду», Горація переспівували П. Гулак-Артемовський та Л. Боровиковський. Поезія Горація знайшла нове життя в перекладах І. Франка та В. Щурата. У вітчизняний час надруковано численні переклади творів Горація українською мовою М. Білика, Миколи Зерова, А. Содомори, Бориса Тена та ін. Див. також[ред. | ред. код] Портал «Література» Портал «Стародавній Рим» Портал «Біографії» Горації Давньоримська література Оди Сабінум Сатири 4294 Горацій — астероїд, названий на честь давньоримського поета. Aurea mediocritas Beatus ille, qui procul negotiis Carpe diem Epicuri de grege porcus Exegi monumentum Sapere aude Посилання[ред. | ред. код] Горацій // Зарубіжні письменники. Енциклопедичний довідник : у 2 т. / за ред. Н. Михальської та Б. Щавурського. — Тернопіль : Навчальна книга — Богдан, 2005. — Т. 1 : А — К. — С. 399. — ISBN 966-692-578-8. Праці Горація(лат.) Твори Горація на сайті Е-бібліотека «Чтиво» Античні поетики: Арістотель. Поетика. Псевдо-Лонгін. Про високе. Горацій. Про поетичне мистецтво. — Київ: Грамота, 2007. — 168 с. — (Бібліотека античної літератури). Біографія і твори в бібліотеці «Українського Центру» Горацій на сайті Ae-lib Ю. І. Ковбасенко. Антична література: навч. посіб.  — 2-ге вид., розшир. та доповн. — К.: Київський університет імені Бориса Грінченка, 2012. — 215—217 с. Горацій. До Мецената. З циклу «Оди». Переклад Г. Кочура. Читає В. Білоцерківський Примітки[ред. | ред. код] ↑ Dictionnaire des philosophes antiques II // Dictionnaire des philosophes antiques / R. Goulet — Paris: CNRS, 1994. — P. 502.d:Track:Q18602173d:Track:Q3430801d:Track:Q280413d:Track:Q90d:Track:Q18604141   Тематичні сайти NNDB · Discogs · Open Library · International Music Score Library Project · MusicBrainz · Проект Гутенберг · Проект Гутенберг · Goodreads · Quora Словники та енциклопедії Велика каталонська · Britannica (11-th) · Britannica (онлайн) · Encyclopædia Universalis · Encyclopædia Universalis · Treccani · Італійська енциклопедія Нормативний контроль BAV: ADV12139878, ADV11561527, ADV11452220 · BIBSYS: 90055203 · BNC: a10101214 · BNE: XX891549 · BNF: 11886570b · CiNii: DA00782980 · CONOR: 8323171 · EGAXA: vtls000023274 · GND: 118553569 · ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\000246 · ISNI: 0000 0001 2145 2178 · LCCN: n79081354, no92010069 · LNB: 000000375 · NDL: 00540086 · NKC: jn20000603003 · NLA: 864697 · NLG: 62641 · NSK: 000013522 · NTA: 068304579 · NUKAT: n96210540 · PTBNP: 19592 · РДБ: 000083136, 000039740 · LIBRIS: 189659 · SUDOC: 026659166 · VIAF: 100227522, 2130151778256418130004 · ULAN: 500404135 Отримано з https://uk.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Горацій&oldid=30110713 Категорії: Народились 8 грудня Народились 65 до н. е. 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Текст доступний на умовах ліцензії Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike; також можуть діяти додаткові умови. Детальніше див. Умови використання. Політика конфіденційності Про Вікіпедію Відмова від відповідальності Зворотний зв'язок Мобільний вигляд Розробники Статистика Куки 
uli-nli-org-il-9289	----	NLI AUT MultiLang - Full View of Record National Library of Israel Names and Subjects Authority File Basic Advanced Recent Search Previous Searches e-Shelf Other Catalogs Help Quit   Record View Full Record View Short Record View Catalog Card Name Tags MARC Tags Save/Email Add to My e-Shelf   Sys. no.   000064806 Personal Name    Horace   ‫  הורציוס פלקוס, קוינטוס ‬   ‫  هوراس ‬ S.F. Pers. Name    Flaccus, Quintus Horatius    Horatius Flaccus, Quintus    Oracio    Horacy    Horacio    Quintus Horatius Flaccus    Horaz    Horatius Flaccus, Q. (Quintus), 65-8 v. Chr.   ‫  הורטיוס פלקוס, קוינטוס ‬   ‫  הוראטיוס פלקוס, קוינטוס ‬   ‫  هوراتيوس فلاكس، كوينتس ‬ Source Data Found   LCN   ‫ فن الشعر، 1988: على الباب (هوراس) ‬ © The National Library of Israel 
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upload-wikimedia-org-2959	----	Wikimedia Commons Main Page From Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikimedia Commons a collection of 67,288,313 freely usable media files to which anyone can contribute Images Sounds Videos Upload Picture of the day Rue des Marchands from Koïfhus in Colmar (Haut-Rhin, France).   Tweet RSS feed Subscribe Previous Pictures of the day Media of the day Play media Photographing a Female Crook is a 1904 American silent short directed by Wallace McCutcheon.   Problems playing the file? Tweet RSS feed Previous Media of the day Participating  Log in Create account Browsing? Please use the search box at the top of this page or the links to the right. Feel free to subscribe to our syndicated feeds. Using? To fulfill the free license requirements, please read our Reuse guide. You can also request a picture. Identifying? Have a browse through Category:Unidentified subjects. 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uz-wikipedia-org-5179	----	Goratsiy - Vikipediya Goratsiy Vikipediya, ochiq ensiklopediya Jump to navigation Jump to search Goratsiy [toʻliq ismi Kvint Goratsiy Flakk (Quintus Horatius Flaccus)] (mil. av. 65.8.12, Venuziy — mil.av. 8, Rim) — Rim shoiri. Ozod qilintan qul oilasida tugʻilgan. Respublikachilarga xayrixoq boʻlgan. Fuqarolar urushi (mil. av. 42 y.)da respublikachilar magʻlubiyatga uchragach, imperiya bilan kelishuvchilik yoʻliga oʻtgan. "Naqarotlar", "Satiralar", "Qasidalar", "Nomalar" toʻplamlari bilan oʻsha davr sheʼriyatini yangi janr va yangi sheʼriy oʻlchovlar bilan boyitgan. Uch maktubdan iborat "Nomalar" kitobi "Sheʼriyat ilmi" nomi bilan ham mashhur. Bu asar Bualoning "Sheʼriy sanʼati"ga asos boʻlgan. Adabiyotlar[tahrir] OʻzME. Birinchi jild. Toshkent, 2000-yil Ushbu maqola chaladir. Siz uni boyitib, Vikipediyaga yordam berishingiz mumkin. v t e Bu andozani aniqrogʻiga almashtirish kerak. Bu maqolada boshqa til boʻlimlariga ishorat yoʻq. Siz ularni topib va ushbu maqolaga qoʻshib, loyihaga yordam berishingiz mumkin. "https://uz.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Goratsiy&oldid=2156190" dan olindi Turkum: Chala maqolalar Vikipediya:Intervikisiz maqolalar Yashirin turkum: Barcha chala maqolalar Navigatsiya Shaxsiy uskunalar Siz tizimga kirmagansiz Ushbu IP-manzil munozarasi Qoʻshilgan hissa Hisob yaratish Kirish Nomfazolar Maqola Munozara lotin/кирилл lotin/кирилл lotin кирилл Koʻrinishlar<!--Views--> Mutolaa Tahrirlash Tarix Yana Qidiruv navigatsiya Bosh sahifa Tanlangan maqolalar Yangi sahifalar Tasodifiy maqola Maqolalar indeksi Loyihaga koʻmak Ishtirok Xato haqida xabar berish Yangi oʻzgarishlar Jamoa portali Qoidalar Yordam Forum Aloqa Asboblar Bu yerga ishoratlar Bogʻliq oʻzgarishlar Maxsus sahifalar Doimiy havola Sahifa haqida maʼlumot Sahifadan matn parchasi ajratish Vikimaʼlumotlar bandi Nashr/eksport qilish PDF sifatida yuklash Bosma uchun versiya Boshqa loyihalarda Vikiombor Boshqa tillarda Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Ishoratlarni tahrirla Bu sahifa oxirgi marta 14-Dekabr 2020, 22:42 da tahrir qilingan. Matn Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike litsenziyasi boʻyicha ommalashtirilmoqda, alohida holatlarda qoʻshimcha shartlar amal qilishi mumkin (batafsil). Maxfiylik siyosati Vikipediya haqida Masʼuliyatdan voz kechish Mobil versiya Dasturchilar Statistics Cookie bayonoti 
vi-wikipedia-org-6828	----	Horace – Wikipedia tiếng Việt Horace Bách khoa toàn thư mở Wikipedia Bước tới điều hướng Bước tới tìm kiếm Bài viết này cần thêm chú thích nguồn gốc để kiểm chứng thông tin. Mời bạn giúp hoàn thiện bài viết này bằng cách bổ sung chú thích tới các nguồn đáng tin cậy. Các nội dung không có nguồn có thể bị nghi ngờ và xóa bỏ. Horace, tranh của Anton von Werner Horace (tên đầy đủ bằng Latin: Quintus Horatius Flaccus. 8 tháng 12 năm 65 tr. CN – 27 tháng 11 năm 8 tr. CN) – là nhà thơ của thế kỷ vàng trong văn học La Mã. Ông sáng tác vào thời Nội chiến và những thập niên đầu của chính quyền Octavian Augustus. Mục lục 1 Tiểu sử 2 Sự ảnh hưởng 3 Tác phẩm 4 Một số bài thơ 5 Những câu lời hay ý đẹp của Horace 6 Tham khảo 7 Liên kết ngoài Tiểu sử[sửa | sửa mã nguồn] Horace sinh ở Venosa, miền nam nước Ý, trong một gia đình nô lệ đã được giải phóng. Sau đó gia đình chuyển về Roma, Horace được học trong những trường nổi tiếng nhất thời đấy. Khoảng năm 45 tr. CN Horace sang Athens học tiếp về văn học Hy Lạp và triết học. Năm 44 tr. CN Ceasar bị giết chết, Horace đứng về phía Brutus. Năm 22 tuổi ông được phong chức tribunus militum và hộ tống Brutus đến vùng Tiếu Á. Năm 42 tr. CN Horace tham gia trận đánh Philippi (Battle of Philippi) nhưng Brutus thua trận. Horace được tha, sau đó ông trở về Rome và bắt đầu con đường văn học Khoảng năm 38 tr. CN những bài thơ của Horace gây được sự chú ý của Virgil và Licius Varius Rufus. Hai nhà thơ nổi tiếng này giới thiệu Horace với Maecenas – bạn thân của Augustus. Maecenas nhận Horace là bạn và sau đó trở thành mạnh thường quân của Horace. Khoảng năm 35 tr. CN cuốn sách đầu tiên (Sermonum) gồm 10 bài thơ được xuất bản. Khoảng năm 30 tr. CN xuất bản cuốn thứ hai... các tác phẩm của Horace lần lượt được xuất bản. Hầu hết các tác phẩm của Horace đều đề tặng Maecenas. Horace mất năm 8 tr. CN và được mai táng gần mộ của Maecenas mất trước đó không lâu. Sự ảnh hưởng[sửa | sửa mã nguồn] Horace trở thành biểu tượng nhà thơ – người thầy của văn hóa châu Âu. Nếu như Virgil dạy người đời sự nhận thức và cắt nghĩa thế giới này thì Horace dạy cách ứng xử trong đời. Ông là sự hiện thân của sự khôn ngoan, hiểu biết mọi thứ và không ngạc nhiên trước bất cứ điều gì, tiếp nhận cả thành công cũng như thất bại một cách tĩnh lặng, biết từ chối cái không hợp với sức mình, biết vui với những niềm vui bình thường, coi khinh thói bon chen của người trần, bền bỉ trong việc tự hoàn thiên bản thân để đạt đến sự tĩnh lặng trong tâm hồn và tự do cho ý chí. Nguyên tắc "trung dung" của Horace đã trở thành lời có cánh, mang trong mình lời di huấn của văn minh cổ đại đối với Thời đại mới. Khi nói về thơ ca châu Âu các thế kỷ XVII – XVIII người ta gọi những bài thơ về tình yêu nhẹ nhàng, về rượu là "thơ Anacreon" con những bài thơ mang chất triết lý, đạo đức hay nguyên tắc ứng xử "trung dung" là "thơ Horace" – đấy là lời cảm tạ đối với nhà thơ lớn, người đóng vai trò quan trọng trong việc hình thành thơ mới châu Âu. Tác phẩm[sửa | sửa mã nguồn] Tượng Horace ở Venosa (35 tr. CN) Sermonum liber primus (30 tr. CN) Epodes (30 tr. CN) Sermonum liber secundus (23 tr. CN) Carminum liber primus (23 tr. CN) Carminum liber secundus (23 tr. CN) Carminum liber tertius (20 tr. CN) Epistularum liber primus (18 tr. CN) Ars Poetica (17 tr. CN) Carmen Saeculare (14 tr. CN) Epistularum liber secundus (13 tr. CN) Carminum liber quartus Một số bài thơ[sửa | sửa mã nguồn] Carmina I, XI   Tu ne quaesieris, scire nefas, quem mihi, quem tibi finem di dederint, Leuconoe, nec Babylonios temptaris numeros. Ut melius, quidquid erit, pati. Seu pluris hiemes, seu tribuit Iuppiter ultimam,   quae nunc oppositis debilitat pumicibus mare Tyrrhenum: sapias, vina liques, et spatio brevi spem longam reseces. Dum loquimur, fugerit invida aetas: carpe diem, quam minimum credula postero.   Carmina I, XXXII   Poscimus, si quid vacui sub umbra lusimus tecum, quod et hunc in annum vivat et pluris, age dic Latinum, barbite, carmen,   Lesbio primum modulate civi, qui ferox bello tamen inter arma, sive iactatam religarat udo litore navim,   Liberum et Musas Veneremque et illi semper haerentem puerum canebat et Lycum nigris oculis nigroque crine decorum.   o decus Phoebi et dapibus supremi grata testudo Iovis, o laborum dulce lenimen mihi cumque salve rite vocanti. Carmina I, XI   Đừng hỏi gì về ngày sau, không biết được đâu, cả em và anh cũng thế điểm cuối đã định rồi, Leuconoe ơi đừng mải mê gì với phép bói Babylon tốt nhất là ta hãy biết sống với những gì mà giờ ta đang có. Thần Juppiter còn cho bao nhiêu mùa đông nữa hay là đã cuối cùng   Mà giờ những con sóng đang dội vào vách đá trên biển Ty-ren hãy khôn ngoan, nhấp ly rượu của mình và quãng thời gian ngắn ngủi hy vọng dài lâu ta bỏ lại. Khi ta đang nói với nhau đây thì thời gian ghen tỵ trôi mau: nắm bắt khoảnh khắc, chớ tin gì tương lai xa vời vợi.   Carmina I, XXXII   Hỡi Thiên cầm! Trong bóng cành bóng lá giờ vui này xin gửi đến muôn năm đàn hãy cùng ta khúc hát ngân vang ngợi ca giống nòi La Mã.   Chàng trai người Lesbos lần đầu tiên say mê đàn, dù chàng từng giận dữ trong trận đánh, giữa biển trời bão tố đã cập bến con thuyền.   Chàng ngợi ca Bacchus và Vệ nữ với đứa con trai luôn ở bên mình ngợi ca sắc đẹp của ánh mắt huyền và mái tóc đen đúa.   Em là niềm vui của thần Apollo trang điểm cho thần Juppiter dự tiệc em mang cho đời niềm vui hạnh phúc em hãy đến cùng ta. Bản dịch của Nguyễn Viết Thắng Những câu lời hay ý đẹp của Horace[sửa | sửa mã nguồn] Carpe diem – Nắm bắt khoảnh khắc. Câu thơ "carpe diem quam minimum credula postero" (nắm bắt khoảnh khắc, chớ tin gì tương lai xa vời vợi). Dulce et Decorum Est pro patri mori – (Chết vì tổ quốc sung sướng và ngọt ngào thay). Câu này xuất hiện thường xuyên trên các tờ báo ở châu Âu và trở thành một khẩu hiệu của chiến tranh Thế giới I. Câu này cũng trở thành tên một bài thơ với sự mỉa mai cay đắng Thế chiến I của nhà thơ Anh Wilfred Owen. Sapere aude – (Quyết trở thành nhà thông thái). Câu này trở thành một thứ khẩu hiệu của Thế kỷ Ánh sáng, nhà triết học Immanuel Kant rất thích câu này. Culpam poena premit comes – Đi sau tội ác là sự trừng phạt. Nil desperandum – Đừng bao giờ tuyệt vọng. Ab ovo usque ad mala – Từ đầu chí cuối. Nuda veritas – Sự thật trần truồng. Est modus in rebus – Chừng mực trong mọi thứ. Aurea mediocres – Nguyên tắc vàng trung dung. Fuga temporum – Năm tháng trôi mau. Discordat avaro parcus – Người tằn tiện không có nghĩa là bủn xỉn. Semper avarus eget – Kẻ keo kiệt lúc nào cũng thấy thiếu. Omnem crede diem tibi diluxisse supremum – Hãy nhớ rằng ngày nào cũng đều có thể là ngày cuối cùng của bạn. Nemo contentus vivat, laudet diversa sequentis – Không ai bằng lòng với đời mình, ai cũng ganh tỵ với phần người khác. Dum vitant stulti vitia, in contraria currunt – Những kẻ ngốc tránh tật xấu này lại mắc vào tật xấu khác. Nam vitiis nemo sine nascitur, optimus ille est, qui minimis urgetur – Chẳng có ai sinh ra mà không có tật xấu nào, người tốt là người có ít tật xấu hơn tất cả. Nec naso suspendis adunco ignotos – Mũi đại bàng không vểnh lên trước kẻ chưa ai biết (từ đây mà có thành ngữ: "vểnh mũi lên") Nil sine magno vita labore dedit mortalibus – Cuộc đời chẳng cho không cái gì (mà không cần lao động). Hac urguet lupus, hac canis – Chó sói ở đây, còn đằng kia là chó (giống như: "trên thớt dưới dao"). Virtus est vitium fugere et sapientia prima stultitia caruisse – Phẩm hạnh tránh tật xấu, khôn ngoan tránh phỏng đoán. Dimidium facti, qui coepit, habet – Ai mở đầu là đã làm một nửa việc. Imperat aut servit collecta pecunia cuique – Tiền có thể là ông chủ hay nô lệ cho người tích cóp nó. Caelum, non animum mutant, qui trans mare currunt – Người đi sang bên kia biển thay đổi bầu trời chứ không phải tâm hồn. Quid de quoque viro et cui dicas, saepe videto – Thường xuyên để ý xem bạn nói với ai và nói về ai. Multa fidem promissa levant – Hứa hẹn lớn làm giảm lòng tin. Non omnes eadem mirantur amantque – Không phải tất cả đều khâm phục một thứ, không phải tất cả đều yêu một thứ. In vitium ducit culpae fuga, si caret arte – Kẻ không đạt đến khoa học tránh sai lầm này sẽ rơi vào sai lầm khác. Nec semper feriet quodcumque minabitur arcus – Mũi tên không phải lúc nào cũng rơi vào cái đích mà nó ngắm. Bản dịch của Hồ Thượng Tuy Tham khảo[sửa | sửa mã nguồn] Liên kết ngoài[sửa | sửa mã nguồn] Wikiquote có sưu tập danh ngôn về: Horace Wikisource có văn bản gốc liên quan đến bài viết: Latin texts of Quintus Horatius Flaccus Wikisource có văn bản gốc liên quan đến bài viết: English translations of texts of Quintus Horatius Flaccus Wikisource có văn bản gốc từ các bài viết của 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Horace. Wikimedia Commons có thêm hình ảnh và phương tiện truyền tải về Horace. Các tác phẩm của Horace tại Dự án Gutenberg Espace Horace The works of Horace at The Latin Library Selected Poems of Horace The Perseus Project — Latin and Greek authors (with English translations), including Horace Biography and chronology Litweb Horace's works: text, concordances and frequency list SORGLL: Horace, Odes I.22, read by Robert Sonkowsky Wikimedia Commons có thêm hình ảnh và phương tiện truyền tải về Horace. Lấy từ “https://vi.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horace&oldid=24094492” Thể loại: Sinh 65 TCN Mất 8 TCN Nhà thơ Ý Nhà văn Ý Nhà thơ La Mã cổ đại Nhà thơ La Mã thế kỷ vàng Mất thập kỷ 0 TCN Năm 65 TCN Năm 8 TCN Thể loại ẩn: Trang thiếu chú thích trong bài Bài viết có liên kết Dự án Gutenberg Trình đơn chuyển hướng Công cụ cá nhân Chưa đăng nhập Thảo luận cho địa chỉ IP này Đóng góp Mở tài khoản Đăng nhập Không gian tên Bài viết Thảo luận Biến thể Giao diện Đọc Sửa đổi Sửa mã nguồn Xem lịch sử Thêm Tìm kiếm Xem nhanh Trang Chính Bài viết chọn lọc Tin tức Bài viết ngẫu nhiên Thay đổi gần đây Phản hồi lỗi Quyên góp Tương tác Hướng dẫn Giới thiệu Wikipedia Cộng đồng Thảo luận chung Giúp sử dụng Liên lạc Công cụ Các liên kết đến đây Thay đổi liên quan Trang đặc biệt Liên kết thường trực Thông tin trang Trích dẫn trang này Khoản mục Wikidata In/xuất ra Tạo một quyển sách Tải về dưới dạng PDF Bản để in ra Tại dự án khác Wikimedia Commons Ngôn ngữ khác Afrikaans አማርኛ العربية Aragonés Asturianu تۆرکجه Bahasa Indonesia Bahasa Melayu Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Bosanski Brezhoneg Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά English Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी مصرى Монгол Nāhuatl Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Sardu Seeltersk Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Tarandíne Татарча/tatarça Türkçe Українська Volapük Võro Walon Winaray 吴语 粵語 Zazaki Žemaitėška 中文 Sửa liên kết Trang này được sửa đổi lần cuối vào ngày 8 tháng 8 năm 2016 lúc 21:00. Văn bản được phát hành theo Giấy phép Creative Commons Ghi công–Chia sẻ tương tự; có thể áp dụng điều khoản bổ sung. Với việc sử dụng trang web này, bạn chấp nhận Điều khoản Sử dụng và Quy định quyền riêng tư. Wikipedia® là thương hiệu đã đăng ký của Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., một tổ chức phi lợi nhuận. Quy định quyền riêng tư Giới thiệu Wikipedia Lời phủ nhận Phiên bản di động Nhà phát triển Thống kê Tuyên bố về cookie 
viaf-org-9778	----	100227522 VIAF Virtual International Authority File Search Select Field: All Fields All Headings Corporate Names Geographic Names Personal Names Works Expressions Preferred Headings Exact Heading Bibliographic Titles Select Index: All VIAF Argentina Australia Belgium (Flemish) Brazil Canada Catalunya Chile Croatia Czech Denmark (DBC) Egypt Estonia FAST France (BnF) France (Sudoc) Germany Getty (ULAN) Greece Hispánica Hungary Iceland Ireland ISNI Israel Italy Japan (NDL) Japan (NII) Korea Latvia Lebanon LC (NACO) Lithuania Luxembourg Morocco Netherlands Norway (BIBSYS) Norway (National Library) Iceland Perseus Poland (National Library) Poland (NUKAT) Portugal Québec RISM Russia Singapore Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Swiss (National Library) Swiss (RERO) Syriac Taiwan Vatican Wikipedia xA xR Search Terms: Horace. Horatius Flaccus, Quintus, 65-8 f.Kr. Horace, 0065-0008 av. J.-C. Horatius Flaccus, Quintus Horatius Flaccus, Quintus v65-v8 Horaci, 65 aC-8 aC Horatius Flaccus, Quintus (65-8 p.n.e.). Horatius Flaccus, Quintus, 65-8 a.C. Horácio, 65-8 a.C. Horatius Flaccus, Quintus 65a.C.-8a.C. Horatius, 65 pred Kr.-8 pred Kr. Horācijs, 65-8 p.m.ē. Horatius, Quintus Flaccus, 65 př. Kr.-8 př. Kr. Horácio. Q. Horatius Flaccus Horatius Flaccus, Q. Quintus 65-8 до н.э. Horatius Flaccus, Quintus, 65-8 e.Kr. Horatius Flaccus, Quintus B.C. 65-B.C. 8 Horatius Flaccus, Quintus, 65-8B. C. Horatius Flaccus, Quintus 65 pr.Kr.-8 pr.Kr Гораций Флакк, К. Квинт 65-8 до н.э. Horace (Roman poet, 65-8 BCE) هوراس Гораций Флакк, Квинт, 65-8 e.Kr. VIAF ID: 100227522 (Personal) Permalink: http://viaf.org/viaf/100227522 Preferred Forms 100 _ _ ‎‡a  Horace‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Horace‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Horace‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Horace‏ 200 _ | ‎‡a  Horace‏ ‎‡f  0065-0008 av. J.-C.‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Horace‏ ‎‡g  Roman poet, 65-8 BCE‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Horace,‏ ‎‡d  0065-0008 av. J.-C.‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Horace.‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Horaci,‏ ‎‡d  65 aC-8 aC‏ 100 0 0 ‎‡a  Horacio,‏ ‎‡d  65-8 A.C.‏ 200 _ 1 ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus‏ ‎‡b  Q.‏ ‎‡g  Quintus‏ ‎‡f  65-8 до н.э.‏ 200 _ 1 ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus‏ ‎‡b  Quintus‏ ‎‡f  65 pr.Kr.-8 pr.Kr‏ 100 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, Quintus‏ 100 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, Quintus‏ 100 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, Quintus‏ ‎‡d  (65-8 p.n.e.).‏ 100 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, Quintus‏ ‎‡d  65-8 f.Kr‏ 100 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, Quintus‏ ‎‡d  65a.C.-8a.C.‏ 100 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, Quintus‏ ‎‡d  B.C. 65-B.C. 8‏ 100 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, Quintus‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 100 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, Quintus‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 100 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, Quintus,‏ ‎‡d  65-8 a.C.‏ 100 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, Quintus,‏ ‎‡d  65-8 e.Kr.‏ 100 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, Quintus,‏ ‎‡d  65-8 f.Kr.‏ 100 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, Quintus,‏ ‎‡d  65-8 f.Kr.‏ 100 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, Quintus,‏ ‎‡d  65-8B. C.‏ 100 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius, Quintus Flaccus,‏ ‎‡d  65 př. Kr.-8 př. Kr.‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Horatius,‏ ‎‡d  65 pred Kr.-8 pred Kr.‏ 200 _ 0 ‎‡a  Horácio,‏ ‎‡f  65-8 a.C.‏ 100 1 _ ‎‡a  Horácio.‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Horācijs,‏ ‎‡d  65-8 p.m.ē.‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Q. Horatius Flaccus‏ 200 _ 1 ‎‡a  Гораций Флакк‏ ‎‡b  К.‏ ‎‡g  Квинт‏ ‎‡f  65-8 до н.э.‏ 100 1 _ ‎‡a  Гораций Флакк, Квинт,‏ ‎‡d  65-8 e.Kr.‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  هوراس‏         4xx's: Alternate Name Forms (459) 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Choracij‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Flacci, Q. Horati‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Flacco, Quinto Orazio‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Flacco, Quinto Orazio‏ ‎‡d  0065-0008 av. J.-C.‏ 400 _ 1 ‎‡a  Flacco,‏ ‎‡b  Q. Horacio‏ 400 _ 1 ‎‡a  Flacco,‏ ‎‡b  Quinto Horacio‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Flacco‏ ‎‡c  , Orazio Q.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Flacco‏ ‎‡c  Q. Horacio‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Flacco‏ ‎‡c  Quinto Horacio‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Flaccus, Horatius‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Flaccus, Horatius‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Flaccus, Qu. Horatius‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Flaccus, Qu. Horatius‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Flaccus, Quintus H.‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Flaccus, Quintus H.‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Flaccus, Quintus H.‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Flaccus, Quintus Horatius‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Flaccus, Quintus Horatius,‏ ‎‡d  65-8 a.C.‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Flaccus, Quintus Horatius,‏ ‎‡d  65-8 f.Kr.‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Flaccus, Quintus Horatius.‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Flaccus, Quintus Horatius‏ ‎‡d  0065-0008 av. J.-C.‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Flaccus, Quintus Horatius‏ ‎‡d  65-8 a.C.‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Flaccus, Quintus Horatius‏ ‎‡d  65-8 f.Kr‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Flaccus, Quintus Horatius‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Flaccus, Quintus Horatius‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 _ | ‎‡a  Flaccus‏ ‎‡b  Quintus Horatius‏ ‎‡f  0065-0008 av. J.-C.‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Flaccvs, Quintus Horatius‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Flaccvs, Quintus Horatius‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Flaco, Quinto Horácio.‏ 400 _ 1 ‎‡a  Flaco,‏ ‎‡b  Quinto Horacio‏ 400 _ 1 ‎‡a  Flaco,‏ ‎‡b  Quinto Orazio‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Flaco‏ ‎‡c  Quinto Horacio‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Flaco‏ ‎‡c  Quinto Orazio‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Flacus, Quintus Horatius‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Flak, Kvint Horacije‏ 400 _ 1 ‎‡a  Flakas‏ ‎‡b  Kvintas Horacijus‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Goracij Flakk, Kvint‏ ‎‡d  65-8 v. Chr‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Goracìj‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Goracìj.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Goratsiy‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Gorat̸s̶ĭ̄‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Gorat̸s̶ĭ̄‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Gorat̸s̶ĭ̄‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Gorat͡sĭ̄‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Gorat͡sĭ̄‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Gorat͡sĭ̄‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Gorat︠s︡iĭ Flakk, Kvint‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  Gorat︠s︡iĭ Flakk, Kvint‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Gorat︠s︡iĭ Flakk, Kvint‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Gorat︠s︡īĭ‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  Gorat︠s︡īĭ‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Gorat︠s︡īĭ‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Goraz Flakk, Kvint‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Goraz Flakk, Kvint‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  HOR‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  HOR.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Ho-la-tz'ŭ‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Ho-la-tz'ŭ‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Ho-la-tz'ŭ‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Hor‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  Hor.‏ 400 _ 1 ‎‡a  Horace‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horace‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horace‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horace Flacce.‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horace, Quintus Horatius Flaccus,‏ ‎‡d  0065-0008 av. J.-C.‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horace, Quintus Horatius Flaccus‏ ‎‡d  0065-0008 av. J.-C.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horace,‏ ‎‡d  65 aC-8 aC‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horace,‏ ‎‡d  65 pred Kr.-8 pred Kr.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horace,‏ ‎‡d  65 př. Kr.-8 př. Kr.‏ 400 0 0 ‎‡a  Horace,‏ ‎‡d  65-8 a.C.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horace,‏ ‎‡d  65-8 p.m.ē.‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horace.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horacego‏ ‎‡d  65-8 v. Chr‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horace‏ ‎‡d  (0065?-0008 av. J.C.).‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horace‏ ‎‡d  0065?-0008 av. J.C.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horace‏ ‎‡d  65 př. Kr.-8 př. Kr‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horace‏ ‎‡d  65-8 a.C.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horace‏ ‎‡d  65-8 aC‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horace‏ ‎‡d  65-8 p.m.ē‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horace‏ ‎‡d  65-8 v. Chr‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Horace‏ ‎‡f  65-8 до н.э.‏ ‎‡5  z‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horace‏ ‎‡d  B.C. 65-B.C. 8‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horace‏ ‎‡c  Flacce‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horace‏ ‎‡c  Roman lyric poet‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horace‏ ‎‡c  auteur latin‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horace‏ ‎‡c  de Venouse‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horace‏ ‎‡c  poète lyrique latin‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horace‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horace‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ ‎‡c  Flacce‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horace‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ ‎‡c  de Venouse‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horace‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horace‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ ‎‡c  Flacce‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horace‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ ‎‡c  de Venouse‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horaci‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horaci‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horaci Flac, Q.‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horaci Flac, Q.,‏ ‎‡d  65 aC-8 aC‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horaci Flac, Q.‏ ‎‡d  65-8 aC‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horaci,‏ ‎‡d  65-8 aC‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  Horacij‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horacij‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horacije‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horacije Flak, Kvint‏ 400 _ 1 ‎‡a  Horacijus‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horacijus‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horacij‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horacij‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horacio‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horacio Flacco, Q.,‏ ‎‡d  65 aC-8 aC‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horacio Flacco, Q.‏ ‎‡d  65-8 aC‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horacio Flacco, Quinto,‏ ‎‡d  65 aC-8 aC‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horacio Flacco, Quinto,‏ ‎‡d  65-8 a.C.‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horacio Flacco, Quinto‏ ‎‡d  65-8 a.C.‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horacio Flacco, Quinto‏ ‎‡d  65-8 aC‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horacio Flacco, Quinto‏ ‎‡d  65-8 v. Chr‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horacio Flaco, Q.‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horacio Flaco, Q.‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horacio Flaco, Quinto‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horacio Flaco, Quinto,‏ ‎‡d  65 aC-8 aC‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horacio Flaco, Quinto‏ ‎‡d  65-8 aC‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horacio Flaco, Quinto‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 _ 1 ‎‡a  Horacio Flaco,‏ ‎‡b  Quinto‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horacio Flaco‏ ‎‡c  Quinto‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horacio Flako, Kvinto‏ ‎‡d  65-8 v. Chr‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horacio,‏ ‎‡d  65 B.C.-8 B.C.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horacio,‏ ‎‡d  65 aC-8 aC‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horacio,‏ ‎‡d  65-8 B.C.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horacio.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horacio‏ ‎‡d  65 B.C.-8 B.C.‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  Horacio‏ ‎‡d  65-8 B.C‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horacio‏ ‎‡d  65-8 B.C‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horacio‏ ‎‡d  65-8 B.C.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horacio‏ ‎‡d  65-8 aC‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horacio‏ ‎‡d  65-8 av. J.-C.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horacio‏ ‎‡d  65-8 v. Chr‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horacio‏ ‎‡c  poeta lírico e satírico en lingua latina‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horacio‏ ‎‡c  poeta lírico y satírico en lengua latina‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horacio‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horacio‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horacius Flakus, Quintus‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horacius Flakus, Quintus‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horacius,‏ ‎‡d  65 př. Kr.-8 př. Kr.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horacius‏ ‎‡d  65 př. Kr.-8 př. Kr‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horaci‏ ‎‡c  poeta líric i satíric llatí‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  Horacjusz‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horacjusz‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  Horacjusz Flakkus, Kwintus‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horacjusz Flakkus, Kwintus‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horacjusz Flakkus, Kwintus‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horacjusz Flakkus, Kwintus‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  Horacy‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horacy‏ 400 0 0 ‎‡a  Horacy,‏ ‎‡d  65-8 a.C.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horacy,‏ ‎‡d  65-8 p.m.ē.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horacy.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horacyusz‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Horacyusz Flakk‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horacyusz Flakk‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horacyusz Flakk.‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horacyusz.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horacyusz‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horacyusz‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horacy‏ ‎‡d  65-8 a.C.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horacy‏ ‎‡d  65-8 p.m.ē‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horacy‏ ‎‡c  rzymski poeta liryczny‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horacy‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horacy‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horas‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horati Flacci, Q.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horatio‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatio Flacco, Quinto‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatio Flacco, Quinto‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horatio,‏ ‎‡d  65-8 f.Kr.‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatios‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horatio‏ ‎‡d  65-8 f.Kr‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Horatius‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horatius‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius F, Q.‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius F, Q.‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius F., Q.‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus Quintus‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, ..‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, ..‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, Q.‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, Q.,‏ ‎‡d  65 aC-8 aC‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, Q.‏ ‎‡d  65-8 aC‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, Q.‏ ‎‡d  65-8 v. Chr‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, Q.‏ ‎‡d  B.C. 65-B.C. 8‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, Q.‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, Q.‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, Quinctus,‏ ‎‡d  65 aC-8 aC‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, Quinctus‏ ‎‡d  65-8 aC‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, Quinctus‏ ‎‡d  65-8 v. Chr‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, Quinctus‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, Quinctus‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, Quintus‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, Quintus‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, Quintus,‏ ‎‡d  65 aC-8 aC‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, Quintus,‏ ‎‡d  65 pred Kr.-8 pred Kr.‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, Quintus,‏ ‎‡d  65 př. Kr.-8 př. Kr.‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, Quintus,‏ ‎‡d  65-8 a.C.‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, Quintus.‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, Quintus‏ ‎‡d  65 př. Kr.-8 př. Kr‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, Quintus‏ ‎‡d  65-8 a.C.‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, Quintus‏ ‎‡d  65-8 aC‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, Quintus‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, Quintus‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 _ 1 ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus,‏ ‎‡b  Quintus‏ 400 _ 1 ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus‏ ‎‡b  Q.‏ 700 _ 1 ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus‏ ‎‡b  Q.‏ ‎‡f  65-8 до н.э.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus‏ ‎‡c  Quintus‏ 700 _ | ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus‏ ‎‡b  Quintus‏ ‎‡f  0065-0008 av. J.-C.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccys, Quintus‏ ‎‡d  B.C. 65-B.C. 8‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius [Flaccus]‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius [Poeta]‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius, Flaccus Quintus,‏ ‎‡d  65 pred Kr.-8 pred Kr.‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius, Quintus Flaccus,‏ ‎‡d  65 pred Kr.-8 pred Kr.‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius, Quintus Flaccus,‏ ‎‡d  65-8 f.Kr.‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius, Quintus Flaccus‏ ‎‡d  65-8 f.Kr‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius, Quintus H. Flaccus.‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius, Quintus‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius, Quintus‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horatius,‏ ‎‡d  65-8 f.Kr.‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horatius‏ ‎‡c  , Q.‏ 400 _ | ‎‡a  Horatius‏ ‎‡f  0065-0008 av. J.-C.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horatius‏ ‎‡d  65-8 f.Kr‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horatius‏ ‎‡d  65-8 v. Chr‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Horatius‏ ‎‡f  65-8 до н.э.‏ ‎‡5  z‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horatius‏ ‎‡d  B.C. 65-B.C. 8‏ 400 _ 1 ‎‡a  Horatius‏ ‎‡b  F. Q.‏ ‎‡f  65-8 до н.э.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horatius‏ ‎‡c  Flaccus‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horatius‏ ‎‡c  Poeta‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 _ 1 ‎‡a  Horatius‏ ‎‡b  Q. F.‏ ‎‡f  65-8 до н.э.‏ ‎‡5  z‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horatius‏ ‎‡c  Roman şair.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horatius‏ ‎‡c  antiikin roomalainen runoilija‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horatius‏ ‎‡c  dichter uit Oude Rome (65v Chr-8v Chr)‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horatius‏ ‎‡c  romersk författare och poet‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horatius‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horatius‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ ‎‡c  Flaccus‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horatius‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ ‎‡c  Poeta‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horatius‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horatius‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ ‎‡c  Flaccus‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horatius‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ ‎‡c  Poeta‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  Horats‏ 400 _ 1 ‎‡a  Horats‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horats‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horats,‏ ‎‡d  65-8 p.m.ē.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horatsi‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horats‏ ‎‡d  65-8 p.m.ē‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horats‏ ‎‡d  65-8 v. Chr‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horats‏ ‎‡c  romersk skribent og poet‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horatz‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatz, ..‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatz, ..‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horatz‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horatz‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horaṭiyos‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horaṭiyus‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  Horaz‏ 400 _ 1 ‎‡a  Horaz‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horaz‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horaz‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horaz,‏ ‎‡d  65 aC-8 aC‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horaz,‏ ‎‡d  65-8 f.Kr.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horaz,‏ ‎‡d  65-8 p.m.ē.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horaz.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horazio‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horazio‏ ‎‡c  Erromatar poeta‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horazius Flaccus, Quintus‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horazius Flaccus, Quintus‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horazius Flakkus, Quintus‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horazius Flakkus, Quintus‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horazius Flakus, Quintus‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horazius Flakus, Quintus‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horaz‏ ‎‡d  65-8 aC‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horaz‏ ‎‡d  65-8 f.Kr‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horaz‏ ‎‡d  65-8 p.m.ē‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horaz‏ ‎‡d  65-8 v. Chr‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Horaz‏ ‎‡f  65-8 до н.э.‏ ‎‡5  z‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horaz‏ ‎‡c  römischer Dichter‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horaz‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horaz‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  Horaṭiyos‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horaṭiyos‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  Horaṭiyus‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horaṭiyus‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  Horácio‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horácio‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horácio‏ ‎‡c  poeta lírico e satírico em língua latina‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horácius,‏ ‎‡d  65 pred Kr.-8 pred Kr.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horācijs‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horācijs Flaks, Kvints,‏ ‎‡d  65-8 p.m.ē.‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Horācijs Flaks, Kvints‏ ‎‡d  65-8 p.m.ē‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horātijs,‏ ‎‡d  65-8 p.m.ē.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Horātijs‏ ‎‡d  65-8 p.m.ē‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Huoracėjos‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Hóras‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Hūrās‏ ‎‡d  65-8 v. Chr‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Khorat̸s̶iĭ Flak, Kvint‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Khorat̸s̶iĭ‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Khorat̸s̶iĭ Flak, Kvint‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Khorat̸s̶iĭ Flak, Kvint‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Khorat̸s̶iĭ‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Khorat̸s̶iĭ‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Khorat͡siĭ Flak, Kvint‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Khorat͡siĭ‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Khorat͡siĭ Flak, Kvint‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Khorat͡siĭ Flak, Kvint‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Khorat͡siĭ‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Khorat͡siĭ‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Khorat︠s︡iĭ‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Khorat︠s︡iĭ Flak, Kvint‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  Khorat︠s︡iĭ‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Khorat︠s︡iĭ‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  Khorat︠s︡iĭ Flak, Kvint‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Khorat︠s︡iĭ Flak, Kvint‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Kvint Goracij Flakk‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Kvint Goracij Flakk,‏ ‎‡d  65-8 f.Kr.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Kvint Goracij Flakk.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Kvint Goracij Flakk‏ ‎‡d  65-8 f.Kr‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Kvint Horacije Flak‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Kvintas Horacijus Flakas‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Kw. Horacy Flakkus.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Kwintus Horacjusz Flakkus‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Kwintus Horacjusz Flakkus,‏ ‎‡d  65 př. Kr.-8 př. Kr.‏ ‎‡2  czepol‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Kwintus Horacjusz Flakkus.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Kwintus Horacjusz Flakkus‏ ‎‡d  65 př. Kr.-8 př. Kr‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Kwintus Horacy Flakkus.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Oracio‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Oracio‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Oracio‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Oracius Flaccus‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Oracius Flaccus‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Orassi‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Oratio,‏ ‎‡d  65 aC-8 aC‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Oratio‏ ‎‡d  65-8 aC‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Oratio‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Oratio‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Oratius‏ ‎‡d  65-8 v. Chr‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Orazi‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  Orazio‏ 400 _ 1 ‎‡a  Orazio‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Orazio‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Orazio‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Orazio Flacco, Q.,‏ ‎‡d  65 aC-8 aC‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Orazio Flacco, Q.‏ ‎‡d  65-8 aC‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Orazio Flacco, Q.‏ ‎‡d  65-8 v. Chr‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  Orazio Flacco, Quinto‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Orazio Flacco, Quinto‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Orazio Flacco, Quinto,‏ ‎‡d  65 pred Kr.-8 pred Kr.‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Orazio Flacco, Quinto,‏ ‎‡d  65-8 f.Kr.‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Orazio Flacco, Quinto‏ ‎‡d  65-8 f.Kr‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Orazio Flacco, Quinto‏ ‎‡d  65-8 v. Chr‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Orazio Flacco, Quinto‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Orazio Flacco, Quinto‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Orazio Flacco.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Orazio Flacco‏ ‎‡c  , Q.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Orazio Flacco‏ ‎‡c  , Quinto‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Orazio Flacco‏ ‎‡d  65-8 v. Chr‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Orazio,‏ ‎‡d  65 aC-8 aC‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Orazio,‏ ‎‡d  65 př. Kr.-8 př. Kr.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Orazio,‏ ‎‡d  65-8 a.C.‏ 400 0 0 ‎‡a  Orazio,‏ ‎‡d  65-8 a.C.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Orazio.‏ 400 _ | ‎‡a  Orazio‏ ‎‡f  0065-0008 av. J.-C.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Orazio‏ ‎‡d  0065-0008 av. J.-C.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Orazio‏ ‎‡d  65 př. Kr.-8 př. Kr‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Orazio‏ ‎‡d  65-8 a.C.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Orazio‏ ‎‡d  65-8 aC‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Orazio‏ ‎‡d  65-8 v. Chr‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Orazio‏ ‎‡c  Flacco‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Orazio‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Orazio‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ ‎‡c  Flacco‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Orazio‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Orazio‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ ‎‡c  Flacco‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Orazjus Flaccus, Quintus‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Orazjus Flaccus, Quintus‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  Q. Horatius Flaccus‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Q. Horatius Flaccus‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Q. Orazio Flacco‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Q. Orazio Flacco.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Quinde Orazio Flacco‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Quinto Horatio Flacco‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Quinto Horatio Flacco‏ ‎‡c  poeta lyric de Roma antique‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Quinto Orazio Flacco‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Quinto Orazio Flacco‏ ‎‡c  poeta romano‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Quintu Orazziu Flaccu‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Quintus Flaccus Horatius‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Quintus H. Flaccus,‏ ‎‡d  65 pred Kr.-8 pred Kr.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Quintus Horacius Flakus‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Quintus Horacius Flakus‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Quintus Horatius Flaccus‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Quintus Horatius Flaccus‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Quintus Horatius Flaccus‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Quintus Horatius Flaccus,‏ ‎‡d  65 pred Kr.-8 pred Kr.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Quintus Horatius Flaccus.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Quintus Horatius Flaccus‏ ‎‡c  poet roman din „perioada de aur” a literaturii romane‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Quintus Horatius Flaccus‏ ‎‡c  romersk skribent og poet‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Quintus Horatius Flaccus‏ ‎‡d  v08.12.65.-v27.11.08‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Quintus Horatius Flaccus‏ ‎‡d  v65-v8‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Quintus Horatius Flaccus‏ ‎‡c  římský básník‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Οράτιος‏ ‎‡c  Ρωμαίος λυρικός ποιητής‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Гарацый‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Гарацый‏ ‎‡c  старажытнарымскі пісьменнік‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Гарацыюс‏ 400 _ 1 ‎‡a  Горацiй‏ ‎‡b  Флаккъ-Квинтъ‏ 400 _ 1 ‎‡a  Гораций‏ 400 _ 1 ‎‡a  Гораций Квинт‏ ‎‡b  Ф.‏ ‎‡f  65-8 до н.э.‏ ‎‡5  z‏ 700 _ 1 ‎‡a  Гораций Флакк‏ ‎‡b  К.‏ ‎‡f  65-8 до н.э.‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Гораций‏ ‎‡f  65-8 до н.э.‏ ‎‡5  z‏ 400 _ 1 ‎‡a  Гораций‏ ‎‡b  К. Ф.‏ ‎‡f  65-8 до н.э.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Гораций‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Гораций‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Гораций Флакк, К.,‏ ‎‡d  65-8 p.m.ē.‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Гораций Флакк, К‏ ‎‡d  65-8 p.m.ē‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Гораций Флакк, Квинт,‏ ‎‡d  65-8 p.m.ē.‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Гораций Флакк, Квинт‏ ‎‡d  65-8 p.m.ē‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Гораций Флакк, Квинт‏ ‎‡d  65-8 v. Chr‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Гораций,‏ ‎‡d  65-8 p.m.ē.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Гораций‏ ‎‡d  65-8 p.m.ē‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Гораций‏ ‎‡c  римский поэт‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Горацій‏ ‎‡c  римський поет‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Квинт Гораций Флакк‏ ‎‡f  65-8 до н.э.‏ ‎‡5  f‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Квинт Гораций Флакк‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Хораций‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Хорациј‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Хорације‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Հորացիուս‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  הוראטיוס פלקוס, קוינטוס‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  הוראציו‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  הוראציו‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  הוראציוס‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  הורטיוס‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  הורטיוס‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  הורטיוס פלקוס, קוינטוס‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  הורטיוס‏ ‎‡c  משורר רומי‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  הורציוס פלקוס, קוינטוס‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  هوراتيوس‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  هوراس‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  هوراس‏ ‎‡c  شاعر غنائي و ناقد أدبي لاتيني روماني.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  هوراس‏ ‎‡c  شاعر و نویسنده در روم باستان‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  होरेस‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  ਹੋਰੇਸ‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  ஓராசு‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  ഹൊറസ്‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  ჰორაციუსი‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  クイントゥス‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  クイントゥス‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  ホラティウス‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  ホラーティウス‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  ホラーティウス‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  贺拉斯‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  호라티우스‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  호라티우스 플라키스, 퀸투스‏ ‎‡d  B.C. 65-B.C. 8‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  호라티우스‏ ‎‡d  B.C. 65-B.C. 8‏ 5xx's: Related Names (76) 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Bond, Johannes‏ ‎‡d  1550-1612‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Caesarius, Johannes‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Caesarius, Johannes╬c‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Caesarius, Johann‏ ‎‡d  1468-1550‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Caesarius, Johann‏ ‎‡d  1468-1550‏ ‎‡4  beza‏ ‎‡4  http://d-nb.info/standards/elementset/gnd#acquaintanceshipOrFriendship‏ ‎‡e  Bekanntschaft‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Campos, Urbano‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Chamorro Luis, Bonifacio‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Cristóbal López, Vicente‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Freire, Francisco José‏ ‎‡d  1719-1773, C.O.‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Friedlieb, Franz‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Friedlieb, Franz╬c‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Frigell, Anders‏ ‎‡d  1820-1897‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Frischlin, Nicodemus‏ ‎‡d  1547-1590‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Frischlin, Nicodemus‏ ‎‡d  1547-1590‏ ‎‡4  beza‏ ‎‡4  http://d-nb.info/standards/elementset/gnd#acquaintanceshipOrFriendship‏ ‎‡e  Bekanntschaft‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Frischlin, Nikodemus‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Frischlin, Nikodemus╬c‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Hartung, Johannes‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Hartung, Johannes‏ ‎‡4  beza‏ ‎‡4  http://d-nb.info/standards/elementset/gnd#acquaintanceshipOrFriendship‏ ‎‡e  Bekanntschaft‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Hartung, Johannes╬c‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Heinze, Richard‏ ‎‡d  1867-1929‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Honorius, Johannes‏ ‎‡d  1450-1504‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Honorius, Johannes‏ ‎‡d  1450-1504‏ ‎‡4  beza‏ ‎‡4  http://d-nb.info/standards/elementset/gnd#acquaintanceshipOrFriendship‏ ‎‡e  Bekanntschaft‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Honorius, Johannes╬c‏ 515 _ _ ‎‡5  z‏ ‎‡a  Horace, Villa d' (Italie)‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Horatius Flaccus, Quintus,‏ ‎‡d  65-8 e.Kr.‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Irenicus, Franciscus‏ ‎‡d  1495-1559‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Irenicus, Franciscus‏ ‎‡d  1495-1559‏ ‎‡4  beza‏ ‎‡4  http://d-nb.info/standards/elementset/gnd#acquaintanceshipOrFriendship‏ ‎‡e  Bekanntschaft‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Joly, Jaspar Robert‏ ‎‡d  1819-1892‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Jouvancy, Joseph de‏ ‎‡d  1643-1719‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Kiessling, Adolf‏ ‎‡d  1837-1892‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  LaRamée, Pierre de‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Lejay, Paul‏ ‎‡d  1861-1920)‏ 551 _ _ ‎‡a  Licenza (Italie)‏ ‎‡x  Villa d'Horace‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Lock, Margaret‏ ‎‡d  1950-‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Manuzio, Aldo‏ ‎‡d  1450?-1515)‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Manuzio, Aldo‏ ‎‡d  el Jove, 1547-1597‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Moralejo, José Luis‏ ‎‡d  1943-‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Petschenig, Michael‏ ‎‡d  1845-1923‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Pezzana, Niccolò‏ ‎‡c  hereus‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Poelmann, Theodor‏ ‎‡d  1510-1580‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Poelmann, Theodor‏ ‎‡d  1510-1580‏ ‎‡4  beza‏ ‎‡4  http://d-nb.info/standards/elementset/gnd#acquaintanceshipOrFriendship‏ ‎‡e  Bekanntschaft‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Poelmann, Theodor╬c‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Porphyrio, Pomponius‏ ‎‡d  02..-02.‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Ramus, Petrus‏ ‎‡d  1515-1572‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Ramus, Petrus‏ ‎‡d  1515-1572‏ ‎‡4  beza‏ ‎‡4  http://d-nb.info/standards/elementset/gnd#acquaintanceshipOrFriendship‏ ‎‡e  Bekanntschaft‏ 551 _ _ ‎‡a  Rom‏ ‎‡4  orts‏ ‎‡4  http://d-nb.info/standards/elementset/gnd#placeOfDeath‏ 551 _ _ ‎‡a  Rom‏ ‎‡4  ortw‏ ‎‡4  http://d-nb.info/standards/elementset/gnd#placeOfActivity‏ 551 _ _ ‎‡a  Roma‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Sabbadini, Remigio‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Sanadon, Noël Étienne‏ ‎‡d  1676-1733‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Servius, Maurus Honoratus‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Servius, Maurus Honoratus╬c‏ 500 0 _ ‎‡a  Servius‏ ‎‡d  ca. 4./5. Jh‏ 500 0 _ ‎‡a  Servius‏ ‎‡d  ca. 4./5. Jh.‏ ‎‡4  beza‏ ‎‡4  http://d-nb.info/standards/elementset/gnd#acquaintanceshipOrFriendship‏ ‎‡e  Bekanntschaft‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Smart, Christopher‏ ‎‡d  1722-1771‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Teubner, Benedictus Gotthelf‏ ‎‡d  1784-1856‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Treibenraiff, Peter‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Treibenraiff, Peter╬c‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Tritonius, Petrus‏ ‎‡d  1456-1525‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Tritonius, Petrus‏ ‎‡d  1456-1525‏ ‎‡4  beza‏ ‎‡4  http://d-nb.info/standards/elementset/gnd#acquaintanceshipOrFriendship‏ ‎‡e  Bekanntschaft‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Valart, Joseph‏ ‎‡d  1698-1781‏ 551 _ _ ‎‡a  Venosa‏ ‎‡4  ortg‏ ‎‡4  http://d-nb.info/standards/elementset/gnd#placeOfBirth‏ 551 _ _ ‎‡a  Venusia (Apulien)‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Vergilius Maro, Publius‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Vettori, Pietro‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Vettori, Pietro‏ ‎‡d  1499-1585‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Vettori, Pietro‏ ‎‡d  1499-1585‏ ‎‡4  beza‏ ‎‡4  http://d-nb.info/standards/elementset/gnd#acquaintanceshipOrFriendship‏ ‎‡e  Bekanntschaft‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Vettori, Pietro╬c‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Villeneuve, François‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Villeneuve, François‏ ‎‡d  18..-1956‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Wheeler, George B.‏ ‎‡d  1805-1877‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Wyss, Bernhard‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Гораций Флакк, Квинт,‏ ‎‡d  65-8 e.Kr.‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  בירנבאום, רחל‏ 500 0 _ ‎‡a  عوض، لويس،‏ ‎‡d  1915-1990‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  松本, 仁助‏ ‎‡d  1927-‏ Works Title Sources Ad Augustium Ars poetica Arte poética. De arte poetica 1-294 Carmen saeculare Carmina Carmina Carmina Carmina Carmina Carmina Carmina Carmina Carmina Carmina Carmina Carmina Carmina Lib. 1 Carmina Lib. 2 Carmina Lib. 4 Carmina. Liber 1 Carmina. Liber 1. 4 Carmina. Liber 2 Carmina. Liber 3 Carmina. Liber 4 Carmina. Liber 4. 2 Carmina Odae. Lib. II. 1945 Carmina. Selections Chant séculaire Epístolas Epístolas. Libro 1-2. Epistulae 1 Epistulae 1,1 Epistulae 1,5 Epistulae 1,6 Epistulae 1,7 Epistulae 2 Epistulae 2,1 Epistulae Lib. 1, 7 Epistulae. Liber 2 Epistulae. Selections Épîtres Epodae. 16 Epode Epodi 2 Epodi 7 Epodi 9 Epodi. Liber 4 Epodo Epodon liber Epodon liber Epodon liber Epodon liber Epodon liber Epodon liber Gruppi, scelte How to be content Obras. 1986 Obres. Seleccions. Odae Odae 1 Odae 1,1 Odae 1,1-6 Odae 1-3 Odae 1,4 Odae 1,9 Odae 2 Odae 2-3 Odae 3 Odae 3,1-6 Odae 3,14 Odae 3,25 Odae 3,26 Odae 3,27 Odae 3,29 Odae 3,4 Odae 4 Odae 4,12 Odae 4,2 Odae 4,7 Odae 4,8 Œuvre Œuvre. Extraits poesías. Selecciones Quintus Horatius Flaccus. 1628 Satirae. Liber 1. 1 Satirae. Liber 2 Satirae. Liber 2, 1 Satirae. Liber 2, 7 Saturae Saturae Saturae Saturae 1 Saturae 1,1 Saturae 1,2 Saturae 1,5 Saturae 1,8 Saturae 2 Saturae 2,1 Saturae 2,2 Saturae 2,7 Satyrae Werke Works Works. 1483 Works. 1486 Works. 1495 Works. 1498 Works. 1538 Works. 1566 Works. 1660 Works. 1663 Works. 1682 Works. 1690 Works. 1694 Works. 1699 Works. 1711 Works. 1719 Works. 1721 Works. 1728 Works. 1730 Works. 1733 Works. 1749 Works. 1762 Works. 1762 Works. 1763 Works. 1767 Works. 1776 Works. 1783 Works. 1789 Works. 1792 Works. 1797 Works. 1814 Works. 1823 Works 1824 Works. 1839 Works. 1849 Works. 1851 Works. 1882 Works. 1890 Works. 1896 Works. 1901 Works. 1963 Works. 1984 Works. 2008 Works. Selections. 1907 Selected Co-authors Villeneuve, François, 1875- ‎(114) Manuzio, Aldo (1450?-1515). ‎(71) Bond, John (1550-1612). ‎(67) Heinze, Richard (1867-1929; latiniste). ‎(64) Desportes, Auguste 1797?-1866 ‎(41) Kiessling, Adolf ‎(39) Tritonius, Petrus 1465c-1525c ‎(33) Sanadon, Noel-Etienne. ‎(33) Lejay, Paul (1861-1920). ‎(31) Müller, Lucian (1836-1898). ‎(30) Countries and Regions of Publication (53) View the list below for more details. Map View: Low High The flags indicate which authority file had at least some publications from the country or region: FR - France (2,326) DE - Germany (2,049) IT - Italy (1,123) GB - United Kingdom (965) US - United States (272) NL - Netherlands (235) CH - Switzerland (140) ES - Spain (135) SE - Sweden (134) PL - Poland (131) BE - Belgium (129) KI - Kiribati (104) NC - (71) CZ - Czech Republic (69) IE - Ireland (62) AT - Austria (53) IS - Iceland (51) RU - Russian Federation (46) SK - Slovakia (42) DK - Denmark (37) HR - Croatia (28) TW - Taiwan, Province of China (27) UA - Ukraine (26) MX - Mexico (15) PT - Portugal (13) AU - Australia (13) TL - (12) SV - San Salvador (11) CO - Colombia (11) LV - Latvia (10) HU - Hungary (9) NO - Norway (8) FI - Finland (8) AR - Argentina (8) SA - Saudi Arabia (6) JP - Japan (6) GR - Greece (6) LT - Lithuania (5) EG - Egypt (5) RO - Romania (4) IN - India (4) EE - Estonia (4) BR - Brazil (4) VE - Venezuela (2) IL - Israel (2) EC - Ecuador (2) CL - Chile (2) CA - Canada (2) SC - Seychelles (1) RS - Serbia (1) CU - Cuba (1) BY - Belarus (1) BA - Bosnia and Herzegovina (1) Publication Statistics Publication History 100 | | 2100 Identifiers 408 unique ISBN's Selected Publishers (17) B. G. Teubner ‎(283) Hachette ‎(208) Cengage Gale ‎(187) Les belles lettres ‎(136) Weidmann ‎(111) Weidmannsche Verlagsbuchhandlung ‎(109) J. Delalain ‎(57) Reclam ‎(48) Aschendorff ‎(37) Bange ‎(32) 文藝出版社 ‎(4) Officina de Simao Thaddeo Ferreira ‎(4) 岩波書店 ‎(3) Oxford univ. press ‎(2) مكتبة النهضة المصرية، ‎(1) Изд-во ПетрГУ ‎(1) Postimees ‎(1) About Personal Information Gender: Male Nationality or associated country: IT - Italy XT - 이탈리아(국명)[Italy] - staroveký Rím - XX - Rome - Ancient Rome - Ancient Roman - Field of Activity: 철학 사상 哲学 문학 예술 㒚学 satirist poezia poet literatura latin poet klasicka latinska literatura epistolary Occupation: poet 작가 사람 作傢 시인 시 詩人 satirist poets basnici Language: lat - Latin External Links Wikipedia - https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatius Wikipedia - https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/ሆራቲዩስ Wikipedia - https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horacio Wikipedia - https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/هوراس Wikipedia - https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/هوراتيوس Wikipedia - https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horaciu Wikipedia - https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/هوراس Wikipedia - https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/Гораций Wikipedia - https://bat_smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huoracėjos Wikipedia - https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/Гарацый Wikipedia - https://be_x_old.wikipedia.org/wiki/Гарацыюс Wikipedia - https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Хораций Wikipedia - https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus_Horatius_Flaccus Wikipedia - https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horacije Wikipedia - https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horaci Wikipedia - https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus_Horatius_Flaccus Wikipedia - https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horas Wikipedia - https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horats Wikipedia - https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horaz Wikipedia - https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatius Wikipedia - https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Οράτιος Wikipedia - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace Wikipedia - https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horacio Wikipedia - https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horacio Wikipedia - https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatius Wikipedia - https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horazio Wikipedia - https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/هوراس Wikipedia - https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatius Wikipedia - https://fiu_vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatius Wikipedia - https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace Wikipedia - https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orazi Wikipedia - https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus_Horatius_Flaccus Wikipedia - https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horacio Wikipedia - https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/הורטיוס Wikipedia - https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/होरेस Wikipedia - https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace Wikipedia - https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horacije Wikipedia - https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus_Horatius_Flaccus Wikipedia - https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Հորացիոս Wikipedia - https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatio Wikipedia - https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatius Wikipedia - https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatius Wikipedia - https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hóratíus Wikipedia - https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quinto_Orazio_Flacco Wikipedia - https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/ホラティウス Wikipedia - https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/ჰორაციუსი Wikipedia - https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Гораций Wikipedia - https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/호라티우스 Wikipedia - https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatius Wikipedia - https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace Wikipedia - https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus_Horatius_Flaccus Wikipedia - https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatio Wikipedia - https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horacijus Wikipedia - https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horācijs Wikipedia - https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace Wikipedia - https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Хорациј Wikipedia - https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/ഹൊറസ് Wikipedia - https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Гораций Wikipedia - https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/होरेस Wikipedia - https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatius Wikipedia - https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus_Horatius_Flaccus Wikipedia - https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatius Wikipedia - https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horats Wikipedia - https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horats Wikipedia - https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oraci Wikipedia - https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/ਹੋਰਸ Wikipedia - https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horacy_(poeta) Wikipedia - https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orassi Wikipedia - https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horácio Wikipedia - https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus_Horatius_Flaccus Wikipedia - https://roa_tara.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quinde_Orazio_Flacco Wikipedia - https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Гораций Wikipedia - https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quinto_Orazio_Flacco Wikipedia - https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintu_Orazziu_Flaccu Wikipedia - https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvint_Horacije_Flak Wikipedia - https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace Wikipedia - https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatius Wikipedia - https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horacij Wikipedia - https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Хорације Wikipedia - https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus_Horatius_Flaccus Wikipedia - https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatius Wikipedia - https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatius Wikipedia - https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/ஓராசு Wikipedia - https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horacio Wikipedia - https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatius Wikipedia - https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Гораций Wikipedia - https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Горацій Wikipedia - https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goratsiy Wikipedia - https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace Wikipedia - https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatius Wikipedia - https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace Wikipedia - https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horacio Wikipedia - https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/贺拉斯 Wikipedia - https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/贺拉斯 Wikipedia - https://zh_yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/賀拉斯 WorldCat Identities - lccn-n79081354 ISNI - 0000 0001 2145 2178 Record Views MARC-21 record VIAF Cluster in XML RDF record Just Links in JSON History of VIAF ID:100227522 (63) Record ID Action Time NLA|000035206138 add 2009-11-11T06:00:15+00:00 SELIBR|189659 add 2009-11-11T06:00:15+00:00 NUKAT|s 96210544 delete 2011-02-17T05:22:51+00:00 SUDOC|026659166 add 2011-08-17T04:30:21+00:00 BNF|11886570 add 2012-04-23T06:08:50+00:00 NDL|00540086 add 2012-09-21T12:24:29+00:00 BIBSYS|x90055203 delete 2012-11-27T04:00:16+00:00 NLIheb|000171803 delete 2013-05-13T19:14:22+00:00 NLIlat|000064806 delete 2013-05-13T19:14:22+00:00 LNB|LNC10-000000375 add 2013-11-23T21:33:28+00:00 NUKAT|n 96210540 add 2014-10-27T16:17:29+00:00 WKP|Horace delete 2015-04-14T18:56:54+00:00 N6I|vtls000025217 add 2015-05-12T00:14:00+00:00 WKP|Q6197 add 2016-03-27T11:13:22.400209+00:00 PERSEUS|urn:cite:perseus:author.748.1 add 2016-04-03T10:41:55.534419+00:00 BNC|a10101214 add 2016-05-30T07:06:37.308232+00:00 ISNI|0000000121452178 add 2016-05-30T07:06:37.499420+00:00 NKC|jn20000603003 add 2016-05-30T07:06:37.560176+00:00 NLP|a21052013 delete 2016-08-14T12:30:01.320983+00:00 NLR|RU NLR AUTH 7770066 add 2016-08-31T15:33:55.550394+00:00 SWNL|vtls005188913 delete 2016-09-12T13:46:15.609693+00:00 DNB|1078357609 delete 2017-06-25T18:22:20.737334+00:00 NLR|RU NLR AUTH 7710633 delete 2018-02-04T10:39:38.620039+00:00 UIY|000021515 add 2018-03-18T08:37:12.821669+00:00 JPG|500404135 add 2018-09-02T21:31:40.673273+00:00 ERRR|a11218952 add 2018-09-23T14:19:22.652644+00:00 DNB|118553569 add 2018-09-23T14:19:22.689550+00:00 LC|n 79081354 add 2018-09-23T14:19:22.884382+00:00 ERRR|a11161255 add 2018-09-23T14:19:22.937999+00:00 KRNLK|KAC199612791 add 2018-09-30T12:06:28.867827+00:00 CAOONL|ncf10005444 add 2018-11-18T16:13:48.222761+00:00 LAC|0009G0402 delete 2018-12-02T22:21:03.065553+00:00 LIH|LNB:VV44890;=BL delete 2018-12-03T07:46:57.000212+00:00 SZ|118553569 add 2019-02-17T11:50:00.315983+00:00 SWNL|vtls005725248 delete 2019-03-10T13:55:37.703425+00:00 NLR|RU NLR AUTH 770155021 add 2019-03-17T12:52:08.678056+00:00 N6I|vtls000339594 delete 2019-03-24T10:26:11.848602+00:00 LC|no 92010069 delete 2019-03-24T10:26:11.877504+00:00 NLP|a11793144 delete 2019-03-24T10:26:11.886926+00:00 NLI|000064806 delete 2019-03-24T10:26:11.895679+00:00 NTA|068304579 delete 2019-03-24T10:26:11.912995+00:00 SIMACOB|8323171 delete 2019-03-24T10:26:11.960072+00:00 SKMASNL|vtls010873246 add 2019-08-12T13:31:37.822576+00:00 LIH|LNB:V-44890;=BL add 2019-08-25T11:10:06.478892+00:00 BLBNB|000573561 add 2019-08-25T11:10:06.490666+00:00 BNCHL|10000000000000000008397 add 2019-08-25T11:10:06.501659+00:00 PTBNP|19592 add 2019-08-25T11:10:06.513614+00:00 BNE|XX891549 delete 2020-04-07T16:08:05.728817+00:00 W2Z|90055203 delete 2020-04-12T21:24:38.951541+00:00 DE663|pe411425 add 2020-05-24T08:48:17.752577+00:00 RERO|vtls000081296 delete 2020-06-16T20:28:43.280776+00:00 RERO|A000081296 add 2020-06-17T20:08:02.743405+00:00 BAV|ADV11452220 delete 2020-07-14T12:20:22.552117+00:00 BAV|ADV11561527 delete 2020-07-14T12:22:29.151128+00:00 BAV|ADV12139878 delete 2020-07-14T12:35:32.108077+00:00 BAV|495_53093 add 2020-07-14T12:56:47.257136+00:00 NSK|000013522 add 2020-07-14T12:56:47.269110+00:00 EGAXA|vtls000023274 add 2020-07-14T12:56:47.281442+00:00 BIBSYS|90055203 delete 2020-07-14T15:53:02.527538+00:00 NII|DA00782980 delete 2020-07-14T15:53:02.537122+00:00 ICCU|CFIV000246 delete 2020-07-14T15:53:02.548827+00:00 BIBSYS|55203 delete 2020-12-13T17:50:32.894092+00:00 B2Q|0000057526 delete 2020-12-13T17:50:32.915608+00:00 © 2010-2020 OCLC Privacy policy Cookie Notice Cookie Settings Hosted by OCLC About the dataset Send us a comment. About VIAF 
vo-wikipedia-org-8387	----	Horatius - Vükiped Horatius Se Vükiped: sikloped libik Jump to navigation Jump to search Horatius Moted: 8 dekul 65 b.K. Venosa Deadam: 27 novul 8 b.K. Roma Cal(s): poedan[*], lautan[*], philosopher[*] Tatät(s): Ancient Rome[*] Pal(s): unknown value, unknown value Hiel Quintus Horatius Flaccus (65 b.K. dekul 8 - 8 b.K. novul 27), suvo sevädik as Horace, äbinom poedan lürik veütikün timü Augustus. Pekopiedon se „https://vo.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horatius&oldid=3198627“ Klads: Poedans Romänik Yegeds vipabik Navigation menu Stums pösodik No enunädol oli Bespiks ela IP at Keblünots Jafön kali Nunädön oki Nemaspads Yeged Bespik Variants Logams Reidön Redakön Redakön fonäti Logön jenotemi More Suk Nafam Cifapad Komotanefaleyan Jenots nuik Votükams nulik Pad fädik Yuf Födagivots Stumem Yüms isio Votükams teföl Pads patik Yüm laidüpik Nüns pada Mäniotön yegedi at Din ela Wikidata Print/export Jafön buki Donükön as PDF Fom dabükovik Proyegs votik Wikimedia Commons In püks votik Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Walon Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Redakön yümis Pad at pävotükon lätiküno tü düp 15:33, ün 2018 setul 9id. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Dunamod demü soelöf Tefü Vükiped Nuneds Mobile view Programans Statistics Cookie statement 
war-wikipedia-org-1771	----	Horacio - Wikipedia Horacio Tikang ha Wikipedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Hi Quintus Horatius Flaccus (Disyembre 8, 65 BC - Nobyembre 27, 8 BC), kilala ha mga nagiininglis nga "Horace", usa nga sikat nga maniniday ha Imperyo Romano.  Usa ka turók ini nga barasahon. Dako it imo maibubulig ha Wikipedia pinaagi han pagparabong hini. An Wikimedia Commons mayda media nga nahahanungod han: Horacio Ginkuha tikang ha "https://war.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horacio&oldid=4767089" Mga kaarangay: Mga turók Mga natawo han 65 UC Mga namatay han 8 UC Menu hit nabigasyon Mga pankalugaringon nga garamiton Diri naka-log in Hiruhimangraw Mga amot Himo-a an akawnt Sakob Mga ngaran-lat'ang Barasahon Hiruhimangraw Mga pagkadirudilain Mga paglantaw Basaha Igliwat Igliwat an wikitext Kitaa an kaagi More Bilnga paglayag Syahan nga Pakli Ganghaan han Komunidad Mga panhitabo Mga kabag-ohan Bisan ano nga pakli Bulig Mga Donasyon Garamiton Mga nasumpay dinhi Mga may kalabotan nga binag-o Pagkarga hin file Mga pinaurog nga pakli Sumpay nga unob Impormasyon han pakli Ig-cite ini nga pakli Wikidata item Pagpatika/pag-ambit Paghimo hin libro Igkarga-paubos komo PDF Maipapatik nga bersyon Ha iba nga mga proyekto Wikimedia Commons Ha iba nga mga yinaknan Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon 吴语 中文 粵語 Igliwat an mga sumpay Ini nga pakli kataposan nga ginliwat dida han 06:36, 8 Marso 2014. An teksto in available ha ilarom han Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; kadugangan nga terms in puyde mag-apply. Kitaa anMga Terms of Use para han mga detalye. Polisiya hin pribasidad Bahin han Wikipedia Mga Disclaimer Mobile view Mga developer Statistics Cookie statement 
wa-wikipedia-org-1541	----	Horace — Wikipedia Horace Èn årtike di Wikipedia. Sauter à la navigation Sauter à la recherche Saturae, 1577 Horace, c' est on powete grek do vî tins. Ratournaedje di ses powinmes e walon[candjî | candjî l’ côde wiki] Onk des prumîs a-z aveur ratourné Horace e walon, ci fourit Henri Simon. I redjårba cénk ôdes, tot rmetant les sinnes dins l’ payis walon. Soracte divna les Hés d’ Kinkepwès et l’ tchamp d’ måss li cai d’ Avroe. Marcel Hicter a rfwait parey. Albert Maquet a eto sayî on ratournaedje dins s' live "Poèmes de l'Antiquité grecque et romaine adaptés en wallon liégeois" Prin del pådje «https://wa.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horace&oldid=330243» Categoreyes : Rilomés powetes Civilizåcion greke Menu d’ naiviaedje Usteyes da vosse Nén elodjî Copinaedje Mi ovraedje Ahiver on novea conte S’ elodjî Espåces di lomaedje Årtike Copene Variantes Vuwes Lére Candjî Candjî l’ côde wiki Istwere Plus Cweri Naiviaedje Mwaisse pådje Inte di nozôtes Noveles Dierins candjmints Årtike a l’ astcheyance Aidance Ecwårlaedje Usteyes Pådjes ki loynut chal Candjmints aloyîs Eberweter on fitchî Pådjes sipeciåles Hårdêye viè cisse modêye ci Infôrmåcion sol pådje Citer cisse pådje ci Cayet di Wikidata Imprimer / copyî foû Fé on live Aberweter come PDF Modêye sicrirece-amiståve Dins d’ ôtes pordjets Wikimedia Commons Dins ds ôtes lingaedjes Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Winaray 吴语 中文 粵語 Candjî les loyéns Cisse pådje ci a stî candjeye pol dierin côp li 13 nôvimbe 2017 a 17:35. Les tecses sont disponibes dizo l’ licince ''Creative Commons'' atribucion pårtaedje a l’ idintike; i pout co aveur des condicions di rawete. Loukîz les condicions d’ eployaedje po saveur les ca et les ma. Politike des scretès dinêyes Åd fwait di Wikipedia Version mobile Diswalpeus Statistiques Déclaration sur les témoins (cookies) 
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wuu-wikipedia-org-6333	----	贺拉斯 - 维基百科 贺拉斯 吴语维基百科，自由个百科全书 跳到导航 跳到搜索 昆图斯·贺拉斯·弗拉库斯（拉丁语：Quintus Horatius Flaccus、希腊语：Οράτιος，前65年12月8号意大利韦诺萨 - 前8年11月27号意大利罗马），奥古斯都时期个著名诗人、批评家、翻译家，代表作有《诗艺》等。 渠是古罗马文学“黄金时代”个代表人之一。 取自“https://wuu.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=贺拉斯&oldid=264505” 导航菜单 私人家伙 呒不登录 讲张 贡献 建账号 登录 名字空间 文章 讨论 变量 视图 阅读 编辑 望历史 更多 搜寻 导航 封面 社区门堂 近段辰光个事体 近段辰光个改动 随机页面 帮忙 捐款 家生 链进来点啥 搭界个改动 上传文件 特别页面 老世链接 页面信息 引用该篇文章 维基数据项 打印/导出 创建书本 作为PDF下载 打印版 别个项目里向 维基共享资源 别样闲话版本 Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Kernowek Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis Português Română Tarandíne Русский Sardu Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Seeltersk Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Татарча/tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon Winaray 中文 粵語 编辑链接 箇只页面阿末趟编辑来拉2020年2月20号 (四) 20:18。 文字内容采用知识共享“署名-相同方式共享”许可协议授权；作兴会应用附加条款。详情见使用条款。 隐私政策 有关维基百科 免责声明 手机版视图 开发者 统计 Cookie声明 
www-bncatalogo-cl-9019	----	C.Colect. Autoridade - Full View of Record Otros Catálogos Biblioteca Nacional de Chile Congreso Nacional de Chile Universidad Católica de Chile Ayuda Sugerencias Información Nueva Búsqueda | Búsquedas Anteriores | Lista de Resultados     Solicitud de Título  |  Agregar a mi Canasta  |  Reservar  |  Guardar o Enviar Vista Completa del Registro Escoger Formato: Formato Estandar No. Sistema   000035928 Formato   AU Encab. establecido   Horacio, 65-8 A.C. Término no usado   Horacio Flacco, Quinto, 65-8 a.C.   Horatius Flaccus, Quintus, 65-8 a.C.   Horace, 65-8 a.C.   Horacy, 65-8 a.C.   Orazio, 65-8 a.C. Fuente c/datos   CDMARC Name. Horace.   Enc. Espasa.-- v.28, p.291. Datos Biograf./His.   Poeta latino. Nació en Venusi, Apulia, 05/12/65 a.C. Murió el 27/11/8 a.C. Propietario   BNC Escoja Formato: Formato Estandar Etiquetas MARC Condiciones de Uso: Obligación de citar la fuente en el proceso de inserción de los registros en... Leer más 
www-getty-edu-6520	----	ULAN Full Record Display (Getty Research) Research Home Tools Union List of Artist Names Full Record Display Click the icon to view the hierarchy.   Semantic View (JSON, JSONLD, RDF, N3/Turtle, N-Triples) ID: 500404135 Page Link: http://vocab.getty.edu/page/ulan/500404135   Record Type: Person Horace (Roman poet, 65-8 BCE) Note: Latin lyric poet and satirist under the emperor Augustus. The most frequent themes of his Odes and verse Epistles are love, friendship, philosophy, and the art of poetry. Names: Horace (preferred,V,display,LC) Horacio (V) , Quintus Horatius Flaccus (VFN) Orazio Flacco, Quinto (V) Orazio (V) Nationalities: Ancient Roman (preferred) Roles: poet (preferred) satirist Gender: male List/Hierarchical Position:  ....  Non-Artists  ........  Horace (I) Biographies: (Roman poet, 65-8 BCE) ..... [VP Preferred] Additional Names: Sources and Contributors: Horace ........  [VP Preferred] ...............  Encyclopedia Britannica Online (2002-) ...............  Library of Congress Authorities online (2002-) n 79081354 Horacio ........  [VP] .................  Library of Congress Authorities online (2002-) Orazio ........  [VP] ...............  Library of Congress Authorities online (2002-) Orazio Flacco, Quinto ........  [VP] ...........................................  Library of Congress Authorities online (2002-) Quintus Horatius Flaccus ........  [VP] .................................................  Encyclopedia Britannica Online (2002-)   Note: English ..........  [VP] ..........  Encyclopedia Britannica Online (2002-) The J. Paul Getty Trust © 2004 J. Paul Getty Trust Terms of Use / Privacy Policy / Contact Us   
www-gutenberg-org-3767	----	Project Gutenberg's Lives Of The Poets, by C. Suetonius Tranquillus This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.net Title: Lives Of The Poets The Lives Of The Twelve Caesars, Volume 14. Author: C. Suetonius Tranquillus Release Date: December 14, 2004 [EBook #6399] Language: English *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LIVES OF THE POETS *** Produced by Tapio Riikonen and David Widger THE LIVES OF THE TWELVE CAESARS                                    By                        C. Suetonius Tranquillus; To which are added, HIS LIVES OF THE GRAMMARIANS, RHETORICIANS, AND POETS.                           The Translation of                         Alexander Thomson, M.D.                         revised and corrected by                          T.Forester, Esq., A.M. LIVES OF THE POETS. (531) CONTENTS:        Terence        Juvenal        Persius        Horace        Lucan        Pliny THE LIFE OF TERENCE. Publius Terentius Afer, a native of Carthage, was a slave, at Rome, of the senator Terentius Lucanus, who, struck by his abilities and handsome person, gave him not only a liberal education in his youth, but his freedom when he arrived at years of maturity. Some say that he was a captive taken in war, but this, as Fenestella [925] informs us, could by no means have been the case, since both his birth and death took place in the interval between the termination of the second Punic war and the commencement of the third [926]; nor, even supposing that he had been taken prisoner by the Numidian or Getulian tribes, could he have fallen into the hands of a Roman general, as there was no commercial intercourse between the Italians and Africans until after the fall of Carthage [927]. Terence lived in great familiarity with many persons of high station, and especially with Scipio Africanus, and Caius Delius, whose favour he is even supposed to have purchased by the foulest means. But Fenestella reverses the charge, contending that Terence was older than either of them. Cornelius Nepos, however, (532) informs us that they were all of nearly equal age; and Porcias intimates a suspicion of this criminal commerce in the following passage:— "While Terence plays the wanton with the great, and recommends himself to them by the meretricious ornaments of his person; while, with greedy ears, he drinks in the divine melody of Africanus's voice; while he thinks of being a constant guest at the table of Furius, and the handsome Laelius; while he thinks that he is fondly loved by them, and often invited to Albanum for his youthful beauty, he finds himself stripped of his property, and reduced to the lowest state of indigence. Then, withdrawing from the world, he betook himself to Greece, where he met his end, dying at Strymphalos, a town in Arcadia. What availed him the friendship of Scipio, of Laelius, or of Furius, three of the most affluent nobles of that age? They did not even minister to his necessities so much as to provide him a hired house, to which his slave might return with the intelligence of his master's death." He wrote comedies, the earliest of which, The Andria, having to be performed at the public spectacles given by the aediles [928], he was commanded to read it first before Caecilius [929]. Having been introduced while Caecilius was at supper, and being meanly dressed, he is reported to have read the beginning of the play seated on a low stool near the great man's couch. But after reciting a few verses, he was invited to take his place at table, and, having supped with his host, went through the rest to his great delight. This play and five others were received by the public with similar applause, although Volcatius, in his enumeration of them, says that "The Hecyra [930] must not be reckoned among these." The Eunuch was even acted twice the same day [931], and earned more money than any comedy, whoever was the writer, had (533) ever done before, namely, eight thousand sesterces [932]; besides which, a certain sum accrued to the author for the title. But Varro prefers the opening of The Adelphi [933] to that of Menander. It is very commonly reported that Terence was assisted in his works by Laelius and Scipio [934], with whom he lived in such great intimacy. He gave some currency to this report himself, nor did he ever attempt to defend himself against it, except in a light way; as in the prologue to The Adelphi:     Nam quod isti dicunt malevoli, homines nohiles     Hunc adjutare, assidueque una scribere;     Quod illi maledictun vehemens existimant,     Eam laudem hic ducit maximam: cum illis placet,     Qui vobis universis et populo placent;     Quorum opera in bello, in otio, in negotio,     Suo quisque tempore usus est sine superbia.                                 ————For this,     Which malice tells that certain noble persons     Assist the bard, and write in concert with him,     That which they deem a heavy slander, he     Esteems his greatest praise: that he can please     Those who in war, in peace, as counsellors,     Have rendered you the dearest services,     And ever borne their faculties so meekly.                                           Colman. He appears to have protested against this imputation with less earnestness, because the notion was far from being disagreeable to Laelius and Scipio. It therefore gained ground, and prevailed in after-times. Quintus Memmius, in his speech in his own defence, says "Publius Africanus, who borrowed from Terence a character which he had acted in private, brought it on the stage in his name." Nepos tells us he found in some book that C. Laelius, when he was on some occasion at Puteoli, on the calends [the first] of March, [935] being requested by his wife to rise early, (534) begged her not to suffer him to be disturbed, as he had gone to bed late, having been engaged in writing with more than usual success. On her asking him to tell her what he had been writing, he repeated the verses which are found in the Heautontimoroumenos:     Satis pol proterve me Syri promessa—Heauton. IV. iv. 1.     I'faith! the rogue Syrus's impudent pretences— Santra [936] is of opinion that if Terence required any assistance in his compositions [937], he would not have had recourse to Scipio and Laelius, who were then very young men, but rather to Sulpicius Gallus [938], an accomplished scholar, who had been the first to introduce his plays at the games given by the consuls; or to Q. Fabius Labeo, or Marcus Popilius [939], both men of consular rank, as well as poets. It was for this reason that, in alluding to the assistance he had received, he did not speak of his coadjutors as very young men, but as persons of whose services the people had full experience in peace, in war, and in the administration of affairs. After he had given his comedies to the world, at a time when he had not passed his thirty-fifth year, in order to avoid suspicion, as he found others publishing their works under his name, or else to make himself acquainted with the modes of life and habits of the Greeks, for the purpose of exhibiting them in his plays, he withdrew from home, to which he never returned. Volcatius gives this account of his death:     Sed ut Afer sei populo dedit comoedias,     Iter hic in Asiam fecit. Navem cum semel     Conscendit, visus nunquam est. Sic vita vacat.     (535) When Afer had produced six plays for the entertainment of the         people,     He embarked for Asia; but from the time he went on board ship     He was never seen again. Thus he ended his life. Q. Consentius reports that he perished at sea on his voyage back from Greece, and that one hundred and eight plays, of which he had made a version from Menander [940], were lost with him. Others say that he died at Stymphalos, in Arcadia, or in Leucadia, during the consulship of Cn. Cornelius Dolabella and Marcus Fulvius Nobilior [941], worn out with a severe illness, and with grief and regret for the loss of his baggage, which he had sent forward in a ship that was wrecked, and contained the last new plays he had written. In person, Terence is reported to have been rather short and slender, with a dark complexion. He had an only daughter, who was afterwards married to a Roman knight; and he left also twenty acres of garden ground [942], on the Appian Way, at the Villa of Mars. I, therefore, wonder the more how Porcius could have written the verses,                           ————nihil Publius     Scipio profuit, nihil et Laelius, nihil Furius,     Tres per idem tempus qui agitabant nobiles facillime.     Eorum ille opera ne domum quidem habuit conductitiam     Saltem ut esset, quo referret obitum domini servulus. [943] Afranius places him at the head of all the comic writers, declaring, in his Compitalia,     Terentio non similem dices quempiam.     Terence's equal cannot soon be found. On the other hand, Volcatius reckons him inferior not only (536) to Naevius, Plautus, and Caecilius, but also to Licinius. Cicero pays him this high compliment, in his Limo—     Tu quoque, qui solus lecto sermone, Terenti,     Conversum expressumque Latina voce Menandrum     In medio populi sedatis vocibus offers,     Quidquid come loquens, ac omnia dulcia dicens. "You, only, Terence, translated into Latin, and clothed in choice language the plays of Menander, and brought them before the public, who, in crowded audiences, hung upon hushed applause— Grace marked each line, and every period charmed." So also Caius Caesar:     Tu quoque tu in summis, O dimidiate Menander,     Poneris, et merito, puri sermonis amator,     Lenibus atque utinam scriptis adjuncta foret vis     Comica, ut aequato virtus polleret honore     Cum Graecis, neque in hoc despectus parte jaceres!     Unum hoc maceror, et doleo tibi deesse, Terenti. "You, too, who divide your honours with Menander, will take your place among poets of the highest order, and justly too, such is the purity of your style. Would only that to your graceful diction was added more comic force, that your works might equal in merit the Greek masterpieces, and your inferiority in this particular should not expose you to censure. This is my only regret; in this, Terence, I grieve to say you are wanting." THE LIFE OF JUVENAL. D. JUNIUS JUVENALIS, who was either the son [944] of a wealthy freedman, or brought up by him, it is not known which, declaimed till the middle of life [945], more from the bent of his inclination, than from any desire to prepare himself either for the schools or the forum. But having composed a short satire [946], which was clever enough, on Paris [947], the actor of pantomimes, (537) and also on the poet of Claudius Nero, who was puffed up by having held some inferior military rank for six months only; he afterwards devoted himself with much zeal to that style of writing. For a while indeed, he had not the courage to read them even to a small circle of auditors, but it was not long before he recited his satires to crowded audiences, and with entire success; and this he did twice or thrice, inserting new lines among those which he had originally composed.     Quod non dant proceres, dabit histrio, tu Camerinos,     Et Bareas, tu nobilium magna atria curas.     Praefectos Pelopea facit, Philomela tribunos.     Behold an actor's patronage affords     A surer means of rising than a lord's!     And wilt thou still the Camerino's [948] court,     Or to the halls of Bareas resort,     When tribunes Pelopea can create     And Philomela praefects, who shall rule the state? [949] At that time the player was in high favour at court, and many of those who fawned upon him were daily raised to posts of honour. Juvenal therefore incurred the suspicion of having covertly satirized occurrences which were then passing, and, although eighty years old at that time [950], he was immediately removed from the city, being sent into honourable banishment as praefect of a cohort, which was under orders to proceed to a station at the extreme frontier of Egypt [951]. That (538) sort of punishment was selected, as it appeared severe enough for an offence which was venial, and a mere piece of drollery. However, he died very soon afterwards, worn down by grief, and weary of his life. THE LIFE OF PERSIUS. AULUS PERSIUS FLACCUS was born the day before the Nones of December [4th Dec.] [952], in the consulship of Fabius Persicus and L. Vitellius. He died on the eighth of the calends of December [24th Nov.] [953] in the consulship of Rubrius Marius and Asinius Gallus. Though born at Volterra, in Etruria, he was a Roman knight, allied both by blood and marriage to persons of the highest rank [954]. He ended his days at an estate he had at the eighth milestone on the Appian Way. His father, Flaccus, who died when he was barely six years old, left him under the care of guardians, and his mother, Fulvia Silenna, who afterwards married Fusius, a Roman knight, buried him also in a very few years. Persius Flaccus pursued his studies at Volterra till he was twelve years old, and then continued them at Rome, under Remmius Palaemon, the grammarian, and Verginius Flaccus, the rhetorician. Arriving at the age of twenty-one, he formed a friendship with Annaeus Cornutus [955], which lasted through life; and from him he learned the rudiments of philosophy. Among his earliest friends were Caesius Bassus [956], and Calpurnius Statura; the latter of whom died while Persius himself was yet in his youth. Servilius (539) Numanus [957], he reverenced as a father. Through Cornutus he was introduced to Annaeus, as well as to Lucan, who was of his own age, and also a disciple of Cornutus. At that time Cornutus was a tragic writer; he belonged to the sect of the Stoics, and left behind him some philosophical works. Lucan was so delighted with the writings of Persius Flaccus, that he could scarcely refrain from giving loud tokens of applause while the author was reciting them, and declared that they had the true spirit of poetry. It was late before Persius made the acquaintance of Seneca, and then he was not much struck with his natural endowments. At the house of Cornutus he enjoyed the society of two very learned and excellent men, who were then zealously devoting themselves to philosophical enquiries, namely, Claudius Agaternus, a physician from Lacedaemon, and Petronius Aristocrates, of Magnesia, men whom he held in the highest esteem, and with whom he vied in their studies, as they were of his own age, being younger than Cornutus. During nearly the last ten years of his life he was much beloved by Thraseas, so that he sometimes travelled abroad in his company; and his cousin Arria was married to him. Persius was remarkable for gentle manners, for a modesty amounting to bashfulness, a handsome form, and an attachment to his mother, sister, and aunt, which was most exemplary. He was frugal and chaste. He left his mother and sister twenty thousand sesterces, requesting his mother, in a written codicil, to present to Cornutus, as some say, one hundred sesterces, or as others, twenty pounds of wrought silver [958], besides about seven hundred books, which, indeed, included his whole library. Cornutus, however, would only take the books, and gave up the legacy to the sisters, whom his brother had constituted his heirs. He wrote [959] seldom, and not very fast; even the work we possess he left incomplete. Some verses are wanting at the end of the book [960], but Cornutus thoughtlessly recited it, as if (540) it was finished; and on Caesius Bassus requesting to be allowed to publish it, he delivered it to him for that purpose., In his younger days, Persius had written a play, as well as an Itinerary, with several copies of verses on Thraseas' father-in-law, and Arria's [961] mother, who had made away with herself before her husband. But Cornutus used his whole influence with the mother of Persius to prevail upon her to destroy these compositions. As soon as his book of Satires was published, all the world began to admire it, and were eager to buy it up. He died of a disease in the stomach, in the thirtieth year of his age [962]. But no sooner had he left school and his masters, than he set to work with great vehemence to compose satires, from having read the tenth book of Lucilius; and made the beginning of that book his model; presently launching his invectives all around with so little scruple, that he did not spare cotemporary poets and orators, and even lashed Nero himself, who was then the reigning prince. The verse ran as follows:     Auriculas asini Mida rex habet;     King Midas has an ass's ears; but Cornutus altered it thus;     Auriculas asini quis non hahet?     Who has not an ass's ears? in order that it might not be supposed that it was meant to apply to Nero. THE LIFE OF HORACE. HORATIUS FLACCUS was a native of Venusium [963], his father having been, by his own account [964], a freedman and collector of taxes, but, as it is generally believed, a dealer in salted (541) provisions; for some one with whom Horace had a quarrel, jeered him, by saying; "How often have I seen your father wiping his nose with his fist?" In the battle of Philippi, he served as a military tribune [965], which post he filled at the instance of Marcus Brutus [966], the general; and having obtained a pardon, on the overthrow of his party, he purchased the office of scribe to a quaestor. Afterwards insinuating himself first, into the good graces of Mecaenas, and then of Augustus, he secured no small share in the regard of both. And first, how much Mecaenas loved him may be seen by the epigram in which he says:     Ni te visceribus meis, Horati,     Plus jam diligo, Titium sodalem,     Ginno tu videas strigosiorem. [967] But it was more strongly exhibited by Augustus, in a short sentence uttered in his last moments: "Be as mindful of Horatius Flaccus as you are of me!" Augustus offered to appoint him his secretary, signifying his wishes to Mecaenas in a letter to the following effect: "Hitherto I have been able to write my own epistles to friends; but now I am too much occupied, and in an infirm state of health. I wish, therefore, to deprive you of our Horace: let him leave, therefore, your luxurious table and come to the palace, and he shall assist me in writing my letters." And upon his refusing to accept the office, he neither exhibited the smallest displeasure, nor ceased to heap upon him tokens of his regard. Letters of his are extant, from which I will make some short extracts to establish this: "Use your influence over me with the same freedom as you would do if we were living together as friends. In so doing you will be perfectly right, and guilty of no impropriety; for I could wish that our intercourse should be on that footing, if your health admitted of it." And again: "How I hold you in memory you may learn (542) from our friend Septimius [968], for I happened to mention you when he was present. And if you are so proud as to scorn my friendship, that is no reason why I should lightly esteem yours, in return." Besides this, among other drolleries, he often called him, "his most immaculate penis," and "his charming little man," and loaded him from time to time with proofs of his munificence. He admired his works so much, and was so convinced of their enduring fame, that he directed him to compose the Secular Poem, as well as that on the victory of his stepsons Tiberius and Drusus over the Vindelici [969]; and for this purpose urged him to add, after a long interval, a fourth book of Odes to the former three. After reading his "Sermones," in which he found no mention of himself, he complained in these terms: "You must know that I am very angry with you, because in most of your works of this description you do not choose to address yourself to me. Are you afraid that, in times to come, your reputation will suffer; in case it should appear that you lived on terms of intimate friendship with me?" And he wrung from him the eulogy which begins with,     Cum tot sustineas, et tanta negotia solus:     Res Italas armis tuteris, moribus ornes,     Legibus emendes: in publica commoda peccem,     Si longo sermone morer tua tempora, Caesar.—Epist. ii. i.     While you alone sustain the important weight     Of Rome's affairs, so various and so great;     While you the public weal with arms defend,     Adorn with morals, and with laws amend;     Shall not the tedious letter prove a crime,     That steals one moment of our Caesar's time.—Francis. In person, Horace was short and fat, as he is described by himself in his Satires [970], and by Augustus in the following letter: "Dionysius has brought me your small volume, which, little as it is, not to blame you for that, I shall judge favourably. You seem to me, however, to be afraid lest your volumes should be bigger than yourself. But if you are short in stature, you are corpulent enough. You may, therefore, (543) if you will, write in a quart, when the size of your volume is as large round as your paunch." It is reported that he was immoderately addicted to venery. [For he is said to have had obscene pictures so disposed in a bedchamber lined with mirrors, that, whichever way he looked, lascivious images might present themselves to his view.] [971] He lived for the most part in the retirement of his farm [972], on the confines of the Sabine and Tiburtine territories, and his house is shewn in the neighbourhood of a little wood not far from Tibur. Some Elegies ascribed to him, and a prose Epistle apparently written to commend himself to Mecaenas, have been handed down to us; but I believe that neither of them are genuine works of his; for the Elegies are commonplace, and the Epistle is wanting in perspicuity, a fault which cannot be imputed to his style. He was born on the sixth of the ides of December [27th December], in the consulship of Lucius Cotta [973] and Lucius Torquatus; and died on the fifth of the calends of December [27th November], in the consulship of Caius Marcius Censorinus and Caius Asinius Gallus [974]; having completed his fifty-ninth year. He made a nuncupatory will, declaring Augustus his heir, not being able, from the violence of his disorder, to sign one in due form. He was interred and lies buried on the skirts of the Esquiline Hill, near the tomb of Mecaenas. [975] (544) M. ANNAEUS LUCANUS, a native of Corduba [976], first tried the powers of his genius in an encomium on Nero, at the Quinquennial games. He afterwards recited his poem on the Civil War carried on between Pompey and Caesar. His vanity was so immense, and he gave such liberty to his tongue, that in some preface, comparing his age and his first efforts with those of Virgil, he had the assurance to say: "And what now remains for me is to deal with a gnat." In his early youth, after being long informed of the sort of life his father led in the country, in consequence of an unhappy marriage [977], he was recalled from Athens by Nero, who admitted him into the circle of his friends, and even gave him the honour of the quaestorship; but he did not long remain in favour. Smarting at this, and having publicly stated that Nero had withdrawn, all of a sudden, without communicating with the senate, and without any other motive than his own recreation, after this he did not cease to assail the emperor both with foul words and with acts which are still notorious. So that on one occasion, when easing his bowels in the common privy, there being a louder explosion than usual, he gave vent to the nemistych of Nero: "One would suppose it was thundering under ground," in the hearing of those who were sitting there for the same purpose, and who took to their heels in much consternation [978]. In a poem also, which was in every one's hands, he severely lashed both the emperor and his most powerful adherents. At length, he became nearly the most active leader in Piso's conspiracy [979]; and while he dwelt without reserve in many quarters on the glory of those who dipped their hands in the (545) blood of tyrants, he launched out into open threats of violence, and carried them so far as to boast that he would cast the emperor's head at the feet of his neighbours. When, however, the plot was discovered, he did not exhibit any firmness of mind. A confession was wrung from him without much difficulty; and, humbling himself to the most abject entreaties, he even named his innocent mother as one of the conspirators [980]; hoping that his want of natural affection would give him favour in the eyes of a parricidal prince. Having obtained permission to choose his mode of death [981], he wrote notes to his father, containing corrections of some of his verses, and, having made a full meal, allowed a physician to open the veins in his arm [982]. I have also heard it said that his poems were offered for sale, and commented upon, not only with care and diligence, but also in a trifling way. [983] THE LIFE OF PLINY. [984] PLINIUS SECUNDUS, a native of New Como [985], having served in (546) the wars with strict attention to his duties, in the rank of a knight, distinguished himself, also, by the great integrity with which he administered the high functions of procurator for a long period in the several provinces intrusted to his charge. But still he devoted so much attention to literary pursuits, that it would not have been an easy matter for a person who enjoyed entire leisure to have written more than he did. He comprised, in twenty volumes, an account of all the various wars carried on in successive periods with the German tribes. Besides this, he wrote a Natural History, which extended to seven books. He fell a victim to the calamitous event which occurred in Campania. For, having the command of the fleet at Misenum, when Vesuvius was throwing up a fiery eruption, he put to sea with his gallies for the purpose of exploring the causes of the phenomenon close on the spot [986]. But being prevented by contrary winds from sailing back, he was suffocated in the dense cloud of dust and ashes. Some, however, think that he was killed by his slave, having implored him to put an end to his sufferings, when he was reduced to the last extremity by the fervent heat. [987] THE END OF LIVES OF THE POETS. FOOTNOTES: [925] Lucius Fenestella, an historical writer, is mentioned by Lactantius, Seneca, and Pliny, who says, that he died towards the close of the reign of Tiberius. [926] The second Punic war ended A.U.C. 552, and the third began A.U.C. 605. Terence was probably born about 560. [927] Carthage was laid in ruins A.U.C. 606 or 607, six hundred and sixty seven years after its foundation. [928] These entertainments were given by the aediles M. Fulvius Nobilior and M. Acilius Glabrio, A.U.C. 587. [929] St. Jerom also states that Terence read the "Andria" to Caecilius who was a comic poet at Rome; but it is clearly an anachronism, as he died two years before this period. It is proposed, therefore, to amend the text by substituting Acilius, the aedile; a correction recommended by all the circumstances, and approved by Pitiscus and Ernesti. [930] The "Hecyra," The Mother-in-law, is one of Terence's plays. [931] The "Eunuch" was not brought out till five years after the Andria, A.U.C. 592. [932] About 80 pounds sterling; the price paid for the two performances. What further right of authorship is meant by the words following, is not very clear. [933] The "Adelphi" was first acted A.U.C. 593. [934] This report is mentioned by Cicero (Ad Attic, vii. 3), who applies it to the younger Laelius. The Scipio here mentioned is Scipio Africanus, who was at this time about twenty-one years of age. [935] The calends of March was the festival of married women. See before, VESPASIAN, c. xix. [936] Santra, who wrote biographies of celebrated characters, is mentioned as "a man of learning," by St. Jerom, in his preface to the book on the Ecclesiastical Writers. [937] The idea seems to have prevailed that Terence, originally an African slave, could not have attained that purity of style in Latin composition which is found in his plays, without some assistance. The style of Phaedrus, however; who was a slave from Thrace, and lived in the reign of Tiberius, is equally pure, although no such suspicion attaches to his work. [938] Cicero (de Clar. Orat. c. 207) gives Sulpicius Gallus a high character as a finished orator and elegant scholar. He was consul when the Andria was first produced. [939] Labeo and Popilius are also spoken of by Cicero in high terms, Ib. cc. 21 and 24. Q. Fabius Labeo was consul with M. Claudius Marcellus, A.U.C. 570 and Popilius with L. Postumius Albinus, A.U.C. 580. [940] The story of Terence's having converted into Latin plays this large number of Menander's Greek comedies, is beyond all probability, considering the age at which he died, and other circumstances. Indeed, Menander never wrote so many as are here stated. [941] They were consuls A.U.C. 594. Terence was, therefore, thirty-four years old at the time of his death. [942] Hortulorum, in the plural number. This term, often found in Roman authors, not inaptly describes the vast number of little inclosures, consisting of vineyards, orchards of fig-trees, peaches, etc., with patches of tillage, in which maize, legumes, melons, pumpkins, and other vegetables are cultivated for sale, still found on small properties, in the south of Europe, particularly in the neighbourhood of towns. [943] Suetonius has quoted these lines in the earlier part of his Life of Terence. See before p. 532, where they are translated. [944] Juvenal was born at Aquinum, a town of the Volscians, as appears by an ancient MS., and is intimated by himself. Sat. iii. 319. [945] He must have been therefore nearly forty years old at this time, as he lived to be eighty. [946] The seventh of Juvenal's Satires. [947] This Paris does not appear to have been the favourite of Nero, who was put to death by that prince [see NERO, c. liv.], but another person of the same name, who was patronised by the emperor Domitian. The name of the poet joined with him is not known. Salmatius thinks it was Statius Pompilius, who sold to Paris, the actor, the play of Agave; Esurit, intactam Paridi nisi vendat Agaven.—Juv. Sat. vii. 87. [948] Sulpicius Camerinus had been proconsul in Africa; Bareas Soranus in Asia. Tacit. Annal. xiii. 52; xvi. 23. Both of them are said to have been corrupt in their administration; and the satirist introduces their names as examples of the rich and noble, whose influence was less than that of favourite actors, or whose avarice prevented them from becoming the patrons of poets. [949] The "Pelopea," was a tragedy founded on the story of the daughter of Thyestes; the "Philomela," a tragedy on the fate of Itys, whose remains were served to his father at a banquet by Philomela and her sister Progne. [950] This was in the time of Adrian. Juvenal, who wrote first in the reigns of Domitian and Trajan, composed his last Satire but one in the third year of Adrian, A.U.C. 872. [951] Syene is meant, the frontier station of the imperial troops in that quarter of the world. [952] A.U.C. 786, A.D. 34. [953] A.U.C. 814, A.D. 62. [954] Persius was one of the few men of rank and affluence among the Romans, who acquired distinction as writers; the greater part of them having been freedmen, as appears not only from these lives of the poets, but from our author's notices of the grammarians and rhetoricians. A Caius Persius is mentioned with distinction by Livy in the second Punic war, Hist. xxvi. 39; and another of the same name by Cicero, de Orat. ii. 6, and by Pliny; but whether the poet was descended from either of them, we have no means of ascertaining. [955] Persius addressed his fifth satire to Annaeus Cornutus. He was a native of Leptis, in Africa, and lived at Rome in the time of Nero, by whom he was banished. [956] Caesius Bassus, a lyric poet, flourished during the reigns of Nero and Galba. Persius dedicated his sixth Satire to him. [957] "Numanus." It should be Servilius Nonianus, who is mentioned by Pliny, xxviii. 2, and xxxvii. 6. [958] Commentators are not agreed about these sums, the text varying both in the manuscripts and editions. [959] See Dr. Thomson's remarks on Persius, before, p. 398. [960] There is no appearance of any want of finish in the sixth Satire of Persius, as it has come down to us; but it has been conjectured that it was followed by another, which was left imperfect. [961] There were two Arrias, mother and daughter, Tacit. Annal. xvi. 34. 3. [962] Persius died about nine days before he completed his twenty-ninth year. [963] Venusium stood on the confines of the Apulian, Lucanian, and Samnite territories.     Sequor hunc, Lucanus an Appulus anceps;     Nam Venusinus arat finem sub utrumque colonus.                                         Hor Sat. xi. 1. 34. [964] Sat. i. 6. 45. [965] Horace mentions his being in this battle, and does not scruple to admit that he made rather a precipitate retreat, "relicta non bene parmula."—Ode xi. 7-9. [966] See Ode xi. 7. 1. [967] The editors of Suetonius give different versions of this epigram. It seems to allude to some passing occurrence, and in its present form the sense is to this effect: "If I love you not, Horace, to my very heart's core, may you see the priest of the college of Titus leaner than his mule." [968] Probably the Septimius to whom Horace addressed the ode beginning Septimi, Gades aditure mecum.—Ode xl. b. i. [969] See AUGUSTUS, c. xxi.; and Horace, Ode iv, 4. [970] See Epist. i. iv. xv. Me pinguem et nitidum bene curata cute vises. [971] It is satisfactory to find that the best commentators consider the words between brackets as an interpolation in the work of Suetonius. Some, including Bentley, reject the preceding sentence also. [972] The works of Horace abound with references to his Sabine farm which must be familiar to many readers. Some remains are still shewn, consisting of a ruined wall and a tesselated pavement in a vineyard, about eight miles from Tivoli, which are supposed, with reason, to mark its site. At least, the features of the neighbouring country, as often sketched by the poet—and they are very beautiful—cannot be mistaken. [973] Aurelius Cotta and L. Manlius Torquatus were consuls A.U.C. 688. The genial Horace, in speaking of his old wine, agrees with Suetonius in fixing the date of his own birth:     O nata mecum consule Manlio     Testa.—Ode iii. 21. And again,     Tu vina, Torquato, move     Consule pressa meo.—Epod. xiii. 8. [974] A.U.C. 745. So that Horace was in his fifty-seventh, not his fifty-ninth year, at the time of his death. [975] It may be concluded that Horace died at Rome, under the hospitable roof of his patron Mecaenas, whose villa and gardens stood on the Esquiline hill; which had formerly been the burial ground of the lower classes; but, as he tells us,     Nunc licet Esquiliis habitare salubribus, atque     Aggere in aprico spatiare.—Sat. i. 8. [976] Cordova. Lucan was the son of Annaeus Mella, Seneca's brother. [977] This sentence is very obscure, and Ernesti considers the text to be imperfect. [978] They had good reason to know that, ridiculous as the tyrant made himself, it was not safe to incur even the suspicion of being parties to a jest upon him. [979] See NERO, c. xxxvi. [980] St. Jerom (Chron. Euseb.) places Lucan's death in the tenth year of Nero's reign, corresponding with A.U.C. 817. This opportunity is taken of correcting an error in the press, p. 342, respecting the date of Nero's accession. It should be A.U.C. 807, A.D. 55. [981] These circumstances are not mentioned by some other writers. See Dr. Thomson's account of Lucan, before, p. 347, where it is said that he died with philosophical firmness. [982] We find it stated ib. p. 396, that Lucan expired while pronouncing some verses from his own Pharsalia: for which we have the authority of Tacitus, Annal. xv. 20. 1. Lucan, it appears, employed his last hours in revising his poems; on the contrary, Virgil, we are told, when his death was imminent, renewed his directions that the Aeneid should be committed to the flames. [983] The text of the concluding sentence of Lucan's life is corrupt, and neither of the modes proposed for correcting it make the sense intended very clear. [984] Although this brief memoir of Pliny is inserted in all the editions of Suetonius, it was unquestionably not written by him. The author, whoever he was, has confounded the two Plinys, the uncle and nephew, into which error Suetonius could not have fallen, as he lived on intimate terms with the younger Pliny; nor can it be supposed that he would have composed the memoir of his illustrious friend in so cursory a manner. Scaliger and other learned men consider that the life of Pliny, attributed to Suetonius, was composed more than four centuries after that historian's death. [985] See JULIUS, c. xxviii. Caius Plinius Caecilius Secundus (the younger Pliny) was born at Como, A.U.C. 814; A.D. 62. His father's name was Lucius Caecilius, also of Como, who married Plinia, the sister of Caius Plinius Secundus, supposed to have been a native of Verona, the author of the Natural History, and by this marriage the uncle of Pliny the Younger. It was the nephew who enjoyed the confidence of the emperors Nerva and Trajan, and was the author of the celebrated Letters. [986] The first eruption of Mount Vesuvius occurred A.U.C. 831, A.D. 79. See TITUS, c. viii. The younger Pliny was with his uncle at Misenum at the time, and has left an account of his disastrous enterprise in one of his letters, Epist. vi. xvi. [987] For further accounts of the elder Pliny, see the Epistles of his nephew, B. iii. 5; vi. 16. 20; and Dr. Thomson's remarks before, pp. 475-478. End of Project Gutenberg's Lives Of The Poets, by C. Suetonius Tranquillus *** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LIVES OF THE POETS *** ***** This file should be named 6399.txt or 6399.zip ***** This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: http://www.gutenberg.net/6/3/9/6399/ Produced by Tapio Riikonen and David Widger Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will be renamed. 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www-idref-fr-4174	----	Horace (0065-0008 av. J.-C.) paprika.idref.fr data.idref.fr Documentation Bonjour , Bienvenue sur IdRef, Identifiants et référentiels pour l'Enseignement supérieur et la Recherche. Horace (0065-0008 av. J.-C.) Paprika Export bibliographique Exporter en XML Exporter en RDF Améliorer la notice Signaler une erreur Identifiant IdRef : 026659166 Notice de type Personne Point d'accès autorisé Horace (0065-0008 av. J.-C.) Variantes de point d'accès Horatius [Nom de personne] Horace, Quintus Horatius Flaccus [Nom de personne] Flaccus, Quintus Horatius [Nom de personne] Orazio [Nom de personne] Flacco, Quinto Orazio [Nom de personne] Information (par souci de protection des données à caractère personnel, le jour et le mois de naissance peuvent ne pas être affichés) Langue d'expression : Latin Pays : pays inconnu Date de naissance : -  0065 Date de mort : -  0008 Genre : Masculin Notes Note publique d'information :  Poète latin Notices d'autorité liées Autre   Licenza (Italie) , Villa d'Horace Forme parallele Horatius Flaccus, Quintus Source BN Cat. gén. : Horace (Quintus Horatius Flaccus) BN Cat. gén. 1970-1979 BN Cat. gén. 1980-1984 Information trouvée : Horatius Flaccus (Quintus) Buchwald : Horace (Q. Horatius Flaccus) GDEL GDEL Q. Horati Flacci Opera, 1985 Q. Horati Flacci Opera, 1985 Autres identifiants Identifiant de notice Sudoc fusionnée : 027362221 Identifiant de notice Sudoc fusionnée : 085715670 Identifiant BNF : FRBNF118865703 Identifiant VIAF : http://viaf.org/viaf/100227522 Identifiant ARK : http://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11886570b Identifiant ISNI : 0000000121452178 Utilisation dans Rameau Le point d'accès peut être employé dans un point d'accès sujet Le point d'accès ne peut s'employer qu'en élément initial Equivalent dans un autre référentiel Informations sur la notice Identifiant de la notice : 026659166 Dernière modification : 16-12-2020 à 10 h 34 ... Références liées : ... IdRef - Identifiants et Référentiels pour l'ESR L'interface publique IdRef permet la consultation des notices d'autorités produites par les établissements membres des réseaux documentaires de l'ESR (Sudoc, Calames, Star). IdRef est à la disposition des usagers professionnels habilités à créer/corriger/enrichir les notices d'autorité (authentification requise). A partir d'IdRef, une gamme de services (triple store data.idref.fr, entrepôt OAI-PMH, APIs) est disponible en accès libre pour faciliter la réutilisation des données. Pour les développeurs Documentation IdRef APIs et web services data.idref.fr OAI-PMH IdRef GitHub Abes Utilisation des données Libre et gratuite sous licence Etalab GitHub Etalab Assistance Guichet AbesSTP A propos | Partenaires | Données Personnelles | CGU | Mentions Légales 
www-intratext-com-8711	----	IntraText Digital Library: Author Card: Quintus Horatius Flaccus IntraText Digital Library Home   Map   Catalogue   Updates   Download   Info   IXT format   Privacy   Copyright   References   Contributors   Newsletter   Contacts   Author Card Horatius Flaccus, Quintus Quintus Horatius Flaccus Horace   Orazio   On-line resources about this author:   - Wikipedia IT: http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quinto_Orazio_Flacco   - Wikipedia EN: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace   - Wikipedia LA: http://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus_Horatius_Flaccus   - Wikipedia FR: http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace List of works available at IntraText This list contains only essential information: title, subtitle, language and ISFN. Sort order: Title, Date, Language Click on the title to show a detailed card and to read or download Ars poetica [in Opera omnia] [-15 ca] Lingua latina - in LAT0532 Carmen saeculare [in Opera omnia] [-17] Lingua latina - in LAT0532 Carmina [in Opera omnia] [-23] Lingua latina - in LAT0532 Epistulae [in Opera omnia] [-20 - -13 ca] Lingua latina - in LAT0532 Epodes [in Opera omnia] [-40 (TPQ)] Lingua latina - in LAT0532 Opera omnia [-41 - -13 ca] Lingua latina - LAT0532 Sermones [in Opera omnia] [-41 - -40] Lingua latina - in LAT0532 Best viewed with any browser at 800x600 or 768x1024 on touch, multitouch and tablet devices The IntraText® Digital Library - Some rights reserved by Èulogos SpA - 1996-2012. Content in this page is licensed under a Creative Commons License Last updated: 2012.01.03 
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www-mediawiki-org-2248	----	MediaWiki MediaWiki From mediawiki.org Jump to navigation Jump to search MediaWiki is a collaboration and documentation platform brought to you by a vibrant community. Photo of participants of the Wikimedia Hackathon 2019 The MediaWiki software is used by tens of thousands of websites and thousands of companies and organizations. It powers Wikipedia and also this website. MediaWiki helps you collect and organize knowledge and make it available to people. It's powerful, multilingual, free and open, extensible, customizable, reliable, and free of charge. Find out more and if MediaWiki is right for you. Set up and run MediaWiki Download, install and configure MediaWiki Add functionality by installing extensions Problems? See Errors and symptoms and FAQ Don't own a server? See Hosting services Get professional development and consulting Join MediaWiki Stakeholders user group Edit and use MediaWiki Learn how to navigate Learn how to edit a page Learn more about reading, editing, and personal customization Develop and extend code New to development? Start coding for a Wikimedia project How to work on MediaWiki or extensions' code Already a developer? Visit the developer hub Interact with content by using the Action API or Web API Read the developer docs Get help and contribute Cannot find the answer to a problem with MediaWiki? Ask the Support desk! Get involved as a translator, designer, documentation writer, tester, tech ambassador, … Report wrong software behavior or a feature proposal News 2020-12-18 MediaWiki 1.31.12 maintenance release is now available. 2020-12-17 MediaWiki 1.31.11 and 1.35.1 security releases are now available. 2020-11-30 MediaWiki 1.34.x versions are now end of life. 2020-09-25 MediaWiki 1.35.0 is now available. More news Other languages: English  • العربية • беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ • বাংলা • bosanski • català • کوردی • čeština • dansk • Deutsch • español • فارسی • suomi • français • ગુજરાતી • עברית • हिन्दी • hrvatski • magyar • Bahasa Indonesia • italiano • 日本語 • Jawa • қазақша • 한국어 • Mirandés • Nederlands • polski • português • português do Brasil • română • русский • sardu • සිංහල • slovenčina • shqip • svenska • ไทย • Türkçe • українська • Tiếng Việt • 粵語 • 中文 • 中文（简体）‎ • 中文（繁體）‎ Retrieved from "https://www.mediawiki.org/w/index.php?title=MediaWiki&oldid=3878227" Hidden category: Languages pages Navigation menu Personal tools English Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Main page Discussion Variants Views Read View source View history More Search Navigation Main page Get MediaWiki Get extensions Tech blog Contribute Support User help FAQ Technical manual Support desk Communication Development Bug tracker Code docs Code repository Statistics MediaWiki.org Community portal Recent changes Translate content Random page Current issues Sandbox Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Meta-Wiki Wikispecies Wikibooks Wikidata Wikimania Wikinews Wikipedia Wikiquote Wikisource Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wiktionary This page was last edited on 26 May 2020, at 13:38. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Privacy policy About MediaWiki.org Disclaimers Code of Conduct Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
www-perseus-tufts-edu-6996	----	Perseus Search Results Search Results ("Agamemnon", "Hom. Od. 9.1", "denarius") All Search Options [view abbreviations] Home Collections/Texts Perseus Catalog Research Grants Open Source About Help hide Refine This Search Search for a new term: Your search returned 9 author and title results. If you would like to search the content of all documents, please click here. Q. Horatius Flaccus (Horace), Carmina (Latin) (ed. Paul Shorey, Gordon Lang, Paul Shorey and Gordon J. Laing) Q. Horatius Flaccus (Horace), Odes (English) (ed. John Conington) Q. Horatius Flaccus (Horace), Satyrarum libri (Latin) (ed. C. Smart) Q. Horatius Flaccus (Horace), The Works of Horace (English) (ed. C. Smart, Theodore Alois Buckley) Q. Horatius Flaccus (Horace), De Arte Poetica liber (Latin) (ed. C. Smart) Q. Horatius Flaccus (Horace), The Art of Poetry: To the Pisos (English) (ed. C. Smart, Theodore Alois Buckley) Q. Horatius Flaccus (Horace), Carmen Saeculare (Latin) (ed. Paul Shorey) Q. Horatius Flaccus (Horace), Epodon (Latin) (ed. Friedrich Vollmer) Q. Horatius Flaccus (Horace), Epistles (Latin) (ed. H. Rushton Fairclough) 
www-poetseers-org-2851	----	Poet Seers » Horace About Poets A-Z Index Home Poetic Themes Poets Female Poets British Poets American Poets Contemporary Poets The Romantics Indian Poets Chinese Poets The Classics Spiritual Poets Sufi Poets Hindu Poets Christian Poets Buddhist Poets Daoist Poets The Poet-Seers The Great Poets » The Classic Poets » Horace Horace Horace, in full Quintus Horatius Flaccus was an outstanding Latin lyric poet and satirist under the emperor Augustus. His father owned a small property and could afford to take his son to Rome and ensure personally his getting the best available education. In about 46 BC Horace went to Athens, attending lectures at the Academy. Early in 38 BC he was introduced to Gaius Maecenas, a man of letters from Etruria in central Italy who was one of Octavian’s principal political advisers. In 35 BC Horace published Book I of the Satires. These poems drew on Greek roots, stating Horace’s rejection of public life firmly and aiming at wisdom through serenity. He discusses ethical questions: the race for wealth and position, the folly of extremes, the desirability of mutual forbearance, and the evils of ambition. After Octavian had defeated Antony and Cleopatra Horace published his Epodes (poems full of mockery, though Horace attacks social abuses, not individuals) and a second book of Satires. After 27 BC Horace turned, in the most active period of his poetical life, to the Odes, of which he published three books in 23 BC. Horace, in the Odes, represented himself as heir to earlier Greek lyric poets but displayed a sensitive, economical mastery of words all his own. He sings of love, wine, nature, of friends, of moderation. Very shortly after 23 BC, he set to work on three epistles, all relating in different ways to poetic activities. The third, the Epistle to the Pisos, was also known, at least subsequently, as the Ars poetica (“The Art of Poetry”). In 17 BC he composed the Secular Hymn (Carmen saeculare) for ancient ceremonies called the Secular Games. In 8 BC Maecenas died. One of his last requests to the Emperor was: “Remember Horace as you would remember me.” A month or two later, however, Horace himself died, after naming Augustus as his heir. He was buried on the Esquiline Hill near Maecenas’ grave. A biographer of the 2nd century AD quotes a jocular letter he received from Augustus, from which it emerges that the poet was short and fat. He himself confirms his short stature and, describing himself at the age of about 44, states that he was gray before his time, fond of sunshine, and irritable but quickly appeased. Already at the time of Horace’s death, his Odes were suffering the fate he deprecated for them and had become a school textbook. But their excellence was so great that they had few ancient lyrical successors. The medieval epoch had little use for the Odes, which did not appeal to its piety, although his Satires and Epistles were read because of their predominantly moralistic tones. The Odes came into their own again with the Renaissance and, along with the Ars poetica, exerted much influence on Western poetry through the 19th century. Horace Poems Deep With Snow I Have Completed A Monument It’s Better To Live Keep A Tranquil Mind Pluck The Day Poems by Horace The Fleeting Years The Snows Have Fled We All Must Die What Shall A Singer Ask Of Apollo You Who Measured The Sea Related The Classic Poets Horace at the Theatre database Horace Poetry Horace Deep With Snow I Have Completed A Monument It’s Better To Live Keep A Tranquil Mind Pluck The Day Poems by Horace The Fleeting Years The Snows Have Fled We All Must Die What Shall A Singer Ask Of Apollo You Who Measured The Sea 
www-stilus-nl-4673	----	Horatii carmina quae voce canora Thomas Nudipes pronuntiat Q. HORATI FLACCI CARMINA ET EPODI   Thomas Nudipes (Batavus) omnia Horatii carmina et epodos recitat omnes. Epodi. Carmina: Liber I, Liber II, Liber III, Liber IV et Carmen saeculare. Verbis versus cuiuslibet pressis, pagina aperitur cum verbis ipsis, qua in summa auscultandi praebetur facultas. Epodorum et carminum verba ab initio usque ad finem omnium inveniuntur hic. Sententias vestras libenter exspectat Thomas: thomasmbervoets@gmail.com. Deze pagina in het Nederlands. EPODI     Ibis Liburnis inter     Beatus ille qui     Parentis olim si     Lupis et agnis     At o deorum     Quid immerentes hospites     Quo quo scelesti     Rogare longo putidam     Quando repostum Caecubum     Mala soluta navis     Petti nihil me     Quid tibi vis     Horrida tempestas caelum     Mollis inertia cur     Nox erat et     Altera iam teritur     Iam iam efficaci Carminum liber primus     Maecenas atavis regibus     Iam satis terris     Sic te diva     Solvitur acris hiems     Quis multa gracilis     Scriberis Vario fortis     Laudabunt alii claram     Lydia dic per omnes     Vides ut alta stet     Mercuri facunde nepos     Tu ne quaesieris     Quem virum aut heroa     Cum tu Lydia     O navis referent     Pastor cum traheret     O matre pulchra     Velox amoenum saepe     Nullam Vare sacra     Mater saeva cupidinum     Vile potabis modicis     Dianam tenerae dicite     Integer vitae scelerisque     Vitas hinnuleo me     Quis desiderio sit     Parcius iunctas quatiunt     Musis amicus tristitiam     Natis in usum     Te maris et terrae     Icci beatis nunc     O Venus regina     Quid dedicatum poscit     Poscimur     Albi ne doleas     Parcus deorum cultor     O diva gratum     Et ture et fidibus     Nunc est bibendum     Persicos odi puer Carminum liber secundus     Motum ex Metello     Nullus argento color     Aequam memento rebus     Ne sit ancillae     Nondum subacta ferre     Septimi Gades aditure     O saepe mecum     Ulla si iuris     Non semper imbres     Rectius vives Licini     Quid bellicosus Cantaber     Nolis longa ferae     Ille et nefasto     Eheu fugaces Posthume     Iam pauca aratro     Otium divos rogat     Cur me querellis     Non ebur neque     Bacchum in remotis     Non usitata nec Carminum liber tertius     Odi profanum vulgus     Angustam amice pauperiem     Iustum et tenacem     Descende caelo     Caelo tonantem credidimus     Delicta maiorum immeritus     Quid fles Asterie     Martiis caelebs quid     Donec gratus eram     Extremum Tanain si     Mercuri nam te     Miserarum est neque     Fons Bandusiae     Herculis ritu modo     Uxor pauperis Ibyci     Inclusam Danaen turris     Aeli vetusto nobilis     Faune nympharum fugientum     Quantum distet ab     Non vides quanto     O nate mecum     Montium custos nemorumque     Caelo supinas si     Intactis opulentior thesauris     Quo me Bacche     Vix puellis nuper     Impios parrae recinentis     Festo quid potius     Thyrrena regum progenies     Exegi monumentum aere Carminum liber quartus     Intermissa Venus diu     Pindarum quisquis studet     Quem tu Melpomene     Qualem ministrum fulminis     Divis orte bonis     Dive quem proles     Diffugere nives redeunt     Donarem pateras grataque     Ne forte credas     O crudelis adhuc     Est mihi nonum     Iam veris comites     Audivere Lyce di     Quae cura patrum     Phoebum volentem proelia Carmen saeculare     Phoebe silvarumque potens Diana Iura violata defer ad ut vitia corrigi possint. Pagina haec ad www.STILUS.nl pertinet.                                                         
www-thelatinlibrary-com-5303	----	Horace Q. HORATIVS FLACCVS (65 – 8 B.C.) SERMONES Liber I Liber II CARMINA Liber I Liber II Liber III Liber IV EPISTULAE Liber I Liber II ARS POETICA CARMEN SAECULARE EPODES The Latin Library The Classics Page 
www-virgilmurder-org-1095	----	arsengl 1 TOSSING AUGUSTUS OUT OF HORACE’S ARS POETICA In a previous article I have tried to explain why the lines 445-52 of Horace’s Ars Poetica should be considered as an interpolation ascribable to Augustus1. But did the imperial forger limit himself to these eight verses? Five passages are concerned (42-45; 212-13; 303-8; 319-22; 461-69), whose candidacy to exclusion will be first examined one by one, before being justified at the global level by the observation of the links which connect them (including 445-52), as well as by some numerical considerations. Spuriousness of lines 42-45: Ordinis haec uirtus erit et uenus, aut ego fallor, Vt iam nunc dicat iam nunc debentia dici, Pleraque differat et praesens in tempus omittat, Hoc amet, hoc spernat promissi carminis auctor. “Charm and excellence in construction, if I’m right, Is to say here and now, what’s to be said here and now, Retaining, and omitting, much, for the present. Moreover as the author of the promised work, Liking this, rejecting that…” 2 Let’s pass over the clumsiness of haec erit ut, “will consist in the fact that”, the remoteness of dicat from its subject, the uselessness of tempus, a mere 1 http://www.virgilmurder.org/images/pdf/sphengl.pdf, pp. 5 ff. 2 Translation (here and after) by A. S. Kline: http://tkline.pgcc.net/PITBR/Latin/HoraceArsPoetica.htm#_Toc98156241 2 padding3, the looseness of iam nunc… iam nunc, that should rather mean “sometimes… sometimes”, so that Bentley put the comma after dicat, not after dici, with this poor result: “sometimes he would say what must be said, sometimes he would defer it for the most part”. But did we really need Horace’s help to know that a writer cannot say at once all he has to say? However, this miserable truism4 is thrust at us with a lot of redundancies: uirtus… et uenus (instead of uenustas: a cheap effect)5 ; differat – praesens in tempus omittat, picked up again by hoc amet, hoc spernat : all prescriptions which, except their pretension, add nothing to the thought6. Finally, there is this bombastic promissi carminis auctor (literally: “the guarantor of a promised work”) whose emptiness becomes obvious as soon as one transposes the sentence at the second person. This promissi is even so inept that one could almost wonder whether the author doesn’t secretly intend it in the sense of ‘long’ (as about a beard), with a derisive intention possibly confirmed not only by the pleraque instead of multa (for is it not evident that, except what you have to say now, all the rest you will 3 One would expect in praesens, or rather in futurum: cf. C. O. Brink, Horace on Poetry. The Ars Poetica, Cambridge, 1971, ad loc.: “praesens in tempus : the opposite, in futurum or the like, may be implied”. 4 P. Grimal, Essai sur l’Art Poétique d’Horace, Paris, Sedes, 1968, 77: “prétentieuse niaiserie… tautologie… platitude”. However his solution is scarcely satisfying: “il a voulu attirer notre attention… sur la nécessité de la confrontation minutieuse entre l’artiste et l’idée de son poème”. 5 An effect sometimes praised however: “they make an effective and untranslatable pair”, judges for example Niall Rudd, Horace Epistles Book II and Epistle to the Pisones (Ars Poetica), Cambridge, 1989, ad loc., arguing that this pair joins a masculine quality to a feminine one (but what is the interest of such a figure about a scheme?). 6 Plessis-Lejay, Horace. Œuvres, Paris, 1912 (1st ed. 1903), ad loc.: “spernat : synonyme hyperbolique de omittat”. The interpreters’ discomfort found expression in the initiative formerly taken by Bentley (followed inter alios by C. O. Brink) in transposing lines 45 and 46. 3 say later ?), but also and especially by the incidental clause aut ego fallor, “if I am not mistaken”, as though one could be mistaken while stating such a truism. Admittedly, the reader who asks Horace a regular treaty about poetry expects at this place (between inuentio and elocutio) a development about dispositio, and the interpolator would have filled this illusory lacuna by picking up the just preceding lucidus ordo, in spite of the fact that, as it happens, Horace was pointing out that he did not want to dwell on dispositio (or plan), since it would offer itself spontaneously, in its whole clarity, lucidus, to the author who would have adequately chosen its subject: Cui lecta potenter erit res / Nec facundia deseret hunc, nec lucidus ordo. Spuriousness of lines 212-13: Indoctus quid enim saperet liberque laborum Rusticus urbano confusus, turpis honesto? “What taste could the illiterate show, freed from toil, Where country mingled with city, noble with base ?” These two verses constitute a sort of parenthesis perfectly incongruous, and moreover omitted by a whole manuscript family. Such a fierce onslaught on countrymen (indoctus, turpis) is not only shocking, to the point that F. Villeneuve, for instance, shrinks from the real meaning of turpis, which is a synonymous of ‘shabby’, ‘wretched’, ‘dead loss’7, it is also inconceivable from a poet who always presented himself as a countryman and a nature-lover: see for example Sat. 2, 6, Epist. 1. 16, or this verse from Epist. 1. 14. 10 : Rure ego 7 F. Villeneuve, Les Epîtres d’Horace, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1934. Similarly, Plessis- Lejay, ad loc.: “turpis honesto : expriment des catégories sociales, non la moralité”. 4 uiuentem, tu dicis in urbe beatum (“I call the country-dweller, you the townsman, blessed”), and this famous salutation to Fuscus in Epist. 1. 10. 1-2: Vrbis amatorem Fuscum saluere iubemus / Ruris amatores (“To Fuscus the city- lover I the country-lover / Send greetings”). In addition, this parenthesis is inconsistent with its context. Horace indeed, going back to the origins of theatre at Rome, has spoken in praise of its ancient spectators, which he depicts as “honest, innocent, modest” ( frugi, castus uerecundusque, 207) until the Urbs enormously expanded, so that public morality began to lessen, with the result that “tempo and melody possessed greater licence”8 on the scene : accessit numerisque modisque licentia maior. Here take place the two verses in question, which are deeper than it may seem at first view, for, under the cover of blaming that licentia maior, they extol it on the contrary, terming rusticus the ancient Roman public so praised by Horace. Admittedly, those spectators were agricolae (cf. Epist. II, 1, 139-144 : Agricolae prisci,fortes paruoque beati, “the farmers of old, those tough men blessed with little”, a clear echo to our v. 207), but rusticus is an insult, as if, for the interpolator, agricola meant ‘ignorant and shabby’9. Spuriousness of lines 303-8: Non alius faceret meliora poemata; uerum Nil tanti est. Ergo fungar uice cotis, acutum Reddere quae ferrum ualet exsors ipsa secandi; 8 Kline wrongly translates licentia by ‘freedom’. 9 The qualifier rusticus is a typical insult on the lips of the townsman: cf. Virg., Ecl. II, 56; III, 84. Even P. Grimal has fallen into the trap, when he speaks of those “rustici qui encombrent le théâtre aux jours de fête” (p. 198). 5 Munus et officium, nil scribens ipse, docebo, Vnde parentur opes, quid alat formatque poetam, Quid deceat, quid non, quo uirtus, quo ferat error. “Though no one would compose10 better poetry : it’s really Not worth it. Instead let me play the grindstone’s role, That sharpens steel, but itself does none of the cutting : Writing nothing myself, I’ll teach the office and function, Where to find resources, what feeds and forms the poet, What’s right, what’s not, where virtue and error lead.” At first sight, the thought is coherent, and could even pass for witty: Horace declares that, if he indulged in madness (if he did not take purges for madness each spring, as he puts it, v. 302), his poetry would outdo all his rivals’; but poetry is not worth this price, and therefore he will be satisfied with giving advices to others. So far so good11. On reflection however, several questions are to be asked. First of all, does the author speak seriously, or is he merely joking12? Nobody doubts, as it appears, that only the first sentence (“no one would compose better poems, but it’s not worth it”) is ironical, even though such a 10 Faceret : ‘would compose’, not ‘composes’ (pace Kline). 11 Admittedly, the grindstone image is amusing enough, but it is a borrowing from Isocrates : Plut., Life of the Ten Orators. 12 If Horace has renounced to poetry for reason’s sake, as he declares, how can he advise those who have made the opposite choice that “wisdom (sapere) is the source and fount of excellent writing” (v. 309)? C. O. Brink duly notes the illogicality of ergo, 304 (“crazy logic”), but does not reprove. 6 position is untenable. Indeed, since Horace has always been a poet, and will remain a poet until his death13, the irony should not affect poemata, but only meliora. In other words, it cannot be a question of renouncement of poetry, but only of a refusal to sacrifice reason for it. How is it possible then that this same Horace presents himself as “writing nothing” (nil scribens ipse)? A statement so surprising that commentators try to minimize it, either by claiming, despite the immediate context, that it concerns only theatre 14, or by arbitrarily asserting that nil means “nothing worth it”15. Isn’t it more natural, and more conform to the text, to suppose that the man who is speaking here IS NOT actually a poet, or that, if he writes verses, he prefers to conceal it16 ? No irony at all, thus, in these lines, only sarcasm and dissembling. Somebody would have stolen Horace’s pen in order to lecture him and his peers : hence the professorial tone of ll. 306-8, puffed up with arrogance (munus et officium docebo), and badly indefinite: uirtus strangely opposed to error, in what sense17 ? and is the final enumeration announcing the diuisio of the Ars’s last part18? 13 On the date of publication of the fourth book of Odes, cf. http://www.espace- horace.org/etud/maleuvre1.htm. And even though this last collection would have been published as soon -12 or -13, as often believed, that would not mean that Horace had ceased to be a poet during the four last years of his life. 14 So Plessis-Lejay, ad loc. 15 “rien qui vaille”, P. Grimal, 215. 16 That’s typically the case of Augustus, who ascribes to others his own production. As for Horace, he may well pretend, as in Epist. 1. 1. 10, to have renounced poetry, it’s not serious (uersus… pono = apparently “I stop writing verse”, but in reality “I am here serving new verse”), and he willingly admits it in 2. 1. 112-13 (= “I am lying when I say that”). About Epist. II, 2, 141-44, cf. infra n. 31. 17 “le jugement droit”, according to F. Villeneuve; “le talent éclairé par la raison”, Plessis- Lejay. 18 So P. Grimal 215-18. He aknowledges that “dès que l’on essaie de suivre, dans le développement, l’application de ce plan, on ne tarde pas à rencontrer mille difficultés”, but he 7 Spuriousness of lines 319-22: Interdum speciosa locis morataque recte Fabula nullius ueneris, sine pondere et arte, Valdius oblectat populum meliusque moratur Quam uersus inopes rerum nugaeque canorae. “Often a play with fine bits, good roles, Though without beauty, substance or art, amuses The public more, and holds their attention better, Than verses without content, melodious nonsense.” Horace has just been urging poets to paint from life, by observing characters and customs, so that morata, 319, picking up morum, 317, seems at first to continue the thought, but it rapidly turns out that this verbal bridge is only a pretext for launching a vehement attack against conceptions firmly defended elsewhere by our poet. If indeed speciosa locis means “fine bits”19, their recommendation glaringly contradicts the lines 15-16, where they are imputes to commentators “la confusion que l’on pourrait, à bon droit, reprocher à Horace” (216). 19 “des morceaux brillants, qui valent par eux-mêmes et sont souvent des hors-d’œuvre”: Plessis-Lejay, ad loc., quoting Quint. 7. 1. 41: Plerique contenti sunt locis speciosis modo… Of course, interpreters try to elude this sense: “quand brillent les idées générales”, F. Villeneuve ; C. O. Brink remains in doubt; Niall Rudd proposes : “attractive in virtue of his moral observations”. 8 condemned as ‘purple patches’ (purpureus… pannus)20. Moreover, when he praises the ancient Roman playwrights, as he apparently does here21, the author of this passage is purely forgetting what Horace told Augustus in Epist. 2. 1 (63- 89, 156-176), wondering that his contemporaries admire that defective theatre of old as though it were nearly perfect. On the contrary, our verse 320 hammers out with a sort of rancour the idea that a play can very well charm an audience (ualdius oblectat) in spite of its defects, its imperfections, its mediocrity. No news for Horace, of course, but the problem is that the present speaker openly rejoices at these undeserved successes whereas he disparages the most demanding and most authentic poetry, even daring to call it “melodious nonsense”. It does not come as a surprise that the expression in these four verses is at the same level as the thought itself : obscurity of speciosa locis ; unpleasant (quasi)repetition morata - moratur, in two very different meanings; inconsistency of sine pondere (from Epist. 2. 2. 112), synonymous of inopes rerum, although the two are set in opposition. Spuriousness of lines 461-69: Si curet quis opem ferre et demittere funem, 20 Cf. also Epist. 2. 1. 73-75: Inter quae uerbum emicuit si forte decorum, / Si uersus paulo concinnior unus et alter, / Iniuste totum ducit uenditque poema, “Though maybe a lovely phrase glitters now and then [in Livius Andronicus], / Or a couple of lines are a little more polished, / That unjustly carry, and sell, the whole poem.” 21 Plessis-Lejay, ad loc.: “Horace semble penser aux pièces du vieux théâtre latin, auxquelles il refuse l’élégance, la solidité… et l’habileté technique”. But theatre seems out of context here, so that the word fabula could well mean ‘tale’ (“may be ‘tale’ ”, C. O. Brink), here as (probably) at v. 339. 9 ‘‘Qui scis an prudens huc se deiecerit atque Seruari nolit?’’ dicam, Siculique poetae Narrabo interitum. Deus inmortalis haberi Dum cupit Empedocles, ardentem frigidus Aetnam Insiluit. Sit ius liceatque perire poetis; Inuitum qui seruat, idem facit occidenti. Nec semel hoc fecit, nec, si retractus erit, iam Fiet homo et ponet famosae mortis amorem. “If anyone did choose to help, and let down a rope, I’d say: ‘Who knows if he didn’t do that on purpose, And doesn’t want to be saved?’ and I’ll tell the tale Of the Sicilian poet’s death, how Empedocles Keen to be an immortal god, coolly leapt into Burning Etna. Grant poets the power and right to kill Themselves: who saves one, against his will, murders him. It’s not his first time, nor, if he’s rescued will he Become human now, and stop craving fame in death.” This base and hateful attack against Empedocles, emphasized by the unbearable antithesis ardentem frigidus22, has always struck Horace’s admirers with consternation23. 22 Commentators are puzzled : gratuitous joke ? allusion to the belief that icy blood around the heart means stupidity ? reference to Empedocles’ conception explaining old age and death by 10 In the preceding lines, Horace was mocking the poet so full of his own verses that he loses contact with reality, and eventually falls into a well, or a pit. As the author adds: “However much he cries: ‘Help me, citizens!’ none will bother to pull him out.” If the joke stopped here, it would be in perfect taste : after all, this fool deserved a good lesson, and Horace does not wish him death anyway, he merely wonders, at v. 470, why this man keeps at making verses, for the punishment of those he grips to force them to hear his recitations. However, with the addition of the nine lines under examination, the amusement turns rather nasty. The scatterbrained poet has become a suicidal person, or worse, a culprit it would be criminal to save. The example of Empedocles is supposed to illustrate such a verdict, since, according to the speaker, the philosopher’s claim to divinity received its due retribution. The lines 468-69 stress the point by sarcastically recalling again Empedocles’ high hopes (nec… iam / fiet homo), without worrying about the ambiguity of Nec semel hoc fecit, which is seemingly still referring to the Greek philosopher, although we should have returned to the self-satisfied poet, in order to land smoothly on v. 470. A landing the interpolator has tried however to prepare by linking up two additional nec to the initial nec of this last verse (nec satis apparet cur uersus factitet (“It’s not too clear why he keeps on making verses”), thus betraying himself on the contrary, for the two new negatives have no logic a diminution of the igneous element? F. Villeneuve suggests without conviction: “s’est précipité de sang-froid dans l’Etna brûlant”. In short, readers are struggling over the (impossible) task of saving Horace… or rather his caricature. 23 “Que dirons-nous de la détestable antithèse qu'a fournie à Horace la mort du grand poète Empédocle ; de cet homme froid qui saute dans l'Etna brûlant (v.465)? rien, sinon que ce jeu de mots indigne d'Horace va trop bien avec les mauvaises plaisanteries sur le métromane, qu'il veut absolument laisser dans le fossé ou dans le puits où il est tombé par mégarde”, Alexis Pierron: http://www.espace-horace.org/etud/pierron_2.htm 11 relation with the third one ; lastly, let’s point out the disagreeable repetition facit, 46724, fecit, 468, factitet, 470, as clumsy as, at the other end of the seam, the reiteration of non sit qui tollere curet, 460 in 46: Si curet quis opem ferre. What links these six passages (ll. 445-52 included): -some verbal connections : uirtus, 42 – uirtus, 308; uenus, 42 – ueneris, 320; meliora, 303 – melius, 321; nugae, 322 – nugis… nugae, 451 (cf. nil tanti est, 304)… Besides, hoc amet, hoc spernat, 45 announces quid deceat, quid non, 308, and docebo / Vnde… quid… quid… quid non, quo… quo ferat error, 306-8 typically recalls the interpolated Aen. 6. 888-92: quae… -que docet… -que… et quo quemque modo fugiat feratque laborem25. - the technique of insertion, either by means of verbal repetition (ordo/ordinis, 41-2; uitae morumque iubebo… morataque…, 317-19; qui tollere curet, / Si curet quis…, 460-61), or with the help of a sudden fit of temper, as at 212 and 445, or a sarcasm, as at 303. - a general propensity to paddings, redundancies, empty enumerations. - under the veil of a theorician and an adviser, a peremptory and dictatorial tone, which denotes a man used to be obeyed without a word. 24 This line 467, unique example of a spondaic verse in the whole Sermones d’Horace (a mystery, according to C. O . Brink : “Its purpose here has not been explained”), was suppressed by Ribbeck and Mueller. 25 Cf. La Lettre de Pallas 5 (1997), 17. It’s true that these lines 306-8 plagiarize 312-16, but in 312-16 there is no trace of presumptuousness, and their content is very dense, whereas in 306- 8 (as in Aen. 6. 888-92) the burden of the syntactical armature seems to be directly proportional to the emptiness of the thought. 12 - a dark coloration, made of sarcasm, inuidia (hatred and jealousy together), surly disposition, underlying menace. - a boundless pretension, a craving for absolute domination, inclusively over the greatest geniuses, either contemporaries or in history. Everybody (I surmise) will have identified this sinister, and farcical, character with the emperor Augustus, and it only remains to rapidly reexamine one by one each of his five interventions26, in order to penetrate his thought and try to find out his secret and shameful intentions. Verses 42-45: The apparent platitude of the statement (“you must not say all at the same time”), and the abstruseness of the expression could well conceal a strong warning aimed at the dissident poets, and Horace in the first place: “let him say from now on, yes, from now on, what it’s his duty to say (the politically correct), postponing the rest, or rather omitting it (praesens in tempus – instead of in futurum (cf. supra n. 3) – fits in with the injunction made by the double iam nunc); let him make all his choices according to the ‘correct’ political line.” Verses 212-13 : To Horace, this son of an emancipated slave, who allows himself to criticize the brilliant Roman civilization of the time, Augustus retorts with an aristocratic haughtiness: “How can you say that, you, an ignorant, you, a country bumpkin, you, a dead loss ?” The abusive indoctus discredits Horace as a literary critic, rusticus refers to his provincial origins, turpis (and perhaps even 26 The sixth one has been examined elsewhere : see supra n. 1. 13 liber laborum)27 to his father’s social status28. As for confusus, let’s remember that Augustus devoted his whole attention to avoiding the mixing of classes29. Verses 303-8: The nil tanti est, 304 (“it’s not worth it”) is a slap on the face of poets, and an insult to poetry. Rising above this ‘miserable’ microcosm (Mount Parnassus!), Augustus pretends to dictate it his own laws: munus, officium, formet, deceat, uirtus, error belong to the lexical field of ethics30; opes and alat could allude to the reward promised to obedient writers: “how poets can grow richer, what feeds them, what shapes them (according to my own criteria)”. Verses 319-22: Nugaeque canorae (“melodious nonsense”), 322 reiterates the insult aimed at high poetry with nil tanti est. Some could feel reassured by recalling that Catullus in the opening piece of his Libellus termed nugae his own verses, but the word on his lips was profoundly ironic (“what YOU (Cornelius) consider 27 The phrase liber laborum is particularly perverse, for, even though the man aimed at is a free citizen (liber), this quality is scarcely conceded to him before it is taken back, and denied, by this unwonted genitive : “free… from his tasks”, i.e. idle, i.e. (by implication), lazy : fundamentally a slave, turpis, but a slave who twiddles his thumbs. 28 That this is actually an attack ad hominem is verified by the echo to Sat. 1. 6. 63-4 : placui tibi qui turpi secernis honestum / Non patre praeclaro, sed uita et pectore puro, “And I think it’s fine / To have pleased you, who separate true from false, / Not by a man’s father but by his pure life and heart.” For what else are doing our lines 212-13 than judging people after their social origins ? 29 Suet., Aug. 40 et 44. 30 “We are probably not meant to distinguish between moral and literary values”, notes Niall Rudd, ad loc. Unless literary values are only a smoke screen here… The wicked ambiguousness of opes and alat should be enough to confirm our suspicions. 14 trifles”)31. Needless to precise that the first targets of these lines are Horace, Virgil and their friends, who had a high and uncompromising idea of poetry. Verses 461-69: The man who in Horace’s Ode 1. 28 (as a speaker) backbites Archytas and Pythagoras32, the man who sneaks in De Rerum Natura in order to insult Heraclitus33, we are not surprised to see him now making fun of the great Empedocles. But of course, his real concern is not about history, but about current times, and there is some evidence that Empedocles is little more here than a disguise to hide Virgil. By the fact, such a phrase as Siculique poetae should prompt the reader to the author of the Bucolics, Virgil, whose Corydon proudly proclaims: Mille meae Siculis errant in montibus agnae (Ecl. 2. 21). It is well known that the Bucolics are placed under the invocation of Sicelides Musae, “Sicilian Muses” (Ecl. 4. 1), and Donatus, Virgil’s biographer, informs us that the poet usually resided in Campania or in Sicilia34. Assuredly, Virgil did not throw himself into a volcano, but only… into the lion’s mouth, when he had to appear for interview with the prince who was awaiting him at Athens. However, the verdict Sit ius liceatque perire poetis, under the guise of humour, resonates sinisterly (“Let poets have the legal right to die”). By adding inuitum 31 This is a flagrant case of ‘focalization’ : cf. Catulle ou l’anti-César, 224-29. When Horace assumes the word, as in Epist. 2. 2. 141 (Nimirum sapere est abiectis utile nugis), it’s in order to mark his contempt of occasional verse in opposition to the authentic poetry, which obeys to reason (Ars, 309 : Scribendi recte sapere est et principium et fons). 32 http://www.espace-horace.org/jym/odes_1/O_I_28.htm 33 http://www.virgilmurder.org/images/pdf/lucr.pdf. Horace himself naturally reveres Democritus (cf. Epist. 2. 1. 194), who on the contrary is brought here (v. 297) into disrepute by those “imitators, slavish herd” denounced in Epist. 1. 19. 19, and by anti-Ego (Augustus) in Epist. 12. 12 : cf. J.-Y. Maleuvre, “Iccius et Pompeius, ou Horace a-t-il vraiment jeté son bouclier à Philippes? (Odes I, 29, II, 7 et 16, Epist. I, 12)”. 34 Suet.-Donat, Vita Verg. 13-14. 15 qui seruat, idem facit occidenti (“To save somebody against his will amounts to killing him”), the author cynically justifies his crimes (in the same manner as Damoetas in the third eclogue)35: they are (those poets) suicidal and furious persons, who definitely want to die. “Actually, I cannot be accused for having condemned those dissidents to death36, since they condemned themselves, and it is if I had spared them that I would have killed them.” Everybody will appreciate this logic. 4. Numerical evidence Without entering the thorny dispute about the scheme followed by Horace in the Ars Poetica, let’s observe that the principle of a tripartite division meets with a large consensus37, a distribution 1-152, 153-294, 295-476 perhaps winning most approval38. But there is a problem : in the present, ‘orthodox’ state of the text, the second section is comparatively too short (142 lines), while the third one is disproportionate (182 lines)39. Admittedly, the stop at v. 294 could very well be moved to v. 308, the sequence 295-308 making a transition, and the sententia of v. 309 being altogether suitable to start a new section; but the imbalance would still remain: 152, 156, 168. On the contrary, after the 35 Ecl. 3. 21-24, in relation with Cat. 76 : cf. Violence et ironie…, 199-201. 36 For the secret presence of this death sentence at lines 446-47 (atrum… signum), cf. http://www.virgilmurder.org/images/pdf/sphinx.pdf, pp. 8-9. 37 “le plus souvent”, according to Plessis-Lejay 582. 38 See for instance G. Ramain, “Horace, Art Poétique”, Revue de Philologie, 53 (1927), 246, O. Immisch, “Horazens Epistel über die Dichtkunst”, Philologus, Suppl. XXIV, 1932, 10 ff., F. Villeneuve 188, J. Perret 199 ; G. E. Duckworth, Structural patterns and proportions in Vergil’s Aeneid, Ann Arbor,1962, 229 : poesis, poema, poeta. 39 J. Perret 199 writes nevertheless: “trois parties très justement équilibrées: l’œuvre d’art (1- 152) ; le poème dramatique (153-294); le poète (295-476)”. 16 suppression of the 33 fraudulent lines (42-45 = 4 lines; 212-13 = 2 lines; 303-8 = 6 lines ; 319-22 = 4 lines; 445-52 = 8 lines; 461-69 = 9 lines), the total of Ars Poetica being so reduced to 443 lines, one gets three blocks strictly equal, but for one line in the third section40: 1) 1 à 152 (= 148) 2) 153 (=149) à 302 (=296): 148 lines 3) 309 (= 297) à 476 (= 443): 147 lines. Regarding the missing line, we are free either to suppose that it never existed, or that it was suppressed by the imperial forger. Conclusion To his detractors who accused him of plagiarism, Virgil used to retort that it is more difficult to steal a verse from Homer than to snatch his club from Hercules’ hands. But it is not easy either to pretend to add a line to Horace, all the more if you are not especially gifted.- jym 40 The case of the lines 178 and 349 is discussed by C. O. Brink ad loc.; the proposition of rejection of lines 63 to 69, defended by J. Schwartz, Revue de Philologie 21 (1947), 49-54, has not met approval from philologists. 
www-wikidata-org-6056	----	Horace - Wikidata Horace (Q6197) From Wikidata Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman lyric poet Quintus Horatius Flaccus Q. Horatius Flaccus Horatius edit Language Label Description Also known as English Horace Roman lyric poet Quintus Horatius Flaccus Q. Horatius Flaccus Horatius Statements instance of human 2 references imported from Wikimedia project Belarusian Wikipedia stated in BeWeB retrieved 4 August 2020 BeWeb person ID 518 image Quintus Horatius Flaccus.jpg 412 × 821; 316 KB media legend هوراس كما تخيله الرسام أنتون ألكساندر فون فرن (Arabic) ஹோராஸ், [[ஆன்டன் வொன் வேர்னர்]] கற்பனையில் வரைந்த படம் (Tamil) Retrat imaginari d'Horaci per Anton von Werner. L'Epístola als Pisons o Art poètica d'Horaci és un dels textos cabdals sobre literatura de la tradició occidental. (Catalan) 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Italian Wikipedia sex or gender male 5 references imported from Wikimedia project Swedish Wikipedia stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 100227522 retrieved 4 November 2018 imported from Wikimedia project Italian Wikipedia stated in Integrated Authority File retrieved 9 April 2014 stated in BeWeB retrieved 4 August 2020 BeWeb person ID 518 country of citizenship Ancient Rome 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Italian Wikipedia name in native language Q. Horatius Flaccus (Latin) 0 references Roman praenomen Quintus 0 references Roman nomen gentilicium Horatius 0 references Roman cognomen Flaccus 0 references date of birth 8 December 65 BCE 3 references reference URL http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/quinto-orazio-flacco_(Enciclopedia-Italiana)/ stated in Q45181613 quotation ... родился в 689 г. от основания города, т. е. в 65 г. до Р. Х. 8 декабря в Венузии ... (Russian) stated in EB-11 / Horace quotation ... was born on the 8th of December 65 B.C. at Venusia ... (English) place of birth Venosa 2 references stated in Q45181613 stated in EB-11 / Horace date of death 27 November 8 BCE 2 references reference URL http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/quinto-orazio-flacco_(Enciclopedia-Italiana)/ stated in Q45181613 quotation Поэт, согласно предсказанию, которое он дал Меценату, умер вскоре после смерти последнего, когда ему было почти 57 лет, 27 ноября в 8 г. до Р. Х. (Russian) place of death Rome 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Italian Wikipedia place of burial Rome 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project English Wikipedia Wikimedia import URL https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horace&oldid=889415509 father unknown value 0 references mother unknown value 0 references gens Horatia gens 0 references languages spoken, written or signed Latin 1 reference stated in Mirabile: Digital Archives for Medieval Culture writing language Latin 0 references occupation poet 2 references stated in EB-11 / Horace stated in BeWeB retrieved 4 August 2020 BeWeb person ID 518 writer 1 reference stated in Mirabile: Digital Archives for Medieval Culture philosopher 1 reference inferred from Category:Roman-era philosophers retrieved 20 June 2019 imported from Wikimedia project Portuguese Wikipedia student of Cratippus of Pergamon 1 reference stated in Dictionnaire des philosophes antiques II page(s) 502 Aristos of Ascalon 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project French Wikipedia work location Rome 1 reference stated in Integrated Authority File retrieved 2 April 2015 ethnic group Ancient Romans 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Czech Wikisource notable work Ars Poetica 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project English Wikipedia present in work The Divine Comedy section, verse, paragraph, or clause 4 0 references time period Roman Republic 0 references described by source Small Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary statement is subject of Q20782588 0 references Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary statement is subject of Q20782585 0 references Real'nyj slovar' klassicheskih drevnostej po Ljubkeru statement is subject of Q45181613 0 references 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica statement is subject of EB-11 / Horace 0 references Cicero, Horace, and Mutual Friends: Lamiae and Varrones Murenae 0 references 1870 Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology statement is subject of DGRBM-1870 / Q. Horatius Flaccus 0 references BEIC Digital Library 1 reference section, verse, paragraph, or clause Horatius Flaccus, Quintus -65--8 reference URL http://digitale.beic.it/primo_library/libweb/action/search.do?fn=search&vid=BEIC&vl%283134987UI0%29=creator&vl%28freeText0%29=Horatius%20Flaccus%20Quintus Obalky knih.cz URL https://www.obalkyknih.cz/view_auth?auth_id=jn20000603003 0 references Great Soviet Encyclopedia (1926–1947) statement is subject of Q98927474 0 references Commons gallery Quintus Horatius Flaccus 0 references Commons Creator page Horace 0 references Commons category Quintus Horatius Flaccus 2 references imported from Wikimedia project Spanish Wikipedia imported from Wikimedia project Wikimedia Commons topic's main template Template:Horace 0 references topic's main category Category:Horace 0 references copyright status as a creator copyrights on works have expired applies to jurisdiction worldwide determination method 100 years after author's death 0 references has works 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Libraries authority ID 18797 0 references   Sitelinks Wikipedia(95 entries) edit afwiki Horatius amwiki ሆራቲዩስ anwiki Horacio arwiki هوراس arzwiki هوراتيوس astwiki Horaciu azbwiki هوراس bat_smgwiki Huoracėjos bawiki Гораций be_x_oldwiki Гарацыюс bewiki Гарацый bgwiki Хораций brwiki Quintus Horatius Flaccus bswiki Horacije cawiki Horaci cswiki Quintus Horatius Flaccus cywiki Horas dawiki Horats dewiki Horaz diqwiki Horatius elwiki Οράτιος enwiki Horace eowiki Horacio eswiki Horacio etwiki Horatius euwiki Horazio fawiki هوراس fiu_vrowiki Horatius fiwiki Horatius frwiki Horace furwiki Orazi gawiki Quintus Horatius Flaccus glwiki Horacio hewiki הורטיוס hifwiki Horace hiwiki होरेस hrwiki Horacije huwiki Quintus Horatius Flaccus hywiki Հորացիոս iawiki Horatio idwiki Horatius iowiki Horatius iswiki Hóratíus itwiki Quinto Orazio Flacco jawiki ホラティウス kawiki ჰორაციუსი kkwiki Гораций kowiki 호라티우스 kuwiki Horatius kwwiki Horace lawiki Quintus Horatius Flaccus lfnwiki Horatio ltwiki Horacijus lvwiki Horācijs mgwiki Horace mkwiki Хорациј mlwiki ഹൊറസ് mnwiki Гораций mrwiki होरेस mswiki Horatius nahwiki Quintus Horatius Flaccus nlwiki Horatius nnwiki Horats nowiki Horats ocwiki Oraci pawiki ਹੋਰਸ plwiki Horacy (poeta) pmswiki Orassi ptwiki Horácio roa_tarawiki Quinde Orazio Flacco rowiki Quintus Horatius Flaccus ruwiki Гораций scnwiki Quintu Orazziu Flaccu scwiki Quinto Orazio Flacco shwiki Kvint Horacije Flak simplewiki Horace skwiki Horatius slwiki Horacij srwiki Хорације stqwiki Quintus Horatius Flaccus svwiki Horatius swwiki Horatius tawiki ஓராசு tlwiki Horacio trwiki Horatius ttwiki Гораций ukwiki Горацій uzwiki Goratsiy viwiki Horace vowiki Horatius warwiki Horacio wawiki Horace wuuwiki 贺拉斯 zh_yuewiki 賀拉斯 zhwiki 贺拉斯 Wikibooks(1 entry) edit mkwikibooks Хорациј Wikinews(0 entries) edit Wikiquote(39 entries) edit azwikiquote Horatsi bewikiquote Гарацый bgwikiquote Хораций brwikiquote Horatius bswikiquote Horacije cawikiquote Horaci cswikiquote Quintus Horatius Flaccus dewikiquote Horaz elwikiquote Οράτιος enwikiquote Horace eswikiquote Horacio etwikiquote Horatius frwikiquote Horace hewikiquote הורטיוס hrwikiquote Horacije huwikiquote Horatius hywikiquote Հորացիոս iswikiquote Horatius itwikiquote Quinto Orazio Flacco jawikiquote ホラティウス kawikiquote კვინტუს ჰორაციუს ფლაკუსი kuwikiquote Quintus Horatius Flaccus lawikiquote Quintus Horatius Flaccus ltwikiquote Horacijus nlwikiquote Horatius nnwikiquote Horats nowikiquote Horats plwikiquote Horacy ptwikiquote Horácio rowikiquote Quintus Horatius Flaccus ruwikiquote Гораций skwikiquote Horatius slwikiquote Horacij sqwikiquote Horaci srwikiquote Хорације svwikiquote Horatius trwikiquote Horatius ukwikiquote Горацій zhwikiquote 贺拉斯 Wikisource(21 entries) edit bewikisource Аўтар:Гарацый cawikisource Autor:Horaci cswikisource Autor:Quintus Horatius Flaccus dewikisource Horaz enwikisource Author:Quintus Horatius Flaccus eowikisource Aŭtoro:Horacio eswikisource Autor:Horacio fiwikisource Horatius frwikisource Auteur:Horace hewikisource מחבר:הורטיוס huwikisource Szerző:Horatius itwikisource Autore:Quinto Orazio Flacco lawikisource Scriptor:Quintus Horatius Flaccus nlwikisource Auteur:Horatius nowikisource Forfatter:Horats plwikisource Autor:Horacy ptwikisource Autor:Horácio rowikisource Autor:Horațiu ruwikisource Гораций svwikisource Författare:Horatius ukwikisource Автор:Горацій Wikiversity(0 entries) edit Wikivoyage(0 entries) edit Wiktionary(0 entries) edit Other sites(1 entry) edit commonswiki Quintus Horatius Flaccus Retrieved from "https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q6197&oldid=1322405220" Navigation menu Personal tools English Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Item Discussion Variants Views Read View history More Search Navigation Main page Community portal Project chat Create a new Item Recent changes Random Item Query Service Nearby Help Donate Lexicographical data Create a new Lexeme Recent changes Random Lexeme Tools What links here Related changes 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www-wikidata-org-6213	----	Horace - Wikidata Horace (Q6197) From Wikidata Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman lyric poet Quintus Horatius Flaccus Q. Horatius Flaccus Horatius edit Language Label Description Also known as English Horace Roman lyric poet Quintus Horatius Flaccus Q. Horatius Flaccus Horatius Statements instance of human 2 references imported from Wikimedia project Belarusian Wikipedia stated in BeWeB retrieved 4 August 2020 BeWeb person ID 518 image Quintus Horatius Flaccus.jpg 412 × 821; 316 KB media legend هوراس كما تخيله الرسام أنتون ألكساندر فون فرن (Arabic) ஹோராஸ், [[ஆன்டன் வொன் வேர்னர்]] கற்பனையில் வரைந்த படம் (Tamil) Retrat imaginari d'Horaci per Anton von Werner. L'Epístola als Pisons o Art poètica d'Horaci és un dels textos cabdals sobre literatura de la tradició occidental. (Catalan) 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Italian Wikipedia sex or gender male 5 references imported from Wikimedia project Swedish Wikipedia stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 100227522 retrieved 4 November 2018 imported from Wikimedia project Italian Wikipedia stated in Integrated Authority File retrieved 9 April 2014 stated in BeWeB retrieved 4 August 2020 BeWeb person ID 518 country of citizenship Ancient Rome 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Italian Wikipedia name in native language Q. Horatius Flaccus (Latin) 0 references Roman praenomen Quintus 0 references Roman nomen gentilicium Horatius 0 references Roman cognomen Flaccus 0 references date of birth 8 December 65 BCE 3 references reference URL http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/quinto-orazio-flacco_(Enciclopedia-Italiana)/ stated in Q45181613 quotation ... родился в 689 г. от основания города, т. е. в 65 г. до Р. Х. 8 декабря в Венузии ... (Russian) stated in EB-11 / Horace quotation ... was born on the 8th of December 65 B.C. at Venusia ... (English) place of birth Venosa 2 references stated in Q45181613 stated in EB-11 / Horace date of death 27 November 8 BCE 2 references reference URL http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/quinto-orazio-flacco_(Enciclopedia-Italiana)/ stated in Q45181613 quotation Поэт, согласно предсказанию, которое он дал Меценату, умер вскоре после смерти последнего, когда ему было почти 57 лет, 27 ноября в 8 г. до Р. Х. (Russian) place of death Rome 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Italian Wikipedia place of burial Rome 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project English Wikipedia Wikimedia import URL https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horace&oldid=889415509 father unknown value 0 references mother unknown value 0 references gens Horatia gens 0 references languages spoken, written or signed Latin 1 reference stated in Mirabile: Digital Archives for Medieval Culture writing language Latin 0 references occupation poet 2 references stated in EB-11 / Horace stated in BeWeB retrieved 4 August 2020 BeWeb person ID 518 writer 1 reference stated in Mirabile: Digital Archives for Medieval Culture philosopher 1 reference inferred from Category:Roman-era philosophers retrieved 20 June 2019 imported from Wikimedia project Portuguese Wikipedia student of Cratippus of Pergamon 1 reference stated in Dictionnaire des philosophes antiques II page(s) 502 Aristos of Ascalon 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project French Wikipedia work location Rome 1 reference stated in Integrated Authority File retrieved 2 April 2015 ethnic group Ancient Romans 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Czech Wikisource notable work Ars Poetica 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project English Wikipedia present in work The Divine Comedy section, verse, paragraph, or clause 4 0 references time period Roman Republic 0 references described by source Small Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary statement is subject of Q20782588 0 references Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary statement is subject of Q20782585 0 references Real'nyj slovar' klassicheskih drevnostej po Ljubkeru statement is subject of Q45181613 0 references 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica statement is subject of EB-11 / Horace 0 references Cicero, Horace, and Mutual Friends: Lamiae and Varrones Murenae 0 references 1870 Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology statement is subject of DGRBM-1870 / Q. Horatius Flaccus 0 references BEIC Digital Library 1 reference section, verse, paragraph, or clause Horatius Flaccus, Quintus -65--8 reference URL http://digitale.beic.it/primo_library/libweb/action/search.do?fn=search&vid=BEIC&vl%283134987UI0%29=creator&vl%28freeText0%29=Horatius%20Flaccus%20Quintus Obalky knih.cz URL https://www.obalkyknih.cz/view_auth?auth_id=jn20000603003 0 references Great Soviet Encyclopedia (1926–1947) statement is subject of Q98927474 0 references Commons gallery Quintus Horatius Flaccus 0 references Commons Creator page Horace 0 references Commons category Quintus Horatius Flaccus 2 references imported from Wikimedia project Spanish Wikipedia imported from Wikimedia project Wikimedia Commons topic's main template Template:Horace 0 references topic's main category Category:Horace 0 references copyright status as a creator copyrights on works have expired applies to jurisdiction worldwide determination method 100 years after author's death 0 references has works in the collection National Gallery of Art 0 references Identifiers VIAF ID 100227522 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project German Wikipedia 2130151778256418130004 0 references ISNI 0000 0001 2145 2178 2 references stated in International Standard Name Identifier stated in BeWeB retrieved 4 August 2020 BeWeb person ID 518 VcBA ID 495/53093 1 reference VIAF ID 100227522 stated in Virtual International Authority File retrieved 16 July 2020 BAnQ author ID 0000057526 0 references BIBSYS ID 90055203 0 references National Library of Brazil ID 000573561 0 references CANTIC ID a10101214 1 reference reference URL https://viaf.org/viaf/100227522/ National Library of Chile ID 000008397 0 references Biblioteca Nacional de España ID XX891549 0 references Bibliothèque nationale de France ID 11886570b 0 references Canadiana NCF ID ncf10005444 0 references Canadiana Authorities ID 0009G0402 0 references RISM ID pe411425 0 references GND ID 118553569 2 references imported from Wikimedia project German Wikipedia stated in BeWeB retrieved 4 August 2020 BeWeb person ID 518 Deutsche Biographie ID 118553569 0 references EGAXA ID vtls000023274 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 14337116 retrieved 28 May 2020 ELNET ID a11218952 0 references a11161255 0 references FAST ID 39544 0 references National Library of Greece ID 62641 0 references SBN author ID IT\ICCU\CFIV\000246 1 reference stated in BeWeB retrieved 4 August 2020 BeWeb person ID 518 National Library of Israel J9U ID 987007262986605171 0 references Union List of Artist Names ID 500404135 0 references National Library of Korea ID KAC199612791 0 references Library of Congress authority ID n79081354 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project German Wikipedia no92010069 1 reference stated in BeWeB retrieved 4 August 2020 BeWeb person ID 518 National Library of Lithuania ID LNB:V*44890;=BL 0 references LNB ID 000000375 0 references National Diet Library ID 00540086 0 references CiNii author ID (books) DA00782980 0 references NKCR AUT ID jn20000603003 0 references Libraries Australia ID 35206138 0 references National Library of Russia ID 770155021 0 references 7770066 0 references NSK ID 000013522 0 references Nationale Thesaurus voor Auteurs ID 068304579 0 references NUKAT ID n96210540 0 references Perseus author ID 748 0 references PLWABN ID 9810582428505606 0 references Portuguese National Library ID 19592 0 references RERO ID 02-A000081296 0 references 02-A010096578 0 references Libris-URI fcrtvznz06j57nd 1 reference stated in LIBRIS reference URL https://libris.kb.se/katalogisering/fcrtvznz06j57nd publication date 26 March 2018 retrieved 24 August 2018 SELIBR ID 189659 0 references CONOR.SI ID 8323171 0 references Slovak National Library ID vtls010873246 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 100227522 retrieved 28 May 2020 IdRef ID 026659166 0 references National Library of Iceland ID 000021515 0 references WorldCat Identities ID lccn-n79081354 1 reference VIAF ID 100227522 Adelphi author ID 2185 0 references Angelicum ID 51106 0 references ArhivX LOD 26784 0 references Babelio author ID 40836 0 references Ben Yehuda author ID 216 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Hebrew Wikipedia Wikimedia import URL https://he.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=הורטיוס&oldid=26606857 BeWeb person ID 518 1 reference stated in BeWeB retrieved 4 August 2020 BeWeb person ID 518 BHCL ID 233166 1 reference stated in Bibliography of the History of the Czech Lands retrieved 1 May 2019 reference URL https://biblio.hiu.cas.cz/authorities/233166 BiblioNet author ID 3460 0 references Bitraga author ID 2476 0 references British Museum person or institution ID 58659 0 references Brockhaus Enzyklopädie online ID horaz 0 references BVLarramendi ID FILA20110009014 0 references BVMC person ID 7568 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Spanish Wikipedia 62155 0 references 20529 0 references Carnegie Hall agent ID 1021742 0 references CCAB ID 000035928 0 references CERL Thesaurus ID cnp01316190 2 references stated in CERL Thesaurus stated in BeWeB retrieved 4 August 2020 BeWeb person ID 518 CIRIS author ID 1090 0 references CoBiS author ID 95a5yja38danygu695b5yc1g60t38dg 1 reference retrieved 9 April 2020 Corpus Corporum author ID Horatius_Flaccus 0 references Cultureel Woordenboek ID literatuur-internationaal/horatius 0 references Digital Prosopography of the Roman Republic ID 2731 0 references Discogs artist ID 4499695 0 references DLL Catalog author ID A4876 0 references EDIT16 catalogue author ID 1212 0 references Encyclopædia Britannica Online ID biography/Horace-Roman-poet 0 references Encyclopædia Universalis ID horace 0 references horace-65-8 0 references Europeana entity agent/base/60033 1 reference retrieved 23 December 2019 Freebase ID /m/03kgs 1 reference stated in Freebase Data Dumps publication date 28 October 2013 Geni.com profile ID 6000000015255871584 0 references Golden ID Horace-R8GW 0 references Goodreads author ID 3341504 point in time 27 September 2020 named as Horatius number of subscribers 209 0 references Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana ID 0032926 1 reference reference URL http://viaf.org/processed/BNC|a10101214 Great Russian Encyclopedia Online ID 2370010 0 references Hoopla artist ID 1097281247 0 references Hrvatska enciklopedija ID 26122 0 references ILI ID i95587 0 references IMSLP ID Category:Horace 0 references IntraText author ID 186 0 references Latvian National Encyclopedia Online ID 25500 0 references Les Archives du Spectacle Person ID 161808 0 references LibriVox author ID 3050 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project English Wikipedia LiederNet author ID 1250 0 references Mirabile author ID 42404 1 reference stated in Mirabile: Digital Archives for Medieval Culture MusicBrainz artist ID af616f1f-6242-4802-a1bf-8d3f0647083c 1 reference stated in MusicBrainz Musisque Deoque author ID 84 0 references Muziekweb performer ID M00000440058 0 references National Discography of Italian Song artist/group ID 1605 0 references National Gallery of Art artist ID 7014 0 references National Library of Israel ID 000064806 0 references National Library of Wales Authority ID horace-translations-into-english reason for deprecation does not exactly match 0 references horace-translations-into-english-2 reason for deprecation does not exactly match 0 references horace-translations-into-welsh reason for deprecation does not exactly match 0 references National Portrait Gallery (London) person ID mp163933 0 references NE.se ID horatius 0 references NLA Trove ID 864697 0 references NLP ID (unique) A11793144 0 references NNDB people ID 845/000087584 0 references Open Library ID OL20088A 0 references openMLOL author ID 4508 0 references PACTOLS thesaurus ID pcrtmnyIHDl11Q 0 references Perlentaucher ID horaz 0 references PHI Latin Texts author ID 893 0 references Pinakes author ID 1371 0 references Project Gutenberg author ID 1790 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project English Wikipedia 46370 0 references Projekt Gutenberg-DE ID horaz 0 references Pontificia Università della Santa Croce ID 38127 0 references Quora topic ID Horace 1 reference stated in Quora RA Collections ID 15392 0 references Royal Academy new identifier horace 0 references RSL ID (person) 000083136 language of work or name Russian 0 references 000039740 0 references Sandrart.net person ID 1275 0 references SHARE Catalogue author ID 75513 0 references SNAC Ark ID w6pk0m9c 0 references Store norske leksikon ID Horats 0 references Swedish Literature Bank AuthorID Horatius 0 references The Latin Library author ID hor 0 references Treccani ID quinto-orazio-flacco 1 reference stated in BeWeB retrieved 4 August 2020 BeWeb person ID 518 Treccani's Enciclopedia Italiana ID quinto-orazio-flacco 0 references University of Barcelona authority ID a1001212 1 reference stated in Autoritats UB retrieved 1 April 2020 Unz Review author ID Horace 0 references FlaccusQuintusHoratius 0 references Uppsala University Alvin ID alvin-person:27245 0 references alvin-person:69795 0 references Vatican Library ID ADV12139878 1 reference stated in BeWeB retrieved 4 August 2020 BeWeb person ID 518 ADV11561527 0 references ADV11452220 0 references French Vikidia ID Horace_(poète_latin) 0 references Wolfram Language entity code Entity["Concept", "Horace::5255n"] 0 references WomenWriters ID 58b52060-12d7-47f0-9ade-b4c340b5c3f8 0 references Philadelphia Museum of Art entity ID 6501 0 references monumenta.ch ID 24 0 references Carl-Maria-von-Weber-Gesamtausgabe ID A003310 0 references Archive Site Trinity College Cambridge ID horatius-flaccus-quintus-c-65-8-bc-poet-known-as-horace 0 references Jewish Virtual Library person ID horace-quintus-horatius-flaccus-x00b0 0 references Unione Romana Biblioteche Scientifiche ID 1177 0 references 2079 0 references 57406 0 references AlKindi ID 54093 0 references edition humboldt digital ID H0011997 0 references Union Catalog of Armenian Libraries authority ID 18797 0 references   Sitelinks Wikipedia(95 entries) edit afwiki Horatius amwiki ሆራቲዩስ anwiki Horacio arwiki هوراس arzwiki هوراتيوس astwiki Horaciu azbwiki هوراس bat_smgwiki Huoracėjos bawiki Гораций be_x_oldwiki Гарацыюс bewiki Гарацый bgwiki Хораций brwiki Quintus Horatius Flaccus bswiki Horacije cawiki Horaci cswiki Quintus Horatius Flaccus cywiki Horas dawiki Horats dewiki Horaz diqwiki Horatius elwiki Οράτιος enwiki Horace eowiki Horacio eswiki Horacio etwiki Horatius euwiki Horazio fawiki هوراس fiu_vrowiki Horatius fiwiki Horatius frwiki Horace furwiki Orazi gawiki Quintus Horatius Flaccus glwiki Horacio hewiki הורטיוס hifwiki Horace hiwiki होरेस hrwiki Horacije huwiki Quintus Horatius Flaccus hywiki Հորացիոս iawiki Horatio idwiki Horatius iowiki Horatius iswiki Hóratíus itwiki Quinto Orazio Flacco jawiki ホラティウス kawiki ჰორაციუსი kkwiki Гораций kowiki 호라티우스 kuwiki Horatius kwwiki Horace lawiki Quintus Horatius Flaccus lfnwiki Horatio ltwiki Horacijus lvwiki Horācijs mgwiki Horace mkwiki Хорациј mlwiki ഹൊറസ് mnwiki Гораций mrwiki होरेस mswiki Horatius nahwiki Quintus Horatius Flaccus nlwiki Horatius nnwiki Horats nowiki Horats ocwiki Oraci pawiki ਹੋਰਸ plwiki Horacy (poeta) pmswiki Orassi ptwiki Horácio roa_tarawiki Quinde Orazio Flacco rowiki Quintus Horatius Flaccus ruwiki Гораций scnwiki Quintu Orazziu Flaccu scwiki Quinto Orazio Flacco shwiki Kvint Horacije Flak simplewiki Horace skwiki Horatius slwiki Horacij srwiki Хорације stqwiki Quintus Horatius Flaccus svwiki Horatius swwiki Horatius tawiki ஓராசு tlwiki Horacio trwiki Horatius ttwiki Гораций ukwiki Горацій uzwiki Goratsiy viwiki Horace vowiki Horatius warwiki Horacio wawiki Horace wuuwiki 贺拉斯 zh_yuewiki 賀拉斯 zhwiki 贺拉斯 Wikibooks(1 entry) edit mkwikibooks Хорациј Wikinews(0 entries) edit Wikiquote(39 entries) edit azwikiquote Horatsi bewikiquote Гарацый bgwikiquote Хораций brwikiquote Horatius bswikiquote Horacije cawikiquote Horaci cswikiquote Quintus Horatius Flaccus dewikiquote Horaz elwikiquote Οράτιος enwikiquote Horace eswikiquote Horacio etwikiquote Horatius frwikiquote Horace hewikiquote הורטיוס hrwikiquote Horacije huwikiquote Horatius hywikiquote Հորացիոս iswikiquote Horatius itwikiquote Quinto Orazio Flacco jawikiquote ホラティウス kawikiquote კვინტუს ჰორაციუს ფლაკუსი kuwikiquote Quintus Horatius Flaccus lawikiquote Quintus Horatius Flaccus ltwikiquote Horacijus nlwikiquote Horatius nnwikiquote Horats nowikiquote Horats plwikiquote Horacy ptwikiquote Horácio rowikiquote Quintus Horatius Flaccus ruwikiquote Гораций skwikiquote Horatius slwikiquote Horacij sqwikiquote Horaci srwikiquote Хорације svwikiquote Horatius trwikiquote Horatius ukwikiquote Горацій zhwikiquote 贺拉斯 Wikisource(21 entries) edit bewikisource Аўтар:Гарацый cawikisource Autor:Horaci cswikisource Autor:Quintus Horatius Flaccus dewikisource Horaz enwikisource Author:Quintus Horatius Flaccus eowikisource Aŭtoro:Horacio eswikisource Autor:Horacio fiwikisource Horatius frwikisource Auteur:Horace hewikisource מחבר:הורטיוס huwikisource Szerző:Horatius itwikisource Autore:Quinto Orazio Flacco lawikisource Scriptor:Quintus Horatius Flaccus nlwikisource Auteur:Horatius nowikisource Forfatter:Horats plwikisource Autor:Horacy ptwikisource Autor:Horácio rowikisource Autor:Horațiu ruwikisource Гораций svwikisource Författare:Horatius ukwikisource Автор:Горацій Wikiversity(0 entries) edit Wikivoyage(0 entries) edit Wiktionary(0 entries) edit Other sites(1 entry) edit commonswiki Quintus Horatius Flaccus Retrieved from "https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q6197&oldid=1322405220" Navigation menu Personal tools English Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Item Discussion Variants Views Read View history More Search Navigation Main page Community portal Project chat Create a new Item Recent changes Random Item Query Service Nearby Help Donate Lexicographical data Create a new Lexeme Recent changes Random Lexeme Tools What links here Related changes Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Concept URI Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version This page was last edited on 13 December 2020, at 15:46. All structured data from the main, Property, Lexeme, and EntitySchema namespaces is available under the Creative Commons CC0 License; text in the other namespaces is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Privacy policy About Wikidata Disclaimers Mobile view Data access Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
www-wikidata-org-8995	----	Horace - Wikidata Horace (Q6197) From Wikidata Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman lyric poet Quintus Horatius Flaccus Q. Horatius Flaccus Horatius edit Language Label Description Also known as English Horace Roman lyric poet Quintus Horatius Flaccus Q. Horatius Flaccus Horatius Statements instance of human 2 references imported from Wikimedia project Belarusian Wikipedia stated in BeWeB retrieved 4 August 2020 BeWeb person ID 518 image Quintus Horatius Flaccus.jpg 412 × 821; 316 KB media legend هوراس كما تخيله الرسام أنتون ألكساندر فون فرن (Arabic) ஹோராஸ், [[ஆன்டன் வொன் வேர்னர்]] கற்பனையில் வரைந்த படம் (Tamil) Retrat imaginari d'Horaci per Anton von Werner. L'Epístola als Pisons o Art poètica d'Horaci és un dels textos cabdals sobre literatura de la tradició occidental. (Catalan) 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Italian Wikipedia sex or gender male 5 references imported from Wikimedia project Swedish Wikipedia stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 100227522 retrieved 4 November 2018 imported from Wikimedia project Italian Wikipedia stated in Integrated Authority File retrieved 9 April 2014 stated in BeWeB retrieved 4 August 2020 BeWeb person ID 518 country of citizenship Ancient Rome 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Italian Wikipedia name in native language Q. Horatius Flaccus (Latin) 0 references Roman praenomen Quintus 0 references Roman nomen gentilicium Horatius 0 references Roman cognomen Flaccus 0 references date of birth 8 December 65 BCE 3 references reference URL http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/quinto-orazio-flacco_(Enciclopedia-Italiana)/ stated in Q45181613 quotation ... родился в 689 г. от основания города, т. е. в 65 г. до Р. Х. 8 декабря в Венузии ... (Russian) stated in EB-11 / Horace quotation ... was born on the 8th of December 65 B.C. at Venusia ... (English) place of birth Venosa 2 references stated in Q45181613 stated in EB-11 / Horace date of death 27 November 8 BCE 2 references reference URL http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/quinto-orazio-flacco_(Enciclopedia-Italiana)/ stated in Q45181613 quotation Поэт, согласно предсказанию, которое он дал Меценату, умер вскоре после смерти последнего, когда ему было почти 57 лет, 27 ноября в 8 г. до Р. Х. (Russian) place of death Rome 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Italian Wikipedia place of burial Rome 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project English Wikipedia Wikimedia import URL https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horace&oldid=889415509 father unknown value 0 references mother unknown value 0 references gens Horatia gens 0 references languages spoken, written or signed Latin 1 reference stated in Mirabile: Digital Archives for Medieval Culture writing language Latin 0 references occupation poet 2 references stated in EB-11 / Horace stated in BeWeB retrieved 4 August 2020 BeWeb person ID 518 writer 1 reference stated in Mirabile: Digital Archives for Medieval Culture philosopher 1 reference inferred from Category:Roman-era philosophers retrieved 20 June 2019 imported from Wikimedia project Portuguese Wikipedia student of Cratippus of Pergamon 1 reference stated in Dictionnaire des philosophes antiques II page(s) 502 Aristos of Ascalon 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project French Wikipedia work location Rome 1 reference stated in Integrated Authority File retrieved 2 April 2015 ethnic group Ancient Romans 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Czech Wikisource notable work Ars Poetica 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project English Wikipedia present in work The Divine Comedy section, verse, paragraph, or clause 4 0 references time period Roman Republic 0 references described by source Small Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary statement is subject of Q20782588 0 references Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary statement is subject of Q20782585 0 references Real'nyj slovar' klassicheskih drevnostej po Ljubkeru statement is subject of Q45181613 0 references 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica statement is subject of EB-11 / Horace 0 references Cicero, Horace, and Mutual Friends: Lamiae and Varrones Murenae 0 references 1870 Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology statement is subject of DGRBM-1870 / Q. Horatius Flaccus 0 references BEIC Digital Library 1 reference section, verse, paragraph, or clause Horatius Flaccus, Quintus -65--8 reference URL http://digitale.beic.it/primo_library/libweb/action/search.do?fn=search&vid=BEIC&vl%283134987UI0%29=creator&vl%28freeText0%29=Horatius%20Flaccus%20Quintus Obalky knih.cz URL https://www.obalkyknih.cz/view_auth?auth_id=jn20000603003 0 references Great Soviet Encyclopedia (1926–1947) statement is subject of Q98927474 0 references Commons gallery Quintus Horatius Flaccus 0 references Commons Creator page Horace 0 references Commons category Quintus Horatius Flaccus 2 references imported from Wikimedia project Spanish Wikipedia imported from Wikimedia project Wikimedia Commons topic's main template Template:Horace 0 references topic's main category Category:Horace 0 references copyright status as a creator copyrights on works have expired applies to jurisdiction worldwide determination method 100 years after author's death 0 references has works in the collection National Gallery of Art 0 references Identifiers VIAF ID 100227522 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project German Wikipedia 2130151778256418130004 0 references ISNI 0000 0001 2145 2178 2 references stated in International Standard Name Identifier stated in BeWeB retrieved 4 August 2020 BeWeb person ID 518 VcBA ID 495/53093 1 reference VIAF ID 100227522 stated in Virtual International Authority File retrieved 16 July 2020 BAnQ author ID 0000057526 0 references BIBSYS ID 90055203 0 references National Library of Brazil ID 000573561 0 references CANTIC ID a10101214 1 reference reference URL https://viaf.org/viaf/100227522/ National Library of Chile ID 000008397 0 references Biblioteca Nacional de España ID XX891549 0 references Bibliothèque nationale de France ID 11886570b 0 references Canadiana NCF ID ncf10005444 0 references Canadiana Authorities ID 0009G0402 0 references RISM ID pe411425 0 references GND ID 118553569 2 references imported from Wikimedia project German Wikipedia stated in BeWeB retrieved 4 August 2020 BeWeb person ID 518 Deutsche Biographie ID 118553569 0 references EGAXA ID vtls000023274 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 14337116 retrieved 28 May 2020 ELNET ID a11218952 0 references a11161255 0 references FAST ID 39544 0 references National Library of Greece ID 62641 0 references SBN author ID IT\ICCU\CFIV\000246 1 reference stated in BeWeB retrieved 4 August 2020 BeWeb person ID 518 National Library of Israel J9U ID 987007262986605171 0 references Union List of Artist Names ID 500404135 0 references National Library of Korea ID KAC199612791 0 references Library of Congress authority ID n79081354 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project German Wikipedia no92010069 1 reference stated in BeWeB retrieved 4 August 2020 BeWeb person ID 518 National Library of Lithuania ID LNB:V*44890;=BL 0 references LNB ID 000000375 0 references National Diet Library ID 00540086 0 references CiNii author ID (books) DA00782980 0 references NKCR AUT ID jn20000603003 0 references Libraries Australia ID 35206138 0 references National Library of Russia ID 770155021 0 references 7770066 0 references NSK ID 000013522 0 references Nationale Thesaurus voor Auteurs ID 068304579 0 references NUKAT ID n96210540 0 references Perseus author ID 748 0 references PLWABN ID 9810582428505606 0 references Portuguese National Library ID 19592 0 references RERO ID 02-A000081296 0 references 02-A010096578 0 references Libris-URI fcrtvznz06j57nd 1 reference stated in LIBRIS reference URL https://libris.kb.se/katalogisering/fcrtvznz06j57nd publication date 26 March 2018 retrieved 24 August 2018 SELIBR ID 189659 0 references CONOR.SI ID 8323171 0 references Slovak National Library ID vtls010873246 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 100227522 retrieved 28 May 2020 IdRef ID 026659166 0 references National Library of Iceland ID 000021515 0 references WorldCat Identities ID lccn-n79081354 1 reference VIAF ID 100227522 Adelphi author ID 2185 0 references Angelicum ID 51106 0 references ArhivX LOD 26784 0 references Babelio author ID 40836 0 references Ben Yehuda author ID 216 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Hebrew Wikipedia Wikimedia import URL https://he.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=הורטיוס&oldid=26606857 BeWeb person ID 518 1 reference stated in BeWeB retrieved 4 August 2020 BeWeb person ID 518 BHCL ID 233166 1 reference stated in Bibliography of the History of the Czech Lands retrieved 1 May 2019 reference URL https://biblio.hiu.cas.cz/authorities/233166 BiblioNet author ID 3460 0 references Bitraga author ID 2476 0 references British Museum person or institution ID 58659 0 references Brockhaus Enzyklopädie online ID horaz 0 references BVLarramendi ID FILA20110009014 0 references BVMC person ID 7568 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Spanish Wikipedia 62155 0 references 20529 0 references Carnegie Hall agent ID 1021742 0 references CCAB ID 000035928 0 references CERL Thesaurus ID cnp01316190 2 references stated in CERL Thesaurus stated in BeWeB retrieved 4 August 2020 BeWeb person ID 518 CIRIS author ID 1090 0 references CoBiS author ID 95a5yja38danygu695b5yc1g60t38dg 1 reference retrieved 9 April 2020 Corpus Corporum author ID Horatius_Flaccus 0 references Cultureel Woordenboek ID literatuur-internationaal/horatius 0 references Digital Prosopography of the Roman Republic ID 2731 0 references Discogs artist ID 4499695 0 references DLL Catalog author ID A4876 0 references EDIT16 catalogue author ID 1212 0 references Encyclopædia Britannica Online ID biography/Horace-Roman-poet 0 references Encyclopædia Universalis ID horace 0 references horace-65-8 0 references Europeana entity agent/base/60033 1 reference retrieved 23 December 2019 Freebase ID /m/03kgs 1 reference stated in Freebase Data Dumps publication date 28 October 2013 Geni.com profile ID 6000000015255871584 0 references Golden ID Horace-R8GW 0 references Goodreads author ID 3341504 point in time 27 September 2020 named as Horatius number of subscribers 209 0 references Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana ID 0032926 1 reference reference URL http://viaf.org/processed/BNC|a10101214 Great Russian Encyclopedia Online ID 2370010 0 references Hoopla artist ID 1097281247 0 references Hrvatska enciklopedija ID 26122 0 references ILI ID i95587 0 references IMSLP ID Category:Horace 0 references IntraText author ID 186 0 references Latvian National Encyclopedia Online ID 25500 0 references Les Archives du Spectacle Person ID 161808 0 references LibriVox author ID 3050 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project English Wikipedia LiederNet author ID 1250 0 references Mirabile author ID 42404 1 reference stated in Mirabile: Digital Archives for Medieval Culture MusicBrainz artist ID af616f1f-6242-4802-a1bf-8d3f0647083c 1 reference stated in MusicBrainz Musisque Deoque author ID 84 0 references Muziekweb performer ID M00000440058 0 references National Discography of Italian Song artist/group ID 1605 0 references National Gallery of Art artist ID 7014 0 references National Library of Israel ID 000064806 0 references National Library of Wales Authority ID horace-translations-into-english reason for deprecation does not exactly match 0 references horace-translations-into-english-2 reason for deprecation does not exactly match 0 references horace-translations-into-welsh reason for deprecation does not exactly match 0 references National Portrait Gallery (London) person ID mp163933 0 references NE.se ID horatius 0 references NLA Trove ID 864697 0 references NLP ID (unique) A11793144 0 references NNDB people ID 845/000087584 0 references Open Library ID OL20088A 0 references openMLOL author ID 4508 0 references PACTOLS thesaurus ID pcrtmnyIHDl11Q 0 references Perlentaucher ID horaz 0 references PHI Latin Texts author ID 893 0 references Pinakes author ID 1371 0 references Project Gutenberg author ID 1790 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project English Wikipedia 46370 0 references Projekt Gutenberg-DE ID horaz 0 references Pontificia Università della Santa Croce ID 38127 0 references Quora topic ID Horace 1 reference stated in Quora RA Collections ID 15392 0 references Royal Academy new identifier horace 0 references RSL ID (person) 000083136 language of work or name Russian 0 references 000039740 0 references Sandrart.net person ID 1275 0 references SHARE Catalogue author ID 75513 0 references SNAC Ark ID w6pk0m9c 0 references Store norske leksikon ID Horats 0 references Swedish Literature Bank AuthorID Horatius 0 references The Latin Library author ID hor 0 references Treccani ID quinto-orazio-flacco 1 reference stated in BeWeB retrieved 4 August 2020 BeWeb person ID 518 Treccani's Enciclopedia Italiana ID quinto-orazio-flacco 0 references University of Barcelona authority ID a1001212 1 reference stated in Autoritats UB retrieved 1 April 2020 Unz Review author ID Horace 0 references FlaccusQuintusHoratius 0 references Uppsala University Alvin ID alvin-person:27245 0 references alvin-person:69795 0 references Vatican Library ID ADV12139878 1 reference stated in BeWeB retrieved 4 August 2020 BeWeb person ID 518 ADV11561527 0 references ADV11452220 0 references French Vikidia ID Horace_(poète_latin) 0 references Wolfram Language entity code Entity["Concept", "Horace::5255n"] 0 references WomenWriters ID 58b52060-12d7-47f0-9ade-b4c340b5c3f8 0 references Philadelphia Museum of Art entity ID 6501 0 references monumenta.ch ID 24 0 references Carl-Maria-von-Weber-Gesamtausgabe ID A003310 0 references Archive Site Trinity College Cambridge ID horatius-flaccus-quintus-c-65-8-bc-poet-known-as-horace 0 references Jewish Virtual Library person ID horace-quintus-horatius-flaccus-x00b0 0 references Unione Romana Biblioteche Scientifiche ID 1177 0 references 2079 0 references 57406 0 references AlKindi ID 54093 0 references edition humboldt digital ID H0011997 0 references Union Catalog of Armenian Libraries authority ID 18797 0 references   Sitelinks Wikipedia(95 entries) edit afwiki Horatius amwiki ሆራቲዩስ anwiki Horacio arwiki هوراس arzwiki هوراتيوس astwiki Horaciu azbwiki هوراس bat_smgwiki Huoracėjos bawiki Гораций be_x_oldwiki Гарацыюс bewiki Гарацый bgwiki Хораций brwiki Quintus Horatius Flaccus bswiki Horacije cawiki Horaci cswiki Quintus Horatius Flaccus cywiki Horas dawiki Horats dewiki Horaz diqwiki Horatius elwiki Οράτιος enwiki Horace eowiki Horacio eswiki Horacio etwiki Horatius euwiki Horazio fawiki هوراس fiu_vrowiki Horatius fiwiki Horatius frwiki Horace furwiki Orazi gawiki Quintus Horatius Flaccus glwiki Horacio hewiki הורטיוס hifwiki Horace hiwiki होरेस hrwiki Horacije huwiki Quintus Horatius Flaccus hywiki Հորացիոս iawiki Horatio idwiki Horatius iowiki Horatius iswiki Hóratíus itwiki Quinto Orazio Flacco jawiki ホラティウス kawiki ჰორაციუსი kkwiki Гораций kowiki 호라티우스 kuwiki Horatius kwwiki Horace lawiki Quintus Horatius Flaccus lfnwiki Horatio ltwiki Horacijus lvwiki Horācijs mgwiki Horace mkwiki Хорациј mlwiki ഹൊറസ് mnwiki Гораций mrwiki होरेस mswiki Horatius nahwiki Quintus Horatius Flaccus nlwiki Horatius nnwiki Horats nowiki Horats ocwiki Oraci pawiki ਹੋਰਸ plwiki Horacy (poeta) pmswiki Orassi ptwiki Horácio roa_tarawiki Quinde Orazio Flacco rowiki Quintus Horatius Flaccus ruwiki Гораций scnwiki Quintu Orazziu Flaccu scwiki Quinto Orazio Flacco shwiki Kvint Horacije Flak simplewiki Horace skwiki Horatius slwiki Horacij srwiki Хорације stqwiki Quintus Horatius Flaccus svwiki Horatius swwiki Horatius tawiki ஓராசு tlwiki Horacio trwiki Horatius ttwiki Гораций ukwiki Горацій uzwiki Goratsiy viwiki Horace vowiki Horatius warwiki Horacio wawiki Horace wuuwiki 贺拉斯 zh_yuewiki 賀拉斯 zhwiki 贺拉斯 Wikibooks(1 entry) edit mkwikibooks Хорациј Wikinews(0 entries) edit Wikiquote(39 entries) edit azwikiquote Horatsi bewikiquote Гарацый bgwikiquote Хораций brwikiquote Horatius bswikiquote Horacije cawikiquote Horaci cswikiquote Quintus Horatius Flaccus dewikiquote Horaz elwikiquote Οράτιος enwikiquote Horace eswikiquote Horacio etwikiquote Horatius frwikiquote Horace hewikiquote הורטיוס hrwikiquote Horacije huwikiquote Horatius hywikiquote Հորացիոս iswikiquote Horatius itwikiquote Quinto Orazio Flacco jawikiquote ホラティウス kawikiquote კვინტუს ჰორაციუს ფლაკუსი kuwikiquote Quintus Horatius Flaccus lawikiquote Quintus Horatius Flaccus ltwikiquote Horacijus nlwikiquote Horatius nnwikiquote Horats nowikiquote Horats plwikiquote Horacy ptwikiquote Horácio rowikiquote Quintus Horatius Flaccus ruwikiquote Гораций skwikiquote Horatius slwikiquote Horacij sqwikiquote Horaci srwikiquote Хорације svwikiquote Horatius trwikiquote Horatius ukwikiquote Горацій zhwikiquote 贺拉斯 Wikisource(21 entries) edit bewikisource Аўтар:Гарацый cawikisource Autor:Horaci cswikisource Autor:Quintus Horatius Flaccus dewikisource Horaz enwikisource Author:Quintus Horatius Flaccus eowikisource Aŭtoro:Horacio eswikisource Autor:Horacio fiwikisource Horatius frwikisource Auteur:Horace hewikisource מחבר:הורטיוס huwikisource Szerző:Horatius itwikisource Autore:Quinto Orazio Flacco lawikisource Scriptor:Quintus Horatius Flaccus nlwikisource Auteur:Horatius nowikisource Forfatter:Horats plwikisource Autor:Horacy ptwikisource Autor:Horácio rowikisource Autor:Horațiu ruwikisource Гораций svwikisource Författare:Horatius ukwikisource Автор:Горацій Wikiversity(0 entries) edit Wikivoyage(0 entries) edit Wiktionary(0 entries) edit Other sites(1 entry) edit commonswiki Quintus Horatius Flaccus Retrieved from "https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q6197&oldid=1322405220" Navigation menu Personal tools English Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Item Discussion Variants Views Read View history More Search Navigation Main page Community portal Project chat Create a new Item Recent changes Random Item Query Service Nearby Help Donate Lexicographical data Create a new Lexeme Recent changes Random Lexeme Tools What links here Related changes 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www-wikidata-org-9089	----	Horace - Wikidata Horace (Q6197) From Wikidata Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman lyric poet Quintus Horatius Flaccus Q. Horatius Flaccus Horatius edit Language Label Description Also known as English Horace Roman lyric poet Quintus Horatius Flaccus Q. Horatius Flaccus Horatius Statements instance of human 2 references imported from Wikimedia project Belarusian Wikipedia stated in BeWeB retrieved 4 August 2020 BeWeb person ID 518 image Quintus Horatius Flaccus.jpg 412 × 821; 316 KB media legend هوراس كما تخيله الرسام أنتون ألكساندر فون فرن (Arabic) ஹோராஸ், [[ஆன்டன் வொன் வேர்னர்]] கற்பனையில் வரைந்த படம் (Tamil) Retrat imaginari d'Horaci per Anton von Werner. L'Epístola als Pisons o Art poètica d'Horaci és un dels textos cabdals sobre literatura de la tradició occidental. (Catalan) 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Italian Wikipedia sex or gender male 5 references imported from Wikimedia project Swedish Wikipedia stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 100227522 retrieved 4 November 2018 imported from Wikimedia project Italian Wikipedia stated in Integrated Authority File retrieved 9 April 2014 stated in BeWeB retrieved 4 August 2020 BeWeb person ID 518 country of citizenship Ancient Rome 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Italian Wikipedia name in native language Q. Horatius Flaccus (Latin) 0 references Roman praenomen Quintus 0 references Roman nomen gentilicium Horatius 0 references Roman cognomen Flaccus 0 references date of birth 8 December 65 BCE 3 references reference URL http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/quinto-orazio-flacco_(Enciclopedia-Italiana)/ stated in Q45181613 quotation ... родился в 689 г. от основания города, т. е. в 65 г. до Р. Х. 8 декабря в Венузии ... (Russian) stated in EB-11 / Horace quotation ... was born on the 8th of December 65 B.C. at Venusia ... (English) place of birth Venosa 2 references stated in Q45181613 stated in EB-11 / Horace date of death 27 November 8 BCE 2 references reference URL http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/quinto-orazio-flacco_(Enciclopedia-Italiana)/ stated in Q45181613 quotation Поэт, согласно предсказанию, которое он дал Меценату, умер вскоре после смерти последнего, когда ему было почти 57 лет, 27 ноября в 8 г. до Р. Х. (Russian) place of death Rome 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Italian Wikipedia place of burial Rome 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project English Wikipedia Wikimedia import URL https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horace&oldid=889415509 father unknown value 0 references mother unknown value 0 references gens Horatia gens 0 references languages spoken, written or signed Latin 1 reference stated in Mirabile: Digital Archives for Medieval Culture writing language Latin 0 references occupation poet 2 references stated in EB-11 / Horace stated in BeWeB retrieved 4 August 2020 BeWeb person ID 518 writer 1 reference stated in Mirabile: Digital Archives for Medieval Culture philosopher 1 reference inferred from Category:Roman-era philosophers retrieved 20 June 2019 imported from Wikimedia project Portuguese Wikipedia student of Cratippus of Pergamon 1 reference stated in Dictionnaire des philosophes antiques II page(s) 502 Aristos of Ascalon 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project French Wikipedia work location Rome 1 reference stated in Integrated Authority File retrieved 2 April 2015 ethnic group Ancient Romans 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Czech Wikisource notable work Ars Poetica 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project English Wikipedia present in work The Divine Comedy section, verse, paragraph, or clause 4 0 references time period Roman Republic 0 references described by source Small Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary statement is subject of Q20782588 0 references Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary statement is subject of Q20782585 0 references Real'nyj slovar' klassicheskih drevnostej po Ljubkeru statement is subject of Q45181613 0 references 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica statement is subject of EB-11 / Horace 0 references Cicero, Horace, and Mutual Friends: Lamiae and Varrones Murenae 0 references 1870 Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology statement is subject of DGRBM-1870 / Q. Horatius Flaccus 0 references BEIC Digital Library 1 reference section, verse, paragraph, or clause Horatius Flaccus, Quintus -65--8 reference URL http://digitale.beic.it/primo_library/libweb/action/search.do?fn=search&vid=BEIC&vl%283134987UI0%29=creator&vl%28freeText0%29=Horatius%20Flaccus%20Quintus Obalky knih.cz URL https://www.obalkyknih.cz/view_auth?auth_id=jn20000603003 0 references Great Soviet Encyclopedia (1926–1947) statement is subject of Q98927474 0 references Commons gallery Quintus Horatius Flaccus 0 references Commons Creator page Horace 0 references Commons category Quintus Horatius Flaccus 2 references imported from Wikimedia project Spanish Wikipedia imported from Wikimedia project Wikimedia Commons topic's main template Template:Horace 0 references topic's main category Category:Horace 0 references copyright status as a creator copyrights on works have expired applies to jurisdiction worldwide determination method 100 years after author's death 0 references has works in the collection National Gallery of Art 0 references Identifiers VIAF ID 100227522 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project German Wikipedia 2130151778256418130004 0 references ISNI 0000 0001 2145 2178 2 references stated in International Standard Name Identifier stated in BeWeB retrieved 4 August 2020 BeWeb person ID 518 VcBA ID 495/53093 1 reference VIAF ID 100227522 stated in Virtual International Authority File retrieved 16 July 2020 BAnQ author ID 0000057526 0 references BIBSYS ID 90055203 0 references National Library of Brazil ID 000573561 0 references CANTIC ID a10101214 1 reference reference URL https://viaf.org/viaf/100227522/ National Library of Chile ID 000008397 0 references Biblioteca Nacional de España ID XX891549 0 references Bibliothèque nationale de France ID 11886570b 0 references Canadiana NCF ID ncf10005444 0 references Canadiana Authorities ID 0009G0402 0 references RISM ID pe411425 0 references GND ID 118553569 2 references imported from Wikimedia project German Wikipedia stated in BeWeB retrieved 4 August 2020 BeWeb person ID 518 Deutsche Biographie ID 118553569 0 references EGAXA ID vtls000023274 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 14337116 retrieved 28 May 2020 ELNET ID a11218952 0 references a11161255 0 references FAST ID 39544 0 references National Library of Greece ID 62641 0 references SBN author ID IT\ICCU\CFIV\000246 1 reference stated in BeWeB retrieved 4 August 2020 BeWeb person ID 518 National Library of Israel J9U ID 987007262986605171 0 references Union List of Artist Names ID 500404135 0 references National Library of Korea ID KAC199612791 0 references Library of Congress authority ID n79081354 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project German Wikipedia no92010069 1 reference stated in BeWeB retrieved 4 August 2020 BeWeb person ID 518 National Library of Lithuania ID LNB:V*44890;=BL 0 references LNB ID 000000375 0 references National Diet Library ID 00540086 0 references CiNii author ID (books) DA00782980 0 references NKCR AUT ID jn20000603003 0 references Libraries Australia ID 35206138 0 references National Library of Russia ID 770155021 0 references 7770066 0 references NSK ID 000013522 0 references Nationale Thesaurus voor Auteurs ID 068304579 0 references NUKAT ID n96210540 0 references Perseus author ID 748 0 references PLWABN ID 9810582428505606 0 references Portuguese National Library ID 19592 0 references RERO ID 02-A000081296 0 references 02-A010096578 0 references Libris-URI fcrtvznz06j57nd 1 reference stated in LIBRIS reference URL https://libris.kb.se/katalogisering/fcrtvznz06j57nd publication date 26 March 2018 retrieved 24 August 2018 SELIBR ID 189659 0 references CONOR.SI ID 8323171 0 references Slovak National Library ID vtls010873246 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 100227522 retrieved 28 May 2020 IdRef ID 026659166 0 references National Library of Iceland ID 000021515 0 references WorldCat Identities ID lccn-n79081354 1 reference VIAF ID 100227522 Adelphi author ID 2185 0 references Angelicum ID 51106 0 references ArhivX LOD 26784 0 references Babelio author ID 40836 0 references Ben Yehuda author ID 216 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Hebrew Wikipedia Wikimedia import URL https://he.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=הורטיוס&oldid=26606857 BeWeb person ID 518 1 reference stated in BeWeB retrieved 4 August 2020 BeWeb person ID 518 BHCL ID 233166 1 reference stated in Bibliography of the History of the Czech Lands retrieved 1 May 2019 reference URL https://biblio.hiu.cas.cz/authorities/233166 BiblioNet author ID 3460 0 references Bitraga author ID 2476 0 references British Museum person or institution ID 58659 0 references Brockhaus Enzyklopädie online ID horaz 0 references BVLarramendi ID FILA20110009014 0 references BVMC person ID 7568 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Spanish Wikipedia 62155 0 references 20529 0 references Carnegie Hall agent ID 1021742 0 references CCAB ID 000035928 0 references CERL Thesaurus ID cnp01316190 2 references stated in CERL Thesaurus stated in BeWeB retrieved 4 August 2020 BeWeb person ID 518 CIRIS author ID 1090 0 references CoBiS author ID 95a5yja38danygu695b5yc1g60t38dg 1 reference retrieved 9 April 2020 Corpus Corporum author ID Horatius_Flaccus 0 references Cultureel Woordenboek ID literatuur-internationaal/horatius 0 references Digital Prosopography of the Roman Republic ID 2731 0 references Discogs artist ID 4499695 0 references DLL Catalog author ID A4876 0 references EDIT16 catalogue author ID 1212 0 references Encyclopædia Britannica Online ID biography/Horace-Roman-poet 0 references Encyclopædia Universalis ID horace 0 references horace-65-8 0 references Europeana entity agent/base/60033 1 reference retrieved 23 December 2019 Freebase ID /m/03kgs 1 reference stated in Freebase Data Dumps publication date 28 October 2013 Geni.com profile ID 6000000015255871584 0 references Golden ID Horace-R8GW 0 references Goodreads author ID 3341504 point in time 27 September 2020 named as Horatius number of subscribers 209 0 references Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana ID 0032926 1 reference reference URL http://viaf.org/processed/BNC|a10101214 Great Russian Encyclopedia Online ID 2370010 0 references Hoopla artist ID 1097281247 0 references Hrvatska enciklopedija ID 26122 0 references ILI ID i95587 0 references IMSLP ID Category:Horace 0 references IntraText author ID 186 0 references Latvian National Encyclopedia Online ID 25500 0 references Les Archives du Spectacle Person ID 161808 0 references LibriVox author ID 3050 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project English Wikipedia LiederNet author ID 1250 0 references Mirabile author ID 42404 1 reference stated in Mirabile: Digital Archives for Medieval Culture MusicBrainz artist ID af616f1f-6242-4802-a1bf-8d3f0647083c 1 reference stated in MusicBrainz Musisque Deoque author ID 84 0 references Muziekweb performer ID M00000440058 0 references National Discography of Italian Song artist/group ID 1605 0 references National Gallery of Art artist ID 7014 0 references National Library of Israel ID 000064806 0 references National Library of Wales Authority ID horace-translations-into-english reason for deprecation does not exactly match 0 references horace-translations-into-english-2 reason for deprecation does not exactly match 0 references horace-translations-into-welsh reason for deprecation does not exactly match 0 references National Portrait Gallery (London) person ID mp163933 0 references NE.se ID horatius 0 references NLA Trove ID 864697 0 references NLP ID (unique) A11793144 0 references NNDB people ID 845/000087584 0 references Open Library ID OL20088A 0 references openMLOL author ID 4508 0 references PACTOLS thesaurus ID pcrtmnyIHDl11Q 0 references Perlentaucher ID horaz 0 references PHI Latin Texts author ID 893 0 references Pinakes author ID 1371 0 references Project Gutenberg author ID 1790 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project English Wikipedia 46370 0 references Projekt Gutenberg-DE ID horaz 0 references Pontificia Università della Santa Croce ID 38127 0 references Quora topic ID Horace 1 reference stated in Quora RA Collections ID 15392 0 references Royal Academy new identifier horace 0 references RSL ID (person) 000083136 language of work or name Russian 0 references 000039740 0 references Sandrart.net person ID 1275 0 references SHARE Catalogue author ID 75513 0 references SNAC Ark ID w6pk0m9c 0 references Store norske leksikon ID Horats 0 references Swedish Literature Bank AuthorID Horatius 0 references The Latin Library author ID hor 0 references Treccani ID quinto-orazio-flacco 1 reference stated in BeWeB retrieved 4 August 2020 BeWeb person ID 518 Treccani's Enciclopedia Italiana ID quinto-orazio-flacco 0 references University of Barcelona authority ID a1001212 1 reference stated in Autoritats UB retrieved 1 April 2020 Unz Review author ID Horace 0 references FlaccusQuintusHoratius 0 references Uppsala University Alvin ID alvin-person:27245 0 references alvin-person:69795 0 references Vatican Library ID ADV12139878 1 reference stated in BeWeB retrieved 4 August 2020 BeWeb person ID 518 ADV11561527 0 references ADV11452220 0 references French Vikidia ID Horace_(poète_latin) 0 references Wolfram Language entity code Entity["Concept", "Horace::5255n"] 0 references WomenWriters ID 58b52060-12d7-47f0-9ade-b4c340b5c3f8 0 references Philadelphia Museum of Art entity ID 6501 0 references monumenta.ch ID 24 0 references Carl-Maria-von-Weber-Gesamtausgabe ID A003310 0 references Archive Site Trinity College Cambridge ID horatius-flaccus-quintus-c-65-8-bc-poet-known-as-horace 0 references Jewish Virtual Library person ID horace-quintus-horatius-flaccus-x00b0 0 references Unione Romana Biblioteche Scientifiche ID 1177 0 references 2079 0 references 57406 0 references AlKindi ID 54093 0 references edition humboldt digital ID H0011997 0 references Union Catalog of Armenian Libraries authority ID 18797 0 references   Sitelinks Wikipedia(95 entries) edit afwiki Horatius amwiki ሆራቲዩስ anwiki Horacio arwiki هوراس arzwiki هوراتيوس astwiki Horaciu azbwiki هوراس bat_smgwiki Huoracėjos bawiki Гораций be_x_oldwiki Гарацыюс bewiki Гарацый bgwiki Хораций brwiki Quintus Horatius Flaccus bswiki Horacije cawiki Horaci cswiki Quintus Horatius Flaccus cywiki Horas dawiki Horats dewiki Horaz diqwiki Horatius elwiki Οράτιος enwiki Horace eowiki Horacio eswiki Horacio etwiki Horatius euwiki Horazio fawiki هوراس fiu_vrowiki Horatius fiwiki Horatius frwiki Horace furwiki Orazi gawiki Quintus Horatius Flaccus glwiki Horacio hewiki הורטיוס hifwiki Horace hiwiki होरेस hrwiki Horacije huwiki Quintus Horatius Flaccus hywiki Հորացիոս iawiki Horatio idwiki Horatius iowiki Horatius iswiki Hóratíus itwiki Quinto Orazio Flacco jawiki ホラティウス kawiki ჰორაციუსი kkwiki Гораций kowiki 호라티우스 kuwiki Horatius kwwiki Horace lawiki Quintus Horatius Flaccus lfnwiki Horatio ltwiki Horacijus lvwiki Horācijs mgwiki Horace mkwiki Хорациј mlwiki ഹൊറസ് mnwiki Гораций mrwiki होरेस mswiki Horatius nahwiki Quintus Horatius Flaccus nlwiki Horatius nnwiki Horats nowiki Horats ocwiki Oraci pawiki ਹੋਰਸ plwiki Horacy (poeta) pmswiki Orassi ptwiki Horácio roa_tarawiki Quinde Orazio Flacco rowiki Quintus Horatius Flaccus ruwiki Гораций scnwiki Quintu Orazziu Flaccu scwiki Quinto Orazio Flacco shwiki Kvint Horacije Flak simplewiki Horace skwiki Horatius slwiki Horacij srwiki Хорације stqwiki Quintus Horatius Flaccus svwiki Horatius swwiki Horatius tawiki ஓராசு tlwiki Horacio trwiki Horatius ttwiki Гораций ukwiki Горацій uzwiki Goratsiy viwiki Horace vowiki Horatius warwiki Horacio wawiki Horace wuuwiki 贺拉斯 zh_yuewiki 賀拉斯 zhwiki 贺拉斯 Wikibooks(1 entry) edit mkwikibooks Хорациј Wikinews(0 entries) edit Wikiquote(39 entries) edit azwikiquote Horatsi bewikiquote Гарацый bgwikiquote Хораций brwikiquote Horatius bswikiquote Horacije cawikiquote Horaci cswikiquote Quintus Horatius Flaccus dewikiquote Horaz elwikiquote Οράτιος enwikiquote Horace eswikiquote Horacio etwikiquote Horatius frwikiquote Horace hewikiquote הורטיוס hrwikiquote Horacije huwikiquote Horatius hywikiquote Հորացիոս iswikiquote Horatius itwikiquote Quinto Orazio Flacco jawikiquote ホラティウス kawikiquote კვინტუს ჰორაციუს ფლაკუსი kuwikiquote Quintus Horatius Flaccus lawikiquote Quintus Horatius Flaccus ltwikiquote Horacijus nlwikiquote Horatius nnwikiquote Horats nowikiquote Horats plwikiquote Horacy ptwikiquote Horácio rowikiquote Quintus Horatius Flaccus ruwikiquote Гораций skwikiquote Horatius slwikiquote Horacij sqwikiquote Horaci srwikiquote Хорације svwikiquote Horatius trwikiquote Horatius ukwikiquote Горацій zhwikiquote 贺拉斯 Wikisource(21 entries) edit bewikisource Аўтар:Гарацый cawikisource Autor:Horaci cswikisource Autor:Quintus Horatius Flaccus dewikisource Horaz enwikisource Author:Quintus Horatius Flaccus eowikisource Aŭtoro:Horacio eswikisource Autor:Horacio fiwikisource Horatius frwikisource Auteur:Horace hewikisource מחבר:הורטיוס huwikisource Szerző:Horatius itwikisource Autore:Quinto Orazio Flacco lawikisource Scriptor:Quintus Horatius Flaccus nlwikisource Auteur:Horatius nowikisource Forfatter:Horats plwikisource Autor:Horacy ptwikisource Autor:Horácio rowikisource Autor:Horațiu ruwikisource Гораций svwikisource Författare:Horatius ukwikisource Автор:Горацій Wikiversity(0 entries) edit Wikivoyage(0 entries) edit Wiktionary(0 entries) edit Other sites(1 entry) edit commonswiki Quintus Horatius Flaccus Retrieved from "https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q6197&oldid=1322405220" Navigation menu Personal tools English Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Item Discussion Variants Views Read View history More Search Navigation Main page Community portal Project chat Create a new Item Recent changes Random Item Query Service Nearby Help Donate Lexicographical data Create a new Lexeme Recent changes Random Lexeme Tools What links here Related changes 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www-worldcat-org-8842	----	Horace [WorldCat Identities] Horace Overview Works: 7,622 works in 22,016 publications in 13 languages and 165,795 library holdings Genres: Poetry  Laudatory poetry  Criticism, interpretation, etc  Juvenile works  Parodies, imitations, etc  Satirical literature  Odes  Readers (Publications)  Concordances  Biographies  Subject Headings: Poets, Latin  Roles: Author, Other, Contributor, Honoree, Creator, Bibliographic antecedent, Editor, Lyricist, Composer, wal, Librettist, Dedicatee, htt, wst, wat, Author in quotations or text abstracts Classifications: PA6393, 874.01 Publication Timeline . Most widely held works about Horace Odes and epodes by Horace( Book ) The Satires and Epistles of Horace : a modern English verse translation by Horace( Book ) Satires of Rome : threatening poses from Lucilius to Juvenal by Kirk Freudenburg( ) Horace and the gift economy of patronage by Phebe Lowell Bowditch( ) Horace and the rhetoric of authority by Ellen Oliensis( ) Poetic interplay : Catullus and Horace by Michael C. J Putnam( ) Philodemus and poetry : poetic theory and practice in Lucretius, Philodemus, and Horace by Dirk Obbink( ) The complete works of Horace by Horace( Book ) Traditions and contexts in the poetry of Horace by A. J Woodman( ) Horace's Carmen saeculare : ritual magic and the poet's art by Michael C. J Putnam( ) Roman lyric : collected papers on Catullus and Horace by Francis Cairns( ) Horace between freedom and slavery : the first book of Epistles by Stephanie McCarter( ) Jonson, Horace and the classical tradition by Victoria Moul( ) The poems of Horace, consisting of odes, satyres, and epistles by Horace( ) Augustan poetry and the Roman Republic by Joseph Farrell( ) The odes and epodes of Horace : a modern English verse translation by Horace( ) Horace and Seneca : interactions, intertexts, interpretations by Martin Stöckinger( ) Horace by Kenneth J Reckford( Book ) The Roman poets of the Augustan age: Horace and the elegiac poets by W. Y Sellar( Book ) Catullus and Horace; two poets in their environment by Tenney Frank( Book )   more fewer Most widely held works by Horace Odes and epodes by Horace( Book ) 300 editions published between 1730 and 2014 in 12 languages and held by 2,091 WorldCat member libraries worldwide "The poetry of Horace (born 65 BC) is richly varied, its focus moving between public and private concerns, urban and rural settings, Stoic and Epicurean thought. This new Loeb Classical Library edition of the great Roman poet's Odes and Epodes boasts a faithful and fluid translation and reflects current scholarship." "Horace took pride in being the first Roman to write a body of lyric poetry. For models he turned to Greek lyric, especially to the poetry of Alcaeus, Sappho, and Pindar; but his poems are set in a Roman context. His four books of odes cover a wide range of moods and topics. Some are public poems, upholding the traditional values of courage, loyalty, and piety; and there are hymns to gods. But most of the odes are on private themes: chiding or advising friends; speaking about love and amorous situations, often amusingly. Horace's seventeen epodes, which he called iambi, were also an innovation for Roman literature. Like the odes they were inspired by a Greek model: the seventh century iambic poetry of Archilochus. Love and political concerns are frequent themes; the tone is only occasionally aggressive. 'In his language he is triumphantly adventurous,' Quintilian said of Horace; Niall Rudd's new translation reflects his different voices."--Jacket Opera by Horace( ) 52 editions published between 1474 and 2008 in 5 languages and held by 1,140 WorldCat member libraries worldwide When in 1939 Friedrich Klingners new edition of Horatius, published in theBibliotheca Teubneriana deposed the hitherto authoritative text edited by Vollmer, this had an epoch-making effect on both teaching and research. Klingners text held a leading position internationally over many decades. Klingners edition was a keystone in particular for students of Latin in the tradition of German grammar schools and universities. Even today, scholars continually have recourse to Klingners constitution of the text. Following numerous enquiries from customers, the publishers have decided to re-issue Klingners Horatius text as an unrevised reprint of the 3rd edition from 1959 Quintus Horatius Flaccus : ad lectiones probatiores diligenter emendatus, et interpunctione nova saepius illustratus by Horace( ) 77 editions published between 1744 and 2018 in 3 languages and held by 940 WorldCat member libraries worldwide The Satires and Epistles of Horace : a modern English verse translation by Horace( Book ) 116 editions published between 1480 and 2012 in 7 languages and held by 888 WorldCat member libraries worldwide The Roman philosopher and dramatic critic Quintus Horatius Flaccus (65-3 B.C.), known in English as Horace, was also the most famous lyric poet of his age. Written in the troubled decade ending with the establishment of Augustus's regime, his Satires provide trenchant social commentary on men's perennial enslavement to money, power, fame, and sex. Not as frequently translated as his Odes, in recent decades the Satires have been rendered into prose or bland verse. Horace continues to influence modern lyric poetry, and our greatest poets continue to translate and marvel at his command of formal style, his economy of expression, his variety, and his mature humanism. Horace's comic genius has also had a profound influence on the Western literary tradition through such authors as Swift, Pope, and Boileau, but interest in the Satires has dwindled due to the difficulty of capturing Horace's wit and formality with the techniques of contemporary free verse. -- Publisher description Sober advice from Horace : to the young gentlemen about town. As deliver'd in his second sermon. Imitated in the manner of Mr. Pope. Together with the original text, as restored by the Rev'd. R. Bentley ... And some remarks on the version by Alexander Pope( ) 50 editions published between 1734 and 1755 in English and held by 794 WorldCat member libraries worldwide A poetical translation of the works : of Horace: with the original text, and notes collected from the best Latin and French commentators on that author. By the Revd Mr. Philip Francis ... In four volumes by Horace( ) 55 editions published between 1747 and 1764 in English and held by 751 WorldCat member libraries worldwide Q. Horati Flacci Opera by Horace( Book ) 247 editions published between 1477 and 2007 in 8 languages and held by 704 WorldCat member libraries worldwide Betrifft die Handschrift Cod. 363 der Burgerbibliothek Bern Children's literature for dramatization : an anthology by Geraldine Brain Siks( Book ) 1 edition published in 1964 in English and held by 686 WorldCat member libraries worldwide Dramatic stories and verse are collected for performance by children Horace's Art of poetry by Horace( ) 34 editions published between 1680 and 2011 in English and held by 681 WorldCat member libraries worldwide Satires by Horace( Book ) 115 editions published between 1490 and 2015 in 8 languages and held by 631 WorldCat member libraries worldwide Seine subtile Ironie, auch Selbstironie, ließ Quintus Horatius Flaccus (65-8 v. Chr.) zum Meister der genuin römischen Dichtungsform der Satiren (satura) werden. Die Schärfe seines Vorgängers Lucilius wie die des Juvenal, der ihm folgen sollte, sind Horaz freilich fremd: ridentem dicere verum (lachend - aber ohne zu verletzen - will er die Wahrheit sagen). Durch bewusste Regelverstöße (einsilbige Wörter am Schluss, Gebrauch umgangssprachlicher Wendungen u.ä.) verlieren die Hexameter ihre gravitätische Art, und die Verse plätschern als reizvolles Geplauder dahin, denen man die sorgfältige Durcharbeitung und Stilisierung kaum anmerkt. In den Epistulae, seinem Alterswerk, gibt sich Horaz gereift, ein Wahrheitssucher möchte er werden und wendet sich populärphilosophischen Fragen und literarischen Problemen zu. De arte poetica, die dritte Epistel des zweiten Briefe-Buches, kreist um Fragen des Stils und der Charakterzeichnung Quincti Horatii Flacci Poemata : nouis scholijs & argumentis illustrata by Horace( ) 33 editions published between 1585 and 1602 in Latin and held by 614 WorldCat member libraries worldwide The odes, satyrs, and epistles of Horace. by Horace( ) 39 editions published between 1684 and 1983 in English and held by 599 WorldCat member libraries worldwide Imitations of Horace, with An epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot and the Epilogue to the satires by Alexander Pope( Book ) 11 editions published between 1939 and 1969 in English and held by 578 WorldCat member libraries worldwide A poetical translation of the works of Horace, with the original text, and critical notes collected from his best Latin and French commentators. By Philip Francis, D.D. In four volumes. by Horace( ) 33 editions published between 1765 and 1794 in English and held by 563 WorldCat member libraries worldwide The poems of Horace, consisting of odes, satyres, and epistles by Horace( ) 43 editions published between 1666 and 1978 in English and held by 553 WorldCat member libraries worldwide The third book of Horace's "Odes" by Horace( Book ) 12 editions published between 1969 and 2007 in 3 languages and held by 526 WorldCat member libraries worldwide Quinti Horatii Flacci Poemata, scholiis, sive, Annotationibus, quæ brevis commentarii vice esse possint by Horace( ) 40 editions published between 1621 and 1978 in Latin and held by 502 WorldCat member libraries worldwide Quinti Horatii Flacci opera by Horace( Book ) 123 editions published between 1479 and 1990 in 6 languages and held by 484 WorldCat member libraries worldwide The odes, satyrs, and epistles of Horace : Done into English by Mr. Creech by Horace( ) 35 editions published between 1711 and 1737 in English and held by 478 WorldCat member libraries worldwide Echoes from the Sabine farm by Horace( ) 25 editions published between 1893 and 2004 in English and held by 464 WorldCat member libraries worldwide   more fewer Audience Level 0 1   Kids General Special   Audience level: 0.30 (from 0.05 for Children's ... to 0.77 for The odes, ...) Related Identities Virgil Other Author Contributor Catullus, Gaius Valerius Other Honoree Author Putnam, Michael C. J. Author Pope, Alexander 1688-1744 Other Author Persius Other Author Ovid 43 B.C.-17 A.D. or 18 A.D. Other Bibliographic antecedent Contributor Augustus Emperor of Rome 63 B.C.-14 A.D. Other Juvenal Other Freudenburg, Kirk 1961- Author Lucretius Carus, Titus Useful Links Library of Congress Authority File (English) Virtual International Authority File. Wikipedia Horace Wikidata. Associated Subjects Aesthetics, Ancient Art patronage Augustus,--Emperor of Rome, Authority in literature Authors and patrons Authors and patrons in literature Authors and readers Carmen saeculare (Horace) Carmina (Horace) Catullus, Gaius Valerius Children's literature Children's theater Classical poetry Economic history Economics Elegiac poetry, Latin Epistolary poetry, Latin Gifts (Roman law) Gifts in literature Helen,--of Troy, Queen of Sparta Horace Influence (Literary, artistic, etc.) Juvenal Latin language Latin language--Social aspects Latin literature Latin poetry Laudatory poetry, Latin Literary patrons Literature Literature and society Lucretius Carus, Titus Magic in literature Manners and customs Odes Odes, Latin Patron and client Persius Persona (Literature) Poetics Political and social views Political poetry, Latin Politics and literature Rhetoric, Ancient Ritual in literature Rome (Empire) Saturae (Lucilius, Gaius) Technique Verse satire, Latin Virgil Covers Alternative Names Choracij Flacci, Q. Horati Flacco , Orazio Q. Flacco Q. Horacio Flacco Quinto Horacio Flacco, Quinto Orazio Flacco, Quinto Orazio 0065-0008 av. J.-C. Flaccus, Horatius v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Flaccus, Horatius v65-v8 Flaccus, Qu. Horatius v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Flaccus, Qu. Horatius v65-v8 Flaccus, Quintus H. Flaccus, Quintus H. v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Flaccus, Quintus H. v65-v8 Flaccus, Quintus Horatius. Flaccus Quintus Horatius 0065-0008 av. J.-C. Flaccus, Quintus Horatius 65-8 a.C. Flaccus, Quintus Horatius 65-8 f.Kr Flaccus, Quintus Horatius v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Flaccus, Quintus Horatius v65-v8 Flaccvs, Quintus Horatius v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Flaccvs, Quintus Horatius v65-v8 Flaco Quinto Horacio Flaco Quinto Orazio Flacus, Quintus Horatius Flak, Kvint Horacije Flakas Kvintas Horacijus Goracìj. Goracij Flakk, Kvint 65-8 v. Chr Gorat͡sĭ̄ v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Gorat͡sĭ̄ v65-v8 Gorat︠s︡īĭ Gorat︠s︡iĭ Flakk, Kvint Goratsiy Goraz Flakk, Kvint v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Goraz Flakk, Kvint v65-v8 Ho-la-tz'ŭ v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Ho-la-tz'ŭ v65-v8 Hor. Horace. Horace 0065?-0008 av. J.C. Horace 65-8 a.C. Horace 65-8 aC Horace 65-8 p.m.ē Horace 65-8 v. Chr Horace 65-8 до н.э. Horace, 65 aC-8 aC Horace 65 př. Kr.-8 př. Kr Horace, 65 pred Kr.-8 pred Kr. Horace auteur latin Horace B.C. 65-B.C. 8 Horace de Venouse v65-v8 Horace Flacce. Horace Flacce v65-v8 Horace poète lyrique latin Horace, Quintus Horatius Flaccus 0065-0008 av. J.-C. Horace Roman lyric poet Horace v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Horace v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 de Venouse Horace v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Flacce Horace v65-v8 Horace v65-v8 de Venouse Horace v65-v8 Flacce Horacego 65-8 v. Chr Horaci Horaci, 65-8 aC Horaci Flac, Q. Horaci Flac, Q. 65-8 aC Horaci Flac, Q., 65 aC-8 aC Horaci poeta líric i satíric llatí Horacij Horacij v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Horacij v65-v8 Horacije Horacije Flak, Kvint Horācijs Horācijs Flaks, Kvints 65-8 p.m.ē Horacijus Horácio Horacio 65-8 aC Horacio 65-8 av. J.-C. Horacio 65-8 B.C. Horacio 65-8 v. Chr Horacio, 65 aC-8 aC Horacio 65 B.C.-8 B.C. Horacio Flacco, Q. 65-8 aC Horacio Flacco, Q., 65 aC-8 aC Horacio Flacco, Quinto 65-8 a.C. Horacio Flacco, Quinto 65-8 aC Horacio Flacco, Quinto 65-8 v. Chr Horacio Flacco, Quinto, 65 aC-8 aC Horacio Flaco, Q. Horacio Flaco Quinto Horacio Flaco, Quinto 65-8 aC Horacio Flaco, Quinto, 65 aC-8 aC Horacio Flaco, Quinto v65-v8 Horacio Flako, Kvinto 65-8 v. Chr Horácio poeta lírico e satírico em língua latina Horacio poeta lírico e satírico en lingua latina Horacio poeta lírico y satírico en lengua latina Horacio v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Horacio v65-v8 Horacius 65 př. Kr.-8 př. Kr Horácius, 65 pred Kr.-8 pred Kr. Horacius Flakus, Quintus v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Horacius Flakus, Quintus v65-v8 Horacjusz Horacjusz Flakkus, Kwintus Horacjusz Flakkus, Kwintus v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Horacjusz Flakkus, Kwintus v65-v8 Horacy. Horacy 65-8 a.C. Horacy 65-8 p.m.ē Horacy rzymski poeta liryczny Horacy v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Horacy v65-v8 Horacyusz. Horacyusz Flakk. Horacyusz v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Horacyusz v65-v8 Hóras Horati Flacci, Q. Horātijs 65-8 p.m.ē Horatio Horatio 65-8 f.Kr Horatio Flacco, Quinto v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Horatio Flacco, Quinto v65-v8 Horatios Horatius. Horatius 0065-0008 av. J.-C. Horatius 65-8 f.Kr Horatius 65-8 v. Chr Horatius 65-8 до н.э. Horatius antiikin roomalainen runoilija Horatius B.C. 65-B.C. 8 Horatius dichter uit Oude Rome (65v Chr-8v Chr) Horatius F. Q. 65-8 до н.э. Horatius F, Q. v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Horatius F., Q. v65-v8 Horatius [Flaccus] Horatius Flaccus Q. Horatius Flaccus, Q. 65-8 aC Horatius Flaccus, Q. 65-8 v. Chr Horatius Flaccus Q. 65-8 до н.э. Horatius Flaccus, Q., 65 aC-8 aC Horatius Flaccus, Q. B.C. 65-B.C. 8 Horatius Flaccus, Q. v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Horatius Flaccus, Q. v65-v8 Horatius Flaccus, Quinctus 65-8 aC Horatius Flaccus, Quinctus 65-8 v. Chr Horatius Flaccus, Quinctus, 65 aC-8 aC Horatius Flaccus, Quinctus v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Horatius Flaccus, Quinctus v65-v8 Horatius Flaccus Quintus Horatius Flaccus Quintus 0065-0008 av. J.-C. Horatius Flaccus, Quintus 65-8 a.C. Horatius Flaccus, Quintus 65-8 aC Horatius Flaccus, Quintus, 65 aC-8 aC Horatius Flaccus, Quintus 65 př. Kr.-8 př. Kr Horatius, Flaccus Quintus, 65 pred Kr.-8 pred Kr. Horatius Flaccus, Quintus v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Horatius Flaccus, Quintus v65-v8 Horatius Flaccus, .. v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Horatius Flaccus v65-v8 Horatius Flaccys, Quintus B.C. 65-B.C. 8 Horatius [Poeta] Horatius Poeta v65-v8 Horatius , Q. Horatius Q. F. 65-8 до н.э. Horatius, Quintus Flaccus 65-8 f.Kr Horatius, Quintus Flaccus, 65 pred Kr.-8 pred Kr. Horatius, Quintus H. Flaccus. Horatius, Quintus v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Horatius, Quintus v65-v8 Horatius Roman şair. Horatius romersk författare och poet Horatius v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Horatius v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Flaccus Horatius v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Poeta Horatius v65-v8 Horatius v65-v8 Flaccus Horatius v65-v8 Poeta Horaṭiyos Horaṭiyus Horats Horats 65-8 p.m.ē Horats 65-8 v. Chr Horats romersk skribent og poet Horatsi Horatz Horatz v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Horatz v65-v8 Horaz. Horaz 65-8 aC Horaz 65-8 f.Kr Horaz 65-8 p.m.ē Horaz 65-8 v. Chr Horaz 65-8 до н.э. Horaz, 65 aC-8 aC Horaz römischer Dichter Horaz v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Horaz v65-v8 Horazio Horazio Erromatar poeta Horazius Flaccus, Quintus v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Horazius Flaccus, Quintus v65-v8 Horazius Flakkus, Quintus v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Horazius Flakkus, Quintus v65-v8 Horazius Flakus, Quintus v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Horazius Flakus, Quintus v65-v8 Huoracėjos Hūrās 65-8 v. Chr Khorat︠s︡iĭ Khorat︠s︡iĭ Flak, Kvint Khorat͡siĭ Flak, Kvint v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Khorat͡siĭ Flak, Kvint v65-v8 Khorat͡siĭ v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Khorat͡siĭ v65-v8 Kvint Goracij Flakk. Kvint Goracij Flakk 65-8 f.Kr Kvint Horacije Flak Kvintas Horacijus Flakas Kw. Horacy Flakkus. Kwintus Horacjusz Flakkus. Kwintus Horacjusz Flakkus 65 př. Kr.-8 př. Kr Kwintus Horacy Flakkus. Oracio Oracio v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Oracio v65-v8 Oracius Flaccus v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Oracius Flaccus v65-v8 Orassi Oratio 65-8 aC Oratio, 65 aC-8 aC Oratio v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Oratio v65-v8 Oratius 65-8 v. Chr Orazi Orazio. Orazio 0065-0008 av. J.-C. Orazio 65-8 a.C. Orazio 65-8 aC Orazio 65-8 v. Chr Orazio, 65 aC-8 aC Orazio 65 př. Kr.-8 př. Kr Orazio Flacco. Orazio Flacco 65-8 v. Chr Orazio Flacco , Q. Orazio Flacco, Q. 65-8 aC Orazio Flacco, Q. 65-8 v. Chr Orazio Flacco, Q., 65 aC-8 aC Orazio Flacco , Quinto Orazio Flacco, Quinto 65-8 f.Kr Orazio Flacco, Quinto 65-8 v. Chr Orazio Flacco, Quinto, 65 pred Kr.-8 pred Kr. Orazio Flacco, Quinto v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Orazio Flacco, Quinto v65-v8 Orazio Flacco v65-v8 Orazio v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Orazio v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Flacco Orazio v65-v8 Orazio v65-v8 Flacco Orazjus Flaccus, Quintus v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Orazjus Flaccus, Quintus v65-v8 Q. Horatius Flaccus Q. Orazio Flacco. Quinde Orazio Flacco Quinto Horatio Flacco Quinto Horatio Flacco poeta lyric de Roma antique Quinto Orazio Flacco Quinto Orazio Flacco poeta romano Quintu Orazziu Flaccu Quintus Flaccus Horatius Quintus H. Flaccus, 65 pred Kr.-8 pred Kr. Quintus Horacius Flakus v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Quintus Horacius Flakus v65-v8 Quintus Horatius Flaccus. Quintus Horatius Flaccus, 65 pred Kr.-8 pred Kr. Quintus Horatius Flaccus poet roman din „perioada de aur” a literaturii romane Quintus Horatius Flaccus římský básník Quintus Horatius Flaccus romersk skribent og poet Quintus Horatius Flaccus v08.12.65.-v27.11.08 Quintus Horatius Flaccus v65-v8 Οράτιος Ρωμαίος λυρικός ποιητής Гарацый Гарацый старажытнарымскі пісьменнік Гарацыюс Горацiй Флаккъ-Квинтъ Гораций Гораций 65-8 p.m.ē Гораций 65-8 до н.э. Гораций К. Ф. 65-8 до н.э. Гораций Квинт Ф. 65-8 до н.э. Гораций римский поэт Гораций Флакк, К 65-8 p.m.ē Гораций Флакк К. 65-8 до н.э. Гораций Флакк, Квинт 65-8 p.m.ē Гораций Флакк, Квинт 65-8 v. Chr Горацій римський поет Квинт Гораций Флакк Квинт Гораций Флакк 65-8 до н.э. Хораций Хорациј Хорације Հորացիուս הוראטיוס פלקוס, קוינטוס הוראציו הוראציוס הורטיוס הורטיוס משורר רומי הורטיוס פלקוס, קוינטוס הורציוס פלקוס, קוינטוס هوراتيوس هوراس هوراس شاعر غنائي و ناقد أدبي لاتيني روماني. هوراس شاعر و نویسنده در روم باستان होरेस ਹੋਰੇਸ ஓராசு ഹൊറസ് ჰორაციუსი 호라티우스 호라티우스 B.C. 65-B.C. 8 호라티우스 플라키스, 퀸투스 B.C. 65-B.C. 8 クイントゥス ホラーティウス 贺拉斯 Languages Latin (711) English (688) German (103) French (93) Italian (14) Spanish (11) Swedish (5) Multiple languages (4) Polish (3) Greek, Modern (2) Catalan (2) Chinese (1) Dutch (1) © 2020 OCLC, Inc.   WorldCat Identities is covered by the OCLC ResearchWorks Terms and Conditions OCLC 6565 Kilgour Place, Dublin OH USA 43017 Cookie Notice Project Page | Feedback | Known Problems 
zh-wikipedia-org-9884	----	贺拉斯 - 维基百科，自由的百科全书 贺拉斯 维基百科，自由的百科全书 跳到导航 跳到搜索 此條目可参照英語維基百科相應條目来扩充。 (2020年10月1日) 若您熟悉来源语言和主题，请协助参考外语维基百科扩充条目。请勿直接提交机械翻译，也不要翻译不可靠、低品质内容。依版权协议，译文需在编辑摘要注明来源，或于讨论页顶部标记{{Translated page}}标签。 贺拉斯 昆图斯·贺拉斯·弗拉库斯（拉丁语：Quintus Horatius Flaccus、希腊语：Οράτιος，前65年12月8日意大利韦诺萨 - 前8年11月27日意大利罗马），奥古斯都时期的著名诗人、批评家、翻译家，代表作有《诗艺》等。 他是古罗马文学“黄金时代”的代表人之一。 作为翻译家，受西塞罗的文学批评和理论的影响，用相当的篇幅谈了创作中语言的使用和翻译问题。综合起来，主要有以下两点： 翻译必须坚持活译，摒弃直译； 本族语可通过译借外来词加以丰富。 他在《诗艺》中说过：“忠实原作的译者不会逐词死译”。 外部連結[编辑] 维基共享资源中相关的多媒体资源：贺拉斯 规范控制 WorldCat Identities BIBSYS: 90055203 BNC: 000035928 BNE: XX891549 BNF: cb11886570b (data) CiNii: DA00782980 CONOR: 8323171 FAST: 39544 GND: 118553569 ISNI: 0000 0001 2145 2178 LAC: 0009G0402 LCCN: n79081354 LNB: 000000375 MusicBrainz: af616f1f-6242-4802-a1bf-8d3f0647083c NDL: 00540086 NKC: jn20000603003 NLA: 35206138 NLP: A11793144 NNL: 000064806 NSK: 000013522 NTA: 000013522 RSL: 000083136 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\000246 SELIBR: 189659 SNAC: w6pk0m9c SUDOC: 026659166 ULAN: 500404135 VIAF: 100227522  贺拉斯是一個與古羅馬人物相關的小作品。你可以通过編輯或修訂擴充其內容。 查 论 编 古罗马 年表 时期 建国 · 君主制 · 共和国 · 帝国（元首制 / 第一公民 / 主宰 / 衰落） · 西帝国 · 东帝国 语言 拉丁语历史（英语：History of Latin） · 拉丁字母 · 罗曼语族 · 旧拉丁语（英语：Old Latin） · 古典 · 通俗 · 晚期（英语：Late Latin） · 中世纪 · 文艺复兴时期的拉丁语 · 新拉丁语 · 近代拉丁语（英语：Recent Latin） · 教会 宪政 宪政史（英语：History of the Roman Constitution） · 王国宪政（英语：Constitution of the Roman Kingdom） · 共和国宪政（英语：Constitution of the Roman Republic） · 帝国宪政（英语：Constitution of the Roman Empire） · 晚期帝国宪政（英语：Constitution of the Late Roman Empire） · 元老院 · 人民代表会议（区会议 / 百人队会议 / 平民會議 / 部族会议） · 政务官 法律 十二铜表法 · 祖宗大法（英语：Mos maiorum） · 罗马公民 · 準可（英语：Auctoritas） · 帝权 · 法律状况（英语：Status in Roman legal system） · 诉讼（英语：Roman litigation） 政府 教廷 · 公共集会场所（英语：Forum (Roman)） · 晉升體系 · 共治 · 皇帝 · 使者 · 总督（英语：Dux） · 職事（英语：Officium (Ancient Rome)） · 提督（英语：Prefect#Ancient_Rome） · 代理官（英语：Vicarius） · 二十六人團 · 刀斧手 · 总司令（英语：Magister militum） · 凯旋将军 · 首席元老 · 大祭司 · 凯撒 · 奥古斯都 · 四帝共治制 · 行省 · 罗马建城纪年 政务官 普通 保民官 · 财务官 · 市政官 · 裁判官 · 执政官 · 监察官 · 资深长官（英语：Promagistrate） · 总督 特别 独裁官 · 骑士统领 · 十人委员会 · 執政護民官（英语：Tribuni militum consulari potestate） · 三頭政治 · 罗马国王 · 臨時攝政者（英语：Interrex） 社会阶层（英语：Social class in ancient Rome） 贵族 · 平民 · 阶级斗争（英语：Conflict of the Orders） · 平民的脱离运动（英语：Secessio plebis） · 罗马骑士阶级 · 家庭（英语：Gens） · 部族 · 古罗马人命名习俗 · 妇女（英语：Women in ancient Rome） · 婚姻 · 收养 · 同性戀 · 奴隶（英语：Slavery in ancient Rome） · 巴高达（英语：Bagaudae） 軍事 军事史（战役史 · 结构发展史 · 军事科技发展史（英语：Technological history of the Roman military） · 军事政治史（英语：Political history of the Roman military）） · 边境（英语：Limes） · 军队的建立（英语：Military establishment of the Roman Republic） · 军队结构（英语：Structural history of the Roman military） · 前沿和防御工事（英语：Roman military frontiers and fortifications） · 兵营 · 战略 · 工程（英语：Roman military engineering） · 陆军（军团 / 步兵战术 / 单兵装备（英语：Roman military personal equipment） · 攻城器械） · 海军 · 辅助设备（英语：Auxiliaries (Roman military)） · 嘉奖与处罚（英语：Roman military decorations and punishments） 对外关系 中国 · 印度（英语：Indo-Roman relations） · 爱尔兰（英语：Hiberno-Roman relations） · 北欧（英语：Germanic-Roman contacts） · 美洲？ · 索马里 · 撒哈拉以南非洲（英语：European exploration of Africa） 經濟（英语：Roman economy） 农场 · 农业 · 商业（英语：Roman commerce） · 财政（英语：Roman finance） · 货币 · 共和国货币 · 帝国货币 文化 戏剧 · 教育 · 学校 · 文学 · 艺术 · 音乐 · 建筑（神庙 / 公共浴场 / 露天圆形竞技场（英语：Circus (building)）） · 宗教（丧葬（英语：Roman funerals and burial） / 迫害 / 帝国邪教） · 神话 · 发式（英语：Roman hairstyles） · 公共集会场所（英语：Forum (Roman)） · SPQR · 服装 · 节日 · 葡萄酒 · 卖淫业（英语：Prostitution in ancient Rome） · 森林砍伐（英语：Deforestation during the Roman period） · 拉丁化 · 化妆品 · 飲食 作家 阿普列尤斯 · 卡图卢斯 · 西塞罗 · 昆图斯·恩纽斯 · 贺拉斯 · 凱撒 · 尤维纳利斯 · 蒂托·李维 · 盧坎 · 卢克莱修 · 马提亚尔 · 奥维德 · 佩特羅尼烏斯 · 普劳图斯 · 老普林尼 · 小普林尼 · 普罗佩提乌斯 · 昆提利安 · 萨卢斯特 · 塞內卡 · 斯塔提乌斯 · 苏埃托尼乌斯 · 塔西陀 · 泰伦提乌斯 · 提布鲁斯 · 瓦罗 · 维吉尔 · 维特鲁威 科技（英语：Roman technology） 数字 · 算术 · 珠算（英语：Roman abacus） · 土木工程（英语：Roman engineering） · 军事工程（英语：Roman military engineering） · 军事技术（英语：Technological history of the Roman military） · 道路 · 桥梁（英语：Roman bridge） · 渡槽（英语：Roman aqueducts） · 冶金（英语：Roman metallurgy） · 混凝土（英语：Roman concrete） · 卫生 列表（英语：Category:Ancient Rome-related lists） 主题（英语：List of topics related to ancient Rome） · 战争 · 战役 · 将军 · 军团 · 皇帝 · 机构 · 法律 · 执政官 · 杰出女性（英语：List of Roman women） 古罗马主题 « 史前欧洲 中世纪 » 取自“https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=贺拉斯&oldid=62335765” 分类： 古罗马作家 前65年出生 前8年逝世 隐藏分类： 自2020年10月需要從英語維基百科翻譯的條目 需要從英語維基百科翻譯的條目 含有拉丁語的條目 含有希臘語的條目 包含BIBSYS标识符的维基百科条目 包含BNC标识符的维基百科条目 包含BNE标识符的维基百科条目 包含BNF标识符的维基百科条目 包含CINII标识符的维基百科条目 包含CONOR标识符的维基百科条目 包含FAST标识符的维基百科条目 包含GND标识符的维基百科条目 包含ISNI标识符的维基百科条目 包含LAC标识符的维基百科条目 包含LCCN标识符的维基百科条目 包含LNB标识符的维基百科条目 包含MusicBrainz标识符的维基百科条目 包含NDL标识符的维基百科条目 包含NKC标识符的维基百科条目 包含NLA标识符的维基百科条目 包含NLP标识符的维基百科条目 包含NNL标识符的维基百科条目 包含NSK标识符的维基百科条目 包含NTA标识符的维基百科条目 包含RSL标识符的维基百科条目 包含SBN标识符的维基百科条目 包含SELIBR标识符的维基百科条目 包含SNAC-ID标识符的维基百科条目 包含SUDOC标识符的维基百科条目 包含ULAN标识符的维基百科条目 包含VIAF标识符的维基百科条目 包含27元素的规范控制 古羅馬人物小作品 导航菜单 个人工具 没有登录 讨论 贡献 创建账户 登录 名字空间 条目 讨论 不转换 不转换 简体 繁體 大陆简体 香港繁體 澳門繁體 大马简体 新加坡简体 臺灣正體 视图 阅读 编辑 查看历史 更多 搜索 导航 首页 分类索引 特色内容 新闻动态 最近更改 随机条目 资助维基百科 帮助 帮助 维基社群 方针与指引 互助客栈 知识问答 字词转换 IRC即时聊天 联络我们 关于维基百科 工具 链入页面 相关更改 上传文件 特殊页面 固定链接 页面信息 引用本页 维基数据项 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